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Full text of "A new universal history of arts and sciences, shewing their origin, progress, theory, use and practice, and exhibiting the invention, structure, improvement, and uses of the most considerable instruments, engines and machines, with their nature, power, and operation, decyphered in fifty two copper-plates"

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I 


n^i 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


ANEW 


UNIVERSAL  HISTORY 

O    F 

ARTS  and  SCIENCES, 

'     SHEWING     THEIR 

ORIGIN,   PROGRESS,   THEORY,  USE  and  PRACTICE, 

AND    EXHIBITING 

The  Inventio7ty    StruBure,    Improveme?tt,    and  UfeSy 

Of  the  mofl:  confiderable 

Instruments,    Engines,   and   Machin£s, 

WITH 

Their   Nature,    Power,    and  Operation^ 

DECYPHEREDIN 

FIFTY    TWO     COPPER-PLATES. 

IN    TWO     VOLUMES. 


L    ON    D    ON: 

Printed  for  J.  Coote,  at  the  King's  Arms,  in  Pater-Noller-Row. 

MDCCLIX, 


^  ■ 
V,  I 


I'jf^*^'^*'^-'^*^'^*'-^'^*'^'^**^'^***^^'^*'^'^ 


THE 


INTRODUCTION 


CONCERNING 


Academies,    and  Academical  Learning. 


v^^  *  )i^)§C  T  is  a  general  Obfervation,  that  all  Men  retain  a  certain  innate  AfFeflion  for  the  Place 
•^  '^  of  their  Nativity.     And  fhall  it  be  faid  that  a  Genius  can  forget  the  Place  of  hislmprove- 

,*,  J  .*^  ment  in  Knowledge  ?  Are  not  the  Endowments  of  the  Mind  as  valuable,  as  the  Gratifi- 
w  ^  cations  of  Senfe  in  the  Enjoyment  of  our  natural  Soil?  Therefore  it  would  be  an  unnatural 

3w'*'wS  Contempt  of  thofe  Nurferies  of  Learning,  fhould  we  enter  upon  a  Work  of  this  Kind, 
SKt^  #  /=\/=^  without  paying  due  Tribute  to  Academies,  to  which  we  are  greatly  indebted  for  moft 
of  the  ufefullmprovemcnts  in  the  feveral  Arts  and  Sciences. 

Academy  in  its  fimple  and  primitive  Senfe,  was  no  other  than  the  Houfe  of  a  certain  Nobleman, 
named  Jcademus,  fituate  without  the  Walls  of  the  famous  Univerfity  of  Athens  ;  to  which  he  invited 
all  Men  of  Learning  :  And  it  was  honoured  by  Plato  and  others,  who  reforted  thither  to  hold  private  Phi- 
lofophical  Conferences  ;  which  perhaps,  were  preparatory  for,  or  not  allowable  to  be  difputed  in,  the 
Areopagus.  —  A  Cuftom,  which  afterv/ards  prevailed  in  other  Countries  near  the  Seats  of  Learning,  as 
we  are  informed  by  Hiftory  ;  till  at  laft  we  have  feen  fuch  Societies  of  learned  Men  regularly  inftituted, 
under  the  Protection  of  Princes,  for  the  Cultivation  and  Improvement  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  under  the 
Name  of  Academies,   in  memory  of  their  Founder  Academus  the  Athenian. 

Cicero  iikewife  had  his  Academy,  or  Country-houfe  for  the  Entertainment  of  his  Philofophical  Friends  : 
to  whofe  Conferences  the  World  is  indebted  for  his  Academical  ^ejlions,  and  for  his  Books  on  the 
Nature  of  the  Gods. 

But  the  Academies  in  after  Ages  extended  the  Subjects  of  their  Enquir}'.  For  the  Members  of  that 
inftituted  by  Charlemaigne  at  Paris,  under  the  Direction  of  Alcidn  (an  Englifn  Monk)  and  compofed  of 
the  firft  Wits  of  the  Court,  were  employed  in  making  judicious  and  learned  Refledtions  upon  forrie 
ancient  and  claffical  Author  in  every  Branch  of  Literature. 

We  have  fuice  found  this  Name  appropriated  to  Places  fet  apart  for  the  Improvement  of  fome  par- 
ticular Sciences. 

In  England  we  have  the  Royal  Society,  whofe  Bufmcfs  is  to  make  faithful  Records  of  all  the  Works  of 
i^atwe  and  Art,  which  come  within  their  Reach.  And  how  well  they  have  executed  this  Plan  is  eafily 
difcovered  by  a  Perufal  of  their  Philofophical  TranfaSiions,  containing  a  vaft  Colle£lion  of  Experiments 
and  Obfervations  on  moft  Parts  of  the  Works  of  Nature  ;  Hiftcries  of  Ajts,  Manufactures,  Engines, 
i3c.  and  Improvements  in  civil,  military  and  naval  Archite^ure;  Navigation,  Trade  and  Agriculture. 
Thefe  Franladions,  are  in  great  Efteem,  and,  with  a  few  Intermiffions,  have  been  regularly  publiflied 
fince  1665. 

A  2  This 

^  rtCN ,";,.".  Q-:' 


il  The     INTRODUCTION. 

This  Society  feems  to  owe  its  Origin  to  the  Nectflity  of  the  Times  ;  when  Party  Zeal  and  civil 
Difcord  obrtrucfled  the  free  Intercourfe  of  the  Learned  in  our  Univerfities.  For,  it  began,  Hke  that  in 
the  Houfe  of  Academus,  in  JVadham  College,  Oxford,  where  Dr.  JVilkvn  entertained  the  brighteil 
Genius's  of  his  Time  for  the  Promotion  of  natural  and  experimental  Philofophy,  in  his  private  Apart- 
ment J  till  the  Jealoufy  of  Oliver's  Protectorate  obliged  them  to  difcr>ntinue  their  Meetings.  However 
many  of  the  Members  taking  up  their  Abode  in  London,  we  find  them  reviving  at  Grefitim  College  in  that 
Metropolis,  about  the  Year  1658  ;  where  they  acquired  fo  much  Reputation,  that  in  the  beginning 
of  the  Year  1663,  King  Charles  II.  incorporated  this  Academical  Society  by  the  Name  and  Stile  of 
The  Prefident,  Council,  and  Fellows,  for  the  promoting  the  Knowledge  of  natural  Things  and  ufeful 
Experiments. 

This  illuftrious  Body  confifts  of  Pcrfons  eminent  for  their  Hirth,  and  for  their  Knowledge  in  the  Arts 
and  Sciences  they  profefs  ;  amongft  whom  we  find  feveral  Princes.  Each  of  thefe  Members  at  his  Ad- 
miffion  fubfcribes  an  Engagement,  That  he  will  endeavour  to  promote  the  Good  of  the  Society:  Whicji 
fincc  its  Incorporation  is,  by  way  of  Eminence,  diftinguillied  by  the  Name  of  The  Royal  Society;  King 
Charles  himfelf  defigning  to  become  a  Member  thereof. 

The  Reputation  of  this  Eftabliftiment  raifed  an  Emulation  in  the  Promoters  of  other  Branches  in  the 
Arts  and  Sciences  ;  efpecially  amongfl  the  Mafters  of  Mufic  and  Painting.  For  we  find  upon  Record 
s.  Royal  Academy  for  M'fic,  and  another  for  Painting,  eftablilhed  by  Letters  Patents,  and  put  under  proper 
Directions  ;  though  at  prefent  they  feem  to  have  dwindled  away. 

Some  Attempts  have,  of  late  Years,  been  made  to  form  an  Academy  in  London  for  promoting 
Sculpture.  And  there  is  a  flourifhing  Society  for  promoting  Arts  owr/ Manufactures,  which  is 
ilipported  by  Gentlemen  of  great  Eminence  for  Birth  and  Learning,  and  begun  with  a  noble  Defign  to 
encourage  ^rt  and  Indujlry,  and  to  difcover  the  neceffary  Means  to  improve  Agriculture  and  the  Manual 
Arts,  as  well  as  other  Branches  of  ufeful  Knowledge  :  Tho'  neither  of  thefe  Societies,  which  are  con- 
dueled  upon  v/tWifw/iT  Principles,  and  for  pz/W/c  Utility,  have  the  Sandtion  of  a  Royal  Charter. 

The  Society  of  Antiquarians  in  London,  is  an  Academy  or  Meeting  of  Men  learned  in  all  curious 
Pieces,  which  are  capable  of  giving  any  Light  into  the  Lives,  Actions,  Cuftoms,  Maiiners,  Buildings, 
ISc,  of  the  Ancients.  It  is  feid  to  have  been  founded  by  Mr.  Camden,  in  Company  with  Sir  Robert 
Cotton.,  Stow,  and  others  ;  and  we  find  that  R.  Carew  was  admitted  a  Member  thereof  in  1589.  Thefe 
Gentlemen  applied  to  Queen  Elizabeth  for  a  Charter,  and  the  Grant  of  a  Houfe  for  holding  their 
Meetings,  erecSling  aLibrar)-,  dffr.  but  her  Death  deprived  them  of  their  Expectations. 

We  hear  no  more  of  (his  excellent  Inftitution  till  the  Year  17 17,  when  this  Society  was  revived  by 
a  fele£t  Number  of  the  Nobility,  Gentry,  Clergy  and  other  learned  and  ingenious  Men,  whofeBufinefs 
is  to  difcover  the  Antiquities  of  our  own,  as  well  as  of  other  Nations.  There  has  been  no  Interruption 
fmce  its  Revival ;  but  it  now  flourifhes  under  favour  of  a  Royal  Charter,  dated  2  November  175 1,  by 
which  the  Number  of  its  Members  is  limited  to  one  Hundred  and  Fitty. 

The  College  of  Phficians  in  London  is  mentioned  by  the  Author  of  Mein.  de  Trev.  under  the  Name 
of  Academy  :  And  the  Inftitution  of  Grejham  College  in  the  fame  Metropolis  defcrves  the  fame  Appel- 
lation :  The  former  being  eflablifhed  for  the  Improvement  of  Phyf.c  ;  the  latter  for  Lectures  in  Divinity, 
Civil  Law,  Ajlronomy,  Geometry,  Rhetoric,  Phyftc  and  Muftc  ;  founded  by  Sir  Thojnas  Grefoam  in  1581, 
with  fufficient  Salaries  for  the  feveral  Profeflbrs,  and  genteel  Apartments  for  their  Lodging. 

In  France  we  meet  w^ith  Academies  of  various  Kinds  :  The  principal  is  the  ^cj^?/ Academy  of  Sci- 
ences at  Paris ;  which  owes  its  Exiftence  to  F.  Merfenne  in  the  Beginning  of  the  1 7th  Century,  who  enter- 
tained Gaffend,  des  Cartes,  Hobhs,  Robenfal,  Pafcal,  BlondA  and  other  eminent  Philofophers,  and  propofed 
to  each  of  them  certain  Problems  to  examine,  or  Experimsnts  to  be  made.  Thefe  private  Meetings  were 
followed  by  more  public  ones  under  the  Dire£lion  of  Mr.  Montfort  and  M.  Thevenot,  the  celebrated 
Traveller  ;  till,  in  the  Year  1666,  it  obtained  the  Royal  Sanction,  and  was  conftituted  a  Society  for  the 
Improvement  of  Phyftcs,  Mathematics  and  Chemifiry.  But  this  Society  was  not  honoured  with  the 
Name  of  Royal  till  the  Year  1699, ;  when  his  Majeity,  by  a  Regulation,  dated  on  26  January  of  that 
Year,  gave  it  a  new  Form,  and  placed  it  upon  a  more  folemn  Footing  :  By  which  it  v/as  ordained  that 
the  Academy  fhould  be  compofed  of  ten  Honorary  and  ten  Ehves  Members,  and  of  twenty  Penfionary 
and  twenty  ^cw/^  Members. — That  the  i/anorar)' Members  fnould  be  ill  Reciprocales,  and  all  the 
Eleves  and  Penfionarles,  Inhabitants  of  Parls^  and  that  eight  Ajjociates  might  be  Foreigners  :  To  be  go- 
verned by  a  Prefident,  named  yearly  by  the  King  out  of  the  Honorary  Members,  and  by  a  Secretar)'  and 
Treafurer,  who  were  to  be  perpetual. 

It  was  alfo  ordained  that  the  Secretary  and  Treafurer  fhould  be  chofen  out  of  the  Penftonaries,   and 

that  the  remaining  eighteen  of  that  Clafs  fhould  be  divided  into  three  Geometricians,  three  AJlrommers, 

I  three 


The     I    N    T   R    O    D    U  C    T    I   O    N.  iii 

three  Mechanics,  three  yfnatomijls,  three  ChemiJIs  and  three  Botani/h  :  —  That  two  AJfidatis  fiiould 
apply  themfelves  to  Geometry  ;  two  to  Botany,  and  two  to  Chemijiry :  —  That  all  the  Eleves  fhould  appl?" 
themfelves  to  fome  kind  of  Science  ;  but  never  fpeak,  except  called  up  thereto  by  the  Prefident  :  — 
That  no  Regular  nor  Religious  (hould  be  admitted,  except  an  Honorary  Member  ;  nor  any  one  admitted 
a  Penfionaty  or  Ajjiciate,  who  had  not  diftinguifhcd  hinifelf  by  fome  confidcrable  VVork  in  Print,  or  by 
fome  ufeful  Machine  or  Difcovery. 

The  Academy  thus  compofed  was  allowed  to  meet  twice  a  Week  in  the  King's  Library  ;  and  after- 
wards in  a  more  convenient  Apartment  in  the  Louvre  ;  where  they  tranfacted  literary  Bufinefs  for  two 
Hours  at  lead  :  And  every  Pcnfwnary,  at  the  Beginning  of  the  Year  declared  in  Writing,  what  Woric 
he  intended  to  profecute  chiefly  in  that  Year,  with  an  Invitation  for  the  Affiflancc  of  every  Member. 

His  Majefty  not  only  dignified  them  with  his  Royal  SancSlion  ;  but  to  encourage  them  in  the  Purfuit 
of  the  Sciences,  he  gave  befides  their  ordinary  Penfions,  fome  extraordinary  Gratuities  for  Performances 
of  fuperior  Merit  ;  bearing  alfo  the  Expence  of  Experiments,  Printing,  Engraving,  and  of  other 
Enquiries  and  Incidents  neceffary  for  improving  the  Subjefts  undertaken  by  the  Acaclemijh  ;  if  approved 
and  figned  by  the  Prefident. 

But  as  this  Regulation,  in  courfe  of  Time,  was  found  too  confined,  and  excluded  many  foreisrn 
Artificers  and  Mechanics,  who  excelled  in  Profeflions  not  yet  brought  to  Perfection  in  France  ;  the 
Duke  of  Orleans,  Regent  of  the  Kingdom,  in  the  Year  1716,  in  order  to  invite  over  Foreigners,  aug- 
mented the  Number  of  Honorary  Members  and  of  AJJbciates  capable  of  being  Foreigners  :  Admitted 
Regulars  amongfl:  fuch  Afibciates  :  Supprefled  the  Clafs  oi  Eleves,  and  in  Lieu  thereof,  eflablifhed  twelve 
AdjimSfs  to  the  fix  feveral  Sciences  cultivated  principally  by  the  Academy.  He  alfo  appointed  a  Vicc-pre- 
ftcknt  to  be  chofcn  annually  by  the  King  out  of  the  Honorary  Clafs;  and  a  DireSior  and  Sub-dircSior 
from  amongfl  the  Penfianaries. 

Their  Motto  is  Invenh  ^  Perfecit :  and  their  Proceedings  are  publi/hed  under  the  Title  of  Hijlolre 
de  I'  Academie  Royalc,  he.  But  no  Member  is  allowed  to  make  u'ie  of  his  Quality  of  Academijl,  in  any 
private  Work  he  ftiall  publifli,  before  it  has  been  read  to,  and  approved  by,   the  Academy. 

Before  this  Inftitution  we  meet  with  another  under  the  Name  of  the  French  Academy,  which  was  at 
firft  a  private  Afiembly  of  the  Learned  in  the  Houfe  of  M.  Cotaant  at  Paris,  Anno  1628.  and  afterwards 
eftabliflied  in  1635  by  Cardinal  iJ/VMtv^,  under  LnvisXlll.  for  refining  and  afcertaining  the /'r^wA 
Language  and  Style.  The  Number  of  its  Members  was  confined  to  Forty  ;  who  have  generally  been 
Perfons  of  the  greateft  Diftinftion  in  the  Church,  the  Army,  and  at  the  Bar. 

The  primary  Objed  of  the  Labours  in  this  Academy  was  the  compiling  of  a  Diaionary  for  a  Standard 
of  the  French  Tongue  :  But  that  Performance  was  fo  long  in  Embryo,  that  the  Public  had  almoft  loft  all 
Hopes  of  ever  feeing  it :  And  when  after  Forty  Years  ar.d  upwards,  thefe  Forty  Members  were  lampooned 
into  the  Neceflity  of  publilhing  their  Diftionary,  the  learned  were  extremely  diiappointed  in  their 
Expeftations. 

Its  modern  State  maybe  gathered  from  a  humorous  Writer,  who  in  the  Year  1737  informs  his  Cor- 
refpondent,  "  That  the  French  Academy  had  then  produced  nothing  but  a  Syftem  of  Compliments, 
"  and  confifted  of  Forty  Perfons,  who  met  three  times  a  Week,  and  paid  their  Attendance  very  re<iu- 
"  larly  ;  becaufe  the  King  gives  a  Silver  Medal  to  every  one  that  attends,  and  permits  the  Medals^of 
"  the  Abfenters  to  be  diflributed  to  the  Members  prefent.  Their  Meetings  for  near  fourfcore  Years 
"  paft,  fays  he,  have  been  ipent  in  Harangues  of  Congratulation  and  Reception,  and  in  commending 
"  each  other  to  the  Skies.  They  applaud  one  another  for  their  Meiit  and  Talents,  and  then  return 
♦*  home.  They  fometimes  are  wholly  employed  in  the  fpelling  of  a  Word  or  accenting  of  a  Syllable ; 
«'  upon  which  Occafion  the  whole  Academy  labours,  difputes  and  ftudics  for  about  fix  Months,  and 
"  then  pafs  Sentence  of  Death  upon  fome  infignificant  Word  or  Syllable.  This  Academy  was  fifty 
"  Years  about  a  Dictionary,  of  which  they  were  continually  publifliing  Praifes  before  hand;  but  when 
"  it  came  out,  it  was  univerfally  defpifed.  That  which  complcatly  ruined  its  Character  was  another 
"  Dictionary  compiled  by  M.  Furiticre  only,  a  Member  of  this  Academy,  which  was  publiftcd  at  tlie 
"  fame  Time,  and  generally  efteemed.  The  Academy  was  refolved  to  revenge  their  injured  Honours 
"  and  to  ruin  the  Man  effectually  :  And  therefore  expelled  him  for  no  other  Crime  than  for  having 
**  merited  the  Applaufe  of  the  Learned  World. 

"  In  the  Reign  of  Leivis  XIV.  all  the  great  Men  were  Members  of  this  Society,  and  were  admittod 
"  by  the  Royal  Mandate  :  But  fince  his  Death  they  have  been  fucceeded  by  a  R.ibble  of  Ecclefiaftics, 
"  Prelates  and  Fops  :  Nay  they  have  admitted  Stage- Players,  French  Comedians,  and  preferred  two  or 
*'  three  Buffoons  and  Merry-Andrews  to  five  or  fix  Men  of  the  firft  Clafs." 

This  Academy  diftributes  two  Prizes  annually,  one  for  an  eloquent  Difcourfe,  v.'hofe  Subject  fhall  be 
propofed  and  taken  out  of  the  Neiv  Tejlament  by  the  Academ\'.     This  is  the  Gift  of  Mr.  De  Bdzar. 

1  he 


iv  The     I    N   T   R    O   D    U   C  T    I   O   N. 

The  other  is  given  by  the  Academy,  which  is  to  be  for  the  beft  Poem  in  Praife  of  the  King,  and  pre- 

pofcJ  by  the  Academy  alio. 

The  Merit  of  thefe  Pieces  direfted  to  the  Secretar)',  and  diftinguifticd  by  fome  Motto,  Letters,  or  Cha- 
racters, is  decided  by  a  Committee  of  the  Members  delegated  for  that  Purpofe  ;  who  appoint  the  Day 
for  diftributing  the  Prizes,  and  for  publickly  reading  and  printing  the  Difcourfe  and  Piece  of  Poetry, 
which  they  judge  to  have  deferved  it. 

The  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sadpture  eftabliflied  at  Paris  by  Cardinal  Mar-arin,  and  the  Chancellor 
Seguier  is  ftill  in  good  Repute.  It  confifts  of  a  Dire£lor  or  Prefident,  a  Chancellor,  four  Redlors,  a 
Treafurer,  twelve  ProfefTors,  Adjunlh  to  the  Redtors  and  ProfefTors,  Counfcllors,  a  Secretary,  a  Pro»- 
fefliir  for  Anatomy,  and  another  for  Geometry  and  PerfpeSiive. 

Members  are  admitted  either  as  Painters  or  Sculptors.  And  Painters  are  to  be  admitted  according  to 
their  feveral  Branches  :  Some  as  Painters  of  Hiftory  :  Others,  as  Painters  of  Portraits  :  Others,  as 
Painters  of  Landfkips,  Beafts,  Fruits,  Flowers,  or  in  Miniature :  Others,  as  only  Defigners,  Engravers, 
Carvers,  i^c. 

They  expofe  their  Works  once  a  Year  in  the  great  Hall  of  the  Louvre  :  The  beft  Performances  are 
rewarded  with  a  Prize  .•  And  they,  who  fhall  be  thus  diftinguifhed  for  their  Works  have  a  Right  to  Ad- 
miffion  and  Entertainment  for  three  Years  in  an  Academy  of  Painting,  Sculpture,  (Jc.  eftabliflied  at 
Rome  by  Lewis  XIV.  for  their  further  Improvement. 

The  Academy  of  Medals  and  Infcriptions  at  Paris  is  a  Legacy  to  the  Literary  World  by  M.  Colbert,  who 
gave  it  Being  in  the  Year  1663,  and  appropriated  their  Labours  to  the  Study  and  Explanation  of  antient 
Monuments,  and  to  the  perpetuating  of  great  and  memorable  Events,  efpecially  thofe  of  the  French 
Monarchy,   by  Coins,  Relievo's,   Infcriptions,  iJc. 

Its  firft  Inftitution  confifted  only  oi  fur  or  yfi;^  Members  :  But  in  1701,  they  were  encreafed  to 
forty,  viz.  Ten  Honoraries  ;  ten  Pcnfmiaries  ;  ten  AJfociates  ;  ten  Novices  or  Elcves,  under  the  Direction 
of  a  Prefident  and  Vice-Prefident,  who  are  annually  appointed  by  the  King.  The  Secretary  and  Trea- 
furer are  perpetual. 

Their  chief  Employ  has  been  upon  the  Metallic  Hijiory  of  the  Reign  of  Lewis  XIV.  But  the  Learned 
ate  indebted  to  this  Academy  for  many  Volumes  of  Effays  on  other  Parts  of  Hiftory,  publiflied  under 
the  Title  of  Memoirs,  &c.     See  the  Hijl.  de  1' Acad.  Roy.  des  Infcrip.     Paris,  \to,  is  Amstel.  i2mo. 

The  Chirurgical  Academy  in  Paris  is  a  modern  Inftitution,  eredled  by  public  Authority,  for  publifhing 
their  own  and  their  Correfpondents  Obfervations  and  Improvements  in  Surgery  ;  to  give  an  Account  of 
all  that  ftiall  be  publiflied  on  Surgery,  and  to  compile  a  complete  Hiftory  of  tliis  Art  from  the  Works  of 
all  ancient  and  modern  Authors  on  this  Subjeft. 

The  Academy  of  Dancing  feemed  to  be  the  moft  highly  favoured  by  the  late  King  of  France.  His 
Royal  Privileges  to  this  Society  indicate  a  true  Eftimate  of  the  Levity  of  the  French.     But 

The  Rcyal  Academy  of  Belles  Lettres  at  Caen  in  Normandy,  by  Letters  Patent  in  1707,  does  Honour 
to  his  Memory.  This  rifes  from  the  private  Conferences  held  by  the  Learned  in  and  about  the  City  in 
the  Houfe  of  M.  de  Bricux,-sk>oMt  fifty  Years  before  M.  Foucault  procured  their  Incorporation  into  a  per- 
petual Academy.  Their  Charter  nominated  M.  Foucault  Proteftor  thereof  for  his  Life,  with  Power  for 
him  to  chufe  thirty  Members ;  after  his  Demife,  the  Choice  of  Proteftor  and  Members  was  left  to  the 
Society,  with  Leave  to  add  fix  more  Members  to  be  elected  out  of  the  Ecclefiajiical  Communities  in  the 
City  of  Caen. 

At  Lyons  in  the  fame  Kingdom  is  an  Acadejny  of  the  Learned.  It  confifts  of  twenty  Members,  a 
Director  and  a  Secretary ;  who  have  ftiewn  themfelves  inferior  to  none  of  the  Royal  Academies,  by 
their  learned  Differtations ;  amongft  which  is  one  upon  Infinity  by  F.  Lombard,  a  Jcfuit :  See  Nouv. 
Liter.  T.  2.  p.  82.  .  _  , 

The  French  have  alfo  Academies  at  Montpelier,  Nifmes,  Aries,  Anglers,  Sec 

If  we  travel  over  the  Alps,  it  will  be  feen  that  Italy,  the  ancient  Seat  of  Literature,  has  abounded 

nioft  with  Academical  Injiitutions. 

At  Bologna  there  was  eftabliflied  an  Ecchfiafiical  Academy  in  1687,  for  the  Examination  of  the 
Doftrine,  Difcipline,  and  Hiftory  of  each  Age  of  the  Church. 

Here  v/as  the  Academy  Degl' Inifuieti,  which  united  with  the  Academy  Delia  Traccia.  They  met  in 
the  Houfe  of  the  Abbot  Stut.  Sampieri,  and  were  highly  entertained  with  the  Phyfical  and  Mathema- 
tical Diicourfes  of  Geminiana  Montanari,  one  of  the  Members,  publiflied  in  1667,  under  the  Title 
Penfieri  Fifica  Matematici.  The  Members  afterv/ards  met  in  the  Houfe  of  Eufiachio  Manfredi  ;  then 
in  that  of  facob  Sandri,  but  arrived  at  its  greateft  Luftre  in  the  Palace  of  Marfilli. 

I  In 


The      I   N    T   R    O    D    U   C   T    I    O    N.  v 

Jn  this  City  z\fo  Is  an  Jcarinny  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  cMqA  the  Injlitute  of  Bokgtia,  founded  in  1 7 12 
by  Count  Marfigli  for  cultivating  of  Phyftcs-,  Mathematks,  Medicine,  Cljcmijlry,  and  Natural  Hiftor)-. 
Whofe  Hiftory  is  publiflicd  by  M.  dc  Limiers  in  8vo.  1723,   at  Amjierdam. 

To  this  add  the  Sitientes  in  the  fame  City,  who  apply  themfelves  particularly  to  Law. 

At  Venice  is  a  Cofmographical  Academy,  called  the  Argonauts.,  inftitutcd  for  the  Improvement  of 
Geography  by  the  Intereft  of  F.  CoroneUi.  Their  Plan  was  to  make  and  publifli  exadl  Maps,  both 
Geographical,  Topographical,  Hydrographical,  and  Ichnographical  of  the  Ccleftiul  and  Terreftrial 
Globes,  and  the  feveral  Regions  and  Parts  thereof,  together  with  Geographical,  Hiftorical,  and  Aftro- 
nomical  Defcriptions.  Each  Member  in  order  to  fupport  the  Expence  of  fuch  a  Society,  is  obliged  to 
fubfcribe  a  proportionate  Sum  towards  raifing  the  Money  for  publifhing  their  Improvements.  And  for 
the  more  effectual  Execution  of  this  grand  Defign  they  eftablifhed  two  correfponding  Societies,  one  at 
Paris  and  the  other  at  Rome.  In  all  three,  the  Argonauts  number  196  Members ;  and  their  Device  Is 
the  Terraqueous  Globe  with  the  Motto,  Plus  ultra. 

Here  are  alfo  three  Academies  of  Sciences  :  One  called  La  Veneta,  founded  by  Frederic  Badoara,  1 
noble  Venetian  :  Another,  which  acknowledges  Campegio,  Bifliop  of  Feltro  for  its  Founder  :  And  a 
third  named  Confenza  or  la  Confentina;  amongft:  whofe  Members  are  numbered  the  celebrated  Philofo- 
phers  Telefto,  ^latromannu  Paulus  Aquinas,   Cavalcanti  and  Fabio  Cicali. 

At  Naples  we  read  of  the  firfl:  Academy  of  Sciences.  It  was  known  by  the  Name  of  the  Academy 
Secretorufn  Naturts,  firft  form'd  for  the  Improvement  of  Natural  and  Mathematical  Knowledge  in  the 
Houfeof  Baptijla  Porta,  about  the  Year  1560. 

In  the  fame  Kingdom  we  meet  with  the  Academy  of  Rojfano,  called  La  Societa  Scicntifica  Rcffanefe. 
DegF Incurioft,  which  was  founded  about  the  Year  1540,  by  the  Title  A'awlg-^w//,  and  changed  its 
Name  to  Spenfterati  about  the  Year  1600,  when  it  was  renewed  hy  Camillo  Tufcano. 

This  Academy  underwent  another  Change  in  1695,  when  Don  Giacinto  Gimma,  its  Prefident  got 
it  transformed  from  an  Academy  of  Belles  Lettres  into  an  Academy  of  Sciences  ;  at  which  Time  he  gave 
them  a  new  Set  of  Regulations,  and  divided  the  Members  into  Grammarians,  Rhetoricians,  Poets,  Hif- 
torians,  Phyficians,  Mathematicians,  Philofophers,  Lawyers,  and  Divines  ;  with  a  Provifo  for  the  Ad- 
miffion  of  Cardinals  and  Perfons  of  Quality. 

The  Academy  of  Arcadi  eftablifhed  at  Rome  in  1690  for  reviving  the  Study  of  Poetry  and  the  Belles 
Lettres,  has  been  honoured  by  many  Princes,  Cardinals,  is'c.  and  confifts  of  the  moft  polite  Wits  of 
both  Sexes  in  Italy  ;  who  to  avoid  Difputes  about  Precedence,  were  obliged  to  come  all  maficed  in 
Drefles  refembling  the  Shepherds  of  Arcadia  :  and  at  their  firft  fetting  oft',  they  ufed  to  meet  feven  Times 
in  the  Year  in  a  Meadow  or  Grove ;  but  now  they  are  entertained  in  the  Gardens  of  the  Duke  of  Sal- 
viati  ;  where  they  recite  the  Compofitions  of  the  Members.  The  fix  firft  Meetings  are  allotted  for 
reciting  the  Poems  and  Verfes  of  the  ^rrijr//  refiding  at  Rome;  and  every  one  reads  his  own  Compofition; 
except  Ladies  and  Cardinals,  who  are  allowed  to  depute  another  Shepherd  in  their  ftead  :  And  at  the 
feventh  Meeting  are  read  the  Compofitions  of  foreign  or  abfent  Members.  It  does  not  appear  how  many 
Members  this  Academy  comprehends  }  but  we  know  that  their  Number  amounted  to  600  within  ten 
Years  from  its  firft  EftabliJhment. 

At  Rome  feveral  learned  Men  under  the  Name  of  Lyncei  eftabiiflied  an  Academy  of  Sciences,  foon 
after  that  at  Naples.  Several  of  whofe  Members,  amongft  whom  was  the  celebrated  Galileo  Galilei,  arc 
famous  for  their  Difcoveries. 

At  YLOKEKCEisthe  Academy  ofUmidi,  known  alfo  by  theJ^^inie  of  Floreniina,  in  Honour  of  the  Grand 
Duke  Cofmo  I.  its  Protedlor  in  1549.  It  is  illuftrious  both  for  the  Works  it  has  produced  and  for  its 
Members,  who  for  more  than  two  Ages  have  been  Perfons  of  the  moft  Eminence  in  all  Italy. 

Their  chief  Attention  is  bent  to  the  Italian  Poetry  ;  fo  that  they  fpend  much  Time  in  commenting, 
yc  on  Dante  and  Petrarch,   their  chief  Authors  in  that  kind  of  Learning. 

Neverthelefs  this  Academy  has  contributed  greatly  to  the  Progrefs  of  the  Sciences  by  giving  excellent 
Italian  Tranflations  of  the  ancient  Greek  and  Latin  Hiftorians. 

In  the  fame  City  and  in  the  Year  1582  arofe  the  Academy  dclla  Crufca,  which  has  eternized  its  Name 
by  the  famous  Diftionary  of  the  Italian  Tongue.  And  the  Difcourfes  delivered  in  this  Academy  by 
Torricelli,  the  celebrated  Difciple  of  Galileo,  concerning  Levity,  Wind,  Power  of  Percuffion,  in  Ma- 
thematics and  Military  Architedure,  convince  that  thefe  Acadcmifts  did  not  confine  their  Labours  to 
Words  only. 

At 


vi  The    I   N   T    R    O   D   U   C   T   I   O   N. 

At  Florence  alfo  is  the  Academy  delC'nnento  under  the  Protedion  of  Prince  Z,f»/>«/i  Cardinal  de  Mc- 
Jicis.  Red!  was  one  of  its  chief  Members  ;  and  the  Studies  purfued  by  the  reft  may  be  colledled  from 
ihofe  curious  Experiments  publifhcd  by  Count  Laurence  Magulotti,  their  Secretary  in  1667,  under  the 
Title  of  Sagg!  di  naturali  Efperienze,  prefented  to  the  Royal  Society  in  London,  and  publiihed  in  EngUJh 
by  Mr.  Waller  in  410. 

I  could  tire  your  I'atience  in  the  Recital  of  the  Number  and  Variety  of  Academies  in  Italy,  which  has 
more  Academies  than  all  the  reft  of  the  World  :  For  the  Italians  are  very  vain  of  the  Title  of  Academijis^ 
which  to  them  feems  an  eftential  Part  of  a  regular  Coiiftitution.  At  Milan  only  there  are  twenty-five 
Academies,  and  not  lefs  than  Five  Hundred  and  Fifty  in  all  Italy  ;  but  none  of  them  very  famous,  except 
thofe  fet  apart  for  Miific,  Painting  and  Sculpture  :  And  even  tlicfe  are  much  degenerated  from  the  Skill 
of  their  Anceftors. 

Let  us  give  due  Honour  to  the  Academy  of  Filarmonici  at  Verona  ;  whofe  Members,  though  they  apply 
themfelves  to  the  Belles  LettreS,  don't  negletSl  the  Sciences.  The  Academy  of  Ricovrati  at  Padua  exifts 
with  Reputation,  as  may  be  collected  from  the  Difcourfc  on  the  Origin  of  Springs,  by  Artt.  ValUfnieri 
one  of  its  Members  ;  who  alfo  has  given  the  learned  World  a  Sample  of  the  Studies  of  his  Colleagues 
in  the  Academy  of  the  Alonti  de  Reggio  at  Modena,  in  his  excellent  Difcourfe  on  the  Scale  of  Created 
Beings,  inferted  in  his  Hiftory  of  the  Generation  of  Man  and  Animals,  printed  at  Venice  in  1723. 

Germany  is  not  deftitute  of  Academies  :  And  perhaps  that  called  the  Leopoldine  differs  from  all 
others. 

It  is  named  alfo  the  Academy  of  Natura  Curioft,  begun  by  private  Conferences  in  the  Houfe  of  fo. 
Laur.  Baufchius,  who  invited  all  Phyfcians  to  communicate  their  Obfervations  of  extraordinary  Cafes. 
His  Aflbciates  meeting  with  Encouragement,  chofe  him  Prefident.  But  the  Society  was  not  fully 
cftabliftied  till  the  Prefidentfliip  of  Jo.  Mich.  Fehr. 

Their  Works  were  originally  publiflied  feparately.  But  in  1670  it  was  agreed  to  publifh  their  Ob- 
fervations periodically,  by  a  Volume  every  Year.  1  he  firft  annual  Volume  did  not  make  its  Appearance 
till  the  Year  1684.  It  had  the  Title  of  Ephemerides.  This  Publication  has  been  continued  under  fome 
Interruptions,  and  under  various  Titles,  iJc, 

In  16S7  the  Emperor  Leopold g\zx\X.<:L^\!ci\%  Academy  kvtxA  Privileges  j  particularly  that  their  Prefidents 
fhould  be  Counts  Palatine  of  the  Holy  i?ffm(?«  Empire. 

It  confifts  of  a  Prefident,  two  Adjunifls  or  Secretaries,  Colleagues  or  Members  without  Reftriftion  : 
Who  at  their  Admiffion  engage  to  handle  fome  Subjedt  in  the  Animal,  Vegetable,  or  Mineral  Kingdom, 
not  treated  of  by  any  other  College,  and  to  furnifh  Materials  for  the  Annual  Ephemerides.  Each  Member 
alfo  is  to  wear  a  Gold  Ring,  whereon  inftead  of  a  Stone  is  a  Book  open,  and  on  the  Face  thereof  an 
Eye  ;  and  on  the  other  Side  the  Motto,  Nunquam  otiofus. 

The  greateft  Peculiarity  in  this  Academy  is  its  inconftant  Situation.  It  has  no  fixt  Refidence  or  regu- 
lar Affemblies.  It  is  confined  to  a  Bureau  or  Office  firft  eftabliflied  at  BreJJau,  and  afterwards  removed 
toNurembcrg;  where  Letters,  &c.  from  its  Members  and  Correfpondents  are  acceptable,  till  it  be  necef- 
i'ary  to  remove  to  fome  other  Place  of  Safety. 

At  Berlin,  Fredericl.  the  late  King  oi Pruffta  in  the  Year  1700  founded  a  Royal  Society,  which be- 
fides  the  Improvement  of  natural  Knowledge,  is  engaged  in  the  promotion  of  the  Belles  Lettres.  By  the 
Charter,  which  was  amended  in  the  Year  I710,  it  is  granted,  that  the  Prefidentfhall  be  nominated  by  the 
King,  and  be  one  of  the  Counfellors  of  State. 

The  Members  are  divided  into  four  Clafles  :  I.  For  Phyfic,  Medicine  and  Chemijlry;  II.  For  Mathe- 
matics, Ajironomy  -^nA  Mechanics  :  III.  For  the  German  Language  and  the  Hijlory  of  the  Country  ;  and 
the  IVth.  For  the  Oriental  Learning,  particularly  as  it  may  concern  the  Propagation  of  the  Gofpel 
amongft  Infidels. 

Each  Clafs  clefts  a  Direflor  for  themfelves,  who  is  continued  for  Life.  They  meet  once  a  Week  al- 
ternately by  their  Claffes  in  the  Caftle  called  the  New  Marjlml.  The  Members  of  any  of  the  Clafles 
have  free  admiffion  into  the  AfTcmblies  of  any  of  the  reft. 

The  great  Promoter  of  this  Foundation  was  the  celebrated  M.  Leibnitz,  who  was  made  the  firft 
Direftor. 

The  prefcnt  King,  Frederic  U.  is  faid  to  be  a  Member  thereof ;  and  has  thereby  occafioned  many  to 
give  it  the  Name  of  the  Academy  of  Princes.  By  his  Countenance  and  Influence  many  learned  Men 
from  all  Nations  have  raifed  its  Reputation  throughout  the  Literary  World. 

Before 


The    INTRODUCTION.  vii 

Before  wc  leave  the  Northern  Climes  let  us  travel  to  Russia,  and  wc  fliall  find  an  Academy  of  a  parti- 
cular and  excellent  Inftitution,  founded  by  Czar  Peter  the  Great,  at  Peterjhurg,  who  modelled  it  upon 
the  Plan  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Pa^  is,  but  did  not  live  to  finifh  his  Defign  :  which  was  carried  into 
Execution  and  completed  by  Catherine  his  Relict  and  Succeflor  upon  the  T'hrfjjie. 

This  Academy  held  its  fufi-  Public  Meeting  in  December  1^2^,  and  was  favoured  with  the  Piefence 
of  the  Duke  of  HoljJeiii,  and  a  large  Number  of  other  noble  Perlbnages. 

The  Czar  invited  hither  the  Learned  from  all  Parts  of  Europe,  and  eftabliflied  regular  Profeflbrs  with 
good  Salaries  to  read  flated  Lectures  in  the  feveral  Faculties. 

The  ordinary  Meetings  are  twice  a  Week,  in  a  very  fumptuous  Building,  furnifhed  with  a  good  Li- 
brary, and  an  Oblervatory,  isV.  and  thrice  in  the  Year  thcie  is  a  public  or  fulemn  Meeting,  in  which  is 
rendered  an  Accout  of  what  has  been  done  in  the  common  Afleniblics. 

Their  Bufinefs  is  not  only  to  promote  the  Study  of  the  Arts  and  Sciences;  but  they  are  employed  in 
Compiling  a  Russian  Dictionary,  Grammar,  &c. 

John  V.  King  of  Portugal  founded  i.  Royal  Academy  for  the  colleftlng  and  afcertaining  the  Hi/lory 
of  his  own  Kingdoms  and  Dominions.  It  was  inltitutcd  in  the  Year  1 720,  and  the  Marquis  de  Allegrette 
was  appointed  Secretary  thereof. 

This  Inftitution  was  honoured  by  a  Medal  with  the  Effigy  of  King  John  V.  on  one  Side,  with  the 
Legend  Joannes  V.  Lusitanorum  :  and  on  the  Reverfe  is  the  fame  Prince  ftanding,  fupporting  and 
railing  HrsTORY  almoft  proftrate  before  him,  with  the  Legend  Historia  Resurges:  and  below  is  this 
Infcription  Reg.  Acad.  Hist.  Lusit.  Instit.  VI.  Idus  Decembris  MDCCXX. 

This  Academy  confilts  of  fifty  Members,  a  DireiStor,  four  Cenlbrs,  and  a  Secretary. 

None  arc  admitted  to  be  Members,  who  have  not  given  great  and  public  Examples  of  their  Abilities, 
and  after  Admiffion.  every  Member  is  obliged  to  treat  of  fuch  part  of  the.Ecclefiaftical  or  Civil  Hiftory  of 
tTie  Nation,  as  fhall  be  prefcribed  by  the  Direftor. 

The  Method  obferved  in  compiling  Church  Hijlory,  the  Hiftoriographer  is  to  relate  diflin<£lly  in 
twelve  Chapters,  an  Account  of  the  Prelates,  Synods,  Councils,  Churches,  Monafteries,  Academies, 
Pcrfons  illuflrious  for  Sanctity  or  Learning,  Places  famous  for  Miracles  or  Relicks,  to  be  found  in  each 
Dioccfe.  And  in  the'  purfuit  of  the  Civil  Hijlory,  he  is  to  relate  the  Tranfaftions  of  the  Romans,  Gothsy 
and  Moors  during  their  Government  in  this  Country  :  the  Genealogies  of  the  Kings;  the  Wars  and 
Acquifitions  in  Jfia,  Africa,  and  America,  and  to  give  the  feveral  Treaties,  and  other  Matters  relating 
to  the  Political  and  Military  State  of  the  Kingdom. 

The  Meetings  for  carrj-ing  on  this  ufeful  Inftitution,  are  to  be  held  once  in  fifteen  Days.  And  thofe 
Members,  who  are  dilperfed  in  the  Country,  are  enjoined  to  employ  their  Time  in  making  Extracts  and 
Collccf  ions  of  all  the  Regifters  i5c.  within  the  particular  Diftrids,  where  they  refide. 

This  Foundation  was,  in  the  next  Year,  followed  by  a  fimilar  Inftitution  of  an  Academy  for  .y?/a/j/V7« 
ITijUry  atTOiiiNGEN  ;  where  feveral  Gentlemen  eminent  for  Letters  aflbciatcd  with  an  Intention  to 
Puhlifh  the  beft  Hiftoric.d  Writings,  the  Lives  of  the  chief  Hiftorians,  and  for  Compiling  new  Memoirs, 
on  the  feveral  Points  and  Periods  thereof. 

Spain  alfoboaftsof  \\tx  Royal  Academy  at  Mad;  id.  This  Foundation  was  laid  by  Don  JoanEma- 
nvel  Fernandes  Pacheco,  Duke  d' Efcalona,  in  his  own  Palace,  v/ith  fsvcn  Aflbciates ;  who  held  their 
fiift  Meeting  in  y-uly  1713. 

Their  Number  was  prefently  incrcafed  to  Twenty-two  Academi/ls  ;  and  the.  Founder  being  chofe 
Prcfident  or  Director,  and  Don  Vincent  Squarcajigo  Secretary,  they  petitioned  for,  and  obtained  the 
King's  Confirmation  and  Protedtion  in  1 7 14. 

In  this  Charterthey  are  enjoined  to  cultivate  and  improve  the  National  Language.  In  order  to  whidr, 
they  are  to  begin  with  chufing  carefully  fuch  Words  and  Phrafes,  as  have  been  ufed  by  thu  beft  Spa- 
K///)  \\^riters;  noting  the  low,  barbarous  or  obfolete  ones,  and  compiling  a  Diifionary  in  which  thefe 
nuiy  be  diftinguiflicd  from  the  former,  isfc.  by  which  Method,  adds  that  Prince,  it  will  clearly  appear 
that  the  Cajiilian  Tongue  is  inferior  to  none  of  tliofe  moit  efteemed  in  the  World  ;  and  may  be  employed 
with  Advantage  either  in  teaching  the  Arts  and  Sciences,  or  in  expreffing  the  moft  pcrfeft  Latin  or  Gr-eek 
Originals  in  exaft  T^-anflations,  when  the  Didtionary  fliall  be  finiflied,  they  arc  to  compile  a  Grammar, 
and  Hiftory  of  the  Spanijh  Tongue. 

The  X^aV-s  d' Efcalona  was  conliitutcd  Director  for  Life:  But  it  was  onlaincd  that,  after  his  Dcceafe, 
the  Members,  who  were  confined  to  Twenty-four  in  Number,  ihould  chufc  a  Dnxclor  annually. 

[  a  J  For 


via  The     INTRODUCTION. 

For  greater  Encouragement  the  Academijlj  are  favoured  with  the  Privileges  and  Immunities  enjoyed.by 
the  Domeftic  Officers,  who  are  actually  in  the  King's  Service,  and  in  the  Royal  Palace.  Tlie  Secretarj'  is 
for  Lii^c  ;  and  their  Motto  is  Lhnpia,  Fja,  y  da  EJ'plendor,  i.  e.  It  purif.cs,  Jixis,  mid  gives  Brightmj's. 

AcADEMlA,  in  an  exalted  Degl-ee,' lias  been  commonly  iifcd  to  fignify  aUNivER^iTY,  zs  Acddemia 
Oxcnier.fis,  the  Umverfity .  oi  Oxford ;  zi\A  Jcademta  Cantalri^lsnfts.,  t\ifi  Univerfity  of  Cambridge ;  be- 
raufe  in  each  Univerfity  are  iifually  taught  Theology,  Medicine,  Law,  Arts  and  Sciences  But  thcfe 
Repofitoi  iv :;  of  Learning  ought  rather  to  be  confidercd  as  Univcrfal  Sch:ols,  not  only  becaufe  they  im- 
prove the  whole  Compafs  of  Literature  ;  hut  on  Account  of  their  being  an  AfTemblage  of  feveral  Col- 
leges ox  Academical  Societies  eftabliflied  under  one  form  of  Government,  and  partaking  of  the  fame  Pri- 
yileges  and  Tmrhuhrties';  wherein  Students  in  the  feveral  Sciences  are  trained  up  by  eftablifhed  Profefibrs; 
a/id  Academical  Degrees  or  Certificates  of  Study,  in  the  divers  Faculties,  are  granted  on  certain  Conditions : 
thbai>;ii,  it  is  certain,  this  Inftitution,  in  the  Literary  World,  took  its  rife  from  a  Cuflom,  in  or  about 
the  eighth  Century,  fet  a  foot  by  the  MoriajVu  Orders,  of  creating  Seminaries  or  Public  Schools  m  fome 
pleafant  and  happy  Situation  for  training  up  not  only  their  own  Novices,  but  for  the  InftruiStion  of  the 
Ciiildren  of  the  Nobility,  and  Gentry. 

In  this  State  they  continued  till  almoft  the  thirie'enth  Century.  For,  though  the  Univerfity  of  Paris 
endeavours,  to  carry  its  Origin  up  to  the  Year  of  Christ  814,  when  four  EngUJIwmi  Difciples  of  Ve- 
nerable Bed:,  read  public  Leifhures  on  the  Sciences  in  certain  Places  afllgned  to  them  by  Charlemaign ;  it 
can  be  proved  beyond  all  Difpute,  that  it  was  not  confulered  under  the  Acceptation  of  an  Univerfity,  till 
about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  Century,  when  Peter  Lombard  Bifliop  of  Paris,  is  fuppofed  to  have  ob- 
tained the  Incorporation  of  all  the  public  Schools  or  Colleges  under  the  fmgle  Denomination  of  an  Uni-' 
VjERsiTY  :  For  which  Benefadion  his  Anniverfary  is  kept  in  that  Univerfity  to  this  Day. 

The  molT;  celebrated  Colleges  in  this  Univerfity  for  Theological  Learning  are  the  Sorbonne  and  Navarre. 

The  College  of  Sorbonne  takes  its  Name  ([om  Robert  de  Sorbonne,  v^'ho  dedicafed  his  ovr-n  Houfe  to  the 
Study  of  Divinity  in  1254  ;  which  owes  the  prefent  Magnificence  of  its  Building,  great  Halls  for  Dif- 
putations,  isfc.  and  of  its  Church,  to  the  Magnificence  of  Cardinal  Richelieu. 

There  are  fix  Refidentiary  DotStors  or  Profeflbrs  in  the  Sorbonne,  v.'ho  each  give  a  Ledlure  of  half  an 
Hour  every  Day  ;  three  in  the  Morning,  and  three  others  in  the  Afternoon. 

The  College  of  Navarre  was  founded  by  "Jane  of  Navarre,  Countefs  Palatine  of  Champagne  and 
Brie,  Wife  of  Philip  the  Fair,  King  of  France  in  1304,  with  an  Obligation  upon  the  Profeflbrs  to  read 
two  Lectures  m  Divinity,  Morning  and  Evening  daily. 

In  this  City  are  found  fifty  three  other  Colleges,  many  of  which  Philip  the  Fourth  in  1295,  and 
Leii)is  Hutin  his  Son,  and  Philip  de  Valois  in  1340,  incorporated  into  one  Body,  and  honoured  with  very 
great  Privileges  and  Immunities.     Thefe  are  confined  to  the  fludy  of  Divinit}'.    . 

But  there  arc  other  Colleges  for  the  Study  of  the  Canonical  and-  Civil  Law,  and  for  Medicine. 

In  the  Street  of  St.  John  de  Beauvcis  are  fix  Profeflbrs,  who  read  public  Ledlures,  each  of  them  once 
a  Day,  befides  a  Profeubrfliip  for  the  French  Law  in  particular,  founded  in  this  College  by  Le'Jvis  XIV. 

In  the  Street  de  Bucherie  is  a  College  for  the  fiudy  of  Medicine,  founded  in  1469,  in  which  is  a  large 
Anatomical  Theatre,  and  it  is  famous  for  the  Education  of  feveral  eminent  Phyficians,  amongft  whom  the 
Faculty  mentions  the  learned  perrel,-  with-R^fpeft,-  who  was  Phyfician  to  Henry  II.  of  France. 

However,  the  Faculty  of  Arts  is  the  Mother  of  all  the  other  Colleges.  From  this  Foundation  is  al- 
ways taken  the  Rci'ior,  who  is  an  elective  Dignitar}-,  that  fcldom  continues  more  than  three,  and  never 
yond  nine  Months. 

The  Re£ior  is  the  higheft  Poft  or  Office  in  the  Univerfity  of  Paris  ;  whofe  Privilege  is  to  take  Place  of 
all  Pcrfonages,  except  the  Princes  of  the  Blood.  In  public  Arts  he  has  a  Right  to  precede  the  Pope's 
Nuncio,  and  Foreicrn  AmbaiTadors,  as  well  as  the  Dukes  and  Peers  of  France ;  and  at  the  King's  Fune- 
ral-he walks  a-breaft  with  the  Archbifhop  of  Paris.  His  Robes  are,  a  Violet  Gown  tied  with  a  Violet 
Salh,  adorned  at  both  Ends  with  Gold  Glands  ;  at  his  Side  hangs  the  Efcarcellc,  an  old  fafhioned  Violet 
coloured  Velvet  Purfe  trimmed  with  Gold  Lace  and  Buttons.  Over  all  flows  a  Mantelet  of  white  Ermine, 
which  reaches  to  the  middle  of  his  Arms. 

The  Faculty  of  Arts  is  divided  into  four  Nations :  I.  The  Nation  of  France  :  II.  The  Nation  of 
Picardy:  III.  The  Nation  of  Normandy:  IV.  The  Nation  of  Germany;  which  includes  Englijh, 
Irijh,  Scotch,  Italians,  &c.  and  is  divided  into  very  large  Provinces. 

The  Provofl  of  Paris,  for  the  Time  being,  is  Confervator  or  Chancellor  of  this  Univerfity  i  and  it  is 
worthy  of  Notice,  that  almoft  all  thefe  Colleges  have  been  founded  for  poor.  Students  both  Natives  and 

Foreigners ; 


The    INTRODUCTION. 


IX 


-Foreigners ;  antl  that  none  can  be  admitted  to  enjoy  the  Benefits  of  their  Foundation,  but  fuch  as  are 
not  in  a  Capacity  to  pay  tlie  Expcnces  of  an  Univerfity  Kducation  :  All  others  who  ftudy  in  thofe  Col- 
Jcges  being  obliged  to  pay  for  their  Board,  Lodging,  isfc.  except  Learning,  which  is  given  to  cvury 
Body- without  Diftinclion,  that  arc  defirous  to  attend  the  public  Ledlures. 


FRANCE    has  alfo  its  Univerfieics. 

At  TouUu/e    founded  by     — 

Bourdesux,  • 

PoiSliers,          —  — > 

Orleans.,          —  — 

Bourges,         —  — 
jifigicrs. 


Pope  Gregory  XL 
King  Lewis  XL 
Charles  VIL 
Pope  Clement  V. 
King  Leivis  XL 


—      A.  D. 


Caen  m  Normandy, 
Alontpcllier,  — 

Cahors,  — 

Nantes,  ■ 

Rheims,  —  — 

Valence,  — 

Jix,  ■ — 

Perfignmt,  •■     ■ 

Befancon,        —  — 

Orange^         • 
AricT, 

Avignon,  • 

Dhtiay,- 
Louvain,  ■  ■ 

Dde,  — 

Fleche,  — 

■Mowitahan  and  !^oi[fons, 
Pont'O-Moi/JJon,        — 
Richelieu,  —^ 

Tmirnoii,       —  — 


—  Charles  V\l.,      -, 

—  Pope  Nicholas  IV. 

_  Pope  John  XXIL 


Charles  Cardinal  of  Lorrain.  — 
King  Leviiis  XL  when  Dauphin. 
Pope  Alexander  V.         ■■■■     ■-  - 

King  Peter  of  Arragon. 

Emperor  Ferdinand  L  ■ 


Pope  Boniface  VIIL 


John  Duke  of  Brabant 
Philip  Duke  of  Burgundy 
King  Henry  IV.  .    - 

Charles  Cardinal  of  Lorrain, 
King  Lewis  XIII. 


Francis  Cardinal  de  Tournon, 


12.33 

U73 
i43» 
1305 
1465 
i34(i 
1452 
J289 

1332 

14-60 
1548 
1458 
1409 

1349 
1564 

1365 

1303 

1426 
1426 


1573 
1640 


At  Montpclier  is  ftudied  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  with  greater  Applaufe  than  in  any  Place  throughout  all 
Ewofe :  infomuch  that  not  only  the  King  of  France,  but  feveral  other  Potentates  have  granted  the 
Graduates  of  ihi's  Univerfity  the  Privilege  to  praftife  Medicine  in  their  Dominioiis  without  any 
Interruption. 

At  Orleans  the  Univerfity  is  founded  on  the  Model  of  that  at  Paris.  It  enjoys  the  fame  Dignities. 
There  -is'  Sn  Eftablifhment  of  fbur  Profeflbrs  to  teach  the  Civil  and  Imperial  Law;  to  the  Study  of 
which.  Philip  the  Fair,  in  1312,  anrrexed  many  Privileges  in  favour  of  the  Students,  which  were  con- 
firmed by  the  Bull  of  Pope  Clement  V.  in  1367,  who  was  a  Native  of  Bourdedux,  and  had  ftudied  at" 
Orleans. 

By  this  Means  here  was  a  very  great  Conflux  of  Scholars  from  all  Nations  ;  who  by  certain  Regula- 
tions, were  comprifed  under  fen  Nations:   But  thefe  in  1538,  were   by  an  Arret  of  the  Parliament  of 
'  Paris,  in  the  Rergii  of  Francis  tlje  Firjl,  rcductd  to  four,  viz.     The  French,  which  includes  the 
Bourgonois,  Gafcons,  and  Teurangeaux  :  The  German  which  includes  Lorjw/?:    Picardy,-  which 
includes  the  Champanois :  and  Normandy,  which  includes  the  Scotch.     But 

The  German  Nation  enjoy  the  greateil  Privileges  granted  by  former  Kings,  and  confirmed  by  the  Le^ 
ters  Patent  of  Henry  IV.  dated  July  15,   1608,  and  in  June  1616,  at  Paris. 

At  Anglers,  Louis  II.  Duke  of  Anjou,  founded  an  Univerfit)'  in  1348,  and  obtained  for  it  feveral  Pri- 

'  vileges  and  Immunities  both  from  the  King  and  the  Pope.     Its  firil:  Inilitution  was  for  the  Study  of 

Law  only  ;  but  Henry  Diike  of  Anjou,  and  Brother  to  Ki^g;  Charles  IX.  added   the  Faculty  of  Me- 

"  dici'ne,  and  procured  for  it  new  Privileges.      Th'e  fiimoirs  R'iyp',  ChaOcrflor  of  Fratitf.,  John  Bodin -Ami 

'other  cmhient  Lawvers  were  Memfes  of  this  LTnirerfityv  which  nov/  has  three  Colleges  in  great  Elleem. 

The  other  Univcrfiti"s  difperled  through  this  Frenxb  DiGBTiinioriS  are  in  creat  Reputation  for  their  good 
Difcipline  and  Care  of  their  Students ;  bat  as  thev  are  all  modelled  on  t\\z  Parijian  Plan,  it  v/ill  be  o.k- 

[a  2]    "  cufaWe 


X  Tlie     INTRODUCTION. 

cufable  to  paP^  them  over;  I  fliall  onlyrcmnrk,  That  the  ErgUJh  Secular  Pric/l^  have  a  very  flourifhin'<»' 
College  in  the  Univerfity  of  Douay,  founded  by  Cardinal  Allen,  immediately  after  the  Reformation  took 
Place  in  Fngland,  for  the  fugitive  Students  and  Profefibrs  that  retired  beyond  Seas  from  the  Englijli  Uni- 
verfities.  The  Learning  in  this  College  is  in  great  Reputation  amongft  the  Roman  Catholicks  :  But  it  is 
confined  too  much  to  Chijfical  Knowledge,  jiri/htdian  Philofophy,  Mctaphyfecks,  and  Polemical  Divi- 
nity; which  laft  feems  to  be  the  greateft  Objcil  of  its  Inflitution,  Namely,  to  make  the  Members 
thereof  expert  Contravertifts  in  defence  of  the  Ciiurch  of  Rome,  and  to  breed  up  Mijfionaries  for  draw- 
ing Protejlants  into  their  Communion. 

Here  v/as  written  and  printed  the  Douay  Bible  by  the  felf  fame.Men,  who  had  juft  before  publiflicd 
their  Annotations  on  the  New  Teilament  at  Rheims :  nevcrthelefs,  thefe  Collegians  have  not  for  many 
Years  been  able  to  preferve  thcmfelves  from  aSufpicion  and  Charge  of  Janfenijm;  becaufe  in  the  grand 
Difpute  amongft  tiie  French  Clergy  and  Laity,  they  would  not  implicitly  run  into  all  the  Extremes  of 
theFautors  of  the  Bull  Unigenitus  ;  as  the  Englijh  Jcfuits  feated  at  Liege  and  St.  Omers  have  done. 

The  Advantages  of  Univerfal  Schools  or  Academical  Societies  uniting  under  one  Governqient  becoming 
very  obvious  to  other  Nations,  they  began  prefently  to  multiply  throughout  Europe.  So  that  at  prefent 
there  is  not  to  be  found  fcarce  any  one  fovereign  State,  where  this  Inftitution  has  not  taken  Root,  and  he- 
come  almofl  an  cfTential  Part  of  its  Exiftence ;  fo  far  as  Univcrf.tics  are  defigned  to  finifh  the  Education 
©f  fuch,  as  are  devoted  to  the  Church  and  State,  or  to  any  Branch  of  Literature.  For,  in  England  in 
particular  the  Statute  Law  has  made  the  Academical  Degrees  of  her  own  Univcrfities  a  Condition  (f>ne  qua 
turn)  for  the  Tenure  of  certain  Church  Benefices,  i^c. 

Pampelon,  — —  —  1608 

Saragofa,  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
Sigi2e77za,  by  Cardinal  Ximenes. 
Taragona,  by  King  Philip  \l. 
Valladolid,  by  Pope  C/^/a«/f  VL  I34& 

Sevilly  Toledo,  Avila,  Compoflella,  Gandia,  Huefca, 
Valencia,  Tudela,  and  Murcia,  v/hofe  Dates  of 
Inftitution  and  Founders  are  not  come  to  our 
Knowledge. 

Spain  in  America  has  theUniver^ties  of 

Mexico,  founded  by  the  Emperor  Charles  ? 

V.  in  the  Year.  S'55^ 

Guatimale',  by  King  Philip  IV.  ]  628 

Lima  in  Peru,    by  King  Philip  III.  16 14 

^uito,  by  King  Philip  ll.  I58'6 

St.    Domingo    in    Hijpaniola,     by    King?      _q 


In   the    U  N 

ITED     ProvIN 

c  E  8   are   the 

Vniverfities   of 

Leyden  founded  by  the  States  in  the 

Year 

1575 

Utrecht. 

1616 

Franeker 

^ 

1585 

Groeninghen 

— —                     — , 

1684 

Flarderwick 
Spain  in 

1648 
fof 

I  Europe  has  the  Vm 

'verfitie. 

Salamanca  founded  by  Alphonfus  IX 

■  King 

1239 

of  Leon  in 

the  Year 

Alcala  or  Com 

plutum  by  Cardinal  Ximenes 

1517 

Granada,    by 

the  Emperor  Charles  ' 

W. 

1537 

Palencia 



— 

1200 

Baeza 

_ 

1538 

f^rtntp 

1543 

\jnuic 

Lerida,  by  P 

ope  Calijlus  III. 

OJfioia 

— 

154-9 

Oviedo,  by  Ferdinando  Valdcs. 

1536 

Philip  II. 


Portugal  rh'als  her  Neighbours  with  the  Vniverfities  of  Evora,  Coimhra  and  Lifhon. 

The  Commentaries  on  Ari/iotle's  Philofophy  by  the  Conimhricenfes  have  done  their  Nation  great  Ho- 
nour ;  and  were  formerly  a  Tutor's  Book  recommended  to  the  perufal  of  the  Under-graduates  in 
Oxford. 

At  Lijhon  is  an  Univerfity  founded  by  Pope  Nicholas  IV.  A.  D.  1290,  and  before  the  late  Earthquake 
laid  that  City  in  Ruins  it  had  many  Colleges,  but  none  in  greater  efteem  for  Learning  and  Difcipline  thajt 
the  Englifh  College  of  SecuLr  Priefts  dedicated  to  the  Apoftles  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul. 

This  College  by  particular  Privilege  is  exempt  from  the  Jurifdiftion  of  the  Univerfoty  of  Lijhon,  which 
till  lately  was  under  the  Government  or  Diredlion  of  the  Society  of  Jefus. 

This  Inftitution  is  a  Branch  of  the  Secular  Engliflj  Clergy  detached  from  Douay,  who  were  invited  to 
Lifbon  and  fixed  in  a  convenient  Situation,  in  Bairo  Alto,  by  Don  Lewi:  d' Acunha,  to  be  a  Seminary 
for  Mijfionaries  to  be  fent  to  obftrudt  the  Progrefs  of  the  Reformation  in  England. 

The  Founder  did  little  more  than  find  them  a  Houfe  and  fpacious  Gardens  in  the  moft  confpicuous 
and  pleafanteft  Part  of  the  City,  But  what  by  private  Donations  and  Subfcriptions  both  iii  Portugal 
and  in  England,  they  foon  improved  their  Habitations  with  a  Church  and  proper  OiEces, 

At 


The     INTRODUCTION.  yi 

At  the  Time  of  the  Enrtht]ii;ikc  moft  of  the  o'd  decayed  Buildings  had  been  replaced  with  a  capa- 
cious Stone  Dormitory,  agreeable  Apartments  for  the  Prefident  and  other  Officers;  towards  which  the 
late  King  John  V.  had  contributed  by  a  large  annual  Penfion  for  many  Years. 

There  arc  none  admitted  into  this  College  but  fuch  as  are  Natives  of  England  ot  Wales,  or  born  of 
Ennlijh  or  IFihh  Parents  ;  except  they  pay  for  their  Board,  Lodging,  ls\-. 

The  Number  of  SchotarJIjips  are  no  more  than  twenty-five,  all  founded  (except  two  or  three)  by  Ro- 
man Catholic  Families,  and  paid  out  of  their  Eflates  in  England.  So  that  as  thefe  Scholarfliips  depend 
upon  a  Variety  of  Accidents,  it  fometimes  happens  that  they  are  not  regularly  paid,  and  fomctimcs 
drop  ;  as  in  the  Cafe  of  two  Scholarfliips  founded  in  this  College  by  the  RatcUff  Family ;  which  arc 
lo'l  in  the  Forftiture  of  the  Deriventwater  Eftates. 

The  Government  of  this  College  is  by  a  Prefidunt,  Vice-Prefident,  ConfelTor,  Procurator,  a  PrefecSl 
of  Studies,  two  Profellbrs  in  Divinity,  one  in  Philofophy,  and  one  in  Humanity;  who  are  fubjedt  to  a 
Chapter  of  fccular  Clergy  eftabliftied  in  London,  and  are  under  the  Protedlion  of  the  InquifUor-General  at 
Lijbcn  for  the  Time  being.  The  Prefident  of  this  College  was  buried  in  the  Ruins  occafioned  by  the 
late  Earthquake. 

Thefe  Seminarijls  are  diftinguifhed  from  all  other  Students  in  that  Univerfity  by  a  Piece  of  Cloth, 
Coloris  Leonini,  of  a  kind  of  Brick  colour,  which,  cut  in  the  fliapeof  an  Oar,  doubles  on  the  Breaft  and 
hangs  over  the  Shoulders  with  each  End  as  low  as  the  bend  of  the  Knee  behind,  upon  a  black  Serge 
Gown  without  Sleeves,  with  a  Caflbck  of  the  lame  Stuff  underneath;  the  Collar  whereof  is  made  of 
ftiff  Pafteboard  covered,  and  edged  with  a  Piece  of  Cambrick,  which  they  call  a  Band. 

In  this  Drefs  they  pretend  to  preferve  the  old  Fafhion  of  the  Students  of  Oxford :  and  they  alfo  tell 
you  that  they  are  governed  by  the  Statutes  brought  by  their  firfl:  Profellbrs  from  the  fame  Univerfity. 


In  I  T  A  L  Y  are  the  Univerjitics  of 
Rome, 
Bologna, 

Padua,  founded  by  the  Emperor /r^'imf  II.  1222 
Fcrrura,  hy  the  E.m'pQxoT  Frederic.  1316 

Florence,  by  Cofmo  de  Aledicis. 
Pavla, 
Siena  — i  —  1 3^7 

Pifa,  —  1339 

Turin,  by  Pope  BenediSf  XII.  1 4^5 

o  ;      '    f  by  Frederic  II. 
bale  mo,    J     •' 

Venice, 

Verona, 

Jl:'anti:a, 

Alilan, 

Pel  ugla,  by  Pope  Clement  V. 

Macerata.  by  Pope  Paul  III. 

Catania,  in  Sicily, 

Cagliari,  in  Sardinia, 

In  Switzerland  are  the  Univerjitics  of 

Baftl, —  1459 

Geneva  or  Colonia  Allohrogum,  founded  by  7       ^ 
the  Emperor  Charles  IV.  J    ■^   ^ 

In  Germany  are  the  Univerfities  of 

Cologne   or  Colonia  Jgrippina,  founded  by  f       qq 

¥0-?^  Urban  \' I.  |'383 

Leipjick,  hy 'Llt&.ox  Frederic  1.  1408 

Francfort  upon  Oder,  by  Joachim  Eleflor  7        . 

of  Brandcnburgh,  J 

Strajlur^,                 — — .                    „^  1 538 

Erfurt,                 .— —                  y—  1391 


Heidelberg,  hy  Rupert  \\.  Eledf or  Palatine.  1346 
"Jena,  by  John  Frederick  "EleStor  ot'  Saxony.  1558 
Jngoljlad,  hy  Lewis,   Duke  of  Bavaria  1472 

Liege  before  — —  —  1 129 

Tubingen,    by  Eberhard  Count  of    IFur-  0 

iemburg.  S    ^'' 

Vienna,  hy  JlbcrilU.  Arch  Duke  of  ^a/?r;a.  1365 
IVittemberg,  hy  Frederic  111.  Hh&oi  of  Saxony.  1502 

Mentz,  —  1482 

Triers  or  Treves,  —  1558 

Friburg  in  Brifgavj,    by  Albert  Duke  of  7      , 

Auflria.  5  ^'^^3 

Rojlock,  —  1490 

Marpurgh,  by  Philip,  Landgrave. 

GiJJen.,  by  ifiw'j  Landgrave  of  HeJJe  iboj 

Gripfwaldhy  Philip  Duke  of  Pomeren,  1547 

Dillir.ghen,  by  Otho  Cardinal  Truchfes 

Kiel,  by  Albert  Duke  of  HolJh':n.  1669 

MtorJ,  hy  Y.m.^eiox  Ferdinand  II.  \b'ii. 

Helm/lad,  hy  Julius  Duke  of  Brunfwick.        1$"!^ 

Paderborn,  —  15Q2 

Sigen,   hy  John  Count  of  NaJ/au,  'S'^^ 

Lazvengen,  by  Wolfgangus  Count  Palatine. 

Graix,. 

Wurtzburgh.. 

Duijturg.. 

In  Bohemia  is  the  Vniverjity  of 
Prague,  fouiulcd  by  the  Emperor  Cha'lts  V.  1358 

In  Poland  are  the  Univerjlties  of 

Cracow —  ^364. 

IFilna  in.  Lithuania  - IS';9 

Kcningflerg 


>xii  The     INTRODUCTI:  Q    N. 

.  Koninfjherg  and  Elhing  in  PruJJia,  by  Albert  \       .,  I"  Denmark  is  the  Un'iverfity  of 

Duke  o*"  PiuJJla.  J    ^''^'''     Ccpenhagen^  founded  in  the  Year 


H^>7 


III  SwEDJ-LAMD  nre  the  Univerjitiei  of  In  Transilvania  is  the  Unlverftty  of 

l/pfal.  ■^^^"  J"^'"  o''  Waifembuig,  founded  by  Prince 
'Liinrien  or  Londiium  Scanorum  founded  by  Rn^otzi. 

King  Charles  IX.  In  Asia  is  the  IJniverfity  of 

y/'/»,  by  Qunen  Chri/i ilia,  1640  Ga^,  founded  by  a  King  of  Portugal  in  the 

■  ZX"/'/,  by  Gujiavus  Jdoiphusin  Livonia,  1632         fixtecnth  Century. 

Butiet  us  look  now  at  home.     No  Nation  goes.iicfore  our  own  either  in  the  point  of  the  Antiquity, 

•"  Magnificence,  or  Learning  of  our  Univerfities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  For,  whatever  France  may 
boait  of  her  Par'fiun  Foundations,  we  find  it  more  certain  and  eminent  in  thefe. 

As  to  their  Antiquity,  it  is  beyond  Contradi£tion,.  that  the  Foundation  of  Vniverfity,  Baliol  and 
Ahrton  Colleges  in  Oxford^  an  J  St.  P^ti-r's  in  Cambr'd^e,  were  .ill  made  fuch  in  the  thh-teenth  Century; 

f  and  therefore  claim  their  Title  amongft  the  firft  regular  Endowments  of  the  Kind  in  Ewope. 

i-'  We  might  contend  for  a  Priority  in  favour  of  TJ/Jverfitx  College,  which  was  a  Place  for  Students  in 
the  Year  872  ;  and  fome  Authors  infilt  upon  King  Alfred'^  Foundation  thereof.      Yet  as  thefe  Students 

•  <\m\  ndt  live  in  Society,  but  at  their  own  Charge  at  private  fJoufes,  their  Places  of  meeting  for  Improve- 
ment in  Learning  were  not  called  C-jUge.',  but  Inns  and  Halls  ;  and  are  not  to  be  accounted  Univerfities 

'lillthofe  Inns  arfi  Halls  were  endowed  and  made  Collegiate  for  the  Reception,  Diet,  Apparel,  i^c.  of 
the  Students,  and  with  Salaries  for  Profi;florr.- 

Dr.  Ncuto'i's  Account  of  the  Orii^inai  of  this  Univerfit}-  is  this,  "  That  in  ancient  Times,  certain  learned 

'  *'  Men  riefided  in  the  City  of  Oxford',  and  there  taught  thofe  Arts  and  Sciences^  which  are  called  liberal  to 
*'  fuch  as  vs'credifpofed  to  learn  them.  'I  he  Reputation  of  their  Skill,  and  the  fine  Situation  of  the;  Place, 

.  *■'  invited  fuch' a  ^.eneral  Refoxt  of  Sdiolars  to  it  from  all  Parts,  that  it  foon  obtained  the  Name  of  an 
"  Univerfitv.  The  Citizens  for  the  better  Accoinmodafion  of  the  Students,  from  Whofe  Refidence 
"  araongfl:  them  they  received  great  Bcnofit,  let  out  (uch  of  their  Houfes,  as  they  did  not  themfelves  in- 
"  habit,  to  the  Teachers  of  thefe  Arts  ;  who  again  let  out  the  feveral  .Roorps  thereof  to  their  refpcc- 
"  live  Scholars,  as  to  Under-Tenants.  Such  Houfes,  from  the  Time  they  were  applied  to  the  Pur- 
'■'•  pofes  of  liberal  Education,  were  called  Halls ;  and  the  feveral  Gkivernors  of  tlicfe.  voluntary  Socie- 

-'  ^'  ties,  Principak  of  Halls.  Long  before  any  of  thefe  Halls  wcfcxonvertcd  into  Colleges,  the  Uni- 
'"  verfity,  by  Prefcriptien,  ufcd  a  public  Seal,  received  Lands,  was  pofltfll'd  of  Cuftoms,  and  made 
"  Laws  for  the  (jovernment  of  its-own  Body,  as  a  Corporation."  The  Schools  eftablifhed  at  Oxford 
vere  entirely  burnt  and  dcftroyed  by  the  Danes  about  the  Year  1 000,  and  all  Learning  banifhed  from 

■  thc'nce  for  many  Years.  £dward  the  ConfefloPireftored  the  Students  to  their  Seats  and  Privileges  iabout 
the  Year  1050,  according  to  fome  Writers  ;  while  others  afTure  us,  that  the  LTniverfities  lay  in  a  mife- 

'  rable  Condition,  almoft  expiring,  till  the  Time  of  the  Conqueit  Anno  1066. 

It  is  not  a  Point  to  be  debated  here  whether  Oxford  or  Cambridge  is  the  eldeft  Univerfity.  But  we 
v.i!l  begin  with  Oxford,  as  Culiom  always  gives  it  the  Precedence,  when  thofe  two  Univerfities  arc 
mentioned  together. 

The  Univ-.rfiiy  of  Oxford  is  governed  by  a  Chancellor;  whofe  Office  is  to  fuperintend  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  whole  Univerfity;  to  maintain  the  Privileges  and  Liberties  thereof;  to  call  Aflemblies;  to 
learn  and  determine  Controveifics  where  Scholars  are  concerned ;  to  fummon  Courts;  punifh  Delin- 
•.qiients;  to  prove  Wills;  to  grant  Adminiitration,  iSc.' 

He  is  always  a  Per-Jon  of  the  firft  Rank,  and  holds  his  Office  for  Life,  into  which  he  is  elected. by  a 
Maiority  of  Fellows  or  Regents,  and  Non-Regents  in  Convocation. 

^'he  prefent  Chancellor  was  ele£ted  on  the  fourth  Day  of  'January  1759. 

The  jiext  Office  in  Dignity  is  the  High  Steward ;  whofe  Office  enjoins  him  to  affifl  the  Chancellor, 
Vice-Chnncellor,  and  the  ProSlors  in  the  due  Execution  of  their  refpcctive  Offices  ;  and  alio  to  hear  and 
determine  capital  Caufes,  where  a  Scholai-,  or  privileged  Pcrfon  is  the  Ofi^ender,  when  required  fo  to  do 
>  by  the  Chancellor,  who  alio  may  appoint  him  to  keep  the  Court-Leet.  He  is  nominated  by  the  Chan- 
cellory but  muft  be  approved  by  the  Univerfity  in  Convocation.     This  O.ffi.ce.alfo  is  for  Life. 

There  i.s  alfo  a  Vice-Chancellor,  nominated  annually,  but  commonly  continued  for  three  Years,  by 
the  Chancellor,  from  amongft  the  Heads  of  Colleges. 

This  Officec  may  be  faid  to  bear  the  grcatcft  Burden  in  the  Government  of  the  Univerfitv.  He  is 
obfigid  to  refide  at  Oxford,  fo  that  he  may  be  always  at  hand  fo  fupply  the  Place   of  the  Chance'lor, 

■  who 


The     INTRODUCTION.  xiii 

who  never  attends  but  upon  fome  very  fpccial  Occafion.  He  liceiifes  Books  printed  at  theUniverrit5'-Prcfs. 
He  is  particularly  to  take  Care  that  Sermons,  LcfSlures,  Difputations,  and  other  Exercifes  be  per- 
formed ;  that  Hereticks,  Fanaticks,  Non-Conformifls,  Panders,  Bawds,  Whores,  i£c.  be  expelled 
from  the  Univerfity,  and  kept  from  the  Converfation  of  the  Students:  To  licenfc  Taverns,  Ale-iioufts,' 
Coachmen,  Carriers,  i^c.  To  fee  that  the  Profiors  and  other  Officers,  and  public  Servants  of  the« 
Univerfity  perform  their  refpedlive  Duties  ;  that  Courts  be  called,  and  Law-Suits  be  determined  without" 
Delay. 

N.  B.  The  Chancellor  of  the  Univerfity,  and  in  his  Abfence,  the  Vice-ChanccUor  is  fuperior  to  the ' 
M'Jyir  of  the  City  in  Affairs  of  Moment  ;   even  where  they  concern  the  City  itfelf.     And  the  A'Inyor 
and  BurgcfTes,   and  the  High-SherifF  of  Oxfordfliire  take  an  Oath  in  a  folemn  Manner  before  the  Vice-  ' 
Char.ceUor  to  obfcrve  and  prefcrve  the  Rights,  Privileges,  and  Rights  of  the  Univerfity  of  Oxford. 

The  other  Oificers  concerned  in  the  Goveniment  of  the  Univerfity  are. 

Two  ProSiarSt  chofen  by  all  the  Doftors  and  Maflers  of  Arts  in  College,  out  of  the  feveral  Col- 
Icrres  bv  Turns  :  Thev  muft  be  Mailers  of  Arts,  whofe  particular  Duty  is  to  aflifl  in  what  regards 
Scholaftic  Exercifes  and  taking  of  Degrees :  To  punifh  all  that  break  the  Statutes :  To  examine  Weights 
and  Mcafures,  and  to  puniHi  common  Strumpets,  i^c.  to  infpcft  the  Publicans,  fc. 
■'"  The  Public  Orator  is  next  in  Office.  His  Bufinefs  is  to  write  Letters  by  Order  of  the  Convocation, 
dnd  to  make  public  Speeches  on  folemn  Occafions.  He  muft  be  a  Mafrer  of  Arts  or  Batchelor  of  Law. 
His  Eleflion  is  for  Life,  and  made  in  Convocation, 

There  is  a  Keeper  of  Records,  chofen  in  Con\'Ocation,  who  keeps  the  Charters,  and  other  public 
Papers  belonging  to  the  Univerfity;  and  is  to  be  ready  to  plead  thofe  Rights  and  Privileges  when  called  in 
Qucflion. 

Next  to  him  is  the  Regijlerer,  who  is  chofen  (as  all  other  Officers  of  the  Univerfity)  are  by  Scrutiny 
in  Convocation  ;  and  ough*:  td  be  a  Mafter  of  Arts,  or  a  Batchelor  of  Law,  and  aPublic  Notary  at  the 
Time  of  FJeclion  ;  his  Bufinefs  being  to  regifier  all  Afts  and  Deeds,  which  pafs  under  the  public  Seal 
of  the  Univcdiy  ;  and  all  Afts  injudicial  Caufes  before  the  Delegates  of  Appeal. 

For  the  better  Regulation  of  Provifions  the  Univerfity  has  a  Right  to  chute  two  Clerks  to  infpefl:  the 
lihrkets.  They  mufl:  be  of  the  Degree  of  a  Mafter  of  Arts,  or  Batchelor  of -D/wW/y,  Laiv,  ov  Phyfc, 
and  are  nominated,  one  by  the  Chaiice'lor ;  the  other  by  the  Vice-Chancellor,  yearly. 

Thefe  Ckrks  are  to  take  care  of  the  Affize  of  Bread,  Beer  and  Wine,  of  Weights  and  Meafures, 
the  Prices  and  Qualities  of  Viftuals  and  other  Provifions  :  For  which  End,  they  are  often  obliged  to 
■Cveigh  the  Bread,  a.id  once  a  Year  (at  leaft)  to  gauge  all  Brewers  Veffcls,  and  to  break  or  burn  the  fame, 
if  wanting  of  the  Statutable  Meafure  ;  befides  an  arbitrary  Mulcl  to  be  iiiflidled  on  the  Brewer  by  the 
Vice-Chancellor  :  Their  Bufinefs  is  alfo  to  take  care  of  Hay,  and  all  kind  of  Horfes  Provender,  of  the 
fuft  Meafure  of  Faggots  and  Coals,  and  if  defe£tive,  to  diftribute  them  among  the  Poor  ;  and  laftly,  to 
fee  that  all  Things  belonging. to  the  Market  be  expofed  to  Sale  therein  ;  to  amerce  Regrators,  Fore- 
ftallers,  ^c. 

For  the  better  Execution  of  the  Laws  of  the  Univerfity  there  are  fix  public  Servants  called  Beadles, 
Cryers,    and  Foot  MefTeagers.      Three  of  thefe  are  called  Squire  Beadles  ;    the  other  three  Yeomerr 
.  Beadles. 

Every  College  has  its  Vifitor  alfo,  who  takes  Cognizance  of  fuch  Matters  as  particularly  relate  to 
Breaches  of  .the  diftinft  Statutes  of  each  Houfe  or  Society  :  This  Officer  is  nominated  by  the  Will  of 
the  Founder,  and  is  empov\ered  to  deprive  or  fufpend  any  Member  under  his  local  Jurifdiclion  for  Con- 
ttanacy,  or  any  Crime  of  a  high  Nature,  committed  againft'  the  Laws  of  God  or  the  Statutes  of  the 
'  College ;  provided  he  always  governs  hiinfelf  by  the  Rules  and  Order  of  his  Founder :  Where  he  exceeds 
his  Pbv.er  the  injured  Party  ha^  a  Right  of  Appeal  to  the  Crown. 
Under  this  Government  there  are  nineteen  Colleges  dinA  five  Halls. 

1.  Univerfity  College  cl.iims  the  Precedence  in  Point  of  Antiquity  ;  it  being  commonly  faid  to  derive 
its  Foundation  from  the  Munificence  of  King  Alfred,  the  firfl  Monarch  of  England ;  and  has  by  various 
Revolutions  and  BenefaiStions  arrived  to  its  prelent  flourifliing  Condition.  Amongft  thefe  Eenefaftors 
we  find  TViUiam  Archdeacon  of  Durham,  who  foon  after  the  N'orman  Conqueft  endowed  it  fo  largely, 
that  he  is  numbered  amongft  its  Founders., 

In  this  College  is  one  Mafter,  twelve  Fellows,  and  feventeen  Scholars.  Dr.  R/ticliff  has  eftablifhed 
two  travelling  Fellowships  at  the' Charge  of  600 /.  /fr  y/?2«:/7;7,   in  this  College. 

2.  Baliol  College  was  founded  by  _%"/;«  Baliol  Fatlier  to  fohn  Baliol,  King  of  Scctljnd,  about  the 
Year  1263,  and  by  numerous  Eenefaciions  it  is  now  provided  with  Eftates  for  the  Support  »f  a  Mafter, 
twelve  Fellows,  fourteen  Scholars  and  eighteen  Exhibitioners. 

f     ^  3.   liert:^ 


xir  The     INTRODUCTION. 

3.  Mcrton  College  fo  called  from  TFalter  de  Mrrton,  its  Founder,  Lord  Chancellor  of  England  and 
Rifhop  of  Rochejier,  was  founded,  cndouxd  and  chartered  in  127?.  It  has  been  favoured  with  many 
Benefactions  ;  and  is  governed  by  a  Warden.  Here  are  twenty-four  Fellows  and  fourteen  Exhibitioners 
called  Poft-nLificrs,  and  tv/o  Clerks. 

4.  Exeter  College  is  a  Foundation  fo  early  as  1316,  by  Walter  Stapledon,  Bifliop  of  Exeter.  It  for 
many  Years  palTcd  ttiidcr  the  Name  of  Stapledon- HalU  till  there  rofe  up  another  ]}i.'hop  of  Exettr^ 
Ediivnui  Stafford,  who  became  a  llicond  Founder,  and  changed  its  Name,  by  Authority,  to  Exeter 
Colk-ge. 

The  Government  of  this  College  is  in  a  Redlor,  and  twenty  three  Fellows  Here  is  a  Beadle  Clerk 
and  three  Exhibitioners. 

5.  O'vV/ College  founded  in  1323,  by  Adam  dc  Broome,  takes  its  Name  from  a  large  McfTuage  named 
Le  Or'icU  granted  to  this  College  by  King  Ediuard  III.  It  has  had  many  great  and  royal  Bcnefaclions  ; 
and  at  prefcnt  maintains  a  Provoft-,  eighteen  Fellows,    and  fourteen  Elxhibitioners. 

6.  ^tcens  College  was  founded  and  endowed  in  the  Year  1340,  by  Robert  EngVifnfield^  by  Dircflion 
from  Queen  Philippe!,  Confort  to  Edward  III.  Robert  wa.s  then  Chaplain,  and  gave  this  Foundation  the 
Name   Aula  Seholarium  Regina:  de  Oxoii,  or  ^leen  S~holars  Hall  of  Oxford. 

By  the  Charter  of  Incorporation  of  this  College  it  appears,  that  the  Founder  had  made  Proyifion  for  a 
Provofi  and  twelve  Fellows  to  be  chofen  out  of  feventy  poor  Children  or  Scholars,  to  be  alfo  maintained 
and  educated  here.  It  alfo  appoints,  that  the  Society  fhould  be  called  together  at  their  Meals  by  the 
Sound  of  a  Horn  ;  and  that  wheu  the  Fellows  in  their  Purple  Gowns  had  placed  themfelves  on  the  further 
Side  of  the  Table,  with  the  Provoft  in  the  Middle  thereof,  the  poor  Scholars  fhould  kneel  before  them 
on  the  oppofite  Side,  and  anfwer  fuch  Queftions  in  Philofophy,  as  fhould  be  put  to  them  by  the  Fellows, 
before  Dinner  began. 

The  Number  of  Members  upon  the  Books  of  this  College  at  a  late  public  A(5t,  were  one  Provofl-, 
fix  teen  Fellows,  eight  Chaplains,  nine  Taberders,  hxteen  poor  Scholars,  two  Clerks  and  twenty  Ex- 
iiibitioners,  befides  Cicntlemen  Commoners. 

7.  New  College  is  a  Monument  of  the  Munificence  of  that  great  Prelate  and  Statefman  TFillian 
Long,  born  at  TVukhatn  in  Hanipjlnre,  by  which  Name  he  is  mod  generally  known  :  Who  before  he 
t,TCvl:ed  this  College,  in  1379,  maintained  for  feven  Years,  feventy  Students  in  feveral  Halls  in  Oxford. 
The  Foundation  was  laid  on  the  5th  of  Alareh  1379,  and  the  Building  being  completed  in  the  begin- 
ning of  1 380,  his  Warden  and  Fellows  took  Poffeilion  of  it  by  a  folcmn  Proccfnon. 

This  Foundation  was  made  for  a  Warden,  feventy  Scholars,  ten  Chaplains,  three  Clerks  and  fixtecn 
Choirifters  with  handfome  Stipends  ;  on  Condition  that  fifty  of  the  Scholars  fhould  apply  themfelves  to 
Arti  and  Divinity,  ten  to  the  Study  of  the  Civil  Laiv,  and  ten  to  the  Study  of  the  Canon  Laxv. 

The  prefent  Members  of  this  Society  are  one  Warden,  feventy  Fellows,  ten  Chaplains,  three  Clerks, 
and  one  Sexton. 

8.  Lincoln  College,  this  Foundation  was  begun  in  1430,  by  Richard  Fletnming  Bifhop  of  Lincoln, 
who  obtained  a  Charter  for  its  Eli:ablifhment,  and  left  a  Sufficiency  to  complete  his  Defign  not  finifhed 
at  his  Death. 

It  has  had  a  Succcffion  of  valuable  Bcnefaflors  ;  amongft  whom  is  Thomas  Rotheram,  Bifhop  of  Lin- 
coln alio,  afterwards  ArchbiQiop  of  York  and  Chancellor  of  England.  Who  by  his  Donations,  and  his 
Body  of  Laws  for  their  better  Regulation,  is  efleemed  a  fecond  Founder. 

The  prefent  Members  are  aReftor,  twelve  Fellows,  nine  Scholars,  and  twenty  Exhibitioners. 

9.  All-Souls  College  was  founded  and  endowed  by  Archbifhop  Chicheley  in  1437,  *^°''  forty  Fellows  ; 
of  whom  twenty-four  were  ordained  to  ftudy  Divinity  and  Philofophy,  and  the  other  fixteen  the  CanoUy 
and  Civil  Law.  But  Henry  VI.  was  fo  largious  in  his  Royal  Favours  to  this  Foundation,  that  he  has 
been  fuppofcd  to  be  the  real  Founder  of  the  Fellowfhips,  though  the  Archbifhop  expended  near  50CO  t. 
in  the  Buildings,  isc. 

Colonel  Codrington,  fome  time  Fellow  of  this  College,  and  Governor  of  the  Leward  Ifands,  in  the 
beginning  of  this  Century  bequeathed  6000  /.  for  building  a  Library,  and  not  only  left  his  own  valuable 
Study  of  Books  to  be  depofited  therein  ;  but  gave  4000  /.   more  to  purchafe  new  ones. 

The  prefent  Members  are  one  Warden,  forty  Fellows,  two  Chaplains  and  nine  Scholarlhips. 

10.  Magdalen  College  was  another  Foundation  in  the  Reign  of  HetiryVl.  An.  Doni.  i-;56,  ercifted 
and  endowed  by  Jf'^tlUam  Patten  of  JFainfeet,  ufually  called  JFilliam  of  Wainficet.  He  was  Bifhop  of 
fVincheJlcr  d,ni  Lord  High- Chancellor  of  England. 

This  College  is  founded  on  the  Site  of  the  dilTolved  Hofpifal  of  St.  John,  and  endowed  with  the 
Revenues  of  thofe  Hofpitallers ;  which  were  fettled  by  Charter  for  a  perpetual  Maintenance  ot  poor  and 
ijidigent  Clerks  in  the  Univerfity  of  Oxford,  ik\x<Sy\i\g  Arts  and  Sciences;    and  the  faid  Charter  ordains 

that 


The     I    N    T    R    O    D    U    C    T    I    O    N.  xv 

that  there  (hould  be  forty  Fellows,  thirty  Scholars,  called  Demies  or  Semi-Commoners,  four  Chnplains, 
eight  Clerks  and  fixteen  Chorifters,  befides  Servants.  Since  which  Inllitution  it  has  been  augmented  by 
fcveral  large  Benefadlions.  And  at  prcfent  it  confifts  of  a  Prefident,  forty  Fellows,  four  Chaplains, 
thirty  Demies,  and  twenty  Exhibitioners,   befides  a  Number  of  Gentlemen  Commoners. 

11.  5n.2f«-AV^  was  founded  by  ^^////fl?// iSw/;^  Bifhop  of  Lincoln  in  151 1,  who  obtained  for  it  a 
Charter  of  Incorporation  from  Henry  VII.  by  the  Name  and  Stile  of  the  Principal  and  Scholars  of 
King's  Hali  and  Brazf7i-Nofe  College,  with  Power  to  purchafe  Lands  of  the  yearly  Value  of  -^oo  L 
exclufive  of  all  Taxes  and  Reprifals. 

In  this  College  are  a  Principal,  twenty  Fellows,  thirty  Scholarfliips  and  four  Exhibitioners,  who  enjoy 
the  Advowfons  of  the  great  Parilhes  of  Cbriji -Church  in  Spittle-Fields,  of  St.  Matthew  Bethnal  Green, 
of  St.  Mary  Stratford- Bow,  of  St.  Ann  Lime-Houfe,  of  St.  George  Ratclijf  Highivay,  or  St.  George'a 
in  the  Eajl,  together  with  the  Mother-Church  of  St.  Dunjian  at  Stepney,  in  the  County  of  Middlejex, 
by  a  cheap  Purchafe  of  the  Impropriation  and  Advowfon  of  the  old  Parifti  and  Parifh  Church  of  St. 
Dunjian  at  Stepney,  a  little  before  it  was  by  h£t  of  Parliament  divided  into  thofe  feveral  Parifhes,  as  they 
now  are ;  the  leaft  of  which  being  of  the  yearly  Value  of  200  /. 

12.  Corpus  Chrifli  College  was  founded  in  the  Year  15 16,  by  Dr.  Richard  Fox,  Biftiop  of  Winchejler, 
for  the  Study  of  Divinity,  Philofophy,  and  the  Liberal  Arts  ;  who  endowed  it  for  the  Support  of  a 
Prefident,  twenty  Fellows  or  Scholars,  two  Chaplains,  two  Clerks  and  two  Chorifters.  He  alfo  fettled 
a  Humanity  Lefture,  a  Greek  Le£lure,  and  a  Divinity  Ledlure. 

The  prefent  Members  are  a  Prefident,  twenty  Fellows,  two  Chaplains,  twenty  Scholars,  and  four 
Exhibitioners. 

1 3.  Trinity  College  fprung  out  of  the  ancient  Monajlic  College  belonging  to  the  Monks  of  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Durharn,  which  was  diflblved  with  other  religious  Houfes  by  King  Henry  VIII. 

This  diflblved  Houfc  being  afterwards  conveyed  to  Sir  Thomas  Pope  of  Tittenhanger  in  Hertfordjlnre, 
he  obtained  a  Charter  from  Queen  Mary  in  1554,  to  convert  it  into  a  College,  and  improved  it,  and 
endowed  it  for  a  Prefident  and  twelve  Fellows,  to  be  educated  in  the  Studies  of  Philofophy  and  Divinity, 
and  eight  Students  in  Logic,  Rhetoric  and  other  Arts. 

The  Members  now  are  a  Prefident,  twelve  Fellows,  twelve  Scholars  and  two  Exhibitioners  ;  befides 
Gentlemen  Commoners. 

14.  St.  y^Aw's  College,  a  noble  Foundation  by  Sir  ThoTuas  White,  an  Alderman  and  Merchant-Taylor 
of  the  City  of  London  :  but  greatly  enriched  by  the  Favours  and  Henefadlions  of  Archbifhop  Laud  and 
Dr.  fuxon,  Bifliop  of  London,  which  lalt  alone  gave  6000  /.  to  it.  This  College  is  fupplied  with  Scho- 
lars from  Merchant  Taylor^  School  in  London  ;  and  its  Members  are  one  Prefident,  thirty-nine  Fellows, 
and  eleven  Scholars,  who  are  all  ele£ted  on  St.  Barnaby's  Day  from  Merchant-Taylors  School. 

15.  IVadham  College,  a  modern  Foundation  ;  was  begun  hy  Nicholas  IVadham,  Efq;  of  Marefeld 
in  Somerfetfhire,  and  finifhed  purfuant  to  her  Hufband's  Will,  by  Dorothy  his  Relict,  in  the  Year  1613. 
It  was  endowed  by  them  for  a  Warden,  fifteen  Fellows,  fifteen  Scholars,  two  Chaplains,  two  Clerks, 
one  Manciple,  two  Cooks,  two  Butlers,  and  a  Porter ;  with  thefe  ReftriSions  ;  That  the  Warden 
fhould  be  a  Native  of  Great-Britain,  and  to  quit  this  College  upon  Marriage  or  Advancement  to  a 
Bifhopric  ;  and  that  the  Fellows  to  quit  their  Fellowfhips  after  having  completed  eighteen  Years  from 
their  Regency. 

The  prefent  Members  are  a  Warden,  fifteen  Fellows,  two  Chaplains,  fifteen  Scholars,  two  Clerks 
and  eight  Exhibitioners,  befides  many  Gentlemen  Commoners. 

1 6.  Pembroke  College,  was  founded  on  the  Site  of  Broadgate-Hall  in  1 624,  by  Thomas  Tifdale  and 
Richard  Wigbtwick,   S.  T.  B.   for  the  Study  of  Divinity,  Phyftc,  Civil  and  Canon-Law,  &c. 

The  Members  are  a  Mafter,  ten  Fellows  and  ten  Scholars.  Four  Fellows  to  be  chofen  out  of  Mr. 
Tifdale's  Relations  ;  the  others  from  Abingdon  School  :  and  two  Fellows  and  two  Scholars  to  be  of  the 
Name  and  Kindred  of  Mr.  It^ightwick. 

King  Charles  I.  became  a  Benefador  to  this  infant  Foundation.  His  Majefty  founded  a  Fellowfliip 
to  be  filled  from  Guernfey  or  Jerfey  ;  and  Dr.  Morley  Bifliop  of  Winchejler  augmented  it  with  five  Scho- 
larfliips for  Natives  of  the  fame  Ifland. 

The  Members  are  a  Mafter,  thirteen  Fellows  and  twenty-three  Scholars. 

17.  Worcejler  College  is  rifen  from  the  Remains  of  Glocejler-Hall,  anciently  the  Seminary  for  educating 
the  Novices  of  the  BenediSline  Monks  of  Glocejhr.  Which  being  fupprefl'ed  at  the  Diifolution  of  the 
Monafteries,  under  Henry  VIII.  fell,  in  Procefs  of  Time,  into  the  Hands  of  St.  Jobii%  Collegians,  who 
eredted  it  into  a  Seminary  by  the  Name  of  St.  John  Baptift's  Hall,  and  made  one  of  their  Fellows 
Principal  thereof.     But  in  the  Year  1714,  Sir  Thomas  Cookfcy^  Bart,  obtained  a  Charter  from  Queen 

[  b  J  Ann 


xvi  The     I   N   T   R   O   D   U   C   T   I    O   N. 

//«« to  erci^  it  into  a  College,  and  to  endow  it  for  a  Provoft,  fix  Fellows,  and  fix  Scholars :  Since  which 
Time  many  confiderable  Benefadions  have  been  given  to  this  Society. 

1 8.  Hartford  College  was  converted  into  its  prefent  Inftitution  from  Hart  Hall,  by  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Newton,  in  the  Year  1740  :  Who  has  expended  great  Sums  in  its  Building  and  Endowment. 

19.  Chriji-Church  College  I  have  referved  to  the  laft,  as  it  may  be  faid  to  excel  them  all  in  its  Di- 
menfions,  Revenues,   and  Number  of  Students. 

This  College  is  indebted  to  Cardinal  IVolfey  for  its  fii-ft  Foundation.  To  which  he  perfuaded  Kinw 
Henry  VIII.  in  the  Year  1524  ;  and  it  was  then  named  Cardinal-College.  But  the  Dcfign  of  that  Great 
Prelate  dropt  with  his  Difgrace  :  And  though  the  King  in  the  Year  1532,  at  the  Inftance  of  Lord 
Cromiuell,  iifc.  was  prevailed  upon  to  grant  Letters  Patent  to  continue  the  P'oundation  under  the  Name 
of  King  Henry  VIII's  College,  with  an  Endowment  of  2000  /.  per  Annum,  in  Lands,  for  the  Main- 
tenance of  a  Dean  and  twelve  Canons,  we  find  in  the  Year  1545,  that  it  was  fupprefled,  furrendered 
into  the  King's  Hands,  and  the  Dean  and  five  Canons  reduced  to  the  greateft  Neceflity. 

However  in  1546  the  King  transferred  the  Epifcopa!  See  of  Oufney  to  this  College,  and  conftituted  the 
Church  of  St.  Fridefulde  to  be  the  Cathedral  Church,  by  the  Name  of  ChriJI  Church,  founded  by  King 
Henry  VIII.  and  endowed  it  with  Lands  to  the  Value  of  2000  /.  per  Annum,  for  the  Maintenance  of 
a  Dean,  feven  Canons,  eight  Petty  Canons,  one  Poftiilator,  eight  Clerks,  or  Chaplains,  a  Mafter  and 
eight  Choriftcrs,  and  an  Organift  ;  referving  out  of  the  fame  40  /.  per  Annu7n  each,  to  a  Profefibr  in 
Divinity,  a  ProfefTor  of  Greek,  and  another  of  Hebrew :  8  /.  per  Annum  each,  to  fixty  Students  or  Scho- 
lars.    20/.  ^^r  ^«««OT  to  a  Schoolmafter,  and   10/.  per  Annum  to  an  IJfher. 

Queen  Elizabeth  added  forty  Scholars  to  be  chofen  from  JVeJlmiyifter-School,  with  an  Exhibition  of 
6  /.  per  Annum  each,  and  William  ThurJlon%  Legacy  of  800/.  for  the  Education  of  one  Scholar,  makes 
the  Number  of  its  Students  loi. 

Here  alfo  are  two  Le<Elures,  one  for  the  Oriental  Languages ;  the  other  for  Mathematicks,  founded 
and  handfomely  endowed,  by  Dodor  Bujby,  S.  T.  P.  Mafter  of  WeJlminJlerZz\\fio\. 

The  Five  Halls  are  known  by  the  Names  of 

1.  St.  Alban  Hall. 

2.  St.  Edmund  Hall. 

3.  St.  Mary  Hall. 

4.  New-Inn  Hall. 

5.  Maudlin  or  St.  Mary  Magdalen  Hall. 

Thefe  Seminaries  are  mere  Hoflels  or  Inns,  where  the  Students  hire  their  Chambers  of  the  Principal, 
and  pay  for  their  Diet.  Whereas  every  College  confifts  of  a  Head,  Fellows  and  Scholars  incorporated 
by  Royal  Charter,  and  endowed  with  Lands,  i^c.  which  yield  the  Fellows  and  Scholars  a  certain  Re- 
venue, and  defray  all  Expences  of  their  Commons  ;  and  every  College  has  its  Statutes,  which  the 
Members  are  obliged  to  obey  by  their  Oaths,  at  their  Admittance,  under  Pain  of  Expulfion. 

The  Principals  of  thefe  Halls  are  in  the  Nomination  of  the  Chancellor  and  Univerfity  ;  except  the 
Principal  of  Edmund  Hall,  who  is  appointed  by  ^lecns  College. 

The  Colleges  have  all  Libraries  within  themfelves.  But  we  muft  not  leave  this  Seat  of  Learning,  till 
we  have  taken  a  Survey  of  that  Foundation,  which  is  particularly  known  by  the  Name  of 

The  Univerfity  Library,  otherwife  the  Bodleian  Library,  fo  called  from  Sir  Thomas  Bodley  its  principal 
Founder.  It  is  built  in  the  Form  of  a  Ro?mn  H,  and  faid  to  contain  the  greateft  Number  of  Books,  ex- 
cept the  Vatican  and  Pariftan  Libraries. 

Sir  Thomas  Bodley  found  upon  this  Spot  an  old  Library  called  the  Library  of  Humphrey  Duke  of 
Gkcejler,  which  he  enlarged  and  furnifhed  with  the  beft  Books  he  could  procure  from  all  Parts  of  the 
World  ;  and  left  a  confiderable  Eftate  for  Salaries  to  the  Officers,  and  for  keeping  the  Library  in 
Repair. 

The  Earl  of  Pembroke  afterwards  enriched  it  with  his  valuable  Colleilion  of  Greek  MSS.  To  which 
Sir  Thomas  Roe  added  another  choice  Parcel  of  Greek  MSS.  as  did  alfo  Sir  KenclmDigby. 

Here  was  depofited  the  moft  excellent  Study  of  the  learned  foim  Selden  :  Which  with  feveral  great 
Purchafes  as  well  as  Donations,  have  made  it  the  largelt  Univerfity  in  the  World. 

Befides  this,  Oxford  tnjoys  the  Benefit  of  another  great  public  Library  ;  which  if  it  does  not  e.vceed 
the  former  in  Number  and  Value  of  Books  and  MSS.  is  allowed  to  excel  in  the  Magnificence  of  its 
Struiflure  ;  it  having  coft  40,000  /,  in  building  one  Room,  the  Legacy  of  the  celebrated  Phyfician 
Doaor  John  Radcliff. 

I  This 


The    INTRODUCTION.  xvii 

This  is  called  the  New  Library,  or  Radcliffe  Maufolaitm  ;  the  Keeper  whereof  is  intidcd  to  150  /. 
^tr  Jntiuin,  by  the  DocSlor's  Will. 

JJhmole's  Mufceum,  a  handfome  Edifice,  is  another  Repofitory  of  learned  Pieces,  fo  called  from  the 
great  Antiquarian,  Ellas  AftmioU,  Efq;  whofe  valuable  Colleftion  of  y^«//y«/V/«  and  foreign  Curiofities 
and  MSS.  given  to  this  Uiiiverfity,  arc  preferved  under  this  Infcription,  Mufium  Ajlhjnoleanmn  Schola 
Naturalls  Hljhrla  Offclna  Chynilca.  To  which  have  been  added  feme  Egyptian  Hicroglyphicks,  an 
entire  Mummy,  a  large  Collection  of  Natural  Curiofities,  fevcral  Roman  Urns,  Medals,  Altars,  (Sc. 
many  Colle6lions  of  Plants  and  Animals  preferved  in  Spirits  ;  and  other  Curiofities,  which  have  made  it 
the  richefl:  Repofitory  of  fuch  Matters  in  Europe. 

Here  are  public  Schools,  and  a  Theatre  of  curious  Struflure,  for  public  Leflures  and  Academical 
Exercifes. 

Every  Perfon,  who  is  willing  to  become  a  Member  of  this  Univerfity,  in  any  College  or  Hall,  is  to 
appear  within  fifteen  Days  after  his  Arrival  before  the  Chancellor  or  his  Commillary,  to  be  matriculated 
or  regiftered  in  a  Book,  kept  by  one  of  the  Beadles  for  that  Purpofe.  At  which  Time  the  Scholar  being 
fixteen  Years  old,  is  to  fubfcribe  the  thirty-nine  Articles  of  Religion,  and  to  take  the  Oaths  of  Alle- 
giance and  Abjuration. 

He  muft  have  a  Tutor,  a  Graduate  of  fome  Faculty,  and  approved  of  by  the  Head  of  the  Houfc, 
in  which  he  is  admitted,  till  he  himfelf  (hall  be  promoted  to  a  Degree  :  Nor  fhall  he  change  his  Houfe 
for  another,  without  Leave  from  the  Head  thereof,  or  from  the  Vice-Chancellor. 

All  Scholars  (except  Noblemen)  muft  keepjixtien  Terms  before  they  can  take  a  Bachelor's  Degree: 
They  ought  alfo  to  attend  public  Leilures,  and  perform  all  other  ftatutable  Exercifes,  fuch  as  Generals, 
'Jurarnents,  Jnfwering,  Under-bachelors.,  &c. 

Generals,  are  Difputations  on  three  Logical  Queftions  from  one  in  the  Afternoon,  till  three,  and 
are  held  every  Monday,  Wednefday  and  Friday  in  full  Term,  in  the  public  Schools  of  Arts,  under  the 
Moderatorfhip  of  fome  Senior  Sophifl  or  Bachelor  of  Arts  ;  the  Refpondent  giving  out  his  Queftions  to 
be  difputed  on,  a  Week  before  the  Difputation. 

This  Exercife  is  not  to  be  performed,  until  the  Student  is  /wa  Years  ftandlngin  the  Univerfity,  and 
three  Terms  at  leaft  before  he  fupplicates  for  a  Bachelor's  Degree  ;  and  he  is  created  General  or  Senior 
Sophifl,  immediately  after  thefe  Difputations,  by  one  of  the  Majiers,  who  prefides  at  them  :  Thefe 
Senior  Sophifts  are  obliged  every  Term  afterwards,  till  they  take  their  Degree,  to  difpute  once,  at  leaft, 
under  Pain  of  the  former  Difputation's  not  going  pro  forma,  which  is  ftil'd  Juraments  from  the  Oath 
taken  at  the  Time  of  proceeding  Bachelor,  that  they  have  done  all  the  Statutable  Exercifes. 

From  the  Time  of  Admifllon  to  a  Bachelor's  Degree,  the  Artist  is  obliged  to  wait  twelve  Terms 
before  he  can  fue  for  his  Grace,  to  have  a  Mafler's  Degree  :  As  to  the  Exercife  for  a  Mailer' s  Degree, 
every  Bachelor  of  Arts,  after  Admifllon  to  his  Degree,  fhall  folemnly  determine  in  Lent  ;  and  thefe  Lent 
Difputations  are  called  Determinations,  becaufe  they  do  determine  and  finifti  the  Conditions  of  a 
Bachelor's  Degree,  and  truly  compleat  the  fame  ;  and  alfo  for  the  Degree  of  Mafter,  he  muft  anfwer  at 
^uodlibet  Difputations,  fo  called  ;  becaufe  he  muft  anfwer  on  three  Queftions  to  be  propounded  by  any 
Majler  at  Pleafure,  after  he  has  finiftied  his  Lent  Determinations.  Befides  thefe  Determinations  and 
^odlibets,  fuch  Bachelor  muft  either,  as  a  Refpondent,  or  Opponent,  difpute  in  Auflin's,  fpeak  two 
Declamations,   and  read  fix  folemn  Le£lures  before  he  can  be  promoted  to  a  Majler' s  Degree. 

On  Afljwednefday,  immediately  after  the  .L(7//«  Sermon,  a  Bell  rings  out,  calling  the  Prefentator  or 
Dean  of  every  College  and  Hall,  with  his  determining  Bachelors  of  that  Lent  attending  him  in  their  pro- 
per Habits,  to  the  Schools,  which  they  chufe,  according  to  the  Seniority  of  every  Dean  or  Prefentator  ; 
and  having  made  Choice  of  their  feveral  Schools,  the  Dean  orPrefentator  mounts  the  Pev/,  and  has  three 
Queftions  propounded  to  him  in  Natural  Philofophy,  with  I'erfes  read,  briefly  explaining  the  Senfe 
thereof,  by  each  of  the  Determiners  :  Which  ^ejiions  and  Verfes,  as  foon  as  propounded  and  read, 
one  of  the  Senior  Bachelors  takes  upon  him  to  anfwer  the  Dean,  who  is  always  Opponent ;  after  the 
Dean  has  propounded  a  Sylbgfm  or  two  to  his  Determiner,  who  thereupon  prays  his  AriJl'Ale  (for  fo  is 
the  Seyiior  Refponding  Bachelor  called)  to  anfwer  for  him  as  long  as  the  Dean  {hall  think  fit ;  and 
thefe  Diiputations  laft  from  One  o'Clock  till  Five  in  the  Afternoon. 

On  Mondays,  Tuefdays,  Wednefdays  and  Thurfdays,  thefe  Determiners  difpute  on  Logical  Qiieflicns, 
which  they  are  obliged  to  defend  according  to  the  Authority  of  their  great  Mafter  Ari/htle  ;  and  on 
Fridays  on  Grammatical,  Rhetorical,  Political,  and  Moral  Problems  ;  in  Grammar  they  are  to  follow; 
the  ancient  and  received  Authors,  and  in  Rhctorick,  Politicks  and  Moral  Philofophy,  they  are  likewife 
bound  to  defend  Arifotle,  and  the  whole  Dodrine  of  the  Peripateticks,  under  Pain,  that  if  any  one 
{hould  do  otherwife,  his  Anfwer  fhall  not  be  taken  pro  forma,  and  he  fhall  alfo  be  niulded  five  Shillings, 
toties  quoties, 

[  b  2  ]  '  Every 


xvili  The     INTRODUCTION. 

Every  Bachelor  of  jirts,  after  his  full  Determination,  ought  once  every  Year  to  anfwer  or  oppofc 
at  Aujlin  Difputations,  every  Saturday  in  Full  Term,  from  one  o'Clock,  till  three,  in  the  Natural  Phi- 
lofophy  School,  if  he  be  required. 

There  is  a  general  Commencement  once  every  Year  in  all  the  Faculties  of  Learning,  which  is  called, 
the  Act  at  Oxford :  1  his  Ail  is  opened  on  Friday,  following  the  feventh  of  July,  and  Exercifes  per- 
formed in  the  Schools  on  Saturday  and  Monday  following,  and  alfo  in  the  pubJick  Theatre.  On  Saturday 
all  the  Profeflbrs  and  Ledurers  read  in  the  feveral  Arts  and  Sciences,  doathed  in  their  proper  Habits. 

The  Jnceptors  in  Arts  difpute  on  three  Philofophical  Queftions,  and  one  of  ihefe  Inceptors  (for  fo  are 
the  Majlers  called,  who  fland  for  their  Regency  in  (hh/olemn  Aii)  to  be  appointed  by  the  St-nior  ProSfor, 
has  the  Place  of  the  Refpondent ;  and  firft  the  Senior  Prociir  oppofes  on  all  the  Queftions,  and  confirms 
an  Argument  on  the  firft,  then  the  Pro-Pro£ior  and  Terra-Filius  difpute  on  the  fecond  ;  and  laftly,  the 
Junior  ProHor  on  the  third  Queftion  ;  and  all  the  Inceptors  are  obliged  to  attend  thefe  Difputations 
from  the  Beginning  to  the  End,  under  Pain  of  three  Shillings  and  four  Pence.  At  the  equal  Expence 
of  all  the  Inceptors,  there  is  an  elegant  Supper  at  the  College  or  Hall  of  the  Senior  of  each  Faculty,  for 
the  Entertainment  of  the  Dolors,  called  the  ASi  Supper  :  On  Sunday,  between  the  Vefpers  and  the 
Comilia  (for  fo  are  Exercifes  of  Saturday  and  Monday  ftiled)  there  are  two  Sermons  in  the  Engli/h 
Tongue  at  St.  Mary's  Church,  preach'd  by  any  one  of  the  Inceptors,  as  the  Vice-chancellor  ftiall  appoint, 
being  DoSfors  of  Divinity,  in  this  ASl.  On  Monday,  at  nine  o'Clock,  all  the  Inceptors  go  with  the 
Beadles  of  their  feveral  Faculties  to  St.  Mary's,  and  there  after  Prayers  at  the  Communion  Table  make 
Oblations  ;  and  if  any  Perfon  (hall  abfent  himfelf,  or  be  irreverently  prefent,  he  (hall  be  muldled  Five 
Shillings  ;  and  moreover  puniftied  at  the  Vice-chancellor's  Pleafure.  Then  the  Comitial  Exercifes  be- 
ginning, the  Senior  Proilor  mounts  the  Pew  on  the  Weft  Side  of  the  Theatre,  and  the  Junior  Proilor 
the  Pew  oppofite  to  him  on  the  Eaft  Side.  The  Profeffor  of  Phyftck,  with  his  Inceptors,  on  the  Weft ; 
and  the  Law  Prof-JJors,  with  his  Inceptors,  on  the  Eaft  Side  thereof;  and  the  Divinity  Profeffor,  with 
his  Inceptors,  on  the  North  Side,  undef  the  Vice-chancellor  ;  and  the  Inceptors  in  Mtifick,  with  their 
Profeffor  in  the  Mufick  Gallery,  on  the  South  ;  and  at  thefe  Comitial  Difputations,  the  fame  Method  is 
ufed  in  RefpeiS  of  the  Agents,  as  at  Vefpers,  vi%.  firft  the  Senior  Proilors  ;  then  the  Terra  Filius  and 
Pro-Proftor;  and  laftly,  the  Junior  Pro5ior  ;  and  he  who  was  Refpondent  the  Year  before,  is  the 
MagiJler  Rcplicans  this  Year.  The  firft  Opponent,  among  the  Inceptors,  has  a  Book  given  him  at  the 
End  of  the  Difputations  by  the  Senior  Proiior  (who  in  Reipedl  of  the  ArtiJls  Inceptors  is  called  Father  of 
the  Comitia)  and  is  alfo  created  Mafler  by  a  A'//},  and  putting  on  his  Cap. 

After  the  Comitial  Exercifes  in  Arts  are  ended,  if  there  be  any  Perfon  taking  a  Mufick  Degree,  he  is  to 
perform  a  Song  of  fix  or  eight  Parts  on  vocal  and  inflrumental  Mufick,  and  then  he  fliall  have  his  Creation 
from  the  SaviHan  Profeflbrs,  i^c.  After  the  performing  of  the  Exercifes,  and  the  Creation  of  DoSiors, 
according  to  a  PrefcriptForm  in  each  Facult}',  the  Vice-chancellor  clofes  the  All  with  a  folemn  Speech  ; 
wherein  it  is  ufual  for  him  to  commemorate  the  Tranfadtions  of  the  Year  paft,  and  efpecially  fuch 
Benefacflions  as  have  been  given  to  the  Univerfity :  And  after  the  End  of  the  Act,  the  Vice-chancellor^ 
with  the  Regents  of  the  foregoing  Year,  immediately  aflemble  in  the  Congregation  Houfe,  where,  at  the 
Supplication  of  the  Do£lors  and  MaJiers,  newly  created,  they  ditpence  with  the  Wearing  of  Boots  and 
Slop  Shoes,  to  which  the  Dollars  and  Maflers  of  the  Aft  are  obliged  during  the  Comitia. 

On  Tuefdiiy^  after  the  Comitia,  a  Latin  Sermon  is  preached  to  the  Clergy,  at  eight  in  the  Morning, 
in  St.  Alary  s  Church,  the  Preacher  to  be  either  fomeDoftor  or  Bachelor  in  Divinity,  and  of  the  Vice- 
chancellor's  Appointment,  with  a  Pre-monition,  for  this  End,  from  the  Vice-chancellor  for  three  Months 
beforehand. 

The  Queftions  to  be  difputed  on  in  each  Faculty  are  to  be  approved  by  the  Congregation  of  Mafters 
ibme  time  before  the  A£l ;  and  becaufe  that  Civilians  ought  to  know  the  Difflsrence  between  the  Civil 
and  Municipal  Laws,  one  of  the  Law  Queftions  ought  to  have  fome  Affinity  with  the  Common  Law  of 
England ;  wherein  the  Profeflbr,  by  a  fhort  Speech,  ought  to  Ihew,  what  the  one,  and  what  the  other 
Law  maintains. 

If  any  contumelious,  reproachful,  or  defamatory  Language,  be  given  in  any  Speech  or  Arguments  at 
Difputations,  the  Vice-chancellor  may  convene  the  Perfon  before  him,  and  command  a  Copy  of  his 
Speech,  and  if  he  pretends,  that  he  has  no  Copy,  he  may  convift  him  by  Oath,  and  punifli  him  ac- 
cording to  the  Heinoufnefs  of  the  Offence,  in  Refpe£t  of  Perfons  and  other  Circumftances,  either  by 
publick  Recantation,  Imprifonment,  or  Banifliment  from  the  Univerfity,  as  a  Difturber  of  the  publick 
Peace  ;  befides  the  Satisfa£tion  he  is  obliged  to  make  to  the  Party  injurd. 

In  the  Faculties  of  Divinity,  Law  and  Phyftck,  every  one  takes  Place  according  to  the  Order  of  his 
Prefentation  or  Admiffion,  to  be  an  Inceptor  in  thefe  Sciences,  and  ftiall  keep  the  fame  for  ever  after- 
wards i  only  grand  Compounders  have  the  Precedence  of  all  others  of  the  fame  Year  :  But  Inceptors  in 

I  Arts 


The     INTRODUCTION.  xix 

Arts  have  their  Seniority  according  to  the  Proftor'sDifcretion  j  unlefs  they  be  grand  Compounders,  who 
have  Precedence,  as  aforcfaid.  Yet  it  is  provided,'  that  this  Difpofition  fhall  not  prejudice  Fellov/s  of 
Colleges,  in  Rel'pedl  of  their  Seniority  ;  but  that  the  fame  be  governed  and  difpofed  according  to  the 
Seniority  which  they  bear  in  their  refpedlive  Colleges,   according  to  the  local  Statutes  thereof. 

The  ordinary  Difputations  in  Divinity  fhall  be  had  ten  times  a  Year  in  the  Divinity  School,  -viz.  on 
the  firfl  and  laft  ThurfJays  in  every  Full  Term,  on  the  Thmfday  before  the  firft  Sunday  in  Advent,  and 
alfo  the  Thurfday  immediately  preceding  Lent,  which  Day,  if  a  Holiday,  then  Difputations  fhall  be 
had  the  Day  following ;  and  all  the  Bachelors  in  Divinity,  of  what  Standing  foever,  as  well  as  Mafters 
of  Arts  (unlefs  ProiSlors  of  the  Univerfity,  or  publick  ProfelTors  of  Arts)  are  obliged  to  perform  thefe 
Difputations,  as  foon  as  they  have  compleated  four  Years  from  the  Time  of  their  Regency,  whether 
they  live  in  Colleges  or  Halls,  unlefs  it  does  notorioufly  appear,  that  they  are  obliged  to  the  Studies  of 
Law  or  Phyfick  by  the  local  Statutes  of  their  College  for  a  Year  (at  leaft)  before  they  have  received  any 
Monition  to  anfwer  or  oppofe  at  thefe  Difputations,  which  may  evidently  appear  by  their  entering  their 
Names  in  the  Beadle\  Book. 

At  thefe  Difputations,  the  Senior  Bachelor,  or  Majler,  is  Refpondent,  and  the  two  next  downwards 
in  Degree  after  the  Regius  Prcfejfor  (who  is  Moderator  here)  are  Opponents,  and  fo  on  till  they  have 
all  had  their  Turns  ;  and  then  they  revert  to  the  Seniors.  The  two  Queftions  to  be  here  difputed  on, 
from  one  o'Clock,  till  three  in  the  Afternoon,  are  to  be  approved  by  the  next  Congregation  enfuing  the 
Date  of  the  Monition  ;  and  all  Bachelors  of  Divinity,  and  A4ajlers  of  Arts,  of  two  Years  Standing 
from  their  Regency,  who  have  not  applied  their  Studies  to  any  other  Faculty,  are  bound  to  be  prefent. 

The  ordinary  Difputations  are  only  had  twice  every  Year  in  Phyfick,  viz.  on  the  hrfl:  Tuefday  in 
Trinity  and  Hilary  Term  ;  at  which  Difputations,  all  Bachelors,  and  other  Students  in  Phyfick,  on  the 
Phyfick  Line,  and  privileged  Perfons,  are  Agents,  except  the  Proiflors  of  the  Univerfity,  and  the  pub- 
lick  Profeflbrs  of  Arts ;  and  the  Senior  of  thefe  is  the  Refpondent,  and  the  other  two  are  Opponents, 
according  to  ♦^he  Courfe  and  Method  of  Divinity  Difputations  ;  whereat  all  Bachelors  and  Students  in 
Phyfick  are  obliged  to  attend. 

The  ordinary  Difputations  in  the  Civil  Law  (called  Difputations  pro  Termino)  are  alfo  had  but  tivice 
a  Year,  viz.  on  the  laft  Tuefday  of  Eafier  and  Michaelmas  Term  ;  at  which  Difputations,  all  Bachelors 
of  Law,  and  Perfons  of  Bachelors  ftanding,  being  Students  in  the  Law,  are  to  bear  their  Turns  in  the 
feme  Courfe  and  Manner,  as  at  Phyfick  Difputations,  the  Pro<ftors  and  Profeflbrs  excepted,  as  aforefaid  ; 
and  at  thefe  Difputations,  all  Bachelors  of  Law  and  Students  in  that  Faculty,  are  to  attend,  and  frequent 
the  fame. 

Graces  or  Supplications  for  Degrees  are  propofed  and  granted  in  the  Congregation  of  Regent  Majlers, 
except  it  be  for  the  Fellows  of  'New  College,  who  have  their  Graces  given  them  in  their  own  Houfe  by 
a  certain  Privilege  :  And  here  are  all  Difpenfations  afk'd  in  Matters  dilpenfable  by  the  Congregation, 
that  fit  Perfons  may  be  admitted  to  Scholajfual  Degrees,  and  alfo  that  Men  recommended  by  other  Uni- 
verfities,  may  be  incorporated,  and,  according  to  Cuftom,  be  licenfed  in  each  Faculty.  This  Congre- 
gation now,  as  antiently,  confifts  of  the  Chancellor,  or  Vice-chancellor,  the  txva  ProSiors,  or  their  De- 
pu'ies,  and  of  fuch  Mafiers  as  are  neceflary,  or  Regents  ad  placitum.  And  nothing  can  he  decreed  in 
this  Affembly,  to  which  the  Chancellor,  or  his  Vice-chancellor,  both  Profiors,  or  their  Deputies,  or  the 
major  Part  of  the  Majiers  prefent  (whofe  Number  ought  not  to  be  lefs  than  nine)  do  not  confent  ;  but 
ought  to  be  taken  for  not  granted,  if  either  the  Chancellor,  or  his  Deputy,  or  the  two  Pro<5lors,  or 
their  Deputies,  or  the  major  Part  of  the  Malters  diffent ;  unlefs  it  be  in  EleiSlicns,  which  are  to  be 
made  freely,  according  to  ancient  Cuftom,  by  the  major  Part  of  the  Voters. 

By  a  received  Cuftom  immediately  after  the  End  of  the  A£i,  every  Year,  the  Aiaflers  of  Arts,  and 
Doilors  in  Divinity,  Lav>  and  Phyfick,  on  the  folemn  Day  of  their  Creation,  fupplicate  to  be  admitted 
into  the  Congregation  Houfe,  and  to  their  Regency  in  each  Faculty,  /.  e.  to  all  and  every  AtSl  of  their 
necefiary  Regency  before  the  third  Congregation,  unlefs  fome  grievous  Crime  be  objected  to  them, 
which  may  draw  a  Scandal  on  the  Univerfity  ;  and  if  they  be  deferred  any  longer,  the  Chancellor,  or  his 
Locum-tenent,  may  fummon  and  admit  them  thereunto  by  his  own  proper  Authority  :  \Vhich  Dolors 
znd  Ala/iers  are  neceflarily  Regents  for  tivo  Yea.rs ;  unlefs  they  be  difpenled  with  for  the  fecond  Year's 
Regency  (as  ufual)  after  theCreation  of  other  Doctors  and  Mafters  the  next  A^,  and  admitted  to  their 
Regency  in  the  like  manner,  in  the  Congregation  :  Then  the  Doctors  and  Mafters  admitted  to  their 
Regency,  take  an  Oath  not  to  reveal  the  Secrets  of  that  Houfe,  and  alfo  fwcar,  that  they  will  not  pro- 
mote unfit  Perfons,  nor  hinder  thofe,  who  are  fit,  from  proceeding  to  their  Degrees,  &c.  Every  Mafter, 
for  this  Admiffion,  pays  12  d.  to  the  Regifter,  and  4  d.  to  the  Beadle  of  his  Faculty,  and  a  Doctor  gives 
12  d.  to  be  djftributed  among  the  Poor,  at  the  Pleafure  of  the  Vice-chancellor  and  Prodors. 

All 


^x  The    I  N  T  R  O  D  U  C  T  I  O  N. 

All  publick  ProfefTors  and  Leflurers,  Royal,  as  well  as  others,  are  accounted  Regents  adplacitum; 
fo  are  all  RefiJcnt  Dodlors,  of  what  Faculty  foever,  and  all  Heads  of  Colleges  and  Halls,  who  have 
been  for  fome  time  Regents  in  Arts,  and  (in  their  Abfcnce)  their  Deputies,  all  Maftcrs  of  Schools,  and 
Deans  and  Ccnfors  of  Colleges,  together  with  all  Mailers  during  the  fecond  Year  of  their  Regency,  if 
they  are  difpenfed  with  for  the  iecond  Year  of  their  neceflary  Regency,  as  aforcfaid. 

The  Scholars  are  obliged  to  be  in  their  rcfpeftive  Colleges  by  nine  of  the  Clock  at  Nigh-,  immediately 
after  the  Tolling  of  the  great  Bell  at  Chriji-Church,  and  if  any  Perfon  fhall  be  found  in  the  Streets,  or 
ill  any  Houfe  in  the  Town  ;  unlefs  on  his  lawful  and  neceflary  Occafions,  he  is  muldtcd  in  the  Sum  of 
i.0  J.  being  a  Graduate  ;  which  Sum  the  Vice-chancellor  demands,  if  he  be  a  Mafler  of  Arts,  or  a 
Batchelor  of  Law  ;  otherwife  the  Prodlors  may  do  it,  and  imprifon  him  for  Contumacy,  Sufpicion  of 
Fli'^'ht,  or  any  rebellious  Behaviour  :  If  the  Perfon  offending  be  an  Under-graduate,  he  is  left  to  the 
difcretionary  Punifhment  of  the  Vice-chancellor. 

All  Plays  and  Gaming  (cfpecially /o?-  Motiey)  are  prohibited,  under  the  Pain  of  6  x.  8  d.  if  a  Graduate, 
and  if  not,  then  he  is  punifhed  according  to  the  Vice-chancellor's  Pleafure,  befides  Rellitution  of  Money 
fo  won  ;  and  20  i.  inflidled  on  all  Gaming  Houfts,  and  Imprifonment,  till  they  find  Sureties  not  to 
receive  any  Scholars  upon  the  like  Account. 

Scholars  are  alfo  forbid  to  carry  Guns,  Bows,  ^c.  to  keep  Dogs,  Ferrets,  Nets,  bfc.  under  the  Pain 
of  6  s.  8  d.  toties  quotles,  and  to  forfeit  and  lofe  the  fame. 

Rope  Dancers,  Stage-Players  and  Sword  Fighters  are  alfo  prohibited  the  Univerftty,  unlefs  they  get 
the  Vice-chancellor's  Leave  to  come,  under  Pain  of  Imprifonment ;  and  all  Graduate  Scholars,  attending 
them,  are  punifhed  6;^.   8  ^,  and  Under  graduates  are  corre<fled  as  aforefaid. 

The  Habits  at  Oxford  are  all  black,  except  the  Sons  of  Noblemen,  having  Voices  in  the  Houfe  of 
Lords,  who  may  wear  colour'd  Gowns  of  any  kind,  how  rich  foever  ;  and  on  certain  Days,  on  fome 
Occafions,  all  Doctors  here  are  honoured  with  Scarlet  Robes.  The  Scarlet  Days  are  Circumcifion  or  New 
y'ear's  Day,  Epiphany  or  Twelfth  Day,  Purification  or  Candlemas-Day,  Annunciation  or  Lady-Day;  when 
the  Sermon  is  at  New  College  ;  Eajfer-Day,  Afceifion  or  Holy  Thurfday,  the  29th  of  May,  IVhitfunday, 
Trinity  Sunday,  when  the  Sermon  is  again  at  New  College  ;  Friday,  Saturday,  Sunday  and  Tuefday 
Morning  in  Jii  Time,  at  Sermon  and  Congregation  ;  All  Saints  Day,  the  5th  of  November,  Chrijimas 
Day,  and  all  publick  Thankfgivings.  The  Habit-Days  are,  the  Day  the  Judges  come  to  Town ;  when 
the  Vice-chancellor,  Doftors  and  Prodors  affemble  at  St.  Marys,  and  from  thence  go  to  wait  on  the 
Judges  in  their  Formalities  ;  at  all  Latin  Sermons,  Morning  Sermons  in  Term  Time,  and  at  all  Ser- 
mons at  St.  Peter's  in  Lent,  on  Congregation  Days,  and  on  Scholaflica  Day  ;  and  the  Day  after  Mi- 
chaelmas, when  the  Mayor  is  fworn  in  St.  Marys  Church  in  the  Morning  by  the  Senior  Proctor.  All 
Scholars  tvhatfoever  in  Term  Time  ought  to  come  to  Church  in  their  proper  Habits. 

Baronets  are  efleemed  Noblemen  in  this  Univerftty,  and  their  Habit  is  black,  trim'd  with  Gold  Lace. 
In  this  Univerfity  are  fixteen  Publick  Prcfcffors,  two  in  Divinity,  and  one  each  in  Hijlory,  moral  Phi- 
lofophy.   Geometry,  Ajlronomy,    Anatomy,    natural  Philofophy,   Mrftc,    Law,  Phyfic,  Laws  of  England, 
Botany,   Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Arabic. 

One  of  the  Divinity  Profcflbrftiips  was  founded  by  the  Countefs  of  Richmond  and  Mother  to  King 
Henry  VII.  and  endowed  with  20  Marks  per  Annum. 

This  is  called  the  Magaret  ProfefTorfhip,  and  is  to  give  a  Lefture  on  the  firft  Day  of  every  Term, 
and  on  certain  other  Days  in  the  Divinity  School. 

The  other  is  an  Inftitution  by  King//f«7-v  VIII.  who  endowed  it  with  40  /.  per  Annum,  with  a  Canonry 
of  Chrifl  Church  and  the  Reilory  of  Eweline  annexed  thereunto. 

This  is  by  way  of  Eminence  called  the  Regius  Profeffor  i-n  Divinity,  and  is  enjoin'd  to  read  Leflures 
on  Mondays  and  Fridays  at  Nine  in  the  Morning  to  Maflers  of  Arts  of  a  Year's  Handing,  until  they 
commence  Doftors. 

The  Hijhry  Lecture  is  the  Gift  of  the  learned  Antiquary  and  Hiftorian  IFilliam  Cambden,  Efq;  who 
endowed  it  with  the  Manor  of  Boxley  in  Kent,  worth,  as  fome  fay,  400  /.  per  Annum,  with  an  Obligation 
on  the  Profeflbr  to  read  a  Ledture  on  Mondays  and  Fridays  weekly  in  the  Hiftory  School  to  the  Batchelors 
of  Arts  and  Students  in  Law. 

The  moral  Philofophy  Ledure  is  a  Foundation  by  Docftor  Thomas  mite.  Canon  of  ChriJ}  Churchy 
^c.  who  endowed  it  with  1 00  A  per  Annum. 

Sir  Henry  Savile,  a  great  Patron  of  Learning  and  Learned  Men,  founded  two  Leflures,  one  in 
Geometry,  the  other  in  Jjlro?ioniy,  An?io  Do/nini  ibig,  endowed  them  both  with  fuitable Revenues,  and 
left  the  ProfefTors  a  Library  of  Mathematical  Books,  Tables,  Maps  and  Inflruments  proper  for  fuch 
Studies.     But  he  debarred  them  from  accepting  of  any  Ecckfiaftical  Preferment  whatever. 

The 


The    I  N  T  R  O  D  U  C  T  I  O  N.  xxi 

The  Anatomical  Le&ure  was  founded  by  Mr.  Richard  TomUns,  who  fettled  25  /.  per  Annum,  on  the 
Regius  ProfefTor  in  Phyfick  for  reading  the  fame  at  ftated  Times. 

The  natural  Philofophy  Profefforlhip  was  founded  and  endowed  with  120/.  per  Annum  in  Land. 
Anno  Domini  161 8. 

The  Mujick  Lecture  was  founded  by  fVilHatn  Hcythcr,  Dodor  of  Muftc  in  1626,  who  endowed  it  with 
fixteen  Pounds  fix  Shillings  and  Eight-pence  per  Annum  Salary  j  thirteen  Pounds  Six  and  Eight-pence 
for  a  Houfe  and  repairing  Inftruments,  and  three  Pounds  per  Amium  for  teaching  the  Theory  of  Mufic, 
once  every  Term. 

The  Ledturcs  in  Law  znd  Rhyfic  were  founded  by  King  Henry  VIII.  with  a  Salary  of  40  /.  per  Annum 
each,  and  a  Prebend  in  the  Chiuch  of  Sarum  aruiexed  to  ths  Laio  Profellbrftiip,  and  the  Government 
of  the  Hofpital  of  Eweline  to  the  Phyfic  ProfefTorfliip. 

The  Botanic  LecSlure  was  founded  in  1643  ^Y  Henry  Danvers  Earl  of  Danhy;  who  purchafed  the 
Phyfic  Garden  at  Oxford  for  the  Ufes  thereof,  and  appropriated  the  Reilory  of  Kirkda!e  in  Yorkjhire 
to  maintain  a  Gardener  to  encreafe  and  propagate  the  Plants,  and  to  explain  the  Nature  and  Virtue  of 
them. 

The  Profeflbr/hip  of  the  Laws  of  England  was  lately  founded  by  Charles  Finer,  Efq;  who  by  his  laft 
Will  and  Teflament,  bearing  Date  29  .Dr^mi^r  1755,  divifed  (/'7/fr  d/Za J  to  the  Chancellor,  Mafters, 
and  Scholars  of  the  Univerfity  of  Oxford,  whom  he  alfo  appointed  his  Executors,  all  the  printed  Copies 
of  his  Abridgment  of  the  Laws  of  England,  and  the  Refidue  of  his  real  and  perfonal  Eftate  not  other- 
wife  difpofed  of  by  his  Will,  "  to  be  applied,  by  and  with  the  Approbation  of  a  Majority  of  the  Mem- 
"  bers  there  in  Convocation  to  be  afiembled  for  that  Purpofe,  (on  public  Notice  given)  for  the  nominating, 
"  appointing  and  eltablifhing  a  Profeflbrfliip  of  the  Common  Law  in  the  faid  Univerfity  ;  and- to  put  it 
"  upon  a  proper  Foot,  that  young  Gentlemen,  who  Ihall  be  Students  there,  and  (hall  intend  to  apply 
♦'  themfelves  to  the  Study  of  the  common  Laws  of  England,  may  be  inftruftcd  and  enabled  to  purfue 
"  their  Studies  to  their  beft  Advantage  afterwards,  when  they  fhall  attend  the  Courts  at  Wefmmjler  ; 
"  and  not  to  trifle  away  their  Time  there  in  hearing  what  they  underftand  nothing  of,  and  thereupon 
"  perhaps  divert  their  Thoughts  from  the  Law  to  their  Pleafures  :  That  a  certain,  annual,  handfome 
"  Allowance  be  fixed  upon  to  be  made  to  fuch  Profeflbr  and  his  Succeflbrs,  to  be  chofen  from  Time  to 
•'  Time  by  the  faid  Univerfity  in  Convocation  afiembled  ;"  and  then  direfled  that  a  competent  Fund  be 
raifed  from  the  Surplus  to  continue  his  Abridgment  at  proper  Intervals.  He  alio  willed  and  defired, 
"  that  fuch  Profeflor  fo  to  be  ele<5led  fhould  be  at  leafl;  a  Mafler  of  Arts  or  a  Bachelor  of  the  Civil  Law 
"  in  the  faid  Univerfity,  and  likewifea  Barrifler  at  the  common  Law  ;  and  fhould  read  a  folemn  Lefture 
"  and  Le£lures  when  and  fo  often  as  fuch  Convocation  Ihould  think  proper  and  direft,  fo  as  fuch  'I  ime 
"  of  Reading  fhall  not  interfere  or  be  within  the  Time  of  the  Law  Terms."  And  his  Will  farther  was, 
"  that  after  an  ample  Provifion,  according  to  the  Judgment  and  Approbation  of  the  faid  Convocation, 
*'  fliall  be  made  and  fecured  for  fuch  Profeflbr  as  aforefaid,  the  remaining  Part  of  the  Monies  to  arife  from 
"  the  Sale  of  the  Refidue  of  his  faid  Abridgment,  &c.  fhall  be  difpofed  of,  by  and  with  the  Direftion 
"  and  Approbation  of  fuch  Convocation  afiembled  or  to  be  afTembled  as  aforefaid,  for  the  conflituting, 
"  eftablifhiiig,  and  endowing  one  or  more  Fellowfhip  or  Fellowfiaips,  and  Scholarfliip  or  Scholarfhips, 
*'  in  any  College  or  Hall  in  the  faid  Univerfity  as  to  fuch  Convocation  fhall  be  thouglit  mofl  proper  for 
"  Students  of  the  common  Law  ;  fuch  Fellow  or  Fellows  to  be  Mafter  or  Mafters  of  Arts,  or  Bachelor 
"  or  Bachelors  of  Civil  Law,  and  fuch  Scholar  or  Scholars  to  be  of  two  Years  ftanding  at  leafl  at  the 
"  Time  of  Eledlion,  and  that  one  at  leaft  of  fuch  Fellows  fhould  be  propofed  as  a  Tutor  to  fuch  Students 
"  in  the  faid  Univerfity  as  fliall  be  intended  for  fuch  Study  ;  and  that  as  often  as  a  Fellow  or  Fellows 
"  die,  or  fuch  Fellowfhip  or  Fellowfhips  fhall  otherwife  become  vacant,  the  faid  Scholar  or  Scholars  may 
"  from  Time  to  Time  fucceed  to  fuch  Fellowfhip  or  Fellowfhips,  if  approved  oF  by  the  faid  Convo- 
•'  cation  ;  otherwife  fome  other  to  be  chofen  or  nominated  by  them,  whom  they  fhall  think  more  proper. 
"  And  in  cafe  fuch  Profeflbrfhip  as  is  before  mentioned  fhall  at  any  Time  or  Times  become  vacant,  his 
"  Will  was  that  fuch  Convocation  fhall  from  Time  to  Time  nominate  and  appoint  a  proper  Succeflbr 
"  or  Succeflbrs ;  but  in  fuch  Cafe  he  would  recommend  it  to  them  to  appoint  fuch  Fellow,  or  one  of 
*'  fuch  Fellows  as  aforefaid,  in  cafe  he  or  either  of  them  fhall  be  really  deferving  to  fucceed  to  fuch 
"  Vacancy." 

Mr.  Viner's  Eftate  and  Effeits  were  found  to  confifl,  on  the  27th  of  January  1758,  of  upwards 
of  8000  /.  in  Money  ;  of  a  Freehold  Eftate  of  9  /.  per  Annum  in  PofTelTion  of  a  certain  Reverfion  (after 
one  very  antient  Life  j  of  a  Copyhold  Eftate  of  30  /.  per  Annum  ;  of  a  Reverfion  depending  on  a  Con- 
tingency) of  another  Freehold  Eftate  of  51  /.  per  Annum  ;  and  of  a  Number  of  Books,  then  unfold, 
which  on  a  moderate  Calculation  may  produce  about  3000  /,  but,  if  all  fold  at  their  prefent  Prices,  will 
amount  to  500  /.  more. 

In 


xxii  The     INTRODUCTION. 

In  the  Execution  of  this  Truft  the  Univerfity  has  ordairiL-d  and  decreed  in  Subftance  as  follows ; 

1.  That  the  Accounts  of  this  Kcncfadion  be  fc-parately  kept,  and  annually  audited  by  the  Dele- 
gates of  Accoimts  and  Profeflor,  and  afterwards  reported  to  C  onvocation. 

1.  That  a  Profeflbrfliip  of  the  Laws  of  England  be  immediately  eflabliflied,  with  a  Salary  of  200/. 
fer  Annum  ;  the  Profeflbr  to  beeleded  by  Convocation,  and  to  be  at  the  'lime  of  his  Eledlion  at  leaft  a 
JVj  after  of  Arts  or  Bachelor  of  Civil  Law  in  the  Univerfity  of  Oxford,  of  ten  Years  Handing  from  his 
Matriculation  ;   and  alio  a  Barrifter  at  Law  of  four  Years  (landing  at  the  Bar. 

3.  'I  HAT  fuch  Profeflbr  (by  himfelf,  or  by  Deputy  to  be  previoufly  approved  by  Convocation)  fhall 
read  one  folemn  public  Lecture  on  the  Laws  of  England  and  in  the  Enghfli  Language,  in  every  acade- 
mical Term,  at  certain  ftated  Times  previous  to  the  Commencement  of  the  common  Law  I  erm  ;  or 
forfeit  20  /.  for  every  OmilTion  to  Mr.  Viner's  general  Fund  :  And  alfo  (by  himfelf,  or  by  Deputy  to 
be  approved,  if  occaiional,  by  the  Vice-chancellor  and  Proflors  ;  or,  if  permanent,  both  the  Caufe  and 
the  Deputy  to  be  annually  approved  by  Convocation)  fhall  yearly  read  one  compleat  Courfe  of  Ledures 
on  the  Laws  of  England  and  in  the  Englijh  Language  ;  confifting  of  fixty  Leftures  at  the  leaft,  to  be 
read  during  the  Univerfity  Term  Time,  with  fuch  proper  Intervals  that  not  more  than  four  Le£lures  may 
fall  within  any  fingle  Week.  That  the  Profeflbr  Ihall  give  a  Month's  Notice  of  the  1  ime  when  the 
Courfe  is  to  begin,  and  fhall  read  gratis  to  the  Scholars  of  Mr.  Vine  r's  Foundation,  but  may  demand 
of  other  Auditors  fuch  Gratuity  as  fhall  be  fettled  from  Time  to  Time  by  Decree  of  Convocation: 
(which  Gratuity  is  at  prcfent  fettled  to  be  four  Guineas  for  the  firft  Courfe,  and  two  for  the  Second  ;  but 
nothing  for  any  future  Attendance)  and  that  for  every  of  the  faid  fixty  Ledtures  omitted,  the  Profeflbr, 
on  Complaint  made  to  the  Vice-chancellor  within  the  Year,  fhall  forfeit  40  s.  to  Mr.  Viner's  general 
Fund  ;   the  Proof  of  having  performed  his  Duty  to  lie  upon  the  faid  Profeflbr. 

4.  That  every  Profeflbr  fhall  continue  in  his  Office  during  Life,  unlefs  in  Cafe  of  fuch  Mifbehaviour 
as  fhall  amount  to  Bannition  by  the  Univerfity  Statutes  ;  or  unlefs  he  deferts  the "Profeflion  of  the  Law 
by  betaking  himfelf  to  another  Profeflion ;  or  unlefs,  after  one  Admonition  by  the  Vice-chancellor  and 
Prortors  for  notorious  Negleft,  he  is  guilty  of  another  flagrant  Omiflion ;  in  any  of  which  Cafes  he 
fhall  be  deprived  by  the  Vice-chancellor,  with  Confent  of  the  Houfe  of  Convocation. 

5.  That  out  of  the  Refidue  of  the  faid  EfFeds  fuch  a  Number  of  Fellowfhips  with  a  Stipend  of  50/. 
per  Annum  and  Scholarfhips  with  a  Stipend  of  30  /.  be  eftablifhed,  as  the  Convocation  fhall  from  T  ime 
to  Time  ordain,  according  to  the  State  of  Mr.  Viner's  Revenues :  And  that  at  prefent  two  Scholarfhips 
be  eftablifhed,  and  one  Fellowfhip  next  afterwards,  as  foon  as  the  Revenues  will  permit. 

6.  That  every  Fellow  be  elected  by  Convocation  and  at  the  Time  of  Election  be  unmarried,  and 
at  leaft  a  Mafter  of  Arts  or  Bachelor  of  civil  Law,  and  a  Member  of  fome  College  or  Hall  in  the  Uni- 
verfity of  Oxford;  the  Scholars  of  this  Foundation  or  fuch  as  have  been  Scholars  (if  qualified  and  ap- 
proved of  by  Convocation)  to  have  the  {^reference  :  That,  if  not  a  Barrifter  when  chofen,  he  fhall  be 
called  to  the  Bar  within  one  Year  after  his  Eledion,  but  fhall  refide  in  the  Univerfity  two  Months  in 
every  Year,  or  in  cafe  of  Non-Refidence  fhall  forfeit  the  Stipend  of  that  Year  to  Mr.  Viner's  general 
Fund. 

7.  That  every  Scholar  be  elefted  by  Convocation,  and  at  the  Time  of  Ele<Slion  be  unmarried,  and 
a  Member  of  fome  College  or  Hall  in  the  Univerfity  of  Oxford^  and  fhall  have  been  matriculated  twenty 
four  Calendar  Months  at  the  leaft  :  That  he  proceed  to  the  Degree  of  Bachelor  of  civil  Law  with  all 
convenient  Speed  ;  (either  proceeding  in  Arts  or  otherwife)  and  previous  to  his  taking  the  fame,  between 
the  fecondand  eighth  Year  from  his  Matriculation,  fhall  be  bound  to  attend  two  Courfes  of  the  Profeffbr's 
Leftures,  to  be  certified  under  his  Hand  ;  and  within  one  Year  after  taking  the  fame  fhall  be  called  to  the 
Bar  :  I  hat  he  fhall  annually  refide  fix  Months  till  he  is  of  four  Years  Standing,  and  four  Months  from 
that  Time  till  he  is  Mafter  of  Arts  or  Bachelor  of  civil  Law  ;  after  which  he  fhall  be  bound  to  refide 
two  Months  in  every  Year  ;  or,  in  Cafe  of  Non-refidence,  fhall  forfeit  the  Stipend  of  that  Year  to  Mr. 
Viner's  general  Fund. 

8.  That  the  Scholarfhips  fhall  become  void  in  cafe  of  Non-attendance  on  the  Profeflbr,  or  not  taking 
the  Degree  of  Bachelor  of  civil  Law,  being  duly  admonifhed  fo  to  do  by  the  Vice-chancellor  and  Prodors. 
And  both  Fellowfhips  and  Scholarfhips  fhall  expire  at  the  End  of  ten  Years  after  each  refpective  Eleftion; 
and  fhall  become  void  in  cafe  of  grofs  Mifbehaviour,  Non-refidence  for  two  Years  together.  Marriage, 
not  being  called  to  the  Bar  within  the  Time  before  limited,  (being  duly  admonifhed  fo  to  be  by  the  \' ice- 
chancellor  and  Prodors)  or  deferting  the  Profeflion  of  the  Law  by  following  any  other  ProfefTion.  In 
any  of  which  Cafes  the  Vice-chancellor,  with  Confent  of  Convocation,  fliall  declare  the  Place 
ailually  void. 

9.  That  in  Cafe  of  any  Vacancy  of  the  Profefl"orfhip,    Fellowfhips,  or  Scholarfhips,    the  Profits  of 
the  current  Year  be  ratably  divided  between  the  PredecefTor  or  his  Reprefentativcs,  and  the  SuccefTor  ; 

and 


The  INTRODUCTION.  ?;xlii 

and  that  a  new  Eledlion  be  had  within  one  Month  afterwards,  unlefs  by  that  Mean?  the  Time  of  Elec- 
tion fliall  fall  within  any  Vacation,  in  which  Cafe  it  fliall  be  deferred  to  the  firft  Week  in  the  next  full 
Term.  And  that  before  any  Convocation  fliall  be  held  for  fuch  Elecftion,  or  for  any  other  Matter  re- 
lating to  Mr.  Viners  BenefaiSlion,  ten  Days  public  Notice  be  given  to  each  College  and  Hall  of  the 
Convocation  itfelf  and  the  Caufe  of  coni''oking  it. 

KinT  Henry  VIII.  did  alfo  found  two  I/Ccliturefhips  for  Hebreiv  and  Greek,  and  endowed  them   with 
^O  /.  per  Annum  each  ;  and  annexed  to  the  Hebrew  Ledure  a  Canonry  in  ChriJI  Church. 

Archbifliop  Land,  in  1636,  diftinguifhcd  his  Tafte  for  Oriental  Learning  by  founding  another  Lec- 
tiirefliip,  with  an  Endowment  of  40/.  per  Anman  for  the  Study  of  the  Arabic  Tongue. 

The  moral  Difcipline  in  this  Univerfity  is  worthy  of  Imitation,  and  is  not  to  be  parallelled  in  anv  fo- 
reign Seats  of  Literature. 

The  Governors  here  try  in  the  firft  Place,  if  the  OlTender  is  capable  of  being  reclaimed  by  Advice  ; 
and  if  this  has  no  Effedt,  they  proceed  to  punifli  him  by  requiring  extraordinary  Exercifes,  withdrawing 
his  Commons,  or  impofing  a  Fine  upon  him :  And  if  thefe  will  not  reform  him,  he  is  rufticated  (fent 
home  to  his  Friends)  till  it  may  be  fuppofed  he  has  refle(51;cd  on  the  Deformity  of  his  Conduft,  and  the 
fatal  Confequences  attending  it :  and  if  this  does  not  prevail,  he  is  finally  expelled  the  Univerfity  :  But 
it  muft  be  acknowledged,  it  is  fcarce  poflible  to  exercife  this  Difcipline  equally  on  all.  There  are  Gen- 
tlemen of  Quality  and  Fortune  that  think  themfelves  privileged  to  play  the  Fool  in  thefe  Seats  of  Learn- 
ing, and  to  be  as  irregular  as  they  pleafe.  They  neither  rife  to  Chapel,  or  perform  Exercifes;  but  arc 
entirely  devoted  to  Pleafure,  whofe  Example  is  of  mifchievous  Confequence  to  their  Inferiors,  as  well 
as  Equals,  who  fometimes  endeavour  to  imitate  them  in  every  fafhionable  Failing:  However,  it  is  very 
certain  the  Youth  are  generally  improved  both  in  Learning  and  good  Manners  by  their  Rcfidence  in  the 
Univerfity.  Thofe  that  are  guilty  of  any  Excefles  are  ufually  Freflinien  and  Under-graduates  ;  and  if 
ever  thefe  become  Candidates  for  a  Degree,  they  find  it  neceflary  to  alter  their  Conduit:  They  muft 
learn  to  behave  with  Decency  at  leaft,  and  apply  themfelves  diligently  to  their  Studies,  or  they  are 
pretty  fure  to  be  flopped,  when  they  come  for  a  Degree.  A  notorious  Defedt  either  in  Learning  or  Mo- 
rals is  fatal  to  them. 

The  Governors  and  Tutors  are  Men  generally  eminent  for  their  Learning  and  Prudence,  and  polite 
Behaviour ;  and  their  Example  feems  to  influence  both  the  Univerfity  and  Town.  The  People  of  the 
Place  are  more  civilized  than  the  Inhabitants  of  any  other  Town  in  Great-Britairt.  Strangers  admire 
their  Hofpitality.  There  is  a  Foible  however  that  fome  of  them  are  fubjeft  to,  and  that  is  a  pardonable 
one,  viz.  a  partial  Fondnefs  for  the  Place  of  their  Education :  They  will  fcare  admit  there  can  be  any 
Defe£ls  in  the  Situation  or  Buildings  of  Oxford,  They  look  upon  the  City  as  a  perfe£b  Paradife,  and 
feem  offended,  that  all  Men  cannot  think  as  they  do:  And  it  muft  be  admitted,  that  Oxford  is  a  very 
defirable  Place  ;  their  Streets  are  fpacious  ;  their  public  Buildings  magnificent ;  and  their  Situation  in  one 
of  the  moft  fruitful  Countries  of  England :  But  will  Philofophers  be  proud  of  thefe  Advantages.  Do 
they  condemn  the  Vanity  of  Drefs,  and  prohibit  young  Students  wearing  Gold  or  Silver,  and  whatever 
has  the  Appearance  of  Finery  in  their  Habits  ;  and  are  they  at  the  fame  time  proud  of  fine  Structures, 
and  lay  out  Money  in  elegant,  but  fuperfluous.  Buildings,  which  might  be  more  ufcfully  employed  in 
the  Encouragement  of  Learning,  and  the  Support  of  poor  Scholars:  The  Reputation  of  abounding  in 
virtuous  and  learned  Men,  and  the  fupporting  and  encouraging  them  in  their  Studies,  will  contribute 
more  to  the  Honour  of  the  Univerfity,  and  perpetuate  their  Fame  more  than  the  meft  magnificent  Fa- 
bricks.     [This  is  the  Opinion  of  Mr.  Salmon.] 

The  Difcipline  of  the  Univerfity,  as  has  been  obferved  already,  is  in  a  great  Meafure  committed  to 
the  Proftors,  who  are  impowered  to  punifli  Scholars  for  ordinary  Irregularities  ;  and  where  they  prove 
immoral  or  refraftory,  their  Names  are  entered  in  a  black  Book,  as  it  is  called,  whereby  they  are  ren- 
dered incapable  of  their  Degrees,  unlefs  their  future  Behaviour  recommends  them  to  the  Favour  of  the 
Univerfity.  There  is  a  Book  alfo  kept  in  every  College  of  the  like  Nature,  where  Scholars  are  marked, 
who  have  been  notorious  for  keeping  ill  Hours,  abfenting  from  Chapel,  Idlene's,  Immoralitv,  <^'c. 
And  they  may  be  flopped  of  their  Degree  by  the  Governors  of  the  refpective  Colleges,  and  rufticated  or 
expelled,  which,  if  they  be,  no  other  Houfe  can  entertain  them  ;  and  though  fuch  irregular  Gentlemen 
fometimes  remove  to  the  other  Univerfity,  they  will  not  be  eafily  received  there,  if  they  have  been  for- 
mally expelled  this  :  Nor  does  it  lie  in  the  Power  only  of  every  particular  College,  and  the  Proc- 
tors, to  flop  a  Lad  of  his  Degree,  but  every  Member  of  the  Convocation  may  deny  any  Candidate  for  a 
Degree  his  Grace  twice,  without  giving  any  Reafon  for  it. 

[  c  j  And 


xxiv  The     INTRODUCTION. 

And  here  it  may  be  proper  to  obferve  the  Manner  of  calling  and  holding  their  Convocations  in  this 
Univerfity,  and  the  Bufincfs  tranfaiSled  there. 

The  Beadle  having  given  Notice  of  a  Convocation  :  All  Doifon,  Regent  and  Non-Regent 
Mn/iers,  are  obliged  to  refort  to  the  Convocation- Houfe  at  the  Time  appointed  in  their  proper  Habits; 
where  having  taken  the  Places  affigned  them,  the  f^iee-Chanccllor  enters,  preceded  by  the  Beadles,  and 
having  feated  himfelf  declares  the  Caufe  of  their  Meeting. 

Here  nothing  is  decreed  or  granted  without  the  Confent  of  the  Vice-chancellor,  or  loth  the  Proliors, 
and  a  Majority  of  the  Regent  and  Non-regent  Mafters :  But  Eledtions  are  all  made  by  the  major  Part  of 
all  the  Suffragans,  either  by  a  private  Scrutiny  in  Writing,  or  publickly  by  dividing  in  the  Houfe,  or 
othcrvifife  by  a  publick  Scrutiny  in  Writing. 

The  Bufinefs  of  this  Houfe  is  to  make,  abrogate,  interpret,  and  moderate  all  Lav/s  and  Statutes  of 
the  Univerfity,  to  grant  Difpenfations  and  Prefentations  to  Benefices,  to  examine  and  pafs  Accounts, 
demife  Lands,  vifrite  Letters  to  great  Perfons,  to  degrade  Criminals,  i2fc.  But  this  Houfe  can  neither 
abrogate  or  interpret  Statules  made  or  confirmed  by  Royal  Authority  without  fpecial  Licenfe  from  the 
Crown. 

Before  a  new  Law  is  made,  or  a  Statute  altered  or  explained,  the  Vice-chancellor  lays  it  before  the 
Heads  of  Houfes  at  their  hehdomedal  Meeting  ;  and  as  foon  as  they  have  prepared  and  fettled  the  Draught, 
the  ProiStors  report  it  to  the  Congregation  in  the  Terms  agreed  on  by  the  Heads  of  Houfes,  and  in  the 
following  Convocation  it  is  publickly  read  by  the  Regifter,  and  put  to  the  Vote,  whether  it  (hall  pafs 
or  not. 

The  Convocation  may  difpenfe  with  many  Things ;  as,  where  Students,  who  have  formerly  been  of 
the  Univerfity,  have  applied  themfelves  to  the  Study  of  Divinity  fifteen  or  fixteen  Years  from  the  Time 
of  their  Regency,  they  may  take  their  further  Degrees  by  Accumulation,  after  doing  exercife  for  them. 
The  Convocation  alfo  may  give  Degrees  to  Biihops  and  Noblemen  (honoris  gratia)  without  Performance 
of  Exercife  for  them. 

All  Ele£tions  (except  for  Members  of  Parliament)  are  made  by  private  Scrutiny  in  Writing,  wherein 
the  Vice-chancellor  is  Prefident,  and  the  two  Prodlors  Scrutators  :  But  before  they  proceed  to  Election 
for  any  Ledturer,  Officer,  or  Servant,  the  Candidate  fwears,  that  he  has  neither  dire£lly  or  indiredlly  by 
himfelf  or  others,  made  a  Contradl  with  any  one,  or  given,  or  promifed  to  give,  any  I  hing  for  the 
fame;  and  the  Proftors  are  fworn  to  make  a  faithful  Scrutiny ;  and  that  they  will  not  induce  any  one  to 
give  a  Vote  contrary  to  his  Inclination,  but  pronounce  the  Perfon  elefted,  who  hath  the  Majority  :  The 
Eleflors  alfo  are  fworn,  that  they  will  vote  but  once  in  this  Scrutiny,  that  they  will  name  none  but 
thofe  they  know  or  believe  duly  qualified  for  the  Office,  Benefice,  l!fc.  and  that  without  any  Reward  or 
Expcftation  thereof.  The  Poll  being  caft  up  by  the  Proftors,  it  is  burnt;  after  which  the  Eleftion  is  pro- 
nounced ;  if  two  have  an  equal  Number,  the  Senior  is  preferred,  if  they  are  Graduates  ;  and  if  not, 
the  Vice-chancellor  determines  the  Election. 

For  the  fpeedier  Difpatch  of  Bufinefs,  the  Convocation  and  Congregation  often  chufe  Delegates,  who 
are  a  feleft  Number  of  Men,  who  have  fometimes  a  Power  of  ailing  without  making  Report  to  the 
Houfes,  and  fometimes  are  obliged  to  make  a  Report  for  their  Approbation :  Thefe  Delegates  confifting 
of  Doctors,  Regent  and  Non-regent  Mafters,  fwear  to  a£t  according  to  the  Statutes. 

All  Speeches  are  made  in  Latin  in  the  Congregation  and  Convocation,  unlefs  the  Vice-chancellor  dif- 
penfes  with  their  being  fpoken  in  Englijh,  and  all  opprobrious  and  indecent  Language  is  prohibited  on 
Pain  of  Exclufion. 

For  the  better  Government  of  the  Univerfity,  the  Vice-chancellor,  Proilors  and  Heads  of  all  the 
Colleges  and  Halls,  alTemble  every  Monday  in  the  Year,  except  Holidays,  at  one  in  the  Afternoon,  and 
here  they  confider  the  State  of  the  Univerfity,  what  Invafions  have  been  made  on  their  Rights  and  Pri- 
vileges, and  how  to  remedy  their  Grievances.  There  is  a  large  elegant  Room  in  the  Clarendon  Print- 
ing-Houfe,  where  the  Heads  afl'embleon  thefe  Occafions. 

Having  already  treated  of  the  feveral  Degrees  taken  in  the  Univerfity,  and  the  Qualifications  required 
by  thofe  who  are  Candidates  for  them,  it  may  be  proper  to  fay  fomething  of  the  Condition  of  Under- 
graduates, confifting  of  Noblemen,  Gentlemen- Commoners,  Commoners,  Scholars  of  the  Founda- 
tion, Exhibitioners,  Battlers  and  Servitors. 

Of  thefe  the  Noblemen  only  are  permitted  to  wear  Gold  and  Silver  Lace,  or  Net-work  in  their  Ha- 
bits. Thefe  Common  with  the  Fellows,  and  have  private  Tutors  ufually,  but  do  not  feem  to  be  fub- 
j  etJl  to  the  Rules  of  the  Univerfity  any  further  than  they  pleafe. 

The 


The     I  N  T   R  O   D   U  C   T    I   O   N.  xxv 

The  Genthmen  Commoners  live  at  their  ownExpence,  and  either  eat  with  the  Fellows,  or  have  a  Ta- 
ble to  themfelves  (as  in  ^een's)  and  have  every  one  his  Battler  (as  a  Fellow  has)  who  is  entitled  to  fome 
fmall  Perqufities. 

The  Commoners  I  prefume  are  fo  called  from  their  commoning  together,  and  having  a  certain  Portion  of 
Meat  and  Drink  provided  for  them,  denominated  Commons.  Of  thefe  fevernl  are  Scholars  of  the 
Foundation,  and  obliged  to  wait  in  the  Hall  on  the  Fellows,  by  Turns. 

The  Battlers  are  entitled  to  no  Commons,  butpurchafe  their  Meat  and  Drink  of  the  Cook  and  But- 
ler, unlefs  they  ferve  a  Fellow  or  Gentleman  Commoner,  and  then  they  have  the  Dilhes,  which  come 
from  their  Tables,  with  fome  other  fmall  Perquifites. 

Of  thefe  Battlers,  fome  are  Servitors,  who  attend  the  Batchelors  and  Commoners  in  the  Hall,  for 
which  they  have  an  Allowance. 

The  Education  of  all  thefe  is  the  fame,  but  they  pay  for  their  Tuition  and  other  Articles  diiFerently; 
if  a  Commoner  pays  iL  xos.  a  Quarter  for  Tuition,  a  Gentleman  Commoner  pays  double,  and  a 
Battler  pays  lefs  than  a  Commoner  ;  and  the  different  Refpeit  given  to  each  of  thefe  in  the  Dniverfity, 
according  to  the  Clafs  they  enter,  is  very  remarkable,  though  it  is  not  material,  when  they  go  out  into 
the  World,  of  what  Clafs  they  were.  There  have  been  Inftances  of  Battlers  and  Servitors  that  have 
arrived  at  eminent  Pofls  in  the  Ecclefiaftical  and  Civil  Government :  Neither  is  it  any  Difadvantage  to 
the  taking  a  Degree.  A  Battler,  when  he  is  four  Years  ftanding,  becomes  a  Candidate  for  a  Batche- 
lor's  Degree,  as  well  as  a  Commoner,  and  perhaps  there  is  no  Place  where  pure  Merit  is  more  con- 
fidered,  and  countenanced  than  in  this  Univerfity,  when  Students  become  Candidates  for  Degrees. 

One  Advantage  all  of  them  have  in  an  Academical  Education,  which  is  not  to  be  met  with  elfe- 
where,  is  the  coming  up  in  the  Schools,  and  difputing  publickly.  There  are  fome  Lads,  who  are  not 
to  be  moved  by  other  Arguments,  to  apply  themfelves  to  Study,  who  will  take  tnie  Pains  to  qualify 
themfelves  for  thefe  Encounters,  left  they  ftiould  be  recorded  Blockheads,  hijfed  and  defpifed  in  all  Com- 
panies. Gentlemen,  who  are  deaf  to  the  Advice  of  their  Superiors  on  other  Occafions,  will  beg  their 
Afliftance,  when  they  are  to  come  upon  this  Stage,  and  ufe  uncommon  Diligence  to  acquit  themfelves 
with  Applaufe  in  the  Eyes  of  the  Univerfity;  and  here  Gentlemen  learn  to  fpeak  in  Publick  without 
Hefitation  or  Diforder,  when  they  meet  with  Oppofition,  which  are  Advantages  that  cannot  be  had  in 
private  Education. 

It  having  been  intimated  by  fome  Gentlemen,  that  a  Degree  at  Oxford  m-^y  at  prefent  be  obtained  by 
performing  a  very  flight  Exercife  :  A  Member  of  that  Univerfity  obferves,  that  there  is  as  much  Exer- 
cife  performed  every  Year,  and  that  as  ftriiUy  too,  as  ever  was  in  former  Times,  and  perhaps  m.orc 
than  in  any  other  Univerfity  in  the  World.  All  the  feveral  Exercifes  that  the  Statutes  of  the  Univer- 
fity require,  except  the  Terra  Filius's,  and  Mufick,  and  a  few  other  Speeches  at  the  Adl,  are  as  rightly, 
and  duly,  and  laudably  performed  in  thefe  modern,  as  ever  they  were  in  antient  Times,  except  the 
Times  of  courfing  as  they  called  them,  which  were,  in  plain  Englijh,  Times  of  fighting,  very  unbecom- 
ing Scholars ;  for  after  they  had  been  fharply  difputing  College  againft  College  in  the  Schools,  they  fell 
to  fighting  it  out  in  the  Streets. 

It  is  well  known,  that  befides  private  Exercifes  of  one  Sort  or  other  every  Day  in  all  Colleges  and  Halls, 
there  are  publick  Exercifes,  fuch  as  Difputations,  Lefiures,  Declamations  and  Examinations  performed 
in  the  publick  Schools  almofl:  every  Day  in  Term  Time,  which  every  individual  Scholar  is  obliged  by 
the  Statutes  of  the  Univerfity  to  perform  before  he  can  be  promoted  to  any  Degree  in  the  Univerfity. 
At  fome  of  which  Exercifes  (efpecially  at  the  more  folemn  Times  for  Exercife,  as  Lent  and  A6t  Time) 
the  Vice-chancellor  himfelf  is  often  prefent :  Nay,  fome  of  thofe  Exercifes  cannot  be  performed,  unlefs 
he  or  the  Pro-vice-chancellor  be  there  :  And  at  fome  other  Exercifes,  one  of  the  ProiStors  is  always  pre- 
fent; and  thofe  Exercifes  cannot  be  performed,  and  ^■a.k,  pro  forma,  unlefs  it  be  fo,  Befides  this,  there 
is  no  publick  Scholaftick  Exercife  at  any  Time  performed,  but  either  one  of  the  Magiftrates  of  the  Uni- 
verfity is  aftually  prefent  at  the  Performance  of  it,  or  at  leaft:  the  Performers  run  the  Rilquc  of  having 
one  of  the  Magiftrates  prefent  at  the  Performance,  and  confequently  take  all  polTible  Care  before-hand 
in  providing  for  the  due  Performance  of  their  refpecSlive  Exercifes,  as  not  knowing,  but  that  fome  Ma- 
gifrrate  may  be  prefent  at  the  Performance  of  them.  And  this  fome  Scholars  do  to  gain  Applaufe,  others 
to  avoid  the  Difgrace  of  being  plucked,  as  they  call  it,  that  is  commanded  to  defift  from  the  Perfor- 
mance of  their  Exercife  for  that  Time,  and  fo  to  provide  themfelves  better  againft  fome  other  lime. 
Which  Thing  of  being  plucked  is  what  feldom  happens,  fcarce  once  in  a  Year ;  but  when  it  does  hap- 
pen, it  is  fcarce  ever  wiped  off  as  long  as  a  Man  lives. 

I  fhall  conclude  this  Hiftory  of  the  Univerfity  of  Oxford  with  Doftor  Newton  s  Account  of  the  Ex- 
pences  a  Scholar  is  at  in  the  Houfe,  of  which  he  is  a  Member. 

[  c  2  J  ,A  particular 


XXVI 


The    INTRODUCTION. 


A  particular  Account  of  a  Commoner'^  Expences  in  Hart-Hall,  for  Michaelmas  garter,  1723. 

/.     s.     d. 

Chamber-Rent  ■  ■  ■  100 

(a)  Tuition  and  Officers  Stipends  ■  ■  250 

\b)  Univerfity  Dues  ■  1         -  013 

{c^  Charter  ■     .  ■  -i  006 

Bedmaker's  Wages  ■  ■  ■  066 

Domus  ,  ■  ■  — ^~  003 

(d)  Decrements  »  .  _—  042 

Servitor  ■  — — —  ■  026 

Commons  and  Battels,  Cook  and  Butler's  Salaries,  C^j  Included  3  16  ir 


7  »7 


A  View  of  each  Week's  Expence,  for  Commons  and  Battels  in  the  faid  Quarter,  exclufive  of  the  Cook 

and  Butler's  Salaries. 

/.     s.     d. 

June      28.             044! 

July         5.         .^ O     4     5   I 

12.                                                                                       -■                                                        ^__—                                                                               !■  0461 

19.             o     4     5   f 

26.                 I                 048 

Augujl     2. 045! 

9-                 059 

JO.            •                           — —  053 

23.                i            .                           o     4  II 

30.            —  o    4  10  I- 

Septem.    6.          1                              .^— —                 — —  o     5     i   f 

13.                   .                   i  O      4    II    I 

20.  ■                              — ■                        — —  049* 

27.  — —— -.                                        ■                                     ■  O      4    II     f 


3     7     7 


/.    s,    d. 


The  Doftor  obferves,  that  this  was  a  Quarter,  in  which  were  four-  -» 
teen  Weeks,  and  of  which  the  Commoner  was  not  abfent  from  the  / 
Hall  one  Day,  and  that  the   pure  Commons  and  Battels  of  the  (  '     '      7 

whole  Quarter  amount  to  no  more  than  —  -^ 

Add  to  this,  the  Cook  and  Butler's  Salaries  for  14  Weeks.         —         094 
Decrements  ■  — —  042 


(a)  To  the  Tutor,  1/.  10  s.    To  the  Publick  Leiturer,  5J.   To  the  Principal,  Chaplain,  Catechift  and  Moderator, 
zs.  6  it.  each. 

(b)  To  the  Readers  of  tlie  Un-endoived  tenures,  6  d.     To  the  Bedell  of  Arts,  2  d.  called  Culet,  i.  e.  Colleila.     To  the 
Keeper  of  the  Galleries  at  St.  Marfs,   6  d.     To  the  Clerk  of  St.  Mary's,  1  d. 

(c)  Paid  to  the  Univerfity  at  Michaelmas  and  Lady-Day,  only  for  the  Defence  of  their  Privileges. 

(d)  Each  Scholar's  Proportion  for  Fuel,  Candles,  Salt,  and  other  common  Neceflaries,  originally  fo  called,  as  fo  much 
did  on  thefe  Acco\ints  decrefcere,  or  was  dil'counted  from  a  Scholar's  Endowment. 

(e)  Four-pence  a  Week  to  each  of  thoft  Servants,  from  every  Commoner  of  the  Society,  in  liea  of  all  Fees  and  Perqni- 
fites  before  received  by  them. 

Allowance 


The     INTRODUCTION. 


xxvu 


Allowance  to  Domus  - 

Allowance  to  the  Servitor  for  waiting 


A     s.     d. 
Brought  over         411 

003 

026 


The  whole  Expence  of  Eating  and  Drinking,  and  of  the  Accommo-  1 
dations  and  Attendance  and  Service  relating  thereto,  comes  but  to    j  ^ 


3  10 


Which   is   5x.   x\d.\.  /^r  Week,    or   \od.\.. 
pence  over) 


each  Day,    (only   three  Half- 


From  hence  it  appears,  that  the  ordinary  Expences  of  a  College  Life,  including  Chamber-Rent, 
Tuition  and  Officer's  Stipends,  does  not  amount  to  eight  Pounds  a  Quarter,  or  thirty-two  Pounds  per 
Annum ;  and  if  it  fhould  be  admitted,  that  the  Expences  are  fomething  more  in  other  Colleges,  and  we 
add  forty  Shillings  a  Quarter,  or  eight  Pounds  per  Annum  to  the  Account ;  then  the  whole  Expences 
will  amount  to  but  forty  Pounds  per  Annum  ;  and  yet  there  is  fcarce  a  Commoner  in  the  Univerfity  that 
fpends  lefs  than  fixty  Pounds  per  Annum,  and  many  of  them  upwards  of  fourfcore  by  an  extraordinary 
way  of  Living  :  and  exclufive  of  the  Expences  at  his  Entrance  into  the  Univerfity. 


For  the  Furniture  of  a  Room 

—  A  Gown,  Surplice  and  Cap 

—  Cautionary  Money  — 


Let  us  now  take  a  Survey  of  the  Univerfity  of  Cambridge. 

Should  I  adopt  the  Opinion  of  fome  Antiquarians,  it  would  lead  me  to  aflert  that  Cambridge  is  the 
moft  ancient  Academical  Foundation  in  Europe ;  the  Univerfity  of  Oxford  only  excepted.  For,  from 
this  Seat  of  Learning  were  fent  certain  Difciples  of  Venerable  Bede  to  be  the  firft  Profeflbrs  in  the  Uni- 
verfity of  Paris  \  and  Bede  (in  the  Year  of  Chrift  689)  by  confent  of  the  Clergy  and  Prelates  of  the 
Kingdom,  was,  for  his  many  learned  Difputations  againft  the  Heathens,  raifed  to  the  Chair  of  the  El- 
ders, with  the  Mantle  of  Honour,  and  Cap  of  Dignity,  after  the  Manner  of  the  Athenians,  in  the 
Univerfity  of  Cambridge. 

If  the  Letter,  which  goes  under  the  Name  of  Alcuin  to  the  Scholars  of  Cambridge,  be  genuine, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  being  in  a  flourifhing  Condition  in  his  Time,  himfelf  having  commenced 
Do(Sor  in  this  Univerfity  under  Venerable  Bede  in  the  Year  of  Chrift  692.  But  let  the  Fate  of  that 
Letter,  and  the  State  of  this  Univerfity  in  the  Reign  of  King  Alfred,  the  Solo?non  of  the  Saxon  Line  in 
Britain,  be  what  they  will,  I  can,  with  great  Certainty,  affirm,  that  the  Noi'man  Conqueror  com- 
mitted the  Education  of  Henry  Beauclerk,  his  youngeft  Son,  and  afterwards  King  of  England,  to  the 
Care  of  the  Governors  of  this  learned  Body. 

But  it  cannot  be  prefumed  that  the  Univerfity,  in  thofe  early  Ages,  could  be  under  the  fame  Regula- 
tion, or  fo  endowed,   and  fettled  as  now  we  fee  it. 

It  might,  and  probably  was  here,  as  at  Oxford,  the  Cuftom  to  ere£t  public  Schools  for  private  Emo- 
lument :  the  Scholars  at  firft  boarded  in  private  Houfcs,  as  is  ftill  the  Cuftom  at  Leyden,  is'c.  in  Hol- 
land:  Some  Encouragers  of  Learning  did  in  length  of  Time,  and  for  the  better  Improvement  of  Youth 
built  Hojlels  or  Inns  for  the  Students  to  live  in  Society,  at  their  own  Charges,  under  certain  Rules  or 
Regulations,  as  now  pradlifed  at  the  Inns  of  Court  in  London ;  and  which  in  courfe  of  Time  obtained 
the  Name  of  Halls  ;  and  at  length  the  Monks  and  Friars  taking  it  in  their  Heads  to  plant  fome  of  their 
young  Branches  in  this  learned  Soil,  they  introduced  Foundations  for  the  full  Maintenance  of  the  Stu- 
dents and  Fellows  in  their  Halls,  which  proved  fo  great  an  Encouragement  to  Learning,  that  we  find 
their  Example  imitated,  foon  after,  by  all  the  other  Halls. 

Thcfe  Endowments  were  attended  with  another  alteration  in  the  Circumftances  of  the  Houfes  for  the 
Reception  of  Students :  for,  many  of  the  Halls,  from  the  Time  of  their  Endowment  took  the  Names  of 
Colleges. 

The 


xxvlli  The    INTRODUCTION. 

The  diligent  Searchers  into  Antiquity  have  given  the  following  Lift  of  the  Inns  and  Ho/Iels  at  Cam- 
bridge,  in  which  the  Students  originally  lived  and  ftudied  at  their  own  Charges,  and  under  the  Govern- 
ment of  a  Prefident. 

I   Augujline  Ho/} el.  jS  St.  Katharine's  Hofpital 

1  Barnard  &  Hojiel,  ig  Krwptoiis  Place. 

3  Bolton  s  Place.  20  St.  Margaret's  Hofiel. 

4  Boderi's  HoJlel  ii  St.  Mary's  Hojiel. 

5  St.  BotolphS  Hojiel.  22  St.  Michael's  Hojiel. 

6  St.  Clement's  Hoflel.  23  Ovin's  Inn. 

7  Coujin's  Place.  24  St.  PauFs  Inn. 

8  St.Croffe's  Ho/lel.  25   Phi/wick's  Hoftel. 

9  St.  Edward's  Hojiel.  26  Pud's  Hoftel. 

10  Ely  Convent  for    Monks   belonging  to  Ely-     27  St.  Tl}omas's  Hoftel, 
Mmaftery.  28  Tiled  Hoftel. 

1 1  Gerrard's  Hojiel.  29  Trinity  Hoftel. 

1 2  God's  Houfe.  j  30  Univerft'y  Hoftel. 

1 3  Gs(/'s //oa/i-.  C  Three  feveral  Foundations.  31  A  Dominican  Convent. 

14  God's  Houfe.  y  32  ^  Francifcan  or  Minorite  Convent. 

15  St.  Gregory's  Ho/lel.  33  An  Auguftine- Friars  Convent. 

16  y^yi-'J  and  5/.  John's  Hojiel.  34  y^  Carmelite  Convent. 

17  St.  John's  Hojiel.  35  A  Houfe  of  White  Canons. 

I  don't  infift  upon  the  tradition  of  Pythagoras's  Houfe,  (where,  it  has  been  faid,  that  antient  Philo- 
fopher  lived  and  read  Ledures  to  the  Youth  of  this  Univerfity)  fituated  on  the  North  Weft  Side  of  St. 
John's  College,  now  a  Farm  to  Merton  College,  Oxon. 

The  Colleges  and  Halls,  as  now  eftablifhed,  differ  only  in  Name.  They  entertain  three  forts  of 
Scholars :  Ift,  Great  Penjtoners  or  Fellow  Commoners,  who  are  Gentlemen  of  ^ality  or  of  large  For- 
tunes :  Ildly,  LefTer  Penjtoners  or  Commoners,  who  are  dieted  as  Scholars,  but  both  live  at  their  own 
Expences  :  Illdly,  Sizars  or  Servitors,  who  are  fuch  Scholars,  as  are  maintained  on  the  Revenues  of 
the  Foundations,  Exhibitions,  i^c. 

But  this  Diftindiion  is  no  Impediment  or  Bar  to  the  Advancement  of  them  to  the  Academical  Degrees 
conferred  upon  the  Students  of  this  Univerfity. 

The  Degrees  conferred  by  this  Univerfity  are  Batchelor  and  AJafter  of  Arts,  Batchelor  and  DoSlor  in 
Divinity,  Phyftc,  and  Law :  to  which  all  Students,  according  to  their  ftanding  and  proficiency  in  Learn- 
ing, are  intitled,  viz.  To  the  Degree  of  a  Batchelor  of  Arts  at  the  end  of  four  Years  from  Admiflion: 
To  the  Degree  of  a  Mafter  of  Arts,  an  the  end  of  three  Years  more :  To  the  Degree  of  a  Batchelor 
of  Divinity,  feven  Years  after  that :  And  to  the  Degree  of  DoSior  in  Divinity  not  till  feven  Years  more 
fhall  expire ;  which  make  twenty-one  Years  from  the  Student's  firft  admiflion  upon  the  Books  of  this 
Univerfity. 

The  Degrees  in  Laiv  and  Phyftc  are  fooner  conferred.  In  either  of  thefe  the  Student  may  commence 
Batchelor  at  the  end  of  five  Years  ;  and  DoSior  at  the  end  of  five  Years  more. 

The  Times  for  conferring  Degrees  are  called  the  Commencement ;  and  for  Bachelors  oi  Arts,  it  begins  on 
Afh-wednefday.,  and  continues  the  whole  Time  of  Lent:  for  Majters  of  Arts  and  DoEtors  of  all  Facul- 
ties, on  the  firft  Tuefday  in  July. 

The  Graduates  are  diftinguifhed  by  their  Drejfes ;  and  are  intitled  to  certain  Privileges,  (S'f . 
It  is  moft  probable  that  the  Habits  ufed  in  this  Seat  of  Learning  have  undergone  as  many  Alterations 
and  Changes,  as  we  have  feen  Forms  of  the  Houfesor  Habitations;  for,  though  the  prefent  Gown  of  the 
Undergraduate  refembles  the  Garb  of  a  Novice  of  the  Friars  Preachers :  That  of  a  Mafter  of  Arts,  the  Habit 
of  a  Canon  Regular  of  the  Order  of  St.  Augujline  :  and  that  of  a  Do^or  in  Divinity  nearly  approaching 
the  Drefs  of  a  BenediSiine  Monk ;  and  though  the  Cap  is  exatftly  borrowed  from  the  faid  Canons ;  and 
tHe  Hood  is  a  near  Reprefentation  of  the  large  Couls  ftill  worn  by  fome  of  the  Monaftic  Orders,  more 
for  Ornament  than  Ufe ;  yet  it  cannot  be  imagined  that  a  Place  of  fuch  Antiquity  and  Fame  for  its  Stu- 
dies could  be  without  Academical  Habits  before  thefe  Monaftic  Inventions  had  any  Exiftence  in  the  Ifland 
of  Britain :  neither  can  the  retaining  of  the  prefent  Forms  be  fubjeft  to  Cenfure,  let  their  Origin  be 
what  they  will ;  becaufe  fome  Habits  are  neceflary  to  convey  an  immediate  Idea  of  a  Students  ftanding 

and 


The    INTRODUCTION.  xxix 

and  Degree  in  the  Univerfity,  at  fight ;  and  as  thefe,  delivered  down  from  former  Times,  contain  nothing 
indecent  nor  irreligious,  they  cannot  be  confidered  any  otherwife  than  as  Badges  of  Honour  and  Orna- 
ment, and  not  as  Relicksof  Popifli  Superftition. 

The  Government  of  this  Univerfity  is  in  a  Chanctllor,  High  Siewtird,  Vice-Chancellor,  two  ProSiors, 
and  feveral  other  inferior  Officers,  who  are  all  chofen  and  empowered  much  in  the  fame  Manner  as  thofe 
already  mentioned  in  the  Hiftory  of  the  Univerfity  of  Oxford. 

This  Univerfity  is  not  only  incorporated ;  but  it  fends  two  Reprefcntatives  to  Parliament. 
'Here  are  only  three  Terms  kept,  viz. 

Lent  Term,  which  always  begins  on  the  1 3th  of  January,  except  it  falls  on  a  Sunday ;  then  on  the  14th. 

Eafter  Term,  which  begins  Wednefday  fennight  after  EafUr,  and  ends  on  Friday  after  the  Com- 
mencement. 

Oiiober  Term,  which  begins  on  loth  of  OEioher,  divides  November  13th,  and  ends  December  i6th. 

The  Colleges,  Houfes  and  Halls  incorporated  by  the  Name  and  Stile  of  the  Univerfity  of  Cambridge  at 
this  Time  are 

1 .  Peter  Houfe,  which  takes  its  Name  from  being  built  on  the  Burial  Place  belonging  to  St.  Peter's 
Church,  now  St.  Mary's.  This  College  was  founded  by  Hugh  de  BaljlMin  about  the^Year  1257  ^^ 
1280,  for  fourteen  Fellows,  two  Students  in  Divinity,  and  eight  poor  Fellows.  He  alfo  gave  them 
300  Marks  at  his  Death  to  make  Additions  to  the  College,   and  a  large  Colleftion  of  Manufcripts. 

The  Lands,  Revenues,  fa'c  of  this  College  have  been  very  much  encreafed  by  a  numerous  Lift  of 
Benefactors  from  Time  to  Time;  which  has  put  it  into  a  moft  flourifhing  Condition.  For  there  are 
now  a  Matter,  fourteen  Foundation  Fellows,  and  forty-three  Scholars. 

From  this  College  we  can  enumerate,  two  Archbifhops  of  Canterbury,  one  Archbifhop  of  Armagh  in 
Ireland,  one  Cardinal,  twelve  Bijhops  in  England  and  Wales,  and  one  Irijh  Bifliop. 

Its  State  of  Learning  from  the  very  Commencement  of  the  Reformation  is  very  confpicuous  in  the 
Works  of  George  Joye,  a  Proteflant  Fellow  of  this  College  in  1547,  who  tranflated  Part  of  the 
Old  Bible  ;  ---Of  Archbifhop  Whitgift,  who  diftinguifhed  himfelf  by  his  learned  Difcourfes  againft  the 
Church  of  Rome  .----Of  Andrew  Perne,  Mafter  ;  one  of  the  Tranflators  of  Bifhop  Parker's  Bible  :--- 
DoRoT  John  Richard/on,  Mafter,  and  B o&.or  An dreiu  Bing,    two  of  the  Tranflators  of  King  Ji/ww  the 

firf's  Bible  : John  Holbroke,  Mafter  ;    the  great  Mathematician  : Chriflopher  Cartwright,    a 

noted  Linguift  and  Author  of  Annotations  on  Genefts  and  Exodus : Bifhop  Cofyns  Author  of  the  Scho- 

laflical  Hiflory  of  the  Canon  of  Scripture : Bifhop  Walton  Author  of  the  Polyglott  Bible  :---Do(9:or 

William  Sherlock,   Author  of  many  Difcourfes  Ts.'^iiwAPapiJls,  &c ^\r  Satnuel  Garth,  Knt.   M.  D. 

Phyfician  and  Poet,  Author  of  the  Difpenfary. 

2.  Clare  Hall ;  which  was  founded  in  the  Year  1326,  by  Richard  Baden,  then  Chancellor  of  the 
Univerfity,  by  the  Nameof  Univerfity  Hall,  without  any  Foundation  Revenues.  But  this  being  deftroyed 
by  Fire  about  16  Years  after,  he  prevailed  with  Lady  Elizabeth  Burgo,  alias  Burk,  Countefs  of  Clare  in 
Suffolk,  to  join  with  him  in  rebuilding  and  endowing  the  fame.  And  Ihe  accordingly  rebuilt  and  endowed 
it  by  the  Name  of  Clare  Hall,  for  the  Maintenance  of  one  Provoft,  ten  Fellows,  and  ten  Scholars :  and 
from  the  additional  Benefaftions  the  Revenues  now  maintain  a  Mafter,  ten  Senior  and  feventeen  Junior 
Fellows,  and  three  Bye-Fellows,  and  a  numerous  Train  of  Scholars  and  others  to  the  Amount  of  100, 
or  thereabout. 

This  Hall  has  given  to  the  Church  one  Archbifhop  of  Canterbury,  one  Archbifliop  of  York,  one  Lord 
High  Chancellor  ;   four  Bifhops  in  England,  and  one  IriJh  Bijhop. 

The  Learned  World  is  indebted  to  it  for  the  Education  of  Ralph  Cudworth,  Mafter  of  this  Hall,  and 
Author  of  the htelleSlual  Syjlem  .-  ---Of  RichardThompfon  the  Philofophcr  :  -  --  Of  Thomas  Philpot^  the 

cehhrzted  Antiquarian  : Of  AichhiHiop  Tillotfon,    admired  for  his  Preaching  and  learned  Sermons  : 

Of  Doftor  Thomas  Burnet,    Mafter   of    the  Charter -Houfe,    and    Author   of    the  Theory   of  the 

Earth,  &c. 

The  College  as  it  now  appears  is  a  great  Curiofity,  and  was  built  in  that  elegant  Manner,  Anno 
Domini  1638. 

3.  Pembroke  Hall ;  which  was  founded  by  Lady  Mary  de  Valentine  Countefs  of  Pembroke,  Anno  Domini 
1347,  was  endowed  under  a  Charter  from  King  f^wajv/ in.  for  fix  Fellows  and  two  Scholars,  leaving 
it  to  the  Difcretion  of  the  Mafter  and  Fellov/s  to  increafe  the  Number  in  Proportion  to  the  Revenues 
(he  ftiould  fettle. 

This  Foundation  was  foou  enlarged,  by  extending  its  Buildings  over  the  Site  of  Univerfity  Hftel,  &c. 
'  ■  Kinz 


XXX  The     I   N  T   R   O   D   U   C   T   I    O    N. 

King  Henry  VI.  became  its  magnificent  Benefactor,  which,  with  the  many  Privileges  and  Bencfacliana 
that  followed,  both  from  Popes,  Kings,  Queens,  and  Subje(£ls,  procured  it  the  Character,  which  was 
given  under  the  great  Seal  of  Enghnd  by  King  EdivardlV .  of  The  noble  and  renowned  and  moji precious 
Colkge,    ivh-ch  does  and  always  did Jhlne  wonderfully,  among  all  Places  in  the  Univerfity. 

In  this  College  were  educated  two  Archbifliops  of  Canterbury  ;  four  Archbifhops  of  York  \  two  Arch- 
bifliops  of  Tuam  in  h  eland  ;   twenty-four  Bilhops  in  England -anii  PVale:,    and  one  Irijh  Jiifliop. 

A^.  B.  From  this  Number  of  Bifhops,   this  College  was,  of  old,   called  Collegium  Epifcopale. 

But  what  has  made  it  more  renowned  is  the  Catalogue  of  Learned  Men  produced  from  its  Foundation. 

Here  we  find  IVilUam  de  Bottkjham,  the  elocjuent  Preacher  in  King  Richard  \l.  Reign  :  --  -  William 

Ly-ifiuood  hnthov  of   the  Provincial: JViUiam   Somcrfet,  M.  D.    Phyfician  to  Henry  VI, John 

Rogers,   who  tranflated  the  Bible,  and  was  the  firft  Proteftant  Martyr  under  Queen  Mary  I.  —  Bifhop 

Ridley  the  moft  learned  of  the  Martyrs  in  that  Reign,  and  one  of  the  Compilers  of  our  Liturgy  : 

DoiSlor  IFilliam  Turner  an  eminent  Phyfician,   Divine  and  Preacher.     He  was  Domefllc  Phyfician  to 
the  ProteiSlor  Duke  oi'Somerfet:   Wrote  divers Treatifes  againft  Popery;  was  Dean  of  Wells  ;  and  Author 

pf  the  firft  Englijh  Herbal,  Jnno  Domini  1568. John  Bradford  another  Martyr  : Bifhop  Chrijlo' 

pherfon,    eminent  for  his  Skill  in  the  Greek  Tongue  : Dodor  Fulk,   the  learned  Confuter  of  the 

Reims  Tejiament: Gabriel  Harvey,  an  elegant  Prelate  and  Orator: The  celebrated  Poet  Edmund 

Spencer: William  Roivlcy,   a  great  Wit  and   Theatrical  Poet: Biftiop  Sraxfw/f^^,  an  eminent 

Preacher  : Thomas  Stanley,    Author  of   the  Hijlory   of  Philofopljy  : Doftor   Thomas  Wharton, 

M.  D.   who  difcovered  the  Du£is  in  the  Glandule  Maxillares : Doftor  JViUiam  Holder,  who  firft  dif- 

covered  the  Method  to  teach  a  dumb  Man  to  fpeak,   and  an  eminent  Virtuofo  : Henry  Hawfon,  the 

Chronologcr  : Dodtor  George  Folbury,  Poet  Laureat,   and  a  famous  RJntorician,   celebrated  for  his 

Epigrams  and  Orations. 

4.  Bennet-Collcge  was  founded  by  the  joint  Endeavours  of  the  Gild  oi  Corpus  Chrifii  and  the  Gild  oi 
the  Bltfjiui  Virgin  Mary  by  the  Name  of  both"  their  Gilds,  in  the  Year  1344.  But  they  about  four 
Years  after  confented  to  change  its  Name  to  Benedi£f  or  Benet  College,  becaufe  it  was  fituated  near  St. 
Benet's  Church. 

Its  firft  Revenues  were  inconfiderable  ;  and  though  it  was  put  under  the  Protection  of  Henry  Plan- 
tagcnet  the  bra\'e  and  good  Duke  of  Lancajler,  the  IrK:ome  would  hardly  fupport  the  Mafter  avd  Fellows 
with  Neceflaries.  However  in  Procefs  of  Time  the  Benefaftions  enabled  this  Society  to  encreafe  the 
Number  of  Students  very  much.  So  that  at  prefent  here  are  12  Fellows  and  45  Scholarfhips  and 
Exhibitions. 

From  hence  have  proceeded  three  Archbifhops  of  Canterbury ;  two  Archbifhops  of  Tork  ;  two  Arch- 
bifliops in  Ireland  ;    eleven  Bifhops  in  Engbnd  and  Wales,  and  three  IriJh  Bifhops. 

Alfo  the  learned  Author  of  Antiquitates  Britannica  : Richard  Cavendifu  the  celebrated  Phyfician  and 

Mathematician  : Thomas  Markunt  the  Antiquarian  :  — John  Crump  the  great  Divine  : William 

Briggs,  M.  D.   the  Anatomift  and  Author  of  the  Anat.my  of  the  Eye  and  Theory  of  Vifion  : John  Pul- 

grave,    S.  T.  P.  the  Grammarian   and   Linguift  : Jobn   Spencer  Author  of  the  learned  Treatife  de 

Legibus  Hebreorum  : John  Thorp  the  Logician,  Author  of  the  Labyrinth  of  Logic  : Tljomas  Allen^ 

Author  of  Scripture  Chronology  : John  Johnfon,  .Author  of  the  bloody  Sacrifice  and  Altar  unveiled,  &c. 

Doctor  Robert  MoJfe,  a  celebrated  Preacher,  iSc.  is'c.  ^c. 

In  this  College  is  a  Library  over  the  Chapel  confifting  of  A'fanufcripts  only  ;  the  Gift  of  Archbifhop 
Parker.  They  were  colle6ted  by  himfelf  and  depofited  in  this  College  under  this  Condition,  that 
fhould  any  one  of  the  Records  or  Manufcripts  left  by  him,  be  fecreted  or  miffing  from  that  Colledtion, 
the  College  fliall  loofe  the  whole  ;  as  by  his  Grace's  Will  doth  more  fully  appear.  Therefore  fuch  Care 
is  taken  to  preferve  this  valuable  Depofit,  celebrated  all  over  the  learned  World,  that  even  a  Fellow  of 
the  Houfe  is  not  permitted  to  enter  the  Library,  without  an  Infpe£tor  with  him,  to  attend  him  during  his 
flay  there  ;  and  the  Manufcripts  are  carefully  examined  and  numbered  once  a  Year  by  two  Perfons  of 
another  College. 

5.  Trinity-Hall  is  indebted  to  the  Generofity  of  divers  Benefactors,  who  brought  it  out  of  its  ancient 
Mediocrity  of  a  poor  Hotel  or  Houfe  of  Study,  and  added  to  it  many  Enlargements  ;  which  being  all 
puiehafcd  by  Dodtor  Tf'iliiatn  Bateman,  Bifhop  of  Norivich,  v/as  taken  down,  and  at  his  own  Expence 
was  built  and  erected  into  a  College,  he  endowing  it  with  a  confiderable  Eftate  ;  and  is  therefore  generally 
reputed  the  Founder  thereof,    in  the  Year  135 1. 

The  Founder  appointed  a  Mafter,  two  Fellows,  and  three  Scholars  of  this  Houfe  to  be  Students  in 
the  Canon  and  Civil  Laiv,  and  one  Fellow  to  the  Study  of  Divinity.  He  afterwards  enereafed  his 
Favours,  and  procured  many  Advantages  and  Additions  to  their  Revenues  from  the  Pope.     We  find  alfo 

many 


The     INTRODUCTION.  xxxi 

many  other  Bcncfaci ions  both  for  fuumling  Scholarlhips,  rebuilding  the  Premiftcs,  isc.  Rut  the  greatcft 
Sum  was  left  to  this  College  lately  by  John  Andrnvs,  L.  L.D.  i'oinctimo  Fellow,  Mafter  of  tlie  Fa- 
cuities,  and  Chancellor  of  the  Dioccfc  of  London.  This  Gentleman,  who  died  in  1747,  gave  to  this 
Hall  20,000/.  for  fix  Fellowlhips,  and  fix  Scholarfliips  for  the  Study  of  the  Civil  Lmu,  which  he  ap- 
'propriates  to  Merchant  Taylor's,  School  in  London  ;   and  the  Rcfidue  for  fininuns;  the  new  l^uildings. 

The  prefent  Members  of  this  Hall  3.]:e  a  Mafter,  twelve  Fellows,  two  of  which  are  Divines,  fourteen 
Scholars,  and  one  Exhibitioner.  Who  enjoy  the  Advantages  of  a  Library  rcplenilhed  with  a  fine  Co'- 
ledion  of  choice  and  valuable  Books,  and  an  entire  Study  of  Civil  and  Common  Law  Books. 

Amongfl:  the  digniiicd  C.'ergy  wc  find  eight  Bifnops  ;  and  amonglt  the  Learned  we  can  mention 
DoiStor  Haddo'  1  Mailer  of  the  Recjuefts  to  Queen  Elizabeth,   and  one  of  the  Reflorers  of  Learnii;-; 

in  Britain  : Bifhop  Thirlcbf,  one  of  the  Compilers  of  the  Liturgy  : Thomas  Taper ^  who  has  wrote 

well  for  his  Time,  on  Hufbandry  :  —  DoiSior  C'^iw/ Author  of  the  Interpreter  and  of  the  hillitu'ionc- 

"Juris  AngUcana: :  —  Bifliop  Barlnv  one  of  the  Tranflators  of  the  Bible  : Sir  Robert  Ncn'.nton,    Knt. 

Public  Orator,  Secretary  of  State  and  Author  of  Fragmenta  Regalia. 

6.  Goncville  and  Caius  College  takes  its  Name  from  a  double  Foundation.  It  was  originally  the  Foun- 
dation of  Mr.  Edninnd  GoHvilU  Miniiter  of  Tarington  in  Norfolk,  who  in  the  22d  of  Edward  III. 
obtained  a  Charter  for  building  of  a  College  to  maintain  a  Mafter  and  thirtv  Scholars.  To  which 
the  Chancellor  and  Mailers  of  the  Univerfiiy,  and  the  Mailer  and  Brethren  of  St.  John's  Hofpital  in 
Cambridge,  about  four  Years  after,  became  Benefacftors.  Mr.  Gonvilk  did  not  li\  e  to  compjete  thi.; 
Inilitution  :  But  having  prevailed  with  Doctor  Batcman  Bilhop  of  Norivich  to  finiih  the  Work  after  hi_ 
Death,  that  Prelate  executed  his  Will,  and  gave  it  tlie  Name  of  Gonville  Hall :  However  the  Revenues 
fell  far  ihort  of  the  Maintenance  intended  by  the  Founder;  for  it  does  not  appear  that  this  Bifhop  endowed 
this  Hall  for  more  than  a  Mafterand  three  Fellows.  It  was  afterwards  endowed  with  the  Augmentation 
of  three  more  Fellows  ;  which,  with  the  Favour  iliewn  by  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  Juno  Domini  1 481,  who  ob- 
liged all  Bcnedifline  Monki  of  the  Dioceic  of  Noriuich-,  intending  to  follow  their  Studies  at  Cambridge, 
to  itudy  in  no  other  Hall  than  this. 

This  brought  the  Society  into  great  Reputation  ;  and  Benefactions  tumbled  in  a-pace,  infomuch  that 
foon  after  we  find  i'even  Fellowfliips  and  eleven  Scholarfliips  added  to  the  former  Number. 

In  1557  John  Caius,  M.  D.  who  had  been  A-laifer  of  this  College,  enlarged  the  Houfe  and  encreafcd 
its  Revenues  fo  much,  that  his  Benefaction  was  deemed  a  new  Foundation  :  So  that  from  thenceforward 
it  is  called  Gonville  and  Caius  College. 

John  Cans,  alias  Keys,  after  he  had  taken  his  Doctor's  Degree  in  Ph\fic,  left  Gonville  College,  and 
travelling  into  foreign  Parts  for  Experience,  entered  himfelf  in  the  Univerfity  of  Padua,  at  that  Time 
much  in  Vogue  for  the  Study  of  Phyfic,  under  John  Bapiiji  Montanus  de  Verona,  the  greatefl  Phyfician 
of  the  Age  :  And  having  acquired  great  Reputation  there  by  his  public  Lectures  and  Writings,  Mr. 
Caius  returned  to  his  native  Country,  and  then  made  the  Foundation  abovementioiied. 

He  obtained  a  Charter  of  In:orporation  for  this  united  Foundation,  which  gave  him  Power  to  found 
two  or  more  Fellows,  and  twelve  or  more  Scholars  ;  to  be  incorporated  by  the  Name  of  the  Mailer, 
Fellows  and  Scholars  of  Gonville  and  Caius  College,  founded  to  the  Honour  of  the  Annunciation 
of  the  BleiTcd  Virgin  M.\uy. 

The  Doctor  foon  after  built  Caius  Court  at  his  own  Charge  ;  and  infcribed  the  Gate  next  to  St. 
Michael' ^Q\\wc\-\,  Hu.milit.a.tis,  or  the  Gate  of  Humility  :  the  next  Vjrtutis,  /.  c.  the  Gate  of 
Virtue  :  On  the  otb.er  Side  of  this  Portico  are  thefe  Words  Jo.  Caius  pofuit  Sopicntiis  i  S67,  i.  e. 
John  Caius  ereiledthis  in  Honour  of  JVifdom  :  the  other  Gate  next  the  public  Schools,  commended  much 
for  its  Architetiurc  is  inicribed Honoris,  i.  e.  Tin  Gate  of  Honour,  upon  a  Suppofition  thatnone  fliould 
venture  to  pafs  through  it  to  take  their  Degrees,  who  have  not  honourably  acquitted  themfelveo  in  their 
Studies,  fi'f.  Thofe  Buildings,  exclufive  of  his  Settlements,    coil  him  1B34/. 

Amcngil  other  Privileges  the  Doctor  obtained  a  Licence  in  the  6th  Elizabeth,  that  this  College  might 
for  ever  yearly  take  the  Bodies  of  two  Malefadlors  at  their  Difcretion,  and  diiTedl  them  without  the 
Controul  of  any  Perfon,  and  without  paying  any  thing  for  them  ;  and  fettled  the  annual  Sum  of 
I  /.  6s.  Sd.  for  the  Expence  of  diiTedling  the  Bodies. 

By  his  Will  he  fettled  100/.  per  Annum  more  upon  this  College  ;  and  appropriated  his  Fcllowfoips 
and  Scholarjliips  to  the  Dioccfc  and  City  of  Norwich. 

There  have  been  many  other  good  Benefadlions  made  to  this  College.  Mr.  Robert  Trapp  iettled  tour 
Scholarlhips.  ^'Ixs.  Jocoja  Frnnkland  gave  enough  to  maintain  fix  Fellows,  twelve  Scholars,  a  Chaplain 
2nd  a  Hebriw  Profelwr.     Doctor  Thomas  Lepge  left  Money  to  build  the  Side  of  the  new  Court  next  St. 

[  d  ]  Miclml'9 


xxxii  The     INTRODUCTION. 

Aluhael'i  Church.  Mr.  William  Braithivait,  S.  T.  B.  gave  a  moft  valuable  Library  to  this  College, 
<incl  26  /.  13  J.  ^d.  for  founding  four  Scholarftiips,  Mr.  Stephen  Perfe,  M.  D.  left  10  /.  per  Annum  each 
to  fix  Fellows  :  4  /.  per  Annum  each  to  fix  Scholars,  and  500  /.  to  build  the  North  Side  of  the  new 
Court.  Johi  Grijfin,  M.  D.  gave  40  /,  per  Annum  for  ever  to  be  employed  for  four  Scholars  at  5  /. 
each  per  Annum,  and  other  Purpofes.  Mr.  Matthew  Stokys  gave  5  /.  10  s.  per  Annum  each  to  three 
Scholars,  and  16/.  per  Annum  to  one  Fellow,  who  is  a  Divine,  and  applies  himfelf  to  Study.  Mr. 
John  Gojlin  augmented  his  Great  Uncle  DoiSor  Gojlin'%  Scholarfliips,  with  the  Intereft  of  500  /.  for 
ever.     Archbiftiop  Parker  founded  one  Phyftc  Scholar. 

This  College  has  the  Guardianlhip  and  Diredtion  of  a  School  and  Alms-houfe  for  fix  poor  Women  ; 
both  founded  by  Doftor  Stephen  Perfe:  The  School-  Hoiife  fo  large  as  to  contain  100  Boys  ;  with  Apart- 
inents  adjoining  for  the  Matter  and  Ufher  :  Endowed  with  40  /.  for  the  Mafter  and  with  20  /.  for  the 
U/her.  The  Alms-houfe  for  fix  fingle  Women  forty  Years  old,  and  upwards,  to  be  paid  aor.  every 
Quarter. 

Amongft  the  Regulations  and  Orders  of  this  College,  we  find  one,  which  obliges  thofe  Scholars, 
who  intend  to  offer  themfelves  for  College  Preferments,  to  refide  four  Calendar  Months  in  each  Year  ; 
and  that  fuch  as  ihall  not  fo  refide  the  firft  Year  after  they  are  Bachelors,  if  they  be  poflefled  of  any  of 
the  more  valuable  Scholarfliips,  mull  quit  the  College  or  change  their  Scholarfliips. 

The  dignified  Clergy,  educated  in  this  united  Society,  are  one  Archbifhop  of  Canterbury,  one  Arch- 
bifliop  of  Armagh,  eleven  Bifliops  in  England  and  Wales,  and  two  Irifi  Biftiops. 

Amongft  the  learned  Members  of  this  Society  are  noted  the  celebrated  Ajhonomer  Walter  de  Aveden, 
Author  of  an  AJironomical  Table  :  —  Bifliop  Skyppe,  a  noted  Preacher  and  one  of  the  Compilers  of  the 
Liturgy :  —  Doctor  John  Caius  the  Founder,  and  Author  of  many  excellent  Books  not  only  in  Phyftc, 
bM  of  the  Antiquities  of  Cambridge:  —  Biihop  White,  who  wrote  learnedly  againii  Popery  :  —  Mr. 
Fletcher,  M.  D.  famous  for  his  Book  de  Urinis  :  —  Doftor  fFilliam  Harvey,  who  difcovered  the  Cir- 
culation of  the  Blood,  and  wrote  de  Generatione  Animalium  :  —  Doctor  Jeremy  Taylor,  Author  of  the 
Holy  Living  and  Dying,  and  many  other  Books  in  great  Efteem  for  their  Piety  and  Learning  :  —  Doctor 
Robert  Sherringham  an  excellent  Antiquarian,  and  Orientaliji,  Author  of  Liber  de  Anglorum  Gcntis  ori- 
gine  ;  and  of  two  Sermons  entitled  The  King's  Supremacy  afferted,  &c.  and  Tranfiatorof  Joma,  a  Tal- 
niudical  Book,  with  his  own  Annotations  :  — Sir  Charles  Scarborough,  M.  D,  an  eminent  Mathematician 
and  Anatcmift,  the  Author  of  the  Anatomy  of  the  Mifcles  :  —  Dodlor  Henry  Wharton  a  celebrated  An- 
tiquarian, as  appears   by  his  Anglia  Sacra,  &c.  —  Sir  William  Neve,  Clarencieux  King  at  Arms,  alfo 

efteemed  for  his  Knowledge  of,    and  Refearches  into  Antiquity  : DoiStor  Brady  Author  of   the 

Hiflory  of  England :  —  Robert  Hare,  Efq;  noted  in  Heraldry  :  —  Thomas  Shadwell,  Efq;  a  Theatrical 
Poet  and  Poet  Laiireat :  —  Mr.  Jeremy  Collyer,  the  learned  Author  of  an  Hifiorical  Dictionary,  &c. 
—  Doftor  Samuel  Clarke,  whofe  Sermons,  Philofophical  and  Critical  Works  are  to  be  rated  with  the 
beft  Works  of  his  Predeceflbrs  in  Learning  and  Eloquence. 

The  Library  of  this  College  is  not  large,  but  well  flocked  with  ufeful  Books  both  in  Print  and  Ma- 
nufcript:   amongft  which  is  a  large  Colleftion  of  fuch  as  treat  of  Phyfic  and  Heraldry. 

■J.  Kings  College,  begun  by  King  Henry  VL  iri  the  Year  of  Chrift  1441,  was  dedicated  to  the 
Virgin  Mary  and  St.  Nicholas,  and  intended  for  the  Support  of  a  Redtor  and  twelve  Scholars  :  But  in  1 443 
his  Majefty  changed  its  Form  and  Name;  placed  in  it  aProvoft  (inftead  of  a  Reftor,)  feventy  Fellows  and 
Scholars,  ten  Priefts,  fix  Clerks,  a  Mufic  Mafter  orOrganift,  fixteen  Chorifters,  fixteen  Officers  of  the 
Foundation,  twelve  Servitors  for  the  fenior  Fellows,  and  fix  poor  Scholars;  in  all  140  ;  and  dedicated 
this  new  Conception  to  the  Blefjcd  Virgin  Mary,  and  to  the  glorious  Confeffor  St.  Nicholas.  However 
this  grand  Defign  was  cut  fliort  by  the  Troubles,  which  he  met  with,  from  the  Houfe  of  York. 

King  Edward  IV.  diminifhed  its  Revenues,  and  gave  Part  of  its  Eftate,  called  Pythagoras^ s- Houfe 
to  Mcrton  College  in  Oxford,  which  enjoys  it  to  this  Day. 

Henry  VII.  was  the  firft  thatcaft  his  Eyes  upon  this  Roval  Foundation  with  Favour:  And  he  extended 
the  Chaple  1 88  Feet  in  Length  ;  and  finiflied  the  outfide  Shell.  The  Infide,  as  we  now  fee  it,  was  the 
Work  of  his  Son  and  Succeflbr  Henry  VIII. 

The  College  at  Eaton  was  founded  by  King  Henry  VI.  for  a  Provoft,  feven  Fellows,  and  feventy 
Grammar  Scholars  to  be  maintained  on  the  Foundation,    for  a  Nurfery  to  this  College  at  Cambridge. 

The  fucceeding  Benefactions  to  this  College  have  been  chiefly  made  to  the  Library. 

The  prcfent  Members  of  this  College  are  aProvoft,  feventy  Members,  two  Conducts,  fix  poor  Scho- 
lars, an  Organift,  fix  binging  men,  and  fixteen  Chorifters,  al!  upon  theFoundation  ;  and  are  not  obliged 
to  keep  their  Exereife  in  the  public  Schools,   as  thofe  belonging  to  other  Colleges  do. 

This  College  has  produced  two  Archbifliops  of  York ;  one  Archbifliop  of  Dublin  j  one  Archbifliop  of 
Armagh;   twenty-two  Bifliops  in  E>igland^ivl  Walls,  and  two  Irijli  Bifliops. 

It 


The    INTRODUCTION.  xxx-iii 

•  It  has  educated  feveral  Statefnien,  many  of  whom  are  ccle-biatcd  for  their  learned  Works  ;  as  Do6lor 
Harilyff'ct  M.  D.  who  was  chief  Phyfician  to  King  Henry  VI.  eminent  in  his  Faculty,  and  Secretary 
of  State  to  King  Edward  IV  : —  Lord  Chief  Juftice  Con'ingjby  in  the  King's  Bench,  temp.  Hewy  Vlfl. 
—  Yiodior:  Thomas  TVilfon  Principal  Secretary  to  Queen  ElirMlcih,  and  Author  of  two  Difcourfes  on  the 
Art  of  Rhetoric  and  Logic  :  —  Do;^l.or  Giles  Fletcher,  Author  of  the  Hi/lory  of  Riijfia,  Mafter  of  the 
Requcfts,  and  EmbafTador  into  Rujjia  :  —  i\v  Thomas  Ridley,  Knt.  Vicar  General,  and  the  learned 
Author  of  ihc  View  of  the  Civil  and  Eccleftajlical  Law : — Sir  Robert  Morton  Principal  Secretary  of 
State  to  King  James  1.  — Sir  Francis  Walfingham,  Knt.  Principal  Secretary  of  State  to  Queen  Elizabeth. 
The  Number  of  its  learned  Members  would  be  too  long  to  enumerate.  Thefe  may  feri'e  for  a 
Specimen. 

At  the  Foundation  we  find  Thomas  Siaecy  and  TVilUam  Sutton,  both  famous  for  AJlrology :  —  Do(£lor 
Richard  Croke  Public  Orator  and  Creek  Profeflbr,  in  which  Language  he  greatly  excelled  :  William 
Buckley,  an  eminent  JMatliematician  and  Author  of  Arithmetica  Memor.  —  Do6tor  Alle^,  Author  of  a 
Hebrew  Grammar,  and  one  of  the  Tranflators  of  Qiieen  Elizabeth's  Bible  :  —  Richard  Muncajier, 
an  eminent  Grecian  and  Grammarian.  —Anthony  JVotton,  firfl:  Profeflbr  of  Divinity  in  Crefham  Colle'>€. 
IVilliam  Oughtred,  B.  D.  Author  of  Clavis  M  thcmaticce,  and  moil  renowned  for  jkfathematical Learning  : 
t —  Edmund  Waller,  Efq;  that  admirable  Poet,  who  fivdrcRned  EngliJ?}  Verfe  :  —  Bifhop  Montague  a  great 
Antiquary,  and  Author  of  Apello  Ccefarsm,  &c.  for  which  he  underwent  great  Perfecution  from  the  Fanatics 
and  Repiddicans.  He  alfo  wrote  againfl:  Sel.'en's  Hi/lory  of  Tythes,  and  a  new  Gage  for  the  Old  Gofpel; 
and  he  publifhed  Photius's  Epijllcs  and  Nazianzen's  Inveilive  againfl  Julian  :  —  Doftor  Whichott  a  ce- 
lebrated and  pious  Preacher  :  —  Doilor  Pearfon,  Bilhop  of  Chefter,  well  known  for  his  elaborate 
Writings  both  in  Hijhry  and  Divinity  :  —  Dofbor  Cajlel,  the  laborious  and  moft  learned  Author  of 
the  Lexicon  Heptaglot :  —  Doftor  Stanhope  Dean  of  Canterbury,  and  Author  of  the  Paraphrafe  on  the 
Epijilcs  and  Go/pels  :  —  Bifhop  Hare,  Editor  of  Terence: — Dodlor  Kitig,  Editor  of  Eurypides,  and 
DoiSor  Battle,  Editor  of  Ifocrates. 

The  Chapel  is  one  of  the  moft  fumptuous  Gothic  Edifices  in  the  whole  World  ;  it  meafures  304  Feet 
from  Ea/l  to  JVeJl,  73  from  North  to  South,  and  from  the  Ground  to  the  Top  of  the  Battlements  gi ; 
carrying  an  OiStogon  Tower  at  every  Corner,  each  of  which  terminates  in  a  Dome,  with  winding 
Stairs  leading  into  the  fame.  The  whole  is  built  of  Free-ftone,  and  is  thought  to  be  the  largeft  Room 
in  the  World,  whofe  Roof  is  not  fupported  by  Pillars.  It  is  covered  with  a  Stone  Arch  ;  above  which 
is  another  made  of  Timber  well  leaded,  with  Space  enough  between  the  two  Arches,  as  to  permit  a  tall 
Man  to  walk  upright  between  them.  On  the  North  and  South  Side  is  a  Porch  and  nine  fmall  Chapels, 
each  of  which  had  its  Altar,  before  the  Reformation  ;  but  they  now  are  ufed  as  burial  Places,  except 
thofe  on  the  South  Side,  where  one  is  converted  into  a  Library,  another  into  a  Vejlry,  Sic. 

T)o£ior  Fuller  tells  us,  that  the  Stone-work,  Wood-work  and  Glafs- work  in  this  Chapel,  con  tnd, 
which  moft  deferves  Admiration. 

Here  Prayers  are  read  three  Times  a  Day;  at  half  an  Hour  paft  fix  in  the  Morning,  and  again  at  ten, 
and  then  at  five  in  the  Afternoon. 

8.  ^een's  College  is  another  Royal  Foundation  by  Margaret  of  Anjou,  Queen  Confort  to  Henry  VL 
of  E?igland,  in  the  Year  of  Chrift  1448.  Her  Majefty  dedicated  this  College  to  St.  Margaret  and  St. 
Bernard,  and  endowed  it  with  20  /.  per  Anvum.  And  though  this  Work  received  fome  Interruption  by 
the  Troubles  brought  upon  her  Hufband  and  Family  by  the  Lancajhian  Party  ;  it  was  finifhed  Anno 
Domini  1465,  by  her  Succefibr  on  the  Throne,  Elizaheth'W'ik  to  Edward  IV .  moved  thereunto  by 
her  ConfelTor  Andrew  Ducket,  a  Minorite  Friar  :  Whofe  Care  for  this  College,  and  his  Intereft  amont'ft: 
the  Great,  obtained  many  large  Donations  from  other  Hands  for  its  Support.  Amongft  the  numerous 
Benefattions  (in  all  150)  we  find  Richard  III.  who  having  feized  upon  the  great  Foileffions  of  John 
Vere  the  thirteenth  Earl  of  Oxford,  gave  them  all  to  this  Foundation.  But  King  Henry  VII.  reftored  them 
again  to  the  Earl. 

At  prefent  it  maintains  a  Mafter,  twenty  Fellows,  forty- five  Scholars,  and  eight  Exhibitioners. 
From   hence  the  Church  has   received   one  Archbifliop  of  Canterbury  ;    one  Archbifhop  of  Tork, 
feventeen  Bifhops  in  England TinA  JVales,   and  one  Bifhop  in  Ireland. 

The  Learned  World  have  received  from  hence  alfo,  the  learned  Bifhop  Fijher,  the  firfl:  Lady  Af^i-~ 
garefs  Profeflbr  in  Divinity  :  —  Erafmus  Rotteroda?nui,  an  Author  of  the  greatert  Repute  in  Critical, 
Theological  znd  Grammatical  hczming  :  —  Dodtor  Haynes  and  Dodtor  May,  Compilers  of  the  Liturgy  : 
—  Sir  Thomas  Smith,  Knt.  Secretary  of  State,  and  Greek  Profeflbr,  ^c.  and  the  firft  Introducer  of  the 
new  way  of  pronouncing  that  Language  :  —  Bifhop  Davinant,  Reprefentative  for  the  Anglican  Church 
at  the  Synod  of  Dsrt,  and  Author  of  Annotations,  i^c.  —  The  famous  Antiquarian  John  JVecvsr., 

[da]  Author 


xsxiv  The     INTRODUCTION. 

Author  of  the  Funeral  Monuments  :  —  The  Hiflorian  Doctor  Jc'ri  Fuller,  Author  of  the  Church  Hiftory 
and  Worthies  of  England,  Sic.  — The  great  Mathematician  Doctor  John  IVallii  :  — Bifhop  Sparrow, 
Author  of  the  Rationale  on  the  Common  Pra\cr,  and  other  Pieces  :  —  Bifhop  Patrick.,  Author  of  the  very 
learned  Commentary  on  great  Part  of  the  Old  Teftamcnt  ;  — Do£tor  James  IVindlett,  M.  D.  an  inge- 
nious Latin  Poet,  an  excellent  Linguijl,  and  a  facred  Critic: — Dodtor  Davycs,  Editor  of  fcveral 
Claffics,  and  of  AJenutius  Felix,  and  LaSfantius  :  —  And  Doc^tor  Thomas  Brett,  the  learned  Author  of 
the  Diicourfc  on  Church  Gcvernricnt,  and  of  a  DilTertation  on  Liturgies. 

■  9.  Katharine  Hall  is  the  Monument  of  a  private  Charity  ;  being  the  Foundation  of  Doflor  Rohert 
IVoodlark  or  IVodclarke,  Char.cellor  of  this  Univerfity.  He  began  this  Work  in  1457,  ^""^  '^''^  ""'  obtain 
2.  Licence  for  its  Endowment  with  Revenues  to  fupport  a  Mafter  and  three  Fellows,   till  the  Year  1475. 

Many  Benefaftions  have  fince  enabled  this  Hall  to  fupport  a  A'lailer,  fix  Fellows,  one  Fellow-Chap- 
lain, one  Bye-Fellow,  thirty  five  Scholarlhips',  and  about  forty  Exhibitioners. 

Amon<;ft  the  Benefactions  none  appears  with  a  better  Grace  than  a  Gentlewoman,  named  Ma>y 
Ramfdin  of  Norton  in  Yorkfliire,  who  a  few  Years  ago  appropriated  an  ample  Donation  for  maintaining 
fix  Fellowlhips  and  ten  Scholarlhips,  to  be  Natives  of  Yoi  kJIAre,  and  to  be  named  kyrne's  Fellows  and 
Scholars,  in  Memory  of  Mr.  Robert  Siytie  her  Relation,  and  a  former  Bcncfailor  to  this  Hall. 

This  Hall  has  produced  tv/o  Archbifliops  of  Tori  and  one  of  Armagh  ;  nine  Bifliops  in  England,  one 
Bifliop  of   Sodsr  and  A'jan,  and  one  Bifhop  in  Ireland. 

Amongft  the  Men  of  diflinguilhed  Learning  in  this  Hall,  we  read  of  the  eminent  Preacher  Archbifhop 
Sandys,  who  was  one  of  the  Tranflators  of  Qiieen  Elizabeth's  Bible  :  Of  Bilhop  Overall,  a  !  ranflator 
of  King  James's  Bible,  and  Author  of  the  Co<ivocation-Bock  : —  Of  John  Strype,  the  noted  Antiqua- 
rian :  —  Of  the  celebrated  Naturalifl  John  Ray,  Author  of  the  JVifdom  of  God  in  the  Creation,  Sec.  — 
Of  DoiSlor  Benjamin  Calamy,  a  celebrated  Preacher  :  —  Of  Doctor  Lightfoot,  eminent  for  his  Skill  in 
Hebrew  and  the  other  (Jricntals,  and  Author  of  the  Harmony  of  the  Bible,  Harts  Hebraica,  &c. —  Of 
Bifliop  Blackball,  a  celebrated  Preacher,  and  Author  of  many  learned  Sermons  :  — And  of  DocSor  fVot- 
ton,  an  excellent  Critic,  Author  of  Rcjictlions  on  aniient  and  modern  Learning,  and  Editor  of  the 
JVelch  Laws. 

10.  "Jcfus  Co'lege,  was  founded  on  tl'.e  Site  of  a  Benedifline  Nunnery  dedicated  to  St.  Rhadegund. 
To  which  Nunnerv  Alahclm  IV.  King  of  Scotland  :\<}i<i<-i  a  Church  dedicated  to  the  Name  of  Jefus.  — 
The  Nuno  flourifhed  here  many  Years  ;  but  at  laft  degenerated  into  fuch  a  debauched  way  of  Life, 
that,  for  ^hanic,  fays  my  Author,  they  all  but  two  left  the  Houfe  ;  and  one  of  the  two  that  Itaid  was 
with  Child,   and  the  other  but  a  Child. 

John  Atcock,  Bifliop  of  Ely,  and  then  Lord  Chancellor  of  England,  being  informed  of  this  DifTertion, 
obtained  the  Licence  of  Henry  VIL  arid  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.  to  convert  the  .ibandoned  Monaflcry 
into  a  Colloge.  In  which  {An.  Don;.  1496)  he  placed  a  Mallei-,  fix  Fellows,  and  fix  Scholars;  and 
dedicated  the  Premiiles  to  the  Bleflcd  Virgin  Alary,  to  St.  Join  the  Evongclf- ■>  and  to  t':e Glorious  Fir- 
gin  St.  Rhadtgund.  '   ■■":  '.'_■.:  '  ■  .    ■ 

This  Alteration  for  the  Adv.mcement  of  Piety  and  Learning  was  prifently  fucceeJed  by  feveral  large 
Benefaiftions  ;  fo  that  at  prefent  here  are  Foundations  fufEcient  to  fupport  a  Mafter,  fixtaen  Fellows, 
and  fifteen  Scholars  ;  befides  twenty-fi'i-e  Exhibitions. 

Prom  this  College  we  can  produce  four  Archbifhops  of  Canterbury,  and  three  Archbifhops  of  York  : 
Ten  Eifhops  in  England  and  If'alfs ;  and  two  lliflicps  in  Ireland.  N.  B,  Both  the  prefent  and  the  late 
Archbifhops  of  Cantirbury  were  Scholars  of  this  Foundation. 

Here  alfo  was  educated  the  great  Light  of  oilr  Church,  Archbifhop  d-anmet-,  who  was  burnt  at 
Oxford  for  adhering  to  the  ProteJiant  Faith  .•  —  Bifhop  Bale,  Author  of  Libri  de  fcriptoribus  Britannids. 
iic.  —  Sir  Thomas  tlliot,  Knt.  who  wrote  zDiilionary,  Sic.  —  LJOCiorl)uport  and  Doftor  A  drews,  con- 
cerned in  the  Tranflation  of  the  Bible  :  —  S'lv  IFidiam  Brjv  lie,  Knt.  Embaflador  in  Holland:  —  Sir 
Richard  Hutton,  Knt.  Judge  of  the  Common  Pleas,  and  Writer  of  Reports  :  — Sir  RiJjaid  FenJhaiVy 
an  elegant  Poet,  Mailer  of  the  Requefls,  and  Embaltador  to  Spain  :  —  The  celebrated  Ajirmomtr 
Do£tor  Johi  Flumjlcad,  Royal  ProfcJTor  of  Jjlroncmy,  kc.  he. 

Here  is  a  tolerable  large  Library  well  furnifhed  with  ufeful  Boaks. 

1 1 .  ChriJl -College  was  another  Foundation  by  King  H  m yV\.  for  the  Reception  of  the  Scholars,  ls?c. 
whom  he  removed  hither  from  the  Houf  of  God,  which  he  intended  to  include  within  the  Bounds  oi 
King's-CoUcge,     He  placed  here  a  Provoft  and  four  Fellows  and  Scholars,  intending  to increafe  tbeSchor  ,' 
lars  to  fixty,   had  not  the  fatal  War  that  followed  obftruded  his   pioits  Defign. 

Howi:\'cr  Margaret  Countefs  of  Richmond,  and  Mother  to  King  Henry  Vll.  arofe  like  a  tutelar  Deity 
to  this  Houfc,   and  got  Leave  of  her  Son  to  comjilete  the  Proved  of  the  Royal  Founder  Henry  VI. 

2  "  And 


The     INTRODUCTION.  xxxv 

And  ihc  accordingly  endowed  it  with  Rc\'C!iues  for  the  M;iintcnaiicc  of  a  Maflcr,  twelve  Follows,  and 
forty  fcven  Scholars  ;  which  Number  Jiave  fmce  encrcafcd  by  t'th(.r  J;cncfacHons.  So  thai  iWc  prclcnt 
Members  arc  a  Ma(t:er,  fifteen  Fellows,    and  fifty-four  Scholars. 

The  Regard  paid  to  the  Credit  of  this  Society  by  the  State,  car.not  be  more  properly  indicated  than 
by  the  Number  of  Bifhops  taken  from  thence;  tliey  being  no  lefs  than  twenty-four,  viz.  two  Archbiihops 
oi  Canterbury  ;  three  Archbifhops  of  ll^r,^  ;  one  Primate  of  /?v/fl«^  ;  one  Archbifhop  of  Z?2^i'//«  ;  four- 
teen Bifliops  In  Enghrid  M\Ji  JValcs.,  and  three  Bifliops  in  Ireland. 

Here  was  educated  fohn  LelanJ.^  whofe  Memory  is  highly  revered  amongft  the  Antiquarians :  —  Hugh 
Bro-'g' ton  the  Oriental!/}  :  —  Doiftor  Andrnv  U'ilh-t,  Autlior  of  Synopfn  Pcipifmi,  i\C.  —  Doctor  Richard 
Clarie  and  Frafu-is  Dillingham,  B.  D.  both  Tranflators  of  ihc  Bible,  and  learned  in  the  Eaftern  Tongues  : 

DoiSor  Henry  More  a  deep  Divine  and  Philofopher  : DoiStor  Laurence  Ecliard,   an  eminent  fiif- 

torian  and  Author  of  the  Hiifory  of  England. 

12.  St.  Johns  College,  as  it  now  ftands,  is  another  Foundation  begun  by  the  Caid  hs-dy  Margaret. 
She  creifted  this  Houfe  of  Learning,  upon  the  Ruins  of  a  very  antient  Hotel  or  Monaftery  of  Regular 
Canons,  founded  by  N-gellus,  F'ifliop  of  Ely,  and  Trea^'urer  to  King  Henry  I.  in  1134,  and  afterwards 
<iivided  between  thofe  Regulars  and  a  certain  Number  of  Scholars,  by  Narivsld,  or  Nortlnvood,  Bifhop 
oi  Ely,  in  the  Year  1280.  But  the  Regulars  at  laft  dwindled  away  to  two  Members  only  :  When  Lady 
Margaret  obtained  Leave  from  King  Henry  VIIL  to  rebuild  it  to  dedicate  it  to  St.  "John  the  Evangeliji., 
and  to  endow  it  with  her  own  Lands  for  the  Maintenance  of  a  Mafter  and  fifty  Sch(dars. 

Lady  Margaret  not  living  to  fee  it  finillied,  committed  the  Execution  of  that  Part  of  her  Will  to 
Richard  Fox,  BifTlop  of  Winche/ler,  John  Fijljer,  Fifhop  of  Roehe/ler,  and  othc/s,  who  faithfully  dif  • 
charged  their  Truft  in  1508,   but  not  without  great  Difficulties. 

For,  the  Foundrefs  having  trufted  to  a  Codicil  in  her  lafi:  Will  and  Teftament  for  the  Settlements  in- 
tended to  be  made  for  this  College,  and  dying  before  {lie  had  figned  that  Codicil,  King  Henry  VIIL  her 
Grandfon,  caft  his  Eye  upon  the  Eftates  to  be  alienated  from  his  Family  for  this  Foundation,  and  neither 
his  Majefty  nor  the  Bifliop  of  Ely,  who  had  Pretenfions  to  the  former  Houfe,  on  which  this  College 
was  to  be  grafted,  could  be  prevailed  upon  to  fubmit  to  the  Will  of  the  deceafed  Foundrefs;  till  the 
Executors  with  great  Expence  and  Trouble  obtained  a  Pull  from  the  Pope,  dated  Osiavo  Calcnd.  Jul. 
Anno  Dofnini  1510,  which  decreed  the  utter  Subverfion  of  the  old  Houfe,  and  confirmed  the  Foundation 
of  a  nev/  College,  and  the  Revenues  defigned  for  the  Maintenance  of  a  Mafter  and  fifty  Clerks  in  it  ; 
fet  afide  the  Right  of  the  Bifhop  of  Ely,  the  Diocefan,  and  empowered  the  Bilhops  of  Lincoln  and  Nor- 
wich, or  either  of  them,  to  execute  his  Decree,  and  to  excommunicate  all  Oppofers  thereunto.  The 
King  immediately  granted  his  Licence  to  carry  the  Lady,  his  Grandmother's  Will  into  Execution,  fo 
far  as  regarded  the  old  Hou'e  to  be  fuppreffed  and  its  Revenues,  but  he  hept  back  above  400  /.  per  Ann. 
Eftate  given  by  the  Foundrefs. 

By  the  King's  Charter  this  College  is  incorporated  by  the  Name  of  St.  Johns  College,  for  one  Mailer 
and  fifty  Fellows  and  Scholars,  more  or  lefs,  to  liudy  the  Liberal  Sciences,  the  Civil  and  Canon  Lavi, 
and  Divinity. 

The  Bensfaftions  to  this  College  have  been  very  liberal.  Infomuch  that  here  are  one  Mafier,  fifty-uine 
Fellows,  and  one  hundred  Scholars  upon  the  Foundation  ;  and  the  whole  Number  upon  the  Booics  is 
feldom  lefs  than  300. 

From  hence  have  been  taken  thirty  nine  I'ifhops,  viz.  Three  Archbifliops  of  York:  Thirty- four 
Bifliops  in  England,   and  two  Bifhops  in  Ireland. 

In  this   Fioufe  were  famous  for  their  Learning  Roger  Ajcham,  Preceptor  to  Q,ucen  Elizab.th: ' 

Dodlor  Richard  Bayne,   FrofefTor   of  Heb>  ew  at  Paris,   and  a  Commentator  on  Proverbs  : Doftor 

Bullock,  Author  of  the  Concordance  :  -  -  ■  Sir  John  Chcke,  Preceptor  to  King  Edward  VL    --  Sir  ThctTias 

Wyat,  Ki\t    the  Poet  : pyHliam  Cecil  Lord  Rurgley,   Lord  l^reafurcr  ; DoHor  John  Dee,  a  noted 

Philofopher  and  Mathematician  : 7ho   a>  Gatacre,    B.  D.  well  eftetmcd  for  his  O,  era  Critics,  and. 

Annotations  on  the  Bible :  -  -  -  Bifhop  Mor  an,   u  ho  firft  tranllated  the  Bible  into  IFeUh  : John  Hall, 

a  celebrated  Poet,   Hi/lorian,   &c John  Cleveland,  ^  renowned  Poet : Henry  Brigges  the  noted 

Matheii.a:ician,  the  firft  Savilian  Lecturer  in  Ge  mstry  at  Oxon  ;   Geometry  Profcllbr  at  Grejham  College  ; 
and  Author  of  many  curious  Mathimatical,  Logorithmet  cid  and  Geometrical  Tables  ;  and  of  a  Trcatife 

concerning  the  North-iye/i   Pafiage  to  the   South  Seas  through  the  Ccniinent  of  Virginia  : John 

Serjeant  and    ^oc\orTh-mas  Gcdden,  two  of  the  moft  able  Conlroverii.  s  on  the  Popifh  Side  ;    who  left 
this  College  and  entered  themfelves   in  St.  Peter  and  Paul  s  College  fcr  the  E'jgiijh  Nation  at  Lijion, 

of  which  they  both  became  Prefidcnts  : Thomas  Wentworth,  Ear]  of  Strafford,  Prime  Miniller  to 

King 


xxxvi  Tlie    INTRODUCTION. 

Khig  Charles  I.  -  -  -  Lucius  Carey,  Lord  Vifcoiint  Faulkland,  Secretary  of  State  to  the  tiiJ  King  :  -  »  - 

Jmhiofe  Philips,  Efq;  a  telebmtcdPoef,  and  Author  of  tlxeP^;'«rfl/f  under  his  Name: Doflor  IVilliam 

Cave,  y\uthor  oi  Hijlorlca  Liiemria,  the  Lives  of  the  Apoflles,  and  of  other  Works  in  the  Service  of  Reli- 
gion and  Learning :  —  Bifhop  Stillingjleet,  that  eminent  and  learned  Author  and  Prelate :  —  Do(Sor  Peta' 

Berwick  the  celebrated  Phyjician  : Martyn  Lyflcr  the  famous  Naturalifl  and  Prefident  of  the  College 

oi  Phyf.ciaiis :  -    -  V)oS\.oi-  John   Smith,  eminent    for  his  Knowledge  in  Divinity  and  Hiftory  : 

Bithop  BcveriJgr',  who  at  20  Years  of  Age  publlfhcd  a  Latin  'JVcatifc  on  the  Ufe  of  the  Oriental 
Languages  :  Then  his  Chronclogical  Lijtitutions  in  the  fame  Language  :  The  Panclex  of  the  Canons  cf 
the  Apoftles  :  The  Code  of  the  Canons  of  the  primitive  Church  vindicated  and  illuflrated,  alfo  in  Latin  : 

His  Privat-e  Thoughts  :  An  Expcjition  of  the  thirty-nine  Articles :  Two  Volumes  of  Sermons,  t^c. Doctor 

Thomas  Bemiet,  Author  of  an  Hebrew  Grammar  :    Of  a  Piiraphrafe  on  the  Common  Prayer,   and    of 

fevcral  Trails  agaiiift  the  Dijfcnters  : Matthi-w  Pricr,  Efq;  the  celebrated  Poet;   Minifier  in  Q^cen 

Jnti's  Reign;    and   Author  of  feveral  Poclical,    Hiftorical  and  Political  Pieces  : Doctor  Je>^yns, 

Author  of  the  Rcafonahlenefs    and   Certainty  of  the  Chriftian  Religion  : Doflor  Richard  Bentley, 

accounted  the  moft  learned  Writer  and  Critic  of  his  Age,  as  may  be  colleded  from  the  Variety  and 
Correttnefs  of  his  Works:  -  -  -  Thornas  Baker,  B.  D.  a  celebrated  Antiquarian,  and  the  Author  of  Re- 
flexions on  Learning  : f-Filliam  Lee,  A.  M.  the  ingenious  Liventor  of  the  Stocking  Weavers  Loom 

or  Engine  : DoiSlor  Samuel  Croxal,  an  ingenious  Poet,  and  Author  of  Fables,  lately  printed  under 

his  Name. 

There  is  a  very  good  Library  :  It  is  fpacious  and  well  fupplied  with  Books,  and  decorated  with  original 
Pivltures  of  the  Benefa£lors. 

13.  Mary  Magdalen's  College  is  the  Foundation  of  Thomas  Lord  Audley  of  TVclden,  Lord  Chan- 
cellor of  England,  Knight  of  the  Garter,  and  Privy  Counfellor  to  Henry  VIIL  upon  the  Site  of  an 
antient  Houfe,  known  in  the  Year  1092,  by  the  Name  of  St.  Giles's  Priory,  for  fix  Canons.  Put  thefe 
Canons  being  removed,  the  Hoftel  or  Priory  was  purchafed  by  certain  Monafleries  for  a  Hotel  to  ac- 
commodate their  young  Broods  fent  to  (luJy  at  Cambridge.  From  which  Licident  it  gained  the 
Name  of  Monks-College  ;  till  Ediuard  Stafford  Duke  of-  Buckingham,  having  purchafed  the  Premifles, 
built  thereon  a  new  College  and  called  it  5«ci/;;_f^i7/n-Conege,  Anno  Domini  15 19:  And  in  1521  this 
Duke  being  attainted  of  High  Treafon,  before  the  Foundation  thereof  was  perfedled,  this  College,  as 
Pait  of  his  Eftates,  fell  to  the  Crown  ;  and  as  fuch  was  granted  by  Henry  VlIL  to  Lord  Audley  afore- 
faid,  in  1 542  ;  who  refounded  the  fame  by  the  Name  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen's  College,  endowed  it  with 
Parcels  of  the  Priory  of  Holy  Trinity  near  Algatc  in  London,  for  a  Mafter  and  four  Fellows  ;  referving 
to  himfeif  and  Succeflors  the  Patronage  of  the  Mafterfhip  and  vifitorial  Power  over  the  College.  But 
fuch  have  been  the  good  Will  of  the  Opulent  towards  this  poor  Foundation  ;  that  it  has  now  a  Mafter, 
fixteen  Fellows,  and  twenty-five  Scholarfhips  and  Exhibitions  ;  with  a  very  grand  newLibran,',  well  filled 
with  Books  neatly  clafled.  Amongfl:  which  is  the  valuable  Collection  made  by  Samuel  Pepys,  Efq;  Se- 
cretary to  the  Admiralty,  and  Prefident  of  the  Royal  Society,  valued  at  4000  /.  many  of  which  are 
Manufcripts,  relating  to  Maritime  Affairs  in  feveral  Reigns. 

Here  alfo  is  a  curious  and  extenfive  Collection  of  Prints  and  Drawings  by  the  moft  celebrated  Mafters 
and  Artifts  in  Europe,  placed  by  themfelves. 

From  hence  have  fprung  one  Archbifhop  of  Canterbury,  and  feven  other  Bifhops ;  befides  a  great 
Number  of  eminent  Scholars  in  different  Branches  of  Literature ;  amongfl  whom  we  find  Henry  Lord 
Stafford  who  was  an  ingenious  Latin  Poet: Sir  Orlando  Brldgeman,  Lord  Chief  Juftice  of  the  Com- 
mon Pleas  and  Lord  Privy  Seal ;— -Sir  Robert  Sawyer  Attorney  General  ■y—Do&.orlFllllainHowelihcHif- 

iorlan  ; Bifhop  Cumberland,  who  wrote  de  Leglbus  Natuns,  is'c.  and  publifhed  the  Phanlcian  Hljlory; 

Samuel  Pepys,  Efq ;  one  of  the  greateft  Ornaments  of  the  Age,  and  Secretary  of  the  Admiralty  under 

King  Charles  IL  and  James  IL  He  wrote  the  Hiftory  of  the  Navy; Dr.  JVaterland  well  known  as  an 

eloquent  and  powerful  Preacher  and  Defender  of  the  Catholic  Dodliine  of  the  Trinity  againft  the 
Arlan  Herefy. 

14.  Trinity  ColLgc  is  the  Work  of  King  Henry  VIIL'  v.'ho  built  it  upon  the  Site  of  St.  Michael's 
Houfe,  King's  Hall  and  Phifwlck's  Hojiel,  and  the  fix  antient  Hojlels  or  Inns  of  Gregory,  Ovlngs^  Mar- 
garet, Gerard's,  Katherlne's  and  Tyler's. 

Michael's  Houfe  had  been  founded  in  the  Year  1324  and  well  endowed,  fo  as  to  be  accounted  as  com- 
plete a  College,  as  any  in  the  Univerfity,  about  tha:  Time;  and  before  its  Diflblution,  became  famous  for 
the  Education  of  three  Bifhops,  and  feveral  Men  of  Learning,  among  whom  was  DoCtor  Mullet,  who 
tranflated  Erafmus'  s  Paraphrafe  on  St.  fohn. 

I  King's 


The     INTRODUCTION.  xxxvil 

King's  Hall  was  founded  by  King  Edward  III.  at  the  Defire  of  his  Father  deceafed,  for  a  Mafter 
and  thirty-two  Scholars.  On  whom  his  Majefly's  Charter  dated  0«,75i^^r  27,  1337^  fettled  40/.  per 
AnHum,  to  be  paid  out  of  the  Exchequer. 

From  hence  proceeded  five  Bifliops  in  England;  and  an  Archbifliop  of  Dublin,  and  a  Lord  Chancel- 
lor; alfo  that  elegant  X<7//k  OxaXar  John  Gunthorpe,  and  Bifhop  7»;j/?fl/,  a  great  Divine  and  Mathe- 
matician. 

King  Henry  VIII.  out  of  all  thcfe  Nurferies  of  Learning  compofed  the  ftatejy  College  dedicated  to 
tht  Holy  and  undivided  Trinity;  and  by  his  Charter  of  D^av/z^^'?-  19,  1546,  endowed  it  with  1300/. 
per  Annum,  to  maintain  a  Pvlafter,  fixty  Fellows,  forty  Scholars,  and  ten  Almoner  Orators  or  Beads- 
men ;  referving  the  Right  of  nominating  a  Mafter. 

Queen  Mary  his  Daughter  began  a  moft  grand  Chapel  for  its  Ufe,  and  augmented  its  Revenue  with 
338/.  per  Annum,  for  the  Maintenance  of  twenty  Scholars,  ten  Chorifters,  a  Mafter  for  them;  four 
Chaplains,  thirteen  Poor  Scholars,  and  two  under  Sizars.  But  this  Queen  dying  before  the  Chapel  was 
finiflied;  her  Sifter  and  Succeflbr  Elizabeth  took  Meafures  for  completing  both  the  Chapel  and  a 
Library. 

There  have  been  many  and  moft  liberal  Donations  to  this  College;  which  now  maintain  a  Mafter, 
Vice-Mafter,  fixty  Fellows,  (including  the  Vice-Mafter)  and  feveiity-one  Scholars.  But  we  have  an 
Account  that  in  the  Year  1641,  the  State  of  this  College  was  much  more  flourifhing,  when  there  be- 
longed thereunto  a  Mafter,  fixty  Fellows,  fixty-two  Scholars,  thirteen  Poor  Scholars,  four  Chaplains, 
ten  Chorifters  with  their  Mafters,  fix  Singing-Men,  twenty-four  Alms  Orators  ;  befides  as  many  Of- 
ficers and  Servants  as  in  all  amounted  to  about  440.  And  there  is  annually  paid  out  of  the  Treafury  of 
this  Houfe  the  Sum  of  120/.  to  three  Public  and  Royal  Profeflbrs  founded  by  King  Hetiry  VIII.  at 
40  /.  each. 

.    The  Advantages  of  this  Foundation,  and  of  the  Numbers  educated  therein,  have  given  it  the  Pre- 
ference both  in  the  Favour  of  the  Court  and  in  a  Variety  of  eminent  Scholars.     For, 

Here  we  find  no  lefs  than  thirty-fix  Bifliops  fince  the  Year  1555,  of  whom  one  was  Archbifliop  of 
Canterbury,  two  Archbiftiops  of  York,  two  Archbifliops  of  Dublin,  twenty-  feven  Bifhops  in  England 
and  Wales,  and  four  Bilhops  in  Ireland. 

Amongft  the  State/men,  who  ftudied  in  this  College,  were  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  Vifcount  St.  Albans, 
Lord  Chancellor  of  England,  and  Author  of  many  learned  Works  in  Pbilofophy,  Divinity,  ^c.  —  Sir 
EdvjardCoke,  Chief  Juftice  of  both  Benches  fuccefllvely,  and  Author  of  feveral  Books  of  Law : — 
Robert  Devereux  Earl  of  EJfex  :  —  Sir  John  Coke  Principal  Secretary  of  State:  —  Charles  Montague 
Earl  of  Hallifax,  Knight  of  the  Garter,  and  a  noted  Poet,  Orator,  and  Statefman;  and  his  Cotcm- 
porary  George  Stepney,  Efq;  employed  abroad  by  King  TJllUarii,  and  admired  for  his  poetical  Genius. 

Here  were  educated  many  eminent  Critics  ;  no  lefs  than  fevcn  of  thofe  that  were  employed  to  tranflate 
the  Bible,  who  were  diftinguiflied  for  their  Accuracy  in  the  Knowledge  of  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  other 
Languages  :  and  William  IP'alker  Author  of  the  Idioms  and  Particles,  thecompleteft  Work  of  its  Kind. 

It  has  had  many  celebrated  Poets,  vi%.  The  divine  Herbert,  whofe  facred  Poems  are  in  great 
Efteem  : —  Doiftor  John  Donne,    a  facred  Poet  and  eminent  Preacher:  and  Giles  Fletcher   Bachelor  ot 


'in 


Divinity,  a  facred  Poet :  —  The  Comedians  Walter  Hau-kjivorth,   Thomas  Randolph,  tir  AJhton  Cccka. 
Nathaniel  Lee,  and  George  Grenvile  Lord  Lanfdowne  :  and  John  Dryden,  and  Mr.  Enefden,  Poets  Laurcat. 

The  Number  of  other  learned  Men  on  this  Foundation,  who  have  publifhed  their  Wo.'ks  would  be 
too  tedious  to  be  recited.  I  fhall  only  mention  Sir  Henry  Spehnan  in  the  higheft  Efteem  for  his  Skill  in 
Antiquities  :  The  excellent  divine  Herbert.  —  Thortidyle :  —  Doftor  Anthony  Seaterwood,  Editor  of  Cntici 
Saeri  :  —  Bifhop  Wilkins,  a  profound  Philo'opher  and  Divine  :  —  Doftor  Barrow,  rendered  immortr.l 
by  his  Treatife  againjl  the  Pope's  Supremacy,  and  upon  the  Unity  of  the  Church  :  —  Doftor  Thomas  Gale, 
the  Antiquarian  and  Editor  of  feveral  Greek  Authors:  • —  John  Le  Neve,  Efq;  Author  of  the  Fajli  Ec- 
clefta  Anglican^  and  Lives  of  the  Protejlant  Bijhops  :  —  Doftor  John  Mapleioft  the  pious  Author  of 
the  Principles  and  Duties  cf  the  Chrijlian  Pwligion :  —  Roger  Cotes,  Profeflbr  of  Ajlronomy  zndE.vperi- 
.  mental  Pbilofophy,  and  moil:  eminent  in  his  Faculty  :  —  Sir  Thomas  MilUngton  Knight,  Doctor  of  Phy- 
fick,  Prefident  of  the  College  of  Fhyficians,  and  Author  of  a  Book  of  Anatomy:  —  Dodor  Thomas 
Comber,  Author  of  the  Church  Hiftory  and  the  Right  of  Tythes:  —  Sir  Ifaac  Newton  the  celebrated 
Founder  of  the  Newtonian  Pbilofophy  :  —  Dodor  Cor.yers  Middlcton,  who  has  propagated  his  Memory 
by  his  Life  of  Marcus  Tnllius  Cicero ;  and  a  free  Enquiry  into  the  Miracuhus  PozverSy  i^c.  and  fever.'.I 
other  learned  Pieces  :  —  Dodtor  Richard  Eentley,  of  whom  before,  was  Mafter  of  this  College. 

The  Library  is  reputed  the  greateft  of  its  Kind  in  the  three  Kingdoms :  and  both  its  Floor  an.i  Stair- 
Cafes  are  moft  elegantly  laid  with  black  r.i;d  white  Marble;  and  it  is  wej!  furnifhed  with  a  grand  Col- 

kilton 


xxxviii  The     INTRODUCTION. 

Icflion  of  fcarcc  and  valuable  Books  in  Print  and  Manufcript,  btfidcs  other  Curiofitiej,  all  mofl  beau- 
.tifully  clafled. 

Here  is  alfo  an  Obfervatory  well  fituated  and  furnifhcd,  with  a  Variety  of  Inftruments  for  Obfcrvaticn. 

15.  Emanuel  College  was  founded  by  IVdtcr  Mildmay  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  upon  the  Site  ot 
an  ancient  Monaftay  of  Dominican  Friars,  founded  in  1280  by  Alice  Wife  to  Robert  Vcre,  Earl  of 
Oxford.  This  Monaftcry  being  dillblved  by  Houy  VIII.  it  became  the  Dwelling  Houle  of  Mr-  Sber- 
ivood  a  private  Gentleman,  who  purchafed  it  of  the  Crown,  and  afterwards  ibid  the  Prcmifcs  to  Sir 
/^;/iftr  aforefaid. 

Sir  IValter  obtained  a  Charter  to  incorporate  this  Purchafe  by  the  Name  of  Emmiuel  College  to  the 
Glory  of  (tod,  in  the  Year  1584.,  and  placed  in  it  a  Maf^cr,  three  Fellows,  arid  four  Scholaj's,  intended 
for  a  Nurfcry  of  Pinitans,  to  which  Sir  IValtcr  was  much  addifted. 

This  Houfe  ;cceived  in  courfe  of  Time  fuch  Beiiefadlions,  that  we  now  find  in  it  a  Ma{ler,  fifteen 
}*'ellows,  fifty  Schol.irfliips,  ten  Sizars,  and  thirty-l'even  Exhibitioners  ;  and  a  very  good  Library  well 
claficd  and  ftocked  with  Books,  i^c. 

William  Sandcrcfi,  Archbifhop  of  Ccinlerlury,  was  Mafter  of  this  College;  befidcs  w'lom  this  So- 
rietf  has  fent  oft"  ilve  Bifhops  to  the  Church  of  England,  and  two  Bifbops  to  the  Church  of  Irelmid. 

Bifliop  Hall,  that  pious  and  learned  Divine,  who  was  at  the  Synod  of  Dort,  ajid  publifhed  many 
Pieces  in  Divinity:  —  Samuel  Cyadick,  B.  D.  Author  of  the  Harmony  of  the  Evangeliits  :  —  Matthe-M 
Poole,  Author  of  the  Syriopfis  :  —  Bifliop  Kidder,  whofe  Memory  is  revered  for  his  Piety  an  1  learned 
\Vorks  ;  —  JVilliam  Eyre  the  famous  Hcbrecian :  —  Samuel  Fojicr,  Jjlronomy  Profeffor  of  Grc/ham,  and 
Author  of  the  life  of  the  ^tadrant :  —  Sir  Robert  Twyfden,  Bart,  an  excellent  Antiquary,  and  Author 
of  the  Hiftorical  Defence  of  the  Church  of  England :  —  Sir  JVilliam  Temple,  Bart,  the  great  Statefman 
and  pjiibaflador  :  —  Anthony  Blachvall,  Author  of  Sacred  Claffics,  and  the  late  Doftor  Nathaniel  Mar- 
Jliall  the  ingenious  Tranflator  of  St,  Qyprian's  Works,  and  Author  of  a  Difcourfe  on  the  Penitential 
Dijcipline  of  the  primitive  Church. 

16.  Sidney-S''Jpx-Cc/llcge  is  built  upon  the  Site  of  an  ancient  Convent  of  Fr'ancifcan,  or  Grey  Frian  ; 
wherein  the  yearly  Aflcmblies  of  the  Univerfity  were  formerly  kept. 

This  Convent  being  difToIved  at  the  Reformation  from  Popery,  was  given  by  Henry  VIII.  to  Trinity 
College  ;  from  whom  the  Executors  of  Lady  Frances  Sidney,  Countefs  of  Suf/ex,  Widow  of  Thomas 
Rackliffe,  third  Earl  of  Suffex,  purchafed  it  in  Fee  Fartn,  under  the  Authority  of  an  Aft  of  Parliament 
obtained  for  that  Purpofe ;  and  thereupon,  purlijant  to  the  Will  of  the  faid  Lady  Frances  built  a  College 
by  the  Name  of  Sidney  SuJ/ex,  for  the  Maintenance  of  feven  Fellows,  and  ten  Scholars,  A.  D.  1596. 
And  by  future  Benefadions  v/e  find  the  Addition  of  ten  Fellowfhips,  fixteen  Scholarfhips,  and  eight 
Exhibitioners,  at  leaft ,  though  the  prcfent  Members  do  not  exceed  eight  Fellows,  ten  Scholars,  and  two 
Exhibitioners,  befides  Servants. 

Here  is  a  Foundation  for  a  Hebrew  Lefture,  and  another  for  a  Mathematical  Lefture  within  the 
Colleg;e. 

Hence  have  been  advanced,  one  to  the  Archbifhoprick  of  Artnagh  in  Ireland ;  three  to  Bifliopricks 
in  England;  one  to  Sodor  and  Man ;  and  one  to  a  Biflioprick  in  Ireland. 

Amongi^  the  learned  Members  of  this  ^ociety  we  have  Archbifhop  5rp«/W/,  a  celebrated  Writer  in 
Divinity  :  —  Seth  Ward  one  of  the  moft  cffeemed  Mathematicians  and  Divines  of  his  Time  :  —  Sir 
fohn  Ent,  Knt.  M.  D.  Prcfident  of  the  College  of  Phyficians  :  —  William  Wollafton,  the  Author 
ct  the  Religion  of  Nature  delineated  ;  to  whom  may  be  added  Thomas  Woclftan,  whofe  crazy  Dil'courfes 
on  our  Saviour's  Miracles,  have  blafled  that  good  Charaftcr,  which  he  had  before  jultly  dcfcrved  for 
his  well  knov/n  Parts  in  Literature. 

Flere  is  a  pretty  Library  well  filled  with  ufeful  Books. 

The  Foundations  for  Public  LcSlures  in  this  Univerfity  are, 

I.  The  LzAy Margaret's,  who  was  Foundrefs  of  Chrifts  and  St.  John's  CoWzges. 

1.  Lady  Margaret^  Sermon.  It  was  inftituted  to  inftruct  the  Ignorant  not  only  in  and  about  Cam- 
hidgc  but  in  many  other  Places.  Butfince  learned  Preachers  have  abounded  in  thofe  Parts,  this  Infti- 
tution  is  exchanged  for  a  Latin  Sermon,  called  Concio  ad  Clerum  before  the  Univerfity,  the  Day  before 
the  Term  begins ;  and  for  others  in  Englijh  at  ftated  limes  before  that  learned  Body  in  the  Church  of 
Great  St.  .Mary's.  The  Preachers  by  the  Charter  ought  to  be  chofen  every  Year :  But  this  Choice  has 
alfo  fufi'crcd  an  Alteration  ;  being  now  chofen  every  three  Years. 

3.  Regius  Profejorjhip  in  Divinity  foundfd  by  King  Henry  VIII.  for  the  Benefit  of  Bachelors  in  Di- 
vinity and  M.nftcrs  of  Arts, 

4.  King's 


The     INTRODUCTION.  xxxix 

4.  Kii?g's  Lam  Profcflbrfliip,  for  the  Benefit  of  a]]  Students  in  Law ;  and  of  the  fame  Royal  Foun- 
dation. 

5.  King's  Profefforfliip  of  Phyfic,  founded  alfo  by  King  Henry  VIII. 

6.  King^s  Hebrew  Profefl'orfliip,  founded  by  the  laid  King  Henry  VIII. 

7.  King's  Greek  ProfefTorfhip  of  the  lame  Foundation.  Thotnas  Smith  and  ydn  Cheke,  the  fecond 
and  third  Profedbrs,  undertook  to  reform  the  corrupt  Pronunciation,  which  then  prevailed  of  the  Greek 
Lan2;uage.  But  Biihop  Gardiner,  the  Chancellor,  in  his  own  Name  and  in  the  Name  of  the  Senate,  for- 
bid them  by  a  public  Order  to  proceed  in  their  new  Method  (which  was  proved  to  be  the  ancient  and 
true  way  of  pronouncing  Greek.)  In  this  order  it  is  faid  ^lifquis  no/tram  poteftatem  agmj'cis  J'onosLite- 
ris,  five  Gracis,  five  Latinis,  ab  ufu  Publico  prafcntis  fectili  alienos,  frivato  judicio,  ajffingere  ne  atideto. 
i.  e.  "  Of  all  who  acknowledge  my  Authority,  let  none  dare  to  give  Sounds  according  to  his  own  pri- 
"  vate  Judgment,  different  from  the  Cuftom  of  the  prefent  Age,  to  Letters  either  Greek  or  Latin." 
Again,  )),  (,  V,  U7J0  eodemque  Jono  cxprimito,  i.  e.  "  Exprefs  the  Gr^^X'  Letter  »i,  i,  v."  And  the 
whole  Order  runs  in  the  fame  Strain.  To  which  they  were  obliged  to  fubmit  till  his  Authority  fubfided, 
and  the  Reformation  of  Language  was  introduced  with  the  Purity  of  Religion. 

8.  yfr^^/c  ProfefTorfhip.  This  was  founded  in  1632  by  ^11  Thomas  Adams,  Bart,  with  a  Salary  of 
40  /.  per  Annu7n  to  be  paid  by  the  Company  of  Drapers  of  London.  It  is  for  the  Benefit  of  Majters 
of  Arts. 

g.  Mathematical'?toiz^ox^\^.  This  was  founded  by  one  i/^«r)' Zac^iJ,  Efq;  in  1663.  Dodlor  M- 
cholas  Sanderfon,  who  was  blind  from  his  Birth,  enjoyed  this  Profefforfliip  twenty-eight  Years,  and 
complied  with  its  Inftitution  with  great  Applaufe. 

10.  Plumian  Profefforfliip,   fo  named  fromDodtor  Thomas  Plume  its  Founder  in  1704. 

11.  Natural  Philofophy,  commonly  called  the  IVoodwardian  VrokSoxfti\\),  founded  by  T>o&or  John 
Woodward,  M.  D.  at  150/.  per  Annum  for  Salary  and  to  purchafe  Foffils. 

12.  Profefforfliip  for  Modern  Hiftory  and  Modern  Languages.  This  was  founded  by  the  late  King 
George  I.  in  1724,  with  a  Salary  of  400  /.  per  Annum. 

13.  Ci7//^//?/(r<?/ Profefforfliip.  This  Foundation  was  made  in  the  beginning  of  this  Century  and  its 
Salary  was  augmented  by  Doctor  Thomas  Smith  its  firft  Profeffor,  who  died  A.  D.  1707. 

14.  Profefforjhip  of  Hiftory.  This  was  founded  by  Fiilke  Greville,  Lord  Broke  and  Knight  of  the  Gar- 
ter, with  a  Salary  of  100/.  per  Annum.  The  firfl:  Profeflbr  was  Dodor  Ifaac  Dorifaus,  affaflinated  in 
Holland  for  being  concerned  in  the  Murder  of  King  Charles  I. 

15.  Aftronomy  Profefforfliip.  This  was  founded  no  longer  ago  than  in  1749  by  Thomas  Lowndes  of 
Overton  in  Chejhire,  Efq;  with  a  Salary  of  100/.  per  Annum. 

Here  are  alio  Profeflbrfhips  in  Muftc  founded  in  1684  ;  of  Chemiftry,  in  1705  ;  of  Anatomy,  1707  ; 
and  of  Botany  in ,    all  by  the  Univerfity,  but  without  Salaries. 

It  is  obferved,  that,  notwithftanding  there  are  not  fo  many  Colleges  in  Cambridge,  as  in  Oxford,  the 
Number  of  Students  are  nearly  upon  a  Par:  and  the  State  of  Learning  is  molt  flourifliing  in  both 
Univerfities. 

Scotland  the  Northern  Kingdom  inthelflandof  Great  Britain  contains  iowxllnmcrfities,  viz. 

The  Vniverfity  of  St.  Andrew's,  which  was  inftituted  by  the  Interefl:  of  Bifhop  Henry  IVardlow^ 
A.  D.  Iti2,  with  very  ample  Privileges. 

It  was  originally  governed  by  a  Chancellor,  who  was  the  Archbifliop  for  the  Time  being.  But  fince 
the  Eft:ablifliment  of  Prefl>ytery  in  that  Kingdom,  the  Government  is  committed  to  a  Re£lor  chofen  an- 
nually from  amongfl:  the  Heads  of  the  Colleges,  and  invefted  with  the  Power  and  Authority  of  the 
Vice-Chancellor  in  the  Englijlj  Univerfities. 

Here  are  three  Colleges,  viz. 

St.  Salvator's,  founded  by  James  Kennedy  Archbifliop  of  St.  Andretvs,  and  endowed  by  him  for  the 
Maintenance  of  a  Provoft,  Mafters  and  Profeffors,  viz.  a  Doftor,  Batchelor  and  Licentiate  in  Divi- 
nity ;  four  Profeffors  in  Philofophy,  and  eight  Poor  Scholars,  called  Surfers,  to  be  inftru(aed^ri7//V. 

St.  Leonard's  College,  founded  by  John  Hepburn,  Prior  of  St.  Andrews,  A.  D.  1524,  who  endowed 
it  with  Revenues  for  the  Maintenance  of  a  Principal  or  Warden,  who  muft  be  a  Doctor  in  Divinity; 
four  Profeffors  called  Regents,  and  eight  Poor  Scholars. 

Sir  John  Sott  did  afterwards  add  a  Profeffor  of  Philofophy  with  a  handfome  Stipend,  and  favoured  it 
with  other  Benefaftions. 

St.  Mary's  College  is  the  Monument  of  Archbifliop  Beaton's  Regard  for  Literature.  He  founded 
this  College  in  1536,  and  endowed  it  with  a  Maintenance  for  two  Profeffors  in  Divinity,  befidcs  other 

[  e  ]  Members 


xl  The     INTRODUCTION. 

Members.     Here  is  no  Provifion  for  Philofophlcal  Studies :     But  there  is  a  fine  Obfcrvatory  and  a  Pro- 
fcflorflilp  of  a  Modern  Foundation  for  Mathcmat'ual  Impro\'eiTitnts. 

The  Univerfity  of  Glasgow  was  firft  ereded  by  a  Bull  from  Pope  Nicholas  V.  7  nfj.  Calend  Jan.  A.  D. 
1451,  at  the  Rcquelt  of  King  James  II.  of  Scotland,  and  at  the  Expence  of  Doctor  Turnbull,  Biihop 
of  Glafcow. 

By  this  Bull,  the  Bifhop  of  Glnfcoiv,  pro  Tempore,  was  conflitutcd  perpetual  Chancellor  of  this 
Univerfity,  with  the  Power  of  the  Redlors  of  the  Univerfity  of  Bononia  in  Italy;  and  the  Univerfity  of 
G If »''-':-■-■  vas  to  enjoy  all  the  Powers,  Privileges  and  Immunities,  which  had  at  any  Time  been  granted 
by  the  Holy  See  to  the  faid  Univerfity  of  Bononia. 

In  1543  Kinu-  James  hy  his  Royal  Charter  confirmed  the  Pope's  Inftitution,  and  added  many  ample 
Privileges  to  this  Foundation.  Which  was  followed  by  ano'.her  Inflrument,  by  which  the  Bifliop, 
Dtdti  and  Chapter  granted  the  Members  thereof  divers  Ecclefiaflical  Immunities.  All  thefe  Inftru- 
meiits  were  confirmed  by  fucceeding  Kings  and  Archbifhops. 

The  Officers  of  this  Univerfity  is  a  Chancellor,  who  is  eleded  for  Life,  and  vvhofe  Power  is  chiefly  to 
confer  Academical  Honours. 

A  Reilor,  eleded  annually  in  Comitiii  by  a  Majority  of  Voices  of  all  the  matriculated  Members. 
This  Officer  anfwers  to  the  Vice-Chancellor's  Power  in  an  EngUJlj  Univerfity. 

The  Dean  of  the  Faculty  elected  annually  by  the  ReiSor  and  all  the  Regents  and  Profeffors  in  Senatu 
Jcademico,  or  in  Convocation,  His  Duty  is  to  prefide  in  all  AfFairs  of  Literature  and  in  public  Exami- 
nations. 

Thirteen  Profeflbrs  in  different  Branches  of  Literature  :  The  Principal,  and  the  fecond  Profeffor  in 
Divinity  have  the  Right  of  Precedency;  the  others  take  Place  according  to  Seniority. 

Here  is  a  Library  Keeper,  a  Beadle,  a  Janitor  or  Porter,  and  about  thirty  Burfers. 

Here  is  but  one  College,  whofe  Profeffors  (except  the  Principal,  and  thofe  in  Anatomy  and  Hiflory) 
are  elefted  by  the  Faculty. 

The  Buildings  of  this  College  and  its  Endowments  are  not  inferior  to  any  in  that  Kingdom.  It 
contains  nine  large  Houfes  for  the  Profeflbrs;  a  very  fpacious  and  well  finilhed  Univerfity  Hall -^  a 
common  Hall ;  two  Libraries ;  fix  convenient  Schools  for  teaching ;  forty  Apartments  for  Students  to 
lodije  in  ;  a  Printing  Houfe,  and  a  public  Kitchen  :  Eefides  other  capacious  Apartments,  and  a  Gar- 
den" of  nine  Acres  incloted  with  a  hewn  Stone  Wall,  and  a  Phyfic  GurdeiL. 

It  was  generoufly  endowed  by  the  Founder  for  the  Entertainment  of  the  mofl  learned,  and  fome  of 
the  moft  noble  in  his  Time;  amongfl  whom  is  found  matriculated  in  1457,  -^"dreiv  Steixard,  Dean 
of  Glafcow  Univerfity,  and  Brother  to  James  II.  King  of  Scotland.  And  all  its  firfl  Regents  were  emi- 
nent Clergymen  taken  from  the  Cathedral,  or  neighbouring  Counties. 

But  in  1560,  when  the  Kirlc  prevailed,  this  Univerfity  fuflered  greatly  in  the  lofs  of  its  Revenues, 
and  of  its  valuable  Members,  who  fled  to  France.  The  College  was  almoil  entirely  delerted  by  thefe 
Means,  till  Queen  Mary  in  July  1563  encouraged  them  to  re-fettle,  by  a  Grant  of  Lands  and  An- 
nuities, together  with  the  Houfes  and  Dwellings  of  the  Dominican  Friars  of  Glafgozu,  for  the  Mainte- 
nance of  Scholars  or  Burfers ;  which  Grant  was  a  few  Years  after,  followed  by  another  of  the  Lands, 
Houfes,  Annuities,  f*-.  of  all  Churches  or  Monafteries  found  in  Glafgow. 

King  James,  her  Son,  not  only  confirmed  thefe  Donations,  but  gave  to  this  College  the  Tythcs  of 
the  Parifhes  of  Govan,  Renfrew  and  Kilbridge ;  which  Gifts  were  confirmed  by  Parliament. 

To  thefe  let  us  add  the  Donations  or  Eenefadlions 
Of  the  Reverend  Mr.  Zachary  Boyle         •  ■  1 600/.  Sterling. 

—  JVilliamV.a.r\  oi  Dondenal  — —  bo  per  Annum. 

—  Ann  Dutchefs  of  Hamilton  »  '  1 000 

—  King  IViUiam  III.  ——  ■  300  per  Annum, 

—  Queen  Anne  •  210  per  Annum, 

—  KingGeorgel.  a  handfome  Fund  for  a  Profeffor  in  £iT/^^/- 
cal  Hijhry 

Mr.  John  Snell  four  Sholarfhips  at  40 /.  per  Annum,  each  to 

be  fen;  to  Baliol  College  Oxon. 

—  The  late  Duke  of  Chandos  for  building  a  Library  ■         500  /.  Sterling. 

—  Mr.  y«A«  y/rr  for  buying  of  Books  ■  500/. 

—  Mt.  John  Sterling  ioxDMo  ■      •  • 165/. 

t  .  The 


The    INTRODUCTION.  xli^ 

The  Schdarsof  Glafgovj  wear  Red  Gowns,  while  they  are  Under-graduates ;  and  the  ProfcfTors  wear 

black  GowiiSy  like  thofe  of  Doftors  of  Civil  Laiu. 

T-he  University  of  Aberdeen,  by  fomc  called  the  Car'oUne  Univerfity,  was  erected  by  the  Bull  of 
Pope  JUxander  Vl.  dated  4  id.  February,  A  D.  1494,  at  the  Inflance  of  King  Jatnes  IV.  in  the 
City  of  Old  Jl>,;rdecn  by  the  Stile  of  Vnivcrfitas  fludil  geiui  alls,  i.  e.  an  Univerfity  for  the  Study  of 
Divinity,  the  Canon  3.nd  Civil  Laivs.  Medicine,  Philofophy,  unA  all  Liberal  Arts  Tind  Sciences;  with  the 
Privik-tjcs,  ts'c  of  the  UnivLifities  of  Paris  and  Bononia,  and  all  other  Univeifitics.  Whicli  the  King 
himfelf  confirmed  by  his  Royal  Charter. 

But  Bifliop  Elpl/mjion  is  to  be-efteemed  its  Founder.  For  it  is  to  his  Generofity  this  Univerfity  owes 
the  firft  liitablifhments  for  forty-two  Undtors,  Profeflbrs,  Mafters  and  Students,   viz. 

Four  Dollars,  one  in  Divinity  and  Principal  of  tlic  vvhole  Collfge ;  one  in  Common  Law,  one  in 
Civil  Laxv ;  and  one  in  Medicine.    ■ 

Eight  Majlers  of  Arts  ;  one  to  be  Sub-Principal;  the  fecond  Trofeflbr  in  Humanity;  the  other  Jix  to 
be  Students  of  Divinity.  Out  of  thel'e  were  to  be  chofen  the  Rege  ts,  who  together  with  the  Sub- 
Principal  were  enjoined  to  teach  Philofophy  and  the  Arts. 

Tiiree  Bachelors ;  two  to  ftudy  the  Civil  Law;  and  one  the  Canon  Law. 

Thirteen  Students  in  Phitcf:phy  and  Arts. 

Eight  Prebendary  Priefis  or  Chaplains,  viz.  a  Chantor,  a  Sacrijl,  an  Organijt,  and  five  Choir 
Chaplains. 

Six  Singing  Boys  to  aflift  the  Friefts  at  Divine  Service. 

Thus  flood  the  Conditio  n  of  this  Seat  of  Learning,  confidered  only  as  one  Society  by  the  Name  of 
King's  College  in  Old  Aberdeen,  when 

George  Earl  Marefchal  in  the  Year  1593  founded  another  or  College  Society  by  the  Name  of  the 
Marejchal  College,  and  endowed  it  for  the  Maintenance  of  a  Principal,  three  Regents  to  teach  the  Lan- 
guages and  Philofophy,  fix  Burfers,  a  l-teward,   Butler  and  Cook. 

The  Government  was  ordained  to  be  in  the  Power  of  a  Chancellor,  Re£lor,  Dean  of  the  Faculty, 
and  four  Aireflbrs  ;   the  P.eftor  to  be  chofen  annually  by  all  the  Members  of  the  Univerfity. 

This  College  continued  in  this  Form  as  a  diftindt  Univerfity  from  King's  College  in  Old  Aberdeen  till 
King  Chm-les  I.  in  the  laft  Parliament  held  by  him  in  Scotland,  united  them  by  the  Name  of  the  Caro- 
line Univerfity,  and  annexed  to  them  the  Revenues  of  the  Bifliopritk  of  Aberdeen.     But 

This  Royal  A£l:  was  reverfed  at  the  Redoration  of  King  Charles  II.  when  the  Parliament,  in  i66r 
put  the  two  Colleges  again  upon  their  original  Foundation  of  two  Ueiverfities:  fincc  which  Time  this 
College  has  been  augmented  bv  feveral  Benefadlions,  which  have  encreafed  the  Number  of  Burfers, 
and  (befides  the  Magiftrates)  the  Marefchal  College  confifls  of  a  Principal,  a  Profeflbr  of  Divinity,  another 
of  Medicine,  another  of  Mathetnaticks,  three  Profeflbrs  of  Philofophy,  one  of  Greek,  and  one  of  Orl- 
tntal  Languages,   a  Librarian,  a  Porter  and  his  Deputy,  isc. 

By  the  P'orfeiture  of  the  Earl  Marefchal' s  Eftates  and  Privileges  the  Prefentation  to  his  Founda- 
tion of  the  Profefibrfhips  of  Medicine,  Philofophy,  and  Greek,  is  in  the  King. 

The  ProfeiFor  of  Divinity  by  the  Foundation  is  in  the  Nomination  of  the  Magiflrates  and  Town 
Council. 

The  Principal  and  Profeflbrs  wtdx  black  Gowns;  the  Students  wctl':  red  Gowns. 

The  University  of  Edinburg  founded  by  King  James  VI.  in  1 582,  was  endowed  by  the  Royal 
Founder  with  all  the  Privileges  enjoyed  by  any  other  Univerfity  in  his  Dominions. 

It  was  to  confilt  of  a  Principal,  a  Profeflbr  in  Divinity,  four  Profeflbrs  in  Philofophy,  a  Profeflbr  in 
Humanity  and  Rhetoric,  and  five  Regents;  under  tlie  Government  of  the  Magilcrates  and  Council  of  the 
City  of  Edinburg.  who  are  perpetual  Curators:  and  the  Lord  Provofl:  is  the  Chancellor  of  the  Univerfity. 

The  Advantages,  which  this  Univerfity  had  by  its  Situation  in  the  Metropolis  and  Place  ot  Refidence 
of  the  Kings  of  Scotland,  and  by  its  Royal  i'oundation,  prefcntly  gave  it  a  Reputation ;  and  invited 
great  Numbers  of  Students,  and  excited  many  and  great  Benefadlors  to  promote  its  good  intention ;  (0 
that  in  a  little  Time  the  Uniuerfity  of  Edinburg,  though  it  confifl:ed  but  of  one  College,  v/as  deemed  the 
chief  in  that  Kingdom. 

Here  is  an  extraordinary  Provificn  made  for  the  promoting  of  Learning;   for  tncre  arc  in 

Divinity,  three  Profeffors  ;  the  firft  is  always  the  Principal  of  the  College,  and,  ex  Officio,  prc- 
fides  in  the  Academical  Meetings,  confers  Degrees,  in  the  Prefence,  and  by  the  Appoiniment  ot  thr 

[  c  2   ]  Faculties, 


xlli  The     INTRODUCTION. 

Faculties,  appoints  the  public  Exercifes,  vifits  the  Claflcs,  and  takes  an  Account  of  the  Behaviour  of 
the  Students. 

The  fecond  is  Ordinaiy  ProfefTor,  and  attends  the  public  Schools  five  Days  in  the  Week,  reads  Lec- 
tures in  Divinity,  appoints  Exercifes,  propofes  Queftions,  and  folves  Difficulties. 

The  thh  d  is  Regius  Profeffor-,  whofe  Duty  is  to  read  public  Ledlures  on  Church  Hiftory  during  the 
Term  or  Scfiion. 

Oriental  Languages  one  Profeflbr,  Vi'ho  teaches  the  Students  in  Divinity  the  Hebrew^  Jrabic,  Syriac, 
&c.  without  Fee  or  Reward. 

Fhilosofhy  three  Profeflbrs,  who  have  each  their  peculiar  Branch  allotted,  and  receive  the  Stu- 
dents from  on(i  another,  as  they  rife  from  Logic  to  Phyficks  ;  from  Phyificks  to  Ethicks  and  Mctaphyficks. 

Humanity  one  ProfelTor,  to  inftruft  Beginners  to  read  and  write  Englijb  and  Latin,  and  in  the  un- 
derllanding  of  the  beft  Roman  Authors. 

Greek  one  Profeflbr,  to  inftruft  Youths  in  that  ufeful  Language. 

Mathematicks  one  Profeflbr,  who  ufually  teaches  Algebra,  Geometry,  i^c.  to  three  or  four  Ciafles. 

Law  three  Profefl!brs ;  one  of  the  Law  of  Nature  and  Nations ;  founded  by  Queen  Anne,  and  is  in  the 
Gift  of  the  Crown  ;  Another  of  the  Civil  and  Canon  Law ;  and  a  third  of  the  Municipal  or  Com~ 
mon  Laiv. 

UtJivERSAL  History  and  Roman  Antiquities  one  Profeflbr.  N.  B.  Thefe  three  Profeflbr- 
fhips  lafc  mentioned  were  founded  and  endowed  by  Aft  of  Parliament ;  and  each  Profeflbr  is  chofen  by 
the  Town  Council  of  Edinbttrg  out  of  two  prcfented  to  them  by  the  Faculty  of  Advocates. 

Anatomy,  one  Profeflbr. 

Phvfic  or  Medicine  four  Profeflbrs,  who  confult  together,  and  contrive  the  mofl:  proper  Order  and 
Method  to  teach  Medicine,  and  go  through  a  compleat  Courfe  of  it,  once  a  Year,  in  all  its  Branches  j 
beginning  about  the  middle  of  October. 

In  Seflion  or  Term  Time  the  Principal  orders  divers  Latin  Difcourfes  in  the  Common  Hall  in  the 
Prefence  of  all  the  Profeflbrs  and  Students  ;  which  are  followed  every  Wednefday  till  the  Month  of  May 
bv  Speeches  from  the  Profeflbrs  in  Rotation.  Then  the  public  Difputations  and  Examinations  take 
Place ;  when  the  Candidates  for  Academical  Degrees  are  approved  or  rejected,  according  as  they  are 
found  qualilied  by  proper  Examiners. 

The  Kingdom  of  Ireland  has  but  one  Univerfity,  and  that  confifl:s  of  no  more  than  one  College, 
viz.  Trinity  College  in  Dublin,  faid  to  be  founded  as  a  Place  of  Academical  henming  by  Dodor  Alex- 
ander Bicknor  Archbifhop  of  Dublin,  about  the  Year  1320  :  But  we  don't  find  it  of  any  repute  till  it 
was  endowed  and  favoured  with  the  Privileges  of  an  Univerfity  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  15913  fmce 
which  Time  it  has  given  feveral  eminent  Scholars  both  to  the  Church  and  State. 

The  Province  of  New  England  has  already  adorned  the  Northern  Continent  of  America  with  a 
Univerfity  called  Cambridge,  in  which  are  two  Colleges.  Neither  mufl:  be  pafled  in  Silence  the  Seat  of 
Learning  founded  in  the  Ifland  of  Barbadoes  under  the  Britijh  Dominion,  by  the  learned  and  generous 

Codrington,  Governor  of  that  Ifland,  commonly  known  by  the  Name  of  Codrington  College  in 

Barbadoes,  where  we  are  told  the  Profeflbrs  give  remarkable  Examples  of  their  Learning  and  Induftry  in, 
their  feveral  Profeflions. 

The  Name  Academy  is  alfo  applied  by  the  Jewijh  Dodtors  or  Rabbins  to  the  Schools  in  which  they  in- 
ftruiSi  Youth  in  the  Hebrew  Tongue,  read  the  Law,  explain  the  Talmud,  teach  the  Caballa,  (Sc. 

It  is  become  the  general  Name  of  the  private  Seminaries,  which  the  DiJ/enters  have  raifed  in  divers 
Parts  of  Englandiox  thefiniftiing  the  Candidates  for  the  Miniilry,  and  others,  in  Divinity,  Philofophy, 
and  Mathematical  Learning. 

Even  fome  of  our  Boarding  Schools  of  the  beft  note  in  and  about  the  Metropolis,  have  prefumed  to  dif- 
tinguilh  themfelvcs  by  the  Name  of  Academy,  and  we  have  feen  Fencing  and  Riding  Mailers  prefump- 
tuous  enough  to  dignify  their  Schools  with  the  fame  Appellation. 

We  might  with  much  greater  Propriety  confider  the  Inns  of  Court  and  Chancery  in  London  and  TVeft~ 
minjier  for  the  Study  of  the  Law  under  this  Name.     Sir  Edward  Caoh  is  of  the  fame  Mind,  where  he 

1  writes 


The    INTRODUCTION.  xlili 

writes  that  thefe  Inns  are  the  moft  flourifhing  and  moft  honourable  Academies  of  Gentlemen  that  ever  was 
eftablifhcd  in  any  Nation  for  the  Study  and  Learning  of  the  Municipal  Laws  thereof;  and  that  they  al- 
together, (faith  another  eminent  Lawyer)  make  the  moft  famous  Univerfity  for  the  Profeffion  of  the 
Laws  only,  or  of  any  one  human  Science  in  the  World;  and  advance  itfelf  above  all  others,  ^an- 
ium  l^iburna  cuprejftis.     See  Blount's  Law  Di£i.  Art.  Inns  of  Court. 

Thefe  Academies  retain  the  ancient  Name  of  Inns  from  the  Cuflom  of  our  Forefathers,  who  gave  it  to 
the  Habitations  of  the  Eminent  either  in  Dignity,  Title,  or  Learning  :  and  has  the  Signification  of  the 
Latin  Word  Hofpitium,  and  the  Modern  French  Name  Hoftel. 

The  firft  Commencement  of  thefe  Inns  is  afcribed  to  feveral  Caufes.  Some  Incline  to  think  they 
were  eftablifhed  for  the  Sake  of  the  Public,  who  might  more  eafily  find  the  learned  in  the  Law  on  their 
different  Occafions.  But  it  is  moft  rational  to  give  into  the  Opinion,  which  afcribe,  their  Foundation  to 
the  Cultivation  and  Improvement  of  the  Law,  by  fecial  Conferences  and  public  Leflures  read  in  their 
refpedtivc  Halls. 

We  date  this  Inftitution,  according  to  Sir  John  Fortefcue.,  in  the  Reign  of  King  Edward  III.  about 
which  Time  the  Common  Law  began  to  flourifli  upon  the  Ruins  of  the  Canon  and  Civil  Law  Schools ; 
which  till  then  were  publickly  kept  in  London,  i£c. 

Sir  ''^fohn  alfo  makes  this  Remark,  That  thefe  Communities  for  the  Study  and  Practice  of  the  Com- 
mon Law  are  omni  Univerfitate  co/ivenientiora  et  frcniora,  more  convenient  and  better  appropriated  for 
fuch  Purpofes  than  any  other  Univerfity;  there  being  no  Univerfity  in  any  Nation,  that  can  produce 
the  like  Number  of  Students  in  the  Law  of  fo  ripe  an  Age,  and  of  that  high  Quality,  as  are  to  be  found 
in  our  Inns  of  Court  and  Chancery  ;  in  which  they  live,  not  upon  Exhibitions  and  Salaries,  as  Scholars 
and  Fellows  in  other  Academical  Inftitutions  ;  but  at  their  own,  or  Friend's,  Expence :  where,  befides 
the  Knowledge  of  the  Laws,  they  may  learn  all  other  Accompliftiments  fit  to  form  die  Gentleman,  as 
well  as  the  Lawyer  ;  their  Study  being  de  optimis  Difciplinis  et  Artihus,  that  they  may  be  more  capable 
of  pleading  and  prefiding  in  the  Courts  of  Judicature ;  from  which  Circumftance  they  were  originally 
named  the  Inns  of  Court. 

Thefe  Inns  are  known  by  the  Names  of 

Serjeant's  Inn,   in  Chancery-Lane. 

Serjeant's  Inn,  in  Fleet-Street. 

The  Inner-Temple,  7  r  p;  ,  c,„  * 
en  TiA-jji  T  //  \  In  Fleet-Street, 
The  Middle-Temple,  J 

Lincoln's  Inn,  In  Chancery- Lane. 

Gray's  Inn,  in  Holborn. 

Clifford's  Inn,  in  the  Parifti  of  St.  Dunflans,  Fleet-Street. 

Ihave's  Inn,  in  the  Parifti  of  St.  Andrew's,  Holbar7i, 

Furnival's  Inn,  Ditto. 

Barnard's  Inn,  Ditto. 

Staple  Inn,  Ditto. 

Clement's  Inn,  in  the  Parifti  of  St,  Clement  Danes. 

Nezu  Inn,  Ditto. 

Lyon's  Inn,  Ditto. 

Simond's  Inn,  Chancery-Lane. 

The  two  firft  mentioned  take  their  Names  from  their  being  appropriated  originally  to  the  Lodging 
and  Entertainment  of  Serjeants  at  Law  and  the  fudges. 

The  Temples  retain  the  Name  of  their  firft  Founders,  who  were  the  Knights  Templars,  and  for  many 
Years  enjoyed  great  Eftates  and  a  large  Houfe  of  Refidence  on  this  Spot ;  fome  of  whofe  Monuments 
are  ftill  to  be  feen,  well  preferved  in  the  Temple  Church. 

Upon  the  DifTolution  of  this  Houfe,  called  the  netv  Temple,  and  the  SupprelTion  of  the  Knights 
Templars,  it  was  given  to  Valence  Earl  of  Pembroke,  by  King  Edward  II.  But  his  Eftates  being  for- 
feited to  the  Crown  by  the  Attainder  of  that  Earl's  Son,  King  Edward  III.  granted  the  fame  to  the 
Knights  Hcfpitallers  of  St.  John  of  ferufalem  here  in  England.  And  they  in  the  fame  Reign  devifed 
the  PremlfTes  to  certain  Profeflbrs  of  the  Common  Law,  for  a  Quit-rent  of  10  /.  per  Annum,  m  whofe 
PofiblTion  it  has  remained  ever  fince,  with  this  Diftinftion,  that  what  was  called  the  Nnv  Temple  is  now 
divided  into  two  Inns  of  Court,  known  by  the  Names  of  the  inner  and  the  middle  Temple  j  and  each  of 
them  pay  10  /.  per  Annum^  into  the  Exchequer,  by  a  Grant  from  King  fames  the  Firjl, 

Thefe 


xliv  The     INTRODUCTION. 

I'hcfe  two  Inns  of  Court  are  the  mod  lenowned  and  famous  both  for  thoir  Studies,  Dirciplihe,  aad 
Antiquity.'.":  ■»-•*-•'*  "iV.  *.v-(  -  rit  ,   ;l. 

Lrncoln's-lnn  is  (o  called  from  Henry  Lacy,  Earl  of  i.imoln,  Conftable  of  Chi-flcr,  and  Cufto^  of  En- 
gland;  who,  in  his  great  Affection  (or  tlic  Advancement  of  the  Study  of  ihe  common  Law,  founded 
this  Inn  for  its  Profellors  and  Students.  But  we  read  very  little  of  their  Proceedings  and  fiouriftiing 
State  till  the  Reign  of  Henry  VI.  when  it  produced  that  great  Light  of  the  Law  Sir  John  fortefiw. 
It  is  a  fpacious  Building  confifting  of  four  Squares,  and  large  Gardens,  pleafainly  fituated  ;  and  this  So- 
ciety is  in  great  Reputation  for  the  Study  of  the  Common  Law,  and  for  good  Difcipline. 

Grays-Inn,  once  the  Manfion-Houfe  of  the  Family  of  Lord  Grey  rf  Wilton,  begun  to  be  inhabited 
by  Students  in  the  Law  in  the  Reign  of  King  Edward  III.  who  leafed  the  fame  from  the  Lord  Grey. 
But  at  this  Day  the  Honourable  Society  of  Grafs-Inn  hold  the  Premifles  by  a  Grant  from  King 
Henry  VIII.  in  Fee-Farm  at  the  yearly  Rent  of  6  /.  13^.  /^d.  payable  into  the  Exchequer.  It  confifts  of 
three  fpacious  Squares,  and  a  very  large  and  agreeable  Garden,  much  frequented  by  the  Citizens  and 
Gentry  to  take  the  Air,   and  for  agreeable  Converfation. 

-  The  other  Inns  are  known  by  the  Name  of  Inns  of  Chancers,  being  the  Hofpitia  Minora  or  lejfer 
Hojiels  oi  the  municipal  and  common  Laws  of  this  Kingdom,  for  the  Refidcnce  and  Improvement  of 
Students,  Attornies,  Solicitors  and  Clerks. 

Thus  I  have  laid  before  you  the  feveral  Seats  and  Nurferics  of  the  Arts  and  Sciences  throughout 
the  known  World  ;  To  whom  we  are  indebted  for  tlie  many  and  great  Improvements  in  every  Part  of 
Literature. 

We  flial!  di  mifs  tliis  Subje<£l  by  giving  fome  Account  of  thofe  learned  Men,  who  are  properly  diftin- 
guiihed  by  the  Name  of  Academics. 

Academics  were  thofe  Philofophers,  who  adhered  to  the  Dodlrine  of  Socrates  and  Plato,  concerning 
t^ncertainty  of  Knowledge  and  Incomprehenfibility  of  Truth.     For, 

Their  original  Maxim  was,  I  am  ce? tain  of  n^jthing  \  no,  not  even  that  I  hiciv  nothing  :  And  there- 
fore infifted  that  the  Mind  ought  always  to  remain  in  Sufpenfe. 

This  Doftrinc  to  doubt  and  diftrufl:  at  every  Step,  we  take  in  our  Refcarchcs  after  Truth,  was  incul- 
cated to  his  Difciples  by  Plato,  not  to  deter  them  from  the  Purfuit  of  Knov/ledge,  or  to  keep  them 
fluftuating  always  between  Truth  and  Error  ;  but  to  curb  them  from  thofe  prefumptuous  and  rafh  De- 
cifions  to  w-hich  young  Minds  are  fubjedl  to  in  their  Studies  and  Arguments  ;  and  to  engage  them  to  at- 
tain to  a  more  perfeft  Underftanding  of  Things,  and  to  avoid  Error,  by  duely  examining  every  Thing 
■with  Candour  and  Impartiality*  According  to  the  Advice  of  that  infpired  Writer,  who  advifeth, 
Til  at,   we  proie  all  Things,   and  hold  fafl  tvhat  ive  Jhall  find  to  be  good. 

So  that  Vi'hatever  might  be  the  Sceptic  Notions  of  fome  Philofophers,  the  Academics  only  doubted,  that 
their  Determinations  afterwards  might  be  the  more  certain  and  unalterable  :  Which  I  apprehend  is  the 
only  Method  to  arrive  at  Truth  and  found  Knowledge  in  all  Arguments  and  Parts  of  Literature.  And 
upon  this  Principle  is  grounded  the  Practice  of  both  private  and  public  Difputations  in  all  Univerfities  ; 
before  any  Scholar  can  be  admitted  to  the  Academical  Degrees. 

All  which  is  agreeable  to  what  Cicero,  who  was  an  Academic  himfelf,  fays  ;  viz.  That  all  the  Dif- 
ference between  the  Academic  Philofophers  and  thofe,  who  imagin'd  themfelves  poflefled  of  the  Know- 
ledge of  Things  confiiled  in  this  :  '  That  the  Latter  were  fully  perfuaded  of  the  Truth  of  their  Opi- 
'  nions,  without  putting  them  to  Trial  ;  whereas  the  former  held  many  Things  to  be  only  probable, 
'  which  might  very  well  ferve  to  regulate  their  Conduft,  though  they  could  not  pofitively  aflert  ttie 
'  Certainty  of  them,'  And  he  adds  ;  '  In  this  we  have  greatly  the  Advantage  of  the  Dogirati/ls,  as 
'  being  more  difengaged,  more  unbiafTed,  and  at  full  Liberty  to  determine,  as  Reafon  and  Judgment 
'  fhall  direct.'  Which  alludes  to  the  common  prudential  Maxim,  ^i  nihil  dtihitat,  nil  capit  inde 
boni.  Upon  which  Occafion  the  Orator  and  Philofopher  niakes  this  Refledlion  :  '  Yet  the  Generality 
'  of  Manl^ind,  I  know  not  how,  are  fond  of  Error  ;  and  chufe  rather  to  defend  with  the  utmoft:  Ob- 
'  flinacy,  the  Opiiiion,  they  have  once  taken  up,  than  with  Candour  and  Impartiality,  fubmit  to 
'  examine  which  Sentiments  are  moft  agreeable  to  Truth.' 

After  \o  clear  a  Declaration,  as  this  from  Tvlly  himfelf,  who  was  a  rigid  Academic,  there  appears  the 
greateft  Probability,  That  the  firft  Academics  were  frequented  by  Philofophers,  isc.  who  met  to  examine 
thofe  Sentiments,  with  that  Candour  and  Impartiality,  which  was  denied  them  by  the  Dogmatijls,  that 
ruled  the  Areopagus,  &c. 

ANEW 


1 6m^  «^^*%«  ^^"'^  ^t:^*^t^  ^t^*^'*^  ^f"^  ^f^  ^yf^  t 

0  *^M*  d^^?^   6^}f^^  ^-^c^  '^^^  %'^^  ^^^  (M)^  eW^  «^^*  o 
%  *m'^*  Hsi^v^^^o  Q^^M  ^^%  ^^^  4?^3.  €^^  e^^  (iii<^  *p?^^*  I 

1  ^i^  ^jr^'fe.  ^*'>fe.  ^4-^*^4-^  ^^55*3^4-5^  ^*=fe»  ^2^»^'t&.  Q§^^-49  o 


ANEW 


UNIVERSAL   HISTORY 


O    F 


ARTS     and     SCIENCES. 


COO0><S>OO<?©<&OOO€>OOOOOO<Sj  <><><&  <JOOS>OO<50O00O<S>OO<5OO'S'<^ 


^  L   c  H  r  M  r. 


f^}^^%yP^  LCHYMY  or  Akhhny,  (which 
^JHI  k,)^  the  modern  G/Vt'/f  J  write  Yfn7;^/«;a-, 

fe^        A        ^S^  and  others  contend  that  Halchymia 
ft^  )^  is  the  moft  genuine  Orthography) 

^"^  jUT);^  denotes  the  more  fecrct  parts  of 

iBL)iK^^)5^J*il  Chemljiry  \  this  art  being  confined, 
ift,  to  the  making  of  Gold  ;    2d, 
to  the  difcovery  of  an  univerfal  inedicine,    or  Pana- 
cea •;   3d,  of  an  univerfal dijfolvent,  or  alkahcft. 

How  far  thefe  may  be  accounted  proper  objecSs 
of  our  ftudy,  the  diiuppointments,  which  ail  the 
praftitioners  in  this  art  have  met  with,  will  readily 
certify.  For,  after  a  fucceilion  of  labour  and  vail 
expence,  for  many  ages,  and  in  different  regions, 
not  one  of  the  pretenders  to  this  art  has  been  able 
to  make  GsA/,  or  to  produce  any  one  medicine,  dif- 
folvent,  oxfertnent,  capable  of  operating  effedlually 
on  every  body  or  fubjeit. 

Yet  we  find  the  names  of  very  learned  men  in 
the  lift  of  authors,  who  have  efpoufed  the  ftudy  of 
Alchymy  :  and  fome  of  them  vain  enough  to  imagine 
the  poffibility  of  difcovcring  an  univerfal  menjlruum, 
to  which  fome  have  given  the  name  of  '["he  Philo- 
fopher\  Stone ;  for  performing  the  fecret  myfteries  of 
this  art. 

This  Philofopher' s  Stone,  therefore,  is  the  greateft 
oV^zSt  oi  Alchymy :  becaufe  without  this  menltruum 


there  can  be  no  tranfmutation  :  but  by  cafting  a 
little  quantity  thereof  upon  metals  in  infufion,  it 
will  convert  all  the  true  mercurial  part  of  metal  into 
pure  gold  :  there  being  nothing  more  required,  fay 
they,  than  to  do  that  by  art,  which  nature  does  in 
many  years  and  ages  ;  for,  as  Gold  and  Lead  do  but 
differ  little  in  weight,  there  cannot  be  much  in  lead 
befides  Mercury  and  Gold.  Consequently,  if  any 
body  could  be  found,  which  would  fo  agitate  all  the 
parts  of  Lead,  as  to  burn  all  th'at  is  not  Mercury 
therein,  having  alfo  Sulphur  to  fix  the  Mercurj-, 
would  not  the  mafs  remaining  be  converted  into 
Gold  ? 

Such  is  the  foundation  for  the  opinion  of  the 
Philofopher's  Stone,  which  the  y//f^;iOT//?f  contend  to- 
be  a  moft  fixed,  concenterated  iiic,  v/hich,  as  foon 
as  it  melts  with  any  metal,  does,  by  a  magnetic 
virtue,  immediately  unite  itielf  to  the  mercurial 
body  of  the  metal,  volatilizes  and  cleanfes  off  all 
that  is  impure  therein,  and  leaves  nothing  but  a 
mafs  of  pure  gold. 

Upon  this  principle  many  have  fet  out  to  try  their 
fortunes  in  the  Alchymiji's  furnace  :  fome  have  at- 
tempted the  trmifmutation  of  the  moft  imperfect  into 
perfe<a:  metals,  both//w?-  and  gold,  by  Separction-., 
others  by  Maturation  and  by  real  Tranfmutation. 

They 


The  Univerfal  Flifloiy  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


They  who  proceed  by  the  methoJ  of  Reparation, 
mufl  fuppofe  that  all  ir.fenor  mcta's  contain  a  quan- 
tity of  gold  move  or  lefs.  For,  unlefs  it  conlJ  be 
made  appear  that  fuch  a  Separation  was  ever  difco- 
vered,  or  mndeby  the  Chanijls  in  their  frequent  and 
different  preparations  of  metals  ;  and  that  the  quan- 
tity of  gold  feparated  from  the  bafer  metals  was  fuf- 
ficient  to  defray  the  expence  of  the  operation  ; 
neither  of  which  can  be  affirmed  ;  ijicre  can  be 
very  little  or  no  hopes  of  making  gold  by  this  me- 
thod or  proccfs. 

The  procefs  by  Maturation  is  no  lefs  liable  to 
exceptions.  None  but  mercury  could  be  changed 
into  gold  by  Maturation  :  becaufe  the  principles  of 
all  other  metals  not  being  pure  mercury,  their  abun- 
dant heterogeneous  particles,  and  the  fmall  quantity 
of  impcrfedt  ones,  which  enter  into  their  compo- 
fition,   cannot  be  feparated  from  it  by  a  digeftion. 

Here  Mr.  Chambers  interferes  with  a  fuppofition, 
that,  could  mercury  be  once  purged  of  its  impurities 
by  Maturation,  it  might  eafily  be  changed  into  gold  : 
becaufe,  fays  he,  it  would  then  be  as  heavy,  as  gold. 

A  very  fuperficial  reafon  !  for  weight  is  not  the 
effential  quality  conftitutive  of  that  perfe£l:  metal. 
It  muft  be  duJIile  and  malleable.  Qualities  which 
have  never  been  difcovered  by  the  Matunition  of 
mercury.  Befides  there  is  another  moft  effential 
quality:  The  w«vKry{hould  equal  gold  in  its  fixed- 
nefs  in  the  fire,  refulting  from  the  homogenity  and 
equality  of  its  parts,  who  all  have  equal  pores  or 
interflices,  through  which  the  fiery  corpufcules  find 
an  eafy  paflage,  and  therefore  can't  haflen  its  fufion 
with  the  fame  facility,  as  that  of  lefs  perfect  metals; 
where  through  the  obliquity  and  unequal  pofition 
of  the  pores,  they  meet  with  more  refiflance 

The  affair  of  Al.  Langueille  an  adept  in  this  art, 
about  the  middle  of  the  laft  century,  will  ferve  to 
illuftrate  and  confirm  this  obfervation.  This  gen- 
tleman piqued  himfelf  very  highly  of  having  difco- 
vered the  art  of  converting  mercury  into  gold  by 
Maturation  :  but  when  his  metal  fo  prepared  was 
put  into  the  crucible,  he  was  foon  convinced  of  his 
error  and  prefumption.  For  its  pores  not  being 
in  the  fame  pofition,  nor  at  the  fame  equal  diflance, 
his  metal  evaporated  into  fmoke. 

Let  us  now  confider  the  praiSfice  of  real  Tranfmu  • 
tation.  This  the  Alchymifts  feem  to  have  moft  at 
heart :  and  they  fay,  this  Tranfmutation  of  metals 
is  to  be  done  by  melting  them  in  the  fire,  and  by 
calling  a  certain  quantity  of  a  powder  termed  by 
them.  The  Powder  of  ProjeSiion,  into  the  matter 
fufed  :  whofe  effeils  they  affert  will  be  the  fame, 
«s  mentioned  before  in  the  account  of  the  Philofo- 
pher's  Stone.  The  praflicability  of  which  operation 
has  never  been  proved  ;  and  its  pofTibility  much 
controverted. 

Cardan,  and  fome  others  declare  pofitively  againfl 


the  probability  of  tranfmutlng  other  metals  into 
gold  orftlver.  Becaufe,  as  fuch  a  work  is  not  pre- 
tended to  be  performed  without  a  calcination  of 
thefe  metals,  it  is  impofTible  to  bring  them  again 
to  their  priftine  purity  :  to  which  may  be  added  the 
Generation  required  in  fuch  a  cafe  ;  which  is  the 
work  of  Nature,  and  not  to  be  performed  by  Jrt ; 
and  is  a  bar  againfl  all  Tranfmutations  of  imperfect 
metals  into  the  like  imperfedl ;  as  of  iron  into  Brafs; 
or  of  Copper  and  Lead  into  Tin. 

The  Alchymijls  neverthelefs  are  fo  far  from  being 
difcouraged  by  thefe  arguments  and  their  own  dif- 
appointments,  that  they  look  for  the  feed  of  gold  not 
only  in  bafe  metals,  but  in  plants,  blood,  hair,  and 
even  in  the  excrements  of  divers  animals;  with  as  little 
fuccefs.  Nay  the  great  Beyle,  (of  whom  let  us  not 
fpeak  without  veneration  for  his  profound  know- 
ledge in  Natural  Philofophy)  feems  to  be  of  opi- 
nion. That  the  chalk  or  earth,  which  was  left  at 
the  bottom  of  the  alernbic  after  a  quantity  had  been 
diftilied  and  rcdiflilled  200  times,  might  have  been 
converted  into  gold  ;  perhaps  by  the  help  of  the 
miraculous  Poivder  of  Projeilion  :  a  powder  never 
yet  defined,  nor  pretended  to  be  acquired  by  any  of 
the  adepts  in  Alchymy  ;  nor  did  any  any  of  the'v//- 
cyinijis  ever  prefume  to  fhew  the  manner  by  which 
that  powder  operates. 

This  art  (however  proflituted  by  defigning  Juo-- 
lers  and  Impofters,  or  mifapplied  to  fatisfy  ambition 
and  avarice)  is  not  to  be  rejeifled  with  contempt. 

The  artift  in  his  afTiduous  and  indefatigable  la- 
bour to  find  the  method  of  making  gold,  has  fre- 
quently {tumbled  upon  fpecifc  remedies  or  medicines, 
which  cure  effe£lually,  and  fooner,  a  chronic,  or 
fome  other  dangerous  malady,  than  a  Galenical,  or 
other  preparation  ufed  by  our  anceftors.  A  difco- 
very  well  Worth  the  moft  laborious  and  expenfive 
procefs,  and  more  to  be  prized  than  the  acquifition 
of  a  fecret,  which,  could  it  be  found,  would  only 
ferve  to  gratify  covetoufnefs,  avarice  and  ambition  ; 
the  worft  of  paffions. 

But  it  does  not  yet  appear  that  any  of  thefe  hits 
have  deferved  the  name  of  a  Panacaa  or  univerfal 
medicine  to  cure  all  difeafes  :  though  this  is  fo  fre- 
quently boafled  of  by  ImpoJIors,  ^acks  and  Char- 
Ittans  in  all  countries. 

Here  we  are  called  by  Paracelfus  and  Van  Hel- 
?nont  to  acknowledge  an  univerfal  diffolvent,  difco- 
verable  by  the  art  of  the  Alchymiji :  "  There  is, 
"  fay  they,  a  certain  fluid  in  nature  capable  of  re- 
"  ducing  all  fublunary  bodies,  as  well  homogene- 
"  ous,  as  mixed,  into  their  firfl  principle,  orori-- 
"  ginal  matter,  of  which  they  are  compofed  ;  or 
"  into  an  uniform,  equal  and  portable  liquor,  that 
"  will  unite  with  water,  and  the  juices  of  our 
"  bodies,    yet  retain  its  feminal  virtues  ;    and  if 

"  mixed 


A  L   c  H  r  M  r. 


"  mixed  with  itfclf  again,  will  thereby  be  con-  j 
"  verted  into  pure  elementary  water." 

Van  Helmont  is  pofitive  that  he  was  mafter  of 
that  noble  menjhuum  ;  and  Mr.  Boyle  conceived 
fuch  an  advantageous  opinion  thereof,  onthefingle 
report  of  Helmont,  that  he  preferred  it  to  the  dif- 
covery  of  the  Philofophers  Stone.  For  why  ?  Be- 
caufc  there  is  not  the  abfurdity  in  the  notion  of  an 
univerfal^n^,  thatrefolves  all  bodies  into  their  gene- 
ral Ens,  by  freeing  them  of  the  heterogeneous  par- 
ticles they  were  wrapt  in,  and  thereby  reftore  them 
to  their  priftine  liberty  of  direfting  themfelves,  as 
there  is  to  believe,  that  at  the  fame  inftant  they  are 
thus  freed,  they  acquire  another  form,  without 
the  allowance  of  the  leaft  moment  for  a  new 
direiiion. 

No  one  can  doubt  but  that  all  bodies  proceed 
originally  from  a  firft  matter,  which  was  itfclf  once 
in  a  fluid  form ;  whofe  particles  by  the  continual 
agitation  and  comprefTion  of  the  atmofphere,  the 
diverfity  of  their  figures,  and  the  occult  quality, 
which  direcSl  them  to  their  different  poles,  have 
been  concatenated  together,  for  the  formation  of 
thofe  different  bodies. 

This  menjlruum  is  called  Alkahest,  by  the  ar- 
tifts ;  and  Pan  Helmont  gives  the  honour  of  its  in- 
vention to  Paracelfus ;  who  has  left  this  charadler 
of  it:  "  There  is,  fays  this  author,  the  liquor 
"  Alkaheft  of  great  efficacy  in  preferving  the  liver  ; 
♦'  as  alfo  in  curing  hydropical  and  all  other  dif- 
"  cafes,  arifmg  from  diforders  of  that  part.  If  it 
*'  have  once  conquered  its  like,  it  becomes  fupe- 
<'  rior  to  all  hepatick  medicines ;  and  though  the 
"  liver  itfelf  were  broken  and  diflblved,  this  me- 
"  diciiie  could  fupply  its  place." 

Yet  neither  Paracelfus,  nor  Van  Helmont,  has  done 
that  juftice  to  mankind  as  to  tranfmit  fo  valuable  a 
medicine  to  pofterity  ;  and  perhaps  the  reafon  was 
that  they  might  have,  in  the  courfe  of  their  prac- 
tice, great  reafon  to  doubt  of  that  fovereign  power 
afcribed  to  it,  above.  Be  that  as  it  will,  there  is 
great  reafon  to  doubt  of  its  efficacy ;  becaufe,  as 
he  who  proves  too  much,  proves  nothing ;  fo  to 
afcribe  to  the  alkeheji  the  power  of  fupplying  the 
place  of  a  broken  and  diflblved  liver,  is  in  effecT:  to 
fay,  what  no  one  can  believe,  that  it  could  reftore 
a  dead  man  to  life. 

However  let  us  enquire  into  this  wonderful  work- 
ing menjlruum,  or  univerfal  diflblvent  of  the  Al- 
chyml/ls. 

From  the  known  praftice  of  Paracelfus  (who  in 
giving  namp  to  things  iiuroduced  a  kind  of  myftery 
in  their  found,  by  tranfpoling  or  reading  the  letters 
of  the  real  name  backwards)  we  might  conjec- 
ture that  Jlkabejl  is  no  more  than  a  v/ord  formed 
from  eji  and  Alkali,  which  compofition,  by  mak- 
ing ejl  the  termination,  founds  Alkalhcjl  or  AlcaVeJl, 


or  corruptly  Alkahcjl,  and  confcquently  this  may 
be  fuppofed  to  be  nothing  but  the  alkaline  fait  of 
tartar  volatilized  ;  as  Glauber  imagines. 

Others  feek  for  its  original  in  the  German  word 
algeijf,   which   fignifics  fpirituous  and  volatile ;  or 


n  the  compound  word  faltz-gei/I,    i.   c.  fpirit  of 
fait;  and  thefe  are  fupported  by  this  fadt,  that  fpi- 
rit of  fait  was  the  great  menjlruum  ufed  by  Paracel- 
fus on  moft  occafions.      But  this  opinion  is  over- 
ruled by  the  commentator,  who  gives  an  edition  of 
the  works  of  Paracelfus  at  Delft,  who  afTures  us 
that  the  alkaheft  was  a  mercury  converted  into  fpi- 
rit.     And  fuch  is  the  difagreement  about  this  men- 
flruum,  that  one  judges  it  to  be  a  fpirit  of  vinegar 
from  verdigreafe ;    another  difcovers   it    in  foap  ; 
and  the  elder  Helmont  gives  it  the  name  of  fre  wa- 
ter ;  and  in  another  place  ftiles  it,  "  the  higheft 
"  and  moft  fuccefsful  amongft  falts  ;  which  having 
"  obtained  the  fupreme  degree  of  fimplicity,  puri- 
"  ty,  and   fubtility,    alone  enjoys   the  faculty  of 
"  remaining  unchanged,  and  unimpaired   by   the 
"  fubjeft  it  works  upon,    and   of  diflblving   the 
"  moft  ftubborn  and  untraclable  bodies  ;  asftones, 
"  gems,  glafs,  earth,  fulphur,  metals,    isc.    into 
"  real  fait  equal  in  weight  to  the  matter  diiToIvcd  ; 
"  and  this  with  as  much  cafe,  as  hot  water  difl"olves 
"  fnow;    and  by  being   feveral  times   cohobated 
"  with  Paracelfus^  fal  circulatum,  this   fait  lofes 
"  all  its  fixednefs  ;  and  at  length  becomes  an  inil- 
"  pid  water,  equal  in  quantity   to  the  fait  it  was 
"  made  from." 

All  which  fhews  that  Paracelfus  and  Van  Hel- 
mont, whatever  deficiencies  might  be  in  x}[\€v!  alka- 
hejl,  took  water  for,  the  univerfal  inftrument  of 
Chemijlry  and  Pbilofophy  ;  and  earth  for  the  un- 
changeable bafis  of  all  things;  that  fire  was  de- 
figned  as  their  efficient  caufe;  that  feminal  impref- 
fions  were  lodged  in  the  mechanifm  of  earth  ;  and 
that  water  by  diffolving  and  fermenting  with  the 
earth,  as  it  does  by  means  of  fire,  brings  every 
thing  forth  ;  from  whence  proceed  the  animal,  ve- 
getable, and  mineral  kingdoms. 

If  we  enquire  into  the  properties  of  the  Alka- 
hest, we  are  told  it  operates  in  the  five  following 
ways. 

I.  The  firft  operation  converts  the  fubjeft  into 
its  three  principles,  fait,  fulphur  and  mercurx  ;  then 
into  fait  alone,  which  now  becomes  vol.uile  ;  af- 
ter which  it  is  turned  wholly  into  an  infipid  water. 

The  manner  of  application  is  by  touching  the 
body,  e.  g.  gold,  mercury,  fand,  i/c.  once  or 
twice  with  the  Alkahcjl,  and  if  the  preparation 
anfwers  the  defcription  of  Paraceljus  and  Helmont, 
the  body  fo  touched  will  be  converted  into  its  own 
quantity  of  fait. 

2.  The   feminal  virtues  of  the  bodies  thus  dif- 

folved  are  not  deftroyed.     For,  £,old  acted  upon  by 

B  this 


The  Univcrfiil  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


this  operation  is  not  dcbafed  into  any  other  fait, 
but  the  liilt  of  gold  :  antimony  becomes  a  fait  of 
antimony:  faffron  a  fait  of  faftron,  l^c.  of  the 
fame  feniinal  virtues  or  chara(Sler,  as  the  fubjccl 
thus  converted  had  in  its  original  ftate,  as  a  metal, 
l^c.  where  by  feminal  virtues  we  are  to  under- 
fland  thofe  virtues,  which  depend  upon  the  ftruflure 
or  mcchaiiifm  of  a  body,  and  makes  it  what  it  is. 

Hence  an  actual  and  genuine  aurum  potabile 
might  readily  be  made  by  the  Alkahefl  converting 
the  whole  body  of  gold  into  fait,  and  making  it  fo 
foluble  in  water,  without  depriving  the  metal  of  its 
feminal  or  radical  virtues. 

3.  The  bodies  diflblved  by  this  Alhahejl  may  be 
lendered  \'olatile  by  a  fand  heat  ;  and  if  after  vola- 
tilizing the  folvend,  it  be  diftilled  therefrom,  the 
body  is  left  pure  infipid  water,  equal  in  quantity  to 
its  original  felf,  but  depri'.ed  of  its  feminal  virtues 
Thus  if  gold  be  the  body  diflblved  by  this  Alkeheft, 
the  metal  firft  becomes  a  fait,  which  is  potable 
gold  :  But  when  the  menftrmim  itfelf  by  further 
application  of  fire  is  diflTolved  therefrom,  the  gold 
is  left  mere  elementary  water ;  fo  that  pure  water 
appears  to  be  the  laft  produ<5lion  or  efFe£t  of  the 
Alkaheft. 

4.  It  fuffers  no  change,  nor  diminution  by  dif- 
folving  the  bodies  it  works  upon  ;  and  confequently 
fuftains  no  reaftion  from  them,  being  the  only  im- 
mutable mcnftruum  in  nature. 

5.  Neither  is  it  capable  of  mixture;  and  there- 
fore is  free  from  fermentation  and  putrefadion ; 
coming  off  as  pure  from  the  body  it  hath  diflblved, 
as  when  firft  put  thereon,  without  lea\'ing  the  leaf! 
impurity  behind. 

Such  are  the  properties  afcribed  to  the  Al'~abeft, 
which  is  rather  an  imaginary  than  a  real  diiTolvent : 
a  menjiruum  highly  d:rireable,  but  no  where  to  be 
found  ;  and  though  pofTible,  it  is  hidden  fomewhere 
with  the  philofopher's  flrone.  For,  neither  the 
commentator  on  Paraulfus  nor  Van  Helmont  ap- 
pears thoroughly  convinced  that  Paracelfus  was 
mafter  of  a  real  and  true  Alkaheft ;  the  one  pretend- 
ing that  it  was  fome  mercurial  preparation  ;  the 
other  allowing  it  to  be  nothing  but  the  fpirit  of  fait, 
which  we  all  know  is  far  from  producing  the  fur- 
prihng  effefts  attributed  to  the  pretended  Alkaheft. 

Yet  how  dark  and  myfterious  the  ftudy  of  this 
art  continues  to  be,  the  advocates  in  its  favour 
pretend  to  a  very  great  antiquity.  Some  are  weak 
enough  to  take  A.'am  himfelf  into  their  I'chool  ; 
who  neither  had  neceffities  nor  paflaons  to  induce 
him  to  feek  after  avti ;  whofe  origin  could  take  its 
rife  only  from  covctoufnefs,  avarice  or  ambition. 
Others  go  no  higher  towards  the  cpocha  of  the 


world's  creation  than  to  the  age  cf  Tuhal  Cain, 
whofe  fkill  in  metals  furnifhes  them  with  conjeiStures 
of  his  tafte  in  Aldiymy ;  but  without  any  glimmer- 
ings of  truth.  CJthers  are  fatisfied  with  eftabhlh- 
ing  their  fchool  under  Mofes  or  Trifmegiftus.  But 
thefe  are  mere  dreams ;  fuppofitions  without  any 
authority  whatfoever  ;  for  reither  poet,  philofopher, 
nor  phyfician,  from  Homer  till  400  years  after 
Chrill,  mentioned  any  fuch  thing  as  Alchymy. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  centur^,  (when 
the  priefts  were  eftablifhing  the  doctrine  of  Tran- 
fubfta7itiation,  or  the  change  of  the  fubftance  of 
bread  and  wine  into  the  fubftance  of  flefli  and 
blood,  in  inftantiy  by  the  power  of  certain  words 
pronounced  by  jthemfelves)  Zofmus  the  Panopolite, 
availing  himfelf  of  the  people's  credulity,  at- 
tempted to  perfwade  them  that  he  had  difcovered 
the  fecret  of  tranfmutation  of  bafe  metals  into  gold 
and  filver  ;  and  wrote  a  treatife  to  confirm  the 
fame  under  the  title  of  the  divine  art  of  making 
gold  and  filver  :  which  was  followed  foon  after  by 
another  treatife  from  jEneas  Gazeus,  in  the  fame 
century,  in  which  we  have  this  paflage ;  "  fuch 
"  as  are  fkilled  in  the  ways  of  nature,  can  take 
"  Silver  and  Tin,  and,  changing  their  nature, 
"  turn  them  into  Gold."  Where  then  is  there 
foundation  for  the  opinion  of  Suidas,  who  would 
infinuate  that  the  fecret  of  the  Philofopher's  Stone 
is  couched  in  the  table  of  the  Argonauts.  And 
though  I  would  be  underflood  to  pay  great  def- 
rence  to  the  authority  of  Kircher,  who  is  pofitive 
that  the  theory  of  the  Philofopher's  Stone  is  delivered 
at  large  in  the  tables  of  Hermes;  and  that  Alchymy 
was  an  art  well  known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians ; 
the  univerfal  filence  of  antiquity,  and  the  little 
afllftance  the  Alchymifis  of  later  times  have  been 
able  to  get  from  their  books  or  traditions,  are  fuffi- 
cient  to  warrant  a  diilent  in  this  argument  :  which 
I  fhall  conclude  with  a  caution  againft  the  attempts 
of  impoftors  that  try  to  rook  us  out  of  our  money, 
by  raifing  our  hopes  to  make  Gold  of  every  thing 
we  touch  ;  or  of  our  lives,  by  poifonous  noflrums  or 
quackeries,  under  the  character  oi  Catholicons  or  Uni- 
verfal Medicines. 

They  that  defire  further  light  into  this  myfle- 
rious  ftudy  may  confult  Heliodorus  and  Syneftus 
publifhed  by  Fabricius  ;  BoerhaaveS  elements  of 
Chemijlry,  torn.  I.  and  Norton,  Ripley,  Pearce 
the  BcnediSline,  Carpenter,  Andrews,  Charnocky 
Blo7nfield,  Kelly,  Robinfon,  Dr.  Dee,  Elias  Afh- 
tnole,  &c.  and  a  number  of  monkifh  authors,  whofe 
manufcripts  are  depofited  in  the  French  king's  li- 
brary, and  elfewhere,  written  chiefly  from  the 
time  of  Zofimus  downwards. 

ALG  E  B  RA, 


(     5     ) 


ALGEBRA. 


LG E B RA  known  by  the  name  of  ^n 
Magna,  or  the  Great  Art,  amongft  the 
ancients,  is  an  Arabic  invention,  and 
brought  firftinto^.v/u/i^by  xkuMoors^  who 
fettled  in  Spahi.  From  thence  it  pail  into  Britain, 
before  this  nation  knew  any  thing  of  the  (yllem  of 
Algebra,  written  by  Diophantus  in  Greek,  about 
the  year  800  of  the  Chrijlian  /Era  ;  but  not  printed 
and  publifhed  till  the  the  year  1575,  by  Xylandcr. 

The  Wejiern  empire  knew  fo  little  of  Diophantus 
that  Lucas  Pacciolus,  or  De  Burgos,  a  Cordelier, 
whofe  treatife  on  Algebra  was  publifhed  in  1494  at 
Venice,  never  mentions  his  name,  and  takes  it  for 
granted  that  the  world  is  indebted  to  the  Arabs  for 
the  invention. 

Pacciolus's  Algebra  went  no  further  than  fimple 
and  quadratic  Equations;    in  which  he  was  fol 
lowed  by  Stifelius,  without  making  any  improve- 
ment to  extend  the  Art. 

Thefe  were  a  little  improved  by  Scipio  Ferreus, 
Cardan,  TortagUa,  i^c,  who  reached  as  far  as  the 
folution  of  fome  cubic  Equations.  Bombelli  took 
the  fame  traft,  and  proceeded  a  little  further,  who 
was  improved  by  Nunnius,  Ramus,  Schoner,  Sa- 
tignac,  Clavius :  who  all  took  different  courfes. 

But  Diophantus  coming  upon  the  ftage  of  litera- 
ture, and  being  found  very  different  from  the  me- 
thod derived  from  the  Arabs,  hitherto  pradlift-d  in 
Europe,  Vieta,  in  159O,  publifhed  his  fpccious 
jirithmetic,  and  the  method  of  ex  trailing  roots  of 
Equations  by  approximations  ;  fince  much  facilita- 
ted by  Ralph/on  in  his  Ana'yfis  /F.quatlonvm;  and 
by  Oughtred,  who  in  1631  publiflied  his  Clavis 
Mathematita,  with  great  improvements  upon  Vieta, 
and  with  the  invention  of  feveral  compendious 
«hara£ters,  to  fhew  the  fums,  differences,  recSl- 
angles,  fquares,  cubes,  isc. 

In  the  fame  year  1631,  was  alfo  publiflied  an 
Analylis  on  Algebra,  written  by  one  Mr.  Harriot, 
which  brought  Vieta  i  method  iino  a  more  pniJli- 
cal  form,  and  is  that  which  obtain.s  the  approba- 
tion of  the  learned  at  this  time. 

In  1657,  -^^  Cartes  \vi  his  Geometry  then  pub- 
lifhed, gave  a  fpecimen  of  the  ufe  of  Algebra  in 
that  fcience ;  in  which  he  made  ufe  of  the  literiil 
Calculus,  and  the  Algebraic  rules  of  liar.  ir/t.  A 
ufe  which  has  been  greatly  improved  by  all  the 
geometrical  writers  llnce  his  time,  both  abroad 
and  in  Great  Britain. 

Mr.  Kerfry  in  1.671,  was  the  firft  that,  in  the 
Ev^lijh  tongue,  profeffedly  compiled  and  jublifhed 


T/}e  Elements  of  this  Art.  The  like  has  been  done 
by  Prejht,  in  169.^;  hy  Ozanam  in  1703;  by 
Gwfne  in  1704  But  in  the  moil  mafterly  man- 
ner by  tlie  great  Sir  Ifaac  Newton,  in  his  Arith- 
metica  Ijn  verfalis  in  iyoT- 

They  that  dcfne  to  ("ee  the  improvement  in  this 
Artfmce  that  ^rn  viiil  hod  them  in  Ward,  Saun- 
derfon,   innpljn,   Machaniv,  Fenner,   i^c. 

1  his  Arc  by  fome  is  defined  an  Univcrfcl  Arith- 
metic ;  by  others  The  Art  of  Rcjolution  and  Equations. 
I  defcribe  i:  a  peculiar  kind  of  Arithmetic,  which 
takes  the  quantity  fought,  whether  it  be  a  num- 
ber, or  a  line,  oranv  other  quantity,  as  if  i:  were 
granted  ;  and  by  means  of  one  or  more  quantities 
given,  proceeds  by  confequence,  till  the  quantity, 
at  firfl  only  fuppojed  to  be  known,  is  found  to  be 
equal  to  fome  quantity  or  quantities,  which  are 
certainly  known,  andconfequently  itfelf  is  known. 

JLGEURA  is  both  numeral  and  literal. 

Numeral  Algebra,  is  alfo  called  vulgar,  was  ufed 
by  the  ancients,  and  ferved  only  for  the  refolution 
ol  arithmetical  queftions.  This  kind  expreffes  all 
the  given  quantities  by  numbers,  and  Ihews  the 
quantity  fought  by  fom.e  letter  or  charaiSler. 

Literal,  which  is  alfo  called  fpacious  Algebra,  is 
the  modern  method  of  expreffing  or  reprcfcnring 
the  given  known  quantities,  as  well  as  the  un- 
known by  their  I'pecies  or  letters  of  the  alphabet  : 
which  is  found  to  be  a  great  relief  to  the  memory, 
when  obliged  to  keep  feveral  matters,  neceffary  for 
the  difcovery  of  the  truth  in  hand,  prefent  to  the 
mind. 

This  kind  has  alfo  this  peculiar  advantage,  not 
to  be  confined,  like  the  numeral  Algebra,  to  cer- 
tain kinds  of  problems  ;  but  to  ferve  univerfally  for 
the  invefligation  of  Theorems,  as  well  as  the  folu- 
tion and  demonflration  of  all  kinds  of  Problems. 

A  Theor£m  is  a  fpeculative  propofuion  dedu- 
ced from  feveral  definitions  compared  together,  to 
demonllrate  the  properties  of  any  fubjedt. 

Suppofe  a  Triangle  be  compared  with  a  Parallc- 
logram.  Handing  on  the  fame  bafe,  and  of  the 
fame  attitude,  partly  from  their  immediate  defini- 
tions, and  partly  from  other  of  tlvjir  properties  al- 
ready determined,  it  is  inferred  tl;2t  the  Parallck- 
gram  \i~  double  the  T,  iangle:  This  would  be  the 
propofuion  called  a  Theorem. 

So  that  in  every  Theorem  we  are  to  regard  chiefly 
the  propofition  and  the  demonflration;  in  the  firfl  is 
expreffed,  what  agrees  to  Ibme  certain  thing,  un- 
der certain  conditions,  and  what  does  not;  in  the 


B  2 


latter 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


hitter  the  reafons  are  laid  down,  by  which  the  un- 
(lerfbnding  comes  to  conceive  that  it  does  not  agree 
tiiereto. 

A  Thkorkm  is  either  ««;w>ya/,  particular.,  ne- 
gative., local.,  plain.,  folid,  or  reciprocal. 

The  Univerfal  Theorem  extends  to  any  quan- 
tity without  rcftridlion;  as,  the  rectangle  of  the 
fum,  and  the  difference  of  any  two  quantities  is 
equal  to  the  diiFerence  of  their  fquare. 

The  particular  Theorf.m  extends  only  to  a 
particular  quantity;  as,  in  an  equilateral  right- 
lined  triangle,  each  of  the  angles  is  fixtv  degrees. 

The  negative  Theo'R'EM  cxprefTes  the  impoflibi- 
lity  of  an  afTertion  ;  as,  the  fum  of  two  biqua- 
drate  numbers  cannot  make  a  fquare  number. 

The  local  Theorem  relates  to  a  furface  as  the 
triangles  of  the  fame  bafe  and  altitude  are  equal. 

The  plane  Th£orem  relates  to  a  rectilinear 
furface,  or  to  one  terminated  by  the  circumference 
of  a  circle  ;  as  all  angles  in  the  fcgment  of  a  cir- 
cle are  equal. 

The  folid  Theorem  confiders  a  fpace  termina- 
ted by  a  folid  line,  /.  e.  by  any  of  the  three  Conic 
feflions  ;  as,  if  a  right  line  cuts  two  afymptotic 
parabolas,  its  two  parts,  terminated  by  them,  fliall 
be  equal. 

The  reciprocal  Tn^O'R.EM,  Is  that  whofe  con- 
verfe  is  true  ;  as,  a  triangle,  which  has  two  equal 
fides,  will  have  two  equal  angles;  the  converfe  of 
which  is  true,  Wz.  if  it  have  two  equal  angles,  it 
muft  have  two  equal  fides. 

As  to  the  Letters  ufed  in  Algebra  ;  they 
feparately  reprefent  either  lines  or  numbers  agree- 
able to  the  Problem,  if  arithmetical  or  geometrical ; 
but  placed  together  they  reprefent  planes,  folids, 
and  powers  more  or  lefs  high,  as  the  letters  are  in 
a  greater  or  lefs  number. 

Thus  a  h  reprefents  a  rectangle,  with  a  fide  a, 
and  with  another  fide  b,  which  mutually  multiplied 
produce  the  plane  a  ^. 

Where  the  fame  letter,  as  a  «  is  repeated  twice, 
they  denote  a  fquare  ;  three  letters,  a,  b,  c, 
reprefent  a  folid,  or  redangled  parallelepepid, 
whofe  three  dimenfions  are  expreffed  by  the  three 
letters  a,  b,  c,  the  Jength  by  a,  the  breadth  by  b, 
and  depth  by  c\  fo  that  by  their  mutual  multipli- 
cation they  produce  the  folid  a,  b,  c. 

The  Power,  above-mentioned,  is  the  produce 
of  a  number  or  other  quantity,  multiplied  into 
itfelf. 

They,  who  copy  after  Des  Cartes  diftinguifh 
mod  of  their  powers  by  the  exponents,  firjt,  fe- 
cond,  third,  iife.  But  there  is  a  difference  as  to 
the  names  of  the  feveral  poivers. 

The  yfrars  and  their  difciples  call'  them,    the 
Square,  Cube,  ^aclrato  ^la'iratum  or  Biquadrate, 
Surdefolid,  Square  of  the  Cube,  fecond   Surdefolid, 
I 


^adrato-^adrato,  ^adratum,  or  Cube  of  the 
Cube,  Square  of  the  Surdefolid,  third  Surdefoid,  i^c. 
But  Diophantus,  Fieta,  Oughtred,  and  their  fol- 
lowers diftinguifh  the  names  of  the  Powers  by  the 
Side  or  Root,  Square,  Cube,  ^adrato  ^tadratumy 
J^adrato  Cubus,  Cubo-Cubus,  ^uadiato  ^a- 
dratoCubw,  ^uadrato  Cubo-Cubus,  Cubo-Cubo  Cu- 
bus, i^c. 

Thefe  Powers  are  denoted  both  in  the  Arabic 
and  Cartefian  fyftem  by  the  following  characters. 


Arabic 
Cartefian 


R 

a 


%       16 

c    bq 

,3 


31 

s 


64 


a^  a*  a'    a" 


Bf 


1S6 


S  I  Z      1024 

be       sq 

,.9         n'O 


The  Charaiiers  ufed  in  general  by  Algebraijls  are 
a,  b,  c,  d,  ^c.  (the  firfl  letters  of  the  alphabet) 
(ov  given  quantities  z,  y,  x,  &c.   (the  lafl  letters) 

are  chara£ters  for  quantities  fought,  '  '  ''  '  ' 
&c.    are  characters   of    undeterminate  exponents 

both  of  Ratios,  and  of  Poivers ;  thus  x"'  y  '  z^' 
&c.  denote  undetermined  powers  of  different  kinds  ; 
mx,  ny,  rz,  denote  different  multiplies  or  fubmul- 
tiplies  of  the  quantities  x,  y,  z,  according  as  m, 
n,  r,  are  either  whole  numbers  or  fradtions. 

-|-  Is  an  affirmative  or  pofitive  Sign ;  and  is  alfo 
the  mark  of  addition  fignifying  Plus  or  More: 
thus  «  -|-  ^,  or  3  -f  5,  implies  that  a  is  added  to  b, 
and  that  3  is  added  to  5. 

—  Before  a  fingle  quantity  is  a  negative  Sign: 
But  between  quantities  it  is  the  Sign  of  Subtrac- 
tion, and  fignifies  Minus  or  lefs;  thus  a  —  b  ot 
8 — 4  implies  b  fubtra£ted  from  a,  and  4  from  8. 

=r  and  20  are  figns  of  Equality  ;  thusa^ii  fig- 
nifies that  a  is  equal  to  b.  N.  B.  Some  ufe  =  to 
denote  the  identity  of  Ratios. 

xls  the  Sign  of  Multiplication,  fhewingthat  the 
quantities  it  ftands  between  are  to  be  multiplied  by 
one  another ;  as,  «  y.  b  fignifies  that  a  is  multiplied 
into  b,  and  4x8,  the  product  of  4  multiplied  into  8  ; 
yet  fome  make  a  dot  .  between  the  tvi'o  factors,  the 
Sign  of  Multiplication,  as,  5.4  to  fignify  the  pro- 
duct of  5  and  4.  But  our  modern  Algebraifts 
feldom  ufe  any  Sign  in  Multiplication,  but  exprefs 
the  produft  of  two  quantities,  viz.  of  b  and  d,  by 
putting  them  together  thus  bd 

A  —  drawn  over  the  top  of  the  fum  fiiews  that 
the  fa(ftors  are  compounded  of  feveral  letters ; 
thus  the  facStum  of  «  -f  b  —  c  into  d  is  wrote 
d  X  a  +  b  —  c.  But  others  diftinguifh  the  com- 
pound fa£lors  by  a  parenthefis,  thus  (a  -i-  b —  c)  d. 
-^  Is  the  fign  of  Divifion;  a.s,  a  -i-  b  is  a  divided 

by  ^;  or  thus  ---  denotes  the  quotient  of  a  divided 

by  h.     But  TVolfius  ufes  only  two  dots  :  ,  as  12:4 
I  to  denote  1 2  divided  by  4.     And  inftead  of  writ- 
ing the  quotient  like  a  fradlion,  as  is  commonly 
1  done 


ALGEBRA 


done,  if  either  the  divifor,  or  dividend,  or  both  be 
compofed  of  feveral  letters,  thus  he  in- 
cludes the  common  quantities  in  a  parenthefis, 
thus  (a  +  />)  :  c. 

©.  Is  the  charaiSler  of  Involution. 

yyt  Is  the  character  of  Evolution. 

>  Or  \Zr  are  figns  ofmajority,  as,  a  >  i,  that 
a  is  greater  than  l>- 

<  Or  ~|  arefigns  of  minority,  as  a  <^  b,  that  a 
is  lefs  than  b. 

On  Is  a  charafter  of  fimilitude  in  fome  authors  ; 
and  ufed  by  others  for  the  difference  between  two 
quantities,  while  it  is  unknown  which  is  the 
greater  of  the  two. 

v'  Is  the  character  of  radicality,  and  with  a  line 
added  to  it,  thus  \/  ,  denotes  the  lum  of  the 
fquare  roots,  as  explained  hereafter. 

n/:  An  aftcrifm  fupplies  the  the  want  of  a  term  of 
an  equation,  as  in  this  equation 

/   +  /-;'  +  I  />'  +  ?  I  _  0    the  term  +py  va- 

nifhing,  is  marked  with  *  as  ;i^  *  —  4  />^  +  ?• 

Hence  to  raife  a  quantity  to  a  given  power  or 
dignity  is  the  fame  as  to  find  the  faftum  arifing, 
upon  its  being  multiplied  a  given  number  of  times 
into  itfelf;  for  to  raife  2  to  the  ■^Apoivcr,  is  to  find 
the  fadfum  8 ;  whofe  faftors  are  ^,  ^,  ^. 

Poivcrs  of  the  fame  degree  are  to  one  another  in 
the  Ratio  of  the  Roots,  as  manifold  as  their  expo- 
nent contains  units  :  Thus  Squares  are  in  a  dupli- 
cate Ratio  ;  Cubes  in  a  triplicate  Ratio ;  Quadrato- 
Qiiadrato  or  fourth  Poivers  in  a  quadruple  Ratio. 

The  Powers  of  proportional  quantities  are  alfo 
proportional  to  one  another. 

From  a  given  Power  to  extraH  the  Root  or  Side  is 
the  fame  as  to  find  a  number  :  Thus  by  multiply- 
in?  2  tv/ice,  it  will  produce  a  3d  Power  or  8,  which 
was  the  Power  given .     And 

To  multiply  or  divide  any  Power  by  another  of  the 
fame  Root,  you  perform  it  thus 

To  Multiply. 

Add  the  Exponents  of  the  Faftors;  and  the 
Sum  is  the  Exponent  of  the  Faftum.     e.  g. 


the  Remainder  is   the  Exponent  of    the  Qiio- 
tient.     e.  g. 


Divid. 


'/    X^\\y'>'^"/y'':\Lm   x'^rni 

A     lb"     I    11^'-  A'U 


^m  . —  yn s 


Faiiors  i     .    > 
Prod. 


3      iM     ym      a"      x" 

y     a'-      x' 


X'      y"""  jf" -{- n  am  +  r^" -i- s 
To  Divide. 

Subtra£l  the    Exponent  of    the  Power  of  the 
Divifor  from  the  Exponent  of  the  Dividend ;  and 


Note.  In  regard  to  number  6 ;  all  the  natural 
Cubic  Numbers,  viz.  8,  27,  64,  125,  whofe 
Root  is  lefs  than  6,  being  divided  by  6,  the  Re- 
mainder of  the  Divifion  is  ilie  Root  itfcif ;  and  if 
v/e  proceed,  216  the  Cube  of  6,  being  divided  by 
6,  leaves  no  Remainder,  but  the  Divifor  6,  is  it- 
felf the  Root.  Again,  343  the  Cube  of  7  being 
divided  by  6,  leaves  i,  which  added  to  the  Divifor 
6,  makes  7  the  Root,  &c.  And  it  will  be  found 
in  pra£lice,  that  all  Numbers  raifeJ  to  any  power 
whatever,  have  Diviibrs,  which  have  the  fame  ef- 
fect, with  regard  thereto,  that  6  has  to  Cubic 
Numbers. 

To  find  thofe  Divlfors  obferve  thefe  Rules. 
When  the  Exponent  of  the  Power  of  a  num- 
ber be  even,  viz.  if  the  number  be  raifed  to  the 
2d,  4th,  6th  Poiver,  &c.  it  muft  be  divided  by  2  ; 
then  the  remainder  of  the  Divifion,  if  there  be 
any  added  to  2,  or  to  a  multiple  of  2,  gives  the 
Root  of  this  Number,  correfponding  to  its  Poiver, 
whether  it  be  the  2d,  4th,  6th,  or  any  other 
Root. 

When  the  Exponent  of  th^  power  is  an  uneven 
number,  or  raifed  to  the  3d,  5th,  or  7th  power,  the 
double  of  that  exponent  will  be  the  divifor,  which 
has  the  property  mentioned. 

Thus  it  is  found  in  6,  the  double  of  3,  the  ex- 
ponent of  the  pou'cr  of  all  the  Cubes. 

Thus  alfo  10  is  the  divifor  of  all  numbers 
raifed  to  the  5th  power,  &c. 

Root  is  a  quantity  confidered  as  the  bafis  or 
foundation  of  a  higher  power  ;  or  which  multi- 
plied into  itfelf,  any  number  of  times,  produces  a 
fquare,  cubic,  biquadratic,  is'e.  quantity,  i^c. 
called  the  fecond,  third,  fourth,  &c.  power  of  the 
root  or  quantity  fo  multiplied  into  itfelf. 

Thus  if  2  be  mukiplied  by  itfelf,  the  fquare  4, 
or  fecond  power  of  2,  is  the  produd;  and  2  itfelf, 
in  regard  to  that  power,  is  called  the  root,  o\  fquare 
root  of  4.  For,  as  unity  is  to  the  fquare  root,  fo 
Is  the  root  to  the  fquare;  the  root  being  a  mean 
proportion  between  unity  and  the  fquare  ;  as, 
I  :  2  ;  ;  O  :  4. 

If  a  fquare  number,  as  4,  be  multiplied  by  its 
root  2,  the  produft  8  is  called  the  Cube  or  third 
power  of  2  ;  and  with  refpect  to  the  cube  number 
8,  the  number  2  is  called  the  Cube  root :  For  as 
unity  is  to  the  root,  fo  is  the  root  to  the  fquare  ; 
and  as  unity  is  to  the  root,  fo  is  the  fquare  to  the 
cube,  /.  f.     Unity,  the  root,  the  fquare,  and  the 

cube 


8 


77je  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^;^^  Sciences. 


cube  are  in  continual  proporticn  ;  as,  i  ;  2  : :  4  :  8, 
where  tlis  Cube  root  is  tlie  firft  of  the  two  means 
proportionals  between  unity  and  the  cube. 

Where  obferve,  that  to  extract  the  roet  out  of  a 
given  number  or  power,  fuppofe  8,  is  the  fame 
thing  as  to  find  a  nuinOL-r,  as  2,  which  being  mul- 
tiplied by  itielf  twice  produces  8,  the  number 
giren. 

The  roGts  oi prjtvers  are  exprefied  by  placing 
tills  charadter  v^  called  the  radical  ftgn  over 
them,  with  a  number  denoting  what  kind  of  root 
they  are  :  'I'hus,  the  fquare  or  fecond  root  of  16  is 

exprefied  by  ■v^ifc>,  and  the  cube  or  third  root  of 

27   by    -J  27  ;  and,    in  general,  the  «th  root  of  a 

«  ____ 

raiied  to  the  power  jn  is  exprefled  by  Vam 

When    the   root   of    a   compound    quantity    is 

wanted  the  vinculum  or  —  of  the  rad'ur.l  Jignvcwxft 

be  d  awu   over  the  whole,   as  the  fquare  root  oi 


e^  +  2  f7i  +  />'  is  thus  exprelTed  "^ a' -\-  za  b -^  b'^ 

CbJcrve  alio  that  when  the  radical  ftgn  has  Hq 
number  above  it,  to  {hew  what  root  is  wanted,  t^g 
fquare  root  is  always  meant  ;  as,  v^a^  or  V16  js 
the  fquare  root  of  a^  and  of  16. 

Roots  are  divided  into 

Binominal,  v\  hich  confifts  of  two  parts  ;  as  24 
of  20  +  4. 

Trinomiaal,  which  confifts  of  three  parts,  as 
245  of  240+5,  or  100+  140  +  5. 

jVJuhitwmirialy  which  confifts  of  more  than 
three  parts,  as  2456  of  2450  +  6,  or  2400  +  56, 
or  2000  +  456,  or  2000  +  400  +  50  +  6. 

Real;  when  the  quantity  is  pofitive,  as  xzzr 
the  root  is  a  real  or  true  root.  Becaufe  pofaive 
tjuantitvt  known  by  +  prefixed  or  fuppofed  to  be 
prefixed,  is  a  real  quantity  g-i-eater  than  nothing. 

Falfe;  when  the  value  *■  of  is  negative;  as 
^•— —  5  the  root  is  faid  to  be  falfe.  Becaufe  nega- 
tive quantity,  known  by  the  fign  — ,  is  fuppofed  to 
be  lefs  than  nothing. 

Root  of  an  equation ;  which  denotes  the  value 
of  the  unknown  quantity  in  an  equation:  Thus 
if  the  equation  be  a^ +  **=*•%  the  root  of  the  equa- 
tion is  the  fquare  root  of  (7,  and  that  oib,  exprefled 
thus  v'  (<J*  +  i^) 

Thefe  explications  premifed,  let  us  proceed  to 
Diew  the  method  of  performing  the  feveral  opera- 
tions in  Algebra. 

The  Operations  are  perfonned  by  Addition^ 
Subtrai?ion,  Multiplication,  Divifton,  Involution^ 
Evolution,  Fraction,  Equation,  fluxion,   &c. 

By  Addition. 

Addition  in  Algebra  is  the  connefling  or  writ- 
ing into  one  fum  all  the  letters  or  numbers,  to  be 
t 


added,  with  their  proper  figns,  +  or  -»;  as  a  and 
b  make  a-\-b,  a  and  —  b  make  a  —  b  ;  —  a  and 

—  b  make  —  a  —  b;  ya  and  g  a  make  y  a-\-ga  ; 

—  a  >/  ac  and  bi^ ac  —  a-y  a  c  +  b\/a  c  or  bt/ae 

—  a  >ya  c;  it  not  fignifying  what  order  they  are 
written  in. 

Addition  of  whole  quantities. 

To  add  fingle  or  whole  quantities  that  are  a 
like,  and  have  the  like  figns,  add  together  their 
coefficients,  to  the  fum  of  which  prefix  the  c»m- 
mon  fign,  and  fubjoin  the  common  letter 
letters. 

Example. 


or 


To    +193 
Add    +     6  a 

To    4  «  +  6 

Add  2  <7+  8* 

Sum  +  25  a 

0  a  +  96 

To    _  2  i 

Add  —  5  A 

To      a  —  5' 

Add  2  a  —  X 

Sum        7  b 

Sum  3  a        bx 

When  quantities  are  alike,  but  have  unlike 
figns,  then  fubtracl  the  quotient  or  coefficient 
from  each  other,  prefix  the  fign  of  the  greater 
quotient  to  what  remains,  and  fubjoin  the  com- 
mon letters. 

Example. 


To      5   (7 

Sub.  +  2  rt 

To  a  —  b  b 
Sub.      3(7  +  2  ^ 

Sum  —  3  K 

Sum  — 2  a  —  4  ^ 

To    +  8i 
Sub. —  2  b 

To        4  a  —  8  i 

Sub.  —  i.a  +  8  ^ 

Sum  +  6 

Sum      0          0 

N.  B.  This  rule  is  pro\'ed  by  the  nature  of  po- 
fitive and  negative  quantities. 

When  quantities  are  unlike  (be  the  figns  fo  or 
not)  fet  them  all  down  after  one  another  with  their 
figns  and  quotients  prefixed. 


To 

Add 


4« 
lb 


Example 

To    +    a 

Add   —  fx 


To     +40  —  lb 
Add  —  8  >  +   4  ;r 

Sum  +  4a — 2^Su.  +  a — 7aSu.  +  4a —  2b —  8  )■  +  4Jf 

When  more  than  two  quantities  are  to  be  added, 
firji,  add  the  pofitive  quantities  into  one  fum;  and 
il^en  the  negative ;  and  then  the  produce  of  both 
fums. 

Example. 


ALGEBRA 


Example. 

To  r  +  5  a  7  To  the  fumof  I 

Add  i  —  8  tf  i    the  pofitive     J  +  14  a 

To  C  +  9  a  7  Add  the  fum  of  ? 
Addl— .     «J    the  negative    J —     a  a 


Sum  of  all  is    +     5 


By  Subtraction. 

Subtraction  in  Algebra  is  performed  by  con- 
nedling  the  quantities  with  all  the  figns  of  the  fub- 
trahend  changed,  and  then  by  adding  it,  fo  chan- 
ged, to  the  quantity  From  which  it  was  to  be  fub- 
traded,  by  the  rules  oi  addition;  and  the  fum, 
which  {hall  arife  from  this  addition,  will  be  the 
remainder. 

Example. 

From    +  9  a 
Subtr.  +  7  « 


Rem,  +  9« —  7  a  or  2  a 

N.B.  The  characters  of  the  fubtra(5led  are  to 
be  charged  into  the  contrary  ones,  viz.  +  into  — , 
and  —  into  -f  .  So  in  general  the  fubtraftion  of 
a  negative  quantity  is  equivalent  to  adding  its  pofi- 
tive value. 

To  fubtraiSl  fpe.ious  numbers  or  quantities  :  if 
the  quantities  defigneJ  by  the  fame  letters,  have  the 
fame  Hgns,  and  the  lefs  to  be  fubtra£led  from  the 
greater ;  the  fubtradlion  is  performed  as  in  common 
Arithmetic. 

Example. 

From         56  +  4^_/=5yZ.  +  4/._| 

Subtradl     26+    d — f=i2jh+ip  —  l 

364.  3^—0     3/A  +  3/>      o 

When  a  greater  quantity  is  to  be  fubtrat^ed  out 
of  a  lefs  ;  the  lefs  mull  be  fubtraded  out  of  the 
greater,  and  to  the  remainder  muft  be  prefixed  tiie 
fign — ,  if  the  quantities  be  affefled  with  the  fign 
4-  ;  but  prefix  the  fign  + ,  if  the  quantities  be  af- 
fefled  with  the  fign  — . 

Example. 

From  iba+tl?  —  ()d —  1(3  lib. -\-2jh — 9^ 

Subtract      19^+3* — i\d      19        4-3      — if 
Remains  —  3  a —  ib  J^-  2     —  3         HTj      +~2 

When  the  quantities  have  different  ftgns,  the 
fubtradion  is  converted  into  addition,  and  to  the 
aggregate  is  prefixed  the  fign  of  the  quantity,  from 
which  the  fubtratSlion  is  to  be  made. 


Example. 

From        ia — 5c-^9^/  =8//^— 5  +  9</ 
Subtraa     ba—%c  +  'jd  —6       —8—7 
Remains    2a+-^c+ibd  —2lib-{--^-\-ib 

If  the  quantities  are  exprefled  in  different  letters 
they  muft  be  connedted  ;  only  the  charafler  of  the 
fubtrahend  muft  be  changed  into  the  contrary  ones. 


Example. 


a  ■{■   d 


From  a  +  b — c 

Subtract         d—eJff 

Remains  «  + A — c — d+e—f       a  +  d — c-f-^+g 

By   MUITIPLICATION. 

The  general  rule  of  the  figns  is,  That  when  the 
figns  of  the  failors  are  alike,  /.  e.  both  -f  or  both — , 
the  fign  of  the  produdt  is-|- ;  but  when  the  figns  of 
the  fadlors  are  unlike,  then  the  fign  of  the  product 
is—. 

ly?  Cafe:  When  any  pofitive  quantity,  -f  « is  mul- 
tiplied by  any  pofitive  number,  -|-  n.  Note,  that  -}-  a 
is  to  be  taken  as  many  times  as  there  are  units  in 
«,   and  the  producS  is  evidently  n  a. 

2^  Cafe:  When — a  is  multiplied  by  n,  then 
—  rt  is  to  be  taken  as  often  as  there  are  units  in  k, 
and  the  produd  muft  he  na. 

2d  Cafe  :  Multiplication  by  a  pofitive  number 
implies  a  repeated  addition  :  but  by  a  negative 
number,  a  repeated  fubtraifiion.  And  when  -f-  a 
is  to  be  multiplied  by — n,  the  meaning  is  that  +  a 
is  to  be  fubtradted  as  often  as  there  are  units  in  a, 
therefore  the  product  is  negative  or  —  n  a. 

\th  Cafe:  When —  a  is  to  be  multiplied  by  —  k, 
then  —  a  is  to  be  fubtrafted  as  often  as  there  are 
units  in  71  ;  but  to  fubtraft  —  it  is  equivalent  to 
adding  -f-  <?,  confequently  the  prouuiSt  is  -f  na. 

To  illuftrate  the  fecond  and  fourth  Cafes  : 

It  is  evident  that  -^  a  —  azzo  ;  therefore  if  we 
multiply  -|-  a  —  a  by  »,  the  produ£l  muft  vsnifk 
or  be  o,  becaufe  the  fafer  a  —  «  is  O.  The 
firft  term  of  the  produdt  is  -f-  «  a  (by  Cafe  ifl) 
therefore,  the  fecond  term  of  the  produiEt  muft  be  ' 
n,—  t2,  \vhich  deltroys  mcre  +  wrt,;  fo  that  the 
\^hole  produ£t  mult  be  +  n a  —  n  az=.o.  There- 
fore —  a  muliiplied  by  -[-  n  gives  —  n  a. 

If  we  alfp  multiply  -\-  a  —  a  by  —  ?/  ;  the  firft 
term  of  the  produd  being  —  nd,  the  latter  term 
njuft  ht^iia,  becaufe  the  two  together  muft  deftroy 
each  other,  or  their  amount  muft  be  0,  lince  one 
of  th.e  factors,  a  —  a  is  o.  Therefore  —  ■/  multi  - 
plied  by  —  n,  muft  give  -f  n  a. 

If,  the  quantities  multiplied  are  fimple,  and  the 
figii  of  the  produit  by  the  laft   rule:    aficr  it  place 


lO 


The  Unlverfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  oj  Sciences. 


the  produ£t  of  the  co-efficients,  and  fet  down  all 
the  letters  after  one  another. 

Examples. 


Multiply 
By 

+  b 

—  2  a      -\-f)X 
-f  4  ^     — ^a 

Produa 

Multiply 
By 

+  ab   - 

~ix 

— 4  a 

—  Sab    — ^oax 

+   3<7^ 

—  5  a  c 

Produa 

+  ^2 

a 

X — i<:aabc 

Multiplication  of  compound  ^lantities  is 
performed  by  multiplying  eveiy  part  of  the  multi- 
plicand by  all  the  parts  of  the  multiplier,  taken 
one  after  another  ;  and  then  colka  all  the  produas 
fum  they  produce  fhall  be  the 


into  one,  and  the 
produa  required. 


Multiply  a  +  b 
Bv      a-\-b 


Prod.j 


Example. 
I    la — 3^ 


aa-j-ab 
+  ab-\-b 


Sum  aa  -f  2ab  -f  bb 

Multiply  2(7 — 4^ 
By        2(7  +  4^ 


t  Saa — l2ab 
bl  -i-ioab — 15W 


prod,  j 


40  a — Sab 

+  8ab—i6bb 


XX — ax 
x-j-a 

XXX — axxx 

■4  axx  —  ax 


Sum  4^(7     o    — ibbb    xxx     o     — aax. 


aa  +  ab —  bb 

a  —h 

aaa  +  aab  4-  abb 

—  aab  —  abb — bbb 
aaa       o  o     — bbb 


a 

a  a 
aaa 
a  a  a  a 
a  a  a  a  a 


P'^I  nof  theRoot  <7m; 

I       f  I -P    I  after  this  form.  \    "  ^ 


which  figures  are  properly  called  Indices  or  Expo- 
nents:  and  Powers  of  the  fame  root  are  multiplied 
by  adding  their  Exponents  thus  a  '  x  a'  =:  a' j 
fl+  X  ai  zza''  ;  a>  x  a  zz  a*. 

By    Division. 

Division  in  Algebra  is  performed  by  placing  the 
dividend,  as,  ab  above,  and  the  divifor,  as  cd  under 

a  fliort  line,  thus  — ; 

Then  expunge  all  fimilar  letters  found  in  all  the 
quantities  of  the  dividend  and  divifor,  and  divide 
the  coefficients  of  all  the  terms  by  any  common 
meafure. 


Dividend 
Divifor 


Example. 

10  a  h  -\-   1^  a  c 

20    a  d 


Here  expunge  a  out  of  all  the  terms,  and  divide 
all  the  coefficients  by  5,  and  it  will  be  reduced  to 


Multiply 
By 

Produa  j 

Sum 

Sometimes  inftead  of  multiplying  compounded 
quantities,  it  is  convenient  only  to  fet  them  down 
with  X  the  fign  of  mulfeplication  between  them, 
and  to  draw  a  line  over  each  of  the  compound  fac- 
tors :  thus  fl  4-  ^  X  I  exprcfTes  the  produa  of 
a  -{-  b  X  hy  a  a  —  b.  Note.  Produas,  which 
arife  from  the  multiplication  of  2,  3  or  more  quan- 
tities, as  (7,  b,  c,  are  faid  to  be  of  2,  3  or  more  di- 
menfions  ;  and  thofe  qualities  are  called  Favors. 

Again  :  when  all  the  FaSlors  are  equal,  then 
thefe  produas  are  called  Poiuers  ;  as  aa  or  aaa  are 
Powers  of  a ;  and  thefe  Powers  are  fometimes  de- 
noted by  placing,  above  the  root  to  the  right  hand, 
a  figure  expreffing  the  Number  of  favors  that  pro- 
duce them  :  Thus 


4</ 

ab  ■\-bb 

lb 
%o  ax  - 


In  the  fame  manner  lb)  ab  + 
a  +i 


■JAotf 


iz  ab 
8  <7*  +  6  ac 


= .     Again  12  ab)  30  ax  —  ^\  ay=. 

and  4  aa)  S  ab  -\-  b  ac  zz. 
and  to  add  no  more,   2b  c) 


■  —  9y  , 


2b 
.  4*  +  Sf 


4  a  a  za 

»-i             %  abc        '  " 
'i  a  b  c  ::z =r — . 

zbc  » 

Note,  If  the  figns  of  the  divifor  and  dividend  be 
alike,  the  fign  of  the  quotient  mufl:  be  4-  ;  but  if 
thev  are  unlike,  the  fign  mufl:  be  — . 

Divide  powers  of  the  fame  root  by  fubtraaing 
their  exponents.  Thus  if  a' be  divided  by  a  ^  ; 
and  b^  by  b"^,  it  gives  the  quotient  i'' — 2=.b^  ; 
and  fo  in  other  cafes. 

In  the  divifian  of  a  Compound  ^antity,  you  muft 
range  the  parts  according  to  the  dimenfions  of  ibme 
one  of  its  letters. 

Example. 

To  divide  a'^  -\-  2  a b  -\-  h'^  you  range  them  ac- 
cording to  the  dimenfions  of  a,  the  quantity  of  a% 
(where  a  is  of  two  dimenfions)  being  placed  firft  ; 
2  ab  where  it  is  of  one  dimenfion)  next ;  and  A*, 
(where  a  is  not  found)  lall.  Then  range  the  divi- 
for a  4-  i  ia  the  fame  manner,  you  are  to  divide  the 

firft 


ALGEBRA 


1 1 


firft  term  of  the  dividend  by  the  firft  term  of  the 
divifor  ;  and  having  fet  down  the  quotient,  which, 
in  this  cafe,  is  <?,  multiply  this  quotient  by  the 
whole  divifor,  and  fubtraiS  the  producSt,  viz.  a^  -f 
ab  from  the  two  firft  terms  of  the  dividend  a^  + 
2  ah.,  and  the  remainder  ab  together  with  the  laft 
term  i^,  gives  a  new  Dividend  <?  ^  +  Zi^,  divide  the 
firft  term  of  this  new  dividend  by  the  firft  term  of 
the  divifor,  and  fet  down  the  quotient,  which  in 
this  example  is  b  ;  then  multiplying  the  whole  di- 
vifor by  this  part  of  the  quotient,  fubtrail  the  pro- 
duel  from  the  i\ew  dividend,  and  if  there  be  no 
remainder,  the  divifion  is  finifhed,  as  is  the  cafe 
here 

a-\-h)  a''  +  zab  +  b^  {a  +  b 
a^'  +  ab 

7b^fF~ 

ab  +  b"- 


But  fhould  there  be  a  remainder  ;  then  proceed 
after  the  fame  manner  till  no  remainder  can  be 
found,  or  till  it  appear  that  there  will  always  be 
fome  remainder,  as  in  the  following  examples. 

Example  without  a  Remainder, 

2a— 6)  6a*  — g6  (la'  +4«^  +8a+i6 
6  a*  —  12  rt' 

12  a^ — 96 
12  «' — 24  rt* 


24  «-- 
24  fl'-- 


-96 
-48  ff 


48  rt— 96  ' 
48  a — 96 


Example  ivitb  a  Rem  ainder. 


a  -f  x)  a'^  +  AT^  [a—  x  + 
a^-^-ax 


2  x^         z  X* 

—r  +  — 7 


&c. 


— ax-\-x'^ 

—ax — x'^ 

+ 

2x^ 
a 

+  2A-'- 

— 

2X^ 

a 
—  %x 

3  2^* 

a 

a"- 

■\'ix* 

^\  &c. 


Where  Note,  in  this  example  the  figns  are  alter- 
nately -f-  and  — ,  the  coefficient  is  always  2,  after  the 
two  firft  terms,  and  the  letters  are  powers  of  a-  and 
a  ;  fo  that  the  quotient  may  be  continued  without 
any  farther  divifion. 

But  in  common  examples  after  you  come  to  the 

remainder  of  one  term,    as  2  a-^,  it   is   ufually  fet 

down  in  the  quotient,     with   the  divifor  under  it, 

after  the  other  terms  ;  and  the  quotient  in  tlic  laft 

2  x''- 

example  vvill  ftand  thus,  a  —  x-\ 

a  -^x 

By   Involution. 

Involution  is  the  raifing  of  a  quantity  from  its 
Root  to  any  Power  affigncd,  and  is  thus  performed. 

If  the  quantity  is  fimple,  it  is  invilvedhy  mul- 
tiplying the  exponent  by  that  of  the  power  required: 
for,  to  raife  any  fimple  quantity  to  its  2d,  ^d,  ^th, 
i^c.  Power,  we  only  multiply  its  exponent  i  by 
2,  3,  4,  tsfc.  and,  in  general  the  power  exprefied 
by  m  of  any  quantity  is  had  by  multiplying  its  ex- 
ponent by  m. 

Example. 
The   fecond   Power  of  a   is   (7jy,=a\ 
The  third  Power  or  Cube  is  a^xi— ^3^ 
The  wth  Power  of  «  is  a'"'^^ —a"  . 
The  Square  a*  is  a^'^'^-a*. 
The  Cube  of  a*  is  «3X4_^.x^ 

The  ?«th  Power  of  a*  is  a'''^". 
The  bquare  oi  a  b  c  \%  a'^  V  c^. 
The  Cube  is  a^  b'  c^. 
The  mth  Power  is  a'"  b'»  c" . 

The  coefficients  muft  alfo  be  raifed  to  the  fame 
power  by  a  continual  multiplication  of  itfelf  by 
itielf,  as  often  as  unit  is  contained  in  the  exponent 
of  the  power  required. 

Example. 

The  Square  of  3  <?  is  3  x  3  x  ^i''  =  9  fl* 

The  Cube  of  ^  a  b  is  3  x  3  x  3  X  fl'  ^'  =  27  a'  3' 

When  the  quantity  to  be  involved  is  pofitivc  al! 
the  powers  muft  be  pofifive  too  :  and  when  nega- 
tive, all  its  powers,  whofe  exponents  are  even 
numbers,  muft  ha  pofitive  tiKo  ;  but  if  their  ex- 
ponents are  odd  numbers,  it  muft  be  negative  i 
becaufe  any  number  of  multiplications  of  a  nega- 
tive, if  that  number  be  even,  gives  a  pofitive  : 
therefore  the  power  can  then  only  be  negative, 
when  its  exponent  is  an  odd  number  ;  thoun;h  the 
quantity  to  he  involved  be  negative.  Thus  the 
powers  of  —  a  zra  +  a"-,  — a' ^*,  —a'+a^,  kc. 


12 


The  Univerfal  HiRory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


Thefe  Powers,  whofe  Exponents  are  2,  4,  6,  &c. 
being  pofitive  :  but  thofe  whole  Exponents  a/e 
J>  3»   5'  ^'^^   negative. 


The  hvvolutton  of  any  Corn-pound  ^laiittty  is  per- 
formed by  a  continual  Multiplication  of  itfelf  by 
itfclf,  as  in  the  binominal  a  -j-  ^. 


Root. 


Example. 


a'-Jf2ab  +  b--=:  the  Sqaare,  or  fccond  Power. 


a^  +  ia'-  6+zai''  +  6'=z  Cube,  or  third  Power. 


Xa 


►4-4a^  b+ba""  b- +  ^  a  b^ -i- b*=  biquadratic.  Or  fourth  Power. 


+  ^+^+  ^  a'  ^^  +  ^«^i^'  +  4fli^*  +  '5' 


/i5-(-;«+^4-io<j^^^+ioa^i^i  +  5  «^+-f-is—  the  ifth  Power. 

Xa    +b 

u''  +  ^a''  b  +  'lO  a*b'-+r:>a'  b^  +  ^  a^  b*  +  a  b^ 

+  «'  ^+5  a*  b'^  +  ioa''  b^  +  joa^  bi-+i;  ab^-\-b^ 
^*  +  (5aS  ^-f-15  a*  *'  +  2o  «^  ^J  +  i5a^  ^+  +  6  ai>5^6  _  jjje  fixth  Power,  &c. 


If  the  Powers  of  a  b  are  required  they  will  be 
found  the  fame  as  the  preceding  ;  only  the  terms 
in  which  the  exponent  of  b  is  an  odd  number,  will 
be  negative  ;  becaufe  an  odd  number  of  multipli- 
cation of  a  negative,  as  obferved  before,  produceth 
a  negative.  Thus  the  cube  of  a—i  will  be  found 
to  be  a^  —  3  «"  +  3  ab'^  —  b^  ;  where  the  fecond 
and  third  terms  are  negative  ;  the  exponent  of  i 
being  an  odd  number  in  thefe  terms. 

In  general,  the  terms  of  any  power  of  the  Bi- 
nominal a — B  are  pofitive  and  negative  by  turns. 

It  is  to  be  obferved  that  in  the  firft  term  of  any 
power  of  a  a~  i,  the  quantity  a  has  the  exponent 
of  the  power  required  ;  that  in  the  following  terms, 
the  exponents  of  a  decreafe  gradually  by  the  fame 
diiFerences,  viz.  unit ;  and  that  in  the  laft  terms 
it  is  never  found.  The  powers  of  b  are  in  the 
contrary  order  ;  it  is  never  found  in  the  firft  term  ; 
but  its  exponent  in  the  lecond  term  is  unit  ;  in  the 
third  term  2  ;  and  fo  increafes,  till  in  the  laft  term 
the  exponent  becomes  equal  to  the  exponent  of  the 
power  required. 

As  the  exponents  of  a  thus  decreafe,  and  at  the 
feme  time  thofe  of  b  increafe  ;  the  fum  of  their 
exponents  is  always  the  fame,  and  is  equal  to  the 
exponent  of  the  power  required.  Thus,  as  in  the 
iixth  power  ofa-{-3,  you  huve  feen  a"  -f  ba^  -f- 15«* 
b'^-i-zo  a^  b^  -i-  1  ^  a-  b*  -\-  6  a  b'  -{-  b"^"  where  the 
exponents  of  a  decreafe  in  this  order  6,  5,  4j  3j 


2,  I,  o,  and  thofe  of  b  increafe  in  the  contrary 
order,  0,  I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6.  The  fum  of  their  ex- 
ponents in  any  term  being  always  6. 

Therefore  if  a  -f  i  is  to  be  raifed  to  any  power 
"I ,  the   terms  without   their  coefficients   will    be 

m      m — I,         m — 2,2         « — 3,3  "i — 4j4  *' — SiS 

a  ,a        b,  a        b  ,  a        b  ,     a        b  ,    a        by 
l3c.  till  the  exponent  of  b  becomes  equal  to  m. 
The  Coefficients  of  the  refpe(£tive  terms  will  be 

I,  w,    tn  X    •,    m    X    — - — ,    X    — ,      m  x 


r:— ; 


m  X 


3 
X  m 


3 

m — 4 


4     -  z  3 

i^c.  continued  untill  you  have  one 


4  5 

Coefficient  more  than  there  are  units  in  m. 

Hence    it  follows    that  a  -^b'"—a"  +  ma"' 
b  +  mx xa        b'^  +  mx x X  a 


b^  -\-mX X 


i3c 


—  X -xa         b*  + 

3  4 

which  is  the  Binominal,  or  general  Theorem  for 

railing  a  quantity,  confifting  of  two  terms  to  any 

power  m. 

If  a  quantity,  confifting  of  three  or  more  terms, 

is  to  be  involved,   it  may  be  difti.iguiftied  into  two 

parts,  which  are  to  be  railed   to  any  power  in  the 

fame  maimer  as  a  Binominal  :    and  by  the  fame 

Rules,   you  may  fubftitute,  inftead   of  the  powers. 

of  thefe  compound  parts,  their  values  j  as. 


ALGEBRA, 


13 


X  a-\-  h  -\-  c^  —  g^  +  2  a  A  +  b'^  +  2  a  f  +  2 
*  f  +  ir\  And,  «  +  fc  +  c'  =  g  +  ^^  +  3  c  x 
«  +  i'+3c^  X  «  +  ^  +  <:'='''  +  3  «^^ 
+  3^3^  +i^+3a^<:  +  6«/'f  +  3^'^f  + 
3  a  c"'  +  3  '5'  f^  +  f^ 

In  which  Examples  a  \  h  -^  ch  confidered  as 
compofed  of  the  compound  parts  oi  a  -\-  b  and 
the  fimple  part  c,  and  then  the  powers  oi  a  -\-  b  are 
formed  by  the  Binominal  Theorem,  and  fubftituted 

for  a  +  ^',  and  a  +  ^^ 

For  the  better  underftanding  of  the  premifTes, 
and  to  afljft  the  learner  in  the  attainment  of  what 
follows,  we  (hall  explain  more  minutely  what  is 
meant  by  a  Coefficient,  and  its  ufes. 

Coefficients  in  Algebra  are  fuch  numbers, 
or  given  quantities,  as  are  put  before  letters,  or 
unknown  quantities,  into  which  letters  they  are 
fuppofed  to  be  multiplied  :  thus,  in  3a  or  bx,  or 
cxx,  3  is  the  Coefficient  of  3  <?,  b  of  bx.,   and  c  of 

c  X  X. 

When  no  number  is  prefixed,  unit  is  fuppofed 
to  be  the  Coefficient ;  as,  i  is  the  Coefficient  of  a, 
or  of  ^. 

In  a  quadratic  Equation  the  Coefficient  is,  accord- 
ing to  its  fien,  either  the  fum,  or  the  difference  of 
its  roots. 

In  any  equation,  the  Coefficient  of  the  fecond 
term  is  always  equal  to  the  lum  of  all  the  roots, 
keeping  their  proper  figns. 

The  Coefficient  of  the  third  term  is  the   fum  of 

all  the  reiSlanglcs,    arifing  by  the  multiplication  of 

every   two    of  the   roots,    how  many  ways  foever 

thefe  combinations  of  the  tv/o  can   be   had,   as, 

-  three  times  in  a  cube,   fix  in  a  biquadratic  equation, 

The  Coefficient  of  the  fourth  term  is  the  a2;gre- 
gate  of  all  the  folids  made  by  the  continual  multi- 
plication of  every  three  of  the  roots,  how  often 
foever  fuch  a  ternary  may  be  had,  ad  infinitum. 

In  Fluxions  the  Coefficient  of  any  generating 
term  is  the  quantity  arifing  from  the  divifjon  of  that 
term. 

By  Evolution. 

Evolution  or  the  ExtraBivn  of  Ro:ts  Is  the 
finding  the  roots  of  the  powers  of  any  quantity, 
whether  fimplc  or  compound. 

This  is  the  reverfe  of  Invo'ution  ;  and  therefore 
the  roots  of  the  fingle  quantities  are  eafily  ex- 
tradted  by  dividing  their  exponents  by  the  number 
that  denominates  the  root  required  ;  for  the  powers 
of  any  root  are  found  by  multiplying  its  exponent 
by  the  index  that  denominates  the  power  ;  confe- 
CjUently,  when  any  power  is  given,  the  root  mull: 


be  found  by  dividing  the  exponent  of  the  given 
power  by  the  number  that  denominates  the  kind  of 
root,  that  is  required  ;  thus, 

The  fquare  Root  of  a'  is  2 1  =  a* 

The  fquare  Root  of  a*  b^  c'^  is  a'^b*  c 

The  cube  Root  of  a*  i'  is  <?  4  ^4  z=  a"  ^;  and 

The  cube  Root  of  x"^  /  2'^  is  x^  f  z  +. 

It  alfo  appears,  from  what  has  been  faid  of  In- 
volution, that  any  power  that  has  a  fofttive  fign, 
may  have  either  a  pofitive  or  negative  root,  if  the 
root  is  denominated  by  an  even  number:  but  if  a 
power  ha\e  a  negative  fign,  no  root  of  it,  deno- 
minated by  an  even  number,  can  be  affigned,  fince 
there  is  no  quantity,  that  multiplied  into  itfelf  an 
even  number  of  times,  can  give  a  itegative  produdt. 
Thus,  the  fquare  root  of  — a^  cannot  be  affigned  ; 
and  is  therefore  called  an  impoffible_,  or  imaginary 
quantity. 

But  if  the  root  to  be  cxtraded  is  deeominated 
by  an  odd  number,  then  fhall  the  fign  of  the  root 
be  the  fame  as  the  fign  of  the  given  number,  whofe 
root  is  required  ;  thus, 

The  cube  root  of  —  o'  is  —  a. 

The  cube  root  of  —  a*  b^  is  —  a*  b. 

If  the  number  that  denominates  the  root  required 
is  a  Divifor  of  the  exponent  of  the  given  powers, 
then  fhall  the  root  be  only  a  lower  power  of  the 
fame  quantity  ;   as. 

The  cube  root  of  «"^  is  a*,  number  3  that  de- 
nominates the  cube  root  being  a  divifor  of  1 2. 

But  if  the  number  that  denominates  what  fort  of 
root  is  required,  is  not  a  divifor  of  the  exponent 
of  the  given  power,  then  the  root  required  fhall 
have  z  fraSiion  for  its  exponent ;   as. 

The  fquare  root  of  a'  is  a\ 
The  cube  root  of  a'  is  a|. 
The  fquare  root  of  a  is  a\. 

Thofe  Powers  that  havefraStional  exponents  ar« 
called  imperfeit  powers  or  furds,  and  are  multiplied 
and  divided,  involved  and  evolved,  after  the  fame 
manner  as  perfeSi  Pozvers  ;  thus, 

The  fquare  of  a  {  is  a'^  +  |=:  a^ 
The  cube  of  ai  is   a^xl  =  af. 

The  fquare  root  of  a  J  is  a  zz  a\, 

,  .  3  ^  ^ 

The  cube  root  of  a|  is  a|. 

The  fquare  root  of  any  compound  quantity,  as  a^ 

-f-  zai?-\-b-,  is  difcovcrcd  after  this  manner.    /VVj/? 

take  care  to  difpofe  the  terms  according  to  the  di- 

menfions  of  the  alphabet,  as  in  divifion  ;  then,  find 

C  2  -  the 


The  Univcr/al  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


the  fquare  root  of  the  firft  term  oa,  which  gives  a 
for  the  firft  member  of  the  root.  Then,  fubtraft 
the  fijuare  from  the  propofcd  quantity,  and  divide 
the  firft  term  of  the  remainder  za  b  +  b^,  by  the 
double  of  that  member,  viz.  2  a,  and  the  quotient 
i  is  the  fecond  member  of  the  root.  JJJ  this  fe- 
cond  member  to  the  double  of  the  firft  ;  m-ltiply 
their  fum  2a-\-b  by  the  fecond  member  b ;  fubtraii 
the  produci:  1  a  h  -\-  b^  from  the  forefaid  remainder 
%ab-\-b'^,  and  if  nothing  remains,  then  the  fquare 
root  is   obtained. 

manner  of  the  operation  is  thus  : 


The 


•  +  2*-!'  +  iV  +  ** 


7.a-\-  b\2  ab-{-h'' 

o.        o. 


X.  b)  2  ab-\-b'^ 


But,  if  there  had  been  a  remainder,  you  muft  have 
divided  it  by  the  double  of  the  fum  of  the  two  parts 
already  found,  and  the  quotient  would  have  given 
the  third  member  of  the  root.     Thus  : 

If  the  quantity  propofed  had  been  a"^  +  2  a  b  + 
1  ac  -{-  b-  -\-  2bc  -\-  c^,  after  proceeding,  as  above, 
you  would  have  found  the  remamder  2a  c  +  2b c 
-j-f'',  which  divided  by  2  «  +  2^,  gives  c  to  be 
annexed  to  «  +  ^,  as  the  third  member  of  the  root. 
Then  adding  c  to  2  'J  +  2  ^,  and  multiplying  their 
fum  2(7+2^-{-<:byc,  fubtra£l  the  produfl  2a  c 
+  2  b  c  +  c^  from  the  forelaid  remainder  ;  and  fince 
nothing  now  remains,  you  conclude  that  «  -f-  ^  +  <r 
is  the  fquare  root  required. 

The  operation  is  thus  : 

a- +  2o/5  +  2<7 <:-{-*'•  +2  ^f  +  <:*/«+3  +  c 

£ I 

2a  ->s-bvi  a  b  -y  2  a  c  -\-  b"-  -\-  2  b  c  +  c"- 
xbJz  a  b  -\-  b' 


2  u  +  2i  +c 


+  c\  2a 
X  c)  2  n 


+  2  b  c 
-{-  2  b  c 


O. 


Another  example. 
V  X  —  a  X  +  {a  a 

XX  —  ax  + 

X  X 


Required  the  fquare  root  of 


.a  a  I  X  —ia 


2X 

X 


—  J«\-'2 

—  laj—a 


ax+  i 
x  + 


a  a 
a  a 


o.         o. 

T^^z  fquare  root  of  any  number  is  found  out  after 
the  fame  manner. 

In  general,  to  extract  any  root  out  of  any  given 
quantity:  firft  range  that  quantity  according  to  the 
dimenfions  of  its  letters,  and  extract  the  faid  root 
out  of  the  firft  term,  and  that  ftiall  be  the  firft 
member  of  the  root  required.  Then  raife  this  root 
to  a  dimenfion  lower  by  unit  than  the  number  that 
denominates  the  root  required,  and  multiply  the 
power  that  arifes  by  that  number  itfelf  j  divide  the 


fecond  term  of  the  given  quantity  by  the  produ£l, 
and  the  quotient  fhall  give  the  fecond  member  of 
the  root  required.  Thus  to  extraft  the  root  of  the 
fifth  power  out  of  «' +  5<j'*  ^-(-loo' i^'+io"^  ^» 
-1-5  ab'^  h'^,  I  find  that  the  root  of  the  fifth  power 
out  of  <?',  gives  a  ;  which  I  raife  to  the  fourth 
power,  and  multiplying  by  5,-  the  produdt  is  5  a*  ; 
then  dividing  the  fecond  term  of  the  given  quan- 
tity 5(7*/' by  51V'',  I  find  /i  to  be  the  fecond  member  j 
and  raifing  a-\-b  to  the  fifth  power  and  fubtra6ting 
it,  there  being  no  remainder,  I  conclude  tliat  a-\-b 
is  the  root  required. 

If  the  root  has  three  members,  the  third  is  found 
after  the  fame  manner  from  the  firft  two,  confidered 
as  one  member  ;  as  the  fecond  member  was  found 
from  the  firft,  which  may  eafily  be  underftood  from 
what  was  laid  of  extra£ting  the  fquare  root. 

In  extradting  roots,  it  will  often  happen  that 
the  exadt  root  cannot  be  found  in  finite  terms. 
Thus    the    fquare  root  of  (-^-l-;*-  ^  is  found  to  be 

+  ,  &c.  &c. 


X" 

The  operation  is  thus  : 


X  '         x-* 


IzHa^ 


+  x' 


f  AT^  X 


•  + 


iba^ 


&C. 


X  — 


A--* 


\ 


—  -2  "^     0-4.       ' 


AT" 

8^* 


64a* 


x° 
'61 


&c.  &c. 


After  the  fame  manner,  the  Cube  Root  of  a'-f-jr* 

•n  ,     r        ,      L  *'        *•'        ?*'         'oj«''* 

wjH  be  found  to  be«-{ —  —. -\.~ — — 

3a*       ga'      8ia*      243-2^' 

+  ,  ^c. 

The  reader  will  find  a  general  theorem  for  extracting 
the  root  of  any  binominal  under  the  title  Involu- 
tion. 

Before  we  proceed  to  Franiom  it  may  be  proper 
to  explain  what  is  meant  above  by  imperfeU  or 
Surd  Powers, 

A  Surd  in  Algebra  denotes  any  number  or 
quantity  that  is  incommenfurable  to  Unity  ;  other- 
wife  called    an  irrational  Number  or  Quantity. 

The  fquare  roots  of  all  numbers,  except  1 ,  4, 
9,  16,  25,  36,  49,  64,  81,  100,  121,  144^  ^''^• 
(which  are  the  fquares  of  the  integer  numbers,  i^ 
2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  II,  12,  i3c.)  are  in- 
commenfurable!. 

And  after  the  fame  manner  the  cube  roots  of  all 
numbers  but  of  the  cubes  of  1,2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  ^c. 

are 


ALGEBRA. 


are  Incommenfurahlcs  :  and  quantities  that  are  to 
one  another  in  the  proportion  of  fuch  numbers, 
muft  alio  have  their  fquare-roots,  or  cube-roots, 
incommenfurahle. 

The  roots,  therefore,   of  fuch    numbers,  being 
incommenfurahle,  are  exprefled  by  placing  the  proper 

z         %  %  a 

radical  fign  over  them  :  thus  \/2,  ■•3,  V S>  '^^■> 
l^c.  exprefs  numbers  incommenCurable  with  Unity. 
However,  though  thefe  numbers  are  incommen- 
furable  themfelves  with  unity,  yet  they  are  com- 
menfurable  in  power  with  it ;  becaufe  their  powers 
are  integers,  that  is,  multiples  of  unity.  They 
may  alfo  be  commenfurable  fometimes  with  one 

1.  a 

another,  as  the  v'  8  and  y'  2  ;  becaufe  they  are  to 
one  another  as  2  to  i  :   and  when  they  have   a 

common  meafure,  as  ■•  2  is  the  common  meafure 
of  both;  then  their  ratio  is  reduced  to  an  expref- 
fion  in  the  leaft  terms,  as  that  of  commenfurable 
quantities,  by  dividing  them  by  their  greatefl  com- 
mon  meafure. 

The  common  meafure  is  found  as  in  commen- 
furable quantities,  only  the  root  of  the  common 
meafure  is  to  be  made  their  common  divifor  :  thus 

=■^4  =  2,  and =7\/a. 

Vi        .  '  Vz       ^ 

A  rational  quantity  may  be  reduced  to  the  form 
of  any  given  Surd,  by  raifing  the  quantity  to  the 
power  that  is  denominated  by  the  name  of  the 
^urd,  and    then    fetting  the  radical  fign  over  it  : 

13  4  5" 

thus,    azz-/'i^^=-i/a^'=iVa*-=i-/a^-=>/a'',    and 

34  s  " 

4=:'\/i6=v'D4=  v^256=  ^/  ioi\=  v^4''. 

As  Surds  may  be  confidered  as  Powers  with  frac- 
tional exponents,  they  are  reduced  to  others  of  the 
fame  value  that  (hall  have  the  fame  radical  fign, 
by  reducing  thefe  fradiional  exponents  to  frac- 
tions having  the   fame  value  and  a  common  de- 

~,         "  -  m  i- 

nominator.     Thus  ^Vrzra",   zni  ,/ a=.  a'"  ,     and 

^a  =.«,    and  7  =  —.   -  =  — ,  .and  therefore 

zr  w 

^a  and    v'tf,  reduced  to  the  fame  radical  fign, 

nm nm 

become  ^am  and    ^a"  .     If  you   are  to  reduce 

'3 

a/  3   and  ^/  2  to  the  fame  denominator,    confider 

i  i  3  , 

^/3    as    equal    to   3^,   and    v'2  as  equal  to  2'^' 

whofe  indices  reduced  to  a  common  denominator, 

you  have  3-  =3^,  and  2='  =  2S  and  confequently, 

v'3=V3'=v'27,and  v'2  =  ^2^=  v^4,  fothat 

2  3 

the  propofed  furds  'v/3  and  Vi    are  reduced   to  o- 

6  6 

ther  equal  Surds  -^27  and  ^i.,  having  a  common 
rad  ical  fign. 

Surds  of  the  fame  rational  quantity  are  multi- 


15 


plied    by  adding  their  exponents,  and  divided  by 

2  3  i  i 

fubtrading  them  ;  thus,  ^/a  x   ^a  —  a'^    x   a^ ~ 


^/  a 


6    =«^=v/^5.     ^nd  r-^-aL^-a^~'~a 


~a     =.^a^  ;  A/ay.  -^azza 


m-\-n  .    \/ a n—t, 

I , " 


>^  a 


v/2 


136  6  


V2. 


v/2 


If  the  Surds  are  of  difFerent  rational  quantities, 

asv'a^  and  v'i%  and  have  the  fame  fign,  multi- 
ply thefe  rational  quantities  into  one  another,  or 
divide  them  by  one  another,  and  fet  the  common 
radical  fign  over  their  produdi  or  quotient,  Thus, 


« 


v/a'^Xv/^^^ya^iJ'  ;   v^2  X '/5  =  '\/  lo  ; 


" »»  —  3_.        3    3    3 

If  Surds  have  not  the  fame  radical  fign, 
reduce  them  to  fuch  as  fhall  have  the  fame 
radical  fign,  and  proceed  as  before  ; 


mn 


■v/« 


4I  =  2j  X  4|  =  v'2'  ^  +"  =  '••ix  10  =  v'lz  : 

4|_4^_  x/^_'/'i6_  _ 


v'4 


i—    i- 
2-      2" 


:  v'2. 


If  the  Surds  have  any  rational  coefficients, 
their  produdl  or  quotient  mufl:  be  prefixed  ;  thus, 

2v'3X  5v'6=iO'v/i8. 

The  Powers  of  Surds  are  found  as  the  powers  of 
their  quantities,  by  multiplying  their  exponents  by 
the  index  of  the  pov/er  required  ;  thus  the  fquare 

of  v'2  is  2^ ^^  =  2^^=  1^4;  the  cube  ofv/5  = 
r^XS  —  r'^  — v/125.  Or  you  need  only,  in  in- 
volving Surds,  raife  the  quantity  under  the  radical 
fi^n  to  the  power  required,  continuing  the  fame 
radical  fi^n;  unlefs  the  index  of  that  power  is 
equal  to  tlie  name  of  the  Surd,  or  a  multiple  of  it, 
and  in  that  cafe  the  power  of  the  Surd  becomes 
rational.  Evolution  is  performed  by  dividing  the 
fratflion,  which  is  the  exponent  of  the  St,rd,  by 
the  name  of  the  root  required,     Thus  the  fquare 

root  of  v""*  's  -v/"'  or  v^"*- 

The  fu'd  V  a"-  x  —  a  •/  x ;  and,  in  like  man- 
ner 


i6 


TIjc  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

this  generally,   fee  Maclau 


ner,  if  a  power  of  any  quantity,  of  the  fame 
name  with  the  fur d,  divides  the  quantity  under 
the  radical  fign  without  a  remainder,  as  here  a" 
divides  W'x,  and   25  the  fquare  of  5,  divides  75 

the  quantity  under  the  fign  in  ■/  75  without  a  re- 
mainder-;  then   place  the  root  of  that  power  ra 
tionally  before  the  fign.  and  the  quotient  under  the 
fien,  and  thus  the  furd  wiW  be  reduced  to  a  more 

jimpie  exprcffion.     'I  hus  -^  j^  =  ^  ■/2'    '^   4° 


=  V 
=  3 


3  X  16  = 

1/  3. 


4  v/ 


^/   8 


-  5  -^3; 

3    

I    ==    v/  27 


^  3 


When  furdi  are  reduced  to  their  leaft  expreffions, 
if  they  have  the  fame  irrational  part,  they  arc 
added  or  fubtrafted,  by  adding  or  fubtracting  their 
rational  coefficients,  and  prefixing  the  fum  or  dif- 
ference to  the  common   irrational  part.      Thus, 

v'75-j-J'48  =  5^/3+4V3  = 
V8i-{--v/24=3v'3  +  2a/3  = 
V  150  —  </  54  =:5v^6— 3v/6  = 
V'a^  X  -f  V^*"^  X—  a-/x-{-b^/   x    —  a  -\- 


9-^3; 

5  V'  3; 

2   \/  6  ; 


8  +  2v'  15.     To  do 
rin,  ib.  p.  113. 

When  the  fquare  root  of  a  furd  is  required,  it 
may  be  found,  nearly,  by  extracUng  the  root  of  a 
rational  quantity  that  approximates  to  its  value. 
Thus  to  find  the  fquare  root  of  3  +  2  ■•  2,  firft 
calculate  ^/  2  =  1,41421.  Hence  3  +  0  v/  2 
=:  5,82842,  the  root  of  which  is  found  to  be 
nearly  2,41421. 

In  like  manner  we  may  proceed  with  any  other 
propofcd  root.  And  if  the  index  of  the  root, 
propofed  to  be  extracted ,  be  great,    a  table   of  lo- 

7  /       n 

garithms  may  be  ufed.      Thus  *J 5  +  V  ij  may 

may  be  moft:  conveniently  found  by  logarithms. 

Take  the  logarithrm  of  17,  divide  it  by  13  ;  find 

the   number  correfponding  to  the  quotient;   add 

this  number  to  5 ;    find  the  logarithm  of  the  fum, 

and  divide  it  by  7,  and  the  number  correfponding 

to  this  quotient  will  be  nearly  equal  to  7  /        II 

V5+VI7- 
But  it  is  fometimes  requifite  to  exprefs  the  roots 

of  furds  exadtly  by   other  furds.      Thus,    in   the 

firft  example  the  fquare   root  of  3  4-  1  V  i\%  \ 

fori   +   \/2XJ   +  -v^2z:i+    2 
3  +  2    V  2.     For  the   method   of 


Compound  furds  are  fuch  as  confift  of  two  or 
more  joined  together ;  the  fnnple  Jurds  are  com- 
menfurable  in  power,  and  by  being  multiplied  into 
themfelves,  give  at  length  rational  quantities  ;  yet 
eompound  furds  multiplied  into  themfelves,  com- 
monly give  flill  irrational  produfls.  But,  when 
any  compound  furd,  is  propofed,  there  is  another 
co'i pound  furds  which,  multiplied  into  it,  gives  a 
rational  produft.  Thus  if  V  a-\-  -/b  v.ere 
propofed,  multiplying  khy  \/  a —  a/  b,  the  pro- 
duct will  be  a  —  b. 

The  inveftigation  of  that  furd,  which  multi- 
plied into  the  propofed  furd,  gives  a  rational  pro- 
du£t,  is  made  eafy  by  three  theorems,  delivered  by 
Mr.  Mac'aurin,'  in  his  Jlgebra,  p.  109,  feq.  to 
which  we  refer  the  curious. 

This  operation  is  ofufe  in  reducing //^r^expref- 
fions  to  more  fimple  forms.     Thus  fuppofe  a  bino- 

piinal  furd,    divided   by  another,  as  v/  20  +   -/ 

I  z  ... 

12,  by  \/  5  —  V'  35  the  quotient  might  be  ex- 

nrefled  by  — -■     But   this   might   be  ex- 

I  ^    ^5  — V3 

prefl'ed  in  a  more  fimple  form,  by  multiplying  both 
numerator  and  denominator,  by  that  furd,  which 
multiplied  into  the  denominator,    gives  a  rational 

product:  thus, = — —  x 

■v/';4-v^^_'V^'°°+  2v/6o-|-6  _  16  +  2^/60  _ 


+  -/  2: 

V^  2  +   2    = 

performing  this  the  curious  may  confult  Mr.  Adac- 
laurin's  Algebra,  p.  115,  &  feq. 


By  Fraction-. 

Fraction  is  a  part  or  parts  of  a  number  or 
quantity  confidered  as  an  unit  or  integer. 

There  is  fo  great  an  affinity  between  the  procefs 
in  fraflions  of  al^ebraii  quantities,  and  in  arith~ 
metical  fra£lions,  that  it  will  be  neceflary,  before 
we  proceed  to  the  algebraic  procefs,  to  give  a  clear 
defcription  of  numerical fra£tions,  which  are  ufually 
divided  into  decimal,  fexagej/intal  and  vulgar  ;  and 
each  of  thefe  divifio.-is  has  a  part  called  the  denomi- 
nator ;  another  named  the  numerator.    ■ 

The  denominator  of  a  fradlion  always  reprefents 
an  integer,   and  is  the  number  or  letter  below  the 

or  feven  twelfths ;  where   1 2 


is  the  dc- 


line 

I  2 

npminoto^,  and  fhews  that  the  integer  here  is  di- 
vided into  12  parts.  Its  real  ufe  is  to  ftiew  what 
aliquot  part  the  broken  number  has  in  common 
with  unity. 

The  numerator  is    that   part   of    the  fraBion^ 
which  exprefles  the  parts  to  be  taken  out  of  the 

int.ger,  and    is   placed   above  the  line,    thus  -^ 

where  fcven  is  the  numerator,  and  fhews  \k\2X  feven 
twelfths  is  the  number  of  parts  to  be  taken  out  of 
twelve. 

Decimal  fraSlions  are  thofe,  wlwfe  denemineter  is 
I,   with   one,  or  more   cyphers  to  the   right  of 

the 


ALGEBRA. 


the  unit,  as  io» 

j_  _£_  _7 J 

10,    loo,    looo,    10,000, 


TOO,  1000,  10,000,  &c.  thus 
&c,  are  decimal fraillons. 


Note,  When  the  cypher  or  cyphers  are  fet  on 
the  left  of  the  integers,  as  0005,  they  have  no  va- 
lue  and  ferve  only  to  fill  up  places,  the  whole 
making  no  more  than  five  units. 

Sexegefimal  fraUiom  are  thofe,  whofe  denomi- 
nator proceeds  in  a  fexagecuple  ratio,  or  is  always 
60  or  a  multiple  thereof.  I  hefe  are  fometimes  cal 
led  alironomical  fraiVtions  ;  in  which  the  denomina  ■ 
tor  is  ufually  omitted,  as  in  4°,  59',  32'',  ^o'", 
lb""-,  where  there  is  only  the  numerator  fet  down, 
and  we  read  thus  4  degrees,  59  minutes,  32  fe- 
conds  of  a  degree,   50  thirds,   16  fourths,  &c. 

I^ul[:ar  fniciiom,  or  fimple  fractions  are  always 
cxprefled  by  two  numbers  thus  \  *vhere  the  deno- 
minator 3  fhews  that  the  whole  line  is  fuppofed  to 
be  divided  into  three  equal  parts;  and  the  nunieia- 
tor  2  indicates,  or  afligns  two  of  fuch  parts. 

If  the  numerator  of  a  fiaSiion  is  equal  to  its  de- 
nominator, then  the  fruHion  is  equal  to  unity. 
Thus 

A  =:  I   and  —  or  —  are  likewife  equal  to  unity. 
■*  a         0 

If  \hz  numerator  is  greater  than  the  de  otninator, 
then  the  fraBion  is  greater  than  the  unit.  And  in 
both  thefe  cafes  the  fraction  is  called  iniproper. 
But  if  the  numerator  be  lefs  than  the  denominator, 
then  the  fraiiion  is  lefs  than  unit,  and  is  called 
proper.  Thus  |  is  an  improper  fraflion;  but  i  or 
\  are  proper. 

There  is  alfo  a  mixt  quantity,  one  part  whereof 
is    an    integer,    and    the   other   a  fraction  ;     as, 

3 1  and  5 1  and 


a  + 


Problem  I.  To  reduce  a  mixt  quantity  to  an  im- 
proper fralvtion,  multiply  the  part  that  is  an  integer 
fay  the  denominator  of  the fraSiional  part;  and,  to 
the  product,  add  the  numerator  ;  then  place  tlic 
former  denomimUor  under  this  fum,  and  you  will 
have  the  impr  per  frailion  required. 

Thus,  2|,  reduced  to  an  improper  fraflion, 
gives  •-?  ;  for2X5=rio,  and  10  + 3ZZI3,  which 
divided  by  the  former  denominator  5,  gives  -|.    In 

a''- 

the  fame  manner  41   gives  | ;  and  a-\ o-jves 

b    '^ 

and  a — a'-|- 


-ax     a 


Prohlem  IT.  To  reduce  an  improper  fraElicn  to  a 
mixt  quantity,  divide  the  numerator  of  the  fradion 
by  the  denominator,  and  the  cuQtient  fhall  give  the 
integral  part ;  and  the  remainder,  fet  over  the  de- 
nominator ^  fhall   be  the  fraitional  part.      Thus, 


1  I — -T, 


ab-\-& 


a'- 


ax  -f-  ^xx 
«-{■  X 


17 


and 


h 
aa  -\-  XX 

~~~ —  =:«+  X  -I- 

a — X  '        '  a — X- 

Problem  III. To  reduce  fractions  o^ different  dem 
minations  to  fractions  of  equal  value,  that  ftiaii 
have  the  fame  denominator  ;  multiply  each  nwn. 
rator,  taken  feparately,  into  all  the  denominat  .  i 
but  its  own,  and  the  produfts  fhall  give  the  new 
numerators  :  then  multiply  all  the  deno/ninat^rs  into 
one  another,  and  the  produft  fhall  give  the  com- 
mon  denominator.     Thus  y,   5,  and  |  are  refpec- 

a    b  c 

to  i  and  'J->  T'  ^"''■^ 

are  relpedtively  equal  to 


lively  equal   to  1°,  il,  and  ^^ 


bed'  bed 


and 


bed 


Problem  IV.  To  add  znd  fubtraff  fradlions,  firll 
reduce  them  to  a  common  denominator  (by  Probl. 
III.)  then  add  or  fubtra£f  the  numerators,  and  the 
fum  or  difference  fet  over  the  common  denominator, 
will  be  the  fum  or  difference  required.  Thus,  ?-}-i 
_«+9_i7_     5  .      9—8        I 

and  J — 1=— rr"=~-  In  the 

bd 


12 


12 


fame  manner,  -^  -|-  -j  -f  -7  = 

a  c  ad  —  c  b 


1 2 


12 


bd/ 


i  bd 

See  Subtraction". 


anO 


Problem  V..  To  multiply  fra£lions  j  let  their  mnne- 

rators  be  multiplied  into  one  another,  to  obtain  a 

new  numerator,    and    the    denominators   into   one 

another,    to  obtain   a  new  denominator  ;    and  the 

tiumerator  and  denominator  fo  found  will  be  the  pro- 

dudi  required. 

Thus,  I   X  *   =  -Ai    and  i  X  4  zz  -§  =  ;.     In 

,.                             ei            c            a  c             .  a  -\-  b 
the  fame  manner,  —  x   —  =  -7-  ;    and  — ■ x 

b  U  bd  c 


d 


—  h 

~  c  d 


If  a  mixt  quantity  is  to  be  multiplied,  firft  reduce 
it  to  the  form  of  a  fraction  (by  Prob.  I.)  and  if  an 
integer  is  to  be  multiplied  by  a  fraction,  you  may 
reduce  it  to  the  form  of  a  fracftion,  by  placing  unit 
under  it.  T  hus,  5  |  X  i-  =  -^-Z-  X  |  =  4^  =  4  |, 
fby  Prob.  II.)       Alfo  9  X  I  =:  ^  X  I  =  -^1  =  6  ; 

,.,„  ,        b  X      n        b  nA-  b  .■i 

and,  m  the  lame  manner,  b -\ X  — — 

ax  a 

a     a'^hXabx     ab-i-bx 
X  — = = . 


Problem  VJ.  To  d:''ide  fra£iions  ;  "firlt  multiplv 
the  numerator  of  the  dividend  by  the  denominator  cfi 
the  divifor,  ai;d  the  produft  will  be  the  nuviemtor 


i3 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  «;// Sciences. 


of  the  quotient  ;  then  rmilti[>ly  the  denominator  of 
the  ilividend  by  the  numerator  of  the  divifor,  and 
their  product  will  give  the  denominator  of  the  quo- 
tient.     Thus. 


t      I  o 


T^'TV 


problem 


—  ah^^b 


.    p  -^  h     a  —  b 

and -I 

a  —  b)        a 

Thefe  Lift  four  problems  are  eafily 

from  the  deiinition  of  a  fra6lion.      i . 


that  the  fravSions  — ,    — , 
b     a 


f 


demonftratcd 
It  is  obvious, 

are  refpedtivcly    e- 


tfuai  to 


ad  f 


b  df 


— — ,    fince  If  vou  divide  a  df 
b  df  ' 


t>y  h  df,  the  quotiejit  will  be  — 
e  o  d  —  e 


dbf 


and 


bdf     f 


2.  Fratflions  reduceJ  to  the  fame  denominator  are 
added  by  adding  their  numerators  and  fubfcribing 
the  common  denominator. 


Thus, 
and  it 


a     I     c a  Vc 

~b^ir-r' 


for 


and  L—  », 

o 


call w, 

h  - 

will  be  a^z.m  b,   and   c-=iab  ;   and   mb-\-nb 
;  and  m-^n=-^-j- i  ^'^^^ '^' J'  +  'J  •   After 


the  fame  manner, j-  =m- 

b  b 


a  ^c 

"~r'' 


3-  Again,  J-X    -( 

and  h  d  m  ?i  ■=.  a  c 


,  a  c 


for  b  . 


■rz  rt,    d  n  n 


bd' 


that  is,  — 
b 


bd 


4.  Laftly,  y-  -,  or-, 

,  and    7nb  d  ^z  a  d ;  n  d  ■=. 

therefore  '"  "■  ■"  =  — , ;  that  is 


■h  d  ^ 

77b ' 


»ives  —  ;  for  m  b  z= 
c  b 

c,    and  n  d  b  ■=.  c  b  ; 

m         ad 

n         c  b 


ProblcmVW.  To  find  the  greatefl  common  mcafure 
of  two  numbers  ;  that  is,  the  greateft  number  that 
can  divide  them  both  without  a  remainder.  Firfl^ 
divide  the  greater  number  by  the  Icfier,  and  if  there 
is  no  remainder,  the  lefler  number  is  the  greatefl: 
'common  divifor  required.  It  there  is  a  remainder, 
divide  your  laft  divifor  by  that  remainder;  and  thus 
proceed,  continually  dividing  the  lafl:  divifor  by  its 
remainder,  till  there  is  no  remainder  left  ;  ajid  then 
the  lail  divifor  is  the  greatefl:  common  meafure  re- 
quired. Thus,  the  greatefl:  common  meafure  of 
45  and  63  is  9  ;  and  the  greatefl:  common  meafure 
of  256  and  48,  is  16,  as  appears  from  the  ope- 
ration at  lartre. 


45)63(1 
45 

T8j45( 
36 


48)256(5 
240 


,6)48(3 


00 


9)18(2 
18 

00 


Much  after  the  fame  manner,  the  greatefl  common 
meafure  of  (7/^?iri?/Va/ quantities  isdifcovered  ;  only 
the  remainders  that  arlfe  in  the  operation  are  to  be 
divided  by  their  fimple  divifors,  and  the  quantities 
are  alwavs  to  be  ranged  according  to  the  dimen- 
fions  of  the  fame  letter.    7'hus,  to  find  the  greatefl 


common  meafure   of   «* —  h^  and 
operation  is  thus  : 

a^  —  b'')  a"-  —  2ab  +  b""  {l 
a^-  —  b^ 

+  2  b 
vided 


-2  a  b^,  the 


a —  bj 


2  a  b  +  2  b  '^  remainder^ 
by  —  2  b  is  reduced  to 


which  di- 


—  b^ 


(«+  t. 


Therefore,  a — b  is  the  greateft  common  meafure 
required. 
The  ground  of  this  operation  is,  that  any  quantity 
that  meafures  thedi\ifor  and  the  remainder  (if  there 
is  any)  muft  alfo  meafure  the  dividend  ;  becaufe  the 
dividend  is  equal  to  the  fum  of  the  divifor  multiplied 
into  the  quotient,  and  of  the  remainder  added  to- 
gether. Thus,  in  the  laft  example,  a — b  meafures 
the  divifor  a^ — b'^,  and  the  remainder  —  2  a  b 
-f  2  b'^;  it  muft  therefore  likewife  meafure  'their 
fum  a'^  —  2  a  b  +  b'^. 

You  mult  obferve,  in  this  operation,  to  make 
that  the  dividend,  which  has  the  higheft  powers  of 
the  letter,  according  to  which  the  quantities  are 
ranged 

ProblcmVlll.  To  reduce  any  fradtion  to  its  hwefi 
termi  :  find  the  grea'eft  common  meafure  of  the 
numerator  and  denominator  ;  divide  them  by  that 
common  meafure,  and  place  the  quotients  in  their 
room,  and  jou  flia'l  have  a  fraction,  equivalent  to 
the  given  fraftion,  e.xprefled  in  the  loweft  terms. 
Thus  y  is  reduced  to  \,  by  dividing  the  numerator 
and  denominator  by  the  greateft  common  meafure 
3.     In  the  fame  manner  If  =  7  for  ^|  =:  4,  and 

'^  =  5-  ... 

In    algebraical   terms,    the  operation  is  thus : 

2  ^  b  c) 


algebraical   terms, 

•/  ^  a  b  c         ^  a 

5  X 


12  ^  b  c  X 


which  is    found   by 


by  rcjefting  the  divifor  (as  being  nothing)  rejefting 
the  letters  be  of  the  dividend  (as  being  common  to 
numerator  and  denominator)   and  dividing  the   co- 

effcients 


A    h    Q    E    B    R    A. 


19 


^ii(nts  75  ajid  125  by  their  greateft  common  mea 
fure  25  ;  the  rcfult  of  which  is  — .     In  the  fame 

\i(^  n^  -X-    \z()  n  b  -x  a  -\-  %  h 

manner, — i —     ~ • —     ; 

572ft'-  —  i^-l  a  0  \\  a  —  11* 

a^  —  h'^  _    "  +  ^'      __^LJlLl — 

a-  —  2  «TT~  ~    a  —  b  '   a"-  -i-  2a  b  +6'-      ~ 

a-  —  b^  ,      a*—  ii-  a"-  +  b"- 

• —;   and  ; —  —  : ■ 

a  -f-  o  a' — «^  b-  a' 

When  unit  is  the  greateft  common  meafure  of 
the  nun^bers  and  quantities,   then  the  fraction  is 

already  in  its  loivejl  terms.     Thus,  ^—-  cannot  be 

reduced  lower.  It  ought  alfo  to  be  remarked,  that 
numbers  whofe  greateft  common  meafure  is  unit, 
are  faid  to  be  prtme  to  each  other. 

If  it  is  required  to  reduce  a  given  fraftion  to  a 
fradlion  equal  to  it,  that  fliaJl  have  a  given  denomi- 
nator ;  you  muft  multiply  the  numerator  by  the 
given  denominator^  and  divide  the  produdl:  by  the 
former  denominator  ;  and  this  quotient,  fet  over  the 
given  denominator  will  be  the  iradtion  required. 
Thus,  if  it  were  required  to  reduce  |  to  an  equal 
fradtion,  whofe  denominator  Ihall  be  6  ;  find  the 
quotient  of  2  X  6  —  3  =  4>  then  vi'ill  *  be  the 

fraftion  required.     In  the  fame  manner,  —  is  re- 

b 

duced  to  an  equal  fradlion,  which  has  the  denomi- 
nator f,  viz. ;  for  reje"ing  c  out  of  both 


numerator    and    denominator,   there  remains  a  -4- 


a 


Befides  the  common  notion  of  a  fra^ion  there 
is  this  alfo  to  be  confidered. 

Suppofe  I  of  20  s.  or  a  pound  flerVmg^  were 
the  fradlion;  this  fraftion,  inftead  of  three  quar- 
ters of  a  pound  may  be  confidered  as  a  4th  part  of 
three  pounds,  i  e.  by  taking  as  many  of  the  inte- 
gers as  the  numeraior  exprefles,  viz.  3,  and  divid- 
ing them  by  4  the  denominator,  for  then  in- 
ftead of  4  there  will  arife  60  J.  the  quotient  of  the 
fame  value  will  arife  for  4)  60  i.  (15^.  which 
fhews  the  reafon  of  the  manner  of  exprefling 
ul'ed  by    Geometers    and    Jlgehraijis,    who    read 

--  thus  as  divided  bv  b. 
b 

By  Equatiov. 

Equation  is  the  expreflion  of  the  fame  quan- 
tity in  two  different,  i.  e.  difTimilar,  but  equal 
terms  or  denominations;  Thus  2,  3=^4+2,  or 
twice  three  is  equal  to  four  and  two.  And  Stife- 
lius  defines  it,  the  ratio  of  equality  between  two 


quantities  differently  denominated  ;  Thus  3  fhil- 
lings  =  36  pence,  or  ^O  fli  =2/.  10^.  =:  600 
pence  =  2400  farthings;  or,  6  =  </+<.j  ori2  =  a 
—  p,    ^c. 

Hence,  the  redudion  of  two  heterogeneous,  cr 
(liffimilar  quantities  to  the  fame  value,  i  e.  to  an 
equality  is  called  the  bringing  ihcnt  to  an  equatio", 
i.  c.  The  bringing  the  feveral  mediate  equations 
to  a  final  one. 

But  before  we  fhew  how  this  is  to  be  done  it  will 
be  necellary  to  be  informed  iomewhat  concerning 
the  terms,  root  and  divifion  of  an  equation. 

The  terms  are  the  quantities  or  parts  that  com- 
pofe  the  equation,  and  are  connedled  by  the  figns 
+  and  — ;  as,  b  ^c  znd,  where  by  c,  d  are  the 
terms,  and  ftiew  that  what  is  reprefeuted  by  d  is 
equal  to  the  two  quantities  b  and  c. 

The  root  of  an  equation  is  the  value  of  its  un- 
known quantity  j  as,  in«''-f-^''=:Jf''i  the  root  will 
be  V'  ia^  +  b^) 

EquATioNS,  in"  regard  to  the  powers  of  un- 
known quantities  are  divided  into yJw/Zi',  quadratic, 
cubic,  biquadratic,  i3c. 

In  fwiple  equation  the  unknown  quantity  is  only 
of  one  dimenfion,  or  in  the  firft  power,  as  .v  = 
{a^b):z.  _      _    _ 

In  the  quadratic  the  unknown  quantity  is  in  the 
fecond  power,   as  .v^=:fl^  +  ^^. 

In  the  cubic,  it  is  in  the  4th  power,  as,  x'  — 
~-aH\    bfc. 

In  the  biquadratic,  it  is  in  the  4th  power  ;  as 
x*=:ia* — b*. 

Equations  are  (i)  thofe  ultima'e  conclufions  we 
arrive  at  in  the  lolution  oi  problems ;  or  (2)  the 
means  to  obtain  thofe  final  refolutions. 

1  he  firft  fort  confifts  only  of  one  unknown 
quantity,  intermixed  with  other  quantities. 

The  other  kind  confifts  of  feveral  unknown 
quantities  to  be  compared,  and  conneiStsd  together, 
till  there  arifes  a  new  equation,  in  which  the  un- 
known quantity  fought  is  mixt  with  the  known. 

To 'perform  this,  or  to  folve  quejlions  hy  equations 
you  muft  obferve. 

I  ft.  That  all  equations  YiTcvtzs  many  affirmative 
roots,  as  there  are  permutations  of  iigiis ;  and  as 
many  negative  roots,  as  there  are  fuccelfions  of 
them;  as,  in  the  quadratic  x^'  +  x—b  —  O,  there 
is  only  one  fucceffion  of  figns  +  + ,  and  one  per- 
mutation of  them,  +  — ;  hence  the  equation  has 
two  roots,  one  affirmative  +2.  and  the  other  nega- 
tive —  3.     Alio  in  the  cubic  x^  —  3;^^^  —  iojc  + 

24  =  0  there  are  two  permutations  of  figns  -\ 

and h;  and  only  one  fucceffion ;, hence 

its  roots  are  two  ajfirmative  +  2  and  +  4>  a""^  only 
one  negative  —  3. 

2.  That  the  feveral  quantities  and  figns  be  pro- 
perly fet  down  and  exprefled. 


D 


3.  That 


20 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  «W  Sciences. 


3.  That  the  quantities  thus  denoted  be  brought 
to  an  equation. 

4.  'I  hat  tlie  equation  be  reduced  to  its  loweft 
and  fimpJeft  terms. 

5.  That  the  equation  be  conftruftcd  or  repre- 
fented  in  geometrical  lines. 

For  a  queftion  or  problem  being  propofed,  you  are 
to  conceive  the  thing  required,  as  already  done,  i.e. 
to  form  a  clear  conception  of  the  conditions  and 
nature  of  it,  and  to  exprefs  it  by  one  of  the  lafl 
letters  of  the  alphabet  x,  r,  or  z,  noting  the 
known  quantities  by  the  letters  that  begin  the 
alphabet  b,  c,  d,  ^c. 

Then,  by  due  reafoning  from  the  conditions  of 
the  queftion,  let  the  quantities  concerned  therein 
bejuftU  ftated,  and  carefully  compared  ;  fo  that 
their  relation  to  one  another  may  appear,  and  the 
difference,  which  renders  them  unequal,  be  difco- 
vered  ;  and  confequently,  the  fame  thing  found 
expreffible  two  ways,  or  brought  into  an  equation, 
or  feveral  equations  independent  on  each  other.  And 

Here  again  it  is  to  be  obferved, 

1.  That  if  there  are  as  many  equations  given, 
as  there  are  quantities  fought,  then  the  queftion 
has  a  determinate  number  of  folutions,  or  is  truly 
limited,  -viz.  each  quantity  fought  hath  but  one 
fingle  value.     Thus, 

Suppol'e  a  queftion  propofed  concerning  the  age 
of  three  perfons,  was  conditioned  as  follows,  viz. 
thtfecond  is  /even  years  older  than  the  frj?,  the  age 
of  the  third  is  triple  that  of  the  ffrjl  and  fecond, 
and  the  fum  of  all  their  ages  is  68.  Required  the 
age  of  each. 

In  order  to  bring  this  queftion  to  an  equation, 
put  z  for  the  age  of  thtjirjf ;  then  will  the  age  of 
they^«K^bez4-7,and  the  age  of  the //!»/>(-/  6  z+  12: 
the  fum  of  all  their  ages  2  +  24-7  +  62+21=68. 
So  that  here  is  but  one  equation  given,  and  one 
quantity  required,  viz.  the  age  of  the  firft. 

2.  When  the  number  of  the  quantities  fought 
exceed  the  number  of  the  given  equations,  the 
queftion  is  capable  of  an  indeterminate  number  of 
anfwers  ;  and,  therefoie,  can  be  but  imperfedfly 
determined.  If  the  queftion  when  ftated,  is  found 
to  have  a  determ.inable  number  of  folutions,  then 
the  equation,  directly  drawn  from  the  conditions  of 
the  queftion,  muft  be  reducediMo  another,  by  equal 
augmentation  and  diminution  ;  fo  that  the  known 
quantities  may  ftand  on  one  fide,  and  one  of  the 
unknown  quantities,  or  fome  power  of  it,  on  the 
other  fide  of  the  equation  This  is  called  reduSlion 
of  equations,  and  depends  upon  a  right  application 
of  the  five  following  axioms : 

1.  If  equal  quantities  be  added  to  equal  quanti- 
ties, the  fum  of  thofe  quantities  will  be  equal. 

2.  If  equal  quantities  be  fubtradcd  or  taken  from 


equal  quantities,  the  quantities  remaining  will  be 
equal. 

3.  If  equal  quantities  be  multiplied  by  equal 
quantities,  their  produfts  will  be  equal. 

4.  If  equal  quantities  be  divided  by  equal  quan- 
tities, their  quotients  will  be  equal. 

5.  Quantities  that  are  equal  to  one  and  the  fame 
thing,  are  alfo  equal  to  one  another. 

If  thefe  axioms  be  well  underftood,  the  reducflion 
of  equations  will  appear  very  plain,  and  the  ope- 
rations be  eafily  performed. 

1.  Reduction  by  tranfpofition,  is  performed  by 
transferring  a  quantity  to  the  other  fide  of  the  equa- 
tion with  a  contrary  fign  ;  or  by  equal  addition,  if 
the  quantity  be  negative  ;  and  by  equal  fubtracStion, 
if  affirmative.  Thus,  t\\t  equation  x — 10  =  40,  is 
reduced  by  adding  +10  to  each  fide,  and  the  refult 
will  be  the  fame  as  if —  10  had  been  tranfpofed  to 

the  oppofite  fide  with  the  contrary  fign  ;  for  .*• 

iO-(-io  =  40+ 10,  is  the  fame  with  .^=40+ 10, 
the  —  10  and  +  10  deftroying  each  other.  In  the 
fame  manner  a  +  10  =  40,  is  reduced  to  a-=4o 
—  10,  by  tranfpofing  the  +  10  with  a  contrary 
fign, 

2.  ReduSlion  is  performed  by  equal  ?nultiplication, 
in  cafe  there  are  fractional  quantities  ;  for  by  mul- 
tiplying every  term  in  the  equation  by  the  denomi- 
nators of  the  fraftions,  it  will  be  cleared  of  frac- 
tions :  thus,  by  multiplying  every  term  of  the  equa- 
tion -  =  ^  by  the  denominator  a,    we  will  have 


zzzah. 


5  +  3«^ 

yn+a  —  z  +  a; 


Again,   if 

then  by  multiplying  by  the  denominator  c,  we  will 
have  an  equal  equation  free  from  fractions,  viz. 
2^  +  3  a'^-{-cn-\-acz:zc  +  ac,  or  2^ +  3rt^  +  cK  =  (rz, 
the  ac  on  each  fide  being  rejefled. 

3.  By  equal  divifton,  as  in  the  equation  axr=c  ; 
for  by   dividing    each    fide    by   a,    we  will  have 

X  /or  — )  =— .  In  the  fame  manner,  in  the  equa- 
tion az-\-ez  =  cb,  by  dividing  each  fide  by  a+e, 
we  get  the  equation  2  =:  — — . 

4.  Equations  are  cleared  of  y/^r^' quantities  by 
involution  :  thus,  if  the  equation  be  ■v/rt=6  ;  then 
by  involution  or  fquaring  each  fide  of  the  equation, 
we  have  the  equation  a  =  36.  If  both  fides  be 
fimilar  furds,  or  of  the  fame  power,  all  that  we 
have  to  do  is  to  reject  the  radical  fign  :  thus,  for 

\/rt:=  v^(/+c,    we  write   azzd-j-c 
radical  llgn  of  both. 

5.  When  any  fingle  power  of  the  unknown 
quantity  is  on  one  fide  of  the  equation,  evolve  or 
extract  the  root  of  both  fides,  according  as  the 
index  of  that  power   denotes,   and  their  roots  will 

be 


rejecting  the 


A    L    G    E     BRA. 


21 


be  equal.  Thus,  if  2::=:  25,  by  extrafling  the 
root  of  each  fide  we  have  z-=.^.  In  the  fame 
manner  if  aaa^z.i'j,  their  cube  roots  will  be 
equal,  viz.  az=^.  Or,  if  any  compound  power 
of  the  unknown  quantity  be  on  one  fide  of  an 
equation,  that  hath  a  true  root  of  its  kind  ;  then, 
by  evolving  both  fides  of  the  equation  it  will  be 
expreffed  in  lower  terms:  thus,  a'' +  2  b  a -{- 1>^  z= 
d^,  by  evolving  both  fides,  comes  out  a-\-hz^d. 

6.  A  proportion  may  be  converted   into  an  equa 
tion,  aflerting  the  produdl:  of  the   extremes   to  be 
equal  to  that  of  the  means  ;  or,  any  one  of  the  ex- 
tremes may  be  made   equal  to  the   produft  of  the 
means  divided   by   the   other  extreme  :    thus,  if 


12 — X  :— :  :  4:  I, 

2 


then  12- 


-X  zr.  2X 


and  by  tranf- 


pofing  the  — X,  we  will  have  t^x—iz,  and  divid- 
ing by  3,  X  ■=.  'j'  =  4»  by  the  preceding  rules. 

7.  If  any  quantities  ht  found  on  both  fides  of 

the  equation,   with  the   fame  fign   prefixed,  they 

may  betaken  away  from  both  :  thus,  for  3a'-{-^:z: 

a  +  b,  we  fay  3^  =  17.     Alfo,  if  all  the   quantities 

of  the  equation  be  multiplied  or  divided  by  the  fame 

quantity,  it  may  be  ftruck  out  of  them  all :  thus, 

if  3  a;*--)-  5  (7^1  —  8  ac,  dividing  hy  a,  we  have  3^-i- 

5izz8c;  and  tranfpofing  ^b  and  dividing  by  3,  we 

R/"  —  c  A 
have  X  — ,   according  to  the  firft  and  third 

rules. 

8.  Inftead  of  any  quantity  in  an  equation,  you 
may  fubftitute  another  equal  to  it  :  thus,  if  ^x+y 

=  24,  and^=9;  then  3Ar-f  9  =  24,  or  A-  =  -i — 2 

7o  folve  Simple  EquATiONs. 

I.  After  an  equation  is  formed,  if  you  have  dnly 
one  unknown  quantity,  then,  by  the  preceding 
rules,  you  bring  it  to  ftand  alone  on  one  fide,  fo 
as  to  have  none  but  known  quantities  on  the  other 
fide  ;  by  which  means  you  will  difcover  its  value. 
Thus,  if  the  queftion  propofed  be  that  of  the  three 
perfons  ages  already  mentioned,  the  equation  thence 
refulting  has  been  found  to  be  as.  in 

Example     I. 


z-|-2-F7-|-6z-|-2i  =  68 
82  =  68—28=40 

2  =  ^  =  5  =  firft  age. 

z  -{-7=12=:  fecond  age. 

124-5  X  3  =  5i=third  age. 


By  queft. 
I  tranfp. 

I 
2 

2^8 

3 

Hence 

4 

And 

5 

Example     II. 

■1,  X        X 

4      12 

IJ^    =x 

48 

and    3.v^  =  48  x  by  the  fecond  rule. 
and    3  r  =  vS  by  the  ievcnth  rule. 

and     A-  =:  —  =16  by  the  third  rule. 
3  ^ 

2.  If  there  are  two  unknown  quantities,  then 
there  mtift  be  two  equations  arifing  from  the  coti- 
ditions  of  the  queftion  ;  fuppofe  x  and  y.  [he  ruie 
is,  to  find  a  value  of  x  or  y  from  each  of  the  equa- 
tions, and  then  by  putting  thefe  two  values  equal 
to  each  other,  there  will  arife  a  new  equation  in- 
volving only  one  unknown  quantity,  which  muft 
be  reduced  by  the  fame  rules  as  formerly. 

Example. 

Let  the  fums  of  two  quantities  be  s,  and  their 
difference  d  ;  let  s  and  d  be  given  and  let  it  be  re- 
quired to  find  the  quantities  themfelves. 

Suppofe  the  quantities  to  be  x  and  y ;  then,  by 
the  queftion,  x  +  y:=s,  and  xy  •=.d ;  whence  x-=.5 
—  y:=d-]ry;  and,  by  tranfpofition,    2^=1 — d\ 

fo  that  dividing  by  2,  we  have  ^=  i^^j  and  by 

comparing  the  value  of  jr,    viz.  s  —  y,    we  find 

x-=.s ,  or2A-=2^ — i-|-^,and  dividing  by  2 

the  value  of  *■  =  — ,  as  expreffed  in  thi^  fbnn. 


xJr  y—s 
X — y:^d 

jcm  s — y 
x=d+y 
s—y=d+y 
zy—s — d 


^_/+v 


3.  When  in  one  of  the  given  equations,  the 
unknown  quantity  is  of  one  dimenfion,  and  in  the 
other  of  a  higher  dimenfion  ;  you  muft  find  a  value 
of  the  Unknown  quantity  from  that  equation  where 
it  is  of  one  dimenfion,  and  then  raife  that  value  to 
the  power  of  the  unknown  quantity  in  the  other 
equation  ;  and  by  comparing  it,  fo  involved,  with  ' 
the  value  you  deduce  from  that  other  equation, 
.you  will  obtain  an  equation  that  will  have  only  one 
^  2  unknown 


22 


'The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^7?<a^  Sciences. 


unknown  quantity  and  its  powers  :    that  is,    when 
you  have  two  equations  of  different  dimenfions,  if 
you  cannot  reduce  the  higher  to  the  fame  diinenfion 
with  the  lower,    you  muft  raife  the  lower  to  the 
fame  dimenfion  with  the  higher. 
Example. 
The  fum  of  two  quantities,    and  the  difference 
of  their  fquares,  being  given,  to  find  the  quantities 
themfelvcs.     Suppofe  them  to  be  *•  and^i,  their  fum 
/,  and  the  difference  of  their  fquares  d.     Then, 
X  ■\-y=Ls 

x'^.s — y 

x'^zz.i'^ — Isy-^-y"^ 

x'^=^d-\-y'^,  whence 

d=s'- — 2  sy 
isy^.s'^ — d 
I'—d 

and  X  =  {^A^ 
z  s 


4.  If  there  are  three  unknown  quantities,  there 
muft  be  three  equations  in  order  to  determine  them, 
by  comparing  which  you  may,  in  all  cafes,  find  an 
equation  involving  only  one  unknown  quantity  ; 
which  may  be  refolved  by  the  rules  for  redudllon  of 
equations  already  mentioned. 

From  three  equations  involving  any  three  un- 
known quantities,  *,  y,  and  z,  to  deduce  two 
equations  involving  only  two  unknown  quantities, 
the  following  rule  will  always  ferve  :  find  three  va- 
lues of  X  from  the  three  given  equations  ;  then, 
by  comparing  the  firft  and  fecond  value,  you  will 
find  another  equation  involving  only;"  and  z;  again, 
by  comparing  the  firfl  and  third,  you  will  find 
another  equation  involving  only  y  and  z  ;  and, 
laftly,  thofe  equations  are  to  be  folvedty  the  fecond 
diredlion  : 


Example  :    fuppofe 

x+y+z—li        "J  Cl2—y—z        ffirfl      "| 

Ar+2jy  +3z=2oLhen;,--3  20-2^-3^3  Cecond  f     ,^^ 
f+2+z=6       j  [i8-n_3z  [third    J 

3     ^  __________^ — 


12 — y — z=2o— 2>  — 32; 


12 — y- 


Thefe  two  laft  equations  involve  only  y  and  z, 
and  are  to  be  refolved  by  the  fecond  dire(51ion. 
Thus. 

c  2 J — ^y-f3z— z=i20 — 12^8 
{  ^4-2z=8 

o  36—3;! — 6z=24 — 2y — 2Z 
c  i2=;'+4z 

f    8 — 2z  firfl      ?,„i,„ 
whence^=^  j^_^^  fecond  r^"= 

and  8 — 2z=:i2— 42 
2Z=I2 — 8=4 

y  (=8— 2z;  =  4 

X  {=.iz—y — z)=6 

This  method  is  general,  and  will  extend  to  all 
equations  that  involve  three  unknown  quantities  ; 
but  there  are  often  eafier  and  fhorter  methods,  to 
deduce  an  equation,  involving  only  one  unknown 
quantity,  which  is  beft  learned  from  pradlice. 


To  folve  quadratu  Equations. 

1.  If,  after  the  equation  is  reduced,  as  direfled 
above,  and  the  unknown  quantity  brought  to  ftand 
on  one  fide,  it  is  found  te  be  a  fimple  fquare  power, 
all  that  you  have  to  do  is  to  evolveboth  fides  of  the 
equation,  by  which  means  you  will  find  the  value 
of  the  fimple  unknown  quantity.  Thus,  if  x  x 
=36  ;  then,  by  evolution  or  extradion,  x:=.6. 
As  before. 

2.  In  the  folution  of  any  queftion,  where  you 
have  got  an  equation  that  involves  only  one  un- 
known quantity,  but  involves  at  the  fame  time  the 
fquare  of  that  quantity,  and  tke  produ£t  of  it  mul- 
tiplied by  fome  known  quantity ;  then  you  have 
what  is  called  unadfeSied  quadratic  equation,  which 
may  be  refolved  by  the  following  rules  : 

I.  Tranfpofe  all  the  terms  that  involve  the  un- 
known quantity  to  one  fide,  and  the  known  terms 
to  the  other  fide  of  the  equation. 

2.  If 


ALGEBRA. 


23 


2.  If  the  fquare  of  the  unknown  quantity  is 
multiplied  by  any  coefficient,  you  are  to  divide  all 
the  terms  by  that  coefficient,  that  the  coefficient  of 
the  fquare  of  the  unknown  quantity  may  be  unit. 

3.  Add  to  both  fides  the  fquare  of  half  the 
coefficient  prefixed  to  the  unknown  quantity  itfelf, 
and  the  fide  of  the  equation  that  involves  the  un- 
known quantity  will  then  be  a  complete  fquare. 

4.  Extra£l  the  fquare  root  from  both  fides  of 
the  equation,  which  you  will  find,  on  one  fide,  al- 
ways to  be  the  unknown  quantity  with  half  the 
forefaid  coefficient  fubjoined  to  it ;  fo  that  by  tranf- 
pofing  this  half,  you  may  obtain  the  value  of  the 
unknown  quantity  exprefled  in  knowu  terms. 

Example. 
Suppofe  the  quadratic  to  equation  be, 

y'^  +  ay—b 
Add  the  fquare  of  ~ 
to  both  fides, 


1 


Extrafl  the  root, 
Tranfpofe  — ,  and 


4  4 

?  /         ~ 


Here  is  to  be  obferved,  that  the  fquare  root  of 
any  quantity,  as  +  o"^,  may  he  +a,  or  —  a  ;  and 
hence  all  quadratic  equations  admit  of  two  folu- 
tions.     Alfo,  fince  the  fquares  of  all  quantities  are 


pofitive,  it  is  evident  that  the  fquare  root  of  a  ne- 
gative quantity  is  imaginary,  and  cannot  be 
affigned. 

However,  the  following  examples  will  illuftrate 
the  rules  for  quadratic  equations. 

Example  I. 

The  fum  of  two  quantities  is  32,  and  their  pro- 
duft  240  ;  required  the  quantities  themfelves. 
Suppofe  them  to  be  x  and  y  ;  then 

x+y=i;i2  ;  and  .v=32  —  ji 

xy~2^o;   and  x=: 


therefore    -3  2  —  >■=:— ^ 

and  32^ — ^^=240 

tranfpofe,  ^^  —  22 y=. —  240 

add  i6%  y''  —  32>'-|-256=  — 240  +  256 

extra£t  v/,  J — 16=+   \^  16 

and  ^=3+1^16-1-16  =  20 

■*'(=32— ;')  =  I2 

Example  II. 

Three  merchants  join  flocks  ;  the  ftock  of  the 
firft  was  lefs  than  that  of  the  fecond  by  13/.  and 
the  fum  of  the  fecond  and  third  man's  flock 
amounted  to  175/.  In  trading  they  gained  48 /. 
more  than  their  whole  ftock  was  j  and  the  firft 
man's  fliare  of  the  gain  was  78/.  required  each 
man's  ftock  and  fliare  of  the  gain  ? 


Suppofe 
Then  j 

By  the  queftion  ■< 

S  +  x 
2,  6 

n.7'  3 
By  the  queftion 

9X 

10 —  78*' 

12  yys"^ 
13  —  72'  5 

14' 4 

5'  15 
Then 

And 


I 
2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

10 
II 
12 

13 

14 

15 
16 

17 
18 


X,  y,  z,  to  reprefent  each  man's  ftock, 
■'''+J'  +  !2  =  ^=:  the  whole  ftock, 
i  4- 48:=  the  whole  gain. 
X-+  13=^ 

x+y  +  z=iy5  +  x 

s  =  i7S  +  x 

S  +  4.S  =  223-f-.>? 

i75  4-.r:  223 -I- A- :  :  x  :  78 

x'^+222x=7^^+  13650 

;c^+ 145^=13650 

x'^+  145  ;«■  4- 5256,25  =  18906,25 

*•  4- 72,5=^/18906,25  =  137,5 

Ar=  137,5—72,5  =  65 

y  =  A  +  l3  =  78 

z=i75—y-gy 

654-784-974-48  =  288  the  whole  gam 

/sgain  =  93/.  12/.  andz's=ii6/.  8/. 


To 


24  The  Univeifal  Hiftory  of  Arts  <7W Sciences. 

To  folve  cubic  Equation's. 


The  fccond  term  of  a  cubic  equation  can  be 
taken  away,  fo  that  it  will  be  transformed  to  this 
form  jr^*  +yii'  +  r— 0. 

Let  us  fuppofc  that  ;( —  a  +  i  ;  and  a-^  -j-  ^a-  +  rrr 
<3'+  3a'^^  +  3fli^+  h^  -\-  gx  +  r  =a''  +  2iii'Xa  +  l> 
-i-b^-i-qx  +  r=a^-\-2^t'^-\-l'^-\-gx-{-r=  (by 
fuppofmg  3(7*=  — qa^-\-P4-''=°-     But  *:=  — 

— ,  and  P:^ — ,    and    confequently   «'   — 

3«  27  a  ^  ' 

_f \.rz=.0\  or,  u''-\-ra^:=. — .       Suppofe   «'' 

27  fl^  27 

=  z ;   and  you  have  z*-j-r  z  =z — ;  which  is  a  qua- 
dratic, the  refolution  whereof  gives 


and 


in  which  expreflions  there  arc  only  known  quan- 
ties  :  and  this  method  is  commonly  called  Cardan's 
rule. 

But  when,  in  a  cubic  equation*'  —  q  x  +  r,  y  is 
s  negative  ;  in  this  cafe  the  expreffion  v'ir--\-^ij  q\ 
will  be  transformed  into  v^jr^  —  x7?'i  which  root 
becomes  impoflible,  or  imaginary,  when  ^y  q^  is 
greater  than  i  r^,  as  being  the  fquare  root  of  a  ne- 
gative quantity.     And  yet,  even  in  this  cafe,    the 


root  X  may  be  a  real  qu  antity  ;  though  algebraiJIs 
have  not,  hitherto,  been  able  to  find  a  real  expref- 
fion of  its  value. 

Again,  any  cubic  eq'iation  may  be  reduced  to  this 
form,  and  the  value  of  x  difcovered  without  exter- 
minating the  fecond  term. 

.v'  —  3  /•  •*■'  —  3  ?  •*■  —  ^  '■  ) 

-{-  3  &^  Jf  —  /.'  C  =:  o  ;   which 

+  PO 
by  fuppofing  x-=-  z  -{-/>,    will  be  reduced  to  z'  * 
—  2  qz  —  1  r  zz  o,  in  which  the  fecond  term  is 
wanting.     But,   from  what  is  advanced  above,  it 


follows  that  z  =  ■v/r-j- v/^i_y3-f  v/r —  v^r^— y' 
z=  (if  you  fuppofe  that  the  cubic  root  of  the  bino- 
mial r  -\-  v'j- — y'  \s  m  -\-  •/  n)  ■=.  m -{■  V»   + 

m  —  v'«  =  2  ni.  And,  fince  x'=-%-\-p,  it  fol- 
lows that  X  z=.  p  -\-  7.m.  But,  as  the  fquare  root 
of  any  quantity  is  twofold,  fo  the  cubic  root  is 
threefold,  and  can  be  exprelTed  three  different 
ways. 

Example  I. 

Let  it  be  required  to  find  the  roots  of  the  equa- 
tion x^  —  12X^  -\-  ^i  X  — 42  =0. 

Comparing  the  coefficients  of  this  equation  with 

thefe  of  the  general  equation,  viz. 
x^  —  ipx"- 


"-  3?l      — 2r    ^ 

+  3/"' J'       — /'H=o,  you 

+  -ipq ) 


+  3/-? 

will  find  3/1=12,  fo  that  />  =  4;  3/)^  —  21 
(=:  48  —  3  ?)  =  4I5  fo  that  y  zz  |;  and  1  Pi 
—  p^  — 1  r  (  =  — 36  —  2  r)  :=42  fo  that  r  =  3. 
And  confequently  r^  —  ?^  =.  9  —  ^  J?  =  —  ~%iy 
and  r  -J-  vT^I^  =  3  +  ^—  -^if.  Now  the  cu- 
bic root  of  this  binominal  is  found  to  be  —  1  -f- 

^/~^  (=  m  +  V/zj  ;  whence 


.*  =  />  -j-  2 ;«  =  4 
x=zp  —  m—  "^ — 


■2  =  2,  _ 

H+  1-^4  =5  —  2  =  3. 


=  />—«-{-  V_  3„  =  5  -f  2  =  7 
So  that  the  three  roots  of  the  propofed  equation  are  2,  3,  and  7. 


To  folve  Biquadratic  Equations 
The  roots  of  thefe  may   be  found  by  reducing 

them  to  cubic  ones,   thus  : 

Let  the  fecond  term  be  taken  away. 

And  let  the  equation   that  refults',  be  at*  jf:  -f- 

gx^  -j^  r  ;f  -|-  J  r=  o.     Suppofe  this    biquadratic  to 

be  the  produft  of  thefe  two  quadratic  quellions. 

x"^  +  ex  +f  =  O. 

x^  —  <■  A-  -t-  ^  =  O. 


*  +y 


^-H-A  =  0- 


Where  e  is  the  coefficient  of  x  in  both  equa- 
tions, but  afFeiSted  with  contrary  figns ;  becaufe 
when  the  fecond  term  is  wanting  in  an  equation, 
the  fum  of  the  affirmative  roots  muft  be  equal  to 
the  fum  of  the  negative. 

Compare  now  the  propofed  equation  with  the 
above  prodiidf,  and  the  refpedtive  terms  put  equal 
to  each  other,  will  give/-|-^  — e^-=.  q,  eg  —  efrzir, 
andfg  =  s.     Whence  it  follows,   thaty-j-  g  =.j 

-f-  e'^,   and  g  —  /  =  — ;  and  confequently,  /-\-  g 


ALGEBRA. 


25 


+  g-—  /■(=  2^)  =  ?  +  ^"+f,     and  ^    = 


f  +  ^^  +  7- 


In  the  fame  manner  you  will  find,  by  fubtrac- 
tion,   fe'f.  /  = 1,   and  /"  X  ^   ( =  j)  = 


5  X  ?^  +  2  q  e"-  -\-  e* —  ji;  and,  multiplying  by 
4  ^^,  and  ranging  the  terms,  you  have  this  equati- 
on, ^*  +  2  qe"^  -\-  q"- —  4.S   X  e""  —  r"-  z=  o. 

Suppofe  e^  zz  y,  and  it  becomes  y^  -f  2  q  y'^ 
+  q^  —  4  i  X  y  —  r'  :=.  o,  an  equation  whofe 
roots  are  to  be  dilcovered  by  the  method  of  refolv- 
ing  cubic  equations. 

Then  the  values  of  y  being  found,  their  fquare 
roots  wilUgive  e  (fince  y  z=.  e'' ;)  and  having  e, 
you  will  find  f  and  g,    from  the  equations  /  = 

?+*^--                     9  +  ^^+- 
f_,  and  g  = L. 


Laftly,  extrading  the  roots  of  the  roots  of  the 
equations  x^  +  ex  +/"=:  O,  and  x^  —  ex  -\-  g  z=. 
o,  you  will  find  the  four  roots  of  the  biquadratic 
A-*  *  -f-  ^  JT*  +  r  j:  -f  J  =  o  ;  for  either  x  =z  — 
i  e  +  V~~;  or  ^  =  +  f  ^  +  V~~. 

Or  you  may  find  the  roots  of  a  biquadratic,  with- 
out taking  away  the  lecond  term. 

Example. 

Suppofe  it  to  be  of  this  form, 
X*  —  A,px^—  ^gl^^—  Sr  }       —4,0   _ 

+4^^r  +4/?r  -i?^i -°- 

then  the  values  of  x  will  be 


x  =  p—a+  J p^-Vq-'^^—-]^ 

I ^'■l 

and  x—p\-  c+ >//^  +  f— fl^  -}-—  j 

where  a^  is  equal  to  the  root  of  the  cubic  equation 

By  Fluxion. 

Fluxion  denotes  the  velocity  by  which  the 
the  fluents  or  flowng  quantities  increafe  or  de- 
creafe :  So  that  all  this  dodlrine  may  be  confidered 
as  pofitive,  or  negative  ;  according  as  it  relates  to 
an  improvement  or  decrement. 

Foreigners  ufually  define  the  method  o^ fluxions. 
The  arithmetic,  or  analyfis  of  infinitely,  oj' rather 


indefinitely,  fmall  variable  quantities  ;  or,  the  me- 
thod of  finding  an  infinite  fmall  or  an  indefinitely 
fmall  quantity,  which  being  taken,  an  infinite 
number  of  times,  becomes  equal  to  a  given  quan- 
tity. 

Sir  Ifaac  Newton  and  his  followers  call  thefe  in- 
finitely fmall  quantities,  moments;  as  confidering 
them  the  momentary  increments  and  decrements  of 
variable  quantities  of  a  line  or  zfurface,  is'c.  confi- 
dered as  generated  by  the  flux  of  a  pointy  or  by 
the  flux  of  a  line. 

Hence  the  variable  quantities  are  c?i\tiiL  fluent,  or 
flowing  quantities ;  and  the  method  of  finding 
either  the  fluxion  or  fl:ient,  is  the  method  of 
fluxions. 

M.  Leibnitz  confiders  the  fame  infinitely  fmall 
quantities  as  the  differences  of  two  quantities,  and 
names  the  moments  of  finding  thofe  differences, 
the  differential  calculus. 

Both  thcfe  ways  of  confidering  and  denominating 
have  their  advantages.  But  there  is  not  only  a  dif- 
ference in  the  name  but  alfo  in  the  notation. 

Sir  Ifaac  Newton  expreffes  the  fluxion  of  a  quan- 
tity, as,  xhya,  a  dot  being  placed  over  it,  as;t-. 

M.  Leibnitz,  expreffes  the  differential  of  the 
fame  x  by  prefixing  a  d,  as,  d  x.  Both  of  which 
notations  have  their  advantage  likewife. 

In  all  other  refpedts  the  two  methods  pradlifed 
by  the  followers  of  Newtoii  and  Leibnitz,  are  the 
fame. 

The  advantages  derived  from  this  do(?trinc  of 
fl.uxions  are  mofl:  fublime.  It  opens  a  new  world, 
and  extends  our  knowledge,  as  it  were  to  infinity, 
or  beyond  the  bounds  that  feemed  to  be  delcribed 
to  the  human  mind. 

A  difcovery  referved  by  the  Almighty  for  the 
latter  ages  of  the  world ;  yet,  though  of  fo  mo- 
dern a  date  as  within  the  memory  of  man,  it  is 
not  clear  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  its  inven- 
tion. Sir  Ifaac  Newton  and  M.  Leibnitz  feparate- 
ly  lay  in  their  claim  for  the  honour.  Let  the 
reader  from  the  fa<Ss  before  him  determine  to  whom 
the  m.erit  of  fo  noble  a  difcovery  is  due. 

M.  Leibnitz  in  1684  gave  the  rules  for  fluxions 
in  ths.JeJa  Lipflenfia,  or  literary  tranfadlions  of  the 
univerfity  of  Leipfic  for  that  year,  without  publifh- 
ing  the  demonfirations. 

This  fet  the  learned  world  to  work ;  and  the 
two  brothers,  the  BenouUi,  never  refted  till  thty 
conquered  the  difficulty,  found  the  demonftrations, 
and  prailifed  them  with  furprifing  fuccefs. 

Nor  was  it  till  the  year  1687  that  S\t  Ifaac 
Nnvton  attempted  any  thing,  this  way,  in  public. 
In  that  year  he  pubhfhed  his  admirable  Ptincipia, 
wliieh  is  almoft  wholly  founded  on  the  fame  cal- 
cul  s. 

It  does  not  appear  that  cither  of  thefe  great  men 
arrogated   any   peculiar   cluini  to    this    invention. 

Nor 


26 


Tl^e  Unlverfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  (jW  Sciences. 


Nor  did  the  learned  world,  at  that  time,  declare 
any  opinion  in  that  matter,  othervvife  than  giving 
due  applaufe  to  both  thofe  happy  genius's,  for 
both  their  inventions  of  the  fame  doctrine  about 
the  fame  time  ;  being  convinced  that  neither  of 
them  had  copied  from  the  other ;  bccaufe  they  did 
not  mention  one  another ;  and  becaufe,  though 
they  agreed  in  the  fubftance  of  the  thing,  they 
differed  in  their  way  of  conceiving;  called  it  by 
different  names,  and  ufed  different  characters. 

However  each  had  his  partilans:  foreign  na- 
tions adopted  the  charaiier  invented  by  Leibnitz, 
as  more  commodious,  And  as  his  character  gained 
acceptance,  the  geometricians  on  the  continent  of 
Europe  were  infenfibly  led  to  look  upon  him  to  be 
the  fole  author  and  principal  inventor  of  Fluxions. 

In  the  year  1699  M  Fatio,  who  followed  the 
Newt  wan  pradHce  oppofed  that  opinion.  And  in 
a  treatile  on  the  U;e  of  fivijteji  dejcent,  advanced 
that  Sir  Ijaac  Newton  was  not  only  the  inventor, 
but  was  the  firft  that  pradtifed  the  differential  calcu- 
lus for  many  years ;  and  mentioned  Mr.  Leibnitz. 
only  as  the  fctond  inventor.  ^Vhich  precife  dil- 
tinclion  between  firjl  and  fecund  inventor,  with 
the  fufpicion  it  infinuated,  (though  hitherto  the 
two  great  authors  themfelves  enjoyed  the  glorious 
profpei£t  of  the  progrefl'es  made  continually  under 
their  aufpices  without  any  concern  or  difpute,  as 
to  the  property  of  the  invention)  awakened  M. 
Leibnitz,  and  his  editors  at  Leip/ic  maintained  his 
priority  ofthe  invention  offluxionsagainfttheA/?^///^ 
geometriciais,  who  declared  for  Sir  Ijaac  Newton. 

Sir  Ifaac  took  no  part  in  this  controverfy;  con- 
tented with  the  attitude  in  which  he  was  placed  by 
the  learned  world  above  the  glory  of  all  that  went 
before  him  in  philoibphical  difcoveries.  But  his 
countrymen  could  not  be  reafoned  into  filence. 
They  perfifted  in  their  claim  of  the  priority  of  Sir 
Ijaac  %  invention  to  M.  Leib  litz  :  till  at  laft  M. 
Leibnitz  in  the  year  171 1,  laid  a  formal  complaint 
before  the  Royal  Society  in  London  againft  Dr. 
Keil  for  accufing  him  of  publifhing  the  method  of 
Fluxions,  invented  by  Sir  Ifaac  Newton,  under 
other  names  and  charaders.  At  the  fame  time  ap 
pealing  to  Sir  Ifaac  himfelf  for  an  atteftation  of 
his  innocence;  and  infifting  that  Dr.  AV// fhould 
publickly  difavow  the  ill  conftrucllon,  which  might 
be  put  upon  his  words. 

This  appeal  to  the  Royal  Society,  as  judges, 
brought  the  controverfy  to  an  iffue.  On  the  one 
part  Leibnitz  ftands  to  the  award  of  their  tribunal : 
on  the  other  part  the  Society,  after  due  examination 
of  the  merits  of  both  the  claimants,  from  the  befl: 
vouchers  they  could  find  in  old  letters,  papers,  i^'c, 
and  the  ftridefl  examination  of  all  the  evidences, 
that  could  be  produced,  gave  this  report  or  ver- 
diiSl,  viz. 


\      "  That  it  did  not  appear  that  M.  Leibnitz  knew 

!  "  any  thing  of  the  Differenticil  Calculus   before  a 

"  letter  wrote  him  by  Sir  Ifaac  Newton,    and  fent 

"  to  him   at  Paris,    in  the    year  1672  ;   wherein 

.  "  the  method  of  Fluxions  was  fufHciently  explained 

<'  to  let  a  man  of  his  fagacity  into  the  whole  mat- 

"  ter  ;   and  that  Sir   Ijaac  Newton   had  even  in- 

"  vented   his  method  before  the  year  1669  ;    and 

, "  in  confequence  fifteen  years  before  M.  Leibnitz, 

j "  had  given  any  thing  on  the  lubject  in  the  Leipftc 

1 "  j^rts  :"  concluding, 

]  That  Dodlor  Keil  had  not  at  all  injured  M.  Leib- 
nitz in  what  he  had  advanced  and  faid. 
I  This,  nevcrthelefs,  did  not  fdence  the  foreign 
i  advocates  and  admirers  of  M.  Leibnitz.  For, 
1  though  this  cenfure,  with  all  the  pieces  relating 
thereunto,  were  printed  in  one  collection  under  the 
'title  of  Coinmerciujn  Epijiol'tcum  de  Analyfi  prornota, 
London,  17 12,  and  carefully  circulated  all  over 
Europe,  in  vindication  of  the  Title  of  the  Englijlr- 
nation  to  fo  ufeful  a  difcover}',  M.  Leibnitz  and  his 
friends  could  not  brook  the  name  of  a  Plagiary, 
with  which  the  cenfure,  isfc.  plainly  ftigmatized 
him.  bo  that  foon  after  we  find  a  loofe  fheet 
printed  at  Paris,  and  alfo  at  Bremen  with  much  fire, 
in  behalf  of  Leibnitz,  maintaining  boldly.  That 
the  method  of  Fluxio  j  did  not  precede  that  of 
Differences  ;  and  infinuates,  that  it  might  have 
arifen  from  it.  M.  Leibnitz  himielf  is  faid  to  have 
been  employed  in  an  elaborate  anfvver  to  the  Com- 
jnercium  EpijhUcum,  when  death  took  him  off  the 
ftage  of  contention. 

They,  who  reafon  cooly  upon  the  merits  of  thefe 
claimants,  {though  it  is  a  faft  without  the  leaft 
doubt,  that  Sir  Ifaac  Newton  was  the  firji  inventor 
of  Fluxions)  can't  be  fo  harfh  as  to  declare  AI; 
Leibnitz  to  be  a  Plagiary.  If  they  would  but  re- 
colled  that  M.  Leibnitz  in  his  Theory  of  Jhjlraci 
Motions,  dedicated  to  the  Royal  Academy  in  167 1, 
did  then  fuppofe,  infinitely  fmall  quantities,  fome 
a;reater  than  others  (which  is  one  of  the  great  prin- 
ciples of  Fluxions)  it  might  go  a  great  way  towards 
acquitting  him  of  Plagiarifm,  and  to  convince  us 
that  M.  Leibnitz  did  not  take  the  do£trine  of 
Fluxions  from  Sir  Ipac  Newton  ;  but  that  he  acci- 
dentally fell  upon  the  fame  thing  with  him. 

'I'hefe  things  premifed  it  will  be  neceffar)' to  add 
fomewhat  more  on  the  fubjedl  of  notation  of 
Fluxions. 

Invariable  quantities,  or  thofe  which  neither  in- 
creafe  nor  decreafe,  are  reprefented  by  the  firft  let- 
ters of  the  alphabet,  as  a,  b.  c,  d,  i^fc.  and  the 
variable  or  flowing  quantities  by  the  laft  letters,  as 
V,  w,  X,  y,  z  ;  thus,  the  diameter  of  a  given  circle 
may  be  denoted  by  a  ;  and  the  fi  ;e  of  any  arch 
thereof,  confidered  as  variable,  by  x.  The  fluxion 
of  a  quantity  reprefented  by  a  fngle  letter,    is  ex- 

prefled 


ALGEBRA. 


27 


pre/Ted  by  the  fame  ktter  with  a  dot  or  full  point 
over  it:  thus,  the  fluxion  of  a-  is  reprefcined  by 
X,  and  that  of  y  by  v. 

And,  becaufe  the;e  fluxions  are  themielvcs  often 
variable  quantities,  the  velocities  vi^ith  which  they 
either  increafe  or  decreafe,  are. the  fluxions  of  the 
former  fluxions,  which  may  be  caWzA  fccond  flu- 
xions, and  are  denoted  by  the  fame  letters  with  two 
dots  over  them,  as  x  y\ 

In  the  fame  manner  the  fluxions  oi  fecond  Ru- 
xions  arc  called  third  fluxions,  and  denoted  by  the 
fame  letters  with  three  dots  over  them,  as  ic,  y  ; 
and  fo  on  ior  fourth,  fifth,  ^c.  fluxions,  which 
are  expreffed  by  the   fame  letters,  with  four,  five, 

y^:  dots  over  them,  as  x,  y;    aild  X-,  y,i3'c. 

If  the  flowing;  quantity  be  a  fraftion,  as  , 

a — -y 

its  firft,  fecond,    third,   &c.  fluxions  are  expreffed 

by  one,  two,  three,  &c.  dots  placed  in  the  break 

of  the  line  that  feparates  the  numerator  from  the 

XX  XX  XX 

denominator,  thus     — •— ,    — ; — ,    — .r — ,     isfc. 

J—y       d — y        d — y 

The  fluxions  of furds&rt  denoted  in  the  fame  man- 
ner, by  one,  two  or  more  dots  placed  in  the  break 
of  the  vinculum  of  the'  radical  charadler:  thus, 
if  the  furd  quantity  be  y"  x  — y,  then  will  its 
firft,    fecond,    third,  iffc.    fluxions   be  ^Z  ^ — ;» 

'Jx—  y,  J X  —  )■,  i^c. 

The  whole  dodlrine  of  fluxions  confifts  in  folv- 
ing  the  two  following  Problems,  w'z.  i.  From  the 
fluent,  or  variable  flowing  quantity  given,  to  find 
the  fluxion  ;  which  conftitutes  what  is  called  the 
direSi  method  oj  fuxions.  2.  From  the  fluxion 
given,  to  find  the  fluent,  or  flowing  quantity  ; 
which  makes  the  invtrfe  tnetkcd  of  fuxions. 

The  latter  is  diredly  oppofite  to  the  former,  and 
is  a  fequel  to  it.  Hoth  of  them  are  adopted  into  th  e 
new  Geometry,  and  make  reigning  methods  therein. 

1^\\&  firji  defcends  from  finite  to  infinite.  The 
fecond  afcends  from  infinitely  fmall  to  finites.  The 
one  decompounds  a  magnitude  ;  the  other  re-efla- 
blifhcs  it. 

The  foundation  of  the  direSl  method  oi  fluxions 
amounts  to  this  Problem.  The  length  of  the 
fquare  defcribed  being  continually,  or  at  all  times, 
given  to  find  the  velocity  at  any  time  propofed. 

The  foundation  of  the  in-oerje  method  amounts 
to  this  Problem.  1  he  velocity  of  the  motion  be- 
ing continually  given,  to  find  the  fpace  defcribed  by 
it  at  any  time  propofed. 

The  Doctrine  of  the  dire£i  method ef  Fluxions 
is  comprifed  in  thefe  rules. 


I.  To  find  the  fluxion  of  any  fimplc  variable 
quantity,  the  rule  is  to  place  a  dot  over  it:  thus, 
tlie  fluxion  of  x  is  i,*and  of  y,  y.  Again,  the 
fluxion  of  thecompound  quantity  x  -\-  y,  is  .r  -[-  v; 
alfo  the  fluxion  of  x  —  _>■  is  .*•  — j. 

2.  To  find  the  fluxion  of  any  given  power  of  a 
variable  quantity,  multiply  the  fluxion  of  the  root 
by  the  exponent  of  the  power,  and  the  produ£l:  by 
that  power  of  the  fame  root ;  whofc  exponent  Is 
lefs  by  unity  than  the  given  exponent. 

This  rule  is  expreffed  more  briefly,  in  algebraioil 

charafters,    hy  n  x        x  zz  the  fluxion  of  x  . 

Thus,  the  fluxion  of  Jr'  is  *■  x  3  X  *•'  =: 
3  x'^  X  ;  and  the  fluxion  of  a:'   is  *■  x  5  x  a*  =: 

5  X*  X.  In  the  fame  manner  the  fluxion  of  a  +y\ 

is  y  y  X  a  +  y  \'';   for  the  quantity  a  being  con- 
ftant,  y  is  the  true  fluxion  of  the  root  a  -{-  y. 

Again,  the  fluxion  of     a^  -fzM^  will  be  I  x 

2  zi  X  «^  -}-  z^p  :  for  here,  x  being  put  =  a^-(- 

z*,  we  have  x  ==  2  z  2  ;  and  therefore  I  a-  ^  a-,  for 

the  fluxion  of  a-  |  (or    a^  +   z'p,  is   =    3  z  a 

Vs"  +  z\ 

3.  To  find  the  fluxion  of  the  produft  of  feve- 
ral  variable  quantities,  multiply  the  fluxion  of 
each,  by  the  produd:  of  the  reft  of  the  quantities  ; 
and  the  fum  of  the  products,  thus  arifing,  will  be 
the  fluxion  fought. 

Thus  the  fluxion  of  AT  ^  is  xy  -(-  yx;  that  of 
X  y  z  is  X  yz  +  y  x  z  +  z  x  y  ;  and  that  of  iia-^z 

is  V  xy  z  -|-  X  V  Y  z  +  y  v  x  z  -f  zvxy.  Again, 
the  fluxion  of  a  -{-  x  x  b  — y  -zn  a  b  -\-  b  x  — 
ay  —  X y,  is  bx  —  ay  — x  y  — y  x 

4.  To  find  the  fluxion  of  ?ifra£iion,  the  rule  is, 
from  the  fluxion  of  the  numerator  multiplied  by 
the  denominator,  fubtradl  the  fluxion  of  the  deno- 
minator multiplied  by  the  numerator,  and  divide 
the  remainder  by  the  fquare  of  the  denominator. 


Thus  the  fluxion  of — ,  Is 

y 


y  X  —  X  y 


that  of 


X   X  X  -\-    y 


+  y  X  X       yx  —  xy 


X  +  y' 

and   that    of 
z  X  X  +  y  — 


X  +  y  +  z 

x~~'' 
X  +    V    X    Z 


x  +  }\ 


or    I  + 


x+y' 
and  foof  others. 


A-  x;-! 
In  the  examples  hitherto  given,   each  is  refolved 
by  its  own  p.ircicular  rule  ;    but  in  thofe  that  fol- 
E  low. 


28 


"The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


low,    the  ufe  of  two  or  more  of  the  above  rules  is 
requiiite  :    thus  (by  rule  2.  and  3.)  the   fluxion    of 

x^  y^  is  found  to  be  2  x^  yj  +  2  >^  xx ;   that  of  — , 


is  found  (by  rule  2,  and  4.)  to  be 


J* 
2y'  xx^2  x''yi  . 


and  that  of- 


is  (by  rule  2,  3,  and  4.)  found 


to  be 


2xyy-i-ZyxxX'Z- 


5.  When  the  propofed  quantity  is  affefted  by  a 
coefficient,  or  conftant  multiplicator,  the  fluxion, 
found  as  above,  tnuft  be  multiplied  by  that  coeffi- 
cient or  multiplicator:  thus,  the  fluxion  of  ^x^, 
is  isx^x,  for  the  fluxion  of  x^  is  3  x-*  x,  which 
multiplied  by  5,  gives   15*''*.     And  in  the  very 

fame  manner,  the  fluxion  of «  AT    wWlhenax       x. 

Having  thus  explained  the  manner  of  deter- 
mining the  jirjl  fluxiom  of  variable  quantities,  it 
remains  to  fay  fomething  of  fecond,  third,  i^c. 
Jiuxions. 

We  have  already  obferved,  that  the  fecond  flu- 
xion of  a  quantity,  is  the  fluxion  of  the  firft  flu- 
xion ;  and  by  the  third  fluxion  is  meant  the  fluxion 
of  the  fecond  ;  the  fourth,  of  the  third  ;  and  fo 
on.  The  fluxions,  therefore,  ofevery  order  are  only 
the  meafure  of  the  velocities,  by  which  their  refpec- 
tive  flowing  quantities,  viz.  the  fluxions  of  the 
immediately  preceding  order,  are  generated. 

Hence  it  appears,  that  a  fecond  fluxion  always 
fhews  the  rate  of  the  increafe  or  decreafe  of  the 
firft  fluxion ;  and  that  the  third,  fourth,  (Jc.  flux- 
ions differ  in  nothing,  except  their  order  and  nota- 
tion, from  firft  fluxions  ;  and  iherefore  are  alfo 
determinable  in  the  very  fame  manner,  by  the  rules 
already  laid  down. 

Thus,  (by  rule  4.)  the  (firft)  fluxion  of  x^  is 
■^x^  X  :  and  if  x  is  fuppofed  conftant,  that  is,  Lf 
the  root  x  be  generated  with  an  equable  or  uniform 
velocity,  the  fluxion  of  3  ^^  ;f  (or  3  x  x  x^)  again 
taken  (by  the  fame  rule)  will  he  3  i  x  7.xx,  or 
b  xx'^ ;  which  therefore  is  the  fecond  fluxion  of  *-^. 
Again,  the  third  fluxion  of  x^,  or  the  fluxion  of 
bxx'^i  is  found  to  be  bx';  further  than  which 
we  cannot  go  in  this  cafe,  becaufe  the  laft  fluxion, 
6x\  is  here  a  conftant  quantity. 

In  the  preceding  example,  the  root  jr  is  fuppofed 
to  be  generated  with  an  equable  velocity:  but  if 
the  velocity  be  an  incre.ifing  or  decreafmg  one, 
then  .V,  exprefhng  the  meafuie  thereof,  being  va- 
riable, will  alio  have  its  fluxion,  which  is  denoted, 
as  faid  above,  by  ii  \  and  the  fluxion  of  x  by  xy  and 
fo  on  with  refpedt  to  higher  orders. 


bxx  X  ;r  -(-  3*-^  X  ^ 
for  the  third  fluxion 


Examples,  wherein  the  root  jt  (or  )>)   is  fuppofed 
to  be  generated  with  a  variable  velocity. 

Thus,  the  fluxion  of  x^  being  3  a-^  x  (or  3  jr*  x  .r) 
the  fluxion  of  3  jr^  x  x,  confidered  as  a  reflangle, 
will  (by  rule  3.)  be  found  to  be  b  xi  X  jr-f  3Jr^x* 
■=1  bxx'^  -f  ■^x'^ic;  which  is  the  fecond  fluxion  of 
x^.  Moreover,  from  the  fluxion  laft  found,  we 
fhall  in  liicc  manner  get  6  a-  x  .v^  -j-  6  a-  X  2  ii  + 
(or  bx''  -f  i'6xxx-\-';^x'^x) 
of  x^.      Thus  alfo,  if  jr  := 

nx        X,  then  will  j;=  n  x  n — i    x  a-  x'^   + 

n  XX       ;  and  if  z^   r:    xy,   then   will  2  «  ~  = 
X y  -i-  y  X :  and  fo  of  others. 

Once   for  all,  take  particular  notice,    that  the 
fluxions  of  all  kinds  and  orders  whatever,  are  con- 
temporaneous, or  fuch  as  may  be  generated  to- 
gether, with  their  refpedlive  velocities,  in  one  and  - 
the  fame  time. 

The  doiSlrine  of  the  inverfe  methods  of  Flu- 
xions, or  Calculus  integralls,  (which  confifts  in 
finding  finite  magnitudes  from  the  infinitely  fmall 
parts  thereof,  or  in  determining  the  Jiucnts  of  given 
Fluxions)  is  to  proceed  from  infinitely  fmall  quan- 
tities to  finite,  and  to  recompound  and  fum  up, 
what  the  other  had  refolved  ;  whence  this  method 
of  Fluxions  is  alfo  called,  the  fummatoi y  Calculus. 

Yet,  this  does  not  always  re-eftablifh  what  has 
been  decompounded :  for,  as  there  is  no  method 
for  deducing  the  fluent  from  the  fluxion  a  priori, 
by  a  dire(5l  inveftigation  ;  fo  it  is  impofTible  to  lay 
down  rules  for  any  other  forms  of  fluxions,  than 
thofe  particular  ones  that  we  know,  from  the  dire£t 
method,  belong  to  fuch  kinds  of  flowing  quantities. 
For  example,  the  fluent  of  2Ar;(-  is  known  to  be 
x^;  becaufe,  by  the  dire£l  method,  the  fluxion  of 
x'^  is  found  to  be  2  x  x:  but  the  fluent  oi  y  x  is 
unknown,  fince  no  expreflion  has  been  difcovered 
that  produces  y  x  for  its  fluxion.  However,  the 
following  rules  are  ufed  by  the  beft  7nathematicians 
for  finding  the  Jluents  of  ^vjen  Jiuxions. 

1.  To  find  the  fluent  of  any  fimple  fluxion, you 
need  only  write  the  letters  without  the  dots  over 
them:  thus,  the  fluent  of  jr  is  x,  and  that  oi ax-\-ly, 
is  ax  -\-  by. 

2.  To  aflign  the  fluent  of  any  power  of  a  va- 
riable quantity,  multiplied  by  the  fluxion  of  the 
root ;  firft  divide  by  the  fluxion  of  the  root ;  add 
unity  to  the  exponent  of  the  power,  and  divide 
by  the  exponent    fo   increafed;   for  dividing  the 

fluxion  n  x"     i  by  ;e-,  it  becomes  n  x         ;     and 

adding  i  to  the  exponent  (« — i)  we  have  nx  ;  which 

divided  by  n,  gives  x  ,the  true  fluent  of «  x        x. 

.    Hence,  by  the  fame  rule,  the  fluent  of  3  x'^  x 

will 


ALGEBRA. 


29 


will  be  =  A-' ;   that  of  ^x^  x  —  —  -,  that  of  >•  \y 

3 

8 

V  5  ^  y  ^ 

=    -J;/    i   thatoftf>'|j=  — —    and    that    of 


— .+    I 


y"y 


=  ;' 


— +  1 


=  'i2 

«!  +  «     ' 


that  of   „,or aicx 


that  of  «  +  zPXz  = 


«+^ 


4 


■;  andthatof 


mX>t+  I 

In  affigningthe  fluents  of  given  fluxions,  itought 

to  be  confidered,    whether  the  flowing  quantity, 

found  as  above,  requires  the  addition  or  fubtraciion 

of  fome  conllant  quantity,   to  render  it  complete  : 

for  inftance.  the  fluent  of  » *•  x  may  be  ei- 
ther reprefented  by  x"  or  by  x'':±  «,  for  a  being  a 
conflant  quantity  the  fluxion  x''±a,  as  well  as  of 

x^,  is  nx"      X. 

Hence  it  appears,  that  the  varlablepartof  afluent 
only  can  be  afligned  by  the  common  method,  the 
conftant  part  being  only  aflignable  from  the  parti- 
cular nature  of  the  problem. 

Now  to  do  this,  the  bed:  way  is  to  confider  how 
much  the  variable  part  of  the  fluent,  firfl:  found, 
differs  from  the  truth,  when  the  quantity,  which 
the  whole  fluent  ought  to  exprefs,  is  equal  to  no- 
thing; then  that  difference,  added  to,  ot  Jub- 
traiiedhom,  the  faid  variable  part,  as  occafion  re- 
quires, will  give  the  fluent  truly  correded. 

To  make  this  plainer  by  an  example  or  two,  let 

"■  Here  we  firft  find  y=  ^+-^1^  ; 


yzza  -{■  x\   Xx. 


but  when  y  =  o,  then  — X —  becomes  = — ;  fince 
4-  + 

X,  by  hypothefis,  is  then   =  0  ,  therefore  

always  exceeds  ;;  by  —  ;   and  fo  the  fluent  proper- 

4  2 


whence  the  equation  or  fluent,    properly  corre£led 

is  y  =  «  +^  —^ 

mXi+  I 

Hitherto  x  and  y  are  both  fuppofed  equal  to  no- 
thing, at  the  fame  time  ;  which  will  not  always  be 
the  cafe  ;  for  inftance,  though  the  fine  and  tan- 
gent of  an  arch  are  both  equal  to  nothing,  when 
the  arch  itfelf  is  fo;  yet  the  fecant  is  then  equal  to 
the  radius. 

It  will  therefore  be  proper  to  add  fome  examples, 
wherein  the  value  of  y  is  equal  to  nothing,  when 
that  of  X  is  equal  to  any  given  quantity  a. 

Thus   let  the  equation  y=x^x,   be  propofed  ; 

*•' 

whereof  the  fluent  firft  found  is  yz=— ;  but  when 

3 

y  =0,   then  — n  — ,  by  the  hypothefis  ;  therefore 
3       3  .       . 


the  fluent  correfted  is  v  = . 

Again,   fuppofe  j  =x  x  ;  then  will  y=:— i 


which,  correded,   becomes  y=- 


»+' 


}i-{- 1 


Laftly,  if  y^c^+bx^'llxxx  ;  then,  firft,  ;? 
'"^+      1'   .    therefore    the    fluent    corrected 


IS 


3^ 


ly  correfted,  will  be  yz=i- 

X* 

+  ax^+  — . 

4 

Again,  let  v=(j 


m\n  m  —  \ 

4-  .v    '     XX 


firft  have  j : 


■  a  -\-x 


i|"4-i 


z«Xa-J- 1 


here  we 
and  making  ji^o,    the 


latter  part  of  the  equation  becomes^ 


^|«  -4-1  m  n-\-fn 


3.  To  find  the  fluents  of  fachfuxionary  expref- 
fions,  as  involve  two  or  more  variable  quantities, 
fubftitute,  inftead  of  fuch  fluxion,  its  refpeftive 
flowing  quantity ;  and,  adding  all  the  terms  to- 
gether, divide  the  fum  by  the  number  of  terms, 
and  the  quotient  will  be  the  fluent. 

Thus  the   fluent   of  xy4-yx— —      =: 

=  xy  ;  and  the  fluent   of  x  y  ^  +y  x%  -f  27  r  — 

xyz-ir-xyyC-Yxyz i,xyz  

3  ""    3      ~ 

Having  thus  (bewn  the  manner  of  finding  fuch 

fluents  as  can  be  truly  exhibited  in  algebraic  terms, 
it  remains  now  to  fay  fomething  with  regard  to 
thofe  other  forms  of  exprefTions  involving  one  va- 
riable quantity  only  ;  which  yet  are  fo  affected  by 
compound  divifors  and  radical  quantities,  that  their 
fluents  cannot  be  accurately  determined  by  any  me- 
thod whatfoever. 

The  only  method  with  regard  to  thefc,  of  which 
there  are  innumerable  kinds,  is  to  find  their  fluents, 
by  approximaticn,  which,  by  the  method  of  infi- 
nite f  cries,  may  be  done  to  any  degree  of  exa£l- 
ne&. 


mXn+l      mxn-i-l 


E  2 


Thus 


30 


l^he  Univerfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


ax 
a — A- 


Thus,   if  it  were  propofed  to  find  rhe  fluent  of 
- ,    it  becomes  neceflary  to  throw  the  fluxion 

•A- 

into   an  infinite  feries,    by  dividing  a'x  by  a — x  ; 

—^^  XX         x"- X         X^X         A  *X    . 

thus,   ax^ii—x  —  x  +  ^  +  "^i'  +  "^  +  ~^->  ^c. 

Now    the   fluent   of  each    term   of  tliis  feries, 

may  be   found  by  the  foregoing  rules  to  be  x-^- 

l!  +  lL  +  ^-|-^+  &c. 
2a      3«       4«'      5^+ 


_p  b^ 


ion  ofthe  folidf  (  =/i^^;r)  =^-^  X   axx  —  x'^x; 


a^ x^]-Xx''x 

Again,  to  approximate  the  fluent  of  —     —^       ~  ' 

C^^—X^l 

ive  firfl  find  the  value  of  ^-^^-i-^    exprefled  in   a 


♦cries  to  be  —  4-  —- x  a-^  +  ^— ^—T~r. 


XA*  + 


■;« 


I 


I 


X  *•"  + 


isfc.  which  value  being  multiplied  by  a"  .v,  and  the 
Jluent  taken   by  the  rules  above  laid  down,  we  get 

ffJ_  +  ^_J_xlJl\-— — ^X 


a-j-l  X<r 
+  ,    &C. 


zc^       zac       7i-\-  3      8f  5        /[ac^ 


\bac^        iba^c^ 


I 

~^'        ^«  +  7 
——  xf 


To  fhew  the  ufefulnejs  of  Jiuxions  more  accu- 
rately,   we  (hall  give  an  example  or  two. 

Suppofe  it  were  required  to  divide  the  given  right 
line  A  B  into  two  fuch  parts,  A  B,  C  B,  that  their 


produdls  or  reftangles,  may  be  the  greateft  poflible. 
Let  A  B  =  (7,  and  let  the  part  AC,  confidered  as 
variable  (by  the  motion  of  C  towards  B)  be  de- 
noted by  X.  Then  B  C  being  z=.  a  —  x,  we  have 
AC  X  BC^^flA- —  XX,  whofe  fluxion  a  x  — 2xx 
being  put  =  o,  we  get  ax-=.2xx;  and,  con- 
sequently, X  =.  J  r7.  Hence  it  appears  that  A  C 
(or  at]  muft  be  exa£lly  one  half  of  AB. 

Again,  fuppofe  it  were  required  to  find  the  folid 
contents  of  a  fpheroid  AFBH. 
Let  the  axis  A  B,  about 
which  the  folid  is  generated,  be 
:=  a,  the  radius  -^z  p  -zz.  i,  and 
the  other  axis  F  H,  of  the  ge- 
nerating ellipfis  =:  b;  then, 
from  the  property  of  the  ellip- 
fis, we  have  a^  :  h^  ::  AD 
DE' 


X  BD  {x  y.  a  —  X ) 

(>'^).     Hence  ^*  =:  —  x.  a  x- 


and  the  flux- 


and  the  folidity  s  —  — —  x  {ax  x —  \  x^  =■  the 

fegment  AIE  ;  which,  when  AD    [x)    zz  A  B 

{a),    becomes    /^xF^Zr^^rj    '^  p  a  b^  =. 

the  content  of  the  whole  fpheroid.  Where,  if  b 
(FH)  be  taken  —a{A.Q,)  we  (hall  alfo  get  ^ /"a* 
for  the  true  content  of  the  fphere,  whole  diameter 
is  a.  Hence  a  fphere  or  fpheroid  is  j  of  its  cir- 
cumfcribing  cylinder:    for  the  area  of   the  circle 

J.  L  z 

FH  being  exprefTed  by^ — ,  the'  content  of  the  cy- 

4 
linder,  whofe  diameter  is  FH,  and  altitude  AB, 

will  be^ i  of  which  ^/)  a  b'^  is  evidently -two 

4 
third  parts. 

Before  we  take  our  leave  of  Fluxions,  it  is  ne- 
ceflary to  explain  what  is  underftood,  and  what  is 
to  be  done  by  that  part  of  Algebra  called  Max- 
imum,  and  Minimum. 

Maximum  denotes  the  j-r^o/^ Quantity  attain- 
able in  any  given  cafe. 

Minimum  denotes  the  leaft  Quantity  attainable 
in  any  given  cafe. 

The  method  de  maximis  et  minimis  is,  therefore, 
the  way,  whereby  mathimaticians  arrive  at  the 
greateft  or  Uaji  poflible  Quantity  attainable  in  any 
cafe. 

If  a  quantity  conceived  to  be  generated  by  mo- 
tion, increafes  or  dccreafes,  till  it  arrives  at  a  cer- 
tain magnitude  or  pofition,  and  then,  on  the  con- 
trary, grows  lejfer  ox  greater,  and  it  be  required  to 
determine  the  faid  magnitude  or  pofition,  the  quef- 
tion  is  called  a  problem  de  maximis  et  minimis. 

Thus  ;  let  a  point  m  move  uniformly  in  a  right 
line,  from  A  towards  B,  and  let  another  point  n 
move  after  it,  with  a  velocity,  either  increaftng 
or  decreafmg,  but  fo  that  it  may,  at  a  certain  po- 
fition, D,  become  equal  to  that  of  the  former 
point  m,  moving  uniformly.  Then  let  the  motion 
of  n  be  firft  confidered,  as  an  increafing  one,  in 
which  cafe  the  diftance  of  ??  behind  m  will  conti- 

D                        C 
A 1 1 B 


nually  increafe  till  the  two  points  arrive  at  the  co- 
temporary  pofitions  C  and  D ;  but  afterwards  it 
will  again  decrease ;  for  the  motion  of  n,  till  then 
being  flower  than  at  D,  it  is  alfo  flower  than  that 
of  the  preceding  point  m  (by  the  hypothefis;)  but 
becoming  quicker  afterwards,  than  that  of  m,  the 
diftance  mn,  (as  has  been  already  faid)  will  again 
decreafc :  and  therefore  is  a  maximum,  or  the  greatejl 

of 


ALGEBRA. 


31 


of  all,  when  the  celerities  of  the   two  points  are 
equal  to  each  other. 

But,  if  n  arrives  at  D  with  a  decreafing  celerity, 
then  its  motion  being  firft  fwifter,  and  afterwards 
flower  than  that  of  w,  the  diftance  m  n  will  firft 
decreafe  and  then  incrcafe  ;  and  therefore  is  a  ini- 
nlmum,  or  the  leaji  of  all,  in  the  forementioncd 
circumllance. 

Since  then  the  diftance  mn  is  a  maximum,  or  a 
minimum,  when  the  velocities  ofra  and  //are  equal, 
or  when  that  diftance  increafes  as  faft' through  the 
motion  ef  m,  as  it  decreafes  by  that  of  «,  its  flux- 
ion, at  that  inftant,  is  evidently  equal  to  nothing. 
Therefore,  as  the  motion  of  the  points  m  and  n 
may  be  conceived  fuch,  that  their  diftance  m  and  n 
may  exprefs  the  meafure  of  any  variable  quantity 
whatever,  it  follows,  that  the  fluxion  of  any  va 
riable  quantity  whatever,  when  a  maximum  or  a 
minimum^  is  equal  to  nothing. 

The  rule,  therefore,  to  determine  any  flowing 
quantity  in  an  equation  propofed,  to  an  extreme 
value,  is.  Having  put  the  equation  into  fluids, 
let  the  fluxion  of  that  quantity  (whofe  extreme 
value  is  Ibught)  be  fuppofed  equal  to  nothing  ;  by 
which  means  all  thofe  members  of  the  equation 
in  which  it  is  found,  will  vanifli,  and  the  remain- 
ing ones  will  give  the  determination  of  the  maxi- 
mutn  or  minimum  required. 

Problem  I. 


To  divide  a  given  right  line  into  two  fuch  parts, 
that  their  produiSl  or  redtangle  may  be  the  greateft 
poffible. 

This  is  the  cafe,  when  the  line  is  bifleifled,  or 
divided  into  equal  parts,  as  has  been  ftiewn  under 
Fluxion. 

In  any  mechanical  engine  the  proport:on  of  the 
power  to  the  weight,  when  they  ballance  each 
other,  is  found  by  fuppofing  the  engine  to  move 
and  reducing  their  velocities  to  the  refpeflive  di- 
rections in  which  they  z€t ;  for  the  invcrje  ratio 
of  thofe  velocities  is  that  of  the  powt'r  to  the  weight 
according  to  the  general  principle  of  mechanics. 
But  it  is  of  ufe  to  determine  likewife  the  proportion 
they  ought  to  bear  to  each  other,  that  when  the 
power  prevails,  and  the  engine  is  in  motion,  it 
may  produce  the  greate/i  t^e.^  in  a  given  time. 
When  the  power  prevails,  the  weight  moves  at 
firft  with  an  accelerated  motion  ;  and  when  the 
velocity  of  the  power  is  invariable,  its  aft  ion  upon 
the  weight  decreafes,  while  the  velocity  of  the 
weight  increafes. 

Thus  the  aft  ion  of  a  ftream  of  water,  or  air, 
upon  a  wheel,  is  to  be  eftimated  from  the  excefs 
of  the  velocity  of  the  fluid  above  the  velocity  of 
the  part  of  the  engine,  which  it  ftrikes,  or  from 


their  relative  velocity  only.  The  motion  of  the 
engine  ceafes  to  be  accelerated  when  this  relative 
velocity  is  fo  far  diminiftied,  that  theaftion  of  the 
power  becomes  equal  to  the  rcfiftance  of  the  en- 
gine arifmg  from  the  gravity  of  the  matter  that  is 
elevated  by  it,  and  from  friftion  ;  for  when  thefe 
ballance  each  other,  the  engine  proceeds  with  the 
uniform  motion  it  has  required. 

Let  a  denote  the  velocity  of  a  ftream,  u  the  ve- 
locity of  the  part  of  the  engine,  which  it  ftrikes, 
when  the  motion  of  the  machine  is  uniform,  and 
a — u  will  reprcfent  their  relative  velocity.  Let  A 
reprefent  the  weight,  which  would  balance  the  force 
of  the  ftream,  vi'hen  its  velocity  is  a,  and  p  the 
weight,  which  would  balance  the  force  of  the  fame 
ftream,    if  its   velocity    was    only  a — u  ;    Then 

/)  :  A  ::  a—u" :  0%  or  *z=  A  x  "--^,  and  p   fhall 

*  aa 

reprefent  the  aftion  of  the  ftream  upon  the  wheel. 
If  we  abftraft  from  friftion,  and  have  regard  to 
the  quantity  of  the  weight  only,  let  it  be  equal  to 
yA  (or  be  to  A  as  y  to  i )  and  becaufe  the  motion 
of  the  machine  is  fuppofed  uniform,  />  =  ?  X  A  =: 

^iifUli!^  or  ^=— ill.     The  momentum  of  this 


aa 
Auxa 


which  is  a  maximum 


uXa — ti- 


vanifties,     that  is, 


weight  IS  qAu  = 

when  the  fluxion  of 

when  ttX«  -W-  ^2uuXa—uzzo,    or  ^— 3«=5. 
Therefore,  in  this  cafe  the  machine  will  have  the 

efFeft,  if  ?^=^,     or    the   weight  yA  = 


greatefl 


h.y~a — K 


''=—.     That  is. 


if  the  weight,   that  is 

raifed  by  the  engine  be  lefs  than  the  weight,  which 
would  balance  the  power  in  the  proportion  of  4. 
to    9  ;    and   the    momentum    of   the    weight  is 

\ha 


Problem 


Suppofe  that  the  given  weight  P,  defcending  by  its 
gravity  into  the  vertical  line,  raifes  a  given  weight 
W  by  the  cord  PMVV  (that  pafies  over  the  pulley 

^  M) 


Hoe  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  /7W  Sciences. 


32 

M)  along  the  inclined  plane  BD,  the  height  of 
which  E  A  is  given;  and  let  the  pofitioa  of  the 
plane  BD  be  required,  along  which  W  will  be 
raifed  in  the  leafl  time  from  the  horizontal  line 
AD  to  B. 

Let  AB=:rt,  BD=:a-,  t:=i  time  in  which  W 
defcribes  D  B,  then  the  force  which  accelerates  the 

r  Txr  ■     r>       "W  .  xx 

motion  ofW  isr .   it  is  as    and 

X  \!x — «W 

if  we  fuppofe   the  fluxion  of  this  quantity  to  va- 

nifh,  we  fhall  find  x-=. — -—  or  P  — ;  confe- 

r  x 

quenrly  the  plane  BD  required  is  that  upon  which 

a  weight  equal  to  2  W  would   be  Cuftained  by  P  ; 

or  if  B  C  be  the    plane    upon  which  W   would 

fuftainP,  thenBDnzBC. 

But  if  the  pofition  of  the  plane  BD  be  given,  and 
W  being  fuppofed  variable,  it  be  required  to  find  the 
ratio  of  W  to  P,  when  ih.z  greate,t  momentum  is 
produced  in  W  along  the  given  plane  BD  ;  in  this 
cafe,  W  ought  to  be  to  P  as  BD  to  BA  + 
v^bD  +  BA  +  Vba. 

Qiieftions  of  this  kind  may  be  likewife  demon - 
ftrated  from  the  common  elementary  geometry:  of 
wh.ch  the  following  may  ferve  as  an  example. 

Problem  III. 

Let  a  fluid  mov- 
ing with  the  velo- 
city and  direction 
AC  ftrike  the  j^ 
plane  C  E,  and 
fu-ppofe  that  this 
plane  moves  paral- 
lel to  itfelf  in  the 
diredtion  CB,  per- 
pendicular toCA, 
or  that  it  cannot 
move  in  any  other 
direftion ;       then 

let  it  be  required  to  find  the  moft  advantageous  po- 
fition of  the  plane  CE,  that  it  may  receive  the 
greateft  impulfe  from  the  aiflion  of  the  fluid. 

Let  A  P  be  perpendicular  to  CE  in  P,  draw 
AK  parallel  to  CB,  and  let  P  K  be  perpen- 
dicular upon  it  in  K;  and  AK  will  meafure  the 
force,  with  which  any  particle  of  the  fluid  impels 
the  plane  EC,  in  thedire6lion  CB.  For  the  force 
of  any  fuch  particle  being  reprcfented  by  A  C,  let 
this  force  be  refolved  into  AQ,  parallel  to  EC,  and 
AP  perpendicular  to  it  ;  and  it  is  manifeft,  that 
the  latter  A  P  only  has  any  efFcft  upon  the  plane 
CE. 

Let  this  force  AP  be  refolved  into  the  force 
AL  perpendicular  toCB,  and  the  force  A K  pa- 


rallel to  it;  then  it  is  manifeft,  that  the  former, 
AL,  has  no  cfteifl  in  promoting  the  motion  of  the 
jdane  in  the  diredtion  CB;  fo  that  the  latter,  A  K, 
only,  mearures  the  efi"ort  by  which  the  particle 
promotes  the  motion  of  the  plane  CE,  in  the  di- 
redlion  CB. 

Let  EM  and  EN  be  perpendicular  to  C  A  and 
CB,  in  M  and  N;  and  the  number  of  particles, 
moving  with  directions  parallel  to  A  C,  incident 
upon  the  plane  CE,  will  be  as  E  M. 

Therefore  the  effort  of  the  fluid  upon  CE,  be- 
ing as  the  force  of  each  particle,  and  the  number 
of  particles  together,  it  will  be  as  AK  x  EM; 
orbecaufe  AK  isto  AP  (  =  EM)  as  E  N  toCE, 

EM^EM  X  EN      -     ,       r>ir    L  •       '■• 
as   —_ ;   fo  that  CL    bemg  given, 

the  problem  is  reduced  to  this,  to  find  when  E  M* 
X  EN  is  the  greateft  pofllble.  or  a  maximum. 

But  becaufe  the  fum  of  E  M^  and  of  EN^  (  = 
CM^}  is  given,  being  always  equal  to  CE'',  it 
follows  that  EN''  x  EM*  is  ^r^af^  when  EN*  = 
i^C  E'  ;  for  when  the  fum  of  two  quantities  AC 
and  CB  was  given,  AC  x  CB''  \% great eji  when 
AC  =  }  A  B,  as  will  be  very  evident  if  a  femicircle 
is  defcribed  upon  AD.  But  when  EN'  x  EM+ 
is  greatejl,  its  fquare  root  EN  X  E  M*  is  of  ne- 
ceflity  at  the  fame  time  greateft.  Therefore  the 
adlion  of  the  fluid  upon  the  plane  C  E  in  the  di- 
redion  CB  is  greatejl  when  EN'  =  7CE',  and 
confequently  EM'  —  |  CE^  ;  that  is,  when  EM 
the  fine  of  the  angle  ACE,  in  which  the  ftream 
ftrikes  the  plane,  is  to  the  radius.,  as  v'"  to  'i/~%\ 
in  which  cafe  it  eafily  appears,  from  the  trigonome- 
trical tables,  that  this  angle  is  of  54°  44'. 

Several  ufeful  Problems  in  mechanics  may  be  re- 
folved by  what  we  have  juft  now  fhewn. 

If  we  reprefent  the 
velocity  of  the  wind 
as  in  this  figure, 
by  AC.  a  fedlion  of 
the  fail  of  awindmill, 
perpendicular  to  its 
length  by  C  E,  as  it  jt- 
follows  from  the  na- 
ture of  the  engine,  that  its  axis  ought  to  be  turned 
diredtly  to  the  wind,  and  the  fail  can  only  move 
in  a  diredtion  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  it  appears, 
that,  when  the  motion  begins,  the  wind  will  have 
the  greateji  effedt  to  produce  this  motion,  when 
the  angle  ACE  in  which  the  wind  ftrikes  tlie  fail, 
is  of  54»  44'. 

In  the  fame  manner,  if  CB  reprefent  the  di- 
redtion of  the  motion  of  a  fhip,  or  the  pofition  of 
her  keel,  abftradting  from  her  lee-way,  and  A  C 
be  the  diredtion  of  the  wind,  perpendicular  to  her 
way,  then  the  moft  advantageous  pofition  of  the 
fail  C  E,  to  promote  her  motion  in  the  diredlion 

CB, 


A  N  A  r  0   M  r 


33 


CB,  is  when  the  angle  ACE,  in  which  the  wind 
ftrikes  the  fail,  is  of  54"  44.'. 

The  beft  pofition  of  the  rudder,  where  it  may 
have  the  greatejl  effecSt  in  turning  round  the  fhip, 
is  determined  in  like  manner. 

Much  might  be  added  in  this  place  concerning 


tangents  and  fubtangents  in  an  Algebraic  curve  j 
whofe  method  is  one  of  the  great  refults  of  the  cal- 
culus differ entialh  :  but  as  its  defcription  and  ufe 
comes  more  naturally  under  the  title  Geometry, 
it  fhall  be  deferred  till  we  treat  of  that  fcience. 


ANATOMY. 


ANATOMY,    in  a  ftrid  Phyftcal  Saife, 
is  the  art  of  dljfe^ing,  or  taking  to  pieces 
the  feveral  folid  parts  of  animal  Bodies, 
with  a  view  to  difcover   their  Structure 
and  Ufes. 

This  Art  in  refpeit  of  its  fubjeft  is  divided  into 
human  and  comparative. 

Hu7nan  Anatomy  is  confined  to  operations  on 
the  Human  Body  :  Comparative  is  employed  in  the 
diffecStion  of  other  animals,  to  obtain  a  more  accu- 
rate diftinftion  of  feveral  parts,  and  to  fupply  the 
defeiSbs  of  human  fubjedls. 

Thtfirji  great  ufe  of  this  Science  is  to  bring 
us  acquainted  with  the  work  of  the  Creator  in 
the  compofition  of  the  human  frame.  In  this  view, 
it  is  properly  called  Philofophical  or  Theological  Ana- 
tomy ;  becaule  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  figure, 
connexions,  aftions  and  ufes  of  the  feveral  parts 
of  the  human  body,  is  one  of  the  ftrongeft  argu- 
ments  againft  Atheifm. 

The  fccond  is  the  prcfervation  and  rejloratiott  of 
health.  In  this  view  it  is  ftyled  medical  Anatomy  : 
becaufe  nothing  is  more  neceffary  than  a  true  know- 
ledge of  the  ftrudture  of  that  frame  fubjecSl  to  in- 
firmity and  injury,  to  preferve  health,  to  cure  dif- 
eafes  or  to  prevent  them,  and  to  heal  fraftures  and 
wounds.  Therefore  this  ufe  has  been  commonly 
underftood  to  be  the  primary  ohjeiSl  of  this  Science. 

Thirdly,  Anatomy  is  of  the  greateft  ufe  in  de- 
termining the  caufe  and  manner  of  the  death  of 
diftempered  perfons,  from  a  fubfequent  dilTeflion 
of  the  body.  A  praflice  of  the  utmoft  confequence 
in  Phyfic  :  for,  thereby  only  is  it  poflible  to  difco- 
ver the  latent  caufes  of  many  difeafes. 

Neither  is  this  Science  confined  to  the  bounds 
of  Aiedicine  alone.  The  Philofopher  and  the  Ma- 
giftrate  :  the  Painter  and  Sculptor  are  in  their 
refpeftive  employments  more  or  lefs  qualified,  in 
proportion  to  their  knowledge  of  Anatomy.  But 
the  Phyfician  and  the  Surgeon  can't,  without  a  per- 
fect knowledge  of  it,  do  juflice  to  their  patients 
in  their  feveral  profefllons:  nay,  we  mi2:ht  venture 
to  fay  that  any  one,  who  attempts  the  praftice  of 
either  faculty  without  the  affiflance  of  Anatomy 
muft  do  more  harm  than  srood  to  mankind. 


From  this  view  of  the  ufes  we  have  reafon  to 
fuppofe  that  Anatomy  is  a  ftudyof  very  ancient 
date.  But  the  oldeft  writings  on  this  fubjedl  run 
no  higher  than  Hippocrates,  who,  notwithftand- 
ing  he  has  left  us  no  particular  treatife  on  this  iub- 
ject,  has  given  a  multitude  of  obfervations  relative 
to  the  JlruBure  of  the  human  body.  Befides  he 
confecrated  a  B?-rta;i?«  Skeleton  of  admirable  con- 
trivance to  Apollo  of  Delphos ;  for  an  eternal  mo- 
nument of  his  labours  in  this  ftudy. 

In  this  Hippocrates  was  imitated  by  Aris- 
totle ;  who  to  all  other  branches  of  his  fludies, 
added  the  diJfeSlion  of  human  bodies  :  though  fub- 
jefts  of  this  kind,  were,  in  thofe  times,  very  rare. 

Galen,  commonly  acknowledged  to  be  the 
father  of  Anatomifts,  carried  this  art  infinitely  be- 
yond what  others  had  difcovered  before  his  time. 
His  great  judgment,  penetration  and  dexterity  of 
hand  enabled  him  to  deliver  it  down  to  pofterity  in 
the  perfection  we  now  enjoy  it  ;  except  fome  few 
difcoveries  made  by  modern  Anatomijls  :  and  even 
fome  of  them  are  taken  from  Galen  %  works. 

After  this  the  invafions  of  the  Goths  and  Vandals 
drove  Anatomy,  with  the  other  fciences,  out  of 
Europe  ;  and,  as  Doflor  Friend  exprefies  himfelf, 
it  funk  into  total  Barbarifm  ;  till  Mundinus 
the  Milanefe  Profeffor,  whofe  fyflem  is  ftill  in  ef- 
teem  and  read  in  fome  of  the  principal  Academies 
in  Italy,  reftored  this  ftudy  and  publifhed  his  lec- 
tures, Anno  Domini  1 21- S->  in  an  uncouth  ftyle. 

Mundinus's  fyftem  was  publifhed  two  hundred 
years  after  with  the  comments  of  Jac.  Bercngarius, 
alias  Carpus  or  Carpmfis.  Who  afterwards  wrote 
a  much  better  treatife  of  his  own,  on  the  fubjedt. 

Carpus  is  faid  to  have  difledled  above  one 
hundred  bodies  with  his  own  hands,  and  fome  of 
them  live  fubjefts.  For  which  it  is  faid  he  was  at 
laft  banifhed  his  country. 

But  Vesalius  has  the  honour  of  being  accepted 
for  the  reformer  and  improver  of  An'atomy,  as 
we  now  enjoy  it.  His  inclination  to  this  Science 
was  fo  great,  that,  in  his  childhood,  he  could  not 
forbear  dificLSing  moles,  dormice,  cats.  See.  This 
innate  paffion  increafed  with  his  years  :  fo  that,  at 
laft  he  fcrupled  not  to  fteal  boJies  off  Gibbets,  when 

they 


4 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  arid  Sciences. 


they  could  not  be  procured  by  other  means  :  aad 
thofc  that  were  dug  out  of  graves,  he  ufcd  to  keep 
fcveral  weeko  in  his  bed-chamber. 

He  publifhed  his  famous  work  on  \\\zjiriiciure  of  •. 
the  human  body,  at  twen.y-cight  years  of  age.  Yet 
he  has  not  efcaped  fevere  cenfures  from  the  learned. 
Our  countryman  Caius  accufes  him  of  corrupting 
Galen's  Text.  Others  tax  him  with  miftaking,  or 
of  iuipofing  wrong  and  ima!i,inary  fentiments  and 
conltruftions  on  that  author,  when  he  was  entrufted 
by  Aldus  to  revifc  his  works.  Columbus  writes, 
that  he  had  given  the  defcription  of  brutes  for  tnm, 
as  the  larynx,  tongue  and  eye  of  an  ox,  and  of 
giving  mufcles  to  the  epiglottis,  which  is  proper  only 
to  brutes.  Eujlachius  fhews  that  he  has  defcribed 
the  kidney  of  a  dog,  for  the  human  kidney  ;  and 
Arantius  taxes  bim  with  giving  the  pudendum  of  a 
hruJe  inftead  of  a  woman's,  for  want  of  a  female 
fubjcfl. 

Vesalius,  with  all  thefe  cenfures,  has  deferved 
well  of  the  ftudents  \n  phvfic  and  furgery.  He  was 
chief  ph\ficion  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  and  to 
Philip  the  fecond  King  of  Spain.  But  growing 
weary  of  a  court  life,  he  obtained  leave  to  vifit  the 
holy  fepulchre  at  'Jei-ufalem  by  way  of  atonement 
for  the  many  murders  committed  in  his  darling 
ftudy  ;  and  h«  died  Jnno  Domini  1564,  in  his 
return. 

From  this  age  the  world  has  abounded  with 
finatomical  anthors.  But  fome  of  them  have  wrote 
on  this  fubjedt  only  occafionally,  while  others  have 
treated  on  it  profejfedly. 

Under  the  occajional  writers  we  may  rank  phyfi- 
cians,  natural  hiftorians,  and  thofe,  who  treat  of 
htiman  nature  apd  of  brutes. 

Under  the  profeffed  writers  are  numbered  fuch  as 
treat  on  the  whole  fubjedt;  or  on  any  part  of 
Anatojuy. 

The  Treatifes  on  the  whole  fubje(ft,  in  greateft 
repute,  are  the  works  of  JVinjlow,  Docftor  George 
Douglas,  Albiyius,  Chefelden,  and  the  excellent  com- 
pendiutn  of  AfiATOMY  hy  Heijler. 

They,  who  have  merited  mofl  in  particular 
branches  of  the  hmnan  firuSlure,  are  Mr.  Monro 
upon  the  bones :  Mr.  Cowper  and  Brown  upon 
the  mufcles :  Dry ander  upon  the /^i-o^.-  Galen, 
Hoffman,  andRuDius  upon  the  ufesoi  the  parts: 
R  u  F  u  s  £'^  A.f/7«i- and  C  A  M  E  R  A  R I  u  s  u  pon  the  «<?;««  of 
the  parts :  Galen,  Cappivaccius,  Hippolitus, 
Rose  us  and  Lacuna  upon  the  art  of  diffeBlng : 
and  HoRSTius  upon  the  art  of  prefcrvlng  carcafTes. 

Assellius,  in  the  year  1622,  difcovered  the 
laSteal  \f:Sfie\s:  the  immortal  Harvey  in  1628 
publifhed  his  difcovery  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  :  Becket  in  1651  difcovered  the  refervoir  of 
the  chyle,  and  the  tlwacic  du£l.     In  1650  and  165 1 


RuDEECKs,  d  Stvide,  and  Bartholin'E,  a  Z);?";/, 
difcovered  the /)'r/i^<>/!<7^V  vellels  :  Mr.  Cartor  in 
1655  difcovered  the  lor.er  falival  ducts  :  in  1661 
Steno  defcribed  the  upper  falival  duds,  thofe  of 
thepalate,  thenoflrils  and  the  eyes  :  Wi  a  TsUNGUsiii 
1662  difcovered  the pancreatick  duct :  Willis,  who 
fucceeded  him,  published  an  Anatomy  of  the  brain 
and  nerves  ;  which  was  improved  confiderably  by 
Viel'ssens:  Glisson  treated  of  the//wr.-  Graaf 
of  the  pancreatick  juice  and  the  parts  of  generation: 
Lower  on  the  motion  of  the  heart  :  Thurston 
upon  refpiration  :  Peyer  upon  the  glands  of  the 
intejlines:  Drelincourt  upon  the  conception  of  the 
ova  in  women,  the  placenta,  and  the  membranes  of 
the  foetus.  We  mult  not  forget  Malpighi,  who 
died  in  1694.  Anatomy  is  greatly  indebted  to 
his  difcoveries  in  the  lungs,  brain,  liver,  fplecn, 
glands  and  lymphaticks  by  the  help  of  the  microf- 
copc,  ^c.  Nor  fhall  we  do  juflice  to  the  memory 
of  RuYTHE,  who  died  1727,  if  we  don't  give 
him  the  merit  of  inventing  injeSiions  ;  by  which 
means  great  light  has  been  thrown  into  many  of 
the  finer  and  more  intricate  parts  of  the  human 
frame  ;   particularly  the  glands. 

We  might  add  MANGtT  and  Le  Clerc,  Phy- 
ftcians  of  Geneva,  who  have  publifhed  a  Bibliotheca 
Anatomica,  containing  all  the  new  difcoveries  in 
Anatomy  :  but  till  the  numerous  miflakes  noted 
in  that  work  by  Mongagni  in  his  Adverfaria 
Anatomica  fhall  be  corrected,  it  will  not  be  proper 
to  place  it  amongfl  the  clafTical  authors  in  this 
fcicnce. 

So  that  after  reading  Heister,  Win'slow, 
Malpighi,  Cheselden,  and  confulting  the 
Tables  of  Vessalius  and  Albinus,  a  ftudent 
may  confider  otlier  books  more,  as  curious,  than 
necefTary.  And  from  thefe  we  acknowledge  the 
adopting  of  the  following  Extra<Ss. 

It  is  evident  from  the  Premiffes  that  Anatomy 
is  by  fome  treated  of  only  as  an  Art  ;  by  others, 
as  a  Science.  The  former  confider  it  as  an  arti- 
ficial ^\fieSt\on  of  a  body  :  the  latter,  as  a  means  to 
difcover  the  Jlru£iure  and  ufes  of  the  whole,  and 
of  every  part  of  the  body. 

In  both  acceptations  it  is  divided  principally  into 
Osteology,  or  a  difTeclion  of  the  Bones  and  Car- 
tilages ;  and  Sarcology,  or  a  difTeclion  of  the /7f/2) 
■  and  other  tender  parts. 

Of  Osteology. 

Osteology,  (a  compound  of  iri'" ''-oyo^,  a 
difcourfe  on  Zio?!^)^  contains  an  exact  difquifition  of 
what  belongs  to  bones  in  common,  and  what  is 
proper  to  each  bone  in  particular.  But  before  we 
enter  into  this  difquifition,  it  will  be  proper  to  con- 
fider 


A  N  A  r  0  M  r. 


zs 


fider  their  defnitlon,  dlffcrenecs,  articulations,  caufes, 
parts  and  number. 

A  Bone  is  the  hardcfl,  dried  and  moil:  folid  and 
earthy  part  of  the  whole  animal  body  :  and  is 
cloathcd  with  a  membrane  externally,  called  the 
Periolhnni. 

The  Periojieuni  is  divided  into  layers  of  fibres. 
The  external  layers  are  compofed  of  fibres  of  tlic 
murdcs  connefted  to  the  hones  ;  but  vary  in  their 
number,  fizc  and  dircLlion  ;  fo  as  to  occafion  a 
\cry  great  difference  in  the  thicknefs  and  ftrength 
of  the  pcrlojieum  of  different  bones,  and  even  of  the 
different  parts  of  the  I'amc  bone.  The  internal 
layer  is  nearly  of  a  fimilar  ftrufture,  and  its  fibres 
are  in  the  fame  direftion  widi  thofe  of  the  bone,  to 
which  they  arcconneiSled. 

This  connexion  is  made  by  their  cellular  mem- 
branes, (except  where  the  mufclcs  are  inferred  into 
the  periojieum)  which  collapfe  into  fuch  a  fmall 
(pace,  when  they  are  cut  or  broken  in  taking  out 
a  bone,  that  the  external  furface  of  the  periojUum 
feems  very  fmooth  and  equal. 

When  the  periofleum  is  torn  from  the  hone,  we 
obfervc  a  great  number  of  white  threads  produced 
from  the  membrane  into  the  hone  :  and  after  a  fuc- 
cefsful  injcvSion  of  the  arteries  with  a  red  liquor, 
according  to  Ruysch,  numerous  vcffels  are  not 
only  ('pn  on  the  periofleum  ;  but  moft  of  the  fibres 
goini;  from  the  membrane  to  the  bone,  fliew  them- 
feh.'es  to  be  vefl'els  entering  the  bone,  with  the  in- 
jected liquor  in  them. 

The  Veins  correfponding  to  thefc  arteries,  though 
they  are  not  to  be  difcovered  by  injeilion  of  liquor, 
are  fometimes  to  be  feen  in  fubjedts,  that  die  with 
their  vellels  full  of  blood. 

The  great  fenfibility  of  the  periojleiim  in  feveral 
cafes  is  a  proof  of  its  being  well  provided  with 
nerves  ;  though  they  are  too  fmall  to  be  traced. 

FeJ/i'ls  alfo  pafs  through  the  periojleum  to  the 
marrow  ;  and  the  mufcles  frequently  pierce  through 
the  periojleum  to  be  inferred  into  the  bones. 

The  chief  ufes  of  the  periojleum,  according  to 
Monro,  are, 

1.  'l"o  allow  the  mufcles,  when  they  contra^  or 
are  ftretched,  to  move  and  Aide  eafily  upon  the  hones  -. 
the  fmooth  furface  of  this  membrane  preventing 
any  ill  eftefls  of  their  friiSion  upon  each  other. 

2.  To  keep  in  due  order,  and  to  fupport  the 
veflels  in  their  pafFage  to  the  hones. 

3.  To  afTdl  in  letting  limits  to  the  increafe  of 
the  hones,  and  to  check  their  over  grovi'th,  by  firmly 
bracing  them. 

4.  I'o  ftrengthen  the  conjundlion  of  the  hcnes 
with  their  epiphyjes,  ligaments  and  cartilages. 

5.  To  aft'ord  a  convenient  origin  and  infertion 
to  feveral  mufcles,  which  are  fi\ed  to  this  mem- 
brane. 


6.  To  warn  us,  when  any  injury  is  offered  to 
the  parts  it  covers,  which,  being  infenjible,  might 
otherwife  be  deftroyed  without  our  knowledge,  or 
endeavour  to  procure  a  remedy. 

When  the  cellular  fubftance  connefting  the  pe- 
riojleum to  the  furrounding  parts  is  defhoyed,  thefc 
parts  are  fixed  to  that  membrane,  and  loofe  the 
Aiding  motion  they  had  upon  it  ;  as  we  fee  in  ijfues, 
and  other  tedious  fuppurations  near  the  bone.  And 
when  the  veflels,  which  go  from  the  periojleum  to 
the  bones,  are  broken  or  eroded,  acolleclion  of  their 
liquids  is  made  between  the  membrane  and  the  bone, 
which  produces  a  fordid  ulcer,  or  a  rotten  bone  ;  as 
appears  often  m  fractures  oi  thz  bones  ViiiA  inflamma- 
tions of  the  periofleum. 

The  lefs  and  fewer  the  veffels  are  under  the  fur- 
face, and  the  thicker  and  firmer  the  bony  furface 
covering  the  vellels,  is,  the  hones  will  appear  ivhiter, 
fo  that  the  luhite  colour  of  h';nes  will  always  be  in 
proportion  to  their  folidity  and  vefTels.  A  circum- 
ftance  that  requires  the  attention  of  the  Surgeon, 
when  he  is  to  judge  of  the  condition  of  bones  laid 
bare. 

Bones  differ  much  in  their  fubftance,  quantity, 
figure,  fituation,  ufes,  motion,  knk,  geiieration, 
cavities,  is'c. 

Some  are  very  hard,  which  nature  has  affigncd 
to  thofe  parts  of  the  animal  ftruQure,  as  require 
mofl:  ftrength,  viz.  the  ?/Zi/i7 ;--- others  are  fofter, 
as  the  vertebra  ;  and  fome  aie  very  foft  and  fpongy, 
as  the  Jlernum. 

They  differ  greatly  in  their  quantity,  both  as  to 
their  number  and  equality.  It  is  furprifing  to  find 
fuch  a  number  of  bones  within  the  compafs  of  a 
foot  or  a  hand,  and  fo  few  in  a  leg  or  an  arm.  And 
of  thefe  fome  are  large,  as  thofe  of  the  legs  and  arms: 
others  are  fmaller,  as  thofe  in  the  head ;  and  thofe 
in  the  fingers  and  toes  are  very  fmall. 

Their  figure  alfo  varies  in  thefe  proportions  and 
ftiapes.  "YXxz  femur  2cniL  tibia  requires  long  bones: 
the  wrijl  fhort  bones.  Some  again  zr^  flat,  as  that 
of  the  palate  :  others  round,  as  the  rotula  :  others 
fquare,  as  the  ofjii  parietalia  :  and  fome  triangular^ 
as  the  firft  bone  of  thejlernum. 

Dodor  Monro  treating  of  this  diftindlion, 
writes  ;  —  the  broad  hones  have  thin  fides,  occa- 
fioned  by  the  plates  (or  lamina,  of  which  bones  are 
compofed)  being  foon  and  equally  fent  off  to  form 
the  cancelli  ;  and  this  letiice-zvork  is  thicker  and 
nearer  of  an  equal  form  all  through  :  and  by  this 
ih  u(£lure  they  are  well  adapted  to  their  u("es  of  af- 
fording a  fufiicient  furface  for  the  mufcles  to  rife 
from,  and  to  move  upon,  and  of  defending  the 
parts,  which  they  inclofe. 

The  round  lioxEs  have  thick  flrong  walls  in  the 

middle,  and  become  very  thin  towards   the  ends  ; 

F  occafioned 


The    Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Kkts  ^jW  Sciences. 


occafioticd  by  very  few  plates  fcparating  at  their 
middle  ;  where  the  canci'lli  is  fo  fine  and  fmall  as 
fcarce  to  be  perceived.  But  fuch  bones  are  laid  to 
have  a  large  rcfervoir  of  oil  in  this  place.  Towards 
the  cxtremitiLS  the  Icitticc-'ivorkhtcomes  very  thick, 
and  rather  more  complete  than  in  the  other  fort  of 
bones.  Thefe  round  hones  having  ftrong  forces  na- 
tural y  appl  cd  to  them,  and  being  otherwife  expofed 
to  violent  injuries,  have  need  of  a  cylindrical  Bgxirc, 
to  refift  external  preil'ure ;  and  of  a  confidcrable 
quantity  of  oil,  to  prcfcrve  them  from  becoming  too 
brittle.  Moreover  they  are  provided  with  thick 
fides  towards  the  middle,  where  the  greatcft  forces 
are  applied  to  injure  them  ;  while  their  hollownefs 
increafes  their  diameter,  and  confequently  their 
ftrength  to  refift  forces  applied  to  break  them  tranf- 
verfely,  as  is  demonftrated  byGALiLJEVi'mAIe- 
chanic.  Dialog.  2. 

Therefore,  as  the  ftrength  of  bones  depends  on 
their  number  of  fibres  or  quantity  of  matter,  and 
the  largenefs  of  their  diameters;  it  follows,  that  the 
part  of  a  bone  formerly  fractured,  ajid  re-united  by  a 
callus  muft  be  ftronger  than  it  was  before  the  accident 
happened.     See  Mon'ro  A»at.  of  Bones,  p.  24. 

Before  we  difmifs  this  fubjeit  of  the  figure  of 
Bones;  it  will  be  proper  to  fay  fomething 
about  the  apiphyjis  or  pi-oceJfes,  or  protuberances  of 
bones.  If  a  procefs  ri.'es  out  of  a  bone,  like  a  ball; 
it  is  called  caput  or  a  head.  See  D.  in  the  fuele- 
tons  on  the  plate  of  Ojleology.  If  the  head  is  flatened  ; 
it  is  called  condyle.  See  E.  ib.  If  the  procefs  be  rough 
or  unequal,  it  is  a  tuberofity.  If  it  rifes  narrow  and 
grows  large  at  the  extremity,  it  is  named  co-vix 
or  neck.  See  F.  ib.  Where  it  fpreads  into  long  ridges, 
are  called y/)/«(r;.  Coronoid  or  coronas  is  a  common 
name  for  (uch  procejps  as  terminate  in  afharppoint: 
but  they  receive  particular  names  (as  tnajloid /fly laid, 
anchocoid.,  coracoid,  j'pinal,  &c.  according  to  the  real 
or  imagined  refemblance  they  have  to  other  fub- 
ftances.  See  G.  ib.  and  fuch  procejfes  as  form  brims 
of  cavities  are  called  fupercili a  and  labra. 

Thefe  deformities  have  alfo  their  ufes  :  for  pro 
cejjes  fen^e  for  the  advantageous  origin  and  infertion 
of  mufcles,   and  render  the  articulations  firmer   and 
more  ftable. 

The  greateft  number  of  what  are  called  procejfes 
in  adult  bones,  diicover  themfelves  in  children  to  be 
tpiphyfts.  or  diJlinSi  bones.,  to  be  affixed  afterwards ;  as 
thejiyloid  or  the  temporal  bones,  and  the  procej/es  of  the 
vertebra,  trochanters  of  the  thigh,  &c.    See  H  ib. 

As  the  jfpophyfs  is  a  protuberance  that  rifes  on  the 
fuperficies  of  the  bones,  with  which  it  has  the  very 
fame  contiiiuity,  fuch  as  we  find  in  the  prominence 
of  the  OS  potrofum,  called  apophyfis  majloides ;  See 
B.   ib.     So 

The  epiphyfef,  or  appendages  are  additional  bones 
Joined  to  the  principal  bone  by  a  fimple  coimedion, 


i  or  cartilage  ;  as  the  prominence  on  the  os  tarji. 
See  C  ib. 

Some  bones  have  one  ;  others  two,  or  more  of 
the  appendages  annexed  by  means  of  cartilages, 
which  are  of  a  confiderablc  ihicknefs  in  children  ; 
but  by  age  become  thinner,  the  offification  proceeding 
from  the  extremity  of  the  bone  on  one  fide,  and 
from  the  epiphyfes  on  the  other,  till  the  place  of 
their  conjunction  in  adults  can  fcarce  be  perceived 
on  the  external  furface. 

The  epiphyfes  are  chiefly  united  to  fuch  bones  as 
are  deftincd  for  frequent  and  violent  motion  ;  and 
for  this  purpofe  are  of  a  larger  diameter  than  the 
bone  they  belong  to.  Thus  they  ftrengthen  the  ar- 
ticulations, and  alfo  fecure  the  ligaments  of  the  ar- 
ticulations, which  rife  out  from  between  the  bones 
and  them. 

It  may  not  be  ufelefs  to  confider  Bones  in  regard 
to  their  Jituation.  For,  though  every  one  knows 
that  fome  are  placed  in  the  liead  ;  others  in  the 
trunk;  and  others  in  the  extremities  of  the  body  ; 
they  may  not  have  obferved  that  among  thofe  in  the 
head,  fome  have  a  deeper  fituation,  as  the  three 
offtcula  of  the  hearing;  and  others  a  more  fuperficial, 
as  thofe  of  the  cranium. 

The  ufes  of  the  bones  are  to  fupport,  and  to  con- 
tain parts,  as  thofe  of  the  thighs  and  legs,  and  co/la- : 
others  both  to  contain  and  defend,  as  the  bones  of 
the  cranium. 

Bones  alfo  have  their  motion,  either  manifejl;  as 
in  the  great  bones  of  the  extremities  :  or,  Jecret, 
as  in  the  wrift  and  heel.  But  it  muft  be  allowed 
that  the  bones  of  the  head  and  fome  others  have  na 
motion  at  all. 

No  Bones  except  the  Teeth  have  any  (enk. 
The  generation  of  hones  is  a  fubjecf  of  Ibme  con- 
fideration.  For,  thofe  that  lie  in  the  cavities  of  tlie 
ears  are  perfedled  in  the  womb  :  all  others  receive 
their  increafe  and  ftrength  by  time  and  nourLftiment. 
Eut  of  thefe  fome,  as  the  lower  mandible,  harden 
fooner  ;  fome  later,  as  thofe  of  the  vertex  or  top 
of  the  head. 

The  cavities  of  bones  are  very  fi'ngular,  fome  are 
very  capacious  and  replete  with  marrow,  as  the 
tibia  :  fome  are  only  porous,  as  the  calcancum,  con- 
taining a  medullary  juice.  Others  have  holes  for 
tr.infmiilion  of  the  veftels,  as  the  bones  of  the  bafis 
of  the  cranium.  See  K.  ib.  and  Vertebra.  Others 
have  only  a  hollownefs,  as  the  os  Jlernum.  :  others 
h^ivejinus's,  as  the  ojfa frontis  and  temporum.  See 
M.  ib.  And  fome  confift  of  abundance  of  little 
holes  like  a  fieve,  as  the  os  ethmoides. 

If  thefe  cavities  are  deep  with  large  brims,  they 
are  called  cotyl^;  if  only  fuperficial,  glena  or  gie~ 
noid.  And  thefe  general  clajfes  are  divided  into* 
particular  fpecies  j  as, 

Piti, 


A   N  A  r   0    M 


r. 


o  « 


PitSi  or  ftnall  rounJifli  channels  funk  perpen- 
dicularly into  the  bone.     See  L  ib. 

Furrows,  or  long  narrow  channels  formed  in 
the  furface. 

Notches,  or  ftnall  breaches  in  the  bone. 

Slnuofitia,  or  broad  fuperficial  depreflions  with- 
out brims. 

Sinufes,  or  large  cavities  within  the  fubftance  of 
the  bones  with  fmall  apertures. 

Foramina,  holes  or  channels,  which  pierce 
quite  through  the  fubftance  of  the  bore.  N.  B. 
•When  this  lafl  fort  extends  any  long  way  within 
a  bone,  the  middle  part  is  called  canal,  and  its  ex- 
tremities holes. 

The  ufcs  of  the  cavities  are  many,  fuch  as,  to 
allow  the  heads  of  the  bones  to  play  in  ;  to  lodge 
and  defend  other  fofter  parts,  to  give  a  fafe  paflage 
for  veflels,  mufcles,  ^c.  as  (hall  be  fhewn  more 
fully  hereafter. 


to  enquire  into  the 
is   performed  either 


Our  next  confideration  is 
conjunflion  of  Bones.  This 
by  articulation  or  fymphyfts. 

Articulation  is  a  natural  conjun£lion  of 
two  bones  touching  one  another  by  their  extremi- 
ties. 

This  conjundlion  is  tzvofold:  one  is  named.<f/«/-- 
throfis ;  the  other  fynarthrofts. 

Diartbrof.s  is  the  articulation,  in  which  the  mo- 
tion is  manifefl,  or  in  which  xht  hones  are  foloofely 
connected  as  to  allow  a  large  motion ;  and  is  fub- 
dividcd  into  die  enartbrofis,  arthrodia,  znd ginglymus. 

Enarthrofis  is  the  ball  or  focket,  when  a  large 
long  head  is  received  into  a  cavity,  as  the  head  of 
the  OS  fremoris  into  the  acetabulum  coxendicis.  (C) 
See  plate  Osteol.  fig.  i. 

Arthrodia  is  when  a  round  head  is  received  into 
a  fuperficial  cavity ;  as  in  the  articulation  of  the 
ar?n  bone  and  fcapiila  ;  where  the  head  of  the  hu- 
merus is  received  into  the  ghmid  cavity  of  the 
fcapula  ;  and  the  heads  of  the  metacarpus  or  meta- 
tarfus  are  received  into  the  cavities  of  the  firft  pha- 
lanx.    See  D.  ib. 

Ginglymus  (which  properly  fignifies  the  hinge  of 
a  door)  is  that  fort  of  articulation,  where  two 
bones  receive  each  other  mutually,  allowing  mo- 
tion two  ways.  Thus  the  bone  of  the  carpus  is 
received  into  that  of  the  cubitus,  and  that  of  the  cu- 
bitus into  that  of  the  carpus.  See  E.  ib.  This  is 
.what  workmen  call  charnal. 

"This ginglymus  is  generally  divided  into proximus, 
tongus,  and  compofitus. 

Proximus  is  when  a  bone  has  feveral  protube- 
rances and  cavities,  which  anfwer  to  as  many  cavi- 
ties and  proceffes  of  the  other  bone,  with  which  it 


is  articulated;  as  in  the  conjunclion  of  the  femur 
with  the  tibia.     See  O.  ib. 

Longus  is  when  a  bone  receives  another  at  one 
end,  and  is  received  by  the  fame  bone  at  the  other 
extremity,  as  in  the  radius  and  ulna.    See  P.  ib. 

Compofitus  is  when  a  bone  receives  another,  and 
is  received  by  a  third,  as  in  the  oblique  proceffes  of 
the  vertebra. 

I  fliall  add  Dr.  Monro's  opinion  on  the^/«- 
glymus.  I  would,  (fays  the  Dotior)  reckon  that  ar- 
ticulation, by  the  form  pf  which,  tjie  motion  of 
the  joined  bones  muft  be  chiefly  confined  to  two 
direiflions,  in  the  manner  that  the  hinges  of  a  door 
are  confined. 

The  firft:  fpccies  of  which  is  the  trochoides,  when  . 
the  one  bone  turns  on  the  other,  as  a  wheel  does 
on  its  axis;  or  the  firfl  vertebra:  of  the  neck  moves 
on  the  tooth-like  procefs  of  the  y^f »«<-/;  which  is 
a  moll  proper  kind  of  ginglymus,  though  com- 
monly neglefled  by  the  modern  writers. 

The  fccond  fpccies  (hould  be  eftecmcd  that  arti- 
culation, where  feveral  prominent  and  hollow  fur- 
faces  of  two  bones  move  on  each  other  within  the 
fame  common  ligament  ;  as  in  the  knee,  el- 
bow, ^c. 

The  third  fort  is  when  two  bones  are  articu- 
lated to  each  other  at  different  parts,  with  a  dif- 
tindl  apparatus  of  the  motory  machines  at  each  ; 
fuch  as  the  articulation  of  the  os  occipitis  with  the 
firft  vertebra  of  the  neck,  and  of  the  ajiragalus 
with  the  cakeaneum,  ^c. 

Synarthrosis,  the  fecond  part  of  articulation, 
is  fo  firm  and  fo  ftrong  that  it  has  no  diftinft  mo- 
tion.    See  G.  ib. 

It  is  fubdivided  into  future,  harmonia,  gompho- 
fts,  znA  fhyndylefti. 

Suture  is  that  articulation  where  two  bones  are 
mutually  indented  into  each  other,  or  as  if  they 
were  fewed  together.  A  future  may  be  either 
true  or  genuine;  a  falfe  or  a  baftard  future.  The 
true  future  is  when  two  bones  are  joined  like  two 
faws,  whofe  teeth  meet  clofe  together,  as  the  ofja 
parietalia  with  the  os  coronale.  See  H.  ib.  The 
falfe  future  is  when  two  bones  are  articulated  in 
form  of  plates  or  lamina  placed  over  one  another, 
as  the  parietalia  with  the  os  tempormn.    See  I.  ib. 

Harmonia  is  when  the  bones  are  joined  in  a  fim- 
ple  ftreight,  or  a  circular  line,  as  the  bones  of  the 
face,  nofe  and  palate.     See  K.  ib. 

Gofiiphofis  is  a  compact  articulation,  on  the  fix- 
ing of  one  bone  into  another,  as  a  nail  is  fixed  in  a 
board ;  thus  the  teeth  are  fccured  in  their  fockets. 
See  L.  ib. 

Schyndylefis  or  plough,  is  when  a  thin  lamella 
of  one  bone  is  received  into  a  long  narrow  furrow 


F  z 


of 


38 


The  Unlverfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


of  another,  as  the  proceff'ns  axygos  of  the  fphanoid 
bone,  and  the  n;ifal  procefs  of  the  ethmoid  bone, 
are  received  by  the  vomer,    lb. 

To  thefe  fome  add  the  ainphiarthrofis  or  articula- 
tion, which  cannot  be  reduced  either  under  diar- 
thfofis  or  fynarthrofts  ;  becaufc  it  has  not  a  manifefi: 
motion  ;  and  yet  it  is  not  totally  void  of  motion. 
Of  this  iciiid  they  menwon  the  articulation  of  the 
coftit  with  the  -vtrtehrie  of  the  back,  and  of  the 
bones  of  the  icnptis  and  tarjus  with  one  another. 
See  M.  M.  il>. 

Symphysis  properly  lignifies  the  concretion  or 
growing  together  of  parts,  when  ufed  to  cxprefs 
the  articulation  of  bones.  Dr.  A'Icnro  favs,  it 
does  not  feem  to  comprehend  under  the  meaning 
generally  given  to  it,  any  thing  relating  to  the  form 
or  motion  of  the  conjoined  bones ;  but  by  it  moft 
authors  only  denote  the  bones  to  be  connefled  by 
fome  other  fubffance.  We  fiiall  define  it,  a  natu- 
ral union  or  adhcfion,  as  when  bones  that  were,  at 
firll,  plainly  diftindl,  feem  to  be  grown  together, 
as  one  bone. 

This  union  being  made  either  by  fome  interme- 
diate fubftance  or  without  it,  and  there  being  dif- 
ferent fubftances  ferving  to  this  purpofe,  the  fym- 
phyfis  is  divided  into  three  fpecies,  viz. 

Synchondrofss,  where  a  cartilage  is  the  conneft- 
jng  fubftance  joining  the  rihs  to  the  Jiernum  ;  as  it 
is  alfo  in  the  connection  of  the  vertebra:,  and  of 
the  ojfa  pubis, 

Synneiirofts  or  Syndefmofis,  when  ligaments  are 
the  connedling  bodies :  as  in  all  moveable  articula- 
tions. 

Syffarcofis  or  fyfurcofis,  where  bones  have  no 
other  ligaments  but  the  fkfh;  and  the  mulcles  are 
liretched  from  one  bone  to  another. 

If  we  enquire  into  the  caufc  or  origin  of  BoNEs, 
it  will  be  found  that  they  are  generated  from  the 
feminal  liquor  elaborated  by  natural  heat,  as  are 
all  the  other  parts  of  the  human  body. 

Here  it  will  be  neceffary  to  revife  what  has  been 
faid  concerning  tlie  periojleum,  the  generation  and 
figure  of  Bones  on  page  40,  and  to  lay  fome- 
what  of  the  cartilages  and  ligaments,  fo  frequently 
mentioned, 

Cartilages  are  folid,  fmooth,  white,  elaf- 
tic  fubftances,  and  almoft  of  the  fame  nature  with 
bones ;  from  which  they  differ  only,  in  more  or 
lefs ;  and  .are  covered  v/ith  a  membrane  named  pe- 
richondrium, of  the  fameitrufture  and  ufe  of  the 
feriojieum  in  bones. 

The  cartilages  are  compofed  of  plates :  which  are 
formed  of  fibres  difpofcd  much  in  the  fame  way. 


8 


as  thofe  of  bones  are  ,  and  blood  vrjfels  and  nerott 
are  alfo  diflributed  to  the  cartilages,  in  much  the 
fame  manner  as  to  the  hones. 

They  are  of  three  forts :  fome  are  hard  and  be- 
come quite  bony  in  time ;  as  thofe,  which  com- 
pofe  the  Jiernum,  and  thofe  that  conne£t  the  ap- 
pendages to  the  principal  bone;  others  are  fofter, 
and  contribute  to  the  compofition  of  the  parts,  as 
ill  the  nofe,  ears,  xiphoides  and  coccix:  and  others 
are  very  foft,  of  the  nature  of  ligaments  and  called 
ligarnentary  cartilages. 

They  are  different  in  figure,  taking  the  name  of 
fuch  things  as  they  refemble;  as,  annular,  when 
fhaped  like  a  ring:  xiphoides,  when  refembling  a 
Jword,  bfc. 

Their  fituation  is  commonly  in  contact  with, 
the  bones  ;  but  thofe  of  the  larynx  and  the  eye  lids 
don't  touch  them. 

They   have  neither  fenfation   nor  cavities,   and  * 
inftead  of  marrow  they  have  a  vii'cous  flexible  fub- 
ftance that  preferves  them, 

But  as  the  fpecefic  gravity  of  cartilages  is  near 
one  third  lefs  than  that  of  bones ;  fo  the  cohefioa 
of  the  fevcral  plates,  is  not  fo  ftrong  as  in  bcnes  : 
whence  it  is  to  be  remarked,  that  cartilages  laid 
bare  in  wounds  or  ulcers,  are  not  only  more  liable 
to  corrupt,  but  exfoliate  much  fooner  than  lones. 

Cartilages  feem  to  be  principally  kept  from 
ojfiifying  either  by  being  fuhyetTt  to  alternate  motions 
of  fie  .\  ion  and  extenfion  ;  or  being  conftantly 
moiflened.  They  that  oflify  begin  the  metamor- 
phof.s  or  their  external  furface,  and  the  ofTification 
proceeds  internally,  till  the  canceUi  are  at  lafl 
formed.  Then  we  may  find  a  fort  of  marrow  de- 
pofited  in  them  ;  and  that  the  blood  veffels  decreafe 
on  the  external,  and  grow  more  vifible  towards 
their  internal  fubftance. 

This  change  is  always  made  fooneft  and  moft  re- 
markably where  the  preffure  is  greateft,  /.  e.  at 
their  external  furface.  But  the  cartilage  ftill  re- 
tains its  former  dimenfions.  Becaufe  what  is  lofl 
is  the  cohefion  of  the  plates,  is  recovered  by  a 
cavity  formed  in  the  middle  for  to  receive  the 
marrow. 

The  cartilages,  which  are  fubfervient  to  bones, 
are  fometimes  found  the  extremities  of  bones, 
which  are  joined  to  no  other ;  but  are  never  want- 
ing on  the  ends  and  in  the  cavities  of  fuch  bones 
as  are  defigncd  for  motion.  Befides  we  find  them 
interpofed  between  fuch  other  cartilages,  as  cover 
the  heads  and  cavities  of  articulated  bones,  and 
fometimes  between  immoveable  bones. 

The  uj'es  of  cartilages  are  to  hinder  the  hones 
from  hurting  one  another  by  mutual  collilion;  to. 
join  them  together  in  divers  places  hy  fynchondrofis, 

and 


ANATOMY. 


39 


and  to  contribute  much  to  the  better  fhape  of  many 
parts,  as  may  be  feen  in  the  nofe,  ears,  tracliaa, 
tye-lids,  is'c. 

Ligaments  are  a  folid  white  fubftancc,  tliicker 
and  firmer  than  the  nerves  or  membranes,  and  not 
fo  hard  and'  firm  as  the  cartilages  or  grilHes,  with- 
out any  remarkable  cavity  in  their  fubftance, 
ftretched  with  difficulty  and  with  little  elafticity ; 
fervui:;  to  connect  one  part  to  another,  or  to  pre- 
vent the  parts,  to  which  they  are  fixed,  from  being 
moved  out  of  that  fituation,  which  is  ufeful  and 
fafe. 

Some  of  them  are  ftrong  placed  within  between 
the  bones.  Some  are  thick  and  round,  called  car- 
tilaginous ligavienis;  and  others  that  cover  the 
l>o!!i-s  outwardly,  are  thin,  and  of  a  membranous 
nature.  Others  are  called  nwrnhranous  and  nervous 
ligaments,  only  from  the  refemblance  they  bear,  in 
their  figure,  to  a  membrane  or  nerve. 

It  is  allowed  that  ligaments  are  void  of  motion ; 
and  fome  would  have  it  that  they  are  void  of  fenfa- 
tion  alio.  But  they,  who  allert  their  infenfibility 
would  do  well  to  confider  from  whence  comes  all 
that  excruciating  pain,  felt  on  the  leaft  motion  of 
a  joint  labouring  under  a  rheumatijm,  the  feat  of 
which  difeafe  feems  often  to  be  in  the  ligaments ; 
and  whence  that  infufFerable  torture  occafioned  by 
a  colledfion  of  acrid  matter  in  a  joint,  or  by  to- 
phi in  the  gout.  In  both  cafes  it  is  evident  that  li- 
gaments are  abundantly  fupplied  with  nerves,  and 
fuhjeft  to  difeafes. 

Liga?nents  are  compofed  of  layers,  and  each 
l.iyer  of  fibres,  the  largeft  of  which  are  difpofed  in 
a  longitudinal  direftion.  Into  this  compofition 
there  enter  arteries  dilcoverable  by  injeflion  ;  and 
veins,  which  fometimes  diftend  with  blood.  Be-- 
fides,  as  it  is  certain  that  fuch  ligaments,  as  form 
the  fides  of  cavities,  have  numerous  orifices  of 
their  arteries  opening  upon  their  internal  furface, 
which  keep  it  always  moifi:  with  an  ouzing  liquor 
from  fmall  pores;  thefe  exhalent  arteries  mult  have 
correfponiiing  abfolvent  veins;  otherwlle  the  cavi- 
ties would  foon  be  too  full  of  liquor, 

It  is  obferved  th.it  in  whatever  articulation  the 
ligaments  are  few,  long,  and  weak,  motion  will 
be  more  free  and  quick;  and  luxations  more  fre- 
quent :  But  where  the  ligaments  are  numerous, 
Ihort  and  llrong,  the  motion  will  be  more  confined 
and  the  lu.xations  rnore  rare. 

Sometimes  ligaments  fupply  the  place  of  ^ot«; 
thus  the  parts  of  the  pelvis  are  more  fafely  fupport- 
ed  below  by  ligaments  tiiaji  they  would  have  been 
hy  a  hone.  They  afford  convenient  origin  for 
mufclcs  placed  between  the  bones  of  the  fore-arm 
and  the  leg,  and  in  the  great  holes  of  the  oJJ'a  inno- 
niinata^    Again  the  ojja  innominaia  and  the  os  fa- 


criim  fhcw  that  the  immoveable  bones  are  more 
firmly  connedled  by  them  ;  and  they  make  a  focket 
for  moveable  bones  to  play  in ;  as  we  fee  part  of 
the  ajlragalus  does  on  the  ligaments  flretched  from 
the  heel  bone  to  the  fcaphoid  bone. 

The  liquor,  which  principally  ferves  to  moillen 
the  ligaments  and  eartilagcs  of  the  articulations,  is 
fupplied  hy  glands,  commonly  fituated  in  the  joint; 
in  llich  manner  as  to  be  gently  prefled,  but  not  de- 
llroyed  by  its  motion.  Thus,  when  there  is  moflr 
need  for  this  liquor,  /'.  e.  when  the  greateft  motions 
are  performed,  the  greateft  quantity  of  it  will  be 
feperated. 

Thefe.  glands  are  foft  and  pappy,  but  not  friable. 
They  are  moftly  of  the  conglomerate  kind,  or  a 
great  number  of  fmall  glandules  are  wrapt  up  in 
one  common  mcmbraiie.  Their  excretory  ducfts 
are  long  and  hang  loofe,  like  fo  many  frin^Tes, 
within  the  articulation. 

But  befides  thefe  glands,  Morgagni  has  obferved, 
that  here  are  alfo  certain  fmall  fimple  foUiculi  full 
of  liquor. 

This  mucilaginous  liquor  prefTed  out  of  the 
glands  refembles  the  white  of  an  egg,  or  ferum'oi' 
blood,  and  is  fait  to  the  palate ;  and  of  all  dif- 
charges  of  wounds  and  ulcers  this  mucillage  makes 
a  confiderable  part. 

T\\ok  glands,  in  aflate  of  fanity,  don't  feem  to 
have  any  fenfe;  but  when  inflamed  and  fuppurated, 
they  fuffer  mofl  racking  pain;  which  is  a  proof 
that  they  alfo  have  nerves.  And  when  this  liquor 
of  the  aiticulation  becomes  too  thin,  aiid  unler- 
viceable  by  being  conftantly  pounded  and  rubbed 
between  the  moving  bones,  it  is  reaffumed  inta 
the  mafs  of  blood  by  the  abforbent  vellels.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  will  infpifl'ate  (for  want  of  rub- 
bing between  the  bones  of  the  articulation)  fo 
much,  that  when  the  head  of  a  bone  has  been  long 
out  of  its  cavity,  this  liquor  will  fill  up  the  place 
of  the  bone,  and  hinder  its  reduction ;  and  if  the 
joint  has  continued  long  unmoved,  it  will  cement 
the  bones  of  the  articulation,  and  caufe  a  true  an- 
chylofis.  If  it  becomes  too  acrid,  the  cartilages 
and  bones  will  be  eroded,  as  in  the  fcurvy,  pox, 
(Je.  When  it  feperates  in  too  fmall  a  quantit\',  the 
joint  becomes  ftiif;  and  when  with  difficulty  it  i.s 
moved,  a  crackling  noife  is  heard:  as  they,  who  are 
advanced  in  years,  frequently  experience.  If  it  be 
depofited  in  too  great  a  quantity,  and  the  abforbent 
vefiels  do  not  perform  their  ofnce  fufficiently,  it 
may  occafion  a  dropfy  of  the  joints;  or  it  becomes 
acrid  and  occafions  fwellings  or  pains  in  the  joints, 
long  finuous  ulcers  or  Ji/lula;,,  rotten  bones,,  and 
imruobiltty  of  the  joints.  See  thele  qafes  in.  Chi- 
riirgie  de  Aj.iBa.  Pare  lib.  15.  c.  iS..  HiLDA- 
Nus  ohfcrvat..  cent.  3.  obi»  27.     D-i  khore  iJ  we- 


Univei'fal  Hiftory  of  Arts  w/^  Sciences. 


40  I'he 

llceria  acri  Cdft.  Galen  ^?  ufu  part.  lib.  12.  c.  1. 
AqvEPKiiDEUTE  (le  aiticul.  pint,  utilitat.  pars.  3. 
and  Hippocrates  de  hcis  in  hoimne  et  de  articul. 

I  fhall  conclude  this  general  defcription  of  the 
tones.,  i£c.  with  an  account  of  their  number. 

It  is  the  moft  received  opinion,  that  makes  the 
number  of  bones  249  in  the  whole  human  body, 
viz. 

In  the  fjeadCixty. 

In  the  trunk  fixty-feven. 

In  the  anus  and  kinds  fixty-two. 

In  the  'thighs  4nd  legs  fixt)r^ " 

The  Bones  in  the  Head  are 

In  the  Cr  AMUM  fourteen  ;  which  are  the  as  co- 
ronate, OS  oaipitis,  the  two  bregmas  or  parietalia^ 
the  two  temporal-,  the  os  ethmoides,  fpenoides,  the 
"fix  auditory  bones,  ox  the  incus,  Jlapus  and  malleus 
on  each  fide. 

In  the  Face  are  the  os  hyoldes,  twenty-feven  in 
the  upper  mandible,  the  ^heei  bonp,  the  nail  bone, 
the  maxillary  or  Jaw  bone,  the  bone  of  the  nofr, 
and  the  fame  number  on  the  other  fide.  The  ele- 
venth, which  is  fingle,  having  no  fellow,  is  like  a 
plough  Jhare.  There  are  fixtcen  upper  teeth,  and 
eighteen  in  the  lower  mandible,  viz.  two  bones  and 
fixteen  teeth. 

The  Bones  in  the  Trunk  are 

Thirty-two  in  the  fplne  and  twenty-nine  in  the 
Ireaft;  thofe  of  the  fplne  are  feven  in  the  neck, 
twelve  in  the  back,  five  in  the  loins,  five  in  the  os 
facrutn,  and  three  in  the  coccix  or  rinnp  bone.  Thofe 
of  the  back  are  the  four  and  twenty  ribs,  the  two 
clavicules,  and  three  in  the  Jlernum.  There  are 
alfo  fix  ojja  innominata,  which  are  the  two  ilia, 
the  two  ifchia,  and  the  two  ojfa  pubis. 

The  Bones  in  the  Arms  and  Hands  arc 

Thiriy-one  in  each  ha>:d  and  arm,  viz.  the 
JI)oulder-blade,  the  humerus,  cubitus,  radius;  eight 
in  the  wriji,  four  in  the  metacarpus,  and  fifteen  in 
the  fingers.  The  fame  number  in  the  other  arm 
and  hand. 

The  Bones  in  the  Thighs,  Legs  and  Feet  are 

Thirty  on  each  fide ;  as  the  femur,  rotula, 
tibia,  fibula,  feven  in  the  tarfus,  five  in  the  tneta- 
tarfus,  and  fourteen  in  the  toes. 

The  Anatomy  of  the  Human  Bones. 

Here  we  fhall  treat  of  the  fkeleton,  which  we 
t 


define  the  arrangement  of  the  bones  of  a  dead  ani- 
mal, dried,  clcanfcd,  and  difpofcd  in  their  natural 
fituation  by  art. 

The  human  fkeleton  of  which  we  treat  is  gene- 
rally divided  into  the  head,  the  trunk,  the  llmhi, 
or  the  fuperior  and  inferior  extremities. 

Of  the  Head. 

The  Head  is  defined  by  Hippocrates,  a  bony 
part,  confiiting  of  tv/o  tables,  woven  together  with 
the  diploe  between  them,  and  covered  outwardly 
with  the  prericranium,  and  lined  inwardly  with  the 
(lura  matcj'. 

The  Head  is  all  that  fpheroidal  part  placed 
above  the  firfl  vertebra  of  the  ueck,  and  compre- 
hends the  cranium  which  is  covered  with  hairs, 
and  the  bones  of  the  face. 

The  cranium,  (gr.  the  helmet  or  brain  cafe)  con- 
fiilsof  feyerai  pieces,  which  joined,  form  a  vaulted 
cavity  for  lodging  and  defending  the  brain,  cere- 
bellum, membranes  and  veflcls  :  and  it  is  divir 
ded  into  two  tables,  like  two  lamina  laid  upon  one 
another.  Between  thefe  tables  is  the  diploe  or  a 
medullary  fubftance,  full  of  little  ctlls  of  different 
fizes,  which  receive  the  arteries  from  the  brain, 
and  tranlmit  tl;e  veins  into  the  finus  of  the  dura 
mater.  Between  thofe  tables  is  lodged  the  blood, 
which  nouriflies  the  cranium,  and  drops  through 
upon  boring  the  firfl:  table  with  the  trepan. 

The  cavity  of  the  cranium  is  proportionate  to  its 
contents;  and  its  roundljh  figure  is  chiefly  formed 
by  the  equal  prelTure  of  the  contents,  as  they 
grow  and  increafe,  before  it  is  entirely  offified;  but 
fome  what  alfo  to  the  management  of  nurfes:  to 
whofc  bandages  it  is  owing  that,  amongfl  the  Turks 
we  commonly  find  the  fcull  globular  ;  in  Germany 
the  occiput  is  broad  and  flat ;  ajid  the  Dutch  and 
Engllfl)  are  known  by  their  oblong  fliapes.  A  form 
mofl"  to  be  defired  ;  becaufe  it  enlarges  the  fphere 
of  vifion,  and  ferves  both  to  help  the  hearing  and 
to  cover  the  ears  from  external  injuries. 

The  external  furface  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
cranium  is  fmooth,  and  equally  covered  with  the 
pericranium,  the  thin  frontal  and  occipital  mufcles, 
their  tendinous  aponeurofts,  and  with  the  common 
tegaments  of  the  body.  But  the  external  furface 
of  the  lower  part  is  all  full  of  rifings,  depreflions, 
and  holes. 

The  internal  fuperface  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
full  is  commonly  fmooth,  except  where  thevefl^els 
that  creep  upon  the  dura  mater  have  made  it  other- 
wife,  while  die  bones  were  foft,  or  the  cranium 
moift  and  cartilaginous.  Therefore  care  muft  be 
taken  when  we  trapan  here,  that  we  don't  wound 
the  yeflels  of  the  dura  mater  by  that  operation. 

In 


A  N  A  r  0   MY. 


In  tKe  upper  part  of  the  internal  furface  of  feve- 
rz\fculh  arc  found  pits  of  different  fizes  and  figures. 
There  the  fcull  is  fo  much  thinner  than  in  other 
■parts,  and  it  is  often  rendered  diaphorous  ;  the 
'two  tables  in  fuch  cafes  being  clofcly  compadled 
with  a  diploe  ;  whofe  deficiency  is  fupplied  by  vef- 
•  iels  going  from  the  dura  mater  into  a  great  many 
holes  obiervable  in  the  pits.  Therefore  in  per- 
forming the  trepan  great  care  ought  to  be  taken  not 
to  hurry  too  much  ;  becaufe  in  fuch  a  patient  the 
brain  may  be  injured  before  the  inftrument  has 
^pierced  near  the  ordinary  thicknefs  of  the.  fcull. 

The  holes  of  the  cranium  give  paflage  to  the 
Tr.eduila  fplnalis,  and  fo  the  nerves,  arteries,  and 
veins ;  which  fill  up  thofe  holes  fo  exaftly,  that 
.neither  vapours  nor  fumes,  can  come  into  them, 
nor  go  through  them,  but  by  means  of  the  vefl'els 
themfelves. 

The  diploe  found  between  the  tables  of  the  cra- 
nium has  much  the  fame  texture  as  the  cancelU  of 
the  bones,  and  contains  marrow,  which  feems 
bloody,  on  account  of  the  numerous  vefTels  fpread 
on  its  membranes,  and  its  ufe  is  here  the  fame  as 
the  cancelli  and  marrow  in  other  bones.  But  the 
diploe  is  fcarce  to  be  found  in  fome  old  fubjedts,  nor 
in  fome  of  the  hard  craggy  bones  at  the  bafe  of  the 
fcull.  Therefore  let  not  the  operator  of  a  trapan  truft 
to  the  bleeding,  want  of  refiftance,  and  change  of 
found,  for  knowing  when  his  inflrument  has  fawed 
through  the  firft  table,  and  reached  the  diploe. 

The  bones  of  the  cranium  are  already  number- 
ed. Thefe  are  diltinguifhed  by  the  juncStures  called 
futures^  known  by  the  names  of  the  fij'owa/,  lamb- 
dcid,  fagiltal,  and  the  true  fjuamous. 

The  three  firft  are  indented  like  the  teeth  of  a 
fa  IV,  and  are  therefore  termed  true  futures. 

The  fquamous  are  called  falfe  futures,  becaufe 
they  join  like  the  f  ales  of  fifh. 

Befidcs  thefe  fve,  called  proper  futures,  anato- 
mifts  have  defcribed  four  more  called  common  fu- 
tures, namely,  the  tranfverfal,  ethmcidal,  fpbenol- 
dal,  and   z-gomatici;  which  feparate  the  bones  of 
the  cranium  from  thofe  of  the  face. 

The  coronal  future  is  fo  called  from  its  circular 
figure,  and  it  extends  itfelf  over  the  head,  from 
within  an  inch  or  fo  of  the  external  canthus  of 
the  eye,  to  the  like  diftance  from  the  other ;  thus, 
joining  the  w  frontis  with  the  bones  of  the finciput. 
See  plate  Osteol.  A.  on  the  fcull. 

The  lamdoid  future,  formed  in  the  fliape  of  the 
Greek  letter  A  lambda  begins  below  and  further  back 
than  the  vertex  or  crown  of  the  head  ;  whence  its 
two  legs  are  ftretched  obliquely  downwards,  and  to 
each  fide  as  far  as  the  bafe  of  the  fcull.  See  B.  ib. 
The  fagittal  future  refembles  an  arrow  by  its 
flraitnefs,  goes  from  the  aroml  oa  the  upper  part 


41 

of  the  head  to  the  lamdoid,  and  joins  the  two 
bones  of  the  finciput  in  their  uppermoft  part. 
This  future  is  fometimes  continued  through  the 
middle  of  the  os  frontis  down  to  the  npfe.  See 
C.  ib.  And  it  is  found  by  VeffaUtis  and  others, 
fometimes  to  divide  the  occipital  bone,  as  far  down 
as  the  great  hole,  through  which  the  miduL'a  fpt- 
?7a//x  paffes.  ^eeVefJalius  in  lib.  i.  c.  6.  Paaiv  in 
Celf  de  remcdic.  c.  i .  and  Laurent,  in  hift.  anat- 
1.  2.  c.  16. 

In  old  fculls  thefe  three  futures  are  fometimes  io 
ftrongly  united,  that  they  feem  to  be  but  one  en- 
tire piece. 

The  fquamous  futures  join  the  upper  and  fmaller 
parts  of  the  os  petrofum  with  the  parietalia,  or 
bones  of  the  finciput.  See  D.  ib.  Thefe  futures 
are  one  on  each  fide  of  the  fcull,  feated  a  little 
above  the  ear,  of  a  femicircular  figure,  formed  by 
the  overlapping  (like  one  fcale  upon  another)  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  temporal  bones  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  parietal.  Note,  In  both  bones  there 
are  a  great  many  fmall  rifings  and  furrows  indented 
into  each  other;  though  thefe  inequalites  don't 
appear  till  the  bones  are  feperated ;  except  in  fome 
few  fubjedtsj  and  always  in  the  pofterior  part  of 
this  future. 

Vrffalius  and  Winflow  remark,  that  the  true 
fquamous  futures  join  all  the  edges  of  the  bones,  on 
which  the  temporal  mufcles  are  placed,  and  are  not 
confined  to  the  conjunftion  of  the  temporal  and 
parietal  bones.  See  Feffeilius's  anat.  I.  i.e.  6.  and 
the  Memoir es  del'acadam.  des  fciences  1720. 

The  t'anfverfal  or  tranfverfe  future  takes  its 
name  from  its  crofliiig  the  face  from  fide  to  fide  ; 
from  the  external  canthus  of  one  orbit  to  the  fame 
place  of  the  other,  by  finking  from  the  canihus 
down  the  outfide  of  the  orbit  to  its  bottom;  then 
mounting  upon  the  infide,  it  is  continued  by  the 
root  of  the  npfe  down  the  internal  part  of  tiie 
other  orbit,  and  up  again  to  the  other  canthus i 
though  not  without  fome  interruption  in  its  courfe. 

The  ethmoidal  IS  ^o  called  from  incirclino- the  oi 
ethcmiidcs,  which  it  feperates  from  the  adjacent 
bones.     See  E.  ///. 

The  fpharcidal  future  is  fo  named  from  its  en- 
compaffing  the  os  fpharoides,  which  it  feperates 
from  the  os  coronak,  cs  petrofum  and  os  occipitis. 
See  F.  ib. 

The  zigomatick  futures  derive  their  name  from 
their  fituation  in  the  zigona;  they  are  \er)'  fmall 
and  feperate  the  os  petrofum  from  the  cheek  bones. 
See  G.  //'.  They  are  fhort  and  fliinting  from  above 
obliquely  downwards  and  backwards  to  join  the 
pofterior  procefs  of  the  cheek  bone  to  the  proc^fs 
of  the  OS  temporum,  which  advanceth  towards  the 
face,  Thus  the  tVt'O  procefies  united  form  a  kind  of 

inido-e 


Tl^e  Univerfal  Hillory  of  Arts  ^;/</ Sciences. 


42 

biiilgc  or  juguin,  under  which   the  temporal  mul- 
cles  pafles. 

It  mull  be  obfervcd,  fays  Monro,  that  the  indcn 
tations  of  the  futures  do  not  appear  on  thj  infide 
<Sf  the  cranimn,  near  fo  ftrong  as  on  the  outfide  : 
but  the  bones  feem  almoft  joined  in  a  ftreight  line; 
and  in  fonie  fcuUs  the  internal  furface  is  found  en- 
tire, though  the  futures  are  nianifeft  without. 

The  principal  ujes  of  thote  futures  are  rciluced 
to  the  following  particulars,  i.  For  the  adhefion 
of  the  ligaments,  which  tie  the  dura  mater.  2.  For 
a  pafTage  to  the  vcflels,  which  go  in  and  come  out 
oi'  the  a'iplce.  3.  To  help  pcrfpiration  ;  for  where 
the  lutures  of  the  han/um  are  too  much  clofed, 
there  the  head  is  fubjecl  to  intolerable  pains;  for 
want  of  a  due  perl'piration.  For  further  fatis- 
facHon  confult  Allure's  anatomy  of  the  bones, 
page  71. 

The  Bones  of  the  Cranium  are  next  to  be  con- 
fidered  and  explained. 

They  are  divided  into  proper  and  common. 

The  proper  bones  are  the  os  coronale,  or  frojt'is, 
05  occipitls,  the  two  bones  of  the  ftncipui,  and  the 
two  ptvietal  bones. 

The  common  hones  are  the  os  Jphano'ides  and  os 
ethmoides. 

The  OS  coronale  or  frontis  takes  its  name  from 
its  fituation.  It  is  placed  in  the  uppermoft  part  of 
the  face,  and  the  foremoft  of  the  cranium,  and 
makes  the  forehead  or  front:  and  it  is  bounded 
above  by  the  coronal  future,  and  below  by  the 
tranfverfe.  By  the  firft  it  is  joined  with  the  bones 
of  the  fmciput,  and  by  the  fecond  to  thofe  of  the 
nofe  and  cheek  ;  as  well  as  to  xhefphanoldes  by  the 
fpbanoid  future. 

This  bone  has  fome  refemblance  in  its  fhape  to 
the  {hell  of  a  cockle  ;  foi  the  greatefl:  part  of  it  is 
convex  externally  and  concave  internally,  with  a 
ferrated  circular  edge  ;  though  the  fmaller  part  has 
procefles  and  depreliions,  which  make  it  of  an  ir- 
regular figure. 

Its  external  furface  is  perfe£l:ly  fmooth  at  its  up- 
per convex  part ;  but  feveral  procelTes  and  cavities 
are  obfervable  below ;  for  at  each  angle  of  each  or- 
bit the  bone  juts  out,  to  form  four  procefTes,  two  in- 
ternal and  two  external ;  which  from  chis  fituation 
may  be  named  anguutr.  Between  the  internal  and 
external  angular  proceflt;s  of  each  fide  an  arched 
ridge  is  extended,  on  which  the  eye  brows  are 
placed.  Juft  above  the  internal  extremity  of  thofe 
Jupercil'tary  ridges  is  a  protuberance  in  mofl  fculls, 
where  the  bone  is  protruded  to  make  a  room  for 
two  large  cavities.  Between  the  internal  regular 
procefles  rifes  a  imall  procefs,  which  helps  to  form 


the  nolc,  and  fo  is.  c:\\VA  nafal.  From  the  under  part 
of  the  ftiperciiiary  ridges,  the  os  frontis  runs  a  great 
way  backward,  and  hence  thofe  parts  are  termed 
jrbitiir  procciles  ;  and  tatfc,  contrary  to  the  reft  of 
this  bone,  are  concave  externally,  for  receiving  the 
globes  of  the  eyes,  with  their  mu'.clcs,  fat,  (Jc. 

In  each  of  the  orbitar  procefles,  behind  the  mid- 
dle of  the  juperciliiiry  ridges  a  confidcrable  finuo- 
fity  is  obfervdd,  whcve  the  glanduia  innominata  Ga- 
Icni,  or  lacrymalis,  is  lodged. 

Behind  the  intemal  angular  procefles  a  final! 
pit  may  be  rcmariceJ,  vv!'.-_re  the  cartilaginous  pully 
of  the  muftulus  okirfuus  major  is  fixed 

Between  tljcfc  two  erlitar  procefles  a  large  dif- 
continuation  01  the  bone  is  to  be  feen,  into  which 
the  cribriform  j)art  of  the  os  etiimoides  is  iiicalcd, 
and  the  frontal  bone,  yVjhere  it  is  joined  to  the  eth- 
moid Was  frequently  Iktic  caverns  formed  in  it. 

Behind  the  external  angular  proceilci  the  furface 
oi  the  fr-jKtal  bone  is  coiiUder^bly  deprefled,  where 
part  of  the  temporal  mulcles  are  placed. 

The  foramina  or .  holes  oblcrvable  on  the  exter- 
nal furface  of  the  os  frontis  are  tiiree  in  each  fide. 

One  in  each  fupeniiiary  ridge,  a  little  remove 
from  its  middle  towards  the  nofe  ;  through  which  a 
tv/ig  of  the  Bphthalmick  blanch  of  the  flfth  pair  of 
nerves  pafles  out  of  the  orbit,  with  a  fmal!  arteiy 
from  the  carotid,  to  be  diitributed  ta  the  teguments 
and  m.ufcles  of  the  forehead. 

In  fome  fubje^ls  iaftcad  of  a  hole,  only  a  notch  is 
to  be  feen.  And  in  others  nothing  of  the  hole  is 
left:  But  in  others  both  hole  and  notch  are  ob- 
ferved,  when  the  nerve  and  artery  run  feparate. 
Sometimes  a  hole  is  found  on  one  fide  and  a  notch 
on  the  other  :  Again  ibmetimes  there  are  two  holes; 
or  one  common  hole  without,  and  two  diftin£l  en- 
tries internally.  Near  the  middle  of  the  infide  of 
each  orbit,  near  or  in  the  tranjvnfe  future  there  is 
a  fmall  hole  left  for  the  paflage  of  the  nafal  twig  of 
the  firft  branch  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves.  This 
hole  is  fometimes  entirely  formed  in  the  os  frontis; 
fometimes  the  fides  of  it  are  compofed  of  this  laft 
bone  and  the  os  planum;  and  it  is  commonly 
knovjuhy  thenzmeoi OS  orbitarium  internum,  tho' 
pofierius,  fays  Dr.  Monro  fliould  be  added,  becaufe 
of  the  next  which  is  generally  omitted. 

This  which  may  be  called  oscrbifarium  internmn 
pofierius  is  like  the  former,  only  linaller,  and  about 
an  inch  deeper  in  the  orbit.  Through  this  a  fmall 
branch  of  the  internal  carotid  artery,  fent  off  be- 
fore it  pierces  the  dura  Jtiater,  pafles  to  the  nofe. 

Befides  thefe  fix  there  are  a  great  number  of 
fmall  holes  obfervable  on  the  outward  furface  of 
this  bone,  as  on  the  eye  brow ;  under  which  the 
finufes  are.  But  few  of  thefe  penetrate  further 
than  the  finufes^  or  than  the  diploe,  where  the  finu- 

fes 


A   N   A   r  0    M    T. 


43 


«  arc  wanting.  Dr.  Monro  writes  that  he  has 
feen  the  os  frofith  (o  perforated  by  a  vaft  number 
of  thefe  fmall  holes,  that  placed  between  the 
eye  and  a  clear  iight,  it  appeared  like  a  fieve;  and 
he  adds,  that  in  the  orbit  of  the  generality  oi  fiele  ■ 
tons,  we  may  obierve,  are  two  or  more  holes, 
which  allow  a  paflage  to  a  hog's  brittle  through 
the  fcull  ;  that  their  number  is  uncertain,  and  that 
they  generally  ferve  for  the  tranfmiflion  of  fmall 
arteries  or  nerves. 

The  if:tfrnal  jiCrface  of  the  os  front'n  is  conca\'e, 
except  at  the  orbitar  proceffes,  which  are  convex 
to  fupport  the  anterior  lobes  of  the  brain.  This 
furface  is  not  fo  fmooth  as  the  external. 

The  finuofities  from  the  luxuriant  rifings  of  the 
brain  are  often  obfen-ed  on  its  upper  parts  ;  and  its 
lower  or  fwe  parts  are  marked  with  the  contorfions 
of  the  anterior  lobes  of  the  brain. 

Through  the  middle  of  this  internal  furface, 
where  always  in  children  and  frequently  in  old  peo- 
ple the  bone  is  divided,  either  a  ridge  {lands  out, 
to  which  the  upper  edge  of  the  falx  is  faftened,' 
■or  a  furrow  runs,  in  which  the  upper  fide  of  the 
fiiperior  longitudinal  y?«2/j  is  lodged:  therefore,  on 
both  thefe  accounts  chirurgical  authors  juftly  dif- 
charge  the  application  of  the  trepan  here.  Monro 
is  of  opinion  that  this  variety  may  be  owing  to  the 
■different  times  of  a  complete  oflification  of  thefe 
parts  in  different  fubjedls.     {ib.  78.) 

Immediately  at  the  root  of  this  ridge  or  fur- 
row is  a  fmall  hole,  which  fometimes  pierces 
through  the  firft  table,  and  in  other  fculls  opens  in- 
to the  fuperior  finus  of  the  ethmoid  bone  within  the' 
nofe.  In  this  is  lodged  a  little  procefs  of  xS\t  falx, 
and  a  fmall  artery,  and  fometimes  a  vein  runs;' 
and  the  fuperior  longitudinal y^n?/j  begins  here. 

This  hole  however  in  fome  fculls  is  found  with 
its  lower  part  formed  in  the  fuperior  part  of  the 
bafe  of  the  crijhi  galU,  which  is  a  procefs  of  the  os 
tthmoides- 

The  difloe  is  alfo  exhaufted  in  that  part  above 
the  eye  brows  where  the  two  tables  of  the  bone  fe- 
parate  by  the  external's  being  protruded  outwards 
to  form  two  large  cavities,  called  finus  frontales, 
which  are  divided  by  a  long  perpendicular  partition. 
But  their  capacities  are  feldom  equal  in  the  fame 
fubjefts ;  and  in  different  bones  they  fometimes  are 
not  to  be  found. 

Each  fmus  commonly  opens  by  a  roundifh  fmall 
hole,  at  the  inner  and  lower  part  of  the  internal 
angular  procefTes,  into  z.  finus  form'd  in  the  7iofc,  at 
the  upper  and  back  part  of  the  os  unguis;  near  to 
which,  according  to  Cowper,  there  are  fome  other 
irtx-sOA  finufes  of  this  fame  bone,  the  greater  part  of 
which  open  feparately  near  the  feptum  mrium. 


and  often  terminate  in   the  fame  ccmmcn  channel 
with  the  large  ones. 

In  a  natural  and  found  ftate  the  cavities  are  of 
great  advantage  ;  by  this  enlargement  of  the  organ 
of  fmelling,  the  effluvia  of  odoriferous  bodies  will 
with  more  difficulty  cfcape  it.  Again,  thefe  and 
other  cavities,  which  open  into  the  nofe  increafe 
the  (bund  of  the  voice,  and  render  it  more  melo- 
dious, by  ferving  as  fo  many  vaults  to  refound  the 
notes  :  and  the  want  of  thefe  cavities  is  ordinarily 
the  caufe  of  a  difagreeable  voice. 

This  is  fufficient  to  fhew  the  danger  of  applying 
the  trepan  on  this  part  of  the  fcull  ;  becaufe  inflcad 
of  penetrating  to  the  fcull,  it  could  reach  only  to 
tiie  finujps  :  bcfides  other  inconveniencies  and 
dangers. 

The  upper  circular  part  of  the  os  frontis  is  joined 
to  the  ojfa  parietalia  from  one  temple  to  the  other, 
by  the  coronal  future  :  and  from  the  end  of  the  co- 
ronal future  to  the  external  angular  procefles  it  is 
connecied  to  the  fphicnoid  hy  the  fp/janoidal  future. 
At  the  extcmil  canihi  of  the  ej^es,  its  angular  pro- 
cefles are  joined  by  the  tranfuerfe  future  to  the  ojja 
/nalarum,  to  which  it  adheres  one  third  down  the 
outfide  of  the  orbits  :  whence  to  the  bottom  of  thefe 
cavities,  and  a  little  upon  the  internal  fides,  thofe 
orbitar  procefTes  are  connected  to  the fphienoidalhons 
by  that  fame  future  in  moft  fubjefts. 

On  the  infide  of  each  orbit  the  orbitar  procefs  is 
indented  betv/een  the  cribriform.pait  of  the  ethmoid 
bone,  and  the  os  planum  and  unguis  :  the  tranfverfe 
future  afterwards  joins  thz  frontal  hone  to  the  fu- 
perior ;;^/ procefles  of  the  oJfa  maxillaria  fiuperiora, 
and  to  the  oJfa  nafi.  And  finally,  its  nafal  procefs 
is  connedted  to  the  nafal  lamella  of  the  ethmoid 
bone. 

The  feeond bone  of  the  CranHtm  is  Os  Occipi- 
Tis.  1  his  bone  is  oppofite  to  the  os  frontis  or  coro- 
nale  :  and  is  the  hardcft  in  the  fcull.  It  is  of  an 
oblong  figure,  compofed  of  five  fides  or  two  circular 
lines  that  terminate  in  a  point  ;  placed  on  and  in- 
clofing  all  the  hinder  part  of  the  head  ;  bounded 
by  the  lambdoid  undfphicnoidal  futures  ;  by  which 
it  is  joined  to  the  bones  of  the  fmciput  and  the  as 
fphcenoides. 

The  folid  parts  of  this  bone  are  two  procefles  re- 
ceived into  the  glanoide  cavities  of  the  firfl:  vertebra^ 
and  Join  the  head  with  the  fpine  hy  fynartlirofis. 

The  hollow  parts  are  divided  into  two  common^ 
and  five  proper  holes.  The  common  holes  are  foun4, 
one  on  each  fide  the  os  petrofum,  and  give  paflage  to 
the  7iervi  vagi,  and  to  the  internal  jugular  veins. 
The  praper  boles  are,  firft,  that  fingle  large  hole 
throui>;lr  wirich  the  medulla  fpiiialis  piifts,  and  alfo 
G  the 


T}:ie  Univcrfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  cW  Sciences. 


44 

the  verulral  artrrits,  which  flip  inty  a  little  notch 
behind  the  candyii  of  the  os  occipitis,  as  they  pierce 
the  dur/i  tmter :  two  others  give  paffage  to  the  ninth 
pair  of  nerves,  which  diftribute  themfclves  wholly 
in  the  tongue  ;  and  the  two  laft  are  an  opening  to 
let  the  vertebral  veins  come  out. 

The  oi  occipitis  ha'h  four  pits,  two  lower  ones, 
which  are  the  greateft,  and  ferve  to  lodge  the  cere- 
bellum ;  and  two  upper  and  fmaller,  and  contains 
the  pofterior  lobes  of  the  brain,  feparated  from  the 
cerebellum,  by  a  tranfverfe  inclofure,  formed  by  the 
dura  mater  ;  to  hinder  the  cerebellum  from  fufFering 
compreffion. 

The  third  v^nA  fourth  bones  of  the  cranium,  are 
thofe  of  the  Sinciput,  and  called  ojfa  parietaha. 
from  their  being  a  kind  of  wall  to  the  head;  the 
fides  whereof  they  poffefs  entirely ;  they  furpafs  in 
magnitude  all  the  other  bones  of  the  head  ;  ate  of 
a  fquare  figure,  and  joined  together  in  their  upper 
part,  by  the fagittal  future;  in  their  anterior  part 
to  the  OS  frontis,  by  the  coronal  to  the  os  occipitis  ; 
in  their  under  part,  by  the  latnbdoide,  and  to  the 
OS  petrofum,  in  their  lower,  by  the  fquamous 
future. 

Thefe  bones  have  their  external  furface  very 
fmooth  ;  but  their  internal  is  unequal,  by  reafon 
of  the  imprefTions  that  reprefent  the  upper  fide  of 
a  fig-leaf,  and  which  have  been  made  by  a  branch 
of  the  external  carotid,  which  makes  a  kind  of 
wrought-work  on  the  dura  mater,  that  covers  all 
which  lies  under  thefe  bones.  See  ib.  M.  on  the 
fcull,    and  M  on  the  fig.  at  the  tip  of  the.  jaw. 

They  have  each  a  little  hole  near  the  fagittal  fu- 
ture,  through  which  pafs  the  branches  of  the  ex- 
ternal jugular,  to  receive  the  fuperfluous  blood  that 
could  not  be  ufed  in  nourifhing  the  teguments,  and 
to  difpofe  it  into  the  longitudinal  finus  of  the  dura 
mater. 

The  fifth  and  the  lajl  bones  of  the  cranium,  are 
thofe  of  the  temples,  (NN  ib.)  divided,  by  the  Jna- 
tomi/h,  into  an  upper  part,  which  is  femicircular  ; 
and  an  under  part,  which  refembles  a  rock.  They 
are  placed  on  the  fide,  and  the  lower  part  of  the 
head,  and  circumfcribed  upward  by  a  future,  called 
falfe  future,  and  thereby  united  to  the  bones  of  the 
finciput ;  behind,  to  the  os  occipitis,  by  the lambdoide 
future ;  and  forward  and  below,  with  the  os  fpha- 
noides,  by  the  fphanoidal.  See  the  fig.  of  the  fcull 
and  the  piece  marked  N. 

The  parts  of  thefe  bones  are  prominent  and  hol- 
low. The  protuberant  parts  of  the  os  petrofum,  are 
their  internal  or  external  procefles,  7  he  internal 
are  two,  one  on  each  fide  like  a  great  rock,  in 
which  are  the  auditory  cavities,  and  the  four  little 
bones  that  belong  to  it.  The  external  procefles  are 
three,  the  mafioides,  the  apophyfisjljloides,  and  the 


xigomatick  procefles,  which  by  advancing  outward- 
ly, and  joining  to  the  eminence  of  the  os  malum, 
form  the  ■z.igoma. 

The  bone  of  the  temples  hath  five  holes,  four 
externals  and  one  internal  :  This  laft  is  internal, 
and  called  the  internal  auditory  hole.  The  firft  of 
the  external  holes,  is  the  external  auditory,  other- 
wife  the  conduit  of  hearing.  The  fecond  is  called 
the  oblique  hole,  it  is  larg^  and  of  an  oval  figure, 
it  opens  obliquely  into  the  canal  or  bony  finus. 
The  third  is  a  little  hole  found  at  the  bottom  of 
two  procefles,  between  the  apophyfes,  majloides,  and 
the  Jlyloides,  through  which  comes  forth  the  hard 
part  of  the  auditory  nerve  ;  and  the  fourth  of  the 
external  holes,  is  the  canal  of  communication, 
which  opens  to  the  barrel  of  the  tympanum. 

The  pits  are  likewife  internal  and  external  ;  the 
internal  are  two,  and  make  the  middle  cavities  of 
the  bafis  of  the  brain.  The  external,  which  are 
two  alfo,  ferve  for  the  articulation  of  the  lower 
mandible.  The  Sinufes  are  two ;  one  in  each  of 
the  apophyfes  mafioides. 

In  this  rock  which  forms  the  os  petrofum,  there 
are  four  little  bones,  as  you  will  find  by  the  figure 
ib.  marked  O.  P.  Q^  the  malleus,  (O)  incus  (P) 
Jlapes  (  Q_)  and  the  os  orbiculare,  which  are  thought 
as  hard  and  as  h\g  at  firjl,  as  ever  they  will  be  during 
the  whole  life  ;  neverthelefs  they  grow  {tronger 
with  age,  and  are  really  harder  at  the  end  than  they 
were  at  their  firft  formation  ;  though  all  of  a  car- 
tilaginous nature. 

In  this  rock  there  are  three  cavities,  the  drum, 
the  labyrinth,  and  the  Jhell.  In  the  firft  of  thefe 
cavities  are  placed  thofe  four  little  bones  which  are 
articulated  together,  fo  that  the  procefs  of  the  tnal- 
leus  is  tied  to  the  tympanum,  and  articulated  by  its 
head  in  the  cavity  of  the  incus.  The  incus  or  anvil 
hath  two  legs,  whereof  the  fhorteft  is  placed  on  the 
tympanum,  and  the  longeft  on  the  fiapes  or  ftirrop. 
'Thefiapes,  whofe  two  branches  are  placed  on  a 
large  bafis,  receive  the  little  tubercle  of  the  incus 
by  its  fharp  and  external  part.  In  infants  is  found 
ahone  caUed  orbiculare,  (R  in  the  piece  under  the 
foregoing  piece.)  It  is  circular  like  a  ring,  on 
which  the  tympanum  or  drum  is  ftretched,  as  the 
fkin  of  a  drum  is  ftretched  on  a  barrel.  This  bone, 
difcovered  by  Silvius  de  la  Boe,  is  tied  by  a  fmall 
ligament  to  the  lliteral  and  upper  part  of  the 
Jiapes. 

The  OS  fphtsnoides  (S  in  ths  fig.  on  the  upper 
right  hand  corner)  is  the  firft  of  the  two  bones  that 
are  common  to  the  fcalp  and  x)\e  face.  It  is  thick 
in  its  bafis,  and  very  thin  in  the  cavity  of  the  tem- 
ples ;  it  is  fufficiently  large  and  hard,  and  accounted 
but  one  bone,  although  in  infants  it  may  be  divided 
into  four.     It  is  of  fuch  an  extent  that  it  touches 

all 


ANATOMY. 


45 


all  the  bones  of  the  head^  and  many  of  the  upper 
mandible,  with  which  it  is  united  by  a  part  of  its 
future.  The  fphisnoidei  hath,  lilce  the  other  bones 
of  the  head,  its  holes,  pits  and  y7««y. 

It  hath  fix  holes.  The  optick  through  which  the 
optick  nerve  partes.  The  great  cleft  in  the  orbit, 
through  which  the  nervous  branches  of  the  3d,  4th, 
5th  and  6th  pafs,  together  with  the  blood-branches 
of  the  carotide  and  jugular.  Its  third  hole  is  under 
the  aforefaid  cleft  ;  it  is  round,  and  gives  paffage 
to  fome  of  the  branches  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves, 
but  they  are  its  lower  branches.  The  fourth  is  a 
bony  channel  dug  into  the  os  petrofum,  which  goes 
obliquely  to  the  faddle  of  the  os  fphrtnoides.  In 
this  channel  or  bony  fmus  the  internal  carotide  lies, 
which  rifes  thence  towards  the  faddle.  The  fifth 
hole  is  the  oval  cleft,  that  lets  the  great  branch  of 
the  fifth  pair  of  nerves,  which  is  the  hinder  branch, 
come  forth.  The  fixth  hole  is  a  little  round  one, 
through  which  partes  a  branch  of  the  external  ca- 
rotide, that  make  the  refemblance  of  a  Fig-leaf  on 
the  dura  mater,  under  the  bone  of  the  Jinciput. 

Its  pits  are  three  in  number,  one  internal  on  the 
faddle  of  the  os  fphanoides,  and  which  ferve  as  a 
bafis  for  the  glandiila  pituitaria ;  and  two  external 
placed  in  the  apophyfes  pterygoides. 

In  the  middle  of  the  os  fphtenoldesy  under  the 
faddle,  are  found  two  Jinufes  feparated  by  a  bony 
lamina,  which  open  in  the  nofe.  Thefe  Vfio  Jinufes 
are  inverted  with  a  membrane  altogether  glandulous, 
and  always  covered  with  a  mucus,  becaufe  the  little 
glands  of  this  membrane  feparate  from  the  blood  a 
ferum,  which  acquires  confiftence  by  its  continuance 
in  the  fmus,  and  when  they  are  full  of  it,  this  mu- 
cus is  thrown  out  at  the  apertures  into  the  hole,  by 
mixing  with  the  fnivel  it  there  meets. 

The  Ethmoides  (T  ibid.)  is  the  laft  of  the  bones 
that  are  common  to  the  fcalp  and  face.     It  is  the 
fmalleft  of  all  the  bones  that  compofe  the  cranium, 
and  is  joined  to  the  os  caronale  in  its  upper  part  by 
a  common  future  called   ethmoidal;     and    by  the 
fphanoidal  to  the  fphanoides.  It  is  divided  into  three 
parts  ;    the  upper  or  fieve-like  part,    which  hath 
abundance  of  little   holes  ;    the  lower,    which   is  i 
fpungy,  and  feparates  the  cavity  of  the  noftrils  in  \ 
two  ;  and  into  lateral  parts  which  are  full  and  flat,  i 
and  make  part  of  the  orbit. 

This  bone  hath  a  prominence  called  crijla  galli ; 
becaufe  it  refembles  the  comb  of  a  cock  ;  it  is  very 
hard,  and  part  of  the  dura  mater  is  tied  to  this  place 
called  falx,  which  falx  or  fcythe  divides  the  brain 
into  two  parts. 

From  the  Bones  of  the  Head  we  proceed  to 
thofe  of  the  Face. 

The  Face  confifts  of  two  mandibles  or  jaws, 
viz.  the  upper  jaw  which  comprehends  all  from 


the  eye  to  the  bottom  of  the  upper  lip  ;  and  the 
lower  jaw  which  extends  from  the  top  of  the  under  . 
lip  to  the  end  of  the  chin.  :.•• 

The  upper  jaw  hath  no  motion,  the  lower,  on 
the  contrary,  is  moveable,  fince  maftification  is  its 
office. 

There  are  eleven  bones  in  the  upper  jaw,  five  on 
each  fide,  and  one  in  the  middle,  viz..  the  bone  of 
the  nofe,  the  os  unguis,  the pometto',  the  jaw-bone, 
the  bone  of  the  palate  or  roof  of  the  mouth,  and 
the  (hare-bone.  Thefe  bones  are  feparated  from 
the  cranium  by  common  futures,  and  joined  toge- 
ther by  harmonia,  which  is  the  caufe  that  they 
have  no  motion. 

The  bones  of  the  nofe,  (A  in  the  head  at  the  feet 
o(  the  firji  Skeleton,  \h.)  tho'  they  be  very  thin,  are 
of  a  folid  fubftance  ;  they  are  very  fmall,  and  of  a 
pyramidal  figure ;  they  are  placed  on  the  upper  part 
of  the  nofe,  and  compofe  what  is  called  its  bridge. 
Thefe  bones  are  terminated  above  by  the  traniVerlal 
future,  whereby  they  are  joined  with  the  os  frontis, 
and  on  the  fides  by  two  harmonia'' s,  that  is,  one 
of  thofe  futures  joins  them  together,  and  is  in  the 
middle  of  the  nofe  ;  and  the  other  unites  them 
with  the  two  jaw-bones.  Thefe  bones  are  fmoother 
in  their  outward  furface  than  they  are  in  the  inward, 
and  their  lower  part  is  unequal  and  in  flits,  that  the 
cartilages  may  the  better  ftick  to  them. 

The  French  call  os  unguis  (B  ibid.)  two  bones 
of  the  bignefs  and  figure  of  a  nail,  placed  at  the 
great  corner  of  the  eye ;  they  are  of  a  thin  fubftance 
like  a  fcale,  and  the  fmalleft  bones  of  the  upper 
jaw.  Thefe  bones  touch  four  other  bones,  the 
OS  frontis,  the  bone  of  the  nofe,  the  jaw-bone,  and 
that  part  of  the  os  ethmoides,  which  forms  the  orbit 
of  the  eye,  though  they  hold  faft  to  neither  of 
thofe  bones,  and  are  feldom  found  in  a  fkeleton  ; 
being  eafily  loft  in  the  boiling. 

The  bones  of  the  cheeks  which  are  the  fifth  and 
fixth  bones,  are  very  large,  and  of  a  hard  and  folid 
fubftance  ;  their  figure  is  triangular,  their  middle 
part  is  a  little  prominent  outwards,  and  round  like 
an  apple.  Thefe  bones  compofe  the  cheek  and  the 
lower  part  of  the  orbit  ;  and  are  faftened  to  the 
OS  frontis,  the  fphanoides,  the  jaw-bone,  and  the 
OS  petrofum.  Each  of  them  hath  three  procefies, 
one  forms  an  eminence,  which,  rifing  upwards, 
makes  the  little  corner  of  the  eye  ;  another  ad- 
vancing toward  the  nofe,  makes  the  greateft  part 
of  the  lower  eyebrow  of  the  orbit,  and  the  third 
joining  with  a  prominence  of  the  os  petrojum,  help* 
towards  the  formation  of  the  liigoma. 

The  jaxv  bones  (D  ibid.)   are  the  greateft  of  all 

the  bones  of  the  face,  and  the  moft  fpungy.    They 

make  fome  part  of  the  cheek,    contribute  to  the 

formation  of  the  inferior  part  of  the  orwit  ;  com- 

G   2  pofe 


46 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  c/^o^  Sciences. 


pofe  the  greatcft  part  of  the  palate,  and  articulate 
all  the  upper  teeth.  They  are  fituated  on  the  fide, 
and  under  the  bones  of  the  w  malts,  poflefTing  the 
inferior  part  of  the  upper  jaw  ;  and  they  touch  the 
bones  of  the  nofe,  the  palate,  the  ai  mala-,  and 
thofe  of  the  orbita. 

Thefe  bones  have  alfo  their  holes,  pits,-  znAJinus. 
Their  holes  are  internal  and  external  ;  of  the  in- 
ternal, which  are  four  in  number,  two  are  called 
incifives,  becaufe  direftly  under  the  teeth  incifores  ; 
and  the  two  others  are  placed  on  the  lateral  and 
poferior  parts  :  tlie  two  external  ones  are  called 
holes  of  the  orbit,  the  nerves  of  the  fifth  pair  pafs 
through  them,  and  are  diftributed  into  the  face. 
There  are  fixtcen  pits  in  each  jaw,  which  are  the 
alveoli,  in  which  fixteen  teeth  are  faftened;  and 
two  finui  in  each,  fituated  along  the  extremities  of 
the  roots  of  the  teeth. 

The  two  bones  of  the  palate,  (E  in  the  adjoining 
_^.  of  the  internal  ilrufture  of  the  face)  which  are 
the  ninth  and  tenth  bones  of  the  upper  jaw,  are 
fituated  at  the  bottom  of  the  palate,  and  make  the 
deepefl  part  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth  ;  they  are 
joined  together  by  the  future  of  the  palate,  which 
advancing  forward  near  the  denies  incifores,  unite 
alfo  the  two  jaw-bones  :  they  are  likewife  faftened 
to  the  apophyfes,  pierigoides,  by  xht  fphanoidal  fu- 
ture. Each  of  them  hath  a  hole  called  foramen 
gujlavium,  through  which  palles  a  branch  of  the 
fifth  pair  of  the  nerves  :  thefe  bones  are  very 
hard,  but  {o  fmall  that  they  make  but  the  leaft  part 
of  the  palate  ;  they  are  almofl  fquare,  being  a 
little  bigger  than  they  are  long. 

The  bone  which  divides  the  noftrils  into  two,  is 
called  the/i/w^Zi-^^??*  (F  ibid.)  from  its  refemblance 
to  the  coulter  of  the  plough  ;  it  is  the  eleventh 
bone  of  the  upper  jaw,  is  placed  in  the  middle, 
above  the  palate,  is  hard  and  fmall,  is  a  fingle 
bone,  and  is  joined  with  the  os  ethnoides  znA  fphos- 
noides,  which  have  both  fome  fmall  eminences  that 
are  received  in  the  cavities  of  the  plough-bone,  and 
which  thereby  ftrengthen  in  its  pofition. 

The  Orbits  ((jG  in  the  fig.  of  the  outftde)  of 
the  eye,  fituated  at  the  lower  part  of  the  forehead, 
appointed  for  a  manfion  to  the  eyes,  and  to  defend 
them  againft  all  that  may  offer  to  hurt  them  ;  are 
of  a  pyramidal  figure,  and  compofed  ef  fix  different 
bones,  which,  altogether,  form  their  extent  and 
depth.  Of  thefe  bones  there  is  one  proper  to  the 
orbit,  which  is  the  orbitary-bone,  fituated  in  the 
^reat  corner  of  the  eye ;  anrf  five  common,  as  the 
OS  frontis,  which  forms  the  fuper-ior  part  of  the 
trbit,  and  fervcs  for  an  arch  to  it  ;  the  ethmoides^ 
v/hich  makes  the  lateral  part  of  it,  towards  the 
nofe  ;  and  the  fphcenoides,  which  form  the  moft 
inward  part  of  it  ;  thefe  three  boiKS  belong  to  the 


cranium.  The  bone  d«  la  pomette,  makes  that  part 
which  is  near  the  little  corner  of  the  eye  ;  and  the 
jaw-bone,  that  which  is  next  the  great  corner. 

The  ZiGoMA  (HH  in  the^^.  of  the  inftde  face) 
is  a  union  or  coalition  of  two  prominences  of  bones, 
whereof  one  comes  from  the  temporal-bone,  and 
the  other  from  the  cheek-bone  :  thefe  prominences 
are  joined  by  a  fmall  oblique  future  ;  thefe  two 
bones  form  an  arcade,  which  hath  two  very  con- 
fiderable  ufes  ;  one  is  to  give  paffage  to  the  mufclc 
crotephytes,  and  to  ferve  for  a  defence  to  it ;  and 
the  other  is  to  give  rife 
whofe  office  is,  with  the 
maftication. 

The  lower  jaw  (II  in 
feparate  bone  marked  I.L, 


to  the  mufcle    maffeter, 
crotaphites,  to  help  the 


the  outfide  face  and  the 
L.)  confifts  of  two  bones- 
until  the  feventh  year  of  age,  after  which  they  turrh 
into  one,  joining  together  in  their  anterior  and 
middle  part  \>y  fymphyfis  without  a  medium.  They 
ferve  for  hafis  to  fixteen  teeth  articulated  into  them; 
their  fubftance  is  very  hard,  that  they  may  be  ftrong 
enough  to  bite  and  chew. 

The  Teeth  (L  ibid.)  are  defined  fmall  hard 
bones,  white  and  fmooth,  articulated  in  the  jaws 
by  Gomphofts, 

They  have  no  periojieum,  and  therefore  have  no 
fenfe  of  pain,  but  only  at  their  root  where  the 
nerve  enters. 

Although  the  teeth  exceed  all'  the  bones  of  the- 
body  in  point  of  hardnefs,  they  neverfhelefs  con- 
fume  by  their  continual  aftion  and  fridlron  againft 
one  another  ;  for  which,  cautious  nature  has  given 
them  vel^ls  to  convey  them  a  matter,  to  nouriftL 
and  repair  them. 

The  time  is  not  certainly  fixed  by  nature  for  the 
expulfion  of  the  teeth  ;  fome  infants  have  had  fome 
teeth  from  their  birth,  and  fome  not  tiH  they  are  a. 
year  or  two  old.  Neither  do  the  teeth  come  forth 
all  at  a  time.  Nature  expels  them  one  or  two  at 
a  time  ;  if  they  come  three  or  four  together,  it  is. 
always  verv  dangerous. 

The  infants  have  commonly  twenty  teeth  in^ 
twenty  months,  which  is  all  they  ought  to  have  at 
that  age,  the  reft  not  coming  forth  for  fome  years, 
after. 

The  twenty  firft  tteth  are  called  the  milk-teeth  ; 
they  commonly  fall,  toward  the  fixth  or  feventh- 
year,  and  then  four  more  appear  behind  the  former: 
at  fourteen  there  comes  four  more;  and  four  more 
at  twenty  ;  which  put  together,  make  up  the  whole 
number  of  thirty-tivo. 

All  the  teeth  are  ranged  in  order,  one  by  another^, 
although  fometimes  there  will  happen  a  double  row 
of  th-.-m,  which  is  a  vicious  confirmation,  becaufe/ 
it  is  both  a  deformity,  and  inconvenient. 

Every 


A   N  A    r    0    M   T. 


47 


Every  tooth  hath  its  cavity  in  the  middle,  where 
the  nerve  is  inferteJ.  In  that  cavity  a  certain  acri- 
mony is  fometimes  found,  which  corrodes  and 
fpoils  the  tooth  ;  and  not  worms,  as  vulgarly  fup- 
pofed. 

The  teeth  have  three  different  ufes  ;  the  firft  and 
chiefeft  is  for  maftication  ;  the  fccond,  to  diftinguifh 
the  voice  ;  and  the  third  for  ornament. 

The  Teeth  are  divided  into  indfores^,  dog-teeth 
and  grinders. 

The  Incisores,  (MM  in  diftin£l  pieces  under 
the y//2(7// Skeleton  A.)  fo  called,  becaufe  they  cut 
the  meat  like  a  knife,^  are  eight  ;  four  in  each  jaw, 
placed  before  the  reft  outwardly,  and  in  the  middle 
of  the  others.  Their  outward  furface  is  like  an 
arch  ;  and  the  anterior  is  hollow ;  they  are  fharper 
and  fhorter  than  the  reft  ;  and  each  hath  but  one 
fingle  root  which  terminate  In  a  point. 

There  are  four  Dog -Teeth,  (N  in  the  adjoirr- 
ing  jig.)  two  in  each  jaw  ;  they  are  called  dog- 
teeth, becaufe  they  break  the  hardeft  bodies.  Their 
fituation  is  next  to  the  incifores,  one  on  each  fide  ; 
they  are  thick,  flrong,  and  folid,  faftened  in  their 
alveoli,  by  hngle  roots,  like  the  incifores,  but  deeper; 
for  they  exceed  all  the  reft  in  length.  The  upper 
dog-teeth  are  called  eye- teeth  ;  becaufe  part  of  the 
nerve,  which  moves  the  eye,  is  ramified,  or  branched 
toward  them. 

There  are  twenty  grinders,  (OO  ibid.)  ten  in 
each  jaw,  and  five  on  each  fide  ;  they  are  large 
and  hard,  and  encreafe  in  bulk,  according  to  their 
deeper  fituation  in  the  mouth  ;  they  have  divers 
roots,  which  fervethe  better  to  faften  them  in  their 
alveoli.  The  lower  grinders  have  but  two  or  tliree 
roots,  and  the  upper  ones  three  or  four ;  becaufe 
thofe  upper  ones  being  in  a  hanging  pofition  above, 
have  occafion  of  a  greater  quantity  to  keep  them 
fixed  and  firm. 

The  OS  hyoides,  (P  in  the  fingle  piece  or  bone 
marked  P  only)  the  laft  of  the  fixty  bones  of  the 
head,  is  placed  at  the  bafis  of  the  tongue,  upon  the 
larynx,  and  kept  in  its  place  by  ten  mufcles.  It 
touches  no  other  bone,  but  is  tied  above  by  bones, 
eailed  its  fuperior  comuoy  to  the  two  apophyfes  Jiy- 
bides  of  the  bone  of  the  temples,  by  fmall  ligaments  ; 
and  below,  at  is  inferior  cornua,  it  its  joined  unto 
the  two  wings  of  the  cartilage  tbeoriJes  of  the  la- 
rynx, by  ligaments  of  the  fame  nature  with  tboie 
that  tied  its  upper  part,  whicli  is  a.  true  fyneurofis. 
T-his  bone  is  compofed  of  five  others,  die  greateft 
of  which  makes  the  bajis.  It  refembles  the  Greek 
o ;  and  the  bafis  is  arched  outwardly,  and  hollow 
within.  Two  other  lefl'er  bones  are  united  to  this, 
one  on  each  fide;  and  two  very  imall  ones  are  joined 
at  the  end  of  thefe  laft  ;  which  four  bones  makes 
the  fides  of  the  oi  hyoidfSy  and  what  we  call  the 
carnua^ 


The  principal  ufe  of  this  bone,  is  to  facilitate 
the  admittance  of  air  into  the  nfpera  arteria,  and 
the  paflage  of  meat  and  drink  into  the  cefophagus, 
by  keeping  the  pharynx  in  that  juft  bignefs  it  ought 
to  have  for  the  free  paflage  of  the  nourifhment. 

Of  the  Trunk. 

From  the  bones  of  the  cranium,  I  defcend  gra- 
dually to  thofe  of  the  Spine. 

The  Spine,  is  a  complex  of  many  bones  arti- 
culated together,  to  ferve  for  habitation  and  rampire- 
to  the  marrow.  It  is  divided  into  five  parts,  the- 
neck,  the  back,  the  loins,  the  os  facrum,  and  the 
coccyx.  If  the  fpine  be  confidercd  before,  or  be- 
hind, it  appears  dire£l  and  ftrait ;  but  if  on  either 
fide,  it  falls  inward,  or  outward,  both  for  its  better 
fupport,  and  to  remove  from,  or  to  approach  to  the 
part  of  the  thorax,  and  the  abdomen. 

The  fharp  end  of  the.  fpine,  at  the  neck,  bends 
inwaids,  the  better  to  fuftain  the  head  which  is 
there  placed,  as  on  a  pivot. 

The  fpine  (A  in  fig.  of  the  back -bone)  ferves  to 
fupport  the  body,  for  the  infertion  of  feveral  muf- 
cles, and  for  the  conveyance  of  the  marrow.  The 
parts  it  is  compofed  of  are  called  Vertebra,  from 
verto  to  turn,  becaufe  the  body  turns  feveral  ways 
by  their  means. 

Each  of  the  vertebra  hath  its  body  in  its  inter- 
nal part,  wherewith  they  fupport  one  another. 
They  have  all  a  grcAt  foramen,  through  which  the 
medulla  fpinalis  pzdiis ;  all  three  forts  of  procefles, 
four  oblique,  two  tranfverfe,  and  one  acute ;  and 
all  five  epiphyfes,  or  appendages,  viz.  two  at  theif 
body,  two  at  the  extremities  of  their  tranfverfp 
procefles,  and  one  at  the  end  of  their  acute  procefs. 
They  are  likewife  all  pierced  through  on  their  fides, 
for  the  paflage  of  the  nerves,  that  come  through 
them;  /.  e.  that  two  vertebra  make  a  hole  between 
them,  but  one  half  of  the  hole  appearing  in  eacU- 
of  them,  the  other  half  being  hidden  in  the  carti^ 
lagc,  which  ties  two  vertebra  together. 

There  are  feven  Vertebras  in  the  Neck  (B  ib.) 
more  folid  and  harder  than  thofe  of  the  back,  (be- 
caufe their  office  is  to  fupport  I  he  head,  which  is  a 
very  weighty  part)  though  they  are  fmaller,  for 
were  they  as  big  as  thofe  of  the  back  and  loins, 
the  neck  had  not  been  able  to  move  lb  eafily  as  it 
does. 

Thcfirftof  thefe  kvtnvertehra  is  called  Atlas,. 
(C  in  the^^.  adjoining  marked  C)  becaufe  it  fup- 
ports  the  head,  which  being  of  a  round  figure  re- 
fembles the  world,  which  the  ancient  poets  have 
feigned  to  be  borne  by  Mount  Atla!.  This  ver- 
tebra hath  no  acute  procefs,  becaufe  the  head 
don't  move  upon  it,  but  upon  the  fecond ;    and 

becaufe 


48 


The  Univerfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  «W  Sciences. 


bccaufe  it  being  obliged  to  turn  as  often  as  the  head 
has  a  circular  motion,  an  acute  procefs  would  have 
difcommoded  the  pofterior  mufcles  of  the  head, 
efpecially  the  two  little  right  mufcles  which  rife 
from  the  fecond  vertebra,  and  are  inferted  in  the 
occiput. 

This  differs  from  the  other  verteh-a,  in  that  it 
is  of  a  more  delicate,  thinner,  and  harder  fub- 
ftance,  and  that  it  receives  at  both  its  extremities 
■while  the  others  receive  on  one  fide,  and  are  re- 
ceived on  the  other ;  for  two  prominences  of  the 
occiput  enter  into  its  two  fuperior  cavities,  whereby 
it  is  articulated  with  the  head  ;  and,  at  the  fame 
time,  two  other  prominences  of  the  fecond  Fer- 
tebra  enter  its  two  inferior  cavities,  which  join  them 
both. 

The  articulation  of  the  head  is  made  on  the 
anterior  part  of  this  vertebra,  not  on  its  pofterior, 
that  it  may  be  the  better  fupported,  and  the  bet- 
ter kept  in  its  ecquilihrium.  This  atlas  giving 
paflage  to  the  medulla  fpirialis,  as  all  the  other  ver- 
tebrae do,  and  receiving  befides  the  tooth  of  the 
lecond,  which  pafling  thro'  it,  unites  itfelf  to  the 
cs  occipitis ;  its  aperture  muft  be  greater  than  that 
of  the  reft. 

The  head  and  the  firft  vertebra  turning  upon 
the  fecond  as  on  a  pivot,  it  is  called  for  that  reafon 
the  wheeling  vertebra,  (fee  the  next  fig.  marked  D) 
and  from  the  procefs,  which  rifes  from  the  middle 
of  its  body,  in  the  form  of  a  tooth,  dentata.  This 
procefs  would  expofe  the  medulla  fpinalis  to  fome 
dangerous  comprefllon,  was  not  the  fecond  verte- 
bra invironed  with  a  ftrong,  folid  and  curious  li- 
gament ;  other  particular  ligaments  join  it  with 
the  firft  vertebra,  and  tie  them  both  ftrongly  to 
the  head. 

The  third  vertebra  is  called  the  axis,  (fee  the  next 
fig.  marked  E)  becaufe  it  begins  to  form  a  body, 
on  which  the  two  iormcx  verteb>  a  znd  the  head  are 
fupported,  as  on  an  axle-tree.  The  four  following 
have  no  particular  name.  There  is  only  this  to  be 
obferved,  that  the  laft  hath  no  acute  procefs  forked 
like  the  others,  and  that  it  begins  to  aflimie  the 
figure  of  the  back,  (F  m  fig.  of  the  Back  Bone) 
which  is  compofed  of  twelve  vertebra,  larger  than 
thofe  of  the  neck,  and  fmaller  than  thofe  of  the 
loins;  tho'  they  are  not  at  all  equal,  becoming 
larger  and  ftronger  in  proportion  as  they  defcend 
lower.  They  are  all  of  a  pyramidal  figure ;  have 
their  procefles  fpiney,  fimple  and  acute,  which  reft 
upon  one  another ;  their  tranverfe  proceftes  very 
large,  for  the  articulation  of  the  ribs  fattened  to 
them ;  for  each  vertebra  of  the  back  articulates 
two  ribs,  both  by  its  body  and  its  tranfverfe  pro- 
cefles. 


The  firft  of  thefe  vertebra  (G  in  fig.  adjoining 
marked  G)  being  higherthan  the  reft  is  called  emi- 
nent ;  the  fecond  axillary,  from  its  being  neareft 
to  the  arm-pit.  The  eight  following,  articulat- 
ing thofe  ribs  inwardly  invcfted  with  the  pleura, 
are  called  both  coital  and  pleuretical.  The  ele- 
venth (H  in  the  r\t\t  fig.  marked  H)  is  called  the 
Diredt,  becaufe  its  acute  procefs  don't  bend  down- 
wards to  reft  upon  the  next  below ;  and  the 
twelfth,  Girdler,  from  its  being  fituated  in  the 
place  where  girdles  are  worn. 

The  vertebra  of  the  kins,  (I  in  the  fig.  of  Bad. 
BoHf)  becaufe  they  fupport  all  the  reft,  are  thicker 
and  larger  than  thofe  of  the  back  ;  have  not  their 
articulations  fo  clofe  and  compact,  that  they  may 
be  free  in  their  motions,  and  we  able  to  ftoop  with 
more  eafe  :  have  their  procefTes  longer  and  finer, 
which  ferve  there  inftead  of  ribs,  the  firft  and  fifth 
of  them  excepted,  which  have  them  (horter. 
Thofe  procefles  are  nine  in  number,  the  afcendin» 
ones  which  articulate  them  together  being  double. 
Their  fpines  are  alfo  thicker  and  larger,  the  better 
to  faften  them  to  the  mufcles  and  ligaments  of  the 
back. 

The  reins  or  kidneys  being  placed  on  the  fide  of 
the  firft  of  thefe  vertebra  ;  or  becaufe,  perhaps  it 
is  in  that  place  that  the  ncphretick  pain  begins  to  be 
felt,  is  called  nephretick  (L  in  the  nextfig.  marked 
L)  or  Renal.  The  three  following  next  have  no 
particular  name ;  and  the  fifth,  which  is  the 
prop  and  fupport  of    the  whole  fpine,    is   called 

If  the  Os  Sacrum  (M  in  fig.  of  back  bone) 
derives  its  name  from  its  being  offered  in  facrifice 
to  the  Pagan  divinities,  or  from  its  bignels,  or 
from  its  enclofing  the  pudenda,  is  what  muft  be 
very  indifferent  to  us.  The  truth  is,  that  the  os 
facrum  is  a  great,  large,  and  immoveable  bone, 
which  ferves  for  a  bafis  to  the  fpine.  Its  figure  is 
triangular;  its  being  hollow  within  ferves  to  form 
the  pelvis,  a  cavity  fituated  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  hypogaftrium ;  and,  for  the  better  infertion  of  the 
mufcles,  its  pofterior  part  is  convex  and  unequal. 
This  bone  hath  three  different  articulations  ;  the 
firft  with  the  laft  vertebra  of  the  loin,  like  that  of 
the  other  vertebra  ;  the  fecond  by  fynchondro/ts, 
with  the  coccyx,  and  the  third  with  the  offa  innt^ 
minata  by  an  indenting. 

The  Os  Sacrum  (N  in  the  feperate  adjoining  fig. 
marked  N)  is  divided  into  five  vertebra  of  a  dif- 
ferent bignefs,  the  fuperior  thereof  is  the  biggeft, 
and  which  in  adults  are  fo  ftrongly  united,  that  they 
make  but  one  bone,  the  better  to  fupport  the  whole 
fpine,  and  to  articulate  the  ojfa  innominata. 

The  Coccyx y    (P  in  the  fig.  of  Back- Bone)  fo 

called. 


ANATOMY, 


49 


called,  becaufe  it  refembles  the  beak  of  a  cuckow, 
is  the  laft  extremity  of  the  fpine,  it  is  compofed 
of  three  bones,  the  greateft  of  which  touch  the 
Os  Sacrum,  the  fecond  is  lefs  than  the  former,  and 
the  third  is  very  fmall,  at  the  whole  end  is  faftened 
a  fmall  cartilage  ;  they  are  all  three  joined  together 
by  a  very  loofe  connedtion,  which  makes  them 
pliant,  and  to  draw  back  eafily  behind.  In  women 
they  jet  outward  more  than  they  do  in  men,  be- 
caufe they  want  a  greater  cavity  to  inclofe  the  ma- 
trix, and  to  contain  the  infant  during  their  preg- 
nancy. The  end  of  thefe  bones  (Q,  in  the  adjoin- 
ingyfif.  marked  Q^)  always  bends  inwards,  that  it 
may  be  no  inconvenience  in  fetting,  but  they  draw 
backwards  a  little,  for  the  better  extrufion  of  the 
excrements,  as  they  do  in  women  at  the  time  of 
their  delivery,  (R  ii/.)  to  facilitate  a  paflage  to  the 
infant. 

From  the  Coccyx  we  come  by  a  neceflary  retrogra- 
dation  to  the  Tho  r  a  x,  or  Breaft,  from  am  t» So^w, 
which  is  that  part  of  the  human  body  which  forms 
the  capacity  of  the  Breaft:  Its  figure  is  oval, 
efpecially  when  the  diophragrna  moves  downwards, 
terminated  above  by  the  clavicles,  before  by  the 
Sternum,  behind  by  the  vertebra  of  the  back ;  on 
the  fides  by  four  and  twenty  ribs  ;  and  below  by 
the  cartilages  of  the  cofta  notha,  and  the  carti- 
lage xiphoides. 

The  larger  and  deeper  is  the  cavity  of  the  tho- 
rax, the  parts  contained  therein  move  with  greater 
facility,  and  we  are  fuppofcd  to  live  longer.  It 
is  compofed  with  the  fiernum,  the  ribs,  and  the 
clavicles. 

The  Sternum  (A  fee  thefg.  of  the  ribs,  tsfc. 
under  the  face)  is  all  that  anterior  part  of  the  tho  ■ 
rax.  which,  above,  touches  the  clavicles,  and 
ends  below  at  the  cartilage  xiphoides,  and  laterally 
both  on  the  right  and  left  is  joined  to  the  ends  of 
the  ribs  before.  Its  body  proceeds  forward,  but 
bends  towards  the  ribs,  in  order  to  form  the  round 
and  oval  figure  of  the  breaft,  on  which  it  appears, 
as  if  couched. 

In  Adults  it  confifts  of  one  fingle  piece  or  bone, 
but  in  infants  of  feveral,  according  to  the  diverfity 
of  age;  if  we  believe  Kirkringius,  it  never  ex- 
ceeds fix,  though  Mr.  Dionis  pretends  he  has  found 
eight,  in  fome  infants,  which,  by  growing  to- 
gether, are  reduced  to  four,  ai\d  commonly  to 
three. 

The  firft  of  thofe  three  bones  (B)  is  the  fuperior 
one,  larger  and  thicker  than  the  reft.  It  hath  a 
finus  on  each  fide  of  its  upper  part,  which  receives 
the  head  of  the  clavicle,  to  which  it  is  joined  by  a 
cartilage  ;  and  the  other  finous  cavity  found  in  the 
middle  of  its  internal  and  fuperior  part  makes  room 


for  the  trachea.  The  fecond  (C)  is  placed  under 
the  former,  is  ftraiter,  and  thinner,  but  longer, 
with  divers  finus's  on  both  fides,  which  receive  the 
cartilages  of  the  ribs  that  articulate  in  them.  The 
third  (D)  is  flill  lefs  in  length,  but  thicker  ;  it  is 
placed  under  the  two  former,  and  ends  at  the  car- 
tilago  xiphoides. 

This  Cartilage,  (E)  fo  called,  becaufe  it 
ends  like  the  point  of  a  fword,  is  commonly  tri- 
angular and  oblong  ;  fometimes  it  is  round,  and 
fometimes  divided  in  two :  whenever  it  finks  in- 
wardly by  fome  ftroke  or  fall,  it  occafions  von:iting, 
which  ceafes  not  until  it  is  reflored  to  its  proper 
place.  This  cartilage  ferves  to  defend  the  ftomach, 
to  tie  and  fallen  the  diaphragma,  and  to  fupport  the 
liver  before  by  a  large  ligament  that's  tied  unto  it. 
Thefe  three  bones  are  joined  together  by  cartilages, 
which  ferve  inftead  of  ligaments  to  them.  They 
alfo  form  a  cavity,  which  appears  outwardly,  and 
is  called  by  the  vulgar,   thepitof  the  heart. 

The  flernum  forms  the  anterior  and  middle  part 
of  the  breaft,  joins  and  articulates  the  cojia  and  the 
clavicles,  contains  and  defends  the  heart  and  the 
parts  for  refpiration,  and  faftens  all  along  its  mid- 
dle and  internal  part  to  the  mediafiinum,  which  is 
a  membrane  that  divides  the  breaft  into  two  parts. 
The  CosTJ€  or  Ribs  (FF  tbid.)  form  the  two 
fides  of  the  breaft.  Their  fubftance  is  partly  bo- 
ny and  partly  cartilaginous,  which  cartilages  ferve 
them  inftead  of  epiphyfes.  Their  figure  is  concave 
within  to  form  the  capacity  of  the  breaft,  and  con- 
vex without  to  refill:  any  accicent.  The  further 
they  are  diftanced  from  thefler>it<m,  they  become 
narrower  and  round  :  flatten,  and  are  larger  the 
nearer  they  approach  unto  it.  The  upper  ribs  are 
fhorter  than  the  middle  ones,  and  the  lower  very 
fmall,  which  difference  is  neceffary  to  form  the 
arch  of  the  breaft.  The  ribs  are  articulated  at 
the  extremities  of  their  anterior  part  with  the^er- 
num,  hy  fynchondrofts,  and  by  anthrodia  at  their  po- 
fterior  with  the  vertebree. 

There  are  twenty-four  ribs ;  twelve  on  each 
fide;  and  divided  into  true  znAfalfe  ribs.  The 
true  ribs  are  the  feven  upper,  and  the  laft  five  are 
the yi?//^  ones.  The  true  ribs  touch  thtjiernum, 
(H  ibid.)  with  which  they  have  a  ftrong  articula- 
tion, and  the  fa Ife  ones  below  don't  touch  the 
Jhrnum,  and  have  but  a  very  (lack  articulation, 
though  they  are  faftened  to  the  vertebra  behind  ; 
but,  before,  they  terminate  in  long  and  foft  car- 
tilages. 

'I'he  ufe  of  the  ribs  is  to  form  the  capacity  of 
the  breafi,  to  defend  the  parts  they  inclofe,  and 
to  give  origin  and  infertion  to  feveral  mufcles. 

The  two  bones,  which  fhut  the  fuperior  part  of 
the  thoraxy  and  faften  the  Jhrnum  to  the  Ihoul- 

ders 


s» 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


ders,  are  c;illecl  Clavici.es  (LL  ih'uL)  Theie 
is  one  on  each  fide,  and  they  both  have  a  tranf- 
vcrfe  fituation  at  the  lower  part  of  the  neck,  and 
upper  part  of  the  bread  a  little  above  the  firit 
rib.  'Their  liibfl-ance  is  thick,  but  porous  and  fun- 
.gous  ;  whence  it  is  that  they  are  often  fra£lurcd, 
and  when  fraftiucd,  fooncr  reunited  than  any 
other  bone.  1  heir  figure  is  like  an  '^"X^^  •> 
■convex  outwardly  towards  the  neck,  and  a  jjttle 
concave  inwardly,  that  the  veJTels  under  them 
may  not  fuffcr  comprc.Tion.  The  clavicles  help 
the  diifcrcnt  motions  of  the  arms,  which  move 
talier  backwards  and  fonvards,  becaufe  fupported 
on  thefe  bones,  as  upon  a  bads  ;  they  are  likewife 
of  great  ufe  to  hinder  the  arms  from  toogreat  an 
cxtenfion  forwards. 

The  Hip-Bon F.s,  (NN /i/c/.)  or  OJfa  tnmmi- 
natti,  form  the  laii:  part  of  the  trunk  of  the  body. 
There  are  two  hip-bones  one  on  each  fide,  articu- 
lated at  their  pofterior  part  by  ginglymus  with  the 
ei  factum  ;  and  at  their  lateral  with  the. femur  by 
enarihrofis. 

Thefe  bones  havethis  common  with  all  the  other 
bones,  that,  like  them,  they  ferve  for  the  infertion 
of  themufcles,  and  for  fupport  to  the  whole  body; 
with  this  difference  that  they  ferve  alfo  to  tie  the 
inferior  extremities  with  the  trunk,  to  fupport  the 
fpine,  to  help  to  form  the  capacity  of  the  abdomen  ; 
and  for  a  bafis  to  the  parts,  and  couch  to  the  parts 
contained  in  the  hypogaftrium. 

Thefe  bones  confift  of  three  different  bones, 
which  are  the  ej  ;7/aOT,  ifchiuni,  znd  os  pubis,  join- 
ed together  by  cartilages,  which  remain  fuch  till 
about  the  tenth  or  twelfth  year  of  age,  but  grow 
drier  with  time,  till  they  become  fo  bony  that  they 
feem  to  make  but  one  bone  with  the  others  in 
adult  perfons. 

The  Oa  Ilium  (O  fee  the  fig.  mark'd  0,P,Q,) 
fo  called,  becaufe  it  contains  the  intefline,  Ih'um, 
being  the  greatefl:  of  the  three,  offers  itfelf  firft  ; 
it  is  articulated  with  the  os  Jacrum  by  gingiymus, 
ftrengthened  by  a  cartilage,  and  a  very  firong 
membranous  ligament. — Its  figure  is  femicircular, 
having  two  furfaces,  the  one  internal,  filled  with 
one  of  the  mufculi  Jlexores  femoris  ;  and  the  one 
external  where  the  mujculi  extenjores  femoris  are 
inferted. 

T  he  colla  placed  between  thefe  two  furfaces  is 
bordered  with  two  l^j,  one  whereof  is  likewife 
internal,  and  the  other  external.  The  two  extre- 
mities of  this  rib  end  with  two  prominences  called 
fpiiics,  of  which  the  upper  is  much  greater  than 
the  lower.  Near  to  this  lafi,  which  is  placed  be- 
fore, is  feen  an  indenting  or  notching  that  facili- 
tates the  paffage  of  the  tendons  of  tlie  mufculi  iiiaci 
8 


and  pfoas ;  of  the  crural  veins  and  arteries,  and  of 
the  fpermatic  veffcls. — With  its  lower  pan  it  forms 
a  part  of  the  cavities,  which  receives  the  head  of 
the  OS  femoris. 

This   bone  is  larger  in  women   than  men,  for 
the  lupport  of  the  infant  in  the  matrix  ;  and  near 
this  bone  women  with  child  often  feel  a  pain,  oc- 
,  cafioned  by  the  weight  of  the  infant. 

I  here  are  three  parts  to  be  confidered  in  the 
Os  Ischium  (P.  ibid.)  Its  \ipper,  which  makes 
the  greatefl  part  of  the  cotyla  ;  its  anterior,  which 
makes  part  of  the  foramen  avale ;  ajid  the  lower, 
in  which  two  proceffcs  are  obfervcJ,  the  one  be- 
behind,  called  the  Spine  Procefs  ;  and  the  other  be- 
fore, and  below. — There  is  likewife  feen  a  ftius  or 
cleft,  which  gives  paffage  to  the  obturator  in- 
terr.us. 

This  bone  is  annexed  to  the  os  facrum  by  a 
double  ligament  that  riu.'s  from  it  ;  one  is  inferted 
n\  the  acute  procefs  of  tiie  hip  4  and  die  other  be- 
hind at  its  appendage,  which  fupports  the  re£lum 
intefUnum.  —  Its  extremity,  called  the  tuberous 
part  of  the  ifchiuni,  gives  rife  to  the-  mufcles  of 
xhz  penis,  x.\\z  levator-is  ani,  and  many  of  xhefiext- 
res  femoris. 

The  Os  Pubis  (Q,  ibid,  and  alfo  in  the  firjl 
Skeleton)  called  alfo  Os  Peiiinis,  is  fitup.ted  at  the 
middle  and  anterior  part  of  the  trunk.  Its  fore  part 
is  joined  by  means  of  a  cartilage  with  its  fellow;  its 
back  part  forms  one  part  of  the  cotyla.  Between  this 
part  and  the  extremity  of  the  os  iltuw,  the  finus 
is  placed,  thro'  which  the  tendons  of  the  m-f- 
cu:!  lumbarei  and  iiiaci  pa.k.  The  mufcles  of  the 
abdomen  are  inferted  in  the  upper  part,  otherwife 
called  the  7^/w;  and  the  lower  is  joined  with  a 
prominence  made  by  the  tuberous  part  of  the 
ifchium,  both  which  prominences  make  the  fora- 
men ovale;  into  which  prominences  there  are  many 
mufcles  inferted.  The  mufculi  obturatores  femo- 
ris, which  feive  to  move  the  thigh  femicircularly 
inward  or  outward,  are  annexed  to  a  flrong,  ten- 
dinous membrane,  that  fhuts  intirely  this  hole. 

The  offa  pubis  are  flenderer  and  larger  in  wo- 
men than  men  ;  and  thofe,  who  have  them  ad- 
vanced more  outwardly,  undergo  their  labour  the 
eafier;  the  cartilage,  which  joins  the  tvi'o  offa 
pubis  together,  is  of  a  pliable  fubftance,  and  in 
hard  and  painful  labours  may  be  diftended  a 
little,  but  not  to  facilitate  alone  the  delivery  of 
the  Fcetus. 

Of  the    Extremities. 

The  extremities  are  upper  and  under,  both  the 
one  and  the  other  are  like  fo  many  branches  fpring- 
ing  from  the  trunk,  and  growing  to  it^  the  firft 

^  are 


A  N  A  r  0   MY. 


51 


are  the  hands,  and  the  fccond  the  feet.     We'll  be- 
gin with  the  Bones  of  the  Hands. 

The  Hands  are  divided  into  three  parts,  the 
arm,  the  ctibit,  and  the  hayid. 

The  arm  confilis  of  one  bone  only  ;  the  cubit  of 
two  ;  and  the  handoi  twenty  feven. 

But  we  muft  examine,  firji,  the  fcapula,  or 
Jhoulder-bl'ides,  comprehended  in  the  number  of 
the  fixty-two  bones  that  compofe  the  arms. 

The  Scapula,  (A  fee  the  fig.  of  the  Arm  and 
Hand)  or  fhoulder-bladc,  is  the  bone  that  forms  the 
flioulder,  defined,  a  large  and  flender  bone,  efpe- 
cially  in  the  middle,  and  thick  in  the  procefles  :  It 
is  fituated  at  the  hind  part  of  the  upper  ribs,  where 
it  ferves  inftead  of  a  buckler  to  them. 

There  are  four  things  to  be  obferved  in  it  ;  its 
figure,   connexions,  parts  and  ufes. 

The  figure  of  the  fcapula  (fee  the  fig.  Bad- 
joining)  is  triangular;  of  which,  two  angles  are  pof- 
terior,  and  the  third  anterior.  It  is  convex  without, 
and  concave  within,  both  for  its  better  appofition 
in  the  ribs,  and  for  containing  amufcle,  of  which 
I  Ihal!  fpeak  hereafter. 

It  hath  three  forts  of  connexions.,  one  by  arthro- 
dia,  with  the  humerus,  having  at  its  anterior  an- 
gle, a  glenoide  cavity,  which  receives  the  head  of 
the  humerus.  This  cavity  is  covered  over  with  a 
cartilage,  that  facilitates  the  motion,  and  it  hath  a 
ligamentous  brim,  which,  by  making  the  cavity 
deeper,  and  embracing  the  head  of  the  humerus, 
ftrengthens  its  articulation.  The  other  is  made  by 
fynchondrofis,  with  the  clavicle,  by  means  of  a  car- 
tilage, that  unites  this  bone  with  the  clavicle  ;  and 
the  third  is  made  by  fyfarcofis,  with  the  vertebra 
and  the  ribs  ;  there  being  nothing  but  mufcles  in 
all  the  pofterior  part,  that  unite  it  with  the  ad- 
joining bones. 

There  are  a  great  many  parts  to  be  confidered 
in  this  bone.  Firft,  its  bafts.,  which  is  in  its  hind 
part,  ends  next  to  the  vertebra  of  the  back  ;  this 
hafis,  and  with  two  angles,  the  one  upper,  and 
the  other  low^r.  The  parts  coming  from  thefe  an- 
gles towards  the  neck,  are  called  the  cfla  of  the 
fcapula  ;  of  which  there  are  alfo  two,  the  one 
called  the  upper  cofia,  which  is  the  flendertft  and 
(horteft ;  and  the  other  the  lower  cofia,  which  is 
thicker  ^nd  longer. 

The  fxo  furfaccs  of  this  bone  differ  one  from 
the  other ;  the  internal  is  hollow,  to  lodge  the 
fcapular  mufcle  ;  the  external  is  elevated,  to  form  a 
confiderable  eminence,  which  from  the  bottom  of 
the  bafis,  rifes  ftrait  upwards,  called  the  fpine  of 
the  flioulder-blade,  the  end  thereof  is  called  acro- 
miu?n.,  from  its  refemblance  to  an  anchor. 

On  each  fide  of  this  fame  fpine,  there  are  two 
pits,  one  above,  czWtAfoJfa fupra  fpinata ;  and  the 


other  underneath,  cz\h6  fojpi  infra  fplnata,  greater 
than  the  formef  ;  bccauif-,  beftdes  the  mujculi  in- 
fra fpinatt,  it  contains  fome  other  mufcles,  which 
ferve  for  the  motion  of  the  arm  ;  and  in  the  middle 
of  the  fpine,  there  is  a  crooked  eminence,  called 
the  creft^  or  the  wing  of  a  bait-,  from  its  refemblance 
to  it. 

The  procefs  caracoides,  placed  at  the  fuperior 
part  of  the  neck,  and  which  advances  above  the 
head  of  the  (houlder-bone,  ftrengthens  the  articu- 
lation of  the  (houlder,  and  gives  rife  to  one  of  the 
mufcles  of  the  arm,  called  alfo  carocoides. 

The  two  other  cavities,  one  between  the  neck  of 
the  acromium,  and  the  other  between  its  fuperior 
cojta,  and  the  apophyfis  carocoides,  ferve  for  the 
pafllige  of  veflels  ;  and  that  cavity  which  is  at  the 
end  of  the  exterior  angle,  is  called  the  glenoide 
cavity. 

The  «/i'j  of  the  fhoulder-blade,  are,  i.  To  give 
origin  and  infertion  to  the  mufcles,  like  all  the 
other  bones.  2.  To  faften  the  arm  to  the  body. 
3.  To  fupport  the  arm,  that  it  may  more  conve- 
niently make  its  motions.  And  4.  To  make  the 
fhoulder,  and  defend  the  internal  parts,  with  its 
bulk  and  largenefs. 

The  atm  is  compofed  only  of  the  Humerus 
(C  fee  fig.  of  the  arm  and  hand.)  This  bone  is 
articulated  at  both  its  ends  ;  the  upper  end  with 
the  fcapula,  by  arthrodia  \  and  the  lower  part  by 
ginglymus,  with  the  cubitus  ;  and  by  arthrodia,  with 
the  radius.  The  humerus  is  alfo  joined  with  the 
radius  by  arthrodia,  having  a  prominence  at  its 
end,  which  is  received  into  the  cavity  placed  at  the 

end  of  the  radius. This  articulation  caufes 

the  motions  of  the  cubitus  inwards,  and  outwards. 

The  humerus  is  often  divided  into  its  body,  (D) 
and  its  extremities  ;  which  are  two,  the  one  fupe- 
rior, the  other  inferior. The  body  of  the  hu- 
merus is  long  and  round  ;  it  hath  an  internal  cavity 
all  its  length,  which  contains  tlic  marrow  ;  its 
figure  is  not  abfolutely  ftrait,  but  a  little  hollow  on 
the  infide,  and  raifed  on  the  outfide,  for  the 
ftrengthening  of  it  in  its  adlions.  The  line  obferved 
in  it,  to  defcend  and  terminate  in  two  condyles, 
ferve  to  faften  more  ftrongly,  the  mufcles  inferted  in 

this  bone. The  upper  end  of  the  humerus  (E 

ibid.)  is  much  larger,  and  more  fpungy  than  the 
lower  ;  it  contains  a  medullary  juice,  and  is  called 
the  head  of  the  humerus.  A  little  from  under  this 
head,  is  the  neck,  which  is  a  round,  and  fomewhat 
ftrait  part  ;  and  as  the  fore-part  of  this  head  ap- 
pears a  pretty  long  cleft,  which  goes  to  the  middle 
part  of  the  bone,  and  made  like  a  gutter,  to  make 
room  for  one  of  the  tendons  of  the  mufcle  biceps. 
This  head  is  not  only  invironed  on  all  fides,  with 
i  ligaments  and  membranes,  which  come  from  the 
I  H  glenoide 


11:16  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


52 

glenoide  cavity  of  the  fcapula,  but  is  likewife  in- 
volved with  four  aponetirofes  of  the  mufcles  that 
compafs  it. 

The  lovi^er  part  of  the  humerus  (F  ibid.)  is 
fmaller,  flatter,  and  harder,  than  the  other  ;  it  if 
alfo  bigger,  becaufe  it  is  joined  with  the  two  bones 
of  the  cubitus,  placed  on  the  fide  of  one  another, 
and  which  have  two  different  motions.  In  this 
place  there  are  three  procefles  and  two  cavities  ;  the 
firft:  called  the  fuperior  procefs,  is  a  round  head, 
articulated  with  the  radius.  The  fecond,  which  is 
the  inferior,  articulate  with  no  bone,  becaufe  it 
only  ferves  for  the  origin  of  the  mufculi  flexores  of 
the  hand.  This  is  fmaller  than  the  former,  and  is 
called  apophyfis  condiloides.  In  the  middle  of  thefe 
two  condyli,  is  a  third  procefs  that  is  fmooth,  ob- 
loiitT,  and  made  in  the  form  of  a  pully,  round 
which  the  cubitus  hath  its  motions.  The  two  ca- 
vities are  near  this  procefs,  one  interna]  and 
fmaller  ;  the  other  external  and  greater  ;  they  re- 
ceive the  apoph^fes  coronoides  of  the  cubitus,  and  the 
pully  is  received  into  the  ci.\\v^  figmatoidn  of  the 
cubitus. 

The  elbow  confifts  of  two  bones,  which  are  not 
folontr  nor  fo  big  as  the  burner  us  .y\)\iX  both  of  them 
much  of  the  fame  magnitude,  though  the  cubitus 
is  a  little  larger  than  the  other  ;  they  are  removed 
from  one  another  in  their  middle,  for  the  more  con- 
venient fituation  of  their  mufcles,  for  the  pafTage 
of  the  veffels,  and  efpecially  for  their  eafier  motion  ; 
one  is  called  the  cubitus,  and  the  other  the  radius. 

The  Cubitus,  (G,  ibid.)  or  bone  of  the  elbow, 
is  articulated  at  both  ends,  at  its  upper  end  two 
ways  ;  u  ith  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus,  by  gin- 
glymus,  and  with  the  upper  part  of  the  radius,  by 
arthrodia.  At  its  lower  end,  it  is  alfo  joined  two 
ways,  by  arthrodia  ;  by  its  end  with  the  os  carpi, 
and  with  the  lower  part  of  the  radius,  by  its  lateral, 
or  fide-part. 

The  cubitus  is  divided  into  its  fuperior,  (H,  ibid,) 
middle,  (I,  ibid)  and  inferior  part  (K,  ibid.)  Its 
fuperior  part  has  two  procefTes,  and  two  cavities  ; 
the  fmalleft  of  thefe  procefles,  which  has  no  par- 
ticular name,  is  fituated  before,  and  the  other 
(called  olecranum,  and  is  larger  than  the  former) 
behind.  The  carpus  is  fupported  on  this  procefs  ; 
it  makes  an  acute  angle,  when  the  arm  is  bent, 
and  hinders  it  from  bending  backwards.  Thefe 
two  proceffes  enter  into  the  two  cavities,  fituated 
on  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus.  Of  the  two  ca- 
vities, at  the  fuperior  part  of  the  cubitus,  the 
greateft,  czWtA  fmus  fsgmatoides,  is  placed  between 
the  two  procefies,  and  receives  the  end  of  the  hu- 
merus. There  is  a  line,  or  eminence  in  the  middle 
of  this  cavity,  which  goes  from  one  procefs  to  the 
other,  and  enters  into  the_/(««f  of  that  part,  which 


is  at  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus.  The  other  ca- 
vity, fituated  on  the  lateral  and  internal  part  of  the 
cubitus,  (which  is  very  fmall)  by  receiving  the  ra- 
dius, joins  them  together. — There  are  three  angles 
at  the  middle  part  of  the  cubitus,  one  internal,  and 
very  fharp,  called  the  fpine  ;  two  others  not  fo 
keen,  one  before,  and  the  other  behind. 

Two  prominences,  and  a  cavity  are  difcovered 
at  the  inferior  part  :  The  firft  of  thefe  prominences 
fituated  at  the  lateral  and  inferior  part,  is  received 
into  the  glenoide  cavity  of  the  radius  ;  the  fecond, 
czWeA  Jlyloides,  and  placed  externally  at  the  end  of 
this  bone,  ferves  to  fortify  the  joint ;  and  the  ca- 
vity at  the  end  of  the  bone  helps  to  make  an  ar- 
throdia, with  the  carpus. 

The  fecond  bone  of  the  elbow,  called  Radius, 
(L,  ibid.)  is  articulated  like  the  f«i//aj  in  its  fupe- 
rior, and  inferior  part ;  in  its  fuperior  part  two 
ways,  both  by  arthrodia,  the  one  with  the  external 
condylus  of  the  humerus,  and  the  other  with  the  cu~ 
bitus  ;  in  its  inferior  part,  either  with  the  os  carpi, 
or  with  the  cubitus,  and  both  ways  by  arthrodia. 

The  radius  is  alfo  divided  into  three  parts,  the 
fuperior  (M,  ibid.)  the  middle  (N,  ibid.)  and  the 
inferior  (O,  ibid.)  It  has  in  its  fuperior  part,  a 
head,  a  neck,  and  a  tuberofity  :  the  head  is  round 
and  fmooth,  for  its  better  motion,  and  over  it  a 
glenoide  cavity,  that  receives  the  fuperior  condylus  of 
the  humerus  ;  the  neck  is  very  long  for  oblique  mo- 
tions ;  under  this  neck  is  fituated  the  tuberofity 
or  eminence,  into  which  the  mufculus  profundus, 
and  one  of  thsjlexores  of  the  thumb  are  inferted. 
There  is  an  acute  angle  in  its  middle,  called  the 
fpine,  which  grows  ftill  bigger,  as  it  comes  nearer 
to  the  wriff,  contrary  to  the  cubitus,  that  leflens 
according  as  it  is  elongated  from  the  elbow. 

There  are  many  finuofities  and  inequalities  ob- 
ferved  at  its  inferior  part,  made  to  avoid  hurting 
the  tendons,  that  go  to  the  outward  part  of  the 
hand.  There  are  likewife  two  cavities,  one  at  its 
extremity,  which  receives  the  bones  of  the  carpus  ; 
and  the  other  at  its  lateral  and  internal  part  ;  but 
fmaller,  for  a  prominence  of  the  cubitus.  The 
prominence  at  the  externa!  part  of  its  extremity, 
form,  with  the  apophyfis Jiyloides,  a  great  cavity, 
which  receives  the  bones  of  the  carpus,  and  hin- 
ders their  luxation. 

The  Hand  is  made  up  of  the  carpus  or  wriff, 
the  metacarpus,  and  the  fingers.  It  begins  where 
the  bones  of  the  elbow  end,  and  it  terminates  with 
the  ends  of  the  fingers. - 

The  carpus  (P,  ibid.)  or  wrifl,  which  is  the  firft 
part  of  the  band,  is  a  heap  of  bones,  fituated  be- 
tween the  inferior  articulation  of  the  elbow,  and 
the  rt^etacarjus.  7"hefe  bones  are  eight  in  number, 
placed  in  two  rows,  (Q.,  ibid.)  four  in  each  row. — 

Of 


A    N   A    r    0    M    T. 


53 


Of  the  four  bones  of  the  firft  row,  the  two  great- 
eft  are  received  into  tlie  cavity  of  the  radius,  by 
their  upper  part,  for  the  motion  of  the  hand;  and 
touch  the  three  hrft  bones  of  the  fecond  rank,  by 
their  lower  part.  The  th  rd,  next  to  this  in  big- 
nefs,  is  placed  in  the  cavity,  at  the  end  of  the  cu- 
bitus, joining  to  its  apopbyfcs  Jiyloides;  and  united 
in  its  lower  part,  with  the  fourdi  bone  of  the  fe- 
cond rank.  The  fourth  bone  of  the  firft  rank, 
(the  fmalleft  of  thcni  all)  is  fituated  upon  the  third, 
on  the  infide  of  the  hand,  making  a  prominence, 
like  unto  the  crooked  procefs  of  the  fourth  bone  of 
the  fecond  rank. 

The  firfl:  bone  of  the  fecond  row,  is  placed  more 
within  the  hand  than  without,  that  it  may  the  bet- 
ter fupport  the  thumb,  and  anfwer,  to  the  crooked 
procefs  of  the  fourth  bone  of  the  fame  rank.  The 
fecond  and  the  third,  fupport  the  firll:  and  fecond 
bones  of  the  metacarpus;  and  the  fourth  and  laft 
bone  of  the  carpus,  fupports,  by  its  two  fmall  gle- 
noide  cavities,  the  third   and  fourth  bones  of  the 

metacarpus.  The  figure  of  the  bones  of  the 

carpus,  joined  together,  is  round,  and  railed  on  the 
outfide,  but  it  is  unequal  and  hollow  on  the  infide, 
for  the  facility  of  the  motion. 

There  are  three  forts  of  articulations  in  the  bones 
of  the  carpus ;  the  firft,  with  the  bones  of  the  el- 
bow, by  the  arthrodia  ;  the  fecond,  with  the  bones 
of  the  metacarpus,  by  amphiartrofts  ;  and  the  third 

by  fyneurofis,  between   themfelves.  None 

of  thefe  articulations  has  a  manifeft  motion  but  the 
firft. 

The  Metacarpus,  (R.  ibid.)  which  is  the  fe- 
cond part  of  the  hand,  makes  its  palm,  by  its  in- 
ternal part;  and  its  back,  by  its  external.  

7'he  metacarpus  is  compofed  of  four  long,  flender, 
and  unequal  bones,  each  of  them  having  a  cavity 
that  contains  a  marrow.  Thefe  four  bones  are 
joined  with  the  carpus,  by  a  ftrong  connexion,  by 
means  of  many  cartilaginous  ligaments,  which  al- 
lows them  but  an  obfcure  motion  ;  and  with  the 
fingers,  by  arthrodia ;  each  of  them  having  a 
round  head  at  their  end,  which  enters  into  the  gle- 
noide  cavity,  placed  at  the  end  of  the  firft  bone  of 

the  fingers.  Befides  thefe  two  articulations, 

they  mutually  touch,  and  are  united  together  by 
their  lateral  part,  very  near  the  place  where  they 
are  joined  to  the  carpus,  and  this  for  their  greater 
ftrength.  — —  They  afterwards  feparate  towards 
the  middle,  in  order  to  leave  a  convenient  i'pace  to 
the  mufculi  interojfei. 

The  middle  part  of  thefe  bones  is  of  a  round  fi- 
gure, though  a  little  convex  outwardly,  for 
ftrength-fake ;  and  a  little  hollow  inwardly,  for  the 

better  taking   up  things.  Their   fuperior 

extremity,  whereby  they  are  united  with  the  car- 


pus, is  their  largeft  part;  and  their  lower  extre- 
mity, which  ends  with  ahead  that  joins  them  with 

the  fingers,  their    fmaller    part. Thefe  four 

bones  are  not  equally  large ;  that  which  fupports 
the  index,  is  larger  than  the  others;  the  next  to  it 
is  lefs ;  the  next  to  that  lefter ;  and  the  fourth  the 
fmalleft  of  all.  This  laft  is  the  fupportcr  of  the 
little  finger,  and  has  a  more  apparent  motion  than 
the  three  others. 

There  are  five  Fingers  (S.  ibid.)  which  differ 
from  one  another,  both  in  bignefs  and  length. 
— ^  The  firft,  (I.  ibid.)  called  the.thu?nb,  is  big- 
ger and  ftronger  than  the  others,  and  the  only  one 
oppofite  to  the  reft  in  the  matter  of  apprehenfion. 

The  fecond  is  called  the  index,  (V.  ibid.)  be- 

caufe  we  make  ufe  of  it  when  we  fhew,  or  point 
atfomething;  t\\t\.hxrA,t\ie  rniddle  finger,  (X.  ibid.) 
by  reafon  of  its  fituation,  and  is  the  longeft  of 
them  all ;  the  fourth,  (7«KZ/A7m,  ( Y.  /^/V. )  becaufe 
the  ring  is  worn  upon  it;  and  the  fifth,  (Z,  ibid.) 
auricularis,  becaufe  being  little  and  pointed,  fome 

commonly  ufe  it  to  cleanfe  their  ears  oi fordes. 

The  bones  of  the  fingers  are  fifteen,  three  in  each 
finger,  placed  in  three  ranks,  called  phalanxes., 
from  their  refemblance  to  the  nanks  in  battle-array. 
The  firft  rank  is  of  larger  bones  than  the  fe- 
cond, and  the  fecond  than  the  third,  which  is  the 
fmalleft;  and  vrhofe  extremities  end  in  a  femi-circle 
or  crefcent.  The  figure  of  thefe  bones  is  hollow 
on  the  infide,  for  the  convenience  of  flexion  ;  con- 
vex on  the  outfide,  for  ftrength  fake,  and  a  little 
flattened  on  the  infide,  that  they  might  not  hurt 
the  tendons   of   the  Jiexorcs,    and   for   the   better 

bending  the    fift. They  are  joined  together 

by  ginglymus,  all  of  them  having  both  little 
bones,  and  little  cavities,  which  reciprocally  re- 
ceive one  another  ;  their  articulation  with  the  me- 
tacarpus,   is   by  arthrodia.  Each   finger  has 

likewife  ligaments  the  whole  length,  on  the  infide; 
and  thefe  ligaments  tie  thefe  bones  mutually  to- 
gether. 

We  will  conclude  our  OJleohgy  with  the  Bon'ES 
of  the  LOWER  LIMBS,  which  are  thofe  of  the /c^, 
and  comprehends  all  from  the  os  illium  unto  the 
ends  of  the  toes. 

The  leg  is  divided  into  the  thigh,  the  leg,  and 
the  foot.     See  the  figure  of  the  thigh,  leg  -xnA  foot. 

The  Femur  (A  in  that  figure)  or  thigh,  is  made 
like  the  humerus  of  one  bone  ouly,  the  greateft  and 
ftrongeft  of  all  the  bones  of  a  human  body;  and 
which  alone  bears  the  burthen  or  weight  of  the 
whole.  —  This  bone  has  two  ftrong  articulations 
at  both  its  ends  ;  the  firft  and  upper,  called  enar- 
throfis,  is  made  by  the  means  of  a  very  large  head 
received  into  a  great  cavity.     The  head  is  at  the 

H  2  end 


The  Unlvcrfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  «;^^  Sciences. 


54 

end  of  the  femur,  and  the  cavily  at  the  lateral  part 
of  the  oi  ilium  ;  this  cavity  has  a  cartilaginous 
brim  for  the  better  inclofing  this  head,  and  to  hin- 
der it  from  luxation  ;  which  head  is  tied  befides 
by  a  firong  ligament  to  the  bottom  of  the  cavity. 

The  fecond  connexion  is  made  at  its  lower 

end  by  ginglymus,  having  two  heads  which  are  re- 
ceived into  two  cavities,  fituated  at  the  upper  and 
extreme  part  of  the  tibia.  Between  thefe  two  heads 
there  is  a  cavity,  which  receives  a  prominence  of 
the  lame  tibia,  and  makes  the  ginglymus. 

The  femur  is  divided  into  an  upper,    middle, 
and  lower  part.     See  the  bone  marked  B.  C.  D. 

The  upper  has  a  head,  neck,  and  tv/o  proceffes. 
The  head,  (B)  which  is  large  and  round,  is  formed 
of  that  procefs  wliich  is  inferted  into  the  cotila  of 
the  hips,  from  the  little  pit  that  is  in  its  middle 
rife,  the  ligament  that  ties  it  unto  the  os  illium. 
The  neck,  for  the  fupport  of  this  large  head,  is 
alfo  very  large,  and  long,  inclining  outwardly,  not 
only  for  the  convenient  fituation  of  the  parts  of 
the  thigh,  but  for  the  ftronger  going.  This  neck 
is  oblique,  becaufe  the  cavity  of  the  ifchium  not 
being  fifuated  in  a  ftrait  line,  the  head  of  the  fe- 
mur had  not  been  able  other  wife  to  enter  well  into 
it.  Moreover  this  neck  ftretching  thus  outwardly, 
feparates  thefe  two  bones  from  one  anoeher,  and 
caufes  the  reft  of  the  bones  to  defcend  in  a  ftrait 
line,  and  the  body  to  be  more  conveniently  and 
furely  fupported. 

The  two  proceffes  behind  the  neck  of  the  femur 
are  called  trochanters,  divided  into  the  great  and 
leffer  trochatiter.  —  The  great  trochanter,  which 
is  alfo  the  fuperior,  gives  infertion  to  the  mufculi 
extenforesoi  the  thigh,  and  for  this  reafon  its  exte- 
rior part  is  rough  and  unequal,  that  they  may  infert 
the  better  ;  and  at  its  internal  part,  which  regards 
the  neck,  there  is  a  cavity,  over  which  there  is 
found  a  kind  oi  finus.  This  bone  has  a  great  ca- 
vity, its  whole  length  (C)  which  contains  marrow; 
it  is  convex  outwardly,  and  a  little  crooked  or  con- 
cave on  the  infide,  infomuch  that  it  ferves  for  a 
buttrefs  to  our  body,  to  hinder  it  from  falling  and 
from  inclining  too  much  forward. 

At  the  lower  part  of  the  femur  (D)  there  are  two 
procefies  called  conJyIi,  covered  with  a  large  carti- 
lage, as  all  the  other  extremities  of  bones.  —  Be- 
tween thefe  condyti's  there  is  a  cavity  which  receives 
the  prominence  of  the  tibia.  Likewife  at  the  upper 
part  of  the.  femur,  there  is  a  vacuity,  which  gives  a 
paflage  to  the  veffels  that  go  down  to  the  leg. 
This  vacuity  is  inverted  like  all  other  cavities,  as 
well  as  the  proceffes,  which  ferve  for  the  connexion 
of  the  bones.  They  are  plaiftered  over  with  a  fmooth 
and  flippery  cartilage,  in  the  mafs  of  which  there 
are  fmall  glands,  each  of  them  having  a  fecreto'y 


duSt,  through  which  runs  that  flimy  liquor,  which 
ferves  to  facilitate  the  motion  of  the  joint. 

The  Knee,  placed  at  the  lower  end  of  the  thigh, 
and  at  the  upper  part  of  the  leg,  has  a  round  and 
large  boiiC  that  lies  at  the  articulation  of  the  femur 
with  the  tibia,  and  called  the  Rotula,  (E.  fee 
fig.  of  the  leg,  l3c.)  or  knee-pan. — Its  fubftance  in 
infants  is  cartilaginous  for  fome  time,  afterwards  it 
comes  to  he  bony.  Its  figure  is  like  the  circular 
bofs  of  a  buckler,  its  middle  part  being  thicker, 
and  more  prominent  than  its  brims.  The  rotula 
is  moveable,  and  articulated  by  a  kind  of  gin- 
glymus ;  it  is  covered  with  the  aponeurofes  of 
the  four  extenfores  of  the  leg,  inferted  at  its  ex- 
ternal part  and  its  brims.  It  is  inverted  at  its  in- 
ternal part  with  a  flippery  cartilage  to  facillitate  its 
motion,  and  ferves  to  ftrengthen  the  extenfor  muf- 
clcs  of  the  leg. 

The  Leg,  which  is  the  fecond  part  of  the  lower 
limbs,  comprehends  the  whole  fpace  from  the  knee 
down  to  the  foot,  and  has  two  bones,  one  wheieof 
is  very  big,  called  the  Tibia,  and  the  other  fmaller, 
called  the  Fibula. — Thefe  two  bones  differ  only  in 
bignefs,  being  of  the  fame  length  ;  for  if  the  tibia 
rifes  higher,  the.  fibula  defcends  the  lower;  both  of 
them  have  a  triangular  figure,  though  that  of  the 
fi'.ula  is  more  irregular  ;  they  are  united  together 
at  their  end,  but  feparated  afunder  in  their  middle 
to  give  room  to  the  mufcles,  and  a  paffage  to  the 
veffels.  They  alfo  each  o^  them  make  a  malleolus, 
or  ankle  bone,  the  tibia  making  the  inward  ancle, 
and  the  fibula  the  outward. 

The  Tibia  (F,  ibid.)  is  the  largeft  bone  of  the 
leg,  hollow  within,  its  whole  length  (to  contain 
the  marrow)  fituated  on  the  inlide  of  the  leg,  ar- 
ticulated at  both  its  ends  by  ginglymus,  above 
with  the  femur,  and  below  with  one  of  the  bones 
of  the  tarfus,  called  afiragalus.  It  is  alfo  joined 
at  both  its  ends,  but  laterally  with  the  fibula,  by 
arthrodia. — The  fibula  has  a  fmall  cavity  in  its 
fuperior  part  that  receives  the  tibia,  and  below  a 
fmall  prominence  received  into  the  tibia,  which 
tibia  has  alfo  three  parts,  the  fuperior,  middle,  and 
inferior  part. 

The  fuperior  part  of  the  tibia  (G,  fee  the  bone 
G  I.)  has  a  procefs  in  its  middle,  received  into 
the  cavity,  which  is  at  the  end  of  the  femur. 
There  are  on  both  fides  of  this  procefs  two  fmall 
cavities,  which  receive  the  heads  of  the  femur. 
Their  depth  is  increafed  by  a  cartilage  lunata, 
which  is  not  deprived  of  motion,  altho'  it  be  faf- 
tened  by  ligaments. — The  middle  part  of  the  tibia 
has  three  angles,  the  moft  remarkable  thereof  is  the 
Jhin,  being  long  and  fharp  before  like  the  edge  of  a 
knife  ;  whence  it  happens  that  blows  received  upon 
that  part  are  very  much  felt,  by  reafon  that  the 
I  pcricfieum 


A  N  A  r  0    MY. 


ss 


feriofleum,  which  covers  it,  is  often  cut  with  the 
blow :  According  as  this  bone  approaches  to  the 
foot,  it  leilens  in  bignefs,  but  in  recompence  it 
grows  harder  as  it  defcends. — The  inferior  part  of 
the  tibia  (I,  ibid.)  terminates  in  two  little  cavities 
for  the  infertion  of  the  prominences  of  the  aftraga- 
lus ;  and  from  the  middle  of  thefe  cavities  there 
rifes  a  fmall  protuberance,  inferted  into  the  cavity 
found  at  the  upper  part  of  the  ajlragalus  ;  and  from 
the  fide  of  this  cavity  there  is  a  pretty  large  pro- 
minence which  forms  the  internal  ankle. 

The  Fibula  (Iv,  fee  the  fig.  of  the  whole  leg) 
is  the  leaft  of  the  bones  of  the  leg,  fituated  at  its  ex- 
ternal part,  and  articulated  at  both  its  ends  by  a 
kind  of  more  compad:  arthrodia,  fortified  by  a  li- 
gament both  above  and  below  it. — This  bone  has 
alfo  three  parts,  an  upper,  middle,  and  lower  part. 
See  the  bone  marked  L.  M.  N. — The  upper  (L) 
is  a  round  head,  which  don't  touch  the  knee, ending 
a  little  under  it  at  the  place  where  it  is  articulated 
with  the  tibia. — The  middle  (M)  is  flender  and 
long,  and  of  a  triangular  figure  like  the  tibia,  but 
a  little  more  irregular. — And  the  lower  part  (N) 
has  a  condyl'-a,  which  makes  a  procefs  called  the 
outward  ankle.  It  is  a  little  hollow  within,  for  a 
free  motion  of  the  ajit  agalus. — The  lower  end  of 
this  bone  defcends  a  little  lower  than  that  of  the 
tibia. 

The  Foot.  (O,  fee  the  fig.  of  the  whole  leg,) 
which  is  all  that's  comprehended  from  the  inferior 
articulation  of  the  leg  unto  the  end  of  the  toes,  is  of 
an  oblong  figure  ;  its  fuperior  and  external  part  is 
convex,  the  better  to  form  the  cavity  of  its  lower 
and  internal  one,  called  xhe.  file  of  the  foot.  (P, 
fee  the  fig.  of  the  foot  mark  d  P. 

The  ufes  of  this  cavity  are,  befides  that  of  con- 
tributing to  the  convenience  of  walking,  and  of 
ftanding  firm,  to  leave  a  free  pafTage  to  the  ten- 
dons that  go  to  the  toes,  and  to  lodge  one  (jf  their 
flexo-es. 

The  firft  and  largeft  part  of  the  foot  is  the 
Tarsus,  (Q_,  fee  the  fig.  of  the  whole  A-^,  J  com- 
pofed  oi fiven  bones:  (fee  the  bones  in  feperate 
pieces  mark'd  R.  S.  T.  V.  X.  X.  X.  the  firli  and 
fuperior  is  fmooth,  and  made  like  a  pully,  upon 
which  the  great  bone  of  the  leg  is  placed  ;  the  fe- 
cond,  which  is  anterior,  is  a  large  head  that  entfrs 
into  the  cavity  of  the  w  navicular e,  with  which 
the  aftra^alus  is  ftrongly  articulated  ;  the  third  and 
pofterior  receives  the  head  of  the  ca'.cancum,  (S; 
with  which  it  is  ftrongly  united  ;  the  fourth  and 
inferior  is  rugged  and  unequal  ;  the  fifrh  and  fixth 
(urfaces  of  the  ajlragalus  are  the  two  latcial,  in- 
clofed  by  the  two  malleoli  or  ankles. 

The  Calcaneum,  or  hecl-bonCj  is  the  fecond 
of  the  tarfus,  the  greateft  and  the  moft  porous,  and 


fituated  at  the  pofterior  part  of  the  foot. — In  this 
bone  the  tendon  achilles,  the  biggeft  and  ftrongeft 
of  all  the  tendons  is  inferted. — It  is  doubly  joined 
with  t\\cajiragaiui,  and  alfo  by  a  flat  head  with  the 
OS  cuboides. 

The  third  is  the  Os  Scaphoides,  (T)  or  nmii- 
ctilare,  from  its  refemblance  to  a  little  boat ;  it  has 
a  pretty  large  cavity  that  goes  from  one  of  its  ends 
to  the  other,  for  the  infertion  of  the  large  head  of 
the  ajlragalus,  which  joins  them  both  ftrongly  to- 
gether ;  and  to  the  three  protuberances  found  on 
the  other  fide  of  this  cavity,  the  three  laft  bones  of 
the  tarfus  are  articulated. 

The  Os  Cuboides  (V)  is  the  fourth  bone  of 
the  tarfus,  fituated  before  the  calcaneum,  unto 
which  it  is  joined  by  an  unequal  furface,  and  arti- 
culated with  the  feventh  bone  of  the  tarfus,  whofe 
fifth,  fixth,  and  feventh  bone  are  called  cunciformia, 
becaufe  they  have  the  figure  of  a  wedge,  that  cleaves 
wood. 

Thefe  three  bones,  although  the  fame  in  figure, 
dift'er  moreover  in  magnitude;  for  one  of  them  is 
greater  than  the  reft:,  another  of  a  middle  fize,  and 
the  other  is  the  leaft  of  all.  —  They  are  all  three 
articulated  with  the  os  fchaphoides  by  one  of  their 
ends ;  and  by  the  other  end  one  of  them  fupports 
one  of  the  bones  of  the  metatarfus,  the  two  others 
being  fupported  by  the  os  cuboides. 

The  Metatarsus,  (Y,  fee  the  fig.  of  the 
whole  leg,  (jfc.)  or  injhp.  confifts  of  five  bones, 
fituated  fideways  to  one  another,  for  the  fuftaining 
each  of  them  a  toe.  Thefe  bones  are  compacSIy 
joined  together  at  that  end  where  they  are  united 
with  the  tarfus  ;  but  they  fepatate  from  one  an- 
other in  their  middle  for  the  infertion  of  the  mufculi 
interofjei.  They  are  convex  outwardly  and  hollow 
within,  for  the  better  reception  of  the  tendons  of 
the  mufcles. — They  are  long  and  /lender,  and  end 
with  a  little  head,  which  entering  the  cavity  at  the 
end  of  the  firft  phalanx  of  the  toes,  unite  them  to- 
gether by  arthrodia. — They  differ  in  magnitude, 
like  the  bones  of  the  tarfus,  and  have  at  their  flen- 
dereft  end  a  head  covered  with  a  little  cartilage  for 

o 

the  freer  motion  of  the  toes. 

There  are  fourteen  bones  of  the  ices,  (Z,  ibid.) 
two  to  the  great  toe,  and  three  for  each  of  the  four 
others,  dill:ributed  into  three  pb^danxes,  or  ranks, 
as  thofe  of  the  fingeis  :  thofe  of  the  firft  order  or 
rank,  are  greater  than  thofe  of  the  fecond  ;  thofe 
of  tile  fecond  are  lefs,  and  fo  of  the  reft. — They 
are  of  the  fame  figure  as  thofe  of  the  hand,  convex 
without,  and  concave  within  ;  and  are  articulated 
with  the  7nctatarfus,  by  artkrod  a,  and  by  gingly- 
mus  with  one  another. 

There  are  alfo  found  in  the  joints  of  the. bones, 
of  the  hands  and  feet,    fome  very  fmajl  bones,  of 

the 


S6 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory**?/'  Arts  ^W  Sciences. 


the  bignefs  of  a  pea,  flat  on  their  infide,  and  round 
without,  called  o(fa  Jcfamoifha.  Their  number  is 
uncertain,  although  we  commonly  count  twelve  ot 
them  in  each  hand,  and  the  fame  in  each  foot  ; 
thofe  bones,  fmall  as  they  are,  not  only  ferve  to 
/bengthen  the  joints,  and  hinder  luxation,  but 
their  principal  ufc  is  to  ferve  for  pulleys  to  the  ten- 
dons of  the  mufcles,  which  s^oto  the  fingers,  in  or- 
der to  keep  them  in  their  due  places,  and  hinder^ 
them  from  falling  upon  the  joint. 

Of  Sarcology. 

Sarcology  treats  of  the  Jiejh  and  other  foft  and 
tender  parts  of  the  human  body. 

This  is  t\\t  fecond  mo{\i  efTential  and  mod  curious 
part  in  anatomy,  and  is  divided  into  ( I )  Splanchno- 
logy, (2)  Myology,  and  (3)  Angiology.  The  firft 
treats  of  the  internal  parts  efpecially  the  vifcera. 
The  fecond  of  the  mufcles.  The  third  of  the  vef- 
fels,  viz.  nerves,  arteries,  and  the  ly7nphatic  vejfcls . 

For  the  more  clear  demonftration  of  thefe  parts 
it  is  necelTary  to  divide  the  human  body  into  the 
trutilt  and  limbs ;  and  to  fubdivide  the  trunk  into 
three  principal  regions,  viz.  the  head,  the  breajl, 
and  the  venter  or  abdomen,  with  which  laft  we  fliall 
begin  this  treatife. 

The  Abdomen  is  all  that  cavity  extending 
from  the  diaphragma  to  the  os  pubis;  terminated 
on  the  fides  by  the  hip  bones,  and  behind  by  the  ver- 
tebra of  the  loins  and  the  os  facrum ;  and  it  is  of 
a  foft  and  flefhy  fubflance  before,  capable  of  great 
extenfion. 

This  region  is  fubdivided  into  three  parts  (i) 
the  epigaftric,  which  begins  at  the  diaphragm  and 
and  cariilago  xiphoides,  and  terminates  about  the 
breadth  of  two  fingers  above  the  navel.  (2)  The 
umbilical,  which  begins  where  the  epigaftric  ends, 
and  defcends  two  fingers  breadth  below  the  tiavel. 
(3)  The  hypogajlric  ;  which  reaches  as  low  as  the 
OS  pubis. 

Each  of  thefe  regions  are  again  divided  into  a 
middle  part  called  epigajlrium,  and  two  fides  named 
hypochondria  ;  diftinguifhed  by  the  name  of  the 
right,  and  left  hypochondrium.  See  A  A  in  the  fig. 
at  the  bottom  of  the  left  fide  in  the  fecond  anatomi- 
cal ■\;i\2X<i.  under  the  title  Sarcology. 

'Ihe  Epigastrium  inclofes  the  fmall  lobe  of 
the  liver  and  a  part  of  the  ftomach,  with  its  lower 
orifice,  and  alfo  the  middle  of  the  colon. 

The  Hypochondrium,  on  the  right  fide  con 
tains  the  great  lobe  of  the  liver  and  the  gall  bladder  ; 
that  on  the    left  contains  the  greateft  part  of  the 
ftomach  and  fpleen. 

The  Umbilical  region  (B  E  ib.)  contains  the 
navel  in  the  middle  of  it;    and  its  fides  are  the 


two  loins.  The  navel  contains  the  greateft  part  of 
the  intejlinum  jtjv.man  and  the  mtj'entery.  The 
right  loin  contains  the  right  kidney,  the  intejlinum 
ftrcum,  and  part  of  tlie  jejunum  and  colon ;  and 
the  left  loin  inclofes  the  left  kidney  and  fome  part 
of  the  colon  and  jejunium. 

'I  he  middle  of  the  hypogajlric  region,  (fee 
C  C.  ib.)  is  called  the  hypoga/lrium.  Its  fides  are 
the  iliaov  flanks  ;  and  under  it  we  find  the  reSlum, 
the  bladder  and  the  matrix  in  women. 

We  divide  the  lower  part  of  the  hypogajlric 
(D  D.  ib.)  into  the  middle  or  the  region  of  the 
pubis ;  and  into  two  lateral,  or  regions  of  the 
groins,  which  gives  paflage  to  the  fpermatic 
vejfcls. 

The  hind  part  of  the  Venter  extends  from  the 
laft  rib  to  the  end  of  the  os  fai.rum;  and  is  divided 
into  an  upper  part  called  the  loins,  and  a  lower 
region  called  the  nates  or  buttocks  ;  between  which 
is  the  anus  or  hole  for  difcharge  of  the  grofler 
excrements  from  the  guts. 

The  venter  or  belly  is  a  cavity,  which  contains 
the  parts  for  nourifhment,  and  for  generation,  and 
is  divided  into  the  outward  and  inward  venter. 
The  outward  is  again  divided  into  common  and 
proper,  the  common  parts  containing  are  the 
teguments,  as  the  epidermis  or  citticula,  the  cutis  or 
fkin,  and  the  fat,  and  the  proper  are  the  mufcles 
of  the  abdomen  and  the  peritonaum. 

The  epidermis  (EE  ib.)  is  a  membrane  as  thin  as 
the  peel  of  an  onion,  and  ftrongly  faftened  to  the 
fkin,  which  it  covers  ;  and  is  inlenfible,  becaufe  it 
contains  neither  veins,  arteries  nor  nerves ;  but  is 
produced  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  other  parts  of 
the  body.  It  is  of  the  fame  figure  with  the  fkin ; 
from  which  it  feparates  in  burns. 

This  is  the  part,  which  rifes  in  large  puflules 
when  veficatories  are  applied.  It  cannot  be  dif- 
fered. It  regenerates  without  leaving  a  fear ;  and 
when  it  feparates  from  the  cutis  without  any  out- 
ward caufe,  it  Ihews  the  part  to  be  difpofed  to 
mortify. 

Its  ufis  are  to  cover  the  fkin  and  render  it  fmooth 
and  equal;  to  prevent  the  evacuation  of  humours 
from  the  extremity  of  veflels  terminating  to  it ;  and 
to  blunt  that  pain,  which  otherwife  would  alwavs 
follow  any  impreffion  on  the  fibres  and  nerves  in 
the  (kin,  if  it  was  not  for  this  natural  cover. 

The  Skin  (FF  ib.)  is  the  fecond  tegument  and 
the  greateft  membrane  of  the  body,  and  formed  of 
fibres,  intertwifted  like  nets,  which  cover  thou- 
fands  of  fmall  glands.  Its  thicknefs  is  very  un- 
equal ;  very  grols  in  the  back,  at  the  kidneys,  and 
about  the  limbs;  very  thin  in  the  face,  but  much 
more  fo  upon  the  edges  of  the  lips.  A  fmall  branch 
of  an  artery  enters  every  gland  j  and  there  paftes 

from 


ANA 

from  the  gland  a  fmall  vein  and  a  lymphatic  vefTel 
through  the  nets,  which  terminate  at  the  epidermis, 
or  the  fuperface  of  the  Jkin. 

Thus  we  account  for  the  manner  of  fm eating. 
The  blood  is  condufbed  hither  by  as  many  arteries 
as  there  are  glands,  and  is  carried  back  by  as  many 
veins.  But  as  it  pafTes  through  the  pores  of  the 
glands,  a  ferian  is  filtrate  from  it,  which  paffing 
through  the  excretory  veflel  furnifheth  matter  for 
fiueat. 

Befides  this  there  is  another  evacuation  through 
the  fkin,  called  infenfible  tranfpiration ;  which  be- 
ing made  without  iiitermiffion  purifies  and  cools 
the  blood,  by  an  abfolutely  neceflary  diffipation 
thereof,  and  preferves  both  the  Jkin  and  epidermis 
from  growing  fcurft'y  and  too  dry. 

The  Jhin  is  of  fuch  a  nature  that  it  extends  and 
contracts  itfelf  eafily,  as  may  be  obferved  in  preg- 
nant, hydropical  and  fat  fuhjects ;  and  always  ad- 
heres to  the  part  it  touches ;  and  when  it  happens 
to  be  drawn  from  the  flefh  it  never  reunites  without 
making  a  fear.  Nature  has  in  moft  fubjefts  covered 
it  with  hair  ;  but  not  alike  in  all  parts,  nor  in 
every  fubjetSt.  Some  men  have  their  whole  body; 
but  moft  men  have  only  certain  parts  covered 
with  long  hairs.  The  like  is  obferved  in  female 
fubjedls. 

There  is  alfo  a  great  variety  in  the  colour  of  the 
fkin  upon  different  fubjeds.  For,  though  white  is 
allowed  to  be  the  natural  colour ;  yet  it  is  evident 
that  fome  are  brown,  others  ruddy,  others  tawny, 
and  again  others  quite  black  ;  owing  chiefly  to  the 
temper  of  the  body,  fome  predominant  humour, 
and  to  the  foil,  climate,  and  ftate  of  the  creation. 

The  ufes  of  the  fkin  may  be  fummed  up  in  thefe 
particulars,  viz.  To  cover  all  the  parts  of  the 
body,  to  be  the  organ  of  touching  ;  and  to  ferve 
for  an  emunctory  of  thefe  humours,  which  nature 
throws  off  by  fweat  and  tranfpiration. . 

The  Fat  (G  G  ib.)  or  third  common  tegu- 
ment is  a  white  body  of  a  middle  confiftence, 
formed  of  the  un  'uous  and  oily  parts  of  the  blood, 
condenfed  by  a  certain  degree  of  heat,  and  inclofed 
in  little  bags  called  celiulce  adipofte,  adhering  to  the 
outward  furface  of  the  membrane  adipofa,  all  over 
the  body  except  on  the  forehead,  eye-lids,  penis 
and  jcroturr.. 

This  tegument  is  vaftly  unlike  in  different  fub- 
jedts  both  as  to  fubftance  and  kind.  Some  bodies 
are  covered  with  fat  an  inch  thick;  in  others  the 
celulce  are  almoft  flat ;  and  in  emaciated  fubjeiSts 
we  find  nothing  but  the  mere  membrane  of  a  traiif- 
parent  fubftance. 

This  fort  oi  flit  IS  termed  pi nguedo;  but  there  is 
another  fort  of  fat  in  the  human  compofition  of  a 


r 


0   M  r. 


57 


harder,  whiter,  more  brittle  nature,    and  not  fo 
eafily  liquified  as  the  former. 

The  ufes  of  fat  are  to  preferve  the  body  like  a 
balfam ;  and  by  invcloping  the  falts,  with  which 
the  blood  and  ferum  are  highly  faturated,  to  keep 
them  from  fretting  and  coroding  the  parts  through 
which  they  pafs.  It  alfo  ferves  for  a  warm  cover- 
ing to  the  whole  body,  to  keep  the  heart  moift, 
and  pliant  in  its  motion ;  and  the  pelvis  of  the 
kidneys  from  being  hurt  by  the  falts  of  the  urine; 
and  that  at  the  joints  to  facilitate  their  motion,  by 
its  lubricity.  '1  herefore  nature  has  provided  the 
heart,  the  eyes,  toV.  where  motion  is  quickeft  and 
moft  violent,  with  greater  abundance  of  fat. 

Where  fat  encreafes  beyond  its  natural  propor- 
tion, it  not  only  becomes  troublcfome  to  the  body, 
but  it  afFeiSfs  the  animal  fpirits,  induces  heavinefs 
drowfinefs,  and  an  unwillingnefs  to  move.  Too 
much  about  the  thorax  in  the  cavities  obftru£ls  the 
expanfion  of  the  diaphragm  and  lungs,  and  pro- 
duces a  difpncea,  or  an  orthropncea  ;  and  may  hin- 
der the  necefTary  fecretions  in  the  brain  fliould  the 
abundance  of  fatty  particles  return  into  the  blood, 
and  implicate  the  moft  fubtle  and  aftive  parts. 

The  Abdomen's  anterior  parts  are  alfo  covered 
by  ten  mufcles,  viz.  Four  oblique,  two  tranfverfc 
two  reili,  two  pyramidal  ;  taking  their  names 
from  their  fituation  and  from  the  order  and  difpofi- 
tion  of  their  fibres.  Thefe  mufcles  help  the  abdo- 
men to  expand  and  contrafl:  itfelf. 

The  oblique  mufcles  are  two  defcending  and  ex- 
ternal ;  and  two  afcending  and  internal. 

The  oblique  defcending  are  (L  ib.)  what  firft 
appear  after  the  raifing  of  the  teguments,  and  are  fo. 
called  from  their  fibres,  which  defcend  obliquely. 
They  are  called  external  to  diftinguifh  them  from 
others  placed  below  ;  and  great,  becaufe  they  ex- 
ceed the  other  obliques  in  fize. 

Their  figure  is  triangular,  proceeding  by  digi- 
tation  from  the  ferratns  major,  on  the  6th  and  jth 
of  the  true  ribs,  all  the  baftard  ribs,  and  from  the 
tranfverfe  procefs  of  the  vertebra  of  the  loins  ;  are 
inferted  into  the  external  part  of  the  os  ilium,  and 
OS  pubis,  and  end  with  a  large  and  ftrong  aponeuro- 
fis  in  the  Unea  alba.  'I  hefe  mufcles  are  indented 
with  the  ferrati  majores^  which  are  mufcles  of  the 
thorax,  by  five  or  fix  digitations:  e.ich  whereof  re- 
ceives a  nerve  from  the  interilices  of  the  ribs. 
.  The  oblique  afcending  mufcles  (M  ib.)  fo  called, 
becaufe  their  fibres  arife  from  below  and  afcend, 
are  fituate  jiift  under  the  former,  and  are  a  great 
deal  lefs.  They  proceed  from  the  upper  part  of 
the  OS  pubis,  and  end  with  a  large  double  tendon  in 
the  linea  alba ;  the  upper  part  whereof  creeping 
over  the  reflus,  and  the  other  creeping  under  it, 

and 


.8 


The    Univerfal  Hlftory  o/"  Arts  <3;W  Sciences. 


and  joining  together  at  the   linea  alba,  do,  as  it 
were  {heath  the  reiius. 

T  he  tranfuerfe  mufcles  (N  ib.)  are  placed  under 
the  oblique  and  upon  the  peritonaum,  proceed  from 
the  procefles  of  the  verubra:  of  the  loins,  are  in- 
ferted  in  the  internal  part  of  the  os  ilium,  and  of 
the  cartilage  of  the  lower  ribs,  and,  pafTing  under 
the  reilus,  terminate  in  the  linea  alba  by  a  ftrong 
aponeurofts.  They  are  perforated  in  the  middle  to 
give  a  paflTage  to  the  umbilical  ve/Tels;  and  at 
their  lower  part  for  the  communication  of  the  fper- 
matick  vefiels  with  the  teflicles  in  men  ;  and  fo  in 
women  the  round  ligaments  of  the  matrix,  which 
proceed  to  make  their  infertion  in  the  thighs. 

The  four  pair  of  mufcles  in  the  abdomen  named 
re£ii  (O)  arife  from  thejienium  and  the  extremity 
of  the  two  laft  ribs,  and  proceed  ftrait  down  to  the 
fore  part  of  the  abdomen,  and  are  inferted  in  the  a 
pubis.  Thefe  ha\'e  three  or  more  tendinous  coarc- 
tations of  their  flefhy  fibres,  which  make  them  ap- 
pear as  many  diftiniS  mufcles. 

In  a  female  fubjeft,  whofe  epignjlric  is  ftopt  by 
the  compreflion  of  the  pregnant  uterus,  the  mamil- 
lary veins  are  fupplied  in  the  return  of  the  blood  by 
the  veins  and  arteries  of  the  re£ii  or  reaus,  which 
creep  along  the  infide  from  the  mamillary  and  epi- 
gajlric  veffels,  and  communicate  together. 

The  pyramidal  veflels  (P)  of  the  abdomen  lie  up- 
on the  lower  tendons  of  the  rcai^  proceed  from  the 
upper  and  internal  part  of  the  os  pubis,  and  termi- 
nate in  a  point  on  the  linea  alba  j  though  fome- 
times  they  reach  the  navel. 

Their  ufes  are  to  raife  the  perltonaum,  and  to 
hinder  a  too  great  compreflion  of  the  region  of  the 
bladder  from  the  other  mufcles. 

The  linea  alba  (Q.)  is  the  meeting  of  all  the  apo- 
neurofes  of  the  mufcles  already  mentioned,  and 
takes  its  name  from  being  like  a  line  in  its  conftruc- 
tion,  and  white,  becaufe  it  has  no  flefh  in  it. 

This  line  extends  from  the  cartilago  hiphoides  to 
the  OS  pubis,  being  flraiter  below  than  above  the 
navel ;  and  dividing  the  mufcles  of  the  right  fide 
from  thofe  on  the  left. 

The  Peritonjeum  (aaa)  is  a  thin  foft  mem- 
brane, covering  and  containing  all  the  vifcera  of 
the  abdomen.  Its  figure  and  fize  anfwer  to  thofe  of 
the  abdomen,  which  it  lines.  Its  internal  furface 
is  fmooth,  and  lined  with  an  uniSluous  humour. 
Its  external  furface  is  fibrous  and  unequal,  and  faf- 
tenedto  the  mufcles  of  the  abdomen,  linea  alba,  ojfa 
pubis,  ifchium,  ilium,  facrum,  and  the  vertebra 
lumbar es,  and  from  the  laft  whereof  many  fuppofe 
it  to  have  its  origin.  It  is  alfo  connedlcd  to  the 
lower  or  convex  furface  of  the  liver,  which  it  fuf- 
pends  by  a  ftrong  hgament,  C3\kijuj'penjmum  he- 
patis. 


The  Peritonaeum  is  double  every  where,  but 
moft  apparently  fo  from  the  navel  to  the  os  pubis, 
and  near  the  lumbar  vertebra,  as  appears  not  only 
from  its  extraordinary  thickncfs  in  both,  but  from 
its  fpontaneous  parting  in  the  latter,  to  receive  the 
kidneys.  It  is  perforated  in  the  upper  part  to  give 
paflage  to  the  (sfopbagus,  aorta,  and  cava  ;  in  the 
lower  part,  for  the  fundament,  the  neck  of  the  ma- 
trix, and  the  vefTels  that  go  to  the  thighs  ;  and  in 
the  fore-part  to  give  pafTage  to  the  urn:  ilieal  vefkh. 
Its  exterior  coat  has  two  proceffes,  which  in  men 
fall  down  into  the  fcrotum,  wrap  up  t\\t  Jpermatick 
vefl^els,  and  dilating  make  the  tunica  vaginalis  of 
the  tefticles  ;  in  women  they  form  a  cover  for  the 
round  ligament  of  the  womb. 

The  peritotiaum  receives  veins  and  arteries  from 
the  mammaria,  diaphragmatica,  epigojhias,  facra, 
and  lumbares. 

The  ufe  of  the  Periton  jeum  is  to  contain  and 
keep  in  their  place  the  vifcera  of  the  abdomen ; 
when  it  is  injured  the  parts  are  apt  to  fall  down, 
and  to  form  thofe  tumors  called  hernias  or  ruptures. 
The  Navel,  (B)  called  umbilius  from  umbo 
the  middle,  /.  e.  of  the  venter,  is  a  nodus  formed  by 
the  reunion  of  the  umbilical  vefCds,  and  cut  as  foon 
as  the  infant  is  born. 

In  a  fa:tus  the  yiavel  is  a  Jiring  about  |  of  a 
yard  long,  that  goes  from  the  after-birth  to  the 
belly  of  the  foetus,  and  then  inclofes  four  veflels, 
which  are  a  vein,  two  arteries,  zwAx^nt  urachus ; 
and  ferves  to  conduct  thefe  veflels,  which  would 
have  been  too  weak  of  themfelves  for  fo  long  a 
paflage,  and  not  been  able  to  refift  the  motion  of 
the  infant.  Its  length  is  of  ufe  to  the  infant,  that 
he  may  remove  conveniently  to  and  fro  in  the 
womb,  and  that  both  the  infant  and  the  after-birth 
may  come  away  one  after  another  in  the  delivery. 
But  as  foon  as  the  infant  is  born,  this  firing  is  to 
be  tied  within  two  fingers  breadth  of  the  belly,  and 
cut  above  the  ligature.  Nature  afterwards  rids  it- 
felf  of  what  remains  of  it,  fo  that  there  remains 
only  the  nodus  or  knot,  above  mentioned. 

The  four  umbilical  veflels  are  annexed  to  it ; 
the  vein  afcends  upwards,  and  the  arteries  and  ura- 
chus  defcend ;  and  are  all  four  inferted  between  the 
mufcles  and  the  periionaum. 

The  ufe  of  the  umbilical  veffels  (CDD)  is,  that 
the  arteries  of  the  mother  carry  a  certain  quantity 
of  blood  into  the  placenta  ;  which,  being  therein 
difperfed,  is  received  by  the  branches  of  the  umbili- 
cal vein,  which  carries  it  into  the  vena  porta,  to  be 
filtrated  through  the  fubftance  of  the  liver  in  the 
fatus,  before  it  is  to  enter  into  the  vena  cava:  that 
carries  it  into  the  right  ventricle  of  the  heart; 
from  whence  it  pafles  into  the  left  through  the  fo- 
ramen botalli,  in  order  to  bediftributed,  afterwards, 

into 


A  N  A  r  0   M  r. 


59 


into  all  the  parts  of  the  body  by  means  of  the  ar- 
teries. The  fuperfluky  of  this  blood  is  brought  by 
the  two  iimhiUcal  arteries  to  the  after-hirth  ;  where 
being  difpcrfed,  it  is  received  by  the  veins  of  the 
mother  ipread  therein,  and  which  carries  it  into 
the  great  veins  to  circulate  with  the  whole  maib  of 
blood  :  Thus  there  is  made  a  continual  circulation 
of  the  blood  of  the  mother  to  the  infant,  and  of 
that  of  the  infant  to  the  mother. 

The  Epiploon  (FF)  is  a  membrane  fituated 
under  the  peritonaimi,  which  floats  upon  the  intef 
tines,  and  follows  their  finuous  windings.  It  ex- 
tends from  the  bottom  of  the  ftomach  unto  the  na- 
vel, where  it  commonly  ends.  But  when  it  hap- 
pens to  defcend  unto  the  lower  region  of  the  hypo- 
ga/Irium,  and  even  to  lapfe  into  the  fcrotiim,  then  it 
caufes  the  bertiia  epiploceles ;  and  when  in  women  it 
happens  to  flip  between  the  matrix  and  the  bladder, 
it  makes  a  comprefllon  on  the  orifice  of  the  liter  us, 
and  thereby,  fays  Hippocrates,  hinders  generation. 

Its  figure  is  like  a  fiflier's  net.  It  has  a  great 
cavity  in  its  middle  part,  formed  by  two  mem- 
branes, one  external  before,  annexed  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ftomach,  and  to  the  i'pleen  ;  and  the 
other  internal  behind,  annexed  to  the  colon,  and 
to  the  back,  under  the  diapbragTii.  The  epi- 
ploon has  fmall  vefleh  oi  fat,  which  terminate  in 
globules,  and  often  melts  in  thofe,  that  have  a 
hedlick  fever. 


As  the  epiploon,  when  it  comes  to  the  air,  cor- 
rupts foon ;  fo  in  wounds  of  the  abdomen  we  are 
obliged  to  cut  ofF  any  fuch  part  of  it,  as  has  had 
any  irruption  outwards.  There  are  likewife  fome 
diftempers,  which  ipoil  and  corrupt  it,  as  it  is 
eafy  to  obferve  in  fcorbutick,  phthifical.  and  hypo- 
chondriacal perfons.  It  has  more  velTels  than 

any  other  membrane,  in  proportion  to  its  magni- 
tude ;  for  it  receives  fmall  nerves  fiom  the  intercof- 
/(?/ branches  of  the  eighth  pair,  msny  arteries  from 
the  cceliac,  and  many  veins  which  difcharge 
themfelves  into  the  porta. 

The  ufcs  attributed  to  the  epiploon  are,  to  warm 
the  ftomach,  and  thereby  help  the  digeftion;  to 
tover  the  intellines,  and  to  conduiSl:  the  fplenick 
branch,  and  the  other  vefiels,  which  go  to  the  fto- 
mach,  the  duodenum,  or  the  colon. 

From  the  mouth  unto  the  anus;  there  is  a  con- 
tinued and  a  very  long  body,  whofe  beginning 
gives  an  entrance  to  the  nourifliment ;  the  middle 
receives,  and  preferves  it ;  and  whofe  end  gives  a 
difcharge  to  its  excrements. 

The  part  from  the  mouth  unto  the  eriaphrcgm  is 
called  cefophagus,  or  gullet ;  the  next  to  ir,  Jlo- 
tnach ;  and  the  next,  intejlines,  or  the  guts ;  and 
the  membrane,  which  retains  them  all,  is  the  7ne- 
Jenieiy. 


I'll  begin  with  the  Stomach,  (GG)  which  is 
an  organical  part,  deftincd  to  receive  the  mcato  af- 
ter deglutition,  and  the  principal  inftrument  of  chy- 
lification,  fituated  in  the  epigajlriiim  immediately 
under  the  diaphragm,  between  the  liver  and  the 
fpleen,  and  of  a  round  and  oblong  figure,  refem- 
bling  a  bag-pipe,  particularly  when  the  oesophagus 

is  left  with  it  and  a  part  of  the  duodenum. Its 

external  furface  is  finooth  and  whitifli,  and  the  in- 
ternal wrinkled  and  reddifli ;  it  is  annexed  above  to 
the  diaphragm,  below  to  the  epiploon,  on  the  right 
fide  to  the  duodenum,  and  on  the  left  to  the  fpleen. 

The  Jloniach  confifls  of  four  membranes  or 
coats  ;  the  firfl:  and  inmoft  is  form.ed  of  fhort  fibres, 
which  ftand  perpendicular  upon  the  fibres  of  the 
next  coat,  and  are  plainly  to  be  feen  towards  the 
pylorus.  When  the  llomach  is  diilended  with  meat, 
thcfe  fibres  become  thick  and  fhort,  whilft  they  en- 
deavour to  reflore  themfelves  by  their  natural  elafti- 
city  i  they  contradt  the  cavity  of  the  ftomach  for 

the   attrition  and  expulfion  of  the  aliments.  ■ 

This  coat  is  much  larger  than  the  reft,  being  full 
of  plaits  and  wrinkles,  and  chiefly  about  the  pylo- 
rus. Tiiefe  plaits  retard  the  chyle,  that  it  runs  not 
out  of  the  ftomach  before  it  be  fufficiently  digcfted. 

In  this  coat  there  are  alfo.a  great  number  of 

fmall  glands,  which  feparate  a  liquor,  that  be- 
fmears  all  the  cavity  of  the  Jhmach,  and  helps  the 
concoiStion  of  the  aliments ;  for  which  reaion  this 
coat  is  called  the  tunica glandulofa. 

The  fecond  is  much  finer  and  thinner;  it  is  alto- 
gether nervous  ;  is  of  an  exquifite  fcnfe,  and  is 
called  nervofa. 

The  third  is  mufcidar,  being  made  of  ftreight 


and  circular  fibres  :  The  ftreight  run  upon  the  up- 
per part  of  the  ftomrxh,  between  its  fuperior  and 
inferior  orifices  ;  and  the  circular  -run  obliquely 
from  the  upper  part  of  the  ftomach. to  the  bottom. 

Of  thefe  the  innermoft  defcend  towards  the 

right  fide,  and  the  outermoft  towards  the  left ;  io 
that  by  their  aclion  both  ends  of  the  ftomach  are 
drawn  towards  its  middle,  and  the  whole  is  equally 
contrack-d.  By  thtir  contradlion  and  continual 
motion,  the  attrition  and  digeftion  of  the  a'iments 
is  in  great  meafure  performed. 

'I  he  fourth  tunic  is  common,  aiiJ  comes  honi 
the  peritoneum'. 

TheSrcMACH  has  twocrifices,the  one  fuperiori 
and  the  other  inferior  ;  the  i'uperior  ("M)  one,  cal- 
led the  mouth  of  the  ftomach,  is  on  the  left  fide, 
and  begins  where  the  cef'.pbagus  ends  ;  it  is  fituated 
over  againft  the  eleventh  ■.•ertebra  of  the  back,  ar.d 
clofely  fliut  up  by  abundance  of  flefliy  and  circular 
fibres,  at  the  time  when  it  receives  no  nourifliment, 
a  thing  very  neceflary,  not  only  for  the  better  con- 

icoclioj?,  but  to  hinder  the  aliments  from  beir.i;  caft 
1  '     up 


6o 


'The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


up  again  into  the  mouth,  and  alfo  hinder  the  fumes, 
caufed  by  digeftlon,  from  being  ofFenfive. 

The  inferior  (N)  orifice,  called  Pylorus,  is  on 
the  right  fide  ;  which  although  called  tiie  inferior 
orifice,  'tis  only  with  refpedt  to  the  other  placed  a 
little  higher,  and  not  with  refpedt  to  the  fund  or 
bottom  of  the  Itomach,  fince  both  orifices  are  almofl 
equally  removed  from  this.  ..The  pylorus  is  a 

little  bent,  very  narrow,  becaufe  full  of  tranverfe 
fibres,  and  is  begirt  with  a  thick  circle  or  zfplilnfier, 
that  fliutsit. 

The  flromach  fends  veins  to  the  porta,  and 
branches  tht  gajirepiploica,  accompanied  with  others 
of  the  ceeliac,  all  lying  immediately  under  the  fourth 
coat. 

The  eighth  pair  of  nerves  give  two  con'^derable 
branches  to  the  Jiomach  (PP)  which  are  fpread 
much  about  the  upper  orifice  ;  by  which  it  is  ren- 
dered very  fenfible  :  whence  alfo  proceeds  the  great 
fympathy  betwixt  the  ftomach,  head,  and  heart ; 
on  account  whereof  Van  Hdmont  thought  that  the 
foul  had  its  feat  in  the  upper  orifice  of  the  flomach. 
The  life  of  the  Stomach  is  for  the  concodlion 
of  the  aliments,  and  converts  them  into  chyle.  This 
concovStion  or  digeftion  is  performed  in  the  follow- 
ing manner. 

The  internal  coat  of  the  ftomach,  being  all  over 
bedeck'd  (as  we  have  already  obferved)  with  glan- 
dules, which  continually  tranfmit  into  it  an  acid 
juice,  the  aliments,  after  having  been  pounded  in 
the  mouth,  and  penetrated  with  the  faliva,  which 
fprings  from  the  parotide,  and  maxillary  glandules, 
are  condudled  through  the  a?/()/>^<?;w  into  the  y?(3- 
tnach,  and  either  by  the  help  of  the  acid  juice, 
both  of  that  they  find  in  it,  and  of  that  which  dif- 
tils  into  it  without  intermiffion,  they  become  more 
liquid  :  then  this  liquor,  not  being  able  to  rife  up- 
wards through  the  oefophagus,  by  reafon  of  its 
fituation,  and  the  diaphragm  making  compreffion 
upon  the  ftomach,  does  gently  run  through  the 
pylorus  into  the  inteflrines,  where  it  comes  to  greater 
perfetflLon  by  the  mixture  of  the  bilis^  and  ^<7«- 
creaiic  jxncQ. 


The  Intestines,  (  QQ,)  or  guts,  are  long, 
round,  hollow,  and  continued  bodies  from  the 
pylorus  unto  the  anus ;  fituated  under  the  epiploon 
in  the  abdomen,  whofe  whole  capacity  they  almoft 

fill. They  are  knit  or  annexed  to  the  back  by 

the  mcfentery,  which  ties  them  together  ;  (o  that 
the  tenuia  intejiina  are  in  the  middle  of  the  abdomen, 
towards  the  umbilical  region,  and  the  crajfa  in  the 
circumference. 

The  inteftines  feem  to  be  nothing  but  a  conti- 
nuation of  the  ftomach.)  as   confifting  of  the  fame 


number  of  coats,  and  fabricated  in  the  fame  man- 
ner. They  are,  when  feparated  from  the  mefen~ 
tcry,  of  a  very  great  length  ;  ordinarily  about  fix 
times  as  long  as  the  pcrfon's  height,  whofe  they 
were ;  and  though  they  feem  to  be  but  one  con- 
,tinued  channel,  ox  fijiula,  yet  becaufe  in  feveral 
parts,  their  magnitude,  figure,  and  thickncfs  are 
different,  they  are  generally  divided  into  the  thick 
and  fmall,  and  thefe  again  are  each  of  them  fubdi- 
vided  into  three.  The  three  fmall  are  called  duo- 
denum, jejunum,  and  ilium  ;  and  the  thick,  ccecum^ 
colon,  and  reEliim. 

They  have  all  of  them  in  common,  a  kind  of 
vermicular  motion,  which,  beginning  at  the  Jio- 
mach, is  propagated  downwards,  and  is  called  the 
parijlaltick  motion  ;  to  facilitate  which,  they  are 
generally  lubricated  with  a  great  deal  of  fat,  efpe- 
cially  the  thick  ones,  whofe  furface  being  fomewhat 
uneven,  and  the  contents  lefs  fluid  than  thofe  of 
the  fmall,  they  need  fomewhat  more  to  make  them 
Aide  eafy. 

The  firfl  of  the /;;/^/«(j /^««/^,  or  fmall  guts,  is 
called  duodenum,  and  reaches  from  the  right  orifice 
of  the  ftomach,  as  far  as  the  vertebrcs  of  the  back, 
on  the  left  fide,  where  it  ends,  at  the  firft  angle 
made  by  the  inteftines,  which  is  about  twelve  inches : 
from  which  meafure,   it  feems  to  have  taken  its. 

name. Into  this  gut,  the  meatus  cholodocus,   and 

duSfus  pancreaticus  are  inferted  ;  whereunto  each  of 
them  difcharges  its  juice,  for  the  fecond  preparation 
of  the  chyle. 

The  next  intejiine  is  the  jejunum,  fo  called,  be- 
caufe it  is  generally  found  more  empty  than  the 
reft  ;  which  may  be  occafioned,  partly  by  the 
fluidity  of  the  chyle,  which  is  greater  in  this  in- 
teftine,  than  in  any  of  thofe  that  follow  it ;  and 
partly  by  its  capacity,  being  fomewhat  larger  than 
that  of  the  duodenum,  and  therefore  gives  a  freer 
paffage,  and,  perhaps  alfo  the  irritation  of  this 
gut,  through  the  acrimony  of  the  bile  difcharged 
into  the  inteftines,  a  little  before  the  beginning  of 
this  gut,  may  contribute  fomething  towards  accele- 
rating the  palFage  of  the  contents. This  intef- 


tine  poflefies,  almoft  the  whole  umbilical  region  ; 
its  leiigth  being  an  ell  and  an  half,  Paris  meafure. 
Dionis. 

The  third  of  the  fmall  inteftines,  is  the  ilium  ; 
i  it  poflefles  almoft  all  below  the  navel,  and  extends, 
by  its  circumvolutions,  towards  the  ilia  on  both 
fides  ;  from  whence  it  takes  its  name.  It  begins 
immediately  where  the  jejunum  ends,  and  termi- 
nates at  the  ccecum. — It  has  fewer  vena  laSlca:  than 
the  jejunum,  and  therefore  is  always  fuller. — This 
gut  not  being  fo  faft  tied  to  the  neighbouring  parts, 
as  the  colon,  and  ccecum,  often  fall  into  the  Jcrotuw, 

and 


A  N  A  r  0   MY, 


6i 


and  makes  the  hernia  entemcelh.  It  is  alfo  in  this 
gut,  that  the miferere  happens,  called  iliaca  pajjio, 
occafioned  by  its  antiperi/ialtic  motion. 

The  firft  of  the  intejlina  crajfa,  is  called  arcum, 
which  has  a  lateral  infcrtion  into  the  upper  end  of 
the  colon,  and  is  not  perforated  at  its  other  extre. 
mity  ;  but  hangs  to  it,  like  the  finger  of  a  glove, 
and  is  about  three  or  four  inches  long. — BurthoUn 
pretends  that  the  name  oi  c cecum  is  given  to  it,  be- 
caufe  its  ufe  is  but  blindly  known,  and  fome  late 
anatomifts,  not  allowing  this  to  be  the  caecum  of 
the  ancients,  which  they  imagined  to  be  that  thick 
globous  part  of  the  colon,  immediately  appended  to 
the  ilium,  have  given  this  part  the  name  of  appen- 
dlcula  vermiformis. 

The  next  of  the  thick  inteftiries,  is  the  colon, 
the  largeft  of  them  all  ;  it  begins  at  the  end  of  the 
caecum  towards  the  right  kidney,  unto  which  it  is 
annexed,  and  afcending  up  to  the  concave  part  of 
the  liver,  it  touches  the  bladder  of  bile,  which 
tinges  it  with  its  yellow  colour  in  this  place  ;  from 
thence  it  paffes  along  the  inferior  part  of  the  fto- 
mach,  and  faftens  to  the  fplecn  and  to  the  left 
kidney  ;  from  whence  it  defcends  like  an  S,  unto 
a  little  above  the  os  facrum,  and  terminates  at  the 
reifum,  infomuch  that  it  encompafTes  all  the  ab- 
domen.— At  the  entrance  of  the  ilium  into  this  gut., 
is  placed  a  valve  formed  out  of  the  produflion  of 
the  inward  coat  of  the  ilium,  which,  like  the  fin- 
ger of  a  glove,  when  its  extremity  is  cut  off,  hangs 
loofe  in  the  cavity  of  the  colon  ;  by  which  means  it 
flops  the  return  of  the  excrements,  though  fome- 
times,  as  in  inverfions  of  the  pcrijialtic  motion,  it 
proves  not  fufHcient  for  that  ufe. — It  has  a  great 
many  cellula,  or,  as  it  were,  diftindl  cavities, 
framed  by  a  coarflation  of  the  gut  by  two  liga- 
ments or  bundles  of  membranous  fielhy  fibres,  a- 
bout  half  a  finger  broad,  each  running  on  either 
fide  the  gut  oppofite  to  each  other,  the  whole 
length  of  it  ;  and,  as  it  were,  girding  it  in  at  cer- 
tain diftances,  thereby  making  it  rciemble  a  glafs 
incorporator  ufed  in  mixing  oil  and  vinegar. 

The  laftofthe  inteftincs  is  the  reifum,  which 
reaches  from  the  os  facrum  to  the  anus,  and  is 
plain,  without  cells.  It  is  faft  tied  to  the  cjfa  fa- 
crum, and  coccygis,  by  means  of  the  peritonaum ; 
in  men  to  the  neck  of  the  bladder  of  urine,  and  in 
women  to  the  vagina  uteri,  to  which  it  is  flrongly 
conneded  by  a  membranous  fubflance.  That  fub- 
llance  of  the  vagina  and  inteftine  is  hardly  diftin- 
guifhable  from  one  another.  The  length  of  this 
gut  is  ordinarily  about  a  hand's  breadth  and  a  half, 
and  its  capacity  about  the  thicknefs  of  three  fingers  : 
its  lower  end,  the  anus,  is  furnifhed  with  three 
mufcles,  viz.  ^zf^hinaer  ani,  and  the  two  Uva- 
terei  ani. 


T\\z  fphinSfer  am,  is  like  a  ring  ;  its  bignefs  is 
two  fingers  breadth,  annexed,  before,  to  the  penis 
in  men,  and  to  the  neck  of  the  matrix  in  women; 
behind,  it  is  fattened  to  the  coccyx,  and  laterally, 
to  the  ligaments  of  the  os  facrum,  and  to  the  hips  : 
it  ferves  to  open  and  fhutthe  anus  according  to  our 
will. — The  levatores  ani  proceed  from  the  inferior 
and  lateral  part  oi  xhcosifchium,  and  infertinthe 
fphinBcr  o'i  t\\fi  anus  to  lift  it  up  again,  after  the 
evacuation  of  excrements  is  over. 

The  intejlines  in  general  are  furnifhed  with  blood 
from  the  mefenteric  arteries,  which  is  returned  by 
the  mefaraic  veins  ;  but  the  duodenum  receives  a 
branch  from  the  cceliac,  which  is  called  duodena  ; 
to  which  anfwers  a  vein  of  the  fame  name,  that 
likewife  returns  the  blood  to  the  porta — the  reitum 
receives  others  called  hamorrhoids  ;  the  internal 
from  the  lower  ?nefenteric,  and  the  extern  a]  from 
the  hypogajlric,  with  veins  correfponding  of  the 
fame  name,  that  alfo  go  to  the  porta. — Thefe 
vcfFels  fpread  the  inteflines  with  abundance  of  ra- 
mifications, and  are  frequently  diverfified  in  feveral 
fubje(3s  of  the  fame  fpecies  ;  much  lefs  are  they 
to  be  depended  upon,  for  an  uniform  appearance 
in  animals  of  different  kinds. — The  nerves  of  the 
intejiincs  come,  fome  of  them,  from  thofe  of  the 
fl:omach,  and  fome  from  the  great  mefenteric  plexus^ 
which  difl:ributes  branches  to  all  the  inteftines. 

The  Mesentery  (V)  is  a  double  membrane 
fituated  in  the  middle  of  the  abdomen,  and  of  an 
almoft  circular  figure. — If  the  elongation  of  the 
colon,  and  the  reBiim  be  excepted  in  it,  it  has  a- 
bout  four  fingers  breadth  diameter,  and  three  Paris 
ells,  in  its  circumference,  round  about  which  the 
inteftines  are  folded. — The  mefntery  contains  a 
vaft  number  of  lateral  veins,  which  carry  the  chyle 
from  the  inteftines  to  the  glands,  which  are  abun- 
dantly more  in  number  in  its  center,  than  in  its 
circumference. — From  thefe  glandules  the  chyle 
goes  by  other  laHeal  veins,  into  the  common  re- 
ceptacle, and  from  thence  into  the  duSius  thora- 
cicus,  in  order  to  fall  into  the  left  axillary  vein. — 
The  other  veflels  of  the  mefenttry  are  the  lympha- 
ticks,  which  diftil  their  Vanpha  into  the  receptacle, 
in  order  to  make  the  chyle  more  fluid. 

Fat  is  collecled  into  the  mrfentery  as  in  the  epi- 
ploon, from  an  oily  and  fulphureous  blood,  which 
evaporates  from  the  veflels,  and  retained  there  by 
the  thicknefs  of  the  membranes.  This  fat  is  to 
preferve  the  natural  heat  of  thefe  parts,  and  to 
moiften  the  vena  laiiece,  which  having  only  a  very 
thin  membrane,  and  being  filled  only  in  the  time 
of  the  diftribution  of  the  chyle,  would  otherwife 
grow  dry. — The  gland'iles  (X)  ot  the  mefentery, 
have  each  of  them  a  little  artery,  which  bring 
blood  to  them,  a  little  vein  which  carries  back  the 

I  2  blood. 


62 


Tide  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  atid  Sciences. 


blood,  and  an  excretory  duHus,  which  difcharges 
in  o  the  guts  what  has  been  filtrated  through  theie 
glandules. 

The  ufe  of  the  mrfentery  is  to  tie  the  inteftines 
together  unto  the  vevtelra:  lumhares,  and  to  hinder 
any  diforder,  which  could  happen  in  their  circum- 
volutions ;  and  its  double  membrane  is  to  fhelter 
from  all  dangers  the  veficls,  which  pafs  between 
them  to  the  inteftincs. — The  mcfentery  receives  its 
nerves  from  the  vertebra:  lumbares,  and  from  the 
intercoftal  branch.  They  are  fo  interlaced  toge- 
ther in  the  middle  of  the  mcfentery.,  that  they  form 
there  a  plexus,  out  of  which  come  abundance  of 
nervous  ligaments,  as  fine  as  hairs,  which  over- 
fpread  the  membranes  of  the  inteftines. 

The  arteries  inclofed  in  the  duplicature  of  the 
membranes  of  the  mefentery,  come  from  the  fupe- 
lior  and  inferior  melenterick  arteries,  which  are 
two  great  branches  that  come  from  the  trunk  of 
the  aorta,  and  terminate  in  all  the  inteftincs. — All 
the  veins,  which  run  through  the  mefentery,  unite 
together  as  they  appro.ach  its  bafis,  and  form  larger 
veins,  which  larger  veins  form  a  trunk  called  the 
mefenterick  vein,  which  joining  with  another, 
called  the  fplenick,  make  together  the  vena  porta, 
which  has  no  other  ufe  than  that  which  is  com- 
mon to  all  the  veins  of  the  body,  and  which  is  to 
carry  back  the  blood  to  the  heart. 

We  muft  obferve  in  this  place  that  the  VfiNiE 
iiACTEjE,  (Y)  mentioned  already,  were  never  dif- 
covered  till  the  year  1622,  by  Ajelliui,  which  is 
the  caufe  that  the  ancients  have  attributed  part  of 
their  moft  eflential  functions  to  the  vena  porta. 

There  arc  two  forts  of  vena  laBta  :  the  one 
called  firft  lafteal,  and  the  others  fecondary  ;  the 
firft  bring  the  chyle  from  the  inteftines  unto  the 
glandules  fpread  through  the  mefentery ;  and  the 
fecondary  carry  the  chyle  from  thefe  fame  glan- 
dules into  the  receptacle  of  Pequet,  a  famous  phy- 
fician,  who  in  1651  difcovered  that  receptacle 
placed  between  the  two  origins  of  the  diaphragm, 
in  the  place  where  the  lumhares  glandules  are  found. 
The  two  branches,which  proceed  from  thefe  glan- 
dules joining  together,  form  the  duiiUs  thoracicus. 
This  duff  us  afcends  along  with  the  aorta,  between 
the  ribs  and  the  pleura, ^  and  terminates  by  one, 
two,  or  three  branches  in  the  left  fubclavian  vein. 


All  thefe  veflels  are  employed  in  the  chylificatlon,. 
which  is  perfected  in  the  following  manner. 


After  the  viiiuals  are  by  the  diglutition  conveyed 
into  the  ftomach,  (as  already  obferved)  and  have 
been  penetrated  with  the  cUJJ'olvent,  fo  as  to  appear 
as  an  uniform  liquor;  that  liquor  being  fqueezed 
by  the  ftomach  equally  on  all  fides,  is  forced 
through  the  pylorus,  and  fo  enters  the  inteftines : 
there  it  meets  with  two  others  diflblvenr,  viz.  the 
bile,  and  the  pancreatic  juice,  which  finifh  the  li- 
quefaiSlion  of  the  aliments.  This  done,  it  purfucs 
its  courfe  through  the  inteftines  ;  and  mean  while 
the  fubtileft  part  of  it  enters  the  orifices  of  the  firft 
vents  lailets,  and  is  carried  unto  the  glands  at  the 
bafis  of  the  mefentery ;  then  that  fame  fubtileft  part 
taken  up  by  the  fecondary  vena  laileee,  and  con- 
veyed to  Pequct's  receptacle,  where  we'll  leave  it 
till  we  conduct  it  to  the  heart  through  the  ductus 
thoracicus. 

The  Liver,  (aa)  which  is  the  next  part  of  the 
abdomen,  which  falls  under  our  confideration,  is  a 
large  gland ulous  vifcus,  of  a  red  fanguine  colour, 
fituated  immediately  under  the  diaphragm  in  the 
right  hypochondrium,  which  it  almoft  fills;  and  then 
ftretching  itfelf  over  the  right  fide  of  the  ftomach 
towards  the  left  hypochondrium,  reaches  behind  the 
cartilago  xiphoides,  growing  gradually  thinner  and, 
narrower. 

The  upper  part  of  the  liver  is  convex  and  per- 
feflly  fmooth  ;  the  under  concave,  and  fomewhat 
more  uneven,  having  four  large  fifiures  ;  one, 
through  which  the  umbilical  ligament  pafies  ;  a 
fecond  on  the  left  fide  receiving  the  pylorus,  and. 
the  beginning  of  the  duodenum  ;  a  third  on  the 
right  fide,  near  the  margin,  in  which  the  gall  blad- 
der is  lodged  ;  and  the  laft  in  the  upper  part  afford- 
ing a  paflage  to  the  vena  cava. 

Its  figure  is  fomewhat  approaching  round  with; 
thin  edges,  not  altogether  even,  but  notched  in, 
fome  places. — Its  magnitude  is  various  in  different 
fubje6ts,  according  to  the  proportion  of  the  body  ^ 
though  in  a  fcetus  it  is  always  larger,  in  propor- 
tion,  than  in  adults The  liver  is  faftened  by  two 

ligaments,  the  firft,  which  is  the  ftrongeft  and 
chief  ligament,  penetrates  into  the  fubftance  of 
the  liver,  and  ties  it  up  to  the  diaphragm. — This 
fufpenfory  ligament  proceeds  from  the  common  cap- 
aud  gall  dudi. The  other  li- 


near unto  the  axillary  vein,  from  whence  the  chyle  \fula  of  the  porta, 

is  carried  into  the  right  ventricle  of  the  heart  by  |  gament  has  its  origin  from  the  external  coat  of  tha 

the  defcending  vena  cava. — This  canal,  or  duilus,  |  liver,  or,  which  amounts  to  the  fame,  from  the 


and  all  the  vena  laBea  have  valvules  from  place  to 
place,  which,  give  admittance  to  the  chyle,  and 
hinder  its  ever  returning. 

.Srtr/^5//«  dilcovered  in  1652  the  lymphatic  vef- 
fels,  which  jbme  of  the  ancients  had.  miftaken  for 
the  vtnie  laifea^ 


peritonaum,  and  terminates  in  the  cartilago  xiphoi- 
des.  Thefe  ligaments  ferve  to  keep  it  in  its 

due  fituation. — Some  authors  give  in  the  dry'd  um- 
bilical vein  for  a  third  ligament;  which  cannot  be, 
fince,  thereby  the  liver  and  the  midriff,  to  whic^ 

it 


A    N    A    T    0    MY. 


63 


it  is  tied,would  be  drawn  downward,  and  fo  would 
hind  er  its  motion,  efpccially  in  expiration. 

The  liver  has  a  motion,  not  of  itfelf,  but  de- 
pending on  that  of  the  diaphragm  \  to  which  being 
very  firmly  connected,  it  mufi:  needs  obey  its  mo- 
tion.— The  fubftance  of  the  liver  is  vafcular  and 
glanduloiis,  which  latter  part  is  very  foft  and  fri- 
able, and  eafily  fcraped  off"  from  the  vefids,  to 
which  the  glands  evcry-way  adhere,  as  it  were,  in 
bunches;  which  has  made  the  Anatomifts  call  the 
confiderable  ones,   the  internal  lobes  of  the  liver. 

The  glands  adhering  thus  to   the  veflels,    and 
conftituting  thofe  lobes,  are  wrapped   up  together 
in  proper  membranes,  whence   this  appearance  of 
diftin£t  lobes. — Every   one  of  thefe  glands,    ac- 
cording to  Malpigbl,  is  compofed  of  fix  unequal 
fides,  or  faces. — They  are  all  cloathed  with- their 
proper  membranes,  and  have  each   an  excretory 
du(3  ;  feveral  ofwhich  joining  together  form  little 
trunks,  which  run  all  along  with   the   branches  of 
the  porta  ;    and   thefe  again  uniting   form    larger 
trunks  always  full  ot'blk,  and  which  conftitute  the 
fortts  bllarlus,  which  being  diftributed  all  over  the 
ilver,  receives,  in  the  foregoing  manner,  the  hlln, 
which  is  feparated  by  thefe  glands ;  and  terminat- 
ing in  the  meatus  hepatlcus,  and  in  the  cluSius  cojh- 
munls,  at  length  dii'charges  that  ille  into  the  duo- 
denum.— Befides  this  difcharge  by  the  porus  bllarlus 
(fuppofed  to  be  the  great  onej  the  /Iver  delivers  alfo 
part   of  its  ilk  into  the    gall-bladder,  by  a  du£l, 
called  the  cyjl-hepatlc  duii,  firfl:  difcovered    by  Dr. 
GllJJon,   and  therefore  called,  alfo,  Gllffoti^  capfula., 
by  means  whereof  there  is  an  immediate  commu- 
nication, between  the  porus  bllarlus,  and  the  gall 
bladder. 

Befides  thefe  gall-velTels,  peculiar  to  the  liver,  it 
has  alfo  nerves,  arteries,  veins,  and  lymphatlck 
cnes. 

It  receives  two  mrves  from  the  erghth  pair,  one 
from  the  Itomachic  branch,  and  the  other  from 
the  intercoftal,  which  not  piercing  through  its  fub- 
ftance, but  only  being  loft  in  its  tunicles,  is  the 
rcafon  why  its  fcnfe  is  not  fo  quick,  as  the  other 
parts,  which  are  better  ftock'd  with  nerves. 

The  arterla  ccellaca,  fpringing  from  the  aorta., 
divides  itfelf  into  two  branches,  one  of  which  re- 
pairs to  the  liver,  and  the  other  to  thtfpleen.  The 
firft,  which  is  the  leaft,  detaches  from  it  thcgaf- 
trick,  the  two  cyjllca,  the  epiploick,  the  inteftinal, 
and  the  gaftro- epiploick,  before  it  enters  the  liver; 
where,  at  laft,  'tis  divided  into  almoft  as  many  fm.ill 
branches,  as  the  vmaporta^  which  is  diflcminated, 
with  the  cava,  through  its  whole  fubftance. — And 
here  it  is  particularly  remarkable  of  the />5?-/a,  and 
the  cavoy  that,  contrary  to  the  fentiment  of  fome 
Anatmljls,  they  are  both  equally  diljperfed  through 


the  whole  fubftance  of  the  liver,  with  this  fingle 
difference,  that  the  branches  of  the  porta  arrive 
there,  and  thofe  of  the  cava  fet  out  from  thence. 

The  lymphatick  veftels  of  the  liver,  proceed 
from  the  fmall  conglobated  glands  found  under  the 
tunicle  of  its  concave  part,  towards  the  entry  of 
the  vena  porta,  in  the  capfula. — Thefe  veflels  ferve 
to  carry  the  lympha  of  thefe  glands  to  Pcquet's 
cljlcrn. 

Although  the  liver  is  not  the  organ  of  fanguifi- 
cation,  as  imagined  by  the  ancients,  it  neverthe- 
lefs  contributes  towards  the  refining  of  the  blood, 
which  is  eftedted  in  this  manner. — It  is  almoft  un- 
queftionable,  at  prefent,  that  it  performs  the  office 
of  an  artery,  and  fupplies  the  liver  with  blood,  by 
promoting  the  filtration   performed  in  the  glands, 
which  opens  into  the  extremities  of  the  biliary  vef- 
fels,  the  capillaries  of  the  vena  cava,   and  thofe  of 
the  arteries,  which  convey  blood  to  them,  as  welt 
as  the  vena  porta.     Now  all  this  blood  is  filtrated 
in  fuch  a  manner,  that  its   particles,    which  are 
proportioned  to  the  flioots  of  the  extremities  of  the 
biliary  veffels,  flow  perpetually  into  them  ;  after 
which   fome  of  them  are    conveyed  to  the  gall- 
,  bladder,  and  others  to  the  hefatlck  duiSl,  and  from 
thence  to  the  duodenum  :  whereas  the  other  par- 
ticles of  blood,  the  figure  and  fize  ofwhich  is  dif- 
proportioned  to  the  above-mentioned  orifices,  are 
recondufled  by  the   capillaries  of  the  vena  cava, 
into  its  Large  trunk,  and  at  laft  to  the  right  ven- 
tricle of  the  heart  ;  which,   the  better  to  perform, 
nature  has  taken   care  to  join  the  hepatic  artery  to 
the  vena  porta,    that  its  continual   pulfation  may 
facilitate  and  augment  the  motion  of  the  venous- 
blood  ;  and   has  alfo  placed  the  liver  under  the 
diaphragm  ;  and  the  mufcles  of  the  abdomen,  that 
the  concourfe  of  the  blood  may  be   quickened  by 
their  continual  beating. 

In  the  concave  part  of  the  liver,  towards  the 
lower  margin,  is  theGALL-Bi-ADDER  (B),  whichi 
is  a  membranous  receptacle,  in  figure,  fomewhat 
like  a  pear,  being  about  the  bignels  of  a  pullet'a- 
egg  ;  though  ir  is  fometimes  larger,  efpecially  in. 
thofe  of  a  bilious  temperament. 

The  gall-bladder  adheres  to  the  liver,  both  by 
its  vefTcIs,  which  it  receives  from  it  ;  and  by  its 
membranes  ;  whereas  the  external  is  common  witlx 
that  of  the  liver The  lower  part,  which  hangs- 
out  of  the  liver,  refts  on  ths pylorus  of  the  ftomach,; 
which  it  dies  yellow,  with  the  gall  tranfuding 
through  its  membranes. 

Its  membranes  are  five ;  an  outer  or  commorv 
one,  from  the  perltomeum  :  an  inner  one,  from  the 
capfula  of  the  porta,  and  porus  billarlus  ;  and  three 
proper  ones. — The  firft,  vajculous,  confifting  of 
white  fibres,  interwove  withvefTe's.  The  fecondj. 
t  mufcidar^ 


64.  7^^  Univerfal  Hiilory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


mufcular,  confifting  of  a  double  row  of  flefhy 
fibres,  the  one  longitudinal,  the  other  angular  ; 
the  third  or  inner  coat,  glanJulous,  confiiling  of  a 
arcat  number,  of  glands,  like  the  crujla  villofa  of 
the  ftomach,  which  fcparatcs  a  mucus  that  lines  i 
the  infide  of  the  gall-bladder,  and  defends  it  from  | 
the  acrimony  of  the  bile.  i 

The  bladder  is  ufually  divided  into  two  parts,  the 
fundus,  or  bottom  (C,)  and  the  colliim,  or  neck  (D, ) 
at  the  orifice  of  which  latter,  is  placed  a  ring  or 
circle  of  mufcular  fibres,  which  fcrve  as  a  fphincter, 
to  conftringe  it,  and  hinder  the  too  liberal  difcharge 
of  the  bile. 

The  Duct,  called  cholldxhus  (E),  is  a  long  vef- 
fcl,  twice  as  broad  as  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  which 
runs  ftraight  from  the  liver,  through  the  common 
pafTage  to  the  duodenum,  and  throws  the  gall  di- 
redlly  into  that  inteftine. 

The  common  du5l  (F,)  or  paflage  of  the  bile,  is 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  chalidochus,  tnd  porta 
bilarius.  It  terminates  obliquely,  in  the  end  of  the 
duodcnu?n  -,  and  fometimes  in  the  beginning  of  the 
jejunum,  but  very  rarely  in  the  ventricle.  It  runs 
between  the  coats  of  the  inteftine,  and  cuts  through 
the  outer  coat  two  fingers  breadth  higher  than  the 
inner. — When  any  obftruftion  happens  in  this 
dudt,  the  iile  not  having  a  free  egrefs,  flies  back 
into  the  blood,  and  fo  occafions  a  jaundice,  which 
oftentimes  proves  mortal. 

There  are  two  forts  of  Bile,  one  is  fubtle  .ind 
fine,  being  conveyed  by  the  bili.iry  vefl'el  to  the 
bladder,  and  from  thence  to  the  inteftine  ;  the 
other  is  of  a  grofler  fubftance,  and  being  ftrained 
out  of  the  glands  of  the  liver,  in  which  the  fhoots 
of  the  vena  porta  terminate,  is  carried  by  fmall 
dufls  to  the  cbolldochus,  ;:nd  from  thence  to  the 
common  paflage,  where  the  two  forts  meet ;  and 
fo  repair  with  joint  forces  to  the  inteftines. 

The  bile  being  a  potent  diflblver,  compleats  in 
the  firft  inteftines,  the  breaking  and  mincing  of 
fuch  parts  of  the  aliments,  as  were  not  entirely 
diftblved  in  the  ftomach  :  fo  that  the  bile  is  a  ne- 
ceflary  liquor,  without  which,  the  chyle  would 
never  attain  to  that  degree  of  perfection,  that  is 
requifite  for  its  fanguification. 

Dr.  !^iincy  thinks  the  principal  ufe  of  both  forts 
of  bile,  called  by  the  moderns,  e)f!ic,  and  hepatic, 
is  to  fheath  and  blunt  the  acids  of  the  chyle,  en- 
tangling them  with  its  fulphur,  fo  as  to  prevent 
their  being  fufficiently  diluted  by  the />awr^ff//V  juice 
to  enter  the  laSteah. 

Borelli  aflerts,  that  part   of  the   bile  difcharged 

into  the  inteftines,    re-enters    the  meferaic  veins, 

and  mixing  with  the  blood  of  the  vena  porta,    is  a- 

gain  percolated  through  the  liver  j  and  Bocrhaave 

t 


feems  of  the  fame  opinion  :  which,   if  true,  the  liile 
has  its  circulati'in,  as  well  as  the  blood 

The  bileisz  juice  of  great  importance,  with  re- 
gard to  the  good  or  ill  habitude  of  the  animal. — Dr. 
IFoodward  has  traced  its  eft'ccts  throughout  the 
body,  very  minutely,  and  makes  no  fcruplc  to  af- 
cribe  moft  of  the  dileafes  thereof,  to  fome  diforder 
oi xhebile.  This  he  takes  to  be  the  chief  fpring  in 
the  animal  machine,  and  from  this  accounts  for 
moft  of  the  phcenomeua  of  a  body,  whether  healthy 
or  difeafed. 

Many,  even  among  the  modern  Anatomifts, 
from  the  fmall  quantity  of  bile  fecerned,  have  been 
led  into  amiftake,  that  this  fecretion  is  not  the  fole 
end  of  fo  confiderable  a  vifcus,  as  the  liver.  Dr. 
Keil  obfcrves,  that  in  a  dog,  whofe  common  duft 
was  near  as  big  as  that  of  a  man,  he  gathered  a- 
bout  two  drams  an  hour  ;  though  in  a  human  body, 
there  is  reafon  to  think  the  quantity  fecreted  to  be 
greater.  Mr.  Tauvry  obferves,  that  the  bile  be- 
comes one  of  the  principal  caufes  of  thirft,  by  mix- 
ing with  the  faiival  juice. 

Sometimes  the  bile,  from  yellow,  becomes  green- 
ifli,  like  verdigreafe,  and  frequently  pale,  like  the 
yolks  of  eggs,  and  that  without  any  other  apparent 
caufe,  than  a  little  motion,  aconvulfion,  or  a  vio- 
lent paflion  of  the  mind. — This  occafions  many  and 
terrible  difeafes,  as  naufea's,  an  abhorrence  of 
food,  anxiety,  fighing,  cardialgia's,  wind,  diar- 
rhoea's, dyfenteries,  acute  difeafes,  fevers,  and  con- 
vulfions. 

Sometimes  it  becomes  black,  and  takes  the  name 
of  choler.  In  this  cafe,  it  fometimes  taftes  like  a 
very  fharp  vinegar  ;  fometimes  like  putrified  blood, 
gnawing,  burning,  difl'olving,  confuming,  occa- 
fioning  inflammations,  gangrenes,  mortifications, 
violent  pains,  and  terrible  fermentations. 

Of  atra  bills,  or  black  bile,  Boerhaave d'lfllnguifbee 
three  kinds,  i.  The  mildeft,  arifing  from  the  mat- 
ter of  the  blood,  put  in  too  great  amotion,  which, 
hence,  t.ikes  the  name  of  aduji.  The  2d,  is  an 
aijgravation  of  the  firft,  arifing  from  the  fame 
caufes,  only  heightened.  7  he  3d,  is  a  corrupt, 
parched  bile,  which  if  it  arofe  from  a  greenifli,  or 
palifh  fort,  is  ft  ill  worfe. 

Too  great  an  evacuation  of  the  bile,  either  up- 
wards or  downwards,  robs  the  chyIefa£lion  of  its 
main  inftruments.  Hence  it  prevents  digeftion, 
fecretion,  excretion  of  the.  faces,  produces  an  acid 
temperature,  coldnefs,  weaknefs,  palenefs,  i^c. 

The  Spleen  (GG,)  (the  next  part  to  be  con- 
fidered  in  the  abdomen)  is  a  vifcus,  of  a  darkifh  red, 
or  rather  a  livid  colour,  ordinarily  refembling  the 
figure  of  a  tongue,  though  fometimes  triangular 
and  fometimes  roundifh. — It  is  fituated  in  the  left 

hypo- 


A  N  A   T  0    MY. 


6S 


hypochondrium,  between  the  fpurious  ribs,    and 
the  ftomach  ;  is  fomewhat  convex  on  the  fide  to- 
wards the  former,   and  concave  towards  the  latter, 
Its  ordinary  length  is  fix  inches  ;   breadth,  three  ; 

and  thicknefs,  one. It  is  connected  tothe  omeyi- 

ium,  and  by  means  of  that  and  the  blood  vefTels, 
to  the  ftomach,  and  left  kidney,  and  fometimes  to 
the  diaphragm. 

The /plan  has  but  one  membrane,  which  is  very 
thick,  itsinward  furface  fends  out  hard  fibres  which 
run  a-crofs  it :  all  thefe  fibres  make  a  net,  the  in- 
terftices  of  which  are  of  different  figures.     Thefe 

fibres  are  fleftiy,  like  thofe  of  the  lungs. The 

bulk  of  the  fpleen  is  compofed  of  innumerable  cells, 
or  little  bladders,  which  communicate  with  each 
other,  and  difcharge  themfelves  into  the  trunk  of 

the   fplenick  vein. Their  infide,  according  to 

Matpighi,  is  furnifhed  with  various  minute  glands 
adhering  together;  fix,  feven,  or  eight  whereof 
forma  kind  of  fmall  conglomerate  glands,  wherein 
the  arteries  and  veins  feem  to  terminate. 

Its  blood  veffels  Zie  the  fpLn'ic  artery,  viKich  fur- 
niflies  it  with  blood  from  the  cosUaca,  and  the 
fplenic  vein,  which  carries  it  thence,  by  the  porta 

to  the  liver. Its  nerves  come  from  the  plexus 

linearis,  near  the  bottom  of  the  ftomach. — The 
veflels  are  all,  as  foon  as  they  enter  the  fpleen, 
wrapt  up  in  one  common  capfula,  or  membrane, 
and  plentifully  diftributed  together,  throughout 
the  fuftance  of  the  fpleen.  Befides  thefe,  are  lym- 
phatics in  abundance.  — The  anaflomofes  between 
the  arteries,  and  veins  of  the  fpleen,  are  more  ap- 
parent than  any  other  part  of  the  body  ;  and  this 
vifcus,  is  obferved  to  be  furniftied  with  a  greater 
quantity  of  blood  than  any  other  part. 

Some  have  imagined  the  fpleen  only  ferved  to 
make  a  ballance  in  the  weight  of  the  body  ; 
others,  that  it  was  only  intended  for  the  fake  of 
fymmetry;  others  hold  it  an  ufelefs  load,  (finceit 
appears  from  diffedtion,  that  animals  from  whom 
it  has  been  cut,  live  very  well  without  it)  others 
a  pit  or  common  fhore  to  difcharge  the  faces  of  the 
blood  into ;  others  a  fire,  by  the  heat  whereof  the 
a.£tion  of  the  ftomach  is  animated.  But  Mr.  Cow- 
■per,  from  the  great  quantity  of  blood,  and  the  ap- 
parent inofculations  of  the fplect:,  takes  the  fpleen 
to  be  a  fubordinate  organ,  miniftering  to  the  cir- 
culation ;  and  thinks,  that  by  this  congrefs  of  the 
arterial  and  venal  blood,  an  impetus  is  communi- 
cated to  the  latter  ;  by  which  its  progrefs  through 
the  ramifications  of  the  porta  tothe  cava,  is  pro- 
moted, which  would  otherwife  be  fo  broke  by  the 
double  ramifications  of  the  porta,  as  to  want 
ftrength  fufficient  to  carry  to  the  heart. 

Thisa£tion  or  effe£l  of  the  fpleen,  according  to 
Dr.  Boerhaavfy  is  to  receive  the  frcfh  arterial  blood, 


to  prepare  it  in  its  glands,  and  pour  it  into  its  cells; 
to  turn  what  blood  is  left  from  this  adion,  to  the 
little  veins,  and  thence  to  the  fplenic  vein  ;  to  mix 
the  humour  thus  prepared  with  the  nervous  juice, 
and  to  prepare,  attenuate,  and  more  intimately 
unite  them  together  into  one  humour. 

Malpighi  and  Dr.  Keil  take  the  fpleen  to  be  a 
vifcous  afliftantto  the//wr,  in  the  fecretion,  isfc. 
of  the  bile.  Becaufe  the  motecula,  or  little  par- 
ticles, ftiould  be  already  feparated  before  they  come 
to  the  ftrainer,  and  therefore  thofe  of  the  bile  fhould 
be  parted  from  thofe  of  the  blood  before  they  arrive 
at  the  glands  of  the  liver. 

The  Pancreas  is  a  conglomerate  gland,  or  a 
body  compofed  of  a  great  quantity  of  glands  feated 
under  the  lower  and  back  part  of  the  ftomach  near 
the  firft  vertebra  of  the  loins  ;  it  reaches  from  the 
duodenum  to  thefpleen,  the  principal  part  of  itbeing 
in  the  left  hypochondrium,  'tis  tied  very  faft  to  the 
peritonaum,  and  weighs  about  five  ounces  ;  com- 
monly it  has  ten  fingers  breadth  in  length,  one  in 
thicknefs,  and  two  in  breadth  ;  furniflied  with  a 
nerve  from  the  intercoftal,  with  arteries  from  the 
cosUaca,  with  veins  leading  to  the  fplenick,  and 
with  lymphatick  veflels,  which  run  to  the  recep- 
taculum. 

Befides  all  thefe  veflels  it  has  a  peculiar  du£i_, 
called  the  pancreatic,  difcovered  in  1642,  by  Firt- 

fungus,   a  celebrated  anatomift  atPadua. This 

duSi  running  along  the  middle  of  the  pancreas^ 
opens  into  the  cavity  of  the  duodenum,  where  its 
orifice  is  guarded  by  a  valve,  allowing  an  exit  to 
the  contained  liquor,  and  oppofing  the  entrance 
of  the  chyle  and  other  liquors  contained  in  the  in- 
teftine.  There  is  but  one  paflage  of  this  nature, 
though  De  Graaf  obfer/es  that  it  is  frequently 
double  ;  and  in  its  natural  ftate  it  is  no  bigger  than 
a  fmall  quill. 

The  Pancreas  ferves,  by  virtue  of  its  glands,  to 
feparate  and  ftrainout  a  certain  juice  from  the  blood 
called  the  pancreatic  juice. 

This  juice  is  not  acid,  as  fome  authors  have  fup- 
pofed  ;  nor  alkaline,  as  fome  others  ;  but  a  little 
faline,  and  much  refembling  the  faliva  in  its  origin, 
veflels,  and  properties. — It  is  carried  by  the  pan- 
creatic duft,  into  the  duodenum,  where  it  ferves  to 
dilute  the  bile,  to  change  its  vifcidity,  bitternefs, 
colour,  y^.  and  make  it  mix  with  the  chyle,  in 
order  to  reduce  the  feveral  taftes,  odours,  and 
properties  of  the  feveral  foods  in  an  homogeneous 
one. 

De  Graaf,  a  Dutch  phyfician,  had  found 
means  to  collect  a  quantity  of  it  for  experiments, 
and  has  publilhed  an  expiefs  treatife  de  fucco  pan- 
creatico. 

Brunner  relates,  that  ;hc  pancreatic  duii  having 

beeij 


66 


The  Unlverfal  Hiftcry  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


been  tried  in  feveral  dogs,  and  cut,  they  ftill  con-  i  the  liver;  the  left  one  is  tied  to  ther«/ow,  and  foine- 


tinued  to  eat  as  ufual,  and  performed  all  the  other 
funftions  of  life ;  one  o{  them  feemed  to  have  the 
better  ftomach  for  it. 

Before  we  proceed  to  the  kidneys,  we  muft  take 
notice  of  two  parts,  called  cppjula  atrahilaria;  be- 
caufe  there  is  found  in  their  cavity,  an  humour  re- 
fembling  the  atrabilis, 

Thofc  two  capfula  are  placed  fometimes  above 
the  iid/iiys,  and  fometimes  between  it  and  the  creat 

artery. They  are  inclofed  in  a  thin  membrane, 

■and  entangled  with  fat,  which  occafions  the  diffi- 
culty of  tracing  them. That  on  the  right  fide 

is  commonly  lels  than  the  other.  Each  oT  them 
is  as  big  as  a  walnut  laid  flat,  and  has  a  cavity 
large  enough  in  proportion  to  its  bignefs. — In  a 
fcstiis  they  are  generally  as  big  as  kidneys,  from 
which  they  differ,  in  this,  that  their  fubllance  is 
fofter  and  more  flaggy. 

Their  figure  is  as  inconftant  as  their  fituation; 

for,  in  faiSl,  they  have  no  determined  figure. 

Their  colour  is  fometimes  red,  fometimes  the  fame 
with  that  of  the  fat  they  are  wrapped  in. — In  their 
cavity  they  have  fmall  holes,  which  penetrate 
through  their  fubftance. — They  have  a  nerve  de- 
rived from  the  intercoftal,  which  makes  a  plexus  in 
this  place ;  one  or  two  branches  detached  from  the 
emulgent  artery,  and  fometimes  from  the  aorta, 
and  a  fmall  duff  inferted  into  the  upper  part  of 
the  emulgent  vein. — Their  cavity  has  a  valve, 
which  opens  towards  the  emulgent  vein. 

The  capfulis  atrabilarlcr,  are  probably  glands 
for  the  fecretion  of  fome  humour  from  the  blood, 
imported  by  the  arteries,  which  humour  is  after- 
wards conduced  by  their  fmall  veins  to  the  emul- 
gent vein,  and  there  mixed  with  the  blood. 

The  parts,  which  purge  the  blood  of  thefuperflu- 
ous  ferum,  called  Urine,  are  of  three  forts,  viz.. 
the  k  dneys,  the  ureter,  and  the  bladder.  The 
firft  make  a  fecretion  of  the  ferum ;  the  fecond 
convey  it  to  the  bladder,  as  foon  as  it  is  feparated  ; 
and  the  bladdir  ferves  for  a  cijlern,  where  it  is  kept 
for  fome  time,  and  evacuated  when  it  fwells  to  a 
fuflicient  quantity. 

The  Kidneys  are  called  iZfWj,  from  Pw,  to 
flow,  becaufe  the  urine  flows  incefTantly  into  the 

pelvis. They  are  feated  in  the  region    of  the 

loins  under  the  pfoas  mufcle,  upon  the  fides  of  the 
aorta,  and  vena  cava.,  without  tlie  perltonaum,  one 
on  tKe  right  fide  under  the  liver,  and  the  other  on 
the  left  under  the  fpleen,  at  the  diftance  of  about 
four  fingers  breadth  one  from  the  other. 

They  are  fal'ened  to  the  veyia  cava,  and  the 
great  artery,  by  the  emulgent  arteries  and  veins, 
and  to  the  bladder  by  the  ureter  ;  the  right  kidney 


is  knit  to  the  intefline  cescum,  and  fometimes   to 
8 


times  to  the  fpleen. Their  figure  refembles  that 

of  a  half-moon  or  a  bean  ;  that  fide  which  faces 
the  vcflels  is  concave,  the  oppofite  fide  is  convex. 
Commonly  they  are  four  or  five  fingers  breadth 
long,  three  broad  and  two  thick. — ' — T  heir  fur- 
face  is  fmooth  and  foft,  like  that  of  the  liver,  and 
their  natural  colour  a  dark  red. 

The  kidneys  have  a  proper  and  very  thin  mem- 
brane, which  keeps  all  their  glands  in  their  natural 
order  ;  which  membrane  fome  imagine  to  be  no» 
thing  elfc  but  a  continuation  of  the  tunicle  of  the 
veflels  inferted  in  the  kidneys,  which  by  dilating 
themfelves,  line  their  infulc ;  an'd  then  turning 
back  upon  the  outfide,  cover  that  too. — They  are 
covered,  befides,  w  itn  the  peritonaum,  and  always 
with  a  great  deal  of  fat. 

Each  of  them  receives  tiuo  nerves,  one  from  the 
Jlomachic  branch,  which  fpreads  itfelf  along  the 
membrane  ;  and  the  other  from  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  mcfentcry,  which  enters  the  concave  part  of 
the  kidiieys,  and  is  loft  in  its  I'ubftance  ;  thefe 
nerves  occafion  the  vomiting  in  the  nephretick 
pains. — The  trunk  of  the  aorta  fends  out  two  large 
vefTels  to  the  kidneys,  which,  before  they  enter,  di- 
vide themfelves  into  three  or  four  branches,  and 
which  paffing  through  the  fubftance  of  the  kidney, 
by  its  concave  part,  are  loft  in  an  infinity  of  little 
glands,  to  which  they  convey  the  blood  and  its  fe- 
rum promifcuoufly  mixed. 

The  blood  imported  by  the  arteries  to  the 
glands,  which  cannot  pafs  through  the  orifices  of 
thefe  fmall  pipes,  is  taken  up  by  the  bra.;ches  of 
the  emulgent  vein,  which  condudls  it  to  the  vena 
cava. 

The  pelvis,  or  bafon,  is  a  cavity  made  of  the 
upper  end  of  the  ureters,  in  the  form  of  a  funnel, 
the  narrow  part  thereof  marches  out  of  the  kid- 
ney, and  makes  the  beginning  of  the  ureter. — ^Its 
office  is  to  receive  the  urine  that  diftils  from  the 
nipples,  which  are  fmall  mamillary  bodies,  fhoot- 
ing  out  a  little  to  a  point  where  they  are  perforated, 
in  order  to  let  the  urine  fall  into  the  bafon,  and  to 
which  repair  the  arteries  diftributed  through  the 
whole  circumference  of  the  kidneys. 

The  Ureters,  (SS)  are  two  canals  of  a  pe- 
culiar form,  which  fpring  upon  each  fide  from  the 
pelvis  of  the  kidneys,  are  covered  with  the  perito- 
naum, and  terminate  in  the  bladder  not  far  from 
its  neck. — They  are  furniftied  with  annular  fibres, 
to  enable  them  to  contract  themfelves,  and  thereby 
facilitate  the  courfe  of  the  urine  into  the  bladder. 
Their  length  is  equal  to  the  interval  between  the 
kidney  and  the  bladder  ;  they  are  no  bigger  than  a 
writing-pen,  except  in  the  nephretick,  when  their 
cavities  are  fometimes  lb  dilated  as  to  receive  one's 

little 


A  N  A  r  0  M  r. 


little  finger,  and  refcmble  an  S. They  receive 

nerves  from  the /;i/'i?fV/''' branch,  which  occ;ifion 
their  exquillte  'ie.\\{\:^  in  the  gravel,  anJ  arteries  from 
the  neighbouring  parts,  and  return  the  fniail 
veins. 

I'he  ureters  proceed  ixomXhe  kidneys,  beginning 
at  the  end  of  the  pehis,  and  terminating  in  the 
bladder,  which  they  perforate  very  artificially ;  for, 
having  pierced  through  the  outward  membrane, 
they  run  for  two  fingers  breadth  between  the  two 
membranes,  and  then  perforate  the  inner  one,  near 
the  neck  of  the  bladder.  By  this  contrivance  the 
urine  having  once  entered  the  bladder,  cannot  re- 
turn   back,    the  orifice  of  one  membrane  being 

flopped  by  the  other. The  ureters  receive  the 

urine  from  the  pelvis,  and  convey  it  to  the 
bladder. 

The  Bladder  (T)  is  a  membranous  part, 
which  forms  a  confiderablc  cavity  fit  to  contain  the 
urine  and  the  I'olid  bodies  that  are  preternaturally 
bred  in  it ;  fuch  as  ftones,  Uc. 

The  bladder  is  fituated  in  the  pelvis  of  the  abdo- 
men ;  in  men,  immediately  on  the  reiium  ;  in  wo- 
men on  the  vagina  iiteri.  Its  figure  in  human  bo- 
dies, the  lower  part  is  almoft  on  a  level  with  the 
upper  ;  and  its  orifice,  or  neck,  placed  fide-ways, 
while  \.\\Q  fundus,  (V.)  or  bottom,  which  in  a  hu- 
man bladder  is  very  broad,  refts  either  on  the  rec- 
tum,  or  the  vagina  uteri. It  is  faflened  to  the 

navel  by  the  urachus,  degenerated  into  a  ligament, 
its  fides  to  the  umbilical  arteries,  and  its  neck  to 
the  inte/lmum  rectum  in  women. 

The  bladder  is  compofed  of  three  coats ;  the  firfl: 
a  covering  of  the  peritonaum  ;  the  fecond  confifts 
of  mufcular  fibres,  which  run  irregular  feveral 
ways  ;  and  the  third,  which  is  full  of  wrinkles  for 
facilitating  its  dilatation,  is  both  glandulous  and 
nervous.  Its  glands  feparate  a  vifcous  and  flimy 
matter,  which  defends  the  bladder  from  the  acri- 
mony of  the  falts  in  the  urine. — Around  its  neck 
there  goes  a  fmall  mufcle,  called  fphinSier  veficte, 
which  contrails  the  orifice  of  the  bladder,  to  pre- 
vent the  urine  from  dripping  involuntarily,  or  till 
it  thrufts  open  the  paflage  by  tlie  contraction  of 
the  fecond  coat  of  the  biadder,  called,  therefore, 
detrufor  urines. 

Having  already  confidered  all  the  parts  of  the 
abdomen  which  contribute  to  the  perfection  of 
the  blood,  it  will  not  be  improper  to  confider  in 
this  place  the  aorta,  or  great  artery,  and  the 
vena  cava,  which  are  two  large  veflels  of  the  ab- 
domen. 

The  Aorta,  or  great  artery,  (Y)  rifes  dire£lly 
out  of  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  where  it  re- 
ceives the  blood,  in  order  to  difpcrfe  it  all  over  the 
body. — We'll  only  examine  in  this  place  the  arte-  ' 


.67 

teries  it  fends  to  the  abdomen  after  its  perforation 
of  the  diaphragm,  which  are  feven — The  firft  is 
I  the  cosliaca,  which  fplits  into  two  branches,  one 
on  the  right  fide  for  the  liver,  and  the  other  on 
the  left  for  the  fpleen.  — The  fecond  is  the  upper 
mefenterick,  which  vifits  the  upper  part  of  the 
mefentery.— The  third  are  the  emulgents,  which 
run  to  the  kidneys. —  1  he  fourth,  the  ipcrmaticks, 

which  repair  to  theparts  calculated  for  generation. 

The  fifth,  the  lower  mefenterick,  which  goes  to  the 
inteflines,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  mefentery. 
— The  fixth,  the /«;«^ar«,- which  ferve  the  muf- 
cles  of  the  loins. — And  the  feventh,  the  upper 
mujculares,  which  are  loft  in  the  flefh. 

When  the  aorta  reaches  the  os  Jacrum,  it  gets 
over  the  vena  cava,  and  divides  itfelf  into  two 
large  arteries,  called  the  iliaca.  Each  fide  has  one 
of  them,  which  fubdivides  itfelf  into  the  internal 
and  external. — The  internal  iliack  artery  detaches 
four  other  arteries,  vix.  the  facra,  mufcularis  in- 
ferior, the  umbilicalis,  and  the  bypograjiric.  The 
external  iliack,  which  is  the  larger  of  the  two, 
fends  out  the  epigraflrick  and  the  pudenda,  and  then 
marches  to  the  thighs,  where  it  changes  its  name, 
and  allumes  that  of  the  arteria  cruralis. 

Where  the ///«c  arteiy  terminates,  there's  a  vein 
of  the  fame  fize,  called  the  iliaca  externa,  which 
receives  not  only  three  other  fmall  veins,  called 
mufcularis  inferior,  pedenda,  and  epigafhica  ;  but 
alfo  the  internal  iliac  branch,  confifting  of  two 
veins,  viz.   the   hypogajlrica,    and   the    mifcidaris 

media. Thefe    two  iliac  veins  upon  one  fide, 

and  the  other  two  on  the  oppofite,  begin  about 
the  OS  facrum  to  form  a  very  large  vein,  called  the 
afcending  vena  cava,  further  enlarged  by  the  accef- 
fionof  t)\a  facra,  and  mufculai  is  fiipcrior. 

I  call  \t(ijccndens,  fince  its  office  is  to  convey  the 
blood  from  the  Inferior  parts  to  the  heart. — It  be- 
gins to  afliune  the  name  of  vena  cava  upon  the  os 
facrum,  where  the  four  iliacts  join.  As  it  rifes 
higher,  it  is  joined  by  four  forts  of  veins,  viz.  the 
lumbares,  which  come  from  the  muiirles  of  the 
loins;  the  fpermatica,  fpringing  from  the  inftru- 
ments  of  generation  ;  the  emulgents  from  the  kid- 
neys ;  and  the  adipofa  from  the  memhana  adipoja 
of  the  reins.     This  done,   the  vena  cava  afccndens 


ftrikes  through  the  diaphragm  into  the  breaft,  and 
terminates  in  the  right  ventricle  of  the  heart.. 

The  laft  parts  to  be  confidered  in  the  abdomen, 
are  thofe  calculated  for  Generation,  which 
nature  has  formed  to  perpetuate  itfelf,  by  produc- 
ing new  creatures  to  fupply  the  place  of  thofe  who 
are  gone. 

The   organs  for  generation  are  either  common  or 

proper  ;  the  common  are  met  with  in  both  I'exes, 

K  luch 


68 


"The  Univcrral  HiPiory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


iuch  as  arc  the  fpermat'ic  vefTels,  the  tefticlcs,   and 


the  vdfa  d'lf} 


ereutid. 


The  proper  parts  are  pecu 


liar  either  to  a  man,  as  the  para/lata.,  the  feminal 
veiicles,  the  proftates,  and  the  yard  or /.'w/i ;  or 
the  womb  to  a  woman. 

We  muft  confider  hrft  the  parts  of  a  man,  not 
only  thole  peculiar  to  his  fex,  hui  h'kewife  thote 
which  are  common  to  both  fcxes,  that  we  may  ob- 
Itrve  wherein  they  difFer. 

The  parts  of  a  man,  which  fall  firft  uildcr  our 
coniidcraiion,  are  the  j'perniatich  vefiels,  which 
are  four  in  number,  v'fz..  two  arteries,  and  two 
veins. —  the  Hvo  fperniatick  (^i\A)  arUries  fpring 
from  the  trunk  of  the  aorta,  run  oblique!)'  upon 
the  ureters,  and  along  the  mufcle  pfoas,  till  they 
arrive  at  the  groin,  where  they  are  received  fay  a 
produ<5tion  of  the  periton^u?ii,  and  fo  conducted 
to  the  tefticles,  by  palling  through  the  rings  of  the 
aporiturojes  of  the  mufcles  of  the  ahdo/nen. — The 
two  fpermatick  veins  (BB)  march  out  from  the 
tefticles  towards  the  vena  cava ;  the  right  runs 
ftrait  to  the  trunk  of  the  cava  ;  but  the  left  one  ter- 
minates in  the  cmulgent  vein. — In  their  progrefs 
they  are  joined  by  fmall  veins  from  the  periton/vutn, 
and  the  neighbouring  m-ufcles  loaded  with  the 
fuperflous  blood  of  their  parts,  in  order  to  lodge 
it  in  the  cava. 

The  artery  \n  its  afcent,  and  the  vein  in  its  de- 
fcent,  on  each  fide  approach  to  one  another,  and 
are  covered  with  the  p<-riton^eum. — The  various 
branches  of  the  vein  form  in  their  progrefs  (with- 
out the  affiftance  of  the  artery)  what  we  call  <ri7?/)W 
variiofu7n,  or  pyramidal ;  but  the  artery  defccnds 
almoft  in  a  ftraight  line,  without  dividing  itfelf, 
unlefs  it  be  at  the  place  of  its  infcrtion,  where  it 
fplits  into  two  branches,  the  leaft  whereof  termi- 
nates under  the  epydimis;  and  the  other  in  the 
teiticle. 

The  fpermatick  vejfels  are  larger  in  men  than  in 
women,  and  in  both  the  arteries  are  always  larger 
than  the  veins. — They  don't  perforate  the  ptrito- 
naum,  as  in  dogs,  but  a  produ<Stion  of  that  mem- 
brane conducts  them  along,  together  with  fome 
branches  of  the  intercajial  nerves,  and  fome  from 
the  one  and  twentieth  pair  of  the  Ipine,  which 
fupplv  the  tefticles  with  animal  fpirits,  and  not 
with  the  matter  of  the  feed,  as  fome  have  ima- 
gined, fince  they  have  not  a  fufficient  cavity  to  con- 
tain fuch  liquor. 

The  reafon  why  the  lefs  fpermatick  vein  termi- 
nates in  the  cmulgent,  and  not  in  the  cava,  is,  that 
its  bulk  in  pafling  over  the  emulgent  artery,  would 
have  hindered  the  reflux  of  the  blood  to  the 
(ava. 

The  preparation  of  the  feed  is  not  commenced 


in  the  fpermatic  vcfTcls,  as  faldy  fuppofed  by  the 
ancients  ;  for  if  the  two  arteries  penetrate  the  fub- 
flance  of  the  tefticles,  'tis  only  to  procure  a  more 
exaft  fcparation  of  the  feminal  particles  that  ac- 
conipany  the  artcrious  blood,  fince  the  remains  of 
that  biood  are  carried  back  by  the  fpermauc  veins 
to  the  vena  cava,  and  the  arteries  have  no  ana/la- 
mo, a  with  the  veins,  cither  in  this  place,  or  any 
other  part  of  the  body. 

Therefore  the  ufe  of  the  fpennatick  veffels,  i.s 
to  have  the  blood  conveyed  by  the  arteries,  to  the 
upper  part  of  each  teftlcle,  v/hcre  the  feminal 
particles  arc  fcpr.ratcd,  and  the  remains  of  the  blood 
carried  back,  by  the  branches  of  the  veins  to  the 
iava. 

The  Testicles,  are  fo  called  from  the  ia//« 
word  tejles,  witnefles;  as  giving  teftimony  of  vi- 
rility ;  they  are  what  we  properly  call  genitalia. — 
The  Greeks  call  them  dydimi,  or  twins,  becaufe 
men  have  but  two. 

The  tejiicle'  (DD)  are  foft,  white  bodies  of  an 
oval  figure,  and  about  the  fize  of  a  pigeon's  egg  ; 
they  have  been  thought  to  be  of  a  glandulous  fub." 
ftance  ;  and  according  to  the  preluit  doctrine  of 
the  glands  they  may  be  allowed  to  be  fo  Itill. 

'1  hey  are  formed  of  a  convolution  of  divers  kinds 
of  veflels,  particularly  of  the  fpermatick  veins  and 
arteries,  the  latter  of  which  bring  the  blood  j 
whence  the  particles  of  the  _/?Y^are  to  be  fccreted 
in  the  meanders  of  the  tefticles,  and  the  former 
return  it  back  again,  after  the  fecretion  made. 

The  reft  of  the  tefticles  is  made  up  of  feed-  vef- 
fels,  which,  indeed,  are  but  one  continued  feries, 
intricately  convoluted,  and  wound  up,  as  it  were, 
into  a  bottom  ;  but  adhering  lb  laxly,  that  it  ia 
eafily  drawn  out  into  length,  and  in  rats  fhakeii 
from  its  clofe  contexture. — Thefe  feminal  veficles 
terminate  in  the  paraftata. 

They  are  feated,  in  men.  without  the  ahdomen, 
at  the  root  of  the  yard,  wrapped  up  in  five  coats, 
two  of  which  are  common,  viz.  the  fcrotum,  and 
the  dartos  ;  and  three  proper,  vi'z..  the  eritroides, 
the  elitroides,   and  the  alhuginea. 

The  firft  of  the  common  fort  is  the  Scrotum, 
or  purfe,  compofed  of  a  fcarf  fkin,  and  a  true  Ikin, 
which  is  here  thinner  and  tenderer  than  in  anv  other 
part  of  the  body :  it  is  foft,  wrinkled,  and  void 
of  fat,  divided  into  the  right  and  left  halves  by  a 
line,  or  future,  which  commences  at  the  anus  ; 
paffes  through  the  perineum,  and  terminates  in  the 
glans,  or  nut. 

Dartos,  is  a  cutanous  mufcle,  confiftingof  a 
texture  of  many  flcftiy  fibres,  \s\'  virtue  whereof, 
the:  fcrotum  contracts  and  furls  itfelf.  It  receives 
feveral    vefiels  from    the   arterice  pudenda,     and 

not 


A    N    AT    0    M   r. 


69 


net  only  covers  the  two  tcfticles,  like  the  fcrotum, 
but  runs  in  between  them,  and  Icceps  them  irom 
grating  one  upon  another. 

The  Eritrofdej  (E),  is  the  fiill  of  the  pro- 
per clafs  ;  it  is  interlaced  with  flcfhy  fibres,  which' 
nmakes  it  appear  red  ;  and  is  produced  by  the  cre- 
meifter,  a  mufcle,  which  holds  up  the  tcftlcks. 

The  Elitroides    (F),    called  alfo w/^/««///, 
is  a  dilatation  of  a  produtlion  of  the  ■perltonaum. 
. — Its  internal  furface  is  evenandfinooth,  andtlie  ex- 
ternal  rough  and  unequal,  whereby  it  fticks.  very 
clofe  to  the  eritroides. 

The  Albuginea  (G),  fo  called  from  its  ivhite- 
nefs^  is  the  immediate  cover  of  the  tefticks,  and 
impreflcs  them  with  a  fip-ure  anfwerable  to  its  own. 
— it  proceeds  from  the  coat,  m  which  ths  Jpirma- 
tici  veR'els  are  wrapped. 

The  teftkles  are  fufjoended  by  two  mufcles, 
called  crttiiiftores  (H),  or  fufpenfares,  which  are 
inferted  in  the  offi  pubis,  at  the  end  of  the  tranf- 
.  verfe  mufcle  of  the  ahdomsn,  and  iurround  the 
tefticles  like  a  membrane,  which  if  they  happen 
to  be  ftronger  than  ordinary,  move  the  tefticles  of 
themfclvcs,  pulling  them  up,  and  letting  them 
fall  at  pleafure. 

The  Parastat.^  (I^L),  or  epididymida,  are 
two  tuberous,  varicofe  bodies,  lying  upon,  and  ad- 
heiing  to  the  upper  part  of  the  tejVtcles,  whereof 
they  properly  appear  to  be  a  part;  though  different 
from  the  reR  in  form  and  confiftence. 

The  parajiata  confift,  like  the  tejiicks,  of  a 
convolution  of  feminal  tubulin  mixed  with  bloody 
veffcis  ;  the  difference  between  them  lying  only  in 
this',  that  the  paraftatce,  and  the  tubuli,  are  united 
into  one  ;  the  various  convolutions  of  which  behig 
more  firmly  bound  together,  by  aftrong  membrane, 
arifing  from  the  tunica  albuginea-,  it  feels  more  com- 
pact than  the  tcjlicles. 

The  ufc  of  tlie  parajiata.,  is  tQ  receive  the  feed 
feparated  in  the  iejiicles,  and  pour  it  into  the  trunk 
of  i\\tvas  deferens,  to  which  it  is  contiguous. 

The  Vasa  Deferentia  (M),  are  white  and 
nervous  veflels,  of  a  round  figure,  and  of  the  big- 
nefs  of  a  quill,  feated  partly  in  the  fcrotum,  and 

partly  in  the  abdomen.  They  are  rooted  in  the 

ceflicle  ;  from  one  end  of  which  they  proceed,  and 
march  upwards,  in  the  fame  procefs  of  the  perito- 

naum,    that   covers  the   fpermatick  veffels.  

They  turn  about,  upon  their  arrival  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  pubis,  and  climb  over  the  uterus  ;  and 
then,  approaching  to  one  another,  run  under  the 
lipper  part  of  the  bladder,  where  they  have  a  com- 
munication with  the  feminal  veffels. The  two 

extremities  of  the  -uafa  deferentia,  being  arrived 
between  the  bladder  and  the  retPlum,  dilate  them- 
fclvcs,   and  form  the  veficida  fcininaks.       ■■ 


They  rcfeniblc  a  bunch  of  grapes;  and  their  cells, 
the  cavities  of  pomegranate  kernels ;  though  not 
feparated  by  a  membrane,  like  grapes,  for    their 

cells   communicate  with  one  another. Their 

broadePc  part  is  about  an  inch  over,  they  have  one 
fide  thicker  and  larger  than  the  other,  and  their 
cavities  are  unequal,  fome  being  greater  than  others. 
—  They  are  feated  between  the  bladder  and  rec- 
tum, near  the  profiata,  and  fcrve  for  a  ciflern  to 
the  feed. 

From  thefe  veficles,  proceed  two  finall  duHs, 
called  Ejaculatory  Vessels,  becaiife  in  the 
heat  of  adlion,  they  really  throw  the  feed  of  the 
veficles  into  the  urethra.  —  Thefe  duSls  are  broad 
near  the  veficles  from  whence  they  proceed ;  but 
dwindle  as  they  approach  the  urethra,  which  they 
perforate ;  and  on  its  infide,  at  the  place  of  their 
entry,  form  a  fmall  caruncle  or  tuft,  called  verit- 
montanum,  which  is  a  fort  of  fmall  valve,  keep- 
ing the  urine  out  of  the  two  dufls,  in  its  paffage 
to  the  urethra;  and  obliging  the  feed  to  turn  to- 
wards the  penis,  and  not  towards  the  bladder. 

The  Prostata  (OO),  are  two  white,  Ipungy, 
glandulous  bodies,  fituated  at  the  root  of  the  penis, 
or  jull  below  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  and  about 
the  fize  of  walnuts. 

Authors  afcribe  two  kinds  of  fubflance  to  the 
profiata:,  the  one  glandulous,  the  other  fpongeous, 
or  porous  ;  which  laft  feems  nothing  but  a  conge- 
ries of  minute  veffels,  and  cells,  through  the  mid- 
dle of  which  pafs  the  veficulee  feminalcs,  without 
any  communication  therewith. 

The  projiatic  have  many  cxcreto.''y  dudls  of  their 
own  :  De  Graaf  ^oz%  not  remember  to  have  known 
them  fewer  than  ten  in  the />r£/?i?/^  of  men. — 
Out  of  thefe  iffues  a  whitifh  flimy  humour,  fecre- 
ted  in  the  glandular  parts  of  the projiates,  and  con- 
veyed into  the  cavity  of  the  urethra. 

The  ufe  of  this  humour  is  to  line  and  lubricate 
the  cavity  of  the  urethra,  and  prevent  it  from  be- 
ing annoyed  by  the  acrimony  of  the  urine,  in  its 
paffage  through  it,  and  to  ferve  as  a  vehicle  to  the 
feed,  in  the  time  of  ejaculation. 

Boerhciave  thinks  that  this  humour  may  ferve  ta 
nouiifh  the  animalculas,  during  the  firfl  moments 
after  coition.  —  This  humour,  he  adds,  remains 
after  caflration,  but  is  not  prolifick. 

The  fame  author,  from  the  memoirs  of  the 
French  academy,  makes  zhe  pro/Iata:,  to  confifl  of 
an  aggregate  of  twelve  glands,  each  of  which  ter- 
minates by  its  excretory  duel,  in  a  little  bag,  into 

which  it  difcharges  its  hiurour. Thefe  twelve 

bags  open  by  as  many  excr  tory  dudts,  into  the  ca- 
vity of  the  urethra,  fo  as  to  encompafs  the  exit  di 
the  veficulee  ;  whence  the  feed  and  the  humour  of 
the  projlates  are  the  more  acciiiately  mixed. 

K  2  'Tis 


Hoe  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Art?>  and  Sciences. 


70 

'Tis  alledged,  that  this  place  is  the  ordinary  feat 
of  a  clap^  upon  the  plea,  that  fome  volatile  falts 
fafteningtheie,  occafion  ulcers  that  corrode  the  ca- 
runcles ;  and  upon  that,  the  orifices  of  the  hereto- 
fore mentioned  duiSts,  throw  out  their  flimy  liquor, 
the  flux  of  which  is  fometimes  never  cured. 

The  Penis  (PP),  which  is  the  inftrument  ap- 
pointed by  nature  to  convey  the  feed  to  the  womb, 
for  the  formation  of  man,  is  placed  at  the  lower 
and  external  part  of  the  abdomen,  and  fattened  to 
the  OS  pubis. 

Its  body  confifts  of  the  two  corpora  cavernofa, 
viz..  the  corpus  cavcrnofum  urethrte,  and  the  urethra 
itfelf. 

The  corpora  cavernofa  of  the  penis  have  two  dif- 
tinft  origins  in  the  os  pubis,  whence  they  proceed, 
growing  both  in  bulk  and  thicknefs,  till  they  meet 
the  corpus  cavernofum  of  the  urethra,  where  they 
join  ;  leaving  an  interftice  or  channel,  for  its  paf- 
fage  along  them  ;  and  thus  continue  their  progrefs 
connefted  together  by  a  membranous  body  called 
the  fi-ptum,  and  terminating  at  length  in  ^^glans. 

The  cavernous  body  of  the  urethra,    includes 

the  urethra,  or  urinary  paffage.   Its   form, 

contrary  to  that  of  the  other  cavernous  bodies,  is 
largeft  at  the  two  extremes,  and  fmalleft  in  the 

middle. That  part  included  between  the  two 

origins  of  the  cavernous  bodies  of  the  penis,  Mr. 
Cowper  calls  the  bulb  of  the  urethra :  Its  other  ex- 
tremity being  dilated,  forms  the  gians. 

The  peyiis  receives  arteries  (Q,Q.)  from  the  in- 
ternal iliac  branches,  and  umbilical  arteries,  from 
the  capillary  extremities  whereof  arife  fo  many 
veins,  in  whofe  channels  are  apertures,  correfpond- 
ing  to  fo  many  cells,  which  communicating  with 
each  other  empty  themfelves  into  larger  venous 
du6ts,  running  on  the  fuperior  furface  of  the  penis  ; 
fome  whereof  join  the  vein  of  the  prepuce  ;  others 
make  one  large  trunk,  called  vena  penis,  which 
marching  on  the  dorfum  penis  to  the  projiata  ; 
there  divides  and  enters  the  internal  iliac  on  either 
fide. 

The  penis  has  nerves  from  a  trunk,  compofed  of 
a  coalefcence  of  the  third  of  the  os  facrum,  and  a 
branch  of  the  great  crural :  Thefe  afcending  the 
cavernous  bodies,  expand  themfelves  over  the  up- 
per furface  thereof,  and  are  thence  diftributed  to  all 
parts  of  the  penis. 

It  has  a  great  number  of  ly7nphatick  dufls,  on 
its  furface  under  the  fkin,  which  difcharge  them- 
felves into  the  glandule  inguinales. 

The  penis  has  two  pair  of  mufcles,  and  an  odd 
one;  the  odd  mufcle  is  called  accelerator  urina  :  Its 
upper  part,  which  covers  the  bulb,  ferves  to 
ftreighten  the  veins  paffing  through  it,  from  the 
corpus  cavernofum  of  the  urethroy  and  thus  hinders 


the  reflux  of  the  blood  in  ereftion,  and,  by  repeat- 
ed contraflions,  drives  the  blood  into  the  bulb  to- 
wards the  glans.  —  Its  elongation  ferves  to  com- 
prefs  the  channel  of  the  urethra,  and  to  force  out 
the  contained  feed,  or  urine. 

The  firft  pair  of  mufcles  is  called  the  ereSlores 
penis  (R  R).  By  their  action  the  penis  is  fuftained 
and  drawn  towards  thepubes;  and  by  the  afliftance 
of  the  fufpenfory  ligament  of  the  penis,  the  vena 
penis,  is  applied  to  the  tranfverfe  ligament  of  the 
oj/a  pubis,  and  the  refluent  blood  hindered  from 
palTing  that  way,  whereby  the  corpora  cavernofa  be- 
come diftended. 

The  lafl:  pair  of  mufcles  are  the  tranfverfalis  pe- 
nis (SS),  which  vary  in  various  fubjects,  and  are 
fometimes  wanting  ;  their  ufe  is  to  dilate  that  part 
of  the  cavernous  body  of  the  urethra,  to  which 
they  are  faflencd. 

The  penis  has  alfo  three  glands  (TT,\  firft  dif- 
covered  by  Mr.  Cowper;  thefe  all  empty  them- 
felves into  the  urethra,  and  from  the  tenacity  of 
the  liquor  they  feparate,  are  called  the  muous 
glands. 

The  whole  compages  of  the  penis,  is  inverted 
with  a  cellulous  membrane,  of  admirable  texture ; 
which,  again,  is  covered  with  a  firm  nervous  coat ; 
and  that  with  a  cuticula,  and  cutis;  the  duplica- 
ture  of  the  cutis  on  the  glans  makes  the  prepuce. 

The  Prepuce  (V),  is  tied  to  the  lower  part  of 

the  glans,  by  a  ligament,  called  freenum.  

By  another  ligament,  called  ffpenjorum,  the  pe- 
nis is  tied  to  the  offa  pubis. 

TheURETRHA  (Y)  is  a  nervous  paiTage reach- 
ing from  the  neck  of  the  bladder  to  the  end  of  the 
penis,  feated  underneath,  and  between  the  nervous 
bodies.  —  'Tis  compofed  of  two  membranes  ;  the 
outermoft  flefhy  and  uneven,  with  tranfverfe  fibres  ; 
the  inner  one  thin  and  nervous. 

The  urethra  defcends  from  the  bladder,  and  paf- 
fes  under  the  fhare-bone,  after  which  it  afcends 
and  accompanies  the  penis  to  its  end,  where  it  ter- 
minates ;  therefore  its  figure  refembles  an  S  (which 
fhould  be  minded  by  furgeons  when  they  probe  the 
bladder), 

The  ufe  of  the  urethra  is  to  be  a  common  paf- 
fage to  the  feed  and  urine. 

Having  thus  examined  with  all  poflible  care  and 
attention  the  parts  calculated  for  generation  in  a 
man,  we  muft  proceed  to  another  hiflorical  ac- 
count of  the  fame  organs  in  a  woman. 

To  obferve  the  fame  order  I  have  followed  in 
the  defcription  of  the  parts  of  a  man,  I'll  begin 
with  the  fpcrmatick  veiTels.  —  A  woman  has  four 
fpermatick  vejjcls,  viz.  an  artery  (AA)  and  a 
vein  (BB )  on  each  fide,  as  'tis  in  a  man.  —  In  both 
the  arteries  proceed,  in  the  fame  manner  from  the 

fore 


A   N    A   r  0    MY. 


71 


fore  part  of  the  acrta,  but  have  in  botli  a  difFerent 
infertion;  for,  in  a  woman,  they  divide  themfelves 
half-way  into  two  branches,  the  greateft  of 
which  after  feveral  circumvolutions  marches  to  the 
tcfticles ;  and  the  leaft  to  the  matrix,  where  it 
fplits  into  fevcral  twigs,  fome  of  which  repair  to 
the  fides  of  the  tubis,  and  neck  of  the  womb,  and 
others  to  the  upper  part  of  its  bottom. 

This  ramification  of  the  arteries  is  accompanied 
with  an  equal  number  of  branches  of  veins,  which 
wiiidu  up  again  from  the  womb  and  the  tefticlcs, 
and  joining  together  make  two  confiderabJe  veins  ; 
of  which  that  on  the  right  fide  terminates  in  the 
cava,  and  that  on  the  left  in  the  emuigent  vein. 

Thefe  Jpermatick  vefTels  differ  from  thofe  of  men 
in  two  points;  i.  They  are  not  fo  long  as  in  men  , 
iince  the  women's  teificles,  or  ovaria,  being  lodged 
within  the  abdomen,  whereas  thofe  of  men,  hang 
out  in  the  fcrotum,  confequently  the  paflage  from 
the  aorta  to  the  tefticles,  and  from  the  tefticles  to 
the  -vena  cava  mull  be  much  fhorter  in  a  woman 
than  in  a  man. 

Women  have  two  tefticles  (CC)  as  well  as  men, 
but  dilFer  in  their  lituation,  magnitude,  figure, 
connexion,  covers  and  fubiLance.  —  They  are 
feated  in  the  abdomen  upon  the  fides  of  the  bottom 
of  the  womb,  at  thediftance  of  two  fingers  breadth 
from  it,  by  reafon  that  their  commerce  and  alliance 
with  the  matrix  requires  that  they  fhould  not  lie  at 

a   great   diftance.  They   are  connected  to 

the  uterus  by  a  flrong  ligament,  which  theantients 
improperly  called  vas  deferens,  (for  it  is  not  at  all 
hollow)  and  in  ibme  meafureby  the  fallopian  tubes, 
and  the  broad  ligament  about  the  region  of  the 
ilium.  —  They  are  faflened  to  the  peritjnaum  by 
the  fpermatick  veifels,  by  which  means  they  are 
kept  fufpended  about  the  fame  height  with  the  fun- 
dus uteri. 

Their  figure  is  femi-oval ;  their  furface  fome- 
what  uneven,  and  their  fize  different  in  the  diffe- 
rent ftages  of  life.  At  the  time  of  puberty,  when 
largefl,  they  ufually  weigh  a  drachm  and  half. 

They  are  covered  with  a  common  membrane 
from  the  peritonaeum;  their  fubftance  is  wbitifh, 
compofed  of  a  number  of  little  thin  membranous 
and  flender  fibres,  interwoven  with  arteries,  veins 
and  nerves. 

Among  thefe  fibres  and  veffels  are  interfperfed  a 
number  of  little  round  bodies,  like  bladders  ;  full 
of  a  limpid  fiibftance,  and  called  ova  or  eggs, 
which  include  the  fperm  that  contains  the  foetus. 

On  each  fide  of  the  fundus  uteri  are  difcovered 
two  du£ls  arifing  from  it,  called  tubis  fallopiana 
(D)  or  trumpets,  in  refpedl  of  their  form:  for 
that  in  their  rife  or  opening  into  the  womb,  they 
ai-e  exceeding  fmall,  but  in  their  progrefs  towards 


the  ovary  they  grow  much  bigger,  and  at  length 
are  capable  to  receive  the  finger;  from  whence 
they  contradt  again,  and  at  the  extremity  next  the 
ovaries  are  expanded  into  a  fort  of  flanch  or  foliage, 
fringed  round  with  innumerate  little  fibres,  bear- 
ing fome  refemblance  to  the  flanch  of  a  trumpet. 

The  Fallopian  Tubes  are  four  or  five  inches 
long  ;  they  confift  of  a  double  membrane,  derived 
from  the  outer  and  inner  membrane  of  the  uterus. 
—  The  extremity  next  the  ovary,  at  the  time  of 
impregnation,  at  which  time  the  whole  tube  is  ex- 
panded, reaches  to,  and  embraces  the  ovary ;  tho', 
at  other  times,  it  feems  to  fall  a  little  fhort  of  it, 
and  is  only  flightly  tied  by  the  fringe  to  the  under 
fide  of  the  ovary. 

The  ufe  of  the  tubes  is  to  convey  the  feed,  or 
rather  isiw  of  women,  from  the  tefticles,  or  ovaries 
into  the  uterus  or  wcm'\ 

Their  inner  fubflance  is  compofed,  in  good 
meafure,  of  ramifications  of  veins  and  arteries,  . 
which  form  a  kind  of  reticular  or  cavernous  body, 
not  unlike  that  of  the  clitoris.  This  ftrudfure 
makes  them  capable  of  dilatation  and  contraction, 
according  to  the  quantity  and  ftop  of  the  blood  ; 
and  coni'equently  of  being,  as  it  were,  erected  /?: 
coitu,  and  of  embracing  the  ovary  at  that  time, 
which  in  their  ftate  of  flaccidity  they  did  not. 

They  take  their  denomination  fallopian  from 
Gabriel  Fallopius,  ?i  Modcnefe,  who  died  in  1562, 
commonly  reputed  their  firft  difcoverer,  though 
we  find  them  defcribed  long  before  in  Rifus  of 
Ephefus. 

The  ova,  or  embryos,  are  fometimes  detained  in 
the  tubes  fallopian  a,  and  cannot  make  their  way 
into  the  womb. — Jbraham  Cyprianus,  a  celebrated 
phyfician  of  Amfierdam,  in  a  letter  to  Sir  Thomas 
Millington,  deltribes  the  manner  in  which  he  drew 
a  feetus  twenty-one  months  old  out  of  the  tuba  of 
a  living  woman,  who  lived  and  had  feveral  chil- 
dren after  the  operation. 

Twins  fpiing  always  from  two  eggs  difengaged 
from  the  ovarium  at  one  and  the  fame  time.  The 
egg  has  two  membranes  ftrew'd  with  veffels,  which 
at  firft:  are  very  fmall  and  fine,  but  grows  larger 
after  it  has  been  fecundated  by  the  more  volatile 
part  of  the  feed  of  man  carried  to  the  ovarium^ 
through  the  tuba  fallopiana. 

The  Matrix  (£)  uterus,  or  luomb,  is  the  prin- 
cipal organ  o( generation.  'Tis  placed  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  hypogajlrium,  between  the  reilum  and 
the  bladder ;  lodged  in  a  cavity  called  pelvis,  fo 
large  as  to  give  the  womb  liberty  to  diftend  itfelf 
upon  impregnation.  It  is  furrounded  and  defended 
by  mighty  bones  ;  before  by  the  os  pubis,  behind 
by  the  facrum;  on  each  fide  by  the  iliu?n  and  ifbium. 
It  is  in  figure  fomewhat  like  a  flat  flafk,  or  dried 

pear. 


72 


The  Unlverfal  Hifcory  of  Arts  ^;^(a^  Sciences. 


pear.  In  women  with  child,  itcxp:inds  and  receives 
different  forms,  according  to  the  different  times  and 
circumftances  of  geftation. — It  has  feveral  coats, 
arteiies,  veins,  nerves,  and  ligaments,  and  is  inter- 
woven with  feveral  kind  of  fibres. 

Anatomifts  divide  the  matrix  into  the  fundus 
and  cervix  ;  a  broad  part,  and  a  neck. — It  is  in 
extent  from  the  extremity  of  the  one  to  that  of  the 
other,  about  three  inches  in  length  ;  its  breadth  at 
ih.&  fundus  is  about  two  and  a  half,  and  its  thick- 
ncfs  two  inches. — It  has  but  one  cavity,  unlcfs  we 
diftinguifh  between  the  cavity  of  the  rUerus,  and 
that  of  its  neck.  That  of  the  cervix  is  very  fmall, 
fcarce  fufficient  to  contain  a  garden  bean.  At  the 
bottom  or  neck  towards  ^e  fundus,  it  grows  very 
narrow  in  virgins  ;  the  extremity  of  it  is  called  the 
ofculum  internum  ;   in   pregnant  women  it  opens, 

more  cfpecially  towards  the  time  of  delivery. 

The  other  and  lower  orifice  of  the  neck  towards 
\^-\z  vagina,  cdWtA  ofculum  extei  num,  is  a  little  pro- 
minent, refembling,  in  fome  meafure,  the  glans 
of  the  virile  organ. 

The  fubftance  of  the  matrix  is  membranous, 
which  enables  it  to  receive  the  feed  ;  to  ftretch  and 
fpread  itfelf  for  the  growth  of  the  child  ;  to  con- 
trail itfelf  for  the  egrefs  of  the  child,  and  after- 
birth, and  at  laft  to  reinftate  itfelf  in  its  natural 
pofture. 

The  matrix  is  tied  faff  at  the  bottom  and  at  the 
neck.  The  neck,  which  is  covered  with  the  peri- 
toneum, is  knit  before  to  the  bladder  and  the/j^r^- 
bone,  and  behind  to  the  reSlum  and  thf  os  facrum. 
The  bottom  is  more  at  liberty,  in  order  to  move, 
dilate,  and  contradl  itfelf  upon  occafion,  though 
equipped  with  four  ligaments;  two  upper  ones(FF,) 
which  are  nothing  elfe  but  the  produ6lipns  of  the 
peritoneum,  which  proceed  from  the  loins,  and 
are  inferted  in  the  fides  of  the  bottom  of  the  womb, 
to  prevent  its  falling  down  upon  the  neck  ;  and 
two  inferiors  (GG)  which  rife  from  the  fides  of 
the  bottom  of  the  womb,  towards  its  horns,  and 
paffino;  through  the  reins  in  the  aponcurofes,  or  ten- 
dons of  the  mufcles  of  the  abdomen,  march  to  the 
groins,  where  they  divide  themfelves  into  feveral 
branches,  fome  of  which  are  inferted  into  the 
Ihare-bone,  and  others  in  the  thighs,  from 
whence  proceed  the  pains  which  pregnant  women 
feel  in  thofe  parts,  which  increafe  as  the  belly 
rifes. 

From  the  ricrvcs  difperfcd  over  the  bottom  of  the 
womb,  as  well  as  its  neck,  and  which  proceed, 
fome  from  the  intercojial  branch,  and  fome  from 
thofe  that  pafs  through  the  os  facrum,  the  matrix 
receives  its  exquifite  fcnfe  of  pain,  or  picafure  ; 
and  are  the  occafion  of  its  fympathy  with  all  the 
parts  of  the  body. 


The  womb  is  fprinklcd  all  over  with  blood  inj- 
portcd,  part  by  the  fpermatick  artei  les,  mentioned 
above ;  and  part  by  other  arteries,  which  fpring 
from  the  hypogaflrick  ones. 

Thefe  arteries  not  only  furnifli  the  wctrvb  with 
blood  for  its  nouriflimcnt,  but  likewile  pour  in 
blood  through  an  infinity  of  fmall  branches  upon 
the  whole  body  of  the  placenta,  in  order  to  be  fent 
through  the  navel-Jiriv.g  to  the  fostus. — When  a 
woman  is  not  with  child,  the  fame  blood  flips  away 
through  feveral  paffages  that  open  into  the  circum- 
ference of  the  bottom  of  the  womb,  and  falls  into 
its  cavity,  from  whence  it  makes  its  exit  through 
the  vagina  every  month  ;  and  this  is  what  we  call 
mcnftrual  blood. 

There  are  fome  of  thefe  arteries,  that  fuppiy  the 
inner  orifice  with  blood,  which  is  fometimes  let 
out  in  pregnant  women,  efpecially  when  the  per- 
fon  has  more  than  is  necelfary  for  the  nouriihment 
of  the  child  :  fo  that  we  mufl  not  be  furprized  upon 
feeing  fome  women  vifited  by  their  terms  feveral 
times  during  their  being  with  child,  who  ncver- 
thelefs  go  their  full  time  ;  fince  in  that  cafe  the 
flux  comes  from  the  veffels  of  the  neck  of  the 
womb,  and  not  from  the  bottom  :  for,  if  from  the 
bottom,  it  would  occafion  a  mifcarriage  ;  but  no 
otherwife.  • 

The  hypogajlrick  3.nA  fpermatick  are  the  two  prin- 
cipal veins  of  the  matrix,  which  confifts  of  an  in- 
finity of  branches,  fpringing  from  all  the  parts  of 
the  womb,  and  exporting  the  blood  to   the  trunk 
of  the  vena  cava. 

Since  we  have  already  compared  the  matrix  to  a 
flafk,  we  mufl:  believe  that  it  has  a  bottom,  a  neck, 
and  orifices  :  and  in  faci  it  has  two  orifices,  the 
one  internal,  and  the  other  external.  • 

The  t'.*- to- W  srZ/fiv  (H)  called  Pudendum,  is 
compofed  of  feveral  parts,  fome  of  which  are  ob- 
vious, as  the  pubes,  the  mens  veneris,  the  lips,  and 
the  great  flit.  But  the  others  are  only  defcry'd  af- 
ter the  dedu£lion  of  the  lips,  fuch  are  the  nymphcc^ 
the  clitoris,  urinary  paffage,  and  the  caruncles. 

The  Pubes  (I)  is  feated  on  the  forepait  of  the 
fhare-bone,  and  immediately  above  the  pudendum. 
It  confifts  offiit,  v.'hich  ferves  as  a  little  cufhion  to 
hinder  the  hardnefs  of  the  bones  from  being  hurt- 
ful in  amorous  embraces. 

MoKs  Veneris  (K)  is  feated  a  little  lower  than 
pubes,  above  the  great  lips. 

The  great  Labia  (LL)  defcend  from  this  hiJ!, 
one  on  the  right  and  the  other  on  the  left,  and 
meet  in  the  perinceum. — They  confift  of  the  fkin 
doubled,  and  fpongy  flefh  and  fat,  which  renders 
them  pretty  thick. — In  girls  they  are  firmer  than  in 
thofe  who  have  received  man,  and  in  thofe  who 
have  bore  many  children  they  are  foft  and  flaggy. 
8  —The 


A  N  A  r  0   M  r 


73 


— The  fpace  between  the  two  lips  is  called  the 
great  cleft,  or  flit;  and  reaches  from  the  mons  ve- 
neris to  the  pervii^um. 

Upon  fpreading  the  thighs,  and  drawing  afide 
the  two  Ups,  are  two  flefliy  foft  and  Ipongy  ex- 
crefcences,  called 

Nymph  JE  (MM)  which  defcend  from  the  tip 
of  the  clitoris  to  the  fides  of  the  urinary  paflage  ; 
thus  reaching  to  about  the  middle  of  the  orifice  of 
the  vagina,  where  they  grow  lefs  and  lels  till  they 
difappear. 

Their  breadth  is  uncertain,  ufually  in  maids 
half  a  finger  ;  fome  times  they  are  larger,  and  ca- 
pable of  being  diil:ended  to  a  great  degree  ;  fo  as 
to  hang  a  good  way  out  of  the  body,  and  in  i'uch 
cafes  are  often  extirpated. 

The  ufeof  the  nympha:  is,  by  fwelling  in  ael  of 
coition,  to  embrace  the  penis,  and  by  their  fenfi- 
bility  to  afFcii:  the  woman,  and  mutually  invite 
to  procreation. 

Their  fubitance  is  very  fpongy,  compofed  of 
membranes,  and  veflels  loofely  cohering,  and 
therefore  eafdy  diflendible. 

Within  the  great  cleft  above  the  nympha,  there 
is  a  long  round  anil  glandulous  body,  which  en- 
creafes  towards  the  extremity,  called 

Clitoris  (NN)  which  ibme  call  ojirctun  vene- 
ris', from  its  exquifite  fenfation,  for  all  Phyfecians 
as  well  as  Jnatomijis  agree  in  this,  that  the  clitoris 
is  the  principal  feat  of  pleafure. 

Its  appearance  commences  in  virgins  about  the 
fourteenth  year  of  their  age  ;  after  which  it  en- 
larges as  the  years  advance,  or  in  proportion  to  the 
greater  or  leiler  falacioufnefs  of  the  perfon  — In 
the  ardour  of  enjoym.ent  it  fwells  and  becomes 
hard,  juft  as  the  yard  fwells  in  the  time  of  erection, 
and  by  the  fame  caufe. — In  fome  women  'tis  very 
large,  and  fhoots  without  the  lips  ;  in  others  it 
has  the  fize  of  a  man's  yard,  and  ferves  for  an  in- 
flrument  to  abufe  other  women,  as  feen  in  the 
hermaphrodites. 

The  clitoris  is  compofed  of  the  fame  parts  with 
thofe  of  the  penis ;  it  has,  liice  it,  two  cavernous 
or  fpongious  bodies,  and  -a  glaus  [O,)  at  the  ex- 
tremity, covered  with  a  praputium  (P,)  but  not 
perforated  like  the  penis. 

It  has  two  raufcles  (RR)  which  ereiJt  it  in  co- 
ition, on  which  occafion  it  fwells  and  grows  hard. 

The  fpongious  bodies  of  the  clitoris,  arife  di- 
flinftly  from  the  lower  part  of  the  os  pubis,  and 
approaching  one  another,  unite  and  form  the  body 
of  the  clitoris  ;  before  their  union  they  are  called 
crura  cUtoridis,  and  are  twice  as  long  as  the  body 
of  the  clitoris. 

Its  mufcles  arife  from  the  protuberance  of  the 
ifcbiuin,  and  are  infwrted  hito  its  fpongious  bodies  j 


it  has  veins  and  arteries  fiom  the  hasmorrhoidal 
veflels  and  pudenda  ;  and  nerves  from  the  inter- 
coflal,  which  ferve  not  only  to  raife  and  ftifFen  the 
clitoris,  but  likewife  to  contracSt  and  flraiten  the 
orifice  of  the  vagina  ;  for  when  they  fwell  them- 
felves,  they  oblige  the  labia  to  draw  dole  to  one 
another  ;  hy  which  means  the  yard  is  extremely 
fqueezed  in  the  amorous  approaches. 

The  artcria  pudendx  furnifli  the  clitoris  with 
blood  ;  and  the  vena  pudendal  carry  it  back  into 
the  cava. 

Under  the  clitoris  appears  the  urinary  paflage, 
furrounded  with  a  fphinfjer,  which  ferves  to  im- 
prifon  or  releafe  the  urine  at  pleafure  ;  and  this 
pailage  being  larger  and  fliorter  in  women,  than 
in  men;  their  urine  being  thereby  provided  with 
more  difpatch,  fweeps  off  the  fmall  flones,  fand, 
and  gravel,  which  oftentimes  remain  in  the  bottom 
of  a  man's  bladder  :  fo  that  women  are  lefs  fubjedl 
to  the  ftone. 

GraafczWs  lacuna:  a  glandulous  body,  of  about 
a  finger's  breadth  thick,  fituated  between  theflefhy 
fibres  of  the  urethra,  and  the  membrane  of  the 
vagina,  and  which  fpreads  itfelf  along  and  round 
the  bladder. — Thofe  conduits  terminate  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  vulva,  and  there  throw  out  a 
ilimy  matter  that  mixes  with  the  male  feed. 

The  Caruncles  Myrtiformes  (WW) 
come  next,  placed,  as  it  were,  in  the  four  corners 
of  a  quadrangle,  and  in  the  midft  of  a  long  cavity 

called  yi^  navicularis They    are   made  of  the 

flcfhy  wrinkles  of  the  vagina,  which  render  the 
pafTage  fo  much  the  ftraiter,  efpecially  in  virgins, 
in  whom  they  are  joined  fide- ways  to  one  another 
by  fome  fmall  membranes,  which  make  them  re- 
femble  a  rofe-bud  half  blown  ;  but  when  thofe 
membranes  are  once  broken,  by  the  ingrefs  of  the 
penis,  or  the  egrefs  of  a  child,  they  are  feparated, 
and  never  rejoin. — Thcfe  caruncles  ferve  for  two 
ufes,  one  is  to  heighten  the  mutual  pleafure  of  en- 
joyment, by  clinging  round  and  locking  up  the 
yard  ;  the  other  is  to  facilitate  the  egrefs  of  the 
child,  by  extending  themfelves. 

j^;/.  May  not  the  union  oi  thefe  two  caruncles, 
be  the  Ible  mark  of  virginity  in  a  woman  .'' 

Having  thus  carefully  examined  the  parts  calcu- 
lated for  generation,  both  in  men  and  women ;  it 
will  not  be  improper  to  give  here,  fome  account  of 
the  generation  itfelf. 

To  proceed  with  fome  order  in  this  difcovery, 
we  muft  confider,  that  an  animal  cannot  be  produ- 
ced without  a  couple,  /.  e.  a  male  and  a  female, 
each  of  vi'hich  afts  its  refpeclive  part  in  the  admi- 
rable work  of  generation. 

Let  us  therefore  inquire  firfl:  into  the  man's  part. 
The  whole  of  his  action  may   be  reduced  to  two 

heads. 


74 


The  Univcrfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^W  Sciences. 

aiiJ  the  convey 


heads,  viz.  the  producing  of  feeJ 
ing  ix.  into  the  womb. 

The  Seed,  femcii,  is  a  white  liquid  matter,  the 
thickeft  of  any  in  the  body,  feparated  from  the 
blood  in  the  te'fticles,  and  refcrved  in  proper  veflels 
to  be  the  means  of  generation. 

The  parts  concerned  in  the  preparation  of  the 
feed  are  the  fpermatick  arteries,  which  bring  the 
blood  to  be  fecreted  into  the  teflicles  ;  the  terticles 
and  piirajlata,  M'here  the  fecretion  is  chiefly  efFefl- 
cd;  t\\Q.vafa  deprentia,  which  convey  the  fecreted 
matter  out  of  the  tefticles;  and  the  vcftcula  fcmina- 
les,  which  receive  and  preferve  it  to  be  emitted  in 
coition. 

The  feminal  liquor  emitted  for  ufe,  is  a  mixture 
of  feveral  fluids,  poured  at  the  fame  time  into  the 
common  canal  of  the  uretlira,  either  from  the 
glands,  that  have  fecreted  them,  or  from  the  refer- 
voirs,  that  have  kept  them. 

The  feveral  feminal  particles  being  feparated 
from  the  blood  by  the  natural  difpofition  of  the  tefti- 
cles, are  received  by  an  infinite  number  of  the 
fmall  roots  of  the  epididymus,  which  convey  them 
to  thefe  glandulous  bodies  ;  from  whence  they  re^ 


the  act  oi  generation;  but  before  we  proceed  fur- 
ther we  niuft  make  fome  remarks  upon  the  tejiicks 
of  women,  i.  That  the  tefticles  of  womui  are 
glands  which  filtrate  the  feed;  and  that  each  of 
them  has  an  excretory  vellcl,  which  conveys  the 
filtrated  feed  to  the  veficles.  2.  1  liat  in  women 
each  of  thefe  veficles  is  feparated  from  its  neigh- 
bouring veficle,  as  one  grape  is  from  another  in  the 
fame  bunch.  3.  That  in  each  vcficle  there  is  a 
feed  which  is  capable  to  form  a  child,  juft  as  a  hen's 
egg  contains  all  the  necefiary  particles  for  producing 
a  chick;  and,  4.  That  each  veficle  may  difengage 
itfelf  from  the  tefticle,  and  be  tranfported  to  the 
bottom  of  the  womb.  —  Upon  this  principle  we 
call  the  veficles,  eggs,  and  change  the  name  of 
tefticles  into  that  of  ovarium. 

The  Matrix,  or  womb,  is  the  proper  and  pe- 
culiar organ  of  generation.      'Tis  certain  that  the 

I  fcetui  is  formed  within  it  out  of  the  feed  that  it  fo- 

1  merits  ;  but  we  are  at  a  lofs  to  know  in  what  man- 

I  ner  it  is  formed. 

There  are  two  principal  theories  or  methods  of 
accounting  for  the  generation  of  animals :    1  he 

,  one  fuppofes  the  embryo  or  foetus  to  be  originally  in 


pair  to  the  vafa  deferentia;  and  are  by  them  con-  j  the  feed  of  the  male;  the  other  in  the  ovum  or  egg 
dufled  by  drops  to  the  feminal  veficles.  In  :  of  the  female. 


thefe  veficles  all  thefe  particles  being  joined  make  a 
prolifick  liquor,  called  feed^  laid  up  for  a  referve 
in  thefe  little  bags. 

This  liquor  muft  have  an  egrefs,  and  be  tranf- 
ferred  to  a  place  that's  qualified  for  the  produdlion 
of  man.  This  place  is  the  womb;  and  the  adion 
which  transfers  the  feed  is  called  copulation. 

Copulation  is  the  joining  of  a  male  to  a  fe- 
male; in  the  action  the  male  gives,  and  the  female 
receives  ;  there  are  three  neceifary  circumftances  in 
performing  the  act  of  copulation  ;  the  firft  is  the 
erection  of  the  penis;  the  fecond  its  being  lodged 
in  the  neck  of  the  womb ;  and  the  third  is  the  ejec- 
tion of  the  feed. 

The  ereSiion  of  the  penis,  confifts  in  a  diftention 
of  its  corpora  cavernofa,  by  an  extraordinary  quan- 
tity of  blood  pent  up  therein  ;  and  which  is  effected 
in  the  following  manner. 

The  Ejy>  CULATION,  or  Ejection  which  ought 
to  follow  the  lodging  of  the  yard  in  the  neck  of  the 
womb,  is  thus  performed.  Theffed  taking  leave  of 
the  feminal  veficles,  pafies  through  the  ejaculatory 
veflels,  and  enters  the  urethra,  from  whence  it  is 
fq.uirted  out  with  a  jirk,  by  virtue  of  the  convul- 
fions  that  then  feize  the  yard.  The  quantity  of 
feed  thus  emitted  cannot  be  determined  ;  fome 
fquirt  out  more  than  others ;  and  no  more  is  necef- 
fary  than  what  can  keep  up  its  conveyance  to  the 
ovarium. 

We'll  now  take  a  view  of  the  woman's  part  in  ^ 


The  frji  fuppofes  animalcules  in  the  male  feed  to 
be  the  firft  rudiments  of  the  fcetus ;  and  that  the 
female  only  furnifhes  a  proper  tiidus  and  nutriment 
to  bring  them  forwards. 

The  fecond  fuppofes  the  firft  rudiments  of  the 
animal  to  be  in  the  ova  ;  and  that  the  male  feed 
only  fei-vcs  to  warm,  cherifti,  and  ripen  the  ova, 
'till  they  fall  off  out  of  the  ovary  into  the  womb ; 
which  is  chiefly  fupported  (fay  the  retainers  to  that 
fyftem)  from  the  conformation  in  rabits,  cows, 
&'<:.  where  the  vagina  of  the  womb  is  !o  long  and 
finuous,  that  it  is  fcarce  poffible  the  male- feed  fhould 
ever  arrive  within  the  body  of  the  uterus,  efpecial- 
ly  in  cows,  whofe  vagina  is  filled  \\'\ih  a  thick, 
vifcid   ichor,  and   the  inner  orifice  of  the  womb 

exactly  clofed They   add  to  this  that  it  is 

highly  improbable  that  the  animalcules  (mentioned 
by  Mr.  Leewenhoeck  and  others)  ftiould  contain  the 
rudiments  of  a  future  body;  fince  their  large  num- 
ber would  produce  too  plentiful  an  offspring;  in  fo 
much  that  it  would  be  neceffary  for  9999  parts  of 
them  to  be  in  vain  and  perifh,  which  is  contrary  to 
the  oeconomy  of  nature  in  other  things. 

Analogy  is  likcwife  urged  in  favour  of  this  fy- 
ftem:  That  all  plants  are  maintained  to  arife 
from  eggs  ;  feeds  being  no  other  than  eggs  under 
another  denomination.  All  oviparous  animals  do 
unexceptionably  arife  from  eggs ;  which  the  female 
cafts  forth  ;  and  it  is  highly  probable,  that  the  fe- 
males lay  and  hatch  their  eggs  within  themfelves. 
I  Againft 


A   N    A    r    0     MY. 


75 


Againfl  this  hypothefis  it  is  urged,  that  what  are 
ufually  called  ova,  or  eggs,  in  women,  are  no 
other  than  little  cells  or  bladders,  full  of  a  certain 
liquor:  And  how  can  a  drop  of  liquor  pafs  for  an 
egg  ?  And  that  thefe  imaginary  eggs  have  no  pro- 
per membrane  belonging  to  them,  nor  any  cover- 
ing but  that  of  the  cell ;  which  feems  fo  infcpa- 
ble  therefrom,  that  when  they  are  difcharged,  it  is 
hard  to  conceive  how  they  fhould  take  it  with 
them.  And  befide,  how  fhould  they  make  them- 
felves  a  pafHige  through  the  common  membrane, 
wherewith  the  ovary  is  inverted,  which  is  of  fo 
clofe  a  texture,  that  it  muft  feem  ablblutely  impe- 
netrable, by  a  round  body  of  fo  foft  a  confifl:ence, 
as  one  of  thefe  veficles.  —  Laftly,  vefuula:,  in 
all  refpecls  perfeftly  like  ova,  have  been  found  in 
other  parts  of  the  body,  where  it  is  apparent  they 
could  not  fervc  for  any  purpofes  of  generation. 
Mem.  de  I' Acadcm.  Royal  des  Scien.  An.  1708, 
1709. 

To  this  it  is  anfwered,  that  ova,  or  vc/iculce, 
have  been  aftually  found  in  difleflions,  detached 
and  feparated  from  the  ovary,  and  the  ruptures  in 
the  membranes  in  the  ovary,  through  which  they 
had  palled,  fUll  vifible. 

Mr.  Littre  even  obferved  fome  of  thefe  feparated 
cva,  fpread  with  blood  veflels,  like  thofe  in  the 
yolks  of  birds  eggs.  Nay  more,  the  fame  au- 
thor is  pofitive,  that  he  faw  an  embryo  in  one  of 
the  ova  not  yet  feparated;  could  difcern  its  head, 
mouth,  nofe,  trunk,  and  funiculus  mnbiUcalis, 
whereby  it  adhered  to  the  membranes  of  the 
mary. 

Sir  ^ohn  Floycr  ftarts  a  difficulty,  which  feems  to 
prefs  equally  againft  each  fyflem,  taken  fingly  :  It 
is  fetched  from  monfters;  in  a  mule,  for  inftance, 
which  is  the  production  of  a  venereal  copula,  be- 
tween an  afs  and  a  mare,  the  bulk  of  the  body 
partakes  of  the  form  of  the  dam  ;  and  the  feet, 
tail,  and  ears  of  that  of  the  fire  ;  hence  it  is  ar- 
gued, that  the  rudiments  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
fcetus,  are  laid  in  the  ovum;  and  that  the  impreg- 
nation, either  conveys  or  changes  the  extremities. 
If  the  male  fupplied  the  animalcula,  the  fcetm 
ftould  always  be  of  the  fame  ipecies  as  the  male : 
If  the  female  fupply  it,  it  fhould  be  of  her  kind ; 
whereas  monfters  are  of  both. 

But  notwithflanding  this  objeiftion,  all  Anato- 
mifts  agree,  at  prcfent,  that  the  foetus  is  certainly 
lodged  in  an  egg ;  and  that  the  procefs  of  genera- 
tion, on  the  part  of  the  female,  is  thus. 

The  clitoris  being  ereiSed,  after  the  like  manner 
as  the  penis  in  man  ;  and  the  neighbouring  parts  all 
<3iftended  with  blood,  they  more  adequately  embrace 
the  penis  in  coitti ;  and  by  their  intumefcence,  prefs 
out  a  li(iuor  from  the  glands  about  the  neck  of  the 

e. 


womb,  to  facilitate  the  pafllige  of  the  penis.  — 
At  the  fame  time  the  fibres  of  the  womb  contract- 
ing, open  its  mouth,  (which  at  other  times  is  ex- 
tremely c!ofe)  for  the  reception  of  the  finer  part  of 
the  feed. 

Thus  ihe  feed,  pregnant  with  animalculae,  is 
conveyed  with  fome  impetus,  into  the  uterus; 
where,  being  retained  by  the  convulfive  conftric- 
tion  of  the  inner  membrane  thereof,  and  further 
heated  and  agitated  therein,  it  is  prepared  to  im- 
pregnate the  ovum. 

During  the  adl  of  coition  the  fallopian  tubes 
growing  ftiff,  embrace  the  ovaries  with  their  ftrong 
mufculous  edges,  like  fingers,  and  comprcfs  them ; 
till  their  mouth  being  dilated,  and  expanded  by 
this  embrace,  force  the  egg,  now  ripened,  into 
their  cavities,  and  graJually  drive  it  forwards,  by 
their  vermicular  motion  till  at  laft  they  protrude  it 
into  the  cavity  of  the  womb,  to  meet  the  feed ; 
fome  of  the  animalcules  whereof,  entering  the  di- 
lated pores  of  the  glandulous  membrane  of  the  egg, 
are  there  retained,  nourifhed,  grow  to  its  navel, 
and  fuffocate  the  reft  of  the  lefs  lively  animaculte. 

Thus  fpeak  the  aflerters  of  that  fyftcm. 

They  who  fet  afide  the  anlinalcuks,  as  uncon- 
cerned in  ^^^z^r^Z/sH,  account  for  it  thus  :  The  feed 
containing  oily,  volatile,  and  faliiie  parts  (as  ap- 
pears from  its  fetid  fmell,  oleaginous  ilibftance, 
^c. )  being  lodged  in  the  womb,  and  there  further 
digefted  and  exalted,  grows  yet  more  volatile,  fe- 
tid, pungent,  and  ftimulating  ;  and  thus  adding  to 
the  heat  occafioned  by  coition,  vcllicates  the  ner- 
vous fibres  of  that  part,  and  occafions  a  fermenta- 
tion ;  and  by  that  means  an  extraordiiiary  flux  of 
humours  to  that  and  the  adjacent  parts. 

'  By  this  means  the  tuba  become  rigid,  and  fit  to 
grafp  the  ovaries,  which  are  alfo  heated  by  the  ef- 
fluvia of  the  femen,  and  the  warmth  of  the  parts 
furrounding  :  till  at  length,  fome  of  them  at  leaft, 
by  fuch  greater  fupply  of  nouriflimcnt,  increafe  in 
bulk;  and  as  thofe  grafped  by  the  edges  of  the 
tubtr,  will  be  kept  warmeft-,  and  the  greateft  flux 
be  made  thereto,  they  will  foonelt  be  ripened,  fall 
ofF,  and  be  received  by  the  tubes,  and  conveyed  to 
the  womb ;  where  growing  after  the  manner  of 
the  feed  of  plants,  the  placenta,  at  length,  lays 
hold  of,  and  adheres  to  the  uterus ;  from  which 
time  the  embryo  begins  to  be  nouriflied  after  a  dif- 
ferent manner. 

From  the  abdomen  we  proceed  to  the  region  of 
the  thorax. 

The  Thorax  or  brea^fi  (fee  A  on  the  fig.  of 

the  ribs,  ^c.   in  the   centre  of  the  plate  of  0/h- 

ology)  is  the  cavity  that  reaches  from  the  clavicula, 

or  channel  bones  to   the  midriff,  terminated  by 

L  the 


76 


Tlie    Univerfal  Hiflory  o/"Arts  /a;W  Sciences. 


the  Jlernum  before;  the  ribs  on  the  fides  and 
the  vertthr^e  of  the  back,  behind.  Its  figure  is  al- 
moft  oval;  flat  behind,  and  broad  and  arched  be- 
fore. Jt  is  compofed  of  bone  and  flefli ;  but  not 
of  the  fame  fize  in  all  fubje£ls. 

It  is  divided  into  parts  containing  and  contained. 
And  the  containing  parts  are  either  common  or 
proper.  The  common  parts  are  already  defcribed 
in  the  account  of  the  abdo?nen  (fee  page  73.)  To 
which  add  that  the  fat  of  the  thorax,  (except  in 
the  breafts)  is  but  a  fmall  quantity.  The  proper 
containing  parts  are  ;  fome  glandulous,  as  the 
breafts ;  fome  cartilaginous,  and  bony,  as  the 
breaft  bone,  ribs,  channel  tone,  flioulder  blades, 
and  the  vertebrre  of  the  back  ;  fome  flefhy,  as  the 
peroral,  intercoftal  and  other  mufcles  ;  and  fome 
membranous,  as  the  pleura  and  the  mecliajiinum. 

The  parts  containing  are  the  vifcera  and  the 
veflels. 

The  vifcera  are  the  heart  and  its  pericardium; 
and  the  lungs,  and  part  of  the  tvind  pipe  and  gullet. 

The  vejels  are  feveral  nerves  ;  the  great  artery, 
vena  cava,  and  the  thoracick  ducSt. 

The  mod  apparent  of  thefe  parts  are  the  breafts, 
a  prominent  fleftiy  part  on  the  outfide  of  the  tho- 
rax laterally,  ferving  to  feparate  the  milk.  Their 
fhape  reprefents  a  large  feftion  of  a  globe.  In  the 
middle  of  each  there  is  a  protuberance,  terminat- 
ing in  a  blunt  point,  called  the.  papilla  or  nipple; 
whofe  extremity  is  perforated  with  many  holes 
through  which  the  lafteal  tubes  difcharge  them- 
felvcs,  in  women,  whofe  breafts  are  more  perfe<S, 
confpicuous  and  ufeful  than  in  men.  They  differ 
in  their  fize  not  only  according  to  the  difference  of 
the  fex ;  but  likewife  in  different  female  fubjeds ; 
and  even  in  the  fame  women  at  different  times ;  be- 
ing always  biggeft  in  times  of  pregnancy  and  giv- 
ing fuck. 

The  papilla  or  nipple  is  of  a  fungous  and  fpungy 
fubftance ;  by  which  means  it  droops  or  raifes  it- 
felf,  when  fucked  or  handled ;  and  it  is  poflefled 
with  an  exquifite  fenfe,  fo  as  to  give  the  woman 
pleafure  by  a  certain  titillation,  occafioned  by  the 
fucking  of  the  child.  This  nipple  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  age  and  condition  of  fubjeds.  In  vir- 
gins it  is  fmall  and  red ;  in  nurfes,  and  thofe  paft 
child-bearing  it  is  large  and  livid.  In  virgins  it  is 
encircled  with  a  pale  coloured  areola;  which  is 
brown  in  pregnant  women,  and  nurfes ;  but  black 
in  old  people. 

The  internal  fubftance  of  the  breafls  is  of  an 
oval  figure  compofed  of  a  great  many  diff^erent  fized 
glands,  mixed  with  globules  and  veflels  of  fat. 
Their  excretory  duds,  as  they  approach  the  nipple, 
join  and  unite  together,  and  form  feven  cr  moxe 


pipes,  called  tubuli  la£liferi,  which  communicate 
alfo  with  each  other  by  crofs  canals  to  prevent 
cafual  obftrudions.  Thefe  tubuli  are  in  fome 
parts  more  dilated  than  in  others,  fo  as  to  iurta 
celJs,  to  hinder  the  fpontanous  efflux  and  create  a 
ncceftity  to  draw  out  the  milk  by  fucking;  and  the 
fubftance  of  the  papilU  is  in  fome  meafure  formed 
by  the  concurrence  of  thefe  tubuli,  and  they  are 
preferved  from  pafling  too  dole  on  each  other  by  an 
intermediate  glandulous  fubftance,  intermixed  with 
abundance  of  fibres  derived  from  the  external  tegu- 
ment of  the  papilla.  By  which  the  ladeal  tubes 
are  conftringed,  and  the  motion  of  the  milk  is  mo- 
dified. 

Here  alfo  we  find  abundance  of  fatty  globules 
called  duitus  adipofi,  which,  according  to  Drakt 
and  Malpighi,  contribute  to  the  compofition  of 
the  milk. 

Thefe  tubes,  which  compofe  the  glands  of  the 
breafts  in  virgins,  contrad  fo  clofely,  that  they  ad- 
mit no  blood  to  enter  them ;  but  when  the  womb 
grows  big  with  the  fast  us,  and  comprefles  the 
defcending  trunk  of  the  great  artery,  the  blood  in  • 
creafes  and  is  accelerated  fo  much  through  the  ar- 
teries of  the  breafts,  that  it  forces  a  paflage  into  the 
glands.  By  this  fecretion  of  the  blood,  or  a  thick 
chyle  circulating  with  it,  there  at  firft  appears  only 
a  thin  water  ;  but  as  the  woman  advances  in  her 
pregnancy  and  the  womb  enlarges,  the  glands  grow 
wider  and  admit  a  thick  ferum ;  which  after  her 
delivery  coagulates  into  a  thick  milk ;  becaufe  that 
blood,  which  before  flowed  to  the  foetus  by  the 
uterus  begins  then  to  flop  and  no  longer  dilates  the 
mamillary  glands. 

The  nerves  of  the  breafls,  derived  from  the 
fifth  pair  of  the  vertebra,  are  difperfed  through  the 
whole  fubftance  of  the  breaft,  and,  terminating  in 
the  nipple,  give  it  every  fenfible  feeling. 

The  arteries  of  the  breafls  are  internal  and  ex- 
ternal. 

The  internal  arteries,  which  vifit  the  inner  part, 
are  named  niamrnariie,  fpring  from  the  fubclavia, 
and  lend  a  branch  to  each  of  the  oval  glands,  that 
compofe  the  breaft. 

The  external  arteries  run  along  the  outward  fur- 
face,  are  named  the  upper  thoracice,  and  fpring  from 
the  axillares. 

The  oval  glands  give  rife  to  feveral  fprigs  of 
veins,  which  form  the  vena  mammaria  and  unload 
in  the  fubclavia. 

In  like  manner  the  external  part  of  the  breaft 
fends  out  feveral  branches,  which  are  the  trunks  of 
the  thoracica  fuperiores  and  repair  to  the  axillares. 

Tbe  other  arteries  import  blood  for  the  nourifh- 
ment  of  the  breafts,  and  the  inner  ones  feed  all  the 

glands 


A   N  A  r   0    MY. 


11 


glands.  And  that  blond  is  exported  by  the  veins 
tnammaria  and  the  thoracice  Juperiores,  into  the 
Jubclav'ut  and  axillarcs. 

As  to  the  Milk  obtained  through  the  nipple  of 
the  breaft,  various  have  been  the  conjetlu/es  about 
its  formation.  1  he  ancients  took  it  for  granted 
that  nature  had  endowed  the  glands  of  the  breafts 
with  a  certain  conco.iing  virtue  capable  of  turning 
that  blood  into  milk  for  the  nourifhmcnt  of  the 
child  when  born  ;  which  had  fed  the  foetus  in  the 
womb  ;  and  that  this  concodlion  received  its  white- 
nefs  by  a  certain  aflimulating  faculty  in  the  glands. 

This  opinion  is  exploded  by  the  moderns,  who 
teach  that  tnilk  is  produced  from  chyle^  through  the 
arteries,  and  like  urine  through  the  reins,  is  filtra- 
ted tlirough  the  glands  without  undergoing  any 
confiderable  change.  But  Lewenhoeck  fays,  that 
by  experiments  he  has  found  7mlk  to  confift  of  glo- 
bules fwimming  in  a  clear,  tranfparent  liquor, 
called  ferum  or  whey. 

This  premifed  ;  I  am  of  opinion  that  Milk  is 
compofed  of  butyrous,  cafeous  and  ferous  parts. 

The  butyrous  part  is  the  cream  or  oil  that  fwims 
on  its  furface. 

The  cafeous  is  the  groffer  part,  which  coagu- 
lates, or  curdles  like  cheefe. 

The  ferous  is  that  part  called  lympha,  or  a  fort 
of  whey. 

Milk  is  the  chyle  conveyed  by  the  thoracick 
du6l  to  the  fubclavian  vein,  near  the  axillary; 
from  whence  running  to  the  cava  and  to  the  right 
ventricle  of  the  heart,  it  there  joins  with  the  blood 
and  accompanies  it  into  the  great  artery,  which  in- 
jects it  into  all  the  other  arteries  of  the  body  ;  the 
mofl:  ferous  part  thereof  being  dropt  into  the  reins 
by  the  emulgent  arteries ;  and  the  moft  milky  car- 
ried up  to  the  fmall  branches  of  the  mammariie  to 
all  the  glands  of  the  breajis,  which  completes  its 
fecretion  and  filtration  for  ufe;  to  be  depofited  by 
thofe  glands  in  the  ciftern  of  the  riiilk  till  prefled 
out  by  the  child  or  fome  other  means ;  and  if  kept 
there  too  long  proves  not  only  very  troublefome, 
but  hurtful  to  the  woman  ;  and  inJuceth  a  difeafe, 
called  the  milk  fever,  occafioned  by  its  fermentation, 
for  want  of  proper  vent. 

It  will  be  neceflary  here  to  remark,  that  fome 
men  have  been  found  with  milk  in  their  breafts, 
and  that  authors  give  us  a  cafe  of  a  girl  of  eight 
years  old,  who  voided  milk  in  abundance  through 
one  of  her  thighs,  and  continued  for  feveral  years 
fo  to  do,  which  confirms  the  doctrine  of  the  milk^s 
production  from  chyle,  or  that  it  is  a  thick  chyle. 

Nurfes  fliould  never  give  a  child  the  breaft  fo  as 
to  load  its  ftomach ;  for  though  fuch  a  praflice, 
which  is  too  common  in  good  mothers,  is  allowed 
to  fatten  the  child,  as  cramming  does  turkies ;  it 


often  enflames  the  conftitutlon  and  carries  the  bab 
oft"  with  a  continual  fever. 

Great  attention  alfo  fhould  be  given  to  children, 
who  live  much  upon  milk,  who  contract  feveral 
difeafes  by  the  corruption  of  the  whokfome  nou- 
riftiment  of  milk,  occafioned  by  a  bad  digcflion. 
In  fuch  a  cafe  we  are  directed  by  Celjus  and  Dohel 
the  Dane,  to  give  the  patient  only  a  glafs  of  water 
with  a  little  fait  in  it,  which  will  throw  up  the 
corrupt  matter. 

The  next  parts  of  the  thorax  are  mufcular  and 
cartilaginous  or  bony.  The  mufcular  will  be 
treated  of  hereafter.  The  cartilaginous  and  bony 
parts  have  been  defcribed  (fee  page  49.)  There- 
fore we'll  proceed  to  that  clafs  of  the  containing 
parts  of  the  breaji,  called  membranous,  viz..  the 
pleura  and  the  mediaflinum. 

The  Pleura  is  a  membrane  of  the  fubftance  of 
the  peritonaum,  the  figure  and  extent  of  the  tho- 
rax, lines  the  whole  infide  of  the  cavity  of  the 
breajl,  and  inclofes  all  its  contents.  It  is  double  ; 
yet  very  fine  and  thin.  It  rifes  from,  and  is  faft- 
ened  to  the  ligaments  of  the  vertebrce;  and  is 
thickeft  about  the  back.  Its  other  faftenings  are 
to  the  periojieum  of  the  cofla,  to  the  inttrcoftal 
mufcles  and  to  the  inner  and  fore  part  of  the 
fiernum. 

Its  duplicature  is  in  the  middle  of  the  thorax 
and  forms  the  mediajlinum  (G).  It  contains  feve- 
ral holes  ;  thofe  above  make  way  for  the  great  ar- 
tery, the  vena  cava,  the  gullet,  the  wind  pipe,  and 
to  the  nerves  of  the  eighth  pair.  There  are  oiher 
holes  below  for  the  paflage  of  the  vena  cava  alfo, 
and  for  the  gullet. 

There  are  feveral  nerves,  arteries  and  veins; 
which  render  the  wounds  in  this  part  both  painful 
and  dangerous.  The  nerves  branch  from  the  ver- 
tehrts  of  the  back,  and  from  the  eighth  pair.  The 
arteries  fpring  from  the  intercoftal  and  great  artery  ; 
and  the  veins  flow  to  the  intercojlalis  fupei  ior., 
and  the  agygos. 

T  he  ufe  of  the  plura  is  to  defend  the  infide  of 
the  thorax,  and  to  make  it  fmooth  ;  which  other- 
wife  might  injure  the  lungs  in  their  motion. 

The  Mediastinum  is  a  double  membrane,  as 
above  ;  divides  the  thorax  from  the  lungs,  and  fuf- 
tains  the  vifcera,  to  prevent  their  falling  from  one 
fide  of  the  thorax  to  the  other. 

It  rifes  in  the  fiernum,  and  pafling,  downwards 
through  the  middle  of  the  thorax  to  the  vertebra., 
divides  its  cavity  into  two  parts  longitudinally,  fo . 
that  one  lobe  of  the  lungs  may  officiate,  ftiould  the 
other  on  the  other  fide  be  hindered  by  any  accident. 

It  contains  the  hear*,  between  its  two  lamellcs; 
and  gives  a  paflage  to  the  vena  cava,  the  cefopha- 
gus,  and  to  the  ftomachic  ner\'es. 

L  2  The 


Hoe  UniveiTal  Hiftoiy  of  Arts  <7W  Sciences. 


7^ 

Tlie  membranes  of  the  mcdiajiinum  are  thinner 
than  the  pleura,  and  have  a  little  fat.  Betwixt  its 
membranes  immediately  under  the  Jhrnum  there  is 
matter  fometimes  lodged  ;  which  may  occafion  the 
tapping  of  this  part. 

It  is  fpread  with  nerves,  arteries  and  veins. 
The  nerves  come  from  the  Jiowachu,  and  feme 
from  the  lymphatic,  which  open  into  the  thoracic 
duifl.  The  arteries  and  veins  are  branches  from 
the  mamillary  and  diaphragmatic  arteries  ;  but  one 
of  them  is  particularly  named  the  vena  media/Una. 

The  Pericardium  is  a  membranous  pouch  or 
bag,  confifting  of  a  double  membrane  ;  the  inner 
rifing  from  the  coats  of  the  veffels  of  the  heart ; 
the  outer  from  the  mediajlinum.  Its  figure  is  co- 
rmidal,  like  the  heart,  including  the  heart,  which  it 
embraces  loofely,  allowing  fpace  for  its  pulfation  ; 
and  it  is  connecSed  either  immediately,  or  by  vcfi- 
culic,  emitted  from  it  to  the  Jlernum,  back,  jugu- 
lum,  and  to  the  tendinous  parts  of  the  diaphragm; 
being  fituate  in  the  middle  and  lower  part  of  the 
thorax  between  the  two  lobes  of  the  lungs. 

This  membrane,  when  evpanded  upon  the  fin- 
ger difcovers  a  great  number  oi  foramina,  or  little 
holes. 

Its  arteries  and  veins  are  branches  from  thofe  of 
the  inediajiiijum  and  diaphragm  ;  and  its  nerves  are 
alfo  derived  from  the  diaphragmatic!.  But  its  lym- 
phatics all  run  to  the  thoracic  dudt. 

The  ufes  of  this  pericardium  are,  I .  To  fupport 
the  heart  in  a  pendulous  ftate,  efpecially  when  we 
lie  down.  2-  To  defend  the  heart  from  the  cold 
air  taken  in  at  the  Jungs.  3.  To  preferye  it 
from  being  injured  by  water,  by  matter,  or  any 
other  extraneous  fluid  in  the  cavity  of  the  thorax. 
And,  4.  To  contain  the  liquor  of  the  pericardi- 
um, as  it  is  called,  which  ferves  to  facilitate  the 
motions  of  the  heart. 

The  liquor  of  the  pericardium  is  a  fluid  refem- 
bling  in  appearance  water,  in  which  raw  flefli  had 
beenwalhed.  Tht  anatomical  Vfnters,  in  general, 
deduce  this  fluid  from  certain  glands  fituated  either 
in  the  pericardium,  or  in  the  heart  itfelf;  but  as 
thefe  glands  are  not  to  be  found,  Heister  thinks 
it  more  rational  to  fuppofe  that  it  is  exprefled  out  of 
the  auricles  of  the  heart  in  its  fyjhle. 

The  pericardium  is  found  fometimes  in  long  hec- 
tics, to  cohere  with  the  fubftance  of  the  heart ; 
and  there  are  accounts  of  its  having  been  wholly 
wanting. 

Dr.  Keil  in  his  treatife  of  animal  fecretion  at- 
tempts to  fhew,  that  the  liquor  in  the  pericardium 
muft  be  the  moft  fluid  of  any  feparated  from  the 
■  blood,  becaufe  its  particles  uniting  firft,  will  have 
the  greateft  attr.iclive  force ;  confequently  their 
particles  muft  be  the  moft  fpherical  and  moft  folid ; 
t 


and  therefore  their  contact  the  leaft  of  any  •,  and 
therefore  the  moft  fluid.  Yet  J</.  ik  Mortalc's  ac- 
count publiflicd  in  the  memoirs  of  the  French  aca- 
demy, fays,  that  the  liquor  contained  therein  has 
been  found  congealed  into  a  confiftence,  two  fquare 
fingers  thick  about  the  heart,  and  fit  to  be  cut 
with  a  knife. 

The  Heart,  (L)  which  is  the  firft  and  beft 
feat  of  life,  (for  it  no  fooner  moves  than  the  fce- 
tus  begins  to  live ;  and  the  ceflation  of  its  motion 
difTolves  the  whole  machine)  is  a  mufcular  body, 
included  in  the  pericardium,  and  fituated  nearly  in 
the  middle  of  the  breaft,  between  the  lobes  of  the 
lungs  ;  being  the  primary  organ  of  the  circulation 
of  the  blood,  and  confequently  of  life. 

Its  figure  is  nearly  co7iic,  the  larger  end  being 
called  its  bafe,  and  the  fmaller  end  its  apex.  Its 
lower  part  is  plane,  and  the  upper  part  convex. 
Its  fituation  is  nearly  tranfverfe,  or  horizontal ;  fo 
that  its  bafe  is  in  the  right,  and  its  apex,  with  the 
greateft  part  of  its  bulk,  is  in  the  left  fide  of  the 
thorax ;  and  confequently,  it  is  there  that  the  pul- 
fation is  felt. 

The  plane  furface  of  the  heart  lies  on  the  dia- 
phragm ;  the  convex  one  is  turned  upwards.  The 
/jtY/r/ is  connefted,  ift,  by  the  intervention  of  the 
pericardium  with  the  mediajlinum,  and  with  a  large 
part  of  the  middle  of  the  diaphragm:  this  is  con- 
trived by  nature,  to  prevent  its  being  difplaced,  in- 
verted, or  turned  too  rudely  about,  in  confequence 
of  the  various  motions  of  the  body.  2.  Its  bafe  is 
conneried  to  its  common  velTels;  but  its  apex  is 
free,  and  is  received  into  a  kind  of  cavity  in  the 
left  lobe  of  the  lungs. 

The  length  of  the  human  heart  is  about  fix  fin- 
gers breadth  :  its  breadth  at  the  bafe,  is  about  five 
fingers  ;  and  its  circumference  about  thirteen.  It 
is,  both  externally  and  internaHy,  furrounded  with 
a  fmooth  membrane  (M).  There  is  a  quantity  of 
fat  about  it,  which  covers  ksbafe  and  its  ape:^,  and 
ferves  for  lubricating  it,  and  for  facilitating  its  mo- 
tions. 

The  fubftance  of  the  heart  is  carnous  and  refem- 
bles  that  of  other  mufcles  ;  but  it  is  harder  at  the 
tip  end,  and  its  motions  are  in\-oluntary.  It  con- 
fifts  of  an  outer  and  inner  flefhy  fbre ;  both  of 
which  have  their  origin  and  infertion  in  the  bajis 
of  the  heart ;  the  outer  defcending  from  the  bafs  in 
a  fpiral  line,  from  the  right  to  the  left,  towards 
the  tip,  where  they  caft  a  femi-circle,  and  reaf- 
cending  in  a  fpiral  line  from  the  left  to  the  right 
towards  the  baJis  :  the  inner  fibres  depending  in  a, 
ftrait  line  from  the  iq/is  to  the  tip,  and  then  af- 
cending  dire£tly  from  the  tip  to  the  bafis,  where 
they  terminate.  By  thefe  inner  fibres  are  formed 
the  little  fleftiy  columns  of  the  ventricles. 

The 


ANATOMY. 


79 


The  fibres  of  the  Heart  (L)  generally  pafs 
for  a  Teal  mufcle.  Though  Ibme  authors  chufe 
rather  to  make  the  heart  a  double  mufcle,  or  two 
mufcles  tied  together.  And  certainly  the  two  ven- 
tricles and  their  auricles  are  Iwo  diftin(ft  bodies, 
veffcls,  or  cavities  ;  which  may  be  feparated,  and 
yet  remain  vefTels ;  they^^/««  confifling  of  fibres 
derived  from  them  both. 

The  Nerves  of  the  Heart  are  fmall,  and  arife 
from  the  par  vagum,  or  plexus  cardiacus,  and  the  in- 
tercoftals. 

The  arteries  of  the  Heart  (N)  are  called  pul- 
monary and  aorta,  or  only  coronaria,  becaufe  they 
gird  its  bafis  like  a  crown.  They  proceed  from  the 
great  artery,  as  it  arifes  from  the  heart,  before  it 
paflcs  ths  pericardium.  So  that  here  the  heart  di- 
flributcs  the  firft  portion  of  the  blood  jufi:  perfedfed 
in  its  ventricles. — Here  is  alfo  a  vein  called  corona- 
ria,  which  pervades  along  the  outer  part,  and 
confifts  of  feveral  branches  flowing  from  all  parts  of 
the  heart.  This  vein  depofits  the  fuperfluous  blood 
in  the  cava,  which  pafles  from  the  arteria  coro- 
nariiC. 

The  Heart  is  alfo  provided  with  lymphatic 
du6ls,  which  empty  themfelves  in  the  thoracick 
dua. 

In  the  Heart  are  two  great  cavities  called 
Ventricles.  They  are  two  feveral  mufcles 
united  together  by  thejepturn,  and  feveral  plans  of 
fibres,  arifing  from  the  outward  hafe  of  the  heart, 
and  meeting  at  the  apex,  which  entering  the  left 
ventricle  line  the  parietes  or  fides. 

The  feat  of  thefe  ventricles  is  in  the  middle 
of  thofe  fibres  :  and  their  orifice  and  valves  are 
made  by  the  dilatation  of  their  tendons. 

The  right  ventricle  is  the  largeft,  and  big 
enough  to  contain  two,  and  fometimes  three 
ounces  of  blood. 

They  are  divided  by  a  flefhy  fubftance,  alfo  com- 
pofed  of  the  mufcular  fibres,  called  the  y^/i/K?/;,  or 
partition  ;  concave  to  the  left  ventricle,  and  con- 
vex to  the  right.  The  only  communication  be- 
tween the  ventricles  is  the  paflage  for  the  blood  into 
each  other. 

The  left  paries,  or  fide,  is  much  thicker  and 
ftronger  than  the  right ;  becaufe  its  orifice  is 
deftined  to  force  the  blood  through  all  the  parts  of 
the  body  ;  but  the  right  only  drives  it  with  the  aid 
of  other  veffels,  through  the  lungs  ;  which  ac- 
counts for  the  want  of  this  ventricle  in  animals, 
which  have  no  lungs 

The  ventricles  enclofe  certain  little  mufcles, 
called  columnet  cameo-,  or  laccrtuU  :  which  are  de- 
rived from  the  parietes,  and  connefted  by  tendons 
to  the  valves  of  the  heart :  and  from  the  concourfe 


of  the  tendinous  fibres  of  thefe  in  the  heart,  there 
are  formed  peculiar  membranes  fituated  at  the  ori  - 
fices  of  the  auricles  of  the  heart :  and  there  arc 
alfo  other  columns  of  this  kind,  which  run  tranf- 
verfely  from  one  fide  of  the  ventricles  to  the  other: 
thefe  ferve  partly  to  affift  the  contrail  ion  of  the 
heart  in  its  fyjtole,  and  partly  to  prevent  its  too 
great  dilatation  in  its  diajlde. 

The  ventricles  are  capped,  each  with  an  auri- 
cle (OO)  which  is  a  production  or  appendage 
made  of  a  duplicate  of  the  membranes  of  the  vef- 
fels in  which  they  are  placed. 

The  right  auricle  is  the  extremity  of  the  vena 
cava ;  and  the  left  of  the  pulmonary  vein  :  To 
which  they  adhere  in  fuch  a  manner,  as  to  feem 
to  make  but  one  body  with  thcle  vefl'els ;  fo  that 
they  agree  in  fize  with  them. 

Thefe  auricles,  as  they  receive  the  blood  from 
the  veins,  ferve  for  a  meafure  to  the  heart,  and  to 
prevent  a  too  large  eruption,  or  precipitant  courfe 
of  the  blood  into  the  ventricles  ;  which  might  fuffo- 
cate  the  animal.  Any  floppage  in  thofe  caps, 
either  by  paflion,  or  accident,  creates  a  difficulty  of 
breathing,  a  rough  and  quick  pulfe,  and  a  conti- 
nual palpitation  of  the  heart. 

The  Vfeoi  the  Heart,  and  its  appendant ««- 
rides,  is  to  circulate  the  blood  through  the  whole 
body :  in  order  fo  which,  they  have  an  alternate 
motion  of  contrailion  and  dilatation.  By  the  di- 
latation, called  the  Diastole,  their  cavity  is 
opened,  and  their  internal  dimenfions  enlarged, 
to  receive  the  refluent  blood  from  the  veins  :  and 
by  their  contraStiov,  called  the  Systole,  their  ca- 
vity is  fhrunk,  and  their  dimenfions  leffened,  to 
expel  the  blood  again  into  the  arteries. 

It  muft  be  obferved  that  thefe  alternate  motions 
of  the  heart  and  auricles  are  oppofite  in  time  to 
each  other  ;  the  auricles  being  dilated  whilft  the 
heart  is  contrafled  again  ;  and  contracted  whilft 
it  is  dilated  to  drive  the  blood  into  it. 

The  blood  being  driven  through  the  pulmonary 
vein,  by  the  right  ventricle,  into  the  pulmonary 
artery,  it  is  returned  to  the  left  ventric'e  ;  from 
which,  by  the  aorta,  it  is  diflributed  all  oyer  the 
reft  of  the  body,  and  thence  returned  to  the  right 
I  ventricle  by  the  vena  cava  ;  making  an  entire  cir- 
culation through  the  whole  body. 

The  principle  of  motion  in  the  heart,  or  the 
power,  from  which  its  alternate  contra£fion  and 
dilatation  arifes,  has  been  greatly  controverted  a- 
mong  the  late  Phyficians  and  Anatomijis. 

The  motive  power,  it  is  certain,  muft  furmount 
the  reftjiance  made  to  it ;  and  according  to  Bcrelli'% 
computation,  the  refiftance  made  to  the  motion  of 
the  blood  through  the  arteries,  is  equal  to  180000 

pounds. 


8o 


Tide  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  <?;?«3^  Sciences. 


pounds,  which  therefore  are  to  be  removed  by  the 
heart,  or  elfe  the  circulation  muft  ceafe. 

Now,  whence  comes  the  machine  of  the  heart 
to  have  fuch  a  power  ?  And  after  the  expulfion, 
what  other  power  is  it  that  furmounts  the  former, 
and  reftores  its  part  to  the  dilatation,  to  produce  a 
reciprocal  mjlui  ? 

Des  Carles  alledges,  that  in  each  ventricle,  there 
arc  fome  remains  of  the  blood,  which  miffing  of 
an  exit,  when  the  heart  was  contrafted.  turn  four, 
and  become  a  ferment,  qualified  to  ferment  with 
the  frefh  blood,  juft  as  oil  of  tartar  does  with 
fpirit  of  vitriol.  Upon  this  foundation  he  accounts 
for  the  motion  of  the  heart  in  the  following 
manner. 

When  a  grofs  drop  of  blood  falls  by  its  own 
weight  into  e:\thet  ventricle,  it  prefently  fwells,  and 
rarities,  becaufe  of  its  mixing  writh  the  ferment  it 

meets  with. The  drop  thus  fermenttd,  taking 

up  more  room  in  the  heart  than  before,  removes 
its  pa/ietes  from  one  another,  enlarges  it,  and 
obliges  the  point  or  tip  to  approach  to  the  ba^s. — 
At  laft,  when  the  heart  admits  of  no  farther  dila- 
tation, this  tirop  tending  ftill  to  take  up  more 
room,    ftorms  the  Jigmoides  valves,  and  repairs  to 

the  arteries. But  when  its  ebullition  ceafes, 

and  the  blood  thus  rarified  has  lofl:  its  great  motion, 
as  being  condenfated;  the  heart,  by  virtue  of  its 
eliijlic  fpring,  lengthens  itfelf,  and  removes  its 
point  from  the  bajis ;  upon  which  a  frefli  drop  of 
blood,  repairing  to  each  ventricle  (becaufe  no- 
thing then  fhuts  the  tricufpides  valves)  is  fer- 
mented by  the  ferment,  or  fharp  remains  of  the 
preceding  blood  ;  and  after  feparating  the  walls 
of  the  ventricles,  pafles  into  the  arteries,  as 
above. 

Some  believe  this  hypothejis  contrary  to  reafon, 
and  fay,  'tis  more  probable  that  the  pulfation  of  the 
heart  is  owing  to  the  animal  fpirits  ;  for  if  you  cut 
or  tie  a  ligature  upon  the  intercjlal  nerve,  and 
the  eighth  pair,  it  ceafes  in  the  fpace  of  twenty- 
four  hours.  But  this  pulfation  depends  likewife 
on  the  blood  ;  for,  if  you  tie  a  ligature  upon  the  vef- 
fels,  the  vena  cava  for  inftance,  the  pulfation 
ceafes,  and  recommences  when  the  ligature  is  taken 
off,  which  recommencement  is  owing  to  the  heat  of 
the  blood. 

They  come  nearefl  to  the  truth,  who  attribute 
this  motion  to  the  weight  of  the  blood  ;  for  the 
heart  being  without  an  antagonift  mufcle,  would 
never  dilate  itfelf  after  contradion,  if  the  weight 
and  impetuofity  of  the  blood  was  not  to  force  it 
to  a  dilatation.  Thus  in  dying  animals,  five  pul- 
fations  of  the  vena  cava  anfwer  only  to  one  of  the 
right  auricle,  and  two  of  the  auricles  correfpond 
to  one  of  the  heart ;  which  in  human  bodies  is  in 


fome  meafure  promoted  by  the  motion  of  the  ni- 
di iff  \  the  point  of  the  pericaruium  being  fallened 
t(/  it. 

To  (bew  how,  and  in  what  manner  this  motion 
is  compaired,letus  eonfiderthe  doubley^'/'a/  formed 
by  the  f.ircs  of  the  heart,  and  how  thefe  fibres  crofs 
one  another  upon  the  inner  furface  of  the  ventricles. 
— As  often  as  thefe  fibres  ail,  they  endeavour,  by 
all  their  parts,  to  defcribe  a  ftrait  line,  the  con* 
fequence  thereof  is,  that  the  fpiral  mufl  be  fhor- 
tened,  and  tend  to  the  form  of  a  double  ring;  fo 
that  the  middle  of  the  heart  will  be  enlarged,  and 
its  tip  approach  to  the  bajU,  in  order  to  make  an 
exaft  and  forcible  expreflion  of  what  is  contained 
\nthe  ventricl'S,  which  is  what  we  call  the  yj//*!)/*, 
in  which  the  heart  beats  againfl:  our  left  bread. — 
— But  when  the  fibres  unbind,  they  tend  to  dif- 
engage  themfelves,  and  to  re-aiTume  their  firft  na- 
tural ftate;  being  affilted  therein  by  the  impulfe 
and  weight  of  the  blood  flowing  from  the  veins, 
and  the  motion  of  the  midriff,  which  draws  the 
tip  of  the  heart  towards  it  ;  fo  that  the  heart  is 
lengthened,  and  the  blood  fills  the  ventricles, 
which  we  call  Diaftole. 

The  auricles  of  the  heart  have  likewife  their 
diaftole  z.nA  fyftole,  but  different  from  thofe  of  the 
heart ;  for  when  the  auricLs  empty  themfelves, 
the  heart  fills,  and  as  often  as  the  heart  fqueezes 
the  blood  out  of  its  ventricles,  the  auricles  fwell  ; 
becaufe  the  auricles  are  the  cifterns  of  the  heart. 

At  the  bafts  of  the  heart  we  meet  with  four  large 
veflels,  vi%.  the  vena  cava,  the  arteria  pulmonaris, 
the  vena  pulmmaris,  and  the  a:rta ;  of  which  the 
two  former  are  inferted  in  the  right  ventricle,  and 
the  other  two  in  the  left. 

The  Vena  Cava  (S)  is  the  biggeft  of  all  the 
four  veffels,  and  terminates  in  the  left  ventricle  of 
the  heart,  to  which  it  is  knit  fo  faft,  that  it  can- 
not be  feparated. It  opens  into  that  ventricle 

by  a  wide  mouth,  and  pours  into  it  the  blood  that 
it  has  received  from  the  feveral  branches  of  veins. 
—  Its  membrane,  which  is  thin  every  where 
elfe,  is  very  thick,  and  full  of  flefhy  fibres  at  its 
mouth  ;  and  that  prevents  its  being  rent  by  the 
continual  motion  of  the  heart,  as  well  as  its  bein^ 
over- extended  by  a  large  quantity  of  blood. 

The  three  triangular  and  7nembranous  Valves, 
(T)  called  Tricufpides,  placed  at  the  mouth 
of  the  cava,  are  formed  of  a  dilatation  of  the  ten- 
dons of  the  mufcles,  of  which  the  heart  confifts, 
open  from  without  inwards  ;  and  are  fo  difpofed  as 
to  favour  the  paffage  of  the  blood  from  the  cava 
to  the  heart,   and  oppofe  its  retreat. 

The  vena  cava  ferves  to  receive  the  blood   from 
the  branches  of  the  veins  in  all  the  parts  of  the  bo- 
dy, and  to  pour  it  into  the  cavity  of  the  auricle, 
I  from 


A  N  A  r  0   MY. 


8i 


from  which   it  falls  into  the  right  ventricle  of  the 
heart. 

The  arter'ia  pulinonari.',  or  vena  arteriofa,  rifes 
from  the  ri2;ht  veiitricU  of  the  heart,  but  its  mouth 
is  lefs  than  that  of  the  cava. — This  artery  is  divided 
into  two  great  branches,  which  after  a  fubdivifion 
into  feveral  fmalj  Ihoots  are  difperfed  upon  the  right 
and  left,  through  the  whole  fubftance  of  the  lungs. 
—The  three  valves  [csWcA  ftgmoides  from  their  re- 
femblance  to  the  Greek Jigma)  are  placed  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  arteria  pulmonaris. — Thefe  valves 
are  little  membranes,  feated  by  one  another  in  a 
different  manner  from  thofe  of  the  cava, ;  for  they 
open  from  within  outwards,  to  afford  a  paffage  for 
the  blood  from  the  right  ventricle  into  the  artery, 
and  oppofe  its  retreat. 

The  ai  teria pulmonaris  ferves  to  receive  the  blood 
from  the  right  ventricle  of  the  heart,  and  difpeife 
it  in  the  fubilance  of  the  lungs. 

The  Vena  Pulmonaris,  (X)  or  arteria  ve- 
noja.,  proceeds  from  the  lungs  by  an  infinity  of 
fmall  flioots,  which,  after  uniting  into  one  trunk, 
march  out  of  the  fubftance  of  the  lungs,  and 
empty  themfelves  into  the  left  ventricle  of  the 
heart. 

At  the  entrance  of  this  vein  are  placed  two 
valves  (called  Mitrales,  from  their  refcmblance  to 
a  bijhop's  mitre)  their  fituation  is  like  that  of  the 
tricufpides,  for  they  open  from  without  inwards, 
to  favour  the  blood's  entry  into  the  left  ventricle., 
and  oppofe  its  return  to  the  veins. — The  capillary 
branches  of  the  vena  pulmonaris,  being  difperfed 
through  the  fubftance  of  the  lungs,  takes  up  the 
blood  imported  by  the  arteria  pulmonaris,  and  con- 
vey it  to  the  left  auricle  of  the  heart. — Together 
with  the  blood  this  vein  imports  likewife,  the  fub- 
tileft  parts  of  the  air,  which  pafles  from  the  extre- 
mity of  the  tracheca  into  its  trunk. 

The  Great  Artery,  (Y)  called  aorta,  is 
the  trunk  and  fource  of  all  the  other  arteries  of  the 
body,  thofe  of  the  lungs  excepted,  which  are  the 
branches  of  the  artery  of  the  right  ventricle. — It 
has  feveral  hard  and  thick  coats,  and  proceeds 
from  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart ;  at  which  part 
it  feems  to  be  cartilaginous,  being  thereby  kept 
always  open,  and  ready  to  receive  the  blood, 
which  flows  with  great  impetuofity  from  the  ven- 
tricle. 

The  head  of  the  aorta  (Z)  is  provided  with 
three  valves,  or  membranous  appendages. — They 
look  from  within  outwards,  in  order  to  let  the 
blood  pafs  from  the  left  ventricle  to  the  aorta  ; 
and  prevents  its  reflux  from  the  aorta  to  the  ven- 
tricle. 


The  aorta  diftributcs  the  blood  that  flows  into 
it  from  the  hear!,  to  all  the  parts  of  the  body, 
which  is  effufed  in  the  following  manner: 

The  blood  fallying  out  with  an  impetuous  force 
from  the  left  ventricle,  is  thrown  into  the  aorta  by 
the  contradlion  of  the  heart.  The  fubtileft  part 
of  this  blood  mounts  upwards  through  the  upper 
trunk  of  the  aorta,  and  is  diftributed  into  the  arms 
by  the  axillary  arteries,  and  into  the  head  by  the 
arteriie  carotides,  and  cetvicales. — On  the  other 
hand  the  coarfcr  foit  of  blood  falls  downwards 
through  the  lower  branch  of  the  fame  artery ;  and 
is  difperfed  to  all  the  parts  that  lie  below  the  heart, 
by  the  arteries  called  celiac,  mrfenterick,  emulgent, 
fpermatick,  iliac,  and  an  infinity  of  other  branches. 
In  this  iirculation  the  feveral  liquors  contained  in 
the  mafs  of  the  blood  are  feparatcd  from  it  in  (everal 
parts,  by  virtue  of  tlie  configuration  of  the  pores 
of  the  parts  through  which  it  palTes,  viz.  The 
animal  juice  is  fcparated  in  the  brain  ;  the  fecretion 
of  the  faiiva  is  performed  in  the  parotides,  and 
the  glands  of  the  jaws  ;  that  of  the  acid  liquor 
in  the  glands  of  the  cefophagus,  and  the  ftomach  ; 
the  pa  :creatic  juice  in  the  pancreas,  or  fweet-bread; 
the  choler  in  the  liver;  the  urine  in  the  kidneys; 
the  feed  in  the  tefticles  ;  the  milk  in  the  breafts, 
aiid  feveral  other  liquors  in  an  infinity  of  other 
parts. 

The  blood  being  conveyed  by  the  two  trunks  of 
the  aorta,  to  all  the  parts  of  the  body  both  above 
and  below;  marches  out  of  the  extremities  of  the 
capillary  arteries,  in  order  to  nourifh  the  parts  : 
and  for  as  much  as  the  whole  mafs  thusextrava- 
fated.  is  not  quite  confumed,  the  furplufage  re- 
enters the  orifices  of  the  capillary  veins,  by  the 
impulfe  of  the  frefh  blood,  which  ouzes  without 
intermilTion  from  the  little  arteries,  and  obliges  its 
fore-runners  to  return  through  the  fmall  veins  to 
thofe  of  a  larger  fize  ;  by  which  means  the  blood 
fent  to  the  head,  returns  by  the  jugular  veins,  and 
that  to  the  arms  by  the  axillary,  and  both  thefe 
terminate  in  the  fubclavian,  which  leads  to  the 
upper  trunk  of  the  cava,  and  fo  to  the  heart : 
In  like  manner,  the  blood  difpenfed  to  the  lower 
parts,  returns  to  the  heart  by  the  iliack,  and  all  the 
other  veins  of  the  abdomen,  which  unload  in  the 
lower  and  afcending  trunk  of  the  cava,  and  with 
joint  forces  falls  into  the  right  auricle  ;  where  the 
difpofition  of  the  tricufpides  valves,  and  the  con- 
tra<nion  of  the  heart,  forward  it  to  the  arteria  pul- 
monaris. 

The  arteria  pulmonaris  having  received  the  blood, 
conveys  it   to  the  lungs,  and  difperfes  it  through 
their  whole  fubftance,  from  whence  being  accom- 
panied 

J 


Tlje  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  aW  Sciences. 


82 

pauled  with  the  fuhtilcft  part  of  the  air  that  joins 
it  frojn  the  extremities  of  the  tracha^  it  pallcs  to 
thcfbi  anc,lles  of  the  vem  pulmonaria,  from  tlience 
to  «he  left  aitricle  of  tlie  hMvt,  and  fo  it  enters  the 
vcilricle  pf  tiiat  fide.— In  that  part  the  difpofition 
of  {he  vahfs  prevents  its  reflux  ;  upon  which,  by 
the  contra(Slion  of  the  heart,  it  flics  out  impc- 
tuoiifly  into  the  great  artery,  and  this  artery  dif- 
pcnfes  it'to  all  the  parts  of  the  body.— From  all 
thefe  part^  if  returns  by  the  cupUlary  veins  to  the 
great  ones,  and  from  thence  to  the  upper  and 
lower  trunk  of  the  Miva,  in  order  to  renew  the 
inceflant  cifculaiion,  the  ceflation  of  which,  for 
one!  moment,  would  put  a  period  to  the  animal 
life|  !',>   : 

Mr.  Robault  fuppofes  that  it  is  very  eafy  todif- 
cover,  by  the  pulfation  of  the  heart,  in  what 
fpace  of  time  the  circulation  of  the  blood  can  be 
accomplifted.— He  prefuppofes  that  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  blood  enters  the  aorta,  at  each  pulfation  of 
the  heart,  which  he  believes  cannot  be  lefs  than  a 
drachm.  This  prefuppofed,  he  begins  his  calcu- 
lation thus. 

He  finds  by  his  pulfe,  that  there  happen,  fixty- 
four  pulfations  of  his  heart  in  the  fpace  of  a  mi  - 
nute  ;  whence  it  follows,  that  his  heart  beat  3840 
times  in  the  fpace  of  an  hourj  and  confequently, 
that  92160  drachms,  or  11520  ounces,  or  7 20 
pounds  of  blood,  pafs  every  day  through  the  heart; 
fo  that  if  it  could  be  reafonably  fuppofed,  that 
there  is  fo  much  blood  in  a  human  body,  there 
would  be  in  twenty-four  hours  but  one  circulation 
of  the  whole  mafs  of  blood.  But  as  in  Mr.  Ro- 
hault's  opinion,    there  is  fcarce  more  than    ten 


of  the  acrta  be  =0.4187  ;  then  dividing  the  for- 
mer by  this,  the  quotient  3.0  is  the  length'"of  the 
cylinder  of  blood,  which  is  forpied  in  pafSng  thro* 
the  a07-ta  in  each  fyjloU  of  tke  ventricle  y  and  in 
the  feventy-live  pulfes  of  a  mtrlute,  a  cy^nder  of 
292.5  inches  in  length  will  paf^;  this  is  at  the 
rate  of  1462  feet  in  an  hour.  But  ,the  fyftole  of 
the  heart  being  performed  in  one  third  of  l\^  tirtic, 
the  velocity  of  the  blood  in  that  injftantVwilLbe 
thrice  as  much,  viz.  at  the  rate  of  4386  feet' in 
an  hour,  or  73  feet  in  a  minute.  And  if  the  V(n- 
tricle  throws  out  one  ounce  in  a  pujfe  ;  then  in 
the  feventy-five  pulfes  of  a  minute,  ^the  quantity 
of  blood  will  be  equal  to  4.41b.  11  oz.  and  in 
thirty-four  minutes  a  quantity  equal  to  a  niiddle- 
fized  man,  viz.  1581b.  vill  pafs  'through  the 
heart.  But  if  with  Dr.  Harvey,  and  Dr.  Lower, 
we  fuppofe  two  ounces  of  blood,  that  is,  3,276 
cubic  inches  to  be  thrown  out  at  each  A/^/V  of  the 
ventricle,  then  the  velocity  of  the  blobd  in  enter- 
ing the  orifice  of  the  aorta,  will  be  dduble  the  for- 
mer, viz.  at  the  rate  of  146  feet  i(i  a  minute, 
and  a  quantity  of  blood  equal  to  the;  weight  of  a 
man's  body,  will  pafs  in  half  the  time,  viz.  17 
minutes. 

If  we  fuppofe  what  is  probable,  that  the  blood 
would  rife  7  +  5  feet  high  in  a  tube  fixed  to  the 
carotide  artery  of  a  man,  and  that  the  inward  area 
of  the  left  ventricle  of  his  heart,  is  equal  to  fifteen 
fquare  inches;  thefe  multiplied  into  7 -}- f  feet 
give  1350  cubic  inches  of  blood,  which  prefl'eson 
that  ventricle,  when  firft  it  begins  to  contract,  a 
weight  equal  to  51.5  pounds. 

W^hat  the  do(51;or  thus  calculates  fromfuppofition 
pounds  of  blood  in  a  human  body ;  and  he  believes  j  with  regard  to  manlcind,  he  adlually  experimented 
that  the  whole  mafs  pafTes  702  times  through  the  |  upon  horfes,  dogf,  fallow  does,  i^c.  by  fixing 
heart  in  twenty-four  hours ;  confequently,  there  '  tubes,  in  orifices  opened  in  their  veins  and  arte- 
happens  three  circulations  of  the  whole  blood  in  ries;  by  obferving  the  feveral  heights,  to  which 
the  ipace  of  an  hour.  the  blood   role  in  thefe  tubes,  as  they  lay  on  the 

Several  in^^enious  perfons  have,  from  time  to  I  ground  ;  and  by  meafuring  the  capacities  of  the 
time  attempted' to  make  eftimates  of  the  force  ff^  VM/m/^  of  the  heart,  and  jorifices  of  the  arteries. 
the  blood  in  the  heart,  and  arteries.     According  to  |  And  that  the  reader  may  the  more  readily  compare 


Dr.  Keii's  eftimate,  the  left  ventricle-  of  a  man's 
heart  throw  out  in  c^zhfyjlole  an  ounce,  or  1.638 
cubic   inch   of  blood,  and  the  area  of  the  orifice 


the  faid  cflimates  together,  he  has  given  a  table  of 
them,  ranged  in  the  following  order. 

The 


A  N  A  T  0   Mr. 


83 


The  (everal  animals. 

.S  i 

If 

.33 

c 

> 

■3 

^1 

0    0) 

0  ti 
u  2 

u    3 

Capacity   of  the    left 
\'entricle  of  the  heart. 

Area  of  the  orifice  of 
the  aorta. 

Velocity  of  the  blood 
in  the  aorta. 

(^uamtuies  ot  blood  e- 
qual  to  the  wt.  of  the 
animal  in  what  time. 

Pounds.  ] How  much  in  a  minute 

Weight  ot  the  blood 
fullained  by  the  left 
ventricle  contraiiling. 

Number  of  pulfes  in  a 
minute. 

Area  of  the  tranfverfe 
feftion  of  the  defcen- 
ding  aorta. 

Area  of  the  tranfverfe 
fe£lion   of  afcending 
aorta. 

£6 

1-4 

V) 

3  y 

U.H 

Feet    and 
inches  in 
a  minute. 

a 

3 

c 

T3 

C 
3 
0 

1.1 

Square 
inches. 

Man 

160 

On 

ftraia 

7  6 

1.659 
3.318 

0.41S7 

113.3 

34.18 
.7.6 

4.38 
9.36 

5>S 

75 

Horfe  I  ft 

ing. 

8  ? 

2d. 

q  8 

3d. 

82, 

13 

52 

9  6 

10 

1.036 

86.85 

60 

•3  75 

1 13.22 

36 

0.677 

0.369 

Ox 

1600 

IZ.5 

'•539 

76.95 

83 

18.14 

38 

0.912 

0  85 
right,  left. 

Sheep 

9' 

5^ 

9 

6  Si 

..85 

0.172 

174,5     20 

4-593 

3656 

65 

0.094 

0.07     0012 

Doe 

4  2 

9 

0.476 

0.38 

0.246 
right,   left. 

Dogs  lit. 

52 

0 

66  8 

1.172 

0.196 

'44-77 

11.9 

4-34 

33.6 

97 

0.106 

•>.c<j-i   0034 

zd. 

24 

J 

72  8 

I          0.185 

130.9 

6.48 

3-7 

0.  '.o: 

0.031   C.009 

3d. 

|8 

S 

4  8 

0.633  °-'  '^ 

130 

7.8 

2-3 

19.8 

0.07 

0.022    0.009 

4th. 

12  8»  4 

3  3 

0.5        O.IOI 

120 

6.7 

1.85 

11. 1 

0.05I 

3.015    0-C07 

Dr.  y«r/«  likewife  deduces  the  force  of  the 
heart  from  the  laws  of  hydraulics,  in  the  following 
manner.  He  fuppofes  p  =.  io  the  weight  of  the 
left  ventricle,  or  a  quantity  of  blood  equal  to  the 
fame  weight ;  S  =.  the  internal  furface  of  the 
fame;  /  =  the  mean  length  of  the  filaments  of 
blood  ifiiiing  from  the  fame;  j=:  the  fe£tioii  of 
the  ao'ta  ;  q  =:  the  quantity  of  blood  contained 
in  the  left  ventricle;  t  zz  the  time  in  which  the 
blood  would  be  expelled  from  the  hearty  taking 
away  the  refifl:ance  of  the  arteries,  and  of  the 
blood  going  before ;  -v  =:  the  variable  velocity 
with  which  the  blood  ifTuing  from  the  heart  would 
flow  through  the  aorta,  abftrafting  from  the  refift- 
ance ;  a-  =  the  variable  length  of  the  aorta,  de- 
fcribed  by  the  blood  gufhing  from  the  heart;  z  zz. 
the  time  in  which  the  length  *■  is  defcribed. 

Hence  the  mean  variable  velocity  of  the  blood 
contiguous  to  the  ventricle,  or  the  mean  velocity 

of  the  ventricle  itfelf,  is  —'—;  the  motion  of  the 
ventricle  =  />  x  -— - ;  the  motion  of  the  ifTuing 
of  the  blood  =  i  ■y  X  /  +  .V ;  the  fum  of  thefe, 
orthepovrerof  the  ventricle  zz.  s  v   X  — +  /+.v. 

But  it  is  t'  =  --  .     Wher.ce  by  Newton's  inverfe 


method   of  fluxions,    the  power  of  the   ventricle 

will  be  found  —  X-VH \-  I-  Now,  fince  z  =: f , 

K       a        2 

it  will  be  ^.v  =  ^.     Hence  the  power  of  the  ven- 
tricle =  ^x— 4-  —  4-  /.     In  the  fame  manner 
/       S  ^  2  / 

the  power  of  the  right  ventricle  will  be  found  z=. 
^X  — 4-— +  x.    Here  the  fame  things  are  figni- 

t  £       2cr 

fieJ  by  the  Greek  letters  in  the  right  ventricle,   as 
by  the  Italic  letters  in  the  left.     Hence  the  whole 

poweroftheheart=-x  ^  +  ^+-^  +  -^  +  /  +  a. 

•^  /  i>        S        2b        2»- 

Q;E.  I. 

If  we  fuppofe  p  =  8  ounces  evoirdupch  =r 
13.128  cubic  inches  ;  tt  =:  4  =  6.564  ;  8  =  10 
fquare  inches  ,  "Z  zz  10  ;  1  zz  1  inches  ;>.  =  1  v  > 
q  zz  2  ounces  avoirdupois  zz  3.282  cubic  inches; 
s  =.  0.4185  fquare  inches  ;  «■=  0.583  ;  /  =0.  1". 
The  power  of  the  ventricles  will  be  equal  to  the 
motion  of  the  underwritten  weights,  that  is 

lb.  02. 
Of  the  left  ventricle  •  9      i 

Of  the  right  ve?iiricle  <  6     3 


Of  the  whole  heart 


M 


J5     4 
Oi 


84 


The  Unlverfal  Hlftory  of  Arts  ««^ Sciences. 


Of  which  weights  the  velocity  will  he  I'uch,  as 
th;U  a  line  of  an  inch  long  mv^M  be  delaibed  by 
the  fame  in  a  fecond. 

In  A  fcstus,  the  apparatus  for  circulation  is  fome- 

what  (JifFcrcnt  from  that  above  defcribed. The 

fipUan  v/hich  fcparates  the  two  auricles  of  the 
heart,  is  pierced  throug.h  with  an  aperture,  called 
the.  foramen  ova k;  and  the  trunk  of  the  pulnio- 
jiariy  artery,  a  little  after  it  has  left  the  heart,  fends 
out  a  tube  in  the  defcending  <7ar/tf ,  called  the  ««- 
tnun'uating  canal. 

The  fietus  being  born,  the  foramen  ovale  clofes, 
by  deorees,  and  the  canal  of  communication  dries 
up,-  and  becomes  a  fimple  li.c;amcnt. 

Xhis  mechanifm  once  known,  it  is  eafy  to  per- 

ceivte  its  ufe.  — j For,  while  the   fcstus  is  in- 

dofed  in  the  uterus^  it  receives  no  air  but  that  lit- 
tle, furnifhed  by  the  umbilical  vein :  Its  lungs 
therefore  cannot  I'well  and  fubfide  as  they  do  alter 
the  birtli,  and  after  the  free  admilTion  of  the  air. 
They  continue  almoft  at  reft  and  without  any  mo- 
tion ;  their  veilels  are,  as  it  were  full  of  themfelves, 
and  do  not  allow  the  blood  to  circulate  cither  in 
abundance,  or  with  eai'e. 

Nature,  therefore,  has  excufed  the  lungs  from 
the  pallage  of  the  greateft  part  of  the  blood ;  and 
has  contrived  the  foramen  ovale,  by  which  part  of 
the  blood  of  the  vena  cava,  received  into  the  right 
auricle,  paffes  into  the  left  auricle,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  puhnonary  veins ;  and  by  this  means  is  found  as 
far  in  its  journey,  as  if  it  had  palled  the  lungs. 

But  this  is  not  all  ;  for  the  blood  of  the  ca^ua, 
which  miffing  the  foramen  ovale,  pafTes  from  the 
right  auricle,  into  the  T\g\\t  ventricle ;  being  ftill  in 
too  great  quantity  to  pafs  by  the  lungs,  whither  it 
is  driven  through  the  pulmonary  artery ;  the  com- 
municant canal  intercepts  part  of  it  in  the  way, 
and  pours  it  immediately  into  the  defcending  (7«r/«. 

This  is  the  doilrine  of  Harvey,  Lower,  and  molt 
other  Anatomifts.  But  Mr.  Mery,  of  the  royal 
academy,  has  made  an  innovation  in  it. 

He  aligns  another  ufe  for  the  foramen  ovale; 
and  maintains  that  the  whole  mafs  of  blood,  brought 
from  the  cava  to  the  right  ventricle,  paffes,  as  in 
adults,  into  the  puhnonary  artery,  v/hence  part  of 
it  is  conveyed  by  the  communicant  canal,  into  the 
aorta  \  and  the  reft  brought  from  the  lungs  by  the 
pulmonary  veins  into  the  left  auricle,  where  it  is  di- 
vided into  two  parts,  the  one  pafTmg  through  the 
foramen  ovale,  into  the  right  ventricle,  without  cir- 
culating through  the  aorta,  and  the  reft  of  the 
body  ,  the  other  part  pufhed,  as  in  adults,  by  the 
contraftion  of  the  left  ventricle,  into  the  aorta, 
and  the  whole  body  of  the  foetus. 

Mr.  Du  Vertiey  aflerts,  on  the  coJUrary,  that  the 


foramen  ovale,  has  a  valve  fo  difpofed,  as  to  be 
opened  by  the  blood  driving  into  the  right  ventricle, 
but  (hut  the  more  firmly,  by  its  puftiing  into  the 
left.  Mr.  A4ery  denies  the  exiftence  of  any  fuch 
valve. 

According  to  the  common  opinion,  the  aorta  re- 
ceiving more  blood  than  the  pulmonary,     fltould  be 

bigger.  According  to  the  opinion  of  Mr. 

A'/ery,  the  pulmonary  artery  fhould  be  the  biggelt, 
as  being  efteemed  to  receive  a  large  quantity  of 
blood. 

Therefore,  to  judge  of  the  two  fyftems ;  it 
fhould  fcem  there  needed  nothing,  but  to  determine 
which  of  the  two  vefl'els  were  the  biggeft  in  the 
fcetus. 

Mr.  Mer.y  always  found  the  pulmonary  artery 
half  as  big  again  as  the  aorta ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  Mr  Tauvry,  who  feconded  Mr.  Du  Virnty, 
produces  cafes  where  the  pi-lmonary  is  lefs  than  the 
aorta,  'I  he  faits  on  both  fides  were  examined  by 
the  French  royal  academy. 

Mr.  Tauvry  adds,  that  though  the  pulmonary  ar» 
tery  fliould  be  greater  than  the  aorta  ;  yet  this  does 
not  prove,  that  more  blood  paftes  the  firft,  than 
the  fecond ;  fmce  it  may  be  accounted  for,  from 
the  blood's  preffing  more  flowly  towards  the  lungs, 
which  it  finds  fome  difficulty  to  penetrate,  and  ac- 
cordingly fwells  and  is  driven  back. 

Mr.  Littre,  upon  difTefting  an  adult,  in  whom 
the  foramen  ovale  was  ftill  open,  and  meafuring 
the  capacities  of  the  veflel  on  each  fide,  declares 
for  Mr.  Mery. 

For  the  fource  of  the  circulation  in  ihz  foetus,  A- 

natomijls    are    again    divided. The  popular 

opinion  is,  that  during  geftation,  the  arteries  of 
the  uterus  convey  their  blood  into  the  placenta, 
which  is  nouriihed  by  it,  and  the  furplus  conveyed 
into  the  root  of  the  umbilical  vein,  which  makes 
part  of  the  navel-ftring  :  Thence  it  is  carried  to 
the  liver  of  the  fat  us,  where  it  enters  the  vena 
cava,  and  is  thence  conveyed  to  the-right  ventri- 
cle of  the  heart,  and  diftributed  as  before. 

Again,  the  blood  brought  from  the  iliac  arteries 
of  xhe  fcetus,  enters  the  navel  ftring,  by  the  umbi- 
lical arteries  ;  thence  pafTes  into  the  pla  enta, 
where  it  is  refumed  by  the  veins  of  the  uterus, 
which  carry  it  back  again  to  the  mother ;  and  per- 
haps alfo,  by  the  roots  of  the  umbilical  veins, 
which  mix  it  afrefti  with  the  blood  of  the  mother. 

Therefore,  according  to  this  fyftem,  it  is  the 
blood  of  the  mother  thatfupplies  the  child,  which 
is  here  only  regarded  as  a  diftinct  member,  or  part 
of  her  frame. 

The  beating  of  her  heart  fends  it  a  portion  of 
her  blood ;  and  fo  much  of  the  impuUe  is  preferved, 

as 


A  N   A  T  0    MY. 


85 


as  fuffices  to  maintain  that  languid  ciiculation. 
which  a  fatui  enjoys  :  And  in  all  probability, 
gives  that  feeble  puliation  obferved  in  the  heart. 

Other  Anatomijh  maintain,  that  the  fcetus  is  on- 
ly fupplicd  with  chyle,  from  the  glands  of  the  ute- 
rus ;  which  is  further  elaborated,  and  turned  into 
blood,  in  the  vellels  of  the  fcetus ;  and  circulates 
therein,  without  any  further  communication  with 
the  mother.  —  Thefe  allow  of  no  reciprocal  cir- 
ciil.tion,  excepting  between  the  placenta  and  the 
fa;tus. 

But  the  former  opinion  is  beft  fupported;  for  the 
placenta  being  feparated  from  the  uterus,  during  the 
time  of  geftation,  neither  yields  any  chyle,  nor 
any  thing  but  blood. 

'T\iQ  circulation  of  the  blood  has  been  generally 
allowed  to  have  been  firfl:  difcovered  in  England, 
in  the  year  1628,  by  the  celebrated  Dr.  Harvey, 
though  there  are  fevera!  authors,  who  have  at- 
tempted in  vain  to  prove  the  contrary. 

The  Lungs  (AA)  which  are  the  next  part  we 
are  to  obferve  in  the  thorax^  are  a  coUedlion  of 
little  membranous  veficles  heaped  one  above  ano- 
ther, and  interlaced  with  branches  of  arteries  and 
veins. 

,(BB)  Thofe  bladders  are  formed  of  the  extre- 
mities of  the  inner  coat  of  the  trachea,  or  wind- 
pipe, and  all  wrapt  up  in  a  membrane.  —  Their 
outfide  is  convex,  and  raifed  upon  the  fides,  where 
they  touch  the  ribs,  but  their  infide  is  concave, 
whereby  they  can  embrace  the  heart  with  greater 
facility. 

The  Lungs  are  connected  above  to  th^  fauces, 
by  means  of  the  trachtsa  ;  and  below  to  the  verte- 
bra of  the  thorax ;  and  to  the  Jlernum  and  dla- 
phragtna  by  means  of  the  pleura,  to  which  they 
fometimes  adhere,  even  from  the  firft  conformation 
of  thofe  parts. 

(CC)  They  are  divided  into  two  great  lobes  by 
the  7nediajiinum,  and  thofe  again  fubclivided  into 
feveral  other  lobes  or  lobules  ;  the  right  fometimes 
into  three  or  four,  by  means  of  fome  fiflures  run- 
ning from  the  fore  to  the  back  edge.  —  The  great 
lobes,  when  inflated,  refemble  each  of  them  a 
horfe's  hoof  in  figure,  but  together  they  are  like  an 
ox's  inverted. 

The  whole  fubftance  of  the  lungs  is  covered 
with  a  common  membrane,  which  is  divifible  into 
two  coats,  the  outer,  thin,  fmooth,  and  nervous  ; 
the  inner,  fomewhat  thicket  and  rougher,  confifting 
moftly  of  the  extremities  of  vefiels  and  veficles, 
through  the  impreffion  of  which  it  is  pitted,  and 
refembles,  in  fome  meafure,  a  honey-comb. 

The  vefiels  of  the  lungs  are  the  bronchia,  the 
pulmonary  ana  bronchial  arteries  and  veins,  nerves, 
and  lymphaticks^  —  Of  thefe  veflels  fome  are  pro- 


per, and  fome  <.ommon\  the  common  are  the 
bronchia,  the  pulmonary  artery  and  vein,  the 
nerves  and  lymphaticks ;  the  /'n^^iT  are  the  bron- 
chial artery  and  vein. 

(EI' )  Before  we  inquire  into  the  ufe  fif  the 
lungs,  it  is  proper  to  obferve,  that  the  tracha;a, 
or  wind-pipe,  is  a  paffage,  which  reaches  from  the 
mouth  to  the  lungs.-  —  '  lis  placed  upon  the  cefo- 
phagus,  or  gullet,  which  it  accompanies  to  the 
fourth  vertebra  of  the  breaft-,  and  there  fplits  into 
two  branches,  which  enter  the  lungs,  one  on  each 
fide.  Thefe  branches  are  afterwards  divided  into 
as  many  twigs,  as  there  are  lobes  ;  and  the  twigs 
are  again  fubdivided  into  a  number  of  fmaller 
fhoots,  anfwerable  to  that  of  the  lobules  in  each 
lobe;  fo  that  all  the  fniall  veficles  in  each  little  lo- 
bule are  furnifhed  with  branches. 

The  branches  of  the  artery  and  pulmonary  vein, 
are  conftant  companions  of  thofe  of  the  trachaa, 
and  they  jointly  terminate  in  the  lobes  and  lobules  ; 
fo  that  we  may  juftly  apprehend,  that  each  lobule 
being  compofed  of  feveral  little  round  veficles,  is  a 
fort  of  little  lungs. 

The  confiituent  parts  of  the  trachaa  are  feveral 
cartilages,  ligaments,  and  two  membranes.  — 
The  cartilages  are  femicircular  before,  and  upon 
the  fides  they  are  hard,  and  fometimes  ofljfied  ;  but 
their   backfide   is  membranous,   which   give  them 

the  form  of  an  half  moon. 1  hey  are  ran2;ed 

one  above  another,  and  grow  fmaller  as  they  ap- 
proach to  the  lungs.  They  are  fo  contrived,  that 
by  entering  into  one  another,  like  the  Ihells  of  a 
crab's  tail,  they  lengthen  themfelves  in  infpiration, 
and  fhorten  in  expiration  and  expeftoration. 

They  are  all  faflened  to  one  another  by  liga- 
ments, which  run  between  them,  and  which  fome 
have  miftaken  for  mufcles. 

The  irachaa  has  two  membranes ;  a  very  ftrong 
outer  one,  which  ties  the  cartilages  together,  and 
hinders  their  dilatation;  and  the  inner  membrane, 
which  is  but  a  continuation  of  the  palate  of  the 
mouth,  and  ferves  to  line  its  iniide  in  the  larynx, 
or  entrance  of  the  tracheea.  Tliis  coat  is  very 
thick,  indifferent  in  the  middle,  and  very  thin  in 

the  branches  inferted  in  the  lungs. Its  fenfe  is 

fo  exquifite  that  it  can  fuffer  nothing ;  for  when 
any  portion  of  food,  or  drink  falls  into  its  cavity, 
we  never  ceafe  coughing   till  we  have  diflodged  it 

again. 'Tis  liquored  over  with  a  fat  humour 

that  keeps  it  always  fupple,  in  order  to  form  the 
voice,  and  prevent  its  being  diy'd  or  injured  by  the 
fharp  and  fuliginous  excrements  that  pais  through 
the  wind -pipe.  The  abundance  of  this  humour 
caufes  a  hoarfenefs  ;  but  its  excellive  redundancy 
occafions  the  lofs  of  one's  voice,  which  retrieves 
fo  foon  as  the  humour  is  confumed. 

M  2  The 


The  Univeifal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^;?fl^  Sciences. 


86 

The  trachaa  receives  branches  of  nerves,  from 
the  rccurreni  branches  of  the  eighth  pair  ;  arteries 
from  the  carotides  ;  and  its  veins  unload  in  the  ex- 
terna! jiigulares.  Its  nerves  being  difperfed  through 
its  whole  inner  membrane,  caufe  its  exquifitefenle. 

The  trach^va  and  its  bronchia  ferve  to  condu(fl 
the  air  into  the  lungs,  in  the  infpiration.,  and  to 
return  it  again  in  the  time  of  expiration. 

The  Inspiration  is  the  ingrefsof  the  air,  en- 
fuing  upon  the  dilatation  of  the  thorax,  and  the 
lungs;  and  the  Expiration,  the  egrefs  of  the 
air  ;  together  with  a  vaporous  lymphay  procured  by 
the  contraction  of  the  lame  parts. 

This  ingrefs  or  admiliion  of  the  air  depends  ifn- 
mediately  on  its  fprings,  or  elafticity,  at  the  time 
when  the  cavity  of  the  breafi:  is  enlarged,  by  the 
elevation  of  the  thorax  and  abdomen,  and  particu- 
larly the  motion  of  the  diaphragm  downwards  : 
So  that  the  air  does  not  enter  the  lungs,  becaufe 
they  are  dilated  :  but  thofe  dilate,  becaufe  the  air 
enters  within  them.  Nor  is  it  the  dilatation  of  the 
breaft,  which  draws  in  the  air,  as  is  commonly 
thought,  but  an  adlual  intrufion  of  the  air  into, 
the  lungs. 

Expiration  is  performed  by  a  contraftion  of 
the  cavity  of  the  breaft,  and  the  parts  employed  in 
the  infpiration,.  re-afTuming  their  firfl  ftation. 

Infpiration  and  expiration,  form  together  what 
we  call  respiration^ 

But  for  a  clearer  explanation  of  this  fubjeiV,  and 
of  the  manner  wherein  rcfpiration  is  performed, 
we  muft  obferve,  that  the  lungs,  when  fufpended 
in  the  open  air,  by  the  contraftive  power  of  the 
mufcular  fibres  which  tie  toijether  the  fquamous 
parts,  the  bronchia  are  reduced  to  lefs  fpace,  than 
they  ^pofl'efTed,  while  in  the  cavity  of  the  thorax  ; 
and  when  thus  contracted,  if  a  quanticv  of  new 
air  be  injecfted  through  the  glottis,  they  a^ain  be- 
come diftended,  fo  as  to  pollefs  an  equal,  nay, 
a  greater  fpace,  than  that  affigned  them  in  the 
thorax. 

Hence  it  appears,  that  the  lungs,  bv  their  pro- 
per force,  are  always  endeavouring  to  contraft 
themfelves  into  lefs  compafs  than  they  poficfs  when 
inclofed  in  the  thorax;  and  that  therefore  they  are 
^ways   in  a  flate  of  violent  dilatation,    while  the 

man  lives. For  the  air  that  encompafles  them 

in  the  thorax,  fhut  up  betv/ixt  their  external  mem- 
brane, and  the  pleura,  is  not  of  equal  denfity  with, 
common  air. 

In  efFeft,  the  ingrefs  of  the  air,  through  the 
glottis,  into  the  lungs,  is  always  free  ;  but  that  on 
the  outfide,  wherewith  they  are  comprelFed,  is  im- 
"«f)eded  by  the  diaphragm,  fo  as  it  cannot  (  nter  the 
thorax  in  a  quantity  fufHcient  to  make  an  equili- 
brium. 


Since  then  in  infpiration,  the  air  enters  the  lunss 
in  greater  quantity  than  it  did  before;  it  will  di- 
late them  more,  and  overcome  their  natural  force. 
■  ■  ■  The  lungs  therefore  arc  wholly  paflive  in  the 
matter :  What  it  is  that  acts  muft  be  learnt  front 
the  phenomena.. 

I.  Then  it  is  obferved,  that  in  infpiration,.  the 
nine  upper  ribs,  articulated  to  the  vertebrie,  and 
the  Jlt'rnum,  nfc  archwife  towards  the  clavicles  ; 
and  the  three  lower  are  turned  downwards;  and 
the  eighth,  ninth,  and'  tenth  are  drawn  inwards. 
2.  That  the  abdomen  is  dilated.  And,  3.  The 
thorax  enlarged.  4.  The  diaphragm  is  brought 
from  its  convex,  and  linuous  pofition  to  a  flat 
figure. 

Now  as  thefe  are  the  only  vifible  adtions  in  in- 
fpiration, the  caufe  of  the  operation  muft  be  re- 
ferred to  them ;  or  rather  to  the  mufcles  of  thefe 
parts,  which  are  the  intercoftal,  the  fubclavian,  is'c. 

The  capacity  of  the  thorax,  being  enlarged  by 
the  a£tion  of  thefe  mufdes  on  the  ribs,  fsfc.  a 
fpace  is  left  between  the  pleura  and  the  furface  of 
the  lu'igs ;  fo  that  the  air  entring  the  glottis,  in- 
flates them  till  fuch  times,  as  they  become  conti- 
guous to  the  pleura  and  diaphragm.  —  In  tliis 
cafe  now  the  air  prefl'es  the  lungs  as  much  as  the 
thorax  refifts  them ;  and  hence  the  lungs  become 
at  reft;  the  blood  palTes  lefs  freely,  and  is  forced 
in  lefs  quantity  into  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart, 
and  fo  lefs  comes  into  the  cerebellum,  and  its  nerves, 
and  the  arterial  blood  z£ks,  lefs  on  the  intercoftal 
mufcles,    and  diaphragm. 

The  caufes,.  therefore,  which  at  firft  dilated  the 
thorax,  grow  weaker;  and  confequently  the  ribs 
become  deprefled,  the  diftended  fibres  of  the  muf- 
cles of  the  abdomen,  reftore  themfelves,  the  vifcera 
thruft  the  diaphragm  up  again  into  the  thorax,  the 
fpace  whereof  being  thus  contradted,  the  air  is 
drove  out  of  the  lungs  ;  and  thus  is  expiration  per:- 
formed. 

Immediately  the  blood  being  quickened  in  its  mo- 
tion, begins  to  flow  ftronger,  and  more  plentifully 
to  the  cerebellum  and  mufcles  ;  and  thus  the  caufes 
of  the  contraction  of  the  intercojlals,  and  diaphragm 

being  renewed,  infpiration  is  repeated.  Such 

is  the  true,  immediate,  adequate  manner  of  vital 
refpiration.. 

The  ufes  and  efFefts  of  Respiration  are  great- 
ly difputed  among  Jinatomifts. Boerhaave  'takes' 

the  principal  ufes  thereof  to  be  the-  farther  prepa- 
ration of  the  chyle,  its  more  accurate  mixture 
with  the  blood,  and  its  converfion  into  a  nutricious 
juice  proper  to  repair  the  decays  of  the  body. 

Borelli  takes  the  great  ufes  of  refpiration,  to  be 
the  admiffion,  and  mixture  of  air  with  the  blood 
in  the  lungs,  in  order  to  form  thofe  elajlick  globules, 

it. 


A   N  A   T  0    MY. 


87 


it  confiffs  rf>f;  to  give  tts  red  florid  colour :  and  to 
prepare  it  for  many  of  the  ufcs  of  tiic  animal  oeco'^ 
nomy  :  But  how  fuch  admiffioa  fliould  be  effefted 
is  hard  to  hj 

Other  authors,  as  Sylvius,  Etmuller,  &c.  take 
the  great  ufes  of  rrfpiration,  to  be  by  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  cold,  nitrous  air,  to  cool  the  blood 
coming  reeking  hot  out  of  the  right  ventricle  of 
the  heart,  through  the  lungs  ;  and  to  aft  as  a  re- 
frigeratory. 

Mayow  and  oth^s,  aflert  one  grand  life  of  refpi- 
7-aUon  to  be,  to  throw  ofF  the  fuliginous  vapours 
of  the  blood  along  with  the  expelled  air;  and  for 
infpiration,  he  aflerts,  that  it  conveys  a  nitro  aerial 
ferment  to  the  blood,  to  which  the  animal  fpirits, 
and  all  mufcular  motions  are  owing. 

But  Dr.  Thurjhiv  rejefts  all  thefe,  from  being 
principal  ufes  of  refpiration,  which  he  Ihews  to  be, 
to  move  or  pafs  the  blood,  from  the  right  to  the 
left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  and  fo  to  effedt  the  cir- 
culation. 

He  inftances  an  experiment  made  by  Dr.  Croon 
before  the  Royal  Society,  who  by  ftrangling  a  pul- 
let, foas  not  the  leaft  fign  of  life  appeared;  yet  by 
blowing  into  the  lungs,  through  the  trachaa,  and 
fb  fetting  them  a  playing,  he  brought  the  bird  to  life 
again.  —  Another  experiment  of  the  fame  kind  is 
that  of  Dr.  Hook,  who  after  hanging  a  dog,  cut 
away  the  ribs,  diaphragm,  and  pericardium,  and 
alfo  the  top  of  the  wind-pipe,  that  he  might  tie 
it  on  to  the  nofe  of  a  pair  of  bellows  ;  and  thus  by 
blowing  into  the  lungs,,  he  reftored  the  dog  to  life ; 
and  then  ceafing  to  blow,  the  dog  would  foon  fall 
into  dying  fits,  but  recover  again  by  blowing,  and 
thus  alternately,  as  long  as  he  pleafed. 

The  Neck,,  (which  being  nothing  elfe  but  an  ex- 
tentioaof  the  thoraxr,  we'll  examine  in  fhis  place) 
commences  at  the  atlas,  which  is  the  firft  vertebra, 
next  to  the  head,  and  terminates  at  the  firll  verte- 

Ira  of  the  thorax. It  has  the  length  of  feven 

Virtebra,  and  is  not  fo  broad  as  it  is  long.  Its 

forepart  is  called  the  throat,,  and  the  back  part  the 
nucha,  or  nape.  — —  'Tis  divided  into  the  con- 
taining parts,  whic'i  are  the  fame  with  thofe  of  the 
whole  body;  znA  t\\c  cotitained,  among  which  the 
trachcea,  the  larynjc,  and  the  oefophagus  are  of  the 
greateft  note. 

The  Larynx  (HH)  is  the  principal  organ  of  the 
Voice,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  trachea,  placed 
on  the  fore-fide  of  the  neck,  direftly  in  the  middle. 
— Its  figure  is  circular. — It  rifes  before,  and  is  flat 
behind,  to  prevent  its  hurting  the  cefophagus  juft 
placed  under  it. — This  rifing  is  called  Adam's  bit, 
upon   the  ridiculous   opinion,    that  the  forbidden 


fruit  ftuck 
bunch, 


in  his  throat,     and   fo  occafioned   a 


The  magnitude  of  the  larynx  vzues,  according  ta 
the  difference  of  ages.  In  young  perfons  'tis  ftrait, 
and  renders  the  voice  flirill  ;  in  perfons  of  riper 
years  'tis  larger,  and  renders  the  voice  ftrong. — 
'  I  is  bigger  in  men  than  in  women,  or  it  does  not 
appear  fo  vifibly  in  women,  as  in  men;  becaufe  the 
glands  of  the  lower  part  of  the  larynx  are  larger 
in  women,  and  thereby  their  neck  becomes  roun- 
der, and  their  throat  fuller. — It  moves  in  degluti- 
tion, for  when  the  eefrphatus  lowers  itfelf,  to  re- 
ceive the  food,    the  larynx  rifes  to  prefs  it  down. 

The  larynx  confifts  of  cartilages,  mufcles,  mem- 
branes, vefTels  and  glands. 

The  whole  body  of  the  larynx  is  formed  of  five 
cartilages,Wz.  the  thyreoides^  cricoides,  arythanoid>  s, 
tht glottis  and  epiglottis. 

The  Thyreoids  is  hollow  within,  and  convex 
without,  and  divided  in  the  middle  by  a  line,  which 
give  occafion  to  fay,  'twas  double,  though  'tis  verv 
rarely  found  to  be  fuch. — . — The  larynx  is  fquare, 
and  each  of  its  angles  has  a  produdlion. — The  two 
upper  productions  are  the  longeft,  and  are  tied  to 
the  fides  of  the  os  hyoides  hy  a.  ligament;  and  by 
the  two  lower  produdtions.  to  the  cricoides  car- 
tilages. 

The  Cricoides  refembles  a  ring,  and  goes  round 
the  whole  trachea. — 'Tis  narrow  before,  but  broad 
and  thick  behind — It  ferves  for  a  bafis  to  all  the 
other  cartilages,  and  joins  them  all  to  the  trachea, 
and  for  that  reafon  is  immoveable. 

The  Arythanoides,  (L)  which  is  the  third 
cartilage,  is  placed  in  the  thyreoides,  and  fupported 
by  the  annular  cartilage. — It  forms  the  back  par^ 
of  the  larynx. 

The  GUttis  (M)  forms  the  upper  and  back  part 
of  the  larynx,  where  'tis  narrowell,  and  renders 
the  voice  either  fhrill  or  llrong,  according  as  it 
contracts  or  dilates  itfelf. 

The  Epiglottis  ferves  for  a  cover  to  the  glottis,  re- 
fembles an  ivy  leaf,  and  has  a  fofter  fubfiance, 
than  any  of  the  other  cartilages  ;  which  qualifies 
it  to  rife,  or  lower  itfelf  commodioufly. — 'Tis 
faftened  to  the  concave  and  upper  part  of  the  thy- 

roides. The  orifice  of  the  larynx  ftands  always 

open  for  refpiration,  except  when  the  epiglottis 
(huts  it.  Now  the  weight  of  the  aliment  makes 
the  epiglottic  fall  down  upon  it,  leaf!  any  thin^ 
fhould  fall  into  the  trachea  ;  but  as  foon  as  the  ali- 
ment is  paffcd  the  ajophagus,  or  gullet,  the  epi- 
glottis recovers  itfelf  by  a  natural  rebound,  to  afford 
a  pafTage  to  the  air. 

The  larynx  is  provided  with  fourteen  mufcles; 
feven  on  each  fide,  which  dilate  or  contraft  the 
wind-pipe,  or  trochlea;  four  of  thefe  are  common, 
and  ten  are  proper, 

(OO) 


88 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  <?/ Arts  ^W  Sciences. 


(OO)  The  two  firft  commov  proceed  from  the 
uppei-  and  lower  part  of  the  firft  bone  of  the  Jler- 
nutn,  and  mount  along  the  cartilages  of  the  ^rrtirA<ftf, 
till  they  arrive  at  the  lateral  part  of  the  thyrcoides  ; 
— where  they  are  inferred. 

The  two  other  common  mufcles  proceed  from 
the  fore-part  of  the  byoides  bone,   and  are  inferted 

in  the  outer  and  lower  part  of  the  tbyreoides. 

They  ferve  to  raife  the  larynx,  by  contracling  the 
upper,  and  dilating  the  lower  part  of  the  thyrcoides. 

The  firft  pair  of  the  proper  mufcles  proceed  from 
the  lateral  and  fore-part  of  the  cricoides;  are  inferted 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  wing  of  the  thyrcoides,  and 
therefore  placed  in  the  fore  and  lateral  part  of  the 
wind -pipe. 

Of  the  remaining  four  pair,  two  ferve  to  open 
the  larynx,  and  two  fhut  it. 

The  firft  pair  employed  in  opening  the  larynx 
proceed  from  the  lower  and  back  part  of  the  cri- 
coides cartilage ;  and  are  inferted  into  the  upper  and 
hinder  part  of  the  arythanoides. 

The  next  couple  for  the  fame  ufe,  take  their 
origin  from  the  edge  of  the  lateral  and  upper  part 
of  the  cricoides,  and  their  infertion  from  the  lateral 
and  upper  part  of  the  arythaiioides. 

The  firft  pair  that  ferve  to  fhut  the  larynx  fpri'ng 
from  the  hinder  and  lower  part  of  the  terythcenoides, 
and  have  an  oblique  infertion  in  the  fame  cartilage. 

7'he  iccond  couple,  for  that  ufe,  proceed  from 
the  hollow  and  inner  part  of  the  thyrcoides,  and 
terminate  in  the  fore-part  of  the  aryth/enoides. 

The  larynx  has  two  membranes  ;  an  outer  one, 
which  is  continuous  with  the  outer  cover  of  the 
-trachea  ;  and  an  inner  one,  which  is  the  fame  with 
that  of  the  palate,  for  it  lines  the  whole  mouth, 
and  defcends  as  an  inner  coat  through  the  pharynx, 
the  larynx  and  the  trach<ra. 

It  receives  two  branches  of  nerves  from  the  re- 
currents  ;  and  is  moiftened  by  four  large  glands, 
two  fituate  above,  called  tonfils,  and  two  under- 
neath, called  thyroidca. 

The  tonfds  are  of  a  fpongy  fubftance,  feated  on 
each  fide  the  uvula,  near  the  root  of  the  tongue. 
1  he  common  coat  of  the  mouth  is  their  cover. 
Their  nerves  are  derived  from  the  fourth  pair  ; 
their  arteries  from  the  carotides  ;  and  their  veins 
unload  in  the  jugular. 

Thefe  glands  ferve  to  make  a  fecrction  of  the 
'blood  imported  by  the  carotides.  This  fcrum  they 
unload  in  the  bottom  of  the  mouth,  in  order  to 
keep  the  wind-pipe  moift,  and  part  of  it  trickles 
down  the  trachea. 

The  two  lower  glands  called  ihyroiderf,  are 
placed  under  the  larynx,  by  the  annular  cartilage, 
and  the  firft  ring  of  the  trachtca  ;.  one  on  each  fide ; 
they  have  the  figure  of  a  little  pear.     Their  fub- 


ftance is  more  folid,  vifcous,  and  inclining  to  a 
mufcular  confiftence  than  that  of  the  other  glands. 
— Their  ncr-'es  are  from  the  recurrent  branches  ; 
their  arteries  from  the  carotides  \  their  veins  run  to 
the  jugular,  and  their  lymphatick  vefleis  unload  in 
the  thoracick  dudt. 

Thefe  glands  make  a  fecretion  of  a  vifcous  Hu- 
mour, with  which  the  larynx  is  done  over,  in  or- 
der to  facilitate  the  motion  of  its  cartilages,  to  qua- 
lify the  acrimony  of  the  faliva,  and  to  foften  the 
voice. 

The  larynx  is  of  a  very  confiderable  ufe,  not 
only  in  modulating  and  foftening  the  voice,  by  the 
different  apertures  of  its  rima,  or  chink,  but  alfo 
in  compreffing  the  lungs  to  a  greater  or  lefs  degree 
by  the  air  ;  for  if  the  internal  diameter  of  the  la- 
rynx had  been  equal  to  that  of  the  trachaa,  the 
lungs  could  have  undergone  little  or  no  compreffion 
at  all  ;  nor  confequently  without  the  larynx  could 
we  have  reaped  the  advantage  from  breathing,  in 
regard  the  air  would  not  have  refifted  that  force 
wherewith  it  is  driven  out  in  expiration,  nor  con- 
fequently could  the  compreffion  have  been  made  in 
the  lungs,  which  is  found  neceflary  for  the  com- 
munication of  the  globules  of  the  blood  ;  and  the 
mixing  of  the  two  fluids,  air  and  blood  together.  ^ 

2.  Behind  the  larynx  there  is  a  very  large  cavity, 
called  the  Pharynx,  which   is  only  the  orifice  of 

the  cefophagus,  dilated  to  a  great  extent. ■  Tis_ 

made  like  a  funnel,  and  fome  call  it  gula,  or  gul- 
let, in  which  the  a(5lion  of  diglutition  commences, 
and  where  it  is  chiefly  performed. 

It  is   aflifted   by   three   pair  of  mufcles,  which 

chiefly  compofe  the  pharynx. The  firft,   called 

the  ftyhpharyngtus,  ferves  to  draw  up  and  dilate 
the  pharynx.  The  fecond,  pterygopharyngreus,  ferves 
to  conftringe  it ;  the  third,  which  is  called  the  oeso- 
phagus, ferves  to  clofe  it. 

The  oflice  of  the  pharynx  confifts  in  receiving 
the  aliment  into  its  wideft  part,  and  conveying 
through  its  narrower  paflage  into  the  cefophagus., 
which  conducts  it  to  the  ventricle  ;  and  which  is 
performed  in  the  following  manner.  When  the 
mufcles  heretofoi-e  mentioned  have  widened  the 
pharynx,  then  the  cefophagus  contracling  itfelf, 
raifes  the  larynx,  and  prefl'es  down  the  pharynx, 
which  clings  round  the  aliment  on  all  fides,  and 
obliges  it  to  defcend  through  the  cejophagus  into  the 
ventricle. 

The  Oesophagus,  or  gullet,  is  a  membranous 
pipe  or  paflage,  whereby  our  food  and  drink  is  con- 
,  veyed  from  the  mouth  to  the  ftomach. 
I  The  cefophagus  defcends  from  the  fauces  to  the 
ftomach,  between  the  afpcra  artcria  and  the  verte- 
brae of  the  neck  and  back,  in  a  ftrait  line,  except- 
ing for  a  little  deflexion  about  the  fifth  vertebra  of 

the 


ANA  r  0  Mr. 


89 


the  thorax,  where  it  turns  a  little  to  the  right  to 
make  way  for  the  great  artery,  which  runs  along 
with  it  to  the  ninth  ;  where  turning  again  towards 
the  laft,  it  erodes  the  artery,  and  piercing  the 
diaphragm,  ends  at  the  left  orifice  of  the  ftomach. 

It  confifts  of  three  membranes,  which  qualify  it 
for  an  eafy    dilatation  upon   the    fwallowing  of  a 

bone,  or  an  ill  chewed  morfel. Of  thefe  three 

membranes  the  outer  one  is  a  continuation  of  that, 
which  inverts  the  flomach. 

The  firll  proper  or  middle  one  is  carnous,  thick, 
and  foft  like  a  mufcle,  and  is  pofTefied  of  round  and 
oblique  fibres,  which  efFedl  the  motion  of  the  ccfa- 
phagus. 

The  fecond  proper  is  nervous,  and  contiguous 
with  that,  which  inverts  the  mouth  and  lips,  by 
Avhich  means  it  comes  to  pafs  that  the  lips  tremble, 
when  a  vomiting  approaches.  This  coat  has  long 
and  ftrait  fibres,  and  like  that  of  the  ftomach,  is 
ftrewed  with  an  infinity  of  glandules,  which  ftrain 
out  an  acid  humour  into  the  ccjophagus  ;  and  this 
humour  gliding  to  the  bottom  of  the  rtomach,  af- 
fects it  with  the  fenfe  o{ hunger. 

Mr.  Duncan  obferves,  that  when  any  acid  va- 
pours proceeding  from  the  rtomach,  irritate  the 
nervous  membrane  of  the  eefophagus,  by  provoking 
the  fpirits  to  crowd  particularly  on  that  part,  it 
never  mifles  to  make  us  yawn,  and  therefore  this 
membrane  is  the  true  feat  of  yawning  ;  for  in  that 
cafe,  the  nervous  fibres  of  the  inner  membrane 
fwell  by  the  irritation  ;  and  by  dilating  the  aja- 
phagus,  oblige  the  mouth  to  anfwer  their  motion, 
it  being  lined  with  the  fame  membrane. 

The  eefophagus  receives  nerves  from  the  par  va- 
gum ;  arteries  from  the  aoria,  and  ceeliaca ;  and 
two  forts  of  veins,  one  above,  which  runs  to  the 
azygos,  and  another  below,  which  terminates  in 
the  ftomachick  coronaria. 
.  The  glands  placed  at  the  hinder  part  of  the 
eefophagus  fervc  to  feparate  the  vifcous  humour 
with  which  its  cavity  is  moirtened,  and  rendered 
more  flippery  in  order  to  facilitate  the  defcent  of 
the  aliment 

■•  The  action  of  the  eefophagus  belongs  to  the  ani- 
mal clafs,  and  not  to  the  natural,  for  it  is  ef- 
fected by  the  means  of  the  mufcles  ;  and  Iwallowing 

is  known  to  be  a  voluntaiy  aviion. Its  motion 

is  of  undulation,  like  that  of  the  inteftines,  and  is 
perfornicd  by  the  oblique  and  circular  fibres  of  its 

flefliy   membrane. When   this    motion   tends 

from  above  dovv'nwards,  'tis  called />^r(/?«//;ci,  and 
the  reverie  of  that  aniipcriJhUtick, 

From  the  neck  we  proceed  to  the  parts  contained 
in  iht  head.  ¥01-  the  parts  «;;/£7/«;«^feepage40,&c. 
The  firrt  part  that  offers  itfeif  to  our  view  after 
I 


the  lifting  up  of  tht flu//,  is  the  Dt;RA  Mater, 
which  confirts  of  a  double  plan  of  fibres,  that  cro.fs 
ope  another  a  thoufand  different  ways ;  though 
fometimes  one  may  divide  it  into  two,  very  cafiJy. 
— 'Tis  much  thicker  in  young  perfons,  and  fiic.ki 
very  clofe  to  thefkull,  by  a  great  mmy  little  veflels, 
which  nourifh  the  inner  part  of  the  cranium  ;  of 
which  this  memb;ane  is  thought  by  many  authors 
to  be  a  continuation. 

Arteries  and  veins  rife  above  the  outer  furface  of 
the  dura  mater,  and  fo  contrived  that  the  arteries 
are  always  covered  with  veins  to  prevent  any  in- 
jury accruing  to  the  cranivm  from  the  continual 
pulfation  of  the  artery. — The  arteries  of  the  brain 
proceed  from  the  inner  carotides;  and  thofe  of  the 

cerebellum  from  the  vertebrales The  veins  of  the 

brain  empty  themftlvej,  into  the  inner  jugular  veins, 

and  thofe  of  the  cerebellum  into  the  vertebra!.- In 

thefe  vertels  there  are  mutual  anajiomofes  of  arteries 
with  arteries,  and  veins  with  veins,  to  the  end  that 
the  blood  being  rtopt  on  one  fide,  the  brain  may 
be  fufficiently  fupplied  on  the  other. 

To  prevent  the  comprefiion  of  the  verttls,  na- 
ture has  run  the  vertebral  artery  through  a  bony 
gutter,  digged  out  of  the  tranfverfal  procelTes  of  the 
neck,  and  conduced  the  i'ame  artery  to  the  cra- 
nium, hy  the  foramen  of  the  occiput,  where  it  is 
defended  from  prefl'ure  by  being  laid  in  a  hollow 
cut  of  the  firit  vcrtebree  of  the  neck. 

Tis  to  be  obferved,  that  fome  arteries  run  ofF 
obliquely,  after  they  have  gone  fome  rounds  upon 
the  dura  mater,  to  mitigate  the  boiling  of  the  blood, 
which  otherwife  would  occafion  grievous  head-achs. 
— Thefe  arteries  unload  m  the  Icngitudi.naly/^z^xof 
the  dura  mater,  which  does  not  happen  in  any  other 
part  of  the  body  ;  for  the  blood  of  the  arteries  never 
mingles  elfewhere  v/itli  that  of  the  veins,  without 
pafTing  firrt  through  forne  glands,  or  the  fibres  of 
fome  parts. In  eftett  the  veins  have  no  imme- 
diate communication  Vvjith  the  arteries  in  any  other 
part  of  the  body. 

The  Dura  Mater  inverts  the  whole  fufaftance 
of  the  brain  and  cerebellum  ;  ferves,  i.  To  keep 
the  brain  from  rattling  againft  the  f^ull  in  the 
great  commotion  of  the  head  ;  2.  To  let  in  the 
more  volatile  parts,  which  are  perpetually  evapo- 
rated from  the  brain  ;  3  To  fill  up  and  rtop  the 
holes  of  the  /kull,  through  which  the  fanguine  and 
nervous  vefiels  pafs  ;  and,  4.  For  a  cover  to  the 
nerves  :  and  defends  them  from  being  annoyed  by 
the  hardnefs  and  roughnefs  of  the  fkull  in  jsaflino- 
through  its  perforations. 

This  membrane  is  endowed  with  an  exquifite 
fenfe,  independent  noni  the  brain,  for  if  the  brain 
is  Aiipt  of  the  dura  mater,  it  might  be  cut  without 
pain. — This    fenfe   proceeds  from  its    immediate 

coiitad 


90  7>^^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  /^;?<:/ Sciences. 


eonticb  und  union  with  the  nerves,  to  which  it  is  a 
cover,  and  from  fome  threads  it  receives  of  the  filch 
pair  of  nerves,  at  the  place  of  its  perforation. 

In  that  part,  which  runs  out  in  length  under  the 
ffigitnd  future,  the  dura  mater  is  double,  and  by  a 
gradual  diminution  enters  the  fubftance  of  the  brain, 
"i'his  duplicature  contraiting  itfelf,  marches  from 
the  cerebellum  to  the  fore-part  of  the  head,  and  is 
faflened  to  the  hollow  part  of  the  coronal  bone  a- 
bove  the  crijia galli . 

(D)  This  duplicature  is  called  Falx,  from  the 
reicinblance  of  a.  fickle. — This  membrane  has  an- 
other duplicature  towards  the  lamboides  future, 
where  it  is  four  times  thicker,  than  in  other  places, 
the  better  to  part  the  brain  from  the  cerebellum  ;  and 
to  keep  one  fide  from  prefllng  the  other  (when  one 
lies  on  one  fide  of  the  head;)  to  keep  up  the  fe- 
cond  longitudinal _/7iz*^,  and  to  hinder  the  corrup 
tion  of  one  fide  to  be  imparted  to  the  other. 

The  ylvflW  duplicature  of  the  a'/.'ra  mater  ferves 
to  guard  the  cerebellum^  from  the  preflure  of  the 
two  hinder  lobes  of  the  brain,  and  to  keep  up  the 
two  lateral  ftnus's  in  favage  animals. — In  this  place 
called  the  torcular,  or  prcfs,  there  ftands  a  bony 
protuberance,  which  fortifies  the  laft  ufe  of  the  du- 
plicature. 

The  dura  mater  prefents  us  with  ten  finus's  or 
cavities,  iJ/z.  (E)  the  fuperior  longitudinal ;  (FE) 
the  two  lateral  ;  (G)  the  ftreight  j  (H)  the  infc- 
riour  longitudinal ;  one  at  the  crift  of  the  os  occi- 
pitis,  and  two  upon  the  ftony  procefs,  (one  above 
and  the  other  below)  which  communicate  with  one 
another  towards  the  fella  of  the  wedge-like  bone, 
and  after  that  communicate  with  thofe  of  the  other 
fide  towards  the  hinder  climides^rocQ^ics, 

The  upper  longitudinal^wa/  runs  upon  the  falx, 
along  the  fagittal  future,  and  terminates  together 
with  the  falx  above  the  cri/fa  galli.  The  lateral 
cavities  commence  towards  the  lamboides  future, 
where  the  f.lx  and  the  back  longitudinal  yJ/jz/j  take 
their  rife.  The  {tra'ight  firius  commences  towards 
the  union  of  the  lateral,  or  the  divifion  of  the  up- 
per longitudinal,  and  marches  ftreight  to  the  glait- 
dida  pineaJis. — The  lower  longitudinal  runs  along 
the  extremity  of  thtfa'.x^znd  terminates  theftreight 
finus. 

The  cavity  that  lies  by  the  crifl  of  the  os  cecipl- 
tis,  extends  no  further  than  the  t'r//?,  and  difem- 
b)gues  in  the  ]a.tera\finta's  ;  the  other  cavities  in 
th?  bafe  of  the  craniu?n,  empty  themfelves  into  the 
lateral y/««j' J  ;  fome  higher,  and  fome  lower,  and 
commonly  at  that  place,  where  they  wind  in  the 
form  of  a  Roman  S  ;  and  then  unload  in  the  jugu- 
lar and  internal  vertebral  veins. 

Thefe  ten  cavities  ferve  to  contain  the  blood  in 
the  brain,  for  fome  time,  in  order  to  heat  it,  by 
t 


their  moderate  and  cherifliing  heat,  for  the  gene- 
ration of  animal  fpirits,  and  to  check  its  rapid 
courfe,  tlicy  fervc  alfo  to  receive  the  refidue  of  the 
blood  from  the  capillary  vein*  of  the  brain,  and 
convey  it  to  the  jugular  and  vertebral  veins,  in 
order  to  circulation.  • 

The  dura  mater  has  a  motion  of  d'taflole.,  and 
f\flote,  which  is  caufed  by  the  arteries,  which  enter 
thefkull. 

(I)  The  Pi  A  Mater  lies  immediately  under 
the  dura  mater,  and  is  a  fine,  thin  membrane, 
which  covers  the  brain  fo  intimately,  that  it  can 
fcarcely  be  feparated  from  it  :  it  accompanies  the 
brain  in  all  its  circumvolutions,  and  condu(Sls  all 
the  veficls  that  either  enter  its  fubftance,  or  de- 
part from  it. 

Dr.  IVillis  obferves,  that  it  is  filled  with  a  great 
many  little  glands,  which  ferve  to  feparate  a  watery 
humour  that  moiftens  the  two  membranes. — 'Tis 
alledged  that  this  pia  mater  is  extream  fenfible,  and 
the  feat  of  the  head-ach. 

(M)  Under  the  meninges  appears  a  large,  foft, 
whitifh  mafs,  wherein  all  the  organs  of  fenfe  ter- 
minate, called  Brain. 

Its  figure  is  the  fame  with  that  of  the  bones 
that  coniain  it,  viz.  roundifh,  oblong,  and  flat  on 
the  fides  ;  and  is  divided  into  three  principal  parts, 
viz..  the  cerchrui't,  or  brain,  ftridtiy  fo  called,  the 
cerehelhim-,  and  the  medulla  oblongata. 

The  Brain  is  divided  by  the  falx,  into  two 
equal  parts,  called  right  and  left  bcmifpheres.  It  is 
alfo  feparated  from  the  cerebellum,  by  another  du- 
plicature of  the  dura  >natcr. 

(N)  ItconUfti  of  two  kinds  of  fubftance  ;  the 
outward  one  is  iineritiaus,  or  ajh-cohured,  foft  and 
moift,  called  the  cortex,  or  cortical  part  of  the 
brain,  is  about  half  an  inch  thick.  The  other  or 
inner  fubftance  is  white,  more  folid  and  dry  than 
the  cortex,  and  is  called  the  marrow,  or  medullary, 
and  fometimes  thefbrous  part. 

The  cortex,  according  to  Alalpighi,  is  formed 
from  the  minute  branches  of  the  carolides  and  ver- 
tebral arteries ;  which  being  woven  together  in  the 
pia  mater,  fends  from  each  point  thereof,  as  from  a 
bafts,  little  branches,  which  being  twifted  together 
into  the  form  of  a  gland,  inclofe  the  medulla,  ordi- 
narily to  the  thicknefs  of  half  an  inch.  Thefe 
little  branches  make  circumvolutions  like  the  in- 
teftines  ;  each  of  which  may  be  refolved  into  other 
innumerable  niinute  glands,  contiguous  to  each 
other,  deftined  for  the  fccretion  of  animal  fpir its 
from  the  blood,  brought  hither  by  the  carotides, 
&c.  and  like  wife  to  filtrate  the  nsri'ous  juice, Vfhxch 
is  an  oily,  and  very  fubtile  liquor,  affording  a  ve- 
hicle to  the  animal  fpirits,  and  afllfting  the  bJoo(f, 
in  the  nourifhing  of  die  parts. 

(O) 


ANATOMY. 


(O)  The  inner  or  medullary  part  of  the  Firain, 
confifts  of  infinitely  fine  fibres,  aiifing  from  the 
rftiniiteft  branches  or  filaments  of  the  glands  of  the 
cortex  ;  thefe  receive  the  fluid  fcparated  and  Tub 
tilized  from  the  glands  of  the  c«-?c.v  ;  and  by  means 
of  the  nerves,  which  are  no  more  than  produftions 
of  this  part,  diftribute  it  all  over  the  body. 

Ruyfch,  and  Leevuenhoek,  deny  any  thing  like 
glands  in  it  ;  and  allow  nothing  but  little  crypto:., 
or  finks,  opening  laterally  to  the  arteries  ;  and 
thence  receiving  a  juice  already  fecreted  from  the 
blood,   and  tranfmitting  it  to  the  medulla. 

In  the  fpace  between  the  two  hcmifphercs  of  the 
brain,  under  the  y<7/;if,  or  rather  under  the  longitu- 
A'ms\  finui  of  the  dura  mater,  is  a  wliite  fubftance, 
of  a  texture,  more  compadl  than  the  medulla  of  the 
brain,  called  corpus  callofum,  which  runs  along  the 
whole  trail  of  the  falx,  and  receives  from  each 
fide  the  terminations  of  the  medulla,  interfpei;fed 
between  the  feveral  windings  of  the  cortex,  and 
fuppofed  by  fome  to  be  a  kind  of  bafe,  or  fupport 
to  it. 

(09)  Under  the  Corpus  Callosum,  there 
are  two  great  cavities,  called  by  fome,  the  upper, 
or  front  ventricles,  and  by  others,  lateral  ;  tho' 
they  have  one  befides,  on  each  fide  of  them.  Both 
thefe  cavities  are  of  the  fame  magnitude  and  figure  ; 
and  their  fituation  and  ufes  are  likewife  the  fame. 
They  are  feated  in  the  middle  of  the  brain  ;  begin 
from  a  nairow  point  towards  the  root  of  the  nofe  ; 
and  enlarging  by  degrees,  form  each  of  them  a 
great  cavity  towards  the  end. 

Thefe  two  ventricles  are  parted  by  a  very  fine 
portion  of  the  medullary  fubflance,  enclofed  be- 
tween two  membranes,  or  continuations  of  the 
pia  mater  (wherewith  the  infide  of  thefe  two  ven- 
tricles is  lined)  called,  from  its  trar,f,jarency,y^/)//i7/i 
lucidum. 

(RR)  The  Corpora  Striata  (called  thus 
from  their  ftreaks  or  furrows)  are  two  confiderable 
eminences,  of  a  browner  colour  than  the  reft  ; 
there  is  one  in  each  ventricle. 

(S)  i  helNFUNDiBULUM,  which  is  a  cavity  in 
form  o^  2,  funnel,  defcends  to  the  /v///jofthe  brain, 
and  terminates  with  a  point  in  the  glandula  pituita- 
ria,  is  formed  of  the  pia  mater,  and  placed  in  the 
middle  of  thefe  ventricles. 

The  ancient  Anatomifts  pretended,  that  thefe 
ventricles '  were  nothing  elie  but  cifterns,  from 
whence  the  animal  fpirits  were  fent  by  the  nerves 
to  all  the  parts  of  the  body  :  but  the  moderns  will 
have  it  that  thefe  tr«/r/V/«  are  rather  cift-erns  for  the 
fuperfluous  moifture  of  the  hrain. 

iMottHeur  de  la  Canibre  h   of  opinion    that  thefe 
vmtricki  \A'ere' formed  only  to  facilitate  the  motior. 
of  tlie  brain;  v/hich  could  not  perform  its  fundtions. 
,  6. 


91 

if  its  whole  body  was  full  and  folid';  fincc  it  is  iikc 
bellows,  which  can  never  enlarge  their  cavity 
without  a  vacuum  in  their  fides. 

(T)  That  which  appears  red  in  each"  of  thefe 
ventricles,  \s  ^?^xt  o{  the  plexus  choroides  ;  of  which 
hereafter. 

The  Fornix  is  a  production  of  the  medulla; 
which  at  its  extremities  next  the  cerebellum,  fends 
out  two  procefles,  by  whofe  juncture  is  formed  a 
kind  of  arch,  thence  caWed  fornix,  which  feparates 

the  thlrdveatricle,  from  the  two  upper  ones At 

the  bottom  of  the  fornix  are  two  holes,  by  which 
the  third  ventricle  has  communication  with  the 
others;  that  before,  is  called  vulva,  and  that  be- 
hind, anw. 

(V)  The  Thid  Ventricle,  ot  rima,  which 
is  in  the  medulla  oblongata,  has  likewife  two  aper- 
tures ;  the  one  is  the  orifice  of  the  infundibuhnn  or 
funnel ;  the  other  is  a  dud,  whereby  the  third  ven- 
tricle communicates  with  the  fourth,  in  the  medulla 
oblongata,  under  the  cerebellum. — The  whole  ca- 
vity of  the  third  ventricle  is  filled  with  the  plexus 
choroides,  which  is  an  affemblage  of  minute  veins 
and  arteries  ;  and  with  four  eminences  ;  the  fiili: 
the  corpora  flriata  ;  the  others  the  thalami  nervo- 
rum opticorum. — Some  believe  this  affemblage  or 
texture,  to  be  like  a  water-bath  to  the  brain,  which 
by  its  gentle  heat,  preferves  the  motion  of  the  fpi- 
rits in  the  corpus  calloJum.-r-Others  alledge,  that 
the  heat  of  this  texture,  keeps  up  the  liquidnefs  of 
the  f  rum  in  the  ventricle,  which  without  the  warm 
influence  of  its  numerous  vefl'els  would  thicken  and 
condenfate  ;  fo  that  it  hinders  the  humours  from 
ftagnating,  and  caufing  obftrudions  in  the  infun- 
dibulum. 

(X)  At  the  entrance  of  the  canal,  reaching  from 
the  third  ventricle  to  the  fourth,  is  fituated  the 
Pineal  gland  ;  fo  called  from  the  figure  of  ?ipine- 
apple,  which  it  refembles — This  gland  D  s  Carles 
fuppofes  to  be  the  feat  of  the  foul  ;  but  I  am  of 
opinion  that  the  foul  is  not  confined  to  any  part, 
but  the  foul  is  tota  intoto,  and  tota  in  quatihet  parte, 
or  it  is  entire  in  the  whole  body,  and  entire  in 
each  part. 

The  ufe  of  the  ^landula  pinealis,  is  to  fcparate 
liquor  to  be  thrown  into  the  venti  ides  of  the 
hraiu. 

Behind  the  pineal  gland  are  four  eminences  ; 
two  upper  and  greater,  called  nates  ;  and  two 
fmaller,   and  lower  called  tejies. 

(YY)  The  Cerebellum  is  the  hind  part  of 
the  brain,  and  efteemed  a  kind  of  little  brain  by 
itfelf.  It  is  placed  in  the  hinder  and  lower  part  of 
the  Jkull,  underneath  the  hind  part  of  the  brain  or 
cerebrum  :  it  lies  open  to  the  cerebrum  at  bottom  ; 
but  is  feparated  from  it  at  the  top  by  a  duplicatuie 
N  of 


'The  Univcrfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^;?/ Sciences. 


of  the  dura  mater.  Its  figure  fomcwhat  refembles  a 
^lat  bovvl»  broader  than  long  ;  it  \'i  foimeJ  by  two 
branches,  which  felting  out  from  the  fides  of  the 
trunk  of  the  medulla  ohlongnU;,  make  a  fort  of 
cradle,  by  ioiuiiig  in  the  middle,  and  leaving  be- 
tween them  a  cavity,  called  the  fourth  ventricle. 

Its  fubftance  is  harder,  drier,  and  more  folid  than 
that  of  the  brain,  but  of  the  fame  nature  and  kind, 
being  compofi.d,  like  it,  o(  a  cortical,  or  ^la.'idulous 
and  a  medull.ry  part  ;  the  branches  of  which  lafT, 
wlien  opened,  refemble  tlioff  of  a  tree,  meeting  in 
the  midvlle,  and  forming  a  kind  of  flem,  which  runs 
i|uite  through  it.  Its  colour  is  ycllowifh  ;  that  of 
the  brain  whiter. 

Its  furface  is  unequal,  and  furrowed,  but  not  fo 
much  as  that  of  the  f f /vi? z/w  ;  appearing  rather  as 
if  laminated,  like  fome  (hells  ;  the  middle  circles 
being  the  largeft,  and  decpefV.  Between  the  la- 
7nints  are  duplicatures  of  the/>/a  mater.  The  fore 
and  hind  parts  of  the  cirtbellum  are  terminated  by 
apop^yffS,  called  vertniformcs,  from  the  refemblance 
they  bear  to  worim.  It  is  joined  to  the  medulla 
oblongata,  by  two  procefles,  called  by  JVillis  Pe- 

DUNCULI. 

Here  are  two  or  three  more  medullary  proceffes, 
■which,  pafSng  acrofs  the  medulla  oblongata,  form 
an  arch,  called  pons  Varolii. 

N.  B.  Thofe  who  took  the  animal  fpirits  to  be 
formed  in  the  ventricles  of  the  brain,  gave  this  part 
the  title  of  ncble  ;  upon  the  apprehenfion  that  it 
laifed  the  fpirits  to  the  laft  degree  of  perfeftion,  and 
difperfed  them  through  the  whole  body,  by  means 
of  the  fpinal  marrow. 

The  blood  veffels  of  the  cerelellum  are  the  fame 
v.'ith  thofe  of  the  cerebrum,  and  their  ufe  the  fame, 
viz.  to  feparate  the  nervous  juice  from  the  blood, 
and  convey  it  through  the  feveral  parts  of  the 
body. 

Dr.  TViUh,  however,  Jiftinguiflies  between  the 
functions  of  the  ccreirum  and  cerebellum,  making 
the  firft  the  principle  of  voluntary  motions,  and 
aflions ;  and  the  laft  the  principle  of  involuntary 
ones,  viz.  that  of  refpiration,  the  motion  of  the 
heart,  ^c. 

It  is  commonly  aflerted  that  a  wound,  either  in 
the  cortex,  or  the  medulla  of  the  cerebellum  is 
mortal. 

By  turning  up  the  brain,  the  origins  of  the 
nerves  proceeding  from  it  are  diflinftly  fcen;  thefe 
are  in  number  ten  pair,  viz.  the  olfaBory,  optic 
movers  of  eyes,  pathetic  ;  the  fifth  pair  and  fixth 
pair,  called  7^(0  t)\c  gutlatorla,  the  auditory  nerves, 
the  par  vagum,  and  the  ninth  and  tenth  pair. 

The  Olfactory  Nerves  proceed  from  the 
bcf.s  of  the  corpora  p-iata,  by  a  meduUary  fibre, 


which  is  largeft  in  that  place,  where  they  fetch  a 
winding  turn  near  the  opth  nerves. 

The  Oi'Tic  Nerves  rife  from  the  extremityof 
the  corpor.i  Jtriata,  and  the  medullary  part,  called 
thalami  nervirum  opticorum.  Thev  unite  above 
the  J  el  I  a  of  the  wedge-like  bone  ;  and  divide  into 
two  firings,  which  flretch  to  the  eyes. 

Th'j.e  nerves  arc  furrounded  with  fmall  branches 
of  the  motores.  As  the  carotide  arteries  enter  the 
brain,  they  run  along  the  trunk  of  the  optic  nerves  ; 
whence  Dr.  Jfillis  infers,  that,  after  eatine,  thefc 
arteries,  being  then  fullcft  of  blood,  caufe  ileep  by 
preffing  down  the  optic  nerv.s. 

1  he  Motores,  or  movers  of  the  eyes,  proceed 
from  the  lafis  of  the  medulla  oblongata,  near  the  in- 
fundibulum,  pafs  through  a  hole  under  tlie  optit 
nerves,  divide  into  four  branches,  which  are  diflri- 
buted  to  the  mufclcs  of  the  eyes,  and  the  eye  lids, 
and  oftentimes  difperfe  likewife  a  branch  to  the 
crotaphites  mufcle,  which  occafions  its  communi- 
cation with  the  eyes. — The  carotide  arteries,  and 
the  infi.ndibulum,  lie  between  thefe  mufcles. 

The  Pathetic  rifes  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
mcdulh  oblongata ;  behind  the  nates  and  the  tejies. 
They  divide  into  four  branches,  oneof  which  vifits 
the  great  oblique  mufcle  ;  the  fecond  the  upper  lip» 
the  nofe,  and  the  gums  ;  the  third,  the  membrane 
of  the  noflrils  ;  and  the  fourth,  the  crotaphites. 

The  Fifth  Pair,  which  is  bigger  than  all 
the  reft,  commences  from  the  fides  of  the  annular 
protuberance  behind  the  pathetici,  and  divides  into 
three  branches,  viz.  the  opthalmic,  the  maxillaris 
fupcrior,  and  the  maxillaris  inferior. 

The  Opthalmic,  fo  called  from  its  repairing 
to  the  eyes,  after  detaching  feveral  threads,  which 
furround  the  optic  nerves,  and  are  diftributed  to  the 
carotidcs,  divides  into  two  branches  ;  the  biggefl 
of  which  is  fubdjvided  into  two,  viz.  one  that 
marches  out  by  a  hole,  called  the  outer  orhitaly 
and  another  which  pafTes  through  the  hole  of  the 
eye-broivs,  and  is  loft  in  themufeles  oi  the  forehead, 
the  great  orbicular  mufcle  of  the  eye-lids,  the  /rz- 
f^rywfl/ gland,  and  the  nofe-bag.  The  laft  branch 
palling  through  the  orbital  foramen,  rs  lofl  in  the 
membranes  of  the  bony  lamina  of  tha  nofe.  The 
upper  maxillary  nerve  is  diftributed  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  teeth,  as  the  lower  maxillary  to  their 
lower  part. 

The  Sixth  Pair,  improperly  called |-«//(7^ffr/<r 
(fince  it  does  not  run  to  the  tongue  but  to  the  eyes, 
as  well  as  the  motores,  pathetici,  &c.)  rifes  by  the 
laft  pair,  in  the  low«r  part  of  the  annular  emi- 
nence, marches  out  of  the  fkull  by  the  fame  hole 
with  the  third  and  fourth  pair,  and  is  diftributed 
upon  the  mufcle  of  the  eye,   called  indignatorius ; 

after 


A  N  A  r  0   M  r 


93 


after  having  fcnt  out  a  fmall  branch,  which,  to- 
gether with  two  branches  of  the  fifth  puir,  forms 
the  intercojial  nerves. 

The  Intercostal  is  beftowed  upon  the  heart, 
the  brea/ls,  and  the  privy  parts.  By  this  mutual 
communication  Dr.  IFillls  explains  fcveral  phano- 
tnena,  viz.  the  mutual  pleafure  that  aSccls  lovers 
in  their  carcilcs  and  reciprocal  icilks.  Sometimes 
i\xz  intercojial  is  formed  only  by  i'ne/ixtb  pair. 

The  intercojial  receives  in  its  firll  plexus  the  tenth 
pair,  with  a  branch  from  the  firft  vertebral  nerve  of 
the  neck,  that's  united  with  the  tenth  pair;  and 
another  branch  from  the  fecond  vertebral  of  the 
neck;  at  lafl  there  fpringsfrom  thisplexus.,  a  branch 
that  ferves  the  head  of  the  trachtsa.  As  foon  as 
it  arrives  under  the  channel-bone  it  forms  a  fe- 
cond plexus,  which  fends  out  two  twigs,  which 
embrace  the  axillary  arteries  in  the  form  of  a  ring; 
from  whence  proceeds  a  third  phxus,  formed  by 
the  junflion  of  the  intercojial,  with  fevcral  branches 
of  the  bronchioles,  and  dorjalcs,  that  delcend  along 
the  vertebra. 

Of  the  produdlions  of  this  nerve  in  conjundlion 
with  others  from  the  eighth  pair,  are  formed  the 
nervi  cardiaci,  and  thofe  of  the  lungs  ;  and  of  three 
other  produiSfions,  which  join  together  in  one  trunk, 
before  they  enter  the  abdomen,  are  formed  likewife, 
the  hepatic  plexus  on  the  right,  and  the  Jplenic  on 
the  left  fide. 

From  the  hepatic  plexus  there  fpring  feveral 
branches,  fome  of  which  crofs  over  the  duodenum, 
and  the  vena  pr.tta,  and  repair  to  the  liver  :  fome 
run  to  the  panc-eas,  and  to  the  right  fide  of  the 
jlomach;  and  others  to  GliJfon's  capfula ;  and  two 
larger  than  the  former,  pafs  over  the  emulgent  ar- 
tery, and  run  to  the  right  kidney. 

'i"he  fplenick  plexus  furnifhes  feveral  branches 
to  the  left  fide  of  the  ftomach  and  pancreas,  fome 
to  the  fpleen,  and  the  left  capju'.a  atrabilaria,  and 
two  very  confiderable  branches  to  the  left  kidney. 

From  the  feveral  branches,  both  from  the  hepa- 
tic and  Jplenick,  is  formed  the  mefcnterick  plexus, 
which  ferves  as  a  cover  to  the  mefentivick  ar- 
teries, and  accompanies  them  through  their  whole 
dillribution. 

Further,  there  is  a  trunk  on  each  fide  formed 
out  of  feveral  branches,  both  from  the  hepatick  and 
fplenic  pLxus,  which  defcending  along  the  aorta, 
continues  its  courfe,  accompanied  with  the  twigs 
of  the  intercojial,  to  the  divifion  of  that  vein.  This 
done, 'tis  difperfed  through  all  the  parts  of  the  hypo- 
grajiriitn,  particularly  the  reiium,  or  ftrait  gut,  the 
bladder,  the  womb  and  the  vagina  (in  women) 
and  the  male  feminal  veficles  and  profiates. 

At  laft  the  trunk  of  the  intercojial  defcending 


along  the  vertebra;,  is  loll  in  cnpillarits  difperfed 
thro'  all  the  parts  oi  the.  bjpograjlrium,  particularly 
the  bladder,  the  anus,  the  re6ium,  and  the  ge- 
nitals. 

The  Auditory  Nerve,  proceeds  from  the 
lower  part  of  the  annular  rifing,  and  pafles  through 
the  perforation  of  the  flony  procefs  of  the  temple- 
bone.  This  nerve  is  compofed  of  two  branches^ 
one  ioft,  which  ferves  the  immediate  organ  of 
hearing,  and  forms  the  nervous  membrane  which 
cover  the  cochlea,  and  the  inner  fide  of  the  fcmi- 
circular  palTages ;  and  the  other  hard,  which 
marches  out  through  a  hole  that  lies  between  the 
majioides  and  fiyloides  procefles,  and  goes  to  unite 
with  the  third  branch  of  the  fifth  pair. 

The  Par  Vagum,  fo  called   from  its  ferving 

fo  many  difFerent  parts,  proceeds  from  the  fides  of 

the  medula   oblongata,  and  lies    behind    the  acou- 
I     .  •  .... 

\Jiici. To    this    is  joined  another  nerve,  rifing 

from  the  fpinal  marrow,  called  accejfory  by  Dr.  Wil- 

j  lis. — Thefetvvo  nerves  march  out  with  joint  forces 

1  thro'  the  perforation  of  the  os  occipitis,  but  as  foon 

as  they   are    out  of  the  fkuU,  the  fpinal   feparates 

j  from  the  eighth  pair,  and  is  quite  fpent  upon  the 

t:  apezium  mufcle. 

The  e'ghth  pair  it  no  fooner  departed  from  the 
fkull,  but  it  forms  a  plexus,  as  v/ell  to  fupply  the 
larynx  and  pharynx  with  its  branches,  as  to  pro- 
duce the  recurrent  nerve :  the  right  branch  where- 
of encompafiesthe  axillary  artery,  as  the  left  does 

the  aorta Thefc  two  nerves  return  upwards  by 

the  (ides  of  the  afpcra  artcria,  and  fend  forth  fhoots 
to  tha  fibres  that  fallen  the  annulli. 

The  cardiaci  and  the pneumatici,  are  alfo  formed 
from  the  feveral  fhoots  which  the  intercojial  and 
eighth  pair  fend  to  the  pcricardiu/r,  the  hi.  art,  the 
lungs,    and  the  ccva. 

The  Ninth  Pair  (g)  proceeds  from  fevera' 
fibres  of  the  eighth,  receives  two  branches  from 
the  firfl  vertebral,  and  one  from  the  fecond,  in  its 
pallage  through  the  mufcles  of  the  bone  hyoides  ; 
one  of  thefe  branches  is  difperfed  through  the 
mufcles  fterno-thyreoides,  and  the  other  fpent  upon 
the  mufcles  of  the  bone  hyoides. Its  trunk  fur- 
nifhes the  ba/is  of  the  tongue  with  feveral  branches, 
and  comes  to  a  period. 

The  Tknth  and  laft  Pair  (io)  proceeds  like- 
wife  froni  feveral  threads,  and  defcends  along  the 
pith  of  the  back- bone  ;  marches  between  the  firft 
vertebra  of  the  neck,  and  the  os  occipitis,  fends 
branches  to  the  oblique  mufcles  of  the  head,  and 
in  its  progreis  to  the  plexus  of  the  intercojial,  re- 
ceives one  from  the  firfb  vertebral  pair. 

Though  all  the  nerves  proceed  from  the  brain; 
yet  it  may  be  faid  to  have  no  nerves,    fince  not 

N  a  ,  one 


94 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  a7id  Sciences. 


one  of  them  is  infcrtcd  in  it  ;  fo  that  the  proper 
fubftance  of  the  brain,  which  difpenies  fenfc  to 
the  whole  body,  is  of  itfelf  infeiifible. 

(14)  The  Basis  of  the  brain  has  fix  great  pro- 
minences lodged  in  the  fix  great  pits  of  the  era- 
mum;  the  four  firft  and  anterior  are  formed  by  the 
brain  ;  two  of  them  are  lodged  in  the  cavities  of 
the  OS  frontis,  and  the  other  two  in  thofe  of  tlic 
ojfa  pe;roja  ;  the'two  laft  and  pofterior  rifings,  are 
placed  in  the  cavities  of  the  os  occipiiis,  and  formed 
by  the  cerfbellum. 

The  blood  (aa,  bb)  is  conveyed  into  the  brains 
by  the  carotides,  and  fervical  arteries ;  which,  pt 
their  entrance,  form  one  great  trunk  at  the  bafis 
of  the  brain  ;  from  whence  they  fend  an  infinity  of 
arteries  throughout  its  whole  fubftance. 

The  Union  of  thefe  arteries  (c)  ferves  to  mingle 
the  arterious  blood,  before  its  diftribution  to  the 
brain,  and  to  check  its  rapidity. 

Medulla  Oblongata  (Z)  is  the  medullary 
part  of  the  brain  and  cerebellum,  joined  in  one, 
the  fore -part  of  it  coming  from  the  brain,  and  the 
hinder-part  from  the  cerebellum.  It  lies  on  the  bafis 
oitht  fkull,  and  is  continued  through  the  long  per- 
foration thereof  into  the  hollow  of  the  vertebra  of 
the  neck,  back,  and  loins,  though  only  fo  much 
of  it  retains  the  name  oi  oblongata,  as  is  included  in 
tht/kull. 

The  fubftance  of  the  medulla  oblongata  is  harder 
than  that  of  the  brain,  and  it  rifes  by  four  roots  ; 
of  which   the  two  greateft  fpring  from  the  brain, 

and  the  other  two  from  the  cerebellum. Thefe 

parts  uniting  afterwards,  are  again  divided  into 
two,  by  the  pia  mater  ;  whence  it  happens,  that 
one  fide  may  be  paralytick,  while  the  other  is 
found. 

Medulla  Spinalis,  or  the y^/«fl/ warraw,  is 
a  continuation  of  the  medulla  oblongata,  or  medul- 
lary part  of  the  brain,  without  the  Jkull.  It  con- 
fifts,  as  the  brain  does,  of  two  parts,  a  white,  or 
medullary,  and  a  cineritious  or  glandulous  ;  the 
former  without  and  the  other  within. — The  fub- 
ftance of  the  exteriour  part  is  much  the  fame  with 
that  of  the  corpus  callofum,  only  fomewhat  tougher, 
and  more  fibrous;  which  difference  becomes  more 
apparent  as  it  defcends  the  lower,  by  reafon  of  the 
ftreightnefsof  the  cavity,  which  growing  gradually 
more  narrow,  preffes  the  medullary  fibres  clofer 
together,  and  renders  them  more  compact,  and 
gathers  them  into  more  ddAinO.  fafcicuU ,  till  hav- 
ing defceiided  the  whole  traiSt  of  the  fpina,  they  end 
in  the  Cauda  equina.  It  is  the  origin  of  moft  of  the 
nerves  of  the  trunk  of  the  body,  and  fends  out 
thirty  pair,  on  each  fide,  to  the  limbs,  the  great 
cavities,   and  other  parts;  which  are  nothing  but 


fafcicuU,   of   medullary   fibres,  covered  with  their 
proper  membranes. 

The  fpinal  tnarrow  is  covered  with  four  coats  ; 
the  firft,  or  external  one,  is  a  ftrong  nervous  liga- 
ment, which  ties  the  vertebne  together,  to  the  in- 
fide  of  which  it  firmly  adheres.  The  fecond  is  a 
produdlion  of   the   dura  mater  ;    it  is  exceedingly 


ftrong,  and  ferves  to  defend  the  fpinal  marrow 
from  any  hurt,   from  the  flexures  of  the  vertebra. 

The  third  is  a  produdlion  of  the  aryihi^noides,  and 
is  a  thin  pellucid  membrane,  lying  betv/een  the  dura 
and  pia  mater,  or  the  fecond  and  fourth  membrane 

of  the  medulla. This  membrane  gives  a  coat  to 

the  nerves  that  go  out  of  the  fpina,  which  is  the 
inner  membrane  of  the  nerves,  as  the  dura  mater 
gives  the  outer. The  fourth  coat  is  a  continua- 
tion of  the  pia  mater,  and  is  an  extremely  thin, 
fine,  ttani^p^irent  membrane  ;  ftri(£fly  embracing  the 
whole  fubftance  of  the  medulla,  dividing  it  in  the 
middle  into  two  tradts,  and  making,  as  it  were, 
two  columns  of  it. 

The  ufe  of  the  medulla  oblongata,  as  well  as  that 
oi  the  fpina  lis,  is  to  give  an  origin  to  all  the  nerves ; 
for  of  forty  pair  of  nerves,  which  march  through 
the  whole  machine,  ten  proceed  from  the  medulla 
oblongata,  and  thirty  fiotnthe fpinalis. 

The  Face,    which  is  the  next  to  be  examined, 

in  the  fuperior  venter  or  head,  is  divided  into  two 
parts,  one  aboye  called  forehead;  and  another  be- 
low,   extending  from  the  eye-brows  to  the  chin. 

The  Forehead  is  alfo  called  Fran/,  from  the 
Latin  Frons,  and  from  the  Geeek  ^foT=i»,  to  think, 
perceive  ;   of  (ffjjj,    Mens,  the  Mind. 

The  motions  of  the  Forehead  (A)  are  performed 
by  the  means  of  two  mufcles  called  Frontales,  one 
on  each  fide  the  forehead,  which  fpring  from  the 
upper  part  of  the  head,  near  the  crown  ;  or  rather 
it  appears  that  the  frontal,  or  occipital  mufcles,  are 
only  one  continued  digajlric  mufcle,  on  eacii  fide, 
moving  the  fcalp,  and  fkin  of  the  forehead  and  eye- 
brows. 

The  frontales  begin  to  be  thus  denominated,  af- 
ter they  have  begun  to  pafs  the  coronal  future,  with 
fibres  pairing  obliquely  to  the  eye-brows,  where 
they  terminate,  and  in  the  lower  part  of  the  fkin  of 
the  forehead. 

They  have  each  two  appendages ;  the  fuperior, 
or  external,  is  commonly  fixed  to  the  bone  of  the 
nofe ;  the  lower  is  fixed  to  the  os  frontis,  and  is, 
by  Volcherus  Goiter,  made  a  diftinct  mufcle,  and 
called  corrugator,  from  its  ufe  in  drawing  the  eye- 
brows to  each  other. 

The  face  is  divided,  as  well  as  the  breaft  and' the 
abdomen,  into  the  containing  and  contained  parts. 

The 


A    N    A    7    0     MY. 


The  former  are  either ,  common  or  proper.  The 
rommon  are  the  teguments,  which  are  the  fame 
with  thofe  of  the  other  parts  of  the  body.  The 
proper  are  the  mufcles  and  bones.  The  cont.iincd 
parts  are  the  organs  of  four  fcnfcs,  vi'z.  fifing., 
hearing,  fmeUing,  and  tailing ;  for  the  fenfe  of  the 
tail,  reaches  all  over  the  body. 

The  fkin  of  the  face  refembles  that  of  the  other 
parts.  In  children  and  women,  'tis  fmooth  and 
and  fine  ;  but  in  men,  it  is  covered  with  hair  round 
the  chin,  after  the  age  of  maturity. 

The  fied  and  the  /^C(7ri/ appearing  both  about  the 
fame  time,  is  a  convincing  proof  that  there  is  fome 
correfpondence  between  them.  In  efFeft,  they  are 
both  formed  of  the  fame  matter,  with  this  diffe- 
rence, that  the  fubiileft  parts  are  (trained  out  by 
the  tefticle,  form  the  body  of  the  fied,  and  the 
coarfer  being  conveyed   to  the  fkin,  produce    the 

heard. 'Tis   upon  this  account,    that  thofe 

who  have  the  greateft  flock  of  feed,  are  always 
jougheft ;  and  that  eunuchs  are  without  a  beard, 
as  well  as  without  feed.  This  opinion  is  confirm- 
ed by  what  happens  to  women  ;  for  we  fee  they 
have  hairs  in  the  arm-pits,  and  the  pubes,  at  the 
•fame  time  when  they  begin  to  have  feed.  'Tis 
true,  they  have  no  beard  upon  the  chin,  as  men 
have,  and  that  mult  proceed  from  the  evacuation 
of  the  matter  in  the  menfl:rualy?//A:,  which  attends 
the  arrival  of  the  feed  :  And  for  a  further  proof  of 
this  matter,  it  is  to  be  obferved,  that  fome  women 
have  had  beards  upon  a  fuppreffion  of  the  terms. 

The  Eye   is,  without  difpute,  the  handlbmeft, 

and  moft  wonderful  part  of  the  body. 'Tis 

feated  below  the  forehead,  in  a  cavity,  called  the 

erbita  or  fockcc,  which  is  all  over  bony. If 

we  confider  only  its  globe  or  ball,  its  figure  is 
round  ;  but  if  inverted  with  its  mufcles,  'tis  oblong, 
and  pyramidal,  throwing  its  bafe  outwards,  and 
its  point  inwards. 

The  magnitude  of  the   eye   varies    in  different 

perfons. A  large  bulging-eye,    is    the  hand- 

ibmeft ;  little  eves  are  more  ferviceable. 

Men  and  horfes,  are  the  only  animals  that  have 


95 


The  eye-brows  confifl  of  four  parts.  i.  A 
membrane,  which  by  its  thickiicfs  forms  a  rifing 
eminence,  and  by  its  hardnefs,  keeps  the  hairs  faft. 

2.  Mufcular  parts,    which    i'tne  to  raife  them. 

3.  The  hairs  to  prevent  fweat,  and  other  nufan- 
ces,  falling  down  into  the  eyes.  4.  Fat,  which 
ferves  for  nourifhment  to  the  hairs. 

The  eyes  are  alfo  covered  and  defended  with  the 
palpehr^,  or  eye-lids  ;  whofe  motion  is  fo  quick, 
in  human  bodies,  that  nothing  is  reckoned  fo  (hort 
as  the  twinkling  of  an  eye. 

The  Palpebr^e,  or  eye-lids,  confiff  of  a  thin, 
mufcular  membrane,  covered  on  the  outfide  with  a 
ftrong,  flexible  fkin  ;   and  lined  within  with  a  pro- 


duiSlion   of  the  pericranium. 


Their  edges  are 


fortified  with  a  ftrojig  cartilage,  to  enable  them  to 
clofe  the  better. 

Out  of  thefe  cartilages,  grows  a  palifade  of  ftiff 
hairs,  called  cilia  ;  of  great  ufe  to  warn  the  eye  of 
the  approach  of  danger,  either  in  fleeping  or  wak- 
ing ;  to  keep  off  motes,  flies,  i£c.  and  break  the 
too  fierce  impreflion  of  the  rays  of  light. 

Thefe  hairs,  it  is  obferved,  only  grow  to  a  cer- 
tain convenient  length,  and  never  need  cutting, 
as  moft  others  do  ;  add  to  this,  that  their  points 
ftand  out  of  the  way  ;  thofe  of  the  upper  eye -lid 
being  bent  upwards,  as  thofe  of  the  lower  down- 
wards. 

At  the  joining  of  the  upper  and  under  eye- lids, 
are  formed  two  angles  called  canti. 

(G)  In  the  inner  of  thefe,  is  placed  the  glan- 
dula  lachrymalis,  which  is  furniflied  with  arteries 
that  fpting  from  the  carotides,  veins  that  unload  in 
the  jugular  ;  nerves  derived  from  the  fifth  and  fixth 
pair;  and  excretory  veffels,  which  perforate  thein- 

ner  coat  of  the  eye-lids,  near  the  cilia. This 

gland  filtrates  a  vifcous  ferofity,  which  it  throws 
in  between  the  body  of  the  eye,  and  ths palpebne, 
in  order  to  facilitate  their  motion. 

Near  the  other  angle  is  a  gland,  called  innomi- 
nata,  which  helping  by  feveral  branches  to  irrigate 
the  eye,  the  overplus  is  carried  to  the  greater  angle, 
and  tranfmitted  to  the  nofe,  through  the  puncla  la- 
chrymalia,  which  are  orifices  of  a  little  membra- 
eyes  of  different  colours ;  they  are  fometimes  grey,  I  nous  bag,  whofe  ulceration  occafions  a  fjhda  la- 


black,  or  blue;  and  this  diverfity  depends  upon  the 
different  colours  that  appear  inthe  iris. 

The  eyes  are  divided  into  external  and  internal 
parts  ;  the  former  cover  and  guard  it,  and  fuch  are 
the  eye-brows,  and  eye-lids  :  The  latter  are  lodged 
within  the  focket,  and  are  the  conftituent  parts  of 
the  globe  of  the  eye. 

The  Eye-brows,  are  hairs,  ranged  in  the  form 
of  a  crefcent ;  the  point  next  the  nofe,  is  called 
the  head ;  the  other  towards  the  temples,  the  tail 
ot  the  fi/percilia. 


cbrymalis,  and  hinders  the  transfufion  of  tears  into 
the  noftrils. 

1  he  eye-lids  are  both  moveable  ;  efpeciaily  the 
upper,  which  has  two  mufcles  to  raife,  and  deprefs 
it,  called  aitolkns  and  deprimens,  or  orbicularis. 

(H)  The  nttollcns  fprings  from  the  bottom  of 
the  erbita,  above  the  perforation  of  the  optics- 
nerve,  and  is  inferted  with  a  broad  tendon  in  the 
edge  of  the  up^er pa/pebra. 

(I)  The  deprimens  proceeds  from  the  o;ieat,  01 
inner  come/  of  the  eye,  and  paffing  above  the  '.;p- 


96 


H)e  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  A-rts  ^;;c/ Sciences. 


\<zx  eyc-U(l,  marches  to  its  infertion  in  the  little  or 

outer  corner.  When  this  mufcle  is  employed, 

'it'  draws  down  the  upper  eye-lid^  and  covers  th.- 
eye;  and  in  order  to  a  more  exaft  (hutting  of  ths 
O'^,  one  part  of  it  pafles  through  the  lower  eye-lid, 
and  is  inferted  in  (he  little  corner;  for  by  the  tv/o 
parts  it  Ihut?  the  eye  very  nicely. 

Animals  that  have  hard  tjc-lidi,  as  lobfters,  and 
the  generality  of  filhes,  have  no  palpebra: ;  as  be- 
ing fufficiently  fecured  without. 

In  the  generality  of  brutes,  is  a  kind  of  third 
Eye-lid,  which  is  drawn  like  a  a  curtain,  to  wipe 
of  the  humidity,  which  might  incommode  the 
eyes  ;    it  is  called  the  niSiitaiing  membrane. 

We  now  {hall  examine  the  inner  parts  of  the 

eye. The  Eye,  properly  fo  called,   is   of  a 

globular   figure,  and   confifts  of  tunics,  humours 

and  vefTels. In  tome  parts  it  is  lined  with  fat, 

(as  in  the  cavity  of  the  orhita)  and  is  moved  with 
iix  mufcles;  four  of  which  are  flrait,  and  two 
obliques. 

(IIII)  The  freights  come  from  feveral  points  of 
the  bottom  of  the  orbit,  and  run  immediately  be- 
tween the  fderotica  and  adnata ;  they  derive  their 
feveral  denominations  from  their  feveral  offices, 
^•iz.  attoHcns,  or  fuperhus,  which  draws  the  eye 
upwards :  Deprimens,  or  humilis,  which  cafts  it 
down ;  adducens,  or  potator,  which  draws  the  eye 
towards  the  nofe  :  And  abducens,  or  indignator, 
which  draws  it  die  other  way  towards  the  lefler 
angle. 

(K)  The  two  obliques  are  the  upper,  called  ro- 
tator, which  proceeds  from  the  inner  part  of  the 
orbita,  alcends  along  the  bone  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  great  corner,  where  its  tendon  palles  through  a 
little  annular  cartilage,  called  trochlea,  and  after- 
wards terminates  in  company  with  the  obliquus  mi- 
nor, near  the  lefTer  corner. 

(L)  The  under  oblique  fets  out  from  the  lower 
and  outer  part  of  the  orbita,  above  the  union  of 
the  two  bones  of  the  upperjaw,  and  is  inferted  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  cornea,  near  the  leffer  angle. 

Thefe  two  mufcles  move  the  eye  obliquely, 

and  wind  it  round. 

When  the  mufcles  of  the  eyes  have  not  acquired 
an  habit  of  adting  in  concert,  (which  falls  out  ve- 
ry often  in  children)  they  render  the  perCon  fquint- 
ey'd. 

The  nerves  of  the  eye  are  the  optic  pair,  which 
ilTuing  through  a  perforation  in  the  fkull,  behind 
the  orbit,  enter  the  ball  of  the  eyes,  deface  and  lofe 
themfelves  therein  :  Befides  which  the /notorii  pa- 
thetici,  the  firft  branch  of  the  fifth  pair  called  op- 
thalmicks,  and  the  fixth  pair  are  beitowed  on  the 
mufcles  of  the  eye. 

The   eyes  receive  arteries  both  from  the  internal 
8 


by 


and   external   carotides,  and  return  the  blood 
veins  that  go  to  the  jugular. 

The  eye  has  fix  membranes  j  four  ot'  which  arc 
common,  viz.  the  conjunctiva,  cornea,  uvea,  and 
retina  :  and  two  proper,  viz.  the  vitrea.,  that  con- 
tains the  vitreous  humour,  and  the  arachnoides,  in 
which  is  the  cry/lalline  humour. 

(M)  The  Conjunctiva  is  fmooth,  poliftied, 
and  of  an  alabaftcr  v.'hite  colour,  in  a  found  ftate, 
and  is  faftened  by  fome  ligaments  to  the  pericra- 
nium. It  terminates  upon  the  edge  of  the  cornea  ; 
and  is  llrewed  ".vith  .millions  of  arteries  and  veins. 

(N)  The  Cornea  proceeds  from  that  part  of 
the  dura  mater,  m  v/hich  the  optick  nerve  is  wrap- 
ped, and,  palling  under  the  conjuntliva,  becomes 
confpicuous  in  the  gap,  whicii  that  coat  leaves  in 
the  fore-part  of  the  eye. This  membrane  be- 
ing tranfparent  on  the  fore-fide,  bears  the  name  of 
cornea  in  that  part ;  but  being  thick  and  opaque  at 
the  bottom,  where  the  canjuniiiva  covers  it,  that 
jiart  of  it  is  therefore  called  jclerotis,  1.  e.  hard. 

(O)  'I  he  third  coat  is  the  Uvea,  called  alfo 
choroides,  from  its  refemblance  to  the  chorion.  It 
proceeds  from  the  pia  mater,  which  covers  the  op- 
tic nerve.  Oi  the  duplicature  of  this  part,  is 
formed  a  flriped,  variegated  circle,  called  t4ie  iris. 
In  its  middle  is  an  aperture,  called  the  pupil,  or 
apple  of  the  eye,  about  which  the  iris  forms  a  ring. 
From  the  infide  of  this  tunic  fpring  certain  fibres, 
which  fpreading  round  the  chryftalline  humour, 
form  the  ligamentum  ciliare. 

(P)  The  Retina,  fo  called,  from  its  being 
drawn  up  in  the  form  of  a  net  behind  the  humours, 
confifts  of  a  dilatation  of  the  optic  nerve,  and  re- 
ceives the  impreffion  of  objeiSis  ;  for,  of  all  the 
tunicles  of  the  eye,  this  alone  is  opaque  ;  fo  that 
the  /pedes  of  ob;e(3s,  after  paffing  through  the 
other  membranes  and  humours,  reflect  upon  the 
retina,  which  jeprelents  them  to  the  brain,  accord- 
ing as  it  receives  them. 

(Q.)  The  ViTREA,  from  its  glaj^  humour  is 
the  5th  coat,  and  the  firft  of  the  proper  ones ;  it 
fpreads  out  through  the  whole  fubftance  of  the  hu- 
mour, fmall  filaments,  which  hinder  it  from  flip- 
ping out  of  its  place ;  but  when  the  coat,  which  is 
very  thin,  is  broken,  the  humour  melts,  and  turns 
all  into  water. 

(R)  The  fecond  of  the  proper  coat  is  entitled 
arachnoides,  from  its  being  thin,  like  a  ccbuieb. 
This  tunic  ferves  for  an  immediate  cover  to  the 
cryjialline  humour,  and  is  tranfparent  that  the  ima- 
ges of  objects  might  appear  in  it  as  in  a  looking 
glafs. 

The  humours  of  the  eye,  enclofedwithin  thefe  tu- 
nics, are  three,  via. 

I.  The 


ANATOMY. 


97 


r.  The  Aqtjeous,  a  limpid,  tranfparent  hu- 
mour, fituntc  in  the  fore-part  of  the  eye  imme- 
diately under  the  cornea,  and  occafioning  its  protu- 
berance. 

(S)  2.  The  Crystalline  is  fituated  imme- 
diately under  the  aqueous,  behind  the  uvea,  oppo- 
fite  to  the  pup: I. 

(1)  3.  I  he  Vitreous,  or  glaiTy  humour, 
which  fills  all  the  part  of  the  cavity  of  the  globe  ; 
and  is  that,  which  gives  the  fpherical  figure  to  the 
eye. 

The  wiiole  fl  rupture  and  apparatus  of  the  eye 
tends  to  this,  that  there  be  produced  a  diftiniSl  and 
vivid  colleflion  in  the  bottom  of  the  eye,  dkeQly 
under  the  ptipil,  of  all  the  rays,  which  proceeding 
from  any  point  of  an  objeft,  and  entering  the  eye, 
penetrate  the  cryftalline  humour;  and  that  fo  ma- 
ny points  being  painted  in  the  bottom  of  the  eye, 
as  are  confpicuous  in  an  objefl,  that  fo  a  fmall 
image  like  thereto,  may  be  reprefented  in  the 
retina. 

The  nobleftand  mofl  excellent  fcnfe  next  tofee- 
i?ig  is  that  of  He ar  ing  ;  therefore  let  us  examine 
the  admirable  flrutSure  of  the  parts  employed  in 
this  fenfe. 

The  Ea  r  is  the  organ  of  hearing,  or  that  part 
whereby  animals  receive  the  impreffion  of  founds. 

The  ear  is  divided  into  the  outer  and  inner  part. 
The  former  is  that,  which  appears  upon  the  exter- 
nal furface;  the  latter  confifts  of  feveral  particles 
and  cavities  within  the  cjja  petrofa. 

(X)  The  outer  part,  or  auricle,  is  a  femicir- 
cular,  and  contains  divers  finuofities.  —  Its  upper 
part,  which  is  the  broadeft,  is  called  ata,  or  wing; 
and  the  latter,  which  is  narrow,  foft,  and  pendu- 
lous, the  lobe,  or  fibra,  being  that,  to  which 
ear-rings,  i^c.  are  hung. 

The  outer  area,  or  extent  of  the  auricle  is  cal- 
led the  helix,  and  the  inner,  oppofitc  thereto,  the 
cnthelix ;  the  little  protuberance  of  the  fide  next 
the  face,  is  called  the  tragus,  or  tircus;  and  the 
ridge  jufl:  above,  and  oppofite  to  it,  an  aniitragus: 
And  the  cavity,  leading  to  the  beginning  of  the 
meatus,  the  concha. 

The  auricula,  or  the  outer  part  of  the  ear,  con- 
fifts of  a  thin  cartilage  covered  with  a  fkin,  liga- 
ments, nerves,  arteries,  veins,  and  mufcles.  — 
The  cartilage  is  not  divided  in  men,  as  it   is  in 

other  animals The  ligament  faftening  the  ear  to 

the  OS  petrofum  is  ftrong,  and  proceeds  from  the  pe- 
ricranium. —  The  nerves  fpring  from  the  fecond 
•Vertebra  of  the  neck ;  the  arteries  from  the  caro- 
tides  ;  and  the  veins  repair  to  the  jugulares. 

Though  the  auricula  has  no  manifeft  motion,  yet 


'tis  provided  with  four  mufcles ;  one  fuperior  and 
three  poftcriors. 

(Y)  The  fuperior  proceeds  from  the  mufculus 
frontalis,  it  being  part  thereof,  and  is  infertcd  in 
the  auricle,  which  it  pulls  upwards.  The  other 
three,  which  make  but  one  fiefhy  body,  rife 
from  the  os  occipitis,  and  the  mamillary  procefies, 
and  is  infertcd  behind,  at  the  root  of  the  ear.  —  It 
ferves  to  pull  the  ear  backwards  and  dov/nwards. 
(ZZZ) 

The  external  ear  is  not  the  principal  organ  of 
hearing,  though,  at  the  fame  time,  it  contributes 
very  much  to  the  perfe£tion  of  that  fenfe,  in  re- 
ceiving the  founds,  and  introducing  them  to  the 
meatus  of  the  internal  ear ;  fince  thofe,  whofe  ears 
are  cropt  or  cut  ofF,  have  but  a  confufed  way  of 
hearing,  and  are  obliged  either  to  form  a  cavity 
round  the  ear  with  their  own  hands,  or  elfe  to 
make  ufe  of  a  horn,  and  apply  the  end  of  it  to 
the  inner  cavity  of  the  ear,  in  order  to  receive  the 
agitated  air. 

Under  the  ears  we  meet  with  big  conglomerated 
glands,  for  the  fecretion  of  the  faliva,  called  pa- 
rotides. 

The  inner  part  of  the  external  ear  is  pofleffed 
by  tlie  meatus  audltorius,  or  auditory  pafiage,  which 
commences  from  the  bottom  of  the  concha,  called 
the  alvearium,  and  is  continued  in  a  winding  di- 
reftion,  turning   fometimcs  this  way,  and  fome- 

times  that,  to  the  membrana  tympani. The 

meatus  is  dug  out  of  the  os  temporis,  and  lined 
with  a  membrane,  furnifhed  with  divers  little 
glands  that  feparate  a  thick,  yellow,  glutinous 
humour,  called  cerumen,  or  ear-wax,  ferving  to 
defend  the  ear  from  the  ingrefs   of  vermin,  and 

other  extraneous  bodies. The  external  ear  is 

feparated  from  the  internal  by  a  thin,  dry,  round, 
and  tranfparent  membrane,  called,  improperly 
tympanum,  or  drum,  and  placed  at  the  further  end 
of  the  meatus. 

Behind  this  membrane  is  a  cavity,  called  the  bar- 
rel of  the  drum,   being  three  or  four  lines  deep,  and 

five  or  fix   broad In  this  cavity  are  three  little 

bones,  viz.  the  malcus,  incus,  and  Jlapes,  i.  e.  the 
hammer,  the  anvil,  and  the  fiirrop,  which  we  have 
feen  in  the  OJleology. — Their  articulation  is  fuch, 
that  the  malleus  is  faflened  to  the  tympatmru, 
which  communicates  to  them  that  which  it  re- 
ceives from  the  air. 

To  give  motion  to  thefe  bones  is  the  ofnce  of  a 
mufcle  placed  in  the  barrel  of  the  drum,  which  pro- 
duces a  tendon,  that  fa(tens  it  to  the  procefy, 
which  the  handle  of  the  hammer  obliges  to  ap- 
proach to  its  head. — The  action  of  this  confifts  in 
pulling  the  handle  of  the  hammer  inwards,  and  in 

ftretchin^ 


,8 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


ftretching  the  membrane  of  the  drum,  which  af- 
terwards unbends  when  the  mulcle  ccafes  to  pull  ; 
lor  the  little  bones  arc  fo  articulated,  and  mu- 
tually joined  by  ligaments,  that  they  make  a  fort  of 
clalHck  fpring,  which  in  conjundtion  with  that  of 
the  drum,  lerves  for  an  antagonift  to  the  mufcle. 

'I'wo  meatus  are  fituaie  at  the  fide  of  the  cavitv, 
one  opening  into  the  palate,  called  aqueduff-,  which 
is  partly  c:irtilaginous,  and  partly  membranous,  and 
the  other  fhorter  and  bigger,  opening  into  xhn  ftnus 
in  the  mamillary  procefs. 

We  come  next  to  two  gaps,  or  apertures,  called 
Fcnefira:  tymponi,  which  are  placed  in  the  furface 
ut  the  OS  petrofiim,  which  is  oppofite  to  the  mem- 
brane of  the  tympanmn.  The  firfl,  C3.\\ed  fen,-Jlra 
avails,  is  fituate  a  little  higher  than  the  other,  and 
receives  the ^(t/;;  of  the Jlapes;  the  other  latunda, 
notwithftanding  its  figure  is  oval  like  the  former, 
and  clofed  by  a  thin,  dry,  tranfparent  membrane, 
refemblingthat  of  the  tympanum. 

There  is  s.  fmali  chord,  which  lies  in  the  cavity 
of  the  tympanui/i,  and  runs  over  the  inner  furface 
of  the  membrane,  called  chorda  tympani.  It  is  a 
branch  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves,  which  meets  the 
portio  dura. 

The  t\No  feneJJres,  or  windouis,  open  into  a  ca- 
vity dug  out  of  the  ospetrofum,  which  for  its  mean- 
ders, is  called  the  labyrinth.  But  the  pipes  where- 
of the  laiyrinth  confifl:s,  are  called  by  different 
names. 

The  beginning  of  the  cavitv  is  called  vejlibulum, 
as  leading  into  the  other  two.  It  has  nine  apertures. 
From  the  veftible  there  fet  out  three  femicir- 
cular  meatuses,  which  return  to  it  by  another  road. 
All  thefe  furround  the  forinx  of  the  vejUble.  One 
of  them  is  called  horizontal,  and  the  other  tv/o  ver- 
tical 

N.  B.  In  the  labyrinth  is  fuppofed  to  be  con- 
tained the  innate  air. 

"The  Cochlea,  fnail or Jl?ell,  is  the  lafl:  cavity, 
and  confifts  of  a  fpiral,  femi -oval  canal,  and  of  a 
lamina  formed  into  a  fpiral  flight.  The  catial 
makes  two  turns  and  a  half  round  a  newel,  or 
axis,  ftill  growing  lefs  as  it  afcends.  The  fpiral 
lamina  divides  this  cavity  into  two,  being  faftened 
by  its  bafe  to  this  axis,  and  by  its  other  extremity, 
to  the  furface  of  the  canal,  oppofite  to  the  axis, 
by  a  very  fine  membrane. — The  cavity  of  the  coch- 
lea, thus  divided,  forms,  as  it  were,  two  ftair- 
cafes,  both  on  the  fame  newel,  one  cover  the 
other  ;  but  without  any  communication  between 
them. 

The  aquediiSl  is  the  auditory  ner-ve,  which  con- 
fifts of  two  parts  ;  the  one  foft,  called  portio  mollis ; 
and  the  other  harder,  portio  dura.  The  firft  part 
is  fpent  on  the  organ  of  hearing,    being  divided 

I 


into  five  branches,  which  form  a  delicate  web,  that 
Vn\c'^  the  veflibulum,  cochlea.  Sec.  The  hard  part, 
pafling  out  of  the  cranium,  is  diftributed  among  the 
parts  of  the  externa!  ear. 

The  fcnfe  of  hearing  is  performed  in  the  follow- 
ing manner. 

The  external  air  being  toffed  by  very  quick  and 
nimble  concufSons,  enters  the  firft  meatus,  and 
{frikes  upon  the  drum  ;  and  that  membrane  being 
thus  conncSfcd,  fliakcs  the  fmall  firing  behind  it» 
and  the  three  little  bones  that  are  knit  to  it  ;  and 
by  that  means  conveys  the  external  motion  to  the 
inteinal  air  :  upon  which  this  air  fubtilizes  itfelf, 
and  fortifies  its  agitation  in  the  windings  of  the 
labyrinth,  and  by  entering  into  the  fpiral  cochlea, 
as  advancing  from  a  broader  to  a  narrower  fpace  ; 
the  air  thus  fubtilized,  communicates  itfelf  to  the 
nerve,  which  conveys  it  to  the  commor\  fenforium. 
So  that  thefe  different  modifications  of  the  air, 
move  the  imagination,  to  form  the  fenfation,  called 
found.  For  hearing  is  no  adtion  ;  but  only  the 
reception  of  the  impreffion  of  the  air  into  the 
nerves,  that  vifit  the  ear. 

Martial  ranks  large  ears  among  the  number  of 
deformities. 


The  next  fenfe,  which  offers  itfelf  to  our  con- 
fideration,  is  that  of  Smelling,  and  the  nofe\% 
the  organ  thereof. 

The  NosE  is  divided  into  the  root  or  upper  part, 
which  lies  between  the  two  eyes  ;  the  lower  or 
dorfinn  ;  the  fpina  or  pointed  part,  which  is  yet 
lower  ;  the  cartilaginous  moveable  tip  ;  the  little 
globe  ;  the  lateral  parts  ;  the  ala:  or  wings  ;  and 
the  columna  or  pillar,  which  is  the  flefhy  part  that 
advances  in  the  middle,  and  feparates  the  two 
noftrils. — Thefe  are  called  its  external  parts. 

The  teguments  of  the  nofe  are  common  to  the 
reft  of  the  face.  Under  thefe  are  the  feven  mufcles 
of  the  nofe,  viz.,  one  common,  and  fix  proper.  Of 
the  laft  fort,  four  dilate  it,  and  the  other  two  con- 
tract it. 

The  commcn  mufcle  is  a  part  of  the  orbicular 
mufcle  of  the  lips  ;  it  draws  the  no  e  downwards, 
to  bring  the  upper  lip  tov/ards  the  lower. 

3.  The  pyramidales  or  triangulares,  which  are 
the  two  firft  of  the  proper  clafs,  proceed  from  the 
future  oi  the  forehead,  and  are  inferred  with  a  broad 
tendon  in  the  ala  of  the  yiofe  ;  which  they  ferve  to 
draw  afunder. 

4.  The  dilatantes,  which  ferve  to  widen  the 
external  apertures  of  the  noftrils,  refcmble  a  myrtle- 
leaf,  proceed  from  the  bone  of  the  n')fe,  near  the 
alts,  and  terminate  in  the  round  place  of  the  fame 
wing. 

5.  The  conJlrihgents,,ivh\ch  draw  the  wings  of 

the 


ANATOMY. 


99 


die  nofe  downwards,  and  at  the  fame  time  the 
upper  lip  alfo  downwards,  are  hidden  under  the 
coat  that  invefts  the  noflrils  ;  Spring  from  the  in- 
ner part  of  the  bone  of  the  yiofc^  and  are  inferted 
in  the  internal  ala  of  the  nojlrils. 

The  upper  part  of  the  nofe  being  bony,  there 
are  five  cartilages  under  thefe  mufcles,  which  form 
the  lower  part.  The  two  fuperior  cartihiges,  are 
broad  upwards,  but  foften  and  grow  narrow  in 
their  dcfcent,  and  adhere  to  the  bones  of  the  nofe  : 
the  other  two,  which  form  the  altv,  are  faflened  to 
the  extremities  of  the  upper  ones,  by  membranous 
ligaments  ;  and  the  fifth  is  placed  in  the  middle  for 
a  partition  betwen  the  two  noftrils. 

The  membrane  of  the  nofe  is  furniftied  with  large 
arteries  from  the  carot'tdes,  and  veins  which  empty 
themfelves  into  the  jugular  ;  and  nerves  from  the 
fifth  pair,  as  well  as  the  olfaSfory  nerve. 

In  this  membrane  is  a  great  number  of  fmall 
glands,  which  filtrate  a  white  vifcous  liquoi,  called 

/not. Befides  thcfe  two  finks,  there  are  fome 

others  that  convey  a  liquor  like  the  former  into  the 
noftrils,  which  keeps  the  membrane  foft,  defends 
it  from  the  injuries  of  the  air  ;  which  mufl:  pals 
this  way,  when  the  mouth  is  fhut. 

The  firft  of  the  excretory  du£ls  is  the  canalis  aa- 
falis,  formed  by  the  coition  of  the  two  lachrymal 
points,  that  pafs  through  the  foramen  of  tlie  os 
unguis. — Through  this  paflage,  part  of  the  humour 
that  waters  the  eye,  diilils  into  the  nofe. — The 
fecond  is  the  two  holes  of  the  Jinus  /rontales, 
which  unload  in  the  nofe,  a  fnot  filtrated  by  the 
glands  of  their  membrane. — The  third  is  the  two 
holes  of  the  fnus's  of  the  os  fpheroides,  there  being 
one  on  each  fide. — The  fourth  is  the  two  orifices 
of  the  tniixillary  cavities. — The  fifth  is  the  aque- 
du£l,  fome  part  whereof  is  inverted  with  the  glan- 
duJous  membrane  of  the  noftrils. 

The  Nostrils  are  the  two  apertures  at  the 
bafis  of  the  nofe,  or  the  commencement  of  two 
cavities,  which  afford   a  continual  ingrefs  and  e- 

grefs  to  the  air. Each  of  thefe  cavities  divides 

afterwards  into  two  others ;  one  of  which  afcends 
towards  the  fieve-Iike  bone  :  and  the  other  de- 
fcends  to  the  palate,  to  empty  itielf  in  the  bottom 
of  the  mouth,  and  the  throat. 

There  are  two  other  conduits,  which  run  from 
the  nojlrils  to  the  mouth.  They  commence  at  the 
bottom  of  each  nojlril,  and,  pafling  over  the  pa- 
late, perforate  it  under  the  fore  teeth,  where  they 
end. 

The  whole  inner  capacity  of  the  riofe  is  lined 
with  a  pretty  thick  coat,  which  is  a  continuation 
of  the  dura  mater,  at  the  lower  part  whereof  gene- 
rally grow  fome  hairs,  vifible  at  the  entry  of  the 
nofe. 

7- 


The  internal  nofe  is  filled  with  feveral  cartilan;i- 
nous  plates  ieparatcd  from  one  a;iother,  whofc 
extremities  terminate  at  the  root  of  the  nofe,  and 
which  lerve  to  fupport  its  inner  coat,  which  hav- 
ing a  very  long  extent,  is  therefore  folded  into  the 
little  cavities  of  the  nofe,  runs  quite  round  thefe  la- 
mina:, and  covers  their  furface  exacily. 

In  this  inner  tunicle  of  the  nofe,  the  olfaffor^j 
nerves  are  difFufed,  and  rendered  capable  of  the 
peiception  of  odoriferous  effluvia,  which  is  effedled 
in  the  following  manner. 

The  little  atoms  that  exhale  from  odoriferous 
bodies,  are  carried  along  with  the  air  to  the  nofe  ; 
where,  by  tink'mg  upon  its  inner  membrane,  they 
jog  the  fmall  pipes  of  the  elfa£lory  nerves,  imme- 
diately the  fubtiie  matter  with  which  they  are  filled, 
partakes  of  this  commotion,  which,  by  virtue  of  the 
continuity,  flies  in  a  moment  to  the  corpora  Jlriata, 
from  whence  thefe  nerves  proceed,  and  whereof 
our  imagination,  fenfible  of  the  different  undula- 
tions, which  each  objeft  can  occafion  in  the  fpirits, 
perceives  that  this  is  the  impreflion  of  an  odorife- 
rous body  ;  whence  proceeds  the  fenfation,  called 
fmelling,  which  is  not  an  a£tion,  but  a  paifivc 
quality  of  the  olfaiSlory  nerve. 

The  matter  in  animals,  vegetables,  foffils,  ^c.- 
which  chiefly  afreets  the  knk  of  fmelling,  Boer- 
HAAvE  obferves,  is  that  fubtilc  fubfi-ance  inherent 
in  the  oily  parts  thereof,  called  fpirit ;  for  that, 
when  this  is  taken  away  from  the  moft  fragrant 
bodies,  what  remains  has  fcarce  any  fmell  at  al! ; 
but  this,  poured  on  the  moft  inodorous  bodies^ 
gives  them  a  fragrancy. 

Willis  obl'ervcs,  that  brutes  have,  generally, 
the  fenfe  of  fmelling  in  much  greater  perfeftion 
than  »/(/« ;  and  by  this  alone,  they  diftinguifti  the 
virtues  and  qualities  of  bodies  unknown  before  ; 
hunt  out  their  food  at  a  great  diftance,  as  hounds, 
and  birds  of  prey  ;  or  hid  among  ether  matters,  as 
ducks,  &c.  A'lan  having  other  means  of  ;udging 
of  his  food,  f5\-.  did  not  need  fo  much  fagacity  in 
his  nofe  ;  yet  have  we  inftances  of  a  great  deal, 
even  in  man.  In  the  Hijhire  des  Antilles,  we  aic 
allured,  there  are  negroes  who,  by  fmelling  a- 
lone,  can  diflinguifh  between  the  footfteps  of  a 
Frenchman  and  a  negro. 

The  cheml/is  teach,  thzX  fitiphur  is  the  principle 
oi&\\  fnells,  and  that  thofe  are  more  or  lels  ftrong, 
as  the  liilphur  in  the  odorous  body  ii  more  or  lefs 
dried  or  exalted.  Sulphur,  they  (ay,  is  the  foun- 
dation ofodotiri,  as  i'alt  is  of  favours,  and  mercury 
of  colours. 

Smell,  like  taftc,  confifts  altogether  in  the  ar- 
rangement, compofition,  and  figure  ot  the  parts, 
as  appears  from  the  following  experiments  of  Mr. 
Boyle,     i.  From  »  mixture  of  two  bodies,  each 

O  whereof 


too  ll:>e  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^«</ Sciences. 


whereof  is  of  irfelf  void   of  fniell,    a   very  urinous 
fmell  may  be  drawn,  that  is,  by  grinding  of  quick- 
lime with  y^/ <2/«wc«/'(?f.     2.   By  the  admixture   of 
common  water,  which,  of  itfelf,    is    void  of  all 
fmeJI,    and  inodorous  ;    another   inodorous  body 
may  be  made  to  emit  a  very  rank  fmell.     Thus 
camphirc,  dilTolved  in  oil  of  vitriol,   is    inodorous, 
yet,    mixed  with   water,    immediately  exhales  a 
very  flrrong  fmell.     3.  Compound  bodies  may  emit 
fmells  which  have  no  fimiiitude  to  the  fmell  of  the 
fimples  they  confifl  of.     Thus  oil   of  turpentine, 
mixed  with  a  double  quantity  of  oil  of  vitriol,  and 
diftilled  ;  after  diftillation,  there  is  no  fmell  but  of 
fulphur,  and  what  is  left  behind,  the  retort  being 
again  urged  by  a  more  violent  fire,  yields   a  fmell 
like  oil  of  wax.     4.  Several  fmells  are  only  to  be 
drawn  forth  by  motion  and  agitation.     Thus  glnfs, 
Jlones,  he.  which  even  when  heated  yield  no  fmell, 
yet,  when  rubbed  and  agitated  in  a  peculiar  man- 
ner, emit  a  ftrong  fmell';  particularly  beech-wood, 
in  turning,  yields  a  kind  of  rofy  fmell.     5.  A  body 
that  has  a  ftrong  fmell,  by  being  mixed  with  an  in- 
odorous one,  may  ceafe  to  have  any  fmell  at  all. 
Thus  if  aquafortis,    not  well  dephlegmated,    be 
poured  on  fait  of  tartar,  till  it  ceafes  to  ferment, 
the  liquor  when   evaporated   will  yield  inodorous 
cryflals,  much  refembling  fait  of  nitre  ;  yet  when 
burnt,  will  yield  a  moft  noifome  fmell.     6.  From 
a  mixture  of  two  bodies,    one  whereof  fmells  ex- 
tremely ill,  and  the  other  not  well,  a  very  pleafant 
aromatic  odour  may  be  gained,  viz.  by  a  mixture 
oi aqua  fortis,  or  Ipirit  of  «//'ri',  with  an  inflamma- 
ble ipirit  of  wine.      7.  Spirits  of  wine,  by  mixing 
with  an  almoft  inodorous  body,  may  gain  a  very 
pleafant  aromatic  fmell.     Thus  inflammable  fpirits 
of  wine,  and  oil  of  Dantzic  vitriol,  mixed  in  equal 
portions,  then  digefted,  and  at  laft  drftilled,  yield 
a.  fpirit  of  a  very  fragrant  fmell.     8.  A  moflr  fra- 
grant body  may  degenerate  into  a  foetid  one,  with- 
out the  admixture  of  any  other  body.     Thus,  if 
the  fpirit  mentioned  in  the  former  experiment  be 
kept  in  a  .well  clofed  receiver,  it  will  foon  turn  to 
the  ranknefs  of  garlic.     9.  From  two  bodies,  one 
whereof  is  inodorous  and  the  other  foetid,  a  very 
pleafant  fmell  may  arife,  much  refembling  mufk, 
is'c.  by  putting  pearls  into  fpirit   of  vitriol ;  for, 
when  diffolved,  they  yield  a  very  agreeable  fmell. 

The  ufes  of  the  Nose  (befides  giving  us  the 
fenfe  of  fmelling)  is  its  ferving  in  the  great  ofEce 
of  refpiration,  and  in  modelling  the  voice  ;  in  re- 
ceiving the  abundant  humours  from  the  eyes,  and 
in  adding  to  the  beauty  of  the  face.  It  is  certain, 
that  there  is  no  pafTage  to  the  brain  for  the  air, 
much  lefs  for  the  powders  fnuffed  up  the  noftrils. 

Wounds  of  the  nofe  are  generally  cured  by  the 
dry  future  j  but  where  the  wound  divides  the  car- 


tilage, and  penetrates  fo  deep,  that  its  lijjs  cannot 
he  kept  in  contaft,  by  the  application  of  flicking 
plafters,  the  true  future  muft  be  made  through  the 
fkin,  on  each  fide  of  the  wound.  Roonhuys,  in 
his  Ohferv.  C/jirurg.  xxiv.  gives  an  inftance  of  a 
nofe  flit  down  longitudinally,  and  cured  by  future. 
M.Blegny,  inZod.  Med.  Gall,  fpeaks  of  a  fol- 
dier,  whofe  nofe  was  cut  off  by  a  fcymeter,  and 
afterwards  fcwed  on  again  fo  well  by  the  furgeon, 
that  the  fear  could  fcarcely  be  perceived  ;  and  M. 
Garengeot,  in  torn.  iii.  p.  55.  of  his  furgerj', 
gives  an  account  of  a  nofe  that  was  conjoined  again 
by  future,  after  it  was  bit  oft'.  When  the  nafal 
bones  are  fractured,  it  is  ufual  to  place  fmall  tubes, 
of  filver  or  lead,  under  them,  for  fome  time,  to 
prevent  the  pafTage  of  the  nofe  being  flopped  by  the 
fliooting  out  of  the  new  flefti.  Externally,  fome 
vulnerary  balfam  or  glutinous  powder  is  to  beufed, 
and  covered  with  flicking  plafters,  which  muft  be- 
kept  on  with  the  four-headed  bandage. 

In  the  Nose,  both  the  bone  and  cartilages  are 
fubjedt  to  fra£lures  ;  and  if  the  injury  is  very  great, 
they  can  never  be  fo  perfectly  cured,  but  that  fome 
deformity  will  remain  ;  befides,  the  vicinity  of 
this  part  to  the  brain,  which  is  frequently  injured 
at  the  fame  time,  renders  cafes  of  this  kind  often 
dangerous  :  a  caries  alfo,  or  a  polypus,  are  no  un- 
common attendants  on  this  diforder.  In  order  to 
reflore  the  bones  of  the  nofe  to  their  proper  fitu- 
ation,  the  patient  is  to  be  placed  in  a  feat  oppofite- 
to  the  light,  and  his  head  is  to  be  held  back,  while 
the  furgeon  raifes  the  deprefled  part  with  zfpatula, 
a  probe,  or  a  quill,  applying  externally  the  thumb 
of  one  hand,  and  the  fore-finger  of  the  other.  If 
the  bones  are  fractured  on  both  fides,  they  are  to 
be  raifedon  each  in  this  manner,  and  the  cavity  of 
the  noflrils  is  to  be  filled  up  with  long  doflSls,  to 
prevent  the  bones  from  collapfing  ;  covering  the 
part  alfo,  for  this  end,  with  a  plafter,  applying  firft 
the  dreflings  common  to  recent  wounds.  If  the 
bone  be  fraftured  into  feveral  fplinters,  they  are  to 
be  reduced  into  their  proper  places,  by  the  fingers  ; 
but  if  a  fplinter  is  fo  entirely  feparated  from  the 
bone,  that  it  will  not  eafily  unite  with  it  again,  it 
is  to  be  taken  out  with  the  forceps.  If  no  caries. 
or  abfcefs  intervene,  the  bones  will  unite  in  about 
fourteen  days.  If  the  bone  fliould  require  a. 
ftronger  fupport  than  what  has  hitherto  been  men- 
tioned, one  may  be  formed  out  of  ftrong  paper,, 
either  fingle  or  double;  adapted  to  each  fide  of  the 
nofe,  and  fupported  by  bolfters,  and  the  whole 
muft  be  kept  in  its  place  by  a  four-headed  bandage, 
not  tied  too  tight.  When  the  fradture  of  this 
part  is  accompanied  with  an  external  wound,  after 
the  bones  are  replaced,  drefs  the  wound  firft  with 
dry  lint,  covering  it  with  a  vulnerary  plafter,  af- 
terwards 


ANATOMY. 


terwards  ufe  balfamlc  medicines ;  but  all  thofe  that 
are  oily  or  greafy,  are  to  be  carefully  avoided,  both 
here,  and  in  all  other  cafes  where  the  bones  are 
injured. 

When  the  bones  are  feparated  from  each  other, 
or  dljiorted  out  of  their  places,  they  are  to  be  re- 
placed by  a  probe,  or  quill,  thruft  up  the  nollrils, 
guiding  the  parts  thus  raifed  up,  with  the  other 
hand,  into  their  proper  places,  as  above  defcribed, 
urAsx  fraSinres  ;  after  which  there  is  fcarce  any 
thing  to  be  done,  but  to  let  a  piece  of  flicking 
plaifter  lie  upon  the  nofe  for  fome  time. 

Another  diforder,  to  which  the  nofe  is  liable,  is 
that  of  the  preternatural  clofmg  of  tbenoftrlh,  which 
is  fometimes  owing  to  carelefs  treatment  in  the 
fmallpox,  in  the  bad  fort  of  which  the  noflrils 
have  been  known  to  clofe,  and  adhere  fo  ftrongly 
to  the  upper  lip,  which  is  turned  back  at  the  fame 
time,  as  to  leave  no  poflibility  of  fhutting  the 
mouth.  In  this  unhappy  cafe,  the  only  relief  is 
by  the  knife,  feparating  the  lip  from  the  nofe,  and 
then  opening  a  paflage  through  each  of  the  nof- 
trils,  which  are  to  be  kept  open  with  leaden  pipes, 
and  the  lip  prcffed  down  into  its  natural  poiition 
by  a  comprefs  and  bandage,  and  this  continued  till 
the  wounds  are  cicatrized. 

The  difeafes  of  the  nofe  are  a  coryza,  ozanot  poly- 
pus, farcana,  noli  me  tangere,  fneezing,  and  the 
lofs  of fneUing, 

The  figure  and  magnitude  of  the  nofe  cannot  be 
nicely  adjufled,  becaufe  fome  have  bigger  nofes 
than  others.  But  a  great  hawk  nofe  is  preferable 
to  a  flat  one  ;  upon  the  account  of  the  conve- 
niency  of  refpiration,  as  well  as  beauty. 

We  proceed  to  the  Tongue,  which  is  the  or- 
gan of  Taste.  But  firfllet  us  premife  an  account 
of  the  mouth,  which  contains  it. 

The  IVIouTH  has  an  upper  and  an  under  Up 
made  of  a  fungous  flefh,  and  covered  with  a  very 
thin  coat. 

Thele  Lips  have  feveral  glands  placed  under  the 
coat  that  covers  them,  and  which  are  furnifhed 
with  little  arteries  from  the  carotides,  and  veins 
which  carry  back  the  blood  to  the  external  jugulars. 
Befides  they  have  eight  proper  mufcles  and  five 
common.  Of  the  proper,  four  belong  to  the  up- 
per, and  four  to  the  Ipwer  lips  :  of  the  common, 
two  are  allotted  to  each  lip  ;  the  other  is  an 
odd  one. 

(7)  The  firft  of  the  propers,  proceeding  from 
the  upper  jaw-bone,  where  the  fore-teeth  incifores 
are  placed,  is  called  incifivus,  and  inferted  in  the 
upper  lip,  which  it  pulls  upwards. 

(8)  The  fecond,  called  triangularis,  fprings 
from  the  lateral  and  external  part  of  the  bafts  of  the 


lOI 

lower  jaw-bone;  is  inferted  near  the  corner  of  the 
mouth  in  the  upper  lip,  and  pulls  it  down. 

(9)  The  third,  called  montanus,  allotted  to  the 
lower  Up,  proceeds  from  the  fore  and  lower  part  of 
the  chin,  and  from  the  root  of  the  fore  teeth  of  the 
lower  jaw;  and  terminates  in  the  brim  of  the 
lower  Up  ;  which  it  draws  down. 

(10)  The  fourth  is  called  caninus,  from  its  pro- 
ceeding from  the  upper  jaw-bone  above  the  eye- 
teeth  ;  is  inferted  in  the  lower  Up,  near  the  corner 
of  the  mouth,  and  ferves  to  draw  up  this  Up. 

(11)  The  zigmaticus,  proceeds  from  the  xygoma, 
is  the  fifth  mulcle,  and  the  firft  of  the  common 
fort,  is  inferted  in  the  corner  of  the  mouth,  and 
draws  it  towards  the  ears. 

(12)  The  fixth  riles  from  the  roots  of  the^r/W- 
ers  of  both  jaws,  and  termin.ates  in  the  circuni- 
fcrence  of  the  lips.  'Tis  called  the  huceinator, 
from  its  aftion  in  fwellingand  enlarging  the  cheek, 
when  we  found  a  trumpet. 

(13)  The  odd  mufcle,  called  orbicularis,  is  the 
flefh  that  encompafles  the  two  Ups,  like  z  fphinSler, 
and  fhuts  the  mouth,  by  drawing  them  together. 

The  nerves  of  the  Ups  come  from  the  fifth,  fixth, 
and  eighth  pair  of  the  head,  and  fome  from  the 
par  acce£hrium. 

When  the  mouth  is  well  made,  with' ruby  lips, 
it  contributes  much  to  a  beautiful  face.  A  little 
mouth  is  always  handfomeft. 

Under  the  eyes,  between  the  nofe  and  ears,  lies 
a  round  prominence  called  the  Pomum,  ftiled 
the  feat  offyame  ;  becaufe  it  reddens  or -grows  pale 
in  the  recefs  of  that  paflion ;  the  loofe  part  under 
it  is  called  the  cheek,  or  bucca ;  the  upper  part  of 
the  upper  lip,  myflax  ;  the  flit  between  the  two 
lips,  mouth  ;  the  prominent  parts  of  the  lips,  pro- 
labia  ;  the  lower  part  of  the  under-lip,  chin  ;  and 
the  flelhy  part  under  the  chin,  buccula. 

Within  the  mouth  are  contained  the  gums,  the 
palate,  the  uvula,  and  the  tongue. 

The  Gums  ferve  to  keep  the  teeth  faft  in  their 
fockets,  and  confift  of  a  hard  and  folid  fort  of  flefh, 
that  pofleflcs  the  upper  part  of  thofe  fockets  of 
alveoli. 

The  Palate,  called  the  roof  of  the  mouth, 
from  being  its  upper  part,  is  formed  by  the  maxiU 
lary  bones,  and  the  bones  of  the  palate,  and  co- 
vered with  a  thick,  ftirivelled  membrane. 

Thefubflance  of  this //<»/<:/.•,  is  ftrewed  all  over 
with  conglomerate  glands,  which  are  continued  to 

the  tonfila  or  almonds, Thefe  glands  feparate 

a  fort  of  ferofity,  which  they  difcharge  into  the 
mouth  by  an  infinity  of  little  pipes  like  a  fieve. 

The  Uvula  is  a  fmall  pyramidal  prominence^ 
which  hangs  down  from  the  palate  upon  the  root 
of  the  tongue,— -It.  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two 

O  2  little 


102  Il:c  Univerfal  Hiftory  o/Arts  ^«<5^  Sciences. 


little  round  mufdes,  that  Tpring  from  thcfcptumoi 
the  nofe.  Thefe  mulcles  lerve  to  raile  it  :  and 
when  the  adion  ceafes,  it  falls  by  its  own  weight. 

Upon  the   fides   of  the  j,vula,  are  two  arches, 

cAkd  rima  nafah's,  which  .confift  of  femi-circular 
fibres,  covered  with  a  thin  fkin,  upon  which  arc 
difpcrfed  little  glandulous  grains  When  the  Icmi- 
circular  arches  ftretch  themfelvcs  lengthwife,  they 
become  Itrait,  andferve  to  confine  the  air  within  the 
jnouth  ;  when  we  blow  or  heave  up  the  cheeks, 
thev  likewife  ftop  the  entry  of  the  larynx,  and  fo 
hinder  the  air  to  fprlng  from  the  afpera  arteria, 
when  we  breathe,  in  performing  the  fame 
a<5tion. 

{15,  15)  The  motions  of  the  uvula  are  very 
manifeft  in  feme  perfons,  and  are  performed  by 
four  mufcles,  two  called  perijiaplylini  externi, 
^nd  tv/o  peri/iaphylini  interni.  The  two  firft  pro- 
<ieed  from  the  upper  jaw  under  the  laft  grinder; 
and  terminate  by  a  flight  tendon  in  the  uvula. 

( i6,  ]  6)  The  perijlaphylini  interni  rife  from  the 
inner  wing  of  the  pterigoides  procefs,  where  there 
itands  a  little  moveable  cartilage,  that  minifters  to 
their  motion.  Then  they  mount  along  the  wing 
of  the  procefs,  and  are  inferted  in  the  uvula. 
Thefe  four  mufcles  ferve  to  advance,    and  draw 

back  the  uvula,    when  we  fwallow  viduals. 

When  the  uvula  is  fwelled  and  inflamed,  the  vulgar 
call  it  the  falling  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  Some- 
times it  runs  out  to  fuch  a  length,  that  it  is  necef- 
iary  to  cut  oft' its  tip. 

{17,  17)  Upon  each  fide  of  the  uvula,  betwixt 
t)ie  larynx  and  the  mufcles  of  the  os  hyoides,  ftand 
tJie  tonfiil^  or  amigdalie,  the  conglomerate  glands, 
mentioned  with  the  larynx.  They  are  furnifhed 
with  all  forts  of  veilels,  and  ftrain  out  the  ferum 
that  moiflens  the  tongue,  the  larynx,  and  the  oefo- 
fhagus. 

The  Tongue,  which  is  the  organ  of  Taste, 
and  the  principal  inftrument  of  fpeech  and  deglu- 
tition, is  feated  in  the  ?muth  under  the  arch  of  the 
palate. 

The  tongue  is  faflened  to  the  os  hyoides,  the  la- 
rynx, and  the  fauces,  by  'A\z  frenum,  a  membra- 
nous ligament,  running  about  half  way  along  the 
lov/er  fide  of  it. 

It  is  generally  proportioned  to  the  fize  of  ths 
mouth  :  when  it  is  too  fhort  we  cannot  fhoot  it 
out;  when  too  thick,  it  makes  us  ftammer;  and 
when  too  flabby  and  moift,  as  in  children,  we 
can't  well  articulate  our  words. 

The  main  body  of  the  tongue  is  made  up  of  muf- 
cles, covered  on  the  upper  part  with  a  papillary 
nervous  fubflance,  over  which  is  fpread  a  jjretty 
ilrong  membrane,   inftead  of  the  epidermis.^  and 


full  oipapillrr  of  a  pyramidal  figure,  cfpecially  to- 
wards the  tip  :  which  papillcs  fland  pointing  to- 
wards the  root  of  the  tongue  in  a  bending  poiturc, 
which  make  their  figure  to  be  concavo-convex.^—'— 
Thele  apices  or  papilla:  are  fo  very  minute  and  flen- 
der  in  men,  that  thev  make  the  coat  appear  on  the 
upper  part  to  be  vifcous  ;  efpecially  as  they  ap- 
proach towards  the  root.  The  figure  of  the  pa- 
pilla in  human  tongues,  is  not  fo  plainly  difcern- 
able  to  the  naked  eye,  as  not  to  need  the  mi- 
crofcope. 

Under  this  lies  a  foft  reticular  fort  of  coat,  full 
of  holes  like  a  fieve,  and  always  lined  with  a  thick 
yellowifh  mucus.  This  membrane  on  the  upper 
fide  next  the  outward,  appears  white  with  a  caft 
towards  yellow,  but  black  on  the  fide  next  the 
tongue. 

The  greatefl  part  of  the  body  of  the  tongue  is 
mufculous,  confifting  of  plans  of  fibres  in  different 
direftions  :  the  firfl  or  external  plan,  confifts  of 
ftrait  fibres,  which  cover  the  tongue  from  one  ex- 
treme to  the  other  ;  when  thefe  contraft  they 
fhorten  it.  Under  this  are  feveral  other  plans  run- 
ning from  the  under  to  the  upper  fide,  which  ferve 
to  make  it  broad  and  thin.  Thefe  two  kinds  of 
fihxts  We  Jlratum  fuper  Jlratum,  a  plate  of  the  one, 
and  then  a  plate  of  the  other. — 'Tis  by  the  means 
of  thefe  fibres  that  the  tongue  moves  itfelf,  and  turns 
like  an  eel  in  the  mouth. 

It  is  alfo  furnifhed  v/ith  eight  mufcles  for  the 
performance  of  its  great  motions. 

(23,  23)  The  firft  pair  is  the  Genyoglossi, 
which  proceed  from  the  lower  part  of  the  chin,  and 
are  inferted  in  the  anterior  and  interior  part  of  the 
tongue ;  which  mufcles  pidl  the  tongue  forwards, 
and  put  it  out  of  the  mouth. 

(24,24)The  fecond  istheSTyLOGLOssi,  which 
fpring  from  thejlyloides  procefs,  and  terminate  in 
the  lateral  and  upper  part  of  the  tongue,  to  pull 
it  up. 

(25,  25)  The  Basioglossi,  which  move  the 
tongue  towards  the  bottom  of  the  mouth,  are  the 
third,  proceed  from  the  upper  part  of  the  bafts  of 
the  OS  hyoides,  and  are  inferted  in  the  root  of  the 
tongue. 

(26,  26)  Thefourth  pair  is  theCERATOGLossr, 
which  rife  from  the  upper  part  of  the  cornu  of  the 
OS  hyoides,  and  are  inferted  in  the  fides  of  the  tongue., 
which  they  pull  afide  and  backwards.  When  thefe 
four  mufcles  on  each  fide  adl  fuccefliively,  they  move 
the  to7igue  round. 

Mr.  Coivper  allows  no  more  than  three  genuine 
pair  of  mufcles  to  the  tongue,  viz.  t\i^ genioglojfumy 
I  ceratoglojfum,  2.nA JlylogloJJiim. 

Down  the  middle  of  the  tongue,  length-wife, 
'runs  a  feam,  called  lima  mediana,  which  divides  it 
1  to 


A  N  A  r  0  M  r. 


103 


to  the  bottom  into  tvro  equal  parts,  but  not  fo  ef- 
feftually,  but  that  the  blood  vefTcls  of  one  (ide  com- 
municate with  thofe  of  the  other.  Thefe  veiTels 
are  arteries  from  the  carctides,  and  veins  called  rn- 
7iulee,  and  are  very  confpicuous  about  the  fr<enum 
under  the  tongue.,  ferving  to  re-convey  the  blood  to 
the  external  jugulars. — Thefe  veins  are  frequently 
opened  in  the  angina,  and  are  the  lafl  refort  of  old 

women  in  this  cafe.  The  nerves  of  the  tongue 

come  from  the  fifth,  fixth,  and  ninth  pair,  the  two 
firft  of  which  have  been  called  guttatorii.,  and  the 
latter  motorii  linguir. 

The  Tongue  ferves  for  four  ufes.  i.  To  afljft 
the  chewing  faculty,  by  turning  the  morfels  in  the 
mouth.  2.  To  ^romoie  deglutition.  3.  To  join 
with  the  lips  in  articulating  the  voice ;  for  it  is  by 
their  joint-motion  that  the  air  fpringing  from  the 
lungs  is  formed  into  words.  4.  To  be  the  princi- 
pal organ  of  ta/h. 

The  Taste  confifts  in  the  fluttering  of  the  fpi- 
rits  of  the  totigue,  caufed  by  the  falts  of  the  ali- 
ment, which  ftrike  upon  the  nerves,  in  which  they 
are  contained;  which  falts  grating  againft  the  papil- 
lary prominences,  occafion  undulations  with  them, 
which  in  the  fame  moment  are  imparted  to  the 
fpirit  contained  in  the  nerves,  and  by  them  tr.inf- 
mitted  to  the  corpora  /Iriata,  with  which  they  are 
continuous,  and  which  reprefent  to  the  imagination 
fuch  impreflions  as  they  receive. 

We  will  conclude  Splanchnology  with  a  de- 
monftration  of  the  four  falivary  vejfels :  Two  up- 
per, which  proceed  from  the  parotides,  and  two  un- 
der, which  rife  out  of  the  maxillary  glands. 

(29)  The  parotides  d^rtlzrge.  conglomerate  glands 
jdaced  behind  the  ears,  and  fill  all  the  fpace  be- 
tween the  hinder  corner  of  the  lower  jaw  and 
the  jnaftoides  procefs.  They  receive  arteries 


from  the  parotides,  which  reach  within  their  fub- 
ftance;  and  their  veins  run  to  the  jugulars.  The 
Jaliva  is  fecreted  from  the  blood,  which  pafles 
through  their  fubftance ;  which  faliva  is  received 
by  two  veflels,  called  falivares,  and  formed  out  of 
fevetal  little  branches,  which  unite  upon  their  de- 
parture from  the  glands,  and  marching  along  the 
cheeks,  make  a  breach  through  the  middle  of  them, 
•in  order  to  terminate  in  the  mouth. 

3.  The  Maxillary  Glands  (alfoof  a  conglo- 
merate nature)  are  placed  under  the  lower  maxilla, 
between  the  larynx  and  the  os  hyoides.  Their  arte- 
ries, veins,  and  duHtis  falivares,  are  formed  by 
the  joint-union  of  feveral  branches   under  the  di- 

gajirici  mukle.  The  faliva,  filtrated  through 

thefe  glands,  is  taken  up  by  thofe  falivary  duds, 
which  unload  it  in  the  mouth,  under  the  tip  of 
the  tongue  upon  the  two  fides  of  the  fnsnum,  by 


the    lower   fore-teeth. This  faliva    a£ls    the 

part  of  the  firft  diflblver  of  the  aliment. 

The  next  fubject  ©f  enquiry  in  the  difleftion  of 
the  human  body,  after  this  hiflorical  demonftration 
upon  the  Trunk  and  all  its  parts,  is  a  plain  de- 
fcription  of  the  Extremities  comprifed  in  the 
four  limbs.  But  as  their  parts,  except  fuch  as  have 
been  particularly  demonflrated  in  OJlcology  (fee 
page  50.)  are  almoft  entirely  mufculous,  fuch  de- 
fcription  will  be  moft  properly  conceived  under 
that  part  of  Anatomy  called  Myology.  So  that 
we  fhall  proceed  with  a  general  hiftory  of  the  muf- 
cles  and  of  their  motions. 

Of  Myology. 

Myology   [Gt.  (ivs,  livot   a  mufcle,    and  Aoyo; 

treatife)  is  a  defcription  of  the  mufcles. 

The  Muscle  contains  many  thin  parallel  plates, 

divided  into  a  great  number  oi  fafciculi,  or  little 

mufcles,  each   inclofed   in   its   proper  membrane  ; 

from  the  internal  furface  whereof,  pafs  an  infinite 

number  of    tranfverfe  filaments,  interfecting  the 

mufcles  into  feveral  diftinfl  areas,  filled  with  their 

refpeflive  fafciculi  or  fibres. 

A  mufcle  is   ufually   divided  into  head  and   tail, 

two   tendons,  at  the  two   extremes  of  the  mufcle  ; 

the   fit  ft  fixed  to  the  ftable  part;  the  latter  to  the 

part  intended  to  be  m.oved. 

And  into  the  venter,  or  belly,  which  is  the  body 

of  the  mufcle  or  a  thick  fiefhy  part,   into  which  aie 

inferred  arteries  and  nerves  ;  and  out  of  which  if- 

fue  veins  and  lymphatick  du6ls. 

All  thefe  parts  of  a  mufcle,  the  belly.,  and  the 
tendons  are  compofed  of  the  fame  fibres ;  their  on- 
ly difference  confifts  in  this,  that  the  fibres  of  the 
tendons  are  more  clofeiy  and  firmly  bound  together 
than  thofe  of  the  belly,  which  are  more  loofe. 
Hence  in  the  belly  there  is  room  for  a  fufficient 
quantity  of  blood  to  give  them  an  apprarance  of 
rednefs ;  and  the  whitenefs  of  the  tendons  only 
proceeds  from  the  blood  being  in  fome  meafure  ex- 
cluded from  the  tightnefs  of  their  contexture 

As  the  mufcles  aijt  by  having  their  belly  inflated 
or  fweiled.  All  the  difficulty  then,  in  mufeulai- 
motion,  is,  to  affign  their  fabiick  and  the  caufe  of 
their  fwelling. 

Every  fingle  mufcle  may  be  divided  into  others 
fimilar,  though  lefs,  to  a  degree  of  fubtilty. 
The  laft,  therefore,  being  fimilar  to  the  firft,:  muit, 
in  like  manner,  have  its  belly  and  tendons;  which 
is  called  a  mufcular  fibre ;  in  an  afTembly  of  fe- 
veral whereof  a  tnufck  properly  coiinfts. 


Dr. 


I04    ^     ^^^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


Dr.  Boerhaave,  is   of  opinion  that  the  mufcular  j 
fibres  are  nothing  elfc  but  extremely  flender  expan- 
fions  of  the  nerves  ftript  of  their  integuments,  hoi 
Jow  within,  and  of  the  figure  of  a  mufck,  and  full  of 
a  fpirit  communicated  by  the  nerve  from  its  origin  in 
the  ccrehellum,  by  the  continual  adlion  of  the  heart. 

Of  thefe  fibres  united  are  formed  fafctcuU,  or 
bundles ;  which  again  have  their  feveral  mem- 
branes wherein  they  are  involved,  and  kept  dif- 
tindl  from  others.  This  membrane  is  extremely, 
flender  and  porous  within,  full  of  oil,  which  is  ac- 
cumulated in  time  of  reft,  and  fpent  in  motion, 
furnifhed  by  the  arteries  ;  and  this  oil,  in  conjunc- 
tion, with  a  fmooth  mucous  juice,  fecreted  by 
fmall  mucilaginous  glands,  interfperfed  among 
thefe  fiifcictdi,  ferves  to  lubricate  the  parts,  and 
preferve  the  faJchuU  from  fretting  on  each  other 

There  are  arteries  alfo  carried  into  the  ?nuj<ks, 
in  fuch  abundance,  and  of  fuch  contexture,  as  to 
create  a  belief  that  the  whole  body  of  the  mufcles. 
iscompofcd  of  them. 

A  Muscle  has  two  forts  of  motion,  viz.  con- 
traction and  extenfion ;  in  the  firft  it  fhorteris, 
and  lengthens  itfelf  in  the  fecond.  Hence  arife 
all  the  difFrent  motions  of  the  body. 

The  motions  are  either  fimplc  or  compourid. 
Thole,  which  tend  dire£l:lv  upwards,  downwards, 
forwards,  backwards,  to  the  right,  or  the  left,  are 
called  Jimple ;  as  performed  by  one  fort  of  mtifcle  ; 
but  the  motion  is  compound  when  feveral  mnfchs 
act  jointly  and  fucceflively,  as  when  the  arm  moves 
quite  round. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  the  caufe  of  their 
motion  proceeds  from  the  brain.  But  we  muft  not 
think  that  the  animal  juice  is  conveyed  from  the 
brain  to  the  mufcles,  at  the  fame  time,  that  the 
foul  wills  the  motion ;  for  the  motion  follows  fo 
clofe  upon  the  refolution  of  the  will,  that  the 
juice  cannot  go  fo  far  in  that  time.  But  the  cafe 
lies  here  ;  the  nerves  are  fo  many  conduits  full  of 
animal  juice;  and  when  the  foul  refolves  to  move 
any  miifck,  the  fibres  of  the  brain  prefs  gently  up- 
on the  extremity  of  the  nerves  ;  this  compreflion 
forwards  the  animal  juice,  with  which  the  nerve  is 
filled,  and  obliges  it  to  march  through  the  mujcles ; 
where  mixing  with  the  blood,  never  wanting  in 
fuch  places,  it  makes  an  ebullition,  which  is  fol- 
lowed by  an  intumefcence  or  fwelling. 

Dr.  Boerhaave  finding  all  that's  requifite  in  the 
nervous  juice,  for  the  motion  of  t\\tmufcles,  makes 
no  fcruple  to  attribute  the  whole  bufinefs  to  it 
alone ;  for  fays  he, 

Suppofe  the  fpirit  from  any  caufe  to  be  moved 

more   fwiftly  from  the  origin  of  fome  one  nerve 

than   through  the  reft;   the  injlux  will    be  here 

greater  into  the  mufcular  fibn  open  to  this  nerve 

t 


than  into  another :  This  will  therefore  be  more  di- 
lated ;  and  the  other /i/.»<i««/«t'«a,  mentioned  above, 
will  fucceed.  The  lame  caufe  continuing,  the  ef- 
fect will  be  increafed,  fo  that  in  a  moment  the 
whole  will  be  fwelled  up  ;  and  while  the  fame  de- 
termination lafts,  will  remain  contra£led ;  and  this 
obtaining  in  an  infinite  number  oi  fibrilla  at  once, 
the  whole  mtifcle  will  be  inflated. 

Hence  it  necelTarily  follows,  that  as  the  celerity 
is  increafed  in  one  nerve,  the  motion  will  be  lefs  in 
another ;  this  therefore  being  relaxed,  the  effort  in 
contraction  will  be  fironger  ;  for  which  reafon  all 
,the  tur.gid  fibres  of  a  mufcle  will  comprefs  the 
intermediate  place  and  blood,  with  a  great  force  ; 
whence  the  veins  will  be  emptied,  and  the  arteries, 
being  comprefled,  will  repel  the  groflcr,  that  is 
the  i-cd  parts  of  the  blood,  but  will  drive  the  more 
fubtile  parts,  by  the  force  of  the  heart,  and  their 
own  into  the  moft  minute  canals  ;  thus  the  cruor 
being  expelled,  the  whole  body  of  the  mufcle  will 
be  found  to  act  by  a  fubtilc  fiumour,  concurring 
from  the  nerves  and  arteries. 

All  the  pheencr/iena  are  accounted  for  in  this  m^ft- 
ner  without  any  Qtber  afiijmption  than  an  accele- 
rating force  in  the  origin  of  the  nerves  ;  which  is 
common  to  all  hypothefes,  and  cannot  be  traced 
any  further. 

Dr.  Lower  and  Mr.  Coiuper,  and  after  them  Dr. 
Morgan  and  others  of  the  lateft  authors  on  that 
fubjeiSt,  fetting  afide  all  adventitious  fluids,  account 
for  mufcular  tnotion,  from  the  intrinfick  elajiicity  of 
the  nervous  fibrilla,  contracting  and  refloring 
themfelves  againft  the  ftretching  force  of  the  circu- 
lating blood. 

All  the  mufcles  employed  in  the  fame  metion  are 
called  congener es;  and  thofe  which  perform  oppofite 
motion  antagonijla. 

From  the  definition  of  a  mufcle  it  appears  that 
nothing  can  be  more  difficult  than  to  ascertain  the 
number  of  the  mufculary  parts  in  the  human  body: 
it  may  be  proper  to  mention  neverthelefs,  that 
fome  writers  have  aimed  at  their  numeration  :  and 
fome  have  fixed  the  number  at  529.  But  it  is  not 
fit  for  us  to  attempt  to  circumfcribe  a  divifion,  which 
may  be  divided  into  fimilars  to  a  degree  of  fubtility 
that  exceeds  all  imagination.  Let  it  therefore  fuf- 
fice  to  be  acquainted  with  the  parts  or  mufcles  con- 
tained in  the  following  Analyfs. 

The  Muscles  of  the  Lower  Jaw,  wath  which 
we  fhall  enter  upon  this  demonftration,  are 

ift.  The  Crotophites  (A)  which  proceed  from 
the  coronal,  parietal  zaA  petrofum.  and  is  inferted  by 
a  nervous   tendon  in  the  corona  of  the  lower  jaw. 

N.  B.  Its  nerves  come  from  the  3d  and  5th  pair  : 

the 


ANATOMY. 


105 


tfie  arteries  from  the  carot'tdes^  and  the  veins  empty 
themfelves  into  the  jugulares. 

2.  T\\c  Pterygoides  ixterior  (B)  which  proceeds 
from  the  pterygoides  procefs,  and  are  infcrted  in 
the  interftice  betwixt  the  head  and  corona  of  the 
lower  jaw. 

3.  The  Majfeter  (D)  which  proceeds  from  the 
cheek-bone,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  ■z.ygoma,  and 
is  inferted  in  the  external  corner  and  middle  of  the 
jaw. 

4.  The  Pterygoides  Interior  (C)  which  proceeds 
from  the  inner  part  of  the  Pterygoides  procefs  to 
the  internal  part  of  the  corner  of  the  lower  jaw.  " 

5.  The  Cutaneus  (F)  proceeding  from  the 
upper  part  of  the  Jiernum,  clavicula  and  acromium, 
is  inferted  in  the  external  part  of  the  bafis  of  the 
lower  jaw.     And 

6.  The  Digajirius  (G)  which  proceeds  from 
3.fijfure,  between  the  es  occipitis  and  the  majloides 
procefs,  and  fixes  in  the  lower  and  inner  part  of 
the  chin. 

N.  B.  Each  of  thefe  mufcles  have  fomewhat 
remarkable. — The  crotophites  is  knit  to  the  outfide 
©f  the  corona  ;  and  when  wounded  brings  on  con 
vulfions  and  fometimes  death.  —  The  pterygoides 
exterior  is  knit  to  the  infide  :  —  The  majfeter  to 
the  outfide  corner  of  the  jaw,  and  the  pterygoides 
interior  to  the  infide. 

Thefe  four  mufcles  aflift  jointly  in  the  aftiori  of 
chewing,  by  drawing  the  jaws  together.  And  it 
is  the  office  of  the  cutaneus  and  digajirius  to  open 
er  pull  down  the  lower  jaw. 

The  Muscles  of  the  Os  Hyoides  are 

1.  The  Geniohyoideus  (A A)  proceeding  from 
the  lower  and  inner  part  of  the  chin,  to  be  inferted 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  bafts  of  the  os  hyoide>  : 
which  it  pulls  down. 

2.  "The  Myloh)oideus  (BB)  which  proceeds  from 
the  inner  part  of  the  fide  of  the  lower  jaw  near  the 
grinders,  is  inferted  in  the  lateral  part  of  the 
OS  hyoides,  which  it  pulls  both  upwards  and  fide- 
ways. 

3.  The  Stylohyoideus  (CC)  proceeding  from  the 
extremity  of  the Jiylchvoides  proceis,  to  be  inferted 
in  its  cornu,  which  it  draws  afide. 

4.  "The  Caorcohyoideus  (DD)  which  proceeds 
from  the  carocoides  procefs  of  the  fhoulder  blade, 
and  is  inferted  in  the  lower  and  lateral  part  of  the 
bafis  of  the  hyoides,  which  it  draws  obliquely 
downwards. 

5.  The  Sternohyoideus  (EE)  which  proceeds 
from  the  inner  part  of  the  firft  bone  of  thejiernum 
to  the  bajis  of  the  os  hyoides,  which  it  pulls  down. 


N.  B.  There  are  five  of  thefe  mufcles  on  each 
fide  of  the  os  hyoides.  They  keep  it  fccure  in 
its  fituation,  and  facilitate  the  adlion  of  fwal- 
lowing. 

The  Muscles  of  the  Head  arc, 

1.  The  Sterno-Clinomajloideus  (F)  proceeding 
from  the  upper  and  lateral  part  of  the  firft  bone  of 
the /ler Hum  and  middle  of  the  clavicula,  and  inferted 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  procefs  majloides.  By  this 
we  bow  the  head,  and  make  what  is  called  a  nod. 

2.  The  Splenicus  (G)  proceeding  from  the  tops 
of  the  fpinal  proceflcs  of  the  five  uppermoft  ver- 
tebra of  the  back  and  three  lowermoft  of  the  neck, 
and  inferted  in  the  back  and  lateral  part  of  the 
occiput. 

3.  The  Complexus  (H)  paffes  from  the  tranf- 
verie  procefles  of  the  vertebra  to  the  hinder  and 
middle  part  of  the  occiput.  N.  B.  This  and  the 
fplenicus  crofs  each  other. 

4.  The  ReSlus  major  (  I  )  proceeds  from  the 
extremity  of  the  acute  procefs  of  the  2d  vertebra  of 
the  neck,    and  is  inferted  in  the  occip:t. 

5.  The  Rectus  minor  (K)  pafTes  from  the  ift 
vertebra  of  the  neck  into  the  occiput. 

6.  The  obliquus  major  (L)  rif^s  in  the  fpine  of 
the  2d  vertebra  of  the  neck,  and  ends  obliquely  in 
the  tranfverfe  procefs  of  the  firft. 

7.  The  obliquus  minor  (M)  proceeds  from  the 
occiput,  and  is  inferted  obliquely  in  the  tranverfe 
procefs  of  the  firft  vertebra,  at  the  fame  place  with 
the  former. 

Ohferv: :  There  are  thefe  feven  mufcles  on  each- 
fide  of  the  head  :  four  of  which  are  employed  to,- 
raife  the  head :  and  only  one  to  pull  it  down. 
Which  difparity  is  occafioned  by  the  backward 
fituation  of  the  vertebra  of  the  neck.  This  fervins 
as  an  axis  or  pivot  for  the  head  to  turn  upon,  the 
head  falls  naturally  forward  by  its  own  weight  ; 
one  mufcle  is  fufficient  to  bow  it  :  but  it  is  v.'ork 
enough  for  four  to  hold  it  upright.  Note  alfo,  that, 
as  the  head  moves,  not  on  the  firft,  but  upon  the 
fecond  vertebra,  which  has  a  tooth-like  procefs, 
round  which  the  firft  vertebra'  tMms,  as  a  wheel 
round  its  axis,  the  tv/o  oblique  mufcles  make  the 
head  perform  a  femicircular  motion. 

The  Muscles  of  the  Neck  are, 

1.  The  Scalenus  (N)  from  the  upper  part  of 
the  firft  rib,  and  the  clavicula,  to  the  extremities  of 
the  tranfverfe  procefl^es  of  the  three  and  four  upper- 
moft vertebra  of  the  neck. 

2.  The  Longiis  or  ReSJus  (O)  from  the  lateral 
part  of  the  body  of  the  four  upper  vertebra  of  the 

back 


io6  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  0/ Arts  ^;?^ Sciences. 


hack  to  the  body  of  the  upper  vertebra  of  the  neck 
oy  to  the  ocapr/t.  ■  -.       :, !    - 

3.  The  Sphiofis  (P)  fiom.the  fpinofuiproceffes 
ef  the  fourth  and  fifth  uppermoft  vertibm  of  the 
bad  to  all  the  fpines  of  the  fix  verteLra  of  the 
mciy  which  this  impulfe  ferves  to  extend. 

4.  The  Trarifvcrfiis  (  Q_)  from  the  tranfverfe 
proceff^s  of  the  hve  upper  vertebra  of  the  back  to 
the  extremity  of  the  thii'J  and  fourth  uppennoft 
vertebrcs  bi  the.  neck,,  v.'hich  it  extends. 

Where  Note,  that  thefe  four  mufcles  are  fo  many 
on  each  fide  of  the  neck :  that  two  of  thefe  mufcles 
ferve  to  bend,  and  two  to  ftretch  the  neck  :  that 
when  they  all  3.3:  together^  they  keep  the  neck 
flrait  and  Heady  :  and  that  the  head  is  tent  to  one 
fhoulder  hy  zninflexor  and  an  extenfor,  ading  in 
concert. 

In  the  interfiices  of  the  mufcles  are  fourteen 
glands  united  by  membranes  and  veffels,  refembling 
the  ?naxiilares  in  fubflance  :  whofe  office  is  to  fe- 
parate  the  lymph  carried  off  by  the  lymphatic  vcf- 
iels  of  all  the  mufcles. 

The  Muscles  of  theSHOuLDE.^-BLADE  are, 

1.  The  Tyopezhim  (P)  from  the  hard  part  of 
the  occiput  from  the/pina:  of  the  fix  lower  veriihra 
of  the  riick,  and  the  nine  uppermoft  of  the  back, 
to  the  whole  jp'tne  of  t\\<:  Jhoulder-blade,  and  to  the 
external  part  of  the  cluvhula. 

2.  The  Rhombo'tdes  {  Q  )  from  the  jYine  of  the 
three  lower  vertebra  of  the  neck,  and  the  three  up- 
per vertebra  of  the  hack,  to  the  whole  bafis  of  the 
fcapula  :  which  it  pulls  back. 

3.  The  Levator  proprius  (R)  proceeds,  by  dif- 
ferent heads,  from  the  tranfverfe  procefs  of  the  four 
upper  vertebra  of  the  neck,  to  the  upper  angle  of 
the  fcapula  ;  which  it  draws  up. 

4..  The  Pecioralh  minor  (S)  proceeds  by  way 
of  digitation,  from  the  fecond,  third  and  fourth 
upper  ribs  of  the  thorax,  to  the  carocoides  procefs  of 
the  fcapula  :  which  it  pulls  forward. 

Bcfides  you  are  to  take  notice  that  the  Jhoulder- 
blade  is  aflirted  in  its  motion,  in  Come  degree,  by 
the  mufcles  laiijfimus  and  profundus  :  for,  though 
it  is  manifeft,  that  nature  defigned  them  for  the 
arm,  they  are  faftened,  in  their  paflage,  upon  the 
Jhoulder-blade, 


The  Superior  Limb  is  divided  into  the  arm, 

cubitus  and  hand. 

The  Arm,  which  is  the  part  between  the /l)^,ulder 
and  the  elbnv,  is  cloathed  with  th-jfe  mui'cles. 

I.  The  Delioid<s  (I)  fo  called  from  its  re- 
lemblance  to  a  Greek  A,  proceeding  horn  the  cla- 


vicula,  the  acronium  and  the  wliole  (pine  of  the 
Ihuulder- blade,  is  inferted  with  a  ftrong;  tendon 
almoft  in  the  middle  of  the  arm;  and  compounded 
of  twelve  fmiple  mufcles. 

2.  The  Suprafpinatus  (V)  from  the  external  part- 
of  the  bafe  of  the //joulder-btade,  and  is  inferted  under 
the  neck  of  the  (houlder-bone.     It  cncompafies  the 
arm  with  a  broad  tendon,  and  moves  upvvards. 

3.  The  Latijfimus  (X)  proceeding  from  the 
three  of  the  four  lower  vertebra  of  the  loins,  froni 
the  fpine  of  the  os  facrum,  the  hinder  part  of  the 
OS  ilium,  and  the  outward  part  of  the  lower  (hort 
rib  ;  is  inlerted  in  the  upper  and  inward  part  of 
the  fhoulder-bone,  which  it  pulls  downwards. 

4..    The  Rotundus  major  ( Y)  proceeds  from  the 
outward  part  of  the  lower  angle  of  the  fcapula,  and  ' 
is  inferted  with  the  latijfiii,us  for  the  fame  ufe. 

5.  The  Peroral  major  (Z)  proceeds  from  the 
middle  of  the  claviculu  upon  the  fide  that  faces  the 
Her, turn,  and  from  the  lateral  and  middle  part  of 
the  flernum,  is  inferted  by  a  fhort  tendon  in  the 
upper  and  fore  part  of  the  flioulder-bone,  and 
moves  the  arm  forward. 

6.  The  Carocoides  (i)  from  the    carocoides   pro- - 
cefs  of  the  fcapula  ;    is  inferted  in  the  middle  and 
inner  part  of  the  fhoulder-bone  ;    moves  the  arm 
forv/ards,   and    is   perforated   to    give  way  to  the 
nerves  that  repair  to  the  mufcles  of  the  cubitus. 

7.  The  Subfpinatus  (2)  from  the  outer  part  of 
the  bafe  of  the  fcapula  to  the  upper  back  part  of 
the  Ihoulder-bone,  which  it  draws  back. 

8.  The  Rotundus  minor  {3)  proceeding  from 
the  lower  fide  of  the  fcapula,  near  to  the  foremoft 
corner  to  the  hinder  and  upper  part  of  the  Ihoulder- 
bone,  which  it  moves  backwards. 

9.  The  Subfcapularis  (4)  proceeding  from  the 
inner  labium  of  the  bafe  of  the  fcapula,  is  inferted 
in  the  inner  and  upper  part  of  the  Ihoulder-bone, 
which  it  drav/s  clofe  up  to  the  ribs. 

Where  Note,  that  the  arm  performs  five  forts  of 
motions  :  vi%.  two  mufcles  draw  it  upwards;  two 
downwards  ;  two  forwards  ;  two  backwards  :  the 
Jcapularis  draws  it  into  the  fide  of  the  body  :  and  it 
moves  round  by  the  alternate  atlions  of  the  other 
eight  mufcles. 

The  Cubitus  is  divided  into  the  ulna  and 
radius. 

The  Ulna  is  moved  by  the  following  mufcles, 
viz. 

I.  The  Biceps  ('4)  which  proceeds  from  the 
Carocoidci  procefs,  and  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
cartilaginous  edge  of  the  glenoides  cavity  of  the 
fcapula,  is  infened  by  one  tendon  in  a  knob  at  the 
upper  and  inner  part  of  the  radius^  and  moves  the 
elboWi 

2.  The 


A    N    A    r    0    MY 


107 


4.  The  Brach'iaus  internum  (5)  from  the  inner 
and  upper  part  of  the  flioulder-bonc,  is  infcrted  in 
the  upper  and  inner  part  of  the  ulna^  and  together 
with  the  bicepi  bows  the  cubitus. 

3.  The  Longus  (6)  from  the  upper  part   of  the 
fcapula,  near  its  neck,    is  infertcd  by  a  ftrong  ten- 
don in  the  Dlccranum. 

4.  The  Brevls  (7)  from  the  upper  and  hinder 
parts  of  the  humerus  to  the  olecrannm. 

5.  The  Bracbiisus  extfrnus  (8)  from  the  hinder 
part  of  the  humerus,  and  is  inferred  in  the  fame 
place  and  manner  as  the  two  laft  named  mufcles. 

6.  The  Anconaus  (9)  proceeds  from  the  lower 
pnrr  of  the  condylus,  and  is  inferted  by  a  tendon  in 
the  lateral  part  and  back  of  the  ulna,  about  two  or 
three  fingers  breadth  under  the  elbow. 

Obfcrve,  that  the  ulna  has  only  an  extending 
motion  and  a  bending  motion.  The  firfl  kind  is 
efFe6led  by  the  means  of  the  four  latter  mufcles  : 
tile  fecond  by  the  two  firft  mufcles. 

The  Radius  is  moved  by  four  mufcles,  viz. 

1.  The  Rotundus  (10)  which  proceeds  by  a 
carnous  head  from  the  internal  procefs  of  the 
fhoulder-bone,  and  is  inferted  obliquely  by  a  mem- 
branous tendon  upon  the  outfide  of  the  radius,  a 
little  below  the  middle. 

2.  The  ^'.adratus  (11)  from  the  lower  and 
almoft  external  part  of  the  ulna,  is  inferted  in  the 
lower  and  external  part  of  the  radi:/s. 

3.  The  L-ngus  ( 12)  proceeds  from  about  three 
or  four  fingers  breadth  above  the  outer  procefs  of 
the  fhoulder-bone  to  the  inner  part  of  its  lower 
procefs. 

4.  The  Brevis  (13)  from  the  lower  part  of 
the  lower  and  external  condylus  of  the  fhoulder-bone, 
is  inferted  in  the  upper  and  fore  part  of  the 
radius. 

Obferve,  that  the  firfl:  and  fecond  are  named 
pronatores,  whereby  the  palm  of  the  hand  is  moved 
downwards  :  and  that  the  third  and  fourth  are 
named  fupinatores,  becaufe  they  turn  it  upwards. 

The  Hand  is  the  third  part  of  the  upper  limb 
or  extremity.  It  begins  at  the  articulation  of  the 
wrijl,  and  terminates  at  the  finger-ends.  —  Its  in- 
ner part  is  called  the  palm :  the  outward  is  called 
the  back  of  the  hand  ;  and  it  is  divided  into  the 
carpus,   ?netacarpus  and  digiti. 

The  Carpus  or  turiji  contains  fix  mufcles,  "viz. 

I.  The  Cubitus  externus  (14)   proceeding  from 
the  lower  and  inner  condy'us  of  the  fhoulder-bone, 
7- 


is  inferted  by  a  thick  tendon  in  the  fmall  bone  of 
the  carpus,   that  lies  above  the  reft. 

2.  The  Radicus  intemis  (15)  proceeding  from 
the  lower  and  inper  condylus  of  the  fhoulder  bone, 
is  inferted  in  the  firft  bone  of  the  carpus  that  fup- 
ports  the  thumb. 

3.  The  Paln.aris  (16)  proceeding  from  the 
fame  place  is  inferted  in  the  fkin  of  the  palm  of  the 
hand. 

4.  The  Cubitus  ex/crnus  (i~)  proceeding  from 
the  hind  part  of  the  ulna  is  inferted  in  the  upper 
and  external  part  of  the  bone  of  the  metacarpus, 
that  fupports  the  little  finger. 

5.  1  he  Longus  (18)  proceeding  from  the  inner 
part  of  the  fhoulder-bone,  is  inferted  in  that  bone 
of  the  carpus,   which  fupports  the  fore-finger. 

6.  The.  Bi-evls  {\C))  proceeds  from  the  lowefl 
part  of  the  fhoulder-bone,  and  is  inferted  in  the 
bone  of  the  carpus,  which  fupports  the  middle 
finger. 

Note,  Here  alfo  arc  two  diftindi:  motions  per- 
formed :  the  three  firft  mufcles  are  nzmed.  fie xores, 
becaufe  they  ferve  to  bend  :  and  the  other  three 
called  extenders,  becaufe  they  ferve  to  extend  the 
wriji. 

Here  alfo  is  a  ligament  called  annular,  which 
bracing  the  wrift  joins  the  two  bones  of  the  cubitus^ 
and  keeps  faft  all  the  tendons  of  the  mufcles,  and 
prevents  their  flipping  out  of  their  place,  when  in 
action. 

At  the  root  of  the  hand,  under  the  mons  veneris^ 
is  a  fquare  mufcular  lump  of  flefh,  which  begins 
at  the  thenar  and  ends  in  the  eighth  bone  of  the 
carpus,  and  is  faid  to  ferve  to  make  the  hollow  of 
the  hand,  by  drawing  the  flefhy  part  that  lies  under 
the  little  finger  towards  the  thenar. 

The  Fingers  contain  three  and  twenty  mufcles; 
of  which  thirteen  are  common,  fo  called  becaufe 
they  ferve  all  the  fingers,  viz. 

1.  The  Sub/imis  (20)  which  proceeds  from  the 
inner  part  of  the  lower  and  inner  condylus  of  the 
fhoulder-bone  ;  is  inferted  in  the  fecond  row  of  the 
four  fingers,  being  fattened  in  its  paflage  to  thofc 
of  the  firfl,  and  is  divided  into  four  tendons. 

2.  The  Profundus  (21)  proceeding  from  the 
upper  and  inner  part  of  the  i/lna  and  radius,  is 
inferted  in  the  third  row  of  the  bones  of  the  fin^^ers, 
and  divides  alfo  into  four  tendons. 

3.  The  extcnfr  communis  major  (22)  proceeding 
from  the  hinder  of  the  outward  and  lower  condylus 
of  the  fhoulder-bone,  is  inferred  in  the  fecond  and 
third  phalanx,  and  before  it  arrives  at  the  wrift, 
divides  into  four  flat  membranous  tendons. 

4.  5,  6  and  7.  The  four  Lumbricales  proceedin''- 
from  the  tendons  of  the  profundus,  and  the  an^r/Iar 

P  !iga- 


10.8  T^he  Unirerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  «;?a?  Sciences. 


lii^.mient,  are  iiiCerted  in  the  fecond  aiciculation  of 
the  fingers,  to  pull  them  down. 

8,9,  JO.  The  three  15^^; /«<£'r«/ proceeding  from 
the  upper  part  of  the  interflices  between  the  four 
bones  of  the  nidacarpus,  are  infcrted  in  the  lateral 
part  of  the  bones  of  the  fingers  to  move  thctn 
downwards,  and  join  their  tendons  with  the  lum- 
bricales. 

II,  12,  13.  The  offci  externi  proceeding  from 
the  fame  place  are  inferted  in  the  lafl  articulation 
of  the  finger- bones. 

Objcrvc,  that  the  true  acftion  of  the  hand  is  per- 
formed by  the  fiiiiimis  and  the  prof. <ndt/s,  which  is 
the  reafon  of"  their  great  ftrength.  ficfides  the  ten- 
dons of  the  fi/blimis  are  perforated  by  thofe  of  the 
rotundu!,  to  give  a  flrong  and  circular  flexion  to  the 
iingers. 

■]  hofc  tendons  are  inclofcd  in  a  long,  flrong 
membranous  ihcath,  which  prevents  their  flying  off 
in  any  motion,  and  contains  an  oily  fat  humour  to 
moiften  them. 

The  tendons  of  the  extenfor  communis  major  are 
flat  to  prevent  any  difproportion  in  the  back  of  the 
hand,  thro'  which  they  pafs.  And,  there  is  but 
one  extenfor  for  two  benders  ;  becaufe  the  ftrength 
of  the  hand  confilts  in  its  flexion. 

The  other  mufcles  are  called'  proper,  becaufe 
they  are  peculiarly  adapted  part  to  the  thumb,  part 
to  the  foi  e-finger,  and  part  to  the  littJe- finger, 

T  he  Thltmb  has  five  peculiar  mufcles,  viz. 

1.  '1  he fieilens  proprins  (23)  proceeding  from 
the  upper  and  inner  part  of  the  radius,  is  inferted 
in  the  firft  and  fecond  bone  of  the  thumb,  which 
it  bends. 

2.  The  Longus  (24)  proceeding  from  the  upper 
and  outer  pa.-'t  of  the  ulna,  is  inferted  in  the  fecond 
bone  of  the  thumb,  v/hich  it  firetches  by  a  forked 
tendon. 

3.  The  Brevis  (25)  proceeeding  from  the  fame 
place  is  inferted  in  the  third  bone  of  the  thumb  for 
the  fame  ufe. 

4.  The  Thenar  (26)  proceeding  from  the  firft 
bone  ot  the  wrifi  and  the  annular  ligament,  is  in- 
ferted in  the  fecond  articulation  of  the  thumb,^  and 
moves  it  from  the  other  fingers. 

5.  The  Amithenar  (27J  proceeding  from  the 
bone  of  the  metacarpus,  that  fupports  the  middle 
finger,  is  inferted  in  the  firfl  bone  of  the  thuinb, 
and  pulls  it  towards  the  fingers. 

The  Forefinger  has  ihree  mufcles,  viz. 

1.  The  indicator  (28)  proceeding  from  the  mid- 
dling and  hinder-part  of  tfic  ulna,  is  inferted.  in  the 
t 


fecond  phalanx  of  the  index  or  forefinger,  and  in  the 
tendons  of  the  extenfor  /najor  by  a  double  tendon. 

2.  The  indicis  addu£tor  proceeding  from  the 
fore  part  of  the  firft  bone  of  the  thumb,  is  inferted 
in  the  firft  bone  oi  the  fore  finger,  to  draw  it  towardi 
the  thumb. 

3.  The  indicis  abdu£lor  proceedmg  from  the 
outward  and  middle  part  of  the  ulna,  is  inferted 
in  the  lateral  and  outer  part  of  the  bones  of  the 
index,  to  bend  it  towards  the  other  fingers. 

The  Little-finger  has  tivo  mufcles,  viz. 

1.  The  extenfor  proprius  (29)  proceeding  from 
the  lower  part  of  the  outward  condylus  of  the 
ftioulder  bone,  is  inferted  by  a  double  tendon  in 
the  fecond  articulation  of  the  little  finger,  to  aflift 
the  extenfor  communis  in  the  ftretching  out  of  the 
little  finger. 

2.  The  hypothenar  proceeding  from  the  little 
bone  of  the  carpus,  that  lies  above  the  reft,  is  infer- 
ted on  the  outfide  of  the  firft  bone  of  the  little  fin^- 
ger,  which  it  pulls  away  from  the  reft. 

The  next  fubje(5l  to  be  examined  is  the  A  R  m, 
in  regard  to  the  nerves,  arteries,  and  veins  it  con- 
tains. 

We  have  obferved  already,  that  the  nerves  pro- 
ceed from  the  medulla  oblongata,  and  the  medulla 
fpinalis.  The  firfi  fends  forth  ten  pair  of  nerves, 
which  we  have  feen ;  and  the  fecond  thirty  more, 
whJch  we  are  to  fee. 

Of  the  thirty  pair  which  proceed  from  the  fpi- 
nal  marrow,  feven  belong  to  the  neck,  twelve  to 
the  back,  five  to  the  loins,  and  fix  to  the  os  fa- 
crum. 

The  firft  pair  of  the  cervical  nerves  arife  between 
the  firft  and  fecond  vertebra  of  the  neci,  and  con- 
trary to  the  reft  comes  out  before  and  behind"; 
whereas  the  other  fix  pair  come  out  laterally  from 
the  junftures  of  the  vertebrie,  thro'  particular  per- 
forations near  the  tranfverfe  proceffes.  —  They  go 
to  the  mufcles  of  the  head  and  ears. 

The  fecond  pair  contributes  the  main  branch 
towards  the  formation  of  the  diaphragmatick 
nerves,  which,  fpring  only  from  the  fourth  and 
fixth  pair. 

The  three  laft:  pair  of  the  neek,  joining  with' 
the  two  firft  of  the  dorfum,  or  thorax,  make  the 
brachial  nerves. 

Thefe  brachial  nerves  are  fix,  which  range  aH, 
over  the  arm  to  the  very  fingers  ends. 

(32)  The  firft,  which  is  the  uppermoft,  and 
leaft,  is  fpent  upon  the  deltoides  mufcles  and  the 
(kin  of  the  arm. 

(33> 


A  N  A  r  0   MY. 


log 


(■33)  The  feconJ  is  larger,  and  pafles  through 
the  middle  of  the  arm.  It  dciaches  branches  to 
the  biceps  and  the  fup'inntor  ;  and,  when  it  arrives 
at  the  cubit,  divides  it  into  three  branches,  the 
firlt  of  whicli  marches  by  the  outer  part  of  the 
arm  to  the  thumb  ;  the  fecond  dcfccnds  nbliquely 
to  the  wrijl ;  and  the  third  keeping  compiiiy  with 
the  baftUca,  runs  to  its  period  in  the  fkin  of  the 
cubitus  and  the  hand. 

(34)  The  third  joins  the  fecond  imder  the  biceps, 
furnilh  the  mufcles  called  brachiales,  with  fome  of 
its  branches,  the  thumb,  fore-finger,  and  middle- 
finger-,  with  fmall  twigs,  and  is  fpent  upon  the 
benders  of  the  fingers. 

(35)  The  fourth,  which  Is  the  greateft  of  all, 
lies  very  deep  in  the  arm,  and  accompanies  the  ar- 
tery and  vein,  called  the  bafilica.  It.  difpcnfes 
fhoots  to  the  external  mufclc  of  the  cubitus,  and 
the  flcin  of  the  infide  of  the  artn;  but  as  foon  as 
it  arrives  at  the  elbow,  it  flits  into  two  branches, 
one  of  which  glides  along  the  radius,  and  the  other 
the  ulna.  —  The  firfi:  of  thcfe  fends  out  five 
branches,  two  of  which  repair  to  the  thu?nb,  two 
to  the  fore-finger,  and  the  fifth  to  tlie  middle- 
finger.  The  other  branch  difpatches  twigs  to 

the  extenders  of  the  fingers,  and  then  is  loif  in  the 
wrift. 

(36)  The  fifth  Joins  in  with  the  fourth,  and 
defcending  along  the  inner  part  of  the  arm,  diftri- 
Isutes  branches  upon  the  ulna ;  thence  it  comes  to 
pais,  that  when  one  leans  upon  any  of  the.'e 
branches,  the  arm  is  benumbed. 

Then  it  is  divided  into  two  branches,  one  of 
vvhich  vifits  the  benders  of  the  fingers  and  the 
wriil:s,  and  loofe  the  remainder  in  the  fame  quarter 
with  the  former;  the  other  creeps  along  the  inner  and 
lateral  fide  of  the  arm,  in  order  to  fend  two 
branches  to  the  little-finger,  two  to  the  ring-finger, 
and  one  to  the  middle-finger. 

(37)  Thefixth,  almoft  all  over  cutaneous,  de- 
fcends  along  the  inner  part  of  the  ar7n,  in  compa- 
ny with  the  bafilica,  and  is  loft:  in  the  fkin  of  the 
elbow,  and  cubitus. 

The  arms  are  alfo  provided  with  arteries  and 
veins.   ■  The  arteries  ha\  0  their  origin  from 

the  afcending  great  artery,  which  divides  itfelf  into 
the  right  and  ltd  fiubclaviiin,  which  pafling  through 
the  chink  that  lies  between  the  two  heads  of  the 
fcalenum  mufcle,  proceeds  to  the  arrn ;  and  at  the 
arm- pits,  is  called  axillary  artery,  which  pafling 
under  the  head  of  the  fhoulder-bone,  is  loft  be- 
tween the  two  extenders  of  the  cubitus. 

The  trunk  itfelf  continuing  its  deicent  along  the 
inner  part  of  the  ar?n,  difpenfes  branches  to  the 
biceps,  and  the  Irachiaus  inlen:us  ai)d  c.\teri:us, 
and  above  the  bendine  of  the  elbov,'  fends  out  a 


twig,  wliich  i:;  loft  ill  the  ijinc)-,  and  back  part  of 
inner  and  lower  part  of  the  arm. 

(40)  At  the  bending  of  the  elbow  this  arterious 
trunk  fplits  into  two  branches,  one  intefnal,  and 
the  other  external. 

(41)  The  external  cntcT^i  along  the  r(7^//w,  aiiJ 
fhoots  forth  a  branch,  v/hich  re-a!ccnds,  and  comes 
to  a  period  between  the  fupinator  longus  and  bra- 
(hiesus  internus..  In  its  deicent  it  diflributes  branch  - 
es  to  the  benders  of  the  wrift  and  fingers.  At 
the  wrifi:  it  affords  a  branch  to  the  head  of  the  the- 
7iar ;  which  is  the  artery  we  meet  with  when  wc 
feel  the  pulfe.  After  that  it  flides  under  the  tendon 
of  the  extender  of  the  thumb,  and  having  be- 
flov/ed  branches  on  the  outfideof  the  hand,  termi- 
nates into  two  fhoots,  one  of  whicii  runs  to  the 
thumb,  and  the  other  to  the  fore-finger. 

We  mull  trace  the  veins  in  a  different  manner 
from  the  arteries ;  for  as  the  'arteries  import  the 
blood  from  the  heart  to  the  circumference,  fo  the 
n)cins  export  it  from  the  circumference  to  the 
heart ;  therefore  they  have  both  a  different  origin  : 
The  arteries  of  the  arm  proceeding  like  thofe  of 
the  other  parts  from  the  heart ;  and  the  veins  of 
the  ar7n  from  the  extremities  of  the  fingers,  like 
the  roots  of  a  tree,  which  by  their  fmallefl  firings 
recei\'e  the  fap,  in  order  to  convey  it  to  the  bigger 
roots,  and  from  thence  to  the  trunk  itfelf. 

The  ccphalica,  bafilica  and  mediana,  are  the 
three  confiderable  veins  of  the  arm,  formed  from 
feveral  branches  of  veins  proceeding  from  the  live 
fingers. 

(44)  The  Cephalick  confdfs  of  fbme  fmall 
branches,  which  form,  a  vein  between  the  little  and 
the  ring-finger,  called  falvatclla.  It  lies  between 
the  fkin  and  the  mufcles,  and  is  divided  into  two 
branches,  external  and  internal.  The  external 
goes  down  to  the  wriff,  where  it  joins  the  bafliia, 
and  turns  up  to  the  back  of  the  hand.  7"he  interna! 
branch,  together  with  a  fprig  of  the  bafilica,  makes 
the  ?;iediana. 

N.  B.  It  is  thus  called,  in  regard  the  anticnts 
ufed  to  open  it  in  the  diforders  of  the  head;  from 
a  miflraken  notion,  that  it  had  a  nearer  concern 
with  the  headt\\-3.n  any  of  the  other  veins. 

(45)  All  the  little  veins  v.'hich  fpring  from  the 
five  fingers  to  the  hand,  forrn  that  great  vein  which 
runs  the  whole  length  of  the  arm,  and  is  called 
Basilica,  from  its  being  fcated  almoll-on  its  b^i- 

fis.  The  bafiii'ca   is  divided  into  three  great 

branches,  one  cf  v.'hich  is  uuially  opened  when 
we  are  blooded  in  the  arm,  as  being  the  more  fu- 
perficial  and  apparent.— —  The  other  is  deeper^ 
and  co.nfifl:s  of  two  branches,  one  dire£fing  its 
courfe  to  the  inr.er  part  of  the  hajid,  and  the  other 
to  the  outer.  — : —  The  third  is  the  ctihitalisj  which 

I  P  2  lies 


no  'The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  fzW  Sciences. 


lies  nearcll  the  os  cub'iti. '  Thefe  three  branch- 
es afcend  towards  the  arm,  and  in  the  way  receive 
a  vein  from  the  median,  after  which  they  flip  under 
the  tendon  of  the  perioral  mufcle,  and  unload  in 
the  axillary  vein. 

From  a  branch,  which  arifes  between  the  thumb 
and  the  fore-finger,  joined  to  another  that  fprings 
between  the  middle  and  the  ring-finger,  is  formed  a 
large  vein,  which  afcends  along  the  middle  of  the 
arm  to  the  bending  of  the  elboiv,  called  the  Me- 
dian a,  which  afterwards  divides  itfelf  into  tv/o 
branches  in  the  form  of  an  Y,  one  of  which  ter- 
minates in  the  cephalica  and  the  bafiUca,  where  it 
is  loft;  while  the  cephalica  and  hafiUca  continue 
their  courfe  to  the  axillary.,  where  they  unload 
thefelves ;  the  axillary  into  the  j'ubclavidn,  and  the 
fubclavian  into  the  cava. 

The  Thorax  or  Breast  alfo  has  its  peculiar 
mufcles;  thirty  ferve  to  dilate  it,  and  tiventy-fix  to 
contrail  it. 

The  dilating  mvik\ts  zxc  fifteen  on  each  fide,  and 
known  by  the  names  of 

1.  'VYis  fubclavian  (A A)  which  proceeds  from 
the  inner  and  lower  part  of  clavicula,  is  inferted  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  firft  rib,  which  it  pulls  up- 
wards and  outwards. 

2.  The  ferratus  major  (BB)  proceeding  from 
the  inner  bafe  of  the  flioulder- blade,  is  inferted  by 
digitation  in  the  five  lowermoft  long  ribs,  and  the 
two  uppermoft  fhort  ribs,  to  pull  them  out  and  de- 
late the  breajl. 

3.  The  ferratu;  poflerior  and  fuperior  (CC) 
proceeding  in  a  broad  tendon  from  the  acute  pro- 
cefles  of  the  lowermoft  vertebra  of  the  neck,  and 
from  the  firft  of  the  loins,  is  inferted  in  four  points 
in  the  lowermoft  ribs,  to  pull  them  down  and 
outward. 

4.  The  intercojialcs  externi  (EE)  proceeding 
from  the  lower  and  outer  part  of  each  upper  rib,  is 
inferted  obliquely  from  behind  forwards  in  the  up- 
per and  outward  part  of  each  of  the  lower  ribs, 
which  they  pull  backwards  and  outwards,  to  pro- 
mote the  dilatation, 

5.  The  triangularis  (F)  proceeding  from  the 
lower  part  of  the  /hriuim,  on  v^hich  it  lies  is  in- 
ferted in  the  cartilages  of  the  upper  rib,  reaching 
to  the  twelfth,  to  draw  the  ribs  downwards,  and  to 
contracSl  the  breaft. 

6.  The  facro  lumbaris  (GG)  proceeding  from 
the  outer  part  of  the  os  facrwn,  and  the  fpirire  of 
the  vertebra  of  the  loins,  is  inferted  in  the  back 
parts  of  the  ribs,  near  the  root,  gives  two  tendons 
to  each  rib,  one  on  the  outfide,  the  other  on  the 
infide,  by  which  it  contrails  the  breaft. 

Note,  That    there  are  two  ferrati  pojicricres, 


eleven  intercoflalei  externi,  and   eleven  interojlales 
interni. 

Befides  we  are  to  include  the  diaphragm,  which 
being  employed  indifferently  in  both  motions  makes 
the  fifry-feventh  nuifcle  in  the  thorax. 

Some  modern  anatomifls  are  of  opinion  that  the 
internal  and  extermil  intercojlals;  make  but  one 
mufcle,  which  has  two  plans  of  fibres  with  con- 
trary directions. 

The  aflion  of  thefe  mufcles  h  effe(Sted  in  this 
manner.  When  the  interna!  air  is  prefied  by  the 
external,  the  diaphragm,  being  forced  thereby  to 
dilate  itfcif,  the  dilating  mufcles  are  alfo  in  action  ; 
and  when  that  air,  after  having  parted  through  the 
lungs,  is  forced  to  fally  out,  the  diaphragm  contrails 
itfelf,  as  well  as  the  mufcles  antagonifis  to  thofe  that 
ailed  before ;  though  fome  of  our  modern  Ana- 
tomifts  believe,  that  it  is  not  the  air  that  caufes  the 
dilatation,  or  contrailion  of  the  mufcles  of  the 
thorax,  but  the  dilatation  and  contrailion  gf  thofe 
mufcles  that  procure  the  ingrefs  and  egrefs  of  the 
air,   into  or  out  of  the  breaft. 

(H)  The  diaphragm,  which  is  the  principal  or- 
gan of  the  refpiration,  alfo  called  feptum  tranfoer- 
Jum,  is  a  nervous  mufcle,  feparating  the  breaft  or 
thorax  from  the  abdomen,  or  lower  venter,  and 
ferving  as  a  partition  between  the  natural  and  vital 

parts.  Its  figure  is  round,  refembling  a  ray  or 

thornback.  —  It  confifts  of  two  circles,  the  one 
membranous,  the  other  fleftiy.  Though  others 
will  have  both  of  them  mufcular. 

The  firft,  or  fuperior  circle  arifes  from  the  Jler^ 
nam,  and  the  ends  of  the  laft  ribs ;  the  fecond  or 
inferior  comes  from  the  vertebra  of  the  loins. 
The  upper  is  covered  atop  with  a  membrane  de- 
rived from  the  pleura  ;  and  the  lower  lined  at  bot- 
tom with  another  from  the  peritomeum    I). 

Its  fituation  is  oblique,  being  extended  from  the 
cartilage  xiphoides,  by  the  extremes  of  the  ribs,  to 
the  region  of  the  loins. 

(L)  It  is  pierced  in  the  middle  for  the  paflage  of 
the  vena  cava  ;  and  in  its  lower  part  for  the  osfo' 
phagus;  and  between  the  produitions  of  the  infe- 
rior circle  pafs  the  aorta,  thoracic  du£i,  and  vena 
azygos. 

(MM)  It  receives  two  forts  of  nerves,  one  from 
the  par  vagum,  and  the  other  from  the  interftices 
of  the  four  lowermoft  vertebra  of  the  neck.  Both 
the  one  and  the  other  pafs  through  the  cavity  of 
the  thorax,  and  being  fupported  by  the  mediajhnum, 
are  difperfed  in  three  or  four  branches  all  over  its 
fubftance. 

It  receives  likewife  two  arteries,  called  phrenica, 
which  fpring  from  the  trunk  of  the  aorta;  and 
two  veins  of  the  fame  name,  which  march  to  the 
trunk  of  the  cava. 

The 


ANATOMY, 


111 


The  diaphragm.,  in  its  natural  difpofition,  is 
convex  on  the  upper  fide  towards  the  breaft,  and 
concave  on  the  lower,  towards  the  abdomen. 
Hence  it  has  two  motions,  the  one  of  contrailioJi, 
and  the  other  of  relaxation. 

By  the  contraSlion,  or  fwelling  of  the  fibres,  the 
diaphy'agm  becomes  flat  on  each  fide :  the  confc- 
quence  of  which  is,  that  the  cavity  of  the  brcajl\i 
enlarged  to  give  liberty  for  the  lungs  to  receive  the 
air  in  infpiration ;  and  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen 
lefltned,  and  confequently  the  Jlomach  and  intef- 
tines  prefTed,  for  the  diftributionof  the  ehyle. 


In  its  relaxation,  whereby  it  refumes  its  natural 
fituation,  the  cavity  of  the  brea/l  is  diminifhed, 
and  the  lungs  preffed,  for  the  expulfion  of  the  air 
in  expiration. 

On  the  diaphrag?n  alfo,  in  great  meafure,  de- 
pends the  aftion  of  coughing,  fneezing,  yawning, 
laughing,  the  hiceups,  (^c. 

The  Back  and  Loins  contain  the  following 
mufcles  in  common  with  each  other. 

1.  The  facer  (P)  proceeding  from  the  back  part 
of  the  OS  facrum,  and  the  back  part  and  upper 
edge  of  the  os  ilium,  is  inferted  in  the  fpines  of  the 
•vei'tebra:  of  the  back. 

2.  The  femi-fpinatus  (Q,)  proceeding  from  the 
fpines  of  the  os  facrum,  and  from  thofe  of  the 
vcrtebns  of  the  loins,  is  inferted  obliquely  in  the 
tranfverfe  procefles  of  the  vertebra  of  the  back, 
reaching  to  the  neck. 

3.  The  triangularis  (R)  proceeding  from  the 
back  part  of  the  cojia  of  the  os  ilium,  and  the  lateral 
and  internal  part  of  the  os  facrum,  is  inferted  in  the 
Jafl-  of  the  fhort  ribs,  and  in  all  the  tranfverfe  pro- 
cefles of  the  vertelne  of  the  loins  with  its  fellow, 
to  bend  the  back  bone  forv.'ard. 

Obferve,  that  thefe  mufcles  are  double,  one  on 
each  fide  to  fervc  for  the  extenfion,  flexion,  and 
bending  Tideways  of  the  back  and  loins,  and  thefe 
are  the  mufcles  that  give  a  genteel  carriage  to  the 
body  both  of  men  and  women  :  and  when  thefe 
mufcles  arc  injured  either  by  difeafe,  accidents,  or 
bad  habit  or  cuftom  of  bending  the  body  forwards, 
people  grown  round  fhouldered,  and  fometimcs 
hunch-backed. 

The  lower  limb  is  divided  into  the  thigh,  the  leg, 
and  the  foot. 

The  Thigh  is  divided  into  the  forepart,  back- 
part,  infide  and  outfide.  ]  he  forepart  of  the 
lower  end  is  called  the  knee,  and  the  backpart  of 
the  knee  is  called  the  ham.  In  this  part  of  the 
lower  limb  are  included  the  following  mufcles. 

I.  T)a.^  pfoas  (S)  proceeding  from  the  tranfverfe 


procefies  of  the  lowermoft  vertebra  of  the  hack., 
and  the  uppermoft  part  of  the  loins,  is  inferted  by 
a  fl:rong  and  round  tendon  in  the  leflier  trochanter, 
feated  in  the  abdomen. 

2.  The  iliaciis  (T)  proceeding  from  the  whole 
edge  of  the  inner  cavity  of  the  os  ilium  is  inferted 
in  the  fame  manner  and  place. 

3.  The  peSlineus  (V)  proceeding  from  the  firft 
part  of  the  os  pubis  is  inferted  in  the  forepart  of  the 
thigh-bone  under  the  little  trochanter. 

N.  B.  Thefe  three  mufcles  make  the  thigh  to 
bend. 

4.  The  glutaus  major  (X)  proceeding  from  the 
lateral  part  of  the  os  facrum,  and  from  the  back 
and  outer  part  of  the  hip  of  the  os  ilium  is  inferted 
in  the  bone  of  the  thigh,  about  the  breadth  of  four 
fingers  under  the  great  trochanter. 

5.  The  glutaus  intcrmedius  (Y)  proceeding 
from  the  backpart  of  the  tip  of  the  os  ilium  is  in- 
ferted about  three  fingers  breadth  under  the  great 
trochanter. 

6.  The  glutaus  minor  (Z)  proceeding  from  the 
dcepefl:  and  holloweft  part  of  the  external  cavity  of 
the  OS  ilium,  is  inferted  in  a  little  cavity  at  the  root 
of  the  great  trochanter. 

N.  B.    Thefe  three  flretch  out  the  thigh. 

7.  The  triceps  fuperior  ( i )  proceeding  from  the 
upper  and  outer  part  of  the  os  pu' is,  is  inferted  in 
the  upper  part  of  a  line  that  runs  along  the  infide 
of  the  thigh. 

8.  The  triceps  medius  (2)  proceeding  from  the 
middle  of  the  os  pubis  is  inferted  in  the  middle  of 
the  line  laft  mentioned. 

9.  The /rw^i /;?/i';73?- (3]  proceeding  from  the 
lower  part  of  the  os  pubis  and  the  lower  part  of  the 
OS  ij(.hiu?n  is  inicrted  in  the  lower  part  of  the  fame 
line. 

10.  The  pyramidales  (4)  proceeding  from  the 
upper  and  lateral  part  of  the  os  facrum  and  the  la- 
teral part  of  the  os  ilium,  is  inferted  in  a  fmall  cavity 
at  the  root  of  the  great  trochanter. 

11.  The  quadratus  (4)  proceeding  from  the 
outer  and  lateral  part  of  the  rifing  of  the  a  ifchium, 
is  inferted  in  the  back  and  outward  part  of  the 
great  trochanter. 

12  and  13.  The  gemini  proceeding  from  two 
little  procefles  in  tlic  hinder  part  of  the  os  ifchit-m 
are  inferted  in  a  fmall  cavity  at  the  root  of  the 
great  trochanter,  feparated  by  the  tendon  of  the 
obturator  internus,  and  joining  with  the  quadratus 
in  opening  the  thigh. 

14.  The  obturator  interv.us  pcoccci'mg  from  the 
whole  circumference  of  the  o\'al  foramen  of  the  os 
ifchiu7n,  is  inferted  by  a  tendon  in  a  fmall  cavity  at 


the  root  of  the  trreal  t!  ochantcr. 


15,  The 


l"be    Univerfai  Hiftoiy  (J/'^  Arts  z:?;/^ Sciences. 


112 

15.  '11)0  ohtur-otor  cxlfrnns  proceeds  iVorn  the 
oVitvvarJ  circumference  of  the  fame  hole,  and  is  in 
fated  in  the  fame  place  and  manner. 

N.  B.  Thefe  two  inufcles  ferve  for  the  turning 
the  tliighs  rftund. 

The  Tibia  or  Lcr;  begins  at  the  knee  and  ends 
at  its  articulations  with  t\\Qfoot ;  whofc  promiacnt 
fides  are  called  nialleoll  or  smelt's. 

In  this  i)art  of  its  lower  limb  are  found  the  fol- 
!(*.v.'ing  mufclcs,  viz.  i.l'hcreilus  (5)  procecd- 
;ii^  from  the  fore  and  lower  part  of  the  os  ilium,  is 
ii'i'erted  in  the  upper  and  fore  part  of  the /fg',  comes 
to  a  tendon  and  covers  the  whole  part  of  the  incc- 
pjn  or  rctida. 

':  1.  T^tvajlus  h'.tiymrs  (6)  proceeding  from  t-iie 
inner  and  upper  part  of  t\it  fanur,  a  little  below 
Vc^zr  trochanter,  is  inferted  in  the  upper  and  inner    it  forwards. 


upper  part  is  called  the  cubltm  or  injlep,  and  th« 
under  part  is  xhc  folc  of  the  foot.  Ikfides,  it  \i 
divided,  as  has  been  noted  under  Oflcology,  into 
the  tarftis,  metatarfits,  and  toes.  E:;ch  of  v/hich 
pa.'-ts  is  aflifted  in  their  motions  by  fcvcial  mufcles. 
In  the  Foot  are  thofe  mufcles,  viz,. 

1.  The  crureus  anterior  (16)  proceeding  from 
the  upper  and  fore-part  of  the  tibia,  is  inferted  by 
two  tendons,  one  to  the  firft  wedge-like  bene,  and 
the  other  to  the  bone  of  the  metatarfus,  that  fup- 
ports  the  great  toe. 

2.  'T\\e  peroneus  anterior  (17)  proceeding  from 
the  outer  and  middle  part  of  the  peronc,  is  inferted 
on  the  fore-lide  in  the  bone  of  the  metatarfus  that 
fupports  the  Utile  toe. 

N.  B.  The  two  mufcles  bend  the  leg  by  pulling 


jjart  of  the  tibia,  marching  in  a  broad  tendon. 

3.  The  v.'t/Ius  externus  (7)  proceeding  from  tlio 
upper  and  fore-part  of  the  thigb-bo-ne,  marches  and 
is  inferted  with  the  foregoing  mufcle 

4.  The  cruralis  (8)  proceeding  from  the  fore- 
jiiod:  and  upper  part  of  the  thigh  between  the  tro- 
chanters, is  inferted  as  the  two  laft  mentioned. 

A'^.  B.  Thefe  four  mufclesy?ri-/f/j  out  the  kg  by 
pulling  it  forward. 

5.  The  Biceps  (9)  proceeding  from  the  lower 
part  of  the  knob  of  the  cs  Ifchium,  and  the  outer  and 
middle  part  of  the  thigh,  is  inferred  in  the  upper 
and  back  part  of  the  upper  appendage  of  the 
perone. 

6.  7.  The_/^;«/'??!?rWij/J  (10)  proceeding  from  the 
knob  of  the  osifi.ium,  are  inferted  in  the  hinder 
part  of  the  upper  cpiphyfts  of  the  tibia. 

N.  B.  Thofe  three  mifclcs  bend  the  leg  by  pull- 
ing it  backv/ards. 

8.  The.  longus  (12)  proceeding  from  the  upper 
and  fore-part  of  the  fpine  of  the  os  ifchium,  is  in- 
ferted obliquely  in  the  internal  and  upper  part  of 
the  tibia,  and  pulls  it  in. 

9,  JO.  The  graciles  (13)  proceeding  from  the 
lower  and  fore-part  of  the  os  pubis,  are  inferred 
in  the  upper  and  inner  part  of  the  tibia  ;  and  ferve 
to  draw  the  leg  inwards. 

1 1 .  The  membranofus  ( 1 4)  proceeding  from 
fhe  external  and  lateral  part  of  the  lip  of  the  os 
ilium,  is  inferted  by  a  broad  membrane  in  the. 
upper  and  outer  part  o^  ihe.  fibula. 

J 2.  The  popliicus  (15)  proceeding  from  the 
outer  and  loft'er  knob  of  the  femur,  is  obliquely  in- 
ferted in  the  upper  and  inner  part  of  the  tibia. 

Ist.  B.  Thofe  tv\'o  mufcles  form  the  abdu6tion 
pf  the  leg,  by  drawing  it  to  the  outfide. 

The  ?  GOT  is  that  part  of  the  lower  limb,  which 
extends  from  the  aiicles  to  the  end  of  the  toes.     Its 


3,  and  4.  The  gemelli  (18)  proceeding  from, 
behind  the  two  lower  condyli  of  the  thigh-bone,  are 
inferted  bv  one  tendon,  and  the  two  following 
mul'cles,  ill  the  back  and  upj)er  part  of  the  hetl- 
bcne. 

N.  B.  Thefe,  v/ith  the  two  following,  form 
the  calf  of  the  leg, 

5.  The  foleus  (19)  proceeding  from  the  back 
and  upper  part  of  the  tibia  and  fibula,  is  inferted  by 
a  tendon  in  the  heel-bone. 

6.  The  plantaris,  proceeding  from  the  outer 
knob  of  the  bone  of  the  thigh,  is  inferted  by  a 
(lender  tendon  in  the  fame  place  with  the  three 
laft  mentioned  mufcles. 

7.  The  crureus  poferior  (20)  proceeding  from 
the  back  part  of  the  tibia,  is  inferted  in  the  innec 
part  of  the  fcaptroides  or  navicular  bone. 

N.  B.  This  is  called  the  tendon  of  Achilles :  he- 
caufe  it  is  faid,  this  warrior  died  of  a  wound  in 
that  part  ;  which  is  always  very  dangerous. 

8.  and  9.  The  peronei  pojleriores  (21),  the  firft 
of  which  proceeds  from  the  upper  and  very  near 
the  fore- part  of  t!he  perone,  and  is  inferted  in  the 
upper  and  near  the  external  part  of  the  metatar- 
fus that  fupports  tkie  great  toe. — The  other  proceeds 
from  the  lowermoft  part  of  the  perone, .  and  is  in- 
ferted in  the  bone  of  the  metatarfus,  that  fupports 
the  little  toe.  They  both  firetch  out  the  foot  by 
pulling  it  backwards. 

Obferve,  that  here  are  but  twofexores  or  bendors ; 
but  there  are  feven  extenfores.  For  which  difparity 
it  is  alledged,  that  the  great  number  of  extcnfores  or 
mufcles  that  draw  the  foot  back  were  neceflary  to 
counterpoife  the  center  of  gravity,  and  to  keep  the 
body  from  falling :  whereas  two  are  fufficient  to 
bend  the  foot,  which  rarely  bends  too  much. 

The  Toes  make  the  extremity  of  the  lower  limb, 
and  havef.xuen  common  and /7.<r  proper  mufcles. 

The 


A   N  A  r   0    MY. 


T13 


The  cominm  mufcles  are  thofe,  which  ferve  to 
the  motion  of  the  toes  in  general,  and  are, 

r.  The  «/«;/ir<r(j;/2«;/«/V  (22)  proceeding  from 
the  upper  and  fore-part  of  the  tibia,  where  it  joins 
to  (hz  fibula,  and  is  inferred  by  four  tendons  in  the 
four  articulations  of  the  four  toes,  which  it  ex- 
tends. 

2.  The  pidiens  (23)  proceeding  from  the  lower 
part  of  the  fbula  and  annular  ligament,  and  being 
divided  with  four  tendons,  is  inferted  in  the  outer 
part  of  the  firfl:  articulation  of  the  four  toes,  to  per- 
form their  extention. 

3.  The  fublimis  (24)  proceeding  from  the 
lower  and  inner  part  of  the  heel-bone,  and  divided 
into  four  perforated  tendons,  is  inferted  in  the  up- 
permoft  of  the  firft  rank  of  the  bones  of  the  four 
toes,  to  bend  them. 

4.  The ^r^?/Wa^  (23)  proceeding  from  the  up- 
per and  back  part  of  the ///^/Vi,  and  xhcjibula,  and 
divided  into  tour  tendons,  is  inferted  in  the  lall 
row  of  the  bones  of  the  toes. 

N.  B.  All  thefe  mufcles  lend  the  four  leaft  toes. 

5.  6,  7,  8.  The  lumbricales,  proceeding  from 
the  tendons  of  the  profundus,  are  inferted  in  the 
lateral  and  inner  part  of  the  firft  bones  of  the  four 
toes,  znAioxmthefoleofthefoot. 

g,  JO,  II,  12.  The interoj/ei  inierm,  proceeding 
from  the  bones  of  the  tarfus,  and  the  intervals  of 
thofe  of  the  tnetatarfus,  along  with  the  lumbricales, 
are  inferted  in  the  upper  and  inner  part  of  the  bones 
of  the  firft  articulation  of  the  four  lefler  toes,  which 
move  towards  the  great  toe. 

13,  14,  15,  16.  The  inter offei  extern! ,  proceed 
rng  from  the  upper   part  of  the  interftices  of  the 
bone  of  the  in/hp,  are  inferted'  in  the  lateral   and 
external   part  of  the  firft  bones  of  the  toes,  which 
they  move  from  one  another  by  abduction. 

The  proper  mufcles  are  thofe  peculiar  to  the  mo- 
rions of  particuhu"  toes. 

Thus  the  Great  Toe  has, 

r.  The  Flexor  proprius  (26)  which,  proceeding 
from  the  upper  and  back  part  of  the  perone,  is  in- 
ferted in  the  bone  of  the  firft  phalanx,  retaining 
and  bending  the  great  toe. 

2.  The  extenfor proprius  (27)  which,  proceeding 
from  the  fore  and  upper  part  of  the  perone  between 
the  bone  and  the  fibia,  is  inferted  in  the  upper  part 
cf  the  firft  bone  of  the  great  toe,  and  bends  it. 

3.  The  Thenar  (28)  which,  proceeding  from 
the  lateral  and  internal  part  of  the  heel -bone,  the 
navacular-bone  and  the  ojfa  innominata,  is  inferted 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  fecond  bone  of  the  great 
toe^  and  pulU  it  in. 


4.  The  Antithenar  (29  j  which,  proceeding  from 
the  bone  of  the  metalarfus,  that  fuftains  the  little 
toe,  is  inferted  in  the  inner  part  of  the  firft  joint  of 
the  great  toe,  which  it  pulls  outwards  towards  the 
other  toes. 

The  Second  Toe  has  only  the  alduilor  of  the 
Index  (30)  proper  to  it,  which  proceeding  from  the 
inner  part  of  the  firft  bone  of  the  great  ice,  is  in- 
ferted in  the  bones  of  the  fecond  toe,  to  pull  it  to- 
wards the  great  toe. 

The  Little  Toe  alfo  has  only  one  mufcle, 
the  hypothenar,  whofe  courfe  is  from  the  outer  part 
of  the  bone  of  the  metatarfus,  which  fuftains  the 
little  toe,  to  its  infertion  in  the  upper  and  outer  part 
of  the  bones  of  the  Utile  toe,  which  it  draws  oft" 
from  the  reft. 

Here  ends  the  htjlorically  mechanical  account  of 
the  ?nufcles;  h\  which  are  defcribed  their  fituation. 


natures,  ufes,  proc 

els  ant 

1  number,   viz. 

M    U 

S    C    L     E     S 

In  the  forehead 

2 

The  ulna 

12 

The  occiput 

2 

The  radii 

8 

The  eye-lids 

6 

The  carpi,  or  wrijls 

12 

The  eyes 

12 

The  fingers 

48 

The  nofe 

7 

Respiration 

57 

The  external  ears 

8 

The  kins 

6 

The  internal  ears 

4 

The  abdomen 

10 

The  lips 

13 

The  tefiiclts 

2 

The  tongue 

8 

The  bladder 

I 

The  uvu'a 

4 

The  yard 

4 

The  larynx 

14 

The  anus 

i 

The  pharynx 

7 

The  thighs- 

3'^ 

The  OS  hyo'des 

10 

The  legs 

22 

The  lower-jaw 

12 

The  fe.t 

]8 

The  head 

14 

The  toes 

44 

The  neck 

8 

- 

The  Jhoulder- blades       8 

In 

aU 

434 

The  arms  or  jhoul- 

},8 

- 

dcr-bones 

To  render  this  treatife  of  Anatomy  a  pcrfeft  one^ 
we  ftiall  finifh  with  An'giology  ;  which  is  a  de- 
fcripfion  of  the  nerves,  arteries,  and  veins  of  the 
inferior  extremity  of  the  body.  , 

We  have  i'een,  already,  feven  of  the  thirty  pair 
of  nerves,  which  march  out  from  the  fpinal  mar- 
row, througli  the  holes  of  the  vertebra,  and  be- 
long to  the  nec.^  :  now  we  muft  difcover  thofe  that 
belong  to  the  bad,  loins,  and  os  fiicr  urn. 

The  twelve  pair  of  itcj  ves,  which  come  from, 
the  vertebra  of  the  neck,  extend  no  further  than 
the  circumferejice  of  the  Thorax ;  each  ot  whiciv 
divide  into  two  branches  ;  the  larger  whereof  aii 
placed  before,  and  the  lefler  behind, 

The 


1 14  77^^  Unlverfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  ^;^</ Sciences. 

The/sn'  hranches  are  ciiftributcd  into  the  inter- 1  then  turns   back  to  the  outer  ancle,  where  il  ter- 


nal  and  external  intercojlal  tnuidea,  in  each  of  the    minatcs 


The  inner  branch  defcends  alonj; 


i  terjlices   of  the   ribs;  fend   fhoots  to  the   muf-   the  %  to  the  mufclesof  the  foot,  and  after  fprcad 


and  to  the  oblique  defcendingof 
be  hinder  Li  a  cha  h'^wl  back, 
mufclLS  of  the  back,    and  in 


cles  of  the  brea/f, 

the  abdomen. 

and  are  lofl  in  the 

thofe,   which  adhere  to  the  vertebra:. 

Each  of  the  five  pair,  which  proceed  from  the 
•vertchrce  of  the  loins,  is  likewife  divided  into  zfore, 
and  a  /^/;;^/branch  ;  diflributed  partly  in  the  mufcles 
of  the  loins  and  the  hypogajlriiim,  and  partly  in  the 
thigh. 

Of  the  fix  pair  of  the  cs  facrum  (that  pair  be- 
tween it  and  the  vertebra  of  the  loins  included) 
none,  but  the  firll,  marches  out  by  its  lateral  part; 
the  other  five  make  their  way  before,  and  behind ; 
becaufe  the  articulation  of  its  lateral  parts,  with 
the  bones  of  the  (7/tf,  obftrufl  its  perforation  in 
thofe  places  ;  but  it  has  te.v\.  forarrtina  before,  and 
ten  behind  ;  and  of  thefe,  five  on  each  fide  ;  wliich 
give  an  egrefs  to  as  many  nerves. 

l.'\\e  fpinal  marroiv  terminates  in  a  ner-je,  which 
is  diftributed  in  the  fkin  between  the  butt'.ck  and  the 
anus,  and  fends  branches  to  the  mufcles  of  the 
thighs.,  both  on  the  right  and  left  fide. 

The  higgeft  branches  of  the  three  lovverniolt  pair 
of  the  loins,  and  thofe  of  the  four  uppermoit  of  the 
OS  facrum,  joining  together  in  their  defcent,  form 
four  branches  of  nerves  ;  two  of  which  are  no 
lower  than  the  thighs  :  a  third  terminates  in  the 
leg,   and  a  fourth  reaches  to  the  foot. 

The  firft  pair  of  the  nerves  of  the.  thighs  (33)  is 
formed  of  the  third  and  fourth  pair  of  the  lumbares  ; 
and,  paffing  near  the  lefTer  trochanter,  it  is  diftri- 
buted  in  the  llcin  and  mufcles  of  the  thigh,  and  in 
fome  of  thofe,  which  move  the  leg.  —  'Tis  quite 
fpent  above  the  knee. 

The  fecond  (34)  which  fprings  from  the  fame 
fource,  and  accompanies  the  crural znery  and  vein, 
is  dillributed  to  the  fore  mufcle,  the  fkin  of  the 
thigh,  and  the  circumference  of  the  knee,  and 
fends  out  a  branch  to  accompany  the  faphana  to 
the  inner  ancle,  where  it  finks. 

The  third  (35)  which  rifes  between  the  fourth 
and  fifth  vertebra  of  the  loins,  and  pafles  through 
the  foramen  at  the  end  of  the  pubes,  is  difperfed  in 
the  mufcles  of  the  upper  part  of  the  thigh,  the 
pudenda,  and  the  triceps,  and  loft  in  the  fkin  of 
the  groi?i. 

The  fourth  (36]  is  formed  of  the  four  upper 
nerves  of  the  os  facrum,  which  together  form  the 
cruralis  ;  and  defcends,  in  an  entire  body,  to  the 
ham,  after  having  pafled  near  the  prominence  of  the 
OS  ifchium.  —  At  the  ham  it  divides  again  into  two 
branches,  the  outermoft  thereof  runs  from  the  out- 
fidc  of  the  foot  to  the  mufcles  of  the  perone,  and 


fmaller,    thefe  coats    grow 


ing  itftlf  upon  the  inner  ancle,  is  fpent  upon  the 
fole  of  the  foot,  and  all  the  toes  ;  to  each  of  which 
it  difpcnfes  two  branches. 

As  to  the  arteries  and  veins  in  the  I'ywer  limb  ; 
let  it  be  obferved  that  an  Artery  is  a  hollow  fif- 
tulous  canal,  appointed  to  receive  the  blood  from 
the  ventricles  of  the  heart,  and  diftiibute  it  to  all 
parts  of  the  body,  for  the  maintenance  of  heat  and 
life,  and  the  conveyance  of  the  nccefi"ary  nutri- 
ment. 

The  arteries  are  ordinarily  compofed  of  three  ; 
the  firft  or  outermoft,  is  nervous  or  tendinous, 
being  a  thread  of  fine  blood- vefTels,  with  nerves 
for  nourifhing  the  other  coats.  The  fecond  is  rnuf- 
ciilar,  and  made  up  of  fpiral  fibres  ;  of  which 
there  are  more,  or  fewer  jhata,  according  to  the 
bignefs  of  the  artery.  Thefe  fibres  have  3.  ftrong 
elajiici'.y,  by  which  they  contrafl  themfelves  with 
force,   when  the  power,    by  which  they  have  been 

ftretched  out,  ceafes. The  third,  and   in- 

moft  coat  is  a  fine,  denfe,  tranfparent  membrane, 
which  keeps  the  blood  within  its  channels,  which 
otherwife,  upon  the  dilatation  of  an  artery,  would 
eafily  feparate  the  fpiral  fibres  from  one  another.  — 
As  the  arteries  gr 
thinner. 

All  the  arteries  are  conical.  They  begin  with 
a  trunk,  and  growing  lefs  and  narrower,  end  in 
branches  ib  minute,  that  they  efcape  the  fight,  un- 
lefs  aflifted  with  microfcopes. 

The  coats  of  the  arteries  are  of  a  very  denfe^ 
clofe,  contexture;  and  the  blood  not  being vifible 
through  them,  they  generally  appear  white. — The 
blood  proceeding  in  the  veffels  from  a  greater  ca- 
pacity to  a  lefs,  is  thereby  fomevvhat  obftructed  in 
its  paftage  ;  but  being  forced  on  by  the  motion  of 
the  heart,   it  diftends  the   coats,   and  thereby  oc- 

cafions  IX  jaliant  motion,    called  the  pulfe. . 

By  this  thicknefs  and  whitenefs  of  the  arteries, 
with  the  piilfation  obierved  therein,  arteries  are 
diftinguiflied  from  Veins. 

The  puife  of  the  arteries,  as  that  of  the  heart, 
confifts  of  two  reciprocal  motions,  Ajyflole,  or  con- 
traction, and  a  diajhlc,  or  dilatation  ;  but  they  keep 
oppofite  times  ;  the  fyfiole  of  tfie  one  anfwering  to 
the  aiaflole  of  the  other. 

All  the  arteries  of  the  body  arife  in  two  large 
trunks  from  the  two  ventricles  of  the  heart,  viz.. 
the  pulmonary  artery  from  the  right  ventricle,  and 
the  aorta  from  the  kft. 

The  Aorta,  or  great  artery,  after  it  leaves  the 
heart,  divides  itfelf  into  two  large  trunks,  called 
the  afcending,  or  upper  \  or  defending,  or  lower 
trunks. 

The 


A    N    A    r    0     MY, 


I'S 


The  dejceni'ing  trunk  ( forwe  have  already  defcribed 
the  afcending  one)  or  aoita  defcend^ns^  carries  the 
blood  to  the  trunk  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  body. 

Out  ot  this  arifc  the  bronchial^  intercojlal,  cecliac, 
thrcnicy  nufenteiic^  emulgent,  fpcrmaiic,  iliac,  um- 
bilical, epigojiric,  hypagaftric,  crural,  ice.  with 
their  leveral  ramifications. 

The  Arteria  Iliaca,  (37)  which  is  one  of 
thofe  £i;reat  branches  of  the  aorta  dcfcendens,  changes 
its  name,  at  its  egrefs  out  of  the  abdorncn  into  that 
of  arteria  cruralis,  upon  its  arrival  into  the  thigh  ; 
where  it  produces  three  or  four  branches,  which 
are  fpent  upon  the  ftin,  and  mufcles  of  the  upper 
ajid  fore  part  of  the  thigh  ;  but  at  the  diftance  of 
three  or  tour  fingers  breadth,  under  the  groin,  it 
produces, 

I.  The  MuscuLARis  Interna  (38)  fo  called 
from  its  fituation  in  the  inner  mufcles  of  the  thigh, 
which  fends  out  four  fprigs,  one  to  the  ahdudorcs 
of  the  thigh,  and  to  the  triceps,  biceps,  a.ndfemi- 
nervoft,  and  t\vc  femi-membranoft ;  one  to  the  up- 
per part  of  the  triceps  ;   the  two  others  to  the  body 

of  the  triceps,  and  to  the  gracilis. After  this, 

the  trunk  of  the  fame  artery  divides  into  three 
branches :  the  firft  of  which  paffing  by  the  end  of 
the  third  of  the  tricipites,  is  loft  in  the  ferni-mem- 
branofus  ;  the  fecond  pafTing  under  the  thigh-bone, 
is  fpent  in  the  vaftus  extemus  ;  and  the  third  moving 
downwards,  fends  out  branches  at  the  end  of  the 
third  of  the  tricipites,  and  is  loft  in  the  femi-nervo- 
fus,  and  the  head  of  the  biceps. 

TheMuscuLARis  Externa  (39)  is  the  fecond 
-which  runs  to  the  outer  part  of  the  thigh,  and  paf- 
fing under  the  fartorius  and  the  gracilis  re^us,  fends 
out  branches  at  the  end  of  the  iliacus,  to  the  7ja/ius 
extirnus,   the  cruralis,  and  the  membra  no fus. 

The  third  fprings  from  the  cruralis  (40)  de- 
taches branches  to  the  cruralis  and  vajlus  extemus, 
iand  is  loft  in  the  membranes  and  fat  of  the  thigh. 

The  cruralis  (41)  in  its  farther  progrefs  to  the 
lower  limbs,  furnifties  the  adjacent  mufcles  with  fe- 
veral  branches,  pafl'es  near  the  tendons  of  the  tri- 
ceps, and  at  its  arrival  at  the  ham,  fends  out  little 
,branches  to  the  tail  of  the  mufcles  of  the  hinder 
part  of  the  thigh,  which  are  loft  in  the   fat. 


Below  the  ham  it  produces  the  two  poplitea,  which 
embrace  the  knee,  one  on  the  infide,  and  the  other 
on  the  outfide ;  and  a  little  lower  the  furales,  which 
direft  their  courfe  to  the  gemelli  ;  the  foleus,  the 
plantaris,  and  the  fopliteus  ;  and  encompafs  the 
bones  of  the  leg  by  feveral  branches,  that  terminate 
there. 

Here  the-cruralis  anterior,  and  the  pojlerior  (42) 
begin.  The  former  runs  a-crofs  the  membrane 
that  joins  the  bones  of  the  leg,  and  continuing  its 
courfe,  difpenfes  branches  to  the  tibi^us  {xiernus, 
and  txtenjores  of  the  toes. 


The  cruralis  pojlerior  f43)  which  is  the  largcft 
of  the  two,  divides  itfelf  into  the  primus  pojiuus, 
which  difpenfes  branches  to  the  foleus,  peroneus  po- 
jlerior, and  the  bender  of  the  great  toe,  afcending 
by  the  outer  ancle,  is  loft  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  foot ;  and  the  fecundus  pojiicus,  which  in 
its  defcent  fends  out  fprigs  to  tk^e  jolcus,  the  benders 
of  the  toes,  and  the  curcus  pofticus ;  and  then  paf- 
fing through  the  cavity  oi  the  fdula,  is  divided  into 
two  branches,  one  that  pafTes  under  the  tler.ar  to 
the  great  toes,  and  another  between  the  brezis, 
and  the  hypotkenar,  under  the  fole  of  the  foot,  and 
is  fpent  upon  the  four  other  toes. 

The  Veins  are  veflels  or  canals,  which  recei\'e 
the  blood  from  the  divers  parts  of  the  body,  to 
which  the  arteries  had  conveyed  it  from  the  heart. 
They  are  only  a  continuation  of  the  capillary  ar- 
teries, reflected  back  again  towards  the  heart  ;  and 
in  their  progrefs  uniting  their  channels,  as  they  ap- 
proach the  heart,  they  atlaft  form  three  large  veins, 
or  trunks,  viz.  the  vena  cava  defcendcns,  which 
brings  the  blood  back  from  all  the  parts  above  the 

heart : The  afcendens,  which  brings  the  blood 

back  from  all  the  parts  belowthe  heart : And 

the  porta,   which  carries  the  blood  to  the  liver. 

The  onajiomofii,  or  inofculation  of  the  veins  and 
arteries,  was  firft  feen  by  the  microfcope,  in  the 
feet,  tail,  i^c.  of  frogs,  and  other  amphibious 
animals,  hy Leewenhoek  ;  but  has  fince  been  obferved 
in  other  animals,  particularly  the  omentum  of  a  cat, 
by  Mr.  Cowper. 

The  coats  of  the  veins  are  four,  the  fame  with 
thofe  of  the  arteries  ;  only  the  mufcular  coat  is 
thin  in  all  the  veins,  as  it  is  in  the  capillary  ar- 
teries ;  the  preflure  of  the  blood  againft  the  fides  of 
the  veins,  being  lefs  than  againft  the  fides  of  the 
arteries ;  becaufe  the  force  of  the  heart  is  much 
broke  in  the  capillaries. 

In  the  veins  there  is  no  pul/e,  becaufe  the  blood 
is  thrown  into  them  with  a  continual  ftream  ;  and 
becaufe  it  moves  from  a  narrow  channel  into  a 
wider  ;  but  they  have  a  perijlaltick  motion,  which 
depends  on  their  mufcular  coat. 

The  capillary  veins  unite  with  one  another,  as 
has  been  laid  of  the  capillary  arteries,  only  their 
courfe  is  direflly  oppofite  ;  for  inftead  of  a  trunk 
diftributed  into  branches  and  capillaries,  a  vein  is 
a  trunk,  formed  out  of  a  concourfe  of  capillaries.  - 

In  all  the  veins,  which  are  perpendicular  to  the 
horizon,  excepting  thofe  of  the  uterus,  and  the 
porta,  there  are  one  or  more  fmall  membranes  or 
valves,  like  fo  many  half  thimbles,  ftuck  to  the 
fides  of  the  veins,  with  their  mouth  towards  the 
heart,  which  in  the  motion  of  the  blood  towards 
the  heart,  are  prcffed  clofe  to  the  fides  of  the  vein; 
but  fhut  the  veins  againft  aay  reflux  of  the  blood 
Q.  by 


ri6 


The  Unlverfal  Hiflcry  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


by  that  way  from  the  heart,  and  thereby  fuftain  the  I 
weight  thereof  in  the  great  trunks. 

The  Veins  are  diftinguiihcd  into  t/pper  and  under 
defcendlng^  and  afcemling  ;  right,  aa  the  mfjenterlck  ; 
and  left,  as  the  fplenick  branch  ;  intiriml,  as  the 
bafilka;  M\d  external  as  the  hur/ieral,  is'c.  accord- 
ing to  their  fituation. 

One  of  the  principal  among  the  Ascending 
veins,  is  the  cruralis,  formed  by  fix  branches  of 
other  veins,  inferted  in  that  part ;  the  firfl  whereof 
is. 

The  IsCHiADiCA  Major  (45)  which  proceeds 
from  ten  fprigs  of  f^'ni  ;  two  whereof  come  from 
each  toe,  and  form  a  brancli  which  is  joined  by  an- 
otlier  that  comes  from  the  fibula,  and  the  heel-bone  ; 
and  both  afcending  by  the  mufclesof  the  calj  of  the 
leg,    unload,   by  a  joint  ftream,  in  the  cruralis. 

The  SuRALis  (46)  is  the  fecond,  formed  by  al- 
moft  all  the  veins  that  creep  along  thtfoot,  and  by 
thofe  that  come  from  the  calf  of  the  leg. 

The  third  is  the  Poplitea  (47)  produced  by 
the  fprigs  of  the  heel,  and  part  of  thole  of  the  neck 
of  the  foot  ;  from  whence  it  afcends,  pafll's  by  the 
ham,  and  terminates  in  the  cruralis. 

The  Muscular  (48)  is  the  fourth,  and  com- 
prehends tlie  mufcular  external,  which  proceeds  from 
the  external  mulcles  of  the  thigh  ;  and  the  internal 
from  the  z/j/^r/w/ miifcles. —  Thefe  two  branches 
enter  the  curalis  oppofiie  to  one  another. 

The  Ischiadica  Minor  (49 )  and  leaft,  the 
fifth,  is  produced  by  fevera]  ramifications  from  the 
Jiin,  and  the  mufcles  that  furround  the  jointing  of 
the  thigh. 

The  longeil  and  biggeft  of  all  the  fix,  is  the 
Saphjena(5o)  which  begins  atfome  branches  from 
the  great  toe,  and  by  afcending  by  the  inner  ancle 
along  the  leg,  and  the  inner  part  of  the  thigh,  be- 
tween the  fkin  and  the  flefhy  membrane,  terminates 
in  the  cruralis  ;  which  mounting  upwards,  and 
having  pafled  the  groin,  empties  itfelf  into  the  iliaca ; 
the  iliaca  into  the  cava,  and  the  cava  into  the  I'ight 
ventricle  of  the  heart. 

Angiology  treats  likewife  of  the  lymphaiick 
vefTels ;  which  are  fmall  pipes,  confifting  of  a  very 
thin  coat,  full  of  valves,  that  open,  like  thofe  of 
the  veins,  towards   the  heart,  and  fhut  upon  the 

reverfe. They  have  no  common  ciftern,  for 

fome  of  them   unload  in  the    thoracick  dudl,   and 

others  immediately  in  the  veins. Some  proceed 

from  the  vifeera,  and  others  from  the  glands  dif- 
pcried  all  over  the  body.  —  Thofe  that  fpring  from 
the  conglobate  glands,  convey  their  lymph  to  the 
i-eim  ;  and  thofe  from  the  conglomerate  difembogue 
into  particular  cavities,  as  the  eyes,  mouth,  duo- 
denuK,   i3'c. 

The  number  of  thefe  veflels  is  infinite;  but  not 


to  be  all  difcerned  with  the  eyes.  —  Their  l^mph 
proceeds  from  the  ferofities  of  the  blood  filtrated 
in  the  glands.  It  is  generally  clear  and  tranfparcnt; 
but  it  changes  its  colour,  in  proportion  to  the  tinc- 
tures it  receives  from  the  chyle,  the  bile,  and  the 
other  humours  contained  in  the  blood.  —  Of  itfelf 
it  is  iafipid  ;  but  fometimes  it  has  been  found,  acid, 

bitter,  or  brackifh. It  fixes  and  congeals  by 

the  mixture  of  humours,  and  the  diflblution  of 
falts,  as  well  as  the  ferum  of  the  blood. 

'  I  fhall  conclude  this  treatife  on  Anatomy  with 
a  few  obfervations  on  the  nails  and  hair  of  the 
human  body.  The  Nails  are  hard,  round,  white 
and  tranfparent  bodies,  feated  at  the  ends  of  the 
fingers  and  toes :  and  are  nothing  more  but  the 
covers,  or  fheaths  of  the  papilla  pyramidales  of  the 
Ikin,  on  the  extremities  of  the  fingers  and  toeSy 
which  dry,  harden,  and  lie  upon  one  another. 

Their  ufe  is  to  flrengthen,  and  defend  the  end 
of  the  fingers,  in  handling  any  hard  and  rugged 
bodies  ;  that  part  being  extremely  fenfible,  by  rea- 
fon  of  the  great  number  of  nerves,  which  termi- 
nate here,  for  the  fenfation  of  feeling. 

The  nails  are  formed,  and  grow  after  the  fame 
manner  as  the  red  of  die  body  ;  their  nourifliment 
they  receive  from  their  roots.  The  Hairs,  ac- 
cording to  Malpighi  have  roots  that  refemble  thofe 
of  the  bulbous  heads  of  tulips  ;  and  thefe  roots  are 
nc-urifhed  by  hlaod-veffels,  accompanied  with  nerves ; 
fo  that  the  hairs  grow,  and  fometimes  become  fo 
big,  that  they  are  carnous  and  fenfible  of  pain,  ^nd 
bleed  plentifully  when  they  are  cut. 

Tho'  the  hairs  ordinarily  appear  round  and  cy- 
lindrical ;  yet  the  microfcope  difcovers  triangular  and 
fquare  ones  ;  which  diverfity  of  figures  arifes  frora 
that  of  the  pores,  to  which  the  hairs  always  ac- 
commodate themfelves.  Their  length  depends  on. 
the  quantity  of  the  proper  humour  to  feed  them.; 
and  their  colour,  on  the  quality  of  that  humour  ;, 
whence  at  dift'erent  ftages  of  life  the  colour  ufually 
differs. 

The  arrtlent  writers  of  Anatomy,  Hippocrates,. 
Democritus,  Arijlotle,  Galen,  and  others,  look  upon 
this  as  the  moft  important  part  of  phyfick,  and  that 
without  which,  the  ufes  of  the  parts  of  an  human 
fabrick,  and  confequently  the  caufes  of  difeafes  ia- 
cident  thereto,  could  no  way  be  difcoveted.  Ani 
yet  this  art,  ufeful  as  it  is,  was  iutirely  diicontinued 
for  feveral  ages  ;   till  in  the  fixteenth  century,  it 

began  to  flourifli  afrefh. The  dilleflion  of  an 

human  body  was  looked  upon  as  facrilege  before 
that  time  ;  and  we  have  feen  a  confultation  which 
the  Emjseror  Charles  V.  appointed  to  be  held  by  the 
divines  of  Salamanca,  in  order  to  be  fatisfied  whe- 
ther or  no  it  were  lawful  in  point  of  conlcience  tt. 

MeSt 


ANTIQUITIES. 


1 1 


dlflei£t  a  dea-d  carcafe.  —  Wc  may  add,  that  to  this 
day  the  ufe  of  Jnatomy,  and  Ikeletons  is  forbid  in 
Mufcovy  ;  the  firfl  as  inhuman,  the  latter  as  fub- 
fervient  to  witchcraft  ;  and  Olcarius  afliires  us,  that 
J^uirin,    a  German    furgcon,    being     found 


one 


with  a  fkclcton  hardly  cfcaped  with  his  life  ;  and 
the  (keleton,  after  being  folemnly  dragged  about 
the  ftreets,  was  burnt  in  form. 

Anatomy  is  fomctimcs  ufed  to  denote  the  fub- 


jeSl  to  he  anatomized.  Tlius  (by  32  Hen.  VIIT.  cap. 
42.)  the  company  of  Z/(7r/;n.r  and  Surgeons  may  have 
and  take  yearly,  four  perfons  condemned,  adjudged, 
and  put  to  death  for  felony,  for  Anatomies ;  and  to 
make  incifion  of  the  fame  dead  bodies.  And  by  a 
late  acl  of  King  George  \l.  fmce  the  Surgeons  have 
been  feparated  and  m.ade  a  diftinft  company  from 
the  Barbers,  they  are  iniitled  to  all  the  bodies  exe- 
cuted at  London  for  murder. 


Of  A  N  r  I  ^U  I  T  I  E 


s. 


IT  Is  not  to  be  expe£l:ed  that  we  {hall  be  able 
to  give  a  minute  coUedtion  of  antique  pieces. 
Our  province  is  to  treat  this  ftudy  as  a.fcience, 
and  to  form  our  treatife  in  fuch  a  manner,  as 
to  render  it  ufeful  to  the  curious  fearcher  into  An- 
tiquities, and  entertaining   to  our  readers  in  ge- 
neral. 

For  this  purpofe  this  fubjevTt  fhall  be  confidered 
under  thefe  heads  ;  temples  ;  obelijks  ;  pyramids  ; 
columns  and  pillars  ;  amphitheatres  ;  circus's  and 
fquares  ;  maujolcums  or  tombs  ;  Jlatues  ;  fculptures  ; 
paintings  ;  injaiptions  ;  hieroglyhics  ;  inanufcripts ; 
medals  ;  urns  and  mummies,  in  particular  ;  and,  in 
general,  other  curious  pieces  that  may  afford  any 
light  into  Antiquity. 

A  Temple,  the  derivative  of  the  Latin,  tcm- 
plum,  from  lemplare,  to  contemplate  or  meditate, 
is  a  place  fet  apart  for  the  public  worfliip  of  the 
true  God,  or  of  the  deities  of  the  heathens. 

Authors  differ  in  their  opinions  about  the  firft 
inftitution  of  temples.  Apohnius  pays  the  firft 
compliment  of  this  kind  of  building  to  Ducalion,  in 
Greece.  Herodotus  and  Strabo,  with  more  credit, 
lay  the  firft  foundation  of  temples  in  Egypt ;  and 
that  they  were  built  for  the  reception  of  certain 
quadrupeds,  reptiles,  or  irrfe^s  2C[\A  fifties,  worfhipped 
by  the  Egyptians.  And  Clemens  Ale>:andrinus  and 
Eufchius  refer  us  to  the  fepulchres  built  for  the  dead, 
for  the  origin  of  thofe  places  of  prayer  or  worfliip. 

Whatever  gave  rife  to  thefe  edifices,  it  is  not 
very  material.  But  authors  of  the  greateft  reputa- 
tion inform  us,  that  they  were  very  early  propa- 
gated throughout  the  known  world  :  and  that  it 
became  a  part  of  the  grandeur  of  civilized  nations 
to  excel  in  thofe  ftruitures. 

Some  writers  are  for  confininn-  the  name  temple 
to  places  of  pagan  worfliip  and  fuperftition.  But 
they  muft  forget  that  the  houfe  built  for  the  wor- 
ship and  prefeucc  of  the  Living  God  at  Jerufa- 
Jem,  is  an  exception  to    their  opinion,     Tho'  it 


mud  be  granted  that  this  name  has  almoft  univer- 
fally  amongft  ChrijVians  yielded  to  that  of  church. 

In  our  enquiries  on  this  fubjedl,  the  firft  object 
in  view  is  that  very  temple  at  Jcrufalem  built  by 
Solomon,  by  the  direction  of  the  Creator  of  the 
univerfe,  and  for  the  rcfidence  of  his  di\'ine  5/;c- 
chinah  :  and  which  exceeded  all  other  buildings  of 
the  kind,  as  much  in  its  magnificence,  furniture, 
and  miniftry,  as  in  the  objedl:  of  their  worfhip. 

To  enter  into  particulars  relating  to  this  temple 
would  be  only  copying  from  the  Holy  Bible, 
which  is  in  every  body's  hands  to  perufe  at  leifure. 
See  I  Kings,  chap.  v.  vi.  vii.  viii.  ix.  and  i  Chro- 
nicles, chap.  xvii.  xxii.  xxiii.  xxiv.  xxv.  xxvi. 
xxviii..  2  Chron.  chap.  ii.  iii.  iv.  v.  vi.  vii.  where 
you  have  an  account  of  a  building  of  fixty  cubits, 
or  105  feet  long  ;  twenty  cubits,  or  35  feet  broad  ; 
thirty  cubits,  or  52  feet  high  ;  with  a  porch  twenty 
cubits  long  and  ten  wide  in  the  fore  front  or  weft 
end  of  the  temple  ;  and  three  ftories  with  ftairs  up 
to  them  round  the  outfide  of  the  temple. 

There  was  alfo  a  gate  on  the  right  fide.  The 
roof  was  raifed  five  cubits  ;  and  all  the  timber- 
work  was  cedar  furniftied  by  Hiram,  king  of 
Tyre.  The  walls  were  of  fquare  frones  wainfcoted 
from  top  to  bottom  with  cedar  alfo  :  and  a  cedar 
partition  feparated  the  fanSiuary  from  the  reft  of 
the  temple,  adorned  with  carving,  and  at  the  di- 
ftance  of  tv.'enty  cubits  from  the  end  of  the  build- 
ing. 

The  infide  of  the  fanfluary  was  covered  with 
plates  of  gold.  The  ark  ftood  in  the  midft  of  the 
fandluary  ;  over  which  fpread  the  wings  of  two 
cherubims  of  olive  wood  covered  with  gold,  ten 
cubits  high,  with  wings  five  cubits  long.  There 
were  two  doors  to  enter  by  into  this  fanctuan,'. 

The  porch  was  adorned  with  a  bra(s  piilar, 
Jachin  and  Boaz,  eighteen  cubits  high.  In  the 
court  was  a  large  brafs  bafon  five  cubits  high  and 
ten  cubits  in  diameter,  which  ftood  upon  twelve 
brafs  oxen  refting  on  ten  bafes,  each  of  which  had 
I       Q.  2  four 


1  8  Tl^e  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


four  wheels  :  this  bafoii  was  called  the  bra'z.en  fea.' 
Bcfides  wliich  there  were  ten  lavers  of  brafs,  four 
cubits  high,  eacli  ftanding  on  ten  bafes. 

The  altar  for  facrifices  was  twenty  cubits  long, 
twenty  broad,  and  ten  high.  The  table  for  fliew- 
bread  was  mafly  gold,  on  which  flood  five  gold 
candlefticks ;  as  were  all  the  cenfers,  veffels,  and 
inftruments  for  facrificing.  But  the  kettles,  cal- 
drons andbafons  were  of  brafs. 

All  the  work  of  the  temple  was  made  under  the 
infpeflionofmafter  Hiram,  the  widow's  fon,  and 
a  moft  fkilful  architedt,  born  at  Tyre. 

This  temple  was  rivalled  by  another  ereiSted  on 
mount  Garezim,  by  the  Samaritan  or  fchifmatical 
jfew!,  who  ereded  an  altar  there  in  oppofition  to 
the  temple  at  Jerufalem  ;  and  is  the  firft  inftance  of 
a  dljfentlng  congregation  in  the  church  of  God. 
This  temple  was  deftroyed  by  Hyrcanus  the  Jf- 
monean. 

The  temple  at  Jerufalem.,  which  was  built  by 
Solomon  in  the  year  of  the  world  3993,  before 
Christ  1012,  flourifhed  till  the  invafionof^JWca 
and  its  deflrudion  by  Nebuchadnezzar.,  king  oi  Ba 
hylon,  who  in  the  year  of  the  world  3398,  before 
Christ  606,  burnt  both  this  temple  and  the 
cit)'. 

This  temple  of  the  true  God  remained  in  ruins 
till  Cyrus  and  his  iaccd^or  Jrtaxerxes  Longomannus 
gavethe  T^fifi  leave  to  rebuild  it;  and  it  wasreftored 
accordingly  in  the  year  454  before  Christ. 

Herod  the  Great  (in  whofe  reign  the  Messiah 
was  fent  to  abrogate  the  law  of  facrifices,  and  to 
eftablifli  a  fpiritual  worfhip  and  intercourfe  with 
heaven)  found  this y^csW  temple  fo  decay'd  in  its 
materials,  that  he  pulled  it  down  and  rebuilt  it  in 
a  magnificent  manner. 

In  this  temple  Jesus  Christ  was  prefented  by 
his  parents  according  to  the  rites  of  the  Levitkal 
law.  This  is  the  temple,  over  which  Jesus  wept 
and  prophefy'd  that  it  fliould  be  fo  deftroy'd  ;  that 
one  llone  fhould  not  remain  upon  another  ;  and 
this  is  the  temple,  which  was  rent  from  top  to 
bottom  by  the  violent  concuffion  of  the  earth, 
when  the  fun  was  darkened  and  the  graves  opened 
at  the  crucifixion  of  Christ. 

Titus,  the  Roman  general,  in  the  year  70,  af- 
ter the  birth  of  Christ,  put  an  end  both  to  this 
temple  and  to  the  Jewijh  nation.  The  temple  was 
burnt  to  the  ground  in  this  general  cataftrophe  of 
an  abandoned  people  :  and  when  Julian  the  apo- 
ftate,  in  defiance  to  the  prophecy  of  Jesus  againft 
them  and  their  temple,  attempted  to  reftore  the 
Jewif/i  ftate,  to  rebuild  Jerufalem,  and  the  temple 
on  its  former  fcite,  heaven  interpofed,  and  drove 
the  adventurers  and  labourers  from  the  work,  by 
tlirowing  fire  out  of  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  from 


whence  they  had  dug  up  every  ftone  of  the  ancient 
foundation.  By  which  the  prophecy  of  Jesus  was 
fully  accomplifhed. 

This  temple  ftood  due  eaft  and  weft,  with  the 
feat  of  devotion  in  the  eaft,  and  the  chief  entrance 
on  the  weft.  And  from  this  accident  arofe  the 
cuftom  amongft  the  worftiippers  of  the  true  God, 
always  to  build  their  churches,  chapels,  and  tem- 
ples in  the  fame  direction  ;  a  few  modern  examples 
excepted. 

The  Grecians  boafted  much  of  their  temple  of 
Diana  at  Ephefus,  and  of  Apollo  at  Delphos.  But 
we  muft  travel  to  Rome  for  number  and  variety. 

The  Romans  built  temples  not  only  to  their  fu- 
preme  deities,  but  to  their  virtues,  their  difeafes, 
their  bleflings,  their  wants,  and  to  their  heroes 
and  emperors,  and  to  fome  of  them  in  their  life- 
time ;  as  may  be  collefted,  oi  Augujlus,  from  thcfe 
verfes  o(  Horace. 

Prefenti  tibl  matures  largimitr  honores  ; 
Jurandafque  tuum  nomen,  ponimus  aras, 

Epift.  ad  Auguft. 

Some  remains  of  thefe  ancient  edifices  are  ftill  feen. 

I.  In  the  Pantheon,  which  till  about  a  year  a2;o, 
when  it  fell  a  facrifice  to  time,  was  the  moft  cele- 
brated, compleat  and  perfect  of  them  all. 

This  temple  is  faid  to  have  laid  the  foundation 
of  its  body,  during  the  time  oi  the  Roman  republic, 
and  to  have  been  finiftied  with  a  portico  hy  Marcus 
Jgrippa,  about  fourteen  years  after  the  death  of 
Christ. 

It  was  dedicated  to  Jupiter  and  all  the  gods; 
and  thence  called  the  Pantheon  ;  and  was  of 
the  Corinthian  order,  both  within  and  without.  On 
the  frieze  of  the  beautiful  ^^rtw  was  this  infcription. 

M.  Agrippa  L.  F.  Cj£s.  III.  Fecit. 

In  this  temple  was  placed,  amongft  other  ftatues 
of  their  deities,  the  celebrated  ivory  ftatue  of  Mi- 
nerva, by  Phidias,  and  the  ftatue  of  Venus, 
with  a  pearl  in  her  ear  valued  at  250,000  ducats  : 
the  half  of  that  fame  pearl,  which  Cleopatra  had 
diftolved  and  drank  at  fupper  to  out- do  the  libera- 
lity of  Mark  Anthony. 

This  Pantheon  fuffered  much  by  age,  and 
was  repaired  by  the  emperors  Scpti?nias'Severus  and 
Marcus  Aurelius.  It  was  firft  confecrated  for Chri- 
Jiian  worfhip  by  Pope  Boniface ;  who  dedicated  it 
to  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  from  thence  known  by 
the  name  of  St.  Mary  Rotunda,  alluding  to  its  cir- 
cular form. 

It  received  all  its  light  from  an  opening  at  top. 
And  the  height,  from  the  floor  to  that  opening, 
was  the  diameter  of  its  breadth  i'rom  one  wall  to 
another. 

Near 


A  N  r  I  ^   U  I  T  I  E   S. 


Near  the  trophies  of  Marius  ftands  another  cir- 
cular temple  ereiSled  with  a  noble  portico  by  Au- 
giiftus,  in  memory  of  his  grand-childrt.n  Caius  and 
Lucius.     It  is  commonly  called  La  Galluce. 

This  temple  was  built  of  brick.  The  nave  is 
perfectly  circular  and  divided  into  ten  parts,  in 
each  of  which  is  a  chapel  fituated  within  the  thick- 
nefs  of  the  wall. 

St.  Mary's  is  the  ancient  temple  built  by 
Servius  Tullius  to  FortunaVirUis,  whofe  fta- 
tue,  which  was  of  gilded  wood,  is  faid  to  have  re- 
fifted  the  flames,  and  was  preferved  when  the  tem- 
ple was  on  fire.  This  piece  of  great  antiquity  is 
huWt  oi peperlno  covered  withy?«f. 

St.  Stephen's  is  the  remains  of  the  temple  of 
Vesta,  built  byNuMA  Pompilius.  It  is  alio 
circular  ;  and  built  in  the  Corinthian  order. 

Near  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  nova  are  to  be 
kti\  the  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Peace.  It  was 
begun  by  the  emperor  Claudian,  upon  the  fcite 
of  the  Curia  of  Romulus  and  Hojlilius,  the  houfe  of 
Melius,  the  Bafdica  Portia  and  the  houfe  of  Cafar 
demolifhed  by  Augujius. 

Vespasian  (after  his  return  with  the  trophies  of 
viiTlory  taken  in  the  facking  of  Jerufalem  and  its 
temple)  finifhed  this  foundation,  fo  as  to  make  it 
excel  all  the  other  temples  at  Rome  in  magnificence 
and  riches.  Here  he  depofited  all  the  decorations 
and  veflels  of  the  temple  of  'Jerufalem  -,  after  he 
had  expofed  them  in  his  triumph  to  public  view. 
And  tho'  this  magnificent  ftruiSlure  was  deflroy'd 
by  fire  in  the  reign  of  Commodus,  the  ftrength 
of  its  walls  has  tranfmitted  to  us  a  ftrong  idea  of 
its  priftine  grandeur. 

Augustus  ereded  a  temple  to  Mars  the  A- 
venger,  in  memory  of  the  viftory  obtained  by  him 
and  Mark  Anthony  at  Philippi  over  Brutue  and  Caf- 
fius,  in  revenge  of  the  treacherous  murder  oi  Julius 
Cafar. 

The  fituation  of  this  temple  added  greatly  to  its 
magnificence.  It  had  the  Forum  jufl:  before  ;  into 
which,  they  who  were  honoured  with  a  triumph 
carried  the  trophies  of  tlieir  enemies,  and  other 
marks  of  their  victories.  And  their  ftatues  were 
alfo  dedicated  by  Augujius  in  its  two  portico's. 

Without,  it  was  a  moft  beautiful  and  ftupendous 
fabric.  VN/"ithin,  it  was  particularly  adorned  with 
two  exquifite  paintings  of  a  battle,  and  of  a  trtutnph: 
and  with  two  altars  drawn  by  ApelUs  ;  the  one  re- 
prefenting  Cajhr  and  Pollux ;  the  other,  the  god- 
defs  Fiitory  and  Alexander  the  Great. 

The  remains  of  this  beautiful  temple  is  flill  to  be 
feen  near  Torre  de  Conti. 

Augustus  erected  another  temple  at  the  foot 
of  the  capitol,  to  'Jupiter  the  Thwiderer,  in  me- 
mory of  his  deliverance  from  death  by  an  arrow 


119 

that  pafl'ed  thro'  his  litter,  and  killed  a  flave  before 
him  ;  as  he  was  purfuing  the  Cantabrian  war  in 
the  night. 

Between  the  Capitol  and  mount  Palatin,  flood 
the  temple  of  Vulcan,  near  the  Forum  ;  on  the 
place  where  are  now  three  columns  of  the  Corin- 
thian order  :  but  thofe  columns  are  controverted  ; 
fome  being  of  opinion  that  they  are  part  of  a  tem- 
ple dedicated  to  Romulus  :  others  fay  that  both 
thofe  and  the  columns  below  the  capitol,  are  part 
of  the  bridge  made  by  Caligula's  diredion,  for 
paffing  the  mount  to  the  capitol. 

Fur  I  us  Camtllus  built  a  temple  toCoNCORD 
near  to  the  arch  of  Scptimius,  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Forum,  the  columns  of  whofe  portico  arc  flill 
to  be  feen. 

This  was  erefted  for  the  debates  of  public  af- 
fairs, which  were  frequently  held  here.  And  a- 
mongfl  other  pieces  of  furniture  there  was  the  image 
of  Latona,  with  her  children  Apollo  and  Diana  in 
herarms  ;  theflatue  o'i /Efculapius,vAt\\  hisdaughter 
Hyginia  or  Health  :  the  ilatues  oi  Mars,  Minei-va^ 
Ceres,  Alereury,  and  that  of  Viilory,  placed  in  the 
front  of  the  portico,  and  deftroyed  by  thunder  and 
lightning  in  the  confulfliip  of  Marcus  Marcellus 
and  Maj-cus  Valerius. 

It  was  afterwards  deftroyed  by  fire,  and  rebuilt 
at  the  expence  of  the  public  :  as  appears  by  the  fol- 
lowing infcription  ftill  to  be  read  on  the  frize. 

S. P.Q^R.  incendioconsumptum restituit. 

I  Ihall  not  trouble  you  with  a  defcription  of  any 
Cbri/iian  temples  or  churches  ;  becaufe  Architeds 
never  allow  any  of  them  to  be  confidcred  as  pieces 
of  Antiquity.  But  perhaps  I  may  be  admitted  to 
place  Stone  Henge,  that  wonderful  pile  of  huge 
ftones,  on  the  plain,  about  fix  miles  from  Sa- 
lijlury,  in  the  number  of  ancient  temples. 

This  monument  of  antiquity,  which  baffles  all 
our  conjectures,  confifts  of  the  remains  of  four 
ranks  of  rough  flones,  ranged  one  within  another: 
fome  of  them,  cfpecially  in  the  outermoft-  and  third 
rank,  beinj  twenty  feet  hiijh  and  feven  broad,  and 
fuflaining  others  laid  acrofs  their  heads  and  fattened 
by  mortifes,  which  fhews  that  they  originally  did 
hang  together. 

Some  have  confidered  this  to  be  a  temple  of  the 
Druids  :  others  afcribe  it  to  the  Romans,  and  dedi- 
cate it  to  Celus  ;  becaufe  it  was  open  at  top: 
while  a  third  party  won't  allow  its  antiquity  to 
afcend  higher  than  the  coming  in  of  the  Saxons ; 
thinking  it  to  be  a  monument  in  memory  o(  Hen- 
gift,  their  firft  general  in  England  ;  or  a  funeral 
monument  to  the  memory  of  the  Britijh  prince  Au- 
relius  .hubrofius.  Inigo  'Jones,  who  has  given  a 
fine  fcheme  of  this  piece  of  antiquity,  endeavours 

to 


I20 


7he  UnhTrfal  HiPiory  of  Arts  <2W  Sciences. 


t",  fix  it  to  a  Roman  epocha.  But  Dodor  Lan^w'ijh, 
a 'tci- examining  this  ichcme  upon  the  fpot,  declares 
t  lat  tho'  he  could  not  reconcile  the  meafures  with 
the  fcheme  ;  he  is  of  opinion  that  it  was  a  temple 
di-ilicated  to  thafun  and  moon. 


Orrmsks  an]  Pvraaiids  were  raifed  by  the 
an'icnt^  both  for  ornament  and  for  prefcrving  the 
memory   of  fomc  perfon,  thing,  or  event,  by  in 
fcriplions  carved  or  cut  upon  fome  part  of  them. 

A  PvRAMiD,  takes  its  name  from  -aif,  and  is  a 
folid  m;'>ffive  building,  which  forms  a  (quare,  tri- 
anfiular  or  other  bafe,  and  lifes  to  a  verfix  or  point. 
Pyramids  are  fometimes  ufed  to  preferve  the  me- 
mory of  fingular  events  ;  and  fometimes  io  tranf- 
niit  to  pofterity  the  glory  and  magnificence  of 
princes.  But  as  they  are  efteemed  a  fymbol  of  im- 
ni.jrtalltv,  they  are  tnoft  commonly  uicd  as  funeral 
monuments.  Such  is  that  of  Cejlius  at  Rome,  and 
thofe  other  celebrated  ones  of  Egypt,  as  famous  for 
ths  enormity  of  their  fize,  as  their  antiquity.  Thcfa 
are  fituated  on  the  weft  lide  of  the  Nile  almoft  op- 
poiite  to  Grand  Cairo  ;  the  bafe  of  the  largeft  co- 
vers more  than  ten  acres  of  ground,  and  is, 
according  to  fome,  near  feven  hundred  feet  high, 
tho'  others  make  it  ftx  hundred,  and  fome  but  lit- 
tle more  than  five  hundred. 

The  pyramid  is  faid  to  have  been,  among  the 
E.zyptians,  a  fymbol  of  human  life  ;  the  beginning 
of  which  is  reprefented  by  the  bafe,  and  the  end 
bv  the  apex  ;  on  which  account  it  was,  that  they 
ufed  to  ereft  them  over  lepulchres. 

An  Obelisk,  in  Greek  fignifies  a  broach,  fpindle 
or  fpit  ;  and  is  a  triangular  pyramid,  very  flender 
and  high.  It  ditFers  from  a  pyramid  only  in  being 
cut  out  of  a  fingle  ftone,  whereas  a  pyramid  is  built 
up  with  many. 

F.   Kircber   reckons    up  14   ohelijks,   celebrated 
above  the   reft  ;  viz.  that  of  Alexandria,   that  of 
the  Bai  berini,  thofe  of  Conjlantlnople,  of  the  Mons 
Efquilinus,  of  the  Campus  Flaminius  of  Florence,  of 
Heliopolis,    of    Ludovifio,   of   St.   Mahut,    of   the 
Medici,   of  tlie  Vatican,    of    Marcus  Calius,  and 
that  of  Pamphilia.  —  The  firft  obeli fk  we  know  of, 
■was  that  railed  by  Ramefes,   King  of  Egypt,  in  the 
time  of  the  Trojan  war.     It  was   40  cubits   high, 
and  according  to  Herodotus,   employed  20,000  men 
in  the  building.  —  Phicus,  another  King  of  Egypt, 
raifed  one  of  45  cubits  ;   and  Ptslomy  Philadelphus 
another  of   88  cubits,  in  memory   of  Arfino'e.  — 
Thefe  three  obeUfis  are  of  porphyry,  and  ftill  ftand- 
ino-.  —  Auguftus  crcdled  an  obclijk  at  Rome,  in  the 
C<impus  Ma' tins,  which  ferved  to  mark  the  hours 
on  an  horizontal  dial,  drawn  on  the  pavement. 

This  kind  of  monument,  v/hich  is  very  antient, 
was  firil  made  ufe  of,  we  are  told,  to  tranfmit  to 

5 


poderity  the  principal  precepts  of  philofophy,  which 
were  engraven  in  hieroglyphical  charafters  thereon. 
In  after  times  they  were  ufed  to  immortalife  the 
adlions  of  heroes,  and  the  memory  of  perfons  be- 
loved. 

Some  of  the  antients  have  confined  the  ufe  of 
Column's  and  Pillars  to  tranfmit  hiftories  and 
fticnces  to  pofterity  ;  and  mention  the  documents 
of  hufbandry  engraved  by  Fiftjlraus  on  ftone  pil- 
lars. But  this  was  only  one  fort  :  for  we  have  an 
acco\mt  of  the  hiftorical,  chronological,  funeral, 
inftru£tivc,  itinerary,  ]a<Stary,  legal,  limitrophous 
or  boundary,  manubiary,  memorial,  menian,  mil- 
liary,  military,  ftatuary,  fymbolical,  triumphal 
and  zoophorick  columns. 

1  he  hiftorical  columns  were  thofe  whofe  (hafts 
were  adorned  with  a  bajfo  relirjo,  running  in  a 
fpiral  line  its  whole  length  ;  and  containing  the 
hillory  of  fome  great  perfonage.  Of  thcfe  kind 
are  the  Trajan  and  Antonine  columns  to  be  feen  ftill 
at  Rome. 

That  of  Trajan  is  of  the  Tufcan  order,  though 
fomcwhat  irregular;  its  height  is  eight  diameters, 
and  its  pedefta!  Corinthian;  it  was  built  in  xhe  forum 

Romataim,  or  Roman  fquare. Its  bafe  confifts 

of  twelve  ftoncs  of  an  enormous  fize,  and  it  is 
raifed  on  a  focle,  or  foot  of  eight  fteps.  Within- 
fide  is  aftair-cafe  illuminated  with  forty-four  win- 
dows. It  is  140  foot  high,  which  is  35  foot  fhort 
of  the  Antonine  column  ;  but  the  workmanfhip  of 
the  former  is-  much  more  valued.  It  is  adorned 
from  top  to  bottom  with  baffo  relievo's,  reprefent- 
ing  the  great  adtions  of  that  emperor. 

The  Antonine  column  has  igg  fteps,  with  56 
windows;  and  each  of  thefe  is  divided  by  tam- 
bours of  white  marble. 

At  Athens  there  were  chronological  columns,  con- 
taining the  whole  hiftory  of  Greece,  digefted  into 
Olympiads. 

The  funeral  columns  had  fometimes  their  fhafts 
overfpread  with  tears  or  flames,  fymT)&ls  of  grief 
and  of  immortality  ;  and  were  erefted  to  fkpport  an 
urn,  inclofmg  the  afties  of  a  deceafed  hero. 

We  do  not  learn  from  hiftorians  that  there  were 
ever  more  than  two  infruBive  columns,  one,  which 
Jofephus,  lib.  i.  cap.  3.  pretends  to  have  been 
eredted  by  the  fons  of  Adam,  whereon  were  en- 
graven the  principles  of  Arts  and  Sciences ;  and 
that  by  Pifi/lratus,  abovementioned. 

Feflus  informs  us,  that  at  Rome,  in  the  herb- 
market,  now  the  place  Montanara,  was  ere£ted  a 
column  called  laciary,  which  had  a  cavity  in  its  pe- 
deftal,  wherein  young  children,  abandoned  by 
their  parents,  out  of  poverty  or  inhumanity,  were 
expofed  to  be  brought  up  at  the  publickexpence. 

None 


A  N  r  I  ^u  I  r  I  E  s. 


121 


None  but  the  Laccdamonians  have  ever  cre<Sled  le- 
gal columns,  whereon  were  engraven  the  funda- 
mental laws  of  their  ftate  ;  and  thofe  columns  were 
always  erefted  in  publick  places,  for  the  better  in- 
flruftion  of  the  people. 

Alexander.)  according  to  Pliny,  crecSled  a  limitro- 
phous  or  boundary  column  at  the  extremities  of  the 
Indies  to  (hew  the  limits  of  his  conquefts  ;  and  the 
Romam  afterwards  followed  his  example. 

The  Romans  were  very  induftrious  in  erefting 
manubiary  columns,  built  in  imitation  of  trees,  and 
adorned  with  trophies,  whereon  they  hung  the 
fpoils  of  the  enemies. 

Suetonius  and  Afcanius  refer  to  one  Menias  for 
the  origin  of  the  Menian  column,  who  having  fold 
his  houfe  to  Cato  and  Flaccus,  confuls,  to  be  con- 
verted into  a  publick  edifice,  referved  to  himfelf 
the  right  of  raifmg  a  column  without  fide,  to  bear 
a  balcony,  whence  he  might  fee  the  fhews. 

Augujlus  had  a  column  of  white  marble  (the 
fame  with  that  which  is  nowfeen  on  the  baluftrade 
of  the  Perron  of  the  capitol  at  Rome)  erected  in 
the  middle  of  the  Roman  forujn,  which  was  called 
miltiary,  and  from  whence,  as  a  centre,  the  dif- 
tances  of  the  feveral  cities,  i^e.  of  the  empire, 
were  reckoned  by  other  milliary  columns,  difpofed 
at  equal  diftances  on  all  the  grand  roads.  This 
column  was  called  milliarium  aureum,  as  having 
been  gilt,  at  leaft  the  ball,  by  order  of  Augujlus. 
Its  proportion  is  maflive,  being  a  fhort  cylin- 
der, the  fymbol   of  the  globe  of  the  earth. 

It  was  reftored  by  the  emperors  Vcfpaftan  and 
Adrian ;  as  appears  by  the  infcriptions. 

The  Romans  had  two  forts  ot  tnilitary  columns, 
one  whereon  was  engraven  a  lift  of  the  forces  of 
the  Roman  army,  ranged  by  legions  in  their  proper 
order ;  with  defign  to  preferve  the  memory  of  the 
number  of  foldiers,  and  of  the  order  obferved  in 

any  military  expedition. And  another  called 

columna  helUca,  Itanding  before  the  temple  of  "Ja- 
nus, (whofe  gates  were  always  open  in  time  of  war, 
and  {hut  in  time  of  peace)  at  the  foot  whereof  the 
conful  declared  war,  by  throwing  a  javelin  towards 
the  enemy's  country. 

The  columns  adorned  with  the  beaks  or  prows  of 
fhips  and  galleys,  with  anchors  and  graplers, 
erefted  either  in  memory  of  a  naval  vi£tory,  as  the 
Tufcan  column  in  the  capitol,  or  in  honour  of  fome 
admiral,  were  called  rojlral  columns. 

There  was  dug  up  in  the  temple  of  peace,  a  flat- 
ted column  of  the  Corinthian  order,  whofe  fhaft  is 
a  fmgle  block  of  white  marble,  49  foot  and  a  half 
high,  and  five  foot  eight  inches  diameter;  which 
Paul  V.  pope,  caufed  to  be  ereiSled  on  a  pedeftal, 
before  the  church  of  St.  Maria  major,  at  Rome,  to 
lupport  a  ftatue,  of  gilt  brafs,  of  the  virgin  Mary, 


from  whence  it  is  called  njlatuary  column,  as  are 
all  other  columns  which  fupport  a  ftatue. 

The  caryatides  and  termini  were  alfo  a  fort  of 

ftatuary  columns. The  caryatides  were,  and 

are  ftill,  a  kind  of  order  of  columns  or  pilafters, 
under  the  figures  of  women,  drefied  in  long  robes. 


ferving    to    fupport   entablatures. 


Vitruvius 


pretends,  that  the  origin  of  caryatides  is  owing  to 
the  Greeks  having  taken  the  city  of  Caria,  led 
away  their  women  captives  ;  and  to  perpetuate 
their  fcrvitude,  reprefented  them  in  their  buildings, 
as  charged  with  burdens,  fuch  as  thofe  fupported 
by  columns. 

Termes,  or  termini,  (from  the  Roman  god  Ter- 
minus, the  protestor  of  land-marks)  was  a  ftatue 
made  without  hands  or  feet  (that  he  might  not 
change  his  place)  planted  at  the  bounds  of  lands 
to  feparate  them. 

The  two  famous  ftatues  of  Pafquin  and  Marfo- 
rio  at  Rome,  might  be  ranked  among  thefe  forts  of 
ftatues,  fmce  otherwife,  I  do  not  know  where  elfe 
to  place  thofe  two  great  fatyrifts,  who  for  feveral 
centuries  have,  by  their  v.itty  repartees,  diverted 
all  Europe. 

Pafquin  is  a  mutilated  ftatue  at  Rome,  in  a  cor- 
ner of  the  palace  Urjhi. It  takes  its  name 

from  a  Ccbler  of  that  city,  called  Pafquin,  famous 
for  his  fneers  and  gibes  ;  and  whofe  fhop  was  the 
refort  of  a  number  of  idle  people,  who  diverted 
themfelves  with  bantering  folks  as  they  paifed  by. 

After  Pajquin^i  death,  as  they  were  digging 

up  the  pavement  before  his  fliop,  they  found  a 
ftatue  of  an  antient  gladiator,  well  cut,  but  maim- 
ed, and  half-fpoiled.  This  they  fet  up  in  the 
place  where  it  was  found,  at  the  corner  of  the  de- 
ccafed  mafter  Pafquii'z  (hop;  and  by  confent,  cal- 
led it  by  the  name  of  tiie  defumft. From  that 

time  all  fatires  and  lampoons  are  afcribed  to  this 
figure,  are  put  in  its  mouth,  or  pafted  againft  it ; 
as  if  they  came  from  Pafquin  Redivivus. 

Pafquin  ufually  addrefies  himlelf  to  Marforis, 
another  ftatue   in  Rome  ;  or  Marforio  to  Pafquin, 

whom  they  made   reply. 'I'he   anfwers  are 

ufually  very  (hort,  poignant,  and  unlucky  :  When 
Marforio  is  attacked,  Pafquin  conies  to  his  afiiib- 
ance  ;  and  Pafqidn  is  aflifted  by  Marforio  in  his 
turn,  /.  e.  the  people  make  the  ftatues    fpeak  juft 

what  they  pleafe,  The  dialogues  betv^cen 

thefe  two  ftatues  are  called  Pafquinadcs. 

There  was  another  kind  oi  Jiatuary  ctlumns, 
called  zoophoric,  whereon  was  placed  a  figure  or" 
fome  animal,  as  that  at  Sienna,  which  bears  the  wolf 
which  fuckled  R-.midas  and  Remus ;  and  one  of 
the  two  columns  (though  not  a  piece  of  antiquity) 
whereon  is  the  lion  of  St.  Mark,  and  the  arms  of 
the  republicL 

The 


122  Tlje  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  «W  Sciences. 


The  fymhol'ua'i  column',  rcprcfentcd  fome  particu- 
lar country,  by  the  attributes  proper  thc-rcto,  as  the 
Corvinian  column,  on  which  was  a  crow,  ere(5ted  to 
Valerius  Maximus,  funiamed  Corvinus,  in  memory 
of  his  defeating  a  giaiit  in  the  army  of  the  Gauls, 
by  the  aflillance  oi  a  crow. 

The  triumphal  columns  were  erefted  by  the  an- 
tients  in  honour  of  a  hero  ;  the  joints  of  the  ftoncs, 
or  courfes  whereof,  were  covered  with  as  many 
crowns  as  he  had  made  different  military  expediti- 
ons.—  Each  crown  had  its  particular  name;  as 
Vallaris,  which  was  befet  with  fpikes,  in  memory 
of  having  forced  a  pallifade.  Muralii,  adorned 
with  little  turrets,  or  battlements  (whicli  fort  of 
crowjis  have  place  at  prefent  in  our  blazon)  for 
having  mounted  an  aflault.  Navalis,  of  prows 
and  beaks  of  veflels,  for  having  overcome  at  fea. 
Obfidionalis,  or  graminalis  of  grafs ;  for  having 
railed  a  fiege.  Ouans,  of  myrtle,  which  exprefled 
an  ovation  or  little  triumph;  and  triumphalis,  of 
laurel,  for  a  grand  triumph.  —  Procopius  tells  us 
of  a  column  of  this  kind  ere£Vcd  in  the  place,  cal- 
led Augujleian.  before  the  imperial  palace  at  Con- 
Jlantinople,  fupporting  an  equeftrian  ftatue  of  the 
emperor  'Jujlinian. 

The  Amphitheatres,  from  the  Grceh,  *(*?». 
about;  and  Starfov  theatre,  are  another  kind  of 
antient  pubiick  edifices,  of  which  there  are  fiill 
.  fome  {landing  at  Rome,  Pola,  Nifmes,  Douay  ^c. 

The  amphitheatres  were  a  fpacious  building  of 
an  oval  figure,  having  its  area  or  arena,  encom- 
pafled  with  rows  of  feats,  rifing  gradually  one 
above  another;  with  portico's  both  within  and 
without  fide. 

The  amphitheatres  were  appointed  for  the  exhi- 
biting of  fpedacles  or  fliews  to  the  people:  As  the 
combats  of  gladiators,  and  thofe  of  wild  beafts  ; 
and  as  the  theatres  of  the  antients  were  built  in 
form  of  a  fenii-circle,  only  exceeding  by  one  fourth 
part  of  the  diameter;  the  amphitheatres  were  no- 
thing elfe  but  a  double  theatre,  or  two  theatres 
joined  together  ;  fo  that  the  longefl:  diameter  of 
the  amphitheatre,  was  the  fhorteft,  as  i  i  to  i. 

The  amphitheatre  at  Pola,  an  antient  republick 
of  IJlria,  is  very  intire,  confifts  of  two  orders  of 

Tufcan   pillars,  one  above  the  other. The 

lower  has  pedeflals,  which  is  extraordinary ;  this 
order  having  fcarce  ever  more  than  bales  to  fupport 
them. 

The  amphitheatre  of  Titus  is  computed  to  have 
been  capable  of  holding  85000  fpedtators. 

That  of  Verona,  is  one  of  the  beft  preferved ; 
the  beft  ftones  of  tlie  outfide  are  picked  out,  yet 
the  great  vaiilt,  on  which  the  rows  of  the  feats  are 
laid,  is  entire  :  'I'he  rows  alio,  (which  are  forty- 


four  in  number)  are  entire.  Every  row  is  a  f(/Ot 
and  a  half  high,  and  as  much  in  breadth  ;  fo  that 
a  man  fits  conveniently  in  them  ;  and  allowing  for 
a  feat  a  foot  and  a  half,  the  whole  will  hold  23000 
pcifons. 

The  moft  entire  of  all  thofe,  now  ftanding,  ii 
that  of  Douay,  a  fmall  town,  upon  the  confines  of 
the  provinces  of  Anjou,  and  Poitou,  in  France ;  it 
don't  want  fo  much  as  a  flone,  and  could  contain, 
by  fupputation,  25000  fpecSlators. 

There  is  alfo,  a  very  magnificent  amphitheatre  at 
Nifmes  in  Languedic ;  and  fome  remains  of  amphi- 
theatres at  Aries,  Biurdcaux,  &c. 

The  Roman  gladiators  were  at  flrft  only  flaves, 
who  fought  of  neceflity  ;  or  captives  appointed  to 
fight  with  each  other,  and  do  their  beft  to  fave 
their  own  life,  by  killing  their  advcrfary. 

'Junius  Brutus,  who  expelled  the  Targuins,  is 
faid  to  have  been  the  firft,  who  honoured  the  fu- 
neral of  his  father  with  thefe  inhuman  diverfions. 

They  were  at  firft  performed  near  the  fepul- 

chre  of  the  deceafed,  or  about  the  funeral  pile 
(they  being  firft  inftituted  inftead  of  the  facrificcs 
of  captives,  or  prifbners  of  war,  offered  at  firft  to 
the  manes  of  the  great  men  who  had  died  in  an 
engagement)  but  were  afterwards  removed  to  the 
circus  and  amphitheatres,  and  became  ordinary 
amulements. 

The  emperor  Claudius  reftrained  them  to  certain 
occafions ;  but  he  foon  afterwards  annulled  what 
he  had  decreed,  and  private  perfons  began  to  exhi- 
bit them,  at  pleafure  as  ufual ;  and  fome  carried 
the  brutal  fatisfaflion  fo  far,  as  to  have  them  at 
their  ordinary  feafts;  and  not  flaves  only,  but 
other  perfons  would  hire  themfelves  to  that  infa- 
mous office. 

The  mafter  of  the  gladiators  made  them  firft 
fwear  that  they  would  fight  to  death  ;  and  if  they 
failed  therein,  they  were  put  to  death,  either  by 
fire,  fwords,  clubs,  whips,  or  the  like. 

It  was  a  crime  for  the  v/retches  to  complain 
when  they  were  wounded,  or  to  afk  for  death,  or 
feek  to  avoid  it  when  overcome ;  but  it  was  ufual 
for  the  emperor,  or  the  people,  to  grant  them  life, 
when  they  gave  no  figns  of  fear,  but  v/aited  the  fa- 
tal ftroke  with  courage  and  intrepidity.  Augujius 
decreed  that  it  fliould  always  be  granted  them. 

From  flaves  and  freed  men,  the  wanton  fport 
fpread  to  people  of  rank  and  condition  ;  and  Nero 
is  related  to  have  brought  upwards  of  four  hundred 
fenators,  and  fix  hundred  Ro?nan  knights  upon  the 
Arena  ;  though  Lipfius  takes  both  thele  numbers  to 
be  falfified,  and  not  without  reaion,  reduces  them 
to  forty  fenators  and  fixty  knights  ;  yet  Dotnitiar,^ 
that  other  monfter  of  cruelty,  refined  upon  Nere^ 
exhibiting  combats  of  women  in  the  night  time. 

The 


ANTI^UiriE   S. 


The  combats  of  gladiators  were  firft  forbidden  in 
the  caft  by  Lhnjlantinc  the  Great,  who,  b)'  an  order 
to  the  pru  fcYltts  pra:/or!!,6dti:i.]  at  Bi-r]li/s  In  Phx- 
>i!cia,  the  I  ft  of  Ocicbtr,  325,  and  ftill  extant,  con- 
demned the  criminals  employed  therein  to  the 
mines. 

The  pra£lice  was  not  entirely  aboliflied  in  the 
well  before  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ojlrogcths  ; 
though  the  emperor  Honorius  had  firft  forbidden 
them  at  Romf  ;  but  that  prohibition  docs  not  (ecm 
to  have  been  executed  'till  the  year  500,  when  it 
was  entirely  aboliflied  by  the  faid  Theodoric. 

Programma's,  or  bills,  were  diftributed  among  the 
people,  fome  time  before  the  day  of  battle,  by  the 
perfons,  who  gave  the  fhews,  containing  the  names 
of  the  gladiators,  and  the  marks  whereby  they 
were  to  be  diftinguiflied  ;  for  each  had  his  feveral 
badge,  which  was  moft  commonly  a  peacock's  fea- 
ther, as  appears  from  the  fcholiaft  of  Juvenal,  on 

the  158th  verfe  of  the  third  fatyr. They  alfo 

gave  notice  what  time  the  fliews  would  laft,  and 
how  many  couples  of  gladiators  there  were  ;  and 
it  even  appears  from  the  ^zd  verfe  of  the  feventh 
fatyr  of  the  fecond  book  of  Horace,  that  they 
fometimes  made  reprefentations  of  thefe  things  in 
painting  ;  as  is  praflifed  among  us  by  thofe,  who 
have  any  thing  to  fliew  at  fairs. 

The  day  being  come,  they  began  the  entertain- 
ment by  bringing  two  kinds  of  weapons  ;  the  firft 
were  ftaves,  or  wooden  foils,  called  rudcs  ;  and  the 
fecond  efFeiStive  weapons,  as  fwords,  poniards,  ^c. 
— —  The  firft  were  called  arma  lujoria,  arms  for 
diverfion  ;  the  fecond  dccretoria,  as  being  given  by 
decree,  or  fentence  of  the  prator  ;  or  of  him  at 

whofe  expence  the  fpectacle  was  exhibited. 

They  began  to  fence  or  fliirmifli  with  the  firft, 
which  was  to  be  the  prelude  to  the  battle  ;  from 
thefe,  when  well  warmed,  they  advanced  to  the  fe- 
cond  with   which  they   fought  naked.  The 

firft  part  of  the  engagement  was  called  ventiUire, 
praludcre,  to  prelude  ;  and  the  fecond  dimicare  ad 
cerium,  or  verfts  armis  pugnare  ;  and  fome  authors 
think,  with  much  probability,  that  it  is  to  thefe 
two  kinds  of  combats,  that  St.  Paul  alludes  Ln  the 
paflage  i  Cor.  ix.  26,'  27.  'I  fight  not  as  one 
♦  that  beateth  the  air ;  but  I  keep  under  my  body, 
'  and  bring  it  under  fubjeftion.' 

If  the  vanquiflied  furrendered  his  arms,  it  was 
not  in  the  vidtor's  power  to  grant  him  life  ;  it  was 
the  people  during  the  time  of  the  republick,  and 
the  prince  or  people  during  the  time  of  the  empire 
that  were  alone  impowered  to  grant  the  boon. 

The  reward  of  the  conqueror  was  a  branch  of 
palm-tree,  and  a  fum  of  money  ;  fometimes  they 
gave  him  his  conge,  or  difiniffcd  him ;  by  putting 


123 

and 


one  of  the  wooden  foils  or  rudcs  in  his  hand 
fomctlm.cs  they  even  gave  him  his  freedom. 

'i  he  fign  or  indicaiion  whereby  tb.e  fpcdlators 
/hewed  that  they  had  granted  tlie  favour,  was,  to 
fall  the  thumb,  or  clench  it  between  the  other  fin- 
gers ;  and  when  they  would  have  the  combat 
finifhed,  and  the  vanquiflied  flain,  they  raifed  the 
thumb,  and  direfted  it  towards  the  combatants; 
which  we  learn  from  'Juvenal,  fat.  iii.  36. 

The  gladiators  challenged  or  defied  each  other 
byfhewing  the  little-finger;  and  by  extending  this, 
or  fome  other  during  the  combat,  they  owned 
themfelves  vanquifhed,  and  begged  mercy  from  the 
people. 

There  were  divers  kinds  of  gladiators,  diftin- 
guiflied  by  their  weapons,  manner  of  fighting, 
^1".   as  the  Catcrvati,    who  fought   in  troops  or 

companies,  number  againft  number. Cuhicu- 

larii,  who  fought  in  private  houfes  during  feafts. 

The  Dimachee,  who  fought  armed  with  two 

poniards    or  fwords,  or   with  fvvord   and   dagger. 

The  EJfedarii,  who  fought  in  cars  ;    called 

alfo  in  an  infcription,  lately  difcovered  at  Lyons, 

Affcdarii. The  Fifcalcs  or  Ctsjariani,    who 

belonged  to  the  emperor's  company,  and  who  be- 
ing more  robuft  and  dexterous  than  the  reft,  were 
frequently  called  for ;  and  therefore  named  Poftu- 

latitii. The  other  kinds  were,  the  Hoploma- 

chi,  Meridiani,  Mirmillones,  Ordinaiii  provoca- 
tores,  Retiarii,  Rtidiarii,  Secutores,  Speiiatores 
and  Tbraccs, 

There  was  another  kind  of  building,  in  Anti- 
quity, for  the  exhibiting  fliews  to  the  people,  called 
Circus,  from  the  Latin,  circuitus,  or  from  Circe, 
to  whom  Tertullian  attributes  the  invention. 

The  Roman  circus  was  a  large  oblong  edifice, 
arched  at  one  end,  encompalTed  with  portico's, 
and  furniftied  with  rows  of  feats,  placed  afcending 

over  each  other. In  the  middle   was  a  kind 

of  foot-bank  or  eminence,  with  obelifl<s,  ftatues, 
and  pofts  at  each  end.  This  ferved  them  for  the 
courfes  of  their  biga  and  quadrigie.  —  Biga  were 
chariots  drawn  by  two  horfcs  a-breaft ;  triga,  by 
three ;  quadriga,  by  four,  <dc. 

There  were  no  lefs  than  ten  circuses  at  Rome ; 
the  largeft  was  that  built  by  the  elder  Tarquin,  cal- 
led circus  maximus,  between  the  Avantine  and  Pa- 
latine mounts.  Pliny  lays  it  was  enlarged  by  Julius 
Cafar,  fo  as  to  take  in  no  lefs  than  three  Jtadia  in 
length,  and  one  in  width. 

The  mofl:  magnificent  circus's  were  thofc  of 
yhgujlus  and  Nero. There  are  liill  fome  re- 
mains of  the  circus's,  both  at  Rome,  at  NIfmeSy 
and  other  places  ;  but  as  they  ufed  to  encompafs  a 
R  too 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  a?id  Sciences. 


124 

toolar'^e  fpot  of  ground,  and  were  not  built  for  fo 
long  duration,  time  has  defaced  them. 

'j'iie  ga>nes  of  the  circus,  which  fome  call  CiR- 
CENsEAN  Games,  were  combats  celebrated  in  the 
circus,  in  honour  of  Con/us  the  god  of  councils 
arid  thence  alfo  called  Confualia.  —  They  were  al- 
fo  called  Roman  games,  either  on  account  of  their 
aiiiiciuity,  as  being  coeval  with  the  Roman  people, 
or  becaufe  eftabliftied  by  the  Romans. 

Thefe  games  were  inflituted  by  Evandcr,  and 
re-eftabliflied  by  Romulus  ;  the  pomp  or  proceHion, 
called  pompa  circftifts,  was  only  part  of  the  games, 
making  the  prelude  thereof,  and  confilling  of  a 

fimple  cavalcade  of  chariots. Till  the  time  of 

the  elder  Tarquln,  they  were  held  in  an  ifland  of 
the  Tiber;  and  were  called  Roman  games:  After 
that  prince  had  built  the  circus,  they  took  their 
name  therefrom,  as  being  conftantly  held  there. 

There  were  fix  kinds  of  exercifes  in  the  circus  ; 
tbe  firlt  wreftling,  fighting  with  fwords,  flaves, 
and  pikes;  the  fecond  was  racing  ;  the  third  fa.'talio 
dancing;  the  fourth  difcs,  or  quoits,  arrows,  and 
ce/tus  :  all  which  were  on  foot ;  the  fifth  was 
horfe  courfing  ;  the  fixth  courfes  of  chariots,  whe- 
ther with  two  horfes  or  with  four ;  each  bearing 

the  names  of  the  colours  they  wore.  At  firft 

there  was  only  white  and  red  ;  then  green  was  ad- 
ded, and  blue.    Domitian  added  two  more  colours, 

but  they  did  not  hold. It  was  OEnomaus  who 

firft  invented  this  method  of  diftinguifliing  the 
quadrils  by  colours.  The  green  was  for  thofe  who 
reprefented  the  earth  ;  the  blue  for  the  fea,  ^c. 

The  great  games,  called  ludl  magni,  were  held 
in  honour  of  the  god  Neptune,  who  was  the  Ro- 
man  confus,  and  not  of  the  fun. 

Other  antient  edifices  were  the  Agora's  or 
fijuares  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  forums  of  the  Romans. 

The  Roman  forums  differed   from  the   Grecian 

agora's,  and  were  of  a  fquare  form,  furrounded 
with  fpacious  and  double  porticoes  and  thick  co- 
lumns. —  Thelc  porticoes  or  piazza's  were  as 
broad  as  the  columns  were  long  ;  fo  that  by  their 
being  double,  the  place  for  walking  was  as  fpacious, 
as  twice  the  length  of  a  column,  which  made  it 

very  commodious. Over   the  firft    columns, 

were  others  a  fourth  part  lefs  than  the  firft  ;  thefe 
had  under  them  a  corridor  of  fuch  height,  as  was 
moft  convenient  ;  becaufe  thefe  upper  porticoes 
were  appointed  likewife  for  walking  and  difcour- 
fing,  and  for  perlbns  to  ftand  commodioudy  there- 
i:i,  to  be  fpeclators  of  any  fliews  that  might  be 
exhibited  in  the  fquare,  either  out  of  pleafure  or 

devotion. All  thefe  porticoes  muft  of  courfe 

have  been  embellilTicd  with  niches  and  ftatues,  fince 
highly  delighted  with   fuch 


the  Greeks  ufed  to  bt 


fort  of   ornaments. Near  to  thefe   fquares 

were  the  bafUca,  tl-.e  fcnatc-houfe,  the  prifons,  ijfc. 

But  the  Roman  forurns,  or  fquares,  were  fome- 
wlr.it  longer  than  they  were  broad  ;  fo  that  dividing 
the  length  into  three  parts,  two  made  the  breadth ; 
becaufe  the  gladiators  exerting  their  fl:ill  publickly 
in  thefe  places,  this  form  was  more  commodious 
for  their  purpofe  than  a  perfeil  fquare;  for  which 
reafon  likewife  the  intercclumnation  of  the  porti- 
coes, that  went  round  the  fquare,  was  made  of 
two  diameters  and  quarter  of  a  column,  or  even  of 
two  diameters,  that  the  fight  of  the  people  might 
not  be  intercepted  by  the  thicknefs  of  the  columns. 

The  porticoes  were  as  broad  as  the  columns 

were  high,  and  under  them  were  the  bankers  and 

goldfmiths  (hops. The  upper  columns  were  a 

fourth  part  lefs  than  the  under  ones  ;  becaufe  all 
pieces  below  fhould  be  ftronger  than  thofe  above, 
confidering  the  weight  they  bear.  — —  In  the  part 
fronting  the  warmeit  region  of  hesvcn  were  the  ba- 

fiUcas. On  that  fide  which  fronted  the  north, 

ftood  the  fenate-houfe,  a  fquare  and  a  half  in 
length.  This  curia,  or  fenate-houfe,  was  the 
place  where  the  fcnate  aflemblcd  to  confult  about 
ftate  affairs. 

Of  thefe  forums  there  were  feveral  at  Rome;  at 
firft  only  three,  vi%.  Romanurn  fulianum,  and 
Augujlum ;  but  that  number  was  afterwards  en- 
creafed  to  fix,  by  the  addition  of  the  tranfitorium, 
called  alfo  palladium  ;  the  Trajanum  and  Sallujiii 

forum. The  firft  and  moft  eminent  of  thefe 

was  the  forum  Romanurn,  called  alfo  forum  vetus, 
the  old  fquSre  ;  and  abfolutelv  forum  or  they«r«w. 

In   this  was  an  apartment  called  the  rojira, 

where  the  lawyers  pleaded ;  the  officers  harangued ; 
funeral  orations  were  delivered,  l^c. — Tiiis  rojlra 
was  adorned  with  the  beaks  of  fhips  taken  from 
the  people  of  Antium,  in  a  naval  engagement  : 
whence  comes  the  name. 

The  ancient  funeral  monuments,  are  to  be  col- 
lected from  the  cuftoms  of  the  feveral  nations. 
The  Romans  were  not  fo  extravagant  in  building 
places  for  their  interment,  as  they  were  in  all  their 
other  edifices  ;  though  befides  the  ufual  fepulchres 
for  the  interment  of  the  whole  body,  or  of  the 
afties  of  the  body  burnt,  they  had  a  particular 
kind,  called  cenotaphia,  which  were  empty  fepul- 
chres, made  in  honour  of  fome  pcrfon,  who  per- 
haps had  no  burial  at  all ;  from  a  fuperftitious 
opinion,  that  the  fouls  of  thofe  who  wanted  burial, 
wandered  a  hundred  years,  ere  they  were  admit- 
ted to  pafs  into  the  Elyfian  Fields. 

Among  the  Romans,  none  but  the  Emperors, 
veftals,  and  perfons  fignalized  by  great  atftions, 
were  allowed  to  have  fepulchres  in  the  cities  ;  the 
reft  were  all  in  the  country,  near  the  high  roads  ; 

whence 


ANTIQUITIES. 


whence  c^me  thofe  common  words,  Sijie.,  iff  abl., 
viittor,  which  are  ftill  improperly  retained  in  the 
infcriptions  of  monuments  in  cliurches,  isfc. 

Strabo  informs  us,  Gcorg.  I.  14.  that  at  /huh'iak, 
was  antiently  (cen  the  tomb  of  Sardanapalm,  with 
this  infcription  in  verfe  ;  Sardanapalus  built  An- 
chiale  and  Tarfus  in  one  day  ;  go  pajjenger,  eat, 
drink,   and  be  merry  ;  the  reji  is  nothing. 

The  Catacombs,  are  a  vaft  afFemblage  of 
fubterraneous  fcpukhres  chiefly  about  three  miles 
from  Rome,  in  the  Via  Appia,  fuppofed  by  Mr. 
Monro,  in  the  phibfopbical  tranfaSiions,  to  have 
been  originally  the  common  fepulchres  of  the  firfl: 
Romans  ;  and  dug  in  confequence  of  thefe  two 
opinions,  that  fiiades  hate  the  light  ;  and  that  they 
love  to  hover  about  the  places  where  the  bodies  are 
laid.  But  moft  of  the  Roman  catholicks  fuppofe 
them  to  be  the  fepulchres  of  the  martyrs,  and  vifit 
them  accordingly  out  of  devotion;  and  relicks  thence 
taken,  are  difperfed  throughout  the catholick  coun- 
tries after  they  have  been  baptized  by  the  Pope, 
i.  e.  After  thofe  relicks  being  brought  to  him,  and  he 
calls  them  by  the  name  of  what  faint  he  pleafes. 

Each  catacomb  is  three  foot  broad,  and  eight  or 
ten  high  ;  running  in  form  of  an  alley  or  gallery, 
and  communicating  with  others  :    in  many  places 

they  extend  within  a  league  of  Rome. There  is 

no  mafonry  or  vaulting  therein,  but  each  fupports 
itfelf :  the  two  fides,  which  we  may  look  on  as 
walls,  were  the  places  where  the  dead  were  depo- 
fited  ;  which  were  laid  lengthwife,  three  or  four 
rows  over  one  another,  in  the  fame  catacomb,  pa- 
rallel to  the  alley.  —  1  hey  were  commonly  clofed 
with  large  thick  tiles,  and  fometimes  pieces  of 
marble,  cemented  in  a  manner  inimitable  by  the 

moderns. Sometimes,  though  very  rarely,  the 

name  of  the  deceafed  is  found  on  the  tile  :  fre- 
quently a  palm  is  feen,  painted  or  engraven,  or  the 
cypher  Xp.  which  is  commonly  read,  pro  Chrijlo, 
i.  e.  dead  for  Chrift,  or  for  the  Chriftian  religion. 
.  Antiently,  the  word  catacomb  was  only  under- 
ftood  of  the  tombs  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  PauL 

The  greateft  pieces  of  antiquity  we  have  of  the  fe- 
pulchre-kind  in  being,  are  the  famous  Pyramids, 
credled  for  fepulchres  of  the  Egyptian  Kings  and 
Qiieens,  which  time,  the  feafons,  and  the  different 
revolutions,  that  have  happened  in  fo  long  a  courfe 
of  centuries,  have  till  now  left  untouched. 

This  manner  of  erecting  ftately  monuments  for 
the  dead,  wr.s  invented  by  Artein'ifia,  who  firft  had 
a  moft  fumptuous  one  erected  to  Mausoleus  her 
hufband,  King  of  Carta  ;  from  whence  monuments 
of  the  fame  kind,   are  called  Mausoleums. 

England  furpalTes  all  other  nations  in  funeral 
edifices ;  as  vvitnefs  the  monuments  in  JVeftminfter- 
Jbbcy. 


Almoft  all  the  public  edifices  of  the  antients, 
were  adorned  with  infcriptions,  which  have  always 

very  much  tickled  thecuriofity  of  antiquaries. 

Sancboniathon,  Gideon's  contemporary,  drew  moft 
of  the  memoirs,  whereof  his  hiftory  is  compofed, 
from  infcriptions,  which  he  found  in  temples,  and 
on  columns,  both  among  the  Heuthens  and  the 
Hebrews. 

Pliny  afTures  us,  that  the  firfl:  publick  monuments 
were  made  of  plates  of  lead  ;  and  the  treaties  of 
confederacy,  concluded  between  the  Romans  and 
the  yews,  were  written  upon  plates  of  brafs  ;  that, 
fays  he,  the  Jews  might  have  fomething  to  put 
them  in  mind  of  the  peace  and  confederacy  con- 
cluded with  the  Romans.  —  ']"he  Greeks,  and  the 
Romans  were  great  admirers  of  infcriptions,  and  ex- 
tremely fond  of  being  mentioned  In  them  :  and 
hence  it  is  that  we  find  fo  many,  in  thofe  coun- 
tries of  antient  learning,  that  large  volumes  have 
been  compofed  of  them  ;  as  the  collection  of 
Gnter,  he. 

The  Egyptian  Infcriptions  were  all  in  Hierogly- 
phicks,  which  were  fymbols,  or  myftick  figures  ufed. 
among  them,  to  cover  or  conceal  the  fecrets  of  their 
theology.  —  Hermes  Trifmegijtus,  is  commonly  ef- 
teemed  the  inventor  of  thofe  fymbols,  which  ac- 
cording to  Cle?nens  Alexandrinus,  are  a  kind  of  real 
charatSters,  which  do  not  only  denote,  but  in  fome 
meafure  exprefs  the  things. — Thus  a  lion  Is  the 
hieroglyphick  of  ftrength  and  fortitude  ;  a  bullock 
of  agriculture  ;  a  horfe  of  liberty  ;  a  Sphlr.x  of 
fubtilty,  ISc.  —  The  religious  rites  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, are  moftly  involved  In  fuch  figures  of  animals, 
to  be  feen  ftlll  on  the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  and  on 
the  mummies  brought  from  thence. 

The.  fepulchres  or  tombs  have  always  had  a  fort  of 
infcription,  difterent  from  the  reft,  called  Epitaph, 
which  is  an  Infcription  engraven  or  cut  on  a  tomb, 
to  mark  out  the  time  of  a  perfon's  deceafe,  his 
name,  family,  and  ufualiy  fome  eulogy  of  his  vir- 
tues, or  good  qualities. 

The  Ityle  of  epitaphs,  efpeclally  thofe  compofed 
in  Latin,  Is  Angular.  Cicero  has  prefcribed  the  rules 
of  it  ;  Accedat,  oportet  oratio  varia,  vehemens,  ple- 
na fpiritus,  oynnium  fententiarum  gravitate,  omnium 
verborum  ponderibus  eft  utcndum.  The  difcourfe 
muft  be  diverfified  with  incidents,  ftrong  and  full 
of  fpirit;  all  the  thoughts  muft  be  noble  and  grave ; 

and   all  the  expreiTions  weighty An  epitaph  is 

commonly  neither  profe  nor  verfe  ;  but  a  medium 
between  both. 

At  Sparia,\epitaphs  were  only  allowed  to  people, 

who  died  in  battle. Boxhornius  has  made  a 

colle£lion  of  epitaphs,  not  very  ample,  but  exceed- 
ingly well  chofen.     Father  V Abbe  has   likewife 
given  a  colleilion  of  the  like  kind  in  French,  en- 
R  2  titled. 


126  n^e  Univerfal  Hiilory  of  Arts  ajtd  Sciences. 


titled  Trrfor  des  Eplaphes. Camden  and  Weaver 

have  done  fomcthiiig  in  the  I'.'.mc  way  in  our  E?igUJ)) 
epitaphs. 

The  antlent  Statuks  are  divided  by  Antiquaries 
into  Greek  and  Roman  Statues,  and  thefe  again  fub- 
divided  into  Divine,   Heroes,  and  Augujl-. 

The  Greek  ftotues  were  naked  figures  ;  being  in 
this  manner  they  reprcfcnted  their  Deities,  /.tlAeta: 
of  the  Olympic  games,  and  heroes  ;  the  rcafon  of 
this  nudity  was,  that  thofe  who  exercifed  wreftling, 
•wherein  the  Grecian  youth  placed  their  chief  glory, 

aU'avs  performed  naked. The  Greeks  fucceeded 

in  their  ftatues  beyond  the  Romans  ;  both  the  work- 
manfliip  and  the  fancy  of  the  Roman  ftatues  were 
inferior  to  the  Grecian  :  indeed  we  have  very  few 
lemaining  that  have  efcaped  the  injuries  of  time. 

The  Roman  Jlatues  differed  in  this  from  the  Gre-, 
dans,  that  they  were  cloathed  ;  thofe  of  the  Em- 
perors, with  long  gowns  over  their  armour,  and 
hence  were  called  Statute  Paludatts  ;  thofe  of  cap- 
tains and  cavaliers,  with  coats  of  arms,  Tho'  ocata  ; 
thofe  of  foldiers  with  cuirafTes,  Loricate  ;  thofi  of 
fenators  and  augurs,  Trabeatie;  thofe  of  magi ftrates 
•with  long  robes,  Togata  ;  thofe  of  the  people  with 
a  plain  Tunica,  Tunicatis  ;  and,  laftly,  thofe  of 
women  with  long  trains,  Stolata.  —  Their  other 
divifion  of  ftatues  is  that  I  have  already  mentioned 
into  divine,  which  were  thofe  confecrated  to  the 
Gods,  as  Jupite'-,  Mars,  Apollo,  &c.  Heroes,  which 
were  thofe  oi  the  demi-gods  ;  as  Hercules,  Sic.  and 
Jugujli,  which  were  thofe  of  the  Emperors ;  as 
thofe  two  of  Cecfar  and  Augujlus,  under  the  por- 
tico of  the  Capitol. 

The  other  kinds  of  edifices,  which  the  antients 
ufed  to  adorn  or  cmbellifli  their  cities  or  towns 
with,  were  triumphal  arches,  baths  and  bridges. 

The  Triumphal  Arches  were  gates  or  paf- 
fa"-es  into  a  city,  built  of  flone  or  marble,  fculp- 
ture,  infcriptions,  i3c.  ferving  not  only  to  adorn  a 
triumph,  at  the  return  from  a  vi£lonous  expedition, 
but  alfo  to  preferve  the  memory  of  the  triumph  to 
pofteritv.  —  The  mofl  celebrated  triumphal  arches 
■  now  remaining  of  antiquity  are  that  of  Titus,  \ 
of  Septimus  Sei'crus,  and  of  Conjlantine  at  Rome. — 
One  of  the  gates  of  Orange  (the  chief  city  of  that 
principality  belonging  antiently  to  the  illuftrious 
houfe  of  Naffau,  but  at  prefent  in  the  King  of 
France's  poffefTiOn)    is  a  triumphal  arch  of  Caius 

Marii4s.  ' The  gate,  Peyro,    at  Montpelier, 

is  alfo  a  triumphal  arch  ;  and  the  gates  of  St.  Denis, 
St.  Martin,  aiid  St.  Antoine  at  Paris,  though  mo- 
dern pieces,  dcfervc  that  name. 


Baths  were  large  and  pompous  buildings,  whicU 
made  part  of  the  antient  Gymnafin,  and  which, 
though  erefled  for  the.  fake  of  bathing,  were  fre- 
quented more  for  the  fake  of  plcafurc,  than  health- 

The  mod  magnificent  baths  were  thofe  of  Titus^ 
Paulus  ALmiliu,    and  Dicclefian  ;  of   which  there 

are  (ome  ruins  (till  remaining. It  is  laid  that 

at  Rome  there  were  856  public  baths.  Fabricius 
adds,  that  the  exceffive  luxury  of  the  Romans  ap- 
peared in  nothing  more  vifiblc  than  in  their  baths. 
Seneca  complains  that  the  baths  of  plebeians  were 
filled  from  filver  pumps  ;  and  that  the  freed -men 
trod  on  gems.  Macrobius  tells  us  of  one  Scr^ius 
Oratus,  a  voluptuary,  who  had  pendant  baths 
hanging  in  the  air. 

Since  I  have  hinted  here  at  Gymnasium,  I  am 
obliged  to  inform  the  reader,  that  it  was  a  publick 
edifice  of  the  antients,  erected  for  performing  ex- 
ercifes  of  the  body,  where  people  were  taught, 
and  regularl)'  difciplincd  therein. 

The  Romans  borrowed  the  Gymnafia  from  the 
Athenians,  and  the  Athenians  from  the  Lacedamo-^ 
nians  ;  fince  Solon,  in  Lucian'a  Anacharfis,  and 
Cicero  ds  crat.  I.  1.  are  both  of  opinion,  that  the 
Greeks  were  the  firfl:  that  had  Gwinafta. 

There  were  three  principal  Gymnafia  at  Athens  ; 
the  Academy,  where  Plato  taught  ;  the  Lyceumy 
noted  for  AriJlotWs  leisures  j  and  the  CynoJargeSy 
allotted  for  the  populace. 

Mr.  Burette,  after  Vitruvius,  afTerts,  that  the 
Gymnafia  confided  of  twelve  members  or  apart- 
ments, viz.  I.  The  exterior  portico's,  where  the 
philofophcrs,  phyficians,  mathematicians,  rheto- 
ricians, and  other  virtucfo's  read  publick  leftures, 
difputed,  and  recited  their  performances.  2.  The 
Ephebeum,  where  the  youth  adembled  very  early, 
to  learn  their  exercifes  in  private,  without  any 
fpeflators.  3.  The  Coryccum,  Apoditerion,  or  Gym- 
najlcrion,  a  kind  -of  wardrobe  where  they  ftript, 
either  to  bathe  or  exercife.  4.  The  Elaothefiui^., 
Aliptcrion,  or  Uniluarium,  appointed  for  the  unfti- 
ons,  which  either  preceded  or  followed  the  ufe  of 
the  bath,  wreftling,  Pancrafia,  &c.  5.  The  Co- 
ni/ierium,  or  Coniflra,  in  which  they  covered 
themfelves  with  fand  or  duft,  to  dry  up  the  oil  or 
fweat.  6-  The  Palteftra,  properly  fo  called,  where 
they  pradli'ed  •wreftling,  the  pugilate,  Pancrafia, 
and  divers  other  exeicifes.  7.  The  Spha:rijlerium 
or  tennis-court,  refer/cd  for  exercifes,  wherein 
they  ufed  balls.  8.  Large  unpaved  alleys,  which 
comprehended  the  fpace  between  the  portico's  and 
the  walls,  wherewith  the  edifice  was  furrounded. 
g.  The  Xijii,  which  were  portico's  for  the  wreft- 

lers 

4 


ANTI^UITIE   ^. 


lers  in  winter  or  bad  weather.  lo.  Other  X//?/'j 
or  open  alleys,  allotted  for  fummer  and  fine  wea 
ther  ;  fomc  of  which  were  quite  open,  and  others 
planted  with  trees,  ii.  The  l'ath.<,  confifting  of 
iev.'ral  different  apartments.  12.  The  Sfa/iinm,  a. 
large  place  of  a  fcmicircular  form,  covered  with 
fand,  and  furrounded  with  feats  for  the  fpeiftators. 

There  were  fcvcral  officsrs  fortheadminirtration 
of  the  Gymnafia.  i.  A  director  and  fuperintendant 
of  the  whole,  called  the  Gjinnafwrcha,  2.  The 
Xiftnrcha,  who  prefidcd  in  the  Xifttts  or  Sta.Ilum. 
3.  The  Gymnafta  or  matter  of  the  exercifes,  who 
underftood  their  different  effefts,  and  would  ac- 
commodate them  to  the  different  complexions  of 
the  yiihlet^.  4.  The  Pedoiriha^  whoe  biifinefs 
was  mechanically  to  teach  the  exercifes,  without 

underftanding  their  theory  or  ufe. Under  thefe 

four  officers  were  a  number  of  fubalterns,  whofe 
names  diftinguifli  their  different  functions. 

The  exercifes  learned  under  thofe  different  maf- 
tcrs,  were  either  for  defence,  health,  or  diverfion. 
Thofe  for  defence  were  called  military,  as 
the  exercife  of  the  javelin,  gladiators,  wreftling, 
boxing,  running,  leaping,  throwing  the  difcus, 
drawing  the  bow,  &c.  in  all  which  exercifes,  there 
were  prizes  propofed  for  the  conqueror,  thereby  to 
animate  youths,  to  combats  of  divers  kinds,  that 
they  might  be  capable,  when  occafion  required,  to 
repel  the  infults  of  their  neighbours.  —  Thofe  for 
health,  were  walking,  vociferation,  fhouting,  hold- 
ing one's  breath,  ds'f.  Though  this  kind  of  exer- 
cife is  not  co-eval  with  the  reft  ;  fince  it  is  Plato's 
fentiment,  that  they  were  firft  introduced  into  the 
Gymnafium,  by  one  Herodiciis,  prior  a  little  to  Hip- 
pBcratcs,  and  not  before  luxury  and  idlenefs  had  re- 
duced men  to  the  abfolute  neceflity  of  applying  to 
phyficians,  who  difcovered  then,  that  nothing  con- 
tributed more  to  the  prcfervation  and  re-eftablifli- 
ment  of  health,  than  exercifes  proportioned  to  the 
different  complexions,  ages  and  fexes  ;  and  being 
convinced  by  experience,  of  their  ufefulnefs,  they 
applied  themfelves  to  it. — Hippocrates  was  the  firft, 
who  treated  of  the  utility  of  exercife,  in  his  book 
of  regimen  ;  but  as  he,  nor  the  other  phyficians, 
did  not  adopt  all  the  exercifes  of  the  gymnaftick 
art  into  their  pradice,  they  left  the  nioft  violent 
and  laborious,  to  the  mafters  of  the  military  and 
athlctitk  exercifes. 

The  exercifes  for  divcrfion  were  dancing  ;  all 
the  exercifes  with  pih  or  balls  ;  mounting  the 
horfe  ;  riding  in  chaile,  litter,  or  other  wheeled 
vehicle  ;  rocking  in  beds  or  cradles  ;  and  fome- 
times  fwinging  ;    fvvimming,  ^c. 

The  hope  of  being  proclaimed  and  crowned 
conquerors  in  the  publiclc  games,  which  they 
thought  was  the  hisiheft  honoui"  a    mortal  could 


127 

arrive  at,  had  rendred  the  Gr(c:an  youths  over  di- 
ligent in  thofe  kinds  of  exercifes,  and  caufed  fuch 
emulation  among  them,  that  what  was  originally 
only  amufement,  becani;;  at  length,  a  matter  of 
fuch  importance,    as  to  intereft  famous  cities,  and 

entire  nations  in  the  praiflice. Nay,   in  procefs 

of  time,  all  Greece  went  fo  f:ir  as  to  imagine,  that 
even  gods  and  demi  godi  were  not  infcnfiblc,  of 
what  men  were  fo  captivated  withal  ;  and  in  con- 
ftquence  hereof  to  introduce  the  greatcft  part  of 
thefe  exercifes  into  their  religious  ceremonies,  the 
worfliip  of  their  gods,  and  the  funeral  honours 
done  the  manes  of  the  dead. 

We  have  no  earlier  monument  now  extant,  of 
the  Grecian  Gymnajlicks,  (which  is  the  name  they 
gave  to  thefe  exercifes)  than  the  defcription  of 
them  in  the  23d  book  of  the  Iliad  of  Homer,  where 
he  deicribes  the  games  celebrated  at  the  funeral  of 
Patroclus,  which  was  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan 
war,  and  whereby  we  learn  that  they  had  chariot- 
races,  foot-races,  boxing,  wreftling,  gladiatorsj 
throwing  the  difcus,  drawing  the  bow,  hurling  the 
javelin,  ^c. 

We  have  not  the  leaft  trace  remaining  of  Gre- 
cian Gymnafia,  which  the  Romans  improved  and 
advanced  to  the  utmoft  pitch  of  magnificence ; 
but  the  declenfion  of  the  empire  having  involved 
the  arts  in  its  ruin,  the  Gymnafta  were  defertcd, 
and  thofe  fumptuous  edifices  entirely  ruinated  ;  fo 
that  all  that's  feen  of  them  at  prefent,  are  only  the 
places  where  they  were  eredled. 

The  Bridges,  the  next  piece  of  (7«;/y«//y, which 
falls  under  our  confideration,  are  commonly  defined 
an  edifice,  either  of  ftone  or  timber,  confifting  di 
one  or  more  arches,  creeled  over  a  river,  canal,, 
or  the  like,  for  the  conveniency  of  crofling  or  paf- 
fing  over  from  one  fide  to  the  other. 
,  Abundance  of  bridges  were  erefted  by  the  an- 
tients  in  fevcral  places,  but  particularly  in  Italy,, 
and  on  the  Tj/'r  ;  whereof  fome  are  this  day  en- 
tire, and  others  have  fome  fmall  remains  only  Icfr, 

to  prefen'e   their  memory. Thofe,   which  are, 

at  ])refent,  entire  on  the  Tybev,  are  that  of  the 
caftle  of  St.  Angela,  called  antiently  the  Elia's 
J^ridgc,    from   the  Emperor  Elius  Jdrianus,    who 

ercftcd  in  this  place  his  own  n:onument. 7'he 

Fahrician  Bridgi,  erected  by  Fabricius,  now  called 
the  four-headed  bridge,  or  ponto  quatro  capi,  from 
the  four  heads  of  'Janus^  or  four  Termini,  placed 
on  the  left  hand  of  this  bridge,  whereby  the  iilanu 
of  Tybcr  is  joined  to  the  city.  — The  CejUan  Bridge, 
now  called  St.  Bartho!o:new's  bridge,  v/liich  from 
the  other  fide  of  the  iiland  paftes  to  TransT-jhcrim, 
or  over  the  Tyber.  —  The  bridge  Called  Sir.ats-in 
from  the  Senators,  and  PaLtino,  from  die  ad'accnt 

'   hi'l. 


128  The  Unlverfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  «^a? Sciences. 


hill,   made  of  ruftick  work,   and  now  called  St. 
A-Jary's  Briilgc. 

But  the  Bridges,  whereof  the  antient  remains 
are  only  to  he  fccn  in  the  Tyber,  are  the  Suhlician 
Bridge,  called  likewife  the  Lepidan  Bridge,  from 
Emilius  Lfpidiis,  who  made  it  of  ftone,  though  it 
was  iirft  made  of  wood,  and  was  built  near  Rp^. 

.TheTriurnphuI  Bridge,  whofe  pilafters  are  (till 

to  be  feen  over  againft  the  church  of  the  Ho/y  Ghojl. 
—  The  Janiculan  Bridge,  fo  named  from  its  being 
adjacent  to  Mount  Janiculus  ;  v/hich  becaufe  Pope 
Sixtus  IV.  repaired  it,  is  now  called  Ponte  Si/to. — 
And  the  Afilvian  Bridge,  now  called  Ponte  MolU, 
in  the  Flaminiart  way,  not  two  miles  diftant  from 
Roiric,  and  retaining  only  the  foundations  ot  its 
antient  form.  It  is  reported  to  have  been  eref^ed 
in  the  time  of  Sylla,  by  Marcus  Scaurus  the 
Cenfor. 

There  are  likewife  the  remains  of  a  Bridge,  to 
be  feen,    ereded  by   ^uguftus,    of   ruftick  work, 


upon  the  Vera,  a  moft  rapid  river  near  Narini;  and    work, 
another  of  the  fame  work  upon  the  Metaurus,  at        "^' 
Calgi,  in  Umbria,  with  particular  counter- work  at 
each  end  of  it  upon  the  banks  ;  which  makes  it 
exceeding  ftron.!^,    and  fupports  the  road. 


the  light  of  the  greater  arches.  The  angle  of  the 
fpurs,  which  cut  the  water,  is  a  right  angle,  (this 
the  ancients  followed  in  building  all  their  bridges^ 
as  being  ftrongcr  than  the  acute  angle  ;  find  for 
that  reafon,  the  acute  angle  is  lefs  expofed  to  be 
thrown  down  and  deftroyed  by  trees,  or  any  other 
matter,  which  rolls  down  v/ith  the  ftrcam)  on  the 
fides  of  the  bridge,  there  are  feme  nichi.s,  wherein 
there  muft  formerly  have  been  fome  ftatues  directly 
over  the  pilafters.  Over  thefe  niches  there  is  a 
cornice,  the  length  of  the  whole  bridge,  which, 
aiihough  it  is  plain,  adds  neverthclefsa  moft  agree- 
able decoration  to  the  work. 

Over  the  Bauhiglione,  and  the  Bezone,  two  ri- 
vers, which  run  through  Ficenza,  (the  Bezone  Icfmg 
its  name  at  its  entrance  into  the  Baichiglione,  with- 
out the  city)  are  two  ancient  bridges  built.  The 
pilafters  and  one  arch  of  that  built  over  UacchigUone, 
are  ftill  entire,  and  to  be  feen  near  the  church  of 
St.   Mary  of  the  Angels ;  the   reft   is   all    modern 


ftrong,  and 
But  among  all  the  celebrated  bridges,  that  is  re 
corded  as  "a  miracle,  which  Caligula  built  from 
Puteoli  to  Baia;  in  the  midft  of  the  fea,  almoft 
three  miles  in  length  ;  and  on  which  it  is  faid,  he 
expended  the  whole  revenue  of  the  Empire. 

There  was  a  bridge  built  over  the  Danube  in 
Tr.mjilvania,  v/hich  was  extraordinary  great,  and 
deferving  admiration,  on  which  were  infcribed  thefe 
words.     Provide NTiA  AuGUSTi   vere  Ponti- 

FICIS,     VIRTUS    ROMANA    QUIS    NON   DoMET  ? 

SuBjuGOR  ECCE  RAPiDUs  Danubius,  i.e.  Can 
any  thing  be  above  the  Roman  ftrength,  afEfted 
with  Augufius,  truly   pontiff's,  fpecial  care ;  after 

it  has  ftopt  the  rapidity  of  the  Danube? This 

Bridge  was  afterwards  broke  down  and  demoluTied 
by  Adrian,  to  prevent  the  Barbarians  from  comuig 
over  to  plunder  the  Roman  provinces  ;  and  its  pi- 
lafters are  ftill  to  be  feen  in  the  middle  of  the 
river. 

But  none  of  the  antient  bridges  appear  more 
beautiful,  and  more  worthy  of  obfervation,  than 
that  crcdfcd  by  Augufius  Cajar,  at  Ariminum,  a 
city  of  the  Flarninian  tribe  It  is  divided  into  five 
arches,  the  three  middlemoft  whereof  are  equal, 
confifting  of  25  feet  in  breadth  ;  and  the  two  next 
the  banks  are  lefs,  confifting  only  of  twenty  feet. 
All  thefe  arches  conftft  of  a  femicircle,  and  the 
depth  of  their  Archivolte  is  a  tenth  part  of  the 
light,  or  void  of  the  greater,  and  an  eighth  part  of 
the  light  of  the  lefTer  ones.  The  pilafters,  as  to 
their  thicknefs,  are  a  little  more  than  the  half  of 


The  other  over  the  Bezone,  and  which  is  called 
by  the  common  people,  II  Ponte  belle  Beccarie,  or 
the  Butcher's  bridge,  becaufe  it  is  adjacent  to  the- 
greatcft  fhambles  of  the  city,  is  ftill  entire,  and 
varies  but  little  from  that  on  the  Bacchiglione,  be- 
intr  divided  into  three  arches,  and  the  middlemoft 

larger  than  either  of  the  other  two. Both  the 

one  and  the  other  of  thefe  bridges  are  compofed  of 
Cojioza  ftone,  which  is  a  foft  ftone,  and  is  fawed 
like  wood. 

The  High-Way3,  or  roads,  of  the  ancient 
Romans,  are  alfo  pieces  of  antiquity  worthy  our  no- 
tice ;  and  though  almoft  fpoilt  by  time  ;  yet  fome. 
of  them  prefei-ve  ftill  in  fome  places  the  memory  of 
their  former  beauty  and  convenience  ;  and  among 
them  the  Flarninian  and  Appian  ways  are  the  molt 
famous. 

The  Flarninian  way  was  made  by  theconful  Fla- 
tninius  after  his  conqueft  over  the  Ligurians,  or 
Genoefe  :  it  took  its  beginning  from  the  gate  Flo- 
mentana,  [no'f/  cdXieA  Porta  del  Populo)  and  pafT- 
ing  through  I'ufcany  and  Umbria,  led  to  Ariminum  ; 
from  whence  it  was  afterwards  continued  by  Mar- 
cus Lepidus,  his  collegue,  to  Bononia  (now  Bo- 
logna,) and  winding  round  the  maiihes,  near  the 
foot  of  the  Alps,  ended  at  Aquileia. 

The  Appian  way  owed  its  name  to  Appius  Clau- 
dius, vrho  made  it  with  great  labour  and  expence  -^ 
whence,  on  account  of  its  great  magnificence  and 
art,  it  was  called  the  ^leen  of  roads. — This  way-' 
began  from  the  Colifeo  (or  Pornpeys  amphitheatre,); 
and  leading  through  the  Porta-Capena  (a  gate  of 
Rome  fo  called)  is  extended  as  far  as  Brundufium. — 
It  was  carried  no  farther  than  Capua  by  Appius ;. 

and 


ANTIQUITIES. 


and  who  was  the  author  of  it  beyond,  is  uncertain, 
tno'  by  feme  it  is  imagined  to  be  Cu-faj-,  becaufe 
Plutarch  fays,  that  the  care  of  this  way  was  com- 
jTiitted  to  Ctsfnr,  and  he  laid  out  a  large  aim  of 
money  upon  it. — It  was  laft  of  all  repaired  by  the 
empcior  Trajan,  who,  bv  draining  of  marfhes, 
levelling  of  mountains,  filling  up  of  vallics,  and 
making  bridges  where  it  was  requifite,  made  it 
both  expeditious  and  agreeable  to  paflengers. 

The  Aitrellan  way  is  alfo  very  famous  ;  fo  called 
from  AureUiis,  a  citizen  of  Rome,  who  made  it.  — 
It  took  its  beginning  from  the  Aurellan  gate,  now 
called  the  gate  of  St.  Pancrace,  and  extending  itfelf  ' 
along  the  maritime  places  of  Tufcany,  ended   at  ■ 
Pifa. 

The  Numentan,  the  Prenejlin,  and  the  Lah'ican  , 
ways,  were  all  equally  celebrated. — The  firft  began  > 
from  the  gate  Vimlnal'is,  now  called   the  gate  of  i 
St.  Agnes,  and  extended  to  the  city  of  Numenturn.  \ 
— '1  he   fecond,  at  the  gate  Efquila,    now   called 
that  of  St.  Laurence. — The  third,   from  the  gate 
Ncvia  (which   is   now  the    Porta  Alagg'wre,    the 
great  gate,)  and  both   led    to   the  chy  of  Prchc/l, 
now  called  PclleJIr'uto,  and   to   the  celebrated  city 
of  Lah'nana. 

There  were  feveral  other  ways,  fuch  as  the  Via 
Salaria,  the  Collatina,  the  Latino,  and  others, 
which  authors  have  mentioned,  and  made  famous  ; 
every  one  of  which  took  its  name,  either  from  the 
man  who  made  it,  or  from  the  gate  where  it  began, 
or  from  the  place  where  it  ended.  But  the  Portu- 
enftaii  way,  which  reached  from  Rome  to  Ojlia, 
furpafled  them  all,  no  doubt,  for  beauty  and  con- 
I'eniency  ;  becaufe,  as  Alberti  affirms,  it  was  di- 
vided into  two  ways  ;  between  each  of  which 
there  was  a  courfe  of  flones,  a  foot  higher  than  the 
reft  of  the  way,  and  which  ferved  for  a  divifion  ; 
)o  that  people  went  one  way,  and  returned  the 
other,  whereby  they  avoided  all  hindrances,  or 
joftling  of  each  other  ;  and  it  was  indeed  a  very 
commodious  iavention  confidering  the  vaft  con- 
courfe  of  people  that  flocked  then  to  Rome  from  all 
parts  of  the  world  j  and  worthy  of  imitation  near 
London  at  this  time. 

The  ancients  made  two  kinds  of  thofe  roads, 
which  they  called  military  reads  ;  that  is,  one  was 
paved  with  flones,  and  the  other  covered  all  over 

with  gravel   and  fand. The  ways  of  the  former 

kind  were  divided  into  three  fpaces,  as   far  as  by 

fome  remains  of  them  we  are  able  to  conjedture 

On  the  middlemoft,  which  was  higher  than  the 
other  two,  and  v/hich  rofe  a  little  in  the  middle, 
that  no  water  might  reft  upon  it,  but  run  ofFim- 
niediately,  went  the  people  who  travelled  on  foot. 
—  It  was  paved  with  irregular  ftones  ;  that  is,  fuch 
as  had  ujiequal  fides  and  angles,— The  other  two 


129 

fpaces  on  each  fide  of  this  were  made  a  little  lower, 
and  covered  with  fand  and  fine  gravel,  being  ap- 
propriated   for    the    palliigc    of  horfes    and    oth<.r 

cattle. Eachofthefe  Ipaccs   were  but   half  as 

large  as  that  in  the  middle,  from  v/hich  they  were 
divided  by  a  range  of  ffones,  pitched  edge  ways  ; 
and  there  were  other  fiones,  fomewhat  higher,  at 
certain  diftanccs,  on  which  they  got  up  when  they 
mounted  on  horfeback,  the  ancients  not  having 
had  tlie  ufc  of  ilirrups. — Bcfides  the  ftones  for  this 
purpofe  there  were  others,  a  confiderable  deal 
higher,  fet  an  equal  diftance,  on  which  were  en- 
graven the  miles  of  the  whole  journey  :  thefe  were 
iet  up,  and  the  ways  meafured  by  Cneius  Gracchus. 

The  military  ivuys  after  the  fecond  manner  ;  that 
is,  thofe  made  of  fand  and  gravel,  were  raifed  by 
the  ancients  a  little  in  the  middle  ;  for  which  rea- 
fon  no  water  being  able  to  reft  upon  them,  and 
confifting  of  matter,  very  apt  to  become  dry  in  a 
fhort  time,  they  were  always  even  and  fmooth, 
without  either  duft  or  dirt. — Of  this  fort  there  is 
one  to  be  feen  in  Friuli,  which  leads  into  Hungary, 
which  by  the  inhabitants  is  called  the  po,'lhumous 
way.  There  is  another  of  them  in  the  country  of 
Padua,  which  beginning  from  the  faid  city,  at  the 
place  called  Argcre,  pafTcs  through  the  m.idft  of 
Cicogna,  the  Villa  of  the  two  brothers,  the  count 
Edtvard,  and  Theodore  de  Thieni,  and  lead  to 
thofe  Alps,  which  divide  Italy  from  Germany. 

The  ancients  had  alfo  magnificent  Villas,  or 
country-houfes,  of  which  there  is  none  extant  at 
prefent,  though  they  pretend  to  ftiew  fome  ruins  of 
that  magnificent  one  of  Cicero  at  Tufculan^. — The 
ancient  Romans  took  particular  care  to  have  the 
principal  front  of  their  country  buildings  turned  to 
the  fouth,  which  front  had  a  gallery,  from  which 
there  was  a  paflage  into  the  kitchen,  which  re- 
ceived its  light  above  the  places  adjacent ;  tha 
chimney  being  ahvays  in  the  middle.^Thc  fialls 
for  the  o.ven    were  on   the  left  hand,  the  manner 

whereof  was  turned  to  the  eaft. The  bagnios 

were  likewife  on  the  fame  fide,  and  at  an  equal  di- 
ftance from  the  kitchen,  and  from  the  gallery,  on 

account  of  the  room  they  required. The  oil- 

prefles,  and  other  places  for  the  oil,  anfwered  the 
places  of  the  bagnios,  and  were  turned  to  the  eaft, 
fouth,  and  weft,  on  the  right-hand. — The  cellars 
were  backwards,  far  from  all  noife,  and  open  to 
the  north,  that  they  might  not  be  expofed  to  the 
fun. — The  granaries  were  above,  and  received  the 
fame  light  the  fame  v/ay  as  the  cellars  did. — On 
the  right  and  left  fides  of  the  court  were  ftalls  for 
the  oxen,  for  the  horfes,  conveniences  for  the 
fheep,  and  other  animals. — Hay-lofts  and  barns  to 
put  the  ftraw  in,  and  bake-houfes  were  as  far  from 

the 


*Tke  Univerfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  aiid  Sciences. 


130 

the  fire  2S  coiivenitiitly  could  be. — The  mafter's 
aj)artiiK-tits  were  backwarils,  with  the  priiicip  il 
fii.nt  oppofite  to  the  farmer's  houCe  ;  i'o  that  the 
halls  were  always  in  the  back  part  of  thcFe  country 
buildings. 

I  had  almoft  forgot  to  mention  Aqueducts  a- 
mong  pieces  oi  antiquity,  which  is  a  conftruclion 
of  ftone  or  timber,  built  on  an  uneven  ground,  to 
preferve  the  level  of  water,  and  convey  it  by  a  ca- 
nal from  one  place  to  another  ;  and  in  which  the 
Romans  were  very  magnificent. — They  had  fome 
aqueduSis  that  extended  an  hundred  miles. — Fron- 
linus,  a  man  of  confular  dignity,  and  who  had  the 
direftion  of  the  iTj:<eduf!s  under  the  emperor  Ner- 
■  va,  tells  us  of  nine  that  emptied  themfelves  thro' 
13594  pipes  of  an  inch  diameter. — Vigenere  hasob- 
fcrved,  that  in  the  fpace  of  four  and  twenty  hours, 
Rc?ne  received  from  thefe  aqucdu^s,  no  lefs  than 
500,000  hogflieads  of  water. — There  is  ftill  an 
aqucdu£i  of  a  Roman  fabrick,  which  brings  the  wa- 
ter from  Arcueille  to  Paris. — The  aquednil  built  by 
Lewis  XIV.  king  of  France,  near  Maintenon,  for 
carrying  the  river  Bure  to  VerfailUs,    is  perhaps 

the  greateft  in  the  world. It  is   7000  fathoms 

long,  and  its  elevation  2560  fathoms  j  containing 
242  arcades. 

The  pieces  of  antiquity  we  have  left  to  examine, 
as  i///?j,  or  bujlos,  medals,  medallions,  manufcripts, 
&c    are  more  properly  called  antiques. 

Busts  or  hti/lo;  denote  the  figure  or  pourtrait  of 
a  perfon  in  relievo,  fhewing  only  the  head,  fhoul- 
ders,  and  (tomach  ;  the  arms  being  lopped  off, 
crdinarily  placed  on  a  pedeftal  or  coni'ole. 

The  biiji  is  the  fame  with  what  the  Latins  called 
Herma.,  from  Hermes,  Mercury  ;  the  image  of  that 
god  being  frequently  reprefented  in  this  manner  a- 
«long  the  Athenians. 

Tho  antique  btt/ios,  were  commonly  made  with 
the  head  of  marble,  and  the  fhoulders  and  ftomach 
of  porphyry,  or  bronze. — Of  them  there  are  none 
to  be  feen,  except  in  France  among  the  king's  col- 
ledtion  oi  antiquities  ;  at  Rome  and  Florence,  among 
thofe  of  the  pope,  and  of  the  Grand  Duke  ;  tho' 
fome  of  the  moft  curious  of  our  Antiquaries,  pre- 
tend to  be  pofl'efled  of  thofe  rare  pieces  oi  antiqui- 
ties, as  well  as  of, 

Medals,  which  are  fmall  figures  or  pieces  of 
metal,  in  the  form  of  a  coin,  delHned  to  preferve 
to  pofterity  the  pourtrait  of  fome  great  man,  or  the 
memory  of  fome  glorious  adlion. 

Midals  have  two  parts  or  iides,  the  one  called  j 
the  face  or  head,  and  the  other,  the  reverfe  of  the 
medal.    Each  fide  has  three  parts,  viz.  the  area, 


or  field  ;  the  rim  or  border  ;  and  the  exergum  or 
exergue,  which  is  a  word,  motto,  or  the  like,  be- 
neath the  ground  whereon  the  figures  are  repre  • 
fented,  though  oftner  placed  in  the  reverfe  of  the 
medal.  —  What  we  find  in  the  exergum  is  fome- 
times  no  more  than  fome  initial  letters,  whofe 
meaning  we  are  unacquainted  withal  ;  though 
fomctimes  too  they  contain  epocha:,  or  words,  that 
may  be  accounted  an  infcription.  —  The  type  or  de- 
vice of  the  medal  is  the  figure  reprefented  ;  and  the 
legend  is  the  writing,  efpecially  that  around  the 
medal ;  though  in  the  Greek  medals  the  infcription  is 
frequently  in  the  area.  —  The  legend  ferves  to  ex- 
plain the  figures  or  devias. 

Legends  on  medals,  are  either  in  Latin  or  Greek  • 
and  their  ordinary  fubjefts,  the  virtues  of  Princes, 
the  honours  they  have  received,  confecrations,  fig- 
nal  events,  publick  monuments,  deities,    publick 

vows,  privileges,  i^c. The   Greek  charafters, 

confifting  of  capital  letters,  appear  uniform  on 
all  medals  ;  no  change  or  alteration  being  found 
in  confronting  the  feveral  charailers  ;  though  it 
is  certain  there  was  in  the  ordinary  ufe  and  pro- 
nunciation.——All  we  obferve  on  medals,  is  fome- 
times  a  mixture  of  Greek  and  Latin  charadlers.  — 
The  chara£ter  was  preferved  in  all  its  beauty  till 
the  Time  of  Gallienus. 

From  the  time  of  Condantir-e,  and  for  the  fpace 
of  500  years,  the  Latin  tongue  was  alone  ufed  in 
the  legend  of  medals,  even  in  thofe  ftruck  at  Con- 
Jlantir.ople.  —  Michael  begun  the  firft,  whofe  legend 
was  in  Greek  ;  and  from  his  time  the  language,  as 
well  as  the  charafters,  began  to  alter  for  the 
worfe. 

Every  medal  has  two  legends,  that  on  the  front, 
and  that  on  the  reverfe.  That  on  the  front,  for  the 
generality,  ferves  only  to  dillingilifh  the  perfon,  by 
his  name,  fitles,  offices,  isSe.  and  that  on  the  re- 
verfe is  intended  to  exprefs  his  noble  and  virtuous 
fentiments,  his  good  deeds,  and  the  advantages  the 
publick  has  reaped  by  him.  This  however  does 
not  hold  univerfally  ;  for  fometimes  we  find  the 
titles  fhared  between  both  fides,  and  fometimes 
alfo  the  legend. 

In  the  medals  of  cities  and  provinces,  as  the  type 
or  head  is  afually  the  genius  of  the  place,  or  at  leaft 
fome  deity  adored  there  ;  the  legend  is  the  name  of 
the  city,  province,  or  deity,  or  of  both  together  j 
and  the  reverfe  fome  fymbol  of  the  city,  province, 
i3c.  frequently  without  a  legend ;  fometimes  with 
that  of  one  of  its  magiftrates. 

It  feems  as  if  the  antients  had  intended  their 
medals  fhould  ferve  both  as  images,  and  as  em- 
blems ;  the  one  for  the  common  people,  and  the 
other  for  perfons  of  tafte  and  parts  :  the  images  to 
reprefent  the  faces  of  Princes  j  and  emblems  to 

reprefent 


ANTI^UITIE   S, 


reprcfelit  their  virtues  ami  great  anions  ;  fo  that 
the  legend  is  to  be  confidercd  as  the  foul  of  the  nie- 
(Ll,  and  the  figure  as  the  body. 

Mr.  Patin  and  F.  '^oubert  imagine,  that  the 
antient  medals  were  ufed  for  money,  and  that  they 
had  all  (even  without  excepting  the  Medallions)  a 
fixed  regular  price  in  p.ayments.  But  thofe  of  a 
contrary  opinion  maintain,  that  we  have  no  real 
money  of  the  antients  ;  and  that  the  medals,  we 
now  have,  never  had  any  currency  as  coins  ;  though 
we  may  reafonably  keep  a  medium  between  both, 
and  very  well  fuppofe,  that  fome  of  thofe  antient 
tnedals  we  have,  were  real  money,  and  fome  not ; 
but  how  to  dillinguifli  the  one  from  the  other,  is 
a  very  difficult  matter;  fince  we  find  none  number'd 
by  our  jil/itlquaries  among  the  Roman  coins,  and  all 
that  Mr.  Patin  alledges  in  defence  of  his  opinion, 
is  hut  mere  fuppofition. 

Antient  medals,  properly  called  antiques,  are  di- 
vided into  thofe  of  the  higher  and  lower  antiquity  ; 
and  thofe  again  are  fubdivided  into  Greei  and  Roman 
?nedals. 

The  Greek  ?nedals  are  fuch  as  have  either  the 
heads  of  Greek  Emperors,  or  Greek  Legends.  — 
Thefe  are  the  mod  antient  and  the  moft  beautiful  ; 
fince  the  Greeks  firuck  medals  in  all  the  three  me- 
tals with  fuch  exquifite  art,  as  the  Romans  could 
never  come  up  to  ;  the  Greek  medals  having  a  de- 
fign,  accuracy,  energy,  and  a  delicacy,  that  ex- 
prefies  even  the  mufcles  and  veins,  and  it  mult  be 
owned  goes  infinitely  beyond  any  thing  of  the 
Romans. 

Medals  of  the  higher  antiquity  of  both  nations, 
confift  of  fuch  as  were  firuck  before  the  end  of  the 
third  century ;  and  thofe  of  the  lower,  of  fuch  as 
were  ftruck  between  the  third  and  ninth  century. 

The  Roman  ?nedals  are  diftinguifhed  by  confular 
and  imperial. 

The  Confular  medals  are  certainly  the  moft  an- 
tient medals  of  the  Romans,  fince  they  were  firuck 
before  the  Emperors  had  ufurped  the  fovereign  au- 
thority, and  when  the  republick  was  governed  by 
Confuls  ;  and  yet  thofe  of  copper  and  fiivur  do  not 


There  are  feveral  of  them,  however, .  among  thofe 
of  the  Kings  of  Syria. 

Among  the  imperial  medals  we  diftinguifli  be- 
tween the  upper  and  the  lower  empire.  —  The 
upper  empire  commenced  under  ^fuUus  Ciefar,  and 
ended  about  the  year  of  Cbrijl  260. —  The  lower 
empire  comprehends  near  1200  years,  vi%.  'till 
the  taking  of  Conjlantinaple,  by  Mahomet  I.  em- 
peror of  the  Turks,  It  is  the  cuftom  however  to  ac- 
count all  the  imperial  medals,  'till  the  time  of  the 
Palaologij  among  the  antique,  and  yet  we  have  no 
imperial  medals  of  any  confiderable  beauty,  later 
than  the  time  of  Heraclius,  who  died  in  641. 

After  the  time  of  Phocas  and  Heraelius,  Italy 
became  a  prey  to  the  Barbarians  ;  fo  that  the  mo- 
numents we  have  remaining  of  thofe  two  emperors 
finifti  the  fet  or  feries  of  imperial  medals.  —  To 
thefe  arc  added  the  medals  of  the  lower  empire  and 
the  Greek  emperors  ;  whereof  a  feries  may  be  made 
as  low  as  our  time,  taking  in  the  modetn  ones.  — 
Mr.  Patin  has  made  an  ample  colleflion  of  the  im- 
perial medals  'till  the  time  of  Heraelius. 

The  Gothick  medals  make  part  of  the  imperial 
ones :  They  are  fo  called,  as  having  been  ftruck  in 
the  times  of  the  Goths,  and  in  the  dcclenfion  of  the 
empire  ;  and  favouring  of  the  ignorance  and  barba- 
rity of  the  age. 

Medals  have  been  ftruck  in  three  feveral  kinds 
of  metal,  which  make  three  feveral  fets  or  feries 
in  the  cabinet  of  the  curious,  we  mean  as  to  the 
arangement  of  the  feveral  medals.  —  The  gold  I'c- 
rics,  for  example,  of  iinperial,  amounts  to  about 
1000,  or  1200;  that  of  filvcr  may  amount  to 
3000 ;  and  that  of  copper,  in  all  of  three  fizcs, 

great,  middle,  and  fmall,  to  6  or  7000. Of 

thefe  the  feries  of  middle  copper  is  moft  com- 
pleat  and  eafily  formed,  as  it  may  be  brought  dowa 
to  the  fall  of  the  empire  in  the  weft,  and  the  time 
of  the  palcsologi  in  the  eaft. 

The  feries  of  medals  are 
the  fide  called  the  head.  — 
difpofcd   the  feries  of  kings 


ufually  formed  from 
-  In  the  firft  clafs  is 
In  the  fecond. 


that  of  the  Greek   and  Latin   cities. 


go  beyond  the  484th  year  of  Rome;  nor  thofe  of  |  third,  the   Roman  confular  families 


gold  beyond  the  year  546.     If  any  are  produced  of 
an  older  date,  they  are  fpurious. 


fourth,  the 
tics 


imperial. 


In 


-  In  the 
■  In  the 

the  dei- 


the  fifth, 
to  which  may  be  added  a  fixth  feries,  coi; 


Of  the  Confular  medals  Father  Joulert  reckons  ;  fifting  of  medals  of  illuftrious  pcrfons. 
about  50  or  60  of  gold  ;  250  of  copper ;  and  near  j      It  is  not  either  the  metal  orthe  fizc,  which  makes 
1000  of  filver.  —  Vtfinus  and  Mr.  Patin  have  dif-  !  a  riiedal  valuable ;  but  the  fcarcity  of  the  head,  or 

pofed  them  genealogically,  according  to  the  order    of  the   reveffc,  or  the   legend.  Some  medals 

of  the  Roman  families,  and  computes  \0'y]  Confu-\  are  common  in  gold,  which,  yet,  arc  very  rare  in 
lar  medals,  which  relate  to  one  hundred  feyenty- ;  copper ;  and  oiliers  very  rare  in  filvcr,  which  in 
eight  Roman  families.  —  The  medals,   whofc  edges    copper  and  gold  are  very  common.  The  re- 


are  cut,  or  notched  like  teeth,   which  is  a  fign  of 
their  purity  and  antiquity,  are  common  among  the 
Confular  ;   but  we  have  none  later  than  Au<'u/ius. 
8.  ^  , 


verfe  is  lometimcs  common,  v.here  the  head  is  lin- 
gular;  and  fome  heads  are  common,  whofe  rcvcrfc 
is  vcrv  Scarce. 

S  There 


He   Univerfal  Hiftory  «/'Arts  a:«af  Sciences. 


132 

There  are  alfo  medals  very  fcarce  in  fome  fets, 
and  yet  very  common  in  others.  ■  For  inftance, 

there  is  no  Anton'ia  in  the  fets  of  large  copper,  and 
the  middle  copper  is  forced  to  fupply  its  place.  — 
The  Otho's  are  very  rare  in  all  the  copper  fets,  and 
yet  common  in  the  filver  ones.  —  Oiho's  of  the 
large  copper  are  held  at  an  immenfe  price.  There 
were  but  five  of  them  ftruclc,  and  the  dye  broke  at 
the  fifth ;  and  Otho  furvived  that  accident  but  a  few 
days.  Four  of  thofe  are  depofited  in  the  cabinets 
of  the  king  of  France,  the  pope,  the  grand  duke, 
isfc,  Thofe  on  the  middle  copper  are  fold  at  forty 
or  fifty  piftoles ;  and  the  Gordian  Affrick^  near  as 
high.  —  Singular  medals  are  invaluable. 

We  commonly  underftand  by  fingular  medals, 
fuch  as  are  not  found  in  the  cabinets  of  the  curious, 
and  are  only  met  with  by  chance;  but  in  a  ftriiSer 
fenfe  are  fuch  whereof  there  is  not  above  one 
of  a  kind  extant.  —  When  a  medal  exceeds  the 
value  of  ten  or  twelve  pifloles,  it  is  worth  what 

the  owner  pleafes. I  he  Pefcennius  Niger  and 

Pertlnax  are  very  rare  in  all  metals.  —  The  Di- 
diiis  Jidianus  is  hardly  found  any  where,  but  in 
large  copper.  —  Carteron  a  Dutchman,  and  fome 
others,  have  made  mills  on  purpofe  to  flrike  me- 
dals that  never  were,  as  thofe  of  Cicero,  Virgil, 
Priam,  isfc. 

There  are  no  true  Hebrew  medals ;  thofe  we  fee 
of  the  heads  of  Alofes  and  Jefus  Chrijl,  are  fpu- 
rious  and  modern.  —  We  have  a  few  fhekels  of 
copper  and  filver,  with  Hebrew  or  Samaritan  le- 
gends ;  but  none  of  gold  ;  though  there  is  mention 
made  of  one  in  the  king  of  Denmark^  cabinet.  — 
Father  Souciet  has  a  differtation  on  the  Hebrew  me- 
dals, commonly  called  Samaritan  medals,  where 
he  diftinguifhes  accurately  between  the  genuine 
and  the  fpurious,  and  fbews  that  they  are  true 
Hebretv  coins  ftruck  by  the  Jews,  but  on  the  mo- 
del of  the  ancients,  and  that  they  were  current 
before  the  Babylonijh  captivity. 

Thefe  Samaritan  medals  have  been  infinitely 
canvafTcd  by  the  criticks,  both  Jew  and  Chrijlian  ; 
particularly  Rabbi  Alafcher,  Rabbi  Bartenora, 
Rabbi  Axarias,  Rabbi  Mofes  ;  father  Kircher,  Vel- 
lalpandus,  Waferus,  Cou'z.iyigius,  Hottinger,  father 
Morir.,  Walton,  Hardouin,  Spanheim.  —  It  is 
from  the  characters,  not  from  being  ftruck  by  the 
Samaritans,  that  they  are  called  Sa?naritan  medals ': 
and  none  are  genuine  Samaritan,  of  which  father 
Souciet  diftinguifhes  four  kinds. 

The  firft  bears  exprefly  the  namef  of  Simon,  and 
the  fuhjecT:  for  which  they  were  ftruck,  viz.  the 
deliverance  of  Jerufalem.  —  The  fecond  kind 
have  not  the  name  of  Simon,  but  only  the  delive- 
rance of  Sion  or  JerufaUm.  —  The  third  kind 
have  neither  Simon,  nor  the  deliverance  of  Sion ; 


but  only  the  epochal  firft  year,  fecond  year,  Wr. 
— —  The  fourth  clafs  have  neither  any  infcripti- 
ons,  nor  any  thing  whence  one  mjy  judge  of  the 
time  when  they  were  ftruck. 

The  three  firft  kinds  were  certainly  ftruck  after 
the  return  from   the  Babylonijh  captivity,  and  in 
the  time  of  Simon  Maccabeus,  after  Jerujalcm  had 
been  freed   from  the  yoke    of  the  Greeks.     But 
though  ftruck  after  the  captivity,  hthtr  Souciet  oh- 
ferves,  their  charafter  fhews  itfelf  to  be  that   of 
the  antient  Hebreiv,  which   was  ufed   before   the 
captivity,  and  the  ufe  whereof  was  loft  by  the  peo- 
ple, during  their  fojourn  in  Babylon  and  Chaldea; 
but  reftored  after  their  return  on  the  fame  footing 
as  before.     He  adds,   that   the  legends  are   pure 
Hebrew,  fuch  as  was  fpoke  before  the  captivity  ; 
that  the  chara£fer  therefore  is  the  true  antient  He- 
breiu  charafler  ;  that  it  was  the  cuftom  to  write 
each  language  in  its  proper  charafter  ;  that  if  they 
had  departed   from  this   rule,  they  had  doubtlefs 
ufed  the  new  character  they  had  brought  with  them 
from  Babylon  ;  that  there  could  be  do  other  reafon, 
but  that  on  fettling  all  things  on  the  fame  founda- 
tion they  were  on  before  the  deftrudtion  of  Jeru- 
falem,  that  could  have  induced   them  to  ufe  this- 
charader  of  their  coins.     And   laftly  that  thefe 
medals  were  not  ftruck  by  the  Samaritans,  but  by 
the  Jews  and  in  Jerufalem. 

Father  Souciet  is  very  full  on  all  thefe  points, 
and  to  the  proofs  drawn  from  medals,  adds  two 
others  foreign  thereto  ;  the  firft  drawn  from  the 
refemblance  of  the  Greek  letters,  introduced  by 
Cadmus  the  Phoenician,  with  the  Hebrew  charac- 
ter ;  which  was  the  fame  with  that  of  the  Phosni- 
cians,  as  the  language  of  thofe  people  was  the 
fame  with  that  of  the  Hebreivs.  —  The  fecond 
drawn  from  feveral  various  readings  in  the  fcrip- 
tures,  which  cannot  be  well  accounted  for  other- 
wife,  than  by  fuppofing  that  the  books  wrote  be- 
fore the  captivit)',  were  in  the  fame  character  with 
thofe  of  the  medals,  and  which  fhew,  that  it  is 
the  conformity  which  certain  letters  have  in  that 
charafter,  that  has  deceived  the  copyift. 

From  the  whole,  he  concludes,  that  this  cha- 
racter of  the  medal  is  the  true  antient  Hebrew  cha- 
racter ;  and  that  to  judge  of  the  various  readings- 
of  the  Hebrew  text,  and  the  differences  of  the 
antient  Greek  and  Latin  tranflations,  either  from 
themfelves,  or  from  the  Hebrew  text,  recourfe 
muft  be  had  to  this  character. 

The  medals,  which  are  defaced  or  not  entire,  are 
called  mutilated  medals.  —  And  thofe  wherein  we 
find  the  letters  reji,  which  fhew  that  they  have 
been  reftored  by  the  emperors,  redintegrated 
medals. 

Spurious 


A  N  r  I  ^U  I  T  I  E  S. 


spurious  medals  are  either  dipt  or  plated. 

The  dipt  ones  are  ihuck  of  pure  copper,  and  af- 
terwards filver'd  (a  contrivance  the  curious  have 
frequent  recourfe  to,  in  order  to  compleat  their 

fets.)  The   plated   or  covered   medals,    are 

thofe  which  have  only  a  thin  filver  leaf  over  the 
copper,  but  which  are  ftruck  fo  artfully,  that  the 
cheat  does  not  appear  without  cutting  them  : 
Thcfe  are  the  leaft  fufpcdled. 

1'here  are  alfo  modern  medals^  which  are  fuch 
as  have  been  (truck  in  Europe,  fince  the  ufurpa- 
tion  of  the  Gotbs  has  been  extiniSl ;  and  fculpture 
and  enffravino;  have  betrun  to  reflourifli.  —  The 
firft  was  of  John  Hufs,  in  1415.  If  any  pretend 
to  be   more    antient,   they  are   fpurious.  •  In 

France  there  were  none  ftruck  with  the  king's  effi- 
gy before  the  reign  of  Charles  VII. 

Thefe  medals  have  alfo  their  feries  ;  that  of  the 
pope  commences  only,  according  to  protcftant  an- 
tlquiiries,  from  Martin  V.  in  1430 ;  from  which 
time  we  have,  as  they  pretend,  a  feries  of  papal 
medals,  tolerably  compleat,  to  the  number  of  5  or 
600.  One  might  likewife  have  a  feries  of  empe- 
ror's from  Charlemaigne,  provided  one  took  in  the 
current  coins  ;  but  in  practice  they  commonly 
commence  from  Frederick  II.  in  1463.  The  feries 
of  the  kings  of  France  is  the  moft  numerous  and 
moft  confiderable  of  all  the  modern  kings. 

The  ftudy  of  modern  Medals  is  fo  much  the 
more  ufeful,  as  they  afford  more  light  than  the  an- 
tient; and  mark  the  time  and  confequences  of 
events  more  precifely  ;  whereas  the  legends  or  in- 
fcriptions  of  antient  medals  are  very  fliort  and  fim- 
ple,  and  generally  without  any  date.  Add  to  this, 
that  the  antient  medals  are  extremely  liable  to  be 
counterfeited,  by  reafon  of  the  exceffive  price  they 
bear;  but  in  the  modern  there  is  not  near  the  dan- 
ger of  being  impofed  upon. 

Mr.  Vaillant  has  colle£ted  all  the  tncdals  ftruck 
by  the  Roman  colonies  ;  hiher  Hardouin  thofe  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  cities  ;  father  Noris  thofe  of  Syria. 
Mr.  Morel  has  undertaken  an  univerfal  hiftory  of 
medals,  and  promifed  cuts  of  25000.  He  ranges 
them  under  four  claffes  ;  the  firit  contains  the  me- 
dals of  kings,  cities,  and  people,  which  have  nei- 
ther the  name,  nor  image  of  the  Roman  emperors  : 
The  fecond  contains  the  confular  medals :  The  third 
the  imperial  medals ;  and  the  fourth  the  Hebreiv, 
Punick,  Parthian,  French,  Spanijh,  Gothick,  and 
Aralick.  He  begins  with  the  imperial  and  brings 
them  down  as  low  as  Heraclius:  He  places  the 
Latin  in  order  before  the  Greek.  Ad.  Occo,  a  Ger- 
man phyfician,  and  count  Mezzabarba,  have  en- 
deavoured to  range  the  medals  in  a  chronological 
order;  but  that  is  impracticable,  for  in  many  of 
the  imperial  medals  there  is  no  mark,  either  of  the 


confulate,  or  of  the  year  of  the  reign ;  and  fmcc 
Gallienus,  there  arc  few  of  the  imperial  w^r&/;  that 
bear  the  leaft  trace  of  chronology. 

The  moll  noted  mcdalijls,  or  authors  on  medalsy 
are  Antonius,  Augujlinus,  IVolf.  Lazius,  Fill.  Ur- 
ftnus  a  learned  antiquary,  Mneafvicus,  Hubert^ 
Goltrius  a  famous  engraver,  Oifelius,  Sequin,  Oc- 
co, Trijlan,  Sermond,  Vaillant,  Pat  in,  Noris^ 
Spanheim,  Hardouin,  Morel,  Jouhcrt,  Mczzabarbay 
Beger,  t^c.  We  have  had  alfo,  lately,  in  En- 
gland, perfons  of  the  firft  rank,  who  were  very 
good  medalifts  ;  as  the  late  duke  of  Devonjhire,  Sir 
Andrew  Fountainc,  Sir  Hans  Shane,  i3'c.  as  alfo 
Mr.  Cox  and  Mr.  GoJ/et. 

As  for  medallions  they  are  nothing  elfe  but  f/te- 
dals  oi  an  extraordinary  fue,  which  princes  ufe  to 
prefent  as  a  token  of  honour  or  efteem,  for  which 
reafon  the  Romans  called  them  MiJJiUa. 

Medallions  are  dillinguiflicd  from  medals  by  the 
volume,  that  is,  by  the  thicknefs  and  compafs  ;  as 
well  as  by  the  largenefs  and  relievo  of  the  head. 
—  They  were  never  current  coins,  as  medah  pro- 
bably were  ;  they  were  flruck  purely  to  ferve  as 
publick  monuments,  or  to  make  prefents  of.  — 
There  cannot  be  any  fet  made  of  them,  evea 
though  the  metals  and  fizes  fliould  be  joined  pro- 
mifcuoudy;  the  bed  cabinets  do  not  contain  above 
four  or  five  hundred  ;  though  Mr.  Morel  promifes 
us  figures  of  above  a  thoufand. 

Authors  vary  about  the  time  when  they  firft  be- 
gan to  be  ftruck ;  fome  antiquaries  will  have  it  un- 
der the  empire  of  Tbeodofms :  But  this  muft  be  a 
niiftake ;  for  there  were  ibme  ftruck  even  in  the 
time  of  the  upper  empire  ;  witnefs  a  Nero,  a  Tra- 
jan, and  an  Alexander  Severus,  ft  ill  extant.  ' 
AledalUons  of  gold  are  very  rare,  as  alfo  thofe  of 
a  large  copper. 

Medals  and  medallions  are  almoft  coined  in  the 
fame  manner  with  money ;  with  only  this  dif- 
ference, that  money  having  but  a  fmall  relievo,  re- 
ceives its  impreffion  at  a  fmgle  ftroke  of  the  en- 
gine ;  whereas  for  medals  or  medallions,  the  height 
of  their  relievo  makes  it  neceffary  that  the  ftroke 
be  repeated  feveral  times  ;  to  this  end  the  piece  is 
taken  out  from  between  the  dyes,  heated,  and  re- 
turned again ;  which  procefs  in  medallions,  and 
large  medals,  is  fometimes  repeated  fifteen  or  twen- 
ty times,  ere  the  full  impreffion  be  given;  care  be- 
ing taken  every  time  the  planchet  is  removed  to 
take  off  the  fuperfluous  metal,  ftretched  beyond 
the  circumference,  with  a  file.  —  Add  to  this,  that 
medallions  and  medals  of  high  relievo,  by  reafon  of 
the  difficulty  of  ftamping  them  in  the  balancier,  or 
prefs,  are  ufually  firft  caft  or  moulded  in  fand,  like 
other  work  of  that  kind,  and  are  only  put  in  the  prefs 
to  perfe<Sl  them}  by  reafon  the  land  does  not  leave 
S  2  them 


T^t?  Univeifal  Hiflory  of  Arts  «;^</ Sciences. 


134 

them  clean,  fmooth,  and  accurate  enough. — Medals  |  very  fmall  number,  and  to  be  feen  but  in  the  mod 
therefore  receive  their  form  and  impreinon  by  de-  I  celebrated  libraries,  as  thofe  of  the  Vatican,  of  the 
gre.es;  money  at  once. 

The  rule  whereby  they  judge  the  rried^il  to  be 


fufficiently  ftampcd  is,  when  feeling  it  with  the 
hand,  it  is  found  firm,  and  not  to  be  fliaken,  as 
filling  the  dye  equally  every  where. 

Antieiit  Manuscripts,  arc  alfo  pieces  of  (?«//?«'- 
ty  very  much  efteemed  by  antiquaries,  and  other  cu- 
rious perfons,  the  great  number  of  rare  and  un- 
common ones  rendering  always  a  library  valuable. 

There  are  antient  tnanufcripts,  which  Like  me- 
dals of  the  firft  clafs,  have  no  price :   fuch  as  all 
originals  of  any  confequence,  either  hiftory,  fa- 
cred  or  profane,  divinity,  efpecially  the  books  of 
the  New  Tcflament ;  thofe  of  the  old    given  for 
iuch,  being  nothing  elfe  but  fimple  copies,  though 
even  fome  of  thofe  copies  are  very  valuable.     1  he 
antient  fathers  of  the  church,    as  St.  Athanafius, 
Ori^t-n,  JuJIin  the  nr  rtyr,  St.  Bafil,  St.    Jerome, 
St.  Augujiin,  St.  Cyprian,  St.  Amhrofe,  &c.     The 
hiftory   of   both    the  Greek  and   Roman   empires. 
That  of  the  different  monarchies  v\-hich  have  rifen 
from  the  ruins  of  thofe  two  empires,  i£e.  <3'e.    But 
among  thoie  originals  and  fcarce  copies,  there  are 
many    fpurious    ones,    though    fo  well   counter- 
ftited,  that  the  beft  Antiquary  is  often  deceived  in 
them.     There  are  even  fome  manufcripts  written, 
fince  the  invention  of  printing,  which  are  impofed 
upon  us,  as  having  preceded  that  ingenious   and 
uleful  art. 

]t  is  not  very  eafy  to  diftinguifli  an  antient  ma- 
nufcript  from  a  counterfeited  one,  efpecially  thofe 
in  the  oriental  language,  whofe  originals  being  all 
loft,  by  the  different  revolutions  happening  in 
thofe  countries  where  they  were  firft:  written ;  and 
thofe  languages,  as  they  arc  fpoken  at  prefent,  very 
ditferent  from  what  they  were  at  firft,  we  cannot 
compare  them  with  the  copies,  and  therefore  are 
obliged  to  truft  to  thofe  copies,  often  but  too  im- 
perfect, as  if  they  were  originals. 

I  know  very  well  that  all  originals  in  thofe  lan- 
guages have  not  undergone  the  fame  fate ;  efpe- 
cially as  to  the  books  of  the  New  Teftament,  and 
the  works  of  fome  of  the  antient  fathers  of  the 
Grecian  church  :  of  which  there  are  ftill  fome  few 
originals  extant,  which  have  been  faved  from  the 
ruin  of  the  eaftern  empire  ;  and  thofe  are  but  in  a 


king  of  France,  of  the  Grand  Duke,  the  Bcdleian 
ajid  Gottonian  libraries,  the  Britijh  Miifaum,   i3c. 
The  beft  manufcript  bibles  are  thofe  copied  by 
the  "Jews  of  Spain.     Thofe  copied  by  the  Jews  of 

Germany  are  lefs  exail  but  more  common.  . 

The  two  kinds  are  cifily  diftinguifhed  from  each. 
other ;  the  former  being  in  beautiful  chara>Slers 
1  ike  the  Hebrew  bibles  of  Bamberg,  Stephens,  and 
Plantin  ;    the  other   in  charafters   like   thofe    of 

Munjier  and  Gryphlus.  F.  Simon  obferves, 

that  the  oldeft  manufcrtpt  Hebrew  bibles  are  not 
above  6  or  700- years  old  ;  nor  does  Rabbi  Mena- 
ham,  who  quotes  a  vaft  number  of  them,  pretend 
any  of  them  exceed  600  years. 

There  are  feveral  different  manufcripts  of  the 
bible  in  all  the  oriental  languages,  vix,  Hebrew., 
Samaritan^  Chaldee,  Syrinc,  Arabic,  Mthlopic,  Cop- 
tic, (of  which  there's  one  in  the  king  of  France's 
library)  and  Greek. 

The  great  difFerence  found  between  the  different 
nwnujcripi  copies  of  the  antient  fathers,  and  th_e 
faults  and  imperfections  they  are  crouded  wit.b, 
proceed  fometimes  from  the  ignorance,  fometimes 
from  the  unfaithfulnefs,  and  fometimes  from  the 
partiality  of  the  copyifts  ;  which  the  better  to  uri- 
derftand,  we  muft  know  that  moft  of  thofe  copi'es^ 
were  written  by  monks,  who  often  for  want  of  very 
well  underftanding  the  true  fenfe  of  thofe  fathers, 
whofe  works  they  were  employed  to  copy  or  tranf- 
fcribe,  or  perhaps  divided  in  their  fentiments,  as  to 
religious  matters,  each  of  them  gave  to  the  origi- 
nal what  fenfe  they  thought  moft  favourable  to  the 
fe£t  they  were  moft  inclined  to. 


I  do  not  believe  it  necefTary  to  take  any  great 
notice  here  of  Mummies,  which  are  alfo  confidered 
as  pieces  of  Antiquity  ;   fince  we  have  but  [very 
few,    perhaps  none  at  all,  genuine  ones  ;  and  as 
ever  fince  our  Antiquaries  have  dealt  that  way,  we 
have  no  lefs  than  twenty  Ptohmies,  befides  as  many 
Cleopatra's  brought  over  to  us,   befides  thofe  left 
under  the  Egyptian  pyramids,    and  referved,  as  I 
fuppofe,    to  divert  our  pofterity,  as  thefe  have  di- 
verted us,  though  at  tlw  fame  time  they  have  veiy 
much  puzzled  our  Antiquaries  in  the  explan.ition 
of  the  hieroglyphic ksy  thofe  mummies  are  powdered, 
with. 


ARC  HI' 


^3S 


A'RCHITECrURE. 


ARCHITECTURE  is  the  artof  cieaing 
edifices  or  buildings,  wliether  for  habitation 
or  defence. 

In  this  view,  it  has  three  objeSs,  or 
branches,  which  are  called  civil,  military  and  naval, 
of  which  this  we  fliall  difcourfe  feparately  in  their 
proper  places.     And,  firfl. 

Of  Civil  Architecture. 

Civil  Architecture,  which  is  commonly  by 
way  of   eminence  called   abfolutely  Arc  hi  tec 


the  whole  ;  and  acquire  a  r"T,ht  to  it,  by  early 
taking  a  proper  notice  of  their  works.  This  we 
have  daily  opportunities  of  doing  :  and  having  con- 
verfed  with,  and  taken  advice  of  an  honeft  tradcf- 
man,  who  though  he  builds  his  houfe  without  any 
oftentation  and  magnificence  ;  yet  does  it  in  taftc, 
and  fliews  as  much  judgment  in  the  difpofal  of  every 
part,  as  in  the  management  of  his  cxpenccs,  is  as 
fure  a  means  of  improving  our  minds,  as  it  is  of 
fucceeding  in  what  we  undertake. 

Human  abodes  have  varied  from  time  to  time, 

according  to    local   conveniencies,    and  with  re- 

TURE,  is  the  art  of  contriving  and  executing  com-  nation    to    the   different  genius  and   charailer    of 


modious  buildings  for  the  ufe  of  fociety  and  the 
convenience  of  civil  life. 

In  this  art  our  chief  regard  is  to  be  paid  to  con- 
vcniency,  Jirength  and  beauty. 

The  convenicncy  is  a  matter  principally  to  be  con- 
fidered  in  the  plan  of  a  building  ;  fo  to  order  the 
parts  thereof,  that  they  may  anfwer  the  intention 
of  the  v.'ork ;  and  not  embarrafs  one  another 


every  nation.  The  firjl  manner  of  building  houfes 
fince  the  deluge  (for  we  are  perfedl  ftrangers  to  all 
events  before  it)  was  the  architcfture  of  the  children 
of  Noah  in  Gorduena  or  Curdi/lan,  where  the  Ark 
ftopt. 

The  appendices  of  rocks,  the  caves  and  hollow 

places  dug  under  ground,   were  the  firfl  retreats  of 

1  their  families,     at  this   time    much  encreafed    in 


ThcT?)^';^//' depends  on  the  choice  and  gcodnefs    number  in  that  mountainous  land.     1  here  they 


of  the  materials,  and  upon  the  folidity  of  the 
foundation,  the  fquaring,  levelling,  and  plumbing 
of  the  walls,  iffc.  and  a  due  attention  to  the  bear- 
ings of  every  part. 

The  bea:'.ty_  confifts  in  an  exaft  order  or  fymme- 
try,  which  fliould  be  obferved  in  every  part ;  fo  that 
one  member  of  the  building  does  not  exceed  its 
proportion  in  regard  to  another  member  ;  and  that, 
when  complete,  they  fhould  all  together  yield  an 
agreeable  form  and  ple.ding  appearance. 

Therefore  to  give  a  jufb  idea  of  this  fubjeifl:,  we 
muft  firfi:  confider  it  in  a  general  view,  and  then 
defcend  to  particulars. 

In  :i  general  view:  Architecture  is  to  be 
treated  of  in  regard  to  its  different  flages  or  pe- 
riods, v.z.  either  as  antique,  or  ancient,  Gothic, 
modern,  ^c.  or  as  it  is  divided  into  its  feveral  orders, 
viz.  Ti/fcan,  Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian  and  Com- 
pojite. 

But  before  we  proceed,  it  will  not  be  improper 
to  obferve,  that  the  fludy  of  Architecture  is  pro- 
fitable to  Gentlemen,  as  well  as  to  Artijls  :  and  to 
give  a  fliort  account  of  the  origin  and  progrefs  of 
Architecture. 

Though  we  borrow  the  affiftance  of  the  Archi- 
tect and  the  Mason,  when  we  have  a  houfe  to 
huild,  or  an  apartment  to  be  repaired ;  yet  w;, 
4t  the  fame  time,  ait  a  wife  part  in  prefiding  over 


fheltered  themfelves  from  rains  and  fharp  wind?, 
but  not  from  damps  and  obfcurity.  The  melan- 
choly fituation,  and  the  barrennefs  of  thofe  regions, 
which  were  hardly  habitable  on  account  of  the 
fands,  chafms  and  broken  rocks,  of  which  they 
were  full,  drove  them  over  the  river  Tigris  into  the 
plains  of  Mefopotamia. 

The  want  oi  Jlone,  or  any  other  hard  matters 
fit  for  making  themfelves  (hehers,  taught  them  hov/ 
to  mould  bricks,  or  fquare  pieces  of  clay,  and  bake 
them  hard,  wherewith  to  lay  flrata  of  Masonry 
perfectly  even.  They  bound  them  together  with  a 
vifcousbitumen,  which  the  fame  country-  ftill  affords, 
and  which  they  thickened  v.ith  reeds  and  flraw  cut 
fmall. 

That  country,    fo  delightful  in   itfelf,  became 
more  ib   by  the  conveniencies,   which   the  art  oi 
building  began  to  procure  them,  when  provideiKe 
obliged    them   to  defpcrfe  themfelves   in   colonics 
from  one  end   of  the  earth  to   the  other,    leaving 
them    for  their  guides  the  inflrudlions  of  their  fa- 
thers, their  own  wants,  and  a  few  natural  talents. 
When  infuperable  obflacles  obliged  them  to  fly 
from  one  country   into  another,  the  woods,   which 
were  eafily  found  in  almofl  every  place,  and  equal- 
ly fif  to  make  pieces  of  fupport  and  to  procure  ;hvm 
roofs  and  linings,  were  the  moil  folid  as  well  as  the 
moft  pliant  matters,  tlwt  procured  to  the  new  colo- 

niii 


136  The  UniveiTal  Hiftory  of  Arts  <3!;^(^  Sciences. 


nies  a  well  fituated,  wholcfome,  commodious  ha- 
bitation, inftead  of  the  lurking  holes  and  oblciiic 
dens,  which  had  often  fheltered  them  in  their  pe- 
regrinations ;  and  though  they  were  at  firft,  and 
for  want  of  (kill,  obliged  to  content  thcmfclves 
with  green  arbours  void  of  proportion  and  fymmetry, 
or  with  twifted  willows  cemented  with  clay ;  they 
neverthelefs  had  there  the  benefit  of  the  day  light, 
and  breathed  a  very  pure  air. 

IVood  took  whatever  form  they  were  pleafed  to 
give  it.  The  tools  they  had  invented,  turned  it 
by  degrees  into  hurdles,  poles,  beams,  joyjls,  boards, 
laths,  and  pieces  of  all  fliapes,  and  fizes.  The 
pliantnefs  and  perpetual  reproducftion  of  wood, 
and  the  fkill  of  the  hurdler  and  carpenter,  are 
then  the  caufes  to  which  we  are  really  indebted 
for  the  manner  of  building,  which  was  moft  uni- 
verfal  in  the  beginning,  and  which  has  rendred 
the  earth  truly  habitable. 

It  is  the  ufe  of  wood  that  firll:  diftinguifhed  the 
habitations  of  men  from  thofe  of  wild-beads,  all 
over  the  earth. 

But  then,  the  decay  of  wood  after  a  kw  years 
time,  obliged  men  to  add,  or  even  as  much  as  pof- 
fible,  to  fubftitute  to  it  clay,  loam,  /lone,  Jlatc,  and 
moft  commonly  baked  earth  or  brick  ;  where  Jhne 
was  wanting. 

This  fparing  difpofition  has  often  introduced  and 
perpetuated  among  whole  nations  the  falhion  of 
rotundo's,  or  circular  buildings  of  hurdles,  covered 
with  thatch  and  rulhes,  and  ending  in  a  cone  like 
ice-houfes. 

The  hurdler  s  work  was  fometiines  firengthened 
with  a  plaiftering  made  of  chopped  firaw  and  loam. 
A  hole,  opened  at  the  point  of  this  ruftick  dome, 
gave  vent  to  the  fmoak.  The  fire-place,  fomewhat 
I'unk  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  and  garnifhed 
fmiply  with  wood-coals,  comforted  the  whole  fa- 
mily dilJDerfed  around  it.  7'he  fabrick  of  fuch 
buildings  and  the  common  exigencies  of  life,  re- 
quired only  the  cutting  down  of  coppices  or  under- 
wood. 

It  was  this  iimplicity  that  did  for  fo  many  ages 
together  preferve  the  immenfe  forefts  with  which 
Germany  and  Gaul  were  covered.  Such  was 
the  Architecture  of  our  forefathers  ;  and  the 
remains  of  their  way  of  building,  as  well  as  the 
form  of  their  habitations,  are  ftill  to  be  feen  in  the 
villages  of  Lorrain,  Germany,  Poland,  and  alfo  in 
feme  parts  of  Britain. 

Other  nations  built  their  houfes  in  a  quite  dif- 
ferent manner. 

The  Egyptians,  after  having  run  over  and 
clofely  examined  the  two  fides  of  their  river  Nile, 
took  a  refolution  to  fix  their  abode  in  the  plains  it 
moft  fertilized,  and  to  bring  thitlier  by  the  help  of 


navigation  ihcjlone,  marble,  and  all  other  matters 
fit  to  build,  which  they  could  no  where  find  but  at 
the  farther  end  of  Africa.  The  plenty  of  every 
thing  determined  them  to  fix  there,  and  a  national 
tafte  occafioncd  partly  by  the  beauty  of  thcfe  mat- 
ters, and  partly  by  the  fituation  and  difpofition 
of  the  country,  accuftonied  them  to  introduce  fub- 
limity  in  /Am- Architecture. 

Hence,  thofe  magnificent  habitations  in  form  of 
terraflcs,  and  all  thofe  lofty  monuments,  which 
muft  have  been  rendered  fuperiorto  the  inundations, 
and  indcftrudlible  to  all  the  efforts  of  water.  Wood 
had  hardly  any  fhare  at  all  in  their  buildings.  The 
country  afi^orded  but  very  little  of  it ;  nor  would 
it  have  been  lading,  being  iucceflively  and  yearly 
preyed  upon  by  water  and  air. 

The  elegance,  that  fhines  throughout  the  wri- 
tings of  the  Greeks,  is  again  found  in  their  Ar- 
chitecture, and  in  all  their  inventions.  We 
had  from  them  the  fineft  operations  of  Geometry, 
the  correilnefs  of  Drawing,  the  feveral  Orders 
of  Architecture,  the  beautiful  proportions  in 
every  thing,  the  principles  of  all  the  Liberal 
Arts. 

The  Romans,  Icfs  civilized  and  poorer  in  the 
beginning,  built  their  houfes  at  firft  with  wood., 
earth,  and  Jiubblc.  We  neverthelefs  find  a  cha- 
rafter  of  noblenefs,  in  their  primitive  fimplicity  : 
nay,  they  arrived  perhaps  at  once  at  the  true  gran- 
deur, fince  they  never  fpared  any  thing  to  perfe<5t 
the  edifices  they  built  for  common  utility. 

In  the  time  of  Tarquin  the  elder,  that  is,  600 
years  before  our  Saviour,  the  whole  foil  of  their 
town  was  channeled  and  inwardly  traverfed  by  fe- 
veral large  canals  of  Masonry,  which,  like  fo 
many  branches  of  one  trunk,  terminated  in  a  com- 
mon conduit,  that  was  arched  and  acceflible  to  the 
carts  of  their  fcavengers,  that  the  foul  water  of  all 
their  houfes  might  at  any  time  be  difcharged  into 
the  Tyber.  This  love  of  magnificence  and  dean- 
linefs,  in  point  of  works  defigned  for  the  public 
utility,  was  perpetuated  through  every  age  of  the 
republic,  and  was  ftill  regarded  by  the  firft  Em- 
perors. 

The  greateft  emulation  of  the  moft  wealthy  ci- 
tizens was  to  convey  from  far  wholefome  water  into 
Rome,  for  the  fervice  of  the  people  :  to  procure 
them  very  fparious  buildings,  where  the  young 
Romans  might  ftrengthen  their  conftitution  by  bo- 
dily exercife  :  to  build  and  adorn  with  ftatues  large 
portico's,  where  the  people  might  at  any  time  ftand 
under  ftielter,  when  they  were  to  make  their  pur- 
chafes,  or  to  the  end  that  they  might  ftudy  the 
monuments  and  the  hiftory  of  their  country  there. 

The  greateft  enterprife,  that  ever  was  attempted 
by  the  Romansy   was  not  only  that  of  paving,  fcut 

iilfo 


ARCHITECTURE: 


^Z7 


alio  o^  mafon'mg  upon  folic!  foundations  all  the  high 
roads  that  traverfcd  the  whole  empire.  Jgrippa, 
the  fon-in-law  ofAuguJlns,  who  took  the  execution 
of  it  upon  himfelf,  with  fo  much  zeal  and  fuccefs, 
was  a  true  hero  ;  fince  he  thereby  did  a  piece  of 
fervice  to  all  mankind  in  general. 

The  inconveniences  and  decay  of  wooden-build- 
ings brought  Masonry  more  and  more  in  requeft, 
both  for  public  and  private  ufe.  Society  was  a 
double  gainer  by  it.  Its  habitations  became  more 
commodious  :  the  matter  of  wood,  fo  neceflary  to 
navigation,  for  the  drefling  of  vifluals,  and  for 
many  other  ufes,  was  confiderably  fpared. 

It  neverthelefs,  ftill  came  in  for  a  great  (hare  in 
the  conftrudtion  of  moft  edifices.  It  now  and 
then  fupplies  the  whole  carcafs,  or  what  they  call 
the  frame  of  them  ;  which  is  afterwards  filled  up 
with  a  flight  Masonry.  There  is  no  doing 
without  wood,  when  the  divifion  oi Jiair-cafes  is  to 
be  made  ;  and  it  is  indifpenfably  neceflary  to  tye  in 
the  walls,  and  to  preferve  the  whole  by  the  fhelter 
of  the  roof. 

When  we  are  either  unable  or  unwilling  to  lay 
deep  foundations,  we  are  contented  in  that  cafe 
with  the  folidity,  which  we  find  in  a  wooden-build- 
ing from  the  feveral  faftenings  and  tyes,  that  out 
of  a  great  many  different  pieces  form  a  compleat 
whole  ;  and  the  ground  being  lefs  charged  with  it, 
yields  lefs  to  its  weight,  than  it  would  do  to  that  of 
zjlone-mafotiry  not  founded  on  a  firm  bottom. 

When,  on  the  contrary,  we  would  have  a  folid 
foundation  upon  quickfaitds,  or  in  a  place  where  the 
firmefl:  ground  cannot  eafily  be  attained  ;  it  is 
wood  that  comes  in  to  our  afliftance,  and  infures 
an  unlhaken  folidity  to  the  Masonry.  The  piles, 
which  are  driven  into  thefe  foft  foils  by  repeated 
blows  of  the  rammer,  have  their  foot  perpendicu- 
larly refting  upon  turf,  and  with  their  level  heads 
they  fupport  the  weight  of  an  immenfe  edifice. 

Thus  did  the  Mason  and  the  Carpenter 
fettle  their  refpeftive  provinces  :  they  were  then  of 
mutual  help  one  to  another,  and  never  parted  after- 
wards. 

The  Smith  came  next  to  faften  and  perfe6l 
the  work  of  both  by  ftrong  ties  and  by  feveral  in- 
ftruments  fit  to  prevent  the  infults  of  the  elements, 
or  the  violence  of  ufurpers.  Workmen  and  pro- 
feffions  were  miJtiplied  with  the  feveral  helps  we 
might  defire  to  have.  Many  of  them  owed  their 
birth  barely  to  a  tafte  for  new  conveniencies.  How 
many  precautions,  machines,  and  fabricks  alto- 
gether different  in  iron-work  alone  ?  How  many 
other  procefles  in  the  feveral  ufes  of  copper  and 
kad  ?  How  many  more  for  the  conveyance  of 
waters  and  the  prefervation  of  drinks  ?  What  a 
world  of  Other  contrivances  have  tliey  not  imagined 


for  the  bare  diftribution  of  light  ?  The  hurdler 
and  bq/l'et-maier  had  at  firft  barred  the  windows  of 
every  habitation  with  thin  wrought  lattices,  which 
admitted  the  day,  but  did  not  (top  out  the  paffage 
of  the  winds,  or  inclement  air.  'I'he  Wt'(j'y,fr  im- 
proved the  fervice  of  thefe  blinds  by  that  of  thin 
cloths  ;  and  the  glafs-maker,  at  la(t,  fubftjtuted  to 
the  lattices  of  cloth,  ofalabafter,  or  of  any  other 
thin  (lone,  the  fine  white  glafs. 

Thefe  noble  inventions,  and  a  great  many  o- 
thers  had  their  birth  in  ages,  which  we  are  pleafed 
to  term  the  times  of  ignorance.  Let  us  do  them 
juftice.  Sound  philofophy  is  the  produ6i:  of  all 
ages.  True  phtbfophers  are  like  true  Chriftiansy 
whom  we  at  any  time  difcern  by  their  fruits, 
Thefe  are  the  men  that  do  real  honour  to  the  hu- 
man mind.  Thofe,  who  did  not  fcruple  to  ajfume 
the  titles  of  mafters  and  fagcs  to  themfelves,  have 
generally  taught  us  nothing  but  words  and  the  art 
ofdifputing  u^on  pojfibilities  :  but  arti/Is  have  in- 
ftrudbed  difciples,  who,  like  their  mafters,  go  on 
from  age  to  age  with  multiplying  conveniencies, 
and  producing  new  beings  for  our  fervice. 

All  is  rough  and  in  a  battered  condition  in  the 
places  -where  the  architect,  the  carpenter,  the  mafon, 
the  joiner,  and  the  fmith  are  but  juft  come;  and 
we  find  at  their  going  from  thence,  fymmctry,  har- 
mony, proportions,  cleanlinefs,  and  eafe,  on  all  fides 
united  with  folidity. 

Vitruvius  contends  for  the  origin  of  architeHure^ 
being  almoft  as  ancient  as  human  fociety,  and  that 
the  rigour  of  the  feafonsfirfl:  led  men  to  make  little 
cabins  to  retire  into ;  at  firft  half  under  ground, 
and  then  half  above  covered  with  ftubble ;  at  length, 
growing  more  expert,  they  planted  trunks  of  trees 
an-end,  laying  others  a-crofs,  to  fuftain  the  cover- 
ing. 

But,  however,  as  I  don't  fuppofe  thofe  firft  Ar- 
chitc^ure  to  have  beenverycurious  in  the  fymmetry 
of  their  edifices,  or  obferved  any  regular  order,  I 
will  rather  believe,  with  fome  of  the  ancient  writ- 
ers, that  ArchiteSiure  firft  began  to  be  reduced  to 
any  tolerable  order  among  the  Tyrians  ;  that,  as 
Villalpandus  afferts,  Solomon  was  the  firft,  v/ho 
brought  it  under  tliofe  rules,  which  he  had  re- 
ceived from  God  himfelf  (whence  he  fuppofes  ar- 
chiteiiure  of  divine  invention)  and  that  the  Tyrians, 
employed  by  that  prince,  had  learned  that  art  from 
him,  and  carried  it  afterward  into  their  country. 
To  what  a  pitch  of  magnificence  and  grandeur  the 
Tyrians  carried  it  ere  it  came  to  the  Greeks,  may  be 
learned  from  7/a/tf^  x.xiii.  8.  Yet  in  the  common 
account,  Architecliire  (hould  be  almoft  wholly  of 
Grecian  original :  three  of  the  regular  orders,  or 
manners  of  building,  are  denominated  from  them, 
vizrCorinthiany  Dorick,  and lonick, and  fcarce  a  part. 


ns 


The  Univerfal  Fliftcry  of  Arts  a7id  Sciences. 


a  fiiigle  member  or  moulding,  but  comes  to  us  with 
a  Greek  name. 

Be  that  as  it  will;  it  is  certain  X^zRomans^  from 
whom  wc  derive  it,  borrowed  what  they  hail  en- 
tirely from  the  Greeks;  nor  feem,  till  then,  to 
have  had  any  other  notion  of  the  grandeur  and 
beauty  of  buildings,  beiides  what  arifes  from  their 
magnitude,  flrcngth,  lie.  Thus  far  they  were 
unacquainted  with  any  order  but  the  Tufcaii.  Un- 
der jliigujlusy  ArchUehure  arrived  at  its  glory  :  Ti- 
berius neglected  it  as  well  as  the  other  polite  arts. 
Neroy  amongft  a  heap  of  horrible  vices,  dill  re- 
tained an  uncommon  paffion  for  buildings;  but 
luxury  and  dillblutcnefs  had  a  greater  fhare  in  it 
than  true  magnificence.  JpoUodorus  excelled  in 
archite£}ure  under  the  emperor  Trajan,  by  which 
he  merited  the  favour  of  that  prince:  and  it  was  he 
who  raifed  the  famous  Trajan\  column,  fubfifting 
to  this  day.  After  this,  architeSiure  began  to 
dwindle,  and  though  the  care  and  magnificence  of 
Jl-xamUr  Severiis  lUpported  it  for  fome  time,  yet 
it  fc'll  with  the  TFefiern  empire,  and  funk  into  a 
corruption,  from  whence  it  was  not  recovered  for 
the  fpace  of  twelve  centuries. 


much   that  our   churches,  palaces,  ^c.   arc  now 
wliolly  built  after  thQ  antique. 

The  moft  celebrated  ArchiteBs  are,  VitruviuSj 
Palladia.,  Seamazzi,  Ser/io,  Fignola,  Barbara,  Ca- 
taneo,  Alherti,  Viola,  Iniga  'Jones,  Manfard,  Bul- 
lant.  Sir  Chrijhpljcr  IVren,  and  De  Lorme. 

We  have  no  Greek  authors  extant  on  architec- 
ture. The  firfl:  who  wrote  of  it  was  Agatharus  the 
Athenian,  who  was  feconded  by  Democritus  and. 
Theophrajlus.  Among  the  Latins,  FuJJitius,  Te- 
rentius  Parrc,  Piiblius  Scptimius,  Rufus,  and  Epa- 
phroditus  wrote  De  Re  Architeifonica.  But  of  all 
the  ancients,  Vitruvius  is  the  only  entire  author  ; 
though  Vegetius  relates  that  there  were  700  Archi- 
tects at  Rome  in  iiis  time.  He  lived  under  Auguf- 
tus,  and  compofid  a  compleat  fyllem  oi  architec- 
ture in  ten  books,  which  he  dedicated  to  that  - 
prince.  There  are  two  things  cenfured .  by  the 
moderns  in  this  excellent  work,  viz.  want  of  me- 
thod, and  obfcurity.  The  mixture  oi  Latin  and 
Greek  in  Vitruvius  is  fuch,  that  Leon  Baptijia  Al- 
herti has  obferved,  he  wrote  Latin  to  the  Greeks., 
and  Greek  to  the  Latins  :  he  adds,  that  the  work 
contains  abundance  of  things  fuperfluous  and  fo- . 


The  ravages  of  the  Vijigoths  in  the  fifth  century  !  reign  to  the  purpofe.  For  this  reafon  M.  Perrault 
deflroyed  all  the  moft  beautiful  monuments  of  an-^  has  CKtracled  all  the  rules  out  oi  Vitruvius's  prolix 
tiquity  ;  and  architecture  thence  forwards  became  work,  methodifed,  and  publifhed  them  in  a  little 
fo  coarfe  and  artlefs,  that  their  profelTed  Architects  ,  abridgment.  Several  authors  have  alfo  endeavoured 
underftood  nothing  at  all  of  their  defign,  wherein:  to  explain  the  text  oi  Vitruvius,  particularly  Phi- 
its  whole  beauty  confifts  :  hence  a  new  manner  of  lander,  Barbara,  and  Salmafius,  in  notes  added  to 
building  took  its  rife,  called  theGathick.  j  their  feveral  editions  ;  Rivius  and  Perrault  in  the 

Charlemagne  aii!i\\\i\iUr\o?i  to  vciiorc  architeSiure;  notes  to  than  Ger?nan  and  /r^«f/)  verfions  ;  and 
and  the  French  applied  themfelves  to  it  v/ith  fuccefs, ,  Baldus  in  his  Lexicon  Fitruviamim,  enlarged  by  De 
under  the  encouragement  oi  H.  Capet,  the  firft  of,  Laet.  The  fame  M.  Perrault,  has  alfo  compofed 
the  line  of  the  Capetians,  from  whom  the  prefent  an  excellent  Treatife  of  the  five  Orders,  which  may 
king  of /"ra.'jw  is  lineally  defcended.  His  fon  i?«- j  be  efteemed  a  Supplement  to  Vitruvius,  who  left 
^rrf  fucceedcd  him  in  this  defign,  till  by  degrees  I  the  dodrine  of  the  five  orders  defeftive. 
the  modern  architeilure  was  run  into  as  great  an  |  The  authors  upon  architeilure  fince  Vitruviut 
exes. 3  of  delicacy,  as  the  Gothick  had  before  done  '  are,  Zfo«  Baptijia  Alherti,  who  in  15 1 2,  publi{hed 
into  maffivenefs.  To  this  may  be  added  the  Ara-  ten  books  of  the  art  of  building,  in  Latin,  de 
hcjh,  Morijh,  or  Morijk  architeilure,  which  were 
ir.ofl  of  a  piece  with  the  Gothick,  only  brought  in 
from  the  fouth  by  the  Moors  and  Saracens  ;  as  the 
former  was  from  the  north  by  the  Goths  and  Van- 
dals. 

ThcArchitefls  of  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and 
fifteenth  century,  who  had  fome  knowledge  of 
fculpture,  feem  to  make  perfedtion  confift  altoge- 
ther in  the  delicacy  and  multitude  of  ornaments, 
which  they  beftowed  on  their  buildings,  with  a 
world  of  care  and  folicitude,  though  frequently 
without  any  conduiSr  or  tafte. 

In  the  two  laft  centuries,  the  Architeds  of  Italy 
and  France  were  wholly  bent  upon  retrieving  the 
primitive  fimplicity  and  beauty  of  ancient  architec- 
ture, in  which  they   did  not  fail  of  fuccefs  j  info- 


figned  to  outvie  Vitruvius ;  in  which  however  he 
has  not  fucceeded  ;  his  work  has  abundance  of 
{rood  thino;s,  but  is  deficient  in  the  doftrine  of  or- 
ders.  Seh.  Serlio,  who  wrote  feven  books  of  ar- 
chitcBure,  five  of  which,  concerning  thefive  orders^ 
were  made  publick  in  1602  ;  throughout  all  which, 
he  religioufly  keeps  to  Vitruvius's  rules  :  the  fe- 
venth  was  llnce  publiihed  in  1675  i  ^^^  ^^^  fixth, 
concerning  private  buildings,  has  not  yet  appeared. 
And  Pr.lladio,  who  wrote  four  books  of  architec- 
ture, containing  the  fundamental  rules  of  the  art, 
with  various  inltances  of  all  the  kinds  of  works, 
publiflied  in  Italian,  in  1 575  :  the  two  firft  books 
are  rendered  into  High  Dutch,  and  enlarged  with 
annotations  by  Boeckler  ;  and  the  four  publifhed  in 
Englijh,  in  1735,  embellilhed  with  a  large  variety 
-t  of 


ARCHITECTURE, 


139 


of  chimney-pieces,  colledleJ  from  the  works  of  1 
Inigo  Jones  and  others.  Phil.  De  Lorme,  who 
publifhed  nine  books  oi  Architcnure  in  French.  J. 
Barozzi  De  Vlgmla,  who  in  1 631,  made  puhlick 
his  ruks  of  the  five  orders  in  Italian,  fmce  traflated 
with  large  additions  hy  Davller,  under  the  title  of. 
Corns  d' Architecture,  &c.  and  fincc  ahb  into  High 
Dutch,  with  notes. 

To  thefe  are  to  be  added  Finccnt  Scamozzi,  his 
ideaof  Univerfal  //rcto^t7«n',  publifhed  in  1615,  in 
Italian  ;  Car.  Phil.  Dieujfart,  in  his  Theatre  of 
Civil  Architenure-,  publifhed  in  High  Dutch,  in 
1697  ;  wherein  he  not  only  delivers  the  rules  of 
anchite£fure,  but  explains  and  compares  the  five 
orders,  as  laid  down  by  Palladia,  Vignola,  Sca- 
mozzi, Sic.  which  fame  defign  was  alfa  executed 
in  French  by  R.  Freart  De  Ca?nbray,  in  a  Parallel 
of  the  ancient  Architeiiure  with  the  tnoda-n,  pub- 
lifhed in  French,  in  1650,  and  fmce  tranflated  into 
EngUJhf  with  additions  by  Mr.  Evelyn.  Fr.  Blon- 
del,  director  of  the  royal  academy  of  painting,  i^c. 
in  1698,  gave  a  Courfe  of  Archite5lure  in  French, 
being  a  colleflion  from  all  the  celebrated  writers 
upon  the  fubjedl  of  the  orders,  he.  Nie.  Gold- 
man, in  a  treatife  De  Stylometris,  publifhed  in  Latin 
znd  High  Dutch,  in  the  year  i66r,  has  done  good 
fervice  by  reducing  the  rules  and  orders  of  archi- 
tedure  to  a  further  degree  of  perfedlion,  and  {hew- 
ing how  they  may  be  eafily  delineated,  by  means 
of  certain  inflruments  invented  by  him. 

Lajlly,  ^&  Elements  of  ArchiteSiure  are  very  in- 
geniouily  laid  down  by  Sir  H.  Wotton.  T\\&  fame 
are  reduced  by  Starmius  and  Wolfius,  to  certain 
rules  and  demonflrations  ;  and  thus  is  architecture 
brought  into  the  form  of  a  maihematical  .art ;  by 
the  iirfl,  in  his  Mathefis  fuvcnil,  and  the  fecond 
in  h\s  Elcmenta  Mathefeos,  Tom.z.  An.  17 15. 

Thefe  particulars  premifed,  let  us  now  proceed 
with  the  divifion  of  Architecture. 

Antique  Architecture  is  the  name  given 
to  buildings  erected  from  the  days  oi  Alexander  the 
Great  to  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Phoeas  ;  which 
happened  about  the  year  of  Christ  6co.  From 
this  epocha  the  artifls  call  the  buildings  or  edifice.T 
only  ancient ;  becaufe  they  were  erefled  in  a  more 
barbarous  flile  by  the  Goths  and  Vadals. 

The  difference  between  antique  znd  ^^tw// build- 
ings appears  particularly  in  the  joining  of  the  flones 
together  ;  in  which  the  antique  Architeffs  were  fo 
very  curious  and  exadt,  that  it  is  very  difficult  to 
difcern  the  joints  in  a  great  many  places,  and 
■which  contributed  much  to  the  beauty,  flrength, 
and  folidity  of  the  building. 

This,  in  my  opinion,  could  not  be  done,  with- 
out having  thofe  fides   of  the  flones  fquared   and 
wrought  iirft,  which  were  to  be  laid  one  above  an  - 
8. 


other,  leaving  the  other  fide  rough,  after  which 
they  were  made  ufe  of  in  the  building  ;  fo  that  the 
angles  or  edges  of  the  flones  not  being  fb  fharp, 
they  could  move  them  up  and  down  better,  tiU 
they  joined  well,  and  were  in  no  more  danger  of 
breaking,  than  if  all  the  fides  had  been  fquared  ; 
for  the  angles  being  then  too  thin,  are  apter  to 
break. 

In  this  manner  they  made  all  their  flone  build- 
ings rough  and  ruflic,  as  it  were  ;  and  when  thefe 
were  compleated,  they  continued  to  polifh  thofe 
fides  of  the  ftones  that  were  expofed  to  view. 
It  muft  be  acknowledged,  that  astherofei  between 
the  modilion  or  other  decorations  of  the  cornice, 
could  not  be  commodioufly  worked  after  the  flones 
were  fixed,  they  made  them  while  they  lay  on  the 
ground. — This  is  evident  by  many  ancient  build- 
ings, in  which  feveral  flones  are  found  that  were 
left  unwroughtand  unpolifhed.  The  arch  near  the 
old  caflle  in  Verona,  and  all  the  other  arches,  and 
ancient  edifices  in  that  place,  were  made  after  the 
fame  manner  :  this  we  eafily  difcover  by  the  marks 
of  the  tools,  which  fhew  in  what  manner  the  ftones 
were  wrought. 

The  columns  of  Trajan  and  Antoninus  at  Rome, 
were  thus  wrought  ;  for  it  would  have  been  im- 
pofTible,  otherwife,  to  have  fixed  the  flones,  fo  as 
that  the  joints  fhould  meet  fo  clofe  together,    crofs 

the  heads,  and  other  parts  of  the  figures. The 

fame  may  be  faid  of  thofe  triumphal  arches  that  are 
found  there,  for  when  they  had  any  large  edifice  to 
ereft,  as  the  amphitheatre  oi  Verona,  that  o( Pola, 
and  the  like,  to  iave  time  and  charge,  they  only 
wrought  the  impofls  of  the  arches,  the  capitals  and 
cornices,  leaving  the  refl  ruflick,  regarding  only 
the  beauty  of  the  whole  fabrick. — But  in  temples 
and  other  magnificent  edifices,  that  require  great 
delicacy,  they  fparcd  no  labour  in  working  them, 
but  glazed  and  polifhed  them,  even  to  the  very 
flutes  of  the  columns,  with  the  utmofl  accuracy 
and  application. 

Gothick  Architecture,  is  that  which  de- 
viates from  the  proportions,  charaiSers,  i^c,  of  the 
ajitiqite. 

1  he  Gothick  architecture  is  frequently  very  heavy,' 
folid,  and  mafTive  ;  and  fometimes,  on  the  con- 
trary, exceedingly  light,  delicate  and  rich. — -The 
abundance  of  little  whimfical,  impertinent  orna- 
ments, are  its  mofl  ufual  charadler. 

Authors  diflinguifli  two  kinds  of  Gothick  orchi- 
teSiure  ;  the  one  ancient,  the  other  7n:dern.~—T\\.z 
ancient  is  that  which  the  Goths  brought  with  them 
from  the  north,  In  tlie  fifth  century  :  the  edifices 
built  in  this  manner  were  exceedingly  mailivc,' 
heavy  and  coarfe. 

Thofe  of  the  modern  Gothick  run  into  the  other 
T  extreme 


140  The  Unlverfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^W  Sciences. 


extreme,  being  light,  delicate,  and  rich  to  a  fault; 
witiiefs  WeJ}minJier-Abbey^  the  cathedral  of  Litch- 
field, the  crofi  of  Coventry^  &c. 

The  laft  kind  continued  long  in  ufe,  efpecially 
in  holy-,  viz.  from  the  thirteenth  to  the  reftauration 
of  the  antique  building  in  the  fixteenth  century. 
All  the  ancient  cathedrals  are  in  this  (tile. 

Modern  Architecture  is  that  which  par- 
takes partly  of  the  antique,  retaining  fomewhat  of 
its  delicacy  and  folidity  ;  and  partly  of  the  Gothick, 
whence  it  borrows  members  and  ornaments,  with- 
out proportion  or  judgment. 

Before  I  give  an  exafl  defcription  of  the  five 
different  Orders  of  (7;Y/)//^(f7«r^,  which  all  pub- 
lic and  private  edifices  mull:  be  compofed  of,  it 
will  not  be  improper  to  obferve  here,  that  the  co- 
lumns, in  each  of  the  five  Orders,  are  to  be 
made  fo,  as  the  diameter  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
column,  may  be  lefs  than  at  the  bafe,  and  have  a 
little  fwelling  in  the  middle. 

In  the  diminution  of  the  columns,  we  mud  take 
care  that  the  longer  they  are,  the  lefs  they  muft 
diminifh  ;  becaufe  the  height,  by  reafon  of  the  di- 
ftance,  has  the  tSeSt  of  diminution. 

Vitruvius,  1.  iii.  c.  2.  gives  us  direflions  to  that 
purpofe  ;  for  he  fays,  that  if  the  column  be  fifteen 
feet  high,  the  diameter  at  the  bottom  muft  he  di- 
vided into  fix  parts  and  a  half;  and  five  and  a  half 
muft  be  the  thicknefs  at  top  ;  if  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  feet,  the  diameter  at  the  bottom  muft  be 
divided  into  feven  parts,  and  fix  and  a  half  will  be 
the  diameter  at  top. — The  fame  obfervation  muft 
be  made  in  thofe  that  are  from  twenty  to  thirty 
feet  high  ;  where  the  diameter,  at  the  bottom, 
muft  be  divided  into  eight  parts,  feven  of  which 
will  be  the  diameter  at  top ;  and  thus  fuch 
columns  as  are  of  a  greater  height,  will  diminifli  in 
the  manner  above  mentioned. 

As  to  the  fwelling,  which  is  tob^  in  the  middle 
of  the  column,  this  excellent  author  has  left  us  in 
the  dark  ;  but  Pallcd'o  has  fupply'd  his  defe£l,  and 
left  us  a  method  for  the  profile  of  fuch  fv.elling. — 
He  divides  the  fufl  of  the  column  mto  three  equal 
parts,  and  leaves  the  lower  part  exactly  perpendi- 
cular ;  to  the  extremity  whereof  he  applies  a  thin 
rule  of  the  exaft  length,  or  fometimes  a  little  longer 
than  the  column,  and  bends  that  part  of  the  rule 
which  comes  forwards,  till  the  point  thereof  touches 
the  point  of  diminution  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
column,  under  the  collarino  ;  then  he  marks  as  that 
curve  direifts  ;  thus  he  has  the  column  fwelling  a 
little  in  the  middle,  and  projecting  forward,  which 
ftrikes  the  eye  very  agreeably. 

T  he  diameter  muft  always  be  taken  at  the  loweft 
part   of  the  column,    and  the  intercolumnations, 


which  are  the  diftances  between  the  columns,  are 
to  be  one  diarneter  and  a  half,  or  of  two  diameters, 
of  two  and  a  quarter,  of  three,  and  fometimes  more 
of  the  column,  though  the  ancients  never  exceed- 
ed three,  except  in  the  Tufcan  order,  where  the 
architraves  being  of  timber,  they  made  the  interco- 
lumnations very  large.  But  then  they  never  made 
them  lefs  than  a  diameter  and  a  half,  which  diftance 
they  particularly  obferved  when  the  columns  were 
very  lofty. — But  they  principally  approved  of  thofe 
intercolumnations,  which  were  of  two  diameters 
and  a  quarter,  and  eftcemed  them  as  moft  elegant 
and  beautiful. 

The  beauty  and  elegance  of  the  columns  are 
very  much  heightened  by  the  proportion  and  har- 
mony between  them  and  the  intercolumnations;  for 
if  fmall  columns  are  made  with  large  diftances,  or 
intercolumnations,  the  too  great  quantity  of  air  in 
the  void  fpaces  will  very  much  k-ffen  their  thick- 
nefs, and  confequently  diminifli  their  beauty;  and 
if,  on  the  contrary,  there  are  but  fmall  inter- 
columnations between  large  columns,  the  two  lit- 
tle vacuity  will  make  them  appear  heavy,  thick, 
and  difagrecable.  Therefore,  if  the  diftance  be 
more  than  three  diameters,  the  thicknefs  of  the  co- 
lumn muft  be  a  fevenih  part  of  its  height,  as  I  fliall 
obferve  hereafter  in  the  Tufcan  order. — But  if  the 
diftances  are  three  diameters,  then  the  length  of 
the  column  muft  be  feven  diameters  and  a  half,  or 

eight,  as  they  are  in  the  Dorics  order. If  two 

and  a  quarter,  the  columns  muft  be  nine  diame- 
ters and  half  in  length;  as  in  the  Corinthian. 

And  if  a  diameter  and  a  half  only,  the  length  of 
the  columns  muft  be  then  ten,  as  in  the  Compotlte. 

In  the  front  of  any  edifice,  the  columns  muft  be 
of  an  evi'n  number,  that  there  may  be  an  opening 
in  the  middle,  larger  than  the  other  diftances  and 
intercolumnations,  for  the  doors  and  entries  ;   that 

is  to  fay,  for  fingle  pillars   and  columns. But 

if  galleries  are  to  be  made  with  pilafters,  they  muft 
bedifpofed  fo,  that  the  thicknefs  of  pilafters  or  piers 
be  not  lefs  than  the  third  of  the  void  from  pier  to 
pier,  and  to  thofe  in  the  angles  two  thirds,  which 
will  make  the  angle  in  the  building  more  folid  and 

fubftantial. VX'hen  thefe  piers  are  to  fupport  a 

cumbrous  load,  as  in  large  ftructures,  then  they 
muft  have  half  the  thicknefs  of  the  vacancy,  or 
otherwife  two  thirds  in  public  edifices;  but  in  pri- 
vate ones  they  muft  be  as  thick  at  leail,  as  the  third 
part  of  the  opening,  but  no  thicker  than  two  thirds, 
and  ought  to  be  fquare. — But  to  fave  charges,  and 
make  it  more  commodious,  and  the  paflage  more 
open,  they  need  not  be  fo  thick  in  flank  as  in  front, 
and,  for  its  cmbelliftiment,  half  columns  or  pila- 
fters may  be  placed  in  the  middle,  to  fupport  the 
cornices  over  the   arches  of  the  gallery,    whofe 

thicknefs 


A   R    C   H    I    T   E    C 


r 


U   R    E. 


141 


thicknefs  muft  be  in  proportion  to  their  height,  ac- 
cording to  each  order,  as  1  fhall  demonftrate  in  the 
courfe  of  this  treatil'e. 

For  the  divifion  and  menfuration  of  the  above- 
mentioned  orders,  we'll  make  ufe  of  the  fame  mea- 
fure  or  module,  which  Vitruvius  ufed  to  divide  the 
Dorick  order  with,  which  module  is  taken  from  the 
diameter  of  the  column,  and  which  may  be  ufed 
in  all  the  orders. 

This  module  is  the  diameter  of  the  column  at  bot- 
tom, and  is  divided  into  fixty  minutes,  except  in 
the  Doricki  in  which  the  module  is  half  the  dia- 
meter of  the  column,  and  is  divided  into  thirty  mi- 
nutes, this  being  more  commodious  in  the  divifions 
of  that  order — One  may  therefore  divide  the  mo- 
dule into  more  or  lefs  parts,  according  to  the  qua- 
lity of  the  edifice,  and  ufe  the  defigns  of  the  pro- 
portions and  profiles  fuitable  to  each  01  Jcr. 

A  Column  in  arckhetiwe  is-  a  round  pillar, 
made  to  fupport  or  adorn  a  building. 

The  entire  column  in  each  order  is  compofed  of 
three  principal  parts,  the  baje.,  xlnsftjaft,  and  the 
capital.      See  Plate  IV. 

(A)  The  Base  of  a  column  is  that  part  between 
the  fhaft  and  the  pedeftal,  if  there  be  any  pedeflal ; 
or  if  there  be  none,  between  the  fliaft  and  the 
plinth,  or  focle. 

'^I'he  bafe  is  fuppofed  to  be  the  foot  of  the  co- 
lumn, or  as  fome  will  have  it,  it  is  tliat  to  a  co- 
lumn, which  a  (hoe  is  to  a  man. 

The  bafe  is  different  in  the  different  orders,  as 
we  (hall  lee  when  we  come  to  treat  of  thofe  or- 
ders. 

(B)  The  Shaft  of  a  column  is  the  body  there- 
of ;  thus  called  from  its  ftraitnefs  ;  though  mod: 
commonly  called _/«//. 

(C)  The  Capital  is  the  uppermoft  part  of  a 
tolumn,  ferving  as  the  head  or  crowning  thereof, 
placed  immediately  over  th.e.  jhaft  ox  fuji,  and  un- 
der the  entablature.  The  capital  is  a  principal  and 
eflential  part  of  a  column^  is  made  different  in  the 
different  orders,  and  is  that,  which  chiefly  diftin- 
gui(hes  the  orders  themfelves. 

Each  of  thefe  parts  is  again  fubdivided  into  a 
great  number  of  leffer,  called  members  or  mouldings, 
fome  whereof  are  eirential,  and  found  in  all  columns  \ 
others  are  only  accidental,  and  found  in  particular 
trders. 

Members  or  Mouldings  are  Jettings or Pro- 
jeftures  beyond  the  naked  pjrt  of  2.  column,  of  a 
wall,  wainfcot,  ISc.  the  affemblage  whereof  forms 
cornices,  door  cafes,  and  other  decorations  of  ar- 
chite£lure. 

Some  mouldings  are  fquare,  others  round,  fome 
ftrait,  others  carved,  i3c. — Some  are  plain,  others 
carved,  or  adorned  with  Sculpture,  either  hollowed, 
or  in  relievo. 


Some  mouldings,  again,  are  crowned  with  z.  fil- 
let, others  are  without,  as  the  dAuine,  talon,  o-joh, 
torus,  plinth,  fatia,  astragal,  gula,  corona,  and 
cavetio. 

Fillet,  in  architciiure,  is  a  little  f.|uare  mem- 
ber or  ornament,  ufed  in  divers  places,  and  on  di- 
vers occafions  ;  but  generally  as  a  fort  of  corona, 
over  a  greater  moulding  ;  and  on  occafion,  fervei 
to  feparate  they?z(//«^i  of  columns. 

'1  hefi  let  is  the  fame  with  wh.it  the  Italians  call 
li/la,  or  lijiella  ;  and  the  French,  bamle,  bandelette, 
and  reglet ;  though  the  reglet,  according  to  Davi- 
ler,  differs  from  the  fillet,  in  that  it  proje6ls  equally 
like  a  rukr. 

The  DouciNE  is  a  mm/ding  on  the  higheft  part 
of  the  cornice,  in  form  of  a  wave  half  convex  and 
half  concave. — The  d.ucine  is  tlie  fame  with  a  cy- 
matium  or  gula. 

Vitruvius  does  not  confine  cymatium  to  the  cor- 
nice, but  ufes  it  indifferently  for  any  fimilar  mould- 
ing, wherever  he  meets  with  it :  in  which  he  dif- 
fers from  the  moft  accurate  among  the  moderns. 

Filibien  makes  two  kinds  of  cymatiums;  the  one 
right,  and  the  other  inverted;  in  the  firft,  that  part, 
which  projeiSls  the  furthefi:,  is  concave ;  and  is  other- 
wife   called    Gula  re£ia  ani   Doucine. In  the 

other,  that  part,  that  projeiTts   fartheft,   is  convex, 
called  Gtda  invefia,  or  Talon.,  i.  e.  Ogee. 

Our  architeSls  do  not  ufe  to  give  the  name  cyma- 
tium to  thefe  mouldings,  except  when  found  on  the 
tops  of  cornices  ;  but  the  workmen  apply  the  name 
indifferently,  wherever  they  find  them. Pal- 
ladia diftinguifhes  the  cymatium  of  the  cornice,  by 
the  name  iiitavolata. 

Talon  (a  French  word  which  literally  fignifies 
heel)  is  a  mozdding  concave  at  the  bottom,  and  con- 
vex at  the  top  ;    having  an   effeft  juft  oppofite  to 

the  doucine. When  the  concave  part  isa-top,  it 

is  called  an  inverted  talon. 

The  talon  is  ufually  called  by  our  EngUJh  work- 
men ogee,  or  0.  G.  and  by  authors  an  upright,  or 
inverted  cymatium. — The  figure  of  the  ogee  bears 
fome  refemblance  to  that  of  an  S. 

The  OvoLO  is  a  round  inoulding,  whofe  profile  or 
fweep  in  the  Ionic  and  Compofite  capitals,  is  ufually 
a  quadrant  of  a  circle  ;  whence  it  is  alfo  popular- 
ly called  the  quarter  round. It  is  ufually  en- 
riched with  fculptures  among  the  antients  in  form 
of  chefnut-fhells ;  whence  Vitruvius,  and  other 
of  the  ancients  call  it  Echinus,  chefnut- (hells. — 
Among  us  it  is  ufually  cut  with  the  reprefentation 
of  eggs,  and  anchors,  or  arrows  heads,  placed  alter- 
nately; whence  its  Italian  nimeovolo,  Latin,  ovum, 
q.  d.  eg^. 

(D)  Plinth  is  a  flat  fquare  member  in  form 

of  a  brick  j  fometimes  alfo  called  the  y/z/Z^r. ■ 

r  2  The 


142  The  Univcrfal  Hiftor}'  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


The  Plinth  is  ufed  at  the  foot  or  foundation  of  co- 
lumns ;  being  that  fquure  flat  tabic  under  the  mould- 
ings of  the  bajc  and  pcdeflal,  at  the  bottom  of  the 
whole  or-Vi-r ;  fecming  to  have  been  originally  in- 
tended to  keep  the  bottom  of  the  primitive  wooden 

pillars  from  rotting. The  plinth   is  alfo  called 

orle  or  oiio. — I'itruvius  alfo  calls  the  Tufcan  abacus, 
plinth,  from  its  refembling  a  fquarc  brick. 

The  ToKus  or  Tore,  is  a  large  round  rnould- 

ing  ufed   in  the  bafes  of  columns. The  tore  is 

alfo  called  ^roj  ifl/s?;,  and  tondin. — It  is  the  big- 
nels  that  diftinguifhes  the  tore  from  the  ajlragal. 
— The  bafes  of  the  Tufcan  and  Dorick  order,  have 
but  one  tore,  which  is  between   the  plinth  and  the 

lijhl. In  the  Atiick  haj'e  there  are  two  ;  the 

upper,  which  is  the  fmaller;  and  an  under,  or 
bigger. 

Scotia  is  a  femicircular  cavity  or  channel  be- 
tween the  tores,  in  the  bafes  of  columns. It  is  a 

concave,  dark  moulding ;  whence  its  name,  viz. 
from  o-xcT*;,  obfcurity,  darknefs. — Thc/cotia  has 
an  effe<fi:  juft  oppoilte  to  that  of  the  quarter-round. 
— Our  workmen  frequently  call  it  the  cafement. — 
It  is  alfo  called  trochillus,  partly  from  its  form. — ■ 
In  the  lonick  and  Corinthian  bafe,  there  are  two 
fcotia's,  the  upper  whereof  is  the  fmaller. — Ac- 
cording to  Filibien,  the  cavetto  is  a  fourth  part  of 
the  fcotia. 

The  Astragal,  marchiteSfure,  is  a  little  round 
member,  in  form  of  a  ring,  or  bracelet ;  ferving 
as  an  ornament  at  the  tops  and  bottoms  of  columns. 

The  a/lragal is  fometimes  alfo  ufed  to  feparate 

thafafciis  of  the  architrave  ;    in  which  cafe  it  is 
carved  chaplet-wife,  with  beads  and  berries.- 
It  is  alio  ufed  both  above  and  below  the  li/iel,  ad- 
joining immediately  to  thcfquare  or  dye  of  the  fi^- 
d,yial. 

The  GuLA,  GuEULE,  or  Gola,  m  architec- 
ture, is  a  wave  member,  whofe  contours  refemble 
the  letter  S. — This  member  is  of  two  kinds,  reSIa 
and  invcrfa. — The  hril  and  principal  has  its  cavity 
above,  and  convexity  below.  This  always  makes 
the  top  of  the  corona  of  the  cornice,  jetting  over, 
the  drip  of  the  cornice  like  a  wave  ready  to  fall. — 
It  is  called  gula  reBci,  by  the  French,  doucine. — 
The  fecond  isjull:  the  reverfe  of  the  former,  its  ca- 
vity being  at  the  bottom  ;  fo  that  it  appears  in- 
verted, with  regard    to  the    former.' This   is 

ufed  in  the  architrave,  and  fometimes  in  the  cor- 
nice, along  with  the  former,  only  feparated  by  a 
reglet. 

.  .Some  derive  the  word  from  the  refemblance  thefe 
members  bear  to  the  gula,  or  throat  of  a  man  : 
others  from  the  herald's  terms,  gules ;  as  fuppofing 
the  moulding  form'd  from  the  ancient  manner  of 
wearing  their  garments,    which  confifted  of  flips 

t 


of  fwaths,  alternately  fur  and  fluff  of  various  co- 
lours ;  the  intervals  between  which  were  called 
gules,  or  guales. 

The  CoRON'.'v,  crown,  or  crowning,  is  a  large, 
flat,  maflive  member  of  the  cornice;  fo  called  be- 
caufe  it  crowns  not  only  the  cornice,  but  the  enta- 
blature, and  the  whole  order. — The  workmen  call 
it  the  drip,  as  ferving,  by  its  great  projetElure,    to 

fcrcen  the  reft  of  the  building  from  the  rain. 

Some  Latin  authors  call  xtjupercilium ;   and,  as  it 

fhould   fecm,    by   miifake  Jlilicidium. Certain 

Latin  authors  mentum,  chin  ;  from  its  keeping  the 
weather  from  the  parts  underneath,  as  the  chin 
does  the  fweat,  ^c.  out  of  the  neck. 

Some  call  it  abfolutely  the  cornice,  as  being  the 

principal  jnember  thereof. Vltruvius  frequently 

ufcs  the  word  corona  ior  the  whole  cornice.  ■  ■  The 
corona  is  itfelf  crowned  or  finifhed  with  a  reglet  or 

^llet. There  are  fometimes  two  corona's  in   a 

cornice,  as  in  the  Corinthian  of  the  Rotunda. 

The  Cavetto  is  a  hollow  member  or  mould- 
ing, containing  a  quadrant  of  a  circle,  and  having 
an  effect  juft  contrary  to  that  of  a  quarter-round  : 
it  is'ufed  as  an  ornament  in  cornices. — Mr.  Filibien 
obferves,  that  the  workmen  confound  the  cavetto 
v/ith  ^  fcotia,  but  to  ill  purpofe ;  the  cavetto  being, 
in  effecSf,  only  half  a  fcotia :  yet  he  himfelf  is 
chargeable  with  the  fame  overfight. — When  in  its 
natural  fituation,  the  workmen  frequently  call  it 
gula,  or  gucula ;  and  when  inverted  gorge ;  which 
gorge  is  a  fort  of  concave  moulding,  concave  in 
the  upper  part,  and  convex  at  bottom,  more  pro- 
perly called  ^«A7  and  cymatium.  , 

The  Abacus  is  the  uppermoft  member  of  a  ca- 
pital of  a  column,  ferving  as  a  kind  of  crowning, 
both  to  the  capital,  and  the  whole  column. 

Vitruvius,  and  others  after  him,  who  give  the 
hiftory  of  the  orders  tell  us,  the  abacus  was  origi- 
nally intended  to  reprefent  afquare  tile  laid  over  an 
urn,  or  over  a  bafket.  An  Athenian  woman  hap- 
pening to  place  a  bafket  thus  covered,  over  the 
root  of  an  acanthus  ;  that  plant  fhooting  up  the 
following  fpring,  encompaffed  the  bafket  all  around, 
till  meeting  with  the  tile,  it  curled  back  into  a  kind 
of  fcrolls.  An  ingenious  fculptor  pafEng  by,  took 
the  hint,  and  immediately  executed  a  capital  on  this 
plan  ;  reprefenting  the  brick  by  the  abacus,  the 
leaves  by  the  volutes,  and  the  bafket  by  the  vafa,  or 
body  of  the  capital.  Such  was  the  rife  of  the  firft 
regular  order. 

There  is  fome  difference  in  the  form  of  an  abacus 
in  different  orders.  In  the  Tufcan,  Dorick,  and 
ancient  lonick,  it  is  a  flat  fquare  member,  well 
enough  reprefenting  its  original  tile,  whence  the 
French  call  it  tailloir,  trencher.  In  the  richer  or- 
ders  it  lofes  its  native  form  ;   its  four  fides  or  faces 

being 


ARCHITECTURE. 


143 


beingarclieJ,  or  cut  inwards,  with  fome  ornament, 
as  a  rofe,  or  other  flower,  or  fiflies  tail,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  each  arch.  But  fome  architc£is  take  otiier 
liberties  Ln  the  abacus,  both  in  refpeft  of  its  name, 
place  and  office.  Thus  in  the  Ttijcan  order,  where 
it  is  the  larger  and  more  maffive,  as  talcing  up  one 
third  of  the  height  of  the  whole  crt/)//^//,  it  is  fome- 
tinies  called  the  dye  of  the  capital.  In  the  Dorick, 
It  is  not  always  the  uppermoft  member  of  the  capi- 
tal. ;  a  cytnatium  being  frequently  placed  over  it.  In 
the  hnick,  fome  make  it  a  perfeil  ogee,  and  crown 
it  with  ?L  fillet. 

The  proportion  of  the  abacus,  as  prefcribed  by 
Vitruvius  [^.  I.)  is  fliort,  is  diagonal  (from  corner 
to  corner)  being  twice  its  height,  a  rule  which 
the  moderns  make  nodifficulty  of  difpenfmg  withal. 

Volute  is  a  kind  of  fpiral  fcroul,  ufed  in  the 
lon'tck  and  Conipoftte  capitals,  whereof  it  makes  the 
principal  charaftcriftick  and  ornament.  Some  call 
it  the  ra7n  s-horn,  from  its  figure,  which  bears  a 
near  refemblance  thereto.  Moft  archite£ls  fuppofe 
that  the  ancients  intended  the  volute  to  reprefent  the 
bark,  or  rind  of  a  tree,  laid  under  the  abacus,  and 
twifted  thus  at  each  extreme  where  it  is  at  liberty  ; 
others  will  have  it  a  fort  of  pillow,  or  bolfter,  laid 
between  the  abacus  and  echinus,  to  prevent  the 
latter  being  broke  by  the  weight  of  the  former,  and 
the  entablature  over  it,  and  accordingly  call  it  pul- 
vimis.  Others  after  Vitruvius,  will  have  it  to  re- 
prefent the  curls  or  trefies  of  a  woman's  hair.  The 
number  of  volutes  in  the  lonick  order,  is  four ;  in 
the  Compcftte,  eight.  There  are  alfo  eight  angular 
volutes  in  the  Corinthian  capital,  accompanied  with 
eight  other  fmall  ones,  called  helices. 

TheAcHANTus  is  only  an  ornament  in  the  Ca- 
rinthian  and  Compofite  orders  ;  being  the  reprefenta- 
tion  of  the  leaves  of  an  aehantus  plant,  in  EngliJ}), 
hear's-foot,  in  the  capital  thereof. 
.  Over  the  capital  is  the  Entablature  ;  com- 
prehending the  architrave,  freeze,  and  cornice.  The 
entablature  is  alfo  called  the  trabeation ,  and  by  Vi- 
truvius ■xnAVignola,  ornatnent :  It  is  different  in  the 
diiFerent  orders:  Indeed  it  confifts  of  the  three 
grand  parts  or  divifions  above-mentioned  in  all  ; 
but  thofe  parts  confift  of  a  greater  or  lefs  number 
of  particular  members  or  fub-divifions,  as  the  or- 
ders are  more  or  lefs  rich.  Vifnola  makes  the  Enta- 

o 

hlature  a  quarter  of  the  heightofthe  whole  column, 
in  all  the  orders.  In  the  Tufcan  and  Dorick,  the 
architrave,  freeze,  and  cornice,  are  all  of  the  fame 
height.  In  the  lonick,  Corinthian,  and  Compofite, 
the  whole  entablature  being  fifteen  parts  ;  five  of 
them  are  allowed  for  the  architrave,  four  for  the 
freeze,  and  fix  for  the  cornice. 

(E)  The  Architrave  is  that  part  of  a  co- 
lumn, which  lies  immediately  upon  the  capital;  the 


Greeks  call  it  epijlyle.  The  architrave  is  the  loweft 
membcrof  the  entablature.  'V^xz architrave  \^  fuppofed 
to  reprefent  the  principal  beam  in  timber  buildings, 
whence  the  name  which  is  formed  of  the  Greek, 
afXS'-,  Chief,  and  the  Latin,  Trabs,  Beam.— 
The  architrave  is  different  in  different  orders.-— 
In  the  Tufcan  it  only  confifts  of  a  plain  face,  crown- 
ed with  a  fillet ;  and  is  half  a  module  in  height. — 
In  the  Dorick  and  Compofite,  it  has  two  faces,  or 
fafcia  ;  and  three  in  the  lonick  and  Compofite,  in 
which  lafi:  order,  it  is|°  of  a  modide\\\^\. — Archi- 
teils  however  take  a  deal  of  latitude  in  this  part; 
ibme  ufing  more  members  than  others  ;  and  many 
of  them  having  two  or  three  forms  of  architraves. 
—Architrave  is  alfo  called  the  reafon-piece,  or  7na- 
fler-beam,  in  timber  buildings,  as  portico's,  cloi- 
fters,  iS'f. — In  chimnies,  it  is  called  the  mantle- 
piece  ;  and  over  the  jaumbs  of  doors  or  lintels  of 
windows,  hyperthyron. 

(F)  The  Freeze  orpRize,  is  that  part  of  the 
entablature  of  columns  between  the  architrave  and 
cornice  ;  and  is  properly  a  large  flat  face,  or  mem- 
ber, feparating  the  architrave  from  the  cornice.—' 
The  antients  called  it  Zophoros,  Zutpof'^,  by  reafon 
it  was  ufually  enriched  with  figures  of  animals  ; 
and  our  denomination  freeze,  has  a  like  origin, 
being  formed  of  the  Latin,  phijgio,  an  embroi- 
derer, becaufe  it  is  commonly  adorned  with  fculp-  . 
tures  in  baffo  relievo,  imitating  embroidery. 

The  freeze  is  fuppofed  to  be  intended  to  repre- 
fent the  heads  of  the  tranfverfe  beams  that  fuftain 
the  roof  or  covering.  In  the  Tujean  order  it  is 
quite  plain.  In  the  Dorick,  enriched  with  tri- 
glyphs.  In  the  Ionic  it  is  fometimes  made  arched  or 
fwelling,  in  which  cafe  it  is  called  by,ViTRUvius, 
pulvinatus,  q.  d.  bolilercd.  In  the  Corinthian  and 
Compofite,  it  is  frequently  joined  to  the  architrave 
by  a  little  fweep;  and  fometimes  to  the  cornice. 
And  in  thefe  richer  orders  it  is  ufually  adorned  with 
fculptures,  figures,  compartments,  hif^ories,  fo- 
liages, feftoons,  i^c. 

As  to  the  height  of  ^h^  freeze,  it  is,  in  general, 
much  the  fame  with  that  of  the  architrave.  The 
Tufcan  freeze  Vitruvius  makes  30  minutes  :  J' ig- 
nola,  35 ;  Palladia,  who  makes  it  fwelling,  gives 
it  but  26 ;  and  Sccimozzi  42.  The  Doric,  in  Vi- 
truvius and  Vignola,  is  30  or  40  minutes  ;  in  Pal- 
ladia, (Jfc.  45.  The  lonick  Vitruvius  makes  flat, 
adorned  with  achnntus's  leaves,  lions,  is'c.  and 
makes  it  30  minutes  high  :  Vignola  alfo  makes  it 
flat,  gives  it  45  minutes  ;  and  Palladio,  who 
makes  it  convex  or  fwelling,  27  minutes ;  and 
Scamozzi,  28.  The  Corinthian,  Vitruvius  en- 
riches with  achantus's  leaves,  human  figures,  £7c, 
and  makes  its  height,  37  minutes;  Vignola,  45; 
^Palladia,  28 j  and   Scamozzi  35I:.      Lafily,  The 

Qompofne, 


144-  ^'^<?  Univcrfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  <^;;^ Sciences. 


Compoftte,  which  in  Vitruvlus  is  fet  with  cartoozes,  i 
and  carved  between  them,  is  34£-   minutes  ;     Vig- 
nola,  who  makes  it  like  Vitrnvlus's  only  gives  it  45 
minutes  ;   Palladia,  who  makes  it  fwellling,   only 
30  ;   and  Scamoxzi  32. 

From  the  variety  of  the  enrichments  of  the 
freeze,  they  become  varioufiy  denominated,  as 

Convex  or  puhinnted  Freezes  are  thofe  whofe 
profile  is  a  curve, the  beft  proportion  whereof  is  when 
drawn  on  the  bafc  of  an  equilateral  triangle.— In 
fome,  the  fwelling  is  only  a  top,  as  in  a  confole : 
in  others  a  bottom,  as  in  a  ballufter. 

Flourijhed freez.es,  are  thofe  enriched  with  rinds 
of  imaginary  foliages  ;  as  the  Corinthian  freeze  of 
the  frontilpiece  of  Nero  ;  or  with  natural  leaves, 
f-ither  in  clulfers  or  garlands  ;  or  continued,  as  in 
the  lonick  of  the  gallery  of  Apollo  in  the  Louvre. 

Hi&onczX  freexes  are  thofe  adorned  with  bajfo  re- 
lievo's reprefenting  hiftories,  facriiices,  t^fc.  as  that 
of  the  arch  of  Titus  of  Rome. — Marine  freezes, 
are  thofe  reprefenting  fea-horles,  Tritons,  and 
other  attributes  of  the  fea  ;  or  (hells,  baths,  grotto's, 
tff. — Rufliikfreez.cs,  are  thofe  whofe  courfes  are 
rufticated  or  imboffed;  as  thtTufcan  freeze  of  Pal- 
ladio. — Symbolical  freezes  are  thofe  adorned  with 
the  attributes  of  religion  ;  as  the  Corinthian  of  the 
temple,  behind  the  capitol  at  i2w/z^,  whereon  arere- 
prefented  the  inftruments  and  apparatus  of  facrifice. 

The  uppermoft  member  of  the  entablature  of 
a  column,  or  that  which  crowns  and, finifhes  the 
order,  is  called  CoRNicHE  (g)  or  Cornice,  from 
the  Latin  coronis,  a  crowning.  The  cornice  is  the 
third  grand  divifion  of  the  trabeation,  commencing 
from  \ht  freeze,  and  ending  with  the  cymatium. 

The  cornice  is  different  in  the  different  or- 
ders :  In  the  Tufcan  order  it  is  moft  plain.  Fig- 
nold  makes  it  confift  of  an  ovum,  or  quartei -round; 
an  aftragal,  a  fillet,  a  larmier,  and  a  talon.  In 
the  Dorick,  he  ufes  capitals  to  the  triglyphs  of  the 
freeze,  with  their  bandelettes,  a  talon,  mutules  or 
dentils,  a  larmier,  with  its  gutta;  underneath,  a 
talon,  fillet,  cavetto  and  reglet.  In  the  hnick  the 
members  are  in  moft  refpedfs  the  fame  as  in  the  Do- 
rich,  except  that  they  are  frequently  enriched  with 
carvino;,  and  there  are  always  dentils.  In  the  Com- 
pofite,  there  are  dentils  ;  its  mouldings  are  carved, 
and  there  are  channels  under  the  foffit.  The  Co- 
rinthian cornice  is  the  richeft  ;  and  is  diftinguifhed 
by  having  both  modillons  and  dentils;  contrary  to 
the  opinion  of  Vitruvius,  Vv-ho  locks  on  thofe  two 
ornaments  as  incompatible  ;  and  of  Mr.  Le  Clerc, 
who  re2;ar(lsthe  dentils  as  peculiar  to  th.e  lonick. 

For  the  heights  and  projedures  of  the  cornices  in 
the  feveral  orders,  Goldman  makes  the  height  of  the 
Tufcan  i^,  its  projedlure  2|  modules:  the  height 
of  i\\s  Dorick  i\,  its  projecture  2|  ;  height  of  the 
lonick  i|,   its  projedure  2\;  height  of  thecompo- 


1 1  . 


height  of  the  Corinthian 


fite  II,  projefture  ?xJ 
1 1,  projedfure  27'. 

There  are  different  forts  of  cornices ;  viz.  archi- 
trave cornice,  which  is  that  immediately  contiguous 
to  the  architrave,  the  freeze  being  retrenched.  Mu- 
tilated cornices,  whofe  projedlure  is  omitted,  or  elfe 
interrupted,  right  to  the  larmier,  or  reduced  into 
a  pi  at- band  with  a  cymatium.  Cantaliver  cornice, 
a  term  ufed  by  the  workmen  for  a  cornice  that  has 
cantalivers  utidcrneath  it.  Alodilhn  cornice,  a  cor- 
nice with  modillons  under  it.  Coving  cornice, 
a  cornice  which  has  a  great  cafemcnt.  or  hollow  in 
it ;  ordinarily  lathed,  and  plailiered  uponcompafs, 
fprokets,  or  brackets. — Cornice  is  alfo  ufed  in  ge- 
neral, for  any  little  projedfure,  either  of  Mafonry  or 
Joinery,  even  where  there  are  no  columns.  Thus 
we  fay,  the  «r«/«  of  a  chimney,  a  beaufet,  l^c. 

Cornice  is  alfo  applied  to  the  crowning  of  pede- 
flals.  This  cornice  is  difl'erent  in  the  different  or- 
ders:  in  the  Tifcan,  according  to  Mr.  Perrault,  it 
has  a  platband  which  ferves  as  a  corona,  and  a  ca- 
vetto, with  its  fillet.  In  the  Dorick  it  has  a  ca- 
vetto, with  a  fillet,  which  bears  a  drip,  crowned, 
with  a  fquare.  In  the  lonick,  a  cavetto,  with  its 
fillet  above,  and  a  drip  or  pendant  fquare,  crowned-' 
with  an  ogee  and  its  filet.  In  the  Corinthian,  an 
ogee  with  its  fillet,  a  cymatium  under  the  corona, 
which  it  hollows  to  make  a  drip,  a  corona,  and  an 
ogee  with  its  fillet.  Lajlly,  in  the  Compofite,  a  fillet 
with  a  fweep  over  the  dye,  and  aflragal,  cyma  with 
Its  filet,  corona,  and  ogee,  with  its  fillet. 

We  have  fooften  mentioned  Fascia's  orFASCiJE, 
that  it  is  not  improper  to  obferve  here,  that  Fafcia, 
in  architeHure,  is  a  broad  lift,  fillet,  or  band  ;  par- 
ticularly ufed  in  architraves  and  pedeftaU. 

The  architrave  confiffs  oi  thrst fafcia  or  bands; 
thus  called  by  Vitruvius,  as  rel'embling  fwaths, 
called  in  Latin,  fafcia. — That  author  admits  no 
fafcia  in  the  Tufcan  order,  and  Dorick  arcintrave, 
i.  e.  he  makes  all  plain,  without  any  divilion,  or 
cantoning  into  parts  or  fafcia ;  but  the  modern 
«rf/j/V(:(3.f  take  liberty  to  differ  from  him  herein  In 
brick  buildings,  thejuttings  out  of  the  bricks,  be- 
yond the  windows  in  the  feveral  ffories,  except  the 

higheft,  are  called  fafia's  or  fafcha. Thefe 

are  fometimes  plain  and  fometimes  moulded  ;  but 
the  moulding  is  only  a  cyma  reverfa,  or  an  O.  G. 
at  the  bottom,  with  two  plain  courfes  of  bricks 
over  it,  then  an  ajlragal,  and  laiHy  a  boultine; 
which  boultine,  or"  boltel,  is  the  workmen's  term 
for  a  convex  moulding,  whole  periphery  isjuft  ^ 
of  a  circle  ;  placed  next  below  the  plinth,  iii  the 
Tufcan  and  Z)»;7<:-f  Capital. 

Thus  we  have  carried  the  column,  to  its  upper- 
moft extremity,  and  crowned  the  whole  order  ;  but 
we  have  left  it  without  a  pedeftal,   which  is  the 

loweft 


/ARCHITECTURE. 


'45 


oweft  J5art  of  an  order  of  columns  ;  being  that 
which  fuftains  the  column,  and  ferves  it  as  a  foot, 
or  ftand. 

(H)  the  Pedestal  (from  the  Latin,  pes,  a 
foot,  and  ^v>.&',  column)  confifts  of  three  princi 
pal  parts;  viz.  a  fquare  trunk  or  dye,  which  makes 
the  body  ;  a  cornice  the  head  ;  and  a  bafe  the  foot 
of  the  pcdejial.  The  pedejial  is  properly  an  ap- 
pendage to  a  column,  not  an  efll-ntial  part  thereof  ; 
though  Mr.  Le  Clerc  thinks  it  is  eflential  to  a  com- 
pleat  order. 

The  proportions  and  ornaments  of  the  pedejial 
are  different  in  the  different  orders  :  Vignola,  indetd, 
and  moft  of  the  moderns,  makes  the  pede/lal,  and 
its  ornaments  in  all  the  orders,  one  third  of  the 
height  of  the  column,  including  the  bafe  and  capi- 
tal :  but  fome  deviate  from  this  rule.  Mr.  Per- 
rnult  makes  the  proportions  of  the  three  confHtuent 
parts  of  pedejials,  the  fame  in  all  the  orders,  viz. 
the  bafe  one  fourth  of  the  pedejial ;  the  cornice,  an 
eighth  part ;  and  the  focle  or  plinth  of  the  bafe 
two  thirds  of  the  bafe  itfelf.  The  height  of  the 
dye  is  what  remains  of  the  whole  heights  of  the 
pedejial. 

(h  i)  7z(/ci7«  Pedestal,  is  the  fimpleft,  and 
the  loweft.  Palladia  and  Scrmozzi,  make  it  three 
modules  high  ;  Fignola  5.  Its  member,  in  Fignola, 
is  only  a  plinth  for  a  bafe,  the  dye  and  a  talon  crown- 
ed, for  a  cornice.  It  has  rarely  any  bafe.  .  Dorick 
pedejial,  (h  2)  Palladia  makes  four  modules,  five 
minutes  high  ;  Vignola  five  modules  four  minutes. 
In  the  antique,  we  not  only  do  not  meet  with  any 
pedejials  ;  but  even  not  with  any  bafe  in  the  Dorick 
order.  The  members  in  Fignola's  Dorick  pedejial, 
are  the  fame  with  thofe  in  the  Tufcan,  with  the 
addition  of  a  mouchette  in  its  cornice,  (h  3) 
lonick  Pedestal  in  Vignola  and  Serlio,  is  fix  mo- 
dules high  ;  in  Seainozzi,  five;  in  the  temple  of 
Fortuna  virilis,  it  is  feven  modules,  twelve  mi- 
nutes. Its  members  and  ornaments  are  moftly  the 
fame  with  thofe  of  the  Dorick,  only  a  little  richer. 
The  pede/lal  now  ufually  followed,  is  that  of  Vi- 
truvius  ;  though  we  do  not  find  it  in  any  work  of 
the  antique.  Some  in  lieu  hereof  ufe  the  Attick 
bafe,  in  imitation  of  the  antient. 

The  Corinthian  Pedestal  (h  4)  is  the  richest 
and  moll  delicate.  In  Vignola,  it  is  feven  modules 
high,  in  Padadlo,  five  modules  one  minute;  in 
Serlio,  fix  modules,  fifteen  minutes  ;  in  the  Coli- 
feum,  four  modules,  two  minutes.  Its  members, 
in  Vignola,  are  as  follows  ;  in  the  bafe,  .ire  a  plinth 
for  a  focle,  over  that  a  tore  carved  ;  then  a  reglet, 
gula  inverted  and  inriched,  and  an  aftragal.  In  the 
dye  are  a  reglet,  with  a  conge  over  it,  and  near  the 
cornice  a  regkt  with  a  rovg^  underneith.  In  the 
cornice  is  an  aftragal,  a  freeze,  fillet,  aftragal, 
gorge,  talon,  and  a  fillet. 


In  Vignola  the  Compojite  PnDEST ai.  is  of  the 
fame  height  with  the  Corinthian,  viz.  feven  modules; 
in  Scamozzi,  fix  modules,  two  minutes  ;  in  Palla- 
dia, fix  modules,  (even  minutes  ;  in  the  gold- 
(niiths  arch,  feven  modules,  eight  minutes.  Its 
members  in  Vignola,  are  the  fame  with  thofe  of 
the  Corinthian  ;  with  this  difference,  that  whereas 
thefe  are  moft  of  them  enriched  with  crownings  in 
the  Corinthian,  they  are  all  plain  in  the  Compojite. 
Nor  muft  it  be  omitted,  that  there  is  a  difference 
in  the  profiles  of  the  bafe  and  cornice  in  the  two 
orders.  DavHer  oblerves,  that  the  generality  of 
Archite£is  ufe  tables  or  pannels,  either  in  relievoy 
or  creux,  in  the  dyes  of  pekjlals  ;  without  any 
regard  to  the  character  of  the  order.  He  obferves 
farther,  that  thofe  in  relievo,  only  fit  the  Tufcan 
and  Dorick  ;  the  three  others  mull:  be  indented  ; 
wiiich,  he  adds-,  is  a  thing  the  antients  never  prac- 
tifed,  as  being  contrary  to  the  rules  of  foliditv  and 
ftrength. 

There  are  befidcs,  fquare,  double,  and  continued 
pedejials.  Square  pede/lal,  is  that  wliofe  height  and 
width  are  equal.  As  that  of  the  arch  of  the  Lions 
at  Verona,  ot  the  Corii.thian  order  ;  and  fuch,  fome 
followers  of  Vitruvius,  as  Serlio,  Philander,  Sic, 
have  given  to  the  Tufcan  order.  Double  pedejial,  is 
that  which  lupports  two  columns,  and  is  more  in 
width  than  height.  Continued  pedejial,  is  that 
which  fupports  a  row  of  columns,  without  any 
break  or  interruption  ;  fuch  is  that  which  fuHains 
the  fluted  lonick  columns  of  the  Tuilleries,  on  the 
fide  of  the  garden. 

The  Dye,  is  the  trunk  of  the  pedeflal,  or  that 
part  between  the  baje  and  the  con. ice  ;  being  fo  cal- 
led, becaufe  it  is  frequently  made  in  the  form  of  a 
cube. 

There  are  two  ways  of  determining  the  mea- 
fures  or  proportions  of  buildings. 

The  firft  by  a  fixed  ftandard  meafure,  which  is 
ufually  the  diameter  of  the  lower  part  of  the  co- 
lumn, called  a  modi.le,  fubdivided  into  60  parts 
called  minutes. 

A  minute  denoting  a  60th,  and  fometimes  only  a 

30th  part  of  a  divifion  of  a  module. 

I       Vignola  divides  his  module,   which  is  a  femi  dia- 

,  meter,  into  twelve  parts,  in  the  Tujcan  and  Dorick  ; 

I  and  into  eighteen  for  the  other  orders.     The  mo- 

'  dale  of  Palladia,   Scan.ozzi,  M.  Canibray,   DesGo~ 

detz,  Le  Clerc,  &c.  which  is  alfo  the  femi-diameter, 

is   divided  into  thirty   parts   or  minutes,  in  all  the 

I  orders. 

I      In  the  fecond  there  are  no  minutes,  nor  any  cer- 
tain and  ftated  divifion  of  the  module  ;   but  it  is  dj- 
'  vided  occafionally  into  as  many  parts  as  are  judged 

'  neceffary. Thus  the  height  of  the  Att.ck  bafe 

'  which  is  half  the  module,   is   divided,  either  into 
I  three. 


146  Tl:>e  Unlvcrnil  Hillory  of  Arts  <3W  Sciences. 


three,  to  have  the  height  of  the  fVinth  ;  or  into 
four,  for  that  of  the  greater  torus;  or  into  fix  for 
that  of  the  leflbr.  — 

Both  thcfe  manners  have  been  praftifed  by  the 
antient  as  well  as  the  modern  Architefls  ;  but  the 
fecond,  which  was  that  chiefly  ufed  among  the  an- 
tieiits,  is,  ill  Mr.  Perauh'a  opinion,  preferable  to 
all  others. 

As  Vitruv'ius,  in  the  Dorick  order,  has  lefTened 
his  module,  which  in  the  other  orders,  is  the  dia- 
meter of  the  lower  part  of  the  column  ;  and  has 
reduced  that  module  to  a  mean  one,  which  is  a 
Semi-diameter :  Mr.  Perault  reduces  the  module  to  a 
third   part  for  the  fame  reafon,  viz.  to  determine 

the  feveral  meafurcs  without  afraftion. For  in 

the  Dorick  order ^  befides  that  the  height  of  the  bafe, 
as  in  the  other  orders,  is  determined  by  one  of  thefe 
mean  modules ;  the  fame  maduls  give,  likewife, 
the  heights  of  the  capital,  architrave,  triglyps,  and 

metopes. But  our  little  module  taken  from 

the  third  of  the  diameter  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
eolun.n,  has  ufes  much  more  extenfive  ;  for  by  this 
the  heights  of  pcdejlah,  of  columns,  and  entabla- 
tures, in  all  the  orders,  are  determined  without  a 
fraftion. As  then  the  great  module  or  diame- 
ter of  the  column  has  60  minutes  ;  and  the  mean 
module,  or  half  the  diameter  30  minutes  ;  our  lit- 
tle module  has  20. 

There  are  a  few  ornaments,  which  we  had  almoft 
forgot  mentioning,  as  the  tryglipbs,  and  metopes, 
both  repeated,  on\y  m^t  Dorick  freeze  ;  the //■/- 
glyphs  at  equal  intervals.  —  Each  triglyph  confifts  of 
two  entire  gutters  or  channels,  cut  to  a  right  angle, 
called  glyphes,  and  feparated  by  three  interftices, 
called  by  Vitruvius,  femora,  from  each  other,  as 
well  as  from  two  other  half  channel.s,  which  are  at 
the  fides. 

The  ordinary  proportion  of  triglyphs,  is  to  he  a 
imdnle  broad,  and  one  and  a  half  high.  —  But  this 
proportion  Mr.  Le  Cere  oblerves,  Ibmetimes  occa- 
sions ill-proportioned  intercolumnations  in  porti- 
co's ;  for  which  reafon  he  chufea  to  accommodate 
the  proportion  of  his  triplypbs,  to  that  of  the  iii- 
tercolumns. 

The  intervals  between  the  triglyphs  arc  called 
metopes,  which  the  antients  ulcd  to  adorn  with 
carved  works  or  paintings,  rep:efenting  the  heads 
of  oxen,  veflels,  bafons,  and  other  utenfils  of  the 
heathen  facrifices. 

As  there  is  found  fome  difficulty  in  difpofing  the 
triglyphs  and  metopes  in  that  jurt  fymmetry  which  the 
Dorick  order  requires  ;  fonie  Archite(fts  make  it  a 
rule  never  to  ufe  this  order  but  in  temples,  b'emi- 
metope,  is  a  f[)acc  fomewhat  lefs  than  half  a  metope, 
in  the  corner  of  a  Dorick  freeze. 

The  triglyphs  make  the  moll  diftinguifliing  cha- 


ra£lcr  of  the  Dorick  order.  Some  imagine  them 
originally  intended  for  the  conveyance  of  the  gut- 
tcs  that  arc  underneath  them  :  Others  fancy  they 
bear  fome  refemblance  to  a  lyre,  and  thence  con- 
jc£lure  the  ornament  to  have  been  originally  in- 
vented for  fome  temple  dedicated  to  Apallo. 

We'll  now  proceed  to  the  five  different  Or- 
ders of  Archlteflure,  viz.  Tufcan,  Dorick,  lonici, 
Corinthian,  and  Compofite. 

The  Tuscan  order  is  the  firft,  fimplcft-,  and 
moft  maffive  of  the  five  orders.  It  is  called  by 
Vitruvius,  the  rujiick  order,  to  be  ufed,  properly, 
in  country  houfes  and  palaces  ;  in  Vignola\  man  ■ 
ner  of  compofition,  it  is  a  beauty,  even  in  its  fim- 
plicity,  and  as  fuch  fhould  find  place,  not  only  in 
priv.ite  edifices  ;  but  likewife  in  publick  ones,  as 
in  the  piazza's  of  fquares  and  markets  ;  in  the 
magazines  and  granaries  of  cities,  and  even  in  the 
offices  and  lower  apartments  in  palaces. 

Of  all  the  orders  the  Tufcan  is  the  moft  eafily 
executed,  as  having  neither  triglyphs,  nor  dentils, 
nor  modillons  to  cramp  its  inter-columns.  On  this 
account,  the  columns  of  this  order  may  be  ranged 
in  any  of  the  five  manners  of  Vitruvius,  viz.  the 
Pycnojlyle,   Sy/lyle,  Eujlyle,  Diaflyle,  or  AncojlyU. 

The  Tufcan  order  takes  its  name  from  an  antient 
people  of  Lydia,  M'ho  coming  out  of  Afta  to  peo- 
ple Tufcany,  firfl  executed  it  in  fome  temples  which 
they  built  in  their  new  plantations. 

Palladio  gives  us  thefe  inftru£lions  for  the  Tufcan 
order  ;  that  the  column  {See  Plate  iv.  i)  together 
with  its  bafe,  (a  i)  and  capitil  (c  i)  muft  be  fevcn. 
modules  in  length,  and  its  diminution  a  fourth  part 
of  its  bignefs.  That  if  a  work  is  to  bo  compofed 
of  this  plain  order,  the  intercolumnations  fhould 
be  very  wide,  bccaufc  the  architraves  are  made  of 
timber,  which,  therefore,  will  be  very  commodious 
for  country  buildings,  on  account  for  the  eafy  paf- 
fiige  for  carts  and  other  country  conveniencies. 

The  fame  author  obferves  that  the  pede/?a.'s,  (hi) 
which  are  under  this  order,  muft  be  very  plain  and 
fimple,  and  the  height  of  a  module  ;  and  that  of  the 
bale  of  the  column,  half  its  diameter.  That  this 
height  muft  be  divided  into  two  proportional  parts, 
one  whereof  is  to  go  to  the  plinth,  which  is  round  ; 
and  the  other  fubdivided  into  four  parts,  one 
whereof  is  appropriated  to  the  Hjlella  or  fillet,  which 
is  fometimes  made  a  little  lefs.  That  in  this  order 
only  the  lijlella  makes  a  part  of  the  bafe  \  and  a 
part  of  the  column  in  all  the  others ;  the  other 
three  parts  being  appropriated  to  the  torus.  That 
this  bafe  ought  always  to  projeft  a  fixth  part  of  the 
diameter  of  the  column.  That  the  height  of  the 
capital  is  half  the  diameter  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
1  column. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


H7 


column,  and  is  divided  into  three  proportional 
parts  ;  the  firft  applied  to  the  abacus,  which,  from 
its  form,  is  generally  called  dado,  or  a  dye  ;  the  (e- 
cond  to  the  ovolo  ;  and  the  third  fubdivided  into 
(even  parts,  the  lijiella  under  the  ovolo,  being  one 
of  them,  and  the  other  remaining  fix  are  applied 
to  the  collorino,  or  neck,  of  the  column.  The  of- 
tragal  (fays  he)  is  twice  the  height  of  that  of  the 
liftella,  under  the  avoid  ;  and  its  centre  is  made  on 
the  line,  which  falls  perpendicular  from  the  li/tella, 
the  projedfure  of  the  cindlure,  which  is  as  thick  as 
the  lijhila,  fails  diredly  upon  it.  The  projeflure 
of  this  capital  correfponds  with  the  (haft  of  the  co- 
lumn below:  Its  architrave  (e  i )  is  compofed  of 
timber,  the  height  whereof  muft  be  equal  to  its 
bieadth,  and  its  breadth  muft  never  be  greater  than 
the  fliaft  of  the  column  at  top.  The  joifts,  which 
are  inftead  of  the  gutta  or  drip,  projedl  a  fourth 
part  of  the  length  of  the  column.  The  proliles  on 
the  fide  of  the  plan  of  the  bafe  and  capital  are  the 
import  of  the  arches. 

But,  continues  he,  if  the  architraves  are  com- 
poled  of  flones,  you  muil  obicrve  what  I  have  al- 
ready mentioned,  with  refpedl  to  the  intercolum- 
nations  ;  and  which  is  the  fame  mentioned  at  the 
beginning  of  this  treatife. 

Manclerc  will  have  the  height  of  the  Tufcan  co- 
lumn,  divided  into  nine  parts  ;  two  whereof  are  for 
t\\<i /iilobate,  or  pedeftal  \  and  thofe  two  fubdivided 
into  fix  parts  ;  one  to  be  applied  to  the  inferior  cy- 
matiurn,  one  to  the  fuperior,  and  the  four  remaining 
to  defcribe  a  fquare,  interfedled  by  two  diameters  or 
diagonal  lines.  In  that  fquare  he  would  have  a 
circle  made,  and  another  fquare  in  that  circle, 
which  inward  fquare  will  be  the  fwelling  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  column,  and  the  outward  one 
the  breadth  of  the  plinth  of  the  bafe.  He  will  have 
the  fwelling  at  top  to  be  the  middle  fquare,  which 
is  to  be  divided  into  eight  parts,  two  whereof  will 
be  the  diminution  of  the  column.  The  projedlure 
of  the  cymatium  of  the  plinth  he  divides  into  fix 
parts,  one  to  proje6t  out,  in  which  he  places  the 
fquare.  He  alfo  divides  the  bafe  of  the  column 
into  two  parts,  one  whereof  to  be  the  plinth,  and 
the  other  to  be  fubdivided  into  four,  one  for  the 
tailloir  over  the  lijlcl,  and  one  of  the  remaining 
three  to  be  divided  into  two,  one  whereof  for  the 
reglet,  or  fillet,  under  the  cornice,  which  is  to 
project  out  fqu:u-e-like.  Thereby,  fays  he,  the 
whole  projedfure  will  be  the  leventh  part  of  the 
breadth  of  the  pedejlal. 

In  his  opinion,  the  upper  cymatium,  otherwii'e 
called  the  cornice  of  the  peJeflal,  is  to  be  divided 
into  tour  parts  ;  one  to  be  applied  to  the  liltel,  or 
talcar,  two  to  tlie  plinth,  and  the  fourth  to  the 
aft!  agal,  or  fillet ;  fo  thac  the  uftragal  might  be 
9- 


twice  larger  than  the  fillet.  The  bafe  of  the  co- 
lumn is  to  be  divided  into  two  parts  ;  one  for  the 
plinth,  (D  i)  and  the  other  fubdivided  into  three  ; 
two  whereof  to  be  applied  to  the  torus,  and  the 
third  to  the  fillet  ;  fo  that  its  whole  projeflurc  is  the 
interval  from  the  exterior  i'quarc  to  the  interior. 
The  fjrojefSfure  of  the  fillet  muft  be  a  fquare  from 
the  column,  and  the  reft  is  given  to  the  torus.  The 
height  of  xhe  fuft  of  the  column  muft  be  fix  parts 
of  its  breidth,  with  its  cymatium  and  capital.  The 
height  of  the  capital  muft  be  half  the  breadth  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  Jhaft  ox  fitft  of  the  column, 
and  is  to  be  divided  into  three  parts,  one  whereof 
to  be  given  to  the  abacus,  the  fecond  to  the  tore, 
and  the  third  to  the yi-f^z/?.  The /«r<?  being  divided 
into  four  parts  ;  one  is  given  to  the  fillet,  and  the 
rell  makes  up  the  toi'us.  The  frcc-ze  (f  i)  is  di- 
vided into  two,  one  for  the  breadrh  of  the  aftragaly 
and  this  to  be  fubdivided  into  three,  one  for  the 
fillet,  and  the  two  others  for  the  aftragal.  The 
eighth  part  of  the  breadth  of  the  fuft  of  the  column 
below  will  be  the  projedlure  of  the  capital.  He 
gives  the  following  direftions  for  the  diminution  of 
the  column. 

The  length  of  the  column  between  its  two  cy- 
mafiums,  is  to  be  divided  into  fix  parts,  two  thereof 
for  the  lower  part  of  the  column,  and  make  a  third 
of  its  height.  Having  made  the  divifion  from  the 
bottom  to  the  top,  tranfverfal  lines  are  to  be  drawn 
on  each  fide,  and  the  compafs  applied  from  one  end 
to  the  other  of  the  line  of  the  third  part ;  the  com- 
pafs placed  on  the  fide,  the  circle  is  to  be  divided 
from  one  of  the  fides  of  its  femicircle  to  that  part, 
where  the  line  falls  perpendicularly  for  the  higher 
fcope  of  the  column,  to  the  fix  parts  of  the  iclmo- 
graphy  on  the  pedeftal,  where  they  cut  the  fc?ni- 
round  on  the  left,  into  four  parts.  Likewife,  from 
each  part  muft  be  drawn  a  line  upwards,  beginning 
outwards,  and  proceeding  to  the  fixth  part  of  the 
fuft  ;  from  the  fecond  and  third  of  thefe  lines  thus 
conduiSled,  muft  be  drawn  thofe  for  the  diminution 
ot  the  column.  But  to  render  the  diminution  more 
juil:,  and  agreeable  to  the  eye,  he  advifes,  that  in- 
ftead of  dividing  the  circle  into  four  parts,  it  is 
better  to  divide  that  fame  fpace,  together  with  the 
column,  into  5,  6,  7,  or  8,  fince  the  great  number 
of  divifions  renders  always  the  diminution  more 
agreeable  and  perfecf. 

Vitruvit'S,  lib.  3.  c.  12.  gives  other  inftrudliors 
for  the  diminution  of  thel'e  columns,  and  will  have 
the  lower  diameter  of  a  Tufcan  one,  in  which  is 
16  feet  in  height  from  the  hafe  to  the  capital,  di- 
vided into  fix  parts,  allowing  live  for  the  to)-». 
Thofe  from  1  5  to  20  feet,  their  lower  diameter  ya 
to  be  divided  into  fix  parts  and  a  half,  five  and  a 
^  half 


148  The  Univcifal  Hiftory  of  Arts  tfwo^  Sciences. 


half  for  the  top.  P>om  cio  to  30,  the  diameter  is 
jiividcd  into  feven  parts  and  a  half,  lix  and  a  halt 
whereof  are  to  be  given  to  the  top.  But  from  40 
to  50,  the  diameter  muft  be  divided  into  eight 
parts,'  allowing  feven  to  the  top,  from  whence  will 
iflue  a  handfome  diminution. 

The  lame  author  divides  the  architrave,  which 
he  makes  half  the  breadth  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
column,  into  fix  parts,  one  he  gives  to  what  he 
calls  the  fuperior  cornice,  and  fubdivides  that  alfo 
into  three,  one  for  the  fillet,  and  the  two  others 
for  the  left  talon  ;  but  the  other  five  remaining  parts 
of  the  architrave,  he  lubdivides  into  nine,  five 
whereof  he  gives  to  the  (uperior  fafcia,  and  the 
four  remaining  to  the  inferior,  the  whole  with  its 
pro)ccture.  He  alfo  makes  the  height  of  the  freeze 
half  the  breadth  of  the  lower  part  of  the  column. 
Over  the  freeze  he  places  the  cornice,  of  an  equal 
altitude  with  the  freeze,  whofe  projedure  on  the 
left  fide,  is  equal  to  its  height  ;  and  is  to  be  di- 
vided into  four  parts,  one  for  the  talon,  fubdivided 
into  three,  one  thereof  for  thefafda,  and  the  two 
others  for  the  talon  ;  but  of  the  three  parts  re- 
maining of  the  cornice,  one  he  gives  to  the  echine, 
and  to  "the  fillet,  and  this  he  fubdivides  into  four, 
one  for  the  fillet,  and  three  for  the  echine,  and  the 
two  parts  remaining  of  the  firft  three,  are  for  the 
projefture,  which  is  equal  to  the  height. 

Others  divide  the  height  given  for  this  whole 
order,  into  ten  fcveral  parts,  take  two  for  that  of 
the  pedejlal,  and  divide  the  remaining  eight  parts 
into  five,  one  whereof  for  the  altitude  of  the  enta- 
blature, and  the  other  four  for  the  length  of  the 
column,  the  bafe,  and  the  capital  included  ;  fo  that 
the  entablature  is  by  that  means,  made  one  fourth 
of  the  length  of  the  column. 

Havingdivided  the  entablature  into  feven  parts, 
they  apply  two  to  the.  architrave,  two  to  the  freeze, 
and  two  to  the  cornice :  making  of  four  of  thefe 
parts,  the  diameter  of  the  column. 

They  divide  the  altitude  of  the  pedejlal  (h  i ) 
into  fix  parts  ;  two  for  the  baje  and  plinth  ;  three 
for  the  altitude  of  the  dye  ;   and  one  for  that  of 

the  cap. 

In  order  to  find  out  the  breadth  of  the  dye,  the 
diameter  of  the  column  is  divided  into  five  parts, 
and  feven  fuch  parts  is  the  breadth,  and  is  likewifey 
the  projeiSture  of  the  bafe  of  the  column. 

The  bafe  of  the  pedejial  is  found  by  the  divifion 
oi  the  two  parts  allotted  for  the  baJe  and  plinth, 
into  three,  allowing  one  to  the  bnfe  and  two  to  the 
fl  nth.  The  projcdure  of  the  cop  and  bafe  of  the 
pedejtal  is  equal  to  the  altitude  of  the  faid  bafe. 

In  order  to  diminifh  the  fhafts  of  the  column, 
they  will  have  its  diameter  taken  with  compalles, 


and  find  it  fix  times  contained  between  the  bafe  and 
the  capital ;  at  two  of  which  from  the  bafe,  they 
make  a  femi-circle ;  then  let  fall  a  perpendicular 
from  the  diameter  at  top,  and  cut  the  femi-circle 
at  four  ;  after  that  divide  the  part  of  the  femi-circle, 
focut  off  into  four  parts  (becaufe  four  parts  of  the 
fhaft  remain  above)  and  raife  perpendiculars  from 
the  faid  points,  to  the  corrcf'pondent  divifion,  which 
will  form  a  regular  curve  for  the  fwelhng. 

The  altitude  oi  thei(7/>of  the  column,  is  half  a 
diameter,  and  is  divided  into  two,  allowing  one  to 
the  plinth,  the  other  part  is  divided  into  four,  giving 
one  to  the  fillet,  and  three  to  the  torus.  The 
whole  projection  is  one  fifth  of  the  diameter  of 
the  column,  and  the  fillet  projeds  equal  to  its  al- 
titude. 

For  the  feveral  and  refpedive  members  of  the 
fede/lal,  bafe,  plinth,  and  cap,  they  divide  the  bafe 
into  three,  allowing  one  to  the  fillet  and  three  to 
the  hollow. 

They  divide  the  altitude  of  the  cap  into  four, 
allowing  one  to  the  ogee,  two  to  the  corona,  and 
one  to  the  band  at  top.  For  the  projeftions,  they 
make  them  both  equal  to  the  altitude  of  the  bafe, 
and  both  being  divided  into  three  parts,  they  con- 
ceive, by  inlpeclion,  the  projefture  of  the  feveral 
members. 

Having  fhewn  the  whole  altitude  of  the  entabla- 
ture to  be  one  diameter,  and  three  fourths,  and  fet 
oft"  the  principal  height  of  the  architrave,  freeze, 
and  cornice  ;  as  for  the  particular  members,  they 
divide  the  architrave  into  fix  parts,  allowing  two 
to  the  hrAfa/cii,  three  to  the  fecond,  and  one  to 
the  band  at  top.  They  make  the  projeftion  equal 
to  the  altitude  of  the  firft  band,  and  give  one  third 
to  the  fecond  fafcia. 

They  divide  the  altitude  of  the  cii-nice  into  nine 
parts  (/.  e.  each  principal  third  into  three)  allowing 
one  and  a  half  to  the  hollow,  half  to  the  fi lift,  one 
and  a  half  to  the  ovolo,  two  to  the  corona,  half  to 
a  fillet,  two  to  thefcima  re{ta,  and  one  to  the  upper 
fillet.  They  make  again  the  projedtion  equal  to 
its  altitude,  and  to  contain  the  fame  divifions,  pre- 
tending the  feveral  divifions  to  be  obvious  by  the 
infpeftion  of  the  fcalcs  only. 

They  make  the  capital  h-3.\f  z.  diameter  in  height, 
and  divide  it  into  three  parts,  allowing  one  to  the 
freeze  of  the  capital,  another  to  the  evo  0  znA  fillet, 
v.hich  is  one  fourth,  and  the  other  part  to  the 
abacus.  Thereby  the  projediion  is  one  eighth  of 
the  diameter,  which  gives  likewife  the  diameter  of 
the  column  at  top.  The  fillet  is  equal  to  the 
height. 

The  ajlragal,  or  collorino,  is  one  third  of  th« 
faid  freeze  of  the  capital  in  height,   and  the  fillet 

the 


ARCHirECrURE'. 


140 


the  height  thereof,  and  is  equal  to  the  height  in  its 
projection. 

In  the  Tufcatt  cornice,  (gi)  as  well  as  in  ail  o- 
thers,  they  preferve  the  principal  divifions,  both 
with  refpeft  to  the  height  and  projection,  and  in- 
troduce them  again,  with  no  other  intent  but  to 
corroborate  the  rules,  and  to  flicw  the  method  of 
forming  the  feveral  and  refpedlive  mouldings,  and 
which  they  fuppofe  difcernable  by  infpedlion. 

TheDoRiCK  is  thefecond  of  the  five  Orders, 
-being  that  between  the  Tufcan  and  lonick. 

As  for  the  invention  of  the  Dorick  order,  the  tra- 
dition is,  that  Dorus,  king  oi  Jchaia,  having  flrft 
built  a  temple  of  this  order  at  Argos,  which  he  de- 
dicated to  jum,  occafioned  it  to  be  called  Dorick  \ 
though  others  derive  its  name,  we  know  not  how, 
from  its  being  invented  or  ufed  by  the  Dorians. 

'Tis  the  moft  natural  and  the  belt  proportioned 
of  all  the  orders  ;  all   its  parts   being  founded  on 

■the  natural  pofition  of  folid  bodies At  its  iirft 

invention  it  was  more  fimple  than  at  prefent  ;  and 
when  in  procefs  of  time  they  came  to  adorn  and 
enrich  it  more,  the  appellation  Dorick  was  re- 
flrained  to  its  richer  manner,  and  the  primitive 
fimple  manner,  they  called  by  a  new  name,  Tufcan 
Order. 

Some  time  after  its  invention  they  reduced  it  to 
the  proportion,  flrength  and  beauty  of  the  body  of 
a  man.  Hence,  as  the  foot  of  a  man  was  judged 
the  fixth  part  of  its  height,  they  made  the  Dorick 
column,  including  the  capital,  fix  diameters  high, 
i.  e.  fix  times  as  high  as  thick. — Afterwards  they 
added  another  diameter  to  the  height,  and  made  it 
feven  diameters  ;  with  which  augmentation,  it 
might  be  faid  to  be  near  the  proportion  of  a  man  : 
the  human  foot,  at  leaft  in  our  days,  not  being  a 
fixth,  but  nearly  a  feventh  part  of  the  bodv. 

The  characters  of  the  Dorick  order,  as  now; 
managed,  are  the  height  of  its  column,  which  is 
eight  diameters  ;  its  freeze,  which  is  enriched  with 
iriglyphs,  drops,  and  metopes  ;  its  capital,  which  is 
without  volutes,  and  its  admitting  G^cymati'ums. 

Vitruvius  complains  of  the  Dorick,  as  very  trou- 

blefome  and  perplexing,  on  account  of  the  trlglyphs 

and  metopes,  (o  as  fcarce  to  be  capable  of  being 

-ufed,  except  in  the  pycnojiyle,  by  putting  a  triglyph 

between  two  columns  ;    or    in   the  araoflylc,  by 

•  putting  three  triglyphs  between  each  two  columns. 

The  moderns,  on  account  of  its  folidity,  ufe  it 
in  large,  ftrong  buildings  ;  as  in  the  gates  of  cities 
and  citadels,  the  outfides  of  churches,  and  other 
mafl'y  work,  where  delicacy  of  ornament  would  be 
unfuitable. 

Fignola  z.i]\i{ist\\c  proportions  of  the  Dorick  Or- 
der, thus :  the  whole  height  of  the  order,  with- 


out pede/lal,  he  divides  into  twenty  parts  or  mo- 
dules; one  of  which  he  allows  t)\c  bafe,  fourteen 
to  the  Jhaft  or  fuft,  one  to  the  capital,  and  four  to 
the  entablature. 

PalladiovnW  havethema(/«/i?ofthis  order  to  be  but 
half  the  diameter  of  the  column,  divided  into  thirty 
minutes,  whereof  in  the  other  orders,  he  makes  jt 
the  whole  diameter,  divided  into  fixty. 

The  fame  author  will  have  the  Dorick  column,  if 
infular  without  piers,  to  be  eight  diameters  in 
length,  or  feven  and  a  half  at  leaft  ;  and  feventeen 
modules,  and  a  third  (including  the  bafe  and  capital) 
when  joined  to  piers. 

He  obferves,  that  when  a  pedeftal  (h  2)  is  to  be 
joined  to  this  order  (which  he  fays  was  not  the  cu- 
ftom  of  the  ancients)  the  dado  or  dye,  muft  be 
fquare,  from  whence  the  meafure  of  its  decorations 
muft  be  Taken  ;  therefore  he  divides  it  firft,  into 
three  proportional  parts,  allowing  two  for  the  bafe 
and  its  plinth,  and  the  third  for  the  cymatium, 
whereto  the  plinth  oi\kiS.  bafe  of  the  column  muft  be 
joined. 

He  fuppofes  no  peculiar  bufe  (a  2)  to  this  order, 
which  is  the  reafon  he  gives  for  thefe  columns  be- 
ing found  without  bafes  in  feveral  buildings,  as  the 
theatre  of  A'larcellus  at  Rome  ;  the  temple  de  la 
Piela,  adjacent  to  it,  the  theatre  of  Vicenza,  &c. 
but  pretends  the  Jttick  bafe  to  be  a  great  ornament 

to  it. He  then  proceeds  to  give  us  the  exaCl 

meafures  thereof. — He  will  have  its  height  half  the 
diameter  of  the  column,  and  divided  into  three 
proportional  parts  ;  one  for  the  plinth,  and  the 
other  two  fubdivided  into  four  proportional  parts  ; 
one  for  the  upper  torus,  the  other  three  fubdivided 
again,  into  two  proportional  parts  ;  one  whereof  is 
the  lower  torus,  and  the  other  the  cavetto,   with  is 

UJiellds. He   alfo   gives    thefe  their  particular 

meafure,  and  divides  them  into  fix  parts  ;  the  firft 
for  the  upper  UJlella,  the  fecond  for  the  lower,  and 

the  four  others  for  the  cavetto. He  makes  the 

whole  projeClure,  the  fixth  part  of  the  diameter  of 
the  column,  and  the  cinffure  half  the  upper  torus, 

In  cafe  he  divides  it  from  the  bafe,  he  makes 

its  projedlure  a  third  of  that  of  the  bafe  ;  but  In 
cafe  t\\i:  bafe  and  part  of  the  column  make  one  per- 
feCt  piece,  he  will  then  hnve  its  cinSlure  fmall. 

The  capital,  (b2)  fays  he,  muft  be  half  the  di- 
ameter of  the  column,  and  divided  into  three  parts, 
the  firft  whereof  iubdii'iJed  into  five  parts,  of  which 
three  are  for  the  abacus,  and  the  other  two  for  the 
cymatium  ;  which  being  fubdivided  into  three  parts, 
the  firft  goes  to  the  li/tc-lla,  and  the  tv.'o  laft  to  the 

cymatium. The  fecond  principal  part  he   fubdi- 

vides  into  three  proportional  parts  ;  one  for  the  an- 
nulets or  fquares,  which  are  ail  proportional ;  the 
other  two  for  the  ovolo,  the  projeclure  whereof  he 


U  2 


niiikas 


150 


n^e  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  'and  Sciences. 


makes  two  thirds  of  its  height ;  allow  iiig  the  third  \^ 
principal  part  for  the  callorino,  io  that   the    entire 
projetSure  mult  be  the  fifth  part  of  the  diameter  of 
the  column. 

He  makes  the  height  of  the  ajiragal  proportional 
to  the  three  lijiellii  s,  and  to  projedt  to  the  lower 
part  of  the  ftiaft  of  the  column  ;  and  the  cinifure 
iialf  the  height  of  the  ajiragal,  and  its  proje£lure 
direil  with  its  center. — The  architrave  (ea)  raifed 
upon  the  capital,  and  whole  height  mult  be  half 
the  diameter  of  the  column,  (b  2)  he  divides  into 
feven  parts,  one  for  the  tcuiri  or  fillet,  whofe  pro- 
jecture  is  proportional  to  its  height,  and  afterwards 
lubdivides  the  whole  into  fix  parts,  one  for  the 
gutta,  of  which  there  mud  be  fix,  and  the  lijlel 
under  the  tenia,  which  he  makes  a  third  part  of 
the,  gutta. — The  remainder  from  the /£■««  down- 
wards, he  fubdividcs  into  feven  parts  ;  three  of 
them  for  the  fiti\.fafda,  and  the  other  four  for  the 
fecond. — He  makes  the  freeze  (f  2)  a  module  and  a 
half  high,  the  breadth  of  the  triglyph  a  module,  and 
its  capital  the  fixth  part.  The  triglyph  he  divides 
into  fix  parts ;  two  whereof  are  for  the  two  chan- 
nels in  the  middle,  one  for  the  two  half  channels 
at  the  ends,  and  three  for  the  fpaces  between  the 
faid  channels.  He'll  have  the  metope,  which  is 
the  fpace  between  the  triglyphs,  a  perfect  fquare. 
— He'll  have  alio  the  cornice  (g2)  a  module,  and  a 
fixth  in  height,  and  divided  into  five  parts  and  a 
half,  iwofov  xYiQ  cavetts  znA  ovolo,  (the  cavetto  to 
be  lefs  than  the  ovolo,  and  exactly  as  much  as  its 
lijiella)  the  other  three  and  a  half  for  the  corona, 
and  both  the  cimas,  the  reiia,  and  the  reverfa. 

He  makes  the  projedlure  of  the  corona,  two  thirds 
of  a  module,  and  in  the  face  thereof,  which  looks 
downwards,  and  proje£fs  along  the  triglyphs,  places 
fix  gutta  in  length,  and  three  in  breadth,  with  their 
lijiella  s,  and  fome  rofes  over  the  metope.  The 
gutt.v  are  round  in  the  form  of  bells,  and  anfwer 
to  thofe  under  the  tenia.  The  body  of  the  cyma- 
tium  is  one  eighth  larger  than  the  corona,  and  is 
divided  into  eight  parts,  two  for  the  plinth,  and 
fix  for  the  cymatium,  the  projecSture  whereof  is 
feven  and  a  half;  fo  that  the  altitude  of  the  archi- 
trave, the  freeze  and  cornice,  are  a  fourth  part  of 
the  height  of  the  column. 

Moft  of  the  JrchiteHi  divide  the  altitude  given 
for  this  whole  order,  firfl  into  ten  parts,  allowing 
two  to  the  pedejial,  and  dividing  the  remaining 
eight  parts  into  five  ;  then  give  four  to  the  length 
of  the  column,  including  the  bafe  and  capital,  and 
referve  the  other  one  for  the  entablature,  which 
they  divide  into  four  parts,  two  whereof  they  make 
the  diameter  of  the  column  :  thus  the  column  will 
be  eight  diameters  high,  and  the  entablature  one 
fourth  of  the  length  of  the  columa.     Having  di- 


vided the  architrave  into  four,  they  give  one  to  the 
architrave,  one  and  a  half  to  the  freeze,  and  one 
and  a  half  to  the  cornice.  They  make  the  archi- 
trave to  projeft  one  fixth  of  its  height,  and  the  cor- 
nice a  diameter  of  the  column  ;  that  is  to  fay,  four 
fuch  parts  as  it  is  three  in  height.  The  height  of 
the  pedjlal  they  divide  into  feven  parts,  allowing 
two  to  the  bafe  znA  plinth,  four  to  the  dadojovdye, 
and  one  to  the  cap. 

They  diminifh  the  column  one  fixth  of  the  di- 
ameter, from  one  third  of  the  length  of  thtflaft 
orfuft  ;  and  fay,  that  if  the  diameter  at  bottom  be 
divided  into  five,  the  Z'l^^/i' of  the  column  will  pro- 
jc6t,  on  each  fide,  one  of  theie  parts,  which  will 
give  the  breadth  of  the  dado  of  the  pedejial,  and  by 
that  means  make  it  a  fquare.  They  make  the  bafe 
of  the  pedefialonQ  third  of  the  two  parts  for  the  bafe 
and  plinth,  and  its  projecStion  equal  to  the  height, 
and  the  cap  to  projeft  four  fifths  of  the  height. 

They  make  the  height  of  the  bafe  of  the  column 
half  the  diameter,  and  the  projedlion  to  give  the 
breadth  of  the  pedejial,  which  is  a  diameter,  and 
two  fifths. 

VoT  the  particular  members  of  the  pedejial  they 
divide  the  height  of  the  bafe  into  fix,  giving  three 
to  the  torui,  one  to  the  fillet,  and  tv/o  to  the  hollow^ 
pretending  that  the  projection  being  the  fame  parts,, 
each  member  is  eafy  to  fet  off  by  infpection. 
They  divide  the  cap  into  five  parts,  giving  one  tO' 
the  fiollow,  half  a  part  to  the  fillet,  one  and  a  half 
to  the  ovolo,  one  and  a  half  to  the  corona,  and  half 
a  part  to  the  fillet  at  top  ;  therefore  the  projeftion. 
muit  have  four  of  thefe  parts. 

The  height  of  the  bafe  of  the  column  they  divide 
into  three  parts,  one  for  the  plinih.  the  half  of  an- 
other for  the  upper  torus,  and  the  half  of  the  re- 
mainder for  the  lower  torus ;  then  the  remaining 
three  fourths  are  divided  into  fix,  one  for  eich  fillet, 
and  four  for  the  fcotia.  They  make  the  whole  pro- 
jeiflion  one  fifth  of  the  diameter^  and  dividing  it 
into  three,  they  give  one  to  the  upper  fillet,  which 
is  part  of  the  column,  and  is  double  the  height  of 
the  others,  and  another  to  the  upper  torus.. 

They  make  a  Dorick  fluted  co'-umn  (b  2)  with 
twenty  in  number,  fluted  to  an  edge,  fome  making 
their  form  or  depth  by  the  center,  being  in  the 
middle  of  a  fquare  ;  others  by  the  joint  of  an  equi- 
lateral triangle 

Having;  made  the  whole  he\^toi^^  entablature 
two  diameters,  they  divide  it  into  four,  one  for 
the  architrave,  owe  z.iiA.  a  half  for  theyrr^zf,  and  one, 
and  a  half  for  the  cornice.  As  for  the  particular 
members  they  divide  the  architrave  into  fix  ;  twOi 
for  the  firit  face,  three  for  the  fecond,  and  one  for 
the  band  at  top.  They  allow  one  of  thefe  parts  ta 
the  gutta  or  bells,  and  a  third  thereof  to  their fillei.; 

as 


.ARCHITECTURE. 


151 


2js  well  as  to  the  prqjedion.  They  adorn  the  freeze 
with  triglyphs,  which  are  half  a  diameter  in  breadth, 
one  whereof  they  place  in  the  middle  of  the  co- 
lumn, and  make  the  metope^  or  place  beween,  equal 
to  the  height  of  the  i-Aid  freexe.  They,  afterwards, 
divide  the  triglyphs  into  twelve  parts,  allowing  one 
to  each  half  channel,  two  to  each  whole  channel, 
and  two  to  each  of  the  fpace  betv/een  the  channels. 
They  make  the  projedlion  of  the  triglyph  one  and  a 
half  of  thefe  parts. 

They  divide  the  height  of  the  cornice  into  three, 
and  divide  again  the  lower  part  into  three  ;  one 
gives  the  cap  of  the  triglyph,  one  the  holloiu  and 
fillet,  (which  is  one  fourth)  and  the  other  the  ovolo. 
The  other  two  parts  they  divide  into  feven,  al- 
lowing two  to  the  mutiile  and  cap,  two  to  the  co- 
rona, one  to  the  fciiKa  reverfa  VinA  fillet,  and  two  to 
the  fiima  reifa  and  fillet,  and  difcover  the  fmaller 
divilions  by  infpe<3ion. 

As  to  the  projeStians,  the  whole  being  four  Yuch 
parts  as  the  three  in  height,  they  divide  again  the 
lirft  of  them  into  three,  allowing  one  to  the  cap  of 
the  triglyph,  another  to  the  t-(Wf«i7,  and  the  other  to 
the  0V3I0.  The  outer  part  they  fubdivide  likewife 
into  feven,  which  regulate  the  fcima  and  corona. 

The  height  of  the  capital  they  divide  into  three, 
«ne  gives  the  freeze  of  the  capital,  another  the  fil- 
lets and  ovoio,  and  the  third  the  abacus,  fcima  re 
verfa  and  fillet ;  but  to  be  more  particular,  the 
middle  part  is  divided  into  three,  allowing  one  to 
the  fillets,  which  are  three,  and  equal,  or  (as  on 
the  other  fide)  one  to  afillet, a.nd  two  to  znajlragal; 
the  upper  third  part  they  divide  into  five,  allowing 
three  to  the  abacus,  and  two  to  the  fcima  reverja 
and  fillet,  which  is  one  third.  They  make  the 
projection  equal  to  the  height  of  the  freeze,  and 
fillets  together,  and  from  its  being  divided  into  four, 
expedl  the  xeft  to  be  feen  at  once. 

Jo  regulate  the  intercotumnations  in  the  Dorlck 
grdtr,  it  muft  be  done  according  to  the  number  of 
triglyphs  intended  between,  allowing  for  one  tri- 
glyph between,  one  diameter  and  a  half  ;  for  two 
triglyphs  two  and  three  fourths,  and  for  three  tri- 
glyphs four  diameters. 


The  Ionic  Column  (b  3)  is  the  third  in  order, 
and  is  diftinguifhed  from  the  Compoftte,  in  that  it 
has  none  of  the  leaves  of  the  acanthus  in  it  capital; 
from  the  Tufcan,  Dorick  and  Corinthian,  by  the  vo- 
hites  or  rams-horns,  which  adorn  its  capital ;  and 
from  the  Tufcan  too  by  the  channels,  or  flutings  in 
its  Jhaft. 

The  Ionic  Order  owes  its  origin  to  Ionia,  a 
province  of  ^/fl,  audit  is  faid  the  temple  of  i)/(?/7(7 
at  Ephefus,  the  molt  celebrated  edifice  of  all  anti- 
quity was  of  this  order.     The  Ionic  has  an  advan- 

II 


tage  above  any  of  the  reft;  and  it  confifts  in  this, 
that  the  fore  and  hind  parts  of  its  capital  are  dif- 
ferent from  its  fides.  But  this  is  attended  with  an 
inconvenience,  when  the  ordonnance  is  to  turn 
from  the  front  of  the  building  to  the  fides  ;  to  ob- 
viate which,  the  capital  may  be  made  angular,  as 
is  done  in  the  temple  of  Fortuna  Firilis. 

This  column  is  a  medium  between  the  maflive 
and  delicate  orders,  the  fimple  and  the  rich.  Its 
height  is  eighteen  modules,  or  nine  diameters  of  the 
column  taken  at  the  bottom.  When  it  was  firft 
invented  its  height  was  but  fixteen  moclides  ;  but 
the  ancients,  to  render  it  ftill  more  beautiful  than 
the  Dorick,  augmented  its  height  by  adding  a  hafe 
to  it,  which  was  unknown  in  the  Dorick. 

M.  Le  Clerk  makes  its  entablature  four  modides 
and  ten  minutes,  and  its  pedejlal  (h  3)  fix  entire 
modules  ;  fo  that  the  whole  order  makes  twenty- 
eight  modules  and  minutes. 

Palladio  will  have  this  column  with  its  capital 
(c  3)  and  bafe  (a  3)  nine  modides  high,  (making  the 
module -2.  d^izmetex  of  the  column  below.)  Its  ar- 
chitrave, {e-f)  freeze,  (f3)  znd  cornice,  (g  3)  are 
a  fifth  part  of  the  height  of  the  column,  and  the 
intercolumnations  two  diameters  and  a  quarter, 
which  he  believes  the  mofl  commodious,  and  the 
moft  fit  to  ftrike  the  eye  agreeably. 

In  the  arches  where  the  Ionic  columns  are  to  have 
pedejlals,  he  makes  their  height  equal  to  half  the 
breadth  of  the  opening  of  the  arch,  and  divides  it 
into  feven  parts  and  a  half,  two  for  the  bafe,  one 
for  the  cymatium,  and  the  other  four  and  a  half  for 
the  dado.  He  makes  the  bafe  of  the  Ionic  order  half 
a  module  thick,  and  divides  it  into  three  parts,  one 
for  the  plinth,  the  projecture  whereof  is  the  fourth, 
and  an  eighth  part  of  the  ?nodu!e,  dividing  the  other 
two  into  feven  parts,  three  whereof  he  gives  to  the 
torus,  fubdividing  the  other  four  into  two  parts, 
one  for  the  upper  cavetto,  and  the  other  for  the 
lower  cavetto,  which  ought  to  have  the  greatelt 
projeiSlure.  He  has  the  a/lragals,  the  eighth  of  the 
cavetto,  the  cincture  of  the  column  the  third  part 
of  the  torus  of  the  hafe,  provided  the  ciniTlurc  be 
not  joined  to  the  bafe  of  the  column;  for  in  that 
cafe  he  makes  it  fmaller,  making  its  proje(Sture 
half  of  that  above  mentioned. 

To  make  the  capital,  he  divides  the  diameter  at 
the  bafe  of  the  column  into  eighteen  parts,  and 
nineteen  of  fuch  parts  make  the  length  and  breadth 
of  the  abacus,  one  half  whereof  is  the  height  of  the 
capital,  with  its  volutes,  whence  its  height  muft  be 
nine  parts  and  a  half;  one  and  a  half  whereof  is 
for  the  abacus  with  its  cym-itiiim,  and  the  other 
eight  for  the  volutes,  which   he  makes   after  this 


b 

manner. 

He  takes  one  of  the  nineteen  parts  from  the  end 

ct 


7^e  Univerfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


152 

of  the  cymtitium,  inward,  and  fiom  the  point  made, ' 
he  lets  down  a  plum-line  to  divide  the  volute  in  the 
middle.  Where  the  point  falls  upon  this  line, 
which  feparatts  the  four  parts  and  a  half  above, 
from  the  three  and  a  half  below,  the  centre  of  the 
volute  is  made,  whofe  diameter  is  one  of  the  eight 
parts  ;  and  from  the  afore  faid  point  he  draws  a 
line,  which  as  it  cuts  the  catheto  at  right  angles, 
divides  the  volute  into  four  parts.  Then  he  makes 
a  iquare  in  the  eye  of  the  volute-,  about  the  fame 
"bignefs  as  the  femi -diameter  of  the  fame  eye  ;  and 
drawing  diagonal  lines,  he  marks  the  points  upon 
them,  where  the  fixed  foot  of  the  compafs  muft 
Hand  to  make  the  volute  ;  which  points  or  centers 
are  thirteen  in  number,  the  eye  inclufive.  He 
places  the  ajlragal  of  the  column  in  a  direct  line 
with  the  eye  of  the  volute.  He  makes  the  thicknefs 
of  the  volutes,  in  the  middle,  in  proportion  to  the 
projeiSlure  of  the  ovolo,  which  mull  projedt  beyond 
the  abacus,  juft  as  much  as  the  eye  of  the  volute. 
The  channel  of  the  volute  is  even  with  t\\&Jhaft  of 
the  column.  The  ajlragal  of  the  column  goes 
under  the  volute,  and  is  always  feen. 

Palladia  ufually  makes  capitals  in  the  angles  of 
colonades  or  portico's  of  the  Ionic  order,  with 
volutes,  not  only  in  the  front,  but  alfo  in  that  part 
which  would  have  been  the  flank,  in  cafe  the  ca- 
pi  al  was  to  be  made  as  generally  it  is  ;  by  which 
means  they  have  the  front  on  two  fides,  and  are 
called  by  him  Angular  Capitals. 

The  lame  author  makes  the  architrave,  freeze, 
and  cornice,  a  fifth  part  of  the  altitude  of  the  co- 
lumn,  and  divides  it  into  twelve  parts  ;  fome 
whereof  are  for  the  architrave,  three  for  ^^  free%e, 
and  five  for  the  cornice.  'I  he  architrave  he  fubdi- 
vides  into  five  parts,  one  for  the  cymatium,  and 
the  remainder  is  again  fubdivided  into  twelve  parts; 
three  whereof  are  for  the  i\.Afajcia  and  its  ajlragal, 
four  for  the  fecond,  and  five  for  the  third.  He 
divides  the  cornice  into  feven  parts  and  three- 
fourths,  two  for  the  cuvetto  and  the  ovolo,  two  for 
the  modillon,  and  three  and  three-fourths  for  the  co- 
rona and  the  cymatium.  The  projeclure  or  jetting 
•ut  of  the  W'hole  cornice,  he  renders  proportional 
io  its  altitude. 

Others  divide  whatever  height  be  given  for  the 
whole  order,  into  ten  parts,  and  allowing  two  to 
the  pedejlal,  divide  the  remaining  eight  into  fix, 
giving  one  to  the  entablature,  and  five  to  the  length 
of  the  column,  inclufive  of  the  capital  and  hafe. 
The  laid  length  being  divided  into  nine  parts,  they 
find  it  to  be  the  diameter  of  tiie  column,  which, 
like  moll  of  the  other  Architeils,  they  make  ule  of 
to  regulate  fome  of  the  fmallefl  members. 

The  height  of  the  entablature  they  divide  into 
fzx,  allowing  two  to  the  architrave,   one   and   a 


half  to  ^\&  freeze,  and  two  and  a  half  to  the  cornice, 
making  the  projedlure  of  the  architrave  one  fourth 
of  its  height,  and  that  of  the  cornice  equal  to  its 
height.  They  divide  the  height  of  the  pedejMinto 
feven  parts,  allowing  two  to  the  bafe  and  plinth, 
four  to  the  dado,  and  one  to  the  cap. 

They  diminilh  the  column  one  fixth  of  the  di- 
ameter, from  one  third  of  the  length  of  the  /haft, 
in  the  fame  manner  as  the  laft  order,  and  the  bafe 
of  the  column  projedls  the  fame,  which  gives  them 
likewife  the  breadth  of  the  dado  of  the  pedeftal. 
They  make  the  bafe  of  the  pedeftal,  one  third  of  the 
two  parts  given  for  the  bafe  and  plinth,  and  the  pro- 
je£lion  thereof  equal  to  the  height,  and  the  cap  to 
projetSl  three  fourths  of  its  height. 

They  make  the  height  of  the  bafe  of  the  column 
half  the  diameter,  and  the  proiedtion  one  fifth  part 
of  the  whole  diameter,  which  gives  the  breadth  of 
the  pedeftal ;  for  the  principal  members  thereof  they 
divide  the  height  of  the  haje  into  four  parts,  allow- 
ing half  a  part  to  the  filet,  two  to  the  cymate,  one 
half  part  to  the  ^//f/,  and  one  to  the  hollow.  The 
projeiStion  being  equal  to  the  height,  and  divided 
into  the  fame  number  of  parts,  tbe  members,  fay 
they,  appear  by  infpedlion.  They  likewife  divide 
the  cap  into  four  parts,  allowing  one  to  the  hollovi 
zni  fillet,  which  is  one  fourth,  another  to  the  ovolo, 
another  to  the  corona,  and  one  to  the  ogee  2.ni  fillet, 
which  is  one  third.  They  make  the  whole  pro- 
jeflion  three  of  the  four  parts  of  the  height,  and  di- 
viding each  third  into  three,  they  fet  oflt"as  to  ap- 
pear by  infpe£lion. 

The  bafe  of  the  column  they  divide  into  three 
parts,  one  for  the  plinth,  and  the  other  two  as  they 
are  divided  in  the  Dorick  order.  They  make  the 
bead  above  the  upper  torus,  part  of  the  column, 
and  double  the  height  oi  the  fillets  ;  and  the  fillet 
above  the  faid  bead  equal  to  the  others,  and  the 
proje£lion  the  lame  as  in  the  Dorick. 

They  make  twenty-four  flutes  in  the  fluted  co- 
lumns of  the  Ionic,  each  of  a  femicircle  in  depth, 
and  the  lift  ox  fillet,  between  each  one  third  of  the 
faid  flutes. 

The  whole  height  of  the  Ionic  capital,  (c  3) 
which  they  conceive  to  be  more  difficult  than  the 
former,  is  made  half  a  diameter,  which  being  firfl 
divided  into  three  parts,  the  upper  part  is  for  the 
abacus,  which  is  divided  again  into  three,  one  for 
the  upper  part,  half  a  part  for  the  fillet,  and  one 
and  a  half  for  the  lower  part.  From  the  middle  of 
the  faid  abacus  downwards,  it  is  divided  into  eight 
parts,  allowing  two  and  an  half  from  the  bottom 
of  the  volute  to  the  fillet,  half  a  part  to  the  fillet, 
one  to  the  a/iragal,  and  two  to  the  ovolo. 

The  whole  height  of  the  entablature,  they  di- 
vide into  fix  parts  (as  before  mentioned)  allowing 

two 


ARCHITECTUR    E. 


'53 


two  to  the  arch'trave,  one  and  an  half  to  thefrt-eze, 
and  two  and  an  half  to  the  cornice  ;  as  for  the  par- 
ticular members,  the  architrave  (e  3)  being  di- 
vided into  two  parts,  each  is  fubdividcd  into  eight, 
in  all  fixteen,  allowing  three  to  the  firft  face,,  four 
fo  the  fecond,  five  to  the  third,  one  to  the  bead^ 
two  to  the  ogee,  and  one  to  the  Ji/let.  They  make 
the  projeftion  one  fourth  of  the  height,  and  the 
upper  face  one  third  thereof.  They  form  the  freeze 
(f  3)  by  making  a  triangle  on  the  middle  part  of 
three  in  its  height,  whofe  oppofite  angle  is  the 
center  for  the  carve  or  fwelling. 

l~hey  divide  the  height  of  the  cornice  (g  3)  into 
eight  parts,  allowing  one  to  the  hollow  and  JULt, 
(Which  is  one  fourth)  another  to  the  ovolo,  and  two 
more  to  the  modillon  ^nicap  (which  is  half  a  part) 
the  upper  four  parts  they  fubdivide  into  five,  giving 
two  to  the  corona,  one  to  the  fcima  reverfa  and 
fillet  (which  is  one  fourth,)  one  and  an  half  to  the 
fcima  re£ia,  and  half  a  part  to  the  fillet.  They 
make  the  whole  proje£lion  equal  to  the  height,  and 
divide  it  into  nine  parts  (each  being  one  twelfth  of 
the  diameter)  and  as  to  the  feveral  members,  they 
refer  to  a  due  infpection. 

Scamozzi,  and  fomc  other  modern  ArchiteSls, 
have  introduced  the  upper  part  of  the  Compoftte  ca 
pital  in  lieu  of  the  Ionic,  imitating  that  of  the  tem- 
ple of  Concord,  whofe  four  fides  are  alike  ;  to  ren- 
der it  more  beautiful,  the  volute  may  be  made  a 
little  oval  and  inclining. 

At  prefent  the  Ionic  order  is  properly  ufed  in 
churches  and  religious  houfes,  in  courts  of  juftice 
and  other  places  of  fuppofed  tranquility,  and  de- 
votion. 

TheCoRiNTHiAN  Order,  the  fourth,  or  as .?ftf- 
ttiozzi  and  M.  Le  Cirri  make  it,  the  fifth,  and  laft 
of  the  Orders  cf  Architecture  isthe  nohkft, 
richeft,  and  moft  dtlicate  of  them  all.  Tnis  is  faidby 
the  ancients  to  be  invented  as  remarked  on  page  142. 
But  Callimachus,  a  Corintbum  Sculptor,  is  thought 
by  moft  of  the  modern  writers  to  have  been  the  in- 
ventor of  this  order  of  ArchiteBiire,   and  that  paffing 
by  the  tomb  of  a  young  lady,  over  which  her  nurfe 
had  placed   a  bafket  with  fome  of  her  play  things,  I 
and  covered  it  up  from  the  weather  with  a  tile  ;  the  1 
whole  having  been  placed  on  a  root  oi  achanius  ;  as  j 
it  fprung  up,  the  branches  encompaffed  the  bafket,  j 
and  bending  down  a-top  under  the  corner  of  the 
tile,  formed  a   kind  of  volutes ;  hence  Callimachus 
took  his  hint :  the  bafket  he  imitated  in   the  vafe 
of  his  column  ;  the  leaves   in  the  volutes,  and  the 
tile  in  the  abacus  of  his  order.     Villalpandus  treats 
this  ftory  of  Ci^/Z/wWwf,  as  a  fable  ;  and  will  have 
the  Corinthian  capital  to  have  taken  its  origin  from 
an  order  in  Solomons  temple,    the  leaves  whereof 
were  thoft  of  the  palm  tree. 


The  Corinthian  has  feveral  charaflers,  whereby 
it  is  diltinguifhed  from  the  reft.  Its  capital  (c  4) 
is  adorned  with  two  rows  of  leaves,  between  which 
rife  little  ftalks  or  caulicoles,  whereof  the  volutes 
are  formed,  which  fupport  the  abacus,  and  are  fix- 
teen in  number.  It  has  no  ovolo,  nor  even  abacus, 
properly  fpeaking  ;  for  the  member  that  goes  by 
that  name  is  quite  different  from  the  abacus  in  the 
other  orders  ;  being  cut  with  a  fweep,  in  the  mid- 
dle, on  which  is  carved  a  rofe,  or  other  ornament. 

Fitruvius  obferves,  that  the  Corinthian  order  has 
no  particular  oi^onnance  for  its  cornice,  or  any  of 
the  other  ornaments  of  its  entablature  ;  nor  does  he 
give  it  any  other  proportions  than  thofe  of  the 
lotiick  order  ;  fo  that  if  it  'appears  higher  than  the 
lonick,  it  is  purely  owing  to  the  excefs  of  the  height 
of  its  capital.  He  alfo  makes  the  reft  of  the  enta- 
blature the  lame ;  and  the  Attick  bafe  he  ufes  indif- 
ferently for  the  one  and  the  other. 

But  we  have  feveral  examples  now  remaining  of 
antiquity,  which  contradiiSl  Vitruvius'%  opinion  ; 
the  moft  beautiful  whereof  have  a  particular  bafe 
(a  4)  and  the  whole  order  twenty  modules  m  height; 
whereas  the  lonick  has  but  eighteen.  Again,  its  ca- 
pital is  higher  than  that  of  Vitruvius  by  one  third 
of  a  module;  and  its  entablature,  which  has  modil- 
/»«i,  and  iometxTnes  dentils,  together  with  modillon-^, 
is  very  diff'erent  from  the  Ionic  entablature. 

Moft  of  the  modern  ArchiteEls  fet  afide  Vitru- 
vius s  Corinthian  ordonnance,  and  iollow  that  of 
the  ancient  buildings,  feleiSting  from  them  accord- 
ing to  their  feveral  taftes  :  fo  that  modern  Corin- 
thian is  a  kind  of  Compofite;  differing  from  any  of 
the  ancient  buildings,  and  much  more  from  Fitru- 
vius's  rules. 

Fignola  and  Mr.  le  Clerc  make  the  Corinthian  or- 
der twenty  modules  high  :  yet  Serlio  makes  it  only 
eighteen ;  and  Mr.  Perrault  eighteen  and  two- 
thirds,  retrenching  fcmething  from  the  nineteen  of 
Fitruvius.  The  height  of  the  ftiaft,  Mr  Perrault 
makes  lefs  than  that  of  the  hnic,  by  reafon  of  the 
excefs  of  its  capital. 

Palladio  makes  the  Corinthian  columns  nine  mo- 
dules and  an  half  in  height,  including  both  their 
bafe  and  capital  (and  in  cafe  they  are  to  be  fluted) 
with  twenty -four  fiutes  or  hollows,  whofe  depth  is 
in  proportion  to  half  their  breadth.  The  plan,  or 
interval  between  tv/o  fiutes,  he  makes  one  third 
part  of  the  breadth  of  tholis  _/?«/«.  The  architrave, 
(e  4.)  freeze,  (f  ^)  and  cornice,  (g  4)  are  a  fifth 
part  of  the  height  of  the  column,  he  will  have  the 
altitude  of  the  pede/ial  one  fourth  part  of  the  height 
of  the  column,  and  divides  it  into  eight  parts  ;  one 
for  the  cymatiwn,  two  for  the  bafe,  (a  4)  and  the 

other  five  for  the  d\e. when  he  has  divided  the 

bafe  into  three  parts  i  two  yf  them  go  to  the  plinth, 
■  (D4) 


154  '^^^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  «W  Sciences. 


(D  4)  and  one  to  the  mouldings.  Like  Vitruvim 
he  fets  the  Altk  bafe  under  this  order,  but  difterent 
from  that  which  is  placed  under  the  Dorick,  the 
prOjCdure  thereof  being  one  fifth  part  of  the  dia- 
meter of  the  column. 

He  makes  the  height  of  the  Corinthian  capital, 
the  diameter  of  the  column  below,  and  a  fixth 
whicl)  he  allows  to  the  abacus,  the  refidue  he  divides 
into  three  proportional  parts  ;  the  firft  is  for  the  firft 
row  of  leaves,  the  fecond  for  the  middle  row,  and 
the  third  he  fubdivides  into  two  parts  ;  the  cauli- 
coles,  or  ftalks,  together  with  their  leaves,  which 
are,  as  it  were,  fupported  by  them,  and  out  of 
which  they  grow,  he  makes  of  the  part  which  is 
neareft  the  abacus  :  the  ftalk  thereof,  or  fujl,  from 
whence  they  fpring,  he  will  have  thick,  and  to 
decreafe  gradually  in  their  foldings,  like  plants 
which  are  thicker  at  the  bottom,  than  at  the  end  of 
their  branches.  He  makes  the  campana,  or  bell, 
which  is  the  ftalk  of  the  column  under  the  leaves, 
perpendicular  to  tlie  bottom  of  ihs fides  of  the 
column. 

In  order  to  give  the  abacus  a  proper  projciSture, 
he  forms  a  perfect  fquarc,  the  fide  whereof  is  a 
module  and  a  half;  in  which  fquare  he  draws  dia- 
gonal lines,  the  point  of  the  interfedlion  thereof, 
is  in  the  center,  on  which  he  places  the  foot  of  the 
compafs,  and  makes  a  module  towards  each  angle ; 
drawing  lines,  which  cut  the  faid  diagonals  at  right 
antfles,  where  thefe  points  meet,  fo  as  to  touch  the 
iides  of  the  fquare  ;  and  thefe  are  his  limits  of  the 
projedure,  whofe  length  gives  the  breadth  of  the 
horns  of  the  abacus.  To  make  its  curvature,  or 
dimunition,  he  draws  a  circulai-  line  from  one  horn 
to  the  other,  and   makes  the   point ;  whereby  an 


The  height  given  for  the  Corinthian  order,  ij 
alfo  often  divided  into  ten  parts,  giving  two  to  the 
pcdejial,  (h4)  and  dividing  the  other  eight  parts 
into  fix,  five  for  the  length  of  the  column,  with 
the  bafe  and  capital,  and  the  other  for  the  height 
of  the  entablature.  They  afterwards  divide  the 
length  of  the  column  into  nineteen  parts,  and 
make  two  of  them  the  diameter  of  the  faid  co- 
lumn ;  from  whence  they  form  feveral  of  the  mi- 
nuter parts. 

They  divide  the  heiglit  of  the  entablature  into 
fix  parts,  giving  two  to  the  architrave,  one  and  a 
half  to  the  freeze,  and  two  and  a  half  to  the  cor- 
nice; making  the  projeflion  of  the  architrave  one 
fourth  of  its  height,  and  that  of  the  cornice  equal 
to  its  height. 

The  height  of  the  pedcfal  is  divided  into  {iive.n 
parts;  two  for  the  bafe  and  plinth,  four  for  the  dado, 
and  one  for  the  cap. 

1  hey  diminifh  the  column  in  the  fame  manner 
as  in  the  lad:  order,  and  by  taking  the  height  of 
the  pedefal,  they  give  the  projeclion  of  the  bafe 
of  the  column,  and  the  breadth  of  the  dye  of  the 
ped:-flal.  They  make  the  bafe  oithcpedejial  of  one 
third  of  the  two  parts  allotted  for  the  bafe  ^.nd  plinth^ 
and  the  projeftion  thereof  equal  to  the  height,  and 
the  cap  three-fourths  of  the  height. 

They  make  the  height  of  the  bafe  of  the  column, 
half  a  diameter,  and  find  its  projection  by  taking 
half  the  height  of  iha  pcd.fal,  which,  alfo,  is  the 
breadth  of  the  dye. 

For  the  particular  members  of  the  pedeflal,  they 
divide  the  height  of  the  bafe  into  three  parts,  giving 
one  to  the  torus  ■i.nd  fillet,  which  is  one  fourth,  an- 
other to  the  cymafe,  and  the  third  to  the  ozee  and 


quilateral  triangle   is  made,    the  bafe  whereof  is  \ fillet,  which  is  one  fourth  alfo.     The  whole  pro- 


the  dliTiinution. 

Afterwards  he  draws  a  right  line  from  the  ends 
of  the  before- mentioned  horns  to  the  end  of  the 
aflragal  of  the  column;  which  he  makes  fo  as  to 
be  touched  by  the  tips  or  ends  of  the  leaves ;  and 
this  he  gives  for  their  projcclure.  He  makes  the 
rof  a  fourth  part,  as  broad  as  the  diameter  of  the 
column  at  the  foot.  Having  made  the  architrave, 
freeze,  and  cornice,  a  fifth  part  of  the  altitude  of 
the  column  ;  he  divides  the  whole  into  twelve  parts, 
as  in  the  Ionic,  but  varies  in  this,  that  he  divides 
the  cornice  of  the  Corinthian  into  eight  parts  and 
X  half,  giving  the  firlt  to  the  jcima  revcrja,  the  fe- 
cond to  the  dentils,  the  third  to  the  cvolo,  and  the 
fourth  and  fifth  to  the  madilhns,  and  the  other  three 
and  a  half  to  the  corona  and  the  cymatium.  The 
projefture  of  the  cornice  is  in  proportion  to  its 
height.  He  has  the  pannels  of  the  rojes  between 
the  OT5(i';//ff«^  fquare,  and  xht  modilicins\v.\\i  as  broad 
as  tlie  plan  of  the  faid  rofes. 


jecStion  they  make  equal  to  the  height,  and  dividing 
it  into  five  parts,  give  two  to  the  ogee,  two  to  the 
cymafe,  and  the  other  to  the  torus.  The  cap  is  di- 
vided into  four  parts  ;  half  a  part  for  the  hollow^ 
one  fourth  to  th.^  fillet,  one  to  the  cymafe,  one 
fourth  to  the  fillet,  one  entire  part  to  the  corona^ 
and  one  to  the  ogee  and  fillet,  which  is  one  third 
part  thereof.  They  make  the  whole  projection 
three  parts  of  thofe  four  in  height,  which  dividing 
into  four,  they  fet  off  by  infpedlion. 

They  divide  the  height  of  the  bafe'  of  the  column 
into  three,  one  for  the  plinth,  fubdividing  the  upper 
two  into  five,  giving  one  and  a  half  to  the  lower 
torus,  one  to  the  upper  torus,  one  to  the  fcotia,  and 
the  other  one  and  a  half  to  thefillets  and  beads,  viz. 
half  a  part  to  each  bead,  and  one  fourth  to  each 
fillet,  the  bead  above  the  upper  torus  (being  part  of 
the  column)  is  as  large  as  the  fillet  and  bead 
together,  and  its  fillet  the  half  thereof. 

To  find  the  height  of  the  Corinthian  capital,  they 

divide 


ARCHITECTURE. 


^55 


.  divide  tfic  cILifficter  of  the  column  into  fix  parts, 
and  make  one  whole  dianiftcr,  and  one  of  thefe 
mrts  th?  height.  Thofe  fix  parts  they  allow  for 
ttie  abdcu!,  which  dividing  into  two,  they  give 
one  to  the  hollow,  and  the  other  to  the  ovok  and 
fikf.  To  each  height  of  leaves  they  give  two  of 
the  fix  parts,  the  remaining  diameter  is  divided 
into,  and  make  the  heads  of  thofe  leaves  to  turn 
down  half  a  part.  They  divide  again  the  under 
one,  of  the  upper  two  parts  into  two,  the  heads 
of  the  leaves  turning  down  one  part,  and  the  up- 
per one  into  three,  giving  one  to  the  Ji/Ut,  and 
two  to  the  fmall  volutes ;  the  large  volutes  having 
the  entire  part.  The  rofc  they  make  as  high  as  the 
abacus  znd  ihefilh-t  together. 

They  make  no  other  difference  between  the  pro- 
jeftions  of  this  order,  and  thofe  of  the  foregoing  one, 
but  by  obferving  in  the  circumference  of  the  co- 
lumn, that  there  are  eight  leaves  in  each  height, 
and  that  each  leaf  has  four  plants  carved  with 
olive,  parfley,  Is'l.  according  to  fancy  ;  limiting 
the  projeftion  of  their  heads,  by  a  right  line  drawn 
from  the  projeflure  of  the  abacus  to  the  colloriiw, 
or  ajiragal  of  the  column. 

Having  divided  the  whole  height  of  the  entabla- 
ture into  fix,  they  give  two  to  the  architrave^  one 
and  a  half  to  the  freeze,  and  one  and  a  half  to 
the  cornice ;  and  to  make  up  the  particular  mem- 
bers, they  halve  each  of  the  two  principal  parts 
the  architrave  is  divided  into,  and  then  divide  the 
lower  part  into  three,  giving  two  to  the  lower  face, 
and  half  a  part  to  the  beadj  dividing  alfo  a  fecond 
part  of  the  four  into  three,  allowing  one  to  the 
a^ee  ;  alfo  dividing  the  upper  fourth  part  into  three, 
giving  half  a  part  to  the  bead,  one  and  a  half  to 
tlie  ogee,  and  one  to  the  upper  /i/lct,  making  the 
projection  one  of  thofe  fourths  in  height,  of  which 
they  give  half  to  the  middle  face. 

For  the  cornice;  they  divide  its  height  into  eight 
parts,  one  for  the  ogee  a.nd  Jii'let,  another  for  the 
dentils^  another  for  the  cvolo  znd  fillet ,  and  the  other 
is  divided  into  fix,  one  fourth  whereof  they  give 
to  the  Jillet  under  the  modillons,  one  and  one  fourth 
to  the  modillon,  half  a  part  to  the  ogee  and  Jillet, 
one  and  a  half  to  the  corona,  half  a  part  to  the 
ogee,  one  fourth  to  the  fillet,  one  and  one  fourth 
to  Unzjcima  recta,  and  half  a  part  to  the  filltt,  mak- 
ing the  whole  proje<Slure  equal  to  the  height,  and 
dividing  it  into  the  fame  number  of  parts. 

The  Composite  (fo  called  from  its  capital {c  5) 
being  compofed  out  of  thofe  of  the  other  orders) 
is  the  laft  of  the  five  orders  of  architecture.  It 
borrows  a  quarter  round  from  the  Tufcan,  and  Do- 
rick  ;  a  double  roiv  of  leaves  from  the  Corinthian, 
and  volutes  from  tne  lonick. — Its  cornice  has  fimplc 
modillons  or  dentils. 

9- 


Scamozzi,  and  M.  Le  Clerc,  place  this  order  be- 
tween the  lonick  and  Corinthian,  in  regard  to 
its  delicacy  and  richncfs,  which  theyefteem  inferior 
to  the  Corinthian,  and  therefore  make  no  fcruple  to 
ufc  it  under  the  Corinthian,  tho'  moft  authors  rank 
it  after  the  Corinthian. 

'The.  proportions  of  this  order  are  not  fixed  by 
Vitruvius ;  he  only  marks  its  general  charadkr,  bv 
obferving  that  its  capital  is  compofed  of  fcvcra! 
parts  taken  from  the  Dorick,  lontck,  and  Corin- 
thian :  He  does  not  feem  to  regard  it  as  a  particular 
order  ;  nor  does  he  vary  it  at  all  from  the  Corin- 
thian, except  in  its  capital. — In  effect  it  was  Ser- 
lio  who  fit  ft  added  the  Compofitc  order  to  the  four 
of  Vetruvius,  forming  it  from  the  remains  of  the 
temple  of  Ba-chus,  the  arches  of  Titus,  Septmtn, 
and  the  Goldimiths :  Till  then  this  order  was 
eficcmcd  a  fpccies  of  the  Corinthian,  oiily  difFeruig 
in  its  capital. 

TWs  order  being  thus  left  undeterm.ined  by  the 
anticnts,  the  moderns  have  a  fort  of  right  to  differ 
about  Its  proportions,  Wc.  Scamozzi,  and  aft.r 
him  Mr.  Z(/ 6V(7Y,  make  its  column  (b  5)  rg  mo- 
dules  and  a  half,  which  is  lefsby  half  a  niodide,  than 
that  of  the  Corinthian  ;  as  in  effcil  the  order  is  lefs 
delicate  than  the  Corinthian. — Vignola  makes  it  20, 
which  is  the  fame  with  that  of  its  Corinthian  ; 
but  Serlio,  who  firfl:  formed  it  into  an  order,  bv 
giving  it  a  proper  entablature  9.nd  bafe  fa  5)  and 
after  him  M.  Ferrault,  raife  it  fiill  higher  than  the 
Corinthian. — This  laft  does  not  think  different  or- 
naments and  charafters  fufficient  to  conftitute  a 
different  order,  unlefs  it  have  a  different  height 
too  ;  agreeably  to  his  rule  of  augmenting  die  height 
of  the  feveral  columns  by  a  feries  of  two  modules 
in  each  ;  he  makes  the  compofje  twenty  modules, 
and  the  Corinthian  eighteen  ;  which  it  (eems  is  a 
medium  between  the  porch  of  Titus,  and  the  tem- 
ple of  Bacchus, 

Palladio  makes  the  columns  of  the  compofite  ten 
modules  long  ;  and  the  intercolumnation  in  the  dc- 
figns  of  colonades,  one  diameter  and  a  half. — He 
makes  this  order  flenderer  than  the  Corinthian,  and 
Its pcdejlal  (C5)  one  third  of  the  altitude  of  the 
column,  and  which  he  divides  into  eight  parts  and 
a  half,  the  firft  for  the  fyOTflC/V/w,  and  five  and  a 
half  remaining  for  the  dado.  He  fubdivides  the 
bafe  of  the  pedejlal,  into  three  parfs,  fwo  he  allows 
for  the  plinth,  and  one  for  the/arw',  w  ^'h  its  cyina- 
tium.  He  makes  indifferently  the  "°/e  of  this 
column  J  attlck,  or  a  compound  of  the  Jt*  id  and 
lonick. 

He  gives  to  the  Compo/tte  capitalize.  5.)  the  Came 
meafures  with  the  Corinthian,  but  varies  from  it  in 
the  volutes^  the  ovolo  and  ajiragal,  which  he  cuts 
into  beads ;  which  members  he  borrows  from  the 

X  iTKlCk 


JS^ 


The    Univerfal  Hiftory  ©/"Arts  ^W  Sciences. 


lonicf:,  and  which  he  makes  thus. He  divjcles 

the  capital  from  the  abacus  downwards  into  three 
parts  ;  the  firft  he  allows  to  the  firft  row  of  leaves, 
the  fecond  to  the  middle  row,  and  the  third  to  the 
volutes,  which  takes  up  fo  much  of  the  abacus, 
that  it  feems  to  go  out  of  the  ovolo,  near  the  flower 
which  is  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  cuiTature  of 
the  abacus,  and  is  as  thick  in  front  as  the  breadth 
of  its  hvns,  or  little  more. — The  thicknefs  of  the 
tvelo  he  makes  three  fifths  of  the  abacus,  atid  its 
lower  part  to  begin  parallel  to  the  eye  of  the  volute; 
giving  to  its  projefture,  three  fourths  of  its  alti- 
tude.— Fie  makes  the  ajlragalowt  third  part  of  the 
altitude  of  the  ovclo,  and  its  projefture  a  little 
more  than  half  its  thicknefs,  and  to  wind  about 
the  capital  under  the  volute,  fo  as  to  be  always  vi- 
fible. — To  the  li/tella,  which  is  under  the  ajlragal 
and  forms  the  plinth  of  the  hell  of  the  capital,  he 
gives  half  the  ajlragal,  making  the  body  of  the 
Icll  perpendicular  to  the  bottom  of  the  flutes  of  the 
column. 

A  great  number  of  modern  ArchiteSIs  divide  the 
heie:ht  given  for  this  order  into  ten  parts,  two  there- 
of for  the  pcik/lal,  and  dividing  the  eight  remain- 
ing parts  into  fix,  one  for  the  height  of  the  enta- 
blature, and  five  for  the  length  of  the  column^  with 
bafe  and  capital. — That  length  they  divide  into  ten 
parts,  which  is  no  more  than  halving  each  of  the 
five  parts,  and  that  is  the  diameter  of  the  column 
below.  So  will  the  pedcjlal  (h  5)  be  three  diame- 
ters, the  column  ten,  and  the  entablature  two  in 
height.  Having  divided  the  entablature  into  fix, 
they  give  two  thearchitrave  (E  5),  one  and  a  half  to 
the  freeze  (F  5),  and  two  and  a  half  to  the  cornice, 
(g  5)'  niaking  the  projeiSlion  of  the  architrave  two 
fevenths  of  its  height,  and  thatof  the  cornice  equal 
to  its  height.  The  height  of  the  pede/1  a  I  being  di- 
vided into  feven  parts,  they  give  two  to  the  bafe 
and  plinth,  four  to  the  dye,  and  one  to  the  cap. 

T  hey  diminifh  the  column  as  in  the  laft  order, 
and  dividing  the  diameter  at  bottom,  into  five,  they 
make  the  bafe  of  the  column  projeil  on  each  fide, 
one  of  thefe  parts,  which  gives  the  breadth  of  the 
dye  of  the  pide/lal.  To  the  bafe  oi  the  pede/Ial  they 
give  one  third  of  the  two  parts  for  the  bafe  and 
plinth,  and  make  the  projeftion  thereof  equal  to 
the  height,  and  that  of  the  cap  four  fifths  of  the 
height. 

They  make  the  height  of  the  bafe  of  the  column, 
half  a  diameter,  and  its  projeftion  one  fifth  of  the 
whole  diameter.  For  the  particular  members  of 
the  pedejial,  they  divide  the  height  of  the  bafe  into 
four  parts,  one  for  the  torus,  one  third  of  a  part 
for  the  fillet,  one  Etnd  two  thirds  for  the  cymatiutn, 
and  the  other  part,    which  is  one  third,   to  the 


ajlragal  and  fillet ;  the  whole  projedion  being  e<]uai 
to  the  height.  The  height  of  the  cap  they  divide 
into  five  parts,  one  for  the  aftragal  d^nA  fillet ;  which 
is  one  third,  two  more  to  the  cymatium  and  fillet, 
which  is  half  a  part;  one  to  the  corona,  and  one 
to  the  ogee  znA  fillet,  which  is  one  third  ;  makinp- 
the  whole  projection  four  of  the  faid  parts. 

The  height  of  the  bafe  of  the  column  being  di- 
vided into  fix,  they  give  one  and  three-fourths  to 
the  plinth,  one  to  the  \oweT  torus,  one  fourth  to  the 
fillet,  half  a  part  to  the  fcotia,  one  to  the  ajlragal 
mill  fillet,  (which  are  fubdivided  into  fix,  each  fillet 
having  one,  and  each  ajlragal  two)  then  give  half 
a  part  to  the  other  fcotia,  one  fourth  to  the  fillet, 
and  the  remaining  three  fourths  to  the  upper  torus  ; 
as  to  the/Z/rf  above,  which  is  part  of  the  column, 
it  is  half  a  part,  or  double  the  bignefs  of  the  un- 
der one. 

They  make  the  height  of  the  Compofitc  capital  a 
diameter  and  one  fixth,  which  they  divide  into 
feven,  giving  two  to  each  height  of  leaves,  the 
headx^Viexeoi  turning  down  half  a  part ;  two  thirds 
of  a  part  to  the  fpace  between  the  leaves  and  fillet, 
one  third  to  the  aftragal  and  fillet,  (which  is  one 
third  of  that)  two  thirds  more  to  the  ovclo,  one  third 
to  the  fpace  between  the  ovolo  and  abacus,  half  a 
part  to  the  hollow,  and  half  a  part  to  the  ovolo  and 
fillet,  which  is  one  third  thereof.  They  make  no 
other  difference  between  the  projeftion  of  this,  and 
that  of  the  Corinthian,  but  in  the  volutes,  which 
they  make  after  the  fame  manner  of  the  lonick  ; 
making  befides,  this  capital  equal  in  height  to  the 
architrave  znifree%e  taken  together. 

For  to  form  the  entablature,  they  divide  its  height 
into  fix  parts,  two  for  the  architrave,  one  and  a 
half  for  the  freeze,  and  two  and  a  half  for  the  cor- 
nice.— For  the  particular  members,  the  architrave 
is  divided  into  {even  parts,  giving  two  to  the  firft 
fafcia,  half  a  part  to  the  ogee,  two  and  a  half  to 
the  {ezonA  fafcia,  dividing  again  the  upper  two 
parts  into  five,  half  a  part  for  the  head,  one  and  a 
half  for  the  ovolo,  two  for  the  hcUoiv,  and  one  for 
thefillet ;  making  the  projection  two  of  thofe  feven 
parts  in  height. 

They  obferve  no  other  order  in  the  freeze,  than 
that  followed  in  the  lonick  ;  but  they  divide  the 
height  of  the  cornice,  into  two  and  a  half  princi- 
pal parts,  fubdividing  each  of  them  into  four,  and 
the  half  into  two,  which  makes  ten  in  the  whole ; 
giving  one  fourth  to  thefillet,  one  fourth  to  the 
bead,  and  one  to  the  ogee  ;  one  more  to  the  firft 
fafcia  of  the  modillons,  half  a  part  to  the  ogee, 
one  and  one  fourth  to  the  fecond  fafcia,  one  fourth 


to  the  fillet,  half  a  part  to  the   ovclo,    two  to  the 
corona,  one  to  the  fcima  reverfa  and  fillet,  which  is 

one 


ANTI^UITIE  S. 


one  fourth,  and  one  and  a  half  to  the  Jilma  re£?a, 
and  half  a  part  to  the /il/t-i  ;  making  its  whole  pro- 
jeftion  equal  to  its  height. 

The  Composite  is  alfo  called  the  Roman  and 
Italick  Order  ;  as  having  been  invented  by  the 
Romans,  conformably  to  the  reft,  which  are  de- 
hominated  from  the  people  among  whom  they  had 
their  rife.  Mr.  Perrault,  in  his  Vitruvius,  dif- 
tinguilhes  between  Compofite  and  ccmpo^'cd  order. 
The  latter,  he  fays,  denotes  any  compofition  whofe 
parts  and  ornaments  are  extraordinary  and  unufual ; 
but  have  withal  fomewhat  of  beauty ;  both  on  ac- 
count of  their  novelty,  and  in  refpedl  of  the  man- 
ner or  genius  of  the  Architcci  ;  fo  that  a  com^ojed 
order  is  an  arbitrary  humorous  compofition,  whe- 
ther regular  or  irregular. 

The  fame  author  adds,  that  the  Corinthian  order 
is  the  firft  Compofite  order,  as  being  compofed  of  the 
Dovick  and  lonick,  which  is  the  obfervation  of  Vi- 
truvius himfelf,  lib.  4.  c.  i. 

General  Rules  given  by  Palladio,  for 
avoiding  feveral  errors,  which  were  firft  introduced 
by  the  Barbarians,  and  which  are  flill  in  pra£i:ice 
amonff  us  in  ArchlteEiure. 

1.  He  would  have  us  admit  of  nothing  in  the 
feveralORDERs  repugnant  to  that  fymmetry,  which 
nature  obferves  in  all  her  works:  thus,  as  trees  are 
bigger  at  the  trunks  and  near  the  roots  than  at  the 
top  ;  he  would  have  it  laid  down,  that  columns 
fhould  be  thicker  at  bottom  than  at  top. 

2.  He  rejedls  all  columns  without  bafes  ;  fince 
hafes  with  their  icrMi'i  and  cavetto's  reprefent  fo  na- 
turally the  fwellings  occafioned  by  the  weight  they 
fuftain ;  therefore  condemns  thofe,  who,  deviating 
from  whatever  is  good,  juft  and  beautiful  in  Archl- 
tc'iiure,  inftead  of  pilafters  or  columns,  which  are 
to  fuftain  any  weight,  place  cartouches j  which  he 
ciWs  fcrclls,  and  fuppofes  fhould  ftrike  the  eyes  of 
judges  very  difagreeably  ;  and  are  fo  far,  fays  he, 
from  being  fatisfaiSlory  and  pleafant  to  thofe,  who 
are  not,  that  they  give  them  only  an  imperfedl  idea 
of  ArchlteElure,  and  only  put  builders  to  an  unne- 
ceffary  expence  ;  for  which  reafon  he  would  have 
none  of  thofe  cartouches  come  out  of  the  cor- 
nice. 

3.  He  condemns  all  frontispieces  of  gates,  win- 
dows, and  galleries,  divided,  and  open  in  the  mid- 
dle, ftnce  thok  frontifpicces  were  firft  made  to  de- 
fend thsfe  parts  of  the  edifice  from  rain,  b'r.  Ne- 
cefEty  having  inftruited  the  antient  Archite£is  to 
cover  them,  and  to  give  them  the  ftiape  of  a  roof. 
Therefore  he  thinks  that  nothing  can  be  more  ridi- 
culous  than  to  open  that  part,  which  was  invented 
for  no  other  purpofe  than  to  flielter  the  inhabi- 
tants, and  fuch  as  go  into  it  from  rain,  fnow,  hail, 
and  other  injuries  of  the  weather.     And,   fays  he. 


though  variety  and  novelty  pleafes  all  mankind, 
yet  they  arc  not  to  be  introduced  in  dircil  oppofi- 
tion  to  the  rules  of  art,  and  the  didatcs  of  reafon; 
and  it  muft  be  acknowledged,  that  the  antients  ne- 
ver departed  from  any  general  and  neceflary  pre- 
cepts of  art  in  their  various  inventions. 

4.  He  forbids  the  making  the  projc(£ture  of  the 
csrnice,  and  other  decorations  very  large,  becaufe 
when  they  exceed  reafonable  and  due  proportion, 
efpecially  in  a  clofe  place,  they  make  it  ftill  clofer, 
and  more  difagreeable  to  the  eye,  and  frighten  thofe 
vvhoftand  under  them,  who  imagine  they  are  every 
moment  to  fall  on  their  heads. 

5.  He  will  have  the  cornice  made  in  a  due  pro- 
portion to  the  columns,  for  if  great  cornices  are 
put  over  little  colum.ns,  or  little  cornices  upon 
great  columns,  the  whole  muft  needs  be  difagreeable 
to  the  eye. 

5.  He  advifes  us  to  avoid  the  fuppofing  the  co- 
lumns to  be  compofed  of  various  pieces,  and  jointed 
together  by  certain  annulets,  and  garlands  round 
them,  which  appear  to  keep  them  clofe  together ; 
becaufe  the  more  folid  and  whole  the  columns  feem 
to  the  eye,  the  better  they  anfvver  the  end,  for 
which  they  were  raifed,  which  is  to  make  the 
whole  building  more  ftrong  and  fecure. 

6.  And  he  forewarns  us  againft  making  fomc 
members  in  the  cornice  unequal  to  the  reft  :  befides 
feveral  other  abufes,  which  he  fuppofes  an  able 
Architect  can  caution  himfelf  again. 

There  are  other  forts  of  Architecture  ;  as 
Architecture  in  Perspective,  which  is  a 
fort  of  building,  wherein  themembersare  of  different 
meafures  and  modules,  and  diminifti  in  proportion 
to  their  diftance,  to  make  the  work  appear  larger, 
and  longer,  to  the  view,  than  really  it  is.  Such 
is  the  celebrated  pontifical  ftair-cafe  of  the  Vaiican, 
built  under  Pope  Alexander's/ II.  by  Cavalier  Ronino. 
Counterfeit  Architecture,  which  is  that 
which  has  its  projeftures  painted,  either  in  black  or 
white,  or  coloured  after  the  manner  of  marble,  as 
is  feen  pradfifed  in  frontifpieccs  and  palaces  in  Italy, 
and  in  the  pavilions  of  Marli.  This  painting  i.= 
done  mfrefco  upon  plaifter'd  walls,  and  in  oil  on 
walls  of  ftone.  Under  the  name  of  counterfeit 
Architecture,  which  we,  otherwife,  call  fcene-work, 
is  likewife.  comprehended,  that  painted  on  flight 
boards,  or  planks  of  wood,  whereon  the  columns, 
pilafters,  and  other  parts  of  building  feem  to  fland 
out,  with  a  relievo  ;  the  whole  being  coloured  in 
imitation  of  various  marbles,  metals,  fs'f.  and 
ferving  in  the  decorations  of  theatres,  triumphal 
arches,  publick  entries,  funeral  pomps,  tV.  Such 
is  the  catrfaleo,  ufed  for  a  decoration  of  Architec- 
ture, Sculpture,  and  Painting  ;  raifed  on  a  timber 
X  2  Jbaffold 


158  The  Univcrfal  Hillory  of  Arts  <2;2a? Sciences. 


fcaftold  to  fhew  a  cotHn  or  tomb  in  a  funeral  fo- 
kmnity., 

The  Moderns  have  alfo  certain  other  orders, 
in  their  Architcliurc,  which  may  be  properly  called 
national ;  and  are  known  by  the  names  of  the  Ruf- 
tick,  Atticky  Pirjian,  Caryatid ,  Gathick,  French, 
and  Spar.ijh  orders. 

The  RusTiCK  Order,  is  that  adorned  with 
Ruliicfi  quoins,  boflages,  bic. 

Attick  Order,  is  a  little  order  of  low  pila- 
flcrs,  with  an  arJntrave  cornice  for  its  entablature, 
as  that  of  the  caftle  of  Verfailles,  over  the  lonlck, 
on  the  fide  of  the  garden.  M.  Blondel  calls  the  lit- 
tle pilafters  o^ At  ticks  zxiAMe2/z,aninc5,falfe  orders. 

Persian  Ordhr,  is  that  which  has  figures  of  1 
Perfian  flaves  inftead  of  columns  to  fupport  the 
entablature.  This  order  was  firft  praftifed  among  ; 
the  Athenians,  on  occafion  of  a  viiSory  their  gene- 
ral Paufanias  obtained  over  the  Perfians ;  as  a  tro-  ; 
phy  of  this  victory,  the  figures  of  men  dreffed  in 
the  Pcrftan  mode,  with  their  hands  bound  before 
them,  and  other  charaifters  of  flavery,  were  charged 
with  the  weight  of  Dorick  entablatures  ;  and  made 
to  do  the  office  of  Dorick  columns.  Though  M. 
Le  Clerc  obferves  that  Perftcin  columns  are  not  al- 
ways made  with  the  marks  of  flavery  ;  but  are 
frequently  uCed  as  fymbols  of  virtues,  vices  ;  of  joy, 
ftrength,  valour,  is'c.  as  when  made  in  the  figures 
of  Hercules,  to  reprefent  ftrength,  of  Mars,  Mer- 
cury, Faunus,  Satyrs,  &c.  j 

The  Caryatick  Order,  is  that,  whofe  en- 
tablature is  fupported  with  figures  of  women,  in-  j 
ftead  of  columns.  Vitruvius  obferves,  that  the 
Greeks  having  taken  the  city  Carya,  led  away  their 
women  captives  ;  and  to  perpetuate  their  fervitude, 
reprefented  them  in  their  buildings,  as  charged 
with  burdens,  fuch  as  thofe  fupported  by  columns. 
The  Caryatides,  fays  M.  Le  Clerc,  are  not  now  re- 
prefented as  among  the  antients,  viz.  as  fymbols 
of  flavery,  with  hands  tied  before  and  behind  ; 
thofe  charaSers  being  fuppofed  injurious  to  the  fair 
fex.  Among  us  they  are  reprefented  as  images  of 
juftice,  prudence,  temperance,  i^c.  Their  legs  are 
always  to  be  clofe  to  each  other,  and  even  a-crofs; 
their  arms  laid  flat  to  the  body  or  to  the  head,  or  at 
leaif  as  little  fpread  as  poflible;  that,  as  they  do  the 
office  of  columns,  they  may  have,  as  near  as 
poilible,  the  figure  thereof.  Sometimes  their  arms 
are  cut  ofF  for  greater  delicacy  ;  as  in  the  hall  of 
the  Swifi  guards  in  the  Louvre;  but  M.  Le  Clerc 
does  not  approve  of  fuch  mutilations. 

When  infulated  they  fliould  never  have  any  great 
weight  to  fupport ;  and  their  entablature  and  pe- 
dejlal  are  ordinarily  to  be  lonick.  When  they  join 
.to  a  Wall,  i^f .  it  IS  advifeable  to  put  a  anfotg  over 


them,  which  may  appear  to  fupport  the  weight  of 
their  entablature  ;  otlicrwife  as  they  reprefent  wo- 
men, they  do  not  feem  fo  proper  to  fuftain  great 
loads.  When  they  arc  made  in  form  of  angels, 
the  fame  author  would  have  them  fupport  the  enta- 
blature, which  in  that  call-,  is  to  be  Corinthian, 
with  their  hands.  The  Antients  made  the  Carya- 
tides frequently  to  fupport  bafkcts,  or  corbels  of 
flowers  ;  and  thcfc  they  call  Canephora^    or  Cijli- 

ferts  ;  which  Canephora,  are  in  allufion  to  the  Ca- 
w/)/j(jriS  of  the  Antients,  who  were  two  virgins  of 
Athens,  kept  in  Minerva'^  temple  in  the  Acropolis, 
who  at  the  feaft:  of  the  Panathencea,  carried  bafkets 
on  their  heads,  with  fomething  fecret  or  myflerious 
therein,  delivered  to  them  by  the  prieftefs.  The 
bafkets  were  ufually  crowned  with  flowers,  myr- 
tles, l^c.  The  Canephora,  in  thefe  ceremonies, 
always  marched  firfl,  the  philofopheror  priefl  next, 
and  the  choir  of  mufick  followed. 

French  Order,  is  a  new  contrived  order^ 
wherein  the  capital  confifls  of  attributes  agreeing 
to  that  warlike  nation  ;  as  Cocks  heads,  Flower-de- 
Luces,  &c.  Its  proportions  are  Corinthian  ;  fuch 
is  that  of  M.  Le  Brun,  in  the  grand  gallery  of  Fer- 

failles  ;  and  that  of  M.  Le  Clerc.  This  laft:  gives 
us  a  fecond  Tufcan  order,  and  a  Spani/h  order,  be- 
fides  his  French  order.  The  Tufcan  he  ranks  be- 
tween the  firft:  Tufcan  and  Dorick.  Its  height  he 
makes  23  femi-diameters,  22  minutes.  The  co- 
lumn to  have  15,  the  pedejlal  5,  and  the  entablature 
3,  and  22  minutes  ;aiid  he  propofes  \is  freeze  tobea- 
dornedwith  turtles,  which  are  the  arms  olTufcany. 
The  Spanish  Order  he  places  between  the 
Corinthian  and  Compoftte.  The  whole  order  he 
makes  30  femi-diameters,  28  minutes,  whereof 
the  column  has  9,  arid  25  minutes,  {t\c  pedejlal  16, 
and  18  minutes,  and  the  entablature  1^,  and  15  mi- 

I  nutes.  The  horns  of  the  Abacus  he  fuftains  with 
little  volutes  ;  the  middle,  in  lieu  of  a  rofe,    has  a 

I  lion's  fnout:  that  animal  being  the  lymbol  of  Spain, 
and  exprefling  the  ftrength,  gravity  and  prudence  of 
that  nation. 

Having  been  informed  of  the  origin,  prngrcfs, 
and  tfe  of  the  feveral  Orders  in  Civil  Archi- 
tecture ;  we  fhall  fhew  how  to  compute  the 
charge  of  a  building,  to  chufe  proper  materials, 
lay  foundations,  and  to  raife  fuperllruiSlures. 

Upon  a  due  examination  of  the  premifles  in 
a  model  or  draught,  it  may  be  afcertained  how 
much  the  whole  building  fhall  amount  unto  :  and 
the  builder  is  diredted  to  make  provifion  of  the  ma- 
terials requifite  for  the  work  intended. 

The  computation  depends  chiefly  on  a  knowledge 
of  the  quantity  or  quality  of  the  materials  j  and 
the  quality  or  beauty  of  the  work. 

The 


ARCHITECTURE, 


159 


The  Materials  aire  chiefly,  Jlones  and  wood;' 
lead,  til-s,  and  JIates  ;  lime,  /and,  pla'ijier,  naili, 
and  shifs. 

Stones  include  marble,  free-Jione,  and  bricks  for 
walls,  i^c. 

Wood  includes  all  forts  ol  oah^fir,  l^c,  timber, 
planlcs  and  boards. 

In  the  choice  of  thefe  materials  depend,  in  a 
great  meafure,  both  th»  decoration  and  Itrength  of 
the  building  :  therefore  obferve, 

Marble  is  a  precious  kind  of  ftone,  found  in 
■great  malTcs,  dug  out  of  pits  and  quarries,  being  of 
a  conftitution  fo  hard  and  compact,  and  again  fo 
fine,  as  readily  to  take  a  beautiful  polifh  ;  much 
ufcd  in  ornaments  of  buildings,  as  columns,  chim- 
ney-pieces, tables,  l£c. 

The  goodnefs  of  marble,  and  its  beauty,  pro- 
ceeds chiefly  from  the  different  quarries  it  is  dug 
out  of. 

The  befl:  rnarble  we  have,  at  prefent,  is  imported 
from  Italy  ;  for  the  quarries  of  Parian  marble,  of 
which  the  greateft  part  of  the  Grecian  llatues  were 
made,   are  loft. 

Thofe  from  the  ftate  of  Genoa  deferve  the  pre- 
ference ;  and  of  them,  there  are  feveral  forts,  viz. 
Marble  of  Carrara,  which  is  very  white.  White 
•veined  marble,  which  has  large  veins,  with  grey 
and  blue  ftains  on  a  white  ground.  Blue  Tarquin 
marble,  mixed  with  a  dirty  kind  of  white.  Modern 
green  marble,  improperly  called  Egyptian,  of  a  deep 
green,  fpotted  with  grey.  Thefe  three  forts  come 
from  Carrara,  on  the  coaft  of  Genoa,  and  are  very 
good. 

The  other  marbles  from  Italy  ^re,  the  marble  of 
Porta  Santa,  called,  at  Rome,  Serna  ;  which  is 
mingled  with  large  clouds,  and  veins  of  red,  yel- 
low, and  grey.  Marble  of  Brefs,  yellow  with 
white  fpots.  Portor  rnarble,  which  has  a  black 
ground,  with  clouds,  and  veins  of  yellow.  Mar- 
ble fior  di  Perfica,  which  confifts  of  white  and  red 
ftains,  fomewhat  yellowifh.  Marble  ochio  di  pa- 
•uone,  or  peacoci's-eye,  mingled  with  red,  white,  and 
bluifh  clouds,  fomewhat  refembling  the  eyes  at 
the  end  of  the  peacock's  tail.  Marble  of  Sicily, 
which  is  a  brownifh  red,  flained  with  oblong 
Iquares  of  white,  and  Ifabclla  like  ftriped  tafFaty. 
Marble  of  Savoy,  which  is  a  deep  red,  mixed  with 
other  colours  j  e.ich  piece  whereof  feems  cemented 
on  the  reft.  CypoUino,  or  Cipollin  marble,  of  a 
fca-green  colour,  mixed  with  large  waves,  or  clouds 
of  white  or  pale  green. 

Spain  produces  likewife  fome  very  good  marbles, 

viz.  the  Brocatella  rnarble,  which  is  mingled  with 

little  fli.ades  of  Ifabdta,  yellow,  pale,  and  grey  ; 

and  comes  from  Tortoja,  where  it  is  dug  out  of  an 

t 


antient  quarry.  Marble  of  Signam,  in  the  Pyre- 
neans,  of  a  greenifti  brown,  with  red  ftains ;  though 
this  is  fomewhat  various  in  its  colours.  IVIjite 
warble,  that  dug  out  of  the  Pyreneans  ow^ziAz 
of  Bayonne. 

The  French  have  alfo  quarries  of  marble  in  fe- 
veral of  their  provinces,  as  in  Auvcrgne,  which 
produces  a  pale  red  marble,  mingled  with  violet, 
green,  and  yellow.  Languedoc,  which  produces 
marble  of  a  vivid  red,  with  large  white  veins,  or 
ftains  ;  there  is  fome  borders  pretty  much  on  the 
blue,  but  this  is  of  lefs  value.  The  marble  of 
Barbanpn,  in  Hainaidt,  is  black,  veined  with 
white.  That  of  Dinant,  near  Liege,  is  of  a  pure 
black,  very  beautiful,  and  very  common.  That 
of  Namur  is  black,  likewife,  but  lefs  beautiful,  as 
inclining  a  little  to  the  blue,  and  traverfed  with  lit- 
tle ftreaks  of  grey  ;  this  is  very  common,  and  fre- 
quently ufed  in  paving.  The  marble  of  Guachenet, 
near  Dinant,  is  of  a  reddifti  brown,  with  white 
fpots  and  veins.  That  of  Ranee,  in  Hainault,  is 
of  a  dirty  red,  mixed  with  blue  and  white  clouds 
and  veins ;  this  is  pretty  common,  but  is  different 
in  degree  of  beauty. 

We  have,  in  England,  Engltjh  white  marble, 
veined  with  red.  Derby/hire  marble,  varioufly 
clouded,  aad  diverfified,  with  brown,  red,  yel- 
low, is'i-. 

Marbles  are  divided  into  rigid,  fibrous,  brittle, 
and  terracy  marbles. 

The  rigid  marble  is  that,  which  being  too  hard, 
works  with  difHculty,  and  is  liable  to  fplinter,  as 
the  black  of  Namur.  The  fibrous  is  that  full  of 
threads  or  filaments.  The  brittle,  that  which 
crumbles  under  the  iiiftrument  ;  and  the  terracy 
marble,  that  with  foft  places  in  it,  which  muft  be 
filled  up  with  cement.  Thefe  two  laft  kinds  are 
not  to  be  chofen  where  others  can  be  had,  no  more 
than  thofe  marbles  which  have  the  grain  too  coarfc, 
nor  thofe  full  of  nails,  which  anfwers  to  the  knots 
in  wood  ;  or  with  emeril,  which  is  a  mixture  of 
copper,  or  other  metals,  forming  black  ftains  in 
the  marble,  and  rendering  it  difagreeable  to  the 
eye,  efpecially  white  marble,  to  which  the  erneril 
is  peculiar.  The  nails  augment  the  difficulty  in 
cutting  and  polifliing  the  marble. 

For  Stone:  here,  in  England,  that  dug  in  the 
Peninfula  of  Portland,  and  thence  called  Portland- 
Jlone,  is  much  ufed,  being  fofter,  and  whiter  than 
Purbcck-flone,  and  is  commonly  raifed  out  of  fhs 
quarries  in  bigger  blocks  than  that.  The  Ryegate- 
Jlone,  C3\\e.i  3.\io  fire-jhne,  is  good,  and  much  ufed 
for  chimneys,  hearths,  ovens,  and  ftoves.  The 
Jlone  ufjj  ill  the  edifices   from  the  con^ucjl  to  the 

rciiin 


l6o  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts^  ^;Z(^  Sciences. 

reign  of  Hairy  VI.  was  chiefly  brought  from  Caen 
in  Normandy. 


Bricis,    among  us,  acquire  various  names,  ac- 
cording to  their   form,  dimenfioiis,    ufes,  method 
of  making,  i^c.     The  principal  are  compafs  bricks, 
of  a  circular  form,  ufed  in  fteening  of  walls.    Con- 
cave, or  holtovj  bricks,  on  one  fide  flat,  like  a  com- 
mon brick,  on  the  other  hollowed  ;  ufed  for  con- 
veying water  under-ground.     Cogging-bricks,  ufed 
for  making  the  mdentcd  works  under  the  coping,  of 
walls,     built   with    great    bricks.       Coping   bricks, 
formed  on  purpofe,  for  coping  of  walls.     Dutcb  or 
Flemijh  bricks,  ufed  to  pave  yards  and  {tables,   and 
for  foap-boilers  vats  and  ciflerns.     Clinkers,'  fuch 
bricks  as  are   glazed   by  the  heat  of  the  fire  in 
making.      Featber-edg'd  bricks,    like  the  common 
Itatute  bricks,    only  thinner  on  one  edge  than  on 
the  other,  and  ufed  to  pen  up  the  brick-pannels  in 
timber- buildings.     Great  bricks,    are  thofe  which 
are  twelve  inches  lona,  fix  broad,  and  three  thick  : 
The  weight  of  one  being  about  15  pounds,  fo  that 
100    weigh    1500,    and    looo   of    them    15000 
pounds  :  their  ufe  is  to  buiW  fence-walls,  together 
■whhpila/lers,  or  buttrefs-bricks,  w'hich  are  of  the 
fame  dimenfions  with   the  great  bricks,  only  they 
have  a  notch  at  one  end,  half  the  breadth  of  the 
brick  ;  their  ufe  is  to  bind  the  work  at  the  pila^ers 
of  fence-walls,    which   are  built   of  great  bricks. 
Paving-bricks  or  Ti/es,  are  of  feveral  fizes  in  feveral 
countries  and  places.     Place-bricks,    fuch  as   are 
made   in  a   place  on  purpofe  for  them,    near  the 
building  they  are  to  be  ufed  in.     Statute  or  fmall 
common  bricks,  when  burnt,  ought  to  be  nine  inches 
long,  four  and  a  quarter  broad,  and  two  and  a  half 
thick.     100  of   thefe   ufually   weigh  about   550 
pounds,  and  1000,  5500  pounds  ;  about  407  make 
a  ton  weight.    Thefe  are  commonly  ufed  in  paving 
cellars,    hearths,    finks,  ^c.    30,    or  32,  if   true 
meafure,  will  pave  a  yard   fquare,  and    330   will 
pave  a  fquare  of  100  foot  laid  flat  ;  but  if  laid 
edge-ways,  there  mull  be  near  double  the  number. 
Stock-bricks  are  to  be  of  the  fame  dimenfions,  only 
J  of  an  inch  thicker. 


The  Material, 
confideration  of  our 
a  white,  foft,  friable 


which  comes  next  under  the 
Architeft,  is  lime,  which  is 
fubftance,  prepared  oi  Jlone, 
marble,  frce-flonc,  chalk,  or  other  flony  fubftance, 
by  burning  in  a  kiln.  That  which  is  fuch  as  it 
comes  from  the  kiln  or  furnace,  is  called  quick- 
lime ;  and  that  diluted,  or  drenched  in  water, 
Jlack'd  lime. 

Palladia  fays,  that  the  befi:  lime  is  made  of  the 
hardell,  foundeft,  and  whiteft  ftone,  and  which 
remains  a  third  part  lighter  after  it  is  burnt  than  the 


flones  it  was  made  of.  He  obferves  alfo,  that 
flones  collefled  up  and  down,  and  which  have  been 
expofed  a  long  time  to  the  injuries  of  the  weather, 
are  not  fo  proper  to  make  lime  with,  as  thofc  which 
are  nev/ly  dug  out  of  the  quarry  ;  nor  thofe  taken 
from  a  dry  pit,  fo  good  as  thofe  from  a  moifl:  and 
fhady  one.  That  fuch  pebbles  as  are  found  in  ri- 
vers and  rapid  ftreams  ar^  excellent  for  lime,  and 
make  very  white,  neat,  and  fmooth  work  ;  on 
which  account  it  is  principally  ufed  in  the  rough- 
cafting  of  walls.  That  all  Itones,  whether  thole 
taken  from  the  hills,  or  from  the  rivers,  burn  fafter 
or  flower,  in  proportion  to  the  fire,  which  is  given 
them  ;  but  that  for  the  generality,  they  are  burnt 
in  threefcore  hours. 

Dieuffant  recommends  lime  made  of  fea-fhells  aj 
the  beft ;  but  Goldman  finds  fault  with  it,  as  being 
impatient  of  moifture,  and  therefore  eafily  jieeling 
oflF  from  the  outfide  of  walls. 

Good  lime  may  alfo  be  made  of  mill-ftone,  not 
coarfe,  and  fandy,  but  fine,  and  greafy  ;  and  Sir 
H.  IVotton  finds  fault  with  the  Engli/h  for  making 
lime  as  they  do,  of  refufe  and  fluff  without  any 
choice  ;  whereas  the  Italians,  at  this  day,  and 
much  more  the  Antients,  b^rnt  the  firmeft  Hones, 
and  even  fragments  of  marble,  where  it  was  plen- 
tiful ;  which  in  time  became  marble  again  for  its 
hardnefs ;  as  appears  in  their  flanding  theatres,  bfc. 
We  have  two  kinds  of  lime  in  common  ufe  in 
England,  the  one  made  of  hard  ftone  ;  the  other 
(of  moft  ufe  near  London)  of  a  foft,  calcarious,  or 
chalky  flone  ;  whereof  the  former  is  much  the 
Ifrongefl. 

That  made  of  foft  flones,  or  chalk,  is  fitteft  for 
plaiftering  of  cielings  and  walls  within  doors  j  and 
that  made  of  hard  flones,  for  buildings,  and  for 
plaiftering  without  doors. 

Before  the  flones  be  thrown  into  the  kiln,  they 
are  to  be  broke  in  pieces,  otherwife  the  air  con- 
tained in  their  cavities,  too  much  expanded  by  the 
heat,  makes  them  fly  with  fo  much  violence,  as  to 
damage  the  kiln.  According  to  Jlberti,  and  Pal- 
ladia, lime  will  not  be  fufEciently  burnt  in  lefs  than 
fixty  hours  intenfe  heat. 

The  marks  of  a  well  burnt  lime,  is,  that  its 
weight  be  to  that  of  the  ftone,  in  a  fefquialterate 
proportion  ;  that  it  be  white,  light,  and  fonorous  ; 
that  when  flacken  it  flicks  to  the  fides  of  the  vefllel ; 
and  fends  forth  a  copious  thick  fmoak  ;  and  needs 
a  great  deal  of  water  to  flack  it.  It  muft  not  be 
wetted  all  at  once  ;  but  only  by  flow  degrees,  to 
prevent  its  burning  before  it  be  duly  temper'd. 

When  flacked,  it  may  be  kept  feveral  years,  by 
letting  it  pafs  through  a  hole  open  at  the  bottom  of 
thevelTel,  into  a  pit  dug  underground,  and  as  foon 
as  it  it  full,  covering  it  with  fand,  to  prevent  its 

drying. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


i6i 


drying.  Boekler  gives  another  method.  He  will 
have  a  Jlratum  of  lime  covered,  two  or  three  feet 
high,  with  another  of  fand  of  the  like  height, 
and  then  water  enough  poured  on  to  flack  the  t'lme^ 
but  not  to  reduce  it  to  duft  after  flacking.  If  the 
fand  cleave  into  chinks,  as  the  fmoak  afcends,  they 
mufl:  be  covered  up,  fo  as  no  vent  may  be  given 
thereto.  This  lime,  he  adds,  kept  ten  or  twelve 
years,  will  be  like  glue,  and  will,  further,  be  of 
particular  ufc  in  painting  walls,  as  being  no  ways 
prejudicial  to  the  colours. 


Sand,  is  a  fine,  hard,  gravelly  fort  of  earth, 
or  rather  ftones  divided  into  fmal]  grains  ;  of  great 
ufe  in  budding. 

There  are  three  forts  of  fand  proper  to  be  em- 
ployed in  building,  viz.  pit- fand,  river-fand,  and 
I'ea-fand. 

The  firft  is  the  beft,  and  is  either  of  a  black, 
white,  red,  or  a(h-colour  ;  which  lall  is  a  fort  of 
earth  burnt  by  fire  inclofed  in  the  cavities  of  moun- 
tains. Among  the  various  kinds  of  pit-fand,  the 
white  is  found  by  experience  to  be  the  word ;  and 
of  riverfand,  tiie  beft  is  that  which  is  found  in 
rapid  ftreams,  and  under  water- falls  ;  becaufe  it  is 
moft  purged.  Sea-fand  is  the  worft  ;  but  if  ufed, 
it  muft  be  that  which  is  of  a  blackifh  colour,  and 
fliines  like  glafs  ;  but  that,  whofe  particles  are  big- 
gcft,  and  lies  neareft  the  fhore,  is  better  than  any 
other  fort. 

Pit-fand,  as  it  is  of  a  fatter  fubftance  than  the 
reft,  makes  a  more  tenacious  cement  ;  and  though 
it  is  apt  to  crack,  is  frequently  made  ufe  of  in 
iullding  long  vaults,  or  raifing  walls.  River-fand 
is  proper  enough  for  rough-cafting  of  walls.  Sea- 
fand  being  foon  wet,  and  foon  dr^?,  and  of  a  faline 
quality,  which  foon  melts  away,  is  very  improper 
to  fuftain  any  confiderable  weight. 

That  fand  is  good  in  its  kind,  which,  when 
fqueezed  and  handled,  crackles  ;  and  if  being  put 
on  a  white  cloth,  neither  ftains,  nor  makes  it  foul. 
That  fand  is  naught,  which,  mixed  with  water, 
makes  it  dirty  and  muddy,  and  which  has  been 
long  in  the  air  ;  for  fuch  will  retain  much  earth, 
and  rotten  humour.  Hence  fome  Masons  wafh 
their  fand  before  they  ufe  it. 

Our  Timber,  wiiich  is  one  of  the  principal, 
and  of  the  moft  expenfive  articles,  muft  confift, 
I.  Of  oai,  for  pofts,  rails,  boards,  &c.  i.  Elm, 
for  dreflers,  ^c.  3.  Beech,  which  can  fupply  the 
want  of  oak.  4.  ,://2j,  which  is  of  a  general  ule 
in  bulldin:,  efpecially  where  it  may  lie  dry.  5  Fir 
commonly  known  by  the  name  of  deal ;  for  floors, 
flairs,  wainfcot,  and  moft-  works  of  ornament. 
6.  fFalnut-tree,    is   ufed  within  doors,  being  of  a 


more  curious  brown  colour  than  beach,  and  left 
fubjeift  to  the  worms.  7.  Service-tree,  as  yielding 
beams  of  a  conliderable  bignefs.  8.  Chefnui  tree, 
which  is  the  moft  lafting,  next  to  oak.  And,  g. 
/^Ider,  much  ufed  for  fewers,  and  pipes  to  convey 
water  :  when  always  wet,  it  grows  hard  like  a 
ftone  ;  but  where  fometimes  wet,  and  fometimes 
dry,  it  rots  prefently. 

The  chief  care  in  the  choice  of  this  kind  of 
building  materials,  is  to  fee  that  it  is  clear  of  fap  ; 
that  it  is  clean  or  free  from  knots,  flaws  and  cracks  ; 
and  that  it  be  of  a  proper  fize  for  the  purpofes  in- 
tended ;  fo  that  there  be  as  little  wafte  as  may  be 
in  cutting  it  out  for  particular  ufes. 

\Y\\en.Tlmber  is  cut  dovf r\,,  Pnlladlo  v/iW  have  it 
ftored  up  in  fome  place  where  it  may  not  be  ex- 
pofed  to  the  heat  of  the  fun,  or  to  the  injuries  of 
the  weather  ;  particularly  fuch  trees  as  rife  out  of 
the  ground  without  being  planted  ;  and  bedaub'd 
over  with  cow-dung,  to  prevent  its  fplitting.  It  is 
not  to  ftand  upright,  but  to  lie  all  along,  one  piece 
over  another,  only  kept  apart  by  fliort  blocks  in- 
terpos'd,  to  prevent  a  certain  mouldinefs,  which 
they  are  apt  to  contraft  in  Sweating  on  one  another  ; 
from  which  frequently  arifes  a  fort  of  fungus,  ef- 
pecially if  there  be  any  fappy  parts  remaining. 
Others  advife  boards,  planks,  iSc.  to  be  laid  in 
fome  pool,  or  running  ftream,  for  a  few  days,  to 
extraft  the  fap  from  them,  and  afterwards  to  dry 
them  in  the  fun  or  air.  By  this  means  it  is  faid, 
they  will  be  prevented  from  either  chapping,  cafting, 
or  cleaving  ;  but  againft  fhrinking  there  is  no  re- 
medy. Mr.  Evelyn  particularly  recommends  this 
method  for  Fir,  Others,  again,  are  for  burying 
them  in  the  earth  ;  others  in  wet  ;  and  others  for 
fcorching  and  feafoning  them  in  fire  ;  efpecially 
piles,  pofts,  Wt-.  that  are  to  ftand  cither  in  water, 
or  earth.  Sir  Hugh  Plat  informs  us,  that  the 
Venetians  burn  and  fcorch  their  timber  in  the 
flaming  fire,  continually  turning  it  round  with  an 
engine,  till  it  has  got  a  hard,  black,  crufty  coal 
upon  it. 

Timber  muft  not  be  work'd,  if  it  is  very  wet,  or 
very  dry  ;  for  in  one  cafe  it  will  be  liable  to  rot, 
and  in  the  other  will  make  bat  very  aukwark  work  : 
n3ither  •V.'fll  it  be  dry  enough  to  be  worked  into 
planks,  doors,  and  windows,  in  lefs  than  three 
years.  But  as  all  Architects  do  not,  or  cannot  take 
this  laft  precaution,  and  confequently  timber  is  but 
too  often  iTable  to  chops  or  clefts,  by  its  having  been 
work'd  too  green,  which  is  a  very  great  eye-fore  in 
many  fine  buildings;  thofe  chops  or  clefts  are  clos'd 
by  anointing,  fupplmg,  and  foaking  it  with  the 
fat  of  powder'd  beef  broth,  twice  or  thrice  re- 
peated. Some  carpenters  ufe  greafe  and  faw-duft 
miogled,    for  the  fame  purpole  ;    but  the  former 

method 


i62  *The  Univerfal  Hiftory  vf  Arts  a7id  Sciences. 


method  is  excellent,  only  it  is  not  to  be  us'd  while 
the  timber  is  green. 

We  muft  alfo  provide  Iron,  for  cramps,  nails, 
hingef,,  bolts,  gales,  bars,  and  fuch  like  work. 

One  diilinguilhing  inurkof  the  goodnefs  of  iron 
js,  when  its  veins  are  found  to  run  ftrait,  and  un- 
broken, after  it  is  work'd  into  bars,  and  when  the 
two  extremes  of  the  bar  are  clean,  and  without 
foulnefs  ;  for  thefe  veins  are  indication  that  the 
iron  is  free  from  knots  and  flaws  ;  and  by  the  ex- 
tremes we  may  judge  of  the  goodnefs  of  the  mid- 
dle. If  its  fides  are  found  to  be  ftrait  after  it  is 
wrought  into  plates,  or  into  any  other  form  what- 
ever, we  may  pronounce  it  equally  good  in  all  its 
parts,  as  it  hiis  endured  the  hammer  in  equal  pro- 
portion. 

We  may  cover  buildings  either  with  Lead, 
(which  is  alfo  us'd  for  pipes  and  gutters  to  convey 
water,  and  in  fafi:ening  all  forts  of  iron-work  in 
Jflone)  or  with  copper,  fate,  or  tiles. 

I  he  white  and  afh-colour'd  leads  are  more  per- 
fe6t  and  valuable  than  the  black,  though  not  really 
black,  but  only  has  a  few  black  i'pots  in  it.  Lead 
for  this  ufe,  is  either  cafi:  into /A^r/f  in  a  mould,  or 
milled. 

CoPPKR  is  at  prefent  but  fcldom  employed  in 
covering  any  kind  of  editices,  not  even  publick 
ones  ;  as  being  too  expenfive,  and  too  heavy,  ex- 
cept in  Sweden,  where  it  is  very  common. 

This  metal  was  ufed  in  making  letters  for  in- 
fcriptions,  that  were  placed  in  the  frizes  of  build- 
ings :  hirtorians  afl'urc  us,  that  the  hundred  gates 
of  Babylon,  fo  much  taken  notice  of,  were  all  of 
copper  ;  as  alfo  the  two  pillars  of  Hercules,  which 
were  eig-ht  cubits  high,  in  the  ifland  of  Gadcs. 

ID  O       '  _ 

The  beft  copper  is  that,  which,  when  drawn  out 
of  the  mine,  and  purify 'd  by  fire,  is  of  a  reddifh 
colour,  but  fomewhat  inclining  to  a  yellow,  and 
full  of  pores.  It  may  be  heated  like  iron,  and  li- 
quify'd,  and  therefore  capable  of  being  caft  j  and 
though  hard,  may  be  render'd  fo  fott  and  pliant, 
•as  to  be  wrought  into  very  thin  leaves.  When 
mixed  with  tin,  lead,  or  latten,  which  laft  is 
another  fort  of  copper,  but  colour'd  with  lapis  cala- 
ndnaris,  it  makes  a  metal  called  brafs,  which  is 
often  made  ufe  of  by  Archite£is  in  making  of  bafes, 
columns,  capitals,  ftatues,  and  fuch  like  deco- 
rations. 

Slate  is  a  blue  fiflel  ftone,  very  foft  when  dug 
out  of  the  quarry,  and  on  that  account  eafily  cut, 
or  fawed  into  thin  long  fquares,  or  efcallops,  to 
itxvfi  in  lieu  of  tiles  for  the  covering  of  houfes. 

The  blue  /late  is  a  very  light,  lafting  and  beau- 
tiful covering,    but  chargeable  withal,  in  regard 


the  roof  muft  be  leafed  over  with  thin  laths,  of 
about  two  inches  broad,  and  two  foot  and  a  half 
long,  plac'd  clofc  to  one  another,  and  each  Jlate 
requiring  a  peg,  and  a  nail,  at  leaft. 

In  England,  befides  blue,  we  have  likewifegrey 
flates,  called  Horjhamjiones,  from  a  town  in  Sujfex.^ 
of  that  name,  where  the  greateft  quantities  of  it 
are  found  ;  and  which  is  chiefly  ufed  in  the  cover- 
ing of  churches,  chapels,  chancels,  ^c. 

The  timber  of  the  roof  need  be  very  ftrong  for 
the  grey  fates,  it  being  almoft  double  the  weight 
of  tiles. 

Mr.  Coleprcfs  informs  us,  in  the  Phihfophicat 
Tranfa61ions,  that  to  judge  of  the  goodnefe  oifate, 
it  muft  be  knocked  .igainlt  any  hard  body,  to  make 
it  yield  a  found  ;  for  if  the  found  be  good  and  clear, 
t\\tfate  is  firm  and  good,  otherwife  it  is  crazy. 
Suiti's  which  are  fcaly  like  fifties,  are  not  good. 
Thefe  two  methods  are  the  fureft  to  difcover  the 
goodnefs  of  fate,  and  all  others  propofed  by  our 
Naturalifts  arc  too  tedious,  and  very  uncertain. 

Our  moft  common  covering  in  England  is  made 
of  Tiles,  which  are  a  fort  of  thin,  fiftitious,  la- 
minated ftones  ;  or,  more  properly,  a  fat  clayey 
earth,  knodden  and  moulded  of  a  juft  thicknefs, 
dried,  and  burnt  in  a  kiln  ;  like  a  brick. 

All  lorts  of  tiles  aie  not  employed  in  covering, 
nor  proper  for  it,  but  only  thofe  called  plain,   or 

I  thack  tiles,  fqucezcd  flat,  while  yet  foft,  in  a 
mould,  of  an  oblong  figure,  and  which,  by  Stat. 
1 7  Ed.  IV.  c.  4.  are  to  be  1  o|  inches  long,  6i  broad, 
and  half  an  inch  and  half  a  quarter  thick. 

I  Among  thefe  may  be  rank'd,  i.  ridge,  roof,  or 
creafe-tlles,    made  circular,    breadth-wile,    like  a 

j  half  cylinder,  and  ufed  to  cover  the  ridges  of 
houfs  ;  by  the  Statute  they  are  to  be  13  inches 
long,  and  of  the  fame  thicknefs  with  the  plain  tUes. 
2.  Hip,  or  corner  tiles,  which  lie  on  the  hips  or 
corners  of  roofs.  They  are  flat,  like  plain  tiles, 
but  of  a  quadrangular  figure,  whole  two  fides  are 
right  lines,  and  two  ends  arches  of  circles  ;  one 
end  being  a  little  concave,  and  the  other  convex; 
the  convex  end  to  be  about  feven  times  as  broad 

{  as  the  concave  ;  fo  that  they  would  be  triangular, 
but  that  one  corner  is  taken  off":  then,  before  they 
are  burnt,  they  are  bent  on  a  mould  breadth-wife, 
like  ridge-tiles.  They  have  a  hole  at  their  narrow 
end,  to  nail  them  on  by  ;  and  are  laid  with  their 
narrow  end  upward.     By  the  Statute  they  are   to 

;  be  1  o  inches  long,  and  of  a  convenient  breadth 
and  thicknefs.  3.  Gutter  tiles,  which  lie  in  gut- 
ters, or  valleys,  in  crols  buildings.  They  are 
made  like  corner-tiles,  only  the  corner  of  the 
broad  end  are  turned  back  again  with  two  wings. 
They  have  no  holes  in  them,    but  are  laid  with 

the 


ARCHITECTURE. 


163 


<he  troaJ    cud   upwards,    without    any   nailing. 
They  are  made  in  the  fame  mould  as  corncr-tilcs, 
and  have  the  fame  dimenfions  of  the  convex  fide. 
Their  wings  are  each  four  inches  broad,  and  eight 
inches    long.      4.  Pan,  crooked,    or  FlcmiJli-tiUs, 
ufcd  jn  covL-ring  of  fheds,  Ican-to's,  and  all  kinds 
oi Jiat-roofi-d  buildings  ;   they  are,  like  plaiti  tiles, 
in  the  form  of  an  ohlong  parallelogram.,   but  are  bent 
breadth  wife,  forwards  and  backwards,  in  form  of 
an  S,  only  one   of  the  arches  is,    at  lead-,    three 
times  as  big  as  the  other ;  which  biggeft  arch  is  al- 
ways laid  uppermofl:,  and  the  lefTer  arch  of  anodier 
tile   lies  over   the  edge   of  the  great   arch  of  the 
former.     They  have  no  holes  for  pins,  but  hang  on 
the  laths  b)'  a  knot  of  their  own   earth  ;  they  are 
ufually  14I  inches  long,  and    \q\  broad.     By  12 
Geo.  i.  f.25.  they  are  to  be,  when  burnt,  no  lefs 
than  I3r  inches  long,  ql  wide,  and  half  an  inch 
thick.      5.   Dormar,  or  Dorman-tilcs,  which  con- 
fift  of  a  plain  tile,  and  a  triangular  piece  of  a  plain 
tile,  and  fvvept  with  an  arch  of  a    circle  from  the 
other  end,  which  end  terminates  in  a  point.     Of 
thefe  tiles  there  are  two  kinds,  the  triangular  piece, 
in  fonie,  {landing  on   the  right,  in  others  on  the 
left  fide  of  the  plain  tile  ;  and  of  each  of  thefe,  a- 
gain,.  there  are  two  kind;;,  fo.me  having  a  whole 
plain  tile,  others  but   half  a  plain  tile:  but  in  them 
all  the  plain  tile  has  two  holes  for  the  pin,  at  the 
end  where  the  broad  end    of  the  triangular  piece 
ftands.     Their  ufe  is  to  be  laid  in  the  gutters,  be- 
twiict  the  roofznA  cheeks,  or  fides  of  the  dormars., 
the  plain  patt  lying  on  the  roof,  and  the  triangular 
part  (landing  perpendicularly  by  the  check  of  the 
doi-mar.     They  are  excellent  to  keep  out  the  wet 
in  thofe  places,  and  yet  arc  not  known,  perhaps, 
any  where,  but  in  Sujfex.     The  dimenfions  of  the 
plain  tile's  parts,  are  the  fame  as   thofe  of  a  plain 
tile  ;  and  the  triangular  part  is  of  the  fame  length, 
and  its  breadth  at  one  end  7  inche.<;,  and  at  the  o- 
ther  nothing.      6.  Scallop,  or  J/Iragal-tiles,  which 
are  in  all  refpefts  like  plain  tiles,  only  their  lower 
ends  are  in  form  of  an  a/hagal,  viz    a  femicirclc, 
with  a   fquare   on  each  fide.     They  are    ul'ed  in 
feme  places  for  iveather-tiling.     And,  7.  Travcrfe- 
tiles,  a  kind  of  in-eguhv plain  ?//«,  having  the  pin- 
holes  broke  out,  or  one   of  the  lower  corners  broke 
off.     Thefe  are  laid  with  the  broken  end  upwards, 
upon  rafters,  where  pinn'd  tiles  cannot  hang. 

All  thefe  kind  of  tiles  arc  laid  cither  dry,  as  they 
come  from  the  kiln,  without  mortar,  or  any  thing 
elfc  ;  or  in  a  kind  oi mortar  made  of  ham  and  horfe- 
dung.  In  fome  parts  of  Kent  they  lay  tliem  in 
mofs. 

According  to  Stat.  \fEd.  IV.  the  earth  for  tiles 
fliould  be  caft  up  before  the  firft  oi November,  fliired, 
aad  turned  before  the  firft  Qi  February  ;  aad  not 


made  into  tiles  before  the  firft  of  March  ;  and 
fliould  likewife  be  try'd,  and  fcv'er'd  from  (tones, 
marie,  and  chalk. 

We  muft  alfo  provide  ourfclves  with  Flemljh,  or 
Dutch  tiles,  for  jambs  of  chimneys,  inltcad  of 
cliimncy  corner-ftoncs  ;  for  they  divert  agreeably 
the  fight  by  the  variety  of  figures  painted  on 
them. 

When  the  carcafs  of  the  building  is  finiflied. 
Glass  muii:  be  provided  for  the  windows,  of  which 
there  are  various  forts.  1.  Crown  glafs  ;  of  which, 
fays  Neve,  there  are  two  kinds,  dilHnguiflied  by 
the  places  wheiii  they  are  work  d,  viz.  Ralcliff,  or 
Cock-Hill  erown-glafs,  which  is  the  bcO,  and 
cleareft.  Of  this  there  arc  twenty-four  tables  to 
the  cafe,  the  tables  being  of  a  circular /orw,  about 
three  foot  fix  inches  in  diameter.  But  this  varies 
according  to  the  goodnefs  ;  it  being  divided  or 
packed  up  in  three  different  forts  or  degrees;  for 
though  the  metal  (liall  be  all  of  one  goodnefs,  the 
accidents  the  glafs  meets  with  in  the  pot,  or  in 
blowing,  or  in  knealing,  occafions  an  alteration  in 
its  price  and  package. 

2.  Newcajile  glafi,  which  is  that  mofi:  ufed  in 
England,  is  of  an  afh  colour,  and  fubje6t  to  fpecks, 
flreaks,  anel  other  blemifhes  ;  and,  befidcs,  is  fre- 
quently warped.  Leybourn  fays,  there  arc  forty- 
five  tables  to  the  cafe,  each  containing  five  fuper- 
ficial  feet ;  fome  fay  there  are  but  thirty  five  tables, 
and  fix  foot  in  each  table. 

Having  made  the  neceflary  provifion  of  materials 
and  workmen,  wc  begin  our  ivork  with  making  of 
Mortar  :  which  is  a  compojition  oi  lime  ziidfand, 
mixed  up  with  w.-'ter ;  ferving  as  a  cement  to  bind 
theftones,  isfc.  of  a  building. 

De  Lorme  obferves,  that  the  beft  mortar  is  that 
made  of  pazzalana,  for  fand  ;  adding,  that  it  pene- 
trates black  flints,  and  turns  them  white.  If  we 
make  our  mortar  with  pit  fand,  we  muft  take  three 
parts  of  it,  and  mix  it  with  oneof  lime  ;  but  if  we 
make  ufe  of  river,  or  fea  fand,  our  proportion  muft 
be  two  parts  of  (and  only,  and  one  of  lime.  About 
London,  the  proportion  of  fand  to  quick  lime  is  ae 
36  to  25  ;  in  fome  fort  of  work  they  ufe  an  equal 
quantity  of  each. 

It  is  a  maxim  among  old  Mafons  to  their  labour- 
ers, that  they  fhouid  dilute  mortar  with  the  fweat 
of  their  Ziraw,  i.  e,  labour  it  a  long  time,  inftead 
of  drowning  it  with  water,  to  have  done  the 
fooner. 

There  are  two  other  forts  of  mortar  employ'd  in 
building,  viz.  white mo?tar,tmide  of  ox-hAits,  mix'd 
with  lime  and  water,  without  any  fand,  ufed  in 
plaiftering  the  walls  and  ciclings  ;  and  a  hard  «wr- 
tar  made  of  lime  and  hogs  greafe,  fometimes  mixed 
with  the  juice  of  figs,  and  fometimes  with  liquid 
Y  pitck, 


164  7^^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  c;^^  Sciences. 


pitch,  employed  in  making  water-courfes,  cifterns, 
i£c.  This,  after  application,  is  waftied  over  with 
linfeed-oil. 

The  Foundation  is  that  part  of  a  building 
which  is  under  ground^  and  fuitains  the  whole  edi- 
fice ;  or  upon  which  the  walls  of  the  fuperftrufture 
are  raifed.  So  that  of  all  the  erron  in  buUding, 
thofe  are  the  moft  fatal,  that  are  committed  in  the 
foundation  ;  becaufe  they  at  once  endanger  the 
whole  ftrudture  :  npr  can  it  be  reftify'd,  but  with 
the  utmoft  difficulty.  That  therefore  the  JrchiteSf 
mufl  take  great  care  to  make  choice  of  a  good  foun- 
dation. 

Let  him  firft  examine  the  bed  of  earth  upon 
which  he  is  to  build. 

If  the  earth  befoUd,  the  AnhtteSl  mud  adjuft  the 
depth  of  the  foundation  by  the  height,  weight,  (Jc. 
of  the  building  ;  a  fixth  part  of  the  whole  height, 
where  there  are  to  be  no  cellars,  nor  other  offices, 
under  ground,  is  looked  on  as  a  medium  ;  and  as  to 
thicknefs,  double  that  of  the  width  of  the  wall,  is 
a  good  rate. 

Eut  if  it  be  a  ^r(7w//)',  or  fandy /pot,  not  to  be 
trufted,  particular  care  is  to  be  taken,  v/hether  it  be 
on  land,  or  in  the  water  ;  for  if  it  be  on  land,  the 
ibfervation  of  what  has  been  already  mentioned, 
concerning  firm  ground,  will  be  fufficient  ;  if  we 
build  in  the  water,  we  mufl  therefore  dig  till  we 
finAz.  Jolid  bottom;  or,  if  this  can't  be  eiFefted  with 
eafe,  we  muft  then  dig  a  little  into  the  fand  and 
gravel,  and  driving  in  piles  of  oak,  till  the  ends 
reach  the  good  ground,  and  on  thefewe  may  build. 
This  operation  is  called  pallification.  But  if  we 
are  obliged  to  build  upon  moffy  and  loofe  earth,  we 
muft  then  dig  till  we  i\nA  folid ground,  and  that  in 
proportion  to  the  thicknefs  of  the  walls,  and  the 
bulk  of  the  flrufture. 

An  old  foundation  muft  never  be  built  upon  be- 
fore we  know  its  depth,  and  are  well  aflured  that  it 
is  able  to  fuftain  the  fabrick. 

If  the  earth  we  build  upon  be  marfby,  we  muft 
ftrengthen  it  with  piles,  whofe  length  muft  be  the 
eighth  part  of  the  height  of  the  walls,  and  their 
diameter  the  twelfth  part  of  their  length.  Thefe 
piles  muft  be  drove  in  fo  contiguous  to  one  another, 
that  no  others  can  be  fet  between  them  ;  and  par- 
ticular care  muft  be  taken  to  ram  them  in,  with 
gentle  blows  often  repeated,  rather  than  with  vio- 
lence ;  for  the  earth  will  confolidate  better  the  one 
■way,  than  the  other.  Piles  muft  be  drove,  not 
only  under  the  walls,  but  alfo  under  the  inner,  or 
partition-walls  ;  and  diftributed  according  to  the 
proportion  of  the  walls  ;  thofe  within  are  placed 
fomewhat  thinner  than  thofe  oa  the  outfide  of  the 
iuildJng, 


In  fome  places  they  found  the  piers  of  bridges, 
and  other  i«/7(^/«g-r  near  the  water,  on  facks  of  woo/, 
laid  like  matrafles;  which,  being  well  prefTed,  and 
greafy,  will  never  give  way,  nor  rot  in  water. 

The  foundation  is  properly  fo  much  of  the  mafonry 
as  reaches  as  high  as  the  furface  of  the  ground. 
Sometimes  it  is  maflive,  and  continued  under  the 
whole  building  ;  as  in  the  antique  arches,  and  a- 
quedufts,  and  fome  amphitheatres  :  more  ufually 
it  is  only  in  fpaces,  or  intervals,  either  to  avoid 
expence,  or  becaufe  the  vacuities  are  at  too  great  a 
diftance  ;  in  which  latter  cafe  they  make  ufe  of 
infulated  pillars,  bound  together  by  arches. 


Having  fix'd  on  the  ground-plot  for  our  building, 
we  will  make  draughts  of  the  ichnography,  or  ground- 
plot  of  ench  foor,  or /lory  ;  which  ichnograp/jy  is  a 
tranfverfe  feftion  of  a  building,  exhibiting  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  whole  edifice,  and  of  the  feveral 
rooms  and  apartments  in  the  given  ftory,  together 
with  the  thicknefs  of  the  walls  and  partitions,  the 
dimenfions  of  the  doors,  windows,  and  chimneys  ; 
the  projeitures  of  the  columns,  and  piers,  with 
every  thing  vifible  in  fuch  feiSlion.  On  this  draught 
of  the  ichnography  depends  the  form  or  difpofition  of 
our  building,  which  muft  be  either  fimpL  or  mixd. 

The  fimple  forms  are  either  circular,  or  angular  ; 
and  the  circular  ones  either  compleat,  or  jujifpheres ; 
or  deficient,  as  ovals. 

The  circular  form  is  very  commodious,  of  the 
greateft  capacity  of  any  ;  ftrong,  durable  beyond 
the  reft,  and  very  beautiful :  but  then  it  is  found 
of  all  others  the  moft  chargeable  ;  much  room  is 
loft  in  the  bending  of  the  walls,  when  it  comes 
to  be  divided  ;  befides  an  ill  dirtribution  of  light, 
except  from  the  center  of  the  roof.  It  was  on  this 
confideration  that  the  ancients  only  ufed  the  cir- 
cular form  in  temples  and  amphitheatres,  which 
needed  no  compartition.  Oval  forms  have  the  fame 
inconveniencies,  without  the  fame  conveniencies, 
being  of  lefs  capacity. 

For  angular  figures.  Sir  Henry  Wotton  obferves^ 
that  buildings  neither  love  many,  nor  few  angles  : 
the  triangle,  v.  gr.  is  condemned  above  all  others, 
as  wanting  capacity  and  firmnefs;  as  alfo  becaufe 
irrefolvable  into  any  other  regular  figure,  in  the 
inward  partitions,  befides  its  own.  For  figures  of 
five,  fix,  feven,  or  more  angles,  they  are  fitter  for 
fortificatiofis  than  civil  buildings.  There  is,  indeed, 
a  celebrated  building  of  Vignola,  at  Caprarsla,  in 
form  of  a  pentagon  ;  but  the  architeil  had  pro- 
digious difficulties  to  grapple  with,  in  difpofing  the 
lights,  and  faving  the  vacuities.  Such  building, 
then,  feems  rather  for  curiofity  than  conveniency, 
and  for  this  reafon  reftangles  are  pitched  on,  as 
being  a  medium  between  the  two  extremes.     But, 


ARCHITECTURE. 


again,  vvhcihcr  the  rectangle  is  to  bcjuft  afquarc, 
or  an  oblong,  is  diiputcd.  Sir  Henry  JVotton  pre- 
fers the  latur,  provided  the  length  do  not  exceed 
the  breadth  by  above  one  third.  Mixed  figures, 
partly  circular,  and  partly  angular,  may  be  judged 
of  from  the  rules  of  the  fimple  ones  ;  only  they 
have  this  particular  defefl,  that  they  oftcnd  againll 
uniformity.  Indeed,  uniformity,  and  variety,  may 
feem  to  be  oppofite  to  each  other  ;  but  Sir  Henry 
T-Votton  obferves,  they  may  be  reconciled  ;  and  for 
an  inftance  mentions  the  ftrudlure  of  the  human 
body  where  both  meet. 

Suppofe  the  building  to  be  erefted  is  of  a  cltcular 
form,  according  to  the  ichnography  :  tS\^  foundation 
muft  be  as  thick  again  as  the  wall  intended  to  be 
raifed  upon  it.  1  he  plan  of  the  trench  mufl  be 
exaftly  level,  that  the  weight  may  prefs  equally 
in  all  parts,  and  not  lean  more  to  one  fide,  than 
the  other,  which  occafions  the  cracking  and  di- 
>'idingofthe  walls.  1^\\q.  foundations  vcwA  ■^\K2iys 
ilope,  or  diminifh,  in  proportion  as  they  rife  ;  yet 
fo  as  that  there  may  be  as  much  left  on  one  fide 
as  on  the  other,  and  fo  as  the  middle  wall  above 
may  be  direftly  perpendicular  over  the  middle  of 
that  below  ;  which  muft  be  alfo  particularly  re- 
garded in  the  diminifhing  of  walls  above  ground  ; 
for  this  will  make  the  fabrick  much  ftronger  than  if 
the  diminutions  or  fet  ofFs  were  made  any  other 
way. 

Palladia  is  of  opinion,  that  in  large  buildings  it 
is  very  proper  to  make  vents,  or  holes,  through  the 
body  of  the  walls,  from  the  very  foundations  to  the 
roof,  in  order  to  let  out  the  winds  and  vapours, 
which  are  very  prejudicial  to  the  fabrick,  diminifh 
the  expence,  and  will  likewife  be  found  extremely 
convenient  in  cafe  winding  flairs  are  to  be  made 
from  the  bottom  to  the  top. 

The  foundations  being  laid,  we  are  to  ere(£t  the 
walls.  The  antients  made  fix  kinds  of  walls.  The 
firfl  were  called  rciicolata,  or  net-work  ;  the  fecond 
were  compofed  of  quadrels,  or  bricks  ;  the  third  of 
cement,  confifting  of  «;w«/  ox  pebbles;  the  fourth 
of  irregular  and  various  flones,  and  called  Rujlick; 
the  fifth  oi  free-Jlone  ;  and  the  fixth  of  Riemputa, 
or  coffer-work.  They  generally  made  the  angles, 
or  corners,  of  the  building  of  bricks,  and  laid  be- 
tween every  two  foot  and  a  half,  three  courfes  of 
bricks,  which  ferve  as  a  kind  of  band  to  the  whole 
work. 

The  moderns  diftinguifh  walls  into  plaijler'd 
or  mud-walls,  brick-walls,  fione-walls,  flints,  or 
boulder-walls,  and  boarder-walls. 

Mud  and  plaijiered-walis  are  chiefly  in  ordinary 
timber  buildings.  Thefe  walls,  being  quartered 
and  lathed  between  the  timber,  or  fometimes  lathed 


165 


over  all,  are  plaiftercd  with  lomc,  which  being 
almoft  dry,  is  plaiftercd  over-again  with  white 
mortar. 

Brick-zualls  are  the  moft  important  and  ufeful 
among  us.  In  thefe,  particular  care  is  to  be  taken 
about  the  laying  of  the  bricks,  viz.  That  in  fum- 
mer  they  be  laid  as  wet,  and  in  winter  as  dry  as 
poflible,  to  make  them  bind  the  better  with  mor- 
tar :  that  in  lummer,  as  faft  as  they  are  laid  they 
be  covered  up,  to  prevent  the  mortar,  &'c.  from 
drying  too  faft  :  that  in  winter  they  be  covered 
well,  to  proteil  them  from  rain,  fnow,  and  frofl, 
which  arc  all  enemies  to  the  mortar  :  that  they  be 
laid  joint  on  joint,  in  the  middle  of  the  walls,  as 
I'eldom  as  may  be,  but  good  bond  made  there,  as 
well  as  on  the  out-fides.  Care  is  alfo  to  be  taken 
that  the  angles  be  firmly  bound  :  in  order  to  which, 
in  working  up  the  angles  of  a  building,  it  is  not 
advifable  to  raife  any  wall  above  three  feet  high, 
ere  the  next  adjoining  wall  be  wrought  up  to  it. 
That  good  binding  may  be  made  in  the  progrefs  of 
the  work. 

Palladia's  fentiment  is,  that  brick-walls,  intended 
for  any  great  building,  ought  to  be  faced  on  both 
fides  with  brick,  and  the  middle  filled  with  ce- 
ment, rammed  clofe  together  with  brickbats  ;  and 
that  to  every  three  feet  in  height,  there  ought  to  be 
three  courfes  of  biicks  of  a  larger  fize  than  the 
others  to  bind  the  whole  breadth  of  the  wall.  That 
the  firft  courfe  fhould  be  laid,  fo  that  the  lefTer  fide 
of  the  brick  may  be  outward  ;  the  fecond  length- 
ways, that  is  to  fay,  with  its  larger  fide  on  the  out- 
fide,  and  the  third  as  the  firft. 

Flint,  or  boulder  walls  are  ufually  raifed  by  a 
right  and  left-hajided  man,  who  has  had  a  hod  of 
mortar  poured  down  on  the  work,  which  they  part 
betwixt  them  ;  each  fpreading  it  towards  himfelf, 
and  (()  they  lay  in  the  flints.  The  mortar  for  this 
work  is  to  be  very  fliff".  Thefe  walls  are  ufed  for 
fence -walls,  a-round  courts,  gardens  and  out- 
houfes. 

The  cement  walls  of  the  antients  were  made  fo, 
as  there  fhould  be  three  courfes  of  bricks,  and  dif- 
pofed  as  above,  to  every  two  foot  at  the  leaft.  In 
erecting  their  Rufick-xvalls,  made  of  irregular 
ftones,  they  ufed  a  leaden  rule,  which  being  bent, 
according  to  the  place,  where  the  ftone  was  to  be 
fet,  demonftrated  how  it  was  to  be  fquared  ;  fo 
that  when  it  was  once  cut,  they  immediately  fixed 
it  in  its  place. 

Their  walls,  called  coffer-w:rk,  were  made  by 
taking  planks  laid  edge-way,  according  to  the 
thicknefs  of  the  walls,  filling  the  void  with  cement, 
and  all  forts  of  ftones  mingled  together,  and  con- 
tinued, after  this  manner,  from  courfe  to  courfe  of 
ftones  laid  level,  or  of  the  fame  height,  through- 
y  2  out 


1 66  The  Univerlal  Hiftcry  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


out  the  whole  length  of  the  buildings  and  not  in- 
terrupted by  any  aperture. 

Walli  as  they  advance,  mufl  diminifh  proportion- 
ably  in  their  thicknefs  ;  and  fuch  as  appear  above 
ground  mull  be  half  as  thick  as  thofe  in  the  foun- 
dations. Thofe  of  the  fecond  ftory  muft  be  half  a 
brick  thinner  than  thofe  of  the  firft,  and  in  like 
manner  to  the  top  of  the  fabrick  :  due  care,  how- 
ever, muft  be  taken,  not  to  make  the  upper  part 
too  weak.  The  middle  of  the  wall  above  muft  be 
exaftly  perpendicular  over  the  middle  of  thofe  be- 
low ;  which  will  give  the  whole  zf^// a  pyramidical 
form.  Moreover,  if  we  be  forced  to  make  the 
fuperficies  of  the  upper  wall^  exactly  over  that  be- 
neath, it  muft  be  done  inwardly ;  for  the  floors, 
the  beams,  the  vaults,  and  other  fupports  of 
the  edifice,  will  keep  the  walh  from  falling 
inward. 

The  fet  off,  or  difcharged  parts,  on  the  outfide, 
muft  be  covered  with  a  fafcta  and  a  cornice,  which 
furrounding  the  whole  fabrick,  will  bind  as  well  as 
beautify  it.  As  the  angles  of  an  edifice  are  com- 
mon, to  two  fides  or  faces  to  keep  them  upright 
and  faft  together,  we  muft  take  care  to  make  them 
very  ftrong  and  fubftantiai,  and  to  hold  them  with 
long  and  hard  ftones,  as  it  were  with  arms.  The 
windows,  therefore,  and  other  openings,  ought  to 
be  as  far  diltant  from  the  angles  as  pofuble  ;  or  at 
leaft,  fo  much  fpace  ought  to  be  left,  as  is  the 
breadth  of  the  faid  opening. 

In  London,  hy  a  ftatute  made  for  rebuilding  the 


and  garrets,  the  walh  in  front  and  rear  as  high  zo 
the  firft  ftory,  be  two  bricks  and  an  half  in  thick- 
nefs, and  from  thence  upwards  to  the  garret  floor, 
of  the  thicknefs  of  one  brick  and  an  half ;  and  that 
the  thicknei's  of  the  gairet  walls,  on  the  back  part, 
be  not  lefs  than  one  brick  ;  And  alfo  that  the  party- 
walls  between  every  houfe  of  this  third,  and  larger 
fort  of  building,  be  two  bricks  thick,  as  high  as 
the  firft  floor,  and  thence  upwards  to  the  garret 
floor  one  brick  and  an  half. 

We  haveobferved  in  this  treatife  of  Architeiiurey 
that  there  are  five  Orders  of  columns,  viz.  Tuf- 
can,  Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Compofite.  Now 
fays  Palladia,  the  ftrongeft  and  nioft  fubftantiai  of 
thofe  orders,  which  is  the  Tiifcan,  muft  lie  under- 
moft  ;  though  this  order,  becaufe  of  its  plaiimefs 
and  fimplicity,  be  feldom  uftd  above  ground,  ex- 
cept in  fabricks  where  one  order  only  is  employed, 
never,  therefore,  in  regular,  and  (umptuous  edi- 
fices, efpecially  houfes,  in  which  the  Dorick  fupplies 
its  place,  as  next  to  it  for  fimplicity. 

From  this  we'll  pafs  to  apertures,  which  are 
either  gate,  doors,  windows,  Jiair-cajes,  chimneys, 
or  Jcwers  for  the  fullage,  is'c. 

Palladia  pretends,  that  no  fettled  and  determi- 
nate directions  can  be  given  for  the  altitude,  and 
breadth  of  the  gates  of  fp.acious  edifices  ;  nor  for 
j  the  doors  and  windows  of  rooms  ;  and  gives  this 
fi.)r  reafon,  that  when  an  Architc>5t  makes  any  gates, 
he  is  forced  to  adapt  them  to  the  largenefs  of  the  fa- 
brick ;  to  the  dignity  of  a  perfon  who  employs  him. 


city  after  the  fire  ;  it  is  enacted,  that  in  all  houfes    and  the  conveniency  of  whatever   goes   backwards 


of   two   ftories,  befides  cellars    and   garrets,    and 
fronting  bye-ftieets,    and  lanes,  the  walls  in  front 
and  rear,  as  high  as  the  firlt  (tory,  fhall  be  full  the 
thicknei's  of  the  length  of  two  bricks  ;  and  thence 
upwards  to  the  garret  of  ;he  thicknefs  of  one  brick 
and  an  half  ;  and  that  the  thicknefs  of  the  garret 
walls,  on  the  back  part,  be  left  to  the  difcrction  of 
the  builder  ;  fo  that  die  fame  be  not  lefs  than  one 
brick  in  length  ;  and  that  the  thicknefs  of  the/'^rt^- 
wall,  in  lilt;  garret,  be  of  the  thicknefs  of  the  length 
of  one  brick,  at  leaft.     That  in  houfes  of  three 
flories  high,  befides  cellars  and  garrets,  the  avails 
in  the  front  and  rear,  as  high  as  the  firft  ftory,    be 
two  bricks   and   a  half  thick ;    and   from   thence 
upward,   to  the  garret  floor,  of  one  brick  and  an 
half  thick  ;  and  the  thicknefs  of  the  garret  zvaJs, 
on  the  back  part,  be  left  to  the  difcretion  of  the 
builds,  fo  that  the  fame  may  not  be  lefs  than  one 
brick  thick ;    and  alio   that  the  thicknefs  of  the 
party -walls,,  betv/een  every   houfe  of  this  fecond 
and  larger  fort  of  building,  tbe   two  bricks  thick, 
as  high  as  the  firft  ftory,  and  hence  upwards  to  the 
garret   of   the   thicknefs  of  one  brick  and  a  half, 
lliat  houfes  of   four  ftories  high,  befides  cellars 


and  forwards,  either  to  and  from  the  fame  ;  though 
the  method  he  likes  beft  is  to  divide  the  fpace  from 
the  ground  to  the  fupsrficies  of  the  joifts  into  three 
parts  and  a  half;  two  whereof  muft  be  allowed  to 
the  altitude  of  the  void,  or  opening,  and  one  and 
a  half  to  the  breadth. 

Some  will  have  gates,  through  which  coaches, 
Cifr.  are  to  pafs,  not  lefs  than  (even  feet  broad,  nor 
more  than  twelve  ;  the  height  to  be  one  and  a  half 
the  breadth. 

The  gates  and  principal  doors  muft  be  ordered  in 
fuch  a  pofition  that  an  eafy  accel's  from  all  parts  of 
the  houfe  may  be  had  to  them.  The  doors  of  rooms 
muft  not  exceed  three  foot  wide,  and  fix  and  a  half 
high  ;  nor  be  lei's  than  two  foot  v/ide,  and  five- 
foot  high.  They  ought  to  be  as  fe\v  in  number, 
aijd  as  moderate  in  dimenfions  as  poffible,  lince  all 
openings  are  weakenings;  though  by  turning  arches 
over  them,  they  are  difcharged,  in  fome  meafure 
of  the  fuper-incumbent  weight.  They  are  not  tt) 
approach  too  near  the  angles  of  the  walls  ;  it  being 
a  glaring  folecifm  to  weaken  that  part  which  mult 
weaken  all  the  reft.  They  fhould  be,  if  poffible,. 
over   one  another  ;  that  void  ma.y   be  over 

void ; 


right 


ARCHITECTURE, 


167 


void;  anJ  full  over  full ;  and  alfooppofite  to  each  Regolo,  or  Orh,  and  the  other  three  are  for  ther 
other,  fo  as  that  one  may  fee  from  one  end  of  the  fcima  reverfa,  otherwife  call'd  cymatium.  Its  pro- 
houfu  to  another  ;  which'will  not  only  be  graceful,  jeflurc  is  equal  to  its  altitude,  and  the  fillet  projefls 
hutalfo  convenient;  as  it  affords  a  means  of  cooling  Icfs  than  half  its  thicknefs.  5.  To  defign  the 
the  houfe  in  fummer,  by  letting  in  air ;  and  of  j  Cymatium,  we  muft  draw  a  right  line  from  below 
keeping  out  the  wind  in  winter,  which  way  foevcr  ,  the  fillet  to  the  upper  part  of  the  lecond  fafcw, 
it  fits.  '  '  '       which  line  is  to  be  divided   into  two  equal  parts. 

In  fmall  Buildings,  the  breadth  of  the  Door  of  each  whereof  is  made  the  bafe  of  an  ifoceles  tn- 
thc  entry  fhould  be  four  foot,  or  four  and  a  half;  ^  angle,  or  which  has  two  fides  equal ;  then  the 
and  the  breadth  of  the  Doors  of  the  chambers  i  place  of  the  fix'd  foot  of  our  compafs  muft  be 
3  1 J  3  ^5  or  4.  In  middling  Buildings  the  Breadth  '  plac'd  in  the  angle  over  againft  the  bafc,  by  which 
of  the  entry  iJasr  ought  to  be  5  or  6  foot ;  and  |  we'll  draw  the  curve  lines  which  give  the  C;7nfl/;«OT. 
that  of  the  chamber  doors  4,  or  4  f . 

There  are  gates  (A,  fee  Plate  V.)  and  doors  of 
the  Jive  Orders,  viz.   Tufcan,  Dorick,  lonick,  Co 


rinthian,  and  Compofite  Doors. 

Gates  and  Doors  have  their  heads  generally 
fquare,  and  fometimes  circular,  which  laft  muii: 
not  be  ufed,  if  the  impoft  be  not  above  the  height 
of  a  man. 

Note,  That  imp)fls,  m  architeiflure,  are  the 
capitals  of  pillars  or  pilaflers,  which  fupport 
arches.  An  impajl,  fometimes  alfo  called  Chap- 
trel,  is  a  fort  of  plinth,  or  little  cornice,  which 
crowns  a  peer,  and  fupports  the  firft  {lone,  whence 
an  arch  or  vault  commences.  JmpoJIs  conform 
to  their  proper  order.  The  Tufcan  is  a  plinth 
only ;  the  Dorick  has  two  faces  crowned ;  the 
hnick  a  larmier  over  the  two  faces,  and  its 
moulding  may  be  carved;  the  C'rlnthian  ajid  Com- 
pofite have  a  larmier,  freeze,  and  other  mouldings. 
The  Projeifture  of  the  impoji  muft  not  exceed  the 
naked  of  the  pilafter.  Sometics  the  entablature 
of  the  order  ferves  for  the  impojl  of  the  arch  ;  and 
this  looks  very  grand  and  ftatcly.  The  impoft  is  a 
thing  efTential  to  an  ordonnance  ;  in  as  much  as 
without  it,  in  the  place  where  the  curve  line  of 
the  arch  meets  with  the  perpendicular  line  of  the 
pillar,  there  always  feems  a  kind  of  elbow. 

Palladlo  gives  the  following  rules  for  the  deco- 
rations of  doors,  which  decorations  confdl  of  the 
jirthhrave,  Free%e  and  Co'nice.  I.  That  the 
jirchlirave  fhould  turn  about  the  1-/;;^,  and  be  as 
thick  as  the  jambs  or  pilafters,  which  muff  not  be 
lefs  than  a  fixth  part  of  the  breadth  of  the  open- 
ing, nor  more  than  a  fifth.  2.  The  thicknefs  of 
the  Freeze  and  Cornice  is  to  be  taken  from  the  fame 
opening.  3.  'I"he  Architrave  muft  be  divided 
into  four  parts,  three  of  which  are  to  be  for  the 
altitude  of  the  Freez--,  and  five  for  that  of  the 
Cornice,  4.  The  Architrave  mull:  Be  again  divided 
into  four  parts ;  three  whereof  go  to  the  firfi: 
fafcia,  four  to  the  fecond,  and  the  other  three  are 
Subdivided  into  five  partB  j  two  whereof  are  for  the 


The  Freeze  ought  to  be  three  fourths  of  the 
architrave,  and  form'd  by  the  fegment  of  a  circle, 
lefs  than  a  femicircle,  and  its  convexity,  or  fwell- 
ing  is  to  be  perpendicular  to  the  cymatium  of  the 
architrave. 

The  five  parts  to  be  given  to  the  cornice,  mull  be 
thus  dillributed  to  its  members ;  one  to  be  for  the 
cavetto,  with  its  lljlella,  which  is  the  fifth  part  of 
the  cavetto,  the  projefture  whereof  is  two  thirds 
of  its  altitude;  and  an  ifoceles  triangle  muft  be 
drawn  to  defign  it,  fo  that  the  cavetto  will  be  the 
bafe  of  the  triangle.  Another  of  the  faid  five 
parts  muil  be  allow'd  to  the  ovolo,  the  projedture 
whereof  fhall  be  two  thirds  of  its  altitude,  and  is 
form'd  by  drawing  an  ifoceles  triangle.  The  other 
three  to  be  fubdivided  into  feventeen  parts,  eight 
whereof  we'll  allow  to  the  corona  with  its  U(lellas, 
of  which  that  above  takes  one  of  the  faid  eight 
parts,  and  that  below,  which  makes  the  hollow  ot 
the  Corona,  muft  have  but  a  fixth  part  of  the  ovolo. 
The  other  nine  v^rll  be  given  to  thefclma  rcfia  and 
\X.s  fillet,  which  will  be  one  third  of  the  bXdfclma. 
Note,  that  Decoration  in/?r(:/;/;f^7ari',  i^  any 
thing  that  adorns  and  enriches  a  building.  Tho 
orders  of  Archlteclure  contribute  greatly  to  the 
decoration,  but  then  the  feveral  parts  of  thofc 
orders  muft  have  their  juft  proportions,  character!", 
and   ornaments;    otherwife    the   fineft    order   will 


bring  confuuon,  rather  than  richnefs^ 

As  for  our  other  apertures,  which  are  Windows, 
(B)  wc  muft  oblerve  the  following  rules  :  i.  That 
they  be  as  few  In'  number,  and  -as  moderate  in 
dimenfions,  as  may  confift  v/uh  other  refpecls-; 
2.  That  they  be  plac'd  at  a  convenient  diliance 
from  the  angles,  of  corners  of  the  bu'Jding;  3. 
Care  muft  be  taken  that  the  vjlndcivs  be  alfo  equal- 
one  with  another,  in  their  rank  and  order;  fo  that 
thofe  on  the  right  hand  may.  anfvvcr  to  thofe  on  the 
left;   and  tho.*!;  above  be  right  above  thofe  below  ; 

As  to  their  DlmenfonSy  regard  is  to  be  had  to 
the  bignefs  of  the  rooms  which  are  to  receive  the 
light. 

1  he   apertures    of    ivhidows,    in    middle-fiz'3' 

houfes- 


^•6;8  n^e  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  <2W  Sciences. 


houfcs,  may  be  four  and  a  half,  or  live  feet  be- 
tween the  jambs ;  and  in  the  gredter  buildings  fix 
and  a  h;df,  or  fcven  feet  ;  and  their  height  may  be 
double  of  the  length,  at  leail ;  but  in  high  rooms, 
or  larger  buiUi>igs,  their  height  may  be  a  third,  a 
fourth,  or  half  their  breadth,  more  than  double 
their  length. 

Such  arc  the  proportions  for  windows  of  the  firft 
ftory  ;  and  according  to  thefe  muft  thofe  in  the 
upper  ftories  be  for  breadth;  but  as  to  height,  they 
muft  diminifh;  the  fecond  flory  may  be  one  third 
part  lower  than  the  firft,  and  the  third  ftory  one 
fourth  part  lower  than  the  fecond. 

There  are  different  forts  of  w'ndovb-s,  viz.  Ar- 
chitrave windows.  Dormer  windows,  or  Luthern, 
and  Tranfom  windows. 

jlrchitrave  windows  of  timber,  are  commonly 
an  ogee  rais'd  out  of  the  folid  timber  with  a  lift 
over  it;  though  fometimcs  the  mouldings  are 
ftruck,  and  laid  on,  and  fometimcs  are  cut  in 
brick.  Dormer  windows,  or  Luthirn,  are  a  kind 
of  window  over  the  cornice,  in  the  roof  of  a 
building,  ftanding  perpendicularly  over  the  naked 
part  of  the  walls,  and  ferving  to  illuminate  the 
upper  ftorjr.  Tranfom  window  is  a  double-light 
window^  fo  call'd  from  the  piece  that  is  fram'd 
a-crofs  it. 

JFindows,  like  doors,  vary  likewife  with  refpe£l 
to  the  different  orders  of  ArchiteSlure,  and  have 
their  various  decorations  in  common  with  doors. 

fFijidows  and  Doors  are  alfo  often  adorn'd  with 
Balconies;  which  are  a  jutty,  or  projedture,  in 
the  front  of  a  houfe,  fupported  by  pillars,  or  con- 
foles,  and  encompafs'd  with  a  balluftrade ;  which 
is  an  aflemblage  of  one  or  more  rows  of  ballufters, 
high  enough  to  reft  the  elbow  on,  i,  e.  about  four 
feet. 

The  next  apertures  which  fall  under  our  confi- 
deration,  are  the  Chimney:. 

Chimney,  from  the  French  Cheminee,  is  that 
part  of  the  houfe  where  the  fire  is  made.  The 
Chimney  is  compos'd  of  jambs,  or  fides,  of  the 
back  or  wood ;  the  mantle-tree  refting  on  the 
jambs;  the  tube,  or  funnel,  which  conveys  away 
the  fmoak ;  the  chimney-piece,  or  moulding,  on 
the  fore- fide  of  the  jambs  over  the  mantle  tree,  and 
the  hearth,  or  fire-place.  But  as  we  are  yet  on  the 
out-fide  of  the  houfe,  we'll  confider  firft  the  fun- 
nel, or  tube,  which,  according  to  Pal'adio,  muft 
never  be  made  too  wide,  or  too  narrow ;  for  in 
the  former  cafe  the  wind  having  too  much  room, 
will  drive  the  fmoak  downward,  and  not  let  it 
afcend,  or  go  freely  out;  and  in  the  latter  cafe 
the  fmoak,  for  want  of  a  free  vent,  will  fly  back 


(  aguin.     Therefore   in  the   Chimney;  of  roonii    tlie 
1  funnels  muft  not  be  narrower  than  half  a  foot,   nor 
j  wider  than  nine  inches,  nor  above  two  foot  and  a 
!  half  in  length.  The  mouth  of  the  pyramid,  where 
it  joins   to  the  funnel,  mult   be  made  fomewhat 
I  narrower,  that  the   fmoak  driving  downward,  it 
may  keep   it  from  going    into  the   room.     Some 
make  the  funnels  crooked,  that  by  their  winding 
I  and  the   ftrcngth  of  the   fire,  which  forces  it  up- 
ward, they  may   prevent  the  fmoak  from  flying 
back   into  the  room.     The  funnels,  or  openings 
a -top,  fays  the  fame  learned  author,  through  which 
the  fmoak  fhould  be  convey'd,  ought  to  be  wide, 
and  fet  at  a  diftancc  from  any  fubftance  that  is  apt 
to  take  fire. 

According  to  Woljius,  the  breadth  of  the  aper- 
ture at  bottom  ought  to  be  to  the  height,  as  three 
to  two;  to  the  depth,  as  four  to  two.  In  fmall 
apartments  the  breadth  is  three  foot,  in  larger  five. 
In  bed-chambers  four.  In  fmall  banquetting- 
rooms  five  and  a  half,  in  large  fix  ;  but  the  height 
never  to  exceed  two  and  a  half,  left  there  be  too 
much  room  for  the  air  and  wind  to  drive  the  fmoak 
into  the  room.  Nor  muft  the  height  be  too  little, 
left  the  fmoak  mifs  its  way,  and  be  check'd  at  firft 
fetting  out.  The  fame  author  advifes,  to  have  an 
aperture  thro'  which  the  external  air  may,  on 
occafion,  be  let  into  the  flame,  to  drive  up  the 
fmoak,  which  the  internal  air  would  otherwife  be 
unable  to  do. 

Felihien  orders  the  mouth  of  the  tube,  or  that 
part  join'd  to  the  c/.»/w»^;-back,  to  be  a  little  nar- 
rower than  the  reft,  that  the  fmoak  coming  to  be 
repell'd  downwards,  meeting  with  this  obftacle, 
may  be  prevented  from  getting  into  the  room. 

To  prevent  fmoaking  chimneys,  Mr.  Lucar  ad- 
vifes two  holes,  or  two  pipes,  one  over  the  other, 
to  be  left  on  each  fide  of  the  chimney,  one  Hoping 
upwards,  the  other  downwards:  through  one  of 
thefe,  fays  he,  the  fmoak  will  pafs  in  any  pofi- 
tion.  De  Lorme  will  have  a  brafs  ball  full  of 
water,  with  a  fmall  aperture,  to  be  hung  up  in 
the  chimney,  at  a  height  a  little  above  the  greateft 
flame:  here,  as  the  water  grows  hot,  it  will  rarefy, 
and  drive  through  the  aperture  in  a  vapoury  ftream, 
which  will  drive  up  the  fmoak  that  would  other- 
wife  linger  in  the  funnel.  Others  place  a  kind  of 
moveable  vane,  or  weather-cock,  a-top  of  the 
chimney  ;  fo  that  what  way  foever  the  wind  comes, 
the  aperture  of  the  chimnty  will  be  fkreen'd,  and 
the  fmoak  have  free  egrefs.  Indeed  the  beft  pre- 
vention of  2,  fmoaking  Chimney  ieems  to  lie  in  the 
proper  fituation  of  the  dot>rs  of  the  room,  and  the 
apt  falling  back  of  the  back,  and  convenient  ga- 
thering of  the  wings  and  breaft  of  the  chimney. 
Chimneys  are  made  in  the  thicknefs  of  the  wall, 

and 


ARCHITECTURE, 


169 


aiid  care  muft  be  taken  that  no  timber  be  laid 
within  twelve  inches  of  the  fore- fide  of  the  chimney 
jambs,  that  all  joifts,  on  the  back  of  the  chimney, 
be  laid  with  a  trimmer,  at  fix  inches  diftancc  from 
the  back  j  and  that  no  timber  be  laid  witliin  the 
funnel. 

The  ancients,  in  order  to  heat  their  apartments, 
built  their  chimneys  in  the  middle,  with  columns  or 
confoles,  to  uphold  the  architraves,  over  which 
they  fixed  the  pyramidal  funnel,  through  which 
the  fmoke  was  conveyed  ;  though  the  obicurity  of 
the  rules  given  by  Fitrtivius,  on  that  head,  would 
make  one  conclude,  that  the  ancients  had  no  chim- 
neys, but  only  ftoves,  whereof  they  had  entire 
apartments. 

Palladia  pretends,  that  theflovcsof  the  ancients, 
us'd  inftead  of  cijimneys,  confilled  of  certain  tubes, 
or  pipes,  in  the  thicknefs  of  the  wall,  though 
which  the  heat  of  the  fires,  which  were  made  un- 
der thofe  chambers  afcended,  and  ilTued  out  through 
certain  vents,  or  mouths,  at  the  top  of  the  faid 
tubes,   or  funnels. 

In  the  year  17135  was  publifh'd  a  French  book, 
intituled.  La  Mechanique  du  feu,  or  the  art  of  aug- 
menting the  effefts,  and  diminifliing  the  expence  of 
fire,  by  M.  Ganger;  fince  tranflated  into  Englijl),  by 
the  celebrated  Dr.  DefaguUers.  Wherein  the  author 
examines  what  difpofition  of  chimneys  is  moft  proper 
to  augment  the  heat,  and  proves  geometrically,  that 
the  difpofition  of  parallel  jambs,  with  the  back  in- 
clined, as  in  the  common  chimneys,  is  lefs  fitted  for 
refledingheat  into  the  room,  than  parabolical  jambs, 
with  the  bottom  of  the  tablette  horizontal.  He  gives 
feveral  new  conftru(5tions  of  his  new  chimneys,  and 
the  manner  of  executing  them. 

Note,  That  Chimnev  Jambs  are  the  fides  of 
a  chimney  ufually  {landing  out  perpendicularly, 
fometimescircularly  from  the  back  ;  on  the  extre- 
mities whereof  the  mantle-tree  refts. 

We"ll  pafs  now  to  the  Stair-Case,  (C  ib.) 
defin'd  an  afcent  inclofed  between  walls,  or  a  ba- 
luftrade,  confifting  of  flairs  or  Heps,  with  landing 
places,  and  rails ;  ferving  to  make  a  communica- 
tion between  the  feveral  itories  of  a  houfe. 

We  mull  be  very  curious  in  placing  our /lair- 
cafe,  fince  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  convenient  place- 
for  it,  which,  at  the  fame  time,  will  no  ways  da- 
mage the  reft  of  the  fabric.  A  proper  fituation, 
therefore,  muft  be  affigned  to  it,  that  it  may  not 
interfere  with  any  other  parts  of  the  houfe,  nor  re- 
ceive any  inconvenience  from  them. 

The  common  rules  to  be  obferved  in  Jlair- 
cafes,  are  as  follow  :  i .  They  muft  have  three  open 
ings ;  the  firft  of  which  is  the  door  by  which  we  go 


up  to  them,  which  the  lefs  it  is  concealed  from 
fuch  as  enter  the  houfe,  the  more  ornamental  it 
will  appear;  and,  in  Palladia'^  opinion,  it  fliould 
be  plac'd  in  fuch  a  manner,  that  before  we  come 
at  it,  we  may  have  a  fight  of  the  beft  part  of  the 
houfe  :  for,  then,  the  edifice,  though  little  in 
reality,  will  appear  large.  The  fecond  opening  is 
the  windows  requifite  to  light  the  (lair-cafe,  and 
which  muft  be  fituated  in  the  middle,  and  made 
high,  by  which  means  they  will  diftufe  the  light 
in  equal  proportion.  7  he  third  opening  is  the 
landing-place,  through  which  we  enter  into  the 
rooms  of  the  firft  ftory,  and  muft  lead  into  the  moft 
handfome,  fpacious,  and  beft  furniflied  rooms  of 
the  houfe. 

2.  Stair-cafes  muft  be  made  fpacious  in  propor- 
tion to  the  bignefs  and  quality  of  the  building,  and 
never  narrower  than  three  or  four  foot,  that  when 
two  perfons  meet,  they  may  have  room  enough  to 
pafs. 

3.  The  fteps  muft  be  no  more  than  fix  or  fe- 
vcn  inches  fteep,  and  if  they  fhouJd  be  lefs,  efpe- 
cially  if  the Ji air-cafes  are  long,  and  have  no  land- 
ing-places, it  will  make  them  ftiU  more  convenient, 
and  lefs  tirefome,  by  not  obliging  people  to  lift  their 
feet  fo  high ;  but  then  they  muft  be  four  inches 
fteep  at  leaft.  The  breadth  of  the  fteps  muft  not 
be  more  than  one  foot  and  a  half,  nor  lefs  than  a 
foot. 

The  kinds  of  Jl air -cafes  are  various ;  for  in  fome 
the  flairs  are  ftrait,  in  others  winding ;  in  others 
both  ways,  or  mixt:  again,  of  ftrait  Jlair-cafes, 
called  alib,y?_yi?rr,  fome  fly  direcStly  forwards  ;  others 
are  fquare  ;  others  triangular  ;  and  others  arc 
called  French  flights. 

For  the  making  of  ftrait  Jlair-cafes,  the  whole 
fpace  muft  be  divided  into  four  parts  ;  two  whereof 
muft  be  allowed  to  the  fteps,  and  the  other  two 
to  the  void  in  the  middle  ;  whence  the  fair -cafe, 
in  cafe  it  were  left  open,  will  receive  the  light. 
They  may  be  made  with  the  w.ill  inward,  and  then 
the  wall  itfelf  is  inclofed  in  the  two  parts,  which 
are  allowed  to  the  fteps ;  tho'  there  be  noabfolute 
occafion  for  this. 

DireEl  flyers  or  plain-flyers,  are  thofe  which  pro- 
ceed directly  from  one  floor  to  another,  without 
turning  either  to  the  right  or  left ;  feldom  ufed, 
except  for  garret,  or  cellar  flairs.  Square _y^rrj, 
are  thofe  which  fly  round  the  fides  of  a  fquare  newel, 
either  folid  or  open  ;  having  at  every  corner  of  the 
newel,  a  liquare  half  ftep,  taking  up  one  fourth  of 
a  circle,  fo  that  they  fly  from  one  half  ftep  to  ano- 
ther ;  and  the  length  of  the  fairs  is  perpendicular 
to  the  fide  of  the  newel.  French  flyers,  fly,  firil 
dire£lly  forwards,  till  they  come  within  the  length 
of  a  flair  of  the  wall ;    and  then  have  a  fquare 

I  half 


'Tlje  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


170 

balf  pace,  from  which  you  immediately  afccnd  to 
another  half-pace  ;  from  which  the  Jiatrs  fly  di- 
te  dlly  back  again,  parallel  to  their  firft  flight. 

Of  uii^iding-yiairs,  cdWed  Mo  Jpir/il-f/aits  ;  fome 
are  (quarc,  fome  ciicular,  and  fome  eliptical  :  and 
thefeagain,are  various,  fome  winding  round  a  folid, 
and  others  an  open  ntwcl. 

There  are  four  kinds  of  circular  winding- Jl airs 
Vfz..  inch  as  wind  about  a  folid  newel  ;  the  fore- 
edge  of  each  being  in  a  right  line,  pointing  to  the 
centre  of  a  newel ;  commonly  ufcd  in  church- 
fleeples,  and  great  old  houfcs.  iiuch  as  wind  round 
an  open  newel,  the  fore  fide  of  each  being  in  a 
right  line,  pointing  to  the  centre  of  the  newel ;  as 
thofe  in  the  monument  of  London.  Such  as  wind 
round  a  folid  new;ci,  only  the  forefide  of  each, 
an  arch  of  a  circle  ;  either  concave  or  convex, 
pointing  near  to  the  circumference  of  the  newel. 
And  as  fuch  reiemble  the  laft,  in  all  other  refpeds, 
fave  that  they  have  an  open  newel.  Any  of  thefc 
wii'ding-Jiairs,  take  up  lefs  room  than  other 
jl^inds. 

When  3.  Jl air- iafc  winds  round  a  folid  newel,  or 
a  column,  Palladia  will  have  it  made  in  the  man- 
ner following :  the  diameter  being  divided  into 
three  parts,  two  muft  be  for  the  fl:eps,  and  one  for 
the  newel  ;  or  the  diameter  fliall  be  divided  into 
feven  parts,  three  of  which  are  to  beallowed  to  the 
newel,  and  the  four  others  to  the  fteps  ;  and  in  cafe 
the.  flair- cafes  he  made  circular,  they  will  appear 
very  ornamental,  and  be  longer,  than  if  they  had 
been  made  flrait.  But  in  o^tnjlair-cafes,  the  fame 
celebrated  architeol.,  divides  the  diameter  into  four 
parts,  two  of  which  he  gives  to  the  Heps,  and  two 
to  the  void  in  the  middle. 

He  divides  eliptical,  and  circular  y?i7;V-frJ/^^,  in 
one  and  the  fame  manner,  and  judges  them  very 
handibme  and  agreeable,  all  the  windov/s  and 
doors  being  at  the  head,  and  in  the  middle  of  the 
elipfis. 


AfiKt-flairs,  are  fuch  as  partly  fly,  and  partly 
wind  ;  whence  fome  call  thcmfyers  and  "winders  : 
Of  thefc  are  feveral  kinds ;  as  doglegged-j/airs, 
which,  firft  fly  direiflly  forwards,  then  wind  a  fc- 
micirclej  and  then  fly  direcfly  backwards,  parallel^ 
to  that.  Square  flyers  and  winders,  which  have  a 
fquare  newel,  either  folid  or  open,  and  fly  by  the 
fides  of  the  newel,  winding  a  quadrant  of  a  circle, 
at  each  corner.  Solid  and  open  nnvelledfiyers,  and 
winders,  which  are  of  two  kinds;  the  one  winds  a 
quadrant  of  a  circle  of  about  a  folid  newel,  then 
flies  by  the  fide  of  a  fquare  open  newel ;  then  winds 
again,  by  tiie  fide  of  a  folid  newel  ;  then  flies  again, 
and  fo  alternately.  The  other  flies  firft,  then  winds, 
and  then  flies  again  alternately. 

Several  modctn  Arehite£Js,  efpecially  the  French, 
have  introduced   twilled-rails,    in  many  of   their 
Jl air  cafes  ;    which    are   formed   in   the  followi;ig 
manner  : 

When  we  have  made  our  plan,  and  thereby 
found  the  breadth,  or  tread  of  the  fteps,  and  have 
alfo  fixed  on  thebignefs  of  the  intended  rail,  with 
the  form  and  projedlion  of  the  mouldings  ;  then 
the  front  of  the  I'econd  flep  muft  be  continued  out 
farther,  and  thereon  a  circle  defcribed,  touching 
the  infide  of  the  }-ail,  and  whofe  diameter  muft  be 
equal  to  the  breadth  of  two  fteps,  which  well  di- 
vide into  eight  equal  parts ;  then  we'll  defcribe  on 
the  center  of  the  faid  circle,  another  circle,  equal 
to  the  bignefs  of  the  rail,  and  alfo  another  circle 
to  the  extremities  of  the  mouldings. 

If  we  draw  a  diagonal  line,  and  defcribe  the 
part  of  a  circle,  and  dividing  it  into  eight  equal 
parts,  continue  it  from  the  center  to  the  line,  wa 
have  the  diminiftiing  fcale  for  the  formation  of  the 
fcroll.  Then  transferring  the  refpective  diftances 
within  the  great  circle,  on  each  eighth  part  thereof, 
and  finding  the  center  of  the  eye,  or  block,  for  the 
firft  eighth  part  of  the  fcroll,  and  proceeding  from 
I  thence  to  all  the  diftances,  we  have  the  \vho\c  fcroll 


Palladia  mentions  another  kind  o{  Jlair-cafes,  in  I  compleated,  and  finiftiing  in  the  block,  at  one 


the  portico  of  Pompey  at  Rome,  in  the  way  that 
leads  to  the  quarter  of  the  Jeivs,  which  confifts  of 
three  winding  fairs,  of  a  very  pretty  and  artful 
invention ;  for  being  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
building,  whence  they  could  receive  no  light  but 
from  above  ;  they  were  fet  upon  columns,  to  the 
end  that  the  light  might  be  equally  diffufed  ;  in 
imitation  whcteot'  Bramante,  a  celebrated  architect, 
in  his  time,  made  one  in  the  Belvidei-a,  but  with- 


v:lutisno{  a  circle.  But  here  it  is  to  be  obferved, 
that  the  infidtfroll,  though  drawn  from  the  fame 
centers,  muft  not  meet  on  the  aforefaid  eight  parts 
of  the  great  circle,  but  a  line  drawn  from  the  outer 
f  roll  to  each  center  refpecfivelv. 

For  forming  the  fcroll  of  the  fiifty?;-^,  the  fame 
method  is  to  be  ufed  as  above  ;  obferving,  only, 
that  as  it  begins  to  be  circular  from  the  fecond 
eighth  part,  the  diftance  to  the  nw/muft  be  divided 


out  fteps;  and  compofed  it  of  the  four  orders  follow-    into  feven  parts,  and  gathering  in,  one  at  a  time, 
ing  :  viz.  the  Dorick,  lonick,  Corinthian  and  Cojn-    it  will  be  compleated 
pofite.     Thh'kxnd  oi  flair- cafe,  is  made,  by  divid 


ing  the  fquare  ijito  four  parts  ;  two  of  which  are 
given  to  the  void  in  the  middlcj  and  one  to  each 
fide  of  the  fteps,  or  columns. 


Should  it  be  required  to  make  the_/?r«// of  a  larger 
revolution,  we  muft  defcribe  a  circle  whofe  diameter 
is  equal  to  three Jleps,  and  divide  the  diminiflaing 
fcale  into  twelve  parts ;  and  by  proceeding,  as  be- 
ll fore. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


171 


ore,  to  ftrike  one  eighth  of  the  great  circle  at  a 
time,  we  have  the  fcroll  at  one  revolution  and  a 
half  of  a  circle.  But  wanting  it  ftill  larger,  we'll 
make  a  circle,  whofc  diameter  is  equal  to  thebrcadih 
of  (our  ficps,  and  the  diminishing  fcale  divided  itito 
fijfteen  parts,  tht  fcroll  v/iW  be  formed  at  two  revo- 
lutions of  the  circle. 

Having  carried  the  walls  as  hijih  as  we  are  de- 
termined  they  fhall  go,  having  made  the  vaults, 
laid  the  joifts  of  the  floors,  (which  joijh  are  thofe 
pieces  of  timber  framed  into  the  girders  and  fum- 
mers,  on  which  the  boards  of  the  floor  are  laid,) 
brought  up  the  Jfair-cafes,  is'c.  in  the  next  place 
we  muft  raife  the  roof  {T)  lb.)  which  as  it  embraces 
all  the  parts  of  the  fabric,  and  prefl'es  the  walls 
thereof  equally  with  its  weight,  is,  by  that  means, 
a  kind  of  bandage  to  the  whole,  and  fcrves  forfhel- 
ter,  to  carry  oft  the  rain  from  the  walls. 

Note,  That  the  Joists  are  from  fix  to  eight 
inches  fquare,  and  ought  feldom  to  lie  at  a  greater 
diftance  from  each  other  than  ten  inches,  never 
twelve :  nor  ought  they  ever  to  bear  at  a  greater 
length  than  ten  foot,  or  to  lie  lefs  into  the  wall 
_^than  eight  inches.  Sometimes  carpenters y«rr  their 
joifls.,  as  they  call  it ;  that  is,  lay  two  rows  of 
joijls  one  over  the  other.  Summer  is  a  large  ftone, 
the  firft  that  is  laid  over  columns  and  pilafters,  in 
beginning  to  make  a  crofs  vault ;  or  it  is  thujlone, 
which  being  laid  over  a  piedroit,  or  column,  is 
hollow'd  to  receive  the  firft  haunce  of  a  plat-band. 
Girders  are  the  largeft  pieces  of  timber  in  a  Jloor ; 
their  ends  are  ufualiy  fattened  into  the  fummers,  or 
hrenji  fummers  ;  and  xht  joijls  are  framed  in  at  one 
end  to  the  ^/rc/^rj.  By  thejlatute,  for  rebuilding 
London,  no  girder  is  to  lie  lefs  than  ten  inches  into 
the  walls  ;  and  their  ends  to  be  always  laid  in 
loam,  l^c. 

Palladia  will  have  roofs  made  more  or  lefs  (helv- 
ing, according  as  the  climate  is  either  hot  or  cold  ; 
for  which  reafbn,  in  Germany,  fays  he,  where  the 
fnow  falls  in  great  quantity,  the  roofs  are  made 
very  fharp,  and  are  covered  with  fhingles,  or  little 
thin  pieces  of  wood,  or  elfe  with  very  thin  tiles ; 
for  otherwife  the  weight  of  the  fnow  would  crufli 
them.  But  thofe  who  live  in  gentle  and  moderate 
climates  (hould  raife  their  roofs  with  grace  and  po- 
litenefs,  and  to  fuch  an  altitude,  as  that  the  rain 
may  eaiily  roll  off".  'I  herefore  the  breadth  of  the 
plate  to  be  roof'd,  continues  he,  muft  be  divided 
into  nine  parts;  two  whereof  {hall  be  the  pitch  ; 
for  if  it  were  made  of  one  fourth  of  the  breadth, 
the  roo/ would  be  too  fharp,  fo  that  the  tiles  would 
fcarce  cleave  ;  and  if  they  were  made  but  of  a  fifth 
10. 


part,  the  roof  would  b--  too  flat,  whereby  the  fu- 
perincumbent  weight  of  the  tiles,  fhingles,  and 
fnows  would  prefs  too  much  upon  it.  He  con- 
cludes, by  obferving,  that  gutters  are  ufuallv  made 
all  roiuid  the  houfe,  into  which  the  water  which 
falls  from  the  tiles  is  conveyed  away,  by  fpouts,  at 
a  confiderable  diftance  from  the  walls  That  the 
gutters  muft  have  a  foot  and  a  half  of  wall  over 
them,  which  will  not  only  keep  them  in  much 
ftronger,  but  likewife  preferve  the  timber  in  the 
roof  horn  any  damage  which  the  rains  might  othcr- 
wii'e  occafion. 

When  the  roof '\s- pointed,  its  moft  beautiful  pro- 
portion is,  to  have  its  profile  an  equilateral  tri- 
angle ;  when  fquare,  that  is,  when  the  pitch,  or 
angle  of  the  ridge,  is  a  Hght  angle,  it  muft  be 
confidered  as  a  mean  proportion  between  the  pointed 
and  the  flat-form.  A  fat  roof  is  that  in  the  form 
and  proportions  of  a  triangular  pediment.  Some- 
times the  roof  is  in  the  pinnacle  form  ;  fometimes 
it  has  a  double  ridge ;  fometimes  it  is  cut  or  muti- 
lated ;  that  is,  confifts  of  a  true  and  a  falfe  roof 
laid  over  the  former  ;  fometimes  it  is  truncated, 
that  is,  inftead  of  terminating  in  a  ridge,  or  angle, 
it  is  cut  iquareoff",  at  a  certain  height,  and  covered 
with  a  terrafs,  and  fometimes,  alfo,  encompafled 
with  a  balluftrade.  Sometimes  it  is^  in  manner  of 
a  dome,  that  is,  its  plan  is  fquare,  and  the  con- 
tour circular  ;  fometimes  it  is  round,  that  is,  the 
plan  is  round,  or  oval,  and  the  profile  fpherical. 
Sometimes  the  bafe  being  very  large,  it  is  cut  oiT 
to  diminifh  its  height,  and  covered  with  a  terrafs 
of  lead,  raifed  a  little  in  the  middle  with  fky-lights, 
from  fpace  to  fpace,  to  give  light  to  fome  corridore, 
or  other  intermediate  piece,  which  without  fuch  an 
expedient  would  be  too  dark. 

There  is  alfo  the  hip-roof,  which  is  a  roof 
that  has  neither  gable-head,  fliread-head,  nor  jir- 
kin-head  ;  which  laft  are  both  gable  and  hip  at  the 
fame  end.  A  hip-roof  has  rafters  as  long,  and  with 
the  angles  at  the  foot,  &'e.  at  the  end  of  buildings, 
as  it  has  at  the  fides  ;  and  the  feet  of  the  rafters  on 
the  end  of  fuch  buildings,  as  have  hip-roofs,  ftand 
on  the  fame  plan,  viz.  parallel  with  the  horizon, 
and  at  the  fame  height  from  the  foundation  with 
rafters  on  the  fides  of  the  roof. 

All  kinds  of  roofs  are  compofed  of  beams,  raf- 
ters, hips,  (Je.  A  beam  is  the  largeft  piece  of  wood 
in  a  building,  being  laid  a-crofs  the  walls,  and  ferv- 
ing  to  fupport  the  principal  rafters  of  the  roof. 
No  houfe  has  lefs  than  two  of  thefe  beams,  viz.  one 
at  each  head  :  into  thefe  the  girders  of  the  garret- 
floor  are  alfo  framed  ;  and  if  the  building  be  tim- 
ber, the  teazle  tenons  of  the  pofts. 

The  proportions  of  beams  near  London,  are  fixed 

by  ftatute  as  follows  :  A  beam  15  feet  long  muft  be 

Z  feven 


I  72 


The  Univerfai  liil^oiy  of  Arts  j;;(i  Sciences. 


as 
therto 

equal 


the    length  of  the  bcarn  has  been  1 
if  it   be   unequal,    the  bafes  will 


fcven  inches  on  one  fide  its  fquare,  and  five  on  the  [,ul  raften,  and  others  jhepers  Indeed  h'lps  and 
Other;  if  it  be  16  feet  long,  one  fide  muit  be  f^'i^yit ,  Jleepers  arc  much  the  fame,  only  ihc  Jleepers  lie  in 
inches,  the  other  fix;  if  17  feet  long,  one  fide 
tnufl  be  ten  inches,  the  other  fix.  In  the  country 
they  ufually  make  them  Itronger.  Sir  //.  IVotton 
advifes  thefe  to  be  of  the  ftrongefl,  and  moll  du- 
rable timber. 

Hence  Mr.  Pqrent  rem.-irks,  that  the  common 
practice  of  cutting  the  beams  out  of  trees,  as  fquare 
as  pofTible,  is  ill  hufbandry  ;  and  hence  takes  oc- 
cafion  to  determine  geometrically  what  dimenfions 
the  bafe  of  a  ieaitiy  to  be  cut  out  of  any  tree  pro- 
pos'd  fhall  have,  in  order  to  its  being  of  the 
greatefl  pofllble  ftrength  ;  or,  which  is  the  fame 
thing,  a  circular  bafe  being  given,  he  determines 
the  reiiangle  of  the  grxateji  rejyiance  that  can  be 
infcribcd,  and  finds,  that  the  fides  muft  be  nearly 
7   to  5,    which  agrees  with  obfervation.     Ki- 

uppos'd 
refilt  fo 
much  thelefs,  as  the  beams  are  longer. 

Mr.  Parent  has  calculated  tabki  of  the  weights 
that  will  be  fuftain'd  in  the  middle,  in  beams  of  va- 
rious bafes  and  lengths^  fitted  at  each  end  into  walls, 
on  a  fuppofition  that  a  piece  of  oak  of  an  inch 
fquare,  and  a  foot  long,  retained  horizontally  by 
the  two  extremes,  will  fuftain  31 5  pounds  in  its  mid- 
dle before  it  breaks,  which  it  is  found,  by  expe- 
rience, it  will. 

Rafters  are  pieces  of  timber,   which  ftanding  by 

pairs  upon  the  reafon,  meet  in  an  angle  at  the  top, 

and  form  the  roof.     No  rafