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LIBRARY 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 

GIFT  OF  MRS.  WILBUR  JACOBS 
COLLECTION  OF  HER  MOTHER, 
MRS.  AUGUSTA  G.  STANLEY. 


THIS      BOOK 

BELONGS  TO 


THE  NEW 


STUDENTS  REFERENCE  WORK 


FOR 


TEACHERS,  STUDENTS  AND  FAMILIES 


EDITED  BY 
CHANDLER  B.  BEACH,  A.M.,  LL.D. 


ASSOCIATE  EDITOR 
FRANK  MORTON  MCMURRY,  PH.D. 


VOLUME  III 


CHICAGO 
F.  E.  COMPTON  AND  COMPANY 


THE  STUDENT'S  CYCLOPAEDIA 

Copyright,  1893,  by  C.  B.  Beach 


THE  STUDENT'S  REFERENCE  WORK 

Copyright,  1901,  by  C.  B.  Beach 


THE  NEW  STUDENT'S  REFERENCE  WORK 

Copyright,  1909,  by  C.  B.  Beach 
Copyright,  1911,  by  C,  B.  Beach 
Copyright,  1912,  by  C.  B-  Beach 


THE  NEW  STUDENT'S  REFERENCE  WORK 

Copyright,  1912,  by  F.  E.  Compton  and  Company 
Copyright,  1913,  by  F.  E.  Compton  and  Company 
Copyright,  1914,  by  F.  E.  Compton  and  Company 
Copyright,  1915,  by  F.  E.  Compton  and  Company 
Copyright,  1917,  by  F.  E.  Compton  and  Company 
Copyright,  1918,  by  F.  E.  Compton  and  Company 


KRUGER 


1013 


KU  KLUX  KLAN 


S.  J.  P.  KRUGER 


Kru'ger,    Stephanus   Johannes     Paulus, 

a  Boer  statesman  and  former  president  of  the 

South  African 
Republic,  was 
born  in  Cape 
Colony  in  1825. 
When  a  child  he 
went  with  his 
parents  and 
others  on  the 
famous  trek  or 
march  across 
the  country  be- 
yond the  Vaal 
River,  to  form 
a  new  settle- 
ment beyond 
English  juris- 
dicti  on.  Kru- 
ger  grew  to  manhood  amid  the  scenes  of  the 
African  frontier.  He  took  part  in  all  dis- 
turbances for  years,  at  one  time  holding  office 
under  the  British  government  until  dis- 
missed under  charges,  after  which  he  became 
an  agitator  for  independence.  In  1883  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  South  African 
Republic,  and  was  re-elected  in  1888,  1893 
and  1898.  He  was  active  meantime  in 
efforts  to  obtain  an  outlet  upon  the  coast. 
Kruger  was  illiterate,  but  possessed  much 
native  ability.  He  ably  conducted  the  dip- 
lomatic negotiations  which  preceded  the  Boer 
War,  and  on  Oct.  9,  1899,  issued  the  ulti- 
matum which  led  to  the  opening  of  hostili- 
ties. Under  the  leadership  of  Kruger  and 
his  generals  the  war  was  prosecuted  with 
energy  and  aggressiveness,  the  English  foices 
were  defeated  in  several  serious  engage- 
ments, and  not  until  Lord  Roberts  was  sent 
with  reinforcements  which  augmented  the 
English  army  to  200,000  men  were  the  Boers 
forced  to  give  way  in  the  unequal  contest. 
After  the  loss  of  Bloemfontein,  Johannes- 
burg and  Pretoria,  President  Kruger  em- 
barked for  Holland,  whence  he  appealed  in- 
effectually to  the  European  powers  to  inter- 
vene in  behalf  of  the  Boers.  He  died  on 
July  14,  1904. 

Krupp  (krbop),  Alfred,  the  head  of  the 
large  iron  and  steel  works  at  Essen,  Prussia, 
was  born  at  that  place  in  1812.  His  father 
had  founded  a  small  forge  there  in  1810,  and 
at  his  death  in  1848  Alfred  took  control,  find- 
ing "more  debts  than  fortune."  Krupp  es- 
tablished the  first  Bessemer  steelworks  in 
Germany  and  the  first  forging  hammer. 
The  first  steel  gun  manufactured  at  Essen 
was  a  three-pounder  muzzleloader.  To 
„  Krupp  belongs  the  credit  of  introducing 
steel  as  a  material  in  the  construction  of 
guns.  In  1862  he  exhibited  a  cast-steel  block 
weighing  20  tons,  which  showed  what  the 
Essen  works  were  capable  of  doing  in  the 
manufacture  of  heavy  ordnance.  He  showed 
a  similar  block  of  50  tons  at  Paris  in  1867  and 
one  of  52  tons  at  Vienna  in  1873.  At  the 
Dusseldorf  exhibition  of  1880  he  exhibited  a 


steel  gun  of  100  tons  Krupp  also  acquired 
large  mines  and  collieries,  and  his  works  have 
continued  to  increase  in  extent  until  they 
cover  over  1,000  acres.  The  total  number 
of  men  employed  at  the  works  and  in  the 
mines  is  about  20,000.  Krupp  died  on  July 
14,  1887,  and  his  funeral  was  attended  by 
60,000  people.  His  son  Alfred  succeeded 
him,  and  under  him  was  manufactured,  in 
1888-90,  the  135-ton  gun  for  the  fortifica- 
tions at  Cronstadt.  He  died  on  Nov.  22, 
1902.  See  Alfred  Krupp  by  Badeker. 

Kryp'ton.     See  ARGON. 

Kubelik,  Jan,  a  renowned  violinist,  was 
born  at  Miehle,  Bohemia,  in  1880.  His 
father  was  a  market-gardener,  but  gave  a 
good  musical  education  to  his  son,  who  grad- 
uated at  Prague  Conservatory.  He  ap- 
peared in  Berlin  and  London  in  1900,  and 
subsequently  made  successful  tours  of  the 
Continent  and  the  United  States.  He  has 
received  decorations  from  the  pope  and  from 
Servia,  and  is  an  honorary  member  of  the 
philharmonic  societies  of  London  and 
Prague 

Kublai-Khan  (kdo'bli-kdn} ,  the  grand 
khan  of  the  Mongols  and  the  founder  of  the 
Mongol  dynasty  in  China,  was  born  in  Tar- 
tary  in  the  early  part  of  the  i3th  century 
and  died  at  Peking  in  1294.  He  was  an  able 
and  energetic  prince,  and,  after  ovei throw- 
ing the  Sung  dynasty  of  southern  China, 
compelled  Korea,  Cochin-China,  Burma, 
Java  and  some  Malabar  states  in  India  to 
acknowledge  his  supremacy.  He  encour- 
aged men  of  letters,  made  Buddhism  the  re- 
ligion of  the  state,  and  manifested  great  in- 
terest in  the  welfare  of  his  people.  He  es- 
tablished himself  at  Kaanbaligh  or  City  of 
the  Khan,  modern  Peking,  and  there  founded 
the  new  dynasty  of  Yuen,  the  first  foreign 
race  of  kings  that  ever  ruled  over  China. 
Kublai's  dominions  extended  from  the  Arc- 
tic Ocean  to  the  Strait  of  Malacca  and  from 
Korea  to  Asia  Minor  and  the  confines  of  Tur- 
key, a  territory  the  extent  of  which  had  never 
before  and  has  never  since  been  governed 
by  any  monarch  in  Asia.  The  splendor  and 
magnificence  of  his  court  inspired  the 
graphic  pages  of  Marco  Polo,  who  spent  con- 
siderable time  in  Peking  during  his  reign, 
and  at  a  later  date  the  imagination  of  Coler- 
idge. See  Yule's  Marco  Polo;  Howorth's 
History  of  the  Mongols;  and  Curtin's. 

Ku  Klux  Klan  was  a  secret  organization 
which  terrorized  the  freed  negroes  and  not 
seldom  the  "carpet-baggers"  and  northern- 
ers during  the  five  or  six  years  subsequent  to 
the  Civil  War.  Its  origin  may  have  been  di- 
rectly out  of  the  old  patrol  kept  in  slave- 
holding  days;  but  it  was  excused  chiefly  by 
the  violence  of  some  negroes,  unused  as 
they  were  to  their  newfound  freedom.  But 
the  Klan  did  not  limit  itself  to  the  original 
attempt  at  playing  upon  the  superstitious 
fears  of  the  negroes.  The  white  sheets, 
masks  and  cardboard  hats  were  a  safe  dis- 


KURDISTAN 


10x4 


KWANGTUNG 


guise  which  tempted  the  worst  spirits  to 
lynchings,  whippings  and  similar  excesses, 
until  the  better  class  of  southerners  with- 
drew, and  it  became  a  blot  and  scourge. 
After  1872  the  organization  became  little 
more  than  a  name,  although  isolated  at- 
tempts were  often  made  to  trade  upon  the 
terrors  of  its  reputation. 

Kurdistan'.  See  KOORDISTAN. 
Kuroki,  General  Baron  Itel,  was  born 
in  1845  in  the  city  of  Kagoshima  in  the 
southeast  of  Kiu- 
shiu,  the  southern- 
most of  the  chief 
islands  of  Japan. 
Here  the  hardiest 
Japanese  are  born ; 
it  is  the  Sparta  of 
Japan,  the  birth- 
place of  Togo  and 
Oyama.  Kuroki 
1  is  of  pure  samu- 
rai (or  noble)  de- 
scent; the  story  of 
his  foreign  parent- 
age is  false.  As  a 
boy  he  entered  the 
army  in  a  humble 
position,  but  in  the 
war  of  1868,  when 
he  was  but  23, 
he  commanded  a 

detachment  which  was  in  the  very  thick  of 
the  fighting,  and  rendered  the  Mikado  great 
service  against  his  rebellious  subjects.  In 
1871  he  was  appointed  cap  tain  of  the  imperial 
guard.  He  served  with  distinction  against 
the  rebel  forces  in  the  war  of  1877.  He  was 
quick  to  adapc  himself  to  the  suggestions  of 
the  Germans  who  trained  the  Japanese  army. 
In  the  war  against  China  in  1894  he  acted 
as  commander  of  the  sixth  division,  ranking 
as  lieutenant-general.  His  forces  gained 
special  distinction  at  the  capture  of  the  fort 
of  Wei-Hai-Wei.  When  war  began  against 
Russia  in  1904,  he  was  appointed  command- 
er-in-chief  of  the  first  Japanese  army-corps 
in  the  field,  and  as  such  led  the  main  ad- 
vance across  the  Yalu  and  up  the  line  of  the 
Russian  railway  towards  Harbin.  He  won 
the  great  victories  of  the  Yalu  (near  Wiju), 
Liao  Yang  and  Mukhden.  His  generalship 
was  commonly  counted  superior  to  that  of 


GEN.  KUROKI 


the  Russian  commander,  Kuropatkin,  and 
received  almost  universal  commenda- 
tion. 

Kuropatkin,    Alexei    Nikplayevitch,    the 

Russian  generalissimo  during  the  earlier 
part  of  the  war  with  Japan,  was  born  in 
1848.  He  went  to  the  military  school  of 
the  cadet  corps  in  Pskov  near  St.  Peters- 
burg; then  to  Pavlovskoe  Military  College, 
graduating  and  gaining  his  commission  as 
sublieutenant  at  18.  He  then  hastened  to 
scenes  of  conflict  in  central  Asia.  Return- 
ing, he  spent  six  years  (1868-74)  in  study 
at  the  Academy  of  the  General  Staff  in 
St.  Petersburg.  Later  he  studied  in  France, 
where  he  was  award- 
ed the  cross  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor. 
Returning  to  Rus- 
sia, he  served  in 
Tartary  and  west- 
ern China.  He 
spent  1 2  years  at  St. 
Petersburg  as  pro- 
fessor of  military 
statistics  at  the 
Academy  of  the 
General  Staff.  He  l<f 
was  called  to  the  W 
front  and  won  the 
rank  of  major-gen- 
eral and  the  Cross 
of  St.  George  at  the 
siege  of  the  Turco-  ALEXEI  N.  KUROPATKIN 
man  fortress.  In  1890  he  was  appointed 
governor  of  the  transcaspian  region,  and  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-governor. 
While  there  he  was  influential  in  establishing 
trade-schools.  Thence  he  went  to  St.  Pe- 
tersburg as  minister  of  war,  where  he  re- 
mained until  1904.  He  distinguished  him- 
self by  sound  though  unsuccessful  general- 
ship in  the  Russio-Japanese  War,  only  to  be 
superseded  by  a  subordinate  and  to  fall  into 
unmerited  disgrace. 

Kuyunjik.     See  NINEVEH. 

Kwangtung',  a  maritime  province  of 
southern  China.  Area,  with  the  adjoining 
island  of  Hainan,  99,970  square  miles;  esti- 
mated population  31,865,250  The  capital 
is  Canton  (population  1,250,000).  Tea  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated,  while  silk  culture  is  one 
of  the  chief  industries. 


LABOR  ORGANIZATIONS 


L  (el),  the  twelfth  letter,  is  a  vocal  con- 
sonant. It  usually  is  called  a  liquid,  because 
it  flows  into  other  consonants,  and  they  into 
it,  as  an  intermediate  between  such  conso- 
nants and  the  vowels.  It  sometimes  is 
even  considered  a  semivowel,  because  in 
some  words  it  plays  the  part  of  a  vowel  in 
making  a  syllable.  The  Japanese  cannot 
say  /,  substituting  r.  Since  it  is  formed  by 
both  palates  and  the  tongue,  as  in  all,  battle, 
blow,  evil,  it  is  classed  with  the  palatals.  At 
the  end  of  a  monosyllable  containing  a  single 
vowel,  /  is  often  doubled,  as  in  fall,  though 
not  after  diphthongs,  as  foul,  or  digraphs, 
a°  }oal.  WJ-.en  a  word  ends  in  le,  e  is  silent 
and  /  is  pre  eded  by  a  glide,  as  in  able.  The 
Romans  used  it  as  a  numeral  (50)  as  well  as 
a  letter. 

La  Bil'lois,  Hon.  Charles  H.,  of  French 
Irish  descent,  was  born  in  New  Brunswick  in 
1856,  and  elected  to  the  legislature  in  1883, 
and  is  a  member  of  the  Executive  Council 
and  Commissioner  of  Public  Works. 

Lablache  (Id'blash'),  Luigi,  an  operatic 
singer  of  renown,  was  born  at  Naples,  Dec. 
6,  1794.  His  first  engagement  as  a  singer 
was  at  Naples  in  1812,  and  he  afterward  sang 
with  much  success  in  most  of  the  large  cities 
of  Europe.  His  voice  was  a  deep  bass  of 
great  volume  and  exquisite  quality,  and  his 
acting  was  on  a  par  with  his  singing.  La- 
blache gave  instruction  in  singing  to  Queen 
Victoria.  He  died  at  Naples,  Jan.  23, 

La'bor  is  effort  made  for  the  satisfying  of 
human  needs.  It  is  one  of  the  three  leading- 
factors  in  production,  the  others  being  land 
and  capital.  It  is  of  more  impoitance  than 
the  other  two,  for  without  labor  land  could 
not  be  made  productive  and  capital  could 
not  result.  Productive  labor  is  that  which 
produces  what  is  necessary  for  man's  use; 
unproductive  labor,  like  that  of  the  musician, 
is  that  which  does  not  add  to  material  wealth. 
In  the  early  years  of  the  world's  history  men 
performed  the  labor  of  the  chase,  fishing  and 
like  pursuits,  and  women  and  slaves  per- 
formed the  drudgery.  Compulsory  labor 
formed  the  basis  of  ancient  civilization.  The 
pyramids  of  Egypt  and  other  great  works 
were  possible  because  the  authorities  could 
command  forced  labor.  Slavery  and  serf- 
dom aro  forms  of  forced  labor.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  i8th  century  labor  began  to  be 
organized  in  large  factories,  with  the  result 
that  great  changes  have  taken  place  in  the 
condition  of  the  workmen.  Trade-unions 


and  co-operative  societies  have  sprung  up, 
and  the  workingman's  admission  to  the 
franchise  has  made  organized  labor  a  power- 
ful factor  in  the  political  world.  The  purely 
wage-workers  of  the  United  States,  whose 
average  income  does  not  much  exceed  $475 
annually,  number  over  15,000,000  or  three 
tenths  of  the  population.  The  Federation  of 
Labor  is  an  organization  of  American  wage- 
woi  kers,  and  its  object  is  to  obtain  the  best 
results  for  the  laboring  people  by  fair  and 
honorable  means. 

Labor  Day  in  the  United  States  is  made  a 
legal  holiday  as  a  recognition  of  the  im- 
portance and  nobility  of  labor.  The  day  is 
the  first  Monday  in  September,  and  all 
government  offices  are  closed.  In  many  places 
in  Europe  the  ist  of  May  is  observed. 

La'bor  Or'ganiza'tions  and  Parties. 
These  began  in  the  United  States  in  1825, 
when  industrial  progress  showed  itself  in 
earnest  and  immigration  from  Europe  began 
to  attract  attention  and  incite  fears  of  com- 
petition  in  the  field  of  labor.  The  first  na- 
tional convention  of  labor  was  held  at  Louis- 
ville, Ky,  in  1865,  only  some  25  delegates 
being  present.  A  second  convention  was 
held  at  Baltimore  in  1866,  one  at  Chicago  in 
1867  and  another  at  New  York  in  1886.  At 
this  meeting  the  questions  of  female  suffrage 
and  labor-reform  were  agitated.  A  conven- 
tion was  held  at  Philadelphia  in  1869,  and 
it  was  decided  to  hold  a  greater  congress  at 
Cincinnati  in  the  following  year.  At  this 
meeting  many  radical  reforms  were  pro- 
posed, and  the  immediate  organization  of  a 
political  party  to  be  known  as  the  National 
Labor  Reform  party.  This  was  the  definite 
beginning  of  the  labor-in-politics  movement, 
which  continued  for  some  years,  the  Labor 
Reform  party  holding  its  first  national  con- 
vention at  Louisville  in  1872.  After  the 
panic  of  1873  many  organizations  arose:  a 
Workingman's  Party,  the  Labor  Party  of 
the  United  States,  the  National  party  or,  as 
it  was  otherwise  known,  the  Greenback-Labor 
party.  At  the  election  of  1878  this  party 
polled  votes  in  37  states,  and  gained  im- 
mensely over  the  number  cast  at  any  pre- 
vious election.  Encouraged  by  this  success, 
a  convention  that  met  in  Chicago  in  June, 
1880,  nominated  Tames  B.  Weaver  for  presi- 
dent and  B.  J.  Chambers  for  vice-president, 
but  at  the  polls  the  vote  for  these  candidates 
was  comparatively  small.  In  1884  B.  F. 
Butler  of  Massachusetts  was  nominated. 
At  the  following  election  less  than  134,000 


LABOUCHERE 


1016 


LABRADOR 


votes  were  polled,  and  the  party  ceased  to 
exist.  In  later  years  labor  interests  have 
occupied  themselves  more  particularly  with 
interior  organization  in  the  way  of  compact 
and  efficient  unions  that  exist  without  regard 
to  the  politics  of  their  members.  These 
trade-unions  are,  as  to  their  origin,  very  old. 
In  the  United  States  they  belong  to  the  igth 
century.  The  principle  on  which  these 
trade-unions  are  formed  is  that  men  whose 
industrial  interests  are  the  same  should  act 
together  in  furthering  them.  A  union  is  an 
organization  that  takes  an  active  interest  in 
the  welfare  of  its  own  members  and  a  sec- 
ondary interest  in  the  welfare  of  all  similar 
unions.  These  unions  affiliate  and  become 
powerful  and  influential  organizations.  An 
instance  of  this  was  the  Knights  of  Labor  and 
(at  the  present  time)  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor. 

The  American  Federation  of  Labor  com- 
prises no  international  and  national  unions, 
representing  approximately  22,000  local 
unions,  43  state  branches,  638  city  central 
unions  and  558  local  unions.  The  total 
membership  is  about  2,000.000.  The  official 
organ  is  the  American  Feacrationist;  besides 
this  representative  journal,  the  affiliated 
unions  issue  about  250  weekly  or  monthly 
papers  devoted  to  the  cause  of  labor. 

In  England  labor  parties  and  their  organ- 
izations constitute  a  new  power  in  politics, 
30  members  representing  labor  in  Parlia- 
ment in  addition  to  those  known  as  the 
Liberal- Labor  members.  In  1907  the  trade- 
union  congress  represented  1,693,000  trade 
unionists,  a  considerable  number  of  whom 
were  socialists.  The  labor  party  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  it  is  estimated,  represents 
nearly  3,000,000  workers,  of  whom  nearly  all 
are  members  of  the  trade  unions.  Internation- 
al trade  unionism  has  of  recent  years  grown 
apace.  In  1912  it  was  estimate  that  there 
were  9,868,467  (including  working  women) 
laborers  organized  in  trade  unions  in  the  chief 
countries  of  Europe. 

A  feature  of  the  labor  situation  which 
deserves  special  mention  is  workmen's  in- 
surance (q.  v.).  In  the  United  States,  outside 
of  the  industrial  departments  of  the  regular 
insurance  companies,  there  are  a  large  number 
of  funds  or  societies  maintained  by  labor 
organizations  to  insure  members  against  sick- 
ness, accident,  death,  old  age  or  other  adversity. 
Some  are  conducted  by  workmen  for  mutual 
benefit  without  regard  to  common  employment 
or  connection  with  any  particular  union.  Of 
these  organizations  three-fourths  are  managed 
by  members,  and  the  majority  of  the  remainder 
managed  by  joint  arrangement  between  em- 
ployer and  employe.  Nearly  all  of  these  funds 
attempt  to  secure  little  more  than  to  relieve 
immediate  necessities.  They  include  "tool," 
"unemployment,"  and  "marriage"  benefits. 

Trade  union  (q.  v.)  demands  embrace  (i) 
more  efficient  enforcement  of  the  eight-hour 
principle;  (2)  further  restriction  of  immigra- 


tion; (3)  no  relaxation  of  the  Chinese  exclu- 
sion laws;  (4)  elaboration  of  the  shipping  laws 
and  protection  for  seamen;  (5)  no  antipilot- 
age  laws;  (6)  reorganization  of  the  Congres- 
sional committees  on  labor ;  (7)  safeguarding 
against  the  competition  of  convict  labor ;  and 
(8)  a  more  radical  antiin junction  bill. 

Labouchere  (Id'boo'shdr'),  Henry,  an 
English  journalist  and  parliamentarian,  was 
born  at  London  in  1831.  Educated  at  Eton, 
he  afterwards  entered  the  diplomatic  service 
and  served  as  an  attach6  at  a  number  of  the 
most  important  embassies.  He  was  elected 
to  the  English  parliament  in  1865,  but  was 
unseated  in  the  following  year.  He  was 
elected  again  in  1867,  and  went  abroad  in 
1868.  As  correspondent  for  the  London  Daily 
News,  he  sent  news-matter  from  Paris  during 
the  siege  by  means  of  carrier  pigeons.  Re- 
turning to  England,  he  was  in  1880  again 
elected  to  parliament  for  Northampton,  and 
represented  it  until  1906.  He  edited  and  pub- 
lished a  journal  called  Truth,  in  which  he  fre- 
quently gave  vent  to  his  radical  ideas  by  assail- 
ing royalty  and  the  aristocracy..  In  1900  he 
was  denounced  in  the  Commons  for  holding  cor- 
respondence with  the  official  burghers  of  the 
South  African  Republic  before  the  Boer  War, 
but  did  not  lose  his  seat.  In  his  later  years  he 
spent  much  time  in  Italy  where  he  died,  in 
Florence,  Jan.  16,  1912. 

Labculaye  (la'bod'la'),  Edouard  Rene*  de, 
a  French  jurist,  was  born  at  Paris,  Jan.  18, 
1811.  He  adopted  the  profession  of  an  ad- 
vocate or  lawyer,  and  in  1849  was  appointed 
professor  of  comparative  jurisprudence  in 
the  College  of  France.  Although  he  attained 
distinction  as  an  essayist  and  story-writer, 
his  most  important  works  have  been  on 
French  law.  His  Histoire  Politique  des 
Etats-Unis  is  well  known  in  the  United 
States.  Laboulaye  was  elected  to  the 
national  assembly  in  1871,  and  was  made  a 
life-senator  in  1876.  He  died  at  Paris,  May 
25,  1883. 

Labrador  ( lab-ra-ddr' ) ,  the  eastern  penin- 
sula of  Canada  that  extends  northwestward 
from  Belle  Isle  Strait  (which  separates  it 
from  Newfoundland)  to  Hudson  Strait,  and 
on  its  northeastern  front  facing  the  Green- 
land Sea.  The  region  is  bleak  and  rugged 
and  the  climate  severe.  On  the  coast  are  a 
few  Moravian  missionary  settlements,  con- 
sisting partly  of  Eskimos,  who  are  engaged  in 
the  seal,  coo.  and  herring  fisheries  and  in  the 
fur-trade.  A  large  portion  of  Labrador, 
especially  on  the  seafront,  is  under  the  gov- 
ernment of  Newfoundland ;  the  interior  forms 
part  of  Quebec,  and  what  was  the  territory 
of  Ungava.  Area  120,000  square  miles; 
population  under  4,000.  There  is  hardly 
any  vegetation  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  and 
the  inner  parts  of  Labrador  have  been  but 
little  explored.  There  are  fine  forests  of  firs 
and  birches;  while  large  rivers  and  lakes 
afford  continuous  waterways  in  summer  for 
great  distances.  The  inhabitants  are  Cree 


LABRADOR  CURRENT 


1017 


LACE 


Indians.  The  rivers  abound  in  salmon  and 
whitefish,  and  such  furbearing  animals  as 
bears,  wolves,  foxes,  martens,  otters  and 
beavers  are  found  in  large  numbers.  Little 
is  known  of  the  mineral  resources,  but  iron 
is  abundant.  Grand  Falls  at  Hamilton 
Inlet  have  been  described  as  one  of  the  best 
waterpowers  in  the  known  world.  There  is 
an  enormous  quantity  of  pulpwpod  at  the 
Inlet.  Newfoundland  claims  jurisdiction 
completely  around  it  and  over  a  much  wider 
strip  than  is  usually  marked  on  the  maps. 
Lumbering  is  going  on  at  Melville  Bay. 
The  largest  ocean  vessels  can  go  up  Hamil- 
ton Inlet  and  unload  off  the  banks.  The 
nearness  of  the  territory  to  the  British  mar- 
ket makes  it  valuable.  Labrador  is  one  of 
the  chief  centers  of  the  herringfishery.  The 
disputed  boundary  between  Canada  and 
Newfoundland  on  the  eastern  coast  retards 
development.  There  are  no  hotels  in  Lab- 
rador. The  Moravian  Brethren,  the  Royal 
Mission  to  Deepsea  Fishermen,  the  large 
planters  and  the  settlers  all  extend  hospi- 
tality to  visitors.  The  days  are  long  in 
summer,  and  at  night  the  atmosphere  is 
clear.  One  can  go  the  whole  length  of  the 
coast  without  spending  a  night  at  sea.  Dr. 
Grenfell  has  cruised  the  coast  year  after 
year  in  sailingboat  and  steamer,  and  has 
never  lost  a  life.  He  says  that  the  coast 
is  a  fascinating  and  safe  field  for  pleasure 
cruising. 

Labrador  Current,  The.  This  is  an 
arctic  current  which  carries  a  steady  stream 
of  icy  water  southward  along  the  coast  of 
Labrador  to  near  Newfoundland,  where  its 
meeting  with  the  warmer  Gulf  Stream  causes 
the  chronic  fogs  of  the  Banks.  Its  influence 
is  plainly  felt  along  the  northern  New  Eng- 
land coast  also.  The  fisheries  of  the  "banks" 
of  Newfoundland  and  of  Labrador  depend 
in  two  ways  upon  this  current:  it  brings  a 
"living  slime"  which  is  food  for  the  cod  and 
herring;  and  these  fishes  only  thrive  where 
the  temperature  is  low. 

Labuan  (ld'bd&-dnr),  a  crown-colony  of 
Britain,  since  1906  under  the  government  of 
the  Straits  Settlements.  Labuan  is  an  island 
in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  close  to  Borneo. 
Area  30  square  miles;  population  8,411. 
The  port  and  town  is  Victoria  (population 
1,500).  Coal  is  the  chief  product,  though 
among  the  exports  are  indiarubber,  gutta- 
percha,  sago  and  wax. 

Lab'yrinth,  the  name  of  some  celebrated 
buildings  of  antiquity,  consisting  of  a  series 
of  chambers  or  passages,  the  Egyptian,  Cre- 
tan and  Samian  labyrinths  being  the  most 
noted.  The  Egyptian  one  has  3,000  cham- 
bers, and  is  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world. 
The  Cretan  was  supposed  to  have  been  built 
for  King  Minos  to  contain  the  Minotaur, 
and  the  only  mode  of  getting  out  was  by 
means  of  a  linen  thread,  which  gave  the  clew 
to  the  dwelling  of  the  Minotaur.  Laby- 
rinths are  sometimes  called  mazes,  and 


were  fashionable  in  gardening.  The  best 
known  in  modern  times  is  the  maze  at  Hamp- 
ton Court  in  England. 

Lac,  an  East-Indian  monetary  term,  the 
equivalent  of  100,000  rupees.  A  hundred 
lacs  are  called  a  crore,  and  equal  10,000,000 
rupees. 

Lac  is  a  colored  resinous  substance  pro- 
duced by  a  small  bug.  It  is  found  in  India, 
Burma,  Siam  and  China.  The  female  insect 
produces  the  lac,  although  some  naturalists 
contend  that  lac  is  merely  the  resinous  juice 
of  trees,  altered  in  character  by  the  insect 
feeding  upon  it.  Stick-lac  is  the  name  given 
to  it  when  it  is  still  attached  to  the  twigs  of 
the  tree.  After  having  been  removed, placed 
in  tubs  of  water  and  trodden  by  men,  it  be- 
comes seed-lac  and  the  water,  colored  red  by 
the  dead  insects,  after  evaporation  forms 
the  lac  dye  of  commerce.  After  the  seed-lac 
has  been  dried  and  purified,  it  is  spread  in 
very  thin  sheets  and,  broken  up,  becomes 
the  shellac  of  commerce.  It  is  made  into 
varnish  (lacquer) ,  and  is  used  to  stiffen  the 
calico  frame  of  silk  hats.  It  is  also  used  in 
sealing  wax  and  cement,  and  the  Chinese 
color  it  and  use  it  in  decorating  boxes. 

Lacedasmon  (las'$-de'muri),  the  name 
used  in  Homer  for  Laconia  and  Sparta,  its 
capital.  It  gradually  dropped  out  of  use, 
and  does  not  seem  to  have  been  revived  until 
several  years  after  Christ.  See  LACONIA 
and  SPARTA. 

Laccadive  (lak'ka-dlvr)  Islands,  14  coral 
islands  (nine  inhabited)  owned  by  Britain. 
They  lie  about  200  miles  off  the  western  or 
Malabar  coast  of  Madras  Presidency.  Pop- 
ulation 10,274,  chiefly  Mohammedan.  Trie 
staple  product,  besides  the  fiber  known  as 
coir,  is  cocoanuts. 

Lace,  an  ornamental  fabric  of  linen,  cot- 
ton, silk  or  any  threads  looped,  woven, 
plaited,  knitted,  knotted  or  twisted  into  defi- 
nite patterns.  There  are  three  varieties  of 
lace,  two  made  by  hand  —  needle  or  point 
lace  and  pillow  lace  —  and  the  third  by  ma- 
chinery. Although  the  machine-made  lace 
cannot  approach  the  hand-made  in  beauty 
and  delicacy  of  design  and  in  strength  and 
durability,  more  effort  and  ingenuity  have 
been  spent  upon  it  than  upon  any  other 
branch  of  textile  industry.  Lace  consists 
of  two  elements,  the  pattern,  flower  or  gimp, 
which  forms  the  heavier  and  closer-worked 
portion  of  the  design,  and  the  network  or 
ties  which  hold  these  together.  In  some 
cases  the  ground  or  heavy  work  is  almost  en- 
tirely wanting,  and  then  the  design  is  held 
together  by  tying  at  those  places  where  the 
points  meet.  Frequently  the  ground  con- 
sists of  a  filmy  honeycomb,  called  a  rtseau, 
on  which  the  pattern  is  sewed,  after  being 
separately  made;  this  is  known  as  appliqu£. 
Other  technical  names  are  cordonnet,  a  stout 
thread  employed  to  outline  a  pattern ;  picot, 
a  small  loop  worked  on  the  edge  of  a  pattern; 
and  modes,  which  are  ornamental  fillings. 


LACHINE 


LA  CROSSE 


Point  lace,  a  development  from  embroidery, 
was  first  known  in  the  first  half  of  the  i6th 
century,  its  original  production  and  devel- 
opment being  in  Venice.  From  Venice  the 
manufacture  of  point  lace  passed  into  France 
and  Flanders,  the  principal  places  of  produc- 
tion being  Alencon  and  Brussels.  At  Honi- 
ton  and  other  points  in  southwestern  Eng- 
land the  manufacture  was  begun  about  the 
end  of  the  i6th  century  by  refugees  from  the 
Low  Countries.  To  encourage  the  trade 
and  induce  lacemakers  to  come  to  England, 
Parliament  in  1662  prohibited  the  importa- 
tion of  lace ;  but  the  makers,  being  unable  to 
procure  the  fine  thread  necessary,  were  forced 
to  return  to  their  own  countries.  Then  en- 
sued extensive  smuggling  between  Brussels 
and  England.  Cheap  imitations  are  now 
driving  the  real  article  from  the  market. 
Gold  and  silver  lace  are  made  of  flat  bands 
or  very  thin  ribbons  wrapped  closely  around 
cotton  thread  of  yellow  and  white  respect- 
ively as  a  basis.  This  manufacture  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  ribbon  trade  and  is  carried  on 
in  the  same  districts. 

Lachine',  a  town  of  6,000  people  on  the 
St.  Lawrence  River,  is  noted  for  its  pictur- 
esque rapids  and  important  canal.  Lachine 
Canal  is  eight  and  a  half  miles  long.  It  has 
five  locks  270  by  45  feet.  The  total  rise  or 
lockage  is  45  feet.  Its  average  width  is  150 
feet,  the  depth  of  water  on  the  sills  being 
14  feet.  The  canal  consists  of  one  channel 
only.  It  extends  from  Montreal  to  Lachine, 
overcoming  St.  Louis  Rapids,  the  first  of  the 
series  which  bars  the  ascent  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence. They  are  986  miles  from  the  Straits 
of  Belle  Isle.  See  WELLAND  CANAL  and  ST. 
LAWRENCE  RIVER. 

Lachine  Rapids.  These  form  a  rough  and 
dangerous,  although  short,  section  of  the  St. 
Lawrence.  Lachine  Canal  enables  vessels 
to  avoid  the  rapids.  The  name,  which 
means  China,  refers  to  a  delusion  of  some 
early  explorers  who  had  expected  the  St. 
Lawrence  to  lead  them  into  China! 

Lackawanna  (Itik'd-w8n'a)  River,  Penn- 
sylvania, flows  through  the  Wyoming  and 
Lackawanna  coalfields^  which  produce  half 
the  anthracite  mined  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  a  tributary  of  the  Susquehanna,  and 
empties  into  it  near  Pittston.  Its  length  is 
60  miles. 

Laco'nia,  N.  H.,  city,  county-seat  of 
Belknap  County,  on  the  Winnepesaukee 
River,  about  100  miles  north  of  Boston,  is 
situated  in  a  lake  region,  where  attractive 
scenery,  good  climate  and  fine  fishing  have 
made  it  an  inviting  summer  resort.  It  man- 
ufactures machinery,  lumber,  paper  boxes, 
hosiery  and  railroad  cars.  The  hosiery  mills 
and  car-shops  employ  about  1,806  people. 
The  city  has  good  public  and  parochial 
schools,  Gale  Memorial  Library  and  several 
churches,  and  here  are  the  state  Home  for 
Feeble-Minded  Children  and  the  state  fish- 
tAtchery.  The  settlement  was  formed  in 


1800-2.  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1852  and 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1893.  Two  divisions 
of  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad  run  through 
Laconia.  Population  10,183. 

Lacquer  (Itlk'er),  a  yellowish  varnish 
made  by  dissolving  shellac  in  alcohol,  and 
colored  with  gamboge,  saffron  and  the  like. 
It  is  used  chiefly  for  metals,  especially  brass, 
to  give  them  a  golden  color  and  preserve 
their  luster.  The  name  is  also  given  to  the 
varnish  used  by  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  in 
their  beautiful  lacquered  ware,  and  is  made 
from  the  juice  of  a  kind  of  sumac  which 
grows  in  their  country  and  is  called  the  var- 
nish tree.  This  varnish  is  mixed  with  ver- 
milion for  making  red  lacquer,  and  other  col- 
ors or  golddust  are  so  used.  The  most  costly 
lacquer  work  is  that  inlaid  with  mother-of- 

¥earl   and   ornamented   with  gold   designs, 
his  brings  high  prices  even  in  China  and 
Japan.     See  LAC. 

Lacrosse    (la-kr&s'),    a    Canadian    field- 


ting,  and  with  an  india-rubber  ball  eight  ( 
nine  inches  in  circumference.     The  goals 
two  posts  about  six  feet  high,  with  a  flag  i 
the  top  of  each.     The  object  is  to  driv 
carry  the  ball  through  the  opposing  i 
goal.     There  usually  are  12  on  a  side,  tt 
the  players  are  not  allowed  to  touch  either 
the  ball  or  each  other  with  their  hands.   "} 
National  Lacrosse  Association  of  Canada  w 
formed  in  1867,  and  since  then  the  game  has 
become  popular  in  placejfl 

La  Crosse,  a  city  of  Wisconsin,  is  sit? 
ted  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  whtojq 
it  is  joined  by  the  Black  and  La  Crosse 
Rivers.  The  former  comes  from  the  great 
forests  of  the  north,  from  which  it  has 
brought  down  more  than  5,000,000,000 
feet  of  pine.  The  valley  of  the  latter  fur- 
nishes an  easy  outlet  for  railway  lines  to 
the  east,  while  Root  River,  coming  i$to  the 
Mississippi  just  below  the  city  frotn  the 
west,  gives  easy  access  to  the  fertile  prairies 
of  Minnesota  and  Dakota.  The  location 
has  given  La  Crosse  the  nickname  of  The 
Gateway  City.  It  lies  about  midway  of 
the  most  picturesque  section  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, the  bluffs  here  attaining  their 
greatest  height  —  about  600  feet  above 
the  river.  The  site  was  known  as  Prairie 
La  Crosse  from  the  Indians'  custom  of  as- 
sembling there  to  play  lacrosse,  and  from 
this  the  city  gets  its  name.  It  was  settled 
as  an  Indian  trading-post  in  1841.  The 
manufactures  of  sash,  doors  and  blinds, 
church  altars,  ornamental  iron  work,  tele- 
phones, electrical  fixtures,  gasoline  en- 
gines, launches,  tools,  wagons,  carriages 
agricultural  machinery,  tinware,  clothing, 
knit  goods,  boots,  shoes,  rubber  goods, 
spring  mattresses,  leather,  flour,  candy, 
crackers,  pearl  buttons  and  beer  are  lead- 
ing industries.  The  city  has  three  hospitals, 


LACTOMETER 


tOIQ 


LADYBIRD 


beautiful    parks,    a    fir.e    public   library,    a 
state    normal   school,   high   school   and   ex- 
cellent  public   schools,   which   employ    130 
teachers  and  enroll  over  5,000  pupils.     The 
main  lines  of  three  great  railway  systems 
intersect  at  this  point,  and  these,  with  the 
river,  give  admirable  transportation  facili- 
ties. A  fine    wagon  bridge,  owned  by  the 
city,    spans   the    Mississippi  and  facilitates 
local  traffic  and  travel.     Population  30, 41 7. 
Lactom'eter  or  Galac'tome'ter,  a  simple 
instrument  used  in  testing  the  richness  of 
milk,  is  graduated  into  a  hundred  parts. 
Milk  is  poured  in  and  allowed  to  stand  until 
the  cream  has  formed,  then  the  depth  of 
the    cream   deposit   in   degrees   determines 
the  quality  of  the  milk.     Another  instru- 
ment, invented  by  Doeffel,  is  two  inches 
long,   divided  into   40  parts,  beginning  at 
the  point  to  which  it  sinks  when  placed  in 
water.    MiHf  unadulterated  is  shown  at  14°. 
Ladd,   Ueorge    Trurabull,    an   American 
educator    and    philosopher,    was    born    at 
Painesville,  O.,  Jan.  19,  1842,  and  educated 
^^Yestern   Reserve  College  and  Andover 
beological     Seminary.     After    serving    as 
pastor  of  various  Congregational  churches 
until    1879,   he  became  professor  of  intel- 
ictual  and  moral  philosophy   at  Bowdoin 
Mlege,  and  in  1881  was  appointed  to  the 
;hair    of    philosophy    at    Yale    University. 
B  is  the  author  of  Principles  of  Church 
Polily;   Doctrine  of  Sacred  Scripture;  Ele- 
ents  of  Physiological  Psychology;  Philoso- 
Religion;    Psychology,    Descriptive 
vlanatory;     Philosophy    of     Mind; 
ophy    of    Knowledge;    Essays    on    the 
lrV//«T  Education;  A  Theory  of  Reality  and 
mhe  Philosophy  of  Conduct. 

Ladoga  (lad'd-gd)  Lake,  the  largest 
lake  at  Europe,  is  situated  in  Russia  near 
St.  Petersburg,  and  is  crossed  by  the  divid- 
ing line  between  that  country  and  Finland. 
It  is  129  miles  long  and  68  wide,  and  has 
an  qfla  of  6,998  square  miles.  The  southern 
and  feastern  shores  are  marshy,  but  the 
northwest  rises  into  cliffs.  It  receives  the 
waters  of  Lakes  Onega  and  Ilmen  in  Russia 
and  Saima  and  others  in  Finland.  Ladoga 
at  its  deepest  part  is  730  feet  in  depth. 
Navigation  is  dangerous  on  account  of 
shoals,  sandbanks  and  hidden  rocks,  be- 
sides furious  storms.  The  rivers  emptying 
into  it  are  connected  by  canals  at  their 
mouths.  It  empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Fin- 
land by  the  Neva.  On  two  of  its  many 
islands  are  two  monasteries  founded  in 
960  and  1393  respectively,  which  are  visited 
by  many  pilgrims  every  year. 

Ladrones  (la-drdnz")  or  Mariana,  Pelew 
or  Caroline  Islands,  formerly  a  Spanish 
possession,  are  15  small  islands  in  the 
northern  Pacific  with  a  total  area  of  about 
420  square  miles  They  now  consti- 
tute part  of  the  German  New  Guinea 
protectorate.  The  group  lies  between  the 
Philippines  and  the  Marshall  Islands  north 


of  German  New  Guinea.  Their  popula- 
tion is  about  36,000.  They  were  dis- 
covered by  Magellan  in  1521,  his  sailors 
calling  them  Ladrones  or  Thieves'  Islands 
on  account  of  the  thieving  propensities 
of  their  inhabitants  In  1668  they  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Mariana  Islands  At 
the  time  of  discovery  the  natives  numbered 
60,000;  but  now  the  inhabitants,  Chamoros, 
Tagals  and  mixed  Spanish,  do  not  exceed 
8,700.  The  islands  are  divided  into  two 
groups  by  a  channel,  the  southern  five  being 
low  and  marshy  and  the  northern  ones  well 
wooded,  high  and  mountainous.  Almost  all 
are  well-watered,  woody  and  fertile.  The 
largest  island,  Guam  (area  198  square  miles 
and  population  12,240),  was  ceded  to  the 
United  States  in  1898.  The  remainder  of 
group  were  purchased  by  Germany  in  1899. 
Lady 'bird  or  Lady 'bug  is  the  common 
name  for  any  one  of  a  group  of  small  beetles. 
They  are  rounded  on 
the  back  and  flat  be- 
low. Their  wing  cov- 
ers usually  are  mark- 
ed with  spots.  As  to 
colors,  they  generally 
are  red  or  yellow 
with  black  spots,  or 
black  with  white,  red 


or  yellow  spots.  Many 
ladybirds    hibernate, 


a  common  one  some- 
<  times    coming    forth 

in  a  warm  room  in  midwinter.  The  beetles 
are  long-lived  and  very  prolific,  of  much 
benefit  to  agriculturist  and  horticulturist. 
Their  larvae  are  of  great  service  to  hop- 
growers  and  fruit-farrr.ers  in  destroying 
plant-lice  and  other  injurious  insects.  Al- 
most all  the  beetles  as  well  as  the  larvae  feed 
upon  plant-lice  or  aphids  and  upon  scale 
insects.  They  frequently  are  found  upon 
house-plants.  The  eggs  are  yellow,  often 
deposited  in  a  colony  of  plant-lice,  upon 
which  the  larvae  begin  to  feed  as  soon  as 
hatched.  They  are  rather  long,  often  spiny 
and  spotted  with  bright  colors.  They  run 
about  freely  on  the  foliage  and  devour  great 
numbers  01  aphids,  which  are  fixed  by  their 
beaks  to  the  plants.  The  larva  grows  fast, 
changes  its  skin  several  times,  when  fullfed 
glues  itself  to  a  leaf;  casting  off  the  last 
larval  skin  the  pupa  is  disclosed,  hanging 
by  its  tail.  In  favorable  circumstances  the 
beetle  is  developed  from  the  egg  in  about  a 
month.  There  are  two  or  more  broods  in  a 
season.  The  ladybirds  that  feed  upon 
scales  are  smaller  than  the  other  ladybirds, 
black  in  color,  sometimes  spotted  with 
orange  or  red.  Some  years  ago,  when  the 
white  or  fluted  scale  was  such  a  fearful  pest 
to  fruit-growers  on  the  Pacific  coast,  work- 
ing  especial  ruin  in  orange  and  lemon 
orchards,  the  experiment  was  made  of 
bringing  in  the  Australian  ladybird,  which 
feeds  upon  fluted  scales,  with  the  result  that 


LADY  OF  THE  LAKE,  THE 


1020 


LAFAYETTE 


in  one  year  orchards  were  freed  from  the 
pest  and  verdure  and  bloom  restored.  To 
combat  the  San  Jose"  scale  the  Asiatic  lady- 
bird has  been  brought  into  the  country,  the 
Asiatic  species  feeding  voraciously  upon 
this  scale.  See  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Bulletin  18,  New  Series,  Washing- 
ton, 1898. 

Lady  of  the  Lake,  The,  a  narrative  poem 
by  Scott,  so  named  from  the  heroine 
Ellen  Douglas  who  lived  on  Loch  Katrine. 
It  was  the  world's  first  revelation  of  the 
lovely  scenery  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland 
and  of  the  poetry  of  clan  life. 

Lady'smith,  an  inland  town  of  Natal, 
South  Africa,  is  situated  on  a  plain  entered 
by  the  Klip  River  and  surrounded  by 
hills.  The  town  attained  a  peculiar  fame 
from  the  investment  of  the  place  by  20,000 
Boers  and  the  heroic  defense  of  the  besieged 
British  force  numbering  about  11,000,  under 
General  Sir  George  White,  who  held  out  for 
118  days,  when  they  were  relieved  by  Gen- 
eral Sir  Redvers  Buller  in  the  spring  of 
1900.  Population  5,000. 

Ladysmith,  a  mining  town  and  shipping 
port  on  Vancouver  Island,  is  growing  rap- 
idly. 

Lady's  Slipper,  a  family  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  orchid  order,  is  remarkable  for  the 
large  cup-like  shape  of  the  lip  of  the  corolla. 
Several  beautiful  species  are  natives  of  the 
colder  parts  of  North  America.  Collectors 
vie  in  collecting  the  many  different  speci- 
mens. 

The  pink  lady's  slipper  or  moccasin  flower 
is  like  an  Indian  moccasin;  about  a  foot 
from  the  ground  hangs  singly  and  gracefully 
from  the  top  of  a  smooth  scape;  in  color 
pink  with  darker  lines;  a  pair  of  oblong 
leaves  near  the  base  of  the  stem.  It  is  found 
in  deep  woods  along  the  eastern  coast  and 
west  to  Minnesota,  blooms  in  May  and  June, 
is  becoming  rare  and  should  be  carefully 
protected. 

Laertes  (la-er'tez),  a  character  in  Greek 
mythology.  He  was  king  of  Ithaca  but 
resigned  the  crown  to  Odysseus  (Ulysses), 
his  son,  the  hero  of  Homer 's  Odyssey, 
when  the  latter  was  old  enough  to  bear 
responsibilities.  Laertes  joined  in  the 
Calydonian  hunt  and  the  Argonautic  expe- 
dition. The  absence  of  the  son  during  the 
Trojan  War  cast  the  father  into  melancholy, 
but  on  the  hero's  return  the  sire  was  re- 
juvenated by  Athene  and  took  part  in  the 
fight  against  the  suitors  of  Penelope,  wife 
of  Odysseus. 

La  Farge  (Idfdrzh'),  John,  an  American 
artist,  was  born  on  March  31,  1835,  at  New 
York.  He  is  famous  as  a  painter  of  figures, 
flowers  and  landscapes,  and  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  National  Academy  in  1869. 
His  paintings  have  gained  high  praise  for 
charm  of  color,  imagination  and  suggest- 
iveness.  The  View  over  Newport,  New  Eng- 
land Pasture  Land  and  St.  Paul  at  Athens 


are  noteworthy.  Ill-health  obliged  him 
to  give  up  the  practice  of  painting,  and  he 
turned  his  attention  to  decorative  art, 
especially  stained  glass.  By  the  discovery 
of  opalescent  glass  he  made  important  im- 
provements, and  succeeded  in  producing 
beautiful  effects.  Among  his  most  striking 
works  in  this  line  are  Battle  Window  in 
Memorial  Hall  at  Harvard  University  and 
Ames  Memorial  Window  at  Eaton,  Mass,  no 
published  Lectures  on  Art.  Died  Nov.  14,  1910. 
La'fayett'e  College.  See  EASTON,  PA. 
Lafayette,  county- seat  of  Tippecanoe 
County,  Ind.,  is  situated  on  the  Wabash 
'River,  and  is  a  junction  point  for  four  main- 
line railroads.  The  city  is  about  60  miles 
northwest  of  Indianapolis.  It  is  a  flourishing 
city.  Laid  out  in  1825,  it  has  many  churches 
and  public  buildings.  Purdue  University, 
with  1,900  students,  is  the  great  land-grant 
college  of  Indiana.  It  was  founded  in  1874, 
is  an  agricultural  and  technical  school  (mostly 
engineering — mechanical,  civil  and  electrical), 
and  stands  high  among  scientific  schools.  Pork- 
packing  and  grain-handling,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  automobiles,  steering  gears,  electrical 
supplies,  wire,  cardboard,  wagons,  agricultural 
implements,  machinery,  carpets,  soap,  beer 
and  flour  are  its  industries.  It  is  the  principal 
market  for  the  surrounding  highly  fertile 
and  prosperous  farming  country.  It  has  a 
population  of  22,000. 

Lafayette    (Idfayet),  Marie   Jean    Paul 
Roch  Yves    Gilbert    Motier,    Marquis    de, 

was  born  inAu- 
vergne,  France, 
Sept.  6,  1757. 
He  came  into 
his  estates  early 
and  married  at 
1 6,  entered  the 
army,  and  in 
1777  sailed  for 
America  t  o 
serve  in  the 
cause  of  inde- 
pendence. He 
became  an  inti- 
mate friend  of 
Washington, 
who  gave  him 
MARQUIS  DE  LAFAYETTE  command  of  a 
division  after  his  conduct  at  Brandywine. 
The  war  between  England  and  France  called 
him  back,  but  in  1779  he  returned  and  took 
part  with  Rochambeau's  fleet  and  6,000 
troops  at  Yorktown.  On  his  visit  in  1784 
he  was  so  enthusiastically  received  that  his 
tour  was  almost  a  continual  triumph.  Called 
to  the  French  assembly  of  notables  in  1787, 
he  sat  in  the  assembly  of  the  states-gen- 
eral and  in  the  national  assembly  of  1789, 
where  he  introduced  the  famous  Declara- 
tion of  Rights,  based  on  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  He  was  soon  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  armed  citizens,  or- 
ganized the  national  guard,  and  gave  it  the 


LA  FOLLETTE 


102 1 


LAHOPE 


tricolor  cockade.  He  struggled  for  order 
and  humanity,  and  severely  condemned 
the  brutality  of  the  revolutionists.  After 
his  defeat  by  Pe"tion  for  the  mayoralty  of 
Paris,  he,  with  Bailly,  formed  the  club  of 
the  Feuillants  and  advocated  the  abolition 
of  title  and  of  class  privileges.  After  the 
adoption  of  the  constitution  in  1790,  he 
retired  to  his  estates  till  he  received  command 
of  the  army  of  Ardennes,  with  _  \vhich_  he 
won  the  first  victories  of  Philippeville, 
Maubeuge  and  Florennes.  Lafayette  came 
to  Paris  to  denounce  the  Jacobins;  but,  on 
returning  to  the  army  and  finding  that  he 
could  not  induce  them  to  move  on  Paris,  he 
rode  into  the  neutral  country  of  Liege,  and 
was  captured  and  held  prisoner  by  the 
Austrians  until  1797,  when  he  was  liberated 
through  Bonaparte's  efforts.  He  sat  in  the 
chamber  of  deputies  from  1818  to  1824,  on 
the  extreme  left,  and  was  leader  of  the  op- 
position from  1825  to  1830.  In  1830  he 
took  an  active  part  in  the  Revolution,  com- 
manding the  national  guard.  In  1824  he 
again  visited  America,  at  the  invitation  of 
Congress,  which  voted  him  $200,000  and  a 
township  of  land.  He  died  on  May  20,  1834. 
See  the  Life  by  B.  Tuckerman  and  the 
Diary  of  Gouverneur  Morris. 

La  Fol'lette,  Robert  Marion,  a  prom- 
inent leader  in  the  politics  of  Wisconsin,  was 
born  at  Prim- 
rose, Wisconsin, 
in  1855,  gradu- 
ated in  law  from 
the  University  of 
Wisconsin,  and 
was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1880. 
From  1887  to 
1891  he  was  a 
member  of  Con- 
gress. He  served 
on  the  commit- 
tee of  ways  and 
means  in  con- 
nection with  the 
McKinley  tariff 
bill.  In  1900, 
1902  and  1904  he 
was  elected  gov- 
ernor of  Wiscon- 
sin ;  United  States  Senator  in  1 905  and  reflected 
Senator  in  1911.  In  1908  and  1911  he  was 
strongly  urged  before  the  Republican  conven- 
tion as  candidate  for  the  presidency. 

Lafpntaine  (la  f on-tan'),  Jean  de,  was 
born  in  Champagne,  France,  July  8,  1621. 
His  early  education  was  neglected,  and  he 
took  up  his  father's  duties  as  master  of  the 
woods.  He  then  began  the  study  of  Ra- 
belais, Marot  and  other  old  writers  and  the 
making  of  poor  verses.  In  1654  he  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  the  Eunuchus  of 
Terence,  and  went  to  Paris,  where  Fouquet 
gave  him  a  pension  of  1,000  francs  on  con- 
dition that  he  furnish  a  piece  of  verse  every 


ROBERT  M.   LA  FOLLETTE 


quarter.  His  verses  showed  originality,  and 
he  became  the  pet  of  society  ladies,  to 
whom  and  to  visits  with  Mohere,  Boileau 
and  Racine  ne  gave  his  time  tor  six  years 
His  Contes  en  Vers  appeared  in  1665;  his 
Fables  en  Vers  in  1668;  and  his  Amours  de 
Psyche  et  Cupidon  in  1669.  For  20  years 
he  lived  in  the  household  of  Madame  de  la 
Sabliere,  who  became  devout  after  he 
attached  himself  to  Princess  Je  Conti.  She 
died  in  1693,  and  for  two  years  he  was 
maintained  by  Madame  d'Heryart.  He 
died  on  April  13,  1695.  The  subjects  of  his 
Contes  are  taken  from  Boccaccio,  Ariosto, 
Machiavelli,  Rabelais  and  other  writers. 
Though  extremely  gross,  they  are  beautifully 
written.  Lafoutaine  was  one  of  the  idlest, 
most  reckless,  frivolous  and  dissolute  of 
men,  yet  one  of  the  most  lovable,  charming 
and  gifted.  See  Sainte-Beuve's  Portraits 
L^ttera^res,  Vol.  1,  and  Taine's  Essay  on  the 
Fables  of  Lafontaine. 

Lagos  (Id'goosh),  a  British  colony,  an 
island  and  a  town  on  the  Slave  or  Guinea 
Coast  of  western  Africa,  now  embraced  in 
the  British  colony  of  Southern  Nigeria.  It 
is  situated  alongside  the  French  possession 
of  Dahome",  with  about  140  miles  of  coast. 
The  town  has  a  fine  and  safe  harbor.  The 
colony  has  an  area  of  3,460  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  about  100,000  of  whom 
233  are  Europeans.  The  inhabitants  are 
mostly  negroes  and  two  thirds  pagans, 
though  Mohammedanism  is  making  head- 
way. The  exports  are  palmoil,  palmkernels, 
ivory,  gum,  copra,  cotton  and  Guinea  grains 
to  the  value  of  about  $2,500,000  a  year 
and  the  imports  are  spirits,  tobacco,  cotton 
goods  and  nardware.  The  principal  trade 
is  with  England  and  Germany.  The  present 
colony  was  formed  in  1880.  The  island,  on 
whose  western  extremity  stands  the  town, 
has  an  area  of  3  J  square  miles  and  a  popula- 
tion of  35,000.  It  was  created  a  separate 
government  in  1863,  and  formed  part  of 
the  West  Africa  settlements  from  1866  to 
1874,  when  it  was  part  of  the  Gold  Coast 
u-itil  1886.  There  is  a  railroad  125  miles 
in  length  to  Ibadan,  with  a  short  branch 
to  Abeokuta.  There  also  are  telegraphs, 
telephones  and  an  ocean  cable.  Adjoining 
the  colony  is  a  territory  under  British 
protectorate,  whose  boundaries  were  defined 
m  1899.  Its  area  is  25,450  square  miles, 
with  an  estimated  population  of  about 
1,500,000,  the  number  ot  Europeans  being 
308. 

La  Quira  (la  gwi'ra),  the  shipping  port 
of  Caracas,  the  capital  of  Venezuela,  on  the 
Caribbean  Sea.  Population  7,500. 

Lahore  (la-h.drf),  an  ancient  walled  city  in 
British  India  and  capital  of  the  Punjab, 
stands  near  the  left  bank  ot  Ravi  River. 
Its  population  is  228,687,  of  whom  much 
over  half  are  Mussulmans  The  city  covers 
640  acres,  is  surrounded  by  a  brick  wall  16 
feet  in  height,  and  is  entered  by  metalled 


LAKE  DISTRICT 


1022 


LAMAR 


roads  through  13  gates.  The  fort  stands 
in  a  commanding  position.  Punjab  Uni- 
versity is  one  of  the  most  flourishing  educa- 
tional institutions  in  India  Here  also  are 
the  Oriental  College,  Government  College, 
Government  Medical  School,  Mayo  Hospital 
and  Robert  Institute.  The  origin  of  the 
city  dates  not  later  than  the  yth  century, 
and  under  the  Mogul  empire  it  reached  a 
population  of  over  1,000,000.  The  city  is 
noted  for  its  fine  carpet  industry. 

Lake  District,  the  mountainous  region 
of  Cumberland,  Westmoreland  and  a  small 
portion  of  Lancashire  in  England,  within 
which  are  16  small  lakes  and  many  moun- 
tain streams  and  mountains  rising  to  3,000 
feet.  The  district  is  about  30  miles  fiom 
north  to  south  and  25  from  east  to  west, 
affording  a  beauty  and  variety  of  scenery 
seldom  found  in  so  small  an  area.  The 
place  is  visited  by  many  tourists.  The  dis- 
trict has  been  immortalized  by  poets,  the 
most  prominent  being  Wordsworth;  others 
are  bouthey,  Prof.  John  Wilson  ("Kit 
North")  Shelley,  Mrs.  Hemans,  Harriet 
Martineau,  Ruskin  and  Gray.  See  ^  Pro- 
fessor Knight's  English  Lake  District  in  the 
Poems  of  Wordsworth. 

Lake  Dwellings,  houses  built  on  plat- 
forms supported^  by  piles  or  posts  in  the 
shallows  or  margins  of  lakes.  From  the 
earliest  times  there  were  lake-dwellers  in 
central  Europe,  and  the  custom  prevailed 
in  Scotland  and  Ireland  to  a  late  day. 
When  the  waters  of  Lake  Zurich  in  Switzer- 
land receded  in  1854,  the  remains  of  a  lake 
dwelling  were  discovered  at  Meilen,  and 
similar  relics  were  found  at  the  mud-bottoms 
of  many  Swiss  lakes.  Since  then  they  have 
been  thoroughly  investigated  and  their 
existence  determined  in  the  stone,  bronze 
and  iron  ages.  Nothing,  however,  is  known 
of  the  origin  of  this  mode  of  life.  In  the 
stone  age  the  larger  implements  were  made 
of  hard  stone,  the  smaller  of  the  less  plenti- 
ful flint.  In  the  bronze  age  the  dwellings 
seem  to  have  been  further  out  in  the  water 
than  in  the  stone  age.  The  pottery  is  finer 
and  more  elegantly  ornamented,  and  the 
implements  and  weapons  are  of  bronze. 
The  lake  dwellings  of  Marin  are  the  best 
known  of  the  iron  age.  The  extent  of  the 
settlement  was  1,200  by  250  feet.  Many 
articles  of  fine  workmanship  in  iron  have 
been  found  here,  such  as  shield-mountains, 
buckles,  bridle  bits,  hatchets,  dice,  small 
objects  of  bone  and  Roman  and  Gallic  coins, 
the  latest  being  of  Emperor  Claudius,  41 
to  54  A.  D.  The  custom  of  living  in  water- 
houses  is  still  practiced  among  barbarous 
tribes  in  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  New 
Guinea,  Venezuela  and  central  Africa.  See 
Munro's  Lake  Dwellings  at  Europe. 

Lake  Forest  College,  a  Presbyterian 
coeducational  institution,  is  located  at  Lake 
Foiest,  1H.,  28  miles  north  of  Chicago.  It 
was  chartered  in  1857  as  Lind  University. 


In  1865  the  name  was  changed  by  the 
legislature  to  Lake  Forest  University.  It 
comprises  Lake  Forest  Academy,  Ferry 
Hall  Seminary,  Lake  Forest  College,  Chicago 
College  of  Dental  Surgery  and  Chicago-Kent 
College  of  Law.  Its  faculty  numbers  127, 
with  1,400  students.  Its  library  contains 
more  than  30,000  volumes.  The  productive 
funds  amount  to  $600,000.  Its  Bross  lec- 
tureship belongs  to  the  same  class  as  the 
Gifford  and  Bampton  of  Great  Britain. 

Lake  of  the  Woods,  a  picturesque  sheet 
of  water,  at  the  western  angle  of  Ontario, 
where  it  abuts  on  Manitoba  and  Minnesota. 
It  extends  southward  from  Rat  Portage, 
on  Winnipeg  River  and  the  Canadian  Pacific, 
to  Rainy  River,  the  boundary  between 
Ontario  and  Minnesota.  The  lake  is  identi- 
fied with  early  attempts  at  western  colon- 
ization, for  the  Verandryes  in  1731  built  a 
fort  and  mission  at  its  southwestern  corner 
and  made  it  the  base  of  later  operations. 
Steamers  now  ply  on  it. 

Lake  St.  John  Territory,  a  region  in 
northeastern  Canada  (area  44,000  square 
miles),  situated  in  the  township  of  Chicou- 
timi,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  Saguenay 
River  and  on  the  northern  confines  of 
Quebec.  It  is  the  scene  of  extensive  lum- 
bering operations. 

Lakes,  The  Great.  By  this  term  is  usually 
meant  the  chain  of  lakes  lying  along  the 
boundary  of  Canada  and  the  United  States. 
They  are  Michigan,  Superior,  Huron,  Erie 
and  Ontario.  All  except  Michigan  are  partly 
in  the  United  States  and  partly  in  Canada, 
the  boundary  line  between  the  two  coun- 
tries following  the  mean  middle  of  the  chain. 
Lake  Michigan  is  entirely  within  the  United 
States,  being  bounded  east  and  north  by 
Michigan  and  west  by  Indiana,  Illinois  and 
Wisconsin.  The  shore-line  extends  within 
the  United  States  about  3,000  miles.  The 
Great  Lakes,  taken  together,  form  the 
largest  chain  of  fresh-water  lakes  in  the 
world,  Lake  Superior  being  in  itself  the 
largest  body  of  fresh  water.  The  commerce 
is  immense,  and  is  every  year  growing  larger. 
Lamar',  Lucius  Quintus  Clncinnatus,  an 
American  lawyer  and  statesman,  was  born 

in  Putman 
County,  Ga., 
Sept.  i,  1825, 
was  educated 
at  Emory  Col- 
lege, studied 
law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1847. 
He  was  elected 
to  the  legisla- 
ture in  1853. 
He  removed  to 
Mississippi  ir 
1854,  and  was 
a  member  of 
LUCIUS  Q.  c.  LAMAB  Congress  from 


LAMARCK 


LAMP 


that  state  from  1857  to  1860.  He  served 
in  the  Confederate  army  during  the  Civil 
War,  and  was  sent  to  Europe  as  agent  of 
the  Confederacy.  In  1866  he  was  made 
professor  of  political  economy  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Mississippi,  and  in  1872  was 
again  elected  to  Congress.  President  Cleve- 
land made  him  secretary  of  the  interior 
during  his  first  term,  and  in  1887  appointed 
him  associate  justice  of  the  United  States 
supreme  court.  Judge  Lamar  died  at 
Macon,  Ga.,  Jan.  23,  1893. 

Lamarck  ( Id' mark' ) ,  Jean  Baptiste  Pierre 
Antoine  de  Monet,  CHEVALIER  DE,  a 
French  naturalist  and  evolutionist,  was 
born  in  Picardy  in  1744,  and  educated  for 
the  church  at  a  Jesuit  college,  which  he 
left  at  17  to  join  the  French  army  then 
at  war  with  the  Germans.  On  account  of 
an  injury  he  resigned  and  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  engaged  in  the  study  of  medicine 
and  botany.  In  1779  he  published  the 
Flore  Francaise,  appending  a  new  analytic 
method  of  classification.  In  1793  he  was 
appointed  to  a  post  in  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes,  and  remained  for  25  years  as  pro- 
fessor of  invertebrate  zoology.  Here,  after 
a  time,  he  was  joined  by  Cuvier  and  St. 
Hilaire.  In  1809  he  published  his  famous 
Philosophic  Zoologique,  in  which  he  sup- 
ported the  doctrine  that  all  kinds  of  ani- 
mals, including  man,  are  derived  from 
other  species.  These  views  were  almost 
entirely  superseded  by  Darwin's  theory  of 
natural  selection.  He  died  at  Paris  on 
Dec.  18,  1829. 

Lamartine  (Id' mar-ten'),  Alphonse  Marie 
Louis  de,  was  born  at  Macon,  France,  Oct, 
21,  1790.  In  1820  he  published  his  first 
Meditations  Poetiques,  and  was  appointed 
secretary  of  legation  at  Naples,  afterwards 
becoming  charge  d'affaires  at  Florence, 
where  he  remained  for  five  years.  He 
married  an  Englishwoman.  In  1829  he 
accepted  a  mission  to  the  king  of  Greece. 
Being  a  royalist,  he  discountenanced  the 
revolution  of  1830.  He  was  nominated  for 
the  chamber  at  Dunkerque  and  Toulon, 
but  was  defeated,  and  then  set  out  upon 
an  eastern  tour,  writing  an  account  of  his 
travels,  called  Souvenirs  d'  Orient.  His 
Jocelyn,  La  Chute  d'un  Ange  and  celebrated 
nistoire  des  Girondins  appeared  from  1834 
to  1848.  He  was  a  member  of  the  pro- 
visional government  which  proclaimed  the 
republic,  and  was  its  first  minister  of 
foreign  affairs.  The  dissensions  caused  by 
the  attempted  social  reforms  of  Louis  Blanc 
and  Ledru  Rollin  at  last  ended  in  Lamar- 
tine's  resignation,  and  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  discussion  of  public  affairs  and  to 
literature,  publishing  Confidences,  Raphael, 
Genevieve,  Tailleur  de  Pierre s  de  St.  Point 
and  Histoire  de  la  Restauration.  He  died 
at  Paris  on  March  i,  1869. 

Lamb,  Charles,  English  essayist,  critic 
and  humorist,  was  born  on  Feb.  10,  1775. 


Lamb  received  his  first  education  at  a 
small  academy,  and  then  for  seven  years 
attended  Christ's  Hospital.  His  school  ex- 
periences and  friendships,  especially  with 
Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge,  are  made  familiar 
in  his  Essays  of  Elia.  When  he  left  Christ's 
Hospital  in  1789,  he  received  a  clerkship 
in  South  Sea  House,  and  was  soon  pro- 
moted to  a  clerkship  in  India  House,  where 
he  remained  for  more  than  thirty  years. 
During  a  temporary  attack  of  insanity, 
Mary,  Charles'  sister,  killed  her  mother, 
and,  to  keep  Mary  out  of  a  public  asylum, 
Charles  devoted  38  years  of  his  life  to  her 
care.  Lamb's  earliest  poems,  written  in 
1795,  were  published  in  S.  T.  Coleridge's 
earliest  volumes  (1796).  In  1798  Lamb  and 
Charles  Lloyd  issued  a  small  volume  of 
blank  verse,  containing  Lamb's  famous  poem 
of  The  Old  Familiar  Faces.  The  same  year 
saw  his  prose  romance,  Rosamund  Gray  and 
Old  Blind  Margaret,  and  four  years  later 
John  Woodvil.  Lamb,  all  this  time,  was 
moving  about  from  place  to  place  with 
his  sister,  and  struggling  against  poverty. 
The  Tales  from  Shakespeare,  written  by 
Charles  and  Mary,  were  a  first  success  when 
they  appeared  in  Goodwin's  Juvenile  Liter- 
ary. Then  they  wrote  Ivirs.  Leicester's 
School  and  Poetry  for  Children  and  Charles 
alone  wrote  The  Adventures  of  Ulysses,  a 
version  of  The  Odyssey.  The  volume  of 
dramas  of  the  Elizabethan  period,  edited  by 
Lamb,  placed  him  on  the  top  round  as  a 
critic,  and  brought  him  the  engagement  to 
write  a  series  of  articles  on  Shakespeare  and 
Hogarth  in  Leigh  Hunt's  Reflector.  In  1818 
a  publisher  induced  him  to  collect  all  his 
verse  and  essays,  and  published  them  as 
the  Works  of  Charles  Lamb.  This  placed 
him  on  the  staff  of  the  new  London  Maga- 
zine, in  which  all  his  articles  and,  indeed, 
the  collection  of  them  in  1823,  1825  and 
^ss,  were  signed  "Elia."  He  died  at 
Edmonton,  Dec.  27,  1834.  See  Life  and 
Letters  by  Justice  Talfourd  and  Memoirs  by 
Barry  Cornwall. 

Lamp,  a  contrivance  in  which  to  use  the 
lighting  power  of  an  illuminating  fluid.  In 
the  earliest  ages  the  lamp  was  an  animal's 
skull  or  a  shell,  and  this  form,  in  its  sim- 
plicity, prevailed  in  the  lamps  of  Rome, 
Greece  and  the  north.  In  Greece  they  were 
called  lychna,  in  Rome  lucernce.  Animal 
fats  and  fish  oils  were  used  until  vegetable 
oils,  as  rape,  were  manufactured.  In  1783 
Leger  introduced  the  flat  wick,  and  in  1784 
Argand  introduced  the  round  burner,  which, 
whether  for  oil  or  gas,  is  known  as  the  Ar- 
gand burner.  Mineral  oils,  known  as  par- 
affin, petroleum,  kerosene,  crystal  oil  etc. 
contain  a  large  amount  of  carbon,  making 
it  necessary  to  introduce  oxygen  into  the 
burner  to  consume  the  carbon  Such  lamps 
were  first  made  by  Stobwasser  in  Berlin. 
Mineral  oil  burners  now  have  either  flat 
or  circular  wicks,  the  flat  ones  being  more 


LAMPBLACK 


1024 


LANCASTER 


easily   controlled   and    trimmed.      In    186 
the   Hinks  of  Birmingham  introduced  th 
double    burner,    having    two    parallel    fla 
wicks  and  two  flames,  which  soon  became 
very  popular.     All  efforts  since  have  been 
directed  toward  the  improvements  in  burn 
ers,  to  give  perfect   combustion  and  conse 
quently  a  brighter  and  better  light. 

Lamp'black  is  the  soot  or  carbon  deposi 
obtained  from  burning  substances,  as  resin 
petroleum  or  tar,  rich  in  carbon.  Little 
oxygen  is  allowed  to  reach  the  flame,  so 
that  it  becomes  smoky,  and  the  soot  is 
caught  upon  something.  For  some  purposes 
lampblack  is  purified  by  heating  in  closed 
vessels.  It  is  used  by  artists  both  in  oi: 
and  water-colors,  and  a  coarser  kind  is  used 
by  housepainters.  It  is  the  carbon  used 
on  carbon  paper  that  is  the  chief  ingredient 
of  india  ink  and,  in  combination  with  linseed 
oil,  makes  printer's  ink. 

Lam'prey,  an  eel-like  fish  belonging  to 
the  round-mouthed  fishes  (Cyclostomi) . 
There  are  both  fresh-water  and  sea-lam- 
preys. They  are  lower  in  organization  than 
true  fishes,  and  have  no  jaws,  paired  fins 
or  scales.  Their  skeleton  is  cartilaginous. 
They  havo  a  round  mouth,  which  is  used  as 
a  sucker  and  is  armed  with  numerous  horny 
teeth.  They  attach  themselves  to  stones 
and  to  the  bodies  of  other  fishes  by  the 
sucking  mouth.  In  the  latter  positions 
they  scrape  off  the  flesh  with  their  teeth 
and  rasp-like  tongue,  and  feed  on  the  flesh 
and  blood.  They  cause  considerable  damage 
to  the  good  fishes.  They  also  eat  worms, 
larvae  and  dead  fish.  Their  gills  are  in 
pouches,  and  communicate  with  the  water 
through  seven  round  holes  en  each  side 
of  the  neck.  The  sea-lampreys  reach  a 
length  of  three  feet.  They  ascend  rivers 
to  spawn.  The  fresh-water  lampreys  are 
smaller.  The  brook-lampreys  are  six  or 
eight  inches  long.  The  large  lake-lampreys 
are  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  sea 
form.  They  have  been  eaten  since  the 
days  of  ancient  Rome  in  some  localities, 
but  despised  in  others  See  Gage's  Lake 
and  Brook  Lampreys  of  New  York. 

Lams'dorf,  Count  Vladimir  Nicolaivitch, 
was  born  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1845, 
and  died  on  March  19,  1907.  He  was  one 
of  the  world's  most  distinguished  diploma- 
tists, yet  fell  short,  perhaps,  of  some  of  the 
qualities  of  the  true  statesman.  From 
1900  to  1906  he  was  foreign  minster  for 
Russia;  and  it  was  said  that  if  it  had  been 
desired  to  confer  a  new  Russian  order  of 
distinction  upon  him,  a  new  one  would  have 
had  to  be  invented.  He  was  the  friend  and 
adviser  of  Nicholas  I,  Alexander  II  and 
Alexander  III. 

Lan'caster,  House  of,  was  founded  as  a 
duchy  during  the  reign  of  Edward  III  ot 
England,  and  the  duke  was  made  county 
palatine.  The  heiress  married  John  of 
Gaunt,  and  the  duchy  was  settled  on  him 


and  his  heirs  by  royal  charter  in  1362.  The 
first  English  king  from  the  house  of  Lan- 
caster was  Henry  IV,  the  son  of  John  of 
Gaunt.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  but 
the  reign  of  the  house  ended  with  the  death 
of  Henry  VI.  See  ENGLAND. 

Lancaster,  the  capital  of  Lancashire, 
England,  is  situated  on  an  elevation  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Lune,  seven  miles  from  its 
mouth.  The  old  castle,  built  on  the  site 
of  a  Roman  castle  and  restored  by 
John  of  Gaunt,  is  used  as  a  jail.  The 
city  contains  St.  Mary's  Church  (isth 
century)  and  Ripley  Hospital.  The  Lune 
is  crossed  by  a  bridge  built  in  1788, 
but  owing  to  shifting  sands  vessels  must 
unload  five  miles  below.  Its  chief  manu- 
factures are  furniture,  cotton,  silk,  oilcloth, 
tablecovers,  machinery  and  a  railway  plant. 
In  1698  the  town  almost  totally  destroyed 
by  fire.  Population  40,000. 

Lancaster,  Ohio,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Fairfield  County,  32  miles  from 
Columbus,  is  in  the  center  of  an  agricultural 
region.  Among  its  industries  are  railroad 
shops,  carbon  works  and  manufactories  for 
glass,  shoes,  flour,  agricultural  implements 
and  foundry  products.  It  has  excellent 
public  schools,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  state 
industrial  school  for  boys.  Lancaster  is 
the  birthplace  of  Senator  John  Sherman 
and  General  W.  T.  Sherman.  The  city  owns 
its  waterworks  and  gas-plants;  is  situated 
on  the  Hocking  River  and  canal;  and  has 
the  service  of  two  railroads.  Population 
.°93- 

Lancaster,     the     capital     of     Lancaster 
County,  Pa.,  is  situated  on  Conestoga  River, 
68  _  miles  west  of  Philadelphia,  with  which 
it_is  connected  by  rail.     It  also  is  the  ter- 
minus   of    four    railroads.      The    city    was 
founded  in   1721,  laid  out  in   1729,  named 
after  .Lancashire  in  England,  made  a  county- 
seat  in  1730  and  chartered  as  a  borough  by 
George  II  in  1742.     It  was  the  capital  of 
the  state  from  1799  to  1812,  when  it  was 
chartered  as  a  city.     It  is  unusually  well- 
built,    and   has   all   the   appointments   and 
conveniences  of  a  modern  city.     Its  promi- 
nent  public    buildings   include   the    United 
States  internal  revenue  and  postoffice,  the 
court  house,  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building  and 
many  handsome  church  edifices.      The   city 
s  the  center  of  one  of  the  richest  agricul- 
tural regions  in  the  United  States.    Its  chief 
export  is  tobacco,  of  which  large  quantities 
are  made  into  cigars.     Other  manufactures 
are   watches,    umbrellas,    cotton-cloth    and 
ron.     Lancaster  especially  abounds  in  small 
manufactories.      Its  charitable   institutions 
comprise     a    children's    home,    several    or- 
)hanages,  two  homes  for  aged  women  and 
;wo    hospitals,  besides    the    insane    asylum 
and    hospital.     Educationally    the    city    is 
greatly   favored.     Its    public    schools    rank 
ugh;  it  is  the  seat  of  Franklin  and  Marshall 
College  and  Academy  and  of  the  theological 


LANCASTER  SOUND 


1025 


LANGEVIN 


seminary  of  the  Reformed  Church.  The 
First  Pennsylvania  State  Normal  School  is 
at  Millersville,  four  miles  distant.  James 
Buchanan,  the  isth  president  of  the  United 
States,  lived  here  and  is  buried  here,  as 
were  Thomas  Mifflin,  Gen.  J.  F.  Reynolds 
and  Thaddeus  Stevens.  The  population  in 
1910  was  47,227. 

Lancaster  Sound,  a  passage  connecting 
Baffin's  Bay  with  the  Barrow  Strait.  It 
was  discovered  by  Baffin,  in  1616. 

Lartd=League,  an  association  formed  in 
1879  by  Michael  Davitt  in  Ireland,  to  buy 
land  for  the  tenants,  though  connected  with 
it  was  a  widespread  agitation  for  the  aboli- 
tion of  all  rents.  It  was,  therefore,  sup- 
pressed as  illegal  in  1881. 

Lan'dor,  Walter  Savage,  was  born  at 
Warwick,  England,  Jan.  30,  1775.  At  ten 
he  was  sent  to  Rugby  School,  but  on  ac- 
count of  his  intractable  temper  he  was  ex- 
pelled. After  ten  years  with  a  tutor  he  was 
sent  to  Trinity  College,  but  was  expelled  in 
1794.  In  1795  he  published  a  volume  of 
poems.  In  1798  he  published  Gebir.  A 
hasty  marriage  in  1811  proved  unhappy, 
and  he  left  his  wife,  going  to  France,  devot- 

eg  his  time  to  writing  and  producing  his 
agedy  of  Count  Julian.  His  notable 
vorks  are  his  Imaginary  Conversations 
(182  4-48) ,  Examination  of  Shakespeare  (1834), 
Pcntameron  (1837),  Pericles  and  Aspasia 
and  his  Hellenics.  He  died  at  Florence, 
Ita.y,  Sept.  17,  1864.  See  Forster's  Life 
and  Sidney  Colvin's  Landor  in  the  English 
Men  of  Letters  Series. 

Land'seer,  Sir  Edwin  Henry,  an  Eng- 
lish animal  painter,  son  of  an  engraver,  was 
born  i.t  London,  March  7,  1802.  He  was 
careful,  y  trained  by  his  father  to  sketch 
animals  from  life,  and  began  exhibiting 
at  the  Academy  at  13,  but  the  first  work  to 
bring  him  into  prominence  was  Fighting 
Dogs  Getting  Wind.  After  1823  he  painted 
The  Cat's  Paw,  High  Life  and  Low  Life, 
King  Charles'  Spaniels,  Suspense,  Jack  in 
Office,  The  Challenge,  The  Monarch  of  the 
Glen,  The  Stag  at  Bay  and  others.  He  was 
knighted  in  1850.  In  1866  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  Royal  Academy,  but  de- 
clined the  honor.  He  died  after  much  men- 
tal suffering,  Oct.  i,  1873,  and  was  buried  in 
St.  Paul's,  London.  See  Sir  Edwin  H. 
Landseer  by  F.  G.  Stephens  in  the  Great 
Artists  Series,  1889. 

Land's  End,  the  southwestern  extremity 
of  England  (the  ancient  Bolerium),  the 
western  point  of  Cornwall.  It  is  directly 
opposite  to  the  Scilly  Isles,  which  form  a 
part  of  Cornwall,  and  is  the  southern  land 
boundary  of  Mount's  Bay,  which  on  the 
north  terminates  in  Lizard's  Point. 

Lands,  Public,  in  the  United  States,  re- 
fer to  such  lands  as  are  held  in  ownership 
by  the  national  government.  Originally, 
indeed,  the  states  which  united  in  1787  laid 
claim  to  the  whole  of  the  United  States 


territory;  but  they  speedily  ceded  to  the 
national  government  all  the  lands  which 
were  not  strictly  within  their  limits.  As  a 
consequence,  the  United  States  became 
possessed  of  vast  regions  in  the  west.  With 
the  admission  of  new  states  into  the  Union 
vast  tracts  fell  to  the  federal  government, 
especially  in  the  case  of  the  Louisiana  pur- 
chase and  the  acquisitions  of  Texas,  Florida 
and  Alaska.  At  the  present  time  the  lands 
still  undisposed  of  reach  over  800,000,000 
acres.  These  lands  are  administered  by 
the  General  Land  Office,  a  bureau  of  the 
Department  of  the  Interior.  The  great 
bulk  of  them  lies  in  Montana,  Nebraska, 
New  Mexico,  North  and  South  Dakota, 
Oregon,  Washington,  Wyoming,  Utah,  Idaho, 
Arizona,  Colorado,  California  and  Alaska. 
In  Alaska  alone  there  are  estimated  to  be 
359,492,760  acres  of  public  lands. 

Congress  has  been  very  liberal  in  the  dis- 
posal of  these  lands,  chiefly  in  the  follow- 
ing ways:  First,  in  the  earlier  days,  by 
very  cheap  sales,  either  for  cash  or  credit 
and  in  large  bulk.  Second,  by  grants  to 
the  states,  especially  for  railroads,  for  canals, 
for  irrigation  and  for  education.  Third, 
by  grants  to  individuals  for  their  services 
to  the  state.  Fourth,  for  closer  settlement, 
especially  under  the  preemption  and  home- 
stead laws  (see  HOMESTEAD  LAWS).  The 
last  of  these  methods  is  now  chiefly  favored. 
Each  state  admitted  to  the  Union  since 
1850  receives  one  township  in  every  18  for 
education,  an  additional  grant  of  four 
townships  for  a  university  and  a  grant  for 
a  college  of  agriculture. 

Lang,  Andrew,  LL.  D.,  a  British  writer 
and  versatile  man  of  letters.  He  was  born 
at  Selkirk,  Scotland  in  1844,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Edinburgh  Academy,  St.  Andrew's 
University  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford, 
graduating  with  honors.  He  was  elected 
a  fellow  of  Merton  in  1868,  and  in  1888  was 
appointed  lecturer  on  natural  religion  at  St. 
Andrew's  University.  His  versatility  and 
indefatigable  labors  are  shown  in  the  fact 
that  he  was  at  once  historian,  biographer, 
essayist,  novelist,  creator  of  dainty  stories 
and  author  of  erudite  works  on  human 
origins  and  similar  subjects.  His  Ballads 
in  Blue  China  appeared  in  1881,  and  later 
he  published  Custom  and  Myth;  Myth, 
Ritual  and  Religion;  Lives  of  J.  G.  Lock- 
hart;  Lord  Iddesleigh;  Sir  Walter  Scott; 
Robert  Burns;  and  Prince  Charles  Edward 
[Stuart].  He  was  aided  in  translations  of 
the  Odyssey  and  the  Iliad.  Later  works  in- 
clude The  Making  of  Religion;  James  VI  and 
the  Cowrie  Mystery;  Magic  and  Religion; 
History  of  Scotland  from  the  Roman  Occupation; 
and  Knox  and  the  Reformation.  He  died  at 
Banchovy,  Scotland,  July  21,  1912. 

Langevin  (lanz-van),  Louis  Philip  Ade- 
lard,  was  born  at  Saint  Isidore,  Quebec, 
on  Aug.  23,  1855.  In  1867  he  entered  the 
College  of  Montreal  and  spent  eight  vearx 


LANGEVIN 


1026 


LANGUAGE,  TEACHING  OP 


there.  In  1882  he  was  ordained,  and  for 
three  years  was  a  missionary.  In  1885  he 
became  superior  of  the  Grand  Seminary  at 
Ottawa  and  later  was  sent  to  St.  Boniface 
as  provincial  superior  of  the  Oblates  of  St. 
Mary's  in  Winnipeg.  He  was  appointed 
archbishop  of  Saint  Boniface,  and  was 
consecrated  by  Archbishop  Charles  Fabre 
of  Montreal. 

Langevin,  Sir  Hector  Louis,  was  born 
in  the  city  of  Quebec  in  1826.  He  was 
educated  at  Quebec  Seminary,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1850.  He  edited  sev- 
eral newspapers  for  some  years,  was  mayor 
of  Quebec  for  three  years,  and  was  member 
of  the  executive  council  of  Canada  from 
1864  to  the  union  as  solicitor-general  and 
postmaster  general.  Appointed  secre- 
tary of  state  of  Canada  in  1867,  he  be- 
came minister  of  public  works  in  1869. 
He  was  delegate  to  the  Charlottetown 
union  conference  in  1864,  to  that  in  Quebec 
the  same  year  and  to  the  London  colonial 
conference  1886-7  to  complete  the  terms  of 
confederation.  One  of  the  Fathers  of  Con- 
federation. In  1871  he  was  sent  to  British 
Columbia  to  study  its  resources  and  re- 
quirements, and  later  was  elected  in  succes- 
sion to  Sir  George  Cartier  leader  of  the 
Conservatives  in  the  Province  of  Quebec. 
He  represented  Dorchester  from  1857  until 
the  union  and  after  the  union  until  1874, 
and  was  postmaster  general  in  1878  and 
minister  of  public  works  in  1879.  He  was 
sent  on  a  mission  to  England  in  1897  in 
connection  with  the  proposed  dismissal  of 
Letellier  de  St.  Just,  the  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor of  Quebec,  with  the  result  that  the 
home  government  admitted  the  right  of 
the  Canadian  government  to  dismiss  a 
lieutenant-governor  for  cause. 

Lang'ley,  Samuel  Plerpont,  an  Ameri- 
can astronomer,  was  born  at  Roxbury,  Mass., 
Aug.  22,  1834.  He  was  educated  at  Boston 
Latin  School,  and  became  a  civil  engineer. 
He  was  made  assistant  at  Harvard  Observa- 
tory in  1865,  and  afterward  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  at  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis.  In  1867  he 
was  made  professor  of  astronomy  at  the 
Western  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
was  placed  in  charge  of  the  observatory  at 
Allegheny.  He  became  an  authority  upon 
solar  phenomena,  and  invented  an  instru- 
ment, known  as  the  bolometer,  for  measur- 
ing the  slightest  changes  in  temperature. 
In  1887  he  was  chosen  secretary  of  Smith- 
sonian Institution.  Professor  Langley  was 
prominent  and  active  in  practical  astronom- 
ical work  for  many  years,  wrote  upon  astron- 
omy and  physics,  and  among  other  honors 
obtained  the  Rumford  medal  from  the  Royal 
Society  of  London;  a  membership  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences;  the  presi- 
dency of  the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science;  and  memberships 
of  many  scientific  societies  and  associations, 


American  and  foreign.  His  published  works 
embrace  The  New  Astronomy,  Researches  in 
Solar  Heat,  Experiments  in  Aerodynamics  and 
The  Internal  Work  of  the  Wind.  He  died  on 
Feb.  27,  1906. 

Langs'ton,  John  Mercer,  an  American 
lawyer,  clergyman  and  educator.  He  was 
born  a  slave  in  Louisa  County,  Va.,  Dec.  14, 
1829,  but  in  childhood  was  given  his  free- 
dom. He  studied  theology  at  Oberlin  Col- 
lege, Ohio,  and  afterward  law,  practicing 
from  1854  to  1869.  In  the  latter  year  he 
was  made  professor  of  law  in  Howard  Uni- 
versity, Washington  City,  and  in  1873  b6' 
came  dean  of  the  faculty  of  the  law  depart- 
ment of  the  university.  He  was  United  States 
minister  and  consul-general  at  Haiti  from 
1875  to  J885,  and  after  this  was  appointed 
president  of  a  normal  and  collegiate  institute 
for  his  race  at  Petersburg,  Va.  He  was  an 
orator  of  good  ability,  and  in  1883  published 
addresses  entitled  freedom  and  Citizenship. 
He  died  on  Nov.  15,  1897. 

Lan'guage,  Teaching  of.  The  general 
name  for  the  elementary  school-subject  which 
is  used  to  teach  the  command  of  the  native  or 
vernacular  language.  Broadly  speaking, 
the  language  arts  of  the  ordinary  school  in- 
clude oral  language,  reading,  written  compo- 
sition, penmanship,  spelling  and  grammar. 
In  the  more  restricted  meaning  language  arts 
refer  to  the  development  of  the  child's  power 
to  express  himself  in  speech  and  in  written 
forms.  The  teacher  faces  two  general  prob- 
lems in  language  instruction:  (i)  To  extend 
the  child's  power  to  use  language  and  (-2)  tc 
correct  his  language  errors.  These  problems 
require  somewhat  different  methods  of  treat- 
ment. 

Inasmuch  as  the  child  has  considerable 
command  of  speech  before  he  enters  school, 
oral  language  is  usually  made  the  foundation 
for  many  of  the  other  language  arts  —  for 
reading,  spelling  and  written  composition  in 
particular.  Language  cannot  be  taught  suc- 
cessfully apart  from  experiences  and  the  in- 
terpretations of  experiences.  An /'enriched ' 
course  cf  study,  one  with  muca  emphasis 
upon  interesting  and  varied  subject-matter, 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  fundamental  mat- 
ters in  giving  children  extensive  power  in 
the  use  of  language,  oral  and  written. 
Words,  groups  of  words  and  sentences  always 
stand  for  some  meaning  or  experience.  The 
experience  may  be  concrete  and  real,  it  may 
be  imaginary,  or  it  may  be  the  result  of  a  re- 
lation or  distinction  given  by  the  intellect 
or  the  feelings.  The  experience,  of  what- 
ever form  it  may  be,  must  have  the  language 
presented  with  it  which  is  to  express  it. 
Good  language  teaching  associates  (i)_  lan- 
guage forms  with  (2)  the  meanings  which  a 
child  has  experienced  and  -wants  to  express. 
The  school  guarantees  the  child  a  wider  and 
richer  expenence,  to  make  it  possible  for  him 
to  use  more  forms  of  speech.  The  use  of 
interesting  material  from  the  other  school- 


LANGUAGE,  TEACHING  OP 


1027 


LANGUAGE,  TEACHING  OF 


subjects  and  of  material  developed  in  the 
language  period  itself  in  the  form  of  observa- 
tion lessons,  school  excursions  to  points  of 
interest,  games,  conversation  work,  story- 
telling, dramatization  etc.  is  largely  for  the 
purpose  of  converting  subject-matter  into 
real  experiences,  that  the  children  may  have 
something  vital  to  express.  They  readily 
acquire  the  language  forms  provided  by  the 
teacher,  when  they  have  something  real  to 
talk  about. 

Oral  and  Written  Language.  Written  lan- 
guage is  not  merely  a  translation  of  oral  lan- 
guage. There  are  fundamental  differences 
between  the  two  forms  of  expression  which 
need  to  be  kept  in  mind.  Speech  is  more 
informal,  spontaneous  and  unrestricted  than 

written  language.  The  school  can  control 
former  much  less  readily,  as  the  child 
peaks  before  he  enters  school  and  talks  con- 
stantly outside  of  school  after  he  has  entered. 
Most  of  his  writing  is  done  in  school  under 
the  supervision  of  the  teacher  where  there  is 
less  opportunity  for  bad  example  and  bad 
practice.  In  teaching  children  to  speak 
correctly,  the  teacher  will  alternately  work 
(a)  to  get  the  child  to  speak  freely,  when  the 
teacher  will  disturb  the  child  little  with  sug- 
gestions for  better  forms  of  speech,  and  (b) 
to  get  the  child  to  put  his  attention  on  form, 
when  the  teacher  will  suggest  more  or  less 
freely.  These  two  methods  will  supplement 
each  other.  As  written  composition  is  a 
more  deliberate  and  reflective  matter,  the 
teacher  can  use  the  latter  method  much  more 
freely  with  the  child's  written  work. 

The  same  methods  are  used  to  make  the 
experience  vital  both  in  oral  and  in  written 
language.  In  addition  to  the  means  pre- 
viously suggested  for  language  in  general, 
dictation,  memorization  of  poetical  and 
prose  selections,  paraphrase  etc.  are  used  to 
assist  written  work  more  particularly. 

Grammar.  The  subject  of  formal  gram- 
mar is  much  less  taught  than  formerly. 
The  aim  is  to  get  the  child  to  use  the  correct 
form  directly  and  habitually  without  the 
hesitation  or  deliberation  which  is  incident 
to  conscious  use  of  grammatical  rules  and 
principles.  The  teacher  gives  outright  the 
actual,  correct  expressions  that  are  needed 
from  time  to  time.  The  pupil's  own  usage 
is  later  made  the  basis  for  the  inductive 
study  of  grammatical  principles.  Grammar 
as  a  subject  appears  but  little  before  the 
seventh  and  eighth  years,  and  then  only  the 
classifications  essential  to  the  guidance  of 
oral  and  written  expression  are  given.  The 
logical  treatment  of  grammar  has  been 
largely  abolished  from  the  best  elementary 
schools.  Along  with  it  have  gone  "parsing 
and  much  of  the  work  in  "conjugations." 
The  analysis  of  language  is  restricted  to  that 
which  will  assist  the  child  to  speak  and  write 
correctly  through  habit,  and  without  reason- 
ing or  reflection.  Language  is  treated  as  an 
art;  not  as  a  science 


Correction  of  Language  Errors.  The  meth- 
ods of  extending  a  child's  power  to  express 
himself  and  those  used  to  correct  his  language 
errors  are  different.  In  the  case  of  the  for- 
mer no  wrong  association  has  been  made  as 
yet.  There  is  no  complication.  The  teach- 
er's work  is  direct  and  constructive.  In  the 
latter  case  a  wrong  connection  has  been 
made.,  and  it  must  be  modified  or  another 
associated  form  substituted  for  it.  All  cor- 
rection, of  errors  must  be  accomplished  by 
three  steps:  (i)  The  error  or  the  departure 
from  prevalent  usage  must  be  noted.  (2) 
The  form  used  must  be  verified  or  the  other 
form,  which  is  the  correct  one,  must  be  de- 
termined. (3)  The  correct  form  must  be 
made  habitual  through  drill  or  practice. 
Many  persons  know  the  right  usage  but  use 
the  incorrect  form,  because  they  have  not 
carried  the  work  through  the  third  stage  and 
made  it  habit.  With  the  youngest  children 
the  teacher  should  be  responsible  for  all  three 
stages.  He  will  note  the  error,  give  the  child 
the  correct  mode  of  speech,  and  see  that  he 
repeats  it  frequently  enough,  recalling  its 
meaning  with  each  repetition,  so  that  it  be- 
comes fixed  as  a  habit.  Later  the  teacher 
can  let  the  child  take  the  responsibility  for 
correcting  his  own  errors.  This  should  be 
done  gradually.  At  first  the  child  can  be 
left  to  repeat  the  correction  by  himself; 
then  he  can  be  taught  to  acquire  the  right 
usage  from  his  grammar,  again  repeating  it 
by  himself.  Then  he  can  be  finally  taught 
to  become  sensitive  to  the  differences  of 
usage  between  himself  and  others,  his  gram- 
mar verifying  or  correcting  him;  and  if  his 
own  language  is  incorrect,  he  can  fix  the 
right  form  by  repetition. 

It  will  take  time  to  correct  any  error 
Even  after  the  teacher's  efforts  have  com- 
menced, the  child  in  his  more  unconscious 
and  natural  conversation  will  use  the  incor- 
rect form.  Later  he  will  alternately  use  the 
right  and  the  wrong  form,  mixing  them. 
This  is  the  promising  period.  Finally,  if 
the  practice  in  school  or  home  be  kept  up, 
the  correct  form  will  come  uppermost  in 
ordinary,  spontaneous  conversation. 

Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  correcting  errors 
of  speech,  the  teacher  or  parent  should  select 
the  most  important  ones  and  work  on  these, 
letting  the  others  go  for  the  time.  Here  the 
outside  example  and  practice  have  to  be 
overcome.  More  errors  may  be  taken  up  in 
the  same  length  of  time  in  the  case  of  written 
composition.  Only  one  correct  form  should 
be  brought  into  competition  with  an  incor- 
rect form.  To  use  two  correct  ways  of  say- 
ing a  thing  means  divided  effort  and  slower 
attainment  of  corrected  speech. 

Foreign  Languages.  In  some  elementary 
schools,  public  as  well  as  private,  the  foreign 
languages,  particularly  German  and  French, 
are  begun  in  the  grammar  grades.  In  some 
schools  the  instruction  begins  as  low  as  the 
fifth  grade,  but  more  generally  in  the  sev 


LANGUAGES  OF  THE  WORLD 


1028 


LANNES 


year.  The  prevalent  idea  that  children  can 
master  a  foreign  language  more  easily  at 
this  time  than  later  accounts  for  the  practice. 
The  presence  of  a  large  local  foreign  popula- 
tion frequently  explains  the  distribution  of 
such  instruction.  Such  study  usually  be- 
gins with  oral  work,  mainly  conversation  in 
the  foreign  language  about  subjects  closely 
akin  to  the  succeeding  reading  lesson.  Then 
the  reading  of  the  primer  follows.  Further 
conversation  with  the  text  as  the  basis  fol- 
lows. Written  composition  later  supple- 
ments this  oral  and  reading  instruction. 
Very  frequently  the  composition  follows  its 
own  set  of  exercises.  It  seems  preferable  so 
to  use  the  reading  and  conversational  ma- 
terial as  to  make  the  written  work  reSnforce 
the  other  work.  The  reading  and  composi- 
tion exercises  are  carefully  graded  with  refer- 
ence to  the  size  of  the  new  vocabulary  to  be 
learned  and  the  grammatical  difficulties  in- 
volved. The  place  of  grammar  is  in  dispute. 
Some  teach  no  grammar  at  all.  Others 
teach  a  great  deal  of  formal  grammar.  A 
middle  course  of  developing  the  essential 
grammatical  principles  from  the  language 
already  acquired  by  the  children  is  also  ap- 
proved. In  the  teaching  of  the  reading  and 
writing  of  German  there  is  a  division  of  be- 
lief as  to  whether  or  not  German  script  for 
writing  and  German  print  in  the  reading 
should  be  used  with  elementary  children. 
The  general  practice  favors  the  use  of  both 
from  the  beginning. 

Lan'guages  of  the  World.  In  speaking 
of  the  many  languages  in  use,  we  must  first 
revert  to  the  period  when  speech  was  prob- 
ably unknown  and  when,  from  the  necessity 
of  communicating  wants  and  thoughts  from 
one  to  the  other,  possibly  or  actually  arose 
the  use  of  certain  sounds  and  inflections  to 
convey  certain  meanings.  The  formation 
of  words  and  sounds  was  the  basis  of  the 
first  languages,  and  from  these,  the  Aryan 
and  Semitic  languages,  are  derived  the  mod- 
ern languages.  From  the  roots  of  these  lan- 
guages were  taken  the  essentials  for  the  for- 
mation of  new  ones  as  rapidly  as  people 
removed  to  new  lands  or  formed  new  tribal 
relations,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  most  Eu- 
ropean languages  of  to-day  are  in  indirect 
descent  from  the  Aryan.  Yet  the  language 
to-day  used  by  the  greatest  number  of  peo- 
ple, trie  Chinese,  in  its  many  and  varied  dia- 
lects, is  as  much  a  mystery  as  to  birth  and 
derivation  as  it  was  1,000  years  ago.  The 
parents  of  the  English  of  tc  day  are  Anglo- 
Saxon  or  Old-English  (which  %as  derived 
from  North  Germanic)  and  Latin.  The  Ger- 
man is  the  improvement  of  the  old  German 
or  Saxon  dialects,  and  is  now  spoken  over  as 
widely  a  diversified  territory  as  even  English. 
The  French  language,  often  called  the  "po- 
lite" language  on  account  of  its  wealth  and 
beauty  of  expression,  at  one  time  was  the 
language  of  the  courts  of  Europe  and  to-day 
is  considered  essential  to  a  finished  educa- 


tion. It  would  be  a  difficult  task  to  esti- 
mate the  number  of  people  using  each  sepa- 
rate language  or  to  specify  the  number  of 
languages  now  in  use,  as  each  language  of  the 
aboriginal  or  barbarous  tribes  of  Asia, 
Africa  and  the  Pacific  islands,  while  only 
one  in  itself,  has  as  many  dialects  as  the 
people  have  tribes. 

The  English  language  witlTone  exception, 
is  first  in  the  number  of  those  who  speak  it. 
The  Chinese  in  its  various  dialects  is  first, 
350,000,000;  the  English  is  next,  111,000,- 
ooo;  the  Hindu  100,000,000;  Russian  80,- 
000,000;  German  75,000,000;  French  51,000,- 
ooo;  Italian  33,000,000;  Spanish  42,500,000. 
The  English  will  be  the  language  of  the 
United  States,  Canada,  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  the  colonies  of  South  Africa  and  of 
the  Pacific  and  of  Australia.  The  extension 
of  all  other  languages,  excepting  Spanish,  is 
territorially  limited.  The  latter  has  large 
space  for  increase  in  the  Spanish-American 
states.  Not  only  has  English  larger  room 
for  territorial  expansion,  but  all  the  English 
nations  will  be  maritime  powers.  This  will 
make  it  the  language  of  diplomacy  as  well  as 
of  commerce. 

Lanier  (la'ner'},  Sidney,  an  American 
poet  and  critic,  was  born  at  Macon,  Ga.,  Feb. 
3,  1842.  He  grad- 
uated with  honors 
from  Oglethorpe 
College  in  1 860, and 
served  in  the  Con- 
federate army  until 
1865,  being  im- 
prisoned for  five 
months  toward  the 
close  of  his  service. 
After  the  war  he 
entered  the  law  in 
partnership  with 
his  father,  but  sub- 
sequently devoted 
himself  to  music 
and  literature.  In 
1879  he  was  appointed  a  lecturer  in  English 
literature  at  Johns  Hopkins  University,  and 
was  reappointed  the  following  year,  but  ill- 
health  necessitated  his  discontinuing  active 
work.  Some  of  his  works  are  The  Centennial 
Ode,  The  Boys'  Froissart,  The  Boys1  King  Ar- 
thur, The  Science  of  English  Verse,  The  Eng- 
lish Novel  and  Its  Development  and  Complete 
Poems  (published  after  his  death).  He  died 
at  Lynn,  N.  C.,  of  consumption,  Sept.  7, 
1 88 1.  See  W.  H.  Ward's  Memoir. 

Lannes  (Ian  or  Ian),  Jean,  Duke  of  Mon- 
tebello,  a  French  marshal,  was  born  on 
April  n,  1769,  at  Lectoure,  France,  the  son 
of  a  livery  stable-keeper.  He  entered  the 
army  in  1792,  and,  through  great  bravery  in 
the  Italian  campaign,  became  general  of 
brigade  in  1796.  He  won  the  battle  o\  M^«*- 
tebello  vwiiencc  bis  title)  on  June  9,  1800, 
and  took  part  at  Marengo.  He  commanded 
divisions  at  Austerlitz,  Jsr^a-  Eylau  and 


SIDNEY  LANIER 


LANSDOWNE 


1029 


LAPIS  LAZULI 


Friedland.  When  sent  into  Spain,  he  de- 
feated General  Castanos  at  Tudela  in  1808 
and  took  Saragossa.  Next  year  he  served  on 
the  Danube,  commanding  the  center  at  As- 
pern  (May  22) ,  where  both  legs  were  taken  off 
by  a  cannon  ball.  He  was  taken  to  Vienna, 
an,d,  died  there  on  May  31,  1809. 

Lan'sing,  Robert,  who  succeeded  Bryan 
(q.  v.)  as  Secretary  of  State,  is  the  son  of  a 
prominent  lawyer  of  New  York  State  and  began 
his  law  practice  with  his  father  in  Waterton, 
where  he  was  bom,  October  17,  1864.  He 
graduated  from  Amherst  in  1886.  In  his  prac- 
tice he  specialized  in  international  law  and 
showed  high  ability  as  a  representative  of  the 
U.  S.  in  the  Fur  Seal,  Alaska  Boundary  and 
Atlantic  Fishery  Arbitrations — three  of  the 
most  important  international  disputes  since  the 
Alabama  Claims  (q.  v.).  His  wife  is  a  daughter 
of  John  W.  Foster  (q.  v.),  who  besides  her  social 
graces  has  much  of  her  father's  skill  in 
diplomacy. 

Lan'sing,  the  capital  of  Michigan,  is 
located  in  Ingham  County,  on  both  sides  of 
Grand  River.  It  is  72  miles  southeast  of 
Grand  Rapids  and  85  northwest  of  Detroit. 
It  is  well-equipped  with  parks,  and  has  elec- 
tric railways  and  other  adjuncts  of  a  live 
modern  city.  It  contains  the  state  capitol, 
library,  industrial  school,  agricultural  college, 
school  for  the  blind,  a  hospital  and  U.  S. 
government  buildings.  It  has  many  manu- 
factures of  agricultural  implements,  flour, 
stoves,  machinery,  beetsugar,  canned  goods, 
trunks,  wheelbarrows,  knit  goods,  carriages 
and  wagons.  It  was  settled  in  184  7,  and  at  the 
same  time  made  state  capital,  and  became  a 
city  in  1859.  Population  3X>229- 

Lan'slngburg,  a  town  of  New  York,  on 
the  Hudson,  10  miles  above  Albany.  It  con- 
tains an  Augustinian  priory,  and  has  exten- 
sive manufactures  of  brushes  and  oilcloth. 
It  has  recently  been  annexed  to  Troy. 

Laocobn  (ld-$k'd-8ri),  according  to  classic 
story  a  priest  of  Apollo,  afterward  of  Posei- 
don, in  Troy,  married  against  the  will  of 
Apollo  and  warned  the  Trojans  against  the 
admission  of  the  wooden  horse.  For  these 
reasons  he  and  his  two  sons  were  killed  by 
two  serpents  that  rose  from  the  sea.  The 
subject  was  made  the  theme  of  many  Greek 
poems,  and  was  treated  by  Vergil  in  his 
ALneid.  One  of  the  most  famous  ancient 
sculptures  in  existence  represents  the  group. 
It  was  discovered  at  Rome  in  1506,  and  was 
purchased  by  Pope  Julius  II.  Afterward  it 
was  carried  off  by  Napoleon  in  1796,  but  was 
recovered  in  1814.  See  Lessing's  Laocoon. 

Laodicea  (la-od-i-se'a),  the  name  of  many 
cities,  the  most  important  being  the  one  in 
Phrygia  on  the  Lycus  and  the  great  commer- 
cial road.  The  district  and  city  have  been 
partially  destroyed  by  earthquakes  several 
times,  and  the  city  began  to  decay  at  the 
time  of  the  Osmanli  invasions,  and  now  is  a 
ruin,  known  as  Eski-Hissar.  It  was  one  of 
the  first  seats  of  Christianity,  designated  as 


one  of  the  seven  churches  of  TV  A  pocalypse, 
and  the  scene  of  important  ecclesiastical 
councils  in  363  and  476.  It  also  was  an  im- 
portant seat  of  art,  science  and  philosophy. 

Laos  (la' os),  a  large  Indo-Chinese  nation, 
occupies  the  northern  and  eastern  provinces 
of  Siam.  The  Laos  are  considered  the  origi- 
nal race  of  Siam,  but  have  since  1828  been 
under  Siamese  government.  They  are  semi- 
civilized,  and  are  followers  of  Buddhism. 
They  have  domesticated  the  elephant  and 
the  buffalo,  are  peaceable  and  industrious, 
but  are  much  engaged  in  slavehunting,  and 
this  with  the  sanction  of  the  authorities. 
Their  entire  number  does  not  exceed  1,500,- 
ooo.  In  1893  France  acquired  a  large  area 
of  Siamese  territory,  which  she  erected  into  a 
protectorate,  estimated  to  contain  98,400 
square  miles,  with  a  population,  approxi- 
mately, of  650,000.  The  region  is  the  rather 
inaccessible  one  of  the  Mekong  River.  A 
telegraph,  however,  connects  Hu6  in  Anam 
with  the  towns  of  the  Mekong  and  these 
with  Saigon.  The  cost  of  the  Laos  admin- 
istration is  borne  jointly  by  Cochin-China, 
Tonquin,  Anam  and  Cambodia  (q,  v.). 

La  Paz  (Id  pdz') ,  the  chief  town  of  a  de- 
partment of  Bolivia,  South  America,  lies  at 
the  foot  of  a  valley,  11,952  feet  above  sea- 
level  and  is  42  miles  from  Lake  Titicaca.  It 
has  a  college,  seminary,  medical  school  and 
a  handsome,  unfinished  cathedral;  but,  the 
houses  being  small  and  mostly  built  of  mud, 
the  city  does  not  present  an  attractive  ap- 
pearance. The  inhabitants,  numbering  78,- 
910,  are  almost  all  Indians  or  half-breeds,  and 
carry  on  a  large  trade  in  copper  and  alpaca 
wool.  The  capital  of  the  department  is 
Sucr6  (population  27,080).  The  seat  of  gov- 
ernment, however,  changes.  The  depart- 
ment of  La  Paz  (area  53,800  square  miles) 
in  1909  had  a  population  estimated  at  516,- 
914. 

Lap'idary,  a  cutter,  polisher  and  engraver 
of  small  stones,  particularly  of  gems.  The 
stone  to  be  piepared  is  taken  in  the  rough 
and  placed  under  the  slicing  mill,  a  circular 
iron  disk  about  eight  inches  in  diameter  and 
1-200  of  an  inch  thick;  and,  revolving  rapidly, 
the  faces  and  tables  of  the  stone  are  cut ;  then 
the  roughing  mill  of  lead  smoothens  the  sur- 
faces; and  finally  the  polishing  mill,  formerly 
of  pewter  covered  with  rotten  stone  but  now 
often  a  wheel  of  walrus  hide,  adds  polish  to 
the  surfaces.  All  these  appliances  are 
worked  as  machines,  and  thus  effect  more 
accurate  cutting. 

La'pis  Laz'uli  (Latin  for  azure  stone),  a 
mineral  of  beautiful  azure  color,  which  varies 
much  in  its  degree  of  intensity.  Lapis  lazuli 
is  often  marked  by  white  spots  and  bands. 
It  is  found  in  Siberia,  Tibet,  Chile  and  Cali- 
fornia. The  finest  specimens  are  brought 
from  Bokhara.  It  was  the  only  stone  of 
value  known  to  the  Egyptians  under  the 
Pharaohs.  It  is  much  used  in  ornamental 
and  mosaic  work.  The  principal  use  of  the 


LAPLACE 


1030 


LARAMIE  CITY 


stone  has  been  that  of  making  the  blue  ultra- 
marine pigment  (paint).  As  the  best  stones 
yielded  only  two  or  three  per  cent.,  the  cost 
of  the  purest  article  sometimes  was  over 
$100  an  ounce.  Now,  however,  the  sub- 
stance of  which  the  mineral  is  composed  is 
made  artificially  on  a  large  scale  and  at  a 
low  cost.  There  remains  no  occasion  for 
using  natural  ultramarine  as  a  pigment. 

La' place',  Pierre  Simon,  a  French  math- 
ematical astronomer  called  the  Newton  of 
France,  was  born  on  March  28,  1749,  and 
died  on  March  5,  1827.  He  began  by  teach- 
ing mathematics  in  a  military  school  at  Beau- 
mont, but  through  the  influence  of  D'Alem- 
bert?  he  was  shortly  appointed  to  the  Ecole 
Militaire  of  Paris.  His  great  work  con- 
sisted in  deriving  all  motions  of  all  mem- 
bers of  the  solar  system  from  dynamics  alone. 
The  results  are  his  famous  Celestial  Mechan- 
ics (1799-1825).  His  contributions  to  math- 
ematical physics  also  are  of  extreme  im- 
Eortance ;  for  to  Laplace  we  owe  the  beauti- 
nl  method  of  Spherical  Harmonics  and  the 
powerful  Potential  Function.  Laplace  per- 
haps is  best  known  by  his  bold  and  attractive 
hypothesis  that  the  solar  system  is  merely 
a  condensed  nebula  —  the  so-called  nebular 
hypothesis.  Although  undoubtedly  antici- 
pated by  Kant  in  the  general  idea,  Laplace 
offered  so  powerful  evidence  for  his  view  that 
we  may  fairly  call  the  theory  a  Laplacian  one. 
Within  the  last  few  years  this  hypothesis  has 
been  ably  criticised  by  Professors  Chamber- 
lain and  Moul  ton  of  the  University  of  Chicago. 
See  Professor  Moul  ton's  article  in  the  Astro- 
physical  Journal,  Vol.  XL, pp.  103—30  (1900). 

Lap'land  is  a  country  known  neither  po- 
litically nor  geographically;  it  is  a  name  ap- 
plied collectively  to  the  semiarctic  region  in 
the  north  of  Europe,  inhabited  by  the  Lapps. 
It  is  bounded  by  the  Arctic  Ocean  on  the 
north,  the  Atlantic  on  the  northwest  and  the 
White  Sea  on  the  east.  Its  southern  boun- 
dary is  about  the  66th  degree  of  latitude; 
but  Lapps  are  found  as  far  south  as  63  de- 
grees in  Norway  ana  Sweden. 

Surface.  Scandinavian  Lapland  is  rough 
and  mountainous.  In  Russian  and  Finnish 
Lapland  the  country  becomes  more  level, 
lakes  and  rivers  more  numerous  and  marshes 
abundant.  Some  of  the  lakes  are  large, 
Inara  being  1,147  square  miles  in  area,  Iman- 
dra  65  miles  long  and  9  wide  and  Nuot  35 
miles  long  and  7  wide.  Several  long  rivers, 
the  Tana,  Tulom  and  Kemi,  flow  through 
the  country  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the 
White  Sea. 

Climate.  During  the  short  summer  of 
three  months  the  sun  never  sinks  below  the 
horizon,  and  during  seven  or  eight  weeks  of 
the  excessively  cold  winter  the  sun  never  ap- 
pears above  the  horizon,  thus  adding  com- 
parative darkness  to  a  cold  of  60  degrees 
below  zero. 

History  and  People.  The  total  Lapp  pop- 
ulation is  about  25,000,  distributed  15,000 


in  Norway  j  7,000  in  Sweden,  800  in  Finland 
and  2,000  in  Russia,  many  in  the  north  be- 
ing descended  from  criminals  transported 
from  Denmark  300  years  a.^o.  The  Lapps 
are  of  a  race  closely  related  to  the  Finns, 
and  are  the  smallest  people  of  Europe,  being 
only  from  four  to  five  feet  tall,  spare  of  body, 
dark,  with  bristly  hair  and  short,  often 
bandy  legs.  The  mouth  is  large,  with  thick 
lips,  and  the  eyes  small  and  piercing.  They 
are  usually  classed  as  mountain,  river,  forest 
and  sea  Lapps.  The  mountain  Lapps  are 
wanderers,  moving  from  place  to  place  with 
their  reindeer  herds,  which  form  their  only 
wealth.  The  sea  Lapps  live  along  the 
streams  and  ocean,  and  subsist  by  fishing. 
The  river  and  forest  Lapps  also  wander,  but 
have  settled,  keep  domesticated  animals 
and  hunt  and  fish.  The  reindeer  furnishes 
the  Lapps  with  food  and  clothing,  and 
serves  as  his  beast  of  burden.  There  are 
about  400,000  reindeer  in  Lapland.  In  per- 
sonal habits  the  Lapp  is  anything  but  cleanly 
All  profess  Christianity.  The  Norsemen 
treated  the  Lapps  as  a  subject  race  as  early 
as  800,  and  reconquered  them  in  the  i4th 
century.  The  Russians  did  the  same  in  the 
nth  and  the  Swedes  in  the  i6th  century. 
From  the  I3th  to  the  i7th  century  the 
Birkarlian  Swedes  kept  them  almost  in  slav- 
ery. To-day,  however,  they  are  the  re- 
cipients of  every  kindness.  See  Du  Chaillu's 
Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun. 

La  Pla'ta,  the  chief  city  of  the  province  of 
Buenos  Aires  in  the  Argentine  Republic, 
was  founded  in  1882,  after  Buenos  Aires 
city  was  made  the  federal  capital  (1884). 
The  city  was  quickly  built,  with  wide  streets 
and  many  public  squares,  the  center  being 
lighted  by  electricity.  The  city  has  a  capitol 
and  government  buildings,  an  observatory, 
several  chapels,  a  railway  station  and  a  pro- 
vincial university.  It  also  has  a  manufac- 
tory of  cotton  and  woolen  tissues.  A  canal 
connects  the  outer  harbor  at  Ensenada  with 
La  Plata.  Population,  including  Ensenada 
(on  the  estuary  of  the  Plata)  and  a  coun- 
try district  of  60  square  miles,  80,000. 

Laramie  (Idr'a-me)  City,  Wyo.,  county- 
seat  of  Albany  County,  on  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad,  has  the  finest  situation  of  any  Wy- 
oming settlement,  being  7,122  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  It  lies  40  miles  north 
west  of  Cheyenne,  and  is  a  point  of  supply 
for  widely-scattered  ranches  and  mines,  and 
has  large  machine  shops,  rolling  mills,  glass 
works  and  other  industries,  telephones,  elec- 
tric lights  and  water-works.  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  University  of  Wyoming,  the  state 
fish-hatchery,  the  agricultural  experiment 
station  and  the  state  penitentiary.  It  has 
admirable  public  schools,  and  contains  pub- 
lic and  college  libraries,  St.  Joseph's  Hospital 
and  several  churches.  It  was  laid  out  in 
April,  1868,  when  the  railroad  reached  this 
point.  Population  8,237.  Fort  Laramie 
was  built  in  1834  by  Sublette,  rebuilt  two 


LARAMIE 


1031 


LARKSPUR 


years  later  by  the  American  Fur  Company, 
and  sold  to  the  government  in  1849.  Lara- 
mie  Peak  rises  11,000  feet. 

Laramie,  a  river  rising  in  northern  Colo- 
rado and  flowing  northeast  through  south- 
western Wyoming,  enters  the  north  fork  of 
the  Platte  at  Fort  Laramie  after  a  course  of 
about  200  miles.  It  gives  its  name  to  a 
large  county  in  Wyoming,  to  a  plateau  of 
3,000  square  miles  in  area  and  7,000  feet  in 
height,  and  to  Laramie  Mountains,  bounding 
the  plateau  on  the  north  and  east. 

Larch,  the  common  name  of  the  genus 
Larix,  which  belongs  to  the  conifers.  The 
larch  is  also  often  known  as  tamarack,  and 
is  peculiar  among  conifers  in  that  its  leaves 
are  shed  each  year.  The  genus  contains 
about  eight  species,  which  are  widely  distrib- 
uted throughout  the  northern  hemisphere, 
three  occurring  in  North  America.  The  sin- 
gle species  of  the  northeastern  United  States 
is  L.  Americana,  popularly  called  the  tama- 
rack, but  also  known  as  hackmatack.  It  is 
a  slender  tree,  becoming  about  100  feet  in 
height,  and  occurs  in  swampy  woods  and 
about  the  margins  of  lakes.  It  is  an  orna- 
mental tree,  graceful  in  form,  its  slenderness 
enhanced  by  the  dainty,  threadlike  character 
of  its  foliage,  its  color  a  cool,  refreshing 
green.  The  tree  is  not  found  south  of  Illi- 
nois. It  is  associated  with  Hiawatha,  who 
said: 

Give  me  of  your  roots,  O  Tamarack! 
Of  your  fibrous  roots,  O  Larch  Tr«el 
My  canoe  to  bind  together 
That  the  water  may  not  enter, 
That  the  river  may  not  wet  me! 
And  the  Larch  with  all  its  fibers, 
Shivered  in  the  air  of  morning. 
Touched  his  forehead  with  its  tassels. 
Said,  with  one  long  sigh  of  sorrow: 
Take  them  all,  O  Hiawathal 

Tamarack  wood,  light  brown  in  color,  is 
resinous  and  durable,  and  is  used  for  rail- 
road ties  and  in  ship-building. 

Lar'com,  Lucy,  an  American  writer, 
teacher  and  poet,  was  born  at  Beverly,  Mass., 
in  1826.  After  three  years  in  school  she  be- 
came a  factory-hand  in  a  cotton-mill  at 
Lowell.  During  this  period  she  contributed 
to  a  local  publication.  When  about  20,  she 
came  west  and  for  three  years  attended  Mon- 
ticello  Female  Seminary  in  Illinois.  Re- 
turning to  Massachusetts,  she  taught  for  sev- 
eral years  in  the  Normal  Female  Seminary 
and,  later,  in  the  Boston  schools.  For  some 
time  she  was  editor  of  Our  Young  Folks. 
She  wrote  Ships  in  the  Mist;  Poems;  An  Idyl 
of  Work;  Childhood  Songs;  Wild  Roses  of  Cape 
Ann  and  Other  Poems.  She  died  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  April  17,  1893. 

Lare'ao,  Tex.,  a  city  on  the  Rio  Grande, 
the  capital  of  Webb  County,  connected  with 
Nuevo  Laredo,  Mexico,  by  two  bridges  across 
the  river.  It  lies  75  miles  west  of  San  Diego 
and  150  southwest  of  San  Antonio,  and  is 
the  center  of  an  important  area  in  the  coal, 
iron  and  brick  as  well  as  wool-exporting 


trade.  The  growing  of  Bermuda  onions  has 
been  a  steadily  increasing  industry,  since  the 
Laredo  vegetable  is  superior  to  the  original 
article.  Laredo  also  has  considerable  com- 
merce with  Mexico,  and  Nuevo  Laredo 
(Mex.),  just  across  the  border,  has  8,000 
people.  Laredo  was  originally  settled  by 
Spaniards  and  Mexicans  as  a  frontier  town 
of  Mexico.  Population  14,855. 

Lares  and  Penates  (la'rez  and  pe-na* 
tez) ,  the  tutelary  or  protecting  divinities  sup- 
posed to  preside  particularly  over  the  desti- 
nies of  the  household,  usually  having  a  place 
in  images  on  the  hearth.  The  Lares  origi- 
nally were  of  the  Etruscan  religion  and  the 
Penates  were  of  the  times  of  the  old  Latins, 
but  later  these  terms  were  used  together  as 
denoting  the  worship  of  ancestors  and  the 
home  altar,  the  hearth. 

Lark,  the  popular  name  of  birds  common 
in  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa.  There  is  one 
species  in  Australia.  The  European  sky- 
lark is  the  lark  of  the  poets.  It  sings  blithely 
and  rapturously  while  on  the  wing.  An  at- 
tempt has  been  made  to  introduce  it  into 
the  United  States,  but  it  is  very  de- 
structive to  green  crops  and  for  that  reason 
an  undesirable  addition  to  our  fauna. 
There  are  about  100  different  species  of 

larks,  but  only 
one — the  horn- 
ed lark  —  lives 
in  the  United 
States.  There 
however  are 
several  geo- 
graphical 
varieties  of 
this  single 
species.  They 
are  about  one 
fifth  smaller 
than  the  robin, 
are  brownish 
and  sandy 

PRAIRIE    HORNED    LARK         above      and 

whitish  below,  with  a  black  patch  on 
the  breast  and  under  the  eye,  the  tail 
black.  The  throat  is  a  clear  yellow,  a  pale 
yellow  line  runs  over  the  eye,  and  the  head  is 
surmounted  by  a  pair  of  sharp  horns  made 
of  black  feathers.  They  live  on  the  ground, 
rarely  choosing  a  perch  higher  than  a  fence. 
The  nest  is  built  on  the  ground.  They  sing 
while  on  the  wing,  soaring  high  and  repeating 
their  song,  which  is  not  very  attractive,  sev- 
eral times  before  alighting.  The  one  called 
the  shorelark  belongs  to  northeastern  North 
America,  but  sometimes  wanders  as  far  as 
North  Carolina,  and  is  a  familiar  winter  resi- 
dent in  the  eastern  coast-states.  The  prairie 
horned  lark  is  found  much  farther  south, 
but  though  once  belonging  exclusively  to  the 
prairie  country  is  now  widely  distributed. 
See  MEADOWLARK. 

Lark'spur,  a  showv  garden  and  wild 
flower,  grows  in  the  temperate  and  cool  re- 


LA  ROCHEFOUCAULD 


1032 


LA  SALLE 


gions  of  the  northern  hemisphere  and  com- 
prises both  annual  and  perennial  species. 
The  lovely  flowers  are  deep  blue  or  purple, 
having  many  blossoms  along  a  slender  stem. 
The  rocket  larkspur  of  Switzerland  and  the 
branching  larkspur  are  annuals,  and  the  bar- 
lows and  the  great  flowered  are  perennials. 
Many  new  species  have  been  developed  by 
cultivation.  The  stavesacre  yields  an  alka- 
loid extract  called  delphinine,  which  is  very 
poisonous  even  in  small  doses.  There  are 
over  25  species  in  the  United  States.  Dwarf 
larkspur,  known  as  stagger-weed  because  of 
its  effect  on  cattle,  grows  in  open  woods,  and 
bears  long  loose  clusters  of  vivid  blue  or 
white  flowers.  Growing  in  the  same  range 
is  the  tall  larkspur,  which  sometimes  reaches 
a  height  of  five  feet,  its  flowers  of  intense 
blue  being  on  long  terminal  racemes.  The  , 
Carolina  larkspur,  from  one  to  three  feet  in 
height,  has  blossoms  of  blue,  pink  and 
white. 

La  Rochefoucauld  (la  rdsh'id&ko'), 
Francois,  Due  de,  was  born  at  Paris,  Sept. 
15,  1613,  of  an  old  family.  His  father  was 
made  a  duke  by  Louis  XIII  in  1625.  He 
entered  the  army  when  a  boy,  and  at  1 7  was 
present  at  the  siege  of  Casal.  He  supported 
Queen  Anne  against  Richelieu,  and  conse- 
quently was  driven  into  exile  from  1639  to 
1642.  He  returned  to  the  country,  and 
wrote  his  Memoirs.  On  Mazarin's  death  in 
1 66 1  he  returned  to  court,  and  met  De  Sabl6. 
His  Moral  Maxims  appeared  in  1665.  His 
last  years  were  brightened  by  his  friendship 
with  Mme.  de  La  Fayette,  which  lasted  until 
he  died  at  Paris,  March  17,  1680. 

Lar'va  (plural,  larva?) ,  the  young  of  nearly 
all  insects,  the  larval  stage  being  that  which 
follows  the  hatching  of  the  egg.  The  larva? 
of  beetles  are  grubs;  of  flies,  maggots;  of  but- 
terflies and  moths,  caterpillars.  The  term 
worm  is  misleading;  worms  are  not  insects, 
and  do  not,  like  larvae,  come  from  the  egg. 
Some  larva?  are  almost  like  the  full-grown  in- 
sect, as  grasshoppers,  wanting  only  wings; 
others  appear  very  unlike  the  adult,  as  cater- 
pillar and  moth  or  butterfly.  Larvas  live 
only  to  eat,  numerous  insects  in  the  larval 
state  working  untold  harm  on  vegetation. 
As  the  creature  grows  too  large  for  its  skin, 
this  is  dispensed  with;  molting,  as  the  process 
is  called,  taking  place  from  four  to  20  times, 
according  to  the  species.  Cast-off  skins  are 
frequently  to  be  found.  See  METAMORPHO- 
SIS. Consult  Cragin:  Our  Insect  Friends 
and  Foes. 

Lasalle  (la-sal'),  in  Lasalle  County,  111., 
is  at  the  head  of  steam  navigation  on  Illinois 
River.  It  also  is  the  terminus  of  the  Illinois 
Canal,  and  has  fine  railroad  connections. 
Bituminous  coal  is  mined,  there  are  manu- 
factories of  glassware,  castings,  brick  and 
metallic  ware,  but  the  town  is  most  noted 
for  its  zinc  works,  rolling  mijl  and  large  ce- 
ment mills.  Lasalle  was  first  settled  in  1837. 
Population  n.537- 


ROBERT   LA  SALLE 


Salle     (la'sdl")      Robert     Cavelier, 

de.  More  than  two  centuries  ago 
the  Mississippi 
Valley  was  the 
background  for  a 
group  of  pictur- 
esque heroes.  Mis- 
sionary and  e  x  - 
plorer  they  trod 
this  wilderness, 
remote  from  the 
seaboard;  raised 
the  cross;  unfurled 
the  lilies  of  France ; 
won  the  fealty  of 
the  red  man  as  no 
man  of  Saxon 
blood  ever  won  it; 
built  their  forts, 
did  their  d  e  e  d  £ 
of  daring  with  the  gallantry  and  grace  of  ro- 
mance; and  vanished,  to  give  place  to  the 
American  pioneer.  But,  though  they  are 
gone,  their  names  and  the  names  of  their 
kings  and  saints  are  preserved  in  city  street 
and  sylvan  stream,  in  county  and  town,  and 
the  Father  of  Waters  murmurs  of  them  from 
St.  Anthony's  Falls  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
Of  all  these  figures  the  greatest  was  the 
one  born  Robert  Cavelier,  son  of  a  rich, 
middle-class  burgher  of  Rouen,  Normandy, 
1643.  His  was  no  mere  adventure  directed 
by  chance,  but  a  dream  of  vast  empire.  The 
title  of  Sieur  de  la  Salle,  by  which  he  is  best 
known,  would  seem  to  indicate  noble  blood 
and  possessions,  but  it  was  acquired,  prob- 
ably, in  Canada,  whither  he  emigrated  and 
held  by  grant  a  seigniory  on  a  big  island  in 
Lachine  Rapids  above  Montreal.  It  was 
also,  possibly,  a  tribute  to  a  man  who  was 
essentially  an  aristocrat  in  intellect  and  bear- 
ing. On  his  island  kingdom  in  the  St.  Law- 
rence he  long  wondered  whence  came  that 
wild  flood  of  waters  flowing  exhaustlessly 
out  of  the  west  He  made  one  expedition  to 
the  Ohio  and  thought  it  must  flow  into  the 
Pacific  and  thus  furnish  the  long-sought 
route  to  China.  Joliet  returning  made  it 
clear  that  the  Ohio  could  be  only  a  tributary 
of  the  continental  river  that  flowed  south- 
ward into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  La  Salle  built 
a  vessel  at  the  head  of  Lake  Erie  and  sailed 
to  Green  Bay,  Wisconsin.  He  made  his  way 
over  land  to  Illinois,  built  two  forts  west  of 
Chicago,  and  sent  an  exploring  party  up  the 
Mississippi  under  Father  Hennepin.  Sup- 
port and  supplies  were  withheld  by  jealous, 
petty  officials  in  Canada.  So  La  Salle,  leav- 
ing his  lieutenant,  Henri  di  Tonti,  at  For.  St. 
Louis  on  Starved  Rock,  went  to  France  and 
got  the  ear  of  the  king. 

He  had  conceived  the  idea  of  exploring, 
fortifying  and  colonizing  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  Mississippi  basins  and  winning  a  fabu- 
lously rich  empire  for  France  with  the  help 
of  friendly  Algonquin  tribes.  He  had  gath- 
ered 20,000  Indians,  numbering  4,000  war- 


LASSALLE 


1033 


LAS  CASAS 


riors,  around  his  rock  of  St.  Louis.  Louis 
XIV,  le  grand  monarque,  knew  a  great  man 
when  he  saw  him,  and  gave  La  Salle  every- 
thing he  asked  for,  but  jealousy  and  malice 
prevented  many  things  from  reaching  him. 
Three  times  he  built  up  the  structure  that 
was  to  support  New  France;  three  times  he 
saw  the  result  of  his  toil  and  genius  crumble 
into  dust.  Nothing  daunted  him  or  turned 
him  from  his  purpose.  Only  death  could 
defeat  "the  undespairing  Norman." 

With  four  laden  vessels,  soldiers,  arms, 
colonists  and  supplies,  he  started  on  his  re- 
turn from  the  third  voyage  to  France,  com- 
ing by  way  of  the  Mississippi,  at  whose 
mouth  he  had  planted  the  French  banner  in 
the  spring  of  1682.  The  naval  commander, 
Beaujeu,  carried  the  expedition  past  the 
river,  whether  by  intent  is  a  disputed  ques- 
tion. Certain  it  is  that  he  landed  the  com- 
pany on  the  coast  of  Texas,  1,000  miles 
from  Ft.  St.  Louis  on  the  Illinois,  in  an  un- 
healthy country,  among  hostile  tribes  and  in 
Spanish  territory,  and  sailed  back  to  France. 
Battle,  famine  and  disease  soon  decimated 
their  number  and  bred  mutiny.  La  Salle 
was  assassinated  on  the  bank  of  Trinity 
River,  in  March  of  1687.  Tonti's  red  war- 
riors were  scattered  by  the  savage  Iroquois. 

Early  in  1700  France  took  up  La  Salle 's 
task,  proceeding  westward  along  the  lakes 
and  northward  up  the  Mississippi.  But  Illi- 
nois, the  connecting  link  in  the  imperial 
chain,  was  never  reforged.  No  new  Vulcan 
appeared.  The  disastrous  end  of  La  Salle 's 
enterprise  must,  in  part,  be  ascribed  to  his 
own  character.  Wrapped  in  his  splendid 
dream,  reserved  and  haughty,  he  gave  his 
confidence,  his  love,  to  no  one  but  Tonti. 
By  his  Indian  allies  he  was  worshipped  as  a 
superior  being,  but  it  was  this  all  too  patent 
superiority  that  was  resented  by  his  white 
followers.  It  is  improbable  that  anyone  be- 
side Tonti  was  with  him  who  was  capable  of 
understanding  him  and  his  magnificent  plan. 
He  had  powerful  enemies  in  Canada  and  in 
France  who  finally  were  able  to  thwart  him. 
The  malice  and  treachery  that  hunted  him  to 
untimely  death  undoubtedly  changed  the 
course  of  American  history.  See  Parkman's 
Discovery  of  the  Great  West  and  Mrs.  Gather- 
wood's  romance :  The  Story  of  Tonti. 

Lassalle  (la' sal'),  Ferdinand,  the  origi- 
nator of  the  social  democratic  movement  in 
Germany,  was  born  on  April  n,  1825,  at 
Breslau,  of  Jewish  extraction.  He  attended 
the  Universities  of  Breslau  and  Berlin,  after- 
wards going  to  Paris,  where  he  met  Heine. 
Returning  to  Berlin  in  1846,  he  took  part  in 
the  revolution  of  1848  as  supporter  of  a  dem- 
ocratic republic,  and  spent  six  months  in 
prison.  In  1861  he  published  a  legal  work 
on  the  philosophy  of  law,  called  System  of 
Acquired  Rights.  In  1862  his  lecture  on  the 
working  class  called  particular  attention  to 
his  views,  and  in  1863  his  Open  Letter  to  a 
committee  of  workingmen  at  Leipsic  still 


more  clearly  expounded  his  theories  of  a  so- 
cial democracy.  His  success  encouraged 
him  to  found  the  Universal  German  Work- 
ingmen's  association  at  Leipsic.  He  was 
mortally  wounded  in  a  duel,  and  died  at  Ge- 
neva on  Aug.  31,  1864.  See  W.  H.  Dawson's, 
German  Socialism  and  Ferdinand  Lassalle 
and  George  Meredith's  Tragic  Comedians. 

Las'so,  a  thin,  plaited  rope  of  rawhide 
used  for  catching  wild  animals.  One  end  is 
fastened  to  the  saddle  of  the  hunter,  and  the 
other,  ending  in  a  ring,  forms  a  loose,  sliding 
noose,  which,  after  being  whirled  around  in 
the  right  hand,  is  thrown  over  the  object. 
In  Mexico,  where  it  is  called  la  reata,  and  in 
the  United  States,  where  it  is  called  a  lariat, 
it  often  is  made  of  plaited  hair. 

Last  of  the  Mohicans,  The,  A  Narra- 
tive of  1 7  5  7  is  a  novel  by  Fenimore  Cooper. 
It  is  a  tale  of  the  disappearance  of  the  Mohi- 
cans, a  tribe  of  Indians,  before  the  inroads 
of  civilization.  See  LEATHER -STOCKING 
TALES. 

Last  Rose  of  Summer,  'Tis  the. 
Words  by  Thomas  Moore.  Tune  The  Groves 
of  Blarney,  which  is  a  variation  of  The  Young 
Man's  Dream,  by  R.  A.  Millikin  of  Cork. 
This  beautiful  song  appears  in  the  collection 
of  Irish  songs  arranged  for  voice,  piano,  vio- 
lin and  'cello  by  Beethoven.  It  also  is  the 
subject  of  Mendelssohn's  Phantasie  in  E,  op. 
15,  and  is  a  leading  feature  in  Flo  tow's  opera 
of  Martha. 

Las  Casas  (Ids  kd'sds),  Bartolome  de, 
bishop  of  Chiapa,  in  Mexico,  called  the  Apos- 
tle of  the  Indians,  was  born  at  Seville  in 
1474.  He  studied  at  Salamanca,  and  with 
his  father  set  out  on  the  third  voyage  of  Co- 
lumbus, and  in  1502  accompanied  Nicholas 
de  Ovando  to  Hispaniola.  In  1511  he  was 
sent  to  Cuba  to  help  to  pacify  the  island.  But 
soon  sympathy  for  its  piteous  condition 
moved  him  to  go  to  Spain  and  ask  for  a  com- 
mission to  investigate  the  conditions.  He 
further  sought  that  negro  slaves  be  imported 
to  take  the  place  of  the  Indians  in  the  heav- 
ier work,  and  thus  prevent  their  total  exter- 
mination. He  also  attempted  to  take  out 
Castilian  peasants  as  colonists.  Failing  in 
this,  he  retired  to  a  Dominican  convent  in 
Hispaniola  to  spend  eight  years  in  solitude 
and  study.  In  1530  he  again  visited  Spain; 
and,  after  four  years  of  missionary  work  in 
Mexico,  Nicaragua,  Peru  and  Guatemala, 
he  returned  to  spend  four  more  years  in  the 
hope  of  gaining  his  purpose.  During  this 
period  he  wrote  Twenty  Reasons  and  Short 
Narrative  of  the  Destruction  of  the  Indies, 
which  has  been  translated  into  all  European 
languages.  He  preferred  the  poor  bishopric 
of  Chiapa,  and  arrived  at  Ciudad  Real,  its 
chief  city,  in  1544.  Here  he  persisted  in  his 
campaign  against  the  allotments  of  Indians, 
but  the  revocation  of  the  new  laws  by  Charles 
V  caused  him  to  resign  in  1547.  In  1555  he 
prevailed  upon  Philip  II  not  to  sell  the  re- 
versionary rights  of  the  allotments.  The 


LATERAN 


1034 


LATHROP 


restoration  of  the  court  of  justice  to  the  na- 
tive Guatemalans  was  the  last  act  before  his 
death,  which  occurred  on  July,  1566.  See 
Life  by  Helps. 

Lat'cran,  styled  the  Mother  and  Head  of 
all  the  Churches  of  the  City  and  of  the  World, 
in  Rome,  and  now  the  church  of  St.  John, 
surpassing  St.  Peter's  in  dignity,  became  im- 
perial property  in  66  A.  D.,  and  was  given  to 
St.  Sylvester  by  Emperor  Constantino.  It 
was  originally  dedicated  to  the  Savior,  but 
Lucius  II,  who  rebuilt  it  in  the  i2th  cen- 
tury, dedicated  it  to  St.  John.  The  Lateran 
palace  was  the  residence  of  the  popes  until 
the  1 4th  century,  but  now  is  the  property  of 
the  Italian  government.  The  Holy  Stair- 
case, supposed  to  be  the  stairs  of  Pilate's 
house  at  Jerusalem,  stands  on  the  piazza  of 
the  church. 

La'tex,  the  milky  fluid  which  exists  in 
plants  belonging  to  several  large  families,  of 
which  the  milkweed,  bloodroot  and  spurge 
are  well-known  examples.  It  occu- 
pies special  receptacles  in  the  form 
of  even  or  irregular  branched  tubes, 
abundant  in  all  parts,  from  which 
it  exudes  when  the  plant  is  wounded. 
It  is  a  watery  fluid,  containing  a 
great  variety  of  substances,  as  gums, 
oils,  sugars,  starch,  coloring  matters, 
caoutchouc.  The  caoutchouc,  when 
it  exists  in  proper  form  and  amount, 
may  be  separated  from  the  latex 
and  is  the  source  of  the  rubber  of 
commerce,  which  is  derived  from 
several  tropical  trees.  (See  INDIA- 
RUBBER.)  It  is  not  unlikely  that 
the  latex  tubes  offer  a  means  of 
transferring  foods  from  one  part  of 
the  plant  to  another.  

Lathe.  The  lathe  is  the  most  com- 
mon and  most  useful  machine  tool 
used  in  the  mechanic  arts.  Indeed,until  re- 
cently it  practically  was  the  only  machine-tool 
found  in  the  machine  shop.  It  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  rotating  shaft  or  spindle,  to  one  end 
of  which  is  attached  the  work  or  piece  to  be 
turned.  A  cutting  tool  is  forced  against  the 
work  as  it  rotates,  and  thus  all  sections  of 
the  work  can  be  brought  to  the  form  of  a 
circle,  but  the  circles  may  vary  in  size  along 
the  axis. 

The  spindle  usually  carries  at  its  end  a 
wheel  having  a  plane  side,  called  the  face- 
plate. To  this  face-plate  the  work  may  be 
attached  by  means  of  bolts  or  by  means  of  a 
single  screw,  as  in  wood-turning.  Otherwise 
the  work  may  be  held  in  a  "chuck"  attached 
to  the  spindle  and  having  jaws  which  clamp 
the  work  and  hold  it  securely.  Another 
method  of  holding  the  work  is  to  pivot  it 
between  two  cones  called  centers  on  the  axis 
of  the  spindle,  one  rotating  or  "live"  and  the 
other  still  or  "dead."  The  work  is  driven  in 
this  case  by  means  ff  a  clamp  or  "dog" 
pinching  the  work  and  projecting  into  a  hole 
in  the  face-plate. 


For  light  work  the  cutting  tool  may  be 
held  by  nand  and  supported  by  a  tool  rest 
close  to  the  work.  For  heavier  work  and 
for  more  accurate  work  the  cutting  tool 
must  be  held  rigidly  attached  to  the  slide 
rest.  The  slide  rest  can  be  moved  slowly  and 
steadily  by  turning  suitable  cranks  by  hand, 
or  the  mechanism  moving  the  slide  rest  may 
be  connected  to  the  spindle  of  the  lathe.  In 
this  way  the  slide  rest  is  given  an  automatic 
motion  proportional  to  the  speed  of  the  spin- 
dle which  makes  possible  the  cutting  of 
screw  threads  with  great  facility. 

The  power  may  be  furnished  by  the  foot 
through  a  treadle  or  by  an  engine  or  other 
motor,  either  directly  or  through  belts  and 
shafting.  The  speed  is  determined  by  the 
work,  turning  iron  requiring  slower  speed 
than  either  brass  or  wood.  Lathes  are  of  all 
sizes,  from  the  little  machines  used  in  watch 
factories  to  the  powerful  machine-lathes 
used  in  turning  flywheels.  In  the  ordinary 


ENGINE   LATHE    WITH    FITTINGS 

lathe  the  cutting  is  performed  in  circles 
about  the  axis  passing  through  the  lathe  cen- 
ters. The  lathe  has  been  adapted  to  turn- 
ing other  than  cylindrical  objects,  by  causing 
the  tool  to  move,  this  motion  being  con- 
trolled automatically  by  a  model.  By  this 
means  such  irregular  objects  as  an  axe-han- 
dle or  a  gun-stock  can  be  turned  on  the  lathe. 
This  invention  was  made  by  Thomas  Blanch- 
ard  of  Philadelphia  in  1816.  The  potter's 
wheel,  used  from  the  most  remote  times,  is 
supposed  to  be  the  origin  of  the  lathe.  Crude 
forms  of  lathes  have  certainly  been  used 
from  the  very  earliest  times,  but  it  is  only 
since  the  invention  and  wide  use  of  the  steam 
engine  that  the  lathe  has  reached  its  present 
developed  form. 

La'throp,  George  Parsons,  an  Am.  rican 
writer  and  editor,  was  born  at  Honolulu, 
Aug.  25,  1851,  and  was  educated  in  Ger- 
many. He  was  assistant  editor  of  the  At- 
lantic Monthly  from  1875  to  1877  and  of. the 
Boston  Courier  from  1877  to  1879.  He  was 
the  author  of  Rose  and  Rooftree;  Afterglow; 
A  Study  of  Hawthorne;  A  n  Echo  of  Passion; 


LATIMER 


1035 


LAUREL 


Newport;  A  Masque  of  Poets;  Dreams  and 
Days.  His  wife  was  Rose  Hawthorne,  a 
daughter  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne.  He  died 
at  New  York  city.  April  19.  1898. 

Lat'imer,  Hugh,  Protestant  martyr,  was 
born  near  Leicester,  England,  in  1490  or 
1491,  and  was  sent  to  Cambridge  to  school. 
In  1510  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  Clare  Col- 
lege, and  in  1523  was  appointed  a  univer- 
sity preacher.  Soon  after,  he  became  a 
Protestant  and  was  brought  into  prominent 
notice  by  being  one  of  the  committee  to  ex- 
amine into  the  validity  of  Henry  VIII's  mar- 
riage, reporting  in  favor  of  the  king.  There- 
upon he  became  chaplain  to  Anne  Boleyn 
and  rector  of  West  Kingston.  In  1535  he 
was  created  bishop  of  Worcester.  In  1536 
he  began  the  work  of  advocating  the  Refor- 
mation, but  the  tide  of  opinion  turned,  and 
during  Henry's  reign  he  was  imprisoned  in 
the  Tower  in  1539  and  1546.  During  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI  he  devoted  himself  to 
preaching  and  to  works  of  benevolence ;  but 
in  1554  he  was  tried  at  Oxford,  lay  in  a  com- 
mon jail  for  a  year,  and  in  1555  was  taken 
before  a  commission  and  found  guilty  of  her* 
esy,  for  which  he  was  burned  at  the  stake  on 
Oct.  1 6.  See  Tulloch's  Leaders  of  the  Refor- 
mation. 

Lat'in  Empire.     See  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

Latin  Literature.     See  LITERATURE. 

Lat'itude  in  geography  and  astronomy 
may  be  defined  in  several  different  ways, 
each  of  which  lor  practical  purposes  is  equiv- 
alent to  the  other.  Astronomical  or  ordi- 
nary latitude  is  simply  the  altitude  of  the 
celestial  pole.  Hence  the  German  name  for 
latitude,  polhohe.  To  say  that  the  latitude 
of  a  place  is  the  declination  of  the  zenith  of 
that  place  is  strictly  equivalent  to  the  fore- 
going; or,  again,  latitude  is  the  angle  be- 
tween the  plane  of  the  earth's  equator  and 
the  plumb-line  at  the  point  under  consider- 
ation. Geocentric  latitude,  as  the  name  indi- 
cates, is  the  angle  between  a  line  drawn  from 
the  observer  to  the  center  of  the  earth  and 
the  plane  of  the  equator.  Geodetic  latitude 
is  defined  in  terms  of  the  figure  of  the  earth 
as  computed  by  the  geodesist.  This  figure 
is  called  the  standard  spheroid.  The  geo- 
detic latitude  of  any  place  is  the  angle  made 
by  a  line  drawn  normal  to  the  standard 
spheroid  at  that  place  and  the  plane  of  the 
equator.  For  the  various  methods  of  deter- 
mining ordinary  or  astronomical  latitude  see 
any  good  treatise  on  astronomy.  At  sea  a 
sextant  is  used  to  measure  the  angular  dis- 
tance of  the  sun  from  the  horizon  at  noon. 
Then,  knowing  the  declination  of  the  sun, 
from  tables,  the  navigatorjeasily  computes  the 
declination  of  his  zenith,  which  is  his  latitude. 

Lat'ter  Day  Saints.     See  MORMONS. 

•Laud,    William,    archbishop   of   Canter- 

•>,  *./as  born  at  Reading,  England,  Oct. 

7     .;  7  3.     From  the  free  school  of  Reading  he 

vert  at  16  to  Oxford,  was  ordained  in  1601, 

and  immediately  became  obnoxious  on  ac- 


count of  his  enmity  toward  Puritanism, 
but  earned  friends  by  his  learning,  industry 
and  churchmanship.  Two  of  these  friendg 
were  the  Earls  of  Devonshire  and  Bucking- 
ham. Laud  rose  steadily  from  the  holder  of 
a  simple  living  to  become  president  of  his 
college  (1611),  chancellor  of  Oxford  (1630) 
and  archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1633. 
After  the  assassination  of  Buckingham  he 
became  one  of  the  first  ministers  of  state, 
and  sought  the  abolition  ot  Calvinism  and 
Protestantism.  In  Scotland  his  efforts  to 
uproot  Presbyterianism  gave  rise  to  the  riot 
in  St.  Giles'  Cathedral  in  Edinburgh,  that 
led  to  the  covenant  and  to  the  Bishops'  War. 
This  was  followed  by  the  session  of  the  Long 
Parliament,  which  impeached  Laud  for  trea- 
son on  Dec.  18,  1640,  and  ten  weeks  later 
sent  him  to  the  Tower.  He  would  not  escape; 
and,  after  a  long  trial  before  a  few  peers,  he 
was  found  guilty  of  an  attempt  to  overthrow 
the  Protestant  religion  and  of  acting  as  an 
enemy  of  Parliament.  He  was  beheaded 
on  Jan.  10,  1645. 

Launfal  (lan'fdl),  Sir,  was  the  steward 
of  King  Arthur  in  the  legends  of  the  Round 
Table.  To  American  readers  the  name  is 
best  known  through  The  Vision  of  Sir  Laun- 
fal of  James  Russell  Lowell.  This  poem  is 
remarkable  for  its  noble  praise  of  the  month 
of  June  and  for  a  lofty  conception  of  democ- 
racy as  founded  on  the  common  divine  ele- 
ment in  humanity.  The  fable  suggests  Ten- 
nyson's Sir  Galahad.  It  appeared  on  Dec. 
17  1848. 

Lau'reate,  a  poet  attached  to  the  house- 
hold of  English  rulers.  The  early  history  is 
unknown,  but  Roger,  king's  minstrel,  is  said 
to  have  founded  the  monastery  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew during  the  reign  of  Henry  I. 
Richard  I  carried  William  the  Foreigner  to 
Palestine  to  sing  his  songs,  and  Edward  I 
and  Edward  II  carried  Robert  Baston  into 
Scotland,  where  he  was  captured  and  made 
to  sing  the  praises  of  Scotch  soldiers.  The 
term  was  first  applied  to  one  who  had  car- 
ried off  the  laurel  wreath  at  the  university 
for  studies  or  to  any  poet  of  great  merit. 
The  first  laureate,  as  now  understood,  was 
Spenser,  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  but  the 
first  to  receive  official  appointment  by  letters 
patent  was  Ben  Tonson.  The  poets  laureate 


and  their  eras  are  Edmund  Spenser  (1591- 
99);  Samuel  Daniel  (1599-1619);  Ben  Jon- 
son  (1619-37);  William  Davenant  (1638- 
68) ;  John  Dryden  (1670-89) ;  Thomas  Shad- 
well  (1689-92);  Nahum  Tate  (1692-1715); 
Nicholas  Rowe  (1715-18);  Laurence  Eusden 
(1718-30) ;  Colley  Gibber  (1730-57) ;  William 
Whitehead  (1757-85);  Thomas  Warton 
(1785-90);  Henry  James  Pye  (1790-1813); 
Robert  Southey  '  1813-4 3) ;  William  Words- 
worth (1843-50);  Alfred  Tennyson  (1850- 
92);  and  Alfred  Austin  (1896-).  See  W. 
Hamilton's  Poets  Laureate  of  England. 

Lau'rel,  a  class  of  hardy  trees  containing 
several   species,    growing   from   a    shrub  ot 


LAURENS 


1036 


LAVAL-MONTMORENCY 


about  15  feet  to  a  tree  of  about  60  feet.  It 
has  rather  large,  lance-shaped  leaves,  shining 
and  leathery  and  clusters  of  yellowish-white 
or  rose-colored  flowers.  The  fruit  is  bluish- 
black,  and,  like  the  leaves,  bitter  and  astrin- 
gent, and  is  used  medicinally.  The  leaves 
are  used  in  cookery  and  for  flavoring,  and 
contain  an  oil  known  as  oil  of  sweet  bay. 
The  light-brown  wood  is  heavy  and  strong, 
and  is  employed  for  toolhandles.  The  great 
laurel  is  common  south  of  Pennsylvania,, 
very  abundant  and  at  its  best  in  the  high 
mountains  of  the  Carolinas  and  eastern  Ten- 
nessee. In  park  and  garden  it  is  cultivated 
in  Europe  and  the  United  States.  Our 
mountain  laurel  is  found  in  dense  thickets 
on  the  southern  Appalachians.  The  beau- 
tiful flowers  bloom  in  May  and  June.  The 
ancient  Greeks  considered  the  laurel  sacred 
to  Apollo,  and  used  entwined  twigs  to  crown 
'.beroes  and  poets. 

Lau'rens,  Henry,  an  American  states- 
man, was  born  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  in  1724. 
Soon  after  the  commencement  of  the 
American  Revolution  he  was  elected  dele- 
gate to  the  continental  congress,  and  in 
1777  became  itb  president.  In  1779  he 
was  appointed  minister  to  Holland,  and 
while  on  his  way  was  taken  by  the  British 
and  imprisoned  for  14  months.  After  his 
release  he,  in  conjunction  with  Franklin 
and  Jay,  signed  a  preliminary  treaty  with 
England  in  1782  He  died  at  Charleston, 
S.  C  ,  in  December  of  1792. 

Laurens,  John,  American  patriot  and 
soldier,  was  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1756, 
the  son  of  Henry  Laurens.  He  entered  the 
army  in  1777,  became  aide-de-camp  to 
Washington  and  the  intimate  friend  of 
General  Hamilton.  He  was  wounded  at 
Gennantown,  and  distinguished  himself 
in  every  battle  in  which  he  participated. 
Laurens  was  selected  by  Washington  to 
undertake  a  special  mission  to  France  in 
1781,  but  returned  to  take  part  at  York- 
town  in  October.  He  was  killed  at  the  bat- 
tle on  Combahee  River,  in  South  Carolina, 
in  August,  1782. 

Lauren'tian  Mountains,  the  elevated 
plateau,  locally  known  as  the  Height  of 
Land,  which  forms  the  watershed  between 
the  Hudson  Bay  and  the  St.  Lawrence 
system  and  forms  part  of  the  archaean 
geological  system  of  Canada.  The  range 
is  composed  of  ancient  crystalline  rocks, 
and  has  a  total  area  of  over  two  million 
square  miles.  Its  average  elevation  is  about 
1,500  feet,  and  its  surface  is  nearly  every- 
where hummocky  or  undulating.  In  the 
Labrador  peninsula  the  Laurentides  assume 
a  mountainous  character,  and  rise  3,000 
and,  in  places,  even  6,000  feet. 

Laurier  (lo'ri-d),  Sir  Wilfrid,  G.G.M.G., 
P.C.,  a  Canadian  statesman,  ex-premier 
of  the  Dominion  and  former  president  of  the 
King's  Privy  CouncS,  was  born  at  St.  Lin, 
Quebec,  Nov.  20,  1841,  and  educated  at 


SIR.    W.    LAURIER 


L'Assomption  College.  He  intended  at  first 
to  become  a  priest,  but  studied  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1865.  He 
became  a  journalist, 
and  because  of  articles 
in  which  he  attacked 
abuses  in  the  church 
was  excluded  from 
the  Roman  Catholic 
church.  After  serving 
in  the  Quebec  As- 
sembly from  1871  to 
£.1874,  he  entered  the 
Dominion  Parliament, 
and  in  1877  was 
appointed  minister  of 
inland  revenue,  a 
position  which  he  held  until  1878.  In  1887 
he  was  chosen  to  succeed  Edward  Blake 
as  leader  of  the  Liberal  party  in  Canada's 
parliament,  and  became  premier  in  1896. 
He  was  knighted  in  1897.  By  birth  a 
French  Canadian,  he  is  a  member  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  and  one  of  the 
most  attractive  as  well  as  honorable  and 
high-minded  political  personalities  in  the 
Dominion — an  unrivaled  orator  and  great 
parliamentarian,  "whom  all  men,  without 
distinction  of  party  or  race,  admire,  whose 
purity  of  purpose  and  conduct  all  recog- 
nize, who  has  the  well-founded  confidence 
in  all  respects  of  the  Liberal  party."  From 
Toronto  University  and  Queen's  University, 
Kingston,  he  has  received  the  honorary  de- 
gree of  LL.D.;  while  he  was  awarded 
similar  honors  from  the  Universities  of  Ox- 
ford and  Cambridge.  A  pronounced  impe- 
rialist, he  is  understood  to  look  to  the 
day  when  Canada  shall  be  directly  repre- 
sented in  the  parliament  of  the  mother 
country.  His  administration  (1896-1910) 
marks  one  of  the  most  prosperous  periods 
in  Canadian  history. 

Lava  (Id'vd').  Lava  is  the  name  applied 
both  to  molten  rock  and  to  the  same  mate- 
rial after  it  has  solidified.  Lavas  differ 
greatly  in  composition.  Hardened  lavas 
also  differ  physically  according  to  the  rate 
of  cooling,  the  pressure  under  which  the 
solidification  took  place  or  the  amount  of 
vapors  present.  If  lava  cools  so  quickly 
that  its  constituents  do  not  crystallize,  it 
is  glassy.  Volcanic  glass  is  often  called 
obsidian.  The  surface  of  fluid  lava  is  often 
so  full  of  gas-bubbles  as  to  be  somewhat 
frothy.  This  solidified  rock-froth  is  scoria. 
A  special  variety  of  scoriaceous  lava  is 
known  as  pumice,  which  often  is  so  light 
that  it  will  float  on  water.  Lava  occurs 
about  existing  or  extinct  volcanic  vents. 

Laval  -  Montmorency  ( la  -  vdl'  mon  -  mo  - 
ron'se1},  Francois  Xavier  de,  was  born  in 
France,  March  23, 1622,  and  died  at  Quebec, 
May  26,  1708.  He  was  chiefly  known  by 
one  of  his  family  titles,  which  was  the  Abbe" 
de  Montigny.  He  received  the  appoint- 


LAVAL  UNIVERSITY 


1037 


LAW 


ment  of  vicar-apostolic  of  New  France  and 
bishop  of  Petraea  in  1658.  He  was  conse- 
crated at  Paris,  and  arrived  at  Quebec  in 
1659.  The  seminary  of  Quebec  was  founded 
by  him  in  1659.  Laval  consecrated  the 
church  of  Notre  Dame,  Montreal,  in  1666, 
and  was  made  titular  bishop  of  Quebec  in 
1674,  thus  becoming  the  first  Roman  Catho- 
lic bishop  of  Quebec.  Laval  University  in 
Quebec  was  named  after  him.  See  his  Life 
by  Louis  Bertrand  de  "a  Tour  (Cologne, 
1751)  and  by  an  anonymous  author  (Que- 
bec, 1845). 

Laval  University,  the  first  institution 
for  higher  education  in  Lower  Canada,  was 
founded  in  1852.  The  Seminary  of  Quebec, 
the  pioneer  institute,  secured  a  charter  from 
Queen  Victoria  which  conferred  the  privil- 
eges of  a  university.  Pius  IX  in  1853  gave 
the  Quebec  archbishops  the  right  to  con- 
fer theological  degrees  on  divinity  graduates 
from  the  new  university.  They  are  the 
visitors,  a  proof  of  the  broadmindedness  of 
the  British  government  in  permitting  Jie 
Roman  Catholic  French  of  Canada  to  or- 
ganize a  university  controlled  only  by  arch- 
bishops of  their  own  faith  and  blood.  The 
visitor  appoints  the  professors  of  theology 
nominated  by  the  council  of  the  university, 
and  may  veto  all  nominations  and  regula- 
tions. The  rector,  the  superior  of  Quebec 
Seminary,  is  the  highest  officer.  The  rector 
and  council  administer  affairs.  The  facul- 
ties are  those  of  theology,  law,  medicine  and 
the  arts,  each  having  its  own  council.  It 
was  not  until  1866  that  the  theological 
faculty  was  organized.  That  of  medicine 
opened  in  1853,  six  professors  of  the  Quebec 
school  of  Medicine  becoming  professors  in 
the  university.  The  faculty  of  law  was 
the  one  for  which  most  need  existed,  for 
there  was  no  school  of  law  in  Quebec.  It 
opened  in  1854,  but  for  several  years  teach- 
ing was  limited  to  civil  and  Roman  law. 
The  faculty  of  arts,  though  outlined  in 
1855,  was  not  opened  for  years.  Laval  has 
power  to  confer  degrees  in  law,  medicine 
and  the  arts,  but  not  in  theology,  and  did 
not  receive  all  the  rights  of  a  canonical 
university  until  1876.  In  1870  the  faculty 
of  medicine  was  affiliated  to  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Surgeons,  London,  England.  In 
1897-8  a  bacteriological  laboratory  was  in- 
stalled, in  1899  one  for  experimental  chem- 
istry. The  cabinet  of  physics  contains 
thousands  of  instruments.  The  university 
has  eight  large  and  valuable  museums. 
The  library  contains  150,000  volumes. 
The  faculty  consists  of  50  professors,  and 
the  students  number  444.  Theology  claims 
over  120,  law  84,  medicine  and  arts  140. 
There  is  a  branch  at  Montreal,  the  statistics 
of  which  are  not  included  here. 

Lav'ender,  a  family  of  plants  having  the 
stamens  and  style  surrounded  by  a  two- 
lipped  corolla,  the  upper  lip  two-lobed  and 
the  lower  three-lipped.  The  common  lav- 


ender grows  wild  on  the  mountains  and 
hills  of  southern  Europe,  and  is  generally 
cultivated  in  gardens  further  north.  It  has 
a  delightfully  fragrant  odor,  and  contains 
a  great  quantity  of  oil  The  spikes  and 
flowers  are  used  in  medicine  as  a  tonic  and 
nerve  stimulant.  The  flowers  are  much 
used  to  scent  wardrobes  and  in  perfumery, 
and  are  blue-gray  in  color  The  oil  of  the 
broad-leaved  lavender  is  used  by  artists  on 
porcelain  and  in  making  varnishes.  It  is 
made  by  distilling  the  flower  with  water; 
spirits  of  lavender  by  distilling  them  with 
spirits ;  and  lavender  water,  the  toilet  prepa- 
ration, by  dissolving  oil  of  lavender  with 
other  oils  in  spirits.  Lavender  gets  its  name 
from  Latin  lavare,  to  wash,  because  it  was 
used  in  bathing. 

Lavoisier  ( la'vwa'zyd' ) ,  Antoine  Lau- 
rent, the  founder  of  modern  chemistry, 
was  born  at  Paris,  Aug.  26,  1743.  He 
devoted  himself  particularly  to  the  study 
of  chemistry,  and  was  made  an  academi- 
ciar.  To  obtain  means  to  carry  on  his 
researches,  he  oecame  farmer-general  (tax- 
gatherer)  in  1769.  While  a  director  of  the 
government  powder-mills,  in  1776,  he  dis- 
covered a  way  of  improving  the  quality  of 
the  powder,  and  in  1791  was  made  a  com- 
missioner of  the  treasury.  His  most  im- 
portant contribution  to  science  was  the 
explanation  of  combustion  and  of  the  part 
that  oxygen  plays  in  the  composition  of 
substances.  The  popular  hatred  of  farmers 
of  taxes  during  the  reign  of  terror  was  not 
tempered  by  his  services  to  science  and 
learning,  and  he  died  by  the  guillotine  on 
May  8,  1794.  His  principal  work  is  Traits 
Elementaire  de  Chimie. 

Law  is  a  term  of  somewhat  ambiguous 
meaning.  One  may  speak  of  a  law  of 
nature,  of  a  moral  law  or  of  the  law  of  a 
state.  In  each  of  these  cases,  however,  it 
is  clear  that  the  word  relates  to  the  pre- 
scription of  a  certain  uniform  kind  of  con- 
duct. The  notion  of  a  law  of  nature  may 
either  imply  a  reference  to  a  conscious  being 
as  lawgiver,  or  refer  merely  to  the  fact 
that  a  certain  order  has  been  observed  in 
the  occurrence  of  physical  events.  A  moral 
law  denotes  a  truth  which  is  used  to  con- 
trol human  conduct.  But  law  means  espe- 
cially the  injunction  of  a  certain  kind  of 
conduct  upon  the  citizens  of  a  state.  In 
this  sense  law  seems  to  have  originated 
from  the  felt  necessity  of  enforcing  uni- 
form customs  upon  the  people  of  a  state. 
Laws  are  not  generally  oppressive,  because 
they  usually  represent  customs  rather  than 
innovations.  But  so  far  as  a  government 
becomes  distinguished  from  the  people,  it 
becomes  possible  for  laws  to  represent 
innovations  as  well  as  customs. 

Law  is  generally  subdivided  into  public 
law  and  private  law..  Public  law  includes 
criminal  law  and  constitutional  law.  Pri- 
vate law  covers  personal  and  family  rela- 


LAW 


Z038 


LAWRENCE 


tions  and  affairs  of  property  and  contract. 
There  also  is  canon  taw,  which  is  still 
employed  in  the  regulation  of  the  functions 
of  clerics,  but  has  lost  the  importance 
attached  to  it  in  the  middle  ages.  Modern 
law  owes  much  to  the  Romans,  who  organ- 
ized their  laws  into  several  codes,  the  most 
complete  and  celebrated  of  which  was  the 
code  of  Justinian,  completed  in  533  A.  D. 
The  famous  code  of  Hugo  Grotius,  a  Dutch 
scholar  of  the  sixteenth  century,  also  is  of 
great  importance  as  a  factor  in  the  develop- 
ment of  modern  systems.  The  codes  and 
commentaries  of  Puffendorf,  Vattel,  Coke, 
Blackstone  and  others,  with  the  famous 
Code  Napoleon  of  France  (1804—1810), 
should  also  be  mentioned. 

The  technical  name  for  the  science  of 
law  is  jurisprudence.  Under  jurisprudence 
the  following  types  of  law  are  recognized: 
(i)  Admiralty  law,  which  deals  with  crimes 
and  contracts  in  which  any  member  or 
branch  of  the  navy  is  concerned.  (2)  By- 
laws, which  literally  are  town-laws,  but 
include  the  laws  of  societies  and  corpora- 
tions. (3)  Civil  law,  which  is  based  on  the 
whole  upon  Roman  law  and  needs  to  be 
distinguished  from  criminal  law.  (4)  Com- 
mon law,  very  important  in  the  United 
States  and  England,  which  is  based  upon 
judicial  records  and  not  upon  statutes.  (5) 
Constitutional  law,  by  which  the  sovereign 
body  in  the  state  (in  the  United  States 
the  people,  in  England  Parliament)  regu- 
lates the  government.  (6)  Criminal  law. 
which  relates  to  crime  and  belongs  to 
municipal  public  law.  (7)  Law  of  mer- 
chants, which  is  a  principal  part  cf  the 
common  law,  founded  on  mercantile  usages. 

(8)  Law  of  equity,  under  which  technical- 
ities which  might  interfere  with  the  course 
of  justice  (in  civil  suits  only)  are  overruled. 

(9)  Law  of  nations,  which  regulates  inter- 
national relations  and  is  based  in  part  upon 
custom,  in  part  upon  reason  and  in  part 
upon  treaty.     (10)  Martial  law,  which  refers 
to  military  discipline,  a  state  of  hostilities 
or  exceptional  public  danger,      (n)   Muni- 
cipal law,  a  very  general  term  of  the  stat- 
utory   law    regarded    as    regulating    social 
activities.      (12)    Parliamentary  law,  which 
is   the   body  of   rules   and   restrictions   by 
which  the  proceedings  of  deliberative  assem- 
blies are  governed.     A  working  acquaint- 
ance with  these  forms  of  law  usually  requires 
a  three  years'  or  four  years'  course  of  the 
most    diligent    postgraduate    study.      The 
procedure  and  usages  of  the  courts  are  to 
be   mastered   only   in   the   courts   and   by 
practice. 

Law,  John,  originator  of  the  "Mississippi 
scheme,"  financier  and  projector,  was  born 
at  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  on  April  21,  1671. 
At  20  he  went  to  London,  but  was  com- 
pelled to  leave  on  account  of  a  duel  in 
which  he  killed  his  opponent.  He  then 
proceeded  to  Amsterdam,  and  there  began 


studying  the  syste-n  of  bank  credits,  and 
in  1700  he  returned  to  Edinburgh  to  advo- 
cate the  use  of  paper  currency  before  the 
unfavorable  Scottish  Parliament.  Law  then 
traveled  over  the  European  continent, 
gambling  and  speculating,  until  in  1716  he 
founded  a  private  bank  in  Paris  with  his 
brother  William.  In  1718  the  duke  of 
Orleans,  regent  of  France,  adopted  Law's 
system  of  paper  currency  and  issued  enor- 
mous amounts  which  received  great  credit, 
while  the  national  bonds  remained  below 
par.  In  1719  Law  originated  the  Missis- 
sippi scheme.  This  was  a  plan  for  coloniz- 
ing and  exploiting  the  region  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, a  sort  of  wild-cat  project,  the  chief 
motive  of  which  was  to  raise  money  to 
meet  exigencies  of  the  time  in  France.  In 
the  speculative  mania  that  ensued  stocks 
and  shares  soared  to  fabulous  heights,  and 
for  a  time  the  financial  world  of  France 
lost  all  reason  and  parted  from  sober  sense. 
Next  year  Law  was  made  councilor  of  state 
and  comptroller-general  of  finance;  but 
when  his  system  met  with  popular  dis- 
favor and  his  bubble  scheme  was  pricked, 
he  fled  to  Brussels,  thence  to  England  and 
finally  to  Venice,  and  there  remained,  poor 
and  forgotten,  until  his  death  on  March 
21,  1729.  See  Perkins'  France  under  the 
Regency  and  Mackay's  Extraordinary  Pop- 
ular Delusions. 

Law'rence,  the  county-seat  of  Douglas 
County,  Kan.,  lies  on  Kansas  River,  34 
miles  southwest  of  Leavenworth  by  rail^an\| 
38  west  of  Kansas  City.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  state  university,  founded  in  1864,  and 
of  Haskell  Institute,  a  government  institu- 
tion for  the  education  of  Indian  youth.  It 
is  the  center  of  trade  for  a  fertile  and  popu- 
lous section,  and  has  manufactures  of  flour, 
castings,  furniture,  paper,  barbed  wire  and 
shirts,  besides  sash  and  door  factories  and 
machine  shops.  Porkpacking  is  extensively 
carried  on.  Lawrence  was  founded  in  1854 
by  free-soil  settlers,  shared  in  the  violent 
struggle  against  slavery,  and  was  partly 
burned  by  Quantrell's  guerrillas  in  1863. 
The  city  is  served  by  the  Union  Pacific; 
Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  F£;  and  South- 
ern Kansas  railroads,  and  is  the  terminus 
also  of  two  branch  railways.  Population 
12,374. 

Lawrence,  an  important  manufacturing 
city  in  Massachusetts,  one  of  the  county- 
seats  of  Essex  Co.,  is  built  on  both  sides 
of  Merrimac  River,  26  miles  north  of  Bos- 
ton, with  which  it  is  connected  by  two  rail- 
roads. The  river,  which  here  falls  28  feet 
in  half  a  mile,  is  crossed  by  two  railroad 
and  two  other  bridges  and  by  a  dam  of 
granite,  900  feet  long  and  forty  feet  high; 
canals  on  either  bank  conduct  the  water  to 
the  mills.  The  mills,  some  of  which  are 
among  the  largest  in  the  world,  manufac- 
ture cotton  and  woolen  goods,  cloth  and 
paper;  and  engines,  boilers,  machinery 


LAWRENCE 


1039 


LAWTON 


clothing,  hats  etc.  are  also  produced  here. 
The  woolen  goods  industry  is  of  first  im- 
portance, employing  more  than  11,000  peo- 
ple in  two  mills,  while  a  third  mill,  making 
both  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  employs  over 
5,000.  Like  her  sister  city  Boston,  Law- 
rence has  a  common  of  17  acres  in  the 
center  of  the  city,  around  which  are  many 
noteworthy  public  buildings  and  churches. 
The  public  school  system  is  admirable,  and 
includes  evening  schools  for  the  employed. 
Other  institutions  of  which  the  city  is 
justly  proud  are  the  high  school,  the 
free  public  library,  the  Orphan  Asylum 
and  a  Home  for  Aged  People.  Population 
85,892. 

Lawrence,  Abbott,  an  American  mer- 
chant and  philanthropist,  was  born  at  Gro- 
ton,  Mass.,  in  1792,  and  died  in  1855.  He 
acquired  a  large  fortune,  was  elected  to 
Congress  and  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
to  settle  the  northeastern  boundary  ques- 
tion with  Great  Britain.  Among  his  dona- 
tions were  $100,000  to  Harvard  College,  to 
found  Lawrence  Scientific  School,  and  $50,- 
ooo  for  model  lodging  houses.  See  Hunt's 
Lives  of  American  Merchants. 

Lawrence,  Amos,  a  distinguished  philan- 
thropist and  brother  of  Abbott,  was  born 
in  1786  and  died  in  1852.  Having  acquired 
an  immense  fortune,  he  devoted  over  $700,- 
oor>  to  charities  and  donations,  benefiting 
among  other  institutions  Kenyon  and  Wil- 
Colleges  and  Bangor  Theological 
SejCnary.  His  son  published  his  Life  and 


Sir  Henry  Montgomery,  was 

•Krin  Ceylon,  June  28,  1806,  and  joined 
'•cngal  artillery  in  1823,  taking  part  in 
many  wars.  In  March,  1857,  he  was  placed 
in  charge  at  Lucknow,  and  when  mutiny 
broke  out  he  realized  that  it  would  spread 
over  the  whole  of  India,  and  consequently 
made  great  preparations.  Thanks  to  his 
foresight  the  small  garrison  held  out  for 
four  months,  although  Sir  Henry  was  him- 
self wounded  by  a  shell  on  July  2,  and 
died  two  days  later.  Lawrence  was  not  only 
a  soldier  and  statesman,  but  a  philanthro- 
pist, haying  been  the  founder  of  the  Law- 
itary  Asylums  at  Punjab,  Rajpu- 
tana  and  Madras,  to  which  he  devoted  his 
entire  income. 

Lawrence,  James,  an  American  naval  offi- 
f,  was  born  at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  in  1781. 
In  the  War  of  1812  he  served  under  Com- 
modore Decatur,  and  rose  by  brave  conduct. 
In  1813,  after  a  short  engagement,  he  cap- 
tured the  British  Peacock,  and  soon  after 
was  made  captain  of  the  Chesapeake.  After 
he  had  been  in  command  of  ita»  undisci- 
plined crew  for  a  few  days,  on  June  i, 
1813,  he  met  the  British  Shannon  just  out- 
side of  Boston.  After  a  hard  fight  he  was 
mortally  wounded  and  his  ship  was  taken. 
This  was  when  he  said:  "Don't  give  up 
the  ship!"  His  remains  were  removed  to 


Trinity  churchyard,  New  York  city,  and  a 
monument  erected  over  them. 

Lawrence,  Sir  Thomas,  portrait-painter 
and  president  of  the  Royal  Academy,  was 
born  at  Bristol,  England,  May  4,  1769.  At 
ten  he  began  sketching  in  crayons,  and  at 
eighteen  entered  the  Royal  Academy  as  a 
student  in  oils.  In  1791  he  was  elected  an 
associate,  in  1798  a  full  member.  He  was 
appointed  limner  to  the  king  in  1792,  and 
was  knighted  in  1815.  In  1820  he  suc- 
ceeded Benjamin  West  as  president  of  the 
Royal  Academy.  Although  his  work  hardly 
rose  above  the  conventional  level,  he  was 
the  most  popular  portrait-painter  of  his 
time.  He  died  at  London,  Jan.  7,  1830. 
See  Gower's  Romney  and  Lawrence  in  the 
Great  Artists  Series. 

Lawrence,  Saint,  whose  day  is  August 
10,  was  born,  according  to  story,  in  Huasco, 
Spain,  and  became  a  deacon  in  Rome  under 
Sixtus  I.  During  the  persecution  of  Valerian 
he  was  summoned  before  the  praetor  and 
ordered  to  surrender  the  treasures  of  the 
church,  whereupon  he  handed  over  the  sick 
and  the  poor.  Persisting  in  his  refusal,  he 
was  ordered  to  be  broiled  upon  a  gridiron. 
This  martyrdom  is  authentic,  and  its  prob- 
able date  was  258  A.  D. 

Law'ton,  Henry  W.,  an  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Ohio  in  1843,  resided  in  Indiana, 
and  in  the  be- 
ginning of  t  h  e 
Civil  War  enlist- 
ed as  a  private. 
When  honorably 
discharged  upon 
expiration  of  en- 
listment he  join- 
ed the  3oth  In- 
diana volunteer 
infantry  as  first 
lieutenant.  He 
w  a  s  repeatedly 
promoted  for 
gallantry,  and  at 
the  end  of  the 
war,  when  mustered  out,  was  a  brevet-col- 
onel of  volunteers.  In  July,  1866,  he  en- 
tered the  regulars  as  a  second  lieutenant, 
and  thence,  by  regular  promotion,  had  at- 
tained the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  by 
February,  1889,  and  was  assigned  to  the 
inspector  -  general's  department.  When 
the  Spanish- American  War  came,  he  was 
made  a  major-general  of  volunteers  and 
commanded  the  second  division  at  Santiago 
de  Cuba,  distinguishing  himself  in  the  bat- 
tle of  El  Caney  on  July  1-2,  1898.  He 
was  ordered  to  the  Philippines  in  Jan- 
uary, 1899.  Here  he  rendered  conspicuous 
service,  pushing  his  campaigns  in  north- 
ern Luzon  with  energy  and  effectiveness, 
fighting  more  than  20  battles  and  display- 
ing the  qualities  of  an  able  strategist 
and  brave  leader.  He  was  killed  on  Dec. 
19,  1899. 


HENRY     W.     LAWTON 


LAY  OF  THE  LAST  MINSTREL 


1040 


LEAD 


Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel.  This  is  a 
beautiful  story  of  border-life,  told  in  irregu- 
lar stanzas,  full  of  force  and  fire,  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott.  The  poem  deals  with  the 
healing  of  a  border-feud.  Some  of  its  best 
features  are  the  description  of  the  life  at 
Branksome  Hall,  the  story  of  the  ride  of 
William  of  Deloraine,  the  faithful  retainer, 
the  delightful  treatment  of  the  supernatural 
which  is  involved  and  the  admirable  couplets 
which  tell  of  the  last  minstrel  himself  and 
form  a  framework  for  the  story. 

La'yard  (la'drd),  Sir  Austen  Henry, 
English  traveler  and  diplomatist,  was  born 
at  Paris,  March  5,  1817,  and  passed  his  boy- 
hood in  Italy.  At  16  he  was  sent  to  Lon- 
don to  study  law,  but  in  1839  he  set  out  upon 
an  overland  journey  to  Ceylon.  On  the 
banks  of  the  Tigris  he  saw  Sirs  Nimrud, 
the  supposed  site  of  Nineveh,  and  in  1845-47, 
with  the  financial  aid  of  Lord  Stratford  de 
Redcliffe  and  £3,000  voted  by  Parliament, 
he  excavated  and  found  the  ruins  of  four 
palaces,  from  which  he  sent  many  carvings 
and  basreliefs  to  the  British  Museum.  He 
published  Nineveh  ami  Its  Remains  in  1849 
and  Monuments  of  Nineveh  in  1853.  During 
the  next  40  years  he  received  many  honors, 
served  the  state  and  won  distinction  not 
only  as  a  public  man  but  as  a  student  of 
the  fine  arts.  He  died  at  London  on  July  5, 
1894.  See  his  Autobiography. 

Lay'ering,  a  method  of  plant -propaga- 
tion (q.  v.),  depending  on  some  plants' 
natural  habit  of  sending  out  roots  from 
the  joints  or  tips  of  branches  which  come  in 
contact  with  the  earth,  as  the  black  rasp- 
berry. The  procedure  is  to  cover  a  por- 
tion of  the  branch  and,  after  the  roots  are 
well-established  and  independent  shoots 
are  sent  up,  to  cut  the  branch  connecting 
with  the  parent  plant.  "Mound"  layering 
is  a  modification  of  the  process,  in  which 
the  old  plant  is  cut  off  close  to  the  ground 
and  the  "stool"  covered  with  earth.  The 
new  shoots,  sending  out  roots  at  their  lower 
joints  underground,  may  be  cut  off  as  sepa- 
rate plants. 

Laz'arus,  St.,  Order  of,  a  religious  and 
military  order  which  dates  its  origin  from 
the  first  occupation  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
crusaders.  Its  primary  object  was  the 
succor  of  the  leprous,  of  whom  Lazarus  was 
regarded  as  a  patron.  After  the  expulsion 
of  the  crusaders  Louis  VII  (1253)  gave  its 
members  the  lands  of  Boigny  near  Orleans, 
France,  and  a  building  at  the  gates  of  Paris, 
used  as  a  leperhouse  for  the  poor  of  the 
city.  Pope  Alexander  IV  confirmed  the 
order  in  1255.  From  the  disappearance 
of  leprosy  and  from  other  causes  the 
order  was  gradually  changed  to  a  purely 
civil  corporation.  In  1572  it  was  joined 
by  Pope  Gregory  XIII  with  the  Order 
of  St.  Maurice  of  Savoy.  In  1608  it 
was  united  with  the  order  of  Notre  Dame 
de  Mont-Carmel.  At  the  Revolution  it 


was  abolished,  but  it  was  reiiAtroduced  at 
the  Restoration,  although  at  present  it 
is  not  recognized.  In  1633  the  building? 
of  the  priory  in  Paris  were  given  to  St. 
Vincent  du  Paul  for  the  us3  of  the  fathers 
of  his  mission  who  from  this  came  to 
be  known  as  Lazarites. 

Laz'zaro'ni,  Italian  for  lepers,  until  lately 
were  a  separate  class  living  in  Naples,  with 
no  houses  or  occupations,  but  employed  as 
porters,  vendors  or  messengers,  and  often 
begging.  They  took  aggressive  parts  in  all 
the  revolutions  of  Naples,  and  formerly 
elected  a  chief  every  year. 

Lea,  Henry  Charles,  publisher  and  author 
was  born  at  Philadelphia,  Sept.  19,  1825. 
and  succeeded  to  the  business  of  the  pub- 
lishing house  of  Mathew  Carey  and  Sons. 
He  has  written  extensively  on  European 
mediaeval  history.  Among  his  works  are 
History  of  the  Inquisition  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
Historical  Sketch  of  Sacerdotal  Celibacy  in 
the  Christian  Church,  Chapters  from  the 
Religious  History  of  Spain,  History  of 
Indulgences  and  Moriscoes  of  Spain.  Mr. 
Lea's  conclusions  as  to  celibacy  have  been 
called  in  question  by  eminent  Catholic 
scholars.  German  savants  regard  his  works 
as  final  authorities. 

Lead  is  a  bluish-white  or  grayish  metal, 
becoming  dull  on  exposure,  very  soft,  malle- 
able but  not  ductile,  and  possessing  little 
tenacity.  Its  specific  gravity  varies  from 
11.352  to  11.365,  and  its  melting  point  is 
633°  F.  It  is  one  of  the  metals  known  in 
very  early  times,  being  mentioned  in  Job 
xix:  24,  and  articles  made  from  it  by  the 
Romans,  some  of  them  bearing  inscriptions, 
as  water-pipes,  tanks,  weights  and  rings, 
are  still  preserved  in  museums.  It  can  be 
forced  through  a  perforation  when  heated 
below  its  melting-point,  as  in  making  rods 
for  rifle-balls  and  pipes.  The  action  of 
water  upon  lead  is  important  in  that  so 
much  lead  is  used  in  water-service  of 
almost  all  kinds;  and  salts  of  lead,  dis- 
solved even  in  very  small  quantities,  form 
a  cumulative  and  very  dangerous  poison. 
Water  that  has  been  standing  in  a  lead 
pipe,  therefore,  should  never  be  used  for 
drinking.  Lead  in  its  native  state  is  seldom 
found,  the  metal  being  chiefly  obtained  from 
galena,  a  sulphide  of  lead.  There  are  sev- 
eral oxides  of  lead,  two  of  which,  plumbic 
oxide  and  red  oxide,  are  used  in  the  arts. 
Ordinary  lead  oxide  (massicot  or  litharge), 
from  which  red  lead,  another  oxide,  is  manu- 
factured, is  obtained  in  a  yellow  powder  by 
heating  lead  to  a  dull  redness  in  a  current 
of  air  and  grinding  the  product.  Lead  per- 
oxide, with  sulphur  and  other  ingredients, 
is  used  for  tipping  some  kinds  of  matches. 
White  lead  is  a  substance  much  used  as  a 
basis  for  paints,  for  a  cement  and  for 
pottery  glazes.  To  manufacture  it,  the  lead 
is  cut  into  different  forms,  placed  in  pots 
containing  a  little  weak  acetic  acid,  and 


LEADVILLE 


1041 


LEAF 


the  whole  surrounded  by  spent  tan-bark  or 
horse-refuse.  The  heat  from  these  evap- 
orates the  acid,  which,  with  the  air,  changes 
the  surface  of  the  lead  to  an  acetate,  this  in 
time  being  converted  into  a  carbonate  by 
the  action  of  the  carbonic  gas  from  the  hot- 
bed. The  chief  ore  from  which  lead  is 
obtained  is  galena.  This  is  found  through 
almost  all  of  Europe  and  in  many  states 
of  the  Union,  the  largest  deposits  worked 
being  in  Idaho,  Utah,  Montana  and  Colo- 
rado. For  ordinary  lead-smelting  the  ore 
is  crushed  or  almost  pulverized  by  machin- 
ery, and  placed  upon  the  bed  of  a  rever- 
berator y  furnace.  A  part  of  the  ore  be- 
comes an  oxide,  and  some  of  it  a  sulphate, 
while  sulphurous  gases  pass  off.  When  the 
furnace-doors  are  closed  and  the  mass  is 
melted,  the  oxidized  parts  and  the  remain- 
ing sulphide  react  upon  each  other,  form- 
ing sulphurous  acid  and  metallic  lead.  To- 
ward the  end,  some  lime  is  thrown  into 
the  furnace  to  prevent  the  slag  becoming 
too  fluid,  and  the  melted  lead  flows  from 
the  tap-door.  Lead-ores  are  often  smelted 
in  blast-furnaces,  particularly  for  the  sake 
of  obtaining  the  silver  in  the  ores  or 
in  other  ores  mixed  with  them.  The  silver 
then  goes  into  the  metallic  lead.  Lead  is 
used  in  many  alloys  —  with  antimony  to 
make  type-metal  or  with  tin  for  solder 
and  for  the  manufacture  of  pewter,  Britan- 
nia metal  and  the  like. 

Lead'ville,  a  city  of  western  central  Col- 
orado, the  silver-mining  center  of  the  state 
and  the  county-seat  of  Lake  County,  is  an 
important  mining-town,  situated  in  a  valley 
10,200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
city  is  located  on  California  Gulch  near 
Arkansas  River,  on  the  Denver  and  Rio 
Grande;  Colorado  Midland;  and  Colorado 
and  Southern  railways.  The  mines  produce 
gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  zinc,  bismuth  and 
lead,  the  latter  to  the  extent  of  70,000  tons 
or  more  per  year.  The  town  was  incor- 
porated in  1878,  and  contains  many  smelters, 
one  of  which  is  the  largest  in  the  world, 
stamp  mills  for  crushing  ore,  iron  foundries, 
a  government  fishhatchery,  besides  manu- 
facturing machinery,  jewelry  and  novelties. 
It  has  several  fine  churches,  an  excellent 
public-school  system,  which  includes  an  high 
school,  two  banks,  and  is  a  modern  and 
well-improved  city.  Pop.  7,508. 

Leaf.  Leaves  are  expanded  organs  of  the 
higher  plants  for  the  purpose  of  displaying 
green  tissue  to  the  air  and  sunlight.  These 
organs  are  found  in  fern-plants  and  seed- 
plants,  and  very  simple  leaves  also  appear 
among  the  mosses  and  liverworts  The 
leaves  of  the  two  higher  groups  are  ex- 
ceedingly variable  in  form,  but  are  of  very 
uniform  general  structure.  The  ordinary 
leaf  consists  of  three  main  parts:  (i)  the 
blade,  that  is,  the  essential  expanded  part ; 
(2)  the  petiole,  the  stalk  upon  which  the 
blade  is  produced,  and  which  may  or  may  not 


be  present;  and  (3)  the  stipules,  pair  of 
more  or  less  conspicuous  appendages  at  the 
point  where  the  petiole 
joins  the  axis,  which 
may  or  may  not  be 
present.  A  cross  sec- 
tion through  an  ordi- 
nary leaf  reveals  three 
distinct  regions :  (i) 
the  "epidermis"  of 
the  upper  and  lower 
surfaces  which  usual- 
ly consists  of  a  single 
layer  of  colorless  and 
close-set  cells;  (2)  be- 
tween the  two  epider- 
mal layers  the  "mes- 
ophyll,"  the  tissue 
whose  cells  contain 
the  green  chloroplast ; 
(3)  the  cut  ends  of 
the  "veins,"  which 
penetrate  among  the 
mesophyll  cells.  The 
epidermis  is  a  pro- 
tective layer,  and 
through  it  the  meso- 
phyll cells  carry  on 
exchanges  with  the 
outside  world.  In  the 
GEOTROPIC  CURVATURE  epidermis  the  peculiar 
OF  LEAVES  breathing-pores  or 

stomata  are  devel- 
oped. (See  EPIDERMIS.)  The  mesophyll 
is  the  working  tissue  of  the  leaf,  and 
in  ordinary  horizontal  leaves  its  cells  are 
arranged  differently  on  the  upper  and 
under  side.  Those  next  to  the  upper 
epidermis  are  elongated  and  stand  end- 
wise, being  close  together  and  forming  the 
so-called  "palisade  tissue."  The  mesophyll 
cells  on  the  under  region  of  the  leaf  are 
loosely  arranged,  leaving  large  intercellular 
spaces,  through  which  there  is  a  free  circu- 
lation of  air.  The  stomata  open  chiefly  on 
the  under  surface  of  the  leaf  and  into  this 
system  of  intercellular  passage-ways.  The 
veins  are  conducting  tissues,  carrying 
materials  from  the  stem  into  the  mesophyll 
and  receiving  elaborated  foods  in  turn  from 
tne  mesophyll  to  be  distributed  to  other 
parts  of  the  plant.  The  leaves  of  seed- 
plants  are  often  divided  into  two  groups 
on  the  basis  of  the  arrangement  of  the  veins. 
In  the  monocotyledons,  represented  by 
grasses  and  lilies,  the  venation  is  said  to  be 
parallel,  that  is,  the  veins  run  approx- 
imately parallel  from  the  base  to  the  apex 
of  the  leaf.  In  the  dicotyledons,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  veins  branch  in  various 
directions  and  the  leaves  are  said  to 
be  net-veined  or  reticulate.  The  parallel- 
veined  leaves  are  apt  to  be  narrow  and 
elongated,  while  the  net-veined  leaves  in- 
cline to  broader  shapes.  Among  the  net' 
veined  leaves  there  are  two  types  of  vena- 
tion :  ( i )  the  pinnate  type,  in  which  a 


LEANDER 


1042 


LEAST  ACTION 


single  very  prominent  rib  (midrib)  runs 
through  the  midst  of  the  leaf,  and  from  it 
arises  all  the  rest  of  the  vein  system,  as  in 


Section  oi  leaf,  showing  epidermis  above  and  below 
(«),  stomata  (sp),  palisade  layer  (a),  spongy  layer 
(i),  and  a  single  veinlet. 

the  case  of  the  beech  or  peach;  and  (2) 
the  palmate  type,  in  which  several  main 
ribs  arise  together  and  spread  out  in  fan 
shape,  giving  rise  to  a  broader  leaf,  as  in 


B.  A  parallel-veined  leaf.     C.  A  net-veined  leaf. 

the  maple.  When  such  leaves  become  com- 
pound, the  leaves  are  said  to  be  pinnately 
compound  or  palmately  compound.  A 
great  many  names  have  been  applied  to 
the  forms  of  venation,  but  they  are  of  no 


great  importance  excepting  to  special 
students  of  the  subject.  The  importance 
of  the  leaves  of  higher  plants  is  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  they  are  the  special  organs 
for  the  display  of  green  tissue,  and  this 
green  tissue  is  concerned  in  the  vital  process 
known  as  photosynthesis  (which  see). 
The  ordinary  leaves  which  are  active  in 
this  way  are  often  spoken  of  as  foliage 
leaves,  in  order  to  distinguish  them  from 
other  forms  which  are  not  concerned  in 
chlorophyll  work.  In  addition  to  the  ordi- 
nary foliage  leaves,  therefore,  there  are  very 
numerous  other  leaf  forms.  Some  of  the 
prominent  adaptations  are  as  follows: 
"bracts,"  which  are  reduced  leaves  found 
in  inflorescences;  "scales,"  such  as  are  found 
in  the  ordinary  scaly  buds;  "sporangial 
leaves,"  as  the  stamens  and  carpels;  "  storage 
organs,"  as  in  bulb-scales;  "spines,"  as  in 
the  barberry;  "tendrils,"  as  in  the  pea, 
vetch  etc.;  "floral  leaves,"  as  in  sepals  and 
petals;  "pitchers,"  "fly-traps"  etc.,  as  in 
the  carnivorous  plants  (which  see). 

JOHN  M.  COULTER. 

Leand'er.     See  HERO. 

Leap  Year,  the  name  given  to  that  one 
year  in  every  four  in  which  February  is 
given  29  days  instead  of  28.  This  year  of 
366  days  is  called  leap-year  because  it  leaps 
over  a  day  more  than  the  common  year 
contains.  Leap  year  is  such  a  year  of  the 
current  reckoning  as  is  evenly  divisible  by  4, 
except  those  years,  e.g.,  as  1700,  1800,  1900 
etc.,  that  are  divisible  by  100  but  not  by 
400.  Many  attempts  were  made,  as  the 
centuries  of  civilization  and  semiciviliza- 
tion  passed,  to  fix  the  precise  length  of  the 
year  by  months.  Julius  Caesar  in  his  time 
attempted  a  thorough  reform.  But  the 
Julian  year  had  365^  days,  and  differed  in 
excess  by  n  minutes  and  about  14  seconds 
from  the  true  solar  year,  which  consists  of 
365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes  and  46.05 
seconds.  So  in  the  course  of  the  centuries 
the  equinox  fell  back  perceptibly  toward 
the  beginning  of  the  year  because  of  this 
difference.  It  was  chiefly  to  correct  this 
error  that  Pope  Gregory  XIII  reformed  the 
calendar  that  is  now  called  by  his  name. 
He  suppressed  ten  days,  and  thus  restored 
the  equinox  to  the  2ist  of  March.  The 
Gregorian  rule  is  that  every  year,  the 
number  of  which  is  divisible  by  4  without 
a  remainder,  is  a  leap  year,  excepting  the 
centennial  years,  which  are  leap  years  only 
when  divisible  by  4  and  also  by  400.  So 
1600  was  a  leap  year,  but  1700,  1800  and 
1900  were  not.  The  length  of  the  mean 
year  fixed  by  the  Gregorian  calendar  is  365 
days,  5  hours,  40  minutes  and  12  seconds. 
This  exceeds  the  true  solar  year  by  25.95 
seconds.  But  this  amounts  to  only  one 
day  in  3,325  years. 

Least  Action,  in  dynamics,  an  important 
but  little  understood  principle.  Its  useful- 
ness lies  in  its  generality  and  in  the  fact 


LEATHER 


1043 


LEAVENWORTH 


that  it  points  out  the  direction  in  which  a 
change  takes  place.  It  appears  to  be  very 
nearly  equivalent  to  the  very  fertile  prin- 
ciple that  the  potential  energy  of  a  system 
tends  to  become  a  minimum.  Tait  defines 
the  "action"  of  a  particle  as  twice  the  time 
integral  of  its  kinetic  energy,  calculated  from 
an  assigned  epoch;  and  then  proceeds  to 
state  the  principle  of  least  action  as  follows: 
"If  the  sum  of  the  potential  and  kinetic 
energies  of  a  system  is  the  same  in  all  its 
configurations,  then  of  all  the  sets  of  paths 
by  which  the  parts  of  the  system  can  be 
guided  by  frictionless  constraint  to  pass  from 
one  given  configuration  to  another,  that  one 
for  which  the  action  is  least  is  the  natural 
one,  or  requires  no  constraint." 

Leather  ( leth'er )  is  made  of  the  skins  of 
animals,  prepared  by  tanning,  so  as  to  give 
them  greater  strength  and  toughness,  render 
them  unchanged  by  action  of  water  and  stop 
the  tendency  toward  decomposition.  This 
process  is  older  than  can  be  conjectured,  as 
fragments  of  Egyptian  tanned  skins  exist 
which  were  prepared  not  later  than  900  B.  C. 
There  are  three  methods  by  which  leather 
is  now  prepared:  first,  by  tanning  or 
treating  with  tanbark  or  other  vegetable 
compounds;  second,  by  tawing  or  treating 
with  alum,  bichromate  of  potash  or  other 
mineral  salts;  and,  third,  by  shamoying  or 
treating  with  oils.  Of  these  the  first  is  by 
far  the  most  used.  The  skins  consist  chem- 
ically of  a  fibrous  substance,  which  on  being 
boiled  reduces  to  ordinary  gelatine  and  is 
called  collagen,  and  of  an  interfibrous  sub- 
stance called  coriin,  which  cannot  be  dis- 
solved in  water;  the  combination  forms 
tanno-gelatine,  the  active  principle  and  base 
of  tanned  leather.  Although  all  skins  can 
be  tanned,  the  ones  ordinarily  used  are  those 
of  animals  which  have  been  killed  for  other 
purposes,  those  of  the  larger  animals  being 
called  hides  and  those  of  the  smaller,  skins. 
The  process  of  tanning  a  hide  for  sole 
leather,  described  shortly,  begins  by  soften- 
ing the  hide  in  water,  then  heating  it  slowly 
until  the  first  stages  of  decay  will  allow  the 
hair  and  outer  layer  of  skin  to  be  easily 
removed,  after  which  it  is  suspended  in  a 
tan-pit  containing  a  weak  solution,  where  it 
is  turned  two  or  three  times  a  day,  and 
removed  successively  from  one  pit  to  an- 
other, each  containing  a  stronger  solution 
than  the  preceding,  until  the  last  pit,  where 
the  hide  may  remain  for  five  or  six  weeks. 
It  is  then  taken  out  and  beaten  to  harden 
it,  oiled,  and  finally  rolled  to  give  it  a 
smooth  and  finished  appearance.  To  dress 
leather,  the  flesh-side  is  smoothed  and  pared 
down  to  give  it  a  uniform  thickness.  Then 
it  is  softened  in  water  and  a  preparation  of 
tallow  and  cod-oil  is  rubbed  over  it.  As 
the  skin  dries,  the  oil  sinks  into  it  and  ren- 
ders it  smooth  and  pliable.  Morocco  and 
Russia  leathers,  as  now  named,  are  mere 
names  to  denote  the  finish  and  appearance, 


not  the  place  from  which  they  came  or  a 
particular  kind  of  skin.  The  tawing  process 
is  used  in  the  preparation  of  gloveskins, 
leather  for  ladies'  shoes  and  skins  with  the 
fur  left  on.  Shamoying  derives  its  name 
from  the  preparation  of  the  skin  of  the 
Alpine  chamois,  and  consists  of  impregnating 
the  skins  with  oil  by  means  of  stocks  and 
working  it  into  the  leather,  but  most  of  the 
chamois  of  to-day  is  split  sheepskin. 

Leatherstocking  Tales,  The,  are  a  series 
of  adventures  with  Indians,  by  Cooper,  in 
which  Hawkey e  or  Leatherstocking  is  the 
central  figure.  They  have  become  widely 
popular,  especially  among  youthful  readers. 
Cooper  himself  said  that,  if  any  of  his  ro- 
mances were  to  outlive  his  own  lifetime,  it 
would  be  this  series.  The  first  of  these 
books,  The  Pioneers,  appeared  in  1823.  The 
others  are  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,  an  ad- 
mirable book  in  which  the  interest  is  main- 
tained from  first  to  last  with  the  most 
extraordinary  power,  The  Pathfinder,  The 
Deerslayer  and  The  Prairie.  In  The  Last 
of  the  Mohicans  the  white  scout,  the  cen- 
tral figure,  is  beautifully  idealized.  He  is 
strong,  acute  and  daring;  he  is  simple  and 
noble;  he  is  cool,  versatile,  utterly  at  home 
with  nature  in  all  her  moods.  The  Indian 
character  is  idealized,  in  a  way  which  has 
been  criticised  but  never  forgotten,  in  the 
person  of  Chingachgook  and,  above  all,  in 
Uncas  his  son.  The  Pathfinder  ar>d  The 
Deerslayer  possibly  are  less  exciting  than 
The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,  the  favorite;  but 
as  works  of  art  they  are  admitted  to  be 
the  best  that  Cooper  has  done.  *'  Beautiful " 
and  "grand"  are  epithets  applied  by  Balzac 
to  The  Pathfinder. 

Leaven  worth  (lev'en-wdrth),  Kansas,  county- 
seat  of  Leavenworth  County,  is  situated  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Missouri  River,  24  miles  above 
Kansas  City.  It  has  a  splendid  town  site, 
34  miles  of  paved  streets,  all  residence  portions 
being  noted  for  their  beautiful  shade  trees. 
It  has  an  area  of  about  ten  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  twenty-four  thousand  people. 
The  surrounding  country  is  one  of  the  best 
agricultural  sections  of  Kansas,  and  the  city 
is  built  directly  over  extensive  coal  beds, 
which  have  been  mined  on  a  large  scale  for 
twenty-five  years,  and  add  a  large  payroll  to 
the  city's  industrial  wealth.  Among  the 
manufacturing  interests  are  three  large  furni- 
ture factories,  wagon  works,  two  flour  mills, 
manufactories  of  stoves,  mill  machinery, 
gloves,  macaroni,  boxes,  washing-machines, 
harness,  soap,  shirts,  a  planing-mill,  packing- 
houses and  bridge-works.  There  is  situated  at 
Leavenworth,  Fort  Leavenworth,  with  a 
normal  garrison  of  from  four  to  five  thousand 
men,  the  National  Soldiers'  Home  with  2,500 
inmates,  the  Military  Staff  College,  where 
the  U.  S.  army  officers  receive  postgraduate 
courses,  the  National  Federal  Penitentiary 
with  i, 800  inmates,  the  National  Military 
Detention  Barracks  with  1,200  inmates,  the 


LEBAiNON 


1044 


LE  CONTE 


State  Penitentiary  of  Kansas  with  1,200  in- 
mates and  St.  Mary's  Academy,  one  of  the 
largest  schools  for  girls  in  the  West.  The  city 
is  served  by  eight  railroads. 

Lebanon  (leb'a-nun),  a  Turkish  province 
and  Syrian  mountain -range  running  from 
north  to  south.  The  range  is  divided  into 
Lebanon  on  the  west  and  Anti- Lebanon  on 
the  east,  with  a  valley  between,  traversed 
by  Litany  and  El-Asi  Rivers.  The  highest 
peak,  El-Kudib,  on  the  north  of  the  Leb-, 
anon  range,  reaches  an  elevation  of  10,01 8 
feet.  The  western  sides  are  covered  by  rich 
vegetation,  many  acres  being  devoted  to 
vine-cultivation  and  the  mulberry  tree,  as 
silk-manufacturing  is  one  of  the  main  in- 
dustries of  the  inhabitants,  who  number 
about  200,000.  Tobacco,  wheat,  barley  and 
millet  are  cultivated,  and  the  mountaineers 
keep  large  flocks  of  goats  and  sheep.  Many 
remains,  besides  those  at  the  head  of  the 
Kadisha  valley,  of  the  large  cedar  forests  of 
Solomon's  time  still  stand.  In  1860  the 
government  was  taken  from  Turkey  and 
given  to  a  Christian  governor  under  the 
protection  of  the  European  powers. 

Lebanon,  Pa.,  an  old  but  growing  city, 
the  capital  of  Lebanon  County  in  south- 
eastern Pennsylvania,  is  24  miles  east  of 
Harrisburg,  on  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading 
and  Cornwall  and  Lebanon  railroads.  It 
lies  in  a  good  agricultural  country  watered 
by  Swatara  Creek,  and  is  rich  in  good  brick- 
clay  and  stone  quarries.  The  Cornwall 
iron  mills  adjoin  the  city,  and  it  has  iron- 
furnaces,  rolling  mills,  machine  shops,  stove, 
boiler,  nut,  chain  and  bolt  works,  furniture, 
organ  and  cigar  factories,  agricultural  imple- 
ment works,  steel  plants  and  a  silk  mill. 
It  has  admirable  public  and  parochial  schools, 
a  business  college  and  a  school  of  telegraphy. 
It  has  several  churches,  four  libraries  and 
six  banks.  Population  10,240. 

Le  Brun  (le-briin),  Charles,  a  French 
historical  painter,  was  born  at  Paris,  Feb. 
22,  1619,  and  was  taken  to  Rome  by  Nicholas 
Poussin,  where  he  studied  for  four  years. 
Returning  to  Paris,  he  was  employed  by 
Fouquet,  Cardinal  Mazarin,  Anne  of  Austria 
and  Louis  XIV,  and  was  made  the  first 
director  of  the  famous  Gobelin  tapestry- 
works  at  their  foundation  in  1660.  While 
in  full  charge  of  the  decoration  of  Versailles 
and  called  the  founder  of  the  French  school 
of  painters,  a  rival  in  royal  favor  arose  and 
Le  Brun  retired,  sickened,  and  died  on 
Feb.  12,  1600. 

Le  Brun,  Marie,  a  French  painter,  was 
born  at  Paris,  April  16,  1755,  and  in  1776 
married  J.  B.  P.  Le  Brun,  the  grandnephew 
of  Charles  Le  Brun.  Her  great  beauty  and 
charming  painting  made  her  very  popular, 
and  her  first  painting  of  Marie  Antoinette 
(1779)  made  her  the  friend  of  the  queen. 
In  1783,  after  much  opposition  on  account 
of  her  sex,  she  was  admitted  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Painting.  She  left 


Paris  at  the  Revolution,  and  after  a  trium- 
phant tour  of  Europe,  arrived  in  London  in 
1802,  where  she  painted  the  portraits  of 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  Lord  Byron  and  others. 
She  returned  to  Paris  in  1805,  and  remained 
there  until  her  death,  March  30,  1842. 
Many  of  her  best  works,  which,  besides 
portraits,  comprise  landscapes  and  his- 
torical subjects,  are  in  the  Louvre  in  Paris. 
Leck'y,  William  Edward  Hartpole, 
historian  and  philosopher,  was  born  near 
Dublin,  March  26, 
1838,  and  gradu- 
ated from  Trin- 
ity in  1850.  He 
anonymously 
published  Lead- 
ers of  Public 
Opinion  in  Ire- 
land, brilliant  es- 
says on  Flood, 
Swift,  Grattan, 
and  O'Connell. 
His  later  works 
are  History  of 
Rationalism,  in 
Europe,  History 

WILLIAM  E.  H.  LECKY      £/    European 
M  orals      from 

Augustus  to  Charlemagne  and  his  philo- 
sophical study  and  historical  portraiture  of 
England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century.  He  sat 
in  the  House  of  Commons  for  Dublin  Uni- 
versity, but  declared  strongly  against  Irish 
Home  rule.  His  later  works  include  De- 
mocracy and  Liberty  and  reflective  philoso- 
phy entitled  The  Map  of  Life.  He  died  on 
Oct.  22,  1903. 

Lcclaire  (le-cler'),  I2dme=Jean,  father  of 
the  modern  system  of  profit-sharing,  was 
born  at  Aisy-sur-Armanfon,  100  miles 
southeast  of  Paris,  May  14,  1801.  At  Paris 
he  apprenticed  himself  to  a  house-painter, 
and  in  his  2  6th  year  began  business  on  his 
own  account.  Having  a  large  number  of 
workmen  under  him,  and  believing  that 
it  was  his  duty  not  only  to  pay  them  reasona- 
ble wages  but  to  build  up  their  manliness 
and  self-respect  and  to  do  away  with  all 
causes  of  antagonism  between  himself  and 
his  workmen,  he  determined  to  adopt  Fre- 
gier's  advice  and  allow  them  to  participate 
in  the  profits  of  his  business.  The  system 
of  profit-sharing  which  he  devised  worked 
most  successfully.  There  were  no  strikes 
among  his  workmen;  they  not  only  worked 
more  faithfully  and  efficiently,  but  were 
better  satisfied  than  employes  under  a  strict 
wage  system.  To  what  extent  Leclaire's 
principle  of  profit-sharing  might  be  made 
a  means  of  solving  all  questions  now  in  issue 
between  capital  and  labor  is  a  question 
well-worthy  the  consideration  of  all  political 
economists  and  social  reformers.  Leclaire 
died  on  July  13,  1872. 

Le  Conte  (le  kdnt')  Joseph  (1823-1901), 
an  eminent  American  physicist,  born  in 


LECONTE  DE  LISLE 


1045 


LEE 


Liberty  County,  Georgia.  He  graduated 
at  Franklin  College,  Georgia,  in  1841  and 
at  the  New  York  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons  in  1845.  For  a  few  years  he 
practiced  as  a  physician  in  Macon,  Georgia, 
but  in  1850  entered  Harvard  to  study  under 
Agassiz,  and  in  1851  accompanied  Agassiz 
on  an  exploring  expedition  to  Florida. 
After  graduating  at  Lawrence  Scientific 
School,  Cambridge,  he  in  turn  was  pro- 
fessor of  natural  sciences  in  Oglethorpe 
University,  of  natural  history  in  Franklin 
College,  of  chemistry  and  geology  in  the 
University  of  South  Carolina  and,  from 
1869  to  his  death,  of  natural  history  and 
geology  in  the  University  of  California. 
Professor  Le  Conte  did  much  to  popularize 
the  study  of  geology  in  America,  and  con- 
tributed much  valuable  information  to 
scientific  literature.  His  most  important 
publications  include  Religion  and  Science; 
Elements  of  Geology;  Compend  of  Geology; 
and  Evolution  and  Its  Relation  to  Religious 
Thought. 

Leconte  de  Lisle  (le-kont  de  lei'),  Charles 
Marie,  a  French  poet,  was  born  on  the 
island  of  Reunion,  Oct.  25,  1818.  He  en- 
joyed the  advantages  of  a  thorough  educa- 
tion, and  after  a  few  years  of  travel  entered 
upon  a  literary  life  in  Paris.  As  he  grew 
older,  his  ardent  nature  found  a  congenial 
field  in  the  study  of  Greek  ideals  and  Orien- 
tal pantheism.  Besides  his  own  poems, 
he  translated  many  Latin  and  Greek  classics. 
Leconte  greatly  influenced  the  younger 
poets  of  his  time,  and  his  fame  is  increasing 
rather  than  diminishing.  He  showed  great 
and  deep  sympathy  with  the  dumb  emotion 
in  nature,  and  made  his  readers  feel  the 
vaster  aspects  of  forest,  sea  and  sky.  He 
also  showed  a  wonderful  comprehension  of 
all  feelings  and  passions  that  agitate  the 
soul,  but  appeared  himself  unmoved  by 
them;  and  he  surveyed  human  life  with 
almost  perfect  clearness  and  calmness.  He 
died  on  July  17,  1894. 

Lec'ture-Bu'reaus,  or  offices  from  which 
lecturers  may  be  engaged  for  popular 
audiences,  upon  the  whole  are  a  growth  of 
the  last  decade,  not  only  in  the  United 
States,  but  abroad.  They  represent  an 
attempt  at  better  organization  of  adult 
education.  Lecture-bureaus  have  devel- 
oped out  of  the  employment  of  lecturers  by 
workingmen's  associations,  trade-unions, 
temperance  societies,  university-extension 
boards  and,  especially,  by  associations 
formed  for  conducting  popular  lectures. 
In  Sweden  the  oldest  lecture-bureau  dates 
from  1898.  In  1902  this  bureau  employed 
50  lecturers  to  give  ooo  lectures.  In  the 
United  States  lecture-bureaus  have  attained 
great  importance;  and  several  have  been 
established  in  connection  with  public  school 
systems,  as  in  the  case  of  New  York  City. 
In  England  private  lecture-bureaus  have 
scarcely  been  able  to  compete  with  the 


university-extension  movement.  In  France 
lecture-bureaus  have  developed  since  the 
thorough  governmental  investigation  (.1895) 
of  adult  education.  Lecture-bureaus  are 
essentially  mediating  agencies  whose  func- 
tion it  is  to  bring  together  those  who  re- 
quire instruction  and  inspiration  and  those 
who  are  qualified  to  give  them.  They  are 
usually  supported  by  a  percentage  of  the 
fees  or  price  of  admission  and  by  a  charge 
for  the  registration  of  lecturers.  Among 
the  best  known  lecture-bureaus  in  the 
United  States  are  the  Pond  (J.  B.)  Lyceum 
Bureau  at  Everett  House,  Fourth  Avenue 
and  Seventeenth  Street,  New  York  City; 
and  the  Phipps  Lyceum  Bureau,  1690  Broad- 
way, New  York  City.  Most  of  the  American 
lecture-bureaus  also  are  musical  agencies 

Ledyard  (led'yerd),  John,  an  American 
explorer,  was  born  at  Groton,  Conn,  in 
1751.  He  entered  Dartmouth  College  to 
prepare  for  missionary  work  among  the  In- 
dians. But  such  was  his  passion  tor  travel 
that,  after  floating  down  the  Connecticut 
in  a  canoe,  he  shipped  as  a  common  sailor. 
In  1776-80  he  accompanied  Cook  on  the 
voyage  around  the  world.  In  1787  he  ob- 
tained permission  from  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment to  accompany  a  Scotch  physician 
in  the  Russian  service  to  Siberia.  Alter 
going  with  Dr.  Brown  to  southern  Siberia 
Ledyard  proceeded  alone  to  Tomsk  and 
Irkutsk,  visited  Lake  Baikal  and  sailed 
down  the  Lena  to  Yakutsk,  a  distance  ot 
1,400  miles.  He  sought  permission  to 
proceed  to  Ohkotsk;  but  this  was  refused. 
Returning  to  Irkutsk  he  was  suddenly  ar- 
rested —  for  what  cause  has  never  been 
fully  explained  —  hurried  to  Poland  and 
there  dismissed  with  the  warning  that  he 
would  be  hanged  if  he  set  foot  in  Russia 
again.  Ledyard  made  his  way  to  London, 
"disappointed,  ragged  and  penniless" — 
to  use  his  own  words  —  "but  with  a  whole 
heart,"  and  was  cordially  befriended  by  Sir 
Joseph  Banks.  In  1788  he  took  command 
of  a  British  exploring  expedition  into 
Africa,  but  died  at  Cairo,  Jan.  17,  1789.  He 
was  one  of  the  greatest  of  exploring  travel- 
ers. See  Sparks'  Memoir 

Lee,   Ann.     See  SHAKERS. 

Lee,  Charles,  an  American  Revolution- 
ary general,  was  born  in  1731  at  Dernhall, 
Cheshire,  England.  He  inherited  a  taste 
for  military  life.  He  took  part  in  Brad- 
dock's  campaign.  He  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  colonies  in  1773.  His  military  reputa- 
tion gained  him  an  appointment  as  major- 
general.  His  career  disappointed  confidence. 
His  base  ingratitude  was  never  known  until 
1857,  when  a  document  was  found  in  which, 
while  a  British  prisoner  (1777),  he  had  sub- 
mitted to  the  British  general  a  plan  for  the 
overthrow  of  the  American  army.  He  re- 
joined the  American  army  at  Valley  Forge 
(1778).  From  this  time  his  course  was 
marked  by  greater  inefficiency  and  insubor- 


LEE 


1046 


LEE 


FITZHUGH    LEE 


dination  than  before.  In  1779  his  commis- 
sion was  revoked  in  consequence  of  an 
insulting  note  to  the  presiding  officer  of 
Congress.  He  died  on  Oct.  2,  1782.  See 
his  Life  by  Jared  Sparks  in  his  Library  of 
American  Biography  and  that  by  G.  H. 
Moore. 

Lee,  Fitzhugh,  an  American  soldier,  was 
born  in  Fairfax  County,  Va.,  Nov.  19,  1835. 
He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1856.  At  the 
Civil  War  he  entered 
the  Confederate  serv- 
ice, advancing  to  the 
rank  of  major-general. 
In  1885  he  was  elected 
[governor  of  Virginia, 
'serving  until  1890.  He 
•  was  appointed  consul- 
general  to  Havana  by 
President  Cleveland, 
and  was  retained  at 
that  post  by  President 
McKmley.  He  cared 
for  the  interests  of  the  United  States  with 
signal  ability  during  the  investigation  of  the 
destruction  of  the  Maine  and  throughout 
the  trying  times  preceding  the  Spanish- 
American  War.  In  that  war  he  served  as 
major-general  of  volunteers,  and  after  peace 
was  declared  he  was  made  governor1  of  the 
province  ot  Havana.  He  was  later  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  in  the  regulai 
army,  retiring  in  1901  He  died  in  1905. 
Lee,  Henry,  a  Revolutionary  soldier,  was 
born  in  Virginia.  Jan.  29,  1756.  He  gradu- 
uated  at  Princeton  College,  and  in  1776  was 
appointed  a  captain  of  cavalry,  and  in  the 
following  year  joined  the  main  army.  His 
vigor  and  ability  attracted  the  attention  of 
Washington,  and  his  command  was  soon 
distinguished  for  the  rapidity  of  movement 
and  soldierly  daring  which  afterward  made 
Lee's  legion  so  famous  and  gave  him  the 
name  of  Light-Hoi se  Harry.  In  1786  Lee 
was  sent  to  Congress  by  the  Virginia  assem- 
bly, and  in  1792  he  was  elected  governor 
of  Virginia.  As  a  member  of  Congress,  at 
the  death  of  Washington  in  1799,  he  was 
appointed  to  prepare  the  eulogy  upon  the 
life  and  character  of  his  dead  chieftain. 
His  resolutions  contained  the  often  quoted 
words:  "first  in  war,  first  in  peace  and  first 
in  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen."  Lee  was 
in  Baltimore  in  1814,  when  the  office  of 
The  Federal  Republican  was  sacked  by  a 
mob  He  took  an  active  part  against  them, 
and  with  his  friends  was  placed  in  jail  for 
safe-keeping,  but  the  mop  broke  into  the 
building  and  killed  or  seriously  injured  all 
its  inmates.  Lee  never  recovered  from  his 
injuries  and  soon  made  a  voyage  to  the 
West  Indies  in  a  vain  search  of  health.  He 
died  on  March  25,  1818. 

Lee,  Richard  Henry,  a  Revolutionary 
statesman  and  oratoi,  was  born  in  Virginia, 
Jan.  20,  1732.  Soon  after  he  was  of  age  he 


was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  house  of  bur- 
gesses, where  his  first  speech  was  in  opposi- 
tion to  slavery,  which  he  proposed  to 
abolish  by  placing  a  heavy  tax  on  all  future 
importation  of  slaves.  In  1767  he  spoke 
against  the  acts  which  levied  duties  upon 
tea  and  other  articles,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  suggested  private  correspondence 
between  the  friends  of  liberty  in  the  differ- 
ent colonies.  He  is  also  said  to  have 
originated  the  idea  of  a  congress  of  the 
colonies,  which  was  carried  into  effect  in 
1774,  when  the  first  Continental  Congress 
assembled  in  Philadelphia.  Lee  was  one  of 
the  delegates  from  "Virginia,  and  took  active 
part  in  its  deliberations,  the  delegates  from 
other  colonies  being  not  only  impressed  with 
his  great  ability  and  knowledge,  but  with  the 
"fire  and  splendor"  of  his  eloquence.  He 
also  wrote  the  address  to  the  people  of 
Great  Britain,  directed  by  Congress  in  1775, 
which  was  one  of  the  strongest  state  papers 
of  the  time.  On  June  7,  1776,  by  the  in- 
struction of  the  Virginia  house  of  burgesses, 
he  introduced  the  famous  resolutions  declar- 
ing "that  these  united  colonies  ate,  and  of 
right  ought  to  be,  free  and  independent 
states;  that  they  are  absolved  from  all 
allegiance  to  the  British  crown."  During 
his  long  service  Lee  became  a  warm  sup- 
porter of  Washington,  sustaining  him  in  all 
the  more  important  acts  of  his  administra- 
tion. He  was  popular  on  account  of  his 
liberality  and  amiable  disposition  as  well 
as  his  ardent  patriotism.  He  retired  from 
public  life  in  1792,  and  died  on  June  19, 
1794.  See  Life  by  R.  H.  Lee. 

Lee,.  Robert  Edward,  "Marse  Robert," 
as  the  great  military  leader  of  the  Con- 
federacy was 
affectionately 
called  by  the 
people  of  the 
south,  died  five 
years  after  the 
close  of  the 
Civil  War.  He 
knew  the  day 
would  come 
when  Blue  and 
Grey  would 
clasp  hands 
above  all  those 

f raves.      Could 
e    have    lived 
until  the  cent- 
enary ot  his  own 
birth,  Jan.    19, 
1907,    he    would    have    heard    his    eulogy 

6 -enounced  by  a  Massachusetts  Adams. 
e  would  have  seen  all  parties  and 
a  national  press  united  to  do  honor  not 
only  to  his  genius  as  one  of  the  greatest 
soldiers  America  has  produced,  but  also  to 
the  nobility  of  his  character  as  a  man. 

Lee  was  born  at  Stratford,  Westmoreland 
County,  Virginia.     His  father  was   Light- 


ROBERT    EDWARD    LEE 


LEE 


1047 


LEE 


Horse  Harry  Lee  of  Revolutionary  fame, 
and  he  was  a  descendant  of  two  signers  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  Patriot- 
ism was  a  tradition  of  the  family.  So  it 
was  natural  that  he  should  be  educated  for 
the  army.  He  graduated  from  West  Point 
in  1829,  entering  the  engineering  branch  of 
service.  At  25  he  married  Mary  Custis, 
great-granddaughter  of  Martha  Washing- 
ton and  heiress  of  the  beautiful  estate  of 
Arlington  on  the  Potomac  opposite  Wash- 
ington City.  Fortune  seemed  to  have 
marked  him  for  its  own.  To  birth,  wealth, 
a  cultivated  mind,  courtly  manners,  a  fine 
physique  and  handsome  face  were  added 
personal  happiness  and  eminence  in  his 
profession.  As  chief  engineer  of  the  army 
in  the  Mexican  War  he  won  distinction;  as 
superintendent  of  West  Point  in  the  fifties 
he  introduced  the  best  methods  known  in 
Europe.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War 
he  had  only  the  rank  of  a  colonel,  but 
General  Winfield  Scott,  head  of  the  national 
forces,  was  too  old  to  take  the  field,  and 
he  looked  upon  Lee  as  his  most  probable 
successor. 

In  1852,  in  entering  his  own  son  at  West 
Point,  Lee  said  to  him:  "Duty  is  the  sub- 
limest  word  in  the  language;  you  cannot  do 
more  than  your  duty;  you  should  never 
wish  to  do  less."  Now  the  question  of  duty 
confronted  Lee  himself.  From  the  very 
beginning  of  our  government  the  question 
of  state-sovereignty  versus  the  Union  was 
a  matter  of  debate.  The  south  had  gen- 
erally advocated  the  principle  of  state- 
sovereignty.  Lee  was  a  southerner.  He 
felt  that  his  fealty  belonged  first  to  Virginia. 
In  the  same  crisis  Admiral  Farragut  decided 
for  the  Federal  government.  In  remember- 
ing Lee's  decision,  it  must  also  be  remem- 
bered that  his  interests  lay  with  the  gov- 
ernment, where  immediate  promotion 
awaited  him,  with  protection  for  his  home 
and  family  within  the  fortifications  of  the 
ital.  There  is  reason  to  believe,  now, 
,t  he  knew  that  the  Union  must  triumph, 
that  he  consciously  led  a  "lost  cause" 

rom  the  beginning.  Beautiful  Arlington, 
his  wife's  birthplace,  his  own  home  for  30 
years,  and  his  children's  ancestral  inher- 
itance, was  lost  immediately.  It  lay  on 
the  natural  line  of  defense  of  the  capital, 
and  became  the  first  camping  ground  of 
the  northern  army.  His  fortune  was  lost 
when  he  resigned  his  commission  and 
offered  his  services  to  the  south.  In  the 
spring  of  1862  he  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  armies  operating  in  defense  of  Rich- 
mond. The  masterly  strategy  which  Lee 
displayed  in  the  "Seven  Days'  battles" 
around  Richmond  showed  him  to  be  a 
commander  of  the  highest  order  of  ability. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  his  movements  in 
opposition  to  General  Pope  a  few  weeks 
later.  Lee's  success  against  McClellan  and 

Pope  emboldened  him  to  attempt  an  in- 


vasion of  Maryland  in  the  fall  of  1862.  This 
campaign  was  terminated  by  the  battle  of 
Antietam,  fought  on  the  i6th  and  iyth  of 
September.  Not  being  pursued  by  Mc- 
Clellan after  this  battle,  Lee  recrossed  the 
Potomac  unmolested  and  then  moved  up 
the  Shenandoah  valley  into  the  valley  of 
the  Rappahannock,  taking  position  near 
Culpeper  Court  House  McClellan  at  length 
followed,  but  on  the  7th  of  November  was 
superseded  by  General  Ambrose  E.  Burn- 
side.  Soon  after  assuming  command  of  the 
army,  Burnside  moved  up  the  Rappahan- 
nock, intending  to  cross  the  river  at  Fred- 
ericksburg  and  proceed  from  that  point  to 
Richmond;  but,  when  he  reached  Fredericks- 
burg,  he  found  Lee  in  position  ready  to 
dispute  his  passage.  After  some  delay 
Burnside  succeeded  in  crossing  the  river 
and  attacked  Lee,  but  was  defeated  with 
considerable  loss.  He  succeeded,  however, 
in  recrossing  the  river,  and  a  few  days  later 
was  relieved  of  his  command,  and  General 
Joseph  Hooker  was  appointed  in  his  place. 
After  considerable  time  spent  in  prepara- 
tion Hooker  moved  against  Lee;  but  was 
defeated  and  driven  back  at  the  battle  of 
Chancellorsville,  May  2-4.  Lee  soon  gath- 
ered together  all  his  available  forces  and 
moved  northward,  his  campaign  ending 
with  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  which  took 

Slace  on  the  first  three  days  of  July,  1863. 
n  the  first  two  days  of  this  battle  the 
advantage  seemed  to  rest  with  Lee's  army, 
but  on  the  third  day  he  staked  the  issue 
in  a  grand  charge,  which  was  completely 
repulsed,  and  he  was  compelled  to  order  a 
retreat.  He  succeeded  in  recrossing  the 
Potomac,  and  was  again  safe  in  Virginia. 

No  operations  of  importance  were  under- 
taken by  either  army  during  the  winter  of 
1863-64,  but  early  in  May,  1864,  Lieutenant- 
General  U.  S.  Grant  was  called  to  Wash- 
ington, and  took  the  field  against  Lee's 
army  in  person.  Grant  attempted  to  turn 
Lee's  right  flank  by  a  march  through  the 
densely  wooded  region  known  as  the  Wilder- 
ness. Here  occurred  two  days'  bloody  but 
indecisive  fighting,  after  which  Grant  again 
sought  to  turn  Lee's  flank  by  marching  to 
Spottsylvania  Court  House.  At  this  place, 
on  the  1 2th  of  May,  there  was  another 
bloody  and  indecisive  engagement  between 
the  opposing  forces.  The  two  commanders 
continued  to  confront  and  manoeuvre  against 
each  other  for  some  weeks  without  coming 
to  a  general  engagement  and  without  any 
result,  save  that  Lee  was  gradually  forced 
back  toward  Richmond,  until  he  occupied 
very  nearly  the  same  ground  that  Mc- 
Clellan's  army  had  occupied  two  years  be- 
fore. After  making  an  unsuccessful  attack 
upon  Lee's  position  at  Cold  Harbor  on 
June  3,  Grant  moved  down  the  Chicka- 
nominy  to  the  James  and,  after  crossing  the 
latter  river,  entered  upon  the  siege  of  Peters- 
burg, which  continued  till  the  spring  of 


LEE 


1048 


LEFEBVRE 


1865.     Grant's   army   then   entered   upon 
more  active  operations,  and  Lee  was  com- 

g;lled  to  abandon  both  Petersburg  and 
ichmond.  He  was  still  hotly  pursued  by 
Grant,  and  a  few  days  later  at  Appomattox 
Court  House  his  entire  force  surrendered, 
and  the  war  came  to  an  end.  Lee  might 
have  prolonged  the  struggle  indefinitely  by 
breaking  up  his  army  into  guerrilla  bands 
and  scattering  them  among  the  mountains, 
but  this  he  refused  to  do.  There  are  few 
instances  of  the  nobility  with  which  he 
accepted  defeat,  and  set  himself  to  help- 
ing to  make  his  country  once  more  a  union 
of  loyal  states. 

Although  impoverished  by  the  war  and 
face  to  face  with  old  age,  he  refused  wealth 
and  places  of  honor  in  service  abroad,  to 
accept  the  presidency  of  Washington  and 
Lee  University  at  Lexington,  Virginia.  Its 
doors  had  been  closed  four  years.  This 
was  General  Lee's  part  in  the  work  of 
reconstruction.  It  was  the  last  call  to 
duty.  In  the  last  five  years  of  his  life  900 
young  southerners  came  under  his  care,  to 
learn  the  duty  of  cooling  their  hot  heads  and 
sweetening  their  bitter  hearts.  The  day 
of  final  reconciliation  must  have  seemed 
very  far  away,  indeed,  when,  on  Oct.  12, 
1870,  "Marse  Robert"  fell  asleep,  and  was 
buried  in  the  college  chapel.  See  General 
Long's  Memoirs  of  Robert  E.  Lee. 

Lee,  Sidney,  an  eminent  English  author, 
critic  and  man  of  letters,  was  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1859  and  educated  at  the  City  of 
London  School  and  at  Balliol  College,  Ox- 
ford. With  Sir  Leslie  Stephen  he  shared 
the  editorship  of  the  English  Dictionary  of 
National  Biography,  completing  that  great 
work  alone  in  1891-1901.  He  is  acknowl- 
edged the  first  authority  on  matters  Shak- 
sperian,  and  has  written  a  classic  life  of 
the  poet.  His  other  published  work  in- 
cludes Great  Englishmen  of  the  i6th  Cen- 
tury, the  Poems  of  Shakespeare  and  Shake- 
speare and  the  Modern  Stage,  with  Strat- 
jord-on-Avon.  In  1886  he  edited  the  Auto- 
biography of  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury.  In 
1903  he  visited  the  United  States,  lectur- 
ing at  several  of  the  universities. 

Leech,  a  segmented  worm  usually  with  a 
flattened  body  having  a  rounded  sucker  at 
each  end.  Most  forms  live  in  the  water 
and  are  commonly  called  blood-suckers. 
They  attach  themselves  to  cattle  and  swim- 
mers, and  also  are  parasites  on  fishes, 
Crustacea  etc.  There  are  land-leeches,  too, 
in  the  damp  forests  of  Asia,  which  are 
fearful  pests.  The  blood-sucking  leeches  are 
provided  with  jaws  in  the  middle  of  the 
front  sucker.  They  consist  of  flattened 
plates,  the  outer  edges  of  which  are  rounded 
and  divided  into  numerous  sharp  points  like 
teeth  of  a  saw.  Three  of  them  radiate  from 
the  center,  and  the  wound  they  inflict  is 
three-parted.  Leeches  are  used  in  medicine 
for  letting  blood.  The  stomach  extends 


through  the  body  and  is  sacculated;  it  can 
become  greatly  distended  by  blood.  The 
sense-organs  are  of  especial  interest  to 
zoologists.  They  are  located  on  the  sur- 
face in  rows  of  small,  rounded  papillae. 
These  show  a  graded  series  in  which  touch- 
spots  are  gradually  modified  into  eyes,  as 
we  pass  from  the  hind  to  the  front  end  of 
the  body.  In  many  species  there  are  ten 
eyes. 

Leech,  John,  an  English  artist,  whose 
drawings  and  sketches  in  Punch  won  world- 
wide fame,  was  born  at  London  on  Aug.  29, 
1817.  He  adopted  art  as  his  profession  at 
an  early  age,  and  in  the  fourth  number  of 
Punch,  Aug.  7,  1841,  we  find  his  first  con- 
tribution to  the  journal  with  which  his 
name  is  most  closely  associated  and  with 
which  he  was  connected  until  his  death. 
The  cartoons  which  he  designed  for  Punch, 
illustrating  the  politics,  fashions  and  follies 
of  the  day,  especially  those  dealing  with 
the  political  life  of  Brougham,  Palmerston 
and  Russell,  revealed  genius  of  high  order 
and  attracted  the  notice  of  all  classes. 
Equally  delightful  were  the  woodcuts  which 
dealt  in  gently  humorous  fashion  with  every- 
day life.  He  died  at  Kensington,  Oct.  29, 
1864. 

Leeds,  the  first  town  in  Yorkshire  and 
the  fifth  in  England  in  population,  is  a 
municipal  borough,  and  since  1885  returns 
five  members  to  the  house  of  commons. 
It  is  the  seat  of  important  manufactures, 
especially  of  clothing.  It  is  estimated  that 
merchandize  to  the  value  of  $60,000,000 
passes  through  its  warehouses  annually. 
Next  to  the  woolen  trade  are  the  iron 
manufactories,  which  employ  about  30,000 
persons.  There  are  nearly  120  churches  in 
Leeds.  The  chief  church-building  is  St. 
Peter's  in  Kirkgate.  Population  in  1911, 
estimated,  445,568. 

Leeward  (le'werd)  Islands,  name  given 
by  English  and  French  geographers  to  the 
Lesser  Antilles  (see  WEST  INDIA  ISLANDS), 
extending  from  15°  to  19°  north  latitude. 
Reckoning  from  the  south,  their  order  is 
nearly  as  follows:  Dominica  (British),  Marie 
Galante  (French),  Guadeloupe  (French), 
Montserrat  (British),  Antigua  (British) ,  Nev- 
is (British),  St.  Christopher's  (British),  Bar- 
bados (British),  St.  Eustache  (Dutch),  St. 
Bartholomew  (French),  Saba  (Dutch),  St. 
Croix  (Danish),  St.  Martin  (French  and 
Dutch),  Anguilla  (British),  Curacoa  (Dutch), 
Virgin  Islands  (Danish  and  British).  The 
total  area  is  about  5,000  square  miles;  that 
of  those  belonging  to  England  is  700  square 
miles.  The  area  of  Antigua,  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  group,  is  about  108  square 
miles;  chief  town,  St.  John  (population 
9,300);  The  exports  are  chiefly  sugar,  rum, 
cocoa,  fruit  ana  spices. 

Lefebvre  (le-f&t/r'),  Francois  Joseph, 
marshal  of  France  and  duke  of  Dantsic, 
was  born  at  Ruffach,  in  Alsace,  Oct.  25, 


LEGAL 


1049 


LEGION  OF  HONOR 


1755,  and  died  at  Paris,  Sept.  14,  1820. 
He  played  a  prominent  part  under  Napo- 
leon in  all  his  wars,  1799-1814;  was  en- 
nobled by  the  Bourbons;  stood  by  Napo- 
leon in  1815;  and  yet  did  not  lose  by  his 
master's  final  fall. 

Legal,  Right  Reverend  Emile  I.,  bishop 
of  St.  Albert,  Alberta,  Canada,  was  born  in 
Nantes,  France,  1849,  educated  there  and 
ordained  in  1874.  Professor  of  mathematics 
for  five  years  at  St.  Stanislaus  College, 
Nantes,  in  1879  he  joined  the  Oblate  mis- 
sionaries. Sent  in  1881  to  the  Northwest 
Territories,  for  nine  years  he  served  as  a 
missionary  amongst  the  Peigan  Indians  and 
eight  years  among  the  Blood  Indians.  Ap- 
pointed co-adjutor  in  1897  to  Bishop  Grand, 
he  succeeded  as  bishop  in  1902,  promotes 
missions,  has  established  a  seminary  and 
is  building  a  large  cathedral. 

Le  Gallienne,  Richard,  an  English  jour- 
nalist, writer  of  prose  and  verse  and  editor, 
was  born  in  Liverpool  in  1866.  After  study- 
ing and  serving  for  seven  years  with  a  firm 
of  accountants  he  abandoned  this  profession 
for  literature.  For  a  time  he  was  secretary 
to  Wilson  Barrett,  and  again  wrote  at  dif- 
ferent times  for  the  Star,  Daily  Chronicle, 
Speaker  and  New  York  Journal.  He  is 
a  keen  critic,  and  in  1899  made  a  heavy 
attack  upon  Kiplingism  in  Rudyard  Kipling. 
He  has  gained  some  reputation  in  the 
United  States  as  a  lecturer,  and  at  present 
resides  in  New  York.  Among  his  works 
may  be  mentioned  Retrospective  Reviews, 
Prose  Fancies,  George  Meredith,  The  Book- 
Bills  of  Narcissus  and  Robert  Louis  Steven- 
son and  other  Poems. 

Legend  (lej'end),  from  the  Latin  word 
legere,  to  read,  was  a  term  originally 
given  to  portions  of  Scripture  and  certain 
other  religious  writings,  especially  the  lives 
of  saints  and  martyrs,  that  were  to  be  read 
in  the  services  of  the  early  Christian  church. 
The  founding  of  monasticism  caused  a  vast 
mass  of  this  literature  to  be  brought  forth, 
much  of  which,  manifestly,  was  the  work  of 
the  imagination.  It  ever  is  the  tendency 
of  the  mind  to  enshrine  saints  and  heroes 
in  fable  and  give  free  scope  to  the  feelings 
and  the  imagination  in  picturing  their  lives 
and  characters.  Consequently,  notwith- 
standing the  strange  intermixture  of  truth 
and  falsehood  in  these  legendary  tales,  they 
gradually  established  themselves  both  in  the 
eastern  and  the  western  church,  and  in  the 
course  of  time  gained  a  place  in  the  litera- 
ture of  Christian  nations.  Although  the 
origin  of  the  word  legend  is  ecclesiastical, 
it  has  also  come  to  be  applied  to  any  fabu- 
lous narrative  handed  down  by  tradition. 

Legendre  (le-zhan'dr'),  Adrien  Marie,  a 
distinguished  mathematician,  was  born  at 
Toulouse,  France,  in  1752.  Legendre  first 
made  known  the  proposition  of  spherical 
success,  now  considered  an  essential  the- 
orem of  trigonometry;  just  as  in  1806  he 


enunciated  the  first  proposal  to  use  the 
method  of  least  squares  in  his  New 
Methods  for  the  Determination  of  the  Orbits 
of  the  Comets.  In  1827  appeared  his  Treatise 
on  Ellipses  —  a  subject  with  which  his  name 
must  always  remain  associated.  He  wrote 
several  other  mathematical  works,  some  of 
the  highest  importance.  His  best  known 
book  is  his  Elements  of  Geometry,  translated 
into  many  languages  —  and  by  Thomas 
Carlyle  into  English.  His  Theory  of  Num- 
bers is  a  classic  still,  and  shows  much 
original  power.  Legendre  died  at  Paris, 
Jan.  10,  1833. 

Leg'horn  (It.  Livorno),  largest  seaport 
in  Tuscany,  Italy,  is  situated  on  the  Medi- 
terranean coast,  13  miles  by  rail  from  Pisa 
and  62  from  Florence.  The  houses  for  the 
most  part  are  of  modern  style,  lofty  and 
roomy,  the  streets  broad  and  clean,  and 
there  are  fine  squares,  adorned  with  statues 
of  the  grand-duke  of  Tuscany.  The  north- 
western portion  of  the  city  being  intersected 
by  numerous  canals,  it  is  sometimes  called 
New  Venice.  The  sulphur  springs  and 
sea-bathing  attract  a  large  concourse  of 
travelers  and  visitors  every  season.  The 
trade  is  large,  the  number  of  vessels  enter- 
ing and  clearing  the  port  in  1905  being 
about  8,500  of  a  combined  total  tonnage 
of  4,600,000  tons.  Leghorn  is  defended 
both  landward  and  seaward  by  forts  and 
fortifications,  constructed  mostly  in  1835-37. 
Population  108,000.  Livorno  also  is  a  de- 
partment in  the  province  of  Tuscany, 
whose  area  is  133  square  miles  and  popula- 
tion 137,138.  The  exports,  besides  wines 
and  fruits,  embrace  marble,  hemp,  hides, 
coral,  soap,  boracic  acid,  olive  oil  aad  the 
well-known  Leghorn  hat. 

Le'gion,  in  the  Roman  military  organi- 
zation, was  very  similar  to  what  in  modern 
times  is  called  an  army-corps.  In  the  time 
of  the  republic  a  legion  was  composed  of 
4,500  men  as  follows:  1,200  were  hastati  or 
inexperienced  troops;  1,200  principes  or 
well-trained  soldiers;  1,200  velites  or  skirm- 
ishers; 600  pilani  or  veterans,  forming  a 
reserve;  and  300  equites  or  knights,  who 
acted  as  cavalry  and  belonged  to  families 
of  rank.  During  this  early  period  the 
legions  were  formed  only  for  the  season,  the 
more  complete  organizations  being  effected 
during  the  civil  wars  and  in  the  time  of 
the  Caesars. 

Legion  of  Hon'or,  an  order  of  merit  in- 
stituted by  Napoleon  in  1802  as  a  reward  for 
military  and  civil  services,  all  previously 
existing  military  and  religious  orders  hav- 
ing been  abolished  by  the  Revolution.  It 
was  founded,  at  least  ostensibly,  for  the 
protection  of  republican  principles  and  the 
maintenance  of  the  laws  of  equality,  citi- 
zens of  all  grades  of  society  being  equally 
eligible;  and  all  persons  admitted  were 
required  to  do  all  in  their  power  for  the  as- 
sertion of  the  principles  of  freedom  and 


LEGUME 


X050 


LEIDY 


equality.  Candidates  in  time  of  peace 
must  have  served  in  some  military  or 
civil  capacity  for  25  years;  exploits  on 
the  field  or  severe  wounds  are  a  sufficient 
claim  in  time  of  war.  The  order  gives  free 
education  to  400  of  the  daughters,  sisters 
and  nieces  of  its  members. 

Leg'ume,  a  pod  consisting  of  a  single  car- 
pel which  splits  down  both  sides,  as  in  the 
bean,  pea  etc.  See  FRUIT. 

Le'high,  a  river  rising  in  Luzerne  County, 
Pa.,  and  flowing  through  the  eastern  part 
of  the  state  into  the  Delaware,  with  which 
it  unites  at  Easton.  Some  of  its  scenery  is 
very  picturesque ;  but  its  valley  is  especially 
noted  for  mines  of  anthracite,  for  which 
the  river  affords  an  outlet,  having  been 
rendered  navigable  by  extensive  improve- 
ments for  a  distance  of  nearly  100  miles 
from  its  mouth. 

Lehigh  University.  See  SOUTH  BETH- 
LEHEM. 

Leibniz  (llp'riits),  Gottfried  Wilhelm, 
German  philosopher  and  scholar,  was  born 
at  Leipsic  on  July  6,  1646.  Even  in  infancy 
he  showed  wonderful  capacity  for  acquir- 
ing knowledge.  He  seems  to  have  largely 
been  his  own  teacher,  pursuing  many 
studies  in  addition  to  those  of  the  regular 
course.  He  taught  himself  to  read  Livy 
when  only  eight;  and  his  father's  library 
was  thrown  open  with  permission  to  read 
to  his  heart's  content.  At  this  his  joy  knew 
no  bounds.  Before  he  was  12  he  had  made 
himself  familiar  with  the  Latin  classics, 
had  begun  the  study  of  Greek,  and  wrote 
verses  with  such  facility  that  his  friends 
feared  his  love  of  poetry  would  keep  him 
from  the  more  serious  pursuits  of  life.  He 
next  took  to  logic  and  philosophy,  and  soon 
made  himself  master  of  ancient  and  modern 
authors,  besides  developing  theories  and 
ideas  of  his  own.  In  1661  Leibniz  entered 
the  University  at  Leipsic  and  applied  him- 
self chiefly  to  mathematics  and  law;  but  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  law  being  refused  on 
account  of  his  youth  he  in  1666  graduated 
at  Altdorf,  the  university  town  of  Nurem- 
berg. His  thesis  attracted  so  much  atten- 
tion that  he  was  offered  a  professorship. 
This,  however,  he  declined,  having  "very 
different  things  in  view."  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  was  introduced  to  the  elector 
of  Mainz  by  whom  he  was  appointed  to 
the  office  of  councilor,  and  thus  obtained 
leisure  to  pursue  his  studies  in  politics  and 
philosophy.  From  1676  Leibniz  was  cus- 
todian of  the  public  library  of  Hannover 
until  his  death  on  Nov.  14,  1716.  In  ad- 
dition to  law,  science  and  philosophy, 
Leibniz  gave  much  attention  to  theological 
questions,  and  sought  earnestly  to  unite 
the  Protestant  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
church.  Failing  in  this,  he  afterwards 
sought  to  unite  the  Lutheran  and  the  Re- 
formed church  of  Prussia,  but  with  a  like 
want  of  success.  See  Guhrauer's  Life. 


Leicester  (IZs'ter'),  a  city  in  England,  is 
situated  on  Soar  River,  22  miles  south  of 
Nottingham.  Tradition  states  that  it  was 
founded  by  King  Lear,  and  occupies  the 
site  of  Roman  Ratae.  Many  Roman  relics 
have  been  found,  and  the  Jewry  Wall  is 
known  to  have  been  made  of  Roman  brick. 
The  old  town  hall,  the  new  city  buildings, 
free  library,  art  school  and  five  old  churches 
are  among  the  noticeable  buildings.  Lei- 
cester's rapid  grown  is  due  to  its  manu- 
factures, of  which  the  chief  are  hosiery, 
boots,  shoes,  webbing  and  lace.  The  city 
received  its  charter  from  King  John.  Popu- 
tion  248,374. 

Leicester,  Robert  Dudley,  Earl  of, 
was  born  in  1532  of  a  very  ambitious 
family.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth, 
he  became  one  of  her  favorites,  and  high 
honors  and  offices  were  conferred  upon  him. 
In  1550  Dudley  married  Amy  Robsart  and, 
the  marriage  proving  an  unhappy  one,  she 
removed  in  1560  to  the  house  of  Anthony 
Forster  in  Berkshire,  where  soon  after  she 
was  found  lying  dead  with  a  broken  neck 
at  the  foot  of  a  staircase.  The  circum- 
stances were  suspicious,  and  it  was  generally 
believed  that  she  was  murdered  and  that 
her  husband  was  an  accessory.  But  the 
queen  continued  to  bestow  gifts  and  honors 
upon  Dudley,  and  in  1564  created  him  Earl 
of  Leicester.  Great  attention  was  paid 
to  him  in  England  and  in  other  countries. 
In  1575  Elizabeth  visited  him  at  Kenil- 
worth  (q.  v.).  His  public  life  was  a  failure; 
yet  such  was  his  hold  upon  the  affection  of 
Elizabeth  that  in  1588  he  was  appointed  to 
command  the  forces  at  Tilbury  to  defend 
the  country  against  the  Spanish  Armada. 
He  died  suddenly  in  September  of  the  same 
year. 

Leidy  (ll'dl),  Joseph,  American  natural- 
ist and  physician,  was  born  at  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Sept.  9, 1823. 
He  graduated  in 
the  medical  de- 
partment of  the 
University  o  f 
Pennsylvania  in 
1844,  and  1111853 
was  made  pro- 
fessor of  anat- 
omy in  that  in- 
•stitution.  In 
1871  he  was 
made  professor 
of  natural  h  i  s- 
tory  at  Swarth- 

JOSEPH  LEIDY  more  College,  re- 

maining there 

until  1884,  when  he  was  appointed  director 
of  the  department  of  biology  established 
that  year  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
This  position  he  held  until  his  death  at 
Philadelphia,  April  30,  1891.  The  results 
of  his  researches,  which  were  of  great  im- 
portance and  value,  were  recorded  in  his 


LEIGHTON 


1051 


LEISLER 


LORD  LEIGHTON 


numerous  works.  These  include  Extinct 
Species  of  the  American  Ox;  Ancient  Fauna 
of  Nebraska;  Cretaceous  Reptiles  of  the 
United  States;  Extinct  Mammalian  Fauna 
of  Dakota  and  Nebraska;  and  The  Fossil  Horse. 
Leighton  (la' tun),  Lord  Frederick,  an 
English  painter,  was  born  at  Scarborough 

in  1830.  His 
early  years 
were  spent  in 
the  study  of  art 
under  the  best 
masters  in 
Rome,  F  1  o  r- 
ence, Frankfort, 
Paris  and  Brus- 
sels. His  fa- 
mous picture, 
Cimabue's  Ma- 
donna carried 
through  F  I  or- 
ence,  w  a  s  h  i  s 
first  appear- 
ance  in  the 
Royal  Acade- 
my i  n  1855, 
and  was  at  once 
purchased  b  y 
Queen  Victoria.  Other  paintings  are  Ar- 
iadne, Hercules  Wrestling  with  Death,  An- 
dromache, The  Harvest  Moon  and  Helen  of 
Troy.  He  also  was  known  as  a  sculptor. 
In  1878  he  became  president  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  was  made  a  baronet  in  1885. 
In  his  lifetime  he  received  almost  every 
honor  possible  to  an  artist.  He  died  on 
Jan.  25,  1896.  See  Life  and  Works  by 
Mrs.  Andrew  Long. 

Leighton,  Robert,  a  Scottish  prelate  of 
rare  gifts  and  saintly  character,  was  born 
at  Edinburgh  in  1611.  He  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1631,  and 
in  1 641  was  ordained  a  Presbyterian  minister. 
When  Charles  II  gained  the  throne,  he  per- 
suaded Leighton  to  accept  a  Scotch  bish- 
opric. He  labored  to  build  up  the  Epis- 
copal church,  but  his  work  "seemed  to  him 
a  fighting  against  God."  The  king's  object 
was  to  force  Episcopacy  upon  Scotland, 
while  Leighton's  design  was  to  reconcile 
Episcopacy  and  Presbyterianism.  In  1670 
he  was  appointed  archbishop  of  Glasgow, 
but  finding  all  efforts  to  secure  an  accom- 
modation with  the  Presbyterians  vain,  he 
resigned  in  1674  and  retired  to  England. 
Death  came  in  1684.  Leighton  left  various 
works,  the  most  valuable  of  which  is  a 
commentary  on  First  Peter.  Coleridge's 
Aids  to  Reflection  is  largely  based  on  cull- 
ings  from  Leighton's  writings. 

Leipsic  (lip'slk),  the  third  commercial 
city  of  Germany,  is  in  a  large  and  fertile 
plain  in  Saxony,  80  miles  by  rail  from  Dres- 
den and  100  from  Berlin.  The  inner  or 
ancient  town,  with  its  narrow  streets  and 
quaint-looking  houses,  is  separated  from 
the  modern  portion  by  a  broad  promenade, 


laid  out  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  walls. 
Its  population  is  over  500,000.  As  a  center 
of  trade  Leipsic  is  inferior  only  to  Ham- 
burg and  Berlin;  and  it  ranks  next  to  Lon- 
don and  Paris  in  its  publishing  and  book- 
selling. Nearly  five  hundred  houses  engage 
in  the  book-trade,  and  there  are  about  one 
hundred  printing  establishments,  while 
German  typefounding  has  its  principal 
center  here.  The  famous  Leipsic  fairs  are 
held  at  Easter,  Michaelmas  and  New  Year's, 
and  continue  from  three  to  five  weeks.  It 
is  estimated  that  the  usual  number  of 
visitors  at  these  fairs  is  over  50,000  and 
that  the  commercial  transactions  amount 
to  $50,000,000  annually.  The  university, 
founded  in  1408  by  a  secession  of  stu- 
dents from  Prague,  has  231  professors 
and  over  4,000  students.  It  has  a  library 
containing  nearly  400,000  volumes,  spacious 
medical  and  physical  laboratories  and 
other  "institutes,'  48  in  number.  Among 
other  educational  institutions  may  be 
mentioned  two  gymnasiums,  a  school  of 
commerce  and  a  conservatory  of  music. 
Leipsic  suffered  greatly  during  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  being  five  times  besieged  and 
taken;  and  the  great  victory  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus  over  Tilly,  the  imperial  general, 
Sept.  17,  1631,  was  gained  at  Breitenfield, 
near  the  city.  The  great  battle  of  Leipsic 
— justly  called  the  Battle  of  Nations — was 
fought  on  Oct.  16-19,  1813,  between  Napo- 
leon and  the  allied  forces  of  Russia, Prussia, 
Austria  and  Sweden.  Napoleon  had  about 
180,000  men,  the  allies  nearly  300,000. 
Napoleon's  signal  defeat  contributed  largely 
to  his  downfall  and  to  the  deliverance  of 
Europe  from  French  domination. 

Leis'Ier,  Jacob,  a  revolutionist,  born  at 
Frankfort-on-Main,  Germany,  emigrated  to 
America  in  1660,  and  took  up  his  residence 
in  Albany.  He  became  prominent  about 
1675.  He  was  appointed  one  of  the  com- 
missioners of  the  court  of  admiralty  in 
1683.  He  was  a  man  of  benevolent  spirit 
and  firm  principles,  although  these  principles 
were  not  always  in  accordance  with  the 
public  mind,  and  he  was  sometimes  forced 
into  jail  rather  than  abandon  them.  In 
June  of  1689  the  people  of  New  York, 
roused  and  excited  by  the  rumors  of  the 
political  revolution  in  England,  assembled 
in  arms  to  overthrow  the  existing  govern- 
ment. Leisler  then  was  at  the  head  of  the 
commercial  world  in  New  York,  and  was 
looked  upon  as  a  man  of  force  and  ability. 
Having  declared  himself  for  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  he  was  chosen  as  leader  of  the 
revolt.  He  was  at  the  head  of  the  mob 
which  held  the  fort  "for  the  present  Prot- 
estant power  that  reigns  in  England."  In 
1689,  Sloughter,  an  English  stranger,  had 
been  commissioned  in  London  as  governor 
of  the  province  of  New  York.  He  was 
detained  for  some  reason  in  England,  and 
did  not  arrive  until  1691.  Then,  being  a 


LEITH 


1052 


LEMUR 


man  of  no  morals  and  needy  and  avaricious, 
he  fell  into  the  hands  of  Leisler's  enemies, 
with  the  result  that  the  latter's  property 
was  confiscated  by  the  new  governor. 
Leisler  himself  was  thrown  into  prison  and 
shortly  afterwards  executed. 

Leith  (Uth),  an  important  seaport  in 
Scotland  and  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough,  stands  on  the  south  shore  of  the 
Firth  of  Forth,  two  miles  north  of  Edin- 
burgh. The  harbor  works  have  cost  more 
than  $5,000,000.  The  foreign,  colonial  and 
coaling  trade,  already  very  great,  is  con- 
stantly increasing,  and  there  is  regular 
steamboat  communication  with  London  and 
several  other  ports.  The  nine  months' 
siege  by  the  Protestants  in  1559-60  and  the 
surprise  of  its  citadel  by  the  Jacobites  in 
•^715  are  the  chief  events  in  its  history. 
Population  85,721. 

Le'land,  Charles  Godfrey,  an  American 
author,  was  born  at  Philadelphia,  Aug.  15, 
1824,  graduated  at  Princeton  College  in 
1846,  and  afterwards  studied  in  various 
European  cities.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
Philadelphia  bar  in  1851,  but  soon  gave  up 
law  for  journalism  and  literature.  Between 
1873  and  1890  he  published  four  valuable 
books  on  the  gypsies;  but  he  is  most  cele- 
brated for  his  poems,  written  in  the  Penn- 
sylvania "Dutch"  dialect,  under  the  name 
of  Hans  Breitmann's  Ballads.  He  died 
on  March  20,  1903. 

Le'ly,  Sir  Peter,  an  English  painter  of 
the  1 7th  century,  was  born  in  Westphalia 
in  1617,  and  died  at  London  in  1680.  At 
20  he  had  won  considerable  reputation  by 
his  painting  of  landscapes.  Coming  to  Eng- 
land in  1641,  he  determined  to  give  his 
attention  to  portrait  painting;  and  after  the 
death  of  Vandyke  he  was  acknowledged  to 
be  the  first  painter  in  England.  He  was 
introduced  to  Charles  I  a  year  or  two  after 
his  arrival,  and  painted  the  portrait  of  that 
prince.  During  the  Commonwealth  he 
painted  Cromwell's  portrait,  receiving  the 
command  to  make  a  true  likeness,  with  all 
the  warts  and  wrinkles  on  the  face  of  his 
subject.  Charles  II  made  him  court-painter 
and  conferred  on  him  the  honor  of  knight- 
hood. His  best-known  pieces  are  the 
Beauties  of  the  Court  of  Charles  II. 

Le'man,  Lake.     See  GENEVA,  LAKE  OF. 

Le  Mans  (le-mon'},  a  city  of  France  on 
the  Sarth,  132  miles  southwest  of  Paris. 
It  has  interesting  churches  and  a  seminary 
in  the  buildings  of  the  old  convent.  Its 
trade,  which  is  large,  is  in  poultry  and 
clover  seed,  and  the  manufactures  are 
candles,  woolens,  lace  and  soap.  It  was 
known  to  the  Romans  as  Cenomarum,  and 
was  the  birthplace  of  Henry  II  of  England. 
In  1871,  100,000  Frenchmen  were  defeated 
at  Le  Mans  by  Prince  Frederick  Charles  of 
Prussia.  Population  63,272. 

Lem'berg,  capital  of  the  Austrian  king- 
dom of  Galicia,  is  situated  on  a  small 


tributary  of  the  Bug,  212  miles  from 
Cracow.  It  is  defended  by  a  citadel,  around 
which  the  modern  town  has  been  built. 
Lemberg  has  nearly  30  churches  and  sev- 
eral monasteries,  and  as  early  as  the  i?th 
century  was  called  the  town  of  the  monks. 
There  is  a  university,  founded  in  1784, 
which  has  3,300  students,  a  faculty  and  a 
library  of  nearly  100,000  volumes.  Lem- 
berg was  founded  in  1259,  and  was  an 
important  city  of  Poland  until  that  king- 
dom was  partitioned  in  1772,  when  the 
city  fell  to  Austria.  Population  206,574. 

Lem'nos,  a  Turkish  island  in  the  ^Egean 
Sea,  is  about  30  miles  from  Mt.  Athos  and 
from  the  Dardanelles.  It  is  nearly  split  in 
two  by  a  large  bay  on  the  northern  coast 
and  another  one  on  the  southern  coast. 
The  area  is  about  180  square  miles,  and 
the  population  about  30,000,  mostly  Greeks. 
The  chief  town  is  Kastro  (population  3,000). 
The  principal  products  are  corn,  wine  and1 
tobacco.  The  island  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  Turks  from  the  Venetians  in  1657, 
and  is  used  as  a  place  of  banishment  for 
Turkish  political  offenders. 

Le  Moine,  (Umoin'),  Sir  James  Mac- 
Pherson,  a  Canadian  naturalist  and  writer, 
was  born  at  Quebec,  Feb.  25,  1825.  He  was 
educated  at  Le  Petit  Seminary,  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  practice  in  1850.  He 
gave  his  attention,  however,  largely  to  a 
study  of  Canadian  history  and  to  natural 
history.  The  results  are  given  in  L'Orni- 
thologie  de  Canada,  Legendary  Lore  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  Maple  Leaves,  Picturesque  Quebec 
and  other  works.  He  was  knighted  in  1897. 

Lem'on,  a  species  of  Citrus,  the  genus  to 
which  belong  the  orange,  citron,  lime,  grape- 
fruit etc.  The  species  whose  varieties  fur- 
nish the  lemon,  citron  and  lime  is  C.  medico, 
and  is  native  to  India.  The  lemon  variety 
is  C.  medica  limon,  a  small  spreading  tree 
or  shrub,  cultivated  extensively  in  all 
tropical  and  subtropical  regions.  The  tree 
grows  from  10  to  20  feet  high;  the  outer 
branches  are  long,  the  foliage  not  abundant, 
the  flowers  not  so  abundant  as  those  of  the 
orange.  In  California  lemon-culture  has 
become  an  important  industry,  California 
growers  winning  in  competition  with  im- 
ported fruit.  The  best  results  are  obtained 
in  southern  California  and  near  the  coast. 
Lemons  are  cut  while  green  and  ripened 
slowly  in  curing-houses.  The  fruit  is  highly 
valued,  and  oil  or  extract  is  obtained  from 
the  rind. 

Le'mur,  the  common  name  for  a  consider- 
able group  of  monkey-like  animals,  curious 
and  interesting  creatures.  They  show  so 
many_  variations  that  it  is  difficult  to  char- 
acterize the  lemurs.  Although  found  in 
Africa  and  Asia,  the  headquarters  of  the 
family  is  Madagascar.  Thirty-four  of  the 
known  65  species  live  there.  They  inhabit 
trees  and  are  active  only  at  night,  and 
therefore  are  hardly  ever  to  be  seen  in  the 


LENA 


1053 


LENS 


daytime.  The  name  means  ghost,  and  was 
given  because  of  their  coming  forth  at 
night  and  because  of  their  eerie  appearance. 
They  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  fox  down 
to  a  mouse.  The  typical  lemurs  have  fox- 
like  faces;  the  eyes  are  large  and  round, 
the  body  is  covered  with  soft,  wooly  fur, 
the  tail  is  bushy.  There  is,  however,  much 
variation  about  them;  in  some  the  tail  is 
absent,  in  other  species  it  is  of  considerable 
length.  In  color  there  is  a  wide  variation. 
They  live  in  troops  in  the  forest,  feed  on 
dates,  other  fruits  and  on  insects,  and  some 
attack  birds.  They  obtain  water  from 
juicy  fruits.  The  aye-aye  is  an  unusual 
form  of  lemur.  Though  the  creatures  really 
are  harmless,  because  of  their  strange  cries, 
nocturnal  habits  and  curious  appearance 
much  superstition  has  grown  up  about 
them. 

Le'na,  a  river  of  eastern  Siberia,  rises 
amid  the  mountains  on  the  northwestern 
shore  of  Lake  Baikal,  flows  northeast  to 
Yakutsk,  where  it  is  more  than  six  miles 
wide,  then  north  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  into 
which  it  empties  by  several  mouths,  form- 
ing a  delta  250  miles  wide.  The  entire 
length  of  the  river  is  3,000  miles,  and  the 
area  of  its  basin  750,000  square  miles.  The 
Lena  is  the  principal  artery  of  the  trade  of 
eastern  Siberia,  navigation  being  open  an- 
nually from  Yakutsk  northward  from  May 
until  October. 

Lenormant  (le-nor'mdn'),  Charles,  a  dis- 
tinguished archaeologist,  was  born  at  Paris, 
June  i,  1802.  Early  in  life  he  began  the 
study  of  law,  but  during  a  visit  to  Italy 
he  became  much  interested  in  the  study  of 
archaeology,  and  to  this  his  life  was  hence- 
forth devoted.  In  1828  he  accompanied 
Champollion  to  Egypt,  and,  after  his  return 
to  France,  held  various  positions,  includ- 
ing that  of  adjunct-professor  to  Guizot.  He 
was  made  professor  of  Egyptology  in  the 
College  of  France  in  1848,  and  died  at 
Athens,  Nov.  24,  1859.  His  son  Francois, 
born  in  1837,  whose  death  occurred  in 
1883,  also  attained  considerable  fame  as 
an  archaeologist. 

Len'ox  Library,  The,  an  institution 
founded  in  New  York  City  in  1870  by 
Tames  Lenox.  Mr.  Lenox  had  inherited  a 
large  fortune,  and  during  many  years 
devoted  his  time  to  collecting  rare  books 
and  manuscripts.  These  collections  he 
deeded  to  trustees  for  the  public  benefit, 
and  erected  a  building  to  contain  them 
which  cost  nearly  one  half  million  dollars. 

Lens,  a  combination  of  two  refracting 
surfaces  bounded  on  each  side  by  the  same 
medium.  Generally  the  lens  is  a  trans- 
parent piece  of  glass  bounded  on  each  side 
by  air.  Since  the  only  surfaces  which  can 
be  ground  in  lathes  with  accuracy  are 
spherical  surfaces,  practically  all  lenses  are 
made  with  spherical  surfaces.  That  is,  the 
shape  of  a  lens  may  be  considered  as  the 


shape  of  a  figure  bounded  by  two  spheres. 
The  following  figures  show  four  of  the 
principal  types  of  lenses : 


FIG.    I. A  CONVERGING  LENS 

The  line  joining  the  centers  A  and  B  of 
the  two  spheres  is  called  the  principal  axis 
of  the  lens.  Note  that  this  axis  is  perpen- 
dicular to  the  surface  of  the  lens  at  the 
point  where  it  passes 
through  the  surface. 
See  Focus. 

Lenses  are  divided 
into  two  principal 
classes,  viz.,  diverg- 
ing and  converging. 

A  diverging  lens  is 
one  such  that  if  a 
plane  wave-front  is 
incident  upon  it,  the 

Fig.  a.    A  diverging  lens  emergent   wave-front 
with  one  plane  surface     will  be  convex  on  its 
advancing  side;  while 

a  converging  lens  is  one  such  that  if  a  plane 
wave-front  is  incident  upon  it,  the  emergent 
wave-front  will  be  concave  on  its  advancing 
side.  Whatever  the  incident  wave-surface,  a 
diverging  lens  makes  the  emergent  surface 
more  convex,  and  a  converging  lens  makes 
the  emergent  surface  less  convex. 

Lenses  are  generally  ground  in  such  a 
way  that  this  emergent  wave-front  is  very 
nearly  spherical.  The  center,  F,  of  this 
spherical  surface  is  called  the  principal  focus 
of  the  lens.  (See  Fig.  5.)  The  distance 
from  the  principal  focus  to  the  center  of 
the  lens  is  roughly  called  the  focal  length. 
The  power  of  a  lens  is  defined  as  the 
reciprocal  of  the  focal  length.  The  manner 


FIG.   3. — A   DIVERGING   LENS 

in  which  a  lens  produces  an  image  will  be 
clear  from  Figs.  6  and  7.     Considering  any 


LENT 


1054 


LEO  III 


luminous  point,  O,  we  may  determine  its 
image  I  by  graphical  means,  if  we  remem- 
ber the  two  following  fundamental  facts: 
i.  A  ray  falling  on  a  lens  in  a  direction 
parallel  to  its  axis  passes  on  emergence 
through  its  principal  focus.  2.  An  incident 
ray  which  passes 
through  the  prin- 
cipal focus  of  a 
lens  will  emerge  in 
a  direction  parallel 
to  the  axis  of  the 
lens.  Thus  the  rays 
leaving  O  in  Fig.  6 
and  passing 
through  F  and  F', 
intersect  at  I  and 
thus  determine  I 
as  the  image  of 

rig.    4.      A  converging   lens       r\      A    oimilar  nrnr- 
with  one  plane  surface          U-  A  Similar  Pro 

ess  applied  to  every 

other  point  on  the  arrow  O  will  give  the 
corresponding  points  on  the  image- arrow  I. 
In  general,  the  outer  portions  of  a  lens 
behave  rather  differently  from  the  portions 
near  the  center.  Hence  a  single  lens,  to 


Fig.  5. — Focal  length  oi  a  converging  lens 

give  good  definition,  must  be  used  with 
small  aperture;  that  is,  the  pencil  of  rays 
which  can  be  successfully  used  with  a 
single  lens  is  small.  But  if  a  lens  is  limited 


Fig.  6. — Image  of  a  body  produced  by  a  converging  lens 

by  a  diaphragm,  so  that  it  admits  only  a 
small  pencil  of  rays,  the  image  will  not 
be  bright.  In  order  to  overcome  this  diffi- 
culty the  so-called  achromatic  lenses  have 
been  invented.  The  discussion  of  these 
lenses  is  a  subject  top  advanced  for  this 
place ;  but  an  achromatic  lens  may  be  simply 
denned  as  one  which  will  do  for  its  whole 


Fig.  7. — Image  of  a  body  produced  by  a  diverging  lens 

aperture  what  the  single  lens  does  only  for 
its  center.  The  variety  of  lenses  used  in 
practice  is  enormous,  almost  each  different 
purpose  requiring  a  different  lens.  The 
best  treatment  of  lenses  extant  is  to  be 


SECTION  OF 
A  LENTICEL 


found  in  Winkelmann's  Handbook  of  Physics, 
It  is  written  by  Czapski,  and  has  not  been 
translated  into  English. 

Lent,  the  40  days'  fast  before  Easter  Sun- 
day, instituted  in  the  early  history  of  the 
Christian  church  as  a  preparation  for  the 
anniversary  of  Christ's  resurrection  and  also 
as  a  memorial  of  his  40  days'  fast  in  the 
wilderness.  The  rigor  of  the  ancient  observ- 
ance, which  excluded  all  flesh  and  even  the 
so-called  white  meats,  has  been  much 
relaxed,  but  the  principle  of  permitting  bu* 
one  meal,  with  a  slight  refection  or  colla- 
tion, has  been  retained  by  all  churches  that 
recognize  the  obligation  of  keeping  Lent. 
In  the  Church  of  England  and  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  of  the  U.  S.  Lent 
is  observed  with  special  services  and  with 
proper  collects  and  prayer;  but  the  fast  is 
left  to  the  conscience  and  discretion  of  each 
individual. 

Len'ticel.  In  stems  in  which  bark  is  pro- 
duced, the  cork-cells  as  the  point  correspond 
ing  to  the  stomata 
of  the  epidermis  be- 
come rounded  and 
loosened  from  one 
another.  Under  this 
strain  the  epidermis 
ruptures  at  the 
stoma,  and  a  pow- 
dery mass  of  cells  is 
exposed  through  a 
slit-like  opening,  the  whole  structure  being 
called  a  lenticel.  These  lenticels  are  com- 
monly seen  on  young  bark,  and  serve  to 
place  the  living  cells  within  in  connection 
with  the  outside  air. 

Leo,  the  name  of  13  popes  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  of  whom  Leo  I,  Leo  III, 
Leo  X  and  Leo  XIII  are  most  worthy  of 
mention. 

Leo  I,  surnamed  The  Great,  was  born  of 
a  distinguished  family  at  Rome,  about  the 
close  of  the  4th  century;  and  on  the  death 
of  Sixtus  III  in  440  Leo  was  chosen  his 
successor.  It  is  in  his  pontificate  that  the 
regular  series  of  pontifical  letters  and 
decretals  may  be  said  to  have  commenced. 
They  exhibit  remarkable  activity  and  zeal, 
and  are  often  quoted  as  evidence  of  the 
extent  of  pontifical  jurisdiction  at  that 
time.  In  a  council  held  at  Rome  in  449 
Leo  set  aside  the  proceedings  of  the  "Rob- 
ber Synod"  of  Ephesus,  which  had  decided 
in  favor  of  Eutyches,  and  summoned  a 
council  at  Chalcedon,  in  which  his  cele- 
brated letter  was  accepted  "as  the  voice 
of  Peter."  Leo  died  in  461. 

Leo  III  was  born  at  Rome  in  750,  and 
succeeded  Hadrian  I  in  795.  His  pontificate 
was  far  from  being  a  peaceful  one.  In  800 
Charlemagne  came  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
crowned  and  saluted  as  emperor  by  Leo, 
and  the  temporal  sovereignty  of  the  pope 
over  the  Roman  city  and  state  was  formally 
established.  Leo  became  involved  in  a 


LEO  X 


1055 


LEONARDO  DA  VINCI 


dispute  with  Emperor  Louis  I  about  his 
sovereign  jurisdiction  at  Rome,  which  was 
not  settled  at  the  time  of  Leo's  death  in  816. 
Leo  X,  Qio'van'ni  dei  Me'dici,  the  sec- 
ond son  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  was 
born  at  Florence  in  December,  1475.  He 
was  created  cardinal  at  13.  In  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Medici  from  Florence  after  the 
death  of  Lorenzo  the  young  cardinal  was 
included,  and  he  used  the  occasion  as 
an  opportunity  for  foreign  travel,  visit- 
ing Germany,  France  and  the  Netherlands 
and  everywhere  seeking  the  society  and 
acquaintance  of  the  learned.  On  the  death 
of  Pope  Julius  II  in  1513  Cardinal  dei 
Medici  was  chosen  as  his  successor,  under 
the  name  of  Leo  X.  His  appointment  of 
the  two  great  scholars  Bembo  and  Sadoleto 
as  his  secretaries  was  a  pledge  of  the  favor 
toward  learning  so  characteristic  of  his 
pontificate;  but  he  did  not  neglect  the 
material  and  political  interests  of  the  church 
and  Roman  see.  Leo's  desire  to  raise  money 
for  rebuilding  St.  Peter's  caused  him  to 
offer  indulgences  to  all  who  would  contribute 
for  that  purpose,  and  was  the  occasion  of 
the  Reformation  in  Germany.  Leo  at  first 
regarded  the  affair  as  a  mere  squabble  be- 
tween Luther  and  Tetzel,  and,  although  he 
condemned  Luther's  doctrines  and  course, 
his  measures  on  the  whole  were  not  marked 
with  great  severity.  Whatever  may  be 
thought  of  Leo's  political  movements,  his 
private  conduct  was  above  reproach  and 
above  all  imputation  of  immorality  or 
irregularity.  His  death  on  December,  i  j2i, 
has  been  attributed  to  poison;  but  -here 
seems  no  sufficient  reason  for  this  suspicion. 
Leo  XIII,  was  born  March  2,  1810,  and 
after  filling  high  positions  in  the  church  was 
created  a  car- 
dinal by  Pius  IX 
in  1853.  In  l878. 
Cardinal  P  e  c  c  i 
was  chosen  his 
successor  as  the 
representative  of 
the  moderates. 
He  assumed  the 
name  of  Leo 
XIII,  and  at  once 
adopted  an  oppo- 
site policy  to 
that  of  his  pre- 
decessor. He  re- 
stored the  hier- 
archy in  Scot- 
land, and  so 
composed  the 
conflict  between 
Pius  and  Bismarck  that,  when  a  dispute 
arose  between  Germany  and  Spain  as  to 
the  ownership  of  the  Caroline  Islands,  he 
was  requested  by  Bismarck  to  act  as  arbi- 
trator. The  pope  also 'interested  himself  in 
the  suppression  of  African  slavery,  and 
manifested  enlightened  and  liberal  views  in 


LEO   XIII 


other  directions:  but  on  all  questions  relat- 
ing to  the  church  and  himself  as  its  head 
he  stood  firmly  by  the  ancient  doctrines 
and  his  own  rights  as  the  vicegerent  of 
Christ.  He  regarded  himself  as  the  despoiled 
sovereign  of  Rome  and  a  prisoner  at  the 
Vatican;  he  refused  the  income  voted  to 
him  by  the  Italian  parliament;  and  in  his 
encyclicals  he  affirmed  that  the  only  solu- 
tion of  all  socialistic  questions  is  to  be 
found  in  the  influence  and  authority  of  the 
papacy.  In  his  foreign  policy  he  generally 
exhibited  wisdom  and  foresight.  In  1883 
he  opened  the  archives  of  the  Vatican  for 
historical  investigation,  and  he  made  him- 
self personally  known  as  a  poet,  his  produc- 
tions being  chiefly  written  in  Latin.  He 
died,  July  20,  1903. 

Leochares  (le-ok'd-rez),  a  distinguished 
Grecian  sculptor  of  the  Attic  school  who 
flourished  in  the  4th  century  before  Christ. 
He  was  one  of  the  privileged  artists  who 
were  permitted  to  make  portraits  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  His  Abduction  of  Gany- 
mede by  the  Bird  of  Jove,  of  which  there  is  a 
copy  in  the  Vatican,  was  his  masterpiece 
and  has  been  justly  and  universally  ad- 
mired. 

Leominster  (lem'tn-ster),  a  town  of  Wor- 
cester County,  Mass.,  on  Nashua  River,  40 
miles  from  Boston.  It  manufactures  piano- 
cases,  pianofortes;  combs,  buttons,  hair- 
pins, jewelry,  toys:  yarn,  cement  and  brick; 
and,  besides,  has  paper  mills  and  large 
cabinet  works.  It  has  an  admirable  school- 
system,  a  public  library  of  more  than 
18,000  volumes,  several  churches  and  a 
park.  Leominster  is  supplied  with  gas 
and  electric  light,  has  municipal  ownership 
of  its  waterworks  system,  and  is  served  by 
two  railroads.  It  was  settled  in  1725,  until 
1740  was  a  part  of  Lancaster,  and  was  then 
incorporated.  Population  17,580. 

Leon.     See  SPAIN. 

Leon,  the  fifth  city  of  Mexico,  lies  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Rio  Torbio,  100  miles 
from  the  city  of  Mexico.  The  chief  industry 
is  tanning,  but  cotton  and  wooleri  goods 
are  manufactured  to  some  extent,  and 
there  is  quite  an  extensive  trade  in  wheat 
and  other  grains.  Population  63,263. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci  ( lAo-nar'ddddvenchi'), 
painter,  sculptor,  architect,  engineer  and 
scientist,  was  born  in  1452  at  Vinci  a  village 
between  Pisa  and  Florence.  He  was  educa- 
ted in  his  father's  house,  where  he  early 
showed  signs  of  the  bright  and  versatile 
genius  that  distinguished  him  through  life. 
He  was  especially  remarkable  for  aptitude 
for  arithmetic  and  skill  in  music  ana  draw- 
ing. About  1470  he  was  placed  in  the 
studio  of  Andrea  del  Verrocchio,  where  he 
had  Perugino  and  Lorenzo  di  Credi  as  fel- 
low-pupils. So  rapid  was  his  progress  that 
he  soon  began  to  take  part  in  the  production 
of  his  master's  pictures,  and  work  of  his 
can  be  traced  in  Verrocchio's  Baptism  of 


LEONIDAS  I 


1056 


LEPROSY 


Our  Lord.  His  greatest  picture  was  The 
Last  Supper,  which,  even  in  its  present 
dilapidated  condition,  remains  a  monument 
of  his  genius  and  one  of  the  masterpieces 
of  the  world.  This  picture  was  completed 
in  1498,  but  its  execution,  it  is  supposed, 
extended  over  several  previous  years.  In 
addition  to  the  great  fame  won  by  Leonardo 
as  a  painter  and  sculptor,  he  highly  distin- 
guished himself  as  musician,  scientist  and 
engineer.  He  died  in  France  on  May  2 , 1 5 1 9 . 
See  Richter's  Leonardo  in  the  Great  Artists 
Series. 

Leonidas  I  (le-onJ-dds),  king  of  Sparta 
about  480  B.  C.,  when  Xerxes  approached 
the  narrow  pass  of  Thermopyla?  with  his  im- 
mense army,  opposed  him  with  300  Spartans 
and  about  5,000  auxiliaries.  Finding  it 
impossible  to  bar  the  progress  of  the  foe, 
Leonidas  and  his  300,  having  sent  their 
auxiliaries  home,  threw  themselves  upon 
the  invaders  and  perished.  Their  sublime 
heroism  has  ever  since  been  celebrated  in 
prose  and  song,  and  was  an  inspiration  to 
all  Hellenes  in  driving  back  the  invading 
hosts 

Leop'ard,  a  spotted  animal  of  the  cat 
tribe  inhabiting  Africa,  Asia  and  the  large 
islands  of  the  Malay  Archipelago.  It  is 
smaller  than  the  jaguar,  being  about  four 
feet  long,  with  a  tail  three  feet  in  length. 
There  is  considerable  variation  among 
leopards  as  to  size  and  color.  They  usually 
are  pale  fawn  color  with  dark  spots,  except 
on  the  under  surface.  The  more  robust 
forms  of  southern  Asia  are  called  panthers, 
but  it  is  impossible  to  separate  the  species 
absolutely.  The  leopard  lives  in  the  forests, 
and  is  a  tree  climber.  It  is  agile  and  a  re- 
markable jumper.  It  attacks  the  antelope, 
young  cattle,  pigs  and  (occasionally)  man. 
It  may  be  tamed.  The  cheetah  or  hunting 
leopard  of  India  is  a  slim  species  of  a  related 
genus,  and  is  trained  to  aid  in  hunting. 

Leopard!  (l&'d-pdr'de},  Giac'omo,  one  of 
the  most  famous  poets  of  modern  Italy,  was 
born  at  Recanati,  near  Ancona,  June  29, 
1798.  His  parents  were  of  noble  rank  but 
poor.  At  1 6  he  had  devoured  the  Latin  and 
Greek  classics,  and  could  write  French, 
Spanish,  English  and  Hebrew.  At  an  early 
age  he  wrote  a  commentary  on  Plotinus,  of 
which  Sainte-Beuve  said  that  "one  who 
had  studied  Plotinus  all  his  life  could  find 
something  useful  in  this  work  of  a  boy." 
Leopardi  visited  Rome  in  1822,  returned 
to  Recanati  in  1823,  and  for  the  next  ten 
years  devoted  himself  to  literature.  His 
physical  constitution  had  always  been 
feeble,  and  as  he  grew  older  his  ill-health 
and  mental  despondency  constantly  in- 
creased. In  1833  ne  accompanied  his 
friend  Ranieri  to  Naples,  and  remained 
there  until  his  death,  which  occurred  on 
June  14,  1837.  Leopardi  certainly  is  en- 
titled to  high  rank  as  poet,  scholar  and 
thinker,  and  it  has  even  been  said  that 


Dante  is  the  only  Italian  equal  to  him  in 
genius;  but  his  extreme  pessimism  and  the 
limited  range  of  his  sympathy  were  bars 
to  the  highest  creative  effort.  This  pes- 
simism was  the  burden  of  both  his  prose 
and  poetry;  and  the  first  and  last  word  of 
his  philosophy  is  the  "void  and  nothingness 
of  all  human  life  and  effort."  See  Glad- 
stone's Gleanings,  Vol.  III. 

Le'opold  I,  king  of  the  Belgians,  was 
born  at  Coburg,  Dec.  16,  1790.  In  1831  he 
was  chosen  king  of  the  Belgians.  As  a 
monarch  Leopold  displayed  marked  ability, 
conducting  himself  with  prudence,  modera- 
tion and  constant  regard  to  the  principles 
of  the  Belgian  constitution  and  the  interests 
of  his  people.  He  died  on  Dec.  10,  1865. 

Leopold  II,  ton  and  successor  of  the  pre- 
ceding king  of  Belgium,  was  born  at  Brus- 
selson  April  9, 1835.  He  ascended  the  throne 
on  Dec.  10, 1865,  and  has  ruled  the  country  in 
accordance  with  the  principles  and  the 
policy  of  his  father.  In  1882  he  founded 
the  Kongo  International  Association,  and 
in  1885  he  became  sovereign  of  the  Kongo 
Independent  State.  In  1908  he  relinquished 
his  sovereignty  to  Belgium.  Died  Dec.  17,  09 

Lepan'to,  a  'town  of  Greece  situated  on  the 
north  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Lepantoor  Corinth. 
On  the  gulf  and  near  the  town,  Oct.  7,  1571, 
was  fought  one  of  the  greatest  naval  battles 
of  the  world,  between  the  forces  of  the 
Turkish  sultan  and  those  of  Pope  Pius  V, 
Philip  II  of  Spain  and  the  Venetian  Republic. 
The  action  lasted  four  hours,  and  resulted 
in  the  defeat  of  the  Turks  and  the  almost 
complete  destruction  of  their  fleet.  The 
Turks  had  hitherto  been  thought  invincible 
on  the  sea;  but  in  this  battle  they  received 
a  blow  from  which  they  never  fully  recovered. 
It  is  said  that  the  pope,  on  hearing  of  the 
victory,  burst  into  tears  and  exclaimed, 
"There  was  a  man  sent  from  God,  whose 
name  was  John."  A  masterly  description 
of  this  great  battle  can  be  found  in  Prescott's 
History  of  Philip  II. 

Lep'idop'tera.  See  BUTTERFLY,  MOTH 
and  INSECTS. 

Lep'idus,  Marcus  /Cmilius,  a  Roman 
triumvir,  sided  with  Caesar  against  Pompey. 
He  was  at  the  head  of  the  only  armed  force 
at  Rome  when  Ca5sar  was  assassinated, 
and  used  the  opportunity  to  have  himself 
made  pontifex  maximus.  In  43  B.  C.  he 
united  with  Antony  and  Octavianus  to 
form  the  triumvirate,  obtaining  Spain  and 
Gallia  _Narbonensis.  After  the  battle  of 
Philippi  (42  B.  C.)  a  redivision  was  made 
in  which  Lepidus  received  Africa,  where 
he  remained  until  36  B.  C.,  when  he  was 
called  by  Augustus  to  aid  him  against 
Sextus  Pompey.  He  there  tried  to  seize 
Sicily,  but  was  overcome  by  Augustus,  who 
banished  him  to  Circeii,  where  he  died 
13  B.  C. 

Lep'rosy,  a  name  applied  at  one  time  to 
several  different  skin-diseases  characterized 


•.LEPSIUS 


1057 


LESSEPS 


by  roughness  or  scaliness.  Of  true  leprosy 
there  are  several  well-marked  types.  The 
first  is  characterized  by  the  formation  of 
nodules  of  tubercles  in  the  skin,  common 
about  the  eyebrows,  where  they  destroy 
the  hair  and  produce  a  frowning  or  leonine 
aspect.  After  a  time  the  nodules  break 
down,  forming  ulcers,  which  discharge  for 
a  time  and  may  cause  extensive  destruction 
and  deformity.  The  tubercles  may  form 
in  the  nostrils;  in  the  throat,  altering  the 
voice;  on  the  eyelids,  extending  into  and 
destroying  the  eyeball.  In  the  second  type 
the  chief  features  are  insensibility  and 
numbness  of  parts  of  the  skin,  accompanied 
by  deep-seated  pains  causing  sleeplessness 
and  restlessness.  In  the  third  variety  much 
mutilation  occurs  owing  to  the  loss  of  bones, 
chiefly  of  the  limbs,  a  portion  of  a  limb 
being  frequently  lopped  off  painlessly  at  a 
joint.  All  these  varieties  begin  with  the 
appearance  on  the  skin  of  blotches  of  a  dull 
coppery  or  purplish  tint,  the  affected  part 
being  thickened,  puffy  and  coarse-looking. 
When  the  redness  disappears,  a  stain  is  left 
or  a  white  blotch.  Leprosy  is  now  be- 
lieved to  be  caused  by  a  minute  organism 
—  a  bacillus  —  and  to  be  contagious. 
Though  the  disease  is  not  so  widespread  as 
it  was  at  one  time,  it  still  prevails  in  Nor- 
way and  Iceland,  the  coasts  of  the  Black 
Sea  and  Mediterranean,  in  Madagascar, 
Mauritius,  Madeira,  the  Greek  Archipelago, 
East  and  West  Indies,  Palestine  and  the 
Pacific  islands. 

Lcpsius  (lep'sS-oos"),  Karl  Richard,  a  dis- 
tinguished Egyptologist,  was  born  at  Naum- 
burg,  Dec.  23,  1810,  and  studied  at  Leipsic, 
Gottingen,  Berlin  and  Paris  and  between 
1834  and  1842  published  dissertations  on 
the  monuments  of  Egyptian  art  and  their 
general  architectural  style.  In  1842  he 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  an  expedition 
sent  to  Egypt  by  the  king  of  Prussia.  When 
he  returned  three  years  later,  he  was  ap- 
pointed ordinary  professor  in  Berlin.  To 
the  study  of  Egyptian  archaeology  he  joined 
the  investigation  of  the  languages,  history 
and  monuments  of  the  regions  farther  up 
the  Nile,  and  to  him,  more  than  to  any 
other  man,  belongs  the  honor  of  raising 
Egyptology  to  the  rank  of  a  scientific  study. 
He  died  at  Berlin  July  10,  1884.  See 
Ebers'  Richard  Lepsius. 

Le  Sage  (lesdzh'),  Allan  Rene',  a  French 
author,  was  born  at  Sarzeau,  Brittany,  May 
',  1668.  His  father  died  in  1682,  leaving 
him  to  the  care  of  an  uncle,  who  so  wasted 
his  inheritance  that  he  had  to  begin  life  with 
no  other  capital  but  his  genius  and  the 
education  he  had  received  at  the  Jesuit 
school  in  Vannes.  He  held  an  office  in  the 
collection  of  taxes  in  Brittany  for  a  number 
of  years,  and  in  1692  went  to  Paris  to  study 
law.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  as  an 
advocate,  but  soon  abandoned  the  legal 
profession  to  devote  his  attention  to  litera- 


ture. About  1695  hg  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  the  Abbe"  de  Lionne,  who  granted 
him  the  use  of  a  large  Spanish  library,  with 
a  pension  of  600  livres,  to  enable  him  to 
pursue  the  study  of  Spanish  literature.  Le 
Sage  achieved  considerable  success  as  a 
dramatist,  but  his  fame  rests  mainly  upon 
his  novel,  Gil  Bias,  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  all  the  languages  of  Europe  and 
is  still  read  with  interest  and  delight.  The 
fine  delineations  of  character,  the  nervous 
style  and  the  blending  of  the  various  por- 
traits into  one  comprehensive  picture  are 
among  the  qualities  of  this  book  that  have 
given  it  long  life  and  great  popularity.  In 
the  words  of  Scott,  speaking  of  its  author: 
"  His  muse  moved  with  an  unpolluted  step, 
even  where  the  path  was  somewhat  miry." 
He  died  at  Boulogne,  Nov.  17,  1747. 

Lesbos  (lez'bos)  or  Mityle'ne,  a  Greek 
island  in  the  ^gean  Sea,  lies  south  of  the 
Dardanelles,  ten  miles  from  the  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Smyrna. 
The  island  was  early  colonized  by  ^Eolian 
immigrants  and  between  700  and  500  B.  C. 
was  the  home  of  such  poets  and  philosophers 
as  Alcasus,  Sappho,  Pittacus,  Theophrastus 
and  others.  In  the  6th  century  B.  C.,  the 
island  was  subject  to  Persia  for  about  60 
years.  Then  it  belonged  successively  to 
Athens,  Macedonia.  Pontus,  Rome  and 
Byzantium.  The  Turks  held  it  from  1402  to 
1914  when  Greece  annexed  it.  Its  products 
are  grapes,  figs,  wine  and  olive  ou.  Area 
676  square  miles.  Population  125,500.  Kas- 
tro  is  the  chief  city  of  the  island.  Population 
18,506. 

Leslie,  Charles  Robert,  a  painter,  born 
of  American  parents  at  London,  Oct.  19, 
1794.  Returning  to  Philadelphia  in  1800, 
after  spending  a  few  years  at  school,  he  was 
apprenticed  to  a  bookseller.  In  1811  he 
obtained  the  long-desired  opportunity  to 
study  the  art  of  painting,  and  became  a 
student  in  the  Royal  Academy  at  London. 
The  first  picture  that  brought  him  into 
notice  was  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  going  td 
Church.  His  principal  pictures  are  scenes 
from  Shakespeare,  Cervantes,  Le  Sage, 
Molie"re,  Addison,  Swift,  Sterne,  Fielding 
and  Smollett.  In  1833  he  accepted  the 
professorship  of  drawing  at  West  Point, 
but  gave  up  the  position  in  the  following 
year  and  returned  to  England,  where  he 
remained  until  his  death,  in  1859.  Leslie's 
strongest  points  as  a  painter  were  power 
of  expression  and  delicate  perception  of 
character  as  well  as  of  female  beauty. 

Lesseps  (l&seps'},  Ferdinand,  Vicomte 
de,  a  French  diplomatist  and  engineer,  was 
born  at  Versailles,  Nov.  19,  1805.  Educated 
for  the  diplomatic  profession,  he  filled 
various  appointments  at  Lisbon,  Madrid 
and  other  European  capitals  with  marked 
ability  and  efficiency.  In  1854  he  conceive^ 
the  plan  of  cutting  a  canal  through  th« 
Isthmus  of  Suez,  and  in  January,  185**, 


LESSING 


1058 


LEUTZE 


obtained  from  the  viceroy  of  Egypt  a  char- 
ter for  the  organization  of  a  stock -com- 
pany to  prosecute  the  work.  Eminent 
engineers,  like  Robert  Stephenson,  ques- 
tioned the  practicability  of  the  scheme; 
but  by  energy  and  perseverance  De  Lesseps 
raised  the  necessary  capital,  and,  ten  years 
after  beginning  the  work,  had  the  satisfac- 
tion of  seeing  the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea 
and  those  of  the  Mediterranean  united. 
The  canal  was  opened  on  Nov.  17,  1869.  The 
successful  engineer  vjas  knighted  by  Queen 
Victoria,  and  r«ceived  honors  and  decora- 
tions from  nearly  all  the  other  sovereigns 
of  Europe.  His  successful  completion  of 
the  Suez  Canal  led  him  to  propose  the  con- 
struction of  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama.  But,  although  he  made  the  most 
earnest  efforts  to  carry  out  the  great  pro- 
ject, his  hopes  in  reference  to  it  were  not 
realized.  He  died  near  Paris,  Dec.  7,  1894. 
See  SUEZ  and  PANAMA  CANAL. 

Lessing  ties' sing),  Qotthold  Ephraim, 
a  German  literary  reformer,  was  born  in 
Saxony,  Tan.  22,  1729,  At  17  he  entered 
the  University  of  Leipsic  as  a  theological 
student.  But  he  soon  developed  a  passion 
for  the  study  of  dramatic  art,  which  diverted 
his  attention  from  theology.  He  left  Leip- 
sic, and  after  a  few  months  at  Wittenberg 
went  to  Berlin,  where,  in  connection  with 
his  friend,  Mylhis,  he  for  a  year  or  more 
published  a  periodical  devoted  to  the  drama. 
In  1755  Lessing  wrote  the  tragedy  of  Miss 
Sara  Sampson,  which  contributed  largely 
to  free  German  literature  from  the  prevail- 
ing imitation  of  French  models  and  give  it 
new  and  original  character.  In  1767  he 
became  director  of  the  new  national  theatre 
at  Hamburg,  where  he  finally  overthrew  the 
domination  of  the  French  drama  and 
worked  out  thoughts  and  ideas  long  ripen- 
ing in  his  mind.  In  1763  he  wrote  the  well- 
known  comedy  of  Minna  von  Barnhelm.  In 
1779,  on  account  of  his  arduous  labors 
and  his  grief  for  the  death  of  his  wife  and 
only  child,  his  health  began  to  decline. 
He  died  at  Brunswick,  Feb.  15,  1781.  On 
account  of  the  manly  independence  which 
characterizes  Lessing's  writings  and  the 
important  influence  he  exercised,  he  is  often 
called  the  Luther  of  the  German  drama 
and  of  German  literature  and  art.  See  Life 
by  Guhrauer. 

Lethbridge,  a  coalmining  center  in  Al- 
berta, Canada,  has  a  population  of  14,000. 
There  is  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  excellent 
coal  cropping  out  at  many  points  along 
streams  of  Alberta.  The  Lethbridge  district 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  leading  agricul- 
tural districts  in  Alberta.  Ranching  is  still 
an  important  industry .  The  yield  of  wheat  in 
1907  averaged  more  than  23  bushels  per  acre. 

Lethe  (U'thS),  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
stream  of  oblivion  in  the  lower  world  from 
which  the  souls  of  men  drank  forgetfulness 
of  their  sorrows  before  passing  into  the 


Elysian  Fields.  According  to  Vergil  such 
souls  as  were  destined  to  return  to  earth 
in  different  bodies  also  drank  of  the  waters  of 
this  stream,  that  they  might  forget  the 
Elysium. 

Let'ters,  usually  termed  Polite  Letters, 
form  one  of  the  most  delightful  branches  of 
literature,  although  it  must  be  conceded 
that  the  railway,  the  telegram  and  other 
conditions  of  our  civilization  are  very  un- 
favorable to  correspondence  in  any  proper 
sense  of  that  term  —  "business  letters" 
being  almost  the  only  ones  for  which  our 
day  is  noted.  Most  biographies  now  writ- 
ten contain  the  letters  of  the  character  dealt 
with,  and  these  generally  give  a  clearer  and 
better  idea  of  his  personality  than  the  most 
elaborate  description  by  the  author,  while 
they  also  furnish  something  of  the  peculiar 
interest  and  charm  that  belong  to  autobiog- 
raphy. Of  all  the  famous  letter-writers  of 
the  world,  Cicero  is  the  earliest  and  the 
greatest.  More  than  800  of  his  letters  are 
extant,  and  all  are  natural,  sincere  and 
outspoken.  The  very  frankness  of  his 
vanity  and  his  desire  to  please  give  a  pecu- 
liar pleasure  to  the  reader.  The  only  other 
important  Latin  letter-writers  are  Seneca 
and  Pliny,  neither  of  whom  can  be  compared 
with  Cicero.  The  four  greatest  English 
letter-writers  are  Gray,  Cowper,  Horace 
Walpole  and  Charles  Lamb.  Gray's  let- 
ters are  somewhat  fastidious,  but  always 
sincere,  and  their  perfect  execution  is  a 
thing  that  comes  of  itself,  unstudied  and 
unsought.  Walpole  said  of  himself  that 
he  lived  "a  life  of  letter-writing,"  and  he 
remains  pre-eminent  both  in  the  amount 
and  the  wonderful  felicity  of  his  correspond- 
ence. Of  German  letter-writers  it  may  be 
enough  to  mention  Goethe,  Schiller  and 
Humboldt;  of  French,  Voitura,  Madame  de 
Maintenon,  Madame  du  DerTand,  Sainte- 
Beuve,  George  Sand,  Me'rime'e  and  the 
unapproachable  Madame  de  Sevigne".  The 
sovereign  quality  of  the  last  named  is  her 
goodness  of  heart,  combined  with  a  won- 
derful insight  into  the  thoughts  and  feelings 
of  others  and  the  power  of  giving  life  and 
interest  to  everything  she  touched.  Among 
other  famous  letter-writers  should  be  men- 
tioned Erasmus  of  Holland  and  Lowell  of 
America. 

Leuthen  (loi'ten"),  a  village  in  Lower 
Silesia,  clebrated  for  the  victory  won  there 
by  Frederick  the  Great  during  the  Seven 
Years'  War.  The  result  of  the  battle  fought 
on  Dec.  5,  1757,  was  the  reconquest  of  the 
greater  portion  of  Silesia  by  Prussia. 

Leutze  (loit'se),  Emanuel,  an  American 
historical  painter  of  German  birth,  was 
born  at  Gmund  in  Wurttemberg  in  1816. 
His  parents  emigrated  to  America  during 
his  infancy,  settling  in  Philadelphia,  where 
his  early  years  were  passed.  His  first  suc- 
cessful picture  was  an  Indian  gazing  at  the 
setting  sun,  which  procured  so  many  orders 


LEVANT 


1059 


LEVER 


for  work  that  in  a  few  years  he  obtained  the 
means  to  study  his  art  in  Europe.  He 
remained  abroad  for  14  years,  settling  in 
New  York  city  in  1859.  His  works  in- 
clude three  scenes  from  the  life  of  Columbus, 
several  from  English  history  and  a  number 
depicting  events  in  the  Revolutionary  War, 
of  which  perhaps  the  greatest  is  Washing- 
ton crossing  the  Delaware.  His  Columbus 
in  Chains  procured  the  medal  of  the  Brussels 
art  exhibition.  One  of  his  latest  works 
was  the  Westward  Ho  mural  picture  for  the 
staircase  of  the  capitol  at  Washington. 
He  died  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  July  18, 
1868. 

Levant',  a  name  used  to  designate  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and 
the  coast  regions  of  Syria,  Asia  Minor  and 
Egypt.  In  a  wider  sense  it  is  applied  to 
all  the  region  eastward  from  Italy  as  far 
as  the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates. 

Levee  (lei/ a),  the  French  name  for  em- 
bankment, specially  applied  to  the  high 
embankments  built  on  either  side  of  the 
Mississippi  for  500  miles  to  prevent  its 
overflow  in  times  of  high  water.  Notwith- 
standing the  care  and  labor  expended  in 
the  construction  of  the  Mississippi-  levees, 
they  sometimes  give  way  under  the  pressure 
of  very  high  water,  causing  the  overflow 
\>f  large  portions  of  land  and  great  de- 
struction of  property. 

Lev'en,  Loch,  a  beautiful  oval  lake,  23 
miles  northwest  from  Edinburgh,  Scotland. 
It  is  3  53  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  surrounded 

f  the  beautiful  mountains  of  Bernarty, 
West  Lomond  and  other  hills.  Its  outlet 
is  the  Leven,  flowing  16  miles  eastward  to 
the  Firth  of  Forth.  It  has  a  depth  of  from 
i o  to  90  feet  and  an  area  of  3,406  acres,  its 
size  having  been  reduced  about  one  fourth 
by  drainage.  The  two  largest  of  its  seven 
islands,  St.  Serf's  Inch  and  Castle  Island, 
are  sandy  and  treeless.  The  first  was  an 
early  seat  of  the  Culdees,  and  on  Castle 
Island  Queen  Mary  was  imprisoned  for  ten 
months.  The  lake  abounds  in  trout.  See 
Burns- Beg's  History  of  Loch  Leven  Castle. 

Lev'er,  the  simplest  of  all  machines.  It 
has  a  variety  of  objects.  Sometimes  it 
is  employed  to  increase  the  force  which  one 
is  able  to  apply  at  some  particular  point,' 
as  in  the  case  of  a  pair  of  nut-crackers; 
sometimes  one  uses  it  to  multiply  the  motion 
of  a  point,  as  in  the  index  on  the  dial  of  a 


Fig.  i 

steam-gauge-  sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of 
sugar-tongs  pliers  and  tweezers,  to  reach 
otherwise  inaccessible  places.  The  essen- 
tial featuie  of  any  lever  is  a  more  or  less 


tlgid  bar  capable  of  rotation  about  the 
edge  of  some  body  as  axis.  This  edge  is 
called  the  fulcrum  of  the  lever,  and  is  in- 
dicated by  O  in  Figs,  i  and  2.  The  prin- 
ciple of  the  lever  is  as  follows:  Let  Fj  (in 
fig.  i  or  fig.  2)  be  the  force  exerted  on  the 
end  of  the  lever  whose  length  is  xlt  and 
let  Fa  be  the  force  exerted  upon  the  arm 
whose  length  is  x,.  We  may  suppose 
these  forces  to  be  at  right  angles  to  the 
arm  and  that  the  lever  is  rotated  through  an 
angle  6  :  so  that  the  distance  through  which 
the  force  F1  acts  is  xt  0,  and  the  distance 
through  which  the  force  F8.  acts  is  x2  6. 
Now,  since  hardly  any  energy  is  here  wasted 
in  friction,  we  may,  according  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  conservation  of  energy,  say 
that  the  work  done  by  these  two  forces  is 
the  same,  and  hence 


which  means  that  the  force  one  can  obtain 
by  use  of  a  lever  is  to  the  force  which  he 
applies  to  the  lever  inversely  as  the  lengths 

F     / 
of  the  arms.     The  ratio     *  /«   is  sometimes 

called  the  mechanical  advantage  of  the  lever. 


Fig.  2 

Great  care  must  always  be  observed  in 
estimating  the  length  of  the  arms.  The 
fulcrum  at  O  is  the  axis  of  rotation;  and  the 
distance  from  this  axis  to  the  point  where 
the  one  force  is  applied  is  one  arm,  Xj ;  the 
distance  from  the  axis  to  the  point  where 
the  other  force  is  applied  is  the  other  arm, 
xa.  These  def-nitions  are  illustrated  in 
each  of  Figs,  i  and  2.  The  theory  of  the 
lever  was  first  correctly  enunciated  by 
Archimedes  (287-213  B.  C.)  The  pulley, 
the  windlass,  the  chemical  balance,  the 
ordinary  pin,  the  button  etc.  are  merely 
special  cases  of  the  lever. 

Le'ver,  Charles  James,  a  popular  nov- 
elist, chiefly  noted  for  the  rollicking  fun  of 
his  Irish  stories,  was  born  at  Dublin,  Aug. 
31,  1806,  and  graduated  at  Trinity  College 
in  that  city  in  1827.  His  most  popular 
work,  Charles  O'Malley,  is  a  reflex  of  his 
own  college  life  at  Dublin,  and  many  of 
the  incidents  in  this  novel  are  no  doubt 
drawn  from  his  own  experience  in  the  world. 
His  other  notable  novels  include  Harry  Lor- 
requer,  Con  Cregan,  Roland  Cashel,  Lord 
Ktlgobbin  and  Tom  Burke  of  Ours.  He  died 
at  Trieste,  France,  June  i,  1872. 


LEVERRIER 


1060         LEWIS  AND  CLARK  EXPEDITION 


Leverrier  (le-vd'ryd),   Urbain   Jean   J.i 

a  great  French  astronomer,  born  in  Nor- 
mandy, March  ii,  1811,  died  at  Paris,  Sept. 
23,  1877.  He  began  life  as  a  student  of 
chemistry  under  Gay-Lussac,  but  in  1837 
accepted  a  chair  of  astronomy  at  the  Poly- 
technic School  in  Paris,  and  for  40  years 
devoted  himself  almost  exclusively  to 
celestial  mechanics.  In  1846  he  predicted, 
by  a  study  of  the  motion  of  Uranus,  that 
there  was  a  disturbing  body  in  the  neigh- 
borhood: and  this  body  which  we  now  call 
Neptune,  was  discovered  on  Sept.  23,  1846, 
by  Galle  at  Berlin,  within  one  degree  of 
the  place  where  Leverrier  said  it  would  be 
found.  This  prediction  is  really  no  more 
remarkable  than  many  others  which  have 
been  made  in  astronomy;  but  it  is  one  which 
has  always  caught  popular  applause.  In 
1854  Leverrier  succeeded  Arago  as  director 
of  the  Paris  Observatory,  a  position  which 
he  held  with  the  exception  of  three  years 
until  his  death. 

Le'vi  and  Le'vites.  In  Jewish  history 
Levi  was  the  third  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah 
and  ancestor  of  the  Levites.  The  three 
divisions  of  Levi's  family  are  said  to  have 
received  no  allotted  territory,  only  48 
scattered  cities.  The  story  of  the  Levites 
is  one  of  controversy,  some  maintaining 
that  Levi  was  the  ancestor  of  the  order 
and  others  denying  that  it  originally  was 
a  tribe  at  all.  The  Levites  were  set  apart 
for  the  temple  service.  See  Wellhausen's 
History  of  Israel. 

Lewes  (lu'is),  George  Henry,  an  Eng- 
lish philosophical  writer,  was  born  at  Lon- 
don in  1817.  His  first  important  work  was 
his  Biographical  History  of  Philosophy  (1845) 
subsequently  much  extended  and  altered  — 
a  work  written  from  a  positivist  point  of 
view  and  sufficiently  proving  his  ability  as 
a  thinker  and  writer.  From  1849  to  1854 
he  was  literary  editor  of  the  Leader,  during 
that  time  publishing  his  Life  of  Robespierre 
and  a  compend  of  Comte's  Philosophy  of 
the  Sciences.  His  Life  of  Goethe,  which  won 
him  a  European  reputation,  was  published 
in  1855.  From  1854  he  was  largely  en- 
gaged in  physiological  investigations,  with 
special  reference  to  philosophical  problems. 
To  this  period  belong  his  Seaside  Studies, 
Physiology  of  Common  Life  and  Studies  in 
Animal  Life,  besides  papers  contributed 
to  the  British  Association  on  the  spinal 
cord  and  on  the  nervous  system.  In  1864 
he  published  A  Study  on  Aristotle,  and  in 
1865  founded  the  Fortnightly  Review,  but 
was  compelled  by  ill-health  to  retire  a  year 
later.  The  chief  work  of  his  life,  aiming 
at  the  systematic  development  of  his 
philosophical  views,  is  entitled  Problems 
of  Life  and  Mind.  His  relations  with  the 
novelist,  "George  Eliot,"  will  be  known  to 
readers.  He  died  in  1878. 

Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition.  The  pur- 
chase of  the  Louisiana  Territory  from  France 


by  tfce  United  States  in  1803  was  anticipated 
by  President  Jefferson.  As  soon  as  the 
business  was  concluded,  he  recommended  to 
Congress  the  advisability  of  exploring  our 
new  possessions  to  determine  their  char- 
acter, extent  and  value;  and  he  named  his 
own  private  secretary,  Meriwether  Lewis,  a 
young  Virginian,  and  Captain  William 
Clark  of  the  regular  army  as  competent  to 
lead  such  a  hazardous  enterprise.  The 
expedition  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Mis- 
souri and  thence  across  the  mountains  to 
the  Pacific  was  authorized  and  immediately 
organized.  A  company  of  30  were  selected 
—  nine  hardy  young  backwoodsmen  from 
Kentucky,  14  soldiers  from  the  army,  two 
Canadian  voyagewrs.  an  Indian  interpreter, 
a  veteran  hunter  from  the  plains  and  a 
negro  servant  —  in  all,  30  men.  In  the 
summer  of  1803  they  proceeded  to  St.  Louis 
and  wintered  at  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri. 
In  the  spring  of  1804  the  party  embarked 
in  boats  on  the  broad  current  of  the  "Big 
Muddy."  They  spent  some  days  with  Daniel 
Boone,  who  was  then  living  at  the  last  out- 
post of  civilization  in  the  Femme  Osage 
district  on  the  Missouri.  He  advised  the 
explorers  to  turn  back,  saying  that  no  white 
party  could  make  its  way  through  the  sav- 
age Sioux  of  Dakota.  This  was  not  cheering 
advice  from  the  most  daring  and  renowned 
Indian-fighter  and  hunter  in  the  west,  but 
the  intrepid  explorers  refused  to  turn  back. 
By  October  they  reached  a  village  of  friendly 
Mandan  Indians,  near  the  site  of  Bismarck, 
N.  D.,  and  decided  to  camp  there  for  the 
winter. 

None  of  these  plains  Indians  had  ever 
seen  the  Great  Falls  of  the  Missouri  or  the 
western  mountains,  and  they  tried  to  in- 
duce the  explorers  to  abandon  the  enter- 
prise. Living  in  the  village  were  a  voting 
French-Canadian  fur-trader  and  his  Indian 
wife.  Daughter  of  a  Shoshone  chief,  a 
mountain  tribe,  she  had  been  captured  in 
a  raid  by  the  Sioux  five  years  before  and 
sold  to  the  French  voyageur.  Light  of  foot, 
merry  of  heart  and  with  a  singing  voice, 
she  had  learned  French  chansons  from  her 
affectionate  white  husband,  and  was  called 
Bird- Woman  by  the  ^  Mandans,  who  re- 
garded her  as  a  superior  being.  She  had 
long  before  given  up  the  idea  of  ever  again 
seeing  her  old  home  in  the  Idaho  moun- 
tains, when  these  white  explorers  revived 
the  hope.  Chaboneau,  her  husband,  knew 
the  plains,  she  the  mountains.  Together 
they  undertook  to  guide  the  party  to  the 
Pacific.  The  leaders  of  the  expedition 
demurred  at  taking  a  woman  with  a  baby, 
but  she  argued  with  convincing  eloquence. 
She  could  march,  she  could  row,  she  could 
swim,  she  could  load  a  canoe,  catch  fish, 
shoot  game,  set  up  a  tent,  cook,  make  a 
campfire  and  moccasins.  She  had  noted 
the  courses  of  the  mountain  streams  and 
passes  and  the  Sioux  and  Shoshone  trails. 


LEWISTON 


1061 


LEXINGTON 


She  knew  the  habits  of  mountain  animals, 
where  to  find  food  in  the  barren  land, 
water  in  the  desert.  And  she  could  carry 
her  baby  on  her  back  —  he  should  trouble 
no  one. 

It  is  well  that  she  prevailed.  In  April, 
1805,  Bird- Woman  stepped  into  one  of  the 
six  canoes  that  pushed  out  into  the  Mis- 
souri. Within  a  week  they  reached  the 
Yellowstone,  and  were  climbing  the  long 
slope.  Boats  had  to  be  towed,  hunters 
foraged  for  game.  Rocks  and  thorns  wore 
out  the  moccasins  as  fast  as  the  indus- 
trious Bird  Woman  could  make  them.  Late 
in  May  they  had  their  first  glimpse  of  the 
snowcapped  peaks  of  the  Rockies  —  then 
that  burst  of  glory  above  the  plains  —  the 
Great  Falls  —  a  veil  of  spray  80  feet  high 
descending  between  lofty  cliffs  of  solid  rock. 
It  was  Chaboneau  who  showed  the  ex- 
plorers how  to  make  wheels  of  cross- 
sections  of  the  cotton  wood,  on  which  to 
carry  the  boats  the  20  miles  around  the 
Falls.  But  from  that  on  Bird- Woman  was 
the  guide.  They  had  passed  the  gate  of  the 
Rockies  and  were  in  a  labyrinth  of  streams 
and  passes.  At  the  three  forks  of  the  Mis- 
souri she  took  the  South  Fork  —  the 
Shoshone  trail.  Straight  as  an  arrow  she 
made  her  way  back  to  her  old  home.  After 
that  long  journey  the  sight  of  the  tepees 
and  grazing  ponies  in  the  Shoshone  valley 
was  a  welcome  sight.  Leaving  Bird  Woman 
and  Chaboneau  to  visit  her  brother,  the 
chief,  Shoshone  guides  led  the  explorers 
across  the  coast-range  to  the -Pacific.  The 
last  stage  of  the  journey  was  by  boat  on 
Columbia  River.  They  reached  its  mouth 
and  camped  on  the  Pacific  Ocean  beach, 
Nov.  15,  1805.  There  they  spent  the 
winter.  Chaboneau  and  Bird  Woman  re- 
turned across  the  mountains  with  them  to 
the  Mandan  village  in  the  spring,  and  were 
paid  $500  for  their  serivces,  a  sum  sufficient 
to  build  them  a  good  cabin  and  buy  many 
horses  and  ponies.  A  statue  of  Bird  Woman, 
with  her  pappoose  on  her  back,  was  one  of 
the  attractive  features  of  the  Lewis  and 
Clark  Exposition  at  Portland,  Oregon,  in 
i9°5- 

The  explorers  reached  the  Mississippi 
again  in  September,  1806,  very  much  to 
the  astonishment  of  everyone,  including 
Daniel  Boone.  By  many  they  had  been 
given  up  for  dead.  It  was  scarcely  be- 
lieved that,  though  they  had  gone  through 
incredible  toil  and  hardship,  they  had  been 
in  very  little  real  danger  and  had  not 
encountered  the  terrible  Sioux.  The  reports 
of  the  expedition  excited  the  liveliest  in- 
terest—  the  vast,  fertile  plains,  the  lofty 
mountains  and  the  beautiful  valleys  and 
mild  climate  of  the  Pacific  Coast  fired  the 
imagination.  The  members  of  the  explor- 
ing party  were  given  honors  and  large 
grants  of  land.  Mr.  Lewis  was  appointed 
governor  of  the  Territory  of  Missouri.  The 


arduous  labors  and  mental  strain  of  the 
expedition,  however,  had  unbalanced  his 
ardent,  active  mind  and,  in  a  fit  of  insanity, 
in  October,  1809,  he  committed  suicide  at 
the  age  of  35.  Captain  Clark  returned  to 
the  army.  Settlement  of  the  Missouri 
River  country  was  steadily  resisted  by  the 
Sioux  until  they  were  conquered  in  the 
"jo's.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  California 
in  1848  was  followed  by  the  building  of 
the  Union  Pacific  railroad  across  the  old 
Louisiana  Territory.  It  was  completed  in 
1869.  The  Northern  Pacific  of  the  8o's 
and  the  Great  Northern,  terminating  at 
Puget  Sound  and  opened  in  1893,  now 
cross  the  region  explored  by  Lewis  and 
Clark  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago.  The 
natural  wonders  and  beauties  of  the  Yellow- 
stone region,  first  discovered  by  them,  are 
now  preserved  in  the  National  Park. 

Lew'iston,  an  important  manufacturing 
city  in  Androscoggin  County,  Me.  It  is 
situated  36  miles  north  of  Portland,  on  the 
left  bank  of  Androscoggin  River,  being  con- 
nected by  several  bridges  with  Auburn  on 
the  opposite  bank.  As  the  river  here  falls 
nearly  50  feet,  Lewiston  has  an  abundant 
supply  of  water-power,  which  has  been 
turned  to  great  advantage  by  manufactur- 
ing establishments.  There  are  quite  a 
number  of  manufacturing  companies  and 
corporations  in  the  city,  the  value  of  their 
annual  products  exceeding  $15,000,000. 
Chief  among  these  industries  is  the  manu- 
facture of  cottoncloth  and  woolen  goods; 
next  in  importance  the  bleaching  and  dye 
wor:cs  (for  bleaching  and  dyeing  cotton 
materials).  There  are,  besides,  a  large 
boot  and  shoe  factory,  several  establish- 
ments which  furnish  supplies  for  the  cotton 
and  woolen  mills  and  a  number  of  other 
industries.  Lewiston  has  excellent  public 
and  parochial  schools,  several  churches,  two 
fine  hospitals,  an  orphan  asylum  etc.  Bates 
College,  which  has  its  seat  here,  was  founded 
by  the  Free  Baptists  in  1863,  Benjamin  E. 
Bates  of  Boston  contributing  $200,000  to 
its  endowment.  It  is  co-educational,  and 
was  the  first  college  in  New  England  to 
receive  women.  Lewiston  was  incorporated 
as  a  village  in  1795,  but  did  not  receive  a 
city  charter  until  1863.  Population  26,247 

Lex'ington,  a  city  of  Kentucky,  county- 
seat  of  Fayette  County,  stands  in  the 
famous  blue-grass  region  at  the  junction 
of  five  railways,  about  80  miles  from  Cin- 
cinnati. The  surrounding  district  is  noted 
for  beauty  and  fertility,  and  the  town  has 
been  laid  out  in  attractive  style.  Lexing- 
ton was  the  home  of  Henry  Clay;  and  its 
West  End  cemetery  contains  an  imposing 
monument  to  his  memory.  The  University 
of  Kentucky  was  moved  to  Lexington  in 
1865,  and  Transylvania  University  was 
merged  in  it;  the  city  also  contains  the 
state  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College, 
the  Kentucky  Reform  School,  Sayre  Female 


LEXINGTON 


1002 


LIBERIA 


Institute,  Kentucky  University  (Christian), 
St.  Catherine's  Female  Academy  (R.  C.) 
and  Lexington  Normal  Institute  (colored). 
It  manufactures  harness,  saddlery,  flour, 
canned  goods,  lumber,  carriages,  wagons 
and  Bourbon  whiskey.  The  town  was 
named  in  1775  in  honor  of  the  first  battle- 
field of  the  Revolution,  the  news  of  that 
fight  reaching  the  early  settlers  while  they 
were  laying  out  the  town.  Population 
about  3S.°99- 

Lexington,  a  village  of  Massachusetts, 
ten  miles  from  Boston,  where  the  first  battle 
of  the  Revolution  was  fought  on  the  igth 
of  April,  1775.  On  the  night  previous  Paul 
Revere,  escaped  from  Boston,  brought  word 
to  Lexington  that  a  detachment  of  British 
troops  were  preparing  to  march  to  Con- 
cord, to  seize  the  provincial  stores  and 
cannon  at  that  place.  About  midnight  the 
call  to  arms  was  sounded,  and  the  militia 
turned  out  and  remained  under  arms  until 
morning,  when  the  English  under  Major 
Pitcairn  were  seen  approaching  the  com- 
mon adjoining  the  village.  The  militia 
being  drawn  up  here,  Pitcairn  advanced 
upon  them  with  a  largely  superior  force. 
As  the  militia  refused  to  obey  his  command 
to  disperse,  he  ordered  his  men  to  fire.  A 
discharge  of  musketry  followed,  with  the 
result  that  four  of  the  militia  were  killed 
and  nine  wounded.  The  British  then 
moved  on  to  Concord;  and  on  their  return 
were  attacked  by  the  militia  in  the  western 
part  of  Lexington,  and  a  sharp  contest 
took  place  in  which  several  men  were  killed. 
The  British  force  would  probably  have 
been  totally  destroyed,  if  re-enforcements 
nad  not  arrived  from  Boston  under  Lord 
Percy.  A  monument  was  erected  in  1799 
to  commemorate  this  battle.  Population 
4,979- 

Lexington,  a  beautiful  village,  county- 
seat  of  Rockbridge  County,  Va.,  on  North 
River,  30  miles  from  Lynchburg  and  no 
from  Richmond.  It  manufactures  agri- 
cultural implements,  flour,  lumber  and 
dairy-products.  Valuable  deposits  of  sul- 
phur ore  are  in  the  vicinity,  and  there  are 
mineral  springs.  These  are  popular  re- 
sorts. The  natural  bridge,  one  of  Amer- 
ica's curiosities  is  15  miles  distant.  Lex- 
ington is  served  by  the  B.  and  O.  and 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  railways.  It  con- 
tains Washington  and  Lee  University  and 
Virginia  Military  Institute.  Robert  E.  Lee 
and  "Stonewall"  Jackson  are  buried  here. 
Population  3,20°- 

Leyden  (It' den),  Lu'cas  van,  Dutch 
painter  and  engraver,  was  born  at  Leyden 
m  1494.  He  painted  a  picture  of  St.  Hubert 
when  12,  and  Mahomet  and  the  Monk 
Sergius  was  engraved  when  he  was  only 
14.  He  practiced  nearly  every  branch  of 
painting,  his  range  of  subjects  being  wide 
and  embracing  events  in  sacred  history, 
incidents  of  his  own  times  and  portraits. 


He  died  at  Leyden  in  1533,  after  having 
been  confined  to  his  bed  for  six  years.  His 
Hill  of  Calvary  is  generally  considered  his 
masterpiece.  His  real  name  was  Lucas 
Jacobsz. 

Leys  (Us  or  la),  Henri  Jean  Auguste, 
Belgian  painter,  was  born  at  Antwerp,  Feb. 
1 8,  1815.  He  was  created  a  baron  by  Leo- 
pold I  in  1862.  Leys  is  one  ot  the  best 
modern  artists  in  the  style  of  the  old 
Flemish  masters;  and  his  most  valuable 
pictures  are  inspired  by  the  history  of  his 
native  land.  He  spent  most  of  his  life 
in  his  native  city  and  died  there  Aug.  26, 
1869. 

Lhasa  (Iha'sff),  ("the  seat  of  the  gods"), 
the  capital  of  Tibet  (q.  v.)  and  the  sacred 
city  of  the  Buddhists,  is  situated  12,000 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  surrounded  by 
mountains  ranging  from  2,000  to  4,000  feet 
above  that  altitude.  The  resident  popula- 
tion is  about  20,000  and  the  city  is  an 
important  trading  as  well  as  ecclesiastical 
center.  See  Candler's  Unveiling  of  Lhasa, 
Hedin's  Through  Asia  and  Landon's  Open- 
ing of  Tibet. 

Lia'nas,  the  name  given  to  those  plants  in 
tropical  forests  which  twine  around  trees 
for  their  support.  Such  plants  are  com- 
paratively rare  in  colder  climates,  although 
there  are  a  few  examples,  as  the  honey- 
suckle and  some  species  of  clematis.  As 
these  often  overtop  the  hedges  or  bushes 
on  which  they  grow  and  fall  down  by  the 
weight  of  their  leaves,  so  the  lianas  of 
tropical  countries  overtop  the  largest  and 
tallest  trees  and,  descending  to  the  ground 
in  vast  festoons,  pass  from  tree  to  tree  and 
bind  the  whole  forest  in  a  maze  of  net- 
work, often  by  cables  as  thick  as  those  of 
a  ship.  Many  forests  thus  become  impene- 
trable except  with  the  aid  of  an  ax  or 
hatchet,  and  the  beasts  that  inhabit  their 
pass  either  through  narrow  paths  kept  oper 
by  constant  use  or  from  bough  to  bougL 
aoove  the  ground.  Many  lianas  become 
almost  tree-like  in  thickness,  and  often 
bind  the  trees  with  such  force  as  to  kill 
them.  No  tropical  flowers  excel  in  splendor 
those  of  some  lianas,  and  among  them  are 
also  found  a  few  valuable  medicinal  plants. 
See  CLIMBING  PLANTS. 

LIbe'ria,  a  negro  republic,  on  the  coast  of 
West  Africa  between  Senegambia  and  the 
French  Ivory  Coast,  and  extending  north 
and  east  of  Cape  Palmas.  Its  area  em- 
braces about  45,000  square  miles.  The 
coast-line  measures  350  miles,  and,  though 
the  eastern  boundary  has  never  been  defi- 
nitely drawn,  the  republic  is  supposed  to 
extend  inland  about  200  miles.  The  coast 
is  low,  but  about  20  miles  inland  the  sur- 
face begins  to  rise,  and  is  well-wooded  and 
watered  by  numerous  streams. 

Natural  Resources.  Rubber  is  obtained, 
iron  is  plentiful,  gold  and  copper  exist  in 
small-  quantities,  and  zinc,  monazite,  corun- 


LIBERIA 


1063 


LIBRARIES 


dum,  lead,  lignite  and  some  diamonds  occur 
in  the  interior,  but  never  in  paying  quanti- 
ties. The  rubber  industry  is  in  the  hands 
of  a  liberal  corporation.  The  soil  is  fertile 
and  well-adapted  to  the  growth  of  tropical 
fruits,  especially  rice  and  cotton.  The 
chief  exports  are  coffee,  palm-oil,  palm- 
kernels,  rubber,  cocoa,  sugar,  arrowroot, 
ivory,  hides  and  caoutchouc. 

History.  Liberia  owes  its  orgin  to  the 
American  Colonization  Society,  which  in 
1821  bought  and  settled  emancipated 
slaves  on  it.  In  1847  Liberia  was  acknowl- 
edged as  a  free  and  independent  govern- 
ment by  England  and  the  United  States, 
and  since  that  time  it  has  greatly  enlarged 
its  territory.  The  constitution  is  mod- 
eled largely  on  that  of  the  United  States, 
the  president  and  members  of  the  house  of 
representatives  (14  in  number)  being  elected 
every  four  years  and  senators  (9  in  number) 
every  six  years.  There  is  no  standing  army, 
but  all  citizens  capable  of  bearing  arms 
are  enrolled  in  the  militia  and  compelled 
to  do  military  duty  whenever  called  on. 
Slavery  is  illegal,  and  religious  toleration 
exists.  The  state  debt  (originally  $500,000) , 
on  which  no  interest  had  been  paid  since 
August,  1874,  was  scaled  in  1899.  In  1899 
the  principal  was  about  $400,000,  and  the 
arrears  of  interest  about  $100,000.  Since 
1899,  however,  the  current  interest  has  been 
paid  yearly.  During  1906-7  a  British 
company  invested  nearly  $500,000  in  the 
development  of  Liberia,  a  statistical  bureau 
has  been  established,  and  trade-conditions 
are  improving.  In  1906  the  income  was 
$330,000,  and  the  expenditure  $290,000. 
The  general  progress  has  not  been  equal 
to  expectations,  as  the  republic  does  not 
find  much  favor  with  the  native  negroes, 
and  the  American  emigrants  have  dete- 
riorated rather  than  advanced  in  many 
respects;  but  the  state  shows  considerable 
appreciation  of  education  and  religion  and 
a  keen  desire  to  stand  well  in  the  opinion  of 
the  various  governments  with  which  it  sus- 
tains diplomatic  relations.  The  popula- 
tion is  variously  estimated  from  1,500,000 
to  2,120,000,  all  of  the  African  race,  and 
about  60,000  are  American  liberated  slaves 
and  their  descendants.  The  capital  is 
Monrovia  (population  about  8,000).  See 
Wauwermans'  Liberia. 

Libraries.  "Of  making  many  books 
there  is  no  end,"  and  the  beginning  of  this 
process  dates  as  far  back  as  the  records  of 
civilization.  As  a  result  of  men's  reducing 
their  thoughts  to  wnting,  there  were  col- 
lections of  books  in  the  most  remote  nations 
of  antiquity.  As  early  as  3800  B.  C.  Sargon 
.  the  Semitic  ruler  of  Accad,  founded  a 
library  in  that  city.  The  name  of  the 
keeper  of  Sargon's  library,  Ibnisarru,  the 
most  ancient  librarian  on  record,  is  pre- 
served on  his  seal  which  has  come  down  to 
us.  Libraries  of  a  similar  kind  existed  in 


the  chief  cities  of  Babylonia,  and  their 
contents  (or  copies)  and  translations  from 
them  were  gathered  to  form  the  great  As- 
syrian library  established  at  Nineveh  by 
Assur-bani-pal.  In  ancient  Egypt  there 
was  an  immense  literature,  and  over  the 
door  of  the  library  of  Rameses  I  was  the 
inscription  '  Dispensary  of  the  Soul."  There 
also  was  a  great  library  at  Memphis  at  a  very 
early  date;  but  the  greatest  of  all  ancient 
libraries  was  that  established  by  the  Ptole- 
mies at  Alexandria  in  the  3d  century  B.  C. 
The  ancient  Hebrews  carefully  preserved 
their  sacred  writings  in  the  temple;  and  the 
kings  of  Persia  also  made  collections  of 
books  and  archives.  Of  the  ancient  Greeks, 
Pisistratus  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
to  collect  a  library,  although  some  author- 
ities make  Aristotle's  collection  the  first. 

It  is  characteristic  of  ancient  Rome  that 
the  first  great  libraries  of  the  city  should 
have  been  derived  from  the  spoils  of  war. 
It  was  a  favorite  project  of  Julius  Caesar  to 
establish  a  great  public  library,  which 
should  contain  all  the  works  in  Greek  and 
Latin  literature;  but  as  he  was  killed  be- 
fore this  design  was  carried  into  execution, 
it  was  left  to  his  successor,  Octavius  Caesar, 
who  founded  two  libraries,  the  Octavian 
and  the  Palatine,  the  latter  of  which  con- 
tinued in  existence  till  the  time  of  Pope 
Gregory  I  (A.D.  540-604).  Other  libraries 
were  established  by  subsequent^  emperors, 
the  chief  of  which  was  the  Ulpian,  estab- 
lished by  Trajan.  When  Constantino  be- 
came emperor,  he  began  to  collect  the 
Christian  books  which  had  escaped  the  per- 
secution of  Diocletian.  This  library  was 
enlarged  by  his  successors  to  120,000  vol- 
umes, but  was  partially  burned  in  the  8th 
century. 

During  the  irruption  of  the  barbarians 
most  of  the  ancient  collections  were  de- 
stroyed by  fire;  and,  although  the  ancient 
literature  was  neglected  by  the  Christians, 
the  germs  of  our  modern  libraries  were 
accumulating  in  the  cloister.  The  monks 
of  St.  Benedict  were  the  especial  collectors, 
translators  and  book-makers  of  the  middle 
ages. 

In  England  the  establishing  of  public 
libraries  hardly  began  till  the  i7th  century; 
and  it  is  not  until  the  middle  of  the  i8tn 
century  that  we  hear  of  the  earliest  circulat- 
ing library  established  at  London.  But  in 
the  1 9th  century  interest  awakened,  and 
in  1850  an  act  of  parliament  was  passed 
giving  certain  districts  power  to  tax  their 
inhabitants  for  the  purpose  of  establishing 
free  libraries.  Under  the  operation  of  this 
act  more  than  200  such  libraries  have  been 
founded  in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom. 
In  1906  it  was  estimated  that  there  were 
203  cities  and  boroughs  which  had  been 
equipped  with  close  upon  6,000,000  books, 
having,  it  was  calculated,  nearly  50,000,000 
readers.  Of  the  older  libraries  of  the  United 


LIBRARIES 


1064 


LIBRARIES,  HOW  TO  USE 


Kingdom  by  far  the  most  important  is 
the  British  Museum  at  London,  which  has 
over  2.000,000  printed  books,  and  is  exceed- 
ingly rich  in  Egyptian,  Assyrian,  Greek 
and  Roman  antiquities,  illuminated  missals, 
manuscripts  and  maps.  The  English  act 
was  extended  to  Scotland  in  1854.  In 
Dublin  the  library  of  Trinity  College  con- 
tains about  300,000  volumes,  and  the 
national  library  of  Ireland  numbers  over 
100,000. 

France  is  remarkable  for  the  number  of 
provincial  libraries  open  to  the  public, 
while  its  capital  is  better  provided  than  any 
other  city  in  Europe.  The  Bibliotheque 
Nationale  is  of  ancient  origin,  and  contains 
more  than  3,000,000  volumes  —  the  largest 
library  in  the  world.  Fourteen  other  libra- 
ries, most  of  which  are  open  to  the  public, 
add  over  1,000,000  to  the  volumes  accessible 
to  the  people  of  Paris.  The  school  library 
also  is  a  very  important  feature  of  the 
French  system.  In  1862  it  was  ordered 
that  a  library  should  be  attached  to  every 
primary  school  for  the  use  of  the  children 
and  others,  and  in  1882  there  were  20,000 
of  these  school  libraries. 

Throughout  the  German  empire  the  li- 
braries of  the  states  and  the  universities 
are  well-supplied  with  books,  and  in  Berlin 
there  are  over  70  libraries.  Italy,  as  might 
be  expected,  has  a  number  of  richly  fur- 
nished libraries,  but  all  yield  in  interest  to 
the  Vatican  library  at  Rome,  which  proba- 
bly is  the  oldest  in  Europe  (1447).  The 
Vatican  is  the  private  library  of  the  pope; 
but  all  scholars  gain  access  by  permission. 

There  are  several  university  libraries  in 
Russia,  which  generally  are  open  only  to 
members  of  their  several  bodies;  but  the 
imperial  library  at  St.  Petersburg,  contain- 
ing nearly  1,500,000  volumes,  is  open  to  all 
persons  over  1 2  years  of  age. 

In  the  United  States  but  little  interest 
was  shown  in  the  establishment  of  public 
libraries  during  the  first  half  of  the  igth 
century,  but  since  the  close  of  the  Civil 
War  the  accumulation  of  books  has  gone 
on  very  rapidly.  In  1903  the  number  of 
registered  public  libraries  was  over  9,000, 
containing  upwards  of  55,000,000  volumes. 
Among  the  older  collections  is  that  of 
Harvard  University,  the  number  of  whose 
volumes  has  increased  from  72,000  in  1850 
to  750,000  in  1907.  Yale  University  library 
has  increased  from  21,000  to  480,000. 
Nearly  every  state  has  established  an  official 
library  to  which  admission  is  free;  the  largest 
of  these  is  the  library  of  New  York,  con- 
taining 160,000  volumes.  Mr.  Carnegie,  be- 
sides founding  or  aiding  numberless  educa- 
tional institutions,  has  donated  over  40 
million  dollars  to  libraries  in  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  (See  CARNEGIE). 
Astor  library  in  New  York  city,  founded 
by  John  Jacob  Astor,  contains  250,000 
volumes,  and  its  endowment  provides  for  an 


annual  expenditure  of  $18,000  in  the  pur- 
chase of  books.  In  1895  a  consolidation 
was  formed,  under  the  title  of  the  New 
York  Public  library,  of  the  Astor  library, 
Lenox  library  and  the  Tilden  trust,  the 
home  of  which  now  is  at  Fifth  Avenue  and 
42nd  Street.  The  Congressional  library 
at  Washington  is  the  national  library  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  building  in  which 
it  is  placed  is  the  largest  library  building 
in  the  world.  To-day  its  book-collection  is 
close  upon  1,500,000  volumes. 

Libraries,  How  to  Use.  The  average 
public  library  is  much  frequented;  it  is  the 
school  or  reference  library  that  is  likely  to 
be  neglected,  and  that  because  the  student 
is  ignorant  of  how  to  proceed  for  himself 
to  find  the  information  which  he  desires. 
His  idea  of  reference  work  is  usually  bounded 
by  an  encyclopedia  or  two;  if  he  fails  to 
find  there  what  he  reeds,  he  is  apt  to  be- 
come discouraged  and  feel  that  the  library, 
as  far  as  he  is  concerned,  is  useless.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  encyclopedia  merely  is 
an  index  to  the  vast  funds  of  material  to 
be  found  elsewhere  in  the  library.  Besides 
the  brief  treatment  which  it  gives  of  a  sub- 
ject, it  may  be  valuable  for  its  suggestion 
of  another  subject  under  which  further 
information  may  be  found. 

After  the  cross-references  in  the  ency- 
clopedia have  been  exhausted,  the  student 
should  gather  the  headings  which  he  has 
consulted  and  turn  to  the  card-catalogue. 
This  may  be  attacked  from  three  sides; 
it  is  divided  according  to  authors,  subjects 
and  titles.  Each  book  has  an  author,  a 
subject  and  a  title  card.  Plutarch's  Lives 
of  Illustrious  Men,  for  example,  may  be 
looked  for  under  the  author  Plutarch,  under 
the  subject,  Biography,  and  under  the  title, 
Lives  of  Illustrious  Men.  Thus  a  student"' 
who  comes  with  very  little  knowledge  of  a 
book  may  be  able  to  place  it  under  at  least 
one  of  these  headings.  The  numbers  always 
found  in  the  tipper  left-hand  corner  of  the 
card  denote  the  classification;  and  it  is  very 
convenient  to  have  a  general  idea  of  the 
subjects  which  these  numbers  represent 
and  of  their  location  in  the  room.  For 
general  reference  works  one  should  learn 
to  be  independent  of  the  librarian. 

The  Reader's  Guide  to  periodical  literature, 
is  issued  monthly  and  cumulated  quarterly. 
Poole's  Index,  indexes  the  best  periodical 
literature  of  the  igth  Century  and  is 
necessary  for  all  reference  libraries.  Good 
material  appears  in  such  magazines  as  the 
Nineteenth  Century,  Atlantic  Monthly,  Re- 
view of  Reviews,  World's  Work,  Harper's, 
The  Century,  Scribner's  and  the  various 
periodicals  devoted  to  education,  science, 
philosophy,  psychology  and  art,  whose 
name  is  legion.  Such  material  is  m^ie 
readily  accessible  by  means  of  the  inr  exes 
mentioned  above.  It  is  the  primary  source 
from  which  the  student  may  gather  infor- 


LIBRARY  OF  CONGRESS 


1065 


LICHENS 


mation  upon  topics  of  immediate  contem- 
porary interests. 

The  standard  books  of  general  reference 
include  such  encyclopedias  as  the  Britannica, 
Americana,  Century  Cyclopedia  of  Names, 
the  New  International,  The  Dictionary  of 
National  Biography  (British)  and  ency- 
clopaedias and  dictionaries  of  American 
biography.  For  the  data  connected  with 
the  lives  of  prominent  living  personages, 
Who's  Who  and  Who's  Who  in  America  are 
handy  gazeteers.  Many  statistics  of  pub- 
lic interest  and  often  a  summary  of  the 
chief  historical  events  of  the  preceding 
year  are  to  be  found  in  annual  almanacs, 
such  as  are  published  by  several  of  New 
York's  leading  newspapers. 

Among  the  best  dictionaries  are:  (Eng- 
lish) the  Oxford  and  New  English  diction- 
aries, Century,  Webster,  Standard  and  Wor- 
cester; (French)  Larousse,  Littre'  and  Bes- 
cherelles;  (German)  Fliegel's  and  Grieb's; 
(Spanish)  Velasquez;  (Latin)  Lewis  and 
Short,  Harper,  Andrews  and  Riddle  and 
Arnold;  (Greek)  Liddell  and  Scott  and 
Robinson.  In  addition,  dictionaries  may 
be  found  for  every  individual  subject: 
music,  philosophy,  history,  art,  science  and 
so  on.  A  little  determined  practice  in  the 
use  of  such  books  should  give  the  stu- 
dent a  habit  of  verification,  which  should 
tend  to  make  his  information  [facile  and 
exact. 

Library  of  Congress,  The,  at  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  is  the  American  national  library, 
housed  in  the  finest  library  building  in  the 
world  and  ranking  among  the  world's  best 
libraries.  This  is  the  more  remarkable, 
because  in  1814  it  was  destroyed  in  the 
burning  of  the  capitol  by  the  British,  and 
was  again  partially  destroyed  in  1851  by 
fire.  The  present  building  was  completed 
in  1897  at  a  cost  of  $6,347,000,  and  will 
accommodate  2,200,000  octavo  volumes.  It 
is  freely  open  for  reading  and  reference 
purposes;  but  the  books  are  not  lent  for 
home-reading  to  the  general  public.  The 
catalogue  cards,  reference  lists  and  annual 
reports  of  the  Congressional  Library  are 
of  great  value  to  all  libraries  of  the  United 
States.  The  librarian  will  assist  research 
workers  by  lists  of  books  upon  the  topic 
of  his  reading;  but  requests  for  such  aid 
should  be  sent  through  the  librarian  of  the 
institution  through  which  most  of  his  work 
is  done.  The  library  catalogues  all  Amer- 
ican copyright  publications.  It  has  a  staff 
of  no  less  than  400  employees,  exclusive 
of  caretakers  etc.  Some  of  its  chief  publi- 
cations, in  addition  to  the  reports  of  the 
librarian,  are  A  Union  List  of  Periodicals; 
A  Check  List  of  American  Newspapers  in 
the  Library  of  Congress;  A  List  of  Maps  of 
America;  A  Calendar  of  Washington  Manu- 
scripts; and  a  very  large  number  of  topical 
lists  on  such  subjects  as  the  theory  of 
colonization,  mercantile  marine  subsidies, 


the  Danish  West  Indies,   Porto  Rico,  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  or  the  Philippines. 

Lichens  ( ll'kens  ) .    Plants  which  are  abun- 
dant  everywhere,    forming   various-colored 


TWO    FORMS    OF    LICHENS 

splotches  on  tree  trunks,  rocks,  old  boards 
etc.  and  growing  also  upon  the  ground. 
They  are  of  great  scientific  interest  from 
the  fact  that  they  are  not  single  plants,  but 
each  lichen  is  formed  of  a  fungus  and  an 
alga  living  together  so  intimately  as  to 
appear  like  a  single  plant.  The  lichens 
furnish  one  of  the  best  illustrations  of 
symbiosis  (which  see).  The  fungus  makes 
the  bulk  of  the  body  with  its  interwoven 
mycelial  threads,  and  in  the  meshes  of 
these  threads  live  the  alga?.  Upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  lichen  body  the  fungus  at  cer- 
tain times  develops  cup-like  or  disk-like 
bodies  with  brown  or  black  or  more  brightly 
colored  lining.  These  bodies  are  the 
apothecia  (which  see)  in  which  the  asexual 
spores  are  produced.  Lichens  have  a 
peculiar  and  effective  method  of  vegetative 
propagation.  Upon  the  surface  of  the  body 
there  are  commonly  seen  minute  granules 
which  sometimes  give  the  body  a  dusty 
appearance.  These  granules  are  called 
soredia,  and  each  consists  of  a  few  cells  of 
the  alga  surrounded  by  threads  of  the 
fungus.  These  soredia  are  blown  off,  and 
are  really  small  colonies  to  start  new  lichen 
bodies.  The  lichen  fungus  is  for  the  most 
part  an  ascomycete  (which  see),  and  the 
accompanying  alga  is  mostly  one  of  the 
blue-green  forms.  (See  CYANOPHYCEJE.) 
By  many  it  is  thought  that  the  fungus  and 
the  alga  are  mutually  helpful  in  this  intimate 
relationship,  and  if  so  it  would  be  that  form 


LICK  OBSERVATORY 


1066 


LIFEBOAT 


of  symbiosis  known  as  mutualism  (which 
see).  The  claim  is  that  the  fungus,  being 
unable  to  make  food  for  itself,  uses  the 
food  made  by  the  alga;  while  on  the  other 
hand  the  alga  is  protected  from  drying  out 
by  living  in  the  sponge-like  interior  of  the 
fungus  mycelium.  There  are  others  who 
claim  that  this  is  a  case  of  helotism  (which 
see),  in  which  the  alga  is  not  benefitted  by 
the  presence  of  the  fungus  but  is  held  in 
slavery  by  it.  In  any  event  the  combina- 
tion produces  a  structure  which  is  able  to 
exist  where  neither  one  could  live  alone. 
As  a  consequence,  lichens  are  able  to  grow 
in  the  most  unfavorable  places.  About  the 
last  plants  one  finds  when  going  north  or 
up  a  high  mountain  are  the  lichens;  and 
they  are  about  the  first  plants  to  be  found 
upon  rocks  brought  above  the  surface  of 
the  ocean.  In  such  exposed  situations  the 
fungus  could  not  live,  because  it  depends 
upon  other  organisms;  and  the  alga  could 
not  live,  because  it  would  be  dried  out 
speedily;  but  the  two  can  live  together.  In 
this  way  lichens  play  a  very  important  part 
in  the  first  stages  of  soil  formation  on  bare 
rocks.  There  are  three  general  forms  of  the 
lichen  body,  which  may  be  distinguished 
easily:  (i)  crustaceous,  in  which  the  body 
resembles  an  incrustation  upon  rock,  soil, 
etc.;  (2)  foliose,  with  flattened  leaf-like 
bodies,  attached  only  at  the  middle  or 
irregularly  to  their  support;  and  (3)  fruti- 
cose,  with  filamentous  bodies  branching  like 
shrubs,  either  erect  or  hanging  or  prostrate. 
JOHN  M.  COULTER. 

Lick  Obser'vatory  is  on  Mt.  Hamilton, 
26  miles  east  of  San  Jose",  Cal.  For  the 
erection  and  equipment  of  this  observatory 
$700,000  were  left  by  James  Lick  (1796- 
1876),  a  San  Francisco  millionaire  and 
philanthropist  whose  remains  are  interred 
in  a  vault  within  the  foundations  of  the 
pile  that  supports  the  great  telescope.  This 
instrument  has  an  object-glass  of  36  inches 
in  aperture,  the  founder  requiring  it  to  be 
"superior  to  and  moie  powerful  than  any 
telescope  ever  yet  made ;  and  it  is  provided 
with  an  attachment  which  enables  it  to  be 
used  as  a  gigantic  camera  in  photographing 
the  stars. 

Lid'don,  Henry  Parry,  an  English  divine, 
was  born  at  Stoneham,  England,  in  1829, 
and  graduated  at  Christ  College,  Oxford, 
in  1850.  In  1867  he  delivered  his  famous 
Bampton  lectures  on  The  Divinity  of  our 
Lord.  In  1870  he  became  canon  of  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  scriptural  exegesis 
at  Oxford  University.  He  resigned  his  pro- 
fessorship in  1882,  on  account  of  ill-health, 
and  for  the  same  reason  afterwards  declined 
a  bishopric.  Canon  Liddon  was  distin- 
guished as  one  of  the  ablest  and  most 
eloquent  preachers  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  and  his  sermons  and  writings  exercised 
profound  influence  upon  thought.  He  died 


suddenly  at  Weston-super-Mare,  Sept.  9, 
1890. 

Liebig  (le'btg),  Justus,  FREIHERR  VON, 
a  distinguished  German  chemist,  was  born 
at  Darmstadt,  May  12,  1803.  After  obtain- 
ing the  M.D.  at  Erlangen  in  1822,  he  went 
to  Paris  to  continue  his  studies.  There  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Humboldt,  who 
secured  for  him  the  professorship  of  chem- 
istry in  the  university  at  Giessen.  This 
chair  he  exchanged  in  1852  for  the  corre- 
sponding one  at  Munich.  Liebig  was  one 
of  the  most  illustrious  chemists  of  his  age, 
and  was  distinguished  alike  for  his  original 
researches  and  investigations  and  for  the 
applications  which  he  sought  to  make  of 
his  science  to  practical  life.  As  the  in- 
ventor of  the  extract  of  beef  and  the  pre- 
pared infant  food,  his  name  is  known 
throughout  the  civilized  world;  but  from  a 
scientific  point  of  view  these  commercial 
inventions  were  comparatively  unimportant. 
By  his  investigations  in  organic  chemistry 
and  his  improvements  in  the  method  of 
analysis  of  organic  compounds,  he  rendered 
such  service  that  he  became  the  father  of 
modern  organic  chemistry.  He  was  the 
founder  of  agricultural  chemistry,  and  thus 
the  greatest  reformer  of  practical  agricul- 
ture in  the  i  gth  century.  Liebig  was  created 
a  baron  in  1845,  and  professorships  were 
offered  him  in  England,  Heidelberg,  Vienna 
and  othei  places.  He  died  at  Munich, 
April  18,  1873. 

Lie'ge  ( U-dzh'),  a  large  manufacturing  city 
of  Belgium.  Situated  in  the  center  of  the 
eastern  mining  district,  Liege  is  one  of  the 
first  manufacturing  cities  of  Europe.  Its 
great  staple  is  firearms.  Liege  is  a  beauti- 
ful city,  with  elegant  bridges,  handsome 
squares  and  gardens  and  numerous  fine 
churches  and  private  houses.  Liege  was 
conquered  by  the  French  in  1691,  in  1702 
by  the  English,  and  again  by  the  French 
in  1792.  The  province  was  incorporated 
into  Belgium  in  18  i;  its  area  is  1,117 
square  miles,  with  a  population  ot  826,175. 
Liege  has  a  state  university,  with  special 
schools  of  engineering,  arts,  manufactures, 
mining  etc.  and  an  attendance  of  1,236 
students.  Population  of  the  city  176,893 

Liegnitz  (I eg' nits),  a  town  of  Prussian 
Silesia,  on  the  Katzbach,  38  miles  from 
Breslau.  The  town  dates  from  the  latter 
part  of  the  loth  century,  and  came  into 
the  hands  of  Prussia  in  1742.  Here  in  1760 
Frederick  the  Great  routed  the  Austrians 
under  Leudon,  and  on  the  banks  of  the 
river,  in  1813,  was  fought  a  great  battle 
between  the  French  under  Marshal  Mac- 
donald  and  the  Prussians  under  Blticher, 
in  which  the  latter  were  completely  vic- 
torious. The  town  is  a  place  of  great 
industrial  activity.  Population  66,620. 

Life' boat  is  a  strong  boat  for  saving 
shipwrecked  people,  and  is  so  built  that  it 
can  not  be  sunk  or  destroyed,  and,  if 


LIFE-PRESERVERS 


1067 


LIGHT 


capsized,  can  right  itself.  Lionel  Lukin  of 
London,  England,  patented  a  lifeboat  in 
1785,  and  in  1789  Henry  Greathead  con- 
structed a  better  one,  inventing  a  curved 
keel.  Till  1851  Greathead 's  model  re- 
mained almost  the  only  lifeboat  used.  But 
it  could  not  discharge  water,  nor  right  itself 
when  upset.  Then  James  Beeching  of  Yar- 
mouth constructed  the  first  self-righting 
boat,  and  Peake  of  Woolwich  designed 
another,  which  was  improved  by  many 
men  and  so  became  the  standard.  The 
model  lifeboat  has  great  resistance  against 
upsetting;  is  speedy  against  a  heavy  sea; 
is  easily  launched;  discharges  water  im- 
mediately by  relieving-tubes;  rights  itself 
if  overturned;  is  exceptionally  strong;  and 
carries  many,  people.  Its  length  is  33  feet, 
its  width  eight  feet,  —  a  great  breadth  of 
beam  in  proportion  to  the  length. 

Life-Preset7 vers,  a  buoy  or  belt  designed 
to  be  attached  to  the  person  for  the  preser- 
vation of  life  in  shipwreck.  They  are  gen- 
erally made  of  cork  covered  with  canvas, 
or  of  indiarubber  inflated  with  air.  Many 
varieties  of  life-preservers  have  been  de- 
vised, among  which  we  mention  the  life- 
belt designed  by  Admiral  Ward  in  1854. 
It  has  four  separate  compartments,  so  that 
if  one  should  be  punctured,  the  belt's  buoy- 
ant power  would  not  be  destroyed.  There 
also  are  life-preserving  jackets;  life-floats; 
annular  life-preservers;  life-preserving  trous- 
ers and  suits.  Life-preservers  of  many  other 
forms  and  materials  have  been  demised; 
and  ships  are  required  to  carry  a  sufficient 
number  for  the  safety  of  all  passengers. 

Life-Sav'ing  Ser'vice.  Lighthouses  and 
beacons  have  been  built  along  the  seacoasts 
of  Europe  and  the  United  States,  and,  in 
addition  lifeboat  stations  have  been  estab- 
lished, with  organized  crews  for  the  rescue 
of  all  shipwrecked  persons.  In  the  United 
States  alone  more  than  11,000  lives  were 
saved  by  this  service  in  the  first  ten  years 
(1871-81)  of  operation.  The  shores  of  the 
United  States  —  lakes  and  seas  —  are  over 
10,000  miles  in  extent,  and  this  entire  line 
is  divided  into  12  districts  with  278  stations. 
Two  hundred  are  on  the  Atlantic,  60  are 
on  the  lakes,  and  17  on  the  Pacific.  At 
many  stations  the  English  lifeboat  is  used, 
although  in  general  it  has  been  found  too 
heavy  for  efficient  service.  The  boats 
chiefly  used  are  light,  and  can,  on  their 
transporting  carriages,  be  easily  dragged 
along  the  shore  by  their  crews.  For  pro- 
jecting a  line  to  a  stranded  vessel  the  mor- 
tar is  generally  preferred  to  the  rocket. 
In  addition  to  the  traveling  life-buoy  a 
metallic  car  is  used,  which  will  hold  a  small 
number  of  persons,  who  enter  it  by  a  small 
manhole  and  are  shut  in  and  safely  drawn 
ashore,  even  though  overturned  by  the 
surf.  This  clever  contrivance  has  been  the 
means  of  rescuing  many  invalids,  children 
and  aged  persons. 


Light  may  be  roughly  defined  as  that 
which  produces  the  sensation  of  sight. 
Just  what  light  really  is  will  be  clearer 
after  we  have  considered  some  of  the  phe- 
nomena of  light;  since  from  these  only  can 
we  deduce  the  nature  of  light.  The  funda- 
mental phenomena  perhaps  are  the  follow- 
ing: 

1.  In    any    homogenous    medium    light 
travels    in    straight    lines.     The    strongest 
evidence  for  this  statement  is  obtained  from 
the  fact  that  computations,  based  on  the 
assumption  of  this  fact,  invariably  lead  to 
correct    results.     A    partial    exception    to 
this  rule  should  be  noted  in  the   case  in 
which  light  passes  through  very  small  open- 
ings.    Here  some  of  the  rays  are  deflected 
from  a  straight  line  in  accordance  with  the 
principle  of  diffraction.     See  DIFFRACTION. 

2.  When  a  ray  of  light  strikes  upon  a 
polished  surface,  the  ray  is  sent  off  in  an- 
other direction.     This  phenomenon  is  called 
reflection.     By    numerous    experiments,    it 
has  been  found  that  the  angle  between  the 
incident  ray  and  the  normal  to  the  reflect- 
ing surface  is  always  equal  to  the  angle  be- 
tween  the   reflected   ray  and   the   normal. 
This  fact  is  generally  expressed  by  saying 
that  the  angle  of  incidence  is  equal  to  the 
angle  of  reflection.     It  is  found  also  that 
the  angle  of  reflection  lies  in  the  same  plane 
as  the  angle  of  incidence.     One  proof  for 
these  two  laws  of  reflection  is  the  fact  that 
the  image  of  any  object  in  a  plane  surface 
is  of  the  same  size  and  shape  as  the  object. 

3.  When  a  ray  of  light  traveling  in  one 
medium  strikes  the  bounding  surface  of  an 
other  medium,  a  part  of  the  light  is  reflected 
according  to  the  laws  just  stated,  but  an- 
other part  enters  the  second  medium,  and 
in  so  doing  has  its  direction  also  changed. 
The   entering   ray  is   said   to   be   refracted. 
Thus  it  is  found  that  a  ray  passing  from 
the  bottom  of    a  creek  to  the  surface  and 
thence  to  the  eye  of  an  observer  is  bent 
away  from   the   normal   to   the   surface  of 
the  creek  at  the  point  where  it  leaves  the 
water.     In  like  manner,  if  a  ray  enters  the 
water  from  the  air,  it  is  always  bent  toward 
the  normal.     The  first  satisfactory  descrip- 
tion   of    these     phenomena    was    given  by 
Willebrord    Snell    (1591-1626),   and   is   now 
known  as   Snell's   law.       If  we  define   the 
angle  between   the  refracted   ray  and   the 
normal  as  the  angle  of  refraction,  then  Sneli's 
law  is  that  the 

sine  of  angle  of  incidence 

5= — j — 7 -. —  =  constant. 

sine  of  angle  of  refraction 

This  constant  is  called  the  index  of  refraction 
for  the  medium  under  consideration,  and 
may  be  denoted  by  n,  so  that  we  may  write 


sin  r 


—  n  =  refractive  index, 


where  *  and  r  denote  the  angles  of  incidence 
and  refraction  respectively. 


LIGHT-HORSE  HARRY 


1068 


LIGHTHOUSE 


4.  Light  travels  with  a  finite  speed.    This 
was  first  proved  by  R6mer,  the  Danish  as- 
tronomer,   at    Pans    during    1675-76.     The 
fact  that,  when  a  landscape  is  illuminated 
at  night  by  a  flash  of  lightning,  all  parts 
are  seen  apparently  at  the  same  time,  led 
the  ancients  to  think  that  the  speed  of  light 
was  infinite.    Rdmer  found  the  speed  in  a 
vacuum,  *.  e.,  in  the  space  between  us  and 
the  sun,  to  be  309  million  meters  per  second. 
Professor  Michelson's  determination  of  this 
quantity,  the  most  accurate  determination 
which    has   been   made,    gives    299,853,000 
meters  per  second.     In  1850  Foucault,  the 
French  physicist,  showed  that  light  travels 
more  slowly  in  all  kinds  of  matter  than  it 
does  in  a  vacuum.     In  water  its  speed  is 
only  three  fourths  as  great  as  in  ordinary 
glass  and  two  thirds  as  great  as  in  a  vacuum. 

5.  In  the  first  years  of  the  i9th  century 
Thomas  Young  of  London  showed  that  two 
rays  of  light  might  be  added  together  in 
such  a  way  as  to  produce  darkness;  in  other 
words,  that  two  rays  might  interfere.     (See 
INTERFERENCE.)       Young's    experiment    is 
most  easily  repeated  by  holding  immediately 
in  front  of  the  eye  a  visiting  card  (or,  bet- 
ter, a  piece  of  photographic  plate)  on  which 
are  cut  two  very  fine  slits  about  J  millimeter 
apart.     In  looking  at  any  small  source  of 
light,  the  beams  coming  through  these  two 
slits  will  be  so  diffracted  as  to  overlap;  and 
where   they  overlap,    they  will   sometimes 
interfere  to  produce  brightness  and  some- 
times    interfere     destructively,     producing 
darkness.     The  result  is  that  through  the 
card  one  sees  a  series  of  alternate  bright 
and  dark  bands. 

6.  Newton    (1643-1727)    showed    that    a 
ray  of  white  light  is  composed   of  many 
colors  —  what  we  call  the  colors  of  the  rain- 
bow, viz.,  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue  and 
violet.     This   he    accomplished  by  the  use 
of  two  prisms. 

7.  In  1669  Bartolinus,  a  Danish  philoso- 
pher, discovered  that  a  ray  of  light  which 
has    passed    through   a   crystal  of   Iceland 
spar  behaves  very  differently  from  ordinary 
light.     First  of  all,  it  is  split  into  two  other 
rays,    which    emerge    from    the    crystal    in 
slightly  different  directions.     If  one  of  these 
transmitted  rays  be  allowed  to  pass  through 
a  second  crystal  of  Iceland  spar,  the  effect 
produced    depends   very   much    upon    how 
the  second  crystal  is  held;  it  depends,  in 
fact,  upon  the  angular  position  of  the  second 
crystal  considered    with    reference    to    the 
incident    ray    as    an    axis.     Rays   of   light 
having  this  property  are  said  to  be  polarized. 

NATURE  OP  UGHT 

Any  idea  of  light  which  is  at  all  satis- 
factory must  explain  at  least  the  seven 
fundamental  phenomena  which  have  just 
been  described.  There  are  many  other 
phenomena  which  are  fundamental  and 
which  must  also  be  explained  by  any  sat- 


isfactory view  of  the  subject;  space,  how- 
ever, prevents  their  introduction  here.  It 
is  the  great  merit  of  Huygens,  Young  and 
Fresnel  to  have  shown  that,  */  we  assume 
light  to  be  a  transverse  wave-motion  of  the 
ether,  all  these  seven  phenomena  can  be 
easily  explained.  (See  ETHER,  HUYGENS, 
FRESNEL  and  YOUNG.)  Since  no  other 
hypothesis  has  been  offered  that  will  ex- 
plain these  phenomena,  we  conclude  that 
probably  light  is  a  wave-motion  of  the 
ether.  For  details  of  the  explanation  of 
these  seven  phenomena  in  terms  of  the 
wave-theory  see  Preston's  Theory  of  Light. 
For  applications  of  the  principles  of  light 
to  various  optical  instruments  see  LENS, 
SPECTROSCOPE,  EYE,  CAMERA,  TELESCOPE, 
MICROSCOPE.  For  a  beautiful  elementary 
treatment  see  S.  P.  Thompson's  Light,  Visible 
and  Invisible,  and  Lommel's  Nature  of  Light 
(International  Science  Series.)  For  the 
physiological  effects  of  light  see  Bidwell's 
Curiosities  of  Light  and  Sight. 

HENRY  CREW. 

Light-Horse  Harry.     See  LEE,  HENRY. 

Light' house,  a  building  erected  on  some 
conspicuous  part  of  the  seacoast,  from  which 
a  light  is  shown  at  night  to  guide  mariners, 
and  which  serves  as  a  landmark  by  day.  A 
sea-light  is  thus  defined  by  Alan  Stevenson, 
the  noted  lighthouse  architect:  "A  light 
so  modified  and  directed  as  to  present  to 
the  mariner  an  appearance  which  shall  at 
once  enable  him  to  judge  of  his  position 
during  the  night  in  the  same  manner  as 
would  the  sight  of  a  landmark  during  the 
day."  The  history  of  lighthouse  construc- 
tion and  illumination  covers  over  2,000 
years;  but  the  modern  plan  of  construction 
dates  back  no  further  than  the  beginning 
of  the  igth  century.  The  first  lighthouse 
tower  of  which  we  have  record  was  that 
built  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  on  a  small 
island  m  the  bay  of  Alexandria  about  300 
B.  C.  This  structure  was  deemed  by  the 
ancients  one  of  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the 
World,  and  the  name  of  the  island,  Pharos, 
was  given  to  all  lighthouses  built  by  them. 
The  Romans  built  lighthouses  at  Ostia, 
Ravenna,  Puteoli  and  other  ports;  but  none 
of  the  early  lighthouse  buildings  is  in  ex- 
istence. On  the  cliff  at  Boulogne  are  the 
remains  of  a  lighthouse  ascribed  to  Caligula 
(40  A.  D.),  and  at  Dover  may  be  seen  the 
remains  of  another  Roman  pharos.  Cor- 
douan,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Garonne,  has 
seen  all  the  improvements,  from  the  open 
grate  in  which  wood  and  coal  were  burned 
to  the  dioptric  light  combined  with  a  four- 
wick  lamp.  There  were  only  25  lighthouse 
stations  in  England  at  the  beginning  of 
the  1 9th  century,  but  at  present  there  are 
1,000  coast  and  harbor  lights.  Some  of 
the  more  notable  lighthouses  round  the 
British  Isles  are  the  Eddystone,  Skerry- 
vore,  Bell  Rock,  Wolf  and  Bishop's  Rock. 
In  the  United  States  the  first  act  of  Congress 


LIGHTNING 


1069 


LIGHTNING*RODS 


in  reference  to  lighthouses  was  passed  in 
1789,  and  there  are  about  3,000  lights  and 
buoys  on  the  seacoast  and  lakecoasts. 

Most  of  the  earlier  lighthouses  were  con- 
structed as  aids  to  coasting  on  inclosed 
waters  and  straits  rather  than  as  aids  to 
open-sea  navigation;  and  therefore  great 
height  of  tower  was  seldom  required. 
Elevat.d  spots  were  of  course  selected  for 
seacoast  lights;  but  even  in  the  early  his- 
tory c  2  navigation  it  was  seen  that  there  were 
many  dangers  to  ships  and  seamen  that 
could  not  be  avoided  by  lighthouses  con- 
structed on  land.  It  therefore  became  a 
problem  of  engineering  to  build  them  upon 
solid  rock  a  greater  or  lesser  distance  from 
the  mainland,  and  so  that  they  must  be  able 
to  withstand  not  only  the  heaviest  winds 
and  storms  but  the  tides  and  waves  of  the 
sea.  The  most  noted  case  is  that  of  the 
Eddystone  lighthouse  (which  see).  The 
use  of  lamps  led  to  the  invention  of  reflect- 
ors, the  early  ones  being  about  18  inches  in 
diameter.  It  was  reserved  for  Argand  to 
devise  the  cylindrical  wick-burner,  and  in 
1822  Augustin  Fresnel  contrived  the  dioptric 
system  for  lighthouse  purposes.  Electric 
lights  have  been  used  to  some  extent;  but 
there  are  some  disadvantages  connected 
with  the  generation  and  use  of  electricity, 
which  have  thus  far  prevented  its  general 
adoption.  A  light  at  an  elevation  of  40 
feet  above  the  sea  —  its  power  and  intensity 
supposed  to  be  adequate  —  will  have  a 
range  of  about  7  miles;  at  100  feet,  a  range 
of  ii  miles;  at  200  feet,  a  range  of  16  miles; 
and,  as  the  mariner's  eye  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  be  about  15  feet  above  the  water, 
to  each  of  these  estimates  must  be  added 
the  range  for  that  elevation,  four  miles  and 
a  fraction.  See  D.  P.  Heap's  Ancient  and 
Modern  Lighthouses. 

Light'  ning,  an  electrical  phenomenon 
taking  place  in  the  earth's  atmosphere.  Im- 
mediately after  the  discovery  of  the  elec- 
trical machine  a  similarity  between  its  dis- 
charge and  the  lightning  discharge  was 
noticed.  But  it  was  not  until  Benjamin 
Franklin  obtained  a  discharge  from  clouds 
by  means  of  a  kite  that  the  connection  be- 
tween electricity  and  lightning  was  thor- 
oughly established.  It  is  evident  that 
lightning  consists  in  a  discharge  sometimes 
from  the  cloud  to  the  earth  and  sometimes 
from  one  cloud  to  another.  But  what 
causes  these  charges,  how  the  clouds  become 
electrified,  has  not  yet  been  explained. 

At  various  meteorological  stations  over 
the  surface  of  the  earth  the  electrical  poten- 
tial of  the  earth's  atmosphere  is  daily  meas- 
ured. But  the  electrical  pressures  thus  de- 
termined are  infinitesimal  when  compared 
with  those  which  produce  lightning;  and 
the  connection  of  the  differences  of  poten- 
tial in  the  thin  layer  of  air,  which  can  thus 
be  measured,  with  the  weather  is  very  im- 
perfectly understood.  It  is  well-known 


that  in  the  ordinary  Leyden  jar  discharge 
the  electrification  surges  to  and  fro  several 
times  before  the  discharge  ceases.  This  is 
called  an  oscillatory  discharge.  There  is 
some  evidence,  obtained  from  photographs 
of  lightning  flashes,  for  thinking  that  the 
discharge  from  cloud  to  earth  frequently 
is  oscillatory.  See  Lodge's  Lightning  and 
Lightning  Conductors. 

Lightning  Arrest'er,  a  device  for  pro- 
tecting electrical  apparatus  from  lightning 
or  atmospheric  electricity.  They  are  de- 
sirable whenever  any  part  of  an  electrical 
circuit  is  outdoors.  In  some  places,  as  in 
England,  lightning  mishaps  are  rare,  while 
in  other  places,  as  in  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
even  with  the  best  protectors  it  often  is 
necessary  during  storms  to  shut  down  an 
electric  plant  on  account  of  the  danger 
from  lightning.  The  lightning-discharges 
through  the  machines  so  puncture  the  insula- 
tion that  the  machinery  is  ruined.  The 
ordinary  lightning  arrester,  such  as  has  been 
used  on  telegraph  lines  for  many  years, 
consists  of  an  air  gap  with  sharp  points, 
so  that  the  lightning  discharge  will  jump 
across  this  gap  and  thus  reach  the  ground 
sooner  than  pass  through  the  apparatus. 
Practically  all  modern  lightning  arresters 
are  on  this  principle,  but  for  large  dynamo 
circuits  it  is  necessary  to  add  some  device 
for  breaking  an  electric  arc  which  will  be 
formed  across  the  air  gap.  In  the  Thom- 
son lightning  arrester  this  is  done  by  hav- 
ing the  poles  of  an  electro-magnet  opposite 
the  air  gap.  This  "blows  out"  the  arc.  In 
the  Wurtz  arrester  the  discharge  is  between 
a  series  of  rods  of  non-arcing  metals.  A 
line  may  often  be  protected  by  stretching 
above  it  an  ordinary  barbed  wire  which  is 
connected  with  the  ground  every  few  feet. 

Lightning  Rods,  a  device  for  protecting 
buildings  and  ships  from  the  destructive 
effects  of  lightning.  It  has  been  proved 
that  the  most  effective  lightning  rods  are 
made  by  using  flat  strips  of  metal  (prac- 
tically either  iron  or  copper)  which  at  their 
upper  ends  are  pointed,  at  their  lower  ends 
are  connected  with  the  earth  in  a  thorough 
manner,  and  at  intermediate  points  are 
connected  to  any  portions  of  the  building 
which  are  good  conductors,  as  a  metal  roof 
or  water  pipes.  The  lightning-rod  in  this 
form  was  suggested  by  Benjamin  Franklia 
Contrary  to  the  popular  idea,  its  chief  func- 
tion is  not  to  protect  the  house  which  lie* 
directly  in  the  path  of  the  discharge,  but 
rather  to  prevent  discharges  by  leading 
the  induced  charges  off  gently.  (See  ELEC- 
TRICITY.) Discharges  as  rapid  as  those  which 
occur  in  lightning  confine  themselves  ex- 
clusively to  the  outside  of  the  conductor. 
It  is  essential,  therefore,  that  the  conductor 
present  a  large  surface  in  order  to  carry  off  a 
large  discharge  rapidly.  Glass  insulators  for 
lightning  rods  are  no  value,  and  may  be  of 
positive  harm.  Too  much  importance  can- 


LIGNITE 


1070 


LILY 


not  be  laid  upon  securing  good  ground  con- 
nection. At  sea  this  is  easily  secured  by 
connecting  with  the  copper  sheathing  of  the 
vessel.  On  land  a  well,  moist  earth  or  the 
water-pipe  system  (never  the  gas  pipe)  makes 
a  good  "ground." 

Lig'nite,  most  of  the  coals  in  the  more 
recent  geological  formations.  (Lat.  lignum, 
meaning  wood.)  It  also  is  known  as  wood- 
coal  and  brown-coal,  and  as  a  rule  shows 
more  or  less  of  the  texture  of  the  wood  from 
which  it  was  formed.  This  coal  has  brown- 
ish streaks  or  a  brown  color  shading  into 
black,  with  a  glistening  fracture.  It  is  chiefly 
found  in  the  cretaceous  and  tertiary  forma- 
tions. The  term  Lignite  is  applied  to  woody 
tissue  in  which  bituminization  has  begun, 
and  is  older  than  it  is  in  peat,  and  not  so 
old  as  it  is  in  bituminous  coal. 

Lig'ules,  certain  outgrowths  from  the 
surfaces  of  leaves.  The  best-known  ligules 
are  found  in  the  grasses.  Each  leaf  consists 
of  two  portions:  an  expanded  blade  and  a 
sheathing  base.  The  sheath  is  prolonged 
at  the  very  base  of  the  blade  into  a  scaly 
outgrowth  more  or  less  prominent,  called 
the  ligule.  Ligules  are  found  also  in  con- 
nection with  the  leaves  of  quillworts  (Isoetes) 
and  the  smaller  club-mosses  (Selaginelld). 
Li,  Hung  Chang  (le  hoong  chdng),a Chinese 
dignitary  and  statesman,  was  born  in  1823 
and  took  one  of 
the  degrees  of  the 
Chinese  system 
in  1849.  Me  first 
became  promi- 
nent in  connec- 
tion with  the 
Taiping  rebellion 
in  1863,  when  he 
was  associated 
with  General 
"Chinese"  G  o  r- 
don  in  the  recov- 
ery of  Suchau 
and  in  driving 
the  rebels  from 
LI  HUNG  CHANG  Kiangsu.  For 

this  he  was  created  an  hereditary  noble. 
He  was  later  made  governor-general  of  the 
Liang- Kiang  provinces,  and  in  1872  was  ap- 

grinted  viceroy  of  the  province  of  Chili, 
e  had  remarkable  shrewdness  and  ability, 
and  his  dignities  and  honors  came  to  him 
through  his  achievements  and  practical 
management  of  affairs.  He  was,  for  a 
Chinese,  an  advanced  thinker  and  a  friend 
to  foreigners  and  to  the  culture  and  progres- 
sive ideas  of  European  and  western  nations. 
He  originated  the  Chinese  navy  and  the 
only  existing  Chinese  steamship  line.  He 
for  years  practically  controlled  the  foreign 
policy  of  the  empire.  He  was  commander- 
m-chief  of  all  Chinese  forces  during  the 
war  with  Japan  (1894),  but  was  degraded 
from  his  position  and  deprived  of  his  yel- 
low jacket  and  peacock's  feather.  These 


dignities  were  returned  to  him  for  his  skill 
in  negotiating  the  peace  with  Japan.  He 
made  a  tour  of  Europe  and  the  United 
States  in  1896,  and  upon  his  return  to  China 
was  made  foreign  secretary  of  the  empire. 
In  1898  he  was  again  temporarily  disgraced 
and  excluded  from  the  Tsung-li-Yamen 
(Department  of  Foreign  Affairs),  but  was  re- 
instated and  given  a  commissionership  in 
southern  China.  When  the  Boxer  rising 
occurred  in  1900,  Li  became  prominent  as 
the  representative  of  the  empire  in  negotia- 
tions with  the  foreign  powers.  He  died  on 
Nov.  7,  1901. 

Li'Iac,  species  of  Syringa,  a  genus  belong- 
ing to  the  olive  family  and  containing  about 
12  species,  native  to  Asia  and  eastern 
Europe.  The  common  lilac  of  cultivation 
is  5.  vulgaris,  a  shrub  10  to  25  feet  high, 
with  characteristic  clusters  of  lilac  or  white 
fragrant  flowers,  blooming  earty  in  the 
season.  This  cultivated  species  is  native 
to  eastern  Europe,  and  it  has  borne  the 
following  old  names:  pipe  tree,  blue  pipe, 
blue  ash  and  Roman  willow.  It  is  unfor- 
tunate that  the  name  of  syringa  has  been 
popularly  applied  to  a  very  different  plant, 
the  mock-orange.  The  name  of  syringa 
(meaning  a  tube  or  pipe)  was  given  because 
its  stems  once  were  used  for  pipestems. 

Lil'y,  a  name  applied  in  general  to  mem- 
bers of  the  great  lily  family,  but  technically 
belonging  to  species  of  the  genus  Lilium. 
The  family  is  native  to  the  north  temperate 
regions,  and  contains  over  200  species,  half 
of  which  are  said  to  be  in  cultivation.  Their 
conspicuous  shapes,  brilliant  flowers  and 
erect  habits  have  long  made  them  among 
the  best  known  and  most  prized  of  garden 
plants.  The  genus  contains  about  45 
species,  15  native  to  North  America.  L. 
ttgrinum,  the  tiger-lily,  a  native  of  China 
and  Japan  and  commonly  cultivated,  has 
often  escaped  from  gardens.  In  addition 
to  the  tiger-lily  and  some  of  the  native 
forms,  the  easter-lily  (L.  longiflorum)  is 
probably  best  known.  This  lily  has  been 
introduced  from  Bermuda,  and  is  largely 
forced  by  the  florists.  Besides  these  forms 
there  are  numerous  magnificent  kinds  which 
are  little  known  in  cultivation  in  this  coun- 
try. Among  the  common  wild  forms  are 
L.  Philadelphicum,  the  red  lily;  L.  Cana- 
dense,  the  wild  yellow  lily;  and  L.  superbum, 
the  Turk's-cap  lily.  The  wild  red  or  wood 
lily  is  a  ^  beautiful  member  of  the  family; 
growing  in  deep  woods,  it  stands  out  with 
startling  vividness.  The  flower  does  not 
droop  like  the  tiger-lily,  but  grows  erect 
on  a  stalk  about  two  feet  high,  is  of  a  fine 
rich  red  spotted  with  purple  or  brown,  the 
outside  of  the  cup  being  orange-red.  It 
blooms  in  July  and  August,  and  is  found 
mostly  in  the  north  and  west.  The  wild 
yellow  or  meadow  lily  is  golden  yellow, 
profusely  spotted  with  rich  brown;  it 
blooms  in  June  and  July,  the  flowers  droop- 


LILLE 


1071 


LIME 


ing  gracefully  from  a  height,  one,  two  or 
three  on  a  stem.  The  plant  rises  from  three 
to  five  feet,  prefers  low,  moist  ground, 
grows  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Georgia  and 
to  Missouri.  The  Turk's-cap  lily  resembles 
the  preceding  one,  but  is  taller,  its  color  a 
dark  orange  spotted  with  yellow,  the 
flowers  growing  one  above  another,  mak- 
ing a  pyramid  of  richest,  most  gorgeous 
bloom.  It  abounds  along  the  New  Eng- 
land coast,  and  is  found  from  Maine  to 
Minnesota.  Although  the  name  in  its 
narrowest  sense  is  restricted  to  the  genus 
Lilium,  the  name  has  been  applied  not 
only  to  numerous  forms  of  the  lily  family 
but  to  other  families,  as  the  calla  lily, 
Mariposa  lily,  pond  lily,  lily  of  the  valley 
or  water-lily. 

Lille  ( lei ) ,  a  large  manufacturing  town, 
with  an  important  military  fortress,  in 
France,  66  miles  southeast  of  Calais.  Part 
of  its  present  site  was  occupied  by  a  castle 
built  by  Julius  Caesar,  but  the  city  was  not 
founded  till  the  gth  century.  Louis  XIV 
conquered  the  town  in  1667,  and  though  it 
was  captured  by  Maryborough  and  Prince 
Eugene  in  1708,  after  a  desperate  and 
heroic  defense  by  Marshal  Bouners,  it  was 
restored  to  France  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht 
in  1713.  It  was  besieged  by  the  Austrians 
in  1792,  but  after  a  heavy  bombardment 
they  were  compelled  to  retreat  with  great 
loss.  Lille  is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of 
linen  and  cotton  goods,  there  being  numer- 
ous establishments  for  the  purpose,  and 
there  also  aie  chemical  works,  sugar  works, 
breweries  and  numerous  other  manufac- 
tories. Lille  has  a  university  with  several 
faculties  and  a  large  roll  of  student  attend- 
ance. Population  217,807. 

Lilliput  ( UV lt-piit),  the  name  of  an 
imaginary  realm  described  by  Jonathan 
Swift  in  A  Voyage  to  Lilliput,  Part  I  of 
Gulliver's  Travels.  Lilliput  and  the  Lilli- 
putian? are  drawn  on  the  scale  of  one 
inch  to  a  foot,  hence  the  use  of  the  term 
for  that  which  is  diminutive  in  size.  Pro- 
fessor Henry  Morley  derives  the  term  Lilli- 
put from  lilli  for  little"  in  Swift's  "little 
language,"  and  "put"  was  a  term  of  con- 
tempt for  a  child,  current  in  Swift's  time. 

LH'y  of  the  Val'ley,  one  of  the  numerous 
plants  called  lilies  that  do  not  belong  to  the 
genus  Lilium.  It  grows  without  cultiva- 
tion in  bushy  places  and  woods  in  Europe, 
Asia  and  North  America;  and  abounds  in 
the  woods  of  Norway,  Sweden  and  Ger- 
many. It  is  a  universal  favorite,  on  account 
of  the  beauty  and  fragrance  of  its  white 
bells  and  the  early  season  at  which  they 
appear.  It  therefore  is  often  cultivated  in 
gardens  and  forced  to  earlier  flowering  in 
hotbeds.  False  lily  of  the  valley  is  the 
name  given  to  one  of  our  wild-flowers, 
Unifolium  Canadense.  The  leaves  bear 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  true  lily  of 
the  valley,  but  the  white,  downy  flowers 


differ  in  character.  The  plant  grows  at  the 
foot  of  old  trees,  on  the  edge  of  deep  woods, 
blooms  in  May  and  June,  and  late  in  sum- 
mer bears  spikes  of  pretty  red  berries. 

Lima  (ll'ma),  the  county-seat  of  Allen 
County,  O.,  is  71  miles  north  of  Dayton, 
on  Ottawa  River.  It  is  the  center  of  an 
important  oil-field,  and  has  extensive  oil- 
refineries,  railroad  and  machine  shops,  car 
and  locomotive  works  and  other  industries. 
The  city  has  admirable  public  schools,  and 
in  1893  Lima  College  (Lutheran)  was 
established.  Lima  owns  and  operates  its 
waterworks,  and  has  the  service  of  six  rail- 
roads. Population  30,508. 

Lima  (le'ma) ,  Peru,  lies  in  a  broad  valley, 
six  miles  east  of  Callao,  its  port,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  two  railroads.  The  city 
contains  over  70  church  buildings,  and  the 
cathedral  (rebuilt  in  1746)  is,  after  that  of 
Mexico,  the  most  noteworthy  in  Spanish 
America.  Lima  was  founded  in  1535  by 
Pizarro,  the  conqueror  of  Peru,  whose 
remains  lie  in  the  crypt  below  the  cathedral. 
Earthquakes  have  been  frequent  visitors, 
the  most  disastrous,  that  of  1746,  destroy- 
ing 5,000  out  of  the  60,000  inhabitants. 
The  climate  is  agreeable  and,  on  the  whole, 
healthy,  although  the  inhabitants  are 
afflicted  with  malignant  fevers  at  times 
Lima  also  is  a  department;  its  area  is  13,310 
square  miles,  with  an  estimated  population 
of  300,000.  At  the  city  is  the  national 
university,  the  oldest  in  the  Americas  — 
that  of  San  Marcos,  which  received  its 
charter  from  Emperor  Charles  V,  which  is 
attended  by  600  or  700  students.  There 
also  are  a  public  library  and  a  school  of 
mines.  Population  140,884.  Owing  to  in- 
fant mortality,  smallpox  and  drunkenness, 
the  latter  among  the  Indians,  the  popula- 
tion does  not  increase. 

Lime  is  the  oxide  of  the  metallic  element 
calcium  (which  see),  and  is  known  ir  chem- 
istry as  one  of  the  alkaline  earths.  In  a 
state  of  purity  it  is  a  white  solid  which 
does  not  fuse  except  at  the  enormous  heat 
of  the  electric  furnace;  but  when  raised  to 
a  white  heat  by  means  of  the  oxyhydrogen 
flame  it  glows  with  a  brilliant  white  light 
called  the  lime  light,  calcium  light  or  Drum- 
mond  light.  Pure  lime  is  obtained  by  heat- 
ing pure  calcium  carbonate  (for  instance, 
Iceland  spar)  to  bright  redness,  when  car- 
bon dioxide  is  expelled  and  lime  is  left. 
The  lime  of  commerce,  called  quicklime,  is 
obtained  by  burning  limestone  or  marble 
in  kilns,  and  is  frequently  somewhat  im- 
pure. When  water  is  poured  on  quicklime, 
it  swells  to  a  larger  bulk,  and  great  heat 
is  evolved,  leaving  a  light,  white  powder 
or  a  moist  mass,  according  to  the  amount 
of  water  used.  This  powder  or  mass  is 
slaked  lime  or  hydrate  of  lime,  a  compound 
of  lime  with  water.  Slaked  lime  is  only 
slightly  soluble  in  water,  but  sufficiently  so 
to  make  an  alkaline  solution  known  as  lime 


LIME 


LIMPET 


water.  This  is  used  as  a  medicine  and  in 
testing  for  carbonic  acid.  When  quicklime 
is  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  long  time,  it 
takes  moisture  and  carbon  dioxide  and  be- 
comes airslaked.  Lime  is  used  in  the  prep- 
aration of  mortars  and  cements,  for  purify- 
ing coal-gas,  in  making  paper-pulp  and  for 
removing  hair  from  skins  in  tanning;  and 
for  many  centuries  it  has  been  used  to 
fertilize  the  soil.  For  the  last  purpose  it 
is  now  used  less  than  formerly.  Carbonate 
of  lime  (calcium  carbonate)  is  the  most 
important  compound  containing  this  earth. 
Calcite,  the  purest  form  of  which  is  Iceland 
spar,  is  crystallized  calcium  carbonate, 
while  marble,  limestone  and  chalk  are  more 
or  less  pure  forms  of  the  substance.  Ice- 
land spar  is  transparent  and  colorless,  and 
has  the  power  of  producing  double  refrac- 
tion of  light,  and  hence  it  is  used  in  the 
making  of  certain  optical  instruments.  Cal- 
cium carbonate  also  is  the  chief  constituent 
of  the  shells  of  mollusks,  of  most  of  the 
other  shelled  creatures  and  of  the  hard  part 
of  corals.  Calcium  carbonate  dissolves  in 
ordinary  waters,  since  they  contain  car- 
bonic acid,  and  from  such  waters  are  formed 
the  stalactites  and  stalagmites  found  in 
caverns.  The  dripping  water  gradually 
evaporates  and  leaves  a  deposit  of  calcium 
carbonate  in  the  beautiful  and  fantastic 
forms  found  on  the  roofs  and  floors  of  caves. 
Calcium  sulphate  (sulphate  of  lime)  is  an- 
other important  lime-salt  (see  GYPSUM). 
Lime,  as  phosphate,  forms  the  principal 
part  of  the  earthy  material  in  the  bones  of 
vertebrate  (that  is,  backboned)  animals, 
and  it  is  always  found  in  the  ashes  of  plants. 
All  limestones  contain  at  least  traces  of 
magnesium  carbonate,  and  when  this  is 
present  in  large  proportion  the  rock  is 
called  dolomite  or  magnesian  limestone. 
This,  like  limestone,  is  often  used  as  a 
building-stone.  Lime  in  its  various  combi- 
nations is  almost  universally  diffused 
throughout  the  earth's  crust  and  in  natural 
waters.  The  compounds  of  lime  are  the 
chief  cause  of  the  hardness  of  waters. 

H.  L.  WELLS. 

Lime,  a  variety  of  Citrus  medico,  known  as 
acida,  but  the  name  in  trade-catalogues  is 
limetta.  The  plant  is  a  bush  or  small  tree 
from  ten  to  twenty  feet  high,  and  is  native 
to  India,  being  extensively  cultivated  in 
Mexico,  the  West  Indies  and  Florida.  It 
is  low,  thorny  and  many-branched,  and  is 
tender  as  regards  the  cold.  There  are  sev- 
eral horticultural  varieties,  including  the 
more  common  sour  lime  and  the  sweet 
lime.  The  acid  fruit  is  highly  valued  in 
tropical  countries,  and  is  used  for  cooling 
drinks  and  in  cooking. 

Lime-Light,  light  produced  by  a  blowpipe 
flame  directed  against  a  block  of  pure 
compressed  quicklime.  The  lime  when 
warmed  beforehand  becomes  brilliantly  in- 
candescent. Lime-light  was  used  on  the 


stage  as  far  back  as  1837-38,  but  was 
greatly  improved  in  1851-52,  when  Azael 
was  produced  at  Drury  Lane.  This  light 
has  now  been  largely  replaced  by  the 
electric  arc-light. 

Lim'erick,  the  capital  of  Limerick  County, 
Ireland,  stands  at  the  head  of  the  estuary 
of  the  Shannon,  120  miles  from  Dublin. 
The  city  consists  of  what  is  called  English 
Town,  the  original  settlement  made  in  the 
reign  of  King  John  on  King's  Island;  Irish 
Town,  which  lies  immediately  to  the  south 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  river;  and  Newton- 
Pery,  south  of  Irish  Town.  Limerick  has  a 
graving  and  floating  dock  and  extensive 
wharves,  and  imports  grain,  petroleum, 
wine,  spirits  and  timber  to  the  annual  value 
of  $3,415,000.  Population  38,151. 

Lime' stone,  the  name  applied  to  all  rocks 
composed  wholly  or  chiefly  of  lime  car- 
bonate. Rock  composed  of  the  carbonates 
of  lime  and  magnesia,  though  technically 
called  dolomite,  is  often  included  under  lime- 
stone. Limestone  is  widely  distributed  on 
all  continents  and  many  islands,  and  is 
found  in  all  systems  of  rock,  from  the 
oldest  sedimentary  system  to  the  youngest, 
and  is  forming  now  in  many  parts  of  the 
ocean.  Limestone  has  originated  in  various 
ways.  Most  of  it  represents  the  accumula- 
tion of  the  secretions,  such  as  shells,  corals 
etc.,  of  marine  animals.  Some  of  it  is  a 
chemical  precipitate  from  solution,  and  a 
little  of  it  is  made  up  of  fresh-water  shell 
accumulations,  formed  in  lakes.  Lime- 
stone has  no  distinctive  color,  but  buff  and 
gray  colors  are  common.  When  limestone 
becomes  crystalline,  it  is  marble.  Lime- 
stone is  often  burned  for  lime,  and  is  ex- 
tensively used  for  building  stone.  Impure 
limestone  is  sometimes  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  cements,  as  Portland  cement, 
hydraulic  cement  etc. 

Limoges  (le'mozh'),  the  capital  of  the 
French  department  of  Haute-Vienne,  is 
situated  on  Vienne  River,  248  miles  from 
Paris  and  128  from  Toulouse.  The  staple 
industry  is  the  manufacture  of  porcelain, 
which  employs  more  than  5,000  workmen. 
Half  of  the  product  is  annually  exported  to 
America.  Population  92,181. 

Lim'pet,  a  mollusk  with  a  conical  shell, 
found  incrusting  rocks  and  other  objects 
at  low  tide.  The  animal  inhabiting  the 
shell  is  like  a  flat  snail;  the  foot  clings  to 
the  rock,  and  the  shell  fits  over  it.  In 
some  the  shell  resembles  the  old  liberty  cap 
in  shape.  During  high  tide  they  wander 
off  and  feed  on  algae,  but,  as  the  tide  is 
ebbing,  they  return  to  the  chosen  spot  on 
the  same  rock  which  they  left  a  few  hours 
before.  There  are  other  forms  of  limpets 
which  remain  permanently  attached.  These 
live  on  rocks,  other  shells  and  submerged 
objects.  In  many  of  them  there  is  a  deck 
or  partition  of  shell  which  helps  to  hold 
the  animal  on. 


LINCOLN 


1073 


LINCOLN 


Lincoln  (ttn'kiiri),  a  city  of  England,  on 
the  Witham,~42  miles  from  Hull  and  130 
from  London.  There  are  important  found- 
ries and  other  manufactories  and  an  active 
trade  in  flour.  The  horse-fair  held  every 
spring  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world, 
but  the  chief  glory  of  Lincoln  is  its  cathedral, 
admitted  to  be  among  the  finest  in  England. 
It  measures  524  by  82  feet  or  250  feet  across 
the  transepts,  and  in  style  is  mainly  Early 
English.  Population  nearly  50,000. 

Lincoln,  111.,  city,  county-seat  of  Logan 
County,  about  28  miles  northeast  of  Spring- 
field. It  is  in  an  agricultural  section,  and 
in  the  vicinity  are  extensive  deposits  of 
coal.  It  manufactures  mattresses,  caskets, 
horse-collars,  steam  boiler  cleaners,  roofing, 
furniture,  brick  and  corn-cutters.  Lincoln 
has  a  fine  library,  two  hospitals,  the  Odd 
Fellows'  Orphans'  Home,  Lincoln  University 
(Pres.),  and  the  State  Feeble-Minded  Hospital. 
It  has  the  service  of  three  railroads  and  an 
electric  line.  Population,  10,892. 

Lincoln,  Neb.,  capital  of  the  state  and 
county-seat  of  Lancaster  County.  Popula- 
tion 43»973-  Lincoln  is  the  chief  railroad 
center  of  Nebraska.  It  has  a  large  whole- 
sale business  in  groceries  and  other  merchan- 
dise, coal,  lumber,  steam  and  water  ma- 
chinery supplies  and  an  extensive  trade 
in  agricultural  implements.  It  is  the  chief 
center  of  the  grain-trade  of  the  state,  and 
has  the  largest  creamery  establishment  in 
the  United  States.  Lincoln  owns  its  water- 
works. The  state  home  for  friendless  chil- 
dren, the  state  penitentiary  and  the  state 
asylum  for  the  insane  are  located  here. 
The  city  is  noted  for  schools  and  colleges, 
constituting  it  one  of  the  chief  educational 
centers  of  the  west.  In  addition  to  an 
excellent  system  of  public  schools,  here 
are  located  the  University  of  Nebraska 
(which  see),  Nebraska  Wesleyan  University 
(Methodist),  Cotner  University  (Christian), 
Union  college  (Adventist) ,  Lincoln  Academy, 
St.  Theresa  high  school  and  musical  and 
business  colleges. 

Lincoln,  Abraham.  The  greatest  men 
are  those  whose  fame  cannot  be  wholly  ac- 
counted for  by 
their  public  acts. 
What  Lincoln 
was  is  incompar- 
ably greater  than 
anything  he  did. 
Pre-eminent  as 
is  his  place  in  his- 
tory,  he  con- 
veys the  idea  of 
duty  rather  than 
of  glory.  In 
moral  height 
and  in  human 
service  he  meas- 
ures up  to  the 
As  he  looms  ever 


ABRAHAM   LINCOLN 

immortals  of  all  ages. 


-~» «-*  «»£>*.?.          ^10    nc    n_«-niia    cvci 

larger  in  the  perspective  of  time,  we  constantly 


marvel  and  rejoice  that  he  does  not  recede  to 
a  dim,  legendary  figure,  but  grows  clearer  in 
outline,  closer  in  human  sympathy.  His  sim- 
ple goodness  —  his  honesty,  courage,  kind- 
ness, duty  and  love  for  humanity  —  we 
revere  and  know  that  we  may  emulate. 

Nothing  else  that  ever  happened  so  jus- 
tifies belief  in  the  capacity  of  the  common 
people  for  self-government,  as  the  fact  that 
Lincoln's  great  heart  and  brain  sprang 
from  poor,  unlettered  ancestry  and  were 
nourished  in  the  sterile  soil  of  backwoods 
life.  Born  in  Hardin  County,  Kentucky, 
February  12,  1809,  the  pioneer  era,  with 
its  comparative  comforts,  was  just  emerg- 
ing from  the  Indian-fighting,  hunting  period 
of  Daniel  Boone.  His  log-cabin  home, 
with  its  dirt  floor,  was  but  a  grade  better 
than  an  Indian  lodge;  his  food  and  clothing 
were  more  often  trophies  of  the  chase  than 
products  of  the  soil.  The  school  was 
nearly  five  miles  distant,  and  the  teacher 
competent  to  teach  only  reading,  writing 
and  elementary  arithmetic.  At  21  Lincoln 
possessed  only  six  books  —  the  Bible,  Pil- 
grim's Progress,  &sop's  Fables,  The  Ara- 
bian Nights,  a  Life  of  Washington  and  the 
Statutes  of  Indiana.  He  had  also,  from 
seeing  an  occasional  Louisville  or  Vincennes 
newspaper,  committed  a  number  of  Henry 
Clay's  speeches  to  memory. 

The  conditions  of  life  in  southern  In- 
diana, whither  the  family  removed  in  1816, 
were  as  primitive  as  in  Kentucky.  Here, 
on  the  farm  near  Gentryville  —  now  Lin- 
coln City  —  near  the  Ohio  River,  Lincoln's 
brave  young  mother  died  for  lack  of  medi- 
cal attendance  in  1818.  The  boy  of  nine 
helpea  his  father,  a  cabinet-maker  by  trade, 
to  make  the  rude  coffin  in  which  his  mother 
was  buried.  Then  he  wrote  his  first  letter, 
one  to  a  circuit-riding  preacher,  asking 
him  to  stop  on  his  next  round  and  say  a 
prayer  over  her  grave.  To  his  mother, 
who  urged  him  to  "learn  all  he  could  and 
be  of  some  account  in  the  world,"  and  to 
his  capable  stepmother,  with  her  sympathy 
and  insight,  he  owed  much  in  the  shaping 
of  his  character.  Honesty,  loyalty,  affec- 
tion, willing  service  and  striving  after 
every  kind  of  good  marked  the  21  years 
he  spent  unaer  his  father's  various  roofs. 
For  good  measure  he  added  six  months 
to  help  the  family  establish  themselves  in 
the  new  home  on  Sangamon  River,  Illinois, 
in  18-50.  He  helpea  build  the  cabin, 
cleared  land  for  corn  and  split  walnut 
rails  to  fence  the  clearing.  Thirty  years 
later  some  of  those  rails,  carried  into  the 
convention  at  Chicago  by  John  Hanks, 
his  relative,  helped  win  for  him  the  nomina- 
tion for  the  presidency.  Little  he  thought 
of  such  a  thing  when,  in  the  autumn  of 
1830,  he  tied  his  extra  shirts  and  home- 
knit  socks  in  a  big  cotton  handkerchief  and 
turned  his  face  to  the  nearest  settlement  of 
New  Salem — to  begin  life  as  a  man. 


LINCOLN 


1074 


LINCOLN 


He  made  two  voyages  on  flatboats  to 
New  Orleans;  served  as  captain  of  the 
Clary's  Grove  boys,  a  company  of  volun- 
teers in  the  Black  Hawk  War;  clerked  in 
a  store;  acted  as  village  postmaster,  carry- 
ing all  the  mail  in  his  hat;  and  learned 
surveying.  As  a  trader  he  was  a  failure, 
but  his  moral,  social  and  mental  gifts  made 
him  a  leader.  In  1834  he  was  chosen  by 
the  Whigs  of  his  district  to  represent  them 
in  the  legislature.  Self-educated,  he  passed 
the  examination  for  admission  to  the  bar 
in  1837.  When  Springfield  became  the 
capital  of  Illinois  in  1839,  he  removed  to 
that  city,  and  in  1842  refused  to  serve 
further  in  the  legislature.  All  his  time 
was  needed  to  attend  to  his  growing  prac- 
tice. In  1846  he  served  one  term  in  Con- 
gress, but  the  administration  was  Demo- 
cratic and,  as  a  Whig,  there  was  little 
chance  to  distinguish  himself.  From  1848 
to  1854  Lincoln  was  out  of  politics,  but  he 


THE    CABIN    IN    WHICH    LINCOLN    WAS    BORN 

was  making  a  great  reputation  at  the  bar 
and  as  an  orator.  The  passage  of  the 
Kansas- Nebraska  bill  of  Stephen  A.  Doug- 
las, Democratic  senator  from  Illinois, 
alarmed  the  Whigs  of  the  north  to  vigorous 
resistance  against  the  threatened  spread 
of  slavery.  Lincoln  soon  became  the  leader 
of  the  opposition  in  the  west.  He  returned 
to  the  Illinois  legislature,  and  he  helped 
organize  the  new  Republican  party.  In 
the  first  national  convention  of  the  Re- 
publicans his  name  was  presented  by  the 
Illinois  delegation  as  its  candidate  for  the 
vice-presidency.  In  1858  his  fame  was 
given  a  national  scope  by  the  Lincoln- 
Douglas  debates  and  fight  for  the  United 
States  senatorship.  In  his  speech  in  the 
Republican  state  convention  that  summer 
he  made  an  observation  that  set  the  nation 
to  thinking:  "A  house  divided  against 
itself  cannot  stand.  I  believe  this  govern- 
ment cannot  remain  permanently  half- 
slave  and  half-free." 

In  the  seven  public  debates  in  various 
parts  of  Illinois  between  Lincoln  and 
Douglas,  Lincoln  demoralized  his  opponent 


who  had  been  looked  upon  as  probably 
the  next  president.  Douglas  was  returned 
to  the  national  senate  by  a  lessened  major- 
ity, and  admissions  had  been  forced  from 
him  that  killed  his  popularity  in  the  south 
and  his  chances  for  the  presidency.  In 
the  election  of  1860  the  Democratic  vote 
was  divided  between  Douglas  and  Breck- 
enridge.  But  their  united  vote  would  not 
have  defeated  Lincoln,  who  had  180  votes 
in  the  electoral  college  against  123  for  all 
other  candidates. 

Lincoln  was  not  pledged  to  abolish 
slavery,  only  to  preserve  the  Union  and  to 
prevent  the  spread  of  slavery.  Even  after 
the  war  began,  the  government  offered  to 
purchase  the  freedom  of  slaves  in  the 
slave-states  that  remained  loyal  —  Ken- 
tucky, West  Virginia  and  Missouri.  But 
the  secession  movement  began  as  soon  as 
Lincoln's  election  in  November,  1860,  was 
assured.  When  his  inauguration  took  place 
on  March  4,  1861,  seven  states  had  seceded. 
In  his  inaugural  address  he  declared  that 
the  Federal  government  would  not  assail 
the  rebellious  states,  but  that  it  would 
"defend,  protect  and  preserve  if  attacked." 
A  month  later  Fort  Sumter  was  bombarded 
and  captured  by  the  Confederate  govern- 
ment. The  president  mobilized  the  regular 
army  and  issued  a  call  for  volunteers. 
Within  a  month  all  the  states  had  arrayed 
themselves  on  one  side  or  the  other,  and 
the  four  years'  Civil  War  was  begun.  The 
conduct  and  results  of  this  war  are  set  forth 
in  every  school-history.  Separate  sketches 
of  the  commanders  who  distinguished 
themselves  are  to  be  found  in  this  reference- 
work.  (See  GRANT,  SHERMAN,  FARRAGUT, 
THOMAS  and  LEE.)  Lincoln's  part  was  to 
guide  the  ship  of  state  through  the  troubled 
waters  of  civil  war.  For  two  years  he  kept 
consistently  to  the  task  of  preserving  the 
Union.  On  Jan.  i,  1863,  he  issued  the 
emancipation  proclamation,  and  from  that 
on  the  prosecution  of  the  war  had  the 
added  purpose  of  freeing  the  slave.  Never 
has  the  world  seen  a  greater  example  of 
wisdom,  patience,  patriotism  and  moral 
courage  than  animated  his  every  act.  The 
battle  of  Gettysburg  was  fought  in  July, 
1863.  In  the  following  November  the 
battlefield  was  dedicated  as  a  national 
cemetery.  Lincoln's  brief  speech  on  that 
occasion  will  ever  remain  one  of  the  great- 
est speeches  ever  uttered,  both  for  its  lofty 
sentiment  and  for  its  matchless  literary 
style : 

Fourscore  and  "seven  years  ago  our  fathers  brought 
forth  on  this  continent  a  new  nation,  conceived  in 
liberty  and  dedicated  to  the  proposition  that  all 
men  are  created  equal.  Now  we  are  engaged  in 
a  civil  war,  testing  whether  that  nation,  or  any 
nation  so  conceived  and  dedicated,  can  long  endure. 
We  have  met  on  a  great  battlefield  of  that  war. 
We  are  met  to  dedicate  a  portion  of  that  field  as 
the  final  resting  place  of  the  men  who  here  gave 
their  lives  that  that  nation  might  live.  It  is  alto- 
gether fitting  and  proper  that  we  should  do  this. 


LINCOLN 


1075 


LIND 


But  in  a  larger  sense  we  cannot  consecrate,  we 
cannot  hallow,  this  ground.  The  brave  men,  living 
and  dead,  who  struggled  here  have  consecrated  it 
far  above  our  power  to  add  or  detract.  The  world 
will  little  note,  nor  long  remember,  what  we  say 
here,  but  it  can  never  forget  what  they  did  here. 
It  is  for  us,  the  living,  rather  to  be  dedicated  to 
the  unfinished  work  which  they  who  fought  here 
have  thus  far  so  nobly  carried  on.  It  is  rather  for 
us  to  be  here  dedicated  to  the  task  remaining  be- 
fore us:  that  from  these  honored  dead  we  take 
increased  devotion  to  the  cause  for  which  they 
gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devotion:  that  we 
here  highly  resolve  that  these  dead  shall  not  have 
died  in  vain:  that  the  nation  shall,  under  God, 
have  a  new  birth  of  freedom,  and  that  govern- 
ment of  the  people  by  the  people  and  for  the  people 
shall  not  pensh  from  the  earth. 

It  is  said  that  this  immortal  speech  was 
so  quietly  uttered,  so  unexpectedly  brief, 
that  those  who  heard  it  did  not  realize 
their  privilege  until  they  saw  it  in  print. 
Then  it  was  understood  that  in  its  pilot 
this  country  had  one  of  the  greatest  heroes  of 
all  time.  Love,  reverence  and  gratitude  were 
in  the  votes  by  which  he  was  re-elected  in 
1864.  In  his  second  inaugural  address,  deliv- 
ered six  weeks  before  he  was  assassinated,  he 
set  forth  the  moral  significance  of  the  con- 
flict, then  drawing  to  a  close,  and  declared 
that  the  task  would  be  finished  "with 
malice  toward  none,  with  charity  for  all." 
On  April  14,  five  days  after  Lee's  surrender, 
President  Lincoln  was  shot  by  J.  Wilkes 
Booth  at  Ford's  Theater,  Washington. 
He  died  the  next  morning  without  recov- 
ering consciousness.  The  nation  hopes 
never  again  to  see  such  a  pageant  of  mourn- 
ing as  marked  the  progress  of  his  funeral 
train  to  Springfield,  Illinois,  where  he  was 
laid  away  in  the  sweet,  spring  weather.  A 
noble  monument  marks  his  resting  place. 
On  the  looth  anniversary  of  his  birth, 
Feb.  12,  1909,  the  Lincoln  Farm  Associa- 
tion dedicated  a  memorial  museum,  erected 
at  a  cost  of  $250,000  on  the  site  of  his 
birth.  The  weatherworn  log-cabin  is  to 
be  reverently  preserved  within  a  marble 
temple. 

In  statue,  bust  and  portrait  we  have  all 
been  made  familiar  with  Lincoln's  tall, 
spare  figure,  strong  features,  heavy,  black 
hair  and  deep-set,  gray  eyes.  We  are 
equally  familiar  with  his  simple,  friendly 
manner,  his  humor,  his  illuminating  an- 
ecdotes, his  tolerance  and  the  wistful  ex- 
pression he  often  wore  as  if  he  had  missed 
his  meed  of  happiness.  In  speech  he  was 
plain  and  forcible,  often  dramatic;  in  mind 
he  had  quick  perception,  logical  analysis, 
sagacity,  a  tenacious  memory,  intuitive 
knowledge  ot  character  and  broad-minded 
philosophy.  He  had  the  brain  of  a  sage, 
*he  foresight  of  a  prophet,  the  inflexible 
purpose  of  the  historic  reformers  and  the 
tender  heart  of  a  mother.  He  is  our  coun- 
try's most  poignant  and  admonishing  mem- 
ory. It  rests  with  us  to  breed  such  wise, 
gentle  and  consecrated  souls  that  this 
nation  which  he  lived  and  died  to  save 
may  deserve  not  to  perish  from  the  earth. 


Hay  and  Nicolay's  Life  of  Abraham  Lin- 
coln, in  10  volumes,  is  encyclopedic  in  in- 
formation. The  latest  biography,  by  Ida 
M.  Tar  bell,  in  four  volumes,  is  philosophical 
and  contains  much  new  material.  William 
E.  Curtis'  history  is  in  one  volume.  Every 
library  contains  a  collection  of  Lincolniana, 
covering  every  phase  of  his  life. 

ELEANOR  ATKINSON. 

Lincoln,  Benjamin,  an  American  Revo- 
lutionary general,  was  born  at  Hingham, 
Mass.,  Jan.  24,  1733.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  Revolution  he  was  a  major-general  of 
militia.  In  1775  he  cleared  Boston  Harbor 
of  British.  In  1776  he  reinforced  Wash- 
ington, and  in  1777  Washington  had  him 
appointed  a  major-general  in  the  regular 
army.  In  1778  he  commanded  the  Amer- 
ican army  in  the  south.  In  1780  he  was 
besieged  in  Charleston,  and  captured  by  the 
British.  In  1781  he  fought  at  Yorktown, 
and  was  deputed  by  Washington  to  receive 
Cornwallis'  sword.  He  died  on  May  9,  1810. 
Lincoln,  Robert  Todd,  ex-secretary  of 
war  and  only  surviving  son  of  Abraham 
Lincoln,  was 
born  at  Spring- 
field, 111.,  Aug.  i, 
1843.  He  grad- 
uated at  H  a  r- 
vard  in  1864,  and 
in  1867  began 
the  practice  of 
law  at  Chicago, 
where  he  built  up 
a  large  profes- 
sional business. 
When  Garfield 
became  president 
in  i 88 i,  Lincoln 
was  called  into 
his  cabinet  as  secretary  of  war,  serving  until 
1885.  In  1889  he  was  appointed  United 
States  minister  to  England  and  held  this 
position  until  1893,  when  he  returned  to  his 
law-practice  in  Chicago.  Though  never  seek- 
ing office,  he  has  filled  the  high  positions  to 
which  he  has  been  called  witn  credit  to 
himself  and  honor  to  his  country.  He  con- 
tinues to  reside  in  Chicago,  where,  since  the 
death  of  Geo.  M.  Pullman,  he  has  acted  as 
president  of  the  Pullman  Palace  Car  Com- 
pany, besides  practicing  his  profession. 

Lind,  Jenny,  the  "  Swedish  Nightingale," 
was  born  at  Stockholm,  Oct.  6,  1821,  of  hum- 
ble parentage.  Her  musical  gifts  early  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  Mme.  Lundberg,  a 
retired  actress,  through  whose  influence  she 
was  admitted  into  Stockholm  Musical  Con- 
servatory at  the  age  of  nine.  She  sang 
before  local  audiences  with  great  success, 
and  at  16  appeared  as  Agatha  in  Weber's 
Der  Freischutz.  She  made  her  debut  in 
London  in  1847,  in  Robert  le  Diable,  pro- 
ducing a  sensation  without  a  parallel  in 
England's  operatic  history.  She  visited 
London  again  in  1849,  and  won  a  most  bril- 


ROBERT  T.  LINCOLN 


LINDEN 


1076 


LINEN 


liant  triumph.  In  1850  she  made  a  tour 
through  the  United  States  and  Canada,  sing- 
ing in  all  their 
principal  cities. 
The  receipts  were 
over  S6oo,ooo,  half 
of  which  was  re- 
ceived by  Jenny 
Lind.  While  in 
America  she  mar- 
ried Otto  Gold- 
Schmidt,  who  had 
accompanied  her 
as  a  pianist.  They 
returned  to  Eu- 
1  rope  in  1852. 
After  she  had  vis- 
ited Stockholm 
and  expended 
JENNY  LIND  jhoo.oooin  found- 


native  country,  they  took  up  their  residence 
at  Dresden.  In  1858  they  removed  to  Eng- 
land, where  they  continued  to  reside.  After 
her  American  "tour  Madame  Goldschmidt 
only  occasionally  appeared  in  public,  sing- 
ing solely  for  charitable  purposes.  Her 
charities  in  the  United  States  amounted 
to  many  thousand  dollars;  and  were  equally 
munificent  in  all  European  countries  in  which 
she  lived  or  visited.  She  died  at  Malvern, 
England,  Nov.  2,  1887. 

Lin'den,  species  of  Tilia,  a  genus  which 
contains  about  1 2  species  distributed  through- 
out north  temperate  regions.  In  eastern 
North  America  three  well-recognized  spe- 
cies occur.  T.  Americana  is  the  American 
linden,  often  known  as  basswood  or  white- 
wood.  It  is  a  large  tree,  reaching  125  feet, 
and  occurs  in  rich  woods  and  river  bottoms 
from  Canada  to  Georgia  and  westward. 
The  form  is  rounded  and  tapers  gracefully 
toward  the  top,  the  bark  dark  brown  and 
deeply  ridged.  The  heart-shaped  leaves  are 
dark  green  and  glossy.  In  May  and  June 
the  tree  bears  fragrant,  cream-colored  blos- 
soms, and,  when  these  fall,  their  place  is 
taken  by  downy,  round,  greenish-gray  fruit. 
The  wood  is  valued  for  cabinet-work,  and  is 
extensively  used  for  woodenware.  7\  pu- 
bescens  is  the  southern  basswood  or  white- 
wood,  a  much  smaller  tree,  not  growing  to 
more  than  50  feet  in  height  and  occurring  in 
moist  woods  from  Long  Island  to  Florida  and 
westward.  T.  heterophylla  is  the  common 
basswood,  becoming  70  feet  high.  It  is  also 
known  as  the  white  basswood  and  as  the  linden 
bee-tree,  and  is  characterized  by  very  llarge 
leaves,  covered  below  with  a  silvery  down. 
It  is  a  very  beautiful  tree,  not  common  in  the 
north,  at  its  best  in  the  Tennessee  mountains. 
The  common  European  linden  is  T.  Europea, 
which  is  planted  commonly  in  parks  and  along 
streets.  It  is  not  so  large  as  the  American 
linden,  its  figure  being  less  rounded. 

Lin'disfarne',  a  small  island  of  England, 
about  10  miles  south  of  Berwick-on-Tweed. 


The  island  is  chiefly  interesting  for  the  ruins 
of  its  Benedictine  priory,  which  show  that  it 
was  a  model,  on  a  small  scale,  of  the  cathe- 
dral of  Durham.  It  was  built  in  1093  of  the 
material  of  the  cathedral  erected  in  the  7th 
century  by  Bishop  Aidan.  Here  a  company 
of  Columban  monks  established  themselves, 
and  the  place  ultimately  became  the  famous 
priory  of  Lindisfarne,  the  luminary  of  the 
north,  reaching  its  greatest  glory  under  St. 
Cuthbert.  In  1887  it  was  visited  by  3,000 
barefooted  pilgrims. 

Lind'say,  county-seat  of  Victoria  County, 
Ont.,  is  a  railway  center  of  7>725  inhabitants, 
serving  a  fertile  and  highly  cultivated  district. 

Lindsey,  Benjamin  Barr.  Several  years 
ago  a  session  of  court,  when  a  famous  will- 
case  was  being  tried,  was  adjourned  a  few 
moments,  so  the  judge  could  straighten  out 
the  grievance  of  a  newsboy.  The  little  fel- 
low with  his  "injunction"  —  a  friendly  note 
to  a  policeman  —  departed  happy.  The 
judge's  apology,  as  he  resumed  the  hearing, 
was :  "A  live  boy  is  worth  more  than  a  dead 
man's  millions." 

It  was  Judge  Lindsey  of  the  Probate  Court 
of  Denver,  better  known  as  the  "Kid  Judge," 
who  thus  put  the  new  gospel  of  child-saving 
into  a  sentence.  The  author  of  the  Juvenile 
Court  law  of  Colorado,  was  born  on  a  farm 
near  Jackson,  Tenn.,  in  1869.  His  father,  a 
wealthy  planter  of  Mississippi,  impover- 
ished by  the  war,  died  in  1878,  leaving  a 
widow  and  four  children  of  whom  Bennie 
was  the  eldest.  A  news  and  messenger  boy 
in  Denver,  he  went  to  night-school,  worked 
his  way  through  the  university  and  studied 
law.  At  32  he  was  elected  county- judge. 
Here  he  came  in  contact  with  child-offenders. 
One  day  some  boys  were  brought  before 
him  for  robbing  a  pigeon-roost.  The  law 
said  they  must  go  to  the  reformatory.  With- 
out authority  «f  law  he  released  the  culprits 
on  parole.  He  was  condemned  by  public 
opinion.  He  appealed  to  the  boys  to  stand 
by  him  and  justify  his  course.  They  did. 
To-day  they  and  hundreds  like  them  have 
been  made  into  useful  citizens,  for  the  "Kid 
Judge"  secured  jurisdiction  over  all  Denver 
children  and  carried  out  the  experiment  on 
such  a  scale  as  to  attract  the  attention  of  the 
world.  Ninety-five  per  cent,  of  his  boys 
never  got  into  trouble  again. 

In  1898  there  was  not  a  Juvenile  Court  in 
the  world.  Child-offenders  were  treated  as 
adult  criminals  to  be  punished.  To-day 
the  basic  principle  in  all  civilized  countries  is 
coming  to  be  that  the  child  is  incapable  of 
crime.  Great  Britain  is  working  out  a  plan 
of  children's  courts  for  the  British  Empire. 

Lin'en,  a  fabric  made  of  the  threads  of 
flax  wrought  by  both  ancients  and  moderns. 
There  are  frequent  references  to  linen  in  the 
Bible  and  other  ancient  records,  and  mum- 
my-cloths of  great  age  and  fine  texture  have 
been  found  in  Egypt.  The  ancient  Egyp- 
tians not  only  used  the  fabric  extensively 


LINES  OF  FORCE 


1077 


LION 


themselves,  but  exported  large  quantities. 
The  cultivation  of  flax  was  considerable  in 
Italy  just  before  the  Christian  era;  and  it  is 
probable  that  it  was  first  introduced  into 
England  by  the  Romans.  The  year  1787 
marks  the  first  introduction  of  a  mill  for 
spinning  linen-yarn  by  machinery  in  the 
United  Kingdom ;  and  it  was  not  until  1812 
that  the  first  mill  which  had  any  real  success 
was  built  in  London.  It  is  doubtful,  how- 
ever, whether  the  linen  now  manufactured  is 
superior  to  that  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  as 
some  of  the  mummy-cloths  in  the  British 
Museum  contain  more  than  200  threads  to 
the  inch  in  the  warp  and  over  100  in  the  woof. 
The  countries  in  which  the  manufacture  of 
linen  is  most  extensive  are  Great  Britain, 
Belgium  and  France.  A  large  mill  was  built 
for  the  purpose  at  Fall  River,  Mass.,  in  1834; 
but  the  industry  has  not  become  an  exten- 
sive one,  as  most  of  our  linen  goods  are  im- 
ported from  other  countries. 

Lines  of  Force,  a  term  introduced  by 
Faraday,  to  describe  an  electric  or  magnetic 
field  of  force.  The  region  about  an  electnc 
charge  or  a  magnet  is  such  that  one  has  to  do 
work  to  move  another  electric  charge  or  a 
magnet  pole  respectively.  Such  a  region  is 
called  a  field  of  force.  This  field  of  force  will 
be  completely  described  when,  at  every  point 
in  the  region,  the  direction  and  amount  of  the 
force  on  unit  charge  is  given.  Faraday  ac- 
complishes this  description  by  imagining  the 
region  filled  with  lines  such  that  at  every 
point  they  have  a  direction  the  same  as  that 
of  the  force,  and  are  drawn  so  thickly  (i.  e., 
so  close  together),  that  the  number  of  lines 
passing  through  unit  area,  perpendicular  to 
the  direction  of  the  force  at  any  point,  is  nu- 
merically equal  to  the  amount  of  the  force. 
Lines  drawn  in  this  manner  are  called  lines 
of  force.  In  a  magnetic  field  lines  of  force 
may  be  defined  in  direction  by  saying  that 
they  are  lines  such  that  at  every  point  they 
have  a  direction  the  same  as  that  which  a 
freely-suspended  compass-needle  would  as- 
sume at  that  point.  Faraday  showed  that 
lines  of  force,  whether  lines  of  electric  force 
or  lines  of  magnetic  force,  behave  as  if  there 
were  a  tension  along  the  lines  of  force  and  a 
repulsion  between  them.  The  introduction 
of  lines  of  force  has  simplified  many  problems 
in  electricity  and  magnetism,  notably  the 
theory  of  induced  currents.  See  ELEC- 
TRICITY and  MAGNETISM. 

Linnaeus  (ttn-ne'iis) ,  Carl,  a  distinguished 
botanist,  was  born  in  Sweden,  May  13,  1707. 
Almost  as  soon  as  he  could  talk,  he  knew  the 
names  of  the  plants  in  his  father's  garden 
and  of  those  of  the  neighborhood.  In  1730 
he  was  appointed  assistant  to  the  professor 
of  botany  at  Upsala.  His  first  work  was  an 
account  of  the  botanical  results  of  an  ex- 
tended trip  through  Swedish  Lapland.  While 
arranging  the  gardens  and  greenhouses  of  a 
Dutch  banker  in  Amsterdam  he  went  to 
England  at  his  patron's  expense,  and  pub- 


lished some  of  his  most  famous  works,  includ- 
ing his  Natural  System  and  the  Genera  of 
Plants,  in  which  he  introduces  his  system  for 
arranging  plants  in  classes,  which,  though 
based  on  an  artificial  distinction,  was  in  use 
for  many  years  _  While  Linnasus  taught 
botany  in  the  university,  his  fame  and  his 
lectures  increased  the  students  from  500  to 
1,500,  He  published  several  other  botan- 
ical works  and  sketches  of  his  scientific  ex- 
cursions. He  died  at  Upsala,  Sweden,  Jan. 

10,  1778.     The  Linnasan  Society  of  London 
now  owns  his  books,  manuscripts  and  botan- 
ical collection.     See  Through  the  Fields  with 
Linnaeus  by  Caddy. 

Lin'otype,  a  machine  sometimes  known  as 
the  Mergenthaler,  is  employed  to  cast  solid 
lines  put  of  the  type  which  has  been  set  up. 
This  invention  is  now  universally  employed 
by  newspapers  and  in  not  a  few  books. 
The  machine  was  invented  in  1884  by  Ott- 
mar  Mergenthaler.  The  solid  metal  bar, 
with  raised  letters,  which  is  made  by  the 
linotype,  is  simply  melted  down  when  done 
with,  so  that  a  great  expenditure  of  time  and 
labor  in  "distributing"  the  type  is  entirely 
avoided. 

Lin'seed  Oilr  the  oil  made  of  seed  of  flax. 
The  seed  is  first  bruised,  then  ground,  and 
afterward  with  powerful  machinery  the  oil 
is  pressed  out.  Sometimes  the  crushed  mass 
is  steamed  before  the  pressure  is  applied,  but 
the  cold-pressed  oil  is  regarded  as  the  better 

011,  as  it  is  less  liable  to  become  rancid  than 
the  steam-pressed.     The  oil  is  chiefly  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  varnishes  and  paints. 
The  oil-cake,  —  seed  ground  after  the  oil  has 
been  pressed  out,  —  is  good  for  poultry  and 
cattle. 

Li'on,  a  very  large  member  of  the  cat  fam- 
ily, inhabiting  Africa  and  southern  Asia.  The 
copious  mane  of 
long,  shaggy  hair 
surrounding  the 
head  and  neck  of 
the  male  gives  it  an 
appearanceof  great 
size.  Nevertheless, 
the  lion  is  exceeded 
in  size  and  weight 
by  the  largest 
tigers.  A  full- 
grown  male  is 
about  nine  and  one 


tail,  while  the  Royal  tiger  may  reach  a  length 
of  ii  feet.  Lions  vary  in  color  and  in  the 
size  of  the  mane.  As  a  rule,  they  are  tawny 
or  yellowish  brown,  with  the  mane  darker, 
but  the  lioness  is  not  provided  with  a  mane. 
The  tail  is  long  and  has  a  tuft  of  black  hair 
at  the  end.  Lions  are  very  hard  to  distin- 
guish by  sight,  the  tawny  mane  being  so  like 
the  tall  yellow  grasses  they  hide  amongst. 
They  live  on  the  plains,  rather  than  in 
the  forests,  finding  concealment  in  dense 


LIONS,  AMERICAN 


1078 


LIQUID  AIR 


jungle.  The  young  are  born  and  receive 
their  first  care  in  some  deeply-secluded 
spot;  there  usually  are  two  at  a  birth.  The 
parents,  especially  the  mother,  look  after 
the  kittens  carefully  until  they  are  able  to 
take  care  of  themselves,  male,  female  and 
young  keeping  together.  The  old  ones  teach 
the  young  how  to  capture  and  kill,  and  when 
they  start  forth  for  themselves  they  are  dar- 
ing and  dangerous.  The  kittens  at  first  pre- 
sent a  brindled  appearance,  the  stripes  and 
spots  indistinct.  Maturity  is  not  reached 
until  the  eighth  year.  The  span  of  life  may 
reach  40  years.  In  reputation  for  ferocity 
the  lioness  fully  rivals  the  male,  and  when 
protecting  her  cubs  is  said  to  be  quicker, 
more  excitable  and  savage  than  her  mate. 
The  lion  is  a  lazy  beast  and  a  glutton.  The 

Eicture  is  a  false  one  that  describes  him  as 
ceding  only  on  what  he  himself  has  slain. 
He  will  devour  any  meat  he  may  happen  on, 
the  remains  of  another's  catch  as  well  as 
fresh  prey  of  his  own.  It  is  lions'  custom  to 
hunt  in  bands;  they  have  been  seen  in  com- 
panies of  five,  six  and  ten.  As  a  rule  a  lion 
hunts  from  ambush,  creeping  from  cover  to 
cover  until  within  leaping  distance  of  the 
prey.  In  bunting  he  places  his  mouth  close 
to  the  ground  and  utters  his  terrifying  roar, 
which,  creating  panic  among  the  lesser  ani- 
mals, sends  them  scurrying  forth  in  mad  con- 
fusion. It  is  said  that  the  natives  can  tell 
by  this  roar  whether  the  lion  is  hungry  or 
full,  and  judge  thereby  of  his  measure  of 
ferocity.  In  speed  he  is  no  match  for  the 
swift  antelope,  but  captures  great  numbers 
of  these  animals  by  creeping  upon  them  unex- 

Eectedly,  keeping  well  to  the  leeward,  that 
is  strong  odor  shall  not  betray  him.  Ze- 
bras and  wild  asses  are  frequent  victims,  and 
domestic  creatures  suffer  from  the  attack  of 
the  great  cat,  who  finds  stockade  and  fence 
no  bar  to  his  hunting.  The  camel  and  giraffe 
he  attacks,  but  not  the  elephant.  Lions  usu- 
ally rest  by  day  and  hunt  by  night,  though 
a  company  may  start  forth  on  a  cloudy  day. 
Maneating  lions  boldly  enter  villages,  and 
snatch  a  victim  from  hut  or  from  under  blan- 
ket by  the  fire.  Male  lions  engage  in  terrible 
combats  among  themselves,  duels  to  the 
death  being  fought  by  rivals  for  the  favor  of 
a  female.  Elephants  are  trained  for  the 
sport  of  lion-hunting, but  mosthunting  is  now 
done  on  foot.  In  Africa  sportsmen  some- 
times ride  to  the  hunt  on  horses,  but  care  has 
to  be  taken  not  to  get  too  close,  as,  for  a 
short  distance,  the  lion  can  make  great  speed. 
In  character  the  lion  is  cautious;  shows  much 
intelligence  in  avoidance  of  danger;  is  keen 
and  crafty;  and,  though  recently  it  has  be- 
come the  fashion  to  decry  his  bravery  and 
name  him  coward,  there  are  too  many  well- 
authenticated  stories  bearing  witness  to  his 
courage.  He  may  have  been  known  to  slink 
away,  but  probably  lived  only  to  fight  an- 
other day,  to  fight  magnificently,  indomit- 
ably —  truly  "king  of  beasts."  Man  is  his 


only  enemy.  See  Selous:  A  Hunter's 
Wanderings  in  Africa  and  Porter's  Wild 
Beasts. 

Lions,  American.  See  PUMA. 
Lipari  (ltp'a-re)  Islands,  also  called  fiio* 
Han  Islands,  a  volcanic  group  in  the  Medi- 
terranean off  the  northern  coast  of  Sicily.  It 
consists  of  six  large  and  numerous  smaller 
islands.  The  whole  area  is  50  square  miles. 
Many  of  the  smaller  form  the  ring  of  a  large 
crater.  They  were  the  residence  of  the  myth- 
ological god  Vulcan.  The  principal  prod- 
ucts are  grapes,  figs,  olives,  wine,  borax, 
pumice  stone  and  sulphur.  The  volcano 
Stromboli,  almost  constantly  active,  is  3,022 
feet  high;  Vulcano  is  intermittent;  and  the 
others  are  extinct.  Population  of  islands 
20,455;  °f  town  12,000. 

Lip'ton,  Sir  Thomas  Johnstone,  a  Brit- 
ish merchant  and  yachtsman,  born  in  Glas- 
gow, Scotland,  of 
Irish  parents.  He 
organized  the 
"Lipton,  Limited," 
a  commercial  es- 
tablishment capi- 
talized at  $200,- 
000,000,  with  tea, 
coffee  and  cocoa 
estates  in  India 
and  Ceylon,  fruit- 
orchards  in  Kent 
and  elsewhere  and 
a  refrigerator-car 

giant  in  the  United 
tates.      He    was, 
too,  president  of  a 
pork-packing  com- 
pany in  Chicago.  In 

1897,  Queen  Victoria's  diamond -jubilee  year, 
he  contributed  $100,000  to  a  dinner-fund  for 
thepoor.  In  1898  to  "The  Alexandra  Trust," 
an  organization  whose  purpose  is  to  provide 
good  food  at  cost  for  working  people,  he 
gave  $500,000,  in  recognition  of  which  he 
was  knighted  in  the  same  year.  In  1902  he 
was  made  a  baronet.  He  is  best  known  as 
the  owner  of  the  English  yachts  which  were 
defeated  by  the  American  yachts  Columbia 
in  1898  and  1901  and  Reliance  in  1903. 

Liqueur  (le'ker1).  This  name  is  given  to 
the  numerous  preparations  of  alcohol,  which 
are  flavored  or  perfumed  and  sweetened  to  be 
more  agreeable  to  the  taste.  Clove  cordial, 
aniseed  coidial  and  peppermint  are  exam- 
ples. Maraschino  is  a  variety  distilled  from 
bruised  cherries,  and  Noyau  is  flavored  with 
bitter  almonds. 

Liquid  Air.  "When  gases  are  sufficiently 
cooled,  they  may  be  liquefied,  as,  when  liquids 
are  sufficiently  cooled,  they  become  solidi- 
fied. Liquid  air  is  the  name  given  to  the 
liquid  which  is  obtained  by  turning  the  air  as 
a  whole  into  the  liquid  state;  but  in  1884  it 
was  found  that  this  liquid  practically  resolved 
itself  into  two  distinct  liquids,  the  oxygen 
fluid  and  the  nitrogen.  The  "carbonic  acid'' 


SIR  THOMAS   LIPTON 


LIQUORICE 


1079 


LISZT 


becomes  a  solid ;  and  gives  a  turbid  appear- 
ance to  the  liquid  air,  although,  when 
strained  through  a  filter  of  paper,  it  becomes 
quite  clear  and  practically  colorless.  Liquid 
air  boils  at  a  temperature  of  —191°  C.  or 
-312°  F.  Nitrogen  boils  at  a  slightly  lower 
temperature  than  oxygen,  —194°  instead  of 
-183°  C.,  so  that,  if  liquid  air  be  poured  upon 
water,  it  at  first  floats,  but  gradually  sinks, 
as  the  nitrogen  evaporates  first  and  leaves 
only  the  heavier  oxygen  behind.  The  liquid 
oxygen  has  a  blue  color.  This  property  of 
liquid  air,  that  it  becomes  more  and  more 

Eurely  liquid  oxygen,  enables  many  beauti- 
al  experiments  to  be  made  with  it.  A  steel 
watchspring  burns  beautifully  in  it  for  this 
reason,  sending  forth  showers  of  sparks. 
Liquid  air  may  also  be  used  as  an  explosive, 
as  it  can  exert  a  pressure  during  evaporation 
of  something  like  10,000  pounds  to  the 
square  inch.  At  the  present  time  the  process 
of  manufacturing  liquid  air  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  upon  a  commercial  basis ;  yet  many 
uses  of  the  substance  may  be  conceived,  as 
power,  as  an  explosive,  as  a.  means  of  ex- 
tracting oxygen  from  the  atmosphere  and  as 
a  refrigerating  agent.  It,  therefore,  is  not 
fair  to  regard  liquid  air  as  no  more  than  a 
scientific  plaything. 

Liq'uorice,  a  class  of  plants  having  long, 
pliant,  sweet  roots.  It  has  stems  about  four 
feet  high,  feather-shaped  leaves  and  clusters 
of  light-violet  flowers.  The  Greek  name 
means  sweet  root,  and  the  name  liquorice 
is  a  corruption  of  it.  The  plant  is  propa- 
gated by  slips;  and  after  a  plantation  has 
been  made  almost  three  years  must  elapse 
before  the  roots  can  be  dug  up  for  use. 
Liquorice  requires  a  deep,  rich,  loose  soil. 
The  roots  grow  downward  more  than  a  yard, 
and  the  straight  taproots  are  most  valuable. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe  and 
some  parts  of  Asia.  Stick-liquorice  is  made 
by  crushing  and  grinding  the  roots  to  a  pulp, 
which  is  boiled  over  an  open  fire.  After 
straining,  it  is  evaporated  in  copper  pans  un- 
til it  is  thick  enough  to  be  rolled  out  into 
sticks  when  cooled.  Liquorice  has  been  a 
well-known  medicine  since  ancient  times. 
It  is  useful  in  catarrh  and  in  throat  troubles. 
Lis'bon,  the  capital  of  Portugal,  stands  on 
the  Tagus,  nine  miles  from  its  mouth,  on  a 
site  surpassed  for  imposing  beauty  in  Europe 
only  by  Naples  and  Constantinople.  The 
city  consists  of  an  old  and  a  new  part.  The 
old  part  is  the  one  that  escaped  the  earth- 
quake of  1755,  and  is  still  known  by  its  old 
Moorish  name  of  Alfama.  Water  is  brought 
by  a  magnificent  aqueduct,  built  in  1738, 
which,  though  it  crosses  a  valley  on  35 
arches,  stood  the  shock  of  the  great  earth- 
quake. Lisbon  has  one  of  the  finest  harbors 
in  the  world,  which  is  protected  by  a  series  of 
forts.  The  manufactures  are  gold  and  sil- 
ver ware,  jewelry,  cotton  and  silk  goods, 
hemp,  hats,  boots  and  tobacco;  and  it  ex- 
ports wine,  cork,  fish,  cattle,  oil,  salt  and 


fruit.  Lisbon  passed  through  the  hands  of 
Romans,  Goths  and  Moors,  the  last  holding 
it  400  years  (716-1147),  until  Alphonso  I  of 
Portugal,  with  the  help  of  crusaders,  con- 
quered it.  In  1422  it  was  made  the  capital. 


In  1580  the  "invincible"  Armada  set  sail 
from  its  harbor.  The  city  was  retaken  by 
Portugal  in  1640.  It  suffered  from  an  earth- 
quake in  1755,  which  in  less  than  ten  minutes 
laid  the  greater  part  of  the  city  in  ruins  and 
killed  nearly  40,000  persons,  it  being  one  of 
the  greatest  earthquakes  on  record.  At  Lis- 
bon the  government  maintains  a  higher  tech- 
nical school,  a  polytechnic  school,  a  school  of 
agriculture  and  a  military  school ;  there  also 
are  conservatories  for  music  and  dramatic 
art.  The  University  of  Coimbra  has  its  seat 
here.  Population  356,009. 

Liszt  (list) ,  Franz,  pianist  and  composer, 
was  born  at  Raiding  in  Hungary,  Oct.  22, 

1811.  At  nine 
he  appeared  to 
such  advantage 
when  playing  in 
public  that  sev- 
eral Hungarian 
nobles  offered 
the  means  to  ob- 
tain a  musical  ed- 
ucation, and  the 
boy  was  sent  to 
Vienna.  At  the 
close  of  a  mem- 
orable concert, 
April  3,  1823, 
Liszt  being  not 
yet  12,  Beethoven  ascended  the  platform 
and  kissed  him.  After  the  death  of  his  fa- 
ther, in  1827,  great  mental  depression  fell 
upon  him.  He  was  repelled  by  the  low  estate 
of  music  and  musicians,  and  with  strong  re- 
ligious feelings  he  was  drawn  to  the  church ; 
but  in  1831  he  heard  Paganini  the  violinist, 
and  was  fired  with  the  resolve  to  equal  him 
on  the  piano.  At  the  height  of  his  popularity 
as  a  performer,  he  retired  to  Weimar  to  di- 
rect the  opera  and  devote  his  time  to  compo- 
sition and  teaching.  In  1865  he  received 
minor  orders  in  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  was 
afterwards  known  as  Abbe\  He  was  the 


FRANZ  LISZT 


LITERATURE 


1 080 


LITERATURE  (ASSYRIAN) 


foremost  figure  of  his  time  in  the  musical 
world.  As  a  pianist  he  simply  was  unap- 
proachable, and  as  a  teacher  he  also  was 
unrivaled.  His  compositions  are  numerous 
and  original.  His  generosity  was  more  than 
princely,  all  the  enormous  proceeds  of  his 
concerts  after  1848  being  devoted  to  the  ben- 
efit of  others.  He  died  at  Baireuth,  Ba- 
varia, July  31,  1886.  See  Life  by  Nohl  and 
Martin. 
Literature. 

CHINESE  LITERATURE 
How  vast  is  the  literature  of  China  can 
be  seen  from  the  catalogue  of  works  ordered 
to  be  collected  by  the  government,  in  1722, 
to  be  printed  as  a  national  library.     This 
catalogue  has   200  chapters.     The  Chinese 
classics  are  the  books  of  Confucius  and  a 
few    others.      The    histories    of    this    great 
national  library  are  those  of  China  itself. 
What  are  called  the  dynastic  histories  give 
an    account    of    each    reign,    followed    by 
treatises  on  chronology,  rites,  music,  law, 
food,  property,    state-sacrifices,  astronomy, 
the  five  elements,  geography  and  a  list  of 
the  books  of  the  reign.     To  these  treatises 
is  added  a  host  of  biographies  of  the  lead- 
ing men  of  the  reign.     There  also  are  sub- 
divisions of  the  histories,  among  which  are 
chapters  on  Books  on  the  Constitution,  in- 
cluding such  works  as  Ma  Twin-lin's  Gen- 
eral Examination  of  Records  and  Scholars, 
said  to  be  a  library  in  itself.    The  philosophy 
and  arts  division  of  the  library  is  made  up 
of  works  on  war,  legislation,  farming,  horti- 
culture, the  mulberry  tree,  medicine,  astron- 
omy,  mathematics,   divination,   music,   en- 
graving,  the    tea-plant,   ink,  the  works  of 
Roman   Catholic   missionaries,   Taoism   and 
Buddhism.      The    belles    lettres    division    is 
made    up    of    poetry    and    critical    works. 
Chinese    poetry    is    rich    in    ballads,    songs, 
elegies  and  inscriptions  for  monuments.    Its 
poets  have  been  without  number,  many  of 
them  being  women.     One  of  the  Confucian 
classics  is  The  Book  of  Poetry,  and  poetry 
was    one    of    the    regular    subjects    in    the 
former     government     examinations     which 
were  abolished  on  Sept.   3,    1905.      Novels 
and    dramas    are    not    thought    important 
enough  to  be  put  in  the  national  library; 
but  some  of  their  historical  romances  are 
works  of  genius,  as  the  Expanded  Narrative 
of  the  Period  of  the  Three  Kingdoms,  written 
in  the  i3th  century  of  our  era.     Some  of 
their  best  novels  have  been  translated  into 
English  and  French,  as  The  Rambles  of  the 
Chang-Teh  Emperor  in  Kiang-nan.     Great 
as   is  this  literature,   it   would   have   been 
greater,  had  it  not  been  for  the  burning  of 
the    Confucian    books    by    the  founder  of 
the  Tsin  dynasty,  who  wished  all  that  came 
after  him  to  think  that  he  was  the  founder 
of  China.     One  library,  too,  after  another 
was  burned  or  destroyed  down  to  the  middle 
of  our  6th  century.      Paper  was  used  for 


writing  in  the  ist  Christian  century,  and 
printing  on  wooden  blocks  soon  followed. 
Movable  types  were  invented  by  a  black- 
smith, Pi  Shing,  in  the  roth  century. 

SANSKRIT  LITERATURE 
The  most  important  Hindu  writings  are 
religious.  The  famous  Vedic  hymns  are 
found  in  four  collections:  the  Rig-Veda, 
the  largest;  Sama-Veda,  verses  that  seem 
to  be  selected  from  the  hymns  of  the  Rig- 
Veda;  Yajur-Veda,  verses  to  be  recited  at 
sacrifices;  and  the  Black  Veda,  apparently 
a  continuation  of  the  Rig-Veda.  The  two 
great  Hindu  epics  are  the  Mahabhdrata, 
which  tells  of  the  feuds  between  two  kingly 
races,  and  the  R&mayana,  which  describes 
the  heroic  deeds  of  Rama,  a  prince  of  Oude 
who  conquered  Ceylon  and  the  Deccan. 
R4ma  is  represented  as  the  embodiment  of 
Vishnu.  What  are  known  as  the  Pur  anas 
are  continuations  of  these  two  epics,  though 
written  much  later.  Other  epics  were  the 
Birth  of  the  War-God  and  the  Race  of  Raghu, 
by  Kalidasa,  who  also  wrote  lyrics,  as  The 
Cloud-Messenger.  Another  lyric  poet  was 
Jayadeva,  whose  Gita-Govinaa  sings  of  the 
love-adventures  of  the  god  Krishna.  In- 
dian fables  have  found  their  way  all  over 
the  world.  The  earliest  collection  is  known 
as  the  Panchatantra.  No  nation,  except 
Greece,  founded  independently  a  better 
drama  than  that  of  the  Hindus.  Among 
their  best  plays  are  the  Toy-Cart  of  Sudraka 
and  the  plays  of  Kalidasa.  Besides  the 
well-known  laws  of  Manu,  there  is  a  large 
mass  of  Brahmanical  treatises  and  Buddhist 
Sanskrit  literature. 

BABYLONIAN  LITERATURE 
The  Babylonians  in  some  respects  were 
a  literary  people.  Inscriptions  are  found 
as  early  as  2000  B.  C.,  written  by  private 
persons,  which  show  that  a  certain  amount 
of  education  was  required  of  every  Baby- 
lonian. The  writings  were  on  tablets,  kept 
in  the  temple-libraries  of  the  different  cities. 
In  the  sacred  city  of  Ea  were  written  most 
of  the  tablets  on  magic.  The  epic  poem 
of  Gizdhubar  was  composed  at  Erech,  the 
oldest  capital  of  the  land.  The  poem,  which 
relates  the  attack  of  the  seven  evil  spirits 
on  the  moon,  was  written  probably  at  Ur. 
Perhaps  the  finest  work  in  Babylonian 
literature  is  the  poem  describing  the  war 
in  heaven  between  Merodach  and  the  demon 
Tiamat,  which  is  in  the  library  at  Borsippa. 
The  tablet,  after  telling  the  story  graphically 
and  beautifully,  closes  with  a  remarkable 
hymn  of  praise  to  the  victor.  In  these 
libraries  are  found  poems,  fables,  proverbs, 
works  on  law,  geography,  astronomy,  magic, 
histories  and  mythologies. 

ASSYRIAN  LITERATURE 
One    of   the   most    important    results    of 
Assyrian    explorations    has    been    the    dis- 
covery  in   the  palace  of  Asur-bani-pal,  at 


LITERATURE  (PHOENICIAN) 


LITERATURE  (JEWISH) 


Nineveh,  of  a  library  of  many  thousand 
tablets.  This  library  was  undoubtedly 
founded  to  enable  Assyrian  boys  to  be 
taught  at  home,  rather  than  be  forced  to 
go  to  Babylon,  where  they  might  become 
estranged  from  the  government  of  Nineveh. 
One  section  is  made  up  of  text-books  — 
tables  of  square  and  cube  roots,  lists  of 
plants,  metals  and  animals  and  lists  of  coun- 
tries, with  their  noted  products.  The  most 
interesting  section  is  that  of  poetic  and 
legendary  literature.  Here  are  found  the 
poetic  legends  concerning  the  great  Chaldean 
hero  Gizdhubar  or  Izdubar,  and  among  them 
a  story  of  the  flood,  much  like  the  Bible 
story  of  Noah.  There  also  are  stories  of 
the  creation,  remarkably  like  the  account 
in  Genesis.  Most  of  these  tablets  were 
written  during  the  reign  of  Asur-bani-pal 
(669  to  about  640  B.  C.). 

PHOENICIAN  LITERATURE 
The  Phoenicians  were  once  thought  to 
have  invented  letters,  but  it  is  now  known 
that  the  hieroglyphics  of  the  Egyptians, 
several  of  the  cuneiform  alphabets  and  the 
script  of  the  Hittites  are  older.  The  Phoeni- 
cians, however,  were  a  business  people. 
They  wished  to  be  able  to  write  rapidly,  and 
so  made  simple  one  of  the  alphabets  then 
known.  This  they  did  so  well  rhat  it  has 
outlived  all  other  systems,  ano  is  the  one 
in  use  to-day  among  all  civilised  nations, 
who  have  each  adopted  it  with  but  slight 
changes.  The  Phoenicians  had  no  real 
literature  so  long  as  they  remained  a  nation. 
However,  books  were  written  by  those  of 
them  who  settled  in  Africa.  The  Periplus 
of  Hanno  is  an  interesting  book  of  travels, 
and  valuable  works  on  history  and  geog- 
raphy are  said  to  have  been  written  by 
Mago,  Hamilcar  and  others. 

PERSIAN  LITERATURE 
The  famous  Zend-Avesta  is  the  name  given 
to  the  sacred  books  of  the  Parsees,.  Avesta 
meaning  text  and  Zend  commentary.  What 
now  survives  is  but  a  fragment  of  what 
once  existed  of  this  literature.  At  the  head 
stand  the  Gathas  (goo  or  1200  B.  C.), 
probably  the  work  of  Zoroaster  and  his  dis- 
ciples. These  are  sacred  prayers,  songs  and 
hymns.  The  names  of  other  parts  of  the 
collection  are  Yasna,  Visparaa,  Vendidad. 
The  last  part  of  the  Vendidad  was  written 
as  late  as  500  B.  C.  For  a  while  after  the 
Mohammedan  conquest  (A.  D.  642),  the 
writers  one  and  all  were  Moslems.  But  by 
the  pth  century  not  only  were  the  leaders 
of  thought  Persians,  but  the  native  lan- 
guage had  again  come  into  use.  For  five 
centuries  the  literary  life  nourished.  The 
chief  poets  of  the  nth  century  were  Ausari 
(1039),  author  of  Wamik  and  Asra;  Fer- 
ruchi,  Esedi  and,  above  all,  Firdausi,  who 
wrote  the  Persian  national  epic,  Shah- 
Nameh.  Later  came  the  famous  Omar 


Khayyam  (who  died  in  1127),  Farid-ed- 
Din  Attar,  the  author  of  Pend-Nameh  (Book 
of  Council),  a  work  containing  the  lives  of 
the  saints,  and  a  third  greater  poet,  Jelal- 
ed-Din  Rumi,  whose  chief  poem  was  on 
Contemplative  Life.  In  the  i3th  century, 
also,  wrote  Sadi,  the  first  and  greatest 
didactic  poet.  But  far  above  all  shines 
Hafiz  (whom  see),  who  sang  of  wine  and 
love,  of  nightingales  and  flowers.  With  him 
Persian  poetry  reaches  its  height.  Persia 
abounds  in  tales,  stories  and  novels,  but 
valuable  history  has  also  been  written. 
In  early  times  Reshid-ed-Din  produced  his 
history  of  all  Mohammedan  countries.  Fore- 
most among  modern  historians  is  Meikhond. 
Ferichtah  (1640)  wrote  in  Persian  a  history 
of  India  of  high  value.  For  a  popular 
survey  of  this  subject  see  E.  A.  Reed's 
Persian  Literature. 

JEWISH  LITERATURE 

The  great  product  of  early  Jewish  liter- 
ature is  the  Bible  (which  see).  In  the 
period  from  143  B.  C.  to  135  A.  D.  the 
Midrash,  or  inquiry  into  the  meaning  of 
the  sacred  writings,  was  divided  into 
Halacha,  practical  teachings,  and  Hagada, 
religious  and  historical  teachings.  To  this 
period  belong  The  History  of  the  Jewish 
War  by  Josephus  (which  kept  its  place  as 
an  authority  on  this  event  until  lately)  and 
the  philosophical  works  of  Philo.  At  this 
time,  moreover,  were  composed  the  early 
Christian'  writings  and  the  Apocrypha,  or 
religious  books  by  Jewish  authors  not  in- 
cluded in  the  Protestant  Bible.  The  period 
from  135  to  475  A.  D.  is  noted  mainly  for 
the  achievement  of  the  scholars  who  worked 
on  the  Mishna,  the  oral  law,  made  up  of 
early  traditions  as  to  the  meaning  of  the 
Mosaic  law,  and  the  Talmud,  containing  the 
Mishna  when  it  had  been  reduced  to  writ- 
ing, together  with  a  commentary  on  it. 
During  this  period  the  Jews  gave  up  the 
use  of  their  own  language  for  that  of  what- 
ever country  they  happened  to  dwell  in. 
Throughout  the  middle  ages,  especially  in 
Spain,  there  were  many  Jews  of  the  highest 
scholarship,  but  little  real  literature  was 
produced.  But  one  name  of  importance 
stands  out  from  the  rest,  that  of  Maimonides, 
who  was  born  at  Cordova  and  spent  part 
of  his  life  there,  but  was  forced  to  leave 
the  country  and  settle  in  Egypt.  He  was 
the  first  of  modern  commentators  on  the 
Bible,  and  by  his  works,  the  greatest  of 
which  is  Guide  of  the  Erring,  had  so  potent 
an  influence  on  the  growth  of  Judaism  that 
he  has  often  been  placed  next  to  Moses. 
In  the  1 3th  century  the  poet  Jehuda  Charisi 
wrote  in  Spain.  The  period  from  1492  to 
1755  *s  marked  bY  tne  appearance  of  many 
Jewish  scholars,  foremost  among  whom  was 
Spinoza.  In  modern  times,  under  the 
leadership  of  Moses  Mendelssohn,  Jews  have 
taken  a  prominent  rank  in  literature,  science 


LITERATURE  (EGYPTIAN) 


1082 


LITERATURE   (GREEK) 


and  public  life.  Among  them  are  Neander, 
Heine,  Auerbach,  Karl  Marx,  Lassalle, 
D'Israeli,  Hale"vy,  Mendelssohn,  Meyerbeer, 
Rubinstein,  Grisi,  Rachel,  Montefiore, 
Rothschild,  Belmont  and  Hirsch. 
EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE 

This  seems  to  have  had  no  gradual  growth, 
like  that  of  other  countries.  The  most  im- 
portant part  of  it  is  religious.  The  Book  of 
the  Dead  tells  of  the  adventures  of  the  soul 
after  death.  A  copy  of  this  book  was 
placed  in  the  coffin  with  the  dead.  The 
main  part  of  the  book  was  written  not 
later  than  3000  B.  C.  There  also  are  books 
on  the  gods,  hymns  to  the  sun,  proverbs 
and  treatises  on  moral  philosophy.  Writings 
on  magic  are  many.  The  Egyptian  works 
on  medicine  show  that  this  science  was 
known  long  before  3000  B.  C.  We  also 
find  scientific  works  and  many  letters.  We 
have  two  stories,  The  Two  Brothers,  written 
by  the  scribe  Euna  about  the  time  of  the 
Exodus,  and  The  Romance  of  Setna,  written 
in  the  ad  or  *d  century  B.  C.  The  epic 
of  Pentaur,  the  subject  of  which  is  the 
deeds  of  Rameses  II,  has  been  called  the 
Egyptian  Iliad. 

GREEK  LITERATURE 

The  two  Homeric  poems,  the  Iliad  and 
the  Odyssey,  form  the  earliest  Greek  liter- 
ature which  has  come  down  to  us.  But 
they  are  not  at  all  like  the  simple  ballad 
poetry  of  other  countries.  They  are  works 
of  highly-finished  art,  which  could  not 

Eossibly  have  been  created  till  poetry  had 
ourished  for  a  long  time.  These  poems 
are  epics;  the  name  epic  being  given  first 
to  verses  which  were  spoken,  while  lyric 
verses  were  sung,  and  then  to  the  chief 
kind  of  poetry  which  was  thus  merely 
recited,  not  sung,  namely,  narrative  poetry 
in  hexameter  verse.  Hexameter  verse  is 
known  to  English  readers  by  Longfellow's 
Evangeline.  The  Iliad  means  the  poem  of 
Ilium  or  Troy,  a  city  of  Mysia  in  the  north- 
west of  Asia  Minor.  Its  subject  is  events 
in  the  ten  years'  siege  of  Troy  by  the 
Greeks.  Its  hero  is  Achilles,  while  that  of 
the  Odyssey  is  Odysseus,  one  of  the  Greek 
leaders  at  Troy,  whose  adventures  on  the 
homeward  voyage  are  related.  Long  as 
these  epics  are,  they  were  composed  to  be 
spoken,  and  were  not  written  out  till  years 
afterward.  This  is  true  of  classical  Greek 
literature  in  general.  Lyrics  were  songs 
sung  at  banquets;  Herodotus,  the  Father 
of  History,  probably  recited  his  accounts  at 
the  festival  of  the  Olympian  games;  and 
Socrates,  the  first  philosopher,  never  wrote 
a  word.  The  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  are 
said  to  be  the  work  of  Homer;  but  nothing 
certain  is  known  concerning  the  poet  or 
whether  they  are  the  work  of  any  one  man. 
In  Boeotia  epics  were  written  by  Hesiod, 
whose  chief  works  are  Theogony  and  Works 
and  Days. 


Lyrics  were  composed  by  Archilochus, 
Sappho,  Alcman  and  many  others,  but  the 
greatest  lyric  poet  was  Pindar.  Of  his 
many  compositions  we  have  odes  written 
in  praise  of  victorious  heroes  at  the  festival 
games. 

Epics  had  been  recited,  evening  after 
evening,  to  the  family  and  retainers  of  the 
early  chieftain  at  his  home;  lyrics  had  been 
sung  at  the  feasts  of  the  rich;  but  the 
drama  was  the  outcome  of  a  wish  to  reach 
a  larger  audience,  the  great  democracy  of 
Athens.  It  maintained  the  features  of  the 
epic,  the  audience  being  told  what  was 
supposed  to  take  place  behind  the  scenes, 
while  the  chorus  was  borrowed  from  the 
lyric.  Though  plays  and  playwrights  were 
many,  to  us  ^Eschylus,  Sophocles  and 
Euripides  in  tragedy  and  Aristophanes  and 
Menander  in  comedy  make  the  classical 
Greek  drama. 

The  first  historian  of  prominence  was 
Herodotus  of  Halicarnassus,  whose  accounts 
of  his  travels  in  Asia  Minor,  Persia  and 
other  countries  are  one  of  the  main  sources 
of  our  knowledge  of  their  early  history.  A 
far  more  painstaking  and  able  historian 
was  Thucydides,  whose  work  on  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  War  has  never  been  surpassed. 
Xenophon's  writings  were  valuable,  but 
are  not  equal  to  those  of  Thucydides. 

Of  the  three  great  Greek  philosophers, 
Socrates  is  known  to  us  only  through  the 
reports  of  Plato  and  others.  Plato's  Dia- 
log-ties are  masterpieces  of  literary  genius, 
while  his  philosophy  has  had  the  greatest 
influence  on  all  thinkers  since;  as  has  also 
that  of  the  more  practical  Aristotle,  who 
wrote  on  logic,  rhetoric,  physics,  metaphy- 
sics, natural  history  and  politics. 

Another  department  of  literature  in 
which  the  Greeks  excelled  was  oratory.  In 
Athens  oratory  was  a  regular  business,  as 
a  suitor  was  compelled  to  speak  in  his 
own  behalf  and  usually  had  a  speech- 
writer  compose  a  speech  for  him  to  learn 
and  deliver  as  his  own.  For  example,  Lysias 
composed  the  greater  part  of  his  speeches, 
which  are  noted  for  their  style,  for  his 
clients.  Among  them  is  the  speech  Against 
Agoratus.  Antiphon's  best  speech,  perhaps, 
is  that  On  the  Murder  of  Herodes.  The 
greatest  of  all  Athenian  orators,  however, 
was  the  statesman  Demosthenes.  His  ora- 
tions On  the  Crown  and  On  the  Peace  and 
his  Philippics,  speeches  against  Philip  of 
Macedon,  are  noteworthy  examples. 

The  death  of  Alexander  closes  classical 
Greek  literature.  When  political  liberty 
ended,  there  ceased  to  be  a  great  public 
which  called  forth  an  author's  best  efforts, 
and  hence  great  works  were  no  longer 
written.  Without  a  great  public,  no  great 
artist  arises.  Still,  there  were  a  few  later 
writers  who  added  luster  to  the  times  in 
which  they  lived,  such  as  Theophrastus,  the 
philosopher  Theocritus,  the  poet  Menander, 


LITERATURE  (ROMAN) 


1083 


LITERATURE  (ARABIAN) 


who  wrote  good  comedies,  and  Plutarch, 
the  author  of  the  famous  Lives.  See  Jebb's 
Primer  of  Greek  Literature. 

ROMAN  LITERATURE 

Of  literature  .properly  so  called,  there 
was  nothing  in  Rome  till  the  3d  century 
B.  C.  Marcus  Porcius  Cato,  whose  Origines 
(extant  only  in  fragments)  tells  of  the 
origin  of  Rome  and  some  other  Italian 
cities,  is  held  to  be  the  father  of  Latin 
prose.  At  the  same  time  lived  Ennius,  a 
man  of  considerable  genius,  who  wrote 
Roman  history  (Annales)  in  verse.  ^  Only 
fragments  of  the  latter's  works  remain.  In 
the  3d  century,  also,  arose  the  drama. 
Andronicus,  the  first  playwright,  adapted 
his  plays  from  the  Greek.  Of  comedy  the 
chief  representative  is  Plautus,  from  whose 
work  we  have  20  plays,  full  of  bright,  witty 
dialogue  and  funny,  laughable  incidents. 
Plautus  wrote  at  the  end  of  the  3d  and 
the  beginning  of  the  ad  century  B.  C. 
Soon  after  came  Terence,  six  of  whose 
comedies  have  come  to  us,  which  address 
a  more  refined  and  cultivated  taste. 

The  drama  was  based  on  Greek  plays, 
but  the  satire  was  wholly  Roman.  This 
was  a  general  term  to  include  most  poetry 
which  was  not  epic  or  dramatic.  But  the 
satire,  in  our  sense  of  the  term,  or  the 
really  satirical  satire  was  founded  by 
Lucilius  in  the  early  half  of  the  ad  century 
B.  C.  His  satires  were  skits  on  the  public 
men  of  the  day  and  a  free  criticism  of  con- 
temporary life;  but  we  have  only  a  few 
scraps  of  his  poetry. 

In  the  ist  century  before  Christ  Varro 
was  a  writer  of  great  learning  on  many 
subjects,  and  also  a  witty  satirist.  Cicero 
was  ten  years  younger  than  Varro,  and  is 
held  to  have  created  a  perfect  prose  style. 
His  speeches  show  the  power  they  must 
have  had  over  the  senators  to  whom  they 
were  addressed.  He  was  the  author  also  of 
many  philosophical  works.  Cicero  is  noted 
more  for  his  style  than  for  deep  thinking. 
Catullus  was  the  first  Roman  to  write  lyrics 
in  the  Greek  style.  By  many  his  odes  are 
held  to  contain  more  real  poetry  than  those 
of  Horace.  Lucretius  sang  of  epicureanism 
in  On  the  Nature  of  Things,  which,  like  all 
of  his  work,  is  noted  mainly  for  fine  passages. 

The  Augustan  age  of  Roman  poetry  — 
the  latter  part  of  the  ist  prechristian  cen- 
tury —  was  its  greatest  age,  the  time  of 
Vergil,  Horace  and  Ovid,  familiar  names 
throughout  the  civilized  world.  Vergil's 
Pastorals  and  his  four  Georgics,  poems  on 
farm  life,  are  imitations  of  the  Greek.  His 
jEneid,  in  which  he  emulates  Homer,  was 
written  to  stir  up  Roman  patriotism  by 
tracing  Rome's  origin  to  Troy  and  the 
gods.  Horace's  father  had  been  a  slave, 
but  he  was  given  a  good  schooling.  His 
Odes,  though  they  imitate  Greek  lyric 
poetry,  have  much  that  is  Roman  and 


original.  Their  grace,  beauty  and  finish  of 
language  are  so  exquisite  as  to  escape  even 
the  most  skillful  translation.  His  satires 
and  epistles  were  the  most  popular  of  his 
writings,  because  so  full  of  homely  common- 
sense.  Ovid's  great  poem  is  the  Metamor- 
phoses, a  collection  of  stories  which  turn  on 
the  change  of  men  and  women  into  animals, 
trees,  plants  or  flowers. 

In  the  same  century  the  great  prose- 
writers  were  Caesar,  Sallust  and  Livy. 
Caesar  told  of  his  campaigns  in  a  simple, 
straightforward  style  and  in  the  best  and 
purest  Latin.  Sallust,  who  wrote  of  the 
Catilinian  conspiracy  and  the  war  with 
Jugurtha,  was  the  first  who  really  deserved 
to  be  called  a  historian.  Of  Livy's  history 
of  Rome  the  later  and  more  important  books 
are  lost.  His  style  is  bright  and  picturesque. 

Except  for  Seneca,  the  essayist,  and 
Martial,  the  witty  writer  of  epigrams,  there 
was  no  writer  of  importance  till  the  age  of 
Domitian  (81-96  A.  D.),  the  age  of  Juvenal, 
Tacitus,  Pliny  the  Younger  and  Quintilian. 
Juvenal's  satires  are  bitter  and  savage. 
They  grew  out  of  his  honest  indignation 
against  the  vulgar  rich  and  the  fortune- 
hunters  with  whom  Rome  swarmed.  Tacitus 
was  a  successful  lawyer  and  a  man  of  the 
world  as  well  as  a  writer.  His  style  is 
concise  and  nervous.  His  Agricola,  the  life 
of  his  father-in-law  who  was  governor  of 
Britain,  is  a  masterpiece  of  biography.  His 
Annals  and  Histories  rank  near  Thucydides. 
His  other  main  work  was  his  Germany,  a 
description  of  the  region  and  its  people. 
Pliny,  as  governor  of  a  Roman  province  in 
Asia  Minor,  came  into  collision  with  the 
early  Christians  and  gave  his  opinion  of 
them  to  Emperor  Trajan  in  a  letter.  His 
many  other  letters  also  are  of  interest,  as 
illustrating  sides  of  Roman  life  which  would 
otherwise  be  unknown  to  us.  Quintilian,  a 
professor  of  rhetoric,  has  left  a  valuable 
treatise  on  this  and  kindred  subjects,  taking 
in  the  whole  subject  of  education.  See 
Wilkins'  Primer  of  Latin  Literature. 

SYRIAC  LITERATURE 

This  is  Christian.  The  oldest  work  we 
have  is  a  translation  of  most  of  the  Bible, 
known  as  the  Peshito  version,  which  is  of 
great  value  to  scholars.  St.  Ephraem,  who 
lived  in  the  4th  century,  is  the  first  im- 
portant author.  He  was  followed  by  a 
steady  stream  of  writers  until  the  gth 
century,  but  most  of  their  writings  are  lost. 
The  work  of  these  authors  was  chiefly  im- 
portant in  that  it  acquainted  the  Arabs 
with  classical  learning.  Among  these 
scholars  and  authors  were  Jacob  of  Edessa, 
Bar-Ali  and  Bar-Hebraeus. 

ARABIAN  LITERATURE 
Long  before  the  time  of  Mohammed  cela- 
bratea    Arabian   poets    sane   the   feuds   of 
tribes   and   the   praises   of  heroes  and  fair 


LITERATURE  (ARABIAN) 


1084 


LITERATURE   (ITALIAN) 


women.  During  the  great  fairs  at  Mecca 
and  Okadh  (Okaz)  poetic  contests  were 
held  before  the  people,  as  at  the  Grecian 
games,  and  the  prize-poems  were  written 
over  again  in  golden  letters.  Among  the 
famous  poets  of  this  early  time  were  Na- 
begha  and  Kaab-ben-Zohair,  whose  verses 
are  remarkable  for  pathos  and  rich  imagery, 
and  glow  with  love  and  hate.  Literature, 
science  and  art  flourished  under  the  caliphs 
(750-1258  A.  D.).  They  were  most  gen- 
erously fostered  by  Almansor  (754-775)  and 
the  famous  Haroun-al- Rashid  (786-808). 
Translations  were  made  from  the  best 
Greek,  Syriac  and  old  Persian  writers, 
schools  founded  and  libraries  gathered. 
While  Europe  was  buried  in  the  dark  ages, 
the  Arabians  became  a  cultured  race,  and 
that  almost  as  rapidly  as  the  Mohammedan 
conquest  had  been  achieved.  The  Arabs 
took  the  lead  in  geography,  and  refounded 
medicine,  Avicenna's  Canon  of  Medicine 
being  the  only  handbook  on  the  subject 
for  a  long  time.  Theology  and  law  were 
based  on  the  Koran.  The  collection  of  tra- 
ditions, known  as  the  Sunna,  which  gives 
an  account  of  the  sayings  and  doings  of 
Mohammed,  also  is  an  authority.  The  most 
celebrated  of  the  commentators  on  these 
books  were  Zamakhahari  and  Baidhawi.  In 
philosophy  the  chief  study  of  the  Arabs 
was  Aristotle,  and  their  most  famous  com- 
mentator on  him  was  Averroes,  who  wrote 
at  the  end  of  the  iath  century.  Albateni, 
who  died  in  929,  was  the  greatest  of  their 
astronomers.  In  mathematics  they  intro- 
duced from  India  the  numerals  now  in  use, 
besides  developing  algebra  and  trigonom- 
etry. Perhaps  the  greatest  historian  was 
Masudi  (died  in  057),  who  called  his  work 
Golden  Meadows.  Motanebbi  and  Abu- 
Teman  gathered  the  old  poems  that  make 
up  the  collection  Hamasah;  Busiri's  Bordah 
is  a  work  in  praise  of  Mohammed;  and 
Azeddin's  poem  of  The  Birds  and  the  Flow- 
ers was  very  popular.  Harivi,  who  died  in 
1 12 1,  was  famous  for  his  novels,  written  in 
rhyming  prose  like  the  Koran.  Romances 
and  legendary  tales  abounded.  The  most 
famous  were  The  Arabian  Nights'  Enter- 
tainments, The  Exploits  of  Antar,  The  Ex- 
ploits of  the  Champions  and  The  Exploits 
of  Bibars.  From  these  books  the  tales  of 
fays,  charms,  sorceries  and  enchantments 
passed  into  the  poetry  of  the  west.  How 
the  stories  of  The  Arabian  Nights'  Enter- 
tainments came  to  be  told  is  noted  by  an 
Arabian  historian.  A  Persian  king  used  to 
marry  a  new  bride  every  day,  and  kill  her 
next  morning.  One  wife  was  Scheherazade, 
who  had  understanding  and  prudence.  As 
they  sat  together  she  began  a  tale,  and 
late  at  night  she  broke  it  off  at  so  inter- 
esting a  point  that  the  king  next  morn- 
ing spared  her  life  and  at  night  begged  her 
to  go  on  with  her  tale.  So  she  did  for  a 
thousand  nights.  Meantime  she  bore  him 


a  child.  Presenting  the  child,  she  told  of 
the  craft  she  had  used;  and  the  king,  whose 
love  she  had  now  gained,  admired  her  sagacity 
and  let  her  live.  The  book,  we  are  told,  was 
written  for  the  Persian  princess  Homai, 
whose  mother  appears  to  be  the  Esther  of 
the  Bible.  The  Arabians  obtained  these 
stories  from  the  Persians;  additions  were 
also  made  of  Indian  and  Arabian  tales. 
The  Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments  has 
been  more  read  than  any  other  book  of 
tales  ever  written. 

ITALIAN  LITERATURE 

The  literary  language  of  Europe,  especially 
of  Italy,  during  the  middle  ages  was  Latin. 
It  was  Dante  Alighieri  (1265-1321),  who  by  a 
sublime  masterpiece  revealed  the  power  and 
compass  of  the  Italian  tongue.  That  master- 
piece is  the  Divine  Comedy.  Petrarch  (1304- 
74)  and  Boccaccio  (1313-75)  with  him  form 
the  trio  who  made  the  i4th  century  the 
golden  age  of  Italian  literature.  Italy  is  the 
only  country  in  which  literature  reached 
its  height  in  its  opening  period.  Petrarch 
lives  in  fame,  not  because  of  his  many  i  atin 
books,  but  by  reason  of  the  unequaled 
beauty  of  his  songs  and  sonnets,  written  in 
the  despised  tongue  of  the  people.  Boccaccio 
made  a  lasting  place  for  himself  among  his 
country's  great  writers  by  his  Decameron 
and  other  tales,  which  formed  the  standard 
of  perfect  Italian  prose. 

The  revival  of  classical  learning  made  the 
cities  of  Italy,  especially  Florence,  centers 
of  letters.  On  the  Family  is  the  best-known 
work  of  Alberti  (1404-72),  who  excelled  as 
architect,  poet  and  prose- writer.  The 
best  work  at  this  time  consisted  of  narrative 
poems,  the  great  names  being  Ariosto,  the 
author  of  Orlando  Furioso,  and  Boiardo. 
Machiavelli  (1469-1527)  was  the  leading  his- 
torian, his  Prince  being  translated  into  most 
modern  languages.  The  graphic  biography 
of  Benvenuto  Cellini  (1500-71)  the  artist 
is  a  valuable  picture  of  the  times.  The 
Pastor  Fido  of  Giovanni  Guarini  (1537-1612) 
and  the  Aminta  of  Tasso  (1544-95)  are  able 
dramas.  Tasso,  whose  great  poem  was 
Jerusalem  Delivered,  ended  the  period  in 
which  Italian  literature  had  been  pre-emi- 
nent in  Europe. 

The  foremost  Italian  of  the  i?th  century 
was  Galileo,  whose  scientific  writings  are 
penned  in  clear  and  pure  prose.  Alfieri,  who 
wrote  at  the  end  of  the  i8th  century,  is  the 
only  great  tragic  writer  that  Italian  litera- 
ture possesses;  and  Manzoni,  a  writer  of  the 
1 9th  century,  produced  the  only  great 
Italian  historical  novel,  The  Betrothed. 
Silvio  Pellico  is  known  by  My  Prisons, 
his  touchingly  natural  account  of  his  impris- 
onment by  the  Austrians.  The  historians 
of  the  igth  century  were  Balbo,  Capponi 
and  Cantu.  The  eloquence  and  pure  style 
of  Mazzini's  political  writings  make  them 
valuable  literature.  Good  poetry  has  been 


LITERATURE  (FRENCH) 


1085 


LITERATURE  (FRENCH) 


written,  as  the  lyrics  by  Manzoni  and  the 
satires  by  Giusti.  Among  the  best  books 
produced  since  Italy  became  a  united 
nauon  are  Military  Life  and  other  works 
of  E.  de  Amicis  and  the  Autobiography  of 
Dupre"  the  sculptor.  See  Sismondi's  Lit- 
erature of  the  South  of  Europe. 

FRENCH  LITERATURE 

The  earliest  writings  of  France  were  the 
love-songs  of  the  troubadours  and  the  verses 
of  the  trouveres  on  the  deeds  of  kings  and 
knights.  Of  the  many  early  chronicles  the 
best  is  FroLoart's,  which  is  still  read  Awhile 
the  Memoirs  of  Comines,  who  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  XI,  are  both  valuable  and 
well-written. 

The  revival  of  classical  learning  in  the 
1 6th  century,  which  stirred  literature  with 
such  power  in  England,  had  a  like  effect  in 
France.  It  produced  Rabelais,  "the  jester 
of  France,"  and  Montaigne,  one  of  the 
greatest  of  essay-writers,  the  perfect  style 
of  whose  essays  has  made  them  classics. 
Calvin,  also,  in  his  Institutes  of  the  Christian 
Religion,  made  French  prose  speak  with  an 
eloquence  it  had  never  before  known.  The 
tales  of  Margaret  of  Navarre  have  always 
been  popular.  Clement  Marot's  verses  were 
more  witty  than  poetic,  but  Mathurin  Reg- 
nier  (1573-1613)  wrote  strong  satirical 
poems. 

The  age  of  Louis  XIV  is  a  noted  one  in 
French  literature,  and  ranks  among  the  fore- 
most in  the  world's  literature.  At  this 
time  Pierre  Corneille,  the  greatest  French 
tragedian,  wrote  his  masterpieces,  The  Cid, 
Horace,  Cinna  and  Polyeucte.  Second  only 
to  him,  Racine  wrote  his  Andromaque,  Iph- 
igenie  and  Phedre,  based  on  Greek  stories, 
and  Athalie,  taken  from  an  incident  in 
Hebrew  history.  Corneille  tried  comedy 
in  The  Liar,  but  was  far  outshone  in  this 
department  by  Moliere,  whose  Tartuffe, 
The  Misanthrope,  The  School  of  the  Women 
and  other  plays,  are  as  familiar  to  the  world 
as  those  of  Shakespeare.  The  four  most 
famous  French  preachers  also  lived  at  this 
time  —  Bossuet,  Bourdaloue,  Massillon  and 
Feiielon.  Lafontaine  wrote  fables  as  no  one 
has  written  them  since.  Boileau,  the  leading 
poet  of  the  time,  was  greater  in  his  influence 
upon  the  work  of  other  poets  than  because  of 
anything  he  himself  wrote.  Descartes'  Dis- 
course on  Method,  Malebranche's  Investiga- 
tion of  Truth  and  Pascal's  Thoughts  were 
important  philosophical  books  of  the  period, 
while  the  last  is  a  most  precious  work  to 
Christians  of  all  nations.  The  wits  of  the 
age,  who  are  famous  still,  were  La  Roche- 
foucauld and  La  Bruyere.  Cardinal  de  Retz 
in  his  Memoirs  of  the  war  of  the  Fronde  and 
Hamilton  in  his  Memoirs  of  the  Count  of 
Grammont  produced  valuable  historical 
works.  Fenelon's  Telemaque  became  im- 
mensely popular,  as  it  was  thought  to  cen- 
sure Louis  XIV.  French  life  under  that 


monarch  is  best  set  forth  in  the  Letters  of 
Madame  de  Se'vigne'  to  her  daughter  and 
friends. 

The  1 8th  century  was  an  age  of  philosophy 
and  bold  thought.  Montesquieu,  whose 
Persian  Letters  were  a  satire  on  everything 
French,  as  it  then  was,  and  whose  best 
book  was  The  Spirit  of  Laws,  had  great  in- 
fluence in  stirring  and  emboldening  French 
thought.  But  it  would  be  impossible  to 
exaggerate  Voltaire's  influence  on  the 
growth  of  thought  which  ended  in  the 
French  Revolution.  His  tragedies,  as  Merope 
or  Mahomet  rank  next  to  those  of  Cor- 
neille and  Racine,  while  his  miscellaneous 
poems  are  unsurpassed.  His  views  on 
philosophy  are  set  forth  in  his  Philosophical 
Dictionary,  and  his  Age  of  Louis  XIV  is  still 
worth  reading.  Rousseau's  influence  was 
almost  as  great.  His  Contrat  Social,  which 
was  read  both  by  learned  and  ignorant 
throughout  the  country,  was  a  direct  attack 
on  the  throne.  Diderot's  and  D'Alem- 
bert's  Encyclopedia  also  was  influential, 
embodying  the  boldest  views  as  to  society, 
government  and  religion.  Buffon's  Natural 
History,  though  no  longer  of  scientific  au- 
thority, is  one  of  the  French  classics.  Two 
other  classics  are  St.  Pierre's  Paul  and  Vir- 
ginia and  PreVost's  Manon  Lescaut.  The 
leading  novel  of  the  day  was  Le  Sage's  Gil 
Bias.  Beaumarchais'  Barber  of  Seville  is 
popular  still. 

In  the  i  gth  century  first  arose  what  was 
called  the  romantic  school,  the  best  plays 
of  which  were  written  by  Hugo,  Dumas 
and  Alfed  de  Vigny.  De  Vigny  also  wrote 
a  good  novel,  Cinq-Mars,  but  the  greatest 
in  this  department  was  Hugo,  whose  mas- 
terpiece is  Les  Miserables.  The  most  popu- 
lar was  Dumas,  whose  Count  of  Monte 
Cristo  and  Three  Guardsmen  are  only  two 
among  the  best  of  his  many  good  stories. 
Dumas  is  noted  also  for  his  style.  Much 
less  read  now  than  formerly  are  two  other 
authors  of  this  school,  Eugene  Sue  and 
George  Sand.  The  greatest  French  nov- 
elist, Honore"  de  Balzac,  belongs  to  what 
is  known  as  the  realistic  school  of  writers. 
In  power,  no  story  that  has  been  written  sur- 
passes Father  Goriot  or  Cousin  Bette,  unless 
it  be  Adam  Bede.  Of  younger  writers  of 
the  same  school,  the  foremost  perhaps,  are 
Gautier  and  Guy  de  Maupassant;  while 
as  a  writer  of  detective  stories  Emile  Gabo- 
riau's  File  No.  113  is  unequaled  even  by 
Edgar  Poe's  Marie  Roget.  The  chief  French 
poet  of  the  century  was  Alfred  de  Musset, 
though  Hugo  was  even  greater  in  his  Odes 
and  Ballads  than  as  a  novelist  or  play- 
wright; while  BeYanger  was  one  of  the 
greatest  French  song-writers,  and  Lamar- 
tine  also  ranked  high  as  a  poet. 

The  most  important  work  of  the  ipth 
century  was  done  in  history;  the  leading 
names  are  Guizot,  Thierry,  Sismondi,  Mich- 
elet,  Martin,  Capefigue,  Thiers,  Mignet, 


LITERATURE  (SPANISH) 


1086 


LITERATURE  (DUTCH)- 


Louis  Blanc,  Lamartine,  Napoleon  III  and 
Lanfrey.  Quatrefages,  Champpllion,  Lenor- 
mant,  Kenan,  Cuvier,  Lavoisier,  Laplace, 
Saint  Simon,  Fourier  and  Bastiat  are  some 
of  the  leading  scholars  and  scientists  into 
whose  work  we  cannot  go.  The  two  great- 
est philosophers  of  this  period  were  Victor 
Cousin  and  Auguste  Comte,  while  Taine 
and  Sainte-Beuve  perhaps  were  its  greatest 
critics.  See  Demogeot's  History  of  French 
Literature. 

SPANISH  LITERATURE 

The  famous  Poem  of  the  Cid,  composed, 
probably,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  izth  cen- 
tury, is  a  song  of  warlike  deeds,  picturesque 
ana  spirited.  In  the  i5th  century  appeared 
romances  of  chivalry  and  ballads.  The 
Amadis  of  Gaul,  first  and  best  of  books  of 
chivalry,  contains  passages  of  great  beauty. 
Spanish  ballads  were  handed  down  orally 
from  generation  to  generation,  the  great 
mass  being  gathered  in  the  i6th  and  i7th 
centuries.  The  most  interesting  are  those 
which  celebrate  the  national  heroes  and  the 
Moorish  champions  against  whom  they 
fought.  At  the  end  of  the  isth  century 
appeared  Celestina,  novel  and  drama  in  one, 
which  soon  became  most  popular  and  was 
read  in  translation  throughout  Europe. 

Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  writing  in  the  first 
half  of  the  i6th  century,  left  at  his  early 
death  a  small  collection  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful poetry  in  the  language.  In  this  period 
the  best  Spanish  lyrics  were  written,  one 
lyric  writer,  Herrera,  being  entitled  to  a 
high  place  among  European  poets.  Just 
when  the  romance  of  chivalry  was  dying  a 
natural  death,  Cervantes  killed  it  by  the 
fun  poked  at  it  in  his  famous  Don  Quixote, 
which,  with  its  quaint  humor  and  deep  in- 
sight into  human  nature,  is  the  best  known 
and  best  loved  of  Spanish  books.  Lope 
de  Vega,  who  lived  at  the  same  time  as 
Cervantes,  was  called  the  prodigy  of  nature 
because  of  the  mass  and  variety  of  his 
works.  He  is  best  known  by  his  dramas, 
of  which  he  wrote  over  2,000.  Calderon's 
plays  are  noted  more  for  their  fine  poetry 
than  as  dramas.  Molina  and  Moreto,  as 
good  playwrights  but  not  as  good  poets  as 
Lope  de  Vega  and  Calderon,  are  only  two 
among  many  dramatists  of  ability  in  the 
golden  age  of  Cervantes.  At  the  end  of 
the  i  yth  century  Spanish  power  and  litera- 
ture sank  together  and  completely.  Among 
recent  books  Juan  Valera's  Pepita  Ximenez 
is  one  of  the  best  novels  of  the  century. 
See  Ticknor's  History  of  Spanish  Literature. 

PORTUGUESE  LITERATURE 
The  best  early  chronicle  of  Portugal  is  that 
of  Fernam  Lopez  (1380-1459).  The  oldest 
and  still  the  finest  tragedy  is  the  Ines  de 
Castro  of  Antonio  de  Ferreira  (i  528-69) .  The 
national  pride  and  glory,  deeply  stirred  by 
the  discoveries  and  conquests  of  the  nation 


in  Asia,  Africa  and  America,  found  ex- 
pression in  the  works  of  Portugal's  one 
really  great  poet.  Campens  (1524-80).  His 
great  work  is  The  Lusiads,  which,  together 
with  his  sonnets,  songs  and  dramas,  show  a 
breadth  of  genius  that  places  him  in  the 
foremost  rank  of  European  poets.  With 
Camoens  Portuguese  literature  reached  its 
height.  The  only  other  writers  before  the 
1 9th  century  who  are  at  all  noteworthy 
are  the  historians,  among  them  De  Barros 
(1496-1570),  who  wrote  The  Conquest  of 
the  Indies,  and  Brandao,  who  wrote  The 
Lusitanian  Monarchy.  Two  writers  at 
the  beginning  of  the  igth  century  wrote 
good  poetry,  F.  M.  do  Nascimento,  noted 
for  his  lyrics,  and  Manoel  du  Bocage,  whose 
sonnets  are  the  finest  in  the  language.  Her- 
culano  was  something  of  a  poet,  but  is  bet- 
ter known  as  one  of  Portugal's  finest  his- 
torians. Brazilian  writers  have  also  made 
their  mark.  Of  the  poets,  besides  the  two 
Barposas,  should  be  mentioned  Magelhaens, 
the  most  national  of  them  all.  The  leading 
historian  is  Varnhagen,  who  wrote  The 
General  History  of  Brazil.  See  Bouterwek's 
History  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Literature. 

FINNISH  LITERATURE 

By  1642  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
Finnish,  which  had  been  begun  in  the  i6th 
century,  was  completed.  There  was  no  writ- 
ten literature  before  this,  but  in  1835  Dr. 
Elias  LSnnrot  gave  to  the  world  Finland's 
famous  epic  of  Kalevala,  popular  songs  taken 
from  the  lips  of  the  peasantry  during  many 
years  of  research  and  wandering.  These  songs 
had  been  handed  down  by  singers,  who 
sang  to  the  sound  of  the  kantela,  a  sort  of 
rude  harp.  The  style  of  Kalevala  may  be 
judged  from  Hiawatha,  which  is  an  imita- 
tion of  the  Finnish  poem.  The  great  poet 
and  dramatist  of  Finland  was  Runeberg 
(1804-77). 

DUTCH  LITERATURE 

Hooft  (1581-1647)  was  the  first  writer  to 
create  a  good  prose  Dutch.  He  was  noted 
also  as  a  poet  and  playwright.  Vondel 
(1587-1679)  is  held  to  be  the  greatest  poet 
of  Holland,  and  wrote  dramas  that  are  still 
performed.  But  his  popularity  was  not  equal 
to  that  of  Jakob  Cats  (1577-1660),  whose 
maxims  for  a  long  time,  with  the  Bible,  were 
the  only  book  found  in  every  cottage.  One 
of  Cats'  followers,  Van  der  Goes,  wrote  a 
beautiful  poem  on  Amsterdam.  Erasmus. 
Boerhaave,  Grotius  and  Spinoza,  who  wished 
to  be  read  beyond  the  borders  of  their  own 
land,  wrote  in  Latin,  and  so  their  works 
hardly  belong  to  Dutch  literature.  Bil- 
derdijk's  great  epic  poem,  The  Destruction 
of  the  First  World,  is  the  best  work  of  the 
1 8th  century,  though  Helmer's  patriotic 
songs  against  the  French  were  very  popular. 
Schimmel  is  noted  for  his  dramas,  and 
Beets  for  his  Camera  Obscura  and  other 
tales.  Another  popular  novelist  is  Van 


LITERATURE  (SCANDINAVIAN) 


1087 


LITERATURE  (GERMAN) 


Lennep,  some  of  whose  stories  have  been 
translated  into  English.  "Multatuli"  (Dek- 
ker)  has  in  Max  Havelaar  written  a  book 
which  has  been  translated  into  most  Euro- 
pean languages,  and  is  a  work  of  genius. 

SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE 
This  has  been  written  in  Iceland,  Norway, 
Sweden  and  Denmark.  The  Eddas  are  two 
collections  of  old  Scandinavian  literature. 
The  younger  or  prose  Edda  was  written  by 
the  Icelander  Snorri  Sturluson  about  1230. 
It  is  in  three  parts:  the  first  a  series  of  stones 
told  by  the  god  Odin  to  Gylfi,  a  Swedish 
king;  the  second  and  third  are  on  the  art 
of  poetry  and  prosody.  The  elder  Edda 
consists  of  legends  in  verse  of  Scandinavian 
gods  and  heroes.  It  was  written  mainly 
in  Iceland  from  the  9th  to  the  nth  century. 
Of  great  importance  also  are  the  Icelandic 
sagas,  which  were  chronicles,  local  and 
family  histories  and  biographies,  as  the 
Christian  Saga,  the  story  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  Christianity  into  Iceland,  and  the 
Chronicle  of  the  Norwegian  Kings.  These 
sagas  were  numerous,  and  many  of  them 
were  masterpieces  of  literary  writing. 
This  is  all  the  more  remarkable  when  it  is 
remembered  that,  when  this  valuable  litera- 
ture flourished  in  this  out-of-the  way  corner 
of  the  world,  Europe  was  sunk  in  ignor- 
ance. 

Sagas  also  form  the  early  literature  of 
Norway.  There  are  no  distinctively  Norwe- 

¥lan  writings  of  ability  till  modern  times, 
he  creator  of  this  modern  literature  was 
Wergeland  (1808-45),  who  addressed  his 
poetry  to  the  peasants.  Jansen  wrote  good 
lyrics,  Garborg  wrote  strong  tales  and  novels, 
and  Bjornson  s  tales  from  [peasant-life  are 
of  great  merit.  Ibsen  in  his  poems  and  plays 
has  shown  power  and  genius,  a  desire  for 
truth  and  a  strongly  realistic  way  of  looking 
at  things.  The  same,  practically,  may  be 
said  of  the  novels  of  Jonas  Lie. 

The  early  Danish  popular  songs  were  col- 
lected by  yedel  in  1591.  In  the  i8th  cen- 
tury Ludvig  Holberg  wrote  stories,  poems 
and  plays,  and  founded  Copenhagen  Thea- 
ter. His  most  popular  plays  were  The 
Pewter  Statesman  and  The  Arabian  Powder. 
His  History  of  Denmark  is  a  standard  work. 
The  next  poet  of  first  rank  was  Johannes 
Evald,  who,  besides  his  plays  of  Holder's 
Death,  The  Harlequin  Patriot  etc.,  wrote 
the  national  song,  King  Christian  at  the 
High  Mast  Stands.  The  popular  lyric  poet 
was  Jens  Baggesen,  while  the  leading  poet 
of  the  i gth  century  is  Adam  Oehlenschlager, 
among  whose  plays  are  Baldur  the  Good 
and  Gods  of  the  North.  The  great  novel- 
ist of  Denmark  was  Hans  Christian  Ander- 
sen, who,  however,  is  best  known  by  his 
short  tales  and  fairy-stories,  which  have 
been  translated  into  most  modern  languages. 
The  contemporary  writer,  Georg  Brandes, 
born  in  1843.  has  won  fame  as  critic  and 


litterateur,  especially  as  a  student  and  ex- 
positor of  Shakespeare. 

The  earliest  Swedish  literature  was  the 
heroic  and  chiyalric  ballads.  In  the  i4th 
century  chronicles  and  some  lyrics  were 
written.  St j ernh  j elm  (1598-1672)  first  wrote 
sonnets,  and  his  best  masque  is  The  Captive 
Cupid.  The  great  botanist,  Linne",  powerfully 
influenced  literary  activity  by  his  own  work 
and  through  the  pupils  that  surrounded 
him,  many  of  whom  became  celebrated. 
In  theology  in  the  i8th  century  the  great 
name  was  Swedenborg.  Bellman  (1740-95) 
was  a  song-writer  of  power.  The  foremost 
Swedish  historian  is  Geijer  (1783-1847), 
while  TegneY  (1782-1846)  is  the  chief  poet 
of  the  country.  His  Frithiof's  Saga,  trans- 
lated by  Holcomb  and  by  Sherman,  is  an 
epic  worthy  of  Scott.  Other  leading  mod- 
ern poets  were  Franze*n,  Atterbom,  the  his- 
torian Geijer  and  Stagnelius.  One  of  the 
best  of  Swedish  tragedies  is  the  Eric  XIV 
of  Borjesson;  while  no  comedies  stand 
higher  than  those  of  three  women :  Fredrika 
Bremer,  E.  S.  Carle"n  and  Mme.  Schwartz. 
Perhaps  the  most  powerful  Swedish  novel 
is  The  Last  Athenian  by  Viktor  Rydberg. 

GERMAN  LITERATURE 
This  dates  back  to  the  rude  literatures  of 
the  races  whose  union  has  formed  the  Ger- 
man people.  Charlemagne  made  a  collec- 
tion of  German  popular  poetry,  and  during 
the  days  of  chivalry  many  nobles  and  men 
of  humbler  birth  belonged  to  the  minne- 
singer or  singers  of  love,  who  roamed  from 
castle  to  castle  and  court  to  court,  and 
sang  the  history  of  Troy  and  the  story  of 
King  Arthur  and  his  knights.  It  is  to  this 
period  that  the  greatest  treasures  of  German 
national  literature  belong,  the  Nibelungen 
Lied  and  Gudrun,  epic  poems  telling  of  the 
heroic  combats  of  the  gallant  Sigfned  and 
how  he  won  the  hand  of  Kriemhild,  the 
world's  wonder  of  grace  and  beauty,  the 
daughter  of  King  Gunther;  of  Brunhilde, 
the  unconquerable  warrior-queen;  of  the 
Nibelungen  treasure  sunk  in  the  Rhine;  of 
Etzel  (Attila)  the  Hun;  and  of  the  great 
battle  and  death  of  the  heroes  in  Hungary. 
In  the  1 5th  century  the  mysteries  and  pas- 
sion plays  were  at  their  height,  which  still 
linger  in  a  few  places  (notably  Oberam- 
mergau)  and  gave  origin  to  the  German 
drama.  During  the  Reformation  Luther's 
translations  of  the  Bible  fixed  the  literary 
language  of  the  Germans,  and  his  beautiful 
hymns  are  still  sung. 

The  brilliant  epoch  of  modern  German 
literature  begins  with  Lessing,  and  since 
his  time  every  branch  of  scholarship  and 
learning  has  been  enriched  by  German 
genius,  and  the  Germans  are  acknowledged 
the  foremost  scholars  of  the  day.  In  phi- 
losophy the  intellectual  brilliancy  and 
keenness  of  Kant,  Fichte,  Schelling  and 
Hegel  have  few  parellels  in  any  other  coun- 


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1088 


LITERATURE  (ENGLISH) 


try;  and  such  names  as  Schopenhauer,  Von 
Hartman  and  Lotze  may  well  be  mentioned. 
Paulus,  De  Wette,  Neander,  Baur,  Straus, 
Wellhausen  and  others  brought  new  life 
into  the  study  of  the  Bible,  and  in  history 
Ranke,  Niebuhr  and  Mommsen,  among 
others,  are  of  world-wide  reputation.  The 
travels  and  works  of  Humboldt  gave  im- 
petus to  the  taste  for  scientific  inquiry.  In 
poetry  and  prose  the  name  ol  Goethe  is  a 
host  in  itself,  and  closely  associated  with 
him  is  the  name  of  Schiller,  whose  early 
works  threw  the  whole  German  people  into 
a  frenzy  of  excitement  Schlegel  and  Tieck 
made  Shakespeare  taik  German.  Jean  Paul 
Richter,  the  satirist  and  humorist,  during 
the  closing  years  of  tns  i8th  and  the  early 
part  of  the  tqtb  century  exerted  a  mighty 
influence  over  the  middle  classes.  In  the 
middle  of  the  ipth  century  Heine  ranked 
with  Goethe  and  Schiller  Gustav  Freytag, 
one  of  the  oldest,  is  also  the  most  eminent, 
of  recent  novelists;  and  among  other  names 
in  fiction  may  be  mentioned  Ebers.  Fritz 
Reuter  is  one  of  the  greatest  of  German 
humorists.  See  Hosmer's  History  of  Ger- 
man Literature. 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE 
The  earliest  writings  of  Englishmen  cannot 
be  read  to-day  except  by  scholars.  Part  of 
these  are  in  Latin  and  part  in  Anglo-Saxou. 
The  first  great  poet  of  England  was  Geoffrey 
Chaucer,  born  probably  in  1340.  A  scholar 
as  well  as  a  man  of  the  world,  he  early  in  life 
studied  the  French  romances  of  love  and 
chivalry,  his  first  great  work  being  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Romance  of  the  Rose  into  English 
verse.  In  the  same  strain  were  his  Court  of 
Love  and  other  early  poems.  But  there  was 
another  literature  which  he  studied  in  later 
years,  which  greatly  influenced  him  and 
his  successors  for  a  century  and  a  half;  this 
was  the  Italian.  Dante  had  lived  in  the 
generation  before  Chaucer;  Petrarch  and 
Boccaccio  were  men  of  his  own  time.  Chau- 
cer's Troilus  and  Cressida,  his  Assembly  of 
Fowls  and  some  of  his  Canterbury  Tales  are 
founded  on  Boccaccio.  The  greatest  and 
most  famous  of  Chaucer's  works,  is  the  Can- 
terbury Tales.  The  plan  of  the  poem  is  the 
journey  of  30  pilgrims  from  London  to 
Canterbury,  to  visit  the  shrine  of  St. 
Thomas  a  Becket,  the  journey  being  en- 
livened by  the  telling  of  a  series  of  stories 
by  the  travelers  in  turn.  First,  a  prologue 
describes  each  of  the  company,  then  come 
the  stories,  most  of  them  told  in  verse  of 
most  exquisite  music.  Chaucer  is  a  poet 
of  real  life,  not  of  manners  and  the  outside 
of  society.  In  the  same  age  appeared  the 
first  prose  works  in  what  would  be  recog- 
nized by  most  people  of  to-day  as  readable 
English.  The  most  important  are  the  writ- 
ings of  John  Wiclif,  who  in  1382  furnished 
the  people  the  first  English  Bible.  His 
tracts  on  the  abuses  of  the  church,  writ- 


ten in  plain  and  powerful  English,  had 
great  influence  throughout  the  country  and 
in  Bohemia. 

The  1 5th  century  was  barren  of  important 
works.  Before  the  middle  of  the  century 
printing  was  invented,  not  by  accident,  but 
because  of  the  hitherto  unheard-of  demand 
for  books.  The  reawakening  of  classical 
learning  in  Europe  was  another  great  event 
of  this  century.  During  the  middle  ages 
the  literature  of  Greece  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  most  brilliant  Roman  literature 
had  been  lost  to  western  Europe.  In  Con- 
stantinople Greek  scholarship  and  much  of 
Greek  literature  lingered.  A  desire  to  learn 
the  Greek  language,  a  thirst,  to  read  Homei 
and  Plato,  had  been  awakened  in  the  pre- 
ceding age,  and  when  in  1453  Greek  scholars 
were  driven  from  Constantinople  by  tha 
Turks  and  forced  to  gain  a  livelihood  by 
teaching,  they  found  the  west  eager  to  learn 
and  read.  Printers  began  to  publish  these 
classics,  and  young  scholars  from  England 
rushed  to  Italy  to  study  under  the  new 
teachers.  To  this  new  knowledge  of  the 
greatness  of  the  past  was  added  the  discovery 
of  America.  The  world  grew  larger  ana 
richer  to  men;  they  began  to  see  and  wonder 
and  think.  Thus  began  the  modern  era. 

The  Reformation  came  after  Erasmus's 
Greek  Testament,  while  our  present  English 
Bible  we  owe  to  Tindale  more  than  to  any 
other  man.  The  spirit  of  what  was  called 
the  new  learning,  as  well  as  that  of  social, 
political  and  religious  reformation,  found 
expression  in  the  Utopia  of  Sir  Thomas 
More,  written  in  Latin  and  describing  an 
ideal  state  on  the  island  of  Nowhere.  The 
two  poets  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII  who 
are  best  known  to  our  times  are  the  two 
friends,  Wyatt  and  Surrey.  They,  like 
Chaucer,  had  studied  the  poets  of  Italy. 
Both  were  of  noble  birth  and  the  highest 
courtly  accomplishments,  and  both  wrote 
sonnets,  metrical  versions  of  the  Psalms 
and  love-poems  of  great  fervor. 

The  great  Elizabethan  literature  reached 
far  into  the  reign  of  James  I.  England  be- 
came a  land  of  poets;  Sidney,  Raleigh,  Hall, 
Donne,  Peele,  Marlowe,  Daniel,  Drayton, 
Greene  and  a  host  of  others  filled  the  island 
with  the  voice  of  song;  and  Spenser  and 
Shakespeare  alone  would  have  made  their 
age  famous.  At  the  beginning  of  the  period 
Thomas  Sackville  planned  a  series  of 

Eoems  on  great  men  of  English  history  who 
ad  been  cut  down  by  trouble,  called  A 
Mirror  for  Magistrates.  The  part  of  it  that 
was  finished  is  poetry  of  power.  But  the 
greatest  non-dramatic  poet  of  that  age  was 
Edmund  Spenser,  whose  pastoral  poem, 
The  Shepherd's  Calendar,  first  gave  him 
reputation  and  favor  at  Queen  Elizabeth's 
court.  His  masterpiece  is  The  Faerie 
Queene,  a  poem  of  chivalry,  full  of  encounters 
of  knights,  combats  with  giants  and  dragons, 
with  many  a  rescue  of  the  weak  by  the 


SIR  PHILLIP  SIDNEY 


JOHN  DRVDEN  FRANCIS  BACON 

GREAT  ENGLISH  WRITERS  PREVIOUS  TO  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

For  portraits  of  Shakespeare  and  Milton,  see  text 
Copyright,  1904,  by  C.  B.  Beach 


JOSEPH   ADDISON 


JONATHAN  SW'IFT 


ALEXANDER   POPE 


ROBERT  BURNS 


SAMUEL  JOHNSON 


OLIVER  GOLDSMITH 


ENGLISH  WRITERS  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 
Copyright,  1904,  by  C.  B.  Beach 


LITERATURE  (ENGLISH) 


1089 


LITERATURE  (ENGLISH) 


valiant.  As  a  mere  story  it  is  a  poem  of 
great  power,  but  under  the  guise  of  chival- 
rous adventures  the  poet  wrought  out  a 
supreme  allegory  of  life. 

It  was  in  this  age  that  the  drama  rose  to  a 
height  never  reached  before  or  since. 
Dramatic  representations  began  in  England 
as  early  as  the  I2th  century  in  the  form  of 
miracle  plays,  the  subjects  being  Bible 
stories  and  legends  from  the  lives  of  the 
saints.  Later,  allegorical  plays  called  mor- 
alities were  in  vogue.  But  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  i6th  century  was  born  the 
modern  English  drama,  the  drama  of  real 
life.  How  sudden  was  this  outburst  of 
dramatic  genius  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  in 
less  than  50  years  after  the  first  rude  tragedy, 
Hamlet  and  Lear  were  created.  Greene, 
Peele,  Lyly,  Marlowe  and  their  companions, 
brilliant  and  eager  young  men,  attached 
themselves  to  the  stage  and  made  it  and 
themselves  suddenly  famous.  Marlowe  is 
a  type  of  the  class,  raising  himself  to  fame 
by  a  tragedy  produced  just  after  leaving 
the  university  and  writing  several  plays  of 
great  power.  His  Doctor  Faustus,  founded 
on  the  same  story  as  Goethe's  Faust,  is  a 
tragedy  of  terrible  power,  and  has  passages 
worthy  of  Shakespeare. 

But  in  the  last  20  years  of  Elizabeth's 
reign,  when  Marlowe  and  his  friends  were 
in  theii  glory,  the  greatest  of  poets  arose 
and  eclipsed  them  all.  The  plays  of  Shakes- 
pear*  fill  the  period  from  1585  to  1616, 
when  the  poet  died.  It  is  impossible  here 
to  give  any  worthy  account  of  these  great 
works.  The  plays,  early  classified  as  come- 
dies, tragedies  and  histories,  embody  all  the 
feelings  and  passions  of  the  human  soul; 
they  possess  such  wealth  of  imagination, 
largeness  and  many-sidedness  of  thought 
and  power  to  touch  every  chord  of  feeling 
and  teach  every  kind  of  wisdom  as  set  them 
apart  from  all  other  works  of  human  genius. 

Next  after  Shakespeare,  in  order  of  time 
and  merit,  comes  his  friend  Ben  Jonson,  who 
wrote  in  the  reigns  of  James  I  and  Charles  I. 
Most  of  his  plays  were  comedies  and  masques. 
The  masques  were  entertainments,  not  for 
the  theater,  but  for  the  court,  with  little  dia 
logue  but  with  much  costly  scenery  and  cos- 
tumes and  with  mythical  characters,  as 
nymphs  and  river-gods.  As  a  song-writer 
Jonson  had  few  equals.  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher  lived  at  the  same  time  as  Jonson, 
and  wrote  joint  plays  which  by  some  critics 
are  ranked  next  to  those  of  Shakespeare. 

Roger  Ascham,  at  the  beginning  of  this 
period,  wrote  clear  and  vigorous  prose  in  his 
Toxophilus  and  his  Schoolmaster.  John 
Lyly  in  his  Euphues  indulged  in  a  fantastic 
style  which  was  named  euphuism  from  the 
title  of  his  book.  Sir  Philip  Sidney's  famous 
Arcadia  is  a  romance  with  all  the  impos- 
sibilities and  enchantment  of  a  story  of 
mediaeval  times.  His  Defense  of  Poetry  is 
one  of  the  earliest  attempts  at  literary  criti- 


cism in  English.  Richard  Hooker's  Ecclesi- 
astical Pohty,  the  first  book  of  which  has 
been  compared  to  the  peal  of  a  cathedral 
organ,  is  a  work  of  genius.  It  is  a  defense 
of  the  Church  of  England  as  established  under 
Elizabeth.  In  1597  Francis  Bacon  published 
10  short  essays:  in  the  latest  edition  there 
were  58.  Nothing  equal  to  them  in  any  way 
has  ever  been  written  since.  His  Advance- 
ment of  Learning  is  a  view  of  knowledge  as  it 
then  was.  His  great  work  in  Latin,  Novum 
Organum,  is  a  treatise  on  the  inductive  phi- 
losophy. This,  the  true  method  of  studying 
nature,  was  not  created  by  Bacon,  but  he 
held  it  up  before  the  world  in  such  a  light  as 
to  make  its  claims  seen  and  felt  and  to  earn 
for  himself  the  title  of  Father  of  Modern  Sci- 
ence. 

John  Milton,  born  in  1608,  ranking  next  to 
Shakespeare  among  English  poets,  wrote  in 
three  distinct  periods.  That  of  his  early 
poems  began  in  his  boyhood,  the  noble  Hymn 
on  the  Nativity  being  written  before  he  left 
the  university.  His  two  companion  pieces, 
L' 'Allegro  and  II  Penseroso,  show,  the  one, 
cheerful  sympathy  with  the  bright  side  of 
nature  and  life,  and  the  other,  sober  thought 
on  the  earnestness  and  mystery  which  belong 
to  them.  The  elegy  Lycidas  and  the  masque 
Comus  are  others  of  his  early  poems.  Mil- 
ton's second  period  as  a  writer  was  spent  in 
defending  Parliament  against  Charles  I. 
For  20  years  he  poured  forth  tracts  and 
treatises,  the  most  eloquent  of  which  is  his 
Areopagitica,  a  plea  for  the  freedom  of  the 
press.  His  last  period  as  a  writer  gave  to 
the  world  the  tragedy  of  Samson  Agonistes 
and  the  epics  of  Paradise  Lost  and  Paradise 
Regained.  Paradise  Lost  is  his  masterpiece 
and  the  greatest  English  epic. 

Among  the  theological  writers  of  Milton's 
time  was  Jeremy  Taylor,  whose  sermons  are 
famous  in  literature.  Holy  Living  and  Holy 
Dying  and  Liberty  of  Prophesying  are  his 
best-known  books.  George  Herbert's  re- 
ligious poetry  is  good,  as  are  also  the  love- 
poems  of  Lovelace,  Herrick,  Cowley  and 
Waller.  To  the  era  of  the  Restoration  be- 
longs the  immortal  prose  allegory  of  the  Bed- 
ford tinker  and  nonconformist  preacher,  The 
Pilgrim's  Progress  of  John  Bunyan. 

The  greatest  writer  of  the  Restoration  was 
John  Dry  den,  whose  many  plays  were  highly 
popular.  His  Absalom  and  Achitophel  has 
Seen  called  the  most  powerful  satire  in  Eng- 
lish verse.  Another  satire  was  Mac  Fleck- 
noe,  while  Religio  Laid  and  Hind  and  Panther 
are  religious  discussions  in  verse. 

In  this  period,  from  Charles  II  to  Anne, 
modern  science  arose  on  the  foundation  laid 
by  Bacon ;  Newton's  Principia  was  an  epoch- 
making  book.  At  this  time,  also,  John 
Locke  and  Thomas  Hobbes  wrote  on  politics 
and  metaphysics.  Their  chief  books  are 
Hobbes'  Leviathan  and  Locke's  famous  Essay 
on  the  Human  Understanding. 

The  literature  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne 


LITERATURE  (ENGLISH) 


IOQO 


LITERATURE  (ENGLISH) 


was  second  only  to  that  of  the  Elizabethan 
age.  The  famous  essays  of  Richard  Steele 
and  Joseph  Addison  appeared  in  The  Toiler, 
The  Spectator  and  The  Guardian,  periodicals 
mostly  made  up  of  these  and  other  essays. 
The  most  forcible  prose-writer  of  the  age  was 
Jonathan  Swift,  whose  Tale  of  a  Tub  is  a  sat- 
ire against  all  churchmen  outside  the  Angli- 
can state-church;  while  Gulliver's  Travels  is 
an  ingenious  and  humorous  satire  against 
mankind. 

Alexander  Pope  was  the  chief  poet  of  the 
day.  His  Essay  on  Criticism  was  written  at 
21.  His  Rape  of  the  Lock  and  his  Dunciad 
are  keen  and  bitter  satires.  The  Essay  on 
Man  is  full  of  brilliant  sayings,  often  quoted. 
Thomson's  Seasons  showed  a  heart  in  love 
with  nature.  Gray's  Elegy  and  Ode  on  Eton 
College  are  perfect  specimens  of  finished 
verse,  as  are  also  the  Odes  of  William  Collins. 

Defoe's  Robinson  Crusoe  is  the  one  of  his 
many  works  that  has  given  him  lasting  fame. 
Samuel  Richardson's  Pamela  was  the  first 
modern  novel.  A  much  greater  writer, 
Henry  Fielding,  followed  him,  whose  Tom 
Jones  is  one  of  the  best  of  English  novels. 
Then  came  Sterne  with  his  wonderful  humor, 
exemplified  in  his  Tristram  Shandy. 

In  history  Hume  and  Robertson  gave  a 
new  character  and  aim  to  the  treatment  of 
the  past ;  and  Hume's  History  of  England  and 
Robertson's  History  of  Scotland  and  History 
of  Charles  V  were  the  first  of  what  might  be 
called  modern  histories.  Gibbon's  Decline 
and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  took  even 
higher  rank.  In  philosophy  and  kindred 
subjects  the  great  names  were  Berkeley, 
Hume,  Adam  Smith  (Wealth  of  Nations')  and 
Joseph  Butler  (Analogy). 

Johnson  and  Goldsmith  are  brilliant  ex- 
amples of  the  miscellaneous  writers  of  their 
day.  Johnson's  Lives  of  the  Poets  is  that  one 
of  his  works  which  is  most  read  at  present. 
Some  of  these  essays  are  classics.  Gold- 
smith's Traveller  and  Deserted  Village  are 
charming  poems ;  She  Stoops  to  Conquer  is  one 
of  the  most  successful  of  English  plays;  and 
The  Vicar  of  Wakefield  long  was  a  favorite 
novel  wherever  English  is  read. 

Cowper's  poetry  had  great  influence  on 
later  poets.  His  chief  poem  is  The  Task; 
John  Gilpin  shows  his  humor;  Lines  on  the 
Receipt  of  My  Mother's  Picture  his  tenderness. 
The  poems  of  Burns  have  a  depth  and  inten- 
sity of  passion  and  sweetness  of  rhythm  that 
.have  made  them  widely  popular.  Among 
them  are  Highland  Mary,  Tarn  O'Shanter  and 
The  Cottar's  Saturday  Night. 

The  fullness  of  the  literature  of  the  igth 
century  makes  it  impossible  to  go  into  details. 
A  new  poetry  of  imagination  and  feeling  had 
begun  to  spring  up  before  the  century 
opened.  Coleridge  devoted  but  a  small  part 
of  his  life  to  poetry,  but  his  Christabel,  The 
Ancient  Manner  and  Love  are  gems  of  Eng- 
lish verse.  Wordsworth's  Excursion  is  but 
a  fragment  of  a  vast  plan.  Walter  Scott 


was  the  poet  of  the  Scotch  chivalric  legends, 
which  he  embodied  in  the  Lay  of  the  Last 
Minstrel,  Marmion  and  The  Lady  of  the  Lake. 
But  Scott  left  poetry  for  fiction  whenlByron 
suddenly  became  the  first  poet  of  the  day. 
Byron,  Shelley  and  Keats  were  poets  of  imag- 
ination and  passion.  Campbell  and  Southey 
would  have  had  much  greater  reputations  as 
poets  had  it  not  been  for  the  brilliant  galaxy 
that  shone  around  them.  Robert  Browning 
and  Mrs.  Browning  have  a  firm  place  among 
English  poets,  while  Tennyson  (1809-92) 
was  the  greatest  poet  of  the  past  century  and 
its  chief  representative  of  that  grand  English 
song  which  has  done  much  to  elevate  the 
national  character  and  refine  the  human 
heart. 

In  1802  a  few  brilliant  young  men  started 
the  Edinburgh  Review.  Other  reviews  and 
magazines  followed,  and  for  them  much  of 
the  most  brilliant  writing  of  the  first  half  of 
the  century  was  done  by  such  men  as 
Brougham,  Mackintosh,  Lockhart,  Wilson 
("Christopher  North"),  Macaulay,  Carlyle, 
Lamb  and  De  Quincey. 

Beginning  with  Scott's  30  odd  novels, 
which  have  entranced  the  world  by  their 
wonderful  stories  so  vividly  told,  and  coming 
through  those  of  Thackeray,  Dickens,  George 
Eliot,  Charlotte  Bront6,  Charles  Reade,  An- 
thony Trollope,  Wilkie  Collins,  Dinah  M. 
Muloch,  Bulwer-Lytton,  Charles  Kingsley, 
George  Macdonald,  R.  D.  Blackmore  and 
George  Meredith  to  those  of  Wm.  Black, 
Thomas  Hardy,  J.  M.  Barrie,  Walter  Besant, 
Rudyard  Kipling,  Hall  Caine,  S.  R.  Crockett, 
Conan  Doyle  and  Mrs.  Humphry  Ward,  the 
novel  has  become  the  largest  department  of 
English  literature. 

In  the  number  of  these  writers  of  fiction, 
naturally  the  range  covered  by  the  novel  in 
our  time  is  an  enormous  and  varied  one. 
There  hardly  is  a  domain  which  is  deemed 
foreign  to  it,  even  outside  its  natural  field  of 
adventure,  with  its  pictures  of  social  life  and 
its  studies  in  and  portrayal  of  character. 
Happily  its  legitimate  function  of  entertain- 
ment in  a  wearying  and  engrossing  age  has 
not  been  lost,  in  spite  of  the  ultrarealistic 
tendencies  of  the  novel  and  its  degenerating 
trend  in  the  hands  of  ambitious  but  unpleas- 
ant and  sometimes  unwholesome  writers. 
In  this  prolific  department  of  literature  it  is 
gratifying  to  find  the  public  taste,  in  the 
main,  quickly  nauseated  with  the  pernicious 
in  fiction  and  reverting,  with  unfeigned  pleas- 
ure, to  the  historical  romance  in  the  succes- 
sors of  the  gallant  school  of  Scott. 

The  student  of  history  has  in  the  past  half- 
century  had  much  to  entertain  as  well  as  in- 
struct him  in  many  solid  and  enduring  con- 
tributions. The  writers  are  many  who  have 
brought  not  only  high  scholarship,  industry 
and  great  powers  of  research,  but  the  rare 
gifts  of  animated  and  picturesque  style.  The 
master  historians  include — besides  Macaulay, 
Carlyle,  Grote,  Milman,  Hallam,  Merivale, 


WM.  M.  THACKERAY 


THOMAS  DE  QUINCEY 


CHARLES  DICKENS 


GEORGE  ELIOT 
(Mary  Ann  Evans) 


JOHN  RUSKIN 


THOMAS  CARLYLB 


ENGLISH  NOVELISTS  AND  PROSE  WRITERS  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 
Copyright.  1904.  bv  C    R    Reach 


LITERATURE  (ENGLISH) 


1091 


LITERATURE  (ENGLISH) 


Buckle,  Lecky,  Stubbs,  Freeman,  Rawlin- 
son,  Green,  Seeley,  Creasy  and  Stephen  — 
men  of  almost  equal  eminence,  as  S.  R.  Gar- 
diner, James  Bryce,  Goldwin  Smith,  Her- 
bert Paul  and  Justin  McCarthy.  Much  of 
the  work  of  these  writers  has  enriched  thought 
as  well  as  informed  the  mind.  Nor  ought 
we  to  neglect  to  speak  of  the  men  who  have 
done  much  excellent  work  in  departments 
akin  to  that  of  the  historian.  We  refer  to 
the  writers,  among  whom  are  jurists,  uni- 
versity lecturers,  professors  and  other  emi- 
nent men  of  letters,  who  by  their  research 
have  thrown  light  on  English  political  insti- 
tutions and  the  recent  trend  of  the  nation 
in  legislation  as  well  as  in  national  expansion. 
A  few  of  these  may  be  cited,  as  E.  S.  Creasy, 
who  wrote  authoritatively  on  The  Rise  and 
Progress  of  the  English  Constitution;  T.  Ers- 
kine  May  on  Parliamentary  Law  and  Usage 
as  well  as  on  the  Constitutional  History  of 
England  since  George  III  and  on  Democracy 
in  Europe;  Henry  Maine  on  Popular  Govern- 
ment and  International  Law;  Frederick  Pol- 
lock on  The  Science  of  Politics  and  the  His- 
tory of  English  Law;  and  R.  F.  D.  Palgrave 
on  The  House  of  Commons,  with  illustrations 
of  its  history  and  practice.  Further  and 
helpful  light  on  the  politics  and  political 
problems  of  the  time  is  afforded  by  the  mem- 
oirs of  prominent  statesmen  and  the  many 
instructive  biographies  which  recent  years 
have  produced.  Among  the  more  im- 
portant of  these  may  be  mentioned  the  many 
biographies  of  Mr.  Gladstone,  notably  those 
by  John  Morley  and  by  G.  Barnett  Smith, 
who  also  wrote  a  Life  of  John  Bright,  sketches 
of  The  Prime  Ministers  of  Queen  Victoria  and 
a  History  of  the  English  Parliament.  Baron 
Rowton's  monograph  on  Lord  Beaconsfield 
(Benjamin  Disraeli)  should  also  be  known  to 
the  modern  student  of  English  politics,  as 
well  as  the  monographs  in  the  English 
Statesmen  Series;  H.  D.  Traill's  Marqms  of 
Salisbury  in  the  Queen's  Prime  Ministers 
Series ;  John  Morley 's  Life  of  Richard  Cobden; 
Leslie  Stephen's  Life  of  Henry  Fawcett;  An- 
drew Lang's  Life  and  Letters  of  Sir  Stafford 
Northcote  (Earl  of  Iddesleigh) ;  Winston 
Spencer  Churchill's  Life  of  Lord  Randolph 
Churchill;  Herbert  Paul's  illuminative  Mod- 
ern England;  and  Lord  Rosebery's  Lives  of 
William  Pitt  and  Sir  Robert  Peel  and  his  Ques- 
tions of  Empire.  In  the  record  of  notable 
books  in  politics  and  the  political  life  of  the 
motherland  it  is  proper  to  note  the  import- 
ant treatise  on  The  American  Commonwealth 
by  James  Bryce,  dealing  with  the  American 
constitution  and  its  development,  a  work 
which  has  been  written  not  only  with  a  schol- 
ar's dispassionateness  but  with  remarkable 
intelligence  and  sympathy.  Here  also  we 
must  chronicle  J.  R.  Seeley's  Expansion  of 
England;  Lord  Cromer's  Modern  Egypt; 
Sir  Alfred  Lyall's  The  Rise  of  the  British  Do- 
minion in  India;  and  the  instructive  series 
of  political  biographies  connected  with  Eng- 


land's dominion  in  India,  edited  by  Sir  W. 
W.  Hunter,  under  the  title  of  Rulers  of  India. 
The  series  embraces  the  lives  of  the  great 
English  consuls  and  governors-general  in  In- 
dia, from  the  era  of  Clive,  Cornwallis  and 
Hastings  to  that  of  Dalhousie,  Canning,  Law- 
rence and  Mayo. 

Wide  and  entertaining  is  the  field  of  gen- 
eral biography,  in  the  department  that  deals 
with  the  lives  and  work  of  contemporary 
men  outside  the  ranks  of  statesmen  and  poli- 
ticians. Our  limited  space  will  permit  the 
mention  of  but  a  few  productions  of  note 
that  are  likely  to  endure.  Perhaps  the  more 
useful  to  the  student  consulting  these  pages 
are  those  that  deal  with  litterateurs  and  in- 
clude the  monographs  of  recent  years  on  the 
great  writers  of  the  English  motherland. 
Of  these,  John  Morley's  series  of  English  Men 
of  Letters  has  the  merit,  not  only  of  com- 
pactness of  form  as  well  as  of  modest  cost, 
but  the  special  advantage  of  being  written 
by  literary  specialists  of  eminence,  of  keen 
critical  powers,  trained  judgment  and,  as  a 
rule,  fine  qualities  in  writing  English  prose. 
Besides  these  may  be  mentioned  such  works 
as  Trevelyan's  Life  of  Macaulay,  Froude's 
Life  of  Carlyle,  Dowden's  Life  of  Shelley, 
Forster's  Life  of  Dickens,  Stanley's  Life  of 
Thomas  Arnold,  Saintsbury's  Matthew  Ar- 
nold, Colonel  Maurice's  Life  of  Frederick  Den~ 
ison  Maurice,  Collingwood's  John  Ruskin, 
Harrison's  Tennyson,  Mill  and  Ruskin,  Stop- 
ford  Brooke's  Tennyson  and  His  Art,  Pro- 
thero's  Life  of  Dean  Stanley  and  Leonard 
Huxley's  Life  and  Letters  of  Prof.  T.  H.  Hux- 
ley. A  colossal  undertaking  also  deserves  to 
be  noted  —  the  60  volumes  of  the  Dictionary 
of  National  Biography,  which  has  recently 
been  completed  under  the  editorship  first  of 
Leslie  Stephen  and  finally  of  Sidney  Lee. 

The  transition  is  natural  to  the  essay  and 
the  numberless  writers  in  modern  belles- 
lettres.  The  age  is  rich  in  workers  here,  espe- 
cially in  poetry,  art  and  criticism.  One  of 
the  sanest  and  most  thoughtful  of  these  crit- 
ics was  Richard  Holt  Hutton,  the  late  editor 
of  the  London  Spectator,  who  wrote  largely 
and  with  earnestness  on  modern  philosoph- 
ical, literary  and  religious  topics.  To  single 
out  but  one  of  his  works  we  may  mention 
Criticisms  on  Contemporary  Thought  and 
Thinkers.  Another  of  these  writers  of  emi- 
nence is  George  Saintsbury,  professor  of 
English  literature  at  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. Besides  his  History  of  Nineteenth 
Century  Literature  (1790-1895),  he  has  com- 
piled an  excellent  collection  of  Specimens 
of  English  Prose  Style,  and  written  Essays  on 
EnglishLiteratureandaShortHistoryof  French 
Literature.  Leslie  Stephen  was  another 
able  and  competent  critic,  whose  Hours  in  a 
Library,  Studies  of  a  Biographer  and  History 
of  English  Thought  in  the  Eighteenth  Century 
repay  perusal.  Frederic  Harrison  is  yet 
another  well-equipped  writer,  of  the  positiv- 
ist  school,  whose  Victorian  Literature,  study 


LITERATURE  (ENGLISH) 


1092 


LITERATURE  (AMERICAN) 


of  Oliver  Cromwell,  The  New  Calendar  of 
Great  Men,  The  Meaning  of  History  and  in- 
spiring Choice  of  Books  are  worthy  of  atten- 
tion and  study.  Nor  should  Walter  H.  Pa- 
ter's writings  be  overlooked,  especially  Ap- 
preciations, Imaginary  Portraits  and  Studies 
tn  the  History  of  the  Renaissance.  Important 
also  are  the  Essays  and  Addresses  by  A.  I. 
Balfour;  as  are  also  the  writings  of  Benjamin 
Kidd  on  Social  Evolution,  Principles  of  West- 
ern Civilization  and  Control  of  the  Tropics. 
The  late  Mrs.  Oliphant  was  an  industrious 
and  interesting  writer  in  general  literature. 
Mark  Pattison,  Austin  Dobson,  A.  C.  Swin- 
burne, Le  Gallierine,  Aubrey  de  Vere,  Ed- 
mund Gosse,  Augustine  Birrell  and  versatile 
Andrew  Lang  are  additional  names  among 
the  instructive  and  delightful  essayists. 
Even  a  brief  reference  must  be  made  to  writ- 
ers in  religious  philosophy  among  English 
churchmen  and  others,  who  have  done  ex- 
cellent as  well  as  thoughtful  work,  and  in 
apologetics,  and  have  chronicled  the  trend 
of  the  great  religious  movements  of  the  pe- 
riod. Especially  have  they  done  good  work 
in  their  defense  of  theistic  beliefs  after  the  as- 
saults of  Darwinism  and  evolution.  A 
few  of  these  writers  we  mention  with  their 
chief  works:  James  Martineau's  Religion  as 
Affected  by  Modern  Materialism  and  The  Seat 
of  Authority  in  Religion;  R.  Flint's  Philoso- 
phy of  History  in  Europe  and  Theism  and 
anti-Theistic  Theories;  John  Caird's  Evolution 
of  Religion;  A.M..Fa.irbairn'sStudiesinthe  Phi- 
losophy of  Religion  and  History  and  Religion 
in  History  and  Modern  Life;  Trench  on  Mira- 
cles and  Whately  on  Christian  Evidences. 
Here  also  may  be  chronicled  Wilfrid  Ward's 
The  Oxford  Movement  and  the  Catholic  Re- 
vival and  Charles  Gore's  Lux  Alundi,  an 
attempt  to  harmonize  High  Churchism  with 
advanced  thought  in  modern  science  and 
biblical  criticism.  Other  writers  deserve 
brief  mention,  among  them  Dean  Stanley 
who  wrote  the  Jewish  Church  and  Church  and 
State;  Robertson  Smith  on  the  Old  Testament 
in  the  Jewish  Church  and  The  Prophets  of  Is- 
rael; Mandell  Creighton  on  the  History  of  the 
Papacy  during  the  Reformation,  The  Tudor s 
ana  the  Reformation  and  The  Age  of  Eliza- 
beth. Dean  Mansel's  Bampton  Lectures, 
Dean  Farrar's  Early  Days  of  Christianity, 
Life  of  Christ,  Life  and  Work  of  St  Paul  and 
Witness  of  History  to  Christ  and  Dr.  William 
Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Dictionary  of 
Christian  Biography  and  Dictionary  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Antiquities  are  additional  works 
that  merit  notice. 

The  past  half-century  also  was  the  era  of 
the  investigation  of  facts.  Darwin,  Lyell, 
Faraday,  Tyndall  and  Huxley  made  science 
clear  and  charming.  The  great  names  in 
philosophy  were  Stewart,  Brown,  Mansel, 
Hamilton  and  Stuart  Mill.  In  philosophy 
the  chief  figure  was  Herbert  Spencer,  an 
author  of  ability,  who  wrote  largely  on 
evolutionary  sociology,  but  more  from  the 


mechanical  than  from  the  moral  side.  Since 
Tennyson  and  Browning  the  poets  have 
been  mainly  minor  ones,  including  Edwin 
Arnold,  Wm.  Morris,  the  Rossettis,  Kipling, 
Alfred  Austin  and  Wm.  Watson.  See  Henry 
Morley's  Short  Sketch  of  English  Literature, 
John  Morley's  English  Men  of  Letters  Series, 
Stedman's  Victorian  Poets,  Taine's  English 
Literature  and  Mrs.  Oliphant's  Victorian 
Age  of  English  Literature.  G.  M.  A. 

AMERICAN  LITERATURE 
Colonial  literature  (1607-1765)  mainly  is 
sources  of  history,  not  literature  proper.  In 
Virginia,  though  the  first  press  was  set  up  in 
1 68 1 ,  it  was  soon  suppressed,  and  nothing  was 
printed  before  1729.  William  and  Mary  Col- 
lege received  its  charter  in  1693.  Among  the 
early  Virginian  books  the  most  noteworthy 
were  the  True  Relation  (1608)  and  the  General 
History  of  Virginia  (1624)  of  famous  Capt. 
John  Smith.  Others  had  a  hand  in  the  latter 
book,  though  passing  under  his  name.  The 
one  early  Virginian  romance,  the  charming 
story  of  Pocohantas,  is  told  by  Smith.  Other 
books  of  importance  were  the  Westover  Man- 
uscripts of  Col.  William  Byrd  and  the  Vir- 
ginian histories  of  Robert  Berkeley  and 
William  Stith.  A  printing  press  was  set  up 
at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  1639.  In  1636,  only 
1 6  years  after  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims, 
Harvard  College  was  founded  and  Yale  in 
1701.  The  first  book  printed  in  America 
north  of  Mexico  was  a  collection  of  the  Psalms 
in  metre,  The  Bay  Psalm-Book  (1639-40). 
One  of  its  chief  editors  was  John  Eliot,  the 
Apostle  to  the  Indians,  who  translated  the 
Bible  into  the  Algonquin  language.  The 
most  important  accounts  of  the  settlement 
of  New  England  are  the  journals  of  Governors 
Winthrop  and  Bradford.  In  the  dry  entries 
of  Winthrop's  History  of  New  England  are 
scattered  the  germs  of  much  of  the  poetry 
and  romance  of  Longfellow,  Whittier  and 
Hawthorne.  But  the  book  which  best  de- 
tails the  life  and  thought  of  old  New  England 
life  is  Cotton  Mather's  Magnolia  Christi 
Americana,  a  mass  of  materials  for  the  his- 
tory of  the  colonial  church.  Mather  wrote 
in  the  full  style  of  Milton,  overweighted  with 
learning,  puns,  stories  and  italics.  He  took 
a  leading  part  in  the  witchcraft  trials,  of 
which  he  gave  an  account  in  his  Wonders  of 
the  Invisible  World.  The  religion  of  New 
England  was  Calvinism,  and  its  great  ex- 
pounder was  Jonathan  Edwards,  a  Massa- 
chusetts minister,  president  of  Princeton  Col- 
lege and  one  of  the  greatest  thinkers  America 
has  produced.  His  masterpiece,  An  Inquiry 
into  the  Freedom  of  the  Will  (1754),  attempts 
to  reason  Calvinistic  doctrines  out  philosoph- 
ically. His  sermons,  as  was  then  common, 
were  addressed  to  man's  fear  of  God  rather 
than  to  God's  love  for  man,  and  his  most  fa- 
mous sermon  was  Sinners  in  the  Hands  of  an 
Angry  God.  This,  however,  showed  but  one 
side  of  his  character;  the  kindlier  is  seen  in 


LITERATURE  (AMERICAN) 


1093 


LITERATURE  (AMERICAN) 


his  Treatise  Concerning  the  Religious  Affec- 
tions. Benjamin  Franklin,  of  whom  Turgot 
the  French  statesman  said:  "He  snatched 
the  thunderbolt  from  heaven  and  the  scep- 
ter from  tyrants,"  was  the  most  useful  of 
men.  His  bent  was  to  the  practical  in  his 
writings.  Poor  Richard's  Almanac,  begun 
in  1732  and  maintained  for  25  years,  was 
filled  with  proverbs  in  prose  and  verse,  teach- 
ing the  value  of  work,  honesty  and  economy : 
as  "Three  removes  are  as  bad  as  a  fire"  and 
"Early  to  bed  and  early  to  rise  make  a  man 
healthy,  wealthy  and  wise."  Next  to  the 
Almanac  his  most  popular  work  was  his 
Autobiography;  but  some  of  his  lighter  pieces, 
with  their  homely  wisdom,  are  equally  good, 
as  the  famous  story  of  the  Whistle,  Dialogue 
between  Franklin  and  the  Goat  and  verses  on 
Paper. 

Literature  from  the  Revolution  to  1815 
was  mostly  political.  The  fame  of  the 
speeches  of  Samuel  Adams,  James  Otis  and 
Josiah  Quincy  in  Massachusetts  and  of  Pat- 
rick Henry  and  Richard  Henry  Lee  in  Vir- 
ginia comes  to  us  mostly  by  tradition,  though 
Patrick  Henry's  speeches  are  preserved  at 
least  in  substance.  The  most  famous  is  his 
speech  in  the  convention  of  delegates  ending 
with  the  well-known  sentence :  "I  know  not 
what  course  others  may  take,  but  as  for  me, 
give  me  liberty  or  give  me  death!"  The  po- 
litical essays  of  such  patriots  as  Adams,  Otis, 
Quincy,  Warren  and  Hastings,  published  in 
the  newspapers,  greatly  helped  the  course  of 
liberty.  Among  them  were  the  Circular 
Letter  to  Each  Colonial  Legislature  of  Adams 
and  Otis,  Quincy's  Observations  on  the  Boston 
Port-Bill  and  Otis'  Rights  of  the  British  Col- 
onies. The  Declaration  of  Independence  is 
credited  to  Thomas  Jefferson.  Another 
noteworthy  writing  of  his  was  his  first  Inaug- 
ural Address.  His  Notes  on  Virginia  contain 
a  fine  description  of  the  passage  of  the  Po- 
tomac through  the  Blue  Ridge.  The  great 
orator  of  the  Federal  party  was  Alexander 
Hamilton,  whose  finest  speech  perhaps  is  the 
one  On  the  Expediency  of  Adopting  the  Fed- 
eral Constitution.  But  the  best  thought  of 
the  Federal  party  is  contained  in  the  85  pa- 
pers, called  The  Federalist,  written  by  Ham- 
ilton, John  Jay  and  James  Madison.  The 
best  known  of  Washington's  writings  is  his 
Farewell  Address.  During  John  Adams'  ad- 
ministration the  best  Federal  orator  was 
Fisher  Ames,  whose  best  speech  was  made  in 
Congress  in  1796  on  the  British  treaty. 
Thomas  Paine  came  to  Philadelphia  from 
England  in  1774,  and  wrote  his  Common 
Sense  and  Crisis  in  aid  of  the  colonial  cause. 
His  pamphlets  were  popular,  easily  under- 
stood by  plain  people,  and  did  great  service 
to  the  American  cause.  He  afterwards  went 
to  France,  where  he  wrote  his  Rights  of  Man 
and  The  Age  of  Reason,  his  best-known  work. 

The  popular  poem  of  Revolutionary  times 
was  John  Trumbull's  McFingal,  a  satire  on 
the  American  loyalists  or  tones.  Droll  and 


genuinely  humorous,  it  fe  one  of  the  best 

American  political  satires.     Many  of  its  lines 

have  become  proverbs,  as  the  couplet: 

"No  man  e'er  felt  the  halter  draw 

With  good  opinion  of  the  law." 

Joel  Barlow,  whose  huge  Columbiad  is 
merely  grandiose,  wrote  one  piece  of  good 
humor,  his  Hasty  Pudding.  A  number  of 
ballads  had  wide  circulation.  Yankee  Doo- 
dle was  the  outgrowth  of  the  Revolution,  the 
chorus  being  taken  from  an  old  Dutch  song 
and  first  applied  in  derision  to  the  colonists 
by  British  soldiers.  A  popular  humorous 
ballad  was  The  Battle  of  the  Kegs,  written  by 
Francis  Hopkinson,  whose  son  Joseph  wrote 
Hail  Columbia.  Much  better  than  Hail  Co- 
lumbia is  The  Star-Spangled  Banner,  written 
during  the  British  bombardment  of  Fort  Mc- 
Henry  in  1812,  by  Francis  Scott  Key.  The 
first  real  American  poet  was  Philip  Freneau, 
whose  best  poems  are  Wild  Honeysuckle,  In- 
dian Student  and  Indian  Burying-Ground, 
the  last  of  which  was  highly  praised  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott.  Another  American  to  receive 
high  praise  abroad  was  John  Woolman,  a 
New  Jersey  Quaker,  of  whose  Journal  Charles 
Lamb  wrote:  "Get  the  writings  of  John 
Woolman  by  heart,  and  love  the  early 
Quakers." 

The  time  between  1815  and  1837  has  been 
called  the  era  of  good  feeling.  The  Missis- 
sippi valley  was  being  rapidly  settled.  "West- 
ward the  course  of  empire  takes  its  way"  ex- 
pressed the  feeling  of  the  emigrants;  and 
ideas  of  the  greatness  of  America,  such  as 
the  Revolutionary  fathers  had  never  imag- 
ined, were  dawning  upon  men's  minds.  It 
was  at  this  time,  when  Sydney  Smith  had 
sneeringly  asked:  "Who  reads  an  Ameri- 
can book?"  that  American  literature  of  gen- 
uine worth  began  to  be  produced.  The  first 
of  our  writers  whose  books  were  read  for  their 
own  sake,  and  not  merely  to  find  out  about 
the  men  and  times  described,  was  Washing- 
ton Irving.  His  Sketch  Book,  in  some  re- 
spects his  best  work,  consists  of  tales, 
sketches  and  essays,  two  of  which,  the  famous 
story  of  Rip  Van  Winkle  and  the  legend  of 
Sleepy  Hollow,  he  wove  from  the  old  Dutch 
traditions  of  the  Hudson.  He  used  these 
traditions  also  in  the  book  which  gave  him 
his  reputation,  Knickerbocker's  History  of 
New  York,  a  burlesque  account  of  the  old 
Dutch  settlers  of  New  Amsterdam.  This 
was  a  real  addition  to  humorous  literature. 
Irving's  most  ambitious  work,  his  Life  of 
Washington,  remains  an  authority,  but  the 
most  notable  of  his  biographies  is  the  Life  of 
Oliver  Goldsmith.  Joseph  Rodman  Drake, 
a  promising  poet  who  died  when  he  was 
only  25,  wrote  the  best  of  our  patriotic  lyr- 
ics, The  American  Flag,  while  his  Culprit 
Fay  was  the  finest  poem  yet  written  in  Amer- 
ica, except  Bryant's  Thanatopsis  (1816). 
A  friend  of  Drake  was  Fitz-Greene  Halleck, 
whose  Alnwick  Castle  and  especially  his 
Marco  Bozzaris  will  always  be  remembered. 


LITERATURE  (AMERICAN) 


1094 


LITERATURE  (AMERICAN) 


James  Fenimore  Cooper  was  the  first  Amer- 
ican novelist  of  note,  as  he  still  is  the  most 
widely  read.  His  earliest  success  was  The 
Spy,  a  tale  of  the  Revolution.  His  sea-tales, 
the  best  of  which  are  Tlie  Pilot  and  The  Red 
Rover,  are  only  rivaled,  not  surpassed,  by 
those  of  Marryat  and  William  Clark  Russell. 
Cooper  created  the  novel  of  the  sea  and  of 
the  backwoods;  but  in  his  stories  of  wild  ad- 
venture in  the  wilderness  he  has  no  rivals. 
The  hero  of  the  famous  Leather  stocking  Tales, 
Natty  Bumpo  or  Leatherstocking,  the  back- 
woods philosopher,  is  Cooper's  finest  char- 
acter. Almost  as  good  are  his  Indian  char- 
acters, known  to  all  America  and  Europe, 
Chingachgook,  Uncas,  Hist  and  the  Huron 
warriors.  A  number  of  single  poems  written 
at  this  period  have  kept  their  popularity,  as 
John  Howard  Payne's  Home,  Sweet  Home, 
Samuel  Woodworth's  The  Old  Oaken  Bucket, 
Richard  Henry  Wilde's  My  Life  is  Like  the 
Summer  Rose  and  Albert  Gorton  Greene's 
Old  Grimes.  The  senate  was  made  illustrious 
by  the  speeches  of  Clay,  Webster  and  Cal- 
houn.  Calhoun  was  greater  as  a  debater 
than  as  an  orator.  Clay's  speeches  depended 
so  much  for  their  effect  on  his  voice  and  per- 
sonality that  the  mere  reading  of  them  re- 
veals only  the  smoldering  embers  of  the  fire 
once  there.  With  Daniel  Webster,  perhaps 
the  greatest  of  English-speaking  orators,  the 
case  is  different.  Webster's  great  underly- 
ing thought  was  the  Union,  and  the  power 
and  passion  with  which  this  thought  is  ex- 
pressed in  his  speeches  made  them  lasting 
literature.  Rufus  Choate  perhaps  ranks 
next  to  Webster,  while  Edward  Everett's 
speeches  are  more  polished  than  powerful. 
William  Ellery  Channing  gave  his  time  and 
thought  to  the  Unitarian  movement  in 
Massachusetts,  of  which  he  was  the  head; 
but  his  critical  essays  on  John  Milton  and 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  rank  high. 

The  movement  in  Massachusetts,  known 
as  transcendentalism,  which  by-and-large 
was  the  ideal  philosophy  of  Kant  applied  to 
religion,  nature  and  life,  is  related  to  liter- 
ature in  that  to  it  we  owe  not  only  its  lead- 
ers, Emerson  and  Thoreau,  but  in  great 
measure  Hawthorne,  Lowell,  Whittier  and 
Holmes,  the  leading  writers  from  1837  to  the 
Civil  War.  The  center  of  the  movement 
was  Concord,  where  was  published  The  Dial, 
which  contained  some  of  the  best  prose  and 
poetry  published  in  America.  Emerson's 
views  are  set  forth  in  Nature  and  his  address 
on  the  American  Scholar,  but  he  will  be  long- 
est remembered  by  his  Essays,  his  published 
lectures,  Conduct  of  Life,  Society  and  Soli- 
tude and  Representative  Men,  writings  which 
are  rich  and  striking  and  teach  a  high  moral- 
ity. Thoreau,  the  poet-naturalist,  wrote  of 
nature  as  no  one  else  had  then  done.  Among 
his  books  are  Walden,  Cape  Cod,  A  Yankee  in 
Canada  and  Maine  Woods.  Hawthorne,  the 
greatest  American  novelist,  wrote  Mosses 
from  an  Old  Manse,  a  collection  of  stories,  as 


was  also  his  first  important  venture,  Twice- 
Told  Tales.  His  greatest  book  is  The 
Scarlet  Letter,  with  quiet  and  fine  humor, 
grasp  of  human  nature  and  a  powerful  story, 
whose  background  is  the  somber  life  of  the 
early  settlers  of  New  England.  The  House 
of  the  Seven  Gables  is  almost  equally  good. 
Besides  these  and  his  Notebooks,  Marble 
Faun  and  The  Blithcdale  Romance,  Haw- 
thorne wrote  two  first-class  children's  books, 
The  Wonder-Book  and  Tanglewood  Tales. 
Harvard  College,  as  well  as  Concord,  was  a 
center  of  literature.  Longfellow,  though 
not  one  of  its  graduates,  was  identified  with 
Cambridge  for  over  50  years.  His  first 
prominence  came  from  Voices  of  the  Night 
(1839).  Some  of  the  pieces  in  this  collection 
are  as  fine  as  any  he  afterwards  wrote  —  as 
Hymn  to  Night,  The  Reaper  and  the  Flowers 
and  The  Beleaguered  City.  Others  of  his 
smaller  pieces  are  the  fine  ballads  of  The 
Skeleton  ^n  Armor,  The  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus 
Seaweed,  The  Old  Clock  on  the  Stair  and  The 
Building  of  the  Ship.  Evangeline,  the  story 
of  an  Acadian  peasant-girl,  appeared  in  1847. 
Hiawatha,  the  most  original  of  Longfellow's 
poems,  came  out  in  1856.  Longfellow  is  the 
most  widely  read  of  any  American  poet  — 
one  reason  being  that  he  wrote  for  the  home ; 
and  it  would  be  hard  to  overstate  the  influ- 
ence for  good  of  his  writings.  Hundreds  of 
thousands  of  copies  of  them  have  been  sold 
in  America  and  England. 

Oliver  Wendell  Holmes'  well-known  bal- 
lad of  Old  Ironsides  first  gained  him  notice. 
Most  of  his  poetry  is  humorous,  and  of  the 
finest;  as  Rip  Van  Winkle,  M.  D.,  The  Boys 
and  The  One-Hoss  Shay.  Some  pieces, 
though,  are  pathetic  as  well  as  humorous, 
as  The  Last  Leaf,  which  Abraham  Lincoln 
called  "inexpressibly  touching;"  or  exquis- 
itely beautiful,  as  The  Chambered  Nautilus. 
His  masterpiece,  however,  is  his  table-talk, 
The  Autocrat  at  the  Breakfast  Table,  in  which 
Holmes  put  the  best  of  his  humor,  satire  and 
sense.  Lowell,  besides  being  one  of  our 
leading  poets  and  perhaps  the  greatest  Amer- 
ican critic,  was  a  native  of  Cambridge.  His 
popularity  came  with  the  appearance  of  The 
Biglow  Papers  (1846),  rhymed  satires  on  the 
government  in  its  conduct  of  the  Mexican 
War  and  in  Yankee  dialect.  A  second  series 
came  out  during  the  Civil  War.  His  critical 
papers,  which  took  high  rank,  appeared  as 
Among  My  Books,  My  Study  Windows,  and 
in  other  titles.  The  oldest  of  our  leading  his- 
torians was  Prescott,  who,  in  spite  of  being 
almost  blind,  entertained  the  world  with 
brilliantly  tinted  histories  of  the  Reign  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  the  Conquest  of  Mex- 
ico, and  the  Conquest  of  Peru.  George  Ban- 
croft spent  over  half  a  century  on  his  His- 
tory of  the  United  States,  which  comes  down 
only  to  1789,  but  is  written  with  a  thorough- 
ness that  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired.  He 
supplemented  it  with  a  volume  on  the  federal 
constitution.  Our  greatest  historians  are 


LITERATURE  (AMERICAN) 


1095 


LITERATURE  (AMERICAN) 


Motley,  Parkman  and  Fiske;  Motley's  Rise 
of  the  Dutch  Republic,  History  of  the  United 
Netherlands  and  Life  of  John  of  Barneveldt 
tell  the  story  of  the  Netherlands  with  the 
brilliancy  of  Prescott,  while  the  leading  char- 
acters are  painted  with  a  far  more  masterly 
hand.  Parkman's  A  Half  Century  of  Con- 
flict (1892)  is  the  seventh  and  last  of  his  in- 
valuable series  of  histories  ^entitled  France 
and  England  in  North  America.  His  Oregon 
Trail  sketched  his  adventures  when,  fresh 
from  Harvard,  he  visited  the  far  west.  His 
Conspiracy  of  Pontiac  reads  more  like  a  novel 
than  a  history.  Among  the  later  historians 
we  must  include  such  writers  as  Capt.  A.  T. 
Mahan,  who  has  contributed  much  on  the 
naval  history  of  the  nation  and  on  The  Influ- 
ence of  Sea-Power  upon  History,  besides  biog- 
raphies of  Admiral  Farragut  and  Lord  Nel- 
son; Benjamin  Lossing,  who  wrote  interest- 
ingly on  the  War  of  Independence,  the  War 
of  1812  and  the  Civil  War;  Henry  Adams, 
who  is  well-known  by  his  History  of  the 
United  States  in  the  early  years  of  the  igth 
century,  Documents  relating  to  New  England 
Federalism,  Historical  Essay  and  lives  of 
Albert  Gallatin  and  John  Randolph;  E.  Benj. 
Andrews,  who,  besides  his  Brief  Institutes  of 
General  and  of  Constitutional  History,  has 
written  two  Histories  of  the  United  States,  the 
later  one  dealing  with  the  last  quarter-cen- 
tury; Albert  Bushnell  Hart,  familiar  to  stu- 
dents of  American  political  history  by  his 
American  Government,  The  Formation  of  the 
Union  and  The  Foundations  of  American 
Foreign  Policy;  the  late  John  Hay,  who  in 
addition  to  poems  and  essays  gave  us,  in 
association  with  John  G.  Nicolay,  an  im- 
portant history  of  the  United  States  between 
1830  and  1865  in  the  Life  of  Abraham  Lin- 
coln; A.  H.  Stephens,  known  by  his  War  be- 
tween the  States;  and  James  Schouler,  whose 
legal  and  historical  work  is  familiar  to  stu- 
dents of  American  letters  and  to  investigators 
of  American  history  and  biography. 

The  two  leading  orators  of  the  antislavery 
cause,  Wendell  Phillips  and  Charles  Sumner, 
were  both  Harvard  graduates.  Phillips  was 
one  of  our  greatest  speakers,  simple  and  im- 
passioned. One  of  his  best  speeches  was 
made  in  Faneuil  Hall,  Boston,  on  the  murder 
of  Love  joy  the  abolitionist.  Among  Sum- 
ner's  best  orations  were  The  Kansas-Nebras- 
ka Bill  and  The  True  Grandeur  of  Nations. 

Good  literature  was  also  written  in  the 
cities.  Bryant  wrote  much  of  his  poetry  in 
New  York.  (Thanatopsis  was  written  while 
a  sophomore  at  Williams  College).  Much  of 
his  best  work  was  done  in  writing  of  nature; 
such  poems  are  Green  River,  Death  of  the 
Flowers  and  the  song,  O  Fairest  of  the  Rural 
Maids.  Though  writing  throughout  a  long 
life  his  work  varied  little,  his  later  poems,  as 
The  Flood  of  Years,  being  as  fresh  as  his 
youthful  pieces.  Whittier  is  a  rival  of  Bry- 
ant and  Lowell  for  first  place  among  our 
poets.  Hardly  anything  could  be  more  mar- 


tial than  the  war-hymns  of  the  Quaker  poet, 
as  Voices^  of  Freedom  and  In  War  Time;  Bar- 
bara Frietchie,  Maud  Mutter  and  Skipper 
Ireson's  Ride  are  as  popular  as  anything  he 
wrote.  The  Tent  on  the  Beach  and  The  Bri- 
dal of  Pennacook  are  among  his  ballads.  The 
worth  of  Poe  as  poet  and  storyteller  is  be- 
coming more  and  more  recognized.  The 
Raven  is  his  most  read  poem.  Annabel  Lee 
is  one  of  the  finest  ballads  in  the  language. 
Others  of  his  best  pieces  are  Ulalume,  The 
Valley  of  Unrest,  The  City  in  the  Sea,  Israfel 
and  The  Sleeper.  Ligeia  perhaps  is  his  most 
powerful  tale.  The  Gold  Bug,  The  Mystery 
of  Marie  Roget  and  others  are  rivaled  only  by 
Gaboriau's  tales  as  detective  stories,  while 
for  sheer  terror  nothing  can  approach  The 
Cask  of  Amontillado  or  The  Red  Death, 
though  better  than  either  is  The  Fall  of  the 
House  of  Usher.  Some  of  Willis'  tales,  as 
The  Ghost-Ball  at  Congress  Hall,  and  poems 
like  Unseen  Spirits  will  not  be  forgotten. 
Bayard  Taylor's  fine  rendering  of  Goethe's 
Faust  is  better  than  any  of  his  original  writ- 
ings. Thomas  Buchanan  Read  is  remem- 
bered for  his  Pans  Maximus,  Sheridan's 
Ride,  Deserted  Road  and  Drifting. 

More,  perhaps,  than  Garrison,  Phillips, 
Sumner,  Whittier  or  Lowell  did  Mrs.  Harriet 
Beecher  Stowe,  through  Uncle  Tom's  Cab-in, 
do  to  rouse  America  against  slavery.  The 
sale  of  the  book  by  the  hundred  thousand 
and  its  translation  into  over  40  languages 
made  it  the  most  popular  novel  written  in 
America.  Walt  Whitman  held  a  peculiar 
place,  in  that  there  was  no  agreement  as  to 
his  ability.  By  some  he  was  styled  the  great- 
est of  American  poets;  others  allege  that  his 
poems  are  merely  bad  prose.  His  most  pop- 
ular poem,  My  Captain,  was  written  after 
the  assassination  of  Lincoln.  He,  however, 
is  best  known  by  his  Leaves  of  Grass. 

The  Civil  War  brought  out  many  ballads 
and  songs,  the  best  of  which  was  Julia  Ward 
Howe's  Battle-Hymn  of  the  Republic.  The 
death  of  Sidney  Lanier,  who  wrote  The  Mock- 
ing Bird  and  The  Song  of  the  Chattahoochee, 
robbed  the  south  of  a  great  poet.  Samuel 
L.  Clemens  (Mark  Twain),  who  stands 
as  the  best  exponent  of  American  humor, 
has  produced  work  of  genuine  interest, 
though  his  reputation  as  a  humorist  inter- 
fered somewhat  with  the  reception  of  his 
admirable  biography  of  Joan  of  Arc.  Of  in- 
terest also  are  the  quieter  fun  of  Frank  Stock- 
ton and  the  inimitable  sketches  of  western 
life  given  by  Bret  Harte  in  tales  like  The 
Luck  of  Roaring  Camp.  Worthy  of  mention 
are  H  ale's  Man  without  a  Country  and  Eggle- 
ston's  Hoosier  Schoolmaster. 

Recent  Literature  (1865—1908).  The  char- 
acteristic fact  of  the  later  period  is  its  wide 
range,  even  to  the  extent  of  diffuseness. 
There  are  some  who  see  in  the  new  era,  with 
its  widening  and  broadening  of  American 
thought  in  literary  expression,  a  sensible  loss 
of  power  and  a  dearth  of  original  creative 


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1096 


LITERATURE  (AMERICAN) 


work  in  the  more  important  departments. 
But  this  is  hardly  a  just  view  of  the  age  and 
its  work,  which  has  been  one  of  ceaseless  lit- 
erary activity  and  a  high  order  of  produc- 
tion ;  though  in  the  more  serious  studies  there 
has,  admittedly,  been  a  lack  of  laborers  who 
have  attained  high  eminence  and  whose 
writings  might  have  made  the  epoch  pre- 
eminently rich  in  its  intellectual  possessions. 
If  we  except  the  novel  and  practical  science, 
the  gains  of  the  later  time  have  not  been  so 
great  as  to  mark  the  new  literary  product 
with  distinction  and  overshadow  the  era 
which  we  naturally  expected  it  to  supplant. 
At  successive  periods  we  must  look  for  the 
ebb  and  flow  of  the  literary  tide,  as  the  world 
is  orphaned  by  the  hushing  of  its  older  and 
masterful  voices  and  again  sired  by  the  com- 
ing of  new  aspirants  for  literary  honor  and 
historic  fame.  That  there  has  been  more 
than  this  interregnum  between  the  old  and 
the  new  era  we  do  not  admit;  nor  is  the 
characteristic  of  it,  in  comparison  with  a  for- 
mer age,  by  any  means  disadvantageous  to 
the  later  time.  What  the  earlier  era  had  to 
its  credit  was  a  period  of  greater  repose,  when 
the  voices  that  then  arose  in  the  literary 
world  of  our  continent  had,  a  more  attentive 
and  responsive  audience,  undistracted  by 
the  clamor  of  a  hurrying,  distraught,  preoc- 
cupied time.  Work  wrought  by  minds  gifted 
with  genius  is  rare  in  any  age ;  but  in  put  day 
genius  has  not  altogether  been  lacking,  nor 
have  we  been  without  books  that  inspire  as 
well  as  instruct  —  books  that  delight  and 
even  enchain.  The  product,  nevertheless, 
is  comparatively  small  in  weighty  and  seri- 
ous studies;  though,  until  the  new  era  has 
been  well-ushered  in  and  the  new  writers 
have  put  the  coping-stone  on  their  achieve- 
ments, no  fair  appraisement  can  be  made  of 
their  abilities  or  of  the  place  that  contem- 
porary writers  are  likely  to  hold  in  literature. 
One  advantage  the  era  has  gained  over  that 
past  is  manifest  in  the  protection  which  inter- 
national copyright  has  given  to  writers  by 
supplying  them  with  a  remunerative  market 
on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  with  the  stim- 
ulus which  this  practically  affords  to  those 
who  have  taken,  or  may  yet  take,  advantage 
of  it.  That  this  has  been  helpful  to  the  lit- 
erary product  goes  without  saying;  while  the 
extended  market  has  made  bookpublishing 
less  precarious,  and,  with  the  improvement 
in  critical  taste  on  the  part  of  publishers  and 
readers,  has  been  highly  and  unexception- 
ably  beneficial. 

In  the  new  era  we  have  been  especially 
under  the  reign  of  the  novelist  and  the  novel 
Legitimate  history  has  seemed  to  suffer  in 
this  respect,  for,  if  we  except  a  few  notable 
achievements  and  the  issue  of  the  ordinary 
historical  text-book,  history  proper  has  been 
but  sparingly  written,  save  in  the  guise  and 
with  the  trickings  out  of  fiction.  Consider- 
ing the  indifference  of  the  masses  toward 
historic  annals,  this  may  not  be  without  its 


compensations,  though  at  times  it  may  be 
perilous  to  truth  to  accept  sober  history  in 
the  bedizened  attire  of  the  alluring  and  pic- 
turesque novel.  Much  depends  upon  the 
writer  and  the  extent  of  his  historical  equip- 
ment, as  well  as  on  the  fidelity  of  the  history 
and  portraiture  of  the  period  with  which  he 
deals.  The  more  eminent  writers  of  fiction 
are  notably  careful  in  their  methods  and  are, 
in  the  main,  true  to  fact  in  their  pictures  of 
it,  while  their  art  contributes  greatly  to  the 
interest  with  which  they  invest  the  time. 
This  is  especially  so  in  the  case  of  many  nov- 
elists who  have  won  fame  and  have  wrought 
with  wonderful  skill  and  fidelity  to  fact  in 
historical  fiction.  The  names  of  a  few  of  the 
more  prominent  of  these  historical  romancers 
will  readily  occur  to  the  reader.  It  would  be 
no  uninteresting  study  to  point  out  with  what 
success  each  has  striven  to  interpret  the  ro- 
mantic element  in  American  history  and  to 
present,  with  vivid  reality,  characteristic 
pictures  of  the  local  life  and  environment  of 
the  various  regions,  settled  and  unsettled, 
of  the  continent.  Of  colonial  Virginia,  Mary 
Johnston  has  in  Prisoners  of  Hope,  To  Have 
and  to  Hold  and  Audrey  given  realistic  pic- 
tures in  the  beginning  and  middle  of  the  1 7th 
century.  The  field  of  Mary  Hartwell  Cath- 
erwood's  romances  has  been  mainly  that  of 
New  France,  though  she  has  also  exploited 
the  south,  especially  in  Old  Kaskaskia  and 
The  Story  of  Tonti.  The  best  of  her  novels 
that  deal  with  early  French-Canadian  history 
is  The  Romance  of  Dollar d.  In  Hugh  Wynne, 
by  the  distinguished  Philadelphia  physician, 
poet  and  novelist,  S.  Weir  Mitchell,  we  have 
an  enthralling  study  of  old  colonial  days  pre- 
ceding and  during  the  War  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. It  is  especially  interesting  as  a  picture 
of  the  social  life  of  Philadelphia,  with  its  ad- 
mixture of  Tory,  Whig  and  Quaker  elements 
at  the  time  of  the  British  occupation.  In 
his  Adventures  of  Francois  Dr.  Mitchell  has 
written  an  engaging  story  —  the  fictional 
memoirs  of  a  foundling,  choir-boy,  thief, 
juggler  and  fencing-master  during  the  French 
Revolution,  a  study  which  lightens  the  gloom 
of  an  era  of  hideous  carnage.  Character- 
istics, Circumstance  and  When  All  the  Woods 
Are  Green  are  others  of  his  entertaining  stor- 
ies. In  Alice  of  Old  Vincennes  Maurice 
Thompson  wrote  a  strong  story  of  the  era  of 
the  French  settlement  of  Indiana.  With 
this  class,  also,  belong  Richard  Carvel,  a  dra- 
matic picture  of  Revolutionary  days  by 
Winston  Churchill,  and  The  Crisis,  where  we 
enter  the  scenes  of  the  Civil  War,  made  im- 
pressive by  the  figure  of  Lincoln  with 
glimpses  from  the  southern  point  of  view. 
When  Knighthood  Was  in  Flower,  an  Enr- 
lish  romance,  by  Charles  Major,  and  Janice 
Meredith,  a  story  of  the  Revolution,  by  Paul 
Leicester  Ford,  attained  wide  but  brief  popu- 
larity, Mr.  Ford's  book  proving  a  disap- 
pointment to  many  who  had  read  his  ad- 
mirable novel,  The  Hon.  Peter  Stirling  and 


LITERATURE  (AMERICAN) 


1097 


LITERATURE  (AMERICAN) 


the  charmingly  original  Story  of  an  Untold 
Love.  James  Lane  Allen  remains  true  to  his 
first  love,  his  former  Kentucky  home  and  en- 
vironment, where  he  won  abiding  fame  by 
A  Kentucky  Cardinal  and  his  inimitable 
sketches,  as  The  Blue-Grass  Region  of  Ken- 
tucky, Aftermath,  Summer  in  Arcady  and  his 
thoughtful,  poetic  The  Choir  Invisible, 
Marion  Crawford  is  a  cosmopolitan,  and  only 
through  his  mother  and  by  virtue  of  his  early 
childhood,  spent  in  New  York,  can  we  claim 
him  as  an  American.  We  owe  much,  never- 
theless, to  his  cultured  and  tireless  pen  for 
many  novels  about  Italy.  Saracinesca,  Sant' 
llano,  Don  Orsino  and  A  Roman  Singer  are 
the  chief,  and  among  his  best.  In  Katharine 
Lauderdale  and  its  sequel  The  Ralstons,  with 
Marion  Darche  and  The  Three  Fates,  we  have 
stories  of  American  life,  and  in  these  there  is 
much  of  merit  and  entertainment,  though  he 
is  more  at  home  in  describing  European,  es- 
pecially Italian,  life. 

Among  American  writers  who  are  winning 
lasting  names  are  Henry  James,  William 
Dean  Howells  and  George  W.  Cable.  Mr. 
James,  the  subtlest  and  most  realistic  of 
American  novelists,  has  much  of  achieve- 
ment, though  he  is  lacking  in  the  elements  of 
popularity.  He  has,  however,  done  much 
clever  work  in  fiction,  and  manifested  a  high 
degree  of  art.  His  more  notable  stories  are 
Roderick  Hudson,  Daisy  Miller,  The  Ameri- 
can, The  Europeans,  What  Maisie  Knew,  The 
Princess  Casamassima,  The  Portrait  of  a  Lady 
and  The  Awkward  Age.  Mr.  Howells  has 
done  much  good  and  varied  work,  and  the 
American  world  of  letters  owes  him  a  heavy 
debt.  He  is  essentially  American  in  his 
ideals  and  tastes,  and  is  always  the  artist. 
His  most  representative  novel  is  The  Rise  of 
Silas  Lapham,  though  we  prefer  his  earlier 
and  less  realistic  stories,  as  A  Foregone  Con- 
clusion and  A  Chance  Acquaintance.  Mr. 
Cable  is  best  known  for  his  delightful  pictures 
of  Creole  days,  drawn  with  a  pen  skillful  in 
catching  the  finest,  most  delicate  traits  of 
Creole  character  and  preserved  in  such  stories 
as  Old  Creole  Days,  The  Grandissimes  and 
Madame  Delphine.  In  The  Cavalier  he  has 
left  his  chosen  field,  but  not  added  to  his 
fame.  As  a  writer  of  the  short  story,  Mary 
E.  Wilkins  holds  high  place.  Her  art  is  al- 
ways delicate  and  her  workmanship  at  times 
exquisite.  Her  more  notable  books  are  A 
New  England  Nun,  A  Humble  Romance,  Pem- 
broke and  Giles  Corey,  Yeoman.  Sarah  Orne 
Jewett  has  an  industrious  and  clever  pen, 
and  has  done  much  excellent  work  from 
Deephaven  to  The  Tory  Lover.  Mrs.  Burton 
Harrison  is  a  successful  writer  of  society 
novels.  She  has  culture,  and  has  seen  the 
•world  and  its  many  and  varied  types.  Her 
most  interesting  stories  are  The  Anglomani- 
acs,  Good  Americans,  A  Son  of  the  Old  Do- 
minion, A  Triple  Entanglement  and  A  Prin- 
tess  of  the  Hills.  The  author  of  That  Lass  o' 
Lowne's  and  Little  Lord  Fauntleroy  (Mrs. 


Frances  Hodgson  Burnett)  continues  to  add 
to  her  fame  and  to  address  cosmopolitan 
tastes.  A  Lady  of  Quality,  His  Grace  of 
Ormonde  and  The  Making  of  a  Marchioness 
are,  with  her  plays,  examples  of  her  work. 
Gertrude  Atherton  did  promising  work  in 
The  Doomswoman  and  The  Cohfornians,  and 
evinced  skill  in  portraiture  in  The  Aristo- 
crats. Kate  Douglas  Wiggin  (Mrs.  Riggs)  is 
at  her  best  in  such  tales  as  Marm  Lisa,  Penel- 
ope's Progress  and  A  Cathedral  Courtship. 
Adeline  D.  T.  Whitney  was  always  sure  of 
readers,  especially  young  girls,  in  her  delight- 
ful stories  of  the  type  of  Faith  Gartney's  Girl- 
hood, We  Girls  and  Real  Folks.  The  work  of 
Miss  Murfree  ("Charles  Egbert  Craddock") 
is  strong,  vigorous  and  dramatic.  The 
mountain  country  of  Tennessee  she  has  made 
highly  interesting  by  her  pictorial  descrip- 
tions and  studies  of  character.  Her  best- 
known  stories  are  In  the  Tennessee  Moun- 
tains, In  the  Clouds  and  The  Prophet  of  the 
Great  Smoky  Mountains.  To  these  writeiJ 
have  to  be  added  the  names  of  others  who  have 
done  good,  often  notable,  work  as  novelists 
and  writers  of  short  stories,  many  of  them 
also  being  known  as  poets  and  essayists  of 
repute.  These  include  Julian  Hawthorne, 
T.  B.  Aldrich,  A.  S.  Hardy,  Susan  Warner, 
Edgar  Fawcett,  "Octave  Thanet"  (Alice 
French),  J.  G.  Holland,  Harriet  P.  Spofford, 
E.  Stuart  Phelps  Ward,  J.  T.  Trowbridge, 
Helen  Hunt  Jackson  and  Hamlin  Garland. 
Of  poets  and  litterateurs  the  modern  period 
enrolls  the  names,  high  in  their  art,  of  such 
writers  as  Geo.  W.  Curtis,  E.  C.  Stedman, 
R.  W.  Gilder,  R.  H.  Stoddard,  Alice  and 
Phcebe  Gary,  Lucy  Larcom  and  P.  H. 
Hayne. 

Among  other  successes  in  American  fiction 
must  be  noted  such  writers  as  Irving  Bach- 
eller,  Judge  Robert  Grant,  C.  F.  Goss  and  Ed. 
ward  Noyes  Westcott.  Mr.  Bacheller's  suc- 
cess is  recent,  but  it  is  gratifying  as  well  as 
emphatic,  as  is  witnessed  by  Eben  Holden  and 
D'ri  and  I.  The  stories  are  new  creations  in 
fiction,  and  have  a  freshness  that  must  be  en- 
joyed by  jaded  novel  readers.  They  are  ad- 
mirable in  character-drawing,  and  bracing 
and  wholesome  fiction.  Judge  Grant  has 
done  much  clever  work,  especially  in  his 
skillful  picture  of  contemporary  American 
life,  entitled  Unleavened  Bread.  The  Re- 
demption of  David  Cor  son  by  C.  F.  Goss  and 
David  Harum  by  the  late  E.  N.  Westcott 
have  been  read  by  multitudes,  and  in  many 
respects  have  earned  success,  as  has  the  late 
Stephen  Crane's  Red  Badge  of  Courage  and 
Wounds  in  the  Rain.  A  new  writer,  Dr.  J. 
B.  Naylor,  has  in  Ralph  Marlowe  interesting- 
ly described  village  life  in  southeastern  Ohio, 
and  amusingly  sketched,  and  to  the  life,  one 
of  its  garrulous  rustic  characters.  From  the 
same  pen  we  have  The  Sign  of  the  Prophet,  a 
bright  romance  of  the  War  of  1812,  the  hero- 
ine of  which  is  a  ward  of  Tenskwatawa,  the 
Shawnee  prophet  and  brother  of  Tecumseh. 


LITERATURE  (AMERICAN) 


1098 


LITERATURE  FOR  CHILDREN 


Other  notable  fiction  has  come  from  the  pen 
of  Hamlin  Garland,  the  Wisconsin  poet  and 
novelist,  who  has  given  us  Rose  of  Dutcher's 
Coolly  and  Her  Mountain  Lover;  from  G.  C. 
Eggleston,  in  A  Carolina  Cavalier;  from  Gen. 
Lew  Wallace  in  Ben  Hur;  from  T.  Nelson 
Page  in  Red  Rock;  and  from  Booth  Tarking- 
ton  in  Tlie  Gentleman  front  Indiana. 

The  lighter  literature  of  the  period  has  so 
occupied  us  that  a  closing  paragraph  must 
suffice  for  the  enumeration  of  a  few  writers 
among  the  many  who  have  dealt  with  weight- 
ier themes.  This  can  hardly,  however,  be 
deemed  a  slight,  as  those  writers  and  their 
works  are,  for  the  most  part,  referred  to  in 
biographical  articles  under  the  authors' 
names.  The  sources  of  information  in  liter- 
ary biography  are,  moreover,  now  so  many 
and  so  readily  accessible,  that  the  consulter 
of  these  pages  will  do  better  to  refer  to  the 
separate  monographs,  especially  to  the  mon- 
umental Library  of  the  World's  Best  Litera- 
ture edited  by  Charles  Dudley  Warner  —  the 
most  comprehensive  source-book  of  literary 
biography  which  the  era  has  produced. 
Other  useful  material  will  be  found  in  Charles 
Dudley  Warner's  American  Men  of  Letters 
Series,  J.  T.  Morse,  Jr.'s  American  Statesmen 
Series,  H.  E.  Scudder's  American  Common- 
wealth Series  and  in  the  works  of  such  Amer- 
ican writers  as  Carl  Schurz,  Henry  Cabot 
Lodge,  J.  B.  McMaster,  Moses  Coit  Tyler, 
W.  M.  Sloane,  J.  T.  Morse,  Jr.,  James  Ford 
Rhodes,  Hamlin  Garland  and  the  late  Justin 
Winsor  and  James  Parton.  In  American 
history,  especially  in  its  early  and  romantic 
beginnings,  the  writings  of  the  late  John 
Fiske  should  also  be  consulted,  for  the  era 
produced  no  abler  or  more  philosophic  his- 
torian or  more  thoughtful  writer  in  religious 
philosophy.  Akin  in  interest  to  the  histori- 
ans are  the  publicists  who  have  dealt  with 
current  problems  of  government  and  with 
questions  arising  from  territorial  expansion 
and  national  issues,  including  economics,  ed- 
ucation and  racial  problems.  The  war  with 
Spain  brought  forth  a  literature  of  its  own, 
dealing  with  both  arms  of  the  service  and 
with  the  status  and  future  civil  administra- 
tion of  our  extracontinental  possessions. 
Not  the  least  interesting  figure  among 
the  writers  on  these  subjects  is  Theodore 
Roosevelt — the  stalwart  campaigner,  sports- 
man, "Rough  Rider"  and  president  —  who, 
moreover,  is  to  be  included  among  the 
thoughtful  contributors  to  recent  literature, 
his  productions  embracing  The  Winning  of 
the  West,  American  Ideals,  History  of  the  Na- 
val War  of  1812  and  lives  of  Gouverneur Mor- 
ris and  Oliver  Cromwell,  besides  his  sporting 
adventures.  G.  M.  A. 

Lit'erature  for  Children.  In  recent  years 
there  has  grown  up  a  large  demand  for  books 
and  general  literature  suitable  for  children. 
A  great  variety  of  such  books  has  been  pro- 
duced and  would  be  sufficient,  if  brought  to- 
gether, to  make  a  good-sized  library.  There 


has  thus  developed  a  distinct  body  of  liter- 
ature, belonging  to  the  various  stages  of 
childhood  and  youth  and  somewhat  defi- 
nitely marked  off  from  the  literature  de- 
signed for  adult  minds.  Many  of  these 
books  are  poor  and  trifling,  others  are  choice 
in  thought  and  style  and  are  highly  educa- 
tive in  their  effect.  It  requires  consider- 
able special  knowledge  and  experience  to 
select  the  books  of  most  value  and  best 
adapted  to  children  from  this  great  mass  and 
variety  of  materials.  Parents  especially 
find  it  difficult  to  keep  track  of  the  choice 
books,  and  even  teachers,  with  their  larger 
experiences  in  literature,  history  and  science, 
often  are  unqualified  to  make  a  good  selec- 
tion for  children. 

We  will  first  briefly  summarize  and  classify 
the  principal  kinds  of  books. 

The  books  of  early  childhood  include  such 
as  the  Mother  Goose  stories,  Stevenson's 
poems  of  early  childhood,  Eugene  Field's 
poems  and  other  illustrated  poems  and  tales. 
Fairy-tales  and  folk-lore,  including  Grimm's 
and  Andersen's,  follow  closely,  and  then  the 
whole  series  of  myths  from  Hiawatha  and 
other  Indian  tales  back  to  the  Norse  and 
Greek  myths.  Old  English  story  is  rich  in 
ballads  and  songs  of  delight  to  children. 
The  legendary  stories  of  early  Roman  his- 
tory, Siegfried,  Roland  and  many  early  and 
medieval  tales  from  the  history  of  Germany, 
France  and  Italy,  William  Tell,  the  accounts 
of  King  Arthur  and  the  Round  Table  knights, 
the  patriarchal  stories  from  the  Bible  and 
legendary  stories  of  French,  German  and 
English  kings  furnish  a  rich  variety  of  inter- 
esting narratives  for  the  young.  Frederick 
Barbarossa,  King  Alfred,  Charlemagne,  Rob- 
ert Bruce  and  Sir  William  Wallace  and  many 
other  stories  may  be  cited.  Some  of  the 
standard  books  dealing  with  these  stories  are 
Grimm's  Fairy  Tales,  Andersen's  Fairy 
Tales,  Hawthorne's  Wonder-Book  and  Tan- 
glewood  Tales,  Kingsley's  Greek  Heroes, 
King  Arthur  and  His  Court  (Greene),  Old 
Testament  Stories  in  Scriptural  Language, 
Peabody's  Old  Greek  Folk-Stories,  the  Eugene 
Field  Book,  Stevenson's  Book  of  Poems, 
Norse  Stories  (Mabie),  Myths  of  Northern 
Lands,  Hiawatha,  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome 
(Macaulay) ,  Tales^  from  English  History,  He- 
roic Ballads,  Stories  from  Herodotus,  Jason's 
Quest  (Lowell) ,  Tales  of  Chivalry  (Rolfe) ,  The 
Boy's  King  Arthur  (Lanier),  The  Story  of 
Siegfried  (Baldwin),  The  Story  of  Troy,  The 
Stry  of  Roland.  (Baldwin)  and  Church's 
stories  of  The  Iliad  and  The  Odyssey. 

The  best  of  these  legends  and  stories  are 
selected  from  the  early  history  and  literature 
of  modern  European  countries  and  from 
Greek,  Roman  and  Hebrew  civilization 
Many  have  been  translated  or  adapted  for 
modern  use  from  the  old  literatures.  Belong- 
ing also  to  the  earlier  and  middle  period  of 
childhood,  from  10  to  12,  are  such  stories  as 
Gulliver's  Travels  Swift) ,  The  A  rabian  Nights, 


LITERATURE  FOR  CHILDREN 


IOQ9 


LITERATURE  FOR  CHILDREN 


The  Number g  Stove  (Ramee),  Alice's  Adven- 
tures in  Wonderland  and  Through  the  Look- 
ing Glass  (Carroll) ,  Black  Beauty,  Little  Lord 
Fauntleroy  (Burnett),  Being  a  Boy  (Warner) , 
The  Story  of  a  Bad  Boy  (Aldrich),  The  Robin 
Hood  Stories  (Pyle),  Tales  of  a  Traveller 
(Irving) ,  King  of  the  Golden  River  (Ruskin) , 
The  Water-Babies  (Kingsley) ,  The  Pied  Piper 
of  Hamlin  (Browning) ,  Ten  Boys  on  the  Road 
from  Long  Ago  (Andrews)  and  The  Story  of 
the  English  (Guerber). 

From  1 1  on,  some  of  the  simple  biographies 
are  interesting  to  children,  as  of  John  Smith, 
Boone,  Miles  Standish,  Lincoln,  Washing- 
ton, La  Salle,  William  Penn,  Benjamin 
Franklin,  Peter  the  Great,  King  Alfred, 
Caesar,  Cromwell  and  others. 

During  the  grammar-school  period  chil- 
dren become  interested  in  such  books  as 
Tales  from  Shakespeare  (Lamb)?  Irving's 
Stories,  Vicar  of  Wake  field,  Pilgrim's  Prog- 
ress, Swiss  Family  Robinson,  Last  of  the  Mo- 
hicans, Evangeline,  Tales  of  a  Grandfather, 
Plutarch's  Lives,  Silas  Marner,  Tom  Brown's 
School-Days,  Franklin's  Autobiography,  Un- 
cle Tom's  Cabin,  Merchant  of  Venice,  Roger 
de  Coverly,  Lady  of  the  Lake,  Don  Quixote, 
Rob  Roy,  Treasure  Island,  Peasant  and 
Prince,  Scudder's  Life  of  Washington,  The 
Talisman,  Ivanhoe  and  The  Deserted  Village. 

Then  comes  a  large  series  of  books  of  travel 
and  adventure,  geographical  descriptions 
and  excursions,  stories  of  hunting  and  fishing, 
voyages  of  exploration  and  discovery,  which 
make  a  good  share  of  a  library  for  boys  and 
girls.  Such  are  Livingstone's  and  Stanley's 
experiences  in  Africa,  the  ocean-explorers,  as 
Columbus,  Da  Gama,  Magellan,  Sir  Francis 
Drake  and  Captain  Cook;  Arctic  explorers, 
as  Nansen;  pioneer  explorers  in  America,  as 
Champlain,  De  Soto,  Lewis  and  Clark  and 
Fremont. 

More  recently  there  has  come  into  use  a 
body  of  nature-stories  and  science-books 
which  are  of  much  importance,  as  Burrough's 
Birds  and  Bees,  Squirrels  and  Other  Fur- 
Bearing  Animals,  Bird  Land  rKeyser),  Krag 
and  Johnny  Bear  (Seton),  The  Foot-Path 
Way  (Torey) ,  Three  Outdoor  Papers  (Higgin- 
son) ,  Stories  of  Bird  Life  (Pearson) ,  The  First 
Book  of  Birds  and  Birds  Through  an  Opera 
Glass  (Olive  Thorne  Miller) ,  Nestlings  in  For- 
est and  Marsh  (Wheelock) ,  Town  Geology  and 
Madame  How  and  Lady  Why  (Kingsley), 
Star  land  (Ball),  Natural  History  of  Selborne 
(White) ,  Secrets  of  the  Woods  (Long)  and  Fa- 
miliar Flowers  of  Field  and  Garden  (Mathews) . 

In  addition  may  be  mentioned  humorous 
stories,  as  How  I  Killed  a  Bear  (Warner) , 
Tom  Sawyer  and  Huckleberry  Finn  (Twain), 
The  Rose  and  the  Ring  (Thackeray),  The 
Story  of  a  Bad  Boy  (Aldrich) ;  The  Adventures 
of  Robin  Hood  (Pyle)  and  Little  Masterpieces 
of  Amtrican  Wit  and  Humor  (Masson). 

Intelligent  parents  are  becoming  aware 
of  the  importance  of  selecting  the  best  books 
for  children  and  of  not  only  putting  these 


books  where  children  may  find  them  but  of 
reading  to  the  children.  Mothers,  fathers, 
older  brothers  and  sisters  or  aunts  cannot  en- 
tertain and  benefit  the  children  so  much  in 
any  other  way  as  by  reading  the  best  stories 
to  them.  This  should  begin  before  children 
are  old  enough  to  go  to  school.  Between 
four  and  six  is  the  choice  time,  in  many  re- 
spects, to  introduce  children  to  the  best  sto- 
ries and  ballads.  Their  minds  are  remark- 
ably receptive  to  good  stories  at  this  period, 
and  the  thought  and  language  of  children  can 
be  thus  early  shaped  and  directed  into  the 
best  channels.  Thoughtful  mothers  who 
can  get  time  for  this  delightful  study  with 
their  children  find  it  most  valuable  to  all 
concerned  and  a  real  pleasure. 

As  children  grow  a  little  older,  the  reading 
of  good  books  in  the  family  circle,  where  old 
and  young  alike  may  enjoy  them  together, 
is  perhaps  the  best  way  of  developing  the 
right  family  spirit  and  at  the  same  time  cul- 
tivating and  enriching  the  minds  of  young 
and  old.  For  this  reason  a  well-selected  fam- 
ily library  is  very  helpful.  Some  of  our  city 
and  town  libraries  now  provide  a  children's 
room  where  a  full  set  of  children's  books  is 
supplied.  In  some  cases  a  lady  is  employed 
to  read  to  classes  of  boys  and  girls,  introduc- 
ing them  in  an  interesting  way  to  the  better 
class  of  books. 

In  common  schools  the  entire  method  of 
treating  books  and  literature  has  undergone 
a  great  change  in  recent  years.  The  oral 
treatment  of  stories  in  primary  grades  has 
developed  into  an  elaborate  plan  of  intro- 
ducing the  best  stories  and  literary  products 
to  children,  in  order  thus  to  give  them  an 
early  and  vivid  acquaintance  with  authors 
and  their  works.  Primary  teachers  have 
been  developing  the  art  of  storytelling,  in- 
cluding clear  and  attractive  narrative,  im- 
personation of  characters,  dramatic  action 
of  a  simple  kind,  question,  answer  and  discus- 
sion and,  finally,  careful  reproduction  of 
stories  by  the  children.  This  kind  of  work 
has  vitalized  primary  instruction,  awakened 
the  interests  and  thought  activity  of  chil- 
dren, and  exerted  excellent  influence  in  im- 
proving the  language  and  composition  of  pu- 
pils. It  has  laid  the  foundation  in  primary 
grades  for  a  real  educative  acquaintance  with 
several  standard  classes  of  literature  which 
may  grow  and  develop  later.  This  oral  ac- 
quaintance with  firstclass  stories  and  myths 
also  has  a  close  relation  to  the  labor  of 
learning  to  read  in  primary  schools.  It 
plants  in  the  children  the  desire  to  learn  the 
art  of  reading,  and  it  lends  enthusiasm  and 
natural  expression  to  all  later  oral  reading. 
The  mechanical  formalism  and  monotony 
so  common  among  children  in  learning  to 
read  are  due  largely  to  the  lack  of  thought 
and  interest  in  what  they  are  reading;  in 
short  to  a  deficiency  of  such  stimulating 
ideas  as  children  appropriate  richly  througn 
oral  story  and  work. 


LITERATURE  FOR  CHILDREN 


1 100 


LITHOGRAPHY 


As  soon  as  children  have  learned  to  read  in 
primary  grades  and  have  acquired  a  strong 
interest  and  preference  for  suitable  books, 
the  later  reading  in  schools,  from  the  fourth 
grade  on,  is  designed  to  cultivate  and  develop 
this  lively  interest  in  the  best  standard  works 
in  literature  still  further.  Instead  of  the 
series  of  regular  readers,  many  of  the  schools 
are  in  the  habit  of  requiring  the  reading  of 
good  English  classics  in  the  intermediate 
and  grammar  grades.  Such  series  of  unab- 
breviated English  classics  are  now  published 
for  school  use  by  most  of  the  large  publish- 
ing companies,  including  such  books  as  Long- 
fellow's Evangeline  and  Courtship  of  Miles 
Standish,  Irving's  Rip  Van  Winkle  and 
Sleepy  Hollow,  Whittier's  Snowbound,  Low- 
ell's Vtsion  of  Sir  Launfal,  Matthew  Arnold's 
Sohrab  and  Rustum,  Scott's  Marmion  and 
Lady  of  the  Lake,  Shakespeare's  Merchant  of 
Venice  and  Julius  Ccesar,  Lamb's  Tales  from 
Shakespeare,  Webster's  Speech  at  Bunker 
Hill,  Motley's  Essay  on  Peter  the  Great, 
Schurz's  Essay  on  Lincoln  and  Hawthorne's 
Tales  of  the  White  Hills. 

The  study  of  masterpieces  as  units  of 
thought  has  introduced  into  the  common 
school  a  new  and  improved  method  of  read- 
ing and  interpreting  literature  Reading  in 
grammar  grades  is  no  longer  a  mere  drill  in 
enunciation,  pronunciation  and  rhetorical 
expression.  It  has  become  a  fruitful  and 
many-sided  thought-study,  an  awakening  of 
deep  and  lasting  interest  in  the  works  of 
great  writers  and  in  the  great  writers  them- 
selves as  leaders  of  thought.  The  very  meth- 
ods of  instruction  have  changed.  The 
teacher  herself  needs  to  have  an  appreciative 
and  sympathetic  acquaintance  with  classic 
works  and  an  enthusiasm  for  the  study  of 
them.  Boys  and  girls  have  their  attention 
directed  first  of  all  to  the  growth  of  a  strong 
idea  in  a  masterpiece  and  to  the  author's 
style  and  power  in  expressing  it.  The  char- 
acters depicted  by  the  author  are  worked 
out  in  their  proper  setting  and  relation  to 
environment.  Great  moral  principles  come 
to  light,  and  ideals  of  personal  conduct  are 
set  up,  or  contrasts  are  shown  between  right 
and  wrong  action.  In  other  words,  it  be- 
comes a  deep  and  interesting  study  of  human 
life  as  revealed  by  great  writers.  Such  an 
inspiring  study  may  then  well  lead  to  natural 
and  expressive  reading. 

It  is  not  unusual  to  dramatize  some  of  the 
suitable  works  and  present  them  on  the 
school-stage,  especially  those  which  already 
are  in  the  dramatic  form,  as  Shakespeare  s 
Julius  Caesar,  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Stan- 
dish  and  others. 

Another  field  to  which  it  is  the  business  of 
the  school  and  home  to  introduce  children 
is  that  which  belongs  to  periodical  maga- 
zines, newspapers  and  the  current  literature 
of  periodicals.  Children  need,  on  the  part  of 
elders,  first  of  all,  a  wise  choice  of  the  best  of 
these  productions  and,  second,  a  considerate 


encouragement  to  read  those  which  deserve 
attention. 

The  home  has  the  best  opportunity  of  di- 
recting the  tastes  of  children  by  reading  with 
them.  The  school  can  call  attention  to  the 
best  magazines,  furnishing  them  in  the 
school-library,  and  in  the  discussion  of  cur- 
rent events  directing  the  attention  of  pupils 
to  those  periodicals  which  ^tve  a  simple  and 
interesting  discussion  of  political,  scientific, 
social  and  practical  topics.  Even  the  daily 
newspapers  require  attention;  young  people 
should  be  shown  how  to  read  and  judge 
them,  and  should  then  be  led  to  appreciate 
the  better  class  of  dailies. 

One  of  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  our 
civilization  is  this  increasing  importance  of 
literature  in  the  education  of  the  young.  It 
has  grown  to  large  proportions  in  the  last  30 
years.  Side  by  side  with  good  and  whole- 
some literature  is  a  great  mass  of  false  and 
vicious  books  and  periodicals  which  pander 
to  a  depraved  taste  and  to  vicious  thoughts 
and  impulses.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  school 
and  home  to  forestall  these  bad  influences 
by  the  steady  forces  of  education,  begun 
early  and  kept  up  continuously  through  all 
the  years  of  youth. 

Some  of  the  books  dealing  with  this  prob- 
lem are  Literature  in  Schools  (Scudder) ;  How 
to  Teach  Reading  (Clark)  •  Counsel  upon  the 
Reading  of  Books  (Van  Dyke) ;  The  Study  and 
Teaching  of  English  (Chubb) ;  The  Story- 
Teller's  Art  (Dye) ;  Books  and  Reading 
(Lowell) ;  Special  Method  in  Primary  Reading 
and  Oral  Work  with  Stories  (McMurry) ;  Spe- 
cial Method  in  the  Reading  of  English  Classics 
(McMurry) ;  The  Book-Lover  (Baldwin) ; 
Place  of  the^  Story  in  Early  Education  (Wiltse) 
and  The  Listening  Child  (Thacher) . 

C.  A.  McMuRRY. 

Lithog'raphy,  the  art  of  printing  from 
stone.  Chalky  stones,  as  limestone,  absorb 
grease  and  water  readily.  If  a  greasy  line  is 
drawn  on  a  prepared  stone,  this  line  can  be 
removed  only  by  taking  away  the  surface  so 
far  as  the  grease  has  penetrated.  If  water  is 

Eut  on  this  prepared  stone  after  the  greased 
ne  has  been  drawn,  the  water  remains  on 
those  parts  not  covered  with  the  grease.  If 
a  roller  covered  with  greasy  ink  is  passed 
over  the  stone,  the  ink  will  cover  the  greased 
portions,  and  the  parts  wet  with  water  will 
repel  the  ink  and  remain  clean.  If  a  piece  of 
paper  is  now  put  on  the  stone,  it  wijl  receive 
an  impression  in  ink  of  the  greasy  line.  These 
are  the  elements  of  lithographic  printing. 

The  art  was  invented  by  Senefelder  in 
1796.  In  1800  he  patented  his  invention  in 
Bavaria,  most  of  the  German  states  and  Aus- 
tria. His  establishments  in  London  and 
Paris  did  not  do  well  for  the  new  art  was 
guarded  with  such  secrecy  and  jealousy  as  to 
retard  progress,  and  many  years  passed  be- 
fore it  was  brought  to  perfection.  Various 
methods  are  used,  as  drawing  on  stone  with 
pen  or  brush,  using  liquid  ink;  drawing  on' 


LITHUANIA 


IIOI 


LITTLE  ROCK 


paper  and  transferring  to  stone;  engraving 
on  stone ;  drawing  on  stones  with  crayon  or 
solid  ink  and  transferring  from  engraved 
plates  or  woodcuts.  The  printing  from  all 
is  nearly  the  same.  The  stones  are  com- 
posed of  lime,  clay  and  silicon  earth,  and 
vary  in  color. 

Zincography,  the  invention  of  Eberhard  of 
Bavaria,  is  an  application  of  this  art  to  zinc 
instead  of  stone.  Its  only  advantage  is  in 
connection  with  large  subjects,  the  zinc  be- 
ing more  portable  and  less  liable  to  break 
than  stone.  In  chromo-lithography,  by 
which  colored  pictures  are  produced,  a  large 
number  of  stones  are  used,  one  for  each  sep- 
arate tint,  sometimes  as  many  as  20  or 
30  colors  being  printed.  Photo-lithog- 
raphy is  used  in  printing  plans,  maps  etc., 
which  are  copied  from  a  photographic  nega- 
tive and  then  transferred  to  the  stone. 

Lith'ua'nia,  the  former  name  of  a  large 
tract  of  land  between  Poland  and  Prussia, 
which  in  the  middle  ages  constituted  an  inde- 
pendent realm  closely  connected  with  that  of 
Poland.  Now  it  belongs  to  Russia,  with  the 
exception  of  a  small  part  in  the  East  Prussian 
district  of  Gumbinnen.  It  is  a  flat,  low  coun- 
try, covered  to  a  great  extent  with  sand- 
heaths,  marshes  and  forests.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Dnieper,  Diina,  Beresina,  Pri- 
pet  and  Niemen.  The  chief  exports  are 
grain,  hemp,  flax,  honey,  timber,  cattle  and 
horses.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Lithu- 
anians, Poles,  Russians,  Tartars  and  Jews. 
Lithuania,  because  it  had  no  natural  boun- 
daries, was  frequently  invaded,  but,  after  be- 
ing long  tributary  to  various  neighboring 
Russian  principalities,  it  recovered  its  inde- 
pendence about  the  i2th  century,  only  to  be- 
come involved  in  a  struggle  with  the  Knight 
sword-bearers  and  the  Teutonic  Order  who 
converted  them  to  Christianity.  The  people 
had  no  central  government  until  the  latter 
part  of  the  middle  ages.  Ryngold,  a  partly 
mythical  chief  of  the  early  part  of  the  isth 
century,  is  thought  to  have  begun  a  stable 
government.  Ryngold's  son  Mindog,  a 
purely  historical  character,  reigned  over 
Lithuania  until  about  1263.  Gedimen  (1315- 
1340)  made  Lithuania  a  powerful  state  bv 
the  conquest  of  Volhynia  and  Kilo,  which 
had  belonged  to  Russia.  In  1386  Tagello, 
grandson  of  Gedimen,  grand  prince  of  Lithu- 
ania, married  Hedwig,  the  daughter  of  Louis 
the  Great  of  Poland,  and  became  King  of  Po- 
land with  which  he  united  Lithuania ;  he  also 
converted  his  hereditary  subjects  to  Chris- 
tianity. After  Jagello,  for  100  years  Lith- 
uania and  Poland  had  separate  rulers,  al- 
though somewhat  united  politically.  From 
1501  they  had  a  common  ruler;  in  1569  the 
Diet  of  Lublin  decreed  the  permanent  union 
of  Poland  and  Lithuania  into  one  common- 
wealth to  be  governed  by  an  elective  king. 
From  this  time  the  history  of  Lithuania  is 
that  of  Poland.  At  its  greatest  power,  in 
the  1 4th  century,  Lithuania  extended  from 


the  Baltic  Sea  to  the  Black  Sea  and  from 
the  northern  Bug  River  to  the  Don.  In 
1772  it  consisted  of  the  palatinates  of  Wilna, 
Troki,  Novogrodek,  Brzeac,  Vitebsk,  Pol- 
otzk  and  Matiolov  and  the  duchy  of  Samo- 
gritia.  All  are  included  in  the  Russian  gov- 
ernments of  Wilna,  Mohileo,  Minsk  and  Su- 
walki,  an  area  of  about  100,000  square  miles. 
Lithuanian,  a  branch  of  Lettic,  is  spoken  in 
parts  of  East  Prussia,  in  Samogritia  and  in 
Lithuania  proper. 

Lith'ium,  a  silvery  white  metal,  first  dis- 
covered in  1817  by  Arfvedson  as  an  oxide 
and  first  separated  as  an  element  by  Brande 
in  1822,  is  the  lightest  of  known  solids,  hav- 
ing a  specific  gravity  of  only  about  .585.  It 
occurs  widely,  but  in  very  small  quantities. 
In  meteors  and  in  the  sun  there  are  traces 
of  its  presence.  It  is  rather  softer  than 
lead.  The  spectrum  is  an  easy  test  of  its 
presence,  as  it  shows  a  bright  crimson  stripe, 
together  with  a  pale  yellow.  Commercially 
it  is  obtained  chiefly  from  lepidolite,  chiefly 
for  use  in  medicine,  e.  g.,  for  gout.  Lithium 
readily  forms  an  oxide,  and  will  rapidly  de- 
compose water.  It  forms  alkalies  like  potas- 
sium and  sodium. 

Lit'mus  or  Lacmus,  a  coloring  matter 
manufactured  in  Holland.  Lichens  (Rocella 
tinctoria  and  others  related  to  it)  are  reduced 
to  a  pulp  with  water,  and  potassium  carbon- 
ate and  ammonia  are  added.  The  mass 
gradually  assumes  a  blue  color,  due  to  some 
attribute  of  the  lichen.  Chalk  or  gypsum  is 
added  to  render  the  mass  thick  enough  to  be 
formed  into  rectangular  cakes,  which  when 
dried  are  ready  for  use.  Litmus  is  never 
used  as  a  dye,  but  by  chemists  to  detect  free 
acids  and  free  alkalies.  The  blue  of  litmus 
is  turned  to  red  by  an  acid,  and  the  color 
again  becomes  blue  by  being  mixed  with  an 
alkali.  Litmus  paper,  i.  e.,  paper  infused 
with  litmus  both  in  its  blue  and  red  state,  is 
the  form  in  which  litmus  is  generally  used  as 
a  test. 

Little  Falls,  N.  Y.,  a  picturesque  city  in 
Herkimer  County,  on  the  Mohawk  and  the 
Barge  Canal,  is  in  the  north-central  part  of 
the  state,  23  miles  east  of  Utica.  The  West 
Shore  and  New  York  Central  and  Hud- 
son River  railroads  pass  through  it,  and  it  is 
a  terminus  for  the  Little  Falls  and  Dolge- 
ville  and  Utica  and  Mohawk  Valley  railroads. 
The  Mohawk  falls  45  feet  within  the  city- 
limits,  affording  an  abundance  of  water- 
power  for  the  city's  industries.  The  manu- 
factures include  knitgpods,  paper,  dairy  ma- 
chinery and  preparations,  knitting  machin- 
ery, leather,  bicycles,  sectional  bookcases, 
carriages  and  furnaces.  There  are  many 
schools  and  churches.  Population  12,273. 

Little  Rock,  the  county-seat  of  Pulaski 
County  and  capital  of  Arkansas,  is  on  the  Ar- 
kansas River,  145  miles  northeast  of  Texar- 
kana.  It  is  located  on  a  bluff  about  50  feet 
above  the  river,  and  bears  its  name  in  con- 
trast to  Big  Rock,  a  promontory  a  mile  from 


LITTLE  TURTLE 


1102 


LIVERPOOL 


the  city,  upon  which  is  located  the  army- 
post  called  Fort  Logan  H.  Roots.  Promi- 
nent among  its  numerous  industrial  estab- 
lishments are  cottonseed-oil  mills,  cotton 
compresses,  beer  and  bottling  works,  flour 
mills,  brick  and  tile  works,  foundries  and 
machine  shops.  It  has  excellent  systems 
of  waterworks,  electric  lighting  and  street- 
railway  Little  Rock  has  many  banks  and 
several  building  and  loan  associations,  and 
among  its  prominent  buildings  are  the  capi- 
tol,  Albert  Pike  Consistory  (Masonic),  St. 
Andrew's  Cathedral  (R.  C.),  Christ  Church 
(P.  E.),  the  Jewish  Temple,  the  Methodist 
and  Baptist  Churches,  the  custom-house  and 
postoffice  and  the  county  courthouse.  The 
Arkansas  School  for  the  Blind,  Deaf-Mute 
Institute,  Lunatic  Asylum  and  Penitentiary 
are  also  located  in  Little  Rock.  The  city 
maintains  one  of  the  best  public-school  sys- 
tems in  the  southwest,  has  excellent  school- 
buildings  and  a  school-board  building,  in 
which  the  superintendent  and  school-board 
conduct  their  meetings.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  private  educational  institutions,  two 
business  colleges,  Arkansas  Military  Acad- 
emy, Arkansas  Baptist  College,  a  convent 
and  Philander  Smith  College.  Little  Rock 
was  settled  in  1819,  became  the  seat  of  terri- 
torial government  in  1820,  and  capital  on 
Arkansas'  admission  to  the  Union  in  1836. 
It  has  the  service  of  two  railroads  and  a  pop- 
ulation of  45.941- 

Little  Tur'tle,  a  Miami  chief,  noted  for 
shrewdness  and  bravery.  He  commanded 
in  the  battle  in  which  General  Harmar  was 
defeated  on  the  Miami,  Oct.  22,  1790,  and 
was  also  in  that  in  which  General  St.  Clair 
was  defeated  at  St.  Mary's,  Nov.  4,  1791. 
He  was  present,  but  not  in  command,  at 
the  battle  of  Fallen  Timbers,  Aug.  20,  1794, 
when  the  Indians  were  defeated  by  General 
Wayne.  A  year  later  Little  Turtle  was  one 
of  the  chiefs  who  signed  the  treaty  of  Green- 
ville, which  opened  a  large  tract  of  Ohio 
to  settlement.  He  is  said  to  have  had  some 
schooling  in  Canada.  He  visited  Washing- 
ton at  Philadelphia  in  1797,  and  was  given 
a  fine  pair  of  pistols  by  Kosciusko.  He  died 
at  Fort  Wayne,  Ind.,  July  14,  1812. 

Liukiu.    See  Loo-Cnoo  ISLANDS. 

Liv'er,  an  important  digestive  organ 
found  in  many  invertebrates  and  all  verte- 
brates. It  is  the  largest  gland  in  the  human 
body,  weighing  three  or  four  pounds  and 
measuring  about  12  inches  from  side  to  side 
and  six  or  seven  from  front  to  back.  It  is 
situated  on  the  right  side  just  below  the 
diaphragm,  and  arches  over  a  part  of  the 
stomach.  It  is  divided  into  two  unequal 
lobes,  the  right  one  being  much  the  larger. 
The  substance  of  the  liver  is  divided  into 
five-sided  lobules,  which,  in  turn,  are  made 
of  cells.  Running  through  its  substance  are 
blood-vessels,  lymphatics,  nerves  and 
branches  of  the  bile-duct.  The  latter  col- 
lects the  bile,  and  connects  with  the  gall- 


bladder in  which  the  bile  is  stored.  The 
bile-duct  also  opens  into  the  small  intestines 
not  far  from  the  stomach.  _  The  liver  per- 
forms many  offices.  First  it  secretes  bile, 
which  is  of  use  in  helping  the  absorption  of 
fats.  Then  it  forma  liver-sugar,  as  was 
shown  in  1848  by  Claude  Bernard.  Within 
its  substance  red  blood-corpuscles  are 
broken  up,  and  it  aids  in  removing  urea 
from  the  blood  in  connection  with  the  kid- 
neys. Finally,  the  liver  plays  a  part  in 
food  elaboration.  Food  does  not  pass  by 
a  single  step  from  lifeless  material  into  liv- 
ing protoplasm,  but  there  are  many  steps 
by  which  it  is  changed  a  little  and  advanced 
on  its  way.  The  precise  work  of  the  liver 
in  this  direction  is  imperfectly  understood, 
but  it  is  believed  to  be  considerable.  The 
circulation  in  the  liver  is  peculiar.  There  is, 
first,  arterial  blood  coming  directly  from 


THE   LIVER 
(a)  Right  Lobe    (b)  Left  Lobe 

the  aorta  through  the  hepatic  artery,  and 
this  nourishes  the  liver.  The  other  blood- 
supply  is  through  the  portal  system.  This 
is  venous  blood  which  has  already  passed 
through  one  set  of  capillaries  in  the  stomach, 
intestines  or  spleen,  and  is  carried  in  the 
portal  vein  to  the  liver.  There  it  branches 
and  breaks  up  into  another  set  of  capillaries 
within  the  liver.  Uusually  venous  blood 
passes  directly  to  the  heart.  It  is  altogether 
exceptional  for  it  to  be  carried  to  another 
organ  and  there  pass  through  another  set 
of  capillaries,  but  this  occurs  in  the  liver 
and  is  called  the  portal  circulation. 

Liv'ermore,  Mary  A.,  daughter  of 
Timothy  Rice  and  wife  of  D.  P.  Livermore, 
a  Universalist  minister,  was  born  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  Dec.  19,  1821.  Mrs.  Livermore  was 
known  as  one  of  the  leading  and  ablest  ad- 
vocates of  woman  suffrage.  She  also  lec- 
tured on  temperance  and  other  reforms. 
On  the  platform  she  proved  herself  the 
peer  of  the  most  distinguished  orators, 
and  in  grace,  refinement  and  all  the  higher 
qualities  of  womanhood  she  had  few  supe- 
riors. Her  Story  of  the  War  is  well-known, 
as  are  The  Story  of  My  Life,  What  Shall  we 
do  with  our  Daughters?  and  Pen-Pictures. 
She  died  in  1905. 

Liv'erpool,  the  third  city  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  is  situated  on  the  Mersey  (q.  v.) 


LIVERPOOL 


1X03 


LIVINGSTONE 


in  Lancashire,  England.  Its  situation  on 
the  western  coast  makes  it  the  port  for  a 
large  trade  with  America.  It  is  31  miles 
from  Manchester  and  201  from  London. 
Its  great  trade  has  given  rise  to  a  magnificent 
system  of  docks,  extending^  34  miles  and 
covering  544  acres.  Docks  owned  by  canal- 
companies  and  similar  corporations  increase 
this  amount  to  over  1,500  acres.  Nearly 
all  of  the  docks  have  been  built  since  1812. 
For  steamers  there  is  a  large,  floating  land- 
ing-stage 2,063  feet  long,  connected  with 
the  shore  by  seven  bridges.  The  town-hall, 


ST.    GEORGE  S    HALL    AND    LIME    ST.    STATION 

built  in  1754;  St.  George's  Hall,  nearly  500 
feet  long,  with  its  great  organ;  custom- 
house, sailor's  home,  free  library,  museum 
of  natural  history,  Walker  Art  Gallery,  the 
botanic  gardens,  observatory  and  Athenaeum 
are  a  few  of  the  many  interesting  sights. 
University  College,  founded  in  1882,  with 
30  instructors;  Liverpool  College,  Queen's 
College,  Liverpool  Institute  and  other 
schools  of  art,  medicine  and  law  furnish  the 
means  of  higher  education.  There  are 
eight  parks  and  seven  cemeteries.  Liver- 
pool's early  prosperity  was  largely  due  to 
the  cotton-trade,  through  which,  during  the 
last  40  years  of  the  i8th  century,  the  popu- 
lation increased  from  25,700  to  77,700. 
Shipbuilding  also  received  a  start  at  that 
time  from  government  orders  for  vessels 
of  war.  The  foreign  trade  now  is  about  one 
third  of  that  of  the  whole  kingdom.  The 
total  trade  of  this  port  in  1906  (imports  and 
exports)  amounted  to  277,590,925  pounds 
sterling.  In  1905  the  tonnage  entering  and 
clearing  the  docks  was  14,019,531  tons, 
representing  4,529  vessels.  The  large  im- 
ports are  beef,  bacon,  pork,  ham,  rice,  lard, 
sugar,  tobacco  and  breadstuff s;  and  the 
exports  mainly  are  cotton,  woolen  and 
linen  goods,  metals,  machinery,  hardware 
and  cutlery.  There  are  large  shipbuilding 
yards,  iron  and  brass  foundries,  engine- 


works,  tar  and  turpentine  distilleries,  rice 
and  flour  mills,  tobacco,  cigar  and  soap- 
factories.  The  name  is  first  found  in  a  deed 
of  1190.  In  the  middle  of  the  i4th  century 
Liverpool  contained  840  inhabitants.  The 
first  dock  was  built  in  1700,  and  the 
Bridgewater  Canal,  which  increased  its 
inland  trade,  was  opened  in  1771.  It  was 
the  leading  port  for  the  African  slavetrade, 
and  as  late  as  1807  her  shipowners  had 
185  vessels,  carrying  44,000  slaves,  in  the 
business.  In  1899  the  number  of  emigrants 
from  its  ports  was  118,552.  The  population  by 

census  of  1911 
was  746,566. 
See  Memorials 
of  Liverpool  by 
Picton. 

Liv'erworts. 
See  HEPATIC^E. 
Liv'ingstone, 
David,    Scotch 
missionary  and 
traveler,  was 
born  near  Glas- 
gow, March  19, 
1813.      From 
his  icth  to  his 
2  5th    year    he 
worked     in     a 
factory  and  ed- 
u  c  a  t  e  d    him- 
self.    Robert 
Moffat,  a  mis- 
sionary to  Afri- 
ca, turned  Liv- 
ingstone's   heart    to    that    continent,    and 
in  1841  he  settled  at  Kuruman.      For  sev- 
eral    years     he     labored     successfully    in 
the    Bechuana    country.     [The    Boers    op- 
posed his  efforts  to  plant  native  missionaries 
in  Transvaal.     This  opposition  led  him  to 
go   northward,   where   he   discovered   Lake 
Ngami  and  found  the  country  watered  by 
fine    rivers    and    densely    populated.      His 
anxiety  to  benefit  this  region  led  him  to 
desire  to  explore  from  the   Indian  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.     He  was  from  June,  1852, 
to  May,  1856,  in  accomplishing  this  stupend- 
ous enterprise.     He  resigned  from  the  staff 
of  the  London  Missionary  Society  and  went 
home.     In  1857  he  wrote  Missionary  Trav- 
els    and     visited     Cambridge     University, 
awakening  the  enthusiasm  of  many  students 
and  leading  to  the  formation  of  Universities' 
Mission.      He   also   was   appointed   by   the 
English  government  to  explore  the  Zambezi 
and  its  tributaries.     Among  other  discov- 
eries of  this  expedition  was  that  of  Lake 
Nyasa.     He  came  to  the   conclusion    that 
this  lake  was  the  best  field  for  both  com- 
mercial  and   missionary  operations.       The 
mission  had  to  be  abandoned;  the  Portu- 
guese opposed  him;  and  a  dispatch  recalled 
the   expedition.      He   returned   to    London 
in  1864.     His  objects  in  going  home  were 
to  expose  the  Portuguese  slavetraders  and 


LIVORNO 


1104 


LLAMA 


to  obtain  means  for  establishing  missions 
where  the  African  slavetrade,  which  he 
called  "the  open  sore  of  the  world,"  might 
be  dried  up.  His  second  book  (The  Zam- 
bezi and  Its  Tributaries),  was  designed  to 
further  this  purpose.  The  Royal  Geogra- 

Shical  Society  proposed  that  he  return  and 
etermine  the  watershed  of  Central  Africa 
and  the  sources  of  the  Nile.  In  1866  he  set 
out  from  Zanzibar,  first  trying  to  find  a  suit- 
able settlement  for  missionary  operations 
and  then  striking  westward  to  solve  the 

Eiographical  problem.  In  1869  he  discovered 
akes  Moero  and  Bangweolo.  He  struck 
westward  again  as  far  as  the  Lualaba,  think- 
ing it  might  possibly  be  the  Nile  but  far 
from  certain  that  it  was  not  the  Congo, 
which  it  proved  afterwards  to  be.  At  this 
period  Livingstone  was  lost  to  the  civilized 
world.  The  New  York  Herald  sent  H.  M. 
Stanley  "to  find  Livingstone."  He  found 
him  (1871)  resting  at  Ujiji,  but  could  not 
induce  him  to  return  until  he  had  made 
one  more  effort  to  solve  the  geographical 
problem.  He  went  back  to  Lake  Bang- 
weolo, his  sufferings  increasing  until  he 
rested  at  Ilala,  and  on  May  i,  1873,  he  was 
found  by  his  attendants  on  his  knees,  dead. 
His  remains  are  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  See  Personal  Life  of  David  Liv- 
ingstone by  Blaikie  and  Life  by  Hughes  in 
the  Men  of  Action  Series. 

Livor'no,  Italy.    See  LEGHORN. 

Liv'y,  Titus  Livius,  Rome's  greatest  his- 
torian, was  born  in  59  B.  C.  and  died  in  17 
A.  D.  His  history  comprised  142  books, 
of  which  all  but  35  were  lost.  The  hope  of 
finding  the  lost  ones,  renewed  at  different 
times,  has  never  been  realized.  He  never 
flattered  the  great  Augustus,  as  did  Vergil 
and  Horace.  He  even  expresses  the  doubt 
whether  the  great  Csesar  were  a  curse  or  a 
blessing  to  the  commonwealth.  His  style 
is  judged  to  be  almost  perfect.  His  defect 
is  that  he  wrote  history  as  a  fine  art;  for  he 
did  not  go  far  to  investigate  facts,  and  is  re- 
ported to  have  declined,  at  the  suggestion 
of  Augustus,  to  verify  an  important  inscrip- 
tion in  a  temple. 

Liz'ard,  any  one  of  a  large  number  of  rep- 
tiles making  the  natural  order  Locertilia 
and  found  in  all  the  warmer  portions  of  the 
earth,  abounding  in  tropical  lands.  They 
are  often  confused  with  the  salamanders, 
which  are  similar  in  form  but  belong  to  the 
class  Amphibia.  Although  often  repulsive 
in  appearance,  the  lizards  usually  are  harm- 
less. The  only  poisonous  members  of  the 
group  are  the  gila  monster  (which  see)  and 
its  near  relatives,  all  belonging  to  the  genus 
Heloderma.  Most  of  them  are  of  service  in 
destroying  insect  pests.  In  Hawaii,  as  ex- 
pert mosquito-catchers,  they  are  welcomed 
to  houses.  They  are  usually  covered  with 
scales,  but  not  always;  are  of  a  wide  variety 
of  forms  and  color,  those  among  forests 
being  green,  those  in  arid  regions  dull-col- 


ored. Most  of  them  lay  eggs,  the  eggs  often 
having  a  papery  rather  than  a  hard  cov- 
ering. In  geological  ages  they  reached  enor- 
mous sizes  (sixty  or  seventy  feet  long),  but 
the  living  lizards  are  of  small  or  moderate 
sizes.  One  over  three  feet  long  is  a  monster. 
They  have  an  elongated  body  and  long 
tail,  usually  four  limbs,  but  the  limbs  may 
be  reduced  to  two  or  entirely  absent.  The 
bones  of  the  shoulder  and  hip  girdle  are 
always  present.  They  are  fitted  for  various 
conditions  of  life.  Some  live  entirely  on 
trees,  others  on  the  earth.  They  have  long 
tongues,  and  feed  chiefly  on  insects  and 


eggs.  Among  the  lizards  of  the  United 
States  the  blue-tailed  skinks  are  widely 
known.  They  will  shake  off  their  tails  to 
escape  capture,  and  the  tail  possesses  the 
power  of  growing  again.  The  harmless 
basilisk  of  Guiana  and  Martinique  is  con- 
nected with  ancient  tradition  and  super- 
stition. The  glance  of  its  eye  was  supposed 
to  cause  death.  The  chameleon,  the  iguanas 
of  tropical  America,  the  frilled  lizard  of 
Australia,  the  flying  lizard  and  the  geckos 
are  varieties  of  lizards. 

Llama  (Id'ma) ,  an  animal  employed  as  a 
beast  of  burden  on  the  elevated  plateaus  of 
Bolivia  and  Peru.  Although  related  to  the 
camel  of  the  Old  World,  it  has  no  hump. 


LLAMA 


It  is  also  closely  related  to  the  alpaca  and 
vicuna,  whose  wool  is  of  so  much  value,  but 


no4,  »r  o.  •   HACK 


LOBSTER 


LLOYD'S  LONDON  EXCHANGE 


IZ05 


LOCK 


the  hair  of  the  llama  is  coarse  and  rough  and 
suitable  only  for  making  string  and  very 
coarse  fabrics.  It  is  supposed  to  be  de- 
scended from  the  wild  guanaco,  but  has 
been  domesticated  for  centuries.  It  is  about 
three  feet  high  at  the  shoulders.  It  is  capa- 
ble of  carrying  100  to  200  pounds  six  to  12 
miles  a  day.  The  males  only  are  used  as 
transport  animals.  If  treated  well,  they 
are  willing  and  docile.  They  gather  their 
own  food,  are  hardy,  can  travel  over  places 
too  rough  and  steep  for  any  other  burden- 
bearing  animal.  If  overloaded,  they  will  lie 
down  and  refuse  to  move.  When  disturbed, 
they  spit  a  ball  of  food  and  saliva  with  con- 
siderable force  at  their  tormentor.  For- 
merly they  were  used  for  transporting  silver 
from  the  mines  toward  the  seaboard  and 
bringing  back  the  necessaries  of  life.  They 
are  now  being  replaced  by  mules. 

Lloyd-George,  David,  prime  minister  of 
England  (1916-  ),  was  born  in  Manchester, 
England,  in  1863.  His  father  was  a  school 
teacher.  He  is  generally  regarded  as  one  of 
the  greatest  constructive  statesmen  in  Eng- 
land's history.  His  epoch-making  budget  of 
1909  shifted  the  tax  burden  from  the  poor  to 
the  rich  and  in  1911  came  his  National  Insur- 
ance Act  providing  unemployment  funds  in  cer- 
tain trades  by  compulsory  contributions  of 
workmen,  employers  and  the  nation.  (See 
INSURANCE.)  In  the  European  war  as  minister 
of  war  and  munitions,  under  Asquith  (q.  v.) 
he  displayed  his  extraordinary  organizing  abil- 
ity and  in  1916,  owing  to  popular  feeling  that 
England's  part  in  the  war  should  be  prose- 
cuted with  more  vigor,  was  made  premier  with 
virtually  dictatorial  authority.  His  oratorical 
powers  rank  with  his  ability  as  a  statesman. 

Lloyd's,  London  Exchange.  An  associa- 
tion of  individuals  and  corporations  engaged 
in  the  insurance  (q.  v.)  business.  It  takes  its 
name  from  a  coffee  house  kept  by  Edward 
Lloyd  in  the  i7th  century,  where  persons  inter- 
ested in  shipping  and  the  insurance  of  marine 
risks  collected.  Originally  devoted  to  marine 
insurance  only,  "Lloyd's"  is  now  the  source 
of  insurance  for  an  extraordinarily  wide 
variety  of  risks,  including  almost  any  event 
against  which  one  may  wish  to  protect  himself, 
such  as  insurance  by  tradesmen  against  bad 
weather  on  any  great  public  occasion.  The 
Exchange  as  an  organization  does  not  insure. 
When  a  risk  is  proposed  it  is  passed  around 
among  the  members  and  each  decides  the 
amount  of  the  risk  he  will  undertake.  The 
aggregate  value  of  property  insured  at 
'Lloyd's"  annually  amounts  to  over  $2,000,- 
000,000.  It  maintains  an  enormous  organiza- 
tion for  the  collection  and  distribution  of 
shipping  news. 

Load'stone.     See  MAGNET. 

Loan'da,  St.  Paul  de,  chief  town  of  the 
Portuguese  possession  of  Angola,  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  lies  on  a  small  bay, 
210  miles  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Kongo. 
The  harbor  is  sanding  up,  so  that  vessels 


lie  one  and  a  fourth  miles  from  shore  to 
load  and  unload.  In  1888  a  railroad  was 
projected  and  is  now  constructed  from 
Loanda  to  Ambaca,  140  miles  inland. 
Its  exports  embrace  rum,  coffee,  wax, 
india-rubber  and  cocoa-nut.  Population 
over  23,000,  of  whom  2,500  are  European. 

Lob'ster,  a  large  crustacean  living  in  salt 
water  and  resembling  the  crayfish  in  form. 
It  is  of  a  blue  and  greenish  color,  which 
turns  red  on  boiling,  and  it  usually  is  seen 
in  the  market  in  this  condition.  Lobsters 
are  very  important  as  food,  the  market- 
value  of  those  handled  in  Boston  for  a 
single  year  being  more  than  three  and  one 
half  million  dollars.  They  are  protected 
by  law,  and  reared  artificially  by  the  United 
States  Fish-Commission.  Those  under  six 
inches  in  length  are  not  allowed  to  be  taken 
by  fishermen.  Those  commonly  taken 
vary  in  weight  from  below  a  pound  to  three 
or  four  pounds.  One  weighing  four  pounds 
is  rather  rare  and  considered  large,  but 
monsters  have  been  caught  weighing  as 
much  as  39  pounds.  Except  that  they  are 
larger,  they  resemble  the  crayfish  in  form 
and  structure.  The  head  and  thorax  are 
covered  by  a  buckler-like  expanse  of  shell 
(carapace),  while  the  abdomen  is  composed 
of  six  articulated  joints  or  segments.  They 
breathe  by  20  pairs  of  feather-like  gills,  in- 
closed on  each  side  of  the  body  under  the 
carapace.  They  have  long  antennae  and 
prominent  eyes.  The  front  pair  of  legs 
ends  in  large  powerful  claws.  One  is  blunt 
and  used  for  anchoring,  the  other  sharper 
and  used  for  grasping  food.  Behind  these 
are  four  pairs  of  walking-legs,  the  first  two 
pairs  of  which  also  end  in  claws.  Each 
joint  of  the  abdomen  has  a  pair  of  swim- 
merets,  and  the  hind  one  has  expanded 
plates  which  aid  the  animal  in  swimming 
backward.  The  female  lays  several  thou- 
sand eggs,  attached  by  a  sort  of  glue  to 
the  swimmerets.  These  hatch  into  very 
small  larval  ^ui'ms  which  are  free-swimming. 
These  grow  and  molt  many  times,  and  cease 
to  be  free-swimming.  After  becoming  ma- 
ture, they  continue  to  molt  or  change  the 
shell  once  a  year.  They  are  caught  in  a 
pot  or  trap  baited  with  dead  fish  or  decay- 
ing meat.  See  Herrick's  The  American 
Lobster,  published  by  the  United  States 
Government. 

Loch'invar',  a  favorite  Scottish  ballad, 
occurs  in  Scott's  Marmion.  The  gallant 
young  hero  of  the  ballad,  Lochinvar,  comes 
to  dance  at  the  wedding  of  the  maid  whom 
he  loves.  He  dances  with  the  bride,  whispers 
a  word  in  her  ear,  and  swings  her  to  his 
saddle  as  they  pass  the  door.  Then  follows 
an  exciting  and  romantic  ride,  in  which 
the  young  lovers  make  good  their  escape 
from  a  furious  pursuit. 

Lock,  an  arrangement  for  fastening  doors, 
drawers  and  other  places  which  require 
a  key  or  some  other  contrivance  to  open  it. 


LOCK 


1106 


LOCUST 


The  lock  was  early  used  by  the  Egyptians. 
Locks  and  keys  of  brass  and  iron  have  been 
found  in  the  ruins  of  Pompeii  and  Hercula- 
neum.  Mechanical  genius  has  taxed  itself 
to  make  a  lock  that  cannot  be  picked.  Dur- 
ing the  London  exhibition  of  1851  a  prize 
of  200  guineas  was  offered  to  anyone  who 
could  pick  the  Bramah  lock.  Hobbs,  an 
American,  won  the  prize;  but  he  spent  14 
days  in  inventing  and  making  his  tools  and, 
afterward,  51  hours  in  picking  the  lock. 
Combination-locks  are  used  for  burglar- 
proof  safes.  These  locks  can  be  opened  only 
by  certain  movements  of  the  handle  on  an 
index.  Yale  of  Philadelphia  invented  an 
improvement  by  which  the  lock  can  be 
opened  only  at  a  certain  time,  even  by  those 
who  know  the  combination,  a  timepiece 
being  set  with  the  lock.  Changeable  key- 
locks can  be  locked  by  any  one  of  a  number 
of  keys,  but  opened  only  by  the  one  locking 
it.  Some  of  the  locks  will  give  a  choice 
from  60,000,000  keys.  See  Treatise  on  Con- 
struction of  Locks  by  Hobbs  and  Tomlinson. 

Lock  on  a  river  or  canal  is  a  double  set  of 
gates  with  a  walled-in  passage  between,  by 
which  a  boat  can  pass  from  one  part  of  a 
canal  or  river  to  another  of  a  different  level. 
The  first  gate  is  opened  and  the  boat  enters 
the  lock  or  passage,  then  the  lower  gate  is 
closed  and  the  upper  one  opened,  when  the 
water  rushing  in  soon  raises  the  boat  to  the 
desired  level.  The  process  is  reversed  when 
the  boat  is  to  be  lowered.  No  canals  could 
be  built,  except  in  level  countries,  without 
locks. 

Locke,  John,  a  great  English  philosopher, 
was  born  on  Aug.  29,  1632.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford,  where  he  became  a  college- 
tutor.  He  studied  medicine  and  practiced 
at  Oxford,  but  his  love  of  philosophy  urged 
him  to  other  pursuits.  In  1670-1  Locke 
suggested  to  friends  that  they  ought  to  dis- 
cuss What  questions  is  the  human  under- 
standing fitted  or  not  fitted  to  deal  with?  He 
gave  his  best  talents  for  17  years  to  the 
subject,  and  the  world  received  his  Essay 
concerning  the  Human  Understanding.  In 
France  he  studied  and  enjoyed  the  friend- 
ship of  physicians  and  naturalists  rather 
than  of  philosophers.  He  also  spent  1683-88 
in  study  in  Holland,  returning  to  England 
after  the  Revolution.  His  first  appearance 
as  a  writer  was  The  Letter  on  Toleration 
(1685),  written  to  a  Dutch  friend  and  after- 
ward translated  into  English,  which  involved 
him  in  a  controversy  in  the  course  of  which 
he  wrote  three  other  letters  on  the  same 
subject.  In  1690  appeared  kis  Civil  Gov- 
ernment, a  defense  of  individual  liberty, 
followed  by  The  Human  Understanding. 
This  was  his  first  acknowledged  work,  the 
others  having  been  published  anonymously ; 
and,  being  translated  into  Latin  and  French, 
it  soon  spread  over  Europe.  He  died  on 
Oct.  28,  1704.  See  Cousin's  Lectures  on  Locke 
and  Lives  by  Bourne  and  Fowler. 


Lock'port,  a  city  of  New  York,  county- 
seat  of  Niagara  County,  on  Barge  Canal, 
25  miles  northeast  of  Buffalo.  It  is  named 
from  the  ten  double  locks  by  which  the 
canal,  here  cut  through  solid  limestone, 
falls  66  feet.  This  gives  a  water-power, 
and  the  city  has  abundant  electric  power, 
too,  making  it  an  important  manufacturing 
point.  Chief  among  its  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  glass,  cotton-batting,  flour, 
brooms,  carriages  and  wagons,  cotton  and 
woolen  goods,  aluminum,  brass  bedsteads, 
paper  and  wood-fibre  products.  Near  the 
city  are  quarries  of  fine  limestone  and  sand" 
stone  flagging.  Lockport  has  several 
churches  and  an  admirable  system  of  pub- 
lic schools.  Population  17,970. 

Lo'como'tive.     See  STEAM-ENGINE. 
Lo'cust.     On   account  of     a  widespread 
error  in  the  use  of  the  name,  it  is  difficult  to 

convince  the 
generality  of 
people  that 
the  locust  is 
only  a  plain 

LOCUST  grasshopper. 

Such    is    the 

case,  however.  The  so-called  1 7-year  locust 
is  a  cicada.  The  grasshoppers  fall  into  two 
groups :  those  with '  mg  and  those  with  short 
antennae.  The  locusts  belong  to  the  former. 
The  locusts  mentioned  in  history  are  grass- 
hoppers. At  times  locusts  appear  in  great 
numbers  in  oriental  countries.  A  column 
of  flying  locusts  has  been  seen  in  India,  es- 
timated to  be  several  hundred  miles  long 
and  dense  enough  in  some  places  to  obscure 
the  light  of  the  sun.  Our  Rocky  Mountain 
locust,  which  has  produced  so  much  damage 
to  crops  west  of  the  Mississippi,  is  a  small 
grasshopper  very  similar  to  the  common 
red-thighed  grasshopper  of  the  eastern 
United  States.  The  non  migratory  ones, 
though  more  easily  controlled,  work  great 
damage.  The  California  devastating  locust 
and  the  pellucid  locust  have  been  very  de- 
structive in  California.  To  the  south  be- 
longs our  largest  locust,  which  is  some- 
times very  destructive.  The  differential 
locust  has  proven  a  great  pest  in  Mis- 
sissippi and  Louisiana,  appearing  in  count- 
less numbers  following  an  overflow  of  the 
Mississippi  River  succeeded  by  a  dry  sum- 
mer. Eggs  are  deposited  generally  from 
August  10  to  September  15,  not  hatched 
until  the  next  May,  and  the  insect  is  full- 
grown  by  the  last  week  in  June.  The  de- 
struction of  locusts'  eggs  is  of  prime  im- 
portance, and  is  accomplished  by  deep 
tall-plowing  or  harrowing.  Burning  dry 
grass  and  stubble  to  destroy  newly  hatched 
locusts  has  proved  successful;  crushing  and 
ditching  are  recommended.  "Hopper-doz- 
ers" containing  crude  kerosene  or  coal-tar 
are  used  for  catching  the  young  in  infested 
fields.  Experiments  have  been  made  with 
spreading  a  fungous  disease  that  attacks 


LOCUST 


1107 


LOFOTEN 


locusts,  and  a  poison-mash  has  proved 
effective  in  some  instances.  See  CICADA 
and  GRASSHOPPERS.  Consult  Sanderson: 
Insects  Injurious  to  Staple  Crops. 

Lo'cust,  a  North  American  species  of 
trees  and  shrubs,  sometimes  called  the 
acacia,  belonging  to  the  pea  family.  The 
common  locust  grows  sometimes  70  or  80 
feet  high,  with  a  rough  bark,  fine  leaves 
and  white,  very  fragrant  flowers,  honey- 
sweet,  hanging  in  long,  loose  clusters.  It 
is  a  slender  tree,  has  leaflets  that  are  long 
and  rounded,  growing  in  graceful  sprays. 
The  blossoms  are  seen  in  May  and  June; 
the  fruit  is  a  smooth,  flat,  purple-brown 
pod,  ripe  in  September,  hanging  on  the 
trees  all  winter.  It  is  a  rapid  grower,  and 
the  hardness  and  durability  of  the  wood 
make  it  a  valuable  tree  for  timber;  the 
wood  is  yellowish  in  color,  with  a  smooth 
grain;  it  is  used  for  posts  and  in  exterior 
construction.  Its  great  enemy  is  the . 
borer,  which  sometimes  destroys  the  trees 
of  a  large  region.  The  honey-locust, 
with  pink  flowers,  the  carob-tree  on 
Mediterranean  shores  and  the  locust  of 
the  West  Indies  are  other  trees  bearing  the 
name. 

Locy,  William  A.,  an  American  zoolo- 
gist, was  born  at  Detroit,  Mich.,  Sept.  14, 
1857.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Michigan  in  1881,  and  spent  a  year  in  grad- 
uate study  there  and  another  at  Harvard 
University.  In  1887  he  was  made  professor 
of  biology  in  Lake  Forest  College,  and  in 
1891  was  elected  professor  of  physiology 
in  Rush  Medical  College,  retaining  both 
chairs.  He  was  sent  to  Europe  to  inspect 
laboratories  and  purchase  instruments,  and 
while  there  carried  on  work  under  professors 
at  the  University  of  Berlin.  He  resigned 
at  Rush  on  account  of  ill-health,  and  in 
1896  took  the  chair  of  zoology  at  North- 
western University.  He  has  contributed 
treatises  to  periodicals  of  science  in  Germany 
and  the  United  States. 

Lodge,  Henry  Cabot,  an  American  states- 
man and  author,  was  born  at  Boston,  Mass., 
May  12,  1850. 
He  was  educated 
at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, where  he 
graduated  i  n 
1871,  and  fin- 
ished the  course 
in  the  law-school 
in  1875.  The 
next  year  he  was 
admitted  to  the 
Suffolk  bar.  He 
served  two  terms 
in  the  state  leg- 
islature, then 
was  elected  as 
Republican  rep- 
resentative to  the 

HENRY  CABOT  LODGE 


Congresses.  Though  serving  ably  and  indus- 
triously as  representative  and  as  member  of 
the  committee  on  naval  affairs  and  on  the 
election  of  president  and  vice-president, 
he  is  best  known  for  his  literary  attainments. 
Since  1893  he  nas  been  a  United  States  sen- 
ator. He  is  distinguished  as  a  writer  on 
economic,  financial  and  historical  subjects. 
Among  his  works  are  A  Short  History  o) 
the  English  Colonies  in  North  America,  Life 
of  Hamilton,  Life  of  Webster,  Life  of  Wash- 
ington, The  Story  of  the  American  Revolution 
and  Hero-Tales  from  American  History. 

Lodge,  Sir  Oliver  Joseph,  principal  of 
Birmingham  University,  was  born  in  1851 
in  Staffordshire,  England,  and  educated  at 
University  College,  London,  graduating  in 
1877  as  doctor  of  science  at  London  Univer- 
sity. An  original  thinker,  he  was  a  pioneer 
of  wireless  telegraphy;  inventor  of  machin- 
ery for  dispelling  fog;  and  prominent  in 
psychical  research,  with  a  profound  faith 
in  the  ultimate  unity  of  science  and  re- 
ligion. Has  done  mucn  to  introduce  religion 
into  the  spirit  of  modern  criticism  and  scientific 
knowledge.  In  his  inaugural  address  as  presi- 
dent of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science  (1913)  his  expressed  conviction 
that  memory  and  affection  persist  after  death 
and  that  the  dead  may  exert  influence  on  the 
living  attracted  wide  attention  and  discussion 
both  by  scientists  and  the  general  public. 
His  writings  embrace  Modern  Views  of  Electric- 
ity, Pioneers  of  Science,  Signaling  Across  Space 
Without  Wires,  Lightning  Conductors  and 
Lightning  Guards,  Electrons  (recent  discoveries 
in  electricity);  School  Teaching  and  School 
Reform;  and  Life  and  Matter,  a  criticism  of 
Haeckel's  Riddle  of  Existence.  Sir  Oliver, 
for  his  numerous  articles  on  electrical 
science,  was  in  1898  awarded  the  Rumford 
medal  by  the  English  Royal  Society,  and 
four  years  later  was  knighted. 

Lodi  (lo'dt),  a  town  in  northern  Italy,  on 
Adda  River,  18  miles  southeast  of  Milan. 
It  has  a  Gothic  cathedral  dating  from  the 
1 2th  century;  manufactures  of  linens,  silks 
and  majolica  ware;  and  a  great  trade  in 
cheese  and  wine.  It  is  best  known  as  the 
place  in  the  vicinity  of  which,  May  10,  1796, 
Bonaparte  forced  the  long  and  narrow 
bridge  in  face  of  the  Austrian  batteries. 
Population  20,000. 

Lodz  (Lodz),  sometimes  called  the  Man- 
chester of  Poland,  is  situated  76  miles 
southwest  of  Warsaw,  and  is  the  most 

Fopulous  city  in  Poland,  except  Warsaw, 
ts  rapid  growth  is  the  result  of  its  numerous 
cotton  and  woolen  manufactories,  of  which 
there    are    more    than    120.      Population 
393,526. 

Lofoten  or  Lofoden  (lo  Jd'ten)  Islands,  a 
chain  on  the  northwestern  coast  of  Norway, 
stretching  150  miles  with  an  area  of  2,247 
square  miles.  All  are  rugged  and  moun- 
tainous, many  of  the  summits  being  crater- 
shaped  The  highest  point  is  3,090  feet 


LOG 


1 1 08 


LOGAN 


high.  Vast  schools  of  codfish  visit  these 
waters  annually  from  January  to  March. 
The  fishing  is  attended  with  danger,  on  ac- 
count of  the  sudden  storms  from  the  west 
and  the  strong  currents  which  set  in  be- 
tween the  islands.  Their  famous  maelstrom 
is  the  result  of  a  strong  current  rushing  in 
and  out  of  a  great  fiord  between  Norway 
and  these  islands.  Owing  to  the  Gulf  Stream 
the  winters  are  mild,  grass  grows  abund- 
antly, and  sheep-farming  is  carried  on.  The 
permanent  population  numbers  3 6,000. 

Log  is  the  instrument  by  which  a  ship's 
rate  of  motion  in  the  water  is  measured. 
In  its  oldest  and  simplest  form  it  is  a  piece 
of  teakwood,  in  shape  one  fourth  of  a  disk, 
called  a  log- ship,  loaded  on  the  curved  edge 
so  as  to  float  point  upward.  Every  hour 
or  two  hours  it  is  thrown  overboard  for 
28  seconds,  or,  if  the  ship  is  going  very  fast, 
for  14  seconds.  It  is  attached  to  a  line 
called  the  log-line.  The  supposition  is  that, 
when  thrown  into  the  sea,  it  will  remain 
stationary  while  the  log-line  is  freely  paid 
out  from  a  reel  held  by  hand  on  board. 
This  log-line  is  divided  into  equal  sections 
by  knots  or  strips  of  leather,  each  section 
being  that  part  of  a  geographical  mile  which 
28  seconds  are  of  an  hour;  so  that  the  num- 
ber of  sections  of  the  log-line  which  run  out 
during  28  seconds  is  the  same  as  the  number 
of  miles  which  the  ship  is  going  per  hour  at 
the  time.  The  method  is  inaccurate,  be- 
cause in  some  motions  of  the  sea  the  log 
will  not  remain  stationary  even  14  seconds. 
The  log-book  is  a  book  containing  account 
of  courses  steered,  the  state  of  the  weather, 
employment  of  crew  and  like  matters. 
This  book  becomes  the  diary  of  the  ship. 
There  also  is  the  official  log-book  issued  by 
the  board  of  trade  at  the  beginning  of  a 
voyage,  and  returned  at  its  end.  This  book 
contains  a  record  of  the  crew,  offenses,  de- 
sertions, sickness  and  the  like.  It  is  a  civil 
record  of  the  voyage. 

Lo'gan,  the  name  of  a  chief  of  the  Cayuga 
Indians,  who  lived  on  the  Susquehanna  River 
t.nd  was  born  about  1725.  The  name  was 
taken  from  James  Logan,  a  prominent  citi- 
zen of  Pennsylvania.  In  early  life  Logan 
was  friendly  to  the  whites,  but  after  the 
murder  of  his  family  he  began  a  war,  in 
which  for  'several  months  great  cruelties 
were  inflicted  on  the  settlers.  When  the 
Indians  were  finally  defeated  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Great  Kanawha  in  Virginia,  Logan 
sent  the  governor  this  message:  "I  appeal 
to  any  white  man  to  say  if  he  ever  entered 
Logan's  cabin  hungry  and  he  gave  him  not 
meat;  if  ever  he  came  cold  and  naked,  and 
he  clothed  him  not.  My  countrymen 
pointed  as  they  passed,  and  said :  '  Logan 
is  the  friend  of  the  white  man.'  But  now 
there  runs  net  a  drop  of  my  blood  in  the 
veins  of  any  living  creafrore.  This  called 
on  me  for  revenge.  He  grew  very  intem- 
peratCj  and  in  a  drunken  frenzy  knocked 


JOHN  A.  LOGAN 


down  his  wife  and  fled,  supposing  her  dead. 
Meeting  a  party  of  Indians,  he  thought  they 
meant  to  attack  him,  and  he  turned  upon 
them,  when  they  killed  him  in  self-defense, 
near  Detroit,  in  1780. 

Logan,  John  Alexander,  American  gen- 
eral and  statesman,  son  of  Dr.  John  Logan, 
an  Irish  physician, 
was  born  in  Jackson 
County,  111.,  Feb.  9, 
1826.  As  a  boy  his 
s  c  h  ool-  advantages 
were  meager.  He 
served  in  the  Mexi- 
can War,  was  pro- 
moted to  a  lieuten- 
ancy, and  became 
adjutant  of  the  regi- 
ment.  After  a 
course  in  Louisville 
Law  School,  he 
formed  a  partner- 
ship with  his  uncle. 
In  1852  he  was 
elected  to  the  legis- 
lature and  re-elect- 
ed  in  1853  and 
in  1854.  He  was  elected  to  Congress 
in  1858  as  a  Democrat  and  again  in  i860. 
He  was  at  Washington  attending  the  extra 
session  of  1861  when  the  first  advance  on 
Bull  Run  occurred. 

The  nearness  of  the  conflict  was  too  much 
for  his  martial  spirit.  He  left  his  seat,  en- 
tered the  ranks  of  a  Michigan  regiment, 
and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  July  21.  Re- 
signing his  seat,  he  raised  the  3ist  regiment 
of  Illinois  volunteers  (1861)  of  wnich  he 
was  chosen  colonel.  Soon  afterward  he 
became  conspicuous  in  the  battle  of  Bel- 
mont,  where  he  led  the  charge  which  broke 
the  enemy's  line.  For  bravery  at  Fort 
Donelson,  where  he  was  severely  wounded, 
he  was  promoted  to  be  a  brigadier-general, 
March  5,  1862.  For  skill  and  bravery  at 
the  siege  of  Corinth  and  in  Grant's  cam- 
paign in  Mississippi,  he  was  appointed  a 
major-general,  Nov.  29,  1862.  Placed  in 
command  of  the  ?d  division,  i7th  army- 
corps,  he  bore  a  distinguished  part  in  the 
Vicksburg  campaign,  exhibiting  the  quali- 
ties of  an  able  leader  and  winning  renown 
for  personal  bravery,  especially  at  Ray- 
mond, May  12,  and  at  Champion's  Hill, 
May  1 1,  1863.  At  the  siege  of  Vicksburg  he 
was  in  command  of  the  center,  and  led  the 
column  which  took  possession  of  the  city 
on  July  4.  He  succeeded  to  the  command 
of  the  1 5th  'army-corps,  and  took  part  in 
every  battle  of  Sherman's  memorable  and 
bloody  campaign  from  Missionary  Ridge 
to  Atlanta.  When  McPherson  fell  at  At- 
lanta, Logan  took  his  place  in  command  of 
the  army  of  the  Tennessee.  In  the  autumn 
of  1864  he  returned  to  Illinois  and  took 
part  in  the  presidential  campaign,  making 
many  speeches  for  Lincoln  in  the  wesr.err 


'LOGAN 


1109 


LOMBARDS 


states.  He  rejoined  his  command  at  Savan- 
nah in  January,  1865,  marched  through  the 
Carolinas  with  Sherman,  and  took  part  in 
the  last  battle  of  the  war  at  Bentonville. 
He  succeeded  General  Howard  in  command 
of  the  army  of  the  Tennessee  in  May,  1865. 
In  August  he  resigned  from  the  army,  with 
a  glowing  record  as  an  able  general,  inspir- 
ing leader  and  hard  fighter.  Returning  to 
his  state,  he  at  once  became  prominent  in 
politics  as  a  Republican  leader.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1866,  1868  and  1870. 
In  1871  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
senate,  in  1879  and  in  1885.  He  took  a 
prominent  and  influential  part  in  the  leg- 
islation relating  to  the  reconstruction  of 
the  south,  and  from  his  activity  in  promot- 
ing measures  for  the  benefit  01  the  soldiers 
came  to  be  regarded  by  them  as  their  special 
champion  and  friend.  In  1884  he  was  nom- 
inated for  vice-president  on  the  ticket  with 
James  G.  Elaine,  but  was  defeated.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Grand  Army 
of  the  Republic,  and  its  first  national  com- 
mander. He  also  first  instituted  Memorial 
Day,  which  is  now  observed  as  a  national 
holiday  on  May  3oth  every  year.  He  pub- 
lished The  Great  Conspiracy  in  1886,  and  his 
Volunteer  Soldier  of  America  appeared  after 
his  death,  which  occurred  at  Washington, 
D.  C.,  Dec.  26,  1886.  See  Life  by  Dawson. 

Lo'gan,  Major  John  A.,  son  of  the  above, 
was  born  in  Illinois  on  July  24, 1865,  served  in 
Cuba  and  in  the  Philippines,  where  he  was 
killed  in  an  engagement  with  the  insurgents 
at  San  Jacinto,  Nov.  12,  1899. 

Logans.    See  ROCKING-STONES. 

Lo'gansport,  county-seat  of  Cass  County, 
Ind.,  lies  75  miles  northwest  of  Indianapolis, 
at  the  crossing  of  three  railroads,  where 
Eel  River  joins  the  Wabash.  There  are 
extensive  railroad  shops,  besides  flour  and 
lumber  mills  and  foundries,  and  the  town 
has  a  large  'shipping-trade  in  grain,  pork 
etc.  Population,  21,000. 

Logic  (loj'lk),  plainly  defined,  is  the 
science  of  reasoning  or  that  specific  course 
of  connected  argument  by  which  a  conclu- 
sion is  reached.  Socrates  first  devoted  part 
of  his  writings  to  a  generalized  idea  of  the 
art;  but  Aristotle,  in  some  of  his  works, 
reduced  it  to  a  science,  and  the  rules  laid 
down  by  him  survive  to  the  present  day, 
only  modified  from  the  pure  or  formal  logic 
of  the  ancients  by  the  addition  of  what  is 
called  mixed  or  material  logic,  treating  of 
facts  but  not  of  the  course  by  which  such  facts 
are  reached.  Formal  logic,  complete,  re- 
gards thought,  not  as  an  expression  of  the 
existence  of  matter  or  the  truth  of  a  state- 
ment, but  as  a  series  of  operations  which, 
if  strictly  and  properly  followed  out,  pro- 
duce an  end  consistent  with  the  beginning. 
Technically,  a  proposition  in  logic  is  divided 
into  three  parts — the  term  or  notion,  the 
judgment  or  proposition  and  the  reasoning 
or  syllogism.  The  first  is  merely  in  the 


nature  of  a  definition  of  the  subject-matter; 
the  second,  the  process  or  opinion  by  which 
it  becomes  worthy  or  capable  of  allowing 
argument;  and  the  last,  the  argument. 
Among  modern  writers  Bacon  is  said  to  be 
the  founder  of  mixed  or  inductive  logic, 
and  his  theories  received  much  develop- 
ment and  broader  treatment  at  the  hands 
of  John  Stuart  Mill.  Broadly,  the  branches 
differ  in  that  pure  logic  allows  argument 
from  an  established  whole,  and  inductive  logic 
argues  to  build  the  whole.  See  J evens'  Logic. 

Log'wood,  a  tree  which  is  a  native  of 
Mexico  and  Central  America.  It  has  also 
been  naturalized  in  some  of  the  West  Indies. 
The  sap-wood  is  useless,  and  is  hewn  off 
with  the  bark.  The  heart-wood  is  slightly 
heavier  than  water,  hard  and  coarse- 
grained. Extracts  of  this  heart  are  made 
for  dyeing  purposes.  Logwood,  although 
itself  a  dark  red,  does  not  produce  red  colors, 
but  shades  of  purple;  blue  and  gray,  which 
are  not  permanent  unless  fixed  with  what 
is  called  a  mordant,  a  material  for  setting 
the  color.  Its  most  important  applica- 
tion is  for  dyeing  black  and  in  making  ink. 

Lohengrin  (Id' en-grin),  the  hero  of  an 
old  German  poem.  He  was  a  knight  of  the 
Grail,  the  son  of  Parzival,  taken  at  King 
Arthur's  command  by  a  swan  through  the 
air  to  Mayence,  ( or  to  Antwerp  as  some 
authorities  say),  where  he  fought  for  Elsa, 
daughter  of  the  duke  of  Brabant,  over- 
threw her  persecutor  and  married  the  lady. 
On  his  return  from  warring  against  the 
Saracens,  Elsa,  contrary  to  his  prohibition, 

B;rsisted  in  asking  him  about  his  origin. 
e  yielded  to  her  curiosity,  and  was  at 
once  carried  back  to  the  Grail.  Wagner 
made  the  legend  the  subject  of  his  great 
opera  of  Lohengrin. 

Loire  ( Iwdr )  River,  the  largest  river  of 
France.  It  rises  in  the  Cevennes  at  an 
elevation  of  4,511  feet,  and  empties  into 
the  Bay  of  Biscay.  It  is  620  miles  long, 
and  navigable  for  550  miles.  It  rises  and 
falls  with  the  tide  as  far  as  Nantes.  It  is 
connected  with  the  Seine,  the  Sa6ne  and 
the  harbor  of  Brest  by  canals,  and  is  noted 
for  its  destructive  floods,  though  the  lower 
parts  are  protected  by  dikes  20  feet  in 
height.  See  The  Seine  and  the  Loire,  with 
illustrations  by  Turner. 

LoI'lards,  a  sect  that  originated  at  Ant- 
werp in  1300;  a  term  of  reproach  or  ridicule. 
Their  mission  was  to  furnish  care  and  min- 
istration to  the  sick.  The  name  was  after- 
wards given  to  the  followers  of  Wiclif  in 
England  and  Scotland,  who  were  most 
cruelly  persecuted  in  the  reigns  of  Henry 
IV  and  Henry  V  in  England  and  a  little 
later  in  Scotland.  They  survived  till  the 
1 6th  century  Reformation,  and  were  one 
of  the  reasons  why  it  succeeded  with  the 
plain  people  of  England  and  Scotland 

Lom'bards  were  a  people  of  Germanic  de- 
scent. The  name  (from  Longobardf)  is 


LOMBARDY 


I  no 


LONDON 


thought  to  mean  long  beard,  from  the  long 
beards  of  the  people.  Though  never  a 
numerous  race,  they  were  distinguished  for 
their  fierce  love  of  war.  They  invaded  Italy 
in  568  and  established  themselves  there, 
but  adopted  the  Latin  language,  began  to 
build  churches,  founded  monasteries,  and 
gradually  united  with  the  Italians.  Charle- 
magne the  Great  overthrew  the  Lombard 
dynasty  and  had  himself  crowned  king  of 
fhe  Franks  and  of  the  Lombards.  From 
that  time  the  Lombards  merged  entirely 
into  the  Italians.  In  the  i3th  century  Lom- 
bard Italians  visited  England  for  trade 
and  gradually  became  London  bankers. 
They  dwelt  principally  on  Lombard  Street. 

Lom'bardy,  that  part  of  upper  Italy  be- 
tween the  Alps  and  the  Po.  It  comprises 
the  following  provinces  in  the  plains  of  the 
river:  Brescia,  Como,  Cremona,  Mantua, 
Milan  and  Pavia.  The  area  is  9,297  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  four  and  a  half 
millions.  The  country  was  conquered  by 
the  Romans  in  B.  C.  222,  belonging  to  the 
Carlovingians  from  A.  D.  843  to  961,  and 
was  a  bone  of  contention  at  one  time  be- 
tween the  king  of  France  and  the  German 
emperor.  The  emperor  prevailing,  through 
Charles  V  it  passed  to  Spain.  In  1815  it 
fell  to  Austria;  but  in  1859  it  was  given  up 
to  Italy,  of  which  it  is  now  a  part. 

Lo'mond,  Loch,  "the  queen  of  Scottish 
lakes,"  lies  23  feet  above  sea-level  and  is 
22  miles  long  and  from  three  fourths  of  a 
mile  to  five  miles  wide.  It  is  studded  with 
30  wooded  islands.  Of  the  hills  and  moun- 
tains beautifully  surrounding  it,  Ben  Lo- 
mond is  the  highest,  rising  to  an  elevation 
of  3,192  feet.  A  cave  on  the  bank  of  this 
lake  is  said  to  have  been  a  hiding-place  for 
King  Robert  the  Bruce  and  for  Rob  Roy. 

Lon'don,  the  most  populous  center  in  the 
world  and  the  capital  of  the  British  Empire, 
is  situated  on  the  Thames  River,  about  60 
miles  from  the  sea.  The  name  is  Celtic, 
and  seems  to  mean  a  fort  on  a  lake,  as  the 
Thames  here  is  a  tidal  inlet  which  once 
covered  all  the  low-lying  land  around. 
The  ancient  city  was  surrounded  by  a  wall, 
built  in  the  4th  century,  and  covered  about 
380  acres,  and  that  part  is  still  called  "the 
city."  Parts  of  Middlesex,  Surrey  and 
Kent  are  now  included  in  London,  though 
many  of  the  villages  which  have  been  ab- 
sorbed still  retain  their  old  names,  as  Chel- 
sea, Lambeth  and  Hampstead.  The  present 
area  of  the  administrative  county  of  Lon- 
don is  75,442  acres.  The  Thames  flows 
through  the  city  and  is  crossed  by  several 
bridges,  Waterloo.  London,  Vauxhall  and 
Westminster,  with  Blackfriars,  Victoria, 
Albert,  Tower,  Lambeth  and  Southwark 
being  some  of  the  best  known  bridges.  There 
are  several  tunnels,  including  Blackwell 
Tunnel,  under  the  river,  and  wide  embank- 
ments on  both  sides,  forming  fine  roadways, 
besides  ferries  across  the  river,  such  as 


Woolwich  Ferry,  which  in  1904  had  a 
passenger  traffic  of  about  5,500,000.  The 
river  steamboat  service  embraces  30  boats 
licensed  to  carry  500  passengers  each.  The 
North  Metropolitan  Electric  Company  runs 
a  service  of  48  J  miles;  while  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Thames  there  are  25  miles  of 
horse  and  28^  miles  of  electric  traction 
service.  Besides  these  transit  facilities  there 
are  now  those  of  the  tube  (underground) 
railways,  and  the  vast  systems  of  the  above- 
ground  roads  leading  to  all  parts  of  the  king- 
dom and  far  extending  suburbs.  There  to- 
day are  about  550  railway  stations  within 
the  area  of  Greater  London ;  the  number  of 
mechanically  propelled  vehicles  in  the  city  is 
about  2,500.  There  are  many  large  parks: 
Hyde  Park  is  the  site  of  the  Albert  Memorial, 
the  finest  modern  monument,  with  marble 
groups,  reliefs,  frescoes  and  169  sculptured 
portraits  of  great  poets  and  artists;  Regent's 
Park  has  the  finest  zoological  garden  in  the 
world;  St.  James  Park  with  Buckingham 
Palace;  Green  Park  with  a  statue  of  'Well- 
ington; Victoria  Park  and  Alexandra  Park 
are  a  few  of  the  best-known,  besides  a 
number  of  botanic  gardens,  as  Kensington 
and  Kew  Gardens.  There  are  a  large  num- 
ber of  squares,  among  them  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fields,  Trafalgar,  with  Nelson's  monument, 
Belgrave  and  Grosvenor  Squares.  Regent 
Street,  a  favorite  resort  of  shoppers,  is  the 
handsomest  street  in  London,  and  Cheap- 
side,  Bishop's  Gate  and  Leadenhall  are 
among  the  most  crowded.  Buckingham, 
St.  James  and  Kensington  Palaces  are  the 
city  residences  of  the  sovereign,  including 
Marlborough  House  which  was  wont  to  be 
occupied  by  King  Edward  VII,  when  Prince 
of  Wales.  Lambeth  Palace  is  the  official 
home  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  while 
Fulham  Palace  is  the  residence  of  the  Bishop 
of  London.  The  parliamentary  buildings 
called  Westminster  Palace,  at  Westminster, 
cover  eight  acres  and  have  1,100  rooms. 
The  cellars  are  searched  two  hours  before 
the  sovereign  arrives  to  open  parliament, 
and  have  been  so  searched  ever  since  the 
era  of  Gunpowder  plot. 

St.  Paul's  Cathedral  and  Westminster 
Abbey  are  the  best  known  of  the  more  than 
two  thousand  churches.  St.  Bartholomew 
the  Great  is  one  of  the  most  ancient,  dating 
from  1102;  St.  Giles',  Cripplegate,  another 
old  church,  is  the  burial-place  of  Milton; 
St.  Mary  le  Bow,  with  its  far-reaching  bells, 
gave  rise  to  the  saying  "born  within  the 
sound  of  Bow  bells;"  St.  George's  Church 
in  Hanover  Square  is  used  for  the  most 
fashionable  marriages  in  London.  White- 
field's  Chapel,  built  in  1756,  Rowland  Hill's 
Chapel,  opened  in  1783,  and  Spurgeon's 
mammoth  Tabernacle  are  other  interesting 
churches.  The  St.  George  and  Westminster 
Cathedrals  of  the  Roman  church  are  mag- 
nificent structures.  St.  Paul's  Cathedral, 
standing  on  the  site  of  the  old  church  which 


LONDON 


LONDON,  ONT. 


was  burned  in  1666  was  finished  in  1710; 
its  dome  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world, 
and  its  bell  is  ten  feet  across.  The  tombs 
of  Wellington  and  Nelson  are  in  the  crypt. 
The  annals  of  Westminster  Abbey  reach 
back  to  the  ;th  century,  though  a  large 
part  of  the  present  building  was  finished  in 
the  1 3th.  It  is  shaped  like  a  cross.  In 
Poets'  Corner  are  monuments  to  many  of 
the  great  poets  of  England.  The  University 
of  London,  University  College,  King's  Col- 
lege, St.  Paul's  School,  Charter  House  School, 
Westminster  School  and  City  of  London 
School  are  among  the  numerous  educational 
institutions.  The  British  Museum,  the  largest 
in  the  world,  South  Kensington  Museum, 
with  schools  of  art  and  music  and  magnifi- 
cent collections,  and  Royal  Albert  Hall,  the 
Indian  Museum  and  Soame  Museum  are 
worthy  of  mention.  There  also  are  large 
libraries  in  the  British  Museum,  the  East 
India  House,  the  circulating  library  of 
St.  James  Square  and  others.  The  national 
gallery  of  paintings,  national  gallery  of 
portraits,  royal  academy  of  arts,  of  which 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  was  first  president, 
Dulwich  Gallery  and  the  Crystal  palace  at 
Sydenham  are  notable  collections  of  art. 
The  Tower  of  London  is  the  only  fortress  in 
the  city,  and  has  barracks  for  several  thou- 
sand soldiers.  It  contains  the  royal 
jewels;  the  traitor's  gate  through  which 
Raleigh,  Sidney  and  others  entered  the 
Tower,  and  the  bloody  tower  opposite  the 
gate  are  points  of  historical  interest. 

The  main  manufactures  are  silk,  carriages, 
clocks,  watches,  jewelry,  books  and  musical 
instruments.  But  enormous  trade  is  what 
makes  London  the  wealthiest  city  in  the 
world.  London  now  has  37  refrigerating 
stores,  with  a  combined  capacity  of  storing 
2,780,500  carcases.  Its  imports  of  meat 
in  1906  were  5,119,061  carcases  of  frozen 
mutton,  3,680,831  carcases  of  lamb,  and 
1,449,673  quarters  of  beef.  The  principal 
markets  of  the  metropolitan  area  number 
nine,  Billingsgate,  Leadenhall  and  Smith- 
field  being  the  chief  of  these.  London  re- 
turns 59  members  to  parliament.  In  1906 
the  city  had  55  licensed  theaters,  41  music 
halls  and  250  concert-halls,  the  seating 
capacity  being  about  400,000.  The  yearly 
expenditure  of  the  London  county-schools 
now  exceeds  25  million  dollars,  there  being, 
in  1906,  967  public  elementary  schools,  with 
721,673  pupils  and  an  average  attendance 
of  663,371.  The  traffic  receipts  of  the  Lon- 
don transportation  companies  for  the  half 
year  (Jan. -June,  1907),  amounted  to  250 
million  pounds.  For  its  own  use  for  food 
London  annually  requires  400,000  oxen, 
1,500,000  sheep,  8,000,000  head  of  poultry, 
400,000,000  pounds  of  fish,  500,000,000 
oysters,  180,000,000  quarts  of  beer  and 
30,000,000  quarts  of  wine,  and  it  burns 
6,000,000  tons  of  coal.  The  best  retail 
stores  are  on  Regent  Street,  Bond  Street 


and  the  Strand,  while  there  are  large  mar- 
kets for  meat,  fish  and  provisions  of  all 
kinds.  Billingsgate  is  the  great  fish-market, 
and  has  been  known  since  the  time  of 
Elizabeth,  while  the  Ragfair  is  a  market 
devoted  to  the  sale  of  old  clothes.  The 
foreign  trade  largely  exceeds  that  of  any 
other  port  in  the  world,  and  vessels  with  an 
aggregate  tonnage  of  18  million  tons  enter 
every  year.  The  daily  water-supply  for  the 
seven  million  inhabitants  of  London  amounts 
to  over  250  million  gallons  —  a  daily 
consumption  of  nearly  50  gallons  per 
head. 

London  probably  was  founded  in  43  A.  D. 
by  a  Roman  governor  of  Britain.  It  was 
burned  by  the  Britons  under  Boadicea  in 
6 1  A.  D.  The  walls  and  fortifications  date 
back  to  Constantine  (c.  300).  From  369 
till  412  it  was  the  capital  of  Britain,  and 
called  Augusta.  Bede  calls  it  a  "princely 
town  of  trade,"  when  it  was  the  capital  of 
the  east  Saxon  kingdom.  The  real  founder 
was  King  Alfred,  who  so  restored  the  city, 
that  the  Danes  were  never  able  to  take  it. 
The  city  grew  slowly;  but  by  the  time  of 
Edward  III  was  rich  and  prosperous  and 
sided  with  the  House  of  York  in  the  Wars 
of  the  Roses.  The  principles  of  the  Refor- 
mation were  welcomed  in  London,  and  the 
suppression  of  monasteries  and  the  confisca- 
tion of  their  property  under  Henry  VIII 
made  him  popular  at  first,  though  the  same 
treatment  of  the  guilds  lost  him  the  favor 
of  the  citizens.  Under  Elizabeth  the  silk 
trade,  driven  from  France,  was  established 
in  England,  the  coinage  was  reformed,  and 
new  openings  for  adventure  in  America  and 
India  gave  a  great  impulse  to  trade.  The 
city  suffered  from  the  extortion  of  Charles  I, 
who  seized  the  money  of  the  goldsmiths 
deposited  in  the  Tower  and  from  many  of 
Cromwell's  impositions.  It  was  almost 
ruined  by  Charles  II,  whom  it  had  helped 
to  restore  to  his  throne.  The  plague,  which 
had  several  times  visited  London,  in  1665 
destroyed  one  fifth  of  the  population.  The 
great  fire  of  1666,  lasting  five  days,  burnt 
396  acres  of  houses.  In  1694  the  Bank  of 
England  was  established;  in  1760  the  old 
walls  and  gates  were  torn  down;  and  the 
streets  were  first  lighted  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne.  .In  1906  London  had  27 
borough  councils  returning  227  aldermen 
and  1,362  councillors  to  the  civic  govern- 
ment. Its  police  force  in  1905  was  close 
upon  16,000  men,  and  its  fire  brigade  num- 
bered 1,382.  Population  4,522,901  in  1911, 
of  Greater  London  (area  690  sq.  miles) 
7,252,963.  See  Old  and  New  London  by  Cas- 
sell  and  Walks  in  London  by  Hare. 

London,  Ontario,  a  city  of  46,727  people 
in  Middlesex  County,  is  121  miles  west  of 
Toronto.  Railway  car  shops  are  located 
here.  Western  University  and  one  of  the  pro- 
vincial normal  schools  attract  many  students. 
The  main  lines  of  the  leading  railroads  pass 


LONDON 


III2 


LONGFELLOW 


through  it.     It  is  becoming  an  important 
manufacturing  center. 

London,  Jack,  novelist,  a  new  force  in 
letters,  hailing  from  California,  but  a  wan- 
derer and  "tramp"  whose  career  was  as 
romantic  and  exciting  as  that  of  any  of  the 
characters  in  his  books.  So  realistic  was  he 
that  he  has  been  termed  the  New  World 
Kipling.  Born  in  1876  in  San  Francisco, 
Mr.  London  studied  for  a  while  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  California,  but  early  took  to  voyaging, 
serving  as  a  sailor  before  the  mast  and  gen- 
erally pursuing  a  roving  life,  not  only  in  this 
country  and  in  Canada,  but  abroad,  and  that, 
chiefly  on  pedestrian  tours.  He  also  acted  as 
a  war  correspondent  during  the  Russo-Japanese 
War.  Many  of  his  books  are  frankly  social- 
istic, especially  The  War  of  the  Classes  and 
The  People  of  the  Abyss.  His  novels  and 
stories,  which  give  insight  into  the  hearts 
of  undisciplined  men,  embrace  The  Sea  Wolf, 
The  Call  of  the  Wild,  The  Cruise  of  the  Dazzler, 
The  Son  of  the  Wolf,  Tales  of  the  Fish  Patrol 
and  The  Children  of  the  Frost.  He  died  Nov. 

22,  I9l6. 

Lon'donder'ry  or  Derry,  a  city  and  sea- 
port in  the  north  of  Ireland,  95  miles  north- 
west of  Belfast.  It  grew  up  around  a 
monastery  founded  here  in  546.  In  the 
Irish  War  of  the  Revolution  of  1688  the 

fates  of  the  city  were  closed  against  James 
I.  The  105  days  of  siege  that  followed 
(April  to  August,  1689)  form  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  events  of  Irish  history.  The 
Protestant  cathedral,  dating  from  1633, 
the  Catholic  cathedral,  guild-hall,  custom- 
house and  a  triumphal  arch  commemorat- 
ing the  siege  are  objects  of  note.  Magee 
College  was  founded  in  1865.  Shirt-making 
factories,  distilleries,  iron  foundries  and 
shipbuilding  are  the  principal  industries. 
See  Hempton's  Siege  and  History  of  Lon- 
donderry. Population  39,892. 

Long  Branch,  a  famous  bathing-place  of 
New  Jersey,  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  38  miles 
from  New  York  City.  The  town  extends  2% 
miles  inland  from  the  shore.  The  large  hotels 
are  on  a  bluff  above  the  beach,  while  many 
fine  residences  for  summer  homes  lie  between. 
Population  14,565. 

Long  Island,  a  part  of  the  state  of  New 
York,  lying  between  the  Atlantic  and 
Long  Island  Sound,  is  115  miles  in  length 
and  from  12  to  24  wide,  covering  1,682 
square  miles.  In  the  interior  is  a  line  of 
low  hills  and  many  small  lakes,  and  on  the 
south  shore  a  series  of  lagoons.  Game  is 
still  found  there,  and  there  are  valuable 
fisheries  and  oyster  beds,  and  large  areas 
devoted  to  market-gardening;  but  much 
of  the  land  is  still  waste,  and  Coney  Island 
and  other  summer  resorts  are  planted  in 
deserts  of  sand.  The  principal  city  is 
Brooklyn,  now  a  part  of  New  York  City. 
The  island  is  separated  by  the  sound  from 
Connecticut.  It  was  settled  by  the  Dutch 
in  1632  and  by  the  English  in  1640.  Dur- 


ing the  Revolutionary  War  the  western  end 
was  fortified  as  a  protection  to  New  York, 
but,  after  a  prolonged  contest  with  British 
forces,  Washington  ordered  the  evacuation 
of  the  island,  and  it  remained  in  the  hands 
of  the  British  until  the  close  of  the  war. 
The  battle  of  Long  Island,  fought  on  Brook- 
lyn Heights,  occurred  on  Aug.  27,  1776. 

Long  Island  City,  a  suburb  of  New  York 
City,  on  Long  Island,  was  formed  in  1870 
out  of  five  villages.  There  are  manufac- 
tories of  pianos,  carriages,  varnish  and 
chemicals,  hammers,  boilers,  steam  en- 
gines, carpets,  billiard  tables,  terracotta 
and  macaroni.  In  fact,  Long  Island  City 
is  rapidly  becoming  the  largest  manufactur- 
ing center  of  the  greater  city.  It  has  a 
large  oil-trade  and  several  refineries.  The 
city  is  well-laid  out  with  wide  streets  and 
parks,  and  has  many  fine  residences.  It 
is  the  first  ward  of  the  Borough  of  Queens  of 
New  York  City.  Within  its  borders  are 
the  borough-hall  and  the  courthouse.  Popu- 
lation 61,763. 

Long  Island  Sound,  lying  between  Long 
Island  and  the  mainland  of  New  York  and 
Connecticut.  It  is  from  2  to  20  miles  wide 
and  from  75  to  200  feet  deep.  The  Thames, 
Connecticut,  Housatonic  and  other  rivers 
flow  into  it.  It  is  navigated  by  a  large  num- 
ber of  vessels,  and  is  well-provided  with 
lighthouses. 

Long  Par'Iiament,  the  name  by  which 
the  fifth  parliament  summoned  by  Charles 
I  is  known.  It  met  on  Nov.  3,  1640,  and 
began  its  work  by  reversing  all  the  tryannical 
and  illegal  acts  of  the  previous  n  years 
It  abolished  the  star-chamber  and  high- 
commission,  and  secured  itself  by  passing 
an  act  that  it  could  not  be  dissoVed  without 
its  own  consent.  Colonel  Pride  drove  96 
members,  who  were  displeasing  to  the 
arrriy,  out  of  Parliament,  and  the  remnant, 
called  the  Rump,  continued  to  sit  till  Crom- 
well turned  them  out  in  1653.  Richard 
Cromwell  failing  to  maintain  authority, 
the  Rump  was  recalled.  Of  the  160  mem- 
bers who  continued  sitting  after  the  king's 
death,  90  returned  to  their  seats.  Proving 
again  displeasing  to  the  army,  General 
Lambert  turned  them  out.  But  there  were 
dissensions  among  the  officers  of  the  army, 
and  these  members  of  Parliament  were 
once  more  restored  as  the  only  body  in  the 
country  having  any  kind  of  authority. 
After  issuing  writs  for  a  new  election,  it 
dissolved  itself  March  16,  1660. 

Long'fel'low,  Henry  Wadsworth.  At 
the  funeral  of  this  best-loved  of  all  our 
American  poets,  which  occurred  in  March, 
1882,  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  was  present. 
Four  years  older  than  his  dead  friend,  the 
sunny  philosopher  of  Concord  died  a  month 
later.  His  mind  had  long  been  clouded. 
Now,  as  he  gazed  on  the  serene  face  framed 
with  silver  hair  and  beard,  he  turned  to 
the  grief-stricken  people  assembled  in  the 


LONGFELLOW 


III3 


LONGFELLOW 


library  of  Craigie  House,  and  said:     "He 
was  a  beautiful  soul." 

No  more  fitting  epitaph  could  be  in- 
scribed on  Longfellow's  monument.  He 
was  a  beautiful  soul,  and  his  poetry  was  a 
reflection  of  the  goodness,  sincenty  and 
purity  of  his  mind  and  heart.  The  man 
who  was  to  win  so  unique  a  place  in  the 
affections  of  men  was  the  natural  product 
of  an  unspoiled  New  England.  He  was 
born  in  Portland,  Maine,  Feb.  27,  1807. 


HENRY   WADSWORTH    LONGFELLOW 

Settled  in  1632,  Portland  still  retained 
much  of  its  Puritan  character  in  the  sim- 
plicity of  living  and  democracy  of  society. 
No  one  was  either  very  rich  or  very  poor. 
Good  morals  and  propriety  were  expected; 
superior  education  and  manners  inspired 
respect.  Imagination  was  given  wider 
range  in  this  busy  seaport  town  than  in 
the  interior  by  the  arrival  and  departure 
of  sailing  vessels  in  the  foreign  trade.  In 
My  Lost  Youth  the  poet  shows  how  early 
in  life  these  things  exercised  their  fascina- 
tion on  him.  Upon  his  graduation  from 
Bowdoin  College,  Maine,  at  18,  the  way  to 
a  literary  life  was  opened  by  the  offer  of  a 
professorship  in  modern  languages  at  his 
Alma  Mater.  Three  years'  study  in  Europe, 
during  which  he  mastered  the  French,  Span- 
ish and  German  languages  and  literatures, 
fitted  him  for  the  position  which  he  as- 
sumed at  21.  Choosing  literature  as  a 
profession  as  early  and  as  definitely  as  did 
Lowell,  Longfellow  was  later  in  finding 
himself.  His  studies  and  travels  had  led 
him  to  revere  the  great  writers  of  the  past 
and  of  foreign  lands  —  especially  of  Ger- 
many, on  which  the  shadows  of  Goethe  and 
Schiller  still  lay.  In  comparison  with  these 
he  distrusted  his  own  powers.  So,  until 
he  was  more  than  30,  he  mainly  wrote 
prose  of  a  poetic,  mystic  character,  that 
showed  the  German  inspiration.  This, 
however,  established  his  reputation  as  a 
scholar,  and  won  his  appointment  to  the 


chair  of  belles  lettres  at  Harvard.  In  1836, 
after  another  year  abroad  and  the  death  of 
his  young  wife,  he  went  to  Cambridge.  He 
secured  a  room  in  Craigie  House  which  he 
afterwards  bought,  and  this  continued  to 
be  his  home  for  46  years.  There  he  wrote 
Hyperion,  which  closed  the  first  period  of 
his  literary  life.  This  was  in  1839.  He  had 
looked  into  the  mind  of  Jean  Paul  Richter, 
when  he  wrote  it,  but  although  it  was 
received  with  enthusiasm,  he  now  took  for 
his  motto:  "Look  into  thine  own  heart  and 
write."  Within  a  year  he  published  a 
little  volume  of  poems  entitled  Voices  of 
the  Night,  which  contained  The  Psalm  of 
Life.  Dumb,  moral,  prosaic  New  England, 
that  cared  more  for  virtue  than  for  verse, 
had  found  a  voice  at  last;  one  that  was 
simple  and  musical  and  true,  but  that  had 
an  unknown  charm  and  matchless  art. 
The  Ballads  which  followed  contained  The 
Wreck  of  the  Hesperiis  and  The  Village 
Blacksmith. 

At  the  very  height  of  his  popularity 
Longfellow  wrote  his  Poems  on  Slavery. 
The  subject  was  bitterly  discussed  at  the 
time,  and  the  poet  suffered  by  ranging 
himself  on  the  side  of  the  abolitionists. 
His  muse  was  temporarily  obscured.  In 
1842  he  married  again,  bought  Craigie 
House  and  became  the  center  of  a  charm- 
ing, cultivated  circle  in  Cambridge.  Here 
he  shone  at  his  best  in  his  rare  social  gifts. 
In  1847  ne  published  Evangeline,  and  re- 
won  more  than  his  old  popularity  at  home, 
and  became  famous  abroad  for  this  "ten- 
derest  idyll"  in  the  English  language,  as 
it  was  called  by  a  critic.  With  The  Build- 
ing of  The  Ship,  published  when  the  Union 
had  begun  to  be  threatened,  he  appealed 
to  patriotism  in  a  noble  way  that  endeared 
him  to  the  people.  Before  the  Civil  War 
broke  out  he  had  published  The  Golden 
Legend,  Hiawatha  and  The  Courtship  of 
Miles  Standish.  Hiawatha  was  widely  dis- 
cussed and  attacked,  both  as  a  poem  and 
as  to  its  faithfulness  to  Indian  legends. 
Its  meter,  new  to  English  verse,  was  taken 
from  The  Kalevala  the  epic  of  Finland  and 
of  a  primitive  people,  which  made  it  seem 
so  genuine  an  expression  of  the  red  man. 
It  proved  the  poet's  wonderful  versatility. 
He  was  yet  to  draw  inspiration  from  the 
Old  World  in  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn. 
Really  at  home  in  Europe,  familiar  with 
modern  languages,  foreign  manners,  cus- 
toms and  literatures,  he  enlarged  the  field 
of  our  vision,  stimulated  historic  imagina- 
tion and  quickened  our  sympathies.  Foreign 
travel  had  not  then  become  easy  or  com- 
mon, and  the  tide  of  immigration  had 
not  yet  set  in  strongly;  so  we  had  no  sense 
of  fellowship  with  the  people  of  Europe 
and  little  feeling  of  our  own  historic  past 
in  lands  beyond  the  seas.  Longfellow  sup- 
plied that  lack,  and  widened  and  enriched 
the  intellectual  horizon  of  his  time. 


LONGITUDE 


1114 


LOON 


In  1861.  while  yet  in  his  prime,  Long- 
fellow's genius  suffered  partial  eclipse  in 
the  shock  of  his  wife's  death  by  fire.  He 
occupied  himself  for  five  years  in  trans- 
lating Dante's  Divine  Comedy.  Honors 
crowded  thick  and  fast  upon  him  both  at 
home  and  abroad,  but  he  was  not  spoiled 
by  fame.  He  remained  simple,  kindly, 
sincere.  His  last  years  were  encroached 
upon  by  visits  and  letters  from  admirers. 
He  helped  many  an  obscure  writer  by 
advice  and  introduction.  His  "children's 
hour"  was  continued  for  all  children  long 
after  his  own  were  grown  up.  The  school- 
children of  Cambridge  presented  him,  on 
his  72d  birthday  with  a  chair  made  from 
"the  spreading  chestnut  tree."  In  his 
later  years  he  collected  the  Poems  of  Places 
from  all  lands  and  tongues,  a  monumental 
task;  and  in  1880  he  published  his  last 
volume  of  poems,  —  Ultima  Thule.  On  the 
title-page  was  a  motto  from  Horace  —  the 
prayer  for  an  old  age  with  unimpaired 
mind,  not  without  honor  nor  lacking 
song. 

The  prayer  was  granted.  After  six 
months  of  failing  health  but  unimpaired 
faculties  the  end  came  suddenly,  a  month 
after  his  75th  birthday.  A  beautiful  soul,  a 
beautiful  life,  a  beautiful  art  nobly  used  — 
all  were  his.  Whatever  side  of  him  one 
contemplates,  he  is  helpful  and  inspiring. 
His  memory  is  kept  green  by  annual  observ- 
ance of  his  birthday  in  the  public  schools; 
and  Craigie  House  is  one  of  our  few  Amer- 
ican shrines.  His  daughter  Alice,  the 
"grave  AHce"  of  The  Children's  Hour,  now 
an  oM  lady,  is  the  guardian  of  its  hallowed 
treasures,  and  receives  the  thousands  of 
pilgrims  who  visit  it  each  year.  See  Life 
by  SamueJ  Longfellow. 

Lon'gitude  in  geography  is  the  angle  at 
the  pole  between  the  meridian  passing 
through  Greenwich  observatory,  England, 
and  the  meridian  passing  through  the 
observer's  place.  Since  this  angle  is  exactly 
proportional  to  the  time  required  for  the 
earth  in  its  rotation  to  carry  one  meridian 
into  the  position  formerly  occupied  by  the 
other,  we  may  define  the  difference  of 
longitude  between  two  places  as  the  differ- 
ence of  their  local  times.  Hence  longitude 
s  the  amount  by  which  noon  at  Greenwich 
s  earlier  or  later  than  noon  at  the  observer's 
place.  Longitude  may  be  determined  by 
Various  astronomical  methods,  but  either 
the  mechanical  or  electrical  method  is  usually 
employed.  The  simplest  method  is  to  carry 
a  chronometer,  set  to  Greenwich  time,  to 
the  station  under  consideration.  The  read- 
ing of  the  chronometer  at  noon  at  this 
station  will  be  the  longitude  of  the  station. 
This  is  the  method  almost  exclusively  used 
at  sea.  The  most  accurate  determination 
is  made  by  telegraph. 

Long'strgett  niames,   a  Confederate  gen- 
eral, was  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1821.    He 


GENERAL   LONGSTREET 


graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842,  and  fought 
m  the  Mexican  War,  being  wounded  at  Cha- 
pultepec.  He  en- 
tered the  Confed- 
erate service  in 
1 86 1,  serving  un- 
der Beauregard. 
He  fought  in  the 
first  battle  of 
Bull  Run,  and  at 
the  battle  of 
Seven  Pines 
(May  5,  1862) 
he  gained  dis- 
tinction. In  the 
battles  of  Cold 
Harbor  and 
Frazier's  Farm 
his  division  of 
10,000  men  lost  over  4,000  in  killed  and 
wounded.  With  the  rank  of  major-general 
he  had  charge  of  the  army  of  northern  Vir- 
ginia, and  helped  to  secure  the  victoiy  at 
the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run.  He  was 
in  the  battles  of  Antietam,  South  Mountain, 
Fredericksburg  and  Chancellorsville,  and 
commanded  one  of  the  three  corps  of  the 
army  that  invaded  the  north  and  fought 
the  battle  of  Gettysburg.  Sent  to  Tennes- 
see, he  was  in  time  for  the  victory  of  Chick- 
amauga,  but  returned  to  the  eastern  army 
under  Lee  in  March,  1864.  Mistaken  for 
a  Union  officer,  he  was  severely  wounded 
by  his  own  soldiers  in  the  battle  of  the 
Wilderness,  and  only  returned  to  service  in 
time  for  the  final  battle  of  Petersburg  and 
the  council  of  war  which  decided  to  sur- 
render the  Confederate  army.  Known  as 
Old  Pete,  he  was  considered  the  hardest 
fighter  in  the  Confederate  service.  He 
was  named  minister  to  Turkey  in  1880, 
and  in  1898  was  appointed  commis- 
sioner of  railways.  He  died  on  Jan.  2, 
1904. 

Loo«Choo  (loo-choo')  Islands  (also  called 
Liu- Kiu  or  Riu-Kiu),  a  group  of  islands 
extending  in  a  southwesterly  direction  from 
Kiushu  in  Japan.  They  are  essentially  Jap- 
anese, as  their  language  and  religious  cus- 
toms show.  China  holds  a  reserved  claim 
upon  them,  but  they  really  are  a  part  of 
the  Japanese  empire.  The  people  do  not 
shave  the  hair,  as  do  the  Japanese,  but  pin 
it  on  the  crown  of  the  head  with  a  star  in 
front.  The  women  tattoo  their  hands.  The 
streets  are  paved  with  stone,  and  the  houses 
are  inclosed  with  walls  ten  or  twelve  feet 
high,  which  give  the  street  a  desolate  appear- 
ance. There  are  no  shops  or  storerooms  in 
the  towns,  only  a  market-place  for  each 
town.  The  food  of  the  people  consists 
chiefly  of  sweet  potatoes,  pork  and  fish. 
Sugar  and  an  aromatic  orange  are  raised, 
and  a  small  breed  of  ponies  is  found.  The 
area  is  950  square  miles,  and  the  popula- 
tion is  estimated  at  455,000. 
Loon,  SEE  DIVER. 


LOPE  DE  VEGA 


IH5 


LORRAINE 


Lope  de  Ve'ga.     See  VEGA  CARPIO. 

Lopez  (Id' pas  or  Id' path},  Narcis'o,  Cuban 
revolutionist,  was  born  in  Venezuela  in 
1799.  He  served  many  years  in  the  Spanish 
army,  first  in  Venezuela,  later  in  Cuba,  after 
the  Spanish  troops  left  Venezuela  in  1822. 
In  1849  he  came  to  the  United  States  with 
a  plan  for  annexing  Cuba.  He  said  the 
Creoles  were  tired  of  the  Spanish  yoke 
and  ready  to  throw  it  off.  Lopez  at  the 
head  of  the  revolutionists  made  three 
attempts  against  Cuba.  In  1849  *ne 
watchfulness  of  the  United  States  author- 
ities prevented  their  making  a  descent 
upon  the  island.  In  1850  they  made  a 
landing  at  Cardenas,  but  were  driven  to  sea. 
In  1851  Lopez  sailed  from  New  Orleans 
with  500  men  and  landed  at  Murillo  in 
Vuelto  Abajo.  But  the  people  did  not  rally 
around  them  as  expected.  Many  were 
killed,  and  50  were  captured  and  shot  at 
Havana.  Lopez  with  the  remnant  fled  to 
the  woods,  but  he  was  captured  and  on 
Sept.  i,  1851,  strangled  at  Havana. 

Lorain',  O.,  in  Lorain  County,  a  city  at 
the  mouth  of  Black  River,  on  Lake  Erie, 
25  miles  west  from  Cleveland,  in  the  nat- 
ural-gas region  and  the  grape-growing 
belt,  is  distinctively  an  industrial  city. 
It  has  an  excellent  natural  harbor  more 
than  three  miles  in  extent,  which  with  the 
Nickel  Plate,  B.  and  O.,  Lake  Shore  and 
Wabash  railroads  furnishes  splendid  shipping- 
facilities  for  its  extensive  industries.  Large 
quantities  of  coal,  brought  by  the  railroads, 
are  reshipped  by  boat  to  the  upper-lake 
cities.  The  National  Tube  Co.'s  plant,  em- 
ploying more  than  8,000  men,  manufac- 
tures steel  rails,  steel  tubes  and  billets. 
The  largest  boats  on  fresh  water  have  been 
built  at  the  Lorain  yards  of  the  American 
Shipbuilding  Company.  The  Thew  auto- 
matic steam-shovels,  gas-engines,  refrig- 
erating machinery,  gas  and  gasoline  stoves 
are  manufactured  here.  The  population 
from  1890  to  1900  increased  from  4,863 
to  16,028,  standing  first  in  percentage  of 
growth.  The  present  population  is  28,883. 

Lorelei  (lo'rd-li'),  a  rock  rising  perpen- 
dicularly 427  feet  from  the  Rhine  near  St. 
Goar  It  has  a  celebrated  echo,  and  used 
to  be  dangerous  to  boatmen.  The  name 
is  best  known  from  Heine's  song  of  the 
siren,  who  sits  on  the  rock  combing  her  long 
tresses  and  singing  so  ravishingly  that 
tke  boatmen,  enchanted  by  the  music  of 
her  voice,  forget  their  duty  and,  drawn 
against  the  rock,  perish. 

Loreto  (Id-rdftd)  or  Loretto,  a  city  of 
Italy,  situated  three  miles  from  the  Adriatic 
and  15  from  Ancona.  The  city  is  chiefly 
noted  as  the  site  of  the  sanctuary  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  called  the  Santa  Casa,  which 
is  reputed  to  be  the  house  in  which  the 
Virgin  lived  at  Nazareth,  miraculously 
taken  in  1291  to  Fiume  in  Dalmatia;  in 
1294  to  a  place  near  Recanati  in  Italy; 


and  finally  carried  to  Loretto  in  1295.  This 
Holy  House  is  a  single  apartment  of  no 
great  .size,  originally  rude  in  construction, 
but  now  cased  with  white  marble  and  ex- 
quisitely sculptured.  The  image  of  the 
Virgin  which  it  contains  is  traditionally 
believed  to  have  been  carved  by  St.  Luke. 
The  shrine  is  visited  annually  by  about 
50,000  pilgrims,  though  formerly  the  num- 
ber reached  200,000  a  year.  The  church 
of  the  Santa  Casa  has  a  great  central  door, 
with  a  bronze  statue  of  the  Madonna  above 
it,  and  three  bronze  doors  with  bas-reliefs 
within.  Population  4,134. 

Lome,  John  Douglas  Sutherland  Camp- 
bell, Marquis  of,  a  British  statesman 
and,  since  1900,  duke  of  Argyll.  He 
was  born  at  London,  Aug.  6,  1845,  and  was 
educated  at  Eton,  St.  Andrew's  University 
and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  was 
elected  to  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  in  1868. 
In  1871  he  married  Princess  Louise,  the 
sixth  child  of  Queen  Victoria,  and  was  gov- 
ernor-general of  Canada  from  1878  to  1883. 
He  has  written  The  Book  of  Psalms,  literally 
rendered  in  verse;  A  Trip  to  the  Tropics; 
Guido  and  Litta;  Memoirs  of  Canada  and 
Scotland;  and  A  Life  of  Lord  Palmerston. 

Lorrain',  The  Right  Reverend  Nar- 
cisse  Zaphirin,  was  born  at  St.  Martin, 
Laval  County,  Quebec,  1842  and  began 
his  classical  studies  in  the  College  of  St. 
Therese,  which  has  trained  not  a  few  suc- 
cessful men.  His  student  career  was  a 
brilliant  one.  Ordained  priest  at  Montreal 
by  Bishop  Bourget  in  1867,  in  1869  he  was 
appointed  parish-priest  of  Bedford,  New 
York,  and  was  called  to  Montreal  in  1879. 
In  1880  he  was  appointed  Vicar-General 
of  the  Diocese  of  Montreal.  In  1882  he  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Cythera,  and  re- 
moved to  Pembroke,  where  he  was  to  reside 
as  V'car-Apostolic  of  Pontiac.  Under  his 
guidance  as  Pembroke's  first  bishop,  numer- 
ous substantial  churches  have  been  erected, 
and  many  others  enlarged  and  improved. 
The  diocese  comprises  an  immense  terri- 
tory, including  the  counties  of  Pontiac 
and  Renfrew.  It  comprised  33  churches, 
37  chapels,  four  convents  and  three  hos- 
pitals. The  25th  anniversary  of  Bishop 
Lorrain 's  consecration  was  celebrated  on 
September  2 1,  1907.  Appreciative  addresses 
from  the  laity,  the  town-council  and  the 
board  of  education  were  presented. 

Lorraine  (lor-rdnf),  a  country  in  Europe 
which  at  first  included  Alsace  and  Fries- 
land  and  the  lands  between  the  Scheldt, 
Meuse  and  Rhine.  In  954  Lorraine  was 
divided  into  Upper  and  Lower  Lorraine. 
The  latter,  known  as  Brabant,  now  forms 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Belgium  and  the 
provinces  of  Brabant  and  Guelderland  in 
Holland.  Upper  Lorraine  in  1766  was 
united  to  France,  and  afterward  subdivided 
into  the  departments  of  Meuse,  Moselle, 
Meurthe  ana  Vosges.  The  district  between 


LOS  ANGELES 


1116 


LOUIS  IX 


Metz  and  the  Vosges,  which  is  called  German 
Lorraine,  was  ceded  to  Germany  in  1871. 
It  has  rich  coal  and  iron  fields.  See  ALSACE- 
LORRAINE. 

Los  An'geles,  the  most  populous  city  in 
southern  California,  situated  on  the  South- 
ern Pacific,  Santa  Fe  and  San  Pedro,  Los  Angeles 
and  Salt  Lake  railroads  was  a  thriving  place 
when  the  Franciscans  founded  a  mission  there 
in  1 78 1 .  It  is  the  center  of  orange-growing.  A 
large  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  water- 
pipes  for  irrigation  purposes.  A  209  mile 
aqueduct  from  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains 
supplies  drinking  water  and  in  the  city  are 
irrigating  reservoirs  with  a  capacity  of  850,- 
ooo  gallons.  The  University  of  Southern 
California,  founded  in  1880,  with  colleges 
of  letters,  music  and  medicine,  has  its  seat 
here;  here,  also  are  Occidental  College, 
founded  in  1887,  and  St.  Vincent's  College, 
established  in  1865.  The  city  has  a  notable 
observatory,  a  cathedral,  a  fine  botanic 
garden,  six  parks  and  many  fine  buildings 
among  other  attractions.  Its  exports  are 
largely  oranges,  grapes  and  wine  which  is 
manufactured.  It  was  founded  by  the 
Spaniards,  and  called  The  Town  of  the 
Queen  of  the  Angels  from  its  delightful 
climate.  The  Spanish  population  is  rapidly 
disappearing.  Population,  438,914. 

Los'sing,  Benson  John,  American  his- 
torian, born  at  Beekman,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  12, 
1813,  and  died  near  Dover  Plains,  N.  Y., 
June  3,  1891.  He  began  life  as  a  journalist, 
and  conducted  The  American  Historical 
Record  at  Philadelphia.  He  became  a  volum- 
inous writer.  His  best-known  works  include 
the  Pictorial  Field-Book  of  the  Revolution;  a 
History  of  the  United  States;  a  History  of  the 
Civil  War;  Pictorial  Field-Book  of  the  War  of 
1812. 

Lot,  ancestor  of  the  Moabites  and  Am- 
monites, a  nephew  of  Abraham,  who  went 
with  him  to  Canaan.  Quarrels  between  their 
shepherds  caused  them  to  separate.  Lot  chose 
the  well-watered  region  of  the  Jordan  and 
went  to  Sodom,  but  was  warned  in  time  to 
escape  its  destruction. 

Loti  (lo'ti')  Pierre  (Louis  Viaud),  a 
brilliant  novelist  and  captain  in  the  French 
navy,  was  born  in  Rochefort,  Jan.  14,  1850, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  French  Academy 
in  1891.  Among  his  best  known  and  most 
widely  read  works  are  Le  Roman  d'un  enfant, 
Le  Mariage  de  Loti,  Pecheur  d'islande,  Propos 
d'exil,  and  Les  Desenchantees. 

Lot'teries  are  a  species  of  gambling  where- 
in the  holders  of  certain  numbers  have  prizes 
apportioned  to  them  by  a  drawing  of  chance. 
In  the  United  States  the  largest  scheme  of 
this  kind  was  the  Louisiana  lottery  supported 
by  the  constitution  of  that  state  on  the  pay- 
ment of  a  certain  amount  annually  into  the 
state's  treasury.  In  1891,  the  constitution 
was  amended,  prohibiting  the  lottery.  Federal 
laws  prohibit  the  passage  of  any  lottery  matter 
through  the  mails. 


Lo'tus,  a  name  applied  to  the  most 
widely  different  plants.  The  Lotus  of  botan- 
ists is  a  genus  of  about  100  species  found  in 
temperate  regions  and  belonging  to  the 
well-known  pea-family,  a  genus  probably 
not  known  at  all  in  a  popular  way.  The 
lotus  referred  to  by  the  Greeks  probably 
was  the  species  (L.  corniculatus)  spoken  of 
to-day  as  the  bird's-foot  tree-foil.  The 
African  lotus  has  given  certain  tribes  the 
name  of  lotus-eaters,  and  the  fruit  was  said 
to  be  the  size  of  an  olive  and  to  have  the 
sweetness  of  honey  and  the  taste  of  a  date. 
A  number  of  shrubby  desert  forms  have 
been  pointed  out  as  the  probable  lotus  of 
the  lotus-eaters.  The  Egyptian  lotus,  the 
sacred  lotus  of  the  Nile,  is  Nymphaa  lotus, 
a  large  water-lily  with  rose-colored  as  well 
as  white  flowers.  The  Hindoo  and  Chinese 
lotus,  also  called  the  sacred  bean,  is  a 
Nelumbo,  another  genus  of  the  water-lily 
family. 

Lotze  (lots' eh),  Rudolf  Hermann,  a  phil- 
osopher, was  born  in  Saxony,  May  21, 
1817.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  and  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  its  university 
in  1842  and  at  Gottingen  in  1844.  But  he 
first  attracted  attention  as  a  physiological 
writer,  contributing  articles  to  the  Hand- 
book of  Physiology.  His  Metaphysics  was 
published  in  1841,  and  his  Microcosmos,  giv- 
ing his  views  of  nature  and  man,  in  1856-64. 
It  is  sufficiently  popular  in  style  to  be  read 
by  general  readers.  His  General  Physiology 
of  Life,  published  in  1851,  dealt  with  the 
phenomena  of  life.  Lotze  died  at  Berlin 
on  July  i,  1881.  , 

Lou  bet  (loo'bd''),  Emile,  president  of 
France,  was  born  at  Marsanne,  Dec.  31, 
1838.  Early  in  life  he  took  to  the  study  of 
law  and  practiced  at  Mpntelimar,  at  the 
same  time  taking  a  prominent  part  in  pub- 
lic life.  In  1876  he  was  elected  to  the  cham- 
ber of  deputies  as  a  Republican;  in  1885 
to  the  senate,  of  which  he  became  president 
and  also  president  of  the  council.  On  the 
death  of  President  Faure  Loubet  was 
elected  to  succeed  him  as  head  of  the  Re- 
public. During  his  term  of  office  (1899- 
1906),  he  was  popular  with  all  classes  and 
greatly  respected  and  liked. 

Lou' is,  the  name  of  18  kings  of  France. 

Louis  IX  or  St.  Louis,  born  at  Poissy, 
April  25,  1215,  became  king  in  1226.  Dur- 
ing a  dangerous  illness  he  made  a  vow  that 
he  would  go  as  a  crusader  if  he  recovered, 
and  on  recovering  he  appointed  his  mother 
regent  and  sailed  with  40,000  men  for 
Egypt,  thinking  by  its  conquest  to  take 
Palestine.  He,  however,  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  Mohammedans,  but  afterward  freed 
by  a  heavy  ransom.  He  remained  abroad 
until  his  mother's  death  compelled  him  to 
return  to  France.  He  founded  the  Sor- 
bonne,  a  theological  college  at  Paris;  de- 
cided the  relation  of  the  French  church  to 
the  pope;  and  brought  into  use  a  code  of 


LOUIS  XI 


ZII7 


LOUIS  XVI 


laws  taking  his  name.  He  undertook  a 
second  time  to  go  to  the  east  as  a  crusader, 
but  during  this  expedition  he  died  from 
pestilence,  near  Tunis,  Aug.  25,  1270  He 
was  made  a  saint  of  the  Roman  church. 
See  Life  by  Wallon. 

Louis  XI,  oldest  son  of  Charles  VII,  born 
at  Bourges,  July  3,  1423,  from  his  boyhood 
was  cruel,  tyrannical  and  treacherous.  He 
made  unsuccessful  efforts  to  wrest  the 
throne  from  his  father.  On  his  accession  in 
1461  his  severe  measures  against  his  vassals 
stirred  them  up  against  him.  With  them 
he  was  artful,  yet  treacherous.  He  succeeded 
in  arousing  the  Swiss  republic  to  take  up 
arms  against  Charles  the  Bold,  and  from  that 
time  French  kings  employed  Swiss  mer- 
cenaries. In  1482,  by  treaty,  Burgundy  and 
Artois  were  handed  over  to  France  and 
Provence  was  annexed  to  the  crown.  He 
increased  the  number  of  parliaments  and 
gave  the  middle  classes  a  voice  in  state 
matters,  in  order  to  weaken  his  feudal 
vassals,  and  founded  three  universities. 
He  died  near  Tours,  Aug.  30,  1483.  after 
suffering  great  misery  for  years  from  terror 
of  death. 

Louis  XIII  of  France,  was  born  at  Fon- 
tainebleau  on  Sept.  27,  1601.  When  his 
father,  Henry  IV,  was  assassinated  in  May, 
1610,  he  succeeded  to  the  throne,  but  his 
mother,  Marie  dei  Medici,  was  regent  during 
his  youth.  The  Huguenots  rose  against 
her  alliances  with  the  pope  and  Spain,  but 
concluded  a  peace  in  1614.  When  the  king 
was  declared  of  age,  he  confirmed  the  Edict 
of  Nantes  and  summoned  the  states  -general 
for  the  last  time  until  the  reign  of  Louis 
XVI.  By  some  concessions  to  the  Catholics 
a  religious  war  was  provoked,  which  ended 
in  1622.  Under  the  guidance  of  his  great 
minister,  Richelieu,  the  weak  king  gradually 
increased  the  power  of  the  monarchy  at  the 
expense  of  the  Protestant  nobles,  ending  in 
the  overthrow  of  the  Huguenots  by  the  cap- 
ture of  La  Rochelle  in  1628.  In  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  Louis  sided  with  Gustavus 
Adolphus  against  Spain  and  Austria.  His 
acquisition  of  Alsace  and  Roussillon  was 
confirmed  in  the  next  reign.  He  died  on 
May  14,  1643.  See  History  of  France  by 
Yonge. 

Louis  XIV,  surnamed  Le  Grand,  was  born 
on  Sept.  16,  1638,  and  succeeded  his  father 
in  1643,  his  mother  becoming  regent,  with 
Mazarin  as  her  minister.  In  1 660  Louis  mar- 
ried Maria  Theresa.  Little  was  expected  from 
the  king,  as  his  education  had  been  neg- 
lected and  his  conduct  was  dissolute.  But 
in  1 66 1  he  suddenly  assumed  the  reins  of 
government  and  ruled  with  rare  energy. 
His  mot,  "I  am  the  state,"  oecame  famous, 
and  was  the  principle  of  his  government. 
His  ministers,  Colbert  and  Louvois,  helped 
him  to  restore  prosperity.  To  the  territory 
of  France  he  added  Lorraine,  part  of  the 
Spanish  Netherlands  and  Strassburg,  a 


free  German  city.  He  fell  under  the  con 
trol  of  Madame  de  Maintenon,  who  led  him 
to  severe  measures  against  the  Protestants 
By  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes 
more  than  half  a  million  of  the  best  citizens 
of  France  left  it,  carrying  their  skill  and  in- 
dustry to  other  lands.  The  death  of  Charles 
II  of  Spain  having  taken  place  on  Nov.  i, 
1700,  it  was  found  that  Louis  had  obtained 
his  signature  to  a  will  leaving  his  dominions 
to  one  of  the  grandsons  of  his  sister,  who 
had  been  Louis'  queen.  This  plunged 
Europe  into  the  war  which  ended  with  the 
Peace  of  Utrecht,  1713.  He  died  on  Sept.  i, 
1715.  His  reign  is  regarded  as  the  Augustan 
age  of  French  literature  and  art.  See  Louis 
XIV  and  his  Court  bv  Pardoe. 

Louis  XV,  great-grandson  of  Louis  XIV, 
was  born  in  1710  and  succeeded  to  the  throne 
in  1715.  The  duke  of  Orleans  was  regent 
during  the  king's  minority.  At  the  death 
of  the  regent  Louis  reigned  personally, 
putting  at  the  head  of  affairs  Cardinal 
Fleury,  who  set  his  face  against  a  warlike 
policy,  but  after  his  death  France  united 
with  Prussia  and  won  many  victories. 
Louis  fell  under  the  influence  of  Madame 
de  Pompadour,  to  whom  he  issued  notes 
for  enormous  sums  on  the  treasury.  He 
formed  an  alliance  with  Austria,  which  ended 
in  the  defeat  of  France  by  Prussia.  The 
king,  when  told  of  the  ruin  of  the  country 
and  the  discontent  and  misery  of  the  peo- 
ple, replied  that  the  monarchy  would  last 
as  long  as  his  life.  By  the  treaty  of  Paris 
(1763)  France  lost  Canada  and  Louisiana. 
He  died  in  1774.  See  Secret  Memoirs  of 
Madame  de  Pompadour  by  Beaujoint. 

Louis  XVI,  born  at  Versailles,  Aug.  23, 
1754,  was  the  grandson  of  Louis  XV.  In 
the  midst  of  a  corrupt  court  he  grew  up 
temperate,  honest  and  moral.  He  inherited 
an  empty  treasury,  an  enormous  debt  and 
an  exasperated  people.  Personally  full  of  good 
will  he  failed  to  restrain  his  brothers  and  to 
resist  the  influence  of  his  proud  wife,  Marie 
Antoinette,  whom  he  married  in  1770.  Vol- 
taire hailed  some  reforms  of  Louis'  minis- 
ters "as  the  dawn  of  the  age  of  reason." 
They  were  accepted  by  the  king  but  were 
rejected  by  court,  aristocracy,  parliament 
and  church.  Yet  Louis  accomplished  the 
remission  of  some  odious  taxes,  the  abolition 
of  serfdom,  the  abolition  of  torture  in  courts 
of  justice,  a  reduction  of  the  expenses  of 
the  court  and  the  foundation  of  institu- 
tions for  the  benefit  of  the  working  classes. 
The  privileged  classes  defeated  his  proposals 
for  reform  and  compelled  Louis'  great  direct- 
or-general, Necker,  to  resign  Necker's 
successor  was  forced  to  propose  the  same 
taxation  of  the  privileged  classes  which 
Necker  had  proposed,  and  he,  too,  was  com- 
pelled to  fly.  New  assemblies  were  demanded. 
Necker  was  recalled,  and  by  his  advice  the 
third  estate  was  summoned.  Necker  did 
this  to  counteract  the  influence  of  nobility. 


LOUIS  XVII 


xn8 


LOUISIANA 


court  and  clergy.  The  assembly  of  the  states 
met  on  May  5,  1789.  Louis'  subsequent 
history  is  that  of  the  Revolution  until  Jan. 
21,  1793,  when  he  died  by  the  guillotine. 
His  last  words  were:  "I  pray  that  my 
blood  come  not  upon  France.'  See  The 
French  Revolution  by  Carlyle,  by  Gardner 
and  by  Michelet. 

Louis  XVII,  second  son  of  Louis  XVI, 
was  left  in  prison  at  the  death  of  his  father. 
There  he  was  rudely  separated  from  his 
mother  and  placed  in  the  charge  of  a  brutal 
Jacobin,  who  treated  him  with  great 
cruelty.  He  became  a  wreck  in  body  and 
mind,  and  died  on  June  8,  1795.  Louis 
XVIII,  in  1815,  made  many  attempts  to 
find  the  remains  of  this  hapless  boy,  but 
failed.  This  fact  gave  rise  to  the  appear- 
ance of  false  dauphins,  whose  claims  de- 
luded many  honest  royalists  in  France. 
Even  in  1874  the  children  of  one  of  these 
claimants  raised  fruitless  actions  before 
Paris  law-courts  against  the  Count  of 
Chamber d.  See  Louis  XVII  the  Lost  Dau- 
phin by  Stevens. 

Louis  XVIII,  a  younger  brother  of  Louis 
XVI,  was  born  at  Versailles,  Nov.  17,  1755. 
He  fled  from  Paris  on  the  same  night  as 
Louis  XVI,  and  reached  the  Belgian  fron- 
tier in  safety.  From  his  retreat  he  issued 
declarations  against  the  revolutionists  which 
damaged  the  king.  After  the  execution  of 
his  brother  he  proclaimed  the  dauphin  king 
under  the  title  of  Louis  XVII,  and  in  1795 
himself  took  the  title  of  king.  The  fall  of 
Napoleon  opened  his  way  to  the  throne,  and 
on  April  26,  1814,  he  landed  at  Calais  after 
24  years  of  exile.  He  ruled  by  "the  divine 
right  of  kings."  The  Revolution  had  taught 
him  nothing,  and  his  treatment  of  Protest- 
ants, republicans  and  followers  of  Napoleon 
opened  the  way  for  Napoleon's  return  from 
Elba,  when  he  fled  into  exile  until  after  the 
battle  of  Waterloo.  He  was  restored  to  the 
throne  by  the  allied  powers  in  1815,  and 
ruled  until  his  death  on  Sept.  16,  1824. 

Louis  Napol'eon.    See  NAPOLEON  III. 

Louis  Philippe  (loo'e  fe-let>''),  born  at  Paris 
on  Oct.  6,  1773,  was  the  oldest  son  of  the 
duke  of  Orleans.  With  his  father  he  re- 
nounced his  titles  and  called  himself  Philippe 
Egalite  (Equality).  He  became  a  member 
of  the  Jacobin  Club,  and,  being  proscribed 
for  liberal  views,  was  an  exile  for  20  years. 
Ic  Switzerland  he  taught  school,  and  spent 
three  years  in  the  United  States.  In  1814 
he  returned  to  Paris,  when  he  received  his 
great  estates  which  the  royal  government 
had  taken.  Louis  XVIII  received  him 
with  much  distrust,  the  court  regarded  him 
with  jealousy,  but  he  was  popular  in  Paris. 
The  Revolution  of  1830  having  ended,  he 
was  appointed  lieutenant-general,  mainly 
on  the  proposal  of  Lafitte  and  Lafayette. 
On  Aug.  9,  he  accepted  the  throne  and  was 
called  to  be  king  of  the  French.  In  1848 
he  was  compelled  to  abdicate,  and  thus 


ended  a  reign  remarkable  for  the  wave  of 
liberalism  in  which  it  took  its  rise  and  for 
the  whirlwind  of  democracy  that  swept  it 
away.  He  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life 
in  England,  where  he  died  on  Aug.  26, 
1850.  See  Memoirs  of  a  Minister  of  State 
by  Guizot  and  Rise  and  Fall  of  Louis  Phil- 
ippe by  Poore. 

Loui'sa  of  Prussia,  known  as  The  Good 
Queen,  was  born  at  Hannover,  March  10, 
1776.  She  was  the  wife  of  Frederick  Wil- 
liam III  and  the  mother  of  Frederick  Wil- 
liam IV  and  William  I,  kings  of  Prussia. 
She  was  very  popular,  her  great  beauty 
and  dignity,  added  to  her  lovely  character 
and  wide  benevolence,  making  her  the  idol 
of  the  people.  She  showed  energy  and 
resolution  in  the  nation's  trouble  after  the 
battle  of  Jena,  and  still  further  won  the 
respect  of  the  people  by  the  manner  in 
which  she  endured  the  conduct  of  Napoleon, 
whom  she  had  visited  at  Tilsit,  vainly  hop- 
ing to  obtain  favorable  conditions  of  peace 
for  her  country.  She  died  on  July  19,  1810. 
The  Prussiaii  Order  of  Louisa,  The  Louisa 
School  for  Girls  and  The  Louisa  Governess' 
Seminary  were  founded  in  honor  of  her. 
See  Life  by  Hudson. 

Louis'burg  is  a  port  on  the  southeastern 
coast  of  Cape  Breton  Island,  Nova  Scotia. 
It  is  now  inhabited  by  a  few  fishermen,  but 
the  ruins  of  the  old  town  are  visible.  It 
was  once  regarded  as  the  strongest  fortress 
in  America,  until  the  English  took  it  in 
1758.  Then  the  fortifications,  which  had 
cost  France  over  $5,000,000  and  been  30 
years  in  building,  were  destroyed.  The 
town  has  a  fine  harbor,  and  is  on  the  Inter- 
colonial Railroad.  Population  1.650. 

Louisiana  (loo'e-ze-d'na),  one  of  the 
southern  or  gulf  states  of  the  Union,  lying 
between  Mississippi  and  Texas,  on  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  with  Arkansas  on  the  north.  It 
measures  about  200  miles  from  north  to 
south  and  a  little  less  than  300  from  east 
to  west,  and  covers  45,420  square  miles, 
being  nearly  equal  to  Mississippi  in  area. 

Surface.  The  highest  land  is  in  the  north- 
western and  northern  regions.  The  coast 
of  the  delta  and  the  east  consists  of  lands 
little  above  sea-level,  intersected  by  tracts 
of  elevated  prairies  and  low  ridges. 

Drainage.  The  Mississippi  flows  nearly 
600  miles  through  Louisiana,  a  large  por- 
tion of  its  delta  below  New  Orleans  being 
marshy  and  below  its  high-water  mark. 
About  one  fifth  of  the  surface  is  subject  to 
the  overflow  of  the  rivers,  especially  along 
the  Mississippi.  This  is  prevented  by  the 
levees  or  artificial  embankments  on  each 
side  of  the  river.  The  Red  River  is  the 
principal  tributary  of  the  Mississippi  flow- 
ing through  Louisiana.  The  Sabine,  form- 
ing part  of  the  western  boundary,  flows 
into  Lake  Sabine  and  thence  through 
Sabine  Pass  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
lakes  (of  which  Ponchartrain  is  the  largest) 


LOUISIANA 


Hip 


LOUISVILLE 


and  other  inland  waters  cover  an  area  of 
about  3,000  square  milss.  Lake  Ponchar- 
train  is  surrounded  by  land,  except  at  its 
outlets,  but  its  waters  are  salt  and  rise 
and  fall  with  the  tides. 

Climate.  Louisiana  is  semitropical,  there 
being  but  three  months  of  frost,  which 
begins  sometimes  in  November,  sometimes 
in  December.  The  summer's  heat  is  tem- 
pered by  the  gulf-breeze,  and  the  rainfall 
is  about  50  inches  in  the  north  and  60 
in  the  south.  This  warmth  and  moisture 

E  remote  the  most  luxuriant  growth  of 
owers  and  semitropical  fruits. 

Forests.  In  the  swamps  are  vast  forests 
of  red  and  white  cypress;  in  other  sections 
immense  areas  of  long-  and  short-leaf  pine, 
besides  ash,  oak,  beech,  walnut  and  cotton- 
wood. 

Minerals.  Some  iron  and  low-grade  coal 
are  found,  but  the  important  minerals  are 
rock-salt  and  sulphur.  Petroleum  is  also 
found,  and  the  oil-fields  give  promise  of 
rivaling  those  of  Texas. 

Agriculture.  The  soil  is  very  fertile, 
especially  the  delta  lands,  the  principal 
productions  being  sugar,  cotton  and  nee. 
Three  fourths  of  all  the  sugar  cane  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States  is  grown  in 
Louisiana.  The  cane  and  rice  are  grown 
in  the  southern,  the  cotton  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  state. 

Manufactures.  The  chief  industries  are 
the  manufacture  of  sugar  and  molasses, 
lumber  and  timber  products,  cottonseed- 
oil  and  cake,  named  in  the  order  of  their 
importance.  Oyster-beds  along  the  coast 
employ  many  people,  and  tobacco,  machine 
shop  and  foundry  products  are  among  the 
industries. 

Education.  The  state  maintains  public 
schools  for  white  and  colored  children; 
graded  schools  are  established  in  all  cities 
and  towns;  and  a  State  Normal  is  located 
at  Natchitoches.  Higher  education  in 
Louisiana  is  represented  by  the  State  Uni- 
versity, with  the  Agricultural  and  Mechan- 
ical College  at  Baton  Rouge.  At  New 
Orleans  are  Tulane  University  with  a  faculty 
of  152  members  and  1,880  students,  Leland 
University,  having  a  faculty  of  53  and  a 
student  body  numbering  1,971,  New  Or- 
leans University  with  its  faculty  of  38 
and  928  students,  Straight  University 
and  the  College  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception. The  Southern  University  for 
colored  students  is  also  in  New  Orleans; 
there  are  an  Industrial  Institute  at  Ruston 
and  the  Southern  Industrial  Institute  at 
Lafayette;  also  institutions  at  Convent, 
Keatchie  and  Jackson. 

History.  Louisiana  is  a  part  of  the  terri- 
tory purchased  from  France  in  1803,  it 
having  been  claimed  for  France  in  1682  by 
La  Salle.  It  became  a  state  in  1812.  It 
was  at  New  Orleans,  now  the  chief  city, 
that  General  Jackson  won  so  signal  a 


victory  over  the  British  forces,  Jan.  8,  1815. 
Baton  Rouge  is  the  capital  (population 
11,743).  During  the  Civil  War  Louisiana 
became  a  member  of  the  Confederacy,  and 
more  than  a  hundred  battles  and  minor 
engagements  were  fought  upon  her  soil 
duirng  the  struggle.  New  Orleans  was 
captured  by  the  Federal  navy,  April  24, 
1862;  and  when  Vicksburg  and  Port  Hud- 
son fell  in  1863,  the  Mississippi  was  opened 
throughout  its  course  and  the  Confederacy 
was  literally  cut  in  two.  Population  1,843^- 
042.  The  state  has  3,221  miles  of  railway. 

Louisiana  Purchase,  The,  was  the  most 
important  addition  to  the  territory  of  the 
original  thirteen  states.  Its  northern  boun- 
dary is  indefinite,  but  practically  reaches 
the  boundary  between  British  America 
(Canada)  and  the  United  States.  Thus  it 
took  in  the  whole  of  the  United  States  west 
of  the  Mississippi,  except  Texas,  California 
and  what  the  United  States  won  from 
Mexico  by  treaty  and  purchase.  For  this 
country,  bought  from  France  in  1803,  the 
United:  States  paid  $11,250,000  and  assumed 
the  French  spoliation  claims,  which,  how- 
ever, were  never  paid. 

Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition.  To 
commemorate  the  centenary  (1803)  of  the 
purchase  from  France  of  the  Territory  of 
Louisiana,  an  international  exposition  was 
held  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  from  May  i,  1904, 
to  Dec.  i.  The  project  of  historically  mark- 
ing the  acquisition  of  the  vast  region  was 
locally  discussed  and  agreed  upon  as  early 
as  May,  1901,  when  state  as  well  as  national 
authority  and  financial  aid  were  secured 
for  the  scheme,  a  site  (within  the  limits  of 
St.  Louis,  including  1,300  acres  in  Forest 
Park)  was  chosen,  and  buildings  were 
erected.  Much  interest  was  taken  in  the 
exposition  and  its  varied  attractions,  which 
included  exhibits  beautifully  housed  in  an 
extensive  series  of  appropriate  buildkigs, 
many  of  them  having  symbolic  as  well  as 
historical  significance.  Further  interest  was 
taken  in  the  enterprise  as  the  result  of  the 
large  number  of  prizes  awarded,  consisting 
of  gold,  silver  and  bronze  medals,  diplomas 
and  the  like.  The  total  of  admissions  was 
close  upon  20  million;  disbursements  ex- 
ceeded $31,500,000,  an  amount  slightly  in 
excess  of  the  total  receipts,  including  the 
sums  received  for  concessions  and  other 
privileges.  In  September  interest  was  added 
by  a  Congress  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  at 
which  papers  were  read  or  presented  on 
appropriate  topics. 

Lou'isville,  the  largest  city  of  Kentucky 
and  capital  of  Jefferson  County,  is  on  the 
Ohio,  150  miles  below  Cincinnati.  It  was 
founded  in  1778,  and  named  after  Louis 
XVI  of  France.  The  falls  of  the  Ohio 
furnish  an  important  developed  water- 
power,  and  render  necessary  a  canal  for  the 
passage  of  boats  a  part  of  the  year.  The 
city  has  increased  greatly  ia  prosperity  and 


LOURENgO  MARQUES 


1120 


LOW 


commercial  importance  in  recent  years,  and 
has  taken  a  foremost  rank  among  the  manu- 
facturing cities  of  the  west,  having  over 
4,000  factories.  It  leads  in  the  manufacture 
of  cement,  jeans  and  sole-leather,  is  the 
largest  leaf- tobacco  market  in  the  world, 
and  has  extensive  pork-packing  establish- 
ments and  whiskey  distilleries.  Iron-work- 
ing, agricultural  tool-making,  cigar-making 
and  the  sugar-curing  of  hams  are  additional 
industries.  Louisville  covers  about  30 
square  miles,  is  handsomely  built  with  wide, 
well-paved  streets,  and  has  a  good  water- 
supply  and  sewerage  system.  Parks  com- 
prising 1,500  acres,  with  handsome  boule- 
vards, add  to  its  attractions  and  make  it 
a  delightful  city  of  residence.  It  has  a 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral  and  150  other 
churches,  a  law-school,  four  medical  colleges 
and  a  fine  system  of  public  schools.  The 
value  of  its  school-property  exceeds  $1,300,- 
ooo;  the  amount  it  annually  expends  on 
elementary  education  is  $700,000.  There 
are  some  40  public  and  private  charitable 
institutions,  including  the  state  institute  for 
the  blind.  The  city  is  connected  with 
Jeffersonville  by  an  iron  bridge  about  one 
mile  long  and  with  New  Albany,  by  a  hand- 
some cantilever  bridge.  The  chief  railroads 
are  the  Southern;  Chesapeake,  Louisville 
and  Nashville;  Ohio  and  Southwestern;  and 
Ohio  River  railroads.  Population  223,928. 

Lourenco  Marques  (lo-ren'so  wdr-fels'), 
one  of  the  three  districts  of  Portuguese  East 
Africa,  which  see. 

Lou  vain  (loo'v&n''),  a  city  of  Belgium,  19 
miles  east  of  Brussels.  It  was  a  rich  and 
extensive  city  of  200,000  citizens  in  the 
1 4th  century,  as  the  capital  of  Brabant  and 
the  seat  of  the  manufacture  of  fine  cloth. 
Heavy  punishment  for  a  revolt  drove  large 
numbers  of  its  citizens  to  England  in  1382. 
Tjhe  great  university,  with  a  library  of  250,000 
volumes,  botanic  garden  and  museums,  founded 
in  1426,  at  one  time  had  6,000  students. 
Louvain  was  devastated  in  the  Great  War  of 
1914  and  most  of  its  beautiful  buildings  and 
art  treasures  destroyed.  The  industries  are 
bell-founding,  brewing  and  the  manufacture 
of  leather,  paper,  lace  and  starch. 

Louvre  ( Iffbvr ) ,  the  greatest  of  the  modern 
palaces  of  Paris,  lies  in  the  center  of  the 
city  near  the  Seine.  It  is  a  square  of  576 
by  538  feet.  The  first  part,  the  southwest 
wing,  was  built  in  1541,  and  the  principal 
part  of  the  great  square  was  completed  under 
Louis  XIV.  In  1857  the  new  Louvre,  as 
it  was  called,  was  finished  in  the  form  of 
two  buildings  thrown  out  at  right  angles 
to  the  galleries  which  connected  the  old 
Louvre  with  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries. 
The  Louvre  and  Tuileries  now  form  a  single 
palace,  covering  nearly  60  acres.  The 
eastern  front  of  the  Louvre  had  a  row  of 
28  Corinthian  columns,  and  was  considered 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  architectural 


works  of  any  country.  The  buildings  form- 
ing the  Louvre  are  used  largely  as  galleries 
of  art;  the  library  was  begun  under  Charles 
V,  who  placed  the  royal  collection  of  books 
here;  and  the  royal  pictures  were  brought 
here  in  1681.  All  of  the  works  of  art  in 
the  palaces  were  transferred  to  the  Louvre 
during  the  Revolution,  and  thrown  open 
to  public  inspection.  Napoleon's  conquests 
in  Italy  added  great  treasures  to  the  col- 
lections. Under  his  architects  the  museums 
of  ancient  art,  the  Egyptian  museum  and 
the  council-chamber,  afterward  used  for  an 
art-school  and  marine  museum,  were  built. 
Many  of  the  art-treasures  brought  from 
Italy  were  restored.  The  Louvre  suffered 
from  the  communists  in  1871;  the  library 
was  burnt,  with  some  of  the  halls  of  sculp- 
ture and  painting. 

Low,  Seth,  LL.D.,  ex-president  of  Colum- 
bia University,  was  born  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
Jan.  18,  1850. 
After  graduating 
at  Columbia  in 
1870  he  began  the 
study  of  law,  but 
left  it  to  enter  his 
father's  tea-im- 
porting house  and 
become  a  member 
of  the  firm.  In 
1 88 1  he  was  elect- 
ed mayor  of  Brook- 
lyn on  an  inde- 
pendent ticket, 
and  administered 
its  affairs  for  four 
years.  In  1890  he 
became  president 
of  Columbia  College  and  reorganized  the 
institution  on  a  university  basis.  He,  more- 
over, presented  it  with  its  finely  equipped 
library-building  at  a  cost  of  a  million  dollars. 
Dr.  Low  has  taken  a  lively  interest  in  pure 
government  for  New  York,  being  a  member 
of  its  rapid-transit  and  Greater-New-York 
commissions.  In  1899  he  was  appointed  one 
of  the  American  delegation  to  the  peaee- 
conference  at  The  Hauge.  He  also  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Archaeological  Institution  of 
America  and  vice-president  of  the  New 
York  Academy  of  Sciences.  In  1901  he 
resigned  the  presidency  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, and  was  elected  mayor  of  New  York, 
defeating  the  Tammany  candidate.  While 
mayor  of  New  York  City  (1901-03),  Mr.  Low 
did  much  to  purge  the  civic  administration. 
He  died  Sept.  17.  1916. 

Low,  Will  riicok,  American  artist,  was 
born  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  May  31,  1853,  and 
early  took  up  painting  and  decorative 
designing  as  a  profession.  He  has  done 
much  in  decorating  panels,  ceilings  and  the 
like  with  ideal  groups  and  paintings,  and 
has  also  turned  out  much  fine  stained-glass 
work.  As  a  beginner  in  figure-painting,  he 
was  a  pupil  of  G£r6me  and  of  Carolus  Duran 


SETH  LOW 


LOWELL 


IZ2Z 


LOWELL 


at  Paris.  He  is  an  academician  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Design,  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Society  of  American  Artists 
and  the  holder  of  many  medals,  diplomas 
and  awards  for  his  drawings  and  decorative 
work. 

Low'ell  (Id' el},  a  manufacturing  city  in 
Middlesex  County,  Mass.,  is  on  Merrimac 
River,  25  miles  northwest  of  Boston.  The 
river  has  a  fall  of  33  feet,  which  gives  it 
fine  water-power,  and  it  is  one  of  the 
largest  manufacturing  cities  of  the  country. 
There  are  boot  and  shoe  factories,  nearly 
one  hundred  cotton  and  woolen  mills  and 
the  largest  carpet  manufactory  in  the  coun- 
try, turning  out  4,000,000  yards  of  carpet- 
ing a  year.  Other  manufactures  are  leather, 
paper,  iron  goods,  patent  medicines,  chem- 
icals and  carriages.  Lowell  manufacturers 
have  been  noted  for  their  care  of  their 
work-people.  In  early  days  the  operatives 
were  gathered  from  the  country  around, 
and  largely  were  the  sons  and  daughters 
of  New  England  farmers.  They  lived  in 
boarding-houses  carefully  managed,  attend- 
ing evening  schools  and  lectures,  publish- 
ing local  journals,  and  having  the  use  of 
free  reading  rooms  and  libraries.  The  large 
foreign  emigration  now  supplies  a  permanent 
manufacturing  population;  but  the  system 
of  good  homes  and  advantages  for  study 
and  recreation  is  followed  by  many  of  the 
large  corporations.  The  city  pays  much 
attention  to  education;  the  value  of  its 
school-property  exceeds  $1,600,000;  and  on 
elementary  education  it  expends  annually 
over  $400,000.  It  maintains  a  public  library 
with  over  65,000  volumes.  Lowell  was 
made  a  city  in  1826.  Population  106,294,  a 
gain  of  12  per  cent,  over  the  previous  decade. 
Lowell,  James  Russell.  "  If  writing 
poetry  were  a  profession  I  should  be  a 
poet,"  Lowell  de- 
clared when,  at 
19,  he  graduated 
from  Harvard. 
So,  with  the  best 
of  intentions  to 
be  what  was  ex- 
pected of  a  man 
of  New  England 
birth  and  educa- 
tion, he  studied 
law  and  was  ad- 
mitted  to  the 
bar.  Neverthe- 
less, he  spoiled 
his  chances  of 
success  in  so  se- 
rious a  profession 
JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  by  continuing  to 
write  poetry.  The 

youngest  of  the  Cambridge  poets,  Lowell  was 
born  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Feb.  22,  1810  His 
home  was  Elmwood,  a  colonial  mansion  of 
prerevolutionary  days,  from  which  one 
could  see  Craigie  House  where  Longfellow 


later  made  his  home.  Between  the  two 
there  was  the  most  beautiful  friendship,  that 
continued  without  interruption  for  nearly  a 
half  century.  Until  the  age  of  35  Lowell's 
"need  for  writing  poetry"  condemned  him 
to  a  poor  and  uncertain  living.  His  wife 
and  three  children  died  during  these  years 
of  struggle,  leaving  him  only  one  daughter 
to  share  his  better  fortune.  But  he  had 

Eublished  two  volumes  of  poetry  and  the 
rst  series  of  The  Biglow  Papers,  and  had 
written  incessantly,  for  16  years,  thus  gain- 
ing skill  in  expression.  A  reserved,  scholarly 
man,  whose  diction  was  distinguished  by 
purity  and  elegance,  it  is  curious  that 
Lowell  should  have  first  won  wide  recogni- 
tion through  The  Biglow  Papers  —  dialect 
verses  called  forth  by  strong  feeling  against 
slavery  and  the  Mexican  War.  Behind  their 
shrewdness,  humor  and  homely  common 
sense  stood  keen  satire,  wit  and  culture. 
In  1855  Lowell  was  elected  professor  of  the 
Spanish  and  French  languages  at  Har- 
vard and  also  of  belles  lettres.  For  nearly 
twenty  years  he  was  engaged  in  editorial 
work  on  The  Atlantic  Monthly  and  the 
North  American  Review,  successively,  and 
in  lecturing  at  Harvard.  During  that 
time  he  produced  a  second  series  of  Biglow 
Papers,  My  Study  Windows,  Fireside  Travel 
and  Among  My  Books;  and  he  became 
known  as  critic  and  essayist.  Many  people 
admire  Lowell's  prose  more  than  his  poetry. 
His  Harvard  lectures,  collected  and  pub- 
lished after  his  death,  contain  some  of  the 
most  exquisite  prose  produced  by  any 
American  writer.  Every  student  should 
read  his  lecture  on  The  Province  of  the  Poet,  • 
if  he  would  increase  his  understanding  of 
verse  and  his  pleasure  in  it. 

Some  of  Lowell's  simpler  poems,  like  The 
First  Snowfall,  remind  one  of  Whittier; 
Midnight  of  Longfellow;  but  The  Vision  of 
Sir  Launfal,  for  which  he  would  have  won 
an  enduring  place  had  he  written  nothing 
else,  is  Lowell's  own.  It  is  "delicate,  airy, 
fanciful;  something  new  and  true,  in  thought, 
feeling  and  expression;  profound  human 
experience;  the  creation  of  a  thing  at  once 
beautiful  and  pathetic  and  heroic,"  fitting 
his  own  definition  of  what  poetry  should  be. 
His  productive  period  in  literature  prac- 
tically ended,  Lowell  gave  the  distinction 
of  a  man  of  letters  and  leisure  to  the  posi- 
tion of  American  minister  to  Madrid  and 
to  London,  where  his  polished  manners  and 
learning  raised  the  European  estimate  of 
American  character.  The  closing  years  of 
his  life  were  chiefly  spent  in  his  birthplace 
among  his  books  and  friends.  He  died  on 
Aug.  12,  1891,  crowned  with  the  triple 
wreath  of  a  poet,  an  essayist  and  a  man  of 
distinguished  public  service.  All  these 
honors  came  to  him  through  persistently 
following  the  bent  of  hia  genius.  Before  he 
was  21  Lowell  declared:  "God  has  given 
me  powers  such  as  are  not  given  to  all. 


LOYOLA 


XI22 


LUCIAN 


and  I  will  not  hide  my  talent  in  mean  clay. 
I  will  not  care  over  much  for  bread,  so  I 
feed  my  soul." 

Loyola  (loi-d'la,  Sp.  U-yo'la'),  Ignatius 
de,  was  born  in  1491  in  Spain.  At  14  he 
became  a  page  to  King  Ferdinand,  but,  not 
liking  court-life,  entered  the  army.  In  the 
defense  of  Pampeluna  he  was  wounded  and 
taken  prisoner  by  the  French.  When  re- 
leased, after  long  confinement,  he  set  out 
to  fit  himself  for  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerulasem, 
going  as  a  beggar  to  the  monastery  of 
Montserrat,  where  he  hung  up  his  arms. 
Starting  barefooted  on  his  journey  to  Jeru- 
salem, he  entered  the  service  of  the  sick 
and  poor  in  the  hospital  of  Montserrat. 
Thence  he  went  to  Rome  to  receive  the 
papal  benediction.  In  Jerusalem  he  wished 
to  devote  himself  to  teaching  the  gospel, 
but  not  finding  encouragement  returned  to 
Barcelona.  He  now  resolved  to  prepare 
himself  by  study  for  the  work  of  religious 
teaching,  and  at  33  returned  to  study  the 
very  rudiments  of  grammar.  While  engaged 
in  study,  he  first  (1534)  formed  the  pious 
fraternity  which  resulted  in  that  great  mis- 
sionary organization,  the  Jesuits.  He  died 
at  Rome,  July  31,  1556.  See  Life  by  Denis. 
Lub'bock,  Sir  John,  Lord  Avebury  (1900), 
an  English  banker  and  scientist,  was  born 
at  London,  April 
30,  1834.  He  be- 
came honorary 
secretary  to  the 
association  of  Lon- 
don bankers,  mem- 
ber of  the  public- 
school  commis- 
sion, the  educa- 
tion commission, 
and  of  parliament 
for  London  Uni- 
versity in  1880. 
As  a  politician  he 
devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  financial 

SIR    JOHN    T  ITRROPK-  &  D  d     educational 

olK    JUHN     l^UrsiJOCK.  K  •       j.  j 

subjects,  and  suc- 
ceeded, as  a  member  of  parliament,  in  pass- 
ing more  than  a  dozen  important  measures. 
He  was  best  known,  however,  as  a  man  of 
science, —  for  his  researches  on  the  ancient 
vestiges  of  man  and  on  the  habits  of  in- 
sects, especially  those  of  bees  and  ants.  He 
was  vice-chancellor  of  the  University  of 
London  during  1872-80,  and  became  presi- 
dent of  the  British  Association  in  1881. 
His  works,  besides  numberless  scientific 
memoirs  include  The  Primitive  Condition  of 
Man;  Prehistoric  Times;  Origin  and  Meta- 
morphoses of  Insects;  A  nts,  Bees  and  Wasps; 
The  Senses  and  Instincts  of  Animals;  The 
Pleasures  of  Life;  The  Use  of  Life;  Fifty 
Years  of  Science  and  Addresses.  He  died 
May  28,  1913. 

LUbeck  (lu'bek),   a  state  of  and  free_city 
in   Germany,   formerly  head  of  the 


seatic  League  and  now  an  important  ship- 
ping town,  stands  on  the  Trave,  12  miles 
from  the  Baltic  and  40  northeast  of  Ham- 
burg. The  state  possesses  115  square  miles 
of  territory,  including  the  port  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Trave,  with  a  population  of 
1 05.85 7-  The  city  is  the  great  center  for 
trade  between  Hamburg  and  the  cities  of 
Germany  and  the  countries  that  border  the 
Baltic.  Among  the  churches  is  the  Gothic 
St.  Mary's,  first  erected  1163-70,  which  has 
two  towers,  407  feet  in  height,  master- 
pieces of  old  German  sculpture.  The  cathe- 
dral, St.  Peter's  and  St.  James'  are  other 
ancient  churches.  A  town-hall,  hospital, 
library,  school  of  navigation,  zoological, 
antiquarian  and  art  collections  are  other 
notable  features.  Population  98,620. 

Luca  della  Robbia.     See  ROBBIA. 

Luc'ca  (look'ka),  a  city  of  Italy,  is  14 
miles  from  Pisa.  The  cathedral  of  St. 
Martin,  begun  in  1063,  has  a  cedar  crucifix 
said  to  have  been  brought  to  Lucca  n  782 
and  mentioned  by  Dante.  The  church  con- 
tains some  fine  paintings.  There  are  nearly 
40  other  churches,  some  dating  from  the 
7th  and  8th  centuries.  The  city  buildings 
contain  a  valuable  collection  of  paintings, 
and  there  are  many  institutions  of  science 
and  art.  The  great  trade  is  olive-oil  and 
silk.  The  baths,  famous  since  the  isth 
century,  are  in  a  beautiful  valley  16  miles 
north.  Lucca  was  a  Roman  colony  in  177 
B.  C.  It  was  created  a  duchy  by  the  Lom- 
bards, and  from  1369  to  1797  was  an  inde- 
pendent republic.  Napoleon  made  it  a 
principality;  in  1815  it  passed  to  Spain, 
but  was  ceded  to  Tuscany  in  1847.  Popu- 
lation 76,037. 

Lucerne  (156-sern'),  a  city  in  Switzerland, 
is  beautifully  situated  where  the  Reuss 
issues  from  Lake  Lucerne.  Outside  one  of 
the  gates  is  the  Lion  of  Lucerne,  hewn 
(1821)  out  of  the  solid  rock,  after  a  model 
by  Thorwaldsen,  a  monument  to  the  Swiss 
guard  who  perished  at  the  Tuileries  in  1792. 
Nearby  is  Glacier  Garden,  with  rocks  illus- 
trating the  action  of  ice.  The  town  is  a 
busy  center  for  summer  visitors  and  tourists. 
Lucerne  (Luzern)  also  is  a  canton;  area 
579  square  miles,  population  166,782.  Popu- 
lation of  city  39,152. 

Lucerne,  Lake,  also  called  Lake  of  the 
Four  Forest  Cantons  —  Uri,  Unterwalden, 
Schwyz  and  Lucerne  —  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  sheets  of  water  in  Europe.  It 
resembles  a  cross  with  a  crumpled  stem. 
Its  shores  are  steep  and  rocky.  It  is  23 
miles  long,  with  an  average  width  of  i^ 
miles,  and  covers  44  square  miles.  It  forms 
part  of  the  St.  Gothard  route,  and  is  navi- 
gated by  steamboats,  but  is  liable  to  sudden 
and  violent  storms.  It  is  rich  in  associa- 
tions of  William  Tell. 

Lu'cian,  a  Greek  writer,  was  born  in 
Syria  in  120  A.  D.,  and  died  in  Egypt  in 
190  A.  D.  Having  learned  Greek,  he 


LUCIFER 


1123 


LUMBERING 


'practiced  law  ia  Antioch  for  several  years. 
Then  he  gave  his  attention  to  the  composi- 
tion of  speeches  for  declamation.  Of  his 
numerous  works  his  Dialogues  of  the  Dead 
are  the  best  known.  They,  in  general,  are 
directed  against  the  philosophers,  gods  and 
absurdities  of  paganism,  and  earned  him 
the  surname  of  The  Blasphemer. 

Lu'cifer  (Latin,  "hgnt-bringer"),  the 
name  given  to  Venus  as  the  morning-star. 
The  early  fathers  of  the  church  attached 
this  name  to  Satan,  in  the  belief  that 
Isaiah  xiv.  12,  which  refers  to  the  king  of 
Babylon,  contained  a  reference  to  the  prince 
of  darkness.  In  Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  also, 
Lucifer  is  the  original  name  of  the  arch- 
angel (now  called  Satan),  who  fell  and 
dragged  down  to  hell  the  third  part  of  the 
host  of  heaven. 

Lucknow  (liik'nou'),  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Oudh  and  fifth  city  in  British  India, 
stands  on  Gumti  River,  42  miles  from  Cawn- 
pore  and  199  from  Benares.  The  city  is 
interesting,  not  only  as  the  capital  of  the 
ancient  kingdom  but  for  the  desperate 
fighting  in  and  around  it  during  the  Sepoy 
mutiny  of  1857.  Early  in  the  summer  the 
English  garrison,  less  than  2,000  strong,  was 
besieged  by  a  force  five  times  as  large. 
After  a  12  weeks'  defense,  during  which 
their  commander  Sir  Henry  Lawrence  was 
killed,  Generals  Havelock  and  Outram 
fought  their  way  into  the  city  with  a  reliev- 
ing force,  and  General  Outram  assumed 
command  of  the  defense.  The  rebels,  how- 
ever, continued  to  prosecute  the  siege,  and 
in  November  the  city  was  evacuated  by  the 
British.  In  March,  1858,  the  English  under 
Sir  Colin  Campbell  (afterward  Lord  Clyde) 
returned,  and  after  a  week's  hard  fighting 
compelled  the  rebels  to  surrender.  Their 
overthrow  ended  the  mutiny.  Population 
264,049. 

Lucretius  (Id-kre'shl-us'),  Roman  poet 
and  philosopher  of  the  ist  century  B.  C. 
Very  little  is  known  of  his  history,  and  his 
only  work  is  a  philosophy  in  poetry  on 
Nature  (De  Rerum  Natura).  Lucretius  was 
an  earnest  opponent  of  all  religious  faith 
and  of  all  belief  in  supernatural  power. 
The  highest  good  to  him  is  a  calm  and 
tranquil  mind.  The  creation  of  the  world 
out  of  nothing  he  held  to  be  impossible, 
neither  can  anything  be  destroyed.  Life, 
mind,  soul  are  merely,  as  we  should  say, 
functions  of  the  body  and  will  perish  with 
the  body.  All  knowledge  is  derived  from 
the  senses,  which  are  our  only  test  of  truth. 
There  is  a  decidedly  modern  flavor  about 
some  of  the  doctrines  of  Lucretius.  For 
instance:  He  explains  contagious  diseases 
by  the  flying  about  in  the  air  of  minute 
particles,  germs  as  we  call  them,  injurious 
to  life;  and  again,  in  his  account  of  the 
various  types  of  animal  life,  as  they  have 
successively  appeared  on  the  earth,  we 
almost  have  an  anticipation  of  the  Dar- 


winian theory  of  evolution.     He  died  by 
suicide  in  55  B.  C. 

Lucullus  (lu-kul'lus),  a  distinguished 
Roman  general,  was  born  about  no  B.  C. 
In  74  B.  C.  he  defeated  Mithradates,  king 
of  Pontus,  and  almost  annihilated  his  army 
on  its  retreat.  Three  years  later  Pontus 
became  subject  to  the  Romans.  In  69  B.  C. 
he  marched  into  Armenia,  and  gamed  a 
complete  victory  over  Tigranes,  king  of  that 
country.  In  the  following  year  he  gained 
another  great  victory  over  Tigranes  and 
Mithrada'tes,  but  soon  after  was  superseded 
by  Pompey.  As  a  member  of  the  Roman 
aristocracy  he  attempted  to  check  the  power 
of  the  first  triumvirate, —  Pompey,  Crassus 
and  Caesar;  but,  failing  in  his  efforts,  he 
soon  retired  altogether  from  public  life,  his 
great  wealth  enabling  him  to  spend  the 
remainder  of  his  days  in  ease  and  luxury. 
He  died  about  57  B.  C. 

Luini  (loo-e'ne)  or  Lovino,  Bernardino, 
a  painter  of  the  Lombard  school,  was  born 
in  1490  at  Luino.  His  skill  was  developed 
in  the  school  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci;  indeed, 
many  of  his  works  were  at  one  time  at- 
tributed to  that  great  artist.  Luini 's  prin- 
cipal charm  is  poetic  grace  and  beauty;  he 
is  one  of  the  great  painters  whose  "  suprem- 
acy" Ruskin  affirmed.  He  died  about  1535. 

Luke,  the  reputed  author  of  the  third 
Gospel  and  of  Acts.  He  was  a  friend  and 
companion  of  Paul,  being  spoken  of  (Colo$~ 
sians  iv:  /^)  as  the  beloved  physician 
In  the  third  gospel  Luke  makes  no  pre- 
tension to  apostolic  sanction  or  authority, 
but  simply  proposes  to  compile  and  arrange 
the  various  facts  and  incidents  he  has 
gathered  from  others.  Among  other  ma- 
terial used  by  him  were  the  discourses  of 
Christ  recorded  by  Matthew  and  some  parts 
of  Mark;  but  he  must  have  had  other 
sources  for  the  details  he  has  given  con- 
cerning the  birth  of  Jesus  and  for  the 
canticles,  which  he  alone  has  preserved. 

Lum'bering,  an  industry  of  great  import- 
ance in  the  United  States,  Canada,  Russia, 
Scandinavia,  Germany  and  France,  is  the 
process  of  cutting  and  sawing  timber  for 
purposes  of  building  and  furnishing.  In 
the  United  States  there  was  more  than 
$500,000,000  invested  in  lumber  and  timber- 
products  in  1 9 1 2 .  Those  employed  numbered 
over  400,000.  The  value  of  the  products 
was  upwards  of  $550,000,000.  It  is  not 
only  the  direct  production  of  lumber  that 
counts;  but  large  profits  are  made  from 
by-products.  Sawdust  is  sometimes  com- 
pressed and  heated  until  it  may  be  molded 
into  a  solid  mass  of  any  required  shape. 
In  Norway  it  is  distilled  to  afford  acetic 
acid,  tar  and  wood-naphtha.  The  best 
wood-alcohol  is  obtained  from  pine  saw- 
dust. Woodpulp  is  in  ever  increasing 
demand  for  the  manufacture  of  paper.  The 
lumber  industry,  properly  so  called,  is 
divided  into  three  branches,  each  of  which 


LUNDyS  LAND 


1124 


LUTHER 


represents  a  group  of  distinct  operations. 
Logging  is  felling  and  roughly  trimming 
timber  and  transporting  it,  preferably  by 
water  but,  if  necessary,  by  rail,  to  its  destina- 
tion. The  great  rivers  of  the  United  States 
afford  unequalled  opportunities  for  logging. 
Whenever  possible,  the  logs  are  fastened  in 
huge  rafts  and  navigated  down  stream  as 
the  current  and  volume  of  the  river  may 
permit.  Then  comes  the  sawmill  branch 
of  lumbering.  The  logs  are  sawn  into  beams 
and  planks,  but  not  carefully  trimmed. 
The  planingmill  stage  is  that  in  which  the 
.beams  and  boards  are  trimmed  and  manu- 
factured to  standard  dimensions  and  uses. 
In  lumbering  the  principal  difficulty  always 
is  transportation.  At  times  in  the  winter 
the  roads  are  flooded  and  frozen  for  the 
readier  transportation  of  logs.  In  connec- 
tion with  lumbering  arises  the  national 
Sroblem  of  how  to  conserve  the  forests, 
reat  as  are  the  forests  of  America,  they 
cannot  supply  the  present  enormous  demand. 
Many  forests  have  been  totally  cleared. 
In  1912,  according  to  the  bureau  of  the 
census  and  the  forest-service,  over  40,000,- 
000,000  feet  were  cut.  The  actual  cut  is 
believed  to  have  been  five  per  cent,  larger  or 
2,000,000,000  feet  more.  Efforts  are  made 
by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Forestry  to 
conserve  great  forest-parks  and  to  plant 
young  trees.  Treeplanting  by  school  chil- 
dren and  by  individual  citizens  is  and  ought 
to  be  encouraged.  See  FORESTS. 

Lun'dy's  Lane,  a  battle  fought  in  Canada 
near  Niagara  Falls,  during  the  War  of 
1812,  between  the  British  and  Americans 
July  25,  1814.  Early  in  the  day  General 
Brown,  the  American  commander,  learned 
that  a  British  force  under  General  Drum- 
mond  had  crossed  the  Niagara  at  Queenston 
to  attack  Fort  Schlosser.  To  divert  the 
British  from  this  purpose  Genera!  Winfield 
Scott  with  1,500  men  was  ordered  to  make 
a  demonstration  upon  Queenston.  About 
sunset  Scott  came  upon  a  force  under 
General  Riall  posted  on  an  eminence  near 
Lundy's  Lane.  A  severe  _  fight  ensued, 
which  continued  until  midnight.  The 
British  were  driven  from  their  strong  posi- 
tion, and  General  Riall  and  his  staff  were 
taken  prisoners.  By  a  fierce  countercharge, 
however,  the  British  recaptured  the  posi- 
tion and  the  guns  which  had  been  taken. 
The  Americans  withdrew  toward  Chippewa. 
General  Brown  arrived  upon  the  field  and 
took  command  in  person  sometime  after 
sunset.  Both  he  and  General  Scott  were 
severely  wounded  during  the  engagement. 
The  British  loss  was  878;  that  of  the  Amer- 
icans 743. 

Languishes.     See  MUDFISHES. 

Lungs.    See  RESPIRATION,  ORGAN  OF. 

Luray'  Cave,  a  cavern  near  Luray,  Va., 
remarkable  not  so  much  for  size  as  for  the 
great  number  and  extraordinary  shape  of  its 
stalactites.  Some  of  these  columns  exceed 


MARTIN   LUTHER 


50  feet  in  length.  Many  are  hollow,  giving 
out  bell-like  notes  when  struck ;  and  the  col- 
ors range  from  waxy-white  to  yellow,  brown 
or  rosy-red.  The  cavern  is  lit  with  electric 
light,  and  attracts  thousands  of  visitors 
every  year. 

Lute,  a  musical  instrument  not  now  used, 
introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Arabians, 
from  whose  language  it  derives  its  name. 
The  Arabian  lute  was  made  from  2 1  pieces  of 
maplewood;  and  the  strings,  eight  in  number, 
were  tuned  in  pairs.  In  order  to  accommo- 
date the  lute  to  the  chromatic  scale,  the  num- 
ber of  strings  was  gradually  increased  to  24. 
The  lute  is  represented  on  the  sculptures  of 
the  Egyptian  tombs.  So  its  antiquity  is  great. 
Lu'ther,  Martin,  chief  of  the  great  Prot- 
estant Reformation,  was  born  at  Eisleben, 
Germany,  Nov.  10, 
1483.  His  early 
education  was  ob- 
tained at  Madge- 
burg  and  Eisenach, 
and  at  the  latter 
place,  by  the 
sweetness  of  his 
singing,  he  at- 
tracted  the  notice 
of  Frau  Cotta,who 
provided  him  with 
a  comfortable  home 
during  his  stay. 
In  1501  he  entered 
the  University  of  Erfurt  to  qualify  himself 
for  the  law,  but  while  here  he  became  the  sub- 
ject of  profound  religious  impressions  and 
withdrew  (1505)  into  the  Augustinian  con- 
vent, where  he  spent  three  years,  giving  his  • 
time  and  attention  to  religious  themes  and 
his  religious  experience.  In  1509  he  became 
a  bachelor  of  theology  and  began  to  preach 
and  lecture.  Being  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Rome  in  1510,  while  climbing  on  his  knees 
the  Scala  Santa,  the  words  "the  just  shall  live 
by  faith"  flashed  upon  his  soul  and  raised 
him  to  his  feet.  Luther's  career  as  a  re- 
former may  be  said  to  have  commenced  from 
that  date,  and  soon  after  his  return  he  began 
to  denounce  the  prevailing  system  of  indul- 
gences and  became  involved  (1517)  in  his 
famous  controversy  with  Tetzel.  Cardinal 
Cajetan  was  sent  as  the  pope's  legate  to  Lu- 
ther, but  could  not  induce  him  to  retract  his 
utterances.  In  1521  Luther  was  summoned 
before  the  diet  at  Worms.  His  friends  sought 
to  persuade  him  not  to  obey,  but  he  declared 
he  would  enter  Worms  if  there  were  as  many 
devils  in  it  as  there  are  tiles  on  the  roofs. 
Before  the  diet  he  stood  unmovable  by  the 
appeals  and  threats.  On  his  return,  being 
placed  under  the  ban  of  the  empire,  he  was 
seized  at  the  instance  of  his  friend,  the  elec- 
tor of  Saxony,  and  safely  placed  in  the  old 
castle  of  the  Wartburg.  In  1525  Luther  mar- 
ried Katharina  von  Bora,  an  event  which  not 
only  strengthened  the  Reformation,  but 
contributed  largely  to  his  own  happiness  and 


LUXEMBOURG 


XI25 


LYCURGUS 


usefulness.  He  died  at  Eisleben,  Saxony, 
on  Feb.  18,  1546.  Directly  opposing  esti- 
mates of  Luther  and  his  work  are  held  by 
Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants.  To  the 
latter  he  stands  as  a  grand  and  epoch-making 
reformer.  The  former  regard  him  as  an  he- 
retical fanatic,  who,  instead  of  working  pa- 
tiently within  the  church  for  a  reform  which, 
they  claim,  was  accomplished  later  through 
the  Council  of  Trent,  rashly  led  a  revolt 
against  the  true  church  and  needlessly  and 
unwarrantably  hindered  the  progress  of 
Christianity.  See  Life  by  Koestlin  and  by 
Bayne  and  Essays  by  Carlyle,  Froude  and 
Tulloch. 

Luxembourg  (Inks' on' boor"),  a  palace  in 
Paris,  erected  in  1615-20  for  Maria  dei  Med- 
ici, queen-consort  of  Henry  IV.  Since  the 
Revolution  it  has  served  the  house  of  peers 
(the  French  senate),  and  for  a  time  con- 
tained an  interesting  museum  of  art  (now  re- 
moved to  an  adjoining  building)  in  the  Petit- 
Luxembourg.  Many  of  the  apartments  are 
splendidly  decorated  and  enriched  with 
paintings  and  sculptures.  In  exterior  aspect, 
as  seen  from  the  finely  colonnaded  court,  the 
palace  is  very  elaborate. 

Luxemburg  ( luks' em-btirg}  is  an  independ- 
ent grand-duchy  of  Europe,  lying  between 
France,  Prussia  and  Belgium.  It  consists  of 
a  plateau  furrowed  with  valleys,  and  nearly 
all  its  streams  flow  to  the  Moselle.  Area, 
998  square  miles.  Population  236,543. 
The  little  state  is  ruled  by  a  house  of  45  rep- 
resentatives, elected  by  the  communes  for  six 
years,  half  retiring  every  three  years.  For 
commercial  purposes  Luxemburg  is  included 
in  the  German  zollverein.  The  chief  town  is 
Luxemburg;  population  20,928.  The  grand- 
duchy  has  about  300  miles  of  railroad.  Its 
industries  are  mining  and  smelting. 

Luxfer  Prisms  are  large  sheets  of  glass 
flat  on  the  surface  exposed  to  the  weather, 
but  on  the  inner  surface  covered  with  small 
horizontal  ribs  or  prisms  of  triangular  cross- 
section,  somewhat  like  the  ribs  of  a  wash- 
board. The  day-light  of  an  ordinary  room 
comes  directly  from  the  sky  through  the  win- 
dows. If  the  glass  in  the  windows  is  ordi- 
nary plate  window-glass,  this  light  passes 
through  the  windows  in  nearly  straight  lines 
and  falls  upon  the  floor  near  the  windows. 
For  this  reason  a  room  is  much  darker  in  the 
rear  than  in  front  near  the  windows,  and  this 
difference  is  much  greater  where  there  are 
buildings  opposite  the  windows,  shutting  off 
some  of  the  light  from  the  sky.  The  purpose 
of  the  prisms  placed  in  the  windows  is  to  bend 
the  rays  of  light  as  they  pass  through  the 
window,  so  that  they  shall  go  to  different 
parts  of  the  room.  In  this  way  the  room  is 
given  a  nearly  uniform  illumination  from 
front  to  rear.  If  there  are  unusually  high 
buildings  opposite  the  windows,  shutting  off 
the  most  of  the  light  from  them,  the  prisms 
are  placed  in  a  sloping  position  outside,  like 
awnings,  and  thus  throw  through  the  win- 


dows much  more  light  than  originally  fell 
upon  them. 

_  Luzon  (loo-zon') ,  the  largest  of  the  Philip- 
pines (which  see). 

Lyall,  Edna,  the  English  novelist  known 
by  this  pen-name,  is  Ada  Ellen  Bayly, 
daughter  of  a  London  barrister  and  bencher 
of  Gray's  Inn.  She  was  born  at  Brighton, 
Sussex,  and  at  an  early  age  took  to  writing 
as  a  profession.  Her  first  story,  Won  by 
Waiting,  was  published  in  1879,  which  was 
followed  by  Donovan,  We  Two,  In  the  Golden 
Days,  Knight  Errant,  A  Hardy  Norseman 
and  others.  _  Her  later  novels  are  How  the 
Children  raised  the  Wind,  Wayfaring  Men 
and  Hope  the  Hermit.  Her  books  attained 
wide  popularity.  She  died  on  Feb.  8,  1903. 
Lycopo'diales,  plants  forming  one  of  the 
three  great  divisions  of  Pteridophytes,  com- 
monly called  club-mosses  and 
sometimes  ground-pines.  The 
plants  have  slender,  branch- 
ing, prostrate  or  erect  stems 
completely  clothed  with  small 
leaves,  having  a  general  moss- 
like  appearance.  The  erect 
branches  are  often  terminated 
by  conspicuous  cylindrical 
strobili,  usually  in  pairs,  which 
are  the  "clubs"  referred  to  in 
the  name  club-mosses.  The 
group  is  a  very  ancient  one, 
and  in  the  coal-measures  con- 
tained large  tree-forms,  which 
were  conspicuous  members  of 
the  forests.  The  terminal  stro- 
bili are  composed  of  overlap- 
ping sporophylls,  each  spor- 
A  CLUB-MOSS  ophyll  bearing  a  sporangium 
on  its  upper  surface  near  the 
base.  The  two  conspicuous  genera  are  Ly- 
copodium  and  Selaginella.  The  former  genus 
contains  the  coarser  forms  which  are  more 
characteristic  of  the  temperate  regions,  being 
the  ordinary  club-mosses,  and  are  homospor- 
ous,  the  spores  produced  by  the  sporangia 
being  similar.  Selaginella  contains  much 
more  numerous  species,  is  particularly  de- 
veloped in  the  tropics  and  includes  the 
smaller  and  more  delicate  club-mosses. 
They  are  common  in  greenhouses  as  delicate, 
mossy,  decorative  plants.  The  most  inter- 
esting feature  of  the  genus  is  that  its  species 
are  all  heterosporous.  The  two  kinds  oi 
sporangia  are  found  in  the  same  strobilus, 
the  megasporangia  being  associated  with  the 
lower  sporophylls  of  the  strobilus  and  usu- 
ally containing  four  megaspores;  while  the 
microsporangia  are  associated  with  the  up- 
per sporophylls  of  the  strobilus,  and  contain 
numerous  microspores.  In  many  respects 
Selaginella  approaches  very  near  the 
seed-plants.  See  PTERIDOPHYTES  and  HET- 
EROSPORY.  > 

Lycurgus  (It-kAr'gtis),  the  lawgiver  of 
Sparta,  lived  800  or  900  B.  C.  He  was  uncle 
of  the  young  King  Charilaog,  and  governed 


LYDIA 


1X26 


LYNDHURST 


the  state  •wisely  during  his  nephew's  infancy. 
Then  he  traveled  over  Crete,  Ionia  and 
Egypt.  Finding  his  country  in  complete  an- 
archy and  disorder  when  he  returned,  he 
made  a  new  division  of  property  and  a  com- 
plete change  in  the  laws  and  constitution. 
Having  done  this,  he  prepared  to  set  out  on 
another  journey.  Having  first  bound  the 
citizens  by  oath  not  to  change  any  of  his  laws 
until  he  came  back,  he  left  the  city,  never  to 
return.  His  memory  was  honored,  as  that 
of  a  god,  with  a  temple  and  yearly  sacrifices. 
Lyd'ia,  anciently  a  country  of  Asia  Minor, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Mysia,  on  the  east 
by  Phrygia,  on  the  south  by  Caria  and  on  the 
west  by  Ionia.  The  Lydians,  shut  out  from 
the  JEgean  Sea  by  the  Ionian  Greeks,  devel- 
oped great  commercial  activity  inland. 
They  were  believed  to  have  been  the  invent- 
ors of  coined  money  and  of  dice  and  other 
games.  King  Gyges,  who  reigned  about 
700  B.  C.,  founded  a  powerful  Lydian  em- 
pire, which  attained  its  highest  splendor 
under  his  descendant,  Croesus,  who  was  cap- 
tured by  Cyrus  the  Persian  in  546  B.  C. 
Sardis  became  the  western  capital  of  the  Per- 
sian empire  until  its  overthrow.  Lydia  sub- 
sequently was  subject  to  Athens,  Macedonia 
and  Rome. 

Ly'ell,  Sir  Charles,  an  eminent  Scotch 
geologist,  was  born  in  Forfarshire,  on  Nov.  14, 
1797.  While  pur- 
suing his  studies 
at  Exeter  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  he 
attended  the  lec- 
tures of  Buck- 
land,  and  thus 
acquired  a  taste 
for  the  sciences 
to  which  his  life 
was  devoted.  He 
graduated  in 
1819,  and  soon 
I  afterward  enter- 
led  the  legal  pro- 
Ifession;  but,  be- 
ing possessed  of 
ample  means,  he 
made  scientific 
SIR  CHARLES  LYELL  tours  over  Eu- 
rope,  publishing  the  results  in  Transactions 
of  the  Geological  Society  and  elsewhere.  Ly- 
ell's  great  work,  The  Principles  of  Geology, 
may  be  ranked,  next  after  Darwin's  Origin  of 
Species,  among  the  books  which  have  exer- 
cised the  greatest  influence  on  the  scientific 
thought  of  pur  era.  A  further  important 
work  from  his  pen  was  one  on  The  Antiquity 
of  Man.  Lyell  was  knighted  in  1848,  and 
created  a  baronet  in  1864.  He  died  at  Lon- 
don, Feb.  22,  1875,  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

Lymph  [limf]  (Greek  for  water) ,  the  color- 
less and  almost  transparent  fluid  found  in  the 
lymphatic  vessels  of  the  body.  The  lymph 
is  conveyed  by  larger  and  larger  vessels  to 


the  venous  system,  on  entering  which  it 
mingles  with  the  blood.  The  lymph  of  the 
left  side  of  the  trunk,  of  both  legs  and  of  the 
left  arm  passes  into  the  blood  through  the 
thoracic  duct;  while  the  lymph  of  the  right 
side  of  the  head,  neck,  trunk  and  right  arm 
enters  the  circulation  at  the  junction  of  the 
axillary  and  jugular  veins.  The  lymph 
arises  from  the  fluid  part  of  the  blood  which 
exudes  from  the  capillaries,  bathes  the  cells 
and  tissues  of  the  body,  and  then,  after  sup- 
plying them  with  food  and  receiving  their 
excretions,  passes  on  once  more  to  enter  the 
circulation  as  indicated.  The  quantity  of 
lymph  discharged  daily  into  the  venous  sys- 
tem of  a  man  weighing  150  pounds  is  about 
six  pounds,  or  four  per  cent,  of  his  weight. 

Lynch'burg,  Va.,  an  old  and  picturesque 
city  of  central  Virginia,  on  James  River  and 
the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio,  Richmond  and 
Danville  and  Norfolk  and  Western  railroads. 
It  is  situated  no  miles  west  of  Richmond, 
and  commands  a  fine  view  of  the  Blue  Ridge. 
It  is  the  trade  and  distributing  center  for  a 
wide  region  watered  by  the  James.  Here  is 
Randplph-Macon  College  (Methodist) ,  an  in- 
stitution for  the  education  of  women.  The 
water-power  from  the  river  aids  its  tobacco, 
cotton  and  flour  mills,  with  iron  foundries 
and  railway  machine  shops.  Population 
29,494. 

Lynch=Law  is  the  execution  of  offenders 
without  process  of  law  and  by  persons  other 
than  officers  of  the  law.  The  origin  of  the 
term  is  involved  in  doubt.  One  account  re- 
fers the  term  to  one  Lynch,  who  was  sent 
from  England  to  America  in  1687  to  suppress 
piracy.  But  it  can  be  traced  to  a  much  ear- 
lier date.  In  1493,  "James  Lynch  was  mayor 
of  Galway,  and  the  council-books  of  that 
city  are  said  to  contain  a  minute  that  James 
Lynch,  mayor  of  Galway,  hanged  his  own  son 
out  of  the  window  for  defrauding  and  killing 
strangers,  without  martial  or  common  law, 
to  show  a  good  example  to  posterity." 

Lynd'hurst,  John  Singleton  Copley,  an 
English  jurist,  the  son  of  Copley  the  painter, 
was  born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  May  21,  1772. 
When  he  was  three,  his  father  moved  to  Lon- 
don, and  the  son,  after  receiving  a  private  ed- 
ucation at  Chiswick,  in  1790  entered  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  In  1804  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar;  and  after  several  years  of 
hard  and  patient  labor  his  success  was  as- 
sured. In  1817  he  obtained  the  acquittal 
of  Thistlewood  and  Dr.  Watson  on  their  trial 
for  high  treason;  for  the  next  state  prose- 
cution, four  months  later,  his  services  were 
secured  by  the  government;  and  in  1818  he 
entered  parliament  as  a  Tory  representative. 
Henceforward  his  promotion  was  rapid,  and 
numerous  high  positions  were  given  to  him. 
In  1827  he  was  created  Baron  Lyndhurst, 
and  in  1841  he  became  lord  chancellor  for 
the  third  time,  holding  the  great  seal  till  the 
defeat  of  the  Peel  government  in  1846,  after 
which  he  took  but  little  part  in  politics.  He 


LYNE 


1127 


LYON 


died  on  Oct.  12,  1863.  Lvndhurst's  attain- 
ments  as  a  lawyer  and  ability  as  a  debater 
have  never  been  questioned ;  but  lack  of  ear- 
nestness prevented  him  from  becoming  great 
statesman  or  orator  in  the  fullest  sense  of 
either  term. 

Lyne,  Sir  Wm.  J.,  since  1899  premier  of 
New  South  Wales  and  minister  for  home 
affairs  in  the  new  commonwealth,  is  a  Tas- 
manian  by  birth.  He  entered  the  New 
South  Wales  legislature  in  1880,  and  for  a 
time  was  leader  of  the  opposition,  an  ardent 
free-trader  and,  at  first,  opposed  to  Austra- 
lian federation.  He  has  loyally  accepted  it, 
since  it  has  become  an  accomplished  fact. 

Lynn,  a  city  and  port  of  Massachusetts,  on 
Massachusetts  Bay,  10  miles  from  Boston, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  railroad  and 
street-cars.  In  the  residential  portion  are 
many  handsome  villas  belonging  to  Boston 
merchants.  The  principal  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  women's  and  children's 
shoes,  electrical  machinery  and  supplies. 
Its  manufactured  products  rank  second 
in  valuation  in  New  England.  Population 
95,000. 

Lynx,  an  animal  of  the  cat  family.  The 
fur  is  of  value.  There  are  two  common  spe- 


LYNX 

ties  in  America,  the  Canada  lynx  and  the  red 
lynx.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  these 
are  only  geographical  varieties  of  one  species. 
They  both  have  long  fur  and  short  tails,  and 
are  tree-climbers,  preying  upon  small  mam- 
mals and  birds.  Tho  Canada  lynx  is  the 
more  northern  kind;  it  extends  across  the 
continent  to  British  Columbia  and  Alaska, 
and  sometimes  crosses  the  border  into  our 
northern  states.  A  very  similar  form  occurs  In 
ntirttern  Asfo  and  Eiairofte  It  fe 


animal,  but  is  said  in  reality  to  oe  a  coward. 
It  is  about  three  feet  in  length,  has  a  lean 
body  with  long  legs  and  large  hairy  paws, 
heavy  fur  of  gray  mottled  with  brown,  long 
side-whiskers  that  stand  far  out  from  the 
face,  stiff  black  hairs  rising  from  the  tip  of 
each  ear  and  very  large  eyes.  It  can  climb 
and  swim  with  ease.  The  red  lynx  or  bay 
lynx  is  the  particular  form  called  the  wild- 
cat, bob-cat  or  catamount.  It  once  was 
common  in  all  wooded  regions  of  the  United 
States,  and  is  still  to  be  found  in  rough  forest- 
lands  practically  throughout  the  country; 
as  in  Maine,  Virginia,  Tennessee  and  "the 
bad  lands"  and  mountains  of  Wyoming, 
Montana,  Colorado  and  Texas.  It  is  as  large 
as  the  Canada  lynx,  but  its  fur  is  not  so  long, 
its  paws  being  much  smaller,  its  ear-tufts 
less  conspicuous.  It  varies  in  color  —  often 
a  yellow-brown  tinged  with  red  (ruddier  in. 
summer) ,  coat  spotted  with  brown  or  black, 
chin  and  throat  white  While  reputed  fierce 
and  wild,  it  is  not  aggressive;  but  it  fights 
savagely  when  cornered  or  compelled  to  de- 
fend its  cubs.  As  a  rule  it  is  shy  and  cau- 
tious, trying  to  keep  out  of  sight.  In  hunt- 
ing, it  is  its  habit  to  lie  in  wait  and  spring 
from  ambush  rather  than  trail  and  pursue. 
To  startle  game  into  movement  it  will  utter 
the  scream  for  which  it  is  noted  and  which  is 
variously  described  by  those  who  have  heard 
it  as  like  the  shrill  yell  of  an  angry  infant;  or 
as  a  blood-curdling  mixture  of  growls  and 
caterwauls.  It  feeds  upon  squirrels,  pheas- 
ants or  hares,  and  destroys  large  numbers  of 
birds  and  mice.  It  sleeps  in  cavern  or  hollow 
tree,  and  often  rests  at  midday  stretched 
along  a  limb  in  the  sun.  The  northern  lynx 
of  the  Old  World  is  supposed  to  be  only  a  va- 
riety of  those  of  North  America.  It  is  red- 
dish gray,  more  or  less  spotted.  It  has  long 
fur,  short  tail  and  ears  tipped  with  a  few 
long  hairs.  In  size  it  ranges  from  two  and 
one  half  to  three  and  one  half  feet,  not  count- 
ing the  tail.  The  fur  is  of  value  See  Stone 
and  Cram:  American  Animals  and  Horna- 
day's  American  Natural  History. 

L^on,  Mary,  founder  of  Mount  Holyoke 
Female  Seminary,  now  Mt.  Holyoke  College, 
was  born  at  Buckland,  Mass.,  Feb.  28,  1797. 
By  great  effort  and  perseverance  she  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  a  good  education,  quali- 
fying herself  for  the  teacher's  profession,  and 
for  several  yearte  taught  in  the  public  schools 
of  the  state.  In  183  f  she  founded  her  famous 
seminary  upon  the  plan  of  uniting  domestic 
labor  with  intellectual  culture.  Her  success 
in  presiding  over  this  caused  many  similar 
institutions  to  be  established  throughout  the 
country,  and  the  name  of  Mary  Lyon  has 
become  a  household  word  among  all  friends 
of  the  education  and  elevation  of  woman. 
She  died  at  South  Hadlcy,  Mass.,  in  March, 
1849. 

Lyon,  Gen.  Nathaniel,  a  brave  Ameri- 
can soldier,  was  born  at  Ashford,  Conn.,  July 
14,  1818.  Hu  graduated  at  West  Point  in 


LYONS 


IZ28 


LYTTON 


1841,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
was  in  command  of  the  arsenal  at  St.  Louis, 
with  the  rank  of  captain.  While  here,  he 
showed  the  mettle  of  which  he  was  made  by 
breaking  up  a  camp  of  secessionists  at  St. 
Louis,  established  by  Governor  Jackson  of 
Missouri.  Some  months  after  this  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  forces  operating  in 
southwestern  Missouri  against  Price  and  Mc- 
Culloch.  Finding  that  he  would  be  forced 
to  retreat  unless  he  could  strike  a  blow,  Lyon 
resolved  to  risk  a  battle  at  Wilson's  Creek 
near  Springfield  (Aug.  10,  1861)  The  fight 
was  a  very  severe  one.  While  leading  a  regi- 
ment into  action  whose  colonel  had  fallen, 
Lyon  himself  was  instantly  killed.  His  mil- 
itary career,  though  brief,  revealed  a  charac- 
ter that  the  American  people  will  never  cease 
to  honor  and  revere. 

Lyons  (ll'onz)  or  in  French  Lyon  (le-6n') , 
the  second  city  of  France  in  industrial  im- 
portance, though  only  the  third  in  popula- 
tion, stands  at  the  junction  of  the  Rhone  and 
Saone  rivers,  250  miles  from  Paris  and  218 
from  Marseilles.  The  commercial  and  fash- 
ionable quarters  lie  along  the  land  between 
the  rivers,  and  are  connected  with  the  sub- 
urbs beyond  by  numerous  bridges.  Lyons 
contains  a  Roman  Catholic  university  with 
three  faculties;  a  school  of  art  with  over 
1,000  pupils;  and  a  municipal  library  of 
nearly  120,000  volumes.  The  city  is  a  for- 
tress of  the  first  rank,  being  defended  by  a 
double  ring  of  forts.  The  staple  industry  is 
silk,  it  being  computed  that  within  the  city 
and  its  environs  as  many  as  85,000  hand- 
looms  and  20,000  power-looms  are  employed 
in  this  manufacture.  The  list  of  notable 
persons  born  in  Lyons  includes  the  Roman 
general  Germanicus  and  the  Roman  em- 
perors Claudius,  Caracalla  and  Marcus  Aure- 
lius.  Population  472,114. 

Lyons,  a  gulf  of  the  Mediterranean,  wash- 
ing the  southern  coast  of  France.  The 
Rhone,  Herault,  Aude  and  some  other  rivers 
flow  into  this  gulf.  The  principal  towns  on 
its  coast  are  Marseilles,  Toulon  and  Cette. 
The  gulf  is  said  to  have  been  named  from  the 
lion,  on  account  of  the  violent  gales  and 
storms  to  which  it  is  subject. 

Lyre  (Itr),  one  of  the  oldest  forms  of 
stringed  instruments.  The  Greeks  had  a 
tradition  that  Mercury  formed  the  lyre  out  of 
the  shell  of  a  tortoise ;  but  we  must  seek  its 
origin  in  Asia  and  infer  its  introduction  into 
Greece  through  Thrace  or  Lydia.  The  Egyp- 
tians also  had  a  tradition  that  the  lyre  was 
first  invented  in  their  country,  but  they  seem 
to  have  adopted  it  from  Assyria  or  Baby- 
lonia. The  Egyptian  lyre  is  unmistakably 
Semitic.  The  lyre,  unlike  the  lute,  cannot 
be  stopped  by  the  fingers  and  its  sounds  be 
thereby  multiplied ;  and,  as  the  number  of  its 
sounds  can  not  be  greater  than  the  number  of 
its  strings,  since  the  introduction  of  the 
modern  musical  scale  it  has  fallen  into 
disuse.  •  •  • 


Lyre-Bird,  an  Australian  bird,  the  male 
of  which  has  the  tail  feathers  arranged  to 
look  like  a  lyre.  There  are  three  species. 

These  birds  be- 
long to  the  or- 
der of  perching 
birds  (Passares) , 
but  are  abnormal 
and  donotperch. 
They  are  the 
largest  of  all 
song-birds,  their 
bod  y  being 
about  the  size 
of  the  ruffed 
grouse.  The  16 
feathers  of  the 
tail  of  the  male 
form  a  beautiful 
ornament.  It  is 
the  two  external 
feathers,  e  s  p  e  - 
cially,  that  are 
curved  in  the 
form  of  a  lyre} 
the  others  repre- 
sent the  strings. 
If  the  tail  be  re- 
moved, the  bird 

LYRE-BIRD  is  homely.    The 

birds    are    of    a 

sooty-brown  color  with  reddish  marks  on  the 
threat,  wings  and  tail-coverts.  They  well 
imitate  the  song  of  other  birds  and,  also,  it  is 
said,  the  bark  of  the  wild  dogs.  They  inhabit 
the  brush  or  sparsely  wooded  portions  of 
New  South  Wales,  and  are  shy  and  difficult 
to  approach. 

Lysias  (Ks't-ds),  one  of  the  10  Attic  ora- 
tors, son  of  a  native  of  Syracuse,  who  flour- 
ished at  Athens  in  the  4th  century  B.  C., 
assisted  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Thirty  Ty- 
rants and  in  the  restoration  of  the  democracy 
in  403  B.  C.  He  figured  in  Athenian  politics 
as  the  public  accuser  of  Eratosthenes,  one  of 
the  Thirty  Tyrants,  and  delivered  a  splendid 
oration  which  has  come  down  to  us  with 
30  or  more  of  his  speeches.  His  literary 
style  is  great,  and  had  an  important  effect 
in  Greek  prose,  while  his  oratory  made  him 
famous.  He  probably  died  in  or  soon  after 
380  B.  C. 

Lyt'ton,  Edward  Bulwer.  See  BUL- 
WER-LYTTON,  EDWARD  GEORGE. 

Lyt'ton,  Edward  Robert,  Earl  of,  poet, 
diplomatist  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Lon- 
don, Nov.  8,  1831,  and  was  educated  at  Har- 
row and  Bonn.  All  his  active  life  (1849-91) 
was  spent  in  the  diplomatic  service  of  Great 
Britain  in  Europe  and  America,  except  four 
years  (1876-80)  as  viceroy  of  India.  His 
literary  works,  of  which  perhaps  the  most 
popular  is  Lucile,  have  been  published  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Owen  Meredith.  He  also 
wrote  Clytemnestra,  The^  Wanderer,  The  Ring 
of  Amasis  and  Fables  in  Song.  He  died  at 
Pari»,  Nov.-24,  i8gi.; 


1 129 


MACARTHUR 


M 


M  (2m),  the  thirteenth  letter,  is  a  vocal 
consonant.  It  is  made  with  the  lips  and 
nasal  passages  closed,  and  is  therefore 
classed  as  a  labionasal,  as  in  me,  him,  tame. 
It  also  is  a  liquid  and  even  a  semivowel. 
Before  n  in  the  same  syllable  it  is  silent, 
as  in  mnemonics.  The  Romans  used  it  as 
a  numeral  (1,000)  as  well  as  a  letter.  M 
also  means  em,  a  printer's  term. 

Mab,  a  fairy  celebrated  by  Shakespeare, 
Ben  Jonson  and  other  poets.  She  usually  is 
called  Queen  Mab,  but  this  does  not  mean 
that  she  is  queen  of  the  fairies.  That  place 
belongs  to  Titania,  the  wife  of  Oberon. 
For  a  description  of  Queen  Mab's  mis- 
chievous ways,  telling  how  she  comes 
"athwart  men's  noses  as  they  lie  asleep" 
see  Shakespeare's  Romeo  and  Juliet.  In 
Shelley's  Queen  Mab  she  is  made  queen  of 
the  fairies  and  given  a  much  wider  realm 
to  reign  over,  —  the  deeds  and  thoughts  of 
men. 

Ma'bie,  Hamilton  Wright,  an  American 
writer,  the  possessor  of  a  good  literary  style 
and  a  lecturer  and  editor  of  repute,  was 
born  in  New  York  in  1 846.  He  was  a  graduate 
of  Williams  College  and  Columbia  Law- 
School  (1869).  He  became  associate-editor 
of  The  Outlook.  His  works  show  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  fitting  and  beautiful  and  a 
love  of  interpretative  criticism,  which  have 
won  a  host  of  sympathetic  readers.  Among 
his  works  may  be  mentioned  Norse  Stories 
from  the  Eddas,  Nature  in  New  England, 
Short  Studies  in  Literature,  Essays  in  Lit- 
erary Interpretation,  Nature  and  Culture, 
Books  and  Culture,  The  Life  of  the  Spirit 
and  William  Shakespeare.  He  died  in  1917. 

Macad'am,  John  London,  inventor  of  the 
system  of  roadmaking  known  as  macadam- 
izing, was  born  at  Ayr,  Scotland,  Sept.  21, 
1750.  ^In  1 80 1  he  began  to  make  experi- 
ments in  roadbuilding,  a  work  to  which  his 
future  life  was  devoted.  His  system  was 
adopted  on  nearly  all  the  public  roads  of 
England,  and  was  introduced  into  France 
and  other  countries.  His  principles  may  be 
briefly  stated:  It  is  not  necessary  to  lay  a 
foundation  of  large  stones,  as  it  is  a  matter 
of  indifference  whether  the  foundation  be 
hard  or  soft.  The  material  must  consist  of 
broken  stones,  one  or  two  ounces  in  weight, 
scattered  to  a  depth  of  from  six  to  ten 
inches  and  pressed  together  as  closely  as 
possible.  The  road  is  to  have  a  slight  fall 
from  the  middle  to  the  sides,  and  ditches 
are  to  be  dug  on..eaqfc  side  of  sufficient 


depth  to  drain  it.  Macadam  was  offered 
the  honor  of  knighthood  some  time  before 
his  death,  but  declined  it.  He  died  on 
Nov.  26,  1836. 

McAH'  Mission,  the  largest  Protestant 
mission  in  France,  was  founded  in  1871  by 
the  Rev.  R.  W.  McAll  and  his  wife.  It 
embraces  more  than  one  hundred  stations, 
nearly  all  in  Paris,  and  is  supported  by 
Protestants  of  all  denominations  in  England 
and  America.  Such  has  been  the  progress 
of  this  mission  that  in  the  i2th  year  after 
its  foundation  it  held  15,000  meetings, 
attended  by  nearly  1,000,000  persons,  and 
distributed  more  than  500,000  Bibles  and 
tracts. 

Macaroni  (mak-a-ro'ni),  a  peculiar  paste 
or  dough  manufactured  from  wheat-flour 
into  tubes,  ribbons  or  threads.  It  is  an 
Italian  invention,  and,  although  the  process 
is  very  simple,  the  manufacture  is  almost 
wholly  limited  to  Italy  and  France,  probably 
because  the  wheat  raised  in  those  countries 
contains  so  large  a  proportion  of  gluten. 
Macaroni  is  used  for  soups,  and  is  exported 
to  all  parts  of  the  world. 

MacAr'thur,  Arthur,  American  soldier, 
lieutenant-general  in  the  regular  army,  was 
born  in  Massachusetts,  but  served  during 
the  Civil  War  in  the  western  army;  enter- 
ing the  service  as  a  lieutenant  in  the  24th 
Wisconsin  Infantry,  Aug.  4,  1862,  and  rising 
to  a  brevet  colonelcy,  given  for  conspicuous 
bravery  at  the  successive  engagements  of 
Perryville,  Stone  River  and  Missionary 
Ridge.  For  gallantry  in  the  latter  engage- 
ment he  was  voted  a  medal  by  Congress. 
He  served  throughout  the  Atlanta  cam- 
paign and  was  mustered  out  only  after  the 
final  review  of  the  volunteer  forces,  June 
10,  1865.  On  Feb.  23,  1866,  he  was  com- 
missioned first  lieutenant  in  the  regular 
army  and  assigned  to  the  i7th  Infantry; 
but  a  few  months  later  he  was  promoted 
to  a  captaincy  and  transferred  to  the  36th 
Infantry.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with 
Spain  he  was  serving  in  the  office  of  the 
adjutant-general  with  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel.  On  May  27,  1898,  he  was  appointed 
brigadier-general  of  United  States  Volun- 
teers, and  promoted  to  major-general  com- 
manding the  2d  division  of  the  8th  army 
corps  soon  after,  and  assigned  to  duty  in 
Havana.  In  1899  he  was  sent  to  the  Philip- 
pines where  he  rendered  conspicuous  service, 
was  made  brigadier-general  in  the  regular 
army,  apd,  on.  the  retirement  of  General 


MACASSAR 


XX30 


MACCABEES 


LORD   MACAULAY 


Otis,  placed  in  command  of  the  army  and 
made  military  governor.  In  February, 
1901,  he  was  promoted  to  major-general  m 
the  regular  army  and  in  time  appointed 
assistant  chief-pf-staff.  In  1906  he  was 
promoted  to  lieutenant-general,  and  be- 
came ranking  officer  of  the  army  of  the 
United  States. 

Macassar  (md-kas'sSr),  a.  strait  about  400 
miles  long  and  from  100  to  200  wide,  con- 
nects the  Java  and  Celebes  Seas,  and  sepa- 
rates Celebes  from  Java. 

Macau  lay  (ma-kq'tt),  Thomas  Babing- 
ton,  Lord,  a  great  English  historian  and 
essayist  and  the 
most  pictorial 
prose-writer  in 
English  1  i  t  e  r  a- 
ture,  was  born  in 
Rothley,  Leices- 
tershire, Oct.  25, 
1800.  At  18  he 
entered  Trinity 
College,  C  a  m  - 
bridge.  His  uni- 
versity career 
was  very  bril- 
liant, in  spite  of 
his  dislike  to 
mathematics. 
Macaulay  was 
admitted  to  the 
bar  soon  after 
graduation;  but 
his  love  of  literature  was  so  great  that  he 
made  no  effort  to  secure  a  oractice.  At 
25  he  published  an  essay  on  Milton  in  the 
Edinburgh  Review,  which  at  once  placed  him 
in  the  highest  rank  of  literature,  and  for 
nearly  20  years  he  continued  to  be  one 
of  the  principal  writers  for  that  magazine, 
In  1830  Macaulay  entered  parliament,  where 
his  powers  as  a  debater  and  orator  proved 
fully  equal  to  his  talent  as  a  writer.  In 
1834  he  accepted  the  position  of  legal 
adviser  to  the  supreme  council  of  India, 
at  $50,000  a  year.  He  remained  four  years, 
during  which  he  wrote  his  essays  on  Bacon 
and  Sir  James  Mackintosh.  Macaulay  was 
elected  to  parliament  from  Edinburgh  the 
year  after  his  return  from  India,  and  dur- 
ing his  few  years  in  public  life  greatly  in- 
creased the  fame  he  had  previously  won. 
In  1848  appeared  the  first  two  volumes  of 
hie  great  work  —  History  of  England  from 
the  Accession  of  James  II.  The  popularity 
of  this  book  was  greater,  perhaps,  than  was 
ever  secured  by  any  history.  The  third  and 
fourth  volumes  appeared  m  1855,  and  were 
received  with  the  greatest  favor  and  en- 
thusiasm, both  in  England  and  America. 
In  1857  Macaulay  was  made  a  peer  of  the 
realm  under  the  title  of  Baron  Macaulay 
of  Rothley.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
elected  a  foreign  associate  of  the  French 
Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences. 
Hte  tftetf  on  Dfed  s&i  1851),  aati  was  buried 


in  Westminster  Abbey.  See  Life  and 
Letters  by  Trevelyan 

Macbeth',  a  Scottish  king,  whose  name 
has  been  immortalized  by  Shakespeare  in 
his  matchless  play  of  Macbeth.  In  1040 
he  slew  Duncan,  king  of  Scotia,  and  suc- 
ceeded him.  His  1 7  years'  reign  is  described 
in  the  chronicles  as  a  time  of  plenty.  Alone 
ol  Scottish  kings  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to 
Rome  (1050),  where  he  gave  very  large  alms 
to  the  poor.  In  1057  Malcolm  Duncan, 
who  had  fled  to  England  after  the  murder  of 
his  father,  returned  to  Scotland,  and,  march- 
ing a  hostile  force  against  Macbeth,  defeated 
and  killed  him  at  the  battle  ol  Lumphanan, 
after  which  Malcolm  was  proclaimed  king. 

Macbeth,  one  of  Shakespeare's  most 
important  tragedies,  probably  was  written 
in  1605.  It  was  acted  as  early  as  1611  and 
published  in  1623.  King  James  I  came  to 
the  throne  two  years  before  Macbeth  was 
written,  and  possibly  a  desire  to  win  court- 
favor  influenced  Shakespeare  in  producing 
this  tragedy.  A  Scottish  theme  was  ad- 
mirable for  this  purpose.  As  a  source  tor 
the  plot  Holinshed's  Chronicle  of  Scottish 
History  was  used  together  with  other 
Scottish  sources.  Banquo  was  a  direct  an- 
cestor of  James  I,  and  he  accordingly  was 
portrayed  in  such  a  way  as  to  arouse  sym- 
pathy. Other  touches  in  the  play  perhaps 
are  attempts  to  please  King  James. 
The  characters  of  Macbeth  and  Lady  Mac- 
beth are  skilfully  depicted  and  their  crimes 
and  subsequent  downfall  appear  as  the 
necessary  outcome  of  their  devotion  to  the 
god  of  ambition.  There  is  much  evidence 
of  interpolation  and  mutilation  in  the 
text.  Macbeth  is  the  shortest  of  Shakes- 
peare's plays,  and  the  action  is  swift  and 
bold.  The  supernatural  element  in  the 
play  may  be  an  indirect  compliment  to 
King  James'  belief  in  witches.  At  any  rate 
it  is  effectively  most  used.  In  this  play 
Shakespeare  has  relieved  the  heavy  tragic 
parts  by  light  comedy  in  a  most  adroit 
way.  Lee,  one  of  Shakespeare's  biog- 
raphers, justly  says  that  this  play  ranks 
with  the  noblest  tragedies,  either  of  the 
modern  or  ancient  world 

MaccabaDus,  Judas,  i2th  of  the  English 
oratorios  by  Handel.  Words  by  Doctor 
Morrell.  First  performance  at  Covent 
Garden,  ^April  i,  1747.  The  chorus,  See  tlte 
Conquering  Hero  Comes,  is  incorporated  in 
this  work,  which  is  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
and  popular  of  Handel's  oratorios. 

Maccabees  (mak'ka-bez),  the  name  as- 
sumed by  the  patriotic  Hebrew  Mattathias 
(and  his  descendants),  who  first  resisted 
the  persecutions  inflicted  upon  the  Jewish 
people  by  the  Syrian  king,  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes  (175-164  B.  C.).  Mattathias  had 
retired  with  his  five  sons,  at  the  beginning 
of  these  troubles,  to  a  small  place  called 
Modin,  between  Jerusalem  ana  Joppa,  to 
dvtfr  thte  oesdltttitan  bl  ttfe  cfty  aaati 


MACCABEES  OF  THE  WORLD 


1131 


McCLELLAN 


the  desecration  of  the  temple.  He  was 
pursued  by  the  Syrians.  When  one  of 
theii  captains  tried  to  bnoe  him  to  abandon 
the  Jewish  faith,  he  answered  by  slaying 
with  his  own  hand  the  first  Jewish  renegade 
who  approached  the  altar  of  idolatry.  This 
bold  act  was  the  signal  for  a  general  out- 
break. The  five  sons  of  Mattathias,  with 
a  few  faithful  followers,  rose  against  the 
national  foe,  destroyed  all  traces  of  heathen 
worship,  and  then  fied  into  the  wilderness  of 
Judaea.  Not  long  after,  they  entered  the 
adjacent  cities  and  villages,  circumcising 
the  children  and  restoring  the  ancient  re- 
ligion. At  the  death  of  Mattathias,  166 
B.  C.,  his  son  Judas  took  command  of  the 
patriots,  repulsed  the  enemy  at  Mizpah  and 
other  places,  reconquered  Jerusalem,  puri- 
fied the  temple  and  restored  the  worship  of 
Jehovah.  Having  further  concluded  an 
alliance  with  the  Romans,  he  fell  in  battle 
with  Bacchides.  Judas  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother  Jonathan,  who  also  acquired 
the  dignity  of  high-priest.  Jonathan  was 
treacherously  murdered  at  Ptolemais,  141 
B .  C  ,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Simon, 
the  second  of  the  five  sons  of  Mattathias.  The 
reign  of  Simon  marked  a  new  era  in  Jewish 
history.  His  power  was  almost  absolute,  but 
it  was  exercised  with  great  moderation  and 
"Judah  prospered  as  of  old."  The  reign  of  the 
Maccabean  family  continued  until  the  time  of 
Herod  the  Great.  See  History  of  Israel  by 
Ewald  and  History  of  the  Jews  by  Milman. 

Mac'cabees  of  the  World,  Knights  of 
the,  a  beneficiary  society,  was  organized 
at  London,  Canada,  in  1878,  and  reor- 
ganized at  Port  Huron  in  1883.  It  now 
has  300,000  members  and  5,000  subordinate 
Tents,  or  local  bodies,  in  55  jurisdictions. 
The  Supreme  Tent  is  at"  Port  Huron, 
Michigan.  The  accumulated  funds  of  the 
order  amount  to  $6,500,000,  invested  in 
United  States  and  municipal  bonds.  It 
furnishes  benefits  in  case  of  disability  and 
death,  and  has  paid  over  $30,000,000  in 
benefits.  Its  rates  are  based  on  the  national 
fraternal  congress*  table  of  mortality,  and 
it  is  incorporated  under  the  laws  of  Michigan. 
McCarthy  (  md-kar'th'i  ),  Justin,  Irish  his- 
torian and  novelist,  was  born  at  Cork,  Nov. 
22,  1830.  He 
joined  the  staff  of 
the  Northern 
Times,  Liverpool, 
in  1853,  and  m 
1864  became 
chief  editor  of  the 
London  Morning 
Star.  He  resigned 
this  position  in 
1804,  and  devoted 
the  next  three 
years  to  a  tour 
through  the  Uni- 
ted States.  He 
ttfBTH*  MCCARTHY  8  D  t  fe  r  ed  the 


GENERAL  McCLELLAN 


house  of  commons  in  1879  as  member  for 
Longford,  a  Liberal,  but  his  literary  works 
soon  extended  his  name  much  further  than 
his  political  triumphs.  Among  his  best-known 
novels  are  Paul  Massie,  The  Waterdale  Neigh- 
bors, My  Enemy's  Daughter,  Donna  Quixote, 
Maid  of  Athens,  Red  Diamonds  and  A  Fair 
Saxon.  His  historical  writings,  on  which  his 
fame  mostly  depends,  are  History  of  Our  Own 
Times,  History  of  the  Four  Georges,  Life  of  Peel, 
Life  of  Leo  XIII,  Modern  England  and  Tlie 
Story  of  Mr.  Gladstone's  Life.  He  died  April 
24,  1912. 

McClel'lan,  George  Brinton,  an  Amer- 
ican general,  was  born  at  Philadelphia,  Dec. 
3,  1826.  He 
graduated  at 
West  Point  in 
1846,  one  of  his 
classmates  being 
the  renowned 
"Stonewall"  Jack- 
son. He  served 
as  an  engineer 
during  the  Mexi- 
can War,  winning 
a  brevet  -  cap- 
taincy. He  con- 
tinued to  serve  as 
an  officer  in  the 
regular  army  un- 
til 1857,  when  he 
resigned  to  engage  in  railroad  business. 
When  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  Governor 
Dennison  of  Ohio  appointed  him  major- 
general  of  Ohio  volunteers,  and  in  May  he 
was  appointed  major-general  of  United 
States  troops  by  President  Lincoln.  He 
was  immedtately  sent  into  West  Virginia, 
and  conducted  a  short  and  successful  cam- 
paign against  the  Confederates.  On  account 
of  this  signal  success  McClellan  was  soon 
called  to  Washington  to  reorganize  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac.  On  the  retirement 
of  General  Winfield  Scott  in  November 
McClellan  was  made  commander-in-chief. 
As  an  organizer  he  showed  marked  ability 
and  efficiency;  but  he  sorely  tned  the 
patience  of  the  administration  and  the 
people  by  the  slowness  of  his  movements  — 
rather  than  by  his  tailure  to  move  at  all. 
At  length  in  April,  1862,  under  the  positive 
orders  of  President  Lincoln  he  entered  on  his 
disastrous  Peninsular  campaign.  He  ad- 
vanced w!thin  a  few  miles  of  Richmond, 
but  after  fighting  what  are  known  as  the 
"Seven  Days'  battles"  (June  25  to  July  i) 
he  was  driven  back  and  was  directed  to 
abandon  the  peninsula  A  "large  part  of 
his  army  was  ordered  to  re-enforce  General 
Pope's  troops;  but  soon  atter  the  second 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  McClellan,  in  command 
of  his  army  of  the  Potomac,  marching  north- 
ward, met  the  forces  of  General  Lee  at 
Antietam,  Maryland,  where  there  occurred 
one  of  the  bloodiest  battles  of  the  war;  but 
ativaortbge  MuUelhm  guftwAl  he 


McCLERNAND 


1132 


McCORMICK 


failed  to  follow  up,  and  General  Lee  was 
allowed  to  recross  the  Potomac  without 
being  molested.  McClellan  followed  him 
into  Virginia;  but  all  his  subsequent  move- 
ments were  so  unsatisfactory  to  the  presi- 
dent and  cabinet,  that  in  November  he 
was  relieved  of  his  command  and  Gen- 
eral A.  E.  Burnside  appointed  in  his 
place.  In  1864  he  was  the  Democratic 
candidate  against  Lincoln  for  the  presi- 
dency, but  received  the  electoral  vote  of 
only  three  states  —  New  Jersey,  Kentucky 
and  Delaware.  In  1877  he  was  elected 
governor  of  New  Jersey,  and  filled  that 
office  one  term.  He  died  at  Orange,  N.  J., 
Oct.  29,  1885. 

McClernand,  John  Alexander,  an  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  soldier,  was  born  in 
Breckenridge  County,  Kentucky,  in  1812. 
In  1832  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar;  and  in 
this  year  also  he  served  as  a  private  soldier 
in  a  campaign  against  the  Sac  and  Fox 
Indians.  He  afterwards  became  interested 
in  trade;  published  a  Democratic  newspaper 
in  Illinois;  and  from  1837  to  1842  sat  in 
the  Illinois  legislature.  From  1843  to 
1851  he  represented  Illinois  as  a  Democratic 
member  of  Congress.  With  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  he  was  commissioned 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Belmont;  and  won 
distinction  at  the  battle  of  Fort  Donelson. 
In  1863  he  relieved  General  Sherman  of  the 
command  of  the  army  against  Vicksburg; 
but  was  shortly  afterwards  in  turn  super- 
seded by  General  Grant.  Until  1863  he 
commanded  the  i3th  army-corps;  but  in 
November,  1864,  he  retired  from  military 
service.  From  1870  to  1873  he  was  circuit 

1'udge   in    the    Sangamon    district,    Illinois, 
n  1876  he  was  chairman  of  the  Democratic 

national    convention    held    in    St,     Louis. 

He  died  at  Springfield,  Illinois,  September 

20,  1900. 

McCloskey  (ma-klos'ki),  John,  a  cardinal 

of  the  church  of  Rome  in  America,  was  born 
at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
March  20,  1810. 
After  pursuing  a 
collegiate  and  theo- 
logical course  at  St. 
Mary's  College, 
Emmetsburg, 
Maryland,  he  was 
ordained  a  priest  at 
St.  P  a  t  r  i  c  k's 
Cathedral,  New 
York,  Jan.  9,  1834. 
He  was  consecrated 
bishop  on  March 


1864,  and  in   1875 

CARDINAL  MCCLOSKEY  was%reated  cardi- 
nal, being  the  first  American  raised  to  that 
princely  dignity.  He  died  at  New  York 
on  Oct.  10,  1885. 


McCook',     Gen.     Alexander    McDowell, 

was  born  in  Columbiana  County,  O.,  April 
22,  1831.  H  e 
graduated  at 
West  Point  in 
1852.  He  was 
appointed  c  o  1- 
onel  of  the  first 
Ohio  regiment  or- 
ganized for  ser- 
vice in  1861, 
which  he  com- 
manded at  the 
battle  of  Bull 
Run  on  July  2 1 , 
1861.  He  was 
afterwards  pro- 
m  o  t  e  d  to  the 
GEN.  ALEX.  M.  McCOOK  Tarfe  pf  major- 
general,  and  commanded  a  division  at 
Shiloh  and  at  Perryville.  When  General 
Rosecrans  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
army  of  the  Cumberland,  McCook  was  as- 
signed to  the  command  of  the  2oth  army- 
corps,  with  which  he  took  part  in  the  bat- 
tles of  Stone  River  and  Chickamauga.  After 
the  war  he  became  colonel  of  the  6th  In- 
fantry, and  for  a  time  was  in  charge  of  the 
Military  School  at  Fort  Leavenworth.  In 
1895  he  retired  with  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  He  died  on  June  12,  1903. 

McCook,  Gen.  Daniel,  was  born  at  Car- 
rollton,  O.,  July  22,  1834,  and  graduated  at 
Florence  College,  Alabama,  1857.  He  en- 
tered the  Union  army  as  colonel  of  the  sist 
Ohio  volunteers  in  1861,  being  afterwards 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general. 
In  addition  to  a  number  of  minor  engage- 
ments, he  participated  in  the  battles  of 
Perryville,  Chickamauga,  Missionary  Ridge 
and  Kenesaw  Mountain,  Ga.  At  the  last 
he  was  killed  on  July  21,  1864. 

McCook,  Gen.  Robert  Latimer,  was 
born  in  Columbiana  County,  O.,  Dec.  28, 
1827.  He  was  commissioned  colonel  of  the 
9th  Ohio  volunteers  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War,  and  commanded  a  brigade  in 
West  Virginia  under  General  Rosecrans  in 
the  summer  of  1861,  highly  distinguishing 
himself  in  a  number  of  engagements.  He 
was  in  command  of  a  brigade  in  General 
Buell's  army  in  August,  1862,  when  he  was 
shot  by  guerillas  while  sick  and  traveling 
in  an  ambulance  near  Salem,  Ala. 

McCor'mick,  Cyrus  H.  Too  little  honor 
has  been  paid,  heretofore,  to  the  inventor 
and  first  successful  manufacturer  of  the 
reaper,  although  its  value  to  the  world 
can  scarcely  be  second  to  that  of  the  cotton- 
gin.  Eli  Whitney  gave  cotton  wealth  to  the 
southern  states  and  cheaper  clothing  to 
all  the  world.  Cyrus  H.  McCormick  enor- 
mously increased  and  cheapened  the  world's 
supply  of  bread  by  making  it  possible  to 
harvest  grain  on  minions  of  acres  of  land  that 
had  never  been  under  cultivation  and  that 
must  have  waited  centuries  on  hand-labor. 


McCORMICK 


"33 


McCOSH 


CYRUS  H.  McCORMICK 


Born  on  a  farm  at  Walnut  Grove  (W.) 
Va.,  February  15,  1800,  three  days  later 
than  Lincoln,  the  inventor  of  the  reaper 
grew  up  under  almost  as  hard  conditions 
as  the  great  emancipator.  His  home  was 
a  log-cabin  that  sheltered  a  family  of  nine, 
and  the  farm  was  poor,  rough  land  that 
barely  afforded  a  living.  But  the  family 
came  of  Scotch  Covenanter  stock  that  had 
fought  for  religious 
liberty  in  Scotland 
and  for  political 
liberty  and  against 
the  Indians  in 
America.  The 
father  was  a  back- 
woods genius  in 
mechanics.  Hein- 
^vented  a  rude 
hemp  -  brake  and 
clover-huller,  and 
was  experimenting 
on  a  reaper  when 
Cyrus  was  born. 
Father  and  son  be- 
came inseparable, 
and  made  many  a 
queer  contrivance 
that  failed  to  work  and  made  them  objects 
of  ridicule  in  an  unenterprising,  unimagina- 
tive community.  When,  in  the  autumn 
of  1831,  the  farmboy  clattered  out  of  the 
barnyard  on  his  first  reaper,  he  was  given 
scant  encouragement.  The  machine  actually 
worked,  but  it  was  ten  years  before  anyone 
could  be  induced  to  buy  one.  Had  Mc- 
Corrnick  not  had  immense  personal  force 
and  tenacity  of  purpose,  his  invention 
would  have  benefited  the  world  little. 
Forty  miles  from  a  blacksmith-shop  and 
60  from  a  railroad  or  canal,  with  iron  $75 
a  ton,  he  built  a  blast-furnace  on  the  farm, 
dug  ore  out  of  the  Alleghanies  and  smelted 
iron  himself.  In  five  years  he  made  and 
sold  fewer  than  100  reapers. 

At  37,  with  $300  in  his  belt,  he  left  the 
farm  on  horseback  and  rode  from  New 
York  to  Missouri  preaching  his  reaper.  In 
Chicago  he  found  a  listener  in  Mayor  Ogden. 
After  two  minutes'  talk  this  typical  Chicago 
man  bought  a  half-interest  in  the  new  in- 
vention. Before  the  harvest  of  1847  was 
ready  to  cut,  $50,000  worth  of  reapers  were 
sold.  New  markets  for  wheat  were  opened 
by  the  removal  of  the  English  corn-laws, 
and  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California 
made  labor  so  scarce  that  the  reaper  sud- 
denly became  a  necessity.  Exhibited  at  the 
exposition  in  Crystal  Palace,  London,  1851, 
the  London  Times  declared  the  fair  worth 
all  it  cost  if  it  had  brought  nothing  else  to 
England  beside  the  new  American  reaper. 
When  the  war  broke  out,  the  50,000  reapers 
in  the  field  released  350,000  men  for  duty  at 
the  front.  The  world  saw  the  United 
States  support  two  armies  in  the  field  and 
still  send  grain  abroad.  He  contributed 


liberally  to  the  founding  (1859)  of  Mc- 
Cormick  Theological  Seminary  at  Chicago, 
and  established  a  chair  in  Washington 
and  Lee  University,  Virginia.  In  the  fire 
of  '  7  1  the  McCormick  works  were  destroyed, 
but  the  inventor  was  62  years  old  and  had 
a  fortune  of  $4,000,000.  He  thought  seri- 
ously of  retiring  and  leaving  the  field  to 
competitors.  His  wife,  whose  business 
sagacity  had  helped  build  up  the  enter- 
prise and  who  was  an  unofficial  adviser  of 
importance,  insisted  upon  rebuilding  at  once. 
These  works  have  turned  out  5,000,000 
reapers,  and  to-day  employ  6,000  workmen. 
Personally  Cyrus  H.  McCormick  was 
not  popular.  He  had  been  brought  up  in  a 
hard  school,  and  years  and  prosperity 
failed  to  soften  him.  Honest  as  the  day, 
just,  of  tremendous  force,  he  commanded 
respect  and  won  the  friendship  of  a  few 
men  as  big  as  himself,  but  in  his  field  of 
work  he  wanted  to  dominate.  He  wanted 
to  make  all  the  reapers.  He  said  himself 
that  he  had  to  fight  or  get  out  of  the  fight. 
He  became  the  reaper-king,  and  saw  his 
machine  push  the  frontier  westward  year 
after  year,  the  wheat-field  always  ten 
miles  ahead  of  the  railroad  and  begging 
the  iron  horse  to  come  on  for  the  golden 
grain.  To-day  the  reaper  has  gone  to 
Puget's  Sound,  to  Saskatchewan  and  to 
the  Rio  Grande.  The  inventor  died  on 
May  13,  1884,  but  it  is  scarcely  conceivable 
that  the  McCormick  Harvester  Works 
should  cease  to  exist,  for  they  now  supply 
a  large  percentage  of  the  machines  used  in  the 
wheat-fields  in  every  country  in  the  world. 
McCosh',  James,  a  Scottish-American 
educator  and  philosopher,  was  born  in  1811, 
in  Ayrshire,  Scot- 
land. He  was 
educated  at  the 
Universities 
of  Glasgow  and 
Edinburgh, 
and  while  there 
earned  the  hon- 
orary degree  of 
M.  A.  by  his  paper 
on  the  Philosophy 
of  the  States, 
through  the  in- 
fluence of  Sir  Wil- 
1  i  a  m  Hamilton. 
He  was  ordained 

JAMES  MCCOSH 


ister  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  1835,  but 
joined  in  the  Free-Church  movement  in 
1843.  He  wa*  caljed  to  the  chair  of  logic 
and  metaphysics  in  Queen's  College,  Bel- 
fast, in  1851,  and  remained  there  until  1868, 
when  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  at  Prince- 
ton, U.  S.  A.  (now  Princeton  University), 
elected  him  as  its  president.  By  this  step 
the  college  gained  great  benefit,  for  he  im- 
parted new  life,  and  secured  large  dona- 
tions by  personal  influence.  The  writings 


McCUTCHEON 


"34 


MACDONALD 


of  Dr.  McCosh  are  marked  by  keen  insight 
as  well  as  clearness  of  statement;  he  be- 
longs to  the  Scottish  or  "common-sense" 
school  of  philosophy.  Among  the  most 
important  of  his  works  are  The  Methods  of 
Divine  Government;  Typical  Forms  and 
Special.  Ends  in  Creation;  Intuitions  of  the 
Mind;  Examination  of  Mill's  Philosophy; 
Laws  of  Discursive  Thought;  Logic;  Chris- 
tianity and  Positivism;  Scottish  Philosophy; 
and  papers  on  education  and  the  relation 
of  science  to  religion.  In  1888  he  resigned 
to  give  his  attention  more  closely  to  phil- 
osophical writing,  and  published  First  and 
Fundamental  Truths  and  Religious  Aspects 
of  Evolution.  He  died  on  Nov.  16,  1894. 

McCut'cheon,  George  Barr,  an  Amer- 
ican writer  whose  short  stories  in  many 
magazines  have  made  him  widely  known, 
was  born  in  1866  in  Indiana.  After  a  boy- 
hood on  a  farm,  than  which  there  would 
seem  to  be  no  better  preparation  for  an 
active  and  busy  life,  he  attended  Purdue 
University,  and  afterwards  was  a  repoiter 
and  editor.  He  is  the  author  of  a  few  novels 
as  well  as  innumerable  short  stories.  The 
novels  include  Graustark,  Castle  Crancy- 
crow,  Tlte  Sherrods  and  Nedra. 

Macdonald  (mdk-dd-ndl'),  Etienne  Jac= 
qucs  Joseph  Alexandra  Marshal  of  France, 
was  born  on  Nov.  17,  1765,  at  Sancerre. 
He  entered  the  army  in  1784,  and  became 
a  general  in  1795,  after  having  distinguished 
himself  at  Jemappes  and  also  by  crossing 
the  Waal  on  the  ice  under  the  fire  of  the 
enemy.  In  1809  Napoleon  placed  him  in 
command  of  the  right  wing  of  the  army 
of  Italy,  and  he  so  distinguished  himself 
at  the  battle  ot  Wagram  that  he  was 
created  a  marshal  and  duke  of  Tarentum. 
In  1813,  at  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  he  assisted 
to  cover  the  retreat  of  the  French.  He 
adhered  firmly  to  Napoleon  until  the  latter's 
abdication;  but  during  the  hundred  days" 
refused  to  cake  any  command  under  him. 
He  lived  in  honorable  retirement  until  his 
death,  which  took  place  on  Sept.  25,  1840. 
See  The  Consulate  and  the  Empire  by  Thiers. 
Macdonald  (mdk-don'ald\  George,  a 
Scotch  poet,  novelist  and  preacher,  was 
born  at  Huntly, 
Aberdeenshire,  in 
1 8  2  4 ,  and  educated 
at  King's  College 
and  Aberdeen  Uni- 
versity, studying 
subsequently  at 
the  Independent 
College,  Highbury, 
London,  for  the 
nonconformist 
ministry.  He 
preached  for  a 
short  time  in  Sur- 
rey and  Essex,  but 
later  became  a  lay 
of  the 


Church  of  England  and  devoted  himself  to  lit- 
erature. He  visited  the  United  States  in 
1872-73,  lecturing  and  preaching  in  various 
cities.  He  published  poems  in  1855,  1857, 
1864, 1 868  and  1 88 1.  He  also  published  a  large 
number  of  novels,  among  which  are  David 
Elginbrod;  Annals  of  a  Quiet  Neighborhood; 
Robert  Falconer;  Wilfrid  Cumbermede;  The 
Marquis  of  Lossie;  Sir  Gibbie;  Mary  Mars- 
ton;  Lilith;  Alec  Forbes  of  Howglen;  Thomas 
Wingfold,  Curate;  Salted  with  Fire;  The  Sea- 
board Parish;  and  St.  George  and  St.  Michael. 
His  religious  and  theological  works,  includ- 
ing The  Hope  of  the  Gospel,  Gifts  of  the 
Child  Christ  etc.,  are  not  so  well-remem- 
bered; but  some  attracted  no  little  atten- 
tion at  their  publication,  particularly  Un- 
spoken Sermons  and  Miracles  of  Our  Lord. 
His  stories  are  of  unequal  merit,  the  Annals 
of  a  Quiet  Neighborhood,  Robert  Falconer 
and  Wilfrid  Cumbermede  perhaps  being  best 
known.  Many  of  his  children's  stories  and 
poems,  as  At  the  Back  of  the  North  Wind, 
are  delightful  reading,  full  of  graceful  human 
fancies,  with  a  tinge  of  mysticism  or  rather 
of  the  mystery  of  child-life.  He  died  in 
1905. 

Macdon'ald,  Right  Hon.  Sir  John  Alex- 
ander, was  born  in  Scotland,  1815,  but 
removed  to  Canada 
when  a  child.  He  was 
educated  at  Royal 
Grammar  School  in 
Kingston,  Ontario,  and 
called  to  the  bar  in 
1836.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  executive 

-»         «*—  council  in  the  Morris 

*^-""B  "*•  administration 
(1847-8),  and  was  a 
member  of  various 
governments,  holding 
different  portfolios  at 

SIR  J.  A.  MACDONALD  in*erVals     Un.tU      l858» 

when,  as  prime  min- 
ister, he  and  his  cabinet  resigned.  He  be- 
came attorney-general  in  the  Tache-Mac- 
donald  government  from  1864  until  the 
union  of  the  provinces  in  1867.  He  was  a 
delegate  to  the  Charlottetown  conference 
in  1864  and  to  that  in  Quebec  the  same 
year,  and  was  chairman  of  the  London 
colonial  conference  (1866-7)  when  the  act 
of  union,  the  British  North  America  act, 
was  passed  by  Parliament.  He  formed 
the  first  government  for  the  new  Dominion 
in  1867,  and  was  minister  of  justice  until 
1873,  when  he  resigned  on  account  of  the 
Pacific  Railway  charges.  In  1871  he  was 
one  of  Her  Majesty's  joint  high-commis- 
sioners in  the  Alabama  claims,  the  settle- 
ment of  which  was  embodied  in  the  Treaty 
of  Washington  signed  in  1871.  He  sat  for 
Kingston  in  the  Canadian  Assembly  from 
1844  until  the  union,  and  for  the  same  place 
in  the  Commoas  for  several  terms.  In 
1880  hfc  Visited  England  with  the  nranfetfer 


MACDONALD 


M35 


McGEE 


SIR  WM.  MACDONALD 


of  railways  and  agriculture,  and  there  they 
arranged  the  contract  for  the  construction 
of  the  C.  P.  Railway  to  which  Parliament 
has  given  effect.  One  of  Canada's  most 
distinguished  sons,  he  died  in  1891. 

Macdon'ald,  Sir  William  C.,  was  born 
in  Prince  Edward  Island  in  1831,  and  was 
educated  at  Char- 
lottetown.  He  served 
as  one  of  the  gover- 
nors of  McGill  Uni- 
versity and  also  as 
director  of  the  Bank 
of  Montreal.  He  gave 
large  sums  to  McGill, 
and  contributed  to 
scientific  agricultural 
education  in  all  the 
provinces.  He  was 
the  founder  of  what 
are  called  Macdonald 
Schools  for  the  en- 
couragement of  ele- 
mentary technical  education,  and  was  a 
generous  patron  of  Victoria  Hospital, 
Montreal. 

McDonogh  (mak-don'o),  John,  American 
philanthropist,  was  born  at  Baltimore,  Dec. 
29>  I779<  and  died  in  Louisiana,  Oct.  26, 
1850.  He  removed  to  New  Orleans  in  1800, 
and  accumulated  a  fortune  of  over  $2,000,- 
ooo.  Between  1822  and  1840  he  freed  his 
slaves  and  sent  shiploads  of  freedmen  at 
his  own  expense  to  Africa.  He  bequeathed 
the  bulk  of  his  fortune  to  Baltimore  and 
New  Orleans  for  free  schools.  Since  1873 
the  McDonogh  labor-schools  at  Baltimore 
have  taught  farming  to  70  boys  each  year. 
At  New  Orleans  the  McDonogh  schools 
are  conducted  in  connection  with  the  public 
schools.  His  birthday  is  a  school  holiday, 
and  his  statue  stands  in  Lafayette  Square. 
See  Life  by  William  Allan,  Baltimore,  1886. 
McDonough  (mak-don'd),  Thomas,  an 
American  naval  officer,  born  in  Delaware, 
Dec.  23,  1783,  He  became  a  midshipman 
in  February,  1800,  and  belonged  to  the 
Philadelphia,  which  was  one  of  the  squadron 
employed  against  Tripoli  in  1803.  He  after- 
wards served  in  the  Enterprise,  commanded 
by  Decatur,  and  participated  in  the  various 
attacks  upon  Tripoli  in  1804.  In  1814, 
during  the  second  war  with  Great  Britain, 
he  commanded  a  squadron  on  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  and  gained  a  decided  victory  over 
a  British  squadron  under  command  of  Cap- 
tain George  Downie.  For  this  service  ne 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain  and 
was  presented  with  a  gold  medal  by  Con- 
gress. Vermont  also  gave  him  an  estate 
overlooking  the  scene  of  the  engagement. 
He  died  at  sea,  Nov.  16,  1825. 

McDow'ell,  Irvin,  a  United  States  soldier, 
was  born  in  Franklin  County,  O.,  Oct.  15, 
1818.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838; 
and  during  the  Mexican  War  was  brevetted 
captain  for  his  gallant  conduct  at  the  battle 


of  Buena  Vista,  AS  tne  opening  of  the 
Civil  War  he  was  commissioned  brigadier- 
general,  and  placed  in  command  of  the  army 
organized  for  an  advance  upon  Richmond 
His  plan  of  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  was 
without  fault,  and  his  conduct  all  that 
could  be  desired  in  a  general;  but  he  was 
unable  to  arrest  the  retreat  of  his  troops, 
when  they  became  panicstricken  in  the 
afternoon;  and  for  some  time  afterwards 
McDowell  was  made  the  object  of  severe 
and  unjust  criticism.  He  was  afterwards 

S'aced  in  command  of  an  army-corps  under 
cClellan    and    Pope,    and    was    with    the 
latter  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull    Run, 
Aug.  29-30,  1862.     He  died  at  San  Fran- 
cisco, May  5,  1885. 

Macduff,  a  Scottish  nobleman  and  one 
of  the  leading  characters  in  Shakespeare's 
immortal  Macbeth. 

Mace,  the  aril  or  inner  covering  of  the 
nutmeg.  It  is  blood-red  and  somewhat 
fleshy  when  fresh.  It  is  prepared  for  market 
by  drying  for  some  days  in  the  sun.  Mace 
is  used  as  a  spice,  and  its  flavor  is  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  nutmeg.  It  is  im- 
ported chiefly  from  Penang  and  Singapore, 
where  it  is  received  from  the  Spice  Islands. 

Macedo'nia  (mas'S-do'rii-d),  originally  a 
small  country  in  Europe,  north  of  Thessaly 
and  the  ^Egean.  Perdiccas  I,  about  700 
B.  C.,  is  reputed  to  have  been  the  first 
king  of  Macedon,  but  it  was  not  until  the 
accession  of  Philip,  359  B.  C.,  that  the 
power  of  Macedon  began  to  be  felt  by 
Greece  and  other  nations.  Philip  applied 
himself  vigorously  to  developing  the  re- 
sources of  his  kingdom,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  the  greatness  it  afterward  assumed. 
His  son,  Alexander  the  Great,  conquered 
Persia  and  brought  half  the  known  world 
under  his  sway;  but  a  few  years  after  his 
death  the  Macedonian  empire  was  divided 
into  four  kingdoms  under  his  principal  gen- 
erals. In  1 68  B.  C.  Macedonia  was  con- 
quered by  the  Romans,  and  25  years  later 
was  made  a  Roman  province.  The  country 
now  is  under  the  dominion  of  Turkey. 

Maceo  (md'sd-o),  Antonio,  a  mulatto 
officer  of  the  insurgent  army  in  Cuba,  was 
born  at  Santiago,  Cuba,  July  14,  1848. 
His  career  during  the  ten  years'  war,  1868- 
78,  displayed  natural  abilities  as  a  soldier, 
and  at  Guimaro  he  defeated  the  Spanish 
under  Weyler.  He  attempted,  though  un- 
successfully, to  start  another  revolution  in 
1890.  He  took  part  actively  in  the  upris- 
ing of  1895,  and,  second  only  to  Maximo 
Gomez,  was  rated  the  ablest  of  the  in- 
surgent leaders.  He  was  killed  by  the 
Spanish  in  a  skirmish  near  Man  el,  Dec.  a, 
1896. 

AlcQee',  Hon.  Thomas  D'Arcy,  was  born 
in  County  Louth,  Ireland,  1825,  and  came 
to  America  in  1842.  When  only  17  his 
newspaper  articles  attracted  attention.  Re- 
turning to  Ireland,  he  became  chief  editor 


1136 


MACHINE-GUN 


of  The  Freeman's  Journal,  and  afterwards 
was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Dublin  Nation, 
the  organ  of  the  Young  Ireland  party.  He 
returned  to  America  in  1848,  went  to 
Canada,  represented  Montreal  in  Parlia- 
ment for  several  years,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  Macdonald-Dorion  administration. 
He  was  the  most  magnetic  orator  in  Parlia- 
ment and  an  eloquent  popular  lecturer. 
His  History  of  Ireland  added  to  his  reputa- 
tion. The  lessons  he  had  learned  in  1848 
caused  him  to  warn  his  countrymen  against 
extreme  views  and  policies.  He  earnestly 
attacked  Fenianism,  and  this  led  to  his 
assassination  in  1868.  The  Canadian  gov- 
ernment provided  a  state-funeral. 

McGill'  University  almost  alone  among 
the  highet  institutions  for  learning  in  Can- 
ada owes  its  origin  to  private  endowment. 
It  was  founded  under  the  will  of  James 
McGill  (1744-1811),  obtained  its  charter  in 
1821,  and  began  its  work  wth  the  two 
faculties  of  law  and  medicine  in  1829. 
Although  work  was  seriously  hampered  for 
a  time  by  litigation  and  by  lack  of  funds, 
an  era  of  prosperity  was  ushered  in  by  the 
amended  charter  of  1852  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  new  principal  in  1855.  The 
supreme  authority  is  vested  in  the  governor- 
general  01  Canada  as  visitor.  The  corpora- 
tion includes  the  governors,  principal  and 
fellows,  who  regulate  courses  of  study,  the 
granting  of  degrees  and  affairs  of  discipline. 
The  principal,  who  ex-officio  is  vice-chan- 
cellor, is  the  supreme  administrative  officer. 
There  are  43  fellows  who  represent  the 
various  departments,  the  graduates  and 
other  bodies.  The  faculties  include  arts, 
applied  science,  law,  medicine  and  agri- 
culture. There  also  is  a  graduate  depart- 
ment. The  work  of  the  university  is  carried 
on  in  McGill  College,  Royal  Victoria  College 
for  women  and  other  university  buildings  in 
Montreal,  which  are  all  beautifully  located 
below  the  mountain,  and  in  MacDonald 
College  at  St.  Anne  de  Bellevue. 

The  university  is  affiliated  with  Oxford, 
Cambridge  and  Dublin  Universities  in  Great 
Britain.  Four  theological  colleges  (all  in 
Montreal)  are  also  affiliated  with  it.  They  are: 
The  Congregational  College  of  Canada;  The 
Diocesan  College  of  Montreal;  The  Presby- 
terian College  of  Montreal  and  The  Western 
College  of  Montreal.  In  1914  the  students 
of  McGill  University  numbered  i, 6 1 8.  McGill 
has  been  fortunate  in  enlisting  the  sympathy 
and  aid  from  time  to  time  of  such  men  as  the 
late  Lord  Strathcona  and  Sir  William  Mac- 
donald,  whose  repeated  gifts  amount  in  the 
aggregate  to  millions  of  dollars.  Sir  William 
Peterson  at  present  is  the  principal  and  vice- 
chancellor  of  McGill. 

McGregor,  Robt.  See  ROB  ROY. 

Machiavelli,  (md'ke-d-vel'le),  Niccolo  di 
Bernardo  dei,  whose  name  has  become 
proverbial  for  intrique  and  duplicity,  was 
an  Italian  statesman  and  diplomatist, 


was  born  at  Florence,  May  3,  1469, 
and  died  there,  June  22,  1527.  In  1498 
Machiavelli  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
ten  citizens  chosen  to  direct  civil  and  mili- 
tary. This  position,  which  was  one  of  great 
importance,  Machiavelli  held  for  14  years, 
during  which  he  was  sent  on  a  large  num- 
ber of  foreign  embassies.  On  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Medici,  in  1512,  he  was  arrested 
on  a  charge  of  conspiracy.  Although  re- 
leased, he  was  obliged  for  several  years  to 
withdraw  from  public  life,  and  betake  him- 
self to  literature.  In  May,  1527,  the  Floren- 
tines again  drove  out  the  Medici  rulers  and 
proclaimed  the  republic;  but  Machiavelli 
was  so  distrusted  that  he  was  not  allowed 
to  take  any  active  part  in  the  movement 
for  liberty.  This  disappointment,  added  to 
his  already  feeble  health,  brought  on  an 
illness  of  which  he  soon  died.  Machiavelli's 
writings  comprised  several  volumes,  his 
most  importnat  \\ork  being  II  Principe  or 
The  Prince.  The  purpose  of  this  book 
is  to  reveal  the  means  by  which  princes 
and  rulers  may  maintain  authority  over 
their  subjects:  and  the  author  boldly  lays 
down  the  doctrine  that  to  sustain  their 
power  rulers  may  use  all  possible  means, 
including  fraud  and  treachery.  See  Life  by 
Villari  and  Florentine  History  by  Napier. 

Machine'-Gun,  a  gun  of  small  caliber, 
but  ranking  with  ordnance  rather  than 
small  arms,  is  a  weapon  of  warfare  which 
is  loaded,  unloaded  and  fired  wholly  or  in 
part  by  mechanical  contrivances,  and 
delivers  a  number  of  projectiles.  Some 
machine-guns  deliver  single  shots  in  rapid 
succession;  others  a  number  of  shots  simul- 
taneously. The  famous  Gatling  gun,  in- 
vented in  1861  by  R.  J.  Gatling  of  Indian- 
apolis, combines  both  these  advantages.  It 
has  ten  barrels,  from  which  no  less  than 
1,632  rounds  have  been  discharged  in  84 
seconds.  The  Gatling  gun,  as  well  as  the 
Hotchkiss,  Gardner  and  Nordenfeldt  guns, 
is  worked  by  an  externally  applied  force. 
On  the  other  hand,  many  machine  guns 
are  now  operated  in  an  automatic  manner. 
These  guns  are  often  operated  by  the 
powder-gas  driving  a  piston.  This  is  the 
principle  of  the  operation  of  the  Colt  auto- 
matic gun  and  the  Hotchkiss  automatic  gun 
(not  the  revolving  cannon).  The  Maxims 
and  "pompoms"  are  operated  by  the  recoil 
of  the  barrel  after  firing.  The  semiauto- 
matic mechanism  of  the  Maxim-Nordenfeldt 
of  the  U.  S.  navy  is  capable  of  driving 
unusually  heavy  guns.  Machine-guns  are 
not  adapted  for  accurate  shooting;  but 
rather  for  dispersing  masses  of  the  enemy 
at  close  quarters.  They  are  light,  easily 
moved  with  a  flying  detachment,  and  well- 
adapted  for  mounting  in  boats.  The  or- 
dinary rate  of  firing  for  a  Colt  or  Maxim 
gun  is  about  350  rounds  per  minute;  and 
the  maximum  range  about  2,500  yards. 
The  success  of  the  artillery  of  an  army 


McKAY 


"37 


MACKENZIE  RIVER 


would  appear  to  depend  rather  upon  the 
long-range  field-guns,  firing  shrapnel,  than 
upon  machine-guns  proper,  which  are 
hopelessly  outranged. 

McKay',  Alexander  Charles,  principal 
of  McMaster  University,  Toronto,  was  born 
in  Beamsville,  Ontario,  in  1861.  He  at- 
tended Grimsby  High  School  and  London 
Collegiate  Institute,  and  graduated  at  Toronto 
University  in  1885,  winning  a  gold  medal. 
He  was  a  teacher  in  public  and  in  high 
schools,  and  was  fellow  in  physics  in  the 
University  of  Toronto  (1887).  _  He  was 
appointed,  professor  of  mathematics  in  Mc- 
Master University  (Baptist)  in  1890,  was 
made  dean  in  1901  and  chancellor  in  1905. 
He  is  joint-author  of  the  high-school  arith- 
metic exclusively  authorized  for  Ontario 
for  15  years.  He  now  is  Chancellor  of 
McMaster  University.  See  MCMASTER  UNI- 
VERSITY. 

McKees'port,  Pa.,  a  city  in  Allegheny 
County,  southwestern  Pennsylvania,  the 
center  of  an  extensive  bituminous  coal- 
trade  and  commerce  in  natural  gas,  which 
abounds  in  the  region.  It  is  situated  ten 
miles  southeast  of  Pittsburg,  on  the  Monon- 
gahela  River  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yough- 
logheny,  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  Penn- 
sylvania and  Pittsburg  and  Lake  Erie  rail- 
roads. It  has  a  large  number  of  manu- 
facturing industries,  among  them  being  the 
largest  wrought-iron  pipe-works  on  the 
continent,  with  ample  capital  and  employ- 
ing over  6,000  hands.  There  are  establish- 
ments engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  iron 
and  steel,  locomotives,  railroad  cars,  glass 
works  and  lumber  mills.  The  city  also  has 
considerable  river-trade.  Population,  which 
has  of  late  largely  increased,  42,694. 

McKen'na,  Joseph,  an  American  lawyer 
and  jurist,  was  born  at  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Aug.  10,  1843.  At  12  he  removed  to  Cali- 
fornia with  his  parents.  He  was  educated 
at  the  College  of  St.  Augustine,  Benicia, 
studying  law  after  his  graduation  and  being 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1865.  He  was  soon 
elected  county-attorney  of  Solano  County, 
and  in  1875  was  sent  to  the  legislature. 
Although  twice  defeated  for  Congress,  he 
ran  again  in  1884  and  was  elected,  serving 
four  consecutive  terms.  During  his  life  in 
Congress  he  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Mr. 
McKinley  and  assisted  in  framing  the  Mc- 
Kinley  tariff  (1890).  He  succeeded  Judge 
Sawyer  upon  the  circuit  bench  of  the  Pacific 
slope  in  1892,  appointed  by  President 
Harrison,  and  remained  there  until  called 
by  President  McKinley  to  a  seat  in  his 
cabinet  as  attorney-general.  In  1897  he 
was  appointed  to  the  supreme  court,  suc- 
ceeding Justice  Field. 

Mackenzie  (md-ke'n'zl),  Alexander,  a 
Canadian  statesman,  was  born  near  Dun- 
keld,  Scotland,  Jan. '28.  1822.  He  moved 
to  Canada  in  1842,  engaging  in  business 
as  a  contractor  until  1861.  when  he  was 


HON.   A.   MACKENZIE 


elected  to  the  assembly,  remaining  until 
the  formation  of  the  Dominion  parliament, 
to  which  he  was  also 
elected,  representing 
the  same  constituency 
for  25  years.  He 
was  offered  a  seat  in 
the  Canadian  cabinet 
in  1865,  but  declined 
it.  Upon  the  resigna- 
tion of  Sir  John  Mac- 
donald  he  became 
premier  of  the  Do- 
minion and  minister  of 
public  works.  Upon 
the  election  of  a  Con- 
servative majority  to 
parliament  in  1878, 
he,  with  his  cabinet,  resigned  his  position. 
At  various  times  he  visited  his  native  coun- 
try and  was  treated  everywhere  with  dis- 
tinction, being  offered  knighthood  three 
times;  but  each  time  he  declined  the  honor. 
Possessed  of  great  ability  as  an  administrator 
and  splendid  gifts  as  an  orator,  his  influnce 
throughout  the  Dominion  is  still  felt.  He 
died  at  Toronto,  April  17,  1892. 

Mackenzie,  Sir  Morell,  was  born  in  1837 
at  Leytonstone,  England,  and  studied  at 
London  Hospital  Medical  College,  at  Paris 
and  at  Vienna.  In  1863  he  founded  the 
Hospital  for  Diseases  of  the  Throat  at 
London,  and  his  essay  on  Diseases  of  the 
Larynx  won  the  Jacksonian  prize  from  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons.  He  attended 
Emperor  Frederick  III  of  Germany  (1888) 
during  his  last  illness,  and  pulished  The 
Fatal  Illness  of  Frederick  the  Noble  in  vindi- 
cation of  his  treatment.  He  was  a  corre- 
sponding member  of  the  Imperial  Royal 
Society  of  Physicians  of  Vienna  and  of  the 
Medical  Society  of  Prague  and  an  honorary 
fellow  of  the  American  Laryngological  Asso- 
ciation. He  was  the  author  of  a  systematic 
treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Throat  and  Nose, 
which  has  been  translated  into  French  and 
German  and  is  well-known  in  America.  He 
died  on  Feb.  3,  1892,  after  an  illness  of  only 
a  few  days. 

Mackenzie  River.  Starting  at  Great 
Slave  Lake  in  Mackenzie  District  this  river 
runs  north  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  2,400  miles. 
It  is  one  of  the  eight  largest  rivers  in  the 
world,  a  tremendous  stream,  from  two  to 
four  miles  in  width  its  whole  length.  It 
is  navigable  all  the  way  except  at  the 
mouth,  where  it  spreads  into  a  great  many 
branches,  and  like  all  rivers  of  the  kind 
has  short  bars  which  would  require  dredg- 
ing. Navigation  would  be  practicable  for 
five  months  of  the  year.  Its  source  is  in 
Central  Alberta.  It  drains  a  greater  terri- 
tory than  that  drained  by  the  Great  Lakes 
and  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  trees  in  the 
basin  throw  out  their  leaves  about  the 
middle  of  May  before  the  ice  leaves  the 
river.  Some  steamboats  have  been  plying 


MACKENZIE 


XI38 


McKINLBV 


successfully  for  years  on  stretches  of  the 
Mackenzie,  Peace,  Liard  and  Athabasca 
Rivers.  Before  a  committee  of  the  senate 
in  1906  the  striking  fact  was  elicited  that, 
by  the  construction  of  two  tramways  of 
an  aggregate  length  of  20  miles,  a  con- 
tinuous water-and-rail  route  of  3,000  miles, 
the  longest  inland  water-route  in  the  world, 
can  be  provided. 

Mackenzie,  Sir  George.  The  fact  that 
rapping  on  his  tomb  in  Greyfriar's  church- 
yard, and  crying  "bluidy  MacKenzie,  come 
oot  if  ye  dar"  is  still  a  test  of  courage  among 
the  boys  of  Edinburgh,  is  an  echo,  three 
centuries  long,  of  the  evil  fame  of  Sir  George 
Mackenzie,  who  will  always  be  identified  with 
the  worst  features  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
His  cruel  record  as  the  presiding  judge  in 
trials  for  witchcraft,  commended  him  for 
service  as  the  tool  of  the  king  in  his  attempt 
to  force  the  Scotch  into  the  established  church. 
Unlike  Robespierre  (q. ».),  he  spent  his  old  age 
in  the  enjoyment  of  the  fortune  he  thus 
acquired  and  in  literary  work,  including  a 
romance,  a  moral  essay,  entitled  Preferring 
Solitude  to  Public  Employment,  A  short  Dis- 
course on  Several  Divine  and  Moral  Subjects, 
A  Discourse  Upon  the  Laws  and  Customs  of 
Scotland  in  Matters  Criminal,  Vindication  of 
the  Government  of  Scotland  During  the  Reign  of 
Charles  II,  and  Memoirs  of  the  Affairs  of 
Scotland.  Andrew  Lang  (q.  v.)  found  his 
character  of  so  much  interest  that  he  wrote  the 
story  of  his  life  under  the  title  Sir  George 
Mackenzie,  of  Rosehaugh  (1909). 

Mackenzie,  William  Lyon,  was  born  in 
Dundee,  Scotland,  in  1795,  came  to  Canada 
in  1820,  and  edited  The  Colonial  Advocate 
in  1824,  in  which  he  criticised  the  govern- 
ment and  was  greatly  disliked  by  the 
official  party.  A  mob  destroyed  his  print- 
ing-office in  1826,  a  foolish  act  which  gave 
him  increased  influence.  In  1828  he  ob- 
tained a  seat  in  Parliament.  His  newspaper 
criticisms  continued,  and  the  government 
party  on  the  plea  of  breach  of  privilege 
attempted  to  expel  him  from  the  Legisla- 
ture. He  was  five  times  expelled  and  as 
often  re-elected.  He  went  to  England  in 
1832  to  make  known  his  grievances,  and 
the  imperial  government  condemned  these 
arbitrary  proceedings.  A  man  of  great 
force  and  influence,  he  became  Toronto's 
first  mayor  in  1836.  He  was  prominent 
in  the  rebellion  of  1837  and  1838.  Misjudged 
as  he  was  in  this  matter,  great  good  came 
to  the  people.  At  different  times  he  en- 
dured poverty  and  imprisonment,  and 
was  the  only  Canadian  refugee  to  whom 
an  amnesty  was  refused.  .Returning  to 
Canada  he  was  elected  for  Haldimand 
County  in  1850,  resigning  in  1858.  His 
public  honor  and  integrity  were  never 
questioned. 

Mack'erel,  an  important  food-fish  of  the 
North  Atlantic  from  Cape  Hatteras  to 
Labrador  and  Newfoundland.  It  is  steel- 


blue  above  with  dark  bars,  and  silvery 
beneath.  They  attain  a  length  of  17  or  18 
inches  or  even  longer;  but  the  average 
length  of  those  caught  for  the  whole  coast 
is  about  12  inches.  Their  food  is  small 
Crustacea,  the  spawn  and  young  of  other 
fishes,  and  jellyfish.  They  occur  in  large 
schools,  and  many  vessels  of  fine  modern 
construction  are  engaged  in  the  mackerel 
fishery.  They  are  caught  with  hooks  and 
lines  and  with  nets.  They  are  salted  and 
very  extensively  eaten.  In  1898  the  market 
price  of  those  landed  at  Boston  and  Glou- 
cester amounted  to  nearly  three  million 
dollars. 

Mackinaw  or  Mackinac  (mak'i-na'),  an 
island  three  miles  long  and  two  broad  in 
the  Strait  of  Mackinaw,  which  connects 
Lakes  Huron  and  Michigan.  The  village 
on  the  island  is  the  seat  of  Mackinaw  County 
and  a  fashionable  summer  resort.  Fort 
Mackinaw  is  situated  on  a  rocky  eminence, 
overlooking  the  village  and  commanding 
the  strait.  Population  800. 

McKin'Iey,  William,  twenty-fourth  pres- 
ident of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Niles, 
O.,  Jan.  29,  1843. 
He  was  educated 
at  public  schools, 
Poland  Academy 
and  Allegheny 
College.  Fora 
short  time  he 
taught  school,  but 
in  the  first  sum- 
mer of  the  Civil 
War,  when  but  18 
he  enlisted  as  a 
private.  Next 
year  he  was  made 
second  lieutenant ; 
the  following  year 
first  lieutenant; 
and  captain  in  1864.  He  was  brevetted 
major  by  President  Lincoln  for  gallantry 
in  the  field  on  March  13,1865.  He  served  on 
the  staffs  of  Generals  Rutherford  B.  Hayes, 
George  Crook  and  Winfield  Scott  Hancock. 
When  mustered  out,  July  26,  1865,  he  was 
assistant  adjutant-general,  ist  division, 
ist  army-corps.  He  began  the  study  of 
law;  took  a  course  at  Albany  (N.  Y.)  Law 
School;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1867; 
and  settled  at  Canton,  O.  Being  elected  to 
Congress  in  1876,  he  served  continuously 
in  the  house  until  March,  1891.  As  chair- 
man of  the  committee  on  ways  and  means, 
he  reported  to  Congress  the  tariff  bill  of 
1890,  known  since  as  the  McKinley  bill, 
taking  advanced  ground  in  favor  of  a  high 
tariff.  He  was  elected  governor  of  the 
state  in  1891,  and  re-elected  in  1893.  In 
1896  he  was  nominated  for  president  by 
the  Republicans  and  was  elected,  receiving 
in  the  electoral  college  271  votes  against 
176  for  William  J.  Bryan.  The  issue  that 
year  wag  free  coinage  of  silver,  Mr.  Me- 


WILLIAM  McKINLEY 


McKINNEY 


McMAHON 


Kinley  opposing  and  Mr.  Bryan  favoring. 
The  first  year  of  his  administration  was 
marked  by  the  stirring  events  and  diplo- 
matic steps  which  led  to  the  intervention 
of  the  United  States  on  behalf  of  the  op- 
pressed Cubans.  Early  in  the  second  year 
war  with  Spain  was  declared  (April  20, 
1898).  An  army  of  200,000  men  was  called 
out,  and  speedily  organized  and  equipped, 
and  the  battles  of  the  war  were  fought,  be- 
ginning with  the  naval  victory  in  Manila 
Bay,  May  ist,  and  closing  with  the  surrender 
of  the  Spanish  army  at  Santiago,  July  i4th. 
By  subsequent  treaty  Spain  ceded  to  the 
United  States  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philippine 
Island?.  A  revolt  of  the  Filipinos  under 
Aguinaldo  led  to  a  protracted  struggle 
which  was  not  ended  when  the  campaign 
for  the  succeeding  presidential  election  oc- 
curred in  1900,  and  naturally  this  election 
turned  largely  upon  the  causes,  conduct 
and  results  of  the  war.  Mr.  McKinley  was 
again  elected,  a  second  time  defeating 
Mr.  Bryan,  who  again  was  the  nominee  of 
the  Democratic  party.  Meantime  the  United 
States  had  taken  a  prominent  part  in  ^the 
capture  of  Tien-tsin  and  Peking,  China, 
relieving  the  legations  without  a  declara- 
tion of  war.  The  struggle  in  the  Philippines 
was  brought  to  a  close  early  the  next  year 
and  military  rule  was  superseded  by  the 
establishment  of  civil  government  on  July  4, 
1901.  In  meeting  the  grave  questions 
which  arose  during  a  period  fraught  with 
events  of  far-reaching  importance  to  the 
nation  Mr.  McKinley  displayed  high  quali- 
ties as  a  statesman  and  political  leader, 
and  gained  the  esteem  of  men  of  all  parties 
as  a  pure,  able  and  patriotic  executive. 
While  attending  the  Pan-American  Expo- 
sition at  Buffalo,  President  McKinley  was 
mortally  wounded  by  an  anarchist,  Leon 
F.  Czolgosz,  during  a  public  reception  in 
the  Temple  of  Music,  Sept.  6, 1901.  Czolgosz 
took  his  place  in  the  line  of  those  who  were 
shaking  hands  with  the  president,  and,  as 
he  presented  his  left  hand,  fired  two  shots 
from  a  pistol  concealed  in  his  right  hand 
by  a  handkerchief.  One  shot  was  not 
serious,  but  the  other  proved  fatal.  Prompt 
and  skillful  surgical  attention  averted  the 
dreaded  result  for  a  few  days,  but  the  end 
came  on  Sept.  14.  The  death  of  the  beloved 
president  and  revered  chief  of  the  state, 
m  such  cruel  circumstances,  fell  with  instant 
and  crushing  effect  upon  the  nation,  and 
hushed  to  an  awed  silence  its  activities. 
Foreign  sympathy  for  the  country's  loss 
was  profound:  and  widespread,  for  Mr.  Mc- 
Kinley was  held  in  high  regard  abroad,  as  he 
was  widely,  sincerely  and  deservedly  loved 
at  home.  His  painstaking  and  tireless 
devotion  to  the  duties  of  the  executive 
office,  his  patriotism  which  was  above  all 
personal  ambition,  his  wise  guidance  of 
the  nation  through  grave  perils  to  a  height 
of  prosperity  before  unknown,  the  punty 


of  his  personal  character,  the  warmth  of 
his  friendship  and  the  courage  and  Chris- 
tian resignation  displayed  in  the  closing 
hours  of  his  life  combine  to  give  to  William 
McKinley  an  honored  place  in  the  records 
of  the  nation.  His  body  was  taken  to 
Washington,  where  an  impressive  funeral 
service  was  held  in  the  rotunda  of  the  capi- 
tol,  and  thence  it  was  carried  to  Canton, 
Ohio,  where  burial  occurred  Sept.  19,  1901. 
A  magnificent  monument  erected  by  popu- 
lar subscription,  now  marks  his  resting  place. 

McKin'ney,  Tex.,  county-seat  of  Collins 
County,  is  located  in  the  black-land  belt. 
Among  its  leading  industries  are  cotton- 
gins,  a  cotton  compress,  flour  and  cotton 
oil  mills,  machine  and  repair  shops.  Mc- 
Kinney  has  good  public  schools,  a  business 
college  and  training  school,  several  churches, 
electric  service  with  Sherman  and  Dallas, 
two  light-plants,  waterworks  and  sewerage 
system  and  the  service  of  two  railroads. 
Population  8,000. 

MacLar'en,  Ian.     (  See  WATSON,  JOHN.) 

Maclaren,  John  J.,  was  born  at  Lachute, 
Quebec,  July  ist,  1842.  He  was  educated 
at  Victoria  and  McGill  Universities.  He 
practiced  law  at  Montreal,  1867-84,  and 
in  Toronto,  1884-1902,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed justice  of  court  of  appeals.  He 
has  been  regent  of  Victoria  University  since 
1870,  is  vice-chancellor,  and  has  been  sena- 
tor of  Toronto  University  since  1891.  He 
was  secretary  of  the  British  and  American 
joint  commission  under  the  treaty  of  1863 
from  1867  to  1870.  He  is  the  author  of 
Bills,  Notes  and  Cheques;  Banks  and  Bank' 
ing;  and  Roman  Law  in  English  Jurispru- 
dence. 

Maclure  (mak-lur*),  William,  the  "father 
of  American  geology,"  was  born  at  Ayr, 
Scotland,  in  1763,  but  settled  in  the  United 
States  in  1796.  In  1803  he  went  to  Europe 
as  one  of  the  commissioners  to  adjust  the 
claims  of  American  citizens  against  France 
for  losses  of  property  sustained  during  the 
Revolution  in  that  country.  While  in 
Europe  he  gave  a  great  deal  of  attention  to 
its  geology,  and  on  returning  undertook 
a  private  geological  survey  of  the  United 
States.  He  visited  nearly  every  state  and 
territory,  crossing  the  Allegheny  Mountains 
many  times  on  foot.  At  Philadelphia  he  long 
was  president  of  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences.  He  died  near  Mexico  in  1840. 

McMahon  (mak'ma-6n' ),  Count  Marie 
Edme  Patrice  Maurice,  ex-president  of 
the  French  republic,  was  born  at  Sully,  near 
Autun,  Nov.  28,  1808.  Entering  the  army 
at  an  early  age,  he  saw  active  service  in 
Algeria,  especially  distinguishing  himself  at 
the  storming  of  Constantino  in  1837.  He 
commanded  the  division  that  stormed  the 
Malakoff  at  Sebastopol  during  the  Crimean 
War,  and  in  the  Italian  campaign  of  1859 
was  created  a  marshal  of  France  for  the 
decisive  part  he  took  in  the  battle  of  Ma- 


McMASTER 


MACREADY 


genta.  In  the  Franco-German  War  of  1870 
he  commanded  an  army-corps.  Although 
deteated  and  captured  at  Sedan,  his  military 
reputation  remained  untarnished.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  he  was  made  commander 
of  the  army  of  Versailles,  with  which  he 
suppressed  the  Commune  that  held  sway 
in  Paris  during  many  weeks.  On  the  re- 
tirement of  M.  Thiers  from  the  presidency 
in  1873  McMahon  was  chosen  his  successor 
for  a  term  of  seven  years,  but  resigned  on 
Jan.  30,  1879.  He  died  at  Paris  on  Oct.  18, 


McMas'ter,  John  Bach,  Ph.  D.,  Litt.  D., 
an  American  scholar  and  writer.  Born  in 
Brooklyn,  June  29,  1852,  he  was  educated  in 
the  New  York  public  schools  and  the  college 
of  the  City  of  New  York.  He  became  in- 
structor in  Civil  Engineering  in  Princeton 
(1877)  and  in  1883  Professor  of  American  His- 
tory in  Pennsylvania  University.  In  1883  he 
began  the  issue  of  his  History  of  the  People  of 
the  United  States,  a  very  important  work  corre- 
sponding to  Green's  (q.  v.)  History  of  the 
English  People. 

An  American  history  for  schools  on  the  same 
plan,  by  Dr.  McMaster,  has  helped  to  effect  a 
marked  change  in  methods  of  teaching.  The 
eighth  and  last  volume  of  his  larger  history 
appeared  in  1913.  His  other  works  include: 
Bridge  and  Tunnel  Centers,  Lives  of  Webster  and 
Franklin,  The  Monroe  Doctrine,  Studies  in 
A  merican  History  and  The  Struggle  for  the  Social, 
Political  and  Industrial  Rights  of  Man. 

McAlon'nies  (mak-mun'riiz},  Frederick 
William,  an  American  sculptor,  was  born 
at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  28,  1863.  He 
studied  art  in  the  rooms  of  Augustus  St. 
Gaudens,  and  subsequently  pursued  his 
course  at  Paris,  London  and  Munich.  His 
best-known  work  was  the  great  fountain  in 
the  principal  court  of  the  Columbian  xpo- 
sition  at  Chicago.  He  also  modeled  the 
statue  of  Nathan  Hale,  which  was  erected 
in  City  Hall  Park,  New  York,  as  well  as 
several  other  public  monuments.  These 
include  Sir  Harry  Vane  for  Boston  Public 
Library;  the  Battle  Monument,  with  its 
colossal  figure  of  Victory,  at  West  Point; 
and  the  army  and  navy  groups  for  the 
Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  monument  at  In- 
dianapolis. Among  his  other  productions 
are  the  bronze  doors  and  a  statue  of  Shakes- 
peare for  the  Congressional  Library,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  He  received  the  Decoration 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor  from  the  French 
government  in  1896. 

Ma'con,  Qa.,  the  capital  of  Bibb  County, 
on  Ocmulgee  River,  in  central  Georgia,  trav- 
ersed by  nine  or  ten  lines  of  railway.  It  has 
many  manufacturing  establishments,  repre- 
senting various  industries,  the  chief  of  which 
are  those  devoted  to  textile  fabrics,  together 
with  a  large  commercial  trade.  It  has  many 
schools  and  churches  and  a  public  library, 
and  is  the  seat  of  Mercer  University  (Baptist), 
the  sta*e  academy  for  the  Blind,  Alexan- 


der Free  School,  Jones  Home  for  Indigent 
Women,  Wesleyan  Fern  \le  College,  one  of 
the  oldest  female  colleges  in  the  United 
States,  and  other  educational  and  charitable 
institutions.  Population  40,665. 

Ma'con,  Nathaniel,  a  North  Carolina 
statesman,  was  born  in  Warren  County,  of 
that  state,  in  1757.  He  served  as  a  private 
in  the -Revolutionary  War,  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  legislature  from  1780  to  1786.  He 
was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1791  to  1815 
and  of  the  United  States  senate  for  the  13 
following  years,  making  a  continuous  service 
of  37  years,  the  longest  on  record.  He  died 
on  June  29,  1837. 

McPher'son,  James  B.,  was  born  in  San- 
dusky  County,  O.,  Nov.  14.  1828,  and  grad- 
uated from  West 
Point  at  the  head 
of  his  class  in 
1853.  In  Au- 
gust, 1 86 1, on  ac- 
count of  his 
superior  qualifi- 
cations  as  an 
engineer,  he  was 
promoted  to  the 
rank  of  lieuten- 
ant -  colonel  and 
placed  on  the 
staff  of  General 
Halleck,  com- 
manding the  de- 
partment of  the 
Missouri.  In  his 
capacity  as  staff- 
officer  General  McPherson  was  with  Gen. 
Grant  at  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson,  Shiloh 
and  the  siege  of  Corinth,  rendering  service  that 
was  gratefully  acknowledged  by  that  general ; 
and  during  the  Vicksburg  campaign  in  1863 
he  commanded  the  i?th  army-corps  which  so 
successfully  fought  the  battles  of  Raymond 
and  Champion  Hill.  During  Sherman's  At- 
lanta campaign  McPherson  commanded  the 
army  of  the  Tennessee,  displaying  the  high- 
est soldierly  qualities  in  every  engagement 
until  he  was  killed  in  the  battle  before  At- 
lanta, July  22,  1864.  General  McPherson 
was  tall  and  imposing  in  appearance  but  gen- 
tle and  unassuming  in  manner,  and  his  death 
was  deeply  lamented  by  all  the  officers  and 
soldiers  in  his  command.  "To  know  him  was 
to  love  him"  was  the  high  tribute  paid  to 
him  by  General  Grant. 

Macready  (m&k-rg'<ft),  William  Charles, 
an  English  actor,  was  born  at  London,  March 
3,  1793.  At  an  early  age  he  was  sent  to 
Rugby  to  be  educated  for  the  bar,  but  his 
father's  financial  embarrassments  forced  him 
to  adopt  the  stage  as  his  profession.  He 
made  his  first  appearance  as  Romeo  at  Bir- 
mingham at  the  age  of  17  Six  years  later, 
Sept.  16,  1816,  he  made  his  London  debut, 
playing  Orestes  at  Covent  Garden,  and  after 
years  of  patient  effort  took  rank  among  the 
leading  English  actors.  In  December.  1837, 


GENERAL  MCPHERSON 


MACROSPORANGIUM 


1141 


MADEIRA 


he  inaugurated  his  famous  Covent  Garden 
management,  during  which  he  did  mu<°h  to 
improve  and  elevate  the  English  stage.  Mac- 
ready  made  a  number  of  visits  to  the  United 
States,  during  the  last  of  which  a  riotous 
mob,  trying  to  break  into  Astor  Place  for 
the  purpose  of  attacking  him,  was  fired  upon 
by  the  military  and  several  lives  were  lost. 
Macready  took  his  farewell  of  the  stage  at 
Drury  Lane,  Feb.  26, 185 1,  and  passed  his  re- 
maining days  in  retirement  at  Sherborne  and 
Cheltenham;  dying  at  the  latter  on  April  27, 
1873.  As  an  actor  M  acready  sought  to  com- 
bine  the  dignity  of  the  Kembles  with  the 
naturalness  of  Kean.  In  addition  to  being 
an  actor  of  great  power,  he  was  a  man  of  fine 
literary  taste  and  of  pure,  elevated  charac- 
ter. See  Biography  by  Littleton. 

Macrosporangium  (m&k'rd-spd-r&n'fl-Hm) 
(in  plants).  See  MEGASPORANGIUM. 

Macrospore  (m&k'rd-spdr)  (in  plants). 
See  MEGASPORE. 

Macrosporophyll  (mtik'rd-spor'o-ftl)  (in 
plants).  See  MEGASPOROPHYLL. 

MacVeagh  (mtik-vti,'),  Wayne,  lawyer  and 
diplomat,  was  born  near  Phcenixville,  Ches- 
ter County,  Pa.,  April  19,  1833.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  in  1853,  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1856,  and  three  years  later  was  elected  dis- 
trict-attorney of  his  native  county,  where  he 
served  till  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War.  He 
was  commissioned  a  captain  of  infantry  in 
1862  and  major  of  cavalry  in  1863.  Mr. 
MacVeagh  was  appointed  minister  to  Turkey 
by  President  Grant  in  1870.  He  became  at- 
torney-general in  the  cabinet  of  President 
Garfield,  but  resigned  upon  the  inauguration 
of  President  Arthur.  Mr.  MacVeagh  sup- 
ported Grover  Cleveland  for  president  in 

1892,  and  was  sent  as  minister  to  Italy  in 

1893.  Fpr  years  he  was  a  prominent  leader 
of  the  Civil  Service  Reform  Association  of 
Philadelphia.     He  died  in  1917. 

Madagascar  (m&d'A-g&s'kdr),  a  large  is- 
land off  the  southeastern  coast  of  Africa, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  Mozambique 
Channel.  Madagascar  is  the  fourth  largest 
island  in  the  world,  reckoning  Australia  as 
a  continent,  being  980  miles  in  length,  and 
its  greatest  breadth  is  360  miles.  Its  total 
area  is  228,000  square  miles  Madagascar 
consists  of  an  elevated  region  in  the  center, 
3,000  to  5,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  a 
nearly  level  country  surrounding  the  high 
land.  The  island  is  also  surrounded  with  a 
belt  of  forest  from  10  to  40  miles  wide. 
The  former  capital,  Antananarivo,  is  situ- 
ated near  the  center  of  the  island,  and  con- 
tains about  100,000  inhabitants.  The  chief 
ports  are  Tamatave  on  the  eastern  coast 
(population  15,000)  and  Majunga  on  the 
northwestern  coast  (about  250  miles  from 
Africa),  population  5,000.  English  mis- 
sionaries first  entered  Madagascar  in  1820, 
and  were  greatly  encouraged  in  their  work 
by  King  Radama,  but  when  Queen  Rana- 
valona  I  came  to  the  throne  in  1828,  a  severe 


persecution  followed,  and  they  were  conv 
pelled  to  leave.  Many  native  Christians 
were  put  to  death,  and  Europeans  generally 
were  excluded  from  the  island.  But  on  the 
death  of  the  queen  in  1861  there  was  a  com- 
plete  change  in  the  policy  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  since  that  time  the  people  have 
made  great  progress  in  religion  as  also  in 
all  the  arts  of  civilization.  In  1877  au<  Afri- 
can slaves  were  freed,  and  considerable 
effort  has  been  made  to  improve  the  military 
system  and  reduce  the  administration  of  law 
to  a  fixed  and  equitable  system.  In  1896 
Madagascar,  with  Nossi-Be  and  Ste.  Marie 
Islands,  was  proclaimed  a  French  colony, 
though  a  French  resident-general  had  been 
received  at  the  capital  as  far  back  as  1885, 
In  February,  1897,  the  native  queen  was 
deposed  by  France  and  deported  to  Reunion 
and  subsequently  to  Algiers.  France  now 
rules  the  island  entirely,  under  a  governor- 
general  aided  by  an  administrative  coun- 
cil. Many  parts  of  the  island  are  known  tc 
be  rich  in  mineral  ores.  The  chief  exports, 
besides  gold,  are  rubber,  rice,  hemp  and 
other  fibers.  The  population  is  3,054,658. 
Roads  have  been  built  from  Tamatave  to 
Antananarivo  and  thence  to  Majunga  and 
the  principal  military  posts.  Over  100 
miles  of  railway  from  Tamatave  to  Antan- 
anarivo have  been  completed.  There  are  in 
service  130  miles  of  telephone  and  3,450 
miles  of  telegraph  lines,  and  cable  connec- 
tion has  been  made  with  Mozambique.  Pos- 
tal communication  has  been  established 
through  the  island,  and  automobiles  are 
used  for  this  purpose  between  Antananarivo 
and  Mahatsara  on  the  eastern  coast.  The 
imports  and  exports  in  1910  were  34,595,000 
and  47,881,000  francs  respectively.  In 
1907  the  estimated  expenditure  of  the 
home  government  was  19,755,390  francs,  all 
for  military  purposes.  There  is  a  debt  of 
99,283,000  francs  for  railways  and  similar 
improvements. 

Madeira  (md-dd'rd) ,  an  island  in  the  At- 
lantic belonging  to  Portugal,  off  the  north- 
west coast  of  Africa,  about  32  miles  long 
and  from  10  to  15  broad.  The  island  (area 
314  square  miles)  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
is  occasionally  visited  by  earthquakes.  It 
is  traversed  by  a  mountain-chain  running 
east  and  west;  and  the  coasts  are  steep  and 
rough,  affording  few  harbors.  Wine  is  the 
product  for  which  Madeira  has  long  been 
noted,  several  kinds  of  grapes  being  pro- 
duced. There  also  is  a  considerable  export 
of  sugar.  The  inhabitants,  estimated  at 
155,000  in  number,  are  a  mixture  of  Portu- 
guese, Moors  and  negroes,  and  are  described 
as  a  vigorous,  industrious  and  peaceful  race. 
The  capital,  Punchal  (population  20,844), 
is  the  chief  seaport  and  a  noted  health-re- 
sort. The  Madeira  islands,  which  the  Re 
mans  had  known  as  the  Purple  Islands, 
were  rediscovered  in  1346,  if  not  earlier,  and 
began  to  be  colonized  by  the  Portuguese  m 


MADERIA 


1142 


MADRAS 


1420;  they  were  occupied  by  the  British  in 
1801  and  from  1807  to  1814. 

Madei'ra,  a  river  of  South  America  and 
the  largest  tributary  of  the  Amazon,  is 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Mamore  and 
Guapore  in  Bolivia,  the  Beni  joining  about 
100  miles  lower  down.  The  river  then 
flows  northeast,  its  drainage-basin  embrac- 
ing nearly  500,000  square  miles.  From  its 
mouth  to  its  first  falls  the  distance  is  nearly 
600  miles;  and  above  this  point  navigation 
is  rendered  impossible  by  a  series  of  falls  and 
cataracts  extending  over  200  miles.  The 
length  of  the  river,  including  its  tributaries, 
is  about  2,000  miles.  See  BOLIVIA. 

Mad'ison,  a  city  of  Indiana,  the  capital  of 
Jefferson  County,  is  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Ohio,  90  miles  below  Cincinnati 
and  50  above  Louisville,  with  which  two 
cities  it  has  daily  communication  by  steamer. 
Population  7,835. 

Madison,  the  capital  of  Wisconsin,  is  lo- 
cated in  Dane  County,  on  an  isthmus  be- 
tween Lakes  Monona  and  Mendota,  80  miles 
west  of  Milwaukee  and  at  the  junction  of 
several  railroads.  The  capitol,  university 
and  other  public  buildings  stand  on  hills, 
commanding  extensive  views  of  beautiful 
scenery.  The  university  is  in  a  13-acre 
park,  is  open  to  both  sexes  and  has  a  faculty 
of  470  members  and  5,533  students.  It  has 
an  income  of  over  $100,000,  arising  from  a 
state  tax  of  J  mill  on  the  dollar.  Washburn 
observatory,  built  in  1878-80,  at  a  cost  of 
830,000,  was  given  to  it,  with  a  full  equip- 
ment, by  Governor  C.  C.  Washburn.  Many 
summer  visitors  are  attracted  to  this  charm- 
ing little  city  by  its  pure  springs,  bass-fish- 
ing, boating,  beautiful  drives  and  Chautau- 
quan  assemblies.  It  also  has  a  large  num- 
ber of  manufactories.  Population,  25,531. 
Madison,  James,  fourth  president  of  the 
.United  States,  his -two  terms  extending  from 
1809  to  1817, was  born 
at  Port  Conway,  Va., 
March  16,  1751,  and 
graduated  at  Prince- 
'ton  College  in  1772. 
He  was  elected  to  the 
t  Continental  Congress 
'in  1780  and  in  1784 
to  the  legislature  of 
Virginia,  in  which  he 
was  largely  instru- 
mental in  securing 
the  fullest  religious 
.liberty  to  the  people. 
He  also  was  one  of  the  leading  spirits  in  the 
convention  of  1787,  which  framed  the  con- 
stitution of.  the  United  States;  and  in  great 
measure  it  was  due  to  his  influence  that  the 
instrument  was  ratified  by  the  legislature  of 
Virginia.  Madison  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress during  Washington's  administration; 
and,  although  he  retired  to  private  life  when 
John  Adams  became  president  in  1797,  he 
was  the  author  of  the  Resolutions  of  1798, 


JAMES     MADISON 


adopted  by  the  legislature  of  Virginia  in  op- 

Eosition  to  the  famous  alien-and-sedition 
iws  of  the  Adams  administration.  During 
Jefferson's  administration  (1801-9)  Madison 
filled  the  office  of  secretary  of  state  with  such 
ability  that  he  was  chosen  Jefferson's  succes- 
sor and  inaugurated  president,  March  4, 1809. 
The  principal  feature  of  his  administration 
was  the  War  of  1812  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States,  which  was  termi- 
nated by  the  treaty  of  Ghent,  Dec.  14,  1814, 
although  the  battle  of  New  Orleans  was 
fought  on  the  8th  of  January  following.  On 
retiring  from  the  presidency  Madison  took 
up  his  residence  at  Montpelier,  Va.,  where  he 
died  on  June  28,  1836.  While  not  distin- 
guished for  brilliancy  of  intellect  or  great  ora- 
torical powers,  Madison  was  a  pure  and  able 
statesman,  and  was  well-worthy  of  the  uni- 
versal respect  accorded  him.  See  Life  by 
Adams  and  Life  and  Times  by  Stoddard. 

Madonna  (md-dtin'-a)t  an  Italian  word 
meaning,  literally,  "my  lady."  It  has  come 
to  designate  specifically  the  Virgin  Mary  and 
pictures  or  statues  representing  her.  The 
Madonna  has  been  the  favorite  subject  of 
both  the  Old  Masters  and  modern  painters 
as  expressing  the  highest  type  of  womanhood 
and  motherhood.  Michelangelo's  group  is 
the  most  famous  of  the  statues  and  Raphael's 
"Sistine  Madonna"  the  most  famous  of  the 
paintings  of  the  Virgin.  Other  works  of  the 
Old  Masters  include  Holbein's  "Meyer" 
Madonna;  Sarto's  "Madonna  of  the  Sack"; 
Correggio's  "Holy  Night"  and  "Madonna  of 
the  Ladder";  Murillo's  "Immaculate  Con- 
ception" and  his  "Holy  Family";  Titian's 
"Assumption";  Raphael's  "Madonna  of  the 
Fish";  the  "Holy  Family"  called  "The 
Pearl";  "The  Madonna  of  the  Chair";  "The 
Madonna  of  the  Grand  Duke";  "La  Belle 
Jardiniere";  "The  Madonna  of  the  Blue 
Diadem";  "The  Blenheim  Madonna";  his 
"The  Madonna  Foligno";  Da  Vinci's  "Virgin 
of  the  Rocks";  Fra  Angelico's  "Madonna  of 
the  Tabernacle";  Botticelli's  "Madonna  of 
the  Louvre."  Among  the  most  striking  of 
the  modern  works  are  the  "The  Consoling 
Virgin"  by  Bougereau;  "The  Madonna  of 
the  Rose"  by  Dagnan-Bouveret ;  "The  Ma- 
donna" by  Ittenbach.  Expressions  of 
motherhood  of  high  artistic  merit  other  than 
pictures  of  the  Madonna  are  Madame  Le 
Brun's  portrait  of  herself  and  her  daughter 
and  "Her  Son"  by  Miss  Walker.  In  the 
study  of  art  in  the  schools  the  Madonnas  are 
used  in  the  first  grades  to  bring  out  the  idea 
of  motherhood. 

Madras  (md-dr&s'),  the  capital  of  southern 
India  (Madras  Presidency),  is  on  the  coast  of 
the  Sea  of  Bengal,  which  washes  the  eastern 
coast  or  the  presidency,  about  225  miles  north 
of  Ceylon.  It  is  the  center  of  all  the  great 
military  roads,  is  the  terminus  of  two  railway 
lines,  and  is  connected  with  a  system  of  ca- 
nals. Nearly  all  the  most  important  offices 
and  the  headquarters  of  every  department 


•gtUIIIIIIIIIIIOIIIMIIIIIIIIUMIIIIIIIIIIUHIIIIIIIIIIH 


The 
|     Madonna 

riHHIS  page, 
JL    devoted   to 
Old     Mas- 
ters, also   illus- 
trates   the    de- 


church   of   the   Annunziat^,    Florence 

The  Madonna  of  the  Sack,  by  Del  Sarto 

(Italian  b.  1487) 


and 
Motherhood     jj 

velopment      of       5 
art   toward   the 
style     o  f .    t  h  e       | 
moderns     as       3 
given    on    the 
next  page. 


Royal  Gallery,  Dresden,   Germany 

The  Sistine  Madonna,  by  Raphael 
.,  (Italian  b.  1483) 


Royal  Gallery,  Dresden 

The  Holy  Night,  by  Coreggio 

(Italian  b.  1495) 


Darmsdadt  Museum,  Germany 

The  Meyer  Madonna,  by  Hans  Holbein  the  Younger 
(German  b.  1495) 


The  Immaculate  Conception,  by  Murillo 
'  Spanish  b.   1617) 


+c:iiiiimiiioii miiiiiiimiiCJi i :: IIIIIIOIIIIIIIIIIOIIIIIIIIIIIH i uiiiiiiiiiiioin nine: iniun IIIIIICJH ni iin»-i 


•ftHiiimiiiiiiuiiimiiiiioiiiiiiiiiioiHiiiiiiioiiiiic] 


Motherhood 


_         shows       li  o  w 
modern       art- 
ists depict  the  Ma- 
1      donna   and   further 
=     emphasizes  the  idea 
1      of  the  divinity  of  all 
g      motherhood,  bring- 


in 


Art 


ing  it  down  to  every- 
day life  in  the  paint- 
ing of  "Madame  Le 
Brim  and  Her  Daugh- 
ter" and  "Her  Son," 
by  Miss  Walker.  The 
head  of  the  Virgin  is 
by  Franz  Ittenbach 
(German  b.  1813). 


©  Horace  K.  Turner  Art  Co.,  Boston 

Metropolitan  Museum,   New  York 

=          Madonna  of  the  Rose,   by  P.  A.  J.  Dagnan-Bouveret 
(French  b.  1852) 


Luxembourg 

The  Consoling  Virgin,  by  W.  A.  Bouguereau 
(French  b.  1825) 


Louvre 


= 

=          Madame  Le  Brun  and  Daughter,  by  M.  L.  E.  Vigee 
LeBrun  (French  b.  1755) 


Art  Institute,  Chicago 


©N.V.W.       S 


Her  Son.  by  Nellie  Verne  Walker 


niiiiuiiiiiinuiiiMinioniniiiiioiiimiiiioiiiMiiimamiiniiiiinim^ 


MADRID 


"43 


MAGDEBURG 


are  located  here.  The  garrison  is  about 
3,500  strong,  of  whom  1,200  are  Europeans. 
Madras  ranks  third  among  the  ports  of  India 
in  the  number  and  tonnage  of  vessels  calling 
and  in  the  value  of  imports  and  exports. 
The  city  dates  from  1639.  It  is  liable  to  be 
swept  by  furious  hurricanes,  which  occur 
some  years  at  the  beginning  of  the  monsoons 
in  May  and  October.  The  present  popula- 
tion is  518,660  about  three-fourths  of  whom 
are  Hindus.  Over  50,000  are  Mohamme- 
dans, 13,000  Eurasians  and  about  4,000  Eu- 
ropeans. Madras  Presidency  has  an  area  of 
141,726  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
41,465,404.  It  comprises  the  eastern  or 
Coromandel  coast,  a  large  part  of  the  interior 
of  the  Deccan  and  part  of  the  western  or 
Malabar  coast.  Its  mountain  ranges  are 
the  eastern  and  western  Ghats,  and  it  is 
watered  by  Godavari,  Kistna  and  Kavari 
Rivers.  Madras  also  forms  one  of  the  feuda- 
tory or  native  states,  9,969  square  miles  in 
extent,  with  a  population  of  4,811,841. 

Madrid  (md-drtd'  or  md-dr$th'),  capital 
of  Spain,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Manzanares,  880  miles  by  rail  from  Paris. 
It  is  built  on  a  treeless  plateau  2,000  feet 
above  the  sea ;  and  its  sole  recommendation 
as  a  capital  would  seem  to  be  its  central  posi- 
tion in  the  peninsula.  When  Madrid  was 
declared  the  capital  by  Philip  II  in  1561,  it 
contained  about  30,000  inhabitants.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  igth  century  the  popu- 
lation numbered  160,000;  in  1860  it  was 
298,000;  and  the  last  census  gives  571,539. 
There  is  a  university  with  95  professors  and 
5,118  students.  Madrid  also  is  a  province, 
with  an  area  of  3,084  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  845,405. 

Maelstrom  (mdl'strtim),  a  famous  whirl- 
pool or,  rather,  current  in  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
between  Mosken  and  Moskerra,  two  of  the 
Lofoten  Isles,  on  the  northwestern  coast  of 
Norway.  Vessels  can  pass  through  this 
strait  at  high  tide  and  low  tide,  although  in 
one  place  there  always  is  a  rough  sea,  the 
water  being  churned  into  angry  foam.  The 
stories  of  ships  being  swallowed  are  mere 
fables,  although  a  ship  fully  under  the  power 
of  the  current  might  be  dashed  against  the 
rocks  on  either  side.  The  current  takes  12 
hours  to  complete  a  circular  revolution. 

Maeterlinck  (me'ter-ltnk),  Maurice,  a 
Belgian  poet,  essayist  and  dramatist,  was 
born  at  Ghent  in  1862.  He  was  educated 
for  the  law,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1887 
In  1896  he  abandoned  law  for  authorship, 
making  his  home  in  Paris.  Maeterlinck  is 
the  chief  name  in  the  literary  school  which 
is  known  as  Young  Belgium.  His  dramas 
tend  to  be  mystical  and  symbolic.  They 
lean  to  the  unreal  and  at  times  to  the  morbid. 
The  philosophical  essays  of  Maeterlinck  are 
regarded  as  masterpieces  in  their  style.  His 
lyric  verse,  which  includes  the  volumes, 
Series  Chaudes  and  Douze  Chansons,  is  im- 
aginative rather  than  sweet.  Several  of  his 


dramas  are  translated  into  Engjish,  e.  g., 
The  Blind,  The  Intruder,  Princess  Maleine 
and  The  Seven  Princesses.  The  chief  vol- 
umes of  Maeterlinck's  essays  are  Le  Tresor 
des  Humbles,  La  Lagesse  et  la  Destinee  and 
La  Vie  des  Abeilles.  The  dramas  of  Maeter- 
linck are  better  adapted  for  reading  than 
the  stage,  although  they  inaugurated  a  new 
school,  —  that  of  the  Drame  Intime. 

Mafia  (md-fe'd),  a  Sicilian  order  or  secret 
society,  which  gradually  came  to  supplant 
the  authority  of  the  state  by  its  own  decrees, 
which  are  enforced  even  at  the  cost  of  life  it- 
self. Its  organization  does  not  appear  to  be 
of  a  very  definite  nature ;  but  its  power  is  un- 
doubted and  pervasive.  It  controls  elec- 
tions, affords  protection  against  the  officers 
of  justice,  and  practically  renders  it  impos- 
sible for  those  not  members  of  its  orders  to 
secure  employment  in  Sicily.  Boycotting, 
its  usual  weapon,  is  supplemented  by  vio- 
lence whenever  occasion  may  seem  to  de- 
mand it.  Nearly  all  crimes  of  violence 
which  occur  in  any  part  of  Italy  are  laid  at 
its  door,  with  how  much  truth  in  particular 
cases  it  is  impossible  to  say.  In  the  United 
States  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  has  its  own 
secret  agents,  as  murders  in  the  Italian 
quarters  of  our  American  cities  are  seldom 
traced  to  their  real  perpetrators,  and  the 
guilty  parties  are  but  rarely  brought  to  jus- 
tice. 

Magdalen  Islands  are  situated  in  the 
lower  St.  Lawrence,  lying  farther  south  in 
the  gulf  than  does  Anticosti.  They  possess 
large  deposits  of  gypsum. 

Mag'dale'na,  the  principal  river  of  Colom-' 
bia,  South  America,  rises  in  Ecuador,  about 
2°  north  latitude,  only  eight  miles  from  the 
source  of  the  Cauca.  These  streams  flow 
northward,  one  on  each  side  of  the  central 
Cordillera  range,  uniting  about  ipo  miles' 
from  the  Caribbean  Sea,  into  which  their 
waters  are  discharged.  The  Magdalena  is 
navigable  to  Honda,  620  miles  from  its 
mouth,  where  the  rapids  begin;  and  above 
these  it  has  been  navigated  to  Neiva  since 
1875,  a  2o-mile  railway  alongside  the  rapids 
connecting  the  upper  and  lower  portions  of 
the  stream.  The  length  of  the  Magdalena  is 
1,050  miles,  and  the  area  of  its  drainage  has 
been  estimated  at  92,000  square  miles.  Mag- 
dalena also  is  a  province  or  department  and 
the  seat  of  silver-mines.  It  has  an  area  of 
20,460  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
100,000;  its  capital  is  Santa  Marta  (popula- 
tion 6,000). 

Magdeburg  (mdg'de-b56rgf),  the  capital  of 
Prussian  Saxony  and  one  of  the  chief  for- 
tresses of  the  German  Empire,  is  situated  on 
the  Elbe,  90  miles  from  Berlin  and  72  from 
Leipsic.  Magdeburg  was  founded  by  Char- 
lemagne in  805  and  rebuilt  by  Editha,  after 
its  destruction  by  the  Wends,  in  924.  Dur- 
ing the  Thirty  Years'  War  it  was  besieged 
for  28  weeks  by  Wallenstein  in  vain;  but  two 
years  later  (1631)  it  was  taken  by  Tilly  and 


MAGELLAN 


1144 


MAGIC  LANTERN 


burned  to  the  ground.  Magdeburg  is  at  the 
junction  of  five  railways,  and  its  river- trade 
is  large.  The  city  was  taken  by  the  French 
in  1806,  but  was  restored  to  Prussia  in  1814. 
It  is  the  center  of  the  German  sugar-trade, 
and  has  many  manufactures,  with  a  notable 
cathedral,  which  dates  from  the  i2th  cen- 
tury. Population  279,685. 

Magellan  (ma-jtl'lan),  Ferdinand,  a 
Portuguese  navigator,  was  born  at  Oporto 
about  1480.  After  several  years'  service  in 
the  Portuguese  navy  he  visited  Spain,  and 
laid  before  Charles  V  a  scheme  for  reaching 
the  Molucca  or  Spice  Islands  by  sailing 
west,  which  was  favorably  acted  upon  by 
that  emperor.  Magellan  sailed  on  Aug.  10, 
1519,  with  five  ships  and  about  250  men. 
Reaching  the  mouth  of  La  Plata  River  and 
sailing  along  the  coast  of  Patagonia,  he 
passed  through  the  strait  that  separates 
Tierra  del  Fuego  from  the  mainland,  and  en- 
tered the  vast  ocean  which  he  named  the 
Pacific,  on  account  of  the  smooth  and  tran- 
quil waters  he  found.  He  continued  his  voy- 
age until  he  reached  the  Philippine  Islands, 
which  he  at  once  proceeded  to  take  possession 
of  in  the  name  of  the  Spanish  king;  but  in  an 
encounter  with  the  natives  of  the  island  of 
Mactan,  who  resisted  his  authority  and  his 
efforts  to  convert  them  to  Christianity,  he 
was  killed  on  April  27,  1521.  His  only  re- 
maining ship,  the  Victoria,  was  brought  back 
to  Spain  by  Sebastian  del  Cano,  who  reached 
San  Lucas  on  Sept.  6,  1522;  and  thus  was 
completed  the  first  voyage  ever  made 
around  the  globe.  See  Life  by  Towle. 

Magel'lan,  the  name  of  the  strait  sepa- 
rating South  America  from  Tierra  del  Fuego 
and  connecting  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Oceans.  It  is  over  300  miles  in  length,  its 
breadth  varying  from  10  to  15  miles.  This 
strait  was  discovered  by  Magellan,  and  has 
since  borne  his  name.  The  chief  harbor  on 
the  strait  is  Punta  Arenas. 

Magenta  (ma-j2nftd),  an  Italian  town,  16 
miles  west  of  Milan  by  rail.  Here  on  June  4, 
1859,  occurred  the  terrible  battle  between 
the  French  and  Sardinians  on  one  side  and 
the  Austnans  on  the  other,  in  which  the  Aus- 
trians  were  defeated  with  a  loss  of  10,000 
killed  and  wounded,  besides  7,000  prisoners. 
For  his  part  in  winning  this  victory  Marshal 
McMahon  was  by  Emperor  Napoleon  created 
duke  of  Magenta.  Population  about  8,000. 

Maggiore  (tndd-jo'ra),  Lago,  one  of  the 
largest  lakes  in  Italy,  the  northern  portion 
extending  into  the  Swiss  canton  of  Ticino. 
It  is  about  40  miles  in  length,  and  its  breadth 
varies  from  one  to  five  miles.  It  is  600  feet 
above  the  sea,  its  greatest  depth  being  about 
2,000  feet.  It  has  picturesque  scenery;  and 
on  its  banks  are  the  Swiss  towns  of  Locarno, 
Intra,  Pallanza,  Luino  and  Laveno. 

Magi  (md'jl),  the  priestly  caste  among  the 
ancient  Persians.  They  not  only  were  "keep- 
ers of  the  sacred  things,  the  learned  of  the 
people,  the  philosophers  and  servants  of 


God,"  but  diviners  of  the  future,  augurs  and 
astrologers.  Zoroaster,  in  the  course  of  his 
great  religious  reform,  reorganized  the  Magi, 
subjected  them  to  the  most  rigid  discipline, 
and  prescribed  a  mode  of  life  suitable  to  their 
sacred  office.  For  a  long  time  their  influ- 
ence was  almost  without  limit,  but  it  after- 
ward declined  until  they  became  mere  jug- 
glers and  fortune-tellers,  and  gave  the  name 
magic  to  the  tricks  of  conjurers  and  sorcerers. 
Mag'ic  Lantern,  an  optical  instrument 
mostly  used  by  lecturers  for  projecting  upon 
an  opaque  screen  an  enlarged  and  brilliant 
image  of  a  picture  or  object  otherwise  too 
small  to  be  seen  simultaneously  by  an  audi- 
ence. The  ordinary  magic  lantern  consists 
of  the  five  essential  parts  indicated  in  Fig.  i: 
a  source  of  light  to  illuminate  the  picture  or 
object  which  is  to  be  projected  upon  the 
screen;  a  lens  which  collects  the  light  from 
this  source  and  trains  it  upon  the  picture  or 
object.  This  is  called  the  condensing  lens 


1LU 


MAGIC  LANTERN 


or,  more  briefly,  the  condenser;  a  slide,  the 
picture  or  object  to  be  shown  to  the  audience; 
a  lens  which  will  produce  a  good  image  of  the 
illuminated  slide  and  is  called  the  projection 
lens ;  and  a  screen  or  wall  —  generally  opaque 
and  very  white  —  upon  which  the  projection 
lens  casts  the  image  to  be  viewed  by  the  audi- 
ence. 

During  the  1 7th  and  i8th  centuries,  this  in- 
strument was  largely  employed  by  magicians 
to  produce  curious  effects  for  public  enter- 
tainment. Hence  the  name  of  magic  lan- 
tern, now  largely  replaced  by  the  name  of 
sciopticon  or  stereopticon. 

The  best  source  of  light  is  the  electric  arc ; 
but,  when  this  is  not  available,  the  next  best 
source  is  the  lime-light.  (See  DRUMMOND 
LIGHT.)  But  the  lime-light  requires  a  cylin- 
der of  coal-gas  and  a  cylinder  of  oxygen ;  and 
where  these  are  not  available  an  acetylene 
flame  or  an  oil-lamp  with  two  or  three  flames 
makes  a  very  fair  substitute.  Incandescent 
electric  lamps  of  high  candle-power  ate  now 
made  for  this  special  purpose. 

The  condensing  lens  is  usually  made  o,f 
two  single  plano-convex  lenses  with  their 
spherical  faces  opposing  each  other.  Since 
this  lens  is  used  only  to  throw  light  on  the 
picture,  not  to  produce  an  image,  it  need 
be  only  a  low-grade  lens.  Passing  now  to 
the  slide,  it  was  the  invention  of  photography 
that  led  to  the  use  of  the  lantern  as  a  means 


MAGNA  CHARTA 


"45 


MAGNETISM 


of  instruction  rather  than  of  amusement. 
The  picture  on  the  slide  should  be  so  sharp 
as  to  bear  magnifying  and  so  clear  as  to  give 
a  brilliant  image.  The  projection  lens  should 
be  placed  in  such  a  position  between  the 
slide  and  screen  that,  when  the  slide  is  in  one 
conjugate  focus,  the  screen  will  lie  in  the 
other  conjugate  focus.  It  is  necessary  also 
that  this  lens  be  of  a  rather  high  grade  — 
corrected  both  for  chromatic  and  spherical 
aberration  —  since  the  definition  of  the  im- 
age on  the  screen  depends  immediately  upon 
this  lens. 

When  the  screen  is  viewed  from  the  side  on 
which  the  lantern  is  placed,  it  should  be  as 
white  and  smooth  as  possible.  Since  it  acts 
as  a  diffusing  screen,  it  is  essential  that  no 
light  should  be  lost  by  passing  through  the 
screen.  It  should,  therefore,  be  filled  with 
sizing  or  paint  to  make  it  opaque.  See 
Wright's  Light. 

Magna  Charta  (m&g'nd  kdr'td),  the  great 
charter  signed  by  King  John  of  England  at 
Runnymede,  June  15,  1215,  has  ever  since 
been  regarded  as  the  foundation  of  English 
liberty.  Under  the  feudal  system  the  tyr- 
anny and  oppression  of  the  Norman  kings 
had  become  so  great  that,  in  the  reign  of  King 
John,  the  English  barons  rose  against  him 
and  compelled  him  to  sign  this  charter.  By 
its  provisions  a  great  many  abuses  connected 
with  the  feudal  system  were  abolished.  Jus- 
tice was  no  longer  to  be  sold  or  denied  to  the 
subject.  Life,  liberty  and  property  were  to 
be  protected  against  the  arbitrary  will  of  the 
king,  and  no  one  was  to  forfeit  either  of  these 
except  by  the  law  of  the  land.  Fines  im- 
posed were  to  be  in  proportion  to  the  offense, 
and  even  the  humblest  subject  was  not  to  be 
deprived  of  his  lawful  possessions.  The 
great  charter  was  renewed  Dy  John's  succes- 
sor, Henry  III,  in  the  ninth  year  of  his  reign 
and  on  five  subsequent  occasions  before  his 
death;  and  in  1300  it  was  finally  confirmed 
by  Edward  I  and  his  parliament. 

Magne'sium,  a  widely  distributed  metallic 
element  which  is  never  found  in  the  free  state. 
It  is  present  in  many  minerals,  in  carbonate 
of  lime  and  magnesia,  asbestos,  meerschaum. 
It  exists  in  mineral  waters  and  in  the  sea  as 
sulphate  and  as  chloride.  A  sulphate  is  Ep- 
som salts,  which  Drew  extracted  from  the 
Epsom  spring  in  1695.  The  metal  was  first 
discovered  by  Davy.  For  a  long  time  man- 
ufacture was  on  a  small  scale ;  but  now  it  is 
made  in  large  quantities.  Chlorides  of  po- 
tassium and  magnesium  and  fluorspar,  with 
metallic  sodium  added,  are  fused  together. 
The  crude  metal  is  finally  distilled  and 
pressed  in  a  semifluid  state  into  ribbon  or 
wire.  The  metal  is  also  prepared  by  passing 
an  electric  current  through  a  fused  mixture 
of  salts  instead  of  using  metallic  sodium.  It 
has  a  silver-white  color,  which  is  tarnished 
by  moist  air.  It  is  very  light,  readily  vola- 
tile, and,  when  lighted,  burns  in  air  with  an 
intensely  brilliant  light  rich  in  chemical  rays. 


On  this  account  it  was  much  used  in  photog- 
raphy until  the  electric  light  took  its  place. 
The  medicine  calcined  magnesia  is  the  oxide 
of  magnesium,  the  same  substance  as  that 
formed  when  magnesium  is  burnt. 

Mag'netism.  It  has  been  known  for 
many  centuries  that  an  iron  ore  which  miner- 
alogists call  loadstone  or  magnetite  has  the  re- 
markable property  of  attracting  iron  filings. 
A  body  which  possesses  this  property  is  said 
to  be  magnetized,  and  is  called  a  magnet.  Cer- 


MAGNET   LIFTING   GENERATOR  WEIGHING  8OO 
POUNDS 

tain  parts  of  a  magnetized  body  attract  iron- 
filings  more  strongly  than  do  others.  These 
parts  are  called  magnetic  poles.  A  piece  of 
iron  can  be  magnetized  by  rubbing  it  over  a 
piece  of  lodestone ;  and  if  the  iron  have  a  long, 
slender  shape  it  will  ordinarily  have  only 
two  poles,  ihe  first  important  discovery  in 
magnetism  was  made  some  time  near  the 
i  ath  century  of  the  Christian  era,  when  it  was 
found  that  if  a  piece  of  magnetized  iron  be 
freely  suspended  it  always  sets  itself  so  that 
a  certain  direction  in  it  makes  a  fixed  angle 
with  the  geographical  meridian,  i.  e.,  with 
the  north-and-south  line.  This  is  the  funda- 
mental principle  of  the  ordinary  mariner's 
compass. 

The  direction  in  which  the  freely-suspend- 
ed compass-needle  points,  at  any  place,  is 
called  the  magnetic  meridian  at  that  place. 
The  angle  between  the  magnetic  and  geo- 
graphical meridians  is  called  the  magnetic 
declination. 

Before  the  time  of  Columbus'  first  voyage 


MAGNETISM 


1146 


MAGNETISM 


to  America,  it  was  thought  that  the  magnetic 
declination  was  a  constant  quantity.  But 
on  the  voyage  mentioned  Columbus  found 
that  the  declination  varies  from  one  point  to 
another  on  the  earth's  surface.  This  was  a 
discovery  of  the  utmost  importance  to  navi- 
gators. It  might  be  called  the  second  im- 
portant discovery  in  magnetism.  [In  1436 
Andrea  Bianco  had  marked  this  magnetic 
declination  for  different  parts  of  the  ocean 
on  his  atlas.  What  Columbus  really  dis- 
covered was  a  line  of  no  variation.  See 
COLUMBUS,  COMPASS  and  Humboldt's  Cos- 
mos. ] 

Hartmann,  who  lived  at  a  time  interme- 
diate between  Columbus  and  Galileo,  found 
that  if  a  needle  be  so  suspended  as  to  lie  hori- 
zontal before  magnetization,  it  does  not  re- 
main horizontal  after  magnetization;  on  the 
contrary,  the  north  end  "dips"  down  as  if  it 
had  become  heavier  than  the  south  end. 
This  phenomenon  is  known  as  magnetic  dip; 
and  its  discovery  may  be  called  the  third  im- 
portant one  in  magnetism. 

The  first  profound  student  of  magnetism 
was  Dr.  William  Gilbert  (1540-1603),  who 
was  the  leading  man  of  science  in  England 
duiing  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  He 
was  led  to  conclude  from  the  manner  in  which 
small  magnets  behave  at  various  points  on 
the  earth's  surface  that  the  earth  itself  is  a 
gigantic  magnet.  But  how  the  earth  be- 
came magnetized  is  a  problem  which  no  one 
has  yet  been  able  to  explain.  Gilbert  showed 
also  that  when  an  iron  magnet  is  heated  to 
red  heat,  it  not  only  ceases  to  be  magnetized, 
but  loses  all  ability  to  become  magnetized. 
Red-hot  iron  behaves,  therefore,  not  as  cold 
unmagnetized  iron,  but  as  cold  brass  or  glass 
or  zinc.  This  discovery  is  described  by  say- 
ing that  iron  loses  magnetic  quality  at  red 
heat.  Gilbert  also  made  it  highly  probable, 
by  his  experiments  on  broken  magnets  and 
on  heated  magnets,  that  magnetism  is  a 
molecular  phenomenon,  a  prime  discovery 
which  all  subsequent  experiments  have  con- 
firmed. 

If,  to  the  phenomena  already  described, 
we  add  that  of  magnetic  induction,  we  shall 
have  a  fairly  complete  summary  of  the  fun- 
damental facts  of  magnetism.  A  piece  of 
unmagnetized  iron,  when  brought  near  a 
magnet,  immediately  acquires  magnetic 
poles,  i.  e.,  it  exhibits  magnetization  as  well 
as  magnetic  quality.  A  wire  nail  held  near 
a  strong  magnet  not  only  is  attracted  itself, 
but  will  attract  other  iron  nails  or  iron  filings. 
These  wire  nails  are  said  to  be  magnetized 
by  induction.  The  most  useful  and  most  in- 
teresting case  of  induction  met  with  in  mod- 
ern science  is  that  of  the  electromagnet.  Here 
an  electric  current  is  made  to  flow  through  a 
coil  of  wire  in  which  is  placed  an  iron  core. 
This  combination  is  called  an  electromagnet, 
and  is  a  fundamental  part  of  the  dynamo, 
motor,  telephone  and  telegraph  instru- 
ment. 


The  lifting  power  of  the  electromagnet  is 
now  used  effectively  in  modern  structural 
iron  and  boiler  shops,  foundries,  shipyards 
and  machine  shops,  and  a  great  saving  of  la- 
bor is  thus  accomplished.  Go  into  one  of 
these  great  establishments,  and  you  may  see 
an  electromagnet  hooked  to  the  end  of  a 
hoisting-chain  carried  by  a  crane.  Suddenly 
it  will  be  let  down  into  contact  with  a  pile  of 
pig  iron  and  ascend  with  a  dozen  iron  pigs 
hanging  to  it.  The  crane  moves  along  the 
overhead  runway  to  the  furnace  platform, 
when  the  current  is  switched  off  and  the  pigs 
are  dropped  on  the  platform.  At  a  trial 

£•*>*, 'A  \\ 


MAGNET    LIFTING    PIG-IRON 

made  a  steel  gondola-car  containing  109,000 
pounds  of  pig  iron  was  unloaded  in  two  hours 
and  five  minutes,  one  man,  the  crane 
operator,  doing  the  work.  Scrap  iron, 
which  is  difficult  and  tedious  to  handle  by 
hand,  is  easily  and  rapidly  picked  up  or  un- 
loaded from  cars  and  placed  where  wanted. 
A  safe  weighing  seven  or  eight  tons  is  picked 
up  and  with  a  crane  carried  from  one  shop 
to  another.  In  a  hundred  similar  ways  the 
electromagnet  is  made  to  accomplish  feats 
which  seem  little  less  than  marvelous,  and 
the  result  is  large  economy  of  labor. 

Faraday  made  one  of  the  great  advances 
of  modern  times  when  he  introduced  into  the 
study  of  magnetism  the  method  of  lines  of 
force  and  the  idea  of  the  magnetic  field.  For 
these  and  other  more  advanced  considera- 


MAGNOLIA 


"47 


MAGYARS 


tions  see  Ewing's  Magnetization  of  Iron  and 
Other  Metals,  which  undoubtedly  is  the  best 
treatise  on  the  subject  in  the  English  lan- 
guage. HENRY  CREW. 
Magno'lia,  a  genus  of  highly  ornamental 
trees  or  shrubs,  containing  about  20  species, 
which  are  native  to  North  America  and  east- 
ern Asia.  The  finest  of  the  American  spe- 
cies, the  one  most  largely  cultivated  in  the 
south,  is  M.  grandiflora  or  bull-bay,  which 
is  native  from  South  Carolina  to  Louisiana. 
In  its  wild  state  it  reaches  a  height  of  100 


MAGNOLIA 

feet  and  has  very  large,  thick  leaves,  the 
flowers  being  frequently  a  foot  in  diameter 
when  flatly  expanded.  It  is  one  of  our 
most  beautiful  ornamental  trees,  in  the  time 
of  flowering  marvellously  beautiful,  and  the 
great,  creamy,  lily-like  blossoms  of  wondrous 
fragrance.  The  tree  as  a  rule  rises  to  a 
height  of  from  60  to  80  feet,  the  top  is  round, 
the  leaves  are  long,  thick,  very  glossy,  and 
are  evergreen.  The  bark  is  brownish-gray. 
The  wood,  which  is  strong,  is  used  chiefly  for 
fuel.  It  is  a  familiar  tree  of  southern  garden 
and  street,  grows  wild  in  river  swamps  and 
barrens,  is  seen  at  its  best  in  the  forests  of 
western  Louisiana.  The  other  native  mag- 
nolia in  common  cultivation  is  M.  glauca  or 
sweet  bay.  In  the  north  it  is  but  a  shrub, 
but  in  the  south  is  a  tall  tree.  It  is  found 
from  eastern  Massachusetts  down  to  Florida 


and  west  to  Texas.  It  is  slender  in  form,  its 
oval  leaves  are  thick  and  glossy.  The  blos- 
soms are  creamy-white  and  fragrant,  in  shape 
not  unlike  the  yellow  pond-lily. 

Mag'pie,  a  bird  of  the  crow  family,  closely 
related  to  the  jays  but  distinguished  by  hav- 
ing a  much  longer  and  graduated  tail.  The 
true  magpies  are  mostly  inhabitants  of  the 
Old  World.  The  American  form  is  a  variety 
of  the  European  species,  and  occurs  in  the 
northwest  from  Alaska  and  the  border  of  the 
Arctic  barrens  to  the  arid  regions  of  the 
southwest.  It  is  about  16  or  18  inches  long, 
its  extremely  long  tail  giving 'it  a  striking 
appearance  in  flight.  Its  plumage  is  of 
glossiest  black  and  snow  white,  a  most  effec- 


tive combination.  If  offered  encouragement 
and  treated  generously,  it  makes  friends  with 
ranchman  and  cabin-dweller,  is  easily 
tamed,  and  can  be  taught  to  articulate  a 
few  words.  Its  note  is  harsh,  and  it  keeps 
up  a  continual  chattering  when  disturbed. 
Its  food  mainly  is  snails,  worms,  frogs,  rats 
etc.  Its  nest  is  protected  by  rough  thorns. 
Magpies  are  noted  for  thieTrishness;  they 
have  a  propensity  to  carry  away  and  conceal 
bright  articles,  and  therefore  often  steal 
jewelry.  A  great  amount  of  popular  super- 
stition attaches  to  them;  they  were  long 
regarded  as  birds  of  evil  omen,  associated  with 
witchcraft  and  the  black  art. 

Magruder  ( ma-groo'd$r ) ,  John  B.,  an 
American  soldier,  was  born  on  Aug.  15,  1810, 
at  Winchester,  Va.  He  graduated  from  West 
Point  in  1830.  He  served  throughout  the  in- 
vasion of  Mexico  under  General  Pillow,  as 
the  commanding  officer  of  a  battery.  He  re- 
mained in  the  regular  army  until  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  Civil  War,  when  he  entered  the 
Confederate  army,  in  which  he  became  a  ma- 
jor-general. ^At  the  close  of  the  war  he  re- 
tired to  Mexico,  where  he  accepted  a  com- 
mission as  major-general  in  the  army  of 
Maximillian.  Upon  the  collapse  of  the  at- 
tempted empire  he  returned  to  Texas,  lec- 
turing in  various  southern  cities.  He  died 
at  Houston,  Tex.,  Feb.  19,  1871. 

Magyars.     See  HUNGARY. 


MAHAN 


1148 


MAHRATTAS 


CAPTAIN  MAHAN 


Mahan  ( md-han' ) ,  Alfred  Thayer,  a  na- 
val officer,  was  born  on  Sept.  27,  1840,  at 
West  Point,  where 
his  father  was  a 
fc/stinguished  in- 
structor in  mili- 
tary engineering. 
He  graduated  from 
the  United  States 
Naval  Academy  in 
1859  and  served 
throughout  the 
Civil  War,  chiefly 
in  the  South  At- 
lantic and  Gulf 
squadrons.  He 
was  head  of  the  de- 
partment of  gun- 
nery in  the  Naval 
Academy  from 
1877  to  1880  and  president  of  the  United 
States  Naval  War  College,  Newport,  R.  I., 
1886-89.  After  various  distinguished  serv- 
ices in  connection  with  naval  commissions 
and  educational  institutions,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  United  States 
cruiser,  Chicago,  and  attached  to  the  Euro- 
pean squadron  on  May  n,  1893.  He  soon 
became  widely  known  for  important  works 
upon  the  history  and  philosophy  of  naval 
warfare  and  was  exceedingly  popular  abroad, 
Cambridge  conferring  the  honorary  degree  of 
LL.D.  and  Oxford  that  of  D.  C.  L.  His  writ- 
ings embrace  The  Gulf  and  Inland  Waters, 
The  Navy  in  the  Civil  War,  The  Influence  of 
Sea-Power  upon  History,  The  Life  of  Admiral 
Farragut,  The  Interest  of  the  United  States  in 
Sea-Power  and  various  other  works,  includ- 
ing a  Life  of  Lord  Nelson.  Captain  Mahan 
retired  from  active  service  in  1896,  but  was 
made  a  member  of  the  Naval  Advisory  Board 
during  the  war  with  Spain  and  was  a  delegate 
to  the  Hague  peace-conference  (1899).  He 
died  Dec.  i,  1914. 

Mahanoy  (md'hd-noi1)  City,  Pa.,  bor- 
ough in  Schuylkill  County,  on  Mahanoy 
Creek,  about  55  miles  northeast  of  Harris- 
burg.  In  the  vicinity  are  fireclay,  building- 
stone  and  anthracite.  Its  20  collieries 
are  operated  by  residents  of  the  city.  It 
manufactures  pottery,  flour,  hosiery,  lum- 
ber and  foundry  products.  It  has  admir- 
able public  and  parochial  schools  and  several 
fine  churches.  The  city  was  settled  in  1859, 
incorporated  in  1863,  and  has  the  service  of 
two  railroads.  Population  15,936. 

Mahdi  (ma'cte),the  Mohammedan  restorer 
of  all  things.  He  is  not  mentioned  in  the 
Koran,  but  is  said  to  have  been  promised  by 
Mohammed  to  complete  his  work  —  to  fill  the 
world  with  righteousness.  The  Mahdi  is  a 
Mohammedan  messiah.  In  Mohammedan 
history,  at  different  times,  men  of  ambition 
have  arisen  who  have  set  up  claims  to  being 
the  Mahdi.  Hence  the  claim  figures  in  war 
and  strife  between  rival  tribes  and  nations. 
In  1799  a  Mahdi  arose  in  Egypt  against  the 


French.  In  1883  one  assumed  the  title  and 
led  a  revolt  against  the  khedive.  He  seized 
El-Obeid,  the  chief  city  of  Kordofan,  and 
made  it  his  capital;  and  on  the  sth  of 
November  the  Egyptian  army  of  Hicks  Pasha 
was  annihilated.  In  1885  Khartum  was 
taken,  and  General  Gordon,  whom  England 
sent  to  pacify  the  Sudan,  was  killed.  This 
Mahdi  died  at  Omdurman  on  the  25th  of 
June,  1885. 

Mahog'any,  the  wood  of  Swietenia  ma- 
hogani,  which  belongs  to  the  family  Melia- 
cecB.  The  tree  becomes  70  feet  high,  and  is 
native  o  Central  America  and  the  Antilles, 
growing  in  Peru,  on  the  Bahamas  and  in 
Florida.  Its  beautiful  dark-red  wood  is 
chiefly  used  in  veneering.  It  is  esteemed 
above  all  woods  in  cabinet-work,  and  is  em- 
ployed for  interior  finish.  In  Florida  the 
tree  grows  from  40  to  50  feet  high;  the  bark 
is  scaly  and  red-brown;  the  wood,  very  hard 
and  close-grained,  is  a  rich  red-brown  that 
grows  darker  with  age.  The  species  of  Cer- 
cocarpus,  a  genus  of  the  rose  family,  is  also 
popularly  called  mountain  mahogany.  There 
are  four  known  species,  which  are  found  in 
the  Rocky  Mountains  from  Montana  to  Mex- 
ico. The  name  is  suggested  by  the  very 
heavy  and  cross-grained  wood. 
Mahom'et.  See  MOHAMMED. 
Mahone  (md-hon'),  William,  a  Confed- 
erate soldier  and  Federal  senator,  was  born 
in  Southampton 
County,  Va.,Dec. 
i,  1826.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War  he  en- 
tered the  Confed- 
erate army,  tak- 
ing part  in  the 
capture  of  Nor- 
folk Navy- Yard, 
April  21,  1 86 1. 
He  was  engaged 
in  all  the  desper- 
ate fighting  about 
Petersburg  t  o  - 
ward  the  close  of 
the  war,  and  was 
called  the  hero  of 
GEN.  WILLIAM  MAHONE  the  crater  on  ac- 
count of  his  bravery  at  the  time  General 
Grant  exploded  the  mine  under  the  earth- 
work popularly  known  by  the  Federal  sol- 
diers as  Fort  Hell.  This  was  July  30,  1864. 
He  rose  to  the  rank  of  major-general  in  the 
Confederate  army.  He  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  senate  in  1880,  where,  while 
nominally  an  independent,  he  usually  voted 
with  the  Republicans.  He  died  on  Oct.  8, 

1895- 

Mahrattas  ( md-rat'taz ) ,  a  people  of 
mixed  origin,  who  formed  a  famed  and  his- 
toric confederacy,  Hindus  in  religion  and 
caste-laws,  inhabiting  western  and  central 
India.  Their  founder  was  Sivaji,  a  free- 
booter. He  compelled  several  independent 


MAIN 


1 1 40 


MAINE 


Hindu  chiefs  to  acknowledge  him  as  their 
leader  and  with  them  overran  and  subdued 
a  large  portion  of  the  territory  of  the  em- 
peror of  Delhi.  Under  the  fourth  sover- 
eign's reign  there  were  five  Mahratta  states. 
In  1 761  the  Mahrattas  suffered  a  frightful  de- 
feat at  the  hands  of  the  ruler  of  Afghanis- 
tan. They  lost  50,000  men  in  this  conflict. 
After  many  long  and  bloody  contests  with 
the  British  and  their  allies  (1780,  1803,  1817- 
18),  with  the  exception  of  Sindia,  they  were 
reduced  to  dependence.  Sindia's  power  was 
broken  in  1843.  The  son  of  the  last  reigning 
rajah,  who  became  a  British  prisoner  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Cawnpore,  was  the  infam- 
ous Nana  Sahib,  whose  connection  with  the 
mutiny  in  1857  is  historic.  See  INDIA. 

Main,  a  river  of  Germany,  the  largest 
affluent  the  Rhine  receives  from  the  right. 
It  mingles  its  yellow  waters  with  the  green 
current  of  the  Rhine  opposite  Mainz  (May- 
ence),  after  a  zigzag  course  of  307  miles,  the 
last  205  of  which  are  navigable.  Its  waters 
are  joined  to  the  Danube  by  a  canal.  The 
Main  divides  northern  from  southern  Ger- 
many. Frankfort  is  one  of  the  chief  cities 
on  its  banks. 

Maine,  the  nation's  sunrise  portal,  situ- 
ated in  the  northeastern  corner  of  our  land, 
can  boast  as  early  discovery  and  settlement 
as  any  part  of  North  America.  It  was  called 
Maine  because  thought  to  be  the  "mayne" 
land  of  New  England.  It  is  the  most  north- 
easterly state,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north 
and  east  by  New  Brunswick,  on  the  south 
and  east  by  the  Atlantic,  on  the  west  by  New 
Hampshire  and  on  the  northwest  and  north 
by  Quebec.  Its  extreme  length  is  350  miles, 
its  width  225,  and  its  total  area  33,0  .o  square 
miles,  the  land -surf  ace  being  29,895  square 
miles.  Maine  has  a  coast  of  about  225  miles, 
but  the  numerous  indentations  of  the  sea 
make  a  tide-line  of  not  less  than  2,500  miles. 
It  has  been  aptly  called  "hundred- harbored 
Maine"  by  Whittier. 

History.  It  is  more  than  a  tradition  that 
the  Northmen  visited  the  coast  The  Cab- 
ots,  sent  out  by  England  in  1497-8,  crossed 
the  Gulf  of  Maine  during  their  first  voyages. 
Verrazano  sailed  along  the  coast  in  1524, 
and  was  so  pleased  with  the  grandeur  and 
beauty  of  the  region  now  known  as  New  Eng- 
land that  he  called  it  New  France.  The 
coast  was  visited  and  explored  by  Gomez  in 
1525;  by  Rut,  an  Englishman,  in  1527;  by 
Andre  fhevet,  a  French  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  in  1556;  by  Pring,  sent  out  by  Eng- 
land, in  1603;  and  in  the  same  year  by  De 
Monts,  who  took  possession  of  the  land  in 
the  name  of  France.  In  1605  Weymouth 
landed  at  the  island  known  as  Monhegan, 
and  took  possession  of  the  country  in  the 
name  of  James  I  of  England.  In  1607  Cap- 
tain Raleigh  Gilbert  landed  at  what  now  is 
Pemaquid  and  made  a  settlement  at  Phipps- 
burg,  but  this  had  a  brie*  existence.  The 
second  colony  established  by  the  English 


was  founded  in  1616  near  Biddeford,  and  nu- 
merous settlements  followed  in  1623.  French 
explorers  made  a  settlement  on  Mt.  Desert 
Island  in  1613.  Settlements  were  also  made 
about  this  time  on  York  and  Kennebec  Riv- 
ers. In  1614-15  Captain  John  Smith  visited 
the  shores  of  Maine,  and  published  a  brief  de- 
scription and  a  map  of  the  country  and 
named  it  New  England.  In  1650  the  terri- 
tory was  under  six  governments,  and  the 
colonists  being  weary  of  the  strife  fostered 
by  these  unnatural  conditions  called  on 
Massachusetts  for  aid  and  finally  came  under 
its  control.  In  1742  the  population  had  in- 
creased to  12,000.  The  settlements  mostly 
were  along  the  shores  and  near  the  rivers. 
In  1790  the  population  was  96,540.  In  1785 
the  people  asked  for  separation  from  Massa- 
chusetts. This  was  finally  granted  in  1819, 
and  in  1820  Maine  was  admitted  as  a  state. 
It  was  the  first  state  to  pass  a  prohibitory 
law.  The  boundary  line  between  the  Brit- 
ish possessions  and  Maine  caused  a  long  dis- 
pute, but  in  1842  it  was  finally  settled. 

Climate.  The  climate,  though  cooler  than 
might  be  expected  from  its  latitude,  is  not 
severe.  The  summer  heat  is  tempered  by 
sea-breezes  and  cool  winds  from  the  north. 
The  cold  of  winter  has  a  constancy  which 
makes  it  less  severely  felt  than  the  changing 
temperatures  of  more  southern  sections. 
The  average  winter  temperature  is  20°. 
The  summers  are  short,  less  than  five  months 
between  frosts,  even  in  the  southern  part, 
but  the  thermometer  sometimes  rises  tor  a 
few  days  to  100°.  The  average  summer  heat 
is  62°.  The  lakes  and  forests  attract  great 
numbers  of  tourists,  and  the  sea- coast  is 
lined  with  the  cottages  of  summer-residents 
from  all  parts  of  the  country.  Some  of  these 
resorts,  notably  Bar  Harbor,  Old  Orchard 
and  York  Beaches  and  the  islands  in  Casco 
Bay  are  among  the  most  popular  and  fash- 
ionable ones  in  the  country. 

Minerals.  The  fact  that  the  surface  is 
made  up  of  the  bases  of  two  mountain  ranges 
explains  the  great  variety  of  minerals  found 
in  the  hills  of  Maine.  Granite  is  abundant 
in  the  western  portion,  and  a  belt  of  the  same 
rocks  extends  along  the  coast  and  for  miles 
inland.  The  convenience  of  transportation 
is  a  large  factor  i  ti  giving  Maine  the  second 
rank  in  this  product.  The  best-known  min- 
erals are  red,  gray,  white  and  dark  granite, 
feldspar,  quartz,  mica,  limestone,  marble 
and  tourmaline.  The  crystalline  rocks  pro- 
duce many  rare  gems.  Iron,  copper,  silver, 
gold,  tin  and  manganese  are  found  in  small 
quantities.  The  higher  portion  of  the  sur- 
face has  a  thin  and  rocky  soil  and  is  unpro- 
ductive. Along  the  river  valleys  and  in  the 
region  of  the  lakes  the  soil  is  fertile. 

Forests.  One  of  the  most  valuable  of 
Maine's  natural  resources  is  her  extensive 
forests.  The  whole  northern  portion  is 
covered  with  trees,  and  i*  the  great  timber- 
producing  area.  The  many  lakes  and  rivers 


MAINE 


USD 


MAINE 


render  it  peculiarly  adapted  to  lumbering. 
In  these  forests  are  found  pine,  spruce,  hem- 
lock, fir,  rock  and  white  maple,  oak,  white, 
yellow  and  gray  birch,  beech,  cedar,  black 
larch,  cherry,  bass-wood,  white  and  brown 
ash,  poplar,  elm  and  chestnut.  Fruit-trees 
are  abundant.  Apples,  pears  and  plums  are 
extensively  grown.  Grapes,  gooseberries, 
raspberries,  blackberries  and  strawberries 
are  plentiful. 

Animals.  There  are  many  varieties  of 
wild  animals.  The  bear,  moose,  caribou, 
deer,  wolf  and  wild-cat  live  in  the  dense  for- 
ests, and  the  beaver,  sable,  mink,  squirrel, 
fox,  raccoon,  porcupine  and  marten  are 
trapped  by  the  hunters. 

Fisheries.  In  value  and  extent  of  sea- 
fisheries  Maine  stands  second  only  to  Mass- 
achusetts, while  in  importance  of  her  fresh- 
water fishing  she  has  no  equal.  Bangor  has 
one  of  the  finest  salmon-pools  in  the  world. 
Large  quantities  of  lobsters,  clams  and  sar- 
dines are  taken  for  canning  purposes,  while 
hundreds  of  vessels  are  engaged  in  cod  and 
mackerel  fishing.  The  state  fish-com- 
missioners have  been  engaged  for  years  in  re- 
stocking the  lakes  and  rivers  with  choicest 
fish.  During  the  open  seasons  sportsmen 
come  from  far  and  near  to  hunt  in  the  for- 
ests and  fish  in  the  lakes  and  streams. 

Agriculture.  The  land-surface  comprises 
19,132,800  acres,  an  area  equal  to  all  the 
other  New  England  states.  While  Maine 
does  not  claim  to  be  a  great  agricultural  state, 
yet  her  broad  acres  furnish  many  home- 
farms,  where  her  people  live  in  comfort  and 
prosperity.  Not  a  few  of  our  best  men  and 
women  trace  their  strength  of  purpose  and 
sturdiness  of  frame  to  the  training  received 
on  "the  old  farm."  The  most  important 
agricultural  products  are  hay,  potatoes,  oats, 
sweet  corn,  butter,  cheese,  apples  and  wool. 

Surface.  The  surface  is  broken,  there 
being  several  m  untain-ranges  in  the  north 
and  west  and  some  large  peaks,  as  Mt.  Ka- 
tahdin,  5,385  feet  high,  Saddleback  Moun- 
tain 4,004  feet  and  Mt.  Baker  3,589  feet. 
The  general  slope  of  the  land  is  from  an  ex- 
treme elevation  of  2,000  feet  on  the  west  to 
600  feet  on  the  east.  The  beaches,  marshes 
and  low,  grassy  islands  on  the  coast  are  rarely 
found  east  of  Kennebec  River.  Beyond  the 
mouth  of  this  river  the  shore  becomes  bolder, 
rising  in  precipitous  cliffs  and  rounded  sum- 
mits. 

Drainage.  Two  drainage-slopes  stretch 
north  and  south  from  a  watershed  which 
crosses  the  state  in  an  easterly  and  westerly 
direction,  making  the  general  flow  of  the 
rivers  south,  southeast  and  north  and  north- 
east. The  largest  rivers  are  the  Penobscot, 
Kennebec,  Androscoggin  and  Saco  of  the 
southern  slope  and  the  St.  John  and  St.  Croix 
of  the  northern.  The  rivers  are  navigable 
only  for  a  few  miles,  and  therefore  are  of  but 
little  value  in  commerce.  Their  sources  are 
at  a  high  elevation,  and  consequently  are 


great  sources  of  water-power.  More  than 
2,656,200  horse-power  is  available  on  the 
rivers.  This  force  is  equivalent  to  the  work- 
ing energy  of  34,000,000  men,  laboring  24 
hours  a  day  every  day  throughout  the  year. 

The  lakes  among  the  hills  and  mountains 
number  1,570,  with  an  aggregate  area  of 
2,300  square  miles,  and  are  of  great  natural 
beauty.  The  most  noted  are  Moosehead 
Lake,  the  Rangeley  Lakes  and  Chesuncook 
Lake.  The  lakes  are  nearly  all  connected 
with  the  river-systems. 

Manufactures.  Manufactures  are  being 
rapidly  developed.  The  largest  paper-mills 
are  located  at  Cumberland  Mills,  Rumford 
Falls  and  Millinocket.  The  chief  center  of 
the  boot  and  shoe  industry  is  in  Auburn. 
Cotton-goods  are  extensively  manufactured 
in  Lewiston,  Biddeford  and  Waterville.  In 
many  of  the  villages  woolen  mills  and  fac- 
tories for  the  manufacture  of  household  uten- 
sils and  toys  are  found.  Maine  granite  is 
known  and  valued  throughout  the  country. 
It  is  used  for  almost  every  purpose,  from  the 
paving-block  to  the  choicest  statuary. 
Large  quantities  of  lumber  are  produced. 
The  manufacture  of  starch  from  potatoes  is 
an  important  industry  in  Aroostook  County. 
There  are  50  of  these  factories,  and  2,000,000 
bushels  of  potatoes  are  used  annually.  The 
Kennebec  is  the  center  of  the  great  ice-in- 
dustry. 

Education.  Education  of  the  youth  has 
always  been  dear  to  the  people,  and  there  is  a 
strong  sentiment  in  favor  of  the  public 
schools.  The  quality  of  blood  which  they 
received  from  their  ancestors  and  the  train- 
ing they  had  in  "  the  little  red  school-house  " 
or  its  more  pretentious  companion  developed 
a  body  of  men  and  women  of  such  character 
that  they  have  not  only  reflected  credit 
upon  Maine,  but  have  done  a  large  share  of 
the  intellectual  work  of  America.  As  early 
as  1 794  a  charter  was  obtained  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  Bowdoin  College  at  Brunswick. 
Colby,  the  second  college  established  in  the 
state,  was  opened  in  1818.  It  was  first  in- 
corporated as  Maine  Literary  and  Theolog- 
ical Institution,  Waterville.  Bates  College 
at  Lewiston  grew  out  of  Maine  Seminary, 
which  was  chartered  in  1855.  The  college 
was  opened  in  1863,  and  a  charter  was 
granted  in  1864.  It  was  the  pioneer  of  co- 
education in  New  England.  The  Maine 
College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Mechanic 
Arts  was  established  in  1862,  and  in  1866 
the  college  was  located  at  Orono  on  a  farm 
of  375  acres.  By  act  of  the  legislature  in 
1897  tne  name  of  the  institution  became 
the  University  of  Maine.  There  are  six 
state  normal  schools  which  send  out  over 
200  teachers  yearly.  These  schools  are 
at  Farmington,  Castine,  Gorham,  Presque 
Isle,  Ft.  Kent  and  Machias.  There  are 
about  60  academies,  seminaries  and  insti- 
tutes. _The  larger  towns,  villages  and  cities 
maintain  about  178  free  high-schools  of 


MAINE 


XX51 


MALAKKA 


standard  grade.  The  schools  are  admin- 
istered under  what  is  known  as  the  town 
system,  and  are  under  the  general  supervision 
of  a  state  superintendent  who  is  appointed 
by  the  governor  for  a  term  of  three  years. 
Attendance  is  compulsory  between  the  ages 
of  7  and  15.  Both  graded  and  high  schools 
are  maintained  in  all  the  cities  and  in  the 
larger  towns.  The  text  books  are  free._  The 
population  is  increasing  slowly  by  immi- 
gration from  Canada  and  Sweden.  The 
latest  statistics  gives  a  population  of  774,914. 
The  principal  cities  are  Portland,  Lewiston 
(of  which  Auburn  is  practically  a  part), 
Bangor,  Bath,  Augusta,  Biddeford  and 
Waterville.  See  Abbott's  History  of 
Maine. 

Maine,  Henry  James  Sumner,  a  cele- 
brated lawyer  of  England,  was  born  on  Aug. 
15,  1822,  and  died  at  Cannes,  France,  Feb. 
3,  1888.  At  25  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  civil  law.  In  1862  he  went  to  India  as 
law-member  of  the  council  in  India,  an  office 
that  had  been  held  by  Macaulay.  In  1877 
he  was  elected  WheWeD  professor  of  inter- 
national law  at  Cambridge.  Maine  intro- 
duced wise  reforms  into  Indian  law,  but  his 
work  on  the  origin  and  growth  of  legal  and 
social  institutions  is  the  work  on  which  his 
fame  mostly  rests.  His  publications  include 
Ancient  Law,  Village  Communities,  Early 
History  of  Institutions,  Popular  Government, 
International  Law  and  Dissertations  on  Early 
Law  and  Custom. 

Maintenon  (man-t'-n6nf),  Francaise  D' 
Aubigne,  Marquise  de,  was  born  in  prison  at 
Niort,  France,  Nov.  27,  1635.  She  was 
brought  up  in  the  West  Indies,  but  returned 
to  France  in  1645.  When  she  found  herself 
at  15  reduced  to  poverty  by  the  death  of  her 
parents,  Scarron  the  poet  offered  to  marry 
her  or  to  pay  her  entrance  fee  to  a  convent. 
He  was  lame  and  deformed,  but  she  chose  to 
marry  him,  and  for  nine  years  was  the  center 
of  the  intellectual  society  of  his  house.  At 
his  death  his  pension  was  continued  to  her, 
and  in  1669  she  was  appointed  governess  of 
two  of  the  sons  of  Louis  XIV.  At  the  death 
of  the  queen  she  privately  married  Louis 
XIV.  Her  influence  over  him  was  very 
great,  and  on  the  side  of  morality,  and  she 
was  a  liberal  patroness  of  literature  and  art. 
She  founded  at  St.  Cyr,  near  Versailles,  a 
home  for  poor  girls  of  good  family,  in  mem- 
ory of  her  own  youth,  and  retired  to  it  on  the 
death  of  the  king  in  1715.  She  died  on  April 
15,  1719.  See  Life  by  Bowles. 

Mainz.     See  MAYENCE. 

Maize.     See  CORN. 

Majolica  ( md-jdl't-ka ) ,  a  decorated  kind 
of  enameled  pottery  made  in  Italy  from  the 
1 5th  to  the  1 8th  century.  It  is  an  earthen- 
ware, usually  of  a  coarse  paste  covered  with 
a  stanniferous  or  tin-yielding  glaze  or  enamel. 
Sometimes  it  is  called  Raffaelle  ware,  from 
a  number  of  the  paintings  on  it  having  been 
copied,  from  the  designs  of  that  famous 


painter.  Majolica  is  generally  considered 
the  most  beautiful  decorated  pottery  that 
was  ever  extensively  made,  at  least  during 
the  Christian  era.  It  seems  to  have  been 
tirst  made  on  the  island  of  Majorca,  of  which 
Majolica  is  the  Italian  name. 

Majorca  (md-jor'ka),  the  largest  of  the 
Balearic  Isles;  area,  1,310  square  miles.  In 
the  north  are  mountains  3,500  to  5,000  feet 
in  height.  Olive-groves  abound  everywhere, 
and  almond,  orange,  fig  and  other  fruit-trees 
are  common.  A  London  company  in  1871 
drained  5,000  acres  of  marsh-lands,  which 
are  of  extraordinary  fertility.  Majolica 
ware  is  still  made  here  to  a  small  extent. 
Majorca,  with  Minorca  and  Ivica,  all  lying  in 
the  Mediterranean  off  the  coast  of  Valencia, 
forms  a  province  of  Spain,  called  Baleares 
(or  in  English  the  Balearic  Isles) ;  total  area 
1,935  square  miles;  population  311,649.  The 
chief  town  is  Palma  on  the  southwestern 
coast  (population  63,937).  See  BALEARIC 
ISLES. 

Malaga  (mal'a-ga),  a  seaport  in  the  south 
of  Spain,  on  the  Mediterranean.  It  has  a 
wonderfully  equable  and  uniform  climate, 
of  which  dry  ness  and  constant  sunshine  are 
the  characteristics.  It  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant seaports  of  Spain,  yet  its  trade  has 
been  declining  since  1878.  Diseases  have 
ravaged  the  vines,  the  orange  and  the  lemon 
groves.  The  United  States,  its  great  cus- 
tomer for  Malaga  raisins,  now  uses  California 
raisins.  Population  133,045.  The  town 
was  founded  by  the  Phoenicians;  hence  it  is 
very  old.  A  Moorish  castle  is  one  of  its  few 
noted  buildings.  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
captured  it  from  the  Moors  in  1487. 

Malakka  ( ma-ldk'a)  or  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula is  the  long  strip  extending  from  Indo- 
China  southward  toward  Sumatra.  The 

geninsula  begins  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
iam,  and  includes  parts  of  Siam  and  Burma, 
covering  75,000  square  miles.  There  are 
mountain-ranges,  covered  with  forests,  run- 
ning the  entire  length  of  the  peninsula,  with 
peaks  from  6,000  to  8,000  feet  in  height. 
The  camphor,  ebony,  teak,  sandalwood,  cin- 
namon, rattan,  cocoa  and  nutmeg  are  the 
more  valuable  trees.  Malakka  is  the  largest 
tin-yielding  region  in  the  world,  and  gold, 
silver,  iron  and  coal  are  found,  though  the 
mines  are  not  much  developed.  The  crops* 
are  rice,  sugarcane,  cotton,  tobacco,  yams 
and  cocoanuts.  Population  95,657.  Ma- 
lakka is  the  name  also  of  the  Bntish  settle- 
ment in  the  southwestern  part  ot  the  penin- 
sula and  of  its  capital.  In  1867  Malakka 
(with  Penang)  and  the  island  of  Singapore 
were  transferred  from  the  Indian  govern- 
ment of  Britain  to  the  control  of  the  British 
secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies,  under  the 
designation  of  the  Straits  Settlement,  and 
erected  into  a  crown  colony.  The  seat  of 
government  is  the  town  of  Singapore.  Christ- 
mas Island  and  Cocos  Islands  have  since 
been  attached  to  the  Straits  Settlements. 


MALAKKA 


1153 


MALORY 


Malakka,  Strait  of,  a  waterway  or  sea- 
passage  which  separates  the  Malay  peninsula 
from  Sumatra,  and  forms  the  channel  be- 
tween the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Chinese  Sea. 
It  is  480  miles  in  length  and  from  30  to  200 
broad. 

Malay'  Peninsula.     See  MALAKKA. 

Malays  (ma-ldzr),  the  race  found  in  the 
Eastern  archipelago  and  the  neighboring 
peninsula,  which  are  named  from  the  Malay 
Archipelago  and  the  Malay  Peninsula. 
They  belong  to  the  Mongols  and  usually  are 
short  in  stature,  being  not  much  over  five 
feet  in  height,  with  yellow  skin,  straight  black 
hair,  almond-shaped  eyes  and  flat  features, 
much  resembling  the  Chinese.  But  their 
language  is  entirely  different  from  that  of  the 
Asiatic  Mongols,  belonging  to  the  great  Poly- 
nesian family,  which  extends  across  the  In- 
dian and  Pacific  Oceans.  Since  the  i3th 
century  the  Malays  have  been  the  traders  of 
the  archipelago,  and  of  late  years  have  given 
up  their  roving  habits  and  are  occupied  with 
trade  and  agriculture.  Their  language  is 
simple  in  structure,  and  soft  and  harmonious. 
It  is  written  in  the  Arabic  character,  though 
lately  the  Roman  system  has  been  adopted. 
See  The  Malay  Archipelago  by  Wallace. 

Maiden  (mal'den),  Mass.,  a  busy  and 
thriving  manufacturing  city,  incorporated  in 
1882,  on  Maiden  River  and  the  Boston  and 
Maine  Railroad.  It  lies  four  miles  north  of 
Boston,  and  is  the  seat  of  many  large  indus- 
trial interests,  chief  of  which  are  the  Boston 
Rubber  Shoe  Company,  establishments  for 
the  manufacture  of  carpets  and  rugs,  cotton 
goods,  leather  goods,  boots,  shoes,  shoe-lasts, 
sand  and  emery  paper  and  cord.  It  has 
many  substantial  public  buildings,  libraries, 
schools,  churches,  banks  and  other  edifices. 
It  does  much  for  education  in  the  extent  and 
character  of  its  public  schools.  Population 
44,404. 

Maldive  (mal'div)  Islands,  The,  lie  off 
the  coast  of  Malabar,  extending  southward 
about  20  degrees,  reaching  an  extreme  length 
of  500  miles  with  an  average  breadth  of  45. 
The  islands  are  composed  of  coral,  and  may 
be  divided  into  1 7  groups,  each  group  or  atoll 
being  surrounded  by  a  coral-reef.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  there  are  12,000  islands,  of  which 
600  are  charted  and  200  inhabited.  The 

emulation  is  estimated  at  30,000,  mostly 
ohammedan.  The  native  races  exhibit 
characteristic  features  of  Malays,  Singhalese 
and  Africans,  and  evidently  are  a  mixed 
race.  The  Portuguese,  French  and  Dutch 
have  at  various  times  asserted  authority; 
but  the  islands  now  constitute  a  dependency 
of  Ceylon.  The  exports  of  tropical  fruits 
are  considerable;  grain  is  also  grown;  and 
immense  numbers  of  wild  fowl  frequent  the 
archipelago.  The  inhabitants  live  chiefly 
upon  fish,  rice  and  cocoanuts. 

Male  Cell  ( in  plants ) ,  the  general  name 
of  the  sperm  or  male  gamete,  which  may 
take  a  variety  of  forms.  The  special  use  of 


the  phrase,  however,  is  in  connection  with 
the  angiosperms,  in  which  the  cell  which  fer- 
tilizes the  egg  is  unlike  ordinary  sperms  in 
several  particulars,  and  is  usually  called  sim- 
ply the  male  cell  rather  than  sperm. 

Malibran  (md'IS'brdn''),  Maria  Felicita, 
a  famous  operatic  singer,  was  born  at  Paris, 
March  24,  1808.  She  made  her  d£but  in 
London  in  1825.  Soon  her  reputation  ex- 
tended over  Europe.  At  New  York  she 
married  M.  Malibran,  a  French  merchant. 
Later,  this  marriage  being  dissolved,  she 
married  Beriot,  a  famous  violinist,  in  1836, 
but  on  September  23rd  she  died  at  Manches- 
ter, England. 

Malines.     See  MECHLIN. 

Mal'lard,  a  common  wild  duck  inhabit- 
ing the  northern  hemisphere.  It  belongs  to 
the  group  of  river  ducks,  and  is  abundant  in 
the  Old  and  New  Worlds.  The  head  and 
neck  of  the  male  are  bright  green  and,  there- 
fore, it  commonly  is  called  the  green-head. 
It  is  the  original  from  which  most  of  the  do- 
mestic ducks  are  descended.  In  the  west  of 
the  United  States  it  visits  cornfields;  in  the 
southern  Atlantic  states,  the  ricefields.  It 
is  extensively  hunted  by  the  use  of  decoys, 
and  its  fine-flavored  flesh  makes  it  a  favorite 
for  the  table. 

Mal'lock,  William  Hurrell,  an  English 
writer  upon  religious  and  sociological  themes, 
was  born  in  Devonshire,  England,  in  1849. 
His  mother  was  a  sister  of  J.  Anthony  Froude, 
the  historian.  He  graduated  from  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  with  honors.  He  wrote  a 
large  part  of  The  New  Republic  while  still  at 
the  university,  publishing  it  in  completed 
form  (1876)  soon  after  his  graduation.  He 
has  continued  to  publish  works  upon  his  fa- 
vorite studies,  among  which  are  Is  Life 
Worth  Living?  The  New  Paul  and  Virginia; 
Social  quality;  Property  and  Progress,  a  re- 
ply to  Henry  George ;  Labor  and  the  Popular 
Welfare;  Classes  and  Masses  or  Wealth,  Wages 
and  Welfare  in  the  United  Kingdom;  and 
many  others.  His  first  purpose  in  nearly  all 
his  writings  has  been  to  expose  the  fallacies 
of  socialism,  and  his  secondary  purpose  to 
show  that  science  cannot  supply  such  a  basis 
for  religion  as  will  suffice  for  the  needs  of 
man. 

Mal'lory,  Stephen  Russefl,  a  senator  of 
the  United  States,  1851-61,  was  born  in  Trin- 
idad, West  Indies,  in  1813,  the  son  of  a  Con- 
necticut shipmaster.  He  settled  in  Florida 
with  li'.c  parents  in  1820 ;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1833  at  Key  West;  was  inspector  of 
customs  under  Jackson;  United  States  sena- 
tor from  1851  to  1861;  and  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  entered  the  Confederacy, 
becoming  secretary  of  the  Confederate  navy. 
After  the  war  he  was  imprisoned ;  released  on 
parole;  and  finally  pardoned  by  President 
Johnson  in  1867.  He  died  at  Pensacola. 
Fla.,  Nov.  9,  1873. 

Mal'ory,  Sir  Thomas.  Malory's  work,  a 
series  of  prose  romances  on  the  life  and  death 


MALPLAQUET 


"53 


MALVERN  HILL 


of  King  Arthur  and  the  knights  of  the  Round 
Table,  is  immortal,  though  little  of  the  author 
is  known.  The  work  is  named  Morte  D' 
Arthur.  Scott  says:  "It  indisputably  is  the 
best  prose  romance  the  English  language  can 
boast  of."  Malory  aimed  to  give  epic  unity 
and  harmony  to  the  whole  mass  of  French 
romance.  Caxton's  edition  of  the  work  was 
finished  in  1485.  In  the  preface  to  this  edi- 
tion we  learn  that  Malory  was  a  knight  and 
finished  the  work  in  1470. 

Malplaquet  (mdl'pld'ka'),  a  village  in 
France,  near  the  Belgian  frontier,  celebrated 
as  the  scene  of  the  bloody  defeat  of  the 
French  under  Marshal  Villars  by  the  British 
and  Dutch  under  the  Duke  of  Marlborough 
and  Prince  Eugene,  Sept.  n,  1709.  The 
allied  armies  numbered  over  100,000  men, 
and  the  French  army  somewhat  less.  The 
loss  on  each  side  amounted  to  about  20,000 
men. 

Malt  is  made  from  barley  by  steeping  the 
grain  during  about  80  hours,  "couching"  it 
until  the  seed  germinates,  which  may  occupy 
some  1 2  days,  and  then  drying  it  in  a  kiln  at 
a  temperature  which  may  vary  greatly,  but 
often  is  from  100°  to  150°.  See  BREWING. 

Malta  (mal'td),  an  island  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, 58  miles  south  of  Sicily.  It  is  17 
miles  long  and  about  8  broad,  and  covers  95 
square  miles.  It  belongs  to  Great  Britain, 
and  is  strongly  fortified.  It  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  British  Mediterranean  fleet 
and  the  chief  coaling  station  for  British  ves- 
sels. There  are  several  smaller  islands  as 
Gozo  and  Comino,  connected  with  it,  be- 
longing to  England.  Malta  is  treeless,  and 
has  no  rivers  or  lakes,  water  being  obtained 
from  springs;  but  the  soil  is  very  fertile. 
There  are  several  good  harbors,  and  numer- 
ous odd  caverns  hollowed  out  by  the  sea, 
some  of  them  quite  large.  Trade  is  mainly 
one  of  transit;  some  3,500  vessels  enter  and 
clear  from  the  port  annually,  half  of  which 
are  British.  Wheat,  potatoes,  corn,  barley, 
cotton  and  the  southern  fruits  are  the  princi- 
pal products.  The  language  is  a  dialect  of 
Arabic,  with  a  mixture  of  Italian,  though 
the  higher  classes  speak  English  and  Italian. 
There  is  a  university,  founded  in  1769,  with 
four  faculties  and  147  students.  Malta  also 
has  167  public  schools,  with  18,719  in  attend- 
ance. The  cathedral  of  St  Paul,  built  in 
1697,  and  the  grotto  of  St  Paul,  where  the 
apostle  is  thought  to  have  lived  during  his 
three  months'  stay,  as  well  as  the  Bay  of  St. 
Paul,  commemorate  the  apostle's  shipwreck 
on  his  journey  to  Rome.  The  church  of  Musta, 
modeled  after  the  Pantheon  at  Rome,  has  one 
of  the  largest  domes  in  Europe.  The  capital 
is  Valetta  (population  50,000).  Malta  was 
settled  by  the  Phoenicians  about  1000  B.  C. 
The  Greeks  took  possession  about  700  B.  C., 
the  Carthaginians  in  480  B.  C  ,  and  the  Ro- 
mans in  2 16  B.  C.  Under  the  Romans  Malta 
was  famous  for  cotton-cloth,  honey  and  roses. 
Malta  went  with  the  eastern  empire  when  the 


Roman  kingdom  was  divided.  In  the  5th 
century  it  was  conquered  by  Vandals  and 
then  by  Goths,  and  in  870  the  Arabs  came 
into  possession,  but  were  driven  out  in  1090 
by  Count  Roger  of  Sicily.  Finally  coming 
into  the  power  of  Charles  V,  he  gave  it  (1530) 
to  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  who  fortified  it, 
making  it  very  powerful.  In  1798  the 
Knights  surrendered  the  island  to  the 
French;  but  the  people  rebelled  and  suc- 
ceeded after  a  two  years'  siege  in  driving  off 
the  French  with  the  aid  of  the  English.  The 
people  preferred  the  rule  of  Great  Britain  to 
that  of  the  Knights,  and  the  Congress  of  Vi- 
enna in  1814  recognized  Malta  as  a  British 
dependency.  Population  215,879.  See 
Malta  Past  and  Present  by  Seddall  and  The 
Story  of  Malta  by  M.  M.  Ballou. 

M'al'ta,  Knights  of,  were  a  military  and 
religious  order  of  the  middle  ages.  They 
were  also  called  the  Knights  of  St.  John  and 
Knights  of  Rhodes,  and  belonged  to  what 
were  known  as  Hospitalers  in  the  Roman 
church,  who  were  devoted  to  the  care  of  the 
poor  and  the  sick.  The  order  was  founded 
about  1048,  in  a  hospital  built  at  Jerusalem 
and  dedicated  to  St.  John  the  Baptist.  The 
order  gradually  became  a  military  one, 
sworn  to  guard  the  holy  sepulcher  and  to  war 
against  unbelievers.  The  last  stronghold  in 
Palestine  was  Acre,  which  they  yielded  after 
a  terrible  siege  by  the  ruler  of  Egypt  and 
sailed  to  Cyprus  in  1291.  After  the  Refor- 
mation they  declined  in  importance,  and 
most  of  their  lands  were  confiscated  by  the 
different  European  states.  There  are  two 
or  three  branches  of  the  order  still  existing, 
and  two  modern  associations,  one  of  which, 
the  English  Knights  of  St.  John,  was  the 
principal  founder  of  the  Red  Cross  Society. 

Mal'thus,  Thomas  Robert,  an  English 
clergyman  and  writer  on  political  economy, 
was  born  at  Albury,  Surrey,  in  1766.  In 
1798  he  issued  the  work  which  made  his  rep- 
utation and  by  which  he  has  since  been 
known*  An  Essay  upon  the  Principles  of  Pop- 
ulation as  It  Affects  the  Future  Improvement 
of  Society.  The  leading  idea  was  that,  the 
population  of  the  earth  increasing  steadily  in 
geometrical  ratio,  the  world  must  soon  be 
over-populated;  and  that,  unless  means  to 
check  such  increase  be  promptly  adopted, 
the  nations  of  the  earth  must  soon  be  brought 
to  the  verge  of  starvation.  He  insisted  that 
abstinence  from  marriage  could  alone  keep 
down  the  threatened  overplus  of  population. 
He  himself  married  in  1805,  and  was  the 
same  year  appointed  professor  of  history  and 
political  economy  in  East  India  College  at 
Haileybury.  Malthus  also  published  Ob- 
servations on  the  Effects  of  the  Corn  Laws, 
Principles  of  Political  Economy  and  Defini- 
tions in  Politico.  Economy.  He  died  at  Bath, 
Dec.  23,  1834 

Mal'vern  Hill,  Battle  of,  the  last  of  the 
battles  of  McClellan's  memorable  Peninsular 
campaign.  The  hill  is  situated  near  James 


MAMELUKES 


"54 


MAMMOTH 


River,  Virginia,  southeast  of  Richmond. 
After  the  battle  of  Gaines's  Mill,  June  26,1862, 
when  the  Federals  were  driven  back  with 
heavy  loss,  McClellan  began  a  retreat  to  the 
James.  His  left  wing,  which  was  south  of 
the  Chickahominy,  led  the  way  through 
White  Oak  Swamp.  His  right  wing,  which 
was  north  of  the  Chickahominy,  was  with 
difficulty  withdrawn  across  that  stream, 
and,  following  through  White  Oak  Swamp, 
was  attacked  by  Lee  at  Savage  Station  and 
again  at  Frazier's  Farm,  where  desperate 
battles  were  fought  on  June  29  and  30. 
Then  McClellan  reached  Malvern  Hill,  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  James,  where  he  se- 
cured a  strong  position.  Massing  his  artil- 
lery, he  repelled  the  attack  of  the  Confeder- 
ates on  July  i  with  great  slaughter.  Next 
day  McClellan  withdrew  to  Harrison's  Land- 
ing, and  the  "seven  days' fight"  was  at  an 
end.  McClellan's  losses,  including  killed, 
wounded  and  missing,  were  15,849;  Lee's 
were  19,749.  But  McClellan  had  lost  the 
campaign,  for  the  attempt  to  capture  Rich- 
mond had  failed. 

Mamelukes  (m&m'd-luks) ,  the  Arabic 
word  for  white  slaves,  and  especially  the 
name  of  the  slave  kings  of  Egypt.  They 
came  from  a  body  of  slaves,  brought  in  the 
1 3th  century  from  Asia  Minor  and  the  Cau- 
casus to  act  as  the  mounted  bodyguard  of 
the  sultan  of  Egypt.  On  the  death  of  their 
master  in  1250  they  chose  one  of  their  own 
number  his  successor,  and  from  that  year  to 
1517  the  Mamelukes  ruled  Egypt  and  Syria. 
There  were  48  Mameluke  sultans,  often  keep- 
ing the  throne  but  a  few  years  or  months,  in 
two  royal  houses,  the  Turkish  and  the  Cir- 
cassian Mamelukes.  The  Ottoman  Turk 
conquered  Egypt  in  1517.  The  Ottoman 
pasha,  who  now  ruled,  allowed  24  beys  to 
rule  the  provinces.  These  beys,  all  Mame- 
lukes, soon  got  all  the  power,  and  the  pasha 
became  a  cipher.  Their  last  brilliant  achieve- 
ment was  their  desperate  charge  on  Napo- 
leon's squares  at  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids 
in  1798.  Soon  afterwards  Mehemet  Ali 
came  to  power,  and,  by  two  treacherous  mas- 
sacres in  1805  and  1811,  blotted  out  the 
Mameluke  princes,  except  a  few  who  fled  to 
Sudan.  See  S.  Lane-Poole's  Art  oj  the  Sara- 
cens in  Egypt. 

Mamma'lia,  the  highest  class  in  the  animal 
kingdom,  including  all  those  forms  with 
breasts  (mamma)  by  means  of  which  they 
suckle  their  young.  The  group  is  a  varied 
one,  and  contains  animals  ranging  from  the 
smallest  harvest-mouse  to  whales  nearly  too 
feet  long.  They  are  all  air-breathers,  for 
even  those  forms  living  in  the  water,  as 
whales,  sea-cows  and  seals,  come  to  the  sur- 
face to  breathe.  The  lungs  and  heart  are  in 
the  thorax,  which  is  cut  off  from  the  abdom- 
inal cavity  by  a  partition  —  the  diaphragm. 
All  have  a  four-chambered  heart,  a  complete 
circulation  and  red  blood  corpuscles  without 
nuclei.  All  possess  hair  at  some  stage  of 


their  life  on  some  portion  of  the  body. 
Even  the  young  whale  has  hairs  that  disap- 
pear in  the  adult  or  are  confined  to  the  snout. 
This  covering  is  variously  modified ;  it  may  be 
fine  fur,  wool,  long  coarse  hair,  or  developed 
into  sharp  spines,  as  in  the  porcupine,  spiny 
ant-eater  and  others.  The  outer  part  of  the 
horns  of  ruminants  is  believed  to  be  modified 
hairs,  and  the  horn  of  the  rhinoceros  is  re- 
garded by  many  anatomists  as  made  of  com- 
pacted hairs.  The  other  parts  derived  from 
the  outer  cell-layer,  as  claws,  hoofs,  the  plates 
of  the  armadillo,  if  not  modified  hairs  are 
equivalent  structures.  The  bony  system  is 
well-developed.  The  skull  articulates  by 
two  processes  with  the  vertebral  column. 
There  usually  are  two  pairs  of  limbs,  but  in 
whales  and  manatees  the  hinder  pair  is  lack- 
ing. The  brain  and  sense-organs  are  highly 
developed.  Most  mammals  live  on  dry 
land;  the  bats,  however,  have  the  power  of 
flight;  and  other  forms,  as  flying  squirrels 
and  flying  lemurs,  make  long  leaps  through 
the  air.  Whales,  sea-cows,  seals  and  wal- 
ruses live  in  the  water.  Squirrels  and  others 
live  upon  trees,  and  among  the  burrowers, 
belonging  to  this  class,  are  moles,  prairie- 
dogs,  rabbits  and  others.  An  idea  of  the  ex- 
tent of  the  class  will  be  obtained  by  naming 
the  orders  into  which  it  is  subdivided,  and  the 
common  animals  belonging  to  each  order. 
There  are  three  subclasses:  ORNITHODEL- 
PHIA,  DIDELPHIA  and  MONODELPHIA.  The 
first  contains  a  single  order  —  the  Monotrem- 
ata,  represented  by  the  duck-bill  and  echidna 
of  Australia.  The  second ,  likewise  ,-contains  a 
single  order  —  the  Marsupialia  or  pouched 
animals  like  the  opossum,  kangaroo  etc. 
The  third  subclass  is  the  largest  and  most 
important.  It  embraces  12  orders  as  fol- 
lows: Edentata,  toothless  animals,  like  the 
armadillo,  hairy  ant-eater  etc. ;  Rodentia,  the 
gnawers,  including  squirrels,  hares,  the 
mouse,  rat,  beaver  and  the  like;  Insectivora, 
the  insect-eaters,  like  shrews,  hedgehogs, 
moles  and  similar  animals;  Chiroptera,  the 
bats;  Cetacea,  the  whales  and  dolphins;  Sir- 
enia,  the  dugong  and  manatees;  Proboscidia, 
elephants,  the  extinct  mammoth,  mastodon 
etc.;  Hyracoidea,  the  conies;  Toxodontia,  an 
extremely  curious  group,  containing  some 
extinct  forms  —  Toxodon  and  Nesodon  — 
found  in  South  America ;  Ungulata,  a  very  im- 
portant group  of  hoofed  animals,  containing 
the  tapir,  rhinoceros,  horses,  swine,  camels, 
deer,  cattle,  giraffe,  yak,  goats,  sheep,  ante- 
lope, musk-ox  and  a  few  others;  Carnivora, 
the  flesh-eating  mammals,  as  bear,  otter, 
raccoon,  badger,  mink,  dog,  fox,  hyena, 
tiger,  lion,  lynx,  walrus,  seal  etc.;  and  Pri- 
mates, the  highest  order,  embracing  lemurs, 
monkeys,  apes  and  man.  See  Mammals, 
Living  and  Extinct  by  Flower  and  Lydekker 
and  Schmidt's  Mammalia. 

Mam'moth,  a  very  large  elephant-like 
animal  now  extinct.  The  bones  of  this  animal 
are  abundant  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 


MAMMOTH  CAVE 


"55 


MANATEE 


Some  specimens  have  been  found  in  northern 
Siberia  in  which  the  flesh,  skin  and  other  soft 
parts  were  preserved.  When  living,  the 
animal  resembled  the  Indian  species  of  ele- 
phant, but  was  larger.  The  body  was  cov- 
ered with  a  dense  short  wool  of  a  reddish- 
brown  color;  besides,  there  was  a  covering  of 
hair  several  inches  long,  intermingled  with 
long  black  bristles.  There  also  was  a  shaggy 
mane.  This  animal  became  extinct  just  be- 
fore the  beginning  of  historic  times.  It  be- 
longed to  the  latest  epoch  (Pleistocene)  of 
geological  time.  The  tusks  probably  were 
present  both  in  males  and  females.  They 
were  curved,  in  some  cases  almost  into  a 


MAMMOTH 

circle,  and  in  the  largest  specimens  discov- 
ered measured  about  1 2  feet  in  length.  The 
grinding  surfaces  of  their  great  molar  teeth 
were  unlike  those  of  any  other  elephant, 
having  many  more  transverse  ridges.  They 
fed  upon  the  shoots  and  cones  of  the  fir  and 
pine.  Their  geographical  range  was  con- 
siderable. Besides  those  found  in  Siberia 
they  were  abundant  in  England,  Central 
Europe  and  the  northern  part  of  America. 
Their  teeth  and  tusks  are  so  abundant  as  to 
supply  a  considerable  amount  of  the  ivory 
of  commerce.  Some  of  the  islands  on  the 
coast  of  Siberia  are  said  to  be  made  largely 
of  accumulations  of  their  bones.  See  Ha- 
worth's  The  Mammoth  and  the  Flood. 

Mammoth  Cave,  The,  situated  in  Ed- 
monson  County,  Kentucky,  85  miles  south- 
west of  Louisville.  The  cave  is  about  10 
miles  long,  but  it  is  said  to  take  over  150 
miles  of  traveling  to  explore  its  many  aven- 
ues, chambers,  grottoes,  rivers  and  falls. 
The  main  cave  is  only  four  miles  in  length, 
and  is  from  40  to  300  feet  wide  and  125  feet 
in  height.  Lucy's  Dome  is  300  feet  high. 
Some  avenues  are  covered  with  a  continuous 
crust  of  the  most  beautiful  crystals,  and 
there  are  many  stalactites  and  stalagmites. 
There  are  several  rivers  or  lakes  connected 
with  Green  River,  outside  the  cave,  rising 
with  the  river  but  falling  more  slowly.  The 
largest  is  Echo  River,  three  fourths  of  a  mile 
long  and  in  some  places  over  200  feet  wide. 
The  air  of  the  cave  is  pure,  and  the  tempera- 
ture always  remains  at  about  54°.  See  A.  S. 
Packard 'sThe  Cave  Fauna  of  N orth  America 


and  his  Inhabitants  of  the  Mammoth 
Cave. 

Man,  Isle  of,  in  the  Irish  Sea,  belonging 
to  Great  Britain.  It  has  an  area  of  227 
square  miles,  with  a  population  54,752,  is 
33^  miles  long  and  12^  broad,  and  covers 
145,325  acres,  of  which  nearly  100,000  are 
cultivated.  At  the  southwestern  end  is  an 
islet  called  the  Calf  of  Man,  covering  800  acres. 
A  chain  of  mountains  stretches  from  north- 
east to  southwest.  The  coast  scenery  is 
bold  and  picturesque,  especially  at  Spanish 
Head,  the  southern  end  of  the  island.  Large 
quantities  of  lead  and  zinc  are  mined  and 
smaller  quantities  of  copper  and  iron.  The 
tailless  Manx  cat  is  the  only  animal  peculiar 
to  the  island.  The  extensive  herring  and 
cod  fisheries,  cattle  and  wheat-raising  are  the 
leading  employments. 

Managua  (md-nd'gwd),  capital  of  Nicara- 
gua and  the  seat  of  government,  lies  in  a 
fertile  district  on  the  southern  shore  of  Lake 
Managua.  Population  about  30,000. 

Mana'gua  Lake,  at  the  head  of  which 
the  city  of  Leon,  once  the  boast  of  Spanish 
America,  was  founded  in  1523,  lies  12  miles 
northwest  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  small  stream. 

Manassas  (ma-nas'sds) ,  The  Battle  of. 
See  BULL  RUN. 

Manas'seh,  the  oldest  son  of  Joseph.  The 
tribe  was  given  land  on  both  sides  of  the 
Jordan.  King  Manasseh  (B.  C.  699-44)  was 
a  later  king  of  Judah.  He  was  taken  into 
captivity,  but  restored. 

Manatee  ( man'a-te' ) ,  an  aquatic  mammal, 
is  found  along  both  shores  of  the  Atlantic  in 
tropical  regions  and  in  the  large  rivers. 


MANATEE 

Three  species  are  known,  and  all  go  under  the 
name  of  sea-cows.  One  lives  on  the  western 
coast  of  tropical  Africa,  one  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  South  America  and  the  third  on  the 
Florida  coast.  The  South  American  form  is 
the  best  known;  it  extends  to  the  West  In- 
dies and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  possibly  is 
the  Florida  species.  It  has  a  long  body  with 
a  broad,  oval  tail.  There  are  no  hind  limbs, 
but  the  front,  flipper-like  limbs  are  managed 
with  much  dexterity,  and  it  was  from  this 
that  it  received  the  name  of  manatee.  The 
skin  is  grayish  in  color  with  sparse  hairs. 
The  manatees  are  slow-moving,  mild,  inof- 
fensive creatures,  passing  their  whole  life  in 
the  water  but  coming  to  the  surface  to 
breathe.  They  are  not  found  in  the  high 
seas,  like  the  whales,  but  live  along  the  shores 
in  bays,  estuaries,  lagoons  and  large  rivers. 


MANCHESTER 


1156 


MANCHESTER 


They  live  equally  well  in  salt  and  fresh  wa- 
ter, and  ascend  the  Amazon  to  Peru  and 
Ecuador.  They  feed  upon  water-grasses 
and  marine  algse.  Their  size  has  been  greatly 
overstated  —  about  eight  feet  is  the  length 
now  given  by  the  best  authorities  (Flower 
and  Lydekker).  They  are  hunted  by  the 
Indians  for  their  flesh.  They  yield  a  soft, 
clear  oil. 

Man'chester,  Conn.,  a  town  in  Hartford 
County,  fn  the  Hockanum  River,  eight  miles 
from  Hartford.  It  has  extensive  manufac- 
turing plants  which  produce  woolen  goods, 
paper,  needles,  electrical  goods,  underwear, 
soap  and  friction  clutches.  Its  most  import- 
ant plants  are  the  Cheney  Silk  Mills  and 
the  Bon  Ami  factory.  The  town  has  two 
public  libraries,  one  in  Manchester  and  one  in 
South  ^Manchester,  each  village  being  incorpo- 
rated in  the  town.  It  has  the  service  of  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad. 
The  population,  is  1 7,600. 

Manchester,  a  city  in  Lancashire,  Eng- 
land, lies  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Irwell,  31 
miles  east  of  Liverpool.  Sixteen  bridges, 


Gothic,  triangular  building,  costing  $5,250- 
ooo.  The  hospital,  the  royal  infirmary,  was 
first  used  in  1755.  Other  buildings  of  note 
are  the  royal  institution,  the  royal  exchange, 
the  free-trade  hall  and  the  assize  courts. 
Victoria  University  and,  especially,  the 
Technical  School  are  well  known. 

Manchester  was  the  first  town  to  intro- 
duce, about  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century, 
the  factory-system,  where  large  numbers  of 
men  work  together,  in  place  of  the  older 
method  of  men  working  in  their  homes.  In 
1756  Bridgewater  Canal  was  constructed, 
which  joins  Manchester  to  the  coalfields  of 
Lancashire  and  salt-mines  of  Cheshire,  and 
makes  an  outlet  to  the  sea.  In  1830  Man- 
chester had  the  first  perfect  railroad  in  opera- 
tion. In  1887-91  a  great  ship-canal  was 
built  at  a  cost  of  $28,750,000,  which  made 
Manchester  an  inland  seaport.  There  are 
750  industries  carried  on,  but  the  great  busi- 
ness is  cotton-manufacture,  and  in  and 
around  Manchester  are  located  two  thirds  of 
tiie  cotton-mills  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
Manchester  University  in  1906  had  a  teach- 

ing  faculty  of 


1  90  in  num- 
ber,  with  a 
student  at- 
tendance of 
1,153.  Popu- 


MANCHESTER  ROYAL  INFIRMARY    AND    PICCADILLY   FROM   QUEEN'S   HOTEL 


besides  railroad  viaducts,  join  it  to  Salford 
on  the  opposite  bank,  which  really  is  a  part 
of  Manchester.  Manchester  is  the  center  of 
the  largest  manufacturing  district  in  the 
world.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  sub- 
urban cities,  and  within  a  few  miles  is  a  sec- 
ond ring  of  cities  with  populations  ranging 
from  10,000  to  50,000.  Thirty  miles  from 
Manchester  is  a  third  cluster  of  towns  and 
cities,  most  of  them  engaged  in  manufacture. 
Manchester  and  Salford  have  1 1  parks,  con- 
taining 300  acres.  The  free  reference-library 
contains  over  250,000  volumes,  and  there 
are  six  branch  libraries.  Chetham  Library, 
founded  in  1653,  contains  40,000  volumes, 
many  of  them  rare  and  very  valuable.  It 
was  the  first  free  library  in  England.  The 
"  Old  Church,"  built  in  1422,  is  a  fine  Gothic 
structure.  The  magnificent  town-hall  is  a 


See    Saints- 
bury's     Man- 
chester. 
Manchester, 

the  largest 
city  of  New 
Hampshire, 
stands  mostly 
on  the  east 
bank  of  the 
Merrimac,  5  7 
miles  north- 
west of  Bos- 
ton. The  river 
falls  54  feet, 
and  affords 


water-power  to  many  factories.  Manchester 
yearly  manufactures  nearly  100,000  bales  of 
cotton-cloth.  There  also  are  woolen  goods, 
shoe,  edge-tool  and  machinery  factories  and 
carriage  works.  The  main  street  is  100  feet 
wide;  there  are  five  public  squares;  and  the 
streets  are  well-paved.  The  city  is  justly 
proud  of  its  beautiful  trees.  The  state 
reform  school  and  a  Roman  Catholic  orphan 
asylum  are  located  at  Manchester.  Population 
78,000. 

Manchester,  Va.,  a  city  in  Chesterfield 
County,  on  James  River,  opposite  Richmond 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  several  bridges 
It  is  located  in  a  coal  and  agricultural  region 
The  James  falls  about  100  feet  in  six  miles  a1 
Manchester.  This  affords  excellent  water 
power,  which  is  utilized  by  both  cities.  Th< 
manufacturing  establishments  are  cotton 


MANCHURIA 


"57 


MANGANESE 


flour  and  paper  mills,  tanneries,  woodenware 
factories,  bnck-yards,  foundries  and  the  re- 
pair-shops of  the  Southern  Railway.  The 
city  owns  and  operates  its  waterworks,  and 
has  the  service  of  three  railroads.  It  was 
annexed  to  Richmond  in  1910. 

Manchu'ria,  a  part  of  the  Chinese  Repub- 
lic which  comprises  the  northeastern  lands 
between  Mongolia  and  the  Gulf  of  Liao-tung, 
was  brought  prominently  to  the  notice  of  the 
world  by  the  Russo-Japanese  War.  Russia 
had  long  been  encroaching  upon  its  fertile 
western  plains,  and  during  the  Boxer  rebel- 
lion she  had  occupied  Manchuria  (1890). 
In  1902  Russia  agreed  that  in  18  months 
she  would  withdraw;  and  it  was  her  refusal 
to  carry  out  this  engagement  that  led  to  a 
declaration  of  war  by  Japan.  The  resources 
are  many  and  varied.  The  mountains  of 
the  eastern  half  are  interspersed  with  fertile 
valleys;  while  the  great  western  plain  pro-  . 
duces  tobacco,  indigo,  cotton,  rice,  maize, 
wheat  etc.  Bears,  tigers,  wolves,  deer  and 
many  fur-bearing  animals  dwell  in  the  woods 
and  mountains.  Iron,  coal,  silver  and  lead 
are  found  amongst  the  minerals.  Mukden, 
the  capital,  is  yielding  in  importance  to  the 
seaports,  especially  Niu-chwang,  Dalny  and 
Port  Arthur  (Japanese).  Since  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War  Manchuria  is  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Japan.  It  is  partially  traversed 
by  three  railways,  two  of  them  Russian- 
built  arid  one  Bntish-built.  The  climate  on 
the  whole  is  dry  and  temperate,  yet  subject 
to  great  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 

Mandalay  (m&n'dd-la),  the  capital  of  Up- 
per Burma,  was  founded  in  1860.  It  was 
captured  by  the  British  in  1885.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  a  square,  each  side  a  mile  long,  and 
is  surrounded  by  a  wide  moat  and  a  wall. 
The  most  famous  building  is  the  Aracan  Pa- 
goda, with  a  brazen  image  of  Buddha  visited 
by  thousands  of  pilgrims.  The  great  busi- 
ness is  silkweaving.  In  1886  a  flood  and  a 
fire  destroyed  a  tenth  of  the  city.  Popula- 
tion, with  cantonment,  138,299. 

Man'derson,  Charles  Frederick,  an 
American  soldier,  lawyer  and  politician,  was 
born  at  Philadelphia,  Feb.  9,  1837.  He  re- 
moved to  Canton,  O.,  in  1856,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1859.  In  1861  he  en- 
tered the  volunteer  army  as  a  private  and 
rose  through  successive  grades  to  the  rank 
of  brevet  brigadier-general.  He  was  in  many 
of  the  battles  of  the  west,  and  was  severely 
v/ounded  at  Lovejoy's  Station,  Ga.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  he  settled  to  practice  law  in 
r  turk  County,  O. ;  but  removed  to  Omaha, 
Neb.,  in  1869.  He  was  city-attorney  of 
Omaha  for  a  number  of  years,  and  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  senate  in  1883, 
where  he  served  until  1895,  being  president 
pro  tern,  of  the  senate  in  the  $ist  congress. 

Mandin'gos  is  the  name  given  to  a  group 
">i  West  African  negroes  who  are  estimated 
to  number  several  millions.  The  Mandingos 
appear  to  have  been  confined  at  one  time  to 


the  northern  slope  of  the  Senegambian 
plateau.  Thence  they  spread  by  conquest 
over  much  of  western  Africa,  retaining  their 
language  while  allying  themselves  to  a  large 
degree  with  the  conquered  races  by  inter- 
marriage. The  English  had  commercial 
relations  with  the  Mandingos  as  early  as 
1618.  The  French,  however,  cut  into  this 
trade  in  the  i8th  century.  The  jMandingos 
are  a  distinctly  intelligent  people,  Arabic 
in  their  civilization  and  Mohammedan 
in  their  religion.  They  have  been  con- 
cerned in  fierce  Mohammedan  crusades 
against  neighboring  tribes  of  pagans,  the 
most  remarkable  being  that  of  1862.  The 
mixture  of  non- negro  blood  in  the  Mandingos 
is  evidenced  by  the  frequent  occurrence  of 
aquiline  noses  among  them.  They  live  in 
walled  towns  built  of  baked  clay.  Some  of 
these  towns  number  as  many  as  10,000  in- 
habitants. They  have  leather,  cotton,  iron 
and  gold  manufactures;  and  carry  on  a  con- 
siderable trade  with  English  and  French 
merchants. 

Mandolin  (m&n1  do-ttri) ,  a  musical  instru- 
ment somewhat  like  the  lute.  The  body  is 
made  by  gluing  together  narrow  pieces  of 
different  kinds  of  wood.  A  sounding-board, 
finger-board  and  neck  like  a  guitar  are  added. 
The  sound  is  made  by  a  plectrum.  The  fin- 
est kind  is  the  Neapolitan  mandolin,  with 
four  double  strings. 

Manetho  (man' 'e-tho) ,  high  priest  of  Heli- 
opolis,  Egypt,  who  lived  in  the  third  cen- 
tury B.  C.  At  the  request  of  King  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus  he  wrote  a  history  of  his  coun- 
try, which,  as  shown  by  comparing  the  frag- 
ments that  remain  with  the  monuments, 
was  written  from  true  sources.  He  divided 
the  time  from  Menes  to  the  conquest  of  Egypt 
by  Cambyses  (B.  C.  525)  into  30  dynasties. 
This  division  has  been  followed  by  all  his- 
torians of  Egypt. 

Man'fred,  regent  and  king  'of  Sicily,  was 
an  illegitimate  son  of  Emperor  Frederick  II, 
and  was  born  in  1231.  At  19  he  became 
prince  of  Tarentum,  regent  in  Italy  for  his 
half-brother  Conrad  and,  later,  regent  in 
Apulia  for  his  nephew  Conradin.  He  was 
forced  by  the  pope  to  flee  to  the  Saracens, 
but,  returning,  defeated  the  papal  troops  and 
in  1257  became  master  of  Naples  and  Sicily. 
Next  year  he  was  crowned  king  at  Palermo, 
and  soon  conquered  all  Tuscany.  But 
Charles  of  Anjou.  brother  of  Louis  IX  of 
France,  claimed  Manfred's  dominions  as  a 
gift  from  the  pope,  and  at  the  bloody  battle 
of  Benevento,  in  1266,  Manfred  was  treach- 
erously slain.  His  widow  and  three  sons 
died  in  prison,  where  his  daughter  was  kept 
for  22  years.  His  history  is  a  favorite  sub- 
ject for  plays  and  operas.  See  Byron's 
Manfred. 

Manganese  (m&n'gd-ngs)  is  one  of  the 
heavy  metals.  It  is  reddish-white  in  color 
and  very  hard  and  brittle.  It  rusts  very  rap- 
idly in  the  air.  Pure  manganese  is  merely  a 


MANGO 


1158 


MANILA 


chemical  curiosity,  but  the  metal  forms  sev- 
eral important  alloys.  It  occurs  in  most 
iron-ores  and  pig-irons  to  some  extent.  A 
kind  of  pig-iron,  called  spiegeleisen,  contains 
from  12  to  20  per  cent,  of  manganese,  and  a 
metal  much  richer  in  manganese  is  called 
ferro-manganese.  These  alloys  are  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  Bessemer  steel  and  other 
kinds  of  cheap  steel,  for  without  manganese 
these  steels  could  not  be  worked.  Mangan- 
ese bronze,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  manganese, 
is  valuable  for  certain  purposes  Manganese 
occurs  chiefly  as  carbonate  and  as  the  black 
oxide.  The  latter  is  important  in  the  manu- 
facture of  chlorine  gas.  An  artificial  man- 
ganese salt,  potassium  permanganate,  is 
largely  used  in  chemical  processes.  Mangan- 
ese gives  a  violet  tint  to  glass.  Hence  small 
quantities  of  manganese  oxide  are  put  into 
glass  to  neutralize  the  green  color  produced 
by  the  iron  that  is  accidentally  present. 

Man'go,  a  fruit  of  the  genus  Mangifera, 
which  contains  27  species  of  tropical  Asiatic 
trees.  M.  Indica 
yields  the  common 
mango  and  is  cul- 
tivated through- 
out the  tropics. 
The  fruit  is  kid- 
ney-shaped, four 
'or  five  inches 
long,  with  smooth, 
pale  green  to  red- 
dish skin,  and  a 
seed  almost  as 
long  as  the  fruit, 
which  has  a  rough 
and  fibrous  shell. 
There  is  a  strong 
suggestion  of  tur- 
pentine about  the 
mango;  usually  a 
taste  for  the  fruit 
has  to  be  culti- 
vated. It  has  been 
described  as 
tasting  like  a 
"ball  of  cotton 

soaked  in  turpentine  and  molasses."  In  the 
tropics  the  mango  is  a  staple  article  of  food 
during  the  hot  months,  more  than  130  vari- 
eties being  cultivated  in  India  alone.  In 
some  of  the  poorer  varieties  the  pulp  is  full 
of  fiber.  The  mango  is  extensively  culti- 
vated in  the  West  Indies  and  more  sparsely 
in  southern  Florida  and  California.  The 
tree  is  an  evergreen,  grows  from  30  to  40  feet 
high,  and  has  a  wealth  of  foliage. 

Mangosteen  (manj gd-sten) ,  the  fruit  of  a 
species  of  Garcinia  (G.  mangostand) ,  a  native 
of  the  East  Indies.  The  mangosteen  is  one 
of  the  best,  and  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  most 
luscious,  of  tropical  fruits.  It  is  about  the 
size  and  shape  of  an  orange,  with  thicker  rind 
and  similar  pulpy  segments.  Its  rind  is 
purple  outside,  and  the  flavor  is  said  to  be 
something  between  a  grape  and  a  peach.  It 


seems  to  be  very  difficult  of  cultivation  ex- 
cept in  the  most  favored  situations.  In  the 
West  Indies  it  is  cultivated  in  Trinidad  and 
Jamaica,  but  only  in  certain  regions  of  these 
islands. 

Man'grove,  the  ordinary  name  of  species 
of  Rhizophora,  which  number  five  or  six  and 
are  widely  distributed  in  the  tropics.  The 
commonest  mangrove  is  R.  mangle,  and  this 
is  one  of  the  most  abundant  plants  of  the 
swampy  shores  of  tropical  and  subtropical 
seas.  It  is  an  important  agent  in  the  ex- 
tension of  land  into  the  sea,  by  means  of  aerial 
roots  which  are  put  out  from  the  branches 
and  dangle  in  the  wind  until  they  reach  the 
mucky  soil  beneath  the  water,  where  they 
strike  root  and  become  rigid.  The  seed  also 
germinates  while  the  fruit  is  still  upon  the 
tree,  so  that  the  young  plantlets  drop  like 
plumb-bobs  into  the  water  and  at  once  take 
root.  In  both  of  these  ways  the  mangrove 
gradually  advances  seaward,  and  the  detritus 
caught  by  the  interwoven  stems  and  roots 
presently  builds  up  land.  R.  mangle  grows 
along  the  western  and  eastern  coasts  of  Flor- 
ida, a  round-topped  bushy  tree,  the  wood 
used  for  fuel  and  wharf-piles. 

Man  hat' tan  Trade=School  for  Girls 
was  founded  in  November,  1902,  in  New  York 
City,  to  afford  industrial  education  for  girls 
from  14  years  to  17  or  18.  The  acknowl- 
edged need  of  American  industry  is  such  a 
substitute  for  the  old  plan  of  apprenticeship. 
In  Manhattan  Trade-School  instruction  is 
centered  to  a  great  degree  about  a  few  of  the 
simple  and  useful  tools,  especially  the  needle, 
foot  and  electric  power  machines,  the  brush 
and  pencil  as  used  in  drawing  and  coloring. 
About  these  tools  centers  a  great  number  of 
industrial  occupations.  Domestic  service  is 
not  taught,  because  the  field  is  not  sufficiently 
inviting  to  girls  who  possess  the  ambition 
for  advanced  industrial  education.  Health 
and  physique  are  carefully  guarded  as  indis- 
pensable to  industrial  efficiency.  There  is 
an  attempt  to  provide  a  "trade-academic 
course"  which  shall  secure  an  education  to 
girls  to  back  their  technical  training  and 
make  for  an  understanding  of  economic  con- 
ditions and  the  essential  relations  of  em- 
ployers and  employees.  Actual  orders  are 
taken  and  filled  at  market-prices.  Gradu- 
ates of  Manhattan  Trade-School  are  easily 
placed,  and  have  been  retained  when  other 
employees  are  being  retrenched.  The  school 
rapidly  outgrew  its  equipment,  and  in  1906 
removed  to  larger  premises  at  209  E.  23rd 
St.,  which  already  are  fully  crowded.  Man- 
hattan Trade-School  is  a  private  venture; 
but  it  seems  probable  that  somewhat  similar 
industrial  high-schools  will  shortly  be  pro- 
vided by  New  York  City.  Boston  has  imi- 
tated the  school  by  Boston  Trade-School, 
founded  in  1904. 

Manila  ( ma-riil'la),  capital  and  chief  town 
of  the  Philippine  Islands,  lies  on  a  bay  of  Lu- 
zon, 650  miles  southeast  of  Hong- Kong,  with 


1MANILA  HEMP 


"59 


MANITOBA 


which  it  is  joined  by  cable.  The  Pasig  River 
divides  the  city  into  two  parts.  The  great 
industry  is  cigar-making.  The  main  exports 
are  hemp,  sugar,  copra,  cigars  and  leaf  tobacco 
in  the  order  in  which  they  are  given.  Though 
the  city  is  liable  to  earthquakes  and  tropical 
hurricanes  its  commerce  is  thriving  and  the 
peculation  266,943,  of  whom  236,940  are 
natives,  16,657  Chinese,  5,471  Americans  and 


4,406  Spaniards.  Here,  on  May  i,  1898, 
during  the  Spanish- American  War,  the  Spanish 
fleet  was  destroyed  in  the  bay  by  the  American 
fleet  under  Commodore  Dewey.  At  the  end 
of  the  war  the  islands  were  ceded  to  the 
United  States  by  treaty  on  Dec.  10,  1898. 

Manil'a  Hemp.    See  ROPE. 

Ma'nioc.     See  TAPIOCA. 

Manistee  ( mtin'1s-te') ,  a  city  of  Michigan, 
is  on  Lake  Michigan,  at  the  mouth  of  Manis- 
tee River  and  135  miles  northwest  of  Lan- 
sing. It  is  the  county-seat  of  Manistee 
County,  and  has  the  service  of  three  railroads. 
It  also  is  an  important  shipping  point,  and 
has  passenger-boat  service  with  Chicago  and 
other  cities.  The  region  is  underlaid  with  a 
bed  of  salt  30  feet  thick,  and  this  gives  em- 
ployment to  a  large  number  of  people  in  10 
salt-works.  Manistee  is  noted  for  manufac- 
ture of  sawed  and  planed  lumber  and  shin- 
gles, its  production  of  the  latter  surpassing, 
as  far  as  known,  that  of  any  other  town  in  the 
world.  It  has  good  public  schools,  several 
churches  and  a  library.  Manistee  has  gas- 
works, three  foundries  and  a  public  water- 
supply.  The  town  was  incorporated  in 
1867.  Its  name  means  Spirit  of  the  Woods. 
Population  13,736. 

Manitoba  (mdn'l-to'ba)  was  called  the 
prairie-province  up  to  1906,  when  Alberta 
and  Saskatchewan,  having  received  provin- 
cial autonomy,  also  shared  the  title.  It  lies 
near  the  center  of  North  America  and  mid- 
way between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Oceans.  The  southern  boundary  is  Minne- 


sota and  North  Dakota.  The  6oth  paral- 
lel is  its  northern  boundary  and  it  embraces 
a  third  of  the  western  shore  of  Hudson's  Bay. 

Area.  In  size  it  is  larger  than  Scotland, 
Ireland  and  Wales  combined:  it  embraces 
251,000  square  miles  of  territory.  Conceive 
the  extent  of  its  rich  acres.  Placing  a  family 
of  five  on  every  half  section  of  land,  there 
is  room  for  2,000,000  of  a  farm  population. 

History.  The  first  white  settlement  (the 
Selkirk  Colony)  was  made  in  1812  on  both 
sides  of  the  Red  River  below  Winnipeg,  then 
called  Fort  Garry.  The  colonists  were 
mostly  from  Scotland,  and  many  of  their  de- 
scendants still  reside  on  the  old  homesteads. 
The  colony  remained  under  Hudson  Bay 
Company  rule  at  Fort  Garry  until  1870, 
when  the  whole  western  country,  excepting 
British  Columbia,  which  already  was  an  in- 
dependent colony,  passed  under  the  control 
of  the  British  government  by  purchase. 
The  prairie  was  at  that  time  known  as  As- 
siniboia.  The  price  paid  to  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company  to  extinguish  their  title  was 
$1,500,000,  they  retaining  two  one-mile- 
square  sections  of  land  in  each  township  of 
36  sections  (six  miles  square)  and  small 
areas  around  their  trading-posts,  about  one 
twentieth  of  the  land  all  told.  In  1870, 
when  Manitoba  was  created  a  province  and 
became  a  part  of  the  Canadian  federation, 
the  boundaries  were  much  smaller  than  the 
enlargements  of  1880  and  1912  made  them. 
Only  36  per  cent,  of  the  population  is  native 
to  the  province.  In  the  early  days  the  pop- 
ulation was  largely  French  and  French  half- 
breeds.  When  the  agricultural  possibilities 
of  the  country  became  known,  there  was  a 
large  immigration  from  the  United  States, 
Great  Britain,  central  and  northern  Europe 
and  eastern  Canada. 

Drainage.  The  fertile  belts  paralleling 
the  shores  of  Lake  Winnipeg  at  one  time,  it 
is  thought,  formed  the  bed  of  the  lake. 
(Scientists  call  it  Lake  Agassiz.)  When  the 
lake  disappeared,  it  left  deposits  of  clay  and 
silt  which  are  now  overlaid  by  two  to  four 
feet  of  black  vegetable  mould,  constituting 
the  most  magnificent  wheatlands  in  the 
known  world.  Through  this  valley  Red 
River  flows  northward  into  Lake  Winnipeg, 
which  with  Lakes  Manitoba  and  Winnipego- 
sis  on  the  west  (in  reality  parts  of  one  whole) 
finds  its  outlet  in  Hudson  Bay,  and  thus  the 
lakes  and  rivers  of  the  province  drain  the 
whole  country.  All  Manitoba  belongs  to 
the  Hudson  Bay  drainage-system.  For  this 
drainage  the  great  lakes  of  the  province  are 
the  reservoirs..  Winnipeg  River  is  some 
200  miles  long.  At  its  falls  from  Lake  of 
the  Woods  is  one  of  the  greatest  and  most 
easily  utilized  water-powers  in  the  world. 

Climate.  Unlike  some  of  the  other  prov- 
inces, Manitoba  possesses  but  little  variety 
of  climate.  There  is  much  sunlight  the  year 
through.  This  ensures  rapid  and  successful 
growth  of  vegetation.  The  autumns  ara 


MANITOULIN 


1160 


growth  of  vegetation.  The  autumns  are 
long  and  agreeable.  During  the  winter,  on 
account  of  the  dry  atmosphere,  the  low  tem- 
perature is  not  so  much  felt  as  in  countries 
with  more  moisture. 

Resources.  Agriculture  will  always  re- 
main the  chief  occupation  of  the  people. 
At  first  wheatgrowing  was  the  chief  item; 
mixed  farming  is  now  increasing;  nearly  all 
the  wheat  is  sent  to  Europe  either  in  the 
grain  or  as  flour  made  in  Canadian  mills. 
Large  flouring-mills  are  to  be  seen  every- 
where. So  thickly  are  the  railroads  inter- 
secting the  province  that  but  few  farms  are 
more  than  8  or  10  miles  distant  from  a  road. 
There  are  four  systems:  the  Canadian  Pa- 
cific, the  Canadian  Northern,  the  Great 
Northern  and  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific, 
extending  to  Prince  Rupert,  B.  C.  Winni- 
peg, Brandon  and  Portage  la  Prairie  are  the 
chief  centers  of  population.  The  province 
has  2,000,000  square  miles  of  arable  land,  but 
only  about  one  sixth  is  under  cultivation. 

Manitoba  was  the  sphere  of  the  pioneering 
efforts  in  western  Canada's  immigration.  It 
is  only  36  years  since  the  province  had  only 
17,000  inhabitants.  To-day  its  population 
is  more  than  455,000.  In  1870  its  agricul- 
tural production  found  no  place  in  the 
records.  In  1881  it  was  credited  with  pro- 
ducing 1,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  on  51,300 
acres  and  1,270,268  bushels  of  oats.  The 
acreage  under  crop  in  1902  was  3,189,015; 
2,039,940  of  which  were  in  wheat,  producing 
a  yield  of  about  53,000,000  bushels.  In 
1905  the  acreage  in  wheat  was  2,643,588. 
The  yield  was  21.07  as  a  general  average, 
making  a  total  yield  of  55,761,416  bushels. 
On  432,298  acres  there  was  a  total  crop  of 
14,064,025  bushels  of  barley.  These  crops 
made  $58,682,471  for  the  45,000  farmers  or 
over  $1,300  each  in  1905.  The  rapid  expan- 
sion of  the  province  is  mirrored  in  these 
figures.  Its  wheat-yield  for  10  years  aver- 
aged nearly  22  bushels  per  acre. 

Water  and  fuel  are  important  considera- 
tions for  the  settler.  In  Manitoba  the  coun- 
try is  everywhere  at  easy  distances  inter- 
sected by  creeks  and  rivers,  and  there  are 
many  lakes,  especially  in  the  northern  por- 
tion. Water  can  be  secured  almost  any- 
where by  sinking  wells  to  a  moderate  depth. 

Mr.  Sifton,  a  former  minister  of  the  in- 
terior, who  has  resided  many  years  in  the 
northwest,  wrote,  before  the  extension  of 
Manitoba's  boundaries  in  1912:  "In  Mani- 
toba and  the  two  new  provinces  of  Alberta 
and  Saskatchewan  there  are,  roughly  speak- 
ing, over  200,000,000  acres  known  to  be 
fit  for  cultivation,  and  the  population  at 
the  present  time  is  about  750,000  souls. 
They  last  year  cultivated  altogether  about 
5,250,000  acres.  They  produced  60,000,000 
bushels  of  wheat,  and  66,000,000  bushels  of 
other  grains.  This  year  (1905)  there  will 
be  5,750,000  acres  under  cultivation.  The 
rest  awaits  the  plough.  If  750,^00  people 


cultivating  5,250,000  acres  of  land  produce 
126,000,000  bushels  of  grain,  and  there  yet 
remain  more  than  190,000,000  acres  to  be 
brought  under  cultivation,  is  it  too  much  to 
say  that  within  a  few  years  the  grand- 
iloquent title  of  the  Granary  of  the  Empire 
will  be  more  than  realized?' 

The  coalfields  of  the  west  and  the  timbered 
districts  of  the  north  and  east,  as  well  as  the 
south,  will  supply  fuel  for  hundreds  of  years. 

Education.  There  is  but  one  school-sys- 
tem— the  public-school  system  under  which 
all  schools  are  free  to  all  children  between 
5  and  15.  High  schools  in  all  the  cities  and 
larger  towns  are  free  to  resident  pupils,  and 
in  Winnipeg  and  Brandon  there  are  colleges 
possessing  a  standing  equal  to  that  of  the  in- 
stitutions of  the  older  provinces.  Excellent 
training  is  provided  for  teachers,  and  their 
qualifications  are  of  a  high  standard.  The 
public  schools  are  maintained  largely  by 
government  appropriations,  at  present  about 
#2,000,000  yearly.  In  this  province,  as 
throughout  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta,  the 
Dominion  government  has  set  apart  two 
sections  of  land  in  each  township,  the  income 
from  which  is  applied  to  the  support  of  its 
schools,  the  remainder  of  the  funds  being 
provided  by  a  land-tax.  One  eighteenth  of 
the  land  is  set  apart  for  school  purposes. 
Private  schools,  business  colleges  and  pub- 
lic libraries  are  numerous,  as  well-equipped, 
as  those  in  similar  communities  anywhere, 
and  are  established  in  all  the  cities  and  towns 
of  importance.  With  the  splendid  public 
schools  these  offer  educational  facilities  fully 
equal  to  those  of  any  country.  In  1886  the 
number  of  schools  was  422  with  a  school- 
population  of  16,834.  In  1908  there  were 
2,014  public  schools,  with  an  attendance  of 
7 1 ,03 1 .  There  also  is  a  large  number  of  Ro- 
man Catholic  parochial  schools.  There  is  an 
experimental  farm  at  Brandon  that  is  doing 
much  to  educate  the  farming  population. 
Accurate  records  of  all  experiments  in  prac- 
tical work  are  kept,  and  the  information  is 
given  to  the  settlers  free.  There  also  are 
dairy-schools,  farmers'  institutes,  live-stock, 
fruit-growers',  agricultural  and  horticultural 
associations  that  are  doing  much  to  educate 
the  settlers,  free  of  charge,  in  all  the  most 
successful  methods  of  carrying  on  all  the 
branches  of  their  calling. 

Man'itou'Hn,  a  large  island  in  Lake 
Huron,  wholly  in  Canadian  waters.  South 
of  the  District  of  Algoma  and  northwest  of 
Georgian  Bay.  Valuable  for  its  grazing 
lands.  Not  easily  accessible  in  winter.  It 
is  about  60  miles  long  and  for  half  of  its 
length  is  15  miles  wide.  Its  largest  town  is 
Gore  Bay  (population  1,000).  The  country 
across  the  channel  to  the  north  is  rich  in 
timber  and  minerals. 

Man'towoc  (m&nri-td-w6V)t  Wis.,  the 
capital  of  Manitowoc  County,  on  the  river  of 
the  same  name,  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Michi- 
gan, 75  miles  north  of  Milwaukee.  It  has  a 


MANKATO 


1161 


MANOMETER 


good  harbor  and  a  considerable  lake- trade,  and 
is  served  by  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern 
Railroad  and  the  St.  P.  &  S.  Ste.  Marie.  It 
has  ship-yards,  tanneries,  edged  tool  and  agri- 
cultural implement  works,  aluminum  and  iron 
foundries,  machine-shops,  great  malt  houses 
and  glue-factories.  Church-furniture  is  made, 
there  are  canning  and  knitting  factories,  and 
dairying  is  important.  Manitowoc  has  a 
county  training-school  for  teachers,  a  splendid 
court-house,  fourteen  churches,  an  admirable 
school  system  and  a  Carnegie  library.  Pop- 
ulation 13,000. 

Mankato  (mdn-kd'td),  Minnesota,  county- 
seat  of  Blue  Earth  County,  is  on  Minnesota 
River,  86  miles  southwest  of  St.  Paul.  A 
state  normal  school  is  located  here,  and  there 
are  good  public  and  parochial  schools,  Lutheran 
and  Catholic  seminaries,  two  business  colleges, 
a  city  hall,  court  house,  23  churches,  a  public 
library,  5  weekly  and  3  daily  papers,  6  banks, 
and  2  hospitals.  It  manufactures  flour,  knit 
goods,  brick,  cement,  lumber,  beer,  butter, 
concrete  tiling,  engines,  trip  hammers,  road 
graders,  creamery  supplies,  shirts,  overalls, 
candy,  paper  boxes,  lime,  cigars,  incubators 
and  brooms.  Near  the  town  are  valuable 
stone-quarries.  Mankato  has  the  service  of 
4  railroads  and  is  well  supplied  with  water 
power.  Population,  14,000. 

A\ann,  Horace,  an  American  educator  and 
reformer,  was  born  at  Franklin,  Mass.,  May 
4,  1796.  He  graduated  at  Brown  Univer- 
sity in  1819,  and  began  to  study  law  As  a 
member  of  the  Massachusetts  legislature  he 
founded  the  state  lunatic  asylum.  In  1833 
he  became  president  of  the  state  senate. 
For  1 1  years  he  was  secretary  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts board  of  education.  He  subse- 
quently abandoned  politics  and  business  and 
gave  his  whole  time  to  the  cause  of  education, 
generally  working  15  hours  a  day.  He  be- 
came John  Quincy  Adams'  successor  in  Con- 
gress in  1848,  where  he  opposed  the  extension 
of  slavery.  He  was  president  of  Antioch 
College,  Ohio,  from  1853  till  his  death,  Aug. 
2,  1859.  See  his  Lifeoy  Mrs.  Mann. 

Man'na,  a  sugary  substance  obtained  from 
the  manna  ash-tree  by  making  crosscuts  into 
the  stern.  This  tree  is  grown  in  Sicily  and 
Calabria  mainly  for  its  sap,  called  manna. 
In  July  and  August  deep  cuts  are  made  near 
the  base  of  the  tree,  and,  if  the  weather  is 
warm  enough,  the  manna  begins  to  ooze  out 
of  the  cuts  slowly  and  hardens  into  lump's  of 
flakes.  Manna  is  light  and  poro'us,  in  the 
form  of  crystals,  easily  broken,  yellow  in 
color  and  with  a  sweetish,  somewhat  bitter 
taste.  There  are  several  other  manna-yield- 
ing plants  besides  the  ash,  as  the  manna- 
bearing  eucalyptus  of  Australia.  The  manna 
eaten  by  the  Hebrews  in  their  wandering  in 
the  wilderness  was  what  is  now  called  Mount 
Sinni  manna,  which  falls  to  the  ground  from 
the  branches  of  a  kind  of  tamarisk.  It  oozes 
put  through  holes  made  in  the  bark  by  little 
insects.  It  is  rtrt  true  afaataa,  but  i8  a  kind 


of  reddish,  sticky  syrup,  and  is  eaten  by  the 
monks  of  Mount  Sinai  like  honey  with  their 
bread. 

Man'ning    (Henry   Edward),    Cardinal, 

was  born  July  15,  1808,  at  Totteridge,  Hert- 
fordshire, England.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  and  soon  came  to  the  front  as  an  elo- 
quent preacher  and  leader  in  the  English 
church.  In  1851  he  joined  the  Roman 
church.  He  studied  for  a  time  at  Rome, 
was  made  provost  and  then  archbishop  of 
Westminster.  In  the  Vatican  Council  (1870) 
Manning  favored  the  doctrine  of  the  pope's 
infallibility,  which  was  then  declared.  He 
was  made  cardinal  in  1875.  Besides  being 
foremost  in  most  Roman  Catholic  movements 
in  England,  he  took  part  in  many  good  works 
for  bettering  the  social  life,  as  the  temper- 
ance movement,  housing  the  poor,  education 
and  the  rights  of  workingmen.  A  great 
churchman  and  a  reformer,  he  also  was  an 
accomplished  man  of  the  world  and  scholar. 
Among  his  writings  are  Characteristics,  The 
Catholic  Church  and  Modern  Society,  Four 
Great  Evils  of  the  Day,  Temporal  Power  of  tlte 
Pope  and  England  and  Christendom.  Cardi- 
nal Manning  died  at  Westminster,  Jan.  14, 
1892. 

Manometer  (md-nom'&-ter),  an  instru- 
ment for  measuring  fluid-pressures.  There 
are  three  principal  types  of  manometers. 
The  simplest  type  is  merely  a  U-tube,  par- 
tially filled  with  mercury  and  open  at  both 
ends.  If,  now,  one  arm  of  the  U-tube  be 
connected  with  the  vessel  in  which  the  pres- 
sure is  to  be  measured,  the  level  of  the  mer- 
cury' in  the  other  arm  will  change;  and 
the  difference  of 
level  between  the 
two  arms  plus  the 
barometric  height 
will  give  the  pies- 
sure  in  the  vessel. 
Water  is  sometimes 
used  instead  of  mer- 
cury. This  kind  of 
manometer  is  shown 
in  Fig.  i.  The  sec- 
ond type  of  manom- 
eter is  one  in  which 
a  U-tube  is  also  em- 
ployed —  but  a  U- 
tutfe  with  one  end 

sealed  off  and  inclosing  a  definite  amount  of 
gas.  The  open  end  being  connected  with 
the  vessel  in  which  the  pressure  is  to  be  meas- 
ured, the  volume  of  the  gas  inclosed  in  the 
other  end  is  changed.  By  use  of  Boyle's  law 
the  pressure  may  be  computed  as  soon  as  the 
volume  of  the  inclosed  gas  is  known.  Lord 
Kelvin's  deep-sea  sounding  apparatus  is 
merely  a  manometer  of  this  type,  by  which 
the  pressure  at  any  point  in  the  sea  is  meas- 
ured. From  this  pressure  the  depth  of  the 
sea  is  computed.  A  third  type  of  manom- 
eter is  the  one  commonly  employed  on  Stteam- 
boitert  add  kridwn  ag  3  j0r>etostM?-g»«fc<7;  This 


FK>.  I 


MANOMETRIC  FLAME 


Il62 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


device  consists  of  a  flattened  and  curved  me- 
tallic tube  which  changes  shape  as  the  differ- 
ence of  pressure  between  the  inside  and  out- 
side is  changed.  It  was  invented  by  Bour- 
don, and  is  frequently  called  a  Bourdon 
gauge.  (See  BAROMETER.)  One  end  of  this 
gauge  is  fixed,  while  the  other  is  free  to  move 
an  index  which  shows  the  pressure  on  a  grad- 
uated dial. 

Manometric  (man'd-met'rik}  Flame,  an  in- 
strument for  exhibiting  to  the  eye  the  dis- 
turbances which 
a  sound  pro- 
duces in  the  air, 
was  invented 
,  and  perfected 
by  Rudolph 
Kanig  of  Paris. 
In  the  figure,  R 
and  S  represent 

MANOMETRIC  FLAME  tWO     blocks     of 

wood  which  have  been  bored  out.  A  dia- 
phragm of  goldbeater's  skin  is  clamped  be- 
tween these  two  blocks  and  divides  the  ap- 
paratus into  parts.  Illuminating  gas  is  ad- 
mitted to  the  left-hand  side  of  the  apparatus, 
as  indicated  by  the  arrows,  and  burns  with  a 
quiet  flame  so  long  as  the  diaphragm  is  undis- 
turbed. If,  however,  the  air  on  the  right  of 
the  diaphragm  is  suddenly  compressed,  the 
flame  will  flare;  and  if  this  air  is  suddenly 
rarefied,  the  flame  will  for  an  instant  burn 
low.  The  effect  of  a  sound-wave  striking 
this  diaphragm  is  then  to  drive  it  alternately 
forward  and  backward,  making  the  flame 
pulsate  These  acoustical  disturbances  are, 
however,  so  rapid  that  the  changes  in  the 
height  of  the  flame  are  not  easily  seen.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  flame  is  generally  observed  in 
a  rotating  mirror,  which  serves  to  separate 
the  images  of  the  flame  at  successive  in- 
stants. In  practice  the  block,  S,  is  gener- 
ally provided  with  a  mouthpiece  or  with  a 
tube  to  lead  the  sound  up  to  the  diaphragm, 
M.  This  instrument  is  used  to  exhibit,  in 
the  most  beautiful  manner,  the  qualities  of 
various  sounds,  as,  for  instance,  the  differ- 
ence in  the  various  vowels  pronounced  by  the 
same  voice. 

Mans'field,  a  city,  county-seat  of  Rich- 
land  County,  in  the  central  part  of  Ohio,  65 
miles  northeast  of  Columbus.  It  -is  situated 
in  the  midst  of  a  fine  farming-country,  on  an 
elevated  site.  It  has  a  large  trade,  and  man- 
ufactures threshing  machines,  steel  harrows, 
electrical  supplies,  stpves,  brass  goods, 
pumps,  agricultural  machinery,  wagons, 
webbings,  suspenders,  cigars,  boilers,  car- 
riages and  flour.  It  was  the  home  of  Senator 
Sherman.  The  chief  buildings  are  the  Public 
Library,  Children's  Home,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  and 
Ohio  Reformatory.  Mansfield  has  many 
churches,  several  public-school  buildings  and 
two  business-colleges,  and  is  justly  proud 
of  her  school-system  Population  20,768. 

Mansfield,  Richard,  an  actor,  was  born 
on  Heligoland,  May  24, -185  7.  He  first  ap- 


peared as  a  musician  in  Liverpool  in  1877, 
and  for  some  years  after  that  was  seen  only 
in  small  parts  in  comic  operas.  His  first 
marked  success  was  achieved  in  New  York 
at  the  Union  Square  theater  in  January, 
1883,  as  the  Baron  de  Chevreul  in  a  Parisian 
romance.  Three  years  later  he  appeared 
as  a  star  in  Prince  Karl.  Later  he  gained  a 
high  position  as  an  actor,  managing  a  com- 
pany of  his  own  and  appearing  in  a  wide 
variety  of  plays.  Among  his  successful  r61es 
were  Dr.  Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde,  Cyrano  de 
Bergerac,  Shylock,  Henry  V  and  Brutus. 
He  died  on  Aug.  30,  1907. 

Manteuffel  (mdn'toif-fel),^  Edwin  Hans 
Karl,  FREIHERR  VON,  a  Prussian  general,  was 
born  at  Dresden,  Feb.  24,  1809.  He  entered 
the  army  in  1827  and  became  head  of  the 
military  bureau  at  Berlin  in  1857.  As  com- 
mander of  the  first  army  he  fought  success- 
fully at  Amiens  and  other  places  in  the 
Franco- Prussian  War.  In  1 87 1  Manteuffel  at- 
tacked the  French  near  Belfprt  and  drove 
80,000  men  across  the  frontier  into  Switz- 
erland. In  1879  he  was  made  viceroy  of  the 
conquered  provinces  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine . 
He  died  at  Karlsbad,  Bohemia,  June  17, 1885. 

Mantua  (man'tu-d),  a  fortified  city  of 
northern  Italy,  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
duchy,  is  on  two  islands  formed  by  the  Min- 
cio.  The  surrounding  marshy  district  and 
its  fortifications  perhaps  make  it  the  strongest 
fortress  in  Italy.  It  has  broad  streets  and 
many  open  squares.  The  fortress  of  the  Gon- 
zagas,  adorned  with  paintings  by  Mantegna, 
the  cathedral  of  SanPietroand  the  church  of 
San  Andrea  are  its  chief  buildings  of  interest. 
Vergil  was  born  at  a  suburb  of  Mantua.  Man- 
tua first  was  an  Etruscan  town,  then  it  be- 
longed to  the  Romans,  Ostrogoths  and  Lom- 
bards. The  Gonzaga  family  became  its 
rulers  in  1328,  and  raised  the  city  to  its 
height  of  splendor  and  renown.  Mantua 
became  a  part  of  Austria  in  1708,  which  held 
it  till  1866,  except  for  two  short  periods 
when  it  was  in  the  possession  of  France.  In 
the  latter  year  it  was  ceded  to  Italy.  The 
city  has  had  three  great  sieges — by  Emperor 
Ferdinand  II  in  1630,  the  French  in  1797 
and  the  Austrians  in  1799.  Population  29,- 
142. 

Man'ual  Training  in  Public  Schools. 
In  1868  Victor  Delia  Vos,  director  of  the  Im- 
perial Technical  School  for  government  en- 
gineers  at  St.  Petersburg,  conceived  the  plan 
of  teaching  certain  kinds  of  tool-work  by 
means  of  models  and  drawings  and  practice 
exercises,  before  any  attempt  should  be  made 
at  the  execution  of  trade-work.  The  exhibi- 
tion made  by  his  school  at  the  Centennial 
Exposition  in  Philadelphia  (1876)  directed 
the  attention  of  American  educators  to  a  sys- 
tem which,  it  was  felt,  could  be  made  of  ines- 
timable value  to  the  young,  many  of  whom 
remained  in  school  only  long  enough  to 
conceive  a  distaste  for  manual  labor,  but  not 
long  enough  to  acquire  professional  culture. 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


Zl63 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


It  was  believed  that  these  experiments 
opened  the  door  to  an  education  which  com- 
bined the  intellectual  and  physical;  that 
both  mind  and  body  might  be  disciplined 
by  processes  which  broadened  the  man,  fit- 
ting him  to  become  a  useful  member  to  the 
community  and  also  a  producer  of  we_alth. 
It  was  maintained  that  observation,  judg- 
ment and  induction  could  be  cultivated,  net 
only  in  schools  of  philosophy  and  science  but 
in  schools  of  trade  and  technology.  Con- 
sidering that  only  about  one  sixth  of  the  pu- 
pils entering  the  ordinary  high  school  com- 
plete the  course  and  that  most  of  those  pass- 
ing through  the  grammar  school  do  not  enter 
the  high  school  at  all,  it  seemed  that  some 
course  should  be  adopted  which  would  retain 
the  majority  of  young  people  by  a  combina- 
tion of  intellectual  studies  with  those  having 
an  economic  aspect.  The  result  of  attempt- 
ing two  such  diverse  ends  has  naturally 
given  rise  to  rival  schools,  in  one  of  which 
the  intellectual  aim  prevails,  in  the  other  the 
economic  purpose.  Those  private  institu- 
tions which  perhaps  are  best  known  are  the 
schools  connected  with  the  Drexel  Institute, 
Philadelphia;  Washington  University,  St. 
Louis;  Armorr  Institute,  Chicago;  and  that 
under  the  care  of  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  Boston.  The  curriculum  most 
favored  in  these  institutions  embraces  (in 
mathematics)  algebra,  trigonometry,  astron- 
omy and  mechanics;  (in  science)  botany, 
chemistry  and  physics,  with  elementary  les- 
sons in  biology  and  geology.  Composition 
and  rhetoric  are  not  neglected,  and  in  some 
schools  excellent  instruction  is  given  in  Latin 
and  in  modern  languages.  As  specially  dis- 
tinctive of  these  schools,  however,  marked 
attention  is  paid  to  drawing,  clay-modeling, 
tinting,  joinery,  wood-carving,  forging  and 
founding. 

In  the  public  schools  the  introduction  of 
manual  training  has  met  with  wide  approval, 
until  it  has  become  a  part  of  the  curriculum 
both  in  grade  and  high  schools.  In  these 
schools  manual  training  includes  the  school- 
arts  of  writing,  stick-laying,  drawing,  wood- 
working, clay-modeling,  wood -carving,  sew- 
ing, weaving,  painting  etc.  The  handling  of 
simple  tools  at  home,  as  the  knife,  the  pencil, 
the  pen,  the  needle,  the  scissors,  the  hammer, 
anticipates  the  use  of  similar  tools  in  the 
schoolroom  and  helps  the  child  in  the  devel- 
opment of  motor-control  as  well  as  of  man- 
ual skill;  in  fact,  there  is  hardly  anything 
that  he  does  at  his  games  or  his  work  which 
does  not  serve  a  similar  purpose.  The 
course  of  study  in  every  well-organized 
school  gives  a  prominent  place  to  some  of 
the  other  school-arts  as  well  as  to  writing. 
Their  place  in  the  education  of  the  child  is 
being  recognized  more  generally  in  all  ad- 
vanced systems  of  ed  ucation  than  ever  before. 
Not  only  do  they  develop  motor-control  and 
skill  in  doing  things,  but  each  act  reacts  up- 
on the  apperceptive  activities,  building  up 


clearer  notions  and  more  positive  definition?. 
So  generally  is  this  fact  realized  that  thinking 
and  doing  have  become  indissolubly  united 
in  scientific  pedagogical  conceptions.  Ev- 
erybody has  noticed,  how  quickly  a  little 
effort  at  making  a  picture  or  a  model  of  a 
thing  helps  him  to  discover  its  essential  ele- 
ments and  fix  them  in  his  mind.  Give  a 
child  a  pair  of  scissors  and  set  him  to  work 
at  cutting  out  paper-pictures  and  then  at  cut- 
ting out  forms  in  imitation  of  leaves,  trian- 
gles, squares,  and  note  how  it  helps  him  to 
clarify  his  notions  of  their  shapes,  sizes  and 
margins.  Add  to  the  above  a  little  exercise 
in  drawing  them;  then  let  him  lay  them  out 
with  splints,  or  sew  them  on  cardboard ;  then 
model  them  in  clay  or  soap;  then  let  him 
paint  them  in  water-colors.  Test  him  on  his 
ability  to  describe  or  to  recognize  them;  and 
his  growth  will  be  the  best  argument  for  their 
use.  What  is  true  in  the  simple  forms  is 
even  more  true  in  the  complex,  thus  on  the 
purely  intellectual  side  supporting  the  sys- 
tematic arrangement  of  a  variety  of  manual 
training  exercises  through  the  grades  and 
into  the  high  school. 

The  value  of  manual  training  on  the  art- 
istic side  is  clearly  enough  seen  in  its  ability 
to  hasten  the  attainment  of  physical  control 
and  skill  in  mechanical  execution.  The  aver- 
age man  or  woman,  on  entering  some  indus- 
trial occupation,  finds  himself  greatly  handi- 
capped by  the  lack  of  manual  dexterity 
which  should  have  been  attained  in  child- 
hood and  youth,  the  only  time  when  it  can 
be  attained  with  economy.  Expert  lace- 
makers,  jewelers,  engravers,  seamstresses, 
pianists  and  violinists,  decorators  and  de- 
signers, penmen  and  weavers  are  not  the  only 
people  who  need  nimble  fingers  and  well- 
trained  hands  for  their  daily  work.  They 
are  demanded  in  every  walk  in  life,  and  all 
systems  of  education  should  provide  for  their 
development. 

The  expense  in  the  elementary  grades  for 
the  materials  for  each  of  the  arts  named  is 
not  much  more  than  for  the  materials  for 
writing,  and  is  not  burdensome  in  the  higher 
grades.  For  an  inexpensive  little  book  by 
Abbott  on  Manual  Training  in  the  Grades, 
from  which  illustrations  are  taken,  address 
F.  B.  Abbott,  publisher,  Emporia,  Kan.  For 
more  elaborate  treatises  on  the  whole  sub- 
ject see  Tadd's  New  Method  in  Education, 
Love's  Industrial  Education  and  Goetz's 
Hand  and  Eye  Training. 

The  following  brief  teacher's  working  out- 
line in  manual  training  for  the  first  grade,  ex- 
clusive of  penmanship  and  drawing  proper, 
will  furnish  a  fair  view  of  the  work  now  being 
done  in  the  best  schools.  Some  phases  are 
necessarily  omitted  on  account  of  lack  of 
space. 

The  materials  needed  are  splints  for  stick- 
laying,  wire  half-circles,  coated  paper-squares 
of  the  six  elementary  colors,  a  few  sheets  of 
common  cardboard,  a  few  pounds  of  well- 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


1164 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


ground  clay,  a  pair  of  scissors,  a  few  skeins  of 
colored  worsted,  a  few  skeins  of  carpet-yarn 
for  weaving  mats,  a  few  sheets  of  perforated 
figure-papers,  a  few  pounds  of  raffia  for  weav- 
ing baskets,  a  paper  of  large  needles  and  six 
weaving-needles. 

The  object  of  stick-laying  is  to  teach  spac- 
ing, design,  arrangement  and  orderliness. 
The  paper-folding  gives  practice  in  the  sim- 
plest hand-movements  and  in  the  use  of  the 
inch-measurement.  Tracing  on  the  back  of 
the  colored  papers  over  the  creases  gives  prac- 
tice in  precision  and  accuracy.  Working 
out  figures  with  worsted  in  perforated  paper 
helps  to  fix  forms  and  co-ordinates  eye-pic- 
tures and  finger-movements.  Clay-model- 
ing develops  the  idea  of  form  and  cultivates 
the  sense  of  touch.  The  weaving  serves 
many  of  these  purposes  and  in  the  succeed- 
ing grades  makes  an  excellent  introduction 
to  industrial  occupations. 

The  course  is  arranged  for  two  15 -minute 
periods  per  week;  one  in  clay- modeling  and 
one  in  stick-laying  or  paper-folding. 

The  work  is  planned  for  23  weeks;  the  num- 
bers refer  to  the  number  of  week,  and  the 
letter  to  the  lesson. 

1.  (a)  After  conversation  on  the  sphere, 
model  the  sphere,  using  fingers  only. 

(0)  Measure  side  of  tour-inch  red  square. 

2.  (a)  Model  a  spherical  object. 

(6)  Lay  red  sticks  to  form  a  border  illus- 
trating repetition. 

3.  (a)  Model  a  spherical  object. 

(0)  Measure  side  of  four-inch  orange 
square.  Fold,  making  a  diameter.  Teach 
diameter.  Measure  distance  from  end  of  di- 
ameter to  corner.  Fold,  forming  a  diameter 
at  right  angles  to  the  first  diameter.  Trace 
on  the  back  of  paper  over  the  creases,  making 
a  cross. 

4.  (a)  Model  a  cube. 

(b)  Lay  orange-colored  sticks  to  illustrate 
repetition  of  twos. 

5.  (a)  Model  a  cubical  object. 

(o)  Fold  a  four-inch  yellow  square  so  as  to 
form  1 6  one-inch  squares.  Measure  the 
squares.  Trace  on  back  of  paper  over  the 
creases. 

6.  (cf)  Model  a  cubical  object. 

(0)  Lay  yellow  sticks  illustrating  the  rep- 
etition by  threes. 

7'.  (d)  Model  an  isometric  cylinder. 

(6)  Fold  a  green  square  to  form  a  diagonal. 
Fold  to  form  a  diagonal  at  right  angles  to  the 
first.  Make  six  folds  parallel  to  one  of  the 
diagonals,  making  equal  spaces.  Trace  on 
the  back  of  paper  over  the  creases. 

8.  (a)  Model  an  isometric  cylindrical  ob- 
ject. 

(6)  Lay  green  sticks  to  illustrate  alterna- 
tion. 

9.  (a)  Model  an  isometric  cylindrical  ob- 
ject. 

(6)  Fold  blue  square  same  as  in  les  on 
7(6)  and  in  addition  fold  six  creases  parallel 
to  thfe  other  diagonal,  thus  fornriEfg  Small 


squares.  Trace  over  some  of  the  creases  to 
make  a  design,  which  shall  be  symmetrical. 

10.  (a)   Model  a  cylindrical  object  with 
rounded  ends. 

(o)  Lay  blue  sticks  to  illustrate  oblique 
alternation. 

11.  (a)  Model  an  object  like  cylinder. 
(0)   Fold  a  violet  square  as  in  lesson  9(6) 

and  trace  pin-wheel  design  on  creases. 

12.  (o)   Model  an  object  like  cylinder. 

(0)  Lay  violet  sticks  in  design  as  a  modi- 
fication of  10(6). 

13.  (a)  Model  a  sphere  and  bisect  it  with 
a  string. 

(6)  Fold  red  square  as  9(6)  and  trace  sym- 
metrical design  on  creases. 

14.  (a)  Model  a  hemispherical  object. 
(b)  Lay  red  sticks  to  form  a  Greek  border, 
1 5. (a)  Model  a  hemispherical  object. 

(o)  Fold  a  diameter  in  an  orange  square. 
Make  six  folds  parallel  to  the  first  diameter 
Form  the  same  number  of  folds  at  right  angles 
to  the  first  set,  thus  making  64  quarter-inch 
squares.  Draw  a  symmetrical  design  by 
tracing  over  the  creases. 

1 6.  (a)  Model  a  square  prism  and  bisect 
across  corners,  forming  a  triangular  prism. 

(o)  Lay  orange  sticks  to  illustrate  alterna- 
tion. 

17.  (a)  Model  a  square  prismatic  object. 
(0)   Fold  a  diagonal  in  a  yellow  square  and 

also  seven  creases  parallel  to  it.  Fold  a  set 
at  right  angles  to  the  first.  Draw  symmetri- 
cal design  on  creases. 

1 8.  (a)  Model  a  triangular  prismatic  ob- 
ject. 

(6)  Form  a  flag  with  three  yellow  sticks. 

19.  (a)  Model  a  cylinder  and  bisect  it. 
(0)   Draw  the  diameters  and  diagonals  on 

the  back  cf  a  blue  square.  Connect  the  end 
of  the  diameters  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a 
square.  Cut  on  the  lines  with  scissors,  mak- 
ing 1 6  right-angled  triangles. 

20.  (a)  Model    a   hemicylindrical  object. 
(0)  Make  two  borders  using  eight  triangles 

of  lesson  19(0)  and  blue  sticks.  These  may 
be  mounted. 

21.  (a)  Model  a    hemicylindrical    object, 
(o)   Draw  on  back  of  blue  square  two  sets 

of  parallel  lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
forming  -6  one-inch  squares.  Cut  with 
scissors. 

22.  (a)  Model  cylinder  with  rounded  ends. 
Bisect  it. 

(b)  Arrange  seven  squares  of  lesson  21(0) 
in  borders. 

23.  (a)  Model    a   hemicylindrical  object, 
(o)  Make  a,  design  of  blue  triangles  —  of 

lesson  19(0)  — and  blue  squares  —  of  lesson 
21(0). 

The  knife  and  a  few  other  simple  tools  are 
introduced  as  the  work  advances,  and  habits 
of  originality,  accuracy,  precision  and  speed 
are  inculcated  throughout  the  course.  The 
views  of  specimens  of  work  done  in  grades 
seven  and  eight  show  how  the  skill  of  thfe 
pupil  develops  tkfbu'gli  the  -•••— 


MANUEL  II 


1165 


MAP 


All  of  the  work  for  the  grades  can  be  done 
on  the  ordinary  school-desks,  though,  as  a 
few  heavier  tools  may  be  introduced  in  the 
seventh  grade,  benches  will  then  be  needed. 
In  the  high  school  the  work  properly  differ- 
entiates into  certain  specific  lines  for  the 
boys  and  for  the  girls.  Work-benches,  full 
sets  of  tools,  lathes,  scroll-saws  etc.  are 
needed  for  the  heavier  work  for  the  former; 
sewing-  tables  or  kitchen  furniture,  depending 
upon  the  direction  the  instruction  takes,  for 
the  latter.  Tables  and  tools  in  common  can 
t>e  used  for  clay-modeling,  bent-iron  work, 
\\  ood-carving  etc. 

Ma'nuel  (ma'noo-af)  II  formerly  King  of 
Portugal  was  born  on  November  isth,  1889, 
and  became  king  on  February  ist,  1908,  in 
consequence  of  the  assassination  of  the  king 
and  the  crown-prince.  The  country  was 
deeply  in  debt,  and  popular  discontent  re- 
sulted in  a  revolution,  beginning  October  5, 
1910.  Manuel  fled  the  country,  a  republic 
was  organized,  and  a  decree  of  banishment 
passed  against  the  royal  family.  The  first 
elections  were  held  May  28,  1911,  the  assembly 
opened  June  19,  and  on  the  same  day  was 
officially  recognized  by  the  United  States. 
Legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a  national 
Council  and  an  upper  House. 

Manures'  either  are  stable-manures  or 
green-crop  manures,  i.e.,  crops  not  har- 
vested but  plowed  under.  "Compost" 
sometimes  refers  to  stable-manure  in  the 
pile,  and  sometimes  to  other  farm-litter, 
as  leaves,  straw,  swamp-muck  and  road- 
dust  piled  up  to  undergo  a  rotting  process. 
Stable-manure  is  a  "complete"  fertilizer, 
i.e.,  it  contains  all  the  elements  needed  by 
plants.  (See  FERTILIZERS.)  It  is  worth 
trom  $2.50  to  $4.25  a  ton,  as  reckoned  by 
the  market- value  of  its  10  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen, 10  of  potash  and  5  of  phosphoric  acid. 
Mature  animals  return  nearly  all  the  fertil- 
izing elements  of  their  food,  and  the  com- 
puted value  of  the  waste  is  often  nearly 
half  the  cost  of  the  food  (Roberts).  But 
its  chief  value  is  in  its  effect  on  the  physical 
nature  of  the  soil,  for  its  decay  adds  humus. 
This  makes  clay  lighter,  giving  it  greater 
water-capacity  and  better  ventilation,  and 
makes  sand  more  retentive  of  water.  The 
decay  also  brings  about  beneficial  chemical 
changes  in  the  minerals  of  the  soil.  Careful 
observations  show  that  the  exposed  manure 
loses  most  of  its  valuable  plant-foods  by 
leaching  and  that  horse-manure  loses  in 
value  over  $i  a  ton  during  the  summer 
through  heating  and  fermentation.  Stable- 
manure  should  be  kept  protected  from 
rain  till  spread  on  the  field.  Plenty  of 
litter  or  b'edding  should  absorb  valuable, 
liquid  plant-food.  Mixing  the  drier  horse- 
manure  with  the  colder  manures  of  other 
stock  will  lessen  the  loss  referred  tc.  Green 
m inuring  crops  are  used  to  return  to  the 
soil  not  only  the  food  taken  from  the  top 
soil,  but  that  taken  from  the  deeper  soil 


by  the  roots,  with  the  added  advantage 
of  adding  humus.  Green  manuring  crops 
are  most  economically  managed  when 
worked  in  between  other  crops,  as  in  the 
late  summer  and  fall.  The  leguminous 
plants,  being  nitrogen-gathering  (q.v.),  have 
the  double  value  of  being  deep-rooted  and 
of  adding  nitrogen  from  the  air.  The  mos' 
generally  used  nonleguminous  crops  io' 
green  manuring  are  rye,  a  winter  crop  and 
buckwheat,  as  both  can  use  plant-food  too 
tough  for  many  crops,  and  so  make  "t 
usable;  wheat,  oats  and  rape  are  also  used. 
The  clovers,  especially  red  clover,  are  the 
most  widely  used  plants  for  this  purpose 
in  the  United  States,  while  the  cowpea 
(q.v.)  is  the  most  important  in  the  south, 
being  often  planted  after  oats  are  har- 
vested in  the  spring  and  in  between  the 
cotton-rows.  See  Bulletins  of  the  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agriculture  and  of  state  experi- 
ment-stations. 

Man  without  a  Country,  The,  a  story 
published  in  TJte  Atlantic  Monthly,  Decem- 
ber, 1863,  is  a  powerful  story  by  Edward 
Everett  Hale.  Philip  Nolan  had  been  "as 
fine  a  young  officer  as  there  was  in  the 
Legion  of  the  West,  as  the  western  division 
of  our  army  was  then  called."  But  he  was 
fascinated  by  Aaron  Burr,  involved  in  his 
treason,  and  tried.  In  a  frenzy  he  cursed 
the  United  States  in  open  court,  wishing 
that  he  might  never  hear  the  name  again. 
From  this  time  forth  Nolan  was  a  man 
without  a  country,  for  the  sentence  of  the 
court  was  that  he  never  should  hear  the 
name  United  States  more.  He  was  sent 
upon  long  cruises,  and  during  20  long  years 
never  got  within  a  hundred  miles  of  his 
country.  At  first  he  is  said  to  have  shown 
some  braggadocio;  but  he  died  repentant 
enough,  leaving  this  epitaph  for  himself: 
"  He  loved  his  country  as  no  other  man 
has  loved  her ;  but  no  man  deserved  less  at 
her  hands." 

Manzoni  (mdn-zo'ne),  Alessandro,  a  great 
Italian  novelist  and  poet  of  the  romantic 
school,  was  born  at  Milan,  March  7,  1785, 
of  a  noble  family.  He  published  his  first 
poems  in  1806;  sacred  lyrics  and  two  trag- 
edies, one  highly  praised  by  Goethe,  fol- 
lowed; but  the  work  which  gavie  Manzoni 
European  fame  Was  his  historical  novel,  / 
Promcssi  Sposi  or  The  Betrothed  Lovers,  a 
Milanese  story  of  the  i?th  century,  power- 
ful and  interesting  from  its  sketches  o£ 
Italian  life  and  customs  and,  especially, 
for  the  account  of  the  plague  in  Milan.  His 
famous  ode  of  II  Cinque  Maggio  or  The 
Five  Great  Ones  was  inspired  by  the 
death  of  Napoleon.  He  died  at  Milan 
on  May  22,  1873. 

Map,  a  drawing  on  a  plane  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth.  As  the  earth  is  a  sphere, 
it  cannot  be  exactly  represented  on  a  plane 
or  level  surface,  and  various  methods  have 
been  adopterd  to  do  away  with  the  diffi- 


MAPLE 


1166 


MAPLB 


culty.  The  arrangement  of  the  lines  of 
latitude  and  longitude  in  circles  is  the  most 
common  way,  and  answers  the  purpose 
fairly  well.  The  lines  of  latitude  are  num- 
bered north  and  south  from  the  equator, 
and  the  longitude  east  or  west  of  a  given 
line,  usually  either  Greenwich,  England,  or 
Washington  in  the  United  States.  This 
serves  to  indicate  the  position  of  a  country. 
Maps  are  made  on  a  certain  scale;  as,  one 
inch  of  the  map  may  represent  one  mile  of 
of  the  country.  Different  colors  are  used 
to  mark  different  countries,  and  water, 
mountains,  high  plains  and  other  physical 
features  are  also  often  indicated  in  the 
same  way.  The  art  of  making  maps  is 
ancient,  the  Egyptians  having  made  some 
rude  attempts,  though  the  Greeks  cons;der 
Anaximander  (560  B.  C.)  as  the  pioneer 
map-maker.  In  the  i  sth  century  the  revival 
of  Ptolemy's  teachings  made  a  cha.  ge  in 
the  charts  made;  M creator  and  others 
among  Italians  and  Germans  made  valuable 
contributions  in  the  i6th  century;  and 
Sebastian  Cabot  made  his  map  of  the  world 
in  1544.  A  topographical  map  represents 
the  details  of  a  country  very  minutely,  as 
the  mountains,  hills,  rivers  and  plains.  A 
hydrographical  map  is  one  representing  the 
waters  of  the  world,  as  oceans,  seas,  bays, 
with  their  coasts. 

Ma'ple,  a  species  of  the  genus  Acer,  being 
mostly  trees  well-known  by  their  palmately 
lobed  leaves  and  winged  fruits.  The  genus 
contains  about  100  species,  and  is  distributed 
throughout  the  temperate  regions  of  the 
northern  hemisphere.  They  are  among  the 
most  prized  of  trees  for  park  and  street 

Planting,  and  nearly  all  of  them  become 
nely  colored  in  autumn.  The  autumn 
colorings  of  the  red,  sugar  and  silver  maple 
are  especially  brilliant,  their  red  and  yellow 
and  orange  of  purest  tones.  Among  the 
numerous  well-known  species  are  A.  sac- 
charum,  which  produces  the  maple-sugar 
and  perhaps  is  the  best  and  most  popular 
of  the  maples  for  shade;  and  A.  sacchannum, 
the  silver  maple,  with  numerous  varieties, 
is  a  quick-growing  tree.  Other  prized  forms 
are  the  red  or  scarlet  maple  (A.  rtibrum), 
which  is  common  for  street  and  park  plant- 
ing; black  maple  (A.  nigrum);  Norway 
maple  (A  platanoides) ,  resembling  the  sugar- 
maple  somewhat  and  occurring  in  numerous 
garden  forms;  the  box-elder  (A.  negundo), 
which  is  much  used  in  the  west.  The  sugar, 
hard  or  rock  maple  is  a  very  beautiful  and 
a  very  useful  tree;  tall  and  splendid,  yield- 
ing the  highly  prized  maple-sap,  and  its 
wood  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  maples. 
It  grows  from  50  to  120  feet  high,  its  form 
is  dome-like,  its  leaves  are  smooth,  dark 
green  and  very  glossy.  In  autumn  the 
leaves  turn  a  clear,  light,  yellow,  light  red 
or  orange,  the  individual  tree  appearing  to 
keep  year  after  year  to  almost  exactly  the 
•same  shade  as  the'  season  before.  In  the 


spring  flowers  appear  with  the  leaves, 
greenish-yellow  blossoms  hanging  in  droop- 
ing clusters.  The  samara  or  key-fruit  also 
is  greenish-yellow  and  droops  from  a  branch. 
The  bark  of  old  trees  is  a  dark  gray-brown 
and  is  deeply  furrowed;  that  of  young  trees, 
smooth.  The  wood  is  extremely  hard  and 
strong,  in  color  reddish  brown,  takes  a 
high  polish,  is  extensively  used  for  furni- 
ture and  employed  for  shoe-lasts  and  pegs. 
(The  bird's  eye  and  curled  maple  are  due 
to  peculiar  conditions  of  the  wood,  undula- 
tions of  the  fiber).  In  earliest  spring  the 
sap  begins  to  flow,  and  flows  for  about 
three  weeks;  a  tree  of  average  size  will 
yield  annually  from  four  to  eight  pounds 
of  sugar.  The  range  of  the  sugar-maple 
is  wide;  it  is  highly  valued  as  a  shade  and 
ornamental  tree. 

The  silver,  white  or  soft  maple  is  of 
rapid  growth  and  much  beauty,  widely 
planted  as  an  ornamental  tree.  Its  average 
height  is  about  50  feet,  but  it  sometimes 
attains  120  feet.  Its  branches  are  long 
and  inclined  to  drooping,  its  lustrous  leaves 
are  pale  green  above  and  silvery  white 
underneath.  It  thrives  along  river-banks, 
is  found  from  Maine  to  Florida  and  west 
to  the  Dakotas  and  Indian  Territory. 

The  red  or  scarlet  maple  is  one  of  the 
first  trees  to  deck  itself  out  in  spring;  very 
early,  before  the  leaves  come,  it  puts  forth 
its  exquisite,  drooping,  crimson  blossoms; 
in  the  fall  it  is  one  of  the  first  of  the  maples 
to  glow  in  scarlet  and  orange;  in  winter 
its  twigs  turn  to  richest  red.  Spring  flower, 
autumn  leaf,  winter  twig  and  the  wood 
all  are  red;  the  tree  is  well-named.  The 
wood  is  used  in  cabinetwork,  and  is  of 
special  value  when  there  is  a  curly  grain. 
The  tree  is  common  in  the  north,  growing 
as  far  down  as  Florida  and  west  to  the 
Dakotas  and  Texas.  Its  bark  is  dark  gray; 
the  leaves  are  simple,  opposite  and  rounded; 
and  have  from  three  to  five  lobes. 

Tn^  black  maple  is  a  variety  of  the  sugar- 
maple;  it  yields  sap  from  which  sugar  is 
made.  The  bark  is  blackish,  the  under- 
leal  downy.  It  is  found  along  streams  and 
in  rivei -bottoms.  The  Norway  maple  is 
an  introduced  tree  that  has  become  familiar 
in  park  and  by  roadway.  It  is  a  hand- 
some tree  with  a  wealth  of  thin,  smooth 
leaves,  shaped  like  those  of  the  sugar-maple. 
The  box-elder  or  ash-leaved  maple  belongs 
by  reason  of  its  fruit,  a  double-winged  seed, 
to  the  maples,  but  in  manner  of  growth 
suggests  both  ash  and  elder.  The  foliage 
of  vivid  green  adds  much  to  its  value  as 
an  ornamental  tree.  It  is  a  rapid  grower, 
but  is  not  long-lived;  its  range  is  from 
Vermont  and  Pennsylvania  southward  and 
westward.  It  usually  rises  30  to  50  feet; 
its  branches  are  wide-spreading;  and  the 
leaf  is  made  up  of  three  or  five  irregular, 
coarsely-toothed  leaflets.  The  samaras  are 
large  and  a  yellowish-green.  See  Louns- 


MAPLE-SUGAR 


1167 


MARBLE 


SUGAR-MAPLE 


into    a    trough. 


berry's  Guide  to  the   Trees  and   Mathews' 
Familiar  Trees  and  Their  Leaves. 

Maple=Sugar  is  made  from  the  sap  of  the 
sugar-maple,  which  grows  in  the  northern 

Eirt  o  f  the 
nited  States 
and  in  Canada. 
The  trees  are 
k  tapped  in  the 
spring,  when 
there  are  warm 
days  and  frosty 
nights,  which 
help  the  flow. 
A  hole  is  made 
in  the  trunk 
with  an  auger 
or  ax,  in  which 
a  spout  is  stuck 
through  which 
the  sap  flows 
It  is  then  carried  to  a 
receiver  and,  after  straining,  to  the  boiler. 
It  is  boiled  and  refined  in  the  same  way 
as  cane-sugar.  A  single  tree  yields  from 
two  to  six  pounds  in  a  season.  Good  vinegar 
is  made  from  it  and  maple-syrup,  much 
better  than  sugar-molasses,  which  is  much 
used  on  buckwheat  cakes,  etc.  New  Eng- 
land is  the  great  maple-sugar  region,  but 
it  is  also  made  in  Indiana,  Michigan,  New 
York,  Ohio  and  Pennsylv  .nia. 

Maracaibo  (md'rd-ki'bo),  Gulf  of,  a  wide 
inlet  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  joined  by  a 
strait  with  the  lake  of  the  same  name. 
The  lake  forms  the  floor  of  a  great  valley, 
shut  in  by  high  mountains.  Its  waters  are 
sweet  and  deep  enough  for  the  largest 
vessels,  but  the  mouth  makes  it  difficult  to 
enter.  The  gulf  and  lake  were  discovered 
in  1499  by  Ojeda,  who  found  here  houses 
built  on  piles,  and  so  called  the  region 
Venezuela,  a  Spanish  diminutive  meaning 
Little  Venice. 

Marat  (md'ra'),  Jean  Paul,  one  of  the 
foremost  men  in  the  French  Revolution, 
was  born  at  Bou- 
dry,  in  Neu- 
chatel,  Switzer- 
land, May  24, 
1744,  the  son  of 
a  physician.  He 
studied  medicine 
and  practiced  for 
a  time  at  Lon- 
don. In  1788  he 
started  his  fa- 
mous  paper, 
L'Ami  du  Peuple 
(The  Friend  of 
the  People). 
Throughout  the 
Revolution  he 
fought  for  his 


JEAN    PAUL    MARAT 


own  hand,  denouncing  in  turn  Necker, 
Bailly,  Lafayette,  the  king,  Dumouriez  and 
th«  Girondins.  His  paper  made  him  hated, 


but  made  him  also  the  darling  of  the  scum 
of  Paris,  and  placed  great  power  in  his 
hands.  His  printing-press  had  to  be  hidden 
from  the  eyes  of  Lafayette's  police;  twice 
he  had  to  flee  to  London;  and  once  he  was 
forced  to  hide  in  the  sewers  of  Paris.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  on  his  head  rests  in  great 
measure  the  guilt  of  the  September  massa- 
cres. When  the  republic  was  set  up,  Marat 
changed  the  name  of  his  paper  to  the 
Journal  of  the  French  Republic.  He  was 
now  dying  of  a  disease  caught  in  the  sewers, 
and  his  last  energies  were  spent  in  a  death- 
struggle  with  the  Girondins.  Marat  was 
accused  by  them  before  the  tribunal,  and 
his  acquittal  marked  their  own  downfall. 
He  was  now  so  weak  that  he  could  only 
write  sitting  in  his  bath,  where  Charlotte 
Corday's  knife  put  an  end  to  him,  July 
J3  J793-  The  beautiful  Charlotte,  whose 
lover  had  been  killed  by  a  mob  and  who 
said  she  had  stabbed  one  man  to  save  the 
lives  of  one  hundred  thousand,  was  guillo- 
tined, while  Marat  was  buried  with  the 
greatest  honors.  See  the  Histories  of  the 
French  Revolution  by  Mignet,  Thiers, 
Michelet,  Louis  Blanc,  Carlyle  and  Von 
Sybel. 

Marathon  ( mdr'a-thon ) ,  a  village  on  the 
coast,  1 8  miles  northeast  of  Athens,  Greece. 
Here  the  Persian  hordes  of  Darius  were 
defeated  in  490  B.  C.  by  the  Greeks  under 
Miltiades  —  one  of  the  decisive  battles  of 
the  world.  Th  Persians  numbered  about 
110,000.  Against  them  came  10,000  heavy- 
armed  Athenian  infantry  and  a  small  body 
of  light-armed  troops.  A  re-enforcemen  of 
1,000  heavy-armed  Plataeans  encouraged 
Miltiades  to  leave  his  position  on  the  heights 
and  attack  the  Persians  who  filled  the  plain 
below.  The  Greeks  advanced  in  three 
bodies.  The  two  wings  carried  everything 
before  them,  but  the  center  was  driven 
back.  The  wings  now  fell  on  the  flanks  of 
the  Persian  center  ctnd  drove  the  whole 
army  to  their  ships,  which  were  drawn  up 
on  the  beach.  The  Persian  loss  is  put  at 
6,400;  that  of  the  Greeks  at  but  192.  Had 
the  Athenians  been  conquered,  all  Greece 
would  have  become  a  part  of  Persia. 

Maratti  (ma-rat'te).  Carlo,  an  Italian 
painter,  was  born  near  Ancona,  Italy,  in 
1625.  He  studied  at  Rome  and  became  a 
great  admirer  of  Raphael's  paintings.  A 
picture  of  Constantine  destroying  the  idols 
made  him  one  of  the  first  painters  of  his 
time.  His  masterpiece  is  the  Martyrdom 
of  St.  Biago,  at  Genoa.  He  died  at  Rome, 
Dec.  15,  1713. 

Mar'ble.  In  its  popular  sense,  the  term 
marble  is  applied  to  any  crystalline  rock 
composed  principally  of  lime  carbonate  or 
of  lime  and  magnesia  carbonates,  if  it  has 
a  color  which  makes  it  desirable  for  decor- 
ative or  monumental  purposes  or  for  build- 
ing stone  and  a  texture  which  renders  it 
susceptible  of  polish.  Ifl  origin  it  gener- 


MARBLE  FAUN 


1168 


MARCHANTIA 


ally  is  a  metamorphosed  limestone.  It 
therefore  occurs  chiefly  in  regions  of  meta- 
morphic  rock.  Between  limestone,  which 
is  not  crystalline,  and  marble  there  are  all 
gradations,  and  thoroughly  crystalline  lime- 
stone, if  it  is  not  valuable  for  some  of  the 
purposes  mentioned  above,  is  rarely  called 
marble.  The  color  of  marble  depends  on 
the  purity  of  the  limestone  from  which  it 
is  made.  If  considerable  quantities  of 
materials  other  than  lime  carbonate  or 
magnesia  carbonate  are  present,  the  color 
depends  upon  the  nature  and  distribution 
of  these  impurities  in  the  rock.  Pure  marble 
is  white,  but  impurities  may  make  it  red, 
brown,  yellow,  black;  or,  if  the  impurities 
be  irregularly  distributed,  the  marble  may 
be  mottled  or  clouded.  Onyx  or  onyx 
marble  is  a  variety  oi  marble  formed  by 
the  precipitation  of  lime  carbonate  in  solu- 
tion, usually  from  the  waters  of  springs. 
All  limestone  formed  by  precipitation  is 
travertine,  which  includes  stalactites,  stalag- 
mite etc.,  but  only  those  varieties  of  traver- 
tine which  have  beautiful  colors  and  are 
translucent  are  called  onyx.  Onyx  is  used 
for  decorative  purposes  in  the  interiors  of 
buildings,  for  wainscoting,  lavatories  etc. 
The  onyx  of  ancient  time  was  derived 
principally  from  Egypt.  The  principal 
American  sources  are  Mexico,  Lower  Cali- 
fornia, southern  California  and  Arizona. 
The  colors  of  onyx  are  various,  white,  yellow 
and  green  being  common.  It  is  often 
mottled  and  beautifully  veined.  Certain 
varieties  of  variegated  serpentinous  rock 
are  sometimes  called  verd  antique  marble. 
Marble  is  widely  distributed,  but  the  com- 
mercial product  of  the  United  States  is 
derived  mainly  from  Vermont,  Georgia, 
New  York,  Tennessee,  Maryland,  California, 
Pennsylvania  and  Massachusetts.  More 
than  half  came  from  Vermont.  See,  also 
CARRARA 

Mar'ble  Faun,  The,  a  romance  'written 
in  the  later  life  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne, 
was  begun  in  Rome  in  1859  and  continued 
in  Yorkshire,  England,  being  finally  com- 

S'eted  in  March,  1860,  at  Leamington, 
awthorne  is  said  to  have  based  some  of 
the  characters  of  the  tale  upon  certain 
acquaintances  in  real  life.  He  certainly 
obtained  some  suggestions  for  the  situation 
of  Miriam  from  the  story  of  Beatrice  Cenci. 
The  romance  was  published  in  England 
under  the  title  of  Transformation,  a  short- 
ened form  of  the  title  originally  proposed, 
The  Transformation  of  the  Faun.  Haw- 
thorne was  quick  to  see  the  possibilities  of 
fun  and  pathos  in  the  conception  of  a  real 
mingling  of  fauns  with  men,  together  with 
the  picturesqueness  that  might  be  given 
to  their  "pretty,  hairy  ears"  and  queer 
moral  instincts  in  a  romance  of  human 
life. 

Marcel'lus,  Marcus  Claudius,  a  famous 
Roman  general,  came  of  a  plebeian  family. 


In  his  first  consulship  (222  B.  C.)  he  defeated 
a  part  ot  the  Gauls  and  slew  their  king  with 
his  own  hand.  In  the  second  Punic  war 
he  took  command  after  the  defeat  at  Cannae 
and  checked  the  victorious  Hannibal  at 
Nola  in  216.  Two  years  later,  as  consul  for 
the  second  time,  ne  blockaded  Syracuse, 
and,  helped  by  famine,  pestilence  and 
the  treachery  of  the  Spanish  allies  of  the 
Syracusans,  he  entered  the  city  in  212,  and 
soon  conquered  all  Sicily.  In  his  fifth  con- 
sulship (208  B.  C.)  he  fell  in  a  skirmish 
against  Hannibal,  near  Venusia,  Apulia. 

March,  the  third  month  of  the  year  and 
the  first  in  the  Roman  calendar,  has  31 
days.  It  was  the  first  month  in  England 
till  the  change  of  style  in  1752.  Its  last 
three  days  were  once  supposed  to  have  been 
borrowed  from  April,  and,  according  to  an 
old  proverb,  they  are  always  stormy.  March 
is  named  after  the  Roman  god.  Mars. 

March,  Francis  Andrew,  an  American 
philologist  and  scholar,  was  born  at  Mill- 
bury,  Mass.,  Oct.  25,  1825.  He  graduated 
at  Amherst  College  in  1845,  where  he  was 
tutor  for  two  years.  After  studying  law 
and  teaching  for  three  years,  he  became 
instructor  at  Lafayette  College,  where  he 
has  since  taught,  from  1858  being  professor 
of  the  English  language  and  comparative 
philosophy.  Professor  March  ranks  as  one 
of  the  first  American  philologists.  He  has 
published  An  Anglo-Saxon  Grammar,  A 
Method  of  Philological  Study  of  the  English 
Language  and  A  Thesaurus  of  the  English 
Language  jointly  with  F.  A.  March,  Jr. 

Mar'chand',  Hon.  Felix  Q.,  born  in 
Quebec  in  1832,  was  admitted  a  notary  in 
1855.  He  founded  and  for  several  years 
edited  Le  Franco-Canadien,  and  held  from 
the  government  of  France  the  decoration 
of  officer  of  public  instruction.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  dramatic  pieces  in 
prose  and  verse.  He  was  provincial  secre- 
tary in  1878,  commissioner  of  crown-lands 
in  1879,  speaker  of  the  Legislative  Assem- 
bly in  1887,  and  became  premier  in  1897, 
accepting  the  portfolio  of  treasurer.  But 
few  Canadians  in  like  degree  have  been  as 
successful  in  literary  pursuits  and  in  pub- 
lic affairs  as  well.  He  died  in  1900. 

Marchantia  (mar-kan'ti-a),  a  genus  of 
plauts  belonging  to  the  liverworts,  whose 
species  have  prostrate  and  thick  thallus 
bodies,  which  put  out  rhizoids  from  the 
under  surface,  and  are  green  on  the  upper 
surface.  Small  cups  (cupules)  also  are 
borne  on  the  upper  surface,  which  contain 
numerous  diskhke  gemmae  for  vegetative 
propagation.  Each  thallus  body  also  sends 
up  a  conspicuous  vertical  branch,  on  the 
summit  of  which  is  a  disk  bearing  the  sex- 
organs.  The  disk  with  scalloped  edge  bears 
the  male  organs  (antheridia) ,  while  the 
star-shaped  disks  bear  the  female  organs 
(archegonia).  The  most  common  species 
is  M.  polymorpha,  abundant  on  damp  ground 


MARCHESI 


ZZ69 


MARGARET  OF  ANJOU 


and  moist  cliffs.  See  HEPATICAE  for 
figure. 

Marches!  (m&r-k&rs§),  Pompeo,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  was  born  in  1789.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Canova,  and  became  professor  in  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  and  one  of  the  fore- 
most sculptors  of  modern  Italy.  His  mas- 
terpiece is  The  Good  Motlwr,  the  Virgin  with 
the  dead  Christ  in  her  lap,  which  is  in  the 
church  of  San  Carlo  at  Milan.  Other  works 
are  his  statues  of  Goethe  at  Frankfort,  Venus 
Urania  and  St.  Ambrose.  He  died  at  Milan 
on  Feb.  7,  1858. 

Marconi  (mdr-kd'n$),  Quglielmo,  an 
Italian  electrical  engineer  famous  as  the 
inventor  of  wireless 
telegraphy,  was 
born  near  Bologna, 
Italy,  in  1875.  Even 
as  a  boy  he  showed 
a  genius  for  experi- 
ments  with  elec- 
tricity. He  studied 
^  the  University  of 
'Bologna  under  the 
scientist  Righi  and 
also  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Padua.  The 
idea  of  using  the 
Hertzian  waves  to 
transmit  messages 
GUGLIELMO  MARCONI  appears  to  have 
occurred  to 

Marconi  in  connection  with  his  work  under 
Professor  Righi.  He  made  successful  ex- 
periments with  wireless  telegraphy  in 
1895;  ar<^»  facing  in  negotiations  with  the 
Italian  government,  proceeded  to  England, 
where  the  value  of  his  invention  was  to  a 
degree  recognized.  The  Wireless  Telegraph 
Company  was  established  in  1897.  In 
1899  and  1900  Marconi  continued  his  ex- 
periments in  the  United  States.  In  1901 
he  succeeded  in  getting  transatlantic  messages 
to  Newfoundland.  His  station  was  shortly 
afterwards  removed  to  Cape  Breton  Island. 
The  Marconi  apparatus  is  used  on  British 
government  vessels  and  to  a  large  degree 
on  American  vessels.  In  October,  1907, 
a  commercial  service  by  wireless  telegraphy 
was  successfully  inaugurated  between 
Europe  and  America.  It  is  not  thought  that 
the  Marconi  apparatus  will  wholly  supersede 
the  submarine  cable,  as  the  success  of  the 
former  is  dependent  to  a  great  degree  upon 
suitable  weather  conditions. 

Marc'o  Po'lo.    See  POLO,  MARCO. 
Mar'cy,  William    Learned,  an  American 

BDlitician,  was  born  at  Southbridge,  Mass., 
ec.  12,  1786.  He  was  brought  up  on  a 
farm  and  graduated  at  Brown  University 
in  1808.  He  became  a  lawyer,  but  when 
the  War  of  1812  broke  out  he  entered  the 
army  as  a  lieutenant.  For  some  years  he 
was  editor  of  a  Democratic  paper  at  Troy, 
N.  Y.  In  1823  he  was  chosen  comptroller 
of  the  state;  in  1829  justice  of  the  state 


supreme  court;  and  two  years  later  United 
States  senator.  In  1832  he  resigned  to  be- 
come governor  of  New  York  and  was  twice 
re-elected.  He  was  secretary  of  war  in 
Polk's  administration,  which  covered  the 
era  of  the  Mexican  War.  He  was  also  of 
great  service  in  the  settlement  of  the  Oregon 
boundary  question  with  England.  As  sec- 
retary of  state  under  Pierce,  he  carried  on 
foreign  affairs  in  a  masterly  manner. 
Throughout  his  public  life  he  showed  great 
ability  "as  a  writer,  statesman  and  diploma- 
tist. Marcy  was  the  author  of  the  famous 
political  maxim:  "To  the  victors  belong 
the  spoils."  He  died  at  Ballston  Spa,  N.  Y., 
July  4,  1857. 

Mardi  Gras  (mar'de' gra^,  meaning  Fat 
Tuesday,  the  day  before  Ash  Wednesday, 
(the  first  day  of  Lent),  the  same  day  that 
was  formerly  celebrated  in  England  as 
Shrove  Tuesday.  The  custom  of  holding 
high  carnival  and  making  merry  on  that 
day  was  observed  for  hundreds  of  years  in 
Europe  and  is  still  kept  up  in  some  of  the 
southern  cities  of  the  United  States,  espe- 
cially at  New  Orleans.  It  was  introduced 
there  in  1827  by  Creoles  who  had  taken 
part  in  the  festival  at  Paris.  The  day  is  a 
legal  holiday,  and  all  the  afternoon  the 
streets  are  filled  with  masqueraders  and 
Balconies  and  windows  with  spectators. 
An  ox,  with  its  horns  covered  with  wreaths, 
heads  a  procession  of  butchers.  The  car- 
nival king  (Rex),  appears  at  noon,  the 
papers  having  beforehand  announced  his 
landing  at  New  York  or  some  other  port 
and  told  of  his  courage  in  war.  He  is  rep- 
resented usually  as  a  gray-bearded,  digni- 
fied man.  Two  pages  go  before  him  carry- 
ing his  scepter  and  the  keys  of  his  kingdom 
on  velvet  cushions.  There  is  also  a  night 
parade  of  young  gentlemen  maskers  dressed 
to  represent  some  poem,  as  Lalla  Rookh,  a 
feast,  the  Darwinian  theory  etc.  The  day 
ends  with  a  ball,  where  Rex  chooses  his  queen. 

Mare  Island,  Cal.,  an  important  U.  S. 
navy-yard  and  Federal  naval  establishment 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  about  25  miles  north 
of  San  Francisco. 

Maren'go,  a  village  near  Alessandria  in 
northern  Italy.  Here,  on  June  14,  1800, 
Napoleon  with  33,000  French  defeated 
30,500  Austrians  under  Melas.  The  ab- 
sence of  Napoleon  when  the  fighting  began 
came  near  giving  the  Austrians  a  victory. 
It  was  the  cavalry  charge  of  the  younger 
Kellermann  that  decided  the  day,  and 
gained  upper  Italy  for  France.  The  Aus- 
trian loss  was  6,400,  besides  3,000  prisoners; 
the  French  loss  7,000.  General  Desaix  was 
among  the  killed. 

Margaret  of  Anjou  (  •mar'ga-rVt  of  an' 
zhoo'),  queen  of  England,  wife  of  Henry  VI 
and  daughter  of  Rene"  of  Anjou,  titular 
king  of  Sicily  and  Jerusalem,  was  born  ih 
March,  1429.  At  15  she  was  married  to 
Henry,  then  in  his  24th  year.  The  queen 


MARGARET  OP  NAVARRE 


1170 


MARIE  ANTOINETTE 


soon  proved  herself  superior  to  her  husband 
in  force  of  character  and  executive  qualities, 
and  the  real  ruler.  In  1455  began  the  Wars 
of  the  Roses,  which  finally  robbed  Margaret 
of  her  throne  and  son  and  husband.  (See 
ENGLAND,  HENRY  VI,  LANCASTER  and 
YORK.)  Margaret  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Yorkists  in  1471  and  was  imprisoned  in  the 
Tower  until  ransomed  by  Louis  XI  of  France. 
Margaret  sought  refuge  in  France  and  died 
on  Aug.  25,  1482,  having  spent  20  years  in 
war  and  four  in  prison. 

Margaret  of  Navarre  (na-varr),  sister 
of  Francis  I  of  France,  was  born  at  Angou- 
leme,  April  n,  1492.  She  was  carefully 
taught  and  very  early  became  popular  be- 
cause of  her  charm  of  manner  and  strength 
of  mind.  After  the  death  of  her  first  hus- 
band she  married  Henri  of  Navarre,  and  so 
became  the  grandmother  of  Henry  IV.  She 
encouraged  farming,  arts  and  learning,  and 
courageously  sheltered  reformers  like  Marot 
and  Bonaventure.  Her  writings  include 
interesting  letters,  poems  called  The  Mar- 
guerites of  the  Marguerite  and  the  noted  Hep- 
tameron,  stories  modeled  on  the  Decameron 
of  Boccaccio,  which  most  scholars  believe 
to  be  the  joint  work  of  Margaret,  Bonaven- 
ture and  other  men.  See  the  Life  by  Miss 
Freer  and  her  Letters.  She  died  at  Bigorre 
on  Dec.  21,1549. 

Margaret,  queen  of  Denmark,  Norway 
and  Swedeis,  was  the  daughter  of  Waldemar 
IV  of  Denmark  and  wife  of  Haakon  VI  of 
Norway.  She  was  born  in  1353.  By  the 
death  of  her  father  she  became  regent  of 
Denmark  in  the  name  of  her  son,  who  soon 
died,  and  then  of  her  grandnephew  Eric  of 
Pomerania.  The  death  of  her  husband 
made  her  ruler  of  Norway  (1388),  and  the 
dissatisfied  subjects  of  Albert,  king  of  Sweden, 
asked  her  to  take  that  country  too.  She 
sent  an  army  into  Sweden  which  took 
Albert  and  his  son  prisoners.  Sweden  was 
wholly  conquered,  and  in  1397  the  famous 
union  of  Kalmar  was  agreed  upon,  whereby 
the  three  kingdoms  were  to  stay  forever 
at  peace  under  one  king,  though  each  was 
to  keep  its  own  laws  and  customs.  Mar- 
garet also  got  possession  of  Lapland  and 
part  of  Finland.  She  was  a  woman  of 
great  energy  and  strong  will,  and  ruled 
with  a  firm  hand.  She  has  been  called  the 
Semiramis  of  the  North.  She  died  on  Oct. 
28,  1412. 

Maria  Louisa  (ma'r&loo-etf),  empress  of 
the  French,  second  wife  of  Napoleon  I,  was 
the  daughter  of  Emperor  Francis  I  of  Aus- 
tria. She  was  born  on  Dec.  12,  1791,  and 
married  Napoleon,  after  the  divorce  of  Jose- 
phine ,  on  April  2 ,  1 8 1  o .  She  bore  a  son  to  the 
emperor  on  March  20,  1811,  who  was  called 
king  of  Rome.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
campaign  of  1813  she  was  appointed  by 
the  emperor  regent  during  his  absence,  but 
with  many  restrictions  upon  her  authority. 
After  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon  she  made 


Schonbrunn  her  home,  where  she  remained 
until  1816.  She  received,  by  the  peace 
of  Paris,  the  duchies  of  Parma,  Piacenza 
and  Guastalla.  After  the  death  of  Napo- 
leon she  married  Count  Neipperg.  She 
died  at  Vienna  on  Dec.  17,  1847. 

Maria  Theresa  (ma-re' a,  te-re*sd),  em- 
press of  Austria,  was  the  daughter  of  Charles 
VI,  and  was  born  at  Vienna,  May  13,  1717. 
Her  father  got  the  powers  of  Europe  to 
sign  the  pragmatic  sanction  which  gave 
the  right  of  succession  to  the  throne  to  the 
women  as  well  as  the  men  of  the  royal  line. 
When  she  came  to  the  throne  in  1740,  she 
found  the  government  without  money,  the 
people  discontented  and  the  army  weak; 
while  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony  and  Sar- 
dinia put  forward  claims  to  all  or  parts  of 
her  dominions.  Frederick  the  Great  poured 
his  armies  into  Silesia;  Spain  laid  hands 
on  Austrian  Italy;  and  the  Bavarians  in- 
vaded Bohemia  and  threatened  Vienna. 
The  ycung  queen  was  saved  by  the  chiv- 
alrous faithfulness  of  the  Hungarians,  to 
whose  loyalty  she  appealed  with  her  baby 
son  in  her  arms,  and  by  her  own  courage 
and  energy.  The  War  of  the  Austrian  Suc- 
cession ended  with  the  peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  1748,  by  which  Maria  lost  ter- 
ritory to  Prussia,  Spain  and  Sardinia,  but 
had  her  rights  recognized  and  also  those  of 
her  husband.  Francis,  grand -duke  of  Tus- 
cany who  was  crowned  emperor.  In  the 
years  of  peace  that  followed  she  fostered 
farming,  manufactures  and  trade,  nearly 
doubled  the  national  revenues  and  at  the 
same  time  lessened  the  taxes  and  strength- 
ened her  armies.  But  the  loss  of  Silesia 
rankled,  and  she  began  the  Seven  Years' 
War  with  Frederick  the  Great,  which  only 
served  to  strengthen  his  bold  on  the  lost 
province.  She  then  endeavored  to  strengthen 
the  country  in  every  way,  bettered  the  con- 
dition of  the  peasants,  ameliorated  criminal 
punishments,  and  founded  schools  and 
charitable  societies.  By  the  first  partition 
of  Poland  she  got  Galicia  and  Lodomeria 
and  obtained  Bukowina  from  Turkey. 
Maria  Theresa  was  majestic  and  winning, 
and  had  the  undaunted  spirit  of  a  true  queen. 
She  won  the  love  of  her  subjects  and  raised 
Austria  from  a  wretched  condition  to 
power.  She  died  at  Vienna  on  Nov.  29,  1780. 
See  Maria  Theresa  and  Frederick  the  Great 
by  the  Due  de  Broglie  and  narratives  of 
the  Seven  Years'  War. 

Mar'iazelJ',  a  famous  place  of  pilgrimage 
in  Austria,  is  in  Styria,  60  miles  southwest 
of  Vienna.  The  image  of  the  Virgin,  which 
draws  thousands  of  pilgrims  yearly,  is  en- 
shrined in  a  magnificent  church,  built  in 
1644. 

Marie  Antoinette  (md're'dn'twd'nef), 
Josephe  Jeanne,  the  most  ill-fated  of  the 
queens  of  France,  was  the  fourth  daughter 
of  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria,  and  was  born 
at  Vienna,  Nov.  2,  1755.  She  was  married 


MARIETTA 


II7I 


MARION 


to  Louis  XVI,  then  the  dauphin,  in  1770. 
A  mere  child  in  years,  neglected  by  her 
young  husband  and  bored  by  .the  stiff  eti- 
quette of  the  court,  she  spent  money  reck- 
lessly, went  on  night  drives  to  Paris,  appeared 
at  masked  balls  and  became  passionately 
fond  of  the  card-table.  When  she  became 
queen  (1774),  her  open  favoring  of  Austrian 
interests  and  her  enmity  to  Turgot  and 
Necker  and  their  measures  for  stopping  the 
distress  of  the  country  made  her  distrusted 
and  disliked.  The  people  came  to  think 
that  their  miseries  were  wholly  caused  by 
the  extravagance  of  The  Austrian,  as  she 
was  called.  She  was  also  attacked  in  pam- 
phlets under  the  names  of  Madame  Deficit 
and  Madame  Veto.  The  joyous  girl  had 
become  a  courageous  and  obstinate  woman, 
who  forced  the  king  into  a  backward  policy, 
to  his  undoing.  As  Mirabeau  said,  the 
only  man  the  king  had  about  him  was  his 
wife.  Amid  the  horrors  of  the  march  of 
women  to  Versailles  she  alone  did  not  lose 
heart,  and  she  showed  herself  on  the  bal- 
cony to  the  raging  mob  with  a  cool  bravery 
that  for  a  moment  overawed  the  fiercest 
into  respect.  But  she  was  a  Royalist  to 
the  core,  disliked  liberal  noblemen  like 
Lafayette  and  Mirabeau,  and  utterly  failed 
to  understand  the  troublous  times  into 
which  she  was  flung.  The  death  of  Mirabeau 
(1791)  took  away  the  last  hope  of  sav- 
ing the  monarchy,  and  less  than  three 
months  later  took  place  the  fatal  flight  to 
the  frontier  which  was  stopped  at  Varennes. 
Quickly  followed  the  storming  of  the  Tuil- 
eries  the  transference  to  the  Temple  and 
the  trial  and  execution  of  the  king.  Then 
Marie's  son  was  torn  from  her  arms,  and 
she  herself  sent  to  the  Conciergerie  like  a 
common  criminal.  After  eight  weeks  more 
of  insult  and  brutality,  Widow  Capet,  as 
she  was  styled,  was  herself  tried  in  her 
ragged  dress  and  gray  hair  before  the 
revolutionary  tribunal.  With  calmness 
she  went  through  the  two  days  and  nights 
of  questioning,  was  sentenced,  and  on  the 
same  day  at  Paris  on  Oct.  16,  1793,  perished 
under  the  ax  of  the  guillotine,  just  23  years 
after  she  had  left  Vienna,  a  beautiful  girl. 
See  the  histories  of  the  French  Revolution 
by  Thiers,  Mignet,  Michelet,  Louis  Blanc, 
Carlyle  and  Von  Sybel;  and  Lord  Ronald 
Gower's  Last  Days  of  Marie  Antoinette. 

Ma'riet'ta,  a  city  of  Ohio,  capital  of 
Washington  County,  on  the  Ohio  River,  at 
the  mouth  of  'the  Muskingum,  95  miles 
southeast  of  Columbus.  Founded  in  1788, 
largely  by  officers  of  the  Revolutionary 
War,  it  is  the  oldest  town  in  the  state  and 
the  first  settlement  in  the  Northwest  Ter- 
ritory. Remarkable  traces  of  the  early 
tnoundbuilders  are  visible  here.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Marietta  College,  founded  in  1835, 
and  having  33  professors  and  instructors, 
258  students  and  a  library  of  60,000  vol- 
umes. Its  manufactures  include  the  largest 


chair-factory  in  the  state.  The  discovery 
and  development  of  rich  deposits  of  petro- 
leum in  the  surrounding  region  have  greatly 
stimulated  the  growth  of  the  city  in  recent 
years  Population  12,923. 

Marigold  (mart-gold),  a  name  given  to 
certain  plants  of  the  same  order  as  the 
chrysanthemum  and  dandelion.  Pot  mari- 
gold, Calendula  officinalis,  the  common  gar- 
den flower,  is  a  native  of  France  and  south- 
ern Europe.  It  grows  on  an  upright  stem 
from  one  to  two  feet  in  height,  the  flowers, 
of  orange  and  of  lemon  yellow,  being  of  pur- 
est color.  The  plant  blooms  very  freely; 
if  the  blossoms  are  kept  plucked,  it  will 
flower  from  June  to  r^ovember.  Seeds 
germinate  quickly.  The  flowers  are  some- 
times used  in  flavoring  soup  and  in  coloring 
cheese.  Corn  marigold  is  a  chrysanthemum. 
The  marigold  is  thefloral  emblem  of  constancy. 

Marine'  Corps  or  marines,  troops  serv- 
ing in  the  navy,  whether  at  naval  stations 
or  on  board  ships,  are  chiefly  of  value 
when  it  is  desired  to  land  a  fighting  force, 
without  weakening  the  strength  of  a  ship's 
company  by  depriving  her  of  part  or  whole 
of  her  crew  In  ancient  times  such  troops 
by  their  mere  presence  transformed  a  mer- 
chant-vessel into  a  warship.  But  as  can- 
non came  to  be  used,  men-at-arms  were 
no  longer  of  such  value  on  board  ships, 
as  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada  did 
much  to  show.  Modern  marines,  to  use 
small  arms,  were  perhaps  first  employed 
in  1653  by  Admiral  Blake  of  England 
against  the  Dutch.  The  American  marine 
corps  was  authorized  by  Congress  in  1775, 
when  it  was  voted  that  two  battalions  of 
marines  should  be  enlisted.  This  was 
actually  done  in  1776.  Among  the  ordinary 
duties  which  fall  to  the  lot  of  the  marine 
guard,  the  most  important  is  naval  police- 
duty.  The  United  States  at  the  present 
time  has  some  8,000  enlisted  marines. 
The  marine  corps  is  essentially  '"amphib- 
ious;" but  it  is  governed  by  the  navy  regu- 
lations, except  when  detached  by  order  of 
the  president  to  serve  with  the  army. 

Marinette  ( mar'l-net' ),  a  town  in  Wis- 
consin at  the  mouth  of  the  Menominee.  It 
contains  iron-foundries,  sawmills  and  plan- 
ing-mills,  and  its  chief  industry  is  lumber- 
ing. Population  14,610. 

Mario  (ma're-o).  Giuseppe,  a  famous  Ital- 
ian opera-singer,  was  born  at  Caglian  in 
1812,  and  was  the  son  of  General  di  Candia. 
In  1838  he  made  his  first  appearance  in 
opera  as  Robert  in  Robert  le  Dtable.  In  this 
he  achieved  the  first  of  many  successes  in 
Paris,  London,  St.  Petersburg  and  America. 
He  was  generous  and  always  ready  to  help 
struggling  artists.  Mario  married  Giulia 
Grisi,  the  famous  singer,  and  retired  from 
the  stage  in  1867.  He  died  on  Dec.  n, 
1883  See  Engel's  Musical  Celebrities. 

MarMon,  Francis,  was  born  at  Winyaw, 
S.  C.,  in  1732.  Marion  came  of  a  Huguanot 


MARION 


1172 


MARJORIE  FLEMING 


family,  had  little  schooling,  and  in  1759 
served  in  a  cavalry  troop  commanded  by 
one  of  his  six  brothers  in  an  expedition 
against  the  Cherokees.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  Revolutionary  War  he  was  a  member 
of  South  Carolina's  assembly.  As  captain 
of  a  company  he  served  in  a  successful  at- 
tack on  Fort  Johnson  at  Charleston.  In 
1777,  with  but  600  men,  he  vainly  tried  to 
defend  Georgia  from  the  British.  In  1779 
he  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of 
Fort  Moultrie.  During  the  siege  of  Charles- 
ton he  accidentally  broke  his  leg  and  was 
carried  out  of  the  city  with  the  other 
wounded.  As  he  grew  better,  he  gathered 
his  neighbors  about  him.  and  gradually 
built  up  the  brigade  that  afterward  became 
so  famous.  Colonel  Marion's  small  and 
ragged  regiment  was  rather  looked  down 
upon  by  General  Gates,  when  it  marched 
into  camp.  But  when  Gates  was  defeated 
at  Camden,  Marion,  who  had  been  sent  to 
destroy  the  boats  on  the  rivers,  rescued 
the  American  prisoners.  Marion's  brigade 
now  began  those  marches,  forages  and 
surprises,  which  crippled  the  enemy  severely. 
His  main  camp  was  at  Snow's  Island,  hid 
among  impassable  swamps;  but  he  had 
hiding-places  in  almost  every  Carolina 
marsh.  He  cheerfully  slept  without  a 
blanket  and  marched  without  a  hat.  It 
is  said  that  a  British  officer,  sent  to  ask  an 
exchange  of  prisoners,  was  led  blindfolded 
into  the  "Swamp  Fox's"  camp.  General 
Marion  invited  him  to  dinner,  and  the  officer 
was  surprised  to  find  the  meal  made  wholly 
of  sweet  potatoes  roasted  in  the  ashes  and 
served  en  a  piece  of  bark,  and  of  a  drink 
made  of  vinegar  and  water.  The  officer, 
on  going  back  to  the  army,  threw  up  his 
commission,  saying  he  could  not  fight  against 
men  whose  patriotism  went  to  such  lengths. 
After  the  war  Marion  was  a  member  of  the 
state  senate  and  helped  to  frame  Carolina's 
constitution.  He  died  near  Eutaw,  S.  C., 
Feb.  28,  1795.  See  Life  by  Horry,  by 
Weems  and  by  Simms. 

Marion,  Ind.,  a  thriving  city  and  im- 
portant railroad  center,  the  capital  of  Grant 
County,  northeastern  central  Indiana,  66 
miles  northeast  of  Indianapolis.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  national  soldiers'  home,  a  normal 
college  and  high  schools,  and  has  many 
manufacturing  establishments,  including 
malleable-iron  works,  rolling  and  flour 
mills  and  glass  factories.  In  the  past  decade 
it  has  doubled  its  population,  its  present 
inhabitants  numbering  24,000. 

Marion,  Ohio,  city,  county-seat  of 
Marion  County,  about  45  miles'  north  of 
Columbus.  It  is  situated  in  a  fertile  agri- 
cultural region,  and  in  the  vicinity  is  con- 
siderable limestone.  Among  the  extensive 
industries  are  steam-shovel  works,  lime- 
kilns and  quarries,  foundries,  silk-mills 
and  the  manufacture  of  engines  and  thresh- 
ers, agricultural  implements,  wood-pulleys 


buggies  and  carriages.  Marion  has  good 
public  and  parochial  schools,  a  Home  for 
Aged  Women  and  several  churches,  and 
is  served  by  four  railroads.  Population 
18,232. 

Marius  (ma'ri-tis) ,  Gaius,  a  famous  Ro- 
man general,  who  was  seven  times  consul, 
was  born  of  an  unknown  family  at  Arpinum, 
Italy,  157  B.  C.  In  119  he  was  made 
tribune,  and  became  popular  for  his  vigor 
against  the  nobles.  After  marrying  Julia, 
aunt  of  the  great  Caesar,  he  served  in  Africa 
during  the  war  against  Jugurtha.  After  a 
year  as  consul  he  successfully  finished  the 
war  in  106.  But  now  began  his  jealousy 
of  Sulla,  his  lieutenant.  In  104-101  he 
was  chosen  consul  again,  as  it  was  felt 
that  Marius  alone  could  save  Rome  from 
the  Cimbri  and  Teutones  who  had  burst 
into  Gaul  and  slaughtered  several  bodies 
of  Roman  troops.  The  war  lasted  two 
years,  but  finally  the  Teutons  were  blotted 
out.  When,  besides  this  success,  he  had 
overthrown  the  Cimbri  and  Rudii,  the 
Romans  were  wild  with  joy,  called  him  the 
savior  of  the  state,  and  made  him  consul 
for  the  sixth  time.  This  was  the  height  of 
his  power.  His  jealousy  of  Sulla,  who  had 
been  given  charge  of  the  war  against 
Mithradates,  brought  civil  war  in  88.  Marius 
was  soon  forced  to  flee.  During  his  flight 
one  of  his  hiding-places  was  discovered, 
and  he  was  flung  into  prison  at  Minturnae. 
Here,  when  a  Cimbrian  slave  was  sent  to 
kill  him,  "Wretch,  darest  thou  slay  Gaius 
Marius?"  said  the  old  hero.  The  slave  fled 
in  terror,  saying:  "I  cannot  kill  Marius;" 
and  the  citizens,  looking  on  it  as  an  omen, 
allowed  the  exile  to  escape.  When  his 
friends  rose  under  Cinna,  he  hurried  back 
to  Italy,  and  the  two  generals  marched  on 
Rome,  which  was  forced  to  yield.  In 
revenge  against  the  aristocracy  Marius  let 
loose  4,000  slaves,  who  kept  up  their  work 
of  murder  for  five  days  and  nights.  Marius 
and  Cinna  were  chosen  consuls  in  86,  but 
Marius  had  only  held  office  17  days  when 
he  died.  See  Michelet's  Roman  Republic; 
Mommsen's  History  of  the  Roman  Republic; 
Sewall's  Child's  History  of  Rome  and  Yonge's 
Young  Folks'  History  of  Rome. 

Marjoram  (mar' jo-ram),  a  class  of  plants 
of  which  several  kinds  are  common,  as  pot 
and  sweet  herbs  in  gardens.  The  common 
marjoram  is  a  native  of  Great  Britain,  and 
is  sweet-smelling,  with  a  bitter  taste.  The 
dry  leaves  are  sometimes  used  instead  of 
tea.  The  plant-tops  are  used  as  a  purple 
dye  for  woolen  cloth.  Oil  of  marjoram  is 
also  distilled  from  the  plant.  Pot,  knotted 
and  winter-sweet  marjoram  are  other  vari- 
eties. 

Marjorie  (mdr'jo-ry)  Fleming,  a  little 
Scotch  girl,  made  immortal  by  the  pen  of 
the  Scottish  writer,  Dr.  John  Brown,  of 
Edinburgh.  She  was  born  at  Edinburgh, 
Jan.  15,  1803.  She  was  very  bright  and 


"73 


precocious,  writing  poetry,  reading  Swift, 
Pope,  Gray,  Newton  On  the  Prophecies  and 
Tom  Jones,  and  reciting  Shakespeare  by 
the  hour.  She  died  on  Dec.  19,  1811,  when 
only  eight.  The  beautiful  story  of  her 
short  life  is  now  an  English  classic,  and 
can  be  found  in  the  second  series  of  Spare 
Hours  by  Dr.  John  Brown. 

Mark,  called  John,  is  held  to  be  the 
author  of  the  second  Gospel.  Of  Mary  his 
mother  nothing  is  known,  except  that  her 
kouse  in  Jerusalem  was  visited  by  Peter  and 
the  other  disciples.  By  some  Mark  is 
thought  to  be  the  young  man  mentioned 
in  Mark  xiv:  51  and  52.  Mark  went  with 
Paul  and  Barnabas  on  their  first  missionary 
journey  from  Antioch  in  Syria  as  far  as 
Perga  in  Pamphylia;  here  he  quitted  them, 
why,  we  know  not;  but  his  leaving  led 
Paul  to  refuse  to  take  him  along  on  his 
second  journey,  and  this  refusal  caxtsed 
Barnabas  to  part  company  with  Paul. 
Paul  seems  afterward  to  have  been  his 
friend,  and  refers  to  him  as  a  useful  fellow- 
worker.  Of  the  remainder  of  his  life  we 
know  nothing  certain.  He  is  thought  to 
have  been  Peter's  companion  at  Babylon 
or  at  Rome.  In  the  art  of  the  middle  ages 
Mark  is  represented  by  a  lion.  Mark's 
Gospel  was  written  about  70  A.  D.,  and  is 
probably  based  on  Peter's  memory  of  his 
Master  and  of  scenes  he  had  himself  passed 
through.  It  is  pretty  certain  that  the 
evangel  of  Mark  was  the  first  Gospel  to 
be  written. 

Mark  An'tony.     See  ANTONY,  MARK. 

Mark'ham,  Edwin,  a  poet  and  lecturer 
born  in  Oregon  City,  Oregon,  in  1852, 
passed  his  boyhood  in  farm  work,  herding, 
shoeing  horses  and  ploughing;  and  was  a 
student  afterwards  at  San  Jose"  Normal 
School  and  Santa  Rosa  College.  He  be- 
came a  teacher  in  California,  and  after- 
wards a  school-superintendent.  His  poems 
and  stories  attracted  attention,  the  best 
known  perhaps  being  The  Man  With  the 
Hoe.  Among  his  other  works  mav  be  men- 
tioned Lincoln  and  Other  Poems;  Field  Folk, 
Interpretations  of  Millet;  The  End  of  the 
Century;  Lincoln  the  Great  Commoner;  The 
Muse  of  Brotherhood;  The  Mighty  Hundred 
Years;  and  The  Social  Conscience. 

Mark  Twain.    See  CLEMENS,  SAMUEL  L. 

Marl,  a  natural  mixture  of  clay  and  car- 
bonate of  lime.  The  proportion  of  lime 
varies  from  6  to  20  per  cent.  Marly  soils 
usually  are  very  rich,  and  marl  has  been 
used  as  a  fertilizer  from  very  early  times. 
An  English  law  of  1225  gave  every  man  the 
right  to  sink  a  marl-pit  on  his  own  ground. 

Marlboro  (marVbur-8),  Mass.,  a  city  in 
western  Middlesex  County,  15  miles  east  of 
Worcester  and  28  miles  west  from  Boston. 
It  is  on  the  Fitchburg  and  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  railroads  and  surrounded 
by  a  productive  fruit-growing  region.  It  has 
numerous  manufacturing  industries,  among 


which  are  the  making  of  miners'  lamps, 
machine-shop  products,  boxes,  shoe-making 
machinery,  and  boots  and  shoes.  Marlboro 
has  an  excellent  city  hall,  soldiers'  monument, 
state  armory,  public  library,  banks,  schools 
and  churches.  The  town  was  settled  in  1656, 
and  incorporated  in  1660.  It  became  a  city 
in  1910.  Population,  15,127. 

Marlborough  (mdrl'bur-o) ,  John  Churchill, 
Duke  of,  the  ablest  general  of  his  time, 
was  born  on  June  24,  1650,  at  Ashe,  Devon- 
shire, England.  His  father  had  been  made 
poor  by  his  friendship  for  Charles  I,  and 
young  Churchill  had  little  schooling.  As 
captain  of  a  company  of  grenadiers  he  was 
sent  to  help  Turenne  to  capture  the  for- 
tresses on  the  Dutch  frontier.  Here  his 
brilliant  courage  and  ability  gained  him  a 
colonelcy.  His  rise  was  further  aided  by 
his  marriage  with  Sarah  Jennings,  a  woman 
as  remarkable  for  talent  and  strong  will  as 
for  beauty.  On  the  accession  of  James  II 
Churchill  was  made  a  baron  and  general, 
and  took  a  leading  part  in  putting  down 
Monmouth's  rebellion.  On  the  landing  of 
the  Prince  of  Orange  he  stole  away  to  the 
side  of  the  invader,  and  was  rewarded  for 
his  treachery  by  being  made  Earl  of  Marl- 
borough.  He  was  of  great  service  to  William 
III  in  conquering  Ireland  and  as  commander 
against  the  French  in  the  Netherlands;  but 
was  not  wholly  trusted  by  the  king.  On 
an  untrue  suspicion  of  being  concerned  in 
a  plot  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower, 
and  was  not  given  any  public  office  for 
five  years.  When  Queen  Anne  came  to 
the  throne  (1702),  he  was  given  command 
of  the  British  army  in  the  Netherlands 
During  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession 
he  showed  his  unrivaled  generalship  in 
carrying  on  some  of  the  greatest  campaigns 
of  English  history.  Anne  showered  honors 
and  offices  on  Marlborough  and  his  wife. 
Marlborough,  in  fact,  became  regent  in  all 
but  name.  In  1702,  as  commander  of  the 
Dutch  and  English  forces,  he  drove  the 
French  out  of  Spanish  Guelders.  In  1704, 
with  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy,  he  routed 
the  French  and  Bavarians  at  DonauwOrth, 
and  on  August  i,3th  won  the  great  victory 
of  Blenheim.  This  battle  stamped  Marl- 
borough  as  the  first  general  in  Europe,  and 
the  queen  and  the  emperor  vied  in  honor- 
ing the  conqueror.  In  1706  the  duke 
renewed  that  career  of  victory  which  broke 
the  spell  surrounding  the  great  power  of 
France  under  Louis  XIV,  who  gloried  in 
calling  himself  The  Invincible.  On  May 
23,  1706,  the  battle  of  Ramillies  was  fought, 
which  obliged  the  French  to  leave  the  whole 
of  Spanish  Flanders.  In  1708  their  attempt 
to  recover  this  lost  ground  led  to  the  battle 
of  Oudenarde,  fought  July  nth,  which  re- 
sulted in  utter  defeat  for  the  French.  The 
surrender  of  Lille  and  Ghent  ended  the  cam- 
paign. In  1709  was  fought  the  battle  of 
Malplaquet,  as  Marlborough  himself  said, 


MARLITT 


"74 


MARMONT 


"a  very  murdering  battle."  The  slaughter 
was  tremendous,  the  casualities  reaching 
20,000  on  the  side  of  the  allies  and  8,000 
on  that  of  the  French.  The  last  campaign 
was  in  1711,  and  when  town  after  town  had 
been  taken  from  the  French,  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  gave  30  years'  peace  to  Europe. 
Meanwhile  the  queen,  tired  of  the  tyranny 
of  the  duchess  who  had  ruled  her  as  a  child, 
threw  off  the  yoke.  The  charge  of  having 
embezzled  public  money  was  brought 
against  the  duke,  and  he  was  stripped  of 
all  his  offices  till  George  I  came  to  the 
throne  in  1714,  when,  in  a  day,  he  was 
again  placed  where  he  had  stood  after  the 
battle  of  Blenheim.  He  died  near  Windsor, 
June  16,  1722.  See  Coxe's  Memoirs,  Saints- 
bury's  Life  and  Thackeray's  Henry  Esmond. 

Marlitt  (mar' lit),  E.  (nom  de  plume  of 
Eugenie  John),  novelist,  was  born  at  Arn- 
stadt,  Germany,  Dec.  25,  1825.  She  began 
life  as  a  public  singer,  but,  losing  her  voice 
soon  after,  for  some  years  she  lived  as 
companion  to  the  Princess  of  Schwarzburg- 
Sonderhausen,  who  had  in  earlier  life 
assisted  her.  In  1863  she  began  the  publi- 
cation of  those  serial  novels  which  made 
her  famous,  writing  for  Die  Gartenlaube,  an 
illustrated  journal.  Her  best-known  works 
are  Gold  Else;  Das  Geheimniss  der  Alien 
Mamsell  (translated  and  published  as  The 
Old  Ma'mselle's  Secret)  Reichs-grdfin  Gisela 
(Countess  Gisela) ;  Die  Zweite  Frau  (The 
Second  Wife) ;  Im  House  des  Kommer- 
zienrats;  and  Die  Frau  mit  den  Karfunkel- 
steinen.  Her  style  was  clever,  popular  and 
eminently  successful  in  winning  many 
readers,  although  her  works  were  severely 
criticised  by  those  usually  accepted  as 
authorities  in  literature.  She  died  on  June 
22,  1887. 

Marlowe  (mar1  Id),  Christopher,  the 
greatest  English  dramatist  before  Shakes- 
peare, was  a  shoemaker's  son,  and  was 
baptized  at  Canterbury,  Feb.  26,  1563  or 
1564.  He  studied  at  King's  School,  Canter- 
bury, and  at  Cambridge.  The  earliest  of 
his  plays  that  we  still  have  is  Tamburlaine 
the  Great,  which  was  probably  played  in 
1590.  In  spite  of  its  bombast  it  is  far 
ahead  of  any  tragedy  that  had  yet  appeared 
on  the  English  stage.  It  is  in  blank  verse, 
of  which  Marlowe  was  the  first  to  discover 
the  strength  and  variety.  Soon  after  was 
played  The  Tragical  History  of  Doctor 
Faustus.  Other  playwrights  have  made 
additions,  but  parts  show  Marlowe's  genius 
at  its  height,  especially  in  the  description 
of  Helen's  beauty.  Edward  II,  authorized 
to  be  played  about  1593,  is  the  ripest  of 
his  plays.  It  has  not  the  fine  poetry  of 
Faustus  and  the  first  two  acts  of  The  Jew 
of  Malta,  but  is  better  planned  and  more 
complete.  Edward  II  is  fully  equal  to 
Shakespeare's  Richard  HI.  Charles  Lamb 
said:  "The  death-scene  of  Marlowe's  king 
moves  pity  and  terror  beyond  any  scene, 


ancient  or  modern,  with  which  I  am  ac- 
quainted." There  seems  no  doubt  that 
Marlowe  had  a  hand  in  the  three  parts  of 
Henry  VI  and,  probably,  in  Titus  Andron- 
icus.  His  beautiful  poem,  Hero  and  Leander, 
was  left  unfinished.  Shakespeare  in  As  You 
Like  It  quoted  the  line:  "Who  ever  loved 
that  loved  not  at  first  sight?"  and  the 
watermen,  too,  sang  couplets  as  they  sculled 
the  Thames.  At  Deptford,  on  June  i,  1593, 
Marlowe  met  a  violent  death  in  a  quarrel 
with  a  serving-man. 

Marlowe,  Julia,  a  distinguished  American 
actress,  prominent  especially  in  Shakes- 
perian  roles,  was  born  at  Caldbeck,  Cumber- 
land, England,  in  1870,  and  came  with  her 
parents  to  America  in  1875.  She  played 
with  a  juvenile  company  at  the  early  age 
of  12.  Her  real  name  is  Sarah  Frances 
Frost;  but  she  was  known  on  the  stage 
for  a  time  as  Frances  Brough.  After  the 
age  of  1 6  she  studied  seriously  for  three 
years  for  the  stage  in  New  York.  In  Boston 
she  won  recognition  in  1888  as  a  star  in 
the  part  of  Parthenia  in  Ingomar.  She  has 
since  become  a  great  favorite  in  such  parts 
as  Rosalind  in  A  s  You  Like  It  and  Viola 
in  Twelfth  Night.  She  played  as  joint  star 
with  Sothern  during  several  seasons,  in- 
cluding an  English  season  in  1906-07.  She 
was  married  in  1894  to  Robert  Taber;  but 
secured  a  separation,  and  in  1899  a  divorce 
followed.  Miss  Marlowe  possesses  great 
charm  of  manner  and  variety  in  the  ex- 
pression of  histrionic  moods. 

Mar'mion,  Lord,  the  hero  of  Scott's 
romance  of  Marmion,  is  a  messenger  who 
has  been  sent  from  the  English  court  to 
James  IV,  the  warrior-king  of  Scotland. 
Lord  Marmion  arrives  in  time  to  see  the 
battle  of  Flodden  Field.  He  is  guided  by 
a  pilgrim  De  Wilton,  who  was  thought  to 
have  met  his  death  at  Marmion's  hand. 
Lord  Marmion  himself  meets  his  death  at 
Flodden;  but  De  Wilton's  love  and  fate  are 
more  happy.  The  description  of  the  battle 
is  told  in  the  forceful  if  rugged  meter  which 
Scott  affected;  and,  from  the  point  of  view 
of  clearness  of  detail  and  spirited  apprecia- 
tion is  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  battle- 
poetry.  The  poem  was  written  in  1808. 

Marmont  (mdr'mon' ),  Auguste  Frederic 
Louis  Viesse  de,  was  born  at  Chatillon- 
sur-Seine,  France,  July  20,  1774.  He  entered 
the  army  when  quite  young  and  met 
Napoleon  at  Toulon.  He  commanded 
Napoleon's  artillery  at  Marengo,  after  which 
he  became  general  of  division.  In  1805  he 
defeated  the  Russians  at  Castelnuova  and 
was  made  duke  of  Ragusa.  In  1809  he 
won  the  battle  of  Znaim  and  was  made  a 
marshal.  He  was  defeated  by  Wellington 
at  Salamanca.  In  1813  he  commanded  a 
corps  at  Ltitzen,  Bautzen  and  Dresden,  but 
in  the  beginning  of  1814  was  forced  to 
make  a  truce  with  Barclay  de  Tolly,  which 
obliged  Napoleon  to  give  up  his  throne. 


MARMOKA 


"75 


MARQUETTE 


For  this  the  Bonapartists  called  him  a 
traitor.  He  took  no  further  part  in  affairs 
till  the  Revolution  of  1830,  when  at  the 
head  of  a  body  of  troops  he  tried  to  capture 
Paris,  and  with  the  few  battalions  that 
remained  faithful  to  the  royalist  cause  he 
carried  Charles  X  across  the  frontier.  He 
died  at  Venice,  March  2,  1852,  the  last  of 
the  marshals  of  the  first  empire.  His 
M&moires  have  been  published. 

Marmora  ( mdr'md-rd),  Sea  of,  called 
the  Propontis  in  early  times,  separates 
European  from  Asiatic  Turkey  and  joins 
the  ^gean  Sea  by  the  Dardanelles  (for- 
merly the  Hellespont)  with  the  Black  Sea 
by  the  Bosporus.  It  is  an  oval  175  miles 
long  and  50  broad.  It  covers  4,499  square 
miles,  and  its  greatest  depth  is  4,250  feet. 
The  Gulf  of  Ismid  reaches  about  30  miles 
eastward  into  Asia.  There  are  several 
islands;  the  largest,  Marmora,  is  famous  for 
its  quarries  of  marble  and  alabaster. 

Marmoset  (mdr'mo-zet'),  a  small  monkey 
of  squirrel-like  appearance  inhabiting  South 
America.  The  headquarters  of  the  family 
is  Brazil.  Marmosets  are  the  smallest  of 
the  monkey  tribe  and  the  lowest  of  the 
Anthropoidea,  the  group  which  contains 
monkeys,  baboons  and  higher  apes.  They 
have  a  furry  coat  and  a  bushy  tail,  which 
is  not  prehensile.  See  MONKEY. 

Mar'mot  (mar' mot),  a  burrowing  animal 
belonging  to  the  group  of  ground-squirrels. 
The  common  marmot  is  an  European  form 
inhabiting  the  Alps,  Pyrenees  and  other 
more  northern  mountains.  The  ground- 
hogs or  woodchucks,  so  generally  distributed 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  belong 
to  the  group.  They  are  the  largest  and 
heaviest  animals  of  the  squirrel  family. 
They  are  about  two  feet  long  and  covered 
with  long  coarse  hair.  Their  ears  are  small, 
and  their  tails  short  and  bushy.  When 


ALPINE    MARMOT 


numerous,  woodchucks  are  a  great  pest, 
eating  nearly  everything  green  and  being 
difficult  to  exterminate.  There  are  three 
species  in  North  America  —  the  ground  hog 
proper,  the  yellow-bellied  marmot  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  large,  hoary 
marmot  further  north.  The  prairie-dogs 
also  are  marmots.  See  PRAIRIE-DOG. 


Maroons  (md-roon'z),  the  name  formerly 
applied  in  Jamaica  and  Guiana  to  escaped 
negro  slaves.  When  the  British  won  Jamaica 
from  the  Spaniards  in  1655,  many  slaves 
fled  to  the  mountains.  They  and  their 
descendants  kept  up  a  protracted  warfare 
with  the  colonists  for  140  years;  but  in 
1795  they  were  conquered  and  part  of  them 
taken  to  Nova  Scotia  and,  afterward,  to 
Sierra  Leone.  The  Maroons  of  Guiana,  who 
are  generally  called  bush-negroes,  about 
4,000  altogether,  form  a  number  of  inde- 

Sndent  bodies.  See  Dallas'  History  of  the 
aroons. 

Marque  (mark)  and  Repris'al,  Letters 
of,  are  commissions  which  may  be  granted 
by  a  state  in  time  of  war  to  vessels  which 
are  the  property  of  private  individuals, 
giving  them  authority  to  wage  war  upon 
the  enemy.  The  origin  of  the  term  marque 
is  variously  attributed  to  the  fact  that  per- 
mission is  given  to  wage  war  beyond  the 
march,  mark  or  border;  and  to  the  French 
term  lettres  de  marque,  meaning  stamped  or 
marked  letters.  Vessels  sailing  under  letters 
of  marque  are  known  as  privateers.  The 
practice  is  now  discouraged  by  international 
law,  but  not  prohibited.  Privateers  are 
objectionable  because  their  actions  scarcely 
affect  the  naval  situation,  since  their  opera- 
tions are  directed  solely  against  helpless 
merchantmen;  they  therefore  do  much 
damage  to  little  purpose.  They  also  are 
objectionable  because  of  the  reckless  and 
often  criminal  character  of  their  crews  and 
their  tendency  towards  sheer  piracy.  The 
War  of  1812  between  America  and  England 
illustrated  the  mischievous  practice  of 
issuing  promiscuous  letters  of  marque. 

Marquesas  ( mdr-kd' sds)  Islands  are  a 
group  in  Polynesia  (the  southern  Pacific) 
belonging  to  France.  This  group  includes 
four  or  five  islands  discovered  by  Mendana 
in  1595  and  the  Washington  group  of  seven 
islands  discovered  by  Ingraham  in  1797. 
The  Marquesas  cover  480  square  miles, 
and  are  volcanic.  In  the  time  of  Captain 
Cook  the  natives  numbered  100,000;  by 
1838  there  were  but  20,000 ;  and  now  there  are 
only  some  4,300.  They  perhaps  are  the 
finest  race  of  brown  Polynesians,  courteous 
but  cruel  and  revengeful. 

Marquette  (mdr'kct' ),  Jacques,  a  French 
explorer  and  missionary  in  America,  was 
born  at  Laon  in  1637.  When  17  he  be- 
came a  Jesuit,  and  in  1666  was  sent  to 
Canada.  He  studied  some  of  the  Indian 
languages  in  the  neighborhood  of  Three 
Rivers,  and  founded  the  mission  at  Sault 
Ste.  Marie.  He  next  preached  among  the 
Hurons  and  Ottawas,  and,  when  they  were 
scattered  by  the  Sioux,  followed  them  to 
Mackinaw,  where  he  built  a  chapel.  He 
had  heard  of  the  Mississippi  from  the  In- 
dians, and  in  1673  was  sent  to  explore  it  by 
Frontenac,  the  governor  of  Canada,  together 
with  Louis  Joliet.  With  five  other  French- 


MARQUETTE 


1176 


MARSEILLES 


men  they  left  Mackinaw  in  two  canoes  on 
May  iy,  and  reached  the  Mississippi  on 
June  17,  by  way  of  Green  Bay,  Fox  River 
and  a  short  postage  to  the  Wisconsin. 
Near  the  moutn  of  the  Ohio  they  found 
Europeans  and  weie  told  by  the  Indians 
that  it  was  not  more  the  n  ten  days'  journey 
to  the  sea.  They  ther.  went  as  far  as  an 
Indian  village,  probably  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Arkansas,  and  now  felt  sure  that 
they  were  not  more  than  two  01  three  days' 
journey  from  the  mouth.  They  also  were 
certain  that  the  river  emptied  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  not,  as  had  been  thought, 
in  Virginia  or  California.  Not  wishing  to 
be  captured  by  the  Spaniards,  they  pointed 
their  canoes  upstream.  They  reached 
Mackinaw  by  way  of  the  Illinois  in  Septem- 
ber, having  covered  a  distance  of  2,500 
miles.  On  the  way  back  Pere  Marquette 
had  promised  the  Kaskaskia  Indians  to 
come  and  preach  to  them,  and  after  a  year's 
sickness  he  set  out  for  their  country  in 
October,  1674.  Sickness  forced  him,  how- 
ever, to  winter  on  the  Chicago,  and  he  did 
not  reach  the  Indian  village  till  the  spring 
of  1675.  He  had  hardly  begun  his  mission 
when  he  became  certain  he  could  not  live 
much  longer,  and  set  out  to  go  back.  He 
only  got  as  far  as  the  little  river  flowing 
into  Lake  Michigan,  which  bears  his  name, 
where  he  died.  The  story  of  his  voyage  and 
missionary  journeys  is  told  in  Shea's  Discov- 
ery and  Exploration  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Marquette,  a  town  in  Marquette  County, 
Michigan,  is  situated  420  miles  north  of 
Chicago  on  the  southern  shore  of  Lake 
Superior.  Iron-ore  is  mined  and  shipped 
in  great  quantities,  besides  being  used  in 
its  furnaces  and  foundries.  It  also  has 
sawmills,  machine-shops  and  a  slate-quarry. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  Catholic  bishopric.  Popu- 
lation 11,503. 

Marryat  (mar'ri-at),  Frederick,  English 
novelist  and  captain  in  the  navy,  was  born 
in  Westminster  on  July  10,  1792.  In  1806 
he  went  to  sea  as  midshipman  under  the 
famous  Captain  (Lord)  Cochrane.  He  saw 
active  and  dangerous  service  off  France 
and  Spain  and  on  the  Mediterranean,  and 
rose  to  be  a  commander  when  but  23.  He 
gave  up  the  command  of  the  28-gun  frigate, 
Ariadne,  in  1830,  and  the  remainder  of  his 
life  was  spent  as  a  writer.  In  1837  Marryat 
made  a  tour  of  the  United  States  and  stayed 
two  years.  As  a  writer  of  sea-stories  he  has 
no  superior.  Aside  from  Dickens,  no  Eng- 
lish novelist  has  awakened  heartier  and 
more  honest  laughter.  His  books  became 
immensely  popular  as  soon  as  they  appeared, 
and  will  always  be  the  delight  of  boyhood. 
Mr.  Midshipman  Easy,  Jacob  Faithful, 
Frank  Mildmay,  Peter  Simple  and  The 
Phantom  Ship  are  perhaps  the  best.  Mar- 
ryat died  from  overwork  at  Langham,  Nor- 
folk, Aug.  9  1848.  See  Life  ana  Letters  by 
Florence  Marryat,  his  daughter. 


Mars,  the  war-god  of  the  Romans,  is 
identified  with  Ares,  the  war-god  of  the 
Greeks.  He  was  regarded  as  the  father  of 
the  Romans,  through  Romulus,  and  was 
worshipped  by  them  with  great  honor. 
To  the  Romans  he  was  a  god  of  nature  and 
fertility,  as  well  as  of  the  vigor  of  war. 
Thus  March  (Lat.  Martins),  the  beginning 
of  spring,  is  given  his  name.  But  the 
Greeks  thought  of  Mars  as  a  sender  of  war 
and  pestilence,  a  quarrelsome,  unlovely 
god.  He  was  not  widely  worshipped  in 
Greece;  although  the  Areopagus,  the  sacred 
hill  of  Athens,  was  named  from  Ares.  The 
Romans  had  a  spear  and  shield  as  emblems  of 
Mars,  said  to  have  fallen  from  heaven;  and 
the  woodpecker  and  the  wolf  also  were 
symbols  held  characteristic  of  the  god. 

Mars.    See  PLANETS. 

Marseillaise  ( mdr'sd'ydz' )  La,  the  stir- 
ring song  or  hymn  of  the  French  republicans, 
was  written  in  1792  by  Rouget  de  Lisle,  a 

S)ung  officer  then  stationed  at  Strassburg. 
e  composed  both  words  and  music  one 
night  in  April,  after  dining  with  the  mayor 
of  the  city.  He  called  it  a  Song  of  the 
Army  of  the  Rhine.  It  was  quickly  carried 
by  the  revolutionists  to  the  chief  cities. 
It  was  brought  to  Paris  by  the  volunteers 
of  Marseilles,  who  sang  it  as  they  entered 
the  city  and  when  they  marched  on  the 
Tuileries.  So  the  Parisians  called  it  La 
Marseillaise.  Forbidden  to  be  sung  during 
the  restoration  and  the  second  empire,  it 
again  became  the  national  hymn  on  the 
outbreak  of  the  Franco-Prussian  War. 

Marseilles  ( mar-salz?) ,  the  second  city 
of  France,  is  situated  on  the  Mediterranean 
about  27  miles  east  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Rhdne.  It  is  the  chief  trade-port  of  France. 
The  chief  industry  is  the  making  of  soap, 
vegetable-oils  and  oil-cake.  Soda,  sugar, 
macaroni,  iron,  lead,  zinc,  ties  and  leather 
are  also  manufactured.  There  are  large 
flour-mills  and  wine-vaults,  and  much 
fishing  is  done.  The  city  is  mainly  built 
on  the  slopes  overlooking  the  harbor.  Its 
chief  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  two  in- 
teresting early  churches,  the  health-office 
of  the  port,  the  museum,  the  Longchamp 
palace  and  the  public  library.  There  also 
are  a  botanical  and  zoological  garden,  an 
observatory  and  many  special  schools. 
Marseilles  was  the  birthplace  of  Thiers. 
It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of  France,  and 
was  founded  by  Phoceans  (Greek  colonists) 
from  Asia  Minor  about  600  B.  C.  For  900 
years  it  was  a  center  of  Greek  civilization. 
It  sided  with  the  Romans  against  Carthage, 
its  rival,  and  with  Pompey  against  Caesar, 
who  stormed  it  in  49  B.  C.  It  was  held 
in  turn  by  the  Saracens,  Charles  of  Anjou 
and  Alphonso  V  of  Aragon,  and  came  into 
the  hands  of  Henry  III  of  France  in  1575. 
Its  trade  has  grown  rapidly  since  the  French 
conquest  of  Algiers  and  the  opening  of 
Suez  Canal.  Population,  550,619. 


MARSH 


"77 


MARSUPIALS 


Marsh,  George  Perkins,  an  American 
philologist  and  diplomat,  was  born  at  Wood- 
stock, Vermont,  March  15,  1801,  and  died 
at  Vallombrosa,  Italy,  July,  24,  1882. 

Marshall,  Thomas  Riley,  elected  Vice 
President  with  Mr.  Wilson  on  the  Democratic 
ticket  in  1 9 1 2 ,  was  born  at  North  Manchester, 
Indiana,  March  14,  1854.  He  graduated  at 
Wabash  College  in  1873  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1874.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
politics  and  was  elected  governor  of  Indiana 
m  1908.  He  belongs  to  the  progressive 
element  of  his  party,  but  pointed  out  in  an 
interesting  contribution  to  the  Atlantic 
Monthly,  on  "The  Automatic  Citizen,"  the 
danger  of  attempting  reform  by  too  much 
legislation.  He  is  a  grand-nephew  of  John 
Marshall,  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States, 
and  a  descendant  of  Charles  Carroll,  one  of 
the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. 

Mar'shall,  John,  chief-justice  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Fauquier  County, 
Va.,  Sept.  24, 
1755.  His  law- 
studies  were  in- 
terrupted by  the 
Revolution,  and 
he  served  in  the 
army  under  his 
father  from  1775 
to  1779.  In  1781 
he  began  to  prac- 
tice law,  and 
soon  rose  to  the 
head  of  the  Vir- 
ginian bar.  He 
was  a  member 
of  the  Virginian 
house  of  bur- 
gesses, the  state 

legislature  and  the  state  convention  that 
adopted  the  constitution.  He  was  sent  to 
France  with  Pinckney  and  Gerry  as  envoys 
in  1797,  and  with  Pinckney  was  ordered  to 
leave  the  country  when  they  had  declined 
Tallyrand's  request  for  a  loan.  In  1799  he 
was  elected  to  Congress,  and  in  1800  became 
secretary  of  state.  He  was  made  chief- 
justice  of  the  United  States  in  1801,  holding 
his  position  till  his  death  on  July  6,  1835. 
His  decisions  are  considered  authoritative 
on  all  matters  of  constitutional  law.  He 
wrote  a  Life  of  Washington.  See  Life  by 
Magruder  in  the  American  Statesmen 
Series. 

Mar'shalltown,  the  county-seat  of  Mar- 
shall County,  la.,  near  Iowa  River,  50  miles 
northeast  of  Des  Moines,  with  a  large  trade 
in  grain.  It  also  has  foundries,  machine- 
shops  and  manufactories  of  soap,  flour,  oil 
and  wire-fencing,  furnaces,  engines,  scales, 
brick  and  tile.  Besides,  it  has  a  pork-pack- 
ery.  Population  12,100. 

Marsh'mallow,  a  class  of  plants  with 
showy  flowers,  natives  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
The  common  marshmallow  grows  in  salt 


JOHN     MARSHALL 


marshes  on  our  eastern  coast.  The  whole 
plant  is  wholesome,  abounding  in  fiber, 
mucilage,  starch  and  sugary  matter,  though 
the  mucilage  is  chiefly  in  the  roots.  The 
famous  confection,  marshmallow  paste,  is 
made  from  the  roots.  The  plant  is  a  close 
relative  of  the  hollyhock,  bushy  and  leafy, 
and  grows  to  a  height  of  from  two  to  four 
feet.  The  downy  leaves  are  broad,  alternate, 
ovate  or  heart-shaped.  The  flowers  grow 
in  clusters  and  are  of  a  pale  rose-color, 
blooming  in  August  and  September. 

Mar'ston  Moor,  an  historic  plain,  seven 
miles  west  of  York,  England,  was  the  scene 
of  a  great  victory  of  the  parliamentary 
forces  on  July  2,  1644  over  the  royalist 
army  of  Charles  I  in  the  Civil  War.  Twenty - 
two  thousand  royalists  were  led  by  Prince 
Rupert.  The  parliamentary  troops  were 
under  the  Earl  of  Manchester,  Cromwell 
and  Crawford,  in  all  15,000  foot  and  9,000 
horse.  The  royalists  fled,  leaving  4,000 
men  dead  on  the  field.  This  victory  gave 
the  whole  north  to  the  parliament,  and  first 
brought  Cromwell  into  notice.  See  S.  R. 
Gardiner's  History  of  the  Civil  War. 

Mar'ston,  Philip  Bourke,  one  of  the 
best-known  of  the  younger  late-day  English 
poets,  was  born  at  London  in  1850.  Philip 
was  a  pretty  child,  and  it  was  to  him  that 
his  godmother,  the  author  of  John  Halifax, 
addressed  her  well-known  poem  beginning: 

Look  at  me  with  thy  large  brown  eyes, 
Philip,  my  king. 

Yet  those  Handsome  eyes  went  out  into 
utter  darkness,  the  result  of  a  blow  on  one 
of  them,  got  in  a  baby  romp  when  Philip 
was  but  three.  The  blind  boy  began  to 
write  when  he  had  hardly  left  off  his  bibs. 
At  his  father's  house  he  met  and  well  knew 
Browning,  Swinburne,  Dickens,  Miss  Muloch, 
Rossetti  and  many  others.  When  of  age 
his  first  book  was  published,  Song  Tide, 
sung  in  praise  of  his  sweetheart.  Three  years 
later  appeared  his  second  book,  All  in  All, 
telling  of  his  great  grief  for  the  death  of 
this  same  betrothed.  His  last  volume, 
Wind  Voices,  is  considered  his  best.  Mar- 
stpn's  poetry  has  pleased  readers  and 
critics  alike,  and  much  of  it  will  live  and  be 
remembered.  Marston  died  on  Feb.  13, 
1887. 

Marsupials  (mdr-su'pt-als),  an  order  of 
the  class  Mammalia,  embracing  animals 
with  a  pouch  or  marsupium  for  containing 
the  young.  The  pouch  is  a  fold  of  skin  on 
the  ventral  surface  of  the  body.  The  young 
are  born  in  a  very  rudimentary  condition, 
and  are  attached  to  the  nipples  of  the  breasts 
shielded  by  the  pouch.  They  are  of  limited 
geographical  range,  but  formerly,  as  shown 
by  fossils,  occurred  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  globe.  All  except  the  opossum  belong 
to  the  Australian  region.  The  opossum 
lives  in  South  America  and  the  southern 
part  of  the  United  States.  Besides  opossums 
the  principal  kinds  of  marsupials  are  kan- 


MARTEN 


1178 


MARTIAL 


garoos,  wombats,  ndtive  bears,  bandicoots, 
Tasmanian  devils  and  pouched  dogs. 

Mar' ten  ( mcir'/r-n ) ,  the  common  name  for 
a  number  of  closely  related  animals  widely 

known  on  ac- 
count of  their 
fur.  All  belong 
to  the  genus 
Mustela.  Be- 
sides fur  bear- 
ing the  name  of 
marten,  all  sa- 
bles come  from 
these  animals. 
They  are  abun- 
dant  in  the 
PINE-MARTEN  northern  p  o  r  - 

tion  of  the  Old 

and  New  Worlds.  They  have  long,  slender 
bodies  and  short  legs,  and  live  mostly  on 
trees.  They  run  about  upon  the  trees,  leap- 
ing from  one  to  another,  much  like  squirrels. 
Their  outer  fur  is  long  and  glossy,  and  they 
have  abundant,  soft,  under-fur.  The  Asiatic 
sable  furnishes  tne  celebrated  sable,  one  of 
the  best  furs.  "A  single  skin  of  a  Russian 
crown  sable  with  its  natural,  dark,  bloomy 
black  will  fetch  $200.  Of  such,  a  muff 
and  boa  would  be  worth  $2,000,  but  sets 
of  inferior  quality  may  be  bought  for  $250." 
The  best  skins  come  from  Yakutsk,  Kam- 
chatka and  Russian  Lapland.  The  skins 
are  in  their  best  condition  from  November 
to  January.  In  North  America  there  are 
two  species  of  marten,  witn  a  variety  of 
local  names.  The  pine-marten  or  American 
sable,  similar  to  the  pine-marten  of  Europe, 
is  about  the  size  of  the  large  house-cat,  with 
soft,  deep  fur  of  rich  brown,  lighter-colored 
below,  a  tawny  spot  on  the  throat.  It  is 
fond  of  forests  far  from  the  habitation  of 
man,  and  shows  special  liking  for  pine-trees. 
Its  range  is  the  northern  woods,  but  even 
there  it  now  is  rare.  It  feeds  upon  birds 
and  animals.  It  multiplies  rapidly,  there 
being  six  kittens  to  a  litter.  For  a  nest  it 
often  makes  use  of  one  deserted  by  wood- 
peckers or  squirrels;  snuggling  in  the  soft 
lining  with  only  its  head  emerging,  it  looks 
out  with  alert  inquisitiveness  upon  what  is 
going  on.  The  black  marten,  black  fox, 
fisher  or  pekan,  as  it  is  variously  called, 
is  the  largest  of  the  group,  being  from  two 
to  three  feet  long  with  a  tail  one  foot.  It 
h«.s  no  immediate  relatives  in  the  Old  World. 
In  color  it  is  grayish-brown  with  dark  mark- 
ings, has  a  bushy  tail  tipped  with  black. 
It  is  bold,  strong  and  aggressive,  a  skilful 
hunter;  it  kills  bear-cubs  and  the  Canadian 
porcupine.  It  is  successful  in  stealing  bait 
from  traps,  and  is  a  nuisance  to  trappers. 
Its  fare  includes  dead  fish,  rabbits,  squirrels, 
chipmunks,  ground  birds,  snakes,  frogs  and 
toads,  and  it  relishes  beechnuts  and  catnip. 
This  largest  of  our  martens,  too,  belongs  to 
the  northern  woods,  occurs  southward  in 
the  Alleghanies,  and  shows  preference  for 


regions  of  hemlock  and  spruce.  The  stone- 
marten  is  another  variety,  with  hair  inclined 
to  grayish  and  pure  white  on  the  breast. 

Mar'tha.  Opera  in  three  acts,  music  by 
Friedrich  Freiherr  von  Flotow  (1812-1883). 
Remodelled  from  a  ballet  and  first  produced 
in  Vienna,  Nov.  25,  1847,  whence  its  fame 
spread  all  over  the  world.  A  prominent 
feature  of  the  opera  is  the  introduction  of 
the  air,  The  Last  Rose  of  Summer.  Von 
Flotow's  greatest  success  was  achieved  in 
Martha  and  Slradella,  its  predecessor.  His 
work  is  light  and  melodious,  enlivened  by 
flashes  of  comedy  and  lively  rhythms,  more 
akin  to  the  French  than  the  German  school, 
but  devoid  of  qualities  that  insure  per- 
manence. The  scene  is  laid  at  Richmond, 
England,  in  the  time  of  Queen  Anne,  though 
the  Italian  version  places  it  in  the  fifteenth 
century  and  the  French  in  the  nineteenth. 

Mar'tha's  Vine'yard,  an  island  off  the 
southeastern  coast  of  Massachusetts,  is  21 
miles  long  and  six  wide,  and  forms  Dukes 
County,  Mass.  It  was  discovered  by  Gosnold 
in  1602,  and  named  by  him;  settled  in  1642 
by  an  English  merchant;  and  from  1664  to 
1692  belonged  to  New  York.  It  has  a  light- 
house on  Gayhead,  and  is  popular  as  a 
summer  resort.  The  chief  towns  are  Edgar- 
town,  Cottage  City,  Vineyard  Haven  and 
Tisbury.  The  island  is  separated  from  Nan- 
tucket  by  Muskeget  Channel. 

Mar'tial  Law  is  an  arbitrary  rule  which 
may  supersede  municipal  or  state  law  by 
the  sanction  of  the  executive  instead  of 
the  legislative  power.  A  state  of  martial 
law  may  be  declared  in  America  by  the 
president  in  time  of  danger;  and  it  is  gen- 
erally held  that  the  president  is  the  sole 
judge  whether  the  danger  is  sufficiently 
great  to  justify  the  proclamation  of  martial 
law.  The  hostile  occupation  of  a  territory 
necessarily  involves  a  state  of  martial  law, 
until  the  commander-in-chief  removes  this 
state  by  proclamation.  Martial  law  is  not 
exactly  military  law,  which  has  a  sanction 
and  limits  under  the  constitution;  it  is  a 
temporary  suspension  of  constitutional  law. 
The  American  constitution  provides  that 
the  principle  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be 
suspended  unless  the  general  welfare,  as 
in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion,  may  de- 
mand it.  This  is  an  indirect  admission  that 
martial  law  may  be  necessary  in  certain 
cases.  Martial  law  may  be  more  or  less 
stringent  according  to  necessity.  It  is 
usually  administered  by  military  courts; 
but  the  proclamation  is  sometimes  made 
that  civil  and  criminal  cases  shall  be  tried 
according  to  the  customary  principles  of 
administration.  In  the  United  States  the 
principal  test  of  martial  law  occurred  in 
connection  with  the  war  and  reconstruc- 
tion in  the  south  (See  RECONSTRUCTION  IN 
THE  So  TH). 

Mar'tial,  Marcus  Valerius  Martialis, 
one  ot  the  finest  among  the  few  Latin  poets 


MARTIN 


"79 


MARX 


who  did  not  borrow  from  the  Greeks  and 
the  greatest  of  all  epigrammatists  in  verse, 
was  oorn  at  Bilbilis,  Spain,  March  i,  38  or 
41  A.  D.  After  studying  at  home  he  went 
to  Rome,  where  Piso,  Seneca  and  other 
leading  men  became  his  patrons.  After  34 
years  in  Rome  the  younger  Pliny  lent  him 
money  enough  to  go  back  to  Spain,  for 
which  he  was  homesick.  Here,  at  Bilbilis, 
a  new  patron  gave  him  an  estate  on  which, 
with  its  grove,  fountain,  vineyard,  garden, 
fishpond  and  dovecote,  he  spent  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  comfortably.  As  an 
epigrammatist  he  remains  without  an  equal. 
He  lifts  the  \eil  from  the  Rome  of  the  time 
of  Domitian  and  shows  it  mainly  on  its 
seamy  side,  with  a  likeness  to  life  not  out- 
done by  the  engravings  of  Hogarth.  Martial 
died  in  104  A.  D. 

Mar'tin,  the  common  name  for  certain 
large  swallows  found  in  Europe  and  America. 
The  North  American  form  is  often  called 
the  purple  martin  on  account  of  the  color 
of  its  upper  parts;  glossy,  iridescent  black, 
reflections  purple  and  blue.  Like  other 
swallows,  it  has  long  wings  and  a  deeply- 
forked  tail;  unlike  swallows  generally,  its 
note  is  soft  and  musical.  The  bird  is  dis- 
tributed throughout  North  America,  win- 
ters far  down  in  South  America,  and 
migrates  late  in  April  and  early  in  Septem- 
ber. It  nests  near  houses,  and  where  boxes 
are  placed  for  it  will  occupy  the  same  shelter 
year  after  year.  Once  these  boxes  were  the 
rule  about  every  farmhouse,  and  familiar 
to  almost  every  farmer-boy  was  the  grace- 
ful circling  of  the  invited  bird  above  the 
kindly-prepared  home;  but  the  English 
sparrow,  that  robber  and  destroyer  of  peace, 
has  taken  possession  of  the  martins'  houses, 
and  chased  the  desired  bird  away  from 
neighboring  with  man.  In  the  south  the 
negroes  hang  gourds  about  their  cabins  for 
the  martins,  knowing  that  these  plucky 
little  birds  will  fight  intruding  hawk  or 
crow,  and  thus  will  protect  their  chicken- 
yard.  Martins'  eggs  are  white.  The  number 
of  injurious  insects  destroyed  by  these  birds 
is  enormous  —  in  the  height  of  their  activity, 
probably  several  hundred  every  day  for 
each  bird.  The  European  house-martin  is 
similar  in  habits.  bee  Blanchan's  Bird 
Neighbors. 

Martineau  (mar' ti-no),  Harriet,  was  born 
at  Norwich,  England,  June  12,  1802.  Her 
father  was  a  manufacturer  and  gave  her  a 
good  education.  Before  she  was  20  she 
began  to  write  for  the  magazines,  and  in 
1829  the  failure  of  the  firm  in  which  she 
and  her  mother  and  sisters  had  placed  their 
money  obliged  her  to  earn  her  own  living. 
A  series  of  stories,  Illustrations  of  Political 
Economy,  which  she  brought  out  in  1832. 
made  her  widely  known.  In  1834  she  came 
to  America  for  two  years,  and  soon  after 
published  Society  in  America.  Among  her 
books  are  four  volumes  of  children's  tales; 


Forest  and  Game-Law  Tales;  Laws  of  Man's 
Social  Nature  and  Development:  Deerbrook; 
and  Biographical  Sketches.  One  or  ner  most 
important  works  was  the  careful  transla- 
tion of  Comte's  Positive  Philosophy.  Miss 
Martineau  was  a  vigorous  thinker,  seeing 
clearly  and  saying  clearly  what  she  had  to 
say.  She  died  in  Westmoreland  on  June 
27,  1876.  See  her  Autobiography 

Martineau,  James,  an  Englishman,  a 
Unitarian  minister  and  an  author  of 
note,  was  born  at  Norwich  on  April  21, 
1825.  He  was  a  brother  of  Harriet  Mar- 
tineau. He  was  educated  at  private  schools, 
and  was  ordained  by  the  synod  of  Munster, 
Ireland,  in  1828.  Dr.  Martineau  gradually 
moved  farther  and  farther  from  the  stand- 
ards of  the  synod,  but  claimed  to  tne  last 
to  be  a  Presbyterian  minister.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  philosophy  in  Man- 
chester New  College  and,  later,  principal, 
serving  in  this  institution  from  1840  to 
1886.  He  followed  the  college  when  it 
moved  to  London  in  1857.  He  was  a 
voluminous  writer,  chiefly  upon  philosoph- 
ical and  religious  themes,  his  best-known 
works  being  The  Rationale  of  Religious  In- 

¥iiry;  Endeavors  after  the  Christian  Life; 
ypes  of  Ethical  Theory ;  A  Study  of  Re- 
ligion; and  The  Relations  Between  Ethics 
and  Religion.  He  died  at  London,  Jan. 
it,  1900. 

Martinique  (mdr'tt-nek'),  a  colony  of 
France  in  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  in  the 
West  Indies.  It  is  43  miles  long,  from  12 
to  20  broad,  and  covers  380  square  miles. 
The  island  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1493,  settled  by  the  French  in  1635,  and, 
except  for  three  short  intervals  when  held 
by  the  British,  has  since  1635  been  a  French 
colony.  A  high,  thickly-wooded  ridge  runs 
from  north  to  south.  The  coast  is  high 
and  indented,  except  on  the  west,  where 
are  the  main  trading  town,  St.  Pierre  (popu- 
lation 24,000),  and  the  capital,  Fort-de- 
France  (population  27,069),  which  was 
nearly  ruined  by  fire  in  1890.  Half  the  land 
tilled  is  given  to  sugarcane;  the  other  chief 
crops  are  manioc,  sweet  potatoes  and 
bananas.  The  principal  exports  are  sugar, 
molasses,  cocoa,  coffee  and  rum.  In  1905 
the  exports  amounted  to  18,069,422  francs. 
There  is  a  force  of  French  troops  consisting 
of  781  European  officers  and  men.  There 
are  17  sugar- works  and  118  rum-distilleries. 
Besides  a  law-school  at  Fort-de-France,  with 
1 66  students,  there  are  three  secondary 
schools  (8 3 6 pupils), a  normal  school  and  109 
primary  schools  with  11,589  pupils.  Popu- 
lation 182,024;  but  only  12,000  are  whites. 

Marvel,  Ik.  See  MITCHELL,  DONALD 
GRANT. 

Marx,  Karl,  German  socialist,  was  born 
at  Treves,  Prussia,  May  5,  1818.  It  was 
at  first  intended  that  he  should  be  a  lawyer, 
but  at  the  Universities  of  Bonn  and  Berlin 
he  gave  most  of  his  time  to  history  and 


MARY  THE  VIRGIN 


1180 


MARY  QUEEN  OF  SCOTS 


philosophy.  In  1842  be  became  editor  of 
a  democratic  newspaper,  the  Rhenish  Gazette. 
In  1843  he  went  to  Paris,  then  the  head- 
quarters of  socialism.  He  soon  began  the 
writing  and  labor  for  the  advancement  of 
socialism  which  made  the  work  of  his  life. 
Driven  from  France  in  1845,  he  settled  in 
Brussels,  where  he  wrote  his  attack  on 
Proudhon's  philosophy.  His  chief  work  at 
Brussels  was  the  reorganization  of  the  com- 
munistic league,  for  which  he  wrote  the 
famous  Manifesto.  Marx  took  an  active 
part  in  the  Revolution  of  1848,  and  after 
its  failure  settled  in  London.  In  1859  he 
published  his  Criticism  of  Political  Economy, 
which  showed  a  remarkable  knowledge  of 
the  economic  growth  of  modern  Europe. 
He  was  foremost  in  founding  the  Inter- 
national Society.  His  greatest  book,  Cap- 
ital, came  out  in  1867.  This  book,  as  also 
his  other  works,  shows  him  to  have  been 
a  man  of  wonderful  knowledge  handled  with 
masterly  skill.  Marx,  much  more  than  any 
other  man,  influenced  the  labor  movement 
throughout  the  world.  He  died  at  London, 
March  14, 1883.  See  LABOR  and  SOCIALISM. 

Mary  the  Virgin,  the  mother  of  Jesus,  is 
held  in  high  honor  by  all  Christians.  Of 
her  life  but  little  is  known.  It  is  implied 
in  Matthew  that  she  was  of  the  same  family 
as  her  husband  and  a  descendant  of  David. 
She  is  mentioned  but  a  few  times  in  the 
New  Testament,  and  almost  always  with 
reference  to  her  relations  to  Christ.  The 
last  notice  of  her  is  of  her  "persevering  in 
prayer"  with  the  disciples  and  the  holy 
women  at  Jerusalem  after  Christ's  ascen- 
sion. A  letter  speaks  of  her  as  having  lived 
with  John  at  Ephesus,  where  she  died  and 
was  buried.  Another  letter  asserts  that  she 
died  and  was  buried  at  the  foot  of  the 
Mount  of  Olives.  The  story  is  also  told  of 
the  apostles  coming  to  her  tomb  on  the 
third  day  after  her  burial,  and  finding  the 
tomb  empty  but  breathing  out  an  "exceed- 
ing sweet  fragrance."  In  art  she  is  usually 
indicated  by  the  term  The  Madonna;  in 
ecclesiastical  phrase  as  Mary  the  Virgin. 
The  date  of  her  death  is  commonly  fixed 
at  48  or  63  A.  D. 

Mary  I  of  England,  daughter  of  Henry 
VIII  and  Catherine  of  Aragon,  was  born 
at  Greenwich  Palace  on  Feb.  18,  1516.  She 
is  usually  known  as  Mary  Tudor.  When 
a  girl  she  was  a  great  favorite  with  her 
father,  and  was  devoted  to  her  mother  and 
church.  When  her  mother  was  divorced, 
Henry  treated  her  harshly,  and  during  her 
half-brother  Edward's  reign  she  lived  in 
retirement.  But  no  threats  could  make 
her  conform  to  the  English  church.  On 
the  death  of  Edward,  July  6,  1553,  Mary 
became  entitled  to  the  crown.  Though  Lady 
Jane  was  declared  queen,  the  whole  country 
favored  Mary,  who  was  able  without  blood- 
shed to  enter  London  in  triumph  on  Aug.  3. 
The  queen  showed  remarkable  leniency  to- 


ward her  enemies.  She  sought  gradually  and 
carefully  to  bring  back  the  Roman  religion. 
A  few  leading  reformers  were  imprisoned, 
but  there  persecution  stopped.  Queen 
Mary's  reign  was  ruined  by  her  marriage 
to  Philip  II  of  Spain.  The  proposal  caused 
Wyatt's  rebellion.  This  rising  was  put 
down  and  Jane  Grey  was,  with  her  husband 
and  father,  beheaded.  Cardinal  Pole  entered 
England  as  the  pope's  legate,  and  the  coun- 
try became  once  more  Roman  Catholic. 
Then  began  the  persecution  which  earned 
the  queen  the  name  of  Bloody  Mary,  when 
some  three  hundred  victims  were  burnt  at 
the  stake.  During  this  time  Mary  was 
almost  helpless  with  ill-health.  Calais,  the 
last  English  foothold  on  French  ground,  was 
lost,  and  Mary  died  on  Nov.  17,  1558.  See 
the  histories  of  Froude  and  Lingard  and 
England  under  Edward  VI  and  Mary  by 
Tytler. 

Mary  II  of  England.  See  WILLIAM  III. 

Mary  Mag'dalene,  probably  so  named 
from  Magdala,  a  town  of  Galilee,  a  woman 
mentioned  as  "Mary  Magdalene,  out  of 
whom  went  seven  devils,"  was  among  those 
that  accompanied  Jesus.  She  is  held  to 
be  the  same  as  the  woman  "which  was  a 
sinner"  who  washed  the  feet  of  Jesus  with 
her  tears  and  wiped  them  with  her  hair 
and  anointed  them.  She  is  thought  by 
some  to  be  Mary,  the  sister  of  Martha  and 
Lazarus,  for  which  there  is  little  ground. 
The  story  that  she  passed  her  last  days 
in  the  desert  in  penitence  for  her  sinful  life 
has  been  made  the  subject  of  paintings  by 
Guido,  Correggio,  Canova  and  other  great 
masters. 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots  (  Mary  Stuart )  was 
the  daughter  of  James  V  of  Scotland  and 


MARY  QUEEN   OF   SCOTS 

Mary  of  Lorraine,  daughter  of  the  French 
Duke  of  Guise.  She  was  born  at  Linlithgow 
on  Dec.  8,  1542.  Her  misfortunes  began 
with  her  birth.  Mary,  on  the  death  of  her 
father,  became  a  queen  before  she  was  a 
week  old.  But,  hating  an  English  match, 
the  young  queen  was  offered  (1548)  to  the 


MARY  QUEEN  OF  SCOTS 


1181 


MARYLAND 


oldest  son  of  Henry  II  of  France.  Her  next 
ten  years  were  passed  at  the  French  court, 
A'here  she  was  taught  with  the  king's  chil- 
dren. At  1 6  she  was  married  to  the  dauphin 
Francis.  In  1559  Francis  came  to  the 
throne,  and  for  a  year  and  a  half  Mary  was 
queen  of  France.  When  Francis  died,  Mary 
cared  little  to  stay  at  a  court  now  ruled  by 
the  queen-mother,  Catharine  dei  Medici, 
whom  she  had  taunted  with  being  a  "mer- 
chant's daughter;"  and  her  presence  was 
needed,  too,  in  Scotland,  for  her  mother  had 
just  died  and  the  country  was  without  a 
government  and  torn  by  the  Reformation. 
Mary  landed  in  1561,  after  escaping  the 
English  ships  which  Elizabeth  had  sent  to 
capture  her.  The  Reformation  claimed  to 
have  been  sanctioned  by  the  Scottish  parlia- 
ment, and  the  queen  was  content  to  leave 
affairs  as  she  found  them,  only  claiming  the 
liberty  to  use  her  own  religion.  Mary  sud- 
denly (1565)  married  her  cousin,  James 
Stuart,  Lord  Darnley.  Darnley  was  weak 
and  vicious.  This  marriage  caused  the  earl 
of  Moray,  the  queen's  natural  brother  and 
her  chief  minister,  to  head  a  Protestant 
rising;  but  the  revolt  was  quelled. 

Mary  soon  became  disgusted  at  Darnley's 
worthlessness  and  alarmed  at  his  ambition. 
He  had  been  given  the  title  of  king,  and 
now  claimed  that  the  crown  should  be 
secured  to  him  for  life  and  to  his  heirs,  if 
the  queen  died  childless;  and  what  Mary 
refused  as  a  favor  he  prepared  to  take  by- 
force.  Mary's  chief  minister  since  Moray  s 
rebellion  had  been  Rizzio,  a  common-looking 
Italian,  of  brains  and  accomplishments,  but 
generally  hated  as  a  low-born  foreigner  and 
a  court  favorite.  So  a  conspiracy  was  formed 
by  the  king  and  Moray  and  other  Protestant 
leaders,  they  binding  themselves  to  secure 
the  crown  to  him  and  his  heirs,  and  he 
agreeing  to  have  them  pardoned.  The  re- 
sult was  the  murder  of  Rizzio  on  March  9, 
1566,  Darnley  leading  the  way  into  the 
queen's  cabinet  and  holding  her  in  his 
grasp  while  the  murderers  slew  the  Italian. 
When  Darnley  dismissed  the  parliament 
about  to  bring  Moray  and  the  other  defeated 
rebels  to  trial,  Mary  realized  the  purpose  of 
the  conspirators  and  set  to  work  to  defeat 
them.  She  succeeded  in  detaching  Darnley 
from  the  others,  and  persuaded  him  to  deny 
all  connection  with  their  designs.  This 
ended  the  conspiracy  and  the  king  was 
hated  by  both  sides,  as  he  had  betrayed 
both.  In  February,  1567,  the  house  in 
which  the  king  slept  was  blown  up,  and 
his  lifeless  body  found  in  the  neighboring 
garden.  The  chief  murderer  was  the  earl 
of  Bothwell,  who  had  enjoyed  a  large  share 
of  the  queen's  favor  since  Moray's  revolt, 
but  the  queen  herself  was  suspected,  for 
within  three  months  Bothwell  was  acquitted 
at  a  mock  trial,  divorced  from  his  wife 
and  made  duke  of  Orkney.  Then  he  married 
the  queen. 


This  fatal  step  at  once  arrayed  the  nobles 
against  Mary.  Her  army  melted  away  with- 
out striking  a  blow,  and  she  was  forced  to 
give  up  the  throne  to  her  son,  James  VI. 
The  next  year,  escaping  from  prison,  she 
found  herself  in  a  few  days  at  the  head 
of  6,000  men,  only  to  be  defeated.  Four 
days  later  (May  17,  1568),  Mary  crossed 
the  Scottish  borders  and  threw  herself  on 
the  protection  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  only  to 
find  herself  a  prisoner  for  life.  Mary,  as 
the  great-granddaughter  of  Henry  VII, 
claimed  the  right  of  succession  to  the  Eng- 
lish throne.  A  good  part  of  England  was 
still  Roman  Catholic  and  looked  to  Mary 
to  restore  the  old  faith.  Of  the  many  plots 
formed  for  her  deliverance,  the  most  famous 
was  the  one  of  Antony  Babington,  which 
included  the  assassination  of  Elizabeth.  It 
was  discovered;  letters  of  Mary,  approving 
the  death  of  the  English  queen,  came  into 
the  hands  of  the  ministers;  and  Mary  was 
brought  to  trial  in  September,  1586.  She 
was  sentenced  to  death  in  October,  but 
Elizabeth  co^-ld  not  find  courage  to  sign 
the  death-warrant  till  February,  1587.  On 
the  8th,  at  Fotheringay  Castle,  Northamp- 
tonshire, Mary  laid  her  head  on  the  block 
with  the  dignity  of  a  queen  and  the  courage 
of  a  martyr. 

Mary's  beauty  and  accomplishments  are 
world-famous.  She  was  admitted  by  every- 
one to  be  the  most  charming  princess  of 
her  time.  She  was  queenly  in  appearance, 
on  the  throne,  in  the  dance  or  on  horse- 
back at  the  head  of  her  army.  The  charm 
of  her  soft,  sweet  voice  is  said  to  have 
been  irresistible;  and  she  sang  well,  accom- 
panying herself  on  the  harp  or  lute.  Her 
manner  was  sprightly,  affable,  kindly  and 
frank.  Her  rather  large  features  were 
lighted  by  a  winning  vivacity  and  a  high, 
joyous  spirit.  The  starlike  brightness  of 
her  eyes  —  whether  hazel  or  dark  gray  we 
know  not  —  her  fresh,  clear  complexion 
and  hair  of  ruddy  yellow  changing  with  her 
years  to  auburn,  then  to  dark  brown,  turn- 
ing gray  long  before  its  time,  added  their 
share  to  the  beauty  that  bewitched  French, 
English  and  Scotch  alike.  Two  women 
only,  Cleopatra  and  Helen  of  Troy,  share 
with  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  the  power 
wielded  over  the  imaginations  of  men  of 
all  times  and  countries.  See  G.  Chalmers 
Life  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  and  Miss  Strick- 
land's Lives  of  the  Queens  of  Scotland. 

Maryland  (ma'rl-land) ,  one  of  the  it 
original  states  of  the  Union,  covers  a  land 
surface  approximately  of  9,860  square  miles 
—  about  the  size  of  Holland.  Its  greatest 
breadth  from  north  to  south  is  120  miles, 
and  its  greatest  length  from  east  to  west  is 
196  miles.  Mason  and  Dixon's  Line  (q.  v.) 
bounds  it  on  the  north  and  east.  The  eastern 
shore  is  the  part  east  of  Chesapeake  Bay.  The 
western  shore  reaches  from  the  Chesapeake 
to  the  state  boundary  in  Potomac  River. 


MARYLAND 


Zi82 


MASACCIO 


Surface.  The  northwest  is  rugged  and 
mountainous;  the  Blue  Ridge  and  other 
Allegheny  ranges  cross  it  from  Virginia  and 
West  Virginia  into  Pennsylvania.  The 
center  is  hilly,  the  east  and  southeast  low. 
A  line  from  the  mouth  of  the  Susquehanna 
to  Washington  will  divide  the  high  and  low 
lands  into  nearly  equal  parts. 

Drainage.  On  the  eastern  shore  the  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  Elk,  Sassafras,  Chester, 
Choptank  and  Pocomoke,  on  the  western 
shore,  the  Gunpowder,  South,  Severn, 
Patapsco,  Patuxent  and  Potomac.  The 
Susquehanna,  which  traverses  both  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania,  crosses  Maryland 
at  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay. 

Climate.  This  body  of  water  has  a  tem- 
pering influence  on  the  climate  of  the  bor- 
dering region.  The  winters  are  short  and 
rarely  severe,  and  there  is  no  excessive  heat 
in  summer. 

Minerals.  Marl,  fine  brick-clay,  gneiss, 
granite,  limestone,  iron  and  large  veins  of 
the  finest  soft  coal  are  found.  Zinc  and 
copper  are  also  mined.  Many  kinds  of  mar- 
ble are  quarried,  some  of  them  very  fine 
and  equal  to  Italian  marbles;  the  marble 
used  in  building  the  White  House  came 
from  Maryland. 

Forests  and  Agriculture.  Except  on  the 
mountains  in  the  west  and  in  the  marshes 
along  the  eastern  coast,  the  soil  is  fertile. 
Pine,  chestnut  and  oak  are  the  main  trees, 
though  in  the  woods  there  still  are  hickory 
and  walnut.  The  peach-orchards  cover 
thousands  of  acres  and  canning  fruit  is  a 
leading  industry;  Maryland's  canned  peaches 
are  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  The 
main  crop  in  the  peninsula  between  the 
Chesapeake  and  the  Potomac  is  tobacco. 
Maryland  ranks  as  the  seventh  state  in  the 
growth  of  tobacco  and  at  one  time  the  crop 
of  Prince  George  County  was  the  largest 
in  the  Union.  Corn,  wheat,  oats,  pota- 
toes, hay  and  fruits  are  the  other  leading 
crops. 

Fisheries.  Chesapeake  Bay  abounds  in 
fish,  and  Maryland  bass,  white  perch, 
sheepshead,  herring  and  mackerel  are  ex- 
cellent. The  oyster-beds  are  of  great  value, 
and  cover  large  areas  in  the  ocean  inlets. 
Canvasback  ducks  and  other  game-birds 
are  hunted  on  the  shores  of  the  bay,  and 
here  terrapin  are  found  in  perfection. 

Manufactures.  The  manufactures  exceed 
$315,000,000  yearly.  Iron  and  steel,  ship- 
building, machinery,  pig  iron,  tobacco, 
cigars,  straw  hats,  millinery  and  cotton- 
duck  are  some  of  the  leading  manufactures. 
There  is  considerable  production  of  fruit- 
brandy  and  distilled  spirits;  in  Allegany 
County  much  coal  is  mined.  Maryland 
ranks  fifth  among  the  states  in  shipbuilding. 
There  are  four  large  plants  in  and  near 
Baltimore.  Twelve  miles  from  this  city 
is  a  plant  which  manufactures  structural 
iron  and  steel. 


Transportation.  The  famous  National 
road  was  built  early  in  the  century  for  a 
highway  between  Baltimore  and  Ohio. 
The  pioneer  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad 
was  organized  in  1827.  The  first  American 
telegraph  line  was  built  from  Baltimore  to 
Washington  in  1844.  There  are  two  canals 
from  Cumberland  in  the  west  to  Washing- 
ton, 184$  miles,  and  between  Chesapeake 
and  Delaware  Bays,  12^  miles.  The  Penn- 
sylvania and  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad 
systems  own  the  greater  part  of  the  state's 
railroads,  their  mileage  being  1,366.07  miles. 
Sixteen  steamship  and  steamboat  lines  con- 
nect Baltimore  with  foreign  and  domestic 
ports. 

Education.  Maryland  has  a  good  school- 
system  and  a  number  of  colleges,  among 
them  Washington  College,  to  which  George 
Washington  gave  $500,  and  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  one  of  the  foremost  in  the 
country.  Other  institutions  for  higher 
education  include  Western  Maryland  Col- 
lege; St.  John's  College,  Annapolis;  Loyola 
and  Morgan  Colleges,  Baltimore;  New  Wind- 
sor College  (Presbyterian)  and  Rock  Hill 
and  St.  Charles  Colleges  (Roman  Catholic). 

Government  and  History.  Maryland  sends 
six  representatives  to  Congress.  Its  gen- 
eral assembly  is  made  up  of  two  houses  — 
the  senate  and  the  house  of  delegates.  The 
capital  is  Annapolis  (population  8,609), 
the  seat  of  the  United  States  Naval  Acad- 
emy. Cecil  Calvert  —  Lord  Baltimore  — 
received  a  grant  of  Maryland,  with  parts  of 
Delaware  and  Pennsylvania,  from  Charles  I 
in  1632.  He  named  his  new  possession  in 
honor  of  Henrietta  Maria,  queen  of  England. 
Leonard  Calvert  ied  the  first  party  of  emi- 
grants, made  up  of  English  gentlemen, 
their  retainers  and  servants,  which  landed 
on  the  banks  of  a  branch  of  the  Potomac 
in  March,  1634.  The  Indians  were  paid  for 
their  land,  and  never  were  very  troublesome 
to  the  colonists.  Calvert  himself  was  a 
Catholic,  but  people  of  all  beliefs  were 
allowed  to  worship  without  persecution. 
During  the  civil  war  in  England  an  engage- 
ment was  fought  at  Providence,  Md.,  in 
1655,  between  sympathizers  of  the  two 
English  parties,  in  which  50  were  killed  or 
wounded.  This  was  the  first  land-battle 
between  Englishspeaking  men  in  America. 
Maryland  was  one  of  the  first  colonies 
actively  to  engage  in  the  Revolutionary 
War.  In  the  Civil  War  Maryland,  though 
a  slave -hoi ding  state,  did  not  secede.  The 
chief  city  of  the  state  is  Baltimore,  which  see. 
Population  1,368,241. 

Maryland,  my  Maryland.  An  American 
national  song.  Words  by  James  Ryder 
Randall,  adapted  to  the  -German  folk-song, 
O  Tannenbaum. 

Masaccio  (ma-zdt'chd),  Tommaso  Quid!, 
better  known  in  the  world  of  painters  as 
Masaccio,  a  nickname  given  him  on  account 
of  the  carelessness  of  his  dress,  was  born  at 


MASANIELLO 


1X83 


MASHONALAND 


Maso  di  San  Giovanni,  near  Florence,  on 
St.  Thomas'  Day,  1401.  This  date  is  dis- 
puted by  some  writers  who  place  his  birth 
in  1417.  Masaccio  was  the  son  of  Giovanni 
di  Simone  Giudi,  a  notary,  and  at  a  very 
early  age  began  to  show  signs  of  unusual 
ability  in  drawing  and  color.  He  went  to 
Florence  and  entered  the  circle  of  artists, 
most  of  whom  are  famous  now  for  solving 
such  problems  as  perspective  and  anatomy. 
These  men  were  assisting  Ghiberti  the 
sculptor.  Here  Masaccio  learned  the  prin- 
ciples of  design  and  soon  showed  a  supe- 
riority over  his  fellow-students  and  workers. 
It  is  claimed  by  some  that  Masoline  was  his 
instructor,  but  this  is  uncertain  on  account 
of  the  confusion  of  the  dates.  In  1417  he 
went  to  Rome  and  decorated  the  chapel  in 
the  church  of  San  Clemente.  Here  he 
painted  a  crucifixion  and  scenes  from  the 
life  of  St.  Catherine.  He  also  painted  por- 
traits of  Pope  Martin  V  and  Emperor  Sig- 
ismund.  In  1421  he  returned  to  Florence 
and  entered  trie  guild  of  Speziali  and  in 
1424  that  of  painters.  It  was  through  the 
influence  of  Giovanni  di  Bicci  dei  Medici, 
who  had  regained  his  power  in  Florence 
in  1420,  that  he  received  his  commission 
to  decorate  the  chapel  of  Brancicci  in 
the  church  of  Carmine.  Some  writers 
say  that  Masaccio  was  called  to  finish  this 
work  which  was  started  by  Masoline,  so 
that  not  all  the  paintings  here  can  be  attrib- 
uted to  him.  At  this  he  worked  from  1423 
until  his  death,  which  occurred  very  sud- 
denly at  Rome  in  1428.  It  has  been  hinted 
that  he  died  of  poisoning  at  the  hands  of  his 
contemporaries,  but  this  is  very  uncertain. 
Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  he 
painted  frescoes  in  Santa  Maria  Novella 
and  a  group  of  St.  Ann,  the  Virgin  and  the 
infant  Savior,  which  originally  was  for  the 
church  of  St.  Ambrogio  but  now  is  in  the 
Academic,  delle  Belle  Arti  in  Florence.  A 
number  of  paintings  by  Masaccio,  not  in 
existence  now,  are  mentioned  by  Vasari. 
Masaccio  has  been  called  the  founder  of 
modern  painting,  as  he  broke  the  ties  that 
bound  art  to  the  traditions  of  the  church 
and  the  time.  He  solved  the  problem  of 
so  foreshortening  the  feet  that  the  figures 
did  not  seem  to  be  standing  on  tiptoe.  He 
was  the  first  to  paint  landscape  backgrounds 
with  any  degree  of  success,  and  in  his  paint- 
ing of  the  figure  he  caught  the  very  essence 
of  the  inner  life.  His  decorations  in  the 
Brancicci  have  been  studied  and  loved  by 
some  of  the  world's  greatest  painters,  among 
them  Michael  Angelo,  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
Raphael  and  many  of  less  fame.  See  Jame- 
son's Italian  Painting. 

Masaniello  (md'zd-nyel'16),  rightly  Tom- 
maso  Aniello,  a  fisherman  of  Amalfi,  Italy, 
was  born  about  1622,  and  became  a  Neapo- 
litan insurrectionist  and  the  leader  of  the 
revolt  which  took  place  in  Naples  in  July, 
1647,  against  the  Spanish  viceroy,  the  duke 


of  Arcos.  A  government  was  set  up  by  the 
citizens,  and  Masaniello  was  made  captain- 
general  of  the  Neapolitan  people.  An  at- 
tempt of  some  nobles  to  kill  him  cost  their 
own  lives;  the  viceroy  was  obliged  to  give 
back  the  privileges  bestowed  on  the  citizens 
by  Charles  V;  and  the  people  were  allowed 
to  keep  their  arms  till  this  agreement  should 
be  ratified  by  the  king  of  Spain.  The  rising 
brought  to  a  successful  end,  the  hero  of  the 
hour  threw  off  his  rich  robes  and  declared 
himself  a  fisherman  again.  But  the  people 
would  not  let  him  resign.  The  next  day 
he  was  a  different  man;  either  success  or 
poison  had  turned  his  head,  and  the  freedom 
he  had  fought  for  soon  gave  place  to  a  reign 
of  terror.  The  people  fell  away  from  him, 
and  the  viceroy's  agents  had  no  trouble 
in  assassinating  him  at  Naples,  July  1 6,  1 647. 
His  reign  lasted  just  nine  days.  Auber's 
opera  of  Masaniello  is  based  on  the  story. 

Mascart  (mds-kdtj),  E  leu  there  Elie  N., 
an  eminent  French  physicist,  born  Feb. 
20,  1837.  He  entered  the  normal  school 
at  Paris  in  1858  and  received  his  doctor's 
degree  in  1864.  In  1872  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  physics  in  the  College  of  France. 
In  1878  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the 
meteorological  bureau  of  France.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1884. 
His  principal  work  is  along  the  line  of  at- 
mospheric electricity,  optics  and  terrestrial 
magnetism.  As  a  writer  of  treatises  on  these 
subjects  he  has  rendered  important  service. 

Mashonaland  (md-sho'nd-ldnd')t  Africa, 
is  the  region  northeast  of  Matabeleland  (q.  v.) 
It  includes  the  plain  —  4,000  to  4,600  feet 
high  —  whose  backbone  is  formed  by  Um- 
vukwe  Mountains.  It  is  said  to  be  the 
healthiest  part  of  South  Africa,  with  rich 
soil,  grass  all  the  year  round  and  many  run- 
ning streams.  The  Matabele  drove  the 
Mashona  to  the  mountains,  where  they 
built  their  villages  on  almost  inaccessible 
crags.  A  peaceful  and  industrious  people, 
of  the  Bantu  race,  they  lived  in  the  greatest 
fear  of  their  fierce  neighbors.  They  raise 
rice,  Kafir  corn,  Indian  corn,  groundnuts, 
sweet  potatoes,  tobacco  and  cotton,  which 
they  weave  into  blankets.  Iron,  copper 
and  gold  are  found  in  large  quantities. 
Mauch,  a  German  traveler,  discovered  many 
old  mines  which  at  one  time  had  been  skill- 
fully worked,  especially  at  a  place  called 
Zimbabwe,  which  he  thought  was  the  Ophir 
of  the  Bible.  Mashonaland  became  a 
British  protectorate  in  1888,  and  now  has 
509,708  inhabitants.  With  Matebeleland, 
Mashonaland  has  since  been  organized  by 
the  British  South  African  Company,  under 
Cecil  Rhodes,  and  is  now  named  Southern 
Rhodesia.  The  native  population  is  743,640, 
and  the  Europeans  number  about  5,000. 
The  capital  is  Salisbury  (population  about 
2,000),  which  is  now  reached  by  a  railway 
line  from  Bulawayo,  thence  south  to  the 
Cape.  See  Montagu  Kerr's  The  Far  Inte- 


MASON  AND  DIXON'S  LINE 


1184 


MASSACHUSETTS 


rior;  The  Ruined  Cities  of  Mashonaland  by 
Bent;  Rhodesia  of  To-Day  by  Knight;  and 
How  We  Made  Rhodesia  by  Lenard.  See 
RHODESIA. 

Ma'son  and  Dix'on's  Line,  often  thought 
to  be  a  line  dividing  the  slaveholding  states 
from  free  states.  In  fact,  it  ran  for  over 
a  third  of  its  length  between  two  slave- 
states,  Maryland  and  Delaware.  It  was 
run  by  two  English  surveyors,  Charles 
Mason  and  Jeremiah  Dixon,  during  1764-67, 
and  determines  the  boundary  between 
Maryland  and  Pennsylvania  and  between 
Maryland  and  Delaware.  Milestones  were 
set  up  and  each  five  miles  marked  by  a 
larger  stone,  on  which  were  cut  the  arms 
of  William  Penn  and  Lord  Baltimore.  The 
work  was  so  well-done  that  when,  in  1849, 
it  was  gone  over  again  no  mistake  of  any 
account  was  found.  The  line  does  roughly 
divide  the  north  from  the  south,  and  is 
popularly  used  to  distinguish  the  two  sec- 
tions of  the  country. 

Mason,  George,  was  born  at  Doeg's 
Neck,  Va.,  in  1725.  In  1775  the  Virginia 
convention  made  him  a  member  of  the 
committee  of  safety  which  was  charged 
with  the  government  of  the  colony.  The 
next  year  he  drew  up  a  declaration  of 
rights  and  a  constitution  for  the  new  state, 
which  were  adopted  without  an  opposing 
vote.  He  also,  with  the  help  of  Jefferson, 
had  a  bill  passed  making  all  kinds  of  wor- 
ship lawful  in  Virginia.  In  1777  he  became 
a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress. 
In  1787  he  was  one  of  the  foremost  men  in 
the  convention  which  drew  up  the  consti- 
tution of  the  United  States,  where  he  took 
firm  ground  against  making  slavery  per- 
manent. He  was  afraid  that  the  constitu- 
tion, as  at  last  agreed  upon  by  the  conven- 
tion, would  bring  about  a  monarchy  or  a 
tyranny  of  aristocrats,  and  stood  shoulder 
to  shoulder  with  Patrick  Henr  in  fighting 
ratification  by  Virginia  He  sought  to  have 
about  20  charges  made,  some  of  which  were 
afterward  adopted  by  Congress.  He  was 
chosen  as  Virginia's  first  United  States 
senator,  but  refused  to  serve.  His  statue 
stands  with  Jefferson's,  Henry's  and  those 
of  other  leading  Virginians  at  the  base  of 
Crawford's  statue  of  Washington  in  front 
of  the  capitol  at  Richmond.  Mason  died 
in  Fairfax  County,  Va.,  in  1792. 

Mason,  James  Murray,  American  jurist 
and  statesman  and  Confederate  commissioner 
to  England  in  1861,  was  born  in  Fairfax 
County,  Va.,  Nov.  3,  1798,  being  a  grandson 
of  George  Mason.  He  graduated  from  Wil- 
liam and  Mary  College,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  Virginia  bar  when  22.  He  served  many 
years  in  the  Virginia  house  of  delegates  and 
in  the  federal  Congress  from  1837  to  1839. 
He  was  elected  senator  from  Virginia  in 
1847,  and  retained  that  place  until  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War,  when  he 
cast  in  his  lot  with  the  seceding  states.  He 


JAMES  M.  MASON 

Mason,     Lowell,     an 


was  captured  on  Nov.  6,  1861,  when  on 
his  way  to  Europe  to  represent  the  Confed- 
eracy abroad,  and 
was  held  a  pris- 
oner by  the  fed- 
eral authorities 
until  Jan  i,  1862, 
when,  upon  the  de- 
mand of  the  Eng 
lish  government, 
he  was  released. 
His  mission  to 
England,  after  all, 
proved  ineffective/ 
although  it  nearly 
embroiled  the  two 
nations  in  war. 
Mr.  Mason  died 
near  Alexandria, 
Va.s  April  28, 
1871. 

American     com' 

poser,  was  born  at  Medfield,  Mass.,  Jan.  8, 
1792.  As  a  boy  he  was  very  fond  of  music, 
and  began  to  teach  it  when  quite  young. 
In  1821  his  Boston  Handel  and  Haydn  Col- 
lection of  Church-Music  was  published,  and 
at  once  made  him  noted,  and  enabled  him 
to  leave  Savannah,  where  he  had  taught 
for  15  years,  and  make  Boston  his  head' 
quarters.  Here  he  taught  children's  classes 
without  charge,  and  published  a  number  ol 
music-books  for  children,  as  well  as  glee- 
books,  and  over  20  books  of  sacred  and 
church  music.  A  large  part  of  the  best 
American  church-music  is  Mason's.  He 
died  at  Orange,  N.  J.,  Aug.  n,  1872. 
Masons.  See  FREEMASONS. 
Mass  is  the  name  which  has  been  given  to 
the  amount  of  matter  in  a  body.  The  mass 
of  a  body,  the  amount  of  matter  in  a  body 
and  the  inertia  of  a  body  are  strictly  synony- 
mous terms  as  used  in  modern  physics. 
Matter  and  therefore  mass  have  not  been 
defined  in  terms  of  anything  simpler;  but 
mass  can  be  measured  in  terms  of  many 
other  quantities.  Thus  mass  is  equal  to 
the  product  of  volume  by  density  In 
like  manner  the  mass  of  a  body  is  equal  to 
the  quotient  of  its  weight  divided  by  the 
acceleration  of  gravity.  A  sharp  distinc- 
tion between  mass  and  weight  is  essential 
to  all  clear  thinking  on  this  subject:  The 
standard  of  mass  used  in  ordinary  com- 
merce is  the  mass  of  a  piece  of  metal  kept 
in  the  Standard's  Office,  London,  and  known 
as  the  avoirdupois  pound.  The  standard 
of  mass  employed  in  science  is  a  piece  of 
metal  kept  at  the  International  Bureau  of 
Weights  and  Measures  at  Sevres,  and  known 
as  the  kilogram.  See  INERTIA. 

Massachusetts  ( mas' a-chu' sets  )  is  one  of 
the  New  England  states  and  one  of  the 
original  13  states.  It  is  47^  miles  wide  and 
182  long,  being  but  one  sixth  as  large  as 
New  York.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
New  Hampshire  and  Vermont,  on  the 


MASSACHUSETTS 


1185 


MASSACHUSETTS 


south  by  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island  and 
the  Atlantic,  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic 
and  on  the  west  by  New  York.  It  contains 
8,315  square  miles,  and  has  a  population 
of  3.747,564- 

Topography.  Cape  Cod  is  a  sandy  point, 
65  miles  long,  shaped  like  a  bent  arm.  Cape 
Cod  Canal,  completed  in  1914,  shortened 
by  70  miles  the  water  route  between  New 
York  and  Boston  and  made  it  safe.  The 
Green  Mountains  of  Vermont  extend  into 
the  west  of  the  state  in  two  ranges,  with 
no  very  high  peaks,  Greylock,  3,505  feet 
high,  being  the  highest;  and  the  coast  is 
lined  with  highlands.  The  scenery  of  the 
western  part,  especially  of  Berkshire  Coun- 
ty, is  very  beautiful,  and  it  is  sometimes 
called  the  Switzerland  of  America.  The 
rivers,  as  the  Merrimac,  Connecticut, 
Housatonic  and  Concord,  are  useful  mainly 
as  furnishing  water-power  for  innumerable 
factories. 

Natural  Resources.  Granite,  sandstone, 
limestone  and  hematite  are  the  chief  mineral 
productions.  The  fisheries  are  very  valua- 
ble. Mackerel,  halibut,  herring  and  cod 
are  found  in  vast  numbers.  Shellfish,  as 
crabs  and  lobsters,  are  also  caught,  and  the 
oysterbeds  on  the  southern  coast  are  very 
extensive. 

Agriculture.  The  valleys  of  the  Housa- 
tonic and  Connecticut  Rivers  are  fertile, 
but  the  higher  parts  and  the  long  sandy 
coasts  are  poor  soil.  Its  agriculture  is  not 
equal  to  supplying  the  demands  of  its  peo- 
ple, as  it  is  the  least  agricultural  state  in 
the  Union,  only  nine  per  ent.  of  its  laborers 
being  employed  on  farms.  Dairy-products, 
poultry  and  eggs  have  occupied  the  atten- 
tion of  most  of  the  farmers. 

Manufactures.  Its  great  source  of  wealth 
is  its  manufactures.  Wire-drawing  was  be- 
gun in  1666,  and  the  manufacture  of  iron 
and  steel  wire  is  still  a  very  large  industry. 
The  oldest  watch-factory  in  the  United  States 
and  the  largest  in  the  world  is  at  Waltham. 
The  many  shoe-factories  in  Lynn  and  the 
great  cotton-mills  in  Lowell,  Lawrence,  Fall 
River  and  New  Bedford  are  well-known. 
Shovels,  belting,  clothing,  silverware,  jewelry, 
books,  cotton,  woolen  and  silk  goods,  choco- 
late and  confectionery  .carpets,  furniture,  car- 
riages and  paper  are  a  few  of  the  many  useful 
articles  produced.  At  Roxbury  originated 
the  manufacture  of  india-rubber  goods  in  this 
country.  Massachusetts  is  the  greatest  shoe- 
and  bootmaking  state  in  the  Union. 

Education.  The  most  lively  interest  in 
educational  matters  has  been  manifested 
from  the  earliest  days,  and  the  public- 
school  system  is  not  excelled  in  the  coun- 
try. By  provision  of  law  each  city  and 
town  maintains  its  schools  under  the  super- 
vision of  a  local  board.  The  members  of 
these  boards  are  elected  by  women  as  well 
as  men.  The  state's  board  of  education  is 
appointed  v"  the  governor,  but  exercises 


no  direct  control  over  the  local  boards 
except  in  a  general  way.  It  promotes  all 
educational  matters,  looks  after  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  income  of  the  state's 
school-fund  and  directly  manages  the 
state's  normal  schools,  of  which  there  are 
ten.  The  State  Normal  Art-School  at  Bos- 
ton trains  teachers  in  drawing  and  design- 
ing. Education  is  compulsory  between 
seven  and  14,  and  evening  schools  in  the 
elementary  branches,  for  persons  over  14, 
are  maintained  in  all  towns  of  10,000  or 
more,  and  evening  high  schools  in  towns 
of  50,000  or  more.  Among  the  higher  edu- 
cational institutions  are  Harvard  Univer- 
sity, at  Cambridge;  Boston  University, 
with  schools  of  art,  music,  agriculture, 
law,  theology  and  medicine;  Clark  Univer- 
sity, at  Worcester,  for  the  higher  special 
work  of  college-graduates;  Holy  Cross  Col- 
lege in  the  same  city,  an  institution  of  note; 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology; 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  College  at  Am- 
herst;  Andover  Theological  Seminary;  New- 
ton Theological  Institute.  Amherst,  Wil- 
liams, Tufts  and  Boston  College  (Catholic), 
are  some  of  the  best-known  institutions. 
Radcliffe  College  for  women  was  founded  in 
1879.  Wellesley  College,  near  Boston,  Smith 
College  at  Northampton  and  Mt.  Hoi  yoke 
College,  the  earliest  school  of  the  kind  for 
women  in  America,  are  among  the  ample 
provisions  made  for  the  higher  education 
of  women.  Music  and  art  are  recognized 
in  the  New  England  Conservatory  of 
Music  at  Boston,  Art-Tile  Works  at  Chel- 
sea, Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  and  many 
art-schools.  There  are  over  500  public 
libraries,  the  largest  being  in  Boston,  Wor- 
cester, Cambridge  and  Springfield,  besides 
the  large  libraries  of  the  colleges  and  the 
Boston  Athenaeum. 

State  Institutions.  Among  the  institu- 
tions for  defectives  are  the  schools  for  the 
deaf  at  Boston  and  Northampton;  two 
schools  for  the  blind  at  Boston;  insane  asy- 
lums at  Danvers,  Taunton,  Northampton, 
Worcester  and  Westboro;  hospital  for 
epileptics  at  Foxborough;  a  school  for  the 
feeble-minded  at  Waltham;  and  a  sanita- 
rium for  consumptives  at  Rutland.  There 
are  a  reformatory  for  men  at  Concord  and 
another  for  women  at  Sherborn.  The 
state-prison  is  at  Boston,  and  the  soldiers' 
home  at  Chelsea. 

Railways.  Massachusetts  was  one  of  the 
first  states  to  build  railroads.  Hoosac 
Tunnel,  one  of  the  first  long  tunnels,  cut 
for  five  miles  through  Hoosac  Mountain, 
costing  $16,000,000  and  taking  20  years  to 
build,  was  undertaken  by  the  state.  The 
street-railway  companies  own  nearly  3,000 
miles  of  track,  and  almost  all  the  principal 
cities  and  towns  are  connected  by  electric 
lines.  Boston  has  both  a  subway  and  an 
elevated  railway,  and  its  shipping-trade 
is  next  to  that  of  New  York. 


MASSACHUSETTS  INDIANS 


xz86 


MASSENA 


History.  The  earliest  discovery  of  the 
land  embraced  in  Massachusetts  is  thought 
to  have  been  made  by  the  Norsemen  about 
1000.  In  1497  the  Cabots  reached  its  coast. 
But  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  at 
Plymouth,  Dec.  22,  1620,  is  the  date  of  the 
first  permanent  settlement.  The  stone  on 
which  they  landed  is  carefully  guarded  at  Ply- 
mouth. Other  settlements  were  made  later, 
forming  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony.  The  col- 
onists endured  great  privations,  and  suffered 
terribly  in  Indian  wars.  The  government 
at  first  was  in  the  hands  of  the  colonies  and 
was  carried  on  with  Puritan  vigor;  but  in 
1692  the  country  was  ruled  by  a  governor 
appointed  by  the  king.  The  first  battles 
of  the  Revolutionary  War  were  fought  on 
the  soil  of  Massachusetts,  at  Lexington  and 
Bunker  Hill,  and  the  troops  of  Massachu- 
setts were  among  the  earliest  on  the  field  in 
the  Civil  War.  See  Barry's  History  of 
Massachusetts  and  Palfrey's  History  of  New 
England. 

Massachusetts  Indians.  Massachusetts 
when  first  settled  was  occupied  by  five  Al- 
gonquin tribes :  the  Pennacooks,  the  Massa- 
chusetts, the  Nausets,  the  Pokanokets  and 
the  Nipmucks.  These  tribes  were  all 
friendly,  save  the  Nausets,  with  whom 
Plymouth  made  a  treaty  of  peace.  Missions 
among  the  Indians  were  begun  by  the  May- 
hews  of  Martha's  Vineyard  in  1644  and  by 
John  Eliot  two  years  later.  After  five  years' 
work  Eliot  gathered  "the  praying  Indians," 
as  the  converts  were  called,  at  Natick,  and 
translated  the  Bible  into  their  language. 
By  1674  the  Christian  Indians  numbered 
3,200.  The  next  year  King  Philip's  war 
broke  out,  which  began  with  the  rising  of 
the  Pokanokets  under  Philip,  their  chief, 
and  spread  to  the  Nipmucks,  Massachusetts 
and  Pennacooks.  The  frontier  settlements 
were  ravaged;  the  praying  Indians  were 
attacked  by  red  men  and  by  white  men,  and 
the  savages  were  not  conquered  nor  the  war 
ended  until  the  death  of  Philip  in  1676. 
Many  Indians  were  sent  as  slaves  to  the 
West  Indies;  the  Pennacooks  mostly  joined 
tribes  eastward  or  in  Canada;  the  others 
quieted  down  and  were  given  lands  from 
time  to  time.  They  have  since  mostly  in- 
termarried with  whites  or  negroes,  and  now 
there  are  less  than  100  full-blooded  Indians 
in  the  state.  See  Abbott's  History  of  King 
Philip  and  Moore's  Life  of  John  Eliot. 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy was  established  in  1861  to  further 
industrial  science.  Its  expenses  are  met 
partly  by  endowment,  partly  by  fees,  and 
partly  by  gifts  from  Massachusetts  and 
from  the  United  States.  Its  students  num- 
ber almost  2,000,  and  its  staff  of  instructors 
about  300.  The  institute  combines  a  liberal 
education  in  art  and  science  with  technical 
education  in  the  direction  of  a  given  pro- 
fession. It  has  fifteen  distinct  courses  leading 
to  degrees  of  Bachelor,  Master  and  Doctor  of 


Science.  These  courses  include  Civil,  Me- 
chanical, Electrical,  Chemical,  Mining  En- 
gineering, Architecture,  Public  Health  and 
Engineering  Administration.  The  institute 
holds  property  valued  at  $10,000,000. 

Massasauga.     See  RATTLESNAKE. 

Massasoit  (mas'sa-soit'},  a  chief  of  the 
Pokanoket  or  Wampanoag  Indians,  ruled 
over  most  of  southern  Massachusetts  from 
Cape  Cod  to  Narragansett  Bay.  His  tribe, 
once  some  30,000  in  number,  shortly  before 
the  landing  of  the  English  had  lost  all  but 
about  300  by  pestilence.  In  1621,  three 
months  after  Plymouth  had  been  founded, 
Massasoit  and  60  warriors,  armed  and 
painted,  came  to  the  settlement  and  made 
a  treaty  of  peace.  This  treaty  was  kept 
for  50  years,  and  Massasoit  always  was 
friendly  to  the  settlers.  His  home  was 
where  Warren,  R.  I.,  now  stands,  and  here 
he  entertained  Roger  Williams  for  several 
weeks  when  on  his  way  to  Providence  after 
being  banished  from  Massachusetts.  Mas- 
sasoit was  honest,  kept  his  word  and  loved 
peace.  He  died  in  1661.  His  son  Pometa- 
com,  on  his  father's  death,  went  to  Ply- 
mouth and  asked  to  be  given  an  English 
name.  He  was  named  Philip,  and  became 
the  leader  in  King  Philip's  war. 

Masse"  na  (md'sd'nd'),  Andre',  duke  of 
Rivoli,  prince  of  Essling  and  the  greatest 
of  Napoleon's  marshals,  was  born  at  Nice, 
Italy,  probably  of  Jewish  parents,  May  6, 
1758.  He  served  14  years  in  the  Sardinian 
army.  Early  in  the  French  Revolution  he 
joined  a  battalion  of  volunteers,  becoming 
a  general  of  division  (1793).  He  distin- 
guished himself  greatly  in  the  campaigns 
in  upper  Italy.  After  Jourian's  defeat  at 
Stockach,  in  1799,  Masse"na  was  given 
command  of  the  army  in  Switzerland  and  by 
his  crushing  victory  over  Suvaroff's  Rus- 
sians at  Zurich  freed  France  from  the  dan- 
ger of  invasion.  In  1804  he  was  made  a 
marshal  of  the  empire  and  commander  of 
the  army  in  Italy.  He  kept  Archduke 
Charles  of  Austria  in  check,  crushed  him 
at  Caldiero,  and  overran  Naples.  In  the 
campaign  of  1809  against  Austria  he  com- 
manded on  the  right,  bank  of  the  Danube, 
and  covered  himself  with  glory  at  Land- 
shut,  Eckmiihl  and  Ebersberg-on-Taun. 
In  1810  he  was  sent  to  Spain  to  drive  out 
the  English,  and  drove  Wellington  back 
upon  his  intrenphments  at  Torres  Vedras. 
Finding  it  impossible  to  break  the  English 
lines  and  harassed  by  lack  of  supplies,  he 
made  a  masterly  retreat  but  was  recalled  in 
anger  by  Napoleon.  He  himself  said  his 
failure  was  owing  to  the  disobedience  of  his 
captains  Ney  and  Junot.  He  submitted  to 
the  Bourbons  at  their  restoration,  and  was 
made  a  peer.  In  strategy  and  tactics  Mas- 
se'na  was  like  Napoleon  in  quickness  and 
ability,  and  was  brave  and  unwearied  on 
the  battlefield.  He  died  at  Paris  on  April  4, 
1817. 


MASSILLON 


1187 


MATANZAS 


Massillon  (mas' sll-lon  or 
Jean  Baptiste,  one  of  the  greatest  of  French 
clerics  and  modern  orators,  was  born  at 
Hyeres  in  Provence  on  June  24,  1663.  He 
first  preached  before  Louis  XIV  in  1699.  It 
was  to  him  that  the  king  said :  "I  have  hear d 
great  orators  in  my  chapel  and  have  felt 
satisfied  with  them,  but  every  time  I  have 
heard  you  I  have  felt  dissatisfied  with 
myself" —  a  saying  which  shows  the  fear- 
less eloquence  of  this  great  orator.  In  1717 
Massillon  was  made  bishop  of  Clermont, 
and  next  year  preached  his  famous  series 
of  ten  short  sermons  for  Lent  before  young 
King  Louis  XV.  He  died  on  Sept.  18, 
1742.  Bossuet  and  Bourdaloue  rival  him 
in  oratory,  but  he  was  a  greater  preacher 
than  either.  Among  his  masterpieces  are 
his  sermons  on  the  Prodigal  Son,  the  Death 
of  the  Just  and  the  Unjust  and  For  Christmas. 

Massillon  ( mas'sil-lon ),  O.,  a  city  in 
Stark  County,  northeastern  Ohio,  on  Tus- 
carawas  River,  the  Ohio  Canal  and  the 
Wheeling  and  Lake  Erie,  Pennsylvania  and 
Cleveland,  Lorain  and  Wheeling  railroads. 
It  lies  65  miles  south  of  Cleveland  in  a 
good  wheat-growing,  coal-mining,  stone- 
quarrying  belt.  It  has  many  industries  in- 
cluding iron-bridge,  agricultural-implement 
and  threshing-machine  works;  paper,  flour, 
and  rolling-mills;  sandstone  quarries  and 
glass-works.  It  possesses  good  public 
schools,  churches,  banks  and  public  build- 
ings. Population  13,879. 

Mas'tiff.     See  DOG. 

Mas'todon,  a  large  fossil  elephant,  remains 
of  which  are  found  abundantly  in  marshes 
and  bogs  in  Europe  and  America.  In  Ken- 
tucky the  bones  of  100  mastodons  and  20 
elephants  were  dug  out  of  one  bog.  They 
have  been  found  abundantly  in  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  Indiana  and  Missouri.  Several 
very  perfect  specimens  have  been  obtained 
from  New  York.  Their  bones  are  more 
massive  thai,  those  of  the  elephant.  The 
mastodons  were  very  large,  being  12  or  13 
feet  high  and,  including  the  tusks,  24  or 
25  feet  long.  Their  grinding-teeth  were 
provided  with  large,  rounded  points  like 
nipples,  whence  the  name  mastodon  (Greek, 
mastos,  the  breast,  nipple,  and  odous,  tooth). 
Twigs  of  spruce  and  fir  have  been  found 
lodged  in  the  teeth  and  in  considerable 
masses  within  the  ribs  where  the  stomach 
was  situated.  They  seem  to  have  become 
extinct  in  Europe  at  the  close  of  the  ter- 
tiary period,  while  in  America  they  lived 
through  the  quaternary  in  association  with 
primitive  elephants.  During  the  latter 
period  of  geological  time  these  huge  beasts 
roamed  in  herds  over  North  America,  from 
the  Gulf  to  the  Arctic  regions,  in  company 
with  other  representatives  of  the  elephant. 
Fossil  remains  of  a  pygmy  elephant  have 
been  found  in  Malta,  See  MAMMOTH. 

Matabeleland  (m&'d-bs'tf-l&nd),  it  the 
name  given  to  an  indefinite  region  lying 


north  of  Transvaal  and  estimated  to  con- 
tain over  60,000  square  miles.  North  of  it 
lies  Mashonaland  (q.  v.)\  east  of  it,  Portuguese 
East  Africa;  and  west  of  it  German  South- 
west Africa.  Zambezi  River  may  be  con- 
sider .id  its  northwest  boundary.  It  used  to 
be  described  as  part  of  Kafraria;  but  now 
it  forms  a  part  of  Rhodesia  (See  RHO- 
DESIA). Its  population  is  supposed  to  be 
208,000  natives  and  about  10,000  Euro- 
peans. Its  plateaus  are  well-adapted  to 
agriculture  a.  d  admirably  fitted  for  Euro- 
pean settlement.  It  is  rich  in  mineral  re- 
sources. Over  13,000,000  acres  have  been 
surveyed;  even  a  geodetic  survey  has  been 
completed;  and  at  Bulawayo,  the  capital, 
there  are  hotels,  banks,  government  offices, 
public  libraries,  hospitals,  churches  and 
schools.  Two  or  more  newspapers  are 
published  here.  Bulawayo  also  is  the  center 
of  considerable  railway  building,  a  line  con- 
necting it  with  Vryburg  on  the  south, 
opened  in  1897;  and  a  section  extending 
150  miles  to  the  north  would  have  been 
opened  in  1900  but  for  the  war  in  the 
Transvaal.  A  line  is  laid  out  through  Gwelo 
to  the  Zambezi  and  northward  toward  Lake 
Tanganyika.  The  native  population  is  a 
branch  of  the  Zulus,  physically  among  the 
finest  of  the  African  races.  They  formerly 
lived  in  Natal,  afterward  occupying  part 
of  Transvaal,  but  removed  to  their  present 
site  in  1827.  In  1879  the  British  broke  up 
the  confederacy  of  the  Zulus  by  a  hard- 
fought  war;  and  in  1893  tne  South  Africa 
Company  gave  the  Matabele  a  crushing  and 
decisive  defeat  from  which  they  have  never 
recovered.  Matabeleland,  on  account  of  its 
fertile  soil,  temperate  climate  and  mineral 
resources,  promises  to  be  one  of  the  most 
important  links  in  the  colonies  which  Great 
Britain  is  planting  from  the  Mediterranean 
to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Matamoros  (mat'd-mo'rps},  Mariano,  a 
Mexican  priest  and  patriot.  Nothing  is 
known  of  the  time  of  his  birth  or  of  his 
early  life.  At  the  Mexican  revolution  (181 1) 
he  was  parish  priest  of  Jantelolco,  a  village 
south  of  Mexico.  Here  he  was  threatened 
by  royalist  troops  and  fled  to  Iz  .cas,  where 
he  joined  the  rebels.  Their  chief,  Moreloa, 
at  once  made  him  a  colonel,  and  he  quickly 
became  a  popular  leader  and  an  able  officer. 
He  took  part  in  the  expedition  to  Oajaca, 
and  won  the  victory  of  San  Augustin  del 
Palmar.  The  revolution  had  now  triumphed 
over  all  Mexico,  except  in  a  few  of  the 
larger  cities,  but  the  cause  was  endangered 
by  Morelos'  hasty  attack  on  Valladolid  and 
rash  battle  of  Puruaran.  In  this  battle  Mat- 
amoros was  captured,  and  he  was  speedily- 
executed,  Feb.  3,  1814.  The  temporary  fail- 
ure of  Mexican  independence  was  probably 
due  to  the  death  of  this  patriot,  whose 
memory  is  highly  honored  by  the  Mexicans. 
Matanzas  (md-tan'zas),  a  fortified  town 
id  seaport  oa  th«  northern  coast  of  Cuba. 


MATAPEDIAC  RIVER 


1x88 


MATHER 


55  miles  by  rail  east  of  Havana.  It  is  the 
third  largest  city  in  Cuba,  in  a  very  rich 
district,  with  a  good  harbor.  It  has  a  large 
trade  in  sugar,  molasses,  rum  and  cigars, 
and  has  distilleries  and  iron-foundries. 
Population  64,385. 

Mat 'aped' iac  River,  Quebec,  famous 
among  anglers  on  account  of  its  magnificent 
salmon-fishing,  flows  out  of  Lake  Mata- 
pediac,  13  miles  by  one  and  a  half  miles, 
and  empties  into  the  Restigouche  some  18 
miles  above  Campbelton.  The  territory 
watered  by  the  river  and  its  tributaries  is 
about  1,300  square  miles.  All  the  rich 
valley  is  abundantly  watered  by  rivers  and 
streams,  and  valuable  waterpowers  abound. 
The  Intercolonial  Railroad  for  40  miles 
skirts  the  river,  putting  the  settlers  into 
direct  communication  with  Quebec,  Mon- 
treal, St.  John,  N.  B.,  and  Halifax. 

Match'es,  splints  of  wood  tipped  with 
some  composition  (usually  containing  phos- 
phorus) to  produce  light  by  friction.  They 
came  into  general  use  about  1834.  Before 
that  time  light  was  produced  by  striking 
steel  with  a  flint  and  catching  the  sparks 
on  tinder  (charred  cotton).  A  flame  was 
obtained  by  touching  the  burning  tinder 
with  punk  or  with  a  strip  of  wood  tipped 
with  sulphur.  Savage  races  sometimes  ob- 
tain light  by  rubbing  two  bits  of  wood 
together.  Other  devices  employed  formerly 
were  a  lens  to  concentrate  the  sun's  rays 
on  some  inflammable  substance;  a  lamp  for 
producing  a  jet  of  hydrogen  gas  and  kindling 
it  by  making  it  play  on  spongy  platinum; 
a  splint  tipped  with  a  mixture  of  chlorate 
of  potash  and  sugar,  which  took  fire  on 
contact  with  sulphuric  acid;  and  the  lucifer 
match,  invented  75  years  ago,  tipped  with 
a  paste  of  chemicals,  which  would  take  fire 
when  drawn  with  a  good  deal  of  pressure 
across  sandpaper.  Phosphorus,  introduced 
in  1834,  was  a  great  improvement.  The 
chief  operations  in  the  manufacture  of 
matches  are  cutting  the  wood-splints;  im- 
mersing the  splints  in  melted  paraffine  or 
sometimes  in  sulphur;  and  preparing  the 
igniting  composition  and  dipping  the  splints 
into  it.  Matches  are  made  of  pine  or  aspen. 
The  wood  is  sawed  into  blocks,  which  are 
then  forced  endwise  through  thick,  steel 
plates  full  of  little  holes  with  sharp  edges 
and  just  the  size  of  a  match.  The  splints 
thus  formed  are  then  fed  by  thousands  to 
dipping-frames  by  filling-machines  (of  which 
there  are  several  kinds  and  of  American 
invention).  In  the  dipping-room  the  ignit- 
ing composition  is  spread  on  a  hollow,  iron 
table  kept  hot  by  steam,  and  the  splints 
are  dipped  into  it.  Nearly  every  manu- 
facturer has  his  own  special  mixture  for  the 
dipping  of  matches,  and  phosphorus  is  an 
important  element  in  all  of  them;  but  in 
the  case  of  so-called  safety-matches  there 
is  phosphorus  only  on  the  prepared  sur- 
face upon  which  they  are  ignited.  The  use 


of  white  or  yellow  phosphorus  for  matches 
is  now  prohibited  because  of  its  poisonous 
qualities. 

Math'er,  Cotton,  son  of  Increase  Mather, 
was  born  at  Boston,  Feb.  12,  1663.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1678.  When  only 
14  he  began  a  system  of  lasts,  which  he 
kept  up  all  his  life.  Wishing  to  enter  the 
ministry,  he  conquered  an  impediment  of 
speech  and  became  his  father's  assistant  in 
North  Church,  Boston.  He  was  much  inter- 
ested in  civi'  aifairs,  and  drew  up  the 
declaration  of  the  colonists  justifying  the 
imprisonment  of  Governor  Andros.  In  1685 
appeared  his  Memorable  Providences  Relat- 
ing to  Witchcraft  and  Possessions,  which  was 
used  as  an  authority  in  the  Salem  witch- 
trials.  In  1688  the  children  of  John  Good- 
win were  suspected  of  being  visited  by  the 
devil,  and  Mather  with  three  other  min- 
isters held  a  day  of  fasting  and  prayer  over 
the  cases.  His  Wonders  of  the  Invisible 
World  was  written  to  prove  the  reality  of 
witchcraft.  He  and  his  books  did  much 
to  fan  the  madness.  Though  the  main  body 
of  the  colonists  shared  his  belief,  none 
equaled  him  in  zeal,  and  on  his  head  rests 
the  heaviest  burden.  Afterward  he  con- 
fessed that  "there  had  been  a  going  too 
far  in  that  affair."  But  Mather  did  no 
worse  than  the  best  and  most  learned  men 
of  Christendom,  from  Pope  Innocent  VIII 
to  Sir  Matthew  Hale.  His  industry  and 
learning  were  remarkable,  and  he  published 
382  books.  Of  these  the  chief  is  Magnolia 
Christi  Americana,  a  mass  of  materials  for 
the  church-history  of  New  England.  His 
Essays  to  Do  Good  were  much  liked  by 
Franklin.  Mather  died  on  Feb.  13,  1728. 
See  Upham's  History  of  the  Salem  Delusion 
and  Poole's  Cotton  Mather  and  Salem 
Witchcraft. 

Mather,  Increase,  was  born  at  Dor- 
chester, Mass.,  on  June  21,  1639.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1656  and  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  two  years  later. 
He  entered  the  ministry  and  prep.ched  in 
Devonshire  and  Guernsey  before  going  back 
to  America.  From  1664  until  his  death  he 
was  pastor  of  North  Church,  Boston.  From 
1685  to  1701  he  was  president  of  Harvard 
College,  and  was  the  first  minister  in  America 
to  receive  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity. 
When  Charles  II  annulled  the  charter  of 
the  colony  (1684),  Mather  was  sent  to  Eng- 
land as  the  agent  of  Massachusetts.  Unable 
to  get  the  old  charter  restored,  he  took 
back  a  new  one  (1692),  under  which  the 
naming  of  the  crown-officers  was  left  to 
him.  A  day  of  thanksgiving  was  appointed 
for  his  safe  return  and  the  success  of  his 
mission.  Mather  studied  16  hours  a  day, 
always  gave  a  tenth  of  his  income  in  char- 
ity, and  in  every  way  was  a  man  of  careful 
habits.  He  also  was  one  of  the  earliest  ot 
American  writers.  Of  his  many  works 
perhaps  the  best  known  is  his  Remark" 


'MATHliSON 


1189 


MATTOON 


able    Providences.      He    died   on    Aug.    23, 

*723- 
Math'eson,   Most   Reverend  Samuel  P., 

was  born  in  1852,  and  studied  at  St.  John's, 
Manitoba.  He  was  ordained  in  1875,  and 
in  1882  became  professor  of  exegetical  the- 
ology and  dean  of  St.  John's  Cathedral, 
Winnipeg.  He  was  treasurer  of  St.  John's 
in  1889,  dean  of  Rupertsland  in  1902,  and 
prolocutor  of  the  general  synod  of  Canada 
in  the  same  year.  He  was  consecrated 
bishop  administrator  of  Rupertsland  in 
1903,  archbishop  in  1905.  The  whole  of 
the  Hudson  Bay  country  (or  Prince  Rupert's 
Land)  was  at  one  time  included  in  this 
diocese.  It  was  erected  into  a  see  in  1849, 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company  contributing  to 
its  funds.  Eight  dioceses  have  been  formed 
out  of  this  since  1872. 

Math'ew,  Theobald,  commonly  known 
as  Father  Mathew,  the  Irish  apostle  of 
temperance,  was  born  at  Thomastown,  Tip- 
perary,  Oct.  10,  1790.  He  studied  for  the 
priesthood  and  entered  the  order  of  the 
Capuchins.  As  a  Capuchin  father  at  Cork, 
he  found  that  the  poverty  and  wretched- 
ness of  his  people  were  in  great  measure  due 
to  overdrinking,  and  he  became  an  earnest 
preacher  of  total  abstinence.  His  crusade, 
begun  in  1838,  soon  spread  to  Dublin,  Liver- 
pool, Manchester,  London,  Glasgow,  New 
York  and  wherever  there  were  Irishmen. 
His  success  was  marvelous.  During  his 
last  years  his  unthinking  charity  brought 
him  to  poverty,  and  Father  Mathew  died 
at  Queenstown,  worn  out  by  his  labors, 
Dec.  8,  1856.  See  Harriet  Martineau's 
Biographical  Sketches  and  his  Life  by  F.  J. 
Mathew. 

Math'ieu,  Olivier  Elzear,  was  born  at 
St.  Rock,  Quebec,  Dec.  24,  1853.  He 
studied  at  Quebec  Seminary  and  was 
granted  the  doctorate  of  theology  on  May 
1 8,  1878.  Soon  after  he  was  ordained  and 
became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Laval 
University,  a  position  which  he  still  holds. 
In  1882  he  went  to  Rome  where  he  ob- 
tained the  degrees  of  doctor  in  philosophy 
and  doctor  in  scholastic  science  (St.  Thomas). 
Returning  to  Quebec,  he  occupied  the  posi- 
tion of  prefect  of  studies  in  the  Junior  Semi- 
nary during  six  years  and  afterwards  that 
of  director  during  eleven  years.  In  1899  he 
was  appointed  superior  of  Quebec  Seminary 
and  rector  of  Laval  University,  continuing 
to  occupy  his  professor's  chair.  In  1903, 
on  the  occasion  of  the  fiftieth  anniversary 
of  the  foundation  of  Laval  University,  he 
was  appointed  apostolic  prothonotary,  with 
the  title  of  Monsignor.  As  student  and 
professor  of  philosophy,  Monsignor  Mathieu 
stands  in  the  first  rank  of  American  think- 
ers. As  educator,  no  man  has  exercised 
greater  or  more  beneficial  influence  in  Quebec. 

Matsys  (mdfsis'),  Quentin,  Flemish 
painter,  was  born  at  Louvain,  Belgium, 
about  1466,  and  is  said  to  have  first  been 


a  blacksmith,  He  settled  at  Antwerp  in 
1491  and  there  died  in  1530  or  1531.  His 
pictures  are  mostly  religious,  and  are  re- 
markable for  glow  of  color,  absence  of  light 
and  shade  and  fine  finish.  The  Burial  of 
Christ,  Martyrdom  of  John  the  Baptist  and 
The  Money-Changers  are  among  his  best 
pictures.  Matsys  also  ranks  high  as  a 
portrait-painter.  He  seems  to  have  been 
acquainted  with  Holbein,  Durei-,  Erasmus, 
Sir  Thomas  More  and  other  noted  men  of 
the  time. 

Matterhorn  (mdt'ter-horn),  called  by 
the  French  Mont  Cervin  and  by  the  Italians 
Monte  Silvio,  is  a  peak  of  the  Alps  in  the 
Swiss  canton  of  Valais  and  Piedmont,  which 
rises  14,705  feet.  The  peak  was  first  scaled 
by  four  Englishmen  and  three  guides,  July 
14,  1865,  when  two  of  the  party  fell  over 
the  precipice  and  were  killed.  See  Whym- 
per',8  Ascent  of  the  Matterhorn. 

Matth'ew  (meaning  Gift  of  Jehovah},  one 
of  the  apostles  and  held  to  be  the  author 
of  the  first  Gospel.  He  was  a  publican  or 
tax-gatherer  at  Capernaum,  when  called  by 
Jesus  to  follow  him.  Except  in  the  four 
lists  of  the  disciples,  Matthew  is  nowhere 
mentioned  by  name  in  the  New  Testament. 
An  early  authority  speaks  of  his  having  died 
a  natural  death;  by  other  writers  he  is  said 
to  have  suffered  martyrdom  after  preach- 
ing in  Parthia  and  Ethiopia.  Papias,  a 
bishop  of  the  second  century,  tells  us  that 
"Matthew  wrote  in  the  Hebrew  dialect  a 
collection  of  the  sayings  of  the  Lord,  and 
each  one  interpreted  them  as  best  he  could." 

Matthews  (math'uz),  James  Brander,  an 
American  author  and  professor,  was  born 
at  New  Orleans,  La.,  Feb.  21,  1852.  He 
graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1871; 
took  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  laws  in  1873; 
and  was  soon  after  admitted  to  the  bar. 
He,  however,  preferred  literary  pursuits  and 
gave  his  whole  attention  to  authorship,  be- 
coming one  of  the  founders  of  the  Authors' 
Club.  He  has  published  over  30  separate 
volumes,  edited  many  editions  of  popular 
works,  and  contributed  numberless  articles 
to  periodicals.  Since  1892  he  has  filled  the 
chair  of  literature  at  the  college  of  his 
graduation.  His  best-known  works  are 
Americanisms  and  •Briticisms,  Vignettes  of 
Manhattan,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
American  Literature  and  Parts  of  Speech. 

Mattoon  (mat'todn'),  111.,  city  in  Coles 
County  about  75  miles  south  of  Springfield. 
It  is  in  an  agricultural  region  of  which 
broom-corn  is  one  of  the  principal  products. 
Its  chief  manufacturing  establishments  are 
broom-factories,  flour-mills,  grain-elevators, 
wagon  and  carriage  factories,  foundries, 
machine-shops  and  repair-shops  for  several 
railroads.  Some  of  its  noteworthy  build- 
ings are  the  Old  Folks'  Home  and  the  public 
library.  The  city  has  good  public  and  paroch- 
ial schools,  several  churches  and  the  services 
of  three  railroads.  Population,  11,456. 


MAUCH  CHUNK 


IIQO 


MAURITIUS 


Mauch  Chunk  (mak'  chUnk*),  a  mining 
town  of  Pennsylvania,  lies  among  pictur- 
esque hills  on  the  Lehigh,  90  miles  north- 
west of  Philadelphia  There  is  a  switch- 
back railroad,  nine  miles  long,  from  the 
town  to  Summit  Hill,  famous  for  its  burn- 
ing mines,  which  have  been  on  fire  since 
1858.  Population  3,969. 

Mauna  Kea  ( mou'nd  kd'a)  on  the  island 
of  Hawaii,  the  highest  mountain  in  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  and  in  Polynesia,  rises 
13,803  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  a  volcanic 
dome,  and  its  craters  have  not  long  ceased 
their  eruptions.  Its  top  is  covered  with 
snow  most  of  the  year,  and  herds  of  wild 
cattle  roam  in  the  woods  that  cover  the 
mountain-side. 

Mauna  Loa  (mou'ndlo'd),  a  volcanic 
mountain  of  Hawaii,  13,760  feet  in  height. 
It  is  wholly  made  up  of  lava  that  has  been 
thrown  out  in  a  fluid  state.  It  is  a  smooth, 
regular  dome  with  forests  on  its  flanks  at  an 
elevation  of  5,000  feet.  It  has  many  craters 
near  the  top  and  on  the  sides,  and  new  ones 
sometimes  open.  The  top  crater,  called 
Mokuaweo-weo,  is  round,  8,000  feet  across 
and  about  1,000  feet  deep.  The  eruptions 
often  are  like  lava-fountains,  spouting  from 
the  top  of  the  mountain.  In  1859  one  of 
these  fountains  for  four  or  five  days  sent 
up  a  stream  of  white-hot,  fluid  lava,  about 
200  feet  through  and  200  or  300  feet  high, 
lighting  the  horizon  for]  150  miles.  In 
1868  the  lavas  forced  their  way  for  20  miles 
underground,  and  then  burst  through  a 
fissure  two  miles  long.  Here  four  fountains 
spouted,  sometimes  joining  in  one  fountain 
two  miles  in  length,  throwing  up  crimson 
lava  and  red-hot  bricks  500  or  600  feet. 

Maurice  ( ma'rls)  or,  in  German,  Moritz, 
Elector  of  Saxony,  a  German  general,  was 
born  at  Freiberg,  Saxony,  March  21,  1521. 
In  1542  he  fought  under  Emperor  Charles 
V  against  the  Turks  and  next  year  against 
the  French.  He  also  fought  with  Charles 
at  Muhlberg  in  1547,  in  which  the  Smalkald 
league  of  German  Protestant  princes  was 
defeated,  though  its  two  leaders  were  his 
father-in-law,  Philip,  Landgrave  of  Hesse, 
and  his  cousin,  John  Frederick,  Elector  ^of 
Saxony.  Though  John  Frederick's  domin- 
ions and  title  were  given  to  Maurice,  the 
fact  that  he  himself  was  a  Protestant,  to- 
gether with  Charles'  treacherous  arrest  of 
the  landgrave  and  other  despotic  acts, 
soon  cooled  his  devotion  to  the  emperor. 
He  raised  an  army  and  forced  from  the 
great  emperor  not  only  the  release  of 
Philip  of  Hesse,  but  the  treaty  of  Passau, 
July  1 6,  1552,  which  granted  the  fullest 
liberty  of  worship  to  Protestants.  Next 
year  Maurice  headed  a  league  against 
the  margrave,  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  who 
would  not  acknowledge  this  treaty,  and 
crushed  him  at  the  battle  of  Sievershausen, 
near  Hannover,  but  was  himself  wounded 
and  died  two  days  later,  July  n,  1553. 


Maurice  (wa'rfo),  Prince  of  Orange  and 
Count  of  Nassau,  one  of  the  most  skillful 
generals  of  his  age,  was  the  son  of  William 
the  Silent,  and  was  born  at  Dillenburg, 
northern  Germany,  Nov.  14,  1567.  After 
his  father's  assassination  in  1584,  the  prov- 
inces of  Holland  and  Zealand  and,  after- 
wards, Utrecht  and  the  other  Netherland 
provinces  chose  him  as  their  stadtholder. 
A  great  part  of  the  Netherlands  was  still 
in  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards;  but  under 
the  leadership  of  Maurice  the  Dutch  rapidly 
wrested  cities  and  fortresses  from  their 
enemies.  In  1597  he  defeated  the  Spaniards 
at  Turnhout,  and  in  1600  crushed  them 
at  Nieuwport.  Then  for  more  than  three 
years  he  baffled  the  whole  power  of  Spain 
by  his  defense  of  Ostend.  At  last,  in  1609, 
Spain  reluctantly  acknowledged  the  United 
Provinces  a  free  republic.  A  factional 
fight  between  the  Orange  party  and  the 
Remonstrants,  led  by  Olden-Barneveldt, 
was  not  ended  by  the  victory  of  the  former 
party  till  1621.  At  once  Maurice  renewed 
the  war  with  Spain.  He  died  at  The  Hague 
on  April  23,  1625. 

Mauritania.  See  MOROCCO. 
_  Mauritania,  the  Gallicized  name  of  an- 
cient Morocco,  is  now  applied  by  the  French 
to  the  protectorate  established  by  them 
in  1903  over  the  Moorish  tribes  of  Trarza 
and  Brakna  north  of  the  lower  Senegal. 
The  boundaries  are  undefined,  with  the 
probability  that  they  will  eventually  in- 
clude much  or  all  of  the  territory  between 
the  French  colony  of  Senegal  and  Spanish 
Africa.  A  provisional  government,  military 
and  civil,  has  been  formed,  responsible  to 
the  governor-general  of  French  West  Africa. 

Mauritius  ( ma-rtsh'i-us )  or  Isle  of 
France,  an  island  and  British  colony  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  500  miles  east  of  Madagascar. 
It  is  of  volcanic  formation.  The  surface  is 
a  tableland  rising  into  ridges  500  to  2,700 
feet  high,  the  highest  peak,  Riviere  Noire, 
being  2,711  feet  above  sea-level.  Lava, 
basalt  and  volcanic  lakes  occur.  The  pic- 
turesque beauty  of  the  Isle  of  France,  as 
the  French  called  it,  covered  with  forests,  is 
described  in  St.  Pierre's  Paul  and  Virginia 
and  Besant  and  Rice's  My  Little  Girl.  But 
in  the  igth  century  the  woods  were  cut 
down  to  make  room  for  sugar-cane  planta- 
tions. Among  the  native  trees  are  the 
ebony,  cocoanut  palm,  bamboo,  benzoin, 
ironwood  and  traveler's  tree.  There  are 
many  tropical  fruits,  besides  food-plants, 
as  sugar,  vanilla,  coffee,  cocoa,  corn,  rice, 
yams  and  manioc.  Terrific  cyclones  are 
common.  The  educated  upper  classes  are 
mostly  descendants  of  the  French  colonists. 
There  are  many  primary  and  secondary 
schools  and  a  royal  college.  There  are  a 
number  of  negroes,  Malagasi,  Singhalese, 
Malays  and  Chinese;  but  the  bulk  of  the 
people  are  coolies,  who  have  been  brought 
in  nearly  every  year  since  1842  to  work  the 


MAURY 


1x91 


MAXIMILIAN 


sugar-fields.  The  capital  is  Port  Louis 
(population  52,740).  The  island  is  passing 
into  the  hands  of  Chinese  and  Hindus,  who 
are  supplanting  Europeans  as  owners  as 
well  as  workers.  The  great  crop  is  sugar, 
though  large  quantities  of  rum,  cocoanut- 
oil,  vanilla,  Mauritius  hemp,  aloe-fiber, 
drugs  and  caoutchouc  are  exported.  Mau- 
ritius is  a  British  colony,  and  is  ruled  by  a 
governor  and  executive  council.  The 
island  was  discovered  by  Mascarenhas  in 
1 501,  who  found  it  uninhabited.  The  Por- 
tuguese abandoned  it,  and  it  was  seized  by 
the  Dutch  in  1598,  who  named  it  after  their 
Prince  Maurice ;  but  they  in  turn  abandoned 
it  in  1710.  The  French  were  its  next  mas- 
ters, and  introduced  sugar-raising,  which 
made  its  prosperity.  The  English  gained 
possession  in  1810.  There  are  121  miles  of 
railway  and  333  of  telegraph.  There  is  a 
cable  through  the  Seychelles  Islands  to 
Zanzibar.  Its  exports  in  1905  reached  a 
total  value  of  34^  million  rupees,  and  its  im- 
ports were  18  million.  The  area  of  the 
island  is  705  square  miles.  Population, 
including  about  3,000  military  (in  barracks) 
and  non-resident,  shipping  people,  378,195. 
Among  the  dependencies  of  Mauritius  are 
Rodrigues  (3,162)  and  a  number  of  smaller 
islands  in  the  group.  See  works  by  J.  G. 
Baker  and  G.  Clark  and  Keller's  Mada- 
gascar, Mauritius  and  other  East  African 
Islands. 

Maury  (ma'rK),  Matthew  R,  an  American 
naval  officer  and  scientist,  was  born  near 
Fredericksburg,  Va.,  Jan.  14,  1806.  In  1825 
he  entered  the  navy  as  midshipman,  and 
while  still  a  passed-midshipman  he  began  his 
Treatise  on  Navigation,  which  was  used  as  a 
text-book  in  the  navy.  After  1 3  years'  serv- 
ice he  became  lieutenant,  in  1837,  but  two 
years  later  an  accident  lamed  him  for  life 
and  unfitted  him  for  service  afloat.  In  1842 
he  was  made  superintendent  of  the  hydro- 
graphical  office  at  Washington  and,  two  years 
later,  of  the  observatory.  Here  he  made 
careful  observations  on  winds  and  currents, 
from  the  results  of  which  he  wrote  his  Phys- 
ical Geography  of  the  Sea,  The  Gulf  Stream, 
Ocean  Currents  and  Great-Circle  Sailing. 
Maury  was  made  a  commander  in  1855,  but 
when  his  state  seceded  he  joined  the  Confed- 
erate navy.  After  the  war  he  was  professor 
of  physics  in  Virginia  Military  Institute, 
Lexington.  He  was  a  member  of  the  scien- 
tific societies  of  Europe,  and  practically  was 
the  founder  of  the  new  and  important  science 
of  hydrography.  Professor  Maury  died  at 
Lexington,  Va.,  Feb.  i,  1873.  See  his  Life 
by  his  daughter. 

Max'im,  Sir  Hiram  S.t  American  inventor, 
was  born  in  Maine,  Feb.  5, 1840,  and  became 
famous  as  the  inventor  of  the  automatic  can- 
non (q.  v.)  known  by  his  name.  His  first 
completed  gun  was  exhibited  in  1884.  The 
principle  of  this  gun  was  making  the  recoil  of 
the  weapon  load  and  fire  the  weapon.  He 


succeeded  in  making  a  gun  that  would  fire 
600  shots  a  minute.  The  gun  was  first  used 
in  actual  warfare  by  the  British  in  Matabele- 
land.  It  was  soon  adopted  by  the  French 
navy,  and  now,  under  various  names,  is  in 
use  by  all  governments.  He  also  invented  a 
smokeless  powder  (q.  t>.),  incandescent  lamps 
and  searchlights  to  be  used  on  board  of  men- 
of-war.  He  received  a  number  of  decorations 
from  European  courts.  He  was  also  made 
a  member  of  many  scientific  associations. 
He  resided  in  England,  and  having  trans- 
ferred his  citizenship  to  that  country  was 
knighted  in  1901.  He  died  in  1916. 

Maximilian  (makst-mWyar?)  I,  German 
emperor,  the  son  of  Frederick  III,  was  born 
at  Neustadt,  near  Vienna,  March  22,  1459. 
When  only  19  he  married  Mary,  the  heiress  of 
Charles  the  Bold,  by  whom  he  gained  Bur- 
gundy and  Flanders.  But  this  brought  him 
into  war  with  Louis  XI  of  France,  and  Max- 
imilian was  forced  to  give  Artois  and  Bur- 
gundy to  Louis.  In  1486  he  was  chosen  king 
of  the  Romans.  In  1490  he  drove  out  the 
Hungarians,  who,  under  Matthias  Corvinus, 
had  seized  a  great  part  of  the  Austrian  terri- 
tories on  the  Danube,  and  at  Villach  in  1492 
he  routed  the  Turks.  The  death  of  his  father 
in  1493  made  Maxinrlian  emperor.  His 
marriage  with  the  daughter  of  the  duke  of 
Milan  turned  his  ambition  toward  Italy;  but 
after  many  changes  of  fortune  he  was  driven 
to  give  up  Milan  to  France  and  Verona  to  the 
Venetians.  He,  however,  gained  Tyrol  by 
peaceful  means;  the  houses  of  Spain  and 
Hapsburg  were  joined  by  the  marriage  of 
their  children;  and  the  marriage  of  his  grand- 
son,  Ferdinand,  brought  Hungary  and  Bo- 
hemia to  Austria.  Maximilian  ended  the 
feuds  of  his  nobles,  improved  the  courts,  and 
divided  the  empire  into  six  (afterward  into 
ten)  circles,  each  ruled  by  a  governor.  He 
also  encouraged  the  Universities  of  Vienna 
and  Ingoldstadt  in  learning  ana  arts  gener- 
ally. He  was  well-educated,  skilled  in  all 
bodily  exercises,  chivalrous  and  genial;  so 
that  he  has  been  called  the  first  knight  of 
his  age.  Maximilian  died  emperor  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  at  Wels  in  Upper  Aus- 
tria, Jan.  12,  1519.  See  Coxe's  History  of 
the  House  of  Austria. 

Maximilian,  Emperor  of  Mexico.  Fer- 
dinand Maximilian  Joseph,  archduke  of  Aus- 
tria, was  born  on  July  6,  1832,  at  Vienna, 
and  was  the  younger  brother  of  Francis  Jo- 
seph I.  He  became  an  admiral  of  the  Austrian 
navy,  and  in  1857-59  he  was  popular  as  gov- 
ernor of  the  Lombardo- Venetian  territory. 
In  1862  the  French  interfered  in  the  affairs 
of  Mexico,  and  next  year  called  together  an 
assembly  of  notables,  which  offered  the 
crown  to  Maximilian.  After  carefully  re- 
viewing the  offer  he  accepted  it,  and  in  June, 
1864,  ne  entered  Mexico.  For  a  time  all 
went  well,  but  he  was  unable  to  keep  the 
Mexican  parties  at  peace.  Juarez,  the  re- 
publican leader,  again  raised  the  standard  of 


MAXWELL 


IIQ2 


MAY 


independence;  and  soon  after  (1866)  Louis 
Napoleon  was  forced  to  think  of  withdrawing 
his  troops.  In  vain  the  Empress  Charlotte 
went  to  Europe  to  enlist  aid  for  her  husband; 
her  reason  gave  way  under  the  strain  of  ex- 
citement and  grief  brought  on  by  disap- 
pointment. When  the  French  withdrew, 
Maximilian  felt  bound  in  honor  to  stay  and 
share  the  fate  of  his  followers.  At  the  head 
of  8,000  men  he  made  a  brave  defense  of 
Quer6taro  against  a  republican  army  under 
Escobedo.  In  May,  1867,  he  was  betrayed 
and  tried  by  court-martial,  and  on  July  19 
he  was  shot.  His  death  was  directly  due  to 
his  own  fatal  edict  of  Oct.  3,  1865,  that  all 
Mexicans  taken  in  arms  against  the  empire 
should  be  shot  without  trial.  See  Kendall's 
Mexico  under  Maximilian. 

Max'well,  James  Clerk-,  a  very  remark- 
able English  physicist  and  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  and  profound  minds  known  to  the 
history  of  physical  science.  He  was  born  at 
Edinburgh,  June  13,  1831,  and  there  re- 
ceived his  early  training,  first  at  the  Edin- 
burgh Academy  and  afterward  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh.  In  1850  he  went  to 
Cambridge,  from  which  he  graduated  in  1854. 
From  1856  to  1860  he  held  the  chair  of  physics 
in  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen,  and  for 
the  next  eight  years  a  corresponding  posi- 
tion in  King's  College,  London.  Three 
years  of  retirement  on  his  estate  at  Glen- 
lair  intervened  between  his  London  resi- 
dence and  his  acceptance  of  the  newly 
created  chair  of  experimental  physics  at 
Cambridge,  where  he  lived  and  worked  al- 
most to  his  death  in  1879.  Genius  showed 
itself  very  early  in  his  career;  for  at  15  a 
paper  of  his  on  a  mechanical  method  of 
drawing  Cartesian  ovals  was  considered 
worthy  of  presentation  to  the  Royal  Society 
of  Edinburgh.  His  first  great  memoir  was 
that  which  he  offered  in  successful  compe- 
tition for  the  Adams  prize  in  1859.  In  this 
paper  he  proved  from  purely  dynamical 
grounds  that  the  rings  of  Saturn  are  made 
of  discrete  particles,  else  those  rings  would 
not  be  stable.  His  investigations  on  the 
Kinetic  Theory  of  Gases  placed  him  with 
Bernoulli,  Clausius  and  Boltzmann  as  a 
founder  of  that  science.  Towering  above 
everything  else,  however,  is  his  Electromag- 
netic Theory.  His  work  began  with  a  paper 
on  Faraday's  Lines  of  Force,  which  he  later  so 
extended  and  perfected  that  in  his  Treatise 
on  Electricity  and  Magnetism  we  have  a  com- 
plete theory  of  the  entire  subject  from  Far- 
aday's standpoint,  that  is,  from  the  point  of 
view  which  replaces  all  action  at  a  distance 
by  action  through  a  medium.  Ever  since 
its  publication  in  1873  this  has  been  the 
standard  treatment  of  electricity  either  in 
English  or  in  any  other  language. 

As  early  as  1864  Maxwell  predicted  that 
electrical  vibrations,  if  they  could  be  pro- 
duced, would  have  the  same  properties  as 
light- vibrations.  It  was  not  until  1888, 


nearly  20  years  after  Maxwell's  death,  that 
Hertz  showed  how  to  realize  these  electric 
oscillations  in  the  laboratory  and  proved 
that  Maxwell's  equations  had  predicted  the 
exact  truth.  These  are  precisely  the  elec- 
trical vibrations  which  Marconi  and  others 
have  employed  since  1896  in  wireless  teleg- 
raphy. This  discovery  of  Maxwell's  may 
be  stated  more  simply,  perhaps,  by  saying 
that  he  showed  that  optics  is  merely  one  de- 
partment of  electricity. 

His  two  small  volumes  on  Matter  and  Mo- 
tion and  the  Theory  of  Heat  are  marvels 
of  elegance,  conciseness  and  clearness.  They 
should  be  read  by  everyone  who  wishes  to 
know  the  man.  His  collected  Scientific  Pa- 
pers have  recently  been  published  by  the 
Cambridge  Press. 

Even  this  brief  sketch  would  be  incom- 
plete without  adding  that,  aside  from  scien- 
tific attainments,  his  modesty,  genial  humor 
and  high  Christian  character  endeared  him 
to  everyone  who  knew  him.  A  more  charm- 
ing biography  than  the  Life  of  James  Clerk- 
Maxwell,  by  his  friends  Louis  Campbell 
and  William  Garnett  would  be  difficult  to 
find. 

Maxwell,  William  Henry,  a  prominent 
American  educator,  since  1898  superintend- 
ent of  public  schools  in  New  York  City,  was 
born  in  Ireland  in  1852.  He  was  educated 
at  the  College  of  Belfast  and  Galway  and  at 
Queen's  University,  taking  his  A.  B.  in  1872 
and  his  A.  M.  in  1874.  In  1874  he  emigrated 
to  the  United  States;  and  from  1882  to  1898 
he  superintended  the  Brooklyn  public 
schools.  As  superintendent  of  the  New 
York  public  schools  Mr  Maxwell  has  made 
indomitable  efforts  to  keep  the  march  of  ed- 
ucational facilities  apace  with  the  wonderful 
growth  of  New  York  City.  In  1901  he  was 
made  an  honorary  LL.  D.  by  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. In  1904-05  he  was  president 
of  the  National  Education  Association.  He 
is  the  author  and  editor  of  several  text- 
books for  schools;  and  many  of  his  short  pa- 
pers and  addresses  are  printed  in  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  N.  E.  A.  (see  Index,  1906) 
and  in  educational  magazines.  See,  also, 
the  annual  reports  of  the  superintendent  of 
schools,  New  York  City. 

May,  the  fifth  month  of  the  year.  The 
first  of  May  has  always  been  a  gala  day.  The 
May  festival  goes  back  to  the  Floralia  festival 
of  the  Romans,  which  probably  came  in  the 
first  place  from  India.  In  England,  as  we 
learn  from  Chaucer  and  Shakespeare,  it  was 
customary  during  the  middle  ages  for  all, 
both  high  and  low  —  even  the  court  itself  — 
to  go  out  on  the  first  May  morning  at  an 
early  hour  "to  fetch  the  flowers  fresh."  The 
fairest  maid  of  the  village  was  crowned  with 
flowers  as  Queen  of  the  May.  Every  town 
and  village,  too,  had  its  fixed  pole  —  called 
the  Maypole  —  on  which  each  May-morning 
were  hung  wreaths  of  flowers,  and  round 
which  the  people  danced  in  rings  most  of  the 


MAYENCE 


"93 


MAZZINI 


day.  Roman  Catholics  celebrate  the  month 
as  the  Virgin's  month. 

Mayence  (md'ydns^  or  Mainz  (mints), 
the  capital  and  largest  town  of  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Rhenish  Hesse,  Germany,  on  the 
Rhine,  near  its  union  with  the  Main.  It  is  a 
fortified  city,  with  double  wall,  bastions,  out- 
works and  a  citadel  in  the  center,  and  com- 
mands both  sides  of  the  river.  There  is  a 
monument  to  Gutenberg,  with  a  statue  by 
Thorwaldsen  and  a  bronze  statue  of  Schiller 
in  the  public  squares.  The  house  in  which 
Gutenberg  was  born  still  stands,  as  does  the 
one  where  he  had  his  first  printing-press. 
Mayence  is  an  old  city,  having  been  a  place 
of  importance  under  the  Romans.  It  was 
the  head  of  the  league  of  Rhenish  towns  in 
the  1 3th  century,  and  through  Gutenberg 
became  the  bookmaking  center.  In  1801  it 
belonged  to  France,  but  in  1816  was  assigned 
to  Hesse-Darmstadt.  Since  1871  it  has  been 
a  fortress  of  the  German  empire.  Popula- 
tion 110,634. 

May"f low'er,  the  name  of  the  vessel  which 
in  1620  brought  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  from 
Southampton,  England,  to  Plymouth  Rock, 
Mass.,  has  become  a  historic  word  in  Amer- 
ica. The  little  vessel  was  of  only  180  tons 
burden.  She  arrived  at  her  destination  on 
the  aist  of  December,  1620.  A  society  of 
the  Mayflower  Descendants,  now  having 
some  2,000  members,  was  formed  in  1894. 
The  Pilgrims  were  Congregationalists  or  In- 
dependents in  search  of  a  land  where  they 
might  have  full  liberty  of  conscience. 

Mayotta  or  Mayotte  (md'yot'td)  is  the 
chief  of  the  Comoro  or  Compre  Islands,  mid- 
way between  the  northern  tip  of  Madagascar 
and  the  Mozambique  coast,  the  more  im- 
portant of  the  others  being  Grande  Comore, 
Moheli  and  Anjouan,  wit11  a  total  area  of 
620  square  miles  and  a  population  of  47,000, 
of  which  Mayotte  has  140  square  miles  and 
1 1 ,640  inhabitants. 

Mazarin  (md'zd'ran'') ,  Jules,  cardinal  and 
chief  minister,  of  France  during  the  youth  of 
Louis  XIV,  was  born  on  July  14,  1602,  at 
Piscina,  Italy.  His  abiKty  for  diplomacy 
was  early  seen,  and  he  accompanied  a  papal 
legate  to  the  court  of  France.  Here  he  met 
Richelieu,  who,  foreseeing  his  future,  engaged 
him  to  further  French  interests  in  Italy.  In 
1639  ne  openly  entered  the  service  of  Louis 
XI II,  was  naturalized  a  Frenchman,  and 
through  Richelieu's  influence  gained  a  car- 
dinal's hat.  Richelieu  further,  before  his 
death,  recommended  Mazarin  to  the  king  as 
his  successor.  He  ruled  with  less  friction 
than  Richelieu,  though  with  almost  as  great 
power.  The  opposition  of  parliament  to  his 
taxes,  followed  by  the  arrest  of  the  leaders, 
brought  on  the  first  of  the  wars  of  the  Fronde. 
When  he  had  Cond6  and  Conti  arrested  in 
1650,  he  had  to  go  into  exile.  He  now  saw 
his  mistake  in  separating  himself  and  the 
queen  from  every  party  in  the  state,  and  bent 
all  his  masterly  powers  to  form  a  new  royal 


party.  In  1653  Mazarin  came  back  in  tri- 
umph, and  from  that  time  his  power  was  re- 
established, while  he  quickly  regained  his 
popularity.  Under  his  rule  the  influence  of 
France  abroad  was  greatly  increased.  He 
gained  the  alliance  of  Cromwell  by  giving  up 
Dunkirk ;  made  French  influence  felt  in  south- 
ern Germany  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  in 
1648;  while  the  league  of  the  Rhine,  formed 
in  1659,  and  the  marriage  of  Louis  XIV  in 
1659  with  the  infanta  Maria  Theresa  made 
France  a  claimant  of  the  throne  of  Spain. 
Mazarin  died  at  Vincennes,  March  9,  1661. 
See  Gustave  Masson's  Mazarin. 

Mazeppa  (md-zep'd),  Ivan  Stefanovich, 
hetman  or  chief  of  the  Cossacks,  was  born  in 
1664  of  a  poor  but  noble  family  of  Podolia, 
Poland.  He  became  a  page  at  the  court  of 
John  Casimir,  king  of  Poland.  A  jealous 
nobleman  had  him  stripped  naked  and  bound 
on  his  own  horse,  lying  on  his  back  and  with 
his  head  to  its  tail,  and  let  the  animal  loose, 
leaving  Mazeppa  to  his  fate.  The  horse  car- 
ried him,  senseless  from  exhaustion,  to  its 
native  wilds  of  the  Ukraine,  according  to  the 
usual  story.  A  more  likely  account  is  that 
his  horse  carried  him  through  Woods  and 
thickets  and  brought  him  back,  torn  and 
bleeding,  to  his  own  home.  Mazeppa  now 
joined  the  Cossacks,  became  secretary  to 
their  hetman,  Samoilovich,  and  in  1687  was 
chosen  his  successor.  He  won  the  confi- 
dence of  Peter  the  Great,  who  loaded  him 
with  honors  and  made  him  prince  of  the 
Ukraine.  But  when  Russia  interfered  with 
the  freedom  of  the  Cossacks  (q.  v.) ,  Mazeppa 
determined  to  free  them  from  the  rule  of  the 
czar,  and  to  this  end  conspired  with  Charles 
XII  of  Sweden.  Peter  discovered  the  treason, 
but  long  refused  to  believe  it.  Mazeppa's 
hopes  perished  in  the  disastrous  battle  of 
Pultowa  in  1709,  and  with  Charles  he  fled  to 
Bender,  the  Russian  fortress  in  Bessarabia, 
where  he  died  the  same  year.  His  story  is 
the  subject  of  a  famous  poem  by  Byron  and 
of  two  paintings  by  Vernet. 

Mazzini  (mdt-se'ne),  Giuseppe,  an  Italian 
patriot,  was  born  at  Genoa  on  June  22, 
1805.  He  entered  its  university  when 
only  13,  and  before  he  was  19  was  a  prac- 
ticing lawyer.  In  1821  the  sight  of  the  refu- 
gees from  the  unsuccessful  rising  in  Pied- 
mont stirred  him  to  devote  himself  to  free- 
ing his  country.  As  a  member  of  the  Car- 
bonari he  was  imprisoned  in  1830.  When 
set  free  the  next  year,  his  life-plan  was  set- 
tied.  His  first  step  was  the  formation  of 
the  Young  Italy  association.  The  first  and 
last  duties  of  its  members  were  to  work  to 
make  a  free,  independent  and  united  nation. 
The  masses  were  to  be  educated  to  under- 
stand their  rights,  and  taught  to  secure 
them,  if  need  be,  by  force.  Shortly  after 
Charles  Albert  became  king  of  Sardinia,  Maz- 
zini urged  him  to  put  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  struggle  for  national  independence.  His 
answer  was  a  sentence  of  banishment.  From 


MEAD 


"94 


MEADOWLARK 


1 83  a  he  led  "a  life  of  voluntary  Imprisonment 
within  the  four  walls  of  a  little  room"  for 
Ov'er  20  years.  During  this  time  he  was  tho 
most  untiring  political  agitator  in  Europe, 
the  man  most  dreaded  by  its  absolute  gov- 
ernments. He  was  always  writing,  and  so 
eloquently  and  sincerely  that  he  aroused  his 
followers  to  an  enthusiasm  that  would  dare 
anything.  His  organization  extended  through 
Italy,  and  he  went  to  England,  where  for 
seven  years  he  struggled  hard  against  pov- 
erty, yet  managed  to  help  his  poorer,  igno- 
rant countrymen,  the  London  hand-organ 
boys,  by  teaching  and  civilizing  them  in 
night-classes.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Lom- 
bard revolt  (1848)  Mazzini  threw  himself 
into  the  struggle,  though  the  king  of  Sardinia 
sought  to  win  him.  When  the  revolt  failed, 
he  made  his  way  to  Tuscany.  Leghorn  re- 
ceived him  with  wild  enthusiasm  in  Febru- 
ary, 1849,  the  day  before  the  republic  was 
proclaimed  at  Rome,  and  elected  him  her 
deputy  to  the  republican  assembly  in  the 
papal  city.  On  March  29  Mazzini  was  cho- 
sen one  of  three  triumvirs  with  the  pow- 
ers of  dictators,  but  on  April  25  the  French 
arrived  and  in  June  the  republic  fell.  Maz- 
zini was  sentenced  to  death  three  times,  but 
in  1866  the  sentence  was  formally  rescinded, 
and  he  died  peacefully  at  Pisa,  Italy,  March 
10,  1872.  Italian  nationality  is  chiefly  due 
to  Mazzini,  Garibaldi  and  Cavour.  Maz- 
zini prepared  the  soil,  sowed  the  seed  and 
fostered  the  growing  plants;  Garibaldi  gath- 
ered the  ripe  fruit;  but  Cavour  gained  the 
final  advantage  of  the  harvest.  See  Mar- 
riott's Makers  of  Modern  Italy. 

Mead,  Larkin  Goldsmith,  an  American 
sculptor,  was  born  at  Chesterfield,  N.  H., 
Jan.  3,  1835.  His  early  years  were  spent  in 
Vermont.  He  studied  art  at  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  and  in  Italy.  The  Recording  Angel, 
his  first  work,  was  modeled  in  snow  and  after- 
ward cut  in  marble.  His  large  pieces  have 
been  executed  for  public  buildings  and  mon- 
uments. Among  them  are  the  colossal  statue 
of  Vermont,  on  the  dome  of  the  statehouse, 
and  of  Ethan  Allen  in  the  portico  of  the  same 
building  in  Vermont  and  one  of  the  same 
hero,  given  by  Vermont  to  the  hall  of  rep- 
resentatives at  Washington.  The  statue  of 
Lincoln  on  the  monument  at  Springfield  and 
a  group  representing  Columbus  before  Queen 
Isabella,  for  the  state  of  California  and  the 
Returned  Soldier  are  other  specimens  of  his 
larger  statues.  He  died  Oct.  15,  1910. 

Meade,  George  Gordon,  an  American 
general,  born  at  Cadiz,  Spain,  Dec.  31,  1815. 
In  the  Mexican  War  he  was  on  the  staff  of 
General  Taylor,  afterward  on  that  of  General 
Scott,  and  won  honor  at  the  battles  of  Palo 
Alto  and  Monterey.  From  1856  to  1861  he 
was  in  charge  of  the  surveys  of  the  Great 
Lakes.  In  the  Civil  War  he  first  was  in  com- 
mand of  +,he  Pennsylvania  brigade,  and 
fought  in  the  battles  of  Gaines'  Mill  and 
Frazier's  Farm,  where  he  was  severely 


wound«d,  South  Mountain^  Antietam  and 
Fr»dericksburg.  H«  was  in  command  of 
different  corps  of 
the  army  01  the 
Potomac.  Meade 
succeeded  Hook- 
er in  the  com- 
mand of  the  army 
of  the  Potomac, 
and  fought  the 
battle  of  Gettys- 
burg, July  1-3, 
1863,  receiving 
the  thanks  of 
Congress  in  1866 
for  "his  skill  and 
heroic  valor."  He 
was  made  major- 

GEN.  G.  G.  MEADE          general     in     the 
regular  army  in 

1864,  and  retained  the  command  of  the  army 
of  the  Potomac,  under  General  Grant,  dur- 
ing the  battles  of  the  Wilderness,  the  siege  of 
Petersburgetc.  until  the  close  of  the  war.  He 
was  in  command  of  the  division  of  the  Atlan- 
tic, 1865-66;  of  the  department  of  the  east, 
1866-67:  and  later  of  the  military  district 
which  included  Georgia,  Alabama  and  Flor- 
ida. His  headquarters  were  at  Philadelphia, 
where  he  died,  Nov.  6,  1872,  at  his  home 
the  gift  of  his  grateful  fellow-citizens.  See 
GETTYSBURG. 

Mead'owlark,  or  field-lark,  one  of  our 
birds  given  the  name  of  lark  but  not  a  true 
lark,  a  mem- 
ber of  the 
blackbird 
family,  close 
kin  to  the 
orioles  and 
black  birds. 
While  very 
common,  its 
protective 
coloring,  that 
of  the  ground, 
accounts  for 
the  fact  that 
it  is  not  so 
often  seen  as 
the  familiar 
blackbird 
with  which  it  frequently  associates,  On 
the  ground  it  spends  all  its  time  while  feed- 
ing, and  is  a  strong  walker.  It  is  about  the 
size  of  the  robin,  upper  part  varying  shades 
of  brown  and  black,  underneath  yellow  with 
a  black  crescent  on  the  breast,  white  on  tail 
conspicuous  in  flight.  Its  whistle,  usually 
sounded  from  upmost  branch,  is  piercing  but 
most  musical,  "  clear  as  the  note  of  a  fife, 
sweet  as  the  tone  of  a  flute."  The  western 
meadowlark  is  considered  a  worthy  rival  of 
the  nightingale  and  wood- thrush.  After  a 
period  of  silence  in  the  summer  the  bird  may 
be  heard  again  in  the  autumn.  When  perch- 
ing it  appears  uneasy,  twitching  its  tail  about 


MEADOWLARK 


MEADVILLE 


1195 


MEAT-PACKING 


at  every  sound ;  on  the  ground  it  allows  close 
approach.  The  nest  (on  the  ground)  is 
cleverly  hidden,  grasses  curved  over  it,  and 
about  the  middle  of  May  it  contains  from 
four  to  six  brown-speckled  white  eggs.  The 
meadowlark  is  distributed  throughout  North 
America,  and  migrates  in  April  and  late  Oc- 
tober, some  birds  remaining  all  winter.  The 
bird  is  prized  for  its  inspiriting  note,  the  soft 
harmony  of  its  coloring,  its  neighborliness 
and  its  usefulness  in  destroying  insects  and 
eating  seeds  of  weeds. 

Mead'ville,  Pa.,  capital  of  Crawford 
County,  on  Venango  River  in  northwestern 
Pennsylvania,  125  miles  north  of  Pittsburg. 
It  is  on  the  Erie  Railroad  and  in  railroad 
connection  with  Pittsburg  and  Lake  Erie. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  number  of  educational  in- 
stitutions, schools,  colleges,  conservatories 
of  music  and  half  a  dozen  libraries.  Here 
are  Allegheny  College,  a  Methodist  institu- 
tion, with  19  instructors  and  352  students, 
and  a  Unitarian  theological  seminary.  Its 
industries  include  manufactures  of  engines, 
boilers,  leather-belting,  oil-well  supplies, 
wood-mantels,  sashes  and  blinds.  The  city 
has  good  water-works,  natural  gas  for  fuel 
and  lighting  and  electric-light  plants.  Pop- 
ulation 12,780. 

Measurement  consists  essentially  in  the 
comparison  of  one  quantity  with  another. 
Thus  the  measurement  of  a  length,  which  is 
one  of  the  simplest  of  all  measurements,  con- 
sists in  determining  how  many  times  greater 
or  less  the  given  length  is  than  some  other 
given  length  which  we  agree  to  take  as  a  unit. 
In  like  manner  an  interval  of  time  is  meas- 
ured by  comparing  it  with  the  interval 
which  we  employ  as  a  unit,  namely,  the  mean 
solar  day.  Evidently,  therefore,  it  is  possi- 
ble to  measure  a  quantity  without  under- 
standing much  about  that  quantity.  No 
intelligent  measurement,  however,  can  be 
made  unless  one  understands  just  what  quan- 
tities are  necessary  to  define  the  quantity 
about  to  be  measured.  The  position  of  a 
point  in  space  is  intelligently  measured  only 
vhen  we  know  that  three  definite  and  inde- 
pendent co-ordinates  are  required  to  locate 
the  point  and  have  determined  the  numerical 
values  of  these  three  co-ordinates.  To  meas- 
di"c  the  kinetic  energy  of  a  body  in  transla- 
tion we  must  know  how  many  units  of  mass 
there  are  in  the  body  and  with  how  many 
units  of  speed  it  is  moving.  Thus  also  we 
may  accurately  and  definitely  measure  the 
acceleration  of  gravity  at  various  points  on 
the  earth's  surface,  and  yet  not  know  the 
explanation  cf  gravitation. 

Practically  all  the  quantities  involved  in 
physical  science  and  engineering  can  be 
measured  in  terms  of  three  quantities:  a 
length,  a  time  and  a  mass.  The  units  of  these 
three  quantities  are  therefore  called  the 
fundamental  units. 

The  standard  of  length,  except  in  English 
and  American  commerce,  is  the  meter;  the 


standard  of  time  the  mean  solar  day;  and  the 
•tandard  of  mass  the  kilogram.  (See  EARTH, 
KILOGRAM  and  METER.)  Units  are  founded 
upon  standards,  but  they  often  differ  in  sue 
from  standards  and  may  be  chosen  of  a  size 
which,  for  any  particular  purpose,  is  most 
convenient.  Thus,  in  physics  the  centimeter 
or  hundredth  of  a  meter  is  most  frequently 
employed;  and  in  astronomy  the  second 
(s*,VuT  °f  a  day)  is  frequently  a  very  conven- 
ient unit  of  time,  though  often  the  year  (or 
365  days  roughly  speaking)  is  more  conven- 
ient. 

No  physical  measurements  can  be  carried 
out  with  absolute  accuracy.  Every  com- 
parison is  affected  with  error  to  some  extent. 
Even  the  standard  meter  at  Paris,  which  is 
correct  by  definition,  may  be  changing  its 
length  owing  to  crystallization.  The  rate  of 
rotation  of  the  earth  is  probably  diminishing 
(and  hence  the  length  of  the  mean  solar  day 
increasing)  owing  to  tidal  friction.  Even  if 
comparisons  could  be  made  with  perfect 
accuracy,  the  final  measurement  would  be 
affected  with  error.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
precision  of  modern  measurement  almost 
surpasses  belief.  Michelson,  for  instance, 
has  succeeded  in  making  a  comparison  of  the 
standard  meter  with  a  wave-length  of  cad- 
mium light  in  which  the  error  does  not  ex- 
ceed about  one  part  in  2,000,000.  Two 
masses  may  be  compared  with  even  greater 
accuracy.  See  Everett's  Units  and  Physical 
Constants. 

Meat=Packing,  an  American  industry 
which  began  with  the  salting  of  hogs  for  ex- 
port from  New  England  in  the  early  years 
of  American  colonization,  has  now  become 
one  of  the  chief  industries  of  the  middle  west. 
Its  main  centers  are  Chicago,  Kansas  City 
and  Omaha,  though  it  is  carried  on  largely 
in  other  western  cities.  The  industry  in- 
cludes the  whole  process  of  the  disposal  of 
carcasses  of  sheep,  cattle  and  hogs  killed  for 
food.  Thus  meat-packing  falls  at  once  into 
two  departments:  the  packing  of  fresh  meat 
and  that  of  cured  meat.  Both  largely  depend 
for  success  upon  modern  improvements  in  re- 
frigeration. Fresh  meat  is  simply  frozen 
during  some  forty  hours,  and  sent  to  market. 
But  the  bulk  of  the  meat  is  canned  or  cured. 
The  labor-saving  devices  in  meat-packing 
have  been  brought  to  great  perfection.  The 
carcass  is  hoisted  by  the  nose  on  an  endless 
chain,  and  so  passed  through  scalding-vats 
and  automatically  scraped.  It  is  then  dis- 
embowelled by  machinery,  beheaded,  washed 
and  trimmed,  all  these  processes  occupying 
but  a  few  seconds.  In  meatpacking  the 
bones  are  ground  for  manure  or  made  into 
glue;  and  the  hoofs,  horns  and  hides  are 
turned  to  account  in  many  ways.  The  waste 
trimmings  of  the  meat  are  made  into  sau- 
sages, ft  is  obvious  that  such  a  process  as 
meat-packing  may  be  conducted  carelessly 
and  even  in  a  manner  dangerous  to  health. 
In  1891  a  system  of  government  inspection 


MECCA 


1196 


MECKLENBURG  DECLARATION 


was  instituted;  but  great  scandals  were  re- 
vealed in  1904-5.  An  inquiry  followed,  and 
the  result  was  the  enactment  by  Congress  of 
a  law  (1906)  providing  for  rigid  inspection 
of  all  animals  before  slaughtering,  of  all  car- 
casses and  meats  and  of  slaughter-houses 
and  meat-packing  establishments,  as  well  as 
of  the  whole  process  of  canning,  preserving 
and  properly  stamping  and  labeling  all  prod- 
ucts. The  number  of  wholesale  establish- 
ments engaged  in  slaughtering  and  meat- 
packing in  the  United  States  in  1909  was 
i  ,641 ,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $383,249,- 
ooo.  They  consumed  materials  costing  $i,- 
201 ,828,000,  and  the  value  of  products  manu- 
factured was  $1,370,568,000.  The  number 
of  animals  slaughtered  was  about  8,114,860 
cattle,  12,255,501  sheep  and  33,870,616  hogs. 
Mecca  (mek'ka),  the  holy  city  of  the  Mos- 
lems, is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  and  the  capital 
of  Arabia.  It  is  built  in  a  narrow  valley,  sur- 
rounded by  hills,  which  are  crossed  by  two 
passes.  The  place  is  so  secluded  that  the  city 
is  seen  only  when  the  traveler  comes  close 
upon  it.  It  commands  the  principal  caravan- 
routes,  and  early  became  a  center  of  trade. 
The  city  is  mainly  modern,  as  the  ancient 
buildings  have  been  mostly  destroyed  by 
mountain  torrents.  The  streets,  unpaved 
and  dirty,  are  broad,  while  the  houses  of 
stone,  three  and  four  stories  high,  climb  the 
mountain.  There  is  no  drainage,  and  pro- 
visions of  all  kinds  have  to  be  brought  into 
the  city,  owing  to  the  barrenness  of  the  soil. 
The  population  numbers  about  60,000,  who 
live  upon  the  pilgrims  who  flock  to  the  city 
and  upon  the  manufacture  of  sacred  relics. 
What  gave  Mecca  its  first  reputation  as  a 
holy  city  is  uncertain,  though  it  is  probably 
the  possession  of  the  Black  Stone  or  fetish 
of  the  Kaaba,  which  attracted  pilgrims  ages 
before  the  time  of  Mohammed.  This  Black 
Stone  is  a  small  meteoric  substance,  and  is 
built  into  the  southeastern  corner  on  the  out- 
side of  the  temple  or  Kaaba.  There  is  an- 
other sacred  stone,  called  the  Southern 
Stone.  The  Moslems  changed  the  temple 
with  its  heathen  fetish,  to  a  temple  built  by 
Abraham  when  he  cast  out  Ishmael.  The 
temple  of  Mecca  or  the  Great  Mosque  is  an 
open  court  surrounding  the  Kaaba,  has  19 
gates  and  7  minarets,  and  holds  35,000  per- 
sons. The  pilgrims  walk  around  the  Kaaba 
seven  times,  kiss  the  Black  Stone  and  touch 
the  Southern  Stone,  and  pass  around  a  small 
inclosure  containing  the  supposed  graves  of 
Hagar  and  Ishmael.  The  Kaaba  is  covered 
with  rich  hangings,  presented  by  the  Sultan 
of  Turkey,  and  has  a  door  of  silver  and  gilt, 
which  is  seldom  opened  to  display  the  rich 
silver,  marble  and  silk  decorations  of  the 
interior.  Itisabout  70  feet  long,  about  cowide 
and  nearly  40  in  height.  Every  Moham- 
medan, whose  means  or  health  will  permit, 
is  obliged  to  make  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca 
at  least  once.  The  Arabic  word  for  a  pil- 
grimage is  hadj — and  hence  the  Mohamme- 


dan who  has  made  the  journey  to  Mecca  is 
called  af terward  a  hadji.  Some  who  cannot 
make  the  journey  themselves  send  some  one 
in  their  place,  but  the  honor  and  rewards  of 
the  deed  belong,  not  to  the  substitute,  but 
to  his  employer.  The  sacred  well  of  Mecca 
may  once  have  been  a  mineral  spring,  but 
analysis  now  gives  sewage  as  its  principal 
element.  The  city  was  conquered  by  Mo- 
hammed in  627,  five  years  after  he  had  fled 
from  it.  The  Carmathians  sacked  it  in  930, 
carrying  off  the  Black  Stone  and  keeping  it 
for  22  years.  It  belongs  now  to  the  Turkish 
empire  (it  passed  to  the  Turks  in  1517), 
though  the  real  governor  is  the  sherif  or  the 
reputed  head  of  the  descendants  of  Moham- 
med. See  Burkhardt's  Travels  in  Arabia; 
Irving's  Mahomet;  and  Palgrave's  Narra- 
tive. 

Mechanics  (me-kan'tks)  is  a  word  em- 
ployed with  two  distinct  meanings.  Some- 
times it  is  used  to  denote  the  science  of  ma-- 
ter  and  energy,  more  properly  called  dynam- 
ics; and  sometimes  it  is  employed  to  denot ; 
the  application  of  dynamical  principles  to 
the  theory  of  structures  and  to  the  theory  of 
machines.  Used  in  this  latter  sense,  it  is 
a  branch  of  engineering  and  might  more 
properly  be  called  applied  mechanics.  At 
other  times  mechanics  is  used  in  a  mixed 
sense  to  include  both  a  discussion  of  dynam- 
ics and  the  application  of  dynamical  prin- 
ciples to  structures  and  machines.  For  pure 
mechanics  see  DYNAMICS.  For  applied 
mechanics  see  BRIDGE,  LEVER,  PULLEY, 
PUMP  and  STEAM-ENGINE.  On  pure  mechan- 
ics —  dynamics  —  consult  Minchin's  Treat- 
ise on  Statics,  Tait  and  Steele's  Dynamics  of 
a  Particle  and  Thomson  and  Tait's  Treatise 
on  Natural  Philosophy.  Slate's  Mechanics 
gives  an  excellent  elementary  resume  of  the 
subject.  Worthington's  Dynamics  of  Rota- 
tion is  still  more  elementary.  For  the  appli- 
cations of  mechanics  consult  Church's  Me- 
chanics of  Engineering,  Johnson's  Materials 
of  Construction  and  Ewing's  Strength  of  Ma- 
terials. For  the  history  of  the  subject  read 
Mach's  Science  of  Mechanics  or  Whewell's 
History  of  the  Inductive  Sciences. 

Meck'lenburg  Declaration  of  Independ  = 
ence,  The,  comprised  a  resolution  or 
series  of  resolutions  adopted  in  May,  1775, 
at  a  meeting  of  representatives  of  each 
militia-company  in  Mecklenburg  County, 
N.  C.  It  appears  that  the  minutes  which 
embodied  the  declaration  were  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1800.  The  declaration  probably  was 
restored  from  memory.  Thus  restored,  it 
resembles  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
so  closely  that  many  of  the  phrases  are  word 
for  word  identical.  It  is  possible  that  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  in  1776  was  in 
a  measure  modeled  upon  the  Mecklenburg 
resolutions.  It  is  urged,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  many  of  the  correspondences  may  be 
due  to  the  confused  recollection  of  those  who 
restored  the  Mecklenburg  Declaration  to 


MECHLIN 


"97 


MEDINA 


paper  after  the  destruction  of  the  original 
resolutions. 

Mechlin  ( miVttn )  or  Malines,  a  city  of 
Belgium,  13  miles  northeast  of  Brussels, 
it  is  a  railroad-center,  and  has  manufac- 
tories of  woolen,  linen,  lace  and  beer.  The 
Mechlin  lace,  so  well-known,  is  made  h,re, 
but  the  trade  is  much  less  than  formerly, 
and  the  quality  of  the  lace  is  below  the 
former  standard.  Malines  is  a  picturesque 
city,  with  fine  public  buildings,  among 
which  are  the  cathedral,  several  large 
churches,  the  bishop's  palace,  widows' 
asylum  and  .he  college.  In  the  public 
square  or  Grande  Place  stands  a  statue  of 
Margaret  of  Austria,  and  some  paintings  of 
Rubens  and  Vandyke  are  in  the  churches. 
Population  59,372. 

Medes  (medz),  the  people  of  Media,  the 
ancient  name  for  northwestern  Persia. 
The  inhabitants,  called  Medes,  were  an 
Aryan  race.  They  were  followers  of  Zo- 
roaster, and  their  priests  were  the  Magi. 
They  were  bold  and  warlike,  skillful  in  the 
use  of  the  bow  and  noted  horsemen.  They 
were  partly  subject  to  Assyria  until  about 
700  B.  C.,  when  they  had  a  chief,  with  his 
capital  at  Ecbatana,  now  Hamadan.  With 
the  aid  of  the  conquered  Persians  and  the 
king  of  Babylon,  Cyaxares  the  third  king 
(or,  according  to  some  authorities  the  first) 
captured  Nineveh  and  overthrew  the  As- 
syrian empire  about  607  B.  C.  In  550  B.  C. 
the  Persians  under  Cyrus  revolted  and 
overthrew  Astyages,  the  Median  king,  and 
the  two  nations  became  one  people,  and 
are  spoken  of  as  the  Medes  and  Persians. 
Mark  Antony  fought  a  disastrous  campaign 
against  i-  about  36  B.  C.,  when  it  seems  to 
have  had  a  king  of  its  own.  Media  was 
finally  again  united  with  Persia,  and  its 
later  history  is  that  of  Persia.  See  Five 
Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern 
World  by  Rawlinson;  Races  of  The  Old  Tes- 
tament by  Sayce;  and  Media,  Babylon  and 
Persi  by  Miss  Ragozin  in  Stories  of  the 
Nations. 

Med'ford,  Mass.,  an  old  city  of  Middlesex 
County,  on  Mystic  River  and  the  Bos- 
ton and  Maine  Railroad,  five  miles  north- 
west of  Boston.  It  is  also  connected  with 
Boston  by  electric  railway.  Here  is  the 
seat  of  Tufts  College  ( Universalist).  Its 
manufactures  embrace  felt  boots,  pressed 
and  face  brick,  print  and  dye  works,  carriage- 
factories  and  crackers.  The  city  dates 
from  1630,  but  was  organized  as  a  city  only 
in  1892.  Population  23,150. 

Medici  (med'S-che),  a  celebrated  Italian 
family  in  Florence  and  Tuscany,  who  at- 
tained sovereign  power  in  the  i5th  century 
and  were  great  patrons  of  art  and  letters  as 
well  as  noted  statesmen. 

Medici,  Lorenzo  dei,  the  Magnificent, 
was  born  of  a  wealthy  Florentine  family 
on  Jan.  i,  1448.  He  was  highly  educated 
and  early  showed  his  great  abilities.  On 


the  death  of  his  father,  Piero  I,  Lorenzo 
with  his  brother,  Giuliano,  was  recognized 
as  ruler.  The  great  power  of  the  Medici 
roused  the  envy  of  other  Florentine  families, 
and  in  1478  they,  in  league  with  Pope  Sixtus 
IV,  plotted  to  overthrow  them.  Giuliano 
became  the  victim  of  the  assassin,  but 
Lorenzo  defended  himself  with  such  courage, 
vigor  and  diplomacy  as  finally  to  put  down 
the  consoiracy,  in  spite  of  the  papal  bull  and 
the  aid  of  the  king  of  Naples.  Innocent 
VIII,  successor  of  Sixtus  IV,  became  the 
friend  of  the  family,  and  opened  to  them 
many  of  the  positions  of  power  which  they 
filled.  Lorenzo  was  a  patron  af  art  and 
literature,  and  himself  a  distinguished 
poet.  He  established  a  printing-press  at 
Florence  and  the  University  of  Pisa,  and 
enlarged  the  library  founded  by  his  grand- 
father, Cosimo.  He  governed  the  state  well, 
but  made  everything  yield  to  the  advance- 
ment of  his  family,  and  so  left  Florence 
weakened  and  ready  to  be  the  prey  of  her 
enemies.  He  died  on  April  8,  1492.  See 
Life  by  Roscoe;  Poetry  and  Poets  of  Europe 
by  Longfellow;  and  Lives  of  Italian  Poets 
by  Stebbing. 

Med'icine  Hat,  a  town  in  the  province 
of  Alberta.  Population  5,500.  It  is  situated 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Saskatchewan. 
It  is  noted  for  its  natural-gas  wells,  which 
supply  material  for  heating  and  lighting. 
An  excellent  country  is  tributary  to  it. 

Med'icine-Man  is  the  name  commonly 
given  to  the  individual  in  an  Indian  tribe 
who  combines  the  offices  of  doctor  and 
priest.  Investigations  into  the  character 
of  the  medicine-men  among  the  Ojibwas, 
Cherokees  and  Apaches  have  shown  that 
the  powers  and  privileges  of  medicine-men 
vary  greatly  in  different  tribes.  In  some 
of  the  South  American  tribes  the  medicine- 
man is  chief  as  well  as  priest  and  doctor. 
In  Guija,  Brazil  and  occasionally  among 
the  North  American  tribes  organizations 
of  cults  of  medicine-men  exist  for  the  pur- 
pose of  communicating,  transmitting  and 
guarding  their  secrets.  The  medicine-man 
guards  and  interprets  the  tribal  "medicine" 
and  also  the  personal  "medicine,"  which 
is  supposed  to  influence  the  life  of  the  in- 
dividual intimately.  He  attempts  to  cure 
sickness  and  turn  away  disaster;  and  pre- 
sides over  the  initiatory  ceremonies  at  the 
age  of  puberty  and  over  the  numerous  re- 
ligious and  symbolic  dances  and  celebra- 
tions held  on  important  or  periodic  occasions 
by  the  tribe.  Medicine-men  _  of  one  type 
or  another  appear  to  occur  in  almost  all 
so-called  primitive  societies. 

Medi'na,  Arabic  for  The  City,  is  the 
holiest  city  of  the  Mohammedans,  next  to 
Mecca,  because  it  was  the  home  of  Mo- 
hammed after  his  flight  from  Mecca.  It  is 
situated  in  western  Arabia,  about  270 
miles  north  of  Mecca.  About  half  as 
large  as  Mecca,  it  is  inclosed  by  a  wall 


MEDIEVAL  PERIOD 


1198 


MEGAPHONE 


from  35  to  40  feet  in  height,  with  30  towers, 
and  a  castle  with  a  Turkish  garrison,  mak- 
ing it  one  of  the  strongest  fortified  places 
in  that  part  of  Arabia.  The  present  popu- 
lation (about  46,000),  live  by  agriculture 
and  the  alms  or  spoils  of  the  pilgrims  who 
flock  thither,  as  to  Mecca,  but  at  no  par- 
ticular time.  The  prophet's  mosque  is 
thought  to  be  built  on  the  spot  where  Mo- 
hammed died  and  to  surround  his  tomb. 
The  sepulcher  is  an  irregular  chamber,  50 
to  5  5  feet  in  height,  with  a  large,  gilt  crescent 
above.  Within,  costly  curtains,  embroid- 
ered with  gilt  letters,  cover  a  square  build- 
ing of  black  marble,  where  the  prophet's 
body  is  believed  to  lie,  undecayed,  with 
the  face  toward  Mecca.  No  European  has 
ever  been  allowed  to  see  the  coffin,  which 
is  cased  with  silver  and  covered  with  a 
marble  slab;  but  there  seems  no  reason  to 
doubt  that  it  really  is  the  burial-place  of 
Mohammed.  The  city  once  was  famed 
for  its  scholars  and  theologians,  and  in  the 
7th  century  was  the  capital  of  Islam.  On 
Sept.  i,  1908,  the  Medina  and  Damascus  rail- 
way, 1,000  miles  long,  w-s  opened  to  traffic. 

Medieval   Period.     See  GEOLOGY. 

Med'iterra'nean,  The,  is  the  laregst  in- 
closed sea.  It  is  connected  with  the  open 
ocean  (the  Atlantic)  only  by  the  narrow 
Strait  of  Gibraltar,  nine  miles  wide.  The 
name  is  derived  from  its  being  in  the  midst 
of  three  continents :  Europe,  Asia  and 
Africa.  It  is  2,200  miles  long,  varies  from 
500  to  100  miles  in  width,  and  has  an  area 
of  900,000  square  miles.  I*  is  connected 
with  the  Black  Sea  by  the  Dardanelles, 
Sea  of  Marmora  and  the  Bosporus.  The 
coasts  of  Europe  and  Asia  Minor  have  many 
bays  and  gulfs,  while  the  coast  of  Africa  is 
even,  with  few  indentations.  The  Tyrrhenian 
Ionian,  Iberian  and  JEgean.  Seas  and  the 
Levant  are  different  parts  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean. Sardinia,  Corsica,  Sicily,  Malta, 
Cyprus  and  Crete  are  among  the  larger  is- 
lands. The  region  is  subject  to  earthquakes, 
and  Vesuvius,  Stromboli  and  JEtna  are  its 
most  famous  volcanoes.  The  bottom  is 
divided  into  two  parts  by  a  ridge  which 
crosses  it  from  Sicily  to  Africa,  the  water 
being  deeper  in  the  eastern  basin.  The 
evaporation  is  greater  than  the  amount  of 
water  poured  into  the  Mediterranean  by 
its  rivers,  and  if  it  were  not  for  the  water 
of  the  Atlantic  which  flows  in  at  Gibraltar, 
above  the  outflow  of  the  heavier  water  of 
the  Mediterranean,  the  sea  would  become 
salter  and  shrink  into  two  salt-lakes  like 
the  Dead  Sea.  Suez  Canal  connects  the 
Mediterranean  with  the  Red  Sea.  The 
chief  rivers  that  flow  into  it  are  the  Rhdne, 
Po  and  Nile.  The  ountries  bordering  the 
Mediterranean  (Phoenicia,  Greece,  Egypt  and 
Italy)  have  been  cradles  of  civilization,  and 
the  sea  is  well-known  in  history,  poetry  and 
ancient  story,  and  to-day  is  one  of  the  most 
important  water-routes  of  the  world. 


Medulla  Oblongata  (mt-dtil'ld  8b~l8n- 
gd'td),  the  part  of  the  hind-brain  merg- 
ing into  the  spinal  cord,  the  hind-brain  being 
made  of  the  cerebellum  and  the  medulla 
oblongata.  It  is  a  very  important  part  of 
the  brain.  The  cranial  nerves,  with  the 
exception  of  the  optic  and  olfactory  nerves, 
are  connected  with  it,  and  in  it  are  also 
located  clusters  of  nerve-cells  —  or  especial 
centers, —  that  preside  over  special  actions. 
Here,  for  example,  are  located  the  respira- 
tory center,  controlling  the  respiratory 
movements;  the  cardiac  center,  for  regu- 
lating the  action  of  the  heart;  the  vaso- 
motor  center,  for  regulating  the  calibre  of 
the  blood  vessels;  the  sneezing  center;  and 
others.  These  centers  may  be  excited  to 
greater  activity  or  held  in  check  (inhibited) 
by  various  forms  of  stimulation  from  the 
external  world  or  from  within  the  body. 
See  BRAIN. 

Medusa  (me-du'sd),  in  Greek  mythology, 
one  of  three  sisters  called  the  Gorgons. 
They  had  but  one  eye  among  them,  a  for- 
tunate circumstance,  as  whoever  they 
looked  on  was  changed  to  stone.  Medusa 
is  represented  in  art  as  a  winged  virgin, 
with  hissing  snakes  for  hair,  brazen  claws 
and  a  single  tusk  for  a  tooth.  They  kept 
the  garden  of  the  Hesperides,  where  Medusa 
was  slain  by  Perseus. 

Medusae  (me-du'se),  a  group  of  free-swim- 
ming jellyfish.  They  have  a  dome-shaped 
or  umbrella-shaped  swimming-disc  of  jelly- 
like  consistency.  From  the  margin  of  the 
disc  hang  many  tentacles,  which,  from  their 
fancied  resemblance  to  the  snaky  locks  of 
Medusa  the  gorgon,  gave  these  animals 
their  name.  See  CCELENTERATA,  HYDROZOA 
and  JELLYFISH. 

Meerschaum  (mer'sham),  is  a  mineral, 
found  in  several  parts  of  the  world,  consist- 
ing of  hydrous  magnesium  silicate.  It  is  a 
white,  clay-like  substance,  which,  when 
dry,  will  float  on  water:  hence  its  name, 
which  means  sea-foam.  When  first  dug 
from  the  earth  it  is  soft,  like  soap,  makes 
a  lather  in  water  and  takes  out  grease,  and 
is  often  used  instead  of  soap  by  the  Turks. 
In  Europe  it  is  found  in  Moravia,  Spain 
and  the  Crimea,  and  in  Turkey  in  Asia  there 
are  large  beds  of  it  just  below  the  soil.  It 
is  also  found  in  South  Carolina.  It  is  used 
almost  entirely  for  the  manufacture  of 
tobacco-pipes,  the  Austrians  being  the  most 
largely  engaged  in  the  trade.  The  pipes 
made  at  Vienna  often  are  worth  $500,  from 
the  great  beauty  of  their  design.  The  waste 
material  left  after  cutting  the  pipes  is  ground 
into  powder  and  mixed  into  a  paste,  from 
which  the  cheaper  pipes  are  made. 

Megaphone  (meg'd-fon),  a  large  funnel- 
shaped  tube  used  for  reflecting  sound.  A 
tube  of  this  kind  may  be  used  either  to 
receive  sound,  when  it  becomes  an  ear- 
trumpet,  or  it  may  be  used  to  transmi* 
sound,  in  which  case  it  becomes  a  speaking 


MEGASPORANGIUM 


XI99 


MELANCHTHON 


trumpet.  The  principle  is  that  which  is 
employed  in  the  headlight  of  a  locomotive, 
where  the  lignt-waves  are  reflected  and  sent 
out  in  a  more  or  less  parallel  beam  along 
the  track.  The  only  difference  is  that  in 
the  megaphone  sound-waves,  and  not  light- 
waves, are  reflected.  The  two  principal 
uses  of  the  megaphone  at  present  are,  first, 
to  transmit  the  sound  of  a  phonograph  in 
the  direction  desired  and,  second,  to  trans- 
mit the  human  voice  to  a  long  distance  or 
tc  a  large  audience,  as  at  horse-races  and 
ball-games. 

Megasporangium  (  meg1 'd-spo-rdn' 'fi-unt ) 
(in  plants),  the  sporangium  which  produces 
megaspores.  In  pteridophytes  ,  (fern-plants) 
they  are  produced  by  the  water-ferns, 
selaginella  and  isoetes;  while  in  all  seed- 
plants  (spermatophytes)  the  so-called  ovules 
are  megasporangia,  sometimes  called  macro- 
sporangium.  See  HETEROSPORY. 

Megaspore  (meg'd-spor)  (in  plants).  In 
cases  of  heterospory  (which  see)  the  large 
asexual  spores  are  called  megaspores,  some- 
times macrospores.  In  germination  a  meg- 
aspore  produces  a  female  gametophyte,  that 
is,  one  which  bears  the  eggs.  Megaspores 
are  found  in  a  few  pteridophytes  and  in  all 
spermatophytes.  In  the  latter  group  but 
a  single  megaspore  is  produced  by  the  mega- 
sporangium  (ovule),  and  is  not  shed,  often 
being  called  the  embryo-sac.  It  is  this 
single,  retained  megaspore  which  results  in 
the  formation  of  a  seed  by  the  ovule.  See 
HETEROSPORY. 

Megasporophyll  (meg'd-spdYd-ftl)  (in 
plants)  the  sporophyll  which  bears  mega- 
sporangia,  sometimes  called  macrosporo- 
phyll.  Megasporophylls  are  chiefly  devel- 
oped in  seed-plants  and  in  the  angiosperms 
(true  flowering  plants);  they  have  been 
called  carpels,  the  innermost  organs  of 
flowers.  See  HETEROSPORY. 

Mehemet.     See  MOHAMMED  ALT. 

Meissonier  ( md'sd'nyd") ,  Jean  Louis 
Ernest,  a  French  artist,  was  born  at 
Lyons,  Feb.  21,  1815,  in  great  poverty.  As 
a  youth  he  painted  several  early  pieces 
which  he  sold  at  one  dollar  the  square  yard. 
When  19,  he  succeeded  in  getting  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  soon  admitted  to  the  studio 
of  Leon  Cogniet,  by  whom  his  ability  was 
soon  recognized.  His  distinctive  excellence 
in  small  paintings  finished  with  exquisite 
precision  was  soon  developed,  and  many  of 
his  most  celebrated  pieces  are  but  a  few 
inches  in  height  or  breadth.  His  first  public 
exhibition  occurred  in  1834.  From  that 
time  he  was  popular  and  prosperous.  In 
1 86 1  he  became  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
No  one  has  excelled,  few  have  ever  ap- 
proached, him  in  his  chosen  field.  Nearly 
all  of  his  pieces  have  to  dp  with  the  military, 
and  his  masterpiece,  Friedland  —  1807,  one 
of  the  largest,  by  the  way,  h«  ever 
painted,  w;us  brought  te  New  York  and 
ncrw  is  in  its  Metropolitan  Museum.  He 


died  at  Paris,  Jan.  31,  1891.  See  Life  by 
Mollet. 

Meistersinger   von    Niirnberg    Die      (dS 

mls'ter-sing'er  fon  nurn'berg).  A  music 
drama,  words  and  music  by  Richard  Wagner 
(1813-33).  The  first  sketches  for  this  work 
were  made  as  early  as  the  summer  holidays 
of  1845  but  it  was  22  years  before  it  was 
completed.  In  1868  it  had  its  first  per- 
formance under  Von  Billow  (1830-94).  It 
is  the  only  comic  opera  by  Wagner,  and  by 
some  good  musicians  is  considered  his  most 
satisfactory  work.  It  is  characterized  by 
nobility  and  dignity,  highly  finished  melody 
and  the  spirit  of  true  comedy.  The  pre- 
lude often  finds  a  place  in  the  concert- 
room,  and  few  songs  for  tenors  awaken 
popular  interest  as  does  the  famous  prize-song. 

Me'kong'  River,  Cambodia,  flows  south- 
eastward from  Tibet  through  the  Chinese 
Empire  and  Indo-China  to  the  China  Sea. 
Cochin-China  is  simply  the  delta  of  this 
great  river,  which  has  a  length  of  more 
than  2,500  miles.  Unfortunately,  naviga- 
tion is  impeded,  except  near  the  mouth,  by 
many  falls  and  rapids.  As  one  passes  down 
the  navigable  portion  villages  of  from  ten 
to  one  hundred  huts  are  to  be  seen  upon 
the  banks,  with  their  rows  of  poles  lor 
hanging  nets  and  large  platforms  upon 
which  the  fish  are  dried.  Smoked  and 
salted  fish  are  exported  in  vast  quantities 
from  the  Mekong  to  Asiatic  ports.  For 
fuller  description  consult  Vincent's  Land 
of  the  White  Elephant. 

Melanchthon  (me-ldnk'thiin),  Philip,  a 
German  reformer  and  friend  of  Luther, 
was  born  on  Feb.  16,  1497,  a^  Bretten  in 
Baden,  Germany.  He  studied  at  Heidel- 
berg and  Tubingen.  He  lectured  on  the 
philosophy  of  Aristotle  in  1514,  and  soon 
after  published  a  Greek  grammar.  His  ap- 
pointment to  a  Greek  professorship  at 
Wittenberg  in  1518  brought  him  into  con- 
tact with  Luther.  He  threw  himself  at 
once  into  the  work  of  the  Reformation, 
bringing  to  it  an  extent  of  learning  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  Erasmus  and  a  gift  of 
clear  thinking  and  expression  unequaled 
among  his  fellow  workers.  The  first  great 
Protestant  work  on  theology  was  written  by 
him  and  published  in  1521,  going  through 
more  than  50  editions  in  his  lifetime.  In 
1530  he  published  his  defense  of  what  is 
known  as  the  Augsburg  confession  of  faith, 
the  foundation  of  the  Protestant  religion 
in  Germany,  which  confession  had  been  pre- 
pared by  him  and  submitted  to  the  assembly 
of  German  princes  at  Augsburg.  Melanch- 
thon's  works  are  very  numerous,  including 
commentaries  on  parts  of  the  Bible  and 
classical  works,  books  of  doctrine  and  moral 
philosophy.  He  ranks  among  the  highest 
names  in  the  history  of  learning  and  educa- 
tion. He  died  at  Wittenberg,  April  ip, 
1 560.  See  Life  by  Cox  and  History  of  the 
Reformation  by  D'Aubigne. 


MELBA 


1200 


MEMNON 


Mel'ba,  Nellie,  a  great  prima  donna, 
with  wonderful  clearness  and  purity  of  note, 
was  born  in  Melbourne,  Australia,  in  1865. 
She  was  educated  at  the  Presbyterian 
Ladies'  College  at  Melbourne;  and  after- 
wards studied  singing  in  Paris  under  Mar- 
chesi.  Her  d£but  was  made  in  1887  in 
Brussels  as  Gilda  in  Rigoletto;  her  London 
d£but  in  Lucia.  Melba  is  a  stage-name; 
her  family  name  being  Mitchell.  She  was 
married  in  1882  to  Charles  Armstrong.  She 
sang  at  the  Opera  in  Paris  from  1889  to 
1892 ;  and  has  since  toured  Europe,  America 
and  Australia.  She  perhaps  is  at  her  best 
as  Lucia,  Juliette,  Ophelia  or  Nedda.  Her 
voice  is  the  purest  soprano. 

Melbourne  (mel'btirn),  the  most  impor- 
tant city  of  Australia,  the  capital  of  the 
state  of  Victoria,  is  situated  at  the  northern 
end  of  Port  Philip  Bay  on  both  sides  of 
the  Yarra.  its  streets  are  wide,  crossing 
each  other  at  right  angles,  with  a  great 
many  fine  buildings.  It  is  the  center  of  the 
railroads  of  Victoria,  and  has  numerous 
factories,  foundries  and  flour-mills.  Its 
university,  with  three  colleges,  and  a  work- 
ingmen's  college  are  the  principal  educa- 
tional institutions.  The  exhibition-build- 
ing, post-office,  law-courts,  the  houses  of 
parliament  (costing  $5,000,000),  the  royal 
mint,  custom-house  and  the  treasury  are 
among  the  fine  public  edifices.  Melbourne's 
growth  has  been  rapid.  It  was  first  occupied 
by  white  men  in  1835.  In  1851,  at  the 
time  of  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Victoria, 
it  had  a  population  of  25,000.  In  1909  it 
numbered  562,300,  including  the  suburbs. 
In  1888  an  international  exhibition  was 
held  on  the  hundred '..h  anniversary  of  the 
settlement  of  Australia,  which  cost  the 


MELBOURNE 

luyc  AND 

//da  PORT  PHILLIP 

ENGLISH  MILC9 


colony  $1,000,000.  Melbourne  was  in  1901 
visited  by  the  duke  of  Cornwall  and  York 
(heir-apparent  to  the  English  crown)  and 
his  consort  on  the  opening  of  the  first 
parliament  of  federated  Australia.  See 
Lord  Melbourne's  Victoria  and  Us  Metro- 
polis. 


Melo'deon,  a  musical  instrument  some- 
what like  a  piano  in  appearance,  but  depend- 
ing upon  a  bellows  and  reeds  for  producing 
the  music.  It  was  first  manufactured  in 
the  United  States,  over  20,000  being  made 
in  1859,  but  is  superseded  by  the  cabinet 
organ,  which  is  somewhat  like  the  melo- 
deon,  with  many  and  great  improvements. 

Mel'on,  the  general  name  most  com- 
monly associated  with  muskmelons  and 
watermelons,  sometimes  extended  to  in- 
clude gourd-fruits  in  general.  See  MUSK- 
MELON  and  WATERMELON. 

Mel'rose  Ab'bey,  a  celebrated  abbey  in 
Roxburghshire,  Scotland,  situated  near  the 
town  of  Melrose,  on  the  Tweed,  38  miles 
froru  Edinburgh.  It  was  built  in  1136  by 
David  I,  twice  burned  by  the  English, 
rebuilt  in  greater  splendor  and  again  de- 
stroyed by  English  invasions.  It  is  one  of 
the  finest  examples  of  Gothic  architecture, 
even  in  ruins,  and  in  its  prime  was  the 
most  beautiful  building  in  Scotland.  The 
abbey  has  been  celebrated  by  the  writings 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  whose  home,  Abbots- 
ford,  is  in  the  vicinity  an  is  visited  by 
many  tourists.  See  TK«  Abbot  and  Lay  of 
the  Last  Minstrel  by  Scott. 

Melrose,  Mass.,  a  city  of  Middlesex 
County  eight  miles  north  of  Boston,  on 
the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad.  It  is  a 
growing  town,  and  possesses  schools, 
churches,  public  parks,  halls,  library,  banks, 
hotels  and  club-houses.  Its  industries  in- 
clude the  manufacture  of  rubber-boots  and 
shoes,  furniture,  silver-polish  and  sewing- 
machine  needles.  Spot  Pond,  a  natural 
reservoir,  and  the  state  reservation  at 
Middlesex  Fells  attract  visitors.  Popula- 
tion 15,715. 

Mel'ville,  George  W.,  an  American  en- 
gineer, was  born  at  New  York,  Jan.  10,  1841. 
He  was  educated  at  Brooklyn  Polytechnic 
School,  and  entered  the  United  States 
navy  en  July  29,  1861,  as  third  assistant- 
engineer.  He  became  engineer-in-chiei  in 
1887  and  rear-admiral  in  1899.  He  per- 
sonally, by  various  inventions,  contributed 
not  a  little  to  building  up  the  new  Ameri- 
can navy.  During  his  term  120  ships  with 
a  combined  force  of  700,000  horse-power 
were  constructed  under  his  supervision. 
In  1879  he  joined  the  Arctic  expedition 
under  command  of  Lieutenant  De  Long, 
and  commanded  the  boat's  crew  which 
escaped  from  the  delta  of  the  Lena.  He 
afterwards  recovered  the  records  of  the 
expedition  and  the  remains  of  the  unfor- 
tunate party  which  perished  on  the  shores 
of  Siberia.  He  received  a  gold  medal  by 
special  act  of  Congress  for  his  bravery  and 
success.  In  1885  he  published  In  the  Lena 
Delta,  relating  the  experiences  of  the  sur- 
vivors of  the  Jeannette. 

Mem'non,  one  of  the  heroes  of  the  Tro- 
jan War,  was,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  son 
of  Aurora.  He  led  a  band  of  Ethiopians  to 


MEMORIZING 


1201 


MEMPHIS 


the  aid  of  Troy,  slew  Antilochus  in  single 
combat  and  was  himself  slain  by  Achilles. 
Two  famous  statues  were  discovered  by  the 
Greeks  at  Thebes,  and  one  of  them  was 
supposed  to  be  that  of  Memnon,  though 
more  probably  that  of  an  Egyptian  king. 
It  is  one  of  the  "seven  wonders  of  the 
world,"  is  about  60  feet  high,  and  about 
sunrise  gave  out  a  sound  like  the  snapping 
of  a  chord.  The  Greeks  called  it  "the  voice 
of  Memnon  hailing  his  mother,  Aurora" 
(the  dawn).  It  was  visited  by  many  travel- 
ers until  the  time  of  Emperor  Seyerus 
(A.  D.  146-211),  when  it  became  silent, 
and  it  is  inscribed  with  the  names  of  many 
celebrated  visitors.  The  origin  of  the  sound 
is  a  matter  of  conjecture,  though  it  has 
had  several  explanations.  See  Edinburgh 
Review,  July,  1886. 

Mem'orizing.  Early  systems  of  educa- 
tion, for  example  that  of  the  Chinese,  ap- 
peal to  the  memory  in  a  comparatively 
mechanical  way,  and  with  them  the  impor- 
tance of  memorizing  is  plain  and  unques- 
tioned. Educational  advance  in  modern 
times  (see  EDUCATION,  MODERN)  has,  on 
the  other  hand,  thrown  the  importance  of 
this  process  somewhat  into  the  background. 
The  difference,  however,  is  not  so  great  as 
might  at  first  appear.  Learning  by  rote 
is  not  so  much  a  schoolroom  method  as 
formerly,  but  committing  to  memory  re- 
mains to-day  as  of  yore  the  main  business 
of  education.  The  change  has  been  one  of 
method  rather  than  of  ultimate  aim.  For 
to  remember,  in  the  most  general  sense  of 
the  term,  means  to  store  up  experience  in 
such  a  way  that  the  result  affects  the 
activities  of  the  individual.  All  learning, 
therefore,  in  point  of  fact  is  memorizing. 
Modern  education,  when  it  lays  emphasis 
especially  upon  cultivating  ability  to  ob- 
serve, reason,  judge  and  act,  is  simply  call- 
ing attention  to  the  various  ways  in  which 
memory  preserves  and  employs  its 
material.  To  observe  well  we  must  have 
noticed  and  remembered  the  objects  or 
qualities  to  be  observed.  The  botanist 
notices  the  forms  of  plants  because  he  has 
fixed  this  sort  of  thing  in  memory.  The 
tailor  notices  the  nicer  peculiarities  of 
clothing,  which  the  botanist  may  well  fail 
to  see.  So,  too,  in  reasoning,  a  memory 
for  the  laws,  principles  or  concepts  on 
which  reasoning  is  based  is  indispensable. 

The  investigations  of  Galton  and  others, 
with  the  results  of  researches  into  the  func- 
tions of  the  cortex  of  the  brain,  have 
brought  to  light  the  fact  that  people  may 
difTer  in  respect  not  to  the  degree  only 
but  to  the  kind  of  memory  and  imagina- 
tion. Some  have  a  good  imagination  for 
visual  images  but  little  for  sounds,  and  the 
reverse  also  may  be  true.  Some  remember 
words  especially  well,  and  there  is  a  dis- 
tinct memory  for  abstract  relationship, 
which  doubtless  is  the  basis  of  ability  to 


reason  in  the  fields  concerned.  In  teach- 
ing, therefore,  it  frequently  is  important  to 
take  account  of  the  pupil's  special  powers 
of  memory.  A  child,  for  example,  may 
fail  to  respond  to  oral  instruction  because 
he  is  "eye-minded"  rather  than  "ear- 
minded."  If  the  work  can  be  put  in  such 
a  form  as  to  appeal  to  the  eye,  it  may 
be  taken  in  readily. 

The  success  with  which  everything  is 
committed  to  memory  depends  upon  the 
strength  of  the  impression  made  by  it 
upon  the  mind  and  the  number  and  strength 
of  the  associations  established  between  it 
and  other  things.  No  matter  how  firmly 
a  thing  may  be  impressed  on  the  mind:, 
its  recall  depends  upon  whether  the  experi- 
ences of  life  suggest  it.  This  liability  to 
be  suggested  depends  upon  the  number  of 
associations  with  experiences  that  are  likely 
to  come  up.  Hence,  methods  of  memoriz- 
ing are  either  mechanical,  aiming  to 
strengthen  the  impression  or  its  associa- 
tions, or  associative,  aiming  to  increase 
the  number  and  variety  of  associations 
likely  to  prove  valuable.  Under  mechan- 
ical methods  may  be  included  intensifica- 
tion of  the  stimulus,  concentration  of  the 
attention  and  repetition.  All  of  these  are 
of  great  importance,  attentiveness  at  all 
stages  in  learning,  and  repetition  especially 
for  drill.  Learning  by  rote  depends  upon 
these  mechanical  forces.  Its  defect  lies  in 
the  fact  that  the  material  thus  memorized 
may  not  be  so  associated  with  current 
experience  as  to  be  recalled  when  wanted. 
Associative  methods  aim  to  remedy  this 
lack.  The  objects  that  are  associated  may 
be  logically  connected,  or  the  associations 
may  be  arbitrary  or  forceful.  The  latter 
sort  give  rise  to  mnemonic  devices,  as,  for 
example,  the  familiar  trick  of  tying  a  string 
around  one's  finger  to  insure  the  recall  of 
a  certain  errand  or  the  use  of  rhymes  to 
remember  the  number  of  days  in  the 
various  months  etc.  Most  mnemonic  sys- 
tems, like  that  of  Loisette,  are  based  on 
such  devices.  These  methods  have  been 
used  from  time  immemorial,  but  have 
never  proved  of  more  than  occasional  value. 
On  the  other  hand,  logical  associations  are 
the  backbone  of  effective  memory.  All 
good  teaching  aims  at  treating  its  subject 
in  a  rational  or  logical  way;  that  is,  in 
making  it  habitual  to  associate  such  data 
as  bear  real  and  important  relationships  to 
each  other.  Thus  we  are  made  most  likely 
to  call  up  what  we  want  when  we  want  it. 
See  ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS  and  EDUCATION, 
MODERN.  Consult  Principles  of  Psychology 
by  James  and  Memory  by  Kay. 

Mem'phis  (mem'fis),  the  well-known  city 
of  Egypt,  was  the  ancient  capital.  It  is 
on  the  Nile,  ten  miles  south  of  Cairo.  The 
city  was  founded  by  the  first  Egyptian  king, 
who  changed  the  bed  of  the  Nile  and  built 
an  embankment  to  protect  the  city,  the 


MEMPHIS 


1202 


MENELEK  II 


remains  of  which  are  still  t»  be  found.  It 
was  a  large  city,  about  17  miles  in  circuit 
according  to  some  writers,  having  com- 
munication both  with  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Red  Sea.  It  had  a  large  trade,  and 
was  the  seat  of  learning  and  religion.  It 
was  the  capital  for  nearly  a  thousand  years. 
It  was  conquered  by  Sennacherib  and  by 
the  Persians;  Alexander  the  Great  worshiped 
at  the  shrine  of  the  sacred  bull;  and  the 
first  Ptolemies  were  crowned  in  its  temples. 
Ptolemy  VIII  destroyed  the  city,  and  it 
fell  with  the  rest  of  Egypt  under  the  Roman 
power.  Its  temples  were  magnificent,  in- 
cluding those  of  Isis,  the  Apis,  Ptah,  (where 
was  kept  the  sacred  bull)  and  Serapis, 
where  was  a  nilometer  to  record  the  floods 
of  the  Nile.  Most  remarkable  of  all  the 
ruins  are  the  pyramids,  including  the  great 

Eyramid  of  Cheops  and  the  statue  of  the 
phinx.  Memphis  remained  the  chief  city 
until  Alexandria  was  built,  when  it  fell  into 
ruins,  and  for  a  long  time  even  its  site  was 
unknown.  The  village  of  Mitrahenny  now 
marks  the  spot,  and  the  ruins  of  temples, 
palaces  and  statues  cover  hundreds  of  acres. 
See  Story  of  Ancient  Egypt  by  Rawlinson 
and  Egypt  from  4400  B.  C.  by  Clement. 

Memphis,  a  city  of  Tennessee,  in  Shelby 
County,  is  built  on  a  bluff,  35  feet  above 
high  water,  on  the  Mississippi.  Its  river 
and  railroad  communications  bring  it  a 
large  trade.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  cotton- 
markets  in  the  country,  and  has  numerous 
lumber  mills,  foundries,  machine-shops  and 
some  of  the  largest  oil-mills  in  the  United 
States,  producing  over  $1,000,000  worth  of 
cotton-seed  oil  a  year.  It  is  a  handsome  city, 
with  many  fine  public  buildings.  Since  the 
yellow  fever  epidemic  of  1878,  a  new 
system  of  drainage  has  been  introduced,  and 
the  water  is  supplied  from  the  finest  artes- 
ian wells,  making  Memphis  one  of  the  health- 
iest cities  of  the  country.  Population, 
131,105. 

Memphremagog  (mem' f re-ma' go  g),  Lake, 
on  the  northern  border  of  Vermont,  adjoin- 
ing Quebec,  is  about  35  miles  long  and  from 
two  to  five  wide.  It  has  many  islands  and 
an  abundant  supply  of  fish. 

Menai  Strait  (men'l),  a  channel  separat- 
ing the  island  of  Anglesea  from  Wales.  It 
is  14  miles  long  and  from  200  yards  to  two 
miles  wide.  Navigation  is  difficult,  but  the 
passage  is  much  used,  as  it  saves  time. 
The  channel  is  crossed  by  a  suspension- 
bridge  built  in  1825  and  by  the  famous 
Britannia  bridge  built  in  1850.  This  is  a 
tubular  iron  bridge,  used  for  railroads. 

Mendel,  Qregor,  1822-1882,  a  peasant 
boy  who  became  a  monk  and  later,  abbot 
of  Brunn.  His  experiments  with  crossing 
different  varieties  of  the  common  pea, 
published  in  1865,  did  not  attract  atten- 
tion until  1900.  They  are  now  the  founda- 
tion of  an  ever-growing  knowledge  ef  hered- 
ity and  havt  exerted  a  profound  influence 


on  modern  biological  science.  For  a  statement 
of  Mendel's  law,  see  Evolution. 

Mendelssohn-  ( men' dels- sdn )  Bartholdy, 

Felix,  the  composer,  was  born  at  Ham- 
burg, Germany,  Feb.  3,  1809.  The  name 
was  already  famous  through  his  grand- 
father, Moses  Mendelssohn  the  philosopher, 
but  his  father  determined  to  bring  up  his 
children  as  Christians,  and  added  Bartholdy 
to  the  name  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
Jewish  branch  of  the  family.  At  eight 
Mendelssohn  studied  music,  and  two  years 
later  he  appeared  in  a  concert  in  Berlin. 
In  1820  he  began  his  work  of  musical  com- 

Bssition,  which  ended  only  with  his  death, 
is  operas  of  Camancho's  Wedding  and 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  were  published 
in  1825  and  1826;  and  in  1827  the  former 
was  produced  in  Berlin.  He  formed  a  choir 
for  the  study  of  Bach's  passion-music,  end- 
ing a  famous  performance  in  1829.  He 
visited  England  in  April,  1829,  making  his 
first  appearance  in  a  concert  of  the  Philhar- 
monic Society  at  London.  He  visited 
Munich,  Vienna,  Rome  and  Paris  before 
returning  to  Berlin.  He  spent  two  years 
at  Diisseldorf  having  charge  of  some  musical 
and  dramatical  entertainments.  Leipsic 
became  his  home  in  1835,  where  he  took 
charge  of  the  Gewandhaus  concerts,  visiting 
England  in  1837  and  1840  and  Berlin  for  a 
year  in  1841,  at  the  command  of  the  king. 
In  England  he  conducted  his  St.  Paul, 
which  was  very  popular,  and  in  Berlin  he 
composed  Antigone  and  CEdipus.  His  orato- 
rio of  Elijah,  on  which  he  spent  nine  years, 
was  composed  for  the  Birmingham  festival 
and  was  brought  out  there  in  1846.  He 
was  eminent  not  only  as  a  composer,  the 
list  of  his  works  being  very  large,  but  as  a 
pianist  and  organist.  He  also  had  a  gift 
for  drawing  and  improvisation.  But  his 
excessive  labors  brought  on  a  brain  trouble 
from  which  he  died  on  Nov.  4,  1847,  at  his 
home.  See  his  Letters  and  the  Life  by  Mos- 
cheles  and  by  Lampadius. 

Mendez=Pinto  (men'dez  pen' to},  Fernao, 
was  a  Portuguese  adventurer,  born  about 
1510.  He  first  saw  Japan  while  in  the  ser- 
vice of  a  Chinese  pirate,  and  at  Ningpo  his 
stories  of  its  wealth  induced  the  Portuguese 
to  visit  the  new  country.  He  made  three 
other  visits  to  Japan,  once  in  company  with 
St.  Francis  Xavier,  once  as  ambassador 
from  the  Portuguese  viceroy  of  India.  His 
fortune,  which  was  enormous,  he  devoted 
almost  entirely  to  founding  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic seminary  in  Japan.  He  wrote  the  story 
of  his  life,  which  is  now  accepted  as  true, 
though  for  many  years  thought  to  be 
greatly  exaggerated.  He  died  on  July  8, 
1583.  See  JAPAN. 

Men'dicant  Orders.  See  DOMINICANS  and 
FRANCISCANS. 

Men'elek  II,  King  of  Abyssinia,  was  the 
son  of  a  king  of  Shoa,  and  claimed  to  fot  de- 
scended from  Solomon  and  the  Qu<  •  of 


MENENDEZ  DE  AVILES 


1203 


MENTAL  DISCIPLINE 


Sheba.  He  claimed  the  thron*  by  divine 
right,  but  was  held  a  prisoner  for  ten  years 
by  Theodore  III.  He  married  the  daughter 
of  Theodore,  and  after  a  struggle  against 
John,  his  successor,  was  acknowledged  the 
next  heir.  On  the  death  of  John  in  battle 
in  1889,  Menelek  was  chosen  and  conse- 
crated emperor.  He  was  clement  to  his 
only  rival,  the  natural  son  of  John,  whom 
he  made  governor  of  a  province.  Menelek 
became  involved  in  a  dispute  with  Italy, 
which  claimed  territory  along  the  Red  Sea 
and  a  protectorate  over  Abyssinia  (q.  t>.)> 
The  war  which  followed  ended  in  a  great 
victory  for  Menelek  at  Adowa  in  1896. 
Italy  was  compelled  to  acknowledge  Abys- 
sinia's complete  independence.  Menelek 
came  to  an  agreement  as  to  the  Somaliland 
frontier  with  Great  Britain  in  1898.  He 
agreed  to  keep  the  caravan-routes  open  and 
not  to  countenance  the  followers  of  the 
Mahdi  in  the  Sudan.  He  died  in  1914. 

Menendez  de  Avile's  (md-ndn'ddth  dd 
d've'lds'),  Pedro,  a  Spanish  admiral,  was 
born  at  Avile's,  Asturias,  in  1519.  After 
many  years  of  service  against  French  cor- 
sairs and  as  commander  of  the  Indian  fleet, 
he  was  appointed  commander  of  Florida, 
with  orders  to  found  a  Spanish  colony. 
His  fleet  of  34  ships,  with  2,646  colonists, 
sailed  from  Cadiz  on  June  29,  1565.  Mean- 
while a  Huguenot  colony  had  settled  in 
Florida.  Menendez  surprised  the  French 
fort  and  massacred  the  people  —  "not  as 
Frenchmen,  but  as  Lutherans."  This  was 
"the  last  crusade."  He  established  colonies 
at  St.  Augustine,  which  he  named  Cape 
Carnaveral  and  Port  Royal  harbor,  South 
Carolina,  and  explored  the  coast  as  far  as 
Chesapeake  Bay.  While  absent  in  Spain,  a 
French  adventurer  captured  San  Mateo, 
one  of  his  forts,  and  avenged  the  massacre 
of  the  French  Huguenots  —  "not  as  Span- 
iards, but  as  traitors,  thieves  and  murder- 
ers." On  his  return  in  1572  he  avenged  the 
massacre  and  explored  the  whole  coast, 
until  recalled  by  the  king  to  command  a 
fleet  getting  ready  to  sail  against  the  Low 
Countries.  He  died  at  Santander,  Spain, 
Sept.  17,  1574. 

Menha'den,  the  name  of  a  fish,  a  species 
of  herring  or  shad,  very  abundant  off  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  United  States.  It  is 
called  whitefish,  bonyfish,  hardhead  and 
mossbunker.  Menhaden  are  taken  in  nets, 
sometimes  as  many  as  will  fill  100  barrels 
in  a  night,  and  sold  for  food,  bait  and  ma- 
nure. They  are  too  oily  to  be  much  use  for 
food,  but  make  excellent  manure.  The  oil 
is  used  in  dressing  leather.  The  business  of 
catching  these  fish  and  manufacturing  the 
oil  and  the  fertilizers  from  them  is  very 
large,  and  is  carried  on  from  Maine  to  New 
Jersey. 

Mennonites  (men' non-its),  a  body  of 
Christian  believers,  named  aftw  Menno 
Simons,  a  religious  reformer  of  the  i6th 


century.  As  a  s«ct  they  seem  first  to  have 
drawn  together  in  Switzerland  about  1525, 
although  they  claim  to  be  descendants  of 
the  Waldensians.  Menno  himself  was  born 
in  Friesland  about  1492.  In  1536  he  with- 
drew from  the  Roman  church,  identified 
himself  with  the  Anabaptists,  and  became 
a  bishop  of  their  sect  at  Groeningen.  He 
died  in  1559.  William  of  Orange  befriended 
the  Mennonites  and  gave  them  certain  lib- 
erties in  Holland,  which  the  Dutch  states 
afterwards  withdrew.  In  1786  Catharine 
II  of  Russia  invited  the  Mennonites,  with 
other  German  emigrants,  to  settle  her 
dominions.  They  for  a  time  were  liberally 
aided  in  money,  and  granted  perpetual  ex- 
emption from  military  service.  The  priv- 
ileges extended  to  them  drew  a  large  num- 
ber to  Russia  and  their  towns  increased 
in  numbers  and  wealth.  But  in  1871  a 
policy  of  repression  was  introduced,  and  ex- 
emption from  military  duty  was  to  be  with- 
drawn after  the  expiration  of  ten  years. 
The  leaders  began  immediately  to  seek 
new  homes  for  their  people;  and  large  col- 
onies emigrated  to  the  United  States, 
whither  smaller  bodies  had  preceded  them. 
The  earlier  comers  for  the  most  part  settled 
in  Pennsylvania;  the  later  in  the  Dakotas. 
They  already  are  divided  into  various  minor 
sects,  of  which  perhaps  the  Amish  are  most 
frequently  mentioned  on  account  of  their 
peculiar  abhorrence  of  buttons,  using  only 
hooks  and  eyes  upon  their  heavier  garments. 
Statistics  show  that  in  1907  only  61  690 
Mennonites  were  in  the  United  States, 
although  this  number  was  divided  into  no 
less  than  12  sects.  Mennonites  are  some- 
times classed  with  the  Baptists  on  account 
of  their  practice  of  immersion;  but  more 
frequently  with  the  Friends  (Quakers)  on 
account  of  their  abhorrence  of  war. 

Menominee  (mS-nom'i-ne) ,  Mich.,  county- 
seat  of  the  county  of  the  same  name,  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  Menominee  River  on  Green 
Bay,  at  the  extreme  southern  point  of  the 
northern  peninsula  of  Michigan.  It  is  50 
miles  north  of  Green  Bay  City,  Wis.,  and 
on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul 
and  Chicago  and  Northwestern  railroads. 
It  also  transacts  considerable  business  over 
the  Wisconsin,  Michigan  and  Ann  Arbor 
Railroad,  of  which  it  is  the  terminus.  It 
is  conveniently  situated  as  a  lumber- 
shipping  port,  and  has  a  number  of  saw- 
mills, and  manufactures  beetsugar,  ma- 
chinery and  shoes.  Besides  these  indus- 
tries the  city  is  an  important  cedar-market 
Marble  is  quarried  in  the  vicinity,  and  iron 
mined.  Population  10,507. 

Men'tal  Discipline.  In  general  this  ex- 
pression has  referred  to  the  common  idea 
that  the  mind  possesses  certain  general 
powers  that  can  be  improved  by  use  and 
training.  Mental  discipline  is  supposed  to 
sharpen  the  senses,  strengthen  the  memory 
and  develop  the  powers  of  judgment  and 


MENTAL  DISCIPLINE 


1204 


MENTAL  DISCIPLINE 


will.  The  prevalent  curriculum  of  the 
school  has  been  relied  upon  to  gain  the 
desired  results  [in  all  these  directions. 
That  the  child's  powers  expand  during  the 
period  of  education  in  the  school  is  evident. 
Just  how  far  this  expansion  is  due  to  the 
school-studies  has  never  been  settled. 
Moreover,  the  character  of  the  outcome 
of  schoplwork  is  usually  conceived  in  a  very 
indefinite  manner. 

The  disciplinary  value  of  instruction  has, 
in  the  history  of  education,  been  especially 
emphasized  to  defend  the  teaching  of  such 
subjects  as  have  ceased  to  have  value  for 
their  contents.  When  Latin  came  to  be  no 
longer  a  living  language,  its  advocates 
strove  to  retain  its  supremacy  as  a  school- 
study  by  alleging  its  great  importance  in 
training  the  mind.  This  idea  was  in  en- 
tire accordance  with  the  psychological  con- 
ception prevalent  until  the  time  of  Herbart. 
The  mind  was  thought  to  be  made  up  of 
certain  faculties  —  as  perception,  imagina- 
tion, memory,  reason  and  will.  These  were 
regarded  as  largely  independent  of  each 
other  and  as  capable  of  dealing  with  any 
subject  equally  well.  Perception,  trained 
to  notice  the  terminations  of  Latin  words 
was  thought  to  be  well-prepared  to  notice 
flowers  or  countenances..  Memory,  cul- 
tivated by  learning  forms  and  rules  of  syn- 
tax by  heart,  was  expected  to  show  increased 
strength  in  the  practical  exigencies  of  life. 
Especially  were  reasoning  power  and  will 
believed  to  be  strengthened  by  the  disci- 
pline of  the  school.  Indeed,  the  religious 
conceptions  of  the  time  found  in  the  bare 
and  uninteresting  exercises  of  formal  study 
the  appropriate  instrument  for  bringing " 
the  inclinations  to  heel  and  thus  develop- 
ing character.  (See  CHILD-STUDY  and 
INTEREST.) 

The  Herbartian  conception  of  mental 
activity  as  apperception  (q.  v.)  involved 
the  rejection  of  the  faculty  theory.  Think- 
ing was  by  Herbart  regarded,  not  as  the 
reaction  of  certain  powers  of  the  mind  upon 
things  brought  to  their  attention,  but 
rather  as  the  interaction  of  old  and  new 
experience.  It  is  not  that  the  mind  relates 
one  thought  and  another.  Instead,  one 
thought  apperceives  or  assimilates  another, 
that  is,  relates  itself  to  the  other.  What 
we  have  perceived  determines  what  we 
shall  perceive.  What  we  remember  en- 
ables us  better  to  remember  related  mate- 
rial. Reasoning  power  means  an  equip- 
ment of  knowledge  of  laws  and  principles 
that  the  mind  can  use.  It  follows  that  one 
may  learn  to  observe,  remember,  reason 
and  decide  well  in  certain  fields  and  not 
appreciably  gain  strength  in  others.  The 
lawyer  may  prove  a  tiro  in  noticing  the 
symptoms  of  disease,  although  he  may  be 
keen  enough  to  watch  the  significant  ex- 
pressions on  the  face  of  a  witness,  and, 
while  his  mind  may  be  brilliant  in  sum- 


moning up  and  applying  legal  principles, 
he  may  show  lack  of  even  common  sense 
in  business  matters. 

In  spite  of  these  facts,  however,  common 
opinion  has  so  long  entertained  the  idea  of 
a  general  discipline  of  the  mind  that  it 
would  seem  that  there  must  be  some  truth 
in  the  notion.  The  developments  in  recent 
years  have  brought  the  matter  to  a  clearer 
test.  The  expansion  of  the  curriculum  of 
the  school  (see  EDUCATION,  MODERN)  has 
led  to  keen  competition  among  subjects  of 
study,  a  competition  fostered  by  the  elec- 
tive system.  On  the  other  hand,  the  older 
well-established  subjects  have  endeavored 
to  hold  their  ground  by  emphasizing  their 
disciplinary  value,  thus  warding  off  the 
possibly  dangerous  consequences  of  a  com- 
parison based  on  the  value  of  subject- 
matter.  The  followers  of  Herbart  have 
insisted  that  all  studies  should  justify 
themselves  not  only  by  their  disciplinary 
results  but  by  the  worth  of  the  knowledge 
they  offer.  The  mass  of  teachers  have, 
however,  conservatively  clung  to  the  idea 
of  discipline,  and  have  not  seen  fit  to  re- 
vise the  curriculum  in  the  interest  of  aban- 
doning all  subjects  having  a  purely  formal 
value.  In  this  emergency  the  matter  has 
been  taken  up  experimentally,  and  some 
results  of  considerable  significance  have 
been  attained.  For  example,  Professors 
Thorndike  and  Woodworth,  American  psy- 
chologists, have  discovered  that  after 
gaining  by  practice  great  facility  in  estimat- 
ing the  length  of  short  lines  there  was  no 
marked  improvement  in  ability  to  judge 
the  length  of  long  ones.  It  must  be  said, 
however,  that  the  experimenters  eliminated 
whatever  gain  came  from  becoming  familiar 
with  a  standard  length  into  which  new 
lengths  might  be  analyzed.  Similarly, 
improvement  in  ability  to  memorize  one 
subject,  as  the  plays  of  Shakespere,  will 
not  appreciably  help  one  in  learning  an- 
other, as  the  rules  of  grammar,  except  so 
far  as  one  learns  to  apply  himself  and  how 
to  use  a  few  methods  of  memorizing  that 
are  valuable  in  any  material.  (See  MEMOR- 
IZING.) 

These  results,  it  will  be  seen,  are  largely 
negative,  but  they  reveal  the  secret  of  such 
general  ability  as  is  developed  by  the.  special 
study  of  certain  subjects.  So  far  as  such 
study  involves  certain  methods  of  work 
that  can  be  used  in  other  subjects  or  gen- 
eral facts,  laws,  principles  or  rules,  present 
in  other  varieties  of  experience,  a  fairly 
generalized  power  may  be  gained.  One 
may  learn  the  value  of  observation  and 
some  fairly  general  rules  for  observing  from 
the  study  of  botany,  and  may  consciously 
apply  this  knowledge  in  the  study  of  human 
actions  or  art.  It  must  be  noted,  however, 
that  the  tendency  to  transfer  habits  from 
one  kind  of  work  to  another  is  strengthened 
by  continual  practice  in  such  transfer. 


MENTONE 


X205 


MERCHANT-MARINE 


If  one  is  taught  to  be  critical  in  geometry 
and  then  is  led  to  apply  the  same  critical 
attitude  consciously  toward  history  and 
business,  on3  will  be  far  more  likely  to  be 
critical  in  matters  of  politics  than  if  this 
habit  had  been  developed  in  connection 
with  geometry  alone.  So,  too,  general 
principles  learned  from  only  a  few  typical 
facts  are  less  likely  to  be  seen  in  new  ap- 
plications than  if  they  have  been  discov- 
ered to  apply  to  a  great  variety  of  cases. 
Here,  then,  is  seen  the  most  important 
use  of  correlation :  It  practices  one  in  using 
his  knowledge  of  facts  and  principles  and 
his  habits  of  work  in  connection  with  the 
greatest  range  of  material.  Thus  we  may  be 
said  to  receive  a  reallyeffective  form  of  mental 
discipline.  See  APPERCEPTION,  TEACHING, 
METHOD  OF,  and  MODERN  EDUCATION.  Con- 
sult Educational  Psychology  by  Thorndike 
and  The  Educative  Process  by  Bogley. 

Mentone  (men-td'ne),  a  French  seaport, 
is  on  the  Mediterranean,  near  the  borders 
of  Italy,  14  miles  from  Nice.  On  the  north 
and  west  spurs  of  the  Alps,  3,000  or  4,000 
feet  high,  shelter  it  from  winter-storms. 
Consequently  the  climate  is  mild,  making 
it  a  favorite  winter-resort  for  invalids.  It 
is  surrounded  by  beautiful  suburbs  and  by 
olive-groves  and  plantations  of  oranges  and 
lemons.  The  trade  of  the  region  is  largely 
in  olive-oil,  lemons,  oranges  and  wine.  At 
the  eastern  end  of  the  bay  are  the  bone- 
caves,  about  88  feet  above  the  Mediterranean, 
in  which  many  curious  remains  are  found, 
belonging  to  prehistoric  times.  Mentone 
belonged  to  Monaco  until  1848,  when  the 
inhabitants  put  themselves  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Sardinia.  Twelve  years  later 
(1861)  Sardinia  ceded  the  town  to  France. 
Population  about  10,000.  See  Bennet's 
Winter  and  Spring  on  the  Shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. 

Men'tor,  the  son  of  Alcimus,  the  friend 
of  Ulysses,  to  whose  care  that  hero  in- 
trusted his  son  Telemachus  when  setting 
out  for  the  Trojan  war.  On  account  of  the 
fidelity  with  which  he  discharged,  this  trust, 
his  name  became  a  synonym  for  one  chosen 
to  be  a  guide  or  instructor  of  youth. 

Mephistopheles  (mef'ts-tof'e'-lez),  in  old 
legends  a  character  representing  the  prin- 
ciple of  evil  or  another  name  for  the  devil. 
The  name  is  thought  to  be  derived  from 
the  Hebrew,  and  means  "one  who  loves 
not  light."  The  character  is  best  known 
from  its  appearance  in  Goethe's  Faust. 

Mercator  (mer-ka'ter),  Gerard,  a  Flemish 
geographer  of  the  i6th  century,  was 
born  at  Rupelmonde,  Flanders,  March  5, 
1512,  his  real  name  being  Kraemer,  "mer- 
chant." of  which  Mercator  is  the  Latinized 
form.  He  took  his  degree  as  bachelor  of 
philosophy  at  Lou  vain,  but  devoted  his 
later  years  to  the  study  of  geography.  In 
1559  he  was  appointed  cosmographer  to  the 
duke  of  Cleves.  He  published  several  im- 


portant works,  including  maps  and  descrip- 
tions of  France,  Germany  and  Great  Britain. 
He  did  a  great  deal  to  put  geographical 
science  upon  a  secure  footing  and  to  popu- 
larize the  researches  of  the  learned.  Some 
of  his  later  works  were  of  a  religious  char- 
acter and  were  supposed  to  favor  the  Re- 
formed doctrines.  He  died  in  Prussia, 
Dec.  2,  1594. 

Merca'tor's  Projection  is  that  kind  of 
map-making  in  which  the  meridians  of 
longitude  are  drawn  as  if  parallel,  the  cir- 
cles of  latitude  being  in  consequence  all  at 
right  angles  with  them.  In  order  to  lay 
down  the  sailing-course  of  a  vessel,  which 
in  fact  is  a  curve,  so  that  it  shall  be  repre- 
sented as  a  straight  line  and  the  angle  of 
the  course  be  readily  measured  upon  the 
chart,  it  is  necessary  to  represent  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  as  a  plane  instead  of 
spherical.  This  requires,  of  course,  that  the 
degrees  of  longitude,  which  vanish  at  the 
poles,  should  be  represented  as  the  same 
length  that  they  are  at  the  equator.  In 
order  to  draw  a  chart  upon  which  all  sail- 
ing-courses may  be  represented  by  straight 
lines,  sea-maps  are  constructed  according 
to  the  scale  devised  by  Mercator,  the  dis- 
tances as  we  go  toward  the  pole  being 
immensely  exaggerated.  The  amounts  of 
these  exaggerations  are  taken  from  a  table 
of  meridional  parts.  Given  then  the  start- 
ing point  of  a  ship  and  its  meridian  and 
latitude  at  the  close  of  the  day,  a  straight 
line  between  these  two  points  found  upon 
a  Mercator's  chart  would  indicate  its  course, 
and  lines  drawn  parallel  with  the  meridian 
passing  through  the  termination  and  one 
parallel  with  the  latitude  of  the  starting 
point  would  at  their  junction  form  a  right 
angle.  The  angle  of  the  course  sailed  would 
be  found  by  measuring  the  angle  at  the 
base. 

Merchant-Marine..  The  United  States 
merchant-marine,  or  body  of  commercial 
shipping,  affords  a  strange  contrast  to  other 
American  industrial  concerns  in  that,  while 
other  industries  have  rapidly  and  steadily 
developed,  the  merchant-marine  has  no 
less  rapidly  and  steadily  declined.  In  early 
colonial  days  American  shipping  was  a 
serious  competitor  with  the  English  mer- 
chant-marine. The  navigation  acts,  which 
date  from  1645,  prohibited  importation  into 
the  colonies  in  other  than  English  or 
colonial-built  ships,  and  thus  rather  favored 
the  shipbuilding  industry  in  America.  The 
ascendency  of  the  American  merchant- 
marine  was  still  in  evidence  during  and 
after  the  Revolution.  The  earlier  wars  of 
the  French  Revolution  left  the  carrying- 
trade  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  American 
merchants;  and  between  1789  and  1798  the 
registered  tonnage  of  American  shipping 
was  augmented  384  per  cent.  The  maximum 
tonnage  was  reached  in  1861  with  a  regis- 
tration of  496,000  tons.  The  introduction 


MERCHANT  OF  VENICE 


1206 


MEREDITH 


of  iron  and  steel  ships  was  a  fatal  blow  to 
the  American  merchant-marine.  Britain 
not  only  had  the  start  and  the  advantage 
of  not  being  hampered  by  the  navigation 
laws;  but  she  could  construct  vessels  far 
more  cheaply  than  could  America.  The 
American  merchant-marine,  except  for 
domestic  trade  and  the  fisheries,  is  now 
quite  insignificant,  amounting  in  1902  to 
only  398,000  tons.  It  is,  however,  be- 

§  Inning  to  recover  from  the  blow  dealt  by 
ritish  iron  shipping  and  the  havoc  wrought 
by  Confederate  cruisers  in  the  Civil  War. 
In  1906  the  registered  tonnage  of  foreign 
trading  vessels  and  vessels  engaged  in  the 
whale-fisheries  amounted  to  939,486  tons. 
Only  10.3  per  cent  of  the  foreign  trade 
during  1905  was  conducted  in  vessels  be- 
longing to  the  United  States. 

Merchant  of  Venice,  The,  a  play  of 
Shakespeare,  perhaps  first  produced  in  1597, 
is  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  Shakes- 
perian  comedies  on  the  modern  stage.  The 
Venetian  merchant,  Antonio,  borrows  money 
from  the  Jew,  Shylock,  who  in  a  pretended 
jest  sets  down  as  security  in  the  bond  a 
pound  of  the  merchant's  flesh,  to  be  taken 
by  him  in  default  of  payment.  Antonio's 
vessels  are  delayed,  and  the  case  comes  to 
trial.  The  friend,  for  the  expenses  of  whose 
marriage  Antonio  had  set  his  name  to  the 
bond,  is  in  despair;  but  Portia,  his  bride 
to  be,  finds  a  way  to  save  Antonio  and 
foil  the  murderous  intention  of  the  Jew. 
She  appears  disguised  as  a  young  lawyer, 
and,  failing  to  touch  the  heart  of  Shylock 
by  her  plea  for  mercy,  she  confounds  him 
by  pointing  out  that  according  to  the  bond 
he  may  shed  no  drop  of  blood  and,  further, 
that  his  life  and  lands  are  forfeit  in  that  he 
has  plotted  against  the  life  of  a  Christian 
citizen.  There  are  several  minor  plots 
interwoven  with  this  story;  for  instance, 
the  old  medieval  tale  of  the  gold,  silver  and 
leaden  caskets  and  the  tricks  which  Portia 
and  her  maid  play  upon  their  lovers  in 
giving  them  rings  which  they  swear  never 
to  part  with,  only  to  win  them  in  their 
disguise  as  clerks  under  a  plea  of  reward 
for  saving  Antonio.  There  is  much  of  wit, 
romance  and  poetry  in  this  favorite  play, 
which  has  ennobled  the  many  medieval 
sources  from  which  Shakespeare  drew. 

Mer'cury  or  Her'mes,  in  Greek  mythol- 
ogy, the  son  of  Zeus  and  the  messenger  of 
the  gods.  He  was  the  patron  of  thieves, 
travelers,  merchants,  rain,  good  fortune  and 
eloquence,  and  sometimes  is  called  the  god 
of  the  wind.  He  began  his  career  by  steal- 
ing the  oxen  of  Apollo  when  only  a  few 
hours  old  and  by  inventing  a  lyre  out  of 
a  tortoise-shell.  He  was  connected  with 
the  e very-day  life  of  the  Greeks  more  than 
any  other  god.  His  images  were  found  on 
mountains,  by  streams,  in  the  streets  of 
their  cities,  over  the  doors  of  their  gym- 
nasiums, and  were  used  as  guideposts  on 


their  roads  and  to  mark  the  boundaries  of 
their  states.  He  is  represented  in  art  with 
a  staff,  wings  on  his  feet  or  shoulders  and 
a  low,  broad-brimmed  hat  on  his  head. 
Some  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of 
Greek  art  are  statues  of  Hermes,  notably 
one  by  Praxiteles.  Mercury  is  the  Latin 
name  for  the  Greek  god  Hermes. 

Mercury  or  Quick'silver  is  the  only 
metal  that  is  fluid  at  common  temperatures, 
which  gives  it  its  name,  meaning  fluid 
silver.  It  is  of  a  silvery-white  color,  and 
runs  on  a  smooth  surface,  in  separate  round 
drops.  If  it  is  not  pure,  the  drops  will 
leave  a  trail.  Heat  expands  it,  and  cold 
contracts  it  regularly  down  to  its  freezing- 
point,  which  is  about  40°  below  o°,  which 
explains  its  use  in  a  thermometer,  the  range 
being  more  than  700  degrees  between  the 
boiling  and  freezing  points.  When  boiled, 
mercury  forms  an  invisible  vapor.  ^  Nature 
mercury  or  quicksilver  occurs  in  small 
quantities,  usually  in  connection  with 
mercurial  ores.  These  ores,  of  which  the 
most  important  is  called  cinnabar,  are 
burned  in  a  furnace,  and  the  sulphur,  which 
is  combined  with  the  mercury,  passes  off 
as  sulphurous  acid,  and  the  mercury  can 
be  collected  in  a  condensing  chamber  The 
Greeks  and  Phoenicians  procured  cinnabar 
from  Almaden,  Spain.  After  the  discovery 
of  America  the  mercury  of  Peru  was  famous. 
The  larger  part  of  the  mercury  used  in 
America  comes  from  California,  and  most 
of  it  from  one  mine,  called  the  New  Alma- 
den.  Mercury  unites  with  other  metals  to 
form  what  are  called  amalgams,  and  this 
property  is  made  use  of  in  extracting  gold 
and  silver  from  their  ores.  The  amalgam 
of  mercury  and  tin  is  used  in  silvering 
mirrors,  while  others  are  used  in  gilding  and 
in  filling  teeth.  Mercury  is  used  largely  in 
making  philosophical  instruments  and  in 
the  laboratory,  and  some  salts  of  it  are 
used  in  medicine  and  as  antiseptics. 

Mercury.     See  PLANET. 

Mer  de  Glace  (mar  de  glds),  Switzerland, 
one  of  the  most  noted  of  Alpine  glaciers. 
At  a  distance,  only  a  part  of  this  "sea  of 
ice,"  can  be  seen,  but  there  are  miles  upon 
miles  of  pulverized  rocks  ground  off  from 
adjacent  cliffs  and  piled  up  on  its  sides. 
Among  these  are  bowlders  20  or  30  feet 
square,  which  have  been  tossed  about  like 
mere  playthings  and  landed  here.  The  "sea 
of  ice"  lies  between  these  tracts  of  earth 
and  stones,  white  and  glistening,  and  looks 
as  if  its  billows  had  been  instantly  frozen, 
while  their  crested  waves  were  wildly  toss- 
ing. Some  of  these  are  gigantic,  for  as  the 
glacier  pushes  down  toward  the  valley  it 
is  distorted  into  monstrous  forms  by  various 
obstructions  in  its  way. 

Mer'edith,  George,  an  English  novelist 
and  poet,  was  born  in  Hampshire,  Feb.  12, 
1828.  His  first  writings  were  poems,  pub- 
lished in  1851,  followed  in  1855  and  1857 


MERIDA 


1207 


MERLIN 


by  stories.  The  series  of  works  foi  which 
he  is  best  known  began  in  1850  with  The 
Ordeal  of  Richard  Feverel.  Others  of  his 
best  known  works  are  Rhoda  Fleming,  The 
Egoist,  Adventures  of  Harry  Richmond, 
Beauchamp's  Career,  Vittoria,  The  Tragic 
Comedians  and  Diana  of  the  Crossways,  the 
latter  being  deemed  the  most  charming  of 
his  novels.  His  later  poetry  is  in  three 
small  volumes,  Poems  and  Lyrics,  Ballads 
and  Poems  and  A  Reading  of  Earth.  Among 
his  later  novels  are  The  Amazing  Marriage 
and  Lord  Ormont  and  His  Aminta.  While 
not  a  popular  writer,  Meredith  ranks  among 
the  foremost  novelists  of  the  day.  In  1905 
he  received  the  Order  of  Merit.  See  George 
Meredith  by  Le  Gallienne  and  Some  Char- 
acteristics by  John  Lane.  He  died  May  18, 09. 

Merida  (meSt-dd'),  a  city  of  Mexico,  the 
capital  of  Yucatan,  is  situated  on  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  It  was  founded  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1542  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  city.  It 
ha&  a  cathedral,  finished  in  1598,  a  uni- 
versity, conservatory  of  music,  museum  and 
public  library.  Its  manufactures  are  largely 
molasses,  sugar,  cigars  and  cigarettes,  rum, 
leather  and  soap-  Population  61,999. 
Merida  is  also  a  state  in  Venezuela,  with 
a  population  of  121,593. 

Mer'iden,  a  city  of  Connecticut,  19  miles 
north  of  New  Haven.  It  was  made  a  town 
in  1806  and  a  city  in  1867.  It  is  a  manu- 
facturing place,  principally  of  metal  wares, 
cutlery,  cut  glass,  lamps,  chandeliers, 
jovelties,  firearms  and  woolen  goods.  The 
Britannia  Company,  founded  in  1852,  covers 
ten  acres  of  floor  space  with  its  factories. 
It  manufactures  silver-plated  ware,  and  is 
the  largest  establishment  of  the  kind  in 
the  world.  Its  well-known  trade  mark, 
"  1847,  Rogers  Bros.  —  Ai,"  is  a  guarantee 
of  good  material  and  honest  work.  The 
International  Silver  Company,  incorporated 
in  1898,  has  numerous  factories,  and  be- 
cause of  Meriden's  silverwork  it  is  known 
as  Silver  City.  The  Connecticut  State  Re- 
formatory for  boys  is  here.  Population 
27,265. 

Merid'ian,  from  meridies,  midday,  noon, 
is  the  great  circle  passing  through  the 
earth's  surface  and  the  celestial  sphere, 
which  passes  through  both  poles  of  the 
heavens  and  the  zenith  and  nadir  of  any 
place  on  the  earth's  surface.  Every  place, 
therefore,  on  the  earth's  surface  has  its 
own  meridian.  When  the  center  of  the 
sun  comes  upon  the  meridian  of  any  place 
it  is  midday  or  noon  there.  But,  as  it  is 
midday  at  all  places  directly  under  that 
meridian,  it  is  midnight  at  all  places  directly 
opposite  upon  the  other  side  of  the  globe. 
All  places  under  the  same  meridian  there- 
fore have  the  same  longitude.  Stars  are 
measured  as  to  their  distance  from  the 
celestial  meridian.  In  making  a  map  some 
place  is  arbitrarily  chosen,  as  Greenwich 
or  Washington,  from  which  longitude  is 


computed  by  measuring  the  distances  in 
degrees  of  their  meridians  from  each  other. 
Since  the  vast  development  of  railways  in 
the  United  States  it  has  become  more  and 
more  important  to  have  all  watches  mark 
the  same  time  within  certain  geographical 
limits.  In  consequence,  certain  meridians 
have  been  chosen  by  the  railway  author- 
ities as  standards  of  time;  and  all  watches 
between  such  meridians,  one  hour  of  the 
sun's  journey  apart,  are  set  alike.  When 
the  distance  between  two  such  standard 
meridians  has  been  traversed,  timepieces 
are  so  reset  as  take  up  or  strike  off  an  hour. 

Meridian,  Miss.,  a  town  in  the  cotton- 
belt,  capital  of  Lauderdale  County  in  east- 
central  Mississippi,  is  153  miles  west  of 
Birmingham  and  135  northwest  of  Mobile, 
Ala.  It  has  a  number  of  educational  institu- 
tions, including  Meridian  College,  Meridian 
Woman's  Saint  Aloysius  Academy  and  Boys' 
(Catholic)  High  School,  also  two  conserva- 
tories of  music,  A  Widows'  and  Orphans' 
Home  and  Insane  Hospital  are  located  here. 
Its  commerce  is  chiefly  in  lumber  and  cotton, 
and  it  has  corn-mills,  planing  mills  and  estab- 
lishments for  the  manufacture  of  cotton,  yarn, 
cottonseed-oil,  besides  cotton-compresses,  cot- 
ton gins,  foundries  and  railroad-shops.  Popu- 
lation 30,000. 

Meristem  (me'r't-stgm)  (in  plants),  young 
tissue  whose  cells  are  capable  of  division, 
which  results  in  a  multiplication  of  cells. 
The  growing  points  of  stems  and  roots  con- 
sist of  meristem  or  meristematic  tissue, 
which  produces  all  the  tissues  which  appear 
in  the  mature  stems  and  roots.  The  cam- 
bium (which  see)  in  stems  is  a  kind  of 
meristem,  which  has  the  power  of  forming 
new  wood  on  one  side  and  new  bast  on  the 
other.  All  growing  organs  are  meristematic 
throughout  or  in  some  special  part  until 
they  are  fully  grown.  An  appropriate  phrase 
describing  meristem  is  formative  tissue. 

Mer'ivale,  Charles,  an  English  divine 
and  historian,  was  born  in  Devonshire  in 
1808;  and  died  on  Dec.  27,  1893.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he  became 
both  fellow  and  tutor.  He  was  the  preacher 
for  the  university  from  1838  to  1850,  and 
delivered  lectures  there  in  1861  and  in  1864. 
In  1869  he  was  appointed  dean  of  Ely.  His 
chief  works  are  Pall  of  the  Roman  Republic 
and  History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire. 
He  has  also  written  a  General  History  of 
Rome,  Early  Church  History  and  Contrast 
between  Pagan  and  Christian  Society,  and 
translated  Homer's  Iliad.  See  his  Autobi- 
ography. 

Merlin,  an  ancient  British  bard,  prophet 
and  magician,  lived  in  the  6th  century.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  Welsh  princess,  and  is  said 
to  have  had  miraculous  powers  from  his 
birth.  There  are  many  allusions  to  him  in 
early  English  poetry  and  history;  in  Spen- 
ser's Faerie  Queene;  and  in  Tennyson's  Idyls 
of  the  King.  A  collection  of  his  prophecies 


MERMAIDS 


1208 


MERV 


was  printed  in  the  i6th  century  in  French, 
English  and  Latin. 

Mer'maids,  in  popular  legend,  a  class  of 
beings,  part  woman  and  part  fish.  They 
live  in  the  sea,  but  are  often  represented  as 
seated  on  the  rocks,  —  a  lovely  woman  with 
a  human  head  and  body  ending  in  a  scaly 
fish's  tail.  She  has  long,  beautiful  hair, 
which  she  combs  with  one  hand,  holding  the 
mirror  above  the  waves  with  the  other.  They 
sometimes  seem  to  have  exercised  a  special 
care  of  individuals,  and  often  revealed  future 
events.  There  are  stories  of  their  falling  in 
love  with  men  and  remaining  faithful  wives 
and  mothers  for  a  long  season,  until  they 
found  a  chance  of  returning  to  the  sea.  There 
also  are  tales  of  their  enticing  lovers  to  their 
ocean  homes.  The  beautiful  romance  of 
Undine  and  the  story  of  Melusine  are  founded 
on  the  ancient  belief  in  mermaids.  See  Pop- 
ular Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages  by  Baring- 
Gould. 

Merovingians  (mer'o-vtn'fi-anz'),  the  first 
dynasty  of  Prankish  kings  in  Gaul.  The 
name  was  derived  from  Merwig  or  Merovech, 
king  of  the  western  Franks,  who  ruled  from 
448  to  457.  Clovis,  the  first  Christian  mon- 
arch of  the  Franks,  and  Dagobert  are  the 
Merwing  kings  best  known  in  history.  The 
dynasty  ended  with  Childeric  III  (742—52), 
who  was  deposed  by  Pepin  the  Short,  who 
founded  the  Carlovingian  dynasty.  See 
History  of  France  by  Yonge  and  The  Franks 
to  the  Death  of  Pepin  by  Perry. 

Merrill,  Wis.3  city,  county-seat  of  Lin- 
coln County,  is  on  Wisconsin  River,  about 
145  miles  north  of  Madison.  The  manufac- 
turing establishments  produce  planed  and 
sawed  lumber,  sash,  doors,  blinds,  clap- 
boards, shingles,  laths,  lumber  for  interior 
finish  and  flooring.  It  has  a  court-house, 
opera-house,  high-school  and  public  library. 
Population  8,689. 

Mer'rimac,  a  river  of  New  Hampshire, 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  Pemigewasset  and 
Winnepiseogee  at  Franklin,  New  Hampshire. 
It  flows  south  into  Massachusetts,  emptying 
into  the  Atlantic  near  Newburyport  Its 
numerous  falls  give  a  great  water-power, 
which  has  made  the  manufacturing  towns 
of  Nashua  and  Manchester  in  New  Hamp- 
shire and  of  Lowell  and  Lawrence  in  Massa- 
chusetts. It  is  navigable  for  18  miles  to 
Haverhill,  Mass. 

Merrimac,  The,  originally  was  a  U.  S. 
frigate,  sunk  and  abandoned  in  Norfolk 
Navy- Yard  and  rebuilt  as  an  armored  Con- 
federate war- vessel.  She  was  equipped  with 
two  seven-inch  and  two  six-inch  nfles  and 
six  nine-inch  smooth-bores.  She  was  re- 
named Virginia.  On  March  8,  1862,  this 
vessel  stood  out  of  Elizabeth  River  and  at- 
tacked the  fleet  of  Federal  frigates  which  lay 
off  Newport  News.  These  wooden  vessels 
proved  helpless  against  the  ironclad.  The 
Cumberland  and  Congress  were  sunk;  the 
Minnesota  was  driven  ashore  .  On  the  fol- 


GEN.  MERRITT 


lowing  day  the  Merrimac  returned  to  com- 

Elete  the  destruction  of  the  Minnesota. 
he  was  encountered  by  a  formidable  op- 
ponent in  the  Monitor,  which  was  built  with 
a  revolving  iron  turret  "like  a  cheese-box  on 
a  raft,"  offering  but  a  small  target  to  the  fire 
of  the  Confederate  vessel.  After  an  engage- 
ment lasting  four  hours  the  Merrimac  with- 
drew, her  prow  injured  by  an  attempt  to 
ram  the  Monitor.  The  Merrimac  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Confederates  when  Norfolk 
was  evacuated  on  May  9-11,  1862.  The 
success  of  the  Merrimac  and  Monitor  was  im- 
mediately recognized  by  the  world  as  a  proof 
that  the  day  of  wooden  navies  was  gone  for- 
ever. See  MONITOR. 

Mer^ritt,  Wesley,  an  American  soldier, 
ex-majorgeneral  in  the  United  States  army, 
was  born  at  New  York, 
June  i 6, 1836, and 
graduated  from  West 
Point  in  1860.  Going 
into  service  as  a  second- 
lieutenant  of  cavalry, 
he  was  promoted  to  a 
first-lieutenancy  in  the 
...  infantry  in  the  next 
ar  and  made  a  cap- 
tain in  the  year  follow- 
ing. At  the  close  of 
the  war  he  held  a  com- 
mission as  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  the  regular 
army  and  was  a  brevet  major-general  of 
volunteers.  After_the  close  of  the  Civil  War 
he  was  promoted  in  regular  order  of  service 
through  successive  grades  until  he  was  made 
major-general  (1895).  He  commanded  a 
cavalry  division  in  the  Shenandoah  campaign 
and  rendered  conspicuous  service  at  Five 
Forks,  Gettysburg,  Fisher's  Hill.  From 
1882  to  1887  he  was  superintendent  at  West 
Point.  After  years  of  service  in  Indian  cam- 
paigns in  the  west  he  was  assigned  in  May, 
1898,  to  the  command  of  the  forces  in  the 
Philippines.  Subsequently  he  commanded 
the  department  of  the  east,  with  head- 
quarters at  Governor's  Island,  New  York. 
In  1900  he  retired  from  active  service  with 
his  rank  of  major-general.  Died  Dec.  3,  1910 
Mersey  (mer'zi) ,  an  important  river  of  Eng- 
land, flowing  into  the  Irish  Sea  near  Liver- 
pool (q.  v.}.  About  17  miles  from  its  mouth 
it  forms  an  estuary  or  inlet  from  two  to  three 
miles  wide.  The  river  has  been  made  nav- 
igable from  Liverpool  to  Manchester  by  a 
ship-canal,  while  a  railroad- tunnel  connect- 
ing Liverpool  and  Birkenhead  passes  under 
it.  The  country  along  its  banks  is  very  fer- 
tile, and  by  walls  along  parts  of  the  river 
that  were  subject  to  overflow  many  thou- 
sand acres  have  been  reclaimed.  The  river 
is  70  miles  long. 

Merv,  an  oasis  in  Turkestan,  Russian  Cen- 
tral Asia,  near  the  northeastern  corner  of 
Persia  It  is  60  miles  long  and  40  wide,  and 
crossed  by  Murghab  River,  its  area  being 


MESAS 


Z209 


MESOPHYTES 


i, 600  square  miles.  It  has  a  hot,  dry  cli- 
mate and  produces  wheat,  sugar,  cotton  and 
silk.  About  250,000  Turkomans  live  in  the 
oasis,  where  there  are  a  town  also  called  Merv 
and  a  Russian  fort  opposite,  with  a  garrison 
of  3,000  men.  The  Russians,  who  have  held 
it  since  1883,  have  built  a  railroad  across  it 
from  the  Caspian  to  the  Oxus.  The 
oasis  is  200  miles  from  Herat.  See  The 
Merv  Oasis  by  O  'Donovan. 

Mesas  ( ma'sas} ,  Spanish  for  tables,  are  ta- 
ble-shaped plateaus  in  the  Colorado  district. 
There  are  many  such,  indicating  the  places 
where  a  hard  sifrface-rccl"  has  protected  the 
underlying  strata  from  the  action  of  water, 
which  has  eroded  the  greater  part  of  the  ad- 
jacent  plain. 


exercises  a  secret  influence  on  the  human 
body,  which  he  called  animal  magnetism. 
(It  is  also  called  mesmerism.)  In  1775  he 
published  an  account  of  his  discovery,  and  in 
1778  went  to  Paris,  where  he  created  a  great 
sensation  and  received  large  sums  of  money. 
The  French  government  offered  him  the  use 
of  a  hospital  and  a  pension  of  $4,000  yearly, 
if  he  would  Instruct  three  assistants  in  his 
new  methods,  but  he  refused  to  reveal  his 
secret.  The  government  appointed  a  com- 
mission in  1785  to  investigate  the  system. 
This  commission,  composed  of  such  men  as 
Franklin,  Lavoisier  and  Bailly,  reported  un- 
favorably, and  he  lost  his  pupils  and  a  large 
practice,  retiring  to  Switzerland,  where  he 


Some  of  the  Col- 
oradan  and  New 
Mexican  pla- 
teaus were  the 
strongholds  o  f 
primitive  races. 
Dwellings  in  the 
rocks,  stone  im- 
plements  and 
even  mummies 
have  been  found 
upon  Mesa  Verde 
in  southwestern 
Colorado  and  al- 
most inaccessi- 
ble Enchanted 
Mesa  in  central 
New  Mexico. 

Meshed  (m'esh- 
h<td')  (place  of 
martyrdom) ,  is 
the  principal  city 
of  northeastern 
Persia.  It  is  the 
capital  of  Kho- 
rasan,  and  the 
sacred  city  of  the 
Shiites,  the  hete- 
rodox Moham- 
medans, 100,000 
pilgrims  visiting 
it  yearly.  There  are  splendid  sepulchres  of 
Haroun-al-Raschid  and  Nadir  Shah  and,  near 
by,  that  of  Firdusi  the  Persian  poet,  several 
colleges  and  a  palace.  Rugs  carpets,  velvets, 
swords  and  silk  and  cotton  goods  are  manu- 
factured, and  turquoise  jewelry  from  the 
turquoise  mines  of  the  region.  Population 
60,000  See  Persia  by  J.  Bassettand  Benja- 
min's Persia  and  the  Persians  in  the  Story 
of  the  Nations  Series. 

Mes'mer,  Friedrich  Anton,  a  German 
physician,  was  born  near  Constance,  Swit- 
zerland ,  M  ay  2  3 ,  1 7  3  3 .  He  studied  medicine 
at  Vienna,  and,  when  he  took  his  degree,  pre- 
sented a  paper  in  which  he  tentatively  intro- 
duced his  theory  of  animal  magnetism. 
Studying  the  properties  of  the  magnet  still 
further,  in  1772  he  concluded  that  there  was 
a  power  in  the  universe  like  magnetism,  which 


TUB  ESTUARIES  or 
the 

MERSEY  &  DEE 


Dtlamrt 


died  at  Baden,  March  5,  1815.  See  Mesmer 
the  Magnetizer  by  P.  Anderson-Graham. 

Mesophyll  (m$s'6-fll)  (in  plants),  the  tis- 
sue of  foliage  leaves  whose  cells  contain 
chloroplasts.  As  a  consequence,  the  meso- 
phyll  is  the  essential  working  tissue  of  leaves 
and  gives  their  green  color.  It  is  bounded 
above  and  below  by  colorless  epidermal 
layers,  and  is  traversed  by  the  vein  system. 
See  LEAF. 

Mesophytes  (  me"s'6-ftts) ,  plants  which  live 
in  conditions  of  medium  moisture  and  fertile 
soil.  They  are  distinguished  in  this  tegard 
from  the  hydrophytes  or  water-plants,  and 
the  xerophytes  or  plants  of  dry  soil  and  air. 
Mesophytic  conditions  are  those  adapted  to 
plants  which  man  cultivates.  In  case  an 
area  is  hydrophytic,  it  is  drained  and  made 
mesophytic ;  in  case  it  is  xerophy tic,  it  is  irri- 


MESOPOTAMIA 


I2IO 


METABOLISM 


gated  and  made  meaophytic.  In  contrast 
with  hydrophytes  and  xerophytes,  th«  meso- 
phytes  are  far  richer  in  leaf-forms.  All  of 
the  societies  which  man  has  formed  by  his 
introduction  of  weeds  and  culture-plants  are 
mesophytic.  Among  the  more  conspicuous 
mesophyte  societies  the  following  may  be 
mentioned:  arctic  and  alpine  "carpets," 
characteristic  of  high  altitudes  and  latitudes, 
where  the  conditions  forbid  trees,  shrubs  or 
even  tall  herbs;  meadows,  which  are  areas 
dominated  by  grasses,  the  prairies  being  the 
greatest  of  meadows;  thickets,  composed  of 
willow,  alder,  birch  etc.,  either  pure  or  form- 
ing a  jungle  of  mixed  shrubs,  brambles  and 
tall  herbs ;  deciduous  forests,  the  pride  of  the 
temperate  regions,  rich  in  forms  and  leaf  dis- 
play, with  autumnal  coloration  and  annual 
fall  of  leaves ,  and  rainy,  tropical  forests  in 
the  regions  of  trade-winds,  heavy  rainfall 
and  great  heat,  where  the  world's  vegetation 
reaches  its  culmination  and  dense  growths 
are  developed,  composed  of  all  sorts  of  trees, 
shrubs  and  herbs  bound  together  in  an  inex- 
tricable tangle  of  great  vines. 

Mesopotamia  (mes'o-po-ta'nn-a) ,  a  country 
in  western  Asia  between  the  Tigris  and  Eu- 
phrates Rivers,  whence  its  name,  meaning 
"between  the  rivers."  It  belongs  to  the 
Turkish  empire  and  has  an  area  (including 
Mosul,  Baghdad  and  Busra)  of  143,250 
square  miles,  with  a  level  surface  and  sandy 
soil.  When  irrigated,  as  it  was  in  ancient 
times,  it  .is  very  fertile.  Baghdad  (popula- 
tion 145,000)  is  its  capital.  Mesopotamia 
to-day  has  a  population  of  1,398,200.  Since 
1515,  when  it  was  conquered  by  the  Turks,  it 
has  been  neglected  and  has  become  barren. 
The  present  population  consists  of  Arabs 
and  Kurds,  who  keep  herds  of  camels,  sheep 
and  goats,  and  raise  wheat,  barley,  millet, 
cotton,  tobacco  and  hemp  Wild  hogs,  jack- 
als, hyenas  and  foxes  abound,  but  lions  and 
wild  asses  have  disappeared.  The  country 
has  belonged  to  Assyrians,  Babylonians, Per- 
sians, Greeks,  Romans,  Arabs  and  Turks, 
and  has  often  been  the  battlefield  of  these 
great  empires.  Among  its  ancient  cities 
were  Haran  and  Nineveh,  and  among  mod- 
ern ones  are  Mardin,  Mosul  and  Diarbekir. 
The  excavations  are  adding  much  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  region  and  its  early 
inhabitants.  See  ASSYRIA,  BABYLON,  NINE- 
VEH. 

Mesquite  (mes-ke'td)  (Prosop-is  Juliftora) 
is  a  spiny  shrub  or  small  tree,  found  in  Texas 
and  throughout  the  semiarid  southwest,  of 
the  family  Leguminosae.  Its  wood  is  hard 
and  affords  a  good  fuel  in  limited  quantities, 
while  its  gum  supplies  a  fair  substitute  for 
gum  arabic.  The  long  pods  offer  a  sweet, 
thick,  fairly  palatable  pulp.  Bark  and  wood 
are  used  for  tanning.  The  curly  mesquite 
or  screw-bean  is  larger  than  the  common  mes- 
quite, although  scarcely  large  enough  to  be 
called  a  tree,  growing  in  company  with  wil- 
lows near  springs.  Its  pods  are  from  an  inch 


to  an  inah  and  a  half  in  length  and  twisted 
into  a  rigid  eylinder.  The  beans  are  eaten 
by  Indians.  Certain  coarse  grasses  of  the 
southwest  are  often  called  mesquite-grase. 
They  are  valuable  to  stock-men,  but  of  little 
value  when  cut. 

Messi'ah.  The  best  known  and  most  pop- 
ular of  all  oratorios.  Composed  to  biblical 
text  by  George  Frederick  Handel  (1685- 
1759)  in  24  days.  First  performed  in  Dub- 
lin on  Apr.  13,  1742.  This  work  has  the  ad- 
vantage arising  from  the  use  of  some  of  the 
most  impressive  passages  of  Scripture,  upon 
which  it  is  a  true  musical  commentary. 
Some  of  its  airs  are  unequalled  for  the  ex- 
pression of  religious  emotion,  and  many  of  its 
choruses  are  overpowering  in  their  effect  upon 
the  hearer  who  to  musical  taste  unites  de- 
votional spirit 

Messina  (mes-se'na),  the  second  city  and 
seaport  of  Sicily,  lies  on  the  western  shore  of 
the  Strait  of  Messina.  The  city  rises  in  an 
amphitheater,  its  white  houses  standing  in 
relief  against  a  background  of  hills.  The 
city,  although  ancient,  has  few  antiquities, 
as  it  was  overrun  by  armies,  nearly  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  in  1783,  and  again  in  1908. 
It  has  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  world. 
The  industries  are  the  manufacture  of  linen, 
muslin  and  silk  goods,  working  coral  and 
making  fruit-essences ;  the  exports  are  largely 
fruits  and  articles  made  from  fruit,  as  olive- 
oil,  wine  and  essences.  The  city  was  founded 
in  732  B.  C.,  and  the  Carthaginians  destroyed 
it  in  396  B.  C.  After  Carthage  was  con- 
quered it  belonged  to  the  Roman  empire, 
until  the  Saracens  took  it  in  the  gth  Chris- 
tian century.  They  were  expelled  in  the 
nth  century  by  the  Normans;  and  from 
1282  to  1713  the  Spaniards  held  it.  In  1743 
the  plague  and  in  1783  the  earthquake  com- 
pleted its  ruin.  In  1848  it  was  bombarded 
by  the  Neapolitans,  and  in  1861  was  the 
last  place  in  Sicily  to  yield  to  Italy.  In  the 
earthquake  which  occurred  Dec.  28,  1908, 
almost  the  whole  population  of  149,778  was 
wiped  out,  the  dead  numbering  no  less  than 
60,000,  and  the  injured  80,000.  Messina 
also  is  a  province;  area  1,245  square  miles; 
population  568,833. 

Metabolism  (mt-ttib'd-ttz'm)  (in  plants), 
all  the  chemical  processes  taking  place  in  the 
living  organism.  Some  of  these  processes 
are  constructive,  i.  e. ,  the  resulting  substan- 
ces are  more  complex  than  before ;  others  are 
destructive,  the  resulting  substances  being 
simpler  than  before.  Constructive  metabo- 
lism occurs  when  a  green  leaf,  acting  on  car- 
bon dioxide  and  water  under  the  influence  of 
light,  forms  sugar  a  complex  food,  and  when 
by  further  changes  this  food  is  built  up  into 
living  protoplasm  But  in  respiration  pro- 
toplasm is  decomposed,  and  carbon  dioxide 
and  water,  with  other  less  known  products, 
are  formed.  This  is  destructive  metabolism. 
The  products  of  metabolism  are  so  many  as 
almost  to  defy  enumeration.  See  for  exam- 


METALLURGY 


Z2IZ 


METALLURGY 


pies,  the  thousands  in  medicinal  vise  desaribe 
fc  the  United  States  Pharmacopeia, 

Metallurgy  (mW  al-lfa*  jy)  is  the  scienee 
which  deals  with  the  extraction  of  metals 
from  the  ores  in  which  they  ar«  found  in 
mining  (q.v.).  Some  metals  are  found  as 
such,  and  are  then  said  to  be  free,  native  or 
virgin  metals.  Gold  and  platinum  usually 
occur  free;  silver,  copper  and  bismuth  often 
so.  The  other  metals,  as  iron,  lead,  tin^zinc, 
nickel,  mercury,  antimony  and  aluminum 
invariably,  or  almost  invariably,  occur  min- 
eralized, that  is,  in  combination  with  other 
elements  as  oxides,  sulphides,  sulphates,  car- 
bonates, silicates  or  chlorides. 

Ores,  as  they  are  found  and  mined,  usually 
contain  large  quantities  of  worthless  ma- 
terials, called  gangue,  consisting  of  common 
rocks  and  minerals.  Such  ores  often  are 
washed  by  machines  called  jigs,  vanners,  etc. 
to  separate  or  concentrate  the  valuable  ma- 
terial. In  this  process  the  lighter  gangue 
is  carried  away  by  water  and  the  heavier 
valuable  minerals  are  collected.  Usually  it 
is  necessary  to  crush  and  sort  the  ore  by 
sieves  before  the  operation  is  carried  out. 
Where  free  gold  occurs  in  sand  or  gravel  a 
simpler  method  of  washing  is  used.  A 
stream  of  water  carries  the  material  through 
a  long  trough  or  sluice,  the  bottom  of  which 
is  provided  with  grooves  or  riffles  in  which 
quicksilver  (mercury)  is  placed.  The  heavy 
gold  sinks  to  the  bottom,  and  is  there  held 
by  the  mercury  as  an  amalgam. 

Treatment  with  mercury  or  amalgamation 
is  often  applied  to  compact  ores  of  gold 
and  silver  in  stamp-mills,  which  consist  of 
arrangements  like  mortars  and  rjestles 
worked  by  machinery.  The  stamping  is 
usually  done  in  the  presence  of  water,  and 
as  fast  as  the  ore  becomes  fine  enough  it 
passes  with  water  through  screens  and  over 
copper  plates  covered  with  a  layer  of  mer- 
cury, where  the  valuable  metals  are  caught. 
Mercury  is  also  placed  on  plates  within  the 
mortar.  Ores  containing  sulphides,  tellu- 
rides  etc.  require  heating  in  contact  with  air, 
or  roasting,  to  burn  off  sulphur  and  other 
impurities  before  they  are  treated  by  amal- 
gamation. Common  salt  is  usually  added  to 
silver  ores  of  this  kind  before  roasting. 

Certain  gold  and  silver  ores  are  powdered 
and  leached,  that  is,  lixiviated,  with  solu- 
tions of  chemicals  to  dissolve  out  the  precious 
metals.  For  instance,  a  weak  solution  of 
potassium  cyanide  is  used  to  dissolve  free 
gold  in  the  cyanide  process,  and  solution  of 
sodium  hyposulphite  is  employed  to  dissolve 
silver  chloride  from  ores  that  have  been 
roasted  with  salt. 

The  most  important  metallurgical  process 
is  smelting.  In  this  operation  the  ore,  often 
after  it  has  been  concentrated,  and  frequently 
after  it  has  been  roasted,  is  mixed  with  a 
/?«#,  if  necessary,  and  melted  at  a  high  tem- 
perature. The  earthy  materials  of  the  ore 
With  tht  flux  form  a  fluid  slug,  while  the 


action  of  the  fuel,  or  other  chemical  action, 
produce*  a  molten  metal  fai  some  case*  or,  in 
other  oases,  ft  fused  mixture  of  sulphides, 
ealled  matte,  which  is  much  richer  than  the 
original  ore  in  the  amount  of  valuable  metal 
it  contains.  In  iron-smelting  the  ore,  mixed 
with  coke  or  coal  as  fuel  and  with  limestone 
as  flux,  is  fed  in  at  the  top  of  an  enormous 
blast-furnace,  a  structure  somewhat  like  a 
barrel  in  shape,  but  slenderer  and  much  nar- 
rower at  the  bottom  than  elsewhere.  Hot 
air,  forced  in  through  pipes  near  the  bottom 
of  the  furnace,  burns  the  fuel  and  produces 
great  heat.  Metallic  iron  and  slag  are 
formed,  and  are  allowed  to  flow  out  from 
time  to  time  through  holes  near  the  bottom; 
the  metal,  being  heavier,  runs  out  through 
a  hole  that  is  lower  than  the  one  used  for 
the  slag.  The  metal  is  called  pig-iron,  and 
is  used  in  foundries  for  making  articles  of 
castiron,  as  well  as  for  making  wrought  iron 
and  steel.  (See  IRON  and  STEEL.) 

Copper-ores  are  smelted  in  blast-furnaces 
that  are  much  smaller  than  those  used  for 
iron.  They  are  also  sometimes  smelted  in 
reverberatory  furnaces,  in  which  the  heating 
is  accomplished  by  the  flame  from  a  coal-fire 
made  in  a  separate  compartment  of  the  fur- 
nace or  by  means  of  gas.  With  certain  cop- 
per-ores, as  those  containing  the  oxides  or 
the  carbonates,  metallic  copper  may  be  the 
direct  product  of  smelting;  but  the  very 
common  ores  containing  sulphides  are  at 
first  smelted  for  copper  matte,  which  con- 
sists chiefly  of  the  sulphides  of  copper  and 
iron.  The  metal  is  extracted  from  the  matte 
by  operations  in  which  air  at  high  temper- 
atures burns  out  or  oxidizes  the  sulphur  and 
iron.  When  gold  and  silver  are  present  in 
copper-ores,  the  precious  metals  are  found 
in  the  metallic  copper  produced  from  them 
and  are  recovered  by  electrolytic  refining, 
which  consists  in  dissolving  the  metal  and 
redepositing  it  by  means  of  an  electric  cur- 
rent acting  in  an  appropriate  solution.  The 
gold  and  silver  and  some  other  impurities  are 
left  undissolved  in  a  finely-divided  condition. 

Lead-smelting  is  carried  out  both  in  rever- 
beratory furnaces  and  in  blast-furnaces. 
When  galena,  lead  sulphide,  the  most  com- 
mon lead-ore,  is  obtained  nearly  pure,  either 
directly  from  the  mine  or  by  concentration, 
it  frequently  is  smelted  by  roasting  it  on  the 
bed  of  a  reverberatory  furnace  until  it  is 
partly  changed  to  oxide  and  sulphate,  then 
raising  the  heat  to  fusion  and  thus  causing 
the  oxidized  part  to  act  upon  the  remaining 
lead-sulphide  with  the  formation  of  metallic 
lead  and  sulphur  dioxide  gas.  The  smelting 
of  lead-ores  in  blast-furnaces  is  carried  out 
particularly  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  the 
silver  that  the  ores  usually  contain  and  also 
for  obtaining  the  silver  from  ores  containing 
little  or  no  lead,  which  are  purposely  mixed 
with  lead-ores  with  this  end  in  view.  If  a 
sufficient  proportion  of  lead  is  produced, 
practically  all  the  silver  (and  the  gold  also) 


METALS 


1212 


METRIC  SYSTEM 


in  the  ores  goes  into  the  lead.  The  greater 
part  of  the  silver  produced  in  the  world  is  ex- 
tracted by  lead  in  this  way.  If  the  ores  con- 
tain sulphides,  they  are  roasted  before  they 
are  smelted  in  the  blast-furnace.  Coke  is  the 
usual  fuel,  and  limestone  and  iron-ore  are 
generally  used  as  fluxes.  The  silver  which 
lead  contains  is  usually  extracted  by  dissolv- 
ing small  quantities  of  zinc  in  the  hot,  molten 
metal.  As  the  metal  cools,  the  zinc  becomes 
solid;  then  it  rises  to  the  surface,  bringing 
the  silver  with  it,  and  is  skimmed  off. 

Zinc  cannot  be  obtained  by  ordinary  smelt- 
ing processes,  because  it  boils  and  is  vapor- 
ized at  the  temperature  at  which  it  is  reduced 
to  the  metallic  state.  This  metal  is  there- 
fore obtained  by  first  roasting  the  ore,  if  it  is 
the  usual  sulphide,  and  then  heating  it  with 
coal  in  retorts  made  of  fire-clay.  The  zinc 
distills  and  is  condensed  and  collected. 

A  distillation  process  is  also  used  for  obtain- 
ing the  volatile  metal  mercury  from  its  ores. 

Aluminium  is  not  reduced  to  the  metallic 
state  from  its  compounds  by  the  ordinary 
smelting  processes.  The  principal  method 
of  producing  it  consists  in  passing  a  power- 
ful electric  current  through  melted  cryolite 
in  which  aluminium  oxide  is  dissolved. 

The  processes  used  for  obtaining  several 
other  metals  are  similar  to  those  that  have 
been  mentioned. 

Metallurgy  is  a  very  ancient  art  that  has 
been  gradually  developed  and  improved  dur- 
ing historical  times,  but  the  greatest  improve- 
ments were  made  during  the  igth  century, 
and  they  have  been  largely  due  to  the  assist- 
ance afforded  by  advancing  knowledge  of  en- 
gineering and  of  chemical  and  physical  sci- 
ences. HORACE  L.  WELLS. 

Met'als.  See  GOLD,  SILVER,  LEAD,  IRON  etc. 

Metamorphosis  (met1 'a-mdr' 'jo-sis) ,  change 
of  form  in  the  life  of  an  animal  following  the 
embryo-stage.  It  may  be  complete  or  in- 
complete; in  the  former  there  is  change  of 
form  and  habit,  as  with  toads  and  frogs;  in 
the  latter  the  newly-hatched  young  closely 
resemble  the  parent,  as  with  grasshoppers, 
the  young  differing  from  adults  only  in  ab- 
sence of  wings.  Owing  to  metamorphosis 
species  are  protected.  While  one  form  may 
suffer  from  certain  causes,  another  form  sur- 
vives and  carries  on  the  race.  See  LARVA, 
NYMPH  and  PUPA. 

Meteorology  (me'te-er-ol'o-jy},  the  sci- 
ence which  deals  with  the  phenomena  of  the 
earth's  atmosphere.  These  phenomena  may 
be  grouped  under  three  different  heads: 
aerial  phenomena,  including  winds,  cyclones 
etc. ;  aqueous  phenomena,  as  rain,  fogs, 
clouds  etc.;  and  luminous  phenomena,  as 
lightning,  the  aurora  borealis  etc.  This  sci- 
ence, which  is  of  enormous  importance  to 
our  race,  is  universally  recognized  as  yet  in 
an  embryonic  state.  For  subjects  ordi- 
narily grouped  under  this  head  the  student 
is  referred  to  such  individual  articles  as  Foo, 
CLOUD,  CYCLONE,  LIGHTNING. 


Me'teors  are  small  bodies  traveling  in 
large  numbers  and  in  many  directions  through 
space.  They  are  known  as  aerolites,  fireballs 
and  shooting  stars,  and  may  be  seen  every 
clear  night,  sometimes  few  only,  but  at  other 
times  in  showers.  The  whole  number  which 
the  earth  meets  in  one  day's  travel  is  esti- 
mated at  7,500,000,  but  as  this  large  number 
weighs  in  all  only  100  tons,  many  of  the  me- 
teors must  be  very  small.  The  air  acts  as  a 
shield,  and  offers  so  much  frictional  resist- 
ance that  the  meteor  generally  burns.  The 
aerolites  are  the  large  masses  which  actually 
fall  to  the  earth.  Some  of  them  are  of  iron, 
some  of  stone,  some  of  stone  and  iron.  When 
their  fall  is  noted,  there  always  are  a  noise,  as 
of  an  explosion,  and  a  cloud  or  smoke  and  a 
melting  of  the  mass,  at  least  on  the  surface, 
showing  the  action  of  heat.  The  iron  is  com- 
bined with  nickel,  cobalt,  copper  etc.  in  a 
way  different  from  any  combination  found 
on  the  earth,  though  no  new  element  has 
been  discovered.  The  falls  of  aerolites  have 
been  more  numerous  than  might  be  supposed , 
the  British  Museum  having  over  300  speci- 
mens of  them.  The  fireballs  are  brightly- 
shining  bodies  seen  crossing  the  sky,  and  are 
considered  to  be  aerolites  before  their  explo- 
sion and  fall.  Many  hundreds  have  been 
observed,  Arago  giving  a  list  of  over  800. 
They  are  of  all  sizes,  and  travel  about  26 
miles  a  second.  Shooting-stars  may  be  seen 
on  almost  any  evening,  and  if  carefully 
watched  will  seem  to  come  from  the  same 
point  in  the  sky.  These  points  are  called 
radiants,  and  are  named  for  the  constella- 
tion in  which  they  are  found  —  as  the  Leon- 
ids, a  group  whose  radiant  is  in  the  constel- 
lation Leo.  When  there  is  a  meteoric  show- 
er, the  earth  is  passing  through  a  group  or 
swarm  of  these  meteors,  which  are  also  mov- 
ing, as  the  earth  does,  each  in  an  orbit  of  its 
own.  The  Leonids,  which  are  seen  in  No- 
vember, are  calculated  to  move  round  the 
sun  once  in  33  \  years,  the  earth  crossing  their 
track  every  year,  but  only  meeting  the 
main  swarm  when  this  reaches  the  point 
of  crossing  at  the  same  time  as  the  earth. 
When  this  happens,  there  is  a  meteoric 
shower,  such  as  took  place  on  Nov.  13, 1833, 
when  the  stars  fell  like  snowflakes  and  fire- 
balls darted  back  and  forth,  making  the  most 
wonderful  display  of  the  kind  ever  seen. 
Astronomers  predicted  another  shower  in 
1866,  and  it  came  within  a  few  hours  of  the 
time  agreed  upon.  The  latest  investigations 
point  to  a  common  origin  for  these  meteors 
and  the  comets,  or  rather  indicate  that  me- 
teoric swarms  are  composed  of  disintegrated 
comets.  Besides  the  great  November  group, 
other  groups  are  active  in  August,  April,  Sep- 
tember and  October.  See  Young's  General 
Astronomy. 

Me'ter.     See  METRIC  SYSTEM. 

Met'ric  System,  The,  is  an  international 
system  of  measurement  of  lengths,  gurfaces, 
weights  and  volumes  which  was  gradually 


METRONOME 


developed  as  the  need  for  a  universal  sys- 
tem became  more  and  more  imperative. 
Abb£  Gabriel  Mouton  in  1670  proposed  an 
aliquot  part  of  the  circumference  of  the  earth 
as  an  international  unit  of  length.  Other 
authorities,  including  Picard,  La  Condamine, 
Jefferson  and  Taileyrand,  favored  the  length 
of  a  pendulum  beating  seconds.  A  commit- 
tee of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences,  which 
was  appointed  in  1790  and  included  Laplace, 
Condorcet.  Borda,  Lagrange  and  Monge,  re- 
ported in  favor  of  the  tenth-millionth  part  of 
a  quarter  of  a  terrestrial  meridian  or  the 
distance  from  the  equator  to  the  North  Pole 
as  the  standard  unit  of  length.  The  success 
of  the  decimal  money-system  of  the  United 
States  appears  to  have  won  many  advocates 
for  the  metric  system  of  weights  and  meas- 
ures. The  unit  recommended  by  the  com- 
mittee of  1790  was  established  by  decree; 
and  the  nomenclature  was  legally  fixed  by  a 
law  of  1795;  but  the  metric  system  had  still 
to  secure  adherents  among  the  masses  and 
abroad.  This  was  effected  by  the  adoption 
of  the  report  of  an  international  commission 
in  1799.  Standard  units  were  deposited  in 
the  Paris  archives;  and  by  1837  the  use  of 
the  metric  system  was  made  compulsory  in 
France  in  all  departments.  In  1866  the 
metric  system  was  recognized  by  law  in  the 
United  States.  Several  attempts  have  been 
made  to  render  it  obligatory;  but  it  has 
seemed  preferable  to  allow  the  system  to 
win  its  way  for  a  time,  as  it  is  doing,  on  its 
own  merits. 

The  unit  of  length  is  a  metre;  the  unit  of 
weight  a  gram;  the  unit  of  capacity  a  litre. 
The  equivalent  of  a  metre  is  39.37079  inches; 
of  a  gram,  15.43235  grains ;  of  a  litre  61.02705 
cubic  inches.  A  gram  has  the  weight  of  one 
cubic  centimetre;  a  litre  the  volume  of  one 
cubic  decimetre.  Prefixes  are  used  to  indi- 
cate submultiples  and  multiples  of  the  units, 
thus: 

Milli  — one  thousandth  part. 

Centi  — one  hundredth  part. 

Deci   — one  tenth  part. 

Deca  — ten  times. 

Hecto— one  hundred  times. 

Kilo   —one  thousand  times. 

So  a  centimetre  is  the  hundredth  of  a 
metre,  a  decimetre  the  tenth  of  a  metre,  a 
kilogram  one  thousand  grams,  and  so  on. 
The  labor  of  the  calculations  and  reductions 
in  terms  of  weights  and  measures  is  reduced 
to  a  minimum  by  the  simple  relation  between 
the  units  of  mass  and  dimension  and  by  the 
use  of  decimal  parts  and  decimal  notation. 
Metres  and  kilograms  constructed  of  an  alloy 
of  iridium  and  platinum  are  furnished  to 
countries  which  need  them  from  the  Obser- 
vatory of  the  International  Bureau,  estab- 
lished at  St.  Cloud  in  1878. 

Metronome  (m2t'rd-nom) ,  an  instrument 
for  dividing  or  "beating"  time,  used  chiefly 
in  the  study  of  music.  As  ordinarily  con- 
structed, it  looks  like  an  inverted  pendulum 


•waving  before  a  pyramid,  th«  pendulum 
being  moved  by  clockwork  and  the  motion 
retarded  or  accelerated  by  sliding  up  or 
down  a  metal  weight  appended  to  the  wire. 
If  this  weight  be  near  the  point  of  suspen- 
sion, the  motion  will  be  rapid;  if  near  the 
top.  correspondingly  slow. 

Metternich  (mefter-ntk) ,  Clemens  Wen- 
zel  Nepomuk  Lothar,  Prince,  an  Austrian 
statesman,  was  born  at  Coblentz,  Prussia, 
May  15,  1773.  He  studied  at  Strassburg 
and  Mainz  (Mayence).  He  was  appointed 
Austrian  minister  to  Dresden  when  he  was 
28,  and  two  years  later  became  ambassador 
to  Berlin.  After  the  peace  of  Presburg  he 
was  sent  as  minister  to  the  court  of  Na- 
poleon. He  concluded  the  treaty  of  Fon- 
tainebleau  in  1807,  and  in  1809  became 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.  He  was  made  a 
prince  of  the  empire  in  1813,  and  in  1821 
became  chancellor.  The  Revolution  of  1848, 
was  felt  at  Vienna,  and  Metternich  was  com- 
pelled to  flee  to  England.  After  his  return 
he  took  no  part  in  public  affairs,  and  died 
at  Vienna,  June  n,  1859.  In  1880-84  his 
Memoirs  were  published.  See  Metternich,  by 
Malleson,  in  the  Statesmen  Series. 

Metz  (mets),  the  capital  and  strongest 
fortified  town  of  Lorraine,  Germany,  on 
Moselle  River.  It  has  a  series  of  forts 
around  it,  which  have  been  strengthened 
since  the  annexation  to  Germany  (1871). 
The  making  of  saddles  and  shoes  and  tan- 
ning are  its  manufactures;  and  the  trade  is 
largely  in  wine,  brandy  and  preserved  fruits. 
In  1552  it  was  taken  by  the  French,  to 
whom  it  was  formally  ceded  in  1648.  In 
the  Franco- Prussian  War  it  was  occupied  by 
Bazaine,  who,  after  a  long  siege,  surren- 
dered it  to  the  German  army,  and  by  the 
treaty  of  Frankfort  it  became  a  German 
city.  Population  68,445. 

Meuse  (mez) ,  a  river  which  rises  in  France, 
and  flows  north  to  Belgium  and  into  Hol- 
land. Turning  to  the  west,  it  joins  the 
Waal,  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Rhine,  and 
becomes  the  Maas.  Rotterdam  stands  on 
the  New  Maas.  The  river  is  500  miles  long. 

Mexico  (meWst-hd),  a  city,  the  capital  of 
the  Republic  of  Mexico,  is  situated  in  the 
midst  of  the  central  tableland  of  the  coun- 
try, 7,347  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  known 
in  history  as  the  capital  of  the  Monte- 
zumas,  founded  by  the  Aztecs  about  1325. 
The  city  was  in  its  full  glory  when  Cortez 
conquered  it  in  1521,  destroying  a  large  part 
of  the  ancient  town.  He  rebuilt  it  on  its 
present  plan,  using  a  company  of  400,000 
Indians  in  the  work.  It  was  occupied  by 
the  Spaniards  for  300  years,  and  has  been  the 
scene  of  revolution  and  the  battlefield  for 
contending  armies.  It  to-day  is  a  modern 
city  in  every  sens*  of  the  word ;  the  political, 
social,  industrial  and  financial  center  of  the 
republic,  and  with  its  suburbs  has  a  popula- 
tion of  500,000.  The  principal  streets  are 
broad  and  well-paved;  the  city  is  electrically 


MEXICO 


1214 


MEXICO 


lighted  and  is  served  by  an  electrical  ear- 
system  which  extends  te  suburban  towns. 
There  are  numerous  parks,  of  which  the 
Alameda  is  chief,  and  many  flowery  boule- 
vards and  drives,  including  the  famous 
Paseo  de  la  Reforma,  stretching  between 
rows  of  magnificent  trees  for  two  miles,  from 
the  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Charles  IV 
to  Chapultepec.  Points  of  interest  are  the 
great  cathedral,  founded  in  1524,  with  13 
chapels,  a  century  in  building  and  costing 
$2,000,000;  the  National  Palace,  the  resi- 
dence for  300  years  of  63  Spanish  viceroys 
and  after  independence  the  presidential 
residence;  the  National  Museum,  the  vast 
enclosure  filled  and  its  walls  hung  with  the 
relics  of  a  vanished  race;  the  Art  Gallery, 
School  of  Mines  and  the  Medical  Building; 
and  in  the  suburbs  the  Castle  of  Chapultepec; 
Guadalupe,  the  holiest  of  Mexican  shrines; 
and  La  Viga  Canal,  16  miles  long,  through  a 
succession  of  floating  islands.  There  are 
some  manufactures,  as  cigars,  gold  and 
silver  work  and  pottery,  but  the  trade  of 
the  city  is  largely  that  of  a  receiving  and 
distributing  center.  The  great  sewer  com- 
pleted by  President  Diaz  at  cost  of  $30,000,- 
ooo,  drains  the  Valley  of  Mexico  into  the 
Gulf,  and  has  made  a  clean,  healthy  city. 

Mex'ico,  a  federative  republic,  rich  in 
natural  resources,  lies  between  the  United 
States  and  Guatemala,  in  North  America.  It 
is  as  large  as  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany 
and  Austria  together,  and  is  2,000  miles  long 
and  from  130  to  1,000  wide.  (Area  767,005 
sq.  miles.)  Lying  between  the  Gulf  and  the 
Pacific,  it  has  a  coast-line  of  6,000  miles  and 
numerous  ports  on  both  coasts.  The  penin- 
sulas of  Yucatan  and  Lower  California  belong 
to  it. 

Surface.  The  country  in  the  main  is  a 
great  tableland,  reaching  a  height  of  over 
8,000  feet.  High  above  the  plateau  tower 
the  snow-capped  crests  of  several  volcanoes, 
most  of  which  are  extinct.  The  highest 
peaks  are  Popocatapetl  (17,540  feet), 
Orizaba  (17,362  feet),  Ixtaccihuatl  (16,076 
feet),  Toluca  (15,019  feet)  and  Colima  (14,- 
363  feet).  Two  mountain-ranges  traverse 
Mexico,  running  almost  parallel  to  the 
coast,  one  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
the  other  along  the  Pacific  coast.  The 
former  runs  from  10  to  100  miles  from  the 
coast,  with  a  slight  upward  incline  from 
the  low  coast  to  the  foothills,  while  the 
range  on  the  Pacific  side  runs  very  near 
the  coast.  This  range  has  several  branches, 
some  crossing  the  country. 

Rivers.  The  rivers  are  of  little  use  for 
navigation,  but,  marked  by  numerous  cas- 
cades, afford  abundant  waterpower.  The 
largest  is  the  Rio  Grande,  1,500  miles  long, 
which  forms  part  of  the  boundary  between 
Mexico  and  the  -United  States. 

The  principal  gulfs  are  those  of  Mexico, 
California  and  Tehuantepec.  The  largest 
lake  is  the  Chapala,  over  80  miles  long  and 


30  wide.  The  valley  of  Mexico  has  seven 
lakes,  one  fresh  and  aix  salt  water. 

Climate.  Mexiee  presents  great  div*reity 
of  etimate  by  reason  of  differences  of  alti- 
tude. The  heat  of  the  torrid  zone  is  experi- 
enced on  the  sea-coast  and  the  low  lands 
adjacentto  theGulf  of  Mexico.  There  are  two 
seasons,  the  rainy  and  dry  seasons.  The  rains 
begin  usuallyinjune  and  last  until  November. 
The  temperate  zone  lies  between  3,000  and 
5,000  feet  above  the  sea-level.  This  may  be 
called  the  region  of  perpetual  spring.  Semi- 
tropical  productions  have  their  home  here, 
mangled  with  the  products  both  of  tropical 
and  cold  regions.  There  are  farms  where 
both  wheat  and  sugar-cane  grow  on  the 
same  parcel  of  ground.  Between  7,000 
feet  above  the  sea-level  and  the  heights 
of  the  mountain-ranges  lies  the  cold  region, 
with  a  mean  temperature  of  59°  or  60° 
and  with  small  changes  from  one  end  of 
the  year  to  the  other,  though  the  change 
between  sunrise  and  sunset  is  often  con- 
siderable. On  the  central  plateau,  high 
above  the  sea-level  and  protected  from 
winds  and  storms  by  the  mountains,  the 
climate  is  even,  temperate  and  delightful. 

Vegetable  Life.  There  can  be  no  more 
pleasing  or  extensive  field  for  the  botanist 
than  the  tropical  forests  of  Mexico.  Here 
are  found  114  different  species  of  building 
and  cabinet  woods,  including  pine,  oak, 
fir,  cedar,  mahogany,  rosewood  etc.;  12 
kinds  of  dyewoods,  8  of  resinous  trees  the 
cacao  and  india-rubber,  copal,  liquid  amber, 
camphor,  dragon's  blood  and  mastic;  17 
varieties  of  oil-bearing  trees  and  plants, 
among  which  are  the  olive,  almond,  sesame, 
flax,  cocoa,  palm  etc.  Fibroas  plants 
abound,  including  heniquen  or  sisal  hemp, 
ixtle,  pita,  maguey,  jute,  flax,  ramie,  aloe 
and  cotton.  In  the  forest-shades  bloom 
flowers  of  most  brilliant  colors  and  ex- 
quisite tints.  In  the  vicinity  of  Orizaba 
orchid-collectors  may  find  a  paradise. 

Animal  Life.  The  animal  kingdom  is 
most  extensively  represented  including  the 
puma,  jaguar,  ocelot,  wolves,  coyotes  and 
wild-cats.  In  the  southern  forests  a  species 
of  sloth  and  five  varieties  of  monkeys  are 
found.  The  armadillo  and  iguana  are 
common.  There  also  are  beavers,  martens 
and  otters.  Venomous  serpents  and  in- 
sects are  in  the  lowlands.  In  the  moun- 
tains and  foothills  are  deer,  hare,  rabbits, 
quail,  partridge  and  a  great  variety  of 
birds  and  ground  game.  The  birds  of 
Mexico  are  famed  for  their  brilliant  plum- 
age, and  include  353  species. 

Minerals.  The  mineral  wealth  of  Mexico 
is  boundless,  both  in  variety  and  richness 
of  deposits.  Although  the  metal-bearing 
regions  have  been  exploited  for  400  years, 
and  fabulous  values  of  precious  metals  have 
been  mined,  it  is  true  beyond  question  that 
greater  riches  remain  to  be  uncovered. 
Humboldt,  early  in  the  last  century,  esti- 


From  Stereograph,  Copyrighted  by  Underwood  d  Underwood,  Vev>  fork 

CASTLE  OF  CHAPUI.TEPEC.  MEXICO 


MEXICO 


2215 


MEXICO 


mated  the  mines  in  Mexico  to  number 
3,000.  Through  lack  of  transportation  and 
inefficiency  of  primitive  mining-methods 
the  industry  declined  for  a  time,  but  the 
extension  of  railroads,  the  introduction  of 
modern  methods  and  the  stimulus  of  the 
modern  awakening  under  Diaz  have  brought 
about  a  revival  of  this  great  industry. 
New  areas  are  being  exploited  and  large 
investments  of  foreign  capital  are  finding 
rich  returns  in  the  opening  and  develop- 
ment of  mines  of  silver,  gold,  copper  and 
other  metals.  The  minerals  of  Mexico  in- 
clude gold,  silver,  platinum,  iron,  copper, 
quicksilver,  tin,  cobalt,  antimony,  coal, 
petroleum,  all  of  these  being  either  worked 
or  known  to  exist.  Mining  is  carried  on 
in  24  of  the  31  states  and  territories,  nearly 
all  of  the  mines  yielding  silver,  either  alone 
or  in  combination  with  other_  ores.  The 
total  value  of  mine  products  in  1910  was 
$156,520,075,  and  of  silver  alone  $76,349,- 
122. 

Agriculture.  The  shape  of  Mexico  on  the 
map  is  that  of  a  cornucopia,  and  the  land 
has  been  called  a  "horn  of  plenty."  Not 
only  are  her  mines  practically  inexhaustible 
and  her  forests  rich  in  precious  woods;  but 
her  land  is  wonderfully  fertile.  The  coun- 
try may  be  divided  into  three  agricultural 
regions:  the  sugar-rane  and  rubber  region 
in  the  lowlands;  the  coffee  region  in  the 
temperate  belt ;  the  region  producing  cereals 
in  the  central  tablelands.  The  first  is  much 
the  most  fertile.  Here  sugar-cane  reaches 
a  height  of  25  to  30  feet;  the  tobacco-plant 
which  grows  wild  has  leaves  25  to  30  inches 
in  length;  three  crops  of  corn  can  be  grown 
in  one  year;  there  are  20  species  of  bananas 
and  many  kinds  of  palms;  5,000  limes  have 
been  counted  on  one  lime-tree.  Along  the 
river-bottoms  are  millions  of  acres  of  land 
having  a  soil  13  to  16  feet  deep.  The  draw- 
back in  this  region  is  the  suffering  entailed 
by  the  climate  and  the  insects.  The  tem- 
perate belt  is  less  fertile  and  is  poorly 
watered,  but  more  healthful  and  grows 
coffee  abundantly  and  all  kinds  of  fruits. 
The  lands  of  the  central  plateau  produce 
wheat,  corn,  beans,  the  agave  (maguey) 
and  grapes,  and  are  also  adapted  to  stock- 
raising.  With  these  natural  advantages, 
the  soil  has  been  cultivated  only  on  a  very 
limited  scale.  Until  recently  agricultural 
methods  and  the  machinery  and  imple- 
ments employed  have  been  of  the  most 
primitive  kind.  The  Mexican  government 
has  shown  a  decided  interest  in  improving 
these  conditions,  and  through  the  Depart- 
ment of  Promotion  has  been  endeavoring 
to  educate  the  agricultural  classes  in  scien- 
tific methods  of  cultivation,  irrigation, 
fertilization  and  drainage  of  the  soil  and  in 
the  adaptation  of  different  products  to  the 
several  zones.  Aid  is  rendered  by  the  free 
distribution  of  seeds,  slips  and  roots  of 
vines,  fruit-trees  etc.  In  fact  the  incalcu- 


lable service  which  has  been  rendered  by 
the  Agricultural  Department  of  the  United 
States  government  is  here  being  duplicated 
as  far  as  practicable. 

Industries.  Mexico  has  not  been  a  maou- 
facturing  country,  but  with  the  extension  of 
railroads  and  the  influx  of  foreign  capital 
and  enterprising  men  a  decided  impulse 
has  been  given  to  manufacturing  indus- 
tries. One  hundred  and  fourteen  cotton 
mills  were  in  operation  in  1904.  There  also 
are  numerous  woolen-mills,  and  silk- weav- 
ing is  rapidly  increasing.  Sugar-mills  and 
flour-mills  are  many,  but  do  not  supply 
the  local  demands.  Iron-foundries  are 
numerous  and  profitable,  but  have  been 
hindered  by  lack  of  transportation  facil- 
ities. Pottery  is  made  in  many  places,  the 
cities  of  Guadalajara,  Zacatecas,  Guana- 
juato and  Puebla  being  centers  of  the 
industry.  Other  industries  are  cotton-seed 
mills,  tanneries,  manufactures  of  glassware, 
hardware,  drawn  work  and  feather  work. 
A  noteworthy  industry  is  the  exporting 
of  hides  and  skins.  Mexico  occupies  the 
fourth  rank  among  nations  of  the  earth 
in  this  particular  branch,  the  annual  export 
amounting  to  more  than  $6,000,000  Mex- 
ican silver.  The  government  is  doing  all 
in  its  power  to  foster  home  manufacture 
and  has  offered  great  inducements  to  those 
who  will  establish  upon  Mexican  soil  enter- 
prises which  will  utilize  its  great  resources. 
As  a  result  the  country  is  now  making 
great  strides  in  the  industrial  and  manu- 
facturing field.  Smelting  and  reduction 
works,  waterworks  and  electric  plants  are 
springing  up  throughout  the  country. 

The  capital  invested  in  Mexico  by  United 
States  companies,  firms  and  individuals,  has 
been  stated  to  be  in  round  numbers  $  1,000, - 
000,000  gold,  and  a  large  part  of  this  invest- 
ment has  been  made  within  a  few  years.  Of 
the  total  70  per  cent,  is  invested  in  railroads, 
the  rest  in  mining  and  agriculture.  United 
States  firms  have  recently  built  many  electric 
light  and  power  plants,  ^waterworks  plants, 
telephone  systems  and  similar  plants. 

English  capitalists  have  also  invested  heavily 
in  Mexican  enterprises,  particularly  in  con- 
nection with  the  development  of  the  oil  fields. 

Education.  In  all  the  states  education  is 
free  and  compulsory,  and  the  law  is  now 
enforced.  In  1904  the  number  of  Federal, 
State  and  Municipa"  elementary  schools  was 
9,194,  and  the  number  of  enrolled  pupils 
was  620,476.  For  secondary  instruction 
there  were  36  schools  with  4,642  pupils, 
and  for  professional  instruction  65  institu- 
tions and  colleges,  including  20  normal 
schools.  In  all  the  Federal,  State  and 
Municipal  schools  there  were  18,310  teach- 
ers, and  the  school  expenditure  amounted 
to  $8,344,430.  In  addition  there  were 
2,400  private  schools  with  an  attendance 
of  122,161. 

The  prevailing  religion  is   Roman  Catn- 


MEXICO 


12X6 


MEXICO 


olicism,  but  the  church  is  independent  of 
the  state,  and  all  religions  are  tolerated. 

Commerce.  The  principal  exports  of 
Mexico  are  silver,  gold,  copper,  henequen, 
coffee,  rubber,  hides,  guayule,  cattle,  chick 
peas,  chicle  and  sugar.  Imports:  Machinery, 
iron,  steel,  textiles  and  manufactures,  lumber, 
coal,  iron,  vegetable  oils,  coke,  grain,  wines, 
liquors,  paper  and  textile  fibers.  Exports 
(1911-12)  $148,994,564;  imports  $91,331,155. 

There  are  24  ports  on  the  Gulf  and  31  on  the 
Pacific.  Many  of  the  former  have  steamship 
lines  direct  to  the  Gulf  ports  of  the  United 
States  and  Europe. 

In  1911  there  were  1,545  miles  of  railway 
open. 

Government.  Mexico  is  a  federative  re- 
public. The  constitution,  originally  pro- 
mulgated on  Feb.  5,  1857,  and  subsequently 
amended,  declares  that  the  Mexican  Republic 
is  established  under  the  representative, 
democratic  and  federal  form  of  govern- 
ment, composed  of  states  free  and  sovereign 
in  everything  relating  to  their  internal  ad- 
ministration, but  united  in  one  single  feder- 
ation. The  Supreme  Government  is  divided 
into  three  coordinate  branches :  Legislative, 
Executive  and  Judicial.  The  legislative 
power  of  the  nation  is  vested  in  a  general 
Congress,  consisting  of  two  Chambers,  the 
Deputies  and  the  Senate.  The  executive 
power  is  lodged  in  a  single  individual  known 
as  the  "President  of  the  United  Mexican 
States,"  whose  term  of  office  is  four  years. 
By  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution,  under 
date  of  Dec.  20,  1900,  he  may  be  re-elected 
indefinitely.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in 
the  supreme  court  and  the  district  and  cir- 
cuit courts. 

Territorial  Division.  The  territory  of  the 
United  Mexican  States  is  divided  into  i 
Federal  District,  27  States  and  2  Terri- 
tories, whose  organization  is  almost  identical 
with  that  of  the  American  Union.  The 
States,  as  before  indicated,  are  free  and 
;overeign  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  their 
internal  administration,  their  government 
being  vested  in  three  heads,  namely ;  State 
government,  State  legislature  and  State 
judicial  power.  The  States  and  Territories 
are,  for  convenience,  classified  as  follows, 
according  to  their  situation : 

Centred  States.  Federal  District,  Aguas- 
calientes,  Durango,  Gt  anajuato,  Hidalgo, 
Mexico,  Mprelos,  Puebm,  Quere'taro,  San 
Luis  Potosi,  Tlaxcala  and  7?,catecas. 

Northern  States.  Chihuahua,  Coahuila, 
Nuevo  Leon  and  Sonora. 

Gulf  States.  Campeche,  Tabasco,  Tam- 
aulipas,  Vera  Cruz,  Yucatan  and  Territorio 
de  Quintana  Roo. 

Pacific  States.  Baja  California,  Colima, 
Chiapas,  Guerrero,  Jalisco,  Michoacan, 
Oaxaca,  Sinaloa  and  Tepic. 

The  two  Territories  are  Tepic  and  Baja 
(Lower)  California. 


History.  The  early  history  of  Mexico,  as 
learnt  from  its  monuments  and  picture-writ- 
ings, includes  two  periods  —  that  of  the 
Toltecs  and  the  Aztecs.  The  Toltecs  are 
thought  to  have  reached  the  country  about 
the  8th  century;  they  cultivated  the  land, 
introduced  corn  and  cotton,  made  roads  and 
built  temples,  cities  and  monuments  whose 
ruins  still  prove  their  skill.  To  their  in- 
vention are  thought  to  belong  the  Mexican 
hieroglyphics,  or  system  of  writing  by 
pictures,  and  the  Mexican  calendar.  They 
are  believed  to  have  been  driven  south  by 
famine  and  pestilence  to  Guatemala  and 
Yucatan  in  the  nth  century.  After  an 
interval,  about  the  end  of  the  isth  century, 
the  Aztecs  entered  the  land  and  founded, 
about  1325,  the  city  of  Mexico.  They  were 
a  less  cultivated  race  than  the  Toltecs,  but 
more  so  than  the  North  American  tribes, 
though  they  are  considered  now  as  belong- 
ing to  the  same  family.  (See  AZTECS.)  The 
Spaniards  under  Cortez  (q.v.)  landed  at  Vera 
Cruz  in  1519,  and  the  story  of  the  latter 's 
conquest  of  Mexico  is  one  of  the  romances 
of  history.  In  1540  all  the  American  terri- 
tory belonging  to  Spain,  including  Mexico, 
was  united  under  the  name  of  New  Spain, 
and  governed  by  viceroys  appointed  by  the 
home  government.  The  policy  of  the  gov- 
ernment, however,  hindered  the  develop- 
ment of  the  country.  Mexico  was  looked 
upon  simply  as  a  mine  to  be  worked  for 
the  benefit  of  Spain.  The  natives  were 
distributed  as  slaves  on  the  plantations,* 
and  trade  with  any  country  but  Spain  was 
forbidden  under  penalty  of  death.  In  spite 
of  this  policy,  however,  it  was  one  of  the 
richest  and  most  prosperous  of  the  Spanish 
colonies.  After  three  centuries  of  submis- 
sion the  spirit  of  discontent,  which  had 
been  growing  during  the  wars  of  Spain 
with  France  under  Napoleon,  broke  out 
in  rebellion  in  1810,  under  the  leadership 
of  a  country  priest  named  Hidalgo.  In 
1821  the  last  of  a  series  of  57  Spanish 
viceroys,  O'Donoju,  surrendered  the  capital. 
General  Iturbide  was  proclaimed  emperor 
in  1822,  but  General  Santa  Anna  raised 
the  standard  of  the  republic,  and  Iturbide 
was  banished  to  Italy,  and  shot  the  next 
year  when  he  attempted  to  return.  From 
that  time  on  the  history  of  Mexico  is  one 
of  civil  war  until  1876.  Fifty- two  presi- 
dents or  dictators,  one  emperor  and  a 
regent  ruled  the  country  in  that  time. 

Texas  secured  its  independence  in  1836, 
and  in  1845  became  a  part  of  the  United 
States.  _  The  boundary  line  was  unsettled, 
and  a  dispute  over  a  strip  of  land  brought 
on  war  with  the  United  States,  with  its 
battles  of  Monterey,  Palo  Alto,  Cerro  Gordo, 
Buena  Vista  and  Chapultepec,  ending  with 
the  taking  of  the  City  of  Mexico  by  the 
Americans  under  General  Scott.  Peace  was 
concluded  in  1848,  Mexico  ceding  to  the 
United  States  half  a  million  square  miles 


MEXICO,  GULP  OF 


1217 


MICA 


of  her  territory.  In  1861,  under  the  pres- 
idency of  Juarez  (q.v.),  the  country  was  again 
involved  in  war  with  the  allied  troops  of 
England,  France  and  Spain,  partly  as  the 
result  of  some  of  the  internal  changes  made 
by  Juarez,  such  as  the  separation  of  church 
and  state  and  the  confiscation  of  church 
property,  and  partly  because  of  acts  of  in- 
justice to  foreigners  during  this  period  of 
disorder.  The  difficulties  were  regulated 
by  a  treaty,  to  which  the  French  commander, 
however,  did  not  agree.  Spain  and  England 
withdrew  their  forces,  but  France  declared 
war,  and  entered  the  City  of  Mexico  in  1863. 
The  crown  was  offered  to  Archduke  Maxi- 
milian of  Austria,  who  was  declared  emperor. 
After  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  troops 
from  the  country,  owing  to  the  remonstrance 
of  the  United  States  based  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  Monroe  doctrine,  the  repub- 
lican troops  under  Juarez  defeated  the  army 
of  the  emperor,  who  was  taken  and  shot 
in  1867. 

In  1876,  after  another  revolution,  Porfirio 
Diaz,  the  ablest  of  Mexican  rulers,  became 
president.  He  was  re-elected  continuously 
until  in  1911  a  revolution  resulted  in  his 
resignation  and  the  election  of  Francisco 
Madero,  who,  in  turn,  was  deposed  and  shot 
under  mysterious  circumstances,  and  General 
Victoriana  Huerta,  made  provisional  presi- 
dent. But  disorder  continued  throughout 
the  nation.  In  April,  1914,  United  States 
sailors,  going  ashore  for  supplies,  were  arrested 
at  Tampico  and  the  flag  insulted.  Apology 
was  demanded,  and  on  Huerta's  refusal. 
American  war  vessels  landed  troops  and 
seized  Vera  Cruz  after  an  engagement  result- 
ing in  the  killing  of  a  number  of  Americans. 
Huerta  finally  resigned  and  was  succeeded  by 
Francisco  Carvajal. 

The  people  of  Mexico,  numbering  in  1911 
1 5 1063,207,  are  over  one- third  Indians.  The 
higher  class  is  largely  Spanish. 

Mexico,  Gulf  of,  a  basin  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  shut  in  by  the  peninsulas  of  Yucatan 
and  Florida,  lies  south  of  the  United  States 
and  east  of  Mexico.  It  covers  16,200  square 
miles  —  more  than  one  fifth  of  the  area  of 
the  United  States.  It  is  1,100  miles  long, 
though  Yucatan  and  Florida  are  within 
500  miles  of  ear.h  other.  The  coasts  are 
low  and  sandy,  with  few  good  harbors,  the 
best  being  New  Orleans,  Pensacola  and 
Havana.  Cuba  is  in  the  middle  of  the  en- 
trance to  the  gulf,  dividing  it  into  two 
straits,  that  of  Florida,  which  connects  it 
with  the  Atlantic  and  that  of  Yucatan, 
opening  into  the  Caribbean.  The  largest 
river  flowing  into  it  is  the  Mississippi.  The 
gulf-stream  enters  the  gulf  by  the  Yucatan 
Channel,  flows  round  it  and  passes  out  by 
the  Florida  Strait  The  gulf  is  visited  by 
severe  winds  called  northers.  See  GULF- 
STREAM. 

Meyerbeer  (mi'Sr-barf),  Giacomo,  a  musi- 
cal composer,  was  born  at  Berlin,  Prussia, 


Sept.  5,1791.  His  name  was  Jakob  Beer,  to 
which  he  added  the  name  of  Meyer,  a  bene- 
factor of  his,  and  gave  the  whole  name  an 
Italian  form.  At  the  age  of  seven  he  played 
Mozart's  music  on  the  piano  in  public.  His 
earlier  works  were  unsuccessful  and  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Italy  for  further  study.  He  got 
hold  at  once  of  Rossini's  style,  which  was 
just  then  popular,  and  brought  out  three 
operas,  for  the  last  of  which  he  was  crowned 
with  laurel  on  the  stage  at  Venice  in  1824. 
In  1831  he  produced  Robert  le  Diable  in  an 
entirely  new  style,  which  cast  even  Rossini 
into  the  shade.  After  the  success  which 
followed  the  production  of  The  Huguenots 
he  was  appointed  chapel-master  at  Berlin. 
His  Prophet  appeared  in  1849.  In  tne 
comic  opera,  to  which  he  now  turned  his 
attention,  he  wrote  The  Star  of  the  North 
and  Dinorah.  His  last  work,  L  Africaine, 
was  not  made  public  until  a  year  after  his 
death.  He  published  many  miscellaneous 
compositions,  a  Stabat,  a  T e  Deum,  some 
cantatas  and  songs.  His  operas  are  popu- 
lar and  ^  frequently  produced,  especially  at 
the  Paris  Opera.  He  died  at  Paris  on  May 
2,  1864. 

Miami  (mi-dm'%),  a  river  in  the  western 
part  of  Ohio,  flows  south  for  150  miles  and 
empties  into  the  Ohio  20  miles  west  of  Cin- 
cinnati. Miami  Canal  runs  beside  it  for  70 
miles,  and  together  they  furnish  extensive 
water-power  for  manufactures.  It  is  some- 
times called  the  Great  Miami  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  Little  Miami,  which  runs  for 
loo  miles  in  the  same  direction,  and  flows 
into  the  Ohio,  six  miles  east  of  Cincinnati. 

Miatnis  (mi-am'ez)t  an  Indian  tribe  found 
in  the  I7th  century  by  the  French  near 
Green  Bay  and  on  the  Fox  and  St.  Joseph's 
Rivers.  They  were  related  to  the  Illinois 
tribe  and  belonged  to  the  Algonquin  family. 
In  1721  they  were  found  on  the  Miami,  the 
Wabash  and  the  Ohio.  In  the  French  and 
English  wars  they  sided  sometimes  with 
one  party  and  sometimes  with  the  other, 
but  during  the  Revolution  went  with  the 
English.  They  were  hostile  to  the  settlers; 
and  in  1790  General  Harmar  was  sent 
against  them.  Under  their  chief,  Little 
Turtle,  they  defeated  General  St.  Clair, 
but  after  a  defeat  by  Wayne  they  made 
peace  in  1794.  In  1809  they  yielded  their 
lands,  from  the  Wabash  to  the  Ohio  state- 
line,  and  after  another  struggle  with  the 
United  States  troops  made  peace  in  1815. 
They  gave  up  all  their  lands  in  1838  and 
1840,  and  were  finally  removed  to  Kansas 
in  1846  and  from  there,  in  1873,  to  the  Qua- 
paw  reservation  in  Indian  Territory.  They 
numbered,  when  moved,  only  150,  having 
dwindled  to  that  from  a  tribe  of  8,000  war- 
riors. 

Mi'ca,  from  a  Latin  word  meaning  to 
glitter,  is  a  group  of  minerals  which  are 
noted  as  being  easily  divided  into  sheets. 
These  sheets  can  be  made  so  thin  that  it 


MICHAEL  ANGELO 


1218 


MICHIGAN 


will  take  one  thousand  to  make  an  inch  in 
thickness.  There  are  different  varieties, 
what  is  called  Muscovite  mica  being  the 
most  common  form.  It  is  formed  largely 
of  silica,  alumina  and  potash,  and  is  called 
a  potash  mica.  It  is  found  in  granite  rocks, 
in  gneiss  and  in  layers  with  quartz,  making 
what  is  called  mica  schist.  Large  plates 
are  sometimes  found,  as  in  New  Hampshire, 
Sweden  and  Norway.  Mines  have  been 
discovered  in  North  Carolina.  Mica  is  used 
in  stoves  and  lanterns,  because  it  is  trans- 
parent and  will  bear  heat.  It  is  used  in 
some  countries  for  window-glass. 

Mi'chael  An'gelo.    See  ANGELO. 

Michel  (mS'sheV),  Louise,  a  French  anar- 
chist and  communist,  was  born  at  Chateau 
Vroncourt  in  1839.  She  was  a  writer  of 
verse  of  some  power.  During  the  Com- 
mune in  Paris,  after  the  Franco-Prussian 
War,  she  was  one  of  the  most  active  leaders. 
In  1871  she  was  sentenced  to  exile  for  life 
and  banished  to  New  Caledonia.  In  1880, 
a  general  pardon  having  released  her,  she 
returned  to  Paris  and  became  editor  of 
The  Social  Revolution.  Later  she  resided 
in  London,  where  she  published  her  Memoirs 
and  a  novel  entitled  The  Microbes  of  Society. 
She  died  in  1905. 

Michelet  (me'sh'-ld'),  Jules,  a  great 
French  historian,  was  born  at  Paris,  Aug. 
21,  1798.  At  23  he  became  a  professor  of 
history  in  the  College  Rollin,  and  in  1838 

B'ofessor  of  history  at  the  College  of  France, 
is  famous  History  of  the  Revolution  was 
begun  in  1847.  He  lost  his  position  by  re- 
fusing to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Na- 
poleon III,  and  devoted  himself  entirely  to 
literary  work.  He  published  a  series  of 
books  on  Birds,  Insects,  The  Sea,  The 
Mountains,  Woman  and  Love.  His  great 
work,  The  History  of  France,  begun  in  1833, 
was  finished  in  1867,  and  brings  down  the 
story  of  France  to  the  Revolution.  His 
History  of  the  Revolution  carries  it  to  the 
close  of  that  period.  His  history  is  injured 
by  his  prejudices;  but  the  characters  stand 
out  clearly,  and  there  are  passages  almost 
unequaled  in  historical  writings  —  as  his 
account  of  Joan  of  Arc  and  of  the  Templars. 
He  died  at  Hyeres  in  southern  France 
on  Feb.  9,  1874. 

Mi'chelson,  Albert  Abraham,  a  bril- 
liant physicist  born  at  Strelno,  Poland, 
Dec.  19,  1852;  graduated  from  the  United 
States  Naval  Academy  in  1873;  resigned 
from  the  navy  in  1881  to  accept  a  pro- 
fessorship in  physics  at  Case  School  of 
Applied  Science,  Cleveland,  O.  When 
Clark  University  was  founded,  he  resigned 
to  accept  a  similar  position  at  the  new 
institution.  Since  1893  he  has  been  head- 
professor  of  physics  at  the  University  of 
Chicago.  His  earliest  important  work  was 
an  improvement  in  Foucault's  method  of 
measuring  the  speed  of  light.  These^  re- 
searches were  carried  out  at  the  Naval 


Academy  in  1878-80.  His  memoirs  on  the 
interference  of  light-waves,  on  the  relative 
motion  of  the  earth  and  the  ether,  on  the 
length  of  the  standard  meter  in  terms  of 
the  wave-length  of  codmium  light  and  on 
the  new  echelon  spectroscope  are  so  im- 
portant as  to  have  become  classics. 

Mich'igan,  one  of  the  central  states  of  the 
Union,  is  made  up  of  two  peninsulas,  sepa- 
rated by  the  Strait  of  Mackinac.  The  lowe" 
peninsula  is  the  larger  one  and  is  bounded 
by  Lake  Michigan  and  the  Strait  of  Mackinac 
on  the  north,  on  the  east  by  Lakes  Huron, 
St.  Clair  and  Erie,  on  the  south  by  Ohio 
and  Indiana  and  on  the  west  by  Lake 
Michigan.  The  upper  peninsula  lies  be- 
tween Lakes  Huron,  Michigan  and  Superior, 
being  touched  on  the  west  by  Wisconsin. 
The  state  is  400  miles  in  length  and  has  an 
average  width  of  200  miles.  Its  area  is 
58,915  square  miles. 

Topography.  A  considerable  part  of  the 
state  is  water,  there  being,  besides  the  Great 
Lakes  on  its  borders,  over  5,000  small  lakes. 
It  has  a  coast-line  of  1,624  miles,  with  120 
lighthouses  and  many  fog-signals.  The 
lakes  have  many  islands;  Manitoulin  Island 
in  Lake  Huron,  among  the  largest,  covers 
1,000  square  miles.  Lake  Huron  alone  has 
3,000  islands.  The  Strait  of  Mackinac, 
the  passage  between  Lakes  Michigan  and 
Huron,  is  only  four  miles  wide.  Several 
large  bays  are  on  the  coast  —  Saginaw 
Bay  on  the  east  and  Great  and  Little  Tra- 
verse Bays  on  the  west.  The  passage  from 
Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Huron  is  through  De- 
troit River,  Lake  St.  Clair  and  St.  Clair 
River,  the  Detroit  being  20  miles  and  the 
St.  Clair  40  miles  in  length.  Lake  St.  Clair 
Canal,  called  the  Cut,  was  built  in  1871, 
and  is  8,200  feet  in  length  and  is  used  by 
over  2,500  ships  yearly.  St.  Mary's  ship- 
canal,  at  the  head  of  St.  Mary's  River,  has 
the  largest  lock  in  the  world,  and  more 
ships  pass  through  it  than  through  Suez 
Canal.  The  largest  rivers  are  the  Grand, 
270  miles,  Saginaw,  Au  Sable,  Kalamazoo 
and  St.  Joseph.  The  upper  peninsula  has 
the  highest  land  in  the  state,  the  Porcupine 
Mountains,  and  the  Mineral  Range  a  little 
farther  south.  The  climate  is  warmer  than 
that  of  the  same  latitude  in  Wisconsin, 
and  its  fruits  and  flowers  more  varied. 

Natural  Resources.  Michigan  has  large 
salt-wells,  the  product  being  greater  than 
that  of  New  York.  Coal,  though  not  of  the 
best  quality,  is  found;  grindstone-quarries 
are  in  operation;  while  large  amounts  of 
fire  clay  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
drain-pipes.  Marble,  freestone,  limestone 
and  glass-sand,  with  copper  and  iron,  also 
form  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  state,  be- 
sides its  many  mineral  springs.  The  iron- 
ore  is  the  purest  in  America,  and  amounts 
to  one  fifth  of  the  whole  product  in  the 
United  States,  and  is  found  mostly  in  the 
northern  peninsula.  The  richest  copper- 


MICHIGAN  CITY 


X2ZQ 


MICROBES 


mines  in  the  world  are  found  near  Lake 
Superior,  at  Keweenaw  Point,  and  gold 
mines  are  in  operation  near  Ishpemmg. 
The  forests  of  northern  Michigan  made 
the  state  one  of  the  leading  lumber-states 
of  the  Union,  but  these  are  nearly  exhausted. 

Manufactures.  Among  the  manufactories 
are  many  depending  upon  the  large  supply 
of  lumber,  as  wooden  bowls,  windmills, 
broom-handles,  pumps,  wheelbarrows,  wood- 
pulp,  veneers,  carpet-sweepers,  beehives 
and  toys.  The  manufacture  of  furniture 
places  Michigan  in  the  third  rank  in  this 
branch  of  manufacturing,  and  has  given 
Grand  Rapids  worldwide  renown.  Ship- 
building is  earned  on  largely,  as  is  the 
making  of  cars  of  all  sorts  and  snow-plows 
for  the  use  of  railroads,  cariages  and  wagons, 
stoves,  engines  and  agricultural  implements. 
Flour  and  gristmill  products  and  cereal 
breakfast-foods  are  manufactured  exten- 
sively Battle  Creek  is  noted  for  them. 
Other  industries  are  connected  with  the 
beet-sugar  production,  with  that  of  fer- 
mented liquors  and  with  the  manufacture 
of  tobacco  and  cigars.  There  also  are  con- 
siderable activities  in  the  operations  of 
creameries  and  cheese-factories. 

Agriculture.  The  soil  is  a  light,  sandy 
loam,  barren  in  the  north  but  rich  and  fer- 
tile in  the  south,  and  the  state  is  one  of  the 
best  fruit-states  in  the  Union.  Apples  and 
peaches  are  the  principal  crops,  but  grapes, 
pears  and  plums  are  also  grown,  and  Michi- 

fan  takes  second  rank  for  its  crop  of  berries, 
t  also  has  second  place  for  the  growth  of 
sugar-beets,  and  much  attention  is  given 
to  raising  peppermint  and  celery.  Cattle, 
dairy-products,  poultry,  hay  and  vegetables 
are  important  industries.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  potatoes  are  grown,  particularly 
in  the  region  around  Grand  Traverse  Bay. 

Education.  Michigan  has  a  thorough  and 
efficient  system  ot  schools  for  higher  educa- 
tion as  well  as  loi  elementary  education. 
Besides  nine  colleges,  and  universities  for 
both  sexes  and  besides  professional  schools, 
Michigan  maintains  8,508  schoolhouses,  with 
17,987  teachers,  and  four  normal  schools. 
The  University  of  Michigan  at  Ann  ^rbor, 
one  of  the  largest  institutions  in  the  country, 
was  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  successful 
of  state  universities.  The  agricultural  col- 
lege is  at  Lansing,  the  mining  school  at 
Hough  ton,  and  there  are  collegt  s  at  Kala- 
mazoo.  Adrian,  Albion,  Battle  Creek,  Hills- 
dale,  Detroit,  Olivet  and  Holland.  There 
are  public  libraries  in  Detroit,  Grand 
Rapids  and  several  cities,  the  state-library 
is  at  Lansing,  and  there  is  a  fine  library  at 
Ann  Arbor. 

State  Institutions.  There  are  a  school  for 
the  deaf  and  dumb  at  Flint;  a  blind  school 
and  a  boy's  industrial  school  at  Lansing; 
an  industrial  school  for  girls  at  Adrian;  a 
school  for  the  feeble-minded  and  epileptic 
at  Lapeer;  and  at  Cold  water  a  school  for 


dependent  and  neglected  children  which 
was  the  first  of  its  kind  in  the  United  States 
The  Soldiers'  Home  is  in  Grand  Rapids; 
the  state  prisons  at  Jackson  and  Marquette; 
and  the  reformatory  at  Ionia. 

History.  Michigan  was  first  visited  by 
French  Jesuits  and  a  mission  established 
for  the  Chippewas  in  1641,  In  1688  Father 
Marquette  renewed  the  mission  and  later 
formed  another  at  St.  Ignace  for  the  Hurons 
which  soon  became  a  French  fort.  Other 
settlements  were  made  by  La  Salle,  Duluth 
and  Cadillac.  In  1760  there  were  British 
garrisons  at  Detroit  and  other  points,  many 
being  destroyed  by  the  Indians  under  Pon- 
tiac.  Detroit  was  the  capital  of  the  British 
possessions  in  the  northwest  until  1796. 
In  the  War  of  1812  it  was  taken  by  the 
English  and  retaken  by  Commodore  Perry. 
Michigan  was  admitted  to  vhe  Union  in 
1837.  The  capital  is  Lansing,  the  chief 
city  Detroit,  noted  as  a  great  manufacturing 
center  and  one  of  our  most  attractive  resi- 
dence cities.  The  population,  3,074,560, 
includes  Indians  and  a  large  number  of 
Canadians.  See  Michigan  by  Cooley. 

Michigan  City,  Ind.,  a  city  in  Laporte 
County,  on  Lake  Michigan,  and  the  only  lake- 
port  of  the  state,  is  38  miles  east  of  Chicago. 
It  has  a  good  harbor,  and  manufactures  cars, 
dresses,  shirts,  lumber,  launches  and  launch- 
engines,  pressed  sand-brick,  furniture  and 
boats.  It  also  enjoys  a  large  trade  in  salt, 
lumber  and  iron-ore.  It  contains  a  college 
and  state-prison  and  car-shops.  The  popu- 
lation is  22,000. 

Michigan,  Lake,  the  third  in  size  of  the 
five  great  fresh-water  lakes  of  America  and 
the  only  one  lying  entirely  within  the  United 
States.  It  separates  Illinois  and  Wisconsin 
from  Michigan,  its  upper  portion  dividing 
Michigan  into  two  parts.  It  is  228  miles 
long  and  from  50  to  88  broad,  and  covers 
22,450  square  miles.  Its  shores  are  low, 
with  several  lighthouses,  and  good  harbors 
at  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Racine. 

Mi'crobes  are  divided  into  bacteria, 
yeasts  and  molds.  Bacteria  are  plants  of 
a  microscopic  character,  which  are  prop- 
agated by  simple  division  or  fission. 
Yeasts  and  molds  have  a  different  mode  of 
growth.  Bacteria  assume  a  variety  of 
forms;  but  usually  approximate  either  to 
the  form  of  a  rod,  a  spiral  or  a  sphere.  So 
wide  is  their  distribution  that  one  hundred 
different  kinds  of  bacteria  are  estimated  to 
occur  in  the  human  mouth.  They  appear 
to  have  been  observed  as  early  as  the 
latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  by 
Leeuwenhoek,  a  Dutch  scientist;  but  the 
difficulty  of  isolating  one  kind  from  an- 
other postponed  accurate  study  of  bac- 
teriology until  the  studies  of  Pasteur  and 
Koch  upon  fermentations  and  gangrenes 
gave  a  fresh  impetus  to  this  science.  Pure 
cults  of  bacteria  of  a  certain  Bpecies  are 
now  skilfully  isolated  for  observation.  Foi 


MICROMETER 


1220 


MICROSCOPE 


instance,  beef  tea  may  be  inoculated  with 
a  mixture  of  species,  poured  out  upon  a 
flat  surface,  and  allowed  to  solidify  in 
such  a  way  that  the  bacteria  are  fixed  in 
their  separated  situations.  About  each 
germ  a  pure  colony  grows  up,  which  may 
be  isolated  before  admixture  of  other  species 
has  taken  place.  Bacteria  are  often  colored 
for  observation  under  the  microscope. 
Some  are  so  small  that  more  than  3,300,000,- 
000,000  of  them  would  only  amount  to  the 
volume  of  a  drop  of  water.  About  40,000,- 
000,000  area  bacteria  would  weigh  one 
grain.  Most  species  of  bacteria  are  quite 
harmless,  and  many  are  necessary  and  use- 
ful. The  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  disease 
microbes  has  been  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance in  medicine  and  surgery.  The  process 
of  catching  a  disease  is  no  longer  mysterious, 
many  of  its  channels  are  known,  and  the 
bacteria  of  the  disease  may  be  combated 
both  indirectly  and  directly.  Infectious 
disease  may  be  traced  to  emanations  from 
some  person  sick  with  that  disease.  Microbes 
breed  true;  and  the  destruction  of  germs 
and  sterilization  of  all  instruments  have 
greatly  diminished  fevers,  plagues  etc.  The 
greatest  success  in  bacteriology  has  been 
won  against  diphtheria.  Almost  as  notable 
is  the  success  of  vaccination  against  small- 
pox and  bubonic  plague.  Weakened  bac- 
teria are  injected  into  the  blood,  which  is 
henceforth  fortified  against  the  more  vir- 
ulent forms  of  the  same  disease. 

Yeasts  (q.v.)  develop  by  spores,  not  by 
fission;  but  these  also  are  microbes  or 
vegetable  micro-organisms. 

Molds  are  microbes  which  send  forth 
shoots  at  a  certain  stage  of  growth.  It  is 
these  shoots  which  give  the  appearance  of 
moldiness.  Molds  (q.v.)  are  serious  enemies 
to  the  farming  and  silkworm  industries. 

Micrometer  (mt-krom'£-ter),  an  instru- 
ment for  measuring  the  dimensions  of  very 
small  objects.  The  object  measured  is 
nearly  always  the  image  produced  by  a 
microscope  or  by  a  telescope.  From  the 
size  of  the  image  the  angular  or  linear  size 
of  the  object  may  be  inferred  when  the 
focal  lengths  of  the  lenses  are  known. 
Practically  all  micrometers  are  based  upon 
the  principle  of  the  screw.  In  the  focal 
plane  of  the  instrument  is  fixed  one  line, 
usually  a  spider-web.  On  a  small  metallic 
frame  is  mounted  another  spider-web.  This 
metallic  frame  is  the  nut  of  a  screw  with 
a  fine  thread  and  a  divided  head.  By 
moving  the  instrument  or  the  object,  one 
side  of  the  object  is  made  to  coincide  with 
the  fixed  thread  and  the  other  side  of  the 
object  with  the  movable  thread.  The  num- 
ber of  revolutions  of  the  screw  required  to 
carry  the  movable  thread  from  this  posi- 
tion to  one  of  coincidence  with  the  fixed 
thread  is  the  size  of  the  object  in  terms 
-~>f  the  screw.  The  angular  distance  be- 
tween two  stars  can  thus  be  measured  with 


the  utmost  accuracy;  while  with  a  micro- 
scope objects  even  smaller  than  xW.wff  °f 
an  inch  have  been  measured. 

Microphone  (ml'krd-fdn),  an  instrument 
in  which  sound-waves  are  employed  to  pro- 
duce variations  of  electrical  resistance,  and 
hence  transmit  electrica1  effects  to  a  con- 
siderable distance.  The  principle  upon 
which  the  instrument  rests  is  the  fact  that 
the  electrical  resistance  of  carbon  varies 
with  the  pressure  to  which  the  carbon  and 
its  connections  are  subjected.  One  of  the 
earliest  forms  of  microphones  was  that 
devised  by  Hughes  in  England  in  1878.  It 
consisted  essentially  of  a  small  rod  of  gas 
carbon,  standing  upright  with  its  lower 
end  on  a  carbon  button  and  with  its  upper 
end  held  in  a  carbon  collar.  These  three 
carbons,  resting  upon  a  resonance  box, 
formed  a  part  of  an  electric  circuit,  which 
also  included  a  telephone.  This  instrument 
is  so  sensitive  that  the  tread  of  a  fly  can 
be  heard  at  a  long  distance.  The  modern 
telephone  transmitter  is  essentially  a  micro- 
phone, in  which  the  pulsations  of  the  air 
due  to  the  human  voice  alternately  increase 
and  diminish  the  pressure  at  one  of  the 
contacts  in  the  telephone  circuit.  See  TELE- 
PHONE. 

Micropyle  (mi'kro-pil)  (in  plants),  the 
small  opening  left  by  the  integument  or 
integuments  of  an  ovule,  through  which  the 
pollen-tube  ordinarily  passes  to  the  nucellus 
When  the  seed  ripens,  the  micropyle  is 
usually  left  as  the  weakest  spot  in  the  seed- 
coat,  and  through  it  the  embryo  first  pro- 
trudes. See  OVULE. 

Mi'croscope,  a  magnifying  instrument. 
The  simple  microscope  consists  of  a  single 
convex  lens  or  set  of  lenses  by  which  the 
object  is  viewed  directly.  The  compound 
microscope  is  a  combination  of  lenses.  One 
set  -^  the  objective  —  placed  near  the  ob- 
ject forms  a  real  image,  and  this  is  further 
enlarged  by  a  magnifying  eyepiece  placed 
next  to  the  eye  of  the  observer.  The  date 
of  the  invention  of  the  microscope  is  un- 
certain. Roger  Bacon  in  1276  used  a  lens 
of  rock  crystal  for  magnifying  objects,  and 
he  is  generally  regarded  as  the  inventor  of 
the  simple  microscope.  The  weight  of 
evidence  seems  to  point  to  Galileo  as  the 
inventor  of  the  compound  microscope  in 
1610.  Those  ascribed  to  the  Janssens  in 
1590  were  simple  microscopes.  Simple 
microscopes  were  brought  into  general  use 
by  Leeuwenhoek  (1632-1723)  and  Malpighi 
(1628-94).  The  former  had  a  collection  of 
more  than  400  lenses,  magnifying  from  40 
to  270  diameters,  and  he  was  the  father  of 
microscopic  observation.  From  that  time 
to  the  present  the  microscope  has  been 
greatly  in  use.  At  first  it  was  the  newness 
and  the  wonders  of  the  microscopic  world 
that  made  the  attraction,  but  gradually  the 
microscope  came  to  be  used  as  a  tool  of 
study.  In  1840  the  manufacture  of  lenses 


MICROSPORANGIUM 


X22Z 


MIDAS 


or  magnifying  glasses  was  vastly  improved, 
and  the  microscope  has  ever  since  been  used 
in  research  to  serious  purpose.  It  has  been 
the  means  of  showing  the  minute  structure 
of  all  tissues,  the  protoplasm  upon  which 
their  activity  depends,  their  condition  in 
health  and  disease.  It  has_  shown  the  germs 
of  disease,  made  analysis  of  the  sense- 
organs  possible,  and  helped  greatly  in  the 
comprehension  of  all  nature.  Many  brilliant 
and  important  discoveries  have  been  reached 
through  using  it.  See  BACTERIA,  CELL- 
DOCTRINE,  DEVELOPMENT,  PROTOPLASM. 

The  compound  microscope  consists  of 
mechanical  parts  and  optical  parts.  The 
mechanical  parts  taken  together  constitute 
the  stand  (see  illustration).  This  has  a 
base  or  foot,  from  which  rises  a  supporting 
pillar  carrying  a  stage  and  an  arm.  The 
stage  is  for  holding  objects  to  be  examined; 
it  is  perforated  by  a  round  aperture,  through 
which  light  is  thrown  from  a  mirror  located 
underneath  the  stage.  The  size  of  the 
aperture  is  usually  regulated  by  an  iris 
diaphragm,  and  often  there  is  a  glass  con- 
denser for  the  light.  The  arm  carries  a 
tube  in  which  the  lenses  are  inserted.  Finally 
there  is  a  means  of  bringing  the  lenses  into 
focus.  This  is  accomplished  by  a  coarse 
adjustment  —  usually  a  rack  and  pinion 
movement  —  to  move  the  tube  quickly  into 
position,  and  a  fine  adjustment,  for  slow 
movements,  to  get  an  accurate  focus.  The 

latter  is  very 
important  in 
using  lenses  of 
high  magnifying 
power.  It  usu- 
ally is  a  micro- 
meter screw  and 
spiral  spring.  A 
good  stand 
should  be  firm, 
low  enough  to 
work  upright  in 
order  to  avoid 
currents  in 
fluids,  which  oc- 
cur when  it  is 
(tilted,  and  have 
a  good,  fine  ad- 
justment. The 
lenses  or  optical 
parts  are  the 
most  important 
parts  of  a  micro- 
scope. Those 
which  do  [the 
greatest  amount 
of  magnifying 
are  attached  to 
the  tube,  near 
the  object,  and 
are  called  objec- 
tives. The  ocu- 
lars or  eyepieces  fit  in  the  tube  near  the  eye 
of  the  observer.  The  degree  of  magnifying 


MICROSCOPE 


power  depends  on  the  lenses  used  The  ordi- 
nary working  powers  range  from  75  to  500 
diameters.  ^  When  a  higher  degree  of  mag- 
nification is  desired  it  is  not  necessary  to 
purchase  a  new  microscope,  but  simply  to 
get  anew  objective.  The  cost  of  objectives 
of  high  magnifying  power  is  considerable, 
and  the  difficulty  of  working  with  those 
magnifying  above  600  diameters  is  consid- 
erable, too.  Student's  microscopes  can 
be  obtained  from  $15  upward;  a  good 
one  will  cost  $40  and  upward.  There 
are  many  good  makers  of  microscopes, 
but  those  most  highly  esteemed  at  present 
are  made  by  Bausch  and  Lomb  of  this 
country,  Leitz  of  Westlar  and  Zeiss  of  Jena, 
Germany.  Microscopic  technique  has  be- 
come an  art  and  a  science,  and  on  it  much 
of  success  in  discovery  depends.  See  Car- 
penter's The  Microscope  and  Its  Revelations 
and  Beale's  How  to  Work  with  the  Microscope. 

Microsporangium  ( mi'krd-spo-rdn'fi-um) 
(in  plants),  the  sporangium  which  produces 
microspores.  In  pteridophytes  they  are  pro- 
duced by  the  water-ferns,  selaginella  and 
isoetes;  while  in  all  seed-plants  (spermato- 
phytes)  the  so-called  pollen-sacs  are  micro- 
sporangia.  See  HETEROSPORY. 

Microspore  (ml'kro-spor)  (in  plants).  In 
cases  of  heterospory  (which  see)  the  small 
asexual  spores  are  called  microspores.  In 
germination  a  microspore  produces  a  male 
gametophyte,  that  is,  one  which  bears  the 
sperms.  Microspores  are  found  in  a  few 
pteridophytes  and  in  all  spermatophytes. 
In  the  latter  group  the  microspores  are 
better  known  as  pollen-grains.  See  HETER- 
OSPORY. 

Microsporophyll  (mi'kro-spd'rd-ftt)  (in 
plants),  the  sporophyll  which  bears  micro- 
sporangia.  They  are  chiefly  developed  in 
seed-plants,  where  they  are  usually  called 
stamens.  See  HETEROSPORY. 

Midas  (mi' das),  one  of  the  ancient  kings 
of  Phrygia,  who  are  always  called  either 
Midas  or  Gordius.  According  to  mythology, 
Midas,  for  a  kind  act,  was  promised  by 
Dionysus  whatever  he  should  ask.  He, 
believing  gold  to  be  the  best  possible  thing, 
asked  that  everything  he  touched  should 
turn  to  gold;  but  when  the  request  was 
granted,  he  found  to  his  sorrow  that  there 
are  many  things  more  necessary,  for  even 
his  food  became  gold,  and,  in  danger  of 
starving,  he  begged  the  god  to  take  back 
the  gift.  He  was  sent  to  wash  in  the  Pac- 
tolus,  the  sands  of  which  still  yield  grains 
of  gold.  He  decided  a  contest  between 
Pan  and  Apollo  in  favor  of  Pan,  and  Apollo 
in  revenge  gave  him  a  pair  of  ass's  ears, 
which  he  hid  under  a  cap.  The  secret  so 
oppressed  his  barber  that  he  dug  a  hole  in 
the  ground  and  whispered  into  it:  ^"King 
Midas  has  ass's  ears."  The  reed  is  said 
to  have  jfrown  from  this  hole,  and  is  thought 
to  whisper  the  secret  whenever  stirred  oy 
the  breeze. 


MIDDLE  AGES 


1222 


MIDSUMMER  NIGHT'S  DREAM 


Mld'dle  Ages,  also  called  medieval,  are 
the  period  Between  ancient  and  modern 
times  in  history.  They  are  generally  thought 
to  begin  in  476  with  the  downfall  of  the 
western  empire  of  Rome  and  to  end  with 
the  Reformation  in  the  first  part  of  the 
1 6th  century,  or  a  little  earlier,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  i  sth  century,  when  America  was 
discovered,  printing  invented  and  the  new 
impulse  given  to  learning  by  Greek  refugees 
from  Constantinople.  The  term,  Dark 
\ges,  is  used  to  cover  part  of  the  period, 
and  indicates  the  time  in  history  (about  500 
to  noo)  when  learning  was  at  its  lowest 
stage  between  the  literature  of  Greece  and 
Rome  and  the  literatures  of  modern 
Europe. 

Mid'dlebury,  a  town  in  Vermont,  33 
miles  southwest  of  Montpelier.  The  region 
is  picturesque,  with  views  of  the  Green 
Mountains  and  near-by  Lake  Dunmore,  five 
miles  long,  nestled  among  the  hills.  A  fine 
variety  of  marble  is  quarried  here,  and 
there  are  several  manufacturing  establish- 
ments. It  is  the  site  of  Middlebury  College, 
founded  in  1800,  and  having  23  professors 
and  364  students.  Population  2,848. 

Middlesbrough  (mia'd'lz-b'riih),  a  manu- 
facturing town  of  Yorkshire,  England,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Tees.  In  1829  there  was 
only  a  single  farmhouse,  surrounded  by 
marshes,  on  the  site  of  the  town.  Its 
growth  is  due  to  the  discovery  of  iron-ore 
in  the  Cleveland  Hills  near  by.  One  third 
of  the  great  iron  production  of  the  United 
Kingdom  is  from  the  Cleveland  mines.  The 
industries  are  iron  and  steel  works,  blast- 
furnaces, sawmills,  shipbuilding,  wire,  nail 
and  tube  works  and  large  salt  and  soda 
works.  It  has  fine  public  buildings  and 
large  parks.  In  1899  the  total  tonnage 
entered  and  cleared,  excluding  the  merely 
coastwise  tonnage,  was  next  to  that  of 
Swansea,  beii  g  320,000  tons.  Population 
91,302. 

Mid'dletown,  Conn.,  city,  county-seat 
of  Middlesex  County,  about  18  miles  south 
of  Hartford,  on  Connecticut  River.  Opposite 
is  Portland,  where  there  are  valuable  brown- 
stone  quarries,  and  the  two  places  are  con- 
nected by  a  long  drawbridge.  Middletown 
is  in  an  agricultural  region  where  dairy  prod- 
ucts, peaches  and  tobacco  are  the  leading 
productions,  and  good  waterpower  aids  in  mak- 
ing it  a  manufacturing  city.  The  chief  manu- 
facturers are  pumps,  typewriters,  bone-goods, 
rubber-goods,  enamel  ware,  silks,  harness- 
trimmings,  locks,  marine  hardware  and  silver- 
plated  ware.  Its  educational  institutions  are 
a  big  modern  high  school,  Wesleyan  University, 
Berkeley  Divinity  School  and  Russel  Free 
Library.  Here  also  are  the  state's  Insane 
Hospital  and  its  Industrial  School  for  Girls. 
The  settlement  was  founded  in  1650,  and 
incorporated  as  a  town  the  next  year  under  the 
name  of  Mattabeseck,  which  was  changed  to 
Middletown  two  years  later.  It  has  the 


service  of  the  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  and  H.  Railroad. 
Population,  13,500. 

Middletown,  N.  Y.,  a  town  in  Orange 
County,  southeastern  New  York,  24  miles 
west  of  Newburg  and  65  northwest  of  New 
York  City.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  pas- 
toral region,  and  is  served  by  the  Erie; 
New  York,  Ontario  and  Western;  and  New 
York,  Susquehanna  and  Western  railroads. 
Here  is  New  York  Homeopathic  Hospital 
for  the  Insane.  It  is  well-supplied  with 
schools,  churches,  libraries  and  banks,  and 
its  industries  embrace  woolen-hat  factories, 
silk  and  handkerchief  mills  and  saw  and 
file  works.  Population  15,313. 

Middletown,  Ohio,  city,  Butler  County, 
on  Miami  River,  about  34  miles  north  of 
Cincinnati.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region, 
and  besides  is  a  manufacturing  city,  for  its 
waterpower  aids  in  that  direction.  It 
manufactures  agricultural  implements, 
paper,  flour  and  dairy  and  tobacco  products. 
It  has  good  public  and  parochial  schools 
and  several  fine  churches.  It  has  the 
service  of  three  railroads  and  of  the  Miami 
and  Erie  Canal.  Population  13,152. 

Mid'ianites,  an  Arab  race,  inhabiting  the 
country  between  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
plains  of  Moab  near  the  Dead  Sea.  Their 
caravans  traveled  from  Egypt  to  Syria, 
carrying  gold  and  incense  to  Palestine. 
Jethro,  the  father-in-law  of  Moses,  either 
was  a  priest  or  a  chief  of  the  Midianites. 
They  were  troublesome  neighbors  to  the 
Israelites  until  conquered  by  Gideon.  They 
worshiped  Baal-Peor.  In  the  times  of  the 
Romans  there  were  valuable  mines  in 
Midian,  and  petroleum  is  found  there.  The 
country  became  a  Turkish  possession  in 
1887. 

Mid' rib  ( in  plants).  In  case  there  is  one 
central  main  rib  in  a  leaf,  this  is  spoken 
of  as  the  midrib.  It  is  found  in  leaves  of 
the  pinnate  type  of  venation.  See  LEAF. 

Mid'summer  Night's  Dream,  A,  written 
about  1595  by  Shakespeare,  is  a  favorite 
comedy  to  this  day  for  the  romantic  and 
fanciful  atmosphere  in  which  it  is  cast  and 
for  the  great  humor  of  the  minor  plot, 
which  deals  with  the  production  ol  a  play 
written  to  please  Duke  Theseus  on  his 
marriage.  The  ranting  of  Bottom  the 
weaver  is  a  take-off  upon  the  turgidity  of 
contemporary  tragedians,  perhaps  espe- 
cially on  that  of  Marlowe,  the  greatest  of 
them.  The  festivities  in  connection  with 
the  marriage  of  Theseus,  the  legendary  king 
and  hero  of  Athens,  to  the  Amazon  Queen 
Hippolyta,  furnish  the  framework  for  a 
fantastic  love-story.  In  this  story  the 
charms  administered  by  Puck  at  the  order 
of  Oberon,  king  of  the  fairies,  woefully  con- 
fuse the  four  lovers  who  wander  in  the 
wood;  but  mistakes  are  set  right,  and  all 
is  at  length  happily  concluded.  Bottom 
and  his  artisan  friends  give  their  play  in 
unintentionally  farcial  manner  before  the 


MIDSUMMER  NIGHT'S  DREAM 


1223 


MILAN 


amused  Theseus  and  his  bride.  The  music 
of  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  is  by  Men- 
delssohn and  includes  the  favorite  wedding- 
march. 

Midsummer  Night's  Dream  (Music). 
Composed  by  Felix  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy 
(1809-47),  at  the  command  of  the  King  of 
Prussia,  at  whose  palace,  at  Potsdam,  it 
was  first  produced  on  October  14,  1843. 
Aside'  from  the  overture,  written  in  1826, 
there  are  12  numbers:  scherzo;  fairy-march; 
chorus,  with  solos  for  two  sopranos'  ''You 
Spotted  Snakes;"  melodrama;  intermezzo, 
after  the  second  act;  melodrama:  "What 
Hempen  Homespuns;"  notturno  after  the 
third  act;  andante:  wedding-march,  after 
the  fourth  act;  funeral  march;  dance  of 
the  clowns;  and  finale:  chorus  of  the  fairies. 

Mignonette  (mtn'yun-et),  a  plant  cul- 
tivated for  its  fragrance,  and  c  native  of 
North  Africa.  The  name  means  little  dar- 
ling It  has  long  clusters  of  rusty  and 
greenish- white  flowers.  It  is  an  annual, 
thrives  ir.  sandy  soil  and  blooms  the  summer 
through. 

Migra'tion.  Migration  literally  includes 
such  permanent  changes  of  place  as  the 
movement  of  the  Angles  and  Saxons  from 
the  European  continent  to  England  or  of 
the  Huns  and  Turks  from  Asia  to  Europe. 
In  the  animal  world  such  migrations  have 
often  taken  place.  Especially  must  the 
invasions  and  the  retreat  of  ice  during  the 
glacial  periods  have  caused  extensive  migra- 
tion of  animals,  and  have  had  important 
results  on  their  characteristics.  But  the 
most  common  use  of  the  term  is  to  denote 
periodic  mig-ations.  These  are  most  com- 
mon among  birds,  but  are  found  also  in 
other  animals.  The  whales  change  their 
fishing-grounds  with  considerable  regu- 
larity to  seek  agreeable  and  abundant  food. 
Deer,  goats  and  sheep  periodically,  in  some 
parts  of  the  world,  leave  the  plains  for  the 
hills,  to  escape  the  flies  that  torment  them. 
The  bison  had  periods  of  migration  from 
mountains  to  plains,  and  the  caribou  still 
changes  its  grounds  regularly  between  the 
coast  of  Labrador  and  the  shores  o.'  Hud- 
son Bay.  The  lemming,  a  rat-like  animal 
of  northern  Scandinavia,  multiplies  with 
such  rapidity  that  it  overcrowds  its  ter- 
ritory. Swarms  then  migrate  southward 
at  fairly  regular  periods  several  years  apart, 
and  advance  steadily  till  they  meet  the 
sea.  Into  this  they  plunge.  But  it  is  not 
recorded  that  any  survive  to  return.  Among 
insects  migrations  of  locusts  are  well-known, 
but  it  is  not  certain  whether  there  is  any 
regularity  about  them.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  comparatively  rare  migrations  of 
butterfly  swarms  across  tropical  seas  and 
oceans.  In  the  spring  there  have  been 
noted  fairly  regular  migrations  of  herring, 
mackerel  and  many  other  fishes  from  deep 
to  shallow  water  in  order  that  the  higher 
temperature  may  hatch  the  spawn.  Regu- 


lar migrations  at  the  spawning-season  are 
also  noted  in  the  salmon,  shad,  trout  and 
eels,  which  leave  the  sea  for  the  fresh  waters 
of  rivers  and  lakes.  Some  turtles  are 
said  to  migrate  with  considerable  regular- 
ity. Of  the  23  recognized  orders  of  birds 
only  two  are  regular  migrants,  but  these 
include  the  birds  most  familiar  to  us.  It 
is  supposed  that  the  habit  of  migration  was 
set  up  at  the  close  of  the  glacial  period. 
The  warmer  region  of  the  earth  may  be 
regarded  as  the  real  home  of  the  bird,  and 
the  colder  as  the  place  selected  for  breed- 
ing. While  most  of  the  birds  of  the  United 
States  choose  it  for  their  summer  quarters, 
others  reside  here  only  in  winter,  going 
further  north  in  spring.  Again,  others  are 
simply  birds  of  passage,  wintering  south 
of  us  and  spending  summer  in  the  far  north. 
The  most  extraordinary  migrant,  perhaps, 
is  a  species  of  plover,  which  regularly 
changes  its  home  from  Patagonia  to  Labra- 
dor and  Greenland,  entering  the  United 
States  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  and 
flying  north.  As  to  the  cause  of  migration, 
while  it  is  easy  to  see  that  birds  gain  many 
advantages  by  the  habit,  it  is  not  so  easy 
to  understand  how  they  learn  the  time  to 
change  their  abode  and  the  course  of  their 
flight.  It  has  been  suggested  that  a  bird 
flying  at  a  great  height  commands  a  range 
of  100  miles  or  more  and  that  the  older 
birds  may  guide  the  younger,  so  that  the 
tradition  of  the  route  is  preserved.  But 
it  is  objected  that  flight  often  occurs  at 
night,  that  many  birds  do  not  fly  high, 
and  that  some  fly  across  hundreds  of  miles 
of  sea  or  ocean. 

Mikado  (ml-ka'dd),  from  the  Japanese 
words  for  exalted  and  gate,  is  the  ancient 
and  poetic  title  of  the  Japanese  emperor. 
The  present  mikado  is  the  i2ist  (or  12 3d) 
mikado.  See  JAPAN  and  MUTSUHITO. 

Milan  (mil'qn  or  me-lanf),  a  city  in  Italy, 
the  second  in  'size,  ranking  next  to  Naples. 
It  stands  in  the  great  Lombard  plain.  25 
miles  south  of  Lake  Como,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Alps.  Surrounded  on  three  sides  by  walls, 
it  is  entered  by  14  gates.  Though  an  old 
city,  it  has  so  often  been  ravaged  by  war 
as  to  have  few  ancient  buildings.  The  mod- 
ern city  has  broad,  regular  streets,  fine 
buildings  and  attractive  promenades.  The 
cathedral,  on  the  site  of  two  more  ancient 
ones,  begun  in  1386  was  practically  finished, 
by  order  of  Napoleon,  in  1805-13.  There  are 
6,000  statues,  in  niches  on  the  outside,  and 
a  great  number  of  pinnacles.  St.  Ambrose 
(868),  St.  George  (750)  and  St.  Maria 
(1463),  with  Leonardo  da  Vinci's  famous 
painting  of  The  Last  Supper  on  its  wall, 
are  other  ancient  churches.  The  palace  of 
arts  and  sciences  has  a  valuable  collection 
of  paintings  by  Raphael,  Titian,  Vandyck, 
Mantegna  and  others.  The  national  library 
has  nearly  200,000  volumes,  with  a  museum 
and  an  observatory;  and  the  Ambrosian 


1224 


MILITARY  SCHOOLS 


library,  175,000  volumes  and  a  fine  col- 
lection of  paintings  and  engravings.  The 
city  has  an  extensive  trade  in  silk,  cotton, 
grain,  rice  and  cheese,  and  manufactures 
silks,  velvets,  gold,  silver  and  iron  wares, 
railroad  cars,  tobacco  and  porcelain.  It 
also  is  a  center  of  the  printing-trade,  and 
is  the  chief  banking  city  of  northern  Italy. 
Population  584,000.  Historically,  it  was 
a  town  of  Gauls,  was  conquered  by 
the  Romans  in  222  B.  C.,  and  be- 
came a  rich  and  important  city.  In  the 
4th  century  it  was  the  court-city  of 
the  empire.  Huns,  Goths,  Longobards 
and  Franks  held  it  at  different  periods, 
until  it  was  subjected  to  the  Franco-Ger- 
man empire  in  774;  and  several  of  Charle- 
magne's successors  were  crowned  at  Milan. 
In  the  nth  century,  as  the  head  of  the  Lon- 
bard  league,  Frederick  I  twice  besieged  it, 
and  once  almost  destroyed  it.  In  1395 
the  Visconti  made  Milan  the  capital  of  a 
duchy,  which  extended  over  the  whole  of 
Lombardy,  Matteo  being  the  first  duke. 
From  1450  to  1535  his  successors,  the 
Sforzas,  ruled  the  country.  It  passed  then 
to  Spain;  from  Spain  to  Austria;  and  from 
Austria  to  Napoleon,  who  made  it  the  capi- 
tal of  Italy.  It  belonged  again  to  Austria 
until  the  peace  of  Villafranca  (1859),  when 
it  was  ceded  to  France  and  yielded  by 
France  to  Sardinia. 

Mir  dew,  the  name  of  various  plants 
(fungi),  but  chiefly  applied  to  a  large  group 
of  the  ascomycetes  (which  see),  which  are 
external  parasites  growing  chiefly  upon  the 
leaves  of  seed-plants  and  covering  the  sur- 
face like  a  delicate  cobweb.  The  mildew 
on  lilac  leaves  is  one  of  the  most  common 
forms,  this  host-plant  being  very  seldom 
free  from  it.  Apple,  cherry  and  pear  mil- 
dews are  familiar.  There  are  two  classes; 
true  or  powdery  and  false  or  downy  mil- 
dews. The  downy  mildews  belong  to  the 
phycomycetes  (which  see),  and  are  de- 
structive internal  parasites.  One  of  the 
commonest  forms  attacks  grape-leaves, 
making  its  presence  known  by  small,  downy 
patches  which  come  to  the  surface  and  con- 
sist of  minute  branches  bearing  spores. 
Dusting  with  sulphur  is  recommended  for 
plants  affected  by  powdery  mildew;  and 
spraying  with  a  fungicide  is  used  for  pow- 
dery and  for  downy  mildews. 

Miles,  Nelson  A.,  an  American  general, 
was  born  at  Westminster,  Mass.,  Aug.  8, 
1839.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he 
entered  the  22d  Massachusetts  volunteers  as 
lieutenant.  He  distinguished  himself  at  Fair 
Oaks,  Fredericksburg,  Chancellorsville,  Mal- 
vern  Hill,  Spottsylvania,  Richmond  and 
many  other  battles.  He  won  promotion  un- 
til he  became  a  major-general  and  was  placed 
in  command  of  a  division.  When  the  vol- 
tmteer  army  was  disbanded  in  September, 
i&66,  he  was  commissioned  colonel  of  the 
4oth  United  States  infantry.  He  was 


GEN.  NELSON  A.  MILES 


made  brigadier-general  in  1880  and  major- 
general  in  1890.  After  the  close  of  the  Civil 
War  General  Miles  earned  fame  as  an  Indian 

fighter.  He 
conquered  the 
hostile  Sioux 
in  Montana, 
and  drove  Sit- 
ting Bull,  their 
leader,  into 
Canada  in  1876 
after  the  mas- 
sacre of  Gen- 
eral Custer  and 
his  -force.  In 
1886  he  com- 
pelled the 
Apache  chiefs, 
Geronimo  and 
Natchez,  to  sur- 
render. In  1890, 
during  the  ghost-dance  outbreak  among 
the  Sioux,  General  Miles  forced  a  surrender 
in  January,  1891,  at  Wounded  Knee,  South 
Dakota.  On  the  retirement  of  General 
Schqfield  in  1895  General  Miles  succeeded 
him  and  was  in  command  of  the  United 
States  army  during  the  Spanish-American 
War.  He  has  published  Personal  Recollec- 
tions and  Military  Europe.  He  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in 
1901,  and  retired  in  1904. 

Miletus  (mi-le'tus),  an  ancient  city  ot 
Ionia,  in  Asia  Minor,  near  the  Meander. 
It  was  famous  for  woolen  cloth,  carpets  and 
furniture,  and  had  a  large  trade.  Nearly 
80  colonies  were  founded  by  its  citizens  on 
the  Black  Sea  and  in  the  Crimea.  Under 
the  elder  Cyrus  the  city  was  conquered  by 
Persia,  and  again,  after  a  rebellion,  was 
taken  by  Darius  and  nearly  destroyed. 
Although  rebuilt  and  sufficiently  powerful 
to  contend  with  Alexander,  who  took  it  by 
storm,  it  never  regained  its  importance, 
and  was  finally  ruined  by  the  Turks. 

Mil'itary  Schools  in  the  United  States 
were  projected  as  early  as  1776,  when  the 
Continental  Congress  resolved  to  appoint  a 
committee  of  five  to  bring  in  a  plan  for  a 
military  academy.  Washington  and  other 
statesmen  and  generals  had  become  con- 
vinced of  the  necessity  of  an  institution  for 
theoretical  instruction  in  military  science 
and  art;  and  it  was  largely  due  to  Wash- 
ington that  West  Point  Academy  was 
founded.  Its  purpose  is  to  train  suitable 
candidates  to  be  officers  in  the  army.  Each 
Congressional  district  and  territory  and  the 
District  of  Columbia  are  entitled  to  send  one 
cadet;  and  ten  others  are  appointed.  Candi- 
dates are  subjected  to  a  rigid  physical 
examination.  The  academic  courses  and 
examination  tests  are  very  thorough;  and 
in  summer  the  cadets  are  encamped  and 
engaged  only  in  military  exercises  and  in 
receiving  military  instruction.  The  cadets 
are  paid  $540  each  per  annum.  Their  uni- 


THE   DAIRY  INDUSTRY 


Copyright  Brown  Bros. 

ON  A  DAIRY  FARM.     Here  is  where  a  dairy  begins.     Here  we  see  the  dairy  cows,   Holsteins  and 
Jerseys,  resting  in  the  shade  after  they  have  eaten  their  fill  of  the  pasturage. 


From  Brown  Bros. 

Here  is  a  dairy  cow  with  a  queer  looking  machine  attached.  It  is  an  electric  milking  machine.  You 
will  see  the  stream  of  milk  flowing  into  the  pail.  Milking  by  hand  is  tiresome  and  expensive,  and  many 
attempts  have  been  made  to  invent  a  milking  machine  which  would  prove  a  success.  Nothing  entirely 
satisfactory  has  thus  far  been  invented  and  nearly  all  the  milking  is  still  done  by  hand.  It  takes  an  army 
of  300,000  men  and  women,  working  ten  hours  a  day,  365  days  in  the  year,  to  milk  all  the  cows  in  America. 


Here  we  see  farmers  bringing  their  milk  in  cans  to  the  receiving  station.     Here  it  is  received,  measured 
and  paid  for. 


From  Brown  Bros. 

The  cans  of  milk  are  put  into  cooling  tanks  and  left  uncovered,  in  order  to  let  the  animal  heat  escape. 
If  it  was  covered  before  cooling,  it  would  sour.  After  it  is  cooled  it  is  sent  to  the  creamery  for  Pasteurizing 
and  bottling. 


Copyright  Brown  Bros. 

FILTER  AND  PASTEURIZER.  The  milk  is 
next  carried  to  a  Pasteurizer.  First  it  passes  through 
the  filter,  which  is  the  upper  can  on  the  left  of  the 
picture.  It  then  passes  to  the  Pasteurizer,  which  you 
see  in  the  center  of  the  picture.  It  is  first  warmed 
by  being  allowed  to  run  down  over  the  outside  of  the 
Pasteurizer,  and  it  is  then  forced  up  through  the 
interior,  which  contains  a  steam  coil,  where  it  is  heated 


Copyright  Brown  Bros. 

Here  we  see  a  bacteriologist  examining  the  milk. 
This  is  done  in  most  modern  dairies,  to  detect  any 
unhealthy  germs. 

to  162°  Fahr.  This  kills  the  germs  and  makes  it 
possible  to  keep  the  milk  sweet  for  a  week.  It  is  then 
carried  through  a  pipe  at  the  top  of  the  Pasteurizer 
to  the  cooler. 


Copyright  Brown  Bros. 

From  the  Pasteurizer  it  is  forced  by  a  pump  to  the  cooler,  where  it  is  cooled  from  162°  Fahr.  to  42°  Fahr. 
This  is  done  by  letting  the  milk  flow  over  the  corrugated  surface  of  this  cooler,  which  is  filled  with  cold  water. 
The  upper  half  cf  the  cooler  contains  merely  cold  water,  while  the  lower  half  is  ice  cold  brine.  This  prevents 
a  too  sudden  change. 


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form  and  all  articles  of  their  clothing  are 
of  a  prescribed  pattern.  After  graduation 
the  cadet  who  has  fulfilled  all  requirements 
and  has  received  his  diploma  is  entitled  to 
be  appointed  to  the  post  of  second  lieu- 
tenant in  any  corps  in  which  there  may 
be  a  vacancy  that  he  is  judged  competent 
to  fill.  If  there  is  no  immediate  vacancy, 
he  may  be  appointed  an  additional  second 
lieutenant. 

In  addition  to  the  academy  at  West 
Point,  the  United  States  has  four  special 
or  postgraduate  military  schools:  the 
Artillery  School  of  Application  at  Fort 
Monroe;  the  Engineer  School  at  Willet's 
Point,  New  York  Harbor;  the  U.  S.  In- 
fantry and  Cavalry  School  at  Fort  Leaven- 
worth,  Kansas;  and  the  Fort  Riley  School 
Kansas. 

It  is  not  only  the  officers  of  the  American 
army  who  are  instructed;  for  since  1878  it 
has  been  required  that  schools  shall  be 
established  at  all  posts,  garrisons  and 
permanent  camps  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
instruction  in  the  English  branches  of 
education  to  all  soldiers  unable  to  pass  a 
certain  examination.  It  is  felt  that  each 
soldier  may  need  reading  and  writing  in 
the  course  of  his  duties;  and,  especially, 
that  he  will  be  the  better  citizen  on  his 
return  to  civil  life  if  he  has  been  instructed 
in  these  branches. 

England  has  two  great  military  schools :  the 
Royal  Military  College  at  Sandhurst  for  cadets 
for  the  cavalry  and  infantry  and  the  Royal 
Military  Academy  at  Woolwich  for  Royal 
Engineers  and  Royal  Artillery  cadets.  None 
are  allowed  to  compete  unless  their  social 
position  is  approved  by  the  commander-in- 
chief.  The  entrance  and  physical  examina- 
tions are  extremely  rigid;  and  fees  are 
charged.  There  are  other  English  practical 
military  schools  at  Chatham  (for  engineers), 
Shoeburyness  (for  gunners),  Camberly  (for 
advanced  tactics)  and  Hythe  (for  musketry) . 
In  Germany  there  are  ten  cadet-schools, 
an  academy  at  Lichterfelde,  near  Berlin, 
and  n  war-schools.  In  France  there  are 
23  military  schools,  including  both  higher 
and  preparatory  schools.  Japan  has  ex- 
cellent military  schools,  which  train  some 
of  the  officers  of  the  Chinese  as  well  as  the 
Japanese  army. 

The  subject  of  military  schools  suggests 
some  discussion  of  military  training  in  the 
public  schools  and  colleges  and  in  private 
schools.  In  general  the  private  schools  in 
America  that  introduce  military  training 
aim  to  some  extent  to  prepare  students  for 
entrance  to  the  government's  military 
schools.  But  military  drill  is  a  feature  of 
the  state  colleges  of  the  west  and  south 
and  of  colleges  of  agriculture  and  mechanic 
arts,  as  also  of  many  public-school  systems. 
According  to  the  U.  S.  commissioner's 
report  for  1904  18,709  students  engage  in 
military  drill  in  the  colleges  of  agriculture 


and  mechanic  arts  endowed  by  the  acts 
of  Congress  approved  on  July  a,  1863,  and 
Aug.  30,  1890.  In  other  colleges  there 
were  15,537  students  so  engaged.  Accord- 
ing to  the  report  of  1903  there  were  8,452 
students  at  schools  of  technology  engaged 
in  military  drill;  but  very  few  students  at 
public  high-schools.  The  justification  for 
military  drill  in  these  centers  is  duty  to 
the  state  rather  than  educational  value. 
In  the  public-school  systems  military  drill 
has  lost  some  ground  owing  to  its  educa- 
tional inadequacies.  It  appears  to  lack 
interest,  effort,  spontaneity  and  sharpness 
as  compared  with  sports  and  even  with 
other  gymnastic  exercises.  The  buttoned 
clothes,  the  heavy  arms  and  the  onesided 
development  involved  in  military  drill  are 
also  alleged  against  its  use  in  the  schools, 
though  it  is  a  serviceable  agency  of  dis- 
cipline. 

Mili'tia,  the  name  applied  in  England 
and  in  the  United  States  to  the  military 
reserve  or  purely  defensive  forces,  in 
America  theoretically  covers  all  citizens  of 
ages  ranging  between  18  and  45  years.  In 
England  it  is  organized  as  a  national  body; 
in  the  United  States  only  as  a  state  body, 
though  liable  to  be  called  into  the  federal 
service  in  case  of  need.  The  militia  in 
each  state  is  partly  organized  under  an 
adjutant-general.  It  is  not  unusual  for  the 
militia  to  be  called  out  in  case  of  riots, 
lynchings  or  similar  disturbances  to  pre- 
serve order  within  the  state.  The  militia 
is  liable  to  be  called  out  for  war-service 
for  a  period  not  exceeding  nine  months; 
but  only  for  home-defense.  In  all  essentials 
it  is  the  old  Fnglish  fyrd  or  body  of  freemen 
in  arms. 

Mil'ford,  Mass.,  town  in  Worcester 
County  on  Charles  River,  about  17  miles 
southeast  of  Worcester.  The  surrounding 
country  is  agricultural,  and  in  the  vicinity 
are  large  granite-quarries,  which  contribute 
to  the  industrial  riches  of  the  town.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  shoes,  straw-goods, 
bone-cutters,  boot  and  shoe  trees,  foundry  and 
machine  shop  products  and  rubber  goods. 
The  town  has  good  public  and  parochial 
schools,  a  fine  high  school  and  a  public  library. 
It  has  the  service  of  two  railroads.  Popula- 
tion, 13,600. 

Milk,  the  well-known  white  fluid,  the  se- 
cretion of  the  mammary  gland,  obtained 
from  the  cow,  though  the  milk  of  goats  and 
asses  has  been  used.  _  It  is  one  of  our  most 
important  foods,  as  it  contains  all  the  ele- 
ments needed  for  the  body  and  is  easily  di- 
gested. When  examined  by  a  microscope, 
it  is  seen  to  consist  of  a  large  number  of  round 
substances  or  globules,  which  are  transpar- 
ent and  very  small  and  float  in  a  colorless 
fluid.  These  globules  are  made  of  fat,  with 
a  thin  coating  somewhat  like  the  white  of  an 
egg,  called  casein.  When  the  milk  stands, 
the  larger  globules  rise  to  the  top  and  make 


MILKWEED 


1226 


MILLAIS 


the  cream,  which  is  the  fattest  or  richest 
part  of  the  milk.  When  the  cream  is  shaken, 
as  in  a  churn,  these  globules  break  and  the 
fat  runs  together,  making  lumps,  which  are 
called  butter.  The  casein  which  surrounds 
the  globules  of  fat,  and  is  also  dissolved  in 
the  liquid,  if  it  becomes  sour,  either  naturally 
by  exposure  to  the  air  or  by  the  addition  of 
rennet  or  an  acid  of  any  kind,  collects  into 
masses  called  curd.  This  change  is  brought 
about  partly  by  minute  forms  of  animal  life, 
called  microbes,  which  get  into  the  milk  from 
the  air.  This  is  one  reason  why  it  is  so  neces- 
sary to  purify  by  heat,  usually  hot  water,  all 
the  articles  used  about  milk.  Sterilization 
and  pasteurizing  of  milk  are  effective  in  re- 
moving or  neutralizing  the  intrusion  of  bac- 
teria. The  clots  or  curds,  made  by  the  addi- 
tion of  rennet  to  the  milk,  are  pressed  into 
blocks  and  make  cheese,  which  is  a  very  rich 
food,  containing  all  the  fat  of  the  milk,  as  do 
cream  and  butter,  and  the  casein,  also,  which 
is  an  albuminous  substance.  Condensed 
rn^k  is  prepared  by  sweetening  the  milk  and 
evaporating  it,  until  it  loses  about  half  or 
three  fourths  of  its  bulk.  It  is  poured  into 
tins  while  hot,  and  sealed.  When  used,  it  is 
diluted  with  several  times  the  quantity  of 
water.  The  adulteration  of  millc  by  adding 
water,  starch  or  chalk  is  frequent  in  large 
cities,  and  has  called  for  boards  of  inspectors 
and  produced  instruments,  known  as  lactom- 
eters, for  detecting  it.  The  most  common 
fraud,  however,  in  the  sale  of  milk  is  remov- 
ing the  cream.  Supplying  a  large  city  with 
cream  and  milk  creates  a  great  business  and 
employs  many  men:  those  who  milk  the 
cows  at  all  hours;  the  railroad  employees 
who  run  the  great  milk-trains ;  the  large  deal- 
ers who  distribute  it  to  the  wagons;  and  the 
drivers  of  the  milk-carts  whose  noisy  clatter 
disturbs  the  early-morning  nap,  but  whose 
faithful  labors  in  heat  and  cold  furnish  our 
milk  and  cream  for  breakfast.  A  quart  of  milk 
at  eight  cents  is  as  nourishing  as  a  pound  of 
beefsteak  at  1 8  cents ;  while  a  pound  of  Amer- 
ican cheese,  costing  20  cents,  authorities 
affirm,  contains  almost  as  much  nourishment 
as  two  pounds  of  the  best  beefsteak. 

Milk7 weed,  species  of  Asclepias,  a  genus 
of  the  milkweed  family,  which  contains  about 
85  species,  mostly  natives  of  the  western 
hemisphere,  nearly  50  occurring  in  North 
America.  The  name  comes  from  the  fact 
that  they  contain  a  milky  juice  which  exudes 
from  wounds.  They  also  are  often  called 
silkweeds  from  the  large  pods  containing  nu- 
merous seeds  bearing  beautiful  tufts  of  silky 
hair.  These  seeds  with  their  downy  sails 
are  of  much  interest.  One  of  the  most  at- 
tractive forms  is  the  butterfly- weed  or  pleu- 
risy-root (A.  tuberosd),  whose  flowers  are 
bright  orange  and  in  midsummer  clothe  the 
dry  pastures  of  New  England  in  masses  of 
brilliant  color.  The  stem  is  from  one  to  two 
feet  high,  but  contains  little  "milk."  The 
other  forms  are  taller  and  have  chiefly  pur- 


plish to  red  flowers,  occasionally  white.  The 
flowers  are  much  modified  for  insect-pollina- 
tion, th«  pollen-grains  clinging  together  in 
masses  which  are  carried  off  by  the  insects 
bodily.  Probably  the  commonest  known 
milkweed  is  A.  cornuti,  also  known  as  A. 
syriaca.  The  weed  has  a  stout,  tall  stem 
and  opposite  leaves,  six  to  eight  inches  long. 
In  early  summer  it  puts  forth  flowers  of  pur- 
plish pink,  blooming  from  June  to  August. 
The  two  pods  are  full  to  bursting  of  seeds 
with  lovely,  silky  tufts. 

Milky  Way,  a  band  of  faint  light  which 
stretches  across  the  sky  from  horizon  to  hor- 
izon. The  light  is  produced  by  a  multitude 
of  stars  so  distant  or  so  small  that  they  can 
be  distinguished  only  by  the  telescope.  It 
is  brighter  in  the  southern  than  in  the 
northern  sky.  In  one  part  of  its  course  it  di- 
vides into  two  branches.  Most  of  the  stars 
in  the  Milky  Way  are  of  less  than  eighth 
magnitude.  Among  them  are  many  star- 
clusters,  but  very  few  nebulae.  In  the  con- 
stellation of  Hercules  is  a  most  striking  star- 
cluster,  estimated  to  have  between  one  and 
two  thousand  stars.  The  Milky  Way  was 
regarded  in  ancient  times  as  the  pathway  of 
the  gods,  strewn  with  golden  sands.  The 
Indians  speak  of  it  as  the  Milkmaid's  Path. 
Very  frequently  it  is  called  the  Galaxy, 
Greek  for  Milky  Way.  Herschel,  a  profound 
student  of  this  subject,  suggested  that  the 
galaxy  is  a  natural  plane  of  reference  for  the 
stellar  universe,  just  as  the  ecliptic  is  a 
natural  plane  of  reference  for  the  solar  sys- 
tem. 

Mill,  John  Stuart,  son  of  James  Mill, 
who  also  was  known  as  a  writer  and  utili- 
tarian philosopher,  was  born  at  London,  May 
20,  1806.  His  early  education  was  carried 
on  by  his  father,  beginning  with  the  study 
of  Greek  when  three  years  old  and  making 
him  at  14  as  advanced  as  most  young  men  at 
the  end  of  their  period  of  study.  His  first 
writings  appeared  in  a  newspaper  in  1822. 
Before  he  was  20  he  was  recognized  as  a 
leader  in  philosophy  and  politics,  and  was 
the  most  frequent  contributor  to  the  West- 
minster Review  —  a  magazine  which  repre- 
sented the  ideas  of  his  party.  He  somewhat 
changed  his  philosophical  theories  later, 
under  the  influence  of  Maurice,  Sterling  and 
Coleridge.  His  most  important  works  are 
his  System  of  Logic,  Principles  of  Political 
Economy,  Comte  and  Positivism,  Representa- 
tive Government,  Dissertations  and  Discus- 
sions, England  and  Ireland  and  Liberty.  He 
died  at  Avignon.  France,  May  8,  1873.  See 
his  Autobiography,  which  appeared  in  the 
year  of  his  death;  and  Life  by  Bain;  and  Life 
and  Works  by  Herbert  Spencer,  by  Thorn- 
ton, by  Fox  Bourne  and  by  others. 

Millais  (mil-la')  t  Sir  John  Everett,  an 
English  painter,  was  born  at  Southampton, 
June  8,  1829.  His  Pizarro  Seizing  the  Inca 
was  shown  at  the  Royal  Academy  when  only 
1 7  and  was  considered  equal  to  the  best  his- 


MILLER 


1227 


MILLS 


torical  paintings  then  exhibited.  He  be- 
came connected  with  Rossetti  and  Hunt, 
and  -was  much  influenced  by  them,  as  also 
by  the  writings  of  Ruskin  on  art.  Pictures 
of  this  period  are  Christ  in  ike  House  of 
His  Parents,  called  The  Carpenter's  Shop, 
The  Woodman's  Daughter  and  The  Hugue- 
not. After  his  election  in  1856  to  the  Royal 
Academy  he  exhibited  Autumn  Leaves;  later 
he  finished  the  Vale  of  Rest,  The  Minuet 
and  Rosalind  and  Celia.  His  later  works 
show  another  change  in  his  ideas  of  art, 
and  in  their  brilliant  coloring  and  high  finish 
are  almost  unrivaled  in  modern  work.  The 
Boyhood  of  Raleigh,  The  Gambler's  Wife,  The 
Proscribed  Royalist,  Yeoman  of  the  Guard,  Yes 
or  No,  The  Order  of  Release,  The  Black  Bruns- 
wicker  and  Effie  Deans  are  among  his  later 
paintings.  He  died  at  London,  Aug.  13, 1896. 

Miller,  Cincinnatus  Heine,  an  Ameri- 
can poet  whose  pen-name  is  Joaquin  Miller, 
was  born  in  Indiana  in  1841.  His  early  life 
was  spent  in  Oregon  and  California  and 
among  the  Indians.  He  wrote  verses  in 
these  early  days,  though  with  little  knowl- 
edge even  of  the  rules  of  grammar.  He 
studied  law,  and  began  practice  in  Oregon, 
where  he  wrote  Songs  of  the  Sierras,  pub- 
lished first  in  London.  He  has  since  written 
Songs  of  the  Sunland,  Ships  in  the  Desert, 
Songs  of  the  Mexican  Suns,  Songs  of  Italy 
and  Building  of  the  City  Beautiful.  He  is 
a  well-known  contributor  to  newspapers  and 
periodicals.  Since  1887  he  has  made  his 
home  in  Oakland,  California. 

Miller,  Harriett  Mann,  was  born  at 
Auburn,  N.  Y.,  on  June  25,  1831,  and  was 
educated  in  private  schools.  In  1854  she 
married  Watts  Todd  Miller.  Olive  Thorne 
Miller  is  her  pen-name.  She  has  gained  a 
wide  reputation  as  a  lecturer  on  the  life  of 
birds,  but  is  best  known  as  the  author  of 
Little  Folks  in  Feathers  and  Fur. 

Miller,  Hugh,  a  Scotch  geologist  and 
writer,  was  born  at  Cromarty,  on  Oct.  10, 
1802.  His  education  was  gained  mostly  by 
reading  in  the  intervals  of  his  work  as  a 
stonemason.  In  1829  his  Poems  written  in 
the  Leisure  Hours  of  a  Journeyman  Mason 
appeared,  and  in  1835  Scenes  and  Legends 
of  the  North  of  Scotland.  His  famous  Letter 
to  Lord  Brougham,  in  the  church-disputes  in 
Scotland,  brought  him  into  notice,  and  he 
was  invited  to  Edinburgh  to  edit  The  Wit- 
ness, a  Liberal  and  Presbyterian  newspaper. 
A  series  of  geological  articles  in  this  paper, 
when  published  in  book-form,  was  called 
The  Old  Red  Sandstone,  and  contained  an 
account  of  his  discovery  of  fossils  where 
they  had  never  been  thought  to  exist.  His 
work  brought  him  the  notice  of  Murchison 
and  other  great  geologists,  Agassiz  saying 
"he  would  give  his  left  hand  to  possess  such 
powers  of  description."  He  contributed  at 
least  i.ooo  articles  to  The  Witness,  and  also 
contributed  to  Chambers'  Journal.  He  also 
wrote  Footsteps  of  the  Creator  My  Schools 


and  Schoolmasters,  Testimony  of  the  Rocks 
and  Cruise  of  the  Betsey.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  writers  to  make  geology  popular, 
and  his  books  are  very  readable  to  those 
not  particularly  interested  in  that  science. 
He  died  at  Portobello,  near  Edinburgh, 
Dec.  24,  1856,  having  shot  himself  in  a 
moment  of  aberration.  See  his  Life  and 
Letters  by  Peter  Bayne. 

Millet,  a  name  applied  to  several  grasses 
of  prime  importance,  because  extensively 
used  for  fodder,  the  grain  being  highly  valued 
for  fowls  and  cage-birds.  In  certain  coun- 
tries it  even  is  an  important  food  for  man. 
It  is  of  ancient  and  general  cultivation. 
The  original  millet  or  broom-corn  millet  of 
Europe  is  Panicum  miliaceum.  In  the 
United  States  the  common  millets  are  forms 
of  Setaria  italica  known  as  the  fox-tail 
millets;  while  the  well-known  millet-grass  is 
M ilium  effusum.  To  the  common  brown 
millet  (P.  crus-gallf)  the  name  of  Japanese 
millet  is  sometimes  given. 

Millet  (me1  Id],  Jean  Francois,  a  French 

¥ainter,  was  born  in  Gruchy,  Oct.  4,  1814. 
he  son  of  a  farmer,  he  at  first  worked  as  a 
farm-laborer,  but  his  taste  for  painting  was 
so  evident  that  he  was  sent  to  study  with 
Monchel  in  Cherbourg.  His  master  induced 
the  town-authorities  to  grant  his  pupil  an 
annuity  to  help  him  in  his  studies.  He  went 
afterwards  to  Paris  and  studied  with  Dela- 
roche.  He  painted  small  pictures,  portraits 
and  even  signboards  in  his  first  efforts  to 
support  himself.  After  the  revolution  of 
1848,  through  which  he  had  struggled, 
practicing  his  art  and  fighting  at  the  barri- 
cades, he  settled  in  Barbizon,  near  the  forest 
of  Fontainebleau.  Here  he  lived  much  like 
the  peasants  and  began  his  work  of  paint- 
ing the  peasant-life  of  France.  The  Sower, 
Peasants  Grafting,  The  Gleaners,  Waiting, 
The  Angelus,  The  Man  with  the  Hoe,  Wool- 
Carding  and  Shepherdess  and  Flock  are 
some  of  his  best-known  works  His  most 
celebrated  picture,  The  Angelus,  sold  for 
over  $100,000.  It  was  exhibited  for  a 
year  in  the  United  States.  He  died  at  Bar- 
bizon,  which  under  his  influence  had  be- 
come an  artist  colony,  Jan.  20,  1875.  See 
The  Barbizon  School  by  Millet. 

Mills,  David,  born  'in  Kent  County  (On- 
tario) in  1871.  Represented  Bothwell  in 
the  House  of  Commons  from  1867  to  1882 
and  from  1883  to  1896.  Was  called  to  Sen- 
ate of  Canada,  Nov.  13,  1896.  He  was  re- 
tained by  the  Ontario  government  to  defend 
the  northwestern  boundary  of  Ontario,  1872, 
and  was  counsel  on  this  subject  for  On- 
tario government  before  the  judicial  com- 
mittee of  the  imperial  privy  council,  1884. 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  council  of 
public  instruction  of  Ontario.  1875,  and  on 
establishment  of  faculty  of  Jaw  by  the 
University  of  Toronto  he  was  chosen  to  fill 
the  chair  of  constitutional  and  international 
law,  1888.  He  entered  the  Laurier  admin- 


MILLS 


Z228 


MILTON 


istration  as  minister  of  justice  and  attorney- 
general  of  Canada,  Nov.  12,  1897,  and  be- 
came government  leader  in  the  Senate.  He 
was  the  author  of  The  English  in  Africa  and 
several  brochures  on  international  and  po- 
litical subjects.  He  is  an  acknowledged  au- 
thority on  constitutional  law  and  the  prac- 
tice of  Parliament. 

Mills,  James,  born  in  the  County  of  Sim- 
coe,  Ontario,  in  1840.  Graduated  from  Vic- 
toria College  in  1868,  and  taught  in  Cobourg 
Collegiate  Institute  for  three  years.  He 
became  principal  of  the  high  school  at  Brant- 
ford,  and  for  ten  years  was  in  charge  of  the 
farmers'  institutes  which  he  organized.  He 
organized  and  superintended  the  traveling 
dairies  of  the  province,  and  published  First 
Principles  of  Agriculture.  He  became  pres- 
ident of  Ontario  Agricultural  College  and 
Experimental  Farm  at  Guelph  in  1879,  and 
successfully  performed  its  duties  until  1904. 
He  resigned  in  1904  to  become  a  member  of 
the  railway  commission.  This  position  he 
now  holds.  Dr.  Mills  more  than  anyone 
else  has  contributed  to  the  phenomenal  suc- 
cess of  the  college  at  Guelph. 

Mill'ville,  N.  J.,  a  town  in  Cumberland 
County,  on  Maurice  River,  connected  by 
electric  railway  with  Bridgeton,  is  in  south- 
ern New  Jersey,  40  miles  southeast  of  Phil- 
adelphia It  is  seivea  jy  the  West  Jersey 
Railroad.  North  of  the  city  are  an  extensive 
public  park  and  a  fine  sheet  of  water.  Mill- 
ville  possesses  churches,  schools,  a  fine  high 
school,  two  libraries  and  banks,  and  has  cot- 
ton mills,  iron  and  glass  factories,  dye 
works,  bleacheries  and  machine  shops.  Pop- 
ulation 12,451. 

Mil'man,  Henry  Hart,  English  divine, 
historian  and  poet  and  dean  of  St.  Paul's, 
London,  was  born  at  London,  Feb.  10,  1791, 
and  died  near  Ascot,  Sept.  24,  1868.  He  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford,  and  in  1812 
won  the  Newdigate  prize  with  a  poem  on  The 
Apollo  Belvedere.  Early  in  his  career  he 
published  poems  of  much  merit,  several  be- 
ing in  Latin,  and  in  1821  was  elected  pro- 
fessor of  poetry  at  Oxford.  His  published 
writings,  besides  his  verse,  embrace  a  His- 
tory of  Christianity,  a  History  of  Latin  Chris- 
tianity, a  History  of  the  Jews,  Lives  of  Horace 
and  of  Edward  Gibbon  and  the  Bampton  Lec- 
tures etc.  He  successively  was  canon  of 
Westminster,  rector  of  St.  Margaret  s,  Lon- 
don, and  finally  dean  of  St.  Paul's. 

Mil'ner,  Alfred,  Viscount,  P.  C.,  G.  C.  M 
G.,  ex-governor  of  Cape  Colony,  of  Transvaal 
and  the  Orange  River  Colony  and  high 
commissioner  of  South  Africa,  was  born  in 
1854  and  educated  in  Germany,  at  King's 
College,  London,  and  at  Balliol  College,  Ox- 
ford. Early  in  life  he  studied  law  and  be- 
came a  barrister  In  1885  he  became  pri- 
vate secretary  to  Geo.  J.  Goschen,  then  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer,  and  from  1888  to 
1892  he  acted  as  under-secretary  for  finance 
in  Egypt,  which  enabled  him  to  write  Eng- 


land in  Egypt.  He  was  appointed  governor 
of  Cape  Colony  and  chief  commissioner  of 
Great  Britain  in  the  negotiations  at  Bloem- 
fontein  in  May,  1899,  preceding  the  Boer 
War.  In  April,  1905,  he  resigned  after  eight 
years  of  arduous  and  brilliant  toil,  when  he 
was  presented  with  an  address  in  apprecia- 
tion of  his  services  with  over  370,000  sig- 
natures. He  is  a  man  of  ability,  and.  in  1901 
was  made  a  peer  and  in  the  following  year 
a  viscount.  In  1895  he  wrote  Arnold  Toyn- 
bee,  a  memoir  of  the  enthusiastic  worker  in 
the  social-settlement  movement. 

Milo  (mi' lo) ,  a  Grecian  athlete,  born  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  6th  century,  was  celebrated 
for  his  enormous  strength.  Six  times  he  was 
a  victor  in  wrestling  in  the  Olympic  games 
and  as  often  in  the  Pythian.  He  is  said  to 
have  carried  a  live  ox  on  his  shoulder  four 
times  around  the  race-course  of  the  Olympic 
games  and  then  to  have  eaten  the  whole  ani- 
mal in  one  day.  When  Pythagoras  and  his 
scholars  found  the  house  in  which  they  were 
gathered  falling,  Milo  held  it  up  on  his  shoul- 
ders while  they  escaped.  But  in  his  old  age 
his  strength  proved  his  ruin,  for  in  trying  to 
split  open  a  tree  with  his  hands  he  was  caught 
and  held  fast  until  devoured  by  wolves. 

Miltiades  (mtl-tt'd-dez),  an  Athenian  gen- 
eral, who  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  sth 
century  B.  C.  He  was  ruler  in  Chersonesus 
and  took  part  against  the  Scythians,  and 
was  one  of  the  ten  generals  chosen  to  resist 
the  Persian  invasion  of  Attica.  When  the 
generals  were  hesitating  whether  to  risk  a 
battle  immediately  or  defend  their  country 
behind  the  city-walls,  through  his  influence 
the  vote  was  in  favor  of  a  battle  at  once. 
When  his  turn  came  to  command,  he  en- 
gaged the  enemy  and  won  the  famous  battle 
of  Marathon.  He  was  given  command  of  a 
fleet  of  70  vessels  and  made  an  attack  on  the 
island  of  Paros,  but  failed  in  the  attempt. 
He  was  condemned  to  pay  a  heavy  fine  and 
was  thrown  into  prison  because  unable  to 
pay.  He  died  in  prison  (about  489  B.  C.) 
of  a  wound  he  had  received  at  Paros. 

Mil'ton,  John,  one  of  the  greatest  of  Eng- 
lish poets,  ranking  next  to  Shakespeare,  was 
born  at  Cheapside,  London,  Dec.  9,  1608. 
He  studied  under  private  tutors  and  at 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge.  When  he  had 
finished  his  studies,  he  was  prevented  from 
entering  the  church,  the  only  profession  he 
desired,  by  its  disturbed  condition  at  the 
time.  He  settled  at  home  to  study  with  the 
distinct  purpose  of  making  himself  a  poet. 
He  had  already  written  Hymn  to  the  Nativity 
and  some  Latin  verse.  At  this  period  he 
wrote  only  four  poems.  Comus,  Lycidas  (in 
memory  of  a  friend),  L* Allegro  and  //  Pen- 
seroso  In  1638  he  visited  Italy,  and  re- 
ceived much  attention  from  its  poets  and 
literary  men  He  hastened  back  to  England 
at  the  news  of  hostilities  between  Charles  I 
and  Scotland,  and  the  poet  long  gave  way 
to  the  statesman.  His  prose-works  consist 


MILTON 


I22Q 


MILWAUKEE 


largely  of  pamphlets,  which  appeared  on  sub- 
jects which  were  in  dispute  either  in  church 
or  state.  His  famous  Areopagitica,  written 
in  favor  of  free  speech,  was  called  forth  by  a 
threat  of  prosecution  for  publishing  his  tracts 
on  Divorce.  These  had  been  written  in  1 643 , 
when  his  wife,  after  a  few  weeks  of  married 
life,  had  gone  home  and  refused  to  return  to 
him.  There  is  much  evidence  that  the  pair 
were  little  suited  to  each  other  and  that  the 


JOHN  MILTON 

austere  life  of  the  Puritan  home  proved  very 
cheerless  to  the  young  girl  brought  up  in  gay 
royalist  circles.  She  returned  to  him  in 
1 645.  Cromwell  rewarded  Milton  for  his  po- 
litical papers  with  the  office  of  secretary  of 
foreign  tongues,  where  his  duty  was  to  carry 
on  the  foreign  correspondence  of  the  govern- 
ment in  Latin,  the  language  used  by  the 
Commonwealth.  He  was  better  fitted  for 
the  position  than  anyone  in  England,  and 
held  it  until  the  restoration  of  the  monarchy. 
He  lived  in  concealment  after  the  accession 
of  Charles  II,  until  placed  in  safety  by  the 
act  of  indemnity.  His  eyesight  failed  en- 
tirely in  1654,  and  all  his  later  work  was 
written  by  another  hand,  usually  one  of  his 
three  daughters,  who  also  spent  many  hours 
in  reading  to  him  in  Latin  and  Greek,  neither 
of  which  languages  they  understood.  After 
more  than  20  years  of  silence  as  a  poet,  Milton 
sent  forth  his  great  Paradise  Lost,  finished  in 
1663  and  published  in  1667.  He  received 
$25  for  the  copyright,  with  a  promise  of  the 
same  amount  with  the  sale  of  the  first  1,300 
copies  of  each  edition.  He  received  the  sec- 
ond and  third  payments,  and  in  1681  his 
widow  yielded  her  rights  in  the  book  for  $40. 
Thirteen  hundred  copies  were  sold  in  20 
months,  which,  considering  the  age  and  the 


lack  of  reviews  and  other  modern  means  of 
making  a  book  known,  gives  some  idea  of 
Milton  s  rank  as  a  poet  among  his  own  peo- 
ple. Paradise  Regained  was  written  at  the 
suggestion  of  a  Quaker  friend,  who  intimated 
that  Satan  is  the  main  hero  of  Paradise  Lost. 
Samson  Agonistes  is  the  poem  of  his  old  age. 
His  home-life  seems  never  to  have  been  peace- 
ful until  his  third  marriage,  when  his  daugh- 
ters left  his  home,  but  his  last  years  were 
passed  in  cheerful  retirement,  solaced  with 
music  and  friends.  He  died  in  London,  Nov. 
8,  1674,  already  acknowledged  to  be  the  first 

£>et  of  his  age  and  country.     See  Life  by 
asson ;  Johnson's  Lives  of  the  Poets;  Trent's 
John  Milton;  and  Life  by  Mark  Pattison,  in 
the  English  Men  of  Letters  Series. 

Milwaukee  (mtl-wa'ke) ,  the  largest  city  in 
Wisconsin,  is  on  Lake  Michigan,  85  miles 
north  of  Chicago.  It  is  at  the  mouth  of 
three  navigable  rivers,  which  with  a  canal, 
make  24  miles  of  docks.  Milwaukee  Bay  is 
seven  miles  wide,  and  furnishes  a  good  har- 
bor. The  bluffs  are  terraced  and  parked, 
and  stand  80  feet  above  the  water.  The 
city  is  built  largely  of  what  is  known  as  Mil- 
waukee brick,  which  is  cream-colored,  and 
gives  the  city  its  name  of  the  Cream  City.  It 
is  six  and  a  half  miles  long,  its  extreme  width 
five  and  a  quarter  miles,  and  its  area  23.1 
square  miles.  There  are  600  acres  of  public 
parks  connected  by  boulevards,  wide,  shaded 
streets,  good  water-works  and  many  fine 
public  buildings.  Among  these  are  the  Fed- 
eral building,  a  public  library,  city  hall,  art- 
gallery,  and  the  great  Milwaukee  Auditorium. 
Near  the  city  is  the  national  home  for  dis- 
abled soldiers,  with  2,400  inmates.  Mil- 
waukee has  many  charitable  and  philan- 
thropic institutions,  orphan  homes,  public 
bath-houses,  swimming -schools,  medical 
schools  and  numerous  hospitals.  Milwaukee 
has  a  well-organized  system  of  public  schools: 
four  high  schools,  55  schools  of  lower  grade, 
1,113  teachers  and  41,500  pupils.  There  are 
75  incorporated  colleges,  academies  and 
lower  schools  with  an  attendance  of  47,600 
It  is  the  seat  of  Milwaukee-Downer  College 
for  women,  Marquette  College  (R.  C.),  Lay- 
ton  Art-Gallery  and  other  institutions  of 
higher  learning.  It  has  a  very  complete 
system  of  water  works,  costing  over  $8,000,- 
ooo,  and  over  150  miles  of  electric  street-rail- 
way. Milwaukee  is  one  of  the  foremost 
grain-ports  of  the  world,  and  its  immense 
flour-mills  and  grain-elevators  can  fit  out  an 
extensive  commercial  fleet.  It  has  3,600 
manufacturing  establishments,  with  130,388 
employes,  making  large  quantities  of  leather 
and  leather  goods,  iron,  steel  and  brass  prod  • 
ucts,  engines  and  machinery.  The  capital 
invested  in  manufactures  is  $269,308,659, 
and  the  annual  output  $420,116,266.  It 
has  an  enormous  beer-trade,  the  Pabst  brew- 
ery being  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world  and 
filling  over  1,000,000  barrels  a  year.  It  also 
has  a  large  trade  in  factory  clothing,  tobacco 


MIMICRY 


1230 


MINERALOGY 


and  cigars,  in  agricultural  implements,  fur- 
niture and  carriages,  besides  its  extensive 
slaughtering  and  meat-packing  products. 
The  city  has  a  large  German  population, 
which  is  seen  in  the  many  foreign  signs  met 
with  and  ialso  in  the  high  development  of  art 
and  music  in  city  circles.  The  town  was 
settled  in  1818,  organized  as  a  village  in  1837, 
and  became  a  city  in  1845.  It  enjoys  a 
steady  and  substantial  growth,  and  its  finan- 
cial credit  is  of  the  highest.  The  assessed 
value  of  the  city's  entire  taxable  property  is 
now  well  over  $450,000,000.  Milwaukee  is 
served  by  the  "Soo"  line,  the  Chicago 
and  Northwestern  and  the  Chicago,  Milwau- 
kee and  St.  Paul  road.  It  also  has  a  large 
lake-trade.  Population  373,857- 

Mim'icry,  the  imitative  resemblance  of 
one  animal  to  another  or  to  some  inanimate 
object  for  which  it  may  be  mistaken.  This 
is  also  called  protective  resemblance,  in- 
asmuch as  animals  escape  notice  through 
this  form  of  imitation  and  are  protected 
from  their  enemies.  A  wide  range  of  cases 
occurs  in  nature.  Certain  insects  resemble 
leaves,  others  twigs  and  knots.  Animals 
of  the  desert  have  a  color  merging  into  their 
surroundings;  many  animals,  like  lizards, 
adapt  their  colors  to  their  surroundings 
and  so  escape  observation.  Color  resem- 
blance is  also  carried  further.  Certain  but- 
terflies and  caterpillars  are  not  eaten  by 
birds  on  account  of  their  unpleasant  taste. 
The  birds  learn  to  distinguish  them  by 
their  bright  "warning"  colors  and  to  leave 
them  alone.  Others  forms,  without  noxious 
taste,  imitate  these  colors  and  escape.  A 
harmless  animal  sometimes  imitates  a 
stinging  or  poisonous  one  and  is  shunned. 
The  animals  protected  in  these  various 
ways  are,  as  a  rule,  unconscious  of  their 
imitation.  Protective  mimicry  may  be 
an  important  factor  in  the  preservation  of 
species.  See  Poulton's  The  Colors  of  Ani- 
mals. 

Mindanao  (men' da-na' o) ,  the  most  south- 
eastern of  the  Philippine  Islands,  next  in 
size  to  Luzon,  containing,  it  is  estimated, 
37,000  square  miles.  The  population  of 
that  portion  under  Spanish  domination 
was  given  by  the  last  census  made  under 
the  Spaniards  as  a  little  over  200,000.  The 
population  now  ascertained  is  499,634,  of 
whom  nearly  253,000  are  uncivilized.  The 
surface  is  broken  into  high  mountains, 
reaching  in  the  case  of  Apo,  a  volcano  near 
Davao  Gulf,  an  altitude  of  over  10,000  feet. 
The  wet  and  the  dry  season  shift  from  one 
side  of  the  island  to  the  other  according  to 
the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds.  The 
island  is  densely  wooded  with  timber  _  of 
great  value,  and  the  tropical  fauna  is  varied 
and  abundant.  The  inhabitants  are  greatly 
divided  in  origin,  temperament  and  re- 
ligion. The  interior  is  held  by  wild  tribes 
of  Malayan  race  or  by  the  small,  black 
Negritos  with  whom  they  have  intermar- 


ried. The  Jesuits,  who  knew  most  about 
the  island  before  the  American  occupancy, 
divided  the  people  into  24  distinct  tribes, 
of  whom  17  were  pagan,  six  Mohammedan 
(Moro)  and  the  remainder  Christian  Vi- 
sayans,  who  came  from  the  north.  The 
warlike  Moros  are  most  dreaded,  and,  liv- 
ing along  the  frequented  coasts,  have  held 
command  of  all  important  points.  The 
rivers  are  larger  and  longer  than  those  of 
Luzon,  the  Butan  practically  traversing 
the  whole  island  from  south  to  north.  The 
soil  is  wonderfully  productive.  Gold  is  be- 
lieved to  exist  in  the  mountains.  The 
capital  is  Zamboanga,  a  large,  clean  city, 
with  a  pier  extending  into  moderately 
deep  water.  This  island  was  the  first  of 
the  group  to  be  discovered  by  Magellan  in 
1521. 

Mindoro  (men-do' ro"),  one  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,,  containing,  it  is  estimated, 
about  4,050  square  miles.  It  lies  directly 
south  of  Manila  Bay,  having  for  its  capital 
Calapan,  120  miles  from  Manila.  It  for- 
merly was  inhabited  by  the  Tagalogs,  but 
various  expeditions  of  the  Moros  greatly 
reduced  the  native  population.  Others  died 
from  cholera  and  fever  some  years  ago, 
when  an  epidemic  among  their  herds  car- 
ried off  all  their  buffaloes  and  rendered 
cultivation  of  the  soil  impossible.  The 
once  rich  rice-fields  have  for  the  most  part 
gone  back  to  tropical  wilderness.  In  the 
interior  are  mountains  rising  8,000  feet.  The 
native  races  in  these  mountain  fastnesses 
are  greatly  distrusted  by  those  nearer  the 
coasts.  The  population  is  supposed  to  be 
in  the  neighborhood  of  28,000;  but  dread 
of  the  Sulus  has  kept  the  native  races  so 
far  from  the  sea  that  but  little  is  really  known 
about  them. 

Min'eral  OH.     See  PETRO'LEUM. 

Min'eral"ogy,  the  science  which  treats  of 
minerals,  does  not  embrace  all  that  relates 
to  the  mineral  kingdom.  Simple  minerals 
alone  are  regarded  as  the  subjects  of  min- 
eralogy; rocks,  formed  by  the  aggregation 
of  simple  minerals,  and  their  relations  to 
each  other  are  the  subjects  of  petrology 
(the  science  of  rocks)  and  geology.  Min- 
eralogy considers  the  composition,  structure, 
formation  and  classification  of  minerals. 
Physical  Mineralogy  embraces  the  outside 
form  ( generally  shown  by  crystallization)  of 
minerals  and  the  other  physical  character- 
istics of  each  of  the  different  species,  as 
specific  gravity  (relative  weight),  luster, 
hardness,  fusibility,  optical  properties  and 
color.  The  latter  usually  is  variable,  and 
hence  not  characteristic  of  a  mineral.  Chem- 
ical Mineralogy  considers  the  character  of 
minerals  as  chemical  compounds,  embracing 
also  methods  of  using  chemical  tests  as  an 
aid  in  this  determination.  Descriptive  Min- 
eralogy shows  the  classification  of  minerals 
and  a  description  of  the  various  species  and 
their  varieties  as  found  in  nature. 


MINERALOGY 


1231 


MINERALOGY 


Although  the  ancients  recognized  many 
of  the  gems  and  the  minerals  containing 
the  useful  metals,  their  knowledge  of  min- 
eralogy was  crude.  Not  until  the  develop- 
ment of  modern  chemistry,  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  igth  century,  did  minerals 
begin  to  be  properly  studied  and  classified. 
In  1820  Mohr  of  Vienna  presented  a  system 
of  grouping  minerals  upon  their  similarity 
of  form,  taste,  luster,  gravity,  streak  and 
hardness.  In  the  methods  now  in  use  in 
this  country  the  system  of  Mohr  is  largely 
followed,  with  additional  aid  from  blow- 
pipe examination  and  simple  chemical 
tests.  When  new  species  are  being  de- 
scribed, the  chemical  analysis  and  the  de- 
termination of  the  crystalline  form  must 
be  absolutely  complete.  A  mineral  species 
always  has  a  definite  chemical  composi- 
tion which  varies  only  within  certain  limits, 
and,  if  it  crystallize  at  all  as  most  minerals 
do,  it  always  has  the  same  general  form. 
When  a  substance  crystallizes  in  two  dis- 
tinct forms  in  nature,  these  are  looked 
upon  as  different  minerals  and  are  given 
separate  names. 

Minerals  vary  greatly  in  hardness,  from 
soft  substances  that  may  be  scratched  with 
the  finger-nails,  like  gypsum,  to  the  hardest 
stones,  as  the  sapphire  and  diamond.  The 
same  wide  difference  exists  as  to  their 
color,  even  in  the  same  species,  as  for  ex- 
ample, in  tourmaline,  which  exhibits  dif- 
ferent shades  of  brown,  blue,  green,  red  and 
sometimes  is  colorless,  and  frequently 
black  and  opaque. 

The  study  of  minerals  has  led  to  the  de- 
velppment  of  the  science  of  crystallography, 
but  most  chemical  compounds  (see  CHEM- 
ISTRY) that  are  prepared  artificially  are 
capable  also  of  forming  crystals,  and  crys- 
tallography is  applied  to  them  ES  well  as 
to  the  natural  substances. 

All  the  minerals  that  crystallize,  as  well  as 
all  artificial  crystals,  may  be  arranged  in 
six  groups  or  systems,  according  to  the  re- 
lation of  the  faces  to  certain  imaginary  lines 
passing  through  them,  termed  axes. 

The  Isometric  system  has  three  axes,  all 
at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  of  equal 
lengths.  A  familiar  example  is  fluorspar, 
which  usually  occurs  in  cubes. 

The  Tetragonal  system  has  three  axes  at 
right  angles,  but  one  of  them  may  b*1  of 
varying  lengths  as  compared  with  the  other 
two.  Zircon  crystallizes  after  this  form. 

The  Orthorhombic  system  has  three  axes 
at  right  angles,  but  all  unequal.  Stibnite 
or  antimony  sulphide  belongs  to  this  system. 

The  Monoclinic  system  has  three  unequal 
axes,  two  at  right  angles  and  one  oblique. 
The  common  hornblende  illustrates  this  form. 

In  the  Triclinic  system  all  the  axes  are  of 
unequal  lengths  and  at  varying  angles  with 
each  other.  A  number  of  the  feldspars  are 
classed  here. 

The  Hexagonal  system  has  three  axes  at 


angles  of  60°  with  each  other,  and  a  fourth 
at  right,  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  other 
three.  Beryl  is  a  famiSar  example  of  this 
system. 

While  each  mineral  species  that  is  crys- 
tallized follows  its  own  form  of  crystalliza 
tion,  there  are  numerous  modifications  ot  the 
planes  and  angles  of  all  the  systems,  giving 
rise  to  many  complex  forms.  The  molecu- 
lar arrangement  of  minerals,  which  results 
in  ^their  crystalline  form,  also  influences 
their  capacity  for  transmitting  light  and 
heat.  The  form  of  the  crystals  in  various 
minerals  is  often  complicated  also  by  what 
is  termed  twinning,  when  one  or  more 
parts  in  a  crystal  are  in  a  reversed  position 
to  the  other  parts.  This  gives  rise  to  many 
beautiful  and  complex  forms.  The  den- 
dritic form  of  magnetite  between  two  flakes 
of  mica  is  an  instance  of  such  twinning. 

Minerals  have  been  formed  in  these  prin- 
cipal ways:  (i)  by  the  solidification  by 
cooling  of  molten  masses,  as,  for  example, 
the  quartz,  feldspar  and  mica  of  granite; 
(2)  by  the  action  of  heat  upon  rocks  below 
the  point  of  fusion,  as  in  the  formation  of 
garnets  in  mica-schists,  (3) "by  the  action 
of  water  dissolving  substances  in  one  place 
and  depositing  the  same  or  other  com- 
pounds in  another  place,  as  in  the  deposition 
of  calcite  in  veins:  and  (4)  by  the  action  of 
volcanic  gases,  which,  upon  cooling  or  com- 
ing in  contact  with  substances  with  which 
they  act  chemically,  deposit  certain  min- 
erals. It  is  not  always  easy  to  decide  in 
what  way  a  given  mineral  has  been  formed, 
and  it  is  evident  that  certain  minerals  may 
be  deposited  in  more  than  one  way. 

An  interesting  and  peculiar  condition  of 
some  mineral  species  is  what  is  known  as 
pseudomorphism,  where  one  mineral  is  re- 
placed by  another  which  usually  retains  the 
form  of  the  original  crystal.  This  arises 
from  the  substitution  of  one  mineral  for 
another,  as  for  instance,  smithsonite  after 
calcite.  Here  the  calcite  crystals  seem  to 
have  been  gradually  dissolved,  while  the 
smithsonite  replaced  them.  Petrified  wood, 
which  is  common  in  many  places,  occurring 
in  Arizona  in  the  shape  of  whole  forests  of 
silicified  tree-trunks,  is  an  example  of  pseu- 
domorphism. Here  the  action  has  evidently 
been  from  the  infiltration  of  water  charged 
with  silicic  acid  through  the  beds  in  which 
the  forests  were  burned.  As  the  original 
wood  decayed  or  was  dissolved,  the  silica, 
in  the  form  of  rough  opal,  took  its  place. 

Dana's  Treatise  on  Mineralogy,  as  revised 
to  the  present  time,  may  be  considered  to 
be  the  standard  for  descriptive  mineralogy. 
Brush  and  Penfield's  Blowpipe  Analysis  is 
the  most  elaborate  work  on  determinative 
mineralogy.  Mineralogy  in  the  United 
States,  as  bearing  upon  ornamental  and 
precious  stones,  has  been  lately  dwelt  upon 
m  detail  in  Gems  and  Pretiou*  Stones  of  North 
America  by  George  F.  Kunz.  H.  L.  WELLS. 


MINERAL  WATERS 


X232 


MINING 


Min'eral  Waters,  strictly  speaking,  are 
waters  impregnated  with  mineral  solutions 
by  natural  processes;  but  the  term  is  com- 
monly applied  to  all  waters  which  possess 
real  or  even  fancied  therapeutic  value  other 
than  that  of  ordinary  water.  In  consequence 
hot  springs  are  often  spoken  of  as  mineral 
springs  when  used  for  medicinal  purposes. 
The  ancients  had  great  faith  in  all  waters 
which  felt  or  tasted  other  than  the  common 
"springs  which  run  among  the  hills."  Jose- 
phus  mentions  the  visits  of  Herod  to  the 
warm  baths  of  Callirrhoe  near  the  Dead 
Sea.  Tiberias  was  famous  for  its  springs  of 
hot  sulphur  water.  The  Romans  frequented 
the  gaseous  springs  situated  in  southern 
Italy,  much  visited  by  tourists  to-day.  The 
springs  of  Karlsbad,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Baden- 
Baden  and  Ems  are  well  known.  In  our 
country  Saratoga  has  been  a  resort  ever  since 
the  settlement  of  New  York.  White  Sul- 
phur Springs  in  Virginia,  Hot  Springs  in 
Arkansas  and  many  others  are  popular  re- 
sorts. It  is  impossible  to  divide  the  springs 
into  any  well-defined  classes  as  salt  springs 
often  contain  sulphur,  and  alum  springs 
may  hold  a  dozen  other  minerals  in  solution 
besides  the  one  giving  the  water  its  name. 
The  best  known  springs,  those  at  Saratoga, 
contain  more  of  chloride  of  sodium  (com- 
mon salt)  than  of  any  other  or  all  other 
mineral  substances,  bicarbonate  of  lime 
standing  second  and  bicarbonate  of  magne- 
sia third.  It  is  carbonic  acid  gas  which 
gives  these  springs  their  delightful  effer- 
vescence. In  the  United  States  there  are 
about  300  springs  whose  waters  are  bottled 
and  put  on  the  market. 

Mineral  Wool  is  the  thread-like  fila- 
ments produced  by  the  action  of  steam  or 
compressed  air  upon  vitreous  substances 
in  a  molten  state.  The  product  is  also  called 
silicate  cotton  by  some,  as  its  principal  ma- 
terial is  silica.  The  fibers  produced  are 
used  to  incase  boilers  and  steam-pipes, 
thereby  preventing  the  diffusion  and  waste 
of  heat.  It  also  is  of  great  value  in  deaden- 
ing sounds.  As  it  will  not  burn  or  rust  and 
is  not  subject  to  the  depredations  of  insects, 
it  is  of  great  value  in  many  mechanical  ad- 
justments. The  use  of  it  increases  every 
year.  The  best  mineral  wool  is  obtained 
from  the  melting  of  a  cinder  made  by  mixing 
together  four  parts  of  orthocase  feldspar  and 
six  parts  of  dolomitic  limestone. 

Miner'ya,  in  Roman  mythology  the  god 
dess  cf  wisdom.  She  seems  to  be  the  same 
as  the  Greek  Pallas  Athene".  She  was  said 
to  have  sprung  in  full  armor  from  the  head 
of  Jupiter.  She  was  the  patron  god  of 
Athens,  and  her  statue  by  Pheidias  adorned 
the  Parthenon.  In  her  hand  she  carried 
the  spindle,  needle  and  spool,  and  was  skilled 
in  all  kinds  of  woman's  work.  She  was 
patron  of  art  and  trades;  painters,  teachers 
and  physicians  invoked  her  aid.  Minerva, 
like  Athene",  is  represented  in  art  with  a 


grave  and  majestic  countenance,  armed 
with  helmet,  shield  and  spear.  The  olive- 
branch,  serpent  and  owl  were  sacred  to  her. 
Her  festival,  held  in  March,  lasted  froii* 
the  1 9th  to  the  23d.  _ 

MiniS  (me'nyd'),  Claude  Etienne,  j» 
French  inventor,  born  at  Paris,  in  1804, 
He  served  in  the  army,  rising  from  private 
soldier  to  major.  His  experiments  in  the  itn-> 
provements  of  firearms  resulted  in  the  in- 
vention of  the  Mini£  rifle  in  1849.  He  made 
improvements  also  in  rifle  balls,  cartridges 
and  gun-barrels.  In  1858  he  was  appointed 
director  of  a  military  school  at  Cairo,  Egyp^ 
by  the  khedive.  He  died  in  1879. 

Min'ing,  the  process  by  which  mineral 
matters  of  commercial  value  are  taken  from 
their  natural  position  and  made  available 
for  shipment.  The  substances  mined  con- 
sist not  only  of  metals  and  the  ores  or 
metals,  but  of  various  nonmetalliferous  sub- 
stances, as  coal.  In  the  broadest  sense  CK 
the  term  mining  may  also  include  the  min~ 
ning  of  such  substances  as  natural  gas; 
mineral  oils,  clay,  building-stone,  natural 
fertilizers  and  salt,  though  other  terms  are 
commonly  applied  to  the  processes  by  which 
these  substances  are  made  available. 

Occurrence.  The  materials  mined  occur 
in  various  forms,  chief  among  which  are  (a) 
bedded  deposits  chiefly  beneath  the  sur« 
face,  (b)  vein  deposits  and  (c)  surface  d«« 
posits.  S ' 

(a)  Bedded    deposits    include    (i)     such 
bodies  of  valuable  mineral  matter  as  lie  in 
beds  essentially  parallel  to  the  associated 
layers  of  rock  and   (2)  deposits  which  are 
disseminated  through  stratified  rocks.     Ex- 
amples of  (i)   are  many  iron  and  all  coal 
beds.     An  example  of  (2)  is  the  copper  in- 
the  conglomerate  beds  of  the  Lake  Superior 
region.    The  former  (i)  are  really  layers  of 
rock,  formed  later  than  the  rock  which  liea 
below  them,  but  before  that  which  lies  above. 
The  second  group  (2)  usually  are  of  second-* 
ary  origin;    that   is,   the   valuable  mineral 
matter  was  concentrated  where  it  now  isf 
after  the  rock  was  formed. 

(b)  Veins  are  the  fillings  of  cracks  or  fis* 
sures  in  rock.    The  filling  is  generally  accom- 
plished through  the  agency  of  underground 
water,  which  dissolved  the  mineral  matter 
from  the  rock,  brought  it  to  the  fissures  and 
there  deposited  it.    Veins  are  called  mineral 
veins   or,   often,   lodes,   if   the  material   is 
valuable    for    commercial    purposes.      The 
walls  of  veins  are  often  impregnated  with, 
useful  mineral  matter  like  that  of  the  vein' 
proper,  and  the  term  is  then  made  to  covet?'1 
those  parts  of  the  walls  which  contain  thl 
valuable  matter  as  well  as  the  vein  itsel 
Veins  differ  from  bedded  deposits  in  thai; 
they  usually  are  more  irregular,  less  con« 
tinuous,  and  have  no  definite  relation  to 
the    bedding    planes    of    the    rock.      Both, 
bedded  and  vein  deposits  may  be  horizontal, 
vertical  or  inclined  at  any  angle.     Bedd@£ 


MINING 


1233 


MINING 


deposits  usually  were  horizontal  to  begin 
\\ith,  but  the  beds  of  ore,  coal  etc.  may 
have  been  tilted  the  same  as  the  beds  of 
rock  above  and  below.  Veins  likewise  occur 
in  any  position,  depending  on  the  direction 
of  the  fractures  in  which  the  vein  stuff  was 
deposited. 

(c)  The  third  class  of  ore  deposits  is  rep- 
resented by  gravel,  sand  or  earthy  mate- 
rial, in  which  there  is  some  useful  mineral 
which  can  be  extracted  with  profit.  Thus 
certain  deposits  of  sand  and  gravel,  like 
those  of  Cape  Nome  and  various  mountain 
valleys  of  the  western  part  of  North  Amer- 
ica, contain  gold.  Tin  ores  sometimes 
occur  in  the  same  way.  In  such  deposits 
mines  are  opened.  The  specific  gravity 
both  of  gold  and  tin  is  much  higher  than 
that  of  the  associated  sand  and  gravel,  and 
this  fact  is  taken  advantage  of  in  mining. 
Running  water  is  caused  to  flow  over  the 
gravel  and  sand  with  a  current  which  can 
be  regulated.  It  washes  away  the  lighter 
material,  leaving  the  desired  metals  or  ores 
behind.  This  is  the  principle  of  the  method 
known  as  placer  mining.  Mines  in  these 
loose  surface  materials  are  placer  mines. 
Certain  other  surface  deposits  are  mined, 
but  in  a  very  different  way.  Thus  in  cer- 
tain marshes  and  bogs  bog-iron  ore  accumu- 
lates. This,  in  reality,  is  a  bedded  deposit, 
but  is  of  recent  origin,  and  not  buried  be- 
neath later  beds  of  rock  or  sediment.  If 
worked  at  all,  the  ore  is  taken  out  bodily. 
Bog-iron  ore  is  at  present  but  little  used, 

The  Problems  of  Mining.  After  the  ex- 
istence of  valuable  deposits  of  mineral  mat- 
ter has  been  determined,  many  conditions 
affect  the  method  of  mining  it.  These  con- 
ditions are  so  complex  that  they  must  be 
considered  individually  in  the  case  of  each 
mine.  In  each  case  the  methods  must  be 
adapted  to  the  local  situation.  The  aim 
always  is  to  extract  the  maximum  of  ore 
with  the  minimum  expenditure  of  time  and 
money  and  with  the  least  danger  to  life  and 
property.  The  first  things  to  be  determined 
are  (i)  the  shape  and  position  of  the  ore 
body,  whether  it  is  in  distinct  beds  or  veins 
or  disseminated  through  a  large  mass  of 
rock;  whether  the  veins  or  beds  are  horizon- 
tal, vertical  or  oblique  etc.;  whether  it  is 
near  the  surface,  far  from  the  surface  or 
both;  (2)  the  extent  of  the  ore  body;  (3^ 
the  character  of  the  ore  itself  as  regards 
hardness,  tenacity  etc.;  (4)  the  nature  of 
the  rock  in  which  the  ore  occurs,  so  far  as  con- 
cerns its  hardness,  texture,  structure  etc.; 
(5)  the  topography  of  the  immediate  local- 
ity where  the  mine  is  located.  Questions 
of  another  sort,  as  facilities  for  transporta- 
tion to  and  from  the  mine,  water  supply, 
fuel  supply  etc.,  have  to  be  considered^  in 
connection  with  every  mine. 

Various  means  are  employed  for  the  de- 
termination of  the  exact  position  of  the  ore 
body.  This  is  the  work  of  exploration. 


Exploration  is  carried  on  partly  by  sinking 
small  test  pits;  partly  by  stripping  the 
loose  material  from  the  surface,  exposing 
the  rock  which  contains  the  substance  to  be 
mined;  partly  by  shafts  sunk  into  the  rock; 
partly  by  the  help  of  the  compass,  as  in  the 
case  of  magnetic  iron  ores;  and  partly  by 
means  of  drill  holes.  In  each  case  the 
methods  of  exploration  best  fitted  to  the 
situation  should  be  adopted.  The  test  pits 
are  very  much  like  open,  shallow  wells. 
The  stripping  of  the  surface  is  the  method 
often  adopted  where  the  mineral  vein  comes 
to  the  surface  of  the  rock,  but  is  covered 
by  soil  and  other  loose  debris.  Vertical 
shafts  are  often  sunk  alongside  the  vein, 
and  tunnels  or  cross-cuts  are  then  run  from 
the  shaft  across  the  vein.  Veins  are  often 
cross-cut  in  this  way  in  many  places  by 
way  of  exploration.  The  drills  which  are 
used  in  preliminary  tests  are  hollow  iron 
tubes  having  an  inner  diameter  of  one  or 
two  inches.  In  the  "bit"  at  the  lower  end 
of  the  tube  diamonds  are  set.  With  the 
bit  resting  on  the  surface  of  the  rock  to  be 
drilled,  the  tube  is  made  to  rotate  at  high 
speed  and  cuts  its  way  down  into  the  rock. 
A  cylindrical  core  of  rock  appears  in  the 
tube  or  "core  barrel"  as  the  drill  descends. 
Water  is  constantly  pumped  down  the  in- 
side of  the  tube,  and  rises  between  the  drill 
rods  and  the  wall  rock,  washing  up  the  fine 
grindings  of  the  drill.  With  the  drill  it  is 
possible  to  obtain  specimens  of  the  rock  at 
various  depths,  and  this  is  often  of  value 
in  the  further  work  of  the  mine.  Drill  holes 
have  been  made  several  thousand  feet  deep. 
This  method  of  exploration  is  expensive, 
but  effective. 

Another  problem  with  which  the  miner 
has  to  deal  is  the  approach  to  the  ore  body. 
Roughly  speaking,  mining  methods  may 
be  divided  into  two  general  classes:  (i) 
surface  mining  or  open  work  and  (2)  un- 
derground mining. 

Open  work  is  done  where  a  small  amount 
only  of  worthless  material  must  be  removed 
in  order  to  uncover  the  deposit.  This 
method  is  employed,  for  example,  in  the 
iron  mines  in  the  Mesabi  range  in  Minne- 
sota, where  the  ore  is  covered  by  glacial 
drift  10  to  100  feet  thick.  Such  covering 
may  often  be  stripped  off  with  steam 
shovels.  Where  the  ore  is  soft  and  friable, 
as  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  iron  ore  of  the 
Mesabi  range,  it  too  can  be  removed  by 
steam  shovels;  but  if  the  material  to  be 
mined  is  hard,  it  is  blasted  and  taken  out 
in  masses. 

In  underground  work  the  cheapest  and 
easiest  method,  if  the  topography  and  the 
position  of  the  material  to  be  mined  per- 
mit, is  to  approach  the  ore  by  tunnels. 
This  may  be  done  where  the  ore  body  lies 
in  the  side  of  a  hill  or  mountain,  so  that  it 
may  be  approached  from  the  side.  If  the 
ore  can  be  taken  out  through  a  tunnel,  it 


MINING 


1234 


MINING 


saves  the  expense  of  hoisting  it  up  through 
a  shaft.  The  tunnel  often  also  saves  the 
expense  of  pumping  out  the  water,  which 
often  is  a  troublesome  factor  in  mining.  In 
many  cases,  however,  it  is  necessary  to 
approach  the  ore  by  a  shaft.  The  shaft 
may  be  either  vertical  or  inclined,  accord- 
ing to  local  conditions,  especially  according 
to  the  position  of  the  ore  body.  The  in- 
clined shaft  is  sometimes  known  as  an 
incline.  A  shaft  is  usually  rectangular 
in  section.  In  very  small  mines  it  may  be 
no  more  than  four  feet  square,  but  in  large 
mines  the  shafts  are  much  larger,  large 
enough  to  permit  the  working  of  at  least 
two  hoists,  called  cages  or  skips.  There  must 
also  be  room  for  pipes,  both  for  carrying 
down  compressed  air  and  for  the  carrying 
out  of  water.  Large  mines  frequently  have 


i  Vein  or  Lode  ; 


A      Adit  D     Sump          O    Wlnre 

B  Hol»tlr>(  Shaft  E    Stop*         M  Dump. 
C    Cat*  F,Cro»«.cut«S  Shaft  rvoou 


shafts    as   much    as    12x18   feet   in   diam- 
eter. 

If  the  material  to  be  mined  lies  in  a  hori- 
zontal bed,  the  shaft  is  sunk  down  to  the 
level  of  the  material  to  be  mined  or  a  little 
below.  Tunnels  are  then  made,  leading 
sidewise  from  the  shaft  into  the  substance  to 
be  mined.  The  material  to  be  mined  is 
worked  out  along  these  tunnels,  carried  to 
the  shaft  and  hoisted  to  the  surface.  When 
the  material  which  is  being  mined  is  worked 
out,  it  often  is  necessary  to  put  in  timbers 
to  keep  the  mine  open.  If,  for  example, 
a  horizontal  bed  of  coal  is  being  mined,  the 
taking  out  of  the  coal  leaves  the  rock  above 
unsupported.  Timbers  may  be  put  in  to 
hold  up  the  roof,  or  columns  of  coal  may 
be  left  here  and  there  to  serve  the  same 
purpose.  Where  practicable,  the  tunnels 
driven  from  a  shaft  are  made  to  rise  slightly 
from  the  horizontal,  so  that  the  water  en- 
countered in  the  tunnel  may  drain  into  the 


sump  or  pool  at  the  bottom  of  the  shaft. 
From  the  sump  it  is  pumped  out.  The 
slight  inclination  of  the  tunnel  also  facili- 
tates the  transfer  of  the  substance  mined 
to  the  shaft.  If  the  tunnels  are  parallel 
with  a  mineral  vein,  they  are  called  drifts. 
When  they  cut  the  vein,  they  are  called 
cross-cuts.  Tunnel  is  a  rather  indefi- 
nite name  which  may  be  applied  either 
to  drifts  or  cross-cuts.  The  process  of  drift- 
ing and  cross-cutting  is  called  "driving  a 
level."  Tunnels  are  usually  as  much  as 
6x6  feet  in  section.  Tunnels  are  often  run 
at  various  levels;  for  example,  tnnnels  may 
be  run  at  the  so-foot  level  (that  is,  50  feet 
below  the  surface),  at  the  loo-foot  level, 
at  the  iso-foot  level  and  so  on.  When  the 
drifts  and  cross-cuts  have  been  made,  and 
the  different  _levels  put  in  communica- 
tion by  vertical  shafts,  the 
ore  between  the  various  open- 
ings is  said  to  be  "blocked 
out." 

Some  ore  has  been  extracted 
in  the  process  of  blocking  out 
the  ore.  When  a  body  of  ore 
has  been  blocked  out,  extrac- 
tion of  ore  begins  in  earnest. 
The  processes  employed  for 
loosening  the  substance  to  be 
mined  are  various.  Sometimes 
it  is  loosened  by  the  pick  or 
some  other  sort  of  hand-tool. 
Sometimes  it  already  is  soft 
or  incoherent.  Often  it  is  so 
hard  that  it  must  be  blasted. 
Ore  is  of  ten  worked  from  below 
rather  than  from  above.  That 
is,  ore  between  the  5o-foot 
level  and  the  loo-foot  level 
is  often  worked  from  the  lat- 
ter and  carried  along  it  to  the 
main  hoisting  shaft.  The 
working  out  of  the  ore  between 
levels  is  "stoping." 
Another  problem  which  the  miners  have 
to  encounter  is  the  drainage  of  the  mine. 
In  most  deep  mines  the  amount  of  water 
seeping  in  is  great,  and  it  must  be  pumped 
out  about  as  fast  as  it  enters.  For  this 
purpose  force-pumps  are  used.  In  deep 
mines  several  or  many  force-pumps  may  be 
needed.  Pumps  which  are  able  to  elevate 
the  water  300  or  400  feet  each  are  in  com- 
mon use.  In  mines  near  deep  valleys  it 
sometimes  is  possible  to  secure  drainage 
by  driving  a  drainage  tunnel  or  "adit" 
from  the  shaft  to  the  valley. 

Still  another  problem  which  has  to  be 
faced  in  mining  is  that  of  ventilation.  In 
coal-mines  where  noxious  gases  are  some- 
times plentiful,  in  mines  where  many  men 
are  at  work,  in  mines  where  there  is  much 
blasting  and  in  deep  mines  where  the  tem- 
perature is  high  at  the  bottom  ventila- 
tion is  of  the  utmost  importance.  Ven 
tilation  may  be  either  natural  or  artificial 


MINK 


1235 


MINNEAPOLIS 


In  shallow  mines  the  hoisting  shaft  is  usually 
large  enough  for  ventilation.  If  there  are 
several  shafts  connected  with  one  another, 
the  circulation  of  the  air  in  the  mine  is 
facilitated.  If  there  is  an  adit,  it  helps 
still  further.  Artificial  circulation  is  secured 
by  fans  placed  at  the  entrance  of  mines, 
or  by  the  use  of  compressed  ail  which  is 
carried  into  the  mine.  Compressed  air  is 
often  introduced  for  power,  and  as  it  escapes 
it  serves  for  ventilation  as  well. 

Transportation.  When  the  material  to  be 
mined  has  been  loosened  from  its  natural 
position,  it  is  carried  to  the  main  gangways 
in  barrows,  chutes  or  cars.  In  the  main 
gangways  are  tramways.  The  cars  are  of 
iron  or  wood,  with  wheels  so  close  together 
that  the  cars  can  be  run  on  short  curves. 
The  motive  power  is  furnished  by  men, 
mules,  steam  engines  or  electricity.  In 
vertical  shafts  the  material  is  hoisted  in 
buckets  or  cages.  In  inclined  shafts,  the 
hoisting  is  done  with  skips.  The  skips 
are  on  wheels,  the  rear  wheels  being  much 
larger  than  the  front  ones.  When  the  skip 
reaches  the  horizontal  dumping  platform 
at  the  top,  the  forward  pitch  dumps  the  ore 
automatically.  The  hoisting  power  in 
large  mines  is  steam  or  electricity. 

Ore  Dressing,  In  most  instances  the  ore 
must  be  subjected  to  a  preliminary  treat- 
ment before  it  is  fit  for  metallurgical  pro- 
cesses. The  method  of  treatment  varies 
with  the  ore.  In  many  cases  the  masses 
and  lumps  of  ore  are  crushed,  or  even 
ground  to  powder,  often  by  the  pounding 
of  huge  hammers  in  a  stamp  mill.  The 
valuable  part  of  the  ore  is  then  separated 
from  that  which  is  without  value,  the 
process  of  separation  being  different  in 
different  cases.  Where  the  ore  is  much 
heavier  than  the  waste,  the  separation  is 
brought  about  through  differences  in  specific 
gravity.  The  final  extraction  of  the  metal, 
like  the  preliminary  treatment  of  the  ore, 
differs  with  the  nature  of  the  ore.  Gold,  for 
example,  is  passed  over  a  copper  plate 
coated  with  mercury.  The  mercury  forms 
an  amalgam  with  the  gold,  and  is  after- 
ward separated  from  it  by  heating  until  the 
mercury  is  volatilized.  At  this  stage  the 
product  passes  from  the  hands  of  the  miner 
to  the  hands  of  the  metallurgist.  Ores  of 
other  metals  are  treated  by  other  processes. 
The  concentration  of  the  crude  ore  is 
milling.  Under  this  term  the  extraction 
of  the  metal  from  the  ore  is  also  sometimes 
included.  Properly  speaking,  the  process 
of  mining  ceases  when  the  ore  is  ready  for 
the  mill  or  for  shipment. 

R.  D.  SALISBURY. 

Mink,  a  carnivorous  animal  valued  for  its 
fur.  It  is  related  to  the  weasel,  but  is 
stouter  in  the  body  and  has  a  bushier  tail. 
The  European  mink  is  a  little  smaller  than 
the  American  mink,  and  is  more  northern 
in  its  range.  The  Siberian  mink  has  fur 


of  a  clear,  tawny-brown  color.  The  Amer- 
ican mink  is  15  or  20  inches  long,  with  a 
tail  of  eight  or  nine  inches,  is  yellowish- 
brown  or  dark-brown  in  color  with  a  white 
spot  on  the  chin  and  sometimes  on  the 
chest  The  darker  the  color,  the  more 
highly  prized  the  fur.  This  little  animal 
is  still  found  in  wooded  lands  in  widely- 
scattered  portions  of  North  America.  It 
lives  along  the  banks  of  streams  and  hunts 
both  in  water  and  on  land,  either  by  night 
or  day.  It  is  a  great  nest-robber,  being 
fond  of  birds;  a  famous  mouser;  eats  Irogs, 
fish,  lizards,  grubs  etc.;  in  winter  it  chases 
rabbits  over  the  snowy  ground.  It  can 
almost  equal  a  fish  in  swimming,  and  on 
land  is  wonderfully  agile,  well-able  to  take 
care  of  itself.  Its  body  is  long  and  supple, 
and,  notwithstanding  its  short  legs,  it  can 
elude  almost  any  pursuer;  taking  advantage 
of  every  hiding  place,  disappearing  as  by 
magic;  it  can  climb  like  a  squirrel.  The 
young  begin  life  in  a  cozy  home  prepared 
in  hollow  log  or  stump,  hidden  in  tall 
growth  near  a  stream.  Or  the  nest  may 
be  in  a  hole  among  rocks.  Among  its 
enemies  the  owl  may  be  mentioned  with 
the  fox,  wild-cat,  dog  and  otter.  When 
cornered,  the  mink  is  a  foe  to  be  reckoned 
with. 

Min'neap'blis,  the  largest  city  of  Minne- 
sota and  the  Northwest  and  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion on  the  Mississippi  River.  Its  business 
center  is  about  ten  miles  from  that  of  St.  Paul, 
but  the  territory  between  is  so  fully  built  up 
that  they  practically  form  one  city.  The 
name  is  from  the  Sioux  word  "Minne" 
meaning  water,  and  the  Greek  word  "polis" 
or  city.  The  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  in  the 
Mississippi  River,  which  bisects  the  city, 
furnishes  water  power  and  thus  determined 
the  site  of  Minneapolis.  Although  it  was  not 
open  to  settlement  until  about  sixty  years  ago, 
Minneapolis  is  one  of  the  important  manu- 
facturing centers  of  the  United  States.  Its 
population  advanced  from  46,887  in  1880  to 
301,408  in  1910,  and  is  now  353,460.  The 
basis  of  growth  is  found  in  the  city's  location 
with  reference  to  the  great  grain  and  lumber 
interests  of  the  Northwest.  It  is  the  greatest 
primary  wheat  market  of  the  world,  much  of 
the  wheat  being  also  milled  in  Minneapolis. 
All  the  main  trunk-line  railroads  of  the  North- 
west run  to  or  through  Minneapolis,  including 
9  major  systems  with  26  separate  lines. 

Minneapolis  is  a  center  of  culture.  Its  public 
schools  rank  very  high.  Almost  in  the  center 
of  the  city  is  the  campus  of  the  University 
of  Minnesota  (q.  v.).  Augsburg  Theological 
Seminary  and  several  other  general  educational 
institutions  are  located  in  the  city.  Min- 
neapolis has  also  built  a  magnificent  public  art 
museum  and  maintains,  by  public  subscription, 
the  Minneapolis  Symphony  Orchestra,  pro- 
nounced by  critics  to  be  one  of  the  four  great 
orchestras  of  the  world.  The  private  art 
gallery  of  T.  B.  Walker  contains  a  valuable 


MINNEHAHA 


1236 


MINNESOTA 


collection  of  paintings,  pottery  and  jades. 

One-tenth  of  the  entire  area  of  Minneapolis 
is  devoted  to  parks.  There  are  five  large, 
natural  lakes  within  the  city  limits,  providing 
boating,  fishing  and  bathing  in  the  summer 
and  ice-boating,  skating  and  other  sports  in 
the  winter.  Notable  buildings  include  the 
combined  Court  House  and  City  Hall,  a 
granite  structure  costing  $3,500,000;  the  18- 
story  First  National  Soo  Building,  the  Mc- 
Knight  Building,  the  Radison,  Dyckman  and 
West  Hotels,  the  i4-story  Minneapolis  Athletic 
Club  and  the  Minneapolis  Club. 

Min'neha"ha,  Falls  of,  situated  in  one  of 
the  public  parks  of  Minneapolis  near  Fort 
Snelling  and  the  Minnesota  Soldiers'  Home. 
The  Falls  have  a  height  of  sixty  feet  and 
though  not  large  in  volume,  possess  rare 
beauty.  They  are  fed  by  Minnehaha  Creek, 
a  small  stream  flowing  out  of  Lake  Minne- 
tonka,  the  nationally  famous  lake  resort  west  of 
Minneapolis.  The  name  means  "Laughing 
Water."  Longfellow  immortalized  Minne- 
haha Falls  in  his  poem,  Hiawatha. 

Minnesinger  (min'ne-slng-er),  German 
lyric  poets  who  flourished  from  the  middle 
of  the  nth  to  the  close  of  the  i3th  century. 
They,  however,  not  only  wrote  the  poetry 
but  composed  the  music  for  their  love 
songs.  They  sang  mostly  of  love,  as  the 
German  word  minne  indicates,  and  often 
roamed  from  castle  to  castle  and  from  court 
to  court  like  the  troubadours,  reciting  or 
singing  their  songs.  The  chief  exponents 
of  this  feudal  verse  are  Walther  von  der 
Vogelweide  and  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach. 
The  songs  of  160  of  these  singers  are  pre- 
served. After  the  decline  of  their  art  the 
tneister singer  (master-singers)  took  their 
place.  Unlike  the  minnesinger,  who  were 
of  the  knightly  or  courtier  class,  the  meister- 
singer  were  men  of  the  artisan  class,  and 
formed  themselves  into  guilds  and  wrote 
poems  as  they  plied  their  tasks.  Though 
there  is  little  real  poetry  in  the  songs  of 
the  meister singer,  they  were  popular  for 
three  centuries,  the  last  guild  being  dis- 
solved in  1830. 

Min'neso'ta  belongs  to  the  northern 
group  of  states,  lying  next  to  Canada.  Its 
land-surface  approximates  78,649  square 
miles,  and  is  larger  than  Ohio  and  Indiana; 
and  its  water-surface  is  about  5,637  square 
miles,  the  total  area  being  64,286  square 
miles.  It  lies  between  Manitoba  and  Ontario 
on  the  north;  Ontario,  Lake  Superior  and 
Wisconsin  on  the  east;  Iowa  on  the  south; 
and  South  Dakota  and  North  Dakota  on  the 
west. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  The  state  con- 
tains the  sources  of  the  three  great  river 
systems  oi  North  America.  The  Red  River 
of  the  North  sets  out  here  for  Hudson  Bay; 
the  St.  Louis  River  and  others  entering 
Lake  Superior  find  their  way  to  the  At- 
lantic; and  the  Mississippi  starts  from  Lake 
Itasca  on  its  long  journey  to  the  Gulf  of 


Mexico.  The  Mississippi  travels  for  746 
miles  in  and  adjoining  Minnesota,  now 
through  rapids  and  falls,  as  at  Sauk  Rapids 
and  St.  Anthony,  and  now  broadening  into 
lakes,  as  Lake  Pepin.  It  is  navigated  to 
within  192  miles  of  its  source.  About  one 
third  of  this  state,  lying  at  the  south  and 
southwest  and  reaching  in  the  Red  River 
valley  to  the  international  boundary,  is 
mainly  prairie;  and  the  other  two  thirds 
on  the  northeast  originally  were  wooded, 
but  now  in  large  part  are  cleared  and  occu- 
pied by  farms.  The  altitude  above  the  sea 
ranges  from  602  feet  at  the  shore  of  Lake 
Superior  to  2,230  on  Misquah  Hills,  the 
highest  in  the  state,  north  of  this  lake.  The 
Mississippi  drains  about  47,000  square 
miles  in  Minnesota;  about  7,700  square 
miles  are  tributary  to  Lake  Superior  and 
the  St.  Lawrence;  about  9,700  square  miles 
are  drained  to  Rainy  River  and  the  Lake 
of  the  Woods;  and  about  18,300  square 
miles  to  Red  River,  making  together 
28,000  square  miles  in  this  state  tributary 
to  Lake  Winnipeg  and,  through  Nelson 
River,  to  Hudson  Bay.  In  the  central  part 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  forests  of  the 
west,  called  the  Big  Woods.  Ten  thousand 
lakes  of  every  shape  and  size,  with  wooded 
islands  and  with  bays  and  waters  filled 
with  choice  fish,  add  to  the  beauty  and 
wealth  of  the  state. 

Climate  and  Resources.  The  climate  is 
severe  in  winter,  but  dry  and  bracing,  with 
light  snowfall.  The  soil  is  fertile,  with  exten- 
sive swamps  in  the  north  and  many  acres  of 
land  yet  uncultivated.  The  hard  spring- 
wheat  of  the  Istate  is  the  best  in  the  world, 
while  other  products  are  corn,  oats,  potatoes 
and  apples.  It  also  is  a  stock-raising  state. 
The  great  forests,  which  originally  covered 
half  the  state,  give  it  an  enormous  lumber 
trade.  The  iron  mines  of  the  Mesabi  and 
Vermilion  ranges,  50  to  75  miles  north  of 
Duluth,  produce  ore  very  rich  in  iron,  and 
belong  to  an  ore  field  reaching  to  the  Mis- 
sissippi. There  are  large  quarries  of  fine 
building-stone;  and  at  the  pipe-stone  quarry, 
near  the  southwestern  corner  of  the  state, 
the  Indians  come  for  the  red  stone  that  can 
easily  be  carved  into  pipes. 

Education.  Minnesota  has  8,841  school- 
houses  with  443,445  pupils.  The  state 
University  of  Minnesota  in  Minneapolis  was 
opened  in  1869,  and  now  has  5,369 
students  and  390  instructors.  The  farm 
connected  with  the  agricultural  college  is 
two  miles  from  the  university  and  covers 
250  acres.  Macalester  College  and  Hamline 
University  at  St.  Paul;  Carleton  and  St. 
Olaf  Colleges  at  Northfield;  St.  John's 
University  (Roman  Catholic)  at  College- 
ville;  Parker  College  (Free  Baptist)  at 
Winnebago  City;  Augsburg  Seminary 
(Lutheran)  at  Minneapolis;  and  Gustavus 
Adolphus  College  j(Lutheran)  at  St.  Peter 
are  a  few  of  the  higher  institutions  of  learn- 


MINNESOTA 


2237 


MINT 


ing.  The  population,  made  up  of  settlers 
from  New  England,  other  eastern  and  mid- 
dle states  and  foreigners,  mostly  from 
northern  Europe,  Swedes,  Norwegians, 
Danes,  Germans,  Russians,  Icelanders,  Lapps 
and  Finns  —  with  10,225  Indians  of  the 
Ojibwa  tribe, — numbers  2,296,024. 

History.  Minnesota  was  first  visited  by 
Groseilliers  and  Radisson,  French  fur- 
traders,  in  1655-56  and  1660.  The  part  of 
the  state  west  of  the  Mississippi  came  into 
our  hand  by  the  Louisiana  purchase.  The 
part  east  of  the  Mississippi  had  been  ceded 
to  Great  Britain  by  France  in  1763  and  be- 
longed afterward  to  Virginia,  who  ceded  it 
to  the  United  States.  Fort  Snelling  was 
built  in  1820.  After  the  Ojibwas  and 
Sioux  in  1837  surrendered  their  lands  east 
of  the  Mississippi,  immigration  set  in.  In 
1849  Minnesota  became  a  territory,  in  1858 
a  state.  The  capital  is  St.  Paul,  population 
214,744. 

Minnesota,  a  river  which  crosses  the 
state  of  Minnesota.  It  rises  near  Lake 
Traverse,  on  the  Dakota  border,  and  widens 
into  Big  Stone  Lake,  which  stretches  30 
miles  along  the  same  border,  flows  south- 
east until  nearly  across  the  state,  then  with 
a  sharp  turn  flows  northeast  into  the  Mis- 
sissippi at  Fort  Snelling,  five  miles  above 
St.  Paul.  It  is  450  miles  long,  300  navigable. 

Min'now,  the  name  commonly  applied  to 
small  slender  fishes.  The  true  minnows  be- 
long to  the  family  Cyprinida.  They  are 
abundant  in  the  Old  World  and  in  North 
America.  Although  numerous  in  species, 
they  are  difficult  to  distinguish  on  account 
of  great  similarity.  Like  birds,  the  male 
minnows  often  put  on  bright  colors  during 
the  breeding  season,  and  some  kinds  have 
the  head  ornamented  with  tubercles.  The 
so-called  American  minnows  (Notropis}, 
with  upward  of  100  species,  are  confined  to 
the  waters  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Minnows  are  of  importance  as  food  for 
larger  fishes,  and  they  are  extensively  used 
as  bait  by  fishermen. 

Minor'ca,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  Bal- 
earic Islands  (q.  v.),  in  the  Mediterranean, 
belonging  to  Spain.  It  lies  north  of  Majorca 
(q.  v.),  is  28  miles  long  and  about  10  wide, 
and  covers  290  square  miles.  It  has  a  rocky 
coast,  with  many  inlets,  and  a  fertile  soil. 
It  also  has  a  great  number  of  ancient  re- 
mains and  stalactite  caves.  The  principal 
cities  are  Port  Mahon  and  Ciudadela.  It 
was  ceded  to  Spain  by  England  in  1802. 
Population  about  38,000.  See  Balearic  Is- 
lands by  Bidwell. 

Minotaur  (min'd-tar),  in  Grecian  myth 
was  a  man  with  the  head  of  a  bull.  He  was 
fed  with  seven  youths  and  seven  maidens, 
sent  from  Athens  at  certain  periods,  until 
slain  by  Theseus  with  the  help  of  Ariadne. 

Mint,  a  general  name  of  species  of  the 
great  family  Labiates,  but  specially  applied 
to  the  species  of  the  genus  Mentha,  ordin- 


arily recognized  by  their  peculiar  fragrance 
and  their  clusters  of  small  purple,  pink  or 
white  flowers.  The  genus  contains  about 
30  species,  all  native  to  north  temperate 
regions,  12  of  which  either  are  native  or 
naturalized  in  North  America.  Their  char- 
acteristics are  square  stems,  opposite  or 
whorled  leaves,  a  spicy  fragrance  or  "minty 
odor"  and  four-lobed  ovary.  In  little 
glands  in  the  leaves  is  secreted  a  volatile 
oil,  which  gives  the  plant  its  pungency. 
Peppermint  (M.  pipenta)  is  the  most  im- 
portant species  in  cultivation,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  important  of  plants  in  the  pro- 
duction of  essential  oils.  The  leaves  are 
dark  green  veined  with  purple;  the  stem  is 
often  purplish;  the  flowers  are  purple.  The 
chief  regions  of  peppermint  cultivation  in 
the  United  States  are  certain  portions  of 
Michigan,  Indiana  and  New  York.  Spear- 
mint (M.  spicata)  is  also  cultivated  for  its 
essential  oil,  but  this  is  not  so  much  in  de- 
mand as  peppermint  oil.  It  is  spearmint 
which  is  cultivated  largely  for  table  use  in 
the  making  of  mint  sauce  and  mint  julep. 
It  is  frequently  cultivated  in  the  vicinity 
of  large  cities  to  supply  this  demand.  The 
leaves  are  wrinkled,  serrate,  short-stemmed 
or  sessile;  the  small  flowers  are  crowded 
around  the  stem  in  whorls. 

Mint,  the  place  where  money  is  coined  by 
the  government  of  a  country,  though  in  early 
times  in  England  the  bishops  and  barons 
had  the  privilege  of  coining.  Until  the 
middle  of  the  1 6th  century  coins  were  made 
from  pieces  of  metal  cut  and  hammered. 
In  1662  the  use  of  the  screw  or  mill  became 
common  in  England.  It  was  the  invention 
of  Antoine  Brucher,  a  French  engraver. 
The  gold  or  silver  to  be  coined  is  melted 
and  has  added  to  it  the  amount  of  copper 
needed  to  make  it  hard  enough  for  use,  and  is 
formed  into  bars.  In  the  United  States 
the  silver  coins  are  one  tenth  copper  and 
nine  tenths  silver,  and  in  the  gold  coins 
one  tenth  is  an  alloy  or  mixture  of  silver 
and  copper  and  nine  tenths  gold.  The 
bars  are  then  passed  between  rollers  which 
flatten  them  into  strips  or  ribbons  of  the 
right  thickness.  The  gold  bars  are  usually 
rolled  ten  times  before  they  are  thin  enough 
and  the  bars  of  silver  eight  times.  The 
rtrips  are  finally  drawn  between  steel  blocks 
to  make  them  straight.  The  strips  are  then 
cut  into  pieces  of  the  right  size,  or  blanks, 
which  in  the  gold  coins  are  weighed  by 
hand  before  being  finished  off.  If  top  light, 
they  are  sent  back  to  be  melted  again,  and 
if  too  heavy  the  edges  are  filed  off.  This  is 
usually  done  by  women,  as  their  delicacy 
of  touch  fits  them  for  the  work.  The  blanks 
are  now  passed  through  the  milling  ma- 
chine, which  finishes  the  rims  of  the  coins 
and  then  into  the  coining  press,  where  they 
are  stamped  with  the  figures  and  letters  of 
the  different  coins.  After  careful  weighing 
and  inspection  and  counting,  they  are  put 


MINTO 


1238 


MIRACLE-PLAYS 


into  bags  and  are  ready  for  circulation.    In 

the  United  States  there  are  mints  at  Phila- 
delphia, New  Orleans,  San  Francisco,  Car- 
son City  and  Denver,  and  several  assay 
offices  where  the  metals  are  prepared  for 
coinage.  The  mints  are  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  branch  of  the  treasury  department, 
called  the  bureau  of  the  mint.  The  earliest 
money  coined  in  the  United  States  was 
copper  cents  in  1795,  at  Philadelphia,  where 
the  first  mint  was  established. 

Alin'to,  Gilbert  John,  G.C.M.G.,  fourth 
earl  of,  governor-general  of  India  since  1905 
and  previously  known  in  the  Canadian 
Dominion  under  his  junior  title  of  Viscount 
Melgund,  was  bora  in  1845.  Early  in  his 
career  he  entered  the  Scots  Guards,  was 
attached  to  the  Turkish  army  on  the  Danube 
in  the  P.  usso- Turkish  War  of  1877,  served 
in  Afghanistan  in  1879,  and  two  years  later 
accompanied  Sir  Frederick  Roberts  to  South 
Africa  as  military  secretary.  During  1883-6 
he  was  military  secretary  to  Lord  Lands- 
downe,  then  governor-general  of  Canada, 
and  chief  of  staff  in  a  short  campaign  against 
the  insurgent  Riel  in  the  northwestern  ter- 
ritories of  the  Dominion.  He  succeeded  to 
the  earldom  in  1891.  and  in  1898  was  ap- 
pointed governor-general  of  Canada. 

Min'ute  Men.  This  is  a  name  which  has 
been  applied  to  the  disaffected  American 
colonists  who,  as  the  Revolutionary  War 
approached,  took  a  pledge  to  take  up  arms 
if  given  "a  minute's  notice"  only.  The 
Provincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts  in 
1774  passed  an  act  which  provided  for  the 
enrolment  of  such  minute  men.  For  war 
purposes  their  readiness  and  promptness 
were  of  the  greatest  importance  as  a  guar- 
antee of  the  nucleus  of  an  army,  even  from 
the  outset  of  hostilities. 

Mirabeau  (me'ra'bo"),  Honor£  Gabriel 
Riquette,  Count  de,  a  great  French  states- 
man, was  born  at  Bignon  in  Provence. 
March  9,  1749.  He  was  badly  scarred  by 
smallpox  at  three  years  of  age,  and  had  a 
twisted  foot  and  an  unusually  ugly  face 
Yet  his  great  ability  and  a  personal  power 
of  fascination  made  him  the  idol  of  his 
companions.  His  father,  a  tyrant  in  his 
home,  placed  him  in  the  army  and  twice 
securea  his  imprisonment.  His  life  was 
wild,  and  at  one  time  he  was  condemned 
to  death  for  his  flight  with  a  married  woman. 
While  in  prison  he  wrote  his  famous  essay 
on  StaU  Prisons  After  his  release  he  suc- 
ceeded in  having  the  sentence  against  him 
repealed,  and  made  himself  famous  by  his 
eloquent  appeal  in  his  own  behalf.  He 
spent  his  next  years  in  writing  pamphlets 
and  books,  and  while  on  a  secret  mission 
for  his  government  to  Berlin  obtained  the 
materials  for  his  History  of  the  Prussian 
Monarchy  under  Frederick  the  Great.  His 
political  life  began  with  the  stormy  days 
preceding  the  Revolution;  and  in  the 
national  assembly,  when  the  king  com- 


manded the  deputies  to  separate,  he  made 
the  memorable  answer:  "We  shall  yield  to 
nothing  but  bayonets."  His  dream  was  to 
place  the  king  at  the  head  of  the  Revolu- 
tion and  reform  the  government  by  a  new 
constitution,  guarded  by  a  ministry,  some- 
what after  the  pattern  of  the  English  parlia- 
ment. He  tried  to  make  terms  with  La- 
fayette and  Necker,  suggesting  their  names 
for  the  new  ministry.  He  labored  incessantly 
and  with  great  power,  but  was  opposed  by 
the  que_en  and  mistrusted  by  the  better 
classes  in  either  party.  "The  sins  of  my 
youth,"  he  bitterly  exclaimed,  "are  giving 
me  their  full  punishment  now."  In  1790 
he  was  made  president  of  the  Jacobin  Club 
and  administrator  of  the  Seine  department, 
and  later  one  of  its  eight  directors.  In 
January,  1791,  he  was  made  president  of 
the  national  assembly.  He  opposed  the 
law  against  emigration  and  the  proposal 
that  at  the  king's  death  a  regent  be  elected 
by  the  French  assembly.  His  health,  ruined 
by  his  early  excesses  and  his  tremendous 
labors,  was  failing,  and  with  prophetic  fore- 
sight he  said:  "I  carry  with  me  the  ruin 
of  the  monarchy."  He  died  at  Paris  in 
his  43rd  year,  April  2,  1791,  and  was  buried 
in  the  Pantheon.  "Do  not  rejoice  over 
the  death  of  Mirabeau,"  said  the  king  to 
his  wife;  "we  have  suffered  a  greater  loss 
than  you  imagine."  His  was  the  one  in- 
fluence that  might  still  have  saved  the 
throne.  See  History  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion by  Carlyle;  by  Michelet;  and  by 
Taine. 

Miracle«Plays  or  Mys'teries  were  plays 
performed  in  the  middle  ages,  the  subjects 
of  which  were  taken  from  the  Bible  or  the 
lives  of  saints.  Miracle-plays  were  founded 
on  legends,  and  the  mysteries  on  the  his- 
tory of  the  Bible,  but  the  distinction  was 
not  carefully  observed.  The  plays  were  at 
first  performed  in  the  churches  by  the 
clergy  and  their  assistants,  but  afterward 
on  stages  erected  in  the  streets,  and  at  one 
time  every  important  place  had  its  band 
of  players.  The  first  known  specimen  of 
these  plays  dates  back  to  the  4th  century. 
In  i  no,  in  Dunstable,  England,  was  ex- 
hibited the  play  of  St.  Catherine,  the 
earliest  mentioned  in  England.  They  were 
used  at  first  as  means  of  religious  instruc- 
tion, but  became  gradually  corrupted  by 
jests  and  vulgarities.  After  the  Reforma- 
tion they  slowly  declined,  though  the  first 
blow  against  them  came  from  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  on  the  ground  of  their 
irreverence.  The  only  modern  instance  of 
these  plays  is  the  Passion  Play,  which  is 
performed  once  in  ten  years  at  Oberaro- 
mergau  in  Bavaria,  as  the  townspeople 
pleaded  successfully  to  be  excepted  from 
the  general  condemnation  in  1779.  (See 
OBERAMMERGAU.)  See  Miracle  Plays  by 
Hase  and  English  Miracle  Plays,  Mysteries 
and  Moralities,  by  Pollard. 


MIRAGE 


1239 


MISSIONARY  RIDGE 


Mirage  (me'razh')  is  an  appearance  of  an 
object  in  the  sky  or  at  sea  above  the  water, 
produced  by  the  rays  of  light  changing 
their  direction  when  they  pass  through  a 
layer  of  hotter  or  of  colder  air.  The  mirage 
of  the  desert  is  the  effect  of  the  heating 
of  the  layer  of  air  next  the  ground  by  the 
hot  sands,  thus  bending  the  rays  of  light 
upward;  while  over  water  the  effect  is 
produced  by  the  rays  of  light  being  bent 
as  they  pass  from  the  cool  layer  of  air 
next  the  water  into  hotter  air  above.  Some- 
times the  object  is  seen  in  the  sky  upside 
down,  occasionally  only  slightly  raised,  and 
sometimes  there  will  be  two  objects,  one 
upright  and  the  other  reversed.  These 
effects  are  all  explained  by  the  different 
layers  of  hot  and  cold  air  through  which 
the  light  passes.  There  have  been  some 
very  remarkable  mirages;  as  the  Fata  Mor- 
gana in  the  Straits  of  Messina,  where  men, 
houses  and  ships  are  seen,  sometimes  in 
the  water  and  sometimes  in  the  air.  Cap- 
tain Scoresby,  while  cruising  off  the  coast 
of  Greenland,  discovered  his  father's  ship 
by  its  image  or  reflection  in  the  sky.  On 
the  Baltic,  in  1854,  the  English  fleet  of 
19  vessels,  30  miles  away,  was  distinctly 
seen  floating  in  the  air.  See  Optics  by 
Brewster. 

Miramon  (me'rd-mon'),  Miguel,  a  Mexi- 
can general,  was  born  in  the  City  of  Mexico, 
Sept.  29,  1832.  While  still  in  the  military 
academy,  he,  with  his  fellow  students,  en- 
gaged in  defending  Chapultepec  .in  the  war 
with  the  United  States,  and  he  was  taken 
prisoner.  Entering  the  army  in  1852,  he 
became  colonel  in  1855  and  general  when 
2  5 .  When  in  command  of  a  body  of  troops, 
he  headed  a  rebellion  against  Alvarez,  the 
president  of  the  country  at  the  time,  and 
took  the  city  of  Pueblo,  which  he  twice 
defended  within  six  months,  the  second 
time  for  43  days  against  10,000  besiegers. 
He  kept  up  his  opposition  to  the  govern- 
ment, as  the  head  of  the  church  party, 
and  was  finally  chosen  president  in  1859, 
but  declined  the  honor,  reinstating  Zuloaga, 
who  retired  in  a  few  days,  leaving  Miramon 
in  command.  The  war  continued  until 
1860,  when  the  Liberal  party  gained  power 
and  Miramon  fled  to  Europe.  Maximilian, 
to  whose  fortunes  he  adhered,  made  him 
grand-marshal  and  minister  of  Mexico  to 
Berlin.  He  returned  to  Mexico  in  1866, 
when  Maximilian  was  reigning,  and  the 
latter  persuaded  him  to  give  up  his  inten- 
tion of  resigning.  As  chief  of  the  army 
he  was  captured  and  shot  at  Quereiaro, 
with  Maximilian,  June  19,  1867.  See  Mexico 
under  Maximilian  by  Kendall;  Young  Folks' 
History  of  Mexico  by  Ober;  and  Mexico 
and  tier  Military  Chieftains  by  Robinson. 

Miramichi  (mtr'a-nie-she'},  a  river  in  New 
Brunswick,  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence about  midway  up  the  eastern  coast, 
creating  a  large  indentation.  Near  its 


mouth  lie  Newcastle  and  Chatham,  and 
there  is  a  fine  harbor  between  them.  West 
of  Newcastle  the  Miramichi  is  divided  in 
a  great  spray  of  branches  which  drain  the 
middle  of  New  Brunswick,  and  make  its 
greatest  lumber  river,  next  to  the  St.  John. 

Mir'ror,  a  surface  capable  of  reflecting 
light.  Ancient  mirrors,  now  found  in  tombs 
and  sepulchral  vaults,  were  for  the  most 
part  made  of  solid,  highly-polished  metal; 
but  upon  the  use  of  glass  becoming  com- 
mon, that  material  took  the  place  of  heavier 
substances.  The  backs  of  the  first  glass 
mirrors  were  covered  with  a  thin  coating 
of  lead,  but  the  glass  workers  of  Venice 
in  the  1 7th  century  introduced  an  amalgam 
of  mercury  and  tin  which  answered  the 
purpose  much  better.  A  solid  and  per- 
fectly level  table  of  stone  is  first  covered 
with  a  sheet  of  tin-foil,  over  which  a  quan- 
tity of  mercury  is  poured.raised  edges  pre- 
venting the  loss  of  it.  Upon  this  liquid 
mercury  a  carefully-prepared  plate  of  glass 
is  slid  in  such  manner  as  to  exclude  air- 
bubbles  and  impurities.  The  superfluous 
liquid  is  then  run  off,  and  by  means  of 
delicate  and  uniform  pressure  the  amalgam 
is  made  to  adhere  to  the  glass.  The  plate, 
being  lifted  from  its  position,  is  turned 
with  the  coated  side  uppermost  to  dry. 
This  process  sometimes  requires  weeks. 

Missionary  Ridge.  The  battle  of  Mis- 
sionary Ridge  was  fought  Nov.  24  and  25, 
1863,  by  the  Union  forces  under  Grant  and 
the  Confederates  under  Bragg.  The  latter 
occupied  Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary 
Ridge,  and  the  valley  between,  four  miles 
wide.  Hooker  in  command  of  Grant's 
right  stormed  and  carried  Lookout  Moun- 
tain on  the  24th,  the  Confederate  lines 
being  withdrawn  to  Missionary  Ridge.  On 
the  same  day  Sherman  crossed  the  Ten- 
nessee and  on  the  morning  of  the  25th 
moved  against  Bragg's  right  which  held 
the  northern  base  of  Missionary  Ridge. 
Desperate  fighting  ensued,  the  Confederate 
lines  being  stubbornly  held  against  Sher- 
man's repeated  assaults.  In  the  afternoon 
Grant,  who  watched  the  struggle  from 
Orchard  Knob,  ordered  his  entire  center 
forward  to  attack  the  Confederate  earth- 
works at  the  western  base  of  the  ridge. 
The  four  divisions  forming  the  lines  were 
from  left  to  right  Baird,  Wood,  Sheridan 
and  Johnson,  and  they  faced  the  ridge  at 
distances  from  three  quarters  of  a  mile 
to  a  mile.  At  a  signal  the  whole  line  charged 
under  fire  of  100  guns  from  the  crest  and 
in  face  of  a  rifle-fire  from  the  entrench- 
ments at  the  base.  The  entire  line  was 
taken,  the  Federal  lines  were  quickly  re- 
formed, and  without  orders  charged  up  the 
face  of  the  ridge.  The  whole  line  gained 
the  crest  near  together,  and  after  a  short 
struggle  carried  three  miles  of  the  crest,  and 
captured  37  guns  and  about  3,000  prisoners. 


MISSISSIPPI 


1240 


MISSISSIPPI  RIVER 


Miss'issip'p!,  one  of  the  southern  states 
of  the  Union,  lying  on  the  Mississippi  River. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Tennessee, 
on  the  east  by  Alabama,  on  the  south  by 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Louisiana  and  on 
the  west  by  the  Mississippi.  It  covers  46,- 
810  square  miles  (the  total  land  surface 
being  46,340  square  miles),  and  is  335  miles 
long  and  150  broad  —  about  one  sixth  the 
size  of  Texas.  The  winters  are  mild,  the 
summers  hot,  though  tempered  by  the  gulf 
breezes. 

Topography.  It  has  several  large  rivers 
—  the  Yazoo,  264  miles  long,  flowing  into 
the  Mississippi,  the  Pearl  and  the  Tom- 
bigbee  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  coun- 
try is  hilly,  except  in  the  Mississippi  bottom- 
lands. These  lands,  lying  between  the 
Mississippi  and  the  Yazoo  River,  are  pro- 
tected by  levees,  the  funds  for  the  purpose 
being  raised  by  a  tax  on  every  bale  of 
cotton.  The  coast  extends  only  90  miles, 
and  is  separated  from  the  gulf  by  Mississippi 
Sound  and  a  range  of  low  islands. 

Natural  Resources,  There  are  several  fine 
mineral  springs,  the  resort  of  tourists.  The 
forests  are  valuable,  covering  32,000  square 
miles  of  the  land,  the  most  valuable  tree 
being  the  yellow  pine.  Forests  of  hickory, 
maple,  ash,  oak,  gum,  poplar  and  tulip  are 
found.  Mississippi  also  grows  the  long- 
leaved  pine  extensively  in  the  southern 
portion.  Phosphate-rock,  gypsum,  hy- 
draulic lime  and  coal  are  found,  but  have 
never  been  worked  to  any  great  extent, 
and  the  clay  and  marl  are  regarded  as 
leading  in  value.  There  also  are  oyster 
and  shrimp  fisheries. 

Manufactures.  Mississippi  is  not  a  manu- 
facturing state,  but  is  engaged  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  along  special  lines.  Her 
leading  industries  are  connected  with  tim- 
ber and  cotton.  Turpentine  and  resin  are 
produced,  cottonseed-oil,  oil  cake  and  cot- 
ton goods  manufactured.  Cotton  ginning, 
the  manufacture  of  fertilizers,  oyster  can- 
ning and  preserving  also  are  among  the 
prosperous  industries. 

Agriculture.  The  state  is  mainly  agri- 
cultural, cotton  being  the  great  crop,  be- 
sides corn,  oats,  rice,  potatoes  and  sugar- 
cane. Vegetables  of  all  kinds  grow  luxuri- 
antly, and  are  sent  to  the  northern  markets. 
The  cotton  product  is  second  only  to  that 
of  Texas.  All  fruits  of  the  temperate  zone 
grow  in  abundance,  as  do  figs  and,  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  state,  oranges. 

Education.  Separate  schools  are  main- 
tained for  the  colored  population,  and  in 
nearly  every  city  and  town  graded  schools 
are  conducted  for  ten  months.  There  are 
two  public  and  two  private  normal  schools, 
the  school  property  is  valuable,  and  a  high 
standard  of  education  is  maintained. 
Among  the  higher  institutions  of  learning 
are  the  University  of  Mississippi,  founded 
in  1848,  near  Oxford;  the  Agricultural  Col- 


lege, with  an  experiment  farm,  at  Stark- 
ville;  an  industrial  college  for  girls  at  Co- 
lumbus; Mississippi  College  at  Clinton;  and 
schools  for  the  colored  youth  at  Tougaloo, 
Holly  Springs  and  Jackson.  The  capital  is 
Jackson,  the  other  chief  cities  being  Vicksburg, 
Natchez  and  Meridian.  Population  of  the 
state  1,964,122,  of  which  more  than  half  is 
colored. 

State  Institutions.  The  State  Deaf  and 
Dumb  Institute  for  white  and  colored  and 
the  state  school  for  the  blind  (white)  are 
at  Jackson.  Insane  asylums  are  at  Jack- 
son and  Meridian,  state  hospitals  at  Vicks- 
burg and  Natchez,  and  the  state  peniten- 
tiary is  at  Jackson.  Mississippi  has  3,480 
miles  of  railway. 

History.  The  first  European  to  pass 
through  this  region  was  De  So  to,  but  he 
left  no  settlements.  La  Salle  took  posses- 
sion of  the  country  in  the  name  of  France 
in  1682,  calling  it  Louisiana.  In  1699  and 
in  1716  forts  were  built  on  the  bay  of  Biloxi 
and  at  Natchez.  It  was  ceded  to  Great 
Britain  in  1763.  The  state  was  organized 
as  a  territory  in  1798,  and  came  into  the 
Union  in  1817. 

Mississippi  ( mis-i-stp'f) ,  the  largest  river 
in  North  America  and,  from  its  mouth  to 
the  source  of  the  Missouri  (its  largest 
branch),  the  longest  river  in  the  world. 
It  rises  in  Minnesota,  in  Lake  Itasca,  is 
2,960  miles  long  or,  with  the  Missouri,  4,200 
miles,  and  drains  all  the  country  between 
the  Allegheny  and  Rocky  Mountains,  a 
region  nearly  as  large  as  half  of  Europe. 
It  has  about  16,000  miles  of  navigable 
waters.  The  largest  tributaries  are  the 
Missouri,  Arkansas,  Red,  White,  Yazoo  and 
Ohio  Rivers.  Besides  these  there  are  about 
240  smaller  ones.  There  are  falls  at  Minne- 
apolis, Rock  Island  and  the  Des  Moines 
Rapids.  The  river  begins  with  a  width  of 
12  feet,  widening  to  4,700  feet  below  the 
mouth  of  the  Ohio,  and  measuring  2,500 
feet  at  New  Orleans.  It  flows,  in  the  lower 
part  of  its  course,  through  lowlands,  often 
below  the  level  of  the  river  and  protected 
by  embankments  for  over  1,600  miles. 
After  receiving  the  waters  of  the  Red 
River,  the  Mississippi  divides  into  many 
separate  channels,  called  bayous,  each  mak- 
ing its  way  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  where 
it  forms  what  is  called  the  delta.  The 
water  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  is  clear,  but 
gradually  grows  dark  and  muddy  as  the 
great  rivers  along  its  course  pour  their 
turbid  currents  into  it.  It  yearly  carries 
enough  earth  into  the  Gulf  to  make  a 
square  mile  of  land  263  feet  thick.  These 
great  deposits  obstruct  the  mouth,  and  the 
government  has  expended  large  sums  in 
providing  a  system  of  jetties  or  walls  to 
protect  the  channel.  (See  BREAKWATER.) 
The  river  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  is 
subject  to  extensive  floods,  the  water 
stretching  for  miles  over  the  lowlands,  many 


WORK  DONE  BY  OUR  RIVER  GIANT 


NORTH  AME.KIC* 


NO  Ntw  YORK 

DRIES  HIGH 


MISSISSIPPI  9  M.ASARAS 

MAXIMUM    313CHARCC     i'JOOOOO     Cu.  fr.   x*  SECOND 


Courtesy  Scientific  American. 


(C)  Munn  &  Co. 


Our  giant  river  system,  the  Mississippi,  is  a  good  farmer  in  some  respects  and  a  very  thrift- 
less one  in  others.  The  deposits  it  makes  over  the  land  in  flood  time  furnish  rich  soil  for 
crops,  but  it  is  constantly  carrying  away  vast  quantities  of  good  farm  land  and  pouring  it  into 
the  Gulf.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  spring  of  1913,  when  several  hundred  people  were  drowned 
and  thousands  of  homes  swept  away  in  the  floods  in  Ohio  and  Indiana,  it  is  still  more  trou- 
blesome. How  to  control  this  giant  of  ours,  so  that  all  its  work  will  be  useful,  is  one  of 
the  great  problems  which  state  and  federal  governments  and  the  engineers  are  trying  to 
solve.  The  building  of  the  Panama  Canal  shows  what  gigantic  tasks  can  be  accomplished 
by  working  together  along  right  lines. 


MISSISSIPPI,  UNIVERSITY  OF 


1241 


MISSOURI 


of  which  are  uncultivated  because  of  this 
danger.  The  levees  or  embankments  to  pre- 
vent floods  have  been  extensively  built  by 
the  United  States,  and  cost  a  large  amount 
yearly  for  repairs.  The  first  white  man  to 
discover  the  waters  of  the  Mississippi  was 
De  So  to  in  1541,  and  in  1673  Marquette 
and  Joliet  descended  it  nearly  to  its  mouth, 
while  La  Salle  sailed  to  the  Gulf  and  took 
possession  of  the  country  for  his  king  in 
1682.  See  Physics  and  Hydraulics  of  the 
Mississippi  River  by  Humphrey  and  Abbot. 

Mis'sissip"pi,  University  of,  was  granted 
its  charter  in  1844,  but  was  not  actually 
set  into  operation  until  four  years  later. 
An  elective  system  of  studies,  under  the 
minor  restriction  of  a  division  into  schools, 
has  been  in  operation  since  1872.  The 
degrees  that  are  granted  are  those  of  doctor 
of  philosophy,  master  of  arts,  bachelor  of 
arts,  bachelor  of  science,  bachelor  of  min- 
ing, bachelor  of  engineering  (either  elec- 
trical or  civil),  bachelor  of  philosophy  and 
bachelor  of  pedagogy.  For  entrance,  high 
schools  which  are  approved  by  the  Associa- 
tion of  Colleges  and  Preparatory  Schools 
of  the  Southern  States  have  the  right  of 
sending  students  to  the  university  with- 
out examination.  The  total  property  and 
endowment  of  the  university  is  valued  at 
over  one  million  dollars. 

Missolonghi  (mis' 'so-lon1 'ge} ,  a  town  in 
Greece,  built  on  a  swampy  flat,  is  memor- 
able for  the  sieges  through  which  it  passed 
in  the  struggle  for  Grecian  independence. 
In  1821-22,  under  Marco  BozzarU  and 
Mavrocordato,  it  held  out  for  three  months 
against  the  Turks.  Again,  in  1825,  it  re- 
sisted a  large  force  of  Turks  for  ten  months; 
at  last,  putting  the  women  and  children 
in  the  center,  the  garrison  cut  their  way 
through  the  Turkish  army,  2,000  of  them 
reaching  the  mountains.  Byron  joined  the 
Greeks  in  their  struggle  at  Missolonghi  in 
January,  1824,  and  died  there  on  April  9, 
1824.  Statues  of  Bozzaris  and  Byron  have 
been  erected  here.  Population  about  9,000. 

Missou'ri  (mts-soo'ri.),  one  of  the  central 
states  of  the  Union,  lies  on  the  western  side 
of  the  Mississippi.  It  is  280  miles  long, 
varies  from  208  to  312  miles  in  width,  and 
covers  68,735  square  miles,  being  almost 
twice  as  large  as  Indiana.  It  is  divided  into 
two  parts  by  the  Missouri  River,  which 
flows  436  miles  across  the  state  from  Kan- 
sas City  to  St.  Louis. 

Surface.  The  north  part  is  rolling  prai- 
rie, with  forests  along  the  rivers,  while  the 
south  is  hilly,  the  Ozark  Mountains  being 
in  this  part  and  reaching  1,500  feet  in  height, 
while  another  ridge  in  the  southeast  has 
many  bold  knobs,  as  Pilot  Knob  and  Iron 
Mountain.  There  are  a  number  of  curious 
caverns,  many  miles  long,  with  hidden 
lakes  and  streams  and  great  halls  and  gal- 
leries, adorned  with  stalactites,  and  also 
numerous  groups  of  mineral  springs. 


Drainage.  This  state  has  excellent  drain- 
age, its  eastern  border  being  formed  by  the 
Mississippi.  Twelve  miles  above  St.  Louis 
the  Missouri  unites  with  it,  and  near  St. 
Louis  the  Meremac.  From  the  Ozarks 
come  the  Grand  Platte,  Osage  and  Gas- 
conade, which  are  tributaries  of  the  Missouri. 
Climate.  The  climate  is  marked  by  ex- 
tremes, lacking  alike  the  moderating  in- 
fluence and  protection  of  sea  air  or  shelter- 
ing mountains. 

Minerals^  Missouri  is  rich  in  minerals,  its 
iron  fields  (including  Iron  Mountain,  which 
covers  500  acres,  and  Pilot  Knob)  being 
almost  inexhaustible  and  supplying  very 
rich  ore.  Lead  is  found  in  large  quantities, 
some  of  the  caverns  having  millions  oi 
pounds  on  their  roofs  and  sides.  It  yields 
more  zinc  than  any  other  state,  and  has 
several  nickel  mines,  very  large  coal-fields 
and  fine  quarries  of  stone. 

Agriculture.  The  soil  is  rich  and  places 
the  state  third  in  the  value  of  agricultural 
products.  Corn,  tobacco,  oats,  wheat,  hay 
and  fruits  are  the  chief  crops.  Missouri  is 
surpassed  only  by  California  in  the  produc- 
tion of  wine,  and  also  is  a  large  stock-raising 
country. 

Manufactures.  The  manufactures  are  flour, 
beer,  wine,  tobacco,  jewelry,  shoes,  clothing, 
railroad  and  street  cars,  drugs  etc.,  and 
there  is  a  large  beef  and  pork-packing  busi- 
ness. 

Commerce.  River  transportation  for 
freight  is  being  revived,  and  large  quanti- 
ties of  cereals  are  shipped  from  St.  Louis  to 
New  Orleans  for  foreign  markets.  Many 
important  railroad  systems  traverse  the 
state,  connecting  at  various  points  with 
lines  extending  in  all  directions.  About 
30  railroads  enter  St.  Louis  alone. 

Education.  Missouri  has  a  public  school 
system  adopted  in  1839.  Free  public  schools 
for  white  and  colored  are  required  by  law 
in  every  district  for  children  from  6  to  20. 
The  state  has  five  normal  schools,  a  univer- 
sity (established  in  1839),  with  an  agricul- 
tural college  and  farm  at  Columbia  and  a 
school  of  mines  at  Rolla.  Washington  Uni- 
versity and  St.  Louis  University  at  St 
Louis,  Drury  College  at  Springfield,  West- 
minster College  at  Fulton,  William  Jewell 
College  at  Liberty,  Grand  River  College  at 
Edinburg  and  Missouri  Valley  College  at 
Marshall  are  only  a  few  among  many  insti- 
tutions, and  Missouri's  school  fund  is  the 
largest  of  any  state  in  the  Union. 

Population.  The  population  is  3,420,143. 
Over  half  of  the  total  foreign  population  are 
Germans,  who,  although  small  in  number  in 
proportion  to  the  total  population  of  the 
state,  have  contributed  largely  to  its  industrial 
and  educational  development. 

History.  In  1762'  France  ceded  to  Spain 
the  territory  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  St. 
Louis,  founded  in  1764,  was  a  Spanish  city 


MISSOURI  RIVER 


1242 


MITCHELL 


•with  Spanish  governors  until  1804.  The 
territory  of  Missouri  was  founded  in  1812, 
and  in  1821  part  was  made  into  the  state  of 
Missouri,  though  its  boundaries  were  not 
settled  until  1836.  The  contest  over  the 
admission  of  Missouri  into  the  Union  ended 
with  what  is  known  as  the  Missouri  Compro- 
mise, which  allowed  slavery  in  Missouri  on 
condition  that  it  be  permitted  in  no  other 
state  north  of  36^°.  The  state  suffered 
severely  in  the  Civil  War,  being  divided 
in  sentiment  and  overrun  by  both  armies, 
but  has  since  been  very  prosperous. 

Missouri,  a  river  of  the  United  States, 
the  longest  tributary  of  the  Mississippi. 
The  name  means  the  Big  Muddy.  It  is  so 
much  larger  and  longer  than  the  Upper  Mis- 
sissippi that  it  ought  to  be  considered  the 
main  river,  and  with  the  Lower  Mississippi 
form  the  longest  river  in  the  world.  It  rises 
among  the  Rocky  Mountains,  near  the 
border  of  Montana  and  Idaho,  its  general 
direction  being  southeast  to  the  Mississippi, 
which  it  reaches,  after  crossing  the  whole 
state  of  Missouri,  near  St.  Louis.  It  is 
2,980  miles  long,  and  can  be  navigated  for 
about  2,500  miles.  A  narrow  gorge  made 
by  walls  1,200  feet  high  and  only  450  feet 
apart,  called  the  Gates  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, through  which  the  river  flows,  is  about 
400  miles  from  its  source,  and  145  miles 
further  down  are  the  Great  Falls,  of  four 
cataracts,  26,  47,  19  and  87  feet  high,  sepa- 
rated by  rapids. 

Missouris,  a  tribe  of  Indians  belonging 
to  the  Dakotah  family,  first  found  near  the 
Missouri.  They  sided  with  the  French 
against  the  English  in  the  early  struggles 
for  the  country.  Lewis  and  Clark  found 
them  in  1805  on  the  Platte  River,  number- 
ing about  300.  They  had  left  their  home 
in  Missouri  and  joined  the  Oto  tribe,  with 
whom  they  have  since  been  connected.  The 
United  States  pays  them  $9,000  a  year. 

Mist.     See  FOG. 

Missouri,  University  of,  comprises  ( i ) 
a  graduate  department,  (2)  an  academic 
department,  (3)  the  department  of  educa- 
tion, (4)  the  law,  (5)  medicine,  (6)  military 
science,  (7)  agriculture  and  arts  and  (8) 
mines  and  metallurgy.  The  college  of  ag- 
riculture includes  the  chools  of  agriculture 
and  engineering  and  the  experiment-station. 
The  degrees  conferred  are  bachelor  of  arts, 
bachelor  of  laws,  bachelor  of  science,  doc- 
tor of  medicine,  master  of  arts,  doctor  of 
philosophy,  master  of  science,  master  of 
laws  and  civil,  electrical,  mechanical,  sani- 
tary and  mining  engineers.  Women  are 
admitted  on  equal  terms  to  all  departments 
except  military  science.  The  libraries  con- 
tain over  55,000  volumes.  The  endowment 
is  about  $2,500,000,  the  income  annually 
about  $425,000.  The  state  sometimes  ap- 
propriates additional  amounts  for  particu- 
lar purposes.  The  students  number  about 
1,700,  the  faculty  about  100. 


Mistletoe  (m1z"l-td'),  parasitic  green 
shrubs  or  herbs,  which  grow  upon  woody 
plants  and  absorb  their  sap  by  means  of 
special  sucking  organs  known  as  haustoria 
(which  see).  There  are  over  20  genera  and 
500  species,  which  are  widely  distributed 
but  most  abundant  in  the  tropics.  In  por- 
tions of  the  south  of  England  the  parasite 
is  very  common.  In  winter  its  evergreen 
leaves  stand  out  conspicuously  from  the 
bare  branches  of  the  trees.  In  the  lore  of 
British  Druid  and  ancient  German  the  mis- 
tletoe had  prominent  place.  The  mistletoe 
of  Europe  is  Viscum  album;  while  the  com- 
mon American  mistletoe  is  Phoradendron 
ftavescens,  a  small,  shrubby,  brittle  form  of 
yellowish  color  and  with  white  berries, 
growing  in  bunches  on  deciduous  trees  of 
various  kinds,  found  from  New  Jersey  south-  * 
ward  and  westward.  The  mistletoes  which 
grow  in  abundance  upon  various  species  of 
conifers,  especially  in  the  western  mountain 
regions,  are  species  of  arceuthobium,  which 
are  greenish-yellow  and  brown,  and  with 
small  scale-like  leaves. 

Mitch'ell,  Donald  Grant,  American  nov- 
elist and  essayist,  was  born  at  Norwich, 
Conn.,  April  12,  1822.  His  college  course 
was  taken  at  Yale,  and  his  law  studies  in  New 
York  city.  He  wrote  under  the  name  of  Ik 
Marvel.  In  1853  he  was  appointed  United 
States  consul  at  Venice,  and  in  1868  became 
editor  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly.  His  best- 
known  works  are  Dream  Life,  Reveries  of  a 
Bachelor,  My  Farm  at  Edgewood,  Wet  Days 
at  Edgewood,  Doctor  Johns,  English  Lands, 
Letters  and  Kings  and  American  Lands  and 
Letters.  He  died  on  Dec,  15.  1908 

Mitchell,  John,  was  born  in  Braidwood, 
Will  County,  Ills.,  Feb.  4,  1869.  His  school 
education  was 
limited  to  the  years 
between  six  and  ten. 
At  13  he  began 
working  in  the  coal- 
mines. At  16  he 
moved  to  the  west- 
ern mines,  still  as 


a  common  miner. 
At  that  age  he  was 
eligible  to  join  the 
Knights  of  Labor, 
and  did  so.  He  re- 
turned to  Illinois  in 
1890.  He  had 
studied  much  at 
night,  and  had  given 
JOHN  MITCHELL  °ne  Year  largely 
to  the  study  of 

law.  But  at  this  time  he  joined  the  miners' 
labor  association,  and  it  is  there  that  he 
feels  he  received  his  real  education.  In 
1895  he  was  elected  to  the  secretary-treas- 
urership  of  the  local  district  of  the  United 
Mineworkers  of  America.  In  1897  he  was 
appointed  an  organizer,  a  very  important 
office  in  those  days,  when  the  men  had  still 


MITCHELL 


1243 


MOABITES 


to  be  taught  the  advantages  of  organization. 
Next  year  he  was  elected  national  vice- 
president  of  the  order,  and  was  acting  presi- 
dent in  1898,  when  the  trouble  in  the  coal 
regions  became  acute.  From  1899  until 
1907  he  served  as  national  president  of  the 
United  Mineworkers,  and  in  that  period 
led  the  mineworkers  through  their  two  great 
struggles  (1900  and  1902)  for  improved  con- 
ditions. His  judgment  and  honesty  of  pur- 
pose and  his  moderation  were  recognized; 
and  he  preserved  the  sympathy  of  the  pub- 
lic for  the  striking  miners.  He  has  been 
second  vice-president  of  the  American  Fed- 
eration of  Labor  since  1900.  He  is  an  in- 
fluential member  of  the  National  Civic 
Federation,  serving  on  the  executive  com- 
mittee of  its  industrial  department. 

Mitchell,  Maria,  an  American  astron- 
omer, was  born  at  Nantucket,  Mass.,  Aug. 
i,  1818.  She  helped  her  father,  who  was  a 
teacher,  in  his  work  in  astronomy,  and  soon 
became  fitted  to  make  investigations  for  her- 
self. In  1847  she  received  a  gold  medal 
from  the  king  of  Denmark  for  the  discovery 
of  a  comet.  She  was  employed  in  observa- 
tions connected  with  the  coast  survey  and  in 
compiling  the  nautical  almanacs.  She  was 
the  first  woman  made  a  member  of  the  Amer- 
ican Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences.  In 
1865  she  became  professor  of  astronomy  at 
Vassar  College,  holding  the  position  until 
her  death  at  Lynn,  Mass.,  June  28,  1889. 

Mitchell,  Silas  Weir,  an  American  phy- 
sician and  writer,  was  born  at  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  Feb.  15,  1829.  He  studied  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  and  took  his 
medical  degree  at  Jefferson  Medical  College. 
His  earliest  researches  were  in  the  study  of 
poisons,  and  he  became  an  authority  on  the 
venom  of  snakes.  His  subsequent  work  was 
in  the  study  of  diseases  of  the  nerves,  and  he 
stood  at  the  head  of  the  profession  in  that 
•department  of  medical  science.  He  also 
published,  in  connection  with  others,  Gun- 
shot Wounds  and  Other  Injuries  to  the  Nerves, 
Injuries  to  the  Nerves  and  their  Consequences 
and  Clinical  Lectures  on  Nervous  Diseases, 
and  he  made  many  contributions  to  medical 
journals.  In  another  line  of  literary  work 
he  was  author  of  five  volumes  of  poems, 
grouped  in  1896  in  Collected  Poems,  and  sev- 
eral novels,  the  more  notable  of  the  latter 
being  Hugh  Wynne,  an  admirable  story  of 
the  Revolutionary  War,  The  Adventures  of 
Francois;  and  When  All  the  Woods  are  Green. 
Among  other  stories  are  Dr.  North  and  his 
Friends  and  In  War  Time.  Among  his  more 
popular  professional  works  are  Doctor  and 
Patient  and  Wear  and  Tear  or  Hints  for  the 
Overworked.  He  died  Jan.  4,  1914. 

Mit'ford,  Mary  Russell,  an  English 
writer,  was  born  in  Hampshire,  England, 
Dec.  1 6,  1787.  On  her  tenth  birthday  her 
father  bought  her  a  lottery  ticket,  which 
drew  a  prize  of  $100,000.  This  money  was 
extravagantly  spent,  lasting  only  long  enough 


to  give  her  a  good  education.  She  had  to 
write  to  support  the  family,  and  wrote  for 
magazines,  and  plays  for  the  stage,  having 
earlier  published  a  volume  of  poems.  Her 
best  work  was  the  sketches  she  wrote  of  the 
life  around  her,  which  appeared  first  in  the 
London  Magazine  and  were  collected  in  five 
volumes  undsr  the  title  of  Our  Village.  She 
also  published  Recollections  of  a  Literary  Life 
and  Atherton,  a  story,  but  her  fame  depends 
upon  the  charming  sketches.  She  received 
a  pension  from  the  government,  which  made 
her  comfortable  in  her  cottage,  where  she 
spent  the  remainder  of  her  life,  the  center  of 
a  large  circle  of  literary  friends.  She  died  on 
Jan.  10,  1855  See  Life  and  Friendships  of 
Mary  Russell  Mitford  by  L'Estrange. 

Mithradates  (mith-rd-dd'tez)  the  Great, 
a  king  of  Pontus  (111-63  B.  C.),  Armenia 
and  Parthia,  countries  in  Asia  Miner.  He 
became  king  when  about  1 3 .  The  first  M  ith- 
radatic  War,  as  it  is  called,  was  against  Bith- 
ynia,  whose  king  was  sustained  by  the  Ro- 
mans. At  first  Mithradates  conquered  the 
Roman  provinces  in  Asia  Minor,  but  finally 
he  had  to  make  peace,  giving  up  all  his  Asi- 
atic conquests.  In  the  second  war,  83-81 
B.  C.,  Mithradates  was  successful;  but  he  was 
defeated  in  the  third  war  (74  to  66  B.  C.), 
Pompey  finally  driving  him  to  his  northern 
territories.  Here  he  planned  revenge,  but 
was  prevented  from  carrying  out  his  purpose 
by  the  rebellion  of  his  son,  when  in  desper- 
ation he  ended  his  life  by  suicide  in  63  B.  C. 
He  was  one  of  the  strong  eastern  despots, 
well-educated,  speaking  all  the  2  2  languages 
in  use  among  his  subjects.  He  made  a 
fine  collection  of  gems,  pictures  and  statues. 

Mito'sis.     See  KARYOKINESIS. 

Mityle'ne.     See  LESBOS. 

Mivart  (mlv'drt),  St.  George,  an  English 
naturalist,  was  born  at  London,  Nov.  30, 
1827,  and  educated  at  Kings  College.  His 
chief  publications  were  Genesis  of  Species, 
Elementary  Anatomy,  Man  and  Apes,  Con- 
temporary Evolution,  The  Cat,  Nature  and 
Thought,  Types  of  Animal  Life  and  The  Ori- 
gin of  Human  Reason.  In  the  main  he 
agreed  with  Darwin,  although  working  in- 
dependently of  him,  and  at  times  he  was  con- 
sidered to  be  radically  in  opposition  to  some 
of  the  theories  of  the  later  Darwinian  school 

Mo'abites,  a  Semitic  people  who  lived  in 
the  country  east  of  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead 
Sea,  their  land  being  divided  by  the  River 
Ammon.  They  were  subject  to  the  Jews  in 
the  time  of  David,  but  revolted  about  850 
B  C.,  and  joined  the  Assyrians  against  the 
Jews.  They  are  now  lost  in  the  Arab  tribes 
of  the  region.  Their  country  contains  many 
rude  stone  monuments,  such  as  have  been 
found  in  the  British  Isles,  supposed  to  be 
the  altars  of  their  worship.  A  large  stone 
with  an  inscription  of  34  lines,  in  Hebrew- 
Phoenician  letters,  was  found  in  1868 
among  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  of 
Dibon.  It  was  broken  by  the  Arabs,  but 


MOBERLY 


1244 


MOCKINGBIRD 


subsequently  was  carefully  put  together  and 
placed  in  the  Louvre  at  Pans.  It  is  the  rec- 
ord of  the  revolt  of  Mesha,  king  of  Moab, 
who  is  mentioned  in  2  Kings  Hi,  against  the 
king  of  Israel.  See  Heth  and  Moab  by  Con- 
der  and  Records  of  the  Past  by  Neubauer. 

Moberly  (mo'bSr-K),  Mo.,  city,  in  Ran- 
dolph County,  about  125  miles  northwest 
of  St.  Louis.  The  surrounding  country  is 
agricultural,  and  in  the  vicinity  are  deposits 
of  fireclay  and  extensive  coal  fields.  It  has 
flour  and  lumber  mills,  brick  and  lumber 

Srds,  a  foundry,  ice  factory  and  the  Wa- 
sh Railway's  machine-shops.  The  city 
has  good  public  and  parochial  schools,  a  pub- 
lic library  and  a  Young  Men's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation building,  and  is  the  seat  of  St.  Mary's 
Academy.  It  has  the  service  of  two  rail- 
roads. Population  10,936. 

Mobile  (md-bel'),  the  only  seaport  of  Ala- 
bama, is  situated  on  the  west  side  of  Mobile 
River,  at  the  head  of  Mobile  Bay.  It  is  built 
on  a  sandy  plain  rising  gradually  from  the 
river,  with  broad  streets  shaded  with  live  oaks 
and  magnolias.  1 1  has  a  large  cotton  and  tim- 
ber trade,  and  manufactures  cottonseed  oil, 
chewing  gum,  cigars  and  leather.  Its  pub- 
lic buildings  include  a  city  hall,  market  house, 
cathedral,  fine  post  office  and  Spring  Hill 
College  (Jesuit).  Mobile  has  successively 
been  a  French,  English,  Spanish  and  American 
city.  It  was  the  capital  of  Louisiana  under 
the  French  until  1723,  when  New  Orleans 
became  the  seat  of  government.  In  1763  the 
lands  east  of  the  Mississippi,  including  Mo- 
bile, were  ceded  to  England,  but  in  1780,  were 
yielded  to  Spain,  which  kept  possession  until 
1813.  Mobile  is  a  shipping  point  for  cotton 
and  naval  stores  and  is  becoming  an  important 
commercial  center  of  the  satsuma  orange 
and  pecan  growing  industry.  Population, 
70,000. 

Mobile,    a    bay    on    the    coast    of   Ala- 


bama, about  32  miles  long  and  8  to  15  wide. 
The    entrance    from    the    Gulf    of    Mexico 


is  only  three  miles  wide,  and  is  guarded  by 
Fort  Morgan  and  Fort  Gaines.  It  also  has 
an  outlet  on  the  southwest,  used  by  small 
steamers  between  Mobile  and  New  Orleans. 
The  upper  part  of  the  bay  is  shallow,  and  is 
becoming  more  so  all  the  time  from  the  sedi- 
ment left  by  the  rivers  flowing  into  it.  There 
are  three  lighthouses  on  its  shores.  One  of 
the  great  naval  battles  of  the  Civil  War  was 
fought  (Aug.  5,  1864)  between  Admirals  Far- 
ragut  and  Buchanan  on  the  bay. 

Mobile,  a  river  in  the  southern  part  of 
Alabama,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Ala- 
bama and  Tombigbee  Rivers.  The  name  is 
that  of  the  Indian  tribe  living  in  the  region 
when  first  settled  by  whites.  The  river  di- 
vides into  two  branches,  the  western  one  tak- 
ing the  name.  These  two  streams,  after 
several  more  divisions,  unite  and  flow  into 
Mobile  Bay.  The  river  is  45  miles  long. 

Moccasin  (mok'ka-sln) ,  a  very  poisonous 
snake  of  the  southern  United  States.  It  be- 
longs to  the  rattlesnake  family,  but  the  tail 
is  short  and  ends  in  a  horny  point  instead  of 
a  rattle.  The  water  moccasin  is  the  most 
dreaded  snake  of  the  United  States.  The 
rattlesnake  strikes  only  when  disturbed,  and 
gives  warning  by  its  rattle.  The  moccasin 
strikes  without  warning  at  anything  that 
displeases  it.  It  is  an  expert  swimmer. 
Often  it  lies  on  bushes  overhanging  streams, 
watching  for  frogs  and  fish.  It  occurs  from 
North  Carolina  to  southern  Illinois  and 
Arkansas  and  south.  Its  closest  relative  is 
the  copperhead  or  upland  moccasin,  com- 
monly called  the  cotton-mouth. 

Moccasin,  a  shoe  (Algonquin  mok-i-siri) 
worn  by  the  Indians  of  North  America.  It 
is  made,  sole  and  upper,  of  deerskin  or  other 
soft  leather,  and  is  ornamented  on  the  top 
with  beads  of  various  colors. 

Mo'cha.  This  village  lies  130  miles  west- 
northwest  of  the  British  port  of  Aden,  in 
Yemen,  Arabia.  It  is  near  the  site  of  a  large, 
ancient  city  (Musa),  but  it  came  into  im- 
portance through  the  traffic  in  coffee.  No 
coffee  is  or  was  grown  near  Mocha,  but  the 
place  for  a  time  was  an  important  market 
for  this  product.  In  1709  it  had  10,000  in- 
habitants, but  in  1806  only  5,000.  Now  it 
has  dwindled  to  a  mere  village,  having  sur- 
rendered most  of  its  commerce  to  Aden. 
But  its  name  is  still  given  to  a  kind  of  coffee. 

Mockingbird  (mok' ing-bird),  a  singing 
bird  of  the  thrush  family  closely  related  to 
the  catbird.  There  are  several  species  in 
South  America,  the  West  Indies  and  the 
United  States.  That  of  the  southern  United 
States  is  best  known.  It  ranges  across  the 
country  to  California  and  south  into  Mexico. 
In  the  summer  it  is  found  in  small  numbers 
as  far  north  as  Massachusetts,  but  in  the  east- 
ern states  is  not  common  north  of  Vir- 
ginia. It  is  the  most  common  bird  of  the 
south;  of  sociable  disposition,  dwelling  in 
town  and  country  garden  close  to  man's 
dwelling.  It  is  about  the  length  of  the  rob- 


MODENA 


1245 


MOFFAT 


in,  has  a  slender  body,  long  legs  and  a  no- 
ticeably long  tail;  is  gray  above,  the  wings 
and  tail  brownish  tipped  with  white,  in 
flight  the  white  conspicuous.  Incessantly  it 
changes  its  position,  hopping  and  darting 

about,  up, 
down  and 
sidewise, 
often  sing- 
ing as  it 
flashes  hith- 
er and  yon. 
It  is  one  of 
our  finest 
songsters, 
its  song  a 
combina- 
tion of  twit- 
t  e  r  i  n  g  , 
warbling 
and  chirp- 
ing; during 
moonlight 
nights, 
while  nest- 
ing, it  sings 
all  night.  Its 
natural  song 
MOCKINGBIRD  contains 

many  notes  similar  to  those  of  other  birds, 
though  its  powers  as  an  imitator  have  been 
exaggerated.  Besides  imitating  the  sweet 
tones  of  the  wood-thrush,  it  whistles,  makes 
sounds  like  a  creaking  wheelbarrow,  the 
barking  of  a  dog,  the  squeak  of  a  hurt 
chicken.  It  usually  resides  where  seen  and 
has  no  fixed  migrations.  The  nest,  often 
built  close  to  the  ground,  is  a  loosely  con- 
structed affair  of  leaves,  feathers,  grass. 
The  speckled  green  eggs  number  four  or  six. 
Many  nestlings  are  captured  and  sold  as  cage- 
birds.  It  is  said  the  bird  is  fast  disappearing 
in  portions  of  the  south.  See  Blanchan's 
Bird  Neighbors;  Hornaday's  American  Nat- 
ural History;  and  Chapman's  Bird  Life. 

Modena  (md1 'da-no),  a  city  in  northern 
Italy,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  23  miles  from  Bologna.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  walls,  which  have  been  made 
into  fine  walks.  The  square  tower  of  the 
Gothic  cathedral,  begun  in  1099,  is  one  of  the 
great  towers  of  Italy.  The  palace,  built  in 
the  i  yth  century,  contains  the  Este  library 
of  90,000  volumes  and  a  large  collection  of 
the  works  of  Guido,  Correggio,  the  Caracci 
and  other  Italian  masters,  among  them  a  re- 
clining figure  of  Cleopatra  by  Canova.  The 
university,  one  of  the  most  famous  in  Italy, 
founded  in  1678,  has  an  academy  of  science 
and  art,  an  observatory,  a  botanic  garden  and 
a  military  school.  It  has  45  teachers  and 
535  students.  The  trade  of  Modena  is  in 
farming  products,  and  its  manufactures  are 
silk,  leather,  cast  metals  and  vinegar.  Mo- 
dena was  an  Etruscan  city,  and  was  taken 
by  the  Gauls,  Romans,  Goths  and  Longo- 
bards.  Constantino  the  Great  destroyed  it; 


Charlemagne  made  it  the  capital  of  a  line  of 
counts;  and  the  Este  family  ruled  over  it 
from  1 288.  The  duchy  became  a  part  of  the 
Italian  kingdom  in  1860.  Population  of  the 
city  70,267. 

Modjeska  (mod-jts'ka') ,  Helena,  a  Polish 
actress,  was  born  at  Cracow,  Austria,  Oct. 
12,  1844.  From  1868  to  1876  she  was  the 
first  actress  of  Warsaw,  where  she  made  the 
plays  of  Shakespeare  popular.  She  tried 
farming  in  California,  but,  failing  in  her  en- 
terprise, returned  to  the  stage  in  1877  and 
won  a  complete  success  in  San  Francisco, 
though  she  acted  in  English,  a  language  she 
had  used  for  only  seven  months.  She  was  ac- 
knowledged to  be  one  of  the  best  of  modenr 
actresses,  especially  as  Juliet,  Rosalind,  Mary 
Stuart,  Camille,  Cleopatra  and  Adrienne 
Lecouvreur,  in  which  characters  she  obtained 
her  greatest  reputation  in  the  United  States 
and  in  Great  Britain.  She  died  April  8,  1909. 

Mod ocs  (mo'doks),  a  tribe  of  American  In- 
dians formerly  living  in  northern  California, 
near  Lake  Klamath.  Their  houses  were 
pits,  roofed  with  wooden  slabs  and  covered 
with  earth.  They  had  several  contests  with 
the  white  settlers,  and  finally  4 1  out  of  46  of 
their  warriors  were  treacherously  murdered 
in  1855  by  the  whites,  when  invited  guests 
at  a  feast.  This  treachery  they  never  for- 
got, and  became  bitter  enemies.  A  part  of 
the  tribe,  under  a  chief  called  Captain  Jack, 
returned  to  their  old  home,  but  were  ordered 
away  by  the  United  States  troops.  They  re- 
pulsed the  troops  and  retreated  to  what  is 
known  as  the  lava  beds  in  the  mountains,  in 
the  fall  of  1872,  where  they  defended  them- 
selves against  repeated  efforts  to  dislodge 
them  until  the  summer  of  1873.  Their 
chiefs  were  executed,  and  the  rest  of  band 
were  carried  to  Indian  Territory.  Those 
who  had  not  taken  part  in  the  war  remained 
at  the  Klamath  agency. 

Moff'at,  Robert,  a  Scottish  missionary, 
was  born  in  East  Lothian,  Dec.  21,  1795.  In 
1816  he  sailed  for  South  Africa,  under  the 
London  Missionary  Society,  and  began  his 
work  in  Great  Namaland,  in  the  country  of  a 
chief  called  Afrikaner,  who  had  been  a  terror 
to  all  the  region  until  he  came  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Christianity.  Moffat  opened  mis- 
sion stations,  printed  the  Bible  and  other 
books  in  the  native  language,  and  made  the 
whole  region  a  center  of  Christian  light. 
From  1838  to  1843  he  was  in  England,  pub- 
lishing his  Missionary  Labors  and  telling 
crowds  of  hearers  about  his  adventures  and 
work.  He  returned  with  other  missionaries, 
remaining  until  1874,  when  after  54  years  of 
missionary  work  he  once  more  made  Eng- 
land his  home,  where  his  labors  were  honored 
by  a  gift  of  $25,000  and  a  public  reception  in 
London.  He  died  on  Aug.  8,  1883.  His  in- 
fluence led  Livingstone  (q.  v.),  whose  wife 
was  Mary,  the  daughter  of  Robert  Moffat,  to 
Africa,  and  Livingstone  in  turn  won  Stan- 
ley (q.  ».)  for  Africa  (i875-9o)J 


MOGUL 


1246 


MOHAMMED 


Mogul  (md-g&l').     See  INDIA. 

Mohammed  (md-htim'm&d)  or  Mahomet, 
the  founder  of  Islam  or  the  Mohammedan 
religion,  was  born  at  Mecca,  Arabia,  about 
570  A.  D.  His  early  life  was  spent  in  pov- 
erty, partly  as  a  shepherd,  until  acting  in 
some  capacity,  perhaps  as  a  camel-driver,  in 
the  caravan  of  a  rich  widow,  Khadija.  She, 
though  1 5  years  older,  became  his  wife.  He 
spent  his  time  after  this,  while  a  merchant, 
largely  in  lonely  meditation.  Christianity 
and  Judaism  both  prevailed  in  the  region, 
and  the  ancient  Arabian  paganism  had  lost 
its  hold.  Missionaries  from  Arab  tribes  be- 
gan preaching  at  Mecca  and  Medina,  and 
were  the  forerunners  of  Mohammed.  His 
first  religious  revelation,  as  he  called  it,  re- 
ceived from  the  angel  Gabriel,  when  he  was 
40,  was  a  command  to  preach  a  new  re- 
ligion. These  revelations  were  always  at- 
tended by  spasms,  something  like  fits  of  epi- 
lepsy, which  were  believed  by  his  enemies  to 
be  the  work  of  demons.  The  revelations 
continued  at  intervals  and  were  collected 
and  written  down  after  his  death,  forming 
the  Koran  or  sacred  writings  of  this  religion. 
His  first  revelation,  when  told  to  his  near 
friends,  brought  him  only  ridicule,  but  at  the 
end  of  four  years  he  had  40  followers.  The 
command  was  then  given  him  to  come  for- 
ward publicly  as  a  preacher,  which  he  did, 
exhorting  to  a  moral  life  and  a  belief  in  one 
God,  whose  prophet  he  was.  At  first  Mo- 
hammed was  looked  upon  as  a  harmless 
maniac,  but  as  the  number  of  his  followers 
increased  and  his  attacks  on  the  old  religion 
became  more  severe,  the  people  rose  against 
him.  His  uncle,  though  not  believing  in  him, 
protected  him,  carrying  him  to  a  strong  cas- 
tle where  he  stayed  three  years.  His  whole 
clan  was  outlawed  and  his  followers  suffered 
persecution,  100  fleeing  to  Abyssinia.  After 
his  return  to  Mecca  he  lost  his  wife  and 
uncle,  and  was  reduced  to  poverty.  He 
made  several  new  converts,  from  Medina, 
increasing  their  number  with  each  pilgrimage 
that  was  made  to  Mecca,  until,  when  they 
numbered  70,  he  decided  to  flee  to  the 
friendly  city  of  Medina,  which  he  reached  in 
622  A.  D.  This  flight  or  Hegira  is  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Mohammedan  era.  His  posi- 
tion was  at  once  changed,  and  from  being  a 
despised  maniac  he  became  the  ruler  of  the 
city  and  the  head  of  two  powerful  Arab 
tribes.  His  most  important  act  at  this  time 
was  the  giving  permission  to  carry  on  war 
against  the  enemies  of  the  new  faith.  Vic- 
torious in  the  first  battle  against  the  Mec- 
cans,  adventurers  flocked  to  his  standard, 
and  he  carried  on  the  war  with  the  Arab 
tribes  successfully,  yet  with  great  cruelty. 
He  finally  made  a  ten  years'  peace  with  the 
Meccans,  which  allowed  him  to  send  his  mis- 
sionaries through  Arabia,  and  he  soon  made 
his  first  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  with  2,000  fol- 
lowers. From  this  time  his  power  increased 
rapidly.  He  marched  to  Mecca  with  an 


army  of  10,000  men;  and  was  proclaimed 
chief.  Tribe  after  tribe  sent  messengers  to 
do  homage  to  him  either  as  the  Prophet  of 
God  or  the  prince  of  Arabia. 

His  last  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  was  made  in 
A.  D.  632,  the  tenth  year  of  the  Hegira,  and 
at  that  time  he  ordered  the  ceremonies  of 
the  great  pilgrimages,  which  are  still  ob- 
served. His  last  sickness  occurred  in  the 
house  of  his  favorite  wife  Ayesha,  who  was 
but  one  of  many  whom  he  married  after  the 
death  of  Khadija.  He  called  for  writing 
materials,  probably  to  indicate  his  successor, 
but  Omar,  his  most  influential  friend,  pre- 
vented their  being  given  him,  fearing  he 
would  appoint  Ali,  while  he  himself  wanted 
Abu  Bekr.  Mohammed  died  at  Medina, 
June  8,  632.  Abu  Bekr  said  to  the  gathered 
crowd,  who  would  not  believe  in  his  death: 
"Whoever  among  you  has  served  Moham- 
med, let  him  know  that  Mohammed  is  dead; 
but  he  who  has  served  the  God  of  Moham- 
med let  him  continue  in  His  service,  for  He  is 
still  alive  and  never  dies."  The  tomb  of 
Mohammed,  in  the  house  where  he  died,  is 
now  part  of  the  mosque  at  Medina 

The  religion  of  Mohammed  recognized  the 
one  God,  the  creator  of  all  things;  Adam, 
Noah,  Abraham,  Moses,  Jesus  and  Moham- 
med as  successive  prophets,  who  proclaimed 
new  laws  which  did  away  with  all  that  had 
gone  before;  the  resurrection  from  the  dead; 
a  final  judgment;  and  future  rewards  or  pun 
ishments.  It  commanded  prayer,  almsgiv 
ing,  fasting  and  pilgrimages.  It  forbad ; 
the  drinking  of  wine,  all  games  cf  chance, 
the  use  of  blood  of  swine  or  animals  dying 
from  disease  as  food ;  and  the  worship  of  idols. 
It  allows  polygamy,  though  limiting  the  num- 
ber of  wives  to  four.  Every  Mohammedan 
prays  five  times  a  day,  and  the  hour  foi 

Erayer,  called  by  the  muezzin,  is  announced 
y  this  officer,  from  the  minarets  of  the 
mosques.  When  praying  their  faces  are 
turned  toward  Mecca.  The  Koran  (q.  v.), 
the  sacred  book  of  the  Mohammedans,  is 
made  up  of  the  "revelations"  made  to  Mo- 
hammed, which  he  had  written  down,  but 
which  were  not  collected  until  after  his  death. 
It  comprises  some  114  chapters,  and  the  con- 
tents are  drawn  from  the  ancient  Arab  tra- 
ditions, the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  the 
Talmud  of  the  Jews  and  later  writings. 
Eighty  years  after  the  death  of  Mohammed, 
Islam,  as  the  Mohammedans  call  their  re- 
ligion, ruled  in  Arabia,  Syria,  Persia,  Egypt, 
North  Africa  and  Spain  Two  hundred 
millions  of  the  human  race  embrace  it  to-day. 
Its  conquests  in  modern  times  have  been  in 
Africa,  but  its  power  has  declined  in  other 
countries.  See  Mahomet  by  Washington  Ir- 
ving and  Life  of  Mahomet  and  Mahomet  and 
Islam  by  Sir  W.  Muir. 

Mohammed  or  Mehemet  AH  (mdr  he-met 
d'le),  viceroy  of  Egypt,  was  born  at  Kavala, 
Macedonia,  in  1769.  He  served  in  the  Tur- 
kish army  in  the  war  against  the  French  in 


MOHAVE  DESERT 


1247 


MOLECULE 


Egypt,  and  became  one  of  the  most  popular 
of  military  leaders.  After  the  French  were 
driven  out,  he  fought  with  the  Turks  against 
the  Mamelukes,  and  finally  was  made  pasha 
or  chief  ruler  by  the  people  of  Cairo  and  con- 
firmed in  his  power  by  the  sultan  of  Turkey. 
After  many  contests  with  the  Mamelukes, 
aided  during  part  of  the  time  by  the  British, 
he  in  181 1  enticed  a  large  number  into  Cairo 
and  treacherously  murdered  470  of  his  guests, 
following  it  by  a  general  massacre  of  the 
Mamelukes  throughout  the  country.  In  1816 
he  conquered  part  of  Arabia,  in  1820  Nubia 
and  part  of  Sudan.  His  armies,  under  his 
son  Ibrahim  (17.  v.),  invaded  Syria,  which 
Turkey  ceded  to  Egypt  on  condition  of  trib- 
ute. His  conquests  were  checked  when 
within  six  days'  march  of  Constantinople, 
by  the  allied  forces  of  the  European  powers. 
In  1840  he  was  compelled  by  Great  Britain, 
Russia,  Austria  and  Prussia  to  accept  terms 
of  peace,  by  which  Egypt  was  secured  to  him 
and  his  descendants  on  condition  of  yielding 
Syria  to  the  sultan  and  paying  tribute.  He 
introduced  many  modern  improvements  into 
Egypt,  maintained  a  standing  army,  and  in- 
creased irrigation,  the  cultivation  of  cotton 
and  manufactures.  He  died  at  Cairo,  Aug. 
2,  1849. 

Moha've  Desert.  This  desert  region  lies 
in  southern  California,  a  triangle  bounded  to 
the  east  by  Mohave  River  and  to  the  south 
by  the  San  Bernardino  Mountains.  It  is 
northeast  of  Los  Angeles,  and  includes  parts 
of  San  Bernardino,  Los  Angeles  and  Kern 
Counties 

Mo'hawks,  American  Indians,  one  of  the 
Fi  ve  Nations  or  Iroquois  They  were  friends 
of  the  Dutch  in  New  York  and  afterwards  of 
the  English,  and  during  the  French  and  Eng- 
lish wars  they  did  good  service  in  Canada. 
In  the  Revolutionary  War,  under  Brant, 
they  fought  with  the  English  and  massacred 
American  settlers.  Since  1784  they  have 
been  settled  in  Upper  Canada  (Ontario). 
See  History  of  the  Five  Indian  Nations  by 
Golden  and  Brant  and  Red  Jacket  by  Eggle- 
ston  and  Seelye. 

Mohawk  Valley.  This  valley,  which  is 
over  100  miles  in  length,  is  traversed  by  the 
Mohawk,  a  fine  stream  which  joins  the  Hud- 
son at  Cohoes.  The  valley,  which  is  a  nat- 
ural route  between  New  York  and  the  Great 
Lakes,  was  the  scene  of  some  of  the  chief  cam- 
paigns of  the  War  of  Independence.  It  is  a 
rich  and  prosperous  agricultural  district, 
noted  for  its  smiling  beauty. 

Mohicans  (md-he'kanz)  or  Mohegans  (mo- 
he1 'ganz) ,  a  tribe  of  Indians  belonging  to  the 
Algonquin  family,  who  were  living  on  the 
Hudson  when  its  valley  was  settled  by  the 
Dutch.  They  fled  to  Connecticut,  being 
driven  there  by  the  Mohawks.  They  joined 
the  English  against  the  French,  but  during 
the  Revolution  sided  with  the  Americans. 
They  have  since  been  scattered,  some  settling 
at  Oneida,  N.  Y.,  some  moving  to  Wisconsin,  | 


and  a  small  remnant  going  to  Kansas.  They 
have  mostly  given  up  their  language,  and 
have  become  citizens.  The  name  has  been 
made  famous  by  Cooper's  novel,  The  Last  of 
the^  Mohicans.  See  Indian  Mission  at  Stock- 
bridge  by  Jones  and  Indian  History  for  Young 
Folks  by  Drake. 

Moldau  (mdl'dou),  the  principal  river  in 
Bohemia,  rises  3,870  feet  above  the  sea,  in 
the  southwestern  part  of  the  country,  and 
flows  first  southeast  and  then  north,  until, 
after  278  miles,  it  joins  the  Elbe  about  20 
miles  north  of  Prague. 

Molda'via.     See  RUMANIA. 

Mole,    a   small  burrowing  animal  with 

Eointed  head,  no  neck,  very  large,  spade-like 
*ont  feet,  short  front  legs  and  thick  clumsy 
body.  The  front  paws  are  broad  and  stout 
and  well-fitted  for  digging,  the  nose  for  bor- 
ing and  pushing.  Moles  are  covered  with  a 
dense,  velvety  fur  of  a  dark  color.  As  they 
lead  an  underground  life,  their  eyes  are  mi- 
nute or  rudimentary  and  often  covered  with 
skin.  They  have  no  external  ear.  They  are 
found  both  in  the  Old  and  the  New  World  in 
the  northern  hemisphere.  The  common  Eng- 
lish mole  disfigures  lawns,  pastures  and  gar- 
dens extensively  by  the  ridges  and  furrows 
it  makes  hunting  after  food,  but,  as  it  feeds 
on  injurious  larvae  and  insects,  it  compen- 
sates for  the  damage.  The  European  mole 
lives  in  a  colony,  in  a  fortress  that  is  compli- 
cated. In  little  hillocks  of  earth,  called  mole- 
hills, there  is  constructed  a  central  chamber, 
surrounded  by  two  ring-like  galleries,  one 
above  the  other.  These  circular  galleries 
are  connected  by  vertical  passages,  and  the 
upper  one  has  five  openings  into  the  central 
cavity.  From  the  lower  gallery  about  nine 
alleys  lead  off  in  different  directions  toward 
the  feeding-grounds.  They  feed  mainly  on 
earthworms,  and  also  eat  insects,  larv?e  and 
field  mice  Occasionally,  on  fine  summer 
nights  they  issue  from  their  burrows.  They 
are  great  sleepers  as  well  as  great  and  rapid 
workers  Our  American  species  are  all 
small,  and  have  very  soft,  silky  fur.  Our 
common  mole  is  about  six  and  one  half  inches 
long,  has  glossy  hair  of  varying  shades  of 
gray,  sometimes  of  a  rusty  tinge.  Its  range 
is  southern  Canada  and  the  lowlands  of  the 
eastern  United  States  down  to  Florida,  com- 
mon in  dry  meadow  lands.  The  hairy-tailed 
mole  (Brewer's  mole)  belongs  distinctly  to 
the  north.  The  star-nosed  mole  spends 
much  time  about  the  water,  tunnels  along 
brook  and  pond  and  in  swampy  soil,  can  swim 
under  water  as  well  as  on  the  surface.  To  the 
prairie  country  belongs  the  prairie  or  silver 
mole.  Moles  are  invaluable  to  the  farmer, 
waging  war  on  insect  life  in  the  soil ;  though 
often  accused  by  him  of  stealing  his  corn- 
seed  and  vegetables. 

Mole-Cricket.     See  CRICKET. 

Molecule  (mol't-kul)  is  a  word  which  is 
employed  in  science  with  two  rather  differ- 
ent meanings.  Experiment  has  shown  that 


MOLIE~RE 


1248 


MOLLY  MAGUIRES 


matter  is  not  continuous,  but  is  probably 
made  up  of  very  small  particles.  Accord- 
ingly the  chemist  uses  the  word  molecule 
with  considerable  accuracy  to  mean  the 
smallest  portion  of  any  kind  of  matter  which 
can  exist  alone  and  yet  preserve  the  proper- 
ties of  this  particular  kind  of  matter.  Thus 
the  smallest  portion  of  table  salt  which  can 
exhibit  the  properties  of  table  salt  must  con- 
tain still  smaller  parts  of  sodium  and  of 
chlorine.  These  smaller  particles  of  which 
the  molecule  is  made  up  are  called  atoms  (q. 
v.).  But  even  when  a  body  is  made  up  of 
atoms  of  one  kind,  these  atoms  rarely  remain 
uncombined,  but  unite  with  each  other  to 
form  molecules.  Thus  hydrogen  gas  is  com- 

Kosed  of  molecules  made  up  of  two  atoms  of 
ydrogen.  Remsen  distinguishes  between 
molecules  and  atoms  as  follows:  "Atoms 
are  the  indivisible  constituents  of  molecules. 
They  are  the  smallest  particles  of  the  ele- 
ments that  take  part  in  the  chemical  reac- 
tions, and  are,  for  the  greater  part,  incapable 
of  existence  in  the  free  state,  being  generally 
found  in  combination  with  other  atoms, 
either  of  the  same  kind  or  of  different  kinds." 
In  chemistry  the  molecule  of  a  compound 
consists  of  atoms  of  a  different  kind,  while 
the  molecule  of  an  element  consists  of  atoms 
of  the  same  kind. 

In  physics  the  word  molecule  is  used  more 
loosely,  often,  to  mean  the  smallest  particle 
of  a  substance  with  which  we  are  dealing, 
whether  it  be  made  up  of  one  or  more  atoms 
and  whether  these  atoms  be  of  the  same  or  of 
different  kinds.  Thus  there  is  reason  for 
thinking  that  the  diameter  of  a  hydrogen 
molecule  is  something  like  5.8  x  io~8  centi- 
meters, while  the  diameter  of  a  carbon  diox- 
ide molecule  is  larger,  namely,  9.3  x  io~8 
centimeters.  Molecule  is  used  in  this  sense 
in  the  classical  illustration  given  by  Lord 
Kelvin,  that  a  drop  of  water  magnified  to 
appear  the  size  of  the  earth  would  be  made 
up  of  molecules  about  the  size  of  cricket 
balls.  Too  little  is  yet  known  about  mole- 
cules even  to  define  exactly  what  is  meant 
by  "the  size  of  a  molecule."  See  ATOM. 

HENRY  CREW. 

Mplie*re  (md'lydr'),  Jean  Baptiste  Po- 
quelin,  a  French  dramatist,  was  born  at 
Paris,  Jan.  15,  1622.  His  father's  name  was 
Poquelin,  the  name  Moliere  being  taken  for 
the  stage.  He  began  as  a  theater  manager, 
failing  in  Paris  but  succeeding  in  the  prov- 
inces, returning  to  Paris  in  1658,  where  he 
organized  a  regular  theater.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral of  his  comedies  while  traveling  through 
the  country  with  his  theatrical  troupe.  He 
depended  largely  for  his  tragedies,  as  a  thea- 
ter manager,  on  Corneille  and  Racine,  and  in 
his  comedies  and  farces  he  borrowed  from 
Spanish  and  Italian  literature,  owing  to  the 
haste  with  which  many  of  them  were  written. 
From  1659,  when  the  first  of  his  great  com- 
edies appeared,  until  1673  not  a  year  passed 
without  adding  one  at  least  to  these  immor- 


tal works.  He  attacked  with  his  satire  re- 
ligious hypocrisy,  in  Tartuffe,  which  in  con- 
sequence was  forbidden  the  stage  for  five 
years;  the  vanity  and  follies  of  women;  the 
frivolity  of  the  nobles ;  and  the  pretensions  of 
the  learned  classes,  especially  the  doctors. 
His  wit,  satire  and  power  over  language  place 
him  in  the  highest  rank  of  French  writers; 
and  his  plays  have  held  the  stage  for  250 
years.  His  greatest  works  are  The  School 
for  Wives,  The  Misanthrope,  Tartuffe,  The 
School _  for  Husbands,  The  Physician  in  Spite 
of  Himself,  The  Imaginary  Invalid  and 
Learned  Women.  He  died  at  Paris,  Feb.  17, 
1673.  A  century  after  his  death  his  bust 
was  admitted  to  the  French  Academy,  which 
had  never  received  him  as  a  member  because 
he  would  not  give  up  his  profession. 

Moline  (mo-lenr),  a  city  of  Illinois,  in 
Rock  Island  County,  on  the  Mississippi,  179 
miles  west  of  Chicago.  It  is  separated  from 
Rock  Island  by  a  narrow  channel,  which  is 
used  as  a  water-power.  It  is  a  manufactur- 
ing city,  with  numerous  mills  and  factories. 
Population  24,199.  See  DAVENPORT  and 
ROCK  ISLAND. 

Mol'lusks,  a  subkingdom  of  animals  with 
a  soft  body,  as  snails,  clams  and  others.  The 
body  is  not  jointed  as  in  the  earthworm  and 
crayfish  Mollusks  usually  possess  a  shell, 
but  there  are  some  naked  forms.  They  live 
on  land  and  in  water,  both  fresh  and  salt. 
Some  mollusks  have  a  larval  form,  similar  to 
that  of  some  worms,  and  this  serves  to  con- 
nect the  two  groups.  The  group  is  a  large 
one,  and  is  divided  into  classes  as  follows: 
(i)  Gasteropoda,  those  like  snails,  crawling 
on  a  broad,  fleshy  foot.  The  class  contains 
common  snails,  slugs  and  many  seashells, 
like  whelks.  (See  SNAIL  and  LIMPET.)  Land 
snails,  feeding  on  plants  in  damp  districts,  are 
common  in  many  sections  of  the  United 
States  and  other  countries.  In  the  Philip- 
pines are  many  tree-snails.  Pond  snails  are 
abundant  in  still  water;  there  are  flattened 
forms,  long,  sharp-pointed  ones  and  others 
showing  gradations  between  the  two.  (2) 
Lamelhbranchiata,  mollusks  with  gills  like 
plates  or  lamellae,  represented  by  clams,  oys- 
ters and  mussels  (which  see).  Their  shells 
have  two  valves,  and  they  therefore  are 
called  bivalves.  (3)  Cephalopoda,  mollusks 
with  processes  called  arms  or  feet  clustered 
around  the  head,  and  therefore  named  the 
headfooted.  The  arms  are  provided  with 
sucking  disks.  (See  CUTTLEFISH,  SQUID, 
NAUTILUS.)  (4)  A mphineura,  containing  the 
chitons,  and  (5)  Scaphopoda,  represented  by 
the  elephant  tooth  she  11,  are  two  classes  of  less 
popular  interest.  The  mollusks  are  repre- 
sented by  20,000  living  and  19,000  fossil 
species.  See  Woodward's  Manual  of  the 
Mollusca. 

Molly  Maguires  (mol'i-ma-gwirzr'))  an 
Irish  secret  society  which  existed  from  1867 
to  1877  in  the  coal  regions  of  Pennsylvania. 
The  name  came  from  Ireland,  where  a  band 


MOLTING 


1249 


MOMMSEN 


of  "ribbon  men,"  disguised  as  women,  carried 
on  their  outrages  by  night.  The  society  in 
Pennsylvania  attempted  to  obtain  political 
power  by  a  system  of  terror,  committing 
murders  when  opposed.  A  number  of  the 
leaders  were  convicted  and  executed  by  the 
aid  of  a  detective  who  for  three  years  acted 
as  the  secretary  of  one  of  the  branches  of  the 
society. 

Mol'ting  or  Ecdysis,  the  periodic  shed- 
ding of  the  skin  or  its  appendages.  Under 
this  are  included  loss  of  plumage  among 
birds;  shedding  of  hair  find  horns  among  ani- 
mals ;  and  casting  of  the  skin  in  the  lower  ani- 
mal life.  Throughout  the  year  among  birds 
there  is  more  or  less  loss  of  feathers,  but  a  no- 
ticeable molt  takes  place  once  or  twice  a 
year.  Generally  the  loss  of  feathers  is  ac- 
complished gradually,  renewal  about  equal- 
izing loss;  but  some  birds  are  handicapped 
by  the  molt,  become  quite  bare,  scarcely 
able  to  fly.  Wild  birds  molt  during  the  sea- 
son of  an  abundance  of  food,  and  during  this 
period  birds  need  a  variety  and  quantity  of 
food.  Pet  birds  often  droop  at  molting  time 
from  want  of  care.  The  following  is  recom- 
mended for  them:  a  little  hemp-seed,  some 
stale  white  bread  soaked  in  water,  partially 
ripe  plantain  and  other  weed-seed  for  which 
the  bird  shows  a  liking,  a  bit  of  fresh  fruit, 
a  little  grated  carrot  or  beet,  while  a  mari- 
gold flower  may  be  placed  between  the  bars 
for  the  bird  to  pick  at.  An  egg-paste  is  rel- 
ished, which  is  made  by  adding  cracker- 
crumbs  and  seasoning  of  cayenne  pepper  to 
a  grated,  hard-boiled  egg.  For  care  of  birds 
in  molting  see  Page's  Feathered  Pets. 

Moltke  (mdlfke),  Hellmuth,  Count  von, 
a  distinguished  German  field-marshal,  was 
born,  Oct.  26,  r  800 
at  Meek  lenburg- 
Schwerin.  His  fa- 
ther being  a  Danish 
officer,  he  was  sent 
to  a  military  school 
at  Copenhagen  and 
entered  the  Danish 
army  as  a  lieuten- 
ant, but  left  it  for 
the  Prussian  serv- 
ice. He  spent  con- 
siderable time  in 
the  study  of  mili- 
tary tactics  and 
foreign  languages, 
and  was  appointed 
on  the  staff  of  Prince  Frederick  William.  He 
was  chief  of  the  general  staff  of  the  army  in 
Berlin  from  1858  to  1888,  and  reorganized 
the  Prussian  army.  He  also  made  plans  for 
coast  defenses  and  the  creation  of  a  navy. 
His  great  powers  as  a  military  leader  were 
shown  in  the  wars  with  Denmark  in  1863, 
with  Austria  in  1866  and  with  France  in 
1870.  He  was  called  The  Silent,  from  his 
great  modesty  and  reserve.  He  wrote  Letters 
worn  Turkey,  The  Campaign  in  Turkey,  The 


COUNT  VON  MOLTKE 


Italian  Campaign  of  1859  and  Letters  from 
Russia,  while  the  History  of  the  German  and 
French  War,  by  the  general  staff,  was  writ- 
ten under  his  direction  and  much  of  it  by  hm. 
He  died  at  Berlin,  April  24,  1891.  See  Life 
by  Mxiller,  translated  by  Pinkerton. 

Moluccas  (mo-luk'dz),  called  also  Spice 
Islands,  a  division  of  the  Malay  Archipelago 
or  Dutch  East  Indies.  It  includes  most  of 
the  islands  between  Celebes  and  New  Guinea, 
east  and  west,  and  between  Timor  and  the 
Philippines,  north  and  south.  It  is  divided 
into  the  northern  and  the  southern  Moluccas. 
The  northern  group  runs  from  north  to  south, 
is  surrounded  by  deep  water,  includes  ten 
or  12  large  islands  with  smaller  ones,  and 
has  a  population  of  about  60,000.  The  lar- 
gest island  is  Jilolo,  while  the  smaller  islands 
of  Tidor  and  Ternate  have  been  the  most  im- 
portant ones.  They  were  occupied  by  civi- 
lized tribes  of  Malays,  who  ruled  the  ruder 
tribes  on  the  surrounding  islands,  and  later 
were  the  seats  of  powerful  Mohammedan 
sultans;  and  now,  as  the  seat  of  the  Dutch 
government  or  residency,  Ternate  has  most 
of  the  trade  of  the  northern  Moluccas,  ex- 
porting spices,  tortoise  shell,  beeswax  and 
birds  of  paradise.  The  southern  Moluccas 
are  separated  from  the  northern  group  by 
a  very  deep  ocean  chasm,  and  are  connected 
by  a  shallow  ocean  bed.  There  are  two  large 
islands,  three  or  four  smaller  ones  and  sev- 
eral clusters  of  small  ones,  covering  about 
43,864  square  miles,  and  having  a  population 
of  410,190.  Amboyna,  the  capital  of  the 
Dutch  possessions,  carries  on  a  large  trade  in 
cloves,  500,000  pounds  being  raised  in  some 
seasons  in  the  clove  gardens  of  the  govern- 
ment. Banda,  the  third  Dutch  residency,  is 
the  home  of  the  nutmeg,  which  grows  on  the 
slopes  of  the  volcanic  islands.  Besides  nut- 
meg and  mace,  it  also  exports  sago  and  cocoa- 
nuts.  The  region  of  the  Moluccas  is  vol- 
canic, and  there  are  several  still  active  vol- 
canoes, from  one  of  which,  Api  in  Banda, 
there  was  a  terrible  eruption  in  1825.  The 
climate  is  tempered  by  the  ocean  breezes 
and  by  the  height  of  the  islands,  some  of  them 
rising  8,000  or  10,000  feet  above  the  sea. 
The  animals  are  curious.  They  are  the  fly- 
ing opossum,  the  bird  of  paradise,  the 
mound-building  bird,  the  long-armed  beetle, 
most  gorgeous  butterflies  and  ber.utiful  sea 
anemones,  shells  and  corals. 

Mommsen  (mom'zen),  Th-iodor,  a  German 
historian,  was  born  at  Garding,  Schleswig, 
Nov.  30,  1817.  He  spent  three  years  travel- 
ing in  France  and  Italy  and  studying  Roman 
inscriptions,  edited  a  newspaper  in  Schles- 
wig, and  held  a  professor'r  chair  at  Leipsic, 
that  of  Roman  law  at  Zurich  and  the  same 
professorship  at  Breslau  and  that  of  ancient 
history  at  Berlin.  His  large  library  was 
burned  in  1880,  and  a  new  one  was  presented 
him  by  his  English  students.  He  edited, 
with  others,  severr.l  historical  works,  ami 
wrote  a  number  on  Roman  law,  Roman  coins 


MONACO 


1250 


MONEY 


and  kindred  subjects,  making  him  famous  as 
one  of  the  greatest  scholars  of  the  age.  His 
great  work,  The  History  of  Rome  (to  B.  C. 
45),  has  passed  through  many  editions,  and 
been  translated  into  French  and  English. 
It  was  supplemented  by  a  history  of  the  Ro- 
man provinces  and  by  another  on  Roman 
constitutional  law.  Bryans  and  Hendy 
abridged  it  admirably  for  schoolboys.  From 
1873  to  1882  he  was  a  member  of  the  Prus- 
sian chamber  of  deputies,  when  he  acted  with 
the  national  Liberals.  He  died  on  Nov.  i, 
1903. 

Monaco  (mon'a-ko),  a  small  principality 
on  the  Mediterranean,  nine  miles  from  Nice. 
It  covers  eight  square  miles,  and  consists  of 
a  rocky  promontory,  on  which  the  city  is 
built,  and  a  small  strip  of  coast.  Here,  with- 
in the  petty  state,  is  the  great  gambling  town 
and  casino  of  Monte  Carlo  (q.  v.) .  It  has  be- 
longed to  the  Grimaldi  family  for  over  900 
years.  They  have  several  times  put  their 
countrv  under  French  protection,  and  in 
1859  the  whole  region  belonged  for  a  short 
time  to  Victor  Emmanuel.  The  owner  at  an- 
other time  sold  a  part  of  his  dominions,  in- 
cluding Mentone,  to  Napoleon  III  for  $200,- 
ooo.  His  capital  is  now  under  French 
protection.  The  climate  is  mild,  and  palms, 
a.oes  and  other  southern  plants  abound. 
Population  of  the  entire  principality  15,180, 
the  town  of  Monaco  having  3,292  and  Monte 
Carlo  3,794. 

Mon'asteries,  literally,  are  dwellings  in 
which  persons  live  alone.  The  name  is  usu- 
ally applied  to  the  homes  of  companies  of 
monks;  but  is  often  extended  to  the  dwell- 
ings of  less  rigid  and  ancient  clerical  orders 
than  those  of  monks  properly  so  called. 
The  idea  of  the  monastery  developed  out  of 
the  older  idea  of  the  sanctity  of  a  religious 
life  led  in  the  solitude  of  the  desert,  which 
may  be  traced  back  to  the  cell  of  Paul,  the 
first  hermit  (250  A.  D.).  Monasteries 
have  played  a  most  important  part  in  his- 
tory, especially  as  centers  for  the  transmis- 
sion of  learning  and  civilization.  In  such 
countries  as  Saxon  England  the  monks 
not  only  taught  Latin  and  the  arts  of  the  Ro- 
mans, but  improved  methods  of  agriculture 
and  modes  of  living.  In  the  middle  t-ges 
they  took  on  themselves  the  function  of 
schools,  especially  for  children  of  gentle 
birth.  They  gained  very  extensive  lands, 
which  were  exempt  from  the  feudal  dues. 
Their  success  in  this  direction  made  the  mon- 
asteries an  object  of  jealousy  and  cupidity 
to  the  nobles;  and  one  finds  their  property 
in  England  confiscated  under  Henry  VIII. 
Similar  confiscations  took  place  all  over 
Europe  in  connection  with  the  property  of 
tne  Knights  of  the  Temple.  In  gen  ral, 
monasteries  are  classed  as  belonging  either 
to  monks,  friars,  military  orders,  regular 
canons  or  regular  clerks.  The  most  import- 
ant ord~r  of  monks  was  the  Benedictines, 
who  acted  as  the  chief  educative  and  mis- 


sionary force  in  the  medieval  church,  though 
in  postreformation  days  they  were  surpassed 
in  these  respects  by  the  famous  order  of 
Jesuits.  Monasteries  express  an  ascetic 
ideal  of  life  which  is  not  in  hrrt-nony  with 
modern  thought ;  and  the  recent  attacks  upon 
them  in  France  are  only  the  culmination  of 
a  movement  which  Included  the  suppression 
of  the  Tesuits  and  the  blows  struck  at  the 
religious  orders  by  Joseph  II  of  Austria. 
But  the  freedom  allowed  in  America  to  re- 
ligious orders  has  in  this  country  led  to  a 
rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  inmates  of 
monasteries,  of  whom  there  are  now  said  to 
be  about  9,000  men  and  50,000  women. 

Monastic  (mon-as-ter') ,  also  called  Bi- 
tolia,  the  second  city  in  Turkish  Macedonia, 
is  situated  in  a  broad  mountain  valley,  90 
miles  northwest  of  Salonica.  It  manufac- 
tures carpets  and  silver  filigree,  and  trades  in 
corn  and  other  farm  products.  The  Turks 
have  made  it  the  head  of  an  army  corps,  as 
it  is  an  important  military  point.  Its  an- 
cient Greek  name  was  Pelagonia.  The  Al- 
banian beys  were  massacred  here  in  1833. 
Population  45,000.  Monastir  also  is  a  prov- 
ince in  European  Turkey;  area  1 1,000  square 
miles;  population  848,900. 

Moncton  (miink'tun),  a  city  in  New 
Brunswick.  The  Intercolonial  Railway  sys- 
tem is  centralized  here,  and  here,  too,  are  its 
workshops.  Population  9,000. 

Mon'ey  is  the  name  given  to  those  sub- 
stances which  are  used  to  facilitate  commer- 
cial exchanges  and  to  serve  as  a  measure  of 
values.  Nearly  all  metals  have  been  so  used 
at  some  time  or  by  some  nation,  but  gold 
and  si'ver  have  been  found  the  most  con- 
veni°n  and  stable  for  general  purposes. 
Among  savage  races  beads,  shells  and  even 
less  valuable  substances  have  been  accepted 
as  mom  y,  and  among  all  civilized  nations 
certificates  of  indebtedness  have  frequently 
taken  its  place.  The  value  of  money  is,  in 
a  measure,  fixed  like  other  values  by  the  law 
of  supply  and  demand ;  the  supply  being  the 
amount  in  circulation  at  the  time  and  in  the 
community  in  question ;  and  the  demand  be- 
ing *he  amount  of  commercial  transactions 
carried  on  for  which  money  is  needed.  But 
into  the  t  roblem  so  many  other  elements  en- 
ter, that  no  simple  theory  can  be  made  at 
any  time  to  account  for  all  the  phenomena. 
The  use  of  money  raises  commercial  transac- 
tions from  mere  barter  to  a  different  and 
higher  plane.  If  the  world  had  no  money, 
the  would-be  seller  could  only  sell  as  he 
might  find  some  one  with  a  desire  also  to  sell 
some  article  of  his  own,  which  the  first  at  the 
same  time  desired  to  obtain.  But  by  the 
use  of  money  anything  can  be  sold  or  any- 
thing can  be  bought,  at  any  time,  by  persons 
having  the  money  to  facilitate  the  transac- 
tions. The  supply  of  gold  being  limited  and 
its  uses  manifold,  it  has  always  been  held  at 
a  much  higher  ratio  of  value  than  other  met- 
als, how  much  higher  depending  upon  the 


MONGOLIA 


Z25X 


MONITOR 


output  of  the  mines  and  the  extent  of  the 
transactions  requiring  its  use.  In  deals  in- 
volving millions  of  dollars  it  would  seem 
necessary  to  have  some  form  of  money  in 
which  the  large  sum  might  be  easily  trans- 
ferred. In  olden  times  money  was  issued 
by  private  individuals,  but,  in  order  to  in- 
sure inspection  and  to  inspire  confidence,  this 
duty  and  privilege  has  now  been  assumed  by 
the  state.  In  some  countries  a  charge  is 
made  by  the  government  for  transforming 
bullion  into  coin ;  in  others  the  metal  is  con- 
verted into  money  without  expense  to  the 
owner,  upon  the  ground  that  the  cost  is  small 
and  the  benefits  accruing  to  the  state,  by 
means  of  the  increase  of  the  stock  of  money, 
great.  The  history  of  coinage  in  the  United 
States  is  of  surpassing  interest  and  full  of 
economic  lessons  to  the  student.  It  is  im- 
possible to  give  them  due  attention  in  so 
compact  a  work  as  this,  but  it  may  be  noted 
that  the  per  capita  of  gold  and  bullion  has 
increased  from  $3.23  in  1873  to  $16.33  in 
1904,  and  that  of  silver  from  $0.15  in  1873 
to  $8.30  in  1900.  The  money  of  all  kinds  in 
circulation  in  the  United  States  has  increased 
from  $18.19  per  capita  in  1872  to  $34.35  in 
1911.  The  per  capita  circulation  of  gold  for 
the  world  is  estimated  at  $4.61  and  of  silver 
at  $2.41.  The  coinage  of  gold  and  silver  for 
the  world  averages,  at  present,  about  $627,- 
700,000  a  year,  according  to  the  reports  made 
to  and  by  the  Federal  government.  A  con- 
siderable portion  of  this  metal  coinage  is 
used  in  the  arts. 

Mongo'lia,  formerly  a  dependency,  situ- 
ated south  of  Siberia  and  north  of  China 
proper,  west  of  Manchuria  and  east  of  east- 
ern Turkestan.  It  in  the  main  is  a  wide 
waste,  comprising  the  great  desert  of  Gobi. 
Its  area  is  1,367,600  square  miles,  with  an 
estimated  population  of  2,600,000.  (CHINA) 

Mongols  (mon'golz),  an  Asiatic  race,  con- 
stituting one  of  the  large  divisions  of  man- 
kind, including  the  Mongols  proper  (known 
as  East  Mongols  and  West  Mongols  and 
Bariats)  and  the  Tartars,  who  form  a  distinct 
branch.  The  Kalmucks  belong  to  the  West 
Mongols.  Mongolia,  inhabited  by  the  East 
Mongols,  is  a  part  of  the  Chinese  empire,  ly- 
ing south  of  Siberia  and  shut  in  by  mountain 
ranges.  The  people  lead  a  wandering  life, 
dwelling  in  tents  and  having  flocks  of  sheep 
and  herds  of  horses,  cattle,  camels  and  goats. 
They  are  mostly  Buddhists  in  religion,  and 
fond  of  making  long  pilgrimages.  There  are 
about  2,600,000  of  them  under  Chinese  rule. 
The  Western  Mongols  have  mingled  with 
their  Turkish  neighbors  so  that  it  is  difficult 
to  number  them.  They  are  found  in  Russia, 
Astrakhan,  Turkestan,  Bokhara,  Samarcand 
and  the  Crimea.  The  history  of  the  Mongols 
begins  with  Genghis  Khan  (q.  v.) ,  born  about 
1 160,  who  united  the  different  tribes  into  one 
nation  and  led  them  to  conquest.  They 
overran  Tartary,  a  large  part  of  China,  Per- 
sia, Russia  and  Afghanistan.  Under  his 


sons  and  their  successors  other  portions  of 
China  were  conquered,  the  caliphs  of  Bagdad 
overthrown,  and  Europe  invaded  as  far  as 
the  Danube,  making  the  Mongol  empire,  at 
its  height,  the  greatest  the  world  has  known. 
Kublai  Khan  (q.  v.) ,  the  grandson  of  Genghis 
Khan,  established  the  first  Mongol  dynasty 
in  China,  which  was  finally  overthrown  by 
the  Chinese  in  the  i4th  century.  The  Mon- 
gol kingdom,  divided  in  the  i3th  century, 
was  united  again  in  the  i4th  century  under 
Tamerlane  (q.  v.) ,  but  after  his  death  lost  its 
power,  until  in  the  i?th  century  it  became 
a  part  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  The  Mongo- 
lian language  belongs  to  what  is  called  the 
Turanian  family.  There  is  very  little  extant 
literature,  what  they  possess  being  mostly 
translations  from  Chinese  religious  works. 
The  original  works  mainly  are  accounts  of 
the  deeds  of  Genghis  Khan  and  Tamerlane. 
See  History  of  the  Mongols  by  Curtin  and  that 
by  Howorth  and  Among  the  Mongols  by  Gil- 
mour. 

Mon'ism.  The  philosophic  view  that  re- 
gards all  substances  as  denved  from  one  fun- 
damental substance  is  known  as  monism. 
Materialism  holds  that  substance  to  be  phys- 
ical, mind  being  regarded  as  a  special  sort  of 
matter.  Idealism  considers  all  existence, 
material  as  well  as  psychical,  as  ultimately 
reducible  to  mind.  The  natural  assump- 
tion that  mind  and  matter  are  independent 
substances  is  dualism.  Monism,  however, 
is  more  satisfactory  as  a  logical  system,  since 
dualism  usually  involves  the  contradictory 
assumption  that  independent  realities  may 
yet  influence  or  be  dependent  upon  each 
other.  Pluralism  holds  that  existence  con- 
sists of  a  number  of  independent  substances. 
It,  too,  is  compelled  to  face  the  contradiction 
between  the  independence  of  these  sub- 
stances and  the  fact  of  experience  that  inter- 
action seems  universal.  Analysis  in  reveal- 
ing the  law  of  interaction  among  things 
seems  to  have  discovered  a  monistic  principle 
or  law  superior  to  the  things  that  it  governs 
or  connects.  This  would  make  monism  in- 
evitable. Even  the  agnostics,  who  declare 
that  the  supreme  reality  is  unknowable,  usu- 
ally assume  that  it  is  unitary,  thus  becoming 
monists  by  implication.  Consult  Paulsen's 
Introduction  to  Philosophy. 

Mon'itor,  a  kind  of  warship  first  used  in 
the  Civil  War.  It  was  a  wooden  ship  cov- 
ered with  plates  of  iron,  carrying  in  the  cen- 
ter a  revolving  tower  or  turret,  in  which  the 
guns  were  placed.  The  first  one  used  was 
made  by  Captain  Ericsson  (q.  v.}  in  100  days, 
and  was  engaged  in  the  naval  battle  with 
the  Confederate  ship  Virginia  or  Merrimac. 
The  success  of  the  Montior  produced  great 
excitement  in  Europe  and  made  a  revolution 
in  the  construction  of  naval  vessels.  Eng- 
land immediately  experimented  with  th:s 
style  of  warship,  changing  a  wooden  vessel 
into  an  ironclad  monitor,  which  was  consid- 
ered the  most  formidable  ship  in  the  navy. 


MONK 


1252 


MONOCOTYLEDONS 


Improvements  were  made  from  time  to  time, 
until  the  greater  part  of  naval  vessels  are  now 
made  upon  this  principle  and  known  as  mon- 
itors or  ironclads.  See  NAVY  and  TIMBY,T.  T. 

Monk  (munk)  or  Monck,  George,  Duke 
of  Albemarle,  an  English  general,  was  born  in 
Devonshire,  Dec.  6,  1608.  His  first  military 
sen-ices,  at  Cadiz  and  the  Isle  of  Rhe,  con- 
sisted of  nine  years  in  Holland  and  in  wars 
against  the  Scotch  and  the  Irish.  This 
period  ended  in  1644,  when  he  was  taken 
prisoner  by  Fairfax  and  kept  in  the  Tower  of 
London  for  two  years.  He  was  freed  by 
agreeing  to  the  Covenant.  He  was  major- 
general  at  Ulster,  and  Cromwell  left  him  to 
finish  the  conquest  of  Scotland,  and  in  165^, 
he  was  appointed  governor  of  the  country, 
a  position  he  filled  well  for  five  years.  At 
the  death  of  Cromwell,  while  everything  was 
in  confusion,  he  marched  to  London  with 
6,000  men,  and  entered  the  city  without  op- 
position in  February,  1660.  Every  party 
wanted  him,  and  felt  that  the  fate  of  the 
country  lay  with  "Old  George."  His  own 
wish  was  to  bring  back  the  Stuarts,  and  he 
found  the  nation  with  him.  He  brought 
about  the  election  of  a  new  parliament ;  and 
on  May  23,  1660,  he  welcomed  Charles  II  at 
Dover.  He  was  rewarded  with  high  offices 
and  made  duke,  but  soon  retired  from  polit- 
ical life.  See  the  Life  by  Guizot  and  that  by 
Corbett. 

Monkey  (mun'k^),  a  word  looseh  applied 
V>  apes,  baboons,  Old  and  New  Woriu  mon- 
keys, marmosets  and  lemurs.  Here  it  is, 
for  convenience,  restricted  to  the  smaller 
forms  living  on  trees  and  usually  having 
long  tails.  This  separates  them  from  the 
baboons  and  higher  apes  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  lower  lemurs  on  the  other,  all  of  which 
are  noticed  alphabetically.  The  New  World 
monkeys  have  nostrils  wide  apart  (Plalyr- 
rhinf) ,  and  most  of  them  have  long  tails  for 
grasping.  They  inhabit  the  forests  trav- 
ersed by  the  Amazon  and  the  Orinoco,  and 
extend  north  to  Panama.  Ten  species  live 
north  of  this  in  Central  America,  and  one  — 
the  spider  monkey  —  extends  its  range  into 
Mexico.  The  howling  monkeys  have  a  res- 
onance chamber  at  the  top  of  the  windpipe, 
and  night  and  morning  they  make  the  forests 
resound  with  their  hideous  howling.  They 
cannot  be  tamed.  The  monkeys  usually 
seen  in  captivity,  from  (South  America  are 
marmosets  and  monkeys  of  the  genus  Cebus. 
The  marmosets  are  the  smallest  monkeys, 
not  much  larger  than  squirrels,  and  usually 
are  made  a  separate  group.  The  spider  mon- 
keys have  slender  bodies,  long,  angular  limbs 
and  very  long  tails,  which  are  used  as  a  fifth 
hand.  The  Old  World  monkeys  are  entirely 
distinct.  Their  nostrils  are  close  together 
(Catarrhini)  and  the  tail,  when  present,  is 
not  used  for  grasping.  The  macques,  inhab- 
iting India,  Tibet,  the  Malay  Archipelago 
and  the  Philippines,  are  often  seen  in  menag- 
eries, Throughout  Africa  are  found  numer- 


ous troops  of  monkeys  with  slender  bodies 
like  the  green  monkey.  They  live  on  trees* 
and  have  long  tails.  The  Catarrhini  include 
baboons  and  higher  apes,  but  these  are 
treated  separately.  See  APE,  BABOON,  LE- 
MUR and  MARMOSET. 

Monks' hood  or  Aconite,  a  flower  whose 
calyx  is  shaped  strangely  like  a  monk's 
hood,  color  of  flower  a  blue-purple.  It  is  a 
member  of  the  crowfoot  family.  The  flow- 
ers hang  from  the  top  of  slender,  bending 
stems,  these  sometimes  climbing.  The 
leaves  have  three  to  five-lobed  petioles,  and 
are  coarsely  toothed.  The  plant  seeks  the 
banks  of  small  streams,  is  a  native  of  Vir- 
ginia, is  found  as  far  northward  as  New  Jer- 
sey, and  blooms  all  summer,  sometimes  into 
September.  It  is  known  also  as  wolf's  bane, 
the  root  containing  a  virulent  poison. 

Mon' mouth,  Battle  of,  an  engagement 
between  the  English  forces  under  Clinton 
and  the  American  forces  under  Washington 
at  Freehold,  Monmouth  County,  N.  J.  It 
was  Washington's  first  battle  after  the  terri- 
ble winter  at  Valley  Forge.  It  was  fought  on 
June  29,  1778.  General  Charles  Lee  was  in 
charge  of  the  advance,  which  was  thrown 
into  confusion  and  began  a  retreat.  Wash- 
ington hurried  to  the  front,  reproving  Lee 
sharply,  and  rallied  the  fugitives.  Tradi- 
tion says  that  this  was  the  only  time  that 
Washington  was  known  to  swear.  The 
Americans  held  their  ground,  and  Clinton  re- 
treated in  the  night.  Lee  was  deprived  of 
his  command  for  a  year  by  court-martial. 

Mon'mouth,  James,  Duke  of,  was  born  at 
Rotterdam,  Holland,  April  9,  1649.  He  was 
thought  to  be  a  son  of  Charles  II,  and  as  such 
was  made  duke  of  Monmouth  and  wedded 
to  a  rich  heiress.  In  spite  of  his  profligacy 
he  became  the  idol  of  the  people,  thanks  to 
his  beauty  and  winning  manners,  his  royal 
tours  through  the  country  and  his  humanity 
toward  the  Scotch  Covenanters  at  Bothwell 
Bridge  in  1679.  His  share  in  what  is  known 
as  the  Rye  House  Plot  in  1683  was  discov- 
ered, and  he  fled  to  Holland.  After  the  death 
of  Charles  he  returned  to  England  on  June 
n,  1685.  He  claimed  the  throne,  attacked 
the  king  as  a  murderer  and  Catholic,  and  had 
himself  proclaimed  as  James  II.  Gathering 
about  3,000  men,  mostly  peasants  and  min- 
ers, he  risked  a  battle  with  the  king's  troops 
at  Sedgemoor  in  Somerset.  He  was  de- 
feated, losing  nearly  half  his  army,  and  was 
captured  when  fleeing,  disguised  as  a  shep- 
herd. His  tears  and  pleadings  and  even  the 
promise  to  change  his  religion  were  of  no 
avail  with  the  king,  and  he  was  beheaded  at 
London,  July  15,  1685.  See  Life  by  Roberts. 

Monocotyledons  (mon'd-kot'i-le'duuz), 
plants  forming  one  of  the  two  great  groups  of 
angiosperms,  containing  about  25,000  recog- 
nized species.  The  name  comes  from  the 
fact  that  the  embryo  develops  a  single  coty- 
ledon. The  other  features  which  distinguish 
the  group  in  general  are  the  structure  of  the 


Monkey 
Spider  Monkey 


MONONGAHELA 


1253 


MONSOON 


stem,  in  which  the  woody  bundles  are  scat- 
tered, as  in  the  common  corn;  the  parallel- 
veined  leaves,  and  the  members  of  the 
flowers  in  threes.  Monocotyledons  were 
once  called  endogens,  an  antiquated  name 
which  has  been  entirely  abandoned.  Prom- 
inent monocotyledonous  groups  are  as  fol- 
lows :  Pond-weeds,  among  which  are  the  nu- 
merous more  or  less  submerged  aquatics  and 
closely-allied  forms,  and  related  to  which  are 
the  well-known  forms  of  arrowleaf  and  cat- 
tail flag;  grasses,  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
useful  groups  of  plants,  much  confused  with 
the  nearly  allied  sedges;  palms,  a  group  of 
tree  monocotyledons  very  characteristic  of 
the  tropics;  aroids,  an  immense  tropical 
group  represented  in  temperate  regions  by 
skunk-cabbage  and  Jack-in-the-Pulpit  and 
in  cultivation  by  the  better  known  calla  lily; 
lilies,  associated  with  which  are  the  numerous 
amaryllis  and  iris  forms ;  and  orchids,  which 
in  number  of  species  are  most  numerous 
among  the  monocotyledons  and  favorites  in 
greenhouse  cultivation  on  account  of  their 
brilliant  color  and  bizarre  forms. 

Monongahela  (mo-non'gd-he'la),  a  river, 
one  of  the  sources  of  the  Ohio,  rises  in  West 
Virginia,  flowing  north  into  Pennsylvania 
where  it  unites  with  the  Allegheny  at  Pitts- 
burg  and  forms  the  Ohio.  It  is  250  miles 
long,  and  is  navigable  for  about  80  miles  for 
large  boats.  Cheat  River  and  the  Youghio- 
gheny  are  its  chief  branches.  Here,  on  the 
banks  of  the  river,  near  Pittsburg,  was 
fought,  July  9,  1755,  a  battle  between  the 
French  and  the  Indians  and  the  British  and 
colonial  troops  under  Braddock.  The  latter 
were  beaten. 

Monop'oly,  a  term  used  to  indicate  the 
sole  right  to  sell  or  trade  in  any  article,  given 
to  a  single  person  or  to  a  group  of  persons. 
In  early  times  this  right  was  often  granted 
by  government,  as  in  the  time  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  salt  and  coal  were  articles  whose 
sale  was  thus  limited ;  and  one  of  the  greatest 
monopolies  the  world  has  ever  known,  the 
East  India  Company,  received  its  charter  at 
that  time.  These  government  monopolies 
were  opposed  by  the  English  people,  and 
finally  ended.  Monopolies,  under  their  mod- 
ern form  of  trusts,  combines,  syndicates  or 
unions,  are  the  same  in  principle,  an  effort  to 
do  away  with  competition  and  give  to  one 
set  or  class  of  persons  the  sole  right  of  selling 
or  trading  in  an  article.  These  combinations 
are  effected  by  the  use  of  capital,  which  is 
employed  to  drive  out  of  business  all  small 
dealers.  The  Standard  Oil  Company  and 
the  Reading  coal  "combine"  are  well-known 
instances  of  great  American  monopolies. 

Monroe',  James,  the  fifth  president  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Westmoreland 
County,  Va.,  April  28,  1758.  He  entered 
William  and  Mary  College,  but  soon  left  to 
join  the  army  under  Washington.  He  was 
in  several  battles,  was  wounded  at  Trenton, 
and  became  lieutenant-colonel  and  military 


commissioner.  In  1782,  after  studying  law 
with  Jefferson,  he  became  a  member  of 
the  Virginia  assembly 
and  was  sent  the  next 
year  to  Congress.  Here 
his  services  were  in- 
fluential in  bringing 
about  the  conventions 
at  Annapolis  and  Phil- 
adelphia, where  the 
Constitution  of  the 
United  States  was 
framed,  which,  however, 
he  opposed  in  the  Vir- 
ginia convention,  siding 
JAMES  MONROE  with  Patrick  Henry  and 
other  states'  rights  men. 

He  was  in  the  United  States  senate  from  1790 
to  1 794,  and  became  minister  to  France  from 
1794  to  1796,  when  he  was  recalled  because 
of  his  too  open  expressions  of  sympathy  with 
the  Revolution.  His  former  opposition  to 
Washington  and  this  treatment  induced  him 
to  publish  an  attack  on  the  government, 
which  made  him  the  favorite  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party.  He  was  governor  of  Virginia 
for  three  years,  and  then  was  sent  by  Jeffer- 
son to  France,  where,  with  Robert  Morris, 
he  effected  the  Louisiana  Purchase  in  1803. 
His  efforts  for  a  cession  of  Florida  by  Spain 
were  unsuccessful,  and  the  treaty  with  Eng- 
land obtained  by  him  failed  to  provide 
against  the  seizing  of  American  sailors.  In 
1811  he  again  was  governor  of  Virginia,  and 
secretary  of  state  under  Madison  until  1817. 
In  1816  he  was  elected  president  and  re- 
elected  in  1820.  The  most  popular  measures 
of  his  administration  were  the  obtaining  of 
Florida  from  Spain  (1819),  the  settling  of 
the  slavery  question  by  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise, the  recognition  of  the  independence 
of  the  Spanish  American  republics  and  the 
announcement  of  what  is  known  as  the  Mon- 
roe Doctrine.  In  a  message  to  Congress  ap- 
proving the  bill  which  recognized  the  South 
American  republics  Monroe  declared  that 
"the  American  continents  are  not  to  be  con- 
sidered as  subjects  for  polonization  by  any 
European  power."  This  declaration,  known 
as  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  has  ever  since  held 
a  place  as  well  in  the  diplomacy  as  in  the 
political  creed  of  the  nation.  After  his 
retirement  to  his  home  in  Virginia  he  became 
involved  in  debt,  but  found  a  home  with  his 
son-in-law  in  New  York,  where  he  died, 
July  4,  1831.  See  Life,  by  Oilman,  in  the 
American  Statesmen  Series. 

Monroe    Doctrine.     See  MONROE,  JAMES, 
and  UNITED  STATES. 

.  Monsoon',  a  term  meaning  a  set  time  or 
season,  formerly  used  to  indicate  the  winds 
prevailing  in  the  Indian  ( Ocean,  blowing 
from  the  southwest  from  April  to  October 
and  from  the  northeast  from  October  to 
April.  The  word  is  used  now  of  all  winds 
that  are  regular,  returning  with  the  seasons. 
The  prevailing  winds  of  North  America  are 


MONTAGU 


"54 


MONTANA 


largely  of  this  class,  and  there  are  mon- 
soons in  Australia  and  on  the  coasts  of 
Brazil,  Peru  and  North  Africa.  See  WINDS. 

Montagu  (mon'ta-gu),  Mary  Wortley, 
was  born  about  1689  in  Nottinghamshire, 
England.  When  only  eight  years  old  her 
father  introduced  her  to  the  famous  Kit- 
Cat  Club,  of  which  she  became  a  member. 
After  her  marriage  her  husband's  public 
position  brought  her  into  court  society  in 
London,  where  she  was  celebrated  for  her 
wit  and  beauty,  and  numbered  among  her 
friends  Addison,  Pope  and  other  literary 
men  of  the  time.  In  1716  her  husband  was 
English  ambassador  at  Constantinople, 
and  during  her  life  there  of  two  years  she 
wrote  the  Letters  that  have  made  her  famous, 
addressing  them  to  her  sister,  to  Pope  and 
other  friends.  They  'are  descriptions  of 
eastern  life  and  manners.  She  became  con- 
vinced of  the  benefit  of  inoculation  for  small- 
pox while  abroad,  and  introduced  it  into 
England,  trying  it  first  on  her  own  son. 
She  died  on  Aug.  21,  1762.  See  Life  in  the 
edition  of  her  works  by  Wharnecliff e. 

Montaigne  (mon-tdn'),  Michel  Eyquem 
de,  a  famous  French  essayist,  was  born  in 
1533  in  Perigord.  His  father  had  peculiar 
ideas  of  education,  and  pu1-,  them  in  prac- 
tice in  his  son's  case.  He  was  nursed  by 
a  poor  woman  in  a  village,  that  he  might 
learn  simple  habits  of  living  and  sympathy 
with  the  poor.  That  his  boyhood  might 
be  made  as  happy  as  possible,  he  had  him 
wakened  every  morning  by  the  sound  of 
music.  As  he  must  learn  Latin,  then  the 
necessary  foundation  of  all  education,  he 
had  him  taught  it  in  the  easiest  way,  by 
conversation,  and  until  he  was  six  he  under- 
stood no  other  language.  His  father  sent 
him  to  school  at  six,  making  various  ar- 
rangements to  carry  out  his  plans  of  educa- 
tion. He  studied  law,  and  became  a  city 
counselor,  holding  the  office  for  13  years. 
His  first  literary  work  was  a  translation  of 
a  Spanish  Natural  History.  On  the  death 
of  his  brothers  he  succeeded  to  the  family 
estate,  and  here  began  his  famous  Essays, 
which  were  written  simply  because  he  felt 
the  need  of  occupation.  These  essays, 
written  apparently  without  any  plan,  in- 
spired by  the  caprice  of  the  moment,  touch- 
ing upon  his  daily  life,  habits,  tastes  and 
thoughts  on  all  kinds  of  subjects,  have  held 
the  attention  of  a  large  class  of  readers  of 
all  kinds  and  sorts  for  300  years.  The 
circle  of  admirers  widens  every  year,  and 
is  almost  equal  to  that  composed  of  the 
followers  of  Shakespeare.  He  died  in  1592. 
See  Representative  Men  by  Emerson  and 
Montaigne  by  Collins. 

Montana  (raon-*d'nd),  one  of  the  north- 
western states  of  the  Union,  is  the  third  in 
size,  coming  next  to  Texas  and  California, 
covering  a  surface  of  145,310  square  miles 
and  being  larger  than  the  British  islands. 


It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Canada,  south 
by  Wyoming  and  Idaho,  east  by  the  Dako- 
tas  and  west  by  Idaho. 

Surface.  The  Rocky  Mountain  region  in 
the  west  includes  one  fifth  of  the  state,  while 
the  east  is  dry,  rolling  plains,  needing  irriga- 
tion to  make  them  productive.  The  moun- 
tainous part  rises  from  8,000  to  11,000  feet 
high,  with  high  valleys  and  passes,  but  the 
eastern  plains  are  lower  than  Colorado  or 
Wyoming,  so  that  the  climate  is  somewhat 
milder.  The  dry  regions  have  already  been 
improved  by  canals  and  reservoirs  built  by 
private  enterprise.  The  Bad  Lands,  as  they 
are  called,  near  Yellowstone  River,  have  a 
peculiar  soft,  sticky  soil,  in  which  animals 
sink  at  every  footstep.  The  Rocky  Moun- 
tains cross  the  state  for  300  miles,  with 
numerous  smaller  ranges  and  fertile  valleys. 

Drainage.  The  Missouri  flows  1,300 
miles  in  Montana,  and  Clark's  Fork  of  Co- 
lumbia River  runs  north  into  Idaho,  their 
sources  being  scarcely  a  mile  apart.  Through 
a  great  canon,  cut  for  five  miles  through  a 
gorge  from  600  to  4,000  feet  deep;  past 
Bear  Tooth  Mountain,  2,500  feet  high;  by 
the  Long  Pool,  with  its  strange,  booming 
noises;  over  the  Great  Falls,  where,  in  four 
separate  descents  in  1 5  miles,  its  waters  fall 
450  feet;  and  through  five  miles  of  rapids 
the  Missouri  River  makes  its  way.  The 
Yellowstone,  rising  in  the  National  Park, 
crosses  the  entire  state  for  850  miles. 
There  are  many  mountain  lakes  and  numer- 
ous mineral  springs.  The  Warm  Springs 
are  near  the  wigwam-shaped  geyser,  with 
its  smoke  ascending  like  a  council  fire,  in 
Deer  Lodge  Valley.  Near  Helena  the  hot 
springs  have  created  a  resort  for  invalids 
and  tourists,  with  one  of  the  largest  bath- 
houses known  and  a  very  fine  hotel. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  variable,  with 
sudden  changes  and  scanty  rainfall  east  of 
the  mountains,  while  in  the  northwest  the 
rainfall  is  more  ample  and  the  climate  made 
milder  by  the  great,  warm  current  from 
Japan.  The  chinook  winds  also  have  a 
great  effect  on  the  climate.  These  warm 
winds  may  occur  in  any  part  of  the  state, 
making  the  air  very  mild,  and  melting  large 
quantities  of  snow  in  a  short  time.  Be- 
cause of  the  absence  of  humidity  the  cli- 
mate is  very  healthful,  and  especially  bene- 
ficial to  those  affected  with  pulmonary 
trouble. 

Minerals.  The  greatest  wealth  of  the 
state  is  mineral,  and  its  foremost  industry 
is  mining.  About  one  third  of  the  gold, 
silver,  copper  and  lead  mined  in  the  United 
States  is  from  Montana.  The  first  gold  was 
discovered  in  1852,  but  little  was  done  in 
mining  until  1861,  the  mines  now  producing 
enormous  quantities  and  bringing  great 
wealth  to  their  owners.  Silver,  lead  and 
copper  are  also  mined,  these,  with  gold,  pro- 
ducing in  one  year  nearly  $70,000,000. 


MONTANA.  UNIVERSITY  OP 


1255 


MONTCALM 


Large  beds  of  coal  and  deposits  of  iron-ore, 
building-stone,  coal  and  extensive  claybeds 
are  also  found.  The  mining  of  sapphires 
began  in  1891,  four  regions  are  worked, 
and  Montana  leads  the  Union  in  this  product. 

Forestry.  More  than  one  fourth  of  the 
state  is  covered  with  timber.  In  the  west- 
ern part  white  cedar,  white  pine  and  Engel- 
man  s  spruce  grow,  and  along  the  streams 
are  forests  of  cottonwood.  In  the  dry  por- 
tions are  stunted  red  cedars,  which  are  of 
great  value  to  the  settlers,  as  they  supply 
wood  and  posts.  An  alpine  species  flour- 
ishes on  the  summits,  and  assists  irrigation 
by  holding  back  the  melting  spring  snow. 
The  government  forest-reserves  include 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  state's  tim- 
ber, nearly  11,700  square  miles. 

Agriculture  and  Stock-Raising.  Near  the 
streams  is  a  rich  black  soil;  a  sandy  loam 
on  the  bench  lands;  and  grazing  lands  on  the 
bluffs.  Dry  farming  has  been  satisfactorily 
tried  on  the  uplands,  and  the  experiment 
station  encourages  this  method.  In  the 
order  of  relative  importance  the  crops  are 
corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley  and  hay.  Yellow- 
stone Valley  produces  two  and  three  cut- 
tings of  alfalfa,  and  cereals  are  extensively 
grown,  through  irrigation,  in  Gallatin, 
Jefferson  and  Madison  Valleys.  The  or- 
chards produce  apples,  cherries,  plums, 
apricots  and  peaches,  while  small  fruits, 
as  blackberries,  strawberries,  currants  and 
gooseberries,  grow  in  large  crops.  Stock- 
raising  is  one  of  the  industries,  the  flocks 
running  wild,  guarded  by  shepherds  and 
dogs,  and  horses  and  cattle  are  kept  in 
large  herds  on  the  great  ranches.  Montana 
has  more  sheep  and  produces  more  wool 
than  any  other  state. 

Manufactures.  Foremost  among  the  in- 
dustries stands  ore-smelting.  The  largest 
smelter  in  the  world  is  at  Anaconda;  there 
are  many  in  Butte;  and  one  each  at  Helena 
and  Great  Falls.  There  are  some  large  lum- 
ber mills,  sawmills  and  some  extensive  fac- 
tories which  make  doors,  sash,  blinds  and 
furniture.  A  woolen  mill  is  located  at  Big 
Timber,  a  biscuit  and  cracker  factory  at 
Helena  and  there  are  several  clay  product 
plants.  Montana  has  4,207  miles  of  railroad, 
and  is  served  by  the  Great  Northern,  the 
Northern  Pacific,  the  Burlington,  the  Oregon 
Short  Line  and  the  Milwaukee  and  St. 
Paul  roads,  the  last  putting  it  into  direct 
connection  with  Chicago. 

Education.  Although  Montana  is  quite 
a  young  state,  her  educational  system  is  ad- 
mirable. Twelve  hundred  teachers  are  em- 
ployed and  handsomely  salaried,  and  more 
than  25c.is  spent  every  day  on  the  education 
of  every  child.  In  1898  the  state  passed  a  law 
establishing  county  high  schools,  which  are 
supported  by  county  assessments  and  are 
under  separate  administration  from  city 
schools.  The  state  School  of  Mines  is  at 
Butte,  the  state  normal  school  at  Dillon, 


the  state  agricultural  college  and  experi- 
ment station  at  Bozeman,  the  state  univer- 
sity and  Sacred  Heart  Academy  at  Missoula, 
and  Wesleyan  University  at  Helena.  A 
summer  school  of  sciences  was  established 
on  Flathead  Lake  in  1899  by  the  state 
university.  It  is  known  as  the  University 
of  Montana  Biological  Station,  and  is  well- 
patronized  by  other  states  as  well  as  Mon- 
tana. There  are  institutions  for  the  deaf- 
dumb-and-blind,  for  the  insane,  a  reform 
school,  a  soldiers'  home  and  a  penitentiary 

History.  There  are  several  United  States 
posts  on  the  boundary  line  of  Canada  and  at 
other  places,  to  keep  in  check  the  Indians, 
and  four  Indian  agencies  with  their  resen-a- 
tions.  Montana  was  admitted  to  the  Union 
in  1889,  and  has  a  population  of  466,214 
of  whom  12,500  are  Indians.  Its  capital 
is  Helena.  The  other  chief  towns  of  the 
state  are  Butte  City  and  Great  Falls  City. 
Montana  was  early  visited  by  fur-traders 
and  French  missionaries,  but  was  not  settled 
until  after  the  gold  discovery  in  1861.  It 
has  been  the  scene  of  many  Indian  wars, 
notably  the  terrible  massacre  of  General 
Custer's  forces  by  the  Sioux  on  the  Big  Horn 
River  in  June,  1876.  For  further  information 
regarding  Montana  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Idaho  and  Montana  by  H.  H.  Bancroft. 

Montana,  University  of,  is  at  Missoula 
in  the  western  portion  of  the  state.  It 
consists  of  a  preparatory  department,  a 
college  of  literature,  science  and  the  arts 
and  a  school  of  mechanical  engineering. 
It  is  endowed  with  72  sections  of  land 
granted  by  Congress  in  1892,  with  the 
proviso  that  the  land  may  not  be  sold  for 
less  than  $10  an  acre.  The  university  was 
established  in  1895.  It  now  has  22  instruct- 
ors and  360  students,  of  whom  about  a 
third  are  in  the  preparatory  department 
and  about  100  pursue  courses  in  the  arts. 
There  are  22  students  in  mechanical  engi- 
neering. Tuition  is  free,  except  in  the  law- 
school  when  that  shall  be  established.  Its 
library  consists  of  about  16,000  volumes, 
and  its  income  is  about  $65,000  a  year. 

Mont  Blanc  (mont  blon).     See  ALPS. 

Montcalm  (mont-kam') ,  Louis  Joseph, 
Marquis  de,  was  born  near  Nimes,  France, 
Feb.  29,  1712.  He  became  commander  of 
the  French  army  in  Canada  in  1756,  soon 
capturing  the  British  fort  at  Oswego.  Cross- 
ing Lake  George,  with  8,000  French  and 
Indian  troops,  he  took  Fort  William  Henry, 
where  the  Indians'  massacre  of  the  help- 
less women  and  children  has  left  a  blot  on 
his  memory.  He  defended  Ticonderoga 
against  a  large  British  force  under  Aber- 
crombie,  and  then  moved  to  protect  Que- 
bec. In  the  attack  by  General  Wolfe  the 
French  were  driven  back  into  the  city,  and 
in  the  retreat  Montcalm  was  fatally  wounded, 
dying  the  next  morning,  Sept.  14,  1759. 
When  told  of  his  danger  he  said :  "  So  much 
the  better;  I  shall  not  live  to  see  the  surr 


MONTCLAIR 


1256 


MONTESQUIEU 


render   of    Quebec."      See    Montcalm   and 
Wolfe  by  Parkman. 

Montclair',  N.  J.,  a  picturesque,  pro- 
gressive town  in  Essex  County,  five  miles 
northwest  of  Newark  and  14  from  New 
York,  many  of  whose  merchants  and  pro- 
fessional men  have  their  homes  here.  It 
is  on  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  and 
Western  and  New  York  and  Greenwood 
Lake  railroads.  The  state  normal  school 
for  northern  New  Jersey  is  located  at  Mont- 
clair  Heights,  a  charming  suburb  which  has 
an  elevation  ot  370  feet  above  tide-water. 
Montclair  has  fine  churches,  schools,  libra- 
ries, banks  and  other  adjuncts  of  a  grow- 
ing city.  Population  21,550. 

Montebello,  Duke  of.   See  LANNES,  JEAN. 

Monte  Carlo  (mon'td  kdr'ld),  a  small 
town  in  Monaco,  known  as  a  great  resort 
of  gamblers.  The  gaming  rooms  are  built 
on  ground  owned  by  the  Prince  of  Monaco, 
and  are  owned  by  a  stock-company.  The 
number  of  visitors  often  reaches  400,000. 
See  MONACO. 

Montefiore  (mdn'te-f^-d'ra),  Moses,  a 
Jewish  philanthropist,  was  born  at  Leg- 
horn, Italy,  Oct.  24,  1784,  though  London 
was  the  home  of  his  parents.  He  inherited 
wealth  and  became  a  successful  stock- 
broker. He  became  prominent  in  all  efforts 
to  improve  the  condition  of  the  Jews,  mak- 
ing seven  journeys  to  the  east  and  visiting 
Poland,  Russia,  Rumania,  Damascus  and 
Jerusalem,  to  investigate  their  condition 
and  relieve  their  oppressions.  His  last 
journey  was  made  when  he  was  92  years 
old.  He  established  colonies  of  Jews  and 
refuges  for  the  poor  in  Palestine.  His 
benevolence  was  not  confined  to  his  own 
race;  he  gave  largely  to  all  charitable  insti- 
tutions, and  in  1835  was  one  of  the  parties 
to  the  contract  to  pay  $75,000,000  to  the 
owners  of  slaves  in  the  British  dominions 
to  compensate  them  for  freeing  their  slaves. 
He  was  knighted  in  1837,  and  in  1864  made 
a  baron,  in  recognition  of  his  services  to  the 
poor.  He  died  at  Ramsgate,  in  England, 
July  28,  1885,  over  100  years  old.  See 
Diaries  of  Sir  Moses  and  Lady  Montefiore. 

Montenegro  (  mdn-td-na'grd  ),  a  small,  in- 
dependent state  in  southern  Europe,  in  the 
Balkan  peninsula,  covering  3,630  square 
miles,  less  than  half  the  size  of  New  Jersey. 
Its  extreme  length  is  a  little  over  100  miles, 
•with  a  width  of  80  miles.  It  has  a  low 
coast  region  on  the  Adriatic  and  then  a 
mountain  region,  6,500  to  8,000  feet  high, 
broken  up  into  peaks  and  crags,  ravines  and 
gorges,  with  rivers  running  often  for  miles 
underground.  The  mountains  are  well- 
wooded  and  give  good  pasturage.  There 
is  very  little  of  the  country  that  can  be 
cultivated;  the  farms  are  small,  and  the 
fields  are  little  patches  clinging  to  the  moun- 
tain-sides. Corn,  rye,  oats,  barley,  potatoes 
and  fruits  are  the  products.  The  people  live 


in  small  stone-houses  in  villages.  They  are 
Slavs,  belong  mainly  to  the  Greek  church, 
and  number  about  230,000.  They  are  sturdy 
mountaineers,  whose  business  for  many  gen- 
erations has  been  to  fight  the  Turks.  Mon- 
tenegro formed  part  of  the  Servian  empire 
in  the  i4th  century,  but  secured  its  inde- 
pendence when  Servia  was  conquered  by 
the  Turks.  At  one  time  the  Montenegrins 
were  governed  by  bishops,  but  in  1851  they 
separated  the  state  from  the  church,  elected 
a  prince  and  made  the  throne  hereditary  in 
his  _  family.  The  country  is  progressing 
rapidly.  Good  roads  have  been  built,  fields 
cultivated  and  a  standing  army  maintained. 
There  is  a  rich  literature  of  patriotic  songs 
and  ballads,  and  Prince  Peter  II  (1830-51) 
was  one  of  the  greatest  poets  that  has 
written  in  the  Servian  language.  The  first 
Slavonic  books  were  printed  in  Montenegro 
in  the  isth  century.  The  capital  is  Cettinje* 
(population  4,30°).  See  Montenegro  by 
Denton  and  A  Winter  in  Albania  by  H.  C. 
Brown. 

Monterey',  a  city,  the  capital  of  the  in- 
land state  of  Nuevo  Leon  in  northern  Mex- 
ico. It  is  a  well-built  town  with  tasteful 
houses,  handsome  churches,  a  cathedral, 
colleges  and  government  buildings.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  prosperous  manufacturing 
towns  of  Mexico.  It  was  founded  in  1599. 
In  the  Mexican  War  it  was  besieged  and 
taken  by  the  American  forces  under  Gen- 
eral Taylor,  Sept.  24,  1846.  Population 
81,006. 

Montesquieu  (mdn'tes-ke-e'),  Charles  de 
Secondat,  Baron  de,  a  French  writer  of 
eminence,  was  born  near  Bordeaux,  Jan.  18, 
1689.  He  was  also  called  Charles  Louis  de 
la  Brede.  He  was  councilor  of  the  parlia- 
ment of  Bordeaux  and,  afterward,  presi- 
dent. His  studies  at  first  were  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  natural  sciences,  but,  his  eye- 
sight failing,  he  turned  his  attention  to 
literary  work.  His  first  success  followed  the 
publication  of  the  Persian  Letters,  pretend- 
ing to  have  been  written  by  two  Persians 
who  visited  Paris.  They  are  satires  on  French 
customs  and  society.  He  spent  three  years 
in  travel,  observing  the  institutions  and 
habits  of  foreign  countries.  In  England  he 
remained  two  years,  seeing  its  best  society 
and  studying  its  philosophy  in  the  writings 
of  Locke  and  others.  His  ablest  work, 
Thoughts  upon  the  Causes  of  the  Greatness 
of  the  Romans  a>.d  of  their  Decay,  appeared 
in  1734.  Another  great  work,  the  product 
of  20  years  of  toil,  was  The  Spirit  of  Laws 
in  1748.  While  this  book  came  too  late  to 
save  France  from  the  Revolution,  it  guided 
its  best  thinkers  in  the  restoration  of  order 
and  civil  government.  His  eyesight  failed 
entirely  before  his  death,  which  took  place 
in  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1755.  Montesquieu's  literary 
style  is  characterized  by  vigor,  sujjgestiveness 
and  a  remarkable  facility  for  apt  illustration. 


MONTESSORI  SYSTEM 


12560 


MONTESSORI  SYSTEM 


Montessori  System.  A  system  of  education 
originated  by  Dr.  Maria  Montessori,  of  Rome; 
"the  only  example,"  says  Professor  Holmes, 
of  Harvard,  "of  an  educational  system  worked 
out  and  inaugurated  by  the  feminine  mind. " 

Within  five  years  after  a  few  Montessori 
schools  were  established  in  Rome — under 
quite  unfavorable  conditions — they  were  being 
talked  about  in  every  school  system  on  the 
globe,  and  Dr.  Montessori  took  rank  with 
Froebel  as  the  author  of  a  profound  and 
practical  contribution  to  the  greatest  of  the 
sciences. 

By  use  of  this  system  feeble  minded  children 
passed  the  public  school  examinations  in  Rome 
with  higher  credits  than  normal  children  out- 
side the  Montessori  schools.  Under  the 
Montessori  system  normal  children  learn  to 
read  and  write — for  example — in  six  weeks, 
and — a  matter  of  far  wider  importance — this 
progress  is  accompanied  by  the  rapid  yet 
wholesome  development  of  the  faculties  and 
of  the  powers  of  resource,  initiative,  self  con- 
trol and  concentration. 

Who  is  Dr.  Montessori?  To  what  extent 
is  her  system  adapted  or  adaptable  to  the 
needs  and  conditions  of  English  speaking 
countries? 

This  article  is  intended  to  answer  these 
questions,  and  to  give  details  with  regard  to 
the  Montessori  apparatus  that  will  enable 
mothers  and  teachers  to  employ  the  system 
to  the  best  advantage. 

WHAT  EDUCATORS  SAY  ABOUT  THE  METHOD 

In  an  extremely  valuable  analysis  of  the 
Montessori  method,  in  his  introduction  to 
Dr.  Montessori's  work  "The  Montessori 
Method"  (listed  below  in  the  bibliography  of 
the  subject),  Professor  Henry  W.  Holmes  of 
Harvard  says  of  the  method,  that  "it  leads 
to  rapid,  easy  and  substantial  mastery  of  the 
elements  of  reading,  writing  and  arithmetic." 
He  thinks  it  highly  probable,  however,  that  the 
system  ultimately  adopted  in  the  American 
schools  will  combine  elements  of  the  Montes- 
sori and  Kindergarten  methods,  and  advises 
that  several  combinations  be  tried  out.  He 
points  out  that  while  the  Kindergarten  does 
not  teach  children  to  read  and  write,  it 
does  teach  them  to  deal  with  number,  and 
thinks  it  may  be  fairly  questioned  whether  it 
does  not  do  more  fundamental  work  in  this 
field  than  the  Montessori  system. 

On  the  subject  of  teaching  writing  he  says: 

"There  has  been  a  fairly  general  conviction  that 
writing  is  not  especially  important  before  the  age  of 
8  or  9.  In  view  of  Dr.  Montessori's  teaching  children 
of  4  or  5  to  write  with  ease  and  skill,  must  we  not  revise 
our  estimate  of  the  value  of  writing  and  our  procedure 
in  teaching  it?" 

But,  in  his  opinion,  writing  and  reading  for 
young  children  should  not  be  unduly  em- 
phasized. He  says: 

"Let  us  remember,  as  Dr.  Montessori  does,  that 
reading  and  writing  should  form  but  a  subordinate  part 
of  the  experience  of  the  child,  and  should  minister  in 


general  to  his  other  needs.  With  the  best  of  methods, 
the  value  of  reading  and  writing  before  six,  is  question- 
able." 

"Of   the   technical   advantages   of   the    Montessori 

scheme  for  writing,  there  can  be  little  doubt The 

exercises  have  the  very  important  characteristic  of 
involving  a  thorough  sensory  analysis  of  the  material 
to  be  mastered.  Mauman  has  taught  us  the  great 
value  in  all  memory  work,  of  complete  impression  through 
prolonged  and  intensive  analytical  study." 

But  we  must  not  expect  as  rapid  advance- 
ment in  writing  and  reading  English  as 
Dr.  Montessori  has  achieved  in  teaching 
Italian: 

"In  Italian,  the  letters  once  learned,  it  is  a  simple 
matter  to  combine  them  into  words,  Italian  spelling  is 
so  phonetic,  but  it  is  the  unphonetic  character  of  English 
spelling  which  has  largely  influenced  us  to  give  up  the 
alphabet  method  of  teaching  children  to  read.  We  have 
found  it  more  effective  to  teach  whole  sentences  or 
rhymes  by  sight  and  then  analyze  the  words  thus 
acquired  into  their  phonetic  elements.  The  mastery  of 
the  alphabet  by  the  Montessori  Method  will  be  of  great 
assistance  in  teaching  children  to  write,  but  of  only 
incidental  assistance  in  teaching  them  to  read  and  spell." 


nnnann 


©  House  of  Childhood  Inc. 

FORM  REDUCED  TO  LINE 

"The  child  passes  step  by  step  from  solid  objects  to  a 
mere  drawing  representing  the  figure." 

BOOKS  ON   MONTESSORI   WORK 

The  Montessori  Method,  by  Dr.  Maria 
Montessori,  is  a  valuable  text  for  constant 
study.  Pedagogical  Anthropology,  by  Dr. 
Montessori,  is  highly  technical  and  is  for 
educators,  teachers  and  other  students  of 
education.  The  Montessori  Mother,  by  Doro- 
thy Canfield  Fisher,  is  a  popular  exposition 
of  the  method  with  good  description  of  a 
Children's  House  in  Rome.  The  Montessori 
Manual,  by  the  same  author,  is  a  book  written 
to  help  mothers  to  use  the  Montessori  ap- 
paratus in  their  own  homes.  One  of  the 
ablest,  most  practical  and  most  readable 
books,  both  for  mothers  and  teachers  is  The 
Montessori  Principles  and  Practice  by  E.  P. 
Culverwell,  Dublin  Professor  of  Education, 
University  of  Dublin.  See  also  McClure's 
Magazine,  May,  1911;  Dec.,  1911;  Jan.,  1912: 
June,  1912.  South  Dakota  Educator,  April, 
1912;  Kindergarten  Primary  Magazine,  June, 
19 12;  American  Primary  Teacher,  April  and 
June,  1912;  Northwest  Journal  of  Education, 
April,  1912;  Elementary  School  Teacher,  Feb., 
1912;  Primary  Education,  June,  1912 ;  Journal 
of  Education,  April  n,  and  July  4,  1912. 


THE  MONTESSORI  DEVICES 

WHAT  THEY  ARE  AND  HOW  TO    USE  THEM    IN  THE    SCHOOL  AND    HOME 


T)R.  MARIA  MONTESSORI, 
•^  founder  of  the  Montessori 
system,  began  her  career  in  the 
medical  profession.  The  only 
daughter  of  middle  class  parents, 
brilliant  and  ambitious,  she  was 
the  first  woman  to  obtain  a  med- 
ical degree  from  the  University 
of  Rome.  Making  a  specialty 
of  children's  diseases,  she  became 
director  of  an  institution  for  the 
feeble  minded.  It  was  in  con- 
nection with  this  work  that  she 
first  developed  her  system  and 
became  interested  in  its  possibil- 
ities as  applied  to  normal  child- 
ren. She  resigned  from  the 
institution  and  became  a  student 
of  philosophy  in  the  University 
of  Rome,  specializing  in  child 
psychology  and  visiting  primary 
schools.  In  January,  1907,  she 
opened  in  Rome  the  first  Case 
dei  Bambini,  or  "Children's 
House."  Her  work  almost  im- 
mediately attracted  wide  atten- 
tion. 

In  1911  Switzerland  established  the  Mon- 
tessori system  in  its  schools,  and  E.  G.  C. 
Holmes,  the  chief  inspector  of  the  elementary 
schools  of  England,  as  a  result  of  personal 
investigation,  said  of  Dr.  Montessori: 

She  is  great  because  she  has  discovered  Froebel's 
master  principle  for  herself,  and  in  so  doing  has  inter- 
preted it  anew  ...  .In  theory  Froebel  left  much  to 
the  child's  initiative;  in  practice,  comparatively  little. 

The  Montessori  system  is  part  of  the  course 
of  instruction  in  many  leading  normal  schools 
in  Canada  and  its  importance  is  widely  recog- 
nized by  educational  leaders  in  the  United 


Souse  of  Childhood  Inc. 

DR.  MARIA  MONTESSORI 
Here  is  "the  only  example  of 
an  educational  system  inaugu- 
rated by  the  feminine  mind." 


States  where  its  adoption  is  being 
promoted  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Montessori  Educational 
Association  of  Washington,  of 
which  Mrs.  Alexander  Graham 
Bell  is  President  and  Dr.  Claxton, 
U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion, Miss  Margaret  Woodrow 
Wilson,  John  A.  Brashear,  Chair- 
man of  the  Educational  Fund 
Commission  of  Pittsburg,  and 
William  E.  Davidson,  Superin- 
tendent of  Education  of  Pitts- 
burgh, members  of  the  Board 
of  Trustees. 

THE  SYSTEM 
Teaching  by  the  Montessori 
system  begins  with  devices  most 
directly  related  to  the  child's 
daily  life — as  those  for  teaching 
the  lacing  of  shoes  and  the  but- 
toning of  dresses.  Thus  the  occu- 
pations of  home  and  school 
constantly  review,  supplement 
and  emphasize  each  other. 

Teaching  Through  the  Fingers: 
One  of  the  first  steps  is  to  train 
the  finger  tips.  For  example,  the  child  learns 
the  "feel"  of  letters  made  of  sand  paper  and 
pasted  upon  cards.  In  these  exercises  move- 
ments are  always  from  left  to  right,  because  of 
the  preparation  thus  afforded  for  writing. 
Stress  is  laid  upon  the  training  of  the  finger 
tips  because  up  to  the  age  of  six,  children  see 
imperfectly  and  because,  up  to  this  age,  the 
brain  is  best  educated  through  the  fingers; 
hence,  in  part,  their  eagerness  to  help  vision 
by  feeling — an  instinct  which  is  either  a  nui- 
sance or  an  education,  in  proportion  as  it  is,  or 
is  not,  applied  under  the  guidance  of  an  adult. 


,J  House  of  Childhood  Inc. 

CHILDREN  USING  COUNTING  AND  GEOMETRICAL  DBVICBS. 
The  child  on  the  left  is  placing  figure  cards  over  the  corresponding  number  of  counting  sticks; 
on   the  right  is  fitting  ge9metric   insets  into  corresponding  holes.      His  eyes  are  closed  and  he 
decides  which  hole  the  cylinder  will  fit,  solely  by  sense  of  touch. 


Why  the  Children  Are  Often  Blindfolded: 
How  many  of  us  think  why,  when  we  say  "let 
me  see,"  we  are  apt  to  close  our  eyes?  Our 
mind-image  of  the  thing  we  are  trying  to  think 
about  is  thus  made  more  vivid  by  shutting 
away  from  it  all  competitive  images ;  and  there 
are  other  reasons.  Accordingly  a  good  many 
things  in  a  Montessori  school  are  done  by  the 
children  while  blindfolded. 


©  House  of  Childhood  Inc. 
HOOK  AXD  EYE  FRAME 

Other  features  of  the  child's  daily  business  of  dress- 
ing are  taught  by  means  of  similar  frames. 

Dressing  Frames:  A  set  of  eight  wooden 
frames.  On  six  of  these  are  mounted  pieces 
of  cloth  of  varying  qualities  to  be  joined  by 
means  of  large  buttons  and  button  holes,  auto- 
matic fasteners,  small  buttons  and  button 
holes,  hooks  and  eyes,  colored  ribbons  for  bow 
tying  and  lacing  through  eyelets.  Similar 
frames  with  leather  pieces,  similarly  stimulate 
interest  in  shoe  lacing  and  shoe  buttoning. 
The  children  thus  eagerly  learn  the  use  of 
their  hands  and  usually  "discover"  for  them- 
selves that  they  can  apply  this  skill  in- dressing. 

FOR  DEVELOPING  SKILL  IN  NOTING  DIFFERENCES 
IN  DIMENSION,  FORM  AND  NUMBER 

The  apparatus  for  developing  skill  in  noting 
differences  in  number,  form  and  dimension, 
include : 

Solid  Geometrical  Insets:  Three  series  of 
wooden  cylinders  set  in  corresponding  holes. 
In  the  first  series,  diameter  is  constant,  height 
varies;  in  the  second  series,  diameter  is  con- 
stant, he;ght  varies;  in  the  third  series  the 
cylindrical  form  alone  is  constant,  height  and 
diameter  vary. 

With  these  insets  the  child,  working  inde- 
pendently, learns  to  discriminate  objects 
according  to  thickness,  height  and  size.  (For 
example,  if.  he  places  the  next-to-the-largest 
cylinder  in  the  largest  hole,  he  will  find  him- 
self in  the  end  with  the  largest  cylinder  for 
the  smallest  hole,  etc.).  These  cylinder  sets 


prepare  for  the  more  difficult  exercises  that 
follow. 

"The  Tower:"  Consists  of  ten  wooden 
cubes  decreasing  regularly  in  size  from  10 
centimeters  to  i  centimeter.  With  them  the 
child  builds  "the  tower"  and  learns  general 
dimension.  (This  also  is  self  corrective;  since 
a  misplaced  block  breaks  the  line.) 

"  The  Broad  Stair:"  Ten  rectangular  wooden 
blocks  decreasing  in  height  and  width,  length 
only  being  constant.  To  teach  dimension  of 
thickness. 

"  The  Long  Stair:"  Ten  wooden  square  rods 
varying  only  in  length;  the  first  one  meter  long, 
the  last  one  decimeter  long,  intervening  ones 
diminishing  one  decimeter.  Being  marked  off 
in  decimeters,  they  teach  dimension  of  length, 
help  form  habits  of  accurate  classification  and 
are  later  used  in  teaching  addition,  subtrac- 
tion, multiplication  and  decimals.  (Control 
of  errors  is  through  regularity  of  decreasing 
lengths  of  stairs  and  alternation  of  colors.) 

Counting  Boxes:  These  are  two  boxes  each 
with  five  partitions  containing  sand  paper 
numbers  (on  cards)  o  to  9,  standing  upright 
in  each  partition.  Under  these  cards  are  the 
corresponding  number  of  counting  sticks. 
These  counting  sticks  succeed  the  "long  stair" 
in  teaching  elementary  mathematics,  the  child 
associating  the  symbol  with  the  concrete 
objects. 

Counting  Case:  A  case  containing  cards 
from  which  number  combinations  from  i  to 
100  may  be  made  by  sliding  the  numbers  into 
frames  arranged  perpendicularly  in  series  of 
five. 


_  House  of  Childhood  Inc. 

LEARNING  64  SHADES  OP  COLOR 

This  illustration  shows  one  of  che  color  boxes  and 
the  flat  spools  upon  which  the  diiferent  colored 
threads  are  wound. 


MONTESSORI  SYSTEM 


12566 


MONTESSORI  SYSTEM 


FOR  TRAINING  THE  COLOR  SENSE. 

Color  Boxes:  To  train  the  child  to  make  fine 
color  discriminations  a  set  of  two  duplicate 
color  boxes  is  used.  Each  box  contains  eight 
colors,  in  a  series  of  eight  shades.  In  their 
use  colors  are  first  presented  in  shades  strongly 
contrasting.  A  variety  of  games  are  played 
with  these  colors,  one  of  the  most  interesting 
and  useful  of  which  resembles  "Authors,"  each 
player  calling  for  the  necessary  shades  from 
others  to  complete  his  set. 

FOR  TRAINING  THE  SENSE  OF  TOUCH. 

Sand  Paper  Boards:  For  the  first  steps  in 
training  the  sense  of  touch  two  small  boards 
are  provided.  One  has  half  its  surface  cov- 
ered with  sand  paper,  the  other  half  smooth. 
The  other  board  is  covered  with  alternate 
strips  of  sand  paper  of  varying  degrees  of 
roughness. 

"The  Fabric  Box:"  A  collection  of  squares 
of  velvet,  wool,  silk,  fine  and  coarse  cotton 
and  fine  and  coarse  linen  arranged  in  a  cabi- 
net with  drawers.  Used  to  train  further  the 
tactile  sense  and  add  knowledge  regarding 
quality. 

TEACHING  GEOMETRIC  FORMS. 

Plane  Geometric  Insets  in  Wood:  A  six 
drawer  cabinet  containing:  (i)  Four  plain 
wooden  squares,  rhomboid  and  trapezoid;  (2) 
six  polygons;  (3)  six  circles  diminishing  in  size; 
(4)  six  quadrilaterals  (one  square  and  five 
rectangles);  (5)  triangles  of  varying  shapes; 
(6)  oval,  elipse,  flower  forms,  etc. 

In  use,  these  forms  are  mixed  and  the  child 
learns  (both  by  sight  and  touch)  to  put  them 
in  corresponding  depressions  in  wooden  trays. 
(Blindfolding  makes  the  exercise  more  diffi- 
cult and  therefore  more  interesting.) 

Plane  Geometric  Forms:  These  geometrical 
insets  are  also  reproduced  in  three  series  of 
cards  to  enable  the  child  to  pass  from  the 
concrete  to  the  abstract  sense  of  form.  In  the 
first  series,  forms  are  mounted  in  solid  blue  on 
the  card;  in  the  second,  forms  are  reproduced 
in  thick  outline;  in  the  third,  the  outline  is 
represented  by  a  thin  blue  line.  In  the  use 
of  this  device  the  child  mixes  up  a  series  of 
cards  and  a  series  of  wooden  frames  and  then 
hides  each  card  form  by  placing  over  it  the 
corresponding  wooden  form. 

So,  through  these  exercises,  the  child  passes — 
step  by  step,  day  by  day — from  solid  objects, 
to  the  plane  figures  and  finally  to  a  mere  draw- 
ing representing  the  figure;  thus  developing  the 
ability  to  form  and  carry  accurate  images  in 
his  mind,  which  is  the  fundamental  thing  in 
writing,  drawing,  designing,  etc. ;  and,  indeed, 
any  other  kind  of  thinking  and  expression 
about  the  world  of  concrete  things. 

Plane  Geometric  Insets  in  Metal:  Used  in 
the  first  exercises  in  design.  The  child  draws 
around  the  form,  as  he  has  previously  "drawn 
around  it"  in  feeling  it  with  his  finger.  The 
outline  is  then  filled  in  with  colored  crayon. 
The  only  new  step  is  the  handling  of  the  crayon. 
These  metal  insets  are  used  on  two  little 


tables  with  sloped  tops  Oarge  enough  to  hold 
three  of  the  metal  insets),  which  are  placed 
on  the  child's  own  table. 

TEACHING  THE  ALPHABET. 

Alphabet  Boxes:  Two  cases  containing,  in 
compartments  like  a  printer's  case,  five  com- 
plete alphabets.  These  letters  are  cut  in 
script  from  stiff  paper  and  mounted  on  cards. 
To  help  in  memorizing  and  distinguishing 
vowels  and  consonants  the  consonants  are 
printed  in  rose  color,  the  vowels  in  blue. 

The  letters  are  also  outlined  in  sand  paper 
and  mounted  on  cards.  Being  rough,  these 
sand  paper  letters  control  the  little  tracing 
fingers  and  the  movements  so  developed  help 
a  child  to  write  a  remarkably  good  hand  in  a 
remarkably  short  time. 

QUESTIONS  ABOUT  THE   SYSTEM 

The  general  secretary  of  the  Montessori 
Association,  gives  the  following  information 
for  THE  NEW  STUDENT'S  REFERENCE  WORK 
in  answer  to  the  inquiries  indicated: 

"  Is  there  any  part  of  the  work  in  which  the 
children  are  all  engaged  in  doing  the  same 
thing  at  the  same  time,  or  where  each  is 
doing  a  part  of  one  piece  of  work,  as  in  the 
Kindergarten?" 

"No,  even  if  the  children  voluntarily  co- 
operate, as  often  occurs,  as  in  building  or 
color  matching,  this  is  not  as  if  each  were 
required  to  take  part  in  some  work." 

Can  you  give  examples  illustrating  the 
rapidity  with  which  children  learn  reading, 
writing  and  number?" 

"Children  in  Montessori  classes  in  Rome 
have  learned  to  read  and  write  in  six  weeks; 
others  in  three  months.  One  six  -year  old 
boy  in  an  American  Children's  House  was  able 
to  compose  and  write  seventy-seven  words 
one  month  after  admission  to  the  school. 
Progress  in  number  work  is  equally  rapid,  but 
varies  with  the  individual. " 

"Can  the  Montessori  teacher  handle  suc- 
cessfully more  or  less  children  than  the  teacher 
under  the  Kindergarten  method?" 

"In  earlier  stages  fewer,  as  each  child  re- 
quires individual  attention.  One  teacher  and 
an  assistant  are  sufficient  for  25  children. 
Later  on  as  children  become  self  disciplined, 
fewer  teachers  are  required  than  in  the  Kinder- 
garten work." 

"To  what  extent  can  the  mother  in  the  home, 
under  the  Montessori  method,  co-operate  with 
the  teacher,  and  how  much  can  she  accomplish 
where  there  is  no  teacher  in  her  community?" 

"She  can  co-operate  with  the  teacher  by 
putting  the  underlying  principles  of  th$  method 
into  practice  in  all  her  dealings  with  her  child- 
ren. What  she  can  accomplish  where  there 
is  no  teacher  depends  entirely  on  the  time  she 
can  devote  to  her  children;  if  her  whole  time, 
and  she  has  fully  grasped  the  underlying 
principles,  there  is  no  reason  why  she  should 
not  accomplish  just  as  much  as  the  professional 
teacher." 


MONTEVIDEO 


"57 


MONPELIER 


Montevideo  (mon'te-vid'd-o),  the  capital  of 
Uruguay,  is  situated  on  the  northern  shore  of 
the  Plata  inlet,  about  125  miles  east  of  Buenos 
Aires.  It  is  built  on  a  low  point  between  the 
ocean  and  a  small  bay. 

The  city  covers  about  five  square 
miles,  and  has  broad,  well-paved  streets.  A 
cathedral  with  towers  and  a  fine  dome, 
opera-house,  town-hall,  university  (with  112 
professors  and  530  regular  students  besides 
66 1  pupils  receiving  secondary  instruction) 
and  a  museum  are  among  the  public  build- 
ings. It  has  large  beef-salting  establishments, 
where  over  400,000  cattle  are  killed  yearly; 
and  other  industries,  mainly  of  articles  for 
home  use.  It  is  the  cleanest  and  healthiest 
city  in  South  America,  and  has  a  large 
foreign  population,  brought  mainly  from 
Italy,  Spain  and  France.  The  first  settle- 
ment dates  back  to  1726.  Population  291,- 
465. 

Montezuma  or  Moctezuma  II  (mon-t$- 
zoo'ma),  the  last  of  the  Aztec  emperors  of 
Mexico  (q.  v.),  was  born  in  1479  and  as- 
cended the  throne  in  1502.  He  gave  his 
chief  attention  to  the  improvement  of  the 
laws  of  the  country  and  to  building  the 
magnificent  palaces  associated  with  his 
name.  His  enormous  expenses  led  to  heavy 
taxation,  which  resulted  in  many  revolts. 
When  Cortez  (q.  v.),  the  Spanish  conqueror, 
landed  in  Mexico  in  1519,  Montezuma  tried 
to  buy  him  off  with  his  treasures  of  gold 
and  silver.  Admitting  him  to  his  halls  as 
a  guest,  he  soon  found  himself  a  prisoner  in 
the  Spanish  camp.  To  quiet  a  revolt  of  the 
people  Cortez  led  out  Montezuma,  who  was 
wounded  by  a  stone  thrown  by  some  one 
in  the  crowd.  This,  added  to  his  other 
indignities,  broke  his  heart.  Tearing  the 
bandages  from  his  wound,  he  refused  all 
remedies  and  food,  and  died  at  Tenochtitlan, 
June  30,  1520.  See  Conquest  of  Mexico  by 
Prescott  and  Story  of  Mexico  by  Hale. 

Montfort  (mont'fert),  Simon  de,  Earl  of 
Leicester,  an  English  general  and  states- 
man, the  leader  in  che  war  of  the  barons 
against  Henry  III  (q.  v.),  was  born  in  the 
beginning  of  the  i3th  century.  The  king 
was  surrounded  with  foreigners  -who  fared 
sumptuously  at  the  expense  of  the  people; 
bad  harvests  and  famine  added  to  their  dis- 
content; and  in  1258  the  barons  appeared 
in  arms  before  Parliament  and  demanded 
the  driving  out  of  the  foreigners  and  the 
appointment  of  a  committee  of  24  to  man- 
age affairs.  Later  in  the  same  year  Parlia- 
ment drew  up  laws  called  the  Provisions  of 
Oxford,  which  the  king  agreed  to.  By  these 
provisions  the  foreigners  were  to  surrender 
their  castles,  and  Montfort  gave  up  Kenil- 
*orth  and  Odiham.  In  1261  the  king  re- 
j.-7aled  the  act  of  parliament,  which  brought 
Montfort  to  the  front  as  leader  of  the  barons. 
Ke  surprised  the  king's  army  at  Lewes  and 
ceatur^  the  vo-mr  rnr^a  Mav  14-  ir6< 


In  his  arrangements  for  a  peaceable  settle- 
ment of  the  difficulties  a  parliament  was 
callea,  ia  which  the  barons,  bishops  and 
abbots  sat,  with  four  knights  chosen  from 
each  shire  and,  for  the  first  time  in  England, 
two  representatives  from  certain  towns. 
This  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  germ  of 
the  modern  parliament.  He  was,  however, 
ahead  of  his  times;  the  barons  were  dis- 
satisfied and  Gloucester  deserted ;  the  young 
prince  escaped ;  and,  joining  with  Gloucester, 
defeated  Montfort,  Aug.  4,  1265.  He  was 
killed  on  the  field  of  battl  (Evesham),  but 
his  memory  survives  among  the  people,  who 
know  him  as  St.  Simon.  The  Song  of  Lewes, 
first  printed  in  a  collection  of  political  songs 
in  1839,  is  a  full  account  of  this  constitu- 
tional struggle  of  the  barons.  See  Constitu- 
tional History  of  England  by  Stubbs  and 
the  Life  by  Prothero. 

Montgomery  (mont-giim'er-T),  the  capital 
of  the  state  of  Alabama,  is  situated  on 
Alabama  River.  It  is  surrounded  with  fine 
country  seats,  and  is  a  growing  city,  with 
artesian  water,  electric  lights,  612  miles  of 
excellent  highways,  and  other  modern  im- 
provements. Since  1865  the  manufactories 
have  increased  rapidly,  including  foundries, 
steam-mills,  cottongins  and  oil-works.  The 
capitol  is  a  fine  building,  overlooking  a  wide 
stretch  of  Black  Belt  country.  The  city  is  410 
miles  from  Mobile  traveling  by  the  Alabama 
River,  but  only  180  miles  by  rail.  The  popu- 
lation is  53,000. 

Montmorency,  Falls  of,  are  in  Mont- 
morency  River,  eight  miles  below  Quebec, 
where  it  empties  into  the  St.  Lawrence. 
The  water  falls  over  a  precipice  250  feet 
high  and  50  wide.  There  is  a  series  of 
natural  steps  above  the  falls  worn  by  the 
water,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  falls  an  ice- 
mountain,  sometimes  200  feet  high,  is 
formed  every  winter.  It  is  a  place  of  resort 
for  tourists. 

Mont  Pelee,  a  volcanic  mountain  in  the 
island  of  Martinique,  overlooking  the  town 
of  Saint  Pierre,  was  the  scene  of  a  terrible 
and  disastrous  eruption  during  May,  June, 
July  and  August,  1902.  On  May  8th  over 
20,000  people  were  destroyed  in  Saint 
Pierre  by  an  eruption  of  steam  and  red- 
hot  ashes.  The  town  met  the  fate  of  Pom- 
peii and  Herculaneum.  Boiling  mud,  steam 
and  rocky  bombs,  rather  than  lava,  char- 
acterized the  eruption.  The  height  of  the 
mountain  previous  to  the  eruption  was  esti- 
mated at  4,300  feet.  After  the  eruption  it 
had  been  completely  transformed.  A  sort 
of  column  was  thrust  up  above  the  original 
summit,  so  that  the  height  after  the  erup- 
tion was  no  less  than  5,200  feet. 

Montpelier  (mont-pe'U-er)  is  the  capital 
of  Vermont  and  the  chief  city  in  Washington 
County.  It  is  on  Winooski  River,  206  miles 
from  Boston.  It  is  built  on  a  plain,  sur- 
y  k-'U?  If  £«s  a  granite  state- 


MONTPELLIER 


1258 


MOODY 


house,  with  a  statue  of  Ethan  Allen,  Ver- 
mont Seminary,  a  Methodist  institution  and 
several  mills,  machine-shops  and  tanneries. 
Population  7,856. 

Montpellier  (mdn'pd'lyd'),  a  French  city, 
76  miles  northwest  of  Marseilles  and  six 
from  the  Mediterranean.  Its  great  industry, 
the  production  of  wine,  at  periods  suffers 
by  the  phylloxera,  a  minute  insect  that 
attacks  the  vines  and  almost  destroys  the 
vineyards;  the  cure  effected  by  grafting  the 
vines  upon  American  stocks  was  first  tried 
here.  There  is  a  flourishing  school  of  agri- 
culture devoted  to  the  study  of  wine  and 
silk-culture.  Montpellier  is  more  celebrated, 
however,  as  an  ancient  city  belonging  to 
Aragon  or  to  Navarre,  before  it  finally  be- 
came a  French  city  in  1392.  Its  university 
(1289),  with  schools  of  law,  medicine  and 
arts,  rivaled  that  of  Paris.  Population 

75.95°- 

Mont'real",  in  Quebec,  Canada,  is  the 
commercial  metropolis  of  all  British  Amer- 


MONTREAL, 
and  the  JUNCTION  of  the 


ST  LAWRENCE  &OTTAWA 
RIVERS. 


ica.  It  stands  at  the  head  of  sea-going 
navigation  and  at  the  foot  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence canal-system  and  of  Ottawa  River. 
The  Canadian  Pacific  directly  links  Ontario 
and  the  western  provinces  to  Montreal.  It 
is  the  western  terminus  of  the  Intercolonial 
Railway  system.  The  Grand  Trunk  makes 
Montreal  its  chief  center.  Every  Canadian 
industry  (sugar-refining,  iron-works,  cot- 
ton-mills, car- shops,  bridge- works),  is  repre- 
sented in  Montreal.  The  two  large  univer- 
sities, McGill  and  Laval,  (q. v.),are  located 
here;  it  also  has  numerous  smaller  colleges. 
Its  church  architecture  is  said  to  the  the 
finest  on  the  continent.  The  McGill  build- 
ings also  attract  attention.  The  situation 
of  Montreal  lying  on  Mount  Royal  and 
along  the  river  is  most  picturesque.  Popula- 
tion with  suburbs  466,000.  The  city  is 
noted  for  its  hospitals  and  their  perfect 
equipment.  Montreal  is  the  home  of  scores 
of  millionaires,  not  a  few  of  whom  are 


patrons  of  art,  owning  valuable  paintings 
and  generous  towards  educational  and  char- 
itable objects.  The  population  is  mixed,  the 
French  predominating,  and  yet  to  a  wonder- 
ful extent  harmony  and  good  feeling  prevail. 
The  deepening  of  the  St.  Lawrence  (q.  v.~)  at 
great  cost  by  the  government  placed  Montreal 
at  the  head  of  ocean  navigation.  The  Domin- 
ion canals  between  Montreal  and  Lake  Su- 
perior are  the  Lachine,  Soulanges,  Cornwall, 
Farrans  Point,  Rapide  Plat,  Glops,  Murray, 
Welland  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie.  (See  arti- 
cles.) Their  aggregate  length  is  73  miles; 
total  lockage  (or  height  directly  overcome 
by  locks)  551  feet.  The  number  of  locks 
through  which  a  vessel  would  pass  in  its 
passage  from  Montreal  at  the  head  of  ocean 
navigation  to  the  head  of  Lake  Superior  is 
48.  Soulanges  Canal  takes  the  place  of 
Beauharnais  Canal.  Communication  be- 
tween Lakes  Superior  and  Huron  is  obtained 
by  means  of  the  Canadian  Sault  Ste.  Marie 
Canal  and  also  by  the  St.  Marys  Falls 
Canal,  situated  on  the  United  States  side  of 
the  River  St.  Mary.  Both  these  canals  are 
free  from  toll.  See  ST.  LAWRENCE  RIVER. 

Mood'y,  Dwight  Lyman,  evangelist,  was 
born  at  Northfield,  Mass.,  Feb.  5,  1837.  At 
1 7  he  became  an 
earnest  Christian 
and  zealously 
embraced  Chris- 
tian work.  Wish- 
ing to  strike  out 
a  new  path  for 
himself,  he  went 
from  Boston  to 
Chicago.  A  tire- 
less worker,  he 
settled  down  to 
the  hunting  up 
of  ragged  chil- 
dren in  the  worst 
parts  of  the  city 
and  winning 
them  to  school  and  to  a  good  life.  Soon  a 
deserted  saloon  was  hired  for  a  Sunday- 
school  which  Moody  built  into  a  great 
mission. 

The  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War  gave 
Moody  an  opportunity  that  was  improved 
to  the  utmost.  He  carried  on  a  great  revival 
at  the  recruiting  camp  near  Chicago.  Soon 
a  call  came  from  the  sick  and  wounded. 
Back  and  fort  „  between  Chicago  and  camp 
and  battlefield  Moody  toiled  and  traveled. 
Moody's  great  work  was  as  an  evangelist, 
but  his  many  converts  in  Chicago,  who  had 
founded  a  church,  forced  him  to  become 
their  pastor.  But  this  charge  could  not 
keep  him  from  carrying  on  great  revivals 
which  were  wonderfully  successful  and  will 
always  hold  his  name  m  remembrance.  In 
1870  and  1883,  with  Sankey  (who  died  in 
1908),  he  visited  England,  where  his  success 
was  as  great  as  in  America.  Another  great 


DWIGHT  L.  MOODY 


MOODY 


1259 


MOORE 


agency  we  owe  Moody  is  the  summer-school 
for  Bible  study  at  Northfield,  where  Chris- 
tian workers  study  under  the  foremost 
preachers  and  professors.  Connected  with 
this  school  is  the  institute  for  the  training 
of  young  men  for  this  work,  which  was 
founded  from  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of 
Moody  and  Sankey's  Gospel  Hymns,  the 
most  popular  hymn-book  ever  published. 
Many  of  Moody  s  sermons  have  been  pub- 
lished. See  Moody  and  the  Memoir  by  W. 
R.  Moody,  his  son  (b.  1869),  who  continues 
the  father's  work  in  Northfield.  He  died 
on  Dec.  22,  1899. 

Moody,  William  Henry,  was  born  in  New 
bury,  Mass.,  educated  at  Phillips  Academy, 
Andover,  and  graduated  from  Harvard  in 
1876.  He  took  up  the  law,  and  became 
district-attorney  of  the  east  district  of 
Massachusetts  in  1890,  serving  till  1895.  He 
successfully  prosecuted  the  "boodle"  alder- 
men of  Lawrence.  He  was  elected  to  the 
54th  Congress,  and  served  also  in  the  ssth, 
56th  and  5  yth  Congresses.  During  that  time 
he  gained  the  reputation  of  being  a  thor- 
ough master  of  the  method  of  conducting 
the  proceedings  of  the  house;  and  he  also 
was  of  much  service  in  the  important  com- 
mittee of  appropriations.  On  May  t,  1902, 
he  was  selected  by  President  Roosevelt  to 
succeed  Mr.  Long  as  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 
On  July  i,  1904,  he  was  appointed  Attorney- 
General  of  the  United  States,  In  1906  he 
was  appointed  Supreme-Court  Justice.  He 
has  had  charge  of  many  of  the  important 
prosecutions  which  the  government  has  con- 
ducted against  offending  corporations  and 
their  officers. 

Moon,  a  satellite  of  the  earth  and  our 
nearest  neighbor  in  the  stellar  universe.  Its 


PHASES   OF   THE    MOON 

distance  from  the  earth  varies  from  221,614 
to  252,972  miles.     Its  apparent  mean  di- 


ameter is  31'  7*  so  that  its  real  diameter 
is  2,163  miles,  and  its  volume  only  fa  that 
of  the  earth.  The  moon's  mass,  however, 
is  only  about  g>g  of  the  earth's,  which  makes 
the  acceleration  of  gravity  at  its  surface 
only  £  that  at  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
Professor  Young  illustrates  this  by  saying 
that  "a  man  on  the  moon  could  jump  six 
times  as  high  as  he  could  on  the  earth  and 
could  throw  a  stone  six  times  as  far."  The 
absence  of  any  atmosphere  or  water  on  the 
surface  of  the  moon  has  been  proved  by 
the  moon's  appearance  in  the  telescope,  by 
the  spectroscope  and  by  the  absence  of  re- 
fraction in  the  occultation  of  stars.  The 
moon,  like  the  sun,  moves  constantly  to- 
ward the  east  among  the  stars;  but  it 
gains  12°  11.4'  daily  on  the  sun.  Accord- 
360° 

ingly  the  moon  requires days  to  gain 

12°  11.4' 

one  complete  revolution  on  the  sun.  This 
length  of  time,  which  is  29*  i2h  44"'  2.7*  is 
called  one  month.  This  is  also  exactly  the 
time  required  for  one  rotation  of  the  moon 
upon  her  own  axis.  The  consequence  is  that 
she  always  keeps  the  same  side  toward  the 
earth.  The  other  side  of  the  moon  is  some- 
thing that  no  inhabitant  of  the  earth  has 
ever  seen.  The  reason  why  the  period  of 
the  moon's  rotation  is  exactly  one  month  is 
a  matter  which  is  thoroughly  understood  — 
namely,  tidal  friction  —  but  is  too  advanced 
for  discussion  in  this  place.  The  various 
phases  which  the  moon  presents  will  be 
clear  from  the  accompanying  figure  which 
represents  the  earth  and  the  moon's  orbit, 
illuminated  by  a  sun  at  a  great  distance 
above  the  top  of  the  page.  When  the  moon 
lies  exactly  m  the  direction  of  the  sun  we 
say  it  is  "new."  In  this  position  we  see 
none  of  its  illuminated  hemisphere;  but  as 
the  moon  moves  away  from  the  sun's  direc- 
tion we  see  more  and  more  of  the  illuminated 
portion.  At  the  end  of  one  w.eek,  half  of 
the  bright  surface  is  seen  by  an  observer  on 
the  earth,  and  we  speak  of  this  as  a  "half 
moon."  A  week  later  we  see  the  complete, 
illuminated  hemisphere  and  call  it  "full 
moon."  The  moon  now  begins  to  wane  and 
passes  through  these  same  phases,  in  reverse 
order,  until  the  next  "new  moon."  The 
moon  has  in  all  ages  been  and  still  is  the 
subject  of  many  superstitions.  Witness  such 
words  as  moon-struck  and  lunacy. 

Moon'stone.     See  FELDSPAR. 

Moore,  Sir  John,  a  British  general,  was 
born  at  Glasgow,  Scotland,  Nov.  13,  1761, 
and  died  at  Corunna,  Spain,  Jan.  16,  1809. 
He  obtained  the  Order  of  the  Bath  for  his 
services  in  Egypt  in  1801.  In  1802  he  was 
with  the  army  in  Sicily  and  in  Sweden,  and 
in  1808  he  was  put  in  command  of  the 
English  army  in  the  Spanish  peninsula.  The 
Spaniards  failed  to  support  him,  and,  when 
the  news  reached  him  that  Napoleon  with 


MOORE 


1260 


MORAVIANS 


THOMAS   MOORE 


70,000  men  was  marching  against  him,  he 
began  a  retreat  with  his  army  of  25,000 
men.  They  marched  for  nearly  250  miles 
through  a  mountainous  country,  almost  im- 
passable from  snow  and  rain,  and  while 
embarking  on  their  ships  at  Corunna  were 
attacked  by  the  French  troops  under  Soult. 
The  French  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of 
2,000  men,  but  the  brave  leader  was  struck 
by  a  cannon-ball  and  died  in  the  moment  of 
victory,  and  was  buried  at  night  just  before 
the  troops  embarked  for  England.  The  story 
is  preserved  in  the  well-known  lines  of  the 
Rev.  Charles  Wolfe  (q.  v.)  on  the  burial  of 
Sir  John  Moore.  See  the  Life  by  Moore  and 
Peninsular  War  by  Napier. 

Moore,  Thomas,  an  Irish  poet,  was  born 
at  Dublin,  May  28,  1779.  He  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  in  1779 
went  to  London, 
bringing  out  in  1800 
a  translation  of 
A  nacre  on,  which ,  with 
his  musical  talent, 
opened  to  him  the 
best  society.  His 
Poetical  Works  of 
Thomas  Little  (a  pseu- 
donym of  Moore's) 
followed.  In  1803  he 
was  given  an  official 
position  at  Bermuda, 
which  he  visited,  and 
appointed  a  deputy  to  his  office,  traveling 
afterwards  in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
In  1807  he  began  to  write  words  for  Irish 
national  airs.  These  Irish  Melodies,  con- 
tinued at  intervals  and  completed  in  1834, 
stand  as  the  best  product  of  Moore's  poetic 
genius  and  have  endeared  his  name  to  all 
Irishmen.  His  Song  of  the  Canadian  Boat- 
men: "  Row,  brothers,  row,  the  stream  runs 
fast;  the  rapids  are  near  and  the  daylight's 
past,"  is  a  lyric  that  sings  itself.  In  1817 
Lalla  Rookh  appeared,  and  the  whole  English 
world  applauded.  He  received  $15,000  for 
the  latter,  and  the  Irish  Melodies  brought 
him  $2,000  a  year;  but  his  deputy  in  Ber- 
muda embezzled  $30,000,  of  which  sum  he 
was  obliged  to  pay  $5,000,  and  in  1809  he 
departed  for  Italy  to  avoid  arrest  for  the 
debt.  He  returned  to  England  in  1822, 
spending  the  last  thirty  years  of  his  life  at 
Sloperton  cottage  in  Wiltshire.  His  later 
works  were  a  History  of  Ireland  and  lives  of 
Sheridan,  Byron  and  Fitzgerald.  He  re- 
ceived a  pension  of  $1,500  in  1835.  His 
death  occurred  on  Feb  25,  1852.  See  Me- 
moirs, Journal  and  Correspondence,  by  Earl 
Russell. 

Moors,  people  living  in  Barbary,  in  north- 
ern Africa.  Among  them  flourished  the 
Christian  church  of  Africa  for  three  centuries, 
with  Tertulhan  and  Augustine  as  its  leaders. 
The  country  was  overrun  by  the  Vandals 
from  Spain  in  429,  and  reconquered  by  the 


Byzantine  emperors  in  533.  In  647  the 
Arabs  subdued  it,  and  the  Moors  became 
Mohammedans  and  have  remained  such  ever 
since.  With  the  exception  of  Tripoli  and 
Morocco,  these  countries  now  belong  to 
France.  The  Moors  have  always  been  a 
mixed  race.  In  history  the  name  is  given 
especially  to  the  Arab  conquerors  of  Spain 
from  711  to  1492.  For  a  short  time  one 
caliph  ruled  from  Bagdad  to  the  Atlantic. 
The  Moors  were  finally  driven  from  Spain 
in  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  (1492). 
They  were  far  ahead  of  the  people  of  north- 
ern Europe  in  architecture,  literature,  science 
and  agriculture;  but  after  the  i2th  century 
they  fell  behind  the  Christian  nations  who 
were  developing  rapidly,  and  their  own  divi- 
sions hastened  their  overthrow.  See  Moors 
in  Spain  by  Stanley  Lane-Poole. 

Moose.     See  ELK. 

Moose'head  Lake  is  in  Maine,  and  is  the 
source  of  the  Kennebec.  It  is  the  largest 
lake  in  Maine,  35  miles  long  and  from  3  to 
12  wide.  Spencer  Mountain,  4,000  feet  in 
height,  is  on  the  eastern  shore.  There  is 
fine  game  in  the  region,  especially  deer  and 
caribou,  which,  with  the  attractive  scenery, 
makes  it  a  popular  resort. 

Mo'qui,  Moki  or  Hop!  Indians  are  a 
North  American  Pueblo  tribe,  settled  on  the 
plateaus  or  mesas  of  Arizona.  They  are 
more  industrious  than  the  Indians  of  the 
plains;  and  are  skilled  in  carving,  basket- 
work  and  pottery  as  well  as  agriculture. 
Their  rites  and  ceremonies,  especially  the 
rattlesnake-dance  in  whioh  live  snakes  are 
held  in  the  mouth  have  attracted  great 
interest.  The  tribe  is  believed  to  be  very 
ancient ;  for  mummies,  the  ruins  of  huts  and 
ancient  weapons,  which  have  been  discov- 
ered upon  the  mesas,  are  thought  to  be  the 
work  of  the  ancestors  of  the  Moqui. 

Moran  (mo-ran'),  Thomas,  an  American 
artist,  was  born  at  Bolton,  in  Lancashire, 
England,  Jan  12,  1837.  His  early  life  was 
spent  at  Philadelphia,  where  he  learned  en- 
graving, studying  painting  afterward  in 
England,  France  and  Italy.  His  large  paint- 
ings, the  Grand  Canon  of  the,  Yellowstone 
(7  by  12  feet  in  size)  and  the  Chasm  of  the 
Colorado  were  bought  by  congress  for  $20,- 
ooo.  These  were  the  first  landscapes  ever 
purchased  by  the  government.  His  other 
works  are  mostly  of  the  same  class,  Balboa 
discovering  the  Pacific,  Hiawatha  and  the  Ser- 
pents and  The  Wilds  of  Lake  Superior  being 
examples  of  his  paintings.  In  1872  he 
removed  to  New  York  City,  his  home  be- 
ing at  East  Hampton,  Long  Island.  In 
1884  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Na- 
tional Academy. 

Mora'vians,  Protestants  formed  from 
among  the  followers  of  John  Huss,  are 
the  modern  representatives  of  the  ancient 
Bohemian  church.  They  are  also  called  the 
church  of  the  United  Brethren.  Their 
church  was  formed  after  the  model  of  the 


MORE 


Z26z 


MOREAU 


apostles  and  early  Christians;  all  distinc- 
tions of  rank  were  done  away  with;  they 
were  opposed  to  taking  the  oath  or  giving 
military  sei"vice.  The  first  formation  of  the 
church  was  in  1467  in  Bohemia,  increasing 
to  between  300  and  400  churches  in  the 
beginning  of  the  i6th  century,  when,  from 
persecutions,  many  fled  into  Poland  and 
Prussia.  In  1600  they  numbered  two  thirds 
of  the  Bohemian  nation,  but  were  involved 
in  the  revolution  of  that  period,  and  the 
church  was  almost  destroyed.  A  few  de- 
scendants of  the  old  Moravians  founded  in 
1722  a  colony  at  Herrnhut  in  Saxony  on 
land  given  by  Count  Zinzendorf,  and  in 
1727  formed  their  church  anew.  Their  com- 
munity was  a  pattern  for  other  settlements 
in  Germany,  America  and  Britain,  often 
named  for  the  mother-colony  of  Herrnhut. 
Count  Zinzendorf  was  one  of  their  first 
bishops,  and  had  much  influence  in  decid- 
ing their  customs  of  worship.  They  now 
number  about  100,000  followers.  The  great 
distinction  of  the  Moravians  is  their  mis- 
sionary zeal.  Their  first  missions  were 
started  as  early  as  1732  in  the  West  Indies, 
followed  by  mission- work  in  Greenland,  Lap- 
land, North  and  South  America  and  Africa. 
Their  missions  among  the  American  Indians 
were  successful,  one  of  their  well-known 
stations  being  at  Gnadenhutten  in  Ohio 
among  the  Tuscarawas.  One  out  of  every 
50  members  of  the  Moravian  church  is  en- 
gaged in  mission-work,  and  there  are  three 
times  as  many  members  in  their  mission- 
churches  as  in  the  home-churches.  The 
most  abandoned,  hopeless  and  miserable 
people  have  been  the  first  choice  of  the 
Moravian  missionaries,  as  their  missions  to 
slaves,  lepers,  Indians  and  gypsies  testify. 
The  Moravian  church  in  the  United  States 
has  about  16,500  communicants,  130  min- 
isters and  1 1 6  churches.  Their  great  strength 
is  in  Pennsylvania.  See  Missions  by  Thomp- 
son; Hutton's  Short  History  of  the  Moravian 
Church;  and  History  by  Bost  (English  trans- 
lation). 

More  (mor),  Hannah,  was  born  near  Bris- 
tol, England,  in  1745.  She  wrote  verses 
when  very  young,  publishing  a  drama,  The 
Search  for  Happiness,  when  only  17.  This 
was  followed  by  two  tragedies,  Percy  and 
the  Fatal  Secret,  both  of  which  were  acted. 
She  gave  much  of  her  time  to  helping  the 

6)or  and  _  originating  schools  for  them, 
acaulay  in  his  childhood  was  a  pet  of 
hers.  Her  novel,  Calebs  in  Search  of  a 
Wife,  and  the  tract,  The  Shepherd  of  Salisbury 
Plain,  are  the  most  popular  of  her  works. 
The  tract  has  had  an  enormous  circulation. 
She  died,  at  Clifton,  Sept.  7,  1833.  See 
Life  by  Roberts  and  one  by  Yonge. 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  English  statesman 
and  author,  was  born  at  London  in  1478. 
He  acted  as  page,  according  to  the  fashion 
of  the  times,  in  the  house  of  Archbishop 


Morton,  who  said  to  his  guests:  "This  child 
waiting  at  the  table  will  prove  a  marvelous 
man."  When  Henry  VIII  came  to  the 
throne,  More  was  already  known  as  one  of 
the  leading  scholars  of  the  time,  had  been 
in  Parliament,  and  acted  as  ambassador  to 
the  Netherlands,  so  that  Henry  naturally 
gave  him  public  office.  He  rose  rapidlyt 
becoming  treasurer  of  the  exchequer,  speaker 
of  the  house  of  commons  and,  on  the  fall 
of  Wolsey  in  1529,  lord -chancellor.  The 
king  became  intimate  with  him,  making 
unexpected  visits  at  his  home  at  Chelsea, 
but,  when  congratulated  on  the  king's 
friendship,  More  replied:  "If  my  head 
would  win  him  a  castle  in  France,  it  should 
not  fail  to  go."  He  was  sent  on  embassies 
to  Francis  I  and  Charles  V.  As  chancellor 
"he  was  ready  to  hear  every  man's  cause, 
poor  and  rich,"  and  the  only  fault  found 
has  been  with  his  decisions  in  religious 
matters  Like  Erasmus  and  Colet,  while 
welcoming  reforms,  he  did  not  desire  to 
leave  the  old  church.  He  parted  with  Henry 
on  the  question  of  the  divorce  of  Catherine 
of  Aragon,  and  refused  to  take  the  oath 
acknowledging  Henry  as  head  of  the  church. 
He  was  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill,  London, 
July  6,  1535.  His  works  were  generally 
written  in  Latin;  his  History  of  King  Richard 
III,  however,  in  1513,  was  written  in  Eng- 
lish, and  perhaps  is  the  first  example  of 
classical  English  prose.  His  great  work, 
Utopia,  in  Latin,  made  him  the  one  literary 
Englishman  of  the  i6th  century  who  was 
known  and  admired  on  the  continent.  It 
was  translated  by  Bishop  Burnet  in  1556, 
and  still  holds  its  place  as  an  English  classic. 
See  Life  by  Roper;  and  Lives  of  the  Chan- 
cellors by  Campbell. 

Moreau  (mo'rd'),  Jean  Victor,  one  of  the 
greatest  of  French  generals,  was  born  on  Aug. 
ii,  1761,  in  Brittany.  In  the  Revolution 
he  served  first  under  Dumouriez,  and  was 
soon  made  commander  of  a  division,  taking 
an  active  part  in  reducing  Belgium  and 
Holland.  In  the  spring  of  1796  he  was 
given  the  chief  command  on  the  Rhine  and 
Moselle,  driving  the  Austrians  back  to  the 
Danube,  and  regaining  the  Rhine  in  a 
retreat  that  gave  him  more  reputation  than 
all  his  victories.  In  1798  he  saved  the 
French  army  in  Italy  from  destruction, 
when  hard  pressed  by  the  Russians  and 
Austrians.  His  command  was  given  to 
Joubert,  but,  at  his  request,  Moreau  re- 
mained with  the  army  and,  after  Joubert's 
death,  brought  the  defeated  troops  to 
France.  He  was  offered  the  dictatorship, 
but  declined,  giving  his  help  to  Bonaparte. 
Again  in  command  of  the  army  of  the 
Rhine,  he  gained  victory  after  victory  over 
the  Austrians  in  1800,  ending  with  tha 
great  battle  of  Hohenlinden.  Napoleon, 
possibly  moved  by  jealousy,  accused  him 
of  taking  part  in  a  plot  against  his  life  and 


MORGAN 


Z262 


MORLEY 


had  him  tried.  The  evidence  against  him 
was  insufficient,  but  he  was  exiled  and  came 
to  America  in  1804.  In  1813,  while  with 
the  emperor  of  Russia  and  the  king  of 
Prussia  in  their  march  on  Dresden,  he  was 
struck  by  a  cannon-ball,  and  died  at  Laun 
in  Bohemia,  Sept,  2,  1813.  See  Memoirs 
by  Philippart. 

Morgan,  John  Hunt,  a  Confederate  gen- 
eral, was  born  at  Huntsville,  Ala.,  in  1826. 
In  the  Civil  War  he  took  the  Confederate 
side;  was  a  bold  and  successful  raider;  and 
his  troops  were  the  terror  of  the  border 
regions  and  known  as  Morgan's  Guerrillas. 
He  is  celebrated  for  what  is  known  as 
Morgan's  raid,  in  which,  crossing  the  Ohio, 
he  dashed  through  southern  Indiana  and 
Ohio,  but  was  captured  while  recrossing  the 
river,  and  confined  in  the  Ohio  penitentiary. 
After  his  escape  he  led  another  raid  into 
Tenaessee,  but  was  surprised  and  killed  at 
Greenville.  Tenn.,  Sept.  4,  1864. 

Morgan,  John  Pierpont,  an  American 
financier,  was  born  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  April 
17, 1837.  Hewas 
educated  at  the 
high  school  in 
Boston  and  the 
University  of 
GOttingen,  Ger- 
many. He  began 
his  career  as  a 
banker  in  1857  in 
New  York  City; 
and  in  1860  was 
„  J  appointed  the 
'/y  American  agent 
"  of  the  London 
firm  of  George 
Peabody  and 
Com  p  any.  In 
1864  he  became 
one  of  the  firm  of  Dabney,  Morgan  and  Com- 
pany; and  in  1871  he  became  a  partner  of 
the  Drexels.  He  took  a  lively  interest  in 
railroad  management,  being  director  in  a 
number  of  roads  and  active  in  the  reorgan- 
ization and  development  of  lines  that  had 
failed  in  other  hands.  In  1895  ne  success- 
fully conducted  a  syndicate  formed  for  the 
purchase  of  United  States  four  per  cent, 
bonds.  Mr.  Morgan  became  director  in  no 
less  than  23  railroad  companies  by  1900, 
and  it  was  through  his  efforts  that  the  great 
steel-manufacturing  interests  of  the  country 
were  combined  into  a  company  having  a 
capital  of  $i, loo, 000,000.  In  1901  he  pur- 
chased three  lines  of  ocean-steamers,  and 
with  his  associates  engaged  in  the  largest  finan- 
cial transactions  which  have  ever  been  entered 
into  by  private  individuals.  He  was  an  art 
connoisseur  and  collector  and  made  many  im- 
portant contributions  to  the  Metropolitan  Art 
Museum  of  New  York.  He  died  in  Rome, 
March  31,  1913- 

Morgan,  John  Tyler,  an  American  sol- 
dier and  statesman,  was  born  at  Athens, 


PIERPONT  MORGAN 


Tenn.,  June  20,  1824;  emigrated  to  Alabama 
in  1833;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1845: 
became  a  delegate  to  the  Alabama  secession 
convention  in  1861;  joined  the  Confederate 
army  in  1861;  and,  passing  through  all 
grades  from  private  upward,"  was  made 
brigadier-general  in  1863  and  served  to  the 
close  of  the  struggle.  In  1  8  7  7  he  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  senate.  In  1892  he 
was  appointed  arbitrator  on  the  Bering  Sea 
fisheries  by  President  Harrison.  In  1898 
he  was  appointed  by  President  McKinley 
one  of  the  commissioners  to  organize  a 
territorial  government  in  Hawaii.  He  died 
on  June  n,  1907. 

Morgarten  (mdr'gdr't'n'),  a  mountain  on 
the  border  of  Lake  Egeri  in  Switzerland, 
near  which  i  ,400  Swiss  from  Schwya,  Uri 
and  Unterwalden  won  a  great  victory  over 
15,000  Austrians.  Nov.  15,  1315. 

Mori'ah,  Mount,  a  hill  in  Palestine,  form- 
ing a  part  of  the  site  of  Jerusalem.  Solo- 
mon's temple  was  built  upon  it,  and  at 
its  foot,  in  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  is  the 
Virgin's  Fountain,  an  intermittent  spring 
from  which  the  water  flows  through  an 
aqueduct  cut  into  the  mountain  into  the 
Pool  of  Siloam.  When  the  temple  was 
destroyed  at  the  taking  of  Jerusalem,  Mount 
Moriah  was  literally  plowed  over.  It  is 
the  site  of  the  great  mosque  of  Jerusalem. 
which  occupies  about  one  seventh  of  the 
present  city. 

Mor'ley,  John,  an  English  statesman  and 
writer,  was  born  at  Blackburn,  Lancashire, 
Dec.  24,  1838,  and 
was  educated  at 
Oxford.  He  chose 
literature  as  a  pro- 
fession, writing 
Edmund  Burke, 
Walpole,  Rousseau, 
Voltaire,  Richard 
Cobden,  an  essay 
on  Compromise 
and  Critical  Mis- 
cellanies among 


V.SCOWT 


of  the  English  Men  of  Letters  Series.  From 
1880  to  1883  he  edited  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette. 
In  1880  he  entered  Parliament  as  a  Liberal, 
where  his  speeches  in  favor  of  home  rule, 
as  well  as  his  newspaper  articles,  did  much 
to  influence  public  opinion.  In  1886  he 
was  Irish  secretary  for  a  short  time.  He 
supported  Gladstone  in  1890,  and  from  1892 
to  1895  was  secretary  for  Ireland.  He  is 
popular  as  a  public  speaker;  and  opposed 
the  Salisbury  government  in  undertaking 
the  Boer  War.  His  later  works  embrace 
Oliver  Cromwell  and  William  Ewart  Glad- 
stone, besides  Studies  in  Literature.  In  1907 


editing  from  1867 
to  1882  the  Fort- 


MORMONS 


1263 


MOROCCO 


he  became  secretary  of  state  for  India  in 
the  Campbell- Bannerman  cabinet.  In  1908 
he  was  made  a  viscount. 

Mor'mons,  believers  in  the  Book  of  Mor- 
mon. They  call  themselves  Latter-Day 
Saints,  though  the  term  Mormon  is  not 
particularly  offensive  to  them.  They  con- 
stitute a  religious  community  whose  belief 
is  founded  upon  revelations  said  to  have 
been  made  to  Joseph  Smith  in  Manchester, 
N.  Y.  Born  in  1805  in  Vermont,  he  was 
15  when  he  had  his  first  vision;  his  call,  as 
he  considered  it,  to  the  work  of  a  prophet. 
This  was  followed  in  1823  by  a  revelation 
of  the  place  where  he  would  find  the  metallic 
plates  on  which  were  engraven  the  history 
and  religion  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
America.  In  1827  this  record  was  put  into 
his  hands  together  with  two  transparent 
stones  fastened  to  the  rim  of  a  bow  some- 
what resembling  a  pair  of  spectacles,  but 
larger.  This  peculiar  instrument  was  called 
the  Urim  and  Thummim  or  Interpreters,  by 
means  of  which  he  translated  the  unknown 
language  of  the  record.  Three  persons  were 
permitted  to  see  the  original  record  and 
Interpreters  in  a  miraculous  manner,  while 
eight  testified  that  Smith  showed  them  the 
book  of  plates.  When  Smith  had  completed 
the  translation,  they  were  given  into  the 
custody  of  the  angel  Moroni,  who  had 
brought  them  to  Smith.  Such  is  the  story 
of  the  origin  of  the  Book  of  Mormon,  the 
first  edition  of  which  was  published  in  1830 
at  Palmyra,  N.  Y.  The  name  Mormon 
comes  from  the  prophet  who  was  commis- 
sioned to  abridge  the  history  of  his  people, 
a  race  said  to  have  come  from  Jerusalem 
to  America  about  B.  C.  600;  which  abridg- 
ment constitutes  the  Book  of  Mormon.  It 
is  considered  by  the  Mormons  to  be  of 
equal  authority  with  the  Bible.  The  Mor- 
mon church  was  organized  in  Fayette, 
N.  Y.,  April  6,  1830,  with  six  members. 
Converts  soon  were  numerous,  and  branches 
were  founded  in  New  England,  Ohio  and 
Pennsylvania.  In  1831  they  formed  a 
colony  in  Missouri,  at  Independence,  Jack- 
son County,  which  place  was  revealed  to 
them  as  the  site  of  their  future  capital,  to 
be  known  as  the  City  of  Zion.  Both  here 
and  in  Ohio  they  were  persecuted.  At 
Independence  their  printing-press  was  de- 
stroyed, some  of  their  leading  elders  were 
tarred  and  feathered,  and  finally  3,000  of 
their  colony  were  driven  across  the  Mis- 
souri River.  A  company  of  missionaries 
went  to  England  in  1837  and  made  2,000 
converts.  In  1837-8  they  settled  in  upper 
Missouri,  founding  the  cities  of  Adam  Ondi- 
Ahman  and  Far  West,  but  in  the  late  autumn 
of  1838  the  entire  church,  numbering  12,000 
souls,  were  driven  from  the  state.  They 
fled  into  Illinois  where  they  were  kindly 
received,  and  in  1839-40  founded  the  city 
of  Nauvoo;  but  in  a  few  years  the  popular 


dislike  broke  out  afresh,  and  the  prophet  and 
his  brother  Hyrum,  while  in  prison  under 
a  charge  of  treason  against  the  state,  were 
murdered  by  a  mob  on  the  27th  of  June, 
1844- 

Brigham  Young,  president  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles,  came  to  the  leadership,  and  with 
a  thousand  families  left  Nauvoo  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1846.  They  wintered  in  Iowa  and 
Nebraska,  and  in  the  spring  of  1847  Young 
with  a  band  of  147  set  out  for  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  reaching  Great  Salt  Lake  on 
the  24th  of  July  Others  followed  in  the 
autumn  and  in  the  next  year.  They  have 
many  settlements  in  Idaho,  Colorado,  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona,  besides  Utah,  and 
colonies  in  Mexico  and  British  America; 
there  are  also  numerous  branches  of  their 
church  in  northern  Europe,  in  many  of  the 
states  of  the  American  Union  and  in  the 
Pacific  islands.  They  number  upwards  of 
300,000  members,  the  great  body  of  which 
are  in  Utah.  Their  church  is  officered  as 
follows:  Three  of  the  First  Presidency;  12 
Apostles;  200  Patriarchs;  6,800  High  Priests; 
9,730  Seventies;  20,000  Elders,  a  total  of 
what  they  call  the  Melchisedek  Priesthood 
of  36,745;  while  25,700  bear  what  is  called 
the  Lesser  Priesthood,  making  a  total  of 
those  who  hold  the  priesthood  of  62,445. 
Since  their  removal  to  Utah  the  chief  opposi- 
tion to  them  has  been  due  to  their  doctrine 
of  plurality  of  wives.  For  years  this  doc- 
trine prevented  rhe  admission  of  Utah  as 
a  state.  In  September,  1890,  however,  Wil- 
ford  Woodruff,  then  president  of  the  church, 
issued  his  famous  manifesto,  discontinuing 
plural  marriages;  and  in  1896  Utah  was 
admitted  into  the  Union.  A  new  sect  of 
Mormons,  calling  themselves  the  Reorgan- 
ized Church  have  their  headquarters  at 
Lamoni,  Iowa  The  latter  is  said  to  have 
542  churches,  860  ministers  and  52,000 
communicants. 

Morning  Glory  (Ipomcea},  a  flowering 
plant,  is  common  in  North  America  and 
Europe.  It  is  a  vine,  often  growing  to  10 
feet  in  height.  The  leaves  are  large,  nu- 
merous and  well-fitted  to  form  a  shade  for 
porches.  They  are  roundish  and  heart- 
shaped.  The  flowers  are  funnel-form  and 
commonly  purplish;  but  there  are  varieties 
of  almost  every  color.  The  seeds  should  be 
planted  in  a  sunny  place  in  ordinary  garden 
soil. 

Morocco  (md-rok'ko\  a  country  in  the 
northwest  of  Africa,  a  Mohammedan  empire, 
consisting  of  the  kingdoms  of  Fez  and  Mo- 
rocco and  the  territories  of  Sus,  Adrar,  Draa 
and  Tafilet,  under  a  reigning  sultan,  whose 
government  is  a  despotism  modified  by  an- 
archy. It  contains  about  219,000  square 
miles,  of  which  the  Sahara  occupies  over 
200,000.  The  Atlas  Mountains  cross  it  in 
several  ranges  from  southwest  to  northeast, 
making  a  large  region  hilly.  There  are  rich, 


MOROCCO 


1264 


MORPHOLOGY 


level  plains  in  parts  of  the  country,  and, 
though  the  soil  sometimes  is  thin  in  the 
western  part,  most  of  it  is  of  use  for  pas- 
turage and  there  is  little  real  desert.  Parts 
of  Morocco,  where  the  sea-breezes  prevail 
and  the  Atlas  Mountains  protect  from  the 
hot  winds  of  the  desert,  are  temperate;  but 
the  interior  valleys  are  very  hot  in  summer, 
and  in  winter  ice  and  snow  are  not  un- 
common. The  products  are  those  of  tem- 
perate and  tropical  countries.  Sheep  and 
goat  skins,  oxen  and  oxhides,  gum  and  eggs, 
with  almonds,  oranges,  figs,  lemons  and 
dates  are  among  the  exports,  while  cotton 
is  grown  for  home  use.  The  cultivation 
and  use  of  tobacco  are  forbidden  by  the 
sultan,  and  no  animal  can  be  exported 
without  his  permission.  The  animals  re- 
semble those  of  southern  Europe,  save  a  few 
species  which  come  from  the  regions  of 
Africa  to  the  south.  The  mineral  wealth  is 
almost  unknown,  as  the  interior  has  not 
been  explored,  but  gold,  silver(  copper,  tin, 
iron,  coal  and  petroleum  are  evidently  abun- 
dant. The  mines  are  scarcely  touched,  and 
no  European  is  allowed  to  visit  them.  The 
people,  numbering  about  4,500,000,  are 
divided  into  six  groups;  the  Berbers,  who 
inhabit  the  mountain  regions,  are  the  orig- 
inal inhabitants;  the  Arabs,  descendants  of 
those  who  invaded  the  country  in  the  yth 
century;  the  Jews,  who  settled  early  in  the 
region,  with  many  refugees  from  Spain  and 
Portugal;  a  few  Europeans,  mainly  Span- 
iards, confined  to  the  coastal  towns;  the 
Moors,  a  name  given  to  all  the  Moham- 
medans but  really  belonging  only  to  Arabs 
with  a  mixture  of  Spanish  blood,  found 
mostly  in  the  large  cities;  and  the  negroes, 
who  were  brought  from  the  Sudan  as  slaves. 
There  are  three  capitals  —  Fez  (population 
140,000),  Morocco  and  Mequinez;  the  sea- 
ports on  the  Atlantic  are  Mogador  and  Tan- 
gier (35,000  population)  and  on  the  Medi- 
terranean, Tetuan. 

Morocco  for  four  centuries  was  a  part  of 
the  Roman  empire,  and  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Vandals  in  429  A.  D.,  until,  in  533 
A.  D.,  it  passed  to  the  Eastern  empire. 
Since  680  it  has  most  of  the  time  been  in 
possession  of  the  Arabs,  and  the  people  have 
been  Mohammedans.  First  it  was  a  part  of 
the  caliphate  of  Bagdad.  Then  it  divided 
into  several  independent  monarchies,  which, 
after  civil  wars  and  revolutions,  united  in 
one  kingdom  under  Mulai-Ismail,  who 
reigned  during  1692-1727.  The  country  is 
still  very  backward,  and,  though  the  en- 
slaving of  Christians  and  piracy  were  done 
away  with  in  1817,  the  interior  is  a^ost 
inaccessible  and  slavery  still  exists.  In 
1905-06  an  international  political  crisis  oc- 
curred in  Europe  over  affairs  in  Morocco, 
Germany  resenting  exclusion  from  the  An- 
glo-Franco understanding  and  alliance  in 
Moroccan  matters,  whicb  she  interpreted  to 


mean  restriction  of  German  trade  and  in- 
fluence in  the  country.  After  a  period  of 
extreme  tension  between  the  Powers,  an 
international  conference  met  at  Algeciras, 
Spain,  the  latter  nation  being  party  to  the 
British-Franco-Spanish  agreement.  The 
result  of  the  conference  was  to  propitiate 
Germany  by  an  open-door  arrangement  as 
regards  trade,  by  drafting  regulations  tend- 
ing to  suppress  the  illicit  traffic  in  arms,  by 
the  recruiting  and  control  of  a  body  of 
native  police  from  2,000  to  2,500  strong, 
distributed  in  detachments  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  order,  especially  at  the  ports,  and 
by  the  establishment  at  Tangier  of  a  state- 
bank,  which  is  to  fulfill  the  functions  of 
treasurer  and  paymaster  of  the  Moroccan 
empire. 

Morocco,  the  southern  capital  of  the  sul- 
tanate, is  situated  at  the  northern  end  of  a 
fertile  plain,  1,447  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is 
surrounded  by  an  earth- wall  from  20  to  30 
feet  high,  with  square  towers  at  intervals, 
and  seven  gates,  said  to  have  been  brought 
from  Spain.  It  has  the  remains  of  former 
greatness,  but  is  poorly  built,  with  low,  flat- 
roofed  houses  without  windows  and  with 
narrow,  unpaved,  dirty  streets.  It  carries 
on  a  considerable  local  trade,  though  much 
less  than  Fez,  with  several  tanning  and 
leather-dyeing  establishments.  The  palace 
is  outside  the  city,  its  grounds  covering  180 
acres;  no  Europeans  live  within  the  city- 
walls.  The  city  was  founded  in  1072,  and  in 
its  greatest  prosperity,  in  the  ijth  century, 
it  contained  more  than  700,000  inhabitants. 
It  has  been  sacked  more  than  once  in  the 
civil  wars,  and  has  steadily  declined.  Its 
situation  in  sight  of  the  Atlas  Mountains  and 
its  command  of  the  trade-routes  make  it 
probable  that  it  will  regain  its  former  great- 
ness whenever  the  country  is  well-governed. 
The  city  lies  about  250  miles  southwest  of 
Fez.  Its  chief  industries  are  the  carpet  and 
morocco-leather  trade.  Population  60,000. 

Morpheus  (mdr'f'tis  or  mot  /e-iis),  in  my- 
thology, the  son  of  sleep  and  the  god  of 
dreams.  The  word  means  the  molder.  and  he 
is  so  called  because  he  molds  or  shapes  the 
visions  of  the  sleeper.  He  is  represented  as 
an  old  man  with  wings,  pouring  a  sleep-pro- 
ducing vapor  out  of  a  horn,  and  sometimes  as 
lying  down  with  a  crown  of  poppies  on  his 
head. 

Morphology  (m8r-f5l'd-iy),  in  botany, 
one  of  the  great  divisions  of  the  subject, 
which  treats  of  the  forms  of  plants.  The 
older  idea  of  morphology  was  that  it  had  to 
do  merely  with  the  adult  organs  and  con- 
sidered merely  the  various  forms  of  leaves, 
stems,  roots.  As  at  present  developed, 
morphology  treats  also  of  the  development 
of  organs.  For  example,  it  is  not  content 
with  describing  the  mature  leaf  or  the  mature 
archegonium,  but  it  states  in  detail  the  de- 
velopment of  these  organs  from  their  most 
primitive  conditions.  It  therefore  includes 


MORRILL 


1265 


MORRIS 


what  may  be  called  organography,  that  is, 
the  development  of  organs,  and  also  em- 
bryology, that  is,  the  development  of  the 
plant  as  a  whole.  Morphology  is  also  closely 
identified  with  the  relation  of  plants  to  one 
another  by  descent,  and  is  therefore  bound 
up  with  what  is  called  phylogeny,  which 
means  a  consideration  of  the  ancestral  forms 
of  plant  races.  From  this  point  of  view  mor- 
phology is  also  the  most  fundamental  con- 
tributor to  taxonomy  or  classification, 
which  can  only  be  natural  when  it  expresses 
the  real  morphology  of  plants.  In  any 
botanical  study  morphology  is  regarded  as 
most  fundamental,  for  it  underlies  all  other 
work  with  plants.  JOHN  M.  COULTER. 

Mor'rill,  Justin  Smith,  an  American 
statesman,  was  born  in  Orange  County,  Vt., 
April  14,  1810.  He  had  only  a  common- 
scnool  education,  and  at  an  early  age  he  en- 
gaged in  business,  which  he  later  gave  up 
for  farming.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1855,  remaining  in  the  house  of  representa- 
tives from  1855  to  1867,  at  which  time  he 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate,  and 
later  was  re-elected  for  six  successive  terms 
of  six  years  each.  His  congressional  service 
exceeded  in  length  that  of  any  living  col- 
league. He  held  for  many  years  in  the  house 
the  important  position  of  chairman  of  the 
committee  of  ways  and  means,  and  he  was 
the  author  of  the  tariff  bill  of  1861  known 
by  his  name.  He  wrote  Self-Consciousness 
of  Noted  Persons,  published  in  1886.  He 
died  on  Dec.  28,  1898,  at  the  capital  of  the 
nation. 

Mor'ris,  Clara,  well-known  actress  and 
writer,  was  born  in  1849  in  Toronto,  Canada, 
but  at  the  age  of  three  months  was  taken  to 
Cleveland,  where  she  received  an  elementary 
education  To  assist  her  widowed  mother 
she  became  a  member  of  a  reputable  ballet, 
and  was  fortunate  in  receiving  valuable  in- 
struction in  the  art  of  acting.  She  soon  be- 
came the  leading  lady  of  the  company,  and 
later  attained  distinction  in  the  best  theater 
at  Cincinnati.  In  1870  she  joined  the  fa- 
mous company  established  by  Mr.  Daly 
for  his  Fifth  Avenue  Theater,  New  York 
City.  She  became  one  of  the  leading  act- 
resses of  America,  excelling  in  parts  that  ex- 
hibit strong  emotions.  In  1874  she  married 
Fred.  C.  Harriott.  When  ill-health  com- 
pelled her  to  retire  from  the  stage  in  1885, 
she  commenced  writing  books  and  also  arti- 
cles for  magazines.  Among  her  works  are 
Little  Jim  Crow,  A  Silent  Singer,  A  Paste- 
board Crown,  Life  on  the  Stage  (personal  ex- 
periences and  recollections)  and  Stage  Confi- 
dences. 

Morris,  Gouverneur,  an  American  states- 
man, was  born  at  Morrisania,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  31, 
1752.  He  was  active  in  political  matters 
during  the  Revolution.  During  1781-84  he 
was  assistant  to  Robert  Morris,  superintend- 
ent of  the  national  finances.  In  1787  he 
was  a  member  of  the  convention  that  framed 


the  United  States  constitution  He  spent 
part  of  1791  in  England  as  confidential  agent 
of  Washington,  and  was  minister  to  France 
till  1794-  He  was  three  years  (1800-3) 
United  States  senator  from  New  York.  He 
died  on  Nov.  6,  1 8 1 6.  See  Gouverneur  Morris 
by  Roosevelt,  in  the  American  Statesmen 
Series,  and  Diary  and  Letters  by  Anne  Gary 
Morris. 

Morris,  Robert,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in 
Lancashire,  England,  Jan.  20,  1734.  He 
came  to  America  when  13  and  entered  a 
counting-house  at  Philadelphia,  becoming 
a  partner  finally.  He  opposed  the  Stamp- 
Act  and  was  elected  to  the  Congress  of  1775. 
He  voted  at  first  against  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  but  signed  it  when  it  was 
adopted.  He  was  again  in  Congress  in  1777, 
and  chiefly  managed  the  finances  of  the 
country.  In  1781  he  was  elected  superin- 
tendent of  finance,  and  had  almost  entire 
control  of  the  money  operations  of  the  new 
government.  He  established  the  Bank  of 
North  America  in  1782,  and  in  supplying  the 
army  in  1781  irsued  his  own  notes  for  over 
$1,000,000,  which  were  finally  repaid.  He 
resigned  in  1784,  declining  in  1788,  when 
senator,  the  secretaryship  of  the  treasury 
offered  him  by  Washington.  From  1789  to 
1795  he  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the 
United  States  senate.  He,  with  Gouverneur 
Morris,  sent  the  first  American  vessel  to  Can- 
ton in  1 784.  He  lost  his  fortune  by  specula- 
tion, and  was  confined  in  prison  for  debt 
during  the  last  years  of  his  life.  He  died  at 
Philadelphia,  May  8,  1806. 

Morris,  Sir  Lewis,  an  English  poet  of 
Welsh  origin,  who  was  knighted  in  1895  for 
his  verse,  was  born  in  1832  at  Carmarthen, 
Wales,  studied  at  Oxford,  and  practiced  law 
until  1 88 1,  when  he  was  appointed  secretary 
of  the  University  of  Wales.  His  first  poems, 
Songs  of  Two  Worlds,  published  under  the 
name  of  A  New  Writer,  were  very  popular, 
passing  through  several  editions.  His  Epic 
of  Hades  appeared  in  1876,  and  since  then, 
Gwen,  a  Drama;  The  Ode  of  Life;  Gycia,  a 
Drama;  Songs  Unsung;  A  Vision  of  Saints; 
Songs  without  Notes;  and  Idylls  and  Lyrics, 
all  of  which  have  been  popular.  He  had  a 
felicitous  literary  style,  pure  and  elevated  in 
tone.  His  later  writings  include  Harvest 
Tide  and  The  New  Rambler.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don on  Nov.  12,  1907. 

Morris,  William,  an  English  poet,  was 
born  near  London  in  1834.  Educated  at  Ox- 
ford, he  became  intimate  with  the  painter, 
Burne-Jones,  and  studied  painting  himself. 
In  1858  appeared  his  first  poems,  The  De- 
fense of  Guenevere  and  Other  Poems,  which 
were  scarcely  noticed,  though  they  are  the 
work  that  will  give  him  a  name  in  the  future ; 
his  long  poem,  The  Life  and  Death  of  Jason, 
in  1867,  attracted  attention;  and  The 
Earthly  Paradise  confirmed  his  reputation 
as  a  poet.  His  later  publications  are  Love  is 


MORRISON 


1266 


MORSE 


WILLIAM  MORRIS 


Enough,  Fall  of  the  Niblungs  and  translations 
from  the  Icelandic.  His  socialistic  writings 
and  speeches  occu- 
pied him  of  late 
years  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  poetry.  His 
name  is  also  iden- 
tified  with  the 
household  decora- 
tions, wall-papers, 
tiles  and  stained 
;  glass  manufactur- 
,  ed  by  the  estab- 
lishment founded 
'/'/'by  him  in  1863, 
'  which  are  well- 
known  in  all  art 
circles.  His  lec- 
tures on  Hopes  and 
Fears  for  Art  were  published  in  1882.  He  died 
at  London,  Oct.  3,  1896.  See  Bibliography 
by  T.  Scott  and  Lives  by  Gary  and  Mackail. 
Mor'rison,  Robert,  the  founder  of  Prot- 
estant missions  in  China,  was  born  in  North- 
umberland, England,  Jan.  5,  1782.  He  was 
sent  out  in  1807  by  the  London  Missionary 
Society  to  Macao  and  Canton.  In  1814  he 
had  translated  into  Chinese  and  printed  the 
New  Testament,  and  four  years  later  the  Old 
Testament,  with  the  help  of  an  assistant.  In 
1823,  as  translator  for  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, he  printed  the  Chinese  dictionary  at 
an  expense  of  $60,000.  It  was  the  work  of 
1 6  years,  and  in  working  on  it  he  collected  a 
library  of  10,000  Chinese  books.  The  dic- 
tionary was  afterward  translated  into  Japan- 
ese. He  established  an  Anglo-Chinese  col- 
lege at  Malacca.  He  visited  England  in 
1824  and  presented  his  Chinese  library  to 
University  College,  London.  While  acting 
as  interpreter  to  Lord  Napier,  he  died  at 
Canton,  Aug.  i,  1834.  See  Memoirs  by 
Mrs.  Morrison  and  Robert  Morrison  by  Town- 
send. 

Mor'ristown,  N.  J.,  the  capital  of  Morris 
County  and  a  place  of  much  historic  inter- 
est during  the  Revolutionary  War,  is  situ- 
ated in  northern  central  New  Jersey,  30 
miles  west  of  New  York  City.  It  is  at  a  high 
elevation,  and  is  the  home  of  a  number  of 
New  York  merchants.  Here  is  the  famous 
Ford  mansion,  occupied  by  General  Wash- 
ington, now  the  property  of  the  state's  His- 
torical Society.  It  is  reached  by  the  Dela- 
ware, Lackawanna  and  Western  Railroad. 
At  Morris  Plains,  near  by,  is  the  New  Jersey 
Lunatic  Asylum.  It  is  a  city  of  schools, 
seminaries,  hospitals,  churches,  libraries  and 
banks,  and  has  all  the  equipment  of  a  grow- 
ing civic  center.  Population  12,507. 

Morse,  Samuel  F.  B.  "I  wish  that  in 
one  instant  I  could  tell  you  of  my  safe  arrival, 
but  we  are  3,000  miles  apart  and  must  wait 
four  long  weeks  to  hear  from  each  other." 

Finley  Morse,  a  a o-year-old,  homesick  boy, 
wrote  this  sentence  in  a  letter  to  his  mother 
in  z8i  x.  She  was  in  the  house  where  he  had 


been  born,  and  he  had  taken  a  long  and  final 

flight  from  the    home  nest   to  London,  to 

study  art.    Twenty-one 

years  went    by  before 

a  chance  conversation 

aboard     ship    brought 

the  idea  of  the  electro- 

magnetic recording  tel- 

egraph to  the  mind  of 

its   inventor,    and     55 

years    before   the   first 

cable-message     flashed 

under  the  Atlantic.  The 

record  of  that  long  life 

of  8  1   years  is  one  of 


poverty  and  struggle  nobly  endured;  of 
obscurity  and  ridicule  nobly  chosen  ;  of  suc- 
cess and  honor  hardly  won  and  nobly  worn. 
In  time  wireless  telegraphy  may  supersede 
the  present  method,  but  Morse's  life  must 
continue  to  inspire  others  to  great  deeds. 

Fulton  was  in  London  with  the  idea  of  the 
steamboat  taking  shape  in  his  mind,  and 
Whitney  in  the  senior  class  in  Yale  and  soon 
to  invent  the  cotton  gin,  when,  in  1791,  Sam- 
uel Finley  Breese  Morse  was  born  in  a  Con- 
gregational parsonage  in  Charleston,  Massa- 
chusetts. Samuel  Finley,  great-grandfather, 
had  been  president  of  Princeton  College;  his 
grandfather  was  a  judge  on  the  bench;  and 
his  father  was  a  famous  divine  who  counted 
among  his  friends  and  correspondents  no  less 
a  person  than  General  Washington.  So  four 
honored  names  were  bestowed  on  the  baby, 
and  it  was  taken  for  granted  that  he  should 
distinguish  himself  in  some  one  of  the  learned 
professions.  From  babyhood  he  was  used 
to  the  society  of  famous  men  and  gracious 
ladies,  and  the  greatest  care  was  taken  of  his 
education.  There  were  no  public  schools  at 
that  time,  so,  after  he  was  seven,  Finley  was 
at  home  only  during  vacations.  He  went  to 
Andover  grammar-school,  to  the  Phillips 
Academy  and  to  Yale,  where  Pres.  Timothy 
Dwight  took  a  personal  interest  in  him. 
Courteous,  studious,  with  his  father's  dig- 
nity and  his  mother's  gracious  manners, 
young  Morse  commended  himself  to  teachers 
and  students  alike.  So  deeply  did  he  be- 
come interested  in  chemistry  and  natural 
philosophy,  especially  in  electromagnetism, 
that  he  remained  in  New  Haven  throughout 
one  vacation  in  order  to  experiment  in  the 
laboratory. 

Like  Fulton,  Morse  combined  a  talent  for 
art  with  aptitude  in  physics  and  skill  in  me- 
chanics. These  are  not  so  far  apart  as  one 
might  think.  All  imply  the  possession  of 
imagination  and  creative  power  of  a  high  or- 
der. To  miniature-painting  Morse  early 
turned  as  a  means  of  earning  money.  It  was 
a  keen  disappointment  to  his  father  when  his 
oldest  son,  the  bearer  of  so  many  honored 
names,  chose  to  be  an  artist,  for  art  in  New 
England  was  looked  upon  at  that  time  as  a 


MORTALITY 


1267 


MORTON 


frivolous  pursuit.  Nearly  20  years  of  strug- 
gle followed,  but  recognition  came  at  last 
He  painted  a  portrait  of  the  Marquis  de  La- 
fayette in  1825,  and  organized  the  National 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Design  in  New  York. 
At  40  years  he  stood  at  the  head  of  his  pro- 
fession in  the  United  States.  He  had  no 
other  thought  than  to  devote  his  life  to  art 
when,  in  1832,  he  was  returning,  with  fresh 
honors,  from  Europe  in  the  steamship  Sully. 
On  shipboard  there  happened  to  be  several 
men  who  were  interested  in  electricity.  Mr. 
Morse  suggested  that  the  repeatedly  broken 
current  ought  to  furnish  a  means  of  commu- 
nication. As  he  sat  on  deck,  he  worked  out 
his  plan  in  a  series  of  drawings  and  explained 
them  to  his  fellow-passengers.  It  consisted 
of  a  battery  and  a  wire  for  transmission  with 
an  electromagnet,  a  recording  pencil  and  a 
roll  of  paper  at  the  receiving  end.  The  pen- 
cil was  to  be  fixed  at  one  end  of  a  pivoted 
bar,  under  a  weak,  permanent  magnet,  and 
was  to  be  moved  up  and  down  by  sparks  of 
electricity  sent  over  the  wire.  In  this  way 
dots  and  dashes  of  the  Morse  alphabet  were 
to  be  recorded.  Morse  arrived  in  New  York, 
a  successful  artist,  with  commissions  await- 
ing him,  and  a  life  of  ease,  honor  and  wealth, 
only  to  disappear  into  a  little  shop  in  New 
Haven  and  live  long  years  of  poverty,  ob- 
scurity, toil  and  ridicule. 

His  wife  was  dead,  his  children  scattered 
among  relatives.  The  man  lived  alone  in 
his  shop,  sleeping  on  a  cot  there,  cooking 
his  own  food,  often  going  hungry.  Once  his 
old  friends  sought  him  out  with  $3,000  in 
hand  and  a  commission  for  a  great  historical 
painting,  but  he  refused.  He  consented, 
however,  to  teach  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  of 
Design  in  order  to  earn  his  bread.  So  he 
worked  alone  for  five  years.  It  was  in  1837 
that  he  applied  for  a  patent  on  The  American 
Electromagnetic  Telegraph.  All  at  once  the 
fruits  of  these  "wasted  years"  as  his  admirers 
called  them,  matured,  but,  although  start- 
ling in  the  laboratory  experiments  to  which 
he  admitted  the  world,  the  "wild  scheme" 
was  thought  impractical.  It  was  not  thought 
probable  that  Congress  would  make  an  ap- 
propriation of  $30,000  to  build  a  line  from 
Washington  to  Baltimore.  But  the  money 
was  secured  and  in  May,  1844,  the  first  mes- 
sage was  flashed  over  a  wire.  It  read: 
"What  hath  God  wrought?"  The  inventor's 
labor  of  1 2  years  was  crowned  with  success. 
He  was  53  years  of  age.  Seven  years  later 
the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company  was 
organized,  and  St.  Louis  connected  with 
Buffalo  by  wire.  In  1843  he  suggested  the 
Atlantic  cable.  The  first  attempt  to  lay  a 
cable  across  the  Atlantic  was  made  in  1857 
by  Cyrus  W.  Field  (q.  v.)  and  Mr.  Morse. 
Four  cables  parted,  but  the  fifth  was  success- 
fully laid  in  1866. 

)  The  first  money  made  by  the  inventor  was 
tjiven  to  charity.  As  his  fortune  increased, 
he  built  a  villa  at  Locust  Grove  on  the  Hud- 


son. Here  he  gathered  his  children  about 
him,  and  brought  his  second  wife.  He  sur- 
rounded himself  with  books  and  pictures  and 
extensive  gardens.  His  home  became  as  fa- 
mous for  its  gatherings  of  distinguished  men 
and  women  as  his  father's  in  Charleston  had 
been.  A  quarter  of  a  century  he  lived  there 
and  in  a  stately  mansion  in  New  York  City, 
a  man  of  wide  learning  and  influence,  of  pub- 
lic importance  and  personal  distinction. 
His  death  in  1872  was  universally  deplored, 
and  his  character  is  to-day  as  precious  a  herit- 
age to  mankind  as  is  his  extraordinary 
achievement. 

Mortality  or  death-rate  is  measured  by 
the  number  of  people  per  1,000  who  die,  on 
the  average,  in  one  calendar  year.  Russia 
perhaps  has  the  highest  death-rate;  the 
United  States  a  low  death-rate.  In  Aus- 
tralia, although,  the  birth-rate  is  low,  the 
death-rate  is  so  low  that  there  is  a  more 
rapid  natural  increase  in  the  population 
than  in  any  country  of  Europe.  In  general, 
married  people  have  a  lower  death-rate  than 
single  people,  probably  chiefly  because 
sickly  people  less  frequently  marry.  The 
death-rate  for  women  is  generally  lower  than 
for  men.  There  seems  to  be  a  tendency  in 
civilized  countries  for  death-rate,  birth-rate 
and  marriage-rate  all  to  decline.  Usually 
a  high  death-rate  goes  along  with  a  high 
birth-rate.  The  death-rate  for  infants  is 
high  always,  being  in  the  United  States  for 
females  under  4  years,  47.5;  and  for  males 
under  4  years,  56.7. 

Mor'tar.     See  ARTILLERY. 
Mortar.     See  CEMENTS. 
Mor'ton,    Lev!      Parsons,     ex-vice-presi- 
dent of  the  United  States   (1889-93),  was 
born  at  Shoreham,  Vt.,  May  16,  1824.     He 
first  was  clerk  in  a  country-store  and  then 
partner  in  a  merchant's  firm  at  Boston.     In 
1863  he  founded  banks  in  London  and  New 
York,  and  for  a  time  was  at  the  head  of  one 
of  these  —  the  house  of  Morton,  Bliss  &  Co., 
now  known  as  the  Morton  Trust  Co.     In 
1878  and  1880  he  was  sent  to  Congress,  and 
from  1 88 1  to  1885  was  minister  to  France. 
Morton,     Oliver    Perry,    the    "war-gov- 
ernor" of  Indiana,  was  born  in  Salisbury, 
Wayne  Co.,   Indi- 
ana, Aug.  4,  1823. 
He  studied  at  Ox- 
ford, O.,  and  prac- 
ticed law  in  Indi- 
ana.    In  1860,  as 
lieutenant  -  gover- 
nor,  he  succeeded 
Governor  Lane  in 
the    governorship. 
He  became  famous 
in    the    next   four 
years  as  one  of  the 
war-g  overnors, 
OLIVER  p.  MORTON         raising  troops  and 
borrowing  money  on  his  own  notes  to  carry 
on  the  state  government.     He  was  re-elected 


MOSAIC 


1268 


MOSELLE 


in  1864,  and  became  United  States  senator  in 
1867  and  1873.  Pe  was  influential  in  Con- 
gress, serving  on  important  committees  and 
advocating  the  isth  amendment  to  the  con- 
stitution. He  died  at  Indianapolis,  Nov. 
i,  1877,  having  been  a  cripple  from  paralysis 
since  1865.  See  Life  by  Foulke. 

Mosaic  (mo-zd'tk)  is  designs  in  colored 
stones  or  glass,  made  by  the  use  of  small 
pieces  fitted  together,  and  held  in  place  by 
cement.  The  pattern  or  picture  becomes 
thus  practically  indestructible.  This  art 
nourished  during  the  palmy  days  of  Rome, 
being  used  for  floors,  walls  and  ceilings  alike. 
It  was  revived  under  the  Byzantine  empire, 
especially  for  churches;  and  came  into  great 
popularity  again  in  Italy  during  the  middle 
of  the  1 3th  century.  In  the  workshops  con- 
nected with  the  Vatican  workmen  are  con- 
stantly engaged  in  reproducing  in  mosaic 
the  pictures  of  world-renowned  artists,  using 
not  simply  marbles  of  natural  colors,  but 
glass  and  artificial  stones  especially  prepared 
and  exquisitely  tinted  for  this  purpose. 
Very  striking  effects  are  produced  by  the  use 
of  glass  backed  with  gold  or  silver,  or  colored 
like  sea-shells.  Not  only  have  the  Russians 
greatly  excelled  in  modern  mosaics,  but 
the  Americans,  and  some  of  the  finest  de- 
signs ever  produced  are  to  be  found  in  Amer- 
ican public-library  buildings,  notably  at 
Washington  and  Chicago.  Florentine  mo- 
saic, used  chiefly  for  jewelry,  personal  orna- 
ments and  paper-weights,  is  composed  of 
shells  or  stones  of  natural  colors  cut  in  much 
larger  pieces  than  are  employed  in  Roman 
mosaics.  The  demand  for  mosaic  increases 
every  year,  and  skill  in  the  use  of  the 
materials  employed  will  doubtless  bring 
the  art  to  great  perfection  in  our  own 
country. 

Mosby  (moz'bf),  John  Singleton,  a  noted 
Confederate  soldier,  was  born  at  Edgemont, 
Powhatan  County,  Va.,  Dec.  6,  1833.  He 
studied  at  the  University  of  Virginia,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1855.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  practicing 
law  at  Bristol,  Va.  He  entered  the  Confed- 
erate army  as  private,  but  soon  became  ad- 
jutant in  the  cavalry  service,  and  by  1862 
was  colonel,  operating  an  independent  com- 
mand whose  special  work  was  the  cutting  of 
communications  between  the  Federal  front 
and  its  base  of  supplies  and  capturing  ex- 
posed cavalry  outposts.  The  swiftness  and 
daring  with  which  Colonel  Mosby  operated 
made  him  greatly  dreaded  in  the  valley  of 
the  Shenandoah.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he 
returned  to  the  practice  of  law.  He  became 
a  Republican  and  supported  Grant  for  the 
presidency  in  1872.  He  was  appointed  by 
President  Hayes  consul  at  Hong-Kong  in 
1878,  where  he  remained  on  duty  till  1885. 
He  was  removed  by  President  Cleveland, 
und  returning  to  the  states  made  San  Fran- 
cisco his  home.  In  1901  he  was  appointed 
United  States  land-agent  and  assigned  to 


duty  in  Nebraska.  In  1887  Mosby  published 
his  War  Reminiscences. 

Moscow  (mos'kd),  a  city  of  Russia  and  its 
former  capital,  is  situated  in  the  center  of 
European  Russia  om  Moskva  River,  403  miles 
southeast  of  Petrograd.  It  covers  forty 
square  miles.  ^  The  Kremlin  (citadel) ,  in  the 
center,  is  an  inclosed  space  surrounded  by 
walls  with  1 8  towers  and  is  the  most  sacred 
spot  in  the  Russian  empire.  All  who  enter 
by  the  Savior  gate  must  bow  to  the  image 
of  the  Savior  that  stands  above  it.  In- 
side the  walls  are  three  cathedrals,  many 
churches  and  monasteries,  the  great  tower, 
four  palaces,  an  arsenal  and  the  hall  of  the 
synod,  with  a  fine  library.  The  tower,  built 
in  1600,  is  270  feet  high,  commands  a  mag- 
nificent view  of  the  city,  and  at  its  foot  is  the 
bell  called  King  of  Bells.  Before  the  ar- 
senal is  a  pile  of  800  or  900  French  cannon, 
the  trophy  of  1812.  Outside  of  the  Kremlin 
are  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Basil  (1554),  the  his- 
torical museum,  the  great  bazar,  the  univer- 
sity, founded  in  1755,  with  a  library  of  200,- 
ooo  volumes  and  4,497  students,  and  a  public 
museum  with  fine  collections,  a  picture-gal- 
lery and  a  library  numbering  over  300,000 
volumes.  Moscow  is  the  busiest  city  in  all 
Russia  except  Petrograd,  and  has  numerous 
manufactures  of  cotton,  silk  and  woolen 
goods,  leather,  tobacco,  candles,  carriages, 
pottery  and  matches.  Its  situation  in  the 
center  of  European  Russia,  between  the 
Baltic  and  the  Black  Sea,  makes  it  a 
great  commercial  market,  and  it  carries 
on  an  extensive  trade  in  grain,  timber, 
furs,  hides,  tallow,  tea,  sugar  and  mineral 
products. 

Moscow  was  first  occupied  by  the  Finns, 
and  settled  by  the  Russians  in  the  i2th  cen- 
tury. The  Mongols  sacked  the  town  in  1237 
and  1293,  but  by  the  i4th  century  it  had  be- 
come firmly  established,  and  in  1325  became 
the  seat  of  the  church  officers  for  central  Rus- 
sia. The  Kremlin  was  built  in  1300  and  was 
walled  in  1367.  Moscow  continued  growing 
in  influence  and  power,  and  in  1462  its  prince, 
Ivan  III,  took  the  title  of  czar  of  Russia. 
In  1547  it  was  burned  down;  in  1571  it  was 
taken  and  burned  by  the  khan  of  the  Crimea ; 
and  it  suffered  from  the  Mongols  in  1591. 
St.  Petersburg  was  made  the  capital  by  Peter 
the  Great  in  1713,  but  the  old  families  and 
the  peasantry  still  consider  the  holy  city  of 
Moscow  as  the  real  capital.  The  city  suffered 
from  fires  again  in  1730,  1748,  1753,  and  was 
finally,  in  1812,  set  on  fire  and  burned  by  its 
own  citizens  to  save  it  from  being  taken  by 
Napoleon.  Since  then  it  has  been  largely 
rebuilt.  Population  1,468,563. 

Moselle  ( mo'zeV ) ,  a  branch  of  the  Rhine, 
rises  in  the  Vosges  Mountains  in  France.  It 
passes  through  Luxemburg  and  Rhenish 
Prussia  and  joins  the  Rnine  at  Coblentz. 
It  is  315  miles  in  length,  about  100  miles 
being  navigable.  Here  the  well-known 
sparkling  wine,  Mosel,  is  manufactured. 


MOSES 


1269 


MOSQUITO 


Mo'ses,  the  great  lawgiver  and  leader  of 
the  Hebrew  or  Israelite  nation,  was  born  in 
Egypt,  probably  about  the  first  half  of  the 
1 4th  century  B.  C.  The  Hebrews  were 
under  the  power  of  the  Egyptians,  and  lived 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Nile  delta.  His 
early  life  was  spent  at  the  court  of  Egypt, 
as  the  adopted  son  of  Pharaoh's  daughter, 
where  he  became  learned  in  "all  the  wisdom 
of  the  Egyptians."  Driven  into  the  wilder- 
ness as  a  consequence  of  killing  an  Egyptian 
while  protecting  a  fellow  Hebrew  from  his 
cruelty,  he  spent  40  years  as  a  keeper  of 
flocks,  until  called  back  to  lead  his  people 
out  of  Egypt.  The  story  of  the  exodus,  the 
40  years'  wandering  in  the  wilderness,  the 
giving  of  the  law  on  Mount  Sinai,  the  fixing 
of  the  ceremonies  of  the  new  religion,  the  pa- 
tient endurance  of  waywardness  and  fickle- 
ness, until  his  solitary  death  and  the  un- 
known grave  in  Mt.  Nebo,  with  only  a  view 
of  the  promised  land  to  which  he  had  led  his 
people,  is  related  in  the  first  five  books  of 
the  Bible,  called  the  Books  of  Moses.  See 
Moses,  His  Life  and  Tim?s,  by  Rawlinson 
and  Graetz's  History  of  the  Jews. 

Mosquito  (mSs-ke'to),  a  gnat-like,  two- 
winged  insect,  the  female  of  which  punctures 

the  skin  of  man 
and  animals 
and  sucks  blood. 
The  names 
gnat  and  mos- 
quito are  often 
used  inter- 
changeably,but 
gnat  has  a  wi- 
der scope*  The 
mosquito  is  a 
form  of  gnat, 
but  there  are 
others,  like  the 

fall  -  gnat  and 
uf  f  alo-gnat, 
to  which  the 
name  of  mos- 
quito will  not 
apply.  The 
mosquito  es 
are  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from 
all  other  kinds 


LIFE 


HISTORY  OF  THE 

MOSQUITO 

(a)  Larva,     (b)  Pupa,     (c)  Insect  of  gnats  by  ha V- 

emersjing.       (d)  Male  Mosquito.  inpr   a   fringe   of 

(e)  Female  Mosquito.  ^  _  Iike6hairs 

on  the  wings,  and  in  American  forms  these 
are  also  found  on  the  wing-veins.  The  fe- 
male mosquito  is  the  one  that  sings  and  bites ; 
the  males  are  said  to  feed  on  the  sweets  of 
flowers.  The  apparatus  for  puncturing  the 
skin  and  sucking  blood  consists  of  six  slen- 
der pieces,  united  in  a  case  and  forming  a 
sharp  stylet.  These  pests  are  distributed 
not  only  in  tropical  and  temperate  regions 
but,  during  the  warm  season,  in  Lapland, 
Siberia,  Canada  and  other  cold  countries. 
In  Alaska  they  are  remarkably  abundant 


and  voracious.  They  abound  in  regions 
around  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  and  drive 
hunters,  horses  and  cattle  to  distraction 
with  their  bites.  In  the  course  of  the  year 
there  are  several  generations.  Some  adults 
hibernate  through  the  winter,  and  may  be 
found  in  barns,  cellars,  cold  garrets  or  under 
bridges.  In  the  south  the  mosquito  pest 
continues  throughout  the  year.  As  a  rule 
mosquitoes  do  not  fly  far,  out  they  are  car- 
ried by  light,  continued  winds,  and  many  are 
taken  long  distances  on  railroad  trains  The 
life-history  of  the  common  mosquito  is  as 
follows:  The  eggs,  to  the  number  of  400 
or  500,  are  deposited  by  a  single  mos- 
quito in  the  form  of  a  float  or  raft  in  any 
standing  water.  The  eggs  soon  hatch  into 
wigglers  or  larvae,  which  feed  upon  decaying 
matter  in  the  water.  The  wigglers  breathe 
by  an  air-tube  in  the  posterior  part  of  the 
body,  and  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  come  to 
the  surface  for  air  every  two  or  three  min- 
utes. The  larvag  soon  pass  into  a  pupa-stage 
from  which  the  perfect  insect  emerges.  Mos- 
quitoes have  unusual  interest  to  medical 
men,  since  it  has  been  recently  shown  that 
they  are  connected  with  the  spread  of  ma- 
laria, jungle-fever,  Roman  fever  and  yellow 
fever.  The  more  common  mosquito  of  the 
genus  Culex  does  not  carry  malaria,  but  a 
closely-related  form  with  spotted  wings,  be- 
longing to  the  genus  Anopheles,  carries  the 
contagion.  Malaria  is  produced  by  a  minute 
parasite  (a  protozoon),  which  lives  within 
the  red  blood-corpuscles.  When  mosquitoes 
bite  a  person  affected  with  malaria,  they  in- 
troduce into  their  own  bodies  many  of  these 
minute  germs  with  the  blood.  There  the 
parasites  undergo  a  secondary  development, 
and  the  infected  mosquitoes,  when  they  bite, 
carry  the  disease.  This  is  the  only  known 
way  of  transmitting  malaria.  Yellow  fever 
is  also  carried  in  a  similar  way.  The  disease 
is  not  transmitted  by  the  clothing  of  the  sick 
nor  by  contact  with  their  bodies.  To  pre- 
vent the  spread  of  these  diseases  it  is  im- 
portant to  get  rid  of  the  mosquitoes.  Vari- 
ous means  of  combating  them  have  been 
adopted,  as  draining  marshy  lands,  intro- 
ducing fish  into  the  water,  that  feed  upon  the 
wigglers,  and  covering  the  surface  of  standing 
water  with  kerosene.  The  latter  is  the  most 
effective.  Oil  dropped  upon  the  water  will 
spread  as  a  film  over  it.  When  the  wigglers 
come  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  the  oil  gets  into 
their  breathing-tubes  and  they  are  thereby 
killed.  "In  all  mosquito -extermination," 
says  Howard,  "it  must  be  remembered  that 
they  will  breed  successfully  in  any  transient 
pool  of  water  or  in  any  receptacle  where  water 
is  left  standing  for  a  week,  no  matter  how 
small  this  receptacle.  They  may  breed  in 
collections  of  water  in  the  hollows  of  old 
stumps,  in  old  bottles  or  in  old,  discarded  to- 
mato cans.  They  breed  profusely  in  rain- 
water barrels,  in  rain-water  tanks,  in  old 
wells,  «v«n  in  cesspools  where  the  adults  are 


OUR  WAR   WITH   THE   MOSQUITO 


First  picture  shows  head,  feelers  and  lance  of  female  mosquito;  on  the  right, 
"whiskers"  of  male  mosquito,  supposed  to  be  an  organ  of  hearing;  in  the  center,  a 
doctor's  outfit  for  catching  swamp  mosquitoes  for  study. 


Mosquito  larva  wriggler.     (Greatly  enlarged.) 


Mrs.  Mosquito's  surgical  instruments — a  lance  and  four  little  saws. 


MOSQUITO  COAST 


1270 


MOTHS 


able  to  gain  access  to  such  pools.  Therefore 
every  possible  source  of  this  kind  must  be 
hunted  for  when  one  is  engaged  in  mosquito- 
extermination."  See  Howard:  Mosquitoes; 
Michell:  Mosquitoes  and  Practical  Side  of 
Mosquito  Extermination  in  Vol  23  of  Science, 
pp.  379-85  (March  9,  1906) 

Mosquito  Coast,  formerly  an  independ- 
ent state  under  the  protection  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, lies  on  the  east  side  of  Nicaragua,  to 
which  it  now  belongs.  The  land  on  the  coast 
is  swampy,  but  the  mountain  regions  in  the 
interior  are  healthy.  The  people  are  a  mixed 
race,  part  Indian  and  part  Afncan,  and  num- 
ber about  15,000.  It  was  discovered  by  Co- 
lumbus in  1502,  and  claimed  by  Spain.  It 
was  the  home  of  the  buccaneers  in  the  iyth 
century,  and  subject  to  Britain  from  1655 
to  1850.  The  Mosquito  Reserve  (assigned 
to  the  mixed  race  of  Indians)  forms  one  of  the 
departments  of  Nicaragua,  and  bears  the 
name  of  Zelaya. 

Moss.     See  Musci  and  MOSSES. 

Moss,  Florida,  Spanish  or  Long,  a  flow- 
ering, gray  plant  hanging  from  trees,  found 
in  tropical  America  and  in  the  United  States 
from  Texas  to  Florida  and  eastern  Virginia. 
The  slender  stem  is  often  very  long,  the 
leaves  narrow  and  scattered,  the  flowers 
small,  inconspicuous,  yellow.  The  gray 
drapery  of  the  Spanish  moss  is  a  feature  of 
our  southern  forests.  It  is  used  for  packing, 
and  sometimes  is  prepared  for  upholstery. 

Moss,  Sir  Charles,  was  born  at  Cobourg, 
Ontario,  in  1840.  Called  to  the  bar  in  1869, 
he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  Parlia- 
ment for  one  of  the  Ridings  of  Toronto  in 
1878  Engaged  in  very  important  cases  in 
the  High  Court.  In  1897  appointed  a  judge 
of  the  court  of  appeal.  Has  been  vice- 
chancellor  for  several  years  of  Toronto  Uni- 
versity. Appointed  chief  justice  of  On- 
tario in  1902.  Administrator  (in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  lieutenant-governor)  of  the  prov- 
ince on  several  occasions.  A  member  of  the 
board  of  governors  of  Toronto  University. 
Member  of  the  council  of  Wycliffe  College; 
vice-president  of  Havergal  Ladies'  College. 
Received  knighthood  in  1907. 

Moss'es,  a  large  class  of  flowerless  plants. 
Found  in  all  climates,  they  are  most  abun- 
dant in  temperate  regions  and  arctic  lands ; 
though  found  in  dry  places,  they  are  found 
submerged.  There  are  two  great  groups: 
bog-mosses  and  true  mosses.  A  moss-plant 
consists  of  a  stem  with  leaves  and  roots. 
Roots  will  grow  out  from  any  part  of  the 
plant.  The  plant  produces  what  are  called 
moss-flowers,  something  like  a  bud,  but  which 
really  are  an  egg-cell;  from  the  egg  grows 
another  plant,  which  remains  on  the  parent 
plant  and  produces  spores  or  seeds,  when 
usually  the  mother-plant  dies.  In  moun- 
tain regions  there  are  thick  beds  of  moss 
which  soak  up  the  rain  and  often  prevent 
floods.  The  beds  of  moss  which  are  seen 
growing  to-day  in  bogs  are  the  tips  of  plants 


which  began  life  thousands  of  years  ago,  and 
have  formed  great  beds  of  peat  20  feet  thick. 
There  are  about  3,000  species  of  mosses. 
Irish  moss  is  not  a  moss,  but  a  seaweed, 
and  Iceland  moss  is  a  lichen.  The  moss 
on  trees  is  mostly  lichens.  Florida  or  Span- 
ish moss  is  a  flowering  plant.  See  Musci. 

Mother  Goose.  This  name,  familiar  in 
connection  with  nursery  rhymes,  is  of  uncer- 
tain origin.  Tales  of  Mother  Goose  was  the 
title  of  a  series  of  French  stories  as  early  as 
1697.  Mother  Goose's  Melodies  was  the 
title,  again,  of  some  nursery  rhymes  written 
by  Elizabeth  Goose  in  Boston  in  1719.  A 
set  of  rhymes  was  published  for  children 
by  Newbery  about  the  middle  of  the  i8th 
century  called  Mother  Goose's  Melody.  In  1826 
appeared  Mother  Goose's  Quarto  in  Boston. 
Thus  the  name  has  come  to  be  identified  with 
nursery  rhymes  in  general. 

Mother's  Pensions.    See  PENSIONS. 

Moths,  insects  closely  related  to  butter- 
flies, but  flying  mostly  at  night.  They  usu- 
ally have  thread-like  or  feathery  antennae, 
and  hold  their  wings  nearly  flat  when  rest- 
ing; butterflies  usually  hold  theirs  erect. 
Like  butterflies,  their  wings  are  covered  with 
scales,  and,  therefore,  they  belong  to  the  or- 
der of  Lepidoptera.  There  is  a  general  im- 
pression that  moths  are  smaller  and  more 
somber  than  butterflies,  but,  though  this  is 
true  in  reference  to  many  moths  and  "mil- 
lers," some  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful 
of  the  Lepidoptera  are  moths.  The  Cecropia 
and  Promethea  moths  are  large  and  beautiful 
forms  with  bright  colors  and  eye-spots  on 
their  wings.  The  Luna  moth,  of  a  pale-green 
color,  with  eye-like  spots  having  a  transpar- 
ent center  on  each  wing,  is  especially  at- 
tractive. The  hawk-moths,  coming  from 
larvae  like  the  tomato-worm,  are  examples  of 
large  moths.  Among  the  best  known  moths 
are  the  silk-worms,  whose  cocoons  supply 
most  of  the  silk  of  commerce.  Some  of  the 
smaller  forms  are  very  destructive  to  furs, 
woolen  cloths  and  other  fabrics.  Many 
larvae  are  destructive  to  crops  and  trees,  an- 
nually causing  great  loss.  The  army  worm, 
cotton  worm,  tobacco  worm  and  tent  cater- 
pillars are  larvae  of  moths;  the  codling  moth, 
sphinx  moth,  grape-berry  moth,  grape-leaf 
folder,  plume  moth,  tussock  moth  and  others 
work  much  ruin.  The  sphinxes  or  hawk 
moths  are  very  beautiful  but  also  very  bane- 
ful. They  are  large  and  narrow-winged, 
visit  flowers  at  dusk,  frequently  are  mistaken 
for  humming-birds.  The  larvae,  which  are 
very  large,  work  much  havoc  on  the  grape- 
vine, feeding  upon  the  leaves;  it  is  said  that 
a  single  larva  may  strip  or  kill  a  grape-vine 
in  two  or  three  days.  The  moths  appear  in 
July,  laying  their  eggs  underneath  grape-leaf 
or  leaf  of  Virginia  creeper.  The  plume  moth 
is  another  enemy  of  the  grape.  Often  one 
sees  young  grape-leaves  curled  up  in  little 
balls,  examination  of  which  will  disclose  the 
greenish-yellow  larvae  of  the  plume  moth. 


MOTION 


1271 


MOTT 


The  vines  should  be  examined  daily,  and  the 
larvae  picked  off  and  destroyed.  In  com- 
batting the  grape-leaf  folder  the  same  means 
should  be  employed.  The  white-marked 
tussock  moth  works  much  ruin  on  shade  and 
fruit  trees,  stripping  them  of  foliage.  There 
are  two  broods  a  year.  The  cocoons  are 
made  in  the  trees,  and  on  the  cocoons  the 
eggs  are  laid  in  a  white,  frothy  mass.  These 
eggs  are  conspicuous,  and  should  be  gathered 
and  destroyed.  See  ARMY-WORM,  BUTTER- 
FLY, CARPET-BEETLE,  CATERPILLAR  and 
CODLING-MOTH.  Consult  Hodge:  Nature- 
Study  and  Life;  Holland:  The  Moth  Book; 
and  Treat:  Injurious  Insects. 

Mo'tion,  Laws  of,  generally  the  three 
great  generalizations  in  which  Newton 
described  the  effect  of  forces  upon  bodies. 
See  DYNAMICS  where  these  laws  are  stated. 
Compare,  also,  Newton's  Laws  of  Motion 
by  P.  G.  Tait  for  an  extraordinarily  clear, 
brief  and  elegant  discussion  of  this  subject. 

Mot'ley,  John  Lothrop,  an  American 
historical  writer,  was  born  at  Dorchester 
(now  part  of  Boston),  Mass.,  April  15,  1814. 
As  a  boy  he  had  Bancroft  for  a  teacher. 
His  higher  education  he  obtained  at  Har- 
vard and  in  German  universities,  where  he 
made  a  friend  of  Bismarck.  His  first  great 
vork,  The  History  of  the  Dutch  Republic 
(1856),  was  the  result  of  nearly  ten  years' 
labor,  much  of  the  time  being  spent  in 
Berlin,  Dresden  and  The  Hague  in  search- 
ing for  materials.  It  was  translated  into 
Dutch,  French,  German  and  Russian,  and 
established  his  fame.  His  room  is  shown 
to  visitors  in  the  queen's  palace  at  The 
Hague,  where  he  worked  by  royal  invita- 
tion. The  History  of  the  United  Netherlands 
followed  in  1860  and  1868.  His  last  work 
was  the  Life  and  Death  of  John  of  Barneveldt, 
which  is  still  another  contribution  to  the 
history  of  Holland.  His  plan  embraced  a 
History  of  the  Thirty  Years1  War,  which 
was  not  finished.  He  also  was  a  contributor 
to  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  and  his  letters  to 
the  London  Times  during  the  Civil  War 
were  effective  in  giving  to  the  English 
people  an  understanding  of  the  real  question 
involved.  He  was  United  States  minister 
to  Austria  from  1861  to  1867  and  in  1869-70 
minister  to  England.  He  died  at  the  home 
of  his  daughter,  who  had  married  Sir  Wm. 
Vernon  Harcourt,  in  Dorsetshire,  England, 
May  29,  1877.  See  Memoir  by  Oliver 
Wendell  Holmes  and  Letters,  edited  by 
George  William  Curtis. 

Mo'tor  is  any  mechanical  device  by 
means  of  which  energy  is  converted  into 
motion.  A  windmill,  used  for  driving  a 
wheel  or  working  a  pump,  is  sometimes 
called  an  agromotor.  A  machine  by  which 
the  pressure  of  water  in  city  mains  is  made 
to  operate  mechanical  devices  is  usually 
Bulled  a  water-motor.  Motors  for  the  use 
of  compressed  air  have  of  late  years  been 


much  used,  especially  for  the  propulsion  of 
street-cars.  But  the  name  is  now  most 
frequently  applied  to  devices  for  the  con- 
version of  static  into  dynamic  electricity. 
Motors  operated  by  electricity  have  been 
devised  to  propel  everything  from  a  bicycle 
to  a  locomotive.  Electric  power  is  some- 
times conveyed  to  the  motor  from  a  water- 
fall and  sometimes  from  a  storage  battery. 
In  any  simple  electric  motor  one  finds  a 
field-magnet,  consisting  of  various  coils  of 
insulated  wire  on  soft  iron  cores.  These 
are  connected  by  a  yoke;  and  lines  of  force 
are  developed  around  the  pole  pieces  when 
a  current  of  electricity  is  run  through  the 
coils.  Within  these  lines  of  force  rotates 
the  armature.  Of  late,  through  improved 
devices,  power  is  conveyed  long  distances 
as  from  Niagara  Falls  (q.  v.)  to  Buffalo;  and 
power  is  conveyed  to  thousands  of  motors 
which  operate  innumerable  mechanisms  at  a 
distance  from  the  source.  The  discovery  that 
natural  forces  can  be  made  to  store  electric 
forces,  which  may  in  turn  be  reconverted 
into  dynamic  electricity  at  the  other  end 
of  the  wire  by  means  of  an  electric  motor, 
is  one  of  the  greatest  discoveries  of  the  igth 
century, 

Mo'tor  Or'gan  (in  plants),  a  term  applied 
to  a  portion  of  the  leafstalk  (petiole)  which 
is  sensitive  to  certain  stimuli  (see  IRRITA- 
BILITY) and  has  a  special  structure  enabling 
it  to  curve  easily.  Motor  organs  are  most 
perfect  in  the  bean  and  oxalis  families,  but 
exist  also  in  some  spurges  (Euphorbia),  the 
common  mallow  (Malva  rotundifolia)  and 
the  velvet  leaf  (Abutilon  Avicennce).  To  the 
eye  the  motor  organ  usually  is  of  a  different 
color  from  the  rest  of  the  leafstalk,  and 
either  larger  or  smaller.  If  the  leafstalk  is 
long,  the  motor  organ  will  be  at  the  base; 
if  short,  the  whole  stalk  may  be  a  motor 
organ.  In  compound  leaves  there  may  be 
motor  organs  at  main  and  secondary  (and 
even  at  tertiary)  petioles.  In  contrast  with 
the  rest  of  the  petiole  the  woody  parts  of 
the  motor  organs  are  gathered  near  the 
center,  and  the  whole  of  the  surrounding 
tissue  is  made  of  thin-walled  cells.  When 
their  turgor  (which  see)  increases  on  one 
side  and  decreases  on  the  other,  the  motor 
organ  becomes  curved,  carrying  the  leaves 
into  a  new  position.  See  MOVEMENTS. 

Mott,  Mrs.  Lucretia  Coffin,  an  Amer- 
ican Quaker,  was  born  at  Nantucket, 
Mass.,  Jan.  3,  1793.  She  became  a  preacher 
and  traveled  through  New  England,  Penn- 
sylvania, Maryland  and  Virginia,  preaching 
the  Quaker  doctrines  and  opposing  intem- 
perance and  slavery.  She  was  active  in 
organizing  the  antislavery  society  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1833,  and  proceeded  as  a  dele- 
gate to  the  world's  antislavery  convention 
at  London  in  1840.  She  was  also  prominent 
in  woman's  rights  assemblies.  She  died  on 
Nov.  ii,  1880. 


MOULD 


1272 


MOUNT  VERNON 


Mould   (among  plants).     See   PHYCOMY- 

CETES. 

Moulting.     See  MOLTING. 

Mound=BuiId'ers,  the  name  given  to  the 
supposed  race  whose  works,  known  as  earth- 
works, are  found  in  America,  largely  in  the 
shape  of  mounds.  There  are  many  theories 
in  regard  to  them.  Some  believe  them  to 
be  the  same  as  the  American  Indians,  the 
ancestors  either  of  the  more  civilized  In- 
dians found  in  the  southern  states  or  of 
the  Aztecs  in  Mexico.  Others  consider  them 
to  have  been  a  superior  race,  of  whom  noth- 
ing is  known  except  these  curious  remains. 
From  the  contents  of  the  mounds  their 
builders  seem  to  have  been  passing  from 
the  stone  to  the  metal  age,  familiar 
with  copper  but  possessing  chiefly  weapons 
and  tools  of  stone.  Some  of  the  mounds 
seem  to  have  been  used  as  burial-places 
and  others  as  temples.  They  are  found  in 
the  Mississippi  valley  and  in  other  parts  of 
North  America,  but  most  extensively  in 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois  and  Missouri.  They 
are  mounds  varying  from  6  to  25  feet  in 
height,  though  some  of  the  temple-mounds 
reach  higher.  One  in  Illinois  is  90  feet 
high  and  measures  700  by  500  feet  at  the 
base.  They  usually  have  a  ditch  around 
them,  and  often  are  in  an  inclosure,  with 
low  earth-walls  and  connecting  passages, 
as  one  at  Newark,  O.,  which  covers  more 
than  two  square  miles  and  has  about  12 
miles  of  embankments  from  2  to  20  feet 
in  height,  and  another  at  Marietta  O.,  cov- 
ering a  large  square,  with  double  walls  in- 
closing a  passage  to  the  river.  When  used 
as  burial  places,  the  mounds  rarely  contain 
more  than  one  skeleton.  There  also  are 
curious  figures  of  animals;  one  in  the  form 
of  a  serpent,  1,000  feet  long  and  about  five 
feet  high,  was  discovered  in  Adams  County, 
O.  The  period  when  the  mounds  were 
built  is  variously  estimated.  The  Indians 
found  in  North  America,  when  settled  by 
Europeans,  were  very  much  behind  the 
mound-builders  in  their  arts  of  living,  judg- 
ing from  the  remains  found.  The  large 
trees  growing  on  the  mounds  are  another 
indication  of  their  age;  and  the  fact  that 
they  are  never  built  on  the  lowest  formed 
river-terraces,  is  thought  to  be  another 
proof  of  their  great  age,  which  is  estimated 
at  from  1,800  to  2,000  years.  See  Ancient 
Monuments  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  by 
Squier  and  Davis;  Antiquities  of  Ohio  by 
Shepherd;  and  Antiquities  of  Tennessee  by 
Thurston. 

Moun'tain  Sheep,  wild  sheep  that  dwells 
in  the  ''bad  lands  '  and  high  on  the  moun- 
tains. It  is  persistently  hunted,  its  flesh 
is  valued  and  its  massive,  circling  horns  are 
coveted  as  trophies.  Steepest  crag  it  can 
climb,  and  dash  at  great  speed  down  steep- 
est declivity,  wonderful  stories  being  told 
of  its  agility  and  feats  of  endurance.  Six 


species  are  found  in  North  America,  scat- 
tered through  the  mountains  from  Mexico 
into  Alaska.  The  best  known  is  the  big- 
horn, often  called  the  Rocky  Mountain 
sheep;  but  it  has  been  slaughtered  so  ruth- 
lessly that  its  numbers  are  fast  decreasing. 
A  large  ram  sometimes  weighs  300  pounds. 
The  general  color  is  gray-brown,  with  a 
light  yellow  patch  on  the  hindquarters. 
The  horns  of  one  specimen  are  said  to  have 
measured  52  £  inches  in  length,  with  a  basal 
circumference  of  i8J  inches.  The  white 
mountain-sheep  is  found  in  various  por- 
tions of  Alaska.  See  Hornaday's  American 
Natural  History. 

Mount  Car'mel,  Pa.,  a  borough  in  North- 
umberland County,  in  eastern  central 
Pennsylvania,  28  miles  east  of  Sunbury. 
It  lies  in  the  anthracite  region,  on  the 
Lehigh  Valley,  Pennsylvania  and  Phila- 
delphia and  Reading  railroads.  It  has 
three  banks,  a  shirt  factory,  stocking  fac- 
tory, foundry  and  planing  mill.  The  town 
has  gained  about  5,000  inhabitants  in  the 
past  decade,  its  present  population  being 
I7»532- 

Mount  Holyoke  (hol'ydk)  College,  a 
college  for  women  at  South  Hadley,  Mass., 
founded  by  Mary  Lyon.  It  was  chartered 
in  1836  as  Mount  Holyoke  Seminary,  and 
was  long  maintained  under  this  name  as 
a  seminary  of  high  grade.  In  1888,  it  was 
rechartered  as  Mount  Holyoke  College  and 
the  _  institution  was  placed  in  educational 
facilities  and  requirements  on  a  standing 
with  the  colleges  for  young  men.  It  has  a 
faculty  of  89  and  the  students  number  785. 

Mount  McKinley  is  in  south-central 
Alaska,  150  miles  north  of  the  head  of 
Cook's  Inlet.  It  is  surrounded  by  irregular 
mountains  of  much  inferior  height,  from 
among  which  it  towers  20,464  feet  above 
sea-level,  the  highest  peak  of  North  America. 
It  is  covered  with  snow,  and  down  its  sides 
creep  many  great  glaciers. 

Mount  Ver'non,  N.  Y.,  a  flourishing  city 
in  Westchester  County,  southeastern  New 
York,  on  the  Bronx,  14  miles  north  of  New 
York  City.  It  is  served  by  the  New  York 
Central  and  Hudson  River  and  New  York, 
New  Haven  and  Hartford  railroads.  The 
town  is  prettily  situated,  and  commands  a 
fine  view  of  Long  Island  Sound.  It  in- 
cludes part  of  Eastchester  and  of  Chester 
Hill,  and  has  almost  doubled  its  population 
in  the  past  decade.  It  is  largely  occupied 
by  New  York  business  men  as  a  place  of 
residence.  There  are  many  fine  churches 
and  schools,  a  Carnegie  Library,  Mount 
Vernon  Hospital,  the  Lucas  Building,  a 

gostoffice,  banks  and  an  opera-house.  It 
as  a  few  industries,  including  manufactures 
of  pens,  rubber,  jewelry  and  carriages.  It 
has  electric  connection  wjtb  New  Rochelle, 
Yonkers  and  a  number  of  other  towns  in 
the  vicinity.  Population  30,919. 


-MOUNT  VERNON 


1273 


MOZAMBIQUE 


Mount  Vernon,  the  home  and  burial- 
place  of  George  Washington,  is  situated  in 
Virginia  on  the  Potomac,  15  miles  below 
Washington.  The  estate  originally  included 
several  thousand  acres.  The  house  is  of 
wood,  two  stories  high  and  96  feet  long, 
and  was  built  by  Lawrence  Washington,  an 
older  brother  of  George  Washington,  and 
named  in  honor  of  Admiral  Vernon,  under 
whom  he  had  served  in  the  West  Indies. 
Washington  improved  both  the  house  and 
the  grounds.  The  library  and  Washington's 
bedroom  are  kept  as  when  in  use.  He  left 
the  estate  to  a  nephew,  who  sold  the  house 
and  200  acres  to  the  Ladies'  Mount  Vernon 
Association,  a  society  organized  to  care  for 
it  and  keep  it  as  a  national  possession. 

Mouse,  a  small  gnawing  animal  closely 
related  to  the  rat.  The  common  house-mouse 
originally  was  an  inhabitant  of  Asia.  "  From 
there  they  have  accompanied  man  in  his 
wanderings  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  trav- 
eling as  he  has  traveled  in  ox-teams  and 
on  the  backs  of  donkeys,  by  steamship  and 
railway;  taking  up  their  quarters  wherever 
he  does,  first  in  log-cabins  with  thatched 
roofs  and  finally,  in  some  instances,  on  the 
nineteenth  floor  of  a  steel-building  where 
generation  after  generation  may  live  and 
die  in  turn  without  so  much  as  having  set 
foot  to  the  earth."  They  breed  at  all  times 
and  seasons,  multiply  with  great  rapidity, 
have  to  be  treated  as  a  pest.  In  almost  all 
houses  of  any  age  mice  live,  between  plaster 
and  wainscoting  have  their  residence,  their 
runways  as  a  rule  leading  throughout  the 
house.  Besides  the  house-mice  there  are 
various  kinds  of  field  and  meadow  mice. 
The  harvest-mouse  of  Europe  is  very  small, 
being  between  two  and  one  half  and  three 
inches  long.  It  lives  among  grasses  and  in 
cornfields,  where  it  builds  a  globular  nest 
about  the  size  of  a  cricket-ball,  in  which 
its  young  are  reared.  The  American  field- 
mouse  differs  from  the  house-mouse  in  hav- 
ing a  blunt  nose,  short  limbs  and  tail. 
When  abundant  they  are  great  pests  to 
farmers.  In  1890  the  wheat  crop  in  South 
Australia  was  almost  completely  ruined  by 
field-mice.  Our  country  wide  the  field  mouse 
ranges,  feeds  on  roots,  grasses  and  grain,  does 
much  harm  in  fields  of  Indian  corn,  in 
severe  weather  harms  young  fruit  trees  by 
stripping  their  bark  close  to  the  ground. 
For  their  young  a  simple  burrow  is  dug, 
with  nest  at  the  bottom.  Among  their 
enemies  are  hawks,  owls,  crows,  foxes,  cats 
and  weasels.  The  American  harvest-mouse 
belongs  to  the  south.  The  rice-field  mouse 
also  is  a  southern  animal;  aquatic  in  its 
habits,  it  abounds  on  the  banks  of  rice- 
fields  and  in  coast-marshes.  Widely  dis- 
tributed in  this  country,  especially  common 
in  the  west,  is  the  interesting  white-footed 
mouse,  deer-mouse,  or  wood-mouse.  It  is 
fawn  above,  below  white  or  light  gray,  its 


black  eyes  are  large  and  very  brilliant,  its 
feet  are  snow-white.  Pure  white  mice  are 
albinos  or  sports.  Their  white  offspring,  and 
other  "fancy  mice" —  black  and  white,  yel- 
low, black,  brown,  mauve  and  blue  —  are 
prized  as  pets ;  many  become  very  tame  and 
take  readily  to  training.  The  following  food 
is  recommended  for  them :  raw  oatmeal  in 
winter  and  a  little  on  cool  days  in  summer; 
bread,  bird-seed  or  cooked  potatoes;  some 
salt.  The  cages  should  be  kept  scrupulously 
clean.  Bits  of  tissue  paper  or  newspaper 
make  suitable  nests.  See  Stone  and  Cram: 
American  Animals. 

Move'ments  (in  plants).  Movement  from 
place  to  place  is  possible  only  to  the  simpler 
plants  and  those  living  in  water  or  on  wet 
surfaces.  To  accomplish  it,  the  protoplasm 
is  either  extended  into  one  or  more  slender 
threads,  called  cilia,  which  bend  quickly  and 
act  somewhat  as  oars;  or  into  broad,  blunt 
protrusions  by  means  of  which  the  cells 
creep.  (The  method  of  some  movements 
is  still  unknown.)  Movements  of  larger 
plants  are  due  to  bending.  This  may  be 
done  by  unequal  growth  on  different  sides 
or  by  unequal  turgor  (which  see)  on  the 
opposite  sides.  Motor  organs  (which  see) 
are  regions  of  the  leafstalk  specially  arranged 
to  permit  curvature  by  the  latter  method. 
Movements  are  usually  executed  in  response 
to  some  stimulus,  though  some  seem  to  be 
spontaneous.  See  IRRITABILITY,  CHEMO- 
TAXIS,  CHEMOTROPISM,  GEOTROPISM,  HELIO- 
TROPISM,  HYDROTROPISM,  PHOTOTAXIS,  RHE- 
OTROPISM  and  THERMOTROPISM. 

Mowat  ( mou'at) ,  Sir  Oliver,  born  in 
Kingston  (Ontario),  1820.  He  studied  law 
with  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1842.  A  member  of  the  Quebec 
Union  Conference  in  1864,  he  was  Vice-Chan- 
cellor of  Upper  Canada  from  1864  to  1872; 
was  called  on  to  form  a  government  in  1872 
and  became  Premier  and  Attorney-General. 
He  was  counsel  for  Ontario  before  the  Privy 
Council  in  England  in  the  Ontario-Manitoba 
boundary  case ;  was  admitted  high  authority 
as  to  all  questions  pertaining  to  matters  of 
Provincial  or  Dominion  jurisdiction.  He 
remained  Premier  of  Ontario  until  1896, 
when  he  resigned  to  take  office  as  Minister 
of  Justice  in  the  Laurier  Government.  He 
was  appointed  to  the  Senate  in  1896.  A 
brilliant  lawyer,  a  tactful  leader  and  one 
of  the  most  successful  of  Canadian  states- 
men, he  closed  his  public  career  as  Lieuten- 
ant-Governor of  the  Province.  He  died  at 
Toronto  in  1903. 

Mozambique  (md'zam-bek'),  the  northern 
possessions  of  Portugal  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  Africa.  They  include  Mozambique,  Zam- 
bezia  and  Lourenco  Marques,  and  extend 
from  Cape  Delgado  to  Delagoa  Bay,  1,300 
miles.  The  area  is  293,400  square  miles,  the 
population  3,120,000.  The  Zambezi  is  the 
principal  river,  and  forms  the  southern 


MOZAMBIQUE  CHANNEL 


1274 


MUENSTERBERG 


boundary  of  Mozambique  proper,  its  inland 
border  extending  to  Lake  Nyasa.  The  coast 
is  low  and  swampy,  but  the  interior  has 
well-wooded  plains  with  valuable  timber. 
The  soil  is  fertile  and  produces  corn,  rice, 
cotton,  cocoanut  and  india-rubber.  The 
country  is  rich  in  minerals,  but  mining  has 
not  been  extensive.  The  capital  is  Mozam- 
bique, built  on  a  coral  island  near  the  main- 
"und.  The  Mozambique  Company  adminis- 
ters, besides  Mozambique,  the  Manica  and 
Sofala  region.  Railways  operate  into  Rho- 
desia and  Transvaal,  others  are  building,  and 
there  are  telegraphs. 

Mozambique  Channel  lies  between  Mad- 
agascar and  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa.  It 
is  400  miles  wide  and  1,050  long. 

Mozart  (mo'zdrt),  Wolfgang  Amade'us 
Chrys'ostom,  the  great  musician,  was  born 
at  Salzburg,  Germany,  Jan.  27,  1756.  When 
only  six  years  old,  his  father  took  him  and 
nis  sister  on  a  musical  tour  through  Europe. 
In  Bologna,  then  the  great  center  of  music 
in  Italy,  the  Philharmonic  Society  elected 
him  for  membership  when  only  fifteen,  in 
spite  of  its  rule  that  no  one  under  twenty 
should  be  admitted.  The  Easter  music  in 
the  Sistine  Chapel  was  jealously  guarded 
and  no  copy  allowed  to  be  made,  but  young 
Mozart,  hearing  it  once,  wrote  it  out  from 
memory.  In  1781  he  lost  his  position  in 
the  court  of  the  archbishop  with  whom  he 
had  gone  to  Vienna.  He  soon  after  produced 
two  operas,  one  of  them  The  Marriage  of 
Figaro,  which  created  a  furore,  and  he  was 
commissioned  to  write  an  opera  for  the 
theater  in  Prague.  The  summer-house  where, 
and  the  little  stone  table  on  which,  he  wrote 
this  opera,  Don  Giovanni,  are  still  shown  in 
the  gardens  at  Prague.  The  great  success 
of  this  work  made  it  impossible  for  the 
court  to  overlook  his  merits  longer,  and  he 
received  an  appointment  from  the  emperor 
with  a  small  salary,  his  duty  being  to  supply 
the  dance-music  at  the  imperial  balls.  He 
struggled  with  debt,  mistaken  loyalty  pre- 
venting him  from  leaving  the  service  of  the 
emperor  when  offered  a  better  position  in 
Prussia.  A  friend,  a  theater-manager  in 
financial  difficulties,  induced  Mozart  to  come 
to  his  aid  with  a  new  opera,  and  in  March, 
1791,  he  began  his  Magic  Flute.  It  was 
produced  in  September,  and  made  the  for- 
tune of  the  lucky  manager.  While  at  work 
on  this  opera,  a  stranger  visited  him  and 
commissioned  him  to  write  a  requiem  mass, 
to  be  finished  in  a  month.  He  imagined 
there  was  something  mysterious  about  the 
order,  and  said  he  was  writing  it  for  him- 
self. He  really  was  dying,  and  on  Dec.  4, 
1791,  when  a  few  friends  met  to  rehearse 
the  part  of  the  work  that  was  finished,  he 
was  unequal  to  the  effort,  though  even 
when  unconscious  seeming  to  be  occupied 
with  his  work.  He  died  that  night  at  Vienna, 
and  was  buried  in  the  churchyard.  When 


his  wife  tried  to  find  the  grave  a  few  days 
after,  no  one  could  tell  her  where  it  was. 
Many  years*  after  his  death  Vienna  honored 
him  with  a  monument.  Mozart  wrote  624 
compositions.  In  opera  and  symphony  he 
is  second  to  none.  His  three  great  operas, 
Don  Giovanni,  the  Magic  Flute  and  Figaro, 
still  hold  the  stage,  and  three  of  his  forty- 
one  symphonies  will  always  be  admired  as 
long  as  music  exists.  See  Life  by  Otto  John, 
translated  by  Townsend. 

Mudfishes,  a  group  of  widely  differing 
fishes  frequenting  muddy  waters.  The  term 
includes  the  bowfin  or  mudfish  found 
throughout  our  central  states  from  Lake 
Superior  to  Florida  and  Texas;  a  small 
marine  goby  occuring  on  the  California 
coast;  the  killifish  called  the  mummichog; 
and  the  lungfishes  or  Dipnoi.  The  flesh  of 
the  bowfin  is  eaten  by  our  negroes,  but  not 
relished  by  whites.  This  fish  is  known  in 
the  south  as  mudfish  or  grindle;  in  the 
north  it  is  sometimes  called  dogfish,  some- 
times lawyer.  It  is  very  gamy,  makes 
a  brave  struggle  before  it  surrenders,  and 
also  is  very  hardy,  for  it  can  live  a  con- 
siderable time  out  of  water.  It  attains  a 
length  of  about  two  feet,  a  weight  of  twelve 
pounds;  the  head  is  thick,  the  mouth  filled 
with  powerful  teeth.  It  is  very  voracious. 
When  frightened,  the  young  seek  safety  in 
the  mother's  huge  mouth.  The  mummichog 
is  common  in  our  brackish  waters.  The 
Dipnoi  or  double-breathers,  in  having  lungs, 
approach  the  class  of  amphibia  just  above 
the  fishes.  They  are  descended  from  a  very 
ancient  stock  of  fishes,  representatives  of 
which  are  found  in  the  mesozoic  rocks. 
There  are  only  three  varieties  now  living: 
the  ceratodus  of  Queensland,  Australia;  the 
protopterus  of  the  rivers  of  tropical  Africa; 
and  the  lepidosiren  of  the  Amazon  and  its 
tributaries.  All  are  fresh-water  fish  of  an 
eel-like  form,  and  attain  a  length  of  three 
to  six  feet.  Ceratodus  is  the  largest,  reach- 
ing a  weight  of  twenty  pounds.  Its  flesh  is 
highly  esteemed  as  food.  It  feeds  on  plants 
and  the  insects  found  upon  the  leaves.  Pro- 
topterus is  smaller.  It  feeds  on  insects, 
frogs  and  smaller  fishes.  At  the  approach 
of  the  dry  season  it  burrows  in  the  mud, 
and  forms  a  capsule  of  earth  around  itself. 
This  is  lined  internally  with  a  moist  slime 
secreted  by  the  glands  in  the  skin.  Within 
this  case  the  fish  lies  in  a  dormant  condition, 
feeding  upon  fatty  material  stored  up  mainly 
in  the  tail.  These  capsules  of  earth  have 
been  dug  out,  and  the  living  fish  safely 
transported  to  Europe  and  the  United  States. 
They  are  revived  by  immersion  in  the  water. 
The  lepidosiren  is  not  so  well-known  as  the 
other  two  forms. 

Muen'sterberg,  Hugo,  a  psychologist 
and  professor  at  Harvard  University  and  a 
distinguished  scientist  and  writer,  was  born 
at  Dantaig,  Germany,  in  1863.  After  study- 


MUHLENBERG 


1275 


MULHAUSEN 


ing  in  the  gymnasium  or  classical  secondary 
school  at  Dantzig,  he  entered  the  Univer- 
sities of  Leipzig  and  Heidelberg  in  turn,  and 
became  an  instructor  at  Freiberg  Univer- 
sity in  1887  and  adjunct-professor  in  1891. 
In  1892  Professor  Muensterberg  accepted  a 
chair  of  psychology  in  Harvard  University. 
He  belongs  to  the  scientific  rather  than  philo- 
sophic school  of  psychology;  and  has  done 
much  in  America  for  the  experimental 
method  in  this  field.  In  addition  to  many 
publications  in  German,  Professor  Muenster- 
berg is  the  author  of  two  semipopular  Eng- 
lish works :  American  Traits  and  Psychology 
and  Life. 

Muhlenberg  (mu'len-berg),  William  Au- 
gustus, an  American  divine,  noted  as  a 
hymn-writer,  was  born  at  Philadelphia,  Sept. 
1 6,  1796.  He  graduated  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1814,  and  became  an 
Episcopal  clergyman.  Soon  after  becoming 
rector  of  a  New  York  church,  he  set  about 
getting  funds  to  found  St.  Luke's  Hospital, 
and  it  was  due  to  his  efforts  that  the  first 
American  order  of  Episcopal  deaconesses  and 
St.  Johnland  Church  Industrial  Community 
were  organized.  He  was  the  author  of  the 
well-known  hymn,  /  Would  Not  Live  Alway, 
and  edited  several  collections  of  church  music. 
He  died  at  New  York,  April  8,  1877. 

jMuir,  John,  an  American  naturalist,  geol- 
ogist and  explorer,  was  born  at  Dunbar, 
Scotland,  on  April  21,  1838.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  Scotland  until  1849,  when  his 
tather  came  to  Wisconsin  and  made  a  farm 
near  Fox  River.  In  1860  Muir  entered  the 
University  of  Wisconsin,  graduating  in  1864. 
Then  he  began  the  many  lonely  journeys 
throughout  Canada  and  the  United  States 
that  made  him  a  botanist  and  a  geologist. 
In  1868,  after  exploring  Yosemite  Valley,  he 
settled  there,  living  alone  in  his  mill  and  on 
the  mountains  for  ten  years  and  specially 
studying  glacial  traces  in  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
He  contributed  to  The  Tribune  of  New  York 
City  on  the  subject,  and  discovered  65  re- 
sidual glaciers.  In  1879  he  visited  Alaska, 
discovering  Glacier  Bay  and  the  wonderful 
Muir  Glacier,  and  explored  the  upper  courses 
of  Yukon  and  Mackenzie  Rivers.  In  1880 
he  visited  the  arctic  regions  with  the  Ameri- 
can expedition  in  search  of  Lieutenant  De 
Long.  He  wrote  more  than  150  articles  on 
the  natural  history  of  Pacific  America.  He 
long  urged  the  preservation  of  American 
forests  and  the  establishment  of  national 
parks,  the  formation  of  the  Sequoia  and 
Yosemite  reservations  being  due  to  his 
efforts.  His  writings  compare  in  literary 
quality  with  those  of  Burroughs.  Harvard 
has  honored  itself  by  giving  him  the  degree 
of  master  of  arts,  Wisconsin  that  of  doctor 
of  laws.  He  died  Dec.  24,  1914.  See  FOREST- 
RESERVES  and  NATIONAL  PARKS. 

JVlulat'to.     See  NEGRO. 


Mul'berry,  species  of  Morus,  a  genus 
which  belongs  to  a  family  closely  related  to 
the  nettle  family.  About  100  species  of 
mulberry  have  been  described,  all  of  which 
are  trees  of  the  temperate  regions  of  the 
northern  hemisphere.  In  the  United  States 
the  mulberry  is  known  almost  entirely  as  a 
fruit-bearing  tree,  although  it  is  not  culti- 
vated in  any  general  way.  In  the  Old 
World  mulberries  are  grown  as  food  for  silk- 
worms as  well  as  for  the  fruit.  The  silk- 
worm mulberry  is  M.  alba,  and  the  chief 
fruit-producing  mulberry  is  M.  nigra  M. 
alba  is  a  native  of  China,  and  has  been 
cultivated  from  the  earliest  times  in  con- 
nection with  the  silk-worm  industry.  The 
fruit  is  small  and  white  or  violet.  The  tree 
is  quite  frequently  seen  here  about  old 
farm-houses,  is  small,  has  smooth,  shiny 
leaves.  The  black  mulberry  is  a  native  of 
Asia,  and  is  cultivated  chiefly  in  the  Old 
World  for  its  fruit,  which  is  large  and  fleshy, 
mostly  dark-colored.  The  native  red  mul- 
berry of  the  United  States  is  M.  rubra, 
which  grows  mostly  in  rich  soils  and  bottom 
lands.  It  is  generally  distributed,  common 
east  of  the  Mississippi.  The  tree  varies  in 
height  from  15  to  60  feet,  the  branches 
grow  low  and  spread  wide,  giving  a  rounded 
form.  The  bark  is  rough  and  grayish- 
brown.  In  early  summer  the  brilliant  yel- 
low-green foliage  of  that  time  is  markedly 
beautiful.  In  size  and  shape  the  fruit  re- 
minds one  of  a  long,  wild  blackberry ;  the  color 
is  red,  turning  to  a  deep  purple.  The  ber- 
ries are  juicy,  rather  insipid.  The  wood  is 
soft,  light  yellow  in  color,  and  of  value; 
from  the  inner  bark  a  fibre  is  obtained  that 
the  Indians  of  the  south  weave  into  a  cloth. 
The  paper  mulberry,  growing  here  from 
New  York  southward,  has  been  introduced 
into  this  country  from  China  and  Japan, 
where  it  is  cultivated  for  its  fibrous  bark, 
utilized  in  making  paper.  It  is  a  small, 
low-branched  tree,  its  leaves  closely  resem- 
ble the  red-mulberry  leaves,  but  the  fruit 
is  quite  different,  club-shaped,  unlike  in 
taste. 

Mulch  (mukti)  is  a  covering  of  straw, 
leaves,  tan-bark,  manure  etc.,  placed  on  the 
soil  that  is  not  easily  cultivated,  to  prevent 
loss  of  moisture  by  evaporation,  as  in 
closely  planted  orchards.  Soil-mulch  is  a 
layer  of  soil  loosened  by  raking,  harrowing 
or  shallow  plowing,  to  break  up  capillarity 
(q.  v.). 

Mulhausen  (mul'hou'zeri),  a  city  of  Al- 
sace-Lorraine, Germany,  on  the  111  and  the 
Rhdne  and  on  the  Rhine  Canal,  20  miles 
northwest  of  Basel.  Its  cotton  maunfac- 
tories  employ  75,000  hands,  and  it  has 
printing  and  dye  works  for  cotton,  linen, 
calico,  wool  and  silk  fabrics  and  chemical 
and  iron-works.  The  city  was  founded  be- 
fore A.  D.  717,  and  became  a  free,  imperial 
city  in  1273.  It  became  a  part  of  France 


MULLEIN 


1276 


MUMMY 


in  1798,  and  after  1829  began  to  be  a  noted 
manufacturing  center.  Its  arrangements 
for  housing  and  caring  for  the  working- 
classes  are  remarkably  good.  Since  the  war 
of  1870-71  Mulhausen  has  belonged  to  the 
German  empire.  Population  94,498. 

Mullein  (mul'ttn),  the  name  of  a  species 
of  the  genus  Verbascunt,  which  belongs  to 
the  figwort  family.  The  genus  contains 
about  125  species,  all  of  them  natives  of  the 
eastern  hemisphere.  About  five  species  have 
become  naturalized  in  North  America,  the 
most  conspicuous  of  which  is  the  common 
mullein  (V.  thapsus),  an  erect,  stout,  simple 
plant,  which  is  densely  woolly  all  over  and 
is  exceedingly  common  in  fields  and  waste 
places.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  is  said  to  have  received  in  England  no 
less  than  40  common  names.  The  next  best- 
known  naturalized  species  is  the  moth  mul- 
lein (V.  blattaria),  with  a  slender,  merely 
pubescent  stem,  and  a  loose  cluster  of 
yellow  or  white  flowers  with  brown  marks. 
Miiller  (mu'ler),  Friedrich  Maximilian, 
was  born  at  Dessau,  Germany,  Dec.  6.  1823. 
His  father,  Wil- 
helm  Muller,  one 
ot  the  greatest 
German  lyric  po- 
ets, died  when 
Friedrich  was 
four  He  took 
his  degree  at 
Leipsic  in  1843, 
and  devoted  him 
self  to  the  study 
of  Sanskrit.  In 
1847  the  East  In- 
'dia  Company 
commissioned 
him  to  edit  the 
Rig-Veda  at  their 
expense.  In  1854 
he  became  professor  of  modern  languages  at 
Oxford.  Muller  published  treatises  on  many 
language-topics,  which  have  done  more  than 
the  labors  of  any  other  single  scholar  to 
awaken  a  taste  in  England  for  the  science 
of  language,  and  by  his  happy  illustrations 
he  made  subjects  attractive  that  ordinarily 
are  dry.  In  1875  he  resigned  his  professor- 
ship and  edited  a  series  of  translations  of 
the  Sacred  Books  of  the  East.  In  1878  he 
was  Hibbert  lecturer,  in  1890-2  Gifford  lec- 
turer. His  indefatigable  industry  was  as- 
tounding. Among  his  books  are  Chips  from 
a  German  Workshop;  Comparative  Mythol- 
ogy; The  Science  of  Thought;  Physical  Re- 
ligion; The  Science  of  Religion;  Language, 
Mythology  and  Religion;  The  Science  of  Lan- 
guage; and  The  Origin  and  Growth  of  Relig- 
ion; to  say  nothing  of  his  Autobiography,  his 
English  translation  of  Kant's  Critique  of 
Pure  Reason  and  monographs  on  a  dozen 
languages.  In  oriental  languages,  litera- 
tures and  religions  he  was  a  successful  popu- 


MAX.   MULLER 


larizer,  but  only  in  Sanskrit  did  he  outrank 
the  specialists.  He  died  at  Oxford ,  England , 
on  Oct.  28,  1900. 

Miiller,  Johan'nes,  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man physiologist,  was  born  at  Coblentz  in 
1801  and  died  at  Berlin  in  1858.  He  be- 
came professor  of  physiology  at  Bonn  in 
1826  and  at  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1833. 
He  is  a  monumental  figure  in  the  history 
of  physiology.  By  wide  observation  and 
experiment  he  founded  comparative  physiol- 
ogy. He  was  the  trainer  of  some  of  the 
greatest  physiologists,  as  Ludwig,  Du  Bois- 
Reymond,  Helmholtz  and  others.  In  his 
work  he  recognized  the  close  connection  be- 
tween physiology  and  psychology,  and 
thereby  made  a  beginning  in  physiological 
psychology.  His  work  was  so  remarkable 
that  he  gained  for  himself  the  title  of  the 
greatest  physiologist  of  modern  times. 
He  was  myriad-minded,  and  later  in  life 
gave  his  attention  to  zoology,  winning  in 
that  field  the  title  of  the  greatest  mor- 
phologist  of  modern  times.  His  Handbook 
of  Physiology  (1833)  is  unsurpassed  in  the 
method  of  handling  the  subject.  His  anat- 
omy of  some  of  the  lower  fishes  (myxi- 
npids)  is  remarkable  for  accuracy  and  for 
his  appreciation  of  the  meaning  of  his  dis- 
coveries. 

Mul'let,  a  food-fish  found  in  tropical  and 
temperate  waters.  On  the  American  coast 
it  ranges  as  far  north  as  Cape  Cod.  The 
mullet  family  contains  mostly  sea-fishes,  but 
the  representatives  ascend  streams,  and  a 
few  forms  are  permanent  residents  of  fresh 
water.  They  feed  at  the  bottom,  taking 
quantities  of  mud  into  their  mouths  and 
sifting  out  the  small  particles  of  animal  and 
vegetable  matter.  The  name  is  also  given 
to  a  common  sucker  in  inland  streams  in 
the  United  States.  These  fish  grow  to  a 
length  of  two  feet.  Their  lower  fins  are  of 
an  orange-red  color,  and  they  are  often 
called  red-horse. 

Mu'lock,  Miss.     See  CRAIK. 

Mul'ready,  William,  an  Irish  landscape 
and  figure  painter,  was  born  at  Ennis, 
County  Clare,  April  i,  1786.  When  a  boy, 
his  parents  went  to  London,  and  when  15 
he  began  to  study  at  the  Royal  Academy. 
His  genre  paintings  are  the  best,  as  Does  of 
Two  Minds,  The  Barber's  Shop  and  Idle  Boys 
in  his  earlier  years;  and  in  middle  life  First 
Love,  The  Truant  and  Seven  Ages.  He  also 
worked  unweariedly  at  portrait-painting  and 
at  illustrations  for  children's  books,  while 
his  illustrations  of  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield 
are  well-known.  He  was  careful  in  drawing 
and  rich  in  coloring.  Mulready  died  in 
London,  July  7,  1863.  See  Stephens'  Me- 
morials of  Mulready. 

Mum'my,  an  embalmed  body.  Embalm- 
ing, so  named  from  the  balm  or  balsam 
often  used,  is  the  art  of  preserving  the  body 
after  death,  and  was  invented  by  the  early 


MUNCHHAUSEN 


1277 


MUNICH 


Egyptians.  The  art  appears  as  old  as  4000 
B.  C.  at  least,  for  the  bodies  of  Cheops  and 
others  of  the  age  of  the  4th  dynasty  were 
mummied.  One  of  the  earliest  embalm- 
ments of  which  we  have  a  record  is  that 
of  Jacob,  and  the  body  of  Joseph  was  thus 
prepared  and  carried  out  of  Egypt.  The 
process  is  described  by  Herodotus  and 
Diodorus.  A  scribe  marked  with  a  reed- 
pen  a  line  on  the  left  side  beneath  the  ribs, 
down  which  line  the  district-ripper,  a  low- 
class  officer,  made  a  deep  cut  with  a  stone- 
knife;  he  was  then  pelted  with  stones  and 
chased  with  curses.  The  salter  next  re- 
moved the  entrails  and  lungs,  except  the 
heart  and  kidneys,  while  a  companion  took 
out  the  brain  through  the  nose.  The  body 
was  then  ready  for  the  salts  and  spices 
jaecessary  for  its  preservation,  the  quality 
of  which  depended  upon  the  sum  to  be 
paid.  In  the  case  of  the  wealthy,  peculiar 
drugs  were  passed  through  the  nostrils  into 
the  cavities  of  the  skull;  the  body-cavity 
was  washed  with  palm-wine,  filled  with 
myrrh,  cassia  and  other  substances,  and 
the  cut  sewed.  The  mummy  was  kept  in 
natron  (niter)  for  70  days,  then  washed, 
bandaged  in  rolls  of  linen  held  together  by 
gums,  and  set  upright  in  a  wooden  coffin 
against  the  walls  of  the  house  or  tomb. 
This  process  cost  a  silver  talent,  worth  in 
our  money  about  $3,725.  Using  cedar-oil 
was  a  cheaper  method  and  cost  a  mina,  worth 
about  $1,215.  The  poorer  classes  washed  the 
corpse  in  myrrh,  and  saited  it  for  70  days. 
When  thus  prepared  and  covered  with  a  pic- 
ture of  the  dead  and  clothed  as  a  laborer  in 
the  world  to  come,  the  mummy  was  placed 
in  a  costly  coffin  ready  for  burial,  but  often 
kept  sometime  unburied  —  often  at  home  — 
and  even  brought  at  feasts  and  festivals  to 
remind  the  guests  of  the  shortness  of  life. 
All  classes,  even  criminals,  were  embalmed; 
but  various  other  methods  were  used.  Some 
mummies  are  found  merely  dried  in  the 
sand,  others  salted  by  natron  or  soaked  in 
bitumen,  often  with  the  skin  partly  gilded 
and  the  fingers  cased  in  silver.  So  success- 
ful were  some  of  these  processes,  that  after 
2,000  or  3.000  years  the  soles  of  the  feet 
are  still  elastic  and  soft  to  the  touch.  The 
sacred  animals  were  also  mummied.  Possi- 
bly between  4000  B.  C.  and  700  A.  D., 
when  the  preservative  process  practically 
ceased,  as  many  as  730,000,000  bodies  were 
embalmed  in  Egypt,  of  which  many  millions 
are  yet  hidden.  Important  finds  are  made 
from  time  to  time;  as  in  1881  when  over 
30  mummies  of  potentates,  including 
Rameses^  II,  were  found  together  at  Deir- 
el-Bahari.  Mummies  were  used  in  the  isth 
and  1 6th  centuries  of  our  era  for  drugs  and 
as  nostrums  against  diseases.  Arsenic, 
chloride  of  zinc  and  other  substances 
are  now  used  where  bodies  are  to  be 
kept  only  for  a  short  time.  The  latest 


method  generally  used  in  the  United  States 
is  by  passing  a  fluid  into  the  arteries.  See 
Pettigrew's  History  of  Mummies. 

Miinchhausen  (muak'hou-zen  or  mun- 
cha'sen),  Karl  Friedrich  Hieronymus, 
Baron  von,  was  born  on  May  n,  1720,  at 
Bodenwerder,  Hannover,  of  an  old  and  noble 
family.  He  served  as  cavalry  officer  in 
Russian  campaigns  against  the  Turks,  and 
died  at  his  birthplace,  Feb.  22,  1797.  A 
collection  of  his  marvelous  stories,  01  stones 
attributed  to  him,  was  first  published  in 
English  under  the  title  of  Baron  Munch- 
hausen's  Narrative  of  His  Marvelous  Travels 
and  Campaigns  in  Russia,  in  1785.  Th« 
stories  were  gathered  by  Rudolf  Erich 
Raspe,  a  countryman  of  the  baron's  living 
in  England.  The  book  at  once  became 
popular  and  has  remained  so  ever  since. 
Munchhausen's  name  has  become  prover- 
bial for  wild  and  impossible  exploits  and 
adventures, 

Mun'cie,  Ind.,  is  a  rapidly  growing  city 
in  Delaware  County,  on  White  River,  in 
eastern  central  Indiana,  a  region  that  pro- 
duces an  abundant  supply  of  natural  gas, 
which  is  largely  utilized  as  fuel  by  the 
industries  of  Muncie.  It  is  situated  54 
miles  northeast  of  Indianapolis.  Five  main 
line  railroad  systems  run  through  Muncie, 
and  there  is  also  a  network  of  interurbans 
throughout  this  section  of  Indiana,  Muncie 
having  the  service  of  five  electric  lines  as 
well.  The  second  largest  traction  station 
in  the  United  States  is  located  at  Muncie 
and  its  manufactures  embrace  pulp  and 
paper  works;  a  flour-bagging  factory;  glass, 
nail  and  iron  works  and  a  large  fruit  jar 
manufacturing  works.  It  has  a  number 
of  good  schools,  33  churches,  four  na- 
tional banks,  a  public  library  and  a 
Masonic  building.  The  present  population  is 
24,005. 

Munich  (mil'nik),  capital  of  Bavaria,  lies, 
chiefly  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Isas, 
272  miles  west  of  Vienna.  Munich  is  one 
of  the  handsomest  cities  of  Germany  and 
perhaps  the  richest  in  treasures  of  art, 
while  itself  famous  for  its  school  of  paint- 
ing. Among  the  main  buildings  are  the 
Glyptothek,  with  its  fine  collection  of  ancient 
and  modern  sculptures;  the  Old  Pinakothek, 
containing  paintings  by  the  old  masters, 
besides  thousands  of  engravings  and  draw- 
ings and  a  priceless  collection  of  antique 
vases;  the  New  Pinakothek,  filled  with 
modern  paintings;  the  royal  and  national 
library;  and  the  Bavarian  national  museum. 
Among  the  gates  the  most  beautiful  are  the 
Gate  of  Victory,  the  old  Isar  gate  and  the 
Propylcea.  The  university  has  234  pro- 
fessors and  teachers  and  5,734  students, 
Munich  is  noted  for  stained-glass  works, 
iron,  brass  and  bell  foundries,  lithographing 
and  engraving  works  and  factories  of  optical 
and  mathematical  instruments.  There  also 


MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT 


1278 


MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT 


are  large  breweries  of  Bavarian  beer,  which 
produce  yearly  over  50,000,000  gallons. 
The  chief  trade  is  in  gram,  and  in  objects 
of  art.  The  true  history  of  modern  Munich 
is  the  account  of  its  growth  as  an  art-center 
in  the  igth  century.  Population  595,057. 
See  Mrs.  Howitt-Watts'  Art-Student,  in 
Munich. 

Municipal  Government.  A  municipal- 
ity is  a  corporation  representing  a  certain 
local  community  and  created  for  the  pur- 
poses of  local  self-government.  It  has 
always  been  confined  to  communities  that 
are  thickly  populated  —  towns  or  cities  — 
where  there  are  many  interests  common  to 
the  people  living  in  the  district  which  do 
not  greatly  concern  people  living  elsewhere. 

In  America,  the  right  of  cities  to  home 
rule  in  all  states  except  Michigan,  appar- 
ently, depends  upon  the  state  constitution 
or  upon  the  will  of  the  legislature.  There 
have  been  many  instances  of  interference 
with  the  freedom  of  cities  in  local  affairs, 
especially  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
Massachusetts  and  Ohio.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  following  states  constitutional 
amendments  have  been  adopted  that  pro- 
vide that  the  city  shall  within  wide  limits 
determine  for  itself  the  nature  of  the  charter 
that  it  shall  have:  Missouri,  California, 
Washington,  Colorado,  Minnesota  and 
Oregon. 

In  types  of  municipal  government  there 
may  be  distinguished  two  extremes:  the 
complicated  department  government,  of 
which  New  York  is  the  best  illustration, 
and  the  simple  government  by  a  commission 
or  small  council  exemplified  in  Galveston 
and  Des  Moines.  The  former  is  patterned 
rather  after  the  English,  the  latter  after  the 
German  model.  The  majority  of  our  cities 
are  nearer  the  former  than  the  latter,  and 
we  may  therefore  give  a  brief  description 
of  the  charter  of  the  City  of  New  York, 
so  far  as  it  deals  with  this  subject.  There 
are  a  legislature  —  the  Board  of  Aldermen ; 
an  executive  —  the  mayor;  and  municipal 
courts.  The  first  has  some  90  members, 
elected  every  two  years.  No  ordinance  can 
be  passed  without  its  approval,  and  it  can 
override  the  veto  of  the  mayor  by  a  three- 
fourths  vote.  It  may  decrease  but  not  in- 
crease budgets.  No  franchise  may  be 
granted  for  more  than  25  years,  except  in 
the  case  of  tunnels,  for  which  a  franchise  of 
50  years  may  be  granted.  Limited  renewals 
are  permitted.  Tunnels  must  pay  3%  of 
their  net  profits  to  the  city,  after  they  have 
earned  5%  for  their  owners.  The  mayor 
is  elected  for  four  years.  He  appoints  the 
heads  of  the  following  departments :  finance, 
law,  police,  water,  gas  and  electricity,  street- 
cleaning,  bridges,  parks,  public  charities, 
correction  (prisons  etc.),  fire,  docks  and 
ferries,  taxes  and  assessments,  education, 
health  and  tenement-house  departments. 


He  appoints  aH  the  members  of  the  board  of 
education.  The  controller  (treasurer)  is  sep- 
arately elected  by  the  people,  every  four 
years.  There  is  a  board  of  estimate,  consist- 
ing of  the  mayor,  the  controller,  the  president 
of  the  board  of  aldermen  and  the  presidents 
of  the  five  boroughs  (Manhattan,  Bronx, 
Brooklyn,  Queens  and  Richmond),  in  which 
each  member  has  from  one  to  three  votes 
according  to  his  importance.  This  board 
submits  its  estimates  to  the  board  of  alder- 
men. A  peculiar  feature  is  the  division  of 
the  city  into  boroughs,  after  the  London 
model,  each  borough  having  a  president 
and  also  departments  that  deal  with  streets, 
buildings,  sewers  and  bridges.  The  presi- 
dents are  elected.  Another  remarkable 
feature  is  the  art-commission,  consisting  of 
the  mayor,  the  presidents  of  the  Metro- 

folitan  Museum  of  Art  and  the  Brooklyn 
nstitute  of  Arts  and  Science  (two  private 
institutions),  the  president  of  the  N.  Y. 
Public  Library,  a  painter,  a  sculptor,  an 
architect  and  three  other  citizens  of  New 
York,  who  have  the  power  to  prohibit  the 
city  coming  into  possession  of  any  work 
of  art  (including  bridges  and  buildings), 
which  does  not  meet  the  approval  of  the 
commission.  There  are  46  local  boards  of 
education  acting  under  the  main  board  of 
46  members.  There  are  25  municipal 
courts,  of  which  those  in  Manhattan  and 
Bronx  are  appointed  by  the  mayor  and  the 
rest  elected. 

The  committees  that  have  taken  charge 
of  Galveston  and  Des  Moines  have  pro- 
duced results  that  have  been  eminently 
satisfactory  thus  far.  But  it  is  obvious  that 
such  government  gives  to  the  unscrupulous 
an  opportunity  to  carry  on  for  years  with- 
out detection  the  robbery  of  the  public. 
Among  the  best-governed  cities  of  the 
country  may  be  mentioned  Cleveland,  De- 
troit. Des  Moines,  Springfield,  Mass.,  Boston 
and  some  smaller  cities,  especially  in  Massa- 
chusetts and  the  interior. 

Among  the  measures  advocated  by  the 
National  Municipal  League  are  the  follow- 
ing: that  municipal  elections  be  held  sep- 
arately from  state  and  national  elections; 
that  municipal  officers  be  nominated  by 
petition  and  not  by  primaries;  that  a  four- 
fifths  vote  of  the  council  together  with  the 
approval  of  the  mayor  be  necessary  to  the 
granting  to  any  private  party  of  the  owner- 
ship of  streets,  bridges  or  other  public 
places;  that  franchises  may  not  be  granted 
for  more  than  21  years'  that  self-supporting 
municipal  enterprises,  as  car-lines,  gas- 
works etc.,  may  be  engaged  in  to  any 
extent;  that  the  council  and  mayor  be 
elected  by  the  people,  without  provision 
for  a  separate  municipal _  legislature;  and 
that  cities  over  25,000  inhabitants  may 
frame  their  own  charters.  These  sugges- 
tions point  towards  municipal  ownership  of 


MUNKACSY 


1279 


MURAT 


Eublic  utilities,  as  car-lines,  gas-works  etc., 
miting  the  responsibility  of  government 
to  a  small  number  of  people  and  doing 
away  with  the  cumbersome  board  of  alder- 
men. In  Detroit  the  referendum  has  been 
adopted,  and  in  San  Francisco,  Los  Angeles, 
Denver  and  Portland,  Oregon,  both  the 
initiative  and  the  referendum.  The  ini- 
tiative enables  a  small  percentage  of  the 
citizens  to  compel  the  consideration  of  any 
proposal,  and  the  referendum  enables  a 
similar  small  percentage  to  compel  the 
council  to  refer  any  matter  to  the  vote  of 
the  people  at  large. 

The  business  with  which  a  municipal 
government  is  concerned  is  indicated  by 
the  list  of  departments  given  above  in  con- 
nection with  New  York  City.  In  many 
cities  the  municipality  has  undertaken  such 
enterprises  as  playgrounds  and  gymnasiums, 
libraries  and  reading-rooms,  public  baths, 
public  laundries,  public  lodging-houses  and 
cottages  and  public  transportation. 

With  regard  to  foreign  city-government 
we  may  note  that  the  boards  of  aldermen 
and  other  local  legislative  bodies  in  Great 
Britain  seem  to  attract  a  desirable  class  of 
men  and  to  be  characterized  by  intelli- 
gence, energy  and  progressiveness.  In  Ger- 
many perhaps  the  most  noteworthy  point 
is  the  frequent  practice  of  electing  the 
council  for  a  term  of  years,  while  the  mayor 
is  often  appointed  for  a  long  term  of  years 
or  for  life,  after  passing  an  examination 
and  showing  his  qualifications  for  the  posi- 
tion, as  would  any  other  professional  man 
in  applying  for  employment  under  the  city's 
government.  Much  emphasis  has  long  been 
placed  in  some  European  cities  upon  the 
beauty  of  the  city.  One  of  the  reasons  for 
this  has  been  the  desire  to  attract  to  the 
city  the  wealthy;  it  is  said  that  this  has 
been  the  motive  of  the  magnificent  develop- 
ment in  the  past  few  years  of  the  great  city 
of  Rio  Janeiro,  Brazil.  But  a  higher  motive 
is  found  in  the  desire  to  represent  in  the 
city  the  ideals  of  the  nation  through  works 
of  art.  Men  are  everywhere  waking  to  the 
fact  that  the  city  will  in  a  few  years  be  the 
abode  of  nearly  half  the  civilized  world, 
while  it  will  be  the  constant  resort  of  the 
other  half  for  amusement,  for  instruction 
and  for  business.  Hence  it  is  essential  that 
in  the  city  men  shall  find  inspiration 
similar  to  that  which  nature  has  always 
afforded  to  the  better  side  of  man.  This 
can  only  be  done  by  a  truly  beautiful  city. 
Munkacsy,  Mihaly  (moon'kd-cM),  a 
Hungarian  painter,  was  born  at  Mun- 
kacs,  Hungary,  Oct.  10,  1846.  His  real 
name  was  Michael  i>ie»,  and  his  family, 
before  the  revolution  of  1848,  was  one 
of  modest  affluence.  The  father  having 
lost  both  property  and  life  in  the  upris- 
ings of  that  year,  the  son  was  appren- 
ticed to  a  cabinet-maker.  He  was  en- 


couraged in  his  first  artistic  attempts  by 
Samosy,  an  artist  of  some  reputation;  and, 
ha /ing  reached  the  Vienna  Academy,  he 
was  enabled  to  study  to  some  purpose  under 
Adam  (Franz).  He  went  to  Dusseldorf  in 
1867,  and  there  painted  The  Last  Day  of  a 
Condemned  Man,  which  at  once  won  him 
fame.  He  removed  to  Paris  in  1870,  mar- 
ried in  1874,  and  built  himself  an  elegant 
mansion.  His  best  known  works  in  America 
are  Milton  dictating  to  His  Daughters  and 
Christ  before  Pilate.  He  visited  the  United 
States  in  1886,  and  painted  several  por- 
traits of  prominent  people  in  New  York. 
His  earlier  works  show  the  somber  effects 
of  his  laborious  life;  his  middle  period 
something  of  the  lightness  of  the  Parisian 
environment;  but  his  greatest  fame  was 
won  in  the  third  period  of  his  develop- 
ment from  the  treatment  of  historic  and 
sacred  themes.  He  died  near  Bonn,  May  i, 
1900. 

Murat  (mii'ra'),  Joachim,  king  of  Naples» 
was  the  son  of  an  innkeeper  near  Cahors 
in  France,  and  was  born  on  March  25,  1771. 
He  was  at  first  intended  for  the  priesthood, 
but  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  sent  him 
to  the  army,  where  he  soon  rose  to  the 
rank  of  colonel.  Attaching  himself  closely 
to  Napoleon,  he  served  under  him  in  Italy 
and  in  Egypt,  achieving  distinction  in  many 
battles.  He  was  made  a  general  of  division 
in  1799,  and  greatly  helped  Napoleon  on 
the  critical  i8th  Brumaire  by  dispersing  the 
council  of  five  hundred  at  St.  Cloud.  Napo- 
leon now  intrusted  him  with  the  command 
of  the  consular  guard,  and  gave  him  his 
youngest  sister,  Caroline,  in  marriage.  Murat 
held  his  usual  post,  the  command  of  the 
cavalry,  at  Marengo,  where  he  covered  him- 
self with  glory,  and  in  1801  was  named 
governor  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic.  When 
Napoleon  became  emperor,  he  continued  to 
command  his  cavalry,  and  helped  greatly  to 
win  the  victories  of  Austerlitz,  Jena,  Eylau 
and  other  battles.  In  1806  the  newly  made 
duchy  of  Berg  was  given  him,  and  on  Aug. 
i,  1808,  he  was  proclaimed  king  of  the  two 
Sicilies,  under  the  name  of  Joachim  I  Napo- 
leon. He  took  possession  of  Naples,  but 
failed  to  secure  control  of  Sicily.  He  gov- 
erned well  and  won  the  hearts  of  his  sub- 
jects. In  the  Russian  campaign  he  com- 
manded the  cavalry;  and  the  army  after 
Napoleon  left  it.  After  crushing  the  Aus- 
trians  at  Dresden  in  1813  and  helping  to 
fight  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  he  made  a  treaty 
with  Austria  and  a  truce  with  the  British 
admiral;  but  as  soon  as  he  heard  of  Napo- 
leon's return  from  Elba,  he  began  a  hasty 
war  against  Austria.  He  was  twice  de- 
feated at  Ferrara  and  Tolentino,  and  with 
a  few  horsemen  made  his  way  to  Naples. 
Here  he  found  the  country  in  a  state  of 
insurrection,  and  at  once  proceeded  to 
France.  After  the  overthrow  of  his  chief, 


MURCHISON 


1280 


MURFREE 


he  took  refuge  in  Corsica.  From  here  he 
went  with  a  few  followers  to  the  coast  of 
Calabria  and  proclaimed  himself  king,  but 
was  soon  taken  prisoner,  tried  by  court- 
martial  and  shot  at  Pizzo,  Italy,  Oct.  13, 
1815.  Of  his  two  sons,  Achille  Napoleon, 
the  older,  went  to  America,  married  a  niece 
of  Washington,  and  settled  in  Florida; 
Lucien  Charles  Napoleon,  the  younger,  be- 
came a  French  senator  and  ambassador  un- 
der Napoleon  III.  See  Macirone's  Fall  and 
Death  of  Murat. 

Murchison  (mAr'fft-sitn'),  Sir  Roderick 
Impey,  Scottish  geologist  and  geographer, 
was  born  at  Tarradale,  Ross,  Feb.  19,  1792. 
He  studied  at  the  Military  College,  Great 
Marlow,  and  entered  the  army  at  an  early 
age.  He  served  as  an  officer  in  Spain  and 
Portugal,  but  left  the  army  in  1816.  He 
then  studied  and  traveled  in  various  parts 
of  the  globe.  He  found  the  same  rock- 
strata  underlying  the  red  sandstone  of  moun- 
tainous regions  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  in 
the  distant  provinces  of  the  Russian  empire 
and  in  America.  This  gave  him  the  clew 
to  the  discovery  of  the  silurian  system  and 
a  wide  reputation  as  a  geologist.  He  ex- 
plored several  parts  of  Germany,  Poland 
and  the  Carpathians;  and  in  1840-45  carried 
out  a  geological  survey  of  the  Russian  Em- 
pire. Struck  with  the  similarity  between  the 
rocks  of  the  Ural  Mountains  and  the  Aus- 
tralian chain,  Murchison  in  1844  first  fore- 
told the  discovery  of  gold  in  Australia. 
Perhaps  no  man  of  his  time  did  more  to 
encourage  geographical  science  and  kindle 
the  spirit  of  adventure  among  those  engaged 
both  in  arctic  exploration  and  in  African 
discovery.  He  was  a  member  of  many  sci- 
entific societies,  was  knighted  in  1846,  be- 
came a  baronet  in  1863,  and  in  1855  was 
made  director  of  the  Royal  School  of  Mines. 
His  chief  works  are  The  Silurian  System 
and  The  Geology  of  Russia  in  Europe  and 
the  Ural  Mountains.  Murchison  died  on  Oct. 
22,  1871.  See  his  Life  by  Professor  Archi- 
bald Geikie. 

Murcia  (mur'shi-a),  an  old  city  of  Spain, 
on  Segura  River.  It  is  an  old-fashioned, 
Moorish  place,  surrounded  by  gardens  of 
mulberry,  orange,  fig,  palm  and  other  fruit- 
trees.  The  main  buildings  are  the  bishop's 
palace  and  the  cathedral,  begun  in  1353. 
Silks,  saltpeter,  gunpowder,  soda,  musical 
instruments  and  glass  are  manufactured. 
Fruit-growing,  the  preparation  of  olive-oil 
and  esparto-weaving  also  flourish.  Alfonso 
X  took  the  city  from  the  Moors  in  1263. 
An  earthquake  almost  destroyed  it  in  1829, 
and  it  was  captured  by  Spanish  rebels  in 
1843.  Population  133,045. 

Murdoch,  James  Edward,  an  American 
actor,  was  born  at  Philadelphia,  June  25, 
1811.  He  first  appeared  on  the  stage  in  his 
native  city.  In  1838  he  supported  Ellen 
Tree  in  leading  characters  at  New  York.  He 


left  the  stage  in  1842  to  teach  elocution. 
He  also  lectured  on  Shakespeare.  In  1845 
he  again  became  an  actor,  appearing  at  New 
York  as  Hamlet  and  afterward  toured  in 
Canada,  California  and  England.  During 
the  Civil  War  he  gave  readings  throughout 
the  North  in  aid  of  the  sanitary  commission, 
devoted  himself  to  the  care  of  sick  and 
wounded  soldiers,  and  served  for  a  while  on 
General  Rousseau's  staff.  Together  with 
William  Russell  he  published  Orthophony  or 
Culture  of  the  Voice.  After  the  war  Mr. 
Murdoch  lived  at  Philadelphia,  and  died  at 
Cincinnati,  May  19,  1893. 

Murdock,  William,  the  inventor  of  gas 
used  as  a  light,  was  born  on  Aug.  21,  1754, 
near  Auchinleck,  Ayrshire,  Scotland.  He 
worked  under  his  father,  who  was  a  mill- 
wright and  miller,  till  he  was  twenty-three. 
He  then  entered  the  employment  of  a  Bir- 
mingham house  and  showed  such  marked 
ability  that  he  was  sent  to  Cornwall  to 
superintend  the  setting  up  of  mining  en- 
gines there.  In  1784  he  built  the  model  of 
a  high-pressure  engine  to  run  on  wheels. 
His  work  at  Cornwall  was  hard,  yet  up  to 
his  forty-fourth  year  his  wages  were  not 
more  than  $5  a  week.  Murdock 's  inventive 
brain  was  never  idle;  he  introduced  labor- 
saving  machinery  of  various  kinds  and  an 
oscillating  engine  of  a  pattern  still  in  use. 
His  investigations  in  the  distillation  of  coal- 
gas  began  in  1792,  when  he  lighted  his 
offices  and  cottages  by  this  means.  But 
he  reaped  little  profit  from  this  useful  in- 
vention. Murdock  died  at  Birmingham, 
England,  Nov.  15,  1839. 

Mur'free,  Mary  Noailles,  whose  fame 
as  a  writer  was  gained  under  the  name  of 
Charles  Egbert  Craddock,  was  born  in  1850 
near  Murfreesborough,  Tenn.  Her  first  story, 
which  appeared  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  was 
The  Dancin'  Party.  Egbert  Craddock  was 
the  name  of  the  hero  of  her  second  short 
story,  which  was  half -written  when  she  was 
about  to  mail  the  first  part  to  the  publishers. 
Being  at  a  loss  for  a  pseudonym,  she  stole 
that  of  her  hero,  with  the  prefix  Charles. 
The  buildings  at  Miss  Murfree's  birthplace, 
the  scenes  of  parts  of  Where  the  Battle  wai 
Fought,  were  riddled  by  shot  and  shell  at 
the  battle  of  Stone  River.  This  is  a  novel 
of  great  and  picturesque  power,  though  The 
Prophet  of  the  Great  Smoky  Mountains  is 
held  to  be  her  best  work.  In  the  Tennesset 
Mountains  is  a  collection  of  eight  stories 
Down  the  Ravine  professes  to  be  a  younj 
people's  story,  but  no  one  is  too  old  to  be 
entranced  by  its  sketches  of  scenery  in  the 
Cumberland  Mountains  and  the  picture  of 
the  "powerful  peart "  little  sister,  Tennessee. 
Miss  Murfree  puts  her  heart  into  he»  work. 
Her  later  books  include  The  Juggler;  The 
Phantoms  of  the  Footbridge;  The  Mystery  of 
Witch-face  Mountain;  The  Biahtuackers;  A 
Spectre  of  Power;  and  The  Frontiersman. 


MURFREESBOROUGH 


I28l 


MURRAY  CANAL 


Mur'freesbor'ough,  from  1819  to  1826 
the  capital  of  Tennessee,  is  33  miles  south- 
east of  Nashville,  and  has  several  mills  and 
factories,  chief  among  them  being  cotton- 
gins,  cotton  compresses,  machine-shops,  tan- 
neries, flour  and  lumber  mills,  red  cedar 
ware  and  carriage-factories.  Close  by  the 
bloody  battle  of  Stone  River  was  fought, 
Dec.  31,  1862,  and  Jan.  2,  1863,  between 
Generals  Rosecrans  and  Bragg.  The  Con- 
federate army  was  forced  to  retreat.  The 
losses  on  both  sides,  in  killed  and  wounded, 
were  nearly  equal  —  Federals,  9,511;  Con- 
federates, 9,236.  On  this  site  is  a  national 
cemetery,  which  contains  the  graves  of  2,333 
unknown  dead.  Population  4,679. 

Murillo  (mu-rWlo),  Bartolome  Esteban, 
a  famous  Spanish  painter,  was  born  of  poor 

parents  at  Se- 
ville, Spain,  and 
baptized,  Jan. 
i,  1618.  He 
had  a  little 
schooling, 
and  was  then 
placed  with  a 
relative  who 
was  an  artist, 
to  study  paint- 
ing. He  went 
to  Madrid  at 
the  age  of  24, 
where  he  was 
kindly  noticed 
by  Velasquez, 
his  celebrated 
townsman,  and 
through  his  in- 
fluence was  enabled  to  study  the  great 
Italian  and  Flemish  masters  in  the  royal 
collections  of  paintings.  He  went  back  to 
Seville,  where  he  settled  in  1645.  Here  he 
painted  n  large  and  remarkable  pictures 
for  the  convent  of  San  Francisco.  At  once 
he  won  fame  and  more  orders  than  he 
could  well  fill;  and  was  acknowledged  as 
the  head  of  the  school  there.  In  1648 
Murillo  married  a  woman  of  fortune,  and 
his  house  became  a  center  of  taste  and 
fashion.  About  this  time  he  passed  from 
his  first  or  "cold"  style  —  dark  with 
decided  outlines  —  to  his  second  or  "warm" 
style,  in  which  the  drawing  is  softer  and 
the  color  better.  Of  the  second  style  good 
examples  are  St.  Leander,  the  Nativity  of 
the  Virgin  and  St.  Anthony  of  Padua.  In 
1656  he  was  at  work  on  four  large  pictures 
in  the  form  of  a  half-circle,  which  are  the 
first  examples  of  his  third  or  "vaporous" 
style,  the  outlines  vanishing  in  a  misty 
blending  of  light  and  shade.  In  1660  he 
founded  the  Academy  of  Seville;  and  was 
its  president  for  a  year.  After  this  ap- 
peared Murillo's  most  brilliant  paintings. 
Of  the  ii  pictures  painted  between  1661 
a*id  1674  for  the  almshouse  of  San  Jorge, 


MURILLO 


eight  are  held  to  be  his  masterpieces. 
Among  them  are  Moses  striking  the  Rock, 
Abraham  and  the  Angels,  The  Miracle  of  the 
Loaves  and  Fishes,  St.  Peter  released  from 
Prison  and  St.  Elizabeth.  His  famous  pic- 
ture, The  Conception,  now  in  the  Louvre  at 
Paris,  was  sold  in  1852  for  $120,000.  In 
1 68 1  he  went  to  Cadiz,  and  while  there  fell 
from  a  scaffold  when  painting  an  altar- 
piece  in  the  church  of  the  Capuchins.  He 
went  back  to  Seville  and  died  from  his  in- 
juries, April  3,  1682.  Murillo's  pictures  are 
in  two  groups :  scenes  from  low  life,  gypsies 
and  beggar-children  (mostly  painted  in 
early  life)  and  Scripture  and  religious  works. 
His  pictures  show  great  technical  skill  and 
truth  to  nature  and  sentiment,  while  as  a 
painter  of  the  texture  of  human  flesh  he 
has  never  been  equaled.  See  Miss  E.  E. 
Minor's  Murillo  and  C.  B.  Curtis'  Velasquez 
and  Murillo. 

Mur'ray,  Hon.  George  H.,  was  born  at 
Grand  Narrows,  Nova  Scotia  in  1861.  He 
was  educated  at  Boston  University,  and 
called  to  the  bar  in  1883.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  Legislative  Council  1889, 
and  a  member  of  the  Fielding  Administra- 
tion in  1891.  When  Mr.  Fielding  resigned 
to  go  to  the  House  of  Commons,  Mr.  Murray 
was  called  on  to  form  an  administ  ation. 
He  was  re-elected  at  each  general  elec- 
tion since  and  now  is  Premier  of  Nova 
Scotia. 

Murray,  Lind'ley,  an  American  gram- 
marian, was  born  at  Swatara,  Lancaster 
County,  Pa.,  April  27  1745.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Philadelphia  at  a  school  conducted 
by  the  Friends.  His  father  having  removed 
to  New  York,  he  was  placed  in  a  counting- 
room  there;  but  he  ran  away  to  pursue  his 
studies  at  school  in  another  state.  He 
was  later  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  during 
the  Revolution  was  engaged  in  business  in 
New  York,  where  he  rapidly  acquired  a 
fortune.  In  1784  he  retired  from  mercan- 
tile life,  going  to  England  where  he  pur- 
chased an  estate  and  devoted  himself  to 
literary  pursuits.  His  English  Grammar, 
issued  in  1795,  was  received  with  enthu- 
siasm, and  his  English  Reader  was  used  upon 
both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  These  books 
retained  their  unbounded  popularity  in 
schools  for  50  years  or  more.  He  died  at 
Holdgate,  England,  Feb.  16,  1826. 

Murray  Canal.  This  canal  is  without 
locks.  It  extends  through  Murray  Isthmus, 
giving  connection  westward  between  the 
headwaters  of  the  Bay  of  Quint£  and  Lake 
Ontario  and  thus  enabling  vessels  to  avoid 
the  open-lake  navigation.  It  is  five  and 
one  sixth  miles  long,  and  its  depth  is 
eleven  feet  below  the  lowest  known  lake 
level.  The  breadth  at  the  bottom  is  80 
feet  and  at  water-surface  120  feet.  See 
WELLAND  CANAL 


MURRAY 


1282 


MUSCI 


Murray,  the  chief  river  of  Australia.  It 
rises  in  the  Australian  Alps,  flows  north- 
west along  the  frontiers  of  New  South 
Wales  and  Victoria,  and  in  South  Aus- 
tralia passes  southward  through  shallow 
Lake  Alexandrina  toward  the  sea  at  En- 
counter Bay,  a  distance  of  1,120  miles.  It 
is  navigable  for  small  steamers  to  Albury, — 
190  miles  northeast  of  Melbourne,  but  its 
mouth  cannot  be  entered  by  ships  of  any 
size.  Its  main  branches,  the  Lachlan,  Mur- 
rumbidgee  and  Darling,  are  themselves 
large  rivers. 

Muscat  (miis-kat'') ,  capital  of  the  inde- 
pendent state  of  Oman  or  Muscat  in  south- 
eastern Arabia,  stands  in  a  narrow  rocky 
cove  that  opens  out  into  the  Indian  Ocean 
on  one  side  and  on  the  other  is  the  outlet 
of  a  pass  into  the  interior.  It  is  surrounded 
by  a  wall  and  defended  by  forts  on  the 
rocky  heights  above.  It  has  narrow,  un- 
cleanly streets,  and  is  very  hot  in  summer. 
Its  position  makes  it  of  great  importance 
for  the  trade  between  eastern  Arabia,  Persia, 
India,  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa  and  the 
Red  Sea.  Its  chief  exports  are  pearls  and 
fish,  in  which  the  waters  of  the  coast  are 
very  rich,  together  with  salt,  dates,  drugo, 
dyestuff  and  horses.  Although  a  very  old 
place,  Muscat  was  small  and  unimportant 
until  the  Portuguese  took  possession  in 
1508.  Under  their  rule,  lasting  150  years, 
it  became  a  flourishing  trading-town.  It 
was  afterward  ruled  by  native  princes 
called  imams.  The  Muscat  imams  also 
ruled  Zanzibar  and  other  places  in  Africa, 
but  lost  these  territories  in  1856.  Popula- 
tion 25,000. 

Muscatine  (mus'ka-ten'),  la.,  county-seat 
of  Muscatine  County,  is  situated  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  where  the 
river  makes  a  great  bend  tc  the  south.  It  has 
a  large  trade  by  river  and  rail,  an  excellent 
harbor  with  municipal  warehouse  and  a  travel- 
ing crane  for  handling  freight  quickly  and 
cheaply;  has  more  than  forty  pearl  button 
factories  employing  over  2,000  people;  also 
furniture  factories,  sash  and  door  mills, 
lumber  mills,  and  produces  large  quantities  of 
canned  goods,  threshing  machinery,  air  calli- 
opes, button-making  machinery,  pulleys,  ce- 
ment vaults,  steel  culverts  and  leather  goods. 
Population,  16,178. 

Musci  (mus'si),  one  of  the  two  great 
groups  of  Bryophytes,  commonly  known  as 
mosses.  The  numerous  species  are 
adapted  to  all  conditions,  from  submerged 
to  very  dry,  and  are  most  abundantly  dis- 
played in  temperate  and  arctic  regions. 
They  have  great  powers  of  vegetative  multi- 
plication. In  consequence  of  this  they  form 
the  well-known  thick  carpets  and  mosses, 
and  the  bog-mosses  often  completely  fill 
up  bogs  or  small  ponds  and  lakes  with  a 
dense  growth  which  dies  below  and  con- 
tinues to  grow  above.  These  bogs  are  some- 


times called  quaking  (bogs  or  "mosses," 
and  furnish  very  treacherous  footing.  When 
the  ordinary  spore  of  a  moss  germinates,  it 


Protonema  of  a  moss,  showing  a  bud  (fc)  which  is 
to  give  rise  to  the  leafy  branch. 

at  first  produces  a  little,  green,  branching, 
filamentous  body  resembling  an  alga  and 
called  the  protonema.  Upon  this  pros- 
trate protonema  arise  buds,  which  develop 
into  the  erect,  leafy  branches  that  represent 
the  ordinary  moss-plant.  These  leafy 
branches  usually  bear  the  sex-organs  (anthe- 
ridia  and  archegonia)  at  their 
summits.  In  the  archegonium 
the  egg  is  fertilized,  forming 
the  oSspore.  When  the  oospore 
germinates,  it  forms  a  body 
which  grows  downward  into 
the  leafy  branch  for  anchorage 
and  also  grows  upward  in  the 
form  of  a  stalk  bearing  a  spore 
case.  This  anchored  leafless 
body  is  the  sporophyte,  and  is 
very  commonly  called  the 
moss-fruit,  although  in  no 
sense  a  fruit.  The  protonema 
and  the  leafy  branches  bear- 
ing sex-organs  constitute  the 
gametophyte  (See  ALTERNA- 
TION OF  GENERATIONS).  This 
peculiar  leafless  spor- 

X^Vi,rto  r,f  fho  TYir.cc  Jo  Leafy  branches  of  a  moss 
ophyte  ot  the  moss  is  bearing  the  stalked  cap- 
usually  distinguished  sules  (Sporophytes  )  the 
from  the  leafy  spor-  one  to  the  left  still  re- 
ophvte  of  ferns  and  &?  the  hoodllke  ^ 
seed-plants  by  being 

called  a  sporogonium.  The  most  com- 
plex structure  of  mosses  is  the  spore  case 
or  capsule.  Usually  perching  upon  the  top 
of  a  young  capsule  is  a  loose  conical  cap 
or  hood,  known  as  the  calyptra.  This 
calyptra  is  the  enlarged  and  ruptured  arche- 
gonium, which-  has  been  carried  up  by  the 
development  of  the  capsule.  Removing 
the  calyptra  a  small  lid  ("  operculum ")  is 
discovered,  which,  upon  being  removed,  re- 
veals the  rim  of  the  urn-like  capsule.  This 
rim  is  frequently  beset  by  numerous  beau- 
tiful hair-like  or  tooth-like  processes,  which 
extend  toward  the  center  and  form  what  is 
called  the  peristome.  These  peristome 
teeth  are  of  service  in  discharging  the  spores 
Running  through  the  midst  ot  the  capsule 


MUSCLE 


1283 


MUSCLE 


is  a  central  axis  of  sterile  tissue  known 
as  the  columella.  Mosses  are  divided  into 
two  great  groups : 
( i )  sphagnum  moss- 
es, which  are  large 
and  pallid  bog- 
mosses,  found 
abun  d  antly  in 
marshy  grounds, 
especially  in  tem- 
perate and  arctic 
regions,  and  are 
conspicuous  peat- 
formers;  (2)  true 
mosses,  which  con- 
(fc)  Top  of  moss  capsule,  (ap>tain  the  great 
showing  the  peristome  teeth.  inajority  of  the 

mosses  and  are  the  representative  Bryo- 
phytes,  growing  in  all  conditions  of  moisture 
from  actual  submergence  in  water  to  dry 
rocks.  See  MOSSES.  JOHN  M.  COULTER. 
Muscle  (mus"l),  an  animal  tissue  en- 
dowed with  the  power  of  contraction.  It 
is  the  part  called  flesh  or  lean  meat  in  the 
higher  animals.  Through  its  action  motion 
and  locomotion  are  accomplished  in  the 
animal  kingdom.  Muscles  have  not  been 
developed  in  the  simple,  microscopic  ani- 
mals, like  the  amoeba  and  its  relatives,  and, 
therefore,  their  movements  are  not  depend- 
ent upon  muscles,  but  upon  the  powers  of 
the  protoplasm  of  which  they  are  composed. 
In  that,  however,  lies  the  germ  from  which 
muscular  tissue  is  developed.  Muscles  are 
composed  of  modified  protoplasm,  in  which 
the  power  of  contraction  has  been  highly 
exalted,  while  the  other  qualities  of  proto- 

fi'asm  are  undeveloped  or  held  in  check, 
uscles  first  make  their  appearance  in  ani- 
mals of  the  grade  of  hydra  and  the  jelly- 
fishes,  but  in  them  they  are  imperfectly 
developed.  In  all  animals  of  a  higher  grade 
than  jellyfish  muscular  tissue  is  fully  devel- 
oped. It  arises  in  the  middle  germ  layer 
(mesoblast).  In  its  formation  the  cells  elon- 
gate into  fibers. 

As  an  example  of  muscular  tissue  take 
the  muscles  of  the  arm.  These  are  bundles 
of  flesh,  which  can  be  felt  under  the  skin 
running  lengthwise  in  the  arm.  Each 
muscle  is  covered  with  a  smooth,  shining 
membrane,  and  is  made  up  of  a  number  of 
bundles  also  covered  with  a  thin  membrane. 
These  bundles  are  further  subdivided  into 
smaller  ones,  and  the  microscope  shows  that 
these  are  made  of  thread-like  fibers  lying 
side  by  side.  All  are  surrounded  by  sheaths 
and  united  together.  The  microscopic  fibers 
are  crossed  by  stripes,  and  this  kind  is  called 
striated  muscular  tissue.  It  is  the  kind 
usually  controlled  by  the  will,  and  is  there- 
fore called  voluntary.  There  is  another 
variety  of  muscular  tissue  found  in  the 
walls  of  the  alimentary  canal  and  blood- 
vessels (and  in  other  situations),  the  action 
of  which  is  not  directed  by  the  will,  and, 


therefore,  is  called  involuntary.  Under  the 
microscope  this  is  made  up  of  spindle- 
shaped  cells,  each  with  a  round  nucleus  in 
the  middle.  These  are  not  striped,  and  this 
kind  is  called  smooth  muscular  tissue.  The 
muscles  of  the  heart  are  striated,  but  are 
branched  and  different  from  ordinary 
muscles.  Therefore  we  have  the  three 
varieties :  striated,  smooth  and  heart-muscle. 

There  are  about  400  muscles  in  the  human 
body,  most  of  them  in  pairs.  All  receive 
distinct  names,  and  are  connected  with 
nerves  and  blood-vessels.  The  blood- 
vessels for  their  nourishment  form  a  net- 
work around  the  fibers,  while  the  nerves 
which  control  them  form  a  closer  connec- 
tion. Most  of  the  muscles  attached  to  the 
bones  have  an  enlarged  middle  (belly)  and 
two  ends  tapering  off  into  tendons  by 
means  of  which  they  are  grown  to  the  bones. 
The  bones  are  roughened  where  the  muscles 
are  attached.  The  more  rigid  attachment 
is  called  the  origin,  and  the  more  movable 
one  the  insertion,  of  the  muscle.  Ouher 
muscles  are  flat,  and  some  surround  cavities. 
They  are  named  in  various  ways,  accord- 
ing to  their  position,  as  the  temporals,  in 
the  region  of  the  temple;  the  pectorals,  on 
the  chest;  or  the  abdominals,  etc.;  from 
their  direction,  as  a  rectus  or  straight  muscle, 
an  obliquus  or  oblique  muscle;  from  their 
uses,  as  flexors,  which  bend  a  joint;  ex- 
tensors, which  extend  it;  levatores,  which 
lift,  etc.;  according  to  attachment  by  ten- 
dons, as  sternomastoid,  mylohyoid  etc. ;  and 
also  in  other  ways. 

The  parts  of  the  skeleton  that  move 
usually  act  as  levers.  The  illustration  shows, 
for  example,  the  chief  muscle  which  bends 


the  lower  arm  upon  the  elbow  joint  as  a 
fulcrum.  This  muscle  is  a  flexor,  as  it 
flexes  the  arm;  its  origin  is  at  the  shoulder, 
where  it  has  two  heads,  and  is,  therefore, 
called  the  biceps;  its  insertion  is  on  one 
of  the  bones  of  the  forearm.  The  muscle 
which  extends  the  arm  is  not  shown  in  the 
illustration.  It  should  be  kept  in  mind 
that  the  action  of  a  muscle  is  to  contract, 
not  to  expand.  In  contracting  it  gets 
thicker  and  shorter,  and  it  returns  to  its 
original  state  of  extension.  Other  muscles 
perform  the  contrary  action.  Ordinarily, 
muscles  contract  in  direct  response  to 


MUSKOGEE 


1284 


MUSIC  (RELIGIOUS) 


nerve  stimuli,  but  many  causes  influence 
them,  as  their  condition  of  nutrition,  mental 
states  etc.  A  good  illustration  is  found  in 
the  muscles  of  the  face.  They  vary  with 
the  emotions  and  mental  states,  and  the 
expression  of  the  face  is  the  result  of  the 
action  of  a  number  of  muscles. 

Musko'gee,  Okla.,  county-seat  of  Musko- 
gee  County,  on  the  Arkansas  River.  It  has 
rich  agricultural  surroundings,  as  well  as 
natural  gas,  oil  and  coal  in  the  vicinity. 
Among  its  important  industries  are  an  oil- 
refinery,  a  packing-plant,  sash  and  door 
factories,  bottling-works,  foundries,  cotton- 
seed oil  and  flour  mills  and  casket,  soap  and 
broom  factories.  Muskogee  has  fine  public 
schools,  three  colleges,  a  business  college, 
many  churches  and  a  large  convention-hall. 
The  city  has  the  service  of  four  railroads, 
the  general  offices  and  shops  of  two  being 
located  here.  Population  25,278. 

Mu'ses,  in  Greek  mythology,  goddesses 
included  in  the  first  place  among  the 
nymphs  but  afterward  held  to  be  quite 
distinct  from  them.  They  had  the  power 
of  inspiring  song,  and  so  poets  and  musicians 
were  considered  their  pupils  and  favorites. 
They  were  first  honored  by  the  Thracians, 
and,  as  this  people  first  lived  in  Pieria 
around  Mt.  Olympus,  the  muses  were  called 
Pierides.  There  at  first  were  three,  though 
Homer  sometimes  speaks  of  a  single  muse 
and  once  refers  to  nine.  This  is  the  number 
given  by  Hesiod,  who  also  gives  their 
names;  Clio,  the  muse  of  history;  Euterpe, 
of  lyric  poetry;  Thalia,  of  comedy;  Mel- 
pomene, of  tragedy;  Terpsichore,  of  choral 
dance  and  song;  Erato,  of  the  poetry  of 
passion;  Polyhymnia,  of  hymns;  Urania,  of 
astronomy;  and  Calliope,  of  epic  poetry. 
They  usually  were  said  to  be  the  daughters 
of  Zeus  and  Mnemosyne.  Homer  speaks  of 
them  as  the  goddesses  of  song  and  as  dwell- 
ing on  the  top  of  Mt.  Olympus.  They  were 
also  called  the  companions  of  Apollo,  sing- 
ing while  he  played  on  the  lyre  at  the  ban- 
quets of  the  gods.  They  were  said  to  have 
won  victories  ever  the  sirens  in  musical 
tournaments.  Their  worship  among  the 
Romans  was  merely  copied  from  the  Greeks, 
and  never  became  truly  national  or  popular. 
The  fountains  of  Aganippe  and  Hippocrene 
on  Mount  Helicon  and  the  Castalian  spring 
on  Mount  Parnassus  were  the  most  famous 
places  sacred  to  the  nine  muses. 

Muse'ums  on  the  whole  are  a  modern 
birth,  although  the  name  was  in  existence 
among  the  ancient  Greeks  For,  with  the 
Greeks,  a  museum  either  was  a  place  dedi- 
cated to  the  muses;  or  else  was  of  the  nature 
of  a  temple,  school  or  university.  The 
museum  of  Alexandria  was  in  its  day  the 
great  university  of  the  world.  The  modern 
museum  has  arisen  out  of  the  modern 
scientific  spirit,  which  demands  actual 
objects  instead  of  mere  words  for  purposes 
of  study  and  progress.  The  British  Museum, 


then,  which  came  into  being  in  1753,  was 
the  beginning  of  a  great  laboratory  move- 
ment in  general  science.  The  first  French 
museum  was  virtually  established  when  in 
1789  the  magnificent  collections  of  the 
Louvre  were  thrown  open  to  the  public. 
The  first  great  American  museum  was 
Smithsonian  Institution,  founded  in  1846. 
This  institute  partook  of  the  nature  of  a 
national  museum,  for  in  it  were  deposited 
the  various  collections  of  documents  and 
relics  belong  to  the  nations,  until  1876 
a  separate  national  museum  was  opened. 
The  British  Museum  still  is  the  center  of 
interest  to  scientists,  chiefly  owing  to  its 
wonderful  collections  of  antiquities  and  its 
magnificent  library.  For  the  purposes  of 
public  exhibition  it  is  generally  regarded  as 
preferable  to  show  but  a  portion  of  the  ar- 
ticles, such  as  are  of  a  character  to  attract  pop- 
ular interest  and  educate  the  popular  mind. 

Mush'rooms,  edible  fungi.  They  grow  in 
fields  and  pastures,  occasionally  in  open, 
grassy  woods,  abound  in  the  early  autumn, 
may  be  found  throughout  the  summer. 
They  are  cultivated  for  the  market  both 
outdoors  and  in  caves,  cellars  and  other 
dark,  cool  places.  Their  food-value  is  not 
high,  but  they  are  prized  as  a  table  delicacy. 
Poisonous  toadstools  are  frequently  mis- 
taken for  mushrooms,  and  great  care  must 
be  used  when  gathering  the  fungi.  In  the 
Agricultural  Year  Book,  Washington,  1897, 
Farlow  says:  "Avoid  fungi  when  in  the 
button  or  unexpanded  stage,  also  those  in 
which  the  flesh  has  begun  to  decay,  even  if 
only  slightly.  Avoid  all  fungi  which  have 
stalks  with  a  swollen  base  surrounded  by  a 
sac-like  or  scaly  envelope,  especially  if  the 
gills  are  white.  Avoid  all  fungi  having  a 
milky  juice,  unless  the  milk  is  reddish. 
Avoid  fungi  in  which  the  cap  or  pileus  is 
thin  in  proportion  to  the  gills,  and  in  which 
the  gills  are  nearly  all  of  equal  length, 
especially  if  the  pileus  is  bright-colored. 
Avoid  all  tube-bearing  fungi  in  which  the 
flesh  changes  color  when  cut  or  broken  or 
where  the  mouths  of  the  tube  are  reddish; 
and  in  case  of  other  tube-bearing  fungi 
experiment  with  caution.  Fungi  which 
have  a  sort  of  spider-web  or  flocculent  ring 
around  the  upper  part  of  the  stalk  should 
in  general  be  avoided."  See  FUNGI  and 
BASIDIOMYCETES.  Consult  Farlow  as  above 
and  Falconer :  How  to  Grow  Mushrooms. 

Alu' sic,  Religious.  One  thing  is  charac- 
teristic of  all  genuine  religious  music  and  is 
manifest  in  all  its  multitudinous  presenta- 
tions whether  in  the  cathedral  or  on  the 
street.  This  is  that  music  serves  as  a  means 
for  expressing  religious  feeling.  Religious 
music  thus  is  not  an  end  in  itself,  but  is 
used  as  a  means  for  arousing  religious  feel- 
ing. While  music,  from  the  martial  song  to 
the  lullaby,  awakens  feelings  of  the  utmost 
variety,  the  music  itself  does  not  define 
these  feelings;  it  is  only  through  the  aid  of 


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MUSIC  (RELIGIOUS) 


the  accompanying  words  that  w»  know  the 
definite  meaning. 

Growing  out  of  the  fact  that  music  is 
employed  to  heighten  religious  feeling,  and 
also  from  the  fact  that  music  can  awaken 
feeling  and  yet  leave  a  wide  range  of  choice 
as  to  the  specific  definition  of  the  feeling, 
comes  the  fundamental  necessity  for  making 
strong  associations  between  the  music  used 
in  religious  services  and  all  thoughts,  sounds 
and  sights  accompanying  it.  This  is  impor- 
tant in  order  that  the  heightening  and  in- 
tensifying of  feeling  through  these  associa- 
tions may  be  directed  into  religious  channels. 
Aside  from  the  fact  that  loud,  vigorous  and 
quick  music  excites  us  and  that  soft,  gentle 
and  slow  music  soothes  us,  we  acquire  in 
childhood  associations  with  certain  kinds  of 
music  that  make  these  forms  seem  appro- 
priate to  the  feelings  they  express,  inde- 
pendently of  any  words  that  may  be  used 
with  them.  If  the  music  employed  in  a 
religious  service,  besides  awakening  and 
stimulating  feeling  through  beautiful  sound- 
combinations,  awakens  at  the  same  time 
echoes  of  previous  deep  religious  feeling,  the 
effect  of  the  whole  will  be  greatly  height- 
ened. The  transfer  of  the  musical  feeling 
into  religious  emotion  will  thus  be  most 
effectively  accomplished.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  music  stimulates  intense  feeling 
but  at  the  same  time  awakens  associations 
with  emotions  quite  at  variance  with  those 
of  the  religious  type,  the  transfer  of  the 
musical  to  the  religious  feeling  will  not  take 
place. 

While,  in  defining  what  the  religious  type 
of  music  is,  no  standard  can  be  set  up 
applicable  to  all,  yet  everyone  can  settle 
for  himself  a  standard  of  judgment  by  the 
following  test :  Religious  music  should  sound 
inappropriate  on  the  street  and  the  music 
of  the  street  should  sound  inappropriate  in 
a  church,  entirely  apart  from  their  pleasing 
or  nonpleasing  qualities.  If  a  religious  song 
expressive  of  love  for  the  Savior  can  be 
sung  in  a  concert-hall  with  no  further  change 
than  that  of  writing  the  personal  pronoun 
with  a  small  letter  instead  of  a  capital,  it 
is  evident  that  such  a  song  is  not  good 
church-music,  either  words  or  poetry;  yet 
musically  it  may  be  beautiful.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  a  religious  song  heard  even  in  the 
roar  of  a  busy  street  awakens  associations 
connected  with  worship,  it  evidently  is  good 
religious  music. 

We  have  seen  the  great  importance  of 
association  to  religious  music.  In  order  to 
secure  the  right  association  we  must  con- 
sider the  second  important  condition,  *'.  e., 
the  limitation  of  religious  music,  so  that  the 
style  employed  shall  not  awaken  secular 
associations.  While  genuine  religious  music 
thus  sacrifices  much  of  the  sensuous  effect- 
iveness of  secular  music,  this  sacrifice  is 
compensated  for  by  the  intensity  of  the 
religious  feeling  awakened. 


Out  of  this  condition  arises  the  practical 
problem :  Shall  music  be  made  attractive  by 
the  means  employed  by  secular  music;  or 
shall  the  effectiveness  of  its  religious  use  be 
brought  about  simply  through  the  cumula- 
tive influences  of  past  religious  associations? 
Here  a  conflict  arises  between  sensuous  grati- 
fication and  religious  expression. 

The  history  of  religious  worship  is  full  of 
the  conflict  between  these  two  opposing  in- 
fluences. At  the  Council  of  Trent  the 
church  authorities  threatened  to  banish 
music  from  the  church-service,  because  it 
was  employing  secular  means.  The  same 
conflict  is  going  on  now.  The  recent  edict 
of  Pope  Pius,  commanding  that  the  church- 
service  shall  employ  only  Gregorian  tones 
or  those  forms  of  religious  music  dating  back 
to  Gregory  ist,  limited  and  archaic  in  their 
expression  but  for  this  reason  having  no 
secular-  connections  is  an  attempt  to  use 
more  effectively  the  associational  power  of 
music.  At  the  same  time  it  sacrifices  its 
power  of  sensuous  expression.  In  the 
Protestant  churches  the  same  conflict  is 
going  on.  The  choir-leader,  the  organist, 
the  soloist  are  too  often  engaged  only 
for  the  effectiveness  of  their  work  from 
a  purely  musical  point  of  view,  and  the 
music  employed  is  chosen  for  the  emotion 
it  stimulates,  not  for  the  quality  of  that 
emotion.  Thus  the  influence  upon  composer, 
publisher,  conductor,  singer  is  to  broaden  the 
scope  of  religious  music  through  the  em- 
ployment of  all  the  means  for  stirring  emo- 
tional feeling,  that  are  known  to  secular  art. 
Thus,  while  we  have  fine  music  which  often 
thrills  us,  the  transfer  of  this  feeling  into 
religious  expression  does  not  take  place. 
Such  music  may  attract  to  the  service  and 
serve  as  a  sugar-coating  to  make  a  sermon 
endurable,  but  it  is  very  doubtful  whether 
such  a  use  compensates  for  the  sacrifice  of 
the  legitimate  end  that  music  should  serve 
in  worship.  It  introduces  a  subtle  element 
of  insincerity,  which,  for  the  very  reason 
that  its  influence  is  to  most  of  us  uncon- 
scious, is  all  the  more  dangerous. 

This  disregard  of  the  associational  element 
is  even  more  evident  in  the  music  of  the 
Sunday-school,  where,  in  order  to  make  the 
service  attractive  to  the  children,  the  melo- 
dies of  such  songs  as  Robin  Adair  and  Drink 
to  Me  Only  with  Thine  Eyes  have  been 
employed.  Though  they  are  used  in  con- 
nection with  religious  words  and  the  child 
may  have  no  other  association,  he  is  being 
educated  in  a  disregard  of  the  difference 
between  religious  and  secular  music,  and 
thus  there  is  destroyed  the  possibility  of 
using  the  powerful  influence  of  the  particu- 
lar association  of  religious  music.  The  in- 
congruity becomes  greater  when,  later  in 
life,  he  hears  the  same  songs  sung  to  their 
secular  words.  Thus  the  most  potent  factor 
in  determining  the  nature  of  religious  music, 
*.  e.,  the  congregation,  is  educated  from 


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1286 


MUSIC  (TEACHING  OF) 


childhood  to  disregard  those  distinctions 
that  give  to  religious  music  its  peculiar 
effectiveness.  Rather  than  sacrifice  this,  it 
would  be  better  to  adhere  consistently  to  the 
demands  of  pure,  religious  music  and  so  to 
educate  our  congregations  that  they  will  see 
the  incongruity  of  demanding  from  religious 
music  what  they  get  from  secular  music.  If 
hotels,  railroad-stations  and  factories  all 
employed  church-architecture,  the  signifi- 
cance of  a  given  style  for  religious  service 
would  be  lost.  Similarly,  if  all  forms  of 
music  are  employed  in  Sunday-schools,  the 
distinctively  religious  music  will  be  lost.  It 
will  then  be  known  only  by  the  words  that 
accompany  it. 

To  sum  up  the  points  we  have  so  far 
made :  First,  the  aim  of  religious  music  is 
to  strengthen  religious  feeling  —  we  have 
seen  how  music  accomplishes  this  through 
its  power  of  awakening  undefined  feeling; 
second,  association  is  necessary  in  order  to 
make  effective  the  transfer  of  musical  feel- 
ing into  religious  feeling;  third,  for  the  sake 
of  the  necessary  associations,  the  field  of 
religious  music  should  be  limited;  fourth, 
the  natural  desire  for  attractiveness  in 
church-music  tends  to  weaken  its  associa- 
tional  power,  through  the  introduction  of 
means  employed  by  secular  music.  In  con- 
clusion, effective  religious  music,  as  a  result 
of  the  above  considerations,  will  belong  to 
a  type  (i)  long  used  for  religious  purposes; 
(2)  employing  a  musical  form  which  does 
not  lend  itself  to  secular  use;  and  (3)  effect- 
ive musically.  A  mass  of  Palestrina,  a 
choral  by  Bach  or  a  simple  hymn  like 
Mason's  Olmutz  all  have  these  three  char- 
acteristics: They  are  thoroughly  charged 
with  religious  feeling  and  association;  they 
have  no  connection  with  secular  forms  of 
expression  as  now  employed;  and  at  the 
same  time  they  are  musically  expressive. 
Religious  music,  to  be  appropriate  to  the 
use  for  which  it  is  intended,  does  not  have 
to  be  in  one  gloomy  mood.  The  whole 
gamut  of  feeling  from  glorious  Halleluiah  to 
profoundest  Miserere  must  be  capable  of 
being  expressed  through  its  means.  But  in 
all  these  changes  of  mood  there  must  be 
felt  a  type  or  a  characteristic  differentiating 
it  from  the  secular  forms.  Music  expressing 
spiritual  victory  must  be  different  from  that 
which  expresses  a  foot-ball  triumph.  The 
employment  of  the  church-modes  would 
give  the  modem  composer  an  excellent 
opportunity  for  attaining  effective  expres- 
sion of  feeling  and,  at  the  same  time,  en- 
suring a  distinctness  of  type,  and  there  are 
numbers  from  great  art-works  like  oratorios 
and  masses  that  successfully  combine  attrac- 
tiveness with  genuineness  of  religious  ex- 
pression. Whatever  can  be  done  to  make 
religious  music  attractive  to  modern  ears 
without  destroying  its  distinctive  nature 
makes  it  all  the  more  effective;  but  where- 
ever  effort  towards  attractiveness  simply 


turns  religious  music  into  secular  music,  the 
pleasurable  gain  is  at  the  cost  of  that  very 
quality  for  which  the  distinction  "religious 
music"  is  made.  CHARLES  FARNSWORTH. 

Music,  Teaching  of.  The  civil  engineer, 
the  mechanical  engineer,  the  electrician,  the 
chemist,  the  astronomer,  the  financier  and 
the  ordinary  man  all  employ  various  forms 
of  applied  mathematics,  yet  all  begin  with 
elementary  courses  which  have  two  ends  in 
view, —  to  supply  the  knowledge  of  the 
fundamental  laws  of  mathematics  necessary 
for  everyone  and  the  application  of  these 
to  the  needs  of  the  general  public  in  the 
problems  of  daily  life.  So  in  music  there  is 
need  of  such  a  cultivation  as  will  form  a 
basis  for  all  musical  activity  and  will  make 
clear  the  special  application  of  musical  prin- 
ciples that  are  essential  to  the  enjoyment  of 
the  general  public.  It  is  the  aim  of  this 
article  to  show  what  the  character  of  such 
a  study  should  be  and  what  the  means  for 
its  accomplishment. 

The  large  majority  of  children  are  able  to 
sing  more  or  less  when  they  commence 
music-study.  Hence  no  time  need  be  taken 
from  pure  music-study  in  getting  the  com- 
mand of  an  instrument.  The  problem  is 
how  to  conduct  this  study,  so  that  it  will 
be  fundamental  to  all  forms  of  applied 
music  and  at  the  same  time  be  useful  to  the 
general  public.  Whatever  one  may  do  with 
his  music,  the  power  to  appreciate  it  is 
fundamental  to  all,  both  the  performer  and 
the  listener.  Hence  an  elementary  course 
in  music  must  be  primarily  directed  toward 
its  comprehension. 

Turning  to  the  means,  there  are  three 
essentials  to  such  comprehension:  First,  ex- 
perience; second,  a  generalization  from  ex- 
perience to  the  formation  of  ideas;  and, 
third,  the  classification  of  these  ideas  so 
that  they  can  be  effectively  used.  Hence, 
in  the  elementary  course  of  music-study,  the 
first  phase  of  the  work  will  consist  in  giving 
experience  through  imitative  singing,  in 
forming  ideas  from  this  experience  and  in 
defining  and  classifying  these  by  associating 
them  with  their  notation.  The  second  phase, 
by  means  of  sight-singing,  will  continue  the 
classification  of  musical  ideas  and  their  ap- 
plication in  the  forming  of  concrete  musical 
ideas.  The  third  phase,  largely  by  means  of 
instrumental  examples,  will  continue  the 
application  by  showing  how  definite  con- 
crete ideas  are  employed  in  large  musical 
compositions,  thus  leading  to  a  comprehen- 
sion of  the  nature  of  these  compositions. 

Taking  up  the  first  of  these  phases,  the 
first  step  in  music-study  should  consist  in 
the  ability  to  imitate  accurately  what  one 
hears  and  to  hold  such  a  passage  in  the 
memory.  The  resulting  development  of  the 
power  of  observation  and  memory  is  espe- 
cially important  in  music,  because  a  musical 
passage  is  incomprehensible  unless  the  mem- 
ory relates  the  note  or  chord  we  are  hearing 


MUSIC  (TEACHING  OF) 


1287 


MUSIC  (TEACHING  OF) 


with  what  we  have  heard,  thus  giving  unity 
to  the  whole. 

In  connection  with  this  first  step  of  en- 
riching the  musical  experience,  the  second 
step  may  be  commenced  —  that  of  forming 
ideas.  These  ideas  may  be  classified  under 
two  main  heads :  Those  that  deal  with  the 
interpretation  of  music  and  those  that  deal 
with  its  structure.  Under  the  first  of  these 
the  pupil  will  be  taught  to  see  how  the 
effectiveness  of  his  song  depends  upon  the 
quality  of  his  voice,  the  manner  of  pronun- 
ciation, the  force  or  gentleness  with  which 
he  sings  and  the  expressive  intention  with 
which  he  does  his  work;  all  of  these  in 
relation  to  the  text.  His  singing  is  thus 
a  restatement  and  amplification  of  the  text; 
and  after  singing  a  number  of  songs  in  this 
way  the  pupil  will  unconsciously  be  forming 
ideas  of  interpretation  which  he  will  not 
only  apply  himself,  but  expect  in  the  work 
of  others. 

Following  and  paralleling  this  work  of 
interpretation,  ideas  of  structure  will  be 
taken  up.  The  pupil  will  observe  that  the 
melody  of  his  songs  seems  to  move  up  and 
down,  and  gradually  from  the  most  general 
observation  he  will  be  led  to  notice  speci- 
fically just  what  is  the  nature  of  these  pitch- 
changes.  Second,  he  will  notice  that  the 
tones  in  his  songs  are  sometimes  prolonged 
and  sometimes  rapid,  and  from  such  general 
observation  he  will  gradually  discover  the 
simple  ratio  of  the  changes  to  each  other. 
Third,  he  will  notice  that  the  songs  he 
sings  group  into  regular  pulsations  and  that 
the  duration  of  his  tones  bears  a  relation  to 
these  pulsations ;  and  from  a  notion  of  general 
pulsation  he  will  discover  that  there  are 
a  few  definite  groupings  that  constantly  oc- 
cur in  his  songs.  Thus  the  pupil  will  com- 
mence to  observe  the  three  classes  of  general 
musical  ideas,  more  fully  described  in  MU- 
SICAL NOTATION. 

The  great  difficulty  in  the  formation  of 
such  general  musical  ideas  is  that  the  pupil 
is  unable  to  keep  in  mind  the  relation  of 
the  specific  observation,  as  pitch,  duration 
or  pulsation,  to  the  piece  of  music  in  which 
he  is  experiencing  it.  Unless  he  does  this, 
no  general  ideas  applicable  to  musical  ex- 
perience can  be  formed.  It  is  a  matter  of 
apperception  that  is  here  involved,  and  this 
perhaps  is  the  point  where  the  greatest  error 
in  music  instruction  is  found.  See  APPER- 
CEPTION. 

In  order  to  aid  in  keeping  this  connec- 
tion clear,  it  is  suggested  that  the  first 
step  of  observation  be  reinforced  by  the 
second  step,  consisting  of  doing  what  he 
observes.  If  the  child  moves  his  hand  up 
and  down  in  connection  with  the  song  he 
is  singing,  showing  by  the  change  in  move- 
ment the  extent  of  change  in  pitch,  he  is 
greatly  aided  in  making  the  mental  obser- 
vation clear  and  distinct,  and  at  the  same 
time  it  takes  place  while  the  song  is  being 


sung.  So,  if  he  claps  in  connection  with  the 
tones  of  this  song,  the  movement  of  his 
hands  will  make  the  conception  of  the 
changes  in  duration  more  vivid  and,  at  the 
same  time,  not  interfere  with  the  concep- 
tion of  the  song  as  a  whole.  So,  if  he  keeps 
time  with  his  foot  to  the  pulses  of  his 
music,  he  is  by  that  means  making  the 
nature  of  those  pulses  clearer  to  his  com- 
prehension and,  at  the  same  time,  observ- 
ing their  effect  in  the  particular  song  he  is 
singing.  Thus  ideas  which  have  commenced 
to  be  dimly  formed  in  the  observation-step 
are  more  definitely  comprehended  when 
they  are  accompanied  with  action.  This  is 
a  principle  of  education  applied  in  many 
other  studies  as  well  as  in  music. 

But  action  has  the  same  drawback  as 
music.  In  order  to  compare  parts  of  an 
action,  as  well  as  parts  of  a  piece  of  music, 
we  have  to  depend  on  the  memory  for 
presenting  the  facts.  In  order  to  be  able 
to  make  our  ideas  clearer  and  to  classify 
them  through  the  ability  to  compare,  the 
second  stage  of  acting  should  be  followed 
by  a  third  stage  of  picturing.  If  the  child 
goes  to  the  board  and  places  dashes  up 
and  down  to  show  his  conception  of  how 
the  melody  changes  in  pitch,  he  will  have 
before  him  a  graphic  representation  of  his 
entire  tune  that  will  enable  him  to  compare 
and  classify  its  parts.  So,  if  he  draws  long 
and  short  dashes,  he  will  be  able  to  accom- 
plish the  same  with  reference  to  the  ideas 
of  duration,  and  by  drawing  circles  on  the 
blackboard  —  larger  ones  to  represent  strong 
pulses  and,  smaller  ones  for  weak  —  he  can 
have  a  visual  expression  of  the  pulse-group- 
ing of  his  tunes.  After  the  pupil  has  de- 
veloped considerable  skill  in  expressing  his 
tonal  conception  by  a  diagrammatic  repre- 
sentation, he  will  be  able  to  take  the  fourth 
step,  which  consists  in  substituting  for  the 
diagram  the  regular  notation  of  the  same 
ideas.  Such  a  process,  carried  out,  will  en- 
able the  pupil  accurately  to  conceive  of  the 
general  ideas  that  the  notation  suggests 
and  through  this  power  to  form  the  con- 
crete idea  that  their  united  expression  rep- 
resents. 

We  are  now  ready  for  the  second  phase 
of  music-study,  which  reverses  the  process 
we  have  just  been  sketching  out.  Instead 
of  commencing  with  the  song  and  leading 
to  its  notation,  we  start  with  the  notation 
and  end  with  the  song.  In  the  first  we 
went  from  sound  to  sight,  in  the  second 
we  go  from  sight  to  sound.  This  is  pre- 
eminently the  sight-singing  process,  and 
consists  in  forming  ideas  from  their  visual 
representation  and  testing  the  accuracy  of 
these  ideas  by  their  vocal  production.  The 
essential  thing  for  this  process  is  that  the 
child  should  conceive  the  general  ideas  rap- 
idly enough,  from  the  notation  that  suggests 
them,  to  combine  them  into  the  scientific 


MUSICAL  NOTATION 


1288 


MUSICAL  NOTATION 


idea  which  will  enable  him  to  produce  the 
required  tones.  To  accomplish  this,  there 
should  be  placed  upon  the  board  a  musical 
phrase  making  a  definite  passage  in  itself, 
such  as  the  first  two  measures  of  America 
or  of  The  Star-Spangled  Banner,  often  called 
a  motif.  After  the  pupil  has  looked  at  it, 
have  it  rubbed  out,  and  let  him  sing  it  as 
a  whole  and  not  endeavor  to  spell  it  out 
from  note  to  note.  This  ability  to  fuse  the 
three  sets  of  general  ideas  into  a  specific 
one  must  take  place  in  connection  with  such 
a  motif,  for  such  fusion  cannot  take  place 
if  the  pupil  is  thinking  simply  from  note 
to  note.  Intelligent  reading  other  than 
musical  reading  requires  the  seeing  not  only 
of  words  as  wholes,  but  of  words  in  groups 
which  form  a  particular  part  of  the  sense. 
This  is  a  point  much  emphasized  in  begin- 
ning reading  with  little  children.  This 
capacity  is  essential  for  the  reading  of 
music;  but  in  music  it  has  a  double  value. 
Not  only  does  it  help  in  reading,  but  it 
gives  an  opportunity  for  discerning  the 
concrete  musical  ideas  essential  to  all  mu- 
sical enjoyment.  In  suggesting  the  writing 
and  rubbing  out  of  motives,  we  have  given 
only  one  of  many  ways  which  the  teacher 
can  employ  in  accomplishing  this  result. 

The  ability  to  conceive  and  produce  mo- 
tives that  combine  to  constitute  a  song 
prepares  us  for  the  third  important  phase 
of  music-study :  the  grouping  of  these 
motives  themselves  in  larger  musical  works. 
The  fugue,  the  sonata,  the  symphony  are 
but  complex  and  elaborate  developments  of 
a  few  fundamental  motives.  The  more 
clearly  one  can  grasp  the  motif  and  the 
greater  the  tenacity  with  which  he  can  hold 
it  in  memory,  the  more  effective  and  vigor- 
ous will  be  the  material  of  his  musical 
appreciation  and  the  greater  the  likelihood 
of  his  grasping  the  artistic  purport  of  what 
he  hears. 

Instrumental  music  offers  the  most  effec- 
tive material  for  the  development  of  this 
capacity.  The  instrumental  teacher,  instead 
of  limiting  his  pupils  to  the  musical  expe- 
rience of  the  pieces  they  themselves  can 
play,  should  widen  their  experience  not  only 
by  his  own  playing  but  by  arranging  for 
them  to  hear  others  play.  Such  hearing, 
however,  will  lose  much  of  its  educational 
effectiveness,  since  pupils  are  in  danger  of 
being  overwhelmed  by  the  complexity  of 
these  larger  compositions,  unless  the  teacher 
guides  them  by  showing  them  how  to  con- 
centrate their  attention  so  as  so  observe 
the  structure. 

Modern  invention  has  very  greatly 
widened  the  possibility  of  such  study.  By 
means  of  perforated  discs  and  rolls  (see 
PIANO-PLAYER)  it  is  possible  to  hear  music, 
both  in  quantity  and  quality,  that  a  few 
years  ago  was  available  only  for  excep- 
tionally situated  persons.  Firstclass  schools 


feel  the  necessity  for  a  projection-lantern 
as  an  aid  in  making  concrete  the  material 
of  nature-study,  geography,  history  and  the 
like;  and  it  will  not  be  long  before  such 
schools  will  feel  the  necessity  of  supple- 
menting this  with  instruments  by  the  aid 
of  which  the  best  musical  compositions  can 
be  heard  as  many  times  as  are  necessary 
for  training  in  musical  appreciation. 

With  the  insight  which  is  given  by  the 
tracing  of  the  subjects  and  the  motives  of 
which  they  are  constituted  comes  an  awak- 
ened interest,  not  only  in  the  compositions 
themselves,  but  in  their  composers  and  the 
times  in  which  they  were  produced.  Thus 
the  personal,  technical  training  widens  into 
its  artistic  and  human  interests,  and  sup- 
plies material  not  only  for  the  foundation 
work  of  those  who  go  on  to  the  study 
of  applied  music  in  some  of  its  multitudinous 
forms,  but  for  all  those  who  are  moved  by 
the  concord  of  sweet  sounds. 

CHARLES  FARNSWORTH. 

Mu'sical  Notation.  Musical  notation  is 
generally  spoken  of  as  the  art  of  represent- 
ing tones  by  written  or  printed  characters. 
This,  strictly  speaking,  is  true  only  for  a 
few  individuals  who  have  such  accurate 
tone-memories  that  a  single  note  on  a  page 
will  awaken  in  their  minds  the  exact  pitch 
it  represents.  For  the  majority  of  music- 
readers  the  notation  awakens  first  in  the 
mind  general  ideas,  the  combination  of 
which  enables  the  reader  to  think  the  given 
tone  from  its  notation.  In  this  article  the 
various  characters  of  musical  notation  will 
be  grouped  according  to  the  ideas  that  they 
awaken.  These  can  be  classified  in  two 
large  divisions:  *'.  e.,  those  of  structure  and 
those  of  interpretation.  If  one  will  think 
over  the  tunes  of  Yankee  Doodle  and 
America,  he  will  have  in  his  mind  the 
forms  of  two  distinct  tone-designs,  and  it 
makes  no  difference  with  these  designs 
whether  they  are  shrieked  out  on  a  circus 
calliope  or  artistically  rendered  by  a  con- 
cert violinist;  the  designs  of  the  two  tunes 
remain  unaltered  in  each  performance. 
Ideas  that  have  to  do  with  this  form  or 
design  of  the  tune  we  put  under  the 
division  of  structure;  but,  when  we  turn 
to  the  manner  of  the  performance  of  these 
tunes,  we  find  that  we  have  definite  ideas 
also.  We  wish  Yankee  Doodle  to  go  in  a 
tripping,  gay  manner,  while  America  re- 
quires a  dignified,  stately  and  slower 
fashion;  and  we  see  an  infinite  difference 
between  the  performance  of  the  calliope 
and  that  of  the  concert  artist,  because  of 
the  ideas  of  interpretation  which  are  added 
to  those  of  structure. 

Musical  notation  deals  chiefly  with  the 
ideas  of  structure,  and  these  will  be  chiefly 
considered  in  this  article.  When  one  hums 
America,  a  regular  pulsation  is  set  in  motion, 
as  "loud,  soft,  soft,  loud,  soft,  soft"  by 


MUSICAL  NOTATION 


1289 


MUSICAL  NOTATION 


means  of  which  a  definite  time- unit  is  estab- 
lished, called  the  beat  or  pulse.  When  one 
hums  Yankee  Doodle,  he  also  find  a  pulsa- 
tion forming  groups,  but  in.  this  case  it 
is  one  loud  and  one  soft.  These  tunes, 
then,  represent  two  kinds  of  grouping  — 
by  two  and  by  three  —  and  such  grouping 
is  not  peculiar  to  these  tunes,  for  there  are 
many  others  that  fall  into  the  same  two 
classes,  showing  that  it  is  possible  to  form 
ideas  of  time-units  independently  of  any 
tune.  Such  effects  we  shall  call  ideas  relat- 
\  ing  to  pulse-grouping,  the  first  of  the  three 
classes  into  which  structural  ideas  will  be 
divided. 

If  one  hums  America  again,  he  will  notice 
that,  though  the  first  three  tones  exactly 
coincide  with  the  first  three  pulses,  the 
fourth  tone  extends  over  the  pulse  and  the 
fifth  tone  is  shorter  than  the  pulse,  while 
in  Yankee  Doodle  most  of  the  tones  are 
just  twice  as  fast  as  the  pulse.  Here  we 
have  ideas  of  tone-duration,  based  on  very 
simple  yet  exact  arithmetical  proportions. 
We  can  think  of  tones  lasting  two  pulses 
or  one  pulse  or  of  two  tones  in  one  pulse, 
without  having  to  think  of  any  definite 
tune.  Thus  we  perceive  ideas  of  tone- dura- 
tion, forming  the  second  class  of  structural 
ideas. 

Turning  again  to  America  and  Yankee 
Doodle,  the  tones  are  not  arranged  in  a 
haphazard  way,  but  the  pitches  selected 
are  in  certain  definite  relations  to  each 
other.  This  relationship  is  known  as  the 
key.  We  can  think  of  a  tone  as  being  in 
•x  key,  independently  of  any  tune,  thus 
forming  the  third  class  of  structural  ideas. 
The  combination  of  these  three  classes  of 
ideas  in  a  musically  logical  way,  expressed 
in  a  series  of  sounds,  gives,  not  a  -general 
idea,  but  a  specific,  definite  tune. 

Turning  to  the  characters  that  awaken 
the  first  class  of  ideas  —  those  of  pulse- 
grouping  —  one  finds  at  the  beginning  of 
every  tune  two  figures  arranged  one  above 
the  other.  The  upper  figure  agrees  with 
the  pulse  grouping:  in  America  three;  in 
Yankee  Doodle,  two.  Taking  the  fourth 
tone  in  America  and  the  fifth  in  Yankee 
Doodle,  we  find  that  both  are  preceded  by 
a  vertical  bar,  which  indicates  that  these 
tones  fall  upon  a  strong  pulse.  Thus  the 
vertical  bar  groups  pulses  into  measures, 
and  the  figure  at  the  beginning  states  how 
many  pulses  there  are  in  each  measure : 
whether  it  be  one  strong  and  two  weak 
in  America;  or  one  strong  and  one  weak 
in  Yankee  Doodle.  It  is  obvious  that,  if 
the  notes  in  these  measures  are  to  repre- 
sent the  time  of  just  three  or  just  two 
pulses,  the  relation  of  the  note's  length  to 
the  pulse  must  be  defined.  This  is  done 
by  the  lower  figure  at  the  commencement 
of  the  tune,  the  four  showing  that  the  time- 
duration  used  is  to  be  represented  by  a 


quarter- note;  hence  in  America  three 
quarter-notes  or  their  equivalent  will  fill 
the  measure  and  in  Yankee  Doodle  two 
quarter-notes  or  their  equivalent.  In  some 
tunes  the  figure  two  or  the  figure  eight  may 
be  the  lower  one,  showing  that  the  pulse 
is  either  a  half  or  an  eighth-note.  Pulse- 
grouping  is  further  suggested  to  the  eye 
by  so  arranging  the  notes  in  the  measure 
both  by  spacing  and  by  connecting  lines 
as  to  suggest  the  pulse  to  which  they  be- 
long. 

Turning  to  the  characters  that  awaken 
the  second  class  of  ideas  —  those  of  rela- 
tive tone-duration  —  we  find  that  this  is 
accomplished  through  the  shape  of  the 
notes  themselves.  Notes  have  heads, 
stems  and  a  mark  called  the  flag,  often 
going  from  the  stem  of  one  note  to  the 
stem  of  another.  A  circular  note  without 
a  stem  represents  a  whole  note;  such  a 
note  with  a  stem,  a  half- note;  a  note  with 
a  black  head  and  a  stem,  a  quarter- note ; 
when  to  such  a  note  is  added  one  flag  or 
bar,  it  represents  an  eighth-note;  and  the 
addition  of  a  flag  or  bar  doubles  the  denomi- 
nation. Most  pieces  of  music  require  not 
tones  only,  but  silences,  to  complete  the 
design.  In  order  to  be  able  to  mark  the 
relative  duration  of  these  silences  as  they 
occur  in  the  measures,  each  one  of  the 
above  notes  has  a  corresponding  rest;  the 
whole  rest  is  an  oblong  black  mark  gen- 
erally attached  to  but  under  the  third 
line  of  the  staff;  the  half- rest  is  a  similar 
mark  above  the  line;  the  quarter-rest  is 
somewhat  like  an  abbreviated  two,  or 
often  like  a  seven  turned  the  wrong  way  L ; 
while  the  eighth  rest  is  like  the  figure 
seven;  by  adding  more  heads  to  this  last 
stem,  we  represent  the  rests  of  the  higher 
denominations.  Besides  these  notes, 
marks  are  used,  such  as  ties,  combining 
notes  or  rests  in  one  long  tone  equivalent 
to  their  united  value.  A  dot  may  be  placed 
after  a  note,  adding  half  the  value  of  the 
note  it  follows.  A  second  dot  may  be 
added,  adding  half  the  value  of  the  first 
dot,  or  a  dot  may  be  placed  over  the  note 
with  a  curve  over  it,  meaning  that  the  note 
shall  be  prolonged  an  indefinite  length  of 
time,  generally  from  two  to  four  times  its 
regular  length. 

The  characters  that  suggest  the  third 
class  of  ideas  —  those  dealing  with  differ- 
ences in  pitch  —  consist  first  of  a  series  of 
five  lines  called  the  staff,  with  short  lines 
added  above  and  below  as  required,  called 
leger-lines.  By  placing  the  heads  of  the 
notes  on  the  lines  and  the  spaces  adjoining 
them,  the  relation  of  the  pitches  of  these 
notes  to  each  other  is  suggested  to  the 
eye.  If  the  piece  of  music  requires  very 
low  and  very  high  tones,  a  number  of  staves 
may  be  placed  one  over  the  other  and  united 
by  a  brace  at  the  beginning;  or  the  figure 


MUSK 


I2QO 


MUSKEGON 


eight  with  a  curved  line  following  may  be 
placed  above  or  below  a  passage,  showing 
that  it  shall  be  thought  of  as  being  an 
octave  higher  or  lower  than  written,  the 
word  loco  showing  when  the  effect  of  such 
mark  ceases. 

Pitch-representation  requires  that  not 
only  the  relation  of  the  tones  to  each  other 
shall  be  represented,  but  their  exact  pitch, 
on  an  instrument  for  instance;  hence  to 
the  staff  are  added  the  fixed  pitch-names 
of  tones.  These  are  designated  by  the 
first  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet,  repeated 
with  special  marks  for  each  octave.  If 
once-marked  G  is  written  on  the  second 
line  of  a  staff,  it  will  enable  the  staff  not 
only  to  represent  that  tone  as  being  in 
certain  relationship  to  the  tones  on  the 
other  lines  and  spaces,  but  to  represent 
the  exact  pitch  of  G  —  in  this  case  in  the 
treble  voice.  The  clef-mark  used  to  repre- 
sent music  for  women's  and  children's 
voices  is  nothing  more  than  such  an  orna- 
mental G  which,  by  showing  the  exact 
pitch  of  the  second  line  of  the  staff,  neces- 
sarily fixes  the  lines  and  spaces  of  all  the 
rest  of  the  staff.  Similarly,  a  mark  is  put 
on  the  fourth  line  of  a  staff  intended  for 
men's  voices,  called  the  F  clef,  thus  nam- 
ing the  exact  pitch  of  the  fourth  line  and, 
by  this  means,  of  all  the  other  lines  and 
spaces  of  this  staff.  Picture-representa- 
tion requires  a  third  group  of  signs  in  order 
to  depict  more  exactly  the  relationships  of 
the  notes  on  the  staff.  These  marks  are 
sharps  and  flats,  which  enable  the  line  or 
space  on  which  they  are  placed  to  repre- 
sent a  pitch  a  half-step  above  or  below 
what  they  would  ordinarily  suggest,  or 
double  sharp  and  double  flat,  enabling  the 
line  or  space  on  which  they  are  placed  to 
represent  a  whole  tone  above  or  below  the 
normal.  The  use  of  these  necessitates  an- 
other mark  called  the  "natural"  or  "can- 
cel," which  shows  that  the  line  or  space  is 
being  used  as  it  was  before  the  sharp  or 
flat  was  placed.  Sharps  and  flats  are  not 
only  sometimes  used  before  the  notes  they 
are  expected  to  alter,  but  are  grouped  at 
the  beginning  of  a  piece,  according  as  the 
key  requires.  Such  grouping  is  called  the 
key-signature. 

This  completes  the  survey  of  the  most 
important  characters  for  awakening  the 
ideas  of  pulse-grouping,  duration  and  pitch, 
necessary  for  forming  the  special  idea  of 
a  given  tune.  Besides  this,  as  was  sug- 
gested at  the  opening,  marks  are  necessary 
to  indicate  how  the  piece  shall  be  performed 
or  sung.  These  consist  partly  of  signs,  as 
dots,  placed  over  notes  showing  that  they 
should  be  performed  in  a  disconnected  way, 
or  curved  lines,  showing  that  the  notes 
included  are  to  be  connected,  since  they 
form  part  of  the  same  musical  phrase. 
The  letter  "f"  from  forte  (Italian  for  loud) 
is  used  to  show  that  the  passage  is  to  be 


performed  loudly,  and  the  letter  "p"  from 
piano  (Italian  for  soft)  when  the  opposite 
effect  is  required,  and  these  may  be  doubled 
or  tripled  for  greater  intensity.  Or  a  mark 
like  the  letter  "v"  placed  on  its  side  may 
be  placed  over  a  note,  showing  that  that 
particular  note  is  to  be  emphasized.  If  a 
still  stronger  effect  is  required,  an  "sfz" 
or  "fz"  may  be  placed  over  the  note.  If 
the  passage  is  to  be  made  gradually  stronger 
and  then  softer  again,  radiating  and  con- 
verging lines  may  be  placed  over  it.  If 
a  passage  is  to  be  sung  gradually  slower 
or  faster,  the  abbreviation  "rit."  or  "ace." 
may  be  placed.  To  decide  the  general  style 
of  the  performance,  words,  largely  derived 
from  the  Italian,  are  written  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  piece:  such  are',  largo,  slow, 
solemn;  andante,  with  flowing,  moderate 
movement;  allegro,  in  a  rather  quick  and 
lively  manner;  presto,  very  fast  and  ener- 
getic. This  is  sufficient  to  illustrate,  but 
by  no  means  exhaust,  the  marks  and 
words  used  for  suggesting  ideas  of  inter- 
pretation. Besides  general  cyclopedias  and 
dictionaries,  there  are  the  musical  dic- 
tionaries, as  Grove,  Riemann,  Elson  and 
Baker.  CHARLES  FARNSWORTH. 

Musk,  a  substance  obtained  from  the 
musk-deer  (which  see)  and  used  as  the  basis 
of  costly  perfumes.  That  imported  from 
Tonquin,  China,  is  the  best.  Cheaper 
varieties  come  from  India  and  Siberia.  It 
is  also  used  in  medicine. 

Musk-Deer,  a  small  deer  separated  from 
others  by  having  no  antlers  in  either  male 
or  female.  The  male,  however,  has  sharp 
tusks  projecting  downward  from  the  upper 
jaw  which  are  used  in  fighting.  These  ani- 
mals inhabit  the  high  plateaus  of  Central 
Asia,  usually  living  solitary  and  never  in 
herds.  They  are  shy,  feeding  mainly  at 
night,  and  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of 
approaching  them  they  are  usually  caught 
in  traps.  A  full-grown  specimen  is  about 
three  feet  long  and  20  inches  high  at  the 
shoulders.  They  vary  in  color,  but  are 
commonly  grayish  or  yellowish-brown,  and 
whitish  below.  The  musk  is  found  in  a 
sac  the  size  of  a  very  small  orange,  situated 
on  the  under  surface  of  the  abdomen.  The 
sack  contains  an  ounce  or  more  of  the  crude 
musk,  which  is  so  powerful  in  odor  as  to 
nearly  overcome  those  who  skin  the  ani- 
mal and  remove  the  pouch.  When  fresh, 
the  substance  is  said  to  resemble  moist 
gingerbread  in  color  and  consistency. 

Muske'gon,  Mich.,  is  situated  four  miles 
from  Lake  Michigan  on  Muskegon  Lake, 
which  is  really  a  widening  of  Muskegon 
River  and  affords  one  of  the  finest  harbors 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan. 
Muskegon  is  40  miles  northwest  of  Grand 
Rapids.  It  has  a  large  number  of  good 
industries,  including  manufactures  of  electric 
cranes,  motors,  boats,  billiard-tables,  bowling- 
alleys,  underwear,  boilers,  pianos  and  furniture. 


MUSKMELON 


1291 


Muskegon  is  noted  for  its  many  fine 
educational  advantages,  which  include  a 
magnificent  manual-training  school  presented 
by  C.  H.  Hackley  and  endowed  by  him  with 
$610,000.  Mr.  Hackley  has  also  endowed 
the  public  schools  of  Muskegon  with  an 
amount  which  will  probably  reach  $1,500,000 
in  the  near  future.  Muskegon  is  the  tenth 
largest  city  in  the  state,  and  has  a  population 
of  31,000. 

Musk'mel'on,  various  forms  of  Cucumis 
melo,  a  genus  of  the  gourd  family  and 
native  to  southern  Asia.  The  cultivation 
of  muskmelons  has  become  a  very  important 
commercial  enterprise  in  North  America. 
There  are  two  general  types  in  the  market : 
(i)  the  furrowed  kinds  with  hard  rind, 
known  as  cantaloupes,  and  (2)  the  netted 
kinds  with  softer  rinds,  known  as  nutmeg- 
melons.  The  nutmeg-melons  are  those  most 
commonly  seen  in  the  early  markets;  while 
the  cantaloupes  are  longer-seasoned  vari- 
eties. An  important  strain  of  the  nutmeg 
type  has  recently  become  prominent  under 
the  name  of  osage-melons,  which  were 
developed  in  southern  Michigan.  Musk- 
melons  are  a  staple  food  among  the  inhab- 
itants of  Persia,  Egypt  and  Italy.  Musk- 
melon  growing  is  extensively  carried  on  in 
the  southern  states,  and  the  Mississippi 
valley  in  general  is  peculiarly  adapted  to 
the  industry.  However,  New  Jersey  as  yet 
supplies  half  of  the  market-crop.  See 
CUCUMIS. 

Musk-Ox  or  Musk=Sheep,  an  animal  com- 
bining characteristics  of  the  ox  and  sheep; 


MUSK-OX 

in  size  and  shape  resembling  the  ox,  in 
habit  like  the  sheep.  It  is  very  agile, 
swift  and  sure  of  foot.  It  is  now  restricted 
to  arctic  America  north  of  latitude  60°,  but 
formerly  was  more  widely  distributed  and 
occurred  in  England  as  well  as  in  America. 
In  this  country  it  once  wandered  as  far 
south  as  Kentucky.  Now  its  favorite  haunts 
are  the  upper  tributaries  of  Mackenzie 
River  and  the  region  about  Great  Bear  and 
Great  Slave  Lakes.  It  is  a  strange-looking 
creature,  appearing  to  be  a  low  mass  of 
hair  of  great  length  and  thickness,  tangled 
at  the  shoulders.  The  legs  Hornaday  de- 
scribes as  short  and  post-like:  the  head  is 


massive;  the  tail  very  short;  the  horns  meet 
in  the  middle  of  the  forehead  and  curve 
downward  and  outward,  and  the  tips  point 
upward.  The  coat  next  the  body  is  very 
fine  and  soft,  of  a  light  brown  color;  the 
outer  hairs  are  coarser,  darker,  sometimes 
a  foot  long.  The  hairy  coat  is  shed  during 
hot  weather.  A  full-grown  male  reaches  a 
weight  of  450  pounds.  The  animal  gets  its 
name  from  its  peculiar  musky  odor,  con- 
cerning the  origin  of  which  there  is  doubt. 
They  live  in  herds  of  20  or  30  or  upward, 
feed  on  grasses,  lichens,  moss,  willow  and 
pine-shoots,  and  are  hunted  for  food.  The 
flesh  of  some  is  very  palatable,  of  others 
tough  and  unpleasantly  musky.  ^  It  is  an 
important  food-animal  to  Eskimo  and 
Arctic  explorer. 

Musket.     See  GUN. 

Musk' rat  or  Mus'quash,  a  water-rat  pe- 
culiar to  North  America,  found  from  Labra- 
dor to  Alaska  and  south  to  Louisiana  and 
Arizona.  Although  adapted  to  an  aquatic 
life,  muskrats  spend  much  time  on  the  shores 
of  the  lakes  and  rivers  they  inhabit.  The 
animal  is  the  largest  of  the  rat  family,  being 
about  one  foot  long  without  the  tail,  which 
is  six  or  eight  inches  in  length.  The  latter 
is  different  from  the  tail  of  any  other  rat, 
being  scaly  and  flattened  from  above  down- 
ward. The  fur  is  a  dark,  glossy  brown 
above,  paler  and  more  silky  underneath,  is  of 
commercial  value;  in  the  present  scarcity  of 
fur  much  is  sold  as  mink  and  martin ;  when 
dyed,  as  French  seal.  Muskrats  are  great 
divers  and  swimmers,  and  resemble  the 
beaver  in  being  clever  house-builders  They 
live  in  burrows  in  the  bank,  with  one  or  more 
entrances  under  water.  For  winter  they 
build  dome-shaped  bouses  of  sedges  and 
grasses  plastered  together  with  mud.  These 
project  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  but 
the  entrances  are  underneath ;  here  they 
sleep  and  bring  up  their  food  to  eat  at  leisure. 
They  feed  mainly  on  roots  and  stems  of 
water-plants.  They  raise  their  young  in 
homes  high  up  on  the  banks,  there  being  two 
or  three  Utters  a  season.  Otter  and  mink 
are  among  their  enemiesj  and  the  great 
horned-owl  is  a  deadly  foe.  Warning  of  ap- 
proaching danger  is  said  to  be  communi- 
cated from  one  to  another  by  slapping  the 
water  with  the  rubbery  tail.  The  tail  is  used 
as  rudder  and  propeller  in  swimming,  and 
furnishes  a  "third  leg''  when  the  muskrat 
stands  upright  on  shore,  as  he  has  a  habit  of 
doing,  presenting  a  most  amusing  figure  when 
looking  the  landscape  over.  The  muskrat 
gets  its  name  from  its  pronounced  odor.  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  the  desman  of  the  Old 
World  and  a  rat  of  India.  All  of  these  ani- 
mals have  a  musky  odor.  See  Stone  and 
Cram:  American  Animals  and  Hornaday: 
American  Natural  History. 

Musquash.     See  MUSKRAT. 

Mussel  (mas' I),  the  Common  name  for  a 
number  of  bivalve  mollusks.  The  common 


MUSSET 


1292 


MUTSUHITO 


mussel  of  salt  water  (Mytilus),  living  along 
the  shores  of  the  northern  Atlantic,  is  often 
eaten  in  Europe,  but  rarely  in  America.  It 
is  abundant  between  high  and  low  water 
marks,  and  is  usually  anchored  by  a  tuft  of 
yellowish  silken  filaments  (Lyssus)  spun 
from  glands  in  its  body.  The  common  fresh- 
water clam  is  the  fresh-water  mussel.  These 
mollusks  belong  to  the  group  of  Lamellibran- 
chiata. 

Musset  (mu'sa'),  Alfred  de,  was  born  at 
Paris,  Nov.  n,  1810,  the  son  of  an  officer  in 
the  war^-office.  At  19  he  published  his  Tales 
of  Spain  and  Italy,  a  volume  of  unequal 
verse.  In  1833  appeared  two  of  his  greatest 
works,  the  tragical  comedies,  Andre  del  Sarto 
and  Marianne's  Caprices.  Next  followed 
the  famous  poem  of  Rolla.  He  always  was 
as  unsteady  in  character  as  in  genius,  and 
the  feverisn  activity  that  sometimes  seized 
him  spent  itself  in  splendid  plans  and  unfin- 
ished poems.  In  1840  his  health  broke 
down,  and  he  wrote  but  little.  As  Heine 
said,  he  was  "a  young  man  with  a  splendid 
past ;"  he  felt  himself  an  old  man  at  30.  The 
success  of  his  play,  A  Caprice,  in  1847,  put 
life  into  him  for  a  short  time.  He  died  at 
Paris  of  heart-disease,  May  i,  1857.  The 
Night  of  May  and  The  Night  of  October  are 
perfect  and  undying  lyrics.  As  a  poet  of 
passion  he  comes  close  to  Byron  in  power. 
His  plays  have  not  their  equals  in  igth-cen- 
tury  literature  for  originality,  wit  and  real 
dramatic  genius.  His  largest  prose-work 
was  the  famous  Confession  of  a  Child  of  the 
Age;  but  greater  are  his  short  stories  and 
tales,  as  Emmeline,  Pierre  and  Camille, 
Mademoiselle  Mimi  Pinson  and  M 'argot,  De 
Musset's  whole  work  fills  but  ten  small  vol- 
umes, but  they  include  some  of  the  finest 
poetry,  greatest  plays  and  best  short  stories 
in  French  literature. 

Mus'tard,  species  of  Brassica,  a  genus  be- 
longing to  the  mustard  family.  The  genus 
contains  about  100  species  of  herbs,  natives 
to  north  temperate  regions.  To  the  same 
genus  belongs  the  cabbage,  with  its  cauli- 
flower and  kale  varieties,  rape,  rutabaga  and 
common  turnip.  The  true  mustards  are 
B.  alba  (white  mustard),  B.  nigra  (black 
mustard)  and  B.  juncea  (Chinese  mustard). 
Table  mustard  is  the  flour  formed  from  grind- 
ing the  seeds,  mostly  from  black  mustard, 
though  the  white  and  Chinese  mustards  are 
also  used.  The  white  and  black  mustards 
often  become  widely  distributed  weeds.  The 
large,  soft,  basal  leaves  of  these  forms  are 
also  frequently  used  for  "greens."  The  pale 

£:llow  flowers  of  the  black  mustard  are  very 
miliar;  they  bloom  all  summer  on  a  many- 
branched  plant  from  three  to  six  feet  high, 
the  half-inch-long  pods  filled  with  dark- 
colored,  pungent  seeds  The  seeds  of  the 
white  mustard  are  light-colored,  flow- 
ers yellow.  In  England  mustard  is  planted 
for  forage  and  cut  before  the  seeds  are 
ripe. 


MUTSUHITO 


Mutsuhito  (moot'sob-he'td},  Emperor  of 
Japan  ^1868-19 1 2.)  With  the  "Era  of  En- 
lightened Peace"of 
Jap  an,  which  dates 
from  1 868,  will  al- 
ways be  associated 
the  name  of  the 
famous  emperor 
whose  reign  coin- 
cided with  the  re- 
naissance of  the 
empire.  Cromwell, 
Washington  and 
Diaz  refused 
crowns,  but  to 
Mutsuhito  belongs 
the  singular  dis- 
tinction of  resign- 
ing despotic  power. 
In  all  recorded  his- 
tory there  is  no  other  instance  of  voluntary 
relinquishment  of  an  autocracy  held  in  one 
family  for  2  5  centuries.  The  constitution  of 
Japan  is  a  gift  from  the  throne,  in  a  time  of 
peace,  under  no  pressure  of  revolution  or  ex- 
ternal coercion,  to  a  people  who  were  delib- 
erately educated  in  the  proper  understand- 
ing and  use  of  it. 

The  story  of  Mutsuhito's  life  is  one  of  wild- 
est romance.  He  was  born  on  November  3, 
1852,  in  the  temple-palace  of  Kioto.  This 
old  sacred  capital  of  Japan  is  an  inland  city 
near  the  southern  extremity  of  Nippon  Is- 
land, 250  miles  from  Yedo  (Tokyo)  where  the 
shogun  had  his  court  and  citadel.  Hemmed 
in  by  streams  and  mountains,  walled  and  for- 
bidden, it  was  an  isolated  city  of  palaces, 
temples,  shrines  and  pleasure-gardens,  in- 
habited by  nobles  of  imperial  ancestry.  The 
emperor's  palace  stood  in  a  great  walled 
park  guarded  by  nobles,  Shinto  priests  and 
royal  samurai.  Here,  in  the  middle  of  the 
igth  century,  the  crown-prince  Mutsuhito 
grew  up  in  such  hermit-seclusion  as  sur- 
rounds only  the  Grand  Llama  of  Tibet  in  the 
mon£..tery  palace  of  Lhasa  to-day.  He  was 
the  1 2 3d  of  a  royal  line  that  (it  is  alleged) 
ran  back  to  Emperor  Jimmu,  600  B.  C.,  and 
was  the  living  representative  of  gods  who 
created  Dai  Nippon  for  a  throne  in  the  sea. 
He  was  a  sacred  person  into  whose  presence 
only  a  few  of  exalted  rank  could  be  ad- 
mitted. For  two  centuries  and  a  half  the 
emperors  had  lived  thus,  "behind  the  screen," 
leaving  the  task  of  governing  and  defending 
the  empire  to  the  military  chieftain  or  sho- 
gun. The  shogunate  had  become  hereditary 
in  the  Tokugawa  family  and  a  despotic  mil- 
itary dictatorship  established  over  the  em- 
pire. To  the  common  people  their  emperor 
was  an  invisible,  semi-mythical  deity  to  whom 
they  addressed  prayers  in  Shinto  temples. 
No  murmur  of  tne  civil  wars  that  raged  in 
Japan  for  more  than  two  centuries  pene- 
trated the  imperial  hermitage;  no  foreign 
wares  of  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch  who 
traded  in  Nagasaki  in  the  i6th  century  were 


MUTUALISM 


1293 


MYCELIUM 


spread  before  them ;  no  echo  of  the  eloquence 
of  St.  Francis  Xavier  who  preached  in  the 
streets  of  Kioto  in  the  i;th  century  reached 
the  recluse. 

The  little  crown-prince  who  was  to  figure 
in  such  startling  changes  was  in  his  third 
year  when  Commodore  Perry  forced  the  sho- 
gun  to  open  the  harbor  of  Yedo  to  American 
trade.  In  1865  daring  young  nobles,  leaders 
of  the  revolution,  who  had  returned  from 
abroad  with  a  definite  and  complete  program 
of  deposing  the  shogun  and  forming  a  mod- 
ern empire,  decided  to  take  Kioto  by  assault 
and  restore  the  emperor  to  active  rulership. 
They  revered  him  and  everything  in  the  an- 
cient history  of  Japan  that  he  stood  for.  As 
a  matter  of  wise  public  policy  they  knew 
that  only  around  the  sacred  person  of  his 
majesty  would  all  the  warring  clans  of  the 
country  unite;  only  against  him  would  the 
shogun  be  powerless,  only  to  him  as  the  su- 
preme authority  would  foreign  powers  defer. 
Nevertheless,  they  were  determined  to  form 
the  mind  of  their  young  ruler  and  to  model 
Japan  after  western  governments.  They 
got  near  enough  to  fire  the  sacred  city  but 
were  driven  back  by  the  forces  of  the  shogun. 
The  imperial  court  watched  the  flames  from 
the  palace-walls,  watched  them  die  down, 
but  they  could  not  have  known  the  cause  or 
meaning  of  the  conflagration.  The  emperor 
died  on  Feb.  3,  1867,  unaware  that  the  war- 
vessels  of  1 8  powers  were  anchored  in  the 
harbors  of  Japan,  the  empire  rent  by  revolu- 
tion, the  shogun  tottering  to  a  final  fall.  He 
left  a  1 5 -year-old  successor  who  knew  as  little 
of  all  these  startling  changes  as  we  know  of 
the  planet  Mars. 

The  leaders  of  the  revolution  let  the  for- 
eigners into  the  secret  that  they  had  been 
hoaxed  and  that  the  supreme  authority  over 
Japan  was  not  in  the  shogun  but  in  the  her- 
mit-emperor at  Kioto.  The  fleets  sailed 
away  to  Osaka,  the  port  of  Kioto,  to  support 
the  revolution.  The  city  was  stormed,  the 
palace-wall  scaled,  the  boy  emperor  whisked 
out  by  night  to  the  neighboring  castle  of 
Nijp  and  then,  in  what  bewilderment  may 
be  imagined,  took  the  oath  to  carry  out  the 
national  will  of  Japan.  Then  he  was  whirled 
away  to  Yedo,  which  was  forthwith  christ- 
ened Tokyo  or  Eastern  Capital,  blinking  in 
the  light  of  an  amazing  day.  The  shogun 
abdicated  and  the  mikado  was  set  up  on  the 
temporal  throne  of  an  oriental  empire  that 
was  committed  to  policies  of  reform,  prog- 
ress, representative  government  and  friendly 
relations  with  a  world  which,  he  learned,  is 
round  and  inhabited  by  many  peoples  who 
had  power  to  coerce  Japan.  That  the  young 
ruler  was  a  man  of  remarkable  intellect  and 
character  is  _ proved  by  the  rapidity  with 
which  he  adjusted  himself  to  kaleidoscopic 
changes.  From  a  contemplative  recluse 
set  apart  for  the  worship  of  a  people  he 
became  a  modern  man  of  tireless  activity 
and  democratic  ideas.  He  was  fortunate 


in  being  surrounded  by  wise  and  patriotic 
advisers.  Under  their  direction  he  made  no 
mistakes,  and  he  was  so  apt  and  eager  a  pupil 
that  in  a  few  years  he  was  the  real  impetus 
in  the  forward  march  of  the  empire.  He 
went  about  the  capital  in  western  dress,  like 
any  European  sovereign  drove  in  public  with 
the  empress,  and  entered  Crown-Prince 
Yoshihito  in  the  public  university.  In  the 
Japanese  empire  he  occupied  a  place  similar 
to  that  of  Queen  Victoria  over  the  British. 
He  had  no  political  bias.  The  power  of  veto 
rests  in  the  premier  and  the  imperial  council. 

Dying  in  his  6oth  year,  every  one  of  Em- 
peror Mutsuhito's  seven  decades  of  life  had 
seen  dramatic  changes.  The  first  was  the 
hermit  life.  In  the  second  the  revolution 
stripped  him  of  spiritual,  but  restored  his 
family  to  temporal,  power.  The  third  de- 
cade he  was  engaged  in  directing  national 
consolidation  and  evolution  into  a  consti- 
tutional government.  In  the  fourth  he  de- 
liberately limited  his  own  prerogatives  and 
powers,  and  launched  the  new  ship  of  a 
self-governing  state.  In  the  fifth  he  waged 
war  with  China  over  a  threatened  Chinese 
protectorate  in  Korea,  relieved  his  empire 
from  consular  courts  and  recovered  the  right 
to  regulate  foreign  trade.  In  the  sixth  his 
armies  defeated  one  of  the  greatest  west" 
ern  powers.  He  died  atTokio,  July  30,  1912 
and  was  succeeded  by  the  crown  prince 
Yoshihito  who  was  born  Aug.  31,  1879. 

In  person  Emperor  Mutsuhito  was  tall,  as 
compared  with  the  Japanese  people.  In 
mind  he  was  described  as  sagacious,  progress- 
ive, aspiring.  In  a  similar  situation  he 
might  have  been  another  Peter  the  Great  of 
Russia  and,  unaided,  have  forced  a  greater 
measure  of  civilization  on  an  unready  people. 
In  manner  he  had  the  traditional  affability 
of  the  J  ap  anese ,  was  a  student  of  history ,  poli- 
tics and  literature,  and  a  poet  whose  verses 
were  frequently  translated  for  their  beauty 
of  form  and  thought.  Thoroughly  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  ideas  and  ambitions  of  mod- 
ern Japan,  he  cooperated  in  forwarding 
them  with  rare  intelligence  and  patriotism. 
Voluntarily  resigning  the  right  to  rule,  he  won 
from  a  grateful,  loyal  people  whose  task  he 
made  easy,  the  right  to  reign  over  them, 
secured  peace  to  the  empire  and  peaceful 
succession  to  his  descendants.  From  every 
view  point  he  presents  one  of  the  most  kingly 
figures  in  history.  See  JAPAN. 

Mutualism  (mu'tu-al-iz'ni) ,  (in  plants), 
that  form  of  symbiosis  in  which  the  two 
plants  are  of  mutual  benefit.  By  many  this 
condition  is  thought  to  be  illustrated  by  the 
lichens,  the  algas  and  fungi  constituents  be- 
ing thought  to  be  mutually  helpful.  See 
SYMBIOSIS. 

Mycelium  (mt-se'K-um),  (in  plants),  the 
ordinary  body  of  a  fungus,  consisting  of 
branching,  colorless  threads  more  or  less  in- 
terwoven. Sometimes  the  threads  are  so 
loosely  interwoven,  that  the  mycelium  re- 


MYTHOLOGY 


sembles  a  delicate  cobweb;  at  other  times 
so  closely,  that  the  mycelium  becomes  a  felt- 
like  mass.  The  latter  form  of  mycelium 
may  often  be  seen  upon  preserved  fruit  or 
jelly,  in  which  case  it  can  be  removed  like  a 
thick  piece  of  felt.  See  FUNGI. 

Mycenae  (mt-sern$) ,  a  very  old  city  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  Argolis,  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, built  upon  a  high  crag  and  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Perseus.  It  was  the 
capital  of  Agamemnon's  kingdom,  and  at 
that  time  the  chief  town  of  Greece.  It  was 
destroyed  by  the  people  of  Argos,  and, 
though  rebuilt,  never  afterward  prospered. 
Its  ruins  are  still  to  be  seen.  The  most  cele- 
brated of  them  are  the  Gate  of  Lions  and 
the  Treasury  of  Atreus.  Excavations  car- 
ried out  by  Dr.  Henry  Schliemann  brought 
to  light,  in  1876,  another  underground  treas- 
ury and  several  ancient  tombs,  vases,  weap- 
ons, gold  death-masks  and  other  ornaments 
of  hammered  gold.  These  objects  seem  to 
show  a  type  of  art  coming  from  Mesopo- 
tamia through  Phoenicia  and  Asia  Minor, 
and  manifesting  little  or  no  trace  of  Greek 
tastes  or  customs.  Their  date  seems  to  be 
about  that  of  the  Doric  invasion  of  the  Pel- 
oponnesus. 

Mycorrhiza  (mi'kor-ri'za) ,  (in  plants), 
The  name  means  root-fungus,  and  refers  to 
the  fact  that  there  exists  an  intimate  associa- 
tion between  certain  fungi  of  the  soil  and  the 
roots  of  higher  plants,  as  orchids,  heaths, 
oaks  and  their  allies.  The  delicate  mycelial 
threads  of  the  fungus  spread  through  the 
soil,  enwrap  the  rootlets  with  a  mesh  of 
threads,  and  penetrate  into  the  cells.  By 
this  means  the  fungus  obtains  food  from  the 
rootlet  as  a  parasite.  But  it  is  also  thought 
that  the  fungus  threads  spreading  through 
the  soil  are  of  great  service  to  the  host-plants 
in  aiding  their  rootlets  in  absorbing.  If  this 
be  true,  there  is  a  mutual  advantage  in  the 
association,  for  the  small  amount  of  nour- 
ishment taken  up  by  the  fungus  is  more  than 
repaid  by  its  assistance  in  absorption.  See 
MUTUALISM. 

My  Old  Kentucky  Home.  Words  and 
music  by  Stephen  Collins  Foster  (1826-64). 
One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  American  folk- 
songs. It  is  marked  by  the  simplicity  and 
pathos  characteristic  of  the  best  of  Foster's 
1 60  songs. 

Myriapoda  (ntir'l-&j>'d-da)i  a  class  of 
jointed  animals  containing  the  centipedes 
and  thousand-legged  worms.  The  name 
signifies  many-footed.  The  body  is  worm- 
like  and  jointed.  There  is  a  pair  of  legs  for 
each  joint.  The  head  carries  antennas,  jaws 
and  eyes,  and  there  is  no  distinction  between 
thorax  and  abdomen.  The  myriapods  form 
a  group  equivalent,  respectively,  to  that  of 
the  Crustacea,  spiders  and  insects,  and  these 
four  classes  make  the  subkingdom  of  arthrop- 
oda.  See  ARTHROPODA  and  CENTIPEDE. 

Myrmidons  (m&r'nii-d8nz)t  the  famous 
followers  of  Achilles  in  the  Trojan  War. 


They  were  an  old  Thessalian  race  who  colo- 
nized the  island  of  ^Egina.  According  to 
Greek  story  Zeus  peopled  Thessaly  by  chang- 
ing the  ants  into  men;  hence  the  myrmidons, 
which  means  ants. 

Myrrh  (mer),  a  gum-resin  produced  by  a 
tree  growing  in  Arabia  and  in  Somaliland, 
Africa  The  myrrh  tree  is  small  and  scrub- 
by, spiny,  with  whitish-gray  bark,  with 
smooth,  brown  fruit  about  as  big  as  a  pea. 
The  myrrh  flows  from  the  pores  of  the  bark 
in  oily,  yellowish  drops,  which  slowly  thicken, 
harden  and  become  darker  colored.  Mynrh 
was  known  and  highly  valued  in  very 
early  times.  It  was  among  the  presents 
which  the  wise  men  from  the  east  brought  to 
the  Christ-child.  Myrrh  is  sold  in  tears  and 
grains  or  in  irregular-shaped  and  various- 
sized  pieces,  yellow,  red  or  reddish  brown  in 
color.  It  was  used  by  the  Egyptians  in  em- 
balming, and  is  employed  now  in  medicine. 
All  myrrh  comes  from  Aden  or  from  Bom- 
bay. 

Myr'tle,  a  beautiful  evergreen  shrub  or 
moderate-sized  tree,  with  glossy  leaves,  black 
berries,  having  a  pleasant,  spicy  odor  and 
white  flowers.  This  is  the  common  myrtle, 
which  is  native  to  the  countries  of  the  Med- 
iterranean. Among  the  ancient  Greeks  the 
myrtle  was  sacred  to  Venus  as  the  symbol  of 
youth  and  beauty.  Victors  in  the  Olympian 
games  were  crowned  with  wreaths  of  its 
leaves.  It  was  frequently  used  at  festivals, 
has  frequent  mention  in  poetry,  and  refer- 
ence is  made  to  it  in  the  Bible.  The  Greeks 
used  myrtle  for  their  dead,  the  German 
maiden  wears  it  on  her  wedding-day.  In  the 
United  States  the  classic  myrtle  and  other 
species  are  successfully  grown  as  outdoor 
shrubs  in  California  and  the  south.  The 
myrtle  of  Peru  and  Chile  has  red  berries  and 
comparatively  small  leaves.  The  berries 
have  a  pleasant  flavor  and  are  eaten.  The 
periwinkle,  which  is  a  very  common  running 
plant  in  the  United  States,  is  often  improp- 
erly called  myrtle. 

Mysore  (mi-sor").     See  BANGALORE. 

Mytile'ne.     See  LESBOS. 

Mythol'ogy.  This  term  is  used  in  two 
ways:  properly  it  signifies  the  science  of 
myths ;  but  more  commonly  it  is  used  to  de- 
note a  collection  or  system  of  myths  held  by 
a  certain  people.  Thus  we  speak  of  the 
mythology  of  the  Greeks  or  of  the  American 
Indians.  We  shall  first  consider  the  latter 
use  of  the  term.  The  most  splendid  mythol- 
ogies are  those  of  Greece  and,  on  a  somewhat 
lower  level,  those  of  India  and  Scandi- 
navia. These  are  described  under  the  names 
of  individual  mythological  characters  of 
the  countries  named,  as  Ulysses,  Indra, 
Norns  etc.  We  shall  therefore  speak  es- 
pecially of  the  lower  forms  of  mythology. 

A  myth  is  a  "sham  history,"  a  story  held 
to  be  true  and  also  important  by  a  body  of 
people,  though  in  fact  it  is  false.  Mythol- 
ogy does  not  deal  with  the  belief  in  gods,  but 


MYTHOLOGY 


1295 


MYTHOLOGY 


with  the  belief  in  stories  about  them.  The 
lowest  myths  are  those _ of  such  savages  as 
the  Hottentots,  the  native  Australians  and 
the  Indian  tribes  in  the  northwest  of  this 
continent.  These  myths  are  explanatory; 
they  "explain"  some  of  the  wonderful  things 
which  happen.  Most  wonderful  is  the  be- 
ginning of  the  world.  It  was  created,  say 
the  Australians,  by  Bun-jel  or  Pund-iel,  ap- 
parently a  monstrous  eagle-hawk,  who  also 
taught  men  the  use  of  the  spear.  The  foe  of 
the  eagle  and  the  source  of  mischief  is  the 
crow,  another  monstrous  bird-god.  The 
bear  and  other  animals  also  enter  the  circle  of 
divinities ;  and  among  them  appear  sorcerers, 
sometimes  human  in  form.  All  the  lowest 
tribes  have  myths  that  tell  of  wonderful 
beast-gods, — insects,  ravens  and  even  the 
coyote.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  the  my- 
thologies of  India  and  Egypt  there  are  many 
myths  told  of  gods  that  were  more  or  less 
beastlike,  and  even  in  the  mythology  of 
Greece  Pan  had  goats'  legs  and  Zeus  often 
took  the  form  of  some  beast.  There  are  to 
be  found  in  most  savage  mythologies  many 
striking  resemblances,  not  only  to  each 
other  but  to  the  disgusting  features  present 
in  the  higher  mythologies. 

A  slightly  higher  form  of  mythology  is 
found  among  the  Zulus.  Their  myths  cen- 
ter around  ancestors,  especially  the  great 
Unkulunkulu.  It  seems  that  he  not  only  is 
ancestor  of  all  true  Zulus,  but  is  maker  of 
the  world.  The  sky,  however,  he  did  not 
make,  and  the  thunder  is  caused  by  the  thun- 
der-bird, which  may  often  be  seen  and  even 
shot.  Its  fat  has  magical  powers.  The 
Zulus  delight  in  tales  which  are  very  like 
some  of  the  myths  of  the  Greeks  and  also 
like  many  of  our  own  nursery-tales.  The 
myths  of  the  Maoris  of  New  Zealand  are  still 
higher  in  character.  At  first  there  were 
two  great  gods,  man  and  wife,  who  had 
many  children,  whom  they  kept  in  darkness. 
Then  one  child  led  the  others  in  revolt,  and 
separated  their  parents,  earth  and  heaven, 
keeping  them  apart  forever.  Then  these 
children  divided  the  earth  and  sea  between 
them,  each  taking  some  department,  one  the 
fishes,  another  the  reptiles  and  so  on,  Man 
was  created  by  Tiki  out  of  clay.  Among 
them  arose  the  hero  Maui,  who  made  the  sun 
and  the  moon  keep  strictly  to  their  course  in 
the  sky,  by  giving  them  a  beatingl  He  in- 
vented many  arts  for  the  good  of^  man,  as 
fire  and  fishing.  At  last  he  died  in  an  at- 
tempt to  pass  down  into  the  body  of  Great 
Mother  Night,  and  safely  through  her  and 
up  to  light  again,  even  as  the  sun  does  every 
evening  and  morning.  But  a  little  bird 
awoke  Night  as  Maui  went  down,  and  she 
closed  on  him  and  crushed  him. 

The  Mexican  mythologies  were  as  absurd 
and  monstrous  as  those  of  less  civilized  peo- 
ple ;  but  the  stories  were  more  numerous  and 
systematic.  Our  own  barbaric  ancestors 
believed  many  remarkable  and  ridiculous 


stories,  besides  those  that  are  described  in 
the  mythologies  of  the  Norsemen  and  Teu- 
tons. Some  of  these  stories  are  still  pre- 
served in  our  nursery-tales.  For  example,  it 
seems  that  Little  Red  Riding  Hood  is  none 
other  than  the  sun  itself,  according  to  the 
old  German  tale,  and  the  wolf  is  the  black 
night  which  swallows  her.  But  in  the  old 
story,  which  is  still  told  in  Germany,  the 
wolf  is  torn  open,  and  put  of  it  steps  the  little 
redcloaked  girl,  as  bright  as  ever,  being  in- 
deed the  morning  sun. 

Later  in  history  we  hear  of  another  class  of 
myths,  which  we  do  not  always  think  of  as 
constituting  a  mythology,  perhaps.  These 
are  the  wonderful  stories  told  of  Arthur, 
king  of  Britain  and  defender  of  the  Christian 
faith  against  the  heathen  Saxons;  and  the 
stories  told  of  Charlemagne  and  of  Alexander 
the  Great.  It  is  not  certain  that  Arthur  ever 
lived  at  all;  if  he  did  he  was  only  a  British 
chieftain,  and  his  success  against  the  Saxons 
was  not  great.  But  the  defeated  Britons 
clung  to  his  memory,  and  with  each  passing 
generation  magnified  the  wonder  of  his  ex- 
ploits. Then  the  minstrels  of  the  dark  and  the 
middle  ages  converted  him  into  a  king  with 
all  the  characteristics  of  a  perfect  knight,  al- 
though of  such  knighthood  he  could  have 
known  nothing.  They  gave  him  a  Round 
Table  of  knights,  and  these  knights  had 
names.  They^  found  him  a  city,  and  de- 
scribed what  it  was  like  in  its  glory.  They 
gave  him  a  wife  and  told  how  she  betrayed 
him.  Though  all  this  was  mere  imagination, 
much  of  it  came  to  be  accepted  as  truth. 
In  like  manner  the  exploits  of  Charlemagne 
and  of  Alexander  were  exaggerated  and  mod- 
ified. Among  these  myths  should  be  men- 
tioned those  of  the  Nibelungenlied  (Siegfried, 
Gunther,  Brunhild),  which  have  been  made 
the  theme  of  many  great  operas.  They 
were  confused  with  the  Arthurian  myths, — • 
Tristranij  Parsifal  and  others  appearing  in 
both  senes.  But,  whereas  the  Arthurian 
myths  sprang  from  a  small  kernel  of  historic 
fact,  it  seems  that  the  Nibelungenlied  owed 
its  origin  to  stories  that  should  explain 
natural  events. 

We  must  not  suppose  that  the  age  of 
myths  and  mythmaking  has  altogether 
passed.  Besides  the  beliefs  still  held  by 
savages  and  by  the  less  educated  classes  in 
such  countries  as  Russia,  Japan,  India  and 
China,  and  beside  the  nursery  stories, — the 
myths  of  Jack  the  Giant  Killer  etc., — there 
is  a  constant  tendency  for  stories  to  spring 
up  in  connection  with  such  men  as  Washing- 
ton and  Lincoln,  which  appeal  to  our  love 
of  the  great  and  marvellous.  But  the  spread 
of  science  and  the  records  preserved  by  our 
newspapers,  with  the  love  of  accuracy  fos- 
tered by  our  historians,  tend  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  fresh  myths  and  to  break  down 
the  belief  in  old  ones. 

If,  now,  we  consider  the  science  of  myths, 
we  find  that  it  deals  with  the  comparison  of 


MYTHOLOGY 


1296 


MYTHOLOGY 


myths,  in  order  to  note  tneir  resemblances 
and  differences;  with  the  classification  of 
myths;  and  with  the  study  of  the  causes  of 
myths.  As  regards  the  comparison  of  myths 
we  have  already  noted  the  remarkable  re- 
semblance between  myths  taken  from  all 
parts  of  the  world,  even  in  those  held  by  Aus- 
tralians and  by  Greeks.  This  is  probably  to 
be  explained,  not  by  supposing  that  these 
myths  were  formed  when  the  ancestors  of 
Australians,  Negroes,  Greeks  and  other 
races  lived  together,  for  it  is  doubtful  whether 
they  ever  did;  nor  by  supposing  that  the 
stories  have  spread  from  one  nation  to  an- 
other, encircling  the  globe,  for  there  are  too 
many  difficulties  in  the  way,  and  there  is  no 
evidence  of  exchange  in  other  things  more 
likely  to  be  exchanged.  Rather  the  cause 
of  this  fundamental  resemblance  is  simply 
that  men  are  fundamentally  everywhere 
much  alike,  and  the  world  that  they  face  is 
the  same.  Hence  they  came  to  invent  every- 
where much  the  same  stories  to  make  the 
world  seem  comprehensible  to  themselves. 
This  comparison  of  myths  also  shows  many 
differences  between  the  myths  of  different 
races.  Those  of  savages  are  marked  by 
their  monstrous  and  ridiculous  character* 
The  Hindu  myths  preserve  the  character- 
istics of  immensity  and  indefiniteness.  The 
Egyptian  stories  seem  to  be  full  of  hideous 
and  senseless  details,  whose  use  apparently 
was  to  show  the  people  why  they  must  ob- 
serve certain  rites  and  ceremonies  which  the 
priests  required  of  them  and  also  to  inspire 
them  with  a  fear  of  the  strange  and  horrible 
deities.  The  Scandinavian  myths  are  stories 
of  strength  and  savage  war,  relieved  by  a 
peculiar  rough  humor  and  by  touches  of 
pathos.  The  Greek  myths  are  distinguished, 
not  only  by  the  charm  of  the  stories  told, 
but  by  the  definiteness  and  beauty  of  the 
personalities  of  many  of  the  gods  and  heroes, 
The  Romans  borrowed  practically  all  their 
myths  from  the  Greeks,  except  perhaps  the 
story  of  Romulus.  The  myths  of  the  middle 
ages  were  marked  by  the  large  place  that  ro- 
mantic sentiment  played  in  them  and  by  the 
frequent  insistence  on  the  higher  virtues  of 
honor  and  justice,  compassion  and  courtesy 

With  regard  to  classification,  myths  may 
be  grouped  under  the  divisions  of  theriomor- 
phic  and  anthropomorphic  myths.  All 
myths  give  the  forces  of  nature  a  person- 
ality: tnerwmorphic  myths  make  the  per- 
sonality that  of  a  beast,  anthropotnorphic 
ones  that  of  a  man.  The  former  are  the  ear- 
lier myths,  and  are  much  more  common  still 
among  savages;  but,  as  pointed  out  above, 
remnants  of  such  myths  are  found  in  the 
highest  mythologies. 

A  better  classification  is  according  to  the 
purpose  they  serve.  Myths  are  explanatory, 
esthetic  or  allegorical.  The  first  class  ex- 
plains the  beginnings  of  nature  and  its  won- 
ders As  subdivisions  we  may  note  myths 
that  explain  the  beginning  of  the  world,  the 


beginning  of  man,  the  discovery  of  the  arts, 
as  firemaking,  corn-planting  (compare  Hia- 
watha) and  music;  those  that  explain  death, 
which  to  the  savage  seems  unnatural;  and 
those  that  explain  the  sun,  moon  and  stars 
and  other  phenomena  of  the  heavens.  Fi- 
nally there  are  myths  that  explain  customs. 
For  instance,  the  fact  that  an  Indian  tribe 
holds  a  certain  animal  or  tree  sacred  is  ex- 
plained by  saying  that  the  tribe  is  descended 
from  that  animal  or  tree  (compare  Exodus 
xiii).  The  next  class,  the  esthetic  myth, 
deals  with  the  great  and  beautiful.  Of  course 
many  explanatory  myths  are  esthetic  also, 
for  example,  the  myth  of  Hercules,  wherein 
the  hero  turns  Mount  Atlas  into  stone,  and 
thus  "explains"  it;  and  the  myth  of  Theseus, 
whereby  the  name  of  the  ^Egean  Sea,  as  well 
as  many  Athenian  customs  and  practices1 
was  explained.  The  finest  of  the  esthetic 
myths  are  those  of  Greece,  as  the  stories  of 
Ulysses,  Achilles,  Jason,  Perseus,  Theseus 
and  Hercules  and  the  many  stories  of  the 
gods  and  of  the  lesser  divinities.  Hardly 
less  beautiful  are  the  myths  of  the  middle 
ages.  Some  of  these  were  silly  and  tiresome ; 
but  in  the  myths  of  King  Arthui  and  his 
knights  we  recognise  the  highest  merit 
The  third  type  of  myth,  the  allegorical,  is 
represented  by  such  stories  as  those  of  Bau- 
cis and  Philemon  and  of  Midas  which  convey 
a  moral  lesson.  It  is  quite  possible  that  these 
stories  had  some  basis  of  truth;  perhaps  an 
old  couple  were  preserved  when  some  city 
sank  into  a  lake.  Then  the  story  of  the  celes- 
tial warning  slowly  grew  around  the  mem- 
ory of  the  disaster.  So  perhaps  Midas  was 
indeed  an  avaricious  king.  Many  of  the 
fairy  stories  are  allegorical;  for  example,  the 
Beauty  and  the  Beast.  Ruskin's  King  o) 
the  Golden  River  i?  allegorical;  but  it  is  not 
a  myth,  because  no  one  is  expected  to  believe 
that  it  really  happened.  Many  explanatory 
myths  and  many  esthetic  myths  have  an  al- 
legorical character  also.  For  example,  the 
myth  of  Hercules  not  only  is  explanatory  and 
esthetic,  but  has  always  been  used  as  an  al- 
legory of  the  selection  of  duty  in  preference 
to  pleasure  and  ease.  In  most  myths  it  is 
easy  to  find  an  allegory,  but  they  are  not 
truly  allegorical,  because  that  is  not  the  main 
purpose  of  their  existence. 

Now  let  us  finally  consider  the  cause  of 
myths.  We  have  already  seen  that  one 
cause  is  the  astonishment  with  which  the  ig- 
norant man  of  any  age  views  the  actions  and 
the  forces  of  nature.  Next  to  ignorance  and 
to  astonishment  or  wonder  we  must  place  the 
delight  that  man  has  always  felt  in  imagina- 
tion. He  imagined  cause  after  cause  of  na- 
ture's wonders  until  he  thought  of  something 
great  or  terrible  enough  to  satisfy  him. 
Then  he  said  that  that  was  and  must  be  the 
cause.  The  fourth  cause  is  man's  tendency 
to  think  that  other  things  are  like  himself. 
We  often  see  men  attribute  such  thoughts  to 
horses  and  dogs  as  only  men  can  have.  Now- 


MYTHOLOGY 


1297 


MYXOMYCETES 


adays  we  are  impatient  with  men  who  insist 
on  doing  this ;  but  in  former  times  every  one 
did  it  and  to  a  much  greater  extent.  We 
speak  of  the  angry  sky,  the  threatening 
cloud,  the  fierce  winds,  the  gentle  breeze,  the 
smiling  dawn.  But  the  savage  and  the  man 
of  former  days  share  the  belief  that  the  sky 
really  is  an  angry  and  threatening  person 
and  that  the  bright  morning  is  indeed  the 
smile  of  the  sun  god  or  goddess.  A  fifth 
cause  of  myths  is  the  strange  and  lawless  ac- 
tions of  our  dreams ;  these  the  primitive  man 
regards  as  information  concerning  another 
world,  where  things  do  occur  in  what  we  call 
the  "crazy"  fashion  of  our  dreams.  Thus 
many  myths  are  just  like  nightmares,  so  hor- 
rible and  impossible  are  they.  Sixth  among 
the  causes  we  may  place  the  reverence  and 
fear  that  men  have  for  the  great  dead,  espe- 
cially for  ancestors.  These  they  often 
seemed  to  see  in  dreams,  as  if  they  lived  still. 
A  seventh  cause  is  the  delight  which  men,  as 
well  as  children  have  in  a  "make-believe" 
world.  The  myth-maker  dreamed  of  a  bet- 
ter world  that  perhaps  had  once  been  and 
perhaps  again  would  be;  and  this  dream  he 
called  true,  because  he  could  not  bear  to  be- 
lieve that  there  was  no  truth  in  it.  As  an 
eighth  cause  we  may  mention  the  activity  of 
priests  and  moralists  in  inventing  stories  or 
altering  traditions  in  such  a  way  as  to  per- 
suade people  who  believed  their  inventions 
to  conform  to  the  religious  practices  or  the 
moral  principles  which  were  thought  desir- 
able. Probably  this  is  the  explanation  of 
the  myth  that  Apollo  once  came  down  from 
heaven  to  drive  away  some  would-be  robbers 
of  his  temple.  Those  who  believed  the  story 
would  be  slow  to  incur  a  visit  from  the  god. 
It  is  highly  probable  that  a  mere  confusion  of 
words  sometimes  gave  rise  to  a  myth  among 
a  wonderloving  people.  Thus,  when  men 
sang  the  words  of  some  ancient  poet,  in  which 
he  told  how  the  sun  pursued  the  dawn,  they 


may  have  believed  that  he  described  an  act- 
ual pursuit  of  one  deity  by  another;  and  thus 
arose  the  story  of  Apollo  and  Daphne. 

We  have  therefore  suggested  nine  causes 
for  myths:  (i)  Ignorance,  (2)  astonishment 
or  wonder,  (3)  delight  in  the  play  of  the  im- 
agination, (4)  personification,  (5)  dreams, 

(6)  fear  or  reverence  for  ancestors  or  heroes, 

(7)  delight  in  contemplating  the  ideal  world, 
the  world   of  make-believe,    (8)    allegorical 
teaching  and  finally  (9)  the  misunderstand- 
ing of  metaphors.     This  list  of  causes  seems 
to  include  all  that  have  been  suggested  by 
different  writers  on  the  science  of  mythol- 
ogy; but  we  should  recall  the  theories  of 
Euhemerus   (316   B.  C.)   that  -myths  are  a 
mere  perversion  of  traditions  that  described 
what  actually  had  occurred  long  ago;  of  the 
Roman  Stoics  that  all  myths  are  allegorical; 
of  Herbert  Spencer  that  they  owe  their  ori- 
gin to  ancestor  worship ;  of  Max  Muller  that 
they  are  based  on  the  misunderstanding  of 
metaphors ;  and  of  Grimm  that  they  are  the 
work,  not  of  the  learned  few  who  would  di- 
rect the  many  ignorant,  but  of  the  people  at 
large. 

Myxomycetes  (^miks-o-mi-se'tez) ,  organ- 
isms commonly  called  slime-moulds,  which 
do  not  seem  to  be  related  to  any  group  of 
plants  and  have  raised  the  question  as  to 
whether  they  are  to  be  regarded  as  plants  or 
animals.  The  ordinary  body  is  a  mass  of 
naked  protoplasm,  called  the  plasmodium, 
suggesting  the  term  slime.  This  body  slips 
along  like  a  gigantic  amoeba.  Slime-moulds 
are  common  in  forests,  upon  black  soil,  fallen 
leaves,  decaying  logs,  and  are  slimy,  yellow 
or  orange  masses,  ranging  from  the  size  of  a 
pin-head  to  that  of  a  man's  hand.  In  cer- 
tain conditions  these  slimy  bodies  come  to 
rest  and  organize  elaborate  and  often  very 
beautiful  spore-cases.  As  is  often  remarked, 
the  body  of  these  organisms  is  animal-like, 
while  the  sporangia  are  plant-like, 


N 


1298 


NANA  SAHIB 


N 


N  (£«),  the  fourteenth  letter,  is  a  voiced 
consonant.  It  is  sounded  through  the  nose 
while  the  tongue  touches  the  upper  front 
teeth,  and  is  therefore  classed  as  a  den- 
tonasal  or  linguanasal.  It  also  is  a  liquid 
and  even  a  semivowel.  When  n  is  followed 
by  a  guttural,  they  form  one  nasal,  as  in 
ring,  or  the  n  becomes  more  nasal  and  the 
guttural  keeps  its  own  sound,  as  in  rink. 
If  n  and  the  following  guttural  belong  to 
different  syllables,  n  usually  remains  n,  as 
in  engage.  Its  commonest  sound  occurs  in 
done,  nasal,  ran,  but  when  followed  by  k 
or  hard  g,  n  becomes  the  ng  of  sing,  as  in 
sink,  single.  N  preceded  by  I  or  m  at  the 
end  of  a  word  is  silent,  as  in  kiln,  hymn. 

Nadir  (nd'der),  an  Arabic  word  used  by 
astronomers  to  denote  the  point  just  op- 
posite the  zenith.  The  zenith  being  the 
point  immediately  over  head,  the  nadir 
might  be  defined  as  the  point  immediately 
under  foot.  A  plumb-bob  suspended  by  a 
string  always  points  to  the  nadir  and  to 
the  zenith,  at  the  same  time. 

Nagasaki  (na-ga-sd'ke),  a  seaport  town  of 
Japan,  for  two  centuries  was  the  only  har- 
bor in  the  kingdom  open  to  the  world.  In 
1859  it  became  one  of  the  five  open  ports. 
Its  harbor  is  a  beautiful  inlet,  of  over  three 
miles,  having,  near  its  head,  the  island  of 
Deshima,  which  from  1637  to  1859  was  the 
trading-post  and  prison-house  of  the  Dutch 
traders.  The  great  Takashima  coal-mine 
on  an  island  eight  miles  seaward,  makes 
Nagasaki  an  important  coaling-station.  Its 
imports  (besides  tea  and  raw  silk)  include 
rice,  textiles,  porcelain  and  lacquer-ware. 
The  foreign  settlement  is  on  the  east  side 
of  the  harbor.  The  city  has  English,  Amer- 
ican and  Dutch  missions  and  a  community 
of  native  Christians.  Population  176,480. 

Nagoya  (nd'gd-ya),  one  of  the  largest  and 
commercially  active  cities  of  Japan,  the 
chief  town  of  the  province  of  Owari,  lies  at 
the  head  of  the  shallow  Owari  Bay,  about 
30  miles  from  its  port,  with  which  it  com- 
municates by  means  of  light-draught  steam- 
ers. It  is  one  of  the  largest  seats  for  pottery- 
works,  and  turns  out  large  quantities  of 
fans  and  enamels.  Nagoya  Castle,  in  about 
400  acres  of  grounds  north  of  the  city,  was 
built  in  1610,  and  is  the  headquarters  of 
the  Nagoya  military  district.  A  superior 
court,  middle  school,  girls'  school,  normal 
school,  hospital,  prefecture,  telegraph  and 
ppstomces  are  the  buildings  of  foreign  style. 
Population  378,231. 


Nagpur  (nag' poor1'),  a  city  in  British  In- 
dia and  capital  of  the  Central  Provinces. 
It  is  a  beautiful  town,  well-wooded,  having 
attractive  gardens  and  suburbs,  but  its  high 
temperature  makes  it  unhealthy.  It  manu- 
factures fine  cloth-fabrics  and  has  a  good 
trade  in  wheat,  salt,  spices  and  European 

foods.  Here  1,350  British  under  Colonel 
cott  defeated  18,000  Mahrattas  on  Nov. 
27,  1817.  Population  127,734. 

Na'hum,  the  seventh  of  the  minor  prophets 
His  book  is  inscribed  The  Burden  of  Nineveh, 
the  book  of  the  vision  of  Nahum  the  Elko- 
shite.  Students  have  dated  this  prophecy  be- 
tween the  fall  of  Thebes  (666  B.  C.),  which 
is  mentioned,  and  606  B.  C.,  the  date  of  the 
destruction  of  Nineveh.  Of  Nahum's  per- 
sonal history  nothing  is  known. 

Nails.  The  making  of  nails  by  hand  has 
been  an  established  manufacture  in  Birming- 
ham, England,  for  300  years.  Before  the 
successful  but  very  gradual  introduction  of 
machine-made  nails,  60,000  men,  women 
and  children  were  engaged  in  the  industry 
in  that  district.  They  all  worked  in  small 
shops  or  sheds  attached  to  their  houses.  In 
1 86 1  the  number  employed  was  only  20,- 
ooo,  and  nearly  half  were  females.  Hand- 
made nails  were  supplanted  by  cut  nails, 
which  in  turn  have  given  way  to  wire  nails, 
except  for  horseshoe  nails.  They  are  made 
by  machinery  from  specially  prepared  steel 
wire.  The  wire  is  fed  from  a  reel  into  a 
machine,  and  at  each  turn  of  the  flywheel 
a  nail  is  headed,  pointed  and  cut  off.  The 
wire  runs  between  rolls  that  straighten  it 
and  so  cause  the  nails  to  be  straight,  and 
the  length  of  the  nail  and  the  size  of  the 
head  are  made  what  is  wanted.  Five  hun- 
dred small  nails  a  minute  can  be  made,  or 
125  large  ones.  Over  500,000  tons  of  wire 
are  annually  made  into  nails  in  the  United 
States.  New  England  is  the  center  of 
American  nailmaking ;  Taunton,  Mass.,  the 
world's  tackmaking  center. 

Nana  Sahib  (nd'nd  sd'hib),  the  name  ap- 
plied to  Dundhu  Panth,  the  adopted  son 
of  a  former  ruler  of  the  Mahrattas,  when 
he  led  the  Indian  mutiny  of  1857.  He  was 
born  about  1825  and  educated  as  a  Hindu 
nobleman,  but  was  active  in  stirring  up 
dissatisfaction  with  English  rule,  and  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  mutiny  was  proclaimed 
ruler  and  was  directly  responsible  for  the 
massacres  at  Cawnpore.  After  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  rebellion  he  fled  to  Nepal.  The 
date  of  his  death  is  unknown,  probably  1860. 


NANAIMO 


1299 


NANTICOKE 


Nanaimo  (nd-ni'mo),  a  city  of  6,130  souls, 
lying  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Vancouver 
Island,  British  Columbia,  is  of  great  im- 
portance as  a  coaling-station,  being  the  ship- 
ping port  of  the  important  mines  near  by. 
Nancy  (nan's?),  capital  of  the  French 
department  of  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  lies  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Meurthe  at  the  foot  of 
the  hills.  It  comprises  both  the  old  and 
new  towns,  and  contains  fine  squares  and 
beautiful  buildings,  among  them  the  Hotel- 
de-Ville,  the  bishop's  palace,  the  theater  and 
the  churches  Des  Cordeliers,  N6tre  Dame  de 
Bonsecours  (1738)  and  St.  Epvre.  The  statue 
of  Stanislaus  Leszcynski,  king  of  Poland,  who 
lived  here  from  1 73  5  to  1 7 66  as  Duke  of  Lor- 
raine, stands  in  the  principal  square.  The  city 
has  manufactories  of  cotton  and  woolen 
goods,  artificial  flowers,  iron  etc.,  but  its 
greatest  industry  is  embroidery  on  cambric 
and  muslin.  From  the  i2th  century  it  was 
the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Lorraine ;  it  also  is 
the  scene  of  the  death  of  Charles  the  Bold, 
1477,  and  the  birthplace  of  Callot  and  Claude 
Lorraine.  The  town  was  occupied  by  the 
German  army  in  1870.  Population  119,949. 
Nanking  (ndn'kln'),  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Kiangsu  (and  formerly  of  China),  is 
situated  on  the  Yangtse,  130  miles  from  its 
mouth.  Since  the  removal  of  the  capital 
to  Peking,  the  official  name  has  been  Keang- 
ning-fu.  When  it  was  the  capital  of  the 
Taiping  rebels  from  1853  to  1864,  the  latter 
destroyed  the  Porcelain  tower,  the  summer 
palace,  the  tomb  of  the  kings  and  all  the 
other  buildings  for  which  it  was  famous, 
and  also  part  of  the  walls,  formerly  20 
miles  around  and  in  some  places  70  feet 
high.  Since  its  recapture  it  has  recovered 
a  little.  The  manufacture  of  nankeen  and 
satin  has  been  resumed.  It  was  captured  by 
the  English  in  1842.  In  1899  the  Chinese 
government  declared  Nanking  open  to 
foreign  trade.  Population  270,000. 

Nan' sen,  Fridtjof  (jret'yof  nan' sen),  a 
Norwegian  Arctic  explorer,  was  born  near 
Christiana,  Nor- 
way, Oct  10,  1861. 
When  21,  he  be- 
came curator  of  the 
zoological  depart- 
ment of  the  museum 
at  Bergen  and  de- 
voted himself  to  its 
improvement.  In  a 
number  of  exploring 
expeditions  he 
showed  such  fertil- 
ity of  resource  and 
such  physical  en- 
durance that  he  was 
given  larger  fields  of 
operation.  In  1882 
he  explored  the 
seas  about  Green- 
MIIDTJOF  NANSEN  land.  In  1888-89 


he  crossed  Greenland,  passing  over  its  ice- 
cap from  east  to  west,  and  returned  safe, 
contrary  to  the  predictions  of  his  critics. 
With  his  thoughts  still  on  the  problems  of 
the  polar  seas  he  designed  a  boat  in  1892 
to  withstand  the  effects  of  any  ice- jam; 
and  in  this  vessel,  the  From,  he  set  out 
from  Vardo,  Norway,  in  1893,  intending  to 
reach  the  pole  by  sailing  east  until  the 
right  opportunity  should  offer  for  per- 
mitting his  boat  to  be  frozen  into  the  ice 
pack.  It  was  his  belief  that  the  pack  itself 
would  drift  him  across  the  polar  sea.  His  sur- 
mises were  in  part  correct.  He  attained 
the  highest  latitude  north,  but  not  within 
many  leagues  of  the  pole.  He  was  not 
heard  of  again  until  Aug.  13,  1896,  when 
his  safe  return  was  announced.  His  farthest 
north  was  about  three  degrees  farther  north 
(86°  14'  N.)  than  the  point  attained  by  the 
Alert  in  1876.  His  published  works  are 
Across  Greenland,  Esk-imo  Life  and  Fartliest 
North.  He  lectured  in  the  United  States 
after  his  return  from  the  polar  expedition 
of  1893-96,  upon  which  his  chief  distinction 
rests.  Of  late  years  he  has  been  professor 
of  zoology  at  Christiania  University,  and 
recently  has  acted  as  Norwegian  ambas- 
sador to  England. 

Nantes  (nants,  French  ndnt),  the  ninth 
largest  city  of  France  and  capital  of  the 
department  of  Loire-Inferieure,  lies  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Loire,  35  miles  from  its 
mouth.  Demolished  between  1865  and  1870, 
Nantes  has  grown  by  nature  and  by  art  to 
be  one  of  the  handsomest  cities  in  France. 
Its  unfinished  cathedral  (1434-1852)  con- 
tains the  celebrated  monument  to  the  duke 
and  duchess  of  Brittany.  Among  its  note- 
worthy buildings  are  the  ducal  castle,  the 
occasional  residence  of  Charles  VIII  and  the 
place  where,  on  April  13,  1598,  Henry  IV 
signed  the  famous  Edict  of  Nantes;  the 
Church  of  St.  Nicholas,  the  palace  of  jus- 
tice, the  theater,  postoffice,  museum  and 
library  of  50,000  volumes.  Nantes,  the 
former  capital  of  Brittany,  is  the  scene  of 
the  marriage  of  Anne  of  Brittany  to  Louis 
XI  (1499),  the  embarkation  of  theYoung 
Pretender  (1745)  and  the  arrest  of  the 
Duchess  deBerri  (1832).  Population  170,535. 

Nan'ticoke,  Pa.,  a  borough  of  Luzenie 
County,  on  a  branch  of  the  Susquehanna 
and  on  the  Central  of  New  Jersey,  Dela- 
ware, Lackawanna  and  Western  and  Penn- 
sylvania railroads,  20  miles  southwest  of 
Scranton  and  eight  miles  from  WUkes- 
barre,  the  county-seat.  A  portion  of  the 
town,  known  as  West  Nanticoke,  lies  across 
the  riverain  Plymouth  township.  Its  chief 
industry  is  the  shipping  and  hauling  of  coal, ' 
being  in  the  anthracite  coal-mining  regions. 
The_  chief  manufacturing  establishments  are 
mining  and  agricultural  implements,  floui 
and  grist  mills,  lumber  mills,  cigar  factories 
a  canning  factory,  hosiery  mills,  two  silk- 


NANTUCKET 


1300 


NAPLES 


throwing  mills  and  a  large  knitting  factory. 
Population  18,877. 

Nantuck'et,  an  island  off  the_  south- 
eastern coast  of  Massachusetts.  It  is  about 
15  miles  long  and  much  frequented  as  a 
summer-resort.  The  town  lies  on  the  north 
shore.  It  formerly  was  a  great  whale- 
fishing  center.  Population,  3,220. 

Naphtha  (naf'tha  or  nap'iha)  is  derived 
from  a  Persian  word  meaning  to  exude  and 
was  originally  used  to  designate  the  liquid 
hydrocarbons  that  ooze  from  the  ground 
about  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  was  also  applied 
to  the  natural  oils,  found  universally,  and 
to  the  oil  derived  from  the  Boghead  mineral 
in  Scotland.  But  since  the  discovery  of 
Scotch  paraffine  and  American  petroleum 
the  name  has  been  applied  only  to  the 
lighter,  explosive  and  unsafe  oils  and, 
strictly  speaking,  to  the  products  of  dis- 
tillation from  mineral  oils,  coal-tar,  india- 
rubber,  bones,  peat  and  wood,  the  latter 
being  known  also  as  methylalcohol.  LPetro- 
leum  (American)  contains  from  15  to  20 
per  cent,  of  naphtha,  which  is  separated 
into  gasoline,  benzine  and  benzoline.  The 
tar  derived  from  the  reduction  of  coal 
yields  from  5  to  20  per  cent.  The  spirit 
obtained  from  the  destructive  distillation  of 
india-rubber  is  called  caoutchin.  Bone- 
naphtha  or  Dippel's  animal-oil  is  obtained 
by  distillation  of  bones  in  the  manufacture 
of  animal  charcoal. 

Napier  (nap'yer),  Sir  Charles  James,  a 
British  general,  the  conqueror  of  Scinde, 
was  born  on  Aug.  10,  1782,  at  London. 
Being  commissioned  in  his  i2th  year,  he 
served  during  the  Irish  rebellion,  and,  at 
the  battle  (Corunna)  in  which  Sir  John 
Moore  died,  he  was  five  times  wounded  and 
taken  prisoner.  He  served  in  1811  in  the 
Peninsula,  where  he  took  part  at  Coa, 
Busaco  —  where  his  jaw  was  broken  and 
eye  injured  by  a  shot  —  Fuentes  d'Onoro 
and  Badajoz.  He  also  took  part  in  the 
Anglo-American  War  of  1812.  In  1818  he 
was  made  governor  of  Cephalonia;  in  1838 
a  K.  C.  B.;  and  in  1841  was  sent  to  India 
to  command  the  army  of  Bombay  against 
the  Ameers  of  Scinde.  Here  his  most  re- 
markable feat  was  the  destruction  of  the 
fortification  of  Emaun  Ghur,  1843,  followed 
by  the  battle  of  Meanee  (Miani),  where, 
with  2,080  English  and  Sepoys,  he  defeated 
22,000  Baluchs.  He  died  near  Portsmouth, 
Aug.  29,  1853.  See  the  biography  by  his 
brother  and  the  short  Life  by  Sir.  W. 
Butler. 

Napier,  William  Francis  Patrick,  K. 
C.  B.,  brother  of  Sir  Charles,  was  born  near 
Dublin,  Dec.  17,  1785.  He  served  in  the 
Peninsular  campaign  and  retired  as  a  lieu- 
tenant-general. He  also  wrote  a  famous 
History  of  the  Wa*  in  the  Peninsula,  The 
Conquest  of  Scinde  and  the  Life  of  Sir 
Charles  Napier.  He  died  at  Clapham,  Lon- 


don, Feb.  10,  1860.  See  his  Life  and  Letters, 
edited  by  Bruce. 

Naples  (nd'plz),  until  1860  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  is  the  largest  Italian 
city  and  one  of  the  busiest  ports,  exporting 
wine,  olive-oil,  chemicals,  perfumery,  live 
animals,  animal  products,  hemp,  flax  and 
cereals,  and  importing  cereals,  metals,  cot- 
tons, woolens,  earthenware,  silks,  groceries 
etc.  The  well-known  proverb :  ' '  See  Naples 
and  die"  originated  on  account  of  its 
attractiveness  and  delightful  climate.  Naples 
lies  upon  the  base  and  sides  of  a  hill-range 
rising  from  the  sea  and  divided  into  two 
unequal  parts.  The  most  ancient  part  of 
the  city,  in  the  eastern  crescent,  is  divided 
from  north  to  south  by  its  oldest  street, 
Via  Toledo  (now  Via  di  Roma),  and  is  the 
most  populous  district  of  its  size  in  Europe. 
Back  of  the  wharf  extending  to  Castel  del 
Carmine  lies  the  poorest  and  most  densely- 
peopled  quarter.  The  city  is  always  full 
of  life,  the  streets  crowded  and  noisy.  There 
are  few  buildings  of  any  note,  only  the 
forts  and  gates,  university,  royal  palace, 
catacombs,  national  museum  and  law-courts 
being  worth  a  visit.  It  has  three  large 
libraries,  the  national,  the  university  and 
the  Brancacciana.  The  university,  founded 
in  1224,  has  81  professors,  and  4,745  stu- 
dents. Population  723,208. 

Naples,  a  former  kingdom  in  southern 
Italy,  owed  its  creation  to  Greek  colonists, 
the  two  settlements,  Pakeopolis  and  Neapo- 
Us,  long  existing  as  one  community,  Par- 
thenope.  After  the  subjugation  by  Rome 
only  Neapolis  remained,  and  this  became 
Rome's  ally.  After  resisting  Pyrrhus  and 
Hannibal,  it  fell,  by  treachery,  into  the  con- 
trol of  Sulla's  friends,  who  murdered  its 
people  (82  B.  C.).  Under  the  empire  it 
became  a  famous  residence  place  on  account 
of  its  poets  and  its  climate.  After  the  fall 
of  Rome  it  sided  with  the  Goths,  but  was 
taken  by  Belisarius  (536)  and,  six  years 
after,  by  Totila.  Soon  afterwards  the  By- 
zantine emperors  acquired  it  through  Narses, 
and  it  was  made  the  head  of  a  duchy.  As 
such  it  revolted  and  remained  independent 
until  conquered  by  the  Normans  in  the  nth 
century.  In  1266  the  popes  gave  the  sov- 
ereignty of  Naples  to  Charles  of  Anjou,  but 
during  the  reign  of  Robert  I  the  predomi- 
nance of  the  papal  party,  the  ravages  of 
the  Germans,  the  depravity  of  Juana, 
Robert's  heiress,  and  the  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts to  recover  Sicily  were  the  only  im- 
portant events  that  marked  the  Angevin 
rule,  which  ended  with  Juana  II  in  1435. 
Then  succeeded  the  Aragon  rule.  Between 
1494  and  1504  France  and  Spain  fought  for 
the  possession  of  Naples,  but  it  was  united 
with  Sicily,  forming  the  Two  Sicilies,  and 
was  governed  by  Spanish  viceroys  down  to 
1707.  In  that  year  Austria  wrested  Naples 
from  Spain  only  to  give  it  in  1735  to  Don 
Carlos,  who  founded  the  Bourbon  rule.  In 


NAPOLEON  I 


X30I 


NAPOLEON  1 


1789  it  was  invaded  by  the  French  troops 
and  in  1806,  when  Napoleon  proclaimed  his 
brother  Joseph  king.  In  1808  the  crown 
was  given  to  Joachim  Murat,  but  on  his 
defeat  and  execution  in  1815  the  Bourbon 
monarch  was  restored.  The  revolutions  of 
1821  and  1848  led  to  the  overthrow  of  the 
Bourbon  government  by  Garibaldi  and  to 
the  incorporation  of  Sardinia  and  Naples 
with  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  1861.  Naples 
(Napoli)  to-day  is  a  province  of  Italy,  with 
an  area  of  350  square  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  1,354,896.  See  History  of  the  King- 
dom of  Naples  by  Colletta,  translated  by  S. 
Homer. 

Napo'leon  I,  first  emperor  of  modern 
France,  was  born  at  Ajaccio,  Corsica,  Aug. 
15,  1769,  of  an  ancient  Italian  family,  and 
ten  years  later  entered  the  royal  military 
school  at  Brienne  le  Chateau,  from  which 
he  was  transferred  to  the  military  school  at 
Paris.  He  graduated  as  second  lieutenant, 
and  began  the  ambitious  career  that  char- 
acterized his  after-life  by  entering  the  first 
revolution  and  attempting  to  seize  the  Cor- 
sican  cities  for  France,  but  failing.  As 
lieutenant-colonel  in  the  second  revolution, 
he  attempted  to  capture  Sardinia,  but  failing, 
he  fled  to  France  with  his  entire  family, 
and  looked  here  for  glory  and  renown.  He 
joined  the  army  under  Carteaux,  and  acted 
as  chief  of  battalion  against  the  Marseillais, 
and  was  promoted  to  general  of  brigade  for 
planning  and  causing  the  fall  of  Toulon.  He 
was  given  command  of  the  army  of  Italy 
in  February,  1796,  and  two  days  before 
entering  upon  the  campaign  he  married 
Josephine,  the  widow  of  General  Beauhar- 
nais.  In  Italy  began  the  course  which 
marked  him  as  a  man  of  determination, 
force  and  quick  action,  and  by  wonderful 
strategies  he  defeated  the  allied  forces  of 
Italy  and  Austria.  In  this  campaign  he 
lost  not  even  a  single  engagement,  but 
moved  so  rapidly  and  decisively,  that  with 
an  army  of  about  half  the  number  of  the 
allies  he  won  repeated  victories  and  levied 
large  contributions  from  defeated  towns. 
After  his  victory  in  Italy,  he  decided  to 
move  on  Vienna,  but  Austria  made  over- 
tures for  peace,  ceding  to  France  Lombardy, 
Belgium  and  the  Ionian  Islands  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  treaty. 

On  his  return  to  France  the  directory, 
fearing  that  his  ambition  would  lead  him 
to  foment  a  revolution  for  personal  ends, 
placed  him  in  command  of  the  army  of 
England,  with  which  he  determined  to  con- 
quer Egypt  and  found  an  eastern  empire. 
He  reorganized  the  army  and  embarked  from 
Toulon  in  May,  1798.  Taking  Malta  on  the 
way,  he  arrived  at  Alexandria  and  marched 
on  Cairo,  which  he  entered  on  July  24.  His 
fleet  was  destroyed  in  the  Nile  by  Nelson, 
and  he  turned  his  attention  to  Syria  and 
formed  a  brilliant  idea  of  overthrowing  Tur- 
key and  entering  Europe  through  Asia  Minor 


and  Constantinople.  However,  hearing  that 
the  armies  at  home  were  meeting  with  mis- 
fortune, he  embarked  for  France  secretly, 
leaving  the  army  in  command  of  Kle'ber. 
He  arrived  at  Paris  just  in  time  to  fill  the 
want  of  the  leaders,  who  were  looking  for 
a  man  to  place  at  the  head  of  the  new 
movement.  The  revolution  of  Nov.  10,  1799, 
gave  rise  to  the  formation  of  a  new  consti- 
tution, which  Napoleon  assisted  in  framing, 
and  by  it  the  provisional  government  was 
vested  in  three  consuls,  of  whom  Napoleon 
was  elected  president.  He  thus  became 
practically  sole  ruler  of  France.  Then,  in 
1800,  after  failing  to  conclude  peace  with 
Austria  and  England,  he  determined  to  stake 
all  on  the  chance  of  a  campaign,  and  entered 
Italy  desperate  for  victory.  He  was  saved 
from  defeat  by  Melas,  on  the  plain  of  Ma- 
rengo,  by  the  timely  arrival  of  Desaix's 
army.  Upon  Moreau's  victory  at  Hohen- 
linden  he  made  peace  with  Germany  and 
England,  gaining  all  of  Italy. 

He  then  turned  his  attention  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  permanent  civil  institutions,  re- 
storing the  church,  establishing  the  judicial 
system,  the  codes,  the  system  of  local  gov- 
ernment, the  university,  bank  of  France  and 
the  Legion  of  Honor.  This  done  and  peace 
thoroughly  established,  he  was  fired  by  the 
ambition  to  become  the  ruler  of  the  world, 
and  after  being  elected  first  consul  for  life, 
he  ruptured  the  peace  with  England  by 
proceeding  upon  Holland,  Genoa  and  Pied- 
mont, demanding  that  England  should  sup- 
press all  papers  criticising  his  actions  and 
drive  all  French  refugees  from  its  shores. 
He  entered  Germany,  seized  Hannover  and 
assumed  the  crown.  He  then  roused  the 
royalists  by  executing  the  Due  D'Enghien, 
and,  winning  the  republicans  over  to  his 
way  of  thinking,  he  chose  the  title  of  em- 
peror, which  was  confirmed  by  the  senate, 
May  18,  1804.  The  advance  upon  England 
was  met  by  a  coalition  of  England,  Austria, 
Prussia  and  Russia;  but  Napoleon,  nothing 
daunted,  marched  upon  Austria  and  de- 
feated her  at  Austerlitz  in  December,  1805, 
breaking  up  the  coalition.  But  Prussia 
gathered  her  armies  in  August,  1806,  and 
was  joined  by  Russia.  They  were  defeated 
at  Jena  and  Auersta'dt  on  Oct.  14,  and 
Berlin  was  taken  on  Oct.  27.  Then  the 
Russians  were  defeated  at  Friedland  in  June, 
1807,  and  by  the  ensuing  peace  Prussia  lost 
half  her  territory.  Napoleon's  great  aim 
was  the  humiliation  of  England,  and  to 
this  end  he  caused  all  continental  ports  to 
be  closed  against  her;  but  England  retali- 
ated by  defeating  his  army  in  Spain  and 
Portugal.  In  Germany,  also,  revolt  was 
rife,  Austria  leading  the  way,  and  after 
several  attempts  to  cross  the  Danube,  Napo- 
leon defeated  them  at  Wagram,  July  5, 
1809,  and  received  a  I?,rge  part  of  their  ter- 
ritory as  indemnity.  He,  however,  greatly 
offended  the  czar  by  giving  Galicia  to  Po- 


NAPOLEON  III 


1302 


NARCISSUS 


land.  His  wife  bearing  him  no  children,  he 
divorced  her  and  married  Maria  Louisa  of 
Austria,  by  whom  he  had  a  son. 

His  persistency  against  England  brought 
him  into  conflict  with  Russia,  and  Napoleon 
determined  to  invade  that  country.  So, 
with  600,000  men,  he  crossed  the  continent, 
being  greeted  by  the  king  of  Prussia  and 
emperor  of  Austria,  and  entered  Russian  soil 
on  June  24,  1812.  He  defeated  the  Russians 
at  Borodino  and  entered  Moscow  on  Sept. 
14,  on  which  a  great  fire  broke  out  and 
lasted  until  the  2oth.  He  resolved  upon  a 
retreat  on  Oct.  18,  and  upon  reaching  the 
frontier  had  but  100,000  men  left.  He  re- 
turned to  France  to  raise  new  armies,  while 
Russia  joined  with  Prussia  and  Saxony  to 
withstand  his  attack.  They  met,  in  a  vic- 
tory for  Napoleon,  May  2,  1813,  at  Lutzen, 
and  Austria  was  appointed  a  mediating 
power  to  effect  peace  or  declare  war  in 
case  of  refusal.  Napoleon  paid  no  attention 
to  the  ultimatum,  so  on  Aug.  n  he  found 
himself  at  war,  with  400,000  men,  with  all 
the  powers  of  Europe.  He  was  terribly  de- 
feated at  Leipsic  between  Oct.  14  and  19, 
and  retired  to  Mainz  with  only  70,000  men. 
The  allied  armies  separated  and,  after  the 
defeat  of  Blucher  four  times  in  four  days 
by  Napoleon,  they  joined  forces,  marched 
upon  Paris  and  took  it  on  March  30,  1814. 
Wellington  then  came  from  Portugal  and 
entered  French  soil.  Napoleon  offered  to 
abdicate  in  favor  of  his  son,  but  this  was 
refused,  and  he  retired  unconditionally  on 
April  ii,  1814,  being  given  the  sovereignty 
of  Elba,  a  tiny  Italian  island. 

The  accession  of  the  Bourbons  was  un- 
popular and  Napoleon  thought  he  could  save 
France  from  ruin.  So,  on  March  20,  1815, 
he  again  entered  Paris  at  the  head  of  the 
army.  He  had,  however,  become  old  and 
sick,  and  while  his  conceptions  and  plans 
were  as  brilliant  as  ever,  the  execution  of 
the  campaign  of  Waterloo  failed.  The  Eng- 
lish under  Wellington  and  the  Prussians 
under  Blucher  were  against  him.  On  the 
1 6th  of  June  he  defeated  Blucher  at  Ligny, 
but  failed  to  follow  up  the  victory.  When 
he  turned  against  Wellington,  the  Prussians, 
unknown  to  him,  were  in  the  rear,  and  this 
caused  the  defeat  at  Waterloo  on  June  18. 
He  fled  to  Paris,  and  finally  abdicated,  June 
92.  Finding  escape  impossible  he  surren- 
dered on  July  15,  and  was  sent  a  prisoner 
to  St.  Helena,  where  he  died  of  cancer  of 
the  stomach  on  May  5,  1821.  See  Seeley's 
Short  Life;  Memoirs  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte 
by  Bourrienne;  and  the  Correspondence  of 
Napoleon  I.  Carlyle's  picture  in  Heroes, 
Emerson's  Napoleon  in  Representative  Men 
and  Channing  s  Napoleon  repay  reading. 

Napoleon  HI  or  Charles  Louis  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,  the  second  French  emperor,  was 
born  at  Paris  on  April  20,  1808.  His  father 
was  king  of  Holland  and  brother  of  the  first 
emperor,  and  his  mother  was  the  step- 


daughter of  Napoleon  I.  He  was  educated 
by  his  mother  in  exile  in  Switzerland  and  at 
the  gymnasium  at  Augsburg,  but  until  1836, 
during  his  life  in  Switzerland,  he  essentially 
was  a  student  and  writer.  Nevertheless,  the 
prestige  of  the  institutions  of  Napoleon  I 
cast  some  reflected  light  on  Charles  Louis, 
who  looked  with  longing  eyes  toward  the 
throne  of  France,  then  occupied  by  Louis 
Philippe.  Indeed,  he  went  so  far  in  1836 
as  to  appear  among  the  military  at  StraSs- 
burg  and  endeavor  to  win  them,  but  he 
failed,  and  was  taken  and  brought  to  the 
United  States  without  trial.  He,  however, 
again  returned  to  Switzerland,  of  which  gov- 
ernment France  demanded  his  expulsion, 
but  it  was  refused.  To  avert  trouble  he 
went  to  England,  and  in  1840  made  his 
second  attempt  to  gain  the  throne  by  land- 
ing at  Boulogne,  but  was  this  time  taken 
prisoner  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for 
life  at  the  fortress  of  Ham.  Here  he  re- 
mained, writing  many  books  and  editing  the 
French  Dictionaire  de  la  Conversation,  until 
he  made  his  escape  to  Belgium,  May  25, 
1846.  Immediately  upon  the  success  of  the 
workingmen  in  the  Revolution  of  1848  he 
returned  to  France  and  was  elected  to  the 
constituent  assembly  from  Paris  and  three 
other  districts,  but  resigned  his  seat  two 
days  after  taking  it  and  left  France.  In 
September,  1848,  he  was  recalled  by  his 
election  from  five  districts  and  immediately 
began  the  canvass  for  the  election  to  the 
presidency,  which  he  received  by  an  over- 
whelming vote.  For  a  while  he  lived  up  to 
his  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  republic,  but 
only  as  a  cloak  to  place  the  military  under 
control  of  his  friends  and  lay  plans  for  the 
revival  of  the  empire.  On  Dec.  2,  1851, 
by  force  of  arms  he  routed  the  national 
assembly  and  in  that  month  was  re-elected 
for  ten  years,  only  to  assume  the  imperial 
title  within  a  year.  The  empire  being  now 
established,  he  broke  up  the  political  parties, 
courted  the  clergy,  and  adopted  a  showy 
foreign  policy.  This  led  to  the  Crimean  War 
and  the  difficulty  with  Austria  in  Lpmbardy. 
Though  in  these  operations  he  enjoyed  the 
support  of  Great  Britain,  his  relations  to 
Prussia  were  affected  by  jealousies  which 
finally  led  to  the  Franco- Prussian  War, 
which  proved  the  end  of  Napoleon's  power. 
He  surrendered  in  September,  1870,  and 
was  held  a  prisoner  until  the  declaration  of 
peace,  after  which  he  joined  the  empress  at 
Chiselhurst,  near  London,  where  he  died  on 
Jan.  9,  1873.  In  1865  he  had  published 
a  History  of  Julius  Ccesar,  which  was  never 
finished.  See  Blanchard  Jerrold's  Life  of 
Napoleon  III  and  Napoleon  the  Little  by 
Hugo. 

Narcis'sus,  genus  of  flowering  plants  with 
bulbous,  perennial  roots;  leaves  and  flower- 
stalks  annual.  The  name  is  from  a  Greek 
word  meaning  torpor,  and  has  reference  to 
the  narcotic  properties  of  the  plants.  There 


NARCOTICS 


1303 


NASHVILLE 


are  several  species,  among  them  daffodils 
and  jonquils.  The  narcissus  is  widely  dis- 
tributed in  the  Old  World,  being  found  in 
southern  Europe,  northern  Africa,  Persia, 
China  and  Japan.  The  flower  was  beloved 
of  the  ancients,  has  oft  been  sung  by  the 
poets,  and  about  it  cluster  myth  and 
legend.  Narcissus  poeticus  is  celebrated  in 
Greek  and  Roman  verse;  pseudo  narcissus 
is  the  common  English  daffodil;  N.  poly- 
anthus is  the  parent  of  the  cultivated  va- 
riety, grown  extensively  by  florists  and 
treasured  as  a  garden-flower. 

Narcot'ics.     See  POISONS. 

Nar'ragan'sett  Bay,  in  Rhode  Island,  is 
about  28  miles  in  length,  reaching  north 
from  the  Atlantic  into  the  state  and  being 
from  3  to  12  miles  wide.  It  divides  Rhode 
Island  into  two  unequal  parts,  of  which  the 
western  part  is  much  the  larger.  It  con- 
tains several  islands,  of  which  Aquidneck 
and  Prudence  are  the  largest.  The  Paw- 
tuxet  and  Pawtucket  empty  into  it. 

Narragansetts,  a  tribe  of  Indians  be- 
longing to  the  great  Algonquin  family. 
When  New  England  was  settled,  they  lived 
in  what  now  is  Rhode  Island.  They  then 
numbered  7,000  or  8,000,  but  were  more 
civilized  and  less  warlike  than  other  of  the 
New  England  tribes.  In  1621  Canonicus, 
their  sachem,  sent  a  bundle  of  arrows  tied 
with  snakeskin  to  Plymouth,  signifying  hos- 
tility. Governor  Bradford  changed  their 
purpose  by  promptly  returning  the  skin 
filled  with  bullets  and  powder.  Roger 
Williams  went  to  them  when  exiled  from 
Massachusetts,  and  had  influence  in  their 
councils,  persuading  them  to  peace  in  1636, 
when  they  again  were  hostile  to  the  whites. 
In  King  Philip's  War,  more  than  30  years 
afterward,  they  were  believed  to  be  aiding 
the  enemy,  and  the  English,  with  the  Mohe- 
gans  and  Pequots,  burned  their  fort.  They 
retaliated  and  a  large  force  was  sent  to 
punish  the  hostile  Narragansetts,  and  they 
were  nearly  exterminated.  The  few  who 
remained  became  civilized,  lived  in  peace 
with  the  whites,  and  lost  their  native  lan- 

S-age.      There    are    now    only    about    150 
arragansetts. 

Nar'ses,  statesman  and  general,  one  of 
the  supports  of  the  eastern  Roman  empire, 
was  born  in  Persian  Armenia  about  472 
A.  D.  From  a  low  position  he  rose  to  be 
keeper  of  the  privy  purse  to  Emperor  Jus- 
tinian. Some  years  later  he  was  given  sole 
command  in  Italy.  His  conduct  of  this 
campaign  was  very  masterly;  having  no 
transports,  he  marched  his  army  around 
the  Adriatic,  encountered  the  Ostrogoths  at 
Taginse  and  defeated  them,  slaying  their 
king.  After  further  successes  and  taking 
possession  of  Rome,  Narses  completely 
destroyed  the  Gothic  power.  He  was  then 
made  prefect  of  Italy  and  held  court  at 
Ravenna  until  the  death  ot  Justinian,  when, 
being  accused  of  avarice  and  extortion  by 


the  people,  he  was  removed  by  Justin 
(567).  Narses  died  at  Rome  about  573 
A.  D.  See  Goth's  Justinian  and  Hodgkin's 
Italy  and  Her  Invaders. 

Narvaez  ( nar-vd'dtli) ,  Panf ilo  de,  Spanish 
adventurer  and  soldier,  was  born  at  Val- 
ladolid  about  1478.  He  was  the  principal 
lieutenant  of  Velasquez  in  his  conquest  of 
Cuba,  and  was  sent  by  him  at  the  head  of 
a  force  of  900  men  to  conquer  and  super- 
sede Cortez  in  Mexico.  He  landed  at  Vera 
Cruz  in  April,  1520,  and  on  May  28  was 
surprised  and  taken  prisoner  by  his  abler 
and  more  active  fellow-countryman.  He 
was  well-treated,  however,  by  Cortez  and 
soon  released.  He  returned  to  Spain,  and 
in  1526  obtained  from  Charles  V  a  grant  of 
Florida  over  which  he  was  made  governor. 
He  sailed  the  following  year  with  five  ships 
and  about  600  men,  and  landed  probably 
near  Tampa  Bay  in  April,  1528.  He 
marched  inland,  but,  after  losing  half  his 
men  in  encounters  with  the  Indians,  was 
obliged  to  return  to  the  coast.  Unable  to 
find  his  ships  he  built  some  rude  boats  in 
which  the  much  reduced  company  sailed 
for  Mexico  in  September,  1528.  The  vessel 
which  carried  Narvaez  was  driven  to  sea  by 
a  storm  and  he  and  his  men  perished  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  except  Cabeza 
de  Vaca,  his  lieutenant,  and  three  men, 
who  reached  land  and  made  their  way 
across  Texas  to  the  Gulf  of  California, 
reaching  Mexico  only  after  years  of  wan- 
dering. 

Nasn'ua,  New  Hampshire,  in  Hillsboro 
County,  at  the  junction  of  the  Merrimac  and 
Nashua  Rivers,  about  40  miles  from  Boston. 
By  means  of  a  three-mile  canal,  the  falls  of 
the  Nashua  River  furnish  power  to  factories 
making  cotton  cloth,  machine  tools,  refrigera- 
tors, ice  cream  freezers,  steam  engines,  asbestos 
products,  etc.  Population,  30,000. 

Nash'ville,  Tenn.,  capital  of  Tennessee,  lies 
mainly  on  the  left  bank  of  Cumberland 
River,  about  200  miles  from  the  Ohio, 
which  is  here  crossed  by  four  bridges.  It  is  a 
city  notable  for  its  handsome  residences  and 
public  buildings  for  which  its  hills  afford  pic- 
turesque sites.  The  beautiful  capitol,  like  a 
Greek  temple,  stands  on  the  highest  hill  top. 
Besides  an  excellent  school-system,  it  is  the 
seat  of  Nashville  University,  Vanderbilt  Uni- 
versity, and  for  young  ladies  has  Ward  Semi- 
nary and  Belmont,  Buford,  Radnor  and  Bosco- 
bel  College  and  St.  Cecelia's  Academy  (Roman 
Catholic).  Central  Tennessee  College,  Fisk 
University,  Roger  Williams  University  (the 
last  three  for  colored  students)  and  the  state 
normal  school  also  are  here.  It  has  a  good 
trade  in  cotton,  tobacco,  flour,  oil,  paper, 
timber,  leather,  iron  and  spirits;  and  it  has 
five  shoe  factories,  six  iron  foundries,  and  is 
the  largest  hardwood  market  in  the  United 
States. 

It  is  served  by  three  railroads,  and 
has  city  ownership  of  the  lighting-plant  and 


NASHVILLE,  BATTLE  OF 


1304 


NATAL 


waterworks.  The  town  was  founded  in 
1780,  and  became  the  capital  in  1843. 
General  Thomas  defeated  the  Confederates 
under  Hood  here,  in  December,  1864.  Popu- 
lation 117,057. 

'  Nashville,  Battle  of.  When  General 
Sherman  started  on  his  march  to  the  sea, 
he  sent  General  Thomas  to  Nashville,  Tenn., 
to  prepare  to  resist  the  Confederate  army 
under  Hood,  who,  after  withdrawing  from 
Atlanta,  was  moving  on  that  point.  To 
meet  Hood's  army,  which  had  contested 
the  possession  of  Atlanta  with  Sherman's 
entire  army,  Thomas  was  left  with  an  en- 
tirely inadequate  force,  consisting  in  part 
of  a  mass  of  12,000  new  troops  and  a  body 
of  quartermaster's  employees.  To  gain  time 
for  organization,  Thomas  sent  Schofield  to 
hold  off  Hood,  resulting  in  the  stubbornly 
contested  battle  of  Franklin.  Hood  finally 
established  his  lines  before  Nashville  on  Dec. 
2,  and  on  Dec.  15  and  16  the  battle  was 
fought,  which  resulted  in  the  rout  of  the 
Confederate  army,  with  a  loss  of  13,500 
prisoners  and  72  guns.  The  remnant  of 
Hood's  army  crossed  the  Tennessee  and  did 
not  appear  again  as  an  army  during  the  war. 

Nasmyth  ( na' smith  ) ,  James,  a  Scotch  en- 
gineer and  the  inventor  of  the  steam  ham- 
mer, was  born  at  Edinburgh,  Aug.  19,  1808, 
and  early  showed  an  inclination  for  me- 
chanics. At  17  he  built  a  small  working 
engine  for  crushing,  and  made  five  models 
of  a  condensing  engine  and  a  road  loco- 
motive. In  1839  he  had  to  turn  out  a 
large  wrought-iron  paddle-shaft,  and  in- 
vented the  steam  hammer  to  do  the  work, 
but  it  was  not  perfected  until  1842.  He 
patented  his  invention,  and  it  was  adopted 
by  the  government  in  1843.  In  1856  he 
retired  and  died  at  London,  May  7,  1890. 
See  Life  by  Smiles.  See  STEAM-HAMMER. 

Nast,  Thomas,  an  American  caricaturist, 
was  born  in  1840  at  Landau,  Bavaria,  and 
was  brought  to  this  country  in  1846.  At 
14  he  studied  drawing  for  six  months  with 
an  instructor,  and  a  year  later  was  em- 
ployed as  draughtsman  on  Frank  Leslie's 
Illustrated  Newspaper.  Five  years  later,  as 
special  artist  of  this  periodical,  he  was  sent 
to  England,  and  went  thence  to  Italy, 
sketching  the  history  made  by  Garibaldi, 
for  the  illustrated  papers  of  New  York, 
Paris  and  London.  In  1861  he  returned  to 
New  York  and  began  his  war  sketches  and 
political  cartoons  for  Harper's  Weekly, 
which  were  immensely  popular.  In  1871-3 
his  caricatures  of  Tammany,  by  him  first 
depicted  as  a  tiger,  and  of  Tweed  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  redemption  of  New 
York  City  from  ring-rule.  Later  he  deliv- 
ered lectures  and  illustrated  several  books. 
He  was  appointed  U.  S.  consul-general  at 
Guayaquil,  Ecuador,  in  1902,  where  he 
died  on  Dec.  7th. 

Nastur'tium  a  branching,  climbing  or 
creeping  herb,  native  of  Europe  and  tem- 


perate Asia  and  naturalized  in  America  and 
elsewhere;  much  cultivated.  There  are 
about  20  different  species.  Some  common 
names  by  which  they  are  known  are  water- 
cress and  Indian-cress  or  lark's-heel.  This 
latter  has  a  showy  flower  varying  in  color 
from  orange  to  scarlet  and  crimson.  The 
leaves  of  some  species  are  sometimes  used 
for  salad. 

Natal  (nd-tal'),  a  British  colony  on  the 
southeastern  coast  of  Africa,  was  discovered 
by  Vasco  da  Gama  on  Christmas  of  1497, 
and  in  1800  was  peopled  by  94  native 
tribes  Tshaka,  a  chief  of  the  Amazulu, 
ruled  the  country  from  1805  to  1828,  when 
he  was  killed  and  his  brother,  Dingaan, 
placed  on  the  throne  by  a  political  faction. 
Then  the  Boers,  who  had  left  Cape  Colony 
to  escape  English  rule,  began  a  series  of 
struggles  with  the  natives,  and  in  1838, 
when  a  commission  of  Boers  was  murdered 
by  Dingaan,  a  large  body  entered  Natal  to 
avenge  the  murder.  The  Dingaan  faction 
was  opposed  by  the  followers  of  his  brother 
Umpande,  and  with  these  the  Boers  united, 
attacking  and  killing  Dingaan.  Umpande 
then  succeeded,  recognizing  the  Boers  as 
lords  of  Natal.  In  December,  1838,  Sir 
George  Napier,  governor  of  Cape  Colony, 
was  sent  to  take  possession  of  the  territory, 
but  his  Highlanders  were  compelled  to  go 
to  the  Cape  on  account  of  disturbances 
there,  whereupon  (1839)  the  Boers  hoisted 
the  flag  of  the  republic  of  Natalia.  Later 
two  English  men-of-war  forced  a  landing 
at  Durban,  and  after  a  short  struggle  drove 
the  Boers  back  to  their  capital.  Peace 
negotiations  were  then  concluded,  and  the 
larger  portion  became  subjects  of  the  British 
crown.  But  some  crossed  the  mountains 
and  entered  what  now  is  the  Transvaal 
colony.  Natal  was  formally  annexed  to 
the  British  dominions  in  1843,  and  in  1844 
became  a  part  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
In  1856  it  was  declared  a  separate  colony, 
and  was  given  a  sort  of  independent  gov- 
ernment, and  before  1860  a  great  part  of 
its  soil  was  held  by  immigrants  from  Eng- 
land. In  1875  there  was  great  dissatisfac- 
tion on  account  of  the  English  rula*  and 
Sir  Garnet  (now  Lord)  Wolseley  was  sent 
to  adjust  matters.  He  was  succeeded  as 
governor  by  Sir  Henry  Bulwer.  During  his 
administration  the  fear  of  the  strength  of 
the  neighboring  Zulus  under  Cetewavc  be- 
came so  great,  that  Sir  Bartle  Frere,  high- 
commissioner  for  South  Africa,  against  the 
protests  of  colonists  and  governor  sent  a 
message  which  precipitated  the  Zulu  war, 
from  the  results  of  which  Natal  was  long 
in  recovering.  The  charter  now  in  force 
was  granted  in  1893,  and  in  1897  Zululand 
was  annexed.  The  legislative  authority 
resides  in  the  crown,  a  legislative  council 
and  a  legislative  assembly  —  the  crown 
being  represented  by  a  governor  who  ap- 
points the  ministry  and,  with  their  advice, 


NATCHEZ 


1305 


NATIONAL  DEBT 


the  members  of  the  legislative  council.  The 
capital  is  Pietermaritzburg,  situated  inland 
about  50  miles  northwest  of  Durban,  the 
chief  and  almost  only  seaport.  The  colony 
(including  Zululand)  has  an  area  of  35,371 
square  miles,  with  a  seaboard  of  about  400 
miles.  In  1911  its  population  was  1,191,- 
958,  of  whom  1,000,000  were  Kafirs,  the 
remainder  being  Europeans  and  Indians. 
The  population  of  the  capital  is  about  33,- 
ooo  and  of  Durban  about  75,000.  Natal's 
products  include  sugar,  maize,  wheat,  oats 
and  other  cereals  and  green  crops  —  the 
chief  exports  being  wool,  hides,  skins,  coal, 
gold,  bark,  unrefined  sugar  and  Angora 
hair.  The  principal  imports  are  fabrics, 
wearing-apparel,  grain,  ironware  and  rail- 
way material.  There  are  railways  of  about 
i.ooo  miles  to  Cape  Town,  Johannesburg 
and  Pretoria.  The  coal-fields  are  known  to 
be  extensive,  and  are  in  direct  communica- 
tion with  the  seaport.  Portuguese  East 
Africa  and  Transvaal  (separated  by  the 
Drakensberg  Mountains)  border  Natal  on 
the  north,  Orange  River  Colony  and  Basuto- 
land  on  the  west  and  Cape  Colony  on  the 
southwest.  The  colony  in  the  main  is 
fertile,  and  is  possessed  of  a  salubrious 
climate.  Winter  in  South  Africa  begins  in 
April  and  ends  in  September. 

As  the  result  of  the  war  between  Britain 
and  Transvaal  and  the  Orange  Free  State, 
Natal  in  October,  1899,  became  at  once  the 
theater  of  strife.  See  BOER  WAR.  Since 
the  war  Natal  includes  the  Vryheid  and 
Utrecht  districts,  formerly  a  part  of  Trans- 
vaal, with  6,970  square  miles. 

The  railways  are  operated  and  all  but 
50  miles  constructed  by  government,  the 
total  outlay  being  £10,572,962.  Work  on 
the  new  connection  with  Cape  Colony  is 
in  progress,  with  many  branch  lines.  There 
are  1,811  miles  of  telegraph  and  134  of 
telephone  governmentally  owned  and  oper- 
ated. Durban  owns  its  telephone  system, 
with  1,000  connections.  There  are  361 
postoffices  and  postal  agencies,  serving 
3,892  miles  of  postal  routes.  Much  remains 
to  be  done  in  the  way  of  educating  the 
natives,  missionary  rather  than  govern- 
mental effort  giving  them  the  few  privileges 
they  now  enjoy. 

Natch'ez,  Miss.,  capital  of  Adams  County, 
on  the  Mississippi,  in  the  rich  cotton-belt,  90 
miles  southwest  of  Jackson  and  280  northwest 
of  New  Orleans.  It  is  served  by  the  Yazoo  and 
Mississippi  Valley,  New  Orleans  and  North- 
eastern and  Mississippi  Central  railroads,  and 
is  an  important  steamboat  point.  The  lower 
city  lies  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  but  the 
more  important  part,  including  the  public 
buildings,  is  situated  on  a  bluff  above.  It  is  an 
important  cotton  market,  has  cotton  mills, 
factories,  machine  shops,  a  meat  packing 
plant,  and  other  industries.  Fort  Rosalie 
was  built  by  the  French  explorer,  Bienville, 
in  1716  within  the  present  limits  of  Natchez. 


Although  two  hundred  or  more  feet  above 
the  river  the  French  garrison  was  surprised 
and  massacred  by  Natchez  Indians  in  1729. 
Population,  11,791. 

iS'atick  (na'tik),  Mass.,  a  town  in  Mid- 
dlesex County,  on  Charles  River,  17  miles 
from  Boston.  Its  most  important  manu- 
factures are  boots,  shoes,  men's  clothing, 
shirts,  boxes,  edged  tools,  baseballs  and 
supplies  for  athletic  games.  Its  noteworthy 
institutions  are  Bacon  Public  Library,  Morse 
Institute  and  Walnut  Hill  High  School  for 
young  women.  The  place  was  founded  by 
John  Eliot  as  a  home  for  converted  Indians, 
and  from  1651  until  the  founder's  death 
was  used  as  such.  It  was  incorporated  as 
a  town  in  1781.  Natick  has  a  monument 
to  John  Eliot  and  a  soldiers'  monument, 
with  the  service  of  the  Boston  and  Albany 
Railroad.  Population  9,633. 

National  Banks.     See  BANKS. 

Na'tional  Debt  is  the  debt  of  a  nation 
or  government  contracted  by  their  legislative 
representatives.  In  early  times  these  were 
comparatively  small,  because  the  govern- 
ment, as  well  as  the  individual,  had  to  give 
security  for  the  indebtedness;  but  since  the 
commencement  of  the  present  system  of 
banking  and  the  ability  of  governments  to 
issue  interest-bearing  evidences  of  indebted- 
ness in  the  shape  of  bonds,  the  national 
debts  have  in  many  cases,  as  that  of  France, 
become  quite  enormous.  Regarding  the 
origin  of  these  vast  obligations,  the  most 
prolific  cause  is  the  wars  in  which  the  dif- 
ferent nations  have  from  time  to  time  en- 
faged.  Thus  the  Civil  War  added  about 
2,500,000,000  to  the  national  debt  of  the 
United  States.  Of  late,  however,  the  gov- 
ernments have  borrowed  money  for  different 
public  purposes,  as  building  railroads  and 
telegraph  lines  and  equipping  armies  and 
navies.  The  present  system  of  securing  the 
national  debt  is  by  the  issue  of  bonds,  bear- 
ing a  stated  rate  of  interest,  payable  quar- 
terly, and  maturing  or  becoming  due  at  a 
certain  date.  The  debt  of  the  United  States 
is  in  part  secured  in  this  way  and  in  part 
by  the  issue  by  the  government  of  green- 
backs or  paper  currency,  actually  nothing 
more  or  less  than  promissory  notes,  due  upon 
demand,  at  presentation  at  the  United 
States  treasury.  The  method  adopted  in  the 
United  States  for  the  payment  of  the  debt 
is  by  the  taxation  of  spirits,  whiskey,  to- 
bacco and  butterine,  by  charging  certain 
amounts  for  the  traffic  in  these  articles  and 
by  the  levy  of  a  tax  or  tariff  on  articles 
imported  into  the  country.  The  greatest 
amount  ever  owed  by  this  government  was 
$2,773,236,173  in  1866,  directly  after  the 
Civil  War,  but  this  was  reduced  to  $798,- 
137,603  28  in  1892.  The  total  debt  on  July 
i,  1910,  was  $2,652,665,838.  Deducting 
$1,725,683,064,  the  cash  in  the  treasury  on 
the  same  date,  the  net  debt  was  $926,982,- 
733.  The  indebtedness  of  the  chief  nations 


NATIONAL  EDUC.  ASSOC. 


1306 


NATURAL  GAS 


in  1909,  according  to  the  Bureau  of  Statistics 
of  the  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor, 
U.  S.  A.,  was:  Great  Britain  (funded  and 
unfunded  debt),  $3,839,620,745;  France, 
total  debt,  including  interest  and  annuities, 
$5,898,675,451;  Germany,  total  debt  (bear- 
ing interest  at  3%  and  3$%),  less  war 
treasury  fund,  about  $1,094,790,975;  Russia, 
total  debt,  including  that  incurred  for  state 
railroads,  $4,558,152,565;  Italy,  $2,602,- 
299,757;  Austria-Hungary,  consolidated  and 
floating  debt,  $1,063,725,105;  China,  out- 
standing foreign  debt  (raised  chiefly  to  meet 
expenses  connected  with  the  war  with  Japan), 
$601,916,605;  Japan,  $1,287,604,261;  Mexico, 
$219,899,231;  and  Canada  $323,930,279. 

Na'tional  Educational  Association.  This 
important  body  was  organized  as  the  out- 
come of  a  convention  of  teachers  in  Phila- 
delphia in  August,  1857.  It  declared  its 
object  to  be  "to  elevate  the  character  and 
advance  the  interests  of  the  profession  of 
teaching  and  to  promote  the  cause  of  popu- 
lar education  in  the  U.  S."  The  association 
holds  yearly  national  conventions  at  differ- 
ent centers.  In  1866  women  were  admitted 
to  full  membership.  In  1870,  when  the  title 
was  changed  from  National  Association  to 
National  Educational  Association,  began  the 
policy  of  organizing  different  departments 
for  the  purpose  of  giving  special  attention 
to  problems  which  chiefly  interest  given 
classes  of  teachers.  In  this  way  were  or- 
ganized the  department  of  normal  schools, 
the  department  of  school-superintendents, 
both  of  which  had  previously  existed  as  in- 
dependent societies  meeting  by  consent  with 
the  association,  with  the  new  department  of 
elementary  education  and  of  higher  educa- 
tion. The  N.  E.  A.  has  held  regular  annual 
meetings  except  in  1861,  1862,  1867,  1878, 
1893  and  1906.  Its  proceedings  form  a  valu- 
able storehouse  of  expert  opinion  and  scien- 
tific research  upon  miscellaneous  educational 
topics  and  problems.  For  many  years, 
nevertheless,  the  membership  was  low;  but 
in  1884  the  enrollment  reached  2,729.  A 
permanent  fund  was  inaugurated,  now  amount- 
ing to  a  very  considerable  sum.  In  1886  the 
Association  was  incorporated  for  20  years 
at  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  in  February,  1906, 
it  was  re-incorporated  by  Act  of  Congress. 
The  N.  E.  A.  may  be  regarded  as  an  organized 
attempt  at  social  participation  in  the  task  of 
distributing  to  each  the  accumulated  experi- 
ence of  all.  In  1895  a  permanent  active  mem- 
bership was  created,  which  now  numbers  many 
thousand,  and  in  1898  provision  was  made  for 
a  permanent  and  salaried  secretary,  to  give 
his  whole  time  to  the  Association.  In  its 
jubilee  year  (1907),  which  the  N.  E.  A.  cele- 
brated at  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  the  important  step 
was  taken  of  the  separate  publication  of  an 
index  supplement  to  the  Proceedings  from  1857. 
They  are  rich  in  valuable  material. 

National  Forests.  See  FOREST  -  RE- 
SERVES and  FOREST-SERVICE. 


National  Parks.  National  parks  are 
large  tracts  of  public  lands  reserved  from 
settlement  or  residence  and  also  retained, 
maintained  and  improved  by  the  federal 
government. 

The  principal  parks  notable  for  their 
scenery  or  other  natural  features,  in  the  order 
of  their  size  (given  in  acres),  are:  Yellow- 
stone, Wyo.,  Mont,  and  Idaho  (2,142,720), 
geysers  and  similar  phenomena.  Mountain, 
lake  and  river  scenery.  Glacier,  Mont. 
(981,681).  Glaciers,  lakes,  forests,  peaks. 
Yosemite,  Cal.  (967,680).  Beautiful  valley 
scenery.  Rocky  Mountain,  Colo.  (230,000). 
Mountain  scenery,  forests,  lakes,  peaks. 
Mount  Ranier,  Wash.  (207,360).  Rainer  and 
other  mountains.  Sequoia,  Cal.  (160,000). 
Big  trees.  Crater  Lake,  Ore.  (159,360). 
Beautiful  lake  in  volcanic  crater.  Mountain 
scenery.  Mesa  Verde,  Colo.  Pueblo  and 
other  ruins.  Wind  Cave,  S.  D.  (10,522). 
Canyon  and  large  cave.  Grant,  Cal.  (2,560). 
Forest  and  mountain  scenery.  Hot  Springs, 
Ark.  (912).  Warm  medicinal  mineral  springs. 
Platt,  Okla.  (848).  Sulphur  medicinal  springs. 
Casa  Grande,  Ariz.  (480).  Ruins  of  cliff 
dwellings.  Battle  Parks  include:  Antietem, 
Md.  (43);  Chickamaugua  and  Chattanooga, 
Tenn.  (6,195);  Gettysburg,  Pa.  (877);  Shiloh, 
Tenn.  (3,000);  Vicksburg,  Miss.  (1,233). 
Many  historic  land  marks  and  other  objects 
of  historic  or  scientific  interest  are  preserved 
on  public  lands  and  are  designated  as  Na- 
tional Monuments.  These  include  the  Gila 
Cliff  dwellings  in  New  Mexico,  the  Grand 
Canyon  of  the  Colorado  in  northwestern 
Arizona,  Lewis  and  Clark  cavern  in  Montana. 

Nat'ural  Bridge,  The,  an  arch  of  lime- 
stone which  spans  a  small  river  in  Virginia, 
one  of  the  features  of  the  landscape  in  the 
far-famed  Shenandoah  valley.  It  stands 
among  cascades,  caverns  and  deep  pine- 
woods,  a  mighty  arch  of  a  single  stone.  It 
is  21 5  J  feet  in  height  and  100  wide,  and 
has  a  span  of  80  feet.  It  is  west  of  the 
Blue  Ridge,  and  14  miles  from  Lexington, 
Virginia. 

Natural  Gas,  combustible  gas  which 
escapes  from  beneath  the  soil  in  such  quan- 
tities that  it  may  be  used  for  fuel  or  illu- 
minating purposes.  In  its  natural  state  the 
gas  occurs  in  porous  sedimentary  rocks,  and, 
when  proper  openings  are  made,  it  rises  to 
the  surface.  Wells  are  drilled  for  gas,  as 
for  c-il  or  water.  Natural  gas  is  the  product 
of  decay  or  distillation  of  organic  matter 
buried  in  sand,  mud  etc.  By  its  burial 
the  organic  matter  is  shut  off  from  contact 
with  the  air,  and  hence  the  gases  arising 
from  its  deposition  and  distillation  are  not 
completely  oxidized.  Organic  matter  is  now 
being  imbedded  in  sands  and  muds  which 
are  in  process  of  deposition  on  lake  and 
sea  bottoms.  Under  proper  conditions  this 
might  ultimately  give  rise  to  gas.  Natural 
gas  is  really  a  mixture  of  several  gases  in 


NATURALIZATION 


1307 


NATURE-STUDY 


variable  proportions;  among  them  marsh- 
gas  (OH.}.)  and  hydrogen  are  usually  most 
abundant.  Natural  gas  is  widely  distributed. 
It  is  extensively  utilized  in  Indiana,  Penn- 
sylvania, Ohio,  West  Virginia,  New  York 
and  California;  to  a  limited  but  still  impor- 
tant extent  in  Kansas  and  Kentucky;  and 
to  a  slight  extent  in  Utah,  Colorado,  Illinois, 
Missouri  and  Texas.  The  flow  of  gas  from 
a  well  usually  is  of  short  duration.  It  may 
last  for  a  few  months  or  even  years,  but 
not  indefinitely.  The  popular  notion  that 
the  withdrawal  of  gas  from  beneath  the 
surface  leads  to  earthquakes  is  wholly  with- 
out foundation.  The  gas  occurs  in  the  pores 
of  rock,  and  its  escape  does  not  make  the 
rock  less  firm  or  substantial.  Gas  occurs  in 
rock  formations  of  various  ages.  Some  of  it 
comes  from  rocks  as  old  as  the  ordovician 
(see  GEOLOGY),  and  some  of  it  from  forma- 
tions as  young  as  the  tertiary  or  even 
pleistocene.  Natural  gas  and  petroleum  are 
probably  associated  in  origin,  as  they  often 
are  in  their  distribution. 

Nat'uraliza'tion,  the  process  by  which  a 
person  born  in  another  country  becomes 
possessed  of  the  privileges  and  is  placed 
under  the  obligations  of  a  citizen  of  the 
country  in  which  he  resides.  It  involves 
the  renunciation  of  allegiance  to  one  coun- 
try and  the  adoption  of  the  other.  It  was 
not  until  1870  that  Great  Britain  recognized 
such  a  renunciation  by  any  of  its  subjects, 
and  before  that  time  would  charge  with 
treason  any  person  having  so  done,  if  he 
bore  arms  against  Britain;  but  in  that  year 
a  treaty  was  made  by  which  Englishmen 
who  had  been  naturalized  in  this  country, 
were  treated  as  citizens  of  the  United  States 
and  vice  versa.  The  conditions  upon  which 
one  can  become  naturalized  differ  ma- 
terially in  various  countries.  In  the  United 
States  a  foreigner  must  make  oath  of  his 
intention  to  become  a  citizen.  If  at  this 
time  he  has  resided  three  years  in  the 
United  States  he  receives  what  are  known 
as  his  "first  papers."  Then,  after  the  lapse 
of  two  years,  upon  a  sworn  substantiation 
of  his  good  morals,  a  five  years'  residence 
and  a  renunciation  of  all  allegiance  to  any 
and  all  foreign  monarchs  or  potentates  and 
all  titles  of  nobility,  before  any  one  of  the 
superior,  district  or  circuit  courts,  he  be- 
comes a  citizen  of  the  United  States.  In 
Great  Britain  five  years'  residence  or  serv- 
ice under  the  crown  entitles  a  foreigner  to 
a  certificate  of  naturalization,  procurable 
from  one  of  the  principal  secretaries  of 
state.  The  British  colonies  make  their  own 
rules  for  becoming  a  citizen,  applicable, 
however,  only  to  the  colony  in  which  they 
are  made.  In  France  a  foreigner,  after  hav- 
ing obtained  permission  to  reside,  may  re- 
ceive a  certificate  of  declaration  of  inten- 
tion after  three  years'  residence,  and  by 
the  French  naturalization  act  of  1889  may 
become  naturalized  after  ten  years'  resi- 


dence without  any  preliminaries.  In  Ger- 
many an  applicant  must  show  that  the 
laws  of  his  country  allow  him  to  renounce 
it,  that  he  is  residing  in  Germany,  leading 
a  respectable  life,  and  has  a  means  of  liveli- 
hood; then  the  higher  administrative  power 
issues  his  papers.  In  all  countries  a  married 
woman  is  considered  as  subject  to  the 
count  y  in  which  her  husband  is  naturalized, 
and  a  father's  naturalization  carries  with  it 
that  of  his  minor  children.  See  Nationality 
by  Chief-Justice  Cockburn. 

Na'ture-Study.  The  environments  of  the 
child  constantly  stimulate  sense  perception 
and  provoke  inquiry.  They  are  always 
arousing  him  to  see,  hear,  smell,  taste  and 
touch.  The  satisfaction  he  gets  in  exercis- 
ing his  senses  begets  increasing  desire  to 
their  further  exercise,  and  his  ability  to 
discriminate  grows  rapidly  every  day. 
Curiosity  and  wonder  spur  him  to  find  out 
what  he  can  about  everything  he  meets. 
These  experiences  are  his  mental  food  as 
well  as  the  means  of  his  physical  develop- 
ment. Parents  usually  pay  too  little  re- 
gard to  mental  culture  in  the  first  five 
years  of  the  child's  lite,  little  realizing  its 
relation  to  the  after-life,  though  his  eager- 
ness to  know  usually  accumulates  a  great 
fund  of  child  knowledge  and  even  child 
skill  before  he  enters  school.  These  years 
powerfully  affect  his  life-long  habits  of  in- 
vestigation, thinking,  talking,  language  and 
acting. 

On  entering  school  he  has  already  made 
considerable  progress  in  getting  acquainted 
with  the  animate  and  inanimate  objects 
about  him.  He  is  usually  bubbling  over 
with  interest  in  everything  he  meets,  par- 
ticularly with  those  things  that  give  sense 
pleasure  and  strike  him  as  strange  and 
novel.  His  knowledge  is  already  of  things 
in  nature  as  well  as  of  things  in  the  house- 
hold and  about  his  father's  work.  This 
knowledge  furnishes  a  fine  starting-point 
for  his  school  work  and  suggests  the  wisdom 
of  continuing  it  on  the  very  lines  so  well 
calculated  to  maintain  and  enlarge  his 
interests  and  encourage  him  to  study. 
Nature  study,  then,  may  rightly  engross  a 
large  part  of  the  course  of  study  for  the 
lower  grades.  It  serves  to  introduce  the 
elementary  work  in  the  other  subjects 
usually  included  in  the  higher  grades,  and 
thus  provides  for  that  gradual  transition  to 
their  more  abstract  phases  and  their  more 
complex  problems  which  is  demanded  by 
all  scientific  method.  The  teacher  should 
so  plan  the  nature  work,  that  it  not  only 
extends  the  child's  range  of  experiences  but 
anticipates  in  a  logical  way  the  deeper  and 
broader  inquiries  which  he  is  to  make 
later. 

While  there  should  always  be  method  and 
system  on  the  side  of  the  teacher,  there 
should  always  be  relative  simplicity  and 
variety  on  the  side  of  the  child.  The 


SALMON  JUMPING   FALLS — PHOTOGRAPHED  BY  DR    R    T   MORRIS 


CARIBOU   SWIMMING.— PHOTOGRAPHED  FROM  CANOF  DISTANT  FIFTEEN  FEET 


OTTER 


Courtesy  of  Doubleday.  Pa?e  &  Co. 


PORCUPINE 


NATURE-STUDY 


1308 


NATURE-STUDY 


material  should  be  selected  with  a  view  to 
the  continual  exercise  and  development  of 
the  perceptive  activities,  of  observation,  of 
understanding,  of  memory,  of  judgment  and 
of  language.  But  the  primary  purpose 
should  be  a  development  of  a  genuine 
love  of  nature.  This  should  be  a  very 
prominent  idea  in  selection  throughout  the 
elementary  school,  at  least,  and  probably 
higher. 

There  is  abundant  material  in  every 
locality  for  use  in  this  study.  The  teacher's 
individuality  and  ingenuity  will  enable  him 
to  utilize  the  children  in  gathering  the 
material  and  the  data  foi  talks  and  studies. 
In  the  higher  grades  the  inquiries  should 
be  exhaustive  and  should  assume  a  more 
strictly  scientific  form. 

In  September  or  October  there  are  many 
interesting  and  instructive  features  of  plant 
life  which  furnish  the  material  in  sufficient 
variety  for  several  lessons:  the  more  com- 
mon autumn  fruits  of  the  locality,  wild  and 
cultivated,  with  a  study  of  their  form,  tex- 
ture, flavor,  name  and  -use;  the  autumn 
leaves  and  flowers  with  a  study  of  their 
form,  color  etc.;  the  autumn  seeds,  their 
forms,  methods  of  distribution  by  winds,  by 
animals,  by  water.  The  animal  life  of  these 
months  is  full  of  interest  for  young  and  old. 
The  birds  which  have  summered  in  the 
locality  are  going  south  and  others  with 
strange  plumage  are  coming  from  the  north 
on  tneir  way  further  south  or  to  spend  the 
winter  here.  Insects  are  gradually  dis- 
appearing in  a  variety  of  ways,  some  going 
into  winter  quarters  to  appear  in  new  forms 
in  the  spring,  others  hiding  away  tn  the 
trees,  in  the  earth  or  elsewhere,  while  count- 
less multitudes  deposit  their  eggs  and  die. 
The  thickening  of  the  coats  of  the  wild  and 
domestic  animals  should  be  carefully  ob- 
served now  and  in  the  month  following. 
Clouds,  rain,  dew,  frost,  changes  in  tem- 
perature, direction  of  the  wind  will  interest 
the  child  every  month  in  the  year. 

In  November  and  December  nature  study 
finds  ample  outdoor  range  in  discovering 
how  the  plants  have  prepared  for  winter, 
how  the  buds  are  sealed  up,  where  the  leaves 
have  gone,  what  animals  still  remain  in  the 
locality  and  how  they  live,  what  the  streams 
are  doing,  where  the  fish  and  other  water 
animals  have  gone,  what  the  farmers  are 
doing.  They  also  are  good  months  for  study- 
ing further  the  collections  of  fruits,  seeds, 
leaves,  grasses  made  in  other  months.  Why 
are  the  days  so  short  now?  Why  is  the 
sun  so  far  south?  Why  are  fruits  and 
vegetables  beginning  to  rise  in  price  in  the 
markets? 

The  weather  is  a  fruitful  theme  during 
January,  February  and  March,  but  there  is 
much  also  to  engage  attention  in  the  lines 
mentioned  for  the  preceding  months.  A 
simple  study  of  the  forms  and  modes  of 
movement  of  domestic  and  of  wild  animals 


will  make  a  few  attractive  lessons.  These 
are  good  months  for  the  study  of  the  various 
forms  of  water  and  for  making  simple  ex- 

Eeriments  in  light,  heat,  electricity.  Note 
iter  the  signs  of  springtime  in  the  growing 
length  of  the  days,  in  the  disappearance  of 
frost  and  snow,  m  the  swelling  and  open- 
ing of  certain  kinds  of  buds,  in  the  flowing 
of  the  sap  in  the  trees,  in  the  appearance 
of  an  occasional  last  year's  animal,  in  the 
song  of  the  robin  or  the  quick  cry  of  the 
redbird,  in  the  buzzing  of  venturesome  bees, 
in  the  work  about  house  and  farm. 

April,  May  and  June  conspire  to  furnish 
a  world  of  material  to  attract  and  interest 
childhood.  The  studies  should  include  the 
germination  of  seeds,  the  unfolding  of 
leaves,  the  opening  of  the  flowers;  the  parts 
of  the  plant,  of  the  leaves  and  of  the  flowers; 
the  various  animals  that  cover  the  earth 
and  skim  the  air;  the  moulting  of  the  birds; 
the  metamorphosis  of  the  grasshopper,  the 
butterfly,  the  frog;  the  building  of  nests; 
the  swarming  of  the  bees;  animal  foods. 
They  should  also  include  all  kinds  of  work 
about  farm  and  home  and  keep  the  child 
in  close  touch  with  ploughing  time  and 
seed  time  and  harvest;  with  the  pests  the 
farmer  fears;  and  with  the  friends  he  should 
protect. 

July  and  August,  as  well  as  a  great  part 
of  June,  are  months  in  which  the  child  is 
usually  out  of  school,  but  if  the  teaching 
during  the  other  months  is  successful,  these 
months  also  will  have  much  in  experiences 
upon  which  he  will  find  pleasure  in  draw- 
ing as  school  opens  in  September. 

Nature  study  includes  the  various  parts 
and  functions  of  the  child's  body,  as  well 
as  of  animals  in  general,  and  should  make 
the  child  acquainted  with  the  conditions 
essential  to  good  health  and  to  the  develop- 
ment of  physical  strength  and  skill.  It  also 
includes  a  study  of  the  topography  of  the 
locality,  the  soil,  the  rocks,  the  mineral 
deposits,  the  springs  and  streams,  together 
with  the  forces  which  have  shaped  and  are 
shaping  the  land.  Excursions  to  other 
localities  will  be  invaluable  in  adding  zest 
to  every  phase  of  the  study. 

Success  in  directing  nature  study  depends 
greatly  upon  the  teacher's  ability  to  select 
and  arrange  these  materials  in  such  a  way 
as  to  bring  them  within  the  growing  capacity 
of  the  child  and  yet  stimulate  perpetual 
effort.  All  of  the  foregoing  and  much  more 
may  readily  be  covered  in  a  simple  way  in 
the  first  three  years  of  a  child's  school  life. 
The  enlargement  of  the  scope  of  the  study 
in  the  following  years  gradually  differentiates 
into  geography,  botany,  physiology,  pnysics, 
chemistry,  meteorology,  astronomy,  zoology 
and  geology. 

Two  kinds  of  work  in  this  field  are  very 
desirable:  extensive  work  and  intensive 
work.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  desirable  that 
at  least  one  period  per  week  in  the  ele- 


NATURE-STUDY  WITH  CAMERA 


1309 


NATURE-STUDY  WITH  CAMERA 


mentary  school  be  occupied  with  brief  con- 
sideration of  the  many  nature-study  objects 
the  children  in  a  class  collect  here  and 
there  and  bring  to  school.  A  few  interesting 
remarks  by  the  teacher  about  each  of  a 
dozen  or  more  objects  on  such  an  occasion 
can  do  much  to  keep  children  alive  to  the 
things  about  them.  In  the  second  place,  it 
is  desirable  that  important  topics,  as  the 
horse,  cow,  cat,  song-bird  or  maple-tree,  be 
treated  at  length.  Often  in  a  third  or 
fourth  year  class  one  month  of  these  periods 
per  week  may  be  too  little  time  for  one 
such  topic.  The  former  is  extensive,  while 
the  latter  is  intensive  study. 

As  to  method :  Mere  description  or 
observation  should  be  subordinated  to 
function  as  a  rule.  It  usually  is  uninter- 
esting to  begin  the  study  of  a  plant  or 
animal  with  mere  observation  or  descrip- 
tion, and  it  is  unnecessary.  It  is  far  better 
to  start  off  for  the  solution  of  some  im- 
portant problem,  and  in  general  to  study 
under  the  influence  of  problems.  For  ex- 
ample, if  the  squirrel  is  the  subject,  a  class 
can  set  out  to  study  how  he  manages  to 
live  through  the  winter,  how  he  gets  food 
in  the  summer.  The  answers  to  such  ques- 
tions will  require  much  close  observation 
or  description,  and  at  the  same  time  pre- 
serve more  organization  among  the  multi- 
tude of  facts  collected. 

A  few  of  the  many  good  books  dealing 
with  the  facts  of  nature  are  the  following: 
Madam  How  and  Lady  Why  by  Charles 
Kingsley;  Sharp  Eyes  by  Wm.  H.  Gibson; 
Wild  Animals  I  Have  Known  by  Ernest 
Seton  Thompson;  The  First  Book  of  Birds  by 
Olive  Thorne  Miller;  Neighbors  with  Wings 
and  Fins  by  James  Johonnat ;  and  Birds  and 
Bees  by  John  Burroughs.  A  few  of  the 
best  helps  to  teachers  are  Nature  Study  and 
Life  by  C.  F.  Hodge  (the  best);  Nature 
Study  by  W.  S.  Jackman;  Special  Method 
in  Elementary  Science  and  Nature  Study 
Lessons,  both  by  McMurry. 

Nature=Study  with  the  Camera.  Since 
the  perfection  of  modern  photographic  ap- 
paratus, —  the  hand-camera  with  its  quick 
shutters,  rapid  dry-plates  and  films,  —  the 
hunting  of  wild  life  with  a  camera  has 
become  a  fascinating  recreation.  Even  in 
sporting  circles  there  is  a  call  to  substitute 
the  camera  for  the  gun  as  the  sportsman's 
weapon.  Forest  and  Stream,  arguing  for  such 
a  change,  says :  "  Every  camera  hunter  must 
admit  that  more  immediate  and  lasting 
pleasure  is  afforded  in  raking  a  running 
deer  from  stem  to  stern  at  twenty  yards 
with  his  5x7  bore  camera  than  in  driving 
an  ounce  ball  through  its  heart  at  100 
yards.  Then  think  of  the  unlimited  free- 
dom of  this  noiseless  weapon.  No  closed 
season,  no  restriction  in  numbers  or  methods 
of  transportation,  no  posted  land;  but  you 
can  pull  on  a  swimming  deer  or  an  elk 
floundering  in  the  snow,  take  a  crack  at  a 


spotted  fawn,  bag  the  bird  on  its  nest  or 
string  your  cameras  out  like  traps,  with  a 
thread  across  the  runway,  and  gather  in 
the  exposed,  game-laden  plates  at  night- 
fall without  any  scruples  about  being  called 
a  pot-hunter  or  a  game-hog."  In  introdu- 
cing a  book  of  wild  life  illustrated  with  the 
camera  President  Roosevelt  wrote:  "The 
older  I  grow,  the  less  I  care  to  shoot  any- 
thing but  'varmints.'  If  we  can  only  get 
the  camera  in  place  of  the  gun  and  have 
the  sportsman  sunk  somewhat  in  the  natur- 
alist and  the  lover  of  wild  things,  the  next 
generation  will  see  an  immense  change  for 
the  better  in  the  life  of  our  woods  and 
waters." 

But  this  use  of  the  camera  has  proved 
of  distinct  value  in  aid  of  nature-study, 
providing  the  means  of  gaining  a  clear  and 
intimate  knowledge  of  wild  animals,  birds 
and  reptiles,  their  appearance,  their  haunts, 
their  habits  and  all  the  phases  and  condi- 
tions of  their  life.  Moreover,  the  young  are 
thus  enabled  to  become  direct  observers  and 
students  of  animated  nature;  for  not  only 
have  naturalists,  as  Chapman,  and  camera- 
hunters,  as  Dugmore  and  Wallihan,  brought 
from  the  Rockies,  from  the  forests  and 
waters  of  Canada  and  from  the  shores  and 
everglades  of  Florida  the  trophies  of  their 
skill  and  patience  in  a  wealth  of  photo- 
graphic pictures  of  every  variety  of  wild 
animal,  running,  climbing  or  feeding,  and 
of  birds  and  wild  fowl  in  flight  or  at  rest, 
but  amateurs,  even  schoolboys  and  girls  have 
become  expert  in  securing  photographs  of 
the  more  familiar  birds  and  animals  to  be 
found  in  field  and  forest  accessible  to  every 
village  and  town.  With  the  development 
of  habits  of  close  observation,  quick  per- 
ception and  careful  analysis  required  in  this 
delightful  pursuit,  the  love  of  nature  is 
begotten,  and  the  career  of  a  naturalist  is 
often  determined  then  and  there.  Teachers 
who  lead  their  classes  to  field  and  wood  will 
find  the  camera  a  most  interesting  and  help- 
ful adjunct  to  these  excursions.  Stalking 
a  bird,  a  rabbit,  a  squirrel  or  a  gopher, 
while  simple  and  tame  to  the  expert,  is  to 
the  school  boy  an  experience  full  of  interest. 
Soon  he.  will  come  to  note  in  what  surround- 
ings the  bird  or  animal  is  found,  what  it 
is  doing,  if  feeding  what  sort  of  food  it  is 
eating,  the  place  and  character  of  its  nest 
or  burrow.  The  pictures  when  developed 
recall  these  details  and  fix  them  in  the  mind, 
and  the  boy  thus  becomes  possessed  of  a 
fund  of  valuable  information  obtained  at 
first  hand.  With  increased  experience  these 
excursions  may  take  wider  range.  The 
mature  lad  will  give  zest  to  his  vacations 
by  becoming  a  hunter  of  wild  life  with 
camera  and  flashlight. 

The  pictures  which  follow  give  sugges- 
tions of  the  thrilling  experiences  and  show 
the  splendid  rewards  which  come  to  the 
man  who  hunts  with  a  camera. 


PRAIRIE    DOG 


WOODCHUCK    OR    GROUND     HOG 


SKUNK    CROSSING    A    STREAM 


CHIPMUNK 


OPOSSUM,  SHOWING  YOUNG  AT  THE  MOUTH  OP  THE  POUCH 


OPOSSUM,  SHOWING  YOUNG  ON  THE  MOTHER'S  BACK 


"PLAYING  "POSSUM."      THIS  ANIMAL  a  ALIVB 
Courtesy  of  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 


SPIDER  WATCHING  FOR  PREY 


WHITE-FOOTED  MOUSE  AND  YOUNG— By  A.  R.  DUGMORE 

MR.   DUGMORE   RAN   A   MILE  TO  RESTORE  THE   MOTHER  TO   HER  CHILDREN,    SHE     HAVING   RUN   INTO   HIS  POCKB» 
WHEN  FRIGHTENED.    AND  BEING  FOUND  THERE  LATER 

Courtesy  of  Doubledov.   Page  &  Co. 


Courtesy  of  DoubUday.  Pagt  &  Co. 


DEER   TAKEN   BY   FLASHLIGHT 


NAUGATUCK 


13" 


NAVAL  ACADEMY 


SECTION    OF 
NAUTILUS 


Nau'gatuck,  Conn.,  a  town  in  New  Haven 
County,  on  Naugatuck  River,  five  miles 
south  of  Waterbury  and  15  northwest  of 
New  Haven.  It  is  served  by  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad.  Its 
manufactories  receive  their  water-power 
largely  from  the  river,  and  include  rubber 
and  woolen  goods  factories,  buttons,  facto- 
ries for  the  manufacture  of  chemicals,  paper 
boxes  and  iron  and  brass  foundries.  Popu- 
lation 12,722. 

Nautilus  (na'ti-lus),  a  mollusk  having  a 
chambered  shell  and  belonging  to  the  class 
Cephalopoda.  It  is  the 
sole  living  representative 
of  one  order  of  that  class, 
possessing  four  gills,  while 
the  other  cephalopods 
_have  only  two.  Its  shell 
sis  not  uncommon  on  the 
shores  of  warm  seas,  but 
the  animal  is  not  often 
found  inhabiting  the  shell. 
It  creeps  about  the  bot- 
tom, and  the  floating  shell  is  the  result  of 
storms.  It  is  called  both  pearly  nautilus 
and  chambered  nautilus.  The  former  name 
comes  from  the  pearly  appearance  of  the 
innermost  layer  of  the  shell,  the  latter  from 
the  circumstance  that  the  spiral  shell  is 
divided  into  a  set  of  chambers.  The  animal 
lives  in  the  outermost  one.  When  very 
young,  it  lives  in  a  small  shell  shaped  like 
a  horn.  As  it  grows,  it  draws  the  body 
forward,  secretes  a  pearly  partition  just 
back  of  it,  and  adds  to  the  margin  of  the 
opening  of  the  shell;  this  is  repeated,  and  a 
set  of  chambers  results.  The  animal  has  a 
plump  body  connected  with  the  apex  of  the 
shell  by  a  sort  of  cord,  which  passes  through 
the  center  of  each  partition  wall.  There  are 
large  eyes.  The  head  is  surrounded  by  a 
number  of  arms  or  tentacles,  which  do  not 
possess  suckers  like  the  squid  or  devilfish, 
to  which  the  nautilus  is  related.  The  paper 
nautilus  or  argonaut  is  sometimes  confused 
with  the  true  nautilus.  It,  however,  belongs 
to  another  division  of  the  cephalopods,  hav- 
ing only  two  gills.  The  shell  of  this  animal 
is  secreted  by  the  female  only,  as  a  case  or 
cradle  for  the  eggs,  and  is  not  a  shell  to  pro- 
tect the  animal.  In  geological  times  there 
were  huge  chambered  shells  inhabited  by 
animals  like  the  nautilus.  These  shells  were 
straight  instead  of  being  coiled,  and  are  well 
known  under  the  name  orthoceratites.  See 
Woodward's  Manual  of  the  Mollusca  and 
Holmes'  poem  of  The  Chambered  Nautilus. 

Navajo  (nd'vd-ho)  Indians,  a  tribe  of 
American  Indians  belonging  to  the  Atha- 
bascan or  Tinney  stock.  They  call  them- 
selves Yutahenne.  They  occupy  a  fine 
reservation  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  and 
are  civilized  in  a  good  degree.  They  carry 
on  farming,  though  their  utensils  are  mostly 
hoes  and  primitive  implements,  such  as  sharp 
sticks.  Their  leading  crops  are  corn,  beans, 


melons,  pumpkins  and  wheat,  and  they  have 
orchards  of  peaches  and  apricots.  Their  re- 
serve includes  5,468,160  acres  of  land.  They 
number  about  17,000.  While  not  given  to 
fighting,  they  have  much  spirit  in  defending 
their  rights.  There  is  a  school  on  their 
reservation,  but  the  Indians  do  not  compel 
their  children  to  attend  it.  The  houses  are 
rude  booths  or  huts  built  of  sticks,  sods 
or  bushes.  As  they  never  enter  a  house 
where  a  person  has  died,  when  a  death 
occurs,  the  corpse  is  buried  by  pulling  out 
the  prop-sticks  and  letting  the  sods  and 
sticks  fall  on  it.  The  Navajos  are  strong 
and  well-built,  and  are  expert  horsemen  and 
herders. 

Na'val  Acad'emy  of  the  United  States, 
The,  a  school  for  the  training  of  naval  cadets 
under  the  supervision  and  control  of  the  gov- 
ernment, was  founded  by  Federal  authority 
in  1845,  Geo.  Bancroft  the  historian,  then 
secretary  of  the  navy,  having  planned  and 
established  it,  and  opened  for  the  reception 
of  students  in  October  of  that  year.  It  is  at 
Annapolis,  Md.,  on  Severn  River,  and  oc- 
cupies the  site  of  old  Fort  Severn.  Previous 
to  this  date  there  had  been  a  school  for  the 
training  of  midshipmen  in  connection  with 
the  Naval  Asylum  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Com- 
mander Franklin  Buchanan  was  the  first 
superintendent.  The  institution  was  reor- 
ganized in  1850  and  in  1851,  important 
changes  taking  place  at  each  of  these  dates. 
The  grounds  with  the  buildings  occupy  50 
acres,  while  outside  the  walls  100  acres  addi- 
tional belong  to  the  park.  Two  students, 
known  as  midshipmen,  are  allowed  for  each 
senator,  representative  and  delegate  in  Con- 
gress ;  two  for  the  District  of  Columbia ;  and 
five  each  year  from  the  United  States  at 
large ;  and  one  from  Porto  Rico,  who  must  be 
a  native  of  the  island.  The  midshipmen 
from  the  District  of  Columbia  and  the  coun- 
try at  large  are  appointed  by  the  president, 
and  the  one  from  Porto  Rico  upon  the  recom- 
mendation of  its  governor.  Candidates  are 
required  to  pass  an  examination  (after  ap- 
pointment) as  to  physical  soundness,  knowl- 
edge of  spelling,  grammar,  geography,  his- 
tory of  the  United  States,  arithmetic  and  al- 
gebra as  far  as  equations  of  the  first  degree. 
They  must  be  between  16  and  20  and  be  un- 
married. Midshipmen  are  allowed  an  an- 
nual honorarium  of  $500.  If  admitted, 
they  must  make  a  deposit  of  $200  to  cover 
the  cost  of  personal  outfit;  but  their  ex- 
penses of  travel  from  their  homes  to  Annap- 
olis are  refunded,  and  they  receive  $500  a 
year,  subsistence,  clothing  and  certain  other 
expenses  being,  however,  required  of  them. 
The  course  has  been  changed  several  times, 
but,  as  it  now  stands,  all  cadets  must  pass 
four  years  at  the  academy  and  two  at  sea 
During  the  first  three  years  cadets  are  in- 
structed in  English  studies,  history,  French, 
Spanish  or  German,  algebra,  geometry,  trig- 
onometry, astronomy,  physics,  chemistry, 


NAVAL  OBSERVATORY 


1312 


NAVIGATION 


mechanical  drawing  and  navigation.  The 
studies  of  the  fourth  year  are  varied  accord- 
ing to  the  special  line  of  duty  to  which  the 
cadet  devotes  himself,  as  naval  construc- 
tion, gunnery,  infantry  tactics,  international 
law  etc.  The  academy  has  102  instructors 
and  about  750  students.  The  library  con- 
tains 50,000  volumes.  The  government  has 
recently  spent  $15,000,000  for  improvements 
at  the  Naval  Academy.  These  consist  of 
several  massive  practice-halls,  a  magnificent 
memorial  chapel,  modern  living  quarters 
and  fine  roadways  and  terraces.  The  body 
of  John  Paul  Jones,  brought  to  America  from 
Paris  in  1905,  is  interred  in  the  chapel. 

Naval  Observ'atory  of  the  United 
States,  The,  an  institution  of  the  Federal 
government,  is  located  at  Georgetown,  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  bureau  of  navigation.  It  was  estab- 
lished in  1842,  and  then  called  the  Depot  for 
Naval  Charts  and  Instruments.  The  Nau- 
tical Almanac,  issued  yearly,  is  compiled  at 
this  place.  The  present  equipment  of  this 
observatory  is  probably  surpassed  by  no 
other  in  the  world  for  the  performance  of  the 
important  functions  intrusted  to  it. 

Naval  Reserve.  In  all  the  more  im- 
portant countries,  in  addition  to  the  regular 
naval  forces  serving  continuously  with  the 
fleet,  there  are  others  who  are  drilled  and  in- 
structed in  order  to  be  able  to  supplement 
the  regular  naval  forces  in  time  of  war.  In 
times  of  peace  these  men  are  largely  em- 
ployed in  the  merchant  marine,  yachts,  aux- 
iliary government  service,  or  are  pensioners. 
The  reserves  of  the  French,  German  and  Ital- 
ian navies  are  derived  chiefly  from  honor- 
ably discharged  men  who  have  served  the  re- 
quired term  of  enlistment,  but  others,  as 
fishermen,  merchant  sailors  and  those  pur- 
suing such  other  callings  as  afford  experience 
useful  in  the  war  fleet,  are  employed.  The 
naval  reserve  force  of  France  numbered  in 
1906  about  114,000,  more  than  25,000  of 
whom  were  serving  with  the  fleet;  and  the 
German  naval  reserve  force  numbered  no,- 
ooo.  The  Russian  naval  reserve  force  is 
somewhat  similarly  derived,  but  contains  a 
greater  proportion  of  untrained  men  unfa- 
miliar with  nautical  life.  The  British  naval 
reserve  force  is  made  up  of  the  Royal  naval 
reserve,  the  Royal  fleet  reserve  and  pension- 
ers. The  United  States  has  no  national 
naval  reserve  force,  but  has  what  is  called  a 
Naval  Militia,  which  in  a  way  answers  the 
same  purpose.  There  have  been  frequent 
efforts  to  secure  the  necessary  legislation  for 
the  establishment  of  a  regular  naval  reserve, 
and  the  Naval  Militia  is  the  chief  result  of 
these  efforts.  In  1887  a  bill  was  introduced 
in  Congress  "to  create  a  naval  reserve  of  aux- 
iliary cruisers,  officers  and  men  from  the  mer- 
chant marines  of  the  United  States,"  but  it 
was  not  passed.  In  the  same  year  the  Navy 
Department  prepared  a  plan  of  organization 
for  a  naval  militia.  In  May  of  1888  the 


legislature  of  Massachusetts  provided  by  en- 
actment for  the  establishment  of  a  naval 
battalion  to  be  attached  to  the  state  volun- 
teer militia.  In  the  same  year  Pennsylvania 
and  Rhode  Island  and  in  June  of  1889  New 
York  followed  with  similar  legislation.  The 
Massachusetts  naval  battalion  was  drilled  on 
board  the  receiving  ship  Wabash  and  the 
New  York  battalion  on  the  receiving  ship 
Minnesota.  Nothing  more  was  done  until 
March  2,  1891,  when  Congress  appropriated 
$25,000  for  arms  and  equipment  of  naval 
militia.  A  few  weeks  later  California  cre- 
ated by  legislative  enactment  a  naval  bat- 
talion, and  North  Carolina  with  executive 
sanction  and  Texas  by  order  of  the  governor 
did  likewise.  Ten  other  states  and  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  have  since  made  similar 
provisions.  Now  naval  militia  are  organ- 
ized in  1 6  states  and  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia with  474  commissioned  officers  and 
5,275  enlisted  men,  involving  an  annual 
expenditure  by  the  national  government  of 
about  $75,000.  All  matters  relating  to  the 
naval  militia  come  under  the  cognizance  of 
the  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  who 
transacts  all  business  relative  thereto  through 
the  governors  and  adjutant-generals  of  the 
states. 

Navarino  (na'vd-re'no')  ( officially  Pylos ), 
is  a  town  of  2,000  inhabitants  on  the  south- 
west coast  of  the  Morea.  in  Greece  and  the 
best  harbor  in  Greece.  In  425  B.  C  the  great 
battle  between  the  Athenians  and  the  Spar- 
tans, in  which  the  Spartans  were  defeated, 
occurred  in  the  bay;  and  on  October  20, 
1827,  the  combined  British,  French  and  Rus- 
sian fleets  annihilated  the  Turkish  and 
Egyptian  navies  at  the  same  place. 

Navarro,  Mary  A.    See  ANDERSON  MARY. 

Nav'iga"tion  is  the  art  of  sailing  a  ship 
from  port  to  port.  There  are  two  methods 
of  determining  the  situation  of  a  ship  at  sea. 
One  consists  in  finding  the  latitude  and  lon- 
gitude by  astronomical  observations;  the 
other  in  noting  the  ship's  direction  and  the 
distance  traveled  each  day  and  in  computing 
by  trigonometry  the  position  of  the  ship  In 
the  latter  method  the  two  instruments  used 
are  the  mariner's  compass  to  determine  the 
direction  and  the  log-line  to  determine  the 
rate  of  travel.  Winds  and  currents  and  vari- 
ations of  the  compass  needle  render  this 
method  untrustworthy.  The  most  accurate 
method  of  determining  the  position  is  by  as- 
tronomical observations  Every  ship  is 
provided  with  at  least  one  accurate  chro- 
nometer. Then,  by  noting  accurately  the 
time  when  the  sun  reaches  its  highest  alti- 
tude, the  true  noon  is  found,  and  from  differ- 
ence in  time  as  noted  from  the  chronometer 
the  longitude  can  be  calculated.  Similarly, 
the  latitude  may  be  calculated  by  observa- 
tion with  the  sextant  of  the  sun's  altitude  in 
the  heavens  at  noon.  When  the  sun  is  ob- 
scured at  noon,  other  astronomical  methods 
are  resorted  to  as  observations  at  other 


NAVIGATION  LAWS 


1313 


NAVY 


hours  and  on  other  heavenly  bodies.  No 
one  method  is  ever  relied  on  solely,  but  every 
observation  possible  is  made  to  check  up 
others.  Currents  and  temperatures  of  the 
sea  are  observed,  depths  are  noted  by  the 
lead,  and  when  land  is  approached  light- 
houses and  lightships  are  carefully  watched 
for. 

Navigation  Laws,  such  as  interfered  with 
American  shipping  during  the  colonial  period 
and  such  as  the  United  States  herself  laid 
down  for  shipping  subsequent  to  the  Declar- 
ation of  Independence,  denote  a  policy  of  in- 
terference in  trade,  manufactures  etc.,  which 
received  its  first  serious  challenge  from  the 
Wealth  of  Nations  of  Adam  Smith.  As  early 
as  1381  England  had  begun  her  policy  of  in- 
sisting that  merchandise  to  and  from  the 
kingdom  should  be  carried  only  in  English 
ships.  This  prohibition  was  not  effective. 
The  English  parliament,  however,  enacted  a 
similar  law  in  1645,  which  under  Charles  II 
was  replaced  by  the  Act  of  1651,  legally 
known  as  the  first  navigation  act.  The  sec- 
ond navigation  act  (1663)  had  special  refer- 
ence to  colonial  trade,  which  was  expected  to 
benefit  English  shipping  only.  By  this  act, 
therefore,  all  colonial  produce  for  export 
must  be  landed  in  an  English  port.  Yet 
there  were  many  evasions  of  the  navigation 
acts,  especially  by  American  shipping.  The 
Spanish  navigation  laws  were  even  more 
stringent  than  the  British  laws;  they  were 
summed  up  in  the  policy  of  treating  foreign 
vessels  found  in  Spanish  waters  as  pirates. 

The  United  States  constitution  in  1789 
included  a  provision  that  Congress  might 
make  such  navigation  laws  as  it  pleased. 
Strict  acts,  favoring  American  shipping  by 
imposing  tonnage  on  foreign  vessels,  were 
passed  in  1789  and  1792.  A  system  of 
mutual  concessions,  however,  began  with 
England  after  the  war  of  1812.  England  re- 
pealed her  navigation  acts  in  1824;  and 
America  passed  more  liberal  laws  in  1884, 
so  that  vessels  owned  only  in  part  in  Amer- 
ica may  now  fly  the  American  flag.  Ton- 
nage rates  were  reduced  in  the  United  States 
in  1886.  The  act  of  1884  established  a  bu- 
reau of  navigation,  subject  to  the  oversight 
of  the  treasury  department. 

Na'vy.  The  navy  of  any  count}!  is  its 
fighting  force  on  the  sea,  and  bears  the 
same  relation  thereto  as  does  the  army  as 
a  land-force.  The  ancient  method  of  naval 
warfare  was  in  great  part  the  practice  of 
driving  a  beaked  vessel  against  another  with 
great  force.  This  survives  to  the  present 
day  in  the  use  of  rams.  The  ancient  boats 
were  propelled  with  force  and  precision  by 
oars,  arranged  in  one,  two  or  three  tiers 
and  manned  by  either  standing  or  sitting 
sailors.  A  three-banked  vessel  was  called 
a  trireme.  The  Persians,  Carthaginians, 
Phoenicians  and  Greeks  are  known  to  have 
had  such  fleets  as  early  as  the  7th  century 
B.  C. 


The  modern  navy  dates  from  the  i6th 
century,  when,  in  1588,  the  English  fleet 
destroyed  the  Spanish  Armada,  and  by  slow 
steps  in  conquering  the  French  and  Dutch 
became  the  foremost  maritime  power  of  the 
world.  The  first  naval  ship  to  be  protected 
by  iron  was  launched  at  Toulon  in  1859 
and  named  La  Gloire.  From  this  were  pat- 
terned the  subsequent  armor-clad  vessels, 
with  improvements  from  time  to  time.  The 
construction  of  the  American  navy  dates 
from  the  war  of  independence,  and  in  1812 
and  1814  it  proved  a  worthy  foe  of  England 
on  the  seas.  Thereafter  it  was  in  a  measure 
neglected  until  the  Civil  War,  when  the  con- 
struction of  the  armored  Monitor  changed 
the  type  of  the  warships  of  the  future,  trans- 
forming the  whole  idea  of  a  navy.  In 
place  of  the  old  wooden  vessels  it  is  com- 
posed of  powerful  steel  steamers,  capable  of 
high  speed  and  mounted  with  batteries  of 
powerful  modern  guns.  The  fleet  comprises 
the  battleships,  which  practically  are  floating 
forts,  heavily  armored  but  capable  of  high 
speed;  the  cruisers,  less  heavily  armored 
but  of  greater  speed;  the  double-turreted 
monitors  for  harbor  defense,  single-turreted 
monitors,  gunboats,  torpedo-boats,  torpedo- 
boat  destroyers  and  submarines,  besides 
transports,  supply  ships,  hospital  ships  and 
colliers.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  was 
the  Monitor  that  revolutionized  naval  war- 
fare, substituting  the  iron-clad  for  the  wooden 
vessel,  comparatively  little  attention  was 
paid  to  the  development  of  the  American 
navy  for  several  years  after  the  Civil  War. 
Interest  in  a  stronger  navy  was  due  largely 
to  the  dispute  with  Great  Britain  over  what 
is  known  as  the  Venezuela  Incident  in  1896, 
and  the  war  with  Spain,  two  years  later. 
And  the  acquisition  of  foreign  possessions 
operated  to  the  same  effect.  But  the  country 
had  begun  to  fall  behind  in  the  work  of  naval 
construction  until  the  European  War  again 
brought  the  question  of  the  need  of  a  larger 
navy  to  defend  the  country  and  protect 
commercial  interests  sharply  to  the  front 
and  a  measure  was  passed,  July  18,  1916, 
providing  for  the  construction  of  a  total 
of  157  new  vessels  of  all  classes,  and  for  the 
development  of  the  main  elements  of  the 
fighting  fleet  so  that  there  should  be  com- 
pleted and  in  commission  in  1921,  27  dread- 
noughts of  the  first  line,  supported  by  6 
battle  cruisers,  25  second  line  battle  ships, 
13  scout  cruisers,  108  destroyers,  12  fleet 
submarines  and  130  coast  defense  submarines. 

Although  the  submarine  had  proved  itself, 
in  the  European  War,  to  be  a  very  effective 
instrument  for  the  destruction  of  merchant 
vessels,  it  played  no  important  part  in  naval 
warfare,  and  in  the  adoption  of  the  program 
of  naval  warfare  in  the  United  States  the 
opinion  was  expressed — in  the  annual  report 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  following  the 
adoption  of  the  measure — that  the  battle 
ship  is  still  "the  backbone  of  the  sea  power 


NAZARETH 


NEBRASKA 


of  a  nation."  For  this  reason  it  was  decided 
that  the  number,  power,  and  size  of  the 
guns  to  be  placed  aboard  these  new  battle 
ships  should  be  increased  without  sacri- 
ficing armor,  speed  or  cruising  radius. 

The  greatest  impetus  to  the  growth  of 
naval  armament  began  in  1870,  following 
the  unification  of  the  Italian  and  German 
empires  and  the  necessity  they  felt  of  estab- 
lishing themselves  upon  the  sea.  Active 
naval  construction  in  the  United  States 
began  about  1890.  Italy  was  the  first  to 
set  the  example  of  building  enormous  ships 
armed  with  monster  guns.  The  development 
of  the  German  navy  is  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable examples  of  efficiency  in  the  history 
of  modern  naval  construction.  This  devel- 
opment was  effected  in  spite  of  a  good  deal 
of  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Reichstag, 
but  had  the  advantage  of  the  powerful 
influence  of  Emperor  William  II,  and  was 
stimulated  by  the  friction  arising  between 
Great  Britain  and  Germany  over  the  Boer 
War. 

The  pay  of  naval  officers  is  as  follows: 
Admiral  $13,500  per  year;  rear-admirals, 
first  nine  $8,000;  second  nine  $6,000;  cap- 
tains $4,000;  commanders  $3,500;  lieuten- 
ant-commanders $3,000;  lieutenants  $2,400; 
ensigns  $1.700;  midshipmen  at  sea  $1,400; 
petty  officers  and  chief  petty  officers  get 
from  $33  to  $77  per  month;  first  class  sea- 
men $26;  ordinary  seamen  $21;  firemen 
$33  to  $35.  The  term  of  enlistment  in  the 
United  States  navy  is  four  years. 

The  cruise  aroun'd  the  world  of  the  Ameri- 
can fleet  of  1 6  battleships,  which  occurred 
in  1908,  was  perhaps  the  most  notable  feat 
in  naval  annals.  Leaving  Norfolk  on  Dec.  1 6, 
1907,  the  fleet  sailed  around  South  America, 
visited  the  chief  ports  of  that  continent  and 
arrived  at  San  Francisco  without  mishap 
and  in  condition  ready  for  any  service. 
Proceeding  on  its  itinerary  it  visited  Hawaii, 
the  Philippines,  Australia  and  Japan,  and 
returned  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal  and  the 
Mediterranean.  This  wonderful  cruise  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  the  world;  the  fleet 
was  welcomed  and  fe"ted  by  every  nation 
it  visited ;  and  the  efficiency  of  ships,  officers 
and  crews  was  fully  demonstrated  by  this 
long  and  severe  test.  See  J.  W.  King's 
Warships  and  Navies  of  the  World;  Lieut. 
F.  H.  Vesey's  (U.  S.  N.)  Navies  of  the  World; 
and  Mahan  on  Sea  Power. 

Naz'areth,  the  Galilean  home  of  Jesus, 
is  a  small  and  flourishing  town  in  Palestine. 
It  is  built  partly  on  rocky  ridges  in  a  hilly 
country.  It  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  in  the  early  part  of  the 
Christian  era  was  almost  forgotten,  the  first 
pilgrimage  to  it  taking  place  in  the  6th 
century.  The  town  contains  a  Latin  con- 
vent, built  on  the  supposed  scene  of  the 
annunciation,  while  the  Greeks  have  also 
built  a  commemorative  chapel.  There  also 
are  a  Latin  chapel,  supposedly  built  over  the 


workshop  of  Joseph,  and  a  temple  of  the 
Table  of  Christ,  containing  the  table  from 
which  the  twelve  apostles  ate  the  last  supper. 
The  Virgin's  well  is  just  outside  the  town 
limits.  The  place  has  long  been  famed  for 
the  beauty  of  its  women.  The  population 
is  estimated  at  from  8,000  to  10,000. 

Ne'bo,  Mount,  the  highest  point  of  the 
range  of  mountains  east  of  Jordan,  in  Moab. 
It  was  from  its  summit  that  Moses  had 
his  "Pisgah  view"  of  Palestine.  An  ancient 
rude  altar,  probably  as  old  as  the  time 
of  the  Amorites,  was  discovered  here  by 
Captain  Conder  in  1881. 

Nebras'ka,  one  of  the  northern  central 
states  of  the  Union,  situated  between  South 
Dakota  on  the  north,  Iowa  and  Missouri  on 
the  east,  Kansas  and  Colorado  on  the  south 
and  Colorado  and  Wyoming  on  the  west. 
Its  extreme  length  is  205  miles,  its  extreme 
breadth  415;  entire  area  77,510  square 
miles;  capital,  Lincoln.  Nearly  half  the 
population  (1,277,750)  is  made  up  of  natives 
of  other  states  who  were  attracted  by  the 
opportunities  of  a  rapidly  developing  region. 

Surface  and  Climate.  The  state,  which  is 
a  prairie  one,  is  without  any  great  eleavtions, 
though  in  the  north  and  west  the  surface 
is  diversified  by  hills.  Its  chief  water- 
ways are  the  Platte  or  Nebraska  River,  which 
courses  across  the  state  from  west  to  east, 
and  the  Missouri  River,  which  flanks  it  on 
the  east  and  forms  part  of  its  northeastern 
boundary.  The  soil  is  rich  and  fertile,  with 
a  dry  climate,  the  rainfall  being  light;  so 
much  so  as  to  necessitate  the  resort  to  irri- 
gation in  the  western  part  of  the  state.  In 
the  absence  of  humidity  there  is  little  ex- 
treme of  either  heat  or  cold. 

Natural  Resources.  The  state  is  preemi- 
nently an  agricultural  one,  raising  the  chief 
cereals,  including  corn,  wheat,  oats,  rye  and 
barley,  besides  hay  and  potatoes.  The  farm- 
land area  is  about  39,000,000  acres.  There 
is  now  considerable  stock-raising,  with  an 
increasing  number  of  dairy-cows  and  other 
cattle,  horses,  sheep  and  swine.  The  mineral 
deposits  are  poor  or  are  as  yet  undeveloped, 
except  such  limestone  as  is  quarried  for 
building  purposes,  brick  and  tUe  products 
and  clay.  Fruit-growing  is  being  developed. 
Beginning  with  the  year  1889  there  has 
been  an  extensive  development  of  sugar 
beet  raising.  The  largest  beet  sugar  factory 
is  located  at  Grand  Island. 

Manufactures.  The  lack  of  fuel,  either  of 
coal  or  timber,  has  been  a  drawback  to  man- 
ufacturing. The  leading  industry  is  slaught- 
ering and  meat-packing,  with  a  product 
value  considerably  in  excess  of  $90,000,000. 
South  Omaha  is  the  chief  seat  of  this  indus- 
try. The  manufacture  of  malt  liquors, 
cheese,  butter,  condensed  milk  and  flour 
and  grist-mill  products  is  important,  as  is 
the  yield  from  the  brick  and  tile  works,  lum- 
ber and  planing  mills,  railroad  cars,  saddlery 
and  harness  shops.  There  is,  moreover,  a 


NEBRASKA  CITY 


1315 


NEBULA 


large  and  growing  printing  and  publishing 
trade. 

Commerce  and  Transportation.  Nebraska 
has  175  national  banks,  with  a  capital  of 
about  $12,000,000  and  about  $65,000,000  of 
deposits.  There  are  6,067  miles  of  railway, 
chiefly  in  the  southeast.  The  chief  lines  are 
the  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  Rock  Island, 
Union  Pacific,  Burlington  and  Missouri 
River  and  Fremont,  Elkhorn  and  Missouri 
Valley  roads. 

Education  and  Charities.  Educationally 
the  state  makes  a  good  showing,  for  it  has 
an  exceedingly  low  percentage  of  illiterates, 
the  percentage  being  the  lowest  for  any 
state  except  Iowa.  The  institutions  for 
higher  learning  include  the  University  of 
Nebraska,  at  Lincoln,  with  262  instructors 
and  3,992  students;  Cotner  University,  at 
Bethany,  with  50  instructors  and  350  stu- 
dents; Bellevue  College.  (Presbyterian)  with 
1 6  instructors  and  170  students;  Doane 
College  (Congregational),  at  Crete,  with  19 
instructors  and  210  students;  and  Nebraska 
Wesleyan  University,  at  University  Place, 
with  43  instructors  and  937  students.  Be- 
sides these  collegiate  institutions  the  state 
maintains  asylums  for  the  insane,  feeble- 
minded, etc.  at  Lincoln,  Norfolk,  Hastings 
and  Beatrice;  an  institute  for  the  blind  at 
Nebraska  City;  one  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  at 
Omaha;  besides  state  soldiers'  and  sailors' 
homes  at  Milford  and  Grand  Island.  The 
state  university  includes  departments  of 
engineering,  law,  medicine  and  pharmacy. 
The  state  agricultural  college.  The  botani- 
cal and  geological  surveys  are  under  the 
supervision  of  the  university. 

History.  Originally  the  present  state, 
which  dates  from  1867,  formed  part  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase,  and  in  1804  it  was  or- 
ganized as  the  District  and  Territory  of 
Louisiana,  eight  years  later  becoming  known 
as  Missouri  Territory.  In  the  i8th  century 
fur-traders  ascended  the  Platte;  in  1804-06 
the  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition  visited  the 
region;  and  later  commerce  was  begun  by 
fur-traders  with  the  Indians  and  a  settle- 
ment was  formed  in  1805  at  Bellevue.  In 
1821  Fort  Atkinson  was  built,  and  in  1825-26 
Omaha  and  Nebraska  were  settled.  During 
1840-50  the  district  was  visited  by  Mor- 
mons, traders  and  travellers,  as  well  as  by 
American  troops  on  their  way  to  New  Mexico 
and  by  gold-seekers  in  1849-50  en  route  for 
California.  It  remained  unorganized,  how- 
ever, until  1854,  when  it  became  a  territory 
under  the  provisions  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska 
bill,  and  after  various  vicissitudes  it  was  ad- 
mitted as  a  state,  its  area  being  limited  by 
giving  portions  of  it  to  form  Colorado,  Idaho 
and  Dakota,  and  a  constitution  was  formu- 
lated in  1866. 

Nebraska  City,  Neb.,  the  capital  of 
Otoe  County,  lies  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Missouri,  74  miles  below  Omaha.  It  is  the 


seat  of  Nebraska  College,  the  state  institute 
for  the  blind,  and  the  Academy  of  the  Annun- 
ciation ;  it  possesses  a  grain  elevator  and  sev- 
eral manufactories,  chief  among  them  being 
flour  and  lumber  mills,  a  cannery,  a  starch 
factory,  distillery,  foundries,  machineshops 
and  cereal  mills.  It  has  a  public  library, 
government  and  county  buildings  and  well- 
organized  public  and  parochial  schools. 
Population  5,488. 

Nebraska,  University  of,  located  at  Lin- 
coln, the  capital  of  the  state,  is  a  part 
of  its  public-school  system.  It  was  founded 
by  act  of  legislature  in  1869,  and  is  sup- 
ported chiefly  by  a  state  tax,  together 
with  income  from  land  sales  and  leases 
under  Act  of  Congress  of  1862,  the  annual 
revenue  being  about  $270,000.  It  com- 
prises the  following  colleges  and  schools: 
graduate  school,  colleges  of  literature,  science 
and  arts,  industrial  college,  college  of  law, 
school  of  fine  arts,  affiliated  school  of  music. 
The  faculty  numbers  173  with  2,914  stu- 
dents in  attendance,  exclusive  of  the  summer 
and  preparatory  schools  which  are  also  excel- 
lent and  largely  attended. 

Nebuchadrezzar  r(neb'u-kad-rez'zar) ,  the 
most  illustrious  of  Babylonian  kings,  was  the 
son  of  Nabopolassar,  the  general  of  the  Baby- 
lonian garrison  at  the  time  the  Assyrian  em- 
pire fell  to  pieces  after  the  death  of  Assur- 
bani-pal.  The  Babylonians  then  threw  off 
the  hated  yoke  of  Assyria,  and  Nabopolassar 
was  proclaimed  king  of  Babylonia  in  625 
B.  C.  Nebuchadrezzar  succeeded  him  in 
604,  reigning  43  years,  and  was  one  of  the 
greatest  sovereigns  who  ever  ruled  over  an 
ancient  empire.  He  recovered  the  long-lost 
provinces,  rebuilt  palaces  and  temples  as 
well  as  the  city  of  Babylon,  and  captured 
and  destroyed  Jerusalem,  taking  the  Jews 
into  captivity.  (The  Assyrians  had  pre- 
viously carried  away  the  ten  northern  tribes 
into  captivity.  The  spelling  "Nebuchadrez- 
zar" and  Nebuchadnezzar"  are  both  correct, 
but  the  former  is  given  the  preference  by 
Oriental  scholars  as  corresponding  more  nearly 
to  the  original  form. 

Nebulae  (n$b'u-l$) ,  are  celestial  bodies  re- 
sembling, in  appearance,  small  patches  of 
white  cloud.  Hence  the  name,  which  is 
merely  the  Latin  word  for  small  cloud.  Many 
thousands  of  these  nebulae  have  been  meas- 
ured and  catalogued,  but  with  the  exception 
of  two  or  three  all  are  invisible  to  the  naked 
eye.  Until  1 864  —  five  years  after  the  in- 
vention of  the  spectroscope  by  Kirchhoff 
and  Bunsen  —  nebulae  were  considered  to  be 
very  distant  star-clusters,  or  clusters  made 
up  of  stars  so  small  as  not  to  be  resolvable 
by  any  existing  telescope.  But  Sir  William 
Muggins  then  examined  a  number  of  nebulas 
with  the  spectroscope  and  found  that  they 
are  not  stars,  but  bodies  composed  of  lumi- 
nous gas,  giving  a  spectrum  of  six  or  seven 
bright  lines.  Two  of  these  lines  are  fairly 
bright  and  are  due,  as  has  been  proved  by 


NEBULAR  HYPOTHESIS 


1316 


NEEDLE 


Keeler  at  Lick  Observatory,  to  a  sub- 
stance not  yet  discovered  on  the  earth.  The 
brightest  of  all  nebulae  is  the  one  in  the  girdle 
of  Andromeda;  the  one  in  the  sword-handle 
of  Orion  can  also  be  seen  at  times  by  the 
naked  eye.  Planetary  nebula  are  those 
which  show  a  more  or  less  well-defined  disc. 
It  is  not  impossible  that  nebulae  are  merely 
stars  in  their  early  stages  of  development, 
later  to  pass  through  the  phases  of  planetary 
nebulae  and  nebulous  stars.  See  Scheiner's 
Astronomical  Spectroscopy,  translated  by 
Frost, 

Neb'ular  Hypoth'esis  is  a  theory  ad- 
vanced by  three  different  men,  Swedenborg 
(1688-1772),  Kant  (1724-1804)  and  Laplace 
(1749-1827),  to  account  for  the  observed 
facts  of  planetary  motion.  The  more  im- 
portant phenomena  to  be  accounted  for  are 
these:  (i)  The  orbits  of  all  the  planets  are 
nearly  circular  and  lie  all  nearly  in  one  plane. 
(2)  The  direction  of  revolution  about  the  sun 
is  the  same  for  all  planets.  (3)  Except  in 
the  case  of  Uranus  and  Neptune,  the  direc- 
tion of  rotation  of  the  planet  on  its  axis  is 
the  same  as  its  direction  of  revolution.  (4) 
The  larger  planets  rotate  (not  revolve)  more 
rapidly.  (5)  The  plane  of  rotation  is  not 
very  different  from  the  plane  of  the  orbit. 
(6)  The  satellites  generally  have  a  direction 
of  revolution  which  coincides  with  that  of 
the  planet's  rotation.  To  explain  this 
rather  orderly  state  of  affairs  it  was  sup- 
posed that  the  matter  now  constituting  this 
solar  system  was  at  some  earlier  date  in  its 
existence  distributed  in  the  form  of  an  im- 
mense nebula;  and  that,  as  this  nebula  con- 
densed and  therefore  increased  its  rate  of  ro- 
tation (while  preserving  a  constant  moment 
of  momentum) ,  the  centrifugal  force  became 
so  great  that  some  of  the  outer  portions  of 
the  nebula  were  set  free.  That  is,  the  cen- 
trifugal force  reached  a  point  where  it  bal- 
anced the  attraction  of  the  rest  of  the  nebula. 
The  portions  thus  set  free,  whether  as  a  ring 
or  as  a  "hump,"  condensed  still  farther  and 
formed  the  earlier  planets.  As  the  concen- 
tration of  the  original  nebula  proceeded,  the 
rate  of  rotation  kept  on  increasing  and  again 
"threw  off''  or  set  free  other  planets.  So 
also  with  the  planets  themselves ;  as  they  be- 
came more  and  more  compact,  their  rate  of 
rotation  increased  sufficiently  for  them  to 
set  free  their  satellites. 

In  a  general  way  this  hypothesis  satisfac- 
torily explains  the  six  facts  enumerated 
above.  With  later  modifications  it  explains 
even  many  of  the  anomalies  of  the  solar  sys- 
tem. See  LAPLACE.  For  recent  criticism 
of  this  hypothesis  see  article  by  Moulton  in 
Astrophyswal  Journal,  Vol.  II.  (1900). 

Neck'ar,  a  river  in  Germany,  flowing 
through  Wurttemberg  and  Baden ;  it  is  one  of 
the  largest  tributaries  of  the  Rhine,  rises  on 
the  eastern  slope  of  the  Black  Forest,  and 
pursues  a  winding  course  for  250  miles  until 
it  enters  the  Rhine  at  Mannheim.  It  is  nav- 


igable for  about  half  its  lower  length.  Tu- 
bingen, Heidelberg,  Heilbronn  and  Cannstatt 
are  on  its  banks. 

Neck'er,  Jacques,  a  financier  and  minis- 
ter of  France,  was  born  at  Geneva.  Sept.  30, 
1732.  At  15  he  went  to  Paris  as  a  bank- 
clerk,  and  in  1762  founded  .the  London 
and  Paris  Bank  of  Thellusson  and  Necker. 
He  entered  public  life  as  a  syndic  ot  the 
French  East  India  Company  and  minister  of 
the  republic  of  Geneva  at  Paris,  and  about 
this  time  married.  In  1773  ^e  received  the 
French  Academy  prize  for  a  eulogy  on  Col- 
bert, and  won  great  recognition  by  his  Essai 
sur  le  Commerce  des  Grains  in  1775.  This 
was  an  answer  to  the  free- trade  arguments 
of  Turgot.  After  having  loaned  some  money 
to  the  government,  he  was  made  director  of 
the  treasury  in  1776  and  director-general  of 
finance  in  1777.  For  five  years  he  labored 
to  improve  the  financial  condition  of  France 
by  readjusting  the  taxes,  establishing  state- 
guaranteed  annuities  and  the  present  system 
of  government  pawnshops.  His  methods 
displeased  the  queen,  however,  and  his  publi- 
cation of  the  Compte  Rendu,  a  statement  of 
the  financial  condition  of  France,  in  1781, 
was  made  the  cause  of  his  dismissal.  He 
thereupon  withdrew  to  Geneva,  but  returned 
in  1787  and  defended  his  Compte  Rendu,  for 
which  he  was  banished  from  Paris.  He  was 
recalled  to  his  office  in  September,  1788,  but, 
while  winning  popularity  through  recom- 
mending the  summoning  of  the  states-gen- 
eral, he  proved  wholly  incompetent  during 
the  storms  of  the  Revolution.  He  declined 
the  aid  of  Lafayette  and  Mirabeau,  and  on 
July  ii.  1789,  was  ordered  to  leave  France, 
but  after  the  fall  of  the  Bastille,  three  days 
later,  he  was  recalled,  only  to  resign  volun- 
tarily in  September,  1790.  He  retired  to  his 
estate  near  Geneva,  and  died  there  on  April 
p,  1804.  See  The  Private  Life  of  M.  Necker 
by  Madame  de  Stael,  his  famous  daughter. 
Nec'tar,  the  name  given  by  most  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  poets  to  the  drink  of  the 
gods.  Homer  describes  it  as  of  a  red  color, 
and  says  that  continued  use  of  it  was  sup- 
posed to  insure  immortality.  The  sprink- 
ling with  nectar  was  supposed  to  confer  per- 
petual youth,  and  it  was  used,  in  figure  of 
speech,  as  meaning  everything  delightful  and 
pleasant  to  the  taste. 

Nee'dle.     The  sewing-needle  must  be  one 
of  the  oldest  implements  used  by  man.    Bone 

needles 
with  eyes 
are  found 
in  the  rein- 
deer caves 
of  France, 
and  on  the 
sites  of  the 
prehistoric 

lake  dwellings  of  central  Europe  have  been 
found  many  "eyed"  needles  of  bone  and  of 
bronze,  but  only  one  of  iron.  Ancient  bronze 


NEEDLE-GUN 


1317 


needles,  3$  inches  long,  have  been  found  in 
Egypt,  and  there  are  surgeon's  needles  and 
thimbles  which  have  been  used  in  sewing, 
with  ordinary  needles  recovered  from  Pom- 
peii in  the  Naples  Museum.  Savage  races 
use  needles  of  various  materials,  as  bone, 
ivory,  wood  and  metal 

Steel  needles  were  first  made  in  Nuremberg 
in  1 3  7  o ,  but  the  manufacture  was  not  of  much 


FIG.  2 

importance  until  about  1650  The  early 
made  needles  were  all  square-eyed.  Red- 
ditch,  near  Birmingham,  is  the  seat  of  the 
needle  manufacture  in  Great  Britain,  and 
great  improvements  have  been  made  by  the 
.  use  of  automatic  ma- 
chines and  other  new 
mechanical  appliances. 
There  are  about  2  2  pro- 
cesses now  used  in  the 
making  of  needles. 
First,  fine  steel  wire  is 
cut  into  double  lengths ; 

ill  d^n-r^d  Tel^t  ^nd 
placed  in  loose  bundles 
inside  iron  rings,  to  be 

straightened  by  rolling  each  bundle  back- 
ward and  forward  on  a  face  plate  with  a 
slightly  curved  bar  (Fig.  i),  through  which 
the  rings  project.  Next  the  wires  are 
pointed  at  both  ends  and  then  stamped  in  the 
middle,  so  as  to  produce  the  flat  part  of  the 
eyes  and  the  mark  for  the  holes  (Fig.  2) ;  two 
oval  holes  are  then  punched  by  a  vertical, 
belt-driven,  punching-machine.  After  be- 
ing eyed  the  double  needles,  joined  at  the 
heads  by  thin  fins,  are  "spitted"  through 
their  eyes  on  two  wires  flattened  at  one  end 
so  as  to  retain  them.  The  burr  made  by  the 
punch  and  die  is  now  filed  away,  and  after 
being  broken  in  two  between  the  heads  and 
filed  smooth,  a  row  of  single  needles  is  left  on 
each  spit,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.  Next  they  are 
tempered  by  heating  and  dipping  in  oil,  then 
polished,  cleaned  and  sorted.  It  is  estimated 
that  50,000,000  needles  are  made  weekly  in 
the  Redditch  district. 

Nee'dle-Qun.     See  RIFLE. 

Ne'gro,  The  Education  of  the.  The 
first  negroes  were  landed  in  the  United  States 
at  Jamestown  in  1619.  Within  less  than  a 
century  from  that  date  there  were  over  50,- 
ooo  here  and  by  1819  there  were  more  than 
1,500,000.  There  now  are  about  10,000,000. 
The  education  of  these  people,  according  to 
the  common  meaning  of  the  term,  was  begun 
only  with  their  emancipation  from  slavery. 
The  sudden  emancipation  of  the  negro  was 
followed  by  a  state  bordering  upon  chaos, 
and  it  took  a  long  time  for  things  to  adjust 
themselves  to  the  new  conditions.  Both 
the  whites  and  the  negroes  were  all  at  sea. 


The  whites  knew  the  negro  only  as  a  slave 
and  themselves  as  their  masters.  The  negro 
knew  only  to  serve.  Both  were  ill-prepared 
to  adjust  themselves  to  the  new  relation. 
It  is  not  surprising  that  the  negro  went  the 
full  sweep  of  the  pendulum.  Emancipation 
from  slavery  meant  to  many  emancipation 
from  labor.  Manual  labor,  the  only  kind 
for  which  the  negro  was  prepared,  was  con- 
sidered degrading;  and  it  is  not  too  much  to 
say  that  influences  were  present  that  tended 
to  confirm  him  in  this  idea.  Following  the 
emancipation,  schools  were  established  in 
great  numbers.  Missionary  societies  be- 
came active.  Armies  of  teachers  were  rushed 
down  from  the  north.  The  United  States 
army  exercised  its  usual  zeal  in  furthering 
the  work.  The  Rev.  John  Eaton,  after- 
wards United  States  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, was  placed  by  General  Grant  in 
charge  of  the  instruction  for  the  emancipated 
race.  Within  five  years  after  the  close  of 
the  war  more  than  $5,000,000  was  expended 
by  these  organizations  for  educational  pur- 

SDses.  On  May  20,  1865,  the  Freedmen's 
ureau  was  established  by  the  national 
government,  and  Major-General  O.  O.  How- 
ard was  made  commissioner  in  charge. 
During  the  five  years  of  its  operation  it 
made  a  total  expenditure  of  more  than  $6,- 
000,000,  the  larger  portion  for  educational 
purposes.  Over  against  all  this  enthusiasm 
on  the  part  of  the  northern  educator  was  the 
silent  though  persistent  distrust  on  the  part 
of  the  southern  whites.  They  looked  upon 
the  negro  as  being  fit  only  for  manual  labor 
and  questioned  the  advisability  of  any  at- 
tempt to  train  him  along  academic  lines. 
The  northern  enthusiast  was  anxious  to 
show  them  that  the  negro  was  as  capable  to 
learn  as  the  whites.  In  the  midst  of  it  all 
it  can  not  be  considered  strange  that  the 
tendency  on  the  part  of  the  negro  was  to  dis- 
count the  worth  of  industrial  skill  and  to 
place  an  over- valuation  on  academic  learn- 
ing. Great  harm  as  well  as  great  good  fol- 
lowed these  methods.  On  the  one  hand,  a 
great  many  negroes  were  led  to  consider 
themselves  too  good  for  manual  labor  as 
soon  as  they  received  a  little  learning,  and  on 
the  other  many  were  found  who  showed 
themselves  capable  of  becoming  good  and 
efficient  teachers  and  preachers,  doctors  and 
lawyers  as  well,  and  the  wisdom  and  econ- 
omy of  providing  schools  with  teachers  of 
their  own  race  was  suggested.  During  the 
decade  ending  in  1878  more  than  25  normal 
schools  and  collegiate  institutes  under  con- 
trol of  different  religious  denominations 
were  founded.  These  schools  sent  out  many 
well-trained  and  efficient  teachers.  Unfor- 
tunately, however,  these  schools  seemed  to 
encourage  rather  than  eradicate  the  negro's 
well-developed  notion  that  manual  labor 
was  degrading  and  that  the  way  of  escape 
was  by  study  along  academic  lines.  Latin 
and  Greek  occupied  a  prominent  place  in 


NEGRO  EDUCATION 


NEGROES 


the  curriculum;  the  literary  and  academic 
side  was  too  much  emphasized ;  and  little  or 
no  attention  was  given  to  the  practical  side. 
For  this  these  schools  have  been  severely 
criticized.  But  each  year  is  giving  to  these 
institutions,  as  to  the  colleges  of  the  north, 
curricula  which  have  more  vital  connection 
with  the  life  the  student  is  to  live.  In  this 
direction  no  single  influence  has  been  so  po- 
tent as  that  of  Hampton  Institute  (q.  v.), 
founded  in  1868  by  General  Samuel  Chap- 
man Armstrong  (q.  v.).  Its  fundamental 
work  has  been  the  training  of  teachers,  and 
industrial  training  was  incorporated  at  the 
beginning  and  has  continued  a  dominant 
factor.  From  Hampton  sprang  Tuskegee  In- 
stitute (q.  v.),  a  larger  institution  of  the  same 
kind,  founded  in  1881  by  Booker  T.  Wash- 
ington (q.  ».).  It  would  be  difficult  to  over- 
estimate the  importance  of  these  two  insti- 
tutions and  the  value  of  the  services  of  their 
two  honored  founders  in  the  development 
of  the  education  of  the  negro.  In  the  sec- 
ondary and  higher  schools  for  negroes, 
not  including  public  schools,  in  the  former 
1 6  slave-states  and  the  District  of  Columbia 
there  were  20,972  pupils  in  1904-5  receiving 
industrial  training  in  farm-work,  carpentry, 
sewing,  cooking  and  other  branches,  while 
the  total  enrollment  in  these  institutions 
was  42,889.  The  total  value  of  the  grounds, 
buildings,  furniture  and  scientific  apparatus 
was  $i  1,102,283.  A  vast  amount  of  money 
has  been  contributed  by  northern  philan- 
thropists to  the  support  of  these  institutions, 
although  an  income  of  about  $250,000  was 
derived  in  1904-5  from  tuition  alone.  These 
contributions,  which  began  to  pour  into 
these  states  before  the  battle-drums  had 
ceased  and  continue  to  the  present  day,  now 
aggregate  nearly  $50,000,000.  It  was  1870 
before  much  was  undertaken  in  the  way  of 
establishing  free  public  schools,but  since  that 
date  rapid  progress  has  been  made.  Sepa- 
rate schools  for  negroes  are  maintained  in  all 
of  these  states,  with  an  enrollment  in  1904-5 
of  1,602,194  in  the  elementary  schools  and 
50,251  in  the  higher  schools  and  an  average 
daily  attendance  of  more  than  60  per  cent,  of 
the  enrollment.  This  was  larger  than  the 
enrollment  of  both  the  whites  and  negroes  in 
1876-7.  The  number  of  teachers  aggre- 
gated about  29,000.  Although  separate 
schools  have  been  maintained,  separate  ac- 
counts have  not  been  kept.  But  for  1904-5 
the  sum  of  $46,401,832  was  expended  for  the 
support  of  common  schools  for  both  whites 
and  negroes,  and  according  to  very  careful 
estimates  20  per  cent,  of  the  total  or  about 
$9,000,000  was  expended  for  the  support  of 
the  schools  for  negroes,  about  as  much  as  was 
expended  for  schools  for  negroes  and  whites 
in  1870.  This  growth  and  development  has 
been  gradual  though  rapid,  and  augurs  well 
for  the  future.  In  the  public  schools,  also, 
more  and  more  emphasis  is  being  placed  on 
the  side  of  industrial  training,  and  the  life 


the  pupil  is  to  live  is  receiving  greater  at- 
tention. 

Ne'groes,  a  name  given  to  most  of  the 
races  inhabiting  Africa,  though  it  does  not 
include  all  the  inhabitants.  The  inhabitants 
of  northern  Africa,  as  the  Abyssinians  or  Nu- 
bians, and  the  Hottentots  of  the  south  do  not 
belong  to  the  negro  race.  The  physical 
characteristics  of  the  true  negro  are  black 
skin,  woolly  hair,  flat  nose  and  thick  lips. 
Their  skin  is  soft,  and  in  the  infant  is  a  dull 
red,  becoming  black  very  soon.  The  ne- 
groes of  the  Guinea  coast,  who  are  rude  sav- 
ages, have  a  deep-black  color  and  ugly  fea- 
tures. Other  tribes  of  the  interior  are  tall, 
well-formed  and  warlike,  and  have  some  in- 
genuity in  making  implements  from  iron. 
The  skull  is  long  and  narrow,  with  low  fore- 
head, prominent  jaws  and  retreating  chin. 
As  a  rule  they  are  of  a  low  order  of  intelli- 
gence, mechanical  in  their  work  but  capable 
of  great  endurance.  They  are  of  a  less  nerv- 
ous disposition  than  whites,  more  frequently 
color-blind,  have  smaller  lungs  and  larger 
livers.  The  negro  has  long  been  a  prey  to 
the  slave-traffic,  being  captured  in  large  num- 
bers and  sold  as  slaves  in  other  countries. 
The  first  slaves  were  brought  to  the  United 
States  in  1619,  and  this  traffic  was  not  dis- 
continued until  1794,  when  it  was  prohibited 
by  act  of  congress.  The  Spaniards  began 
the  trade,  and  King  James  and  Queen  Eliza- 
beth both  issued  patents  to  companies.  Be- 
tween 1794  and  1840  the  trade  was  confined 
mostly  from  the  African  coast  to  the  West 
Indies  and  Brazil.  The  coast  of  Guinea  was 
the  largest  slave-market,  but  inasmuch  as 
they  sold  none  of  their  own  people  but  relied 
on  those  captured  in  war  or  by  strategem, 
most  of  the  slaves  sent  to  the  United  States 
were  of  the  pure  negro  type  of  the  interior; 
while  most  of  those  taken  to  Brazil  and  the 
West  Indies  were  closely  allied  to  the  Kafir 
and  Zulu  stock  of  the  eastern  coast.  The 
mortality  among  the  negroes  is  greater  than 
the  whites,  attributed  in  the  south  much  to 
the  fact  of  their  low  condition  and  inatten- 
tion to  the  laws  of  health,  in  the  north  to 
their  inability  to  withstand  the  cold  and 
variable  weather,  as  the  diseases  from  which 
they  suffer  are  mostly  those  of  the  respira- 
tory organs.  Therefore  the  publication,  at 
frequent  intervals,  of  accounts  of  long-lived 
negroes  may  be  ascribed  to  the  ignorance  of 
their  ages,  and  not  to  any  exceptional  te- 
nacity of  life. 

In  disposition  the  negro,  as  a  rule,  is  cheer- 
ful and  peaceable,  unconcerned  for  the  fu- 
ture, inclined  to  live  in  colonies  and  of  emo- 
tionally religious  instincts.  Common  among 
them  even  to  the  present  day  is  the  exercise 
of  a  certain  form  of  witchcraft,  called  voodoo- 
ism,  prosecuted  by  means  of  charms,  philters 
and  fetiches. 

The  African  negroes  are  quite  ingenious  in 
weaving  mats  and  cloth  and  in  making  bas- 
kets from  grasses;  in  constructing  their  huts; 


NEHEMIAH 


1319 


NELSON 


and  in  making  various  utensils  and  imple- 
ments for  household  use.  They  all  acknowl- 
edge a  supreme  power,  and  are  much  given  to 
a  belief  in  witchcraft,  charms  and  spells. 
They  have  wooden  images,  which  they  think 
have  power  to  drive  away  evil  spirits  and  to 

Protect  them  from  sickness  and  witchcraft, 
hey  are  fond  of  music,  and  make  various 
musical  instruments  of  simple  and  rude  char- 
acter. Among  the  negroes  in  this  country 
many  become  skillful  in  the  use  of  musical 
instruments,  especially  the  violin  and  the 
banjo  Since  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves 
in  this  country  many  individuals  have  de- 
veloped an  ambition  for  education  and  the 
accumulation  of  property. 

Nehemi'ah,  a  leader  of  the  Jews  after  the 
exile,  was  a  Jew  holding  the  office  of  cup- 
bearer to  Artaxerxes  when  he  heard  of  the 
unprosperous  condition  of  Jerusalem.  In 
the  following  year  (444  B.  C.)  he  obtained 
leave  of  absence  and  power  to  act  as  gover- 
nor extraordinary  of  Judasa,  and  arriving  at 
the  city  caused  its  walls  to  be  rebuilt,  en- 
larged the  population  by  drafts  upon  sur- 
rounding districts  and  brought  back  the 
Levites  who  had  been  forced  to  leave.  On 
his  second  visit.  12  years  later,  he  began  new 
reforms,  notably  the  movement  against 
mixed  marriages,  the  cleansing  of  the  tem- 
ple, a  strict  law  of  Sabbath  observance  and  a 
provision  for  the  maintenance  of  the  temple 
and  priests.  The  Book  of  Nehemiah  origi- 
nally formed  the  closing  chapters  of  the  un- 
divided work, Chronicles,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah, 
containing  the  memoirs  of  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah. 

Nel'son,  in  the  Kootenay  district  of  Brit- 
ish Columbia,  is  on  the  south  bank  of  Koote- 
nay River  at  the  head  of  the  rapids.  It  has 
5,273  inhabitants,  largely  interested  in  the 
silver  mines  and  smelters  near  by. 

Nel'son  River,  a  river  in  Keewatin  Dis- 
trict of  the  Canadian  Dominion,  has  its 
source  in  Lake  Winnipeg,  and  flows  400  miles 
northeasterly  into  Hudson  Bay,  discharging 
an  immense  volume  of  water.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  127  miles  from  its  mouth,  but  only 
for  70  or  80  miles  for  large  steamers.  Its 
chief  feeder  is  the  Saskatchewan,  which  emp- 
ties into  Lake  Winnipeg. 

Nel'son,  Horatio.  In  the  rectory  of 
Burnham  Thorpe,  Norfolk,  England,  there 
was  born,  Sept.  29,  1758,  the  greatest  naval 
commander  of  the  greatest  maritime  power 
in  history.  Like  James  Watt,  Horatio  Nel- 
son was  so  frail  of  body  that  it  was  not 
thought  probable  he  would  live  to  ma- 
turity. His  father's  small  income  as  a  cler- 
gyman and  large  family,  forced  the  boy  out 
of  the  home  nest.  At  1 2  he  was  entered  as 
a  midshipman  in  the  navy.  His  maternal 
uncle,  on  whose  vessel  he  made  his  first  voy- 
age, thought  that  the  idea  of  trying  to  make 
a  sailor  out  of  the  delicate,  undersized  boy 
was  a  piece  of  folly  and  that  the  most  merci- 
ful course  would  be  to  discourage  him.  So, 


on  the  first  day  at  sea,  he  ordered  the  boy 
aloft  saying:  "You  are  afraid,  lad?"  "Yes, 
sir,"  replied  the  shivering  morsel  of  a  man; 
"I'm  afraid,  but  I'm  going  to  the  top  of  the 
mast,  sir."  And  go  he  did,  but  he  never 
forgot  that  sickening  experience. 

When  at  21  he  was  captain  of  a  frigate,  he 
always  raced  the  new  boys  up  the  mast  and 
saluted  them  at  the  top.  The  little  fellows, 
frightened  half  to  death  but  full  of  British 
grit,  never  disappointed  him.  He  abolished 
the  punishments  ther.  practiced,  saying  that 
cruelty  made  cowards.  He  promoted  brave 
men  and  treated  members  of  the  crew  with 
great  consideration.  As  a  result  his  ships  were 
famed  for  good  order  and  for  gallantry  in 
action.  To  his  men  he  was  not  an  officer  but 
"Our  Nel."  At  Corsica  he  lost  an  eye,  at 
Teneriffe  an  arm.  In  the  battle  of  Copen- 
hagen he  pretended  that  he  was  unable  to  see 
a  signal  to  retreat,  sailed  into  the  thick  of 
the  fight  and  saved  the  day.  When  told 
that,  if  he  had  failed,  he  would  have  been  ex- 
ecuted for  disobeying  orders,  —  "Oh,  no,"  he 
replied.  "If  I  had  failed,  I  and  my  ship  and 
men  would  all  have  gone  to  the  bottom. "  In 
his  naval  career  of  35  years  he  never  re- 
treated or  struck  his  colors. 

As  an  admiral  in  command  of  a  fleet  he 
won  his  first  victory  in  the  battle  of  the  Nile, 
Aug.  i,  1798,  smashing  the  French  fleet,  on 
which  Napoleon  in  Egypt  depended  for  trans- 
port and  supplies,  so  completely  that  the  cam- 
paign had  to  be  abandoned.  Idol  of  Eng- 
land at  40,  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  and 
granted  a  fortune.  Three  years  later  he  was 
made  vice-admiral  and  a  viscount.  As  the 
shadow  of  Napoleon  lengthened  across  the 
English  Channel,  Lord  Nelson's  visibly  .fail- 
ing health  alarmed  the  country.  To  have 
ordered  him  out  would  have  been  inhuman, 
but  he  came  forward  voluntarily  in  May, 
1803,  and  offered  his  remaining  days  in  de- 
fense of  the  empire.  There  was  no  one  else ; 
England  had  no  choice  but  to  accept  the  sac- 
rifice. For  14  months  he  lay  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean off  the  port  of  Toulon.  When  the 
French  fleet  slipped  out,  he  chased  it  to  the 
West  Indies  and  back;  laid  siege  to  it  and  the 
allied  Spanish  fleet  in  the  harbor  of  Cadiz; 
and  brought  them  both  to  bay  off  Cape  Tra- 
falgar, October  21, 1805.  In  going  into  battle 
Nelson  flew  from  the  masthead  of  the  Vic~ 
lory  the  signal  that  now  is  Britain's  watch- 
word :  "England  expects  that  every  man  will 
do  his  duty. 

M'he  fleets  of  the  enemy  were  destroyed, 
but  in  the  hour  of  triumph  the  great  com- 
mander fell  mortally  wounded  on  the  deck 
of  the  flagship.  As  he  lay  in  a  midshipman's 
bunk,  dying,  wild  cheers  rang  out,  as  ship 
after  ship  struck  its  colors  or  sank  beneath 
the  wave. 

"England  is  safe,"  he  murmured,  looking 
up  into  the  face  of  the  officer  who  bent  above 
him.  His  simple,  loving  heart  turned  like  a 
boy's  to  his  old  comrade  in  arms  for  the  last 


NEMESIS 


1320 


NERVES 


office  of  affection.  His  last  words,  before  his 
soul  drifted  out  to  the  great  unknown,  were : 
"Kiss  me,  Hardy!" 

The  flagship  brought  the  news  of  the  vic- 
tory home,  but  its  flags  were  at  half-mast. 
England's  bravest  and  best-beloved  hero 
was  laid  away  in  St.  Paul's,  London,  under 
a  splendid  monument.  In  1905  the  centen- 
nial of  Trafalgar  was  made  a  Nelson  year 
throughout  the  empire.  In  the  press  and  in 
public  addresses  he  was  never  spoken  of  as 
Lord  Nelson  the  admiral,  but  as  "Our  Nel." 
Tennyson,  in  his  Ode  on  The  Death  of  the  Duke 
of  Wellington,  addressed  Nelson  as  the 
"greatest  seaman  since  our  world  began," 
saying,  as  Wellington  was  laid  beside  Nelson : 
"Mighty  sailor,  this  is  he  was  great  by  land 
as  thou  by  sea."  See  Life  of  Nelson  by 
Robert  Southey  the  poet. 

Nem'esis,  said  by  Hesiod  to  be  the  daugh- 
ter of  Night,  was  at  first  the  embodiment  of 
righteous  moral  feelings  or  of  the  conscience. 
Later,  Nemesis  was  regarded  as  the  power 
which  balanced  the  fortunes  of  people  and 
taught  them  to  reverence  the  immortal  gods. 
From  this  was  evolved  the  latest  conception, 
that  of  the  avenger  of  wrong.  She  was  at 
first  represented  as  a  young  virgin,  and  later 
as  clothed  in  a  tunic,  sometimes  with  sword 
in  hand  and  a  wheel  at  her  feet,  or  in  a  char- 
iot drawn  by  griffins.  Several  fragments 
of  Pheidias'  statue  of  Nemesis  were  discov- 
ered in  1890,  in  the  famous  temple  of  Neme- 
sis at  Rhamnus,  Africa. 

Ne'on.     See  ARGON. 

Nep'tune,  the  Roman  god  of  the  sea,  was 
like  all  the  other  gods  of  mythology,  merely 
a  name.  This  was  derived  from  Nethunus, 
the  sea-god  of  the  Etruscans.  He  is  also 
identified  with  the  Greek  sea-god  Poseidon. 
The  figure  of  a  bearded  man  standing  in  a 
shell  drawn  over  the  sea  and  holding  a  three- 
pronged  spear  or  trident  is  his  usual  pictorial 
representation. 

Nep'tune.     See  PLANETS. 

Nerbud'da  or  Narba'da,  an  Indian  river 
of  about  800  miles,  with  a  drainage  of  36,400 
square  miles,  rises  on  the  Amorkantak  pla- 
teau, 3,493  feet  above  sea-level,  and  flows 
west  through  the  central  provinces  and  the 
great  channel  between  the  Vindhya  and  Sat- 

fura  Mountains  into  the  Gulf  of  Cambay. 
t  is  navigable  for  only  about  80  miles  from 
its  mouth.  The  Hindus  consider  it  a  sacred 
river  and  look  upon  a  foot-journey  from 
mouth  to  source  and  back  as  a  meritorious 
act. 

Ne'ro,  the  last  of  the  Ceesars  and  emperor 
of  Rome  from  54  to  68  A.  D.,  was  born  at 
Antium.  Dec.  15,  37.  His  mother  became 
the  wife  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  who 
adopted  him,  and  on  the  emperor's  death  he 
was  declared  emperor  by  the  Praetorian 
Guards  instead  of  Claudius'  own  son,  and 
this  choice  was  ratified  by  the  senate  and 
provinces  in  54.  His  reign,  although  open- 
ing well  and  moderately,  soon  became  one  of 


crime,  debauchery  and  tyranny.  He  caused 
Britannicus,  Claudius'  son,  to  be  poisoned, 
brought  about  the  murder  of  his  own  mother, 
and  finally  divorced  and  murdered  his  wife. 
All  this  was  accompanied  by  wars  and  insur- 
rections,— in  6 1  A.  D.  an  uprising  in  Britain, 
which  was  suppressed,  and  in  62  the  war 
with  the  Parthians  and  Armenia.  In  64  a 
great  fire  destroyed  nearly  two  thirds  of 
Rome,  and  historians  say  that  Nero  applied 
the  torch  and  sat  far  away  admiring  the 
scene.  Nero  used  the  Christians  as  scape- 
goats, and  had  many  of  them  put  to  death. 
Through  the  high-handed  imposition  of  taxes 
he  rebuilt  Rome  and  erected  the  "golden 
house"  for  himself  on  the  Palatine.  A  con- 
spiracy against  him  in  65  failed  and  caused 
the  death  of  Seneca  and  others.  He  kicked 
his  second  wife  to  death  and  afterward 
offered  his  hand  to  Antonia,  the  daughter  of 
Claudius,  who,  upon  refusing  him,  was  put 
to  death,  as  was  also  the  husband  of  Statilia 
Messalina,  whom  he  thereupon  married.  His 
inordinate  vanity  caused  him  to  believe  that 
he  was  everything  brilliant,  as  is  witnessed 
by  his  last  words:  "What  an  artist  is  lost 
in  me!"  In  68  the  Praetorian  Guards  rose 
against  him  and,  in  conjunction  with  the 
Gallic  and  Spanish  legions,  proclaimed  Galba 
emperor.  Nero  fled  from  Rome,  was  declared 
an  enemy  of  his  country,  and  to  rave  himself 
from  execution  committed  suicide.  See  W. 
Wolfe  Capes'  Early  Roman  Empire  and  Meri- 
vale's  History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Em- 
pire. 

Nerves,  the  fibers  of  white  nervous  matter 
connecting  the  different  parts  of  the  body 
with  the  central  nervous  system.  Two  kinds 
of  nervous  tissue  are  recognized, —  the  white 
and  gray.  The  white  is  c  mposed  of  fibers, 
the  gray  is  largely  made  of  nerve  cells  lo- 
cated in  centers.  The  nerves  are  -  merely 
conductors  of  the  nervous  impulses  that 
arise  within  the  nerve-cells.  Nerves  make 
their  first  appearance  in  the  animal  kingdom 
among  the  jellyfish  as  parts  of  the  primitive 
nervous  system.  They  at  first  are  strands 
of  protoplasm  connected  with  the  nerve- 
cells  from  which  they  grow.  They  become 
associated  in  bundles,  bound  together  by 
connective  tissue,  and  thus  form  the  white 
cords  that  run  amongst  the  muscles  and 
other  parts  of  the  body.  In  the  human 
body  there  are  twelve  pairs  of  cranial  nerves 
connected  with  the  head  and  thirty-one 
pairs  of  spinal  nerves  connected  with  the 
spinal  cord.  Those  of  the  head  are  much 
more  complex  than  those  of  the  spinal  cord, 
but  are  believed  to  be  derived  from  a  sim- 
pler condition  in  which  they  were  equivalent 
to  them.  They  are  now  so  much  modified 
that  it  is  difficult  to  understand  them.  The 
thirty-one  pairs  of  spinal  nerves  come  from 
two  roots  closely  joined  to  the  spinal  cord. 
These  are  called  sensory  and  motor  roots, 
respectively,  because  those  at  the  back  con- 
tain sensory  fibers  and  those  in  front  motor 


NESTING-BOXES 


1321 


NESTING-BOXES 


fibers.  Recent  observations  have  establ  -.shed 
a  great  law  in  reference  to  the  development 
of  nerves,  viz.,  the  sensory  fibers  arise  out- 
side and  grow  into  the  central  nervous  sys- 
tem, motor  fibers  start  within  the  central 
nervous  system  and  grow  outward.  This 
applies  even  to  the  highest  developed  sen- 
sory nerves.  For  example,  the  fibers  of  the 
optic  nerve  begin  in  the  retina  of  the  eye 
and  grow  toward  the  brain,  instead  of  start- 
ing in  the  brain  and  growing  outward  to  the 
eye.  Besides  sensory  and  motor  fibers  there 
are  those  that  regulate  the  nutrition  an  1  the 
tone  of  organs,  called  trophic  nerves;  those 
that  carry  impulses  which  stimulate  secre- 
tion, called  secretory  nerves;  and  some 
others  The  twelve  pairs  of  cranial  nerves 
are  as  follows :  The  first  pair  connected  with 
smell;  the  second  pair  with  sight;  the  third, 
fourth  and  sixth  pairs  with  muscles  that 
move  the  eyeball;  the  fifth  pair  with  the 
teeth,  tongue  and  face;  the  seventh  pair 
the  muscles  of  the  face,  the  eighth  pair  the 
ears;  the  ninth  pair  trie  tongue,  as  nerves 
of  taste,  and  with  the  muscles  of  the  phar- 
ynx. The  tenth  pair  (pneumogastric)  are 
very  important  and  widely  distributed,  going 
to  the  heart,  lungs,  stomach  and  intestines. 
The  eleventh  pair  supply  certain  muscles 
in  the  neck;  and  the  twelfth  pair  form  the 
muscles  of  the  tongue.  Besides  all  these, 
there  are  nerves  belonging  to  the  sympa- 
thetic nervous  system.  The  object  of  nerves 
is  to  connect  the  different  parts  of  the  body 
with  the  controlling  nervous  system^  They 
are  simply  conductors  and  not  originators 
of  nervous  impulses. 

Nesting-Boxes.  Birds  may  be  attracted 
about  the  home  by  putting  up  nesting-boxes. 
If  new  material  can  not  be  had,  use  waste 
or  worn  materials,  for  birds  apparently  pre- 
fer rusty  metal  or  weather-beaten  lumber. 
When  I  was  a  ooy,  1  once  secured  four 


HOLLOW-LIMB  BOX 


BARK  BOX 


old  shingles  and  a  piece  of  board,  made  a 
rough  box  with  hatchet  and  saw,  and  put  it  up 
in  a  tree.  Many  a  pair  of  bluebirds  nested 
there.  Such  a  shingle-box  may  be  put  against 
the  side  of  a  building  or  on  a  tall  pole  or 


tree-trunk  where  cats  can  not  easily  climb. 
Better  nail  a  shingle  or  some  thin  board 
flat  on  the  top,  and  have  it  project  on 
every  side.  If  the  board  projects  well  cut 
over  the  entrance,  it  will  prevent  the  rr.in 
from  driving  in  as  well  as  make  the  roof  rain- 
proof. When  hollow  limbs  are  pruned  from  a 
tree,  cut  them  into  sections,  and  roof,  bore  and 
mount  them.  (See  first  illustration.)  A 
handsome  as  well  as  durable  box  may  be  made 
of  bark.  It  must  be  made  late  in  June,  when 
the  bark  peels  readily.  It  is  made  by  peeling 
off  both  the  outer  and  the  inner  bark.  Then 
saw  a  slice  off  each  end  of  the  stick  for  the 
bottom  and  the  top,  tack  the  bark  on  the 


BLUEBIRDS'  BOX     SLIDINO-COVER  BOX 

ends,  nail  on  the  supporting  stick,  and  finally 
in  order  to  make  the  top  watertight,  cover  it 
with  green  bark.  ^See  second  cut  )  These 
small  boxes  are  suitable  for  the  chickadee. 
Chestnut-bark  makes  strong  boxes,  that  can 
be  covered  or  roofed  with  zinc,  for  larger 
birds.  An  objection  to  many  bird-houses 
is  that  they  are  not  cat-proof.  But  a  very 
deep  box,  without  a  perch,  but  with  an 
overhanging  cover  or  roof  and  with  the 
entrance  well  up  under  the  eaves,  makes 
access  difficult  for  the  cat.  The  ordinary 
bird-house  for  martins  or  tree-swallows 
must  stand  on  a  tall,  slim  pole,  these  birds 
preferring  to  be  15  to  30  feet  above  the 
ground.  Be  sure  not  to  make  the  entrance 
near  the  floor.  Make  a  platform  round  the 
box,  and  rail  the  platform  up  at  least  three 
inches.  Regulate  the  size  and  shape  of 
bird-boxes  by  the  shape  and  habits  of  the 
different  birds.  It  is  better  to  make  them 
comfortably  large  than  too  small.  Tne  size 
of  the  entrance  is  most  important.  One 
and  seven-eighths  'nches  diameter  will  do 
for  wrens;  one  and  one-fourth  for  martins; 
three  and  one-half  tor  flickers  and  screech- 
owls.  Both  bluebirds  and  tree-swallows  have 
been  known  to  nest  in  boxes  hung  from  a 
wire.  Provide  every  small  nesting-box  with 
a  sliding  cover,  or  a  door,  through  which 
you  can  remove  the  contents.  All  the 
boxes  I  have  mentioned,  except  shingle  and 
bark  boxes,  provide  for  this,  and  these  too 


NESTOR 


1322 


NEUTRALITY 


can  easily  be  made  to  open.  See  the  box 
shown  in  picture  four.  The  door  extends 
halfway  down  the  front,  and  is  attached 
to  a  narrow  cover  which  overlaps  part  of 
the  top  of  the  box.  For  those  who  wish 
to  study  the  habits  of  birds  the  observation- 
box  (see  cut)  is  almost  perfect.  One  side 
is  furnished  with  a  pane  of  glass,  and  a 
door  shuts  over  the  glass.  The  door  is 
kept  closed  most  of  the  time  till  the  young 
are  hatched.  Then  it  can  be  kept  open 
to  notice  their  ways,  but  the  sun  must  not 
shine  on  it,  for  it  might  kill  them.  The 
box  can  be  mounted  on  a  short  board 
projecting  from  the  window-sill.  The  door 
is  hinged  at  the  bottom  by  a  piece  of 
leather,  and  opens  toward  the  window. 

Nes'tor,  the  great  counselor  of  the  Greeks, 
was  born  in  Messenian  Pylos,  the  son  of 
Neleus  and  Chloris,  and  became  the  husband 
of  Eurydice.  In  his  youth  he  fought  val- 
iantly against  the  Arcadians,  Epeans  and 
Centaurs,  and  in  old  age  was  famed  for 
wisdom.  He  joined  the  war  against  Troy 
with  sixty  ships,  and,  although  an  old  man, 
remained  through  the  war,  returning  to 
Pylos  at  its  close  and  ruling  until  his  death. 

Nestor'ians,  a  sect  formed  in  the  5th 
century  by  the  followers  of  Nestorius,  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  in  428  A.  D.,  deposed 
in  431  because  of  his  peculiar  views  as  to 
the  divine  and  human  nature  of  Christ. 
After  it  was  driven  out  of  the  Roman  empire, 
the  sect  extended  into  Persia,  India  and  even 
China.  In  Asia  Minor,  under  Bishop  Babaeus 
of  Seleucia  (498-503)  and  his  successor,  the 
Nestorians  grew  rapidly  and  produced  many 
learned  theologians,  philosophers  and  physi- 
cians, as  Hippocrates  and  Galen.  Under  the 
rule  of  the  caliphs  the  Nestorians  enjoyed 
toleration,  and  spread  in  Arabia,  Syria  and 
Palestine.  The  Prester  John  of  romance 
was  a  Christian  of  this  color,  and  tradition 
has  it  that  Mohammed  learned  what  he 
knew  of  Christianity  from  a  Nestorian  monk. 
The  sect  reached  the  height  of  its  prosperity 
in  the  middle  of  the  i3th  century,  but  after 
the  persecutions  of  Tamerlane  they  dwindled 
away.  They  now  are  a  poor  and  illiterate 
race  numbering  less  than  150,000.  Their 
chief  seat  is  in  Persia  and  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Kurdistan. 

Netherlands.     See  HOLLAND. 

Net' tie,  species  of  Urtica,  a  genus  con- 
taining about  30  species  widely  distributed. 
The  best  known  nettle  is  U.  dioica,  known 
as  the  stinging  nettle,  which  is  a  native  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  but  has  become  extensively 
naturalized  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
densely  beset  with  stinging  hairs.  At  the 
base  of  each  hair  is  a  small  gland  secreting 
a  poisonous  fluid.  It  grows  from  two  to 
three  feet  high  and  is  common  in  waste 
places. 

Neuchatel  or  Neufchatel  (n?shd'tel')tthQ 
chief  town  of  the  canton  of  Neuchatel  in 
Switzerland,  is  situated  on  the  northwestern 


shore  of  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel,  about  85 
miles  from  Geneva,  and  is  noted  for  its 
charitable,  educational  and  artistic  institu- 
tions. It  mainly  manufactures  watches, 
jewelry  and  lace,  but  not  the  Neufchatel 
cream-cheese;  this  comes  from  a  small 
Norman  town  called  Neufchatelen-Bray. 
Population  23,505.  The  canton  of  Neu- 
chStel  has  an  area  of  312  square  miles,  and 
in  1910  had  a  population  of  132,184. 

.Neuchatel,  Lake  of,  is  all  that  is  left 
of  the  large  body  of  water  which  at 
one  time  covered  the  whole  lower  valley  of 
the  Aar  in  western  Switzerland.  Its  great- 
est dimensions  are  25  miles  long  and  6 
wide,  and  its  area  92  square  miles.  It  is 
fed  by  the  Thiele  and  the  Reuse,  and  drained 
by  the  Thiele  through  the  Lake  of  Bernice 
and  thence  into  the  Aar.  Its  elevation  is 
1,424  feet  above  sea-level,  and  its  north- 
western shore  is  rich  and  cultivated,  but 
the  opposite  side  is  barren  and  rocky.  It 
has  pleasing  though  not  remarkable  scenery 
and  is  famous  mostly  for  the  discovery  01 
the  ancient  remains  of  water-dwellings  in  it. 

Neutral'ity,  or  the  state  in  which  a 
nation  remains  friendly  to  each  of  two  na- 
tions which  are  at  war  with  each  other, 
is  a  rather  novel  invention  in  the  history 
of  nations.  In  ancient  and  even  in  medie- 
val history  a  nation  might  be  more  or  less 
neutral,  but  never  entirely  so,  in  the  event 
of  a  war  between  its  neighbors.  At  the 
present  time  there  is  a  recognized  code  of 
conduct  for  neutral  nations,  which  finds  a 
place  in  international  law.  Neutrality,  while 
not  so  perfectly  defined  that  there  may  be 
no  more  dispute,  in  general  requires  the 
following  mode  of  behavior  on  the  part  of 
the  neutral  nation:  It  is  not  to  equip  a 
privateer.  For  violation  of  this  provision 
in  the  case  of  the  Confederate  cruiser  Ala- 
bama, Great  Britain  was  mulcted  by  arbitra- 
tion in  an  enormous  fine.  It  is  not  to 
allow  war- vessels  of  the  belligerents  to  re- 
main in  its  ports  more  than  24  hours, 
except  in  stormy  weather.  It  shall  not  be 
a  market  for  prizes  of  war.  It  may  not 
trade  with  either  belligerent  in  contraband 
articles.  It  is  not  to  be  a  recruiting  ground 
for  either  belligerent,  although  it  cannot  be 
held  responsible  for  the  action  of  individ- 
uals in  enlisting  separately  and  on  their 
own  responsibility.  But  a  neutral  state  has 
definite  rights,  as  these:  Its  territory  is  not 
to  be  invaded  by  either  belligerent.  No 
battle  is  to  be  fought  in  its  home  waters. 
Troops  are  not  to  cross  the  territory  of  the 
neutral  state.  Neutral  nations  often  pro- 
claim the  conduct  which  they  propose  to 
adopt  at  the  outset  of  any  war,  chiefly  to 
show  their  own  citizens  how  far  they  will 
be  protected  by  their  own  government  in 
trading  with  the  belligerents.  A  neutral 
vessel  may  trade  freely  except  in  articles 
contraband-of-war  or  in  violation  of  a 
blockade.  The  orders  of  the  English  and 


NEVA 


2323 


NEW  ALBANY 


French  governments  during  the  Napoleonic 
War,  that  the  whole  coast  of  their  oppo- 
nents should  be  regarded  as  in  a  state  of 
blockade,  violated  the  rights  of  neutrals  in 
a  way  that  would  not  at  the  present  time 
be  tolerated. 

Ne'va,  a  northern  Russian  river;  rising 
in  the  southwestern  corner  of  Lake  Ladoga, 
it  passes  through  Petrograd  and  then  empties 
info  the  Bay  of  Cronstadt  in  the  Gulf  of 
Finland.  It  drains  Lakes  Ladoga,  Onega, 
Ilmen  and  others.  Its  total  length  is  40 
miles  and  the  width  varies  from  180  to 
4,000  feet.  It  is  frozen  about  five  months 
in  the  year. 

Neva'da,  one  of  the  Pacific  states  of  the 
United  States,  lies  between  Idaho  and  Ore- 
gon on  the  north,  Utah  and  Arizona  on  the 
east  and  California  on  the  south  and  west. 
It  is  500  miles  long  and  300  wide  between 
its  farthest  points.  Although  the  sixth  larg- 
est of  the  states  and  territories,  it  has  the 
smallest  population — 108,736.  Its  land  sur- 
face has  an  area  of  110,700  square  miles, 
that  is,  almost  twice  that  of  Illinois. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  The  largest  part 
of  the  state  is  included  in  the  Great  Basin 
or  what  at  one  time  was  the  bed  of  a  large 
inland  sea.  This  part  is  dry  and  barren, 
with  the  exception  of  the  regions  immedi- 
ately around  Walker,  Humboldt,  Carson, 
Pyramid,  Tahoe  and  other  lakes,  and  is 
traversed  by  high  mountains.  The  mean 
elevation  is  about  4,000  feet.  Wheeler  Peak, 
the  highest  point  in  the  state,  has  an  alti- 
tude of  13,058  feet.  Of  the  lakes  Pyramid 
is  the  largest,  being  35  miles  long  and  ten 
wide,  and  Lake  Tahoe  has  an  altitude  of 
6,225  feet>  is  21  miles  long,  and  is  an  ob- 
jective point  for  many  tourists.  The  prin- 
cipal river  is  the  Humboldt,  which  rises  in 
the  northeast  and  flows  into  Humboldt 
Lake;  it  is  about  375  miles  long. 

Climate  and  Agriculture.  The  dry  atmos- 
phere is  clear  in  winter,  but  in  summer  is 
filled  with  small  particles  of  alkaline  dust. 
The  rainfall  is  exceedingly  light,  therefore 
the  vegetation  is  very  scanty  though  hardy. 
The  soil,  however,  has  proven  fertile  where- 
ever  irrigation  has  taken  place,  and  the 
results  have  been  surprising.  The  national 
government's  Truckee-Carson  system  irri- 
gates 160,000  acres.  (See  IRRIGATION). 
Barley,  oats,  spring  wheat,  potatoes  and 
vegetables  are  grown,  as  well  as  pears, 
applies  and  cherries  in  the  cultivated  sec- 
tions. Stockraising  is  quite  an  extensive 
industry,  for  the  hay-crop,  the  abundance 
of  prairie-grass  and  the  white  sage-brush 
furnish  food-stuffs  for  the  entire  year.  An- 
gora and  Kashmir  goats  are  raised  to  some 
extent. 

Natural  Resources.  Fir,  spruce  and  pine 
grow  to  a  great  size;  mountain  mahogany 
is  found  on  the  foothills;  so  are  willow, 
beech,  cottonwood,  wild  cherry  and  dwarf 
cedar.  Among  the  building-stones  are 


marble,  granite,  limestone,  sandstone  and 
agate.  Amethyst,  tourmalines  and  carnelians 
have  been  found.  There  are  deposits  of  sul- 
phur, gypsum,  salt,  borax,  lead,  copper, 
nickel,  antimony,  coal  and  mercury,  but  the 
gold  and  silver  deposits  lead  all  minerals. 
The  famous  Comstock  Lode,  discovered  in 
1859,  produced  $306,000,000  during  its  first 
twenty  years.  Of  recent  years  the  discovery 
and  operation  of  new  goldmines  at  Goldfield, 
Tonopah,  Rawhide  and  other  places  have 
given  new  impetus  to  mining  with  a  con- 
sequent growth  of  urban  population  in  the 
mining  regions  of  the  state. 

Industries.  The  leading  industries  are 
mining  and  smelting,  but  the  manufacturing 
interests  include  flour  and  grist  mills,  rail- 
road-cars, wagons,  carriages,  duiry-products, 
boots,  shoes,  salt  and  other  articles. 

Education.  The  public  schools  are  sup- 
ported by  state  and  local  taxes;  high 
schools  as  well  as  grammar  schools  are 
maintained  in  the  larger  towns;  and  educa- 
tion is  compulsory.  An  Indian  school  is 
maintained  by  the  Federal  government  at 
Carson  City.  The  University  of  Nevada  is 
at  Reno,  and  in  connection  with  this  school 
the  government  has  established  an  agricul- 
tural experiment-station.  The  state  Or- 
phans' Home  is  at  Carson;  a  hospital  for 
the  weak-minded,  at  Reno,  a  state  peniten- 
tiary at  Carson  and  also  a  government 
mint. 

History.  The  state  was  separated  from 
Utah  in  1861,  and  admitted  as  a  state  in 
1864*.  The  first  white  men  to  visit  it  were 
the  Franciscan  friars  in  1775.  In  1825 
Peter  Ogden  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company 
came  to  Humboldt  River,  Fremont  went 
through  the  state  in  1843-5,  and  in  1849  a 
trading-post  was  established  on  the  Carson 
River  by  the  Mormons.  The  principal  cities 
are  Carson  City,  the  capital  (Pop.  2,466), 
Virginia  City,  Reno,  Gold  Hill,  Goldfield, 
Rawhide  and  Tonopah.  About  5,216  In- 
dians are  still  on  the  reservations  in  the 
state.  Nevada  has  about  1,000  miles  of 
railroad.  The  Southern  (formerly  Central) 
Pacific  connects  it  with  Salt  Lake  City  and 
San  Francisco,  the  San  Pedro  with  Los 
Angeles,  and  there  are  other  important  rail- 
roads traversing  the  state. 

New  Al'bany,  Ind.,  an  important  manu- 
racturing  city,  county-seat  of  Floyd  County, 
is  on  the  Ohio,  nearly  opposite  Louisville. 
It  has  extensive  rolling  mills,  two  stove- 
foundries,  three  large  machine-shops,  two 
extensive  boiler-works,  four  tanneries,  three 
furniture-manufactories,  two  veneer-mills,  a 
box  and  basket  factory,  a  mosaic-flooring 
company,  a  hosiery-mill,  cotton  and  woolen 
mills,  a  handle-factory,  a  clothing-factory 
and  smaller  industries.  It  has  three  electric 
interurban  lines,  five  main  line  railroads  and 
splendid  shipping  facilities  are  furnished  by 
river.  New  Albany  has  many  good  public 
buildings,  a  library  and  excellent  public  schools. 


NEW  BEDFORD 


1324 


NEW  CALEDONIA 


By  the  annexation  of  outlying  villages,  the 
ponulation  has  increased  to  25,000. 

New  Bed'ford,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  in 
Massachusetts,  is  in  Bristol  County,  on  the 
Acushnet  estuary,  56  miles  south  of  Boston. 
For  a  century  prior  to  1854  it  was  the 
principal  whaling-center  of  the  world,  send- 
ing out  over  400  vessels  and  receiving  60,- 
ooo  barrels  of  sperm  and  120,000  of  whale 
oil  annually.  Since  that  year,  however, 
manufactures  have  claimed  its  attention, 
and  it  now  contains  cotton  mills  of  3  mil- 
lion spindles,  foundries,  oil  refineries,  drill, 
cordage,  boot,  shoe,  flour,  glass  and  plated 
ware  factories.  New  Bedford's  cotton  goods 
are  the  finest  cotton  goods  made  in  the  United 
States.  New  Bedford  has  many  handsome 

Erivate  residences,  and  numerous  prominent 
uildings,  as  the  Masonic  and  Odd  Fellows' 
building,  Merchant's  national  bank,  Saint 
Mary's  Home  for  the  Aged  and  Orphans,  and 
the  state  armory.  The  educational  institu- 
tions are  Swain  Free  School,  a  state  textile 
school,  32  public  schools,  five  parish  and  one 
kindergarten  (R.  C.)  school  and  a  public 
library  of  74,000  volumes.  Population, 
109,462. 

New  Bright'on,  a  village  and  beach  resort 
of  New  York,  is  on  Staten  Island,  six  miles 
from  Manhattan  Island,  and  for  the  most 
part  consists  of  residences  of  New  York's 
business  men,  and  it  contains,  besides, 
many  beautiful  summer  homes.  It  has 
commercial  interests,  such  as  extensive 
plaster  mills,  a  paper  factoiy  and  a  dye 
works.  New  Brighton  has  graded  schools, 
Curtis  high  school  (public),  Staten  Island 
Academy,  beautiful  churches  and  a  retreat 
for  sailors  known  as  the  Sailor's  Snug  Har- 
bor. It  is  connected  with  Manhattan 
Borough  by  the  Municipal  ferry  of  greater 
New  York,  of  which  it  is  a  part. 

New  Brit'ain,  a  manufacturing  town  of 
Connecticut,  in  Hartford  County,  has  a 
large  park  and  contains  the  state  armory 
and  normal  school.  The  city  has  manu- 
factories of  hardware,  cutlery,  locks,  hosiery, 
jewelry,  knit  goods  and  machine-shop  prod- 
ucts. The  city  has  fine  churches,  good 
public  and  parish  schools,  and  is  the  seat 
of  the  state  normal  school  and  the  New 
Britain  Institute.  Water  is  supplied  from 
a  reservoir  of  nearly  200  acres.  Popula- 
tion 43,916. 

New  Bruns'wick,  a  province  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  is  a  square,  bounded 
on  the  south  by  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and  an 
isthmus  connecting  it  with  Nova  Scotia;  on 
the  east  by  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence;  on 
the  north  by  the  Bay  of  Chaleurs  and  Que- 
bec; and  on  the  west  by  Maine  in  the  United 
States.  It  has  an  area  of  27,500  square 
miles,  little  less  than  that  of  either  Scot- 
land or  Ireland,  and  more  than  twice  the 
size  of  Belgium.  The  proportion  of  land 
cultivable  is  much  higher  in  New  Bruns- 
wick than  in  Scotland,  and  about  as  high 


as  in  Ireland.  The  population  is  351,815 — 
largely  Englishspeaking,  although  many 
Acadians  are  settled  in  the  northern  coun- 
ties, lending  a  picturesque  variety  to  the 
people.  In  origin  there  are  three  and  one 
half  times  as  many  British  as  French.  The 
Roman  Catholic  church  leads  in  numbers, 
the  Baptist  churches  next.  The  larger  share 
of  the  population  is  agricultural,  and  gen- 
erally owns  its  own  farms.  There  is  still  a 
vast  wealth  of  forestland.  The  three  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  St.  John,  the  Miramichi 
and  the  Restigouche.  A  curious  fact  is  that 
the  headwaters  of  these  three  great  rivers 
lie  near  to  each  other  and  the  Indians  in 
former  days,  as  the  sportsmen  in  our  day, 
were  thus  able  to  pass  easily  from  one  to 
the  other,  securing  thereby  a  highway  to 
nearly  every  part  of  the  province.  A  prov- 
ince so  nearly  surrounded  by  water  and 
having  such  an  excellent  river  system  of 
course  has  splendid  inland  and  coast  navi- 
gation. Steamers  run  to  Portland,  Boston, 
Quebec  and  other  ports 

The  forests  are  regarded  as  inexhaustible. 
Black  spruce,  the  best  commercial  wood,  is 
largely  exported.  The  province  is  noted  for 
its  game.  Moose,  caribou  and  deer  are 
abundant.  Its  fisheries  are  among  its  great- 
est sources  of  wealth.  The  herring  is  the 
great  commercial  fish,  though  lobsters, 
smelts  and  salmon  abound.  One  fifth  of 
the  fish  caught  in  Canada  are  taken  in  New 
Brunswick  waters  by  New  Brunswick  fisher- 
men. St.  John,  Fredericton  and  Moncton 
are  its  chief  cities.  The  schools  receive  a 
grant  from  the  provincial  treasury;  the  rest 
of  their  cost  being  defrayed  by  local  taxa- 
tion. The  provincial  university  at  Fred- 
ericton (the  capital)  also  receives  a  prov- 
incial grant  and  revenues  from  university 
lands. 

New  Brunswick,  capital  of  Middlesex 
County,  N.  J.,  lies  on  Raritan  River  at  the 
head  of  the  Delaware  and  Raritan  Canal. 
It  contains  many  churches  and  Rutgers 
College,  founded  in  1766,  observatory,  agricul- 
tural college  and  model  farm.  It  manufactures 
india-rubber,  hosiery,  lamps  and  needles,  wall 
paper,  bandages  and  surgical  supplies  and  has 
iron  and  brass  foundries.  Population,  30,019. 

New  Cal'edo'nia,  an  island  in  the  south- 
ern Pacific  belonging  to  France,  lies  be- 
tween the  Fiji  Islands  and  the  eastern  coast 
of  Queensland.  It  is  about  240  miles  long 
and  25  wide  and  has  an  area,  with  its 
dependencies,  of  8,100  square  miles.  The 
ground  is  much  broken  by  irregular  moun- 
tain chains,  but  in  the  valleys  it  is  fruitful, 
yielding  cocoanut,  maize,  tobacco  and 
similar  products.  It  has  rich  mineral  re- 
sources in  copper,  cobalt,  antimony  and 
chrome,  and  exports  these,  together  with 
preserved  meats,  copra  and  coffee  to  Eng- 
land, while  it  imports  wines,  flout,  drapery, 
groceries,  machinery  and  coal.  The  annual 
value  of  its  exports  in  a  single  year  was 


NEWCASTLE 


1325 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


ii  million  francs.  It  has  a  population  of 
S3.35°>  °f  whom  30,650  are  native  Kanakas. 

Newcastle,  Pa.,  a  manufacturing  city 
located  on  Shenango  River,  50  miles  north- 
west of  Pittsburg.  The  production  of  steel 
is  the  principal  industry.  Large  blast  fur- 
naces, rolling  mills,  tin  plate,  wire  and  nail 
mills  furnish  employment  for  thousands  of 
workmen.  Glass,  brick  and  paper  are  also 
manufactured.  Population  36,280. 

New  Guinea  or  Papua  (pd'pob-d),  the 
second  largest  island  in  the  world,  lies  80 
miles  northeast  of  Queensland,  Australia, 
at  the  southwest  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Its 
length  is  1490  miles,  its  greatest  breadth 
410,  its  estimated  area  over  312,000  square 
miles.  Its  population  is  estimated  as  560,- 
ooo.  It  was  discovered  by  Abreu  of  Portu- 
gal in  1501,  and  has  been  visited  repeatedly 
ever  since.  Naturalists  were  the  first  to 
explore  the  interior,  Wallace  being  the 
pioneer  in  1858,  and  doing  world-famous 
work.  Missionaries  came  next,  and  five 
Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  societies 
are  in  the  field.  The  Dutch  were  the  first 
to  colonize  (1827),  the  Germans  proclaimed 
a  protectorate  in  1884,  and  Great  Britain, 
inspired  by  anxious  Australia,  made  an- 
nexations in  1885.  Dutch  New  Guinea  is 
the  part  of  the  island  west  of  141°  E.  long, 
and  covers  151,789  square  miles,  and  per- 
haps has  200,000  native  inhabitants.  Ger- 
man New  Guinea  or  Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Land 
is  the  northern  half  of  the  eastern  region, 
containing  70,000  square  miles  and  having 
15,232  natives.  British  New  Guinea  or  the 
Territory  of  Papua  consists  of  the  south- 
eastern portion  of  the  island,  with  an  area 
of  90,540  square  miles  and  a  population  of 
350,000  natives.  The  Australian  common- 
wealth took  control  in  1901.  The  Dutch 
have  done  little  for  their  territory;  but  the 
Germans  are  developing  theirs  through  a 
company,  though  the  imperial  government 
administers  public  affairs;  and  the  Aus- 
tralians have  reduced  many  districts  of  the 
Territory  of  Papua  to  order  and  made  tribes 
in  large 'areas  settle  down  to  industry. 

New  Guinea  is  irregular  in  shape,  con- 
sisting of  a  broad  center  from  which  a 
narrow  peninsula  runs  southeastward  and 
another  to  the  northwest.  The  coasts  are 
mostly  lofty,  but  parts  of  the  western  shore 
are  marshy  flats  covered  with  dense  forests. 
The  outline  is  broken  by  many  indenta- 
tions, but  good  harbors  are  rare.  Moun- 
tain-ranges traverse  the  island,  Mt.  Owen 
Stanley  in  the  southeast  rising  13,205  feet, 
while  in  the  northwest  there  are  heights  of 
over  20,000  feet,  covered  with  perpetual 
snow,  and  active  volcanoes.  There  are 
four  or  five  large  rivers.  The  animals,  ex- 
cept a  native  pig  and  native  mice,  are 
marsupials  and  monotremes.  Birds  abound 
in  amazing  profusion  and  variety.  The 
forests  are  filled  with  enormous  trees,  in- 
cluding the  camphor.  Bananas,  cocoanuts, 


maize,  rice,  sago,  sugarcane  and  yams  are 
cultivated.  The  chief  exports  are  coffee, 
copra,  gold,  pearls  and  pearl-shells,  sandal- 
wood  and  trepang.  The  bulk  of  the  natives 
are  Papuans,  who  are  not  unlike  the  Negroes 
of  African  Guinea,  but  Malay  settlements 
are  numerous  on  the  western  coast.  The 
Papuans  mainly  are  at  a  low  stage  of  cul- 
ture. Some  are  fierce  and  untr actable, 
others  friendly  in  disposition.  See  AUS- 
TRALIA and  BRITISH  NEW  GUINEA. 

New  Hamp'shire,  one  of  the  original  13 
states,  forming  part  of  the  New  England 
group,  is  situated  south  of  Quebec,  Canada, 
and  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Maine,  on 
the  west  by  the  Connecticut  River  (which 
separates  it  from  Vermont)  and  on  the 
south  by  Massachusetts.  Its  length  is  185 
miles,  its  breadth  90  miles,  and  its  area 
9,305  square  miles.  The  capital  is  Concord. 
The  other  large  cities  are  Manchester,  Nashua, 
Dover  and  Portsmouth,  all  important  com- 
mercial centers. 

Surface  and  Climate.  The  state  is  moun- 
tainous in  parts,  the  White  Mountains  in 
the  east-central  region,  being  the  most  con- 
spicuous and  well-known  elevations,  soared 
over  by  Mt.  Washington,  with  an  altitude 
ot  6,293  feet-  Other  elevated  peaks  occur 
in  the  northern  and  southwestern  parts  of 
the  state;  in  the  latter  are  Mt.  Monadnock 
(3,186  feet)  and  Mt.  Kearsarge  (2,943  feet); 
while  traversing  the  state  lengthwise  is  the 
extreme  eastern  extension  of  the  Appa- 
lachian chain.  The  drainage  is  effected  by 
the  Connecticut,  Merrimac,  Androscoggin, 
Saco,  Pemigewasset,  Winnepesaukee  and 
Piscataqua Rivers;  the  chief  lakes  being 
Winnepesaukee,  Umbagog,  Squam,  Sunapee 
and  New-Found  Lakes.  The  state  has  a 
humid  climate,  with  an  abundant  rainfall, 
especially  in  the  mountain  regions;  while  the 
winters  are  usually  long  and  severe,  save  in 
the  delightful  and  healthy  valleys,  econom- 
ically useful  for  ",;jricultural  operations  and 
desirable  as  residential  districts. 

Natural  Resources.  The  state  is  interest- 
ing to  the  geologist,  and,  though  denuded 
of  its  origina  forest,  is  rich  in  granite 
quarries  and  has  considerable  mica  deposits. 
The  rivers,  moreover,  furnish  an  abundant 
waterpower,  taken  advantage  of  by  the 
manufacturing  establishments;  while  wood- 
pulp  in  quantities  is  still  available,  derived 
chiefly  from  the  new  growth  of  timber. 
New  Hampshire  has  a  narrow  sea-front,  but 
sufficient,  with  its  interior  rivers  and  lakes, 
to  give  it  some  fishery  interests  —  the  prin- 
cipal catch  embracing  cod,  mackerel,  had- 
dock, lobster  and  clams.  The  value,  an- 
nually, of  the  timber  and  lumber  products 
is  to-day  about  10  million  dollars. 

Agriculture  and  Stockraising.  The  area 
available  for  farming  is  comparatively 
limited.  The  region  of  the  chief  farms  is 
the  coast  and  the  interior  valleys,  a  total 
area  of  not  more  than  3,250.000  acres,  and 


NEW  HAVEN 


1326 


NEW  HEBRIDES 


that  utilized  chiefly  for  garden  products 
and  fruit  (especially  apple)  cultivation.  The 
yield  of  hay  is  considerable,  as  are  the 
forage  crops;  while  much  attention  is  given 
to  dairying  and  to  raising  cattle,  sheep, 
swine  and  horses. 

Manufactures.  The  growth  of  these  has 
been  phenomenal,  as  one  may  realize  by  a 
visit  to  such  centers  of  industry  as  Man- 
chester, Nashua,  Dover,  Concord,  Laconia, 
Keene  and  Portsmouth,  one  or  other  of 
these  towns  being  the  seat  of  establish- 
ments which  turn  out  cotton  goods, 
woolens,  hosiery  and  knitted  goods,  boots 
and  shoes,  not  to  speak  of  the  tanning 
trade,  flour  and  grist  mill  t  utput,  foundry, 
machine,  lumber,  timber  and  paper  products 
and  the  factory  products  of  cheese,  but- 
ter and  condensed  milk.  The  development 
and  importance  of  New  Hampshire  as  a 
manufacturing  state  is  in  a  large  measure 
due  to  its  abundant  and  steady  supply  of 
water  for  power  purposes;  a  condition  which 
is,  in  turn,  the  result  of  the  heavy  rainfalls 
in  the  elevated  regions  of  the  central  and 
northern  portions  of  the  state  and  the  multi- 
tude of  lakes  and  ponds  which  feed  the  Mem- 
mac  and  other  rivers.  Owing  to  the  com- 
parative sterility  of  the  soil  and  the  earnings 
of  industrial  employment,  the  number  of 
inhabitants  engaged  in  farming  has  de- 
creased and  of  those  engaged  in  the  industries 
has  steadily  increased. 

Commerce,      Finance     and     Transportation. 

The  railways  of  the  state  are  owned  by 
the  Boston  and  Maine,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Grand  Trunk,  which  runs  through 
the  northern  part.  The  banking  business 
is  handled  by  57  national,  nine  state  and 
60  savings  banks,  with  a  total  capital  of 
six  millions,  and  combined  deposits  close 
upon  75  millions.  The  indebtedness  of  the 
state  is  very  small  in  proportion  to  the  assessed 
valuation  of  the  property,  which  amounts  to 
$225,000,000. 

Education.  There  are  2,096  elementary 
schools  with  a  total  school  population  of 
75.385,  an  enrolled  attendance  of  54,966 
ana  an  average  attendance  of  50,101.  Be- 
sides these  there  were  65  high  schools  with 
278  teachers  and  6,136  pupils.  The  school 
expenditure  for  the  year  amounted  to 
1,619,505.  Higher  education  is  represented 
by  Dartmouth  College,  at  Hanover  (7.  v.), 
a  nonsectarian  institution  having  118  in- 
structors and  1,229  students;  St.  Anselm's 
College  (R.  C.)  at  Manchester  with  17  in- 
structors and  135  students;  the  state  normal 
school  at  Plymouth  (for  teachers) ;  New 
Hampshire  College  of  Agriculture  and  Me- 
chanic Arts  at  Durham,  besides  academies 
and  private  schools  for  boys  at  Exeter  and 
Concord  and  asylums  and  charitable  organ- 
izations for  the  indigent  and  afflicted. 

History.  The  records  of  the  early  explorers 
include  the  visit  of  Sir  Martin  Pring  in  1603 
to  Piscataqua  Harbor  and  settlement  20 


years  later  under  land  grants  to  John  Mason 
and  Sir  Fernando  Gorges,  when  the  district 
was  known  as  the  Province  of  Maine.  In  1629 
a  grant  of  land  was  made  to  Mason  of  terri- 
tory lying  between  the  Piscataqua  and  the 
Merrimac  River,  which  subsequently  came 
to  be  called  New  Hampshire  from  the 
county  of  Hampshire  in  England.  Settle- 
ments followed  later  at  Little  Harbor, 
Dover,  Exeter,  Portsmouth  and  other 
places.  In  1635,  when  John  Mason  died, 
the  colony  became  unsettled  and  disturbed, 
when  it  was  placed  for  protection,  in  1641, 
under  the  colony  of  Massachusetts.  A 
royal  decree  revived  the  separate  colony  of 
New  Hampshire  in  1680  under  a  grandson 
of  Mason,  and  shortly  after  the  colony  was 
erected  into  a  royal  province,  which  it 
remained  until  the  era  of  the  Revolution, 
though  without  charter,  the  region  being 
under  the  joint  governor  of  Massachusetts 
and  New  Hampshire.  Then  followed  dis- 
putes with  Massachusetts  as  to  boundaries, 
together  with  trouble  with  the  Indians, 
the  state  meanwhile  taking  active  part  in 
the  Revolutionary  War.  Conventions  suc- 
ceeded conventions  in  the  effort  to  secure 
a  constitution,  which  the  state  ultimately 
received  in  1792.  In  1788  New  Hampshire 
took  part  in  ratifying  the  Federal  constitu- 
tion and  in  creating  the  Union.  For  a 
time  Portsmouth  was  its  capital,  and  then 
the  capital  became  migratory,  subsequently 
settling  in  Concord.  For  its  industries  see 
the  works  by  McClistock,  by  Sanborn  and 
by  Barstow.  Population  443,467. 

New  Ha' yen,  the  largest  seaport  and  city 
of  Connecticut  and  fourth  largest  in  New 
England,  stands  at  the  head  of  New  Haven 
Bay.  It  has  broad,  shaded  streets,  public 
squares,  parks  and  gardens  and  handsome 
public  buildings.  It  also  contains  Yale 
University,  Sheffield  Scientific  School,  Hop- 
kins Grammar  School  (1660)  and  a  high  school 
consisting  of  Hillhouse  School  and  Board- 
man  Manual-Training  School.  Its  chief 
consequence  is  as  a  manufacturing  town, 
having  large  works  in  hardware,  wire,  locks, 
clocks,  cutlery,  firearms,  indiarubber  goods, 
carriages,  furniture,  paper,  hosiery,  machine 
tools,  webbing,  etc.  The  city  was  settled  by 
an  English  company  in  1638  and  was  uncon- 
nected with  Connecticut  until  1662.  It  was 
incorporated  as  a  town  in  1665  and  received  a 
city  charter  in  1784.  Until  1873  it  was 
jointly  the  capital  with  Hartford.  Popula- 
tion, 155,000. 

New  Heb'rides,  a  chain  of  islands  in 
Melanesia,  west  of  Fiji  and  northeast  of 
New  Caledonia  in  the  western  Pacific,  run- 
ning from  northeast  to  southwest.  There 
are  over  30  islands  in  the  group,  but  only 
about  20  are  populated.  All  are  of  volcanic 
origin,  and  some  still  have  active  volcanoes. 
The  largest  are  Espiritu  Santo,  70  miles  by 
40;  Malikolo,  56  by  20;  Ambrym,  22  by  17; 
Sandwich,  30  by  15;  Erromango,  30  by  22; 


NEW  JERSEY 


NEW  JERSEY 


and  Tanna,  18  by  10.  All  are  high  and 
well-wooded,  and  the  moist,  clear,  warm 
atmosphere  allows  the  cultivation  of  trop- 
ical fruits  and  products,  as  the  yam,  taro, 
banana,  breadfruit,  sugar  cane,  arrow-root 
and  cocoanut.  The  people,  who  belong  to 
the  Papuan  and  Polynesian  races,  are  can- 
nibals. The  chain  was  discovered  by 
Quiros,  the  Portuguese,  in  1606,  and  ex- 
plored by  Captain  Cook  in  1773.  They  are 
claimed  by  the  British  and  by  the  French, 
and  for  the  protection  of  life  and  property 
are  under  the  authority  of  a  mixed  com- 
mission of  French  and  English  naval  officers 
on  Pacific  stations.  Population  estimated 
at  about  80,000. 

New  Jer'sey,  a  small  but  important  state, 
one  of  the  original  Thirteen,  160  miles  in 
length  and  70  in  extreme  breadth,  with  an 
area  of  7,815  square  miles;  capital  Tren- 
ton (96,815).  The  population  of  the  entire 
state  is  now  2,981,105.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  and  northeast  by  New 
York;  on  the  south  and  southeast  by 
Delaware  Bay  and  the  Atlantic;  while  Dei- 
aware  River  separates  it  on  the  west  from 
Pennsylvania.  It  is  closely  connected  with 
Manhattan  Island  and  New  York  City  by 
ferries  across  the  Hudson  River  and  the 
Lower  Bay  of  New  York  to  Hoboken,  Jersey 
City  and  other  eastern  points  of  the  state, 
these  towns,  with  Newark  and  Elizabeth,  be- 
ing, as  one  may  say,  suburbs  of  New  York 
City.  Of  easy  access  also  from  New  York 
City  are  the  towns  and  summer  resorts  of 
New  Jersey's  coast  by  rail  and  steamer,  in- 
cluding Long  Branch,  Asbury  Park,  Ocean 
Grove,  Atlantic  City  and  Cape  May. 

Surface  and  Climate.  The  natural  features 
are  not  noteworthy,  for  the  surface,  for  the 
most  part,  is  a  gently  undulating  plain,  bro- 
ken here  and  there  by  slight  elevations,  as 
the  Kittatinny  Range,  the  Navesink  High- 
land, the  Palisades  of  the  Hudson  and,  in  the 
northern  part,  the  Appalachian  Highland  ex- 
tension. Besides  the  Palisades  other  inter- 
esting features  are  Delaware  Water-Gap,  the 
low-lying  beaches  of  the  Atlantic  coast  and 
the  lake  resorts  of  Lake  Hopaticong  and 
Greenwood  Lake.  The  rivers  are  the  Pas- 
saic  and  Hackensack,  which  empty  into 
Newark  Bay,  the  Manrice,  which  falls  into 
the  Delaware,  and  the  Raritan,  which,  fol- 
lowing through  Raritan  Bay,  finds  its  way 
into  Lower  (N.  Y.)  Bay  and  the  Atlantic. 
The  climate  is  temperate,  varying  slightly 
between  north  and  south  and  between  the 
lowlands  and  the  highlands.  The  soil  is 
composed  chiefly  of  sand  and  clay,  not  rich 
enough  on  the  whole  to  do  without  fertilizers, 
save  in  the  river  valleys. 

Natural  Resources.  The  agricultural  in- 
dustry, though  not  large,  is  in  many  respects 
important,  chiefly  in  the  cultivation,  largely 
under  glass,  of  early  vegetables  and  orchard 
fruits  for  New  York  and  other  immediate 
markets,  besides  growing  and  canning  to- 


matoes and  raising  poultry.  The  value  of 
the  annual  production  of  poultry  is  around 
$1,500,000,  and  of  eggs,  nearly  $2,000,000. 
Owing  to  the  larger  profits  to  be  derived 
from  market  gardening  for  the  large  cities 
within  a  short  distance  of  the  New  Jersey 
fields,  the  raising  of  cereals  has  for  many 
years  given  place  to  the  raising  of  vegetables, 
and  only  two  other  states  exceed  New  Jersey 
in  the  total  acreage  devoted  to  this  industry. 
Of  the  vegetables  raised,  Irish  potatoes  are 
first  in  quantity;  but  other  important  prod- 
ucts include  tomatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  aspara- 
gus, cabbage  and  melons.  The  extent  of 
the  dairy  industry  will  be  realized  when 
it  is  related  that  over  $6,000,000  represents 
the  annual  yield  for  milk.  The  returns  from 
the  orchards  are  large  when  we  consider  the 
state's  comparatively  small  area.  The  chief 
fruits  raised,  however,  are  confined  in  the 
main  to  peaches,  apples,  strawberries  and 
cranberries.  The  mining  industries  are  lim- 
ited to  the  quarrying  of  building-stone  and 
granite,  besides  soapstone  and  talc  and 
magnetite  ores,  together  with  a  considerable 
yield  from  the  brick  and  tile  yards  and  from 
the  beds  of  Portland  cement.  The  yield 
from  lumber  and  timber  products  aggre- 
gates $1,404,000  yearly.  The  fisheries  form 
another  source  of  wealth,  the  value  of  the 
catch  in  one  year  amounting  to  $4,750,000, 
besides  the  sums  obtained  from  the  oyster 
and  clam  yield. 

Manufactures.  New  Jersey  takes  high 
rank  among  manufacturing  states,  the  range 
of  manufactured  articles  being  both  large 
and  varied.  They  include,  under  textiles, 
cotton,  woolen,  worsted  and  silk  goods;  be- 
sides iron  and  steel,  foundry  and  machine 
shop  products;  sewing  machines;  electrical 
apparatus;  glass,  pottery  and  terracotta 
ware;  jewelry,  leather  and  rubber  goods; 
malt  liquors;  cigars  and  tobacco;  lumber; 
chemicals;  oil  and  petroleum  refining;  and 
other  wares  and  products.  The  gross  value 
of  the  state's  manufactures  is  estimated 
at  close  upon  $612,000,000,  the  number 
of  wage-earners  exceeding  241,000  and  the 
total  capital  employed  being  over  $500,- 
000,000.  The  number  of  manufactories  is 
in  excess  of  15,000.  The  chief  manufacturing 
centers  are  Newark,  Jersey  City,  Paterson 
(the  seat  in  especial  of  silk  trade),  Bayonne, 
Camden,  Perth  Amboy,  Trenton  (the  seat 
of  the  trade  in  pottery),  Passaic  and  Eliza- 
beth, the  latter  being  noted  for  its  sewing- 
machine  industry. 

Commerce  and  Transportation.  The  state 
is  well-supplied  with  financial  institutions, 
there  being  to-day  196  national,  20  state  and 
26  savings  banks,  within  its  jurisdiction,  be- 
sides 86  loan  and  trust  companies,  the  com- 
bined deposits  in  which  amount  to  close 
upon  $460,000,000.  The  total  capital  of 
the  New  Jersey  national  banks  approaches 
$22,000,000,  of  the  state  banks,  $2,000,000  and 
of  the  trust  companies  doing  business  in  New 


NEW  LISKEARD 


1328 


NEW  LONDON 


Jersey  over  $10,000,000.  The  st . '  -5  revenue 
is  in  the  main  derived  from  taxes  oa  the  rail- 
road and  other  corporations,  amounting  to 
close  upon  $5,000,000  annually,  with  like  dis- 
bursements chiefly  expended  on  school  main- 
tenance, on  the  public  roads  and  on  the  penal 
and  charitable  institutions.  The  transpor- 
tation facilities  are  good,  the  railway  mile- 
age being  over  2,000  miles,  chiefly  cred- 
ited to  the  Pennsylvania  system  and  the  Del- 
aware, Lackawanna  and  Western,  Jersey 
Central,  Erie  and  Lehigh  Valley  lines,  the 
eastern  terminals  of  all  of  which  are  at  Ho- 
boken and  Jersey  City,  the  arriving  and 
leaving  ports,  moreover,  of  two  of  the 
transatlantic  steamship  lines  —  the  Ham- 
burg-American and  North  German  Lloyd 
Companies.  Besides  these  facilities  the 
state  still  uses  its  two  canals  (chiefly 
for  the  transportation  of  coal)  the  Morris 
and  the  Delaware  and  Raritan,  the  former 
loo  miles  in  length  and  the  latter  65 
miles.  The  state  also  has  an  electric  rail- 
way mileage  exceeding  1,100  miles  in  ex- 
tent. 

Education  and  Government.  New  Jersey 
does  liberal  things  for  education,  its  expen- 
diture for  public  schools  annually  exceeding 
$18,000,000  and  being  chiefly  expended  on 
new  buildings,  maintenance  and  teachers' 
salaries.  The  system  is  directed  by  a  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction  and  a  board 
of  education.  The  schools  number  close 
upon  2,000,  giving  employment  to  12,087 
teachers,  chiefly  women,  while  the  average 
daily  attendance  approaches  325,000  out  of 
an  enrollment  of  429,797.  There  is  a  normal 
School  at  Trenton,  with  institutes  elsewhere 
in  the  state  for  training  teachers,  in  addition 
to  about  200  public  and  private  high  schools 
and  academies,  with  over  16,000  students  in 
attendance.  Higher  education  is  provided, 
in  addition  to  technical  school  institutes  at 
Hoboken  and  Newark,  by  Princeton  Uni- 
versity, which  now  has  174  instructors  and 
1,442  students,  by  Rutgers  College  at  New 
Brunswick  with  48  instructors  and  344 
students,  by  Seton  Hall  College,  at  South 
Orange,  with  25  instructors  and  225  students, 
by  St.  Peter's  College  (R.  C.)  at  Jersey  City, 
by  St.  Benedict's  College  (R.  C.)  at  Newark, 
by  Bordentown  Female  College  and  by  Ste- 
vens Institute  of  Technology  at  Hoboken, 
in  addition  to  the  industrial,  charitable  and 
penal  institutions  under  the  care  of  the  board 
of  charities.  The  state  has  a  legislature,  con- 
sisting of  2 1  senators  and  60  members  of  the 
general  assembly,  which  meets  in  annual 
session.  It  sends  2  senators  and  10  repre- 
sentatives to  the  Federal  Congress.  The  lo- 
cal executive  is  under  the  direction  of  the 
governor,  who  is  elected  for  three  years  and 
not  eligible  for  re-election.  His  veto  on 
legislation  can  be  overridden  by  a  majority 
vote  in  the  House.  There  also  is  adequate 
provision  for  the  maintenance  of  judicial 
authority. 


History.  New  Jersey,  as  we  to-day  know 
it,  has  an  early  history  under  the  Dutch, 
who  claimed  it  as  a  part  of  New  Netherland; 
while  settlement  was  effected  in  the  region 
of  the  present  Bergen  County  and  beside  the 
Delaware  River  early  in  the  i?th  century  by 
Danes  and  Swedes,  who,  however,  came  un- 
der the  jurisdiction  of  Peter  Stuyvesant, 
Dutch  governor  of  New  York.  In  1664  the 
territory  was  conveyed  by  Charles  II  of  Eng- 
land to  James,  Duke  of  York,  who  presently 
reconveyed  it  to  two  favorites,  John,  Lord 
Berkeley,  and  Sir  George  Carteret,  the  latter 
then  governor  of  the  Island  of  Jersey. 
Under  these  two  lords-proprietor,  the  colony 
(the  region  between  the  Hudson  and  the  Del- 
aware Rivers)  was  governed,  with  some 
changes,  until  the  Revolution,  Carteret  being 
for  some  period  of  the  time  governor  in  per- 
son, with  Elizabethtown  as  his  capital.  In 
1674  Berkeley  sold  his  interest  in  the  colony 
to  two  Quakers,  when  the  region  was  di- 
vided into  two  sections,  East  and  West  New 
Jersey,  Carteret  retaining  the  former  half 
until  1682,  when  his  heirs  sold  it  to  William 
Penn  and  his  Quaker  associates.  Early  in 
the  1 8th  century  both  colonies  were  ceded 
by  their  respective  proprietors  to  the  Crown, 
whet  they  were  united  and  came  under  the 
rule  of  governors  of  New  York,  the  colony 
retaining  its  separate  assembly.  New  Jer- 
sey in  1 738  began  to  be  under  a  single  gover- 
nor of  its  own  until  1776,  when  the  last  royal 
governor  was  deposed  and  the  colony  became 
a  state  of  the  American  Union,  v/ith  a  con- 
stitution, which  was  ratified  in  1787.  In 
1844  a  new  constitution  v/as  given  it,  which 
in  1875  was  revised.  Trenton  became  the 
capital  in  1790.  See  Raum's  History  of  New 
Jersey  and  Lee's  New  Jersey  as  a  Colony  and 
a  State. 

New  Lis'kcard  is  at  the  head  of  Lake 
Temiskaming  in  the  Nipissing  district  (On- 
tario). Population  3,000  and  rapidly  in- 
creasing. It  is  the  commercial  center,  only 
340  miles  from  Toronto,  the  door  to  the  rich 
lands  attracting  attention  in  Temiskaming 
Valley.  It  has  daily  train  service  to  To- 
ronto via  North  Bay. 

New  Lon'don,  Ct.,  a  seaport  of  that  state, 
lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames,  three 
miles  from  its  mouth,  has  a  courthouse,  city- 
hall  and  customhouse,  and  includes  woolens, 
silk,  agricultural  machinery,  hardware,  cot- 
tongins,  printingpresses,  boilers,  hot- water 
and  steam-heating  apparatus  and  crackers 
among  its  manufacturers.  It  has  a  good  har- 
bor and  a  navy-yard,  and  many  vessels  en- 
gaged in  sealing  and  fishing.  In  the  days  of 
whalefishing  it  sent  out  300  whaleships  an- 
nually which  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
town  s  prosperity.  Its  chief  distinction  at 
present  is  its  nine  beautiful  schoolbuildings 
and  grounds.  The  town  was  settled  in  1646 
by  John  Winthrop,  first  governor  of  Con- 
necticut, and  burned  by  Benedict  Arnold  in 
1781.  Population  19,659. 


NEW  MEXICO 


1329 


NEW  MEXICO 


New  Mex'ico.  A  state  located  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  United  States.  It 
lies  south  of  Colorado,  west  of  Oklahoma 
and  Texas,  north  of  Texas  and  Mexico  and 
east  of  Arizona.  The  state  is  nearly  square, 
and  contains  122,580  square  miles.  It  is 
nearly  equal  in  size  to  Pennsylvania,  New 
York  and  Maine  combined.  It  was  ad- 
mitted as  a  state  Jan.  6,  1912. 

Surface.  The  state  is  traversed  by  the 
southern  end  of  the  eastern  range  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  system.  Hence  the  sur- 
face is  very  irregular  — a  great  plateau  from 
4,000  feet  to  8,000  feet  high,  cut  by  river- 
valleys,  canyons,  mountain-ranges  and  peaks. 
The  continental  divide  passes  irregularly 
north  and  south  through  the  middle  of  the 
western  half  of  the  state;  hence  nearly  all 
of  the  drainage  is  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by 
means  of  the  Canadian  River,  the  Pecos 
River  and  the  Rio  Grande ;  a  very  small  por- 
tion of  the  western  part  drains  into  the  Gulf 
of  California  through  the  San  Juan,  Little 
Colorado  and  Gila  Rivers,  tributaries  of  the 
Colorado.  The  principal  mountain-ranges 
are  the  Raton,  the  Culebra  and  the  Jemez  of 
the  north;  and  the  Sacramento,  the  San  An- 
dreas and  the  Black  of  the  south ;  all  of  which 
have  a  north-and-south  trend.  Many  peaks 
reach  9,000  to  12,000  feet.  The  striking 
features  of  the  landscape  are  the  large  mesas 
or  tablelands,  many  capped  with  lava. 

History.  The  ruins  of  numerous  com- 
munal houses  built  in  great  caves  in  lava 
formations  or  on  the  tops  of  isolated  mesas 
bear  evidences  of  a  prehistoric  people  that 
was  well-advanced  in  building,  weaving  and 
the  manufacture  of  earthenware.  This  pre- 
historic people  understood  irrigation  and  ag- 
riculture. The  Spaniards  who  first  settled 
in  Mexico  made  expeditions  into  New  Mexico 
early  in  the  i6th  century,  and  found  many 
prosperous  Indian  villages,  called  pueblos. 
In  1598  Oflate  founded  a  colony  near  San 
Juan  on  the  upper  Rio  Grande  and  became 
the  first  governor.  In  1582  Espejo  settled 
at  Santa  F6,  the  second  oldest  permanent 
white  settlement  in  the  United  States.  For 
nearly  100  years  the  king  of  Spain  controlled 
New  Mexico  through  his  governors,  but  in 
1680  there  was  a  general  revolt  of  the  Indians 
and  all  foreigners  were  killed  or  driven  out. 
Twelve  years  later  (1692)  Vargas  recon- 
quered the  territory,  and  it  remained  a  prov- 
ince of  Mexico  until  1846,  when  it  was  taken 
by  General  Kearny  in  the  war  between  the 
United  States  and  Mexico  and  was  ceded  to 
the  United  States  on  May  30,  1848,  by  the 
Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo.  That  por- 
tion of  New  Mexico  which  lies  south  of  32° 
N.  was  purchased  from  Mexico  in  1853  under 
the  Gadsden  Purchase. 

Inhabitants.  The  total  population  is 
416,966;  nearly  half  of  whom  are  Spanish, 
and  about  40,000  are  Indians.  Thousands 
of  land  entries  have,  however,  been  made, 
and  all  by  English-speaking  people;  the  per- 


centage of  native  inhabitants  therefore  is 
constantly  on  the  decrease. 

Chmate.  New  Mexico  has  an  exceedingly 
.Healthful  climate,  and  is  known  as  the  Land 
of  Sunshine,  having  250  days  of  sunshine  in 
a  year  The  mean  annual  temperature  of 
the  principal  cities  ranges  from  50°  to  55°, 
which  is  regarded  as  ideal.  The  rainfall  is 
very  light,  averaging  about  12  inches.  The 
territory  is  a  mecca  for  hundreds  of  tuber- 
culous patients  who  enter  it  yearly  and  re- 
ceive great  benefit.  Wind  velocity  is  often 
high,  but  tornadoes  are  unknown. 

Education.  The  public-school  system  was 
organized  in  1891.  Since  then  educational 
advantages  have  grown  rapidly.  The  state 
board  of  education  through  its  secretary, 
the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion, has  general  supervision  over  the  public 
schools,  and  in  each  county  there  is  a 
county  superintendent.  More  than  56,- 
ooo  children  are  enrolled  in  the  public 
schools  and  1.500  teachers  employed.  City 
schools  are  excellent;  rural  schools  inferior, 
but  gradually  improving.  Spanish  is  the 
prevailing  language  in  the  mountainous  dis- 
tricts, but  English  is  the  language  of  the 
schools.  The  educational  institutions  are 
located  as  follows:  University  of  New  Mex- 
ico, Albuquerque;  Normal  University,  East 
Las  Vegas;  Normal  School,  Silver  City; 
School  of  Mines,  Socorro;  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, Las  Cruces;  Military  Institute,  Ros- 
well;  School  for  the  Deaf,  Santa  F6;  School 
for  the  Blind.  Alamogordo. 

Industries.  The  most  important  indus- 
tries are  sheepraising  and  woolgrowing. 
Fully  4,000,000  head  of  sheep  are  found 
within  the  territory  Thousands  of  head  of 
cattle  are  raised  on  the  ranges  and  shipped 
to  the  central  west.  The  annual  shipment 
is  from  75,000  to  100,000  head.  Mining  is 
an  important  industry  Coal,  copper,  sil- 
ver, gold,  lead  and  zinc  are  mined  in  consid- 
erable quantities.  The  output  of  coal  and 
copper  comes  first  in  importance  The  an- 
nual output  of  lumber  amounts  to  over 
100,000,000  feet.  The  forests  are  in  the 
highest  mountain  regions.  The  largest  saw- 
mill and  lumber-yard  is  at  Albuquerque, 
Logs  are  brought  from  the  Zufli  Mountains, 
100  miles  distant.  Agriculture  is  an  im- 
portant industry  in  the  large  valleys  where 
water  may  be  secured  for  irrigation.  Alfalfa 
and  fruit  constitute  the  most  important 
crops,  although  kafir  corn,  maize,  millet 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley  and  vegetables  are 
raised.  In  some  sections  dry  farming  suc- 
ceeds in  favorable  years.  Manufacturing  is 
not  an  important  industry,  although  ice- 
factories,  smelters,  woolen  mills  and  sash 
and  door  factories  are  found  in  the  larger 
cities  of  the  state. 

Transportation.  The  most  important  rail- 
road is  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  F6 
which  traverses  the  central  portion  of  New 
Mexico  from  north  to  south  and  branches 


1330 


NEW  ROCHELLE 


west  from  Albuquerque  to  the  coast.  The 
central  portion  is  therefore  connected  direct- 
ly with  Denver,  Kansas  City  and  Chicago; 
with  El  Paso  and  the  City  of  Mexico;  and 
with  Los  Angeles  and  San  Francisco.  The 
Rock  Island;  El  Paso  and  Northeastern; 
Denver  and  Rio  Grande;  and  Santa  Fe  Cen- 
tral are  other  important  roads  cutting  the 
territory.  Several  automobile  routes  have 
been  established  connecting  various  points 
of  the  different  railroads,  thus  saving  long 
distances  and  much  time. 

New  Or'leans,  the  largest  city  of  Louis- 
iana, lies  on  both  sides  of  the  Mississippi 
about  107  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  derives 
its  name  of  Crescent  City  from  the  shape  that 
two  bends  in  the  river  give  it.  Its  situation 


NEWIJRLEANS  &  THE  DELTA  OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI. 


as  the  southern  outlet  makes  it  the  third  city 
in  the  United  States  in  importance  as  to  ex- 
ports. It  is  the  terminus  of  three  canals, 
nine  large  railroads  and  three  local  lines, 
while  over  20  lines  of  steamships  connect  it 
with  other  ports.  Since  1875  New  Orleans 
has  made  great  progress  in  manufactures, 
particularly  in  cotton  goods,  cotton-seed  oil, 
machinery,  lumber,  furniture,  fertilizers, 
sugar-refining  and  rice-milling.  New  Or- 
leans is  built  upon  ground  from  two  to  six 
feet  below  the  surface  of  the  river,  and  is 
protected  from  the  rising  waters  by  levees 
along  the  water  front.  It  contains  the 
United  States  mint,  an  old  Gothic  church  (a 
good  sample  of  Creole-Spanish  architecture) 
and  a  new  customhouse,  besides  the  largest 
charity  hospital  in  the  United  States.  It 
has  good  public  schools,  maintained  at  an  an- 
nual cost  of  $450,000,  with  a  teaching  force 


of  702  and  an  attendance  of  31,521  pupils. 
Tulane  University,  with  243  professors  and 
1,6  a  i  students  has  under  its  control  New- 
comb  College  for  the  higher  education  of 
girls.  There  also  are  the  College  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception  and  four  colleges  for 
negroes.  The  Howard  Memorial,  Tulane  and 
Louisiana  libraries,  all  free,  contain  together 
150,000  volumes.  The  place  where  the 
city  is  built  was  first  visited  by  Dienville  in 
1699.  He  founded  the  city  in  1718,  and 
made  it  the  capital  in  1726,  which  honor  it 
held  until  1852  and  again  during  1865-79. 
It  was  ceded  to  Spain  by  France,  but  in  1765 
the  people  established  a  separate  govern- 
ment, only  to  have  the  leaders  of  the  move- 
ment shot  in  1769.  It  was  incorporated  as 
a  city  in  1804. 
It  was  the  scene 
of  the  battle  of 
New  Orleans  in 
1815,  and  was 
captured  by  Far- 
ragut  in  1862. 
The  people  are 
of  all  nations, 
only  1 9  per  cent, 
being  of  Ameri- 
can or  English 
descent.  Seven- 
teen percent,  are 
Creoles,  a  term 
applied  to  peo- 
ple born  in  the 
southern  states 
of  French,  Span- 
ish or  Portuguese 
ancestors.  The 
Creole  dialects 
are  corruptions 
of  French,  Span- 
ish and  Portu- 
guese. Mr.  Ca- 
ble's stories  re- 
vealed to  Eng- 
lish readers  the 
singularly  quaint 
charm  of  the  phraseology  and  manners 
of  the  Creoles  of  Louisiana,  who  are  of 
French  descent.  Besides  the  American  and 
Creole  inhabitants,  the  population  is  made 
up  of  Germans,  Irish,  Italians,  Spaniards, 
Scandinavians,  Jews,  Negroes,  mixed  races, 
Indians,  Chinese  and  Malays.  A  large  inter- 
national trade  is  carried  through  New  Or- 
leans; an  aggregate  tonnage  of  1,800,000  tons 
entered  and  cleared  in  1906.  The  value  of 
its  imports  was  $39,500,000,  while  the  ex- 
ports were  valued  at  $150,500,000.  Popu- 
lation 339.075- 

New  Rochelle  (ro-shel'},  N.  Y.,  a  town 
in  Westchester  County  on  Echo  Bay  in  Long 
Island  Sound  and  on  the  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad.  Being  with- 
in 17  miles  of  Grand  Central  Station,  New 
York  City,  many  merchants  of  the  great 
capital  make  their  homes  here  and  find  it 


NEW  SOUTH  WALES 


1331 


NEW  YORK 


salubrious  and  attractive.  Its  yacht  club, 
rowing  club  and  golf  links  bring  many  people 
for  a  day's  outing  from  the  greater  city.  It 
has  fine  school  buildings,  beautiful  churches, 
handsome  residences,  an  excellent  system  of 
public  schools,  banks  and  other  adjuncts  of 
a  thriving  suburban  city.  Population  28,- 
867. 

New  South  Wales,  the  oldest  colony  in 
Australia,  formerly  included  Queensland, 
Victoria,  South  Australia,  Tasmania  and 
New  Zealand,  but  now  its  area  is  310,367 
square  miles  and  its  population,  including 
10,000  Chinese,  blacks  and  half-caste  natives, 
i  664.644.  The  Australian  Alps,  Blue  Moun- 
tains and  Liverpool  Range  are  some  of  the 
mountains  scattered  over  the  country.  The 
Murray,  Lothian,  Nepean,  Clarence,  Shoal- 
haven,  Darling  and  Macquarie  are  some  of 
the  chief  rivers.  The  colony  was  established 
in  1788  by  a  party  of  transported  prisoners 
from  England.  Then  land  was  given  to  free 
colonists,  and  transportation  ceased  in  1840. 
Thereon  followed  a  great  social  advance, 
stimulated  by  the  discovery  of  gold  in  1851. 
The  country  is  covered  with  trees,  as  the  eu- 
calyptus, palm,  pine  and  cedar,  and  vege- 
tation is  very  rich.  Kangaroos  infest  this  as 
well  as  other  regions  in  Australia;  there  are 
many  lizards  and  snakes  and  birds  of  beauti- 
ful plumage.  Gold  was  first  worked  in  1851 
near  Bathhurst,  and  is  now  found  in  an  area 
covering  70,000  square  miles,  to  an  annual 
value  of  nearly  $25,000,000.  Silver  abounds 
in  Barrier  Range ;  copper,  tin,  bismuth,  man- 
ganese, antimony,  mercury,  zinc,  cobalt  and 
alum  are  mined;  and  precious  stones  are 
found  in  the  granite  formations.  Yet  the 
greatest  mineral  wealth  is  found  in  the  coal- 
fields, extending  over  24,000  square  miles 
and  yielding  8,173,508  tons  in  1910.  Sheep 
and  cattle  are  extensively  raised,  there  being 
over  50,000,000  sheep  now  in  pasture.  The 
export  of  wool  is  nearly  300,000,000  pounds 
a  year.  While  140,000,000  acres  are  de- 
voted to  pasturage,  only  1,000,000  are  given 
to  farming.  The  agricultural  output  is  very 
small.  Other  exports  include  (beside  gold, 
coal  and  the  great  wool  crop),  hides,  skins, 
oranges,  citrons,  cane-sugar,  wine,  brandy, 
leather,  tallow  and  meat,  preserved  and 
frozen.  The  colony  has  the  largest  trade, 
on  account  of  its  harbors  and  resources,  of 
any  of  the  Australian  colonies.  In  1911  it 
had  3,761  miles  of  railroad  open  for  traffic. 
Public  schools  maintained  by  the  state  are 
now  established,  entirely  unconnected  with 
the  church.  Higher  education  is  repre- 
sented by  the  University  of  Sydney,  with  a 
staff  of  80  professors  and  lecturers  and  948 
students.  The  laws  are  administered  by  a 
governor  appointed  by  the  crown,  an  execu- 
tive council,  a  legislative  council  and  legis- 
lative assembly.  Sydney  is  the  chief  town. 
Population,  including  suburbs,  621,100. 
See  T.  A.  Coglan's  Wealth  and  Progress  of 
New  South  Wales. 


New  Stars,  sometimes  called  temporary 
stars,  are  bodies  which  suddenly  make  their 
appearance  in  the  heavens,  rise  rapidly  to 
their  full  brightness,  and  soon  begin  td  di- 
minish until  they  can  be  seen  only  with  a 
telescope  or,  perhaps,  not  at  all.  The  ear- 
liest one  of  which  we  have  any  account  is  that 
of  1572,  generally  known  as  the  Star  of  Ty- 
cho  Brahe.  But  it  is  only  since  the  inven- 
tion of  the  spectroscope  that  this  class  of 
stars  has  come  to  be  of  especial  interest. 
The  new  star  in  the  constellation  of  Corona 
Borealis,  discovered  by  Birmingham  on 
May  12,  1866,  was  examined  spectroscopic- 
ally  by  Hugtjins  and  Miller.  They  found 
that  it  possessed  both  a  dark  line  spectrum 
and  a  bright  line  spectrum,  differing  in  this 
respect  from  nearly  all  the  other  stars.  The 
next  new  star  was  that  in  the  constellation 
of  the  Swan,  known  as  Nova  Cygni,  discov- 
ered on  Nov.  24,  1876,  a  red  star  of  the  third 
magnitude.  Two  years  later  it  was  fainter 
than  the  nth  magnitude.  Nova  Androm- 
eda was  discovered  in  August,  1885;  and 
Nova  Orionis  in  December  of  the  same  year. 
But  the  star  which  Anderson  at  Edinburgh 
discovered  on  Jan.  24,  1892,  far  exceeded  all 
previous  new  stars  in  interest,  because  the 
power  of  the  spectroscope  had  been  increased 
in  many  ways  since  the  previous  stars  were 
observed.  For  a  full  account  of  this  star, 
called  Nova  Auriga,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Schemer's  Astronomical  Spectroscopy,  where 
its  interesting  spectrum  is  described  in  de- 
tail. The  next  and  only  other  important 
new  star  was  also  discovered  by  Anderson, 
this  time  in  the  constellation  of  Perseus, 
Feb.  22,  1901.  Many  theories  have  been 
advanced  to  explain  this  curious  phenom- 
enon; but  the  one  which  at  present  seems 
most  probable  is  that  advanced  by  Seeliger: 
The  new  star  is  produced  by  some  dark  body 
rushing  into  a  meteor  swarm  or  a  nebula, 
the  impact  of  small  particles  being  sufficient 
to  bnng  the  dark  body  to  incandescence. 

New  Year's  Day  is  the  first  day  of  the 
year.  It  now  is  usually  celebrated  by  feast- 
ing and  the  interchange  of  presents.  Jews, 
Chinese,  Egyptians  and  Mohammedans, 
while  differing  as  to  the  time  of  celebration, 
celebrate  the  first  day  of  the  year  in  their  re- 
spective calendars.  In  the  Christian  era 
Christmas  day,  Easter  and  the  ist  of  March 
have  each  in  turn  been  celebrated,  and  it  was 
not  until  late  in  the  i6th  century  that  the 
ist  of  January  was  universally  accepted. 
In  Scotland,  France  and  Italy  New  Year's 
is  of  more  importance  than  Christmas,  but 
in  other  countries  the  latter  has  superseded 
the  former  as  a  day  of  rejoicing  and  of  mak- 
ing gifts. 

INew  York,  a  North- Atlantic  state  of  the 
Union,  of  firstclass  importance  in  a  political, 
commercial  and  industrial  aspect,  entitling 
it  to  rank,  as  claimed,  as  The  Empire  State. 
It  is  the  seaward  gateway  of  the  chief  im- 
migration and  trade  of  the  Old  World  into 


NEW-  YORK 


1332 


NEW  YORK 


the  New.  Its  area  is  49,170  square  miles, 
its  length  being  310  miles  and  its  breadth 
320  miles.  On  the  north  it  is  bounded  by 
Lake  Ontario,  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Quebec ; 
on  the  west  by  Lake  Erie  and  Niagara 
River;  on  the  south  by  Pennsylvania, 
New  Jersey,  New  York  Bay  and  the  At- 
lantic; and  on  the  east  by  Lake  Champlain, 
Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut  and 
Long  Island  Sound.  On  its  extreme  south- 
western corner  the  lower  Hudson  separates 
New  York  (state  and  city)  from  New  Jer- 
sey. Embraced  in  the  state  are  such  islands 
as  Manhattan,  Long  Island  and  Staten 
Island  in  the  south;  smaller  ones  in  New 
York  Bay,  Jamaica  Bay  and  East  River;  and 
others  in  Niagara  River,  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  Lake  Champlain. 

New  York  is  the  most  populous  state 
in  the  union,  its  inhabitants  at  the  present 
time  numbering  10,366,788.  Of  the  foreign 
born  population  of  the  state,  the  majority 
are  in  the  cities,  and  two-thirds  of  them  in 
the  City  of  New  York.  Of  a  total  of  30,476,800 
acres  of  land  contained  in  the  state  22,648,109 
acres  are  in  farms. 

The  state  contains  61  counties.  Of 
these  the  ten  original  counties,  namely, 
Albany,  Dutchess,  Kings,  New  York, 
Orange,  Queens,  Richmond,  Suffolk,  Ulster 
and  Westchester  were  created  Nov.  i, 
1683,  and  the  latest,  Nassau,  formed 
from  Queens  county,  was  created  Jan.  i, 

1899- 

Surface  and  Drainage  The  general  con- 
tour is  hilly  and  undulating,  the  loftiest 
regions  being  among  the  Adirondacks  and 
the  Catskills,  with  high  plateaux  here  and 
there,  notably  on  the  Taconic  Range  and 
along  the  Highlands  of  the  Hudson,  alter- 
nated by  valleys.  These  elevated  peaks 
range  from  1,500  to  over  5,340  feet,  the 
latter  being  the  height  of  Mount  Marcy  in 
the  Adirondacks.  The  state  has  many  at- 
tractive lakes,  the  chief  of  which  are  Lakes 
Seneca,  Cayuga,  George,  Chautauqua.Oneida, 
Champlain  and  Canandaigua;  while  it  is 
broken  by  rivers  in  its  different  sections. 
The  principal  river  is  the  Hudson,  which 
rising  in  the  Adirondacks  flows  south  into 
New  York  Bay  and  the  Atlantic :  it  is  navi- 
gable for  150  miles  from  its  mouth  as  far 
as  Troy.  Its  main  tributary  is  the  Mohawk, 
which  drains  the  central  part  of  the  state 
and  supplies  good  waterpower  for  the  in- 
dustries along  its  course.  The  other  chief 
streams  are  Oswego,  Niagara,  Genesee  and 
Black  Rivers  (which  find  their  outlet  in 
the  north  into  the  southern  waters  of  Lake 
Ontario),  the  Susquehanna,  the  Oneida, 
Chemung,  Delaware,  Saranae,  Au  Sable, 
Oswegatchie,  Chenango  and  Charlotte.  The 
great  waterway  of  the  St.  Lawrence  is 
on  its  northern  borders.  The  climate 
naturally  varies  in  different  areas,  being 
colder  in  the  northern  and  warmer  in 
the  southern  and  coastal  region.  There 


is  an  abundant  rainfall,  denser  in  the  north, 
where  the  winters  are  usually  protracted 
and  severe.  In  the  Mohawk  and  Genesee 
Valleys  the  soil  is  good  for  farming,  though 
elsewhere  it  needs  fertilizers.  The  original 
forests,  save  in  the  preserved  districts  of 
the  Adirondacks,  have  disappeared,  largely 
as  the  result  of  fires  and  indiscreet  waste. 
This  has  had  its  effect  upon  the  climate, 
while  it  has  limited  the  area  of  game  preser- 
vation. 

Natural  Resources.  Though  not  notable 
as  a  farming  state,  New  York  makes  a  fair 
showing  in  the  production  of  cereals, 
especially  oats  and  Indian  corn.  Annually 
it  raises  over  46  million  bushels  of  oats, 
over  26  million  of  corn  and  close  upon 
10,000,000  of  wheat.  The  yield  of  hay, 
potatoes  and  buckwheat  is  also  large. 
In  dairy  products  the  state  also  makes  a 
good  showing;  in  an  average  year  produc- 
ing 62,096,690  eggs;  the  poultry  yield, 
moreover,  is  large;  while  nearly  $10,000,000 
are  the  net  proceeds  from  the  sales  of 
butter  and  over  $36,000,000  from  the 
sales  of  milk.  A  considerable  sum  is  also 
derived  annually  from  the  fruit  orchards, 
especially  from  the  sales  of  grapes  and 
apples;  while  the  cultivation  of  flowers, 
chiefly  for  the  New  York  City  markets,  is 
a  profitable  industry.  Stock-raising  also 
is  a  large  industry,  the  number  of  horses  in 
the  state  being  close  upon  591,000,  of  cattle 
2,423,000,  of  sheep  nearly  1,000,000  and  of 
swine  666,179.  The  mineral  resources  con- 
sist chiefly  of  building-stone,  including 
limestone,  sandstone,  granite  and  marble; 
besides  slate,  iron-ore,  clay,  bricks,  tiles, 
mineral  waters,  salt,  petroleum  and  natural 
gas.  The  annual  value  of  fisheries  is  around 
$4,000,000. 

Manufactures.  New  York  leads  the  Union 
in  volume  of  manufactured  goods,  as  also 
in  the  amount  of  capital  employed.  The 
state  has  a  total  of  44,935  manufacturing 
establishments,  employing  a  capital  of 
more  than  $2,779,000,000,  with  1,003,098 
wage-earners,  and  turning  out  $3,369,490,- 
ooo  in  value.  A  large  volume  of  this 
enormous  total  trade  is  credited  to  New 
York  City,  the  metropolis,  where  cheap 
foreign  labor  is  available  in  such  industries 
as  men's  and  women's  factory-made  cloth- 
ing, and  that  turned  out  by  contract  in 
small  workshops  and  tenements,  including 
men's  furnishing  goods  (shirts,  hosiery  and 
knit-wear),  women's  furs,  millinery  and  lace 
goods,  embracing  silk,  cotton,  woolen  and 
worsted  goods;  with  the  output  in  other 
branches  of  trade  —  boots,  shoes,  furniture, 
carpets,  rugs,  jewelry,  confectionery,  car- 
riages, wagons,  paper,  printing,  lithographic 
and  publishing  output,  chemical  products, 
electrical  apparatus  and  supplies,  iron-work, 
foundry  and  machine  products,  patent 
medicines,  liquor,  tobacco  and  cigars;  be- 
sides agricultural  implements,  timber,  lum- 


NEW  YORK 


1333 


NEW  YORK 


ber,  planing-mill  products  and  flour  and 
grist-mill  products.  Outside  of  New  York 
City  much  of  the  volume  of  trade  in  special 
lines  is  turned  out  in  other  towns  and  dis- 
tricts, aided  in  part  by  the  waterpower 
facilities  of  the  localities.  Troy,  for  in- 
stance, has  become  the  manufacturing  seat 
of  shirts,  collars  and  cuffs;  Gloversville  is 
noted  for  its  glove  trade;  Cohoes  for  hosiery 
and  knitted  goods;  Yonkers  for  carpets  and 
rugs;  Rochester  for  flourmilling  and  its 
boot  and  shoe  trade;  and  Brooklyn  for 
breweries,  sugar-refineries,  foundries  and 
machine-shops. 

Commerce  and  Transportation.  With  its 
ocean  and  lake  ports,  canal  and  vast  rail- 
way facilities,  the  commerce  of  New  York 
is  of  stupendous  and  steadily  growing 
volume,  both  local  and  foreign.  The  im- 
ports of  New  York  City  in  one  year  were 
nearly  $951,500,000  in  value,  while  its  exports 
were  about  $795,000,000.  The  foreign 
tonnage  entering  and  clearing  annually  is, 
entered  13,428,950  tons;  cleared  13,336,893 
tons.  Large  also  is  the  trade  of  the  interior 
ports,  as  Buffalo,  Niagara  Falls,  Ogdens- 
burg,  Oswego,  Rochester  and  Plattsburg. 
Extensive  are  the  banking  facilities,  more 
particularly  in  New  York  City,  added  to 
by  the  operations  of  the  trust-companies, 
the  general  soundness  of  all  of  which  has 
in  repeated  financial  crises  been  put  to 
protracted  and  severe  tests.  In  the  whole 
state  are  458  national  banks  with  an  aggre- 
gate capital  of  close  upon  $171,500,000, 
deposits  of  $1,010,000,000  and  loans  exceed- 
ing $1,192,000,000.  There  also  are  198 
state  banks  with  about  $33,000,000  of  cap- 
ital and  $428,000,000  on  deposit.  There 
are,  moreover,  some  85  trust  companies, 
with  about  $72,000,000  of  capital  and  about 
$1,185,000,000  in  deposit.  Besides  these 
New  York  State  has  141  savings  banks, 
with  2,957,650  depositors  and  over  $1,561,- 
000,000  on  deposit,  an  average  of  $527.83 
for  each  depositor.  The  activities  and  ex- 
tent of  the  banking  of  the  state  and  its 
chief  metropolis  may  be  otherwise  gathered 
by  noting  the  volume  of  the  money  trans- 
actions in  the  New  York  Clearing-House, 
which  total  $92.420,000,000  or  average 
daily  clearings  of  $305,016,898.  The  state's 
receipts  and  expenditures  to-day  about  bal- 
ance at  $30,000,000  annually,  the  chief  out- 
lay being  for  education,  for  hospital  and 
charities'  maintainance,  besides  the  ex- 
penses incurred  by  the  executive,  legisla- 
tive and  judicial  departments,  and  for  canal 
maintenance.  The  debt  of  the  state  to-day, 
incurred  chiefly  since  1893  in  improving  the 
canals,  is  only  about  $11,000,000.  The 
state's  railway  mileage  (8,225  miles  in  gross) 
consists  of  the  N.  Y.  Central  and  Hudson 
River;  Erie;  N.  Y.,  Ontario,  and  Western; 
Delaware,  Lackawanna  and  Western;  Le- 
high  Valley;  Delaware  and  Hudson;  and 
Long  Island  railways.  Besides  these  roads 


there  are  the  great  commercial  arteries  of 
the  Hudson  and  of  the  canals  —  the  Erie, 
Oswego  and  Champlain,  —  the  total  ex- 
penditure of  the  state  on  which  has  ex- 
ceeded $100,000,000,  nearly  $66,000,000 
being  spent  on  the  Erie  Canal. 

Education.  For  school-purposes  the  state 
organized  in  1854  into  113  commissioners' 
districts  under  the  Department  of  Educa- 
tion, the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  New  York  (q.  v.)  since  1904  having 
supervision  of  the  secondary  and  the  higher- 
educational  institutions.  The  elementary 
schools  now  have  1,301,924  pupils  en- 
rolled, with  an  average  daily  attendance  of 
1,035,234,  and  37,617  teachers,  the  most  of 
whom  are  women.  The  secondary  schools 
have  an  enrollment  of  122,208  and  an  average 
attendance  of  about  86,504.  The  gross  ex- 
penditure of  the  state  for  education  is 
close  upon  $75,000,000,  fully  $42,000,000 
being  yearly  expended  on  teachers'  salaries. 
The  training  of  teachers  is  amply  provided 
for  in  a  number  of  professional  schools  and 
normal  school  institutes,  the  chief  being 
Teachers'  College,  Manhattan,  with  75  in- 
structors and  975  students.  In  the  state 
there  are  some  15  or  16  theological  schools, 
12  schools  of  medicine,  8  of  law,  besides 
schools  of  pharmacy,  music  and  dentistry. 
The  chief  colleges  for  women  are  Vassar 
College  at  Poughkeepsie  and  Barnard  Col- 
lege, an  annex  of  Columbia  University,  in 
New  York  City.  Columbia  is  the  most  im- 
portant university  in  the  state,  with  646 
instructors,  5,057  students  and  close  upon 
20,000  graduates  since  organization.  Other 
colleges  in  Manhattan  embrace  the  non- 
sectarian  College  of  the  City  of  New  York 
with  179  instructors  and  3,905  students; 
St.  John's  College  (R.  C.),  Fordham,  N.  Y. 
City,  with  56  instructors  and  603  students; 
St.  Francis  Xavier  College  (R.  C.),  Man- 
hattan, with  31  instructors  and  550  stud- 
ents; Manhattan  College  (R.  C.),  with  16 
instructors  and  212  students.  The  ad- 
vanced institutions  outside  of  New  York 
City  embrace  Cornell  University,  at  Ithaca, 
with  663  instructors  and  5,194  students; 
the  University  of  Rochester  (Baptist)  with 
34  instructors  and  438  students;  Union  Col- 
lege, Schenectady,  with  30  instructors  and 
240  students;  St.  Angela  College  (R.  C.), 
New  Rochelle,  with  19  instructors  and  100 
students;  Syracuse  University  (nonsec- 
tarian)  with  240  instructors  and  3,248 
students;  Niagara  University  (R.  C.), 
Niagara  Falls  City,  with  25  instructors  and 
300  students;  Kenka  College  (nonsectarian) , 
Kenka  Park,  with  17  instructors  and  106 
students;  Elmira  College  (Presbyterian  ,  with 
19  instructors  and  255  students;  Hamilton 
College  (nonsectarian),  Clinton,  with  19  in- 
structors and  185  students;  Hobart  College 
(nonsectarian),  Geneva,  with  16  instructors 
and  120  students;  Colgate  University  (un- 
denominational), at  Hamilton,  with  40  in- 


NEW  YORK 


1334 


NEW  YORK  CITY 


structors  and  400  students;  Alfre '  Uni- 
versity (nonsectarian) ,  with  30  instructors 
and  385  students;  Canisius  College  (R.  C.), 
Buffalo,  with  30  instructors  and  470  stu- 
dents; Adelphi  College  (nonsectarian) ,  Brook- 
lyn, with  34  instructors  and  477  students; 
besides  a  number  of  technical  institutes,  the 
chief  of  which  is  Rensselaer  Polytechnic 
Institute,  Troy,  with  55  instructors  and  650 
students.  (The  national  Military  Academy 
of  the  United  States  is  at  West  Point,  with 
83  instructors  and  an  attendance  of  475). 
Other  colleges  are  Wells  (nonsectarian), 
Aurora,  with  24  instructors  and  189  stu- 
dents; St.  Stephen's  (Protestant  Episcopal), 
Annandale,  with  9  instructors  and  63  stu- 
dents; St.  Lawrence  University  (Universal- 
ist),  Canton,  with  52  instructors  and  646 
students;  Rochester  Theological  Seminary 
(Baptist),  with  14  instructors  and  145 
students;  Rochester  Athenaeum  and  Me- 
chanics' Institute  (nonsectarian),  with  60 
instructors  and  2,790  students;  Pratt  Insti- 
tute, Brooklyn,  with  153  instructors  and 
1,773  students;  Brooklyn  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute, with  578  students;  the  General 
Theological  Seminary  (Protestant  Epis- 
copal), New  York  City,  with  18  instruc- 
tors and  127  students;  Auburn  Theo- 
logical Seminary  (Presbyterian),  with  14 
instructors  and  63  students;  Clarkson 
School  of  Technology,  Potsdam,  with  10 
instructors  and  70  students;  and  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  in  the  City  of  New 
York,  with  21  instructors  and  157  stu- 
dents. 

History.  The  region  and  its  chief  water- 
ways were  at  an  early  era  visited  by  navi- 
gators and  explorers,  Portuguese,  French  and 
Spanish,  Verrazano,  it  is  recorded,  discover- 
ing New  York  Bay  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Hudson  in  1524.  It,  however,  was  not  until 
1 609  that  the  region  came  into  historic 
note,  for  in  that  year  Hudson  ascended  the 
river  in  the  Dutch  fur-trading  interest ;  while 
almost  simultaneously  Lake  Champlain  was 
discovered  by  the  founder  of  Quebec  and 
father  of  New  France.  The  Dutch  astutely 
profited  by  the  enmity  of  the  Iroquois  to 
the  French,  for  they  made  friends  of  the 
Iroquois,  who  subserved  their  interests,  or 
at  least  did  not  oppose  their  colonizing  and 
trading  in  New  Netherland.  In  1623  settle- 
ments began  to  be  formed,  first  by  a  num- 
ber of  Walloons  on  Manhattan  and  Long 
Island,  while  Fort  Orange  (Albany)  was 
founded  on  the  upper  Hudson.  The  In- 
dians, found  at  first  to  be  tractable,  were 
induced  to  part  with  their  lands,  and  from 
them  not  only  Manhattan  and  Staten  Is- 
lands were  acquired  by  Peter  Minuit  and 
Michael  Pauw,  but  Killian  Van  Rensselaer 
also  secured  holdings  in  the  Albany  region; 
while  colonists,  including  French  Huguenots 
and  English  Puritans,  were  encouraged  to 
settle  by  the  cancelling  of  the  Dutch  com- 
pany's monopoly  of  trade.  For  a  time,  how- 


ever, there  was  trouble  with  the  Algonquins, 
and  settlements  in  the  neighborhood  of 
New  Amsterdam  were  destroyed  and  the 
colony  threatened  with  extinction.  Under 
Governor  Stuyvesant  (1647-64)  the  times 
were  more  or  less  stormy,  but  the  colony 
grew  apace.  In  the  last  year  of  Stuyvesant's 
rule  New  Amsterdam  was  confronted  by  the 
presence  of  an  English  fleet  come  to  enforce 
the  title  of  the  region  given  by  Charles  II 
to  the  Duke  of  York,  his  brother.  With 
the  surrender  of  the  garrison,  Dutch  rule, 
save  in  1673-4,  came  to  a  close,  and  New 
Amsterdam  gave  place  to  its  present  title 
of  New  York.  Under  the  English  crown  the 
colony  remained  until  the  Revolution,  being 
under  the  control  and  sway  of  over  thirty 
colonial  governors.  During  this  period  there 
at  times  were  menacing  movements  on  the 
border  settlements;  there  also  were  the 
harassing  hostilities  of  the  French  and  their 
dusky  allies  in  1757-63,  the  period  of  the 
French  and  Indian  War;  besides  collisions 
during  the  era  preceding  the  Revolution  be- 
tween the  colonists  who  had  grown  restive 
under  monarchical  rule  and  the  harsh  sway 
of  gubernatorial  authority.  The  battle  of 
Saratoga  (1777)  was  the  turning-point  of 
the  American  Revolution,  and  it,  with  the 
battles  of  Oriskany  and  Walloomsac,  two 
more  of  the  most  important  battles  of  the 
Revolution,  was  fought  in  New  York.  New 
York  also  was  the  scene  of  considerable 
fighting  in  its  northern  area  during  the  War 
of  1812-14,  a  conflict  which  bore  heavily 
upon  the  border  settlements  from  the  Niag- 
ara district  to  the  eastern  end  of  Lake 
Ontario  and  on  the  St.  Lawrence  borders 
from  Ogdensburg  to  the  region  round  Lake 
Champlain.  With  peace  came  the  era  of 
canal  construction,  internal  development, 
increasing  colonization  and,  later,  the  begin- 
nings of  the  railway  system  and  improved 
highways.  The  state  bore  its  share  of  the 
responsibilities  and  burdens  entailed  by  the 
Civil  War.  Since  then  its  progress  has  been 
continuously  substantial  and  gratifying.  See 
Schuyler's  Colonial  New  York;  Lossing's 
Empire  State;  Robert's  New  York  in  the 
Revolution;  and  Phisterer's  New  York  in 
the  War  of  the  Rebellion. 

New  York  City.  Manhattan  Island,  the 
heart  of  what  is  now  the  largest  city  in  the 
world,  is  only  if  to  2 1  miles  wide  and  13^  miles 
long.  A  good  pedestrian  could  walk  across 
it  in  thirty  minutes,  and  he  could  walk  its 
length  from  the  Battery,  up  Broadway,  to 
Spuyten  Duyvil  Creek  in  half  a  working 
day.  The  island  covers  41^  square  miles. 
In  this  small  space  were  crowded  at  the 
time  Greater  New  York  was  organized  (1898) 
1,850,000  human  beings.  To  this  number 
must  be  added  the  200,000  strangers  nor- 
mally there.  In  the  daytime  this  number 
is  swelled  another  million  by  those  who  work 
in  the  city  but  sleep  from  five  to  fifty  miles 
away.  Subtracting  the  park-area  and  other 


NEW  YORK  CITY 


1335 


NEW  YORK  CITY 


unoccupied  portions,  New  York's  resident 
population  averages  50,000  to  the  square 
mile,  in  the  lower  East  Side,  below  i4th 
Street  and  east  of  Broadway,  is  to  be  found 
the  most  densely  populated  spot  in  the 
world. 

To  the  nonresident  New  York  City  seems 
a  hopeless  confusion.  The  mountain-like 
ridges  of  skyscrapers  at  the  lower  end  of 
Manhattan  dominate  a  scene  that  has  not 
its  match  for  impressiveness  of  wealth,  power 
and  human  achievement  anywhere  in  the 
modern  or  the  ancient  world.  Its  tangle  of 
waterways  is  arched  high  with  bridges,  tun- 
nelled under  with  subways,  swarming  with 
shipping  and  woven  by  flying  shuttles  of 
ferry-boats  Its  islands  and  bordering  main- 


Bartholdi's  statue  of  Liberty  holds  her 
torch  305  feet  in  the  air.  Farther  in  is 
Ellis  Island,  where  emigrants  are  now  landed. 
Lying  to  the  right  is  Governor's  Island,  now 
headquarters  of  the  military  department  of 
the  Atlantic.  At  the  northern  end  of  the 
bay,  exactly  opposite  The  Narrows,  its 
length  forming  the  eastern  bank  of  Hudson 
River,  Manhattan  Island  occupies  the  center 
of  the  stage. 

In  1609  it  was  a  wild  and  beautiful  spot, 
the  lower  end  covered  with  forests  and  slop- 
ing pasture.  A  clearly  denned  ridge  ex- 
tends up  its  center  along  the  line  followed 
by  Broadway  to-day,  rising  to  rocky  hills 
known  later  as  Harlem  Heights,  Mount  Mor- 
ris and  Murray  Hill.  In  the  northeast  are 
marshy  plains 


The  Environs  of 

NEW  YORK. 


lands  bristle  for  miles  with  docks  and  slips. 
Farther  than  the  eye  can  see,  in  every 
direction,  stretch  endless  streets  of  tall, 
crowded  buildings,  filled  with  processions  of 
millions  of  restless  human  beings. 

All  its  confusion,  however,  will  fall  into 
lovely  order  if  you  erase  from  mind  the 
works  of  man  and  catch  your  first  glimpse 
of  the  region  as  it  appeared  to  the  eyes  of 
Henry  Hudson,  the  English  navigator  in  the 
employ  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company 
in  1609.  No  outlook  on  Sandy  Hook  noted 
his  arrival  in  New  York's  lower  bay.  He 
sailed  through  the  Narrows,  the  mile-wide 
strait  between  Long  and  Staten  Islands  that 
is  used  to-day  by  oceangoing  steamers.  In 
the  middle  of  the  12  square  miles  of  the 
upper  bay  is  Bedloe's  Island,  where  now 


known  now  as 
Harlem  Flats. 
The  entire  island 
is  underlaid  with 
rock,  sometimes 
a  hundred  feet 
below  the  surface, 
that  supports  the 
weight  of  the  city 
to-day.  Hudson 
would  not  recog- 
nize the  island 
now,  for  its  hills, 
which  rose  2  50 
feet  in  the  north, 
have  been  cut 
down  and  graded 
and  built  over 
with  residences  of 
moderate  height, 
while  ridges, 
ranges  and  peaks 
of  skyscrapers, 
with  ravine  and 
canyon- like 
streets  between, 
have  risen  from 
300  to  800  feet  in 
the  lower  end. 

Land  at  Bat- 
tery  Park  where 
the  Dutch  built  a  warehouse  fort  in  1 6  2  3 .  All 
the  shores  around  the  harbor  maybe  seen  from 
this  point.  To  the  west,  beyond  the  Hud- 
son, lies  the  Jersey  shore,  covered  by  Jersey 
City  and  Hoboken.  To  the  northeast,  over 
the  Harlem,  lies  the  mainland  of  New  York 
state,  and  to  the  southeast  is  Long  Island 
with  Brooklyn.  East  River,  which  sepa- 
rates Manhattan  from  Long  Island,  is  not 
a  river  but  a  strait  connecting  upper  New 
York  Bay  with  Long  Island  Sound.  It  is  long 
and  winding,  a  mile  wide  at  its  narrowest 
point,  and  contains  three  large  islands  — 
Ward's,  Randall's  and  Blackwell's  —  that 
are  occupied  chiefly  by  the  city's  institu- 
tions and  prisons.  Brooklyn  Navy- Yard 
occupies  J  of  a  mile  of  the  Long  Island 
shore  of  East  River.  Since  the  blowing  up 


NEW  YORK  CITY 


1336 


NEW  YORK  CITY 


of  the  rocks  in  Hell  Gate  Pass  in  1876  and 
in  1885,  oceangoing  steamers  are  able  to 
enter  the  upper  bay  from  the  Sound.  The 
harbor  is  closed  on  the  south  by  the  beau- 
tiful, wooded  slopes  of  Staten  Island. 

These  natural  boundaries  of  water  sepa- 
rate Greater  New  York  into  five  boroughs: 
Manhattan;  Brooklyn;  Queen's,  made  up  of 
Long  Island  City,  Flushing,  Jamaica  and 
part  of  Hempstead;  the  Bronx  on  the 
mainland  across  Harlem  River  and  Spuyten 
Duyvil  Creek;  and  Richmond  or  Staten 
Island. 

United  under  one  municipal  government  in 
1898  with  an  aggregate  of  3,437,200  people, 
in  1915  the  number  had  increased  to  5,625,000. 
Jersey  City  and  Hoboken,  with  populations  of 
over  350,000,  are  natural  parts  of  the  metrop- 
olis, but,  as  they  lie  in  New  Jersey,  they  can- 
not be  annexed.  With  this  enormous  unit 
of  population,  New  York  is  now  the  largest 
city  in  the  world,  exceeding  London's  popula- 
tion by  about  a  million. 

Although  Manhattan  Island  was  settled 
by  white  men  —  bought  for  trumpery  beads, 
brass  ornaments  and  bright  cloth  —  nearly 
300  years  ago;  and  though  Brooklyn,  New 
Jersey  and  Staten  Island  were  occupied  be- 
fore 1640,  the  importance  of  New  York  City 
dates  back  little  more  than  a  century.  Until 
after  the  Revolutionary  War  it  was  out- 
ranked by  Boston  and  Philadelphia.  Before 
1825  and  the  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal  to 
Buffalo,  its  inland  trade  extended  beyond 
Albany  only  by  wagonroad.  As  the  Dutch 
colony  of  New  Amsterdam,  it  existed  only 
forty  years,  and  as  an  Indian  trading 
post.  In  1664  it  was  captured  by  the 
Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II  of 
England 

At  that  time  it  had  1,500  people,  and  the 
Dutch  had  so  stamped  their  character,  archi- 
tecture, customs  and  language  on  the  col- 
ony, that  it  remained  Dutch  for  a  hun- 
dred years,  although  an  English  colony. 
Descendants  of  wealthy  Dutchmen  who  took 
up  manories  along  the  Hudson  form  the 
oldest  aristocracy  of  New  York  to-day.  The 
Bowery,  Broadway,  Bowling  Green,  Wall 
Street,  Pearl  Street,  De  Lancey  Slip  recall 
old  Dutch  days,  as  do  Harlem  and  Spuyten 
Duyvil,  Hoboken,  Yonkers  and  points  far 
up  the  Hudson.  The  foundation  of  the  city's 
wealth,  in  Dutch  colonial  days,  in  furs,  then 
in  its  windmills  which  gave  it  the  monopoly 
in  the  bolting  of  flour  for  export,  are  set 
forth  on  New  York's  city-seal.  It  displays 
the  four  wooden  sails  of  a  mill,  flanked  by 
two  beaver  and  by  two  flour-barrels. 

The  end  of  the  Revolutionary  War  left 
New  York  in  a  deplorable  condition  —  half 
of  it  destroyed  by  fire,  business  dead.  The 
first  sidewalks  were  not  laid,  nor  the  houses 
numbered,  until  1790.  In  1800  the  city 
had  60,000  people  and  extended  to  i4th 
Street.  The  invention  of  the  steamboat  in 
1807  gave  the  place  its  first  real  start.  The 


opening  of  the  Erie  Canal  (1825)  extended 
its  trade  to  Chicago,  then  a  milrtary  post. 
New  York  linked  the  Old  World  with  the 
new  west.  By  1830  it  had  200,000  people. 
Before  the  first  railroads  were  built  to  the 
west  it  had  established  its  supremacy  as 
the  center  of  trade,  finance,  art,  literature 
and  fashion.  In  1833  it  had,  in  The  Sun, 
the  first  morning  newspaper  to  be  sold  by 
boys  on  the  street  for  two  cents.  In  1842 
it  amazed  the  world  by  bringing  water  from 
Croton  River,  forty  miles  up  the  Hudson, 
through  a  stone  aqueduct  and  over  Harlem 
River  on  a  high  stone-pier  bridge.  The 
Croton  waterworks  took  seven  years  for 
construction,  cost  $9,000,000  and  delivered 
95,000,000  gallons  of  water  a  day,  a  suffi- 
cient supply  for  the  next  half  century.  A 
second  aqueduct  had  to  be  built  in  the 
8o's;  and  in  1914  a  tunnel  was  completed  for 
bringing  water  from  a  great  reservoir  in  the 
Catskill  Mountains  92  miles  away.  Brooklyn 
has  its  own  system  of  waterworks  in  streams 
and  sunken  wells  on  Long  Island.  In  1853 
New  York  held  the  first  American  world- 
fair  in  Crystal  Palace  on  Murray  Hill,  and 
in  1856  it  set  aside  Central  Park  and  laid 
out  upper  Manhattan  Island  in  broad  parallel 
streets.  The  lower  part  of  the  city,  below 
1 4th  Street  and  Union  Square,  is  a  maze 
of  narrow,  winding  streets.  For  five  or  six 
blocks  back  from  the  water  they  follow  all 
the  turns  of  the  shore. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  New 
York  had  800,000  people,  Chicago  100,000, 
and  railroads  had  extended  trade  to  the 
Mississippi.  In  1878  the  first  elevated  road 
was  opened  in  the  city)  in  188,3  Brooklyn 
Bridge.  Harlem  River  had  already  been 
bridged,  and  railroads  from  the  Hudson 
valley  and  New  England  entered  Manhattan 
from  the  north.  Western  and  southern 
traffic  terminated  at  Jersey  City,  and  trans- 
fer was  made  by  ferry.  Long  Island  traffic 
terminated  in  Brooklyn  and  Long  Island 
City.  By  1870,  when  Brooklyn  w  ,s  called 
"New  York's  bed-room"  the  ferry-lines 
were  congested,  and  bridging  the  East  River 
had  become  a  necessity.  The  engineering 
difficulties  seemed  insurmountable  and  the 
cost  prohibitive.  The  only  solution,  if  ocean- 
going steamers  were  still  to  use  the  channel 
freely  and  communication  between  the  cities 
to  be  constant  and  uninterrupted,  was  the 
suspension  bridge  with  a  wide  middle  span 
that  should  spring  clear  above  ships'  masts. 
Brooklyn  Bridge  was  built  —  i£  miles  long, 
with  a  middle  span  of  £  of  a  mile,  sus- 
pended on  1 6-inch  cables  135  feet  above 
water.  It  took  13  years  to  build,  and  has 
cost  $21,000,000.  It  has  a  roadway  85 
feet  wide,  with  room  for  foot-passengers, 
street-cars  and  railway  tracks.  But  even 
this  great  engineering  work  is  surpassed  by 
Williamsburg  Bridge,  opened  in  1903.  Two 
more  suspension  bridges  across  East  River 
have  been  built:  the  Queensboro  Bridge 


NEW  YORK  CITY 


1337 


NEW  YORK  CITY 


and  the  Manhattan  Bridge,  opened  in  the 
year  1909. 

New  York's  two  great  problems  have  been 
housing  and  transportation,  and  most  of  its 
aolossal  engineering  works  have  aimed  at 
the  solution  of  one  or  the  other.  The  four 
bridges  across  East  River  are  supplemented 
by  three  tunnels  under  it.  The  first  was 
built  by  the  Long  Island  Railroad;  the  sec- 
ond by  the  Belmont  street  car  system  to 
Long  Island  City,  to  connect  surface-lines. 
The  last  is  the  Brooklyn  extension  of  the 
subway  system,  running  from  the  Battery. 
This  consists  of  two  steel  tubes,  ten  feet  in 
diameter,  lined  and  covered  with  concrete 
and  connected  by  a  diaphragm  arch  like  the 
Siamese  Twins.  It  is  a  mile  and  a  quarter 
long  and  cost  $10,000,000. 

There  has  never  been  any  question  of 
bridging  the  Hudson,  whose  channel  is  more 
than  a  mile  wide.  The  Pennsylvania  rail- 
road first  tunneled  under  it  from  Jersey  City 
to  get  a  terminal  on  Manhattan  at  3 and 
Street.  This  continues  through  a  subway 
across  the  city  and  connects  with  the  Long 
Island  Railroad's  tunnel  under  East  River. 
The  McAdoo  tunnels  are  in  two  pairs,  con- 
nected by  the  Jersey  City  subway  and  run- 
ning to  the  Rapid  Transit  Railroad  subway 
on  Manhattan.  This  means  that  one  may 
go  under  the  Hudson  and  East  Rivers, 
across  New  York  under  the  skyscrapers, 
from  Jersey  City  to  Brooklyn  Heights.  On 
Manhattan  itself,  in  addition  to  the  sur- 
face lines,  there  are  four  parallel  lines  of 
elevated  tracks  from  the  docks  to  Spuyten 
Duyvil,  three  of  them  crossing  the  Harlem 
into  the  Bronx.  And  there  is  the  subway! 

By  1899,  to  use  a  chemical  expression, 
New  York  was  populated  to  the  point  of 
saturation.  More  and  more  people  had  to 
get  away  from  Manhattan  Island  at  night, 
and  no  more  streets  were  available  for  cars. 
The  subway  was  built  by  the  city  at  a 
cost  of  $35,000,000  and  leased  to  the  con- 
structing company  for  75  years  for  a  per- 
centage of  the  receipts*  an  experiment  in 
municipal  ownership  that  is  being  watched 
with  interest  by  other  cities.  The  subway 
runs  northward  from  the  Battery,  branching 
north  of  Central  Park,  one  branch  running 
north  through  Harlem  to  23oth  Street, 
the  other  northeast  under  Harlem  River  to 
the  Zoological  Park  in  the  Bronx.  It  has 
a  total  length  of  2 1  miles,  the  longest  tunnel 
in  the  world.  By  tunnels  under  the  Hudson 
and  East  River  the  subway  is  connected 
with  Jersey  City  and  Brooklyn. 

Up  to  Central  Park  the  Rapid  Transit 
Underground  Railroad  was  excavated  from 
the  surface.  A  steel-cage  tube  was  built  in 
the  trench,  lined  and  covered  with  concrete, 
roofed  over  and  a  street  paving  of  asphalt 
laid  on.  It  is  lighted  by  sky-lights  of 
bulls-eye  paving  glass.  Under  Central  Park 
it  is  tunnelled.  It  crosses  a  ralley  on  a 
viaduct,  then  branches  and  bores  through 


the  higher  levels  of  Harlem  and  the  Bronx. 
In  places  it  descends  to  100  feet  below  the 
surface,  and  the  stations  are  hollowed  out 
of  solid  rock.  Later  the  subway  was  greatly 
extended  at  a  total  cost  of  $326,000,000. 

The  business  center  of  New  York  refused 
to  spread.  Wall  Street,  the  financial  heart 
of  the  metropolis,  is  only  four  blocks  from 
the  Battery,  the  City  Hall  three  quarters 
of  a  mile.  Two  miles  north,  at  Union  Square 
and  Broadway,  is  the  center  of  the  pub- 
lishing business.  A  half  mile  farther,  at 
Broadway  and  23d,  the  famous  "flat- iron" 
building  and  the  tower  of  Madison  Square 
Garden  dominate  the  region  of  hotels  and 
theaters.  This  business  section  is  about  2$ 
miles  long  by  one  wide.  The  entire  harbor 
frontage  of  Manhattan,  from  West  7oth 
Street  on  the  Hudson  to  East  4oth  Street 
on  East  River,  is  lined  with  docks  and  slips, 
backed  by  great  warehouses  of  exporting 
companies. 

"The  City,"  where  money  is  made,  could 
expand  only  in  two  directions  —  northward 
or  skyward.  The  invention  of  the  steel- 
cage  or  Chicago-construction  building  and 
of  the  passenger  elevator  made  it  pos- 
sible to  grow  skyward.  You  can  get  your 
best  idea  of  the  number  and  magnitude  of 
the  skyscrapers  from  Brooklyn  Bridge.  The 
pedestrian  in  lower  Manhattan  passes  from 
one  shadowy  canyon  to  another.  He  can 
well  believe  that  these  tall  buildings  will 
increase  New  York's  office-capacity  ten-fold 
to  twenty-fold.  Crowds  never  tire  of  watch- 
ing the  steel  bridges  set  up  on  end  and 
closed  in  with  mere  weather-curtains  of 
brick  and  stone.  But  the  most  amazing 
part  of  the  engineering  work  is  far  under- 
ground. To  sustain  the  enormous  weight 
of  these  buildings  it  is  necessary  to  sink 
bridge  caissons  to  bed-rock,  sometimes  100 
feet  below  the  surface,  on  which  to  rest  the 
piers.  The  work  underground  often  costs 
a  quarter-million  dollars.  The  superstruc- 
ture rises,  usually,  from  16  to  22  stories  or 
300  to  400  feet.  The  Woolworth  Building, 
on  Broadway  between  Park  Place  and 
Barclay  Street,  set  a  new  standard,  with 
its  55  stories  rising  790  feet  in  the  air. 
Eiffel  Tower,  with  its  984  feet,  is  the  only 
work  of  man  on  earth  that  is  higher,  and 
there  are  said  to  be  no  mechanical  difficul- 
ties to  prevent  the  erection  of  buildings  of 
100  stories.  The  Singer  Building  is  as  note- 
worthy for  beauty  as  for  height.  Seen  from 
Brooklyn  Bridge,  its  proportions,  grace  and 
detail  remind  one  of  the  beautiful  Shep- 
herd's Tower  of  Giotto  in  Florence.  It 
proves  that  a  sky-scraper  may  be  as  beau- 
tiful as  it  is  useful  and  wonderful. 

Realty  has  advanced  in  price  with  the 
advance  in  the  rental  space  that  may  be 
erected  on  a  given  plot  of  ground.  The 
record  price  was  made  in  the  sale  of  the 
southwestern  corner  of  Wall  Street  and 


*The  company  pays  interest  on  the  construction  bonds,  puts  aside  a  certain  amount  annually  to  take  up 
the  bonds  and  pays  the  city  all  profits  in  excess  of  stated  dividends. 


NEW  YORK  CITY 


X338 


NEW  YORK  PUBLIC  LIBRARY 


Broadway,  for  $576  a  square  foot.  The 
average  rental  of  office  room  is  $2  a  square 
foot  per  annum  or  $25  a  month  for  an  office 
10x15  feet.  This,  however,  includes  ele- 
vator and  janitor  service,  heat,  hot  and  cold 
water,  toilet  rooms  and  lighting.  The  cost 
of  maintenance  of  the  larger  buildings,  in- 
cluding superintendence,  taxes,  insurance 
and  repairs,  runs  up  to  $100,000  a  year. 

To  detail  the  enormous  volume  and  varied 
character  of  New  York's  public  and  private 
business,  which  exceeds  that  of  the  Nether- 
lands, Spain  or  Mexico,  would  require  vol- 
umes. We  can  give  only  an  idea  of  their 
magnitude  by  the  statistics  for  a  year.  The 
city  spends  $200,000,000  a  year  in  public 
expenses,  of  which  $35,000,000  go  into  per- 
manent improvements,  £  as  much  as  the 
Federal  government  spends.  Its  public  debt 
of  $698,000,000  is  three  times  that  of  Mexico. 
Eighty  per  cent  of  this  sum  is  raised  in 
taxation  on  the  real  estate,  which  is  valued 
at  $7,044,192,674  and  is  increasing  at  the 
rate  of  $150,000,000  a  year.  The  schools 
absorb  $30,000,000  a  year.  There  are  528 
buildings  of  all  kinds  with  an  enrollment  of 
702,897  and  a  teaching  force  of  18,923.  The 
fire-department  has  131  engine-houses  and 
4,333  employes.  The  police  number  9,920. 
The  city  maintains  70  parks  with  an  acre- 
age of  6,692,  streets,  sewers,  waterworks, 
bridges,  public  docks,  a  normal  and  city 
college,  a  city  library  in  New  York  and 
Brooklyn  with  numerous  branches,  public 
hospitals  and  corrective  institutions  and 
municipal  courts.  It  keeps  up  two  zoolog- 
ical gardens,  a  botanical  garden  and  an 
aquarium  in  Battery  Park. 

The  amount  of  private  business  is  indicated 
by  the  bank  clearings,  exports  and  imports. 
In  one  year  total  banking  transactions  ag- 
gregated over  $100,000,000,000  carried  on 
through  nearly  300  national,  state  and  sav- 
ings banks  and  trust  companies.  The  im- 
ports now  exceed  $909,606,851,  an  increase 
of  60  per  cent,  in  20  years,  and  the  exports 
$767,968,283,  an  increase  of  100  per  cent, 
in  twenty  years.  One  hundred  and  twenty 
seagoing  steamers  make  regular  trips  from 
New  York  to  ports  all  over  the  world.  Of 
the  1,041,570  emigrants  who  arrived  in  the 
United  States  in  one  year,  786,094  entered 
through  Ellis  Island.  They  came  from  40 
different  countries,  and  are  represented  by 
47  foreign  consuls  resident  in  the  city. 
Fully  three  fourths  of  the  population  is  of 
foreign  birth  or  parentage,  many  of  the 
Jews,  Germans  and  Irish  having  become 
wealthy,  while  the  hordes  now  coming  from 
southern  and  eastern  Europe  keep  the  ranks 
of  skilled  and  unskilled  labor  filled. 

New  York's  financial  and  commercial  in- 
terests are  on  so  enormous  a  scale  that  they 
overshadow  its  great  manufacturing  indus- 
tries. It  makes  vast  quantities  of  clothing, 
boots  and  shoes,  cigars,  furniture,  foundry 
and  plumbers'  castings,  jewelry,  machinery 


and  musical  instruments.  It  has  sugar-re- 
fineries, packing-houses,  flour,  coffee  and 
spice  mills,  marble  and  stonecutting  yards; 
and  makes  milliner's  supplies. 

The  visitor  will  save  time,  money  and 
patience  by  getting  a  good  guide-book  and 
map  with  transportation  routes  shown  upon 
it.  To  read  Washington  Irving's  Knicker- 
bocker and  Thomas  A.  Janvier's  Old  New 
York  will  greatly  increase  one's  pleasure  in 
visiting  old  colonial  and  revolutionary  points 
of  interest.  It  is  the  strangest  thing  to 
find  beautiful  old  Trinity  Church  and  its 
graveyard  full  of  ancient  tombs,  at  Broad- 
way and  Wall  Street  amid  the  city's  throbbing 
life  and  just  beyond  the  Stock  Exchange's 
roar.  A  catalogue  is  necessary  to  an 
enjoyment  and  understanding  of  the  treas- 
ures of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art. 
You  will  want  to  see  Columbia  University, 
established  as  King's  College  in  1756;  the 
Hall  of  Fame  on  University  Heights;  the 
Cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  built  at 
a  cost  of  $6,000,000,  covering  three  city- 
blocks;  Grant's  tomb  on  Riverside  Drive; 
the  Museum  of  Natural  History  and  the 
Egyptian  obelisk  in  Central  Park;  the  statue 
of  Nathan  Hale  by  Macmonnies  and  that  of 
Farragut  by  St.  Gaudens.  You  will  want 
to  go  to  the  top  of  a  few  of  the  great  sky- 
scrapers; see  the  famous  palaces  on  Fifth 
Avenue;  visit  a  few  of  the  many  opera-houses 
and  theaters;  and  lunch  or  dine  at  some 
of  the  hotels  and  restaurants  that  figure  in 
stories  and  news  of  New  York.  You  will 
want,  no  less,  to  go  down  the  Bowery  and 
into  the  queer,  crowded  foreign  quarter  of 
the  East  Side.  New  York  is  the  oldest 
and  newest  and  greatest  thing  in  America; 
an  epitome  of  our  history  and  the  essence 
of  our  achievement. 

New  York  Public  Library  was  estab- 
lished in  1895  by  ^e  consolidation  of  Astor 
Library  ( q.  v. )  Lenox  Library  and  the  Til- 
den  Trust,  with  which  were  later  included 
New  York  Library  and  its  42  city  libraries, 
endowed  by  the  munificence  of  Andrew 
Carnegie.  The  new  home  of  the  consoli- 
dated institutions  is  the  palatial  building 
in  Bryant  Park,  facing  Fifth  Avenue  on 
the  west  and  close  to  42nd  Street.  The 
library,  besides  its  other  equipments,  has 
shelf  room  for  not  far  from  two  million 
volumes.  This  monumental  institution, 
provided  by  the  city  and  in  part  to  be 
maintained  by  it,  consists  of  a  union,  by 
agreement,  with  the  several  trustees  of  the 
specific  libraries  named,  with  their  cor- 
porate endowments,  together  with  other 
free  libraries  which  have  elected  to  be  con- 
solidated with  it.  The  chief  associated  and 
affiliated  institutions,  in  addition  to  Astor 
Library,  embrace  Lenox  Library,  founded 
in  1870  as  a  gift  to  the  city  by  the  late 
James  Lenox,  with  many  valuable  paint- 
ings and  objects  of  art  which  he  had  col- 
lected and  inherited,  and  the  Tilden  Trust. 


NEW  YORK  (CITY)  UNIVERSITY       1339 


NEW  ZEALAND 


comprising  20,000  volumes  and  two  million 
dollars,  deeded  by  will  in  1884  by  Samuel 
Jones  Tilden  for  the  establishment  and 
endowment  of  a  public  library  in  New  York 
City.  With  these  institutions  have  been 
incorporated  the  city's  Free  Circulating 
Library  and  other  similar  free  libraries,  in 
addition  to  the  scheme  of  branch  libraries 
which  the  city  obtained  through  the  liber- 
ality of  Mr,  Carnegie  by  his  gift  of  $5,200,- 
ooo.  To  the  Lenox  bequest  have  been 
added  several  other  substantial  collections 
and  property  gifts,  contributed  by  relatives 
of  the  original  donor. 

New  York  [City]  University,  an  institu- 
tion of  higher  learning  in  New  York  City. 
It  had  its  inception  at  a  meeting  of  citizens 
of  high  standing  on  Jan.  4,  1830.  A  com- 
mittee appointed  at  this  meeting  received 
a  large  number  of  subscribers  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  new  university  on  a  "liberal 
and  comprehensive  foundation."  The  first 
university  council  was  elected  by  these  sub- 
scribers on  April  18,  1831.  University  Col- 
lege opened  in  the  following  year.  The 
first  building  was  erected  on  Washington 
Square  in  1835.  The  law-school  was  opened 
the  same  year,  the  medical  school  in  1841, 
the  school  of  applied  science  in  1862,  the 
graduate  school  in  1886,  the  school  of 
pedagogy  in  1890,  the  veterinary  college  in 
1898,  and  the  school  of  commerce  in  1900. 
The  university  comprises  eight  distinct 
faculties  and  schools  of  matriculants  under 
its  council  and,  in  addition,  the  summer- 
school  and  the  woman's  law-class,  both 
made  up  of  nonmatriculants  who  are  en- 
rolled without  examination.  The  era  of 
greatest  development  was  from  1890  to 
1900  In  1891  22  acres  of  land,  now  known 
as  University  Heights,  overlooking  Harlem 
River,  were  acquired.  Several  buildings 
have  been  erected,  in  which  some  of  the 
schools  are  now  accommodated.  The 
library,  completed  in  1900,  is  the  chief 
architectural  feature  with  its  open  colon- 
nade, the  Hall  of  Fame,  extending  halfway 
around  and  overlooking  the  Harlem.  The 
library  in  1907  contained  84,000  volumes. 
The  university  had  108  professors,  57  lec- 
turers, 52  instructors,  38  assistants  and  84 
other  officers;  and  enrolled  3,277  students 
in  all  schools.  The  grounds  and  buildings 
at  University-  Heights,  Washington  Square 
and  First  Ave.,  between  25th  and  2  6th 
Streets  have  a  valuation  of  $3,500,000. 
The  university  has  a  productive  endow- 
ment of  $1,200,000  and  an  annual  income, 
including  $40,000  from  subscribers,  of  $340,- 
ooo.  The  university-council  has  authority 
to  confer  about  20  different  academic 
degrees. 

New  York,  University  of  the  State  of, 
is  a  department  of  state  and  also  is  a 
federation  of  nearly  2,000  institutions  of 
higher  and  secondary  education.  Its  ob- 
ject is  to  promote  such  education.  Its 


organization  includes  educational  agencies 
as  diverse  as  academies  and  extension- 
courses,  colleges  and  libraries,  high  schools 
and  museums,  and  professional  or  technical 
schools,  study-classes  and  universities.  It 
is  governed  by  the  governor,  lieutenant- 
governor,  secretary  of  state  and  superin- 
tendent of  instruction,  whose  public  office 
makes  them  regents,  and  by  19  regents 
elected  as  such  by  popular  vote.  They 
control  the  charters  of  educational  institu- 
tions; confer  honorary  degrees;  appoint 
boards  to  examine  candidates  for  the  pro- 
fessions; and  distribute  funds.  They  also 
supervise  secondary  institutions  and  pro- 
fessional education.  The  university  con- 
sists of  the  administrative,  collegiate,  high- 
school  and  home-education  departments, 
the  state  library  and  the  state  museum.  It 
originated  in  1784,  Alexander  Hamilton, 
James  Duane,  Ezra  L'Hommedieu  and 
other  men  of  mark  being  its  authors.  The 
idea  of  an  educational  government,  distinct 
from  every  teaching  institution  but  bring- 
ing all.  into  vital  relations  with  the  state, 
was  reached  later.  New  York's  whole  sys- 
tem of  higher  professional  and  technical 
education  rests  on  the  supervision  of  educa- 
tion in  high  schools  and  academies  by  the 
university.  It  has  stimulated  the  improve- 
ment of  commercial  education  and  of  busi- 
ness schools.  The  state  library  has  over 
1,064,865  manuscripts,  pamphlets  and 
volumes.  The  museum  includes  seven 
departments;  engages  in  practical  scientific 
experiment  and  pure  research;  and  pos- 
sesses extensive  and  valuable  collections. 
Albany  is  the  headquarters  of  the  university. 
New  Zea'land  lies  in  the  Pacific  about 
1,200  miles  southeast  of  Australia  and  is  the 
largest  island  in  that  ocean.  It  was  dis- 
covered by  Tasman  in  1642.  Captain  Cook 
took  possession  for  England  in  1769.  Settle- 
ment began  about  1820.  It  is  a  British 
colony,  with  a  local  government  extending 
to  1852.  There  are  two  principal  islands, 
known  as  North  Island  and  Middle  Island, 
beside  South  or  Stewart  Island  and  some 
small  outlying  islets.  The  total  area  is 
estimated  at  104,751  square  miles,  with  a 
population  (1911)  of  1,009,244,  exclusive  of 
aborigines  who  chiefly  are  Maoris  (62,184 
in  number).  There  were  2,570  Chinese. 
The  chief  town  is  Auckland,  with  a  popula- 
tion, including  suburbs,  of  102,676.  Welling- 
ton (70,729)  is  the  seat  of  government.  The 
other  towns  of  note  are  Christchurch  (80,- 
193)  and  Dunedin  (64,237).  Of  volcanic 
origin,  New  Zealand  has  chains  of  high 
mountains,  hot  geyser  springs  and  other 
natural  features  of  bold  and  varied  char- 
acter, incident  to  its  eruptive  origin.  It 
has  a  temperate  climate  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  rich,  succulent  grasses  and  the 
rearing  of  sheep  and  cattle.  Its  area  under 
crop  in  1911  exceeded  16,000,000  acres, 
while  17,000,000  remained  under  forest,  and 


NEWARK 


1340 


NEWBERRY 


9,000,000  were  barren  mountain  tops,  lakes 
and  worthless  country.  Large  amounts  of 
capital  are  invested  not  only  in  agriculture 
and  mining,  but  in  meat-freezing  and  pre- 
serving, in  tanning,  wool  scouring  and 
factories  for  butter  and  cheese.  Besides  the 
wool  crop  and  the  farm  and  dairy  products, 
there  is  a  large  annual  export  of  tallow, 
hides,  skins  and  leather,  together  with  gold, 
valued  at  $10,000,000  for  the  yearly  out- 
put. Progress  was  long  retarded  by  wars 
with  the  Maoris,  a  magnificent  race  of  bar- 
barians. There  are  two  houses  of  parlia- 
ment, the  members  of  both  of  which  are 
paid.  In  the  popular  chamber  sit  four 
Maori  members,  representing  native  dis- 
tricts under  the  Maori  representative  act. 
There  is  no  state  church,  n<>r  is  any  state 
aid  given  to  any  religion.  The  school  sys- 
tem is  administered  by  an  educational 
department  under  a  minister,  assisted  by 
education  boards  and  school  committees. 
The  University  of  New  Zealand  is  solely  an 
examining  body,  awarding  scholarships  to 
be  held  by  students  at  affiliated  colleges. 
These  are  Otago  University  at  Dunedin, 
with  35  professors;  Canterbury  College  at 
Christchurch,  with  18  professors;  Auckland 
University  College,  with  14  professors;  and 
Victoria  College,  Wellington,  with  nine  pro- 
fessors, including  lectures  at  each.  All  are 
endowed  with  land,  and  have  over  1,500 
students  in  attendance.  Public  schools 
numbered  2,096,  teachers  4,408  and  pupils 
156,324.  There  were  318  private  schools 
with  18,981  pupils;  three  schools  of  mines; 
four  normal  schools;  five  central  schools  of 
art;  n  industrial  schools;  and  100  Maori 
schools.  Most  of  the  railways  belong  to 
the  state  and  yield  a  good  annual  revenue; 
the  gross  mileage  in  both  islands  is  2,604 
miles.  In  the  chief  towns  there  are  tram- 
ways worked  by  cables,  steam  motors  or 
electricity.  New  Zealand  in  1899  offered  a 
military  force  to  the  imperial  government 
for  service  in  South  Africa.  It  is  world- 
famous  for  its  experiments  in  statesman- 
ship and  the  nationalization  of  industry. 

New'ark,  N.  J.,  county-seat  of  Essex 
County,  and  a  port  of  entry,  lies  on  Passaic 
River,  nine  miles  from  New  York.  It  is 
a  handsome  city,  with  small  parks  and 
wide,  shaded  streets.  It  has  a  city-hall, 
court-house,  public  library  and  many 
churches,  but  its  main  feature  is  the  400 
manufactories  of  jewelry,  brass  and  iron 
ware,  hardware,  machinery,  trunks,  sad- 
dlery, boots,  shoes  and  hats.  The  city  was 
settled  by  a  Connecticut  colony  in  1666 
and  chartered  as  a  city  in  1836.  Population, 
366,721. 

Newark,  O.,  county-seat  of  Licking 
County,  lies  on  Licking  River,  31  miles 
northeast  of  Columbus.  It  is  a  manufactur- 
ing city,  turning  out  machinery,  furnaces, 
safes,  rope  goods,  steel  rails,  boilers,  flour 
and  glassware.  This  city  has  one  of  the 


largest  bottle-factories  in  the  world  and  thf 
largest  stove-works.  Population  25,404. 

Newbern  (nu'bern),  N.  C.,  city,  county- 
seat  of  Craven  County,  about  100  miles 
southeast  of  Raleigh.  It  is  the  port  of 
entry  of  the  Pamlico  district;  is  at  the 
junction  of  Neuse  and  Trent  Rivers;  and 
is  served  by  three  railroads,  besides  having 
steamers  to  New  York  and  other  Atlantic 
ports.  The  important  industrial  establish- 
ments are  a  turpentine-distillery,  carriage 
and  canning  factories,  fertilizing  works, 
gristmills,  planing  mills,  shingle-factories,  a 
shipyard  and  the  Atlantic  and  North  Caro- 
lina Railroad  shops.  A  noteworthy  build- 
ing is  the  government  building,  which  con- 
tains a  custom  house,  a  postoffice  and  a 
court-house.  Separate  schools  are  main- 
tained for  white  and  colored,  and  the  city 
has  several  churches.  The  electric-light 
plant  and  waterworks  are  owned  by  the 
city.  The  place  was  settled  in  1710  by 
Swiss  and  Germans,  and  named  New  Berne 
after  Berne,  Switzerland.  It  was  incor- 
porated as  a  city  in  1723.  Population  9,961. 

New'berry,  John  Strong,  an  American 
scientist,  was  born  at  Windsor,  Conn.,  Dec. 
22,  1822,  educated  at  Western  Reserve 
College  and  Cleveland  Medical  College, 
graduating  from  the  latter  in  1848.  He 
accepted  an  appointment  in  1855  as  sur- 
geon and  geologist  to  accompany  the  United 
States  exploring  expedition  to  the  country  be- 
tween San  Francisco  and  Columbia  River. 
In  1857  he  explored  the  canon  of  the  Colo- 
rado, devoting  nearly  a  year  to  the  task. 
In  1859  he  made  scientific  trips  through 
southern  Colorado,  Utah,  northern  Arizona 
and  New  Mexico.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
was  in  charge  of  all  the  operations  of  the 
United  States  Sanitary  Commission  through- 
out the  Mississippi  valley.  At  the  close  of 
the  war  he  was  appointed  professor  of  geol- 
ogy in  the  School  of  Mines,  Columbia  Col- 
lege, New  York.  In  1869  he  superintended 
the  geological  survey  of  Ohio.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  nearly  all  the  scientific 
associations  of  his  own  country  and  of 
Europe,  and  received  the  Murchison  medal 
from  the  Geological  Society  of  London  in 
1888.  Perhaps  his  first  publication  was  his 
report  upon  The  Geology,  Botany  and  Zool- 
ogy of  Northern  California  and  Oregon;  and 
his  latest  was  The  Paleozoic  Fishes  of  North 
Atnerica.  He  died  at  New  Haven,  Conn., 
Dec.  7,  1892. 

Newberry,  Walter  Loomis,  American 
merchant  and  philanthropist,  was  born  at 
East  Windsor,  Conn.,  Sept.  18,  1804.  He 
removed  to  Chicago  in  1833,  where  he 
amassed  a  fortune  in  trade  and  banking. 
He  left  over  $2,000,000  with  which  to  erect 
and  maintain  a  library.  The  building  which 
was  a  result  of  this  bequest  fronts  upon 
Walton  Place,  Chicago,  and  is  one  of  the 
architectural  ornaments  of  the  city.  The 
library  it  contains  is  one  of  the  finest  refer- 


NEWBURGH 


1341 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


ence  libraries  in  America.     Mr.  Newberry 
died  at  sea,  Nov.  6,  1868. 

New'burgh,  N.  Y.,  capital  of  Orange 
County,  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hud- 
son, in  the  beautiful  Highlands.  It  has 
foundries,  boiler  works  and  shipyards;  man- 
ufactures woolen  and  cotton  goods,  leather, 
soap,  brushes  and  paints;  and  ships  large 
quantities  of  butter,  grain,  flour  and  coal. 
In  the  Revolutionary  War  the  American 
army  disbanded  here  oa  June  23,  1783. 
Population  27,805. 

New'buryport",  Mass.,  a  city  and  port  of 
entry,  is  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Merrimac, 
three  miles  from  its  mouth  and  37  miles  by 
rail  northeast  of  Boston.  At  Newburyport 
the  river  is  spanned  by  a  chain  bridge,  Amer- 
ica's first  suspension  bridge,  built  in  1792. 
A  long,  shady,  high  street,  with  a  pond  of  six 
acres,  is  the  city's  chief  ornament.  Ship- 
building is  carried  on,  and  there  are  a  num- 
ber of  large  cotton  and  shoe  factories  and  a 
silver  factory,  besides  manufactories  of 
combs,  hats  and  pumps.  Here  George  White- 
field,  who  died  in  1770,  is  buried,  and 
here  Wm.  Lloyd  Garrison  was  born.  Pop- 
ulation 14,949 

New'castle-upon^yne,  a  city  and  county 
by  itself,  lies  upon  Tyne  River  ,in  North- 
umberland, 117  miles  south  of  Edinburgh. 
During  the  Roman  occupation  of  Britain  it 
was  a  military  station,  and  afterward  be- 
came a  monastic  settlement  and  was  known 
as  Monkchester.  In  1080  Robert  of  Nor- 
mandy, son  of  William  the  Conqueror,  con- 
structed a  fort  which  he  called  Newcastle. 
The  city  is  built  mostly  on  slopes  and  rising 
ground,  and  shows  the  combined  effects  of 
ancient  and  modern  architecture.  Among 
interesting  buildings  are  the  Norman  Keep, 
the  Black  Gate,  the  St.  Nicholas  cathedral 
and  the  churches  of  St.  John  and  St.  An- 
drew. Newcastle  has  a  large  public  library, 
two  colleges,  the  Royal  Infirmary,  Jesus'  Hos- 
pital and  the  Keelmen's  Hospital.  Its  prin- 
cipal manufactures  are  marine  and  locomo- 
tive engines,  machinery,  heavy  ordnance, 
carriages,  harness,  lead,  glass,  earthenware, 
cement,  brick,  tile,  it  has  since  the  i3th 
century  been  the  most  important  coal-ship- 
ping center  in  Europe  Population  215,328 
See  histories  of  the  town  by  J.  R.  Boyle  and 
others. 

New'comb,  Simon,  a  distinguished  mathe- 
matical astronomer,  bora  at  Wallace,  Nova 
Scotia,  March  12,  1835.  Coming  to  the 
United  States  in  1853,  he  secured,  through 
the  influence  of  Joseph  Henry,  an  appoint- 
ment as  computer  on  the  Nautical  Almanac 
in  1857  He  graduated  from  Lawrence  Sci- 
entific School  at  Cambridge  in  1858,  and 
spent  three  years  there  as  a  graduate  stu- 
dent, at  the  end  of  which  time  he  went  to  the 
Naval  Observatory  in  Washington  as  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  the  United  States 
navy.  His  work  here  in  connection  with 
the  establishment  of  the  26-inch  equatorial, 


the  various  expeditions  to  observe  transits 
of  Venus  and  solar  eclipses,  his  superin- 
tendence of  the  Nautical  Almanac  and  his 
important  memoirs  on  celestial  dynamics 
placed  him  in  the  front  rank  of  astronomers. 
In  1884  he  accepted  the  chair  of  mathemat- 
ics at  Johns  Hopkins  University,  while  re- 
taining his  work  in  Washington.  Professor 
Newcomb  is  a  man  of  extraordinarily  wide 
interests,  and  has  thought  and  written  much 
on  subjects  outside  of  his  own  specialty, 
particularly  on  political  economy.  He  has 
been  the  recipient  of  many  honorary  degrees 
and  of  medals  and  honorary  memberships 
from  learned  societies.  His  publications 
embrace  Popular  Astronomy,  -Elements  of 
Astronomy,  The  Stars,  Astronomy  for  Every- 
body, Political  Economy  and  Reminiscences  of 
an  Astronomer. 

Newfoundland  is  the  most  ancient  of  the 
British  colonies,  For  over  a  century  it  wa« 
the  only  colony  owned  and  governed  by  Eng- 
land in  the  new  world.  In  1497  John  Cabot 
made  the  voyage  from  Bristol  to  Newfound- 
land, which  lies  north  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence and  Cape  Breton,  and  is  separated 
from  Labrador  by  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle, 
only  10  miles  wide  in  places.  Cape  Breton 
is  50  miles  distant  to  the  south. 

History.  It  is  alleged  that  the  West-of- 
England  fishermen  kept  their  profitable  voy- 
ages to  Newfoundland  concealed  from  the 
Crown  for  50  years  and  that  they  were  able 
to  do  this  by  bribing  the  officials.  On« 
writer  says  that  it  was  the  great  trade  and 
fishery  of  Newfoundland  that  first  drew  Eng- 
lishmen from  the  narrow  *eas  and  made 
them  a  nation  of  sailors.  In  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth  10,000  men  were  employed  in  the 
Newfoundland  business,  which  amounted  to 
more  than  £500,000  a  year.  The  English 
Newfoundland  fishermen  played  a  gallant 
part  in  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada  in 
1588.  Newfoundland  was  colonized  by 
hard-working,  humble  settlers  from  Devon- 
shire. Charles  II  sold  Placentia  and  the 
western  part  of  the  island  to  Louis  XIV,  and 
this  was  the  commencement  of  the  vexed 
French-Shore  question.  The  end  of  the 
seven  years'  conflict  between  England  and 
France  (1757-63)  was  signalized  in  New- 
foundland by  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
actions  of  the  whole  war,  the  defeat  of  the 
French  and  the  recapture  of  St.  Johns  in 
1762.  The  policy  of  England  towards  New- 
foundland for  a  long  time  was  anything  but 
generous.  A  witness  before  a  committee 
of  the  House  of  Commons  in  1793  said: 
"The  island  of  Newfoundland  has  been  con- 
sidered in  all  former  times  as  a  great  ship 
moored  near  the  Banks  during  the  fishing- 
season  for  the  convenience  of  English  fisher- 
men only/'  The  first  civil  governor  was  ap- 
pointed in  1825,  and  the  first  general  election 
tor  a  local  House  of  Assembly  was  in  1832. 
Responsible  government  came  in  1853. 
Not  until  1 88 1  was  the  railway,  which  has 


NEWGATE 


1342 


NEWMAN 


Dean  built  across  the  island,  commenced. 
From  that  time  the  progress  of  the  colony 
began.  It  gave  life  to  lumbering  and  min- 
ing. 

Physical  Features.  For  a  fast  crusier 
Newfoundland  is  only  four  days  from  Ire- 
land (1,640  miles).  This  fact  makes  plain 
its  importance  to  Great  Britain  and  Canada 
as  a  base  for  guarding  the  Atlantic  route. 
It  is  larger  than  Ireland,  being  the  tenth 
largest  island  in  the  world.  It  contains  42.- 
ooo  square  miles.  It  is  the  key  of  the  St, 
Lawrence  and,  as  a  naval  base,  commands  the 
whole  trade  of  the  northern  Atlantic.  Its 
population  is  237, 531,  all  living  on  the  coast. 
There  is  twice  as  much  sunshine  in  New- 
foundland as  in  Great  Britain.  From  June 
to  October  the  climate  is  delightfuL  Its  in- 
terior is  an  immense  game  preserve.  For 
its  size  it  contains  more  caribou  (a  sub- 
species of  the  European  reindeer)  than  any 
other  part  of  the  world.  The  forests  of  the 
center  and  north  are  almost  ^mpe-ietrable. 
and  furnish  safe  quarters  for  the  deer.  Bea- 
ver, otter  and  foxes  are  found  all  over  the 
island.  The  Atlantic  salmon  is  found  in 
hundreds  of  streams,  and  the  numerous  lakes 
abound  with  trout.  The  resemblance  be- 
tween Newfoundland  and  the  British  Isles 
is  remarkable.  Both  occupy  the  same  rela- 
tive position,  the  one  on  the  northwest  of 
Europe,  the  other  on  the  northeast  of 
America.  Both  the  British  Isles  and  New- 
foundland were  broken  off  from  the  main- 
land. 

Resources.  The  ice-burdened,  northern 
current,  laden  with  fish,  furnishes  food  for 
the  cod,  herring  and  seals,  which  are  the 
mainstay  of  the  chief  industry.  Newfound- 
land has  the  largest  catch  of  cod  in  the 
world.  Almost  every  known  metallic  sub- 
stance of  value  is  found.  There  is  an  abun- 
dance of  iron  and  copper.  It  has  a  promising 
coal-field  (undeveloped).  Copper  ore  to 
the  value  of  $17,000,000  has  been  exported. 
At  Bell  Island,  Conception  Bay,  one  of  the 
most  valuable  iron-mines  tn  the  world  nas 
been  opened  recently.  It  is  owned  by  the 
Nova  Scotia  Steel  Company  and  the  Do- 
minion Iron  and  Steel  Company.  There  is 
an  immense  quantity  of  gypsum.  Only  one 
sixth  of  Newfoundland  is  fit  foi  agriculture. 
One  half  of  .t  is  rough  and  broken.  One 
third  is  covered  with  Jakes.  The  value  of 
the  fisheries  in  1909-10  was  over  $9,000,000. 
About  $300,000  worth  of  lumber  is  exported 
yearly.  There  is  an  enormous  quantity  of 
small  spruce  and  fir  near  the  lakes  and  rivers. 
Its  total  exports  exceed  its  imports  in  value. 
A  large  part  of  its  food  and  manufactured 
goods  it  uses  are  bought  abroad.  Its  export 
of  copper  and  iron  ore  in  1909-10  amounted 
to  $1,368,367.  Exploits  River  (the  chief 
center  of  the  salmon-fishing)  is  the  largest 
in  Newfoundland.  It  runs  in  a  north- 
easterly direction  and  is  200  miles  long. 
iPlacentia  Bay  on  the  south  is  noted  for  its 


valuable  fisheries  of  cod,  salmon  and  herring. 
St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon  Islands  on  the 
south  belong  to  France,  and  trade  heavily 
with  Newfoundland  and  Canada.  They  are 
valuable  as  fishing-stations  for  French  fish- 
ermen on  the  Banks.  The  fogs  on  the  east- 
ern coast  are  caused  by  the  cold  waters  of 
the  Arctic  current  meeting  the  warm  waters 
of  the  Gulf  Stream.  The  Banks  of  New- 
foundland (elevations  of  the  ocean-bed,  600 
miles  long  and  200  broad)  are  about  100 
miles  from  the  shore. 

The  French,  by  treaty,  acquired  rights  of 
fishing  on  part  of  the  shore.  This  is  called 
The  French  Shore.  These  rights  have 

E roved  injurious  to  Newfoundland,  causing 
riction  in  various  ways.  There  are  500 
miles  of  railway.  The  governor  is  appointed 
by  the  king  of  England.  Its  legislature  is 
elected  Its  capital  is  St.  Johns,  located  on 
St.  Johns  Harbor,  which  is  said  to  be  one  of 
the  finest  in  the  world.  Its  chief  industry  is 
exporting  fish.  It  has  a  good  graving-dock 
accommodating  the  largest  vessels.  It  is 
the  nearest  port  in  America  to  Europe.  Its 
population  is  31,501. 

Education.  The  public-school  system  is 
denominational.  In  the  old  days  the  only 
schools  were  those  supported  by  the  various 
religious  denominations.  The  schools  and 
colleges  annually  prepare  their  pupils  for 
written  examinations,  the  papers  being  pre- 
pared in  England  and  the  answers  sent  to 
England  for  marking.  This  is  done  to  avoid 
any  suspicion  of  denominational  partiality 
or  control. 

New'gate,  a  famous  London  prison,  stands 
opposite  the  Old  Bailey,  at  the  end  of  New- 
gate Street.  Its  high,  windowless  walls  long 
inclosed  the  principal  prison  of  the  city,  but 
it  is  now  under  the  control  of  the  court  of  al- 
dermen. It  derives  its  name  from  having 
been  the  new  gate  to  the  city  prior  to  1218. 
The  prison  was  destroyed  by  the  fire  in  1666 
and  rebuilt  in  1780.  Newgate  was  discon- 
tinued as  a  prison  by  the  prisons  bill  of  1877. 
See  Griffith's  Chronicles  of  Newgate. 

New'man  (John  Henry),  Cardinal,  a 
leader  of  the  Church  of  England,  afterwards, 
in  1845,  a  communicant  of  the  Roman 
church  and  in  1879  a  cardinal  by  appoint- 
ment of  Leo  XIII,  was  born  at  London,  Feb. 
21,  1 80 1,  and  graduated  from  Trinity  College 
in  1820.  In  1832  he  published  his  first 
book,  Arians  of  the  Fourth  Century,  in  which 
he  vindicated  the  divine  nature  of  Christ. 
In  1833  he  traveled  to  the  Mediterranean 
with  Froude  and  his  father  for  his  health, 
and  on  the  journey  wrote  most  of  the  poems 
which  were  afterwards  published  as  Lyra 
Afostolica,  the  object  being  to  assert  the 
spiritual  power  of  the  Church  of  England. 
Among  these  was  world-famous  Lead  Kindly 
Light.  On  his  return  to  England,  he  entered 
into  the  Tractarian  movement  in  the  Angli- 
can church.  He  wrote  a  great  many  of  these 
tracts  himself,  teaching  that  the  Anglican 


NEWPORT 


1343 


NEWT 


church  stands  midway  between  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  the  popular  Protestant.  His 
most  notable  book  is  the  Apologia  pro  Vita 
Sua,  a  history  of  his  religious  opinions. 
Disraeli  and  Gladstone  characterized  his 
withdrawal  as  a  severe  blow  to  the  English 
church.  As  a  Roman  Catholic  his  works 
mainly  are  Loss  and  Gain,  a  story  of  a  con- 
version; Callista,  the  story  of  an  African 
martyr;  Grammar  of  Assent;  a  volume  of  lec- 
tures on  Angltcan  Difficulties;  Verses  on 
Various  Occasions;  and  several  volumes  of 
sermons.  In  1870  he  opposed  the  declara- 
tion of  papal  infallibility  as  inopportune. 
To  reward  and  conciliate  the  English  mod- 
erates, of  whom  Newman  was  the  head, 
Leo  XIII  made  him  a  cardinal.  He  died  at 
Edgbaston  (Birmingham),  Aug.  n,  1890. 
^Consult  Whyte's  biography. 

New'port,  Ky.,  is  the  county-seat  of  Camp- 
bell County,  opposite  Cincinnati,  on  the  Ohio 
at  the  mouth  of  Licking  River.  The  city 
has  large  rolling  mills,  foundry,  bolt  works, 
steam  mills,  tile  works,  screen  and  window 
and  door  sash  factories  and  also  one  of  the 
largest  lithographing  houses  in  this  country. 
Population  30,309.  Fort  Thomas,  a  U.  S. 
military  post,  is  located  just  above  this  city. 

Newport,  R.  I.,  a  city,  is  a  port  of  entry 
and  was  one  of  the  capitals  till  1900.  It  is 
the  most  noted  fashionable  resort  in  Amer- 
ica, and  has  magnificent  private  estates  and 
villas.  Its  capacious  and  beautiful  harbor 
is  a  great  yacht  rendezvous,  and  the  city  has 
many  parks,  fountains  and  monuments  of 
great  beauty.  It  has  unexcelled  public 
schools,  and  is  the  seat  of  St.  George's  and 
Cloyne  House  Schools  and  St.  Mary's  Acad- 
emy. On  Coaster  Harbor  are  the  U.  S. 
war-college  and  naval  training-school  and 
a  naval  hospital.  Newport  possesses  many 
points  of  historical  interest,  among  them 
the  state-house,  built  in  1742,  now  used 
as  the  county  court-house;  the  Jewish 
synagogue  (1762);  Trinity  Church  (1725); 
Redwood  Library  (1748);  and  the  "Old 
Stone  Mill"  pointed  out  as  an  alleged  relic 
of  the  days  of  the  Norsemen,  but  a  sub- 
ject of  controversy.  The  town  was  settled 
in  1639  by  Roger  Williams  and  eight  follow- 
ers. Population  27,149. 

Newport  News,  Va.,  a  rapidly  growing 
town  and  port  of  entry  on  James  River, 
Hampton  Roads,  southeastern  Virginia.  It 
is  the  capital  of  Warwick  County,  is  con- 
nected by  electric  railway  with  Hampton  and 
Old  Point  Comfort,  and  is  14  miles  north  of 
Norfolk  and  70  southeast  of  Richmond. 
Possessing  a  magnificent  harbor,  it  has  ex- 
tensive ship-building  plants,  dry  docks,  grain 
elevators  and  capacious  warehouses  on  its 
piers.  It  has  a  large  foreign  commerce, 
chiefly  of  grain.  It  has  a  large  trade  in  pea- 
nuts. Its  manufacturing  interests  are  wood- 
working mills,  lumber-mills,  iron-works, 
shirt  and  shoe  factories.  Newport  News 
although  a  young  town,  has  an  improved 


system  of  waterworks  and  electric  light  and 
gas  plants.  Population  20,205. 

News' paper,  a  sheet  of  paper  rrinted  and 
distributed  from  time  to  time  for  the  pur- 
pose of  conveying  news.  The  number  of 
newspapers  now  in  the  world  is  estimated 
at  60,000.  The  bulk  is  issued  as  follows: 
United  States  22,806;  Germany  8,049; 
France,  6,681;  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
9,500  besides  2,290  magazines  and  reviews; 
Austria-Hungary,  2,958;  Italy,  2,757;  Spain, 
1,000;  Russia,  1,000;  Switzerland,  1,005; 
Belgium  956  and  Holland  980;  and  Japan 
1,000.  Of  the  languages  in  which  they  are 
published,  over  30,000  are  printed  in  Eng- 
lish; 7,500  in  German;  6,800  in  French;  1,800 
in  Spanish;  and  1,500  in  Italian.  News- 
papers first  came  into  existence  centuries  be- 
fore the  Christian  era  when  the  reports  of  the 
Roman  army  were  transmitted  by  the  senate 
to  the  generals  in  all  parts  of  the  country, 
but  for  the  actual  newspaper  we  are  in- 
debted to  Germany.  In  Augsburg,  Vienna, 
Ratisbon  and  Nuremberg  it  was  the  practice, 
early  in  the  1 5th  century,  to  issue  news-sheets 
in  the  form  o'  letters.  Yet  the  first  news- 
paper that  at  all  covered  the  same  idea  as 
tuose  of  the  present  da}-  was  issued  in  Ven- 
ice, by  order  of  the  Venetian  government  in 
1566,  and  called  the  Notizie  Scritte.  At  first 
they  were  not  printed,  but  written  out  and 
hung  up  in  various  public  places,  where  the 
people  could  read  them  on  payment  of  a 
small  coin.  The  first  actual  English  news- 
paper was  the  Weekly  News  of  1622,  edited 
and  published  by  Nathaniel  Butler.  The 
Lo.  idon  Weekly  Courant  came  out  in  the  same 
year.  The  first  daily  paper  was  the  Daily 
Courant,  which  appeared,  printed  on  one 
side  only,  in  1702.  The  daily  circulation  of 
newspapers  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  about 
10,000,000.  The  regular  system  of  adver- 
tising, which  supports  the  newspaper  and 
benefits  the  advertiser,  did  not  begin  until 
1673,  when  the  columns  of  a  few  papers  were 
opened  to  regular  classified  advertisements. 
Some  of  the  principal  and  largest  newspapers 
of  to-day  are:  In  England  the  (daily} 
Times,  Daily  Mail,  Telegraph,  Standard, 
Chronicle,  Star,  Echo,  Evening  News  and 
Post;  in  France  the  Temps,  Figaro,  Siecle, 
Petit  Parisien  and  Petit  Journal. 

There  are  now  published  in  the  United 
States  over  22,800  newspapers,  of  which 
about  2,472  appear  daily.  The  first  news- 
paper published  in  America  was  Publick  Oc- 
currences (1690),  followed  in  1704  by  the 
Boston  News-Letter  and  the  Boston  Gazette. 
At  the  present  time  a  newspaper  is  not  only 
a  sheet  for  disseminating  news,  but  appar- 
ently a  leader  in  politics  and  a  commentator 
on  politics,  religion,  research,  science, 
amusement,  sport  and  social  and  political 
economy.  See  Baker's  The  Newspaper 
World. 

Newt,  a  common  salamander,  represented 
by  several  distinct  species,  abundant  in  quiet 


NEWTON 


1344 


NEWTON 


waters  of  the  United  States  and  Europe.  It 
is  also  called  eft  and  triton.  The  common 
newt  of  the  eastern  United  States  (Diemicty- 
lus)  is  about  three  and  one  half  inches  long 
and  is  shaped  like  a  slender  lizard.  It  varies 
in  color,  but  is  commonly  pale  greenish  above 
and  pale  yellowish  below  with  small  black 
specks.  A  variety  of  the  common  water- 
newt  is  reddish  with  red  spots,  and  is  found 
in  damp  places  in  the  woods.  The  newts 
feed  on  insects,  larvae,  snails  and  the  like. 
One  in  California  reaches  a  length  of  six 
inches.  See  Gage's  Life-History  of  the  Ver- 
million-S potted  Newt,  in  the  Amer.  Natural- 
ist, December,  1891. 

New'ton,  Mass.,  a  city  about  seven  miles 
from  Boston  and  almost  surrounded  by 
Charles  River.  It  is  the  suburban  residence 
of  many  Boston  people,  and  manufactures 
cloth,  silk,  shoddy  and  glue.  Population 
42,927- 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  the  foremost  English 
expounder  of  applied  mathematics.  As  a 
natural  philosopher  he  stands  without  a  peer, 
unless,  perhaps,  Helmholtz  is  to  be  admitted 
to  this  category.  To  save  space  we  shall 
first  outline  his  chronology  and  then  his 
achievements.  He  was  born  at  Wools- 
thorpe  in  Lincolnshire  on  Christmas  Day, 
1642  (old  style).  He  early  showed  an  in- 
ventive and  mechanical  genius,  preferring 
to  make  windmills  or  kites  rather  than  in- 
dulge in  the  ordinary  play  of  children.  An 
uncle  persuaded  his  mother  to  send  him  to 
Cambridge,  where  he  entered  Trinity  College 
on  June  5,  1661.  In  January,  1665,  he  grad- 
uated; in  1667  was  elected  fellow  of  Trinity. 
In  October  01  1669  he  was  elected  Lucasian 

Erofessor  of  mathematics.  His  election  as 
;llow  of  the  Royal  Society  occurred  on  Jan. 
n,  1672.  The  publication  of  his  immortal 
volume,  the  Principia,  made  1687  the  begin- 
ning of  a  new  era.  In  four  years  this  work 
was  practically  out  of  print;  but  not  until 
1713  did  a  second  edition  appear.  Newton 
began  a  new  r61e  in  1689  as  representative 
of  Cambridge  University  in  Parliament. 
In  1703  was  conferred  the  highest  honor  in 
science  to  which  an  Englishman  can  aspire : 
the  presidency  of  the  Royal  Society.  Only 
two  years  elapsed  until  knighthood  was 
made  illustrious  by  being  conferred  upon 
him.  The  year  1697  marks  his  departure 
from  Cambridge  and  his  appointment  as 
master  of  the  mint,  an  office  which  he  filled 
with  distinction  until  his  death  in  1727. 

His  work  is  so  profoundly  influencing  and 
so  thoroughly  interwoven  with  the  entire 
subsequent  history  of  physical  science  as  to 
make  a  summary  of  his  achievements  well- 
nigh  impossible. 

i.  Among  his  earlier  studies  must  be 
mentioned  the  brilliant  series  of  optical  ex- 
periments by  which  he  proved  white  light  to 
be  composed  of  many  simple  colors  and 
explained  the  color  of  natural  bodies. 
Among  many  other  important  contributions 


to  optics  may  be  mentioned  his  accurate  de- 
scription of  the  phenomena  of  diffraction, 
the  cause  of  colors  exhibited  by  thin  plates 
and  a  measurement  of  the  wave-length  of 
light,  though  in  terms  of  the  corpuscular 
theory. 

2.  Of  that  branch  of  astronomy  which  is 
known  as  celestial  mechanics  Newton  prac- 
tically is  the  creator.     Having  clearly  form- 
ulated  the   fundamental   principles   of  dy- 
namics, he  proceeded  to  ask  whether  the 
facts  described  by  Kepler's  laws  (see  KEP- 
LER) could  not  be  expressed  in  a  still  simpler 
manner.     The  answer  is  the  Principia,  where 
he  shows  that  all  the  celestial  motions  are 
mere  consequences  of  the  one  general  law  of 
gravitation  that  the  force  of  attraction  be- 
tween any  two  particles  varies  directly  as 
the  product  of  their  masses  and  inversely 
as  the  square  of  their  distances.     This  law 
was  first  tested  by  applying  it  to  the  moon's 
motion  about  the  earth;  and  the  attraction 
of  the  earth,  on  this  basis,  was  found  exactly 
to  account  for  the  behavior  of  the  moon.     In 
this    connection   every    student    should    be 
warned  against  the  popular  notion  that  New- 
ton discovered  the  explanation  of  gravita- 
tion.    Nothing  could  be  further  from  the 
truth.     Indeed,    Newton   himself   expressly 
disclaims  any  such  thing;  and  insists  that, 
while  he  has  succeeded  in  descnbing  some  of 
the  phenomena  of  gravitation,  he  will  not 
even  venture  a  guess  as  to  the  cause  of  grav- 
itation.    It  need  hardly  be  added  that  to- 
day we  apparently  are  as  far  from  any  satis- 
factory explanation  of  gravitation  as  in  the 
days  of  Newton. 

3.  In  mathematics  his  genius  perhaps  is 
best  shown  by  the  fact  that  he  not  only  dis- 
covered the  law  of  gravitation,  but  invented 
the  differential  calculus  (q.  v.)  by  which  to 
discuss  the  facts  involved.     But  just  how 
the  honors  for  the  discovery  of  this  powerful 
means  of  investigating  mathematical  prob- 
lems are  to  be  shared  between  Newton  and 
Leibniz  (q.  v.)  is  a  question  which  has  per- 
haps not  even  yet  been  satisfactorily  an- 
swered.    See  Brewster's  Life  of  Newton, 

Newton,  John,  American  engineer  and 
soldier,  was  born  at  Norfolk,  Va.,  Aug.  24, 
1823,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  en- 
gaged in  the  construction  of  fortifications 
along  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts.  Having 
served  throughout  the  Peninsular  campaign 
as  brigadier,  at  Fredericksburg  he  com- 
manded a  division  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
major-general.  He  rendered  conspicuous 
services  at  Chancellorsville  and  further  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  Gettysburg.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  he  returned  to  the  engineer 
corps  of  the  regular  army.  His  greatest 
work  of  engineering  was  the  removal  of  the 
obstruction  called  Hell  Gate  (q.  v.)  in 
East  River,  New  York.  See  BLASTING  and 
NEW  YORK  CITY.  After  this  he  was  given 
the  position  of  chief  of  the  engineering  de- 


NEY 


NIAGARA  FALLS  CITY 


partment  with  the  rank  of  brigadier  in  the 
regular  army.  He  retired  from  the  service 
in  August,  1886,  and  was  elected  president 
of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  in  1888. 
He  died  at  New  York,  May  i,  1895, 

Ney  (  na ) ,  Michel,  one  of  the  famous  mar- 
shals under  Napoleon,  was  a  cooper's  son, 
born  at  Sarre-Louis,  Jan.  10,  1769.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Revolution  he  was  an  under- 
officer  in  a  hussar  regiment,  but  merit  soon 
brought  him  promotion,  and  after  the  siege 
of  Mainz  in  1794  he  was  made  adjutant-gen- 
eral. He  earned  the  rank  of  brigadier-gen- 
eral under  Jourdan  in  1796,  and  for  the  cap- 
ture of  Mannheim  in  1 799  was  made  general 
of  division.  At  one  time  he  also  com- 
manded the  army  of  the  Rhine,  and  after 
the  declaration  he  married  a  friend  of  Na- 
poleon and  was  made  inspector-general  of 
cavalry.  When  the  empire  was  established, 
he  was  made  marshal  of  France.  He 
stormed  Elchingen,  and  for  this  was  created 
Duke  of  Elchingen.  At  Jena  and  Eylau  he 
served  with  distinction,  as  in  Spain  and  Rus- 
sia. At  Waterloo  he  led  the  center  and  had 
five  horses  shot  under  him,  but  after  the 
surrender  of  Paris,  in  flight  to  Switzerland, 
he  was  recognized  by  a  costly  sword  he  wore, 
and  condemned  by  the  house  of  peers  to  die 
for  high  treason,  in  going  over  to  Napoleon 
on  his  return  from  Elba.  He  was  shot  in  the 
Luxembourg  gardens,  Paris,  Dec.  7,  1815. 

Ner  Perces  (  n&' p&r1  s&z' ) ,  meaning  pierced 
noses,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians  that  set- 
tled in  Idaho  and  were  friendly  to  the 
whites.  In  1877  some  refused  to  accede  to  a 
treaty  reducing  their  reservation,  attacked 
settlers  and  soldiers,  and  fled  to  Montana 
and  Dakota.  They  were  overtaken,  and 
the  350  survivors  transferred  to  Indian  Ter- 
ritory, and  in  1885  sent  to  Idaho,  some  to  the 
Colville  Indians  in  Washington 

N garni  (n'ga'mS),  Lake,  discovered  by 
Livingstone  in  1849,  is  situated  in  the  north- 
ern extremity  of  the  Kalahari  desert  in  Brit- 
ish South  Africa,  and  is  2,810  feet  above  sea 
level.  Its  size  depends  on  the  rainfall  in  the 
surrounding  country,  but  its  average  length 
is  50  miles  and  width  from  10  to  20.  Its 
chief  tributaries  are  .the  Okovango  on  the 
northwest  and  the  Zoiiga  on  the  east. 

Niag'ara,  Can.,  a  town  on  Lake  Ontario. 
Capacious  steamers  in  summer  cross  daily  to 
Toronto,  a  favorite  route  from  Buffalo  to 
Toronto.  It  formerly  was  called  Newark. 
On  September  18,  1792,  the  pioneer  par- 
liament of  Upper  Canada,  consisting  01  16 
members,  met  at  Newark  (Niagara).  "The 
annals  of  the  North  American  continent 
present  no  incident  in  the  momentous  science 
of  government  to  surpass  in  the  elements  of 
political  faith,  hope  and  heroism  the  opening 
of  the  first  parliament  of  the  western  prov- 
ince." (Watson's  History.)  One  of  the 
first  acts  of  the  first  session  established  trial 
by  jury.  In  the  second  session  (1793)  it 
abolished  slavery,  the  first  legislative  body 


in  the  Empire  to  do  so.  Four  of  the  members 
were  Pawling,  Pettit,  Swayzie  and  Young, 
and  many  of  their  descendants  still  live  in 
the  province.  Population  1.500 

Niagara  ("Thundei  of  Waters"),  a  river 
of  North  America,  which  forms  part  of  the 
boundary  between  New  York  and  Ontario. 
It  flows  from  Lake  Erie  into  Lake  Ontario, 
a  course  of  36  miles,  during  which  it  makes 
a  total  descent  of  326  feet,  about  50  feet  in 
the  rapids  immediately  above  the  great  falls 
and  nearly  no  feet  in  the  seven  miles  of 
rapids  below.  It  incloses  several  islands, 
the  largest,  Grand  Island,  being  nearly  10 
miles  long,  Four  miles  below  this  island 
are  the  most  famous  falls  in  the  world.  The 
center  of  the  river  here  is  occupied  by  Goat 
Island,  dividing  the  cataract  into  the  Horse- 
shoe  (Canadian)  Fall,  with  a  descent  of  158 
feet,  and  the  American  Fall,  162  to  169  feet; 
the  outline  of  the  former  is  about  8,640  feet, 
of  the  latter  i  ,000  feet  The  volume  of  wa- 
ter which  sweeps  over  this  immense  chasm 
is  about  15,000,000  cubic  feet  a  minute. 
Th«  depth  of  water  on  the  crest  of  the  fall*  U 
less  than  four  feet,  except  in  a  few  places, 
notably  at  the  apex  erf  Horseshoe  Fall,  where 
it  is  about  20  feet.  The  limestone  edge  of 
both  falls  is  rapidly  wearing  away  in  the  cen- 
ter For  seven  miles  below  the  falls  the  river 
is  shut  in  between  perpendicular  walls  of 
rock  from  200  to  350  feet  high.  Just  below 
the  cataract  the  river  is  crossed  by  a  sus- 
pension bridge  for  carriages  and  foot-passen- 
gers, and  a  mile  and  a  half  further  down  are 
two  railroad  bridges,  one  a  cantilever,  about 
100  yards  apart.  On  both  shores  the  lands 
bordering  the  river,  for  some  distance  above 
and  below  the  falls,  are  under  the  immediate 
control  of  the  respective  governments.  New 
York  Park  at  Niagara  Falls  embraces  115 
acres,  and  Queen  Victoria  Niagara  Falla 
Park  about  154  acres.  From  both  sides  vis- 
itors clad  in  waterproofs  are  conducted 
under  the  falls.  The  immense  water-powei 
supplied  by  the  falls  was  utilized  at  Buffalo 
by  the  Pan-American  exposition  in  1901, 
and  to-day  is  generally  utilized  in  an  exten- 
sive region  in  the  vicinity  of  the  falls.  Elec- 
tric displays  are  a  further  attraction  to  tour- 
ists and  sightseers.  The  illuminating  ap- 
paratus consists  of  three  batteries  of  50 
search-lights  equipped  with  3o-mch  and 
60 -inch  projectors,  operated  by  electrical 
engines  of  3oo-horsepower.  They  throw  a 
volume  of  light  equivalent  to  that  of  1,115.- 
000,000  candles. 

Niagara  Falls  City,  N.  Y.,  a  rapidly 
growing  town  in  Niagara  County,  on  Niagara 
River.  The  city  is  20  miles  north  of  Buffalo 
and  about  13  south  of  Lake  Ontario.  The 
New  York  Central;  Erie;  Lehigh  Valley; 
Michigan  Central;  and  other  railroads  con- 
verge here.  All  have  connections  into  Can- 
ada. Of  recent  years  engineering  skill  has, 
by  tunnels  and  a  hydraulic  canal,  utilized 
for  practical  industrial  purposes  the  enor- 


NIAGARA  FALLS  CITY 


1340 


NIAGARA  POWER-PLANT 


mous  water-power  here  obtainable,  —  a.  util- 
ity which  Buffalo  has  taken  advantage  of. 
Niagara  Falls  City  is  the  center  of  the  elec- 
trochemical industries  of  the  world.  A 
model  factory  making  shredded-wheat  bis- 
cuit is  an  object  of  interest  to  thousands  of 
annual  tourists.  School  buildings  number 
14,  and  the  enrollment  is  4,560  pupils.  Pop- 
ulation 30,445. 

Niagara  Falls  City,  Ontario,  Can.,  83 
miles  from  Toronto,  is  on  Niagara  River  in 
sight  of  the  falls.  It  is  the  center  of  the 
great  power-development  in  Canada,  trans- 
mission lines  supplying  Toronto.  Owing  to 
its  location  (a  point  of  contact  for  Canadian 
and  American  railways,  the  only  one  between 
Montreal  and  Detroit),  it  is  a  noticeably 
busy  and  congested  railway  center.  Elec- 
tric railways  leave  it  for  all  points,  including 
Buffalo.  Several  important  industries,  be- 
cause of  cheap  power  and  excellent  transpor- 
tation, have  been  attracted  to  it.  Among 
them  are  silverworks,  a  cereal  plant  and  elec- 
trochemical industries.  Three  powerful 
plants  for  the  development  of  electrical 
power  have  been  installed.  They  represent 
an  expenditure  of  nearly  $20,000,000,  and 
have  about  100,000  horse-power  available 
for  transmission.  Thirty  thousand  horse- 
power has  already  been  sold  for  use  in  the 
United  States.  The  ultimate  development 
of  the  three  companies  is  estimated  to  be 
405,000  horse-power.  To  accomplish  this 
31,050  cubic  feet  of  water  every  second  will 
be  used.  The  suspension  bridge  over  the 
river  was  opened  for  traffic  in  1855.  Popu- 
lation 10,036. 

Niagara  Falls  Park,  Ont.,  overlooking 
Niagara  Falls  The  park  consists  of  196 
acres.  To  make  it  as  attractive  as  possible 
the  commissioners  appointed  by  the  govern- 
ment have  acquired  a  strip  along  Niagara 
River  and  lands  at  Queenston  Heights,  Fort 
Erie  and  Niagara  Glen,  comprising  787  acres. 
All  that  expert  landscape-gardening  can  do 
has  been  done  to  show  to  best  advantage 
the  magnificent  scenic  beauty  of  this  won- 
derful spot.  It  is  wonderful  not  alone  be- 
cause of  the  falls  and  the  rugged  grandeur 
of  the  river-banks,  but  because  of  the  rarely 
beautiful  plant  life  which  marks  the  neigh- 
borhood and  for  many  years  has  proved  at- 
tractive to  scientists.  Electric  roads  carry 
tens  of  thousands  almost  daily  during  the 
tourist  months  to  view  the  falls  The  W hirl- 
pool  and  Dufferin  Islands  are  grand  and  at- 
tractive In  winter  the  scenery  is  peculiarly 
beautiful.  It  is  estimated  that  174,000  cu- 
bic feet  of  water  flow  over  the  crest  of  Horse- 
shoe Falls  every  second.  In  acquiring  the 
land  and  in  permanent  improvements  $i,- 
500,000  have  been  spent.  The  approaches 
to  the  park  have  been  widened,  and  the  shore 
along  Niagara  River  is  being  protected  with 
the  view  of  forming  a  continuous  and  beau- 
tiful boulevard  33  miles  in  length  along  the 
river.  All  told,  this  park  is  one  of  the  most 


attractive  spots  in  Canada.  Not  a  little  of 
the  credit  is  due  to  Mr.  Langmuir,  chairman 
of  the  commissioners,  and  to  Mr.  Wilson,  the 
park-superintendent.  The  first  aim  of  the 
commissioners  has  been  to  preserve  the  rare 
natural  beauty  of  the  locality  and  protect  it 
from  anything  savoring  of  the  unsightly  or 
the  incongruous.  Lord  Dufferin,  nearly  20 
years  ago,  advocated  a  national  park  as  a 
Dominion  enterprise.  This  appearing  im- 
possible and  delay  involving  difficulties, 
Premier  Oliver  Mowat  of  Ontario,  specially 
urged  by  Richard  Harcourt.  one  of  his  sup- 
porters, representing  a  Niagaran  constitu- 
ency, appointed  a  commission  with  power  to 
expropriate  land  to  acquire  the  property  at 
and  near  the  falls  and  convert  it  into  a  pro- 
vincial park.  The  wise  plan  thus  originated 
has  been  happily  and  successfully  completed. 
Thousands  who  have  viewed  the  scene  with 
awe  and  wonder  have  recalled  Anthony 
Trollope's  tribute:  "Of  all  the  sights  on 
earth  which  tourists  travel  to  see  —  at  least 
of  all  those  which  I  have  seen  —  I  am  in- 
clined to  give  the  palm  to  the  Falls  of  Niag- 
ara. I  know  of  no  other  one  thing  so  beau- 
tiful, glorious  and  powerful." 

Niagara  Falls,  Tunnels  and  Power 
Plant.  The  force  going  to  waste  over  the 
Falls  of  Niagara  has  been  estimated  at 
7,000,000  horse-power.  Such  unused  re- 
sources naturally  attracted  the  attention  of 
engineers  and  economists  at  an  early  day, 
and  in  1873  a  small  canal  utilized  about  6,000 
horse-power  for  certain  mills.  The  inven- 
tion ot  the  dynamo  and  the  transmission  of 
energy  by  electric  wire  gave  a  new  impulse 
to  the  attempt  to  use  more  of  the  power  in 
sight.  A  company  was  organized  in  1886, 
and  chartered  by  the  legislature  of  New 
York,  having  this  end  in  view.  Experts  vis- 
ited Europe  to  study  approved  methods  of 
power  transmission.  Work  was  begun  in 
1890  by  the  Cataract  Construction  Com- 
pany, and  a  tunnel  was  dug  6,837  feet  long, 
21  feet  high  and  19  wide.  It  required  three 
years  and  about  $4,000,000  to  complete  the 
undertaking.  The  water  is  drawn  from  the 
river  by  a  canal  no  feet  wide  at  the  end  and 
1 80  at  the  mouth,  the  canal  being  1,400  feet 
long.  The  water,  which  is  brought  from  the 
river  by  the  canal,  is  carried  over  14  turbine 
wheels,  each  having  5,000  horse-power;  and, 
after  passing  through  the  turbines,  it  is  car- 
ried away  by  the  tunnel.  Each  turbine  is 
connected  with  a  dynamo  of  5,000  horse- 
power, and  the  electric  current  is  thus 
brought  to  Buffalo,  18  miles  distant,  where 
it  is  used  for  lighting  the  city,  operating 
tramways  in  the  streets,  pumping  water  for 
city  use  and  running  machinery  in  various 
factories.  It  is  expected  that  the  power 
thus  generated  will  be  distributed  over  all 
the  western  part  of  New  York  by  improved 
processes  of  transmission.  In  1901-2  the 
original  plant  was  more  than  duplicated  by 
the  construction  of  a  new  wheel-pit  connected 


NIBELUNGENLIED 


1347 


NICARAGUA  CANAL 


with  the  old  one  by  a  passage  130  feet  below 
the  surface.  The  discharge  tunnel  was  ex- 
tended to  the  new  pit,  making  the  tunnel 
7,437  feet  long.  In  the  new  power-house 
and  pit  were  installed  1 1  turbines  and  dyna- 
mos, each  unit  having  5,000  horse-power. 
So  the  total  production  at  this  point  became 
105,000  horse-power  instead  of  70,000  as 
previously. 

Nibelungenlied  (ne'be-ld&ng1 en-let),  a 
German  epic,  ranking  as  one  of  the  greatest 
poems  of  the  world.  The  oldest  elements  of 
the  work  must  have  been  long  current  in  the 
form  of  popular  songs;  but  the  incidents  of 
the  story  seem  to  have  been  fused  into  one 
narrative  before  the  iath  century,  though  by 
whom  it  was  done  is  unknown.  The  story 
of  the  poem  is  as  follows:  Siegfried,  the  son 
of  the  king  of  the  Netherlands,  becomes  pos- 
sessor of  the  fabled  wealth  of  the  Nibelungs, 
which  carries  with  it  evil  to  its  possessor. 
He  marries  Kriemhild,  sister  of  Gunther, 
king  of  Worms,  and  helps  Gunther  to  win 
Brunhilde  of  Iceland.  Then  there  is  a  dis- 
pute as  to  whether  Siegfried  or  Gunther  be 
the  greater,  and  Brunhilde  induces  Hagen  to 
murder  Siegfried.  Kriemhild  after  some 

S;ars  marries  Etzel  (Attila),  king  of  the 
uns.  After  Kriemhild  became  possessor  of 
the  Niebelungen  wealth,  Hagen  took  it  from 
her  and  sank  it  in  the  Rhine.  After  several 
years  Kriemhild,  still  mourning  for  Siegfried 
and  desiring  to  be  revenged  for  his  death, 
asked  her  brother  to  visit  her  at  her  court. 
This  he  did,  with  11,000  armed  Burgun- 
dians,  and  the  remainder  of  the  poem  is  de- 
voted to  the  wars  and  sufferings  of  the  Bur- 
gundians.  See  English  translations  by 
Lettsom,  Foster,  Bar  ham  and  Birch.  See 
also  Carlyle's  Miscellanies,  Vol.  III. 

Nicaea  (nt-se'd),  a  city  of  ancient  Bithy- 
nia  in  Asia  Minor,  lies  on  the  eastern  shore 
of  Lake  Ascania.  It  was  built  in  316  B.  C. 
by  Antigonus  and  named  Antigoneia,  but 
was  changed  to  Nicasa  by  Lysimachus  in 
honor  of  his  wife.  It  is  famed  as  the  seat  of 
two  ecumenical 
councils :  the  first 
held  by  Emperor 
Constantine  i  n 
325  A.  D.;  and 
the  second  called 
by  the  Empress 
Irene  in  787. 

N  icaragua 
(ne'kd-rd'gwd),  a 
Central  American 
republic,  stretch- 
es across  the  isth- 
mus from  the 
Caribbean  to  the 
Pacific  and  lies 
between  Honduras  on  the  north  and  Costa 
Rica  on  the  south.  It  has  an  area  ot  about 
49,200  square  miles.  The  Central  American 
Cordillera  extends  through  the  country  from 
northwest  to  southeast,  not  far  from  the 


Pacific  coast.  From  these  th«  surface  sinks 
rapidly  westward,  and  the  country  is  studded 
with  large  lakes,  the  largest  being  Nica- 
ragua (115  miles  long  and  45  broad)  and 
Managua  (35  miles  long  and  20  wide).  This 
tableland  is  also  marked  by  isolated  peaks 
and  volcanic  cones.  On  the  west  lie  Mana- 
gua the  capital  (population  35,000);  Leon, 
Granada,  Chinandega,  Rivas  and  the  harbors 
of  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca,  Salinas  Bay  and 
Corinto;  and  on  the  east  the  harbor  of 
Gieytown  on  San  Juan  River.  The  princi- 
pal rivers  are  the  Coco  (350  miles),  San 
Juan,  Bluefields  and  Rio  Grande.  Minerals 
are  found,  but  only  of  late  have  they  begut 
to  be  worked.  In  1898  the  shipment  of 
gold-dust  amounted  to  16,242  ounces.  The 
rich  soil  yields  corn,  sugar,  cocoa,  rice,  to- 
bacco and  indigo.  The  natural  products  are 
mahogany,  rosewood,  logwood,  fustic,  san- 
dalwood,  india-rubber,  dye  woods,  medicinal 
plants  and  gums.  The  chief  exports  (be- 
sides gold)  embrace  coffee,  rubber,  bananas, 
timber,  cattle  and  hides. 

Nicaragua  was  a  precolumbian  center  ot 
civilization.  Columbus  sailed  along  the 
coast  in  1502,  and  in  1524  Granada  was 
founded  by  Spaniards,  who  had  entered  two 
years  before.  From  1560  to  1821  the  state 
was  a  dependency  of  Guatemala,  but  in 
that  year  became  independent  and  so  re- 
mained for  sixteen  years.  Then  until  1865 
it  had  a  troublesome  and  warlike  time,  but 
since  then  it  has  made  great  strides  toward 
peace  and  prosperity.  In  1894  a  new  con- 
stitution was  proclaimed,  which  was  amended 
in  December,  1896.  By  this  the  legislative 

?Dwer  is  vested  in  a  congress  of  one  house, 
opulation,    including   uncivilized    Indians, 
500,000      Consult  Bancroft's  History  of  Pa- 
cific States.    See  AMERICA,  CENTRAL. 

Nicaragua  Canal.  The  plan  to  cut  a 
ship-canal  through  Central  America  by  way 
of  San  Juan  River  and  Lake  Nicaragua  was 
taken  up  in  earnest  in  1884  and  a  treaty 
made  between  the  United  States  and  Nica. 


ragua.  The  Nicaragua  Canal  Company  was 
formed  and  the  canal  was  begun  at  Grey- 
town  in  1889.  But,  after  expending  $4,000,- 
ooo,  the  company  found  the  burden  greater 
than  they  had  anticipated,  and  sought  an 


NICE 


1348 


NICKEL 


appropriation  from  Congress  of  $100,000,- 

000,  with  provision  for  government  super- 
vision.    Failing  in  this,  the  work  ceased, 
and  finally  the  concession  from  the  govern- 
ment  of   Nicaragua   lapsed.      In    1897    the 
United  States  government  took  up  the  ques- 
tion of  the  construction  of  a  canal,  and  a 
commission  was  appointed  to  survey  and 
report  the  most  practicable  route  and  esti- 
mate the  cost  of  construction.     In  1899  a 
new   commission  was   authorized  to  make 
further  inquiry  and  report,  considering  both 
the  Nicaragua  and  the  Panama  route.    The 
Nicaragua  route  was  recommended,  and  the 
cost  of  the   canal  was  estimated  at  $118,- 
000,000  to  $135,000,000.    In  1903,  however, 
the  Panama  ( q.  v.)  route  was  adopted,  the 
United  States  purchasing  the  properties  of 
the  Panama  Canal  Company  for  $40,000,000. 

Nice  ( ties) ,  a  French  seaport  and  the  larg- 
est town  of  the  Alpes-Maritimes  department 
of  France,  lies  on  the  coast  140  miles  from 
Marseilles.  Owing  to  its  southern  sea-ex- 
posure and  shelter  by  the  hills  on  the  north, 
it  has  long  been  a  famous  winter  resbrt  for 
invalids.  The  city  is  divided  into  three 
parts  —  the  New  Town,  the  Old  Town  and 
the  Port.  The  chief  public  buildings  are  t*he 
cathedral,  church  of  N6tre  Dame,  natural 
history  museum,  art  gallery,  library,  observ- 
atory and  casino.  Its  main  export  is  olive- 
oil.  The  town  was  founded  by  a  colony 
from  Massalia  (Marseilles)  and  became  sub- 
ject to  Rome  in  the  sth  century  B.  C. 
It  once  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Saracens, 
and  after  being  an  independent  city  ac- 
knowledged the  counts  of  Provence  and  the 
house  of  Savoy  in  1388.  In  1543  it  was 
pillaged  by  the  Turks,  and  in  1860  was 
finally  ceded  to  France  by  Sardinia.  In 
1887  it  was  visited  by  a  destructive  earth- 
quake. Population  142,940.  See  Nash's 
Guide  to  Nice. 

Nich'olas  I  was  born  of  noble  Roman 
parentage,  and  elected  pope  in  858.  He 
was  zealous  in  upholding  the  power  of  the 
papal  court.  He  died  in  867.  Pope  Nicho- 
las V  (1397-1455)  was  one  of  the  great 
scholars  of  his  century,  and  deserves  eternal 
gratitude  for  founding  the  Vatican  library. 

Nicholas   I  of   Russia,  third  son  of  Paul 

1,  was  born  at  St.  Petersburg,  July  7,  1796; 
was  carefully  educated;    and  later  devoted 
his  time  to  military  studies  and  political 
economy.    He  traveled  over  Europe,  marry- 
ing the  oldest  daughter  of  Friedrich  Wilhelm 
III   of  Prussia.      Upon  the  resignation  of 
his  older  brother  he  ascended  the  throne 
in  December,  1825.     In  1828  war  with  Per- 
sia began,  and  at  its  close  occurred  a  war 
with  Turkey.     This  was  followed  by  the  rising 
of  Poland,  which  he  subdued,  reducing  the 
kingdom  to  a  mere  province.     His  rule  now 
became  despotic  and  fierce.     He  remained 
inactive   until   the  Hungarian   rebellion    in 
1848-9,  when  he  was  called  in  to  aid  Austria. 
This  strengthened  him  with  the  European 


powers,  and  he  began  to  think  of  absorbing 
Turkey.  The  opposition  of  the  western  pow- 
ers led  to  the  Crimean  War,  during  which  he 
died  on  March  2,  1855. 
f  Nicholas  II.  of  Russia,  though  personally 
a  weak  man,  will  enjoy  a  certain  distinction  in 
history  as  the  last  of  the  czars.  He  was  born  in 
St.  Petersburg,  May  18,  1868,  became  czar 
November  i ,  1894,  and  on  November  26  married 
the  German  princess,  Alix  of  Hess-Darmstadt. 
He  instituted  the  first  Hague  conference  in 
1898  but  although  he  was  personally  humane 
and  advocated  a  more  liberal  policy  towards 
certain  classes  of  his  subjects  who  had  suffered 
because  $>f  their  nationality  or  their  faith,  he 
exercised  his  autocratic  powers  until  forced  in 
August,  1905,  to  accept  the  Duma  and  a 
constitution.  The  complete  overthrow  of  the 
autocracy  and  the  forced  abdication  of  Nich- 
olas came  in  March,  1917.  The  immediate 
cause  of  the  1917  revolution  was  the  czar's 
pro-German  sentiment,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
Russia  was  at  war  with  Germany. 

Nicholas,  St.,  the  patron  saint  of  Russia, 
whose  life  is  wrapped  in  obscurity.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  about  300  A.  D. 
He  was  bishop  of  Mira  in  Lycia,  and  was 
imprisoned  under  Diocletian  and  released 
under  Constantine.  In  Catholic  countries 
St.  Nicholas  is  especially  the  patron  of  the 
young  and  particularly  of  scholars.  In  Eng- 
land his  feast  was  publicly  celebrated  in 
ancient  times.  Santa  Claus  is  a  corruption 
of  the  name,  introduced  into  England  from 
America;  the  old  Dutch  settlers  of  New 
York  kept  a  Santa  Claus  holiday.  St. 
Nicholas  also  was  the  patron  of  merchants, 
sailors  and  travelers;  and,  as  he  was  prayed 
to  for  protection  against  robbers,  the  term 
"clerks  of  St.  Nicholas"  came,  oddly  enough, 
to  be  a  cant  name  for  robbers. 

Nicias  (nish'i-as),  an  Athenian  statesman 
and  general  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  was 
the  son  of  the  wealthy  Niceratus.  After  the 
death  of  Pericles,  he  was  the  political  oppo- 
nent of  Cleon  and  later  of  Alcibiades.  In 
427  B.  C.  he  defeated  the  Spartans  and 
Corinthians,  and  ravaged  Minoa,  Melos  and 
Locris.  In  424  he  ravaged  Cythera  and 
part  of  Laconia.  In  415  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  commanders  against  Sicily,  and 
in  the  autumn  laid  siege  to  Syracuse.  At 
first  successful,  later  his  fleet  was  destroyed, 
his  army  began  a  retreat,  and  he  was  cap- 
tured and  put  to  death  in  413  B.  C.  See 
Plutarch's  Life  of  Nikias  (edited  by  H.  A. 
Holden). 

Nick'el,  a  malleable,  ductile  and  tena- 
cious grayish-white  metal,  was  discovered 
by  Cronsted  in  1751,  but  was  long  before 
that  time  used  in  alloys  by  the  Chinese. 
Yet  previous  to  1879  it,  being  difficult  of 
fusing,  was  only  used  as  an  alloy  in  German 
silver.  In  that  year  Fleitmann  discovered 
that  mixed  with  £  of  one  per  cent,  of  mag- 
nesium it  could  be  easily  rolled  and  drawv 
The  metal  does  not  readily  alter  by  expo- 


NICOTINE 


1349 


NIGHTHAWK 


sure,  but  it  easily  dissolves  in  nitric  acid. 
It  is  now  used  as  an  alloy  with  copper  and 
zinc  in  German  silver  and  for  plating  iron 
and  steel.  In  some  alloys  it  is  used  for  coins 
and  also  in  steel  for  armor  plates,  cannon,  etc. 
The  ore  is  found  in  Canada,  Norway,  Germany, 
Hungary,  France  and  the  United  States. 

Nic'otine.     See  POISONS. 

Niebuhr  (ne'boor),  Barthold  Qeorg,  his- 
torian, was  born  at  Copenhagen,  Aug.  27, 
1776.  After  careful  study  at  Kiel,  he  studied 
natural  science  at  London  and  Edinburgh. 
In  1800  he  married  and  entered  the  Danish 
state  service,  from  which  he  resigned  in  1806 
to  enter  the  Prussian  state  service.  From 
1 8 10  to  1812  he  lectured  at  the  new  University 
of  Berlin  on  Roman  history.  From  1816  to 
1823  he  was  German  ambassador  to  the  papal 
court.  He  died  at  Bonn,  Prussia,  Jan.  2,  1813. 
Some  of  his  works  are  Lectures  on  the  History 
of  Rome,  Lectures  on  Ancient  History  and 
History  of  Byzantium. 

Niemen  (ne'men),  a  river  in  western  Rus- 
sia, rises  a  few  miles  south  of  the  city  of  Minsk, 
divides  into  two  branches  below  Tilsit,  and 
empties  into  Kurisches  Haff  by  four  mouths 
to  each  branch.  It  is  500  miles  long  and 
navigable  as  far  as  Grodno. 

Nietzsche,  Friedrich  WHhelm  (1844- 
1900),  a  German  philosopher  who  held  that 
the  law  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest  (v.  Evolu- 
tion) makes  for  the  best  and  highest  develop- 
ment of  man  and  society,  and  that  sympathy 
for  weakness  and  suffering  should  not  be 
permitted  to  stand  in  the  way  of  the  develop- 
ment of  strong  and  efficient  nations  and 
strong  men;  what  he  called  "Ubermenschen," 
supermen. 

Ni'ger,  a  remarkable  river  system  of 
western  equatorial  Africa,  emptying  into  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea.  It  was  thought  to  be  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Nile;  then  of  the  Kongo;  and  then 
supposed  to  terminate  in  an  inland  basin;  but 
the  work  of  Mungo  Park  and  others  has 
settled  all  but  70  or  80  miles  of  its  length.  The 
Niger  proper  is  2,600  miles  long,  and  its  drain- 
age basin  has  an  area  of  1,023,280  square  miles. 
The  headwaters  are  in  the  present  states  of 
Samory,  near  the  headwaters  of  the  Senegal; 
but  the  Tembi,  rising  in  the  Loma  Mountains, 
3,000  feet  above  the  sea,  is  the  actual  source. 
From  the  source  to  Timbuktu  the  river  has 
only  a  few  small  tributaries,  but  some  distance 
below  here  it  is  joined  by  the  BenuS  or  Mother 
of  Waters,  traveling  860  miles  from  the  east. 
Thence  the  river  flows  to  its  mouth,  where  a 
beautiful  delta  is  formed.  The  navigation  is 
free,  but  the  trade,  chiefly  in  palm  oil,  is  under 
the  control  of  Great  Britain.  See  Joseph 
Thomson's  Mungo  Park  and  the  Niger. 

Niger 'ia,  Northern  and  Southern  (for- 
merly the  Niger  Territories,  until  Jan.  i,  1900, 
administered  by  the  Royal  Niger  Company, 
but  now  under  the  control  of  the  British  Crown). 
Nigeria  covers  an  area  of  310,000  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  25  millions.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  French  Military  Territory, 


on  the  east  by  Kamerun,  on  the  south  by  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea  and  on  the  west  by  Dahome. 
For  administrative  purposes  this  vast  region  is 
divided  into  two  governments,  those  of  North- 
ern and  Southern  Nigeria.  They  embrace  the 
area  once  the  Fula  or  Sokoto  empire,  with  the 
subordinate  sultanates  of  Gandu,  Kano,  Bornu, 
Benin,  etc.,  watered  by  the  Niger  and  its  tribu- 
taries. On  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  the  territories 
have  a  seaboard  of  about  120  miles  in  length,  on 
which  are  the  towns  Akassa,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Niger,  the  British  na*/al  headquarters; 
Bonny,  Wari,  Old  Calabar  and  New  Calabar. 
A  military  force  is  stationed  in  southern 
Nigeria,  partly  at  Asaba  and  partly  at 
Akassa.  The  capital  of  Northern  Nigeria  is 
Zungeru,  a  new  one  in  the  direction  of  Kano, 
eastward  toward  Bornu,  in  a  healthier  and 
higher  region  more  suitable  for  Europeans. 
Northern  Nigeria  with  256,400  squar«  miles 
has  a  large  trade  to  the  mart  of  Kano  by 
caravan  from  Salaga  in  the  west,  Tripoli, 
Morocco  and  the  Sahara  in  the  north  and 
Lake  Chad  and  Wadai  in  the  east.  The 
imports  are  principally  cottons,  hardware 
and  salt.  A  light  railway  runs  from  Zungeru 
to  Bari-Juko,  twenty-four  miles,  and  the 
survey  for  its  extension  to  Zaria  and  Kano 
is  finished.  Five  stern-wheel  steamers,  three 
steam  launches  and  a  steam  pinnace  be- 
longing to  the  government  are  on  the  Niger, 
and  the  telegraph  runs  from  the  Lagos  fron- 
tier to  Jebba  and  thence  to  Lokoja,  Zun- 
geru, Zaria  and  other  points,  a  total  of 
1,701  miles. 

Southern  Nigeria  has  an  estimated  area 
of  49,700  square  miles  and  population  of 
3,055,600,  with  the  seat  of  government  at 
Old  Calabar.  Forcados  and  Old  Calabar  are 
joined  by  telegraph  with  Lagos,  Bonny, 
Brass  and  other  points,  a  total  of  195 
miles.  Spirits  are  prohibited  in  Northern 
but  not  in  Southern  Nigeria.  The  chief 
products  are  rubber,  gum,  hides,  ivory, 
palm  oil  and  palm  kernels.  Northern  Ni- 
geria is  rich  in  agricultural  resources,  cotton 
being  largely  grown  and  now  manufactured. 
Here  are  found  the  Hausa  race,  who  carry 
on  the  internal  trade  by  means  of  caravans 
in  Central  Sudan. 

Night' hawk,  an  American  insect-catching 
bird  related  to  the  whip-poor-will,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  goatsucker  family.  It  is  quiet 
all  day  but  flies  at  dusk  and  is  often  called 
the  bull-bat.  It  is  common  in  many  parts 
of  the  United  States  from  May  to  October, 
and  may  be  seen  at  nightfall,  high  in  the 
air,  sailing  back  and  forth  in  search  of  flying 
insects,  it  is  about  the  size  of  the  robin,  of 
a  dark  color  mottled  with  gray,  and  can 
always  be  recognized  from  its  wide  wing- 
spread,  making  it  seem  longer  than  the  robin, 


called  night-jar,  and  also  goes  by  the  name 
of  mosquito-hawk;   names   more   apt  than 


NIGHTINGALE 


X350 


NIGHT-SCHOOLS 


nighthawk,  for  it  is  far  removed  from  being 
a  nawk  save  in  keenness  of  vision.  As 

a  rule  this 
bird  hunts  in 
small  compa- 
nies of  his  fel- 
lows;  one 
never  tires  of 
watching  i  t 
in  its  hunt- 
ing. In  the 
evening, high, 
khigh  o  ver- 
head  the  bird 
Lsails  along, 
from  height 
and  ease 
making  sud- 
denest  drop 
down  to  low- 
er  atmos- 

NIGHTHAWK  Phere«    **<** 

its  wonderful 

vision  has  discovered  a  fly,  mosquito, 
beetle  or  moth.  During  the  heat  of  the 
day  it  rests,  sitting  motionless  on  limb, 
wall  or  lichen-covered  rock,  —  any  place 
where  it  will  be  inconspicuous.  The 
nest  is  made  in  hollow  rock  or  on  bare 
ground,  and  there  are  two  speckled  gray 
eggs.  These  eggs  are  sometimes  found  on  a 
house-top  in  the  city.  Frequently  after 
nesting-season  is  over,  night-hawks  gather 
in  towns,  hunt  the  myriad  insects  about 
street -lights,  resting  on  roofs  by  day.  They 
are  widely  distributed  in  North  America. 
When  they  migrate,  they  travel  in  large 
flocks.  The  sound  made  by  them  is  an- 
other way  in  which  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  whip-poor-will;  as  they  fly  their  call 
is  a  sharp  "pee-ent!  pee-ent!"  and  when 
they  make  a  drop  through  the  air  and 
then  turn  suddenly  upward,  there  is  heard 
a  peculiar  "boo-oom,  boo-oom" — thought 
to  be  caused  by  the  action  of  the  air  on 
the  outstretched  wings  and  tail.  In  locali- 
ties where  they  are  numerous  the  evening 
air  resounds  with  the  nighthawk's  boom, 
which,  heard  at  a  distance,  betrays  the 
unseen  bird.  See  Chapman :  Bird  Life. 

Night' ingale,  a  bird  famous  on  account 
of  its  brilliant  song,  which  for  quality  and 
variety  is  not  exceeded  by  that  of  any 
other  bird.  The  song  of  the  nightingale 
has  been  a  theme  of  poets  for  ages.  Homer 
wrote  of  the  "sweet,  tawny  nightingale" 
that  "deep  in  leafy  shades  complains,  trill- 
ing her  thick-warbled  strains."  Milton 
called  the  nightingale  "most  musical,  most 
melancholy  bird."  Coleridge  wrote: 

' the  merry  nightingale 

That  crowds,  and  hurries,  and  precipitates, 
With  fast,  thick  warble  his  delicious  notes. 
As  if  he  were  fearful  an  April  night 
Would  be  too  short  for  him  to  utter  forth 
His  love-chaunt,  and  disburden  his  full  soul 
Of  all  its  music," 


NIGHTINGALE 


This  bird  belongs  to  the  group  of  Old 
World  warblers,  and  is  not  found  in  the 
New  World.  Its  range  is  central  and  wes- 
tern Europe;  it  is  abundant  in  Spain  and 
Portugal,  and  abounds  in  portions  of  the 
midland,  eastern  and  southern  counties  of 
England.  Thicket  and  hedge  and  wet  mead- 
ow are  its  favorite  haunt.  It  is  during  the 
nesting  season  the  rr  ile  pours  forth  his 
glorious  song,  to  be  htard  from  the  middle 
of  April  to  perhaps  a  little  later  than  the 
middle  of  June.  Both  day  and  night  he 

sings.  Apart 
from  the  won- 
derful song, the 
utterance  of  the 
nightingale  is 
not  musical; 
Mitchell,  in 
Cries  and  Call- 
Notes  of  Wild 
Birds,  declares 
the  common 
alarm  cry  very 
like  the  croak 
of  a  frog,  and 

speaks  of  its  call  as  a  "squeak"  and  of  a  high 
"distress-note."  The  bird  is  about  the 
size  of  the  hedge  sparrow;  graceful  of  form; 
in  color,  reddish-brown  above  and  grayish- 
white  below.  Its  loosely  constructed  nest 
is  usually  built  on  the  ground,  sometimes  in 
low  brush.  In  rare  beauty  of  song,  our 
hermit  thrush  has  been  compared  to  the 
nightingale.  Our  cardinal  bird  (cardinal 
grosbeak)  is  sometimes  called  the  Virginia 
nightingale. 

Nightingale,  Florence,  an  English  philan- 
thropist, daughter  of  William  Edward  Night- 
ingale, was  born  at  Florence,  Italy,  in  May, 
1820,  and  during  the  course  of  her  study 
of  science,  mathematics  and  classics  with 
her  father,  showed  a  great  desire  to  lessen 
human  suffering,  so  much  so  that  in  1844 
she  began  a  tour  of  Europe,  looking  into  the 
condition  of  hospitals,  and  in  iSjji  entered 
upon  a  course  of  study  as  a  trained  nurse 
at  Kaiserswerth  on  the  Rhine.  On  Nov.  4, 
1854,  the  year  of  the  outbreak  of  the  Cri- 
mean War,  she  arrived  at  Scutari  with 
thirty  trained  nurses  and  took  charge  of  the 
military  hospitals  until  the  close  in  July  of 
1856.  She  then  turned  her  attention  to  the 
improvement  of  the  sanitary  condition  of 
the  army,  and  wrote  many  books  and  papers 
on  that  and  kindred  subjects,  among  them 
Notes  on  Nursing,  Notes  on  Hospitals,  Life 
or  Death  in  India,  -etc.  She  was  the  founder 
of  St.  Thomas'  Home  in  London  for  the 
training  of  nurses  and  the  recipient  of  a 
cross  from  the  late  Queen  Victoria  and  a 
bracelet  from  the  sultan  of  Turkey.  Long- 
fellow praised  her  in  Santa  Filomena.  See 
Liff  by  S.  A.  Tooley.  She  died  Aug.  13,  1910. 
Night'-Schools.  This  term  is  applied  to 
schools  giving  instruction  only  in  the  even- 
in  e  or  to  the  evening  classes  of  any  school. 


NIGHTSHADE 


1351 


NILE,  BATTLE  OF  THE 


The  pupils  are  usually  persons  who  are 
prevented  from  attending  day  schools  by 
their  regular  occupations. 

Night-schools  are  of  great  variety,  their 
nature  in  any  particular  locality  depending 
upon  local  needs.  Before  the  days  of  com- 
pulsory education  many  persons  took  ad- 
vantage of  this  means  of  remedying  defi- 
ciencies in  their  elementary  education.  At 
the  present  time  there  is  much  more  demand 
for  evening  classes  in  high  school  grade  of 
work  and  for  courses  in  trade  and  technical 
schools.  Evening  schools  are  of  earlier 
origin  and  more  highly  developed  in  Europe 
than  in  America.  In  many  cities  good  high- 
school  courses  are  now  offered  in  evening 
schools.  Many  of  the  best  trade  and  tech- 
nical institutes  give  evening  instruction 
equal  in  efficiency  to  that  given  in  their 
day  classes,  as  Pratt  Institute,  New  York; 
Maryland  Institute,  Baltimore;  and  Drexel 
Institute,  Philadelphia.  Most  business  and 
commercial  schools,  many  Y.  M.  C.  A.'s  and 
some  law  schools  give  evening  courses.  Much 
of  the  university  extension  and  university 
settlement  work  is  done  in  this  way. 

ISight'shade,  an  order  of  tropical  and 
subtropical  herbs  and  shrubs  and  a  few 
trees,  having  for  the  most  part  a  heavy, 
offensive  odor.  There  are  over  a  thousand 
species,  the  greatest  number  being  found  in 
Central  and  South  America.  The  leaves  have 
the  property  of  putting  to  sleep,  but  lose 
this  when  boiled.  The  typical  nightshade 
has  a  slender  stem,  pointed  oval  leaves, 
white  clustered  flowers  and  small  rounded 
black  berries.  The  several  kinds  are  known 
by  different  names  —  the  woody  nightshade 
as  bittersweet,  deadly  nightshade  as  bella- 
donna, and  enchanter  s  nightshade  as  circam. 

Ni'hilist,  now  used  as  designating  a  Rus- 
sian revolutionist.  It  was  first  so  introduced 
by  Turgenieff,  who  defined  a  nihilist  as  one 
who  "bows  before  no  authority  of  any  kind, 
and  accepts  on  faith  no  principle,  whatever 
veneration  surround  it.  The  nihilist  be- 
lieves in  no  institution  of  government,  prog- 
ress, or  art,  unless  it  be  by  and  for  the 
benefit  of  the  masses.  The  movement  with 
which  the  nihilist  is  identified  had  its  origin 
in  1860,  when  the  proposed  freeing  of  serfs 
was  prevented  by  the  influence  of  the  serf- 
owners  with  the  czar.  From  this  time  the 
nihilists  organized  societies  to  force  the 
adoption  of  a  new  constitution,  and  in  their 
efforts  resorted  to  violence  repeatedly,  going 
so  far  as  to  kill  czar  Alexander  II  on 
March  13,  1881.  For  alleged  crimes  pre- 
vious to  this  hundreds  were  sent  to/Siberia 
in  exile,  while  for  the  murder  of  Mexander 
II  many  were  hanged  and  hundreds  exiled. 
See  Russia  and  the  Siberian  Exiles  by 
George  Kennan. 

Nijnl-Novgorod.     See  NOVGOROD. 

Nikko  (nek'ko),  one  of  the  chief  religious 
centers  of  Japan,  is  beautifully  situated  in 
the  Nikko  Zan  (Mountains  of  the  Sun's 


Brightness),  about  eighty  miles  northwest 
of  Tokio.  A  Shinto  temple  seems  to  have 
existed  at  Nikko  from  time  immemorial,  and 
in  767  its  first  Buddhist  temple  was  founded; 
but  the  main  celebrity  of  the  place  is  due 
to  the  sepulchers  and  sanctuaries  of  lyeyasu 
and  lyemitsu,  the  first  and  third  shoguns  of 
the  Tokugawa  dynasty.  lyeyasu  was  buried 
here  with  amazing  pomp  in  1617.  His  tomb 
lies  forty  steps  higher  up  the  hills  than  the 
numerous  magnificent  temples  and  other 
structures  which  cluster  around  it.  Above 
the  tomb,  the  hill  on  which  it  stands  is 
covered  to  the  summit  with  trees  of  various 
tints,  while  below  are  a  vast  number  of 
temples,  shrines,  pagodas,  momiments  and 
religious  edifices  of  all  kinds,  to  which 
thousands  of  pilgrims  resort  every  year,  and 
by  whose  gifts  Nikko  has  been  thus  beauti- 
fied, making  it  one  of  the  most  attractive 
spots  in  all  Japan,  in  addition  to  being  the 
great  sanctuary  of  the  Shinto  cult. 

Nile,  a  great  river  of  Africa,  the  ancient 
Nilus,  the  second  longest  river  in  the  world 
and  the  sacred  river  of  the  Egyptians.  It  has 
its  source  at  the  southern  end  of  Lake 
Victoria  Nyanza,  and,  pouring  over  Ripon 
Falls,  runs  300  miles  to  join  Albert  Nyanza, 
20  miles  from  which  it  falls  120  feet  into  a 
deep  gorge,  and  flows  in  a  northerly  direc- 
tion into  the  Mediterranean.  At  7^  N.  the 
channel  is  divided  in  two,  only  to  join  again 
at  9^°,  to  be  called  the  White  Nile,  flowing 
thus  to  Khartum,  where  it  is  joined  by  the 
Blue  Nile,  950  miles  long.  These  augmented 
waters  flow  for  200  miles  before  they  are 
joined  by  the  Black  Nile.  Below  Khartum 
the  navigation  is  impeded  and  dangerous  on 
account  of  six  rapids.  The  Nile  begins  to 
rise  in  April  and  reaches  the  highest  point  in 
September,  often  causing  disastrous  floods. 
The  ancients  believed  that  the  river  rose  in 
Morocco  and  flowed  underground  for  several 
days'  journey,  rising  to  the  south  of  Ethio- 
pia, thence  passing  northward.  The  Em- 
peror Nero  first  began  the  investigations  of 
the  source  of  the  river  by  sending  out  two 
expeditions,  but  they  were  not  completed  in 
their  present  form  until  the  explorations  by 
Speke  in  1858,  by  Baker  and  Scbweinfurth 
in  1868-71  and  by  Stanley  in  1875  and 
1889.  The  total  fength  of  the  Nile  from 
Victoria  Nyanza  to  the  Mediterranean  is 
3,400  miles,  although  the  river  actually 
draws  its  water  as  far  as  250  miles  south  of 
Lake  Victoria.  See  the  wntings  of  the  ex- 
plorers named. 

Nile,  Battle  of  the,  was  fought  on  Aug. 
i,  1798,  in  the  Bay  of  Abukir,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Nile,  13  miles  northeast  of  Alexan- 
dria. Nelson  gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
French  fleet,  which  was  not  only  defeated, 
but  almost  annihilated.  In  1799  Napoleon 
defeated  a  Turkish  army  here,  and  in  1801 
Sir  Ralph  Abercromby's  British  expedition 
landed  in  the  face  of  the  enemy,  and  he 
met  his  death. 


NILSSON 


1352 


NITRIC  ACID 


NH'sson,  Christine,  a  Swedish  prima 
donna  and  operatic  singer,  was  born  near 
Wexio,  Sweden,  Aug.  3,  1843.  A.  magistrate 
was  impressed  by  her  singing  at  a  fair  in 
1857,  and  sent  her  to  Stockholm  and  Paris 
for  a  musical  education.  She  appeared  first 
in  Paris  in  La  Traviata  in  1864  and  in 
London  in  1867,  and  was  soon  ranked  among 
the  foremost  singers  on  the  modern  stage. 
In  1872  she  married  M.  Rouzaud,  and  in 
1887  the  Count  di  Miranda. 

Nimes  (nem) ,  the  capital  of  Card,  a  French 
department,  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  Cevennes. 
It  has  narrow,  crooked  streets,  and  its 
principal  interest  lies  in  the  Roman  _  re- 
mains; there  being  the  Corinthian  Maison 
Carrie,  now  a  museum;  an  amphitheatre 
seating  20,000;  a  mausoleum,  baths  and 
two  gates.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  large 
manufactories  of  silk,  cotton,  carpets,  shawls, 
wine,  brandy  etc.  Nimes  was  settled  from 
Marseilles  and  became  one  of  the  great 
cities  of  Gaul.  It  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Visigoths  (465),  Franks  (507)  and  Saracens 
(725);  then  it  belonged  to  Aragon;  but 
finally  it  came  into  the  possession  of  France 
in  1259  by  the  treaty  of  Corbeil.  Popula- 
tion 80,605. 

Nin'eveh,  the  famous  capital  of  the  As- 
syrian empire,  called  Nina  on  the  monu- 
ments, now  a  mass  of  ruins  called  Kuyvinjik. 
Though  the  city  appears  to  have  been  en- 
tirelv  destroyed  in  the  fall  of  the  empire, 
the  name  of  Nineveh  continued,  even  in  the 
middle  ages,  to  be  applied  to  a  site  opposite 
Mosul,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris,  where 
artificial  mounds  and  traces  of  an  ancient 
city  wall  gave  evidence  of  fallen  greatness. 
The  most  elaborate  defenses,  such  as  out- 
works and  moats,  can  still  be  traced  on  the 
southern  half  of  the  east  side;  for  this  part 
of  the  city  was  most  open  to  attack.  It 
was  not  until  the  excavations  of  Botta  in 
1842  and  of  Layard  in  1845,  that  anything 
definite  was  learned  of  the  life  and  history 
of  Assyria  from  its  monuments  and  library. 
Not  only  have  the  magnificent  remains  of 
Assyrian  architecture  and  sculpture  been 
laid  bare,  but  accompanying  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions throw  much  light  on  the  history 
of  the  city  and  its  buildings.  Nineveh 
proper  was  only  one  of  a  group  of  cities  and 
royal  residences  whose  ruins  still  mark  the 
plain  between  the  Tigris,  the  Great  Zab 
and  the  Khazir.  Nineveh  proper  appears  to 
have  been  the  chief  seat  of  empire.  But 
when  the  book  of  Jonah  speaks  of  Nineveh 
as  a  city  of  three  days'  journey,  it  is  plain 
that  the  name  is  applied  to  the  whole  group 
of  cities  between  the  Tigris  and  the  Zab. 
See  works  of  Layard.  Botta,  Flandin,  Sclira- 
der  and  Keilinsch.  See  also  Assyrian  Dis- 
coveries by  George  Smith. 

Nine'-Po'  ( City  of  the  Hospitable 
Waves),  a  traaty  port  of  the  province  of 
Che-Kiaag  in  China,  lies  16  miles  from  the 
mouth  «f  the  Nmg-Po  River;  ta  surrounded 


by  a  wall  25  feet  in  height  and  16  in  thick- 
ness. It  is  a  free  port,  exporting  sedge  hats, 
green  tea,  mats,  cuttlefish,  silk  goods  and 
raw  cotton,  and  importing  opium,  cotton 
and  woolen  goods,  tin  and  iron,  kerosene  oil, 
sugar,  tobacco  and  indigo.  Population  esti- 
mated at  400,000. 

Niobe  (ni'd-he),  according  to  Homer's 
story  of  mythology,  was  the  daughter  of 
Tantalus  and  wife  of  Amphion,  king  of 
Thebes,  to  whom  she  bore  six  sons  and  six 
daughters.  She  was  proud  of  her  children, 
and  despised  Latona,  who  had  only  two. 
For  this,  Latona  caused  her  children  to  slay 
all  Niobe's  with  arrows,  and  Niobe  herself 
was  turned  into  stone  on  Mount  Sipylus 
from  which  _  tears  flowed  all  summer.  A 
statue  of  Niobe  and  her  children  was  dis- 
covered in  Rome  in  1583. 

Nip'igon,  a  lake  and  also  a  river  and  a 
bay,  in  northwestern  Ontario,  Canada, 
through  which  river  and  bay  the  waters  of 
the  lake  flow  to  Lake  Superior  from  the 
north.  The  lake  lies  about  25  miles  north 
of  the  northernmost  part  of  Lake  Superior. 
It  is  70  miles  long  from  north  to  south  and 
45  miles  wide  from  east  to  west.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  lofty  shores,  abrupt  and  pre- 
cipitous in  many  places.  Its  shores  being 
indented  by  many  bays  measure,  it  is  esti- 
mated, nearly  600  miles  in  extent.  It  lies 
about  800  feet  above  the  level  of  Lake  Su- 
perior. Its  waters  are  fed  by  many  moun- 
tain streams,  and  being  very  deep  and  cold 
it  is  celebrated  for  the  excellence  of  its  Sstu 
Being  thickly  studded  with  islands,  it  has 
become  a  favorite  resort  for  sportsmen  and 
others  from  the  northern  United  States.  It 
is  said  to  have  in  January  a  mean  tempera- 
ture of  but  seven  degrees  above  zero,  or 
that  of  Godthaab  in  Greenland,  and  in  July 
the  mean  temperature  of  San  Francisco.  By 
some  authorities  the  name  is  spelled  Nepigon. 

Nippur7,  a  city  of  Babylonia,  situated  be- 
tween the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  100  miles  southeast  from 
Bagdad  and  about  50  miles  from  the  site 
of  ancient  Babylon.  The  mound  which  cov- 
ers the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  was  first 
made  the  object  of  study  by  Sir  Austen 
Layard  in  1851.  The  expedition  sent  out  by 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  began  work 
upon  this  mound  in  February,  1889.  The 
excavations  so  carried  on  revealed  the  site 
of  a  city  of  jjreat  importance,  one  of  the 
chief  commercial  and  military  centers  of  the 
ancient  east.  The  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania possesses  a  large  and  important  col- 
lection of  relics  brought  from  this  site. 

Ni'ter.     See  SALTPETER. 

Ni'tric  Acid  (HNO,),  is  one  of  the  most 
important  acids.  It  was  formerly,  and  some- 
times is  still,  called  aqua  fortis.  It  is  pre- 
pared by  distilling  a  mixture  of  saltpeter, 
usually  the  cheaper  Chile  variety  (sodium 
nitrate) ,  with  sulphuric  acid.  The  strongest 
nitric  acid  is  about  half  again  as  heavy  as 


NITROGEN 


1353 


NITROGEN-GATHERING  CROPS 


water,  and  is  an  intensely  corrosive  liquid, 
which  is  colorless  when  pure,  but  is  usually 
colored  yellow  by  the  presence  of  lower  ox- 
ides of  nitrogen.  It  fumes  in  the  air,  colors 
the  skin  yellow,  producing  painful  burns,  and 
usually  dissolves  or  oxidizes  all  the  com- 
moner metals  except  gold  and  platinum,  with 
the  violent  expulsion  of  choking,  red  fumes. 
Aluminum  is  dissolved  but  slowly  by  it,  and 
in  some  instances  the  strong  acid  must  be 
diluted  with  water  before  it  will  act  upon 
a  metal.  Dilute  nitric  acid  is  generally  less 
active  the  more  water  it  contains.  Strong 
nitric  acid,  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid,  acts 
upon  cotton  and  glycerine  to  form  the  ex- 
plosives, guncotton  and  nitroglycerin.  Nitric 
acid  is  extensively  used  in  chemical  opera- 
tions, particularly  to  dissolve  metals  and 
to  oxidize  substances.  When  the  metals  or 
their  oxides  or  carbonates  dissolve  in  this 
acid,  salts  called  nitrates  are  produced. 
Mixed  with  hydrochloric  acid,  nitric  acid 
forms  aqua  regia  (royal  water),  which  is 
capable  of  dissolving  gold  and  other  sub- 
stances that  are  not  attacked  by  a  single 
acid.  Nitric  acid  is  also  used  to  some  extent 
in  medicine.  HORACE  L.  WELLS. 

Ni'trogen  is  an  elementary  gas  which  in 
the  free  state  forms  nearly  four  fifths  _by 
volume  of  our  atmosphere.  In  combination 
with  other  elements,  nitrogen  is  a  necessary 
constituent  of  all  plants  and  animals,  and 
it  forms  a  very  large  number  of  important 
compounds,  both  natural  and  artificial.  Its 
presence  in  the  atmosphere  was  discovered 
in  1772  by  Rutherford,  at  that  time  profes- 
sor of  botany  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
It  was  more  particularly  investigated  soon 
after  by  Priestley,  Scheele,  Cavendish  and 
Lavoisier.  It  is  a  colorless,  tasteless,  odor- 
less gas,  and  was  formerly  regarded  as  per- 
manent and  incondensable;  but  it  can  be 
liquefied  at  a  sufficiently  low  temperature. 
Nitrogen  is  slightly  lighter  than  atmospheric 
air,  and  is  fourteen  times  as  heavy  as  hy- 
drogen. It  is  but  slightly  soluble  in  water, 
one  hundred  volumes  of  water  at  ordinary 
temperature  dissolving  only  one  and  a  half 
volumes  of  nitrogen. 

While  nitrogen  is  a  constituent  of  all 
plant  and  animal  organisms  and  of  many 
important  compounds,  it  is,  in  a  free  state, 
rather  inert  toward  other  elements  and  does 
not  readily  enter  into  direct  combination 
with  them.  It  is  not  combustible,  nor  does 
it  act  in  the  atmosphere  as  a  supporter  of 
combustion,  as  a  lighted  taper  plunged  into 
a  jar  of  nitrogen  will  at  once  be  e/ain- 
guished.  Nitrogen  is  not  poisonous,  since  it 
is  breathed  freely  along  with  oxygen  by  all 
animals;  but  it  cannot  support  life,  and 
an  animal  placed  in  it  will  die  from  suffoca- 
tion for  want  of  the  oxygen  necessary  for 
breathing.  Its  function  in  the  atmosphere 
seeeas  to  be  mainly  that  of  diluting  the 
oxygen  with  which  it  is  there  associated.  Al- 
though nitrogen  forms  about  79.1  per  cent. 


of  the  total  volume,  and  77  per  cent,  of  the 
total  weight,  of  the  atmosphere,  the  free  gas 
cannot  be  taken  up  by  plants  directly,  but 
it  is  combined  with  other  elements  through 
the  agency  of  certain  bacteria  that  exist  in 
nodules  on  the  roots  of  leguminous  plants, 
that  is,  those  that  are  related  to  clover,  peas 
etc.  Other  plants,  particularly  grasses  and 
grains  which  require  much  nitrogen,  are  de- 
pendent upon  the  combined  nitrogen  of  the 
soil;  lience  nitrogenous  fertilizers,  such  as 
dried  blood,  ammonium  salts  and  nitrates, 
as  well  as  ordinary  manures,  are  important 
in  agriculture  for  use  on  soils  containing 
insufficient  nitrogen.  Two  of  the  important 
compounds  of  nitrogen  are  nitric  acid  and 
ammonia.  This  element  also  is  an  essential 
constituent  of  the  proteids  or  albuminoids, 
which  make  an  important  part  of  our  food, 
as  well  as  of  the  alkaloids,  most  of  the  dyes 
and  a  host  of  other  natural  and  artificial 
compounds.  H.  L.  WELLS. 

Nitrogen-Gathering  Crops  all  belong  to 
the  family  of  leguminous  plants  or  Legu- 
minosece,  having  irregular,  conspicuous  flow- 
ers or  clusters  and  seeds  in  pods.  The  bean 
and  pea  are  good  examples.  The  clovers  do 
not  seem  at  first  sight  to  answer  this  de- 
scription. All  have  abundant  foliage,  root 
deeply,  and  are  remarkable  for  their  ability 
to  take  pure  nitrogen  from  the  soil  and 
store  it  up  in  form  available  as  plant  and 
animal  food.  This  is  done  by  means  of 
germ-like  organisms  which  grow  inside  of 
tiny  lumps  on  the  roots.  These  nodules 
can  be  seen  by  washing  the  earth  from  the 
roots  of  any  of  these  plants,  and  range  in 
size  from  that  of  a  pin-head  to  that  of  a 
small  pea.  These  nodules  will  not  appear 
on  clover  roots  if  none  of  the  germs  exist 
in  the  soil.  Such  a  soil  can  now  be  inocu- 
lated with  the  germs  by  applying  a  solution 
containing  them.  The  germs  are  put  up  in 
dry  form  like  yeast-cakes  and  can  be  ob- 
tained from  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and  be  dissolved  to  make  the  solution.  The 
nitrifying  action  goes  on  best  in  well-ven- 
tilated soils.  In  poorly  drained  soils  just 
the  opposite  process,  denitrification,  is  apt 
to  occur,  reducing  plant  food  to  unavailable 
simple  nitrogen.  The  subject  of  nitrifying 
bacteria  is  very  complex,  as  they  possibly 
also  exert  a  fermenting  influence  on  the 
minerals  of  the  soil.  Experiments  have 
shown  that  an  acre  of  cowpeas  at  the 
Louisiana  Experiment  Station  produced  65 
pounds  of  nitrogen,  and  an  acre  of  crimson 
clover  at  Cornell  University  produced  156 
pounds,  30  of  which  were  m  the  roots. 
Other  clovers  produce  a  greater  proportion 
in  the  roots,  as  the  mammoth  clover,  with 
78  pounds  in  the  roots  out  of  a  total  of 
146  pounds.  It  grows  best  in  wet  soils 
that  usually  are  deficient  in  nitrogen,  and 
so  leaves  much  in  the  soil  when  the  tcps 
are  cut  off.  Red  clover,  the  usual  variety 
grown  on  ioams  and  heavier  clays,  contained, 


NITROGLYCERIN 


1354 


NORDENSKJOLD 


in  the  experiment,  40  pounds  in  the  roots 
out  of  a  total  of  103  pounds.  A  low  esti- 
mate of  the  market  value  of  nitrogen  is 
between  15  and  20  cents  a  pound.  See 
Moore's  Soil  Inoculation  with  Legumes  and 
Wood's  Inoculation  of  Soil  unth  Nitrogen- 
Fixing  Bacteria,  both  bulletins  of  the  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Ni'troglyc'erin,  a  powerful  explosive,  is 
formed  by  dissolving  glycerin  in  equal  parts 
of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids  and  pouring  into 
water.  The  process  was  discovered  in  1846 
by  an  Italian  chemist  named  Sobrero,  but  it 
was  not  used  for  blasting  purposes  until 
Nobel,  a  Swedish  engineer,  used  it  in  1861. 
The  danger  of  explosion  was  so  great  in 
handling  it  that  its  mixtures  with  powdered 
substances,  especially  dynamite,  are  now 
chiefly  used.  If  lighted  in  the  open  air,  it 
will  burn  usually  slowly  without  an  explo- 
sion, but  if  given  a  hard  blow  or  brought 
into  contact  with  a  red-hot  iron  it  will 
explode.  It  begins  to  decompose  at  150° 
to  180°  F.,  and  explodes  at  450°,  also  if 
allowed  to  become  solid  at  from  40°  to  45° 
F. ;  a  breaking  of  the  crystals  in  this  form 
may  cause  an  explosion.  It  has  thirteen 
times  the  power  of  the  same  bulk  of  gun- 
powder and  eight  times  the  power  of  the 
same  weight.  It  is  also  used  in  solution 
for  treating  some  diseases  of  the  heart  and 
stomach. 

No'bel  Fund,  The,  is  a  fund  of  $9,200,000 
which  was  founded  by  Alfred  Bernard  Nobel, 
the  famous  Swedish  inventor,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  providing  five  annual  prizes.  Nobel 
took  out  the  first  patent  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  nitroglycerine  in  1863,  and  in  1867 
he  invented  one  of  the  most  useful  of  ex- 
plosives, dynamite.  The  objects  for  which 
his  prizes  are  given  are  these :  the  most 
important  discovery  in  physics,  the  most 
important  discovery  in  chemistry,  the  most 
important  discovery  in  medical  science,  the 
work  of  best  literary  genius  and  the  best 
contribution  to  universal  peace.  The  first 
awards  were  made  in  1901.  The  peace-prize 
was  awarded  in  1907  to  President  Roose- 
velt of  the  United  States  of  America. 

Node,  the  distinct  joint  formed  by  stems 
from  which  the  leaves  and  branches  arise. 
The  portions  of  the  stem  between  the  nodes 
are  known  as  internodes. 

Nogi,  General  Ki-Teu,  a  Japanese  soldier 
or  samurai,  born  in  Choshu  in  1851.  He 
served  in  the  Satsuma  Rebellion  and,  later, 
was  made  governor-general  of  Formosa.  He 
received  the  rank  of  general  on  June  6th, 
1904;  commanded  the  third  army  in  Man- 
churia in  the  Russo-Japanese  war,  rendering 
valuable  service  in  the  Battle  of  Mukden; 
and  led  the  forces  that  captured  Port  Arthur. 
He  bore  the  reputation  of  being  a  model 
soldier  according  to  the  most  rigorous  and 
ancient  standards.  This  is  considered  the 
more  remarkable,  as  Choshu  men  generally 
are  credited  not  so  much  with  courage  as 


sagacity.  Following  an  ancient  Japanese 
custom,  General  Nogi  and  his  wife  com- 
mitted suicide  at  their  home,  Sept.  13,  1912, 
just  as  the  body  of  their  late  emperor, 
Mutsuhito  (q.  v.)  ,was  being  taken  fromTokio 
for  burial. 

Nome,  the  chief  town  of  Alaska,  is  a  large 
and  flourishing  port  on  Bering  Sea,  at  the 
mouth  of  Snake  River.  The  richest  known 
gold-fields  in  Alaska  lie  within  the  Cape 
Nome  district  near  Nome.  The  city  sprang 
up  like  a  mushroom;  for  in  1899  there  were 
as  yet  no  -nfcoden  dwellings;  while  in  1907 
a  water  supply,  sewage,  an  electric  lighting 
plant,  a  railroad  and  the  telephone  indicated 
that  the  stage  of  mining  camp  had  gone  for- 
ever. Population  about  2,600. 

Nor'dau,  Max  Simon,  a  Hungarian  physi- 
cian and  author,  the  most  ardent  of  Zion- 
ists, was  born  at  Budapest,  July  29,  1849, 
of  Jewish  ancestry.  He  came  into  public 
notice  by  his  work  entitled  Degeneration, 
published  in  1895,  m  which  he  argued  pow- 
erfully in  defense  of  the  proposition  that  the 
occidental  nations  are  degenerating,  morally, 
mentally  and  physically.  He  held  that  in 
politics,  society  and  faith  the  age  is  thor- 
oughly decadent.  The  work  evoked  many 
replies,  which  kept  it  continually  before  the 
public.  He  had  been  writing  for  almost 
twenty  years  before,  but  only  a  few  of  his 
volumes  had  been  translated  into  English. 
The  best  known  of  his  works  are  Paradoxes 
and  The  Malady  of  the  Century,  Since  the 
publication  of  Degeneration,  he  has  issued 
The  Comedy  of  Sentiment,  The  Right  to  Love, 
The  Drones  must  Die  and  others  of  limited 
circulation. 

Nordenskjbld  (no'rden-sheV),  Nils  Adolf 
Erik,  Baron,  an  arctic  explorer,  was  born  at 

Helsingf  ors, 
Finland,  Nov. 
18,  1832.  He 
was  naturalized 
in  Sweden  in 
1857,  and  in 
1858  was  made 
head  of  the 
mineralogical 
department  of 
•*v  the  royal  mu- 
^~  seum  at  Stock- 
h  o  1  m.  He 
mapped  the 
south  of  Spitz- 
bergen,  and  aft- 
er two  trips  to 
of 


BARON     NORDENSKJOLD 

the  Yenesei  he  completed  the  navigation  of 
the  northeast  passage  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific,  from  June,  1878,  to  September, 
1879,  in  the  Vega.  On  the  last  of  his  two 
voyages  to  Greenland,  in  1883,  he  traveled 
140  miles  from  the  east  coast.  He  was  made 
a  baron  in  1880,  and  has  written  Voyage  of 
the  Vega  round  Asia  and  Europe,  Scien- 
tific Results  of  the  Vega  Expedition,  and 


NORDHOFF 


U55 


NORMAL  SCHOOLS 


Studies  and  Investigations.  He  died  in  1901. 
See  A.  Leslie's  Arctic  Voyages  of  A.  E. 
Nordenskjold. 

Nord'hoff,  Charles,  an  American  authors 
was  born  at  Erwitte,  Prussia,  Aug.  31,  1830. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  with  his 
parents  when  a  child  of  five  years,  and  was 
educated  at  Cincinnati.  He  entered  the 
United  States  navy  in  1844,  and  during  a 
service  of  three  years  made  a  voyage  around 
the  world.  He  became  a  journalist,  first  at 
Philadelphia  and  later  at  Indianapolis.  From 
1 86 1  to  1871  he  was  editorial  writer  for  the 
New  York  Evening  Post.  The  next  two 
years  he  spent  in  travel  through  California 
and  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  He  then  became 
Washington  correspondent  for  the  New  York 
Herald.  His  principal  works  are  A  Man-of- 
War  Life,  The  Merchant  Vessel,  Whaling  and 
Fishing,  Stories  of  an  Island  World,  Cape 
Cod  and  All  Along  Shore,  California,  Politics 
for  Young  Americans  and  The  Communistic 
Societies  of  the  United  States. 

Nor'dica,  Lillian,  the  stage  name  of 
Mrs.  Zoltan  F.  Dome,  an  American  prima 
donna,  who  was 
born  at  Farming- 
ton,  Me.,  in  1859. 
Her  musical  edu- 
cation was  pursued 
at  the  New  Eng- 
land Conservatory, 
Boston,  and  her 
later  studies  at 
Milan,  Italy.  She 
made  her  de"but  as 
an  opera  singer  at 
Brescia,  Italy,  in 
La  Traviata.  In 
1887  she  appeared 
in  London  with 
marked  success, 
following  up  her  triumphs  in  Paris  by  others 
at  St.  Petersburg  and  various  European  cap- 
itals. Mme.  Nordica  sung  leading  parts  in 
forty  operas  and  in  all  the  standard  oratorios. 
She  was  married  first  to  F.  A.  Gower;  second 
(1896)  to  Herr  Dome,  whom  she  divorced  in 
1904.  She  died  in  1914. 

Norfolk,  Va.,  a  city  and  port,  stands 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elizabeth  River, 
about  eight  miles  from  Hampton  Roads.  It 
is  built  irregularly  on  low  ground,  but  has 
a  large,  deep  harbor,  defended  by  Fort  Cal- 
houn  and  Fortress  Monroe.  The  city  con- 
tains a  city  hall,  mechanics'  and  masons' 
hall,  custom  house,  military  academy  andk" 
seminary;  it  has  an  excellent  system  rtf 
public  schools  and  owns  eighteen  buildings. 
Norfolk  ships  cotton,  oysters  and  early 
fruits,  is  the  largest  peanut  market  in  the 
world,  and  is  the  fourth  cotton  port  of  the 
US.  It  is  served  by  eleven  railroads, 
winch  find  their  deep-water  terminus  here. 
I  'he  y>lace  was  burned  by  the  British  in  1776. 
and  was  the  scene  of  the  battle  between  the 
Monitor  and  Merrimoc.  Population  67,452. 


LILLIAN   NORDICA 


Nor'mal  Schools.  From  time  to  time 
throughout  the  history  of  education  the  need 
of  special  training  for  teachers  has  been  em- 
phasized. This  training  aimed,  however, 
until  comparatively  modern  times,  at  better 
mastery  of  subjects  to  be  taught,  and  was 
not  obtained  in  schools  especially  devoted 
to  the  science  and  art  of  teaching.  The 
Jesuits  were  famous  for  the  care  with  which 
their  teachers  were  selected,  for  the  thor- 
oughness of  their  training  in  subject  matter 
and  for  their  system  of  apprenticeship  in 
teaching.  Mulcaster  (1548-1611),  an  Eng- 
lish schoolmaster,  urged  that  the  universities 
provide  professional  courses  for  teachers.  In 
1685  La  Salle,  the  founder  of  the  Institute 
of  the  Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools, 
established  at  Rheims  an  institution  for  the 
training  of  elementary  teachers,  very  likely 
the  first  of  the  kind.  Special  training  of 
teachers  was  begun  at  Halle  by  the  educa- 
tional reformer,  Francke,  in  1697.  His  plans 
were  further  developed  by  his  pupil,  Hecter, 
and  fostered  by  Frederick  the  Great  of 
Prussia.  The  present  normal  school  system 
of  Prussia  was  established  in  1819.  Ele- 
mentary teachers  in  Prussia  are  to-day 
nearly  all  graduates  of  these  normal  schools. 
In  France  the  National  Normal  School  was 
founded  in  1795.  Normal  schools  became 
general  after  1832,  and  to-day  about  two 
thirds  of  the  elementary  teachers  of  France 
have  graduated  from  them.  In  both  Prussia 
and  France  students  are  supported  while  in 
attendance  upon  normal  schools.  After 
graduation  they  are  required  to  teach.  Both 
countries  maintain  two  grades  of  schools 
for  teachers.  The  lower  one  gives  to  gradu- 
ates of  the  elementary  schools  a  three  years' 
course  that  prepares  them  for  elementary 
teaching.  Upon  graduation  they  are  ap- 
pointed, at  first  on  probation,  when,  if 
successful,  they  receive  permanent  certifi- 
cates. In  Germany  most  of  the  secondary 
teachers  are  trained  in  the  teachers'  semi- 
naries, which  are  connected  with  gymnasi- 
ums or  universities  and  as  a  rule  give  a 
course  of  one  year's  teaching  and  one  year 
of  practice.  France  possesses  two  higher 
normal  schools,  giving  courses  of  two  and 
three  years  respectively,  which  prepare 
teachers  for  the  primary  normal  and  the 
superior  normal  schools.  The  normal 
schools  in  Great  Britain  sprang  out  of  an 
effort  to  improve  the  teaching  done  in  the 
schools  of  the  great  charitable  public  school 
societies.  In  1839  money  was  granted  by 
the  government  to  be  used  by  them  in 
establishing  training  colleges.  From  these 
are  derived  a  large  part  of  the  teachers 
in  the  public  elementary  schools  of  England 
to-day.  They  still  remain. .as  originally, 
under  denominational  control.  In  the  United 
States  the  first  public  normal  school  was 
established  at  Lexington.  Massachusetts,  in 
1839.  It  was  the  result  of  agitation  in 
behalf  of  better  training  for  teachers  begun 


NORMAN 


1356 


NORNS 


by  Tames  G.  Carter  in  1820  and  continued 
by  Charles  Brooks  and  especially  by  Horace 
Mann.  To-day  every  state  but  Delaware 
contains  one  or  more  normal  schools.  In 
1905  there  were  in  the  United  States  179 
public  and  89  private  normal  schools.  The 
majority  of  these  admit  students  who  have 
graduated  from  the  elementary  schools,  giv- 
ing them  a  four  years'  course  in  preparation 
for  elementary  teaching.  A  great  many, 
however,  admit  only  those  who  have  com- 
pleted a  high  school  course  or  its  equivalent, 
and  offer  to  these  a  course  of  two  years. 
In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  drift 
is  toward  the  latter  type  of  school.  The 
normal  school  is  thus  enabled  largely  to 
withdraw  its  attention  from  purely  academic 
subjects  and  to  devote  it  to  professional  ones. 
It  is  necessary,  of  course,  to  review  the 
subjects  in  the  elementary  curriculum.  But 
this  review  can  be  obtained  in  connection 
with  the  study  of  methods  of  teaching  them 
or  from  actual  practice  in  teaching  them,  in 
practice  schools.  The  tendency  toward 
making  the  normal  school  a  purely  profes- 
sional school  has  been  going  on  ever  since 
its  establishment.  At  first  it  was  for  the 
sake  of  securing  better  informed  rather  than 
better  trained  teachers,  and  this  may  be 
said  of  the  normal  schools  in  Europe  as 
well  as  of  those  in  the  United  States. 
Eventually,  as  the  general  system  of  schools 
is  rendered  more  efficient,  it  becomes  possi- 
ble to  hand  over  to  this  the  responsibility 
for  such  general  information  as  the  teacher 
needs,  reserving  for  the  normal  school  such 
study  as  is  specially  aimed  toward  fitting 
for  teaching.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  prac- 
tice teaching  under  a  critic  teacher  is  prob- 
ably the  most  valuable  part  of  such  work, 
and  most  normal  schools  in  the  United 
States  as  well  as  in  Europe  control  element- 
ary schools  in  which  this  teaching  is  done. 
In  this  respect  the  normal  schools  possess 
an  advantage  over  the  departments  of  edu- 
cation that  have  come  to  exist  quite  gen- 
erally in  the  American  colleges  and  univer- 
sities, very  few  of  which  have  any  facilities 
for  practice  teaching.  It  is  true  that  college 
graduates  who  teach  go  especially  into  sec- 
ondary and  higher  schools,  needing  in  con- 
sequence much  more  knowledge  of  subject 
matter  than  is  required  of  elementary  teach- 
ers. But  although  familiarity  with  his  sub- 
ject is  the  prime  essential  for  any  teacher, 
knowledge  of  how  to  teach  is  scarcely  less 
important,  and  this  holds  of  the  teacher  in 
high  schools  and  colleges  as  well  as  of  those 
in  the  primary  schools.  The  failure  to  real- 
ize this  is  doubtless  the  cause  of  the  increase 
of  bad  teaching  as  we  go  from  the  primary 
school  to  the  university.  The  lack  of  oppor- 
tunities for  professional  training  for  second- 
ary and  college  teachers  has  caused  some 
normal  schools  intended  originally  for  the 
training  of  elementary  teachers  to  under- 
take the  preparation  of  secondary  ones  as 


well.  It  is  probable  that  such  work  can 
not  be  done  in  teachers'  colleges  connected 
with  universities  or  in  universities  the  de- 
partments of  education  of  which  possess 
practice  schools.  The  committee  on  normal 
schools  of  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion recommends  the  following  program  for 
a  four  years'  course :  arithmetic,  elementary 
algebra,  plane  geometry,  English  grammar, 
English,  elements  of  rhetoric,  zoology,  bot- 
any, physiography,  physics,  chemistry,  na- 
ture-study, penmanship,  drawing,  manual 
training  (either  domestic  science  or  sloyd 
or  both),  reading,  music,  fine  arts,  sociology, 
history,  civics,  economics,  folk-lore,  general 
physical  education,  gymnastics,  games, 
school  sanitation,  psychology,  pedagogy,  ob- 
servation and  teaching  in  the  training-school. 
The  last  four  should  be  taken  for  a  year 
each,  and  together  they  should  amount  to 
one  fourth  of  the  entire  course.  Many  of 
the  other  subjects  would  disappear  in  case 
the  school  admits  only  high-school  gradu- 
ates. Compare  Modern  Education,  Element- 
ary Schools  and  Secondary  Schools. 

Nor'man,  Henry,  an  English  journalist, 
was  born  at  Leicester,  England,  Sept.  19, 
1858.  He  studied,  however,  in  this  country, 
graduating  from  Harvard  College  in  1881 
and  passing  the  next  two  years  at  Leipsic, 
Germany.  He  then  accepted  a  position  on 
the  Pall  Mall  Gazette,  London,  and  later 
became  associate-editor  of  the  Daily  Chron- 
icle. He  has  published  works  upon  China, 
Corea,  Japan,  Siberia  and  The  Balkans.  He 
has  in  recent  years  published  The  Real  Japan, 
The  Peoples  and  Politics  of  the  Far  East, 
The  Near  East,  All  the  Russias  and  Motors 
and  Men. 

Nor'mandy,  an  ancient  province  of  France 
bordering  on  the  English  Channel  .^comprises 
at  present  an  area  of  about  10,500  square 
miles,  divided  into  the  departments  of  the 
Seine-inferieure,  Eure,  Orne,  Calvados  and 
Manche.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  the  popu- 
lation about  2,500,000.  The  present  inhabi- 
tants are  lineally  descended  from  the  ancient 
Normans,  whose  duke,  William  the  Con- 
queror, in  1066  invaded  England  and  estab- 
lished his  dynasty  upon  the  throne  of  that 
country.  England  and  Normandy  were  thus 
under  the  same  rulers  until  1204,  when 
Philip  Augustus  conquered  Normandy  and 
made  it  a  part  of  France.  It  was  recon- 
quered by  the  English  in  1415  at  Agincourt, 
but  again  wrested  from  them  by  Charles  VII 
in  1449.  The  people  are  hardy,  industrious 
and  exceedingly  proud  of  their  history.  Their 
language  and  their  art  have  left  abiding 
evidences  of  their  value  upon  the  literature 
and  architecture  of  France.  The  chief  city 
of  the  region  is  Rouen  (population  124,987). 

Nor'mans.     See  NORTHMEN. 

Norns.  The  fates  of  Scandinavian  or 
Norse  mythology  were  three  maids  named 
Urd,  Verdandi  and  Skuld,  meaning  past, 
present  and  future.  They  were  supposed 


NORRISTOWN 


1357 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


to  sit  by  the  well  of  Urd,  under  the  world 
tree  in  Asgard,  and  determine  the  fate  of 
gods  and  men.  There  also  were  lesser  norns, 
all  working  on  the  destinies  of  man. 

Nor'ristown,  Pa.,  a  borough,  the  county- 
seat  of  Montgomery  County,  stands  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Schuylkill  and  is  a  suburb 
of  Philadelphia.  It  contains  a  marble  court- 
house, a  state  insane  asylum,  cotton  mills, 
woolen  factories,  rolling  mills,  foundries, 
flour  mills  and  glass  and  tack  factories. 
Population  27,875. 

North  A' darns,  a  manufacturing  town  of 
Massachusetts,  is  situated  on  Hoosac  River, 
at  the  junction  of  the  north  and  south  branch, 
near  the  west  end  of  Hoosac  Tunnel,  143 
miles  from  Boston.  It  has  large  cotton  and 
woolen  mills,  shoe  and  print  factories,  ma- 
chine shops,  leather  manufactories  and 
foundries.  Here  are  a  State  Normal  School, 
public  and  parish  schools,  high  schools  and 
the  North  Adams  Library.  Population  22,- 
019. 

North  America.     See  AMERICA. 

North  Bay,  Ont.,  Can.,  an  important  rail- 
way town  and  judicial  center  of  Nipissing 
District.  It  is  a  divisional  point  of  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway;  the  junction  also 
of  Temiskaming  Railway  and  the  northern 
division  of  the  Grand  Trunk.  It  is  on  Lake 
Nipissing.  Population  5,000.  A  smelter 
for  the  reduction  of  ores  is  located  at  Trout 
Lake,  three  miles  distant. 

North  Cape,  the  extreme  north  of  Europe, 
is  not  on  the  continent,  but  is  a  promontory 
on  the  island  of  MagerSe.  The  continental 
extremity  is  Cape  Nordkyn,  six  miles  south 
and  45  east  of  North  Cape. 

North  Car'olina,  one  of  the  original 
13  states  of  the  United  States,  lies  on  the 
Atlantic  seaboard,  directly  below  Virginia, 
and  has  an  area  of  52,250  square  miles, 
that  is,  7,000  square  miles  larger  than  Penn- 
sylvania. 

Drainage  and  Surface.  The  eastern  part 
of  the  state  is  low  and  often  marshy,  rising 
gradually  to  the  North  Carolina  mountains 
m  the  west,  with  Mount  Mitchell  (6,688 
feet)  for  their  highest  point.  The  principal 
ranges  traversing  the  state  are  the  Blue 
Ridge,  the  Great  Smoky  Range,  the  Black 
and  the  Balsam  Mountains.  Albemarle  and 
Pamlico  are  the  two  important  sounds,  and 
of  the  lakes  Mattamuskeet  is  the  largest, 
having  an  area  of  100  square  miles.  Drain- 
age follows  the  general  slope  of  the  land 
toward  the  southeast,  and  the  principal 
rivers  are  the  Catawba,  Yadkin,  Roanoke, 
Neuse,  Tar  and  Chowan. 

Natural  Resources.  North  Carolina  is  rich 
in  minerals;  gold,  silver,  lead,  zinc,  copper, 
plumbago,  corundum  and  mica  are  widely 
distributed.  Most  important,  however,  are 
the  immense  deposits  of  iron  and  coal. 
Phosphate  rock  is  found  in  great  abundance, 
white  and  gray  granite  and  sandstone  quar- 
ries are  quite  numerous,  while  marble  and 


tin  are  also  found.  From  the  exte«aiv« 
forests  of  long-leaved  pine,  large  quantities 
of  tar,  resin  and  turpentine  are  shipped 
every  year.  Other  varieties  of  trees  are 
walnut,  holly,  birch,  ash,  cedar,  maple, 
hickory,  magnolia  and  many  others.  The 
river  and  coast  fisheries  represent  an  annual 
source  of  income  to  several  thousand  people. 
The  government  hatchery  for  shad  and  her- 
ring is  at  Edenton,  and  for  rock  bass  and 
salmon  at  Weldon.  The  oyster  and  shell 
fish  industry  is  of  great  value,  oysters  of 
a  fine  quality  and  much  prized  coming  from 
New  River. 

Agriculture.  Agriculture  also  is  an  impor- 
tant interest,  large  crops  of  corn,  cotton, 
wheat,  rice,  oats,  hay,  flax,  buckwheat,  to- 
bacco and  sweet  potatoes  being  produced. 
In  the  production  of  tobacco  North  Caro- 
lina is  second  only  to  Kentucky.  Truck- 
farming  has  become  quite  important  of 
recent  years,  as  are  also  the  cultivation  of 
the  grape  and  the  raising  of  stock. 

Industries.  While  the  rivers  of  North 
Carolina  are  non-navigable  because  of  their 
fall  at  the  old  shore-line  of  the  ocean,  they 
have  been  turned  into  streams  of  vast 
power  through  the  same  agency.  The  state 
has  water-power  unsurpassed  and  scarcely 
equalled  in  any  other.  It  leads  the  south- 
ern states  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
goods  and  extensively  manufactures  to- 
bacco, cigars  and  lumber  products.  Among 
her  other  industries  are  flour  and  grist 
milling,  the  tanning  and  curing  of  leather, 
the  making  of  machinery,  liquors,  utensils 
and  fertilizers. 

Education.  A  public  school  fund  was 
provided  in  North  Carolina  in  1825,  and 
in  1840  her  public-school  system  was  estab- 
lished. The  state  appropriations  are  aided 
by  local  taxation  in  the  larger  towns.  There 
is  an  equal  distribution  of  educational  funds 
between  the  races,  and  an  annual  provision 
is  made  for  normal  institutes  for  both  colored 
and  white  teachers.  The  higher  state  edu- 
cational institutions  are  the  state  univer- 
sity established  at  Chapel  Hill  in  1789,  the 
state  agricultural  and  mechanical  college 
at  Raleigh,  and  a  state  college  for  women 
at  Greensboro.  There  are  many  sectarian 
colleges,  several  women's  colleges  and  three 
colleges  for  colored  people.  The  state  li- 
brary is  at  Raleigh,  the  university  and  the 
various  colleges  have  their  libraries,  public 
libraries  are  in  many  cities,  and  there  is 

/a  state  appropriation  for  libraries  in  the 

'rural  districts. 

History.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  first  placed 
colonies  in  the  state  in  1585-86-87,  but  none 
became  permanent.  In  1629  it  was  given 
to  Sir  Robert  Heath  by  Charles  I,  and  in 
1653  some  Virginia  colonists  settled  on  the 
banks  of  the  Roanoke  and  Chowan  Riv«ss. 
Later  large  numbers  of  emigrants  from  Scot- 
land and  the  north  of  Ireland  and  a  com- 
pany of  Moravians  settled  in  the  colony.  It 


NORTH  CAROLINA,  UNIV.  OP 


1358 


NORTH  DAKOTA 


became  a  royal  province  in  1729,  and  so 
remained  until  May  20,  1775,  when  it  de- 
clared its  independence,  the  Mecklenberg 
Declaration  of  Independence  (q.v.)  being 
passed  in  convention  at  Charlotte  on  the  date 
named.  It  was  the  lath  state  to  ratify  the 
constitution.  It  was  the  last  of  the  1 1  states 
to  secede  from  the  Union  in  1861,  but  ear- 
nestly supported  the  Confederacy,  furnishing 
soldiers  to  the  Confederate  army  in  excess 
of  the  voting  population  of  the  state.  North 
Carolina  has  advanced  greatly  in  recent 
years,  in  trade  and  manufacturing  industries. 
Population  2,418,559. 

North  Carolina,  University  of,  was  the 
second  state-university  founded  in  America. 
Its  charter  was  granted  in  1789,  it  began 
teaching  in  1795,'  and  work  went  on  unin- 
terruptedly till  1868.  In  1875  work  was 
renewed,  the  old  college  course  of  Greek, 
Latin  and  mathematics  replaced  by  modern 
courses,  and  (in  1877)  the  first  summer  nor- 
mal school  of  the  south  started.  The  uni- 
versity has  always  played  a  considerable 
part  in  southern  education.  Its  departments 
include  the  college,  the  graduate-schools, 
the  law-school,  the  medical  school,  the  school 
of  pharmacy  and  the  school  of  mines.  Its 
productive  fund  of  $200,000  and  frequent 
benefactions  place  at  the  university's  dis- 
posal an  annual  income  of  over  $100,000. 
Its  faculty  numbered  80,  the  students  775 
and  the  library  50,000  volumes. 

North'cote,  Baron,  Hon.  Henry  Stafford, 
G.  C.  M.  G./G.  C.  I.  E.,  formerly  governor- 
general  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  Com- 
monwealth of  Australia,  is  the  younger  son 
of  the  late  Sir  Stafford  Northcote  and  was 
born  in  1846.  He  early  took  to  diplomatic 
work,  as  private  secretary  to  Lord  Salis- 
bury on  his  mission  to  Constantinople.  Later 
he  became  financial  secretary  to  the  English 
war  office,  served  a  term  as  governor  of 
Bombay,  and  in  1903  succeeded  Baron  Ten- 
nyson in  the  Australian  governorship.  He 
is  a  man  of  character  and  statesmanlike 
views. 

North  Dako'ta.  A  northwestern  state 
of  the  Union,  originally  part  of  the  Louisi- 
ana purchase  and  admitted  in  1889.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Manitoba  and 
Saskatchewan;  on  the  south  by  South  Da- 
kota; on  the  east  by  the  Red  River  of  the 
North,  which  in  part  separates  it  trom  Min- 
nesota and  by  Minnesota;  and  on  the  west 
by  Montana.  Its  area  is  70,795  square 
miles,  its  length  being  210  and  its  breadth 
360  miles.  Its  chief  river  is  the  Missouri, 
which  courses  from  the  northwestern  ex- 
tremity of  the  state  to  its  border  in  the  cen- 
ter, and  is  fed  by  a  number  of  streams, 
chiefly  falling  into  it  from  the  west.  The 
population  is  752,260.  The  capital  is  at 
Bismarck.  The  other  chief  towns  of  the 
state  given  in  the  order  of  population,  are 
Fargo,  Grand  Forks,  Jamestown,  Valley 
City,  Washington  and  Grafton. 


Surface  and  Climate.  North  Dakota  in 
considerable  part  has  a  fertile  belt  of  pro- 
ducing land,  especially  in  the  northeast  of 
the  Red  River  tract,  where  the  soil  is  a  rich, 
black  loam,  with  a  deep  alluvial  deposit, 
once  covered  by  ancient  Lake  Agassiz.  In 
the  north-central  part  are  Turtle  Mountains, 
which  extend  southward  from  Manitoba  over 
a  considerable  area  of  the  state;  portions  of 
this  region  are  covered  with  timber,  while 
southeast  of  the  mountains  is  Devil's  Lake, 
whose  area  of  salt  water,  without  outlet,  is 
about  40  miles  in  length  and  from  6  to  8  in 
average  breadth.  Elsewhere  the  charac- 
teristics are  those  of  the  treeless  prairie  with 
various  grasses  and  forage  plants,  and  under- 
lying this  in  the  northwestern  region  are 
tracts  of  lignite,  clay,  lime,  salt,  building- 
stone  and  occasional  traces  of  iron.  The 
climate  is  a  dry  and  bracing  one,  with  tem- 
perature varying  between  20°  to  40°  below 
zero  in  the  winter  months  and  110°  to  114° 
in  summer.  For  the  most  part  the  rainfall 
is  sufficient  for  farming,  though  light  in  the 
west  and  northeast.  The  growing  season 
is  too  short  for  a  large  corn  crop,  and  although 
the  annual  production  is  around  3,000,000 
bushels,  wheat  is  by  far  the  most  important 
crop,  representing,  both  in  acreage  and  value, 
nearly  two-thirds  of  the  state's  total  cereal 
production.  The  great  bulk  of  the  wheat 
raised  is  of  the  spring  variety  owing  to  the 
severity  of  the  winters;  but  some  winter 
wheat  is  raised,  and  quite  a  little  of  what 
is  known  as  Durum,  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  macaroni.  The  raising  of  flaxseed 
ranks  next  to  wheat  in  importance,  the 
annual  production  being  over  half  that  of 
the  entire  country.  Other  important  crops 
are  hay,  potatoes,  rye  and  barley.  The 
climate  is  not  suitable  for  the  larger  fruits, 
but  the  hardy  small  fruits,  such  as  currants, 
blackberries  and  strawberries,  do  well.  Live 
stock  interests  are  important,  and,  owing 
to  the  light  snowfalls  which  are  soon  swept 
away  by  the  prairie  winds,  cattle  can  feed 
in  the  open  plains  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  year. 

Manufactures.  The  industries  are  of  minor 
importance,  and  what  there  are  represent, 
in  the  main,  flour  and  grist  mill  products, 
with  the  kindred  industries  of  butter,  cheese 
and  condensed  milk.  The  value  of  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  flour  and  grist  mills  is  over  60 
per  cent  of  the  total  factory  output  of  the 
state.  Next  in  importance  is  the  printing 
and  publishing  business. 

Transportation.  There  are  over  4,000  miles 
of  railroad  in  the  state,  belonging  to  the 
Northern  Pacific,  the  Great  Northern  and 
the  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  &  Sault  Ste.  Marie. 
Fargo  is  on  the  main  line  of  the  Northern 
Pacific  from  St.  Paul  to  Portland.  North  of 
this  is  the  main  line  of  the  Northern  Pacific, 
which  runs  from  St.  Paul  to  Seattle.  The 
Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  &  Sault  Ste.  Marie  ex- 
tends from  Fairmount,  N.  D.,  to  Portal. 


NORTH  DAKOTA,  UNIV.  OF 


1359 


NORTHMEN 


Finance.  A  general  property  tax  is  the  chief 
source  of  the  state's  revenues,  supplemented 
by  an  income  from  other  sources,  including 
license  fees  from  express  and  sleeping  car 
companies  and  a  tax  on  the  premiums  of 
insurance  companies.  Exclusive  of  the  interest 
on  the  state's  bonded  indebtedness,  the  rate 
of  taxation  is  limited  by  the  Constitution  to 
4  mills  on  the  dollar. 

Education.  The  schools  are  supported  on 
the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  public  lands,  sup- 
plemented from  other  sources,  including  local 
taxation  and  all  fines  for  violation  of  state  laws, 
proceeds  being  apportioned  according  to  popu- 
lation. The  minimum  school  year  is  fixed  at 
six  months.  Attendance  for  at  least  twelve 
weeks,  six  of  which  must  be  consecutive,  is 
compulsory  for  children  between  the  ages  8  and 
14.  There  are  a  state  agricultural  college  at 
Fargo  and  normal  schools  at  Mayville  and 
Valley  City.  Higher  education  is  represented 
by  the  University  of  North  Dakota,  near  Grand 
Forks,  with  51  instructors  and  807  students; 
Fargo  College  (Congregational),  with  19 
instructors  and  244  students ;  and  by  Red  River 
Valley  University  (Methodist  Episcopal),  at 
Wahpeton. 

History.  The  Dakotas  were  in  the  Louis- 
iana purchase  of  1803,  and  from  that  era  to 
1812  formed  a  part  of  Louisiana  Territory, 
subsequently  renamed  Missouri  Territory 
In  1810  French  Canadians  from  the  Cana- 
dian Red  River  settlement  built  a  fort  at 
Pembina,  which  Lord  Leekirk,  the  Canadian 
governor,  claimed  mistakenly  as  a  British 
stronghold.  Early  in  the  century  the  region 
was  explored  from  Mandan  by  the  Lewis 
and  Clark  expedition,  and  in  1839  a  consid- 
erable part  of  the  country  was  explored  by 
Fremont.  In  1849  North  Dakota  east  of  the 
Missouri  became  part  of  Minnesota  for  a 
time,  and  the  area  west  of  the  river  was 
made  a  part  of  Nebraska  Territory  In 
1851  to  the  Federal  government  was  ceded 
part  of  the  lands  held  by  the  Sioux  Indians, 
and  these  lands  were  thrown  open  for  settle- 
ment. In  1 86 1  Dakota  Territory  was  cre- 
ated, part  of  Montana  and  part  01  Wyoming 
being  included  in  it;  while  two  years  later, 
on  the  creation  of  Idaho  Territory,  the  Da- 
kotas assumed  almost  their  present  area, 
and  in  1889  they  were  separated,  forming 
North  Dakota  and  South  Dakota.  After 
their  erection  into  separate  statehood,  each 
was  given  a  constitution,  a  convention  which 
met  at  Bismarck  in  1889  agreed  upon  a 
constitution,  and  in  November  the  state  was 
formally  admitted  into  the  Union. 

North  Dakota,  University  of ,  was  estab- 
lished in  1883.  The  federal  government  gave 
it  land  which  probably  will  eventually  yield 
$2,000,000  as  endowment.  The  state  makes 
annual  appropriations  for  it.  It  has  an 
annual  income  of  $360,000,  including 
all  receipts  from  benefactions  and  pro- 
ductive funds.  The  faculty  numbers 
91,  the  students  995  and  the  library  30,000 


volumes.  The  departments  comprise  the 
colleges  of  liberal  arts,  of  mechanical  and 
electrical  engineering  and  of  mining  engineer- 
ing, the  normal  college  and  the  schools  of 
commerce  and  pharmacy 

North,  Frederick,  eighth  Lord  North 
and  second  earl  of  Guilford,  an  English  states- 
man, was  born  on  April  13,  1732,  and  edu- 
cated at  Oxford.  He  entered  the  house  of 
commons  at  the  age  of  22,  and  was  made  lord 
of  the  treasury  in  1759.  In  1767  he  was  ap- 
pointed chancellor  of  the  exchequer  and 
leader  of  the  house  of  commons,  being  there 
opposed  to  Fox  and  Burke.  In  1770  he  be- 
came prime  minister,  and  his  course,  to  a 
large  extent,  caused  England  to  lose  America. 
He  resigned  in  1782,  and  became  blind  five 
years  before  his  death,  which  occurred  on 
Aug.  5,  1792. 

Northanip'ton,  the  capital  of  Northamp- 
tonshire, England,  is  a  municipal  county  and 
parliamentary  borough,  and  lies  on  rising 
ground  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  New.  It 
is  the  center  of  the  boot  and  shoe  industry  of 
England,  and  has  extensive  breweries.  The 
city  was  burned  by  the  Danes  in  i  o  i  o ,  rebuilt 
by  Simon  de  St.  Liz  in  1075,  besieged  by  the 
baions  against  King  John  in  1215,  and  was 
the  scene  of  the  treaty  recognizing  the  inde- 
pendence of  Scotland  in  1318.  Population 
about  75,000. 

Northampton,  Mass.,  the  county-seat  of 
Hampshire  County,  is  situated  near  the  left 
bank  of  the  Connecticut  River,  103  miles 
from  Boston  It  manufactures  paper,  silk, 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  sewing  machines, 
baskets,  cutlery,  brushes  and  jet  ornaments. 
In  the  city  are  the  state  insane  asylum,  Clark 
institute  for  deaf-mutes,  public  library  and 
Smith  College  for  women.  Population  19,431. 
Northcliffe, Lord.  See  HARMSWORTH, Alfred. 

North' men  or  Norse  men  was  a  name  ap- 
plied in  the  middle  ages  to  the  seafarers  who 
came  from  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden, 
and  then  to  those  of  Norway  only.  Their 
passion  was  sailing  and  war,  and  to  satisfy  it 
they  sailed  in  all  directions  to  discover  and 
plunder  In  plain  words,  they  were  pirates, 
who,  during  the  summer  months,  visited 
other  lands  and  preyed  upon  them,  or  lay  in 
wait  in  river  mouths  or  behind  islands  for 
vessels  to  attack  and  pillage.  Their  age 
may  be  divided  into  two  periods,  the  first 
lasting  to  the  middle  of  the  9th  century,  de- 
\joted  to  murder  and  plunder,  and  from  then 
1p  the  i3th  centuiy,  given  to  permanent  con- 
quest in  Ireland,  South  Italy,  England  and 
France.  The  first  attack  was  made  upon 
Wessex,  in  England,  in  787,  and  reached 
France  about  the  end  of  the  century,  and  up 
to  850  they  committed  most  terrible  depre- 
dations. In  859  and  860  a  large  fleet  en- 
tered the  Mediterranean  and  ravaged  Spain, 
Mauritania  and  Majorca,  spending  the  win- 
ter at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone,  to  begin  the 
attack  on  Italy  in  the  spring.  Thus  they 
subsisted  on  the  entire  seaboard  of  Europe 


NORTHROP 


X360 


NORTHWEST  TERRITORIES 


until  Charles  the  Simple  concluded  a  peace, 
by  which  they  were  allowed  to  settle  in 
France,  and  gave  them  the  territory  between 
the  Channel,  the  Seine  and  the  Ept,  on  the 
condition  that  they  fought  for  him  and  be- 
came Christians.  The  name  of  Normandy 
was  given  to  this  district,  and  the  Northmen 
living  in  it  were  called  Normans.  They 
ruled  here  from  the  loth  to  the  i3th  century, 
when  it  was  taken  from  them  by  the  king  of 
France,  the  most  illustrious  of  their  dukes 
being  William  who  became  king  of  England 
in  1066,  with  the  title  of  William  the  Con- 
queror. The  Normans  adopted  the  language 
and  manners  of  the  French,  and  changed 
their  heathen  rites  for  the  Christian  religion. 
The  Norsemen,  early  in  the  gth  century,  had 
opened  the  route  to  the  White  Sea  by  round- 
ing North  Cape,  and  before  1222  had  many 
times  sailed  up  the  northern  Dwina. 

Nor'throp,  Cyrus,  an  American  educator 
from  1884  to  1911  president,  now  president 
emeritus,  of  the  University  of  Minnesota,  was 
born  in  1834  at  Ridgefield,  Conn.  He  passed 
through  Yale  College  and  Yale  Law  School, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  During  1862-3 
he  was  chief  editor  of  the  New  Haven  Daily 
Palladium.  When  elected  president  of  the 
University  of  Minnesota  he  was  professor  of 
English  literature  and  rhetoric  at  Yale,  a  posi- 
tion he  filled  with  distinction. 

North  Sea  or  German  Ocean  is  the  south- 
ern arm  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  lying  between 
Britain  and  Norway.  It  communicates 
with  the  Atlantic  through  the  English  Chan- 
nel and  Straits  of  Dover  on  the  south,  and 
by  Pentland  Firth  and  the  Orkney  and  Shet- 
land Channels  on  the  north,  and  with  the 
Baltic  through  Skager-Rack  and  Cattegat. 
It  is  over  600  miles  long  and  400  miles  wide, 
and  has  an  area  of  180,000  square  miles. 
The  sea  is  in  most  places  quite  shallow,  aver- 
aging 6 1  fathoms,  but  on  the  Norwegian 
coast  is  360  fathoms  deep.  It  is  the  recep- 
tacle of  the  waters  of  the  Thames,  Ouse, 
Humber,  Tyne,  Tweed^  Forth,  Tay,  Scheldt, 
Rhine,  Weser  and  Elbe.  The  water  is 
probably  the  least  salty  of  any  of  the  large 
seas,  and,  except  in  the  summer,  is  warmer 
than  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  The 
tides  are  irregular,  having  a  large  ebb  and 
flow  in  some  places,  while  it  is  hardly  per- 
ceptible in  others.  The  North  Sea  has  long 
been  one  of  the  commercial  highways  of 
the  world,  and  affords  a  valuable  fishing- 
ground. 

North  Star,  The,  is  the  nearest  conspic- 
uous star  to  the  north  pole.  All  stars  de- 
scribe circles,  those  nearest  to  the  celestial 
equator  the  largest  circles  and  those  farthest 
from  the  celestial  equator  or  nearest  to  the 
poles  the  smallest  circles.  The  North  Star 
being  nearest  to  the  north  pole  describes 
only  a  very  small  circle,  and  consequently  to 
people  living  north  of  the  40°  north  latitude 
it  never  sets.  Polaris,  the  star  Alpha  of  the 
constellation  Ursa  Minor,  is  at  present  the 


North  Star,  and  many  centuries  must  pass 
before  the  north  pole  will  be  defined  by  any 
other  star  Two  stars  in  the  constellation 
Ursa  Major,  commonly  called  the  Big  Dip- 
per, always  point  in  the  direction  of  the 
North  Star  and  enable  it  to  be  readily  found. 
These  stars  are  commonly  called  the  point- 
ers. They  form  the  side  of  the  bowl  of  the 
dipper  opposite  the  handle. 

North  Ton'awan'da,  N.  Y.,  a  city  in  Ni- 
agara County  at  the  confluence  of  Niagara 
River  and  Tonawanda  Creek;  on  the  Erie 
Canal  and  the  Lehigh  Valley,  Erie  and  New 
York  Central  railroads.  Only  10  miles  from 
Buffalo,  several  other  railroads  using  leased 
tracks,  and  electric  lines  connect  it  with  that 
city,  Niagara  Falls  and  other  places.  It  has 
large  manufacturing  and  commercial  inter- 
ests. Pig-iron,  steam-pipes,  merry-go- 
rounds,  steam-pumps,  bolts,  nuts  and  a  large 
variety  of  lumber  products  are  manufactured 
here.  The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor, 
who  holds  office  for  two  years,  and  a  council 
consisting  of  two  members  from  each  ward 
and  three  at  large.  The  city  owns  and  op- 
erates its  own  water-works.  Aided  by  the 
development  of  power  at  Niagara  Falls,  it 
has  had  a  very  rapid  growth.  Population 
13,000. 

Northwest  Territories  of  Canada,  The. 
Since  the  creation  in  September,  1905,  of  the 
new  provinces  in  the  west  of  the  Canadian 
Dominion  —  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta  — 
together  with  the  creation  (June,  1898),  of 
Yukon  Territory,  the  Northwest  Territories 
have  been  considerably  reduced  in  area.  As 
at  present  constituted,  their  area  now  is  only 
1,922,735  square  miles,  51,680  square  miles 
being  water  surface.  The  territories  are 
governed  directly  from  Ottawa,  instead  of 
having  a  legislature  and  governor  at  Regina, 
as  formerly,  with  representation  in  the  Do- 
minion Parliament.  In  early  years  the  re- 
gion of  the  Northwest  Territories,  including 
Manitoba  and  the  new  provinces  west  of  it, 
was  under  the  direct  control  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company,  by  whom  it  was  treated  as  a 
vast  hunting  preserve.  Since  the  creation 
of  the  new  western  provinces  and  the  erec- 
tion of  the  separate  Territory  of  Yukon, 
situated  north  of  British  Columbia  and  ad- 
joining Alaska,  the  Northwest  Territories 
embrace  Mackenzie  District  (q.v.),  through 
which  Mackenzie  River  flows  into  the  Arctic 
Ocean;  Franklin  District,  comprising  all  the 
area  around  the  Arctic  seas;  and  Keewatin 
District,  lying  north  of  Manitoba,  east  of  it 
as  far  as  Hudson  Bay  and  James  Bay  and 
south  as  far  as  the  line  of  Albany  River,  the 
northwestern  boundary  of  Ontario.  The  north- 
west Territories  also  embrace  those  portions  of 
the  original  territories  of  Saskatchewan  and 
Alberta  not  included  in  them  as  provinces, 
in  addition  to  the  northeast  District  of  Un- 
gava  situated  north  of  Quebec  and  extend- 
ing from  Hamilton  and  East  Main  Rivers 
north  to  Hudson  Strait  and  flanked  by  the 


NORTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY 


1361 


NORWICH 


Atlantic  and  by  Hudson  and  James  Bays  on 
the  west. 

North 'west'ern  University  was  founded 
under  Methodist  Episcopal  auspices  in  1851. 
The  professional  schools  maintain  a  policy  of 
constant  readjustment  to  the  demands  of 
growing  knowledge  and  changing  conditions. 
The  university  comprises  the  following  de- 
partments: The  college  of  liberal  arts,  the 
college  of  engineering,  the  school  of  music,  and 
the  school  of  oratory,  at  Evanston,  Illinois, 
12  miles  north  of  Chicago;  the  medical  school, 
the  law  school,  the  school  of  pharmacy,  the 
dental  school,  and  the  school  of  commerce,  in 
Chicago.  Garrett  Biblical  Institute  at  Evans- 
ton,  though  under  separate  management,  by 
close  affiliation  serves  as  the  theological 
school  of  the  university.  The  university  has 
a  permanent  productive  endowment  of  $5,137,- 
ooo.  The  college  library  and  the  Elbert  H. 
Gary  Library  of  Law  together  contain  147,760 
volumes  and  76,550  pamphlets.  The  faculty 
numbers  480,  and  the  students  5,400. 

Nor'ton,  Charles  Eliot,  an  American 
author  and  educator,  was  born  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  Nov.  16,  1827.  Young  Norton  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College  in  1846,  and  trav- 
eled in  Europe  and  the  far  east  for  the  fol- 
lowing two  or  three  years.  He  spent  nine 
years  abroad  between  1849  and  1873.  In 
1864-68,  he  was  joint  editor  with  Lowell  of 
the  North  American  Review.  In  1874  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  history  of  art  at 
Harvard,  and  in  1879  ne  became  president 
of  the  Archaeological  institute  of  America, 
holding  that  office  for  1 1  years.  He  re- 
ceived the  honorary  degree  of  Lit.  D.  from 
Cambridge,  England,  and  LL.D.  from  Har- 
vard. He  published  and  edited  about  20 
volumes.  His  writings  largely  dealt  with  art 
and  sociology,  as  in  his  Recent  Social  Theories 
and  Historical  Studies  of  Church  Building  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  He  wrote  lives  or  edited 
works  of  Dante,  Michael  Angela,  Carlyle, 
Emerson  Lowell,  etc.  He  died,  Oct.  20, 1908. 

Nor7 walk,  Ct.,  a  town  in  Fairfield  County, 
at  the  mouth  of  Nonvalk  River  on  Long 
Island  Sound,  41  miles  from  New  York. 
The  city  has  a  state  armory,  Fairfield 
County  Hospital  and  Nonvalk  Hospital.  Pub- 
lic and  parish  schools  and  a  Carnegie  Library 
are  the  principal  educational  institutions. 
It  has  the  largest  straw  hat  factory  in  the 
United  States  and  large  manufactories  of 
felt  hats  and  goods,  woolens,  shirts,  shoes, 
silks,  corsets,  locks,  door  knobs,  besides 
foundries  and  iron  works.  It  has  a  good 
harbor  and  large  oyster  fisheries.  Popula- 
tion of  Norwalk,  6,954;  of  South  Norwalk, 
8.968 — total,  including  Norwalk  town,  24.- 
211. 

Nor'way,  the  western  and  northernmost 
part  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  before 
November  of  1905  united  to  Sweden  only 
through  having  a  common  ruler;  it  is  divided 
from  Sweden  by  Keel  Mountains,  which  run 
parallel  to  the  coast  from  the  north  to  63° 


and  then  separate,  the  main  division  contin- 
uing to  mark  the  boundary  by  a  plateau 
from  2,000  to  4,000  feet  wide.  The  higher 
peaks  are  Galdhopiggen,  Glittertind,  8,379 
feet;  Snaehaetten,  7,566;  and  Lodalskaupen, 
6,790.  Bear,  lynx  and  deer  abound  in  these 
mountains,  and  the  only  inhabitants  are  the 
men  and  women  who  tend  the  large  herds  of 
cattle  and  sheep.  On  account  of  the  Gulf 
Stream  the  winter  on  the  coast  is  much 
warmer  than  in  the  interior,  whereas  the 
summer  is  much  cooler.  The  largest  cities 
are  Kristiania,  the  capital  (population  227,- 
626) ;  Bergen,  Trondhjem,  Stavanger,  Dram- 
men,  Kristiansand  and  Fredrikstad.  The 
hardiest  grains  and  vegetables  flourish,  but 
the  occupation  of  the  people  is  mainly  con- 
nected with  the  great  fisheries.  The  mineral 
wealth  has  been  practically  exhausted  since 
1870,  only  a  few  mines  being  worked.  Nor- 
way is  divided  into  20  districts,  has  an  area 
of  124,130  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
over  2,391,782.  It  nominally  is  a  limited 
monarchy,  but  actually,  to  all  intents  and 
purposes,  almost  is  a  free  republic.  The 
head  of  the  government  is  a  king,  Haakon 
VII  (q.  v.),  but  his  acts  are  limited  by  an  ap- 
pointed executive  council  of  nine  and  one 
minister  of  state.  The  religion  is  Lutheran- 
ism,  which  still  is  the  state-church  of  Nor- 
way. Non-Lutherans  number  only  53,000. 
One  of  the  first  peoples  to  settle  Europe, 
their  history  does  not,  however,  become  free 
from  myth  until  the  gth  century,  when  the 
Lapps  and  Finns  were  found  in  the  country 
by  the  Gothic  descendants  who  then  crossed 
the  Baltic  and  settled  there.  For  a  long 
time  it  was  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Den- 
mark. Her  history  is  intimately  associated 
with  that  of  the  Norsemen,  who  were  a  part 
of  her  people,  but  from  1130  to  1240  the 
country  suffered  both  in  war  and  in  com- 
merce, and  commenced  a  rapid  retrograde 
movement  which  did  not  end  until  it  was  at- 
tached to  Sweden  in  1814.  All  titles  of 
nobility  were  abolished  in  1821,  and  in  the 
struggle  from  1872  to  1884  the  right  of  veto 
was  taken  from  the  king.  Then  came  a  con- 
stitutional struggle  of  Norway  against  Swe- 
den, Norway  demanding  consuls  of  her  own 
and  greater  independence  in  her  foreign  pol- 
icy. On  June  7,  1905,  the  Norwegian  legis- 
lature dissolved  the  union  with  Sweden, 
and  on  Oct.  16  the  Swedish  parliament  rati- 
fieci  a  treaty  recognizing  Nonvay's  independ- 
ence. In  November  Prince  Karl  of  Den- 
mark was  called  to  the  throne,  and  became 
king  under  the  title  of  Haakon  VII.  See 
Carlyle's  Early  Kings  of  Norway  and  Boye- 
sen's  History  of  Norway. 

Nor'wich,  Ct.,  shares  with  New  London 
the  honor  of  being  county  seat  of  New  Lon- 
don County.  It  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
Thames,  the  chief  portion  of  the  town  lying 
on  an  eminence  between  the  Yantic  and  She- 
tucket,  which  here  unite.  It  manufactures 
paper,  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  cords,  pis- 


NORWICH 


1362 


NOVA  SCOTIA 


tols,  files,  iron  pipes,  and  has  large  leather 
belt  factory,  also  tanneries  and  iron  works. 
The  town  is  well-known  for  its  schools ;  Nor- 
wich Free  Academy,  an  incorporated  and 
heavily  endowed  institution,  takes  the  place 
of  a  high  school.  An  art  school,  a  fine  art 
museum  and  manual  training  are  connected 
with  this  academy.  The  land  on  which  it 
stands  was  given  to  an  Englishman  by  Un- 
cas,  the  chief  of  the  Mohicans,  in  1656. 
Population  28,219. 

Norwich,  the  capital  of  Norfolk,  England, 
a  municipal  county  and  parliamentary  bor- 
ough, lies  on  the  Wensum,  114  miles  from 
London,  and  covers  an  area  of  about  10,000 
acres.  It  contains  Pull's  Ferry  and  Bishop's 
Bridge  (1295),  St.  Giles'  Hospital  (1249), 
Ethelbert  gateway  (1300),  Guildhall  (1413), 
the  music  house,  Bridewell  and  Dolphin  inn, 
—  all  old  buildings.  It  also  has  a  cathedral, 
founded  in  1096,  which  has  a  spire  315  feet 
high.  The  principal  manufactures  are 
crapes,  mustard,  starch,  ironware,  and  boots 
and  shoes.  The  city  in  olden  times  was  often 
plundered  by  the  Danes,  then  burned  by 
Sweyn  and  held  by  Canute.  It  has  been  the 
seat  of  65  bishops.  Population  121,493. 

Nose,  the  external  organ  containing  the 
nostrils  and  connected  with  the  sense  of 
smell.  Many  lower  animals  possess  the 
power  of  smell  but  have  no  nose.  The  nose 
proper  begins  in  the  vertebrate  animals. 
The  nostrils  serve  as  paths  for  air  into  the 
respiratory  passages.  They  lead  also  into 
the  chamber  of  the  nose,  which  is  divided  by 
a  flat  bony  partition  into  right  and  left  sides. 
The  walls  of  each  cavity  are  convoluted  (tur- 
binated  bones) ,  and  covered  with  a  soft  mem- 
brane from  which  the  nerves  of  smell  pass  to 
the  brain.  The  sense-cells,  which  are  espe- 
cially modified  for  smelling,  are  located  in  the 
membrane,  and  the  nerve  fibers  forming  the 
olfactory  nerve  grow  from  them.  The  ol- 
factory nerve  usually  enters  into  an  olfactory 
lobe  before  making  connection  with  the 
brain. 

Not'ting'ham,  the  capital  of  Nottingham- 
shire, England,  a  municipal  county  and  par- 
liamentary borough,  lies  on  the  Trent,  126 
miles  from  London.  It  was  formerly  sur- 
rounded by  high  walls,  which  have  now  dis- 
appeared, and  the  20  square  miles  of  the  city 
have  of  late  been  much  improved  by  the 
widening  of  the  streets  and  the  erection  of 
new  buildings.  It  contains  a  city  hall,  St. 
Mary's  church,  guildhall,  University  College, 
a  library  and  museum,  an  old  hospital  and  a 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral.  The  most  im- 
portant manufactures  are  lace  and  hosiery, 
but  baskets,  bicycles,  cigars  and  needles  are 
also  manufactured.  The  principal  events 
of  its  history  are  the  occupation  by  the  Danes 
until  868;  destruction  by  fire  in  1140  and 
1 1 5  3 ;  its  first  charter  in  1155,  the  convention 
of  three  parliaments  and  the  raising  of  the 
standard  cf  Charles  I  in  the  parliamentary 
war  in  1642.  Population  259,942. 


No'va  Sco'tia,  the  most  easterly  portion 
of  Canada,  is  a  peninsula  thrust  into  the  At- 
lantic from  the  east  of  North  America.  It  is 
the  most  conspicuous  physical  feature  be- 
tween Florida  and  Newfoundland.  Cape 
Breton,  its  eastern  extremity,  is  really  an  is- 
land, separated  by  the  Strait  of  Canso.  Nova 
Scotia  is  350  miles  long,  with  a  breadth  vary- 
ing from  50  to  100  miles,  and  contains  an 
area  of  20,907  square  miles.  The  isthmus 
that  connects  it  with  New  Brunswick  is  13 
miles  wide,  and  on  other  sides  it  is  washed 
by  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 

Surface.  Its  coast  is  indented  with  nat- 
ural harbors,  there  being  no  fewer  than  12 
on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  capable  of  shelter- 
ing the  largest  vessels.  The  interior  is  in- 
tersected with  chains  of  attractive  hills, 
and  dotted  with  lakes,  and  drained  by  rivers. 
Many  of  the  rivers  are  navigable  for  short  dis- 
tances inland,  and  with  the  Bay  of  Fundy 
they  produce  the  rich  intervales  and  dike- 
lands  whose  productiveness  is  one  of  the 
chief  features  of  the  province.  Nova  Scotia 
is  a  favorite  tourist  section.  There  are  Mi- 
nas  Basin  and  the  Evangeline  District  about 
Wolfville  and  Grand  Pre,  the  picturesque 
Annapolis  valley,  La  Have  River,  known  as 
Nova  Scotia's  Rhine,  and  the  marvellous 
beauty  of  the  Bras  d'Or  lakes  in  Cape  Breton. 
Cobequid  Mountains  strike  across  the  north 
of  Nova  Scotia  from  Cape  Chignecto  to  Cape 
Porcupine. 

Inhabitants.  The  population  in  1911  was 
492>338  largely  of  Canadian  birth,  chiefly 
British.  There  were  45,000  French  (Aca- 
dians)  and  41,000  Germans.  The  Roman 
Catholic  religion  leads  as  to  numbers,  next 
the  Presbyterians,  then  the  Baptists.  The 
Intercolonial  Railway  enters  at  Amherst 
from  New  Brunswick.  It  runs  to  Halifax 
by  Truro  and  Windsor  Junction.  The.  Do- 
minion Atlantic  Railway  runs  from  Halifax 
north  to  Minas  Basin  and  to  Yarmouth. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  temperate,  being 
moderated  winter  and  summer  by  the  sea 
which  surrounds  the  province.  The  mer- 
cury seldom  falls  to  zero.  Cape  Breton  has 
an  ideal  summer  climate,  and  the  entire 
province  is  noted  for  the  longevity  of  its 
people. 

Resources.  Agriculture  is  the  most  valu- 
able industry.  Rich  and  cultivated  farms 
can  be  had  at  low  rentals.  The  dikelands 
are  exceedingly  rich,  being  fertilized  by  de- 
posits from  tidal  waters.  The  apple  is  the 
chief  Nova  Scotia  product.  The  valley  of 
apple-orchards  runs  from  Windsor  to  Annap- 
olis, 80  miles,  along  the  northern  side  of  the 
province.  Nova  Scotia  has  the  largest  num- 
ber of  sailing-ships  and  steamers  of  any 
province  in  the  Dominion  engaged  in  its 
trade.  The  cod,  lobster,  mackerel  and  her- 
ring fisheries  are  very  profitable,  there  being 
14,000  men  engaged  in  the  industry.  The 
coal-deposits  are  owned  by  the  government 


NOVA  ZEMBLA 


1363 


NOVEL 


and  leased  on  a  royalty  system  to  mining 
companies.  The  province  gets  half  its  rev- 
enue in  this  way.  There  is  no  direct  taxa- 
tion for  provincial  purposes.  It  keeps  up 
roads,  bridges,  etc.,  and  thus  lightens  mu- 
nicipal taxation.  The  value  of  the  coal- 
production  exceeds  $50,000,000.  The  Cape 
Breton  mines  are  the  largest  producers,  and 
have  built  up  the  port  of  Sydney,  the  popu- 
lation of  which  has  quadrupled  in  ten  years 
(now  10,000). 

Education.  Nova  Scotia  is  especially 
proud  of  her  free,  public-school  system, 
which  is  open  to  the  children  of  all  the 
people.  In  each  of  the  18  counties  a 
high  school  or  academy  carries  on  the  work 
of  the  public  school  to  a  higher  plane, 
and  universities  carry  the  work  still  fur- 
ther and  crown  the  educational  structure. 
There  also  is  a  provincial  normal  school  at 
Truro.  Dalhousie  College  and  the  Univer- 
sity (undenominational)  are  at  Halifax. 
The  University  of  King's  College  at  Windsor 
is  Anglican,  and  that  of  Acadia  College  at 
Wolfville  is  Baptist.  St.  Francis  Xavier 
College  at  Antigonish  and  St.  Anne's  College 
at  Digby  are  Roman  Catholic.  There  are 
a  Presbyterian  Theological  College  at  Hal- 
ifax, a  school  for  the  blind  and  one  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb. 

Halifax  port  is  open  all  the  year  round  and 
is  the  terminus  of  the  Intercolonial  Railway. 

No'va  Zem'bla,  an  archipelago  and  two 
islands  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  attached  to  the 
Archangel  government  of  northern  Russia, 
lying  between  Kara  and  Barents  Seas.  It 
is  about  600  miles  long  and  80  wide,  almost 
cut  into  two  narrow  strips  by  the  sea-passage 
of  Matochkin  Shar.  Nothing  is  known  of 
the  interior,  and  it  is  only  visited  by  Rus- 
sians and  Norwegians  to  capture  sea-fowl, 
seal,  whale,  walrus  and  dolphin.  The  coun- 
try was  known  to  the  Novgorod  hunters  in 
the  nth  century,  and  was  rediscovered  by 
Sir  Hugh  Willoughby  in  1553,  and  has  since 
that  time  afforded  much  search  and  interest. 
Much  has  of  late  been  learned  of  the  country, 
which  may  be  said  to  be  uninhabited  since 
1868,  save  for  a  small  colony  of  Russian  and 
Samoyedes,  who  subsist  by  hunting  and  fish- 
ing. The  Russian  name  for  the  archipelago 
is  Novaya  Zemlya. 

Novel,  The.  The  novel  is  the  most  flex- 
ible and  inclusive  of  modern  literary  forms. 
It  may  be  said  to  have  begun  in  Spain  with 
Cervantes'  Don  Quixote  (1604),  which  re- 
placed the  unreal  and  misleading  romances 
of  chivalry  with  a  fidelity  to  history,  scen- 
ery, life  and  manners  and  with  a  humor, 
pathos  and  wisdom  which  make  it  one  of  the 
great  books  of  the  world.  Le  Sage  inaugu- 
rated the  same  tradition  in  France,  directing 
it  in  his  Gil  Bias  (1715),  especially  to  circum- 
stances and  mannerc. 

The  English  novel  began  with  Richard- 
son's Pamela  (1740),  a  minute  analysis  of 
middle-class  circumstances;  with  Fielding's 


Tom  Jones  (1749),  a  sympathetic  and  can- 
did  history  of  the  experiences  of  an  ordinary 
man;  with  Sterne's  brilliant,  witty  and  senti- 
mental Tristram  Shandy  (1760);  and  with 
Smollett's  lively  and  humorous  adven- 
tures of  Humphrey  Clinker  (1771).  In 
the  early  igth  century,  Jane  Austen  perfected 
Richardson's  fidelity  to  the  truth  of  daily 
life;  and  Scott  inaugurated  the  counter- 
tendency  of  the  historical  romance.  In  this 
he  was  followed  by  Dumas  and  Hugo  in 
France,  where  Balzac  and  others  followed 
Smollett.  Tolstoy  in  Russia  and  contem- 
porary Spanish  and  Italian  novelists  have 
developed  the  method  of  Richardson.  In 
the  later  igth  century  in  England,  Dickens 
revived  the  manner  of  Smollett,  treating  pe- 
culiarities and  extravagances  with  extraor- 
dinary liveliness  and  humor  and  with  a  hu- 
manitarian intention  to  show  the  interest 
and  worth  of  the  common  man.  Thackeray 
followed  Fielding  in  fidelity  and  sincerity, 
adding  the  element  of  benevolent  social 
satire.  George  Eliot  added  a  new  depth  of 
emotion  to  the  observation  and  sympathy 
of  Richardson. 

In  the  United  States  Cooper,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Scott,  recorded  the  life  of  the  In- 
dian and  the  frontiersman,  and  in  The  Pilot 
inaugurated  the  sea-novel;  while  Hawthorne 
in  three  great  romances  pictured  the  inner 
life  of  the  Puritan  past  in  New  England. 
Present  tendencies  are  well-illustrated  by  the 
elaboration  of  national  and  social  traits  by 
Henry  James  and  the  study  of  sectional  and 
economic  differences  by  Mr.  Howells.  James 
aims  to  produce  an  illusion  of  reality  by  the 
artistic  presentation  of  personal  impressions 
of  "the  human  spectacle."  Howells  seeks 
to  present  the  actual  and  the  commonplace 
as  a  source  of  social  knowledge  and  moral 
obligation.  Many  contemporary  novels  fol- 
low the  latter  "realistic"  theory;  being  de- 
voted to  business,  labor  and  social  conditions, 
problems  and  remedies.  Perhaps  the  larger 
number  follow  the  theory  and  practice  of 
Marion  Crawford,  who  considers  the  novel 
an  intellectual,  artistic  luxury;  its  prime  ob- 
ject being  to  provide  interesting  or  amusing 
relaxation  and  recreation;  although  inci- 
denVaJly  it  may  cultivate  right  feeling  or  ex- 
hibit characters  and  actions  worthy  to  be  de- 
sired or  imitated. 

The  short-story,  as  it  prevails  today,  is  a 
development  of  the  igth  century.  Brief 
tales,  of  course,  have  existed  from  the  earlier 
times.  But  it  remained  for  Poe  to  show 
that  a  story  short  enough  to  be  read  at  a 
sitting  would  be  more  successful  if  it  had  the 
completeness  of  impression  resulting  from 
unity  of  theme,  harmony  of  parts,  selection 
of  detail  and  compression  in  expression. 
This  strict  conception  of  the  form  developed 
da  .F.ta*>ce  at  almost  the  same  time.  Rob- 
ert Louis  Stevenson  made  it  popular  in  Eng- 
land considerably  later.  Since  Irving,  Poe 
and  Hawthorne  the  short-story  has  flour- 


NOVEMBER 


X364 


NUBIA 


ished  in  the  United  States  as  nowhere  else, 
partly  because  of  the  prevalence  of  maga- 
zines as  suitable  media  for  publication  and 
partly  because  of  the  unequalled  opportunity 
tor  studies  of  sectional  and  local  manners  to 
which  the  form  especially  lends  itself.  In 
this  way  it  has  employed  literary  material 
too  slight  for  extended  treatment,  and  has 
become  a  pervasive  and  powerful  influence 
toward  a  national  breadth  of  knowledge 
and  sympathy. 

From  this  rapid  survey  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  structure  of  prose  fiction  may  be  as  var- 
ied as  its  content  and  that  its  content  is  lim- 
ited only  by  the  author's  knowledge  and  im- 
agination. Plots  have  often  been  complete, 
unified,  varied  and  probable;  but  some,  if 
not  all,  of  these  desirable  characteristics 
have  often  been  lacking.  The  action  must 
be  consistent  in  itself  and  with  the  charac- 
ters; but  it  may  be  simple  or  complex,  log- 
ical or  surprising,  slow  or  rapid.  There  usu- 
ally is  some  sort  of  complication  and  unrav- 
elling; but  the  problem  may  be  internal  or 
external,  of  religion,  patriotism,  society, 
love,  grief,  ambition,  art  or  \vhat  not.  The 
good  or  the  evil  triumph  or  sutler,  and  the 
narrative  requires  or  is  independent  of  de- 
scription, according  to  the  author's  view  of 
life  and  of  his  art.  The  movement  may  be 
like  that  of  the  epic,  the  lyric  or  the  drama; 
or  like  that  of  the  essay,  of  travel-literature, 
of  history,  biography  or  autobiography; 
and  it  usually  combines  some  characteristics 
from  each  of  these.  The  characters  may  be 
many  or  few,  independent  or  related,  simple 
or  developed,  lively  or  profound,  receptive 
or  influential.  They  may  be  based  upon  the 
author's  observation  or  evolved  from  his 
own  nature.  They  may  be  reproductions 
of  actual  persons,  embodiments  of  types  or 
pure  creations.  They  may  represent  their 
author's  interests,  his  sympathies,  his  solu- 
tion of  life.  They  may  be  directly  described 
or  analysed,  or  they  may  be  portrayed  in- 
directly through  an  account  of  their  appear- 
ance, words  and  deeds  or  through  those  of 
related  characters.  The  setting  and  the  ac- 
cessories may  be  historical  or  contempo- 
rary ;  political,  social  or  personal ;  intimately 
or  slightly  connected  with  the  characters  and 
action;  occupying  little  or  much  attention. 
Humor,  pathos  and  satire  may  be  inherent 
or  incidental.  Literary  structure  and  style 
may  be  used  as  a  transparent  vehicle  for  the 
story,  or  they  may  in  themselves  be  a  source 
of  pleasure  or  discomfort.  No  novel  is 
great  in  all  of  these  aspects,  and  these  by  no 
means  exhaust  the  field.  But  greatness  con- 
sists in  an  approach  toward  the  ideal  in  all; 
and  one  could  scarcely  find  a  better  method 
of  studying  any  particular  piece  of  fiction 
than  by  inquiring  how  it  measures  up  to  such 
a  list  of  possibilities. 

Whether  one  prefers  fiction  which  pro- 
vides moral  stimulus,  intellectual  culture, 
increase  of  knowledge  and  sympathy  or 


merely  the  pleasure  of  forgetfulness  depends 
upon  each  reader's  mental  habit  and  moral 
tone.  Some  fiction  undoubtedly  does  harm 
by  plausibly  presenting  un veracious  views  of 
life  and  its  laws.  But  the  appreciative  read- 
ing of  any  of  the  notable  fiction  which  has 
been  here  mentioned  will  open  such  a  store- 
house of  profitable  pleasure,  that  no  thought- 
ful reader  can  ever  again  find  satisfaction  in 
anything  less  excellent.  For,  in  the  words 
of  the  Dean  of  Westminster  Abbey  at  the 
funeral  of  Charles  Dickens,  when  properly 
used,  "the  work  of  the  successful  novelist, 
if  pure  in  style,  elevating  in  thought,  and 
true  in  sentiment,  is  the  best  of  blessings." 

Novem'ber,  from  the  Latin  for  nine,  was 
the  ninth  month  of  the  Roman  calendar 
year,  when  there  were  30  days  to  the  month 
of  November  and  ten  months  to  the  year. 
Then  it  was  given  only  29  days,  but  Ctesar 
gave  it  31,  only  to  have  it  restored  to  30  by 
Augustus.  Its  festivals  are  All  Saints  (i), 
St.  Hubert  (3),  St.  Martin  (n),  St.  Cather- 
ine (25)  and  St.  Andrew  (30), 

Nov'gorod  ("new  town"),  a  famous  Rus- 
sian city,  capital  of  a  government,  is  situ- 
ated near  Lake  Ilmen  on  the  Volkhoff  River. 
In  864  Rurik,  a  Norseman,  was  invited  here 
to  rule,  and  with  him  begins  the  history  of 
the  country.  In  the  i2th  century  the  city, 
which  then  had  400,000  inhabitants,  was  the 
market  of  northeastern  Europe,  and  its  al- 
most republican  government  ruled  from  the 
White  Sea  to  River  Petchora.  In  1471  on 
account  of  the  jealousy  of  the  Moscow  princes, 
Czar  Ivan  III  destroyed  Novgorod,  deprived 
it  of  its  liberties,  and  exiled  its  best  citizens. 
Afterwards  the  port  of  Archangel  was  opened 
and  the  city  began  to  decline.  The  oldest 
building  is  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia,  founded 
in  the  nth  century,  besides  30  other 
churches  and  the  wall  surrounding  the  Krem- 
lin, Here  is  annually  held  the  Nizhnii  Nov- 
gorod fair,  which  transacts  a  large  volume  of 
business.  Population  26,972. 

Nu'bia,  the  modern  name  of  a  large  Afri- 
can region,  formerly  part  of  Ethiopia,  and  ex- 
tending on  both  sides  of  the  Nile  from  Egypt 
to  Abyssinia  and  from  the  Red  Sea  on  the 
east  to  the  desert  on  the  west.  Of  late,  Nu- 
bia has  been  called  the  Egyptian  Sudan.  It 
was  under  the  rule  of  the  Pharaohs,  but  under 
the  2oth  dynasty  was  recovered  by  native 
rulers,  who  adopted  Egyptian  civilization 
and  later  became  Christianized.  The  coun- 
try is  now  occupied  by  mixed  races,  probably 
descendants  from  the  pure  negro  stock 
mixed  with  Hamites  and  with  Semitic  Arabs 
who  invaded  the  land  in  the  7th  century, 
and  conquered  it  in  the  i4th.  Until  1820,  it 
was  ruled  by  native  Moslem  chiefs,  but  in 
that  year  it  was  made  a  part  of  Egypt  by  Is- 
mail Pasha,  and  so  remained  until  1881. 
The  greater  part  of  the  country  is  arid  des- 
ert, with  small  oases  here  and  there  on  the 
route  of  caravans.  The  most  fertile  regiot 
is  near  Dongola.  Its  population,  which  cor 


NUCELLUS 


1365 


NUTHATCH 


sists  chiefly  of  Egyptians,  sedentary  and  no- 
mad, numbers  24.0,382.     See  SUDAN. 

Nucellus  (nu-sel'lus),  (in  plants),  the 
main  body  of  an  ovule,  usually  more  or  less 
invested  by  an  integument  or  integuments. 
It  is  the  nucellus  which  is  really  the  mega- 
sporangium,  and  which  contains  the  mega- 
spore  or  embryo-sac.  See  OVULE. 

Nucleus  (nu'kl$-iis),  ( in  plants) ,  a  special 
protoplasmic  body  always  found  in  cells.  So 
far  as  known,  every  cell  must  contain  nucleus 
and  cytoplasm.  In  the  process  of  ordinary 
cell  division  the  initial  steps  are  taken  by  the 
nucleus.  Ordinarily,  the  nucleus  is  a  spher- 
ical body  and  is  usually  centrally  placed.  It 
is  difficult  to  see  under  ordinary  circumstan- 
ces without  the  use  of  special  stains  which 
color  it.  See  CELL. 

Nu'ma  Pompil'ius,  the  second  Roman 
king,  ^who  ruled  715-672  B.  C.),  successor 
to  Romulus,  was  a  native  of  Cures,  in  the  Sa- 
bine  country,  and  esteemed  for  his  piety  and 
wisdom.  He  was  elected  king  by  the  Roman 
people  and  by  the  aid  of  supposed  interviews 
with  the  nymph  Egeria  in  the  groves  near 
the  city  began  to  draw  up  forms  of  religious 
institutions  for  the  people,  and  was  thus,  ac- 
cording to  story,  the  author  of  the  Roman 
ceremonial.  He  reigned  during  39  years  of 
peace  and  happiness. 

Numid'ia,  the  name  given  by  the  Romans 
to  that  part  of  Africa  which  is  now  Algeria, 
and  reaching  south  to  the  Atlas  Mountains. 
The  inhabitants  were  of  the  race  from  which 
the  Berbers  are  descended;  were  warlike, 
faithless,  dishonest,  yet  excellent  horsemen. 
In  the  war  between  the  Carthaginians,  Mas- 
sinissa,  the  chief  of  the  powerful  eastern 
tribe,  joined  the  Romans  and  later  ruled  the 
entire  country.  Of  his  successors  Jugurtha 
and  Juba  are  best  known.  After  Cassar  con- 
quered Juba  I,  Numidia  became  a  Roman 
province,  but  Augustus  gave  the  western 
part  to  Juba  II.  Among  the  more  import- 
ant places  were  Hippo,  Raguis,  Zama  and 
Cirta,  afterward  called  Constantina,  and 
now  Constantine. 

Nur-ed-Din'  Mahmud,  emir  and  sultan  of 
Syria,  was  born  at  Damascus  in  1116  A.  D. 
He  is  noted  for  his  defeat  of  the  first  and  sec- 
ond crusades  of  the  Christians,  the  conquer- 
ing of  Tripolis,  Antioch  and  Damascus,  and. 
the  taking  of  all  the  Christian  strongholds  in 
Syria  in  1151.  In  u 68  he  was  made  sultan 
pi  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  while  preparing  to 
invade  Egypt,  died  at  Damascus  in  May, 
1173.  He  was  the  bitterest  enemy  of  Chris- 
tianity, but  was  a  patron  of  science,  art  and 
literature  and  a  good  administrator  of  justice. 

Nu'remberg  or  Nurn'berg,  a  city  in 
Middle  Franconia,  a  province  of  Bavaria, 
stands  on  the  River  Pegnitz,  95  miles  from 
Munich.  It  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
cities  of  Germany,  with  its  old  walls,  gates, 
bridges  and  fountains.  The  castle,  built 
by  Conrad  II  and  Frederick  Barbarossa,  is 
famed  for  its  paintings  and  wood  carvings. 


The  most  notable  buildings  are  St.  Lawrence 
church  (1274),  St.  Sebald's  church  (1225), 
the  Italian  Renaissance  town  hall  (1622),  the 
gymnasium  (1526),  the  new  law  courts,  the 
Germanic  Museum  and  the  library  of  70,000 
volumes.  The  city  has  no  foreign  com- 
merce outside  of  that  in  toys,  known  as  Nu- 
remberg wares,  but  has  a  large  home  trade 
in  metal  and  wood  specialties,  bone  carvings, 
type,  lead  pencils  and  chemicals.  Nurem- 
berg was  first  heard  of  in  1050,  and  became 
a  free  city  in  1219.  The  Hohenzollerns  sold 
their  rights  to  it  in  1417,  and  it  immediately 
began  to  rise  as  the  German  home  of  arts 
and  inventions  and  became  a  center  of  com- 
merce. The  discovery  of  the  Cape  passage 
to  India  and  the  Thirty  Years'  War  proved 
the  city's  ruin,  and  although  it  retained  its  in- 
dependence until  1 803, it  entered  the  Rhenish 
Confederation,  and  in  1806  became  one  of 
the  cities  of  Bavaria.  Population  332,651. 

Nuta'tion,  regular  bending  of  plant  parts, 
such  as  bud  scales,  flower  leaves,  stems  etc., 
due  to  unequal  growth  on  the  sides.  The 
stimulus  inciting  it  may  be  light,  heat  or 
gravity.  (See  IRRITABILITY.)  Thus  the 
flowers  of  the  tulip  and  crocus  are  sensitive 
to  temperature  changes  of  a  few  degrees, 
opening  with  rising  and  closing  with  falling 
temperature,  because  the  growth  of  the  outer 
face  is  hastened  and  that  of  the  inner  face 
retarded,  and  vice  versa.  When  a  cylin- 
drical stem  has  its  growth  hastened  on  every 
side  in  regular  succession,  the  tip  describes 
a  more  or  less  regular  circle,  as  in  twining 
plants  like  the  hop  and  morning  glory. 
Some  nutations  are  apparently  spontaneous. 

Nut'hatch,  a  small  creeping  bird  seen 
running  up  and  down  the  trunks  of  trees, 


WHITE-BREASTED    NUTHATCH 

"getting  its  name  from  its  habit  of  hatching 
open  nuts  it  has  previously  wedged  in  the 
bark  of  trees.  It  is  wonderfully  nimble, 
an  expert  gymnast,  finding  it  no  trouble  at 
all  to  walk  along  a  limb  head  downward. 
It  has  a  rather  slender,  strong  straight  bill, 
its  sharp  claws  are  well  adapted  for  holding 
to  the  bark,  the  tail  is  short  and  square,  and 
is  not  used  in  climbing.  Its  plumage  is 
slate-colored  and  smooth,  not  fluffy  like  its 
cousin,  the  chickadee's.  It  is  seen  chiefly 
in  winter,  during  nesting  season  seeking  se- 
clusion The  white-breasted  nuthatch  is  a 
common  winter  bird  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  country,  its  cheerful  "Yank!  yank! 


NUTMEG 


1366 


NYE 


hank!  hank!'*  welcome  in  the  winter  still- 
ness ;  also  welcome  is  the  industry  and  success 
of  its  hunting  for  insect-eggs  and  larvae. 
Other  food  to  its  liking,  are  nuts  and  seeds. 
It  is  frequently  seen  in  friendly  association 
with  the  titmice.  Its  slate-colored  coat  is 
relieved  by  black  on  top  ox  the  head  and  on 
the  wings;  its  tail  is  rusty  black  touched  with 
white;  sides  of  head  and  under  parts  white. 
In  the  spring  it  retreats  to  the  deep  woods, 
patiently  digs  out  a  hole  on  a  dead  limb, 
lines  this  hole  with  feathers  and  other  soft 
material,  making  a  snug  nest  for  the  many 
white  eggs  —  five  to  eight,  sometimes  10. 
The  red-breasted  nuthatch  is  small  3r  than 
the  preceding,  and  is  more  northerly  in  its 
range,  nesting  from  Maine  northward  and  in 
the  mountains  farther  south. 

Nut'meg,     See  SPICES. 

Nutri'tion  (in  plants),  the  processes  by 
which  food  is  obtained  and  utilized.  Plants 
obtain  their  food  (which  see)  in  two  ways, 
by  absorption  and  by  manufacture.  With 
a  few  exceptions,  plants  which  obtain  their 
food  ready-made  are  unable  to  engulf  it  and 
must  take  it  into  the  body  in  solution.  (See 
ABSORPTION.)  If  insoluble  in  water,  they 
must  first  digest  it.  (See  DIGESTION.)  All 
prepared  food  is  derived  directly  or  indirectly 
from  other  organisms.  A  few  plants  cap- 
ture small  insects  for  the  sake  of  the  food  de- 
rived from  their  bodies.  Parasites,  that  is, 
creatures  growing  on  or  in  a  living  being 
(called,  therefore,  the  host),  derive  their 
food  directly  from  it ;  saprophytes  in  a  simi- 
lar way  obtain  their  food  from  a  dead  organ- 
ism. There  is  every  possible  gradation  be- 
tween parasites  and  saprophytes;  and  be- 
tween saprophytes  and  green  plants,  which 
are  able  to  make  all  of  their  food  out  of  inor- 
ganic material.  Yet_many  green  plants  ab- 
sorb organic  matter,  i,  e.,  matter  once  a  part 
of  a  living  being ;  this  is  the  reason  for  apply- 
ing fertilizers  and  manures  to  gardens  and 
fields.  Many,  perhaps  all,  colorless  plants 
can  make  the  most  complex  foods  (pro- 
teids) ,  provided  simpler  foods  and  necessary 
salts  are  supplied.  Only  green  plants,  how- 
ever, and  of  these  only  the  green  parts,  can 
make  carbohydrate  foods,  like  sugars,  starch 
and  the  like,  out  of  carbon  dioxide  and  wa- 
ter. (See  PHOTOSYNTHESIS.)  When  these 
foods  have  been  formed  in  sufficient  amount, 
the  green  plants  can  also  produce  proteids. 
Most  plants  make  more  food  than  they  re- 
quire. Reserve  food  is  stored,  usually  in 
solid  form,  in  special  tissues.  These  storage 
regions  have  been  greatly  improved  by  cul- 
tivation, the  common  vegetables  (seeds, 
tubers,  bulbs,  roots,  leaves,  and  even  flower 
buds)  being  the  product  of  proper  breeding 
and  of  growing  the  plants  under  unusually 
favorable  conditions  for  nutrition.  In  its 
broadest  sense,  nutrition  includes  the  use  of 
foods  in  assimilation,  respiration  and 
growth.  These  topics  are  separately  treated. 
In  the  course  of  the  chemical  process  of 


nutrition  (see  METABOLISM)  a  great  variety 
of  waste  products  arise,  such  as  gums,  resins, 
volatile  oils,  tannins,  alkaloids  etc.  These 
the  plant  secretes  and  removes  them  thus 
from  its  general  metabolism.  See  SECRE- 
TION. C.  R.  BARNES. 

Nyas'a  or  Nyanja,  the  most  southern  of 
the  great  East  African  lakes,  is  260  miles 
from  Tanganyika  and  400  miles  from  the  east 
coast.  It  is  1,570  feet  above  sea  level,  very 
deep,  rapidly  descending  from  its  high  and 
rocky  shores,  and  measures  about  350  miles 
long  by  40  miles  broad  from  east  to  west.  It 
was  known  by  the  Portuguese  as  Maravi  in 
the  i  yth  century,  but  was  first  navigated  by 
Livingstone,  and  its  situation  exactly  deter- 
mined in  1859. 

Nyasaland  (ne-ds' sd-l&nd) ,  the  name 
given  to  a  British  Central  Africa  protector- 
ate, the  country  lying  immediately  south, 
west  and  northwest  of  Lake  Nyasa,  in  East 
Africa.  Its  area  is  40,980  square  miles,  pop- 
ulation about  1,000,000  natives  and  nearly 
700  Europeans.  It  has  no  outside  bound- 
aries, but  is  the  region  in  which  the  African 
Lakes  company  of  Glasgow  operates  in  con- 
nection with  the  missionaries  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  with  principal  stations  at  Blan- 
tyre  and  Bandawe.  Nine  missions  are  at 
work,  and  over  60,000  natives  are  at  school. 
The  company  and  mission  stations  were 
founded  on  the  recommendation  of  Dr.  Liv- 
ingstone to  check  the  Arab  slave  trade.  It 
is  now  under  the  administration  of  the  Brit- 
ish foreign  office,  by  a  resident  commissioner. 
Its  products  are  rice,  coffee,  rubber,  ivory 
and  cotton.  The  capital  is  Zomba.  Some 
trouble  was  caused  in  1888-90  by  the  claim  of 
sovereignty  made  by  Portugal;  but  the 
sphere  of  the  Portuguese  Nyasa  company, 
with  a  charter  from  the  Portuguese  crown, 
is  the  region  between  the  Rovuma,  Lake 
Nyasa  and  the  Lurio.  There  are  steamers 
on  the  lake  and  on  Shir£  River,  two  railways, 
telegraphs  and  23  postoffices.  See  CENTRAL 
AFRICA  PROTECTORATE. 

Nymph  (riimf),  young  of  insects  that  un- 
dergo only  incomplete  metamorphosis,  do 
not  show  marked  change  of  form  save  in 
gradual  growth  of  wings;  as  the  young  of 
crickets,  grasshoppers,  locusts  and  bugs. 
See  METAMORPHOSIS. 

Nymphs,  of  Greek  mythology,  were  the 
female  divinities  of  the  low.er  rank,  inhabit- 
ing the  seas,  streams,  groves,  meadows  and 
pastures,  caves,  fountains,  hills  and  trees. 
Of  their  different  classes  were  Oceariides, 
nymphs  of  the  great  sea;  Nereids,  of  the  in- 
ner sea;  Potameides,  of  the  rivers;  Naiads, 
of  fountains,  brooks,  lakes  and  wells,  and 
Dryads,  of  the  trees  and  forests,  who  were 
supposed  to  die  with  the  trees  in  which  they 
lived.  They  were  the  goddesses  of  moisture, 
had  power  of  prophecy,  and  guarded  the 
nourishment  and  growth  of  infants.  Many 
of  the  most  beautiful  Grecian  sculptures  are 
those  of  nymphs. 


1367 


OAK 


o 


O,  the  fifteenth  letter,  is  a  vowel,  and 
represents  seven  sounds.  It  is  produced 
through  the  rounded  lips,  and  is  therefore 
classified  as  the  labial  vowel.  Its  principal 
sounds  are  the  long  one  in  bane  and  the 
short  one  in  nod.  Variants  of  these  are 
heard  in  orb,  son,  do  (food)  and  wolf  (book). 
With  other  vowels  it  forms  diagraphs  and 
diphthongs.  Anciently  it  was  a  numeral 
(u)  as  well  as  a  letter,  O  with  a  bar  over 
it  being  1 1,000.  O'  with  an  apostrophe  after 
it  in  Irish  names  is  a  prefix  meaning  son 
of,  as  O'Connell,  son  of  Connell. 

Oak,  species  of  Quercus,  a  genus  contain- 
ing about  200  species,  all  natives  of  the 

northern 
hemisphere. 
kAbout  50 
k  species  be- 
'.  o  n  g  to 
r  North  Amer- 
ica,  and 
among  them 
occur  some 
of  the  finest 
and  best- 
known  of 
our  forest- 
trees.  They 
are  easily 
recognized 
by  their 
characteris- 
tic leaves 
and  espe- 
cially by 
their  pecu- 
liar fruit, the 
well  -  known 
acorns.  Among  our  most  conspicuous  species 
are  the  white  oak  (Q.  alba),  red  oak  (Q. 
rubrd),  scarlet  oak  (Q.  coccinea),  burr-oak 
(Q.  macrocarpa),  chestnut-oak  (Q.  acumin- 
ata)  and  live  oak  (Q.  Virginiana).  The 
white  oak  is  a  great,  stately  tree,  70  to 
80  feet  high,  and  still  higher  in  the  forest. 
In  the  open  its  branches  spread  wide.  The 
bark  is  light  gray  in  color,  and  not  so  rough 
as  that  of  most  hickories.  The  leaves  are 
simple,  alternate,  obovate,  bright  green 
above  and  paler  below;  when  young  they 
are  woolly  and  red;  they  turn  dark  red  in 
the  fall  and  may  remain  on  the  tree  all 
winter.  The  acorns  have  rough  cups,  usu- 
ally growing  in  pairs.  The  range  is  from 
Maine  to  Minnesota  and  southward!  the 
tree  is  at  its  best  on  the  western  slopes  of 


OAK-BRANCH  IN  FRUIT 


the  Alleghanies.  It  is  one  of  our  most  val- 
uable timber-trees,  the  wood  is  used  in 
shipbuilding,  in  the  manufacture  of  car- 
riages, for  interior  finish  and  for  other 
purposes.  The  tree  lives  to  a  great  age. 
The  red  oak  grows  under  a  variety  of  con- 
ditions. The  tree  grows  50,  80  or  150  feet 
high,  has  a  round  top,  the  foliage  abundant 
but  the  leaves  so  attache^  that  they  give 
this  tree  of  girth  and  height  a  light  and 
airy  appearance.  The  bark  is  reddish  brown 
and  comparatively  smooth,  the  leaves  are 
simple,  alternate,  dark  green  above  and  pale 
green  below.  The  acorn^cup  is  shallow,  the 
nut  large.  The  wood  is  porous  and  not 
highly  valued.  In  autumn  the  scarlet  oak 
wears  leaves  of  the  most  brilliant  red,  and 
at  all  seasons  it  is  a  very  picturesque  tree. 
It  varies  in  height  from  50  to  90  feet,  some- 
times higher;  is  narrow  at  the  topi  the 
bark  rough  and  grayish-brown  j  the  leaves 
large  and  lustrous.  The  acorns  are  quite 
large,  the  cup  scaly.  It  is  highly  valued 
as  an  ornamental  tree.  The  burr-oak  is 
hardy,  beautiful  and  a  valuable  timber.  It 
is  widely  distributed  —  found  from  Montana 
to  Pennsylvania  and  south  to  Texas,  and 
also  grows  in  Maine,  Vermont  and  Massa- 
chusetts. East  of  the  Alleghanies  it  is  com- 
paratively rare,  and  is  at  its  best  in  Illi- 
nois, Indiana  and  the  Mississippi  Basin.  In 
some  regions  it  rises  even  150  feet,  but  the 
average  is  about  75}  with  space  for  out- 
reaching,  the  tree  is  wide-spreading.  The 
bark  is  deeply  furrowed  and  brownish-gray; 
the  leaves  are  long,  shiny  and  dark-green 
above,  silvery  white  underneath.  The  acorns 
are  very  large,  the  cup  is  extremely  rough 
and  there  is  a  noticeable  fringe  around  the 
edge.  The  wood  is  dark  brown,  the  strong- 
est of  the  oaks,  and  is  highly  valued.  The 
.Chestnut-oak  is  a  magnificent  tree,  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  of  the  oaks.  It  rises 
tall  and  straight;  its  height  60,  70  or  100 
feet,  its  leaves  somewhat  like  those  of  the 
chestnut.  The  bark  is  light  gray,  almost 
white;  the  acorns  are  small  and  grow  close 
to  the  branch.  The  bark  is  rich  in  tannin, 
the  wood  used  in  cooperage.  The  range  of 
the  tree  is  from  Vermont  to  ^  Alabama  and 
westward,  and  it  is  found  at  its  best  in  the 
mountains  of  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina. 
The  live  oak  is  a  beautiful  southern  form 
of  oak,  its  leaves  evergreen.  The  range  is 
from  Virginia  southward  near  the  coast  to 
Florida,  where  the  trees  are  especially  abun- 
dant, and  west  to  Mexico.  It  sometimes  ^is 


OAK-APPLES 


1368 


OBERAMMERGAU 


no  more  than  a  shrub,  sometimes  rises  60 
feet.  It  is  a  wide-spreading  tree,  the  bark 
brown  and  deeply  furrowed,  the  leaves  dark- 
green,  small  and  glossy.  The  yellow  wood 
is  strong  but  difficult  to  work,  and  takes  a 
fine  polish;  it  is  valued  in  shipbuilding, 
and  the  bark  yields  considerable  tannm.  See 
Mathews ;  Familiar  Trees  and  Lounsberry  • 
A  Guide  to  tlie  Trees. 

Oak-Apples,  called  also  nutgalls  and  gall- 
nuts,  are  round  balls  about  as  large  as  an 
apple,  found  on  the  leaves  and  stems  of 
oaks  and  produced  by  the  action  of  insects. 
The  insect  pierces  the  plant  and  places  an 
egg  with  a  small  quantity  of  poisonous  fluid 
110  the  opening.  The  gall  or  apple  grows 
rapidly  arid  is  fully  formed  before  thejegg 
hatches.  The  insect  remains  in  the  apple 
during  its  second  stage,  and  finally  as  a 
gallfly  eats  its  way  into  the  world.  The 
nuts  are  used  in  making  ink  and  tannin. 

Oak  land.  Cal.,  a  city  of  Alameda  County 
is  on  the  eastern  side  of  San  Francisco 
Bay.  four  and  one  half  miles  from  San 
Francisco.  It  is  a  beautiful  city,  well-  shaded 
and  watered,  with  many  fine  residences  — 
many  of  them  the  homes  of  the  business 
men  of  San  Francisco.  Oakland  has  an 
excellent  public  school  system,  many  school 
buildings  and  a  parochial  system  (R.  C.) 
kept  in  perfect  gradation  with  the  public 
schools.  Among  the  higher  educational  in- 
stitutions are  California  College  (Baptist), 
St.  Mary's  College  (R.  C.),  two  academies 
(R.  C.)  and,  connected  with  the  public  high- 
school,  a  well-equipped  observatory  Pacific 
Theological  Seminary  (Congregational)  and 
a  Catholic  college  are  established  here,  and 
at  Berkeley,  adjoining  Oakland  on  the  north, 
is  the  University  of  California.  Note- 
worthy buildings  are  the  postoffice,  city-hall, 
hospitals,  Home  for  the  Blind,  St.  Joseph's 
Home  for  Deaf-Mutes,  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  and 
the  Y.  W.  C.  A.  The  city  manufactures 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  jute,  iron,  nails, 
shoes  and  pottery,  has  large  canning  fac- 
tories, planing  and  lumber  mills;  and  ship- 
building is  carried  on.  Population  150,174. 

Oasis  (o'd-sis),  a  fertile  spot  in  the  desert, 
due  to  the  presence  of  wells  or  underground 
springs.  The  French  have  made  oases  in 
the  Algerian  deserts  by  sinking  artesian 
wells.  Some  African  oases  are  large  enough 
to  be  inhabited,  and  grow  crops  of  rice  and 
millet,  and  are  shaded  with  palms. 

Oats,  species  of  the  genus  Avena,  belong- 
ing to  the  grass  family.  The  common  cul- 
tivated oat  is  A.  saliva,  which  is  native  to 
the  eastern  hemisphere.  The  genus  contains 
about  50  species,  which  are  widespread  in 
the  north  temperate  regions.  In  the  United 
States  three  species  occur,  the  purple  oat 
(A.  striata),  Smith's  oat  (A.  Smithfi)  and 
the  common  wild  oat  (A.  fatua).  The  oat 
is  hardy,  thrives  best  in  a  cool,  moist  cli- 
mate, and  is  extensively  grown  in  the  United 
States  Canada  and  northern  Europe.  Rus- 


sia and  the  United  States  rank  first  as  oat- 
producing  countries.  The  grain  is  of  great 
importance  as  food  for  man  and  beast,  the 

Flant  is  valued  for  forage,  hay  and  straw, 
t  has  few  insect  enemies,  but  is  injured  by 
rust  and  smut. 

Oaxaca  (wd-hd'ka),  a  state  of  Mexico, 
near  the  isthmus,  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Puebla  and  Vera  Cruz,  east  by 
Vera  Cruz  and  Chiapas,  south  by  the  Pacific 
and  west  by  Guerrero.  It  contains  35,382 
square  miles  and  the  population  is  esti- 
mated at  i, 04 1, 03 5, of  whom  the  much  larger 
part  are  civilized  Indians.  The  greater  por- 
tion of  the  area  is  mountainous,  the  Sierra 
Madre  del  Sur  rising  to  a  height  of  12,000 
feet,  and  running  across  the  whole  width  of 
the  state  from  east  to  west.  The  capital, 
of  the  same  name,  210  miles  southeast  of 
Mexico  City,  has  a  population  of  37,469. 
The  resources  are  among  the  best  in  Mexico, 
its  elevation  giving  it  a  considerable  rainfall 
and  a  less  oppressive  climate  than  that  found 
in  several  of  the  states  of  that  country.  Its 
soil  is  good,  and  wheat,  coffee,  sugar,  cotton, 
cocoa,  plantains,  and  fruits  of  all  kinds  are 
exported. 

Ob'elisk,  a  memorial  monument  of  stone 
with  a  pointed  top.  It  usually  has  four 
faces,  and  is  broadest  at  the  base.  These 
monuments  were  used  by  the  Egyptians  at 
the  entrances  of  their  temples,  probably  to 
record  the  honors  and  triumphs  of  their 
kings.  They  are  covered  with  inscriptions 
in  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  or  picture  writing. 
They  are  very  ancient,  going  back  to  the 
4th  dynasty  in  Egypt,  though  the  larger 
part  date  from  the  i8th  and  igth  dynasties. 
Two  large  ones,  which  stood  at  Heliopolis, 
were  carried  by  Rameses  II  to  Alexandria, 
and  have  been  called  Cleopatra's  Needles. 
One  of  these  was  erected  on  the  Thames  em- 
bankment in  London  in  1878,  and  the  other, 
presented  by  the  khedive  of  Egypt  to  the 
United  States,  is  in  Central  Park,  New  York 
City.  There  are  others  at  Rome,  Florence. 
Berlin  and  Paris.  Washington  Monument, 
finished  in  1885  in  the  city  of  Washington, 
is  the  largest  obelisk  in  the  world.  It  is 
55  square  feet  at  the  base,  and  555  feet  in 
height.  See  Egyptian  Obelisks  by  Gorringe. 
Oberammergau  (d'ber-dm'mer-gou'),  a  vil- 
lage in  Bavaria,  45  miles  southwest  of  Mu- 
nich. It  is  celebrated  as  the  place  where 
the  famous  miracle-play  representing  the 
Passion  of  our  Savior  is  played  once  in  ten 
years.  It  is  the  only  survival  of  the  old 
miracle-plays,  being  excepted  from  the  order 
abolishing  them  in  Europe  in  1779.  Ir  1633, 
in  gratitude  for  an  escape  from  the  plague 
which  devastated  the  surrounding  country, 
the  people  of  the  village  vowed  to  perform 
this  play  once  in  ten  years.  The  actors,  in 
number  350  and  the  chorus  of  80  members, 
are  all  taken  from  the  villagers.  It  is  played 
for  twelve  Sundays,  in  a  large  theater  hold- 
ing 5,000  spectators,  many  of  whom  are 


OBERLIN 


1369 


OCEAN-CURRENTS 


visitors  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  See 
MIRACLE-PLAYS  and  Homes  of  Ober-Ammer- 
gau  by  Greatorex. 

O'berlin,  O.,  a  town  in  Lorain  County, 
near  Lake  Erie,  34  miles  west  of  Cleveland. 
It  is  a  college  town,  with  some  factories  and 
business  blocks.  It  is  the  seat  of  Oberlin 
College,  established  in  1833  and  chartered 
as  Oberlin  Collegiate  Institute.  In  1850  the 
name  was  changed  to  Oberlin  College.  It 
is  a  coeducational  institution,  and,  besides 
the  college,  theological  seminary  and  aqad- 
emy,  provides  courses  for  graduate  students. 
The  number  of  instructors  in  all  departments 
including  the  conservatory  of  music,  is  142, 
the  students  in  attendance  2,025,  and  the 
number  of  volumes  in  the  library  about 
125,000.  Population  4,365. 

Obi  (o'b«)  or  Ob  is  the  great  river  of 
western  Siberia.  It  rises  in  two  branches 
in  the  Altai  Mountains  in  the  Chinese  do- 
minions, and  flows  north,  2,120  miles,  into 
the  Gulf  of  Obi  in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It  is 
very  little  used  for  navigation,  but  with  the 
growth  of  the  country  will  probably  become 
one  of  the  great  water-routes  for  commerce. 
Its  chief  tributary  is  the  Irtish. 

O'Brien,  Most  Rev.  Cornelius,  D.D., 
Ph.D.,  F.R.S.  Can.,  Roman  Catholic  Arch- 
bishop of  Halifax  since  1882,  was  born  in 
New  Glasgow,  Prince  Edward  Island,  on 
May  4,  1843,  and  was  educated  at  St.  Dun- 
stan's  College  in  Charlottetown  and  at  the 
Propaganda  in  Rome.  He  has  been  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada,  for 
which  he  wrote  The  Supernatural  in  Nature 
and  other  papers  His  published  works  in- 
clude The  Philosophy  of  the  Bible,  Memoirs 
of  Bishop  Burke;  and  Cabot's  Landfall. 

Observ'atory,  an  institution  equipped  for 
the  study  of  astronomical  or  meteorological 
phenomena.  In  distinction  from  a  labora- 
tory, which  is  a  place  where  phenomena  can 
be  brought  to  pass  and  experiments  tried, 
an  observatory  is  a  place  for  the  observa- 
tion of  phenomena  over  which  we  have  no 
control,  as  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  or  a 
sudden  variation  in  the  earth's  magnetism. 
Those  institutions  which  are  exclusively  de- 
voted to  observational  work  are  the  purely 
astronomical  observatories.  Scarcely  any 
other  kind  existed  previous  to  the  inven- 
tion of  the  spectroscope  by  Kirchhoff  and 
Bunsen.  Recently,  however,  a  number  of 
astrophysical  observatories  have  been  estab- 
lished —  notably  at  Potsdam  in  Germany, 
Meudon  in  France,  Tulse  Hill  in  London 
and  Cambridge,  Washington,  Allegheny,  Co- 
lumbus, Lake  Geneva  and  Mount  Hamilton 
in  America.  In  these  institutions  many 
experiments  have  to  be  tried  as  well  as 
many  observations  made;  for  the  spectra 
of  stars,  planets,  nebulae,  comets  have  to 
be  interpreted  as  well  as  described.  And 
their  interpretation  can  be  given  only  after 
experiment  has  shown  how  to  duplicate 
them.  Hence  an  astrophysical  observatory 


is  generally  also  a  laboratory,  provided  with 
electrical,  photographic  and  spect-oscopic 
apparatus.  The  same  is  more  or  less  true 
of  a  magnetic  observatory. 

The  typical  astronomical  observatory  is 
equipped  with  a  clock  and  an  instrument 
for  correcting  this  clock  from  the  passage 
of  stars  over  the  meridian  of  the  place.  It 
is  provided  also  with  a  telescope,  housed  in 
a  dome  which  can  easily  be  opened  to  the 
sky  on  one  side  and  easily  rotated.  The 
more  important  observatories  of  the  world 
are:  Yerkes  Observatory  at  Lake  Geneva, 
with  a  refracting  telescope  whose  object 
glass  is  40  inches  in  diameter;  Lick  Observ- 
atory at  Mount  _  Hamilton,  Cal.,  with  an 
objective  of  36  inches  diameter;  Harvard 
Observatory  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  with  a 
branch  in  Arequipa,  South  America;  this 
institution  employs  between  30  and  40 
workers  and  is  making  a  superb  spectro- 
scopic  survey  of  the  heavens;  Naval  Ob- 
servatory at  Washington  and  McCormick  at 
the  University  of  Virginia  each  have  26  inch 
glasses,  while  Halstead  Observatory  at 
Princeton  University  follows  with  one  of 
23  >£  inches.  Greenwich  Observatory  in  Eng- 
land is  a  national  institution,  which  has  a 
brilliant  history  and  is  doing  a  great  variety 
of  work.  The  corresponding  institution  for 
France  is  Paris  Observatory,  and,  like  Green- 
wich in  England  and  Pulkowa  in  Russia,  it 
has  a  history  of  which  it  may  well  be  proud. 

Obsid'ian,  a  natural  glass,  a  variety  of 
lava.  It  is  hard,  brittle,  with  a  glassy 
luster,  partially  transparent,  and  with  sharp 
edges  that  cut  like  glass.  It  is  black,  dark 
gray,  green,  red,  brown,  striped  or  spotted, 
a  specimen  usually  having  but  one  of  these 
various  colors.  It  is  used  for  jewelry  and 
ornamental  articles,  and  in  early  times  was 
employed  for  arrowheads,  knives  and  mir- 
rors. It  is  found  in  Yellowstone  Park  and 
other  localities  in  the  United  States;  in 
Iceland,  the  Lipari  Islands,  Vesuvius,  Sar- 
dinia, Hungary,  Spain,  Mexico  and  South 
America. 

O'cean-Cur'rents.  There  are  some  very 
remarkable  currents  in  the  great  seas.  Some 
are-«uxface-currents  and  some  move  along 
on  the  very  bottom  of  the  sea.  The  latter 
are  the  great  inflows  of  cold  water  from 
the  polar  regions.  The  surface-currents  are 
caused  by  the  winds,  and  are  warm  or 
cold  according  as  they  pass  from  a  warmer 
or  colder  climate.  ^  The  effect  of  these  cur- 
rents upon  climatic  conditions  makes  them 
of  great  importance.  They  may  be  consid- 
ered as  constituting  two  great  and  some- 
what similar  systems,  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific,  which  may  be  subdivided  into  the 
North  and  the  South  Atlantic  and  the  North 
and  the  South  Pacific  respectively.  The 
currents  of  the  North  Atlantic  are  the  North 
Equatorial  current,  the  Gulf  Stream  (a.  v.) 
and  the  North  African  current,  which  form 
a  great  circle  with  a  large  Sargasso  Sea  in 


OCEANIA 


1370 


O'CONNELL 


the  middle,  and  the  Greenland  and  Labrador 
(q.  v.)  currents.  The  currents  of  the  South 
Atlantic,  are  the  South  Equatorial,  the  Bra- 
zilian, and  the  South  Connecting  currents, 
which  also  fcrm  a  circle  with  a  Sargasso  Sea 
in  the  middle.  The  currents  of  the  South 
Pacific  are  the  South  Equatorial  and  Aus- 
tralian currents  and  of  the  North  Pacific, 
the  North  Equatorial,  Japan  (Kuro  Sivo)  and 
Humboldt  (Peruvian)  currents.  Charts 
showing  the  courses  of  these  different  cur- 
rents will  be  found  in  almost  any  of  the 
higher-grade  school  geographies,  with  some 
reference  to  their  specific  influences  upon 
climatic  conditions.  Currents  moving  at  a 
very  slow  rate  of  speed  are  called  drifts. 

Oce'ania  or  Ocean'ica,  the  islands  and 
archipelagoes  between  southeastern  Asia 
and  western  America.  They  comprise  Poly- 
nesia, the  Malay  Archipelago  and  Austra- 
lasia, all  known  poetically  as,  together,  the 
island-world  of  the  Pacific.  See  AUSTRALA- 
SIA, AUSTRALIA,  HAWAII,  MALAYS,  NEW 
GUINEA,  NEW  ZEALAND  and  POLYNESIA. 

Ocean=Routes.  There  are  great  ocean- 
routes  just  as  there  are  great  land-routes, 
great  steamship-systems  just  as  there  are 
great  railroad-systems.  The  principal  ocean- 
routes  run  east  and  west,  as  do  the  princi- 
pal railroad  or  land-routes.  The  one  is,  as 
it  were,  an  extension  or  continuation  of  the 
other.  The  ocean-routes  may  be  divided 
into  two  great  divisions,  the  Atlantic  and 
the  Pacific.  The  Atlantic  routes  are  many, 
connecting  almost  all  ports  of  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  American  continents  and  Eu- 
rope. The  Pacific  routes  are  not  so  many 
and  are  not  yet  so  much  traversed,  though 
the  near  future  is  sure  to  witness  a  great 
change  in  respect  to  this.  The  principal 
Pacific  routes  are  the  Puget-Sound  route; 
the  San  Francisco- Honolulu -Yokohoma 
route;  the  Yokohoma-Hong-Kong-Singa- 
pore  route  to  Europe,  connecting  there  with 
the  Atlantic  routes;  and  the  less  traversed 
Puget  Sound-Honolulu-Sidney;  San  Fran- 
cisco-Honolulu -  Sidney ;  Yokohoma  -  Hong- 
Kong-Sidney;  Puget  Sound-Manila;  San 
Francisco-Manila;  and  Mid-Pacific  routes. 
The  Puget-Sound  route  is  the  shortest  route 
between  America  and  Japan  and  is  traversed 
by  about  all  vessels  sailing  for  Yokohoma 
from  Vancouver,  Seattle,  Tacoma  or  Port- 
land and  frequently  by  vessels  sailing  from 
San  Francisco.  The  distance  from  Vancou- 
ver to  Yokohoma  by  the  Puget-Sound  route 
is  only  4,560  miles.  The  San  Francisco- 
Honolulu- Yokohoma  route  is  7,560  miles  or 
3,000  miles  longer  than  the  Puget-Sound 
route.  It  has  the  advantage  of  the  inter- 
mediate port  of  Honolulu  and  is  much 
traversed.  The  San  Francisco-Honolulu- 
Manila  route  is  9,005  miles,  while  the  Puget 
Sound-Manila  route  is  only  a  little  over 
6,000  miles. 

Ocelot  (o's$-lot),  a  leopard-like  cat  that 
has  come  from  the  tropics  into  some  of  our 


southern  states,  is  frequently  met  in  south- 
ern Texas  and  occurs  in  lower  Louisiana. 
It  varies  in  length  from  two  to  three  feet, 
and  a  full-grown  animal  reaches  a  weight 
of  twemty-five  pounds.  Its  fur  is  tawny  or 
reddish-gray,  marked  with  black  spots, 
stripes  and  bands.  The  black  color  some- 
times is  in  the  form  of  a  ring  inclosing  a 


spot  somewhat  darker  than  the  general 
color  of  the  fur.  The  ocelot  is  an  agile 
climber,  spends  a  good  deal  of  time  on  the 
lower  branches  of  trees  on  the  lookout  for 
prey;  and  feeds  chiefly  on  birds  and  small 
quadrupeds.  It  sometimes  is  known  as  the 
tiger-cat,  and  as  a  rule  is  bad-tempered. 

O'Con'nell,  Daniel,  the  Irish  liberator, 
was  born  in  County  Kerry,  Aug.  6,  1775. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  Irish  bar  in  1794 
and  became  famous  as  counsel,  the  coun- 
selor being  one  of  the  titles  by  which  he 
was  known  among  his  followers.  His  large 
practice,  worth,  he  said,  $35,000  a  year, 
was  sacrificed  for  his  country,  when  he  took 
a  leading  part  in  Irish  politics.  He  was 
head  of  the  Roman  Catholic  party  and  con- 
tended for  the  admission  of  Catholics  to 
Parliament,  which  he  secured  in  1829.  In 
1823  the  Catholic  Association  formed  by  him 
became  very  poweriul,  with  a  large  income. 
He  entered  Parliament  in  1829,  supporting 
the  Whig  party  during  the  reform  struggle, 
advocating  free  trade  in  corn,  negro  eman- 
cipation, the  repeal  of  the  laws  against  the 
Jews  and  universal  suffrage.  One  of  the 
greatest  of  orators,  his  remarkable  speeches 
in  Parliament,  one  of  which  lasted  for  seven 
hours,  were  equaled  only  by  his  popular 
addresses  throughout  Ireland.  In  1840  he 
founded  his  famous  Repeal  Association,  the 
members  of  which  paid  from  $50  to  25  cents 
annual  fees,  and  which  in  1843  had  an  in" 
come  of  over  $200,000.  In  1844  O'Connell, 
with  his  son  and  five  others,  was  tried  for 
sedition  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for 
one  year  and  a  fine  of  $10,000;  and,  though 
the  house  of  lords  soon  set  aside  the  verdict, 


O'CONNOR 


1371 


ODESSA 


fourteen  weeks  in  prison  brought  on  the 
ailment  of  which  he  died.  The  new  party 
of  Young  Ireland  now  separated  from  O'Con- 
nell  because  of  his  unwillingness  to  use  force 
in  obtaining  the  independence  of  his  country, 
withdrawing  from  the  Association.  The 
potato  famine  followed.  Sick  with  the  sight 
of  the  suffering  of  his  country,  sad  with  the 
consciousness  of  failure  and  worn  out  with 
a  struggle  with  disease,  O'Connell  left  Ire- 
land for  Rome,  longing  to  die  there,  but 
only  reached  Genoa,  where  he  died  May  15, 
1847.  His  heart,  at  his  own  request,  was 
carried  to  Rome,  and  his  body  buried  at 
Dublin,  at  the  base  of  a  tower  165  feet 
high.  See  Leaders  of  Public  Opinion  in  Ire- 
land by  Lecky;  O'Connell  in  the  Statesmen 
Series;  and  Life  by  his  son. 

O'Con'nor,Thomas  Power,  an  Irish  states- 
man, was  born  at  Athlone,  County  Ros- 
common,  Oct.  5,  1848.  He  was  educated 
at  the  College  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
Athlone,  and  at  Queen's  College,  Galway, 
graduating  with  honors  in  1866.  He  entered 
journalism  in  Dublin  the  next  year,  going 
three  years  later  to  London.  In  1876  Mr. 
O'Connor  published  the  first  volume  of  his 
Life  of  Benjamin  Disraeli,  but  later  repub- 
lished  it  as  Lord  Beaconsfield,  condensing 
all  his  material  into  one  volume.  In  1880 
he  entered  Parliament  as  member  for  Gal- 
way,  and  was  returned  both  for  Galway  and 
Liverpool  in  1885.  He  chose  to  accept  the 
latter,  and  has  represented  one  division  of 
that  city  ever  since.  In  1883  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  Irish  National  League  of 
Great  Britain.  He  has  edited  a  Cabinet  of 
Irish  Literature,' and  published  The  Parnell 
Movement.  In  1891  he  issued  a  Life  of 
Parnell.  Mr.  O'Connor  still  is  a  member  of 
Parliament  and  is  editor-in-chief  of  The  Era. 

Ocon'to,  Wis.,  a  town  on  Green  Bay,  at 
the  mouth  of  Oconto  River.  It  has  large 
sawmills  and  a  large  trade  in  pine  lumber. 
Population  5,629. 

Octa'via,  the  sister  of  the  Emperor  Augus- 
tus, was  the  wife  of  Mark  Antony,  whom 
she  married  in  40  B.  C  to  secure  his  recon- 
ciliation to  her  brother.  Though  she  was 
noted  for  beauty,  noble  disposition  and 
womanly  virtues,  Antony  forsook  her  in  a 
few  years  for  Cleopatra.  In  23  B.  C.  war 
broke  out  between  Antony  and  Augustus, 
and  he  sent  Octavia  a  divorce.  She  showed 
her  noble  character  by  caring  for  the  chil- 
dren of  Cleopatra  with  her  own  after  the 
death  of  Antony.  She  died  in  1 1  B.  C.  See 
Shakespeare's  Antony  and  Cleopatra. 

Octa'vian.     See  AUGUSTUS. 

Octo'ber,  from  the  Latin  octo,  meaning 
eight,  was  the  eighth  month  of  the  year  at 
Rome,  but  became  the  tenth  when  Numa 
changed  the  beginning  of  the  year  to  the 
first  of  January.  The  Roman  senate  made 
many  attempts  to  change  the  name. 

Oc'topus,  also  called  devilfish,  a  mollusk 
related  to  the  squid.  It  has  no  shell,  either 


external  or  internal,  and  belongs  to  the  class 
(Cephalopoda')  called  m  general  cuttlefish. 
It  has  eight  arms  provided  with  suckers, 
arranged  around  a  central  soft,  baggy  body. 
The  squid  (which  see)  has  ten  arms.  The 
body  of  the  octopus  is  rounded,  with  large 
staring  eyes,  and  situated  in  the  center  of  a 
membrane  which  serves  to  connect  the  bases 
of  the  arms.  There  are  a  number  of  species. 
They  live  amid  coral  reefs  or  rocks,  and  feed 
on  mollusks  and  Crustacea.  The  common 


OCTOPUS 

octopus  of  the  West  Indies  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean is  about  nine  feet  long  and  weighs 
about  sixty-eight  pounds.  It  is  eaten  in 
the  Mediterranean  ports,  and  the  flesh  is 
also  used  for  bait.  On  our  Atlantic  coast 
from  Cape  Hatteras  down,  a  species  occurs. 
One  species  found  in  the  Pacific  is  sixteen 
feet  long  and  has  a  spread  of  about  twenty- 
eight  feet.  The  body  is  so  small  in  compari- 
son to  the  length  of  the  limbs,  that  it 
measures  only  six  inches  in  diameter  and 
one  foot  in  length.  Some  authorities  declare 
the  octopus  is  naturally  timid  and  will  not 
attack  human  beings,  calling  the  lurid  de- 
scription in  Victor  Hugo's  Toilers  of  the 
Sea  a  pure  creation  of  fancy.  Others  affirm 
that  pearl-divers  and  shell-collectors  have 
fallen  Tietim  to  them.  Workers  on  the  reef 
perhaps  were  frightened  to  death  by  sight 
of  the  monstrous,  circling  arms,  staring  eyes 
and  powerful  teeth. 

O'der,  one  of  the  main  rivers  of  Germany, 
rises  in  Moravia,  crosses  Silesia,  Brandenburg 
and  Pomerania,  and  finally  empties  through 
three  channels  into  the  Baltic.  It  is  550 
miles  long,  but  owing  to  its  rapid  fall  and 
the  sediment  left  at  the  mouth  of  its  many 
tributaries  navigation  is  difficult,  and  great 
expense  is  necessary  to  prevent  its  over- 
flowing. 

Odes' sa,  the  fourth  city  in  Russia,  a  sea- 
port of  the  Black  Sea,  about  half  way  be- 
tween the  Dnieper  and  Dniester  Rivers.  It 
is  built  facing  the  sea,  on  cliffs,  with  deep 
ravines,  and  with  galleries  hollowed  out  of 


ODIN 


1372 


OGDEN 


the  soft  rock,  in  which  many  of  the  poorest 
people  live.  It  is  a  modern  city,  founded 
in  1 794  near  an  old  Turkish  fort,  but  has 
grown  rapidly,  being  the  chief  shipping- 
port  for  the  corn-growing  districts  of  south- 
ern Russia.  The  harbor  is  protected  by 
moles  against  the  dangerous  winds  of  the 
Black  Sea,  and  is  menaced  by  ice  hardly 
more  than  a  fortnight  in  the  whole  year. 
The  trade  is  largely  iu  grain,  principally 
wheat,  but  sugar,  wool  and  flour  are  also 
exported.  It  also  has  sugar  and  oil  refineries, 
and  tobacco,  leather,  soap  and  chemicals  are 
manufactured.  It  has  a  university  with 
1,714  students,  a  public  library,  historical 
museum,  cathedral,  opera-house  and  great 
grain  warehouses  and  elevators.  Water  is 
brought  to  the  city  from  the  Dniester  by 
an  aqueduct  2  7  miles  long.  Odessa  is  known 
as  a  home  of  the  cholera,  for  its  persecution 
of  the  Jews  and  as  headquarters  of  the 
nihilists.  Population  520,000. 

O'din,  the  chief  god  of  Scandinavian 
mythology.  He  is  not  the  creator  of  the 
world,  but  its  ruler  and  the  ruler  of  heaven. 
His  home  is  in  Asgard,  whence  he  sends 
forth  daily  his  two  black  ravens,  Hugin  and 
Munin  (Thought  and  Memory),  to  bring 
news  of  all  that  is  happening  in  the  world. 
As  god  of  war  he  holds  his  court  in  Val- 
halla, where  all  brave  warriors  gather  after 
death.  He  became  the  wisest  of  gods  by 
drinking  from  Mimer's  fountain,  but  at  the 

Erice  of  an  eye.     Frigga  is  his  queen,  though 
e    had    other    wives.      His    Saxon    name, 
Woden,  is  perpetuated  in  our  Wednesday 
or  Woden's  day. 

CEdipus  (ed'l-pus),  a  hero  in  Greek  legend, 
whose  story  is  the  subject  of  some  of  the 
finest  tragedies  of  Sophocles  and  Euripides. 
He  was  the  son  of  Laius,  king  of  Thebes, 
who,  having  learned  from  an  oracle  that  his 
own  son  would  kill  him,  exposed  him  at 
his  birth.  He  was  discovered  by  a  herds- 
man, named  CEdipus  from  his  swollen  feet, 
and  brought  up  by  the  king  of  Corinth  as 
his  own  son.  Learning  from  an  oracle  that 
he  was  to  kill  his  father  and  marry  his 
mother,  he  went  to  Thebes  to  escape  his 
fate.  Drawing  near  the  city,  he  met  the 
chariot  of  the  king  and  was  ordered  out  of 
the  way,  which  brought  on  a  quarrel  in 
which  he  slew  his  father,  not  knowing  him. 
The  Thebans  offered  the  kingdom  and  the 
hand  of  the  queen  to  whoever  would  deliver 
them  from  the  Sphinx,  who  proposed  to  all 
who  passed  her  a  riddle,  putting  to  death 
those  who  could  not  solve  it.  CEdipus  offered 
himself,  and  she  asked:  "What  being  has 
four  feet,  two  feet  and  three  feet  and  only 
one  voice;  but  whose  feet  vary,  and  when 
it  has  the  most,  is  weakest?"  CEdipus 
answered:  "Man,"  at  which  the  Sphinx 
threw  herself  headlong  from  the  rock  where 
she  sat.  CEdipus  thus  became  king  and  the 
husband  of  his  mother.  When  a  plague 
devastated  the  country,  the  oracle  promised 


relief  when  the  murderer  of  Laius  should 
be  banished,  and  CEdipus  learned  from  a 
seer  that  he  had  fulfilled  the  prediction  of 
the  oracle  and  killed  his  father,  and  for  a 
wife  had  his  mother.  In  horror  he  put  out 
his  eyes,  while  his  mother  hanged  herself. 
He  wandered  away  with  his  daughter,  An- 
tigone, and  near  Athens  was  taken  from 
earth  by  the  Eumenides. 

Oer'sted  (er'steth  ),  Hans  Christian,  a  dis- 
tinguished Danish  physicist,  who  first  dis- 
covered a  connection  between  electricity  and 
magnetism,  was  born  on  Aug.  14,  1777,  and 
died  at  Copenhagen,  March  9,  1851.  He 
was  educated  in  Copenhagen,  where  he  took 
his  doctor's  degree  in  1800,  and  in  1806  he 
was  appointed  to  a  professorship  in  physics. 
On  July  21,  1820,  he  was  passing  the  cur- 
rent of  a  large  battery  through  a  platinum 
wire,  when  he  discovered  that  a  magnetic 
needle  near  by  was  deflected.  As  shown  by 
its  consequences,  this  proved  to  be  an  epoch- 
making  discovery,  for  which  the  Royal  So- 
ciety awarded  him  the  Copley  medal  and 
the  Paris  Institute  a  mathematical  prize 
amounting  to  3,000  francs.  See  AMPERE. 

Offenbach  (of'fen-bdk'},  Jacques,  a  Franco- 
Jewish  composer,  was  born  at  Cologne,  Ger- 
many, June  21,  1819.  He  settled  at  Paris, 
and  became  manager  in  one  of  the  theaters. 
He  composed  a  great  number  of  operettas, 
but  is  best  known  for  a  series  of  burlesqiie 
operas,  which  make  him  the  father  of  the 
modern  comic  opera.  The  Grand  Duchess, 
The  Beautiful  Helen,  Genevieve  of  Brabant, 
Barbe-bleue  and  Madame  Favart  are  among 
the  most  notable,  the  last  being  very  popu- 
lar in  England.  He  died  at  Paris,  Oct.  5, 
1880. 

Og'den,  Robert  Curtis,  American  educator 
and  magazine-writer,  was  born  at  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  in  1836.  He  received  the  degree 
of  A.  M.  from  Yale,  and  LL.D.  from  Tulane 
University.  Mr.  Ogden  is  president  of  the 
trustees  of  Hampton  Institute  and  a  trustee 
of  Tuskegee  Institute.  (See  HAMPTON  and 
TUSKEGEE).  He  also  is  president  of  the 
Southern  Education  Board  and  a  member 
of  many  educational  associations. 

Ogden,  Utah,  county-seat  of  Weber 
County,  at  the  union  of  Weber  and  Ogden 
Rivers,  where  the  Weber  passes  through 
Wahsatch  Mountains.  It  is  situated  37 
miles  north  of  Salt  Lake  City,  and  is  4,340 
feet  above  the  sea.  It  was  founded  by 
Brigham  Young  in  1848-50,  is  in  a  rich 
agricultural  and  mining  region,  while  at  the 
city  limits  is  the  opening  of  Ogden  Canon. 
The  picturesque  beauty  of  this  place  attracts 
many  tourists,  and  the  water-power  of  the 
falls  is  utilized  by  the  electrical  works,  which 
supply  light  and  heat  for  Ogden  and  Salt 
Lake  City.  It  is  a  railroad  center,  and  has 
a  Methodist  university,  a  foundry  and  large 
mills,  breweries,  canneries,  pickle  factories, 
beet-sugar  factories  and  woolen  mills.  It 
has  public  and  parochial  schools,  other  ex- 


OGDENSBURG 


1373 


OHIO 


cellent  educational  institutions  and  the  ser- 
vice of  five  railroads.     Population  25,580. 

Og'densburg,  N.  Y.,  a  city  and  port  of 
entry  in  St.  Lawrence  County,  on  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  connected  by  steam  ferry  with 
Prescott,  Ontario.  The  city  lies  175  miles 
northwest  of  Albany,  and  has  communica- 
tion by  river  westward  to  the  Great  Lakes 
and  eastward  by  Montreal  and  Quebec  to 
the  Atlantic.  By  rail  it  is  served  by  the 
Rutland  Railroad  and  the  Rome,  Water- 
town  and  Ogdensburg  Railroad.  It  has 
a  large  grain  and  lumber  trade,  and  manu- 
factures silk,  flour,  gloves,  dressskirts,  leath- 
er and  brass  goods,  lumber  and  lumber- 
products.  Among  the  prominent  buildings 
are  the  custom-house,  state  armory,  public 
library,  state  insane  hospital,  Saint  John  de 
Deo's  Hospital  (quarantine),  an  orphanage 
and  a  home  for  the  aged.  Besides  a  credit- 
able school-system  the  city  owns  a  public- 
school,  free  academy  and  Saint  Mary's 
Academy  (free).  Population  15,933. 

Oglesby  (o'g'lz-bl},  Richard  James,  Ameri- 
can soldier  and  statesman,  was  born  in 
Oldham  County,  Ky.,  July  25,  1824.  WorK- 
ing  at  the  carpenter's  trade  and  studying 
law  until  he  was  twenty,  he  began  practice 
in  1845  at  Sullivan,  111.  He  served  as  a  first- 
lieutenant  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  at  its 
close  he  returned  to  his  profession  at  De- 
catur.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
he  resigned  his  seat  in  the  state  senate, 
to  which  he  had  been  elected  in  1860,  and 
plunged  into  the  contest,  leaving  for  the 
front  at  he  head  of  the  Eighth  Illinois 
He  participated  in  the  battles  of  Ft.  Henry 
and  Donelson,  commanding  a  brigade  in 
each.  He  was  severely  wounded  at  Corinth, 
but  in  April,  1863,  he  returned  to  duty  as 
a  major-general  in  command  of  the  sixteenth 
corps.  He  was  elected  governor  of  Illinois, 
and  served  in  that  capacity  from  1865  to 
1869.  He  was  re-elected  in  1872,  but  was 
chosen  United  States  senator  in  January  of 
1873.  He  was  governor  again  from  1885  to 
1889,  and  died  at  Elkhart,  111.,  April  24, 
1899. 

O'glethorpe,  James  Edward,  an  English 
general  and  founder  of  Georgia,  was  born 
at  London,  Dec.  21,  1698.  He  served  in 
the  army,  and  was  thirty  years  in  Parlia- 
ment. He  planned  a  colony  in  America  as 
a  refuge  for  debtors,  then  imprisoned  in  jails, 
and  for  persecuted  German  Protestants. 
George  II  gave  the  land,  which  was  named 
Georgia  after  him,  Parliament  contributed 
$50,000,  and  in  1733  he  took  out  130  pe>- 
sons  and  founded  Savannah.  Another  party, 
including  the  two  Wesleys,  went  out  in 
1735,  and  in  1738  Ogelthorpe  returned  to 
Georgia  with  a  regiment  of  600  men,  in 
anticipation  of  a  war  with  Spain.  He  in- 
vaded Florida,  was  unsuccessful  in  an  attack 
on  St.  Augustine,  but  repulsed  a  Spanish 
invasion  of  Georgia.  He  left  the  colony  in 
1743,  and  surrendered  the  charter  to  the 


British  government  in  1752.  He  died  in 
England,  Jan.  30,  1785.  See  Life  by  Bruce. 

O'gowe"or  Ogoway,a  river  in  the  western 
part  of  Africa,  that  flows  into  the  Atlantic 
near  Cape  Lopez.  In  the  rainy  season  it 
is  a  deep,  broad  stream,  though  numerous 
islands  and  sand-banks  prevent  large  vessels 
from  ascending  it.  In  the  dry  season  it 
shrinks  to  a  narrow  current.  The  river  was 
discovered  by  Du  Chaillu  in  1856. 

Ohi'o.  The  state  took  for  its  own  the 
name  of  the  river,  called  by  the  French  ex- 
plorers "The  Beautiful,"  and  by  the  Indians, 
some  combination  of  vowels  and  consonants 
which  by  use  was  worn  and  softened  into 
Ohio.  The  state  extends  through  about 
three  and  a  half  degrees  of  latitude  and 
about  four  and  a  quarter  degrees  of  longi- 
tude, the  lessening  length  of  the  latter  leav- 
ing the  state  nearly  square  —  a  shield  in 
shape — with  an  area  of  something  near  40,- 
ooo  square  miles.  It  lies  between  Michigan 
and  Lake  Erie  on  the  north,  Pennsylvania 
and  West  Viiginia  on  the  east,  West  Vir- 
ginia and  Kentucky  on  the  south  and  Indi- 
ana on  the  west.  Population  5,181,220. 

Surface.  Alo_ig  the  Ohio,  whose  low-water 
line  on  the  right  shore  forms  part  of  the  east- 
ern and  all  of  the  southern  boundary,  the 
surface  is  hilly,  and  here  and  there  the  scen- 
ery is  extremely  beautiful.  West  and  north 
it  is  rolling,  i.i  places  nearly  level,  though  a 
general  ri  e  allows  a  point  in  Logan  County, 
west  of  the  central  meridian,  the  honor  of 
being  the  highest.  The  state  is  drained  by 
a  goodly  number  of  streams  which  wind 
through  fertile  valleys  on  their  way  to  the 
Ohio  or  to  Lake  Erie.  The  valleys  of  the 
south-flowing  rivers,  outside  of  the  glacial 
area,  are  bordered  by  drift-terraces  upon 
which  are  mounds,  once  the  sites  of  Indian 
villages.  Of  the  streams  flowing  to  the  lake, 
some  find  or  have  created  excellent  harbors 
at  their  mouths,  as  che  Maumee  and  San- 
dusky,  in  bays  of  the  same  name. 

Chmate.  The  rise  and  fall  -^f  the  mercury 
indicate  a  climate  of  extremes,  and  February 
and  June  this  year  are  not  copies  of  those 
months  last  year,  and  give  no  ground  for  a 
guess  wJaat  they  will  be  like  next  year.  It 
was  said  by  one  of  old  time,  whose  humor 
leaned  to  truth's  side,  that:  "Ohio  has  no 
climate  but  in  its  stead  a  great  variety  of 
weather  samples."  The  rainfall  by  the  year 
is  usually  sufficient,  though  "very  wet"  and 
"very  dry"  are  sometimes  not  many  miles 
apart.  Some  of  the  rivers,  notably  the 
Ohio,  are  subject  to  floods,  which  write  their 
history  in  the  desolation  they  leave  behind 
them. 

Natural  Resources.  The  chief  gifts  that 
nature  offers  are  coal,  sandstone,  limestone, 
iron  ore,  petroleum,  gas,  gypsum,  the  forests, 
fish  in  the  creeks,  rivers  and  lakes  and  vari- 
ous kinds  of  clay.  In  the  f.,.st  and  southeast 
the  carboniferous  area  underlies  some  10.000 
square  miles.  Here  "coal-banks"  are  nu- 


OHIO 


1374 


OHIO 


merous,  the  farmer  fills  his  own  coal-house, 
and  the  smaller  towns  are  supplied  by  men 
who  haul  coal  "for  a  living."  Near  Ohio 
River  are  vast  mines,  and  a  daily  sight  along 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railway  and  con- 
tributing roads,  especially  the  Hocking  Val- 
ley, is  the  long  trains  of  immense  cars  loaded 
with  coal  and  coke  and  drawn  by  monster 
engines  which  make  the  earth  tremble  as 
they  thunder  along.  Most  of  the  sandstone, 
including  the  brownstone  much  used  in  the 
east  for  house-fronts,  is  quarried  in  a  tract 
whose  western  end  is  in  Ohio.  A  beautiful 
stone  of  many  warm  colors,  —  red,  yellow, 
brown,  black,  —  is  quarried  near  Mansfield. 
A  church  at  Napoleon  and  a  public  library 
in  Defiance  at  the  junction  of  Maumee  and 
Auglaize  Rivers  are  examples  of  what  can  be 
made  of  this  stone.  The  clay  known  as  kao- 
lin is  used  in  giving  weight  to  paper  and  a 
good  printing-surface,  but  chiefly  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  chinaware.  One  of  the  two  lar- 
gest potteries  in  the  United  States  is  at  East 
Liverpool,  O.  When  the  writer  was  a  boy, 
his  father  brought  home  a  bottle  of  "rock 
oil."  It  was  said  to  be  a  good  medicine 
when  applied  to  a  horse's  legs.  Of  this  crude 
petroleum,  the  production  in  the  United 
States  is  millions  of  barrels,  Ohio  being 
fifth  among  the  states  in  its  production 
and  seventh  in  value  of  its  refinery  output. 
Many  Ohio  cities  are  now  supplied  with 
natural  gas  from  Ohio  wells  or  piped  from 
West  Virginia  and  Indiana. 

Agriculture.  The  manufacturing  interests 
of  Ohio  are  so  great  that  the  fact  that  she  is 
also  one  of  the  leading  agricultural  states  is 
often  not  fully  realized.  The  land  surface  of 
Ohio  is  approximately  26,073,600  acres,  and 
of  this  area  24,105,708  acres  are  included  in 
farms,  nearly  eighty  per  cent  of  which  is 
improved  land.  The  crops  include  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  hay,  potatoes  and  tobacco. 
The  cultivation  of  tobacco  began  in  1840, 
but  was  not  important  until  nearly  half  a 
century  later.  Most  of  the  leaf  is  grown  in 
the  southwestern  part  of  the  state,  near  the 
border.  Corn,  wheat  and  oats  are  grown  in 
all  parts  of  the  state,  but  the  western  half 
produces  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  corn  and 
two-thirds  of  the  wheat.  Dairying  is  extensive, 
and  large  quantities  of  eggs  are  marketed. 

Manufactures.  Among  the  earliest  indus- 
tries developed  in  this  country  was  that 
founded  upon  the  finding  of  iron-ore  in  the 
valley  of  the  Hocking.  At  first  the  readily 
made  charcoal  was  used  for  smelting.  After 
a  time  a  quality  of  coal  was  discovered  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  state  which  seemed 
the  thing  for  which  the  ore  was  waiting  to 
change  to  iron.  Immense  quantities  of 
Lake  Superior  ore  are  smelted  to-day  in  the 
smelting  districts  of  Ohio  —  notably  in  Ma- 
honing  Valley.  It  will  assist  in  forming  a 
conception  of  the  multiplicity  and  the  variety 
of  Ohio's  manufacturing  interests  to  glance 
over  a  small  fraction  of  the  products  which 


are  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States 
by  the  manufacturing  concerns  whose  plants 
are  located  at  the  various  industrial  centers: 
soaps,  cheese,  medicines,  cigars,  liquors, 
ice,  wire-nails,  sugar,  farming  implements, 
pianos,  sanitary  closets,  condensed  milk, 
boots,  shoes,  chemicals,  bread,  paints, 
jewelry,  cement,  fertilizers,  automobiles, 
wire-fence,  telephone  apparatus,  boilers, 
tile,  and  hundreds  of  others.  Of  800  miscel- 
laneous companies  the  capital  stock  is  over 
$30,000,000.  But  all  these  and  their  like 
are  simply  supplementary  to  the  great  fac- 
tories, foundries  and  rolling  mills  along  the 
rivers  or  on  the  lakes  —  as  the  immense  mill 
at  Lorain,  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world  — 
and  at  various  advantageous  sites  in  many  of 
the  cities. 

Transportation.  In  1825  the  legislature 
adopted  a  report  of  which  the  final  result 
was  the  Ohio  Canal  and  the  lower  division  of 
the  Miami  and  Erie  Canal.  The  news  was 
greeted  by  the  usual  noisy  expressions  of 
popular  joy.  These  works  were  completed 
in  1833,  and  the  entire  canal  system  in  1842. 
The  cost  was  almost  $15,000,000.  Their 
effect  upon  the  growth  and  prosperity  of 
the  state  was  wonderful.  The  markets  of 
the  river,  the  lakes  and  the  great  city  on  the 
Hudson  were  opened  to  the  Buckeye  farmers. 
The  northern  and  western  parts  of  the  state 
were  brought  nearer  the  east.  The  value  of 
lands  as  well  as  of  products  was  greatly  en- 
hanced. It  is  not  necessary  to  name  the 
many  great  lines  of  railroad  that  now  pass 
through  Ohio,  east  and  west,  north  and 
south.  Summing  the  miles  of  main  track 
gives  a  total  of  8,560;  their  second  track, 
1,436  miles.  The  grand  total  of  value  is 
$138,669,294,  while  the  total  value  of  the 
urban  and  interurban  lines  is  $10,140,096. 

Education.  The  early  schools  were  not 
free  schools  supported  by  the  public.  The 
idea  of  such  schools  was  of  slow  growth.  An 
attempt  to  establish  free  schools  and  support 
them  by  a  tax  of  one  mill  on  the  dollar,  made 
in  1826,  shows  that  the  seed  was  planted, 
but  the  feeble  efforts  left  scarcely  a  trace. 
The  Akron  law  of  1846  and  its  extension 
throughout  the  state  were  long,  firmly- 
planted  steps  forward.  The  high  school, 
the  superintendent,  the  county  teachers'  in- 
stitute, manual  training,  state  normal  schools 
and.a  state  commissioner  of  schools  are  other 
strides  in  the  same  direction.  Higher  in- 
stitutions of  learning  include  the  Ohio,  Miami, 
Ohio  State,  Western  Reserve  and  Cincin- 
nati Universities  and  Oberlin  College,  all 
of  which  have  national  reputations  not 
only  for  the  excellence  of  their  teaching 
but  for  the  distinction  attained  in  various 
walks  of  life  by  their  alumni.  The  _  chil- 
dren's homes  not  only  are  humane  insti- 
tutions but,  commonly,  they  are  schools. 
There  are  53  of  these,  caring  for  2,079 
young  people.  The  range  of  "expense 
per  capita",  from  $9.12  to  $237.45, 


OHIO 


1375 


OHM 


plucks  credulity  by  the  nose.  Some  of  these 
have  farms  and  perhaps  do  not  charge  up 
their  consumed  products  as  expense.  The 
following  state  institutions  are  educational 
in  every  sense :  the  school  of  the  Sailors'  and 
Soldiers'  Orphans'  Home;  the  School  for  the 
Blind;  the  Institution  for  the  Education  of 
the  Deaf  and  Dumb  —  the  fifth  founded  in 
the  United  States;  the  Institution  for  the 
Education  of  Imbecile  Youth;  the  Boys'  In- 
dustrial School;  the  Girls'  Industrial  Home 
—  these  for  youth  in  need  of  "reforming"; 
and  the  Reformatory,  at  first  named,  and  in 
reality  still,  the  Intermediate  Penitentiary. 
They  are  well-conducted  as  a  rule,  despite 
the  fact  that  partisanship  early  assumed 
sway.  The  tendency  is  toward  a  cure  of  the 
evil. 

The  Teachers'  Reading  Circle  movement 
began  in  1882  in  Ohio,  and  has  spread  into 
many  states.  Its  purpose  is  to  make  the 
habit  of  reading  pedagogy,  literature,  history 
and  nature  universal  among  teachers.  The 
members  number  over  10,000.  There  also  is 
a  Pupils'  Reading  Circle.  It  is  rapidly  grow- 
ing in  numbers. 

History.  Politically  speaking,  the  greatest 
event  pertaining  to  this  region  was  the  Ordi- 
nance of  1787,  passed  by  the  Continental 
Congress  in  its  last  days.  One  provision  of 
the  ordinance  is  regarded  as  a  fitting  quota- 
tion in  discourse  of  whatever  sort  about 
Ohio:  "Religion,  morality  and  knowledge 
being  necessary  to  good  government  and  the 
happiness  of  mankind,  schools  and  the  means 
of  education  shall  be  forever  encouraged". 
This  lofty  declaration  was  retained  in  the 
constitutions  of  1802  and  1851.  The  political 
history  of  the  northwest  begins  with  the  set- 
tlement —  1788  —  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mus- 
kingum.  In  1800  the  great  northwest  was 
divided  into  two  unequal  parts,  the  Eastern 
Division,  as  it  was  named,  being,  territori- 
ally, what  now  is  Ohio,  with  a  wedge-shaped 
piece  of  southwestern  Indiana  and  that  por- 
tion of  the  peninsula  to  the  north  which  lies 
cast  of  the  meridian  passing  through  the 
mouth  of  the  Greater  Miami.  Among  the 
formative  events  of  Ohio  history  the  follow- 
ing are  written  in  italics:  (i)  the  bold  march 
of  George  Rogers  Clark  with  a  commission 
from  Virginia;  (2)  the  obstinate  refusal  of 
Maryland  to  enter  the  Union  until  her  sister 
colonies,  owning  or  claiming  territory  beyond 
the  Ohio,  should  cede  it  for  the  general  good 
to  the  Federal  government,  and  the  conse- 
quent cession  of  those  lands;  (3)  the  ordi- 
nance of  1787  providing  for  not  less  than 
three  or  more  than  five  states ;  (4)  the  found- 
ing of  Marietta  and  the  setting  up  of  a  terri- 
torial government;  (5)  the  battle  of  Fallen 
Timbers,  with  the  Greenville  treaty—  1795  — 
as  its  first  fruit,  its  open  door  to  homeseekers; 
(6)  the  division  —  1800 — of  the  vast  extent 
north  of  the  Ohio  and  east  of  the  Mississippi 
into  the  Eastern  Section  of  the  Northwest 
Territory  and  the  Indiana  Territory;  (7)  the 


act  of  Congress  enabling  the  people  of  the 
former  division  to  form  a  constitution  and  a 
state  government;  (8)  the  deed  whereby  it 
changed  from  a  territory  to  a  state,  though 
which  of  "three  deeds  did  it  "is  a  question 
which,  like  Banquo's  subliminal  self,  refuses 
to  down  and  stay.  The  most  recent  critical 
discussion  as  to  the  date  of  Ohio's  admission 
to  the  Union  writes  it  March  i,  1803.  Con- 
sult Ohio  in  the  American  Commonwealths 
Series  and  Short's  Ohio. 

Ohio,  a  river  of  the  United  States,  one  of 
the  largest  branches  of  the  Mississippi.  It 
was^named  by  the  French  explorers  La  Belle 
Riviere  (The  Beautiful  River) .  It  is  formed 
by  the  union  of  the  Allegheny  and  Monon- 
gahela  Rivers  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  and  flows 
southwest  975  miles,  joining  the  Mississippi 
at  Cairo,  Illinois.  It  is  from  400  to  3,000  feet 
wide,  spreading  out  so  as  to  become  quite 
shallow  in  dry  seasons.  It  is  subject  to 
floods  from  the  accumulation  of  snows  in  the 
mountains  near  its  headwaters;  there  is  a 
series  of  terraces  along  the  banks,  which  have 
evidently  been  the  bed  of  the  river.  The 
boundary  between  Ohio,  Indiana  and  Illi- 
nois on  the  north  and  West  Virginia  and  Ken- 
tucky to  the  south  is  formed  by  the  Ohio. 
At  Louisville  are  falls,  which  are  passed  by 
means  of  a  ship-canal.  The  river  is  navi- 
gable for  its  entire  length,  and  carries  enor- 
mous fleets  of  boats  laden  with  coal,  besides 
other  products  of  the  regions. 

Ohio  State  University,  at  Columbus, 
was  organized  as  Ohio  Agricultural  and  Me- 
chanical College,  and  was  opened  in  1873. 
By  legislation  in  1878  the  name  was  changed 
to  The  Ohio  State  University.  The  univer- 
sity is  maintained  by  annual  grants  from 
the  United  States  and  from  the  state.  It 
comprises  colleges  of  agriculture,  arts,  philos- 
ophy and  science,  engineering,  law,  veterinary 
medicine,  pharmacy,  education,  medicine, 
dentistry  and  a  graduate  school.  The  univer- 
sity is  open  to  both  sexes,  and  is  nonsectarian. 
The  instructors  number  106,  the  students 
6,000.  It  has  a  library  of  1.50,000  volumes 
and  an  annual  income  of  $1,750,000. 

Ohm  (om),Qeorg  Simon, a  German  math- 
ematician and  physicist,  was  born  at  Erlan- 
en,  March  r«y«*787,  and  died  at  Munich,  July 
7,  1854.  He  was  educated  at  the  university 
of  his  native  town,  where  he  took  his  doctor's 
degree  in  1811.  In  1827  he  published  his 
great  work  on  the  galvanic  circuit,  in  which 
he  proved  the  simple  relation  existing  be- 
tween current,  resistance  and  electromotive 
force,  a  relation  known  as  Ohm's  law.  For 
this  discovery  Ohm  was  awarded  the  Copley 
medal  by  the  Royal  Society  in  1841.  It} 
1846-49  Kirchhoff  extended  this  law  and  es- 
tablished two  theorems  known  as  Kirchhoff '» 
laws,  which  include  Ohm's  as  a  special  case. 
In  acoustics  Ohm  discovered  that  the  ear  of 
itself  analyzes  any  complex  sound  into  simple 
tones  in  the  manner  contemplated  in  Fou- 
rier's theorem,  a  fact  which  later  proved  jf 


OIL  CITY 


I37& 


OKLAHOMA 


great  importance  in  the  hands  of  Helmholtz. 
In  1852  Ohm  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of 
physics  at  the  University  of  Munich.  His 
most  important  work,  by  all  odds,  is  his  the- 
orem concerning  the  galvanic  circuit. 

Oil  City,  Pa.,  a  town  lying  on  both  sides 
of  Allegheny  River.  It  lies  133  miles  north- 
east of  Pittsburg,  is  in  the  oil-region,  and  is 
one  of  the  largest  oil- markets  of  the  state.  It 
has  oil-refineries,  engine  and  boiler  factories 
and  large  manufactories  of  barrels.  It  has 
public  and  (R.  C.)  parochial  schools,  and 
among  its  noteworthy  buildings  are  the  Oil- 
Exchange,  the  Standard  Oil  Company's 
office,  Carnegie  library  and  several  churches. 
In  1892  the  town  was  visited  by  an  unusual 
catastrophe:  a  flood  of  burning  oil  from  Ti- 
tusville.  Over  $1,000,000  worth  of  property 
was  destroyed.  Population  15,657. 

Oil-Wells.     See  PETRO'LEUM. 

Oils,  a  term  used  to  indicate  a  large  class 
of  compounds.  The  more  common  animal 
and  vegetable  oils,  which  are  the  fatty  or 
fixed  oils,  are  all  compounds  of  glycerine 
with  fatty  aoids.  The  term  fats  is  usually 
given  to  the  solid  forms,  and  oils  to  the  fluid. 
The  solid  fats,  however,  become  fluid  when 
heated.  All  these  fats  and  oils  are  lighter 
than  water  and  will  not  mix  with  it.  They 
penetrate  paper  or  cloth,  making  it  partly 
transparent,  and  leaving  what  is  known  as  a 
grease-spot.  When  pure  and  fresh  they  usu- 
ally have  little  or  no  taste  or  smell;  but, 
when  exposed  to  the  air,  they  become  darker 
in  color,  have  a  disagreeable  taste  and  smell, 
and  are  called  rancid.  As  examples  of  vege- 
table oils  we  have  cottonseed-oil,  linseed-oil, 
olive-oil,  almond-oil  and  cocoa-butter.  Lin- 
seed is  brought  largely  from  Russia  and  In- 
dia; Africa  supplies  palm-oil;  India  and  the 
Pacific  islands  cocoa-nut  oil;  while  the  best 
olive-oil  is  brought  from  Italy.  In  animal 
oils  the  principal  ones  are  butter,  lard,  tal- 
low, neatsfoot-oil  and  sperm-oil.  Tallow  is 
the  fat  of  oxen  and  sheep, melted  and  purified. 
Lard,  obtained  from  the  hog,  is  one  of  the 
great  products  of  the  United  States,  60,000 
tons  yearly  being  sent  to  Great  Britain  alone. 
Neatsfoot-oil  is  produced  by  boiling  the  feet 
of  cattle.  Sperm-oil  and  other  fish-oils  are 
obtained  from  different  varieties  of  fish  and 
sea  animals,  as  the  whale,  seal,  cod,  shark  or 
herring.  The  uses  of  the  different  oils  are 
very  numerous:  as  food  and  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  food,  in  soap-making,  painting,  ma- 
chinery and  in  a  thousand  other  ways  they 
are  of  great  importance.  There  is  a  large 
class  of  substances  known  as  the  essential  or 
volatile  oils  which  resemble  the  fats  some- 
what in  their  properties,  particularly  in  not 
mixing  with  water.  They  make  a  grease- 
spot  on  paper  which  is  not  permanent. 
These  are  quite  varied  in  composition,  are 
more  or  less  vol  .tile  and  have  strong  and 
characteristic  odors.  Oils  of  turpentine, 
lemon  and  wintergreen  are  examples  of  a 
great  number  of  these  products  which  are 


largely  used  as  solvents,  for  flavoring,  in  per- 
fumery and  in  medicine.  For  mineral  oils 
see  PETROLEUM. 

Ojib'ways  or  Chip'pewas,  a  large  tribe  of 
North  American  Indians  belonging  to  the 
Algonquin  family  and  living  around  Lakes 
Huron  and  Superior.  They  usually  were  at 
war  with  the  Sioux  and  Iroquois,  driving  the 
Sioux  from  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi. 
They  sided  with  the  French,  taking  part  in 
Pontiac's  War;  and  in  the  Revolutionary 
War  they  fought  with  the  British.  They 
came  as  far  east  as  Lake  Erie,  but  gave  up  all 
their  lands  in  Ohio  in  1817.  They  numbered 
about  18,000.  Their  lands  have  gradually 
been  ceded  to  the  United  States,  and  most  of 
the  tribe  are  on  lands  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. Their  history  has  been  written  by  two 
members  of  their  tribe.  See  Peter  Jones's 
History  o)  the  Ojibway  Indians. 

Oka',  a  river  in  Central  Russia,  the  prin- 
cipal branch  of  the  Volga.  It  flows  north- 
east through  the  most  fertile  region  of  Rus- 
sia, for  906  miles,  to  the  Volga.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  part  of  the  year  only 

Okhotsk  (6-kotsk') ,  Sea  of,  an  arm  of  the 
Pacific,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Siberia.  It 
is  1,000  miles  long  and  600  broad,  and  con- 
tains several  islands.  It  is  seldom  navi- 
gated. 

Oklaho'ma,  which  approximately  derives 
its  name  from  a  Choctaw  Indian  word  mean- 
ing "red  people"  was  organized  as  a  territory 
in  1890,  with  an  area  of  39,030  square  miles  and 
a  population  of  398,331  in  1900,  but  on  Nov. 
1 6,  1907,  admitted  as  a  state,  with  the  ad- 
joining Indian  Territory  (set  apart  for  the 
Indians  in  1832,  organized  on  June  30,  1834, 
with  an  area  of  31,400  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  392,060  in  1900).  The  area  of 
this  46th  state  is  70,430  square  miles,  with 
a  population  according  to  the  latest  esti- 
mate of  2,245,968.  Oklahoma  City  is  the 
metropolis,  with  a  population  now  exceeding 
80,000.  The  other  important  cities  are 
Guthrie,  the  capital,  Tulsa,  Ardmore,  El  Reno, 
Enid,  Lawton,  Muskogee,  Shawnee,  South 
McAlester,  Chickasha,  Hobart  and  Still- 
water.  The  state,  which  lies  in  the  south- 
central  group,  is  bounded  on  the  south  by 
Texas,  on  the  east  by  Arkansas  and  Missouri, 
on  the  north  by  Kansas  and  Colorado  and  on 
the  west  by  New  Mexico  and  Texas.  The  rise 
of  Oklahoma  to  statehood  within  so  brief 
a  period  as  18  years,  when  it  was  a  vast 
cattle-range  and  Indian  hunting-ground,  is 
phenomenal,  and  bodes  well  for  a  still 
greater  and  more  prosperous  future. 

Surface  and  Climate.  With  the  exception 
of  the  Wichita  Mountains  in  the  south  and 
the  Chautauqua  range  near  the  center 
of  the  state,  Oklahoma  is  a  vast  unbroken 
prairie  plain,  about  1,100  feet  above  t1  e  sea, 
the  drainage  being  chiefly  to  the  southeast 
by  the  Arkansas,  Canadian  and  Red  Rivers 
and  their  feeders.  In  the  east  and  southeast 
there  is  some  timber-land,  but  not  much  of 


OKLAHOMA 


1377 


OKLAHOMA 


the  growth  is  merchantable.  The  soil  for 
the  most  part  and  chiefly  in  the  east  is  fertile, 
with  a  rich  vegetable  mold,  the  western  and 
northwestern  sections,  where  the  rainfall  is 
scant,  being  of  sparse  vegetation,  and  that 
mainly  of  sagebrush  and  cactus.  The  win- 
ter is  short  and  mild,  the  temperature  at  nor- 
mal being  near  freezing-point,  though  some- 
times falling  to  20°  below  zero,  and  rising 
in  summer  to  80°  and  even  115°.  The  aver- 
age rainfall  is  31.8  inches,  a  condition  of  cli- 
mate and  soil  advantageous  to  an  agricul- 
tural and  stockraising  state. 

Natural  Resources.  It  is  claimed  that  this 
progressive  state  has  not  far  from  250,000 
farms  (most  of  them  cultivated  by  their  in- 
dividual owners),  the  extent  and  variety  in 
the  production  of  which  are  well-nigh  a  mar- 
vel, especially  if  it  be  borne  in  mind  how 
comparatively  recent  is  white  settlement. 
So  nch  is  the  soil,  so  favorable  are  the  nor- 
mal climatic  conditions,  that  wheat  attains  a 
high  degree  of  perfection;  while,  besides  its 
growth  of  cereals,  including  a  phenomenal 
annual  corn-crop  and  all  the  farm-products 
found  in  the  other  states,  it  raises  cotton, 
hay,  barley,  potatoes,  all  kinds  of  vegeta- 
bles, broom-corn,  castor-beans,  sorghum, 
peanuts  and  melons,  in  addition  to  a  wide 
variety  of  fruits,  including  peaches,  grapes, 
strawberries  and  many  other  small  fruits. 
Of  late  years  its  annual  corn  crop  has  been 
not  far  short  of  95,000,000  bushels  and  its 
wheat  crop  25,000,000  bushels.  Stockraising 
on  its  great  areas  of  excellent  pasturage  is 
another  large  and  profitable  industry.  The 
value  to-day  of  its  domestic  animals,  includ- 
ing horses,  mules,  dairy  cows,  and  other  cat- 
tle, together  with  sheep  and  swine,  by  last 
census,  is  not  much  below  $153,000,000;  while 
the  yield  of  the  mineral  products  approaches 
$35,000,000.  Crude  petroleum  is  produced 
to  the  extent  of  almost  52,029,000  barrels; 
while  natural  gas  also  is  among  the  natural 
resources,  together  with  large  deposits  of 
building-stone  of  excellent  quality,  including 
granite,  marble,  sandstone  and  limestone, 
besides  areas,  especially  in  the  northeast, 
known  to  be  rich  in  coal-seams.  Its  supply 
of  timber  is  not  large,  though  in  a  measure 
compensated  for  by  its  stores  of  petroleum 
and  natural  gas.  Other  minerals  include 
salt,  asphalt,  gypsum,  tripoli?  phosphate, 
zinc,  lead,  copper  and  indications  of  gold. 
Of  the  oil  and  coal  product  a  writer  in  The 
New  York  Times  recently  remarked  that 
"Some  of  the  richest  oil-fields  in  America  are 
in  Oklahoma.  The  Glen  Pool  oil-district, 
south  of  Tulsa,  between  Red  Fork  and 
Mounds,  has  between  450  and  500  producing 
oil-wells,  with  a  total  capacity  of  100,000 
barrels  a  day.  The  first  was  sunk  in  De- 
cember, 1905.  Pipe-lines  have  been  con- 
structed for  the  transportation  of  this  oil  to 
the  Texas  seaboard  and  to  the  refineries  at 
Whiting,  Ind.  More  than  $10,000,000  has 
been  invested  in  tanks,  pumping-stations 


and  pump  lines  in  Tulsa  County.  Eastern 
Oklahoma,  which  is  not  so  uniformly  even  as 
the  western  portion  of  the  state,  produces 
more  than  3,000,000  tons  of  coal  a  year,  for 
which  its  mines  receive  about  $6,000,000. 
The  coal-field  extends  from  the  vicinity  oi 
Tulsa  on  the  north  to  the  Texas  line  on  the 
south,  and  is  more  than  100  miles  broad. 
The  state  contains  about  150  coal-mines, 
employing  about  10,000  operators." 

Manufactures.  Oklahoma  has  more  than 
2,300  manufacturing  plants,  representing 
investments  aggregating  $38,873,000  and 
employing  13,143  wage-earners.  These 
plants  include  flour-mills,  oil-mills,  cotton- 
gins,  broom-factories,  brick  and  tile  works, 
salt-works,  cement -factories,  wooden  ware 
and  carriage  works.  The  two  chief  manu- 
facturing centers  are  Oklahoma  City  and 
Guthrie,  the  former  being  an  important 
milling  seat.  , 

Commerce  and  Transportation.  The  com- 
merce of  the  chief  towns  is  assuming  large 
and  rapidly  increasing  proportions.  The 
annual  freight  into  and  out  of  Oklahoma 
City  amounts  to  about  $4,890,000,  while 
the  value  of  the  buildings  annually  erected 
is  $885,246.  The  assessed  taxable  prop- 
erty of  the  state  exceeds  $860,000,000; 
while  its  railway  mileage  is  nearly  6,000  miles. 
The  chief  lines  traversing  the  state  embrace 
the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  Pacific;  Atch- 
ison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe;  Missouri,  Kan- 
sas and  Texas;  Missouri  Pacific;  Kansas  City 
Southern;  and  Texarkana  and  Fort  Smith 
roads.  It  has  20  railroads  in  all.  The  re- 
ceipts and  expenditures  of  the  state  are 
about  $6,000,000  annually.  It  has  276 
national  banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital 
of  about  $13,000,000  and  individual  de- 
posits amounting  to  nearly  $52,000,000. 
The  state  banks  (some  63 1  in  number)  have 
an  aggregate  capital  of  $9,666,000  and  total 
deposits  amounting  to  close  upon  $38,000,- 
ooo. 

Education.  The  state's  school  population 
numbers  about  557,000;  some  400,000 
are  enrolled,  while  the  average  daily  at- 
tendance is  in  the  neighborhood  of  260,000, 
the  teachers  TMambering  about  10,000,  two 
thirds  of  them  being  women.  The  school 
expenditure  in  a  single  year  is  close  upon 
$6,760,000;  the  state  has  a  large  invested 
fund  for  educational  purposes,  includ- 
ing the  training  of  teachers,  undertaken 
at  normal  schools  and  institutes  in  several 
localities.  Higher  education  is  represented 
by  the  University  of  Oklahoma  at  Norman, 
with  36  instructors  and  600  students;  the 
university's  tuition  is  free  to  local  residents; 
it  also  has  a  preparatory  department,  a  col- 
lege of  arts  and  sciences,  including  (in  addi- 
tion to  the  ordinary  collegiate  subjects) 
courses  in  medicine  and  engineering;  it  also 
has  a  school  of  pharmacy  and  one  of  fine 
arts.  Among  other  higher  educational  in- 
stitutions are  an  Agricultural  and  Mechan- 


OKLAHOMA  CITY 


1378 


OLD  POINT  COMFORT 


ical  College  at  Stillwater,  an  Agricultural 
and  Normal  University  for  colored  students 
at  Langton,  Kingfisher  College  (Congrega- 
tional) and  the  Indian  School  (United  States) 
at  Chilocco.  The  state  makes  the  usual  pro- 
vision for  charitable  and  correctional  insti- 
tutions as  well  as  for  mental  defectives  and 
for  criminals. 

History  and  Government.  The  entire  area 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States 
with  the  Louisiana  Purchase  of  1803.  After 
the  first  third  of  the  century  had  passed, 
most  of  the  region  was  appropriated  by  Con- 
gress, though  unorganized,  for  the  use  of  the 
Indians  (the  chief  tribes  being  the  Sacs, 
Foxes,  Creeks,  Seminoles,  Cherokee,  Chick- 
asaw,  Choctaws  and  Cheyennes),  while  white 
men  were  restrained  by  law  from  settling 
upon  its  lands.  As  the  region,  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  far  west,  was  tracked  by  pio- 
neers and  land-boomers,  the  latter,  disre- 
garding its  reservation  as  an  Indian  country, 
began  to  stake  out  claims  and  settle  upon  it. 
This  the  Indians  naturally  resisted,  though 
unable  themselves  in  the  rapid  changes  pass- 
ing over  the  country  to  adapt  themselves  to 
any  form  of  civilized  government  and  con- 
trol. Matters  drifted  for  a  while,  the 
national  troops,  meantime,  being  now  and 
then  called  in  to  dislodge  the  "boomers". 
Finally,  in  1885,  negotiations  were  opened 
with  the  Creeks  and  Seminoles  with  a  view 
to  open  unoccupied  lands  to  white  settle- 
ment, and  this  was  agreed  to  in  1889,  when 
extraordinary  scenes  were  enacted  in  the  in- 
rush of  home-seekers,  the  incipient  city  of 
Oklahoma  in  one  day  gaining  5,000  white 
inhabitants.  Transfers  of  land  from  Indian 
Territory  and  Texas  were  made  about  this 
time,  and  the  region  was  erected  into  a  terri- 
tory, the  Indians  being  removed  to  newly 
assigned  reservations.  The  progress  and  de- 
velopment since  have  been  phenomenal. 
This  fully  justified  the  admission  later  of  the 
two  territories  as  a  state,  under  the  name  and 
combined  area  of  Oklahoma. 

Oklahoma  City,  Okla.,  the  most  popu- 
lous city  in  the  state  of  Oklahoma,  on 
the  North  Canadian  River.  It  is  served  by 
the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  and 
Choctaw,  Oklahoma  and  Gulf,  the  St.  Louis 
and  Santa  Fe ;  Oklahoma  and  Western ;  Mis- 
souri. Kansas  and  Oklahoma;  Texas  and  Ok- 
lahoma; Oklahoma  Terminal ;  Oklahoma  City 
and  N.  I.;  and  Rock  Island  and  Pacific  rail- 
roads. Water-power  is  derived  from  the 
rapids  of  the  river.  Industries  include  a 
cold-storage  plant,  packing-houses,  flour- 
mills,  cottongins,  brickyards,  grain  elevators, 
box,  cracker  and  soap  and  patent-medicine 
factories.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in 
lumber  and  agricultural  products.  Okla- 
homa City  has  a  fine  public-school  system  as 
well  as  a  parochial  one.  Among  the  institu- 
tions of  learning  are  Epworth  University, 
Sisters  of  Mercy  College  for  girls  and  Okla- 
homa Military  Institute.  Besides  these 


there  are  Carnegie  Library,  St.  Anthony's 
Hospital,  Sacred  Heart  Abbey  and  a  num- 
ber of  good  churches.  Though  founded 
only  in  1889,  the  city  has  grown  so  rapidly 
that  it  already  has  a  population  of  over 
80.000. 

6'Iaf,  Saint,  one  of  the  early  Norwegian 
kings  (1015-28),  was  born  in  996.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  warlike  expeditions  on 
the  coast  of  Normandy  and  of  England.  In 
1015  he  wrested  the  throne  from  Eric  and 
Svend  Jarl.  His  efforts  to  exterminate  pa- 
ganism by  fire  and  sword  cost  the  favor  of 
his  subjects,  who  offered  their  allegiance  to 
Canute,  king  of  Denmark,  when  he  landed 
in  Norway  in  1028.  Olaf  fled  to  Russia, 
where  he  was  given  a  band  of  4,000  men, 
and,  returning,  attacked  Canute,  but  was  de- 
feated and  slain  (1030  A.  D.).  His  body 
was  thought  to  possess  miraculous  powers, 
for  which  reason  he  was  proclaimed  the  pa- 
tron saint  of  Norway. 

Old  Curiosity  Shop  is  a  novel  by  Charles 
Dickens,  published  in  1840.  The  story  cen- 
ters around  Little  Nell,  the  grandchild  of  the 
keeper  of  the  shop,  and  her  weary  quest  for 
a  safe  retreat  for  her  grandfather  and  herself. 
The  grandfather,  in  an  eager  desire  to  secure 
a  fortune  for  his  grandchild,  became  addicted 
to  gambling.  Losing  all  his  property  and 
still  crazed  with  the  gambler's  hope  of  win- 
ning, he  borrows  from  Daniel  Quilp,  a  malig- 
nant old  dwarf,  and  thus  comes  into  his 
power.  Little  Nell,  realizing  his  position, 
takes  him  and  a  few  personal  belongings  and 
secretly  steals  away,  and  with  this  double 
burden  enters  upon  a  wandering  life  which 
ends  only  with  death.  The  story  is  one  of 
a  quiet,  lovable,  little  girl  surrounded  with 
wild  and  grotesque  though  not  impossible 
companions.  Little  Nell  is  said  to  have  been 
a  great  favorite  of  the  author.  The  story 
incidentally  is  a  sermon  on  gambling. 

Old' ham,  a  manufacturing  city  in  Lanca- 
shire, England,  nine  miles  from  Manchester 
and  38  from  Liverpool.  It  was  a  small  vil- 
lage in  1 760,  its  growth  being  due  to  its  near- 
ness to  the  Lancashire  coal-fields  and  to  its 
cotton  manufactures.  It  has  over  300 
mills,  and  uses  one  fifth  of  all  the  cotton  im- 
ported. It  also  makes  hats,  velvets  and 
cords,  and  has  large  weaving-machine  works, 
one  of  which  employs  7,000  hands.  There 
are  public  buildings,  including  a  town  hall, 
lyceum,  school  of  science  and  arts  and  pub- 
he  baths  and  a  fine  park.  Population  140,- 
969. 

Old  Point  Comfort  or  Fortress  Mon- 
roe, Va.  A  government  military  reserva- 
tion, at  entrance  of  Hampton  Roads  and 
Chesapeake  Bay,  an  important  coast  de- 
fense. Its  garrison  is  10  companies  of  coast 
artillery.  The  artillery  school  for  officers, 
submarine  coast  defense  school  for  officers 
and  the  master-gunners'  school  are  located 
here.  Its  large  hotel,  accommodating  1,000 
guests,  faces  Hampton  Roads.  It  was  de- 


OLD  SOUTH  CHURCH 


1379 


OLIVE 


stroyed  in  1862,  as  it  was  in  the  way  of  the 
batteries  on  Fortress  Monroe,  but  has  been 
rebuilt  and  is  very  popular.  The  watering- 
place  is  1 6  miles  north  of  Norfolk,  Va. 

Old  South  Church  or  Old  South  Meet- 
ing-House, Boston,  stands  at  the  corner  of 
Milk  and  Washington  Streets.  It  occupies 
the  site  of  an  original  wooden  church;  but 
even  the  present  building  dates  back  to  1729. 
In  this  church  many  events  of  historic  in- 
terest have  occurred.  Here  Judge  Sewall 
confessed  and  repented  his  part  in  the  witch- 
craft agitations  which  marked  1692;  Benja- 
min Franklin  was  baptized;  revolutionary 
meetings  were  held;  and  the  expedition  to 
throw  the  taxed  tea  overboard  in  1773  was 
assembled.  Old  South  Meeting-House  was 
used  as  a  riding-school  in  1775,  and  as  a  post- 
office  after  the  fire  of  1872;  but  it  now  is  in 
the  hands  of  a  patriotic  society  and  houses  a 
collection  of  interesting  historical  relics. 

O'lean'der,  species  of  Nerium,  a  genus  be- 
longing to  the  dogbane  family.  There  are 
but  few  species,  which  are  natives  from  the 
Mediterranean  region  through  southern  Asia 
to  Japan.  The  common  oleander  of  culti- 
vation is  N.  oleander,  native  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean region;  while  N.  odorum,  a  sweet- 
scented  form,  comes  from  the  East  Indies. 
The  plant  is  said  to  be  more  or  less  poisonous, 
especially  the  leaves.  N.  oleander  rises  to  a 
height  of  eight  or  ten  feet;  the  leaves  are 
thick  and  leathery,  evergreen;  the  plant 
blooms  profusely,  bearing  a  myriad  of  white 
or  pink  blossoms.  In  warm  countries  it  is 
a  favorite  shrub,  in  cooler  lands  a  favorite 
house-plant.  It  may  readily  be  propagated 
by  planting  cuttings  previously  started  in 
bottles  of  water. 

O'le  Bull.     See  BULL,  OLE. 

O'lean',  N.  Y.,  a  city  in  Cattaraugus 
County  at  the  confluence  of  the  Allegheny 
River  and  Olean  Creek;  on  the  Erie;  Penn- 
sylvania; and  Pittsburg  Shawmut  and 
Northern  railroads,  about  68  miles  southeast 
of  Buffalo.  It  is  a  distributing  point  for 
large  quantities  of  petroleum,  through  a  pipe- 
line system,  and  has  manufacturing  indus- 
tries of  importance.  It  has  good  schools, 
public  and  private;  Foreman  library;  and 
about  20  church  edifices.  It  was  settled  in 
1804,  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1854  and 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1893.  The  govern- 
ment is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  for  two 
years,  and  a  council.  The  city  owns  and 
operates  its  own  water  works.  Population 
14,743- 

O'leomar'garine,  a  substance  made  from 
tallow,  resembling  butter.  It  is  also  called 
butterine.  The  making  of  artificial  butter 
was  first  suggested  by  a  French  chemist,  and 
is  quite  an  important  industry.  American 
factories  produce  large  quantities,  which  are 
used  in  this  country  mostly  for  cooking  pur- 
poses, but,  shipped  to  Europe,  take  the  place 
of  butter  among  the  poorer  classes.  Beef- 
suet  is  washed  several  times  in  lukewarm 


water,  minced  fine  in  a  cutting  machine,  and 
melted  by  steam,  when  salt  is  added.  The 
fat  floats  on  top  and  is  drawn  off,  purified, 
and,  after  it  is  cold,  pressed  to  separate  the 
butter-oil  from  the  stearine.  This  butter- 
oil  is  the  true  oleomargarine.  It  is  light  yel- 
low, and  has  a  pleasant  taste.  A  mixture 
made  of  two  thirds  of  this  oil,  about  one 
fifth  milk,  with  a  small  amount  of  butter  and 
some  coloring  matter,  is  churned  together, 
the  product  resembling  butter  in  taste  and 
appearance  and  having  all  the  elements 
found  in  butter  made  from  cream.  To  pre- 
vent sale  of  it  as  cream-butter,  Congress 
passed  a  law  taxing  the  sale  and  requiring  ev- 
ery package  to  be  marked  as  oleomargarine 
or  butterine.  In  1906  the  amount  on  which 
the  government  tax  was  paid  exceeded  53,- 
000,000  pounds  weight.  The  value  of  the 
annual  product  in  the  United  States  amounts 
to  over  $10,000,000.  In  England  the  sale 
of  margarine  has  grown  largely  of  recent 
years;  in  1906  butter  and  margarine  were 
consumed  to  the  extent  of  13.9  Ibs.  per 
head.  Margarine  is  growing  steadily  in  fa- 
vor, since  good  margarine,  which  is  a  whole- 
some and  excellent  foodstuff,  is  always  to  be 
preferred  to  indifferent  butter. 

Ol'ga,  St.,  a  Russian  princess  and  saint  of 
the  Greek  church.  She  governed  the  coun- 
try during  the  minority  of  her  son.  Going 
to  Constantinople,  she  was  baptized,  taking 
the  name  of  Helena,  and  labored  with  great 
zeal  to  spread  her  new  faith,  throughout  Rus- 
sia. She  died  in  969,  and  is  highly  vener- 
ated by  the  Russian  church.  Her  festival 
occurs  on  July  21. 

Ol'iphant,  Mrs.  Margaret  (Wilson),  a 
Scottish  novelist  and  writer,  was  born  in  Mid- 
lothian in  1828.  Her  first  book,  Passages  in 
the  Life  of  Mrs.  Margaret  Maitland,  appeared 
in  1849,  and  at  once  attracted  attention. 
Other  works  followed,  some  of  them  appear- 
ing in  Blackivood's  Magazine.  Her  reputa- 
tion as  a  novelist  was,  however,  first  made 
by  the  publication  of  The  Chronicles  of  Car- 
hngford.  She  was  a  prolific  writer,  having 
written  over  30  novels  and  10  or  12  other 
works.  Among  her  works  are  The  Makers 
of  Florence;  The  Makers  of  Venice;  The  Mak- 
ers of  Modern  Rome;  Royal  Edinburgh;  Fran- 
cis of  As  sis  si;  Historical  Sketches  of  the  Reign 
of  George  II;  Memoirs  of  the  Count  de  Mont- 
alembert;  and  Literary  History  of  England 
from  1790  to  1825.  She  died  at  London, 
June  25,  1897. 

Ol'ive,  species  of  Olea,  a  genus  containing 
over  30  species,  natives  of  the  tropical  and 
subtropical  regions  of  the  eastern  hemi- 
sphere. The  common  commercial  species 
are  under  cultivation  for  the  well-known 
fruit.  The  olive  has  been  cultivated  from 
the  earliest  times,  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  the 
oil,  which  is  obtained  from  the  fruit  by  pres- 
sure, and  is  extensively  used  for  pickles.  The 
tree  has  been  grown  in  California  since  the 
old  mission-days,  and  is  raised  extensively 


OLIVER  TWIST 


1380 


OLYMPIA 


in    that   state.     It   occasionally   grows    to   a 
height  of  40  feet,   the  grayish-green  leaves 


OLIVES 

being  green  always,  and  the  fruit  varies  in 
color.     The  oil  has  a  high  food-value. 

Ol'iver  Twist,  a  favorite  novel  by  Charles 
Dickens  which  takes  its  title  from  the  hero  of 
the  story,  was  first  published  in  Bentley's 
Miscellany  in  serial  form  during  1837-9. 
Oliver  Twist  had  been  brought  up  in  a  work- 
house of  the  worst  type,  and  only  escaped 
from  his  subsequent  apprenticeship  to  an 
undertaker  to  fall  into  the  clutches  of  Fagih 
the  Jew  and  his  gang  of  pickpockets.  E  it 
through  all  temptations  and  sordid  influ- 
ences of  environment  Oliver  remained  sim- 
ple, pure  and  uncontaminated.  Oliver  Twist 
has  far  more  of  plot  and  tragic  power  than 
the  Pickwick  Papers  which  preceded  it.  Its 
pathos  is  even  greater  than  its  humor. 

Olives,  Mount  of,  also  called  Mount 
Olivet,  lies  east  of  Jerusalem,  separated  from 
it  by  the  narrow  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat.  Its 
name  came  from  a  beautiful  grove  of  olive- 
trees,  which  formerly  grew  on  its  western 
slope,  but  has  now  almost  disappeared.  The 
brook  called  Kedron  flows  through  the  val- 
ley, and  by  the  bridge  crossing  it  is  the  Gar- 
den of  Gethsemane.  The  mount  is  divided 
into  three  summits,  the  highest  361  feet 
above  Jerusalem  and  2,725  above  the  sea, 
and  on  the  central  summit  is  the  village  of 
Olivet.  The  northern  peak  is  supposed  to 
be  the  place  where  the  angels  appeared  to 
the  disciples  after  the  resurrection  of  Christ, 
and  was  the  site  of  the  Roman  encampment 
at  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  The  cen- 
tral peak  is  pointed  out  as  the  mount  from 
which  Christ  ascended  after  his  resurrection, 
the  place  where  he  had  wept  over  Jerusalem 
ind  had  taught  his  disciples  the  Lord's 


Prayer.  St.  Helena  built  a  church  there,  the 
site  of  which  is  now  occupied  by  a  later  one, 
called  the  Church  of  the  Ascension,  and  near 
it  is  a  Mohammedan  mosque. 

Olm'sted,  Frederick  Law,  an  American 
landscape-gardener,  was  born  at  Hartford, 
Conn.,  April  26,  1822.  He  studied  engineer- 
ing at  Yale,  and  followed  farming  and  gar- 
dening for  a  few  years.  Becoming  inter- 
ested in  landscape-gardening,  he  traveled  on 
foot  through  England  in  1850  and  in  1855 
through  France,  Italy  and  Germany,  to 
study  parks  and  ornamental  grounds.  He 
published  Walks  and  Talks  of  a  Farmer  in 
England,  A  Journey  in  the  Slave  States,  A 
Journey  Through  Texas  and  A  Journey  in 
the  Back  Country,  after  a  tour  through  the 
south  and  west.  He  is  best  known  as  the 
superintendent,  with  Mr.  Vaux,  of  the  laying 
out  of  Central  Park,  New  York,  and  of  the 

gounds  around  the  capitol  at  Washington. 
B  has  also  designed  parks  and  public  works 
at  Chicago,  Buffalo,  Brooklyn,  Boston,  Mil- 
waukee and  Montreal,  and  acted  as  commis- 
sioner of  Yosemite  Park.  He  planned  the 
laying  out  of  Jackson  Park,  Chicago,  for  the 
Columbian  Exposition.  He  was  appointed 
by  Lincoln  on  the  commission  to  inquire 
into  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  United 
States  army,  serving  three  years  (1861-63). 
He  died  on  Aug.  28,  1903. 

Ol'ney,  Richard,  an  American  jurist  and 
statesman,  was  born  at  Oxford,  Mass.,  Sept. 
15,  1835.  He 
graduated  from 
Brown  University 
in  1856,  and  after- 
ward spent  three 
years  in  the  Har- 
vard Law  School. 
When  admitted  to 
the  bar  he  began 
,the  practice  of  law 
at  Boston  and  rap- 
idly  rose  to  fame. 
He  took  no  active 
part  in  politics  un- 

RICHARD  OLNEY  til,  during  the  ad- 

ministration of  President  Cleveland,  he  was 
called  to  a  place  in  his  cabinet  as  attorney- 
general,  afterward  as  secretary  of  state.  On 
the  return  of  the  Republicans  to  power  he 
resumed  the  practice  of  law  at  Boston,  hav- 
ing won  distinction  in  the  settlement  of  vari- 
ous important  matters  of  state  upon  which 
he  was  called  to  act  during  his  career  in  the 
cabinet.  He  died  in  1917. 

Olym'pia,  Wash.,  capital  of  the  state  and 
county-seat  of  Thurston  County,  is  on  a 
peninsular  at  the  southern  end  of  Puget 
Sound,  65  miles  from  the  Pacific.  The  Des- 
chutes,  which  enters  Puget  Sound  here,  has 
a  fall  of  85  feet  in  300  yards,  which  gives 
abundant  water-power.  A  bridge,  2,030  feet 
long,  formerly  crossed  the  end  of  the  sound. 
The  Coast  Mountains  on  the  left  and  the  Cas- 
cade Mountains  on  the  right,  with  the  sound 


OLYMPIC  GAMES 


Z38X 


OMAR  I 


in  front,  make  fine  scenery.  There  are  flour 
mills,  sawmills  and  shoe  and  soap  factories, 
salmon  canneries,  machine  shops  etc.  It  has 
public  and  parochial  schools,  besides  St. 
Amable  Academy  (R.  C.),  St.  Peter's  Hos- 
pital (R.  C.)  and  the  state  library  which 
contains  30,000  volumes.  Population 
6,782. 

Olym'pic  Games,  the  most  famous  and 
splendid  national  festival  of  the  Greeks,  cel- 
ebrated once  in  five  years  in  honor  of  Zeus, 
on  the  plain  of  Olympia.  Olympia  was  a 
beautiful  valley  near  the  river  Alpheus,  and 
contained  temples,  monuments,  altars  and 
statues,  connected  with  Greek  art  and  re- 
ligion. There  were  about  3,000  statues  at 
the  time  of  the  elder  Pliny  (23-70  A.  D.). 
The  sacred  grove  was  a  level  space,  nearly 
square,  being  600  feet  long  and  about  580 
feet  broad.  It  looked  toward  the  Ionian 
Sea,  with  the  rivers  Alpheus  and  Cladeus  on 
its  southern  and  western  boundaries.  It  was 
well-wooded  and  crossed  by  a  road  called  the 
Pompic  Way,  the  route  taken  by  all  the  pro- 
cessions. The  games  date  back  of  776  B.  C., 
but  in  that  year  became  a  national  festival, 
and  the  custom  of  reckoning  time  by  Olym- 
piads began.  The  contests  were  at  first  per- 
mitted only  among  the  Greeks,  but  after  the 
Romans  conquered  Greece  they  took  part  in 
the  games,  Tiberius  and  Nero  appearing  in 
the  list  of  victors.  Women  were  not  allowed 
to  be  present,  with  the  exception  of  the 
priestess  of  Demeter.  The  games  were  held 
at  the  first  full  moon  of  the  summer  solstice, 
about  the  last  of  June.  While  the  games 
were  in  progress,  all  hostilities  were  stopped 
by  proclamation  of  heralds  through  the  coun- 
try. The  contestants  went  through  10 
months'  training  in  the  gymnasium  at  Elis, 
and  the  judges,  at  first  two  but  later  12, 
were  instructed  as  long  in  their  duties.  The 
judges  held  office  only  one  year.  The  con- 
tests were  foot-races,  wrestling,  boxing,  leap- 
ing, running  and  throwing  the  spear  and  the 
discus  or  quoits,  with  chariot  and  horse 
races.  On  the  fifth  day  there  were  proces- 
sions, sacrifices  and  banquets  to  the  victors. 
The  victors,  each  holding  a  palm-branch, 
were  presented  to  the  people,  and  while  her- 
alds proclaimed  their  names  and  their  par- 
ents', they  were  crowned  with  garlands  of 
wild  olive  twigs,  cut  from  a  sacred  tree  of 
the  grove.  Statues  were  erected  to  them; 
they  had  the  place  of  honor  on  public  occa- 
sions; were  usually  exempt  from  paying 
taxes ;  and  at  Athens  were  boarded  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  state.  Songs  were  sung  in  their 
praise,  as  14  of  Pindar's  lyrics  bear  witness. 
The  games  were  abolished  by  Emperor  The- 
odosius  in  394  A.  D. 

Olym'pus,  Mount,  a  group  of  mountains 
in  Turkey  between  Thessaly  and  Macedonia. 
The  eastern  side  fronts  the  sea,  and  has  deep 
precipices  and  ravines  filled  with  forest  trees. 
The  highest  peak  is  9,790  feet  high.  In 
Greek  mythology  it  was  the  residence  of 


Zeus,  whose  palace  was  thought  to  stand  on 
its  summit. 

O'maha,  Neb.,  the  largest  city  in  Nebraska 
and  county  seat  of  Douglas  County,  is  the 
gateway  to  the  richest  agricultural  territory 
in  the  world.  Located  on  the  Missouri 
River,  the  city  is  built  on  a  plane  about  eighty 
feet  above  the  river,  from  which  the  elevation 
gradually  rises.  Omaha  is  the  third  primary 
livestock  and  slaughtering  center  in  the  world, 
the  fourth  primary  grain  market  of  the  world, 
the  first  feeder  sheep  market  of  the  world,  the 
greatest  creamery  butter  producing  city  in 
the  world,  the  second  primary  corn  market  of 
the  United  States,  and  has  the  second  largest 
refinery  of  fine  ores  in  the  United  States. 
Though  it  is  the  33rd  city  in  the  United  States, 
in  population,  Omaha  is  the  i6th  city  in 
volume  of  business.  The  clearings  of  its 
banks  total  nearly  $1,000,000,000  annually 
and  its  manufacturing  interests  amount  to 
$190,000,000  annually.  Its  wholesale  busi- 
ness aggregates  $160,000,000.  It  is  an  im- 
portant railroad  center,  nine  trunk  lines 
converging  there.  The  city  has  had  a  wonder- 
ful growth  and  has  numerous  fine  buildings, 
many  of  which  are  skyscrapers.  Omaha  has 
49  public  school  buildings,  2  high  school 
buildings,  2  universities — Creightonand  Omaha, 
7  intermediate  schools,  10  parochial  grade 
schools,  19  parks,  connected  by  29  miles  of 
boulevards,  14  hospitals,  including  St.  Joseph's 
which  is  the  largest  west  of  Chicago,  a  fine  art 
gallery  and  3  daily  newspapers.  Omaha  is 
governed  by  a  commission  of  seven  members 
and  was  one  of  the  first  large  cities  in  the 
country  to  adopt  this  form  of  government. 
It  is  the  headquarters  for  the  Fourth  United 
States  infantry  and  also  for  the  United  States 
signal  corps.  South  Omaha  and  Dundee,  two 
thriving  suburbs,  have  been  consolidated 
with  Omaha.  Jftikal  population,  185,312. 

Omahas,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians,  of 
the  Dakotah  family,  settled  in  northern  Ne- 
braska. They  were  found  by  Marquette 
(1673),  by  Carver  (1766)  and  by  Lewis  and 
Clark  (1805).  They  were  constantly  at 
war  with  the  Sioux,  but  since  1855  have  been 
at  peace  and  have  improved  rapidly.  They 
cultivate  the  ground,  and  have  churches  and 
schools.  Their  present  number  does  not  ex- 
ceed 1,200. 

O'mar  I,  Abu  Hafsah  Ibn  ul  K  hat  tab. 
the  second  caliph  of  the  Mussulmans,  was 
born  about  581  A.  D.  Although  he  was  at 
first  bitterly  opposed  to  Mohammed,  he  sud- 
denly gave  his  adherence  to  the  cause  of  the 
prophet  and  became  a  chief  supporter  of  his 
creed  and  claims.  He  succeeded  Abu-bekir 
in  634  A.  D.  He  declined  the  title  of  Caliph  or 
successor,  as  too  exalted;  and  chose  rather 
to  be  called  Emir  or  Commander.  It  was 
through  his  command  the  Hejira  (Flight) 
was  adopted  as  the  point  from  which  the  fol- 
lowers of  Mohammed  should  date  their 
years.  It  was  by  his  genius  that  the  Arabian 
empire  was  founded.  Under  his  irresistible 


OMAR  KHAYYAM 


1382 


ONION 


advance  Syria  and  Palestine  were  con- 
quered, and  he  built  the  Mosque  of  Omar 
which  still  stands  central  in  Jerusalem.  He 
subdued  Egypt  and  Persia,  and  brought  for 
the  first  time  all  the  Arabian  tribes  under  one 
creed  and  authority.  An  act  of  injustice, 
not  usual  with  him,  it  should  be  said,  in- 
curred the  resentment  of  a  Persian  slave, 
and  he  was  assassinated  in  644.  He  was 
buried  near  Mohammed. 

Omar  Khayyam  (kM-ydm'),  a  Persian  poet 
and  astronomer,  was  born  at  Nishapur  about 
the  middle  of  the  nth  century.  Khayyam 
is  his  poetical  name,  and  was  taken  from 
his  father's  business  as  a  tent-maker.  He 
was  educated  under  one  of  the  great  Persian 
teachers  and  offered  a  place  at  court,  but 
refused  and  was  given  a  pension  instead. 
He  reconstructed  the  calendar,  making  it, 
as  Gibbon  says,  "very  much  superior  to  the 
Julian,  approaching  in  accuracy  to  the  Gre- 
gorian style."  He  wrote  mathematical 
treatises  in  Arabic,  one  on  algebra,  which 
has  been  translated  into  French.  He  was 
better  known  as  an  astronomer  than  as  a 
poet  until  1859,  when  Edward  Fitzgerald, 
published  a  translation  of  his  Rubdiydt  or 
quatrains,  which  gave  him  a  place  among 
the  true  poets,  though  the  translation  is 
deemed  much  finer  than  the  original.  His 
astronomical  work  brought  on  him  the  sus- 
picion of  heresy,  which  his  poem  did  not 
remove,  and  to  allay  the  feeling  against  him 
he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  He  died 
at  Nishapur  in  1122.  See  Letters  and  Lit- 
erary Remains  of  Fitzgerald,  Vol.  III.;  Ru- 
bdiydt. 

O'Mea'ra,  The  Reverend  Thomas  Robert, 
LL.D.,  principal  of  Wycliffe  College,  Toronto, 
and  canon  of  St.  Alban's  cathedral,  was  born 
at  Georgetown,  Ontario,  Oct.  i6th,  1864.  He 
was  educated  at  the  public  school  and  the 
collegiate  institute  at  Port  Hope,  from  which 
he  went  to  the  University  of  Toronto  and 
Wycliffe  College,  graduating  in  1887.  He 
was  ordained  a  deacon  in  July  of  1887  and 
a  priest  in  December  of  1888.  For  a  year 
he  was  curate  of  St.  Philip's,  Toronto,  but 
in  1889  he  accepted  the  assistant-rectorship 
of  Trinity  Church,  Toronto,  and  the  finan- 
cial secretaryship  of  Wycliffe  College.  Prin- 
cipal O'Meara  held  this  position  until  1903, 
when  he  accepted  the  chair  of  practical  theol- 
ogy which  he  still  holds.  In  1904  he  was  ap- 
fointed  rector  ot  Trinity  Church,  Toronto, 
n  1906  he  resigned  to  accept  the  principal- 
ship  of  Wycliffe  College.  Principal  O'Meara 
has  for  many  years  been  secretary  of  the 
Canadian  Church  Missionary  Society,  of 
which  he  was  elected  a  life  governor  three 
years  ago.  He  has  also  been  president  of 
the  Church  of  England  Deaconess  and  Mis- 
sionary Training-House  for  years.  He  also 
is  vice-president  of  the  Upper  Canada  Bible- 
Society. 

Om'nibus  Bill,  The,  a  term  applied  to 
a  bill  reported  on  April  i7th,  1850,  by  a 


committee  of  the  Federal  Senate  of  the 
United  States  headed  by  Henry  Clay,  be- 
cause of  its  all-comprehensive  nature.  The 
bill  consisted  of  thirty-nine  sections,  and 
provided  for  the  admission  of  California 
with  her  free  constitution,  territorial  gov- 
ernment in  New  Mexico  and  Utah,  without 
express  restriction  upon  slavery;  a  territo- 
rial boundary  line  between  Texas  and  New 
Mexico  in  favor  of  the  former;  a  more  effi- 
cient fugitive  slave-law;  and  denial  to  Con- 
gress of  power  to  interfere  with  slave-trade 
between  slave-states.  After  long  discussion 
the  bill  was  broken  up  and  each  measure 
covered  by  a  separate  bill.  The  term  is 
now  commonly  applied  to  all  single  legis- 
lative acts  in  which  are  incorporated  a  num- 
ber of  loosely  connected  or  wholly  discon- 
nected measures.  Such  bills  used  to  be 
passed  by  state  legislatures  with  consider- 
able frequency,  but  in  later  years  provisions 
have  found  their  way  into  constitutions  re- 
quiring that  single  statutes  shall  deal  with 
but  one  main  subject  which  shall  be  clearly 
indicated  in  the  title. 

One'ga,  Lake,  in  the  north  of  Russia, 
northeast  of  Lake  Ladoga  and,  after  it,  the 
largest  in  Europe.  It  is  146  miles  long 
and  50  wide,  covering  3,764  square  miles. 
It  has  but  one  outlet,  the  Svir,  flowing  into 
Lake  Ladoga.  There  are  numerous  islands 
and  bays  and  abundance  of  fish.  It  is 
closed  by  ice  for  156  days  in  the  year,  but 
has  a  large  traffic  on  its  waters  at  other 
times.  A  ship-canal,  145  miles  long,  to  con- 
nect it  with  the  White  Sea,  is  planned,  the 
surveys  being  finished  in  1890. 

Oneida,  Madison  County,  New  York,  popu- 
lation 6,083,  on  the  N.  Y.  C.  &  H.  R.,  N.  Y. 
O.  &  W.,  and  West  Shore  Railways,  and  the 
Barge  Canal,  gets  its  name  from  the  Oneida 
Indians  who  formerly  made  this  locality  the 
seat  of  their  councils.  It  is  also  their  head- 
quarters of  the  religious  organization  known  as 
the  "Oneida  Community,"  the  members  of 
which  follow  the  practice  of  the  early  Christians 
of  holding  everything  in  common  and  contrary 
to  the  experience  of  most  communistic  enter- 
prises, have  been  very  successful  in  their 
industries,  which  are  located  at  Oneida. 

Onei'da  Lake,  one  of  the  numerous  lakes 
of  central  New  York.  It  is  23  miles  long 
and  about  5  wide,  and  flows  through  the 
Oneida  into  Oswego  River.  It  lies  n  miles 
northeast  of  Syracuse. 

On'ion,  a  plant  with  a  bulbous  root,  belongs 
to  the  lily  family.  It  has  been  cultivated  from 
the  most  ancient  times,  but  its  origin  is  un- 
known. It  may  have  come  from  northeastern 
Africa  or  western  Asia,  for  it  is  mentioned  in 
the  writings  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Amer- 
ican white  onions  are  mild  and  popular. 
Bermuda  and  Spanish  onions  are  now  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
United  States  as  a  winter  crop.  The  potato- 
onion  is  a  strongly  flavored  species,  almost 
like  garlic,  and  perennial.  Onions  are  some- 


ONTARIO 


1383 


ONTARIO 


times  attacked  by  such  insects  as  onion- 
maggots  and  onion-cutworms.  Kerosene, 
ground-up  tobacco-stems  and  nitrate  of  soda 
are  used  to  overcome  these  pests,  but  it  is 
well  to  root  up  the  wilted  plants  and  to 
rotate  onions  with  other  crops. 

Onta'rio,  Can.,  the  wealthiest  and  most 
prosperous  province  of  British  America,  is 
a  triangle  between  St.  Lawrence  and  Ottawa 
Rivers  whose  western  base  rests  on  Lake 
Huron.  Its  extreme  length  is  1,400  miles, 
its  breadth  900  and  its  area  407,262  square 
miles  since  extension  of  1912.  Ontario  is 
larger  than  either  France  or  Germany 
and  over  twice  the  size  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Manitoba  and  Quebec;  on  the  east  by  Que- 
bec and  New  York,  from  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated by  the  St.  Lawrence,  Lake  Ontario 
and  Niagara  River;  on  the  south  by  Lake 
Erie;  and  on  the  west  by  Detroit  River, 
Lake  St.  Clair,  St.  Clair  River  and  Lakes 
Huron  and  Superior,  while  Minnesota  im- 
pinges on  Ontario  from  Lake  Superior  to 
Manitoba. 

The  population  of  Ontario  is  (census  of 
1911)  2,523,274,  having  been  2,182,947  in 
1901.  Eighty-seven  per  cent,  or  1,858,787 
were  natives  of  the  province.  Of  those  born 
out  of  the  province  the  most  numerous  were 
natives  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  pro- 
vince contains  about  two  fifths  of  the  entire 
population  of  the  Dominion,  and,  in  contrast 
with  Quebec,  is  an  English  and  Protestant 
province.  The  Methodists  in  1901  numbered 
666,388;  the  Presbyterians  477,386;  the 
Roman  Catholics  (chiefly  French)  390,304; 
the  Church  of  England  367,937;  and  the 
Baptists  116,320.  There  also  were  32,600 
Dunkards  and  Mennpnites.  Toronto  (q.  v.) 
is  the  provincial. capital.  Other  important 
towns  are  Ottawa  (q.  v.),  the  capital  of  the 
Dominion;  Hamilton;  London;  Kingston; 
Brantford;  Guelph;  and  St.  Catherine's. 
(See  articles  under  these  names.) 

Surface  and  Drainage.  Distinctive  fea- 
tures are  the  Great  Lakes  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  Hudson  Bay.  The  surface  is  an 
undulating  plateau  without  considerable  ele- 
vations. The  Laurentian  Hills,  1,200  feet 
high  at  most,  run  westward  from  the  St. 
Lawrence  near  Kingston  to  north  of  Lake 
Simcoe  and  form  the  watershed  that  sepa- 
rates the  streams  flowing  into  the  Great 
Lakes  from  those  entering  Hudson  Bay  and 
from  Ottawa  River  and  the  St.  Lawrence. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
the  Ottawa,  with  the  Albany  that  enters 
Hudson  Bay  and  the  Niagara  between  Lakes 
Erie  and  Ontario.  Besides  the  Great  Lakes, 
which  lie  partly  in  the  United  States  (Michi- 
gan wholly),  Ontario's  lakes  include  Nipis- 
sing,  Nipigon,  Simcoe,  Rideau,  Muskoka 
and  (western  boundary)  the  Lake  of  the 
Woods.  The  Thousand  Islands  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  its  rapids,  Niagara  Falls  and  the 
myriad  islands  of  Georgian  Bay  are  world- 


famous  scenic  features  of  Ontario.  The 
northern  coast  of  Lake  Superior  also  is  re- 
markable for  beauty. 

Natural  Resources.  Ontario  has  five  lead- 
ing sources  of  wealth:  agriculture,  mining, 
fisheries,  forests  and  manufactures.  About 
half  of  the  province  is  covered  with  timber, 
chiefly  pine,  spruce,  tamarack,  oak  and 
hickory.  These  and  the  waterways,  both 
natural  and  artificial,  make  lumbering  one 
of  the  most  important  of  all  its  great 
industrial  interests.  The  quantity  of 
white  pine,  it  is  claimed,  exceeds  that  on 
any  other  area  in  North  America.  The 
Canadian  spruce,  the  great  pulpwood  tree, 
is  superior  to  the  European  variety.  Fur- 
bearing  animals,  as  the  beaver,  occur  in 
considerable  numbers  in  northern  Ontario, 
where  caribou,  moose  and  other  large  game 
abound.  Fisheries  are  important,  the  annual 
catch  of  whitefish,  trout,  pickerel,  herring,  etc., 
being  valued  considerably  in  excess  of  $2,000,- 
ooo.  The  province  is  rich  in  minerals,  as 
antimony,  arsenic,  copper,  iron,  lead  and 
plumbago.  Bounties  are  paid  on  the  production 
of  iron.  Building-stone,  gypsum  and  marble 
abound.  Gold  and  silver  exist,  the  latter 
very  extensively  along  Lake  Superior.  The 
silver  of  Cobalt  (q.  v.)  has  attracted  world- 
wide attention.  The  nickel  deposits  of  Sud- 
bury  (q.  v.)  are  the  greatest  in  the  world. 
The  iron  and  the  copper  deposits  are  ex- 
tensive. West  of  Lake  Superior  lies  a  gold 
region  that  is  considered  promising.  The 
province  is  rich  in  salt  wells,  petroleum  and 
natural  gas.  It  has  set  10,000,000  acres  of 
forest  aside  as  reserves. 

Climate.  Ontario's  climate  is  said  to  re- 
semble that  of  central  Europe.  It  inclines 
to  the  extremes  of  cold  in  winter  and  heat 
in  summer,  but  the  dry  air  makes  a  bracing 
climate.  Extreme  cold  is  experienced  only 
in  the  north,  the  Great  Lakes  in  the  south 
modifying  the  extremes  of  temperature. 

Agriculture.  In  the  south  soils  of  black 
loam  are  of  excellent  quality  and  highly 
productive.  Eastern  Ontario,  having  the 
best  land,  is  the  garden  of  the  province. 
The  peninsula  between  Ottawa  River  and 
Lakes  Ontario,  Erie  and  Huron  is  the  rich- 
est, most  densely  peopled  and  most  produc- 
tive part  of  Ontario.  Northern  or  New  On- 
tario covering  141,000  square  miles  or  100,- 
000,000  acres,  was  until  twenty  years  ago 
left  to  the  trapper,  the  lumberman  and  the 
miner.  Recently  it  has  been  found  to  have 
thousands  of  acres  as  fertile  as  any  farms 
in  old  Ontario.  This  new  district  is  north 
of  the  Canadian  Pacific  and  of  the  Height 
of  Land.  It  is  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake 
Nipissing.  Beyond  it  lies  the  great  clay- 
belt  extending  from  Lake  Temiskaming 
almost  across  the  province  to  James  Bay 
and  Albany  River.  It  contains  15,680,000 
acres  of  tillable  land,  is  well-watered,  and 
has  forests  of  vast  commercial  value.  The 
climate  favors  agriculture,  for,  though  On- 


ONTARIO 


1384 


ONTARIO 


tario's  winter  is  severest  at  the  Height  of 
Land,  the  cold  diminishes  as  more  northern 
latitudes  are  approached — as  far  as  James 
Bay.  Ten  thousand  immigrants  a  year — 
farmers,  lumberers,  miners — have  for  so 
many  years  been  streaming  into  northern 
Ontario  that  it  now  has  within  its  borders 
2,500,000  inhabitants.  It  has  approximately 
300  cities,;towns  and  villages,  including  Ottawa, 
the  Capital  of  the  Dominion.  It  is  now 
traversed  and  developed  by  the  Grand 
Trunk  Pacific  (q.  u.),  a  new  road.  Other 
fertile  sections  are  Rainy  River  Valley,  the 
Temiskaming  district  and  Wabigoon  Valley. 
The  crops  of  Ontario,  the  old  as  well  as  the 
new  regions,  are  wheat,  barley,  oats,  Indian 
corn,  potatoes  and  some  tobacco.  Niagara 
Peninsula  is  a  vast  fruit-farm,  apples,  grapes, 
peaches,  pears  and  plums  abounding,  and 
grape-growing  succeeds  exceptionally  well 
along  Lake  Erie.  Stock-raising,  dairy-farm- 
ing and  bee-culture  are  comparatively  recent 
industries.  Over  a  billion  dollars  have  been 
invested  in  agriculture,  the  farmers  number 
235,000  and  their  annual  return  exceeds 
$200,000,000. 

Commerce,  Manufactures  and  Transporta- 
tion. Numerous  manufactures  exist,  chiefly 
due  to  the  abundant  water-power.  The 
falls  of  the  Ottawa  and  the  rapids  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  are  the  chief  sources  of  power, 
and  the  works  at  Decen  and  Niagara  Falls 
(q.  v.)  give  Ontario  the  most  extensive  water- 
power  works  in  the  world.  The  power-plants 
at  Niagara  and  at  Decen  can  cheaply  supply 
all  power  required  by  every  place  within 
100  miles  of  each.  The  principal  manufac- 
tures are  lumber  and  its  by-products,  agri- 
cultural implements,  iron  and  woodware, 
wagons,  carriages,  locomotives,  railway  cars, 
cottons,  woolens,  leather,  furniture,  flax, 
hardware,  paper  and  soap.  Her  industrial 
growth  has  been  greatly  stimulated  by  the  agri- 
cultural development  of  provinces  further  west. 
Ontario  has  a  network  of  railways,  which  in 
summer  are  supplemented  by  the  Great  Lakes, 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  system  of  canals.  The 
Sault  Ste.  Marie  and  the  Welland  are  On- 
tario's principal  canals,  the  former  and  the 
American  one  in  seven  months  carrying 
three  times  the  tonnage  of  Suez  Canal,  and 
the  latter  connecting  Lakes  Erie  and  On- 
tario, while  the  St.  Lawrence  connects  On- 
tario with  Europe  as  the  Great  Lakes  link 
it  to  Duluth  and  Chicago.  These  waterways 
provide  cheap  transportation  and  economical 
distribution.  The  railways  still  more  facili- 
tate distribution.  The  Grand  Trunk  and  the 
Canadian  Pacific  traverse  Ontario,  linking  it 
to  all  Atlantic  seaports  of  eastern  North 
America  and  to  Chicago,  Minneapolis,  Win- 
nipeg and  Victoria,  B.  C.  A  strong  feature  of 
her  industrial  life  is  that  almost  her  entire 
output  is  sold  in  the  Dominion.  America  and 
Britain  share  the  bulk  of  Ontario's  external 
trade,  and  its  chief  import  is  coal.  It  has 
a  large  number  of  sound  and  successfully 


managed  banking  institutions,  a  factor  30  im- 
portant in  her  permanent  growth  and  prosperity. 
Education.  The  school  system  seems  ad- 
mirably adapted  to  Ontario's  educational  re- 
quirements. The  public  schools  are  free.  (It 
is  optional  with  the  trustees  of  high  schools  to 
impose  fees.)  Their  teachers  receive  profes- 
sional training  in  country  model  schools  and 
provincial  normal  schools.  Toronto,  Ottawa 
and  London  Normal  Schools  have  long  ren- 
dered service,  model  schools  for  observation 
purposes  being  attached  to  them,  and  four 
more  are  ready  for  work.  A  faculty  of 
education  has  recently  been  established  in 
the  University  of  Toronto,  taking  the  place 
of  the  normal  school.  The  university  has 
appointed  a  professor  of  education,  and  will 
study  the  schools  of  the  city.  In  places  with- 
out high  schools  their  work  is  performed  by 
continuation  classes.  The  Roman  Catholic 
schools  are  supported  by  their  patrons  but 
also  share,  pro  rata,  in  grants  made  by 
the  government  for  school  purposes.  The 
Kindergarten  system  is  widely  established 
in  city  schools.  Less  than  9%  of  her  inhab- 
itants over  five  years  old  are  illiterate  and  the 
homes  have  the  best  books  and  periodicals. 
Among  the  institutions  for  higher  education 
are  McMaster,  Ottawa,  Queens,  Toronto, 
Trinity  and  Victoria  Universities;  Knox, 
Ridley,  Royal,  St.  Michael,  Upper  Canada 
and  Wycliffe  Colleges.  There  are  colleges 
at  Sandwich  and  Woodstock;  women's  col- 
leges at  Brantford,  Hamilton,  London,  Osha- 
wa,  St.  Thomas  and  Whitby.  There  is  also 
an  agricultural  college  at  Gvelph.  There 
also  are  schools  for  Indian  children,  schools 
of  art  and  many  free  libraries  under  the  care 
of  the  board  of  education.  A  minister  of 
education,  who  always  is  a  member  of  the 
provincial  cabinet,  controls  the  whole  system. 
Government  and  History.  'Government 
is  administered  by  a  lieutenant-governor 
appointed  by  the  Canadian  governor-general 
for  five  years  and  assisted  by  a  responsible 
ministry.  There  is  a  legislative  assembly, 
of  one  house  only,  elected  by  ballot  for  four 
years.  Steam  and  electric  railways  are 
under  provincial  regulation  to  some  extent. 
Ontario  enjoys  the  distinction  of  having  a 
municipal  system  on  which  have  been 
modeled  the  systems  of  the  other  provinces. 
It  is  more  like  the  English  city  systems  than 
those  of  American  cities.  Many  cities 
are  beginning  to  own  and  operate  their  own 
electric  light  and  power  plants.  Ontario  was 
explored  by  Champlain  in  1615,  hunted 
over  by  the  French  and  visited  by  mission- 
aries to  its  Indians.  In  1763  Ontario  passed 
from  France  to  England,  which  in  1774  or- 
ganized Quebec  province,  and  in  1791  made 
Ontario  Upper  Canada  or  Canada  West.  In 
1783  Ontario  then  mainly  a  forest  wilder- 
ness, received  the  Americans  who  preferred 
allegiance  to  Great  Britain  instead  of  the 
United  States,  and  its  actual  career  began. 
In  1841  it  was  united  with  Quebec,  but  was 


ONTARIO  AGRICULT.  COLLEGE 


X385 


OPERA 


separated  again  when  the  Dominion  was 
formed  in  1867.  It  played  an  active  part 
in  the  Anglo-American  War  of  1812.  It 
developed  responsible  government  and  Eng- 
lish institutions.  It  rose  in  1837,  not  against 
England,  but  against  colonial  grievances.  It 
suffered  from  Fenian  outrages  in  1866.  It 
prospered  greatly  during  1854-66.  It  has 
grown  phenomenally  since  1883.  Its  munic- 
ipal governments  closely  approach  civic 
oerfection. 

Ontario  Agricultural  College,  Guelph, 
Can.,  was  established  in  1874.  Its  experimen- 
tal farm  has  nearly  1000  acres.  Dr.  James 
Mills  became  president  in  1879  and  continued 
such  until  1904,  being  succeeded  by  George 
C.  Creelman.  The  primary  aim  is  to  tram 
young  men  for  practical  farming.  There 
are  special  laboratories  for  chemistry,  biol- 
ogy and  physics.  The  library  building  cost 
$45,000.  Sir  William  C.  Macdonald  of  Mon- 
treal for  instruction  in  home-science  has 
erected  buildings  at  a  cost  of  $175,000  and 
presented  them  to  the  province.  There  are 
23  teachers.  The  students  each  year  aver- 
age over  700.  The  college  has  graduated 
nearly  200  students,  and  sent  many  to  teach 
in  other  colleges.  It  is  admittedly  one  of 
the  best  equipped  and  most  successful  col- 
leges of  the  kind  in  the  world.  As  regards 
advanced  examinations  it  is  affiliated  with 
the  University  of  Toronto. 

Ontario,  Lake,  one  of  the  five  Great , 
Lakes  of  North  America.  It  lies  between 
Ontario  and  New  York  state,  and  has  an 
elevation  of  250  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is 
the  smallest  of  the  group,  covering  7,240 
square  miles  and  being  190  miles  long  and 
55  wide.  It  forms  the  connection  between 
Niagara  River  and  the  St.  Lawrence.  The 
level  of  its  waters  varies  about  three  and  a 
half  feet  at  "regular  periods  of  from,  four  to 
seven  years,  which,  it  is  thought,  may  be 
due  to  an  underground  river.  Welland  Canal 
connects  it  with  Lake  Erie,  Oswego  Canal 
with  Erie  Canal  and  Hudson  River,  and 
Rideau  Canal  with  Ottawa.  It  is  subject 
to  storms,  the  agitation  of  its  waters  by 
which  may  account  for  its  seldom  freezing, 
except  along  the  shore. 

O'nyx.     See  MARBLE. 

Odgonium  (d'd-gd'ni-um)  (in  plants),  the 
female  organ  in  thallophytes.  It  consists 
usually  of  a  single  cell,  which  produces  a 
solitary  egg,  the  oosphere.  It  may  be  a 
special  cell  set  apart  for  this  purpose  from 
its  beginning;  or  it  may  be  an  ordinary 
nutritive  cell,  which  later  becomes  modified 
into  an  egg-producing  cell.  See  THALLO- 
PHYTES. 

Oosphere  (d'd-sfer),the  general  name  for 
the  female  cell  or  egg  in  plants.  See  EGG. 

O'ospore  (in  plants),  the  general  name 
for  the  spore  which  results  from  the  fertili- 
zation of  an  egg  by  a  sperm.  The  oospore 
is  sometimes  called  a  fertilized  egg,  and 
in  plants  which  have  a  distinct  alternation 


of  generations  the  oospore  in  germination 
alt/ays  produces  the  sporophyte. 

O'pal  is  a  mineral,  something  like  quartz, 
composed  mainly  of  silica  and  water.  It  is 
never  found  in  crystals,  and  is  very  easily 
broken.  There  are  many  kinds,  so  nearly 
resembling  each  other  as  to  be  with  diffi- 
culty distinguished.  The  finest  kind,  known 
as  precious,  noble  or  oriental  opal,  is  par- 
tially transparent  and  of  a  bluish  or 
yellowish  white,  with  a  beautiful  play  of 
brilliant  colors  produced  by  small  fissures 
which  refract  the  light.  It  is  never  cut  in 
facets,  as  diamonds  are,  because  its  play  of 
colors  is  better  on  a  convex  surface.  It  is 
used  in  jewelry.  The  finest  opals  are  brought 
from^Hungary.  Opal  is  also  found  in  Saxony 
and  in  South  America.  The  common  opal 
is  white,  yellow,  green,  red  or  brown,  but 
without  any  play  of  colors.  It  is  not  at 
all  rare,  occurring  in  veins  and  holes  in 
rocks. 

Op'era  is  a  drama  which  is  sung,  accom- 
panied by  a  full  orchestra  or  by  a  chorus 
of  musical  instruments.  It  makes  use  of 
the  aria  or  song,  duets,  trios,  the  recitative 
or  declamation,  instrumental  interludes  or 
whatever  the  situation  requires.  The  intro- 
duction or  opening  is  called  an  overture. 
There  are  three  chief  classes  or  schools,  the 
Italian,  the  German  and  the  French.  The 
Italian  opera  is  the  earliest,  dating  as  early 
as  1 600,  and  is  noted  for  melody.  Scarlatti 
(1659-1725)  may  be  considered  its  founder. 
The  most  famous  modern  Italian  composer 
is  Rossini,  his  Barber  of  Seville  and  Wuliam 
Tell  both  retaining  a  place  on  the  modern 
stage.  Bellini,  Donizetti,  and  Verdi  are 
other  well-known  composers  of  this  school. 

The  early  opera  in  Germany  was  Italian, 
Dresden  and  Vienna  being  the  centers.  The 
national  school  was  founded  at  Hamburg  by 
Keyser,  who  wrote  more  than  100  operas 
(1694-1 734).  Mozart's  first  work  was  Italian 
in  form,  though  surpassing  the  Italians  in 
their  own  field ;  but  his  Magic  Flute  was  the 
first  national  romantic  opera.  Beethoven 
composed  but  one  opera,  Fidelia,  while 
Weber  used  the  national  folklore  in  Der 
Freischutz  (Free  Archer)  with  great  effect. 
Melodrama  originated  in  Germany.  The 
singer  recites  his  part  in  a  speaking  voice, 
while  the  music  of  the  orchestra  seeks  to 
give  the  meaning  of  the  scene  to  the  audience. 

French  grand  opera  was  founded  by  Sully, 
a  Florentine,  and  reformed  by  Gluck,  the 
German  composer,  while  Cherubini,  Rossini, 
Meyerbeer  and  Wagner  were  foreigners  who 
aided  in  its  development.  The  French  school 
paid  particular  attention  to  rhetoric,  and 
the  use  of  the  recitative  or  recitation  has 
always  been  prominent.  Italian  opera  be- 
came the  fashion  in  London  from  the  time 
of  Handel,  and  was  introduced  into  America 
in  1825.  See  Memoirs  of  the  Opera  by  Ho- 
garth and  Essays  on  Modern  Opera  by  Ed- 
wards. 


OPERA-GLASS 


1386 


OPIUM 


Opera-Glass,  an  instrument  for  making 
distant  objects  appear  brighter  and  more 
distinct.  An  ordinary  opera-glass  is  essen- 
tially two  telescopes,  of  the  type  employed 
by  Galileo,  so  mounted  in  one  frame  as  to 
produce  two  images  of  the  same  size,  one 
for  each  eye.  The  principle  of  the  opera- 
glass  is  that  of  the  astronomical  telescope, 
except  that  the  latter  uses  a  converging  eye- 
piece, while  in  the  opera-glass  a  diverging 
eyepiece  is  used.  The  reason  for  this  differ- 
ence is  twofold :  The  diverging  eyepiece  gives 
an  upright  image;  and  the  total  length 
of  the  opera-glass  is  the  difference  between 
the  focal  lengths  of  the  object  lens  and  the 
eye  lens.  This  makes  the  opera-glass  short, 
so  that  it  can  be  easily  carried  in  the  pocket. 
If  a  converging  eyepiece  were  used,  the 
distance  between  the  objective  and  the  eye 
lens  would  have  to  be  equivalent  to  the 
sum  of  their  focal  lengths,  which  would  make 


FIG.    I 

the  instrument  unwieldy.  The  optical  be- 
havior of  the  opera-glass  will  be  clear  from 
the  accompanying  figure,  where  B.  B8  indi- 
cates the  object  glass,  through  which  pass 
three  rays  from  a  very  distant  object  P. 
The  pupil  of  the  eye  is  indicated  by  p  p, 
and  the  image  of  P  is  seen  erect  in  the 
direction  indicated  by  the  three  rays  Pt.  The 
principal  focus  of  either  lens  falls  at  some 
point  within  the  eye.  The  angle  which  the 
image  subtends  at  the  eye  is  much  greater 
than  that  under  which  the  object  is  seen 
with  the  naked  eys.  Zeiss  of  Jena  has  re- 
cently introduced  an  enormous  improve- 
ment into  the  ordinary  opera-glass,  by  using 
(instead  of  two 
'Galilean  tele- 
scopes) a  pair  of 
astronomical 
telescopes.  But 
he  avoids  the  dif- 
ficulty of  extreme 
length,  men- 
FIG-  2  t  i  o  n  e  d  above, 

by  placing  a  pair  of  prisms  between  the  two 
lenses,  such  as  is  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing figure.  The  path  of  the  ray  between 
the  two  lenses  is  thus  doubled  upon  itself, 
securing  a  short  length  for  the  instrument 
and  at  the  same  time  giving  an  erect  image 
and  a  large,  clear  field.  These  prisms  allow 
him  also  to  place  the  two  objectives  a  foot 
or  so  apart,  while  the  eye  lenses  are  at  a 
distance  suited  to  the  eyes.  Equipped  with 
vuch  a  glass,  a  field  officer  can  stand  be- 
hind a  tree  in  safety  while  he  is  watching 


the  operations  of  the  enemy.  It  need  hardly 
be  added  that  the  armies  and  navies 
of  all  civilized  countries  are  now  furnished 
with  these  glasses. 

Ophir  (d'fer),  a  place  mentioned  in  the 
Bible,  from  which  the  navy  of  Solomon 
brought  gold,  precious  stones  and  sandal- 
wood.  The  voyage  took  three  years.  It 
was  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  in  Arabia 
or  in  India,  but  in  which  is  doubtful.  Jose- 
phus  places  it  on  the  peninsula  of  Malakka. 

O'pium  is  the  dried  juice  of  the  unripe 
seed-vessels  of  a  kind  of  poppy.  The  poppy 
is  cultivated  in  India,  Persia,  China,  Turkey 
and  Egypt.  It  requires  a  very  rich  soil, 
and  irrigation  is  often  used  as  an  aid  to 
cultivation.  The  main  opium  district  in 
India  is  a  large  tract  on  the  Ganges,  about 
600  miles  long  and  200  broad.  In  India 
the  seed  is  sown  in  November,  the  plant 
blossoms  in  January  or  later,  and  in  three 
or  four  weeks  after,  when  the  poppy  heads 
or  capsules  are  about  as  large  as  a  hen's 
egg,  the  field  is  ready  for  work.  The  col- 
lector takes  a  small  instrument  made  of  four 
little  knives  tied  together,  looking  like  the 
teeth  of  a  comb,  and  with  this  cuts  or 
scratches  the  poppy  heads.  This  is  done  in 
the  afternoon,  and  the  next  morning  a  milky 
sap  can  be  collected  from  the  heads  by 
scraping  with  a  kind  of  scoop  into  an  earthen 
vessel.  The  vessel  is  kept  turned  on  its 
side  so  that  any  watery  fluid  may  drain 
out,  and  as  the  juice  dries  it  is  turned  often, 
so  that  it  will  dry  equally.  It  takes  three 
or  four  weeks  before  it  is  thick  enough  to 
be  used  in  the  factories.  It  is  then  thrown 
into  great  vats  in  the  factories  and  kneaded, 
and  made  into  balls  or  cakes,  which  are 
dried  and  packed  in  chests  for  the  market. 
Opium  has  a  bitter  taste  and  a  peculiar, 
heavy  odor.  It  is  poisonous,  but  makes  a 
most  valuable  medicine,  in  which  form  it 
is  used  to  allay  pain  and  produce  sleep.  The 
habitual  use  of  the  drug  is  known  as  opium- 
eating  or  the  opium"  habit,  and  is  made  use 
of  to  relieve  pain  or  sleeplessness,  when  it 
soon  becomes  a  habit  most  difficult  to  over- 
come. The  amount  usually  taken  is  about 
three  grains  a  day,  though  De  Quincey  (him- 
self a  slave  to  the  habit)  says  that  he  used 
sometimes  8,000  drops  of  laudanum  (a  form 
of  opium)  daily.  It  acts  as  a  stimulant, 
followed  by  depression  and  nervousness,  re- 
quiring a  fresh  dose  to  remove  them.  An- 
other way  in  which  it  is  used  is  in  smoking, 
a  practice  most  common  in  China  and  in 
India.  The  opium  prepared  for  smoking  is 
called  chandu,  and  is  a  watery  extract  about 
twice  as  strong  as  the  drug.  A  piece  of 
opium  as  large  as  a  pea  is  placed  in  a  small 
cup  at  the  end  of  a  pipe  and  lighted,  and 
the  smoke  inhaled.  The  opium  is  distilled 
by  the  process,  and  there  is  very  little  mor- 
phine in  the  smoke.  There  are  said  to  be 
a  million  opium  smokers  in  the  United  States. 
Excessive  use  of  it  wrecks  the  constitution 


OPORTO 


1387 


ORACLE 


and  seems  to  destroy  also  the  moral  fac- 
ulties. For  the  opium  wars  see  CHINA.  See 
Opium  and  the  Opium  Appetite  by  Calkin 
and  Opium  Smoking  in  America  and  China. 

Oporto  (o-pdr'tdo),  the  second  city  in 
Portugal,  is  situated  on  the  Douro,  three 
miles  from  the  Atlantic.  The  city  climbs 
the  steep  banks  of  the  river,  its  houses, 
gayly  painted,  making  a  bright  picture  set 
off  from  the  pine-covered  mountains  behind 
it.  On  one  of  the  crags  overlooking  the 
river  is  a  crystal  palace  surrounded  with 
gardens.  The  old  cathedral  was  built  by 
Henry  the  Navigator;  the  Gothic  church 
was  founded  in  559;  and  the  former  mon- 
asteries are  used,  one  as  a  citadel,  one  as 
an  exchange  and  one  as  barracks.  There 
are  a  medical  school  (246  students),  observa- 
tory, a  fine  art  academy  (133  students), 
library  of  250,000  volumes  and  two  picture 
galleries.  The  railroad  to  Lisbon  crosses 
the  river  a  little  above  the  city  on  one  of 
the  finest  arch  bridges  built.  The  manu- 
factures are  cloth,  silk,  hats,  porcelain,  rib- 
bons, tobacco,  soap  and  metal  casting,  dis- 
tilling, cork-cutting  and  sugar-refining.  It 
is  the  chief  seat  of  the  export  trade  in  port 
wine,  and  in  the  vicinity,  in  1900,  were  15 
cottonmills.  Oporto  was  the  stronghold  of 
the  Christians  in  the  peninsula  against  the 
attacks  of  the  Moors.  The  people  in  1828 
opposed  the  usurper,  Miguel,  who  executed 
many  of  them;  but  they  supported  Pedro 
of  Brazil,  and  withstood  the  besiegers  thir- 
teen months.  Population  167,955. 

Opos'sum,  animal  representing  the  mar- 
supials or  pouched  animals  in  the  New 


OPOSSUM 

World.  There  are  some  16  species,  vary- 
ing in  size  from  a  cat  down  to  a  mouse. 
Some  are  provided  with  pouches  on  the  un- 
der side  ot  the  body  in  which  the  young  are 
reared,  and  others  have  no  sign  of  a  pouch. 
In  those  forms  without  a  pouch  the  young, 
when  fully  developed,  are  frequently  carried 
on  the  back,  with  their  tails  twined  round 
that  of  the  mother.  The  Virginia  opossum  is 
common  from  the  central  United  States  to 
Brazil.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  members  of 
the  group,  being  about  the  size  of  a  cat.  The 


hair  is  long  and  coarse ;  black  and  white,  giv- 
ing the  appearance  of  grayish-white,  under- 
neath the  fur  white  and  woolly ;  nose  and  lips 
white ;  ears  erect,  hairless,  black  tipped  with 
white;  tail  prehensile,  flesh-colored,  almost 
bare.  In  general  appearance  the  animal 
reminds  one  somewhat  of  a  little  pig.  The 
Virginia  opossum  brings  forth  her  young  when 
they  are  very  small,  only  about  half  an  inch 
long;  as  soon  as  one  is  born  the  mother 
places  it  in  her  well-developed  pouch,  where 
it  and  its  brothers  and  sisters  are  kept  sev- 
eral weeks  —  sometimes  there  are  a  dozen 
to  carry  about  and  provide  with  milk.  The 
little  ones  sleep  and  eat  and  grow.  Perhaps 
by  the  time  they  are  the  size  of  rats  and  able 
to  ride  on  her  back  there  will  be  a  second 
brood  in  the  pouch.  There  are  two  or  three 
litters  a  year.  As  great  eaters,  opossums 
may  again  be  likened  to  the  pigl  they  eat 
everything  and  anything:  insects,  wild  fruit 
and  berries,  varied  with  roots,  reptiles,  cray- 
fish, eggs,  small  rats  and  mice,  with  additions 
of  poultry,  corn,  sweet  potatoes  and  other 
farm-yard  delicacies.  As  enemies  of  the  de- 
structive cotton-rat  they  are  highly  valued. 
They  hunt  mainly  by  night,  sleep  by  day,  live 
in  trees.  They  are  expert  climbers;  in  going 
up  a  tree  they  use  tail  and  hand-shaped  feet 
very  much  as  does  a  monkey.  They  dislike 
cold,  seldom  come  forth  when  snow  is  on  the 
ground,  remaining  in  their  dens  for  warmth 
and  comfort,  having  stored  away  fat  fof 
this  time  of  need.  The  opossum's  habit  of 
feigning  death  when  frightened  or  slightly 
injured  is  well-known,  and  in  this  he  is  a 
consummate  actor  —  lies  stretched  out  mo* 
tionless,  breathless,  nose  colorless,  white  lip* 
apart  and  the  teeth  gleaming  stark,  death- 
like.  See  Stone  and  Cram:  American^  Ani* 
mats;  Hornaday :  American  Natural  History. 

Op' tics.  See  LIGHT,  TELESCOPE,  CAMERA, 
EYE,  OPERA-GLASS,  MICROSCOPE,  PHYSICS. 

Oracle,  in  ancient  times  a  revelation  by 
some  god  in  answer  to  questions,  and  also 
the  place  where  the  revelations  were  given. 
The  revelations  were  usually  made  by  the 
mouths  of  priests  or  priestesses,  and  some- 
times by  other  signs.  At  Dodona  the  oracle 
answered  by  the  motion  of  leaves  or  the  mur- 
muring of  the  waters  of  a  fountain,  and  the 
oracle  of  Ammon  responded  by  the  shaking 
of  the  statue  of  the  god.  The  Egyptian  tem- 
ples were  nearly  all  oracles,  and  there  were 
oracles  among  the  Babylonians  and  Phoeni- 
cians. The  most  famous  oracle  of  the 
Greeks  was  the  one  at  Delphi.  The  inquir- 
ers offered  sacrifices,  walked  around  the  or- 
acle with  laurel  crowns  on  their  heads,  and 
inscribed  their  questions  on  leaden  tablets, 
many  of  which  have  been  discovered.  The 
answer  was  accepted  as  final  and  having  au- 
thority, and  usually  was  just  and  reasonable. 
Other  oracles  were  at  Ismenus,  Delos  and 
Olympia.  See  Greek  Oracles  by  F.  W.  H. 
Myers  and  Religious  Antiquities  by  Scho- 
manns  (translated). 


ORAN 


1388 


ORANGEMEN 


Oran  (e-rdn'),  a  city  in  Algeria,  is  situated 
on  the  Gulf  of  Oran,  260  miles  southwest  of 
Algiers.  The  harbor  is  protected  by  moles, 
built  in  1880.  The  city  lies  at  the  toot  of  a 
hill,  defended  by  forts,  and  has  two  citadels. 
There  are  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  a 
Mohammedan  mosque,  a  military  hospital,  a 
college  and  a  seminary.  The  principal  ex- 
ports are  alfa,  iron-ore  and  grain.  The  city 
was  founded  by  the  Moors,  and  in  the  isth 
century  was  very  prosperous.  It  was  famed 
for  cloth,  arms  and  fine  public  buildings.  In 
1509  the  Spaniards,  after  taking  it,  made  a 
penal  settlement  of  it.  Captured  by  the 
Turks  in  1 708,  it  was  retaken  by  the  Span- 
iards in  1732,  who  abandoned  it  in  1790 
after  it  was  almost  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake. The  French  took  possession  in  1 83 1. 
Population  85,801.  Oran  is  also  a  depart- 
ment in  Algeria,  area  44,616  square  miles, 
with  a  population,  embracing  both  the  mili- 
tary and  the  civil  territory,  of  1,122,358. 

Or'ange,  the  fruit  of  Curus  aurantium  and 
its  varieties.  To  the  same  genus  belong  the 


ORANGE 

limes,  citrons,  grape-fruits  etc.  All  the 
species  of  the  genus  are  natives  of  tropical 
and  subtropical  Asia,  but  are  now  extensive- 
ly cultivated  throughout  the  warmer  regions 
of  the  world.  In  the  United  States  orange 
cultivation  centers  in  Florida,  the  delta  re- 
gion of  the  Mississippi  and  in  California. 
Portions  of  Texas,  New  Mexico  and  Arizona 
are  well-adapted  for  commercial  cultivation. 


The  orange  was  introduced  into  this  country 
by  the  early  Spanish  explorers,  here  in- 
creased and  formed  wild  groves  of  large  ex- 
tent. It  is  a  long-lived  tree,  bears  to  a  great 
age,  is  evergreen,  and  its  glossy  leaves  are 
set  off  by  snowy  blossoms  of  exceeding  fra- 
grance. Blossom,  green  and  ripe  fruit  may 
be  seen  at  one  time  on  the  same  tree.  In 
cultivation  it  rarely  exceeds  30  feet  in 
height,  and  is  a  low -branching  tree.  It  is  at- 
tacked by  various  diseases,  rot,  blight  and 
mould,  and  requires  careful  cultivation  and 
watching.  Scale  insects  have  worked  much 
damage  to  the  orange  crop.  The  red  scale  is 
kept  in  check  by  fumigating  and  by  spraying. 
The  white  or  fluted  scale,  formerly  very  de- 
structive in  California,  has  been  practically 
vanquished  by  the  Australian  ladybird. 
Oranges  are  usually  cut  by  hand  and  kept  a 
few  days  before  packing.  There  are  numer- 
ous cultivated  forms,  the  so-called  navel 
oranges  being  an  accidental  variation. 
Among  the  commoner  forms  are  the  common 
sweet  orange,  a  native  of  India,  among  whose 
most  prized  cultural  forms  are  the  Wash- 
ington navel  and  Riverside  navel;  and  the 
mandarin  or  kid-glove  orange,  a  native  of 
China,  various  cultivated  forms  being  known 
as  mandarins  and  tangerines. 

Orange,  N.  J.,  a  city  of  Essex  County,  12 
miles  west  of  New  York.  The  name  also  in- 
cludes parts  of  the  townships  of  East,  West 
and  South  Orange,  all  suburbs  of  New  York, 
often  called  the  Oranges.  The  region  is  laid 
out  in  beautiful  parks,  with  elegant  homes, 
rising  above  each  other,  ending  in  a  broad 
crest  on  the  top  of  Orange  Mountain,  650 
feet  in  height.  Llewellyn  Park  (50  acres)  is 
on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  mountain  in  West 
Orange  and  contains  many  fine  residences. 
Near  it  is  the  Edison  laboratory.  The  chief 
manufacturing  establishments  are  hat  fac- 
tories and  printing  plants.  Among  its  prom- 
inent buildings  are  Music  Hall,  Masonic  Tem- 
ple, the  Metropolitan  and  Decker  buildings, 
Orange  Memorial  Hospital  and  the  House  of 
the  Good  Shepherd.  The  city  has  excellent 
public  and  parochial  schools,  a  training 
school  for  nurses,  a  city  library  and  Stickley 
Memorial  Library.  At  South  Orange  are 
Seton  Hall  (R.  C.)  for  men  and  boys  and  a 
theological  seminary.  Population  29,630. 

Orangemen,  an  association  of  Scotch- 
Irish  Protestants  founded  in  1795  in  the 
north  of  Ireland  for  the  purpose  of  sustaining 
the  Protestant  religion  and  upholding  the 
authority  of  the  sovereign  and  the  laws  of 
the  United  Kingdom.  It  originated  and 
chiefly  flourishes  in  Ulster,  but  is  found  in 
other  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom,  in  the 
British  colonies  and  in  the  United  States. 
The  association  derives  its  name  from  Wil- 
liam III,  Prince  of  Orange.  It  declined 
after  1813,  but  revived  in  1827.  It  was  dis- 
solved by  the  House  of  Commons  as  a  secret 
order  in  1830,  but  revived  in  1845.  In  Oc- 
tober, 1857,  the  lord-chancellor  of  Ireland 


ORANGE  RIVER 


1389 


ORATORIO 


ordered  that  justices  of  the  peace  should  not 
belong  to  Orange  Clubs.  July  ist  and  isth 
are  celebrated  by  Orangemen  as  anniversaries 
of  the  battles  of  the  Boyne  and  Anghrum. 

Orange  River,  the  largest  stream  in 
South  Africa,  flowing  west  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  It  is  1,000  miles  long,  but  is  navi- 
gable only  in  the  rainy  season,  and  its  mouth 
is  obstructed  by  a  bar. 

Orange  River  Colony.  This  British  pos- 
session in  South  Africa,  after  having  ex- 
isted for  46  years  as  an  independent  republic 
under  the  name  of  the  Orange  Free  State, 
was,  after  military  occupation  by  the  British 
forces  in  consequence  of  the  Boer  War,  an- 
nexed by  proclamation  on  May  4,  1900,  and 
is  now  known  as  Orange  River  Colony.  The 
government  is  in  the  hands  of  a  governor 
for  the  Transvaal  and  Orange  River  Colo- 
nies, with  a  lieutenant-governor  for  the  lat- 
ter, assisted  by  an  appointive  executive  coun- 
cil and  a  legislative  council  of  18,  ten  official 
and  eight  unofficial,  all  nominated  by  the 
crown.  It  is  intended  to  restore  responsible 
government  by  degrees.  The  area  of  the 
colony  is  50,392  square  miles,  the  total  popu- 
lation being,  in  1908,  natives  included,  435,- 
ooo.  Of  this  number,  about  100,000  were 
white,  who  chiefly  engaged  in  agriculture 
and  in  raising  sheep,  cattle,  horses,  goats, 
ostriches.  This  population  is  chiefly  of 
Dutch  origin  The  colony  was  founded  by 
the  Boers  who  trekked  from  Cape  Colony  in 
and  after  1836,  and  was  declared  independ- 
ent in  1854.  It  lies  between  Vaal  and  Orange 
Rivers,  on  a  plain  rising  from  3,000  to  5,000 
feet,  with  bluffs  or  slopes  toward  the  rivers 
that  border  it,  and  dotted  with  kopjes  or 
flat- topped  hills.  The  prevailing  religion  is 
that  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  church;  while 
the  Roman  Dutch  law  has  hitherto  been  in 
use.  The  Dutch  Reformed  church  still  pre- 
ponderates in  numbers,  but  there  has  been  a 
great  gain  among  other  Protestant  bodies 
and  Roman  Catholics  since  1900,  the  aid  for- 
merly given  by  the  Free  State  government  to 
the  first  named  body  having  been  discon- 
tinued. Education  is  going  steadily  for- 
ward, fees  having  been  entirely  done  away 
with  in  all  elementary  schools.  A  college, 
normal  school,  high  school  and  many  pri- 
mary schools  have  been  established,  and  ed- 
ucation is  compulsory,  but  little  is  being 
done  among  the  blacks.  Bloemfontein  is 
the  capital,  with  a  present  population  of  38,- 
ooo.  The  undulating  plains  of  the  interior 
afford  excellent  grazing.  The  colony  is  rich 
in  coal-mines',  while  in  and  on  the  borders 
are  valuable  diamond  mines,  the  yield  from 
which,  as  well  as  of  garnets  and  other  pre- 
cious stones,  has  been  phenomenally  large. 
Some  gold  has  been  found.  Rubies,  sap- 
phires, emeralds  and  other  precious  stones 
are  reported  from  Hope  Valley.  There  is 
now  a  government  department  of  mines. 
The  imports  are  chiefly  wearing  apparel,  cot- 
tons, blankets,  food  and  drink,  woodenware 


and  hardware.  The  exports  are  largely  wool 
and  diamonds,  most  of  them  going  to  Cape 
Colony.  The  colony  belongs  to  the  South 
African  customs-union.  The  Free  State 
kept  no  statistics  regarding  mining.  A  rail- 
way, constructed  by  the  Cape  government, 
connects  Orange  River  (at  Norval  s  Point) 
with  the  capital  as  well  as  with  the  Trans- 
vaal, lying  north  of  it.  The  length  of  the 
railway  lines  in  the  colony  is  about  900  miles. 
There  are  2,143  miles  of  telegraph  lines  giv- 
ing communication  with  Cape  Colony,  Na- 
tal, Transvaal  and  Basutoland.  See  TRANS- 
VAAL, CAPE  COLONY  and  BOER  WAR. 

Orang-Utan  or  Orang-Outang  (6-r&ng' 
oo-t&ng') ,  one  of  the  higher  apes,  found  in  the 
swampy  forests  of  Borneo  and  Sumatra. 
With  the  chimpanzee  and  the  gorilla,  it 
approaches  closely  to  man  in  structure.  A 
full-grown  male  reaches  a  height  of  four  feet 
and  four  inches,  but  the  outstretched  arms 
cover  seven  feet  eight  inches.  The  body 
is  bulky  and  covered  with  long,  red- 


ORANG-OUTANG 

dish-brown  hair.  The  legs  are  short,  but  the 
arms  are  so  long  as  to  reach  the  ankles  when 
the  animal  is  erect,  and,  in  walking  the 
knuckles  are  placed  on  the  ground.  Orang- 
utans, however,  are  awkward  on  the  ground 
and  prefer  the  trees,  where  they  can  travel 
five  or  six  miles  an  hour,  without  special 
effort,  by  swinging  along  on  the  branches, 
which  they  grasp  mainly  with  their  hands. 
They  feed  on  fruits  and  succulent  shoots, 
being  strictly  vegetarian  in  their  diet.  They 
get  most  of  their  food  on  the  trees,  but  go  to 
the  ground  for  water.  They  live  in  pairs.  As 
a  rule  they  are  peaceable,  but  when  disturbed 
are  reputed  fierce.  They  retire  to  rest  at 
sundown  in  nests  of  broken  boughs  20  or  30 
feet  above  ground.  In  captivity  they  are 
not  so  active  and  intelligent  as  the  chim- 
panzee. See  APE. 

Or'ato'rio,  a  sacred  story  set  to  music  and 
accompanied,  as  in  the  opera,  with  a  chorus 
and  orchestra  or  band  of  musical  instru- 
ments, but  without  the  use  of  scenery  or  cos- 
tumes or  acting.  Its  name  is  derived  from 
the  oratory  of  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria 


ORCHARDSON 


1390 


ORD 


Maggiore  in  Rome,  where,  from  1 5 7 1  to  1 594, 
musical  performances  of  this  class  were  first 
arranged.  The  oratorio  was  produced  in 
Rome  in  1600,  the  same  year  in  which  the 
first  opera  was  given  in  Florence.  The  first 
development  of  the  oratorio  had  the  passion 
of  Christ  for  its  subject,  and  the  greatest  pas- 
sion music  is  the  St.  Matthew, -written  for  serv- 
ice on  Good  Friday,  by  Sebastian  Bach  in 
1729.  The  next  form  was  the  epics  used  by 
Handel  in  15  grand  oratorios,  the  greatest  of 
which  are  Israel  in  Egypt  and  the  Messiah, 
by  Haydn  in  his  Creation  and  by  Mendels- 
sohn in  Elijah.  The  modern  oratorio  uses 
more  of  the  dramatic  element,  and  inclines 
to  the  form  of  a  cantata,  of  which  Liszt's 
St  Elisabeth  and  Schumann's  Paradise  and 
the  Peri  are  fine  examples.  See  Standard  Or~ 
atorios  by  Upton. 

Or'chardson,  William  Quiller,  R.  A., 
a  Scotch  painter,  was  born  in  1835,  a^  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  studied  art.  He  is  consid- 
ered to  belong  to  the  first  rank  of  genre 
painters,  that  is,  a  class  of  paintings  whose 
subjects  are  taken  from  everyday  life.  His 
pictures,  many  of  the  later  of  which  are  fash- 
ionable interiors  and  portraits  are  very  pop- 
ular and  exquisitely  finished.  Among  the 
best  known  are  The  Challenge,  Napoleon  on 
\he  Bellerophon;  The  Bill  of  Sale,  Hard  Hit, 
After,  The  Salon  of  Madame  Recamier,  The 
Rift  within  the  Lute,  Her  Mother's  Voice  and 
The  Young  Duke. 

Orchids  (  dr1  kids') ,  species  of  a  great  mono- 
cotyledonous  family,  the  Orchidacea,  con- 


ORCHID 


taining  over  6,000  species.  Their  greatest 
display  is  in  the  tropics,  where  many  of  them 
are  brilliantly  colored  epiphytes.  There  are 
many  beautiful  species,  however,  in  the  tem- 
perate regions,  chiefly  in  bogs.  The  flowers 
are  very  much  modified,  always  having  a 
conspicuous  spur,  at  the  bottom  of  which 
nectar  is  secreted.  Orchids  are  very  highly 


LADY-SLIPPER 

specialized  in  reference  to  pollination  by  in- 
sects. Each  kind  of  orchid  has  its  own  kind 
of  insect,  and  all  of  the  elaboration  of  the 
flower  is  connected  with  this  fact.  In  green- 
houses orchids  are  among  the  most  prized  of 
plants,  on  account  of  the  showy  colors  and 
the  strange  forms  of  the  flowers,  the  most 
conspicuous  being  the  epiphytes  from  the 
tropical  forests.  Among  the  best  known 
forms  are  the  common  lady-slippers  or  moc- 
casin flowers  (Cypripedium) ,  in  which  the 
spur  is  replaced  by  a  conspicuous  sac,  the  so- 
called  slipper  or  moccasin,  (See  LADY'S 
SLIPPER  )  Another  of  our  beautiful  native 
orchids  is  the  white-fringed  orchis,  found  in 
swamp  and  cranberry  marsh  in  New  Jersey 
and  north  and  westward  to  Minnesota.  The 
leaves  are  alternate,  lanceolate;  the  flowers 
bloom  in  July,  are  milk-white,  lower  lip 
heavily  fringed,  grow  in  numbers  on  a  short 
spike.  The  yellow-fringed  orchis  closely  re- 
sembles the  preceding  but  is  taller,  has 
bloom  of  a  rich  orange.  The  large  purple- 
fringed  orchis  is  a  queenly  flower,  found  in 
meadows  and  rich  woods  from  Nova  Scotia 
and  New  England  to  North  Carolina  and 
Michigan.  The  flowers,  June  to  August, 
are  of  violet  hue,  large  and  fragrant,  the  lip 
often  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  the  cluster  in 
dense  racemes.  In  the  evergreen  woods  ol 
the  north  one  may  in  July  find  the  cool-look- 
ing green  and  white  bloom  of  the  great  green 
orchis,  flowers  clustered  loosely  on  a  long 
spike,  the  two  large  leaves  of  the  plant  lying 
flat  on  the  ground.  See  Watson:  Orchids. 
Ord,  Edward  Otho  Cresap,  an  American 
general,  was  born  in  Cumberland,  Md.,  Oct. 


ORDINANCE  OF  1787 


1391 


OREGON 


1 8,  1 8 1 8.  He  served  in  the  Seminole  War  in 
Florida  and  on  the  frontiers  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Civil  War,  when  he  became  brig- 
adier-general of  volunteers  and  was  given 
command  of  the  Pennsylvania  reserves,  and 
gained  the  battle  of  Dranesville  (December, 
1861).  In  May,  1862,  as  major-general  of 
volunteers,  he  was  given  a  command  in  the 
department  of  the  Mississippi,  aad  took  part 
in  the  battle  of  luka  and  the  capture  of 
Vicksburg.  In  1865  he  was  in  command  of 
the  army  of  the  James  and  the  department 
of  Virginia,  and  was  in  the  battles  that  ended 
the  war.  After  the  war  he  became  a  briga- 
dier-general in  the  regular  army,  had  com- 
mand of  various  departments,  and  retired  in 
1 88 1  with  the  rank  of  major-general.  He 
died  at  Havana,  Cuba,  July  22,  1883. 

Ordinance  of  1787,  The,  was  an  act  of 
Congress  in  July,  1787,  for  the  administra- 
tion of  the  affairs  of  the  great  Northwest  Ter- 
ritory of  the  United  States.  The  ordinance 
contained  this  oft-quoted  provision:  "Re- 
ligion, morality  and  knowledge  being  neces- 
sary to  good  government  and  the  happiness 
of  mankind,  schools  and  the  means  of  edu- 
cation shall  forever  be  encouraged."  The 
ordinance  contained  six  articles  which  were 
expressly  stated  to  be  of  the  nature  of  a  con- 
tract between  the  people  of  the  states  already 
existing  and  the  people  of  the  Northwest 
Territory.  It  guaranteed  freedom  of  wor- 
ship and  prohibited  slavery  in  the  lands 
granted  to  the  Ohio  Company ;  and  it  looked 
clearly  forward  to  the  time  when  these  lands 
should  be  organized  under  permanent  con- 
stitutions and  governments. 

Or'egon.  Oregon  is  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  the  United  States  between  the  42nd 
and  46th  parallels  of  latitude.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Washington,  on  the  east  by 
Idaho,  on  the  south  by  Nevada  and  Cali- 
fornia and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Only  six  states  exceed  Oregon  in  area.  It  is 
285  miles  from  north  to  south  and  360  from 
east  to  west.  Population,  848,866. 

Physical  Features.  Two  mountain  ranges, 
the  Coast  Range  and  the  Cascade,  run  par- 
allel with  the  coast.  West  of  the  Coast 
Range  lies  a  comparatively  level  country, 
varying  in  width  from  10  to  30  miles.  This 
is  cut  into  many  little  valleys  by  divides 
extending  westerly  from  the  mountains. 
Notable  among  these  valleys  are  the  Ne- 
halem,  the  Yaquina,  the  Alsea,  the  Siuslaw, 
the  Umpqua,  the  Coos  Bay  country  and 
Rogue  River  Valley.  East  of  the  Coast 
Range  or  between  the  Coast  and  Cascade 
Ranges  lies  Willamette  Valley.  This  val- 
ley is  drained  by  a  river  of  the  same  name, 
which  rises  in  a  divide  that  joins  the  two 
great  ranges  about  100  miles  from  the  south- 
ern border  of  the  state  and  flows  north  to 
the  Columbia.  The  valley  averages  about 
50  miles  in  breadth.  Its  elevation  is  low, 
and  the  soil  is  fertile.  South  of  this  divide 
the  country  is  divided  by  Umpqua  and 


Rogue  Rivers,  which  flow  through  passes  of 
the  Coast  Range  to  the  Pacific.  All  of  the 
country  west  of  the  Cascades  is  known  as 
Western  Oregon,  all  east  of  it  as  Eastern 
Oregon.  The  elevation  of  Eastern  Oregon 
varies  from  2,000  to  5,000  feet  above  the  sea. 
The  Blue  Mountains,  about  the  center  of  the 
state,  extend  in  a  northeasterly  direction 
into  Washington.  In  Eastern  Oregon  the 
rivers  flow  towards  the  north.  In  the  south- 
ern part  are  a  number  of  large  lakes.  West- 
ern Oregon  is  a  country  of  valleys  with  many 
streams  of  water  flowing  through  them. 
Eastern  Oregon  is  known  as  a  plateau  coun- 
try, its  streams  are  far  apart,  but  frequent 
enough  to  make  irrigation  practicable. 

Climate.  As  the  state  is  divided  into  two 
great  parts  in  regard  to  surface,  so  it  is  in  re- 
gard to  climate.  Eastern  Oregon  has  hot 
and  dry  summers,  pleasant  autumns,  cool, 
clear  weather  with  occasional  showers  until 
December;  then  cold  winters,  often  with  a 
great  deal  of  snow,  cold  until  late  in  the 
spring.  Western  Oregon  has  delightfully 
cool  summers,  cool  nights  even  after  the 
warmest  days,  and  the  winters  are  never  se- 
vere. During  the  winter  considerable  rain 
falls,  but  the  total  rainfall  does  not  exceed 
an  average  of  46  inches  a  year.  Many  win- 
ters pass  without  snow,  many  summers  with- 
out an  electrical  storm.  Tornadoes  and  hur- 
ricanes are  unknown,  but  heavy  rainstorms 
amounting  to  cloudbursts  are  no  uncommon 
thing  in  Eastern  Oregon. 

Resources.  The  resources  are  just  begin- 
ning to  be  developed.  For  example,  in  1902 
the  annual  cut  of  the  lumber  mills  was  about 
600,000,000  feet,  for  1910  the  cut  was  2,084,- 
000,000  feet,  yet  the  immense  forests  which 
extend  from  the  seashore  to  the  summit  of 
the  Coast  Range,  down  the  eastern  slope 
and  from  the  lowest  foothills  on  the  western 
coast  of  the  Cascades  to  the  snowline  seem 
scarcely  to  have  been  touched  by  the  sawyer. 
Of  the  trees  comprising  these  forests,  the 
most  important  are  fir,  pine,  cedar,  hem- 
lock, tamarack,  myrtle,  ash,  maple  and 
laurel.  Many  important  mineral  products 
are  found.  Gold  is  mined  extensively,  the 
most  important  mines  being  in  Baker  Coun- 
ty, Eastern  Oregon,  and  Lane  County,  West- 
ern Oregon.  Large  fields  of  sienna  are  being 
opened  in  Western  Oregon.  Coal,  iron  and 
a  good  quality  of  building-stone  are  found  in 
abundant  quantities  throughout  the  state. 

Agriculture.  The  three  great  agricultural 
products  are  wheat,  hops  and  dairy  products. 
The  largest  wheat-farms  are  in  the  northern 
part  of  Eastern  Oregon,  the  largest  dairy- 
farms  are  along  the  coast,  and  the  hop-farms 
are  in  Willamette  Valley,  which  also  has 
wheat  and  dairy  farms.  Oregon  produces 
two  fifths  of  the  entire  hop  crop  of  North 
America.  Other  important  products  are 
oats,  barley,  flax  and  hay.  Clover,  cheat, 
timothy,  vetch  and  alfalfa  are  grown. 
Alfalfa  produces  three  crops  annually  in  the 


OREGON 


I392 


ORESTES 


irrigated  districts.  In  the  markets  of  the 
world  Oregon  is  famed  for  her  fruits,  especi- 
ally for  apples,  strawberries  and  prunes. 
The  yearly  fruit  crop  brings  in  over 
$4,000,000.  Of  the  live  stock,  cattle,  sheep  and 
hogs  are  raised,  though  the  largest  herds  of 
cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep  are  found  in  East- 
ern Oregon. 

Manufactures.  The  principal  manufac- 
tories are  woolen-mills,  flour-mills,  paper- 
mills,  fruit-canneries,  fish-canneries,  cream- 
eries, condensed-milk  factories  and  coffee 
and  spice  mills.  The  dairy  product  for  one 
year  amounts  to  over  $12,000,000.  Sal- 
mon is  the  principal  fish  that  is  canned  here, 
and  the  value  of  the  output  of  the  canneries 
amounts  to  more  than  $3,000,000. 

Commerce.  The  largest  sea-port  is  Port- 
land, situated  on  Willamette  River  about  1 2 
miles  from  its  mouth.  Other  ports  with 
pood  karbors  are  Astoria,  Tillamook,  Ya- 
quina,  Waldport,  Florence,  Marshfield,  Ran- 
don,  Port  Orford  and  Gold  Beach.  The  ex- 
ports comprise  lumber,  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
kay,  wool,  hops,  prunes,  apples  and  straw- 
berries. Portland  leads  the  ports  of  the 
world  in  the  export  of  lumber,  and  stands 
first  on  the  Pacific  Coast  in  the  exportation 
of  grain.  Astoria,  the  oldest  town  in  the 
state,  has  a  beautiful  harbor,  and  is  situated 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia.  Its  prin- 
cipal industries  are  fishing,  salmon  canning 
and  lumbering.  The  principal  inland  cities, 
Oregon  City,  Salem,  Albany,  McMinnville 
Corvallis,  Eugene,  Roseburg,  Ashland,  The 
Dalles,  Pendleton,  La  Grande,  Baker  City, 
Prineville  and  Klamath  Falls,  are  good 
manufacturing  points,  and  are  shipping  cen- 
ters for  the  products  of  the  surrounding 
country.  The  ports  of  Oregon  receive  ships 
from  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  her  trade 
with  the  Orient  is  increasing  each  year. 

Transportation.  The  principal  railways 
are  those  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Company; 
the  Oregon  Railway  and  Navigation  Com- 
pany; and  the  Astoria  and  Columbia  River 
Railroad  Company  from  Portland  to  As- 
toria. The  Portland  and  Seattle  Company, 
a  company  controlled  jointly  by  the  Great 
Northern  and  Northern  Pacific  Companies, 
are  constructing  a  line  down  the  northern 
bank  of  the  Columbia  and  across  this  river  at 
Vancouver.  Each  of  the  first  two  companies 
has  lines  extending  into  the  interior.  The 
Willamette  is  navigable  nearly  200  miles, 
and  the  Columbia  to  Lewiston,  Idaho,  about 
650  miles,  though  broken  by  rapids. 

History.  In  1792  the  Columbia  was  first 
entered  by  Captain  Gray  who  gave  the  river 
its  name.  It  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  United  States  in  1803.  Oregon  meant 
all  the  northwest  country  until  1853,  when 
the  northern  and  southern  boundaries  were 
fixed.  The  American  Fur  Company  founded 
Astoria  in  1811.  In  1859  the  state  was  cre- 
ated with  its  present  boundaries.  The 
United  States  claimed  this  country  by  reason 


of  Captain  Gray's  discovery,  and  the  claim 
was  strengthened  by  the  Lewis  and  Clark 
exploration  in  1805.  In  1849  Oregon  was  or- 
ganized as  a  territory.  Prominent  among 
early  settlers  were  Nathaniel  J.  Wyeth,  Dr. 
John  McLaughlin,  Dr.  Marcus  Whitman 
(1836)  and  Jason  Lee  (1834). 

Education.  The  school-district,  governed 
by  an  elective  board  of  from  three  to  five  di- 
rectors, is  the  unit  of  the  school  system. 
This  board  manages  the  finances  of  the  dis- 
trict, and  elects  the  teachers.  The  districts 
of  a  county  have  a  supervising  officer  called 
the  county  superintendent,  while  at  the  head 
of  the  system  is  the  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction.  The  funds  for  the  public 
schools  come  from  the  interest  on  the  irre- 
ducible school-fund,  a  county  tax  and  a  dis- 
trict tax.  The  irreducible  school-fund 
brings  in  about  $250,000  annually.  The 
county-tax  must  be  such  a  sum  as  will  pro- 
duce at  least  $7.00  per  capita  for  children  of 
school-age.  The  district-tax  is  a  special  tax 
on  the  property  of  the  district  by  a  vote  of 
its  taxpayers.  The  schools  have  a  uniform, 
state  course  of  study.  Eight  years  are  given 
to  the  grammar  grades  and  four  to  the  high 
school.  The  course  for  the  high  school  is 
planned  to  give  a  well-rounded  education, 
in  case  the  pupil  is  not  able  to  study  in  a  uni- 
versity or  college.  At  the  same  time  it  cor- 
relates well  with  the  courses  offered  in  the 
state  university  and  the  agricultural  college. 
The  University  of  Oregon  is  open  to  all  boys 
and  girls  who  have  completed  an  accredited 
high  school  course,  and  it  offers  courses  is  all 
departments  of  university  work.  Oregon 
Agricultural  College  offers  courses  in  agri- 
culture, engineering,  horticulture  and  dairy- 
ing. Besides  the  public  schools,  there  are  a 
number  of  private  colleges  and  secondary 
schools.  Notable  among  these  are  Albany, 
Columbia,  Dallas,  McMinnville  and  Pacific 
Colleges  and  Pacific  and  Willamette  Univer- 
sities. There  are  four  state  normal  schools. 
The  text-books  for  the  Oregon  schools  are 
chosen  by  a  state  commission  and  are  used 
for  a  period  of  six  years.  A  compulsory  edu- 
cational law  provides  for  truant  officers  who 
must  check  over  the  census  and  attendance 
rolls  once  each  month  with  the  teachers,  and 
must  see  that  every  child  between  nine  and 
14  is  in  school.  Severe  penalties  for 
teachers  and  truant  officers  are  provided  for 
neglect  of  this  duty.  The  secretary  of  the 
state  library-commission  has  charge  of  the 
school  libraries.  Each  county  must  levy  a 
tax  for  library  purposes  amounting  to  10 
cents  for  each  child  of  school-age.  The  sec- 
retary has  charge  also  of  50  traveling  libra- 
ries, of  which  the  total  number  of  volumes 
now  amounts  to  2,750. 

Orestes  ( 6-res'tez ) ,  a  Greek  hero,  the  son 
of  Agamemnon  and  Clytemnestra.  His 
father  was  murdered  by  Clytemnestra  and 
her  lover  ^Egisthus,  but  Oiestes  was  saved 
by  Electra,  his  sister,  and  brought  up  at  the 


ORGAN 


1393 


ORINOCO 


court  of  his  uncle  in  Phocis.  Pylades  his 
cousin  joined  with  him  in  his  efforts  to  avenge 
his  father's  death,  the  pair  going  secretly  to 
Argos  and  killing  Clytemnestra  and  ^Egis- 
thus.  But  realizing  that  he  had  killed  his 
mother,  Orestes  became  mad  and  fled  from 
land  to  land,  pursued  by  the  Furies.  Learn- 
ing from  Apollo  that  he  could  be  cured  of 
his  madness  by  bringing  the  statue  of  Diana 
from  Tauris  in  Scythia  to  Athens,  he  and 
Pylades  journeyed  there,  but  were  seized 
to  be  sacrificed  by  the  natives.  The  priest- 
ess Iphigenia  recognized  her  brother  in  Ores- 
tes, and  with  her  help  they  all  escaped,  carry- 
ing the  statue  with  them.  Orestes  recov- 
ered his  father's  kingdom  at  Mycenae,  and 
married  Hermione.  The  story  of  Orestes  is 
a  theme  for  the  tragedies  of  Euripides,  Soph- 
ocles and  jEschylus. 

Or'gan,  one  of  the  largest  musical  instru- 
ments. It  is  a  wind-instrument  having  a 
large  number  of  pipes,  which  produce  the 
sounds  on  admission  of  air,  which  is  carried 
to  them  by  means  of  a  bellows.  It  is  played 
by  keys  and  pedals.  The  most  usual  form 
of  the  organ  is  that  seen  in  churches,  which 
consists  of  four,  sometimes  of  five,  parts, 
each  being  almost  a  separate  instrument. 
These  are  called  the  great  organ,  the  swell 
organ,  the  pedal  organ,  the  choir  organ  and 
the  solo  organ,  when  this  fifth  form  occurs. 
Each  has  its  own  keyboard,  but  they  are 
brought  so  close  that  one  performer 
can  reach  all.  The  pedal  organ  is  played 
with  the  feet,  while  the  other  keyboards  are 
reached  by  the  hands.  There  also  is  a  sys- 
tem of  stops,  within  reach  of  the  performer's 
hand,  which  closes  or  opens  the  pipes  as  the 
keys  do.  Organ  pipes  are  made  of  metal 
and  of  wood.  The  ancient  organ  was 
worked  by  water,  and  was  used  in  the  Ro- 
man theaters,  Nero  being  one  of  its  earliest 
Bitrons.  In  the  reign  of  Honorius  400  A. 
.,  no  nobleman's  house  was  complete  with- 
out an  organ,  and  small  ones  were  carried 
by  slaves  from  house  to  house.  Constan- 
tinople was  the  great  home  of  organ  building 
in  the  ancient  world,  and  the  first  organ 
built  in  medieval  Europe  was  patterned 
after  one  brought  by  Byzantine  ambassa- 
dors on  a  mission  to  Charlemagne  The  use 
of  the  bellows  in  organs  dates  from  the  time 
of  the  Emperor  Julian  in  the  4th  century, 
though  it  did  not  come  into  general  use  until 
the  end  of  the  gth  century.  The  smallest 
organs  ever  built  were  made  in  the  monas- 
teries; they  were  called  regals  and  could  be 
held  on  one's  palm.  The  largest  organs  in 
England  are  those  of  Royal  Albert  Hall, 
Alexandra  Palace,  Crystal  Palace,  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  St.  George's  Hall,  Liverpool,  and 
Leeds  town-hall.  Among  the  largest  in  the 
world  are  the  organs  at  Seville,  Haarlem, 
Rotterdam  and  Utrecht.  The  great  organ 
in  the  music  hall  of  Boston  gave  the  first  im- 
pulse to  organ  building  in  America.  There 
are  large  ones  at  cathedrals  in  Montreal  and 


Boston,  Music  Hall,  Cintrinnati,  Fremont 
Hall,  Boston,  Brooklyn  Tabernacle  and  the 
Auditorium  in  Chicago. 

The  American  or  cabinet  organ  is  a  reed 
organ,  the  outgrowth  of  the  melodeon,  in 
which  reeds  are  used  but  not  pipes,  and  the 
wind  is  forced  in  by  bellows  worked  by  the 
feet.  The  Mason  and  Hamlin  Organ  Com- 
pany, founded  in  1854,  built  the  first  cabinet 
or  parlor  organs,  making  use  of  an  invention 
of  Hamlin 's,  which  consisted  in  so  twisting 
and  bending  the  reeds  as  greatly  to  improve 
the  tone.  These  organs  have  been  im- 
proved, and  are  made  in  all  styles  and  sizes, 
some  of  the  larger  nearly  equaling  pipe  or- 
gans. 

Or'igen,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
Christian  Fathers,  was  born  at  Alexandria, 
185  A.  D.  His  father  was  a  Christian  and  a 
teacher  of  rhetoric,  and  he  was  early  trained 
for  public  life.  Clement  of  Alexandria  was 
his  especial  teacher  in  Christianity.  His 
father  suffered  martyrdom  when  Origen  was 
a  young  man,  and  he  then  sought  to  support 
the  family  by  opening  a  school  himself. 
Bishop  Demetrius  appointed  him  master  of 
a  famous  seminary  for  catechumens,  and, 
having  mastered  Hebrew,  he  soon  became  an 
authority  upon  questions  of  doctrine  and 
polity.  Nevertheless,  his  opinions  were  not 
popular  with  tha  ecclesiastics,  and  he  was 
subjected  to  many  trials,  and  finally  excom- 
municated in  231.  He  was  received  ^at 
Csesarea,  where  he  reopened  his  school  with 
increased  popularity.  But  the  persecutions 
under  Maximinus  and  Decius  drove  him  to 
such  extremes  of  suffering  that  he  died  at 
Tyre  in  254.  Origen  was  the  first  great  New 
Testament  exegete  that  ever  lived.  He  de- 
voted himself  to  every  form  of  study  which 
promised  to  throw  the  least  light  upon  the 
great  problems  of  theology  and  philosophy. 
He  practiced  the  strictest  asceticism,  and 
voluntarily  subjected  himself  to  the  most 
abject  poverty.  His  work  was  greatly  re- 
warded in  the  conversion  of  multitudes, 
among  whom  were  many  of  the  leading  men 
of  the  east.  His  talents,  eloquence  and 
learning  excited  the  praise  of  even  the  hea- 
then writers;  and  while  his  doctrinal  views 
have  not  been  wholly  accepted  by  any  con- 
siderable portion  01  modern  Christendom, 
his  purity,  unselfishness  and  devotion  to  his 
Master  are  beyond  praise. 

Orinoco  (o'rt-n&kd),  one  of  the  great 
rivers  of  South  America,  rises  in  Venezuela. 
It  divides  into  two  branches  near  Esmeralda, 
one  flowing  south  into  Rio  Negro ;  the  other 
branch,  joined  by  the  Guaviare,  turning 
north  and  passing  over  the  cascades  of  May- 
pures  and  A  cures,  where  the  river,  8,000  feet 
wide,  narrows  to  20  feet,  falling  over  cascade 
after  cascade,  like  a  series  of  steps,  and  shut 
in  by  islands  and  rocks.  The  Meta  and  the 
Apure*  now  join  the  Orinoco,  which  flows  on, 
four  miles  wide,  receiving  the  waters  of  two 
more  streams  before  it  reaches  the  delta. 


ORIOLE 


1394 


ORLEANS 


About  1 20  miles  from  the  Atlantic  the  delta 
begins,  covering  8,500  square  miles  and 
stretching  along  165  miles  of  coast.  Of  these 
many  channels  by  which  the  river  empties 
into  the  Atlantic,  only  seven  are  navigable. 
The  Orinoco  is  1,550  miles  long;  900  miles 
are  navigable  to  the  falls,  and  500  miles 
above  the  falls.  The  river  usually  floods 
the  country  in  its  course  from  May  to  Janu- 
ary, the  overflow  sometimes  stretching 
across  for  TCS  miles.  Humboldt  and  Schom- 
burgh  are  the  great  explorers  of  the  Orinoco. 

Oriole  (o'ri-dl),  any  one  of  a  family  of  Old 
World  birds.  The  true  orioles  are  related  to 
the  crows,  and  are  not  to  be  confused  with  the 
so-called  orioles  of  the  New  World.  The  lat- 
ter make  a  strictly  American  family,  extend- 
ing from  Patagonia  into  the  United  States. 
The  two  families,  although  entirely  distinct, 
resemble  each  other  in  color,  the  prevailing 
shades  being  yellow  and  black.  It  was  this 
circumstance  that  led  to  the  use  of  the  name 
for  the  American  birds.  The  true  orioles 
are  common  in  southern  Europe  and  abund- 
ant in  Oriental  and  Australian  regions.  The 
golden  oriole  is  yellow  and  black  in  color, 
and  makes  a  hanging  nest.  It  is  common  in 
southern  Europe,  but  is  rarely  found  in  the 
British  Islands.  (See  BALTIMORE  ORIOLE.) 
Our  orchard  oriole  is  not  so  famous  as  his  gor- 
geous relative,  nor  so  frequently  seen  in  the 
north,  but  their  songs  are  very  similar,  the 
orchard  oriole's  being  richer  in  tone.  This 
bird  is  about  one  fourth  smaller  than  the 
robin,  black  above  with  touches  of  whitish- 
yellow  on  wings  and  tail,  below  a  reddish- 
brown.  It  is  a  summer  resident,  its  range 
from  Canada  to  Central  America.  The  or- 
chard oriole  shows  a  fondness  for  orchards, 
builds  there  a  neatly-woven  basket-nest 
made  entirely  of  dried  grasses;  in  June  there 
may  be  found  therein  four  whitish,  brown- 
spotted  eggs. 

Orion  (d-rl'on"),  a  hero  in  Greek  mythol- 
ogy, a  handsome  giant  and  hunter  in  Boeotia. 
At  Chios  he  fell  in  love  with  Eos  or  Merope, 
and  cleared  the  island  of  wild  beasts  to 
please  her.  When  drunk  he  insulted  her, 
which  her  father,  with  the  help  of  Bacchus, 
avenged  by  putting  out  his  eyes.  He  re- 
covered his  sight  by  exposing  his  eyeballs 
to  the  rising  sun.  There  are  several  stories 
of  his  death ;  one  that  he  was  killed  by  Diana, 
whose  hunter  he  became,  because  Eos  had 
carried  him  off  to  Ortygia  and  offended  the 
gods;  another  that  Apollo,  angry  with  Di- 
ana's love  for  Orion,  seeing  him  swimming 
in  the  water,  pointed  out  to  her  a  black  ob- 
ject, challenging  her  to  hit  it,  and  she  shot  it 
with  her  arrow,  finding,  when  too  late,  that 
it  was  the  head  of  her  lover;  a  third  story  lays 
his  death  to  the  sting  of  a  scorpion. 

Orion,  the  brightest  constellation  in  the 
northern  heavens,  is  named  after  the  Greek 
hero  Orion,  who  was  placed,  with  his  hound, 
among  the  stars,  and  pictured  with  a  girdle, 
sword,  lion's  skin  and  club.  The  three  bright 


stars  across  the  center  of  the  constellation 
are  called  Orion's  belt. 

Orizaba  (o-rS-sa'vd),  a  volcano  in  Mexico, 
15  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Orizaba.  It  is 
17,362  feet  in  height.  The  last  severe  erup- 
tion occurred  in  1566. 

Ork'ney  Islands,  a  group  off  the  north- 
ern coast  of  Scotland.  Twenty-eight  of  the 
90  islands  forming  the  group  are  inhabited, 
the  largest  being  Pomona.  Hoy  has  fine 
cliffs  and  a  hill  1,564  feet  high,  but  the  other 
islands  are  low  and  treeless,  with  many 
small  lakes.  Farming,  fishing  and  straw*- 
plaiting  are  the  principal  industries.  On  Po- 
mona is  a  group  of  large  standing  stones  ar- 
ranged in  two  circles,  the  inner  circle  100 
feet  across  and  the  outer  one  360  feet  across, 
the  largest  stones  being  in  the  smaller  circle. 
The  towns  are  Kirkwall  and  Stromness.  At 
Kirkwall  are  the  cathedral  of  St.  Magnus, 
founded  in  1138,  and  a  museum  with  many 
ancient  relics,  among  others  a  collection  of 
pins,  brooches,  bracelets  and  silver  coins, 
thought  to  belong  to  the  earliest  period  of 
Scottish  history,  found  in  1858.  The  Ork- 
neys, first  inhabited  by  the  Picts,  were  con- 
quered by  Norse  rovers  and  belonged  to 
Scandinavia  till  1468,  when  they  were  given 
to  James  III  of  Scotland  as  a  pledge  for  the 
payment  of  the  dowry  of  his  wife,  Margaret 
of  Denmark.  The  pledge  was  never  re- 
deemed, and  in  1590  on  the  marriage  of 
James  VI  with  the  Danish  princess  Anne, 
Denmark  relinquished  her  claim  to  the  is- 
lands. The  population,  which  is  partly 
Scotch  and  partly  Scandinavian,  numbers 
36,438.  See  Orkneys  and  Shetland  by  Tudor 
and  Description  of  the  Isles  of  Orkney  by 
Wallace. 

Orleans  (dr'le-anz),  a  French  city,  situ- 
ated on  the  Loire  River,  75  miles  southwest 
of  Paris.  The  Forest  of  Orleans,  covering 
nearly  150  square  miles,  is  near  it.  The  an- 
cient walls  and  gates  of  the  city  have  since 
1830  been  made  into  boulevards.  The  Loire 
is  crossed  by  a  bridge  364  feet  long.  The 
noted  buildings  include  the  cathedral,  de- 
stroyed by  the  Huguenots  in  1567  and  re- 
built by  Henry  IV  and  his  successors;  a  mu- 
seum; and  the  house  of  Joan  of  Arc.  There 
are  three  statues  of  Joan,  a  bronze  one  having 
been  erected  in  1855.  The  chief  industry  is 
market-gardening,  and  there  are  some  man- 
ufactures, but  its  trade  is  of  most  importance, 
as  it  is  a  railroad  center,  besides  having  river 
and  canal  routes.  Orleans  was  a  Celtic 
town,  called  Genabum  in  52  B.  C.,  when  the 
Gauls  arose  there  against  Julius  Caesar. 
About  272  A.  D.  it  was  named  Civitas  A ureli- 
ani  (City  of  Aurelius) ,  of  which  Orleans  is  a 
corruption.  Besieged  by  Attila  in  451; 
twice  plundered  by  the  Northmen;  in  1428 
it  was  attacked  by  the  English  and  delivered 
by  Joan  of  Arc,  called  the  Maid  of  Orleans. 
During  the  Huguenot  wars  it  suffered  se- 
verely, and  in  the  Franco-German  War  was 
held  a  month  by  the  Germans,  and  then  be- 


ORLEANS 


1395 


OSAGE 


came  the  headquarters  of  the  army  of  the 
Loire,  until  its  defeat  on  Dec.  3-5,  1870. 
See  Life  of  Joan  of  Arc  by  Michelet.  Popu- 
lation 72,096. 

Orleans,  Duke  of,  the  title  which  has 
been  used  by  three  different  French  dynas- 
ties. It  was  first  granted  in  1302  by  Charles 
VI  to  his  brother  Louis,  who  afterward  was 
regent.  His  grandson  became  king  as  Louis 
XII  in  1498,  and  the  dukedom  was  merged 
with  the  crown.  In  1626  Louis  XIII  made 
his  brother  Jean  Eaptiste  Gaston,  duke  of 
Orleans  and  Chartres,  who  diefl  childless. 
The  title  was  granted  by  Louis  XIV  to  his 
brother  Philippe,  whose  son  Philippe  and 
grandson  Louis  Philippe  Joseph  (Egalitc) 
bore  the  title.  Louis  Philippe,  son  of  Egal- 
it6,  was  duke  of  Orleans  during  his  exile,  un- 
til he  became  king,  when  his  son  Ferdinand 
succeeded  to  the  title.  The  Comte  de  Paris, 
the  late  head  of  the  Bourbon  house  of  France, 
has  not  used  the  title,  which  is  assumed  by 
his  son,  the  present  claimant  to  the  throne 
of  France,  Louis  Philippe  Robert,  who  re- 
sides at  Brussels.  In  French  politics  the  ad- 
herents of  the  princes  of  the  Orleans  family 
are  called  Orleanists. 

Orleans,  Louis  Philippe  Joseph,  Duke 
of,  best  known  as  Egalit6,  was  born  at  Paris, 
April  13,  1747.  His  hostility  to  the  court, 
especially  to  the  queen,  made  him  take  part 
against  the  king,  while  lavishing  his  wealth 
in  scattering  liberal  books  and  papers 
throughout  the  country.  >  He  led  the  47  no- 
bles, who  in  June,  1789,  joined  the  deputies 
of  the  third  estate  and  helped  to  change  the 
states-general  into  a  national  assembly.  In 
September,  1792,  when  all  titles  were  swept 
away,  he  asked  for  a  new  name,  and  took  the 
name  of  Egalii.6  (equal).  He  voted  for  the 
death  of  the  king.  His  eldest  son,  afterward 
King  Louis  Philippe,  was  on  the  staff  of 
Dumouriez,  and  went  with  him  into  the 
Austrian  camp,  and  at  once,  with  the  other 
Bourbons  left  in  France,  Egalit£  was  im- 
prisoned and  by  the  Jacobins,  when  they 
gained  power  in  the  convention,  he  was  con- 
victed of  conspiracy  on  slight  evidence,  dying 
on  the  guillotine  at  Paris,  Nov.  6,  1793. 

Or'mthol'ogy.     See  BIRDS. 

Orontes  (6-r5n'tiz),  the  ancient  name  of 
a  river  in  Syria.  It  rises  near  Baalbek,  and 
flows  north  between  Lebanon  and  Anti- 
Libanus,  as  far  as  the  city  of  Antioch,  and 
then  flows  westward  to  the  Mediterranean. 
It  is  247  miles  long,  and  in  the  lower  part  its 
rocky  banks,  300  feet  high,  are  covered  with 
climbing  vines,  myrtles,  laurels,  figs  and 
sycamores. 

Orpheus  ( or'tf-tis) ,  a  Greek  hero,  thought 
to  be  the  son  of  Apollo  and  Calliope  (kal-ll'o- 
pe),  one  of  the  muses.  His  home  was  in 
Thracia,  where  many  different  places  claim 
to  be  his  birthplace.  Orpheus,  by  his  music 
on  the  lyre,  given  him  by  Apollo,  moved 
men  and  beasts,  trees  and  rocks.  On  his 
travels  with  the  Argonauts,  his  music  rocked 


monsters  to  sleep  and  stopped  falling  cliffs. 
When  Eurydice  his  wife  died,  Orpheus  fol- 
lowed her  to  the  lower  regions,  and  his 
"golden  tones"  prevailed  with  Pluto,  who 
allowed  him  to  take  her  back,  provided  he 
did  not  look  around  while  they  ascended; 
but,  looking  back,  he  lost  her  forever.  Ac- 
cording to  some  traditions,  he  was  killed  by 
a  thunderbolt  of  Zeus  for  revealing  the  di- 
vine mysteries,  and  by  others  he  was  torn  in 
pieces  by  the  Msenades,  and  buried  at  the 
foot  of  Mt.  Olympus,  where  a  nightingale 
sings  over  his  grave. 

Orsini  (6r-se'n$),  Felice,  an  Italian  con- 
spirator, was  born  in  December,  1819,  at 
Meldola.  He  studied  at  Bologna.  As  the 
son  of  a  conspirator  he  was  early  admitted 
into  secret  societies,  and  was  sent  to  the  gal- 
leys for  life  in  1844.  Pius  IX,  by  an  amnes- 
ty, restored  him  to  liberty,  but  he  was  soon 
imprisoned  for  taking  part  in  political  plots. 
During  the  Revolution  of  1848  he  took  part 
in  the  defense  of  Rome  and  Venice,  and  was 
active  at  Genoa  and  in  the  duchy  of  Modena. 
After  its  suppression  he  lived  for  some  years 
in  England,  where  he  was  intimate  with  Maz- 
zini.  In  1854,  while  stirring  up  insurrec- 
tion in  Milan,  Trieste  and  Vienna,  he  was 
arrested  and  sent  to  the  fortress  of  Mantua, 
whence  he  escaped  in  1856  and  fled  to  Eng- 
land. There  he  supported  himself  by  lec- 
turing and  wrote  Austrian  Dungeons  in 
Italy.  He  at  last  planned  the  assassination 
of  Napoleon  III,  the  great  obstacle,  he 
thought,  in  the  way  of  Italian  independence. 
With  three  associates  he  stood  near  the  opera- 
house  in  Paris  on  the  evening  of  Jan.  14, 
1858,  and  when  the  emperor's  carriage  drove 
up,  threw  three  bombs  under  it,  which  ex- 
ploded, killing  10  persons  and  wounding  146, 
but  not  injuring  the  emperor  or  empress. 
He  and  Fieri  were  guillotined,  March  13, 
1858,  the  others  being  sentenced  to  penal 
servitude.  See  Memoirs  and  Adventiires  by 
himself. 

Or'tolan,  a  class  of  birds  belonging  to  the 
finch  family.  It  is  about  six  inches  long, 
with  head,  neck  and  breast  of  a  yellowish 
gray,  with  brown  wings.  It  builds  its  nest 
of  dry  grass  on  the  ground  in  open  fields, 
though  sometimes  under  low  bushes.  They 
are  found  in  summer  as  far  north  as  the  Arc- 
tic circle,  and  in  winter  as  far  south  as  Abys- 
sinia and  India.  They  are  caught  in  large 
numbers  in  nets  when  on  their  journeys,  and 
fattened  in  dark  rooms,  as  their  flesh  is  con- 
sidered a  great  delicacy.  In  Japan  they  are 
pickled  with  spice  and  vinegar.  The  Ro- 
mans gave  large  sums  for  them,  and  they  are 
still  highly  prized  in  Italy. 

O'sage  Orange  or  Bow  Wood,  a  tree, 
native  of  North  America,  somewhat  like  the 
mulberry.  It  was  found  growing  in  the 
country  of  the  Osage  Indians,  which,  with 
its  yellow  globes  of  fruit,  gave  it  it"  name. 
It  is  also  called  mock  orange.  It  grows  from 
20  to  60  feet  high,  and  is  a  very  valuable! 


OSAGES 


1396 


OSKALOOSA 


tree  for  its  weed,  which  is  yellow,  fine  grained, 
takes  a  high  polish,  and  is  very  durable.  It 
is  used  for  posts,  paving-blocks  and  railway 
ties.  The  Osage  and  other  Indians  used  it 
for  their  bows  and  war-clubs.  The  bark  is 
used  in  tanning  leather,  that  of  the  roots 
yields  a  dye.  The  leaves  are  used  for  feed- 
ing silkworms  in  place  of  the  mulberry,  with 
a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  result.  The 
fruit,  large  and  round,  with  a  rough  skin, 
has  a  woody  pulp  and  bitter  juice,  and  is  not 
eaten.  The  tree  has  been  largely  used  in 
America  as  a  hedge  plant,  for  which  its  rapid 
growth,  thorny  branches  and  freedom  from 
disease  adapt  it.  It  thrives  in  rich  bottom 
lands,  and  is  found  at  its  best  in  Red  River 
Valley,  in  Indian  Territory. 

Osages,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians  of 
the  Dakotah  family.  They  were  found  by 
Marquette  on  the  Missouri  in  1673,  but  were 
driven  by  their  enemies  to  the  Arkansas. 
They  fought  with  the  French  against  the 
English  and  against  the  Chickasaws.  They 
ceded  their  lands  at  different  times  to  the 
government,  and  in  the  Civil  War  about 
1,000  of  the  tribe  went  south.  In  1870  the 
tribe  was  removed  to  Indian  Territory  and 
placed  in  charge  of  the  Quakers,  where 
they  have  grown  more  civilized,  having  a 
school  and  cultivating  about  2,000  acres  of 
land. 

Osaka  (o'sd-ka)  or  Ozaka  (o'zd-ka),  the 
second  largest  city  in  Japan,  at  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Osaka.  It  covers  about  ten 
square  miles,  and  is  crossed  by  canals  with 
more  than  1,000  bridges.  The  fine  castle, 
built  of  enormous  stones  in  1583 ,  and  the  pal- 
ace, which  was  destroyed  in  1858,  were  per- 
haps the  handsomest  buildings  in  Japan. 
The  city  is  one  of  the  open  ports,  the  head- 
quarters of  the  rice  and  tea  trade  and  the 
commercial  center  of  the  empire.  The  har- 
bor does  not  admit  very  large  vessels.  There 
is  a  foreign  settlement,  occupied  mostly  by 
missionaries.  Population  1,226,590. 

Os'car  II,  Frederic,  king  of  Sweden  and 
Norway,  was  born  at  Stockholm,  Jan.  21, 
1829.  He  was_the  great-grandson  of  Napoleon 
I's  famous  general,  Marshal  Bernadotte,  the 
first  king  of  the  now  independent  kingdom  of 
Norway;  he  succeeded  his  brother,  Charles 
XV  in  1872.  He  followed  the  policy  of 
his  brother,  carrying  out  reforms  and  reor- 
ganizing the  army  and  the  railroads.  He 
published  a  volume  of  poems,  a  transla- 
tion of  Goethe's  Faust  and  a  sketch  of 
Charles  XII.  He  died  on  Dec.  8,  1907.  See 
NORWAY  and  SWEDEN. 

Osceola  (os'se-o'ld},  a  chief  of  the  Semi- 
nole  Indians,  was  born  in  Georgia  in  1804. 
His  father  was  an  English  trader,  and  his 
mother  the  daughter  of  an  Indian  chief,  who 
took  him  to  Florida  when  a  child,  where  he 
became  influential  among  the  Indians.  His 
wife,  the  daughter  of  a  runaway  slave,  was 
taken  from  him,  and  for  his  threats  of  revenge 
he  was  seized  and  imprisoned  for  six  days  by 


General  Thompson,  whom  he  killed,  with 
four  others,  six  months  afterward.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  the  second  Seminole 
War.  At  the  head  of  a  band  of  200  or  300 
Indians  and  runaway  slaves,  he  carried  on 
the  contest  for  nearly  two  years,  in  the  almost 
impenetrable  Everglades.  On  Oct.  21, 
1837,  while  holding  a  conference  under  a  flag 
of  truce,  he  was  treacherously  seized  and  im- 
prisoned at  Fort  Moultrie,  S.  C.,  where  he 
died  on  Jan.  30,  1838.  He  is  the  hero  of 
Mayne  Reid's  Osceola. 

Osh'kosh,  Wis.,  the  county  seat  of  Win- 
nebago  County,  is  situated  at  the  confluence 
of  the  upper  Fox  and  Lake  Winnebago  in  a 
thickly-settled  and  fertile  region.  Being 
naturally  the  center  of  the  lumber  interests 
of  Fox  and  Wolf  Rivers,  it  early  became 
commercially  important,  and  now  has  a 
population  of  33,062.  Besides  its  numerous 
sawmills,  it  is  noted  for  its  extensive  manu- 
factures of  sash,  doors,  blinds,  matches,  car- 
riages, sleighs,  farm  wagons,  trunks,  furni- 
ture, agricultural  implements,  flour,  beer, 
logging  tools,  grass-twine  goods  and  canned 
goods.  It  has  fine  public  schools  and 
churches,  several  large  parochial  schools, 
a  state  normal  school,  a  state  fish  hatchery, 
and  three  miles  north  are  the  northern  state 
hospital  for  the  insane,  a  county  hospital  for 
the  incurable  insane  and  the  county  alms- 
'house.  The  city  has  three  hospitals,  four 
parks,  a  beautiful  library  building  of  classic 
design,  six  banks,  one  daily  paper,  three 
railroads,  a  line  of  steamers  for  lake  and 
river  commerce  and  an  electric  railway  sys- 
tem connecting  the  city  with  Neenah,  Me- 
nasha,  Appleton  and  other  places.  Near  by 
is  Lake  Winnebago,  30  miles  long  and  12 
broad,  famous  for  fishing  and  for  beautiful 
summer  resorts. 

O'sier.     See  WILLOW. 

Osiris  (5-si'ris),  the  greatest  of  Egyptian 
gods,  is  the  son  of  Set  (the  earth)  and  Nut 
(heaven).  He  was  slain  by  Set,  his  father, 
and  avenged  by  his  son,  Horus.  He  judges 
the  dead  in  the  lower  world.  He  is  repre- 
sented usually  in  human  form,  and  always 
with  the  head  of  a  man.  His  symbols  are 
the  evergreen  and  the  tamarisk,  and  a  kind 
of  ibis,  with  long  plumes.  See  HORUS,  Isis 
and  SET. 

Os'kaloo'sa,  la.,  county-seat'  of  Mahaska 
County,  on  the  Chicago  Burlington  and 
Quincy;  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  Pa- 
cific; and  Iowa  Central  railroads,  about 
60  miles  southeast  of  Des  Moines.  It  is  a 
commercial  center  of  a  large  agricultural 
district,  and  has  a  number  of  manufacturing 
interests.  It  has  good  public  schools,  a 
public  library  and  churches.  It  also  is  a 
seat  of  three  colleges,  namely,  Penn  College, 
which  is  under  the  auspices  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  Central  Holiness  University  and 
Oskaloosa  College.  It  was  settled  in  1843, 
and  incorporated  10  years  later.  The  popu- 
lation is  10,484. 


OSLER 


1397 


OSTEOPATHY 


Os'ler,   William,  M.   D.,  LL.  D.,    F,  R. 

C.  P.,  since  1904  Regius  Professor  of  Medi- 
cine, Oxford  University,  England,  a  physi- 
cian and  clinician  of  acknowledged  ability, 
author  of  several  notable  works  on  medical 
science.  He  was  born  at  Bonehead,  Ontario, 
July  12,  1849.  He  received  his  elementary 
education  at  Trinity  College  School,  Port  Hope, 
from  which  he  passed  Trinity  University, 
Toronto,  and  then  to  McGill  College,  Montreal, 
where  he  graduated  in  1 872.  He  continued  his 
studies  at  University  College,  London,  Eng- 
land, and  at  Berlin  and  Vienna,  paying  spe- 
cial attention  to  physiology  and  pathology. 
On  his  return  to  Canada  in  1874,  Dr.  Osier 
was  elected  to  the  chair  of  these  subjects 
at  McGill  and  here,  as  later  in  the  United 
States,  he  had  a  brilliant  professional  career. 
In  October,  1884,  he  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  clinical  medicine  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  passing 
thence,  five  years  later,  to  Johns  Hopkins, 
Baltimore,  Md.,  to  take  the  professorship  of 
the  principles  and  practice  of  medicine  and 
to  become  physician  to  Johns  Hopkins  Hos- 

Eital.  His  success  as  a  teacher  is  marked 
y  ability  and  enthusiasm,  and  these  quali- 
ties gained  him  his  present  prominent  posi- 
tion at  Oxford,  besides  many  high  honorary 
degrees.  Dr.  Osier  believes  that  the  real 
work  of  life  is  usually  done  by  man's  for- 
tieth year  and  that  after  the  sixtieth  year 
it  would  be  best  for  the  world  and  best  for 
themselves,  if  men  rested  from  their  labors. 
His  writings  include  (besides  addresses  on 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  and  on  Teacher  and 
Student)  The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Medi- 
cine; Cerebral  Palsies  of  Children;  Lectures 
on  Abdominal  Tumors;  Pectoris  and  Allied 
States;  Chorea  and  Choreiform  Affections; 
Cancer  of  the  Stomach;  Science  and  Immor- 
tality; other  addresses  and  Counsels  and 
Ideals  —  a  volume  of  quotations  from  Dr. 
Osier's  lectures  and  published  work,  made 
by  a  pupil. 

Osman  Digna  (  os- man'  dig' no) ,  a  leader 
of  the  Sudanese  Arabs,  was  born  at  Suakim 
about  1836.  His  father  and  grandfather 
were  slave-dealers;  and  the  son  followed  the 
same  calling,  having  marts  for  his  slaves  at 
Khartum  and  Berber  on  the  upper  Nile. 
He  was  the  leader  of  the  Sudanese  in  re- 
peated outbreaks  against  the  authority  of 
the  khedive,  extending  at  intervals  from 
1 88 1  to  1898,  when  at  the  battle  of  Om- 
durman  his  army  was  routed  by  Gen.  Kitch- 
ener in  command  of  the  English  and  Egyp- 
tian forces,  1 1 ,000  Sudanese  being  slain.  He 
was  killed  near  Tokar  in  ipoo. 

Osman'  Nubar,  a  Turkish  general,  was 
born  at  Tokat,  Asia  Minor,  in  1832.  He 
was  educated  at  the  military  schools  of  Con- 
stantinople and  became  a  cavalry  officer. 
He  fought  in  the  Crimean  War;  took  part 
in  suppressing  the  rebellions  in  Syria  (1860) ; 
in  Crete  (1867);  and  in  Yemen  (1874)*  He 
was  commander  of  the  fifth  army  corps  in 


the  Turkish  army  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Russo-Turkish  War  in  1877;  was  command- 
ant at  Widdin;  and,  after  being  driven  back 
from  Scalevitze,  he  intrenched  and  main- 
tained his  army  at  Plevna  almost  four 
months,  despite  the  fierce  bombardment  of 
the  Russian  forces.  He  was,  however,  forced 
to  surrender,  Dec.  10,  1878,  at  which  time 
he  still  commanded  43,000  men.  His  sword 
was  returned  to  him  by  the  czar,  and  he 
was  promoted  by  the  sultan  to  be  minister 
of  war  in  1878.  He  also  was  made  governor 
of  Crete.  In  1894  he  became  grand  marshal 
of  the  palace.  He  died  at  Constantinople. 
April  4,  1900. 

Os'prey.     See  FISH-HAWK. 

Ossian  (osh'ian),  the  great  Gaelic  poet, 
was,  according  to  tradition,  the  son  of  Fionn 
MacCumhail,  who  lived  in  the  3d  century 
A.  D.  Fionn  gathered  a  band  of  warriors 
about  him  whose  adventures  constitute  the 
literature  of  the  Feinn.  Ossian  is  said  to 
have  been  carried  away  to  the  "isle  of  the 
ever- young,"  and  when  he  returned,  old  and 
blind,  to  have  told  these  stories  of  the  Feinn. 
Ossian  is  best  known  through  the  work  of 
James  MacPherson,  who  in  1760,  1762  and 
1763  published  Fingal,  a  poem  in  six  books; 
Temora,  another  poem,  in  eight  books;  and 
some  shorter  pieces,  all  claiming  to  be  trans- 
lations ot  Ossian,  the  son  of  Fionn  or  Fingal. 
They  brought  him  fame  and  wealth,  and 
were  translated  into  nearly  every  European 
language,  Goethe,  Schiller  and  Napoleon 
being  among  his  admirers.  But  Dr.  John- 
son, with  others,  attacked  them  as  forgeries, 
claiming  that  there  was  no  Gaelic  literature 
as  ancient  as  the  original  of  Fingal  claimed 
to  be.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that  these 
translations  were  largely  the  work  of  Mac- 
Pherson, and  the  Gaelic  texts  were  prepared 
with  or  without  the  aid  of  his  friends;  but 
the  heroic  literature  of  the  ""rael  on  which 
his  work  was  founded  remains.  See  O^'ian 
by  Clerk  and  Reliques  of  Gaelic  Poetry  by 
Brooke. 

Ostend  (ost-end'),  a  watering  place  in 
Belgium,  on  the  German  Ocean,  77  miles 
northwest  of  Brussels.  Its  sea-wall,  3  miles 
long,  40  feet  high  and  105  feet  broad,  forms 
a  fine  promenade,  and  two  wooden  piers 
projecting  on  both  sides  of  the  harbor  are 
used  for  the  same  purpose.  It  is  the  resort 
from  July  to  September  of  20,000  to  25,000 
visitors  from  all  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  an 
important  fishing-station,  has  a  school  of 
navigation,  a  lighthouse  and  manufactories 
of  linen,  sailcloth,  candles  and  tobacco.  It 
dates  from  1072;  was  besieged  by  the  Span- 
iards from  July  7,  1601,  to  Sept.  20,  1604; 
surrendered  to  the  allies  in  1706  and  to  the 
French  in  1745.  Since  1865  &  has  been 
without  fortifications.  Population  41,698. 

Osteopathy  (  ds-te-op' d-thy" ),  a  system  of 
treating  diseases  by  manipulation,  which 
was  invented  by  Dr.  A.  T.  Sill,  then  of 
Baldwin,  Kan.,  but  later  of  Kirksville,  Mo.. 


OSTRICH 


X398 


OSWEGO 


where  a  large  school  has  been  founded.  The 
system  takes  its  name  from  the  theory  that 
all  diseases  are  "caused  by  some  displace- 
ment of  some  bone  which  causes  obstruction 
to  the  flow  of  one  of  the  fluids."  This  trou- 
ble it  is  sought  to  lemove  by  manipulation 
of  the  parts  affected,  permitting  the  "free 
operation  of  the  fluids  of  the  body,"  in 
which,  it  is  asserted,  all  medicinal  virtues 
by  nature  inhere.  Special  legislation  in  sev- 
eral western  states  permits  the  graduates 
of  osteopathic  schools  to  practice  as  licensed 
physicians. 

Os'trich,  the  largest  living  bird,  a  native 
of  the  plains  and  deserts  of  Africa.     The 


YOUNG    OSTRICHES CALIFORNIA 

wings  are  small  and  not  adapted  for  flight, 
but  the  biid  is  a  swift  runner.  It  is  said 
to  go  at  the  rate  of  a  mile  a  minute  with  a 
sti  ide,  when  under  full  speed,  of  twenty-two 
to  twenty-eight  feet.  The  male  ostrich 
reaches  a  height  ot  seven  feet  and  weighs 
from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hun- 
dred pounds.  It  is  called  the  camel- 
bird.  The  male  has  black  feathers  on  the 
body,  and  white  ones  o:n  the  wings  and  tail. 
The  latter  are  the  plumes  of  greatest  value. 
The  female'  is  plainer.  The  head  and  neck 
are  unfeathered  in  both.  There  are  three 
species  of  ostriches  in  Africa,  they  live  in 
small  flocks  and  are  timid  and  difficult  to 
approach.  They  are  hunted  on  horseback, 
and  advantage  is  taken  of  the  fact  that  they 


run  in  a  circle.  About  ten  eggs  are  laid  in 
a  hole  in  the  sand,  and  sat  upon  by  the  male 
at  night  and  by  the  female  by  day.  These 
eggs  are  from  five  and  one-half  to  six  inches 
in  longest  diameter,  and  are  equivalent  to 
about  twenty-four  eggs  of  the  common  fowl. 
The  shell  is  so  thick  and  strong  that  it  has 
been  used  as  a  water-vessel  by  South  African 
tribes.  In  their  native  haunts  ostriches  feed 
on  grass,  herbs,  insects  and  reptiles,  but 
in  captivity  they  swallow  nearly  everything 
not  too  large.  Ostrich-farming  is  now  car- 
ried on  in  Cape  Colony,  Australia,  Buenos 
Ayres,  the  United  States  and  other  places 
where  the  African  ostrich  has  been  intro- 
duced. Great  progress  in  ostrich-farming 
has  been  made  in  the  last  five  years,  in 
Arizona,  California,  Florida  and  Arkansas. 
The  birds  thrive  on  alfalfa,  and  where  this 
pasturage  is  plentiful  they  have  attained  a 
larger  growth  than  those  imported  from 
Africa,  reaching  a  weight  of  375  pounds  and 
a  height  of  8  or  even  10  feet.  The  female 
seldom  lays  a  fertile  egg  until  she  is  3^ 
years  old.  The  nest  is  a  round  hole  in  the 
ground,  which  the  male  scoops  out  with  his 
feet.  At  first  the  female  may  lay  her  eggs 
on  the  ground,  and  the  male  will  roll  them 
into  the  nest.  Incubators  are  used  success- 
fully in  hatching  the  eggs,  the  period  of 
incubation  being  42  days.  The  ostrich  is 
plucked  for  the  first  time  when  six  months 
old,  and  should  be  plucked  about  every 
eight  months  thereafter  during  its  life-time. 
The  only  feathers  removed  are  those  of  the 
wings  and  tail.  The  ostrich  is  a  long-lived 
bird.  It  is  claimed  by  some  writers  that 
they  live  to  be  a  hundred  years  old.  Some 
which  are  known  to  be  forty  years  old  are 
still  breeding  arid  producing  feathers.  Os- 
triches pair  at  four  years  and  are  then 
worth  about  $800  per  pair.  The  yield  of 
fea  hers  is  about  one  and  a  half  pounds 
yearly,  worth  $20  per  pound.  Consult  Doug- 
lass :  Ostrich-  Farming  in  South  Africa;  Mar- 
tin :  Home-Life  on  an  Ostrich-Farm;  and 
Year  Book  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 


Oswe'go,  N.  Y.,  a  city  on  Lake  Ontario, 
at  the  mouth  of  Oswego  River,  35  miles 
from  Syracuse.  It  is  divided  by  the  river, 
which  is  crossed  by  three  bridges,  and  has 
five  miles  of  water  frontage  on  the  river 
and  two  and  a  half  miles  on  the  lake.  It 
is  the  chief  port  on  the  lake,  with  a  break- 
water and  lighthouse,  and  has  five  miles  of 
wharves.  Fort  Ontario  guards  the  harbor. 
This  fort  was  rebuilt  in  1905  at  a  cost  of 
nearly  half  a  million,  and  was  made  a  four- 
company  post.  The  city  is  built  on  slopes 
rising  to  100  feet,  and  the  shore  of  the  lake 
is  a  bluff  from  40  to  50  feet  in  height.  The 
public  buildings  include  the  court  house, 
city  hall,  state  armory  and  public  library. 
The  river  has  a  fall  of  34  feet  within  the 
city,  which  is  used  as  water-power  for  flour 
mills,  knitting  mills,  foundries  and  iron 


OTHELLO 


OTTAWA 


works  and  for  making  steam  shovels, 
dredges  and  steam  engines;  there  also  are 
woolen  factories,  one  of  the  Diamond  Match 
Co.'s  factories,  a  Standard-Oil  box-factory 
and  breweries.  The  factory  for  corn-starch 
is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  country,  cover- 
ing more  than  four  acres.  Oswego  is  one 
of  the  largest  shipping-points  on  the  Great 
Lakes  for  anthracite.  The  state  normal 
school  is  located  here.  Oswego  was  a  trad- 
ing post  of  the  English  in  1720,  and  in  1727 
a  fort  was  built.  It  was  taken  by  the  French 
in  1756  and  by  the  British  in  1812.  It  be- 
came a  city  in  1848.  Population  23,368. 

Othel'Io,  one  of  Shakespeare's  four  su- 
preme masterpieces  in  tragedy,  was  perhaps 
written  in  1604.  Published  in  1622  in 
quarto,  in  1623  it  appeared  in  the  famous 
first  folio.  The  alternative  title  of  the  drama 
is  The  Moor  of  Venice.  The  basis  of  the 
plot  was  adopted  by  Shakspere  from  an 
Italian  novel  entitled  Un  Capitano  Moro. 
The  tragedy  deals  with  the  love  and  jealousy 
of  Othello,  a  so-called  Moor,  who  wins  the 
love  of  the  fair  Venetian  maiden  Desdemona 
by  his  qualities  of  heart  and  head  and  his 
strange  tales  of  adventure  by  flood  and 
field.  The  villain,  lago,  plays  upon  the 
jealousy  of  the  otherwise  great-hearted 
man,  until,  believing  his  wife  to  be  false, 
Othello  slays  her  and  dies  by  his  own 
hand. 

O'tho  I  or  Ot'to  the  Great  was  born  in 
912.  He  was  the  son  of  Henry  I,  emperor 
of  Germany,  and  succeeded  his  father  in 
936.  His  reign  was  very  successful;  many 
tribes  were  brought  by  him  into  subjection; 
he  held  almost  supreme  power  in  Italy,  both 
over  the  kings  of  Lombardy  and  the  popes 
of  Rome;  he  consolidated  the  German  em- 

§ire;     and    he    established    Christianity    in 
candinavian    and   in   Slavonic  lands.      He 
died  in  Prussian  Saxony  in  973. 

O'tis,  Elwell  Stephen,  an  American  soldier, 
was  bornat  Frederick,  Md.,  March  25,  1838. 
He  studied  law  at  Har- 
vard and  graduated  in 
1861.  On  Sept.  13,  1862, 
he  entered  the  volunteer 
army  as  a  captain  (i4oth 
N.  Y.),  and  was  mustered 
out  in  June,  1865,  as  brevet 
brigadier-general "  for  dis- 
""*"  tinguished  services."  He 
was  appointed  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  the  regular 
army,  July  28,  1866,  and 
rose  to  be  brigadier,  Nov.  28,  1893.  He 
was  appointed  major-general  of  volunteers 
and  assigned  to  the  Philippine  Islands,  May 
4,  1808,  where  he  took  chief  command  on 
the  departure  of  General  Merritt.  He  be- 
came military  governor  of  the  islands  in 
1899,  and  was  appointed  on  the  Philippine 
commi.ssion  in  the  same  year.  He  was  pro- 
moted major-general  in  the  regular  army. 
Janv.ury,  1900.  General  Otis  was  a  famous 


GENERAL   OTIS 


Indian  fighter  during  1867-81,  and  published 
The  Indian  Question  in  1878. 

Otis,  Harrison  Gray,  an  American  states- 
man, was  born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  8, 
1765.  He  studied  at  Harvard  College,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1786.  Sent  to 
the  legislature  in  1796,  he  soon  became 
leader  of  the  Federal  party.  He  was  one 
of  three  commissioners  sent  in  1814  by 
Massachusetts  to  Washington  to  present  to 
the  government  the  subject  of  the  damages 
inflicted  on  New  England  by  the  war  with 
Great  Britain.  As  United  States  senator  tu 
1820,  in  the  debate  on  the  Missouri  question, 
he  strongly  favored  the  restriction  of  slavery. 
He  was  a  popular  orator,  and  opposed  the 
antislavery  movement  in  his  later  years. 
He  died  at  Boston,  Oct.  28,  1848. 

Otis,  James,  an  American  statesman  and 
orator,  was  born  at  West  Barnstable,  Mass., 
Feb.  5,  1725.  He  studied  at  Harvard  and 
at  Boston,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at 
Plymouth  in  1748,  and  moved  to  Boston 
in  1750.  In  1760,  when  advocate-general, 
the  revenue  officers  asked  his  aid  in  obtain- 
ing search  warrants  from  the  superior 
courts  by  which  they  could  enter  any  man's 
house  in  search  of  smuggled  goods.  Otis 
considered  this  illegal  and  refused,  resign- 
ing his  position  and  appearing  on  hehalf  of 
the  people.  His  speech  on  the  subject 
lasted  five  hours,  and  made  a  great  impres- 
sion, John  Adams  saying  of  it  afterwards: 
"The  child  Independence  was  then  and 
there  born."  He  was  elected  to  the  assem- 
bly, and  was  a  delegate  to  the  Stamp  Act 
congress,  which  met  in  New  York  the 
same  year;  and  a  member  of  a  committee  of 
that  body  to  prepare  an  address  to  the 
English  house  of  commons.  While  in  the 
Massachusetts  legislature,  the  governor 
requested  that  a  letter  on  relief  from  taxa- 
tion, sent  to  the  other  colonies,  be  taken 
back  by  the  legislature.  Otis  opposed  the 
governor's  requisition  in  a  speech  called 
by  his  opponents  "the  most  treasonable 
declaration  ever  uttered,"  and  carried  the 
house  92  to  17.  He  was  severely  beaten 
by  some  revenue  officers  in  Boston  in  1769, 
and  lost  his  reason  as  a  consequence  of  a 
sword  cut  on  his  head.  He  published  sev- 
eral political  pamphlets,  The  Rights  of  the 
Colonies  Asserted  being  the  best  known. 
He  was  killed  by  lightning  on  May  23, 
*7&3i  while  standing  at  the  door  of  his 
home  at  Andover,  Mass.  See  Life  by  Tudor. 

Ot'tawa,  Out.,  capital  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  is  on  Ottawa  River,  87  miles 
west  of  its  junction  with  the  St.  Lawrence. 
Population,  by  census  of  1910,86,166.  The 
New  York  Central  has  a  terminus  in  Ot- 
tawa with  a  direct  line  to  New  York.  The 
Grand  Tmnk  and  Canadian  Pacific  fur- 
nish excellent  connections  in  all  directions. 
There  are  four  direct  lines  of  road  to  Mon- 
treal. The  city  is  well-known  as  the  cen- 
ter and  distributing  point  of  an  immense 


OTTAWA 


1400 


OTTER 


lumber-area.  Some  of  its  wealthiest  citi- 
zens have  made  their  fortunes  in  the  lum- 
ber-trade. Its  water-power  facilities  are 
unexcelled.  Within  the  city  a  great  amount 
of  power  is  immediately  available  and  is 
attracting  a  large  vanety  of  industries. 
Rideau  Hall,  the  official  residence  of  the 
governor-general,  is  in  Ottawa.  Its  electric 
street-railway  service  is  one  of  the  best  in 
Canada.  Its  educational  facilities  are 
admirable.  One  of  the  provincial  normal 
schools  of  Ontario  for  training  teachers  is 
located  here.  Ottawa  has  a  large  French 
population.  The  parliament  buildings  are 
imposing. 

Ottawa,  111.,  capital  of  La  Salle  County, 
at  the  junction  of  Illinois  and  Fox  Rivers, 
in  northern-central  Illinois,  82  miles  south- 
west of  Chicago.  It  is  situated  in  a  rich 
region,  and  has  a  considerable  trade  in 
shipping  grain,  lumber  and  produce;  be- 
sides manufacturing  industries,  which  in- 
clude plate  and  opalescent  glass,  glass 
bottles,  electric-light  bulbs,  lamp-chimneys, 
pottery,  tile  roofing,  drain  tile,  sewer  pipe, 
firebrick,  carriages,  wagons,  organs,  sad- 
dlery and  harness,  agricultural  implements 
etc.,  cream  separators  and  pianos,  Ot- 
tawa operates  three  sand-works,  which 
prepare  sand  for  glassmaking,  and  one 
which  ships  molder's  sand  —  that  is,  the 
article  as  it  is  obtained.  Ottawa's  promi- 
nent buildings  are  Ryburn  Memorial  Hos- 
pital and  Illinois  Appellate  Court  etc. 
The  city  has  excellent  public  schools,  fine 
parochial  schools  and  a  high  school  library, 
besides  Reddick  and  Odd  Fellows'  libra- 
ries. Ottawa  has  city  ownership  of  its 
lighting  and  waterworks  system.  Pop.  9,535. 

Ottawa  River,  Can.,  the  depth  of 
which  at  Grenville  is  from  six  to  15  feet, 
receives  numerous  rivers  and  falls  into  the 
St.  Lawrence.  In  its  course  the  river 
forms  picturesque  rapids  and  magnificent 
lakes.  The  water-power  of  the  Long  Sault 
is  estimated  at  20,681  horse-power.  The 
Ottawa  rises  in  western  Quebec,  flows  west 
to  Lake  Temiskaming,  thence  southeasterly, 
separating  Quebec  from  Ontario,  and  joins 
the  St.  Lawrence  after  a  course  of  750 
miles.  Chaudiere  Falls  at  Ottawa  are 
grand.  It  is  navigable  for  steamers  as  far 
as  Ottawa,  87  miles  up. 

Ottawa,  University  of,  was  estab- 
lished in  1848  by  Joseph  Eugene  Guiges, 
first  bishop  of  Ottawa.  In  1889  it  was  by 
Pope  Leo  raised  to  a  Catholic  University 
with  power  to  confer  degrees.  It  was  in- 
tended to  have  the  same  position  in  On- 
tario as  Laval  University  in  Quebec.  It 
has  a  valuable  museum  of  natural  history. 
The  attendance  of  students  averages  about 
500.  The  present  archbishop  of  Ottawa 
and  the  bishop  of  Alexandria  were  among 
its  first  students.  The  theological  and  the 
fl.rts'  course  each  cover  four  years.  There 
are  courses  in  law  and  engineering.  Arch- 


bishop Duhamel  of  Ottawa  is  Chancellor. 
Nearly  all  the  professors  belong  to  the 
Oblates.  Amongst  its  graduates  are  not 
a  few  distinguished  men. 

Ottawas,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians  of 
the  Algonquin  family,  living,  when  first 
found  by  the  French  explorers,  in  the 
northern  part  of  Michigan.  They  fled  from 
the  Iroquois  beyond  the  Mississippi,  to  the 
country  of  the  Sioux,  and  after  war  with 
them  went  back  to  Mackinaw.  They  joined 
with  the  French,  and  after  the  settlement 
of  Detroit  a  part  of  the  tribe  lived  near  it. 
At  the  close  of  the  last  war  of  the  French 
for  Canada,  their  chief,  Pontiac,  headed 
a  great  conspiracy  against  the  English. 
In  the  Revolutionary  War,  they  helped  the 
English,  but  finally  joined  in  the  Indian 
treaty  of  Greenville,  Aug.  3,  1795.  A  band 
of  them  settled  on  the  Miami  River,  and 
when  their  land  was  ceded  to  the  United 
States,  a  tract  34  miles  square  was  reserved 
to  them  on  the  Miami.  Other  bands  have 
taken  up  lands  in  the  Indian  Territory, 
while  some  are  still  found  on  the  shores  of 
Lake  Superior  and  in  Canada. 

Ot'ter,  an  aquatic  carnivorous  animal 
related  to  the  weasel,  and  highly  valued  on 

account  of  its 
fur.  Otters 
inhabit  both 
the  Old  and 
the  New 
;- World.  They 
have  an  elon- 
gated, low 
body,  with 
short  limbs 
and  webbed 

feet.  They  are  seal-like  in  appearance,  the 
color  a  seal-brown,  brighter  below  than 
above.  The  common  otter  of  Europe  is 
similar  in  form  to  the  American  otter,  but 
shorter,  being  about  two  feet  long  without 
the  tail.  The  American  otter  is  from  three 
and  a  half  to  four  feet  long.  It  is  found 
occasionally  in  Florida  and  the  Carolinas, 
in  portions  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region 
and  from  British  Columbia  to  Central 
Alaska,  but  is  rare.  Otters  are  fond  of 
sliding  down  slopes  into  the  water;  in  win- 
ter they  slide  on  the  snow  and  enjoy  coast- 
ing as  well  as  a  schoolboy.  Among  them- 
selves they  are  playful  and  affectionate, 
are  gentle  and  easily  tamed.  They  feed 
almost  exclusively  on  fish.  They  are  ex- 
pert swimmers  and  divers  and  readily  over- 
take fish,  which  they  bring  to  shore  to  de- 
vour. In  certain  parts  of  India  and  China 
the  otter  is  taught  to  catch  fish  and  assist 
in  driving  them  into  nets.  It  is  said  that 
when  fishing  is  poor,  otters  sometimes  resort 
to  'land-hunting.  When  disturbed  with 
their  young  by  an  inquisitive  dog,  they  have 
little  trouble  in  defending  themselves.  They 
take  excellent  care  of  their  offspring,  the 
young  usually  numbering  two.  The  dens 


OTTERBURN,  BATTLE  OF 


1401 


OVARY 


generally  are  near  water  with  the  entrance 
under  the  water;  sometimes  a  nest  is  found 
under  a  hollow  tree,  again  in  a  cave  well 
up  a  bank.  The  sea-otter  is  a  related  form 
but  belongs  to  another  genus.  It  is  a  true 
child  of  the  ocean;  "born  at  sea,  on  a  bed  of 
kelp,  and  literally  rocked  in  the  cradle  of 
the  deep."  It  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
of  fur-bearing  animals  —  a  single  skin  will 
bring  over  a  thousand  dollars.  It  was  once 
abundant  in  the  Pacific  from  California 
northward,  but  now  is  very  rare  save  about 
the  Aleutian  Islands,  where  at  this  late  day 
it  receives  rigorous  protection.  It  is  about 
four  feet  long,  its  fine  dense  fur  of  a  lustrous 
black.  See  Hornaday:  American  Natural 
History;  Stone  and  Cram:  American  Ani- 
mals. 

Ot'terburn,  Battle  of,  "the  hardest  and 
most  obstinate  battle  ever  fought,"  accord- 
ing to  Frpissart,  took  place  near  Otterburn, 
a  small  village  in  Northumberland,  England, 
about  1 6  miles  south  of  the  Scottish  bor- 
der and  32  from  Newcastle.  Douglas,  with 
his  Scottish  army,  carried  away  Hotspur's 
pennon  from  Newcastle,  saying  that  he 
would  plant  it  on  his  own  castle.  "You 
shall  not  carry  it  out  of  Northumberland," 
swore  Hotspur  (Harry  Percy).  So  the 
Scots  encamped  on  a  slope  near  Otterburn 
to  give  him  time  to  regain  his  pennon.  Hot- 
spur, with  8,600  men,  nearly  four  times  the 
bulk  of  the  Scotch  force,  attacked  their 
camp.  Douglas,  hewing  the  way  before 
him  with  his  mace,  fell  mortally  wounded, 
anxious  only  to  hide  his  death  from  his 
followers  till  they  had  won  the  victory, 
saying:  "Long  since  I  heard  a  prophecy 
that  a  dead  man  should  win  a  field,  and  I 
hope  in  God  it  shall  be  I.".  The  Scots  gained 
the  day,  taking  Harry  Hotspur  and  his 
brother  prisoners.  The  date  of  the  battle 
is  Aug.  19,  1388.  The  Scotch  ballad  of 
Otterburn  and  the  English  ballad  of  Chevy 
Chase  tell  the  story  of  this  battle.  See 
White's  History  of  the  Battle  of  Otterburn 
and  Percy's  Reliques.  See  BALLADS  and 
CHEVY  CHASE  and  PERCY. 

Ot'toman  Empire.    See  TURKEY. 

Ottum'wa,  la.,  county-seat  of  Wapello 
County,  is  on  Des  Moines  River,  85  miles 
southeast  of  Des  Moines.  Surrounded  by  a 
fertile  country,  it  manufactures  agricultural 
implements,  mining  tools,  iron  and  steel 
specialties,  meat  products,  cigars,  steel  bridges 
and  confectionery.  The  city  boasts  of  40 
churches,  14  schools,  10  banks  and  100  facto- 
ries. It  is  served  by  four  railroads,  and  is  in 
the  heart  of  Iowa's  coal  fields.  Population^  2 ,012. 

Oudenarde  (ou'den-dr'de),  a  town  in  Bel- 
gium on  the  Scheldt,  33  miles  west  of  Brus- 
sels. It  is  noted  as  the  scene  of  a  famous 
battle,  brought  on  by  the  efforts  of  the 
French  to  retake  the  city  from  Marlborough, 
who  had  captured  it  in  1706.  It  was  the 
third  of  Marlborough's  four  great  victories, 
and  was  gained  on  July  n,  1708. 


Oudinot   (9ffdtr*ff)t    Nicolas    Charles, 

duke  of  Reggio  and  marshal  of  France,  was 
born  at  Bar-le  Due,  France,  April  25,  1767. 
He  was  made  commander  of  ten  battalions, 
which  became  famous  as  Oudinot's  grena- 
diers. He  was  at  Austerlitz  and  Jena,  and 
won  the  battle  of  Ostrolenka,  Feb.  18, 
1807.  For  his  brilliant  services  in  the  Aus- 
trian campaign  of  1809  he  was  made  mar- 
shal of  France  and  duke  of  Reggio.  He 
was  one  of  the  last  to  leave  Napoleon,  but 
left  him  entirely,  remaining  on  his  estates 
during  the  Hundred  Days.  He  was  made 
minister  of  state,  commander  of  the  royal 
guard  and  a  peer  of  France  after  the  second 
restoration.  He  died  at  Paris,  Sept.  13,  1847. 
See  Napoleon  and  His  Marshals  by  Headley. 

Ouida.    See  RAME'E,  LOUISE  DE  LA. 

Our  Mutual  Friend  is  a  novel  by  Charles 
Dickens,  first  published  in  serial  form  and, 
with  the  last  serial  number  in  November  of 
1865,  in  book  form.  It  is  a  story  of  London 
life  in  which  some  50  characters  are  delin- 
eated. The  story  divides  itself  into  three 
parts,  in  which  John  Harmon,  Lizzie  Hexam 
and  Eugene  Wrayburn,  her  lover,  and  two 
adventurers  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Lammle,  are 
the  respective  centers  of  interest.  These 
parts  are  connected  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Boffin, 
the  servants  of  John  Harmon's  father. 
The  father  is  an  eccentric  old  man,  who, 
disinheriting  his  son,  makes  the  Boffins 
his  heirs.  The  son,  after  concealing  his 
whereabouts  for  years,  secures  employ- 
ment under  the  name  of  John  Rokesmith 
as  Mr.  Boffin's  secretary,  who  styles  him 
Our  Mutual  Friend.  In  time  he  is  recog- 
nized by  Mr.  Boffin  who  graciously  turns 
his  estate  back  to  him. 

Ou'zel,  a  popular  name  given  to  several 
birds,  mostly  of  the  thrush  (Merulidas)  fam- 
ily. In  Shakespeare  and  in  Tennyson  the 
blackbird  is  called  an  ouzel,  but  in  America 
the  name  is  for  the  most  part  restricted  to 
small  birds  which  look  like  land-birds  but 
are  aquatic  in  their  habits.  The  American  wa- 
ter-ouzel resembles  a  catbird  in  appearance, 
is  solitary  in  its  habits,  and  lives  along  the 
banks  of  dashing  streams.  It  will  surprise 
the  spectator  by 
dropping  sud- 
denly into  a 
brawling  mount- 
ain cataract,  and 
then  appear 
swimming  along 
through  the 
pools  by  the  use 
of  its  wings  or,  it 
may  be,  running 
swiftly  along  the 
bottom.  Its  food  is  composed  of  small 
mollusks  or  aquatic  insects  and  their  larvae, 
which  it  seeks  among  the  stones  at  the 
bottom. 

O'vary  (in  plants),  the  name  of  that  bulb- 
ous part  of  carpels  or  pistils  which  contains 


OUZEL 


OVEN-BIRD 


1402 


.OVULE 


the  ovules.  As  the  term  ovary  is  already 
well-established  among  animals  in  connection 
with  the  organ  which  produces  eggs,  its  pres- 
ent application  in  flowers  is  extremely  un- 
fortunate, since  the  ovary  of  flowers  holds  no 
relation  to  a  female  sex-organ.  It  has  been 
suggested  on  this  account  that  the  term 
ovulary  be  substituted  for  it  in  flowers.  See 
FLOWERS. 

Ov'en-Bird',  a  small  bird  but  burdened 
with  many  names  —  teacher  bird,  golden- 
crowned  thrush, 
golden -crowned 
wagtail,  wood 
wagtail,  etc.  etc. 
It  is  a  wood- 
warbler,  spends 
most  of  its  time 
on  the  ground 
or  in  under- 
growth. It  is 
shyest  of  the 
shy,  its  call  of 
"  teacher,  teach- 
er ,  TEACHER, 
TEACHER, 
OVEN-BIRD  TEACHER, 

TEACHER  "  better  known  than  the  man- 
ner of  its  appearance.  Very  rarely 
heard,  but  rarest  treat  to  him  that 
hears,  is  its  flight-song  of  the  nesting  season ; 
an  inspired,  joyous  warbling  that  the  little 
bird  pours  forth  from  tree-top.  It  is 
smaller  than  the  English  sparrow,  upper 
part  of  the  body  olive-colored,  crown  a  gold- 
en-brown, underneath  white,  breast  spotted. 
It  is  widely  distributed  in  the  United  States, 
migrates  in  May  and  October,  its  preferred 
habitat  dry  woods.  The  nest  is  not  easily 
found,  so  artfully  fashioned  and  made  to 
look  a  part  of  the  leaf-covered  ground;  in 
form  resembling  an  old-time  Dutch  oven, 
roofed  over,  the  entrance  not  at  the  top  but 
at  the  side,  the  structure  of  leaves,  grasses, 
rootlets  and  weed-stalks.  The  creamy-white 
eggs  are  speckled,  and  number  four  or  five. 

O'verbeck,  Friedrich  Johann,  a  noted 
German  painter,  was  born  at  Lubeck,  Prus- 
sia, in  1789,  and  studied  at  Vienna  and  at 
Rome.  He,  with  four  others,  founded  a 
school  of  art  that  had  much  influence  in 
Europe,  though  mocked  at  with  such  names 
as  Pre-Raphaelites  and  Nazarites.  A  ma- 
donna, painted  in  1811,  brought  Overbeck 
into  notice,  and  he  was  employed  by  the 
Prussian  consul  to  execute  frescoes  in  his 
house  at  Rome  illustrating  the  story  of  Jo- 
seph. His  chief  work  is  The  Vision  of  St. 
Francis,  a  fresco  at  Assisi.  Among  his  fa- 
mous pictures  are  Christ's  Entry  into  Jerusa- 
lem, at  Lubeck;  Christ's  Agony  in  the  Gar- 
den, at  Hamburg;  The  Incredulity  o/  St. 
Thomas,  at  London.  Many  of  his  drawings, 
as  well  as  of  his  paintings  and  frescoes,  have 
been  engraved.  He  died  at  Rome,  Nov.  12, 
1869.  See  Life  by  Atkinson  in  the  Great 
Artists  Series. 


O'vertones',  sometimes  called  harmon- 
ics, are  a  series  of  weak  tones  which  accom- 
pany the  production  of  any  given  note  on  a 
musical  instrument.  The  lowest  string  on 
a  guitar  is  called  an  E  string,  because,  when 
plucked,  the  lowest  and  the  loudest  note 
which  it  can  emit  is  E.  This  note,  E,  is, 
therefore,  called  the  fundamental.  If  we 
denote  the  number  of  vibrations  per  second 
in  this  fundamental  note  by  unity,  then  the 
series  of  fainter  notes,  which  accompany 
the  fundamental  whenever  the  string  is 
plucked,  will  have  frequencies  which  are  de- 
noted by  the  numbers  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  etc. 
These  secondary  notes  are  called  overtones 
or  harmonics.  They  are  very  marked  in  the 
case  of  stringed  instruments  provided  with 
sounding  boards  (such  as  the  piano  and  vio- 
lin), an  I  add  greatly  to  the  richness  of  the 
tone.  They  are  nearly  absent  in  the  case  of 
the  tuning  fork,  and  hence  the  pure  but 
thin  tone  of  the  fork.  See  MUSICAL  NOTA- 
TION. 

Ov'id  (Publius  Ovidius  Naso),  the  Latin 
poet,  was  born  in  Sulmo,  Italy,  March  20, 
43  B.  C.  He  was  educated  at  home,  his 
father  putting  him  under  the  best  of  teachers 
to  train  him  for  the  bar.  He  soon  gave  up 
the  practice  of  law  and  went  to  Athens,  Asia 
Minor  and  Sicily.  His  first  success  was  won 
by  his  tragedy  of  Medea.  Then  followed  his 
Epistles,  imaginary  love-letters.  His  Art 
of  Love,  his  masterpiece,  was  published  in 
three  books.  The  Metamorphoses,  in  15 
books,  contain  some  of  the  finest  work  in 
ancient  literature  The  Fasti,  only  six 
books  of  which  were  finished,  are  a  poetical 
commentary  on  the  calendar,  giving  the  ori- 
gin of  Roman  feast-days.  He  was  banished 
by  Emperor  Augustus  to  Tomi  (Kustendje) 
on  the  Euxine,  south  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Danube,  for  some  unknown  offense.  He  ad- 
mitted that  the  punishment  was  deserved, 
but  says  he  was  rather  the  witness  than  the 
author  of  the  crime.  In  o  A  D.  he  left 
Rome,  making  his  home  fo>  the  last  eight 
years  of  his  life  at  Tomi  cc  astantly  writing 
appeals  to  the  emperor  for  a  release  from  the 
sentence  of  banishment.  Here  he  wrote  the 
Tristia  in  five  books  and  Letters  in  four,  mak- 
ing him  one  of  the  most  prolific  of  Latin  po- 
ets. He  died  in  17  A  D. 

O'vulary.       See  OVARY. 

O'vule  (in  plants) ,  the  peculiar  megaspor- 
angium  of  seed-plants,  which  in  gymnosperms 
is  exposed  upon  a  scale,  and  in  angiosperms 
is  inclosed  within  that  part  of  the  carpel 
called  the  ovary.  It  is  the  ovule  which,  after 
fertilization,  becomes  the  seed.  The  ordinary 
ovule  consists  of  the  following  parts:  one 
or  two  integuments,  which  are  distinguisha- 
ble only  above  and  leave  a  narrow  passage- 
way (micropyle)  through  which  the  pollen 
tube  passes;  and  the  nucellus  or  main  body 
of  the  ovule,  inclosed  by  the  integu- 
ments, and  containing  the  single  large  mega- 
spore  (embryo-sac).  Ovules  are  of  various 


OWEN 


OWL 


sizes,  and  occur  in  various  numbers  in  ovaries, 
from  solitary  to  almost  innumerable.  Va- 
r  i  o  u  s  modifica- 
tions of  ovules 
have  received 
technical  names, 
which  are  of  no 
special  value  to 
the  general  stu- 
dent. See  EM- 
BRYO-SAC,  IN- 
TEGUMENT, Nu- 

CELLUS. 

O'  we  n  ,  Sir 
Richard,  a  Brit- 
ish naturalist, 
was  born  at  Lan- 
caster, England, 
July  20, 1804.  He 
studied  medicine 
at  Edinburgh  and 
London,  but  soon 
began  his  work  in 

zoologv  and  corn- 
Vertical  section  of  a  flower-bud,  _  „  _„  +:  ,.  „  QT1Qt 
showing  sepals  (s),  stamens  (a),  paratl\  e  anat- 
and  an  ovule  (kk)  with  two  in-  O  m  y.      In   I  8  5  6 
teguments.  he  became  super- 

intendent of  the  natural  history  depart- 
ment of  the  British  museum.  He  visited 
Paris  and  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Cuvier,  with  whose  name  his  will  always 
be  connected  in  the  science  of  zoology. 
Owen's  researches  in  zoology  number  nearly 
400;  largely  devoted  to  structure  and  em- 
bracing every  class  of  animals  from  a  sponge 
to  man.  He  produced  monographs  or  im- 
portant papers  on  the  pearly  nautilus,  the 
Venus  flower-basket,  king  crab,  the  mud- 
fish, anthropoid  apes  and  many  extinct 
birds  and  reptiles.  Among  his  volumi- 
nous writings  are  Comparative  Anatomy 
of  Invertebrates,  Comparative  Anatomy  and 
Physiology  of  Vertebrates,  The  Skeleton 
and  the  Teeth.  History  of  British  Fossils, 
Reptiles,  Birds,  Mammals.  He  died  on 
Dec.  1 8,  1892.  See  Owen's  Life  of  Richard 
Owen. 

Owen  Sound,  Can.,  is  in  Grey  County, 
Ontario,  where  Sydenham  River  flows  into 
Georgian  Bay.  It  is  a  terminus  of  branches 
of  the  Canadian  Pacific  and  the  Grand  Trunk. 
It  has  an  excellent  harbor.  Canadian  Pa- 
cific boats  leave  twice  a  week  for  Sault  Ste. 
Marie  and  Fort  William.  It  owns  its  own 
gas  and  electric  light  plants.  Population 
10,000. 

O'wensboro,  Ky.,  a  city  on  the  Ohio,  cap- 
ital  of  Daviess  County,  in  northwestern  Ken- 
tucky, 114  miles  southwest  of  Louisville. 
The  city  stands  high  and  in  a  fertile  region, 
both  in  regard  to  agricultural  and  to  mineral 
products.  Coal,  clay,  building  stone,  iron,  zinc 
and  lead  are  mined  nearby.  It  is  one  of  the 
largest  tobacco  markets  in  the  country  and  has 
numerous  tobacco  factories.  Owensboro  also 
has  whiskey  distilleries,  buggy,  carriage,  wheel 
and  wagon  factories,  foundries,  four  planing 


and  flour  mills,  and  a  ditcher  and  grader  works. 
There  are  good  schools,  churches,  public 
buildings  and  civic  improvements,  including 
municipally  owned  light  and  water  works 
costing  $600,000.  It  is  served  by  three  rail- 
roads and  several  steamboat  lines  connecting 
Owensboro  with  the  Mississippi.  The  popu- 
lation is  17,212. 

Owosso  ( d-wos'd ) ,  Mich.,  a  city  in  Shia- 
wassee  County,  on  Shiawassee  River,  about 
30  miles  from  Lansing.  It  is  in  an  agricul- 
tural region,  but  engages  in  considerable 
manufacturing.  It  has  carshops,  sugar- 
works,  a  screen  and  door  factory,  furniture- 
factories,  a  casket  factory  and  others  of  less 
importance.  The  city  has  admirable  pub- 
lic schools  and  good  buildings,  a  business  col- 
lege, a  public  library  and  several  churches. 
Tne  water  works  are  owned  and  operated  by 
the  city,  and  it  is  served  by  three  railroads. 
Population  9.639. 

Owl,  a  bird  of  prey  with  a  flat  face  and 
rosette  of  feathers  about  the  eyes,  making 
them  appear  large 
and     conspicuous. 

There  arep  about 
200  species.  For 
the  most  part  they 
are  birds  of  night 
and  pass  the  day 
in  secluded  and 
dark  places.  A 
few,  like  tne  snowy 
owl  and  the  hawk- 
owl,  are  day-birds. 
The  common  owls 
feed  for  the  most 
part  on  smaller 
birds  and  field- 
mice.  Since  the  latter  are  destructive 
to  crops  and  vegetation  the  owls  should 
be  protected,  if  for  no  other  reason  than 
for  their  war  upon  these  rodents.  Prey- 
ing at  night,  in  their  soft  plumage  flitting 
about  silently,  they  dispose  of  animals  that 
have  hid  by  day  from  the  hawk.  Owls  feed 
upon  field-mice,  rats,  squirrels,  fish,  insects 
and  other  animal  food,  eating  their  prey  en- 
tire ;  later  the  indigestible  parts,  rolled  into  a 
hard  pellet,  are  ejected  from  the  mouth,  and 
these  pellets  found  in  numbers  about  roost- 
ing-spots.  Owls  generally  live  in  woods, 
and  are  seldom  tamed.  They  fall  ready 
prey  to  man,  being  easily  trapped  and  shot, 
and  their  nests  as  a  rule  are  openly  exposed. 
They  nest  early,  their  young  being  fed  on 
animal  food  instead  of  fruit.  Their  eggs  are 
always  pure  white.  The  cry  of  the  owl  is 
well-known.  It  may  be  added  thatwhen  an- 
gry or  frightened  the  bird  strikes  its  mandi- 
bles together  like  castanets.  The  barn  owls 
form  a  distinct  family.  They  have  long 
faces,  the  feather  discs  on  which  are  nearly 
triangular,  and  they  are  often  called  monkey- 
faced  owls.  The  familiar  barn-owl  seldom 
molests  birds,  is  the  enemy  of  rats,  and  should 
be  given  all  protection.  In  color  it  is  pale 


LONG-EARED  OWL 


OXALIS 


1404 


•OXFORD 


brownish-yellow,  and  it  is  of  peculiar  shape 
with  legs  long  as  compared  to  owls  generally. 
It  is  less  fluffy,  its  eyes  are  small  and  black, 
the  face  is  outlined  by  a  dark  ring.  It  seeks 
shelter  under  roofs  made  by  man,  and  is  not 
infrequently  found  in  a  church-belfry.  This 
owl  is  very  widely  distributed. 

There  are  about  1 8  species  of  owls  in  North 
America;  varying  in  size  from  the  six-inch 
elf  owl  of  Anzona  to  the  great  gray  owl  of 
the  Arctic  —  over  two  feet  in  length.  The 
latter  bird,  while  always  rare  in  the  United 
States,  is  occasionally  seen  as  far  south  as 
the  Ohio  River.  There  are  four  of  the  so- 
called  horned  owls:  the  long-eared,  short- 
eared,  great-horned  and  the  screech-owl. 
The  great-horned  is  a  large,  fierce  member  of 
the  family,  and  does  much  to  give  the  family 
as  a  whole  a  bad  name.  It  steals  all  kinds  of 
poultry,  turkey  included,  and  preys  on  game- 
birds  and  other  birds.  But  mention  should 
be  made  of  the  fact  that  it  devours  also  mice, 
rats,  gophers  and  numerous  other  destruc- 
tive mammals.  In  appearance  it  is  quite 
splendid — of  noble  size;  the  abundant 
plumage  a  combination  of  brown,  black, 
yellow  and  white,  fine  black  bars  across  the 
breast;  a  distinguishing  mark  the  large 
"horns."  It  belongs  to  wilder,  heavily- 
wooded  portions  of  the  country,  and  in 
some  localities  is  known  as  the  hoot-owl. 
Perhaps  the  commonest  in  this  country  is 
the  screech-owl,  which  nests  about  houses 
and  is  very  widely  distributed.  It  is  quiet 
during  the  nesting  season,  but  after  the 
young  are  reared,  in  July  and  August,  its 
voice  may  be  heard  at  night  —  not  a  screech, 
but  a  tremulous,  quavering  sound  of  mourn- 
ful quality.  This  is  a  small,  round-bodied 
owl,  not  much  longer  than  broad ;  it  is  some- 
times black  and  white,  grayish  in  appear- 
ance ;  sometimes  reddish  and  white.  It  has 
noticeable  horns.  It  eats  sparrows  and 
other  birds,  but  destroys  large  numbers  of 
mice,  grasshoppers,  locusts,  cut-worms, 
beetles,  caterpillars,  crickets,  lizards,  frogs 
and  crawfish.  Hornaday  recommends  that 
the  bird's  numbers  be  limited,  but  that  the 
bird  be  not  exterminated.  The  long-eared 
in  coloring  resembles  the  great-horned,  but 
is  much  smaller,  and  its  very  conspicuous  ear- 
tufts  stand  on  top  of  its  head.  This  bird  is 
very  widely  distributed  in  the  United  States, 
a  very  useful  bird  and  should  be  protected. 
The  short-eared  also  is  deserving  of  protec- 
tion, is  the  same  size  as  the  preceding,  in 
color  brownish-yellow  above  and  buff  below. 
Probably  the  most  common  owl  in  this 
country  next  to  the  screech-owl  is  the  barred 
owl,  the  one  that  calls  from  deep  wood  the 
ghostly  "whoo-whoo-whoo?"  With  its  fel- 
lows it  will  sometimes  unite  in  concert  of 
hoots,  an  occasional  shriek  intermingled, 
ending  with  laughter  full  as  eerie  as  the  rest 
of  the  performance.  It  is  a  large,  heavily- 
built  owl,  its  plumage  light-colored  barred 
with  black.  Although  it  devours  the  de- 


structive small  mammals,  ft  is  also  destruc- 
tive to  poultry,  game-birds  and  other  birds. 
The  snowy  owl,  a  beautiful  bird  either  pure 
white  or  barred  with  black,  nests  in  the  north 
and  visits  the  United  States  in  winter.  It  is 
a  day  owl.  It  feeds  on  fish,  birds,  small 
mammals  etc.  The  burrowing  owl  is  a  small 
western  owl  living  in  the  holes  of  prairie 
dogs.  It  is  a  savage  little  creature,  a  great 
fighter,  these  owls  frequently  killing  each 
other.  They  feed  largely  on  grasshoppers, 
locusts,  and  other  insects.  Their  color  is 
mixed  gray,  their  legs  long  and  bare.  See 
Hornaday:  American  Natural  History. 

Ox'alis,  a  genus  of  shrubs  and  herbs, 
abounds  in  South  America,  North  America 
and  South  Africa.  The  leaves  usually  are 
compound,  generally  digitate  in  shape,  and 
grow  alternately,  although  simple  leaves  are 
occasionally  found.  The  seeds  of  the  Oxahs 
genus  are  similar  to  capsules,  and  have  a 
hard  elastic  covering,  which  bursts  in  such  a 
way  as  to  project  the  seed  to  a  distance.  The 
oxalis  shrubs  are  frequently  grown  for  orna- 
ment in  gardens,  an,d  especially  as  borders. 
Many  of  them  have  bulbous  roots,  and  some 
are  edible,  such  as  the  South  American  oca. 
There  are  said  to  be  more  than  200  species 
of  oxalis. 

Ox'ford,  a  city  of  England  and  the  seat 
of  the  University  of  Oxford,  is  near  the 
union  of  the  Cherwell  and  the  Thames,  52 
miles  from  London.  The  two  rivers  form  a 
rectangle,  on  which  the  old  part  of  the  city 
stands.  In  the  center  of  the  town,  called 
Carfax  (meaning  four-forked) ,  the  four  main 
streets  cross  each  other,  running  north  and 
south,  east  and  west.  Besides  the  univer- 
sity buildings,  there  are  St.  Michael's  church, 
with  its  tower,  built  in  1070;  the  Clarendon 
building,  used  for  the  Clarendon  press  until 
1830;  the  Indian  Institute,  with  a  library 
and  museum  for  the  use  of  members  of  the 
India  service  or  natives  of  India;  Godstow, 
a  ruined  nunnery;  All  Saints',  St.  Barnabas, 
St.  Aloysius  and  St.  Aldgate's  churches; 
Somerville  Hall  and  Lady  Margaret  Hall, 
colleges  for  women;  Wycliffe  Hall,  a  theo- 
logical school;  Mansfield  College,  a  Congre- 
gational divinity-school;  and  the  town  hall 
and  public  library.  A  cross,  known  as  the 
Martyrs'  Memorial,  was  erected  in  1841  in 
honor  of  the  Oxford  martyrs:  Ridley,  Lati- 
mer  and  Cranmer.  The  Port  Meadow  is  an 
open  common,  and  the  university  parks  are 
kept  in  order  by  the  university.  Oxford  is 
mentioned  in  the  Saxon  Chronicle  as  far  back 
as  912  A.  D.  The  tower,  now  St.  Michael's 
church,  was  built  by  the  Norman  conquerors 
and  commanded  the  approach  to  the  north- 
ern gate  of  the  city,  which  was  removed  in 
1771.  Empress  Maud  (Matilda)  took  refuge 
in  Oxford  when  driven  from  London  by  Ste- 
phen of  Blois  (1142).  In  1258  the  reform 
known  as  the  Provisions  of  Oxford  was  the 
work  of  the  "mad  parliament"  sitting  at 
Oxford.  In  the  Civil  War  it  for  a  few  years 


OXFORD 


1405 


OXYGEN 


was  the  seat  of  the  parliament  and  court  of 
Charles  I.  Population  53,000.  See  Oxford 
City,  by  Boase,  in  Historic  Towns  Series  and 
Oxford  by  Lang. 

Oxford,  O.,  a  town,  40  miles  northwest 
of  Cincinnati.  It  overlooks  the  beautiful 
Miami  valley  and  has  some  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements,  but  is  best  known 
as  a  college  town.  It  is  the  seat  of  Miami 
University,  founded  in  1809,  and  noted  for 
the  high  positions  attained  by  its  graduates. 
Western  College  for  women  (formerly  called 
Western  Female  Seminary,  a  school  modeled 
after  Mt.  Holyoke  Seminary)  and  Oxford 
College  are  situated  here.  Population  2,017. 

Oxford,  University  of,  one  of  the  two 
great  seats  of  learning  in  England  situated 
at  Oxford,  is  a  collection  of  colleges  under 
one  corporation  known  as  "the  chancellor, 
masters  and  scholars  of  the  University  of 
Oxford."  There  are  22  colleges  and  three 
halls,  to  some  one  of  which  all  members  of 
the  university  belong.  The  teaching  staff 
numbers  about  100,  with  3,500  students. 
Each  college  is  a  distinct  institution  with  its 
own  rules.  The  head  of  the  university  is 
the  chancellor,  who  usually  is  chosen  from 
the  nobility,  holds  ofLce  for  life,  and  receives 
no  salary.  The  vice-chancellor,  appointed 
by  the  chancellor,  serves  four  years  and  is  the 
real  head.  There  are  four  governing  bod- 
ies, called  house  of  convocation,  ancient 
house  of  congregation,  modern  house  of  con- 
gregation and  the  council.  These  bodies  are 
made  of  college  officers,  professors,  masters 
of  art  and  resident  graduates.  The  real 
management  is  in  the  hands  of  the  council, 
consisting  of  the  vice-chancellor,  two  proc- 
tors, who  are  the  police  officers  of  the  uni- 
versity, six  heads  of  houses,  six  professors 
and  six  graduates.  The  teaching  in  the  col- 
leges of  the  university  is  carried  on  by  pro- 
fessors, lecturers  and  tutors.  The  profes- 
sors do  very  little  teaching,  giving  lectures 
perhaps  twice  a  week  and  devoting  their 
time  largely  to  independent  study.  The 
college  lecturers  are  the  real  teachers,  but  be- 
long to  the  separate  colleges,  though  their 
lectures  are  now  open  to  the  whole  univer- 
sity. A  large  part  of  the  work  of  the  college 
course  consists  in  taking  papers,  essays 
and  translations  to  the  tutors,  who  may 
be  employed  by  individuals  or  by  small 
classes. 

Oxford,  beginning  in  the  early  part  of  the 
1 2th  century,  grew  rapidly,  its  scholars  being 
numbered  by  thousands  as  early  as  the  i3th 
century.  The  four  great  orders  of  mendi- 
cant friars  were  attracted  to  Oxford,  and 
established  their  schools  in  their  convents, 
and  were  followed  by  other  orders  of  monks. 
The  Reformation,  with  the  breaking  up  of 
the  monasteries,  destroyed  half  the  glory  of 
Oxford.  The  earliest  college  is  Merton, 
founded  in  1264  and  transferred  to  Oxford 
in  1274,  and  the  first  institution  organized 
into  a  college  at  Oxford,  the  earlier  teach- 


ings having  been  carried  on  in  halls.  The  old 
quadrangle  and  the  library  of  Merton  are 
among  the  most  ancient  college  buildings 
in  Oxford.  Balliol,  founded  by  the  mother 
of  John  Balliol,  king  of  Scotland,  in  1268; 
Oriel,  founded  in  1326  by  King  Edward  II; 
Queen's  in  1340;  All  Souls'  in  1347;  and 
Jesus,  founded  in  1571  by  Queen  Elizabeth, 
are  among  the  older  colleges.  Christ  Church 
is  the  cathedral  of  the  diocese  of  Oxford  and 
also  a  college.  The  cathedral  was  instituted 
by  Henry  VIII  in  1546,  and  the  college 
founded  by  Wolsey  in  1525.  The  entrance 
tower  contains  "Great  Tom,"  one  of  the 
largest  bells  in  England.  The  buildings  of 
Magdalen  (mdd'liri)  College,  founded  in  1457, 
are  thought  to  be  the  finest  college-buildings 
in  the  world,  and  the  musical  services  in  its 
chapel  have  been  famous  for  centuries. 
Other  buildings  connected  with  the  univer- 
sity are  the  Boaleian,  founded  in  1602  by 
Thomas  Bodley  and  now  one  of  the  largest 
libraries  in  the  world;  Radcliffe  Library; 
Ashmplean  Museum,  the  earliest  public  mu- 
seum in  England,  containing  British  antiqui- 
ties and  some  from  Cyprus,  Egypt  etc.; 
Sheldonian  Theater,  built  in  1669,  for  the 
ceremonies  of  the  university;  St.  Mary's 
church,  where  are  preached  the  university 
sermons;  and  the  university  observatory. 
The  parks  are  the  scene  of  most  of  the  foot- 
ball games;  and  for  a  quarter  of  a  mile  along 
the  river  are  moored  the  barges  of  the  boat 
clubs.  See  Tom  Brown  at  Oxford  by  Hughes 
and  Colleges  of  Oxford  by  Clark.  _ 

Ox'us,  the  ancient  name  of  a  river  in  cen- 
tral Asia,  now  known  as  Jihun,  Gihon  and 
Amu  Daria.  It  'rises  in  the  tablelands  of 
Central  Asia,  flows  through  Bokhara  and 
Khiva,  and  empties  into  the  Sea  of  Aral. 
Its  delta  is  90  miles  long,  including  many 
lakes  and  marshes.  The  river  is  used  for 
irrigation  mainly,  though  it  has  been  as- 
cended for  280  miles  by  steamboats.  It  is 
thought  to  have  once  flowed  into  the  Caspian 
Sea,  and  to  have  twice  changed  its  course 
since  about  600  A.  D.  Its  length  is  about 
1,400  miles. 

Ox'ygen,  the  most  abundant  and  the  most 
widely-distributed  of  all  the  elements,  is  a 
gas  without  color,  odor  or  taste.  In  its  free 
state  (mixed,  not  combined,  with  nitrogen) 
it  composes  about  one  fifth  of  the  air.  Com- 
bined with  hydrogen,  it  makes  about  eight 
ninths  of  all  the  water  on  the  globe.  Nearly 
half  of  the  earth's  crust  is  oxygen  in  combi- 
nation. It  combines  with  all  other  elemen- 
tary substances  except  fluorine,  argon  and 
several  very  rare  gases  resembling  argon. 
It  is  necessary  to  animal  life,  and  early 
chemists  called  it  vital  air.  It  was  discov- 
ered at  almost  the  same  time  in  1774  by 
Priestley  and  by  Scheele.  Lavoisier  made 
many  ingenious  experiments  to  prove  that 
the  combustion  or  burning  of  bodies  in  the 
air  is  only  their  combination  with  oxygen. 
Combustible  substances  burn  much  more 


OYAMA 


1406 


OZONE 


vigorously  in  pure  oxygen  than  in  air. 
Oxygen  is  continually  given  off  by  the 
leaves  of  plants  in  sunlight,  and  this  is 
evidently  the  source  of  the  atmospheric 
supply,  for  the  gas  is  continually  consumed 
by  the  breathing  of  animals,  combustion 
and  decay. 

Oyama  (o-yah'mah),  Marquis  Iwao,  a  dis- 
tinguished Japanese  soldier,  was  born  in  the 
province  of  Satsuma  in  1842.  He  was  tu- 
tored in  his  early  youth  by  Saigo  Nanshu, 
who  is  considered  by  the  Jananese  the  great- 
est military  genius  whom  Japan  has  produced 
since  the  days  of  lyeyasu,  under  whom  he 
fought  in  the  War  of  Restoration  when  the 
imperial  forces  fought  against  the  men  of  the 
shogun.  He  was  a  military  attache  through 
the  Franco-Prussian  war,  and  studied  in 
Germany  from  1872  to  1875.  Ifl  l&77> 
when  the  Satsuma  men  under  the  leadership 
of  Saigo  Nanshu,  his  old  master,  took  the 
field  against  the  imperial  forces,  Oyama,  at 
the  head  of  a  division  of  the  imperial  forces. 
took  the  field  against  them.  He  served 
with  distinction  as  Chief  of  Police,  Associate- 
Minister  of  the  Interior  and  Vice-Minister  of 
War,  and  in  1882  was  given  the  portfolio  of 
Minister  of  War.  In  1884  he  was  appointed 
Chief  of  the  General  Staff,  and  10  years  later 
in  the  Chino-Japanese  war  commanded  in 
the  field  the  army  entrusted  to  besiege  Port 
Arthur.  Twenty-four  hours  after  the  siege 
began  he  was  being  carried  through  the 
streets  of  the  fortress,  once  thought  impreg- 
nable, on  the  shoulders  of  his  men.  In  the 
Russo-Japanese  war  he  was  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  the  five  Japanese  armies  in  Man- 
churia and  won  the  battle  of  Mukden  against 
Kuropatkin,  Russia's  greatest  general.  Mar- 
chioness Oyama  is  a  graduate  of  Vassar  Col- 
lege. He  died  in  1916. 

Oys'ter,  a  common  bivalve-shelled  mol- 
lusk,  extensively  used  as  food.  It  is  related 
to  the  clam  and  mussel,  belonging  to  that 
group  of  mollusks  with  plate-like  gills  (Lam- 
ellibranchiata) .  The  two  valves  of  the  shell 
in  the  clam  and  mussel  are  similar ;  but  in  the 
oyster  one  side  (the  lower  one)  is  much  larger. 
In  clams  and  mussels  the  shell  is  closed  by  a 
pair  of  muscles,  located  at  either  end  of  the 
shell,  but  in  the  oyster  there  is  a  single  mus- 
cle located  near  the  center  of  the  shell.  The 
dark  violet  spot  on  the  inside  of  an  oyster- 
shell  marks  the  position  of  that  muscle.  In 
structure  and  habits  the  oysters  are  much 
like  the  clams.  The  water  is  strained 
through  the  gills,  and  the  minute  food  par- 
ticles are  thus  separated.  They  are  carried 
forward  to  the  mouth  by  the  action  of  cilia. 
The  digestive  and  circulatory  systems  are 
fairly  well  developed.  The  nervous  system 
consists  of  three  chief  clusters  of  nerve-cells 
with  connectives  and  nerve  fibers.  Oysters 
were  formerly  distributed  along  the  Atlantic 
coast,  from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  but  are  now  rare  north  of 
Cape  Cod.  Chesapeake  Bay  is  the  center  of 


the  oyster-beds.  There  are  two  kinds — a 
rounded  form,  found  north,  and  a  more 
southern,  elongated  form.  They  are  found 
also  on  the  coasts  of  England,  Europe,  Japan, 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Australia.  The 
fisheries  are  very  extensive,  and  the  animals 
are  protected  by  laws.  From  May  to  Sep- 
tember they  are  not  caught,  as  that  covers 
the  period  of  breeding.  The  United  States 
leads  the  world  in  the  production  of  oysters, 
and  far  the  largest  supply  comes  from  Mary- 
land. Annually  more  than  29,000,000  bush- 
els are  taken  on  the  coast  of  the  United 
States,  valued  at  more  than  $16,500,000. 
Oysters  were  used  as  food  by  the  ancient 
Romans,  and  it  is  claimed  that  the  Japanese 
engaged  in  oyster  culture  18  centuries  before 
Christ.  See  Brook's  The  Oyster. 

O'zark  Mountains,  a  range  in  Missouri. 
They  start  from  Missouri  River,  cross 
part  of  Missouri  and  Arkansas,  and  enter  In- 
dian Territory.  The  Black  Hills  and  the 
Washita  Mountains  of  Arkansas  are  parts  of 
the  range.  The  highest  peaks  have  an  ele- 
vation of  1,500  to  2,000  feet. 

O'ziums  are  the  largest  group  of  Pueblo 
Indians.  Their  village  is  situated  on  a  small 
stream  about  40  miles  southwest  of  Fort 
Wingate  near  the  western  boundary  of  New 
Mexico.  They  number  about  1,500,  and  are 
slowly  decreasing.  They  are  peaceable, 
industrious  in  their  native  arts,  faithful  to 
their  ancient  beliefs.  In  agriculture,  house- 
building, pottery,  weaving,  social  organiza- 
tion and  ceremonial  observances  they  re- 
semble the  Pueblos  generally,  of  whom  they 
and  the  Hopi  may  be  considered  the  most 
typical  tribes.  They  are  a  remnant  of  the 
Aztec  empire. 

O'zone  is  the  active  form  of  oxygen  which 
is  produced  by  the  action  of  electricity  upon 
ordinary  oxygen  and  in  other  ways.  It  is 
not  possible  to  convert  oxygen  gas  entirely 
into  this  form.  But,  by  cooling  a  mixture 
of  oxygen  and  ozone  to  a  low  temperature, 
the  ozone  may  be  condensed  to  a  deep  blue 
liquid  which  is  unstable  and  readily  explodes. 
When  mixed  with  air,  as  ordinarily  obtained, 
ozone  possesses  a  powerful  odor  resembling 
that  of  diluted  chlorine  and  is  the  most  pow- 
erful oxidizing  agent  known,  attacking  india- 
rubber,  paper  and  other  organic  substances 
and  corroding  mercury  at  ordinary  temper- 
atures. It  is  unstable  and  gradually  changes 
to  ordinary  oxygen  upon  standing,  while  it 
undergoes  this  change  instantly  upon  Cheat- 
ing. It  has  been  shown  that  ozone  gas  is  one 
and  one  half  times  as  heavy  as  oxygen ;  hence 
chemists  believe  that  the  particles  or  mole- 
cules of  this  gas  are  made  of  three  oxygen 
atoms,  while  ordinary  oxygen  molecules  are 
made  of  two  atoms.  Very  minute  quanti- 
ties of  ozone  probably  exist  in  pure  air,  par- 
ticularly that  coming  from  the  sea.  The 
popular  notion  that  this  ozone  is  beneficial 
to  health  is  not  based  on  any  certain  facts. 

H,  L.  WELLS, 


1407 


PACKARD 


P  (.pe),  the  sixteenth  letter,  is  a  voiceless 
consonant.  It  is  articulated  at  the  lips, 
and  is  called  a  sharp  labial,  as  in  cup,  pea, 
spy.  Initial  p  before  n,  sh,  s  and  t  is  silent, 
as  in  pneumatic,  psalm,  pshaw,  ptarmigan. 
P  also  is  silent  in  accompt,  corps,  raspberry, 
receipt,  sempstress.  No  native  English  word 
begins  with  pn,  ps  or  pt. 

Pacific  Ocean  or  South  Sea  is  the  largest 
of  the  divisions  of  the  ocean,  including  about 
half  of  the  water  surface  of  the  globe  and 
covering  more  than  one  third  of  the  whole 
earth.  It  is  7,000  miles  long,  and  its  greatest 
breadth  is  10,000  miles,  with  an  area  of 
56,000,000  square  miles.  It  is  deeper  than 
the  Atlantic,  averaging  about  2,530  fathoms. 
There  are  two  trade-winds,  blowing  almost 
constantly,  one  from  the  northeast  and 
the  other  from  the  southeast,  on  which 
the  surface  currents  of  the  ocean  depend. 
Along  the  equator  is  a  region  of  calms, 
and  north  and  south  of  the  trade-winds 
there  are  belts  of  calms.  A  cold  current 
from  the  Antarctic  Ocean  flows  along  the 
coasts  of  South  America,  and  a  warm  cur- 
rent from  the  equator  flows  west,  dividing 
into  two  branches;  one  known  as  the  Japan 
or  north  equatorial  current  flows  north  past 
Alaska,  resembling  in  its  effects  the  Gulf 
Stream  in  the  Atlantic ;  the  other  turns  south 
and  flows  along  the  shores  of  Australia  and 
New  Zealand.  (See  OCEAN-CURRENTS). 

The  largest  American  river  flowing  into 
the  Pacific  is  the  Yukon,  2,000  miles  long, 
emptying  into  Bering  Sea;  besides  this  are 
the  Fraser,  Columbia,  Sacramento  and 
Colorado  Rivers.  The  rivers  of  South 
America  flowing  into  this  ocean  are  only 
mountain  streams,  as  the  Andes  Mountains 
approach  so  closely  to  the  coast.  The 
nvers  of  Asia,  however,  that  flow  into  the 
Pacific  are  among  the  largest  in  the  world, 
including  the  Amur,  Hoang-ho,  Yang-tse- 
Kiang,  Alekong  and  Menam.  The  coasts 
of  America  and  Australia  bordering  on 
the  Pacific  are  generally  mountainous, 
though  the  shores  of  Alaska  are  low  and 
swampy,  and  the  southern  part  of  South 
America  is  broken  with  bays  and  islands. 
The  Gulfs  of  California,  Panama  and  Guaya- 
quil are  the  most  important  gulfs  of  the 
Pacific  on  its  American  coast.  The  coasts 
of  Asia  are  low  and  fertile,  with  many 

gilfs,  bays  and  groups  of  islands.     Bering 
khotsk,    Japan,    Yellow    and    China    Seas 
are  formed  by  the  peninsulas  and  islands 
on  the  Asiatic  coast. 


The  Pacific  is  remarkable  for  its  myriad 
small  islands  and  groups  of  islands.  On 
the  American  coast  are  Vancouver,  Queen 
Charlotte,  Prince  of  Wales  and  others  in 
British  America;  Tierra  del  Fuego,  the 
islands  on  the  coast  of  Chile  and  the  Aleu- 
tian Islands;  the  islands  of  Japan,  Formosa, 
Philippine  Islands,  Borneo,  Celebes,  Suma- 
tra, Java  and  New  Guinea  are  Asiatic 
islands,  while  in  mid-ocean  are  many  groups 
of  volcanic  origin.  The  Hawaiian,  Ladrone, 
Marshall  and  Gilbert  Islands  in  the  North 
Pacific  and  the  New  Hebrides,  Society, 
Fiji  and  Friendly  (or  Tonga)  Islands  are 
the  principal  of  these  island  groups. 

The  Pacific  was  first  seen  (1513)  by  Euro- 
peans from  a  mountain  in  Panama,  by  Balboa, 
a  Spaniard.  Magellan,  making  his  way 
through  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  was  the 
first  European  to  sail  it  (1520).  He  named 
it  Pacific,  because  of  its  quiet  waters. 
The  first  English  navigator  that  explored 
it  for  any  distance  was  Sir  Francis  Drake. 
The  northwest  passage  through  the  Arctic 
Ocean  into  the  Pacific  was  discovered  by 
Sir  Robert  McClure  in  1850,  and  the 
northeast  passage  in]  1874  by  Norden- 
skjOld. 

Pack'ard,  Alpheus  Spring,  an  American 
naturalist,  was  born  at  Brunswick,  Me., 
Feb.  19,  1839,  graduated  from  Bowdoin 
in  1 86 1,  and  became  assistant  to  Agassiz 
at  Cambridge.  After  taking  part  in  several 
scientific  expeditions,  he  became  state 
entomologist  of  Massachusetts  and  pro- 
fessor of  zoology  and  geology  at  Brown 
University.  He  was  widely  known  as  an 
entomologist  and  zoologist;  founded  and 
for  about  20  years  edited  The  American 
Naturalist;  and  for  five  years  (1877-82) 
was  a  member  of  the  national  entomological 
commission.  During  the  Civil  War  he  was 
assistant  surgeon  to  the  Maine  Volunteers, 
and  for  about  a  year  did  much  service  in 
the  field.  Afterwards,  for  a  time,  he  was 
librarian  and  custodian  of  the  Society  of 
Natural  History  at  Boston.  He  also  for  a 
number  of  years  was  curator  and  a  director 
at  Peabody  Institute,  and  an  authority  on 
agricultural  insect  pests.  He  died  in  1905. 
Besides  many  technical  papers,  his  publi- 
cations include  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects, 
Our  Common  Insects,  Zoology,  Entomology 
for  Beginners,  Text-Book  of  Entomology, 
The  Mammoth  Cave,  Life  History  of  Animals, 
Half  Hours  with  Insects,  Observations  on 
Glacial  Phenomena,  Insects  Injurious  to 


PADEREWSK1 


1408 


PAGE 


Trees,  A  Naturalist  on  the  Labrador  Coast 
and  Lamarck:  the  Founder  of  Evolution. 

Paderewski  (pa'de-refskS),  Ignace  Jan,  a 
Polish  pianist,  was  born  in  Podolia,  a  prov- 
ince of  Russian  Poland,  in  1860.  He  began 
his  musical  studies  when  six,  but  with  very 
imperfect  teachers,  and  at  12  went  to  the 
conservatory  at  Warsaw.  He  made  his 
first  musical  tour  through  Russia  at  16, 
and  was  made  a  professor  of  music  in  the 
conservatory.  Subsequently  he  gave  him- 
self still  more  devotedly  to  his  art,  study- 
ing at  Berlin  and  Vienna,  and  was  appointed 
a  professor  in  the  conservatory  at  Strass- 
burg  in  1883.  While  here,  visiting  a  sum- 
mer resort,  to  amuse  his  friends  he  once  ex- 
temporized upon  a  theme  in  the  style  of 
every  great  composer,  sitting  down  to  the 
piano  in  the  evening  and  playing  until  five 
m  the  morning.  He  made  his  first  public 
appearance  as  a  musician  at  Vienna  in 
1887,  his  wonderful  reputation  as  a  per- 
former on  the  piano  having  been  made 
since  that  time.  He  does  not  depend  upon 
his  genius,  great  as  it  is,  but  on  practice 
and  study,  shutting  himself  up  before  a. 
concert  and  practicing  all  night.  He  is 
particularly  happy  in  his  interpretations 
of  the  works  of  Rubinstein,  Chopin,  Liszt 
and  Schumann.  His  musical  composi- 
tions were  nearly  all  written  before  he  was 
five  and  twenty;  Polish  Dances,  Song  of  the 
Voyager,  Menuet  and  others  are  among 
those  most  valued. 

Padua  (pad'u-a)  or  Padova,  one  of  the 
oldest  cities  of  Italy,  was  in  the  $th  century 
ruled  by  the  Huns,  then  exchanged  between 
the  Goths  and  the  Byzantine  empire,  and 
from  1318  to  1405  was  ruled  independently 
by  a  lord.  In  the  latter  year  it  was  con- 
quered^  by  Venice,  which  held  it  until  1797, 
when  it  was  given  to  Austria,  which,  ex- 
cept from  1805  to  1814,  ruled  it  until  in- 
corporated into  Italy  in  1866.  The  old 
streets  are  dark  and  narrow,  and  a  wall 
still  surrounds  the  town.  The  most  notable 
building  is  the  municipal  palace  (1172- 
1219),  whose  roof,  267$  feet  by  89,  is  the 
largest  in  Europe  unsupported  by  pillars. 
Padua  also  has  many  old  churches.  The 
university:  which  dates  from  1222  and  has 
71  teachers  and  1,364  students,  has  long 
been  celebrated.  There  is  no  manufactur- 
ing industry.  Population  96,135. 

Padu'cah,  Ky.,  the  seat  of  McCracken 
County,  stands  on  the  Ohio  about  48  miles 
above  its  mouth,  and  enjoys  a  large  river 
and  rail  trade.  The  principal  thing  of  note 
connected  with  Paducah  is  its  ice-harbor 
in  the  mouth  of  the  Tennessee  where  boats 
from  the  northern  courses  of  the  Mississippi, 
Ohio  and  Illinois  Rivers  lie  through  the 
winter,  thus  avoiding  the  freezing  of  ice 
and  its  effects  on  them.  Marine  ways  and 
dry-docks  of  large  capacity  are  here.  One 
of  the  largest  peanut  factories  in  the  south ; 
glass-plant;  largest  basket  factory  in  the 


south  if  not  in  the  world;  immense  river 
traffic;  largest  Illinois  Central  shops  out- 
side of  Burnside,  111.;  cordage  factory, 
knitting  mills  and  pants  factory  are  among 
the  industries.  It  handles  more  distilled 
liquors  than  any  other  southern  city  out- 
side of  Louisville,  and  the  lumber  mills 
make  large  foreign  shipments.  The  city 
has  an  excellent  public  school  system, 
many  fine  school-buildings  and  the  service 
of  two  railroads.  Population  22,760. 

Pagan ini  (pa'ga-ne'ne),  Nicolo,  a  famous 
Italian  violinist,  was  a  porter's  son,  born 
at  Genoa,  Feb.  18,  1782.  He  early  devoted 
himself  to  his  instrument,  practicing  some- 
times ten  hours  at  a  stretch,  and  in  1 793  gave 
his  first  concert.  His  professional  tours 
began  in  Italy  in  1805,  extended  through 
Germany  and  Austria  in  1828  and  1829  and 
Paris  and  London  in  1831.  He  returned 
to  Italy  very  wealthy  and  died  at  Nice,  his 
violin  in  his  hand,  May  27,  1840.  See 
Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music,  Vol.  II,  and 
Engle's  F'on-  Mozart  to  Mario. 

Page,  Thomas  Nelson,  noted  as  a  writer 
of  stories  and  poems  in  the  negro  dialect 
was  born  in  Hanover  County,  Va.,  April 
23,  1853.  He  studied  at  Washington  and 
Lee  University,  and  for  a  time  practiced 
law  at  Richmond.  He  wrote  his  first  story, 
Marse  Chan,  in  1884,  and  a  collection  of 
his  writings  is  published  under  the  title 
In  Ole  Virginia.  Meh  Lady  and  Marse  Chan 
are  two  of  his  most  popular  books.  In 
1888  he  published  a  volume  of  verse  entitled 
Befo'  dewar,  an  1  in  1892  issued  a  collection 
of  essays  bearing  the  title  of  The  New  South. 
His  other  realistic  stories  and  novels  in- 
clude Two  Little  Confederates,  Elsket,  On 
Newfound  River,  Pastime  Stories,  Red  Rock 
and  Gordon  Keith — almost  all  his  work  deals 
with  southern  and,  chiefly,  with  negro  life, 
in  _  Virginia.  In  1913  President  Wilson  ap- 
pointed him  Ambassador  to  Italy. 

Page,  Walter  H.,  American  Ambassa- 
dor to  England  under  Wilson,  was  born  in 
Gary,  N.  C.,  Aug.  15,  1855.  Graduating 
from  Johns  Hopkins,  he  became  a  news- 
paper writer  and,  later,  successively  editor 
of  the  Forum  and  the  Atlantic  Monthly. 
As  a  member  of  the  publishing  firm  of 
Doubieday,  Page  &  Company,  he  estab- 
lished the  World's  Work.  On  account  of 
his  rare  ability  in  dealing  with  social 
problems,  he  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  Country  Life  Commission  by  Roose- 
velt. 

Page,  William,  an  American  painter,  was 
born  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  23,  1811.  He 
received  a  premium  from  the  American  In- 
stitute in  New  York  for  a  drawing  in  india 
ink  when  1 1 ,  and  a  medal  from  the  National 
Academy  before  he  was  1 7.  His  full-length 
portrait  of  Farragut  at  the  battle  of  Mobile 
was  presented  by  a  committee  in  1871  to 
the  emperor  of  Russia.  He  died  on  Staten 
Island,  New  York,  Oct.  i,  1885. 


PAINB 


1409 


PALEONTOLOGY7 


Paine,  Robert  Treat,  an  American  states- 
man, was  born  at  Boston,  March  n,  1731. 
He  was  a  graduate  of  Harvard  and  a  stu- 
dent of  theology  and  law.  He  was  chaplain 
in  1755  of  the  provincial  army  of  the  north- 
ern border,  and  became  prominent  in  the 
contests  preceding  the  Revolution,  being  a 
delegate  of  the  convention  called  in  1768  at 
Boston  and  in  1770  managing  the  prosecu- 
tion of  Captain  Preston  for  firing  on  the 
people.  He  was  a  member  of  the  General 
assembly  of  Massachusetts  in  1773  and  1774 
and  of  the  Continental  Congress  from  1774 
to  1778,  and  also  signed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  He  was  judge  of  the  su- 
preme court  of  Massachusetts  and  attorney- 
general  for  ten  years.  He  died  at  Boston, 
May  ii,  1814. 

Paine,  Thomas,  an  English  writer  and  free 
thinker,  was  born  in  Norfolk,  Jan.  29,  1737, 
and  became  staymaker,  marine,  schoolmas- 
ter, exciseman  and  tobacconist  in  turn.  In 
1774  he  sailed  for  America.  In  1776  his 
pamphlet  Common  Sense  appeared,  followed 
a  year  later  by  The  Crisis.  While  he  was 
serving  as  a  private  at  Trenton,  Congress 
gave  him  the  position  of  secretary  of  the 
committee  of  foreign  affairs,  but  he  lost  the 
post  in  1779  and  was  appointed  clerk  of  the 
Pennsylvania  legislature.  In  1785  he  was 
given  $3,000  and  the  New  Rochelle  farm  by 
Congress.  He  returned  to  England  in  1787, 
and  in  1791-92  published  his  Rights  of  Man 
and  the  famous  reply  to  Burke's  Reflections 
upon  the  French  Revolution.  This  work 
caused  much  trouble  and  he  fled  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  elected  to  the  national  con- 
vention which  tried  Louis  XVI.  Favoring 
the  king,  he  offended  Robespierre  and  was 
imprisoned  eleven  months.  Before  his  arrest 
he  had  written  Part  One  of  The  Age  of 
Reason,  and  Parts  Two  and  Three  appeared 
in  1795  and  1807.  In  this  he  decried  athe- 
ism and  Christianity  and  advocated  deism. 
He  returned  to  America  in  1802,  became  a 
drunkard,  and  died  at  New  York,  June  8, 
1809.  See  Leslie  Stephen's  History  of  Eng- 
lish Thought  in  the  i8th  Century. 

Pais'ley,  a  city  in  Renfrewshire,  Scotland, 
is  situated  on  the  White  Cart,  three  miles 
above  the  Clyde  and  six  from  Glasgow.  It 
was  first  heard  of  in  1157,  was  burned  by 
the  English  in  1307,  and  suffered  in  the 
Reformation  in  1561.  It  was  made  a  fre<3 
burgh  in  1488.  The  chief  public  edifices  are 
the  municipal  buildings,  courthouse,  the 
county  buildings  and  library  and  museum. 
The  manufacture  of  Paisley  shawls  has  be- 
come extinct,  but  the  works  of  cotton  thread, 
dyeing,  bleaching,  tartans,  woolen  shawls, 
chemicals,  starch,  corn  flour,  carpets,  ana 
distilling  and  brewing  flourish.  Population 
84,477- 

Palatinate  (pd-latjn-dt),  tlu,  name  of 
two  German  states  united  before  1623.  They 
were  called  the  Upper  and  the  Lower  Palat- 
inate, the  Upper  being  what  now  is  the 


kingdom  of  Bavaria,  and  the  Lower  lying 
on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine  and  bounded  by 
Mainz,  Treves,  Lorraine,  Alsace,  Baden  and 
Wurttemberg.  The  capital  was  Heidelberg. 
The  Rhenish  Palatinate  was  established  as 
an  hereditary  possession  as  early  as  the  i  ith 
century,  and  in  1216  it  was  granted  to  the 
duke  of  Bavaria,  and  this  and  the  Bavarian 
territory  were  held  by  the  Bavarian  house. 
In  1559  the  Rhenish  territory  and  the  elec- 
toral vote  passed  to  Frederick  III;  after- 
ward to  Frederick  V;  and  finally  to  his 
son.  In  1 80 1  France  took  possession  of  the 
western  part  and  gave  the  eastern  to  Bava- 
ria, Nassau  and  Hesse-Darmstadt.  The  left 
bank  was  restored  to  Germany  in  1815,  the 
larger  part  going  to  Bavaria,  the  rest 
being  divided  among  other  provinces.  To- 
day two  districts  of  Bavaria  are  known  as 
the  Palatinate  proper  (Rheinpfalz)  with  an 
area  of  2,372  square  miles  (population  937,- 
085)  and  Upper  Palatinate  (Oberpfalz),with 
an  area  of  3,862  square  miles  (population 
600,284).  The  capital  of  the  latter  is  Ratis- 
bon  (Regensburg)  on  the  Danube,  popula- 
tion 52,624. 

Pal'atine  Hill.     See  ROME. 

Pa'leobot'any,  the  science  which  deals 
with  fossil  plants.  It  is  the  correlative  of 
paleontology,  which  deals  with  fossil  animals. 
It  is  the  function  of  paleobotany  to  work 
out  the  history  of  plant-life  on  the  earth. 
This  involves  the  determination,  as  far  as 
possible,  of  plants  which  have  lived  in  suc- 
cessive ages  and  the  relations  of  those  of 
one  age  to  those  of  previous  and  succeeding 
ages.  The  science  is  as  yet  but  poorly 
developed. 

^Pa'leontol'ogy,  the  science  which  deals 
with  fossils.  Vertebrate  paleontology  deals 
with  the  fossils  of  vertebrates;  invertebrate 
paleontology  with  the  fossils  of  inverte- 
brates; paleobotany  with  the  fossils  of 
plants.  All  system  of  rocks  younger  than 
the  archean  contain  fossils.  Roughly  speak- 
ing, they  are  more  abundant  in  the  later 
systems  than  in  the  earlier,  and  but  few 
have  been  found  in  the  Algonkian.  The  ani- 
mal and  plant  fossils  of  a  given  system  of 
rocks  represent  the  fauna  and  flora,  respec- 
tively, of  the  period  when  the  system  was 
formed.  It  is  customary  to  speak  of  the 
fossils  themselves  as  the  fauna  and  flora; 
the  Cambrian  fauna  consists  of  the  fossils 
of  the  Cambrian  system;  the  lower  Cambrian 
fauna  of  the  fossils  of  the  lower  division 
of  the  Cambrian  system;  the  middle  cam- 
brian  fauna  of  the  fossils  of  the  middle 
division  of  the  Cambrian  system;  and  so 
on.  It  is  the  province  of  paleontology  to 
determine  ( i )  what  fossil  forms  occur  in 
the  rocks  of  each  system  and  in  the  rocks 
of  each  part  of  each  system  5  ( a )  the 
origin  of  each  fauna;  and  (3)  the  relations 
of  each  fauna  to  its  successor  The  first 
point  mentioned  above  involves  a,  knowl- 
edge of  the  geographic  diversity  of  ani- 


PALEONTOLOGY 


1410 


PALERMO 


mals  at  each  stage  of  the  earth's  history. 
For  example,  there  have  been  times  when 
faunas  were  essentially  cosmopolitan,  that 
is,  when  the  same  species  were  essentially 
worldwide  in  their  distribution.  There  have 
been  other  times  when  the  faunas  were  co- 
lonial, that  is,  when  geographic  diversity 
was  very  great.  These  facts  and  their  ex- 
planation belong  to  paleontology.  Paleon- 
tology also  involves  the  study  of  the  fossils 
in  the  earlier  and  later  parts  of  a  system. 
The  second  point  mentioned  above  involves 
the  determination  of  the  question  as  to 
whether  the  fauna  of  a  given  system  or  part 
of  a  system  originated  from  the  fauna  which 
lived  in  the  same  region  at  an  earlier  time; 
or  whether  it  represents  immigrants  into 
the  region  where  it  occurs;  or,  lastly,  whether 
it  resulted  from  the  commingling  of  resident 
forms  with  immigrants.  The  third  point 
mentioned  above  is  akin  to  the  second.  It 
considers  a  fauna  in  connection  with  its 
successors  and  descendants,  instead  of  in 
connection  with  its  predecessors  and  ances- 
tors. A  complete  knowledge  of  paleontology 
would  involve  a  complete  knowledge  of  the 
living  forms  of  each  stage  of  the  earth's 
history.  It  would  do  for  all  forms  of  life 
what  history  essays  to  do  for  the  human 
race. 

Paleontology  is  of  great  service  in  deter- 
mining, or  helping  to  determine,  the  age  of 
rock  formations,  when  their  age  could  not 
be  determined  by  other  means.  After  the 
study  of  fossils  has  progressed  so  far  as  to 
make  known  the  faunas  of  successive  peri- 
ods, the  finding  of  the  fossils  of  any  one  of 
these  faunas  in  a  given  bed  of  rock  deter- 
mines the  age  of  the  bed.  In  making  such 
determinations  the  general  character  of  the 
fauna  as  a  whole,  rather  than  any  single 
species,  is  to  be  relied  on.  Those  phases  of 
paleontology  which  involve  the  study  of 
fossils  for  determining  the  age  of  formations 
or  for  determining  the  relations  of  land  and 
water  at  successive  periods  or  for  the  de- 
termination of  geologic  conditions  of  any 
sort  are  sometimes  called  paleontologic  geol- 
ogy. Paleontologic  geology,  therefore,  in- 
volves the  study  of  fossils  for  the  light  they 
may  throw  on  earth  history.  Paleontology 
also  affords  one  of  the  chief  lines  of  inves- 
tigation for  the  solution  of  many  of  the 
problems  of  biological  evolution.  Those 
phases  of  paleontology  which  involve  the 
study  of  fossils  for  the  light  they  may  throw 
on  the  history  of  the  animal  life  of  earth 
are  paleontologic  zoology.  The  term  paleon~ 
tologic  botany  would  have  a  corresponding 
meaning  in  connection  with  plant  life. 

In  a  general  way  it  is  true  that  the  ani- 
mals and  plants  of  any  period  are,  on  the 
whole,  of  higher  types  than  those  of  pre- 
ceding periods;  but,  while  this  is  true  as  a 
general  statement,  it  does  not  follow  that 
the  representatives  of  any  class  of  animals 
in  any  given  period  are  of  higher  type  than 


any  of  the  representatives  of  the  same  class 
at  an  earlier  time.  For  example,  trilobites 
became  extinct  at  the  end  of  the  paleozoic 
era.  (See  GEOLOGY.)  The  last  of  the  trilo- 
bites were  not  higher  in  type  than  earlier 
representatives  of  the  same  group.  The 
living  representatives  of  some  types  of  ani- 
mals are  less  highly  organized  than  ancient 
representatives  of  the  same  type.  Paleon- 
tology seems  to  show  that  evolution  is  pri- 
marily differentiation,  not  ascent.  Differen- 
tiation, in  this  connection,  means  the  deriva- 
tion of  various  types  from  a  single  type. 
Some  of  these  derivative  forms  may  be 
higher  than  the  ancestral  form,  while  others 
are  lower.  In  the  struggle  for  existence  the 
higher  types,  on  the  whole,  seem  to  have 
got  the  better  of  the  lower,  not  to  the  ex- 
tent of  annihilating  the  latter,  but  to  the 
extent  of  allowing  the  former  to  dominate 
them.  While  the  succession  of  fossils  sup- 
ports, in  a  general  way,  the  doctrine  of 
evolution,  it  has,  in  few  cases,  afforded  the 
specific  forms  which  demonstrate  a  con- 
nected line  of  ancestry  between  living  forms 
and  very  ancient  ones. 

It  is  probably  true  that  many  forms  of 
life  which  have  lived  in  the  past  were  never 
fossilized.  It  is  probably  true  that  very 
many  forms  which  have  been  fossilized  have 
not  been  found.  Most  fossils  which  are  now 
known  are  the  fossils  of  species  which  lived 
in  shallow  water  or  in  marshes  and  lakes. 
Relics  of  those  forms  of  life  which  lived  on 
dry  land  are  rarely  preserved.  The  relics 
of  animals  which  live  in  the  deep  sea  are 
likely  to  be  preserved,  but  have  rarely  be- 
come accessible,  for  the  fossiliferous  forma- 
tions of  the  land  were,  for  the  most  part., 
made  in  shallow  water.  Present  knowledge 
of  ancient  life  is,  therefore,  very  far  from 
complete,  and  must  always  remain  so. 

R.  D.  SALISBURY. 

Palermo  (pd-ler'mo),  a  seaport,  archbish- 
opric, former  capital  of  Sicily,  now  the  fifth 
city  of  Italy,  stands  on  the  northwest  corner 
of  the  island  in  a  valley  before  Mount  Pel- 
legrino.  The  city  was  first  known  as  the 
Phoenician  Panormus.  It  was  successively 
conquered  by  Pyrrhus  (276  B.  C.),  by  the 
Romans  (254  B.  C.),  by  the  Vandals  (440 
A.  D.),  by  Belisarius,  the  Saracens,  the 
Pisans  and  the  Normans.  In  the  earth- 
quakes of  1693,  !726  and  1823  the  city  suf- 
fered much.  It  revolted  against  the  kings 
of  Naples  in  1820  and  1848,  and  was  freed 
by  Garibaldi  in  1860.  The  streets  are  lined 
with  old  and  picturesque  buildings  of  inter- 
esting architecture,  the  most  conspicuous 
being  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Rosalie,  the  royal 
palace,  the  churches  of  Martorana,  St.  John 
of  the  Hermits  and  San  Cataldo,  the  arch- 
bishop's palace,  town  house  and  arsenal.  A 
state  university  founded  in  1805  has  its 
seat  at  Palermo,  with  a  teaching  faculty  of 
6 1  and  1,083  attending  students.  The  in- 
dustries are  insignificant,  but  the  shipping 


PALESTINE 


I4II 


PALIMPSEST 


of  oranges,  lemons,  dried  fruits,  sumac,  tar- 
tar, grain,  oils,  manna,  sulphur,  wine  and 
lemon  j  uice  are  very  large.  Population  319,- 
ooo.  See  Freeman's  History  of  Sicily. 

Pal'estine,  the  Bible's  land  of  Canaan, 
land  of  promise,  Holy  Land  and  land  of 
Israel,  was  at  the  time  of  the  conquest 
inhabited  by  six  nations :  the  Canaanites, 
Hivites,  Hittites,  Ammonites,  Perizzites  and 
Jebusites.  The  invaders  settled  in  allotted 
lands,  and  the  struggles  for  possession  fol- 
lowed for  some  years,  although  no  tribes 
were  dispossessed.  In  early  times  the  tribal 
distinctions  were  strongly  preserved,  but 
later,  as  spoken  of  in  Judges,  the  cities  rose 
and  fell,  and  Jerusalem  became  the  capital 
of  David  and  Solomon ;  but  on  the  founding 
of  the  northern  kingdom  Shechem,  Tirzah 
and  Samaria  became  in  succession  the  capi- 
tal. On  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  cap- 
tivity they  inhabited  the  territory  between 
Jerusalem  and  Beersheba  and  Jericho  and 
Lachish,  while  the  Philistines  retained  their 
lands  undisturbed.  Under  Herod  the  Great, 
who  governed  the  entire  country,  the  king- 
dom included  Galilee,  almost  unknown  in 
the  Old  Testament,  Samaria,  Judaea,  Idu- 
masa,  Peraea,  Gaulonitis,  Auranitis  and  Tra- 
chonitis.  The  most  populous  and  fertile  of 
these  provinces  was  Galilee.  The  prosperity 
fostered  by  the  Roman  rulers  disappeared 
on  the  conquest  by  Vespasian  and  the  de- 
struction of  the  temple  by  Titus.  The  sec- 
ond time  the  Jews  rose  in  revolt,  led  by 
Bar-Cochba  the  pretended  Messiah,  led  to 
the  bloodiest  of  all  wars,  including  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem,  but  the  revolt  was  put  down 
before  the  fortress  of  Bether.  (See  JEWS). 
For  the  next  hundred  years  the  progress  of 
Christianity  was  rapid,  and  after  the  con- 
version of  Constantine  and  -the  building  of 
the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  the  history 
for  three  hundred  years  is  the  story  of  the 
church.  In  614  A.  D.  King  Chosroes  of 
Persia  entered  Syria  and  was  joined  by  the 
Jews,  who  looked  to  him  for  deliverance. 
They  massacred  90,000  Christians  in  Jeru- 
salem and  burned  all  the  buildings.  Fifteen 
years  later  the  country  was  retaken  by 
Heraclius,  only  to  have  it  fall  into  the 
hands  of  the  Mohammedans,  in  whose  con- 
trol it  remained  for  four  hundred  years. 
About  640  the  Mosque  of  Omar,  the  most 
beautiful  building  in  the  world,  was  built 
by  Byzantine  architects.  The  crusades  failed 
to  relieve  the  oppression,  and  the  country 
went  from  bad  to  worse  as  regards  progress, 
and  the  ruins  crumbled  further. 

Palestine  covers  an  area  of  about  12,000 
square  miles,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  river  Kasimiyeh,  on  the  east  by  the 
Jordan  and  on  the  west  by  the  sea.  Ranges 
of  hills  run  over  the  entire  country  from 
east  to  west  and,  as  the  Bible  says,  it  con- 
sists of  desert,  hills,  plains  and  valley.  The 
principal  elevations  are  Jebel  JermuK,  3,934 
feet;  Mounts  Carmel,  Ebal,  Gerizim,  Tell 


Asur  and  Rasesh  Sherifeh.  The  valley  of 
the  Jordan  begins  near  the  Mediterranean 
and  runs  from  5  to  13  miles  wide  to  the 
plain  of  Jericho.  The  Dead  Sea  is  another 
feature  of  interest,  it  having  no  issue  for 
its  waters  save  by  evaporation.  The  coun- 
try has  few  rivers.  The  Mefshukh,  Namien, 
El  Mukatta  and  a  few  others  flow  into  the 
Mediterranean;  the  Yarmuk,  Rukkad,  Zerka 
and  Mojib  flow  into  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  The 
summers  are  extremely  warm  and  the  win- 
ters cold  and  wet.  At  present  the  modern 
spirit  of  improvement  is  at  work  in  Pales- 
tine, roads  are  being  built,  railroads  run 
from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem,  from  Beirut  to 
Damascus  and  from  Haifa  to  Damascus,  and 
new  colonies  with  new  buildings  are  scattered 
over  the  entire  land.  The  ruins  are  disap- 
pearing, and  a  modern  country  is  springing 
up  from  the  ashes.  Population  estimated  at 
1,000,000.  See  E.  Hull's  Physical  Geology  and 
Geography  of  Arabia  Petrcea  and  Palestine. 

Palestine,  Tex.,  city,  county-seat  of  Ander- 
son County,  about  135  miles  north  of  Houston. 
In  the  vicinity  are  salt  mines  and  iron-ore  de- 
posits. The  most  important  agricultural  prod- 
uct is  cotton,  although  grain,  fruit  and  vegeta- 
bles are  grown.  Among  the  manufactures  are 
cottonseed-oil,  flour,  pottery,  iron  products 
and  packed-beef.  It  has  good  schools,  water- 
works, gas  and  electric  lights.  Population 
10,48*2. 

Palestrina  (pa'lds-tre'na),  Giovanni  Pier- 
luigi  da,  the  greatest  Italian  composer,  was 
born  in  1524  at  Palestrina,  studied  at  Rome 
and  in  1551  was  made  musical  director  of 
the  Julian  chapel  of  St.  Peter's  by  Pope 
Julius  III.  In  1554  he  published  a  collec- 
tion of  masses  and  became  one  of  the  singers 
of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  a  position  which  he 
lost  upon  the  accession  of  Paul  IV.  But  in 
1555  he  became  choir-master  of  the  Lateran, 
and  in  1561  was  given  a  similar  position  in 
St.  Maria  Maggiore,  which  he  held  to  1571, 
when  he  returned  to  the  Julian  Chapel.  He 
reconstructed  the  musical  service  of  the 
Roman  church,  combining  musical  science 
with  art,  and  takes  a  front  rank  in  musical 
history.  All  his  numerous  compositions  are 
sacred  music.  He  died  at  Rome  on  Feb. 
2,  1594.  See  Life  by  Baini. 

Pal'et  (  in  plants).  The  prominent  bracts 
associated  with  the  inflorescence  of  grasses  are 
called  glumes,  and  those  immediately  about 
the  individual  flowers  are  called  palets.  See 
GRASS. 

Pal'impsest,  the  name  given  to  ancient 
parchments  which  have  been  used  more  than 
once  for  writing  purposes.  The  conquest  of 
Egypt  by  the  Saracens  cut  off  from  Europe 
the  papyrus  which  was  used  to  write  upon, 
and  parchment  could  be  had  only  in  limited 
quantities.  So,  through  the  dark  ages,  old 
manuscripts  were  used,  after  removing  the 
first  writing  upon  them.  Sometimes  the 
writing  was  washed  off  with  a  sponge,  and 
the  parchment  smoothed  with  pumice  stone; 


PALISSY 


1412 


PALMER 


at  other  times  the  letters  were  scraped  away 
with  a  sharp  blade.  Nearly  all  ancient  man- 
uscripts, however,  were  written  with  an  ink 
which  could  not  be  entirely  removed,  and 
traces  of  a  former  writing  could  be  seen  be- 
neath the  new  copy.  In  modern  times  there 
have  been  various  efforts  to  restore  these  an- 
cient writings  by  some  chemical  treatment. 
In  this  way  have  been  found  copies  of  the 
Republic  of  Cicero,  the  Institutes  of  Gaius,  a 
part  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  and  other 
parts  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  The 
Republic  of  Cicero  was  covered  by  a  comment- 
ary on  the  Psalms,  written  by  St.  Augustine. 
.Palissy  (pd'le'se'),  Bernard,  the  great 
French  potter,  was  born  near  Agen  in  1509, 
and  wandered  as  a  glass  and  portrait 
painter  until  he  married  and  settled  in 
Saintes  in  1538.  While  working  here  as  a 
surveyor,  his  attention  was  attracted  by  an 
enameled  cup,  and  he  determined  to  dis- 
cover the  process.  After  16  years  of  con- 
tinuous labor  and  experiment,  in  which  he 
used  all  his  resources  and  burned  the  tables 
and  floors  for  fuel,  he  succeeded,  and, 
though  imprisoned  in  1562  as  a  Huguenot, 
he  was  released  by  royal  edict  and  appointed 
"inventor  of  figurines"  to  the  king.  He 
removed  to  Paris  in  1564,  and,  through 
the  aid  of  Catherine  dei  Medici,  was  saved 
from  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 
From  1575  to  1584  he  gave  a  course  of 
lectures  on  physics  and  natural  history, 
demonstrating  the  origin  of  springs,  the 
formation  of  fossil  shells  and  the  best 
method  of  purifying  water.  In  158 5,  how- 
ever, he  was  again  arrested  as  a  Huguenot 
and  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille,  where  he  died 
in  1589.  See  H.  Morley's  Palissy  the  Potter. 
Pal'las.  See  MINERVA. 
Palm,  species  of  the  great  tropical  family 
Palmaceaz.  Palms  are  the  tree  monocoty- 
ledons, and  there 
are  more  than 
1,000  species. 
The  palmetto  of 
the  Gulf  States 
is  a  diminutive 
|  representative  of 
Jthe  group.  The 
body  consists  of  a 
,  unbranched, 
columnar  trunk 
bearing  at  its 
summit  a  crown 
of  immense 
leaves,  which 
are  pinnately  or 
palmately  veined 
and  often  split- 
-ting  so  as  to  ap- 
pear  lobed  or 
compound.  The 
flower  clusters 
arise  from  the 
leafy  crown  and 
usually  are  very 


PALMYRA    PALM 


large  and  pendent.  Aside  from  their  orna- 
mental purposes,  palms  are  very  useful. 
Notable  among  the  useful  forms  are  the 
date  palm  with  its  pulpy  fruit,  the  cocoa- 
nut  palm  with  its  huge  seeds  full  of  edible 
endosperm,  the  sago  palm  whose  pith 
yields  the  starchy  sago  and  the  ivory 
palm  whose  hard  endosperm  is  the  vegetable 
ivory.  Palm  honey,  palm-wine  and  palm- 
oil  are  also  well-known  products.  The 
leaves  and  stems  of  many  of  the  species 
are  used  for  making  hats,  baskets,  fans 
About  60  species  of  hardy  palms  are  grown 
in  California.  Of  our  few  native  palms  the 
most  common  is  the  palmetto.  Palms  vary 
in  height  from  three  to  100  feet.  The  palm 
of  history  and  of  the  Bible  is  the  date- 
palm,  while  the  most  prized  ornamental 
species  is  the  royal  palm. 

Pal' ma,  Tomas  Estrado,  the  first  pres- 
ident of  Cuba,  was  born  in  Bayama,  San- 
tiago de  Cuba,  June  9th,  1835.  The  son  of  a 
wealthy  planter,  he  was  educated  at  Havana 
and  subsequently  studied  law  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Seville  in  Spain.  Upon  the  out- 
break of  the  Ten  Years'  War  (1868-78)  in 
Cuba  he  joined  the  insurgents  and  soon 
rose  to  the  rank  of  general.  Under  the 
provisional  Cuban  government  he  was  suc- 
cessively elected  to  the  assembly,  made 
secretary  of  state,  and  elected  president. 
Soon  after,  he  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards 
and  taken  prisoner  to  Spain,  and  his  estates 
in  Cuba  were  confiscated.  Having  regained 
his  liberty,  he  settled  in  Honduras.  A  lit- 
tle later  he  removed  to  New  York  and 
opened  a  school  for  Cuban-American  boys 
at  Central  Valley  in  Orange  County.  In 
1895  the  Cubans  again  rebelled  and  in  July 
of  the  same  year  he  was  elected  president 
of  the  associated  Cuban  clubs  in  the  United 
States.  After  the  Spanish-American  War 
which  liberated  Cuba,  Palma  was  elected 
the  first  president  of  the  new  Cuban  Re- 
public (Oct.,  1901).  He  was  inaugurated 
on  May  soth,  1902,  and  on  the  same  day 
the  United  States  relinquished  all  claim 
to  jurisdiction  over  the  internal  affairs  of 
the  _  new  nation.  In  1906  another  insur- 
rection broke  out,  due  primarily  to  the  very 
general  belief  that  the  voice  of  the  people 
had  been  stifled  at  the  polls  in  1905  and 
that  by  means  of  pressure  and  intimida- 
tion President  Palma  had  brought  about 
his  re-election.  This  led  to  the  United 
States',  interference  in  behalf  of  peace. 
Palma  being  unwilling  to  meet  the  con- 
ditions imposed  and  the  investigation  that 
was  to  follow,  on  September  28th,  1906, 
tendered  his  resignation  and  retired  to  his 
old  home  town  of  Bayama.  On  the  fol- 
lowing day  the  United  States  secretary 
of  war  by  the  authority  of  President  Roose- 
velt proclaimed  himself  provisional  governor 
of  Cuba.  He  died,  Nov.  4, 1908.  See  CUBA. 

Palm'er,  Alice  Freeman,  an  active 
educator  and  socia,  reformer,  was  born  at 


PALMER 


1413 


PALMISTRY 


Colesville,  N.  Y.,  in  1855,  and  died  some- 
what suddenly  in  Paris,  France,  in  1902. 
She  studied  at  the  University  of  Michigan, 
was  teacher  in  a  high  school  from  1876  to 
1879,  and  in  1879  became  professor  of  his- 
tory in  Wellesley  College.  In  1882  she  be- 
came president  of  Wellesley  College.  She 
married  Professor  G.  H.  Palmer  of  Harvard 
University  in  1887,  and  resigned  her  pres- 
idency. In  1892  she  became  (non-resident) 
dean  of  the  Women's  College  at  Chicago 
University.  Mrs.  Palmer  was  the  recipient 
of  honorary  degrees  from  Michigan,  Colum- 
bia and  Union  Universities. 

Palmer,  Erastus  Dow,  an  American 
sculptor,  was  born  at  Pompey,  N.  Y.,  April 
2,  1817.  He  was  a  joiner  by  trade,  and 
made  carvings  first  of  animals  and  leaves 
in  wood.  Seeing  a  cameo  head,  he  cut  on  a 
shell  a  portrait  of  his  wife,  and  his  success 
induced  him  to  try  working  in  marble.  Two 
bas-reliefs,  Morning  and  Evening,  The  Sleep- 
ing Peri,  The  Angel  at  the  Sepulchre  (in  the 
cemetery  at  Albany),  Immortality,  Faith 
and  Sappho,  also  bas-reliefs,  are  some  of 
his  best-known  works.  He  executed  busts 
of  Alexander  Hamilton,  Washington  Irving, 
Commodore  Perry  and  others  and  a  statue 
of  Robert  Livingstone  for  the  state  of 
New  York,  cast  in  bronze.  The  Landing 
of  the^  Pilgrims,  in  the  Capitol  at  Washing- 
ton, is  one  of  his  largest  works.  He  died 
in  1904. 

Palmer,  John  M.,  a  soldier  and  statesman 
of  Illinois,  was  born  at  Eagle  Creek,  Ky., 
Sept.  13,  1817.  He  removed  to  Illinois 
when  14,  and  made  his  home  at  Carlinville. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1839.  He 
was  a  state  senator  in  1852-5,  and  was 
prominent  in  the  organization  of  the  Repub- 
lican party  in  1856.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  war,  he  was  given  command  of  the  nth 
111.  regiment.  He  became  brigadier-gen- 
eral in  the  same  year  and  major-general 
in  1862.  He  took  part  in  the  battles  of  New 
Madrid,  Island  No.  10,  Corinth  and  Mur- 
freesboro.  In  Sherman's  campaign  in  1864 
General  Palmer  had  command  of  the  i4th 
corps.  In  1868  he  was  elected  governor  of 
Illinois  by  the  Republican  party  and  served 
two  terms.  He  was  United  States  senator 
in  1891-7.  In  1896  he  was  the  candidate 
for  the  presidency  upon  the  ticket  of  the 
"sound  money*'  Democrats.  He  died  on 
Sept.  25,  1900. 

Palmer,  Ray,  an  American  clergyman, 
was  born  at  Little  Compton,  R.  I.,  Nov.  12, 
1808.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and 
studied  theology,  entering  upon  his  pastoral 
work  at  Bath,  Me.  Most  of  his  life  was 
spent  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  where  he  was  one 
of  the  most  prominent  clergymen  of  the 
Congregational  church.  He  is  best  known 
by  his  hymns,  some  of  which  are  found  in 
nearly  every  church-collection,  and  one  of 
which,  My  Faith  Looks  Up  to  Thee,  is  widely 
used  and  very  popular.  Besides  many 


hymns  he  wrote  Closet  Hours;  Remember 
Me;  Home,  the  Unlost  Paradise;  and  Earnest 
Words.  He  died  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  March 
29,  1887. 

Palm'erston,  Henry  John  Temple,  Vis- 
count, was  born  near  Romsey,  Hants,  in 
England,  on  Oct.  20,  1784,  and  went  to  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  in  1800,  succeeded 
his  father  as  viscount  in  1802,  and  graduated 
from  Cambridge  in  1803.  Of  great  ability, 
he  was  the  candidate  of  the  Tories  from  the 
university  in  1806;  he  was  defeated  then 
and  in  1807,  but  gained  a  seat  in  parliament 
in  that  year  from  the  Isle  of  Wight.  In 
1811  he  was  elected  from  Cambridge  and 
held  his  seat  for  20  years,  until  he  supported 
the  reform  bill.  Then  he  successively  rep- 
resented Bletchingly,  South  Hampshire 
and  Tiverton.  In  1809,  as  a  Tory,  he  was 
made  junior  lord  of  the  admiralty  and  sec- 
retary of  war,  without  a  seat  in  the  cabinet, 
and  held  the  office  until  1828.  He  left  the 
Tory  party  in  1828  and  entered  the  reform 
ranks,  and  under  Earl  Grey  in  1830  became 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  as  such 
adopted  a  policy  which  made  England  and 
France  friends.  He  assisted  in  securing 
the  independence  of  Belgium  and  in  placing 
the  thrones  of  Spain  and  Portugal  on  a 
constitutional  basis.  In  1841  he  went  out 
of  office  with  the  Whigs,  but  returned  in 
1846  as  foreign  minister  and  stirred  up 
various  difficulties  through  his  policy.  In 
1850  a  resolution  of  censure  was  introduced 
in  the  house  of  lords  and  a  resolution  of 
confidence  in  the  lower  house,  and  after  a 
debate  of  four  days  the  latter  was  carried. 
In  December,  1851,  Palmerston  was  asked 
to  resign  on  account  of  the  expression  of 
his  opinions  regarding  the  actions  of  Louis 
Napoleon,  but  defeated  the  prime  minister, 
Lord  Russell,  on  the  militia  bill  in  the  fol- 
lowing February.  He  became  home  sec- 
retary in  1852  and  in  1855  was  made  prime 
minister.  Although  his  government  was 
defeated  in  1857,  on  an  appeal  to  the  country, 
it  stood  until  February,  1858,  wh«n  it  fell 
before  the  conspiracy  bill.  In  June,  1859, 
Palmerston  was  made  first  lord  of  the  treas- 
ury, which  post  he  retained  until  his  death. 
Among  the  principal  events  of  his  official 
career  were  the  American  Civil  War, 
Napoleon's  war  with  Austria  and  the  Austro- 
Prussian  war  with  Denmark.  He  died  at 
his  country  seat,  near  Hatfield,  Hertford- 
shire, Oct.  18,  1865.  His  prevailing  char- 
acteristics were  oblivion  of  self,  ardent  de- 
sire to  be  the  head  of  a  people,  not  of  a 
political  party,  and  intense  patriotism. 
See  Lives  by  Anthony  Trollope  and  the 
present  Duke  of  Argyle. 

Pal'mistry,  is  the  art  or  practice  of  tell- 
ing fortunes  by  inspection  and  interpreta- 
tion of  the  lines  and  marks  in  the  palm  of 
the  hand.  In  the  palm  of  the  hand  are 
recognized  three  large  principal  lines:  the 
first,  the  one  nearest  the  fingers,  is  called 


PALMYRA 


1414 


PAMLICO 


the  line  of  the  heart,  which  when  well-de- 
fined is  said  to  signify  strong  and  happy 
affection,  but  when  broken  it  denotes  in- 
constancy; the  second,  the  line  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  hand,  is  the  line  of  the  head  and 
in  the  same  way  denotes  strong  or  weak 
mental  faculties;  the  third,  the  line  at  the 
base  of  the  thumb,  is  the  line  of  life,  and 
its  distinctness  and  clearness  determine 
the  length  of  life  and  liableness  to  illness. 
These  are  said  to  represent  the  trinity  of 
existence:  The  heart,  sensation;  the  head, 
intelligence;  life,  action.  In  the  palm  are 
also  slight  elevations  called  mountains  or 
mounts.  These  are  named  after  the  planets 
from  which  they  receive  according  to  their 
greater  or  less  development  favorable  or 
unfavorable  influences.  Each  has  its  par- 
ticular significance.  The  mount  at  the 
base  of  the  first  finger  is  the  mount  of 
Jupiter  and,  normally  developed,  indicates 
love  of  honor  and  happy  disposition;  the 
one  at  the  base  of  the  middle  finger  is  the 
mount  of  Saturn  and  denotes  prudence 
and  wisdom;  the  ring  finger  the  mount  of 
Apollo  and  denotes  love  of  the  beautiful 
and  noble  aspirations;  the  little  finger  the 
mount  of  Mercury  and  denotes  love  of 
science,  industry  and  commerce;  beneath 
Mercury  the  mount  of  Mars  denotes  courage 
and  resolution;  at  the  wrist  the  mount  of 
the  moon  signifies  a  dreamy  disposition 
and  morality;  at  the  thumb  the  mount  of 
Venus  denotes  taste  for  beauty  and  loving 
temperament.  Besides  the  lines  and 
mounts  there  are  squares,  stars,  circles, 
triangles,  crosses,  rings,  points,  islands, 
forks,  branches  and  chains,  which  accord- 
ing to  their  arrangement  corroborate  or 
modify  the  deductions  made  from  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  mounts  and  lines.  The 
general  form  of  the  hand  and  nails  also 
has  significance. 

Palmistry  is  of  great  antiquity.  It  came 
from  India  and  played  an  important  part 
among  the  Chaldeans,  Assyrians  and  Egypt- 
ians. The  Jewish  people  possessed  thou- 
sands of  palmists.  Solomon  speaks  of  the 
art  as  having  been  perfected  among  the 
Hebrews.  It  was  cultivated  by  such  phi- 
losophers as  Plato  and  Aristotle  and  was 
practiced  in  Rome.  Augustus  was  con- 
sidered an  accomplished  practitioner.  It 
was  of  great  repute  in  Europe  in  the  mid- 
dle ages.  Cardanus  is  the  author  of  what 
is  considered  the  best  work  on  the  subject. 
It  needs  hardly  be  added  that  only  a  keenly 
imaginative  person  could  hope  to  become 
a  successful  palmister. 

Palmyra  ( pal-mi' r  a),  from  100  to  1300 
A.  D.  a  rich  and  beautiful  city  of  Syria, 
stands  in  an  oasis  on  the  northern  line  of 
the  Arabian  desert,  about  150  miles  from 
Damascus  on  one  side  and  the  Euphrates 
on  the  other.  It  was  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  by  Solomon,  but  probably 
was  a  caravan  station  of  the  Arabs.  Dur- 


ing the  wars  between  Rome  and  Parthia 
the  city  acknowledged  Roman  supremacy 
and  gained  much  by  it,  inasmuch  as  it  was 
made  the  object  of  many  favors  by  the 
Roman  emperors.  In  272  the  attempt  to 
found  an  independent  empire  was  crushed 
by  Aurelian,  and  it  remained  a  Roman  de- 
pendency until  it  submitted,  with  the  rest 
of  Syria,  to  the  Moslems.  It  began  its 
retrograde  career  in  the  isth  century,  and 
now  is  but  a  city  of  ruins.  The  ancient  in- 
habitants tanned  leather,  controlled  the 
desert  caravan  trade,  and  mined  salt,  gold 
and  silver.  See  Ruins  of  Palmyra  by  Wood 
and  Dawkins.  See  ZENOBIA. 

Pa'lo  Al'to,  Cal.,  Santa  Clara  County,  27 
miles  south  of  San  Francisco,  is  the  seat  of  the 
university  founded  by  Leland  Stanford  in 
memory  of  his  son.  This  University  pro- 
vides education  free,  from  the  high  school 
through  college,  including  post-graduate  and 
the  highest  research  work.  Its  buildings  are 
in  the  California  Mission  style,  built  of  yellow 
sandstone  around  a  quadrangle.  The  univer- 
sity has  a  faculty  of  250,  its  students  num- 
ber 2,000,  and  there  is  an  endowment  of 
$30,000,000.  Palo  Alto  has  8  churches,  no 
saloons,  and  municipal  ownership  of  public 
utilities.  Manzanita  Hall  for  boys,  Castilleja 
School,  Harker  School  for  girls,  St.  Patrick's 
Theological  Seminary  are  also  located  here. 
Palo  Alto  has  a  population  of  6,000  and  is 
the  center  of  a  closely  settled  community 
of  12,000.  See  STANFORD. 

Palo  Alto  (pd'lddl'to),  Battle  of,  an  en- 
gagement between  American  troops  under 
General  Taylor  and  the  Mexicans  led  by 
General  Arista.  It  took  place  (May  8, 
1846)  in  the  woods  in  the  southern  part  of 
Texas,  about  eight  miles  northeast  of 
Brownsville.  The  battle  lasted  five  hours, 
and  the  Americans  were  victorious.  Palo 
Alto  is  from  the  Spanish,  meaning  Tall 
Timber. 

Pamir  (pd-mer'),  the  center  of  the  central 
Asian  highland  system,  is  a  lofty  plateau 
with  an  average  elevation  of  13,000  feet,  and 
unites  the  western  ends  of  the  Himalayas 
and  Tian  Shan  mountains  with  the  Hindu- 
Kush.  It  is  crossed  by  mountain  ranges, 
many  peaks  rising  to  enormous  heights; 
and  although  exposed  to  great  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold  and  to  severe  snow  and  sand 
storms,  the  Kirghiz  shepherds  tend  their 
flocks  there  and  it  is  often  crossed  by  trav- 
elers. It  is  full  of  animal  and  bird  life,  and 
has  large  rivers  and  lakes,  including  Kara- 
kul, 120  square  miles,  and  Shivakul,  100 
square  miles.  The  Pamirs  are  often  referred 
to  as  "the  roof  of  the  world,"  from  their 
high  elevation. 

Famlico  (pam'K-ko)  Sound,  a  small  arm 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  coast  of  North 
Carolina,  is  separated  from  the  ocean  by 
long,  narrow  islands  of  sand.  It  is  very 
shallow,  and  is  about  75  miles  long  by  10 
to  25  wide. 


PAMPAS 


PANAMA  CANAL 


Pam'pas,  properly  the  large,  treeless 
plains  of  the  Argentine  Republic  in  South 
America.  They  rise  in  terraces  from  the 
coast  to  the  foot  of  the  Cordilleras,  and  ex- 
tend about  2,000  miles  long  by  500  miles 
broad.  The  northeastern  portion  is  very 
fertile  and  the  pampas  are  used  almost 
exclusively  for  grazing  purposes,  but  the 
rest  is  barren  and  dry,  abounding  in  strips 
of  desert,  the  soil  being  of  sandy  clay.  The 
level  districts  of  Peru,  180,000  square  miles 
in  extent  and  covered  by  trees,  are  also 
called  pampas. 

Pam'pas  Grass,  covering  the  pampas  of 
the  Argentine,  is 
veryjhardy ,  beau- 
tiful in  appear- 
ance and  often 
used  for  orna- 
m  e  n  t.  The 
leaves  are  from 
six  to  eight  feet 
long,  and  the 
flowering  stems, 
with  large 
spikes  of  silvery- 
white  flowers, 
are  from  t  e  n  to 
14  feet  in  height. 
The  plant  is  now 
cultivated  in  Cal- 
PAMPAS  GRASS  ifornia  for  the 

flower  plumes,  which  are  used  in  decora- 
tions by  florists. 

Pan,  according  to  the  Greek  story,  is  con- 
sidered the  god  of  pastures,  forests  and 
flocks  and  is  represented  as  having  horns, 
a  goat's  beard,  a  crooked  nose,  pointed 
ears,  a  tail  and  goat's  feet.  The  worship 
of  Pan  began  in  Arcadia,  and  in  time  ex- 
tended aU  over  Greece,  reaching  Athens  last. 
He  was  worshiped  by  offerings  of  cows, 
goats,  lambs,  milk,  honey  and  wine.  He 
was  also  supposed  to  have  been  very  fond 
of  music,  being  credited  as  the  inventor  of 
the  syrinx  or  pandean  pipes.  The  Romans 
have  identified  him  as  their  god  Faunus. 
The  story  of  his  death,  coincident  with 
the  birth  of  Christ,  is  finely  treated  by 
Milton,  Rabelais,  Schiller  and  Mrs.  Brown- 
ing. 

Panama  (pan1 'd-md') .  A  small  republic 
comprising  the  narrowest  part  of  Central 
America,  between  Costa  Rica  and  Colombia. 
It  formerly  belonged  to  Colombia,  but 
seceded  in  November,  1903.  It  is  35  miles 
wide,  and  has  an  area  of  31,571  square  miles. 
The  population  is  400,000.  The  isthmus 
is  traversed  by  a  range  of  mountains  running 
between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific,  and 
many  streams,  some  of  considerable  size, 
notably  the  Tuira  (160  miles),  flow  into 
both  oceans.  The  trading  ports  are  Aspin- 
wall  (or  Colon)  and  Panama,  and  the  ex- 
ports are  hides,  tallow,  indigo,  caoutchouc, 
coffee,  vanilla,  gold-dust  and  tortoise  shell. 
A  railway  crosses  the  isthmus  from  Colon 


to  Panama.  The  capital  is  Panama  (popula- 
tion 35, 500). 

Panama  Canal.  The  building  of  the  Pana- 
ma Canal  may  be  said  to  be  one  of  the  greatest 
"military  victories,"  as  it  is  the  greatest  engin- 
eering achievement  in  history. 

Remarkable  Triumph  of  Sanitary  Methods  and 
Engineering  Skill.  Two  brilliant  engineers, 
Wallace  and  Stevens,  found  themselves  so 
hampered  under  civil  administration  that  they 
resigned.  It  was  only  when  the  enterprise  was 
finally  placed  under  control  of  Colonel  G.  W. 
Goethals,  of  the  United  States  Army,  as  Chief 
Engineer  and  Chairman  of  the  Isthmian  Com- 
mission, that  the  work  moved  forward  with 
extraordinary  rapidity.  It  involved  a  war 
against  unprecedented  natural  difficulties,  in- 
cluding very  unhealthful  conditions,  and 
to  carry  on  the  "campaign"  men  and  supplies 
had  to  be  transported  2,000  miles.  The  aver- 
age number  of  men  employed  was  40,000, 
nearly  half  the  number  in  our  standing  army, 
and  the  total  cost  was  approximately  $375,- 
ooo,ooo(See  GOETHALS  (gd'thalz)a.nd  GORGAS). 

The  two  greatest  enemies  to  be  overcome 
were  disease — malaria  and  yellow  fever — and 
the  treacherous  sliding  soil.  Under  the  di- 
rection of  Colonel  W.  C.  Gorgas,  also  of  the 
United  States  Army,  the  Canal  Zone,  one  of 
the  world's  worst  plague  spots,  was  trans- 
formed. Mosquito  breeding  pools  were  filled, 
paving  and  sewage  systems  put  in,  _  and 
screened  eating  and  sleeping  places  provided. 
"Today,"  says  an  officer  of  the  Department  of 
Sanitation,  "healthy  Americans  work  with  vim 
under  the  hot  sun  and  play  baseball  and  other 
games.  American  women  do  housework,  play 
tennis,  ride  horseback  and  dance  enthusiasti- 
cally, and  their  chubby  little  children,  born 
and  raised  in  Panama,  play  on  the  lawns." 

How  the  Great  Work  was  Accomplished. 
While  modern  sanitary  methods  and  an  ex- 
penditure of  $20,000,000  changed  living  con- 
ditions, the  sliding  soil  had  to  be  dealt  with  to 
the  end.  These  slides  were  particularly  trou- 
blesome in  Culebra  cut.  Sometimes  there  was 
iron  pyrites  in  the  soil  and,  this  being  exposed, 
created  enough  heat  to  prematurely  explode 
the  dynamite  used  in  excavation  work.  "In 
case  the  soil  was  heated  to  a  dangerous  extent" 
writes  Colonel  Goethals,  "it  was  allowed  to 
cool  before  loading  with  dynamite." 

Look  at  our  illustrations  and  imagine  the 
network  of  machinery  in  motion,  the  high 
speed  cableways  carrying  building  materials 
back  and  forth  in  buckets  of  three  to  five  tons 
capacity  at  the  rate  of  twenty  miles  an  hour, 
the  steam  shovels  taking  up  five  to  six  tons  with 
each  scoop,  115  locomotives  hauling  2,000  cars 
to  the  dumps,  from  i  to  33  miles  away,  and  a  i 
cars,  each  carrying  600  tons,  being  cleared  of 
their  loads  with  plow  unloaders  in  From  four  to 
six  minutes.  In  this  way  you  can  form  some 
conception  of  the  process  by  which  this  great 
contribution  to  peace  and  commerce  was  ac- 
tually accomplished  in  eight  years,  after  being 
talked  about  for  four  centuries  and  attempted 


PANAMA  CANAL 


1416 


PANGOLIN 


by  the  unfortunate  De  Lesseps,  who,  after  six 
years  of  heavy  expenditure  of  life,  money, 
heroic  devotion  and  engineering  skill,  found  his 
brilliant  name  for  a  time,  though  unjustly, 
involved  in  the  scandal  of  a  company  which 
failed  owing  nearly  $370,000,000. 

In  1903,  22  years  after  De  Lesseps'  little 
daughter  turned  the  first  spadeful  of  earth,  the 
United  States  purchased  the  rights  of  the 
French  Company  for  $40,000,000.  Rejection 
by  the  Columbian  senate  of  the  treaty  granting 
the  United  States  the  right  to  build  the  Canal 
led  to  the  revolution  of  the  district  of  Panama, 
its  establishment  as  a  republic,  and  the  nego- 
tiation of  the  present  treaty,  which  leases  a 
zone  10  miles  wide,  including  the  cities  of  Pan- 
ama and  Colon,  with  their  harbors  excepted, 
in  perpetuity.  The  lease  provides  for  a  yearly 
rental  of  $250,000  after  nine  years.  The 
initial  payment  of  $10,000,000  was  made  and 
work  begun  May  4,  1904. 

How  Ships  are  "Lifted1'  Across  the  Isthmus. 
A  trip  through  the  canal  is  an  experience  you 
would  never  forget.  If  you  should  take  it  at 
night,  you  would  not  only  find  the  tropic  air 
much  pleasanter,  but  you  would  have  the  in- 
teresting experience  of  riding  on  a  vessel  over 
a  grand  water  "boulevard"  50  miles  long,  and 
brilliantly  illuminated  all  the  way  from  Colon 
to  Panama  with  electric  lights. 

If  you  make  the  passage  from  the  Atlantic 
side,  after  a  sail  of  seven  miles  through  Limon 
Bay,  you  enter  the  first  of  a  series  of  three 
locks.  The  two  leaves  of  the  great  gate  which 
have  swung  open  to  let  you  enter  will  close  and 
lock  you  in  while  water  runs  into  the  chamber 
from  the  lock  above  until  the  water  in  the  two 
is  on  a  level.  Then  you  will  pass  through  two 
more  locks,  and  so  be  raised,  step  by  step,  85 
feet. 

Now  the  busy  little  electric  cars  which  have 
pulled  you  through  the  locks,  let  go  of  you  and 
you  will  sail  at  full  ocean  speed  across  Gatun 
Lake  for  24  miles  to  Bas  Obispo,  the  entrance 
to  Culebra  cut.  Then  comes  a  9  miles'  sail 
to  Pedro  Miguel  where  you  again  enter  a  lock 
and  begin  going  "downstairs"  to  a  small 
lake  through  which  you  sail  for  ij^  miles  to 
Miraflores,  where  two  more  locks  lower  you  to 
sea  level  and  you  pass  out  into  the  Pacific, 
10  to  12  hours  from  the  time  you  started. 

The  electricity  for  operating  the  locks,  as 
well  as  for  lighting  the  way  and  furnishing 
power  for  other  purposes,  is  generated  by  tur- 
bines, using  water  from  Gatun  Lake.  The 
lock  gates  are  of  steel,  are  65  feet  long,  7  ft. 
thick,  from  47  to  82  ft.  high,  and  weigh  from 
300  to  600  tons  each.  Every  lock  is  divided 
by  a  middle  wall,  so  that  vessels  going  in  oppo- 
site directions  can  pass.  Between  the  gates 
at  either  end,  as  shown  in  one  of  our  illustra- 
tions, is  a  series  of  intermediate  gates.  With 
these  the  locks  are  divided  into  smaller  cham- 
bers to  save  time  and  water  in  handling  smaller 
vessels.  The  usable  length  of  the  locks  is 
1,000  ft.,  and  95%  of  sea  going  vessels  are  less 
than  600  ft.  long. 


The  Two  Great  Purposes  of  the  Canal.  The 
two  great  objects  of  the  United  States  in  build- 
ing the  canal  were  to  place  her  navy  in  a  better 
position  to  defend  her  coasts  and  to  aid  the 
world's  commerce.  (See  CLAYTON-BULWER 
TREATY).  It  is  estimated  that  by  1915  the 
freight  passing  through  the  canal  will  amount 
yearly  to  17,000,000  tons;  and  by  1925  to  27,- 
000,000  tons.  Its  importance  as  effecting  com- 
merce with  Australia  and  New  Zealand  may  be 
judged  from  the  fact  that  commerce  between 
the  United  States  alone  and  these  two  coun- 
tries amounted  in  1910  to  $46,543,000  and  that 
this  was  an  increase  of  68%  over  the  previous 
decade.  Of  still  greater  importance,  it  is  be- 
lieved, will  be  the  growth  of  business  between 
the  Atlantic-Gulf  seaboard  and  the  west  coast 
of  South  America.  For  example,  it  will  reduce 
the  distance  between  New  York  and  Callao 
6,250  miles,  and  between  New  Orleans  and 
Callao  7,245  miles. 

But  the  greatest  of  all  probably  will  be  the 
saving  in  time  and  freight  charges  for  ship- 
ments to  and  from  our  own  coasts.  The  sav- 
ing in  distance  between  New  York  and  San 
Francisco  will  be  7,873  miles,  and  between  New 
Orleans  and  San  Francisco  8,638  miles.  The 
growth  of  the  entire  Pacific  Coast  with  its 
enormously  rich  and  relatively  undeveloped 
resources  will  undoubtedly  go  forward  with 
giant  strides,  far  surpassing  even  its  past 
record — a  great  past  and  a  greater  future, 
fittingly  expressed  in  the  magnificent  Panama 
Exposition  in  the  City  of  the  Golden  Gate. 

The  Climate  of  Panama. — The  Climate  of 
Panama  is  tropical,  with  excessive  humidity. 
The  dry  season  extends  from  January  to 
April,  the  wet  season  from  May  to  December. 
Mean  annual  temperature,  80°,  with  maxi- 
mum and  minimum  of  89°  and  76°.  The 
hottest  month  of  the  year  is  May.  The 
annual  rainfall  is  40  to  155  inches,  depending 
on  the  locality.  It  is  heaviest  on  the  Carib- 
bean coast,  and  decreases  as  the  Pacific  Ocean 
is  approached.  Northeast  winds  prevail  dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  year,  being  strongest 
during  the  dry  season.  Southeast  winds  pre- 
vail during  the  wet  season.  (See  LOCK  and 
PANAMA.  Consult  index  for  references  to 
important  canal  systems.) 

Pandora  (pan-do' ra),  according  to  the 
Greek  legend,  was  the  first  woman  on  earth. 
When  Prometheus  stole  the  fire  from  heaven, 
Zeus  caused  a  woman  to  be  made  to  bring 
trouble  to  man,  and  sent  her  to  Prometheus' 
brother,  Epimetheus.  A  later  story  relates 
that  Pandora  possessed  a  box  in  which  were 
all  men's  ills  and  troubles,  which  escaped  on 
the  box  being  opened.  Still  another  story 
has  it  that  the  box  contained  all  blessings, 
and  Pandora,  on  opening  it,  allowed  all  to 
escape  but  hope. 

Pan'golin,  the  name  given  to  any  one  of 
the  scaly  ant-eaters  belonging  to  the  genus 
Manis.  They  are  mammals,  but  the  shape 
of  their  bodies  and  the  presence  of  scales 


A  TRIP  THROUGH  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


'••"fl*.-  ".-•-'  f:. 

V^iwE 


The  artist  here  helps  us  to  realize  what  a  prodigious  work  of  engineering  it  was  to 
cut  the  "big  ditch"  across  the  Isthmus.     The  Pennsylvania  Station  and  the  Woolwortn     » 
Building  are  in  New  York  City.     The  picture  at  the  bottom  gives  you  an  idea  of  what     ffl 
Manhattan  Island  would  look  like  if  the  material  from  the  Panama  Canal  were  built  into 
pyramids  from  the  Battery  to  Harlem. 


*******************************************************^ 

J * 

* 

* 

4 


(ATLANTIC      OCEAN) 


Here  are  the  ocean  liners  climbing  over  the  mountains  by  the  water  stairway, 
distances  not  represented.     (Hauling  system  on  next  page.) 


Vessels  are  raised  or  lowered  by  letting  water  into  or  out  of  each  lock  from  the 
lock  above  through  culverts  D  G"  by  means  of  lateral  culverts  E  H.  through  wells 
F.  (A)  passageway  for  operators,  (B)  gallery  for  electric  wires,  (C)  drainage  gallery. 
The  locomotive,  the  team,  and  the  building  show  the  size  of  a  lock. 


J        Notice  how  the  "East"  end  of  the  Canal  may  be  said  to  be  west  of  the  "West"  end.    J 
jf    Although  connecting  our  East  and  West  coasts,  the  Canal  runs  Northwest  and  Southeast,    -n 


Actual 


^^^ifieir^^^iririr^irifirifiriririririr^irir^^irirkir^^ir^ir^iririr^^ir^itifirir^ir^ir'^irifirififlf^ 


Courtesy  Scientific  American.  (C)  Munn  &  Co. 

We  are  looking  at  the  Gatun  locks,  dam  and  spillway.     Notice  the  locomotives  hauling  the 
ships.    The  two  in  the  rear  are  for  keeping  the  vessel  steady. 


Here  we  are  inside  a  lock  during  construction.     This  inward  slant  of  the  great  entrance 
gate  helps  it  to  better  resist  the  water  pressure. 


•»' 


Standing  on  the  railroad  track  we  see  the  gates  which  divide  the  lock  into  smaller 
chambers  for  handling  smaller  vessels. 


Now  we  are  in  the  upper  locks  at  Miraflores.     Notice  the  culvert  in  center  wall, 
we  will  have  a  nearer  view  of  a  central  culvert. 


Next 


Here  we  are  looking  through  the  central  culvert  of  the  Gatun  upper  locks.    Compare 
its  size  with  that  of  the  workman. 

t##########################*#-:S*##*^ 


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Here  we  see  work  going  on  in  the  famous  Culebra  cut.    Notice  how  the  embankment 
is  cut  in  terraces  to  enable  several  gangs  to  work  at  once. 


The  work  of  many  weeks  destroyed  by  a  Culebra  landslide.    Over  9.000,000  cubic 
yards,  resulting  from  slides,  were  taken  out  in  six  years. 


We  are  looking  down  "Bottle  Alley"   (Colon)   before  the  Americans  began  "house- 
cleaning."     These  pools  bred  the  malaria-infected  mosquito. 


Can  you  recognize  it?    This  is  the  same  "Bottle  Alley"  nine  months  later.     It  shows 
what  proper  draining  and  paving  methods  have  done. 


This  dredge  is  cutting  mud  out  of  the  Chagres  bottom  and  pumping  it,  through  a    •$" 
pipe  line,  into  a  mosquito-infested  swamp  —  two  good  jobs  at  one  operation. 


This  is  a  part  of  the  history  of  the  Canal — French  excavating  machinery  abandoned 
in   1888.     Picture  taken  in  June,   1911. 


Here  we  have  two  views  of  the  Chagres  River — near  Fort  San  Lorenzo  on  the  right 
and  near  Los  Hornos  on  the  left.     Notice  how  floods  have  worn  the  limestone. 


PANICLE 


X4X7 


PAPER 


give  them  the  appearance  of  reptiles.  The 
scales  are  formed  of  cemented  hairs.  In 
some  forms  the  tail  is  longer  than  the  head 
and  body.  They  inhabit  Asia  and  western 
Africa  and  vary  in  length  from  one  to  five 
feet.  They  are  burrowing  animals  and  feed 
mainly  on  white  ants. 

Pan'icle,  an  open  spray-like  cluster  of 
flowers,  consisting  of  a  compound  raceme 
chiefly  branching  below.  See  INFLORESCENCE. 

Pansy.     See  VIOLET. 

Pan'theon,  a  temple  dedicated  to  all  the 
gods,  has  a  great  arched  roof,  lighted  through 
one  opening  in  the  center  of  the  dome.  The 
Pantheon  in  Rome  is  the  only  ancient  build- 
ing that  has  been  completely  preserved.  It 
(or,  rather,  part  of  it)  was  built  by  Agrippa 
in  27  B.  C.  It  was  consecrated  as  a  church 
in  6 10,  and  is  used  as  a  burying  place  for 
eminent  Italians.  The  Pantheon  of  Paris 
was  built  in  1764,  and  is  called  the  Church 
of  St.  Genevieve.  It  also  is  used  as  the 
mausoleum  of  famous  men. 

Pan'ther,  the  name  loosely  applied  to  the 
leopard,  but  more  correctly  used  for  the 
stouter  varieties  of  that  animal.  The  puma 
is  also  called  panther  in  America. 

Paoli  (pd'd-U),  Pasquale,  a  Corsican 
patriot,  was  born  in  Corsica  in  1726;  was 
taken  to  Naples  by  his  father  in  1739;  but 
returned  to  his  own  country  to  become  the 
leader  of  the  struggle  for  independence  in 
July,  1755.  He  would  have  suceeded  but 
that  Genoa  sold  Corsica  to  France  in  1768. 
He  held  out  for  a  year  against  the  French, 
but  on  being  defeated  escaped  to  England, 
where  he  was  given  a  government  pension. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  second  revolu- 
tion in  France  he  returned,  became  lieuten- 
ant-general and  governor,  and  set  on  foot 
a  second  rebellion,  hoping  to  form  a  union 
with  England,  but  failed  and  returned  to 
Englandin  1796.  He  died  near  London,  Feb. 
5,  1807.  See  BoswelTs  Account  of  Corsica. 

Paper  takes  its  name,  properly,  from  that 
which  was  first  used  ia  its  place  and  from 
which  it  was  first  made  —  Egyptian  papyrus 
(q.  v. ).  It  was  first  made  by  laying  thin  slices 
of  the  cellular  tissue  across  others,  the  whole 
moistened  with  Nile  water  and  pressed, 
then  smoothed  down  with  ivory  or  shell. 
In  our  loth  and  nth  centuries  it  was  made 
of  other  fibrous  matter.  The  Chinese  Ency- 
clopedia says  that  the  Chinese  first  wrote  on 
thin  strips  of  bamboo  board,  but  for  300 
years  before  and  after  Christ  silk-waste  was 
used.  The  Chinese  statesman,  Ts'ai  Lun, 
was  the  inventor  of  paper  made  of  vegetable 
fiber.  In  A.  D.  105  he  had  paper  made  of 
bark,  hemp,  rags  and  old  fishing  nets.  The 
first  manufacture  of  rag-paper  in  Europe 
was  in  Spain  under  the  Moors  in  1154, but 
soon  afterwards  it  was  made  in  Italy,  France 
and  Germany.  It  came  into  universal  use 
in  the  i4th  century.  The  vegetable  fibers 
from  which  paper  can  be  made  are  wood, 
bamboo,  jute,  straw,  corn-stalk,  flax  and 


hemp,  besides  linen  and  cotton  rags  for 
white  paper.  _  The  great  bulk  of  the  paper 
used  to-day  is  made  from  wood,  and  of 
this  the  better  grade  is  made  by  what  is 
known  as  the  sulphide  process.  It  may  be 
briefly  described  as  follows: 

The  ground  wood-pulp  is  made  chiefly 
from  spruce  and  has  been  saturated  with 
sulphurous  acid,  though  poplar-pulp  is 
cooked  in  caustic  soda.  Then  an  oval 
shaped  tub  whose  capacity  is  about  1,000 
pounds  is  fed  with  one  part  of  sulphite  pulp 
and  three  of  ground  wood-pulp.  A  small 
percentage  of  some  mineral;  saponified 
rosin;  coloring  matter;  and  alum  are  added. 
This  pulpy  mass  is  thoroughly  mixed,  and 
then  passes  into  a  refining  engine.  After 
leaving  the  refiner,  the  pulp  is  screened. 
Then  it  is  pumped  on  the  paper-machine 
proper,  having  been  so  thinned  that  it  be- 
haves like  a  fluid.  The  paper-machine  has 
a  wet  part  and  a  drying  part.  The  wet 
part  forms  the  paper  and  gives  it  the  con- 
sistency that  makes  it  paper.  The  drying 
part  increases  this  consistency,  dries  the 
paper  and  gives  what  is  called  surface.  The 
liquefied  pulp  flows  from  a  box  at  the  head 
of  the  machine  over  an  apron  and  upon 
an  endless,  horizontal,  wire  cloth  moving 
forward  continuously.  The  water  in  the 
pulp  drains  through  the  wire  and  the  fibers 
settle  on  the  wire.  The  fibers  become  so 
compacted  that  they  are  separated  from 
the  wire,  and  these  compact  sheets  or  felts 
are  conveyed  to  presses,  two  or  three  in 
number,  consisting  of  pairs  of  massive  rolls. 
Between  these  passes  the  paper,  supported, 
however,  by  endless  felts  of  wool,  because 
the  paper  can  not  yet  support  itself.  After 
this  it  can,  and  enters  the  driers,  20  or  30 
cylinders  three  or  four  feet  in  diameter,  one 
horizontal  tier  of  driers  being  above  the 
other.  The  paper  passes  partially  round 
each  drier,  going  alternately  from  one  to 
the  other  tier,  and  being  heated  by  the 
steam  that  is  constantly  passing  through 
the  inside  of  the  cylinders.  The  paper 
usually  reaches  the  driers  with  70%  of 
water  in  it  still.  Then  it  goes  through  the 
calenders, — rolls  with  polished  surfaces. 
These  rolls  are  arranged  in  a  stack,  and  the 
paper  goes  in  at  the  top  and  passes  out  at 
the  bottom  to  the  reel.  This,  practically,  is 
an  ironing  process,  the  regulation  of  the 
pressure  between  the  rolls  giving  the  paper 
whatever  surface  is  desired.  Light  pressure 
leaves  the  surface  open,  but  heavy  pressure 
closes  the  pores.  When  the  paper  leaves  the 
calenders  and  is  reeled,  it  is  considered  made. 
The  first  mill  in  the  United  States  was  built 
in  1690  where  Philadelphia  now  stands,  and 
today  the  paper  output  in  America  is  the 
largest  in  the  world,  being  over  4,200,000  tons 
a  year.  The  Census  Bulletin  of  Manufactures 
(1910)  gives  the  following  figures:  Number  of 
establishments  777;  wage  earners  75,978;cost 
of  materials  used  $165,442,341 ;  value  of  pro- 


PAPIER-MACHE 


1418 


PARADISE  LOST 


ducts  $267,656,964.  Over  1,241,900  tons  of 
wood  pulp  were  used,  and  983,882  tons  of  pa- 
per and  35 7, 470  tons  of  rags  (including  cotton, 
flax  waste  etc.).  Next  in  order  is  England, 
then  come  France,  Germany,  Austria  and 
Italy.  See  works  on  Paper  and  Paper  Making 
by  Hoffman,  Munsell,  Archer  and  Dunbar. 

Papier-Mache'  (pd'pyd'md'shd'),  a  name 
applied  to  paper  pulp,  pressed  and  treated 
to  resemble  wood  or  plaster.  Articles  made 
of  the  pressed-pulp  or  of  sheets  of  paper 
pasted  together  on  a  mold  were  first  made 
in  Persia  and  Kashmir  in  the  shape  of 
small  cases,  boxes  and  trays.  In  Japan 
helmets  were  often  made  in  the  same  way. 
In  the  1 8th  century  Martin  began  the  man- 
ufacture of  peculiarly  varnished  papier- 
mach£  snuffboxes  in  France,  and  in  1772 
Henry  Clay,  an  Englishman,  received  a  pat- 
ent for  the  preparation  of  sheets  pasted 
together,  forming  door-panels,  tables,  cabi- 
nets and  trays.  The  tray  of  sheets  is  formed 
on  the  mold,  heated  and.  dipped  into  a  mix- 
ture of  linseed  oil  and  tar,  then  placed 
in  the  stove  and  afterward  planed  and  filed. 
Then  it  is  given  several  coats  of  tar  and 
lampblack,  after  which  it  is  varnished  and 
polished  by  hand.  The  papier-mache"  com- 
bination has  been  used  for  doors,  water- 
pails  and  even  for  car-wheels  with  success. 
Pappenheim  ( pap'pen-hlm )  ,  Gottfried 
Heinrich,  Count  von,  a  great  imperialist 
general  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  was  born 
on  May  29,  1594,  at  Pappenheim,  Bavaria, 
and  at  20  went  over  to  the  Roman  church. 
He  served  under  the  king  of  Poland  against 
the  Russians  and  the  Turks,  and  then  joined 
the  Catholic  league,  defeating  the  Bohemians 
at  Prague  in  1620.  Again  in  the  Austrian 
service,  he  (1626)  suppressed  the  peasant 
revolt,  in  which  40,000  peasants  died,  and 
then  fought  against  the  Danes,  Swedes  and 
Saxoiis  of  the  Protestant  league.  At  Lutzen 
(1632)  he  arrived  in  time  to  save  Wallen- 
stein  from  defeat  by  the  Swedes,  but  was 
mortally  wounded  in  the  second  charge  and 
died  at  Leipsic, 
Nov.  17,  1632, 
pleased  that  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus 
had  died  just  be- 
fore him. 

Pap'pus  (in 
plants),  the 
highly  modified 
calyx  of  the 
fl  o  w  e  r  s  of  the 
Composites.  As 
the  flowers  are 
epigynous 
(which  see),  the 
pappus  appears 
to  rise  from  the 
summit  of  the 
seed-like  fruit 
Two  forms  of  pappus (p)  borne  (akene),  and 
at  the  summit  of  akenes  (f).  occurs  in  a  great 


variety  of  forms.  Sometimes  it  is  a  tuft  of 
delicate  hairs,  as  in  the  thistle  and  dande- 
lion ;  sometimes  two  or  more  tooth-like  and 
often  barbed  processes,  as  in  tick-seed,  beg- 
gar's ticks  and  Spanish  needles;  sometimes 
beautifully  plumose  bristles,  as  in  the  blazing 
star;  sometimes  simply  a  cup  or  crown;  and 
sometimes  wanting  altogether.  In  general, 
the  pappus  is  developed  to  aid  in  the  trans- 
portation of  the  akenes  by  wind  or  animals. 

Papua  (pap1 oi)-a) .     See  NEW  GUINEA. 

Papy'rus,  a  species  of  the  genus  Cyperus, 
which  belongs  to  the  sedge  family,  and  con- 
tains over  600  species  distributed  throughout 
the  temperate  and  tropical  regions.  The 
papyrus  is  C.  papyrus,  and  is  native  to 
Egypt  and  Palestine.  It  is  of  interest  in 
connection  with  its  ancient  use  by  the  Egyp- 
tians. "The  pith-like  tissues  of  the  larger 
flowering  stems,  cut  into  thin  strips,  united 
by  narrowly  overlapping  margins,  and  then 
crossed,  under  pressure,  by  a  similar  ar- 
rangement of  strips  at  right  angles,  consti- 
tuted the  papyrus  of  antiquity."  It  is 
commonly  cultivated  in  aquaria  or  in  damp 
soil.  The  stem  is  tall  and.  stout,  from  four 
to  eight  feet  in  height,  and  bearing  at  the 
summit  a  rosette  of  drooping  leaves.  It 
scarcely  occurs  in  Egypt  now,  but  grows  at 
Syracuse,  Sicily.  See  PAPER. 

Para"  (pd-rdf).  a  city  of  Brazil,  is  70  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  the  river  Para.  It  has  a 
fine  harbor,  sheltered  by  wooded  islands, 
which  admits  large  vessels.  It  is  closely 
built,  with  narrow  streets,  well-shaded  by 
mangoes  and  palms.  It  has  street-cars  and 
telephones,  and  among  its  public  buildings 
are  a  theater,  custom  house  and  cathedral. 
Here  are  the  headquarters  of  the  Amazonian 
Steamboat  Company,  which  has  most  of  the 
Amazon  River  trade,  supplying  the  interior 
towns  with  foreign  goods  and  exporting 
india-rubber,  cacao  and  Brazil  nuts.  The 
rubber  exported  from  Para"  in  1898  amounted 
to  22,218  tons.  Para  also  is  a  state  or 
district  with  an  area  of  443,903  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  445,356.  Consult 
Around  South  America  by*  Vincent.  See 
AMAZON  and  BRAZIL. 

Par'adise  Lost.  This  is  the  principal 
poem  of  John  Milton  (q.  v.)  and  is  univer- 
sally regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  master- 
pieces ever  produced,  ranking  with  the  Iliad 
the  Odyssey,  the  Mneid,  the  Divina  Corn- 
media,  and  Faust.  It  was  published  in  1667, 
and  was  composed  after  Milton  had  become 
blind  and  had  retired  from  political  life. 
From  the  sale  of  the  poem  its  author  realized 
ten  pounds  and  his  widow  eight  pounds  in 
addition.  Paradise  Lost  is  an  epic  in  twelve 
books.  It  deals  with  the  Biblical  account 
of  the  fall  of  man,  and  proposes  to  reveal 
the  divine  purpose  that  governed  that  trag- 
edy. Milton  describes  Satan,  the  fallen  angel 
and  his  legions  in  hell.  Instead  of  struggling 
again  for  the  mastery  of  heaven,  they  decide 
to  attempt  to  corrupt  the  newly  created 


PARAFFIN 


1419 


PARAGUAY 


Adam  and  Eve.  Satan  undertakes  this  task, 
and,  since  God  permits,  he  succeeds,  al- 
though man  is  warned  of  the  danger  by 
Michael,  the  archangel,  who  relates  to  Adam 
and  Eve  the  history  of  Satan  and  his  ex- 
pulsion from  heaven.  Adam  and  Eve  eat 
the  apple  and  fall  into  wretched  quarrels 
and  despair.  They  are  expelled  from  Para- 
dise, but  are  comforted  by  the  revelation  of 
the  redemption  of  man  through  Christ.  The 
poem  contains  many  elaborate  and  abstruse 
theological  discussions,  and  is  characterized 
by  the  most  erudite  scholarship.  These 
qualities  make  it  tedious  to  many,  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  majestic  descriptions  and 
brilliant  imagery  abound,  and  the  grandeur 
of  the  style  is  everywhere  sustained.  Mat- 
thew Arnold  commends  it  to  English  readers 
as  our  best  example  of  the  classic  or  grand 
style. 

Paraffin  (p&r'af-fin),  the  name  given  by 
Baron  Reichenbach  to  a  white,  transparent 
substance  obtained  by  him  from  wood-tar 
in  1830.  Christison,  an  English  chemist, 
obtained  the  same  substance  about  the 
same  time  from  petroleum  and  called  it 
petroline,  and  Dumas,  the  French  chemist, 
obtained  it  from  coal-tar  in  1835.  Not  until 
1850,  however,  was  it  manufactured,  and 
it  is  now  used  almost  entirely  for  the  making 
of  candles  and  in  some  branches  of  the  arts 
and  surgery.  It  is  made  largely  from 
petroleum  shale  by  the  following  process : 
The  shale  is  broken  and  placed  in  a  retort, 
is  then  distilled  and  treated  witb  chemicals, 
after  which  it  is  cooled.  The  paraffin  sep- 
arates as  a  solid,  and  the  heavy  oil  mixed 
with  it  is  pressed  out.  Then  the  crude 
paraffin  is  treated  with  naphtha,  and  the 
naphtha  removed  by  further  pressing  after 
it  has  cooled.  The  paraffin  is  then  melted 
and  allowed  to  run  through  niters  into  con- 
venient shapes.  Paraffin  is  obtained  also 
t'rom  mineral  wax  a.  .d  from  the  higher 
boiling  portion  of  ordinary  petroleum  (q.  v.). 

Paraguay  ( pa'rd-gwi  or  par'd-gwa) ,  a  re- 
public of  South  America,  is  divided  by  the 
river  of  the  same  name  into  eastern  Para- 
guay or  Paraguay  proper  and  western  or 
Chaco  Paraguay.  The  eastern  part  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Apa  and  Estrella 
Rivers,  on  the  east  by  Amanbay  Mountains 
and  Parand  River  and  on  the  south  by  the 
same  river.  The  boundaries  of  western 
Paraguay  have  not  been  fully  determined. 
The  total  area  is  about  98,000  square 
miles,  and  the  population,  made  up  of 
white  descendants  of  the  Spanish,  of  50,000 
Indians,  of  negroes  and  of  mixtures  of  all,  is 
752,000. 

Surface  and  Climate.  The  Amanbay 
range  runs  north  and  south  and  divides  the 
basins  of  the  Paraguay  and  Parand,  whose 
small  tributaries  frequently  overflow.  The 
northern  portion  of  the  country  is  hilly, 
broken  by  palm-dotted  plains,  but  the 
southern  part  is  one  of  the  most  fertile 


regions  of  South  America.  The  climate  is 
semitropical.  The  summer  months  of 
December,  January  and  February  have  a 
mean  temperature  of  80.56°,  autumn  (March, 
April  and  May)  72.23°;  winter  (June,  July 
and  August)  64.7°;  and  spring  (September, 
October  and  November)  72.7°.  Rainfall 
is  abundant,  averaging  52.44  inches  at 
Asuncion,  and  is  heaviest  during  the  sum- 
mer. 

The  Paraguay  Central,  155  miles  long, 
is  the  only  railway.  Parana  and  Paraguay 
Rivers,  with  their  interlines,  afford  water 
transportation  from  all  parts  of  the  country 
to  the  sea.  Asuncion  enjoys  direct  communi- 
cation with  France,  and  a  Buenos  Aires- 
New  York  steamship  line  provides  monthly 
service  from  Buenos  Aires  to  Asuncion  and 
is  about  to  extend  it  to  Matto  Grosso  in 
Brazil.  There  are  1,130  miles  of  telegraph. 

Cities.  The  chief  cities  are  Asuncion, 
the  capital,  chief  port  and  commercial 
center,  population  84,000;  Villa  Rica,  popu- 
lation 26,000;  and  Conception,  population 
15,000. 

Resources.  Paraguay  has  a  wide  area  of 
rich  agricultural  land,  producing  corn, 
coffee,  rice,  cocoa,  indigo,  tobacco,  manioc 
and  sugarcane.  The  great  forests  furnish 
logwoods,  india-rubber  and  yerba  mate,  a 
shrub  known  as  Paraguay  tea,  which  is  in 
general  use  in  South  America;  also  a  great 
variety  of  woods,  many  of  which  are  exported. 
On  the  grazing  lands  there  are  5,500,000 
cattle,  214,060  sheep,  190,416  horses,  mules 
and  asses.  The  1910  record  shows  total 
exports  of  nearly  $5,000,000  during  the  year. 
There  are  deposits  of  gold,  copper,  iron  ore 
and  other  minerals,  but  they  have  not  been 
developed. 

Government.  The  president  is  elected  for 
four  years  and  is  ineligible  for  a  succeeding 
term.  There  are  two  houses  of  Congress,  a 
cabinet,  a  supreme  court,  two  courts  of 
appeals  and  minor  courts. 

History.  The  country  was  discovered  by 
Juan  Diaz  de  Solis  in  1515,  and  the  first 
colony  founded  by  Mendoza  in  1535,  who 
built  Asuncion  and  subjected  Paraguay 
to  Peru.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits, 
who  administered  its  affairs  until  1768, 
when  they  were  expelled.  In  1810  it  de- 
clared its  independence  and  elected  a  dic- 
tator, who  held  office  from  1814  to  1840. 
Under  the  new  constitution  of  1844  Don 
Carlos  was  elected  president  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  in  1862.  This  son  led  the 
war  with  Brazil,  Argentina  and  Uruguay, 
and  was  killed  in  battle,  March  i,  1870.  A 
new  constitution,  providing  for  two  houses 
of  Congress,  was  proclaimed  on  Nov.  25, 
1870,  upon  which  was  begun  the  new 
presidential  term  of  four  years.  At  Asuncion 
there  is,  besides  a  state  college,  an  agricul- 
tural school  and  model  farm.  See  History 
of  Paraguay  by  Washburn  and  Vincent  s 
Around  South  America. 


"PARAGUAY 


1420 


PARCEL  POST 


Paraguay,  a  river  of  South  America,  rises 
in  the  Brazilian  state  of  Matto  Grasso,  and 
flows  southwesterly  into  the  Parana.  Its 
largest  tributaries  are  the  Jauru,  Cuyaba, 
Tacuary,  Mondego,  Apa,  Pilcomayo  and 
Vermejo.  The  river  is  1,800  miles  long, 
and  is  navigable  to  the  mouth  of  the  Cuyaba. 
It  was  declared  open  in  1852,  and  now  has 
steamers  running  upon  it,  carrying  mail 
from  Rio  Janeiro  to  Cuyaba.  At  its  outlet 
the  Parana  (q.  v.),  with  its  tributaries,  forms 
the  large  estuary  of  Rio  de  la  Plata  (q.  v.). 

Parallax  (par'al-laks),  an  optical  and 
astronomical  term  used  to  denote  the  change 
in  direction  of  an  object  due  to  a  change  in 
the  position  of  the  observer.  This  phenome- 
non is,  perhaps,  most  easily  observed  in 
viewing  a  landscape  from  a  railway  train. 
When  one's  attention  is  concentrated  upon 
any  point  in  the  landscape,  all  the  more 
distant  points  appear  to  move  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  train,  while  the'  nearer 
points  appear  to  move  in  a  direction  oppo- 
site that  of  the  train.  Thus,  as  the  ob- 
server continually  changes  his  position, 
being  on  the  moving  train,  the  direction  of 
the  point  to  which  his  attention  is  directed 
is  continually  changing.  In  the  same  way, 
if  one  could  suddenly  step  from  Chicago  to 
New  York  on  any  moonlight  night,  the 
position  of  the  moon  among  the  fixed  stars 
would  also  suddenly  change.  Since  the 
earth  is  rotating  and  carrying  the  observer 
with  it,  the  position  of  the  moon  or  of  one 
of  the  planets  among  the  fixed  stars  de- 
pends upon  the  hour  of  the  day  at  which 
the  observation  is  made  as  well  as  upon 
the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  observer. 
Accordingly,  astronomical  observations  of 
this  kind  are  all  "reduced"  to  the  center  of 
the  earth;  that  is,  the  position  of  a  heavenly 
body  is  given  as  that  which  it  would  appear 
to  have  for  an  observer  situated  at  the  cen- 
ter of  the  earth.  Parallax  of  this  kind  is 
called  diurnal.  There  also  is  a  parallax 
due  to  the  motion  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit 
about  the  sun;  this  is  known  as  annual  par- 
allax, because  it  goes  through  all  its  changes 
in  the  course  of  one  year.  The  principle  of 
parallax  is  one  of  great  usefulness  in  adjust- 
ing certain  optical  instruments  and  in  mak- 
ing certain  optical  measurements.  See 
Young's  General  Astronomy. 

Paramaribo  (par'a-mar'i.-bd),  the  capital 
of  Dutch  Guiana,  lies  on  the  Surinam,  about 
ten  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  has  broad 
streets,  wooden  houses,  a  governor's  palace, 
a  court  of  justice,  two  forts  and  a  park. 
Almost  all  the  trade  of  Dutch  Guiana  (q.  v.) 
is  centered  here.  Population  34,085. 

Parana  (pn'rd-nd'),  a  large  South  Ameri- 
can river,  rises  as  the  Rio  Grande  about  100 
miles  northwest  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Flowing 
northwest  and  west,  it  unites  with  the 
Paranahyba,  and  receives  its  name  and 
flows  southwest  and  south  to  the  point 
where  it  is  joined  by  the  Paraguay.  It  then 


flows  through  Argentina,  uniting  with  the 
Uruguay  to  form  Rio  de  la  Plata.  Its 
total  length  is  nearly  2,000  miles,  and  it 
drains  over  1,100,000  square  miles  of  ter- 
ritory. Its  longest  tributaries  are  those 
named  and  the  Mogy  Guassu,  Tiet£  Parana- 
panema,  Ivahy,  Iguassu  and  Salado.  It  is 
navigable  for  705  miles,  and  has  rapids  over 
100  miles  in  length  immediately  above  the 
junction  with  the  Iguassu.  Parand  also 
is  a  state  of  Brazil  with  an  area  of  85,430 
square  miles  and  population  of  250,000. 

Parasites  (par'd-sits),  among  plants 
those  which  obtain  food  by  attacking  living 
plants  or  animals.  The  majority  of  para- 
sitic plants  are  fungi  (which  see).  Many  of 
them  have  cultivated  a  very  selective  habit, 
restricting  themselves  to  certain  plants  or 
animals  or  even  to  certain  organs.  Some  of 
the  highest  plants  are  also  parasitic,  as,  for 
example,  the  dodder,  whose  thread-like  body 
is  often  seen  enwrapping  tall  herbs  like  skeins 
of  yellow  yarn;  and  the  mistletoe,  growing  in 
tufts  on  the  branches  of  trees.  In  every  case 
the  plant  or  animal  attacked  is  called  the 
host.  Sometimes  the  attacks  are  harmless, 
but  often  they  are  very  destructive.  The 
results  of  the  most  destructive  parasites  have 
come  to  be  spoken  of  as  diseases,  and  among 
them  are  some  of  the  common  contagious 
diseases.  Among  animals  representatives 
of  almost  any  class  or  order  may  be  parasitic. 
Many  of  the  parasites  are  insects;  some  are 
parasites  of  other  insects,  some  of  vertebrates. 
Parasites  may  serve  as  hosts  to  lesser  para- 
sites. Some  in  their  earlier  stages  live  within 
their  host,  some  on  the  host.  The  parasite 
frequently  destroys  its  host.  Numbers  of 
insects  injurious  to  vegetation  are  held  in 
check  by  parasites  that  destroy  eggs  and 
larvae;  the  chalcis  flies  are  parasitic  upon 
grain  weevils,  the  destructive  scale  insects 
have  for  enemies  various  internal  parasites. 
A  common  and  troublesome  parasite  is  the 
bot-fly,  pest  of  horses.  Lice  are  thoroughly 
parasitic.  So  are  many  families  of  worms. 

Parcel  Post.  Under  a  law  passed  in  1912 
the  United  States  was  divided  into  8  zones 
and  the  postoffice  began  carrying  merchandise 
not  exceeding  72  in.  in  length  and  girth  com- 
bined, nor  50  Ibs.  in  weight,  for  delivery 
within  first  and  second  zones,  and  20  Ibs. 
within  other  zones.  Parcels  must  be  so 
wrapped  that  contents  may  be  examined. 
Domestic  rates  on  4  ozs.  or  less,  ic  per  oz.  or 
fraction,  regardless  of  distance;  parcels  ex- 
ceeding 4  oz.  at  prescribed  rates,  according 
to  zone.  On  books  up  to  8  oz.,  ic  for  each 
2  oz.;  on  those  exceeding  8  oz.  regular  zone 
rates.  Shipments  to  U.  S.  dependencies 
and  foreign  countries  pay  special  rates. 
Packages  may  be  sent  C.  O.  D.  and  by  special 
delivery  and  may  be  insured.  Explosives, 
intoxicating  liquors,  animals,  meat,  articles 
objectionable  because  of  odor  or  otherwise, 
or  dangerous  to  handle,  are  excluded.  Canada 
introduced  parcel  post  in  1914. 


PARE 


1431 


PARIS 


Pare  (pa'rdf) ,  Ambroise,  the  first  practi- 
tioner of  modern  surgery,  was  born  at  Laval, 
France,  about  the  beginning  of  the  1 6th  cen- 
tury, and  received  his  training  at  the  Hotel 
Dieu  in  Paris.  In  1536  he  joined  the  army, 
going  to  Italy  as  surgeon,  and  in  a  later  cam- 
paign improved  the  treatment  of  gunshot 
wounds  by  tying  the  broken  arteries,  instead 
of  burning  them  with  a  red-hot  iron  after 
amputation,  and  made  many  other  changes. 
In  1552  he  became  surgeon  to  Henry  II,  and 
afterwards  to  Charles  IX  and  Henry  III. 
His  principal  writings,  Five  Books  of  Chir- 
urgy,  have  been  a  great  aid  to  modern  sur- 
geons. He  died  at  Paris,  Dec.  22,  1590. 
See  his  Life  by  Paulmier. 

Parenchyma  (pd-reit-kt-ma) ,  the  tissue  in 
plants  whose  cells  have  thin  walls,  their 
three  dimensions  being  approximately  equal. 
They  are  the  working-cells  of  .a  plant, 
as  distinct  from  the  mechanical  tissues. 
Parenchyma  is  the  original  tissue  of  every 
plant,  and  by  its  various  modifications  new 
tissues  arise.  Ordinary  pith  is  a  good  illus- 
tration of  dead  and  empty  parenchyma 
cells. 

Parent-Teacher  Associations.  The  National 
Congress  of  Mothers,  organized  in  1897,  in 
Washington,  had  for  its  object  the  formation 
of  Parent-Teacher  Associations  to  effect  co- 
operation between  parents  and  teachers  in 
the  education  and  welfare  of  the  child.  Mem- 
bership in  these  associations  includes  the  poor- 
est as  well  as  the  most  noted  women  in  the 
country.  Associations  are  formed  in  connec- 
tion with  different  school  grades,  thus  bringing 
together  women  whose  children  are  of  about 
the  same  age.  Men  and  women  of  national 
reputation  are  officers  and  members  of  the 
Advisory  Council  and  the  movement  has 
the  endorsement  and  backing  of  the  leading 
educators  of  the  country.  Active  associa- 
tions exist  in  New  York,  Chicago  and  other 
cities  throughout  the  country  and  there  are 
state  branches  in  thirty  states. 

The  National  Congress  of  Mothers  which  is 
made  up  of  Parent-Teacher  Associations 
supplies  educational  material  and  programs 
for  use  of  the  Associations.  It  includes  on  its 
Educational  Committee  the  leaders  in  child 
study  in  the  United  States.  This  is  the 
strongest  child-welfare  movement  in  the 
world,  numbering  upwards  of  100,000  parents 
in  membership  and  steadily  increasing.  The 
Parents  Educational  Union  and  like  organiza- 
tions in  England  are  doing  a  similar  work  on 
a  much  more  limited  scale. 

The  movement  has  succeeded  in  enlisting 
all  denominations  in  its  work  and  has  the 
co-operation  of  the  Religious  Education 
Association,  the  International  Kindergarten 
Union  and  the  National  Education  Associa- 
tion. Its  founders  were  Mrs.  Theodore  W. 
Birney  of  Washington  and  Mrs.  Phoebe  A. 
Hearst.  MRS.  FREDERIC  SCHOFF,  President 
National  Congress  of  Mothers  and  Parent- 
Teacher  Associations. 


(Helpful  articles  in  THE  STUDENT'S  on  the  teaching  and 
training  of  children  will  be  found  listed  under  Pedagogy.) 

Par' is,  the  capital  of  France  and  the  sec- 
ond city  in  Europe,  is  situated  on  the  Seine, 
about  no  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  French  senate  and  chamber  of 
deputies,  the  executive  of  the  president  of 
the  republic  and  the  ministry  and  the  lega- 
tions of  the  foreign  nations.  The  local  or 
civic  administration  is  the  municipal  council 
of  Paris,  a  body  of  80  members.  It  is  the 
center  of  a  network  of  rivers,  canals  and 
railroads.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts  by 
the  river,  and  surrounded  by  a  range  of  hills 
from  two  to  five  miles  distant.  The  fortifi- 
cations consist  of  a  rampart  over  2  2  miles  in 
length,  with  57  gates,  which  it  took  20  years 
to  build,  and  beyond  are  16  forts.  The 
houses  are  built  of  a  light-colored  limestone, 
six  or  seven  stories  high,  each  floor  making  a 
distinct  dwelling.  Some  of  the  finest  streets 
are  Rue  de  Rivoli,Rue  de  Faubourg,  St.  Hon- 
or6  and  Rue  Roy  ale.  The  boulevards, 
broad  streets  extending  in  a  semicircle  on 
the  right  side  of  the  Seine,  are  lined  with 
trees,  seats  and  stalls,  while  restaurants, 
shops  and  places  of  amusement  succeed  each 
other  for  miles.  The  city  has  many  beauti- 
ful squares,  called  places,  among  the  finest 
being  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  the  Place  de 
la  Bastille,  Place  Venddme,  Place  de  1'Etoile, 
Place  de  1'Opera  and  Place  Royale.  In 
Place  de  la  Concorde  is  the  obelisk  of  Luxor, 
brought  from  Egypt,  73  feet  high  and  covered 
with  hieroglyphics.  Here  also  was  the  site 
of  the  guillotine  during  the  Revolution  of 
1789.  On  Place  Vend6me  stands  Napoleon's 
column  of  victory.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  fine  triumphal  arches  in  Paris:  the 
Porte  St.  Denis,  erected  by  Louis  XIV,  is 
adorned  with  bas-reliefs  representing  his 
victories,  and  the  Arc  de  1'Etoile  (Arch  of 
the  Star),  begun  by  Napoleon  in  1806  and 
costing  $2,000,000,  has  the  names  of  384 
generals  and  96  victories  inscribed  on  its 
walls.  Ten  avenues  lead  from  this  arch,  one 
of  them,  the  Avenue  Bois  de  Boulogne,  bor- 
dered by  gardens  and  leading  to  Bois  de 
Boulogne  Park,  considered  one  of  the  finest 
streets  in  the  world.  Another  fine  avenue, 
more  like  a  park  than  a  street,  is  the  Champs 
Elys6es  (Elysian  Fields).  Other  noted 
avenues  are  Boulevards  St.  Michel,  St.  Ger- 
main, Haussman  and  Sebastopol;  while 
other  prominent  buildings  are  the  H6tel  de 
Ville,  H6tel  des  Invalides,  Palais  de  Justice, 
Palais  Royal,  Palais  Bourbon,  Palais  de 
Luxembourg  and  the  Palais  de  l'Elys6e,  the 
latter  the  presidential  residence. 

The  Seine  is  crossed  by  over  30  bridges, 
which  communicate  with  spacious  quays 
planted  with  trees,  affording  fine  walks  along 
the  banks  of  the  river.  Of  these  bridges  the 
recently-constructed  Alexander  III  bridge 
cost  over  $1,000,000. 

The  Louvre,  the  finest  modern  palace  in 
Paris,  is  built  on  the  site  of  an  old  castle  of 


PARIS 


1422 


PARIS 


the  1 3th  century  and  is  connected  with  the 
palace  of  the  Tuileries  by  a  great  picture- 
gallery.  It  is  filled  with  sculptures,  paint- 
ings and  collections  of  Greek,  Roman  and 
Egyptian  antiquities.  The  Tuileries  was 
burned  by  the  Commune  during  the  siege  of 
Paris.  Tlie  Palais  Royal,  the  palace  of  the 
Luxembourg,  the  H6tel  de  Ville,  the  Palais 
de  Justice  and  the  old  prison  of  the  Concier- 
gerie  are  all  noted  buildings.  The  Cathedral 
of  Notre  Dame,  begun  in  the  i2th  century, 
is  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture in  the  world.  The  Sainte  Chapelle 
was  built  by  Saint  Louis  to  contain  the  crown 
of  thorns  and  a  piece  of  the  true  cross, 
brought  by  him  from  the  Holy  Land.  St. 
Germain  des  Pres,  finished  in  1 163  and  prob- 
ably the  most  ancient  church  in  Paris,  con- 
tains the  tomb  of  St.  Genevieve,  the  patron 
saint  of  Paris  The  Madeleine,  the  Pantheon 
and  1'Oratoire  are  some  of  the  best  known 
of  the  modern  churches.  The  Grand  OpeYa 
is  one  of  the  most  sumptuous  of  continental 
theaters:  other  theaters  are  the  Odeon, 
Theatre  Franfais  and  the  Theatre  Italien.  > 

The  institutions  connected  with  the  Uni- 
versity of  France  are  in  the  Latin  quarter  of 
the  city.  There  are  found  the  Sorbonne, 
with  its  lecture-rooms,  class-rooms  and  large 
library  open  to  the  public;  the  College  of 
France;  and  a  large  number  of  colleges,  ly- 
ceums  and  schools  of  engineering,  roads  and 
bridges,  charts,  fine  arts  etc. ;  and  also  the  ob- 
servatory and  botanical  gardens.  The  Na- 
tional Library  has  the  largest  collection  of 
printed  books  in  the  world.  The  art-galleries 
and  historical  collections  of  the  Louvre,  his- 
torical museum,  H6tel  Cluny,  the  palace  of 
fine  arts  and  the  museum  of  artillery  are 
among  the  richest  collections  in  Europe. 
(See  LIBRARIES.) 

The  business  of  Paris  is  largely  in  articles 
of  luxury,  as  jewelry,  bronzes,  artistic  fur- 
niture, gloves,  watches  and  perfumery.  It 
is  a  great  financial  center,  the  Bank  of  France 
having  the  privilege  of  issuing  all  the  bank- 
notes in  France,  and  the  mint  being  located 
here.  Paris  is  divided  into  20  districts, 
each  of  them  under  a  mayor  of  its  own, 
governed  by  the  prefect  01  the  Seine,  ap- 
pointed by  the  government,  and  by  a  coun- 
cil elected  by  the  people. 

Paris  is  named  after  the  Parisii,  a  tribe  of 
Gauls  whose  collection  of  mud  huts  stood 
upon  its  site  when  conquered  by  the  Romans. 
In  53  B.  C.  Lutetia,  as  it  was  then  called, 
was  an  important  Roman  town;  an  amphi- 
theater of  that  period,  capable  of  holding 
10,000  people,  has  been  laid  bare  by  exca- 
vations. In  the  4th  century  the  city  was 
called  Paris,  and  in  the  6th  century  it  was 
chosen  by  Clovis  as  the  seat  of  government, 
though  it  did  not  permanently  become  the 
capital  of  France  until  the  loth  century.  In 
the  reign  of  Philip  Augustus  (1180-1223) 
Paris,  next  to  Constantinople,  was  the  great- 
est city  in  Europe;  with  its  university  at- 


tracting  crowds  of  students,  its  churches 
of  Notre  Dame  (partly  built)  and  Sainte  Cha- 
pelle and  the  castle  of  the  Louvre,  the  cita- 
del of  Paris.  Louis  XI,  Henry  IV  and 
Louis  XIV  improved  the  city,  organizing  its 
police,  drainage  and  sewerage  systems,  pub- 
lic schools  and  charities.  Napoleon  not 
only  removed  the  marks  of  the  terrible  de- 
struction of  the  Revolution,  but  built  up  the 
city  on  a  grander  scale,  with  new  bridges, 
streets,  squares,  arches  and  public  gardens, 
spending  on  its  restoration  more  than  $2,- 
000,000  in  12  years.  Yet  as  late  as  1834  the 
gutters  ran  through  the  middle  of  the  streets; 
there  were  scarcely  any  side  pavements; 
and  the  city  was  lighted  by  oil-lamps  sus- 
pended on  cords  across  the  streets  Modern 
Paris  owes  its  beauty  to  Napoleon  III. 
Under  the  direction  of  Haussmann  his  plans 
were  carried  out,  broad,  straight  streets  were 
built  through  the  labyrinth  of  dark  and  nar- 
row ones,  boulevards  constructed  connect- 
ing all  the  public  squares,  and  in  place  of  the 
old  houses  in  the  heart  of  the  town,  torn 
down  to  make  way  for  his  improvements,  a 
new  city  was  built.  Water  was  freely  sup- 
plied, and  trees  and  gardens  and  fountains 
sprang  up  everywhere,  making  Paris  one  of 
the  greenest  and  shadiest  of  modern  cities. 
In  1867,  when  the  International  Exhibition 
opened,  and  especially  in  1900,  when  another 
exposition  was  held,  Paris  was  the  most 
splendid  city  in  Europe.  The  siege  of  Paris 
by  the  Germans  in  1870,  followed  by  the  ter- 
rible destruction  made  by  the  Commune, 
destroyed  many  of  the  finest  buildings  and 
historical  monuments  that  can  never  be  re- 
placed. Under  the  republic  new  streets 
have  been  opened;  the  Champs  de  Mars 
(Field  of  Mars)  changed  into  a  beautiful  gar- 
den, in  which  rises  Eiffel  Tower;  a  system  of 
city  railroads  planned  which  connects  the 
railroad  stations  with  the  heart  of  the  city; 
and  the  deepening  of  the  Seine  will  make 
Paris  a  seaport  and  do  much  to  make  it  a 
center  of  the  world's  commerce  Beyond 
the  city's  fortifications  there  are  many  re- 
sorts which  the  visitor  to  Paris  should  see, 
especially  St.  Cloud  and  Versailles,  together 
with  the  Bois  de  Vincennes  and  the  Bois  de 
Boulogne;  while  interest  will  be  found  in  a 
visit,  within  the  city's  environs,  to  the  Cem- 
1  etery  of  Pere  la  Chaise.  Population  2,888,- 
110  or,  including  suburbs,  3,000,000.  See 
Paris  in  Old  and  Present  Times  by  Hamer- 
ton;  Hare's  Paris;  Baedeker's  Guidebook  to 
Paris;  and  Reynolds-Ball's  Paris  in  its 
Splendour. 

Paris,  a  Greek  legendary  character,  some- 
times called  Alexander,  was  the  second  son 
of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  king  and  queen  of 
Troy.  Before  his  birth  his  mother  dreamed 
that  she  was  to  bear  a  firebrand  which  would 
burn  the  city.  So  his  father  took  him  to 
Mount  Ida,  where  he  was  found  after  five 
days  by  Agelaus,  a  shepherd,  after  having 
been  fed  by  a  bear  He  became  reconcile1 


PARIS 


1423 


PARKER 


to  his  father  and  afterward  was  made  um- 
pire by  Juno,  Minerva  and  Venus  as  to  which 
goddess  was  entitled  to  the  golden  apple  of 
discord.  Venus  bribed  him  by  offering  him 
the  most  beautiful  woman  as  a  wife  and  he 
decided  in  her  favor.  He  carried  away 
Helen,  the  wife  of  Menelaus,  and  caused  the 
Trojan  War.  In  it  he  killed  Achilles,  and 
was  himself  wounded  by  a  poisoned  arrow 
from  which  he  died.  See  Tennyson 's  CEnone. 

Paris,  Tex.,  a  city,  county-seat  of  Lamar 
County,  having  the  service  of  four  railroads. 
The  county  court-house  is  a  magnificent 
building,  and  the  government  court-house 
and  postoffice  are  also  noteworthy.  The  lead- 
ing industries  are  cottonseed-oil  mills,  a  cotton 
oil  refinery ,  flour  mills ,  an  iron  foundry,  candy, 
mattress  and  broom  factories  and  woodwork- 
ing establishments.  Paris  has  an  exception- 
ally fine  public  school  system,  its  high  school 
being  affiliated  with  the  University  of  Texas. 
It  has  several  churches,  all  modern  improve- 
ments and  a  population  of  11,269. 

Paris,  Count  de  (Louis  Philippe  Albert 
d 'Orleans),  a  descendant  of  the  French  Bour- 
bons, son  of  the  Due  d'Orle'ans,  grandson  of 
King  Louis  Philippe  and  claimant  to  the 
throne  of  France.  He  was  born  at  Paris, 
Aug.  24,  1838;  educated  in  England;  and  ac- 
quired considerable  military  experience  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War  in  America  as  a  member 
of  the  staff  of  Gen.  George  B.  McClellan. 
He  married  in  1 864  his  cousin,  the  daughter 
of  the  Due  de  Montpensier,  by  whom  he  had 
six  children.  He  was  admitted  to  the  Na- 
tional Assembly  in  1871,  at  the  close  of  the 
Franco-Prussian  War;  and  that  body  voted 
the  restitution  of  the  property  of  his  family. 
In  1873  he  acknowledged  the  Comte  de 
Chambord  as  the  representative  of  the  royal 
house  of  France,  but  on  the  death  of  that 
person  in  1 883  he  united  in  himself  the  claims 
of  both  branches  of  the  Bourbon  claimants 
and  was  forced  to  leave  France  in  1886  by 
reason  of  the  expulsion  act.  After  this  he 
lived  in  England  in  retirement  until  his  son 
tried  in  1890  to  enlist  in  the  French  army  in 
violation  of  the  law  of  exile.  This  being  de- 
tected, some  excitement  was  caused  by  the 
apparent  revival  of  his  claims.  His  printed 
works  are  two:  one  the  History  of  the  Civil 
War  in  America  and  the  other  the  Condi- 
tion of  the  English  Workman.  He  died  at 
Stowe  House,  Buckinghamshire,  England, 
Sept  8,  1894. 

Park,  Mungo,  an  African  traveler,  was 
born  in  Scotland,  Sept.  20,  1771.  He  be- 
came assistant  surgeon  on  the  Worcester 
and  on  his  return  offered  his  services  to  the 
African  Association  and  sailed  from  Eng- 
land,May  22, 1795.  After  learning  the  Man- 
dingo  language  at  Pisania  he  set  put,  but 
cjoon  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  Moorish  king, 
who  made  him  prisoner,  but  from  whom  he 
escaped  in  1796.  He  wrote  an  account  of  his 
travels  in  a  work,  Travels  in  the  Interior  of 
Africa.  In  1799  he  married  at  Selkirk,  but 


the  life  of  a  country  surgeon  was  too  quiet 
for  him,  so  in  1805  he  sailed  for  the  Niger 
country,  in  Africa,  on  behalf  of  the  govern- 
ment. His  account  of  the  second  voyage 
was  published  in  1815,  and  has  been  of  much 
value  to  subsequent  explorers.  See  Joseph 
Thomson's  Mungo  Park. 

Par'ker,  Col.  Sir  Gilbert,  M.  P.,  Anglo- 
Canadian  novelist  and  since  1900  English 
member  of  Parliament,  was  born  in  Canada, 
Nov.  23,  1862,  and  educated  at  Trinity  Uni- 
versity, Toronto,  from  which  he  holds  the 
degree  of  D.  C.  L.  He  was  trained  to  jour- 
nalism in  Australia,  whither  he  proceeded  in 
1886  when  in  indifferent  health,  and  there 
first  began  his  literary  and  powerful  dra- 
matic work.  This  consisted  of  an  adapta- 
tion of  Goethe's  Faust  for  the  stage,  a  drama 
entitled  The  Vendetta  and  a  book  of  travel  — 
Around  the  Compass  in  Australia.  Remov- 
ing to  England,  he  there  entered  on  an  active 
and  successful  literary  career  in  writing 
stories  and  novels  of  French  Canada  and  the 
Canadian  Northwest  and  doing  for  the  ro- 
mantic side  of  Canadian  life  what  Kipling 
has  done  for  England.  His  subsequent 
work  deals  with  life  in  Egypt  and  the  Chan- 
nel ^  Islands.  Sir  Gilbert  is  an  ardent  Im- 
perialist. His  novels  include  Pierre  and  his 
People,  Mrs.  Falchion,  The  Trespasser, 
When  V 'almond  Came  to  Pontiac,  The  Seats 
of  the  Mighty,  which  has  also  been  drama- 
tized, The  Pomp  of  the  Lavilattes,  The  Battle 
of  the  Strong,  The  Right  of  Way,  The  Trail  of 
the  Sword,  The  Translation  of  a  Savage,  Don- 
ovan Pasha,  A  Ladder  of  Swords,  a  play,  The 
Wedding  Day,  and  a  History  of  Old  Quebec. 
His  latest  novel,  The  Weavers,  appeared  in 
1 90  7,  and  is  a  romance  of  England  and  Egypt. 

Parker,  Horatio.  Composer  and  pro- 
fessor of  music  at  Yale  University;  born  at 
Auburndale,  Mass.,  September  15,  1863. 
After  thff  early  lessons  of  his  mother  he 
studied  uith  Emery,  Orth  and  Chadwick  in 
Boston  and  later  with  Rheinberger  in  Mu- 
nich. His  versatility  is  apparent  in  the 
long  list  of  works  from  his  pen  ranging  from 
songs  and  piano  pieces  to  oratorios  and  sym- 
phonies. Among  his  more  important  com- 
positions are  Hora  Novissima,  A  Wanderer's 
Psalm,  The  Legend  of  St.  Christopher  and  an 
organ  concerto.  Professor  Parker  has  received 
the  honorary  degrees  of  M.  A.  from  Yale  and 
of  Mus.  Doc.  from  Cambridge  University, 
England. 

Parker,  Theodore,  a  great  American 
preacher, was  born,  Aug.  24,  ioio,  at  Lexing- 
ton, Mass.,  and  graduated  *rom  Harvard  Di- 
vinity School  in  1836,  atid  the  next  year  be- 
came a  Unitarian  minuter  at  West  Roxbury. 
He  was  somewhat  teparated  from  the  con- 
servative Unitati&ns,  as  shown  by  his  The 
Transient  and  Permanent  in  Christianity 
and  his  Discourses  of  Matters  pertaining  to 
Religion,  followed  by  Sermons  of  the  Times, 
all  of  which  attracted  widespread  notice  and 
continent.  He  lectured  throughout  the  coun- 


PARKERSBURG 


1424 


PARLIAMENT 


try  and  became  an  ardent  antislavery  apitator 
He  died  at  Florence,  Italy,  on  May  ic.  1860. 
Par'kersburg,  W.  Va.,  the  capital  of 
Wood  County,  at  the  junction  of  the  Ohio 
and  the  Little  Kanawha  River,  i?  miles 
southwest  of  Marietta,  O.,  and  95  miles  be- 
low Wheeling,  W.  Va.  It  is  on  the  hues  of 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  Southwestern  and  the  Ohio  railroad 
The  region  about  is  rich  in  oil  and  natural 
gas,  and  has  a  considerable  trade  in  petro- 
leum as  well  as  in  lumber.  Its  industries  in- 
clude oil  refineries,  iron  foundries,  boiler  and 
machine  shops,  barrel  factories,  lumber  mills, 
chemical  works,  flour  mills,  breweries,  veneer 
works  and  furniture  factories.  It  has  an  ex- 
tensive trade  in  manufactured  goods,  farm 
products  and  coal.  It  has  many  public 
buildings,  with  a  fine  postoffice,  courthouse, 
St.  Joseph's  hospital,  Washington  high  and 
public  grade  schools,  churches,  banks  etc. 
Population  18,926. 

Park'hurst,  Rev.  Charles  Henry,  an 
American  Presbyterian  clergyman,  we»s  born 
in  1842  at  Framingham,  Mass.  He  at- 
tended Amherst  College  and  several  Ger- 
man universities.  Mr.  Parkhurst  is  very 
well-known  as  a  forceful  and  practical 
preacher.  Since  1880  he  has  been  pastor  of 
the  Madison  Square  Presbyterian  Church, 
New  York  City.  He  became  in  1891  presi- 
dent of  the  Society  for  the  Prevention  of 
Crime;  and  his  attacks  upon  the  corruption 
which  had  gained  ground  in  the  pobce  de- 
partment led  in  1894  to  a  senatorial  inves- 
tigation, which  resulted  in  a  movement 
toward  reform.  Dr.  Parkhurst  has  pub- 
lished a  number  of  religious  works,  which 
often  have  a  prominent  social  and  even  polit- 
ical side.  Among  these  are  The  ^  Pattern 
in  the  Mount;  Three  Gates  on  a  Side;  The 
Question  of  the  Hour;  The  Fellowship  of 
Suffering;  Our  Fight  with  Tammany,  What 
would  the  Wond  be  Without  Religion?  The 
Sunny  Side  of  Christianity;  and  Guarding 
the  Cross  with  Krupp  Guns. 

Park'man,  Francis,  an  eminent  American 
historian,  wasbornat  Boston,  Mass.,  Sept.  16, 
1823.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard 
in  1 844,  and  after 
studying  law 
two  years  made 
a  journey  so  ex- 
plore the  Rocky 
Mountains-  His 
life  among  the 
Dakota  I  •*  dians 
and  other  tribes 
was  full  of  hard- 
ships,f  rom  <he  ef- 
fects of  which  he 
suffered  all  the 
remainder  of  his 
life.  His  first  pub- 
lication WES  an 
FRANCIS  PARKMAN  account  cf  this 


journey,  called  The  Oregon  Trail.  His  histori- 
cal writings  have  been  chiefly  connected  with 
the  French  power  in  America,  beginningwith 
The  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac,  (in  historical  order 
the  la  test),  published  in  1851.  After  visiting 
France  in  1858  to  study  French  documents 
on  the  subject,  he  wrote  Pioneers  of  France 
in  the  New  World;  Jesuits  in  North  America; 
Lasalle  and  the  Discovery  of  the  Great 
West;  The  Old  Regime  in  Canada',  Count 
Frcmtenac  and  New  France  under  Louis  XIV; 
Montcalm  and  Wolfe;  and  A  Half-Century 
of  Conflict.  This  large  amount  of  histor- 
ical writing,  done  at  great  disadvantage  from 
defective  eyesight  and  feeble  health,  has 
been  carefully  and  accurately  worked  out, 
his  first  visit  to  France  being  followed  by 
several  others^for  purposes  of  research.  His 
literary  style  is  picturesque  and  fascinating. 
He  died  at  Jamaica  Plain,  near  Boston,  Nov. 
8,  1893. 

Par'liament,  the  name  given  in  England 
to  the  national  assembly  and  meaning  a 
gathering  for  discussion,  from  the  French 
word  parler  "to  talk."  It  consists  of  two 
bodies,  called  the  house  of  lords  and  the 
house  of  commons.  The  house  of  lords  is 
composed  of  the  lords  spiritual  or  the  clergy, 
represented  by  the  archbishops  of  Canterbury 
and  York  and  32  bishops;  and  of  the  lords 
temporal,  who  represent  the  noble  families 
of  England,  Scotland,  Ireland  and  Wales. 
The  titles  used  are  duke,  marquis,  earl,  vis- 
count and  baron,  and  they  are  commonly 
called  peers.  The  crown  has  the  right  to 
make  new  peers  in  addition  to  those  who  in- 
herit their  titles.  In  1907  there  were  616 
peers  on  the  roll  of  the  house  of  lords.  The 
chief  officer  of  the  house  of  lords  is  the 
chancellor  or  keeper  of  the  great  seal,  who 
acts  as  speaker  but  does  not  keep  order. 
The  house  of  commons  consists  of  mem- 
bers elected  by  the  people,  representing 
counties,  towns  and  the  universities.  The 
larger  counties  and  towns  (or  boroughs)  are 
divided  into  districts,  each  one  being  en- 
titled to  a  representative.  There  are  670 
members  in  the  house  of  commons,  30  from 
Wales,  72  from  Scotland,  103  from  Ireland 
and  465  from  England.  The  chief  officer  of 
the  house  of  commons  is  the  speaker, 
chosen  by  the  members.  The  members  re- 
ceive no  salary,  but  have  certain  privileges. 
Parliament  is  called  or  dismissed  by  the 
government,  but  by  law  there  cannot  be 
more  than  three  years  between  the  closing 
of  one  parliament  and  the  calling  of  a  new 
one,  and  no  parliament  can  hold  its  sessions 
longer  than  seven  years.  The  decisions  of 
Parliament  cannot  be  changed  by  any  court 
of  law.  The  houses  of  parliament  are  in 
Westminster,  a  part  of  London.  The  acts 
of  Parliament  must  receive  the  approval  of 
the  reigning  sovereign,  which  is  obtained 
through  the  ministers  or  members  of  the 
cabinet  council.  The  royal  assent  has  been 
given  to  every  bill  which  has  passed  the  two 


PARMA 


1425 


PARROT 


houses  since  the  time  of  Queen  Anne.    The 

name  dates  to  the  I3th  century,  and  the 
conflicts  between  the  people  and  the  throne, 
which  have  gradually  increased  the  powers 
of  Parliament,  are  the  chief  theme  of  English 
history. 

Par' ma,  an  Italian  town,  the  former  capi- 
tal of  the  duchy  of  Parma,  lies  on  the  River 
Parma,  1 2  i  miles  from  the  Po,  on  the  Emilian 
road.  The  town  is  still  surrounded  by  walls 
and  is  guarded  by  a  citadel.  Of  more  than 
60  churches  the  most  noted  are  the  cathe- 
dral, the  baptistry,  Madonna  della  Steccata 
and  St.  John  the  Evangelist.  Other  notable 
buildings  are  the  ducal  palaces,  library,  uni- 
versity, music-school  and  museum.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  pianos,  silks, 
cast-iron  goods,  woolens,  earthenware,  paper 
and  soap.  A  state  university,  founded  in 
1502,  has  its  seat  here,  with  695  students. 
Population  49,340. 

Parnas'sus,  a  mountain  in  Phocis,  Greece, 
upon  whose  highest  peak  (8,036  feet)  oc- 
curred the  worship  of  Bacchus.  The  moun- 
tain was  the  seat  of  Apollo  and  the  muses, 
and  at  its  base  lay  the  seat  of  the  oracle  of 
Delphi  and  the  fountain  o  Castalia. 

Par'nell,  Charles  Stewart,  an  Irish  states- 
man, was  born  on  June  28,  1846,  at  Avon- 
dale,  Wicklow  County,  educated  at  Yeovil 
and  Cambridge,  and  in  1874  became  high 
sheriff  of  his  county.  In  1875  he  entered 
Parliament  for  County  Meath  as  a  home- 
ruler,  and  in  1877-8  became  notable  as  an 
obstructionist.  In  1879  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  Irish  National  Land  League,  and 
in  1880  visited  the  United  States,  making 
speeches  in  behalf  of  the  movement  and  col- 
lecting $350,000  in  its  aid.  Parnell's  opposi- 
tion to  the  coercion  bill  caused  him  to  be 
ejected  from  the  house  of  commons,  and  the 
passage  of  the  land  bill  almost  deprived  him 
of  power.  On  Oct.  13,  1881,  Gladstone  put 
him  in  Kilmainham  jail,  where  he  remained 
until  released  through  the  aid  of  Captain 
O'Shea,  May  2,  1882.  After  the  Land 
League  was  declared  illegal,  the  national 
league  arose  from  its  disruption,  and  Parnell 
was  elected  president  and  began  to  manoeu- 
vre to  throw  his  parliamentary  strength  to 
the  conservative  side.  Failing  in  this,  he 
carried  86  votes  to  the  liberals.  To  a  great 
extent  Gladstone's  views  on  home-rule  had 
changed,  and  this  brought  Parnell  politically 
close  to  him,  but  they  together  failed  to 
carry  the  home-rule  bill.  Thereux  on  the 
London  Times  printed  its  series  of  incrim- 
inatory articles,  which  caused  the  famous 
trial  of  128  days,  in  which  Parnell  was 
cleared.  He  was  now  immensely  popular 
and  powerful,  but  the  presentation  of  the 
freedom  of  the  city  of  Edinburgh  was  quickly 
followed  by  disgrace  on  the  publication  of 
the  application  for  divorce  by  Captain 
O'Shea,  in  which  Parnell  was  made  co-re- 
spondent. A  decree  was  entered  on  Nov.  17, 
1890.  Some  time  after  Parnell  married  Mrs. 


O'Shea.  He,  however,  never  regained  po- 
litical power,  and  died  at  Brighton,  England, 
Oct.  6,  1891.  See  The  Parnell  Movement  by 
T.  P.  O'Connor  and  England  under  Gladstone 
by  Justin  H.  M'Carthy. 

Pa'ros,  one  of  the  largest  islands  of  the 
Greek  Archipelago,  in  the  Cyclades  division, 
is  of  pyramidal  shape,  and  has  an  area  of 
about  64  square  miles  and  a  population  of 
nearly  7,000,  of  whom  its  capital,  Parikia, 
contains  2,300.  Its  exports  are  wine,  wool 
and  figs,  and  the  quarries  of  celebrated  Pa- 
rian marble  near  the  top  of  Mt.  St.  Elias 
are  still  worked. 

Parrhasius  (par-rd'shi-iis),  a  great  painter 
of  ancient  Greece,  lived  in  Athens,  as  early 
as  the  4th  century  B.  C.  He  excelled  in  de- 
sign, accuracy,  force  and  expression,  and 
was  said  to  be  as  vain  and  proud  as  he 
was  talented. 

Par'rish,  Maxfield,  an  American  artist, 
was  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1870.  As  an 
illustrator,  he  is  known  by  magazine  covers 
and  posters.  He  designs  in  elaborately  de- 
tailed ground  or  background,  flat  tints  and 
strong  but  delicate  outline.  His  illustra- 
tions to  Mother  Goose  in  Prose  were  signally 
successful. 

Par'rot,  a  tropical  bird,  with  short,  hooked 
bill,  thick  fleshy  tongue  and  usually  brilliant 
plumage,  the  foot  distinguished  by  the  first 
and  fourth  toes  pointing  backward  and 
the  second  and  third  forward.  The  family 
is  a  large  one,  embracing  over  five  hundred 
species.  It  includes  macaws,  cockatoos, 
true  parrots  and  parrakeets.  Parrots  live 
usually  in  flocks,  either  in  forests  or  on 
grassy  plains.  Their  food  is  mainly  vege- 
table, consisting  of  fruits,  seeds,  buds, 
leaves  and  flowers.  In  South  America 
are  found  the  greatest  number  of  species; 
in  Europe  there  are  none,  but  one  species 
exists  in  the  United  States.  There  are 
only  a  few  in  Asia  and  Africa;  some 
very  curious  ones  occur  in  New  Zealand  and 
Australia.  In  New  Zealand  is  found  the 
kea,  a  bird  able  to  kill  a  sheep.  Its  feet 
are  large  and  strong.  The  macaws,  found 
only  in  South  America,  are  the  largest  par- 
rots, brilliantly  colored  and  conspicuous 
objects  in  the  tropical  forests  in  which  they 
dwell.  But,  though  the  feathers  are  so  fine, 
parrots'  voices  are  anything  but  fine.  They 
are  sometimes  taught  a  few  words,  and  ara 
sometimes  kept  as  pets,  in  spite  of  their 

Eersistence  in  screaming  and  their  vicious 
abit  of  biting.  Cockatoos  as  a  rule  are 
snow-white  and  wear  striking  crests.  They 
are  found  in  the  Philippines,  the  Celebes, 
Australia  and  the  Malay  Archipelago.  These 
birds  make  most  satisfactory  pets,  being  of 
kindly  disposition  and  taking  readily  to 
training  and  speech.  Parrakeets  are  dainty 
in  size  and  form;  unlike  most  members  of 
the  order,  they  have  long,  pointed  tails. 
The  Carolina  parrakeet  is  found  in  this  coun- 
try; once  it  had  an  extended  range  here. 


PARROTT 


1426 


PARTRIDGE 


but  now  it  is  seen  only  in  Florida,  and  rarely 
there.  Its  body  is  bright  green,  its  head 
and  neck  yellow.  Parrots  proper  have  short, 
square  tails,  and  are  birds  of  moderate  size. 
They  are  characterized  by  Hornaday  as 
"naturally  sedate  and  observant,  possessing 
excellent  memories,  fond  of  the  companion- 
ship of  man  .  .  .  the  broad,  fleshy  tongue 
rendering  possible  the  articulation  of  many 
vocal  sounds."  The  voice  is  naturally  harsh, 
but  many  can  be  taught  to  speak.  Parrots 
vary  much  individually  in  their  capacity 
for  speech.  The  jako,  or  gray  parrot  of 
Africa  is  the  best  talker;  the  yellow-headed 
parrot  of  Mexico  stands  second  in  the  art. 

Par'rott,  Robert  Parker,  an  American 
inventor,  was  born  at  Lee,  N.  H.,  Oct.  5, 
1804.  He  graduated  from  West  Point,  and 
was  professor  of  mathematics  and  of  natural 
philosophy  there.  His  active  service  in  the 
army  was  in  the  war  against  the  Creeks  in 
1834.  In  1836  he  was  put  in  charge  of  the 
West  Point  cannon  foundry.  While  there 
he  invented  the  system  of  rifled-guns  and 
projectiles  which  bears  his  name.  These 
guns  were  first  used  at  the  battle  of  Bull 
Run  in  1 86 1 .  He  died  at  Cold  Springs,  N.  Y., 
Dec.  24,  1877. 

Par'ry,  Sir  William  Edward,  an  Artie 
explorer,  was  born  at  Bath,  England,  Dec. 
19,  1790.  and  entered  the  navy  in  1806. 
In  1810  he  commanded  a  ship  sent  to  the 
Arctic  to  protect  the  whale  fisheries,  and 
afterward  commanded  expeditions,  in  1818, 
to  find  the  Northwest  Passage,  in  1819,  to 
explore  Barrow  Strait,  Regent's  Inlet  and 
Wellington  Channel,  in  1821  and  1824,  with 
no  results,  and  in  1827,  with  an  attempt  to 
reach  the  pole  in  sledges  from  Spitzbergen. 
He  was  knighted  in^  1829,  became  rear-ad- 
miral in  1852,  and  in  1853,  was  appointed 
governor  of  Greenwich  Hospital,  an  office 
that  he  held  to  his  death,  July  8,  1855,  at 
Ems,  Germany.  See  Life  by  his  son. 

Par'sis  (par'sez),  are  the  few  remaining 
followers  of  the  Persian  religion  of  Zoroaster. 
Their  name  is  Persian  for  Persians.  When 
Zoroaster  lived  or  whether  he  lived  at  all 
is  a  question,  but  that  which  remains  of 
the  alleged  teachings  shows  that  at  first  the 
belief  centered  in  a  single  god,  but  that  the 
god_  had  two  spirits,  a  reality  and  a  non- 
reality  which  soon  led  to  the  worship  of  two 
gods  a  god  of  good  and  one  of  evil.  The 
religion  nourished  to  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  but  after  his  death  it  declined 
until  A.  D.  212,  when  Ardashir  caused  the 
book  (Zend)  to  be  restored  and  spread  it 
throughout  the  land.  The  priests,  of  whom 
there  were  40,000,  became  very  powerful. 
and  the  religion  flourished  again  until  the 
defeat  of  the  Persians  in  the  battle  01 
Nahavand  by  Omar  in  641  A.  D.  There- 
upon the  greater  portion  became  Moham- 
medans:  but  many  fled  some  going  to  India, 
where  they  now  live  under  Engl'sh  rule  and 
are  much  respected.  In  1901  there  were 


94,190  Parsis  in  British  India;  and  in  Persia 
there  are  about  9,000  Parsis  or  Guebers. 
They  eat  nothing  cooked  by  a  person  of 
another  religion,  and  no  beef  or  pork:  pro- 
hibit polygamy ;  and  they  do  not  bury  their 
dead,  but  expose  the  bodies  upon  an  iron 
grating.  The  symbol  of  their  god  is  the 
sun,  and  the  worship  is  by  a  perpetual  fire 
upon  the  altars.  See  Monier  VVilliams's 
Modern  India. 

Par' sons,  Kas.,  a  city  in  Labette  County, 
on  the  St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco  and 
Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas  railroads,  the 
latter  maintaining  car  and  machine  shops 
here.  It  has  an  industrial  establishment 
and  prominent  buildings,  notably  the  High 
School  and  the  Masonic  buildings.  It  was 
founded  in  1871,  and  incorporated  as  a  city 
in  1873.  The  government  is  vested  in  a 
mayor,  elected  for  two  years,  and  a  council. 
Population  12,463. 

Parthenogenesis  (par'the-no'-jen'-e-sis)  (in 
plants),  the  name  applied  to  the  production 
of  a  new  plant  by  an  egg  which  has  not 
been  fertilized.  It  is  a  common  phenomenon 
in  certain  of  the  lowest  plants  (Thallophytes), 
but  is  very  rare  in  the  higher  plants.  The 
term  is  often  wrongly  used  among  seed- 
plants  to  include  the  formation  of  embryos 
within  seeds  without  the  presence  of  pollen. 
In  most  of  these  cases  it  has  been  proved 
that  the  embryo  has  not  come  from  an 
unfertilized  egg  but  has  arisen  by  a  budding 
process  from  other  cells. 

Parthenon,  (pdr'the-non)  (Greek  for  maid- 
en's chamber)  is  the  temple  of  Athen£  (Pal- 
las) in  Athens,  as  it  stands,  the  most  per- 
fect example  of  Greek  architecture.  _The 
erection  of  it  was  superintended  by  Pheidias 
It  is  built  of  Pentelic  marble,  with  eight 
pillars  in  breadth  and  15.  in  length,  being 
228  feet  long  and  64  feet  high.  It  stood  un- 
injured untu  1687,  when  it  was  being  used 
as  a  Turkish  magazine  and  an  exploding 
Venetian  bomb  reduced  it  to  ?ts  present  state 
of  ruin.  See  the  Dilettanti  Society's  Athen- 
ian Architecture. 

Par'ton,  James,  an  American  author,  was 
born  at  Canterbury  England  Feb.  9  1822 
coming  to  New  York  when  five  years  old. 
His  chief  works  are  lives  ot  Greeley  Frank- 
lin, Jefferson,  Burr,  Jackson  and  Voltaire. 
He  died  at  Newburyport,  Mass.,  Oct.  17 
1891. 

Par'tridge,  a  game-bird  belonging  to  the 
grouse  family.  The  true  partidges  are  Old 
World  birds.  Nevertheless  the  name  is 
loosely  applied  in  the  United  States  to  the 
ruffed  grouse,  which  is  called  partridge  in 
the  North,  and  to  the  bob-white  called  par- 
tridge in  the  South.  The  common  partridge 
of  England  and  Europe  is  about  a  foot  long, 
of  a  mottled  gray  color.  The  red-legged 
partridge  of  Europe  and  Asia  is  larger  and 
is  one  of  the  finest  game  birds.  The  Cali- 
fornia mountain  quail  or  mountain  par- 
tridge is  an  interesting  bird  of  our  north- 


PASADENA 


X427 


PASTEUR 


west.  It  has  a  black  throat,  a  noticeable 
white  crescent  on  each  side  of  the  throat 
and  a  long  drooping  plume  extending  back- 
ward from  the  head.  A  smaller  bird,  the 
valley  quail  or  valley-partridge,  the  most 
common  June  bird  of  California,  is  found 
also  in  Oregon,  Nevada  and  elsewhere  in  the 
west.  It  dwells  high  up  in  the  mountains 
as  well  as  down  in  the  lowlands.  Though  not 
gaudy  its  coloring  is  rich,  and  it  wears  a 
black  plume  that  curves  forward  from  its 
head  in  most  jaunty  fashion.  In  portions 
of  Texas,  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  may 


PARTRIDGE 

be  found  Mearns*  partridge  of  Mexico,  very 
striking  in  appearance,  large  white  spots 
on  its  sides,  its  head  adorned  with  bars  of 
black  and  white.  See  BOB-WHITE.  See 
Hornaday's  American  Natural  History  and 
Chapman's  Bird  Life. 

Pas'ade"na,  Cal.,  a  charming  residence 
city  and  tourist  resort,  both  summer  and 
winter,  is  10  miles  east  of  Los  Angeles  at  the 
foot  of  the  beautiful  Sierra  Madre  mountains. 
This  city  is  unique  in  beauty  of  situation,  and, 
as  it  escapes  the  ocean  fog,  its  warm  climate  is 
delightful.  It  attracts  thousands  of  visitors 
annually.  Its  beautiful  residences,  parks, 
churches,  schools  and  hotels  are  greatly  ad- 
mired. In  addition  to  its  excellent  public 
school  system,  Throop  College  of  Technology 
provides  for  higher  education.  It  has  a  popu- 
lation of  .42 ,000. 

Pascal  (pds'kal),  Blaise,  a  great  writer 
and  deep  thinker  of  France,  was  born  on 
June  19,  1623,  in  Auvergne.  Before  he  was 
1 6  he  wrote  a  treatise  on  conic  sections 
that  still  forms  the  basis  of  the  modern 
treatment  of  the  subject.  He  published 
his  NouveUes  Experiences  sur  le  Vide  in  1 647, 
and  next  year  made  his  famous  experiment 
in  atmosphere  pressure.  Besides  this,  he 
invented  a  calculating  machine.  His  best 
known  work  's  entitled  Pensees  (Thoughts) 
sur  la  Religion.  He  died  at  Paris,  Aug.  19, 1662. 
See  Tulloch's  Pascal  in  Foreign  Classics  Series. 

Passa'ic,  N.  J.,  a  city,  lies  on  Passaic 
River,  n  miles  from  Jersey  City.  It  has 
foundries  and  print  works  and  manufac- 
tories of  woolens,  shoddy,  whips,  chemicals 
and  India  rubber.  Population  54.773- 


Pas'samaquod'dy  Bay  opens  from  the  Bay 
of  Fundy  on  the  North  American  coast  be- 
tween Maine  and  New  Brunswick  at  the 
mouth  of  St  Croix  River.  It  is  about  15 
miles  long  by  10  wide,  and  hemmed  by 
islands  that  make  an  excellent  harbor. 

Pas'sion  Flower,  a  species  of  plant  al- 
most exclusively  found  in  the  warmer  parts 
of  America,  has  a  flower,  shading  from  pur- 
ple into  light  heliotrope  of  five  parts,  with 
narrow  lines  of  white  from  the  edge  of  the 
petals  meeting  at  the  center.  It  received 
its  name  from  the  early  Spanish  settlers, 
who  saw  in  it  the  crown  of  thorns  and  the 
five  marks  of  the  wounds  of  the  Lord.  It 
is  a  shrubby,  climbing  plant  with  lobed 
leaves,  and  some  species  are  cultivated  for 
the  fruit,  particularly  the  sweet  calabash 
of  the  West  Indies,  the  root  of  which  is 
poisonous  and  acts  like  morphine.  The 
roots,  leaves  and  flowers  of  some  species 
are  used  as  medicine. 

Pass' over,  an  annual  feast  of  the  Jews,  an 
account  of  whose  origin  is  given  in  Exodus 
xii,  is  the  feast  of  unleavened  bread,  and 
probably  originated  when  the  Jews  were 
a  wandering  tribal  race  and  offered  thanks 
for  the  year's  prosperity  (Gen.  iv:  4).  With 
the  settlement  of  the  Jews  in  Canaan,  the 
feast  and  sacrifice  became  a  fixture  of  the 
harvest  time  in  the  spring,  when,  after  the 
offering  of  the  first  sheaf,  the  people  en- 
joyed their  corn  without  waiting  to  have 
their  bread  leavened.  The  celebration  is 
accompanied  by  many  rites  spoken  of  in 
Chronicles,  Ezra,  Psalms  cxii^  and  cxvii, 
I.  Cor.  v:  7  and  John  xix:  36.  See  Well- 
hausen's  History  of  Israel. 

Pass'port  is  a  paper  given  by  a  govern- 
ment to  an  individual  authorizing  him  to 
leave  the  country  or  allowing  him  to  travel 
through  or  reside  in  it,  affording  the  traveler 
protection.  The  rule  has  become  somewhat 
relaxed  of  late,  but  Russia  and  Turkey  still 
insist  on  them,  while  Germany  requires  a 
passport  from  a  foreigner  who  wishes  to 
reside  in  one  place  for  any  period  of  time. 
In  England  and  the  United  States  no  pass- 
ports are  required,  but  they  may  be  ob- 
tained as  a  precautionary  measure. 

Pasteur  (pds'ter1),  Louis,  a  distinguished 
French  chemist  and  biologist,  was  born  in 
the  department  of  Jura,  Dec.  27,  1822.  He 
graduated  (D.  S'c.)  from  the  Ecole  Nor  male 
in  1847,  and,  after  holding  several  teaching 
positions  became  professor  of  chemistry  at 
the  Sorbonne  in  1867.  He  began  as  a  chemist, 
but  turned  into  microscopical  work,  especially 
along  the  line  of  bacteriology,  and  also 
ranks  as  a  biologist.  He  made  many 
discoveries  of  especial  benefit  to  mankind. 
About  1857  he  showed  fermentation  to  be 
due  to  the  growth  of  micro-organisms. 
In  1859  he  engaged  against  Pouchet  in  the 
controversy  on  the  spontaneous  generation 
of  life,  and  by  public  experiments  showed 
the  falsity  of  Pouchet's  position,  and 


PASTEUR  INSTITUTE 


1428 


PATERSON 


LOUIS   PASTEUR 


proved  that  spontaneous  generation  does 
not  occur.  In  1865  he  turned  his  attention 
to  the  diseases  of 
the  silkworm,  and 
in  two  years  was 
able  to  arrest  the 
ravages  of  a  dis- 
ease among  them. 
His  discoveries  re- 
sulted in  saving 
millions  of  dollars 
annually  to  the 
silk  industry.  His 
further  work 
helped  in  estab- 
lishing the  germ- 
theory  of  disease 
(which  see).  He 
studied  profound- 
ly the  methods  of 
using  attenuated 
virus  for  vaccina- 
tion against  splenic  fever,  hydrophobia  and 
other  diseases.  In  1888  Pasteur  Institute 
was  formally  opened  at  Paris  for  the  cure 
or  prevention  of  hydrophobia.  He  received 
many  honors  both  at  home  and  from 
learned  societies  all  over  the  world.  He 
died  on  Sept.  28,  1895.  See  Louis  Pasteur; 
translated  by  Lady  Hamilton. 

Pas'teur  Institute.  This  is  an  institution 
partly  supported  and  controlled  by  the 
French  government,  which  as  its  chief  aim 
prosecutes  researches  in  cancer,  tuberculosis, 
appendicitis  and  other  prevalent  maladies. 
Its  name  is  taken  from  Louis  Pasteur,  who 
carried  on  his  later  researches  there.  Pas- 
teur indicated  the  possibility  of  a  science  of 
stereo-chemistry;  and  was  the  first  to  show 
that  the  fermentations  of  milk,  butter  etc. 
are  due  to  living  micro-organisms.  He 
showed  the  possibility  of  vaccination  against 
disease  and  of  sterilizing  substances  like  milk 
which  may  convey  it.  Pasteur  Institute  be- 
came short  of  funds  to  continue  its  valuable 
researches;  but  early  in  1907  it  was  the 
recipient  of  a  legacy  of  30,000,000  francs 
[nearly  $6,000,000]  under  the  will  of  M. 
Osiois,  one  of  the  executors  of  which  was 
M.  Emile  Loubet,  former  president  of  the 
French  republic. 

Pat'ago'  nia,  as  the  most  southern  country 
of  South  America  was  once  called,  extends 
south  from  the  Argentine  republic  1,000 
miles  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  which  sepa- 
rate it  from  Tierra  del  Fuego.  The  Andes 
divide  the  country  into  two  parts,  the  east- 
ern area  of  which  now  belongs  to  the  Ar- 
gentine republic  and  the  western  to  Chile. 
To-day  Patagonia  is  but  a  geographical 
term.  The  western  portion  is  rugged  and 
mountainous,  with  islands  and  cliffs  along 
the  Pacific  coast,  which  give  it  a  wild  out- 
line. The  strip  of  shore  along  the  Pacific 
from  the  Andes  is  so  narrow  that  there  are 
no  rivers  longer  than  13  miles.  The  tem- 
perature varies  from  50°  to  33°,  summer 


and  winter,  and  is  very  damp.  Coal  is 
mined  at  Punta  Arenas,  where  Chile  has  a 
colony  and  penal  settlement.  Eastern  Pata- 
gonia is  not  so  desolate,  but  has  high  plains 
in  some  places  covered  by  grass,  forests,  and 
shrubs,  yet  along  the  Atlantic  coast  every- 
thing is  wild.  The  rivers  here  are  the  Negro, 
Chubut,  Deseado,  Chico,  Santa  Cruz  and 
Gallegos,  all  rising  in  the  Andes  Some 
horses  and  cattle  are  raised,  and  wild  fowl 
and  animals  are  found  in  some  regions.  The 
inhabitants  are  Indians,  almost  a  race  by 
themselves,  who  are  tall  and  straight,  hardy, 
strong  and  muscularly  developed.  Some 
Europeans  are  found  at  the  settlements  at 
Patagones,  on  the  Chubut  and  the  Santa 
Cruz  Magellan  sailed  along  the  entire  coast 
in  1520,  and  the  great  plain  was  explored 
by  De  Isla  in  1535.  See  works  on  Pata- 
gonia by  Falkner,  Snow,  Pritchard  and 
Musters. 

Pataps'co,  a  river  of  Maryland,  flowing 
into  Chesapeake  Bay,  14  miles  below  Balti- 
more. It  is  80  miles  long,  and  admits  large 
vessels  as  far  as  Baltimore. 

Pat'ent,  the  privilege  granted  by  a  gov- 
ernment to  an  inventor,  of  the  exclusive 
right  to  his  invention  for  a  term  of  years. 
The  royal  grant  in  England  was  made  by 
letters-patent  or  open  letters,  called  so  be- 
cause they  were  not  sealed.  The  system 
of  giving  patents  is  common  in  Europe  and 
the  United  States,  though  Switzerland  and 
Holland  have  no  patent  laws  and  Prussia 
does  not  favor  them.  The  United  States 
Patent-Office  is  a  branch  of  the  Department 
of  the  Interior,  and  has  its  records,  models 
and  drawings  at  Washington.  The  first 
American  law  of  patents  was  passed  in  1790; 
the  present  law  in  1870.  Any  invention, 
both  new  and  useful,  can  receive  a  patent. 
It  is  necessary  only  that  it  should  be  new 
in  the  United  States,  its  previous  use  in 
foreign  countries  not  preventing  a  patent. 
Any  person  who  is  the  first  inventor  of 
anything  that  admits  of  a  patent  can  obtain 
one,  whether  a  resident  of  the  country  or  a 
foreigner.  The  patents  are  given  for  seven- 
teen years  and  cannot  be  renewed.  About  30,- 
ooo  patents  are  applied  for  yearly  in  America. 

PATENTS   AND  THE  CONTROL   OF   PRICES 

A  decision  by  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  in 
1913  declared  it  unlawful  for  a  manufacturer 
to  fix  the  retail  price  of  his  product  by  refusing 
to  sell  to  retailers  who  fail  to  adhere  to  this 
price.  The  case  was  one  in  which  a  manu- 
facturer of  a  patented  article  claimed  that  his 
patent  gave  him  the  absolute  control  of  the 
sale  of  the  article,  including  the  price. 

Pat'erson,  N.  J.,  a  city  15  miles  from 
New  York  city,  is  situated  on  Passaic  River. 
The  river  curves  around  three  sides  of  the 
city,  and  has  a  fall  of  50  feet,  which  gives 
the  fine  water-power  used  in  many  manu- 
factures. Its  principal  manufactures  are 
silk  goods  and  locomotives,  paper  mills,  fac- 


PATERSON 


1429 


PATTI 


tories  of  carpets,  shawls,  wire  and  bagging. 
There  are  over  a  hundred  silk  factories, 
making  ribbons,  handkerchiefs,  veils,  scarfs, 
fringes,  dress-silks  and  sewing  silk,  giving 
the  city  the  name  of  the  Lyons  of  America. 
Population  125,600. 

Paterson,  William,  founder  of  the  Bank 
of  England,  was  born  in  Dumfriesshire,  Scot- 
land, in  April,  1658.  He  made  a  fortune  by 
trade  in  London,  and  planned  the  Bank  of 
England,  being  one  of  its  first  directors. 
He  was  active  in  accomplishing  the  union 
of  England  and  Scotland.  He  died  on  Jan. 

22,  1719.     See  Life  by  Bannister. 
Pat'more,    Coventry   Kearsey  Deighton, 

an  English  poet,  was  born  in  Essex,  July 

23,  1823,  and  died  in  Hampshire,  Nov.  26, 
1896.     His  first  poems  were  published  in 
1844.     His  best-known  work  is  The.  Angel 
in  the  House  —  a  poem  in  four  parts  —  "  The 
Betrothal,"  "The  Espousals,"  "Faithful  for 
Ever"  and  "The  Victories  of  Love."     He 
also  edited  The  Children's  Garland  and  The 
Autobiography  of  Barry  Cornwall. 

Pat'mos,  a  small  rocky  island  in  the^Egean 
Sea,  now  called  Patino.  It  is  known  as  the 
place  of  exile  of  John  the  apostle,  and  where, 
tradition  says,  he  saw  the  visions  recorded 
in  Apocalypse  or  Revelation.  The  monastery 
of  John  the  Divine,  built  in  1088,  stands 
on  a  mountain  in  the  island.  The  island 
belongs  to  Turkey,  and  is  inhabited  by  about 
4.000  Greeks,  who  live  mostly  by  fishing  for 
sponges. 

Pat'na,  the  fifteenth  city  of  British  India, 
is  situated  in  Bengal  on  the  Ganges.  It 
stretches  nine  miles  along  the  river,  but 
has  narrow  streets  and  poor  houses.  The 
government  opium  factories,  Patna  College, 
Mosque  of  Sher  Shah,  a  Roman  Catholic 
church  and  a  Mohammedan  college  are  the 
principal  buildings.  Its  situation  at  the 
junction  of  three  great  rivers,  the  Ganges, 
Gandak  and  Son,  gives  it  a  large  trade.  It 
exports  oil  seeds,  cocoanuts,  salt,  spices, 
cotton,  and.  tobacco.  Patna  was  founded 
probably  about  600  B.  C.  In  1763  it  was 
the  scene  of  a  massacre  of  British  prisoners 
and  of  a  mutiny  in  1857.  Population  134,785. 

Pa'ton  John  Gibson,  a  Scottish  mission- 
ary whose  field  of  work,  for  many  years, 
was  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  was  born 
in  Dumfriesshire,  May  24,  1824.  He  labored 
first  as  a  city  missionary  at  Glasgow,  and 
in  1858  went  to  the  New  Hebrides,  working 
first  among  the  cannibal  natives  of  Tanna. 
After  four  years  the  opposition  of  the  na- 
tives forced  him  to  leave.  His  great  work 
was  done  on  Aniwa,  where  he  lived  twenty 
years  and  saw  the  whole  population  become 
Christians.  The  story  of  his  missionary  life, 
edited  by  his  brother,  and  published  in  a 
Chicago  edition  in  1892,  is  one  of  the  most 
thrilling  in  missionary  literature.  He  died 
on  Jan.  28,  1907. 

Paton,  Sir  Noel,  a  British  painter,  was 
born  at  Dunfermline,  Scotland,  Dec.  13, 


1 82 1.  His  pictures  of  Christ  Bearing  the 
Cross  and  The  Reconciliation  of  Oberon  and 
Titania  together  gained  a  prize  of  $1,500. 
Scenes  from  fairyland  and  legend  and  re- 
ligious allegory  made  his  work  familiar  and 
have  been  often  engraved.  Among  his  works 
are  Home  from  the  Crimea,  Luther  at  Erfurt, 
The  Fairy  Raid,  Gethsemane,  Christ  and  Mary 
at  the  Sepulchre,  The  Man  of  Sorrows  and 
Thy  Will  be  Done.  He  is  known  also  by  his 
illustrations  of  the  Lays  of  the  Scottish  Cav- 
aliers and  The  Ancient  Mariner.  He  also 
wrote  two  volumes  of  poems.  He  died  in  1902. 
Pa'triarch,  Greek,  the  head  of  the 
Greek  church.  The  name  patriarch  was 
given  to  the  bishops  of  some  of  the  larger 
divisions  of  sees  or  bishoprics  of  the  Chris- 
tian church,  and  at  the  time  of  the  coun- 
cil of  Nice  (A.  D.  325)  there  were  three 
patriarchs :  Those  of  Antioch,  Alexandria 
and  Rome.  When  the  seat  of  empire  was 
changed  to  Constantinople,  its  bishop  was 
made  a  patriarch,  and  was  superior  to 
those  of  Antioch  and  Alexandria  and 
second  only  to  the  prelate  at  Rome.  The 
Roman  or  western  and  the  Greek  or  eastern 
church  arose  from  a  division  in  the  universal 
Christian  church,  resulting  from  the  con- 
tests between  the  patriarchs  of  Rome  and 
Constantinople. 

Pat'rick,  Saint,  the  apostle  and  patron 
saint  of  Ireland,  was  a  distinguished  mis- 
sionary of  the  5th  century.  He  is  thought 
to  have  been  born  about  392.  When  a  boy 
he  was  taken  by  pirates  and  sold  to  an 
Irish  chief,  who  lived  near  the  town  of 
Broughshane,  in  County  Antrim.  He 
escaped  after  six  years  and  went  to  France, 
becoming  a  monk.  In  432  he  went  as  a 
missionary  to  Ireland,  landing  at  Wicklow. 
He  is  said  to  have  founded  365  churches, 
baptized  12,000  people  and  consecrated 
450  bishops.  The  date  of  his  death  is  in 
dispute,  the  year  4  70,  the  latest  period  given, 
making  him  about  100  years  old.  The  only 
certain  writings  of  his  are  his  Confessions 
and  a  letter  written  to  a  man  named  Corot- 
icus.  See  Tripartite  Life  of  St.  Patrick  by 
Stokes  and  Lives  by  Todd,  Healy,  Bury  and 
Lusack. 

Patti,  Adelina  (pat'te,  ad-e-ll'na) ,  a 
famous  opera  singer  ot  Italian  family,  was 
born  at  Madrid, 
Spain,  on  Feb.  19, 
1843.  When  seven 
years  old,  she  sang 
Casta  Diva  in  New 
York,  where  her 
family  were  then 
living,  and  made 
her  first  appear- 
ance in  opera  in 
that  city  in  1859. 
Her  first  appear- 
ance at  London 
in  1 86 1  was  as 

ADELINA    PATTI  Successful   as    Were 


PATTON 


1430 


PAUL 


those  in  the  United  States,  and  there 
and  at  Paris  and  St.  Petersburg,  and 
wherever  she  sang,  she  was  received  with 
great  enthusiasm.  Her  marriage  in  1868 
to  the  Marquis  de  Caux  ended  in  divorce 
in  1885  and  in  1886  she  married  the  tenor 
singer,  Ernest  Nicolini.  His  death  occurred 
in  1898,  and  a  year  later  she  married  Baron 
Cederstrom,  the  Swedish  nobleman.  In 
1903-04  this  successful  queen  of  song  made 
a  farewell  tour  of  the  United  States.  She 
resides  in  her  Welsh  home  (Craig-y-nos) 
near  Swansea. 

Pat'ton,  Francis  Landey,  an  American 
clergyman  and  educator,  was  born  in  War- 
wick Parish,  Ber- 
muda, Jan.  22, 
1843,  and  edu- 
cated at  K  n  o  x 
College,  Toronto. 
He  graduated  at 
Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in 
1865.  He  received 
the  degree  of  D.D. 
from  Yale  in  1888 
and  that  of  LL.D. 
from  Harvard  in 
1889.  He  was  or- 
dained to  the  Pres- 
byterian ministry 
on  June  i,  1865, 
and  was  pastor  in 

FRANCIS  PATTON,  LL.D.     New     yOrk     City, 

Nyack  and  Brooklyn  in  succession.  He  be- 
came a  professor  in  what  now  is  McCormick 
Theological  Seminary  in  1872,  where  he 
remained  nine  years.  In  1881  he  was 
elected  to  a  chair  in  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary  and  in  1888  to  the  presidency 
of  the  University  of  Princeton.  In  1902  he 
resigned  this  office  and  became  president 
of  Princeton  Theological  Seminary.  His 
published  work  embraces  Inspiration  of  the 
Scriptures  and  Summary  of  Christian  Doc- 
trine. 

Paul  was  the  name  of  five  Popes,  of  whom 
Paul  I  and  Paul  II  were  unimportant. 

Paul  III  (Alexander  Farnese)  was  born 
in  Tuscany  in  1468,  and  elected  pope  in 
1534.  Though  ambitious  to  advance  his 
family,  making  cardinals  of  two  grandsons 
while  they  were  boys,  he  was  a  wise  ruler 
and  surrounded  himself  with  good  cardinals. 
His  bull  or  decree  of  excommunication 
against  Henry  VIII  of  England,  issued  in 
1538,  and  the  one  forming  the  Order  of  the 
Jesuits  are  the  most  important  edicts  of  his 
reign.  He  supported  Charles  V  in  his  strug- 
gles against  the  Protestant  League  in  Ger- 
many. He  died  suddenly,  Nov.  10,  1549. 
See  Lives  of  the  Popes  by  Ranke. 

Paul  IV  (Giovanni  ( jo-van' ne")  Pietro 
(pe-d'trd)  Caraffa)  was  born  at  Naples  in 
1476.  He  became  pope  in  1555.  He  was 
strict  in  the  punishment  of  heresy,  estab- 
lishing a  censorship  to  examine  books,  and 


was  the  first  to  issue  a  list  of  prohibited 
books.  He  was  thoughtful  of  the  poor  and 
just  in  his  government,  even  banishing  his 
own  nephews  from  Rome  on  account  of 
their  evil  conduct.  He  became  involved 
in  quarrels  with  Emperor  Ferdinand,  Philip 
II  of  Spain  and  Cosmo,  grandduke  of  Tus- 
cany. His  strength  giving  way,  he  died 
on  Aug.  1 8,  1559.  See  Lives  of  the  Popes  by 
Ranke.  / 

Paul  V  (Camil'lo  Borghese)  was  born 
at  Rome  in  1552.  He  was  nuncio  or  rep- 
resentative of  the  Roman  church  at  the 
Spanish  court  and  a  cardinal  under  Clement 
VIII.  In  1605  he  became  pope.  His  rule 
was  vigorous,  made  memorable  by  his  long 
conflict  with  Venice  on  the  claim  that  the 
clergy  should  not  be  liable  to  trial  by  the 
common  courts.  The  dispute  was  settled 
in  1607  by  the  help  of  Henry  IV  of  France. 
Paul  improved  Rome  by  new  public  works, 
the  preservation  of  antiquities  and  the 
establishment  and  renewal  of  museums, 
libraries  and  charitable  institutions.  He 
died  on  Jan.  28,  1621.  See  Paul  the  Pope 
and  Paul  the  Friar  by  Trollope. 

Paul,  Herbert,  English  historian  and 
man  of  letters,  member  (since  1906)  of  the 
British  Parliament  for  Northampton,  was 
born  in  1853.  Early  in  his  literary  career 
he  set  himself  to  write  a  History  of  Modern 
England,  beginning  with  the  downfall  of 
Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1846  —  a  work  which 
was  completed  in  1906  and  established  his 
reputation  as  an  eminent  writer  of  the  day. 
Of  this  work  a  noted  critic  has  said  that 
"whatever  else  this  book  does  or  fails  to  do, 
it  establishes  Mr.  Paul".  Mr.  Paul  then 
wrote  a  Life  of  Froude  the  historian. 

Paul,  Saint  (originally  Saul),  the  great 
apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  was  born  about  3 
A.  D.,  in  Tarsus  according  to  some,  but  ac- 
cording to  St.  Jerome,  at  Giscala  in  Cilicia, 
and  taken  to  Tarsus  in  his  infancy.  He  was 
a  Jew  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  and  received 
the  name  Saul,  changed  afterwards  to  Paul. 
He  in  some  way  also  was  a  Roman  citizen. 
He  studied  at  Jerusalem  in  the  famous  school 
of  Gamaliel,  and  makes  his  first  appearance 
in  history  as  a  persecutor  of  the  new  sect  of 
Christians.  After  the  persecution  at  Jeru- 
salem he  set  out  for  Damascus  on  the  same 
errand.  His  conversion  from  a  persecuting 
Pharisee  to  an  apostle  of  the  new  religion, 
according  to  the  account  given  in  Acts,  was 
effected  by  a  blinding  vision  which  outshone 
the  Syrian  sun  and,  he  affirms,  was  a  vision 
of  the  Jesus  whom  he  persecuted.  Cured  of 
his  temporary  blindness,  he  spent  three 
years  in  retirement  in  Arabia,  and  then  at 
Damascus  began  his  wonderful  life  of  labor 
and  suffering.  He  and  Barnabas  were  the 
first  foreign  missionaries  of  the  Christian 
church,  sailing  to  Cyprus,  to  Perga  and  to 
Lystra,  where  Paul  was  stoned  and  left  for 
dead.  He  sided  with  the  Gentile  converts  in 
their  struggle  to  free  themselves  from  the 


PAUNCEFOTE 


I43X 


PAV1A 


burdens  of  the  Jewish  ceremonies,  and  thus 
won  the  first  battle  of  religious  liberty  ^in 
the  Christian  church.  On  his  second  mis- 
sionary journey  he  preached  from  Areopagus 
(Mars  Hill)  at  Athens,  to  the  seekers  of  "an 
unknown  God,"  and  founded  the  churches 
of  Philippi,  Corinth  and  Thessalonica.  Dur- 
ing his  third  missionary  journey  through 
Galatia,  Phrygia,  Macedonia  and  the  Gre- 
cian Islands  he  wrote  his  most  important 
group  of  epistles.  On  his  fifth  visit  to  Jeru- 
salem he  was  mobbed  by  the  Jews,  who 
charged  him  with  taking  a  Gentile  into  the 
temple,  but,  claiming  protection  as  a  Roman 
citizen,  he  was  sent  to  Felix,  the  Roman  gov- 
ernor, at  Caesarea,  who  kept  him  two  years 
in  prison.  Tried  again  by  Festus,  he  ap- 
pealed to  Caesar  and  was  sent  bound  to 
Rome,  suffering  shipwreck  on  the  journey. 
Two  years  were  spent  in  prison  with  a  guard 
of  soldiers,  but  he  carried  on  his  work  of 
preaching,  making  converts  among  his 
guards  and  even  in  Caesar's  household.  He 
seems  to  have  been  acquitted  at  Rome,  and 
there  are  traces  of  probable  visits  to  Colos- 
sae,  Crete  and  Nicopolis,  his  trial  and  im- 
prisonment at  Ephesus  and  his  second  jour- 
ney to  Rome.  His  death  under  Nero,  prob- 
ably by  beheading,  as  he  was  a  Roman  citi- 
zen, is  taught  by  Christian  tradition;  but 
nothing  definite  is  known  of  this.  Thirteen 
epistles  were  written  by  him  and  are  found 
in  the  New  Testament,  some  of  the_m  being 
letters  to  churches,  some  to  friends,  in  which 
are  found  those  truths  which  make  Paul  the 
chief  founder  of  Christian  theology.  "He 
has  earned  the  admiration  of  all  Christian 
ages,  because  he  was  great  enough  to  over- 
come the  prejudices  of  his  nation  and  sect 
and  to  be  cursed  in  his  own  age  as  a  renegade 
Jew."  See  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  by 
Conybeare  and  Howson  and  Life  of  Paul  by 
Dean  Farrar. 

Pauncefote  (pans' f oof) ,  Julian,  Lord,  an 
English  diplomat',' was  born  at  Munich,  Ba- 
varia, Sept.  13,  1828.  He  helped  negotiate 
the  famous  Hay-Pauncefote  treaty.  (See 
HAY).  He  became  a  barrister  of  the  In- 
ner Temple  in  1852 ;  secretary  of  state  lor  the 
colonies  in  1866 ;  chief- justice  of  the  Leeward 
Islands  in  1874;  under-secretary  of  state  for 
foreign  affairs,  1882 ;  delegate  for  drawing  up 
an  act  relative  to  the  navigation  of  Suez  Ca- 
nal in  1885;  and  minister  plenipotentiary  to 
the  United  States  in  1889.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  international  peace-conference  at 
The  Hague  in  1899,  and  was  afterward 
raised  to  the  peerage  His  office  in  Wash- 
ington, on  account  of  his  distinguished  serv- 
ices, was  raised  from  that  of  a  minister  to 
that  of  an  ambassador  in  1893.  He  was 
created  a  baron  in  1899.  He  died  on  May 
24,  1902. 

Pausanias  (pa-sa'nt-tis) ,  a  Spartan  gen- 
eral and  nephew*  of  Leonidas.  He  was  in 
command  of  the  Greeks  in  the  battle  of 
Plataea,  479  B.  C.,  in  which  the  Persians  were 


defeated.  He  compelled  the  Thsbans  to 
give  up  the  chiefs  of  the  Persian  party  for 
punishment,  and  captured  Cyprus  and  By- 
zantium. His  ambition  now  made  him  be« 
come  a  traitor  to  his  country,  and  he  entered 
into  secret  negotiations  with  Xerxes,  hop- 
ing to  rule  Greece  under  him.  He  was  re- 
called to  Sparta  and  tried,  but  acquitted  be- 
cause of  his  former  services  to  the  state.  A 
second  time  he  renewed  his  intrigues,  a 
second  time  was  called  to  account  by  the 
Spartans,  and  a  second  time  escaped  punish- 
ment His  third  effort  to  stir  up  the  helots 
to  rebellion  was  betrayed  by  one  of  them, 
and  Pausanias  took  refuge  in  a  temple.  The 
people  blocked  the  gate  of  the  temple  with 
heaps  of  stones,  leaving  him  to  die  of  hunger, 
his  mother  placing  the  first  stone 

Pave'ment,  a  covering  of  stone,  brick, 
wood,  cement  or  asphalt,  placed  on  a  street 
or  road  to  give  a  hard  and  easier  surface  for 
travel  (See  ASPHALT,  BRICK,  CEMENT, 
STONE  and  WOOD.)  It  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  gravel  and  stone  coating  put  on 
country  roads.  Pavements  are  mostly  used 
in  cities  where  the  travel  is  large  The  first 
thing  necessary  in  a  pavement  is  a  good  foun- 
dation. The  work  on  the  foundation  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  character  of  the  soil 
and  whether  it  is  well-drained  or  not.  The 
best  foundation  is  a  layer  of  concrete,  vary- 
ing from  six  to  1 2  inches  thick  according  to 
the  lo  ds  to  be  sustained.  Of  the  materials 
used  for  pavement,  wood  in  most  parts  of 
the  United  States  is  the  cheapest,  but  it  is 
not  durable,  as  it  rots,  even  when  creosoted 
and  coated  with  tar.  Stone  formerly  was 
used  in  the  form  of  small  round  boulders, 
called  cobble-stones,  but  this  made  so  rough 
a  pavement  that  it  is  seldom  used  now. 
Small  rectangular  blocks  of  granite  or  trap- 
rock  are  often  used.  About  1880  brick 
pavements  were  introduced  in  the  smaller 
cities  of  Illinois  and  Ohio,  and  brick  is  now 
used  very  extensively  in  different  parts  of 
the  country.  When  the  special  pavement- 
bricks  of  good  quality  are  used  and  put  on  a 
good  concrete  foundation,  they  make  one 
of  the  most  satisfactory  pavements  for  ordi- 
nary traffic,  being  both  fairly  durable  and 
easy  to  travel  on.  Asphalt  is  a  bituminous 
rock  found  in  Trinidad,  California  and  other 
places.  When  heated  and  mixed  with  sand 
it  is  used  to  coat  a  foundation  on  a  street, 
and  hardens  into  a  smooth,  elastic  and  dura- 
ble pavement  for  residence  streets.  It  is 
used  extensively  in  many  cities  in  the  United 
States  and  in  Berlin  and  Paris.  Asphalt 
and  brick  have  the  advantage  of  medium 
cost  and  of  being  easily  cleaned.  Stone  is 
the  most  durable,  but  the  most  costly. 

Pavia  (pa-ve'a),  a  city  of  northern  Italy, 
on  Ticino  River,  21  miles  south  of  Milan. 
It  was  called  the  city  of  a  hundred  towera 
from  its  numerous  square  towers  used  as 
prisons,  two  of  which,  about  190  feet  in 
height,  are  still  standing.  Its  oldest  church, 


PAWNEES 


1432 


PEABODY 


that  of  St.  Michael,  mentioned  as  early  as 
66 1,  is  the  place  where  the  early  kings  of 
Italy  were  crowned;  .estored  in  1863-76,  it  is 
now  called  the  royal  basilica.  The  cathe- 
dral, begun  in  1488  but  never  finished,  con- 
tains the  tomb  of  Bo6tius,  and  in  a  chapel 
connected  with  it  are  the  ashes  of  St.  August- 
ine. Near  the  city  is  the  monastery  of  Cer- 
tosa,  which  was  built  by  the  first  duke  of  Mi- 
lan, its  church  being  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful of  that  era.  The  university,  which  dates 
from  1300  and  is  thought  to  have  been 
founded  by  Charlemagne,  was  famous  in  the 
middle  ages.  It  has  1,550  students,  53  in- 
structors and  a  library  of  200,000  volumes. 
Pavia  was  founded  by  the  Gauls,  sacked  by 
Attila  in  453  and  by  Odoacer  in  476.  Under 
the  Lombards,  as  their  capital,  it  became  the 
chief  city  of  Italy.  The  city  was  taken  by 
the  French  in  1527,  in  1796  by  Napoleon 
and  belonged  to  Austria  after  the  peace  of 
1814.  Since  1859  it  has  been  a  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy.  Population  39,319. 

Pawnees  (pa'nez'},  a  tribe  of  American 
Indians,  who  lived  on  the  Platte  and  its 
branches  in  Nebraska.  They  were  divided 
into  four  bands,  and  were  always  fighting  the 
Sioux,  but  have  been  friendly  to  white  set- 
tlers. In  1833  and  1857  they  gave  parts  of 
their  lands  to  the  United  States,  which,  how- 
ever, did  not  protect  them  from  the  Sioux, 
by  whom  they  were  slaughtered,  until  the 
remnant  of  the  tribe  removed  to  Indian  Ter- 
ritory in  1876.  See  Pawnee  Hero  Stories  and 
Folk-Tales  by  Grinnell. 

Paw-Paw,  called  also  pa-paw  and  custard- 
apple,  is  a  small  tree  or  shrub  found  in  the 
central  and  southern  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  fruit  looks  somewhat  like  a 
ripe  cucumber  or  banana,  with  a  yellow  skin, 
turning  brown  as  it  becomes  ripe.  The  flesh 
is  soft,  about  the  color  of  custard,  very  sweet 
and  with  large,  flat,  black  seeds,  larger  than 
those  of  a  watermelon.  It  is  not  often  found 
in  markets.  A  variety  which  grows  in  South 
America  has  a  larger  fruit,  which  is  cooked 
with  sugar  and  lemon  before  eating.  Its 
leaves  are  used  instead  of  soap,  and  its  juice 
preserves  meat. 

Pawtuck'et,  R.  I.,  a  city  in  Providence 
County,  is  on  Pawtucket  River,  four  miles 
north  of  Providence.  The  river  has  a  fall 
of  50  feet,  which  makes  the  city  one  of  man- 
ufactures. It  was  the  site  in  1790  of  the 
first  cotton-factory  in  the  United  States 
(the  original  building  still  stands)  and  for  40 
years  was  the  most  important  manufactur- 
ing town  in  the  country.  It  has  cotton, 
woolen,  haircloth  and  thread  factories,  cal- 
ico-printing works,  bleaching  and  dyeing  es- 
tablishments, hosiery  and  silk  mills,  boot 
and  shoe  factories  and  jewelry  works.  Paw- 
tucket  was  settled  about  1655,  formed  a  part 
of  Bristol  County,  Conn.,  until  1861,  and  be- 
came a  city  in  1886.  Population  51,622. 

Pax'ton,  Sir  Joseph,  an  English  archi- 
tect, was  born  in  Bedfordshire,  Aug.  3,  1801. 


He  began  life  as  a  gardener  in  the  service  of 
the  duke  of  Devonshire.  His  care  of  the 
duke's  great  glass  conservatories  at  Chats- 
worth  suggested  the  use  of  glass  and  iron 
for  the  Crystal  Palace  for  the  great  exhibi- 
tion of  1851.  It  was  the  first  time  these  ma- 
terials had  1  een  used  for  so  large  a  building, 
and  the  effect  delighted  all  wh  saw  it.  Pax- 
ton  was  knighted  for  his  successful  design. 
He  sat  in  Parliament  nine  years,  and 
died  at  Sydenham,  near  London,  June  8, 
1865. 

Payne,  John  Howard,  an  American  dram- 
atist, was  born  at  New  York,  June  9,  1792. 
His  first  appearance  as  an  actor  was  in  that 
city  in  1809.  He  was  a  successful  .ctor  for 
30  years  and  wrote  several  plays,  of  which 
the  best  known  are  Brutus,  Charles  II  and 
Clari.  The  song,  Home,  Sweet  Home,  for 
which  he  is  remembered,  is  in  Clari,  which 
was  produced  as  an  opera.  The  author  had 
no  home  for  the  last  40  years  of  his  life,  and 
died  in  a  foreign  land,  having  been  appointed 
American  consul  at  Tunis,  where  he  died  on 
April  10,  1852.  His  remains  were  brought 
to  America,  and  buried  at  Washington  in 
1883.  See  Life  and  Poems,  edited  by  Har- 
rison, and  J.  H.  Payne  by  Brainard. 

Pea,  an  annual  vine  ( Pisum  sativum  )  of 
the  order  Leguminosce,  commonly  grown  in 
gardens  all  over  the  world  and  extensively 
sown  in  fields  as  fodder  icr  cattle.  It  is 
a  climbing  vine  with  pinnate  leaves.  Its 
original  home  is  western  Asia  and  eastern 
Europe.  Pea-seeds  have  been  found  in 
Egyptian  tombs.  About  200  varieties  of 
garden-peas  are  annually  offered  by  Ameri- 
can seedsmen.  Wrinkle-seeded  peas  are  gen- 
erally considered  superior  in  flavor  to  smooth- 
seeded  peas.  Peas  thrive  best  in  fairly  rich, 
well-drained,  loamy  soils.  The  plants  are 
hardy,  withstanding  light  frosts  without 
injury,  though  not  succeeding  well  in  dry, 
hot  weather.  Their  wealth  of  nitrogenous 
elements  makes  them  valuable  fertilizers  of 
soils.  Canada  and  our  northern  states  are 
the  chief  sources  of  the  dried  peas,  and  fur- 
nish practically  all  pea-seed.  Peas  are 
highly  prized  as  food.  Immense  quantities 
are  canned  green.  Several  plants  of  the 
LeguminoscB,  as  the  sweet  pea  (q.  v.}  are 
called  peas,  though  not  peas.  They  have 
more  than  20  insect-enemies,  the  green  pea- 
louse  doing  prodigious  damage. 

Pea'body,  Andrew  Preston,  an  American 
(Unitarian)  clergyman,  was  born  at  Beverly, 
Mass.,  March  9,  1811.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1826,  studied  theology, 
and  for  seventeen  years  was  pastor  of  a 
church  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.  He  was  then 
appointed  preacher  and  professor  of  Chris- 
tian morals  in  Harvard  University.  For 
nine  years  he  was  editor  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can Review,  a  frequent  contributor  to  peri- 
odicals and  a  well-known  lecturer.  He  pub- 
lished Christian  Doctrine,  Christian  Consola- 
tions, Manual  of  Moral  Philosophy,  Chris- 


PEABODY 


M33 


PEACE  SOCIETIES 


tianity  and  Science  and  Christian  Belief  and 
Life.  He  died  on  March  10,  1893. 

Peabody,  Elizabeth  Palmer,  an  American 
educator,  was  born  at  Billerica,  Mass.,  May 
1 6,  1804.  She  was  a  sister  of  Mrs.  Nathaniel 
Hawthorne  and  Mrs.  Horace  Mann.  She 
taught  in  Bronson  Alcott's  celebrated  school 
and  was  one  of  the  first  to  introduce  the 
methods  of  Froebel  into  American  schools 
and  to  use  object-lessons  in  teaching.  She 
was  the  first  to  establish  a  kindergarten  in 
America.  She  published  many  works  of  an 
educational  character,  especially  upon  her 
favorite  theme.  Among  her  best-known 
works  are  The  Kindergarten  in  Italy,  Letters 
to  Kinder gartners  and  Guide  to  the  Kinder- 
garten etc.  She  died  at  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass., 
Jan.  3,  1894. 

Peabody,  George,  an  American  merchant 
and  banker,  was  born  at  South  Danvers, 
Mass.,  Feb.  18,  1795.  When  n  he  began 
his  business  life  in  a  grocery,  was  next  a 
clerk  in  Thetford,  Vt.,  and  afterwards  part- 
ner of  a  dry-goods  house  in  Georgetown, 
D.  C.  This  business  was  removed  to  Balti- 
more in  1815,  and  had  branches  at  Phila- 
delphia and  New  York  in  1822.  In  1837 
he  settled  in  London,  starting  a  banking 
house  and  making  a  large  fortune,  partly  by 
investing  heavily  in  government  bonds  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War.  In  1851  he  supplied  the 
money  needed  to  fit  up  the  American  depart- 
ment of  the  Great  Exhibition  at  London. 
His  fame  rests,  not  on  his  wealth,  but  on  his 
benevolence,  as  during  his  lifetime  he  gave 
away  five  and  a  half  million  dollars.  Among 
these  gifts  were  $10,000  to  the  Grinnell  ex- 
pedition to  the  north  pole  under  Dr.  Kane; 
$200,000  to  found  Peabody  Institute  at 
South  Danvers;  $50,000  to  an  institution 
at  North  Danvers;  $1,000,000  to  Peabody 
Institute  at  Baltimore;  $25,000  each  to 
Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  and  Kenyon 
College,  at  Gambier,  O.;  $150,000  each  to 
Harvard  and  Yale;  and  $3,500,000  as  a 
fund  for  educational  purposes  in  the  south. 
He  also  spent  $2,500,000  in  building  model 
homes  for  the  poor  of  London,  of  which  in 
1889  there  were  eighteen  groups  in  different 
parts  of  the  city,  accommodating  20,000 
people,  while  the  rents  and  interest  brought 
in  $150,000  net  profit.  He  was  offered  the 
title  of  baron  by  Queen  Victoria,  but  de- 
clined, asking  only  for  "a  letter  from  the 
queen,  which  I  may  carry  to  America  and 
deposit  as  a  memorial  of  one  of  her  most 
faithful  sons."  The  letter  was  given  with 
the  queen's  portrait,  and  both  are  deposited 
in  Peabody  Institute,  South  Danvers  (now 
called  Peabody  in  honor  of  its  illustrious 
citizen).  He  died  at  London,  Nov.  4,  1869, 
his  body  being  sent  to  America  in  an  Eng- 
lish warship.  There  are  statues  of  Peabody  at 
London  and  Baltimore.  See  Life  by  Hanaford, 
and  Beneficent  and  Useful  Lives  by  Cochrane. 

Peabody,  Mass.,  a  city  in  Essex  County, 
on  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad,  two 


miles  from  Salem.  It  includes  several  vil- 
lages, and  is  a  manufacturing  center  of  con- 
siderable importance.  It  has  a  good  system 
of  public  schools.  Peabody  Institute  with 
a  library  of  about  40,000  volumes  is  here, 
as  is  Eben  Dale  Sutton  Reference  Library. 
Essex  County  Agricultural  Society  and  Pea- 
body  Historical  Society  have  their  perma- 
nent quarters  in  Peabody.  The  latter  in 
1902  presented  Peabody  Institute  'with  a 
small  safe  containing  pictures  of  the  town 
and  articles  written  by  the  leading  citizens 
and  municipal  officials,  to  be  opened  on  or 
after  June  6th,  2002.  Peabody  was  separated 
under  the  name  of  South  Danvers  in  1855. 
The  present  name  was  adopted  in  1868  in 
honor  of  George  Peabody  who  was  born,  and 
for  some  years  lived,  there.  The  government 
is  administered  by  town-meeting.  Population, 
18,500. 

Peace  River,  a  great  river  in  Alberta,  is 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Findlay  and 
Parsnip  in  the  center  of  northern  British 
Columbia  1,000  miles  to  the  west.  It  flows 
into  Lake  Athabasca.  Peace  River  prac- 
tically passes  through  the  center  of  a  vast 
district,  and  in  the  development  of  this 
will  play  an  important  part,  since  navigation 
is  practically  without  a  dangerous  rapid  or 
obstacle  of  any  kind  throughout  its  whole 
course,  with  the  exception  of  that  at  Ver- 
million  Chutes  (five  miles  above  where  the 
Little  Red  River  joins  the  Peace).  It  runs 
through  a  country  of  vast  natural  resources, 
as  timber,  asphalt,  copper,  salt  and  fish. 
The  agricultural  possibilities  are  unsurpassed 
in  the  northwest.  The  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany has  a  large  and  excellently  equipped 
flour-mill  at  Fort  Vermillion,  670  miles  north 
of  the  United  States  boundary  and  where 
there  is  a  settlement  of  500  people.  Con- 
siderable wheat,  oats  and  barley  were  grown 
there  in  1906.  Wheat  has  been  successfully 
raised  for  over  twenty  years.  Peace  River 
Valley  is  a  tract  75  miles  in  width  on  each 
side  of  the  river  and  seven  or  eight  hundred 
miles  long.  The  soil  is  claimed  to  be  as 
good  as  that  on  the  Saskatchewan. 

Peace  Soci'eties,  organizations  for  the  pro- 
motion of  peace.  They  have  a  large  and  in- 
fluential membership  and  include  the  American 
Peace  Society,  the  American  Society  for  the 
Judicial  Settlement  of  International  Disputes, 
the  Carnegie  Endowment  for  International 
Peace,  with  headquarters  in  Washington;  the 
Church  Peace  Union,  the  American  Associa- 
tion for  International  Arbitration,  New  York 
City;  the  Intercollegiate  Peace  Association, 
Cleveland  and  the  World  Peace  Foundation 
and  American  School  Peace  League  of  Boston. 

Similar  organizations  exist  in  Europe,  and  it 
is  partly  through  their  influence  that  the 
Hague  (q.  v.)  conferences  have  accomplished 
important  results. 

The  American  School  Peace  League  with 
branches  in  the  various  states  includes  in  its 
membership  the  United  States  Commissioner 


PEACH 


1 434 


PEANUT 


of  Education,  school  superintendents,  college 
presidents,  teachers,  pupils,  members  of 
women's  clubs  and  other  organizations  having 
its  purpose  at  heart,  which  is  to  "promote  the 
interest  of  international  justice  and  frater- 
nity, "  the  education  of  children  in  sympathetic 
understanding  of  foreign  affairs,  the  teaching 
of  patriotism  as  "a  sense  of  universal  brother- 
hood," and  the  observance  of  Flag  Day,  July 
Fourth  and  Memorial  Day  in  the  same  spirit. 

Peach,  the  well-known  fruit  of  a  species 
of  Prunus  (P.  Persica)  which  is  native  to 
China.  Associated  with  the  peach,  in  the 
genus  Prunus,  are  the  almond,  plum,  apri- 
cot and  cherry.  A  smooth-skinned  variety 
is  called  nectarine.  The  peach  has  long 
been  cultivated  and  many  varieties  have 
been  produced.  They  are  extensively  culti- 
vated in  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia  as  well 
as  in  certain  regions  of  the  United  States. 
The  pericarp,  that  is,  the  transformed  ovary, 
ripens  into  an  outer  fleshy  layer  and  an 
inner  stony  one.  Cultivation  has  done  much 
in  increasing  the  thickness  of  the  pulpy 
layer.  The  tree  is  small,  from  10  to  20  feet 
high  and  bears  many  branches.  The  fra- 
grant, pink  blossoms  usually  appear  before 
the  leaves;  the  leaves  are  lanceolate.  In 
this  country  peaches  are  grown  in  orchards, 
but  in  England  they  are  trained  against 
walls  and  also  cultivated  under  glass.  Peaches 
are  cultivated  in  the  United  States  most 
extensively  in  Maryland,  Delaware,  New 
Jersey,  Michigan,  Arkansas,  Texas  and  on 
the  Pacific  slope.  A  great  danger  lies  in 
the  early  blossoming  and  the  killing  of  the 
fruit-buds  by  frost.  Insect  enemies  are  the 
peach-tree  borer,  the  twig-borer,  the  fruit- 
tree  bark-beetle,  the  peach-tree  leaf-roller, 
scale  insects  and  aphids.  The  trees  must 
be  carefully  examined,  and  spraying  is  es- 
sential. They  are  subject  to  various  fun- 
gous diseases,  and  under  the  best  conditions 
are  not  long-lived. 

Peach=Tree  Borer,  a  larva  that  works 
much  harm  to  the  peach  crop.  The  moth 
resembles  a  steel-blue  wasp  in  appearance 
and  emerges  from  its  cocoon  from  late  June 
to  early  September.  It  flies  by  day,  and 
feeds  on  flowers.  The  eggs,  brown  in 
color,  are  glued  to  the  bark  of  the  peach 
or  the  pear  close  to  the  ground.  As  many 
as  700  have  been  counted  in  one  female. 
They  hatch  in  about  a  week.  At  once  the 
tiny  borer  makes  its  way  to  the  inner  bark. 
Here  it  stays  about  ten  months,  feeding 
during  this  long  period  save  in  the  coldest 
weather.  It  then  makes  a  brown  cocoon, 
usually  placed  near  +he  ground  and  in 
about  three  weeks  the  adult  insect  emerges. 
In  combating  this  grievous  pest,  trees 
should  be  gone  over  in  September,  May 
and  late  June,  all  gummy  exudations 
watched  and  the  larvse  dug  out  and  de- 
stroyed. There  are  few  natural  enemies 
to  assist  in  the  extermination  of  the  peach- 
tree  borer. 


Pea'cock,  a  bird  belonging  to  the  pheas- 
ant family  and  conspicuous  for  the  beau- 
tiful train  of  the  male.  This  train  is  not 
composed  of  the  tail-feathers,  but  of  long 
feathers  which  overlie  those  of  the  tail  and 
are  called  tail-coverts.  These,  with  the 
tail,  are  capable  of  being  raised.  The  birds 
roost  in  trees  or  high  places,  and  always  sit 
facing  the  wind.  They  make  their  nests 
on  the  ground,  01  small  sticks  or  leaves. 
The  peacock  is  a  native  of  India  and  Cey- 
lon, and  is  plentiful  in  their  forests  and 
jungles.  Their  diet  is  varied,  consisting  of 
worms,  reptiles,  grain,  flesh  or  fish  etc. 
These  birds  have  been  naturalized  in  many 
parts  of  the  world.  The  plumage  of  the 
male  combines  blue,  green,  gold  and  bronze 
tints.  The  tail-coverts  are  especially  mag- 
nificent, with  bright-colored  eye-spots,  and 
can  be  spread  into  the  form  of  a  huge  fan. 
The  blue  tint  is  so  characteristic  that  it  has 
given  rise  to  the  name  of  peacock-blue. 
The  proud,  self-conscious  air  worn  when 
showing  off  his  splendors,  'has  given  rise  to 
the  phrase:  "proud  as  a  peacock."  The 
bird  is  said  not  to  exhibit  these  splendors 
save  when  surr  of  an  audience.  By  the 
ancients  the  p<  pcock  was  called  the  bird 
of  Juno.  But  though  the  plumage  is  so 
beautiful,  the  voice  is  discordant,  the 
utterance  a  scream.  The  flesh  was  once 
considered  a  great  delicacy;  peacock's  liver 
being  much  in  vogue  at  the  old  Roman 
banquets,  and  during  the  middle  ages  a 
cooked  bird  decked  out  in  all  its  finery  often 
appeared  on  the  table  of  the  rich.  The 
female  is  not  brilliantly  colored,  is  brownish 
and  is  without  showy  tail-coverts.  At  first, 
both  are  alike  in  plumage,  but  the  male 
begins  to  acquire  gorgeous  tints,  and  is  in  per- 
fect plumage  at  the  end  of  about  three  years. 

Peale,  Charles  Wilson,  an  American 
portrait-painter,  was  born  at  Chestertown, 
Md.,  April  16,  1741.  His  education  in  art 
he  received  from  a  German  painter  and 
from  Copley.  His  paintings  are  chiefly 
portraits,  for  which  he  was  celebrated., 
among  them  being  several  of  Washington. 
In  1785  he  formed  a  collection  of  natural 
curiosities,  founding  Peale's  Museum  at 
Philadelphia.  During  the  Revolutionary 
War  he  commanded  a  company  at  Trenton 
and  at  Germantown.  He  died  at  Phila- 
delphia, Feb.  22,  1827. 

Peale,  Rem'brandt,  an  American  painter, 
the  son  of  Charles  W.  Peale,  was  born  in 
Pennsylvania,  Feb.  22,  1778.  He  painted 
portraits  for  awhile  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  and 
then  went  to  England  and  France  to  study 
his  art.  Besides  his  many  portraits,  he 
painted  several  historical  pictures,  among 
them  the  well-known  Roman  Daughter;  and 
the  Court  of  Death,  Notes  on  Italy  and  Port- 
folio of  an  Artist,  were  published  by  him. 
He  died  at  Philadelphia,  Oct.  3,  1860. 

Peanut.  The  pod  and  seed  of  an  annual 
plant  (arachis  hypogaia)  which  belongs  to 


PEANUT 

A— Plant  with  Root,  Blossom  and  underground  Nuts.    1— Blossom  cut  lengthwise.    2— Ripe  Nut. 
8—  Nut  cut  lengthwise.    4— Seed.    5  and  6— Germ. 


•i\  lilt: 

I!  MAI   II  kl 


Courtesy  Chicago  Academy  of  Sciences 


SHOWING  TOOLS  AND  STEPS  IN  MANUFACTURE  OF  PEARL  BUTTONS  FROM 

CLAM  SHELLS 


PEAR 


1435 


PEARL  HARBOR 


the  pea  family.  It  grows  to  a  height  of  one 
to  two  feet.  After  its  flower  has  faded,  the 
stalk  buries  itself  in  the  ground,  where  a 
number  of  yellowish  seed  pods  are  developed. 
These  when  mature  are  the  peanut  of  the 
market.  Peanuts  thrive  best  in  a  light 
sandy  loam,  and  in  a  moist,  warm  climate. 
In  the  south  peanuts  are  more  commonly 
known  as  goobers  or  goober  peas.  They 
are  grown  principally  in  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  Georgia  and  Tennessee.  The  crop 
has  become  an  important  one.  Virginia  leads 
with  an  annual  yield  of  nearly  4,000,000 
bushels.  A  large  part  of  the  crop  is  used 
for  roasted  peanuts,  and  a  high  value  is 
placed  on  the  peanut  for  forage  and  hay. 
In  1910  our  imports  of  peanuts  amounted  to 
over  33,000,000  bushels.  The  peanut  is  cheap 
and  its  food-value  high.  In  the  manufacture 
of  peanut-butter  and  confectionery  it  has 
come  to  be  extensively  used. 

Pear,  a  species  of  Pirus  (P.  communis) 
cultivated  from  Europe,  a  member  of  the 
rose  family.  It  is  associated  in  the  same 
genus  with  the  apple  and  quince.  The 
tree  in  form  inclines  to  the  pryamidal, 
otherwise  it  resembles  the  apple.  The 
flowers  as  a  rule  are  white.  The  peculiarity 
of  the  fruit  is  that  the  flesh  consists  of  the 
transformed  cup,  upon  whose  rim  the  sepals, 
petals  and  stamens  arise.  It  is  often  spoken 
of  as  the  calyx,  but  it  represents  a  support 
common  to  all  three  of  the  outer  floral 
organs.  This  type  of  fruit,  with  flesh  de- 
veloped from  the  part  of  the  flower  which 
surrounds  the  ovary,  is  called  a  pome. 
The  ripened  ovary  is  represented  by  the 
core.  The  pear  has  been  cultivated  from 
the  most  ancient  times,  and  has  reached  a 
high  degree  of  perfection.  It  is  highly  re- 
garded as  a  dessert  fruit,  and  is  extensively 
canned  and  preserved.  It  holds  fourth  place 
among  pur  orchard-fruits.  Particular  at- 
tention is  paid  to  cultivation  in  the  regions 
between  New  England  and  the  Great  Lakes, 
in  California  and  in  portions  of  Oregon  and 
Washington.  Almost  innumerable  varie- 
ties have  been  produced,  each  with  its  ap- 
propriate name.  In  a  wild  or  neglected 
state  the  branches  are  more  or  less  thorny, 
but  under  cultivation  the  thorns  disappear. 
For  a  parasitic  fungus  that  attacks  both 
fruit  and  foliage  Bordeaux  mixture  is  rec- 
ommended. Borers  and  the  codlin  moth 
are  insect  enemies  that  work  some  damage ; 
the  former  must  be  dug  out  once  or  twice 
,  a  year,  for  the  latter  arsenical  sprays 
should  be  used.  See  Bailey's  Cyclopedia 
of  American  Horticulture. 

Pearl,  one  of  the  gems  found  in  certain 
sea  and  fresh-water  shells.  Shells  generally 
are  lined  by  the  animals  inhabiting  them 
with  a  material  which  gives  them  a  smooth 
surface.  It  is  laid  in  thin,  partly  trans- 
parent plates,  which  produce  a  beautiful 
play  of  colors.  This  lining  is  called  mother- 
of-pearl  or  nacre.  On  opening  the  shells, 


there  are  sometimes  found  rounded  por- 
tions of  this  nacre,  which  have  been  formed 
by  throwing  layers  of  this  lining  material 
around  a  grain  of  sand  or  a  minute  vegetable 
or  animal  growth.  These  are  the  pearls 
used  in  trade  and  worn  as  ornaments. 
They  vary  greatly  in  size,  those  about  as 
large  as  a  pea  being  the  best.  The  largest 
one  known  is  two  inches  long  and  four 
around.  The  smallest  are  called  seed- 
pearls.  The  value  depends  upon  size, 
shape,  color  and  freedom  from  imperfec- 
tions. The  round  ones  are  the  best,  the 
button-shaped  next  and  the  drop  or  pear- 
shaped  least.  Pearls,  when  perfectly  round 
and  of  extraordinary  beauty,  sell  for  large 
sums;  the  single  pearl  which  Cleopatra  is 
said  to  have  dissolved  and  swallowed  was 
valued  at  over  $400,000.  The  finest  pearls 
are  found  close  to  the  lips  of  the  shell  or  in 
the  soft  part  of  the  oyster  near  the  hinge. 
The  largest  pearl  fishery  in  America  is  that 
of  Lower  California,  from  which  come  the 
largest  and  finest  black  pearls  in  the  market. 
The  most  famous  pearls  are  from  the  east, 
especially  from  the  Persian  Gulf  and  from 
Ceylon.  In  Ceylon  fishing  lasts  four  to  six 
weeks.  Each  boat  has  a  crew  of  13  men 
and  10  divers,  five  of  whom  rest  while 
the  other  five  are  diving.  The  work  has  to 
be  done  very  rapidly,  as  the  best  divers 
cannot  stay  longer'  than  80  seconds  in  the 
water.  When  a  boatload  of  oysters  has 
been  obtained,  the  cargo  is  landed  and 
piled  on  the  shore  to  rot,  so  that  the  pearls 
can  be  easily  found.  When  washing  out 
the  dead  animals,  a  close  watch  is  kept  for 
loose  pearls,  which  are  always  the  finest, 
while  those  attached  to  the  shells  are  re- 
moved by  pincers  or  a  hammer.  In  1889 
in  22  days  50  divers  brought  up  11,000,000 
oysters.  River-pearls  are  found  in  fresh- 
water shells  in  Scotland,  Wales,  Ireland, 
Russia,  Germany,  Canada,  the  United 
States  and  China.  The  chief  river-pearl 
fisheries  in  the  United  States  are  in  the 
streams  of  the  Mississippi  Valley;  in  Wis- 
consin, Iowa,  Kentucky,  Ohio  and  Arkansas. 
The  lining  of  the  shells,  r.  other-of-pearl, 
is  used  largely  in  making  buttons,  knife 
and  fork  handles  and  inlaid  work  on  fur- 
niture. See  Gems  and  Preciou*  Stones  of 
North  America  by  Kunz  and  Pearls  and 
Pearling  Life  by  Streeter. 

Pearl,  a  river  in  Mississippi,  rising  in  the 
center  of  the  state  and  flowing  south  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  forms  part  of  the 
boundary  between  Louisiana  and  Missis- 
sippi. The  river  is  300  miles  long  and  is 
obstructed  by  sandbars  and  driftwood. 

Pearl  Harbor,  on  the  southern  coast  of 
Oahu,  a  Hawaiian  island,  and  adjacent  to 
Honolulu,  is  a  land-locked  harbor,  8  miles 
long  by  4  wide,  with  a  depth  of  water  from 
30  to  130  feet.  It  has  great  strategic  value 
to  the  United  States  from  the  fact  that  it 
can  be  made  an  impregnable  naval  base 


PEARSONS 


PEAT 


where  the  largest  fleet  can  lie  safely.  Res- 
ervations for  a  firstclass  naval  station  have 
been  secured,  as  also  for  a  military  reserva- 
tion on  the  slopes  of  the  mountain  range 
in  the  rear.  General  Schofield  after  an  in- 
spection of  Pearl  Harbor  in  1872  reported 
that  "it  could  be  completely  defended  by 
inexpensive  batteries  on  either  or  both 
shores,  firing  across  a  narrow  channel  of 
entrance.  Its  waters  are  deep  enough  for 
the  largest  vessels  of  war  and  its  lochs  are 
spacious  enough  for  a  large  number  of 
vessels  to  ride  at  anchor  in  perfect  security 
against  all  storms."  See  HAWAII. 

Pear'sons,  Daniel  Kimball,  an  Ameri- 
can philanthropist,  was  born  at  Bedford, 
Vt.,  April  14,  1820.  He  graduated  in  medi- 
cine at  Woodstock,  Vt.,  and  practiced  in 
Chicopee,  Mass.,  until  1857.  He  became 
a  farmer  in  Ogle  County,  111.,  in  1857,  but 
in  1860  removed  to  Chicago,  where  he 
rapidly  accumulated  a  large  fortune  in  real 
estate.  For  some  years  he  served  the  city 
as  alderman,  and  assisted  in  managing  its 
financial  budgets.  He  was  best  known 
through  his  large  gifts  to  educational 
eleemosynary  institutions,  the  Presbyte- 
rian Hospital  of  Chicago  and  Chicago 
Theological  Seminary  (Congregational)  being 
especially  favored.  There  are  few  of  the 
smaller  colleges  to  which  he  did  not  give 
from  $25,000  to  $250,000,  and  his  gifts  run 
well  up  into  the  millions.  He  died  April  27, 
1912. 

Peary,  Rear  Admiral,  Robert  Edwin,  dis- 
coverer of  the  North  Pole,  was  born  at  Cresson, 
Pa.,  May  6,  1856.  He  graduated  from  Bow- 
doin  College  in  1877.  He  entered  the  U.  S. 
Navy  as  a  civil  engineer  Oct.  26,  1881.  For 
several  years  he  was  engaged  in  surveys  con- 
nected with  the  Nicaragua  Ship  Canal,  but 
in  1886  made  a  trip  to  Greenland  (q.  ».).  In 
1891-2  his  crossing  of  Greenland's  northeastern 
corner  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  sledge- 
journeys  ever  made.  He  showed  that  the 
eastern  and  western  coasts  meet;  discovered 
Melville  and  Heilprin  Lands;  made  a  second 
expedition  to  North  Greenland,  1893-95; 
Arctic  summei.  voyages,  1896,  1897;  discovered 
and  secured  the  Cape  York  meteorities,  the 
largest  in  the  world;  in  1900  determined 
Greenland's  northern  limit  by  rounding  it; 
demonstrated  that  for  a  considerable  distance 
northward  and  northeastward  there  is  no  land 
and  showed  the  origin  of  floebergs  and  pale- 
ocrystic  ice.  During  his  1905-6  expedition  he 
left  his  ship  at  82°27'  N.,  and  made  a  sledge- 
trip  to  87°6'  N.,  200.36  miles  from  the  pole,  the 
most  northerly  point  yet  reached.  Sailing 
from  New  York  in  July  1908  he  wintered  at 
Cape  Sheridan,  Grant  Land.  Feb.  15,  1909  he 
started  with  a  sledge  train  for  the  pole.  On 
April  6,  the  pole  was  reached,  the  crowning 
triumph  of  twenty-three  years  of  heroic  effort. 
Returning  he  reached  Indiana  Harbor,  Sept.  6, 
and  announced  by  wireless  "Stars  and  Stripes 
nailed  to  North  Pole."  He  was  made  rear 


admiral  and  received  the  thanks  of  con- 
gress. In  1913  he  was  made  grand  officer 
of  the  Legion  d'Honneur,  by  the  president  of 
France. 

Peary  wrote  Northward  Over  the  Great  Ice, 
Nearest  the  Pole,  The  North  Pole,  and  Snowland 
Folk. 

His  wife  wrote,  My  Arctic  Journal,  The 
Snow  Baby,  and  Children  of  the  Arctic.  (See 
POLAR  EXPLORATION.) 

Peas'ants*  War,  an  insurrection  of  the 
German  peasantry,  which  broke  out  in 
1524,  against  the  oppressions  they  were 
suffering  at  the  hands  of  the  nobility  and 
clergy.  For  a  short  time  it  seemed,  that 
the  peasants  would  carry  everything  be- 
fore them,  as  they  defeated  the  army  sent 
against  them  by  Archduke  Ferdinand, 
under  the  command  of  Von  Waldburg;  and 
a  number  of  princes  and  knights  con- 
cluded treaties  with  them,  conceding  their 
principal  demands.  But,  unfortunately, 
the  conduct  of  the  insurgents  did  not  ac- 
cord with  the  moderation  of  their  demands, 
as  they  destroyed  convents  and  castles 
(more  than  1,000  in  all),  murdered,  pillaged 
and  committed  other  great  excesses.  In 
May  and  June,  1525,  they  sustained  a  num- 
ber of  crushing  defeats,  and  were  soon  after 
completely  overthrown.  Multitudes  were 
hanged  in  the  streets,  and  others  were  put 
to  death  with  the  most  terrible  tortures. 
It  is  estimated  that  150,000  lives  were  lost 
during  the  short  period  of  the  Peasants' 
War. 

Peat,  a  substance  formed  by  the  decom- 
position of  plants  in  marshes  and  morasses ; 
it  is  also  sometimes  described  as  a  kind  of 
soil  formed  by  the  remains  of  mosses  and 
other  marsh-plants.  The  remains  of  plants 
are  often  so  well-preserved  in  peat  that 
their  species  can  be  easily  determined;  but 
in  the  northern  parts  of  the  world  it  is 
chiefly  formed  from  certain  kinds  or  species 
of  bog-moss.  These  mosses  grow  in  very 
wet  places,  and  throw  out  new  shoots  from 
their  upper  parts,  while  their  lower  parts 
are  decaying  and  forming  peat,  so  that 
shallow  pools  are  gradually  changed  into 
bogs.  Moist  peat  is  a  decided  and  power- 
ful antiseptic,  as  is  shown  in  the  preserva- 
tion not  only  of  ancient  trees,  leaves  and 
fruits  but  of  animal  bodies.  It  is  claimed 
that  in  some  instances  human  bodies  have 
been  found  preserved  in  peat  after  the 
lapse  of  centuries.  Peat  is  formed  only  in 
the  colder  regions  of  the  world,  as  in  warmer 
regions  vegetable  substances  decompose 
too  rapidly.  Peat  is  largely  used  for  fuel 
in  Holland,  Denmark,  Scotland,  Ireland 
and  other  European  countries,  and  efforts 
have  been  made  to  bring  it  into  more  gen- 
eral use  by  compressing  its  bulk,  but 
although  numerous  machines  have  been 
invented  and  patented  for  this  purpose,  the 
enterprise  has  not  yet  proved  a  complete 


THE  DISCOVERER  OF  THE  NORTH  POLE 


JB 
ml 


REAR  ADMIRAL  ROBERT  E.  PERRY 


Copyright  by 
Doubiedoy.  Page  (f  Co. 


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I  Our 

I  Discovery 
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In  Our 


Works  ! 
of  Art 


©Horace  K.  Turner  Co.,  Boston  Mural    Decoration,    Minnesota   Capitol 

The  Mississippi  Valley — Its  Discoverers  and  Colonizers,   by  Edwin  H.  BlashKeld   (American  b.  1848) 


©Horace  K.  Turner  Co.  Smithsonian  Institute,  Washington 

Landing  of  Lief  Ericson,  by  Edward  Moran   (American  b,  1829) 


©  Horace  K.  Turner  Co.  Smithsonian  Institute,  Washington 

Midnight  Mass  on  tbe  Mississippi  Over  De  Soto's  Body,  by  Edward  Moran 


_. 

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PEBBLE 


1437 


PEDAGOGICS 


Peb'ble,  a  small,  round,  water-worn  stone 
of  any  kind,  but  with  jewelers  sometimes 
agates  —  agates  being  frequently  found  as 
loose  pebbles  in  streams,  those  of  Scotland 
being  designated  as  Scotch  pebbles.    Depos- 
its of  pebbles  occur  among  the  rocks  of  all 
Eeriods;    but  the  older  pebbles  are  seldom 
x)se;  they  are  generally  cemented  together 
by  iron  oxide,  lime  or  silica. 
Pecan.    See  HICKORY. 
Pec'cary,   a  small  pig-like  animal  inhab- 
iting the  forests  of  the  New  World.     There 
are  two  species. 
(The  more  north- 
ern   or    collared 
<<  peccary  occurs  as 
\\  far  north  as  Red 
'River  in  Arkan- 
j  sas,    and   ranges 
[south  to  Rio  Ne- 
"gro  in  Patagonia. 
|C:This    species    is 

_      _  about  three  feet 

**!'-?rs-.-3r>~<rr     *~~*^        long;     it    occurs 

rarTARFD  PFC-PARY        singly  or  in  small 
iCCARY       herds  of  eight  Qr 

ten,  and  is  comparatively  harmless.  The 
white-lipped  peccary  is  about  forty  inches 
long,  ana,  like  the  collared  peccary,  is  cov- 
ered with  thick,  bristly  hair.  Its  range  is 
between  Paraguay  and  British  Honduras. 
They  occur  in  herds  of  fifty  to  one  hundred 
or  more,  and  are  dangero'us  when  excited. 
Both  kinds  live  on  roots,  fruits,  worms  and 
the  like.  In  cultivated  districts  they  are 
destructive  to  crops. 

Peck,  Harry  Thurs'ton,  a  critic,  author 
and  language  scholar,  was  born  in  1856  at 
Stamford,  Conn.  In  1881  he  graduated  from 
Columbia  University,  where  in  1888  he  be- 
came professor  of  Latin  and,  after  several 
years,  instructor  in  Sanskrit  and  Latin.  Pro- 
fessor Peck  was  an  editor  of  Harper's  Clas- 
sical Dictionary,  The  International  Encyclo- 
pedia and  the  New  International  Encyclo- 
paedia. He  is  editor  of  The  Bookman,  and 
is  the  author  of  many  reviews  and  of  The 
Semitic  Theory  of  Creation;  Suetonius;  A 
Manual  of  Latin  Pronunciation;  The  Per- 
sonal Equation;  a  volume  of  verse  entitled 
Graystone  and  Porphyry;  What  is  Good  Eng- 
lish? and  The  Adventures  of  Mabel. 

Pedagogics  (p2d-a-goj'iks).  The  term 
pedagogics  as  now  used  embraces  the  whole 
field  of  education,  though  formerly  it  was 
restricted  to  the  formal  phases  of  the  sub- 
ject, as  school  organization,  methodology 
and  the  philosophy  of  education. 

There  are  certain  subconscious  forces 
always  at  work  in  the  education  of  the 
youth  as  well  as  of  the  adult,  which  in  a 
general  way  may  be  denominated  his  envi- 
ronments. These  are  the  environments  of 
the  age  as  well  as  of  the  community  The 
movements  and  sentiments  of  the  world  at 
large  often  affect  the  youth  in  a  profound 
manner.  This  is  more  true  in  these  days 


of  rapid  transit  and  Intercontinental  tele- 
graphic communication  than  formerly.  Great 
economic,  political,  international  and  social 
movements  in  any  part  of  the  globe  quickly 
attract  _  the  attention  of  the  reading  youth, 
provoking  more  or  less  sympathetic  discus- 
sion, with  consequent  enlightenment  and 
enlargement  of  conceptions  of  the  problems 
involved.  Thus  the  world-spirit  of  an  age 
exercises  influence  in  the  education  of  the 
youth,  particularly  among  civilized  nations. 

In  like  manner  the  institutions  of  one's 
own  country  and  community,  including 
every  private  and  public  interest  which 
touches  their  lives,  are  active  factors  in  the 
intellectual  and  moral  development  of  the 
people.  The  community-spirit,  though  in- 
fluenced largely  by  the  world-spirit  has  a 
distinct  and  positive  character  of  its  own 
that  in  certain  directions  is  often  more 
potent  than  the  formal  educational  machin- 
ery of  the  schoolroom.  It  affects  the  ideals, 
language,  occupations,  tastes,  manners  and 
customs  of  every  one  in  such  a  way  that  he 
easily  reveals  his  locality  wherever  he  goes. 
The  various  institutions  of  civilization  — 
church,  home,  press,  scientific  and  profes- 
sional associations,  political  and  fraternal 
organizations,  commercial  and  industrial 
unions,  each  of  them  making  a  more  or 
less  formal  attempt  at  education  in  certain 
lines  —  conspire  to  educate  the  masses  of 
the  people  of  all  classes  and  of  all  ages. 
The  fact  that  these  different  forces  often 
are  antagonistic  to  each  other  does  not  in 
any  way  lessen  their  efficiency  as  educational 
factors. 

It  will  readily  be  conceded  that,  however 
universal  and  effective  these  influences  may 
be,  at  best  they  accomplish  little  in  sys- 
tematic development  of  the  activities  of 
the  child.  They  serve  rather  to  contribute 
a  continuous  stream  of  varied  information, 
to  stimulate  interest,  to  shape  sentiment  and 
to  influence  conduct. 

The  systematic  development  of  the  activi- 
ties of  the  child,  which  is  the  true  end  of 
formal  education,  can  be  accomplished  only 
by  the  directing  influence  of  an  individual 
will;  a  will  which  sets  up  an  ideal  which 
the  child  is  to  realize  and  then  proceeds  in 
a  methodical  way  to  help  it  realize  that 
ideal.  Herein  is  found  the  specific  function 
of  the  teacher.  For  this  purpose  the  school 
is  organized,  equipped  and  maintained.  It 
anticipates  the  larger  life  of  the  community 
and  of  the  adult  by  so  developing  his  activ- 
ities as  to  fit  him  for  the  wider  sphere  of 
action  to  which  he  is  destined.  It  strives  to 
give  that  freedom  in  thought  and  action 
which  will  make  him  independent,  self-reli- 
ant and  successful  in  the  affairs  of  life. 

All  the  activities  of  the  child  emanate 
from  the  will.  The  will  performs  a  double 
function.  It  sets  up  ideals  and  then  sets 
about  to  realize  them.  In  childhood  the 
imitative  impulse  is  strong,  and  the  child 


PEDAGOGICS 


1438 


PEDAGOGICS 


finds  great  satisfaction  in  taking  its  ideals 
from  the  concrete  examples  about  it,  imi- 
tating them  with  great  facility.  Thus  it 
learns  to  walk,  to  talk,  to  do  a  thousand 
things.  The  ideational  impulses  are  also 
active  and  with  the  enlargement  of  its  expe- 
rience, under  proper  guidance,  gradually 
displace  the  purely  imitative  impulses  and 
enable  the  child  to  think  and  act  more  or 
less  independently  of  the  suggestions  of  his 
surroundings.  Whereas  his  environments 
were  molding  him  before,  he  now  begins  to 
mold  his  environments.  This  mutual  reaction 
of  the  individual  will  and  the  community's 
will,  resulting  in  the  individual  will  becoming 
the  dominating  power,  cancels  the  further 
need  for  assistance  from  the  teacher  and  the 
school. 

It  is  the  function  of  the  teacher  to  en- 
courage in  every  possible  way  the  imitative 
or  realizing  activities  of  the  child,  but  t  is 
even  more  important  that  he  with  great 
wisdom  continually  stimulate  the  exercise 
of  the  idealizing  activities  —  perception, 
memory,  imagination,  judgment,  thinking, 
reasoning.  To  this  end  a  knowledge  of  the 
genesis,  nature  and  laws  of  development  of 
the  intellectual  activities  of  the  child  is 
essential  as  a  basis  for  successful  teaching. 
The  intimate  relationship  between  the  men- 
tal and  the  bodily  activities  also  requires  a 
similar  knowledge  of  physiology  and  hy- 
giene. As  the  emotional  and  volitional  life 
of  the  child  gives  vitality  to  both,  the 
preparation  of  the  teacher  includes  not  only 
a  comprehensive  study  of  the  child's  physical 
and  mental  organism  but  of  the  child  in 
action  as  well;  of  the  child  at  home,  at 
his  plays,  at  work,  alone,  with  his  fellows, 
in  his  moods,  in  his  studies;  of  the  normal 
and  the  abnormal  child,  of  the  child's  mo- 
tives, of  the  child  in  the  different  stages  of 
his  development  and  in  the  processes  of 
transition  from  one  stage  to  another. 

With  such  an  acquaintance  with  child- 
nature,  the  teacher  is  able  to  enter  upon  a 
study  of  the  underlying  principles  of  edu- 
cation and  of  the  methods  by  which  it  is 
to  be  accomplished.  The  following-named 
elementary  books  will  prove  of  great  value 
in  studying  the  genesis,  nature,  function  and 
laws  of  the  mental  life  of  the  child:  The 
Study  of  the  Child,  Taylor;  The  Mental  De- 
velopment of  the  Child,  Preyer;  Psychology 
and  Psychic  Culture,  Halleck;  Inductive  Psy- 
chology, Kirkpatrick;  Printer  of  Psychology, 
Ladd;  The  Study  of  Children,  Warner; 
Thinking,  Feeling,  Doing,  Scripture;  Psy- 
chology in  the  Schoolroom,  Dexter  and  Garlic ; 
and  The  Story  of  a  Child,  Loti.  See,  also,  The 
Psychologic  Foundations  of  Education,  Harris. 

The  nature  of  education  appears  only  as 
one  clearly  understands  the  nature  of  the 
act  of  learning.  The  nature  of  the  act  of 
learning  is  apprehended  only  as  one  clearly 
sees  the  nature  and  function  of  the  self- 
activity  of  the  child.  That  self -activity, 


generically  speaking,  is  its  will.  It  mani- 
fests itself  in  feelings,  cognitions  and  ex- 
ternal actions,  embracing  the  whole  range 
of  the  child's  conscious  life.  It  is  incited 
to  action  by  sense  stimuli  from  within  or 
from  without  the  body  and  responds  by 
making  attempts  to  locate  them  in  space 
and  discover  their  characteristics  and  rela- 
tions. This  effort,  if  successful,  is  called 
the  act  of  learning.  By  it  the  child  simply 
relates  a  present  sensation  or  experience  to 
a  past  experience,  that  is,  connects  them 
in  the  mind  by  virtue  of  their  common  ele- 
ments and  puts  the  new  experience  where 
it  belongs.  This  process  of  transforming  the 
new  and  strange  into  the  familiar  by  asso- 
ciating, comparing  and  identifying  it  with 
things  already  familiar,  is  the  form  which 
every  act  of  learning  takes  and  is  called  the 
apperceptive  process.  In  this  way  we  get 
the  meaning  of  things.  For  an  elaboration 
of  the  nature  and  function  of  the  apper- 
ceptive process  see  Lange's  Apperception, 
De  Garmo;  A  Pot  of  Green  Feathers,  Rooper; 
The  Study  of  the  Child,  Taylor;  Herbartian 
Psychology  Applied  to  Education,  Adams; 
Talks  to  Teachers,  James ;  Psychology,  Dewey ; 
and  almost  any  late  work  on  mental  science. 

The  act  of  learning  in  getting  original 
knowledge  may  be  accomplished  (a)  by  the 
observation  of  things,  particularly  of  things 
in  action;  (b)  by  experimentation;  and  (c) 
by  means  of  the  reasoning  process.  The  first 
two  may  result  in  direct  perception  forming 
simple,  or  by  apperception,  complex  mental 
pictures  of  objects.  They  also  furnish  the 
percepts,  the  images,  the  materials  out  of 
which  the  reasoning  processes  may  elaborate 
general  notions  and  principles  (induction)  or 
to  which  they  may  apply  notions  and  prin- 
pples  already  formed  (deduction).  Every 
notion  is  built  up  of  elements  derived 
through  observation,  experimentation  and 
reasoning.  Hence  the  importance  of  culti- 
vating habits  of  accuracy  and  many-sided- 
ness in  sense-perception. 

The  reasoning  process  is  the  highest  form 
of  knowledge-getting,  and,  properly  exer- 
cised, continually  reacts  upon  the  other 
two,  increasing  their  range  and  power.  As 
a  result,  the  growing  child,  at  each  step  in 
his  progress,  is  able  to  interpret  many  new 
experiences  immediately,  by  simple  apper- 
ception, which  in  a  previous  stage  would 
have  required  even  laborious  reasoning. 

The  preparation  for  teaching  has  made 
great  progress  when  the  prospective  teacher 
fully  understands  the  details  of  the  processes 
involved  in  the  act  of  learning,  for  teaching 
is  simply  the  art  of  stimulating  and  guiding 
the  self-activity  of  the  child  to  economical 
and  speedy  accomplishment  of  that  act. 
Here  again  appears  the  necessity  for  an  inti- 
mate acquaintance  with  the  nature  and 
functions  of  the  child's  mental  activities. 

How  may  the  teacher  assist  the  child  in 
the  effort  to  learn? 


PEDAGOGICS 


1439 


PEDAGOGICS 


As  a  prerequisite,  it  is  necessary  for  trie 
teacher  to  discover  the  degree  of  the  child's 
familiarity  with  the  elements  of  the  subject 
under  consideration.  If  he  has  little  or  no 
acquaintance  with  it,  the  object  should  be 
presented,  and  a  variety  of  methods  used  to 
encourage  him  in  the  formation  of  a  picture 
of  it  and  of  its  relations  to  other  objects, 
its  uses  etc.  If  an  object  is  not  available, 
the  next  means  in  order  of  desirability  would 
be  a  model,  a  colored  picture,  a  photograph, 
a  drawing  and,  lastly,  a  verbal  description. 
Even  though  the  object  be  at  hand,  the 
others  will  be  found  valuable,  in  the  order 
given,  to  lead  the  child  gradually  away  from 
the  necessity  of  the  object  itself,  to  be  able 
to  produce  a  mental  picture  of  it  from  its 
merest  outline  in  chalk  or  pencil  or  from 
a  verbal  description  only.  By  means  of  the 
multitude  of  objects  round  about  him  the 
teacher  may  stimulate  the  child's  powers  of 
observation  to  an  almost  unlimited  degree. 

If  the  child  already  has  some  acquaint- 
ance with  the  subject  under  consideration 
or  with  its  types,  the  teacher  may  help 
him  to  recognize  that  fact  by  assisting  him 
to  identify  the  common  elements,  thus 
enabling  him  the  more  easily  and  quickly 
to  understand  the  new  elements  and  form 
a  familiar  mental  picture  of  the  whole. 

Should  the  child  be  familiar  with  some 
of  the  elements  under  consideration  and 
have  sufficient  ability  to  follow  reasoning 
processes,  the  teacher  may  aid  him  by 
leading  him  carefully  from  one  point  to 
another  until  he  gets  its  full  meaning.  In 
this  way  he  may  be  taught  how  to  trace 
the  relations  of  part  to  the  whole,  of  cause 
to  effect,  of  identity  and  difference. 

These  three  attitudes  or  stages  in  which 
the  child's  mind  may  be  with  reference  to 
any  subject  are  called  sense-perception, 
imagination  and  the  logical  or  thinking 
stage.  As  sense-perception  is  predominant 
in  the  early  years  of  the  child's  life,  that 
term  is  then  applied  in  a  general  way  to  his 
method  of  getting  knowledge,  though  the 
other  two  methods  are  rapidly  coming  into 
prominence.  From  six  to  12  his  picture- 
forming  activities  —  conception,  memory 
and  imagination  —  make  a  large  part  of  his 
mental  life.  At  about  12  the  power  to 
reason  abstractly  is  usually  recognized  as 
a  strong  factor  in  knowledge-getting,  par- 
ticularly if  the  child  has  been  properly 
educated.  The  interdependence  and  inter- 
action of  these  lower  and  higher  activities 
in  the  act  of  learning  demand  quick  dis- 
cernment and  wise  adjustment  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  to  the  pupil's  needs.  It  is 
a  great  mistake  to  encourage  the  child  to 
depend  upon  his  lower  activities  in  an  act 
of  learning,  when  he  might  be  using  the 
higher  ones. 

While  it  is  important  that  the  child  be 
trained  to  observe,  investigate  and  form 
his  own  ideas  about  the  objects  with  which 


he  comes  in  contact  every  day,  his  ability 
is  greatly  increased  as  he  learns  how  to  use 
books  as  aids  in  his  efforts  at  knowledge- 
getting.  It  is  important  that  books  be  in- 
troduced in  such  a  way  that  the  pupil  will 
be  constantly  multiplying  and  enlarging 
his  capacity  to  interpret  his  increasing 
range  of  experiences  and  the  problems 
which  they  involve.  The  act  of  learning 
as  such,  however  important,  should  alwaj  s 
be  regarded  by  the  teacher  as  but  the 
process  by  which  the  self-activity  of  the 
child  is  developing.  Each  act  in  perception 
in  forming  ideals  or  in  realizing  them 
reacts  upon  the  self-activity,  increasing  its 
power  and  range  proportionately  at  every 
step.  The  law  of  the  reaction  is  this : 

However  objectively  engaged  the  mind  may 
be,  the  reaction  upon  the  self-activity  in  ex- 
ercise is  the  same  as  if  it  were  acting  directly 
upon  itself,  if  that  were  possible. 

These  reactions  in  the  act  of  learning, 
whether  in  forming  or  realizing  ideals,  re- 
sult in  habits  which  always  are  the  test 
of  mental  capacity  and  executive  skill.  It 
is  through  the  formation  of  them  that  all 
growth  is  attained,  that  power  to  solve  the 
higher  and  the  more  complex  problems  of 
life  is  developed. 

The  importance  of  right  methods  of  study 
and  of  right  methods  of  instruction  becomes 
more  and  more  evident  as  this  reactive 
effect  of  every  act  of  the  child  is  understood. 
For  the  purpose  of  educating  the  teacher 
properly  for  the  responsible  work  of  teach- 
ing four  general  lines  of  procedure  have 
been  recognized.  These  consist  of  the 
philosophy  of  education;  methodology; 
school  organization  and  management;  and 
the  history  of  education. 

THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  EDUCATION.  This 
includes  an  inquiry  into  the  fundamental 
principles  underlying  the  process  of  knowl- 
edge-getting, the  development  of  the  self- 
activities  and  the  methods  by  which  the 
teacher  may  co-operate  with  the  child. 
The  terms  theory  of  education,  principles  of 
education,  psychology  applied  to  education, 
institutes  of  education,  psychologic  founda- 
tions of  education  etc.  designate  similar 
inquiries.  They  all  strive  to  discover  the 
philosophic  basis  of  method  in  education, 
and  in  a  general  way  cover  the  nature, 
limits,  processes,  means,  special  elements, 
phases,  physical  culture,  intellectual  cul- 
ture, will-culture,  ethical  culture,  aesthetic 
culture  and  a  variety  of  kindred  problems. 
The  following  treatises  are  among  the  most 
useful  now  published  on  general  theoretical 

Sjdagogy:  The  Philosophy  of  Education, 
osenkranz;  A  Manual  of  Pedagogics, 
Putnam;  Lectures  on  Teaching,  Compayre"; 
The  Philosophy  of  Teaching,  Tompkins, 
Outlines  of  Pedagogics,  Rein;  Pedagogics  of 
the  Kindergarten,  Froebel;  The  Method  of 
Recitation,  McMurry;  Theory  and  Practice 
of  Teaching,  Page;  Education  of  the  Central 


X440 


PEDOMETER 


Nervous  System,  Halleck;  Education  as  a 
Science,  Bain;  Education,  Spencer;  Lectures 
on  Teaching,  Fitch;  Interest  in  its  Relation 
to  Pedagogy,  Ostermann  (translation  by 
Shaw) ;  Contributions  to  the  Science  of  Educa- 
tion, Payne;  Education  .•>/  Man,  Froebel. 
The  Transactions  of  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association,  Barnard's  American 
Journal  of  Education  and  many  state 
reports  contain  mines  of  information  on 
theoretical  and  practical  pedagogy. 

METHODOLOGY  or  the  art  of  applying 
educational  principles  in  teaching  has  called 
forth  a  great  variety  of  treatises  on  special 
and  general  methods.  They  usually  treat 
of  the  formal  methods  of  arousing  the 
child's  interest,  of  presenting  the  subject- 
matter  in  the  different  stages  of  the  child's 
development,  of  conducting  the  recitation, 
of  cultivating  the  various  physical  and 
mental  activities  of  the  child  and  of  the 
essentials  in  conditions  and  means.  Method- 
ology usually  includes  more  or  less  of  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  principles  involved  in  the 
methods  presented.  The  following  books 
treat  the  subject  in  an  instructive  and 
practical  way  .  Method  in  Education,  Roark; 
School  Management  and  Methods,  Baldwin; 
School  Management,  White;  Methods  of 
Teaching,  Swett;  Talks  on  Teaching,  Parker; 
and  Hours  with  my  Pupils,  Phelps. 

SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT. 
These,  as  somewhat  distinct  problems, 
call  for  elaborate  treatment.  They  em- 
brace plans  of  organization,  sources  of 
revenue,  selection  of  school  sites,  erection  of 
school  buildings,  seating,  ventilating,  light- 
ing and  sanitation;  courses  of  study,  choice 
of  textbooks,  classification  of  pupils,  prepa- 
ration and  examination  of  teachers,  gen- 
eral supervision  of  the  school,  the  authority 
of  the  teacher,  management  of  classes, 
rules  of  conduct,  modes  of  punishment, 
presentation  of  motives  and  relation  of 
teacher  and  pupils.  The  student  is  referred 
to  the  following  authorities  for  general 
treatment  of  these  problems :  School  Economy, 
Wickersham;  School  Supervision,  Payne; 
School  Interests  and  Duties,  King;  School 
Management,  White;  School  Management, 
Kellogg;  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching, 
Page;  Systems  of  Education,  Gill;  and 
School  Hygiene,  Kotelmann  (Bergstrom's 
translation). 

THE  HISTORY  OP  EDUCATION.    A  liberal 

Erofessional  preparation  for  teaching  is 
ardly  possible  without  a  comparative 
study  of  educational  progress  as  shown  in 
past  and  present  educational  systems.  It 
may  take  either  of  two  general  forms: 
That  of  education  as  a  whole  or  that  of 
formal  pedagogy  in  particular.  If  the  for- 
mer, the  field  includes  a  history  of  the 
growth  of  all  branches  of  learning  and  of 
the  various  institutions  of  civilization  in 
general;  if  the  latter,  it  is  limited  to  the 
development  of  educational  doctrine  and 


the  growth  of  systems  and  methods.  There 
are  commonly  recognized  five  great  epochs 
in  educational  history:  the  Oriental,  the 
Classical,  the  Christian  before  the  Reforma- 
tion, the  Reformation  and  the  Modern 
Epoch.  Each  epoch  is  rich  in  instructive 
material,  throwing  light  upon  nearly  every 
problem  which  the  teacher  meets  and  help- 
ing him  to  a  more  comprehensive  view  of 
the  methods  by  which  they  may  be  solved 
The  following  are  among  the  standard  texts 
on  this  subject:  Compayre",  Painter,  Seeley 
and  Williams.  See,  also,  Boone's  Educa- 
tion in  the  United  States,  Swett's  American 
Public  Schools,  Klem's  European  Schools, 
Quick's  Educational  Reformers,  Laurie's 
Rise  and  Early  Constitution  of  Universities, 
Lang's  Great  Teachers  of  Four  Centuries, 
Browning's  Educational  Theories,  Butler's 
Great  Educators,  Winship's  Great  American 
Educators  and  the  histories  of  education  in 
the  different  states  of  the  Union,  published 
by  the  United  States  bureau  of  educa- 
tion. 

The  methods  of  teaching  as  well  as  the 
subject-matter  must  vary  with  the  age  and 
capacity  of  the  pupil.  In  the  earlier  years 
nature-study  supplies  an  abundance  of 
material  which  may  be  used  to  introduce 
the  elements  of  knowledge.  The  ability  to 
correlate  these  elements  in  a  systematic  way 
and,  in  the  advancing  grades,  gradually  to 
differentiate  them  into  the  particular 
branches  of  knowledge  developing  from 
them  requires  great  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher.  A  brief  survey  of  nature-study 
and  a  few  other  subjects,  with  suggestions 
for  teaching  them  will  illustrate  scientific 
method. 

Among  other  titles  in  this  work  relating 
to  the  general  subject  of  pedagogics  are 
ADOLESCENCE;  APPERCEPTION;  ARITHMETIC; 
ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS;  CHILD-STUDY; 
CORRELATION  OP  STUDIES;  DRAWING;  EDU- 
CATION, HISTORY  OF;  EDUCATION,  MODERN; 
FEELING;  FROEBEL;  GAMES;  GEOGRAPHY, 
TEACHING  OF;  GRAMMAR;  HABIT;  HISTORY, 
TEACHING  OF;  INTEREST;  KINDERGARTEN; 
LANGUAGE-STUDY;  LIBRARIES,  How  TO 
USE;  LITERATURE  FOR  CHILDREN;  MANUAL 
TRAINING;  MEMORIZING;  MENTAL  DIS- 
CIPLINE; NATURE-STUDY;  NORMAL  SCHOOLS; 
PENMANSHIP;  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION;  PSY- 
CHOLOGY FOR  TEACHERS;  READING,  TEACH- 
ING OF;  SCHOOLS;  SCHOOL  EXCURSIONS; 
SCHOOL  SANITATION;  SCHOOL  ORGANIZA- 
TION; SELF-ACTIVITY;  SPELLING;  STUDY; 
TEACHING,  METHOD  OFI  and  TEACHERS' 
INSTITUTES. 

Ped'icel,  the  stalk  of  an  individual  flower. 
When  a  flower  has  no  pedicel,  it  is  said  to 
be  sessile. 

Pedom'eter,  an  instrument  used  for 
measuring  walking  distances  by  marking 
the  number  of  steps  taken.  It  is  also  so 
constructed  as  to  mark  the  revolutions  of 
a  carriage  wheel  when  attached  to  it. 


PEDRO  X 


M4I 


PEISISTRATOS 


Pe'dro  I  of  Brazil,  born  near  Lisbon 
in  1798,  dying  there  in  1834,  was  the  first 
emperor  of  Brazil  and  the  second  son  of 
John  VI  of  Portugal.  In  1807  he  fled  to 
BrazU  with  his  parents  on  Napoleon's  in- 
vasion of  Portugal,  and  became  prince  re- 
gent of  Brazil  on  his  father's  return  to  Por- 
tugal See  BRAZIL  and  PORTUGAL. 

Pedro  II,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born 
at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Dec.  2,  1825,  became 
king  on  his  father's  abdication  in  1831,  and 
was  declared  of  age  in  1840.  During  his 
long  reign  he  was  distinguished  by  his  love 
of  learning  and  scholarly  tastes,  and  mani- 
fested no  small  degree  of  devotion  to  the 
welfare  and  prosperity  of  his  people;  but 
in  the  revolution  of  1889,  when  Brazil  was 
declared  a  republic,  he  was  forced  to  abdi- 
cate and  withdraw  to  Europe.  He  died 
at  Paris  in  1891.  See  BRAZIL  and  PORTUGAL. 

Pedro  the  Cruel,  king  of  Castile  and  Leon, 
was  born  at  Burgos,  in  Spain,  Aug.  30,  1333. 
He  was  the  only  legitimate  son  of  Alfonso 
XI,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1350.  Three 
years  after  his  accession  he  married  Blanche 
de  Bourbon,  sister  of  the  French  king,  but 
soon  deserted  her  for  his  mistress,  Dona 
Maria  of  Portugal,  whose  relatives  he  raised 
to  the  highest  offices  in  his  kingdom. 
Among  many  other  victims  of  his  cruelty 
were  two  of  his  natural  brothers,  whom  he 
put  to  death.  At  length  an  insurrection 
was  raised  against  him,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  his  natural  brother  Henry.  This 
he  suppressed  in  spite  of  the  excommunica- 
tion of  the  pope,  and  the  remainder  of  his 
reign  was  devoted  to  establishing  his  power 
and  authority  over  his  enemies  and  to  long 
and  bloody  wars  with  Aragon  and  Granada. 
In  1366  Henry,  who  had  fled  to  France,  re- 
turned at  the  head  of  a  body  of  exiles  and 
revived  his  claims  to  the  throne.  Henry 
was  supported  by  the  pope,  by  Aragon  and 
by  France;  but  Pedro,  by  promises  of  money 
and  territory,  secured  the  assistance  of 
Edward  the  Black  Prince,  and  totally  de- 
feated Henry  at  Navarrete,  April  13,  1367. 
Pedro  so  disgusted  Edward  by  his  cruelty 
to  the  vanquished,  that  the  latter  returned 
to  France  with  his  army,  refusing  any  fur- 
ther alliance  with  a  prince  of  such  a  char- 
acter. In  the  autumn  Henry  returned  with 
an  additional  force,  the  people  flocking  to 
his  standard.  Pedro's  army  was  com- 
pletely routed  at  Montiel,  March  13,  1369, 
and  he  himself  taken  prisoner.  He  was 
carried  to  a  tent,  where  a  single  combat 
took  place  between  him  and  Henry,  in 
which  Pedro  was  slain. 

Pedun'cle,  the  general  stalk  of  a  flower 
cluster. 

Peeks'kill,  N.  Y.,  a  pretty  and  historic 
borough  in  Westchester  County,  on  the 
Hudson  River  and  on  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral Railroad,  43  miles  north  of  New  York 
City  It  has  a  number  of  manufactories, 
stove-works,  foundries,  machine  shops,  shirt 


and  cigar  factories,  flour  mills  and  blank- 
book  and  bookbinding  establishments,  The 
town  has  many  fine  churches,  schools,  a 
public  library,  military  academy,  convent 
and  an  Episcopal  school  for  young  women. 
Population  15,245. 

Feel,  Sir  Robert,  an  eminent  English 
statesman,  was  born  near  Bury,  in  Lanca- 
shire, Feb.  5,  1788.  He  entered  the  house 
of  commons  in  1809  as  a  Tory,  and  imme- 
diately began  to  show  the  diligence  and 
prudence  that  were  marked  features  of  his 
character.  He  held  the  office  of  secretary  for 
Ireland  from  1812  to  1818,  and  in  this  posi- 
tion displayed  so  unfriendly  a  spirit  toward 
the  Roman  Catholics  that  they  gave  him 
the  nickname  of  Orange  Peel,  which  clung 
to  him  through  life.  From  1818  to  1822 
Peel  was  out  of  office ;  but  in  the  latter  year 
he  re-entered  the  ministry  as  home  secre- 
tary, though  in  1827  he  retired.  As 
home  secretary  he  distinguished  himself 
by  a  reorganization  of  the  London  police 
(q.  v.)  and  by  several  other  important  meas- 
ures. In  1820  Peel,  as  a  member  of  the 
Wellington  cabinet,  proposed  the  bill  for 
Catholic  emancipation,  and  thereby  sepa- 
rated himself  from  the  Tory  leaders.  Next 
year  (1830)  the  Wellington-Peel  ministry 
was  succeeded  by  a  Whig  ministry  under 
Earl  Grey,  and  in  1832  the  reform  bill  was 
passed  in  spite  of  Peel's  vigorous  opposition. 
The  general  election  of  1841  resulting  in 
a  decided  victory  for  protection,  Peel  be- 
came prime  minister  with  a  large  majority 
in  both  houses;  but  such  was  the  demand 
for  "cheap  corn,"  that  Peel  was  forced  to 
yield  and  consent  to  the  repeal  of  the  corn 
laws.  Peel  retired  in  June,  1846,  and,  as 
a  member  of  Parliament  for  Tamworth,  gen- 
erally acted  with  the  Whigs,  whose  free- 
trade  principles  he  had  fully  accepted.  He 
died  at  London  in  consequence  of  a  fall 
from  his  horse,  July  2,  1850.  Peel  declined 
a  peerage  and  the  order  of  the  garter,  and 
was  universally  respected  for  ability  as  well 
as  patriotism  and  high  moral  principle.  See 
Guizofs  Robert  Peel;  Peel  by  J.  R.  Thurs- 
field  in  the  Twelve  English  Statesmen 
Series;  and  Morley's  Life  of  Cobden. 

Pegasus  (pcg'd-sHs),  in  Grecian  mythol- 
ogy, the  winged  horse  which  sprang  from 
the  blood  of  Medusa  (q.  P.)  when  she  was 
slain  by  Perseus.  He  is  said  to  have  received 
his  name  because  he  first  made  his  appear* 
ance  beside  the  springs  (pegai)  of  Oceanus. 
When  Bellerophon  sought  to  catch  Pegasus 
for  his  combat  with  the  Chimaera,  he  was 
advised  to  sleep  in  the  temple  of  Minerva, 
and  during  his  sleep  the  goddess  appeared 
to  him  and  gave  him  a  golden  bridle,  with 
which  he  caught  Pegasus,  and  by  her  aid 
overcame  the  Chimaera. 

Peisistratos  (pi-sis' -tnS-tos)  was  a  tyrant 
of  Athens,  the  date  of  whose  birth  is  uncer- 
tain, but  who  died  in  527  B.  C.  Peisistratos 
gained  his  influence  at  the  first  by  posing 


PEKIN 


1442 


PELICAN 


as  the  protector  of  the  poor.  He  identified 
himself,  therefore,  with  the  party  of  the  hills. 
He  claimed  that  his  life  was  in  danger  from 
the  attacks  of  his  enemies,  showed  wounds 
which  probably  were  made  for  the  purpose, 
and  was  granted  a  bodyguard.  Once  in 
possession  of  an  armed  force,  Peisistratos 
seized  the  citadel.  He  governed  Athens 
well  and  wisely,  and  twice  submitted  to 
exile  only  to  regain  his  power.  The  word 
tyrant  as  applied  to  him  means  little  more 
than  ruler;  and  became  obnoxious  only  at 
a  later  date. 

Pekin'  or  Peking7,  the  northern  capital  of 
the  Chinese  empire,  is  situated  on  a  sandy 
plain  100  miles  from  the  sea  (Gulf  of  Pe-chili) 
and  60  from  the  great  Chinese  wall.  The 
city  consists  of  two  parts:  The  northern 
or  Tartar  city  and  the  southern  or  Chinese 
city.  The  northern  city  is  surrounded  by  a 
wall  60  feet  high  and  from  40  to  50  wide, 
and  the  southern  city  by  a  wall  30  feet 
high  and  from  it;  to  25  feet  wide.  The  wall 
and  moat  are  a  little  over  20  miles  in  length. 
Not  counting  the  cross-wall,  the  entire  cir- 
cuit measures  about  21  miles,  inclosing  an 
area  of  about  25  square  miles.  Peking  has 
sixteen  gates,  over  each  of  which  is  raised 
a.  tower  100  feet  high  and  of  imposing  ap- 

?earance.  Within  the  northern  city  is  the 
sze-kin-ch'ing  or  Prohibited  City,  with  a 
circumference  of  two  miles,  where  the  em- 
peror has  his  residence.  Peking  has  railway 
communication  with  Tien-tsin  and  with  the 
Gulf  of  Pe-chili  at  or  near  Taku. 

Peking  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities 
of  the  world.  On  the  same  site  stood  the 
metropolis  of  the  feudal  state  of  Yen,  whose 
history  can  be  traced  back  to  the  i2th  cen- 
tury B.  C.  When  Kublai  Khan  became 
emperor  of  all  China  in  1280  A.  D.,  he  made 
Peking  his  capital,  where  he  was  found  by 
Marco  Polo.  In  the  language  of  Dr.  Williams 
"  Peking  stands  to-day,  like  the  capitals  of 
the  ancient  Roman  and  Byzantine  empires, 
upon  the  debris  of  centuries  of  buildings." 
But  little  was  known  of  the  city,  however, 
until  1860,  when  the  English  and  French 
armies  appeared  before  its  walls  and  com- 

?elled  the  emperor  to  conclude  the  treaty  of 
ien-tsin  or  have  his  capital  destroyed.  Since 
that  time  the  Chinese  government  has  per- 
mitted ambassadors  of  other  nations  to  have 
a  residence  in  Peking,  although  they  are  not 
allowed  to  enter  Tsze-kin-ch'ing  or  Forbid- 
den City.  See  BOXER  RISING  and  CHINESE 
EMPIRE.  The  population  is  estimated  at 
700,000.  See  Williamson's  Journeys  -in 
North  China;  Williams'  The  Middle^  King- 
dom; and  Martin's  The  Siege  in  Peking. 

Pekin  (pe'ktn),  III.,  city  and  county-seat 
of  Tazewell  County,  about  n  miles  from 
Peoria.  It  is  in  a  fertile,  agricultural  section, 
the  chief  products  of  which  are  corn  and 
wheat,  and  in  the  vicinity  are  extensive  coal 
deposits.  Pekin  manufactures  agricultural 
implements,  wagons  and  carriages,  fertilizers, 


organs,  furniture,  foundry  products,  am- 
monia, alcohol,  beet-sugar,  glucose,  brick  and 
tile.  There  are  admirable  public  schools  and 
a  free  library.  Pekin  has  the  service  of 
several  railroads,  and  has  freight  and  pas- 
senger traffic  by  steamboat  with  ports  on 
Illinois  River.  Population  9,897. 

Pelas'gians,  a  term  applied  to  the  most 
ancient  inhabitants  of  Greece,  Italy  and 
some  portions  of  Asia  Minor.  In  Homer  the 
Pelasgi  seem  to  have  been  an  unimportant 
tribe  living  in  Thessaly.  Herodotus  seems 
to  regard  them  as  a  race  of  barbarians  who 
had  occupied  Hellas  prior  to  the  Hellenes. 
Thucydides,  on  the  other  hand,  says  that 
they  were  the  most  numerous  of  the  various 
races  that  inhabit  Greece.  Amid  such  con- 
flicting testimony  it  is  impossible  to  form 
any  definite  conclusions  in  reference  to  the 
Pelasgians;  but  we  are  at  ieast  justified  in 
regarding  them  as  an  active  and  stirring 
people,  chiefly  intent  upon  agricultural  pur- 
suits. Yet  they  were  no  less  brave  and 
determined  when  attacked  and  driven  to 
self-defense. 

Pelew'  Islands,  a  group  of  about  twenty- 
five  islands  (now  under  the  protection  of  Ger- 
many), lying  southeast  of  the  Philippines  in 
the  Pacific,  at  the  western  extremity  of 
the  Caroline  Archipelago.  These  islands 
are  mountainous,  wooded  and  surrounded 
with  coral  reefs.  Total  area,  170  square 
miles.  The  inhabitants,  about  10,000  in 
number,  belong  to  the  Ma*ay  race.  The 
soil  is  fertile,  and  the  climate  healthy.  The 
Pelew  Islands  were  discovered  by  the  Span- 
iards in  1543,  and  sold  to  Germany  in  1899. 
Pel'ican,  a  water-bird  with  webbed  feet 
and  a  long  bill  having  a  pouch  on  the  under 

surface.  The 
upper  part 
of  the  bill 
hooks  over 
the  lower. 
Pelicans  are 
large  birds 
with  power- 
ful wings,  re- 
lated to  the 
cormorants 
and  the  gan- 
nets.  They 
occur  in  the 
Old  and  New 
Worlds,  be- 
ing mostly  confined  to  the  tropics  and  the 
warm  parts  of  the  temperate  regions.  They 
live  upon  fish,  and  at  times  the  pouch  on 
the  lower  jaw  is  greatly  distended  with 
stored  fish  to  be  eaten  at  leisure  or  carried 
home  to  the  young.  In  southern  California 
and  Florida  the  brown  pelican  is  a  familiar 
object.  This  bird  is  about  fifty  inches  long 
with  a  wing-spread  of  more  than  six  feet, 
a  bill  'a  foot  long  and  a  purple  pouch.  After 
becoming  three  years  old  the  bird  is  of  vary- 
ing shades  of  brown,  the  neck  a  very  dark 


PELICAN 


PELOPONNESUS 


1443 


PENANG 


brown  broken  by  white.  These  birds  show 
themselves  friendly  to  man  as  well  as  social 
among  themselves.  They  nest  in  large 
colonies,  a  notable  colony  possessing  Pelican 
Island  in  Indian  River,  Florida.  Their 
fishing  in  the  ocean  breakers  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  Hornaday:  "They  sail  so  near 
the  water  it  seems  a  wonder  it  does  not 
strike  them;  but  they  rise  over  the  incoming 
waves  and  lower  again  into  the  trough  with 
the  utmost  precision,  always  keenly  alert. 
All  of  a  sudden,  the  wings  are  thrown  out 
of  gear,  and  a  fountain  of  flying  spray  tells 
the  story  of  the  plunge  with  open  pouch 
for  the  luckless  fish."  In  Florida  another 
bird  of  the  same  family  once  abounded,  the 
great  white  pelican,  but  it  is  now  rare.  It 
is  a  bird  of  noble  size,  sixty-one  inches  in 
length,  with  spread  of  wings  of  over  eight 
feet.  Every  summer  a  colony  breeds  in 
Yellowstone  Park,  and  in  winter  the  white 
pelican  is  found  in  Texas.  See  Hornaday's 
American  Natural  History. 

Peloponnesus  (pel'o-pbn-ne'sus),  a  penin- 
sula, now  called  the  Morea,  which  formed 
the  southern  part  of  ancient  Greece,  so 
called  by  the  Greeks,  because  it  almost  is  an 
island  and  Pelops  was  said  to  have  founded 
a  colony.  It  is  about  140  miles  long  and 
nearly  the  same  distance  in  extreme  breadth. 
It  is  connected  with  northern  Greece  by  the 
Isthmus  of  Corinth,  which  separates  the 
Gulf  of  Corinth  from  the  Saronic  Gulf. 
In  the  center  a  lofty  circular  ridge  incloses 
an  elevated  basin,  the  famous  vale  of  Ar- 
cadia. Among  its  ancient  cities  were  Sparta, 
Argos,  Mycenae  and  Mantinea.  In  modern 
Greece  the  term  is  applied  to  a  group  ot 
nomarchies  or  provinces,  which  among  others 
embrace  Argolis  and  Corinth,  Achaia  and 
Elis,  Arcadia,  Messina  and  Laconia.  Its 
area  is  about  8,000  square  miles,  with  a 
population  of  nearly  900,000. 

Pe'lops,  in  Grecian  mythology,  the  grand- 
son of  Zeus  and  son  of  Tantalus.  His  father 
invited  the  gods  to  a  banquet,  and,  in  order 
to  test  their  superior  knowledge,  killed  Pe- 
lops and  served  his  remains  at  the  table. 
They  were  not  deceived  and  refused  to  touch 
the  horrible  food  set  before  them;  but  De- 
meter,  absorbed  with  grief  for  the  loss  of 
her  daughter,  ate  part  of  a  shoulder  without 
knowing  what  kind  of  flesh  it  was.  The 
gods  then  ordered  the  remains  to  be  thrown 
into  a  cauldron,  out  of  which  Clotho  brought 
the  boy  alive,  an  ivory  shoulder  being  given 
in  place  of  the  one  eaten.  Hence  his  de- 
scendants, the  Pelopidae,  were  said  to  have 
one  shoulder  white. 

Pem'broke,  Ont.,  county-seat  of  Renfrew 
County,  lies  on  the  southerly  bank  of  Ottawa 
River  at  the  point  callea,  because  of  its 
greater  width.  Lake  Allumette.  The  islet 
opposite,  bearing  the  same  name,  marks  the 
farthest  point  reached  by  Champlain  in 
1613  during  his  exploration  and  discovery 
of  the  Ottawa  valley,  A  large  trade  in 


sawed  lumber  is  done,  and  considerable 
manufacturing  of  other  kinds.  The  city  is 
the  principal  settlement  of  upper  Ottawa 
Valley.  Population  5,156. 

Pem'mican,  a  condensed  food  made  by 
cutting  lean  meat  into  thin  strips  and,  after 
thoroughly  drying  them,  reducing  them  to 
powder  and  mixing  the  substance  with  boil- 
ing fat.  It  is  much  used  by  Arctic  voyagers. 

Pen  (from  the  Latin  penna,  a  feather),  an 
instrument  for  writing  with  fluid  ink.  When 
the  ancients  wrote  upon  papyrus  or  parch- 
ment, they  used  a  reed,  and  when  they  used 
tablets  of  wood  or  stone  they  wrote  with  a 
pointed  stylus  of  bone  or  other  material. 
Reed-pens  are  still  used  by  Persia  and  some 
other  countries,  as  a  metal  pen  does  not 
suit  their  mode  of  writing.  The  Chinese  and 
Japanese  write  with  a  small  brush  or  hair 
pencil.  When  paper  was  introduced  into 
Europe  for  writing  purposes,  quill-pens  came 
into  general  use  and  continued  in  use  to 
the  beginning  of  the  igth  century.  The 
first  English  patent  for  the  manufacture  of 
steel  pens  was  issued  to  Bryan  Donkin  in 
1803;  but  the  credit  of  bringing  them  into 
general  use  should  be  divided  among  James 
Perry,  John  Mitchell,  Joseph  Gillott  and  Sir 
Josiah  Mason.  Perry  began  pen-making  at 
Manchester  in  1819,  using  the  best  Sheffield 
steel  for  the  purpose.  He  removed  to  Lon- 
don and  had  developed  the  pen-trade  to 
tolerably  large  proportions  before  the  Bir- 
mingham manufacturers  caused  a  revolution 
by  the  invention  of  machinery  in  the  manu- 
facture of  pens,  thus  enabling  them  to  be 
sold  cheaply  and  become  articles  of  common 
use.  The  growth  of  the  trade  may  be  seen 
from  the  fact  that  the  weekly  average  of 
pens  manufactured  in  Birmingham  is  30,000,- 
ooo.  The  manufacture  of  gold-pens  has 
progressed  to  a  much  greater  extent  in  the 
United  States  than  in  any  other  country, 
the  annual  product  amounting  to  nearly 
$2,000,000  in  value.  The  gold-pen  goes 
through  no  less  than  forty-five  processes, 
from  the  gold  bar  purchased  from  the  assay 
office  to  the  highest  finished  article  of  com- 
merce To  give  hardness  to  the  point  of 
the  pen  it  is  tipped  with  iridium.  The  United 
States  imports  half  a  million  gross  of  steel- 
pens  annually  and  manufactures  nearly  two 
million  gross  at  Camden,  Meriden  and  Phila- 
delphia, the  steel  used  being  chiefly  imported 
from  Birmingham.  In  the  stylograph  or 
fountain-pen  the  nib  is  dispensed  with,  a 
finely  tapered  point  connecting  with  the 
barrel  containing  the  ink.  The  first  fountain- 
pen  was  brought  out  in  1848. 

Penang',  an  island  in  the  Strait  of  Ma- 
lakka,  lying  off  the  Malay  Peninsula,  be- 
tween it  and  Sumatra,  belonging  to  Great 
Britain.  With  Singapore,  Wellesley  and 
Malakka  it  forms  the  crown-colony  of  Straits 
Settlements.  It  comprises  an  area  of  107 
square  miles  and  contains  about  250,000 
inhabitants.  The  coast  is  very  irregular,  be- 


PENCIL 


1444 


PENGUIN 


ing  indented  by  several  bays.  The  surface 
is  intersected  by  a  range,  the  highest  point 
of  which  is  about  half  a  mile  above  the  sea. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  and  rice,  tapioca,  pepper, 
cloves,  nutmegs  and  other  tropical  fruits  and 
vegetables  are  grown.  Georgetown,  in  the 
north,  is  the  capital.  It  has  a  good  harbor 
and  considerable  trade,  Adjoining  native 
states  are  under  British  protection,  and  con- 
tain the  richest  tin-fields  in  the  world,  be- 
sides valuable  forests  yielding  rubber,  gutta- 
percha  and  gums.  In  1906  the  exports  were 
$90,709,225,  and  the  imports  $94,546,112. 

Pen'cil.  A  slender  stick  of  black  lead, 
slate  or  chalk,  inclosed  in  a  round  piece  of 
wood  is  called  a  pencil,  but  the  term  is  also 
applied  to  small  hair-brushes,  used  by  artists, 
and  to  these  the  name  was  originally  given. 
For  a  long  time  graphite  or  plumbago  from 
the  Cumberland  mines  in  England  furnished 
the  "leads"  for  the  best  pencils  ever  made; 
and  since  these  mines  were  exhausted  vast 
quantities  of  the  same  material  have  been 
found  in  Siberia.  By  a  method  patented  by 
Brockedon  in  1843  this  material  is  freed 
from  impurities  by  grinding  it  to  powder, 
and  is  then  formed  into  solid  blocks  by 
subjecting  it  to  heavy  pressure  in  cases 
from  which  the  air  is  removed.  The 
manufacture  of  black  lead  and  colored 
pencils  is  carried  on  extensively  at  Nurem- 
berg, where  there  are  more  than  twenty 
factories,  which  employ  several  thousand 
hands  and  annually  produce  about  250,- 
000,000  pencils. 

Pen'dulum,  literally  a  hanging  body,  is 
used  in  physics  to  denote  any  body  per- 
forming isochronous  or  nearly  isochronous 
vibrations.  (Isochronous  means  equal- 
timed).  Thus  a  magnet  freely  suspended 
so  as  to  vibrate  in  a  horizontal  plane  is 
sometimes  called  a  magnetic  pendulum.  An 
ordinary  clock  pendulum  is  called  a  gravita- 
tional pendulum.  A  brass  rod,  so  suspended 
by  a  wire  as  to  vibrate  in  a  horizontal 
plane,  is  generally  known  as  a  torsion  pen- 
dulum. Space  permits  us  to  discuss  only 
the  gravitational  pendulum.  This  simple 
but  elegant  instrument  serves  two  principal 
purposes,  each  of  which  was  first  pointed 
out  by  Huygens,  the  great  Dutch  physicist 
(X673).  One  use  is  that  of  a  time-measurer, 
an  application  based  on  the  fact  that,  so 
long  as  a  pendulum  remains  of  constant 
length  and  swings  through  the  same  angle, 
it  vibrates  at  a  constant  rate.  In  practice 
its  length  is  kept  constant  by  "compensa- 
tion" and  its  angle  of  swing  is  kept  con- 
stant by  means  of  a  spring  which  gives  it 
a  little  push  at  each  vibration.  (See  CLOCK.) 
The  second  use  is  as  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  acceleration  of  gravity  at 
various  points  over  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
This  is  generally  done  in  two  ways:  (i)  By 
suspending  a  heavy  metallic  sphere  of  known 
radius  by  means  of  a  fine  wire  of  known 
length  and  observing  the  period  of  vibra- 


tion; or  (2)  by  suspending  a  bar  of  metal 
from  one  of  two  such  points  that  it  has 
the  same  period  of  vibration  from  which- 
ever point  it  be  suspended.  The  former 
method  is  a  near  approximation  of  what  is 
called  a  simple  pendulum,  namely,  a  heavy 
particle  suspended  by  a  massless  thread; 
the  latter  is  a  reversible  compound  pendulum. 
It  can  be  proved  by  dynamics  that  the 
period,  T,  of  a  simple  pendulum  whose 
length  is  I,  is  given  by  the  equation 

?=*  \\y77 

where  g  is  the  acceleration  of  gravity  at  the 
place  of  observation.  Using  this  equation 
for  the  brass  ball,  suspended  by  a  wire,  and 
making  some  slight  corrections  for  the  wire 
and  for  the  diameter  of  the  ball,  one  may 
obtain  quite  an  accurate  value  of  the  accel- 
eration of  gravity.  This  method  is  due  to 
Borda.  In  the  case  of  the  reversible  pen- 
dulum it  can  be  shown  that  the  distance 
between  the  two  points  of  suspension  is 
exactly  equal  to  the  length  of  a  simple 
pendulum  which  would  vibrate  with  the 
same  period.  Hence,  to  obtain  g  with  great 
accuracy,  one  has  only  to  measure  this 
distance,  which  we  may  call  I,  determine 
the  period,  T,  and  solve  for  g  the  equation 
given  above. 

The  pendulum  is  frequently  employed 
also  to  compare  the  acceleration  of  gravity 
at  several  different  places.  Here  we  may 
disregard  the  length  of  the  pendulum,  pro- 
vided this  remains  constant,  since  the  ratio 
of  the  acceleration  at  two  stations  depends 
only  upon  the  square  of  the  ratio  of  the 
periods  at  the  same  two  stations.  For  this 
purpose  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  uses 
pendulums  which  are  very  short  and  con- 
venient, beating  quarter-seconds. 

Penguin  (pen'gwtn),  a  swimming  bird 
peculiar  to  the  southern  hemisphere.  The 
birds  are  diving 
swimmers.  They 
are  very  awk- 
ward on  land, but 
wonderfully  ex- 
pert in  water.  It 
is  said  they  can 
o  u  t  s  w  i  m  fish. 
Their  wings, 
which  do  not  suf- 
fice for  flying,  are 
paddle-shaped, 
and  in  swimming 
are  brought  alter- 
J5  nately  into  use. 
-"••  In  diving  and  in 
swimming  under 
water  only  the 
wings  are  used,  the  feet  serving  as  a  rudder. 
The  feet  are  placed  so  far  back  on  the  body 
that  the  bird  is  erect  when  standing.  They 
have  a  smooth,  scale-like  plumage  adapted 
for  slipping  through  the  water.  The  birds 
live  mostly  on  the  water  and  go  on  shore 


KING    PENGUIN 


PENINSULAR  WAR 


1445 


PENMANSHIP 


only  to  breed.  During  the  breeding-season 
they  are  found  in  great  numbers  on  rocky 
islands  far  from  habitations,  as  on  the  Falk- 
lands,  Kerguelen  Islands  and  rocky  parts 
of  New  Zealand.  There  are  about  twenty 
species;  the  emperor  penguin  is  the  largest 
of  them  all,  one  specimen  weighing  78 
pounds.  The  emperor  stands  about  three 
and  a  half  feet  high,  has  a  coat  that  re- 
minds us  rather  of  fish-scales  than  feathers; 
its  front  is  white,  head  black,  legs  and  feet 
feathered  to  the  claws.  It  is  thus  graphic- 
ally described  by  Hornaday:  "In  its  erect 
posture  its  wings  seem  like  arms,  and  its 
queer  manner  of  talking,  scolding  and  pry- 
ing into  man's  affairs  makes  this  bird  seem 
more  like  a  feathered  caricature  of  a  big,  fat 
auman  being  than  an  ordinary  diving 
bird." 

Penin'sular  War.  The  quarrels  between 
Charles  IV  king  of  Spain  (q.  u.)  and  Fer- 
dinand, his  son,  gave  Napoleon  an  oppor- 
tunity (1807)  of  interfering  in  the  affairs 
of  that  country.  In  pursuance  of  a  treaty 
with  Charles  (q.  v.)  he  had  sent  an  army 
into  Portugal  under  Junot  (q.  v.),  by  whom 
Lisbon  was  seized,  and  the  members  of  the 
royal  house  were  obliged  to  flee  to  Brazil. 
For  the  pretended  purpose  of  supporting 
Junot's  army  other  French  troops  occupied 
Valladolid,  Salamanca  and  other  important 

editions  in  Spain,  including  Madrid  where 
urat  was  in  command.  Riots  at  Madrid, 
Toledo  and  other  places  caused  the  feeble 
king  such  alarm  that  he  surrendered  his 
crown  to  Napoleon,  who  at  once  bestowed 
it  upon  Joseph,  his  brother,  then  king  of 
Naples.  Joseph  Bonaparte  was  accordingly 
proclaimed  on  July  24,  1808.  But  the  Span- 
ish provinces  refused  to  recognize  Joseph, 
and  rose  against  the  French  in  all  directions. 
Assistance  was  supplied  to  the  patriots  of 
Spain  and  Portugal  (q.  v.)  by  Great  Britain ; 
and  on  the  i2th  of  July,  1808,  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley  (afterwards  Duke  of  Wellington) 
was  sent  to  Portugal  with  30,000  men. 
Wellesley  defeated  Laborde  at  Rolica  and 
Junot  at  Vimiera,  but  Sir  H.  Dalrymple 
concluded  the  convention  of  Cintra  with  the 
French,  who  evacuated  Portugal  during 
September,  1808.  Napoleon  continued  to 
send  large  re-enforcements  to  Spain  and 
came  to  Madrid  to  direct  the  operations  of 
his  forces;  and  when  Wellesley  was  again 
sent  out,  in  the  spring  of  1809,  he  found 
himself  confronted  by  nearly  400,000  French 
troops,  in  eight  army-corps,  commanded  by 
six  marshals  and  by  Generals  Junot  and  St. 
Cyr.  Wellesley  at  once  proceeded  to  active 
operations;  but  it  took  a  conflict  of  five 
years  and  many  hard-fought  battles  to  drive 
the  French  forces  out  of  Spain.  For  his 
services  Wellesley  was  created  Duke  of 
Wellington  (q.  v.),  and  received  $2,500,000 
from  the  English  parliament.  This  war  is 
sometimes  called  the  War  of  Spanish  (or  of 
Portuguese)  Independence. 


Pen'manship.  The  art  of  handwriting  as 
taught  in  the  elementary  school.  Three 
typical  systems  of  writing  forms  are  taught 

in  American  schools  :  the  slant  (  ^fy£W  )  ,  the 
medial  (£n&rru')  and    the   vertical  system 


The  slant  system  represents  the 
system  of  writing  taught  up  to  the  present 
school  generation.  It  was  superseded  by 
the  vt  "tical  system  largely  because  of  ease  of 
teaching  and  the  lessened  strain  in  reading. 
At  present  the  medial  system,  which  is  half- 
way between  the  other  two  systems,  is  be- 
coming prevalent.  The  main  requirements 
in  the  teaching  of  penmanship  are  legibility, 
speed,  ease  and  individuality.  The  usual  de- 
mand has  been  for  legibility  and  speed. 
Since  the  typewriter  and  the  stenographer 
have  come  into  widespread  use,  the  insistence 
upon  a  very  high  degree  of  accuracy  of  form 
and  rapidity  in  copying  has  decreased,  and 
some  individuality  in  writing  for  ease  in 
identification  of  signatures  etc.  has  become 
more  important  relatively.  The  teaching  of 
penmanship  proper  usually  begins  in  the 
second  school-year,  slightly  before  the  first 
work  in  written  composition.  Some  move- 


ment-exercises  are  sometimes  given  in  the 
first  year.  The  first  work  usually  is  with 
large  forms  upon  the  blackboard,  the  teacher 
setting  the  copy  and  the  children  imitating. 
Work  in  penmanship  at  the  seats  follows 
later,  the  pencil  frequently  preceding  the  use 
of  pen  and  ink.  In  seat-work  the  copy 
either  is  set  by  the  teacher  or  is  taken  from 
a  printed  copy-book.  Much  practice  in  the 
repetition  of  the  copy  follows.  The  exer- 
cises in  the  copy-books  represent  a  gradation 
of  difficulties  from  grade  to  grade.  In  some 
cases  the  copy  is  constantly  kept  before  the 
child  as  a  standard.  In  others  it  is  used  only 
for  a  short  period,  the  child  later  comparing 
his  own  work  with  his  image  or  standard  of 
what  the  work  ought  to  be.  Dictation  sup- 

Elements  the  exercises,  the  final  test  being 
jund  in  the  penmanship  that  is  seen  in  the 
child's  compositions  where  the  attention  is 
mainly  upon  the  expression  of  thought. 
One  group  of  teachers  strives  for  accuracy  of 
form,  at  first  letting  the  child  write  slowly, 
•almost  drawing  the  letters,  and  then  grad- 
ually quickening  the  speed  of  writing. 
Where  this  is  "done,  rapid  movement-exer- 
cises with  circles,  ovals  or  other  forms  are 
given  parallel  to  the  slower  writing  of  letters, 
words  and  sentences.  Another  group  of  in- 
structors lays  the  emphasis  upon  rapidity  of 
writing  from  the  beginning,  gradually  striv- 
ing for  a  more  nearly  correct  form.  Where 
individuality  is  a  standard  in  the  teaching  of 
writing,  the  childern  are  first  required  to  get 
correct  form  without  any  variation.  When 
this  is  fairly-well  achieved,  such  personal 


PENN 


1446 


PENNSYLVANIA 


variations  as  appear  and  do  not  interfere 
seriously  with  legibility  are  allowed  to  per- 
sist. In  obtaining  greater  accuracy  and 
speed,  the  point  is  soon  reached  where  a 
large  amount  of  effort  is  required  to  make 
small  gains.  Further  effort  seems  wasteful. 
Hence  there  is  the  very  general  tendency  for 
penmanship  to  disappear  as  a  specific  sub- 
ject about  the  end  of  the  sixth  or  the  seventh 
school-year.  The  rigid  insistence  upon  a 
certain  position  of  body,  arm,  hand  and 
fingers  which  characterized  the  former  teach- 
ing of  penmanship  is  no  longer  found.  The 
child's  own  comfortable  position  is  allowed  to 
a  far  greater  degree,  provided  it  does  not  in- 
terfere with  hygienic  considerations.  The 
attempt  to  make  children  write  by  a  whole- 
forearm  movement  has  also  been  modified. 
Slight  finger-movement  is  permitted  in  com- 
bination with  the  whole-arm  movement. 

Penn,  William,  founder  of  Pennsylvania, 
was  the  son  of  Admiral  William  Penn,  and 
was  born  at  London,  Oct.  14,  1644.  Penn 
studied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  there 
became  a  convert  to  Quakerism.  In  1668 
Penn  was  thrown  into  London  Tower  on 
account  of  The  Sandy  Foundations  Shaken. 
While  in  prison  he  wrote  No  Cross,  No  Crown 
and  Innocency  with  Her  Open  Face.  He  was 
liberated  through  the  influence  of  the  Duke 
of  York,  afterward  James  II  In  1670  Ad- 
miral Penn  died,  leaving  his  son  $7,500  a 
year  and  claims  upon  the  government  for 
$80,000.  In  1681,  in  lieu  of  his  monetary 
claim,  Penn  obtained  territory  comprising 
the  present  state  of  Pennsylvania,  lie  de- 
sired to  call  it  Sylvania,  but  Charles  II  in- 
sisted on  the  prefix  Penn,  in  honor  of  his 
father.  In  October  of  1682  he  held  his  fa- 
mous interview  with  the  Indian  tribes. 
Penn  concluded  a  peaceful  arrangement  for 
the  purchase  of  their  lands,  and  for  50  years 
his  colony  remained  unmolested  by  them. 
Penn  planned  and  named  Philadelphia,  and 
for  two  years  managed  affairs  in  the  wisest, 
most  benevolent  and  liberal  manner.  Not 
Quakers  only  but  persecuted  members  of 
other  churches  sought  refuge  in  his  colony, 
where  religious  toleration  was  fully  recog- 
nized and  respected.  In  1684  Penn  returned 
to  England  to  exert  his  influence  in  favor  of 
his  persecuted  brethren  at  home,  in  which  he 
was  so  far  successful  that  soon  after  James  II 
came  to  the  throne  (1685)  1,200  imprisoned 
Quakers  were  set  at  liberty.  After  the  ac- 
cession of  William  III,  Prince  of  Orange 
(1688) ,  Penn  was  accused  of  treason  and  con- 
spiracy, but  was  acquitted.  In  1699  Penn 
paid  a  second  visit  to  Pennsylvania,  where 
his  colony  required  his  presence.  His  two 
years'  stay  was  marked  by  many  useful 
measures  and  by  efforts  to  improve  the  con- 
dition, not  only  of  the  colonists,  but  of  the 
Indians  and  negroes.  He  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  1701.  When  an  agent  of  Penn's 
died,  he  left  claims  which  the  latter  refused 
to  pay,  and  was  committed  to  Fleet  Prison, 


where  he  remained  until  friends  procured  his 
release  by  settling  the  claims.  He  died  on 
July  30,  1718. 

Pen'nell,  Joseph,  an  American  artist  and 
engraver,  was  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1860. 
He  married  Elizabeth  Robbins,  and  he  and 
his  wife  have  been  almost  continuously  trav- 
eling, writing  and  sketching  since  1885.  In 
this  time  they  have  visited  many  of  the  cities 
of  the  Old  World  and  sailed  down  most  of 
its  historic  rivers.  Pennell's  works  are  nu- 
merous, all  illustrated  in  that  pen-and-ink 
style  for  which  he  is  justly  famous.  His 
first  book  wras  A  Canterbury  Pilgrimage;  the 
latest,  Lithography  and  Lithographers. 

Penn'sylva'nia.  Pennsylvania  is  one  of 
the  oldest  and  richest  of  the  eastern  states. 
Its  position  in  commerce  and  manufacturing 
is  due  largely  to  its  geographical  location. 
Extending  from  the  estuary  of  the  Delaware 
on  the  southeast  to  Lake  Erie  on  the  north- 
west and  commanding,  also,  direct  outlet  by 
the  Ohio  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Pennsylvania 
may  justly  claim  advantages  for  internal 
and  for  foreign  commerce  second  to  none 
among  the  states  of  the  Middle  Atlantic 
group.  The  richness  of  its  mines,  the  wealth 
of  its  forests,  the  productiveness  of  its  fertile 
valleys  and  the  unrivalled  scenery  of  its 
splendid  mountains  and  broad  plateaus  make 
Pennsylvania  one  of  the  first  states  of  the 
Union.  Its  boundaries  are,  on  the  north, 
Lake  Erie  and  New  York;  on  the  east.  New 
York  and  New  Jersey;  on  the  south,  Dela- 
ware, Maryland  and  West  Virginia,  on  the 
west,  West  Virginia  and  Ohio.  The  Dela- 
ware River  forms  the  entire  eastern  boun- 
dary. Area  45,086  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion 8,591,029. 

Surface.  All  the  mountains  are  parts  of 
the  Appalachian  system.  Yet  the  state 
may  be  studied  under  four  distinct  divisions. 
The  first,  the  Piedmont  Belt,  includes  that 
part  of  the  state  between  Delaware  River  and 
the  Blue  or  Kittatinny  Mountains.  The 
second  and  third  divisions,  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  and  the  Great  Valley,  lie  wholly 
within  the  main  Appalachian  system. 
Throughout  this  region  are  found  many  rug- 
ged mountain-walls  forming  gaps  or  nar- 
rows. The  Susquehanna  and  the  Delaware 
break  through  this  chain.  The  Delaware, 
cutting  diagonally  across  the  Appalachian 
system,  forms  the  famous  Delaware  Water- 
Gap.  In  this  division  is  found  also  the  fa- 
mous Mt.  Pocono  region,  now  a  summer 
playground  for  hundreds  of  tourists.  The 
fourth  division  begins  a  little  west  of  the 
center  of  the  state,  and  consists  of  a  series 
of  -high,  rolling  tablelands  or  plateaus 
known  as  the  Allegheny  Plateau.  The  en- 
tire western  section  of  the  state,  from  1,000 
to  1,500  feet  above  sea-level,  is  everywhere 
broken  by  short,  fertile  river-valleys.  Blue 
Knob  in  Bedford  County,  with  an  altitude 
of  about  3,136  feet,  is  believed  to  be  the 
highest  point  in  the  state. 


PENNSYLVANIA 


1447 


PENNSYLVANIA 


Climate.  The  climate  is  varied.  Those 
portions  lying  southeast  of  the  mountain 
ranges  are  considerably  warmer  than  the 
more  elevated  and  western  uplands.  In 
Philadelphia  the  mean  temperature  for  Jan- 
uary is  about  30  degrees,  and  for  July  76.2 
degrees.  For  Wilkes-Barre,  among  the 
mountains,  the  corresponding  figures  are  26 
and  71  degrees;  for  Pittsburg  31  and  76  de- 
grees; and  for  Erie  26  and  70  degrees  In 
some  sections  summer  heat  is  prolonged  into 
the  autumn  and  at  times  reaches  107  degrees, 
while  in  the  northern  and  more  elevated  re- 
gions the  cold  of  winter  reaches  35  degrees 
below  zero.  The  average  annual  rainfall  is 
44.5  inches,  which  is  very  evenly  distrib- 
uted. The  growing  season  for  any  section 
of  country  depends  upon  the  earliest  and 
latest  killing  frosts.  In  Pennsylvania  these 
extremes  vary  from  five  or  six  months  in  the 
northern  parts  to  six  or  seven  months  in  the 
southern  section. 

Natural  Resources.  Pennsylvania  easily 
leads  all  other  states  in  value  of  mineral 
products.  Fully  half  of  all  coal  mined  in 
the  United  States  comes  from  the  Keystone 
State,  and  (in  money  value)  about  one  sixth 
of  all  the  mineral  products  of  the  country  is 
taken  from  within  its  borders.  The  entire 
Appalachian  bituminous  coal-fields  embrace 
about  71,000  square  miles.  About  18,000 
square  miles  belong  to  Pennsylvania.  Its 
anthracite  fields  cover  about  500  square 
miles  additional.  In  the  northern  and  west- 
ern parts  are  large  deposits  of  natural  gas 
and  petroleum.  Iron,  in  the  forms  of  mag- 
netite and  brown  hematite,  is  found  in  great 
quantities.  Other  minerals  include  zinc, 
cobalt,  nickel,  lead,  copper,  tin,  chrome, 
salt  and  soapstone.  Besides  these,  excellent 
brick  and  fire  clay,  white  marble,  slate  and 
many  other  varieties  of  building-stone  are 
found  in  almost  inexhaustible  quantities. 
The  plateau  region,  with  the  middle  section 
of  the  state,  was  originally  covered  with 
dense  pine  and  hemlock  forests.  Then,  too, 
there  was  a  great  abundance  of  white  oak, 
hickory,  chestnut,  walnut  and  cherry  in  the 
lower  altitudes  Pitch-pine,  maple,  beech 
and  black  and  yellow  birch  were  found  in  the 
middle  altitudes,  while  still  higher  up  were 
large  quantities  of  black  and  red  spruce,  bal- 
sam, fir  and  larch.  About  23,000  square 
miles  are  still  counted  as  forested,  and  in 
some  limited  areas  one  may  still  find  con- 
siderable virgin  forest.  A  state  forestry 
commission  is  now  operative,  and  active 
measures  are  being  taken  to  restore  and 
more  carefully  preserve  the  forests.  Fully 
600,000  acres  have  already  been  set  aside  for 
this  purpose.  About  1850  petroleum  was 
first  known  to  exist  in  subterranean  reser- 
voirs. In  August,  1859,  the  first  boring  was 
begun  and  after  22  days,  at  a  depth  of  69 
feet,  oil  was  "struck."  In  the  30  years  be- 
tween 1860  and  1890  fully  1,000,000,000 
barrels  of  petroleum  were  taken  from  Penn- 


sylvania's wells.  The  production  averages 
13,000,000  barrels  a  year,  the  third  largest 
amount  in  the  Union. 

Manufactures.  Pennsylvania  has  ranked 
second  in  the  United  States  in  manufactur- 
ing industries  since  1850.  The  manufacture 
of  iron  and  steel  is  the  most  important  in- 
dustry. Two  factors  contribute  to  this  pre- 
eminence: First,  the  great  wealth  of  raw 
materials  within  the  state  and;  second,  the 
state's  advantageous  conditions  for  market- 
ing its  products.  The  mills  at  Johnstown 
and  at  Steelton  are  the  largest  Bessemer 
steel  mills  in  the  world.  The  money  value 
of  Pennsylvania's  annual  production  of  iron 
and  steel  is  estimated  at  $430,000,000. 
Besides  the  iron  and  steel  industries,  Penn- 
sylvania has  large  interests  in  the  manu- 
facture of  tin  and  tin-plate  and  ship-build- 
ing. In  the  manufacture  of  textiles  Penn- 
sylvania ranks  second.  Carpets,  hosiery 
and  knit  goods,  cotton  and  woolen  goods 
and  silk  and  silk-goods  are  produced  in 
large  quantities.  The  introduction  of  nat- 
ural gas  as  a  fuel  is  partly  responsible  for 
the  great  industrial  activity  of  the  state.  In 
the  manufacture  of  glass,  the  puddling  of 
iron  and  the  roasting  of  ores  this  fuel  far 
surpasses  any  other.  In  the  manufacture 
of  coke  and  its  by-products  Pennsylvania 
leads  all  the  states,  26,000,000  tons  being 
produced  in  one  year,  fully  three-fourths 
of  which  came  from  the  Connellsville  dis- 
trict. The  total  annual  value  of  the  prod- 
ucts turned  out  by  all  the  industries  of 
the  state  is  upwards  of  $2,626,000,000. 
The  state's  rapid  growth  in  population 
is  also  largely  due  to  her  constantly  increas- 
ing industrial  activity.  In  the  last  half- 
century  the  population  has  increased  from 
about  2,500,000  to  over  8,000,000.  The 
increase  in  the  number  of  wage-earners  was 
in  the  ratio  of  about  one  to  six. 

History.  Many  dates  are  set  down  as  be- 
ing "the  first"  in  point  of  settlements  made 
in  Pennsylvania.  Grants  of  territory  for 
certain  portions  of  the  area  now  comprised 
within  her  boundaries  were  made,  some  as 
early  as  1584,  by  Queen  Elizabeth  to  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh.  In  1606  James  I  issued 
a  patent  to  the  London  Company  for  lands 
between  34°  and  41°  N.  In  1626  a  trading- 
station  was  built.  Swedes  and  Finns  set- 
tled next  year.  In  1641  the  English  made 
a  settlement  on  Schuylkill  River.  In  1632 
Charles  I  issued  a  patent  to  Cecilius,  sec- 
ond Lord  Baltimore,  which  included  all  of 
Delaware  and  a  considerable  portion  of 
southern  Pennsylvania.  The  first  actual 
settlement  seems  to  have  been  made  by  Jp- 
hann  Printz,  who,  with  otker  colonists,  in 
1643  founded  New  Gothenburg  on  Tinicum 
Island.  On  March  4,  1681,  William  Penn 
(q.  v.}  secured  a  grant  of  land  west  of  Dela- 
ware River,  lying  between  40°  and  43° 
and  extending  five  degrees  west.  In  this 
grant  Penn  was  given  full  rights  both  as  to 


PENNSYLVANIA 


S44& 


PENNSYLVANIA  UNIVERSITY 


the  ownership  and  to  the  government  of 
the  land.  Many  difficulties  grew  out  of  the 
conflicting  claims,  but  in  1763  all  boundary 
difficulties  were  adjusted.  The  Mason  and 
Dixon  line  (q.  v.)  was  established.  A  pro- 
vincial congress  first  met  in  July,  1774,  in 
Philadelphia.  A  provincial  convention  in 
1775  authorized  the  preparation  of  defence 
for  the  colony.  Pennsylvania's  first  state 
constitution  was  drawn  on  Sept.  28,  1776. 
In  this  provision  was  made  for  a  supreme 
executive  council,  one  legislative  house  and 
a  board  of  censors.  An  insurrection  known 
as  the  Whiskey  Rebellion,  suppressed  in 
1794,  grew  out  of  a  difficulty  with  the  Scotch- 
Irish  regarding  the  excise  tax.  Pennsyl- 
vania's part  in  the  Civil  War  was  most  ex- 
emplary. Under  President  Lincoln's  call 
for  volunteers,  April  5,  1861,  25  regiments 
were  formed  in  less  than  one  month.  Her 
borders  were  invaded  three  times,  twice  at 
Chambersburg  and  once  by  General  Lee's 
army  when  the  decisive  battle  of  the  war 
was  fought  at  Gettysburg.  In  1877  great 
railroad  riots  occurred.  In  1895  a  law  mak- 
ing education  compulsory  was  approved. 
In  1901  a  department  of  forestry  was  estab- 
lished, in  1903  a  department  of  state  high- 
ways under  whose  administration  the  roads 
of  the  state  have  been  greatly  improved. 

Education.  In  all  departments  of  education 
Pennsylvania  has  been  most  progressive. 
The  thought  of  her  earliest  settlers  seems  to 
have  been  to  give  careful  heed  to  the  educa- 
tional welfare  of  her  children.  Penn's  con- 
stitution provided  that  the  governor  and 
pro vincial  council  should  "erec'-.  and  order 
all  public  schools,"  and  the  laws  agreed 
upon  in  England  provided  that  "all  children 
within  this  province  of  the  age  of  12  years 
shall  be  taught  some  useful  trade  or  skill." 
The  first  English  school  was  opened  in  Phil- 
adelphia by  Enoch  Flower  in  1683.  The 
first  school  established  by  Penn  was  the 
Friends'  public  school,  opened  in  1689  and 
chartered  in  1697.  This  school  has  been 
continuously  in  operation,  and  is  now  known 
as  William  Penn  Charter  School.  In  1743 
Benjamin  Franklin  drew  a  plan  for  the 
Academy  and  Charitable  School  of  the 
Province  of  Pennsylvania.  This  was  re- 
newed in  1749,  and  subsequently  developed 
into  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  (q.  v.) 
which  to-day  is  one  of  the  leading  institutions 
in  the  U*v  ed  States.  To-day  the  state's  con- 
stitutip  equires  that  efficient  public  schools 
be  mai:  iined  for  the  education  of  all  chil- 
dren at  -  ve  the  age  of  six  years.  The  free- 
school  act  dates  only  from  1834,  yet  to-day 
the  total  annual  appropriation  to  the  public 
schools  fund  is  $15,000,000.  The  public 
school  system  is  organized  under  a  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  as- 
sisted by  directors  elected  by  the  people, 
and  for  each  county  a  superintendent  of 
public  schools  elected  for  three  years  by 
these  directors.  There  are  now  about 


1,800,000  children  between  five  and  18  in  the 
state,  and  about  1,282,965  are  enrolled  in 
the  public  schools.  There  are  approximately 
900  high  schools  established  and  55  pri- 
vate secondary  schools.  Pennsylvania  is 
divided  into  13  state  normal  school  districts, 
each  having  its  own  school  for  the  training  of 
teachers.  The  state  agricultural  college  is  at 
State  College.  It  provides  free  tuition  in 
agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts  to  resi- 
dents of  Pennsylvania.  Pennsylvania,  be- 
sides state  schools,  has  about  40  schools 
classed  as  colleges  and  universities.  At  Car- 
lisle, Pa.,  is  the  largest  and  best  equipped 
school  in  America  for  the  education  of  the 
Indian.  This  school  was  founded  by  Gen. 
R.  H.  Pratt,  and  under  his  supervision  was 
in  all  respects  the  most  efficient  institution 
for  the  education  of  the  Indian. 

Agriculture.  In  some  parts  of  Pennsyl- 
vania are  to  be  found  some  of  the  most  fer- 
tile valleys  in  the  United  States.  About  65 
per  cent,  of  all  the  state's  area  is  included  in 
faims,  and  of  this  about  68  per  cent,  is  im- 
proved. There  are  approximately  220,000 
farms,  fully  75  per  cent,  of  which  are  op- 
erated by  the  owners.  In  the  production  of 
corn  Pennsylvania  yields  more  than  twice 
as  much  as  New  York  and  of  wheat  four  times 
as  much.  Her  annual  wheat-crop  ex- 
ceeds 30,000,000  bushels.  In  the  produc- 
tion of  oats  and  rye  the  state  is  one  of  the 
heaviest  producers.  Potatoes  are  one  of  the 
chief  money  crops,  New  York  alone  of  all  the 
eastern  states  exceeding  Pennsylvania  in 
acreage  and  production.  Only  New  York 
and  Iowa  go  beyond  Pennsylvania  in  the 
acreage  and  production  of  hay.  Tobacco 
is  also  a  profitable  crop.  The  annual  yield  will 
average  49,500,000  pounds,  valued  at  $4,603,- 
500.  All  the  farms,  including  their  improve- 
ments and  buildings,  have  an  approximate 
value  of  $1,041,068,755.  If  we  add  the  value 
of  the  implements,  machinery  and  live  stock, 
we  have  a  grand  total  of  $1,253,274^862.  In 
fruit  and  stock  raising  Pennsylvania  has,  in 
recent  years,  come  strongly  to  the  front.  In 
orchard-products  she  ranks  third,  and  in 
live-stock  stands  fifth.  Pennsylvania's 
farmers  are  coming  to  realize  that  one  of  the 
most  profitable  sources  of  money  is  found  in 
the  raising  of  poultry.  The  state  stands 
sixth  in  the  value  of  poultry  and  third  in 
egg  production. 

Transportation.  Most  of  the  canals  have 
long  been  out  of  use.  In  railroading  little 
was  done  prior  to  1848,  and  yet  Pennsyl- 
vania had  i,ooo  miles  of  railroads.  It  now 
has  11,290  miles,  exclusive  of  4,343  more 
in  street  or  elevated  electric  track. 

Pennsylvania,  University  of,  traces  its 
origin  to  a  Charity  School  started  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1740,  which  was  succeeded  by  the 
"Academy"  in  1749,  organized  by  Benjamin 
Franklin.  In  1753  it  obtained  a  charter 
which  described  it  as  a  college.  In  1755  the 
Academy  became  the  College  of  Philadelphia. 


PENN* 


1449 


PENSIONS 


In  1791  it  was  incorporated  by  a  new  charter 
as  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Its  Medical 
School,  founded  in  1765,  is  the  oldest  in 
the  United  States.  The  University  now  com- 
prises the  following  departments:  The  College, 
in  which  are  included  courses  in  arts,  science, 
biology,  music,  summer  school,  and  courses 
for  teachers;  the  Towne  Scientific  School, 
including  architecture  and  civil,  mechanical, 
chemical  and  electrical  engineering;  the 
Wharton  School  of  Finance  and  Commerce, 
also  comprising  five  extension  schools  in 
Finance  and  Accounts,  conducted  in  other 
Pennsylvania  cities,  the  Graduate  School, 
Law  School,  the  Schools  of  Medicine,  Edu- 
cation, Dentistry,  Physical  Education,  Veteri- 
nary School  and  Hospital,  the  University 
Hospital,  Wistar  Institute  of  Anatomy,  the 
University  Library,  University  Museum, 
Astronomical  Observatory,  Psychological 
Clinic,  and  Henry  Phipps  Institute.  The 
Archaeological  Museum  connected  with  the 
University  has  an  especially  fine  Indian  col- 
lection, and  a  collection  of  Babylonian  Tablets 
second  only  to  that  of  the  British  Museum. 
The  value  of  the  grounds  and  buildings 
has  been  estimated  at  $22,500,000.  In 
1915  the  faculty  numbered  '589,  the  stu- 
dents 7,152,  and  the  library  500,000 
volumes. 

Pen'ny,  an  English  coin,  one  twelfth  of  a 
shilling  in  value,  first  mentioned  in  the  laws 
of  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  about  the 
close  of  the  7th  century.  It  at  that  time 
was  a  silver  coin,  and  weighed  22  J  grains, 
being  about  i  -  2  40  of  the  Saxon  pound  weight. 
Halfpence  and  farthings  were  not  coined  in 
England  till  the  time  of  Edward  I,  but  the 
penny  was  indented  with  a  cross-mark,  so 
that  it  could  easily  be  broken  either  into  two 
or  four  parts.  The  penny  steadily  declined 
in  weight  until  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  when 
it  was  fixed  at  7  23-31  grains  or  1-62  of  an 
ounce  of  silver,  a  value  to  which  the  copper 
pennies,  first  introduced  in  1797,  closely  ap- 
proximated. The  present  penny  is  made  of 
bronze,  and  is  of  only  halfthe  value  of  the 
copper  penny,  for  which  it  has  been  substi- 
tuted. The  American  cent  is  often  called 
a  penny. 

Penob'scot,  the  largest  river  in  Maine. 
The  west  branch  rises  near  the  Canada  line, 
and  flows  east  and  southeast  to  Medway, 
where  it  meets  the  east  branch  or  Seboois 
River.  Afterward  its  course  is  southwest 
to  Penobscot  Bay,  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  state. 
The  Penobscot  is  navigable  for  large  vessels 
to  Bangor,  60  miles  from  its  mouth.  Its  up- 
per waters  are  used  for  floating  logs  from  the 
forests  of  northern  Maine  to  Bangor  and 
other  points,  where  they  are  sawed  into  lum- 
ber. The  length  of  the  Penobscot  is  300 
miles,  and  it  is  the  most  important  navigable 
stream  in  the  New  England  states. 

Pensacola,  Fla.  (pen'sa-ko'la),  a  port  of 
entry  and  the  county  seat  of  Escambia  County, 


on  several  steamship  lines  and  three  railways. 
It  has  a  land-locked,  deep  harbor,  defended 
by  two  forts.  There  is  also  Fort  Barrancas, 
near  the  site  of  old  Fort  San  Carlos,  connected 
with  the  Confederate  Fort  Redoubt  by  an 
underground  passage.  Pensacola  is  the  home 
of  the  Naval  Aeronautic  School,  the  submarine 


The  Vicinity  of 

PENSACOLA. 


flotilla  and  the  torpedo  fleet.  It  has  a  consider- 
able trade  in  fish,  lumber,  coal,  cotton,  naval 
stores,  grain,  etc.  Population,  25,212. 

Pensacola  was  settled  in  1696  by  Spaniards, 
captured  by  the  French  in  1719,  restored  to 
Spain  in  1723,  and  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  British  in  1763.  During  the  War  of  1812, 
it  was  captured  by  General  Jackson. 

Pen'sions,  the  regular  allowances  of 
money  paid  to  individuals  by  a  government 
in  return  for  services,  civil  or  military. 
Most  European  governments  have  both  a 
civil  and  a  military  list;  but  in  the  United 
States  military  service  alone  constitutes  a 
claim  for  pension.  In  general,  pensions  are 
granted  only  for  active  service  in  time  of 
war  and  for  injuries  received  during  such 
service.  Service-pensions  were  granted  to 
all  survivors  of  the  Revolutionary  War 
by  act  of  1818. to  all  survivors  of  the  War  of 
1812  by  act  011871,  to  the  survivors  of  the 
Mexican  War  by  act  of  1887  and  to  Civil  War 
veterans  in  1904.  But^  the  bulk  of  United 
States  pensions  are  invalid-pensions  for 
wounds  or  disability  incurred  in  service. 
These  extend  to  the  widows  and  children 
under  16  years  of  those  who  died  from  such 
wounds  or  disease;  or,  in  the  event  of  there 
being  no  such  surviving  widow  or  children, 
then  to  dependent  fathers,  mothers  or  minor 
brothers  and  sisters  of  men  so  dying  The 
pensions,  which  range  from  $24  to  $2,000  a 
year,  are  graded  according  to  the  rank  of  the 

?ensioner  and  the  degree  of  his  disability, 
hus,  where  the  regular  aid  or  attendance  of 
others  is  required,  from  $50  to  $72  a  month 
is  allowed  i  where  the  pensioner  is  incapaci- 
tated for  manual  labor,  $30  a  month;  for  the 
loss  of  a  hand  or  foot  or  total  deafness,  $30  a 
month;  for  the  loss  of  both  feet  or  hands  or 
both  eyes,  $72  a  month;  and  for  amputation 
at  the  shoulder  or  hip  joint,  $45  a  month. 


PENTATEUCH 


X450 


PEPIN  LE  BREF 


In  addition  to  these  provisions  for  injuries 
incurred  in  the  service,  by  the  law  of  June  27, 
1890,  all  persons  who  served  90  days  or  more 
in  the  army  or  navy  of  the  United  States 
during  the  Civil  War  and  were  honorably 
discharged  and  are  now  suffering  from  any 
permanent  disease  or  disability,  not  the  re- 
sult of  vicious  habits,  which  unfits  them 
from  earning  their  support  by  manual  labor, 
are  allowed  a  pension  of  from  $6  to  $12  a 
month  according  to  the  degree  of  disability. 
By  the  same  law  the  widow  of  any  such  sol- 
dier, without  other  means  of  support  than 
her  daily  labor,  shall  receive  $8  a  month  dur- 
ing her  widowhood,  provided  she  married 
such  soldier  prior  to  June  27,  1890. 

An  independent  bureau  for  the  transaction 
of  the  pension  business  of  the  government 
was  established  in  1833,  and  in  1849  it  was 
made  a  bureau  of  the  Department  of  the  In- 
terior. The  commissioner  of  pensions  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  president,  and  under  him 
about  2,000  persons  are  employed  in  the  ex- 
amination and  settlement  of  pension  claims ; 
and  there  is  an  equal  number  of  surgeons 
throughout  the  country  whose  duty  it  is  to 
examine  all  applicants  ordered  to  appear  be- 
fore them. 

Pensions,  Mother's.  In  1909  President 
Roosevelt  called  a  conference  on  the  care  of 
dependent  children  and  the  Children's  Bureau 
was  established.  State  laws  took  up  the 
matter  of  helping  destitute  mothers  to  care 
for  their  own  children,  beleiving  this  to  be 
better  than  breaking  up  the  family  by  sending 
the  children  to  institutions.  Some  states 
give  aid  only  when  the  father  is  dead,  others 
include  the  incapable,  criminal  or  vagabond. 
The  amount  paid  varies  in  different  states 
from  $6.25  to  $15  for  one  child  and  from  $5 
to  $15  for  each  of  the  others. 

Pen'tateuch  (tuk)  (from  the  G^eek  words 
pente,  five,  and  teuchos,  book),  the  name 
given  by  the  Christian  fathers  to  the  first 
five  books  of  the  Bible :  Genesis,  Exodus,  Le- 
viticus, Numbers  and  Deuteronomy.  The 
Jewish  name  given  to  these  books  was  Torah, 
meaning  The  Law.  In  connection  with 
Joshua  these  five  books  are  sometimes  con- 
sidered to  form  one  continuous  work,  by 
many  modern  scholars  called  the  Hexateuch. 

Pe'onage,  a  system  of  servitude  common 
in  Mexico  and  some  Spanish-American 
states.  By  the  Spanish  colonial  system  the 
peon  in  debt  to  his  employer  was  bound  to 
labor  for  him  until  the  debt  was  paid.  It 
is  claimed  that  under  this  system  employers 
often  contrived  to  keep  their  laborers  in  con- 
tinual servitude  by  advancing  them  money 
for  needless  expenditures  or  selling  them 
goods  on  credit  and  at  high  prices.  Peonage 
in  the  territory  of  New  Mexico  was  abolished 
by  act  of  Congress  in  1867.  It  has  also  been 
abolished  in  the  Argentine  Republic  and 
some  other  South  American  countries 

Pe'ony,  a  shrub,  native  of  southern  Eu- 
rope, northern  Africa  and  Asia  It  is  a 


genus  (PcBonia)  of  the  order  of  Ranuncu- 
lacecB.  It  derives  its  name  from  Paion,  the 
physician  of  the  gods,  because  of  its  supposed 
medicinal  properties.  There  are  many  spe- 
cies, some  extensively  cultivated  in  America 
as  ornamental  plants  and  for  their  flowers, 
which  usually  are  red  or  crimson  but  vary  to 
white.  Many  varieties  and  hybrids  have 
been  originated.  Chinese  peonies,  which 
form  a  large  group  including  many  hardy 
and  double-flowered  and  fragrant  varieties, 
are  hybrids  obtained  by  intercrossing  vari- 
ous species.  There  also  is  a  tree-peony,  a 
native  of  California  and  Japan.  It  produces 
a  very  large  and  handsome  flower  represent- 
ing a  large  range  of  shades  and  colors.  The 
seeds  and  roots  of  certain  species  of  peony 
are  used  for  food  by  the  wild  tribes  of  Asia. 

Peo'ria,  111.,  an  enterprising  city  on  the 
Illinois  River,  150  miles  southwest  of  Chicago 
and  1 80  miles  northeast  of  St.  Louis,  is  an  im- 
portant railway  center  and  is  connected  by 
steamboat  navigation  with  the  Mississippi 
River,  via  the  Illinois  River.  Its  charitable 
and  educational  institutions  include  three 
homes  for  the  poor,  four  hospitals  and  other 
institutions,  besides  an  excellent  system  of 
public  schools,  several  parochial  schools, 
Spalding  Institute  (R.  C.),  for  boys,  founded 
by  Bishop  John  Lancaster  Spalding,  Sacred 
Heart  Academy  (R.  C.)  for  girls,  Bradley 
Polytechnic  Institute,  founded  by  Mrs.  Lydia 
Bradley  in  1897.  The  latter  institution  is 
endowed  with  $3,000,000,  has  1,200  students 
and  is  affiliated  with  the  University  of  Chicago. 
Peoria  manufactures  agricultural  implements, 
automobiles,  wire  fencing,  gates,  paper,  grain 
products,  alcohol,  whiskey,  stoves,  soap  and 
other  products.  It  has  several  beef-packing 
houses  and  ranks  first  in  many  features  of 
grain  traffic.  Because  of  railroad  transporta- 
tion and  unlimited  coal  supply  within  a  mile 
of  the  city,  also  unusually  fine  water,  especially 
adapted  for  the  purpose,  Peoria  ranks  first  in 
the  production  of  grain  alcohol.  It  has  ten 
distilleries,  consuming  100,000  bushels  of  grain 
daily.  Peoria  is  per  capita  the  richest  city 
in  the  United  States.  Population,  127,000. 

Pep'in  le  Bref  ("the  short"),  son  of 
Charles  Martel  and  father  of  Charlemagne, 
was  born  in  714.  Charles  Martel,  before  he 
died,  divided  his  kingdom  between  his  two 
sons,  Carloman  and  Pepin,  the  former  taking 
the  German  part,  the  latter  Neustria  and 
other  portions  of  northern  France ;  still  they 
were  only  rulers  in  the  name  of  the  Merovin- 
gian king.  St.  Boniface  in  751  crowned 
Pepin  king  of  the  Franks,  Childeric,  the  last 
king  of  the  Merovingians,  having  been  de- 
posed ;  and,  when  Pope  Stephen  III  was  hard 
pressed  by  the  Lombards  under  Aistulf  in 
754,  he  came  to  France  to  solicit  help  from 
Pepin  The  latter  led  his  army  into  Italy, 
compelled  Aistulf  to  become  his  vassal,  and 
gave  the  pope  the  title  of  exarch  of  Ravenna, 
thus  first  establishing  the  temporal  sover- 
eignty of  the  Holy  See.  He  died  in  768,  and 


PEPPER 


1451 


PERFECTIONISTS 


his  two  sons,  Carloman  and  Charlemagne, 
divided  his  territories  between  them. 

Pep'per,  William,  an  American  physi- 
cian, educator,  author  and  benefactor,  was 
born  at  Philadelphia,  Aug.  21,  1843,  and  ed- 
ucated at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
(q.  v.) ,  from  which  he  took  both  his  classical 
and  his  medical  diploma.  He  was  elected 
provost  of  the  university  in  1881;  and  dur- 
ing his  incumbency  of  13  years  it  became  a 
new  institution,  one  of  the  foremost  in  the 
Union.  So  great  was  his  devotion  to  the 
university,  that  he  not  only  gave  his  services 
free  but  contributed  many  thousands  of  dol- 
lars out  of  his  own  private  fortune  toward 
its  various  endowments.  He  died  on  July 
28,  1898. 

Pep' sin,  a  substance  contained  in  the  gas- 
tric juice  and  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
stomach,  to  which  the  gastric  juice  largely 
owes  its  power  of  dissolving  the  contents  of 
the  stomach  and  converting  them  into 
chyme.  Various  plans  have  been  devised 
for  extracting  pepsin  from  the  stomachs  of 
calves,  pigs  and  other  animals;  but  it  has 
never  yet  been  obtained  in  its  purity,  and 
its  chemical  constitution  is  unknown.  Pep- 
sin has  been  used  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  medical  practice  in  cases  of  weak  or  dis- 
ordered digestion ;  and  it  is  an  ingredient  in 
most  of  the  digestive  preparations  now  in 
the  market. 

Pepys  (pep' is,  peps  or  pips),  Samuel,  a 
notable  English  diarist,  born  in  1683,  died 
in  1703.  His  famous  Diary  deals  with  the 
era  of  the  Restoration,  and  is  replete  with 
minute  and  curious  facts  concerning  the 
times  in  which  its  author  lived.  The  Diary 
was  written  in  cipher,  and  was  not  discovered 
and  published  until  1825. 

Pequots  (pe'kwots^  or  Pe'quods,  a  tribe 
of  North  American  Indians,  a  branch  of  the 
Mohicans,  who  inhabited  the  country 
around  Thames  River  when  Connecticut 
was  first  settled  by  the  English.  It  is  sup- 
posed they  branched  off  from  the  Hudson 
River  Mohicans  at  the  beginning  of  the 
1 7th  century.  They  soon  conquered  most 
of  the  tribes  in  Connecticut,  and  made 
treaties  with  the  Dutch  and  English.  But 
afterwards  becoming  hostile,  an  expedition 
was  sent  against  them  fror-  Hartford  in 
1637.  A  Pequot  fort  near  the  present  town 
of  Groton  was  attacked  and  fired,  and  hun- 
dreds perished.  The  war  continued  until 
the  tribe  was  nearly  annihilated  at  Fair- 
field  Swamp.  The  remnant  was  either  sold 
as  slaves  or  scattered  among  the  neighbor- 
ing tribes,  but  a  small  number  were  after- 
ward gathered  into  bands  in  Ledyard  and 
North  Stonington.  Even  now  a  few  de- 
scendants of  the  Pequods  live  at  Green 
Bay.  Wis. 

Perch,  a  fresh-water  fish  generally  dis- 
tributed in  Europe,  the  eastern  United 
States  and  northern  Asia  There  are  about 
one  hundred  species.  The  common  yellow 


perch  is  the  type  of  those  of  moderate  size, 
fhe  American  form  is  dark  olive-green 
above,  with  golden-yellow  sides  crossed  by 
six  or  eight  dark  bars;  the  lower  fins  are 
orange  and  the  upper  ones  dark  green.  A 
few  larger  fishes,  called  pike-perches,  also  be- 


PERCH 

long  to  the  family.  The  wall-eyed  pike  is 
a  perch,  not  a  pike.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
important  food-fishes  of  the  lake's  region, 
and  is  abundant  in  Saginaw  Bay.  It  at- 
tains a  length  of  three  feet  and  a  weight  of 
ten  to  30  pounds.  In  contrast  with  these 
large  perch  the  family  includes  a  number 
of  darters  too  small  to  be  of  use  as  food. 

Percy,  a  distinguished  English  family, 
descended  from  William  de  Percy,  who  ac- 
companied William  the  Conqueror  to  Eng- 
land, in  1066  and  received  large  grants  of 
land.  See  Shaksper^'s  Henry  IV  and 
Henry  V  for  Hotspur  or  Henry  Percy. 
See,  also,  OTTERBURN,  BATTLE  OP. 

Peren'nial  Plants,  those  which  live 
from  year  to  year,  either  by  the  persistence 
of  their  stems,  as  in  the  case  of  shrubs  and 
trees,  or  by  the  persistence  of  underground 
parts.  The  actual  duration  of  such  plants 
is  exceedingly  variable,  the  term  simply 
meaning  that  they  do  not  disappear  en- 
tirely within  one  or  two  years.  They  may 
endure  a  few  years  or  hundreds  of  years. 
See  DURATION. 

Perfec'tionists,  also  called  Communists 
and  Free-Lovers,  a  small  American  sect 
founded  by  John  Humphrey  Noyes,  who 
was  born  at  Brattleboro,  Vt.,  Sept.  6,  1811. 
Noyes  practiced  law  a  number  of  years  and 
then  became  a  Congregational  preacher. 
Experiencing  a  second  conversion,  he 
claimed  that  the  prevailing  theology  is  all 
wrong  and  separated  himself  from  tho 
Congregational  church.  He  held  that  th« 
gospel,  if  accepted,  secured  entire  freedom 
from  sin;  that  God  has  a  dual  being  (male 
and  female);  that  the  author  of  evil  is  un- 
created but  is  not  God;  and  that  commun- 
ion with  Christ  saves,  not  from  sinning  only, 
but  from  disease  and  death.  He  and  his 
converts  formed  a  Perfectionist  church  or 
community  at  Putney,  Vt.,  afterward  mov- 
ing to  Oneida,  N.  Y.  Men  and  women  put 
their  property  into  a  common  stock;  they 
gave  up  formal  prayer,  religious  service  and 
observance  of  the  Sabbath;  those  who  were 
married  renounced  their  marriage  ties. 


PERFUMERY 


1452 


PERICLES 


and  a  "complex  marriage"  was  established 
between  all  the  males  and  all  the  females  of 
the  "family."  In  1880  the  pressure  of  out- 
side influence  caused  the  communitiy  to 
change  their  mode  of  life  in  many  respects. 
Marriage  and  the  ordinary  family  rela- 
tionship were  introduced;  communism  of 
property  gave  place  to  a  joint-stock  com- 
pany organization;  and  various  co-opera- 
tive institutions  were  established.  Noyes, 
who  assisted  in  making  these  changes,  died 
on  April  13,  1886. 

Perfum'ery  or  Per'fumes,  the  delicate 
smells  arising  from  certain  odoriferous 
bodies.  Perfumes  are  of  two  distinct  classes : 
those  derived  from  plants  and  those  of 
animal  origin.  Of  vegetable  perfumes  the 
most  ancient  are  those  gum-resins  which 
exude  naturally  from  trees  and  plants  or 
from  wounds  inflicted  to  increase  the  yield. 
Among  the  most  important  gum-resins  are 
myrrh,  benzoin  and  camphor.  Gum-resins 
form  the  chief  ingredients  in  incense  and 
pastilles. 

A  second  group  of  vegetable  perfumes 
are  those  procured  by  distillation.  These 
were  formerly  termed  quintessences,  but 
are  now  called  ottos  (from  Turkish  attar), 
the  attar  or  otto  of  the  rose.  The  process  of 
distillation  is  a  simple  one.  The  fragrant 
part  of  the  plant  is  put  into  the  still  and 
covered  with  water.  When  the  water  boils, 
the  ottos  arise  with  the  steam,  from  which 
they  are  separated  by  decanting.  One  hun- 
dred pounds  of  orange  or  lemon  peel  will 
yield  about  ten  ounces  of  the  fragrant  oil; 
100  of  nutmeg  60  to  70  ounces  of  oil  of  nut- 
meg; other  substances  in  various  propor- 
tions. 

But,  as  many  flowers  do  not  yield  their 
essential  oil  by  distillation,  two  other  pro- 
cesses have  been  devised  for  obtaining  it : 
enfleurage  and  maceration.  In  the  former 
process  square  boxes  with  glass  bottoms 
are  piovided,  upon  which  is  spread  a  mixture 
of  lard  and  suet,  melted  and  clarified. 
Fresh  flowers  are  spread  every  morning  upon 
this  grease,  the  box  being  kept  closed  until 
the  grease  absorbs  their  odor.  When  the 
grease  has  been  enflowered,  that  is,  saturated 
with  scent,  the  process  generally  lasting 
three  weeks  or  more,  it  is  again  melted  and 
strained  into  canisters,  and  then  is  ready  for 
use.  Perfumes  are  also  obtained  from 
flowers  by  maceration,  that  is,  by  placing 
them  in  oil  or  melted  fat  for  several  hours 
and  continuing  the  process  with  new  flowers 
until  the  oil  or  fat  becomes  fragrant  with 
their  odor.  The  best-perfumed  grease  is 
obtained  from  some  flowers  by  enfleurage 
and  from  others  by  maceration,  while 
others  will  produce  the  most  satisfactory 
results  by  both  processes  —  enfleurage  fol- 
lowed by  maceration. 

Some  extent  of  the  industry  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  average  weight  of  certain 
flowers  grown  in  the  south  of  France; 


Orange  blossoms,  5,500,000  pounds;  roses, 
4,400,000  pounds:  violets,  330,000  pounds; 
jasmine,  440.000  pounds;  and  an  equal 
quantity  of  cassia  and  tuberoses..  Europe 
and  British  India  alone  consume  about 
150,000  gallons  of  handkerchief  perfumes 
yearly.  The  English  revenue  from  French 
eau  de  cologne  is  $40,000  a  year  and  from 
other  imported  perfumes  $200,000. 

The  principal  perfumes  of  animal  origin 
are  musk,  civet,  ambergris  and  castor,  of 
which  musk  is  most  highly  prized.  The 
aroma  of  musk  imparts  odor  to  every  body 
or  thing  with  which  it  comes  in  contact. 
Its  power  to  impart  odor  is  so  great,  that 
polished  steel  will  become  fragrant  with  it, 
if  they  are  both  placed  in  a  closed  box  for 
a  sufficient  length  of  time.  In  the  manu- 
facture of  perfumery,  tincture  of  musk  is 
mixed  with  other  odorous  bodies  to  render 
the  scent  more  permanent.  See  Rose  In- 
dustry of  Bulgaria,  Piesse's  Art  of  Per- 
fumery and  Atkinson's  Perfumes  and  their 
Preparation. 

Peri  (pe'ri},  according  to  the  mystical 
lore  of  the  east  the  child  of  fallen  spirits, 
which  spends  its  life  in  all  imaginable  de- 
lights but  is  forever  excluded  from  the  joys 
of  paradise.  It  occupies  an  intermediate 
place  between  angels  and  demons,  and  is 
either  male  or  female.  Like  the  fairies  in 
our  own  popular  mythology  the  female 
peris  possess  surpassing  grace  and  beauty. 
The  houri  is  a  nymph  of  the  Muslim  para- 
dise. 

Per'ianth,  the  general  name  of  the  floral 
leaves  of  a  flower,  including  both  calyx  and 
corolla.  It  is  more  especially  used  in  case 
the  calyx  and  corolla  are  similar  in  appear- 
ance, as  in  the  lily. 

Per'iblem  (in  plants).  At  the  apex  of  the 
stem  or  root  of  the  higher  plants  the  great 
regions  are  first  organized  in  an  embryonic 
form.  The  embryonic  region  which  organ- 
izes the  cortex  (which  see)  is  the  periblem. 
and  it  lies  just  within  the  dermatogen  (q.v.), 
which  is  the  embryonic  epidermis. 

Per'icarp  (in  plants),  a  name  chiefly  used 
in  connection  with  the  fruit  of  seed-plants 
(Spermatophytes)  and  applied  to  the  trans- 
formed ovary,  which  invests  the  seeds  as  a 
variously  modified  outer  wall.  A  pea-pod, 
exclusive  of  the  peas,  is  the  pericarp.  In 
apples  it  is  the  parchment-like  investment 
of  the  core;  while  in  the  peach  the  pericarp 
includes  both  the  flesh  and  the  stone,  the 
kernel  being  the  inclosed  seed. 

Pericles  (per'i-klez),  the  greatest  states- 
man of  Greece,  was  born  in  the  closing  years 
of  the  5th  century  B.  C.  He  received  a 
thorough  and  extensive  education,  but  of 
all  his  teachers  the  one  whom  he  always 
held  in  the  highest  regard  was  Anaxagoras, 
the  humane  philosopher.  Pericles  was  noted 
throughout  his  public  career  for  quiet  dignity 
of  manner,  grandeur  of  eloquence,  sagacity, 
honesty  and  profound  patriotism.  When 


PERIGYNOUS 


1453 


PERISTOME 


he  entered  public  life,  although  his  family 
did  not  rank  among  the  highest  in  wealth 
or  influence,  so  great  was  his  ability,  so 
noble  his  character,  that  he  soon  rose  to 
the  highest  power  as  leader  of  the  popular 
party.  Pericles  seems  to  have  clearly 
grasped  and  firmly  held  the  modern  idea 
that,  as  the  state  is  supported  by  the  great 
body  of  citizens,  its  laws  should  be  so 
framed  and  administered  as  to  secure  the 
greatest  good  to  the  greatest  number, 
rather  than  to  promote  the  interests  of 
any  special  class  or  classes.  About  463 

B.  C.  Pericles  struck  a  great  blow  at  the 
Athenian    oligarchy    by    the    introduction 
of    a    system  whereby   the    poorer    classes 
could  serve  on  juries  and  take  a  more  active 
part    in    public    life.      Shortly    after    this, 
Cimon,    the   leader   of   the    oligarchy,    was 
banished.       By  sheer  force  of  talents  and 
character  Pericles  became  ruler.     In  45 7  B. 

C.  he  magnanimously  proposed  the  recall  of 
Cimon,  with  the  agreement  between  them, 
it    is    said,    that    Cimon    should    command 
the    army    on    its    expedition    abroad    and 
not    oppose    Pericles   in    administration   at 
home. 

Pericles  earnestly  sought  to  unite  the 
Hellenic  states  in  a  grand  federation,  to  end 
their  domestic  difficulties  and  make  Greece 
a  powerful  nation,  able  to  defend  itself 
against  all  the  powers  by  which  it  was  sur- 
rounded. Had  the  idea  of  Pericles  been 
carried  out,  Athens  in  later  years  might 
have  proved  herself  more  than  a  match  for 
Philip  and  Alexander  of  Macedon,  and 
possibly  might  even  have  resisted  Rome. 
But  there  already  was'  that  smothered 
hostility  between  Athens  and  Sparta  that 
rendered  the  Peloponnesian  War  inevitable. 
Pericles  warded  off  this  conflict  by  diplp- 
macv  and  bribery;  but  it  came  at  last  in 
431  B.  C.  The  plague  ravaged  Athens  next 
year,  and  in  429  B.  C.  Pericles  died  after 
a  lingering  fever.  It  is  well-nigh  impossible 
to  relate  all  that  Pericles  did  to  make 
Athens  the  most  glorious  city  in  the  ancient 
world.  Under  his  patronage  Greek  archi- 
tecture and  sculpture  reached  their  highest 
development.  To  him  Athens  owed  the 
Parthenon,  the  Odeum  and  the  Pro- 
pylaeum,  that  most  stupendous  of  all  archi- 
tectural constructions  of  Greece.  He  also 
encouraged  music  and  the  drama;  and 
during  his  rule  industry  and  commerce  were 
in  so  flourishing  a  condition  that  there  was 
universal  prosperity  in  Attica.  Although 
he  had  many  enemies  who  denounced  him 
for  the  expenditure  of  so  much  public  money 
upon  buildings  and  amusements,  the  truth- 
ful pen  of  Thucydides  records  that  he  did  not 
act  unworthily  of  his  high  position,  that 
he  never  oppressed  or  persecuted  his  ad- 
versaries and  that,  although  he  had  un- 
limited command  of  the  public  purse,  he 
personally  was  above  corruption.  Plutarch 
records  that,  when  Pericles  lay  dying  and 


the  friends  around  his  bed  were  reviewing 
the  grand  achievements  of  his  life,  he 
quietly  interrupted  them  by  saying:  "What 
you  praise  in  my  life  belongs  partly  to  good 
fortune,  and  at  best  is  common  to  me  with 
many  others;  but  the  thing  of  which  I  am 
proudest  is  that  no  Athenian  has  ever  put 
on  mourning  on  account  of  me." 

Perigynous  (pe-rlj'i-nus}  Flowers,  those 
in  which  the  sepals,  petals  and  stamens  are 
borne  on  the  rim  of  a  cup-like  body  which 
rises  around  the  pistil  or  pistils,  as  in  cer- 
tain members  of  the  rose  family.  The  noun 
form  is  perigyny,  and  the  contrasting  terms 
are  hypogyny,  in  which  the  other  floral  parts 
arise  from  beneath  the  ovary,  and  epigyny, 
in  which  they  seem  to  arise  from  the  sum- 
mit of  the  ovary. 

Perip'atus,  an  interesting  animal  con- 
necting worms  and  insects.  About  20 
species  are  known,  inhab- 
iting South  Africa,  Austra- 
lia, New  Zealand,  South 
America  and  the  West  In- 
dies. They  have  a  long 
body  like  a  worm  or  cater- 
pillar, but  the  segments  or 
joints  do  not  show  on  the 
outside.  Internally,  how- 
ever, they  are  well-marked. 
There  is  no  division  into 
thorax  and  abdomen.  The 
head  bears  antenna?  and 
jaws.  The  body  is  provided 
with  short,  jointed  feet 
(14  to  42  pairs),  like  a 
thousand -legged  worm. 
Like  the  myriapods,  they 
are  found  under  stones  and 
in  rotting  wood,  and  feed 
on  insects  and  the  like. 
Their  internal  structure  is 
They  possess  a  pair  of  looped 
tubes  in  each  segment  ot  the  body,  like 
those  of  worms,  and,  in  addition,  have 
breathing  tubes  like  those  of  insects  and 
myriapods.  Structural  peculiarities  of  two 
different  subkingdoms  of  animals  unite  in 
peripatus.  It  is  a  sort  of  generalized  form 
bridging  the  gap  between  worms  and 
myriapods,  and  the  myriapods  connect 
with  the  lowest  insects.  Peripatus  is  of 
much  interest  to  zoologists  as  a  survivor 
of  a  very  ancient  family  of  animals  and  as  a 
link  between  the  worms  and  arthropods. 

Per'isperm,  the  nutritive  tissue  which 
occurs  in  seeds  outside  of  the  embryo-sac. 
Within  the  embryo-sac  the  nutritive  tissue 
is  called  endosperm.  Perisperm  is  derived 
from  the  nucellus  of  the  ovule,  while  endo- 
sperm is  a  part  of  the  female  gametophyte. 
In  most  seeds  perisperm  does  not  exist,  all 
the  nutritive  tissue  being  endosperm. 

Per'istome  (in  plants),  the  set  of  tooth- 
like  processes  found  at  the  open  mouth  of 
the  capsules  of  mosses.  They  arise  from 
the  rim  and  extend  radially  toward  the 


PERIPATUS 

noteworthy. 


PERKIN 


1454 


PERSEPOLIS 


center,  and  are  of  various  and  often  beauti- 
ful patterns.     See  MOSSES  and  Musci. 
Per'kin,  Sir  Wm.  Henry,  LL.  D.,  Ph.  D., 

F.  R.  S.,  eminent  English  chemist,  the  dis- 
coverer of  the  first  aniline  color  and  founder 
of  the  coal-tar  color  industry,  the  jubilee 
of  which  was  celebrated  in  1906,  when 
distinguished  scientists  from  all  over  the 
world  came  to  England  to  do  Sir  William 
honor.  Born  in  London  in  1838,  he  was 
educated  at  the  City  of  London  School  and 
for  a  time  studied  chemistry  under  Dr.  A. 
W.  Hofmann  at  the  Royal  College  of  Chem- 
istry. In  1856,  while  pursuing  his  own 
researches,  he  was  led  to  discover  aniline 
purple  or  mauve,  a  discovery  which  founded 
the  industry  of  the  coal-tar  colors.  His 
name  is  also  connected  with  other  impor- 
tant discoveries,  for  which  he  has  been 
made  the  recipient  of  many  honors.  Among 
the  medals  he  held  was  one  awarded  by  the 
American  Chemical  Society,  on  the  occasion 
of  his  visit  to  the  United  States  in  1906. 
The  influence  of  the  great  chemist's  discovery 
on  the  coal-tar  industry  has  been  great,  for 
to-day  no  less  than  700  coloring  matters 
are  derived  from  coal-tar  products.  He 
died  on  July  14,  1907. 

Per'nambu'co,  a  state  of  northeastern 
Brazil,  has  an  area  of  nearly  50,000  square 
miles,  and  is  fertile  and  thickly  populated 
on  the  coast,  though  somewhat  barren  and 
mountainous  inland.  Pernambuco  produces 
great  quantities  of  sugar  and  a  good  deal 
of  coffee,  cotton,  tobacco  and  maize.  Cattle 
and  horses  are  raised  on  the  plateaus  of  the 
interior.  The  capital  is  Pernambuco  or 
Recife,  a  town  of  nearly  200,000  people. 
This  is  a  great  trading-port,  owing  to  its 
nearness  to  Europe,  and  that  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  the  harbor  is  not  navigable 
by  the  largest  vessels.  Pernambuco  ranks 
third  among  the  cities  of  Brazil  (q.  v.). 

Perpet'ual  Motion,  stated  in  modern  terms, 
is  a  name  given  to  the  problem  of  creating 
energy.  Lavoisier  proved  the  impossibility 
of  creating  or  annihilating  even  the  most 
minute  portion  of  matter.  In  like  manner 
all  modern  physical  investigations  have 
shown  the  impossibility  of  creating  or  anni- 
hilating energy.  Since  no  mechanism  is 
known  which  does  not  absorb  some  energy 
in  friction,  it  is  evident  that  if  we  are  to 
keep  any  mechanism  in  motion  we  must 
constantly  supply  it  with  energy.  This 
great  generalization  may  be  said  to  date 
from  1847,  when  Helmholtz  published  his 
great  memoir  on  the  Conservation  of  Energy. 
But  long  before  that  time  it  was  well-known 
to  clear  thinkers  that  the  law  of  the  con- 
servation of  energy  applies  to  all  purely 
mechanical  operations.  Accordingly  in  1775 
the  French  Academy  declared  that  it  would 
not  thereafter  receive  any  communications 
upon  the  subject  of  perpetual  motion.  This 
latter  date  may,  therefore,  be  considered  as 
marking  the  complete  overthrow  of  the  idea 


that  motion  can  be  secured  in  any  actual 
mechanical  device  without  a  constant  supply 
of  energy;  and  1847  may  be  considered  as 
marking  the  overthrow  of  the  idea  that 
perpetual  motion  can  be  secured  by  any 
means  whatever,  mechanical,  electrical,  ther- 
mal or  other.  See  DYNAMICS  and  ENERGY. 
Per' rault  (p&'ro'},  Charles,  a  French 
author,  was  born  at  Paris,  Jan.  12,  1628, 
the  youngest  of  an  advocate's  four  sons. 
He  was  sent  at  nine  years  of  age  to  the 
College  of  Beauvois,  but  quarreled  with  his 
teachers,  and  the  rest  of  his  education  was 
left  to  himself.  He  studied  law  and  was 
admitted  to  practice,  but,  soon  tiring  of  the 
routine  of  the  legal  profession,  he  procured 
an  easy  post  under  his  brother,  the  receiver- 
general  of  Paris.  Perrault's  name  has  been 
made  immortal  by  eighteen  fairy-tales,  pub- 
lished in  1697.  The  titles  include  The  Sleep- 
ing Beauty,  Little  Red  Riding-Hood,  Blue- 
beard, Puss  in  Boots,  The  Fairy,  Cinderella, 
Hop  o'  My  Thumb  and  others  dear  to  child- 
hood. Perrault  died  at  Paris,  May  16,  1703. 
Per'ry,  Oliver  Hazard,  an  American  naval 
officer,  was  born  at  South  Kingston,  R.  I., 
Aug.  23,  1785.  He 
entered  the  United 
States  navy  in 
1809,  and  at  the 
beginning  of  the 
War  of  1812  was 
transferred  at  his 
own  request  from 
the  command  of  a 
division  of  gun- 
boats on  the  At- 
lantic coast  t  . 
serve  under  Com- 
modore Chauncey 
on  Lakes  Erie  and 
Ontario.  He  par- 
ticipated in  the 
COMMODORE  o.  H.  PERRY  attack  upon  Fort 


George  at  the 
seamen,  but  his 
victory  he  won 


head     of     a     body     of 
fame    rests    upon    the 

over  the  British  squadron  on  Lake  Erie, 
near  Put-in-Bay,  O.,  Sept.  10,  1813.  In 
this  action,  known  as  Perry's  Victory,  the 
Americans  were  completely  victorious,  the 
result  being  fitly  told  in  Perry's  dispatch 
to  the  government :  "  We  have  met  the 
enemy,  and  they  are  ours."  He  was  re- 
warded with  the  rank  of  captain  and  a 
vote  of  thanks  by  Congress.  He  contimied 
in  the  naval  service  throughout  this  war 
and  for  several  years  thereafter  until  his 
death,  which  took  place  at  Port  Spain,  on 
the  island  of  Trinidad,  Aug.  23,  1919. 

Persepolis  (per-sep' d-tts)  (Persia  City), 
the  Greek  name  for  the  capital  of  ancient 
Persia,  the  Persian  name  having  been  lost. 
This  city  was  situated  in  a  beautiful  plain 
near  the  junction  of  the  Araxes  (Bondomir) 
and  the  Medus  (Polwar)  River.  Nothing 
remains  of  the  city  at  the  present  day 


PERSEUS 


*455 


PERSIA 


except  its  magnificent  ruins.  It  was  gen- 
erally designated  The  Glory  of  the  East, 
and,  according  to  ancient  writers,  "no  other 
city  could  be  compared  with  it  either  in 
beauty  or  in  wealth."  It  was  nearly  or 
wholly  destroyed  by  Alexander  the  Great 
in  his  conquest  of  Persia,  and  is  scarcely 
mentioned  in  history  afterward. 

Perseus  (per'sS-us),  in  Greek  mythology 
the  son  of  Zeus  and  Danae.  He  was  brought 
up  on  one  of  the  Cyclades,  where  Polydectes 
reigned,  who,  wishing  to  get  rid  of  him, 
sent  him  when  yet  a  youth  *o  bnng  the 
head  of  Medusa  the  Gorgon.  Perseus  set 
forth  under  the  protection  of  Athene"  and 
Hermes,  the  former  of  whom  gave  him  a 
mirror  by  which  he  could  see  the  monster 
without  looking  at  her  (for  that  would  have 
changed  him  into  stone),  and  the  latter  a 
sickle,  while  the  nymphs  provided  him  with 
winged  sandals  and  a  helmet  of  Hades  or 
invisible  cap.  After  numerous  wonderful 
adventures  he  reached  the  abode  of  Medusa, 
who  dwelt  near  Tartessus  on  the  coast  of 
the  ocean,  and  succeeded  in  cutting  off  her 
head,  which  he  put  into  a  bag  a^d  carried 
off.  On  his  return  he  visited  Eth'opia,  where 
he  liberated  and  married  the  beautiful  An- 
dromeda, who  had  been  fastened  to  a  rock 
and  left  as  a  prey  to  a  terrible  sea-monster. 
He  then  rescued  his  mother  from  Polydectes, 
whom  he  turned  into  stone  Perseus  was 
worshipped  as  a  hero  in  various  parts  of 
Greece  and,  according  to  Herodotus,  in 
Egypt  too.  In  ancient  works  of  art  the 
figure  of  Perseus  much  resembles  that  of 
Hermes. 

Persia  (pZr'shd'),  called  by  the  natives 
Iran,  the  most  extensive  and  powe.-ful  native 
kingdom  of  western  Asia,  is  bound  sd  on  the 
north  by  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Asiatic 
provinces  of  Russia;  on  the  east  by  Afghan- 
istan and  Baluchistan;  on  the  south  by  the 
Indian  Ocean,  the  Strait  of  Ormuz  and  the 
Persian  Gulf;  and  on  the  west  by  Asiatic 
Turkey.  It  extends  about  900  miles  from 
east  to  west  and  700  from  north  to  south, 
and  has  an  area  of  628,000  square  miles. 
It  consists  for  the  most  part  of  an  elevated 
plateau,  which  in  the  center  and  on  the 
east  is  almost  a  dead  level,  but  on  the  north- 
west and  south  is  covered  with  mountain 
chains. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  exceedingly  va- 
ried. The  younger  Cyrus  is  reported  to  have 
said  to  Xenophon  that  "people  perish  with 
cold  at  one  extremity  of  the  country,  while 
they  are  suffocated  with  heat  at  the  other." 
Persia,  in  fact,  may  be  said  to  possess  three 
climates:  that  of  the  gulf-coast,  that  of 
the  elevated  plateau  and  that  of  the  Caspian 

Srovinces.  Along  the  southern  coast  the 
eat  of  summer  and  autumn  is  severe,  while 
in  winter  and  spring  the  climate  is  delight- 
ful. On  the  plateau  there  are  considerable 
differences  of  climate  and  considerable  varia- 
tion from  heat  to  cold.  About  Ispahan  the 


winters  and  summers  are  equally  mild;  but 
to  the  north  and  northwest  of  this  the 
winters  are  severe;  and  the  desert  region 
of  the  center  and  east  and  the  country  on 
its  border  endure  oppressive  heat  in  summer 
and  piercing  cold  in  winter.  The  Caspian 
provinces  in  the  north,  on  account  of  their 
general  depression  below  the  sea,  are  ex- 
posed to  a  degree  of  heat  in  summer  almost 
equal  to  that  of  the  West  Indies,  and  their 
winters  are  mild.  Rains,  however,  are  fre- 
quent, and  many  tracts  of  low  country  are 
unhealthy.  Except  in  the  Caspian  provinces 
the  atmosphere  is  remarkable  for  dryness 
and  purity. 

Products.  The  cultivated  portions,  when 
supplied  with  moisture,  either  by  rainfall  or 
irrigation,  are  very  fertile.  In  some  places 
two  crops  can  be  raised  in  the  year.  The 
principal  products  are  wheat  (the  best  in 
the  world),  barley,  corn,  sugar  and  rice. 
The  vine  flourishes  in  several  provinces,  and 
the  wines  of  Shiraz  are  celebrated  in  eastern 
poetry.  Opium  and  tobacco  are  among  the 
considerable  exports,  together  with  wool, 
cotton  and  the  fine,  Persian,  hand-made 
carpets.  Pearl-fishing  also  is  a  growing  in- 
dustry, together  with  the  mining  of  tur- 
quoises and  precious  stones.  Mulberries  are 
largely  cultivated,  and  silk  is  one  of  the 
most  important  productions  of  the  country. 
The  cultivation  of  silk  has  greatly  diminished 
of  late  years,  however,  on  account  of  the 
silk-worm  disease.  Among  the  domestic 
animals  the  horse,  ass  and  camel  hold  first 
place.  The  horses  are  larger  and  handsomer 
than  those  of  Arabia,  but  less  fleet.  Salt 
is  the  principal  mineral  product,  although 
copper,  lead,  ai-timonv  and  some  other  min- 
erals abound  in  certain  localities.  Consid- 
erable coal  has  been  mined  in  the  moun- 
tains near  Teheran. 

Transportation.  The  chief  ports  are  on 
the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
the  centers  of  commerce  are  Tabriz,  Teheran 
and  Ispahan.  Persia  has  a  system  of  tele- 
graphs and  the  beginning  of  a  railway 
system. 

People.  The  settled  portion  of  the  popu- 
lation are  chiefly  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Persian  race  with  an  intermixture  of  foreign 
blood.  They  are  Mohammedans  of  the 
Shia'h  sect,  except  the  Sunnis  and  the  9,000 
Parsis  (q.v.),  who  retain  the  ancient  faith  of 
Zoroaster.  The  nomads  or  pastoral  tribes 
are  of  four  distinct  races:  Turks,  Kurds, 
Lurs  and  Arabs.  Of  these  nomad  races  the 
Turkish  is  the  most  numerous,  the  present 
Kajar  dynasty  belonging  to  it.  The  nomad 
races  are  distinguished  for  courage,  manli- 
ness and  independence  of  character;  but 
they  are  inveterate  robbers,  and  have  been 
the  cause  of  many  revolutions  and  civil 
wars.  There  is  a  population  of  70,000  native 
Christians :  the  Nestorians  of  Urumiah  and 
Telmais  and  the  Armenians  whose  principal 
settlement  is  at  Ispahan.  Including  those 


PERSIAN  GULP 


1456 


PERU 


who  have  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  and 
Protestant  churches,  the  whole  number  of 
Christians  can  hardly  exceed  75,000.  Chris- 
tian misions  how  ver,  are  making  steady 
progress.  The  population  iz  estimated  at 
9,500,000.  The  chief  cities  are  Teheran,  the 
capital  (280,000),  Tabriz  (200,000)  and  Is- 
pahan (70,000). 

Government.  The  government  is  a  con- 
stitutional monarchy  with  an  elective  national 
council  and  senate.  The  shah's  deputies,  the 
governors  of  provinces  and  districts,  possess 
considerable  authority  over  those  under  them, 
although  they  themselves  are  accountable  to 
the  central  government  for  their  acts.  The 
revenue  is  derived  almost  exclusively  from  a 
tax  on  the  land  and  its  products,  and  as  a 
natural  result  the  peasantry  are  seriously 
oppressed  by  the  provincial  governors.  It  is 
believed  that,  great  as  are  the  legal  taxes,  the 
illegal  exactions  amount  to  nearly  an  equal 
sum.  In  1905  the  people  demanded  represen- 
tative institutions  and  the  shah  consented  to 
the  establishment  of  a  national  council,  but 
later  tried  to  overthrow  the  constitution  with 
the  help  of  Russian  Cossacks.  The  old  shah 
was  deposed  and  his  son  succeeded  to  the 
throne.  At  present  the  government  is  largely 
controlled  by  Russia  with  a  distinct  British 
sphere  of  influence.  For  the  history  of  ancient 
Persia  see  CYRUS  THE  GREAT,  DARIUS  and 
XERXES.  Consult  Rawlinson's  The  Five  Great 
Monarchies. 

Per'sian  Qulf,  an  arm  of  the  Indian 
Ocean,  Iving  between  Arabia  and  Persia. 
Its  length  is  600  miles,  its  breadth  varying 
from  50  to  250  miles.  The  total  area  is 
about  75,000  square  miles.  The  order  of 
its  periodic  currents  is  precisely  the  reverse 
of  those  of  the  Red  Sea,  as  they  ascend  from 
May  to  October  and  descend  from  October 
to  May.  The  greatest  depth  does  not  exceed 
50  fathoms.  Oriental  geographers  give  this 
gulf  the  name  of  the  Green  Sea,  from  the 
strip  of  water  of  a  greenish  color  lying  along 
the  Arabian  coast. 

Persim'mon  or  Date-Plum,  a  tree  from 
30  to  60  feet  in  height,  which  yields  a  fruit 
about  the  size  of  a  plum,  with  six  to  eight 
oval  seeds.  The  color  of  the  fruit  when 
ripe  is  orange-red  or  reddish-brown.  It  is 
very  astringent  until  over-ripe  and  mel- 
lowed by  frost,  when  it  has  a  sweet  and 
agreeable  taste.  It  is  a  native  of  the  south- 
ern portions  of  North  America,  where  one 
tree  often  yields  several  bushels  of  fruit. 
While  distinctively  a  southern  tree,  it 
grows  as  far  north  as  Long  Island  and  as 
far  west  as  Illinois.  In  the  lower  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  states  the  tree  is  very  common, 
and  is  there  found  at  its  best.  Where  it  has 
space  it  is  a  wide-spreading  tree.  The 
leaves  are  long,  thick,  smooth  and  lustrous, 
dark  green  above  but  lighter  below.  The 
bark  is  very  dark;  the  almost  black  wood 
is  close  grained  and  hard,  and  is  used  for 
shoelasts  and  shutters. 


Perth  Am'boy,  N.  J.,  a  city  and  port  of 
entry  in  Middlesex  County,  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  Raritan  River,  where  it  falls  into 
Raritan  Bay,  at  the  foot  of  Staten  Island 
Sound,  20  miles  south  of  New  York  City. 
It  is  reached  from  the  latter  by  a  number  of 
railroads,  chiefly  the  Central  of  New  Jer- 
sey, the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Lehigh  Val- 
ley. Deposits  of  kaolin  and  fire-clay  are 
found  in  the  city,  and  give  employment 
to  terra-cotta,  drain-tile  and  fire  and  glazed- 
brick  works  etc.  There  also  are  machine- 
shops,  iron  foundries,  cigar  factories,  chemical 
and  cork  works,  oil-refineries,  lead  and  cement 
works,  ship-yards  and  two  silver  and  copper 
refineries,  one  of  which  ranks  as  the  largest  in 
the  world.  The  Lehigh  Valley  Railroad  has 
large  coal  and  freight  wharves  abutting  on  the 
fine  harbor.  Three  other  roads  run  into 
Perth  Am  boy.  There  are  good  schools, 
churches,  banks  and  other  civic  equipments. 
Population,  39,735. 

Perth,  a  city  of  Scotland,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tay,  43  miles  from  Edinburgh 
and  62  from  Glasgow.  The  great  beauty 
of  its  surroundings  —  the  noble  river,  the 
two  wooded  heights,  Moncrieff  and  Kinnoul 
Hills,  each  700  feet  high,  and  away  to  the 
north  the  Grampians  —  makes  The  Fair 
City  well- worthy  the  name.  A  handsome 
bridge  of  nine  arches  connects  the  city  with 
the  suburb  of  Bridgend,  where  Ruskin 
spent  a  portion  of  his  childhood.  Along 
the  Tay  extend  two  beautiful  public  parks, 
each  containing  nearly  100  acres.  Popula- 
tion 35,851- 

Peru',  a  republic  of  South  America,  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Ecuador,  on  the 
east  by  Brazil  and  Bolivia,  on  the  south 
by  Chile  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Pacific.  Its  area  is  not  definitely 
known,  but  is  estimated  at  about  695,733 
square  miles.  The  population,  not  in- 
cluding wild  Indians,  according  to  the 
latest  census  was  4,609,999  the  aboriginal 
Inca  Indians  constituting  more  than  half 
of  this  number.  The  Peruvian  government 
considers  the  total  population  as  under 
3,000,000. 

Surface.  The  length  of  Peru  along  the 
Pacific  is  nearly  1,500  miles  or,  measured 
on  the  coast  of  the  United  States,  as  far 
as  from  Massachusetts  to  the  southern 
point  of  Florida;  its  breadth  at  its  northern 
boundary  is  between  700  and  800  miles, 
but  at  the  southern  one  is  less  than  100 
miles.  The  surface  is  divided  into  three 
distinct  tracts,  the  climate  of  which  varies 
from  torrid  heat  to  arctic  cold,  while  their 
products  range  from  the  stunted  herbage 
of  the  mountain  slopes  to  the  rich  fruits 
of  the  tropical  valleys.  These  three  sepa- 
rate regions  are  the  Coast,  the  Sierra  and 
the  Montana.  The  coast  is  a  strip  30  to  60 
miles  in  width,  extending  from  the  Pacific 
to  the  western  Cordillera.  For  the  mosc 
part  it  is  a  sandy  desert;  but  it  contains 


PERU 


1457 


PERU 


many  fertile  valleys  watered  by  streams 
which  have  their  sources  on  the  mountain 
slopes.  Between  these  valleys  are  trackless 
deserts,  covered  with  a  shifting,  yellow 
sand,  which  is  often  carried  about  by  the 
wind  in  pillars  100  feet  high.  In  this  coastal 
region  rain  is  unknown.  This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  southeast  trade-winds 
of  the  Atlantic,  cooled  by  the  eastern  slopes 
of  the  Andes,  lose  much  of  their  moisture 
in  the  excessive  rainfalls  of  that  region  and 
the  further  fact  that  the  remainder  is  ex- 
hausted in  covering  the  Cordilleras  with 
snow,  after  which  the  winds  fall  cool  and 
dry  upon  the  western  coast.  The  sierra 
embraces  all  the  region  between  the  east- 
ern and  western  Cordilleras  and  the  two 
ranges  of  the  Andes.  This  region  averages 
100  miles  in  width  and  is  estimated  to  con- 
tain an  area  of  150,000  to  200,000  square 
miles.  After  the  table  lands  of  Tibet  those 
of  Peru  and  Bolivia  are  the  highest  in  the 
world.  Unlike  those  of  Tibet,  which  are 
mere  grassy  uplands,  they  are  studded  with 
towns  and  villages;  and  even  at  this  eleva- 
tion the  climate  is  pleasant  and  wheat,  corn, 
barley,  rye  and  potatoes  are  produced. 
The  montana  region  extends  eastward 
from  the  Andes  to  Brazil  and  Bolivia.  It 
embraces  more  than  half  the  area  of  Peru, 
and  consists  of  vast  forests  and  alluvial 
plains,  is  rich  in  all  the  productions  of 
tropical  latitudes,  and  teems  with  vegeta- 
ble and  animal  life.  The  mountain  system 
is  divided  into  three  ranges:  the  western 
Cordilleras,  the  central  Cordilleras  and  the 
Andes.  In  the  western  Cordilleras  are 
found  the  peaks  of  Huascar  22,000  feet; 
Huandoy  21,088  feet;  Hualcan  19,945 
feet;  Sara-Sara  20,000  feet;  Chachain 
19,820  feet;  and  Misti  20,260  feet.  The 
central  Cordilleras  form  the  divide  between 
the  waters  which  flow  to  the  Pacific  and 
those  which  flow  to  the  At1  antic  Ocean. 
Between  this  range  and  the  Andes  on  the 
east  lies  the  great  Peruvian  plateau. 

Rivers  and  Railways.  The  /  three  great 
rivers  of  Peru  are  the  Maranon,  Huallaga 
and  Ucayala.  The  MaranoVi  has  its  source 
in  Lake  Laurichoca  on  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  central  Cordillera  at  an  altitude  of 
14,270  feet.  It  flows  toward  the  north- 
west until  near  the  boundary  of  Peru  and 
Ecuador,  where  it  turns  eastward.  The 
Huallaga  has  a  parallel  course  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Andes  until  it  breaks 
through  that  range  and  joins  the  Maranon. 
The  Ucayali  is  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Andes,  flowing  north  parallel  with  that 
range  for  1.200  miles,  when  it  unites  w'fh 
the  Maranon  to  form  the  Amazon.  TNe 
Amazon  flows  270  miles  in  Peru,  before  -.t 
passes  into  Brazil.  These  three  rivers  have 
numerous  branches,  some  of  them  of  con- 
siderable size.  The  Ucayali  is  navigable  to 
Mayso,  3,637  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Amazon.  Numerous  rivers  flow  into  the 


Pacific,  but  none  is  navigable.  Several 
streams  flow  into  Lake  Titicaca.  This 
lake,  which  extends  into  Bolivia,  is  155 
miles  long  and  the  largest  in  South 
America.  Peru  has  but  1,200  miles  of 
railways.  The  most  important  line  runs 
from  the  port  of  Callao  to  Lima,  thence 
across  the  Rimac  Valley  and  over  the 
mountains  to  Oroya,  crossing  through  a 
tunnel  15,665  feet  above  the  sea.  Another 
line  extends  from  Molenda  on  the  coast, 
324  miles  to  Lake  Titicaca.  The  railway 
from  Oroya  to  Cerro  de  Pasco  is  open.  That 
between  Guaqui  and  La  Paz  has  been  com- 
pleted .  Roads  between  Oroya  and  H  uancayo 
and  between  Sicuani  and  Cuzco  are  building. 
The  railways  in  operation  extend  1,200  miles; 
the  telegraphs  3,740  miles.  Other  short 
lines  extend  from  coast  towns  into  the 
interior.  Between  Cuzco  and  Sicuani  there 
is  a  carriage-road  on  which  steam-traction  is 
used. 

Cities.  The  chief  cities  are  Lima,  the 
capital,  nine  miles  inland  from  the  port  of 
Callao,  population  140,884;  Callao,  the 
principal  port  on  the  Bay  of  Callao  (31,000); 
Arequipa  (35,000);  Cuzco  (10,000);  Aya- 
cucho  (14,346);  Chinca  Alta  (18,000); 
Piura  (15,000);  Janca  (15,000);  Cerro  de 
Pasco  (14,000);  and  Chiclayo  (14,000). 

Resources.  The  mountainous  regions 
abound  in  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  iron 
and  other  minerals,  and  there  are  rich 
placer  deposits  along  certain  rivers.  The 
river  valleys  are  very  fertile,  producing 
sugar,  cotton,  coffee  and  other  products. 
The  plateaus  afford  vast  tracts  of  rich 
pasturage,  while  the  vast  forests  in  the 
east  are  rich  in  rubber  trees  and  a  variety 
of  valuable  woods.  But  the  development 
of  the  rich  resources  has  been  long  delayed 
through  lack  of  transportation  facilities. 
In  the  eastern  or  forest  section  there  are 
navigable  rivers;  and  a  few  railway  lines 
reach  short  distances  inland  from  the 
coast;  but  the  great  plateaus,  the  agricul- 
ture lands  and  the  mountainous  regions, 
rich  in  minerals,  have  not  even  wagon- 
roads  but  only  bridle-paths.  It  takes  one 
day  by  rail,  nine  on  mule-back  and  seven 
on  steamboat,  17  days  in  all,  to  go  from 
Lima,  the  capital,  to  Iquitos  near  the  head 
of  the  Amazon,  a  distance  of  1,224  miles, 
or  less  than  the  distance  from  New  York 
to  Omaha. 

Government.  Peru  is  a  republic,  divided  into 
one  constitutional  province,  two  littoral 
provinces  and  18  departments.  The  pres- 
ident is  elected  for  four  years  and  is  not 
eligible  for  a  second  consecutive  term. 
There  are  two  vice-presidents,  and  a  Con- 
gress consisting  of  a  senate  and  a  chamber 
of  deputies.  The  president,  vice-president, 
senators  and  deputies  are  elected  by  direct 
vote  of  the  electors.  There  are  a  supreme 
court,  nine  superior  courts  and  inferior 
courts,  called  "courts  of  first  instance.". 


PERU 


1458 


PESTALOZZI 


The  manufacturing  interests  are  not  large. 
There  are  cotton  and  woolen  mills,  tobacco 
and  cigar  factories,  rice  and  sugar  mills 
and  numerous  small  factories  of  various 
kinds. 

History.  Peru  was  under  the  dominion 
of  Spain  from  its  conquest  by  Pizarro  in 
the  1 6th  century  until  i8ai,  when  it  was 
proclaimed  an  independent  republic  under 
the  protectorate  of  General  San  Martin, 
one  of  the  liberators  of  Chile.  San  Martin 
retired  on  the  arrival  of  Gen.  Simon  Bolivar 
in  1823,  and  next  year  occurred  the  battle 
of  Ayacucho,  in  which  the  Spanish  viceroy 
was  taken  prisoner  and  Spanish  domination 
finally  ended.  Bolivar  left  Peru  two  years 
later,  but  it  was  not  until  1844  that  the  gov- 
ernment was  fully  settled  under  the  pres- 
idency of  Ramon  Castilla.  In  1879  Peru, 
as  the  ally  of  Bolivia,  became  involved  in 
a  war  with  Chile,  the  latter  state  coveting 
the  nitrate  deposits  in  the  Peruvian  prov- 
ince of  Tarapaca.  This  war  was  disastrous 
to  Peru  both  on  land  and  sea,  the  provinces 
of  Tacna  and  Tarapacd  being  wrested  from 
her,  and  in  1881  the  Chilean  army  entered 
the  capital.  Peace  was  concluded  in  Octo- 
ber, 1883,  and  some  months  afterward  the 
Chileans  evacuated  the  country.  Under 
the  presidency  of  General  Caceres  and  his 
successors,  Peru  has  made  slow  but  certain 
progress  in  repairing  the  wastes  and  losses 
that  she  suffered  during  her  conflict  with 
Chile.  See  BOLIVIA,  ECUADOR  and  CHILE. 

Peru,  Ind.,  city,  county-seat  of  Miami 
County,  on  Wabash  River,  71  miles  north 
of  Indianapolis.  It  is  in  an  agricultural 
section,  and  is  a  trading-point  for  a  large 
region.  The  important  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments are  glass-works,  steel-works, 
confectionery  factories,  bagging,  basket, 
wagon  and  carriage  factories,  woolen  mills 
and  railroad-shops.  The  city  owns  and 
controls  the  waterworks,  and  has  the  ser- 
vice of  three  railroads.  Population  10,910. 

Perugia  (pd-roo'ja),  a  city  of  Italy,  stands 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber,  1,700  feet 
above  the  sea,  ten  miles  east  of  the  lake  of 
Perugia  and  125  miles  by  rail  from  Rome. 
It  is  surrounded  by  walls  pierced  with 
numerous  gates,  of  which  the  Etruscan 
arch  of  Augustus  is  the  finest.  The  univer- 
sity (founded  in  1276)  has  26  teachers  and 
326  students,  a  botanical  garden,  an  obser- 
vatory, a  valuable  antiquarian  museum  and 
a  library  of  40,000  volumes.  Perugia  be- 
came a  part  of  the  kingdom  in  1860,  and 
has  a  population  of  65,818. 

Perugfno  (pd'ro7>-j&n$),  a  celebrated 
Italian  painter,  whose  real  name  was  Pietro 
Vannucci,  was  born  in  Umbria  in  1446,  but, 
as  he  established  himself  in  the  neighbor- 
ing city  of  Perugia,  he  has  generally  been 
given  the  name  of  Perugino.  At  Rome,  to 
which  he  went  in  1483,  Sixtus  IV  employed 
him  in  the  Sistine  Chapel ;  his  fresco  of  Christ 
giving  the  Keys  to  Peter  is  the  best  of  those 


still  visible  —  others  being  destroyed  by 
him  to  make  way  for  Michael  Angelo  s 
Last  Judgment.  He  returned  to  Perugia  in 
1512,  and  painted  a  number  of  pictures 
there.  He  was  painting  frescos  in  a 
church  near  Perugia  in  1524,  when  he  was 
seized  with  the  plague  and  died. 

Pessimism  (pes'sl-mlz'm),  is  the  theory  or 
doctrine  that  on  the  whole  the  world  is  bad 
rather  than  good;  or,  it  might  be  defined  as 
the  negative  answer  to  the  question:  "Is 
life  worth  living?"  Pessimism  in  its  hold 
upon  so  many  minds  may  be  referred  to  the 
contemplation  of  actual  pain  and  unhappi- 
ness  in  the  world  and  to  the  fact  that  the 
actual  world  is  so  far  inferior  to  the  ideals 
of  the  soul  that  we  can  never  be  satisfied 
with  things  as  they  are  or  even  with  the 
progress  mankind  is  making  toward  a 
higher  and  better  condition.  Pessimism  as 
a  mood  or  temper  of  mind  has  existed  in 
all  ages,  but  only  in  recent  times  has  it  been 
elaborated  into  a  complete  philosophy  or 
theory  in  the  systems  of  Schopenhauer  and 
Hartmann,  his  successor.  The  full  force 
of  pessimism  lies  in  the  assertion  that  all 
the  ends  and  aims  of  life  are  illusory,  that 
life  brings  only  illusions,  the  chief  illusion 
of  all  being  man's  belief  that  he  is  born  to 
enjoy  life.  According  to  the  pessimistic 
theory  nothing  of  value  is  ever  attained 
in  this  world,  as  its  very  essence  consists  in 
strife  and  change  and  in  the  case  of  the 
individual  life  there  is  an  excess  of  un- 
happiness  and  pain  over  happiness  and 
pleasure.  To  the  first  statement  it  may 
be  answered  that  it  is  not  rational  to  de- 
spise the  realization  of  certain  ends  because 
there  arise  other  ends  to  be  realized.  It 
is  natural  and  therefore  rational  for  the 
infant  to  enjoy  its  first  walk  across  the  floor, 
even  though  it  has  all  the  lessons  of  life 
yet  to  learn.  The  assertion  that  in  the  in- 
dividual life  there  is  more  pain  than  pleasure 
is  disproved  by  our  consciousness  and  our 
experience.  We  desire  to  live;  therefore 
our  lives  must  be  worth  living,  at  least  to 
ourselves.  But  whatever  errors  may  be 
found  in  pessimism,  it  certainly  involves 
the  truths  that  happiness  is  not  to  be  ob- 
tained by  direct  seeking  and  that  life  can 
be  made  valuable  only  by  losing  sight  of 
self  and  directing  our  thoughts  and  energies 
to  high  and  noble  purposes  outside  ourselves ; 
or,  to  express  the  same  principle  in  scrip- 
tural phrase :  He  that  loseth  his  life  shall 
find  it. 

Pestalozzi  (pts'td-lot'sS),  Johann  Hein- 
rich,  a  Swiss  educational  reformer  and 
founder  of  modern  pedagogy,  was  born  at 
Zurich,  Jan.  12,  1746.  Eager  to  be  an  ad- 
juster of  social  wrongs  from  his  youth,  he 
sought  to  realize  his  aims  through  the  educa- 
tion of  the  young,  and  to  him  belongs  the 
high  honor  of  conceiving  a  method  which 
is  the  corner-stone  of  all  sound  theories  of 
education,  especially  of  primary  education. 


PESTH 


1459 


PETER  THE  GREAT 


Although  he  was  illiterate,  ill-dressed,  a 
poor  speaker  and  a  poor  manager,  and 
although  all  his  undertakings  resulted  in 
practical  failure,  he  aroused  the  admira- 
tion of  Europe  and  called  forth  a  host  of 
disciples,  who  to  the  present  day  have 
carried  out  the  principles  of  their  master 
with  the  greatest  enthusiasm.  Pestalozzi 
was  totally  unable  to  cope  with  the  world, 
but  he  awoke  the  minds  of  men  to  a  sense 
of  their  responsibility  to  childhood  and 
ushered  in  the  iQth  century  as  the  educa- 
tional age  par  excellence.  He  first  sought 
to  carry  out  his  theories  by  collecting  a 
number  of  orphans  and  outcast  children 
upon  a  farm  in  Aargau  to  educate  them  by 
blending  industrial,  mental  and  moral  train- 
ing; but  on  account  of  faulty  domestic 
economy  this  enterprise  failed  and  was 
abandoned  after  a  five  vears'  struggle.  Soon 
after  this  he  published  Evening  Hours  of  a 
Hermit.  In  this  work  he  developed  the 
following  principles  as  the  basis  of  education : 
In  educating  man  seek  first  of  all  to  know 
him.  (2)  The  method  whereby  to  educate 
anyone  should  be  founded  upon  his  own 
nature.  (3)  In  his  nature  are  hidden  the 
forces  that  will  draw  out  his  faculties;  there- 
fore exercise  them.  (4)  It  is  exercise  that 
connects  the  wants  cf  our  nature  with  the 
objects  that  satisfy  those  wants;  everyone's 
education  should  answer  to  his  own  needs 
and  the  inner  call  of  the  soul.  In  later  years 
Pestalozzi  published  How  Gertrude  Educates 
Her  Children,  the  recognized  exposition  of 
Pestalozzian  method.  It  sets  forth  that 
the  education  and  development  of  human 
nature  should  be  in  harmony  with  natural 
laws;  that  in  order  to  teach  well  we  should 
study  the  processes  of  nature  in  man  and  its 
particular  processes  in  individuals;  and  that 
observation,  a  spontaneous  perception  of 
things,  is  the  method  by  which  all  objects 
of  knowledge  are  brought  home  to  us.  This 
affirmation  contains  the  essence  of  the 
whole  theory  of  institutional  education. 
In  1805  Pestalozzi  moved  his  school  from 
Berthond  to  Yverdon  (Ifferten),  which 
drew  upon  him  the  eyes  of  all  Europe;  but 
the  same  incapacity  in  practical  affairs 
that  had  caused  the  failure  of  all  his  other 
schemes  showed  itself  here,  and  in  1825 
this  school  was  closed,  and  Pestalozzi  with- 
drew to  Brugg,  where  he  lived,  an  object  of 
mingled  pity  and  respect,  until  his  death 
on  Feb.  17,  1827. 

Pesth  or,  rather,  Budapest,  is  the  capital 
of  Hungary  and,  next  to  Vienna,  the  second 
city  in  Austria-Hungary.  Pesth  stands  on 
the  left,  Buda  on  the  right,  bank  of  the 
Danube,  170  miles  from  Vienna,  and  since 
1873  *ne  *wo  have  been  one  municipality. 
The  towns  are  connected  by  chain  bridges 
and  a  railway  bridge.  Buda  is  much  the 
older  town,  Pesth  being  an  essentially, 
modern  place  —  the  growth  of  the  igth 
century  principally.  It  has  many  fine  streets 


and  squares,  and  the  buildings  are  noted 
for  their  large  size  and  substantial  appear- 
ance. Among  them  may  be  mentioned  the 
Jewish  synagogue,  the  parish  church,  the 
national  museum  and  the  parliament  house. 
While  Pesth  stands  on  a  plain,  Buda  is  built 
on  small,  steep  hills,  and  is  backed  by  vine- 
clad  slopes.  Population  of  both  towns 
880,371.  See  BUDAPEST. 

Pet'als,  the  individual  parts  of  the  corolla 
or  inner  set  of  floral  leaves.  The  petals  are 
usually  the  showy  members  of  a  flower, 
their  size,  delicacy  of  texture  and  color 
giving  it  its  character.  See  FLOWER. 

Petard  ( pe-tard' ),  an  instrument  for  blow- 
ing open  the  gates  of  a  fortiess  or  demolish- 
ing palisades.  It  consisted  of  an  iron  or 
wooden  case  filled  with  powder  and  ball; 
this  was  firmly  fastened  to  a  plank  pro- 
vided with  hooks,  by  which  it  was  securely 
attached  to  a  gate.  The  petard,  which  was 
lighted  by  a  slow  match,  has  been  super- 
seded by  powder-bags. 

Pe'ter  the  Her'mit,  the  apostle  of  the 
first  crusade  for  the  recovery  of  Jerusalem 
from  the  Mohammedans.was  born  at  Amiens, 
France,  about  1050.  After  serving  as  a 
soldier  he  became  a  monk,  and  is  said 
to  have  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land 
before  1094,  when  he  began  the  preaching 
that  started  so  many  thousands  on  the 
famous  march  to  Jerusalem.  A  portion  of 
the  first  army  was  led  by  Peter  himself, 
but  at  the  siege  of  Antioch  he  attempted  to 
desert,  and,  when  several  miles  on  his  way 
home,  was  brought  back  by  the  soldiers  of 
Tancred  to  receive  a  public  reprimand 
When  Jerulalem  was  taken  by  the  crusaders 
in  1099,  Peter  preached  a  sermon  on  the 
Mount  of  Olives.  At  the  end  of  the  crusade 
he  returned  to  Europe  and  founded  a  monas- 
tery at  Huy  in  Belgium,  where  he  died  on 
July  ii,  1115. 

Peter  the  Great  (Peter  Alexeievitch,  em- 
peror of  Russia),  was  born  at  Moscow,  June 
ii,  1672  His 
father  died  in 
1676,  leaving  the 
kingdom  to  his 
oldest  son,  Feo- 
dor,  Peter's  half- 
brother.  Feodor 
died  in  1682, 
without  issue, 
after  naming 
•  Peter  as  his  suc- 
cessor  to  the 
exclusion  of  Ivan, 
his  own  full 
brother,  who  was 
weak-m  indcd. 

PETER  THE  GREAT  Th{s    h  o  w  e  V  6  r , 

provoked  an  insurrection  of  the  strelzi  or 
militia,  under  the  leadership  of  Ivan's 
sister,  who  thereby  succeeded  in  obtain- 
ing the  coronation  of  Ivan  and  Peter 
as  joint  rulers,  with  herself  as  regent.  Im- 


PETER  II 


X4GO 


PETER,  KING  OF  SERVIA 


mediately  after  his  coronation  Peter  was 
placed  under  the  instruction  of  Francois 
Lefort,  a  native  of  Geneva,  who  taught  him 
the  arts  and  sciences  of  civilization  and 
showed  how  far  Russia  was  behind  other 
European  nations.  In  1689  Peter  called 
upon  his  sister  to  resign  as  regent.  She  re- 
fused, but  after  a  severe  contest  was  com- 
pelled to  yield  and  was  shut  into  a  convent. 
Ivan  abdicated  in  1696.  Peter's  first  care 
in  assuming  the  government  was  to  reor- 
ganize his  army,  in  which  he  was  greatly 
assisted  by  Gordon  and  Lefort,  both  military 
men.  He  also  labored  to  create  a  navy,  and 
to  this  end  invited  skilled  engineers  and 
architects  from  other  countries  to  assist  in 
the  construction  of  his  ships;  and  he  himself 
went  to  sea  on  board  English  and  Dutch 
vessels  that  he  might  acquire  the  art  of 
navigation.  Many  of  the  young  nobility 
were  ordered  to  travel  in  Holland  and  Italy, 
to  take  special  notice  of  all  matters  in  con- 
nection with  shipbuilding  and  naval  equip- 
ment ;  others  were  sent  to  Germany  to  study 
the  military  art.  In  1697  Peter  set  out  on 
his  famous  visit  to  foreign  countries;  and 
for  some  time  worked  as  a  ship-carpenter 
at  Zaandam  in  the  Netherlands;  and  to  his 
knowledge  of  shipbuilding  and  other  trades 
he  added  the  study  of  astronomy,  natural 
philosophy,  geography  and  even  anatomy 
and  surgery.  On  the  invitation  of  William 
III  he  visited  England  and  for  three  months, 
partly  in  London  and  partly  in  Deptford, 
labored  to  acquire  all  kinds  of  useful  infor- 
mation. He  returned  to  Russia  in  1698, 
taking  500  English  engineers,  artisans  etc., 
and  immediately  proceeded  to  the  execution 
of  various  reforms  in  his  government  Among 
others  was  the  introduction  of  arithmetic, 
which  was  unknown  in  Russia  up  to  this 
time,  accounts  having  been  previously 
kept  by  means  of  the  abacus  (q.  v.).  Trade 
with  foreign  countries  was  not  only  per- 
mitted but  insisted  upon.  Many  changes 
in  manners  and  dress  were  prescribed  and 
enforced  and  the  czar's  reforming  zeal  even 
extended  to  the  national  church. 

On  May  27  1703,  Peter  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  St  Petersburg,  the  new  capital  of 
Russia,  although  at  the  time  engaged  in  a 
bitter  war  with  Charles  XII  of  Sweden.  In 
this  long  contest  the  Russians  were  nearly 
always  defeated,  but  at  the  battle  of  Pul- 
towa,  July  8,  1709,  Charles'  forces  were 
completely  routed,  and  Peter  next  year  took 
possession  of  the  Baltic  provinces  and  a 
portion  of  Finland.  In  1712  his  marriage 
with  Catherine,  his  mistress,  was  celebrated 
at  St  Petersburg,  and  all  the  offices  of  the 
central  government  were  transferred  to  the 
new  capital.  In  company  with  the  czarina 
he  made  another  tour  of  Europe  in  1716-7, 
this  time  visiting  Paris  and  carrying  home 
quantities  of  books,  paintings  and  statues. 
Soon  after  this  his  son,  Alexei,  who  had 
opposed  some  of  his  father's  reforms,  was 


condemned  to  death  and  died  in  prison. 
Many  nobles  implicated  in  his  treasonable 
plans  were  punished.  After  concluding 
peace  with  Sweden  in  1721,  Peter  made  war 
upon  Persia  in  order  to  open  the  Caspian 
Sea  to  Russian  commerce,  by  which  he 
secured  three  Caspian  provinces  and  Der- 
bend  and  Baku.  His  last  years  were  chiefly 
employed  in  improving  his  capital  and  car- 
rying out  plans  for  the  diffusion  of  education 
among  his  subjects.  He  died  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, Feb.  8,  1725,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  empress,  under  the  title  of  Catherine  I. 
Consult  Browning's,  Motley's  and  Schuyler's 
lives  of  Peter. 

Peter  II  (of  Russia),  the  sole  male  rep- 
resentative of  Peter  the  Great,  being  the  son 
of  the  unfortunate  Alexei,  was  born  at  St. 
Petersburg,  Oct.  23,  1715.  On  the  death 
of  Catherine  I  he  ascended  the  throne  in 
1727,  but  after  a  reign  of  a  little  over  two 
years,  died  of  the  smallpox,  Jan.  29,  1730. 

Peter  III  ( Feodorovitch,  of  Russia), 
grandson  of  Peter  the  Great,  being  the  son 
of  his  oldest  daughter,  Anna  Petrowna,  was 
born  at  Kiel,  Jan.  29,  1728,  and  in  1742  was 
declared  by  Czarina  Elizabeth  her  successor. 
Peter  succeeded  Elizabeth  on  her  death  in 
1762,  and  his  first  act  of  authority  was  to 
restore  East  Prussia  to  Frederick  the  Great, 
whom  he  greatly  admired,  and  to  send  to 
his  aid  a  force  of  15,000  men.  He  also 
recalled  a  great  many  political  exiles  from 
Siberia.  While  he  was  arranging  a  cam- 
paign to  take  Sleswick  from  Denmark,  soon 
after  his  inauguration  an  insurrection, 
headed  by  his  wife  and  the  principal  nobles, 
broke  out  against  him  in  St.  Petersburg,  a 
conspiracy  which  originated  in  the  discon- 
tent over  his  liberal  policy,  his  preference 
for  the  Germans,  his  indifference  to  the 
national  religion  and  his  servility  to  Fred- 
erick the  Great.  The  result  of  this  con- 
spiracy was  that  Peter  was  declared  to  have 
forfeited  his  crown,  and  was  soon  after 
strangled  in  his  bed  in  1762  by  Orloff  and 
other  conspirators.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  wife  as  Catherine  II. 

Peter,  King  of  Servia,  was  born  at  Bel- 
grade in  1846.  His  grandfather  was  George 
Petrovitch,  known  as  Czerny  George,  who 
led  the  Servians  in  their  struggle  for  in- 
dependence against  the  Turks  and  whose 
son,  Alexander,  was  made  reigning  prince 
in  1842,  but  deposed  by  the  National  As- 
sembly in  1858  and  subsequently  banished. 
Peter  was  put  to  school  in  Hungary,  and 
later  entered  the  French  military  school  of 
St.  Cyr.  He  graduated,  became  an  officer 
in  the  French  army,  and  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  Franco-German  war.  He 
was  captured  three  times  by  the  Germans, 
but  each  time  escaped.  Afterwards  he  for 
years  lived  a  life  of  extravagance  and  dissi- 
pation in  Paris.  Then,  aroused  by  the  trou- 
bles in  the  Balkans,  he  actively  encouraged 
the  rising  of  1875-6  in  Herzegovina  which 


PETER,  ST. 


1461 


PETIOLULE 


culminated  in  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of 
1877-8  and  the  complete  establishment  of 
Servian  independence.  After  a  period  of 
roving  he  went  to  Montenegro  and  in  1883 
married  the  Princess  Zarka,  the  oldest  daugh- 
ter of  Prince  Nicholas.  This  marriage  event- 
ually strved  to  connect  him  both  with  the 
Russian  and  the  Italian  court.  Princess 
Zarka  died  in  1890,  and  Peter  went  to 
Geneva,  Switzerland,  to  put  his  children 
in  school,  where  he  lived  quietly  until  1903. 
On  June  nth,  1903,  the  king  and  queen  of 
Servia  (q.  v.)  were  murdered.  Peter  was 
elected  king  four  days  later.  He  entered 
Belgrade,  after  an  absence  of  forty  years, 
on  June  24th,  and  on  the  following  day  took 
the  oath  of  office  and  assumed  the  regular 
royal  rights  and  duties.  He  received  his 
crown  on  October  gth,  1904. 

Peter,  St.,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles  of 
Jesus,  was  born  at  Bethsaida  on  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  but  during  the  public  ministry  of 
Jesus  had  his  home  at  Capernaum,  where 
he  appears  to  have  lived  with  Andrew,  his 
brother.  His  original  name  was  Simon,  to 
which  Jesus  added  Cephas,  from  the  Syriac 
kepha,  a  rock,  the  Greek  word  being  .petra, 
whence  Peter.  He  was  a  fisherman,  and 
was  engaged  in  his  daily  work  when  Jesus 
called  him  and  Andrew  to  be  disciples, 
promising  to  make  them  "fishers  of  men." 
Peter  undoubtedly  was  regarded  by  Jesus 
with  special  favor  and  affection.  In  many 
respects  he  was  an  ideal  disciple,  warmly 
attached  to  his  Master  and  ardent,  fearless 
and  energetic  in  the  service  of  the  cause  he 
had  espoused.  It  is  not  without  reason, 
therefore,  that  Matthew  heads  his  list  of 
apostles  with  "the  first,  Simon,  which  is 
called  Peter."  This  position  of  leadership 
among  the  apostles  Peter  continued  to  hold. 
Peter  was  the  first  mover  in  the  election  of 
a  new  apostle  in  place  of  Judas  Iscariot;  he 
was  the  spokesman  of  the  other  apostles  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost;  and  when  Ananias 
and  Sapphira  were  brought  before  the  coun- 
cil, he  was  the  judge  who  condemned  them; 
and  he  was  the  first  apostle  to  baptize  a 
Gentile  convert.  Peter  took  an  active  part  in 
the  apostles'  conference  in  Jerusalem,  and 
at  Antioch  he  labored  in  harmony  with  Paul 
for  a  time,  but  afterward  arose  the  famous 
dispute  between  them,  in  which  Paul  says 
"he  [Peter]  was  to  be  blamed  "  for  separating 
himself  from  the  Gentile  converts  and  re- 
fusing longer  to  eat  with  them,  lest  he  might 
offend  certain  Jewish  converts.  But  Peter 
and  Paul  adjusted  their  differences,  and 
Peter's  references  to  Paul  in  his  (Peter's) 
epistles  are  of  the  most  appreciative  kind. 
The  history  of  Peter  from  this  time  rests 
mainly  on  tradition.  It  is  generally  be- 
lieved that  after  remaining  in  Antioch  for 
some  time  —  according  to  Jerome  and  Euse- 
bius  he  was  bishop  there  for  years  —  his 
missionary  labors  extended  to  Pontus,  Cap- 
padocia,  Galatia,  Bithynia  and,  some  have 


thought,  even  to  Babylon.  It  is  now  generally 
conceded  that  he  paid  one  or  more  visits  to 
Rome  and  that  he  suffered  martyrdom  there. 
Tradition  records  that  Peter  was  crucified 
with  his  head  downward,  he  himself  request- 
ing this  as  being  unworthy  to  be  crucified  in 
the  same  position  as  his  Lord.  Sienkiewicz 
makes  him  a  heroic  figure  in  Quo  Vadis. 

Pe'ter' borough,  Can.,  has  a  population 
of  15,000.  It  is  on  Otonabee  River,  which 
furnishes  electrical  energy  for  numerous  fac- 
tories. Its  normal  school,  collegiate  institute 
and  library  are  important  educational  fea- 
tures. It  has  an  extensive  plant  for  the 
manufacture  of  electric  machinery  and  ap- 
pliances and  a  large  cereal-food  establish- 
ment. There  are  summer  resorts  on  the 
nearby  Kawartha  Lakes. 

Pe'ters,  Christian  Henry  Friedrich,  a 
highly-distinguished  American  astronomer, 
was  born  at  Koldenbuttel,  Germany,  Sept. 
19,  1813.  After  completing  his  course  at  the 
University  of  Berlin,  he  traveled  for  several 
years  in  Palestine  and  other  countries  in 
the  east.  He  then  came  to  the  United 
States,  and,  after  serving  in  the  coast  sur- 
vey, was  elected  professor  of  astronomy  at 
Hamilton  College,  New  York,  in  1858.  Pro- 
fessor Peters  took  part  in  the  observation 
of  the  solar  eclipse  of  Aug.  7,  1869,  at  Des 
Moines,  la.,  and  was  at  the  head  of  the  party 
sent  by  the  United  States  government  to 
New  Zealand  to  observe  the  transit  of 
Venus  on  Dec.  9,  1874.  His  party  obtained 
over  200  photographs  of  the  transit,  and  he 
was  able  to  measure  the  apparent  diameter 
of  the  planet,  thus  determining  its  size  more 
nearly  than  had  ever  been  done  before. 
He  died  at  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  July  18,  1890. 

Petersburg,  Va.,  the  third  city  of  Vir- 
ginia, on  the  left  bank  of  Apppmattox  River, 
23  miles  by  rail  south  of  Richmond.  The 
falls  above  the  city  furnish  water-power  for 
foundries,  cotton,  flour  and  paper  mills  and 
tobacco  factories.  The  ten  months'  siege 
of  Petersburg  was  an  important  chapter 
in  Grant's  campaign  against  Richmond  in 
1864  Although  attacked  several  times,  it 
did  not  fall  until  evacuated  by  the  Confeder- 
ates in  the  spring'of  1865.  Population  24.127. 

Pe'terson,  William,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  C.M.G., 
principal  of  McGill  University  at  Montreal 
since  1895,  was  born  in  Edinburg,  May  29, 
1856,  and  educated  at  the  high  school  and 
university  there  and  at  the  universities  of 
Gottingen  and  Oxford.  He  has  been  given 
honorary  degrees  by  the  Universities  of  St. 
Andrews,  New  Brunswick,  Princeton,  Yale, 
Johns  Hopkins  and  Pennsylvania.  In  addi- 
tion to  writing  The  Relation  of  the  English- 
Speaking  Peoples  Dr.  Peterson  has  edited 
many  Latin  works. 

Pet'iole,  the  stalk-like  portion  of  a  leaf,  as 
distinguished  from  the  blade.  Leaves  with- 
out petioles  are  said  to  be  sessile.  See  LEAP. 

Petiolule  (ptt'l-d-liil'),  in  compound  leaves 
the  stalk-like  portion  of  a  leaflet,  as  distin- 


PETRARCH 


1462 


PETROLEUM 


guished  from  the  general  stalk  or  petiole  of 
the  whole  leaf. 

Petrarch   (pe'trdrk),   Frances'co,   one  of 

the  earliest  and  greatest  of  modern  lyric 
poets,  was  born  at  Arezzo,  Italy,  July  20, 
1304,  his  parents  being  exiled  from  Florence 
at  the  time.  The  poet's  infancy  was  passed 
in  Tuscany  until  1312,  when  his  father  de- 
termined to  go  to  Avignon,  whither  the 
papal  court  had  been  transferred.  There 
his  studies  began,  and  were  continued  later 
at  Montpellier  and  Bologna.  After  his 
father's  death  Petrarch  returned  to  Avig- 
non. Having  lost  a  large  portion  of  his 
patrimony,  he  qualified  for  ecclesiastical  pre- 
ferment, but  never  took  holy  orders.  It 
was  in  this  early  period  that  he  first  saw 
Laura,  whose  name  he  has  immortalized  in 
his  lyrics,  and  who  inspired  him  with  a  pas- 
sion which,  although  unrequited,  has  become 
proverbial  for  its  constancy  and  purity.  The 
fame  of  Petrarch's  learning  aud  genius  was 
such  that  he  received  the  highest  considera- 
tion from  rulers  and  learned  men;  but  the 
most  glorious  day  of  his  life  was  when  he 
was  crowned  poet-laureate  by  the  senate  of 
Rome  on  Easter  Sunday  of  1341.  He  died 
on  July  18,  1374.  See  Henry  Reeve's  little 
book  on  Petrarch. 

Pet'rel,  the  name  for  small  sea-birds  often 
seen  flying  over  the  ocean,  the  smallest  of 
the  web-footed  birds. 
By  the  sailors  they 
are  commonly  called 
Mother  Carey's  chick- 
ens. There  are  two 
kinds  in  the  North 
Atlantic:  Wilson's 
petrel  and  Leach's. 
The  former  nests  in 
the  southern  hemis- 
phere in  February, 
and  comes  north  m 
May.  It  is  the  form 
most  frequently  seen 
in  crossing  the  Atlan- 
tic. They  follow  the 
ship  for  food  thrown  overboard.  Leach's 
petrel  nests  on  our  coast  from  Maine  north- 
ward, the  nest  a  burrow  under  rock  or  in 
the  ground,  one  white  egg  therein.  Both 
these  birds  are  small,  being  about  seven  and 
one  half  inches  long.  They  are  black  with 
a  white  spot  on  the  upper  side  at  the  base 
of  the  tail.  Petrels  number  about  seventy 
species.  Several  inhabit  the  southern  seas, 
and  the  group  includes  the  giant  fulmar, 
about  the  size  of  one  of  the  smaller  alba- 
trosses. The  name  petrel  is  a  diminutive 
of  Peter,  and  refers  to  the  appearance  they 
present  of  walking  on  the  water. 

Pe'trie,  William  M.  F.,  an  English  au- 
thor and  explorer,  was  born  at  Charlton, 
England,  June  3,  1853.  Having  been  edu- 
cated privately,  he  early  devoted  himself 
to  a  study  of  ancient  British  earthworks, 
but  in  1880  turned  his  attention  to  the  Nile 


PETREL 


valley,  where  he  has  been  practically  ever 
since,  although  holding  a  professorship  in 
University  College,  London,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Egyptology.  He  discovered  the 
Greek  settlements  at  Naukratis  and  Daphnas; 
the  prehistoric  Egyptian  settlement  at 
Koptos;  and  the  home  of  a  new  race  at 
Nagada.  He  published  an  inscription  of 
the  Israelite  war  at  Thebes.  During  the 
years  he  has  been  in  Egypt  he  has  pub- 
lished many  volumes  upon  the  life  and  history 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Perhaps  that 
which  attracted  the  most  attention  was  the 
report  of  his  work  at  Tel-el-Amarna,  a 
modern  Arab  village  on  the.  eastern  side 
of  the  Nile,  midway  between  ancient 
Thebes  and  Memphis,  where  Amenophis 
IV,  the  "heretic"  king,  built  his  royal  resi- 
dence about  1500  B.  C.  A  great  many 
tablets  in  cuneiform  characters  were  found, 
which  are  in  the  museums  of  London,  Ber- 
lin and  Cairo.  These  contain  many  names 
known  to  Bible  students. 

Petrograd.     See  ST.  PETERSBURG. 

Petro'leum,  a  fluid  bitumen  (q.  v.},  also 
known  as  mineral  oil,  rock-oil  etc.  In  nature 
it  occurs  principally  m  the  pores  of  porous 
rock.  It  is  extracted  from  the  rock  through 


OUTBURST  OF  PETROLEUM  FROM  WELL 

wells,  the  same  as  water.  The  origin  of  petro- 
leum has  been  much  discussed,  and  the 
general  belief  is  that  it  represents  a  distilla- 
tion product  of  organic  matter  which  was 
buried  in  the  sediments  when  they  accu- 
mulated. It  is  quite  probable  that  both 
animal  and  plant  matter  have  contributed 
to  the  production  of  petroleum.  In  profit- 


PflWEB 


1463 


able  petroleum-wells  the  porous  layer  con- 
taining the  petroleum  is  usually  covered 
by  a  relatively  impervious  layer,  which 
prevents  the  oil  from  escaping  upward. 
When  well-boring  penetrates  this  imper- 
vious layer,  the  oil  has  a  chance  to  escape. 
It  sometimes  spouts  with  great  force,  like 
water  in  flowing  wells.  In  other  cases  it 
has  to  be  pumped.  A  well  which  flows 
when  first  made,  often  ceases  to  flow  later 
and  its  oil  has  to  be  pumped.  Still  later  it 
may  cease  altogether  to  yield  oil,  because 
the  reservoir  (the  porous  rock)  from  which 
it  drew  its  supply,  is  exhausted.  The 
average  length  of  life  of  an  oil-well  is  but 
a  few  years.  The  yield  is  very  variable, 
some  yielding  but  a  few  barrels  a  day,  while 
others  yield  hundreds  or  even  thousands 
a  day.  Such  extraordinary  flows  are  usually 
of  short  duration. 

Petroleum  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  the  United  States  and  Russia  being 
the  chief  sources  of  supply.  In  the  United 
States  petroleum-wells  were  first  developed 
in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio  and  West  Virginia, 
but  now  extensive  deposits  have  been 
opened  in  many  other  states,  including 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Kentucky,  Texas,  Kansas, 
Oklahoma.  Colorado  and  California.  In 
1910  the  total  production  in  the  United 
States  was  209,556,048  barrels,  valued  at 
$127,896,328. 

Petroleum  occurs  in  formations  of  various 
ages.  That  of  western  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Michigan  and  Canada  occurs  in  rocks  of  the 
Ordovician  system;  that  of  Tennessee  and 
Kentucky  in  the  Silurian;  that  of  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  in  the  Devonian; 
that  of  West  Virginia  and  eastern  Ohio  in 
the  Lower  Carboniferous;  that  of  Kansas  in 
the  Carboniferous;  and  that  of  Texas  and 
the  western  states  in  the  Cretaceous  and 
Tertiary  formations.  Petroleum,  as  de- 
rived from  wells,  is  crude,  and  is  subjected 
to  refining  processes  before  it  is  put  on  the 
market. 

See  Orton:  Geology  of  Ohio,  Vol.  VII;  U. 
S.  Geological  Survey,  8th  Annual  Report, 
Part  I ;  and  Bulletin  of  the  Geological  Society 
of  America,  Vol.  I. 

Pe'wee  or  Wood-Pewee,  a  small  fly- 
catcher sometimes  confused  with  the  phoebe. 
It  is  smaller  than 
the  latter,  being 
about  six  and  one 
half  inches  long,  a 
trifle  larger  than 
the  English  sparrow. 
Its  wings  are  de- 
cidedly longer 
than  its  tail;  it  is 
dark  olive-green 
above,  below 
whitish  tinged 
with  yellow;  the 
under  bill  is  yel- 
PEWEE  low.  Unlike  the 


phoebe,  it  is  shy  rather  than  sociable,  utter- 
ing its  plaintive  cry,  even  in  the  hottest 
days  of  mid-summer.  It  is  a  forest  bird, 
one  of  the  few  birds  fond  of  deep  shade,  is 
much  at  home  high  in  tree-tops,  common 
in  old  orchards  where  insects  abound,  and 
is  occasionally  seen  in  garden  and  road- 
side trees.  It  ranges  in  eastern  North 
America  from  Florida  to  Canada,  and  is 
one  of  our  common  summer  residents. 
It  arrives  from  the  south  toward  the  mid- 
dle of  May  and  returns  south  in  October, 
wintering  in  Central  America.  During  the 
nesting  season  it  seeks  deep  seclusion  and 
on  a  limb  20  or  40  feet  above  ground  builds 
its  nest,  a  rival  to  the  humming-bird's  in 
beauty.  The  nest  is  flat,  made  of  moss, 
fine  grasses  and  rootlets  and  cleverly  edged 
with  lichen  or  moss  so  that  it  may  seem  a 
very  part  of  lichen  or  moss-covered  limb. 
There  are  three  or  four  cream-white  eggs 
with  lilac  spots  at  the  larger  end.  It  has  a 
dreamy  note  of  pee-a-wee. 

Phaedra  (fe-dra),  the  wife  of  Theseus,  is 
the  central  figure  of  a  tragic  story  in  Greek 
mythology,  which  was  made  the  subject 
of  dramas  by  Euripides  and  Sophocles. 
These  dramas  are  now  lost;  but  there  is  a 
tragedy  upon  the  theme  by  Racine.  Phaedra 
fell  in  love  with  the  youthful  Hippolytus, 
a  son  of  Theseus  and  Hippolyte.  The 
youth  repelled  her  advances,  whereupon 
she  made  a  false  accusation  against  him 
to  Theseus,  who  in  his  wrath  put  Hippolytus 
to  death.  The  queen,  repenting  of  her 
crime,  confessed  all,  and  took  her  life  with 
her  own  hand. 

Phaedrus  (je'drus),  translator  of  ^Esop's 
(q,  v.)  Fables  from  Greek  into  Latin  verse. 
While  still  young  he  came  to  Italy, .and  in 
Rome  or  some  other  city  studied  Ennius, 
whom  he  quotes  in  the  epilogue  to  his  third 
book.  From  the  title  of  this  book  he  ap- 
pears to  have  been  first  the  slave  and  after- 
wards the  freedman  of  Augustus.  Although 
Phaedrus  only  claimed  to  be  a  translator  of 
^Esop,  he  was  more;  he  wrote  fables  of  his 
own,  using  the  name  of  JEsop  to  recommend 
his  verses.  Phaedrus  lived  in  the  early  part 
of  the  first  Christian  century. 

Ph«ophyce»  (/£'<?-/*$' 2-e),  plants  forming 
one  of  trie  great  groups  of  algae,  commonly 
known  as  the  brown  algae  or  kelps.  Almost 
all  are  marine,  and  are  characteristic  forms 
of  the  coast.  All  are  anchored  forms,  their 
floating  olive-green,  yellow  or  brown  bodies 
usually  being  buoyed  by  floats  or  air- 
bladders.  The  largest  kelps  are  in  the 
colder  waters,  and  are  also  called  wrack, 
tangle,  dangle  etc.  Some  are  nlamentou* 
forms,  but  others  are  much  more  complex. 
The  species  of  Laminaria  are  like  huge  float- 
ing and  rooted  leaves,  frequently  nine  to 
ten  feet  long.  The  largest  known  Laminaria 
is  an  antarctic  form,  which  rises  to  the  sur- 
face from  a  sloping  bottom,  with  a  floating, 
leaf-like  body  600  to  900  feet  long.  Other 


PHAETHON 


1464 


PHEASANT 


forms  rise  from  the  sea-bottom  like  trees, 
with  thick  trunks,  numerous  branches  and 
leaf-like  appendages.  One  of  the  most  com- 
mon forms  is  the  rockweed  or  fucus,  whose 
forking  body  is  full  of  swollen  air-bladders. 
The  noted,  Sargassum  or  gulf-weed  is  a  mem- 


FUCUS  OR  ROCKWEED 

The  figure  to  the  right  shows  the  receptacle  which 
contains  the  sex  organs. 

ber  of  this  group.  It  is  often  torn  from  its 
anchorage  by  the  waves  and  carried  away 
from  the  coast  by  currents,  collecting  in  the 
great  sea-eddies  produced  by  oceanic  cur- 
rents and  forming  Sargasso  seas,  as  that  of 
the  North  Atlantic. 

Phaethon  (ja'e-thon),  "the  shining  one" 
in  the  writings  of  Homer  and  Hesiod,  a  fre- 

Snent  title  of  Helios  the  sun-god.  In 
reek  mythology  Phaethon  also  is  the 
name  of  a  son  of  Helios,  famous  for  his  un- 
fortunate attempt  to  drive  his  father's 
chariot.  Scarcely  had  the  presumptuous 
youth  seized  the  reins  when  the  horses, 
perceiving  his  weakness,  ran  off  and,  ap- 

g  reaching  too  near  earth,  almost  set  it  on 
re.  Earth  called  upon  Jupiter  for  help, 
and  he  struck  down  Phaethon  with  a 
thunderbolt.  His  sisters,  who  had  harnessed 
the  horses  of  the  sun  for  him,  were  changed 
into  poplars  and  their  tears  into  amber. 

Pha'lanx,  the  ancient  Greek  formation 
for  heavy  infantry,  was  a  series  of  parallel 
columns  standing  close  one  behind  the 
other.  The  oldest  phalanx  was  the  Spartan, 
in  which  the  soldiers  stood  four,  six  or  more, 
generally  eight,  deep.  The  Macedonian 
phalanx  was  16  men  deep.  The  heavy- 
armed  phalanx  was  ordinarily  flanked  by 
peltasts  or  light  infantry,  who  usually 
fought  with  javelins  and  slings. 

Phanerogams  (jan'er-o-gams),  a  name 
commonly  applied  to  the  spermatophytes  or 
seed-plants,  but  now  passing  into  disuse. 
It  was  given  in  contrast  tc  cryptogams 
(which  see),  and  means  that  the  sexual  re- 
production is  evident,  the  stamens  and 


pistils  being  mistaken  for  sexual  organs. 
See  SPERMATOPHYTES. 

Pharaoh  (Jd'ro  or  fd'ra-o"),  the  name  or 
title  given  in  the  Bible  to  the  monarchs  of 
Egypt.  Like  Mikado  and  Sublime  Porte, 
it  means  The  Lofty  Gate.  Although  the 
term  is  only  an  official  title,  it  is  generally 
used  as  if  it  were  a  proper  name;  and  there 
has  been  great  difficulty  in  determining 
the  particular  monarchs  who  pass  under 
this  title  in  the  Old  Testment. 

Phar'isees,  a  Jewish  sect  or  school  dis- 
tinguished for  devotion  to  the  Mosaic  law 
and  rigid  observance  of  all  rites  and  cere- 
monies of  the  Jewish  church.  The  Pharisees 
believed  in  future  immortality,  while  the 
Sadducees  held  that  there  was  nothing  in 
the  Scriptures  to  warrant  it.  The  Pharisees 
held  all  the  traditional  ordinances  in  equal 
reverence  with  the  Mosaic  institution,  but 
the  Sadducees  rejected  many  traditional 
observances  or  varied  them  according  to 
the  traditions  of  their  own  families.  In 
general,  the  Pharisees  administered  justice 
in  a  much  milder  manner  than  the  Sadducees, 
as  the  latter  took  their  stand  upon  the 
strict  letter  and  would  hear  of  no  mercy 
when  the  code  was  clearly  violated.  Out 
of  the  Pharisees  arose  the  great  doctors 
and  teachers  of  the  law,  usually  termed 
scribes,  and  to  them  the  most  important 
offices  were  intrusted  by  later  rulers. 

Pheas'ant,  a  long-tailed  game-bird,  related 
to  the  partridge.  There  are  about  forty 
species,  mostly  large  birds,  with  brilliant 
colors  showing  metallic  luster.  Among  their 


PHEASANT 

colors  are  gold,  copper,  scarlet,  green  and 
blue.  They  mostly  are  natives  of  Asia  and 
live  in  dense  woods.  The  so-called  English 
pheasant  was  naturalized  in  Great  Britain 
before  the  Norman  conquest,  and  is  bred 
in  the  game-preserves  of  Europe.  It  has 
been  introduced  into  the  United  States. 
The  male  has  metallic  tints  of  blue  and  green 
on  the  breast.  It  is  about  three  feet  long, 
including  the  tail,  which  represents  half  the 
length.  The  copper-pheasant  of  Japan  and 
the  ringed-neck  pheasant  of  China  have 
been  introduced  into  this  country.  The 
pheasants  of  China,  Thibet,  India  and  the 
Malay  Archipelago  often  are  gorgeous  in 


PHELPS 


PHILADELPHIA 


plumage.  The  golden  pheasant  of  China  and 
Tibet  is  striking,  being  mostly  golden  above 
and  scarlet  below,  with  a  run  of  orange  and 
black.  The  silver  pheasant  is  silvery  white 
above,  penciled  with  black.  Both  birds  have 
been  introduced  into  Europe  and  America. 
The  tail  sometimes  is  very  long;  ^  for  ex- 
ample, in  Reeve's  pheasant  of  China  it  is 
five  and  one  half  feet.  The  ruffed  grouse 
of  North  America  is  incorrectly  called  pheas- 
ant ;  being  given  this  name  in  the  south  and 
in  the  north  being  called  partridge.  Our 
only  native  representative  of  the  pheasant 
family  is  the  wild  turkey,  once  so  generally 
abundant  in  the  United  States;  but  the 
introduction  of  foreign  species  has  met  with 
marked  success.  The  nng-tailed  pheasant 
is  a  beautiful  and  valuable  game-bird.  In 
introducing  and  rearing  this  bird  the  east- 
ern and  middle  states  have  taken  part, 
following  the  example  of  the  Pacific  coast. 

Phelps,  Elizabeth  Stuart  (Mrs.  Herbert 
D.  Ward),  an  American  author,  was  born 
at  Andover,  Mass.,  Aug.  31,  1844,  her  father 
being  Professor  Austin  Phelps  of  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  and  her  mother  the 
daughter  of  Professor  Moses  Stuart  of  the 
same  institution.  Besides  lecturing,  writing 
for  magazines  and  engaging  in  various  kinds 
of  work  for  the  advancement  of  women,  she 
wrote  a  number  of  novels,  including  Gates 
Ajar  (which  passed  through  several  editions 
in  the  year  of  its  publication),  Beyond  the 
Gates,  Hedged  In,  The  Silent  Partner  and 
Doctor  Zay  (in  which  the  question  of  pro- 
fessional life  for  women  is  considered).  In 
1888  she  married  and  in  connection  with  her 
husband  published  The  Master  of  the  Magi- 
cians and  other  works.  Died  Jan.  28,  1911. 

Phi  Beta  Kappa,  a  collegiate  Greek-letter 
fraternity  composed  of  the  first  third  of  the 
senior  class  in  American  colleges.  This  so- 
ciety was  founded  in  1776  in  Raleigh  Tavern 
at  Williamsburgh,  Virginia,  by  44  under- 
graduates of  William  and  Mary  College,  of 
whom  John  Marshall,  afterward  chief-jus- 
tice of  the  United  States,  was  one.  Branches 
were  established  at  Yale  (1780)  and  Harvard 
(1781),  and  since  then  chapters  have  been 
formed  in  many  universities  and  colleges, 
with  an  active  membership  in  1907  of  close 
upon  13,000.  Vassar  was  the  first  woman's 
college  to  receive  a  charter. 

Phidias  (fid'i-as)  or  Pheidias,  the  great- 
est sculptor  of  ancient  Greece,  was  born 
about  500  B.  C.  To  Phidias  came  such 
an  opportunity  as  comes  only  to  few 
artists.  Pericles,  having  risen  to  the  head 
of  affairs,  resolved  to  adorn  Athens  with 
public  buildings,  and  he  therefore  not  only 
gave  Phidias  a  commission  to  execute  the 
more  splendid  statues  to  be  erected,  but 
made  him  superintendent  of  all  public 
works  planned.  He  constructed  the  Pro- 
pylaea  and  the  Parthenon,  the  sculptured 
ornaments  of  which  were  executed  under 
his  direct  superintendence,  while  the  statue 


of  Athene",  in  ivory  and  gold,  was  the  work 
of  Phidias  himself.  He  also  executed  a 
colossal  gold  and  ivory  statue  of  Zeus  for 
the  Olympian  temple  in  Elis;  this  it,  con- 
sidered his  masterpiece.  In  his  later  years 
Phidias  was  accused  of  appropriating  a 
portion  of  the  gold  designed  for  the  robe 
of  Athene"  and  of  impiety  in  having  placed 
his  own  likeness  and  that  of  Pericles  upon 
the  shield  of  the  goddess,  and  was  thrown 
into  prison,  where  he  died  about  430  B.  C. 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  the  chief  city  and 
seaport  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  third  city 
in  population  in  the  United  States,  is 


The  Environs  of 

PHILADELPHIA" 


situated  on  the  west  bank  of  Delaware 
River  at  the  mouth  of  Schuylkill  River, 
135  miles  northeast  of  Washington  and 
88  southwest  of  New  York.  The  city  is 
coextensive  with  the  county,  its  greatest 
length  being  about  twenty  miles  and  its 
breadth  from  five  to  ten.  Among  the  most 
noted  buildings  are  Independence  Hall  or 
old  State  House,  occupied  by  the  Con- 
tinental congress  in  1776,  the  United 
States  mint  and  custom-house,  the  post- 
office,  th"  Masonic  Temple  which  cost 
over  $i, jpo.ooo,  Girard  College,  the  Acad- 
emy of  Fine  Arts,  the  Academy  of  Nat- 
ural Sciences  and  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. The  city  hall,  begun  in  1871 
and  completed  in  1895,  is  of  Massachusetts 
marble.  It  covers  more  than  four  acres, 
has  520  rooms,  and  is  the  largest  city 
building  in  the  world.  The  dome  and 
tower,  537$  feet  high,  is  surmounted  by 
a  statue  of  Penn  36  feet  in  height.  Not 
far  from  $20,000,000  have  been  expended 
on  it.  Fairmount  Park,  in  which  was  held 
the  Centennial  Exposition  of  1876,  con- 


PHILJE 


1466 


PHILIP  THE  BOLD' 


tains  nearly  3,000  acres,  and  is  bisected 
by  the  Schuylkill  through  its  entire  length 
of  ten  miles.  In  this  park  is  the  first 
established  zoological  garden  in  the  United 
States.  Fainnount  water-works  supply 
the  city  with  over  100,000,000  gallons  of 
water  daily.  The  public  schools,  in  which 
there  are  over  3,500  teachers  and  150,000 
pupils,  are  maintained  at  an  annual  cost 
of  $5,250,000,  and  there  are  over  35,000 
pupils  in  Roman  Catholic  schools.  Special 
schools  are  conducted  for  children  who 
fail  to  maintain  their  required  standing 
in  school.  There  also  are  cooking  schools, 
evening  schools,  an  elementary  manual 
training  school  and  an  industrial  art- 
school.  Williamson  Trade  School,  near 
the  city,  received  an  endowment  of  nearly 
$2,000,000,  and  Drexel  Institute,  a  day 
and  night  school,  gives  technical  courses 
in  chemistry,  architecture,  mechanical  en- 
gineering, Cooking,  dressmaking  and  other 
crafts  ard  arts.  The  oldest  art-school  in 
this  country  is  the  Pennsylvania  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts  in  this  city.  Philadelphia  is 
the  seat  of  Girard  College  (q.  v.)  and  of 
other  highly  endowed  educational  institu- 
tions, including  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, La  Salle  (Roman  Catholic)  College, 
ten  medical  and  law  colleges,  four  dental, 
several  schools  of  pharmacy  and  50  hos- 
pitals. Philadelphia  is  the  second  manu- 
facturing city  in  the  Union,  both  in  per- 
sons employed  and  in  extent  and  variety 
of  productions.  An  aggregate  capital  of 
$520,178,654  is  employed  in  manufactur- 
ing, and  the  value  of  the  productions  is 
$750,000,000  annually,  while  250,000  per- 
sons are  employed.  The  building  of  loco- 
motives and  the  manufacture  of  iron  and 
steel  implements,  carpets,  woolens,  up- 
holstery goods  and  cotton  goods  employ 
about  125,000  workmen  and  produce 
$350,000,000  yearly,  and  there  are  sugar 
refineries,  oil  refineries,  breweries  and 
great  chemical  works,  besides  a  very  con- 
siderable foreign  commerce. 

Philadelphia  was  founded  in  1682  by 
William  Penn,  made  the  capital  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  the  following  year,  and  was 
the  central  point  of  the  colonies  during 
the  War  of  Independence.  In  Carpenter's 
Hall,  which  is  still  preserved,  the  first 
congress  met  in  1774,  and  in  Independence 
Hall  the  Declaration  of  Independence  was 
signed  in  1776.  Here  the  Federal  Union 
was  adopted  in  1778,  and  here  the  consti- 
tution was  framed  in  1787.  Philadelphia 
was  the  capital  of  the  Federal  Union  from 
1 790  to  1800.  Population  1,549,008.  See 
PENNSYLVANIA  and  PENNSYLVANIA,  UNI- 
VERSITY OF.  Consult  Philadelphia  and  Its 
Environs. 

Philae  (ji'U),  an  island  in  the  Nile,  near 
Assuan  and  south  of  Syene  in  Nubia. 
It  is  situated  near  the  first  cataract,  and 
is  a  small  granite  rock,  fringed  with  rich 


verdure,  about  1,200  feet  long  and  450 
broad,  almost  covered  with  ancient  build- 
ings of  great  architectural  beauty.  The 
kiosk,  Pharaoh's  bed,  a  roofless  hall,  be- 
longs to  the  Greek  and  Roman  period,  and 
consists  of  fourteen  great  columns  with 
capitals  of  various  patterns,  joined  at  the 
lower  part  by  solid  walls,  63  feet  long  and 
48  feet  wide.  The  great  temple  of  Isis, 
to  whom  the  island  was  sacred,  was  built 
by  the  Ptolemies.  It  contains  representa- 
tions of  the  birth,  bringing  up,  death  and 
embalmment  of  Osiris.  It  was  converted 
into  a  Christian  church  in  A.  D.  557.  See 
ASSUAN  DAM. 

Philemon  (ft  le'mun)  and  Baucis  (ba'sis), 
an  old  married  couple  in  Phrygia,  famed  in 
antiquity  for  true  love  and  splendid  hospi- 
tality. Ovid,  the  Latin  poet,  tells  how  once 
Jupiter  and  Mercury  wandering  through 
Phrygia,  both  in  human  form,  presented 
themselves  at  many  a  door  as  weary  trav- 
elers seeking  rest  and  shelter,  and  the  inhos- 
pitable inhabitants  would  not  receive  them. 
At  last  they  came  to  the  small  thatched 
cottage  of  Philemon  and  Baucis,  and  were 
received  most  hospitably.  Philemon  placed 
a  seat  and  Baucis,  bustling  and  attentive, 
spread  a  cloth  upon  it  and  begged  the  vis- 
itors to  be  seated.  The  fire  was  kindled  and 
food  prepared,  and  a  beechen  bowl  was  filled 
with  'Warm  water  that  the  guests  might 
wash.  Wine  was  served  with  the  food,  and 
while  the  repast  proceeded  Philemon  and 
Baucis  were  astonished  that  the  wine,  as 
fast  as  poured  out,  renewed  itself  in  the 
pitcher.  Thus  they  recognized  their  divine 
guests,  'iney  immediately  fell  upon  their 
knees  and  begged  forgiveness  for  their  poor 
entertainment.  Jupiter  spoke  of  the  inhos- 
pitable treatment  that  they  had  received 
from  their  neighbors,  then  led  them  to  a 
nearby  hill  where  they  saw  their  own  humble 
cottage  urned  into  a  magnificent  temple 
while  their  neighbors  were  destroyed  by  a 
flood  which  ftipiter  caused.  Philemon  and 
Baucis,  in  accordance  with  their  own  ex- 
pressed wish,  were  made  priests  and  guar- 
dians of  the  temple,  where  they  served 
many  years,  and  left  this  life  at  one  and  the 
same  hour. 

Phil'ip  the  Bold,  son  of  John  the  Good  of 
France  and  founder  of  the  second  and  last 
ducal  house  of  Burgundy  (q.  v.),  was  born 
on  Jan.  15,  1342.  He  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Poitiers  in  1356,  when  only  14, 
and  displayed  such  heroic  courage  in  risking 
his  own  life  to  save  his  father's,  that  he 
earned  the  title  of  Le  Hardi  or  The  Bold. 
He  shared  his  father's  captivity  in  England, 
and  on  his  return  to  France  in  1360  received 
as  the  reward  of  his  bravery  the  duchy  of 
Touraine  and,  in  1363,  the  duchy  of  Bur- 
gundy also.  Flanders,  Artois,  Rethel,  Ne- 
vers  and  the  county  of  Burgundy  fell  to 
him  by  the  death  of  his  father-in-law,  the 
count  of  Flanders,  in  1384,  and- his  firm  and 


PHILIP  THE  GOOD 


1467 


PHILIP  IV 


wise  government  quickly  won  esteem  and 
affection  from  his  subjects.  He  encouraged 
arts,  manufactures  and  commerce,  and  his 
territory  was  one  of  the  best  governed  in 
Europe.  During  the  minority  and  imbecility 
of  Charles  VI  of  France,  his  nephew,  he 
acted  as  regent  of  that  kingdom,  and  dis- 
played great  wisdom  and  ability  both  in 
preventing  insurrection  within  the  state  and 
in  defending  it  against  the  attacks  of  the 
English.  He  died  on  April  27,  1404. 

Philip  the  Good,  son  of  John  the  Fearless 
and  grandson  of  Philip  the  Bold,  was  born  at 
Dijon,  June  13,  1396.  In  order  to  avenge 
the  death  of  his  father,  who  had  been  assas- 
sinated on  the  bridge  of  Montereau  at  the 
instigation  of  the  dauphin  (afterward  Charles 
VII),  when  he  succeeded  to  the  duchy  he 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  Henry  V  of 
England,  recognizing  him  as  the  rightful 
regent  of  France  and  heir  to  the  throne 
after  Charles  VI's  death.  This  agreement, 
although  it  disregarded  the  terms  of  the 
Salic  law,  was  sanctioned  by  the  king  and 
the  states-general  of  France  in  the  treaty 
of  Noyes  in  1420;  but  the  dauphin  refused 
to  accept  it  and  took  up  arms.  He  was, 
however,  defeated  at  CreVant  and  Verneuil, 
and  driven  beyond  the  Loire.  Some  time 
after  this,  on  account  of  insults  from  the 
English  viceroy,  Philip  made  a  final  peace 
with  Charles,  who  gladly  accepted  the  hard 
conditions  prescribed  by  Philip.  The  Eng- 
lish in  revenge  committed  great  havoc 
among  the  merchant  navies  of  Flanders 
(q.  v.),  which  so  irritated  Philip  that  he 
declared  war  against  them  and,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  king  of  France,  gradually 
expelled  them  from  their  French  possessions. 
Under  Philip,  Burgundy  was  the  most  pros- 
perous and  tranquil  state  in  Europe;  and 
m  spite  of  the  several  insurrections  in  Ghent 
and  in  Bruges,  caused  by  the  imposition  of 
heavy  taxes,  he  was  greatly  beloved  by  his 

Eeople.     He  died  at  Bruges,  July  15,  1467. 
ee  Barante's  History  of  the  Dukes  of  Bur- 
gundy and  the  House  of  Valois. 

Philip  II  of  France,  called  Philip  Augus- 
tus on  account  of  his  great  abilities  and  suc- 
cessful administration,  was  born  on  August 
21,  1165,  and  died  at  Nantes,  July  14,  1223. 
He  was  crowned  joint  king  with  Louis  VII, 
his  father,  in  1179,  and  on  the  death  of  the 
latter  in  the  year  following  he  came  into 
lull  possession  of  the  kingdom.  He  was 
one  of  the  greatest  monarchs  of  the  Capetian 
dynasty,  while  he  confirmed  his  power  by 
marrying  Isabella  of  Hainault,  the  last  direct 
descendant  of  the  Carlovingians.  On  the 
accession  of  Richard  the  Lion-hearted  fa*V.) 
to  the  throne  of  England  in  1189,  Philip 
and  he  set  out  together  on  the  third  crusade. 
After  staying  three  months  in  the  Holy 
Land,  Philip  returned  home,  binding  him- 
self by  a  solemn  oath  not  to  molest  Richard's 
dominions;  but  very  soon  after  his  arrival 
in  France  he  invaded  Normandy  while 


Richard  was  a  prisoner  in  Germany. 
Richard's  release  from  imprisonment  and 
his  return  to  England  occasioned  a  war 
between  the  two  monarchs,  which  con- 
tinued till  1199,  when  peace  was  secured 
through  the  mediation  of  Pope  Innocent 
III.  Richard  dying  shortly  after,  war 
again  broke  out  between  France  and  Eng- 
land on  account  of  the  rival  claims  of  King 
John  (q.  v.)  and  Arthur,  his  nephew,  to 
Richard's  French  possessions.  Philip  es- 
poused Arthur's  cause,  and  after  the  mur- 
der of  that  prince  took  possession  of  Nor- 
mandy, Maine,  Anjou  and  Touraine,  and 
added  them  to  his  dominions.  The  great 
victory  of  Bouvines,  which  Philip  won, 
Aug.  29,  1214,  over  the  English  and  Em- 
peror Otho  of  Germany,  firmly  established 
his  throne,  and  he  was  able  to  devote  the 
remainder  of  his  life  to  reforms  of  justice 
and  to  building  and  fortifying  Paris. 

Philip  IV,  surnamed  Le  Bel  or  The 
Fair,  king  of  France,  was  born  at  Fontaine- 
bleau  in  1268.  He  succeeded  his  father, 
Philip  the  Rash,  in  1285,  and  by  his  mar- 
riage with  Queen  Joanna  of  Navarre  he  ob- 
tained Navarre,  Champagne  and  Brie. 
The  chief  feature  of  his  reign  was  his  con- 
test with  Pope  Boniface  VIII,  which  grew 
out  of  his  attempt  to  levy  taxes  from  the 
clergy,  which  the  pope  directed  them  not 
to  pay.  In  1300  Philip  threw  the  papal 
legate  into  prison  and  summoned  the 
three  estates  of  France  —  clergy,  nobles 
and  burghers  —  to  which  Boniface  replied 
with  the  bull  of  Unam  Sanctam.  Philip 
caused  the  bull  to  be  publicly  burned,  and 
confiscated  the  property  of  the  prelates 
who  had  sided  with  the  pope.  Boniface 
then  excommunicated  him,  but  Philip  sent 
William  of  Nogaret  to  Rome,  who,  with 
the  aid  of  the  Colonnas,  seized  and  im- 
prisoned the  pope.  Though  released  after 
a  few  days  by  a  popular  rising,  Boniface 
soon  afterwards  died.  In  1305  Philip  ob- 
tained the  elevation  of  one  of  his  own 
creatures  to  the  papal  chair  as  Clement  V 
and  seated  him  at  Avignon,  which  was  the 
residence  of  the  head  of  the  church  for  70 
years  thereafter  This  period  of  papal  his- 
tory is  often  called  "the  70  years'  captivity." 
Philip  compelled  the  pope  to  condemn  the 
Templars  in  1310  and  to  decree  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  order  two  years  later.  They 
made  a  heroic  defense,  but  were  condemned 
and  burned  by  thousands,  their  wealth 
being  appropriated  by  the  cruel  and  rapa- 
cious Philip.  Jacques  de  Molay,  the  grand- 
master, was  burned  on  March  18,  1314, 
and  at  the  stake  he  is  said  to  have  sum- 
moned Philip  to  appear  before  the  judg- 
ment seat  of  Alimighty  God  within  a  year 
and  a  day  and  the  pope  within  40  days. 
Whether  this  summons  was  actually  uttered 
or  not,  both  the  pope  and  the  king  died 
within  the  periods  assigned,  the  letter's 
death  occurring  on  Nov.  29,  1314.  Philip 


PHILIP  VI 


1468 


PHILIP  II 


strove  for  the  suppression  of  feudalism  and 
the  introduction  of  Roman  law. 

Philip  VI  (of  Valois),  king  of  France,  was 
born  in  1293,  and  became  regent  on  the 
death  of  Charles  IV  in  1328.  Philip  re- 
mained regent  during  the  pregnancy  of 
Charles'  widow,  but  when  she  was  delivered 
of  a  daughter,  he  had  himself  crowned,  the 
Salic  law  excluding  females  from  the 
throne.  Philip's  right  was  disputed  by 
Edward  III  (q.  v.)  of  England,  grandson  of 
Philip  IV,  whose  mother  was  the  sister  of 
Charles  IV.  Edward  claimed  that  although 
his  mother  could  not  herself  inherit  the 
crown  of  France,  he,  as  her  son,  might. 
In  support  of  this  claim,  weak  as  it  was, 
Edward  declared  war  against  Philip  in 
1337,  which  was  the  beginning  of  the  long 
wars  between  England  and  France,  which 
were  brought  to  a  conclusion  only  by  the 
victories  of  Joan  of  Arc  (q.  v.~),  nearly  100 
years  later.  (See  HUNDRED  YEARS'  WAR.) 
In  1347  a  truce  was  concluded  between  the 
two,  which  continued  till  after  Philip's 
death  on  Aug.  22,  1350. 

Philip  of  Mac'edon,  father  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  was  born  382  B.  C.,  and  came 
to  the  throne  in  360  B.  C.  He  was 
surrounded  with  many  difficulties  and 
dangers,  all  of  which  soon  disappeared  be- 
fore his  decision,  energy  and  wise  policy. 
In  one  year  he  secured  the  safety  of  his 
kingdom,  and  was  ready  to  enter  upon  a 
policy  of  aggression,  his  object  being  to 
reduce  every  Hellenic  state.  The  Greek 
towns  on  the  coast  of  Macedonia  were  the 
first  objects  of  attack.  In  Thrace  he  cap- 
tured the  small  town  of  Crenides,  which, 
under  its  new  name  of  Philippi,  soon  ac- 
quired great  wealth  and  fame.  After  a 
few  years  of  comparative  leisure  he  ad- 
vanced into  Thessaly,  and  ultimately  to  the 
Pass  of  Thermopylae,  which  he  did  not 
attempt  to  force,  as  it  was  strongly  guarded 
by  Athenians.  After  capturing  all  the 
towns  of  Chalcidice,  the  last  of  which  was 
the  city  of  Olynthus,  he  made  peace  with 
the  Thracians  and,  next  year,  with  the 
Athenians.  It  was  during  this  siege  of 
Olynthus  that  Demosthenes  delivered  the 
famous  orations  in  which  he  sought  in 
vain  to  arouse  his  countrymen  to  a  sense 
of  their  danger  and  ciuse  them  to  resist  the 
aggressions  of  the  powerful  and  energetic 
Macedonian.  Philip  was  now  requested 
by  the  Thebans  to  interfere  in  their  behalf 
in  the  Sacred  War  raging  between  them 
and  the  Phoci.ans.  He  marched  into  Phocis, 
destroyed  its  cities,  and  sent  many  of  its 
inhabitants  as  colonists  to  Thrace.  In 
339  B.  C.  the  Amphictyonic  council,  com- 
posed of  several  Grecian  states,  declared 
war  against  the  Locrians,  and  next  year 
it  appointed  Philip  commander-in-chief 
of  all  their  forces.  The  Athenians  were 
at  last  alarmed  at  his  approach  into  Greece 
in  tnis  capacity,  and  formed  a  league  with 


the  Thebans  against  him;  but  their  united 
forces  were  utterly  defeated  at  Chaeronea 
in  338  B.  C.;  and  Philip  was  now  master  of 
all  Greece.  Deputies  from  the  different 
states  met  in  congress  at  Corinth,  and, 
after  resolving  to  make  war  on  the  Persian 
king,  chose  Philip  as  leader.  Philip  was 
busily  engaged  in  preparations  for  this 
great  enterprise,  when  he  was  assassinated 
at  a  festival  to  celebrate  the  marriage  of  his 
daughter  with  Alexander  of  Epirus,  336 
B.  C.,  and  was  succeeded  by  Alexander  the 
Great.  Philip  was  faithless  in  the  observ- 
ance of  treaty  obligations  and  utterly  un- 
scrupulous as  to  the  means  by  which  he 
gained  his  end;  but  his  great  ability  both 
as  a  king  and  a  soldier  is  conceded  by  all 
historians.  See  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT, 
DEMOSTHENES  and  MACEDONIA. 

Philip  II  (king  of  Spain),  son  of  Charles 
V,  was  born  at  Valladolid,  May  21,  1527. 
In  1543  Philip  married  Mary  of  Portugal, 
and  their  son  was  ill-fated  Don  Carlos. 
Eight  years  after  her  death  he  married 
Queen  Mary  of  England,  who  was  several 
years  his  senior.  After  remaining  in  Eng- 
land with  her  about  a  year,  he  returned  to 
Brussels.  By  the  abdication  of  his  father, 
Philip  became  sovereign  of  Spain,  the  two 
Sicilies,  the  Netherlands,  Milan,  Naples, 
Mexico,  Peru  and  the  Spanish  possessions 
in  Africa  and  the  East  Indies.  Philip's 
marriage  with  Queen  Mary  was  not  a  happy 
one;  and  after  her  death  in  1558  he  married 
Isabella  of  France-  Philip  was  an  intense 
bigot  in  religion,  and  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  Roman  Catholic  party  in 
Europe;  but  the  main  object  of  his  policy 
was  to  concentrate  all  power  in  himself  and 
to  suppress  everything  in  the  nature  of 
free  institutions  within  his  dominions.  He 
found  the  inquisition  a  very  effective  means 
of  tyranny  in  Spain ;  but  in  the  Netherlands 
a  formidable  revolt  was  organized,  and, 
under  the  leadership  of  William  the  Silent, 
the  seven  provinces  formed  the  union  of 
Utrecht  in  1579,  and  maintained  a  suc- 
cessful war  against  Spain  until  their  inde- 
pendence was  fully  achieved,  although  Wil- 
liam himself  was  assassinated  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  Philip  in  1584.  Philip  organized 
the  Invincible  Armada  for  the  conquest  of 
England,  placing  it  under  Alexander  Far- 
nese,  Prince  of  Parma;  but  only  defeat  and 
disaster  resulted.  (See  ARMADA.)  The  one 
great  triumph  of  Philip's  reign  was  the 
naval  victory  of  Lepanto,  won  by  his  half- 
brother,  Don  John  of  Austria,  over  the 
Turks.  The  desperate  heroism  of  the 
Netherlanders  and  the  defeat  of  the  Armada, 
added  to  financial  distress  at  home, 
embittered  Philip's  last  years  and  he  died 
of  a  lingering  and  loathsome  disease  at  the 
Escprial,  Sept.  13,  1598,  being  succeeded  by 
Philip  III,  his  son  by  a  fourth  wife.  Philip 
Possessed  considerable  ability,  but  little 
Political  wisdom.  Although  he  undertook 


PHILIP  V 


1469 


PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


many  vast  enterprises,  scarcely  any  led  to 
a  profitable  result.  He  was  cold  and 
austere  without  being  virtuous.  Although 
a  bigot  and  a  persecutor,  he  had  no  real 
respect  for  honor  or  religion.  There  is 
hardly  a  character  in  history  whom  histo- 
rians have  more  unanimously  united  in 
condemning.  See  the  histories  of  Prescott, 
Motley  and  Froude. 

Philip  V,  the  first  Bourbon  king  of  Spain, 
was  born  at  Versailles,  Dec.  19,  1683,  his 
father  being  the  Dauphin  Louis,  son  of 
Louis  XIV  of  France.  In  1700  the  Spanish 
crown  was  bequeathed  to  him  by  Charles 
II.  He  entered  in  1701,  and  after  a  long 
struggle  with  Archduke  Charles  of  Austria 
was  left  in  possession  of  his  throne  by  the 
Peace  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  His  queen 
dying  next  year,  Philip  soon  married  Eliza- 
beth Farnese  of  Parma,  the  termagant  (to 
use  Carlyle's  phrase)  who  for  30  years  dis- 
turbed the  peace  of  Europe.  Her  dearest 
wish  was  to  drive  the  Hapsburgs  out  of 
Italy  in  the  interests  of  her  sons  by  a  for- 
mer marriage;  but  all  her  efforts  resulted 
only  in  securing  the  two  Sicilies.  Spain 
joined  the  coalition  against  Maria  Theresa 
of  Austria  (q.  v.) ;  and  Elizabeth's  younger 
son  was  at  first  successful  in  conquering 
the  Milanese;  but  as  soon  as  the  Silesian 
War  was  closed  by  the  Peace  of  Dresden, 
the  Austrian  queen  sent  her  troops  into 
Italy  and  drove  out  the  Spaniards.  At 
this  crisis  Philip,  who  had  been  in  mental 
stupor  for  years,  died  at  Madrid,  July  9 
1746. 

Philip,  sachem  of  the  Wampanoag  tribe 
of  Indians,  was  the  second  son  of  Massasoit 
(q.  v.),  who  for  nearly  30  years  had  been 
the  stanch  ally  of  the  Pilgrim  settlers.  In 
1 66 1  Philip  succeeded  his  elder  brother 
and  kept  the  treaties  of  his  father  for  sev- 
eral years.  But  at  length,  goaded  by  the 
encroachments  of  the  whites,  he  formed  a 
confederation  of  tribes,  amounting  to 
nearly  10,000  warriors,  and  in  1675  Kmg 
Philip's  War  broke  out.  The  Indians  sur- 
prised and  murdered  many  colonists,  but 
were  eventually  overcome,  and  in  1676 
Philip  himself  was  captured  and  slain  in 
Rhode  Island.  Afterward  his  body  was 
drawn  and  quartered  and  his  head  was  ex- 
posed on  a  gibbet  at  Plymouth  for  a  num- 
ber of  years.  See  Entertaining  History  of 
King  Philip's  War  and  Irving's  Sketch-Book. 

Philip,  John  Woodward,  an  American 
naval  officer,  was  born  at  New  York  City, 
Aug.  26,  1840.  In  1861  he  graduated  from 
the  Naval  Academy,  and  served  as  mid- 
shipman on  board  of  various  vessels  block- 
ading the  Gulf  harbors  and  in  the  James 
River  fleet.  He  became  a  lieutenant 
in  1862;  lieutenant-commander  in  1866; 
commander  in  1874,  captain  in  1889,  and 
commodore  in  1898.  He  was  wounded  at 
Stone  River  during  the  Civil  War.  During 
the  years  of  peace  he  made  a  tour  of  the 


world  in  command  of  Woodruff  Scien- 
tific Expedition  (1877^.  He  was  in  com- 
mand of  the  Texas  during  the  fight  off 
Santiago  Bay  in  the  Spanish-American 
War;  and  his  request  of  his  men  not  to 
cheer  over  their  dying  foes  excited  wide- 
spread commendation.  He  was  a  very 
earnest  Chrsitian  soldier,  and  led  his  sailors 
and  marines  in  prayer  at  the  close  of  the 
fight  above  mentioned.  He  for  a  time  was 
in  command  of  the  North  Pacific  squadron, 
and  later  assigned  to  the  command  of  the 
Navy- Yard  at  Brooklyn,  where  he  died, 
with  the  rank  of  rear-admiral ,}June  30, 1900. 

Philippine  Islands,  The,  an  archipelago 
in  the  Pacific  southeast  of  Hong- Kong,  China, 
were  discovered  by  Magellan  in  1521.  He 
was  slain  a  few  months  later  upon  one  of 
the  smaller  islands  during  the  progress  of 
one  of  the  numerous  tribal  wars.  Spain 
attempted  to  make  good  her  claim  to  these 
lands  a  few  years  afterwards  by  sending  out 
an  expedition  under  Villabos,  who  named 
the  islands  in  honor  of  the  heir  to  the 
Spanish  throne,  afterward  Philip  II.  In 
1565  Legaspi  landed  at  Cebu  with  400  troops. 
This  force  was  increased  three  years  later, 
and  the  conquest  of  the  islands  was  accom- 
plished. The  first  attempts  at  settlement 
were  made  upon  Cebu;  but  in  1581  Manila 
was  founded,  and  it  has  since  continued  to 
be  the  chief  city.  The  islands  remained  a 
possession  of  Spain  until  ceded  to  the  United 
States.  Previous  to  this  a  revolt  of  the 
Filipinos  under  the  leadership  of  Aguinaldo 
(q.  v.)  occurred.  In  January,  1898,  peace  was 
agreed  upon  by  a  compact  between  the 
Spanish  authorities  and  Aguinaldo,  the  terms 
of  which  do  not  appear  to  have  been  kept 
by  either  party.  In  April,  1898,  war  broke 
out  between  Spain  and  the  United  States, 
the  .first  serious  encounter  being  the  battle 
of  Manila  Bay,  May  i,  1898,  when  the  Span- 
ish squadron  under  Admiral  Montojo  was 
completely  destroyed.  At  the  close  of  this 
war  Spain  (by  treaty  on  Dec.  10,  1898) 
ceded  the  Philippines  to  the  United  States, 
$20,000,000  being  paid  to  Spain.  Meantime 
Aguinaldo  proclaimed  the  Philippines  an 
independent  republic  and  thus  brought  on 
a  conflict  between  his  followers  and  the 
United  States,  which  was  terminated  only 
by  his  capture  in  April,  1901. 

By  act  of  Congress  (1902)  a  complete 
civil  government  was  established  ana  the 
office  of  military  governor  and  military  rule 
were  terminated.  The  government  is  com- 
posed of  a  civil  governor  and  nine  commis- 
sioners, of  whom  four  are  Americans  and  five 
Filipinos.  There  are  37  provinces  ('),  each 
with  a  governor.  The  supreme  court  has 
seven  judges.  There  are  17  judicial  districts. 

Following  an  act  of  Congress,  a  general  elec- 
tion of  delegates  to  the  Philippine  Assembly 
was  held  in  1907;  the  new  assembly  was 
chosen  on  July  20  and  was  opened  on  Oct. 
10  of  that  year.  Manila,  upon  the  island 


(I) — In  addition  to  the  provinces  and  the  departments  of  Mindanao  and  Sulu. 


PHILIPPOPOLIS 


1470 


PHILLIPS  EXETER  ACADEMY 


of  Luzon,  with  a  population  of  219,941,  is 

the  seat  of  government. 

The  islands  and  islets  number  about  3,000. 
The  largest  are  Luzon  (40,969  square  miles) 
and  Mindanao  (36,292  square  miles);  and  the 
total  area  of  habitable  islands,  including  the 
Sulus,  is  estimated  to  be  about  127,853 
square  miles.  There  are  about  2  5,000  Ameri- 
cans and  Europeans  and  about  100,000 
Chinese.  The  inhabitants  mostly  are  of  the 
Malayan  race,  but  there  are  some  tribes  of 
Negritos.  The  population  as  shown  by  cen- 
sus of  1910  is  8,276,802,  of  whom  a  little 
more  than  one  million  belong  to  wild  tribes. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  one  of  the  most 
favorable  to  be  found  in  the  tropics.  At 
Manila  the  mercury  during  July  and  August 
rarely  goes  below  79°  or  above  85°.  During 
the  year  the  extremes  are  said  to  be  61° 
and  97°,  with  an  annual  mean  of  81°. 

Resources.  Although  agriculture  is  the 
chief  industry,  only  a  small  part  of  the 
arable  land  is  under  cultivation.  The  soil 
is  very  fertile,  and  with  improved  methods 
the  cultivatable  area  is  capable  of  sus- 
taining a  much  larger  population.  The 
Philippine  Bureau  of  Agriculture  is  carrying 
on  investigations  respecting  the  cultivation 
and  improvement  of  the  islands'  products, 
and  experimental  farms  have  been  estab- 
lished from  which  improved  varieties  of 
seeds,  roots  and  plants  are  distributed.  At- 
tention is  also  given  to  combating  destruc- 
tive insects,  methods  of  curing  tobacco,  the 
improvement  of  live-stock  etc.  The  Philip- 
pine Forestry  Bureau  provides  plans  and 
rules  for  the  protection  and  working  of  the 
wide  forests  of  valuable  timber,  gum  and 
dyewood.  Not  much  has  yet  been  done 
towards  the  development  of  the  mineral 
resources,  but  preliminary  work,  prospecting 
etc.  have  been  actively  taken  up.  Lignite 
and  iron  are  found  in  several  provinces,  and 
gold  in  all  the  larger  islands.  Silver,  plati- 
num, copper,  lead,  manganese,  sulphur,  pe- 
troleum and  gypsum  are  also  found  The 
one  chief  product  is  hemp;  cocoanuts,  sugar, 
tobacco  and  coffee  following  in  the  order 
named.  The  total  value  of  imports  in  1911 
was  $49,833,722  and  of  exports  $39,778,629. 

Education.  Education  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  secretary  of  public  instruction.  The 
islands  are  divided  into  35  educational  divi- 
sions, each  under  a  superintendent,  with  a 
superior  school-board  and  local  board.  There 
are  8,500  Filipino  primary  school  teachers. 
Many  are  Americans,  but  the  majority  are 
Filipinos  paid  by  the  government  or  the  munic- 
ipalities. English  is  taught  in  all  the  public 
schools,  of  which  there  are  over  3,000.  A 
school  for  training  teachers  has  been  opened, 
and  industrial  and  trade  schools  established. 
The  University  of  Manila  has  several  faculties, 
including  one  of  medicine.  There  are  over 
8,000  miles  of  telegraph  lines  and  cable.  A 
railway  120  miles  long  has  been  built  be- 


tween Manila  and  Dagupan,  and  three  are 
two  branch  lines. 

Philippopolis  (fiMp-pop'6-Us),  capital  of 
eastern  Rumelia  or  southern  Bulgaria  (q.  v.), 
on  the  navigable  Maritza,  no  miles  from 
Adrianople.  It  manufactures  silk,  cotton, 
tobacco  and  leather.  Population  45,707,  of 
whom  half  are  Bulgarians,  the  remainder 
being  Turks,  Greeks  etc.  Philippopolis  was 
occupied  by  the  Russians  in  1878,  and  in 
1885  a  revolution  broke  out  here  which  led 
to  the  incorporation  of  eastern  Rumelia 
(q.  v.)  with  Bulgaria. 

Philistines  (fil-ts'tinz)  (strangers),  a 
people  mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  in  fre- 
quent conflict  with  the  Jews.  They  lived 
on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
southwest  of  Judea.  It  has  been  asserted 
that  they  originated  in  prehistoric  Crete. 
Their  first  appearance  as  enemies  of  Israel 
was  during  the  period  of  the  Judges.  They 
were  subject  to  five  princes  who  ruled  over 
Gaza,  Ashdod,  Askalon,  Gath  and  Ekron. 
In  the  time  of  Eli  they  were  so  powerful 
that  they  even  carried  away  the  ark.  Saul, 
the  first  king  of  Israel,  was  engaged  in  fre- 
quent conflicts  with  them,  and  both  he  and 
his  sons  fell  in  a  disastrous  battle  against 
them  at  Gilboa.  David  won  many  victories 
over  them,  and  under  Solomon  most  of  their 
territory  was  annexed,  and  they  continued 
in  subjection  to  Judah  until  the  reign  of 
Ahaz,  three  hundred  years  later,  when  they 
revolted  and  made  great  havoc  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Judah.  Hezekiah,  the  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Ahaz,  however,  subdued  them  and 
brought  them  to  obedience,  without  the  aid 
of  the  Egyptians.  Under  the  later  kings  of 
Judah  they  appear,  from  the  menaces  of 
the  prophets,  to  have  brought  many  calami- 
ties on  the  Jews  —  if  they  did  not  recover 
their  full  independence.  In  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees  the  Philistines  were  Syrian  sub- 
jects, and  in  the  time  of  Herod  the  Great 
they  appear  no  longer  to  have  an  existence 
as  a  separate  race  or  nation,  even  the  name 
of  their  country  being  merged  in  that  of 
Palestine. 

Phil'lips  Ex'eter  Academy,  preparatory 
school  in  Exeter,  N.  H.,  for  boys  of  excep- 
tionally high  standing.  It  was  founded  in 
1781  by  Dr.  John  Phillips,  a  wealthy  and 
philanthropic  citizen  of  Exeter.  It  was 
founded  on  a  broad  foundation  and  has  been 
manned  by  men  who  were  capable  of  in- 
spiring pupils  with  a  desire  for  the  best  in 
life.  Few  institutions  even  of  higher  learn- 
ing have  attracted  students  from  a  wider 
field.  Among  its  matriculants  in  1906-7 
were  students  from  thirty-three  states,  the 
District  of  Columbia,  Hawaii  and  five  foreign 
countries.  Its  growth  during  the  last  decade 
was  marked.  Attendance  increased  from 
192  to  443,  buildings  from  9  to  17,  instruc- 
tors from  10  to  21  and  the  annual  income 
from  $37,000  to  $150,000.  It  is  distinctively 
a  preparatory  school.  About  seventy-five 


PHILLIPS 


1471 


PHILOSOPHY 


per  cent,   of  its  graduates  actually  go  to 
college. 

Phillips,  Wen'dell,  the  distinguished  ora- 
tor and  abolitionist,  was  born  of  wealthy 
and  aristocratic  parentage  at  Boston,  Mass., 
Nov.  29,  1811.  After  several  years'  study 
in  the  public  Latin  school  he  entered  Har- 
vard, from  which  he  graduated  in  1831. 
While  yet  in  his  collegiate  course  Phillips 
was  noted  not  only  for  superior  scholarship 
but  for  oratorical  gifts  and  marked  purity 
and  dignity  of  character.  In  1834,  having 
taken  a  three  years'  course  of  legal  study, 
Phillips  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Boston. 
A  little  more  than  a  year  after  entering  upon 
the  practice  of  his  profession  he  saw  the 
mobbing  of  Garrison  (q.  v.)  at  Boston,  which 
made  a  deep  and  lasting  impression  and 
awoke  serious  thought  upon  the  evils  of 
slavery.  It  was  in  Faneuil  Hall  that  Phillips, 
then  only  26,  delivered  the  first  of  those 
marvelous  philippics  that  did  so  much  to 
arouse  antislavery  sentiment,  the  occasion 
being  a  meeting  to  denounce  the  murder  of 
Lovejoy  at  Alton,  111.,  for  advocating  anti- 
slavery  sentiments  in  his  paper  published  at 
that  place.  From  that  time  Phillips  con- 
tinued the  faithful  and  unflinching  opponent 
of  slavery,  raising  his  voice  against  it  through- 
out the  land  and  devoting  his  gifts  and 
varied  powers  to  the  single  purpose  of  its 
abolition  and  destruction.  Although  the 
matter  of  Phillips'  speeches  was  nearly 
always  fiery  and  impassioned,  his  delivery 
as  well  as  his  manner  was  invariably  calm, 
reserved,  perfectly  easy  and  natural,  giving 
him  a  power  over  audiences  that  compelled 
interest  and  attention,  even  when  they  most 
disagreed  with  him.  Very  appropriately 
was  he  called  The  Unagitated  Agitator.  He 
died  at  Boston  on  Feb.  2,  1884. 

Phillips'burg,  N.  J.,  a  city  of  Warren 
County,  on  Delaware  River,  opposite  Easton, 
Pa.,  where  the  river  is  crossed  by  four  irom 
bridges.  It  is  situated  in  a  fine  agricultural, 
limestone,  cement  and  iron-ore  region.  Be- 
sides extensive  ironworks,  silk  mills,  a  rolling- 
mill,  boiler  and  machine  works  and  a  reaper 
and  mower  factory,  there  are  railroad  shops 
for  five  railroads.  There  are  good  public, 
parochial  and  business  schools,  several 
churches,  municipal  buildings  and  a  public 
library.  Population,  15,536. 

Philoctetes  (fil-ok-t?tez),  a  famous  ar- 
cher, the  friend  and  armor-bearer  [of  Her- 
cules, who  bequeathed  him  his  bow  and 
poisoned  arrows.  As  one  of  the  'suitors  of 
Helen  he  led  seven  ships  against  Troy; 
but  being  bitten  in  the  foot  [by  a  snake  or, 
according  to  one  account,  fwounded  by  his 
own  arrows,  as  his  wound  gave  forth  an 
unendurable  stench,  the  Greeks  left  him 
on  Lemnos,  where  he  remained  ten  years. 
But  an  oracle  declaring  that  Troy  could  not 
be  taken  without  the  aid  of  Philoctetes, 
Ulysses  and  Neoptolemus  were  [sent  to 
Lemnos  to  brine  him  to  the  Grecian  camp, 


where,  healed  by  ^Esculapius  or  his  sons, 
he  slew  Paris  and  otherwise  assisted  in  the 
capture  of  Troy. 

Philology  (fi-lol'd-gj).  This  word  is 
derived  from  two  Greek  words,  philos,  a. 
friend,  and  logos,  a  word;  and  like  many 
other  words  it  has  varied  greatly  in  its 
meaning.  In  the  time  of  Plato  it  meant 
the  love  of  discussion,  confined  mainly  to 
the  moral  and  social  questions  in  which 
Plato  delighted;  and  the  method  of  dis- 
cussion was  the  Socratic  one  of  asking 
questions.  At  Alexandria  the  philologer 
gave  attention  to  all  the  knowledge  of  his 
day,  brought  together  for  the  first  time  in 
its  great  library;  but  the  scholars  of  Alex- 
andria applied  themselves  especially  to  the 
study  of  the  older  Greek  literature.  It 
widened  again  at  the  revival  of  learning  to 
include  the  study  of  grammar,  rhetoric, 
literature,  poetry,  archeology  —  in  a  word, 
all  the  "humane"  studies.  Since  the  mid- 
dle of  the  igth  century  the  word  has  been 
used  in  a  more  restricted  sense.  Whereas 
philology  formerly  meant  the  study  of  lit- 
erature, it  is  now  limted  to  the  study  of 
languages,  apart  from  the  literature  em- 
bodied in  them.  It  is  the  science  which 
deals  with  the  origin,  development  and 
general  structure  of  languages  and  of  lan- 
guage as  a  whole.  In  its  progress  not  only 
has  great  light  been  thrown  on  the  origin 
of  different  languages;  but  they  have  been 
classified  and  grouped,  and  many  languages 
which  seemed  to  have  no  points  of  similar- 
ity have  been  traced  to  a  common  origin. 
Sir  William  Jones,  the  great  oriental  lin- 
guist, declared  that  "no  philologer  could 
examine  Sanskrit,  Greek  and  Latin  with- 
out believing  them  to  have  sprung  from 
the  same  source,  which,  perhaps,  no  longer 
exists.  There  is  a  similar  reason,  though 
not  quite  so  forcible,  for  believing  that  both 
the  Gothic  and  the  Celtic  had  the  same 
origin  with  the  Sanskrit."  There  are  two 
mam  classes  of  languages:  Those  which 
show  no  signs  of  inflection  —  for  example, 
those  in  which  the  plural  of  man  is  not 
formed  by  a  vowel-change  (as  our  men) 
nor  by  an  added  suffix  (as  in  Latin  homin-es) , 
but  by  a  combination  of  two  words  (as  our 
man-kind);  and  second,  those  which  are 
inflected  in  greater  or  less  degree.  This 
class  is  divided  into  two  great  families: 
the  Semitic,  comprising  Hebrew  Aramaic, 
Arabic,  Syriac;  the  Indo-Germanic  or  Aryan 
family,  the  chief  languages  of  which  are 
Sanskrit,  Armenian,  Albanian.  Latin.  Celtic, 
Teutonic  or  Germanic  and  Slavonic.  See 
Isaac  Taylor's  Origin  of  the  Aryans. 

Philos'ophy  (Greek  philos,  a  friend, 
and  sophta,  wisdom).  A  complete  and 
final  definition  of  this  word  is  impossible, 
as  the  objects  of  the  science,  its  methods 
and  even  the  possibility  of  its  being  or  be- 
coming a  science  are  matters  of  debate  be- 
tween different  schools.  Philosophy  has 


PHLOEM 


1472 


PHOCION 


been  called  the  mother  of  the  sciences,  as 
it  was  only  by  slow  degrees  that  the  sepa- 
rate sciences  came  into  life,  each  developed 
and  formulated  by  men  imbued  with  the 
philosophical  spirit,  which  is  the  "love  of 
wisdom."  As  the  number  of  special  sciences 
increased,  philosophy  could  no  longer  in  a 
strict  sense  "take  all  knowledge  to  be  her 
province";  but  her  claim  to  be  the  only 
science  of  the  universe  as  a  whole  was  not 
thereby  given  up,  but  rather  emphasized. 
Unity  and  harmony  in  one  conception  of 
the  universe  are  the  aim  which  philosophy 
always  has  in  view.  Whether  _this  ideal 
can  ever  be  reached  by  man  is  another 
question;  but  the  conception  of  a  complete 
system  of  things  satisfactory  to  the  season 
and  the  moral  sense  must  ever  be  the  spring 
and  inspiration  of  philosophical  effort. 
The  philosopher,  therefore,  always  has  his 
eye  upon  the  whole,  and  his  function  is  to 
study  the  relation  of  all  the  parts  to  the 
whole  and  to  one  another.  No  one  thing 
can  be  fully  undertood  except  in  the  light 
of  its  relation  to  other  things,  and  therefore 
the  philosopher  seeks  to  penetrate  the  reason 
and  essence  of  things  and  to  know  the  why 
and  the  wherefore  of  all  the  phenomena  of 
nature.  The  history  of  philosophy  is  an 
important  part  of  philosophical  study.  In- 
deed, philosophy  cannot  be  studied  with 
profit  apart  from  its  history. 

Thales  of  Miletus  is  generally  reckoned 
the  first  Hellenic  philosopher,  and  the  his- 
tory of  philosophy  is  generally  said  to  com- 
mence at  his  time.  It  is  usual  to  divide  the 
history  of  philosophy  into  three  distinct 
periods:  Ancient  or  Greek  philosophy, 
from  B.  C.  600  to  about  500  A.  D.;  medieval 
philosophy,  from  500  to  1600;  and  modern 
philosophy,  from  1600  to  the  present  era. 
Ancient  philosophy  is  subdivided  into 
three  periods :  The  pre-socratic  philosophers 
—  Pythagoras,  Parmenides,  Anaxagoras  and 
others  —  who  devoted  their  attention  mainly 
to  the  phenomena  of  external  things; 
Socrates  and  the  sophists  who  turned  man's 
attention  upon  himself;  and  the  idealistic 
systems  of  Plato  and  Aristotle.  The  Stoics, 
Epicureans,  Skeptics  and,  later,  the  Neo- 
Platonists  and  other  schools  make  up  the 
history  of  philosophy  until  the  downfall 
of  the  Roman  Empire  and  the  death  of 
Boetius.  Medieval  philosophy  is  mainly 
an  effort  to  apply  the  logic  of  Aristotle  to  the 
doctrines  of  the  church  and  to  harmonize 
his  philosophy  with  Christian  theology. 
Bacon  and  Descartes,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  1 7th  century,  may  be  considered  the 
founders  of  modern  philosophy,  to  give 
an  adequate  history  of  which  requires  vol- 
umes. See  English  translations  of  histories 
by  Erdmann,  Ueberweg  and  Schwegler. 

Phloem  (fld'Zm),  (in  plants).  A  woody 
strand  is  known  as  a  vascular  bundle,  be- 
cause it  contains  different  forms  of  the  cells 
known  as  vessels.  Each  individual  vascular 


bundle  consists  of  two  elements,  the  wood 
and  the  bast.  The  bast  elements  of  a  vascu- 
lar bundle  taken  together  are  called  the 
phloem  in  contrast  with  the  wood  elements, 
called  the  xylem.  In  an  ordinary  tree  it 
is  the  xylem  tissue  which  accumulates  as 
the  permanent  wood,  while  the  phloem 
tissue  forms  the  fibrous  lining  of  the  bark. 
In  the  stems  of  monocotyledons,  as  the 
cornstalk,  the  vascular  bundles  are  scat- 
tered and  no  bark  is  formed,  but  each 
bundle  is  composed  of  phloem  on  its  outer 
side  and  xylem  on  its  inner  side.  In  the 
vascular  bundles  of  the  stems  of  most  ferns 
the  phloem  completely  surrounds  the 
xylem;  while  in  all  roots  the  phloem  and 
xylem  occur  in  alternate  strands  about  the 
center.  The  phloem  is  concerned  in  the 
transfer  of  foods 

Phlox  (floks),  a  genus  of  the  Polemonium 
family  containing  about  30  species,  which  are 
natives  of  North 
America  and  north- 
ern Asia,  nearly  all 
of  the  species  being 
found  in  North 
America.  They  are 
mostly  hardy  herbs 
with  usually  showy 
red,  violet  or  white 
flowers.  The  peren- 
nial species  are 
among  the  most 
popular  of  garden 
plants.  P  e  r  h  a  ps 
one  of  the  best 
phloxes  of  cultiva- 
tion is  F.  drum' 
mondi-i,  occurring 
throughout  Texas 
and  cultivated 
everywhere.  P.  sub- 
ulata  and  its  varie- 
ties are  the  best 
known  of  the  dwarf 
creeping  kinds,  and 
are  frequently  called  ground  or  moss  pinks. 
P.  maculata,  the  wild  sweet-william  proba- 
bly is  the  best  known  and  widely  distributed 
of  the  wild  forms. 

Phocion  (fo'shi-un),  an  Athenian  general, 
was  born  about  the  end  of  the  5th  century 
B.  C.  Although  of  humble  origin,  he  studied 
under  Plato  and  perhaps  under  Diogenes. 
In  341  B.  C.  Phocion  was  successful  in  over- 
coming the  Macedonian  party  in  Euboea 
and  in  restoring  the  ascendency  of  Athens. 
Next  year,  being  sent  to  the  relief  of  Byzan- 
tium, he  forced  Philip  to  abandon  the  siege 
of  that  city  and  to  evacuate  the  Chersonesus. 
A  little^  later,  however,  he  placed  himself  in 
opposition  to  Demosthenes  and  others  who 
advocated  resistance  to  Philip's  demands. 
After  the  assassination  of  Philip  in  336  B.  C. 
we  find  him  striving  to  repress  the  desire 
for  war  among  the  Athenians,  on  account 
of  which  many  regarded  him  as  a  traitorj 


PHLOX 


PHCEBE 


H73 


PHCENIX 


but  this  charge  doubtless  was  unjust.  On 
the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  Phocion 
endeavored  in  vain  to  hinder  the  Athenians 
from  going  to  war  with  Antipater.  After 
the  death  of  Antipater  he  was  involved  in 
the  intrigues  of  Cassander,  and  was  forced 
to  flee  to  Phocis,  where  he  was  delivered 
to  the  Athenians  and  condemned  to  drink 
hemlock  (317  B.  C.). 

Phoe'be,  a  small  fly-catcher  nesting  about 
houses  and  other  structures.  Its  nest  of 
moss  and  mud  may  be  placed  under  bridges, 
in  barns,  sheds,  the  shelter  of  piazzas  and 
other  similar  situations.  It  is  about  seven 
inches  long,  dark  above  and  white  below, 
tinged  with  yellow.  Its  bill  is  black.  It  is 
sometimes  called  pewee,  but  that  name  is 
better  reserved  for  the  wood-pewee.  It 
winters  north  of  the  frost-line.  It  owes  its 
name  to  its  song  of  pewit-phcebe.  See  PEWEE. 

Phoe'bus  ("the  bright"),  an  epithet  and 
afterwards  a  name  of  Apollo.  It  had  refer- 
ence to  the  youthful  beauty  of  the  god  and 
to  the  radiance  of  the  sun,  when,  at  a  later 
period,  Apollo  became  identified  with  Helios 
the  sun-god. 

Phoenicia  (fe-nts'i-a).  a  territory  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  north 
of  Judea.  >  The  boundary  lines  differed  at 
different  times,  but  its  length  generally  was 
about  200  miles  and  its  average  width  about 
20  miles.  It  is  impossible  to  say  when  the 
first  Phoenician  settlers  entered  the  country; 
but  it  is  generally  conceded  that  they  came, 
not  from  one  ^  region,  but  from  several 
different  directions,  and  that  they  grew 
into  one  nationality  very  slowly.  The 
history  covers  nearly  2,000  years;  and, 
although  our  sources  of  information  are 
meager,  it  may  be  divided  into  four  distinct 
periods.  ^The  first  of  these  comprises  the 
immigration  and  gradual  development  of 
the  tribes  until  the  historical  time  when 
Sidon  began  to  take  the  lead,  about  1,500 
B.  C.  The  second  period  dates  from  the 
conquest  of  Palestine  by  the  Hebrews,  when 
Sidon  had  already  become  the  "first  born 
of  Canaan,"  as  recorded  in  Genesis.  The 
flourishing  state  of  commerce  and  manu- 
factures is  seen  from  many  passages  in 
Homer.  The  gradual  ascendency  of  the 
rival  city  of  Tyre  marks  the  beginning  of 
the  third  period,  in  which  Phoenicia  at- 
tained her  greatest  power  and  glory,  her 
ships  covering  every  sea  and  her  commerce 
extending  far  and  wide.  During  the  reigns 
of  David  and  Solomon  (980-917  B.  C.) 
friendly  relations  existed  between  the 
Israelites  and  the  Phoenicians  under  Hiram, 
king  of  Tyre.  As  each  country  needed  what 
the  other  could  supply,  a  close  alliance  was 
formed,  between  Hiram  and  Solomon  es- 
pecially, Hiram  furnishing  a  portion  of  the 
material  for  Solomon's  temple.  By  this 
time,  too,  the  Phoenicians  had  not  only 
planted  colonies  on  the  coasts  and  islands 
at  the  jEgean  and  Mediterranean  Seas,  but 


had  passed  through  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar 
and  established  themselves  on  the  western 
coast  of  Spain  and  of  Africa,  while  their 
alliance  with  the  Hebrews  permitted  them 
to  find  their  way  to  the  Indies  by  the  Red 
Sea.  Although  at  first  they  traded  in  the 
wares  of  Egpyt  and  Assyria,  they  soon  be- 
came manufacturers  on  an  extensive  scale. 
Their  two  chief  manufactures  were  glass 
(q.  v.)  and  the  purple  dye  obtained  from  a 
shellfish  of  the  Mediterranean.  Purple  was 
one  of  the  most  noted  luxuries  of  ancient 
times  —  especially  in  Asia.  In  temples 
and  palaces  purple  garments,  hangings,  cur- 
tains and  veils  were  used  extensively;  and 
m  Susa  alone  Alexander  the  Great  found  a 
store  of  purple  worth  5,000  talents.  Sidon's 
principal  production  was  glass  —  invented 
there  by  accident,  it  was  said;  but  most 
probably  the  invention  came  from  Egypt. 
The  mining  operations  of  the  Phoenicians 
were  extensive;  and  they  well-understood 
how  to  <  work  metals.  The  description  of 
mining  in  Job  xxyiii.  7-77,  must  have  been 
derived  from  a  sight  of  Phoenician  mining. 
The  art  of  pounding  bronze  had  certainly 
reached  a  high  degree  of  perfection  to  enable 
Hiram  to  execute  such  works  for  Solomon's 
temple  as  are  described  in  the  Bible.  Hiram's 
reign  seems  to  have  been  the  beginning  of 
the  end  of  Phoenicia's  prosperity  and  glory. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Baleastartus, 
who  died  after  a  reign  of  seven  years,  and 
a  long  series  of  political  calamities  and  civil 
wars  then  ensued.  The  fourth  and  last 

Eeriod  of  Phoenician  history  may  be  dated 
•om  the  middle  of  the  8th  century  B.  C., 
when  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  be- 
sieged Tyre  for  five  years  without  being 
able  to  take  it.  Peace  was  concluded  on 
terms  favorable  to  Tyre;  but  two  centuries 
later  Phoenicia  was  conquered  by  Assyria. 
She  was  afterwards  conquered  by  Nebuchad- 
rezzar, and  remained  subject  to  Babylon 
until  the  capture  of  that  city  by  Cyrus  the 
Great,  when  she  became  a  part  of  the  Medo- 
Persian  empire.  When  Persia  was  con- 
quered by  Alexander  the  Great,  the  last 
shadow  of  Phoenicia's  independence  passed 
away.  Since  65  B.  C  the  Phoenician  terri- 
tory has  been  a  part  of  Syria.  The  religion 
of  the  Phoenicians  was  like  that  of  all  an- 
cient Semitic  religions — except  that  of  the 
Hebrews  —  a  _kind  of  pantheistic  worship 
of  nature,  their  two  principal  deities  being 
Baal  and  Astarte.  See  Rawlinson's  History 
of  Phoenicia 

Phoe'nix,  the  name  of  a  mythical  Egypt- 
ian bird,  which  is  said  to  have  burned  itself, 
when  a  new  phoenix  arose  out  of  its  ashes. 

Phoenix,  Ariz.,  a  city,  the  county-seat  of 
Maricopa  County  and  the  capital  of  the 
territory;  situated  on  the  Santa  Fe".,  Pres- 
cott  and  Phoenix  and  Maricopa  and  Phoenix 
railroads,  in  the  south-central  part  of  the 
territory.  It  was  settled  in  1870  and  in- 
corporated in  1 88 1.  It  is  to  a  mining  re* 


PHCENIXVILLE 


1474 


gion  with  good  farm-land  in  the  valleys, 
in  which  are  extensive  olive-groves,  and 
controls  a  large  trade  in  live-stock,  grain, 
hay.  honey,  wines,  oranges  and  other  fruits. 
The  chief  industrial  interests  are  the  stock- 
yards, machine-shops  and  jobbing  houses. 
Among  the  public  buildings  are  the  capitol, 
agricultural  experiment-station,  insane  asy- 
lum, court-house,  city-hall,  churches  and 
schools.  It  is  provided  with  good  schools, 
both  public  and  private.  An  Indian  school 
here  deserves  special  mention.  It  has  more 
than  400  students,  and,  besides  its  regular 
course  of  instruction,  has  departments  that 
teach  manual  training.  Government  is 
vested  in  a  mayor,  who  holds  office  for 
two  years,  and  a  council.  Population 
11,134- 

Phoenixvllle,  Pa.,  a  borough  in  Chester 
County,  at  the  confluence  of  Schuylkill 
River  and  French  Creek,  23  miles  from 
Philadelphia.  It  manufactures  silk,  cot- 
ton goods,  hosiery  and  matches,  but  of 
greatest  importance  is  its  iron  industry. 
It  contains  rolling-mills,  blast-furnaces, 
bndge-works  and  iron-mills,  including  one 
of  the  largest  plants  in  the  country.  Phoe- 
nixville  has  good  schools,  a  public  library, 
a  park  and  a  hospital.  The  waterworks 
are  owned  and  operated  by  the  borough, 
and  it  has  the  service  of  two  railroads. 
Population  10,743. 

Phonet'lcs,  the  science  of  the  sounds  of 
the  human  voice.  Sound  is  produced  by  the 
expulsion  of  air  from  the  lungs  through  the 
windpipe.  When  this  air  in  its  passage 
through  the  throat  sets  the  vocal  cords  in 
vibration,  voice  is  produced.  After  passing 
through  the  throat  the  voice  enters  the 
mouth  or  nose  or  both.  As  a  practical 
science,  phonetics  comprehends  not  only  a 
knowledge  of  the  sounds  uttered  in  human 
speech,  but  the  invention  or  discovery  of  an 
alphabetical  symbol  to  represent  each.  The 
sounds  are  of  two  kinds :  Fixed  sounds, 
where  the  cavities  of  the  mouth  remain 
unchanged  during  the  passage  of  the  air; 
and  glides,  where  these  cavities  are  con- 
stantly changing  or,  in  other  words,  where 
the  utterance  is  variously  modified  by  the 
tongue,  palate,  lips  and  teeth.  The  former 
sounds  are  called  vowels,  and  in  English  are 
represented  by  the  letters,  a,  e,  i,  o,  #,  y; 
the  latter  sounds  are  called  consonants,  that 
is,  with-sounders,  as  they  are  sounded  with 
the  vowels,  but  not  alone.  The  great  vari- 
ations in  spelling  and  pronouncing  English 
have  long  been  a  source  of  perplexity  to 
foreigners  learning  our  language,  and  have 
caused  many  "phonetic  reformers"  to  arise, 
with  plans  for  producing  uniformity;  but 
none  of  these  has  ever  been  adopted,  except 
in  the  case  of  a  few  words.  Perhaps  the 
reason  of  this  is  that,  however  "irregular" 
may  be  the  spelling  of  so  many  words,  yet 
the  forms  in  which  they  are  written  have 
become  as  firmly  fixed  in  our  mental  habit 


as  are  the  sounds  they  represent  and  the 
ideas  conveyed  by  those  sounds;  hence  we 
can  never  consent  to  any  changes,  except 
those  that  are  gradual  and  proceed  as  by  a 
growth.  Another  difficulty  in  the  phonetic 
reform  would  be  that,  even  •  if  it  were  pos- 
sible to  devise  a  fixed  alphabetical  symbol 
for  every  sound  or  combination  of  sounds, 
to  which  all  good  writers  would  conform,  the 
pronunciation  of  words  would  at  once  begin 
to  vary  and  in  time  our  spelling  and  pro- 
nunciation might  be  as  "irregular"  as  now. 

Pho'nograph.  "  Mama, "  said  the  little  girl 
"you  have  such  beautiful  tunes  in  your  voice! " 

But  how  do  tunes  get  into  the  voice?  Let's 
see.  Sounds  (q.  t».)»  songs,  for  example — 
vibrate  the  tympanum  of  the  ear  (q.  ».)  just  as 
they  vibrate  the  diaphragm  of  the  telephone 
(q.  ».),  and  these  sounds  are  recorded  in  the 
brain  cells.  Then,  when  you  want  to  sing 
these  songs  again,  you  set  your  brain  "going 
by  thinking  about  them  and  this  makes  your 
vocal  cords  vibrate,  just  as  the  tympanum  of 
your  ear  did,  when  you  first  heard  the  songs 
and  so  you  reproduce  both  the  words  and  the 
tune. 

Now,  just  as  the  telephone  is,  broadly 
speaking,  a  mechanical  ear,  the  camera  (q.  v.) 
a  mechanical  eye,  the  phonograph  is  a  mechani- 
cal brain.  Sound,  vibrating  a  diaphram  with 
a  needle  attached  to  it,  causes  this  needle  to 
record  these  vibrations,  by  indentations,  on  a 
cylinder,  as  in  phonographs  used  in  business 
offices,  or  on  a  disc,  as  in  musical  phono- 
graphs. 

In  business  houses  money  and  time  are  saved  by 
dictating  to  a  phonograph  instead  of  to  a  stenographer. 
The  typewriter  operator  simply  takes  the  cylinder  on 
which  the  dictated  letter  is  recorded,  puts  it  in  another 
phonograph  on  her  own  desk  and  writes  down  the 
letters  which  have  been  dictated  to  it  and  which  it 
redictates  to  her. 

While  the  business  phonograph  is  thus  a  great  time 
saver,  the  musical  phonograph  shares  with  the  piano 
player  a  great  and  beautiful  service  to  humanity  in  the 
cheapening  and  diffusing  of  music  comparable  to  the 
service  of  the  printing  press  in  diffusing  art  and  literature. 
The  phonograph  is  also  successfully  used  to  make 
moving  pictures  "talk,"  both  the  moving  picture  ma- 
chine and  the  phonograph  being  controlled  by  an  electric 
motor  which,  as  Hamlet  (A3;  S2)  says,  "suits  the  action 
to  the  word,  the  word  to  the  action." 

It  was  Mr.  Edison  (q.  ».),  who  in  1877, 
patented  the  phonograph.  In  1915  he  pat- 
ented a  device  for  recording  telephone  con- 
versations, the  principle  of  which  is  described 
under  TELEPHONE,  Page  1885. 

Phonog'raphy.     See  SHORTHAND. 

Phonom'eter  is  an  instrument  of  Edison's 
invention  for  testing  the  force  of  the  human 
voice  in  speaking.  It  consists  chiefly  of  a 
mouthpiece  and  diaphragm,  behind  the  latter 
of  which  is  placed  a  delicate  mechanism 
which  operates  a  1 5-inch  fly-wheel  by  means 
of  which  a  hole  can  be  bored  in  an  ordinary 
pine  board. 


PHONOPHORE 


'475 


PHOTIUS 


Phonophore  (fo'no-for),  is  a  device  of 
Langdon  Davies  of  London,  England,  for 
transmitting  electric  signals  through  circuits 
which  are  not  closed.  Messages  have  been 
sent  over  wires  open  at  both  ends,  in  cir- 
cumstances which  would  render  ordinary 
telegraphing  impossible.  The  same  wire  has 
been  used  at  once  for  ordinary  telegraphing 
and  for  the  transmission  of  phonophore  sig- 
nals. When,  the  resistance  having  been 
greatly  increased,  the  ordinary  signals  ceased, 
those  of  the  phonophore  continued  as  dis- 
tinct as  before.  The  transmitter  is  fitted 
with  a  vibrating  reed  at  one  end  and  the 
receiver  with  a  stretched  steel  band  at  the 
other,  which  can  be  tuned  to  the  same 
note. 

Phos'phates,  salts  formed  from  the  phos- 
phoric acids,  are  of  great  importance  in 
plant  and  animal  life.  Phosphate  of  soda, 
in  any  of  its  three  forms,  may  be  dissolved 
in  water,  and  is  found  in  all  the  soft  and 
fluid  portions  of  the  bodies  of  animals. 
Phosphates  abound  especially  in  the  blood 
and  tissues  of  carnivorous  animals.  They 
are  necessary  to  the  process  by  which  cellu- 
lar tissue  is  built  up  from  the  blood.  Phos- 
phate of  lime  is  not  only  needed  in  the 
bodies  of  animals,  but  when  properly  pre- 

Eared  it  is  a  valuable  manure  for  plants, 
ti  animals  it  forms  four  fifths  of  the  enamel 
of  the  teeth  and  more  than  half  the  sub- 
stance of  the  bones.  Normal  phosphate  of 
lime  or  normal  calcium  phosphate  is  indeed 
insoluble;  but  in  the  fluids  of  the  animal 
body  it  is  held  in  solution  as  a  loose  com- 
pound with  albumen  etc.  As  calcium  phos- 
phate is  necessary  to  a  fertile  soil,  bone-dust 
and  mineral  phosphates  of  calcium  are  sold 
commercially  as  fertilizers.  Bones  have  for 
many  years  been  an  important  form  of 
phosphate  manure.  They  generally  are  first 
boiled  or  steamed.  Bone-phosphates,  being 
slow-acting  fertilizers,  should  be  used  finely 
ground  and  as  a  permanent  benefit  to  the 
soil  rather  than  as  direct  plant-food.  Phos- 
phates associated  with  organic  matter  de- 
compose more  quickly  than  purely  mineral 
phosphates  do.  They  therefore  are  more 
readily  available  fertilizers.  Great  deposits 
of  lime-phosphates  are  found  in  Alabama 
(q  v.~),  Florida,  South  Carolina  and  Tennes- 
see. See  FERTILIZERS  and  PHOSPHORUS. 

Phosphorescence  (Jos' for-Zs1  sens).  When 
a  body  emits  light  because  it  has  been  raised 
to  a  high  temperature,  we  describe  the 
phenomenon  by  the  name  incandescence; 
but  when  a  body  emits  light  without  being 
raised  to  a  correspondingly  high  tempera- 
ture, the  process  is  called  luminescence.  A 
piece  of  sugar  cut  in  the  dark  will  emit  a 
faint  light;  this  is  an  example  of  lumines- 
cence. A  solution  of  sulphate  of  quinine 
held  in  ultraviolet  light  will  emit  a  faint 
blue  light;  this  is  another  example  of  lumin- 
escence, which  is  generally  known  as  fluor- 
escence. The  Germans  call  it  photolumines- 


cence,  because  it  is  an  effect  produced  by 
light.  Red  ink,  when  made  of  eosin,  be- 
haves in  the  same  way  as  quinine.  But 
as  soon  as  the  illumination  ceases,  these 
bodies  cease  to  give  off  their  fluorescent 
light.  There  are  other  bodies,  however,  as 
sulphides  of  barium,  calcium  and  strontium, 
which  continue  to  exhibit  fluorescence  even 
after  illumination  has  ceased.  This  phenom- 
enon of  persistent  fluorescence  is  called  phos- 
phorescence. Becquerel  has  proved  that 
most  bodies  exhibit  phosphorescence,  but 
only  for  a  very  short  time  after  illumination. 
The  student  should  carefully  note  that  the 
glow  exhibited  by  phosphorus  in  the  dark 
is  due  to  slow  oxidation,  and  is  not  a  case 
of  phosphorescence  at  all.  Properly  classi- 
fied, it  is  a  case  of  chemical  luminescence. 

Phos'phorus,  one  of  the  nonmetallic  ele- 
ments. At  ordinary  temperatures  it  is  an 
almost  colorless  or  faintly  yellow,  solid  sub- 
stance, having  the  glistening  appearance  and 
consistency  of  wax.  If  it  be  heated  to 
i4o°F.  in  the  air,  it  catches  fire  and  burns 
with  a  brilliant  white  flame.  It  is  so  in- 
flammable as  to  burn  by  mere  friction  at 
ordinary  temperatures.  Even  the  warmth 
of  the  hand  may  set  it  to  burning.  In 
experiments  care  must  be  taken  lest  the 
hands  be  severely  burned.  It  is  kept  in 
water  lest  it  may  spontaneously  get  on  fire. 
It  shines  in  the  dark,  from  the  slow  com- 
bustion it  undergoes.  Taken  internally,  it 
is  a  powerful  irritant  poison.  Persons  en- 
gaged in  the  manufacture  of  matches  are 
frequently  seriously  affected  by  its  fumes. 
Scientists  have  overcome  this  danger  to 
some  extent  by  the  discovery  of  red  phos- 
phorus, which  is  prepared  from  ordinary 
phosphorus  by  heating  it  in  a  closed  iron 
vessel.  Phosphorus  is  not  found  in  an 
uncombined  state  in  nature.  It  was  first 
discovered  by  Brandt  in  1669.  Bones  at 
present  furnish  a  large  part  of  the  phos- 
phorus of  commerce.  Bones  are  burned 
to  whiteness  and  r  ~wdered,  then  mixed  with 
sulphuric  acid  to  decompose  the  phosphate 
of  lime  in  the  ash;  the  solution  of  the  super- 
phosphate is  evaporated  to  a  syrup,  mixed 
with  charcoal  and  distilled;  then  the  phos- 
phorus rises  in  vapor  and  is  condensed. 
The  mineral  apatite  is  also  used  instead 
of  bones.  See  PHOSPHATES. 

Photius  (fo'shl-us),  (A.  D.  820-91),  a 
patriarch  at  Constantinople,  whose  chief 
distinction  is  his  influence  in  bringing  about 
the  separation  between  the  Latin  and  the 
Greek  church.  The  separation  did  not 
completely  take  place  during  his  time,  but 
its  beginning  did.  Steps  were  taken  under 
his  leadership  which  could  not  be  retraced. 
A  council  in  867  raised  a  controversy  of 
doctrine  and  discipline  between  the  churches 
of  the  east  and  west.  The  east  withdrew 
from  the  west.  Another  council  condemned 
the  western  church.  Some  time  after  this 
the  separation  was  completed. 


PHOTO-ENGRAVING 


1476 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


Pho'to-Engrav'ing  is  a  process  for  the 
conversion  of  a  photograph  into  an  engrav- 
ing, from  which  engraving  prints  may  be 
taken  by  any  good  printing-press.  Such 
perfection  has  been  reached  that  photo- 
engravings have  largely  replaced  wood- 
engravings  for  illustrating  books  and  news- 
papers. One  of  the  best,  if  not  most  of  the 
processes  in  use  to-day,  will  be  found  based 
upon  discoveries  in  the  early  part  of  the 
1 9th  century  that  asphaltum,  when  it  has 
been  subjected  to  the  action  of  light,  is  no 
longer  soluble  in  its  ordinary  solvents.  A 
plate  therefore  coated  with  asphaltum 
which  has  been  exposed  in  the  camera 
obscura  to  light  and  shade  would  possess  a 
surface,  part  of  which  was  soluble  and  part 
insoluble.  By  the  application  of  biting 
acids,  these  plates  are  then  chemically  etched. 
This  process  is  especially  useful  to  repro- 
duce line-engravings  or  the  pen-and-ink 
sketches  used  so  freely  in  the  daily  papers 
which  are  now  rapidly  produced  by  chemical 
processes.  Many  of  the  variations  in  the 
ordinary  process  are  kept  secret,  and  others 
could  hardly  be  explained  to  any  other  than 
an  expert. 

Photog'raphy.  The  art  of  making  pic- 
tures by  the  direct  action  of  light  on  a  sen- 
sitive surface  dates  from  the  beginning  of 
the  i  gth  century.  The  action  of  light  on 
certain  salts  of  silver  was  studied  by  Scheele, 
a  Swedish  chemist,  in  1777,  who  laid  the 
foundation  for  the  work  which  followed. 
He  found  that  certain  of  the  salts  were 
blackened  by  exposure  to  light,  the  effect 
being  due  largely  to  the  blue  and  violet  rays 
in  the  spectrum.  It  was  an  easy  step  to 
coat  paper  with  this  sensitive  substance 
and  obtain  impressions  of  leaves,  ferns  and 
similar  objects  by  the  action  of  sunlight; 
but  no  way  was  known  of  rendering  the 
pictures  permanent  and  they  attracted  no 
great  amount  of  attention.  In  1839  a 
Frenchman  named  Daguerre  succeeded  in 
producing  a  sensitive  sunace  on  a  copper 
plate  which  was  so  rapidly  affected  by  light 
that  impressions  could  be  made  on  it  in  the 
camera,  which  impressions  could  be  made 
permanent.  The  process  at  once  met  with 
great  favor,  and,  owing  to  its  comparative 
cheapness,  almost  immediately  supplanted 
miniature  painting,  which  was  then  in 
vogue.  The  disadvantages  of  Daguerre 's 
process  were  manifold.  Very  long  expo- 
sures were  required,  a  sitting  was  required 
for  each  picture,  and  the  picture  had  to  be 
held  in  a  certain  light  to  be  seen. 

The  next  step  was  the  invention  of  the 
collodion  plate,  which  shortened  the  time  of 
exposure,  and  furnished  the  means  of  pro- 
ducing any  number  of  pictures  from  a  single 
plate.  It  was  necessary  to  use  these  plates 
in  a  wet  condition,  however,  and  their  em- 
ployment was  consequently  limited  to  the 
studio.  The  discovery  of  the  dry  plate, 
which  is  in  use  at  the  present  time,  was 


made  about  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  and 
was  the  means  of  bringing  the  art  within 
the  reach  of  everybody.  Before  the  days 
of  dry  plates  the  photographer  was  obliged 
to  carry  about  with  him  a  portable  dark 
room,  for  the  plates  had  to  be  immersed  in 
a  bath  of  silver  nitrate  immediately  before 
exposure,  and  the  development  could  not 
be  postponed'  a  moment  after  exposure. 

The  present  dry-plate  process  is  essentially 
as  follows:  Glass  plates  are  coated  with  a 
film  of  gelatine  containing  a  mixture  of 
bromide  and  iodide  of  silver.  After  ex- 
posure in  the  camera  they  are  developed 
by  means  of  suitable  chemicals  in  a  room 
illuminated  only  with  red  light.  The  action 
of  the  light  on  the  plate  is  to  start  a  reaction 
in  the  silver  salt  which  requires  the  action 
of  the  developer  to  complete  it.  This  re- 
action is  the  transformation  of  the  white 
bromide  of  silver  into  black  metallic  silver. 
The  plate  after  development  consequently 
appears  black  wherever  the  light  has  acted 
on  it,  the  resulting  picture  being  called  a 
negative,  since  the  high  lights  are  black 
and  the  deep  shadows  white.  After  de- 
velopment the  plate  is  transferred  to  a 
bath  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  which  dis- 
solves the  unaffected  silver-salts  leaving 
the  gelatine  quite  transparent  except  foi 
the  black  deposit  which  forms  the  picture. 
From  this  negative  any  number  of  pictures 
can  be  printed  by  exposing  sheets  of  sen- 
sitized paper  under  it  to  the  action  of  sun- 
light. The  black  deposit  of  silver  in  the  film 
screens  the  paper  from  the  blackening  action 
of  the  light;  consequently  the  resulting 
print  is  white  in  those  places  which,  in  the 
negative,  are  dark,  and  the  picture  is  a 
positive.  Modern  plates  are  made  so  sen- 
sitive that  it  is  possible  to  secure  pictures 
of  objects  in  sunlight  in  the  i- 1,000  part  of  a 
second.  The  plates  of  Daguerre  required  an 
exposure  of  from  five  to  1 5  minutes. 

Since  the  introduction  of  these  extremely 
sensitive  plates  photography  has  proved  of 
the  greatest  aid  in  scientific  investigations. 
In  astronomy  clusters  of  stars  and  nebulae 
have  been  photographed,  which  no  eye  can 
see,  even  in  the  most  powerful  telescopes, 
for  the  photographic  plate  can  be  exposed 
for  hours  to  the  image,  the  action  of  the 
feeble  light  accumulating  in  the  sensitive 
film,  whereas  in  the  eye,  if  the  light  is  too 
feeble  at  once  to  affect  the  retina,  prolonged 
gazing  is  wholly  without  effect. 

By  employing  the  light  of  the  electric 
spark,  rapidly  moving  objects  can  be  pho 
tographed  in  as  brief  an  interval  as  the 
millionth  part  of  a  second.  In  this  way 
beautiful  pictures  of  flying  rifle-balls,  witn 
the  ripples  and  waves  of  air  which  accom- 
pany them  and  the  boiling  wake  which  fol- 
lows them,  have  been  secured  by  Professor 
Boys  of  London.  Professor  Wood  of  the 
University  of  Wisconsin  had  in  a  similar 
manner  secured  pictures  of  sound-waves 


The  Yellow  Plate 


The  Red  Plate 


Yellow  and  Red  Combined, 


The  Blue  Plate 


Combination  of  the  Yellow,  Ked  and  Blue. 

SHOWING    THE   STEPS    NECESSARY  TO    OBTAIN    A   PICTURE  IN    COLORS 
FROM    A    SINGLE   NEGATIVE 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


1477 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


in  air,  the  image  of  the  spherical  wave  of 
condensed  air  being  impressed  on  the  pho- 
tographic plate  by  the  light  of  an  electric 
spark  occurring  at  just  the  right  moment. 
By  means  of  cameras  fitted  with  electric 
lights,  which  have  been  lowered  into  the 
sea,  pictures  of  the  ocean's  bottom,  with 
the  sea- plants  and  coral  formations,  have 
been  taken.  Swung  from  the  tails  of  kites, 
cameras,  operated  by  an  electric  current 
sent  up  the  wire  kite-string,  give  us  pictures 
of  our  surroundings  as  they  appear  from 
an  elevation  of  a  mile  or  two. 

Book  and  magazine  illustration  is  now 
done  largely  by  photography,  the  old-fash- 
ioned woodcut  having  been  driven  out  by 
the  zinc  plate,  which  is  engraved  or  etched 
by  a  photographic  process,  giving  an  abso- 
lute fac-simile  of  the  original  drawing. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  developments 
within  the  last  ten  years  has  been  the  pro- 
duction of  plates  which  are  sensitive  to  all 
the  colors  of  the  spectrum.  The  ordinary 
commercial  plates  are  sensitive  only  to  the 
blue  and  violet  parts  of  the  spectrum,  con- 
sequently red  or  yellow  objects  always 
come  out  black  in  the  finished  picture. 
Vogel  of  Berlin  discovered,  however,  that 
if  the  plates  were  slightly  stained  with 
some  aniline  dye  capable  of  absorbing  the 
red  and  yellow  light,  they  at  once  became 
sensitive  to  these  colors;  consequently  such 
plates  could  be  used  for  photographing  col- 
ored objects,  where  it  was  essential  that 
correct  color-values  should  be  rendered. 
Plates  are  now  made  which  will  blacken  in 
the  light  of  the  ordinary  dark-room's  red 
lamp  almost  as  quickly  as  ordinary  plates 
in  candle  light.  Such  plates  are  called 
arthochromatic  plates,  and  they  are  used 
for  photographing  paintings  and  other 
colored  objects  as  well  as  in  many  of  the 
processes  of  color  photography.  Great  im- 
provements have  been  made  also  in  photo- 
graphic lenses  within  the  past  quarter  of  a 
century,  the  firm  of  Zeiss  in  Jena  having 
been  most  active  in  the  development  of  the 
modern  photographic  objective. 

It  is  impossible  to  predict  what  the  future 
has  in  store  for  photography.  Still  more 
sensitive  plates  would  be  of  immense  use, 
particularly  in  scientific  photography,  and 
it  is  not  by  any  means  impossible  that  some 
new  discovery  may  at  any  time  give  us  a  plate 
ten  times  as  rapid  as  the  present  one.  What 
is  most  desired,  however,  is  some  satisfactory 
color-process,  which  can  hardly  be  expected 
until  some  one  is  fortunate  to  discover  that 
unknown  chemical  which  has  the  property 
of  assuming  a  color  similar  in  hue  to  the 
color  of  the  light  which  illuminates  it,  and 
.-staining  that  color  permanently,  a  discovery 
of  which  there  is  no  immediate  promise. 

COLOR  PHOTOGRAPH y 
At  the  very  beginning  of  the  art  of  pho- 
tography   it    was    observed    that    traces    of 


color  sometimes  appeared  in  the  picture 
which  bore  some  resemblance  to  the  color 
of  the  light  acting  on  the  plate.  Photo- 
graphs of  the  solar  spectrum  were  obtained 
in  this  way  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, in  which  the  colors  were  reproduced 
with  more  or  less  fidelity,  but  no  method 
was  discovered  of  rendering  the  colors  per- 
manent, and  it  is  only  within  the  last  few 
years  that  satisfactory  methods  have  been 
devised  of  producing  colored  pictures  by 
the  aid  of  photography.  The  methods  in 
use  at  the  present  time  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes :  The  direct,  in  which  the  color 
is  produced  by  the  action  of  the  light,  and 
the  indirect,  in  which  the  color  is  applied 
subsequent  to  the  taking  of  the  picture,  the 
photographic  process  being  modified  so  as 
to  cause  the  colors  to  distribute  themselves 
properly  in  the  finished  picture. 

The  only  successful  process  of  the  first 
class  is  that  of  Lippmann,  the  French  phy- 
sicist, whose  method  was  carefully  worked 
out  by  theory  before  a  single  experiment 
was  tried.  Lippmann's  process  essentially 
is  as  follows:  A  photographic  plate  is  placed 
in  a  holder  with  the  glass-side  toward  the 
lens  of  the  camera,  and  mercury  is  poured 
into  the  back  of  the  holder,  forming  a  me- 
tallic mirror  in  contact  with  the  sensitive 
surface  of  the  plate.  The  light  after  pas- 
sing through  the  film  is  reflected  back 
through  the  film  in  the  opposite  direction 
by  the  quicksilver  mirror.  A  very  remark- 
able thing  now  takes  place.  The  reflected 
light-waves  from  the  mirror  interfere  with 
the  oncoming  waves,  producing  what  are 
known  as  stationary  waves  in  the  sen- 
sitive film.  Now,  while  ordinary  light- 
waves deposit  the  silver  in  the  film  in  a 
solid  mass,  the  stationary  waves  have 
the  singular  power  of  depositing  it  in  ex- 
ceedingly thin  laminae  of  films,  each  one 
thinner  than  the  thinnest  gold  leaf.  The 
thickness  of  the  silver  laminae  varies  with 
the  color  of  the  light  producing  them, 
red  light  or  long  waves  producing  thicker 
films  than  blue  light  or  short  waves.  Thin 
films,  we  know,  show  brilliant  colors  by  re- 
flected light,  the  commonest  example  being 
the  soap-bubble,  and  the  silver  laminae  in 
Lippmann's  pictures  show  color  in  ex- 
actly the  same  way.  The  color  of  any  part 
of  the  bubble  depends  on  the  thickness  of 
the  soap-film,  and  in  the  same  way  the  color 
of  any  portion  of  the  photograph  depends 
on  the  thickness  of  the  silver-films  deposited 
by  the  light-waves  in  that  place.  The 
curious  thing  about  the  process  is  that 
light  of  any  given  color  will  deposit  films 
of  just  the  right  thickness  to  showttie  same 
color  by  reflected  light  after  the  plate  is 
developed  and  fixed  in  the  usua4  manner. 
What  is  still  more  remarkable  is  that  this 
fact  was  recognized  by  the  inventor  of 
the  process  before  any  of  his  experimental 
work  was  done.  The  production  of  pictures 


PHOTOGRAVURE 


1478 


PHOTOSYNTAX 


by  this  method  has  thus  far  been  confined 
to  the  laboratory,  the'  conditions  for  suc- 
cess not  yet  being  quite  fully  understood. 
Probably  not  more  than  half  a  dozen  peo- 
ple in  the  world  have  succeeded  in  getting 
satisfactory  results,  owing  to  the  experi- 
mental difficulties. 

Of  the  indirect  processes  there  are  a 
number  which  have  been  developed  far 
enough  to  be  considered  commercial  suc- 
cesses. These  processes  are  all  based  on 
the  principle  that  any  color  can  be  imitated 
by  a  mixture  of  the  three  primary  colors, 
red.  green  and  blue.  The  most  beautiful 
results  have  been  obtained  by  Mr.  Ives  of 
Philadelphia,  one  of  the  pioneers  in  _  this 
line  of  work,  whose  process  consists,  briefly 
in  taking  three  negatives  of  the  subject 
through  red,  green  and  blue  glasses.  These 
glasses  prevent  light  of  any  other  color  than 
that  which  they  are  designed  to  transmit 
from  getting  at  the  plate;  consequently 
each  negative  is  a  record  of  the  distribution 
of  one  of  the  three  primary  colors  in  the 
original.  From  these  negatives  three  trans- 
parencies on  glass  are  printed,  which,  when 
thrown  superimposed  on  a  screen  by  means 
of  three  lanterns  furnished  with  colored 
glasses  similar  to  the  ones  -ised  in  taking 
the  pictures,  combine  to  form  a  very  per- 
fect reproduction  of  the  original 

For  exhibiting  the  pictures  without  the 
lanterns  Mr  Ives  has  devised  an  instrument 
which  he  has  reamed  the  kromskop,  in 
which  the  colored  images  are  combined  by 
reflectors  The  pictures  are  stereoscopic 
as  well  and  the  result  is  a  reproduction  so 
perfect  that  it  <s  almost  impossible  to  be- 
lieve that  we  are  not  looking  at  the  object 
itself,  for  it  stands  out  in  full  perspective 
with  every  color  perfect. 

Another  process,  which  was  perfected  in- 
dependently and  almost  simultaneously 
by  Dr.  Joly  of  Edinburgh  and  Mr.  Mc- 
Donough  of  Chicago  has  been  recently  put 
upon  a  commercial  basis.  In  this  process 
the  negative  is  taken  on  a  plate  in  front  of 
which  is  placed  a  screen  ruled  with  very 
fine  lines  in  red.  green  and  blue  ink,  the 
colors  following  each  other  in  succession 
across  the  screen.  This  screen  breaks  up 
the  picture  into  linear  strips,  any  one  of 
which  may  be  regarded  as  a  record  of  one 
of  the  three  primary  colors  along  that  portion 
of  the  picture.  From  the  negative  obtained 
in  this  way  a  positive  is  printed  on  glass, 
which,  when  mounted  in  contact  with  a 
similar  tricolor  ruled  screen,  reproduces  the 
colors  of  the  original.  The  objection  to 
this  method  is  the  obtrusiveness  of  the  lines, 
especially  when  the  pictures  are  projected. 
The  colors  are  much  weaker  and  less  faith- 
fully reproduced  than  by  the  kromskop 
method. 

Another  method,  devised  originally  by 
Prof.  N.  W.  Wood  and  recently  improved 
and  perfected  by  Mr.  Ives  and  bis  son,  em- 


ploys the  diffraction  grating  as  the  source 
of  color  in  the  picture.  The  pictures  can  be 
duplicated  by  a  purely  mechanical  process, 
but  are  colorless  except  when  examined  with 
a  special  viewing  apparatus.  Results  have 
been  obtained  by  this  method  very  nearly 
if  not  quite  equal  to  those  yielded  by  the 
kromskop.  The  most  recent  process,  and 
the  only  one  which  appears  to  have  been  a 
commercial  success,  is  the  recently  devised 
starch-grain  process  invented  by  the 
Lumiere  brothers  of  Lyons.  It  is  a  modi- 
fication of  the  Joly  process,  the  colored 
lines  being  replaced  by  stained  granules  of 
potato-starch.  The  plates  are  not  very 
difficult  to  operate,  and  the  results  are 
highly  satisfactory,  though  by  no  means 
equalling  those  yielded  by  the  kromskop 
method.  R.  W.  WOOD. 

Pho'tograv'ure.  The  expense  of  photo- 
gravure work  greatly  limits  its  use  mostly 
to  high-class  bookwork.  Large  pictures, 
however,  are  produced  by  it  which  rival 
the  finest  steel  engraving  in  finish  and 
delicacy.  The  photographs  can  be  repro- 
duced, but  the  process  is  largely  employed 
for  obtaining  engravings,  such  as  copies  of 
celebrated  pictures.  The  process  is  so 
nearly  perfect  that  any  touch  of  the  painter's 
brush  is  clearly  seen  in  the  copy.  We  here 
give  one  of  the  methods.  (See  PHOTOG- 
RAPHY for  sensitized  plates,  negative  etc.) 
A  gelatine  relief  is  obtained  by  exposing 
bichromated  gelatine  to  the  action  of  1'ght 
beneath  a  negative.  The  gelatine  is  mixed 
with  a  quantity  of  black  lead  in  more  or 
less  granular  form.  This  causes  the  relief 
to  have  a  surface  which  is  granular  in 
character,  and  also  makes  it  a  conducting 
one  for  electricity.  Put  now  into  an  electro- 
type bath;  it  will  soon  be  covered  with  a 
deposit  of  copper.  A  copper  printing- 
plate  is  thus  made,  from  which  pictures  are 
printed. 

Pho'tophone,  a  curious  instrument  in- 
vented by  Graham  Bell  in  1880.  It  is  based 
upon  the  fact,  discovered  by  J.  E.  Mayhew 
in  1873,  that  the  resistance  of  annealed 
selenium  is  less  in  sunlight  than  in  the  dark. 
Using  a  piece  of  thin,  silvered  glass  on  a 
diaphragm,  Bell  was  able,  by  means  of  the 
human  voice,  so  to  deflect  a  pencil  of 
snnlight  that,  with  each  pulsation  of  the 
voice,  a  distant  piece  of  selenium  was 
alternately  illuminated  and  left  in  the  dark. 
This  piece  of  selenium  was  in  the  circuit 
of  a  telephone  receiver  and  a  battery.  At 
each  illumination  a  sudden  increase  of 
current  passed  through  the  receiver,  be- 
cause the  resistance  of  the  selenium  was 
diminished.  One  with  his  ear  at  the  receiver, 
therefore,  heard  every  pulsation  of  the  voice 
that  deflected  the  sunbeam  upon  the 
selenium.  Such  an  instrument  he  called  a 
photophone. 

Photosyntax  (  fo'to-sin'taks  ),  a  term  for- 
merly used  for  photosynthesis. 


PHOTOSYNTHESIS 


X479 


PHYCOMYCETES 


Photosynthesis  (fd'td-stn'tht-sls),  the  pro- 
cess by  which  green  plants  make  sugar, 
starch  and  similar  food.  The  materials  for 
this  are  carbon  dioxide  and  water.  The 
former  is  obtained  chiefly  (if  not  exclusively) 
by  the  leaves  and  twigs  from  the  air,  where 
it  constitutes  three  parts  in  10,000.  It 
passes  through  the  stomata  by  diffusion, 
dissolves  in  the  water,  saturating  the  cell- 
walls,  and  so  enters  the  cells.  The  organs 
by  which  the  food  is  made  are  the  minute, 
green  bodies  called  chloroplasts  or  chloro- 
phyll bodies,  which  give  the  plant  its  color. 
They  are  composed  of  protoplasm,  which 
holds  a  green  dye,  chlorophyll,  and  are 
imbedded  in  the  colorless  protoplasm  of 
those  cells  which  lie  near  the  surface  of  a 
plant  The  chlorophyll  absorbs  some  of 
the  light,  especially  the  red  and  yellow  parts, 
and  this  energy  is  used  (how  is  unknown) 
in  the  process  of  food-making.  Even  twilight 
(not  moonlight)  suffices  for  some  photo- 
synthesis; the  amount  of  food  made  is  pro- 
portional, other  things  being  equal,  to  the 
brightness  of  the  light.  The  details  of  the 
process  are  not.  known.  Usually  a  sugar 
appears  as  the  end  product;  this  increases 
to  a  certain  amount  in  the  water  of  the  cell ; 
some  of  it  is  turned  into  starch,  minute 
granules  being  formed  in  the  chloroplasts. 
The  food  is  constantly  being  carried  away 
to  places  of  use  or  storage.  In  daylight 
food  is  usually  produced  more  rapidly  than 
it  can  be  disposed  of:  but,  as  photosyn- 
thesis ceases  at  night,  the  surplus  is  then 
removed.  See  AERATION,  CHLOROPHYLL 
and  STOMATA. 

Phototaxis  (fd-td-t&ksVs)  (in  plants),  the 
sensitiveness  of  an  organism,  free  to  move 
about,  to  unequal  illumination  (see  IRRITA- 
BILITY), to  which  it  responds  by  taking 
up  a  definite  attitude  with  respect  to  the 
direction  from  which  the  brighter  light  acts. 
Only  water-plants  are  free  to  respond. 
Diatoms,  desmids,  some  filamentous  algae 
and  zoospores  of  algae  and  fungi  show  these 
reactions  Algal  zoOspores  swim  toward 
light,  and  fungous  zoospores  swim  away 
from  it. 

Phrenol'ogy  In  popular  language  phre- 
nology may  be  defined  as  the  theory  of  men- 
tal philosophy  based  on  the  size  or  the  rela- 
tive size  of  the  different  parts  of  the  brain. 
It  claims  that  we  can  localize  the  different 
parts  of  the  brain  which  gives  rise  to  different 
mental  functions.  Phrenologists  make  a 
map  of  the  cranium,  on  one  division  writing 
self-esteem;  on  another,  wit;  and  so  on. 
Examining  your  head,  the  phrenologist  will 
put  his  finger  on  one  point  and  say : 
This  man  has  a  large  development  of  self- 
esteem."  Moving  his  hand  to  another 
bump :  "This  man  is  lacking  in  veneration ;" 
or  "He  has  a  great  power  of  language;"  or 
"He  has  to  try  hard  to  give  exact  state- 
ments;" and  so  on.  The  cultivated  phre- 
nologist thus  goes  through  all  the  divisions 


of  mental  and  moral  qualities,  finding  a 
local  boundary  in  the  brain  for  each.  In 
Britain,  Gall,  Spurzheim  and  George  and 
Andrew  Combe  may  be  mentioned  as  rep- 
resentative phrenologists.  In  America  the 
more  noted  ones  are  Dr.  Charles  Caldwell, 
the  Fowler  brothers  and  Wells. 

Phryg'ia,  an  ancient  country  of  Asia 
Minor,  whose  boundaries  varied  at  different 
periods.  It  is  supposed  that  at  one  time 
Phrygia  included  most  of  the  peninsula. 
In  general  it  is  a  high  plateau  which  afforded 
pasturage  for  flocks.  Gold  was  found  in 
the  mountains  and  streams.  Vines  were 
cultivated  in  some  districts,  and  Phrygian 
marble  was  greatly  piized.  Phrygia  was 
conquered  by  Croesus  in  the  6th  century 
and  by  the  Persians  in  549.  The  influence 
of  the  Phrygian  religion  is  traced  in  Greek 
mythology. 

Phycomycetes  (fi'k$-mt-se'tez),  plants 
forming  one  of  the  great  groups  of  fungi, 
which  is  distinguished  by  being  more  like 
the  algae  in  structure  and  reproductive 
habits  than  any  of  the  fungus  groups.  The 


Mould.showing  mycelium  (m),  young  sporangia 
(g),  and  fertilized  egg  (*). 

name  means  alga-like  fungi.  The  mycelium 
is  composed  of  coenocytic  threads  or  hyphae, 
that  is,  filaments  which  contain  no  parti- 
tions. (See  COSNOCYTE).  It  seems  to  be 
more  than  probable  that  the  group  has  been 
derived  from  the  green  algae.  Prominent 
members  of  the  group  are  Saprolegnia 
forms  known  as  water-moulds  because  they 
live  upon  the  dead  bodies  of  water-plants 


PHYLLOCLAD 


1480 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


and  animals,  sometimes  attacking  living 
fish,  one  species  being  very  destructive  to 
fish  in  hatcheries.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  this  group  of  fungi  has  retained  the 
aquatic  habit  of  the  algae.  As  a  consequence, 
its  asexual  spores  are  ciliated  and  have  the 
power  of  swimming.  Another  feature  of 
the  water-moulds  is  that  the  oSgonium 
sometimes  forms  several  eggs  and  that 
frequently  the  eggs  form  new  plants  with- 
out any  fertilization,  being  an  illustration 
of  the  habit  called  parthenogenesis  (which 
see).  The  mucor  forms  are  well- represented 
by  the  black  moulds,  which  form  white, 
furry  growths  on  damp  bread,  manure- 
heaps  etc.  From  the  prostrate  mycelium 
arise  numerous  erect  branches,  each  bearing 
at  its  summit  a  globular  sporangium  con- 
taining numerous  asexual  spores.  The 
mucors  are  isogamous  (which  see).  The 
perpnospora  forms  are  the  downy  mildews 
which  are  common  internal  parasites  on 
seed -plants,  one  of  the  most  common 
kinds  attacking  grape  leaves.  The  presence 
of  the  parasite  is  made  known  by  discolored 
and  finally  deadened  spots  on  the  leaves 
where  the  tissues  have  been  killed.  The 
spore-bearing  branches  rise  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  leaf,  and,  many  of  them  arising 
near  together,  form  little  velvety  patches 
suggesting  the  name  downy  mildew.  These 
forms  are  heterogamous.  See  HETEROGAMY. 

Phyl'loclad  ( in  plants ) .     See  CLADOPH YLL. 

Phyllodia  (fl-lo'dt-a),  (in  plants),  peti- 
oles which  resemble  leaves  in  form  and  func- 
tion. The  most  conspicuous  display  of 
phyllodia  is  among  the  acacias,  especially 
hose  of  Australia.  The  normal  leaves  are 
pinnately  compound,  but  for  the  most  part 
they  do  not  develop,  the  petiole  becoming 
flat  and  doing  the  leaf  work. 

Phyllotaxy  (fU'lo-taksJ).  The  name 
literally  means  leaf-arrangement,  and  has 
to  do  with  the  distribution  of  leaves  upon 
the  stem  and  the  laws  which  govern  it.  In 
general,  there  are  two  types  of  leaf  arrange- 
ment :  that  in  which  the  two  or  more  leaves 
are  developed  at  the  same  node,  giving  rise 
to  what  is  called  the  verticillate  or  cyclic 
arrangement ;  and  that  in  which  but  a  single 
leaf  occurs  at  each  node,  giving  rise  to  the 
alternate  or  spiral  arrangement.  In  the 
case  of  the  spiral  arrangement  some  rela- 
tions have  been  discovered  which  seem  to 
be  more  curious  than  important.  In  the 
simplest  cases  the  leaves  occur  in  two  ver- 
tical rows,  the  angular  divergence  between 
any  two  successive  leaves  being  half  of  the 
circumference  of  the  stem  or  180°.  This 
type  of  phyllotaxy  is  designated  by  the  frac- 
tion £,  which  show?  the  angular  divergence, 
while  the  denominator  indicates  the  number 
of  vertical  ranks.  In  the  next  higher  series 
the  leaves  occur  in  three  rows,  the  angular 
divergence  between  successive  leaves  being 
one  third  the  circumference  or  120°.  The 
fraction  f  designates  this  arrangement. 


The  next  higher  arrangement  is  the  one  in 
which  there  are  five  vertical  rows,  but,  in 
order  to  reach  a  leaf  standing  directly  over 
the  one  started  from,  a  spiral  is  traced  twice 
around  the  stem.  The  angular  divergence 
between  two  successive  leaves,  therefore, 
is  two  fifths  of  the  circumference  or  144°, 
and  this  arrangement  is  designated  by  the 
fraction  f.  It  has  been  found  that  any 
fraction  may  be  derived  by  adding  the 
numerators  and  denominators  of  the  two 
preceding  fractions.  For  example,  the 
next  higher  arrangement  would  be  $,  which 
means  that  the  angular  divergence  is  three 
eighths  the  circumference  of  the  stem,  that 
is,  eight  leaves  are  passed  before  one  is 
reached  standing  directly  over  the  one 
started  from,  and  in  finding  the  eighth  leaf 
a  spiral  has  been  traced  three  times  around 
the  stem.  Such  high  orders  of  arrangement, 
as  5-13,  8-21  etc.  are  displayed  in  pine 
cones. 

Phyllox'era.      See    GRAPE-PHYLLOXERA. 

Phys'ical  Ed'ucation  in  some  schools  and 
colleges  includes  the  physical  examination  of 
pupils  and  students ;  their  personal  guidance 
in  matters  relating  to  health;  the  class  in- 
struction given  in  hygiene ;  and  the  teaching 
and  supervision  of  muscular  exercise  in- 
volved in  gymnastics  and  athletics.  Physical 
education  refers  more  technically  to  the 
employment  of  large  forms  of  muscular 
movement  in  the  education  of  the  young 
for  the  development  of  organic  power  and 
efficiency  and  for  the  attainment  of  men- 
tal and  moral  qualities  which  depend 
upon  muscular  activities  and  habits.  As 
modem  life  becomes  more  sedentary  and 
specialized,  particularly  for  those  who  live 
in  cities,  the  importance  of  physical  educa- 
tion increases.  As  the  scope  of  modern 
education  broadens  and  as  educational 
methods  become  more  adequate  in  prepar- 
ing pupils  for  practical  living,  the  need  of 
physical  education  is  more  clearly  recog- 
nized. This  term  refers  in  theory  to  the 
plan  and  benefits  of  muscular  or  motor 
activities  in  general  in  the  education  of  the 
young  and  is  concerned  with  the  physiology 
and  psychology  of  muscular  exercise  where- 
ever  it  occurs.  Practically,  however,  phys- 
ical education  is  directly  responsible  for  the 
fundamental  movments  of  the  body  not 
required  otherwise  nor  sufficiently  by  the 
school  or  by  life  outside  of  school. 

In  the  development  of  modern  education 
it  is  domestic  science,  manual  training  and 
school  excursions  that  have  to  some  extent 
supplied  the  need  for  large  neuromuscular 
movements;  but  these  are  by  no  means 
sufficient  for  all  the  needs  of  the  develop- 
ing child,  and  they  are  not  intended  or 
adapted  primarily  for  general  organic  train- 
ing. Under  more  primitive  conditions  of 
life  in  the  past  grown  people  and  children 
maintained  health  and  became  strong,  cour- 
ageous and  self-reliant  by  varied  work  and 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


1481 


PHYSICAL  SCIENCE 


vigorous  play  mostly  out-of-doors.  Not 
only  muscular  but  mental  and  moral  quali- 
ties of  vital  worth  were  developed  by  stren- 
uous and  varied  action  which  the  conditions 
of  life  made  possible  and  necessary.  While 
people  to-day  are  not  required  to  devote 
as  much  time  or  strength  to  hard  manual 
labor  as  formerly,  still  strong,  well-trained 
muscles,  nerves  and  nerve-centers  which 
work  with  the  muscles  and  are  developed 
by  them  are  as  essential  now  to  healthful, 
successful  living  as  they  were.  Normal  de- 
velopment in  children  does  not  occur  with- 
out the  opportunity  for  and  incentive  to  a 
variety  of  activities  similar  in  principle  to 
those  which  produced  health  and  power  in 
former  generations. 

It  is  within  the  scope  of  physical  educa- 
tion, then,  to  indicate  the  kind  and  amount 
of  motor-activity  desirable  for  different  ages 
and  sexes  and  to  provide  in  play,  games, 
dancing,  athletics  and  gymnastics  the  activi- 
ties necessary  to  the  best  development  of 
the  young  and  for  the  preservation  of  health 
and  organic  efficiency  in  adult  life.  It  also 
is  within  the  responsibility  of  physical  edu- 
cation to  know  the  biologic  condition  of  the 
individual  and  to  provide  as  far  as  is  pos- 
sible for  the  care  and  training  made  desirable 
by  personal  limitations.  This  personal  care 
and  training  may  include  attention  to  special 
sense-organs,  —  teeth,  throat  and  other 
parts  of  the  body  which  may  need  treatment 
as  well  as  corrective  gymnastics  for  tenden- 
cies to  weakness  and  deformity.  The 
improved  physical  education  of  the  future 
will  provide  for  the  logical  correlation  of 
large  motor-activities  with  subjects  and 
interests  of  the  young  in  school  and  outside 
wherever  such  correlations  are  practicable. 
The  material  of  the  new  physical  education 
will  be  largely  composed  of  play,  dancing 
and  games.  The  formal,  set  gymnastics 
which  have  been  devised  to  counteract  the 
unhygienic  tendencies  of  modern  life  lack 
in  essential  educational  values.  They  are 
formal,  more  or  less  artificial  and  lack  the 
interest  and  spontaneity  characteristic  of 
more  natural  and  satisfying  forms  of  action. 
Formal  gymnastics  will  be  used  as  adjuncts 
to  more  spontaneous  exercises,  but  they 
will  be  modified  and  reconstructed  to  meet 
the  demands  of  modern  physiology  and  ped- 
agogy, and  will  occupy  a  relatively  smaller 
space  in  the  educational  program  of  the 
future.  Elements  for  play,  dancing,  and 
games  will  be  supplied  by  historical  material, 
folk-lore  and  modern  adaptations  of  large 
movements  which  conditions  may  render 
desirable  and  possible. 

The  needs  of  the  individual  should  always 
provide  the  first  test  of  the  fitness  and  value 
of  these  fundamental  motor  activities.  Par- 
ticipation in  class  or  group  activities  should 
not  conflict  with  the  interests  of  the  in- 
dividual pupil.  Outdoor  exercise  is  always 
more  desirable  than  that  which  is  taken  in 


a  building.  But  in  inclement  weather  suit- 
able exercise  in  the  gymnasium  often  is 
indispensable. 

The  kindergarten  program  should  provide 
many  large  bodily  movements  through  sim- 
ple games,  dramatic  representations  and 
dances.  The  finer  activities  of  eye  and 
finger  should  be  carefully  limited  for  young 
children.  In  the  first  and  second  elementary 
grades  the  larger  exercises  of  the  kinder- 
garten may  be  continued  with  gradually 
increasing  complexity.  At  this  age  appara- 
tus for  the  easier  climbing  and  swinging 
movements  may  be  used;  children  of  seven 
and  eight  may  advantageously  be  given 
simple  marching  and  drill  formations.  In 
the  third  and  fourth  grades  dramatic  repre- 
sentations are  less  suitable,  games  of  skill 
are  advantageous,  marching  and  dancing 
are  to  be  continued,  squad  formations  and 
gymnastic  drills  with  and  without  simple 
apparatus  are  in  place.  In  the  grammar 
grades  there  should  be  a  continuation  of 
the  former  exercises  with  a  gradual  increase 
in  the  difficulty  and  complexity  of  move- 
ment. Games  and  exercises  requiring  skill 
should  have  prominent  place,  and  in  the 
upper  grammar  grades  group-games  become 
more  appropriate. 

Through  the  period  of  rapid  growth  in 
early  adolescence  boys  and  girls  should  have 
abundant  exercise  in  and  out  of  doors,  but 
as  growth  is  often  irregular  and  endurance 
very  limited,  much  care  should  be  taken  in 
individual  cases  to  prevent  excessive  strain 
and  fatigue.  At  the  beginning  of  rapid 
growth  of  girls,  just  preceding  adolescence, 
boys  and  girls  should  be  instructed  in  sepa- 
rate classes  in  physical  training  (excepting 
the  simple  exercises  given  in  the  class-room), 
and  a  definite  differentiation  should  be  made 
in  the  exercises  for  the  two  sexes  in  the 
gymnasium  and  on  the  playground. 

The  conscious  interest  of  the  pupil  should 
always  be  engaged  as  fully  as  possible,  and, 
before  the  high  school  at  least,  this  interest 
should  be  related  to  the  external  purpose 
or  advantage  of  the  exercise  rather  than 
to  the  beneficial  effect  upon  the  body. 

THOMAS  D.  WOOD. 

Physical  Sci'ence,  a  term  used  in  con- 
trast with  natural  science  to  denote  all  those 
sciences  which  deal  especially  with  inani- 
mate matter.  This  distinction  between  nat- 
ural and  physical  sciences,  which  was  ex- 
plicitly suggested  by  Maxwell,  would  reserve 
natural  science  for  the  subjects  considered 
under  the  heads  of  zoology,  botany,  paleon- 
tology, physiology,  anatomy,  psychology, 
anthropology  and  ethnology,  all  of  which 
deal  with  life  in  some  of  its  aspects;  while 
among  the  physical  sciences  would  be  in- 
cluded physics,  chemistry,  mineralogy,  geol- 
ogy ana  astronomy,  etc.  This  classification 
would  make  biology  the  fundamental  science 
of  the  natural  group  and  physics  the  founda- 
tion of  the  physical  group.  Physical  science 


PHYSICS 


1482 


PHYSIOGRAPHY 


may  be  defined,  therefore,  as  that  branch 
of  learning  which  deals  especially  with  en- 
ergy and  with  inanimate  matter. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  stu- 
dent that  physical  and  natural  originally 
meant  the  same  thing,  the  only  difference 
being  that  the  former  is  of  Greek  origin, 
while  the  latter  comes  from  the  Latin  Ac- 
cordingly, we  still  find  a  great  diversity  of 
usage.  Lord  Kelvin  spoke  of  a  certain 
physicist  as  a  "distinguished  naturalist." 
The  distinction  suggested  by  Maxwell  is, 
however,  being  rapidly  adopted. 

The  unprecedented  growth  of  physical 
science  during  the  iQth  century  had  tne 
effect  of  enormously  subdividing  the  sub- 
ject. Astronomy,  which,  in  fact,  is  the 
simplest  branch  of  physics,  requires  a  pecu- 
liar set  of  instruments  for  its  pursuit,  and. 
therefore,  is  no  longer  studied  under  the 
head  of  physics.  The  same  is  true  of  chem- 
istry, which  is  the  physics  of  the  molecule: 
it  has  become  a  large  subject  requiring  a 
special  equipment,  and  is  a  science  separate 
from  physics.  Such,  however,  was  not  the 
case  when  Robert  Boyle  studied  physics  and 
chemistry.  In  like  manner  geology  is  the 
physics  of  the  earth's  crust;  but  it  must  be 
studied  afield  as  well  as  in  a  special  labora- 
tory, and,  hence,  is  a  separate  and  very 
important  science.  Mineralogy  also  deals 
with  the  physics  of  a  special  group  of  bodies. 
But  these  bodies  are  so  vast  in  number  and 
so  enormously  important  in  commerce  that 
they  must  be  studied  elaborately  and  care- 
fully under  a  special  head  and  with  a  special 
equipment. 

Turning  now  from  the  pure  physical  sci- 
ences to  the  applied  physical  sciences,  we 
find  them  grouped  under  the  general  head 
of  engineering,  which  in  turn  has  already 
been  extensively  subdivided.  It  is  the  rapid 
advance  in  physical  science  which  has  made 
possible  the  vast  improvements  in  modern 
civilization,  somewhat  in  the  same  manner 
that  the  rapid  advances  in  natural  science 
have  made  possible  a  more  powerful  and 
beneficent  science  of  medicine  and  have  in- 
troduced into  modern  thought  the  control- 
ling principle  of  evolution. 

Physics  (ftz'iks),  in  its  broad  sense,  is 
that  science  which  deals  with  the  properties 
of  matter  and  of  energy.  In  its  narrow 
sense  physics  is  defined  in  such  a  way  as  to 
exclude  those  properties  of  matter  which 
depend  upon  its  composition  (referring  them 
to  chemistry),  and  those  properties  of  mat- 
ter which  are  exhibited  only  in  living  beings 
(referring  them  to  biology).  For  many 
years,  however,  there  has  ceased  to  be 
any  sharp  distinction  between  physics  and 
chemistry.  Witness  the  new  sciences  of 
physical  chemistry  and  electrochemistry. 
Popularly  defined,  physics  is  made  up  of 
the  sciences  of  mechanics,  heat,  light,  sound, 
electricity  and  magnetism.  A  sounder  view 
is  that  which  regards  physics  as  the  appli- 


cation of  dynamics  to  the  phenomena  ol 
sound,  heat,  light,  electricity  and  magnetism. 
See  ACOUSTICS,  DYNAMICS,  ELASTICITY, 
ELECTRICITY,  HEAT,  LIGHT  and  MAGNETISM. 
Phys'iog'raphy. 

SCOPE  OF  THE  SUBJECT 

This  term  has  but  recently  come  into  use, 
and  its  meaning  is  not  yet  clearly  and  uni- 
formly defined.  In  England  physiography 
is  regarded  as  the  introduction  to  physical 
science  in  general.  It  is  made  to  include  the 
elements  of  physics,  chemistry,  astronomy, 
physical  geography,  geology  and,  sometimes, 
even  certain  phases  of  botany  and  zoology. 
In  America  the  term  has  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent meaning.  It  is  sometimes  used  as  a 
synonym  for  physical  geography,  but  some- 
times it  is  defined  as  the  science  which  de- 
scribes and  explains  the  physical  features 
of  the  earth's  surface.  In  this  sense  it  is 
the  correlative  of  meteorology,  which  treats 
of  the  atmosphere,  and  of  oceanography, 
which  treats  of  the  oceans.  According  to 
early  usage  physical  geography  meant  a 
description  of  the  earth's  physical  features; 
but  physiography  does  not  content  itself 
with  a  mere  description  of  physical  features. 
It  attempts  also  to  explain  how  existing 
physical  features  originated.  This  indeed  is 
the  fundamental  distinction  between  physi- 
ography, as  the  term  is  commonly  used  in 
America,  and  that  part  of  physical  geog- 
raphy which  deals  with  the  physical  feat- 
ures of  the  earth's  surface.  In  its  attempt 
to  explain  the  origin  of  the  present  features 
of  the  earth's  surface  physiography  neces- 
sarily draws,  to  some  extent,  on  the  past 
history  of  the  earth;  that  is,  on  geology. 
Between  physiography  and  geology,  there- 
fore, there  is  no  sharp  line  of  division.  The 
present  features  of  the  earth  are  the  surface 
expression  of  the  geological  processes  which 
have  operated  in  the  past.  The  relation  of 
physiography  to  geology  may  be  likened  tc 
the  relation  of  political  geography  to  his- 
tory. Political  geography  is  an  expression, 
in  one  form,  of  history.  The  political  geog- 
raphy of  all  stages  of  history  would,  from 
one  point  of  view,  be  a  summary  of  history. 
Similarly,  if  the  physiography  of  each  stage 
of  the  earth's  history  were  known,  this 
knowledge  would,  from  one  point  of  view, 
give  us  the  complete  history  of  the  earth. 

The  atmosphere  is  as  much  a  part  of  the 
earth  as  are  the  rocks.  The  study  of  the 
atmosphere  is  meteorology,  but  physiog- 
raphy, even  in  its  narrowest  meaning,  in- 
cludes the  consideration  of  the  atmospheric 
forces  and  processes  which  have  shaped  or 
helped  to  shape  the  present  surface  of  the 
land.  This  includes  the  movements  of  the 
air  (winds),  the  moisture  of  the  air,  espe- 
cially precipitation,  the  changes  of  tempera- 
ture and  the  chemical  changes  effected,  di- 
rectly or  indirectly,  through  the  influence  of 
the  atmosphere.  While  meteorology  in- 


PHYSIOGRAPHY 


1483 


PHYSIOGRAPHY 


eludes  the  study  of  atmospheric  movements 
as  such,  physiography,  in  its  narrower  sense, 
includes  only  the  effects  of  those  movements 
on  that  part  of  the  earth  which  lies  below 
the  atmosphere.  The  ocean,  likewise,  Is  a 
part  of  the  earth.  The  science  which  deals 
with  the  ocean  as  such  is  oceanography; 
but  the  consideration  of  the  ocean  as  a  part 
of  the  earth  falls  within  the  province  of 
geology,  while  a  consideration  of  the  effects 
of  oceanic  activities  which  modify  the  sur- 
face of  the  solid  part  of  the  earth  falls 
within  the  scope  of  physiography.  Thus  the 
effects  of  rivers,  waves,  currents  etc.  on  the 
configuration  of  the  solid  part  of  the  earth 
fall  within  the  province  of  physiography. 
Physiography,  therefore,  concerns  itself  pri- 
marily with  the  topographic  results  of  geo- 
logic processes.  It  is  a  special  phase  of 
geology.  Since  the  geological  processes 
which  have  left  pronounced  topographic 
results  are  the  processes  of  late  geological 
time,  physiography  has  to  do  with  but  a 
brief  part  of  the  earth's  history. 

PHYSIOGRAPHIC  PROCESSES 
Powell  long  ago  grouped  all  processes  that 
work  on  the  earth's  surface  into  three  classes : 
The  processes  of  diastrophism;  the  processes 
of  vulcanism;  and  the  processes  of  gradation. 
Diastrophism  includes  the  up-and-down 
movements  of  the  earth's  crust,  movements 
which,  however  gentle  and  slow,  are  con- 
tinually in  progress.  Vulcanism  includes 
all  processes  connected  with  volcanoes. 
Gradation  includes  all  processes  by  which 
material  is  shifted  from  one  point  on  the 
earth's  surface  to  another.  The  centers  of 
diastrophic  and  volcanic  activity  are  beneath 
the  surface.  The  processes  of  gradation  are 
in  operation  on  the  surface,  chiefly  at  the 
plane  of  contact  between  atmosphere  and 
land  and  between  water  and  the  solid  part 
of  the  earth  beneath  it.  The  transfer  of 
material  in  gradation  is  usually  from  higher 
to  lower  levels.  Thus  rivers  carry  de"bris 
from  land  to  sea.  They  degrade  the  land, 
and  the  material,  deposited  in  the  sea, 
aggrades  its  bottom.  Glaciers  likewise  carry 
material  from  higher  to  lower  levels.  They 
degrade  the  places  where  they  gather  de'bris, 
and  aggrade  the  places  where  they  leave  it. 
The  degradation  of  one  place  generally  in- 
volves the  aggradation  of  another.  The  sand 
and  dust  blown  by  the  wind  constitute  a 
partial  exception  to  the  rule  that  the  ma- 
terials shifted  about  on  the  earth's  surface 
are  transferred  from  higher  to  lower  levels. 

LAND  AND  WATER  AREAS 
The  greatest  features  of  the  earth's  crust 
are  the  elevations  known  as  continents,  in 
contrast  with  the  depressions  known  as  ocean 
basins.  The  sharp,  topographic  division-line 
between  continents  and  ocean-basins  does 
not  correspond  with  the  borders  .of  the  con- 
tinental land-areas.  For  a  distance  about 


the  continental  lands  the  water  is  very 
shallow.  There  is  then  a  sudden  descent 
of  the  bottom  to  much  greater  depths.  The 
area  beneath  the  shallow  water  is  the  con- 
tinental shelf.  Its  outer  border  usually  is 
about  100  fathoms  below  the  level  of  the 
sea.  From  the  physiographic  point  of  view 
the  outer  edge  of  the  continental  shelf  is 
the  border  of  the  continent.  While  the  ex- 
planation of  the  existence  of  continents  and 
ocean  basins  is  a  problem  of  physiography, 
it  is  an  unsolved  problem.  No  assertion  can 
be  made  at  the  present  time  as  to  how  these 
greatest  of  physical  features  originated.  The 
continents  have  sometimes  been  looked  on 
as  uplifted  portions  of  the  earth's  crust; 
but  it  would  perhaps  be  quite  as  near  the 
truth  to  consider  the  ocean-basins  as  de- 
pressed portions.  It,  however,  is  far  from 
certain  that  the  surface  of  the  solid  part 
of  the  earth  was  ever  regular.  If  the  con- 
tinents were  lifted  or  if  they  were  left  up 
as  the  result  of  the  sinking  of  the  ocean- 
basins,  they  are  the  result  of  diastrophism. 
If  this  was  not  their  origin,  they  probably 
came  into  existence  when  the  eartn  was  in 
process  of  formation,  whatever  that  process 
was.  Smaller  land-masses,  that  is,  islands, 
have  originated  in  various  ways.  Some  are 
diastrophic,  some  are  gradational  (aggrada- 
tional),  and  many  are  volcanic. 

Physiography  has  to  do  both  with  the 
horizontal  and  the  vertical  configuration  of 
land-areas  and  sea.  The  horizontal  configu- 
ration of  the  one  is  the  counterpart  of  the 
horizontal  configuration  of  the  other;  but 
the  vertical  configuration  of  the  one  stands 
in  no  necessary  relation  to  that  of  the  other. 

THE  HORIZONTAL  CONFIGURATTON  OF  LAND 

AREAS 

It  is  the  province  of  physiography  to  de- 
fine, classify  and  explain  the  origin  of  all 
sorts  of  horizontal  irregularities  of  land -areas. 
Among  the  horizontal  irregularities  of  the 
land  are  peninsulas,  capes  etc. —  land-masses 
projecting  into  the  sea.  Among  the  horizon- 
tal irregularities  of  the  ocean  are  gulfs,  bays 
etc.  —  or  bodies  of  water  projecting  intc 
the  land.  The  sizes,  positions  and  shapes 
of  these  irregularities  are  readily  expressed 
on  maps.  Not  so  their  origin.  They  have, 
indeed,  originated  in  many  different  ways. 
For  example,  the  uplift  of  an  area  of  sea- 
bottom  along  a  line  at  right  angles  to  the 
coast  of  a  continent,  would  give  rise  to  a 
peninsula,  like  Florida.  The  uplift  of  two 
such  peninsulas  near  each  other  might  leave 
a  gulf  or  bay  between  them.  Again,  the 
sinking  of  a  coast  allows  the  sea  to  invade 
the  lower  ends  of  the  river-valleys,  forming 
bays,  as  Delaware  and  Chesapeake  Bays. 
When  the  sea  converts  the  lower  ends  of 
adjacent  valleys  into  bays,  it  leaves  a  penin- 
sula between.  Peninsulas  and  bays  formed 
in  this  way  are  the  results  of  diastrophism. 
Small  peninsulas  or  capes,  like  Cape  May, 


PHYSIOGRAPHY 


1484 


PHYSIOGRAPHY 


may  be  built  by  deposits  of  sand  and  gravel 
made  by  waves  and  shore-currents.  They 
are  the  result  of  gradation,  in  this  case  of 
aggradation.  Glaciers  moving  down  valleys 
to  the  sea,  as  in  high  latitudes,  may  gouge 
out  the  lower  ends  of  the  valleys  through 
which  they  pass,  cutting  them  down  far 
below  sea-level.  When  the  ice  melts,  deep, 
narrow  bays  or  fiords,  like  those  of  Green- 
land, Norway  or  Alaska,  are  the  result. 
Such  bays  are  a  result  of  gradation;  in  this 
case,  of  degradation  Volcanic  activity  on 
a  coast-line  may  result  in  extending  the 
land,  —  making  a  cape,  or  in  destroying  land 
which  previously  existed,  —  leaving  a  bay. 
Thus  horizontal  irregularities  may  arise  by 
vulcanism  as  well  as  by  diastrpphism  and 
gradation.  Horizontal  irregularities  arise  in 
many  ways  not  here  enumerated,  especially 
by  various  processes  of  gradation;  but  the 
foregoing  illustrations  will  suffice  to  show 
that  horizontal  irregularities  may  result  from 
any  one  of  the  three  sets  of  processes  re- 
ferred to  above.  The  horizontal  configura- 
tion of  a  land-area  may  be  altered  by  animal 
or  plant  life,  as  when  coral-reefs  are  con- 
structed or  mangrove-trees  invade  the 
water,  extending  the  land.  These  may  be 
looked  on  as  special  cases  of  aggradation. 

RELIEF  FEATURES  OF  THE  FIRST  ORDER 

Physiography  has  also  to  do  with  the 
vertical  configuration  of  the  land.  The 
great  relief  types  are  three:  Plains,  plateaus 
and  mountains. 

Plains  are  relatively  low  areas  of  consid- 
erable extent,  with  surfaces  which  are  not 
notably  rough.  Plateaus  are  similar  tracts 
of  greater  altitude,  which  stand  up  more 
or  less  prominently  above  their  surroundings 
on  one  or  more  sides.  Mountains  usually 
have  less  areal  extent,  and  stand  up  more 
conspicuously  above  their  surroundings. 
They  generally  have  somewhat  narrow  sum- 
mits and  steep  slopes. 

As  topographic  features,  plateaus  and 
plains  may  be  said  to  differ  from  one  an- 
other chiefly  in  elevation;  yet  there  is  no 
specific  elevation  above  which  land  may  not 
rise  and  yet  remain  a  plain.  Formerly, 
plains  were  often  defined  as  lands  below 
1,000  feet  in  elevation;  but  this  arbitrary 
definition  has  no  warrant  in  nature  or  in 
usage.  The  fact  is  that  plains  often  grade 
into  plateaus  and  that  there  is  no  sharp 
line  of  demarkation  or  basis  of  separation 
which  is  uniformly  applicable.  An  exten- 
sive tract  of  land,  500  feet  above  the  sea, 
would  probably  be  called  a  plain  if  it 
were  surrounded  or  nearly  surrounded  by 
higher  land,  or  if  it  were  bordered  by  notably 
high  land  on  one  side  and  descended  gradu- 
ally to  much  lower  levels  on  others.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  tract  of  land  500  feet 
above  the  sea  would  probably  be  called  a 
plateau  if  it  were  bordered  on  one  or  more 
sides  by  a  tract  of  considerable  extent, 


which  had  an  elevation  of  but  100  or  200  feet, 
particularly  if  the  descent  to  the  lower  level 
were  abrupt.  Extensive  areas  1,000  feet 
or  even  considerably  more  above  the  sea 
would  probably  be  called  plains  rather  than 
plateaus,  if  they  were  surrounded  or  largely 
surrounded  by  higher  lands,  while  they 
would  be  called  plateaus  if  they  stood  up 
distinctly  above  their  surroundings.  Thus 
parts  of  the  plains  of  the  Mississippi  basin 
are  higher  than  parts  of  the  Piedmont 
plateau  lying  east  of  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains. It  is,  therefore,  a  question  of  sur- 
roundings and  relations,  rather  than  actual 
elevation  above  the  sea,  which  determines 
whether  a  tract  shall  be  called  a  plain  or  a 
plateau. 

A  plateau  may  be  bordered  by  slopes 
which  descend  abruptly  on  all  sides  or  by 
slopes  which  descend  gently  on  all  sides; 
or  a  plateau  may  descend  abruptly  or  gently 
on  one  side  and  be  bordered  by  a  higher 
plateau  or  by  a  mountain  range  on  another. 
In  the  latter  case  the  rise  to  the  higher 
slopes  may  be  abrupt  or  gentle.  If  abrupt, 
the  separation  of  plateau  and  mountain  is 
distinct;  if  gentle,  the  one  grades  into  the 
other.  If  a  high  plateau  become  narrow  and 
long,  and  if  it  descend  in  all  directions  or 
on  both  sides,  it  may  approach  a  mountain 
range  in  form. 

Mountains  are  not  more  sharply  defined 
than  plains  and  plateaus.  The  term  moun- 
tain implies  notable  elevation,  but  a  moun- 
tain is  not  necessarily  higher  than  a  plateau. 
Thus  the  plateau  of  Tibet  is  much  higher 
than  any  part  of  the  Appalachian  mountain 
system.  The  term  mountain  implies  (i) 
a  considerable  elevation  above  surroundings 
and  (2)  crests  of  limited  area.  An  isolated 
elevation  1,000  feet  above  its  surroundings, 
rising  abruptly  above  a  low  flat  plain,  would 
doubtless  be  called  a  mountain,  though  an 
elevation  of  the  same  height,  with  gentler 
slopes,  on  a  rolling  plateau  might  not  be. 

It  is  the  task  of  physiography  to  describe 
the  forms  and  relations  of  plains,  plateaus 
and  mountains,  to  explain  how  they  came 
into  existence  and  how  they  came  to  assume 
the  forms  which  they  now  have.  Some 
plains  originated  by  diastrophism,  as  by  the 
elevation  of  shallow  sea-bottom  enough  to 
convert  it  into  land;  others  are  the  result 
of  aggradation,  the  building  up  of  sea-bot- 
tom slightly  above  the  level  of  the  sea; 
others  are  the  result  of  the  degradation  of 
mountains  and  plateaus;  and  still  others 
owe  their  origin  to  the  combined  action  of 
diastrophic  and  gradational  forces.  Subse- 
quent to  the  origin  of  plains,  their  surfaces 
have  been  modified  by  rain,  rivers,  winds, 
glaciers  etc.  It  is  the  task  of  physiography 
to  determine  the  nature  and  the  extent  of 
the  changes  which  these  several  agencies 
have  effected.  Plateaus  are  the  result  of 
diastrophism  or  of  vulcanism  or  of  both. 
They  are  plains  elevated  to  the  condition 


PHYSIOGRAPHY 


1485 


PHYSIOGRAPHY 


of  plateaus;  or,  less  commonly,  they  are 
buift  up  by  lava-flows.  After  they  come 
into  existence,  plateaus  are  subject  to  the 
same  changes  as  plains.  Mountains  have 
originated  in  various  ways:  by  diastrophism, 
as  in  the  case  of  mountains  formed  by  the 
upfolding  of  the  superficial  strata  of  the 
earth's  crust  or  by  the  up-thrust  of  blocks 
of  the  earth's  crust;  by  volcanoes,  as  in  the 
case  of  volcanic  peaks;  and  by  gradation. 
The  origin  of  mountains  by  gradation  will 
be  referred  to  later  Like  plains  and  plateaus 
mountains  are  modified  by  wind  and  water 
and  air  after  they  are  formed.  Physiogra- 
phy essays  to  explain  how  they  originated 
and  how  far  their  present  forms  are  the 
result  of  original  uplift  or  upbuilding  and 
how  far  the  result  of  subsequent  gradation. 

MINOR  RELIEF  FEATURES 
The  great  relief  forms  —  plains,  plateaus 
and  mountains  —  are  affected  by  numerous 
smaller  relief  features.  Thus,  a  plain  or  a 
plateau  may  be  affected  by  depressions 
(valleys)  cut  out  by  streams.  Between  the 
valleys  remain  elevations.  If  the  elevations 
be  long  and  narrow,  they  are  ridges;  if 
short,  hills.  The  valleys  are  made;  the 
ridges  and  hills  are  left  As  a  result  of  the 
excavation  of  valleys,  plains  may  be  far 
from  flat.  Generally  speaking,  the  valleys 
are  deep  in  proportion  as  the  land  is  high. 
The  valleys  of  plateaus,  on  the  whole,  are 
deeper  than  those  of  plains,  and  the  ridges 
and  hills  between  them  are  therefore  higher. 
If  the  ridges  or  hills  be  very  high,  they  may 
be  called  mountains.  For  example,  the 
Catskills  are  simply  the  big  hills  left  in  the 
erosion  of  the  plateau  which  once  existed 
where  the  mountains  now  are.  The  depres- 
sions between  the  mountainous  hills  have 
been  worn  out  by  running  water.  It  is 
thus  that  mountains  originate  as  the  result 
of  gradational  processes  operating  on  pla- 
teaus. Special  names  are  given  to  special 
forms  of  hills  or  mountains,  developed  by 
erosion.  Here  belong  buttes,  large,  flat- 
topped,  high  hills  developed  by  erosion  in 
and  regions;  -mesas,  whicn  are  more  exten- 
sive remnants  of  plateaus;  etc. 

Along  valley-bottoms,  whether  the  valleys 
are  in  plains,  plateaus  or  mountains,  narrow 
alluvial  plains  are  often  developed.  So,  too, 
about  the  borders  of  lakes,  whether  in  plains, 
plateaus  or  mountains,  low,  flat  lacustrine 
plains  of  limited  extent  are  made,  either  as 
the  result  of  deposition  in  the  lake  or  as  the 
result  of  the  lowering  of  its  level  or  as  the 
result  of  both.  Lacustrine  and  alluvial 

Elains  are  minor,  secondary  features  in  re- 
ef forms  of  the  first  order.  Small  plains 
are  also  developed  in  other  ways.  Along 
streams  and  lakes  or  along  the  ocean  ter- 
races are  often  developed.  They  represent 
other  minor  topographic  forms  developed 
in  plains,  plateaus  or  mountains. 

Between  highlands  and  lowlands  there  are 


always  slopes.  The  slopes  between  moun- 
tains and  plateaus  are  parts  of  the  moun- 
tains and  plateaus,  respectively.  So,  too  the 
slopes  between  the  surface  of  a  plateau  and 
the  bottom  of  a  valley  cut  in  it  are  parts 
both  of  the  plateau  and  of  the  valley.  Yet 
slopes  constitute  a  somewhat  distinct  class 
of  topographic  forms.  If  slopes  are  very 
steep,  and  especially  if  they  are  steep  and 
high,  they  are  called  cliffs  Cliffs  occur  along 
sea  and  lake  shores  as  well  as  along  valleys. 
It  is  within  the  province  of  physiography  to 
explain  how  these  secondary  and  minor 
features,  as  alluvial  plains,  lacustrine  plains 
terraces,  slopes,  cliffs  etc.  arose  and  how 
their  individual  peculiarities  of  form  were 
developed. 

Another  topographic  form  is  the  basin. 
Basins,  like  most  topographic  types,  are  of 
various  sorts.  Some  are  large,  some  small. 
They  may  affect  the  surfaces  of  plains  or  of 
plateaus,  or  they  may  occur  among  moun- 
tains. Some  have  outlets,  and  some  have 
not.  Those  which  have  not  may  give  rise 
to  lakes,  ponds  etc.  Ponds  and  lakes  may 
have  outlets,  but  below  the  level  of  the 
outlet  is  a  basin  which  has  no  outlet,  else 
there  would  be  no  lake  or  pond.  Other 
so-called  basins  are  enclosed  on  three  sides 
and  open  on  the  fourth,  or  at  least  at  some 
one  point.  It  is  customary  to  speak  of  the 
great  depression  between  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  on  the  east,  the  Rockies  on  the 
west  and  the  Height  of  Land  on  the  north 
as  the  Mississippi  basin,  although  it  is  by 
no  means  completely  inclosed  by  high  land. 
It  is  the  function  of  physiography  to  define 
the  various  types  of  basins  and  to  explain 
their  modes  of  origin  and  their  individual 
characteristics. 

CONFIGURATION  OF  THE  SEA-BOTTOM 
The  configuration  of  the  sea-bottom  also 
falls  within  the  province  of  physiography; 
and,  while  the  sea-bottom  is  less  familiar 
than  the  land,  its  general  features  are  known. 
It  is  known,  for  example,  that  there  are 
great  areas  of  the  sea- bottom  elevated  above 
their  surroundings.  Such  areas  are  compar- 
able, in  some  sense,  to  the  plateaus  on  land. 
There  are  great  areas  where  the  ocean-bed 
is  depressed,  relatively  to  the  areas  just 
referred  to.  Such  areas  are  comparable  to 
the  plains  of  the  land.  There  are  other  de- 
pressions in  the  ocean-bed,  more  limited  in 
area,  which  are  comparable  to  basins  on 
the  land,  though  some  of  them  are  much 
larger,  both  in  area  and  depth,  than  the 
inclosed  basins  on  the  land.  Many  parts  of 
the  ocean-basin  have  been  affected  by  vul- 
canism.  Volcanic  peaks  are,  on  the  whole, 
more  notable  features  of  the  ocean-bottom 
than  of  the  land.  In  its  fundamental  fea- 
tures or  features  of  the  first  order,  therefore, 
the  ocean-bed  has  some  likeness  to  the 
land.  But  gradational  agencies,  especially 
degradational  agencies,  are  hardly  operative 


PHYSIOLOGY 


1486 


PHYSIOLOGY 


on  the  ocean-bottom,  except  in  very  shallow 
water.  Since  it  is  degradational  agencies 
which  produce  the  most  notable  secondary 
features  of  land-surfaces,  and  since  these 
agencies  are  little  operative  in  the  sea,  the 
sea-bottom,  in  general,  is  without  the  hills, 
the  ridges,  the  mountain-peaks  due  to  ero- 
sion, the  valleys,  valley-plains  and  terraces 
which  abound  on  the  land.  These  physio- 
graphic forms  are  sometimes  found  on  the 
sea-bottom,  and  the  areas  where  they  occur 
are  thought  to  have  been  land  at  one  time, 
though  now  submerged.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  shallow  sea-bottom  is  affected  by  bars, 
reefs  etc.,  built  by  waves  and  shore-currents, 
and  by  coral  polyps.  Reefs  are  not  formed 
on  land,  and  only  occur  there,  when  an  area 
of  sea-bottom  is  elevated  to  the  estate  of 
land. 

REFERENCES 

Davis'  Physical  Geography;  Geikie's  Earth 
Sculpture;  Physiography  of  the  United  States; 
Jukes-Brown's  Physical  Geology;  much  of 
dynamic  geology  in  any  textbook  on  geology ; 
those  portions  of  textbooks  on  physical 
geography  which  deal  with  the  land  and 
with  the  configuration  of  the  ocean-beds; 
all  treatises  on  rivers,  lakes,  glaciers,  as 
Russell's  Volcanoes;  Judd's  Physiographic 
Atlases  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey;  etc. 
R.  D.  SALISBURY. 

Phys'iol'ogy.  Anatomy  shows  us  that 
animals  and  plants  are  wonderfully  con- 
structed. But  after  we  understand  their 
architecture  and  even  their  minute  structure, 
the  questions  remain;  What  are  all  the 
organs  and  tissues  for,  and  what  takes 
place  within  the  parts  that  are  actually 
alive?  Physiology  attempts  to  answer 
questions  of  this  nature.  It  therefore  stands 
in  contrast  with  anatomy  and  is  supple- 
mentary to  it.  The  activities  of  the  body 
are  varied  and  depend  on  life  for  their  mani- 
festation —  they  may  be  called  vital  activi- 
ties. Physiology  embraces  a  study  of  them 
all.  This  subject  began  to  attract  the  at- 
tention of  the  ancient  medical  men,  who 
wished  to  fathom  the  activities  of  the  body 
in  order  to  heal  it  in  disease.  But  it  is  so 
difficult  a  thing  to  begin  to  comprehend  the 
activities  of  life,  that  even  the  simpler  rela- 
tionships were  imperfectly  understood,  and 
they  resorted  to  mystical  explanations. 
They  spoke  of  spirits  and  humors  in  the  body 
as  causing  the  various  changes.  The  arteries 
were  supposed  to  carry  air,  the  veins  only 
blood,  and  nothing  was  known  of  the  circu- 
lation. In  these  early;  days,  also,  anatomy, 
physiology  and  medicine  were  united  into  a 

¥Dorly  digested  mass  of  facts  and  fancies, 
his  state  of  affairs  lasted  till  the  i6th  cen- 
tury, and  then  the  awakening  came  through 
the  efforts  of  gifted  men  endued  with  the 
spirit  of  independent  investigation.  The 
advances  made  depended  upon  the  work 
or  leadership  of  these  men,  and  certain 


I.  periods    of    especial    importance    should    be 
pointed  out. 

First  is  the  period  of  Harvey  (1578-1657). 
In  his  time  the  old  idea  of  spirits  and  humors 
was  giving  way,  but  there  was  much  vague- 
ness about  the  relationships  and  activities 
of  the  body.  He  helped  to  illuminate  the 
subject  by  showing  a  connection  between 
arteries  and  veins  and  demonstrating  the 
circulation  of  the  blood.  Harvey  (q.  v.) 
did  not  see  the  blood  passing  through  the 
capillaries  from  arteries  to  veins,  but  his 
reasoning  was  unassailable  that  such  a 
connection  must  exist  and  that  the  blood 
makes  a  complete  circulation.  He  gave 
this  conclusion  in  his  medical  lectures  as 
early  as  1619,  but  did  not  publish  his  views 
until  1628.  It  was  reserved  for  Malpighi,  in 
1 66 1,  actually  to  see  the  circulation  through 
capillaries  under  the  microscope,  and  for 
Leeuwenhoek,  in  1669  and  later  years, 
greatly  to  extend  the  observations.  The 
next  great  period  was  marked  by  the  work 
of  Haller  (1708-77),  who  made  physiology 
an  independent  subject.  It  had  previously 
been  united  with  anatomy  and  medicine; 
he  made  it  a  subject  to  be  studied  for  its 
own  sake.  The  period  that  marks  the  be- 
ginning of  modern  physiology  came  next, 
and  was  due  to  the  genius  and  force  of 
Johannes  Miiller  (q.  v.).  He  studied  physi- 
ology so  broadly  that  he  made  it  comparative. 
He  used  every  means  at  his  command  — 
experiment,  observations  on  simpler  ani- 
mals, the  microsope,  the  discoveries  in 
physics,  chemistry  and  psychology.  He 
(1801-58)  made  physiology  systematic  and 
broadly  comparative.  Not  only  did  he  do 
important  work  himself,  but  as  professor 
of  physiology  at  Berlin  he  trained  many 
talented  young  men,  among  whom  were 
Ludwig  (1816-95),  Du  Bois-Raymond 
(1818-96)  and  Helmholtz  (q.  v.).  Thus  his 
influence  reached  to  the  present  time  and 
affected  recent  physiology.  With  these 
distinguished  German  physiologists  should 
be  mentioned  Claud  Bernard  (1813-78)  of 
France  and  Sir  Michael  Foster  of  England 


Physiology  has  broadened  and  deepened 
until  it  includes  the  vital  activities  of  the 
entire  animal  and  vegetable  worlds.  Every 
action  or  function  dependent  upon  life  is 
embraced  by  it.  These  are  so  varied  that 
they  must  be  reduced  to  order  and  system, 
and,  when  that  has  been  done,  we  observe 
that  all  the  functions  may  be  grouped  under 
three  great  headings:  Those  concerned 
with  nutrition;  those  connected  with  rela- 
tion; and  those  pertaining  to  reproduction. 
Nutrition  embraces  every  activity  con- 
cerned in  nourishing  the  body.  _  It  must 
include  a  discussion  of  the  blood,  its  struct- 
ure, circulation  and  changes;  the  heart  and 
the  influences  which  affect  it;  the  digestive 
system,  the  kinds  of  food,  the  nature  of 
digestion,  the  absorption  of  the  food  into 


t"'"" '""""""a »""> «««»*» am no nmti muioi amoimu a a nmioni an m* 

THE  MACHINE  WE  LIVE  IN 


111 '"'"'"''''""'"'"''''""'I'liiiiiiiiwiiiiiiiiiiiicjiiiiiiiiiiiiunii!,,,::,,:],!,.!!!!!!.:):,,,!!!,;:,,:: iicjiiiiiiiiniicjiiiiiiiuiiuiiiii.iiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiuitjii nc:! 


•fuiiiiiiiiinoimi uiiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiniiiiioi iiiioiiini uiiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiuiiiu uuini oi:iiiiiiiioiiinimii+ 

THINGS  WORTH  KNOWING  ABOUT  OUR 

BODIES 


The  first  picture  shows  how  our  second  teeth  come  in.  You  see,  they  really  push  out  our  baby 
teeth  and,  following  right  after  them,  take  their  places.  The  next  picture  shows  how  our  joints  are 
held  together,  and  cushioned  so  that  jolts  will  not  injure  them. 


This  picture  shows  why  we  should  have  broken  bones  properly  set.  The  setting  on  the  right 
is  a  very  bad  job.  A  limb  so  set  is  not  only  liable  to  be  easily  broken  again  but  will  be  crooked 
and  shorter  than  the  other  limb. 

The  next  picture  shows  you  what  happens  when  your  adenoids  become  enlarged,  iney  stof 
up  your  nose  so  that  you  can't  breathe  well.  A  doctor  by  a  very  simple  operation  can  cut  down 
this  obstruction,  and  it  is  very  important  for  your  health  that  this  should  be  done. 

\m ,101 uiiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiiicjiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiioniiiiiiiioi 10 "ii [jiiiiiiniiioiiiiiiiiiiicj loiiiiiiiiiiiaiiiiiiiiiiiia* 


PHYSIOLOGY 


1487 


PIASTER 


the  circulation,  the  secretion  of  substances 
like  the  digestive  juices  and  other  forms 
of  secretions  in  the  body;  and  the  action  of 
the  liver,  pancreas  and  similar  organs. 
Respiration  is  connected  with  nutrition, 
because  the  oxygen  brought  in  is  used  in  all 
processes  of  the  body,  and  the  removal  of 
the  carbon  dioxide  (CO  2)  is  an  aid  to  nutri- 
tion. One  must,  therefore,  learn  all  about 
the  breathing  organs  and  the  nature  of  the 
exchanges  between  the  blood,  the  air  and 
the  tissues.  The  living  protoplasm  of  the 
body  is  continually  undergoing  disintegra- 
tion; it  breaks  into  carbon  dioxide,  water 
and  nitrogenous  compounds.  In  order  that 
nutrition  may  be  effectively  carried  on, 
these  waste-products  must  be  removed. 
This  topic  includes  the  action  of  the  kidneys, 
the  lungs  and  the  skin  The  varied  chemi- 
cal changes  in  assimilating  the  food  and  the 
reverse  set  of  changes  resulting  in  the 
liberation  of  energy  must  be  considered 
under  nutrition. 

Another  great  division  of  physiology 
deals  with  the  means  by  which  an  animal 
or  plant  is  brought  into  proper  relation  with 
its  surroundings  This  in  higher  animals 
includes  the  action  of  the  nervous  system 
and  sense-organs  as  well  as  control  of  the 
nervous  system  over  the  organs.  The 
muscles  and  organs  of  protection  are  also 
involved  in  bringing  about  a  harmonious 
relation  between  surroundings  and  the 
animal.  Finally,  reproduction  refers  to 
the  preservation  of  the  race,  and  is  more 
for  the  benefit  oi  the  race,  generally  speak- 
ing, than  for  the  individual. 

A  study  of  all  these  varied  activities  is 
physiology.  Reference  must  be  made  to 
text-books  and  manuals  for  further  con- 
sideration. It  is  a  common  fault  with  our 
elementary  physiologies  to  go  too  much 
into  the  discussion  of  the  effects  of  alcohol 
and  narcotics.  The  importance  of  such  a 
discussion  is  unquestioned,  but  the  facts  of 
physiology  and  hygiene  should  stand  out 
in  unrivaled  prominence.  Among  the 
smaller  texts  Huxley's  Lessons  in  Elemen- 
tary Physiology  is  the  most  lucid  state- 
ment of  the  facts  of  physiology  yet  presented. 
Among  the  best  books  of  greater  extent  may 
be  mentioned  Foster's  Textbook  of  Physiology; 
Stewart's  Manual  of  Physiology;  Kirke's 
Handbook  of  Physiology;  Howell's  American 
Textbook  of  Physiology;  Verworn's  General 
Physiology;  Martin's  The  Human  Body;  and 
Hall's  Textbook  of  Physiology.  See  BLOOD, 
BRAIN,  CIRCULATION,  EAR,  EYE,  HEART, 
LIVER,  LUNGS,  MUSCLE,  NERVES,  STOMACH, 
TEETH.  WM.  A.  Locv. 

Physiology  of  Plants.  Physiology  may 
be  denned  as  that  branch  or  department  of 
science  which  treats  of  the  activities  of 
living  beings.  These  essentially  are  the 
same  in  plants  as  in  animals,  but  often  are 
simpler.  Plant  physiology  is  concerned 
with  the  action  of  the  plant  body  as  a  whole, 


the  part  which  each  of  its  organs  takes  and 
the  ways  in  which  they  are  adjusted  to  one 
another  and  the  external  world.  (See 
ECOLOGY.)  The  work  of  a  particular  part 
or  organ  is  called  its  function.  The  import- 
ant general  functions  of  plants  are  absorb- 
tion;  water  transfer;  transpiration;  nutri- 
tion (in  the  narrower  sense)  including  diges- 
tion, photosynthesis  and  assimilation ;  secre- 
tion; respiration;  growth;  and  movement. 
(See  these  topics  and  IRRITABILITY.)  In 
the  higher  plants  the  root  is  an  absorbing 
organ  for  water,  mineral  salts  and  such 
organic  matter  as  is  soluble  in  water  ;  the 
root,  stem  and  leaves  are  furnished  with 
strands  of  tissues  along  which  water  and 
foods  can  travel  readily;  the  leaves  and  the 
surface  of  the  stem,  at  least  when  young, 
are  organs  of  absorption  and  evolution  of 
the  gases  carbon  dioxide  and  oxygen;  they 
also  lose  water  by  evaporation;  and  they 
are  most  important  as  organs  for  making 
carbohydrate  foods.  All  these  functions, 
however,  may  go  on  in  a  single  cell  of  one 
of  the  simplest  plants. 

Pian'ofor'te,  a  stringed  musical  instru- 
ment played  by  keys,  developed  out  of  the 
clavichord  and  harpsichord.  It  differs  from 
these  chiefly  in  the  introduction  of  hammers 
with  which  to  put  the  strings  in  vibration, 
connected  with  the  keys  by  a  mechanism 
that  enables  the  player  to  modify  the  in- 
tensity of  the  sound  at  will.  It  is  this 
peculiarity  to  which  the  name  is  due,  piano 
being  the  Italian  for  soft  and  forte  for  loud. 
The  strings  are  stretched  across  a  compound 
frame  of  wood  and  metal,  composed  of 
bars,  rods  and  strengtheners  of  various 
kinds.  This  framework  includes  a  wooden 
sound-board.  The  mechanism  by  which 
hammers  are  connected  with  the  keys  is 
called  the  action  of  the  instrument.  The 
duration  of  a  note  is  regulated  by  the 
damper.  This  consists  of  a  piece  of  leather, 
resting  on  the  top  of  the  string  and  connected 
with  the  back  part  of  the  key  by  a  vertical 
wire.  When  a  key  is  pressed  down,  its 
damper  is  raised  off  the  string  so  as  to  allow 
the  sound  to  be  clear  and  open;  but  when 
the  finger  is  taken  from  the  key,  the  damper 
wire  falls  immediately,  and  the  damper 
presses  down  on  the  string,  muffling  and 
stopping  the  vibration.  One  of  the  pedals 
is  called  the  loud,  the  other  the  soft  pedal. 
Great  difference  of  detail  exists  in  the 
"actions"  of  different  makes,  but  all  have 
the  same  essential  parts.  See  Hopkins' 
Musical  Instruments. 

Piaster  (pt-as'ter),  "a  plaster"  in  the 
Latin;  in  the  Romance  languages  "any- 
thing spread  out,"  "a  plate,"  "a  coin." 
The  word  is  applied  to  an  old  Spanish  coin, 
worth  not  quite  $r.oo  of  United  States 
money.  It  was  divided  into  eight  reals, 
and  hence  was  called  "a  piece  of  eight." 
The  Italian  piaster  is  an  imitation  of  and 
nearly  equal  to  the  Spanish  piaster  in  value. 


PIBROCH 


1488 


PICTS 


The  Turkish  piaster  is  worth  about  four 
cents  of  United  States  money. 

Pibroch  (pe'brok),  a  form  of  bagpipe 
music,  generally  of  a  warlike  character. 
The  rhythm  is  irregular  and  difficult  for  a 
stranger  to'  follow;  but,  played  by  a  good 
piper,  it  has  a  powerful  effect. 

Picayune  (ptk'd-un'),  a  name  derived 
from  the  Carib  language  and  used  in  Louis- 
iana for  a  small  coin  worth  six  and  one 
quarter  cents,  current  in  the  United  States 
before  1857  and  known  by  various  names 
in  different  states  —  fourpence,  fippence, 
fip  and  sixpence. 

Pick'ens,  Francis  Wilkinson,  an  Ameri- 
can statesman  and  diplomatist  and  a  gov- 
ernor of  South  Carolina,  Wc,s  born  at  Togadoo, 
S.  C.,  in  1805,  and  died  at  Edgefield,  S.  C., 
in  1869.  He  was  a  lawyer  of  prominence, 
and  in  1832  became  a  member  of  the  legisla- 
ture. He  was  a  member  of  Congress  for  ten 
years,  and  in  1857  was  appointed  minister 
to  Russia.  He  was  an  ardent  advocate 
of  nullification,  extreme  democracy  and 
state-sovereignty.  As  governor  of  South 
Carolina  in  1861  he  demanded  the  sur- 
render of  all  Federal  property  within  the 
state;  and  he  caused  the  erection  of  the 
batteries  from  which  was  fired  the  first  shot 
against  Fort  Sumter. 

Pick'erel.     See  PIKE. 

Pick'ering,  Edward  Charles,  a  distin- 
guished American  astronomer,  born  at  Bos- 
ton, July  19,  1846;  educated  at  Harvard, 
where  he  graduated  from  Lawrence  Scien- 
tific School  in  1865.  He  immediately  ac- 
cepted an  instructorship  in  physics  at  Mas- 
sachusetts Institute  of  Technology,  where 
he  founded  the  first  physical  laboratory 
in  America.  There  he  remained  until  1877, 
when  he  went  to  Harvard  as  professor  of 
astronomy  and  director  of  the  observatory, 
a  position  which  he  has  filled  with  increasing 
distinction  during  a  quarter  of  a  century. 
Professor  Pickering's  most  original  work 
perhaps  is  in  stellar  photometry  and  stellar 
spectroscopy.  But  the  conception  and 
skillful  direction  of  the  many  lines  of  work 
carried  on  at  Harvard  Observatory,  as  well 
as  the  building  up  of  the  observatory  itself, 
must  always  remain  a  great  service  to 
science  and  a  monument  to  Professor  Pick- 
ering. He  is  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Science,  the  author  of  several 
important  volumes  and  the  editor  of  Har- 
vard Annals,  an  invaluable  series  of  as- 
tronomical reports. 

Pick'ett,  George  Edward,  an  American 
soldier  who  won  worldwide  distinction  in 
the  Confederate  service  at  Gettysburg,  where 
he  made  one  of-  the  most  gallant  and  desper- 
ate charges  ever  known  in  the  history  of 
war.  He  was  born  at  Richmond,  Va.,  Jan. 
25,  1825,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
time  to  enter  the  army  as  a  second-lieuten- 
ant during  the  War  with  Mexico.  He  was 
brevetted  first-lieutenant  and  afterwards 


GENERAL   PICKETT 


captain  for  conspicuous  bravery  in  Mexico. 
He  served  for  the  most  part  on  the  frontier 
between  1848  and 
1 86 1.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil 
War  he  resigned 
from  the  army  of 
the  United  States 
and  entered  the 
Confederate  service 
as  a  colonel.  He 
became  a  major- 
general  in  1862.  He 
was  engaged  in  sev- 
eral desperate  bat- 
tles under  Lee,  but 
won  special  distinc- 
as  the  leader 
of  the  assaulting  col- 
umn, July  3,  1863, 
upon  which  hung  the 
fate  of  the  Confederacy.  The  point  reached 
by  his  troops  in  this  charge,  and  from  which 
they  were  at  last  driven  back,  is  marked 
upon  the  field  by  a  granite  monument.  In 
the  campaign  of  1864-5  he  made  the  final 
stand  at  Five  Forks,  and  he  prevented  the 
capture  of  Petersburg  by  General  Butler. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  returned  to  Rich- 
mond and  engaged  in  life-insurance,  dying 
at  N  rfolk,  Va.,  July  30,  1875. 

Pick'wick  Papers.  This  novel  by  Dick- 
ens was  published  in  1837,  and  at  once 
made  its  author  universally  popular.  Its 
principal  character  is  Mr.  Pickwick,  whose 
adventures  are  largely  humorous,  although 
pathos  also  is  involved.  The  most  absurd 
as  well  as  the  principal  episode  is  the 
breach-of-promise  suit  brought  against  the 
hero  at  the  instigation  of  rascally  petti- 
foggers. It  results  in  his  incarceration  in 
Fleet  Prison  for  a  considerable  period, 
until  he  is  persuaded  to  pay  the  unjust 
judgment.  The  adventures  are  woven  into 
a  plot  involving  several  tales  of  love.  The 
book  aims  at  satirizing  many  aspects  of 
English  life,  especially  the  petty  lawyers 
and  the  prison-system.  It  abounds  in 
clever  characterizations,  the  most  notable 
of  which,  aside  from  that  of  Pickwick, 
probably  is  that  of  Sam  Weller. 

Picts,  a  people,  who  from  A.  D.  296  to 
844  inhabited  eastern  Scotland  from  the 
Forth  to  the  Pentland  Firth.  Sometimes 
we  find  them  called  by  the  name  Cruthnig. 
The  first  mention  of  them  in  Roman  annals 
is  in  connection  with  campaigns  in  Britain 
in  296  and  306  A.  D.  The  first  mention  of 
the  Scots  is  made  in  connection  with  their 
being  united  with  the  Picts  in  harassing 
the  Romans  in  360  A.  D.  The  Pictish  king- 
dom was  overthrown  about  850,  when  the 
Scots  became  the  predominant  race.  It  is 
undecided  what  was  the  language  the  Picts 
spoke,  though  the  prevailing  opinion  is 
that  they  were  a  Celtic  race.  See  Skene's 
Chronicles  of  the  Picts  and  Scots. 


Art 
•etu. 
part  i 
.H.,  O 
>  dei 

DI-.I.I.A 

re,  So 

/-sea* 


PIGEONS. 

1— Middle-billed  Tumbler.    2 — German  Drum.    3— Anatolian  Turbit.    4— Roman.    5 — Coburg  Lark. 

6— Antwerp  Carrier.    7— Strasser.    8— Lynx.    9— Nun.    10— Maltese.    11— Carrier. 

12— Long-billed  Tumbler.    13— Fantail.    U— English  Pouter. 


PIEDMONT 


1489 


PIGEON 


Pied'mont,  the  northwest  of  Italy,  com-' 
prising  the  modern  provinces  of  Turin, 
Alessandria,  Cuneo  and  Novara.  Area, 
11,336  square  miles;  population  3,423,854. 
Much  of  its  land  is  reclaimed  by  irrigation 
and  made  highly  productive.  The  system 
of  irrigation  is  well-nigh  perfect.  It  is 
watered  by  the  upper  Po.  The  country 
is  rich  in  Waldensian  memories. 

Piedmont  Region,  The,  is  a  part  of  the 
Atlantic  coastal  plain  of  the  United  States, 
lying  further  inland  than  the  low  and  level 
area  nearest  the  ocean,  but  continuous 
with  it.  There  is  a  real  geographical  differ- 
ence between  the  Piedmont  region  and  the 
coastal  plain  proper,  for  the  former  is 
higher,  more  rugged  and  geologically  older 
and  based  upon  harder  strata  of  rock. 
There  is  a  falls'  line  between  the  Piedmont 
region  and  the  coastal  plain  proper,  where 
most  of  the  coastal  rivers,  in  leaving  the 
harder  for  the  softer  strata  of  rock,  have 
worn  a  series  of  rapids  and  precipitous  falls. 
The  Piedmont  region  in  the  south  is  from 
two  to  three  hundred  miles  broad;  but  in 
the  north,  especially  in  New  York,  very 
narrow. 

Pierce,  Franklin,  fourteenth  president  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  in  New  Hamp- 
shire,   Nov.    23,    1804. 
He    early    came    into 

Eolitical  prominence  in 
is  native  state.  In 
1837  he  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  sen- 
ate, of  which  he  was 
the  youngest  member. 
In  1842  he  resigned  his 
seat.  He  was  a  Demo- 
crat of  the  Jacksonian 
school  and  a  zealous 
advocate  for  the  ad- 
mission of  Texas,  with 
He  volunteered  as  a 

private  in  the  Mexican  War,  but  President 
Polk  made  him  a  brigadier-general.  In  1852 
he  received  the  Democratic  nomination  for 
the  presidency  and  obtained  the  electoral 
votes  of  all  the  states,  save  Vermont,  Massa- 
chusetts, Tennessee  and  Kentucky.  Dur- 
ing his  administration  the  Missouri,  Com- 
promise was  repealed  by  the  passage  of 
the  Kansas- Nebraska  bill.  At  the  close  of 
his  administration  he  spent  three  years  in 
Europe;  returned  home  to  Concord;  but 
took  no  part  in  politics.  He  died  at  Con- 
cord, N.  H.,  Oct.  8,  1869. 

Piero    dei    Franchesi.     See    FRANCESCA, 

PlERO   DELLA. 

Pierre,  So.  Dak.,  the  capital  of  the  state  and 
county-seat  of  Hughes  County,  is  situated 
near  the  site  of  old  Fort  Pierre,  about  the 
center  of  South  Dakota.  The  fort  was 
founded  in  1829,  and  was  named  after  one 
of  its  early  fur  traders.  It  has  good  public 
schools,  Pierre  University  (Presbyterian) 
and  a  governmental,  Indian  industrial 


FRANKLIN    PIERCE 

or  without  slavery. 


school.  Pierre  is  on  the  Missouri  River  and 
has  the  service  of  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western Railroad.  Population  3,656. 

Pierre'pont,  Edwards,  American  lawyer 
and  diplomat,  was  born  at  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  in  1817;  and  died  at  New  York, 
March  6,  1892.  As  attorney-general  of  the 
United  States  he  conducted  the  trial  of 
Surratt,  an  accomplice  in  the  murder  of 
President  Lincoln.  In  1876-8  he  was  min- 
ister to  England.  As  a  jurist  he  had  a 
wide  reputation,  and  European  govern- 
ments were  influenced  by  his  writings  upon 
international  law. 
Pig.  See  SWINE. 

Pigeon   (pij'un),  a  name  for  members  of 
the  jiove    family.      There    are    about    300 

species  all 
over  the 
world,  being 
most  abund- 
ant in  the 
East  Indies. 
Only  two  are 
found  in  the 
Eastern 
United  States 
—  the  wild 
pigeon  and 
the  turtle- 
dove. The 
wild  or  pas- 
senger-pigeon 
is  exceedingly 
rare.  It  for- 
merly was 
very  abund- 
(ant,  perching 
in  the  for- 
ests in  such 
numbers  as  to  break  limbs  of  trees  and 
covering  a  large  territory  in  their  daily 
flight  in  search  of  food.  During  migration 
they  flew  in  such  large  flocks  that  it  would 
sometimes  require  days  for  them  to  pass  a 
particular  point.  They  were  nearly  exter- 
minated by  wholesale  slaughter.  The  bird 
is  about  17  inches  long,  with  large  wings 
and  a  long,  pointed  tail.  The  male  is 
bluish  above,  purple  brownish-red  below, 
more  violet  behind,  with  a  black  bill  and 
yellow  feet.  It  depended  largely  upon 
acorns  and  beechnuts  for  food,  with  occa- 
sional feasts  on  grain  and  berries.  The 
turtle  or  mourning  dove  still  is  quite  com- 
mon. The  long,  soft,  mournful  note  of  the 
male  during  the  nesting  season  is  known 
to  nearly  everyone  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  a  smaller  bird  than  the  passenger 
pigeon,  being  about  nf  inches  long.  The 
upper  parts  are  olive  grayish  brown,  the 
neck  iridescent,  the  breast  pinkish  and  the 
belly  buff;  the  outer  tail-feathers  are  tipped 
with  white.  They  nest  in  isolated  pairs, 
and  two  broods  are  produced  a  year.  There 
is  a  large  number  of  domestic  pigeons,  all 
descended  from  a  wild  form  generally  be- 


PASSENGER-PIGEON 


PIGMENTS 


1490 


PILGRIM'S  PROGRESS 


lieved  to  be  the  blue  rock-pigeon;  but  there 
is  reason  to  doubt  this.  Pigeon-breeding 
has  been  engaged  in  throughout  Europe  and 
eastern  countries  for  centuries.  It  is  a 
favorite  pastime  in  the  United  States.  A 
great  range  of  variation  has  been  produced 
by  breeding.  Some  of  the  more  conspicuous 
varieties  are  the  fan- tail  with  large  spread- 
ing tail;  the  pouter,  with  inflated  breast; 
the  tumbler;  carrier;  trumpeter;  barb;  and 
jacobin.  Darwin  made  use  of  pigeons  in 
observing  the  changes  produced  in  animals 
under  domestication,  through  the  influence 
of  artificial  selection.  The  breed  which  is 
called  the  carrier  pigeon,  or  the  homing 

¥igeon,  is  employed  for  carrying  messages, 
here  is  no  real  distinction  between  doves 
and  pigeons. 

Pig'ments,  the  color  materials  of  paint- 
ing. It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  these 
from  dyeing  colors.  Pigments  are  insoluble, 
and,  mixed  in  oil  or  water  or  other  liquid, 
are  used  for  painting.  Dye-stuffs  are  neld 
in  solution  as  tinctorial  substances.  A  pig- 
ment must  have  covering  power,  that  is, 
it  must  cover  and  conceal  with  an  opaque 
covering  the  surface  on  which  it  is  spread. 
When  dry,  it  must  have  durability;  must 
resist  the  air.  It  should  also  dry  quickly. 
Pigments  for  artistic  work  need  to  be  pre- 
pared with  more  care  and  of  better  material, 
if  possible,  than  pigments  for  mechanical 
purposes.  A  house  can  be  repainted,  but 
a  madonna  cannot  be.  Artists'  pigments 
are  ground  to  a  finer  powder  than  ordinary 
paints. 

Pike,  a  ravenous  fresh-water  fish,  with 
long  slender  body,  broad  snout  and  large 
mouth.  There  are  five  species  of  the  pike 
family.  One  inhabits  the  iresh  waters  of 
both  continents;  the  other  four  are  Amer- 
ican species.  The  muskallunge,  attaining  a 
length  of  eight  feet,  is  the  finest  and  largest 
of  the  pikes.  It  is  found  in  the  Great  Lake 
region  and,  occasionally,  in  the  Ohio  valley. 
The  smaller  varieties  are  commonly  called 
pickerel  in  the  United  States.  All  rank 
high  as  food. 

Pike's  Peak,  a  peak  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, 65  miles  south  of  Denver  in  Colo- 
rado, discovered  by  Captain  (afterwards 
General)  Z.  M.  Pike  in  1806.  It  is  14,134 
feet  high.  A  railway  from  Manitou  to  the 
top,  nine  miles  in  length,  was  constructed 
in  1891. 

Pi'late,  Pon'tius,  the  Roman  procurator 
of  Judaea,  who,  after  his  most  solemn  asser- 
tions of  the  innocence  of  Christ,  yielded  to 
the  demands  of  His  accusers  and  gave  Him 
up  to  be  crucified.  There  are  quite  a  num- 
ber of  traditions  as  to  Pilate's  end:  He 
committed  suicide;  he  was  beheaded  by 
Nero;  he  embraced  Christianity.  In  the 
Ethiopic  church  he  is  celebrated  as  a  saint. 
One  legend  tells  how  his  body  was  thrown 
into  the  Tiber,  making  an  overflow,  an- 
other that  the  body  was  carried  to  Mount 


Pilatus  and  there  sunk  securely  in  the  deep 
pool  on  its  top.  But  here  again  it  made 
storms  arise,  and  every  year  the  devil  on 
Good  Friday  lifts  him  out  of  the  pool  and 
places  him  on  the  judgment-seat,  where 
he  washes  his  hands  anew.  In  the  Greek 
church  Pilate's  wife  has  been  canonized  as 
a  saint.  His  era  is  the  first  half  of  the 
ist  century. 

Pile-Driver,  a  machine  for  driving  piles. 
The  ordinary  form  consists  of  a  heavy  iron 
weight  which  can  be  raised  vertically  from 
10  to  40  feet  between  upright  guides  and 
then  be  released  to  fall  on  the  pile  be- 
neath. The  common  weight  of  the  ram 
is  from  1,000  to  2,000  pounds,  but  weights 
of  4,000  pounds  and  over  are  occasionally 
used.  It  usually  is  lifted  by  a  wire-rope, 
which  is  wound  on  a  drum  revolved  by  a 
small  steam-engine,  the  ram  being  released 
when  the  desired  height  is  reached.  In  the 
Vulcan-Nasmyth  steam  pile-driver  a  ham- 
mer is  attached  directly  to  the  rod  of  a 
piston  which  works  in  a  vertical  steam 
cylinder.  The  admission  of  the  steam  to 
the  cylinder  causes  reciprocating  hammer- 
ing, the  number  and  character  of  the  blows 
being  regulated  by  an  adjustable  valve- 
gear.  Another  form  of  pile-driver  is  the 
gunpowder  pile.  In  this  the  explosive 
force  of  gunpowder  confined  in  a  suitable 
mortar  is  used  to  drive  the  pile. 

Pileus  (pi'le-iis),  the  spreading  cap-like 
portion  of  a  mushroom  or  toadstool.  See 
BASIDIOMYCETES. 

Pil'grim  Fathers,  the  founders  of  the 
first  English  colony  settling  in  Massachusetts. 
This  colony  belonged  to  a  sect  of  separatists 
originating  in  Yorkshire, .  England,  who, 
previous  to  sailing  for  the  New  World,  had 
spent  some  time  as  exiles  for  religion's  sake 
in  Holland.  The  company,  numbering  100 
men,  women  and  childien,  set  sail  from 
Plymouth,  England,  Sept.  6,  1620,  bound 
for  Hudson  River.  But  after  a  long  and 
stormy  voyage  they  were  driven  on  the 
bleak  and  desolate  shores  of  Cape  Cod. 
They  landed  on  Dec.  21,  1620,  at  a  place  to 
which  they  gave  the  name  of  Ply  mouth.  ( q.  v.) 
A  monument  to  their  memory  has  been 
erected  there.  Before  landing  they  drew  up 
and  signed  a  compact  of  government,  which 
is  regarded  as  the  first  written  constitution 
we  have  an  historical  account  of. 

Pilgrim's  Progress.  This  famous  mas- 
terpiece was  composed  by  John  Bunyan 
(1628-88),  a  tinker  of  Bedfordshire,  Eng- 
land. Having  become  converted  to  in- 
tense faith  in  the  free-church  point  of  view, 
he  began  to  preach  and  was  arrested  for  de- 
livering sermons  without  a  license.  He  was 
confined  in  Bedford  Jail  for  over  eleven 
years  (1660-72),  and  during  this  period 
composed  Pilgrim's  Progress.  This  is  an 
easily  interpreted  allegory  describing  the 
spiritual  experiences  of  Christian,  the  pious 
man,  on  the  way  to  the  heavenly  Jerusa- 


PILLORY 


1491 


PINE 


lem.  He  passes  Neighbors  Obstinate  and 
Pliable,  Worldly  Wiseman,  Apollyon,  the 
Valley  of  the  Shadow  of  Death,  the  Slough 
of  Despond,  Doubting  Castle  and  Giant 
Despair.  The  allegory  in  a  simple  and  yet 
brilliant  way  presents  the  religious  notions 
current  among  the  common  people  of  the 
time. 

PH'lory,  an  instrument  for  the  public 
exposure  and  punishment  of  criminals. 
It  consisted  of  a  post  and  frame  fixed  on 
a  platform.  In  the  frame,  which  is  attached 
to  the  post  after  the  manner  of  a  sign-board, 
are  three  holes  through  which  the  hands 
and  head  of  the  criminal  are  thrust,  and 
out  of  which  he  cannot  draw  them.  Stand- 
ing behind  the  frame,  he  faces  the  gazing 
crowd.  The  exposure  was  a  chief  part  of 
the  punishment.  At  one  time  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  shave  the  head  wholly  or  partially. 
In  the  laws  of  Edmund  I  it  was  required 
so  to  construct  the  pillory  as  not  to  put  the 
body  "into  peril."  In  the  earliest  pillory 
punishments  they  seem  to  have  been  con- 
fined to  offenses  not  amounting  to  felony, 
called  misdemeanors,  as  using  deceitful 
measures  and  weights,  libel,  seditious  writ- 
ings. Later  on,  common  scolds,  brawl- 
ers and  others  were  punished  in  this  way. 
In  the  i  yth  and  i8th  centuries  it  came  to 
be  used  for  the  punishment  of  political 
offenders.  It  was  abolished  altogether  in 
Britain  in  1837. 

Pil'low,  Qid'eon  John'son,  an  American 
soldier,  was  born  in  Williamson  County, 
Tenn.,  June  8,  1806.  He  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Nashville  in  1827,  and  not 
long  after  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  During 
the  Mexican  War  he  was  appointed  a  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers.  He  commanded 
the  right  wing  at  Cerro  Gordo,  where  he 
was  wounded.  Being  promoted  for  gal- 
lantry, he  took  part  at  Molino  del  Rey  and 
Chapultepec,  where  he  was  again  and  more 
severely  wounded.  He  practiced  law  in 
his  own  state  until  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War,  to  avert  which  he  had  proposed  various 
compromises.  But  having  entered  the 
Confederate  service  in  1861,  he  rapidly  ad- 
vanced to  the  command  cf  a  brigade,  and 
took  part  in  the  battles  of  Belmont  and 
Fort  Donelson.  He  was  second  in  com- 
mand when  the  latter  was  taken  by  the 
Federal  troops,  but  made  his  escape.  He 
afterwards  served  under  General  Beaure- 
gard  in  the  southwest.  He  died  in  Lee 
County,  Ark.,  Oct.  8,  1878. 

Pi' lot,  a  person  deputed  to  take  charge 
of  the  course  of  a  ship  through  a  particular 
sea-reach  or  dangerous  channel  or  out  of 
or  into  port.  He  "stands  at  the  wheel"  we 
say.  He  must  know  how  to  manipulate 
the  rudder  and  must  be  familiar  with  the 
channel.  A  steamboat  neglecting  to  have 
a  duly  licensed  pilot  for  a  given  port,  or 
stretch  of  water  would  forfeit  its  insurance 
in  case  of  an  accident. 


Pinck'ney,      Charles      Cotes'worth,    an 

American  statesman,  was  born  at  Charles- 
ton, S.  C.,  Feb.  25,  1746.  He  took  part  in 
the  earliest  movements  of  the  Revolution 
of  1776.  In  the  war  he  did  noble  and  con- 
spicuous service.  He  was  Washington's 
aide-de-camp  at  Brandywine  and  German- 
town.  He  saw  much  active  service  until 
1780,  when  he  was  taken  prisoner  at  the 
surrender  of  Charleston.  A  member  of 
the  convention  that  framed  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  he  introduced 
the  clause  forbidding  religious  tests  of  quali- 
fication for  office.  In  1796  he  was  sent  as 
minister  to  France,  but  the  Directory  re- 
fused to  receive  him,  and  he  had  to  quit 
the  country.  War  between  France  and  the 
United  States  was  threatening.  The  French 
intimated  to  Pinckney  and  his  associates 
that  a  gift  of  money  from  the  United  States 
would  avert  war.  Then  Pinckney  burst 
out  in  the  famous  utterance:  "War  be  it 
then;  millions  for  defense,  but  not  a  cent 
for  tribute."  He  was  thrice  an  unsuccess- 
ful candidate  for  the  presidency.  He  died 
at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  Aug.  16,  1825. 

Pin'dar,  the  chief  lyric  poet  of  Greece, 
was  born  about  522  B.  C.  near  Thebes,  and 
died  at  Argos  in  443  B.  C.  He  began  his 
career  as  a  writer  of  choral  odes  at  20,  and, 
soon  reaching  the  highest  rank,  composed 
odes  for  men  in  all  parts  of  the  Hellenic 
world.  Wherever  he  went  he  was  honored 
and  loved  for  his  own  sake  as  well  as  for  his 
art.  States  vied  with  each  other  in  doing 
him  honor.  Two  conquerors  of  Thebes, 
Pausanias  the  Spartan,  during  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War,  and  Alexander  the  Great  left 
no  other  dwelling  in  Thebes  standing  than 
the  house  in  which  Pindar  had  lived.  Of 
most  of  his  poems  we  have  fragments  only. 
The  Triumphal  Odes,  celebrating  triumphs 
in  the  Olympian,  Pythian,  Nemean  and 
Isthmian  games  are  entire.  Pindar  treats 
the  victory  not  as  a  mere  incident,  but  as 
connected  with  the  victor's  whole  life  and 
history.  He  loves  to  dwell  on  the  moral 
side  of  it;  not  merely  on  the  bodily  prowess, 
but  on  the  temperance,  love  to  parents  or 
piety  which  secured  the  favor  of  the  gods 
who  granted  success.  The  groundwork  of 
his  poetry  consists  in  the  legends  which 
form  the  Greek  religious  literature. 

Pin'dus  Mountains,  a  range  extending 
from  north  to  south  through  the  western 
part  of  Greece.  At  the  southern  end  it 
attains  a  height  of  nearly  8,000  feet.  The 
range  connects  with  a  range  to  the  north 
and  the  name  is  sometimes  used  to  cover 
this  also,  but  originally  this  name  was  con- 
fined to  that  portion  which  separates  Thes- 
sally  from  Epirus. 

Pine,  species  of  the  genus  Pinus,  the 
largest  genus  of  the  conifers  and  distributed 
throughout  north  temperate  regions.  They 
are  exceedingly  important  forest-trees,  and 
are  developed  in  a  most  magnificent  way  in 


PINERO 


1492 


PINK 


our  western  mountain  regions.  There  are 
3  7  species  in  the  United  States,  2  5  occurring 
in  the  west,  nine  in  the  Mississippi  basin, 
and  seven  in  New  England  and  the  middle, 
Atlantic  states.  They  are  found  under 
widely- varying  conditions :  down  by  the 
sea  and  up  the  mountain  to  the  timber-line. 
The  leaves  are  evergreen.  The  branches 
grow  in  imperfect  whorls  about  a  central 
trunk.  The  naked  flowers  appear  in  early 
spring,  and  the  fruit  is  a  cone.  Wood,  tur- 
pentine, rosin  and  tar  are  the  products. 
The  pine  is  so  important  a  timber-tree  that 
it  seems  doomed  as  a  tree  of  the  forest.  It 
does  not  send  up  shoots,  and  its  seeds  soon 
lose  their  vitality.  Far  and  wide  nut-bear- 
ing trees  have  driven  the  pines  backward 
from  rich  lands  to  the  sands.  The  com- 
monest species  in  the  eastern  United  States 
are  P.  Strobus,  the  white  pine;  P.  resinosa, 
the  red  pine;  and  P.  palustris,  the  long- 
leaved  or  Georgia  pine.  The  pitch-pine, 
abundant  in  the  eastern  pine-barrens,  is 
well-known.  In  the  western  mountain 
region  P.  ponderosa,  the  great  yellow  pine, 
is  one  of  the  most  important  lumber-trees. 
P.  edulis,  the  pinon  or  nut-pine,  occurs  in 
southern  Colorado  and  southward.  The 
white  pine  is  a  magnificent  tree  and  the 
most  valuable  timber-tree  of  the  eastern 
states.  It  grows  to  a  height  of  80  to  175 
feet.  The  branches,  whorled  horizontally 
about  the  splendid,  erect  column,  are  most 
picturesque.  The  bluish-green,  needle- 
shaped  leaves  are  arranged  along  the 
branches  in  clusters  of  fives.  The  cones 
are  long  and  slender.  Its  range  is  from 
Newfoundland  to  Manitoba,  along  the 
Alleghenies  south  to  Georgia.  The  wood 
is  light,  soft,  straight-grained  and  takes  a 
fine  polish;  is  used  in  cabinet-work,  in  inte- 
rior finish  and  for  shingles,  lumber,  masts 
and  spars.  The  red  or  Norway  pine  is  a 
beautiful  tree  belonging  to  the  north.  It 
is  valued  for  its  lumber  and  grows  from 
70  *,o  150  feet  high.  The  long-leaved 
Georgia,  southern  or  yellow  pine  is  a  very 
important  timber-tree.  Its  wood  is  of  a 
rich  orange-yellow,  very  ornamental.  Much 
turpentine,  resin  and  tar  are  obtained  from 
this  tree.  It  rises  from  100  to  120  feet,  and 
is  noted  for  its  beautiful  foliage.  The 
leaves,  from  10  to  15  inches  long,  grow  in 
thick  tufts  at  the  ends  of  the  branches. 
The  yellow  pine  of  the  west  occasionally 
attains  a  height  of  230  feet,  frequently  of 
150  feet.  It  is  found  from  British  Columbia 
to  Mexico  east  to  Nebraska  and  Texas. 
One  of  the  most  important  pines  in  cultiva- 
tion is  the  Scotch  pine,  P.  silvestris,  the 
common  pine  of  northern  Europe.  The 
Austrian  pine,  P.  Austriaca  (P.  Laricio), 
is  a  fast-growing  and  massive  tree  and  com- 
mon in  cultivation.  See  Keeler :  Our  Native 
Trees. 

Pinero,   Sir  Arthur   Wing,  the  son  of  a 
solicitor,  was  born  in  London,  May  24,  1855. 


Like  Shakespeare,  he  was  an  actor  but  he  left 
the  stage  in  1881  and  since  then  has  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  play-writing.  He  began 
his  stage  career  in  1874  at  the  Theatre  Royal 
in  Edinburgh.  Two  years  later  he  went  to 
London  on  an  engagement  at  the  Globe  The- 
atre. Then,  for  five  years,  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Lyceum  Company.  He  was  knighted 
in  1909. 

His  first  production,  to  attract  general  at- 
tention, was  "The  Money  Spinner",  which 
was  produced  at  the  St.  James's  theatre,  Lon- 
don, in  1880.  His  most  celebrated  play  is 
"The  Second  Mrs.  Tanqueray",  which  was 
first  played  at  the  same  theatre  in  1893.  It 
at  once  created  wide  discussion,  both  because 
of  the  art  displayed  in  the  work  and  the  nature 
of  the  subject,  which  deals  with  the  sex  pro- 
blem. 

In  the  general  opinion  of  critics  it  places 
the  author  among  the  very  first  of  living 
dramatists. 

Pine'apple,  the  fruit  of  Ananas  sativa,  a 
member  of  the  Bromelia  family.  It  is  native 
to  tropical  America,  and  has  become  nat- 
uralized in  the  tropical  regions  of  Asia  and 
Africa.  The  chief  regions  of  "pine-growing," 
as  it  is  called,  which  supply  the  markets  of 
the  United  States,  are  southern  Florida  and 
the  various  West  Indian  islands,  the  Isle  of 
Pines  being  named  from  this  industry.  The 
so-called  fruit  consists  of  a  fleshy,  cone-like 
flower-cluster,  which  includes  the  axis  and 
bracts  and  flowers  of  a  whole  inflorescence. 
Numerous  cultivated  forms  have  been  de- 
veloped. 

Pine  Bluff,  Ark.,  county-seat  of  Jeffer- 
son County,  is  built  on  a  high  bluff  on  the 
south  bank  of  Arkansas  River,  about  120 
miles  from  its  mouth.  It  lies  38  miles 
southeast  of  Little  Rock,  and  is  surrounded 
by  rich  agricultural  country.  It  contains 
iron-works,  manufactures  cottonseed-oil, 
flour,  bricks  and  lumber,  and  ships  large 
quantities  of  cotton.  The  city  has  admirable 
public  schools,  a  convent,  a  colored  indus- 
trial school  (R.  C.),  fine  churches  and  an 
elegant  opera-house.  It  possesses  all  the 
adjuncts  of  a  progressive  city :  waterworks, 
electric  lights  and  an  electric  street-car  sys- 
tem. Pine  Bluff  has  river-service  for  pas- 
sengers and  freight,  besides  being  served  by 
five  railroads.  Population  15,102. 

Pink,  the  name  of  a  species  of  the  genus 
Dianthus  and  extended  to  the  members  of 
the  pink  family.  The  common  pinks  of  old 
gardens  are  supposed  to  have  descended 
from  D.  plumarius,  a  native  of  eastern 
Europe.  The  sweet-william  or  bunch-pink 
is  D.  barbatus,  abundant  in  all  country 
gardens  and  a  native  of  Europe.  The  car- 
nation or  clove-pink  is  D.  caryophyllus, 
which  occurs  in  a  great  variety  of  colors, 
either  pure  or  variegated,  and  is  grown 
mostly  indoors.  Some  of  the  wild  flowers 
which  belong  to  thi§  family  are  also  called 
pinks,  as  for  example,  the  fire-pink  (Silene 


1493 


PIRACY 


Virginiana),  which  occurs  in  woods  in  early 
spring  and  is  conspicuous  on  account  of 
its  crimson  red  petals. 

Pins.  These  simple  articles,  almost  a 
symbol  for  a  thing  of  the  smallest  value, 
not  only  are  useful,  but  are  a  prime  neces- 
sity. Yet  they  did  not  come  into  use  with- 
out the  help  of  art  and  inventive  genius. 
The  earliest  pins  probably  were  thorns  or 
small  bones  of  fish  or  other  animals.  Later 
there  were  pins  of  brass,  copper  or  iron. 
These  were  of  various  forms,  and  often  had 
gold  and  ornamental  heads.  Modern  solid- 
headed  pins  are  made  on  a  machine  that 
was  patented  by  Wright,  an  American,  in 
1824.  The  process  is  as  follows:  Wire  of 
suitable  sizes  is  manufactured,  mostly  of 
brass,  but  also  of  iron  or  steel.  When 
reeled,  the  wire  is  ready  for  use.  A  pair 
of  pincers,  worked  by  a  machine,  draws 
from  a  reel  of  wire  a  length  sufficient  to 
make  a  pin;  its  head,  which  is  made  at  the 
same  time,  is  straightened  by  passing 
through  studs.  The  pin-length  is  seized  by 
jaws  from  which  a  portion  of  the  wire,  of 
which  the  head  is  to  be  made,  projects  and 
is  exposed  to  blows  from  a  die-hammer. 
The  pin  is  then  pushed  forward  twice,  each 
time  receiving  a  blow  from  the  die-hammer. 
The  wire  is  then  cut  to  the  length  of  the 
pin.  The  headed  blanks  drop  into  a  slot 
formed  by  two  inclined  and  bevel-edged  bars. 
The  opening  between  the  bars  is  just  large 
enough  to  prevent  the  heads  of  the  pins 
from  falling  through,  so  that  the  blanks  be- 
come sustained  in  a  row  along  the  slot. 
They  are  then  caught  between  two  parts 
of  the  machine,  which  causes  them  to  rotate, 
and  are  thus  passed  in  front  of  the  cylinder 
which  acts  like  a  file  and  points  the  pins. 
As  many  as  1 60  a  minute  can  be  turned  out 
by  a  single  machine.  The  pins  are  cleaned 
of  grease  and  other  matter  by  boiling  them 
in  weak  beer.  They  are  next  coated  in 
tin,  and  are  then  brightened  by  shaking 
them  in  a  bag  or  barrel  with  bran  or  saw- 
dust. They  are  papered  by  machinery, 
which  is  as  ingenious  as  the  means  by  which 
they  are  made.  America  uses  nearly  150 
pins  per  inhabitant  per  year,  which  is  the 
highest  average  in  the  world.  Pins  are 
exported  from  the  United  States  over  nearly 
all  the  world,  although  needles  are  largely 
imported  from  England. 

Pinturicchio  (p$n'tdb-r&k'k$-d),  an  Italian 
artist  whose  name  means  The  Little  Painter, 
was  born  at  Perugia  in  1454  and  died  at 
Siena  in  1503.  Fresco-painting  was  his 
strong  point,  and  he  left  only  a  few  easel 
pictures.  He  decorated  the  library  of  Siena 
cathedral,  and  the  work  was  so  brilliant  in 
conception  and  execution,  for  he  knew  every 
resource  of  art  and  was  a  master  of  orna- 
ment, that  it  is  his  finest  fresco.  He  was 
a  link  between  Perugino  and  Raphael.  His 
real  name  was  Bernardino  de  Betto  Bagio, 
and  he  was  a  man  of  high  character. 


Pipe'fish,  a  long,  slender  fish  with  a 
straight,  tubular  snout,  like  a  pipestem.  It 
is  common  on  the  Atlantic  coast  from  New- 
foundland south.  The  male  has  a  brood- 
pouch  under  the  tail,  in  which  the  eggs  are 
developed  and  the  youngest  protected  for 
some  time  after  they  are  hatched.  Several 
other  species  are  found  in  different  seas. 

Piq'ua,  O.,  a  city  of  Miami  County,  on 
Miami  River  and  the  Miami  and  Erie  Canal, 
in  a  rich  agricultural  section,  27  miles  north 
of  Dayton  and  72  west  of  Columbus.  It  is 
served  by  a  ti  action-line  from  Toledo  to 
Cincinnati  and  by  the  Pennsylvania  and  the 
Cincinnati,  Hamilton  and  Dayton  railway. 
It  has  good  water-power  from  the  Miami 
and  Erie  Canal.  Its  industries  include  large 
strawboard,  hosiery  and  woolen  mills,  fur- 
niture, carriage,  stove  and  bent  wood  works; 
the  American  School  Desk  Co.'s  factory  is 
here,  and  also  a  corrugated-iron  works. 
Piqua  has  fine  schools,  churches,  banks  and 
a  public  library  of  15,000  volumes.  Popu- 
lation 13,388. 

Pi'racy  is  robbery  on  the  high  seas,  and, 
although  considered  a  crime  at  the  present 
time  by  all  nations,  formerly  the  sea-rover 
was  as  much  a  p_irate  as  a  trader.  The 
Phoenicians  combined  piracy  with  lawful 
seafaring  enterprise.  In  the  days  of  Homer 
piracy  was  considered  a  respectable,  even  a 
dignified,  calling,  and  the  Greeks  had  a  nat- 
ural genius  for  it.  Cilicia  was  long  the  head- 
quarters for  Mediterranean  piracy,  until  in 
67  B.  C.  Pompey  made  his  memorable  expe- 
dition against  the  pirates  with  great  naval 
and  military  forces.  The  Norse  vikings  were 
the  terror  of  western  coasts  and  waters  from 
the  8th  to  the  nth  Christian  centuries.  The 
Hanseatic  League  was  formed  for  mutual 
defense  against  the  Baltic  and  other  pirates. 
Later  the  Moslem  rovers  scourged  the  Med- 
iterranean, commingling  naval  war  on  a  large 
scale  with  peddling,  thieving  and  stealing 
people  as  slaves.  Algiers  was  a  stronghold 
of  pirates  till  well  into  the  ipth  century, 
and  in  the  xyth  century  the  English  Channel 
swarmed  with  Algerine  pirates.  In  1635 
these  corsairs  entered  Cork  Harbor,  and  car- 
ried off  a  boat  with  eight  fishermen,  to  be 
sold  as  slaves  in  Algiers.  The  buccaneers 
preyed  mainly  on  the  Spanish  commerce 
with  the  Spanish-American  colonies.  Cap- 
tain Kidd,  (q.  v.),  who  was  sent  out  against 
pirates  in  1696  by  a  private  company  in 
London, was  found  to  be  playing  the  game  of 
pirate  himself,  was  arrested  and  tried  for 
piracy  and  murder,  found  guilty  and  hanged 
on  May  23,  1701.  The  original  of  Scott's 
Pirate  was  John  Gow,  who,  though  bold 
and  successful  under  the  guise  of  friendship, 
was  proved  to  be  a  great  villain,  and  with 
nine  of  his  men  was  executed.  So  late  as 
1864  five  men  were  hanged  in  London  for 
murder  and  piracy.  The  African  slave-trade 
was  not  considered  piracy  by  the  law  of 
nations,  though  the  United  States  and  Great 


PI  ILEUS 


U94 


PITCH 


Britain  declared  it  to  be  such  by  statute, 
and  after  1841  Austria,  Prussia  and  Russia 
made  the  same  declaration.  The  home  of 
professional  piracy  is  now  confined  to  the 
Malay  Peninsula. 

Piraeus  (pl-re'us),  the  harbor  of  Athens, 
Greece;  Athens  being  about  five  miles  from 
the  sea.  As  far  back  as  the  time  of  Pericles 
long  walls  joined  the  port  with  Athens. 
These  were  built  for  protection,  so  that  be- 
tween them  travel  to  and  from  the  port  and 
the  city  would  be  undisturbed.  A  few  traces 
of  the  wall  remain.  The  fortification  being 
destroyed  by  Sulla  86  B.  C.,  the  town  fell 
into  decay.  Since  1834  the  modern  town 
has  grown  up,  for  more  than  half  the  export- 
trade  of  Greece  passes  through  Piraeus.  It 
has  a  large  trade.  Population  70,000. 

Pisa  (p&za),  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of 
Italy  and  once  the  rival  of  Venice  and  Genoa. 
It  is  on  the  Arno,  50  miles  west  of  Florence 
and  13  northeast  of  Leghorn.  It  is  a  city 
of  fine  buildings,  foremost  among  which  is 
the  cathedral,  built  in  the  nth  century, 
with  a  noble  dome,  fine  paintings  by  Cim- 
abue,  Andrea  del  Sarto  and  others  and  beau- 
tiful, marble  altars.  Near  by  stands  the 
Leaning  Tower,  a  splendid  specimen  of 
southern  Romanesque  architecture  but  pecu- 
liar in  that  it  deviates  about  14  feet  from 
the  perpendicular.  This  is  not  due  to  orig- 
inal design.  The  tower  seems  to  have  begun 
to  heel  to  one  side  when  the  third  story  was 
completed:  the  architects  deliberately  ac- 
cepted the  conditions  and  adhered  to  the 
inclining  position,  but  diminished  the  slope 
of  the  upper  stories  so  as  to  keep  the  center 
of  gravity  well  within  the  walls.  The  tower 
is  1 80  feet  in  height,  and  consists  of  eight 
stories  divided  by  rows  of  columns,  the  last, 
which  contains  the  bells,  being  smaller  in 
diameter  than  the  others.  The  tower  was 
built  in  1174  and  succeeding  years,  but  the 
eighth  story  was  not  completed  until  the 
middle  of  the  i4th  century.  Ancient  Pisa 
was  an  Etruscan  city,  which  became  sub- 
ject to  Rome  in  the  ad  century  B.  C.  Early 
in  the  nth  century  Pisa  had  developed  into 
a  powerful  republic,  possessing  a  formidable 
fleet  and  much  territory  along  the  Tyrrhe- 
nian Sea.  Through  the  nth  century  Pisa 
was  at  its  height  of  prosperity,  and  the 
splendid  monuments  01  art  adorning  it  be- 
long to  this  period.  Population  65,212.  The 
industries  are  confined  to  silks,  cottons, 
ribbons  and  the  working  of  coral  and  ala- 
baster. Pisa  also  is  a  province  with  an  area 
of  1,179  square  miles  and  a  population  of 
342,144- 

Pisidia  (pi-sid'i-a),  in  ancient  geography, 
was  a  country  in  Asia  Minor,  north  of  Pam- 
phylia,  which  separated  it  from  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  south  of  Phrygia.  It  was  a 
rugged  and  mountainous  district  comprising 
some  of  the  loftiest  portions  of  the  great 
range  of  Taurus.  In  early  times  it  was  oc- 
cupied by  wild,  lawless  races  of  mountaineers 


PISTIL 

(a)  style;  (b) 
stigma;  ovary 
hidden  in 
flower. 


who  never  were  entirely  subjugated  by  the 
various  powers  ruling  Asia  Minor  at  different 
times.  The  first  mention  of  Pisidians  in 
history  occurs  in  the  Anabasis  of  Xenophon. 
Later  they  resisted  the  march  of  Alexander 
the  Great.  In  Strabo's  time  they  had  passed 
quietly  under  the  Roman  power.  Pisidia 
once  contained  considerable  towns,  the  ruins 
of  which  have  been  brought  to  light  recently 
by  Arundell,  Hamilton  and  Daniell.  The 
most  remarkable  ruins  are  those  of  Termes- 
sus,  Cremna,  Sagalussus,  Sedge,  a  large  and 
wealthy  city  in  Strabo's  time,  and  Antioch 
which  Paul  visited. 

Pis' til  (in  plants),  a  term  of  somewhat 
indefinite  application,  inas- 
much as  it  may  consist  of 
one  carpel  or  of  several  car- 
pels organized  together.  In 
the  former  case  the  pistil  is 
spoken  of  as  simple,  in  the 
latter  case  as  compound.  In 
other  words,  any  organiza- 
tion of  carpels  which  appears 
as  a  single  organ  with  one 
ovary  is  a  pistil.  See 
FLOWER. 

Pis'tol.  See  REVOLVER. 
Pit'cairn'  Island,  a  solitary  island  in  the 
Pacific  between  Australia  and  South  Amer- 
ica, area  two  square  miles.  It  owes  its 
celebrity  to  its  being  the  dwelling  place  of 
the  Mutineers  of  the  Bounty.  The  British 
ship  Bounty  was  sent  out  by  the  govern- 
ment for  the  purpose  of  carrying  bread- 
fruit trees  to  the  West  Indies  to  be  trans- 
planted. A  short  time  after  leaving  Tahiti 
25  of  the  crew  mutinied.  The  commander, 
Bligh,  with  a  number  of  his  officers,  was 
set  adrift  in  a  launch.  He  made  out  to 
reach  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  The  mutineers 
at  first  went  back  to  Tahiti.  In  1790  nine 
of  these  mutineers,  with  six  Tahitian  men 
and  a  dozen  women,  sailed  to  and  settled 
on  Pitcairn  Island.  At  the  end  of  ten 
years  John  Adams  was  left  alone  with 
eight  or  nine  women  and-  several  children, 
and  from  them  the  present  inhabitants  are 
descended.  Adams  set  about  the  Christian 
education  of  the  company.  Nothing  was 
known  of  them  till  1808,  when  the  Amer- 
ican ship  Topaz,  Captain  Fplger,  dis- 
covered them.  Not  until  1814  did  a  British 
vessel  touch  at  the  island.  In  1839  Pitcairn 
was  annexed  to  Britain.  In  1856  nearly 
200  were  transferred  to  Norfolk  Island,  but 
a  number  returned.  The  people  (who 
chiefly  are  Seventh-Day  Adventists)  are 
virtuous  and  contented,  and  choose  their 
own  pastor  and  magistrate.  The  island 
raises  coffee,  arrowroot,  yams,  bananas, 
pineapples,  sweet  potatoes,  pumpkins, 
oranges  and  melons;  it  also  contains  about 
200  wild  goats.  Population  169. 

Pitch.  In  mechanics  pitch  is  used  to 
denote  the  distance  between  two  successive 
threads  on  a  screw  In  acoustics  pitch  is 


PITCH 


H95 


PITT 


used  to  denote  one  of  the  three  distinguish- 
ing features  of  any  musical  tone.  The 
pitch  of  a  note  depends  upon  the  number 
of  vibrations  per  second  which  produce  this 
note;  and  the  numerical  value  of  the  pitch 
is  the  number  of  vibrations  per  second  or 
the  frequency  of  the  note.  See  ACOUSTICS. 
Pitch,  a  black  resinous  substance,  is 
obtained  from  the  tar  of  coal  or  of  wood 
by  the  application  of  heat  at  low  tem- 
peratures, the  heat  driving  out  the  volatile 
naphtha  or  spirit.  In  the  production  of 
pitch  the  fire  must  be  withdrawn  before 
the  heat  of  the  distilling  vessel  reaches  the 
point  at  which  coke  or  carbon  will  be 
produced.  Pitch  is  also  obtained  from 
natural  petroleum,  bone-tar  and  stearine- 
residues.  The  last  two  are  valued  by  var- 
nish and  turpentine  makers.  Wood-tar 
pitch  is  much  used  to  protect  timber  from 
insects  and  the  weather; 
coal-tar  pitch  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  black  var- 
nishes for  coating  iron  and 
for  making  lampblack.  In 
Persia  it  is  prepared  from 
goat  and  sheep  dung.  Bur- 
gundy pitch,  produced  in 
Finland,  is  a  drug  much 
used  as  a  medicine. 

Pit'cher-Plants,  those 
whose  leaves  form  tubes  or 
urns  of  various  shapes,  which 
contain  water  and  to  which 
insects  are  attracted  and 
drowned.  The  common 
pitcher-plants  of  the  temperate  regions  are 
a  species  oiSarracenia,  which  grow  in  swampy 
areas.  In  the  tropics  striking  illustrations 
of  pitcher- plants  are  found  among  the  various 
species  of  Nepenthe?  and  their  allies,  in  which 
urns  of  various  shapes  are  developed  swing- 
ing at  the  ends  of  tendrils.  See  CARNIV- 
OROUS PLANTS.) 

Pith,  a  term  which  has  both  a  general 
and  a  special  application.  In  the  former 
case  it  applies  to  any  loose,  spongy  tissue 
in  plants.  Strictly,  however,  it  means  the 
spongy  tissue  within  the  vascular  cylinder 
of  gymnosperms  and  dicotyledons.  The 
tissue  is  parenchyma  (which  see),  and  it 
is  apt  to  die  so  early,  that  the  pith  of 
ordinary  experience  is  a  dead  and  empty 
mass  of  cells.  The  pith  of  ordinary  com- 
mercial use  is  obtained  from  the  elder. 

Pit'man,  Sir  Isaac,  a  British  educator 
and  the  father  of  modern  shorthand, 
was  born  at  Tiowbridge,  Wiltshire,  Eng- 
land, Jan.  4,  1813.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Normal  College  near  his  home,  and 
himself  became  the  master  of  a  school  at 
Barton-on-Humber  in  1832.  He  published 
his  first  studies  of  the  art  which  was  to 
make  him  famous  in  a  volume  entitled 
Stenographic  Shorthand  (1837).  A  few  years 
later  he  put  forth  Phonography  or  Writing 
by  Sound.  Such  was  the  general  acceptance 


PITCHER-PLANT 


his  system  found,  that  little  remains  of 
earlier  attempts.  In  1843  he  founded  the 
Phonetic  Society,  and  soon  after  began  the 
publication  of  the  weekly  Phonetic  Journal. 
He  issued  many  textbooks  upon  pho- 
nography, and  his  system  was  introduced 
into  the  United  States  in  1847.  He  was 
knighted  in  1894,  and  died  on  Jan.  23, 
1897.  His  brother,  Ben  Pitman,  settled 
at  Cincinnati  about  1850,  and  made  that 
city  the  headquarters  for  the  publication 
of  works  similar  to  those  printed  by  Isaac 
in  the  Old  World.  His  system  differs 
slightly  from  that  of  his  brother,  but 
essentially  they  are  one.  See  SHORTHAND. 
Pitt,  William,  Earl  of  Chatham,  some- 
times styled  Pitt  the  Elder,  one  of  the 
greatest  of  all  English  orators  and  statesmen, 
was  born  at  Westminster,  Nov.  15,  1708. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford, 
and  entered  Parliament  in  173 5,  where  he 
took  sides  against  the  king  and  led  the 
young  Whigs,  known  as  patriots,  in  opposi- 
tion to  Walpole,  then  at  the  head  of  affairs. 
Though  deprived  of  his  commission,  his  in- 
fluence increased  rapidly  both  in  and  out  of 
the  house  of  commons.  Walpole  was  driven 
from  power  in  1742,  and,  though  the  king 
hated  Pitt,  he  found  it  necessary  to  permit 
his  return  to  the  government  service. 
Some  wealthy  admirers  of  Pitt's  oratory 
and  patriotism  left  him  large  sums  of 
money,  and  on  the  dismissal  of  Fox  Pitt 
became  secretary  of  state.  While  Pitt  was 
in  power,  success  returned  to  the  British 
arms.  French  armies  were  defeated  every- 
where by  Britain  and  her  allies  —  in  India 
Africa,  Canada,  on  the  Rhine  —  and  the 
few  ships  left  her  were  driven  from  almost 
every  sea.  But  Pitt,  the  prime  mover  of 
all  these  brilliant  victories,  found  himself 
compelled  to  resign  on  the  accession  of 
George  III,  when  the  British  government 
adopted  a  vacillating  policy.  But  he  did 
not  cease  to  take  an  interest  in  public 
affairs.  He  spoke  strongly  against  the 
arbitrary  and  harsh  policy  of  the  govern- 
ment toward  the  American  colonies,  and 
warmly  urged  an  amicable  settlement  of 
the  difficulties  But  when,  America  having 
entered  into  treaty  with  France,  it  was 
proposed  by  the  duke  of  Richmond  to 
remove  the  ministers  and  make  peace  on 
any  terms,  Chatham,  sick  though  he  was, 
came  to  the  house  of  lords.  In  a  powerful 
address  he  protested  against  the  implied 
prostration  of  Britain  before  the  throne  of 
the  Bourbons,  and  declared  that  war,  with 
whatever  issue,  would  be  preferable  to  the 
proposed  terms  of  peace.  This  address 
secured  a  majority  against  the  motion,  and 
the  war  was  continued.  But  it  was  the 
orator's  last  effort,  for  his  physical  powers 
suddenly  failed,  he  fell  back  into  the  arms 
of  his  friends,  and  was  carried  from  the 
house  by  his  son  William,  who  in  less  than 
five  years  was  himself  prime  minister. 


PITT 


1496 


PITTSBURGH 


Chatham  died  in  Kent,  May  n,  1778. 
He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
where  a  statue  was  erected  to  his  memory. 
See  his  Life  by  F.  Thackeray. 

Pitt,  William,  second  son  of  the  great 
Earl  of  Chatham,  was  born  on  May  28, 
1759,  in  Kent,  while  his  father  was  in  the 
house  of  commons  and  the  most  honored 
man  in  England.  Owing  to  ill-health  he 
was  educated  at  home,  his  father  carefully 
superintending  his  studies  and  training 
him  in  those  lines  which  would  best  fit 
him  for  a  brilliant  career  in  Parliament. 
To  this  was  due  that  wonderful  command 
of  choice  and  accurate  English  which  Pitt 
possessed  above  all  the  orators  of  his  time. 
He  entered  Parliament,  Jan.  23,  1781,  and 
his  first  speech  made  a  great  impression. 
Burke  said.  "He  is  not  a  chip  of  the  old 
block,  but  the  old  block  itself."  A  mem- 
ber of  the  opposition  said  to  Fox :  "  Pitt 
will  be  one  of  the  first  men  in  Parliament." 
Fox  replied  "He  already  is  the  first." 
Although  but  23  and  poor,  he  refused 
the  office  of  vice-treasurer  of  Ireland,  say- 
ing he  would  accept  nothing  but  a  seat 
in  the  cabinet.  Although  this  speech  caused 
wide-eyed  astonishment  at  the  time,  three 
months  later  he  was  in  the  cabinet  as 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  A  year  later 
George  III  urged  him  to  act  as  premier 
and  choose  his  associates,  but  with  rare 
judgment  and  self-restraint  Pitt  declined 
the  dazzling  offer.  However,  on  the  speedy 
fall  of  the  coalition  ministry  then  formed, 
with  Fox  and  North  as  joint  secretaries  of 
state,  the  king  arbitrarily  appointed  Pitt 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  and  first  lord 
of  the  treasury.  The  best  judges  in  the 
political  world  then  considered  his  position 
hopeless,  and  foretold  a  briefer  ministry 
than  even  the  last  three  had  been.  He 
was  opposed  by  North,  Sheridan  and  Burke, 
who  united  against  him,  but  his  dauntless 
courage,  skill  and  firmness  won,  and  on 
March  25,  1784,  Parliament  was  dissolved 
and  Pitt,  only  25  years  of  age,  was  elected 
minister.  He  was  one  of  England's  most 
powerful  premiers,  and  held  sway  for  20 
years.  (See  ENGLAND  and  FRANCE).  He 
died  at  Putney,  Jan.  23,  1806,  and  was 
buried  beside  his  father  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  See  biography  by  Lord  Stanhope 
and  Pitt,  in  the  Twelve  English  Statesmen 
Series,  by  Lord  Rosebery. 

Pitts'bursj,  Kans.,  a  city  and  railroad 
center  in  Crawford  County,  southeastern 
Kansas,  50  miles  east  of  Independence. 
It  is  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa 
Fe";  Kansas  City  Southern;  Missouri  Pacific; 
and  St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco  railroads. 
In  the  vicinity  are  rich  coal-lands  and 
mineral  deposits,  coal-mines  and  zinc- 
works.  There  are  good  schools,  churches, 
banks  and  a  state  normal  school  in  which 
manual  training  is  a  prominent  feature. 
Population  14,755. 


Pitts'burgh,  Pa.  The  junction  of  two  navi- 
gable rivers,  to  form  a  third,  with  its  out- 
let in  a  distant  ocean,  gave  to  the  site  of 
the  ninth  city  in  population  of  the  United 
States,  commercial  advantages  from  the 
earliest  days  of  settlement  beyond  the 
Alleghenies.  Enormous  manufacturing  in- 
dustries and  trade  originating  in  the  locality 
were  forced  upon  it  by  the  lavish  hand 
with  which  nature  had  deeply  underlaid 
the  surrounding  hills  with  iron,  coal,  petro- 
leum and  natural  gas. 

The  site  of  Pittsburgh  is  one  of  the  greatest 
beauty  with  its  bluff-bordered  streams  and 
distantly  circling  heights.  No  smoke 
marred  this  sylvan  paradise  when  the 
French  came  from  Canada,  in  1753,  an(i 
built  Ft.  Duquesne  on  The  Point.  At 
the  close  of  the  French  and  Indian  War 
the  British  rebuilt  the  demolished  fortress 
and  named  it  Fort  Pitt  in  honor  of  the 
Earl  of  Chatham,  their  brilliant  statesman 
and  orator.  To  the  south  Mount  Wash- 
ington and  Duquesne  Heights  look  down 
on  the  city  to  remind  us  that  here  the 
father  of  our  country  was  initiated  in  the 
business  of  war;  and  12  miles  away,  on 
the  field  of  a  famous  defeat  to  British 
arms,  stands  the  steel-manufacturing  town 
of  Braddock.  With  the  opening  of  Ken- 
tucky and  Ohio  to  settlement  Pittsburgh 
rapidly  developed  into  a  frontier  trading- 
post.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in 
1794  and  as  a  city  in  1816.  In  1845, 
when  it  had  a  population  of  30,000,  it 
was  destroyed  by  fire. 

A  bird's-eye  view  of  Pittsburgh  with  its 
population  of  over  500,000,  would  show 
the  Allegheny,  the  Monongahela  and  the 
Ohio  as  a  Y-shaped  channel  outlined  for 
20  miles  on  both  banks  with  columns  of 
smoke  from  factory-chimneys  by  day  and 
with  flame  by  night.  Mills,  docks,  ware- 
houses and  tall,  grimy  tenements  are  wedged 
in  the  upper  triangle,  and  have  burst 
across  the  numerously  bridged  currents 
into  Allegheny  and  other  cities.  The  dense 
mass  is  gridironed  with  railroads,  and  the 
streams  are  covered  with  processions  of 
funereal  iron-ore  and  coal  barges.  Factory 
operatives  and  many  others  must  live 
under  this  perpetual  pall  of  the  Smoky 
City,  but  all  who  can  escape  it  at  night 
have  fled  to  the  eastern  hills,  where  they 
have  set  beautiful  residences,  public  build- 
ings, churches  and  schools  along  broad 
boulevards  and  landscape  parks.  Pitts- 
burgh has  money  to  pay  for  anything  it 
wants.  The  steel-industry  alone  is  said 
to  have  made  2,000  millionaires.  Coal, 
coke,  oil-fields  and  gas-wells  have  made 
others.  There  are  locomotive  and  car- 
works,  glass-furnaces  and  brass-foundries, 
paper-mills,  salt  and  chemical  works,  plants 
for  making  electrical  supplies  and  for  many 
by-products  of  the  steel-mills  and  oil- 
refineries  to  swell  the  streams  of  gold  that 


PITTSFIELD 


1497 


PIUS  VII 


flow  into  the  city's  coffers.  Pittsburgh  is 
traversed  by,  or  has  direct  connection  with, 
every  important  railroad  from  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  to  the  West.  Its  railway  ton- 
nage is  said  to  exceed  that  of  any  other 
city  in  the  world,  and  its  river  tonnage, 
among  cities  in  the  United  States,  is  ex- 
ceeded probably  only  by  that  of  Detroit. 

Because  of  its  great  wealth  Pittsburgh 
is  noted  for  its  200  costly  churches,  its 
fine  public  buildings,  its  70  public  schools 
and  numerous  private  schools  and  acad- 
emies. Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology, 
built  by  Andrew  Carnegie  and  endowed 
with  $10,000,000,  is  one  of  the  finest  institu- 
tions of  the  kind  in  the  world.  Nearly 
one  seventh  of  the  population  is  enrolled 
in  the  public  schools  and  more  than  1,000 
teachers  are  employed,  an  unusually  high 
percentage  among  American  cities.  Little 
could  be  done  to  beautify  the  crowded 
manufacturing  district,  but  as  the  city  is 
only  eight  miles  long  and  is  but  five  wide 
at  its  eastern  extremity,  the  suburbs  and 
parks  on  the  surrounding  hills  are  easily 
accessible.  Schenley  Park  is  one  of  the 
largest  parks  in  the  country  and  Highland 
Park  one  of  the  most  beautiful.  In  1907 
Allegheny  was  consolidated  with  Pittsburgh 
giving  Greater  Pittsburgh  a  population  of 
533.905.  See  ALLEGHENY. 

Pitts'fleld,  Mass.,  a  city  of  western 
Massachusetts,  county-seat  of  Berkshire 
County,  named  in  honor  of  William  Pitt, 
was  settled  in  1761.  Situated  on  a  plateau 
1,037  feet  in  altitude  and  surrounded  by 
Hoosac  and  Taconic  Mountains,  Pittsfield 
possesses  natural  beauties  rarely  surpassed. 
Its  great  beauty  has  attracted  people  of 
wealth  and  taste  who  have  built  costly  resi- 
dences here.  It  contains  a  marble  courthouse, 
a  handsome  athenaeum,  a  costly  museum  and 
beautiful  schoolhouses.  Its  manufactures  in- 
clude woolen  goods,  silk,  cotton  goods,  shoes 
electrical  goods  and  paper  mills.  Population, 
39,301. 

Pitt'ston,  Pa.,  city,  in  Luzerne  County, 
on  Susquehanna  River  and  in  the  center 
of  the  rich  anthracite  region  of  north- 
eastern Pennsylvania.  Its  manufactories, 
which  have  the  advantage  of  abundant 
and  cheap  fuel,  include  machine-shops, 
planing,  knitting,  flour  and  paper-mills, 
stove  and  steel-range  works,  terra-cotta 
works,  ladies'  underwear  factory,  dye- 
works  and  pressed-brick  works.  West 
Pittston,  across  the  river  and  connected 
with  it,  is  the  chief  residential  part  of  the 
city.  It  also  has  electric  connection  with 
Nanticoke,  Plymouth  and  Wilkes-Barre, 
and  has  the  service  of  four  railroads. 
Pittston  was  named  after  William  Pitt,  and 
was  settled  about  1770.  Population  16,267. 

Pi' us  V,  originally  namea  Michele  Ghis- 
lieri,  was  born  of  poor  parents  at  Bosco 
near  Milan  in  1504,  and  at  14  entered  the 
Dominican  order.  His  merits  were  recog- 


nized by  Pope  Paul  IV,  who  appointed 
him  bishop  of  Sutri  and  Nepi  in  1556  and 
cardinal  in  the  following  year.  Being 
chosen  pope  in  1566,  he  labored  to  restore 
discipline  and  morality  at  Rome,  pro- 
hibited bullfights  and  other  objectionable 
amusements,  and  regulated  the  taverns. 
He  also  zealously  maintained  the  inquisi- 
tion, and  sought  to  suppress  heresy  with 
a  strong  hand  wherever  it  was  found.  But 
the  most  important  event  of  his  pontificate 
was  the  expedition  which  he  organized  in 
connection  with  Spain  and  Venice  against 
the  Turks,  which  resulted  in  the  great  naval 
victory  of  Lepanto,  Oct.  7,  1571.  He  died 
in  the  following  year,  and  was  canonized 
by  Clement  XI  in  1712. 

Pius  VI,    originally  named  Giovanni  An- 

Sslo  Braschi,  was  born  at  Cesena,  Italy, 
ec.  27,  1717,  and  on  the  death  of  Clement 
XIII  in  1775  he  was  chosen  to  the  pontificate. 
His  administration  was  enlightened  and 
judicious,  and  to  him  Rome  owed  many 
substantial  improvements.  Soon  after  his 
accession,  however,  he  was  involved  in 
serious  conflict  with  Emperor  Joseph  of 
Austria  and  with  Leopold  of  Tuscany,  by 
whom  he  was  deprived  of  a  considerable 
portion  of  his  supremacy.  Soon  afterwards 
came  the  French  Revolution  and  the  con- 
fiscation of  all  church-property  in  France. 
In  1797  peace  was  secured  by  the  treaty 
of  Tolentino;  but  new  causes  of  conten- 
tion soon  arose,  and  in  1798  the  French 
marched  upon  Rome  and  took  possession 
of  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo.  Pius  was  called 
upon  to  renounce  his  temporal  sovereignty, 
and  on  his  refusal  to  do  so  was  imprisoned 
and  carried  to  Florence.  On  the  threatened 
advance  of  the  Austro- Russian  army  in 
the  following  year  he  was  transferred  to 
Grenoble  and  thence  to  Valence  on  the 
Rh6ne,  where  he  died,  Aug.  29,  1799. 

Pius  VII,  originally  Gregorio  Luigi  Bar 
naba,  was  born  at  Cesena,  Italy,  Aug.  14, 
1742,  and  became  pope  in  1800.  Rome, 
which  had  been  occupied  by  the  French 
for  two  years,  was  restored  to  the  papal 
authority,  and  next  year  the  French  troops 
were  withdrawn  from  the  city.  In  1804 
Napoleon  compelled  Pius  to  come  to  Paris 
to  consecrate  him  as  emperor.  He  was 
well-received,  but  in  less  than  six  months 
after  his  return  to  Rome  French  troops  seized 
Ancona,  and  in  1809  General  Miollis  entered 
Rome  and  took  possession  of  the  Castle  of  St. 
Angelo.  The  usurpation  was  consummated 
in  the  following  year  by  a  decree  annexing 
Rome  and  all  the  papal  territory  to  the  French 
empire.  After  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  restored  his  territories, 
and  on  May  24,  1814,  he  re-entered  Rome, 
the  remainder  of  his  reign  being  devoted  to 
wise  measures  of  internal  administration. 
Throughout  his  life  Pius  was  a  model  of 
gentleness,  benevolence  and  Christian 
charity.  He  died  on  August  20,  1823. 


PIUS  IX 


1498 


PIZARRO 


Pius  IX,  originally  Giovanni  Maria  Mas- 
tai-Ferretti,  was  born  at  Sinigaglia,  Italy, 
May  13,  1792  IH  1840  he  became  a  car- 
dinal, and  on  the  death  of  Gregory  XVI 
in  1846  was  elected  to  succeed  him.  He 
avowedly  was  the  leader  of  the  reform 
party.  In  March,  1848,  he  published  his 
scheme  for  the  government  of  the  papal 
states  by  means  of  two  chambers,  one 
nominated  by  the  pope  and  one  chosen  by 
the  people.  But  the  revolutionary  fever 
of  1848  spread  too  fast  for  a  reforming 
pope,  and  on  Nov.  1 5  his  minister  was  mur- 
dered in  broad  daylight.  A  few  days  later 
the  pope  himself  escaped  to  Gaeta,  from 
which  he  issued  a  remonstrance  to  the 
various  sovereigns  of  Europe.  In  April, 
1849,  a  French  expedition  was  sent  to 
Civita  Vecchia,  and  in  July  General  Oudi- 
not  took  possession  of  Rome,  Pius  himself 
returning  and  resuming  his  authority  in 
the  following  year.  After  this  his  policy 
was  the  revers.e  of  what  it  had  been,  and 
to  the  end  of  his  life  he  continued  an  un- 
yielding conservative.  By  a  bull,  issued 
in  1854,  he  decreed  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception of  the  Virgin  Mary  as  a  doctrine  of 
the  church.  But  the  most  important  event 
of  his  pontificate  was  the  Vatican  Council, 
at  which  bishops  from  all  parts  of  the 
world  assembled  in  December,  1869,  and 
continued  in  session  until  July,  1870.  This 
council  first  formally  proclaimed  the  doc- 
trine of  the  papal  infallibility  whenever 
the  head  of  the  church  issues  a  decree  on  a 
subject  of  faith  and  morals  to  the  universal 
church.  For  several  years  previous  the 
pope's  temporal  authority  had  been  main- 
tained only  by  French  bayonets.  When 
the  garrison  at  Rome  was  withdrawn,  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Germany  in 
1870,  the  soldiers  of  Victor  Emmanuel 
entered  Rome,  and  for  the  remainder  of 
his  days  the  pope  lived  a  voluntary  prisoner 
within  the  Vatican,  only  his  spiritual  power 
remaining.  He  died  at  Rome,  February  7, 
1878,  and  was  succeeded  by  Leo  XIII. 

Pius  X,  original- 
ly named  Giuseppe 
Sarto,  was  born  of 
humble  parents 
at  Riese,  Italy, 
on  June  2,  1835. 
He  pursued  his 
elementary  studies 
at  Castel  Franco 
near  Venice,  and 
was  later  enabled 
to  continue  h  i  s 
higher  education 
elsewhere.  He 
was  consecrated  to 
the  priesthood  at 
23;  and  became 
vicar  -  general  of 
Treviso  in  1875; 
bishop  of  Mantua  PIUS  x 


in  1884;  and  cardinal  in  1893.  Shortly 
afterward  he  was  made  Patriarch  of  Ven- 
ice, and  on  Aug.  4,  190.3,  he  was  elected 
pope.  Free  from  ambition  and  filled  with 
a  passion  for  souls,  he  had  a  gift  for  organi- 
zation and  was  full  of  zeal.  His  schools  and 
his  work  for  societies  made  him  known 
throughout  Italy.  He  was  ardent  for  missions 
and  preaching.  His  rule  as  pontiff  was 
marked  by  his  abolition  of  the  veto  of  Austria, 
France  and  Spain  on  the  election  of  the 
pope;  by  his  stanch  advocacy  of  the  Greg- 
orian chant  and  opposition  to  secular  music 
in  the  services  of  the  church;  and  by  the 
separation  of  church  and  state  in  France. 
He  died  Aug.  20,  1914. 

Pizar'ro,  Francis'co,  the  conqueror  of 
Peru,  was  the  illegitimate  son  of  a  Spanish 
colonel  of  infantry,  and  was  born  about 
1478.  He  never  learned  to  read  and  write, 
but  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age  and 
served  under  Gonsalvo  di  Cordova,  the 
Great  Captain,  in  Italy.  He  also  was  one 
of  Balboa's  party  that  discovered  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  and  soon  after  this  became 
a  resident  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  From  this  point,  in  connec- 
tion with  Diego  de  Almagro,  another  old 
soldier,  he  started  on  an  expedition  for  the 
conquest  of  Peru  (q.  v.)  in  1 5  2  6.  But  not  being 
strong  enough  to  land  and  form  a  settle- 
ment, Almagro  was  sent  back  to  Panama 
for  re-enforcements,  while  Pizarro  and 
part  of  the  force  remained  on  an  island. 
But  the  governor  of  Panama  refused  to  give 
further  support  to  the  enterprise,  and  sent 
vessels  to  bring  back  Pizarro  and  his  men. 
The  latter  refused  to  return,  and,  drawing 
a  line  on  the  sand,  called  upon  all  the  men 
who  wished  to  remain  with  him  and  share 
in  the  success  of  his  enterprise  to  come 
over  to  his  side.  Thirteen  men  crossed  the 
line,  but  the  others  returned.  Soon  after 
this  the  governor  was  induced  to  send  one 
vessel  to  Pizarro,  with  which  he  explored 
the  coast  of  Peru  and  collected  information 
concerning  the  empire  of  the  Incas.  He 
then  returned,  and  soon  afterwards  pro- 
ceeded to  Spain,  where  he  applied  for 
authority  to  undertake  the  conquest  of 
Peru.  On  July  26,  1529,  a  commission  was 
given  him  for  his  enterprise,  with  the  title 
of  captain-general,  while  Almagro  received 
the  title  of  marshal.  Pizarro  sailed  from 
San  Lucar  on  January  19,  and  from  Panama 
the  following  year,  with  three  vessels,  con- 
taining less  than  200  men  and  about  40 
horses.  Almagro  was  to  follow  with  re-en- 
forcements. Landing  at  Tumbez,  the 
Spaniards  commenced  the  march  inland 
in  May,  1532,  and  in  November  entered  the 
city  of  Cajamarca.  The  Inca  Atahualpa, 
being  on  his  way  to  Cuzco,  the  capital  of  his 
empire,  was  captured  and  put  to  death  by 
Pizarro,  who  first  extorted  eight  million 
dollars  for  his  ransom.  Pizarro  then 
marched  to  Cuzco,  and  set  up  the  young 


PLAGUE 


1499 


PLANBTS 


Inca,  Manco,  as  nominal  sovereign  of  the 
empire,  being  careful  to  retain  the  real 
power  in  his  own  hands.  In  1 535  he  founded 
Lima  as  the  capital  of  his  new  government. 
Two  or  three  years  later  a  fierce  quarrel 
arose  between  Pizarro  and  Almagro,  the 
latter  claiming  that  he  was  the  lawful  gov- 
ernor of  Cuzco  and  that  he  had  not  received 
his  full  share  of  the  honors  and  riches  to 
which  he  was  entitled.  This  contest  almost 
assumed  the  proportions  of  a  civil  war, 
and  resulted  in  Almagro  being  captured 
and  beheaded  by  Pizarro.  But  Almagro's 
followers,  driven  to  desperation  by  the 
manner  in  which  they  were  treated  by 
Pizarro,  formed  a  conspiracy  against  him. 
On  June  26,  1541,  he  was  attacked  in  his 
house  and  assassinated,  his  body  being  buried 
in  the  cathedral  by  stealth  and  at  night. 

Plague,  a  term  applied  during  the  mid- 
dle ages  to  all  fatal  epidemics  but  now 
restricted  to  a  contagious  fever  prevailing 
at  certain  times  and  places  epidemically. 
The  general  symptoms  resemble  those  of 
other  fevers  —  shivering,  rise  of  tempera- 
ture, pain  in  the  head,  back,  limbs  etc. 
Bleeding  from  the  lungs,  though  rare  in 
recent  epidemics,  was  formerly  regarded  as 
a  characteristic  symptom  of  the  "black 
death"  in  its  most  virulent  form.  About 
the  second  or  third  day  the  most  distinctive 
features  of  the  disease  present  themselves. 
These  consist  of  glandular  swellings,  usually 
in  the  neck,  armpits  or  groins;  these  gen- 
erally break  and  lead  to  prolonged  suppura- 
tion. The  cause  of  the  epidemic  has  never 
been  determined.  It  certainly  is  very  in- 
fectious, and  the  infection  may  be  conveyed 
by  clothes,  bedding  etc.  as  well  as  by  direct 
contact  with  the  sick.  It  also  is  the  most 
destructive  of  all  epidemics.  The  black 
death  of  1348-50  is  believed  to  have  de- 
stroyed more  than  half  the  population  of 
Europe.  The  first  extensive  outbreak  of 
this  disease  was  in  the  6th  century  of  our 
era,  and  devastated  the  whole  Roman  em- 
pire. It  is  supposed  to  have  originated  in 
Lower  Egypt;  but  from  this  time  frequent 
epidemics  occurred  in  Europe.  The  last 
outbreak  in  England  was  in  1665,  and  was 
called  the  Great  Plague  of  London.  Nearly 
100,000  persons  perished  in  London  alone 
during  its  ravages.  Since  the  end  of  the 
iyth  century  it  has  only  twice  visited 
western  Europe;  in  1704-14  it  spread  from 
Russia  and  Hungary  as  far  as  Sweden, 
Denmark  and  Bavaria;  and  in  1720-22, 
being  introduced  into  Marseilles  from  Syria, 
it  destroyed  almost  half  the  population 
there  and  spread  through  Provence.  The 
last  cases  known  in  Egypt  were  in  1844,  and 
since  that  date  it  has  occurred  more  than 
once  in  Arabia,  Tripoli,  Persia,  Mesopota- 
mia and  Russia. 

Plain'field,  N.  J.,  an  attractive  city  in 
Union  County  on  the  Central  Railroad  of 
New  Jersey,  ten  miles  north  of  New  Bruns- 


wick and  25  west  of  New  York  City.  It 
has  many  charming  residences  and  is  taste- 
fully laid  out.  It  has  a  public  library,  art- 
gallery,  Muhlenberg  Hospital  and  other 
civic  and  philanthropic  institutions,  and  its 
school-system  fits  pupils  for  college  entrance. 
Its  manufatures  embrace  silks,  gloves, 
safes,  dynamos  and  other  machines  and 
a  machine-tools  works,  together  with  large 
establishments  for  the  manufacture  of 
printing-presses.  Population,  24,554. 

Plane'tree,  the  oriental  plane,  a  native 
of  Greece  and  the  east,  was  planted  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  as  an  ornamental  tree, 
and  for  centuries  the  youth  of  Greece  as- 
sembled under  its  shade  in  the  groves  of 
academies  to  receive  lessons  in  philosophy. 
It  is  still  planted  for  shade  and  ornament 
in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  there  are  no 
finer  trees  in  London  than  its  plane. 

Plan'ets.  If  one  observes  the  sky  night 
after  night  he  finds  that  practically  all  the 
stars  maintain  their  relative  positions;  but 
there  are  certain  heavenly  bodies,  besides 
the  sun  and  moon,  which  form  a  striking 
exception  to  this  general  rule.  There  were 
five  of  these  bodies  known  to  the  ancients 
who  called  them  planets,  the  Greek  word 
for  wanderers.  To  these  five  bodies  had 
been  given  the  names  of  Mercury,  Venus, 
Mars,  Jupiter  and  Saturn.  Copernicus,  by 
placing  tne  sun  at  the  center  of  the  solar 
system,  showed  that  Tellus,  the  earth,  also 
belongs  in  this  group.  On  March  13,  1781, 
Sir  William  Herschel  discovered  what  he 
at  first  thought  was  a  comet,  but  which 
within  a  year  proved  to  be  another  planet, 
the  one  we  now  call  Uranus.  On  September 
23,  1846,  an  eighth  planet,  Neptune,  was 
found  by  Galle  at  Berlin  almost  exactly  at 
the  point  in  the  heavens  where  it  had  been 
predicted  by  Leverrier  (q.  v.)  in  France 
and  by  Adams  in  England,  a  discovery 
which  is  justly  celebrated  as  the  most 
brilliant  achievement  of  modern  astronomy. 
Besides  these,  nearly  500  smaller  planets 
called  asteroids  were  discovered  dunng  the 
1 9th  century.  See  ASTRONOMY. 

The  following  table,  giving  the  distances 
and  periods  of  the  various  planets,  is  taken 
from  Young's  General  Astronomy: 


NAME 

DISTANCE  FROM 
SUN 

SIDBREAL  PERIOD 

Mercury 
Venus 
Earth 
Mars 

0.387 
0.723 
i  .000 
'•523 

88  days 
224.7 
365* 
687 

Mean 
Asteroid 

2.650 

3  to  8  years 

Jupiter 
Saturn 
Uranus 
Neptune 

5  .202 

9-539 
19.183 
30.054 

11.9  years 

29-5 
84.0 
164.8 

PLANETS 


X500 


PLANT-BREEDING 


It  will  be  observed  that  the  distance  from 
the  sun  is  given  in  terms  of  the  distance  of 
the  earth  as  a  unit.  The  relative  sizes  of  the 
planets  and  the  sun  are  well-shown  in  the 
accompanying  figure: 

For  the  laws  which  describe  the  motion 
of  the  planets  about  the  sun  see  KEPLER 
and  NEWTON. 

Concerning  the  individual  planets  it  may 
be  noted  that 

i.  MERCURY,  which  is  nearest  the  sun, 
has  the  least  diameter,  the  least  mass  and 
the  greatest  density  of  all  the  planets.  Its 
density  may  be  remembered  from  the  fact 


DIAGRAM     SHOWING    COMPARATIVE     SIZES    OF 
PLANETS 

that  it  is  almost  exactly  that  of  the  metal 
mercury,  being  12^  times  that  of  water. 
The  diameter  of  this  planet  is  about  3,000 
miles.  No  satellite  has  been  discovered  for 
Mercury. 

2.  VENUS  has  a  diameter  of  7,700  miles 
and  a  density  0.86  that  of  Earth,  so  that  in 
size,  surface,  gravity  she  is  not  very  differ- 
ent from  our  own  planet.     No  satellite  is 
known. 

3.  EARTH.    See  EARTH. 

4.  MARS  has  a  diameter  of  4,200  miles, 
and  a  density  which  is  0.73  that  of  Earth, 
so  that  bodies  at  the  surface  of  Mars  weigh 
only  0.38  what  they  would  at  the  surface  of 
Earth.     Two  satellites  of  this  planet  were 
discovered  by  Professor  Hall  at  Washington 
in  August,  1877.    These  two  moons,  Deimos 
and  Phobos,  are  exceedingly  minute,  being 
only  7  and  5  miles,  respectively,  in  diameter. 


The  surface  of  Mars  is  covered  with  inter- 
esting markings. 

5.  ASTEROIDS.     See  ASTEROIDS. 

6.  JUPITER,  the  largest  of  all  planets,  has 
a  diameter  of  86,500  miles;  and,  while  its 
density  is  only  one  quarter  that  of  Earth, 
its  mass  is  3 1 6  times  as  great,  so  that  a  body 
on  the  surface  of  Jupiter  weighs  more  than 
twice  as  much  as  the  same  body  at  the  sur- 
face of  Earth.     The  surface  of  this  planet 
exhibits  some  very  characteristic  markings, 
especially  belts  and  spots,  which  lead  to  the 
opinion  that  Jupiter  is  a  body  of  very  high 
temperature     compared     with     the     other 

planets.  He  has  five  satellites, 
four  discovered  by  Galileo  and 
one  by  Barnard  in  1892  at  Lick 
Observatory. 

7.  SATURN,  with    its  system 
of  rings,  is  conceded  to  be  one  of 
the  most  superb  objects  in  the 
heavens.      Although  the  diam- 
eter of  the  planet  is  only  73,000 
miles,  the  outer  ring  is  no  less 
than  168,000  miles  across.  Two 
rings  had  been  known  for  a  long 
while,  but   the  third   ring  was 
discovered   by   Bond    in    1850. 
Pierce  and  Maxwell  have  proved 
that  these  rings  are  made  up 
of  discrete  particles   and    that 
the  rings,  therefore,  are  neither 
solid  nor  liquid.    See  MAXWELL, 
JAMES  CLERK.    Saturn  has  eight 
satellites     discovered    between 
1665  and  1848. 

8.  URANUS,  discovered  by  the 
older  Herschel,  has  a  diameter 
of  32,000 miles;  but  its  density 
is  only  about  one  fifth  that  of 
Earth,  so  that,  notwithstanding 
its  enormous  bulk,  surface  grav- 
ity there  is  only  0.90  that  of 
Earth.    It  is   accompanied   by 

THE  SUN  AND  f°ur  satellites. 

9.  NEPTUNE,  themost  distant 
member   of   the    family   has   a 

diameter  of  35,000  miles  and  a  density  one 
fifth  that  of  Earth.  At  an  average  distance 
of  2,800  millions  of  miles  from  the  sun,  it  is 
absolutely  invisible  at  Earth,  except  by  the 
aid  of  a  telescope.  It  has  one  satellite, 
discovered  almost  immediately  after  the  dis- 
covery of  the  planet  itself.  See  Miss  Clerke's 
History  of  Astronomy  and  Chambers'  Descrip- 
tive and  Practical  Astronomy. 

Plant'-Breeding,  a  term  covering  sev- 
eral processes  of  improving  varieties  of 
plants  or  of  producing  new  varieties.  It  is 
done  by  selection  or  by  crossing.  Its  pur- 
pose may  be  to  produce  fruits  that  are  bet- 
ter flavored,  to  produce  larger  yields  or 
to  produce  plants  that  are  more  resistant 
to  disease,  to  pests  or  unfavorable  climatic 
conditions.  Selection  is  simply  using  such 
material  for  "seed"  as  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree  shows  the  desired  trait;  of  it  is 


PLANTAGENET 


1501 


PLAT^A 


saving  those  seed-grown  plants  possessing 
.said  traits.  The  effect  of  failure  to  follow 
the  first  alternative  is  seen  in  the  decreasing 
yield  from  year  to  year  from  selling  all  the 
large  potatoes  of  a  crop  and  planting  only 
small  ones.  Potato-tubers  are  underground 
stems,  and  not  "seeds,"  botanically  speak- 
ing. Most  true  seeds  tend  to  reproduce  the 
traits  possessed  by  their  parents,  i.  e.,  they 
tend  to  "breed  true."  By  selection  we  get 
early  maturing  corn  that  ripens  in  the 
Dakotas  to  the  Canadian  boundary  and 
wheat  that  needs  but  15  inches  of  rainfall. 
Crossing  means  that  the  pollen-dust  of  one 
flower  has  been  applied  to  the  pistil  or 
seed-bearing  organ  of  another  of  a  differ- 
ent variety.  The  result  is  a  hybrid,  which 
may  or  may  not  have  desirable  character- 
istics, and  may  or  may  not  be  able  to  trans- 
mit any  of  the  desirable  characteristics,  as 
can  be  told  only  by  observing  later  genera- 
tions. Cross-breeding  always  implies  selec- 
tion, but  not  the  reverse.  Crossing  induces 
a  variation,  selection  fixes  the  type.  But 
variations  occur  without  any  crossing  that 
we  are  aware  of.  Desirable  varieties  of 
most  fruit-trees,  which  must  be  propagated 
by  other  means  than  the  seed,  appeared 
>re  know  not  how.  Thus  the  seedless 
grange  was  "discovered"  in  Brazil,  the  Dela- 
ware grape  in  central  Ohio.  See  Holden's 
Corn-Culture;  Bailey's  Plant-Breeding;  and 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  reports. 

Plantag'enet,  a  family  that  in  1154,  in 
^he  person  of  Henry  II,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  England  on  the  extinction  of  the 
Norman  dynasty  in  the  male  line,  and 
reigned  till  1485,  when  the  battle  of  Bos- 
worth  gave  the  crown  to  the  house  of  Tudor. 
The  name  comes  from  planta  genista,  the 
broom-plant,  which  the  Angevin  ancestor 
of  the  family  wore  in  his  cap.  The  Plan- 
tagenet  kings  were  Henry  II,  Richard  I, 
John,  Henry  III,  Edward  I,  Edward  II, 
Edward  III,  Richard  II,  Henry  IV,  Henry  V. 
Henry  VI,  Edward  IV,  Edward  V  and 
Richard  III.  See  articles  under  these 
names.  For  the  great  struggle  between 
rival  branches  of  the  Plantagenets  see  ROSES, 
WARS  OF  THE. 

Plan'tain,  species  of  Plantago,  a  genus 
containing  more  than  200  species,  which  are 
distributed  everywhere,  at  least  twenty  plan- 
tains being  known  in  North  America.  All 
have  a  common  habit,  a  rosette-like  cluster 
of  basal  leaves  from  the  center  of  which 
rises  a  stalk  bearing  the  more  or  less  elon- 

fated  dense  spike  of  inconspicuous  flowers, 
n  the  common  plantain  this  spike  is  often 
said  to  resemble  a  rat's  tail.  Far  the  most 
common  species  is  P.  major,  the  dooryard 
plantain,  which  has  received  numerous  other 
common  names.  Perhaps  the  next  common- 
est form  is  P.  lanceolata,  known  as  ribwort, 
ribgrass  and  scores  of  old  names. 

Plasmo'dium,  the  naked,  protoplasmic 
body  of  the  slime-molds.  It  consists  of 


numerous,  fused,  naked  cells  and,  like  a 
huge  amoeba,  has  the  power  of  motion.  See 
MYXOMYCETES. 

Plas'ter  of  Par'is  is  gypsum  (q.  v.)  pre- 
pared for  use  in  the  arts,  the  name  arising 
from  the  fact  that  the  most  famous  beds 
of  gypsum  in  the  world  are  those  of  Mont- 
martre  near  Paris  and  that  the  product  is 
shipped  from  that  city.  The  plaster  itself 
is  merely  gypsum,  the  natural  bihydrated 
calcium  sulphate,  heated  and  ground  fine. 
In  this  condition  it  constitutes  a  powder 
devoid  of  moisture,  which  has  been  driven 
off  by  heat.  But  upon  the  reapplication  of 
water  to  the  mass  it  rapidly  assumes  solid 
form  again.  This  property  renders  the  ma- 
terial invaluable  to  the  designer,  who  can  fill 
his  molds  with  the  moist,  soft  mass,  and 
presently  take  it  out,  set  in  the  form  given 
by  the  matrix.  Dentists  use  this  material 
in  taking  casts  of  the  jaws;  decorators  use 
it  in  ornamenting  ceilings  and  cornices; 
sculptors  use  it  in  making  the  final  model 
from  which  the  marble  statue  is  copied  by 
skilled  workmen  who  make  that  a  profession. 

Plas'tering,  the  process  of  covering  walls, 
masonry  or  woodwork  with  material  which 
is  soft  and  plastic  when  applied,  but  be- 
comes hard  when  dry.  For  interior  walls 
a  first  coat  of  mortar,  made  of  sand  and 
lime  mixed  with  hair,  is  generally  used. 
The  lime  is  slaked  and,  with  the  other 
material,  is  placed  in  a  box.  Water  is  added, 
and  the  whole  is  stirred  and  kneaded  with 
a  hoe  until  thoroughly  mixed  and  a  smooth 
mortar  secured.  A  thick  coat  of  this  mor- 
tar is  spread  with  a  trowel  on  the  surface 
of  lath  or  screen,  and  is  pressed  in  spread- 
ing in  order  that  the  mortar  will  be  forced 
through  the  screen  and  clinch  and  hold  as 
the  material  hardens.  This  first  coat  is 
roughened,  to  hold  the  second  coat,  which 
is  applied  when  the  first  is  thoroughly  dry. 
The  second  coat  is  lighter,  containing  little 
or  no  sand  or  hair.  It  is  planed  smooth 
with  a  wooden  board  called  a  float.  The 
third  or  setting  coat  is  pure  lime,  or  may 
be  of  plasterer's  putty  and  plaster  of  pan's. 
Cement,  staff  or  stucco  is  used  for  exterior 
walls.  See  CEMENT. 

Plata,  Rio  de  la  (rS'o  day  Id  pla'ta) ,  a  great 
estuary  in  South  America  between  Uruguay 
and  the  Argentine  Republic.  It  is  about  1 50 
miles  long  and  at  Buenos  Aires  28  miles 
wide,  but  140  miles  broad  at  its  mouth. 
The  northern  shore  is  steep  and  high,  the 
southern  low  and  flat.  The  branches  of  the 
Plata  drain  about  1,600,000  square  miles, 
and  the  outflow,  seen  for  60  miles  out  at 
sea,  is  about  52,000,000  cubic  feet  per  min- 
ute, a  volume  second  only  to  that  of  the 
Kongo.  See  Sir  Horace  Humbold's  Th« 
Great  Silver  River.  See  PARANA"  and  PARA- 
GUAY. 

Plataea  (pld-te'd),  a  city  in  Boeotia,  on 
the  borders  of  Attica  and  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Cithaeron,  six  miles  from  Thebes.  In 


PLATEAU 


1502 


PLATO 


480  B.  C.  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Persians 
because  the  inhabitants  had  taken  part  with 
Athens  in  the  battle  of  Marathon;  but  in 
the  following  year  it  was  the  scene  of  the 
victory  won  by  Pausanias  and  Aristides  over 
the  Persians  under  Mardonius.  During  the 
third  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  429 
B.  C.,  it  was  besieged  by  a  Theban  and 
Spartan  force,  and  heroically  defended  itself 
for  more  than  two  years  until  it  was  starved 
into  surrender,  the  garrison  of  200  men  be- 
ing put  to  the  sword  and  the  city  razed  to 
the  ground.  Such  of  the  Plataeans  as  es- 
caped were  hospitably  received  at  Athens, 
and  by  the  treaty  of  Antalcidas,  forty  years 
later,  their  children  were  allowed  to  go  back 
and  rebuild  their  city;  they  were  again 
driven  out  by  the  Thebans;  and  half  a 
century  elapsed  before  the  victory  of  Philip 
at  Chaeronea  enabled  the  Plataeans  finally 
to  return  to  their  homes. 

Pla'teau,  Joseph  Antoine  Ferdinand,  a 
distinguished  Belgian  physicist,  was  born  at 
Brussels  in  1801,  and  died  at  Ghent  in  1883. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Liege, 
and  was  professor  of  physics  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Ghent  from  1835  to  1883.  His  most 
important  contributions  to  science  are  along 
the  two  wholly  different  lines  of  subjective 
visual  phenomena  and  capillarity.  It  was 
while  engaged  in  the  former  study  that  he 
looked  directly  at  the  midday  sun  for  20 
seconds  in  order  that  he  might  study  its 
after-effects.  One  of  these  after-effects  was 
that  he  became  permanently  blind  in  1843. 
His  work  on  surface-tension  was  carried  on, 
under  his  direction,  by  his  wife,  son  and 
distinguished  son-in-law,  Van  der  Mensbrug- 
ghe.  These  researches  are  contained  in  his 
Statics  of  Liquids,  which  has  been  translated 
into  English  by  Smithsonian  Institution.  A 
more  beautiful  and  ingenious  series  of  ex- 
periments on  surface-tension  than  those 
here  described  it  would  be  impossible  to 
find.  Plateau  is  to  be  remembered  also  as 
the  inventor  of  the  thaumatrope. 

Plat'ing  consists  in  covering  the  surface 
of  a  metal  with  a  coating  of  a  more  valu- 
able metal.  Many  metals  and  alloys  are 
plated  with  gold  or  silver,  and  iron  is  fre- 
quently nickel-plated.  The  operation  is 
performed  most  frequently  by  placing  the 
object  to  be  plated  in  an  appropriate  solu- 
tion and  causing  the  metal  to  be  deposited 
by  means  of  an  electric  current.  In  silver- 
plating  a  bath  of  silver  cyanide  dissolved  in 
potassium  cyanide  is  commonly  used,  while 
an  anode  of  silver  supplies  this  metal  as 
fast  as  it  is  deposited  upon  the  objects  form- 
ing the  cathode.  Copper  and  zinc  may  be 
deposited  at  the  same  time  upon  iron  objects, 
thus  producing  brass  plating.  In  most  cases 
electroplated  articles  require  rubbing  or 
burnishing  in  order  that  they  may  ac- 
quire a  brilliant  luster.  H.  L.  WELLS. 

Plat'inum  is  one  of  the  "noble  metals." 
It  is  generally  found  in  small  granules  mixed 


with  other  metals,  but  sometimes  in  masses 
as  large  as  a  pigeon's  egg.  In  rare  cases 
pieces  have  been  found  weighing  ten  or  more 
pounds.  It  is  chiefly  obtained  from  the 
Ural  Mountains,  although  it  has  been  found 
in  Brazil,  Colombia,  California,  Canada  and 
Borneo.  Platinum  is  the  heaviest  form  of 
matter  known,  except  iridium  and  osmium. 
It  expands  less  by  heat  than  any  other 
metal,  and,  as  it  expands  to  about  the  same 
extent  as  glass,  it  is  easy  to  fuse  a  wire  of 
this  metal  into  glass  without  causing  the 
latter  to  break  subsequently.  Electric  cur- 
rents are  thus  led  into  the  ordinary  incan- 
descent-light bulbs.  On  account  of  its  power 
of  resisting  the  action  of  acids  it  is  of  great 
service  in  chemical  experiments,  platinum 
capsules,  crucibles  and  similar  articles  being 
found  in  every  laboratory.  Platinum  is 
exceedingly  malleable  and  ductile,  but  it 
melts  only  when  subjected  to  the  very  high- 
est heat.  On  this  account  it  is  in  great 
demand  for  electrical  as  well  as  chemical 
apparatus,  and  the  recent  introduction  of 
the  platinotype  process  in  photography  has 
advanced  the  price  very  materially. 

Pla'to,  a  distinguished  Grecian  philoso- 
pher, was  born  during  the  early  years  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War,  most  probably  about 
425  B.  C.  A  vast  amount  of  detail  has 
come  to  us  respecting  his  life,  but  most  of 
it  is  very  doubtful.  According  to  one  ac- 
count Plato  was  born  in  Athens;  according 
to  another  in  ^Egina.  He  came  of  an  aris- 
tocratic family,  his  father  boasting  descent 
from  the  last  king  of  Athens.  In  his  youth 
Plato  indulged  in  poetry,  but,  when  he  com- 
pared his  compositions  with  Homer,  he  aban- 
doned the  muse  entirely.  Having,  when 
about  twenty,  become  acquainted  with  Soc- 
rates (q.  v.},  he  devoted  himself  to  philos- 
ophy. His  companionship  with  Socrates 
continued  until  the  death  of  the  latter. 
Plato  made  no  attempt  to  enter  on  a  polit- 
ical career.  He  went  to  Megara,  where  he 
remained  some  time,  and  afterward  visited 
Cyrene,  Egypt,  Italy  and  Sicily.  On  his  way 
back  to  Athens  Plato  is  said  to  have  been 
sold  as  a  slave  in  JEgina.,  but  to  have  been 
ransomed  by  Anniceris  of  Cyrene.  On  his 
return  to  Athens  about  388  B.  C.,  he  began 
to  teach  in  the  Academy,  a  grove  in  the 
western  suburb  of  the  city.  There  he  gath- 
ered disciples,  teaching  mainly  by  questions 
and  conversations,  after  the  manner  of 
Socrates.  He  twice  visited  Sicily,  where  he 
spent  some  time.  Returning  to  Athens,  he 
continued  teaching  and  writing  until  347 
B.  C.,  when  he  died. 

The  distinctive  principles  of  the  teaching 
of  Socrates  are  the  inductive  method  and 
the  effort  to  get  general  definitions.  When 
people  spoke  about  persons  or  acts  as  just 
or  beautiful,  Socrates  would  ask:  "What  is 
j  ustice  ? "  "  What  is  beauty  ? ' '  and  would  test 
every  definition  by  applying  it  to  particular 
instances,  content  to  remove  misconception 


PLATTDEUTSCH 


1503 


PLAUTUS 


and  error  even  when  complete  truth  could 
not  be  obtained.  This  is  the  course  pursued 
by  Plato  in  his  earlier  dialogues;  but  in 
the  The&tetus  the  Platonic  Socrates  asks  the 

frof ounder  question :  ' '  What  is  knowledge  ? ' ' 
t  is  not  sensation,  for  sensation  alone 
gives  us  no  objective  certainty.  It  is  not 
opinion,  for  opinion  may  or  may  not  be 
true.  A  man  onby  knows  when  he  sees  the 
reasons  or  causes  of  things;  when  he  per- 
ceives facts  as  links  in  the  chain  of  cause 
and  effect.  Man  can  only  know  that  he 
knows,  when  he  deals  with  that  which  is 
permanent  and  universal.  What  then  is 
this?  Plato's  answer  is  found  in  his  theory 
of  ideas  or  forms.  These  are  not  material 
objects,  but  the  everlasting  essences,  to  be 
apprehended  only  by  the  reason;  they  are 
the  substances  of  which  material  things  are 
but  the  shadow.  In  our  time  they  are  gen- 
erally described  as  mental  concepts.  The 
form  of  a  statue  is  not  the  marble  out  of 
which  it  is  carved,  but  the  thought  or  con- 
ception of  the  sculptor,  of  which  the  marble 
is  only  an  expression.  In  his  Republic  Plato 
elaborates  his  theory  of  knowledge  and  gives 
an  illustration  of  it  by  picturing  a  majority 
of  mankind  as  prisoners  in  a  subterranean 
cavern  chained  with  their  backs  to  a  fire, 
looking  at  the  shadows  thrown  by  it  on  the 
rocky  wall  and  mistaking  them  for  realities. 
The  turning  around  of  these  prisoners  to  the 
light,  their  toilsome  ascent  up  the  steep 
slope  to  the  mouth  of  the  cave,  the  gradual 
training  of  their  eyes  to  see  the  real  things 
in  the  upper  world  and  then  finally  looking 
up  to  the  sun  itself  all  represent  the  educa- 
tion of  the  philosopher.  Education  is  turn- 
ing around  the  eye  of  the  soul  to  the  light. 
Learning,  according  to  the  Meno  and  Phce- 
drus,  is  recollecting;  the  soul  in  a  previous 
existence  has  beheld  the  ideas  or  forms ;  and 
knowledge  is  possible  because  the  mind  does 
not  acquire  something  alien  to  it  but  re- 
covers what  is  its  own. 

Philosophy  to  Plato  was  not  mere  intel- 
lectual speculation,  but  a  habit  of  mind  and 
a  manner  of  living.  The  highest  of  the  ideas 
in  his  view  was  the  good.  While  he  does 
not  accept  the  theory  that  pleasure  is  the 
good,  neither  does  he  agree  with  the  cynics 
that  all  pleasure  is  evil.  Pleasures  are  good 
or  bad,  nigh  or  low,  according  to  the  part 
of  the  soul  to  which  they  belong  Plato 
accepts  without  proof  the  popular  distinc- 
tion of  four  cardinal  virtues:  wisdom,  the 
virtue  of  reason;  courage,  the  virtue  of  the 
spirited  element;  temperance  (i.  e.,  modera- 
tion, self-control  in  general),  the  virtue  of 
the  lower  parts  in  their '  relation  to  the 
higher;  and  justice,  the  virtue  of  the  whole 
soul. 

In  Plato's  TinuBus  the  cosmos  or  order  of 
the  universe  is  the  "one  only  begotten 
image  of  God,"  its  father  and  creator.  The 
Creator,  being  good,  wished  to  make  the 
world  as  nearly  like  Himself  as  possible;  but 


no  created  or  visible  thing  can  be  perfect. 
The  material  out  of  which  the  world  was 
formed  introduced  evil  into  it.  So  also  the 
Creator  could  not  make  the  world  eternal 
like  Himselt,  and  He  therefore  created  time, 
"the  moving  image  of  eternity."  See  Pro- 
fessor Jowett's  translation  of  Plato.  The 
doctrine  of  immortality  is  the  main  subject 
of  the  Ph&do,  and  as  the  soul,  according  to 
Plato's  philosophy,  had  an  existence  before 
the  body,  it  cannot  be  affected  by  the  death 
and  dissolution  of  the  body. 

Platt'deutsch'  (plaht  doitsh)  or  Low  Ger- 
man, the  direct  descendant  of  Old  Saxon,  is 
spoken  to-day  in  different  dialects  by  the 
peasantry  of  northern  Germany  from  the 
Rhine  to  Pomerania.  Low  German  softens 
the  consonants,  but  avoids  the  deep  sibi- 
lants of  high  German  as  spoken  in  the  south, 
and  has  simple  grammatical  rules.  It  is 
very  appropriate  in  the  mouths  of  the  peo- 
ple who  use  it,  their  chief  characteristics 
being  a  childlike  good  nature  and  sturdy 
honesty.  Klaus  Groth,  Fritz  Reuter  (q.  v.) 
and  other  writers  have  given  it  a  high  literary 
standing. 

Platte  (or  Nebras'ka) ,  a  tributary  of  Mis- 
souri River,  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  its 
northern  and  southern  forks  in  western  Ne- 
braska. These  forks,  which  rise  among  the 
Rocky  Mountains  in  Colorado,  are  800  and 
500  miles  long,  respectively,  but  neither  is 
navigable.  The  general  direction  of  the 
Platte  is  eastward  in  a  wide,  shallow  stream 
over  the  plains  of  Nebraska  till  it  reaches 
the  Missouri  after  a  winding  course  of  over 
400  miles.  With  its  forks  it  drains  300,000 
square  miles  of  territory,  but  is  not  navi- 
gable. 

Platts'burg,  N.  Y.,  a  village  and  the 
county-seat  of  Clinton  County,  is  famous  for 
two  naval  battles  of  the  War  of  1812,  in 
the  latter  of  which  the  American  flotilla  was 
completely  victorious.  The  village  is  situ- 
ated upon  Lake  Champlain,  and  is  the  port 
of  entry  of  the  Champlain  customs-district. 
It  thus  is  an  important  center  of  trade  with 
Canada.  Plattsburg  is  a  garrison  town,  a 
summer  resort  and  the  seat  of  manufactures 
in  iron,  wood,  wool,  flour  and  sewing  ma- 
chines. Population  11,138. 

Plautus  (plau/tus),  Titus  Maccius,  the 
chief  comedian  of  Rome,  was  born  about  254 
B.  C.  in  Sarsina,  a  village  in  Umbria.  W« 
have  no  positive  knowledge  as  to  his  early 
life  and  education,  but  it  is  probable  that 
he  came  to  Rome  at  an  early  age  and  there 
acquired  his  mastery  of  the  most  idiomatic 
Latin.  At  Rome  he  found  employment  in 
connection  with  the  stage,  and  made  money 
enough  to  set  up  in  business  for  himself  in 
the  way  of  foreign  trade.  He,  however, 
failed  in  business  and  returned  to  Rome  in 
such  poverty  that  he  was  compelled  to  earn 
his  livelihood  by  turning  a  handmill,  work 
usually  performed  by  slaves.  While  engaged 
in  this  occupation,  he  wrote  three  plays, 


PLAYFAIR 


X504 


PLEROME 


which  proved  so  successful  that  from  that 
time  he  was  the  favorite  dramatist  of  his 
day.  His  plays  were  very  popular,  not  only 
with  the  common  people,  but  with  the  edu- 
cated classes,  and  were  acted  in  the  time 
of  Emperor  Diocletian,  five  centuries  later. 
The  scenes  of  his  comedies  are  always  laid 
in  Athens  or  in  some  other  Greek  town;  but 
his  Greek  characters  speak  and  act  like 
Romans.  Shakspere  himself  is  not  more 
careless  about  inconsistencies  of  this  kind. 
The  charm  of  Plautus  lies  in  his  genuine 
humor  and  grasp  of  character.  He  goes  to 
the  depths  of  human  nature,  and  delights 
his  readers  to-day  as  truly  as  when  he  made 
the  Roman  theaters  ring  with  applause  or  as 
when  Jerome  solaced  himself  in  his  cell  by 
reading  the  well-loved  comedies.  Shak- 
spere has  imitated  the  plot  of  the  Menaechmi, 
entirely  recasting  it  in  his  Comedy  of  Errors. 
He  died  in  184  B.  C.  See  Roman  Poets  of 
the  Republic  by  Sellar. 

Play'fair,  Lyon,  formerly  known  as  Sir 
Lyon  Playfair,  an  English  chemist  and 
statesman,  was  born  in  India,  May  21, 
1 8 1 8,  but  educated  at  St.  Andrews  Uni- 
versity, Scotland.  He  early  became  in- 
terested in  chemistry,  to  which  he  devoted 
himself  assiduously,  going  to  Germany  in 
1838  to  study  under  Baron  Liebig.  He 
served  ten  years  as  professor  of  chemistry 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  in 
1868  he  was  elected  to  Parliament  to  serve 
for  the  Universities  of  St.  Andrews  and 
Edinburgh,  holding  a  seat  for  17  years. 
He  was  postmaster-general,  deputy  speaker 
of  the  house  and  vice-president  of  the 
council  at  various  periods.  He  was  lord- 
in-waiting  to  the  queen  and  counsel  to  the 
Prince  of  Wales.  In  1883  he  was  made  a 
K.C.B.  In  1885  he  was  president  of  the 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science. 
He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron 
Playfair  of  St.  Andrews  in  1892.  He  was 
the  author  of  works  upon  his  chosen  pro- 
fession and  edited  an  edition  of  Liebig's 
Chemistry  in  Its  Application  to  Agriculture 
and  Physiology.  He  died  at  London, 
May  29,  1898. 

Play'grounds  have  originated  in  large 
cities,  as  London  and  New  York,  through 
the  need  of  providing  open  spaces  where 
the  young  may  exercise  freely  yet  under 
the  necessary  supervision.  In  London  they 
developed  from  the  movement  in  favor  of 
parks  for  the  people.  London  has  17,876 
acres  of  parks;  and,  in  addition,  every 
public  school  has  a  playground  attached. 
The  movement  in  favor  of  open-air  play- 
grounds for  both  men  and  boys  was  taken 
up  in  London  by  the  Metropolitan  Public 
Gardens  Association;  and  afterwards  by 
the  London  County  Council.  There  are 
public  gymnasia  in  all  the  parks,  except 
the  royal  ones.  In  each  p*ayground  there 
is  a  caretaker  in  uniform. 

In  New  York  playgrounds  are  established 


for  systematic  sports  during  two  months 
of  the  school  vacation.  In  1902  no  play- 
grounds were  thus  organized,  some  in 
schoolgrounds,  others  on  schoolhouse  roofs, 
others  again  on  piers  or  in  parks.  The 
afternoon  sports  in  a  summer  playground 
are  inaugurated  perhaps  by  a  grand  march 
and  one  or  two  patriotic  songs.  Then  the 
time  is  spent  either  in  gymnastic  drill  or 
in  free  play.  The  little  children  play  their 
kindergarten  games.  There  are  intervals 
for  rest,  during  which  music  is  played,  a 
song  sung  or  a  story  told.  There  are  those 
who  prefer  to  continue  the  manual  occupa- 
tions of  the  morning  vacation  school;  and 
these  give  their  attention  to  painting,  weav- 
ing, modelling  and  the  like.  Some  of  the 
boys  have  little  plots  in  which  to  raise 
vegetables.  The  swimming-pool  is  a  valu- 
able adjunct  to  the  school's  playground. 
The  evening  roof-gardens,  with  their  fresh 
air  and  brass  bands  or,  at  least,  pianos, 
supplement  the  function  of  the  afternoon 
playgrounds.  Small  parks  and  play- 
grounds are  provided  also  in  Chicago  and 
other  large  cities.  See,  also,  VACATION 
SCHOOLS. 

Plays.     See  DRAMA. 

Pleiades  (ple'ya-dez),  The,  in  Greek 
mythology,  were,  according  to  the  most 
general  account,  the  seven  daughters  of 
Atlas  and  Pleione.  According  to  some 
accounts  they  committed  suicide  from  grief, 
either  at  the  death  of  their  sisters,  the 
Hyades,  or  at  the  fate  of  Atlas,  their  father; 
according  to  others  they  were  companions 
of  Diana,  and,  when  pursued  by  Orion, 
were  rescued  from  him  by  the  gods  trans- 
lating them  to  the  sky;  all  authorities, 
however,  agree  that  after  their  death  or 
translation  they  were  transformed  into  stars. 
Their  names  are  Electra,  Maia,  Taygeta, 
Alcyone,  Calaeno,  Sterope  and  Merope.  The 
group  of  the  Pleiades,  called  the  Seven 
Stars,  is  placed  on  the  shoulders  of  Taurus, 
the  second  sign  of  the  zodiac,  and  with 
the  pole-star  and  the  twins,  Castor  and 
Pollux,  forms  the  three  angular  points  of 
a  triangle. 

Ple'rome  ( in  plants ) .  At  the  growing  tip 
of  a  stem  or  a  root  the  great  regions  are 
organized  in  embryonic  form.  Both  in 
stems  and  roots  there  are  three  such  regions. 
On  the  outside  is  dermatogen  (which  see), 
which  gives  rise  to  the  epidermis;  within 
the  dermatogen  is  the  periblem  (which 
see),  which  gives  rise  to  the  cortex;  within 
the  periblem  and  forming  the  central  axis 
of  the  stem  or  root  is  the  plerome,  which 
gives  rise  in  the  mature  stem  or  root  to 
what  is  known  as  the  stele,  in  which  the 
woody  bundles  arise.  A  longitudinal  sec- 
tion of  an  ordinary  root  or  dicotyledonous 
stem  will  reveal  these  three  great  regions. 
Of  course  the  pith  which  exists  within  the 
woody  cylinder  of  the  stem  is  a  part  of 
the  stele. 


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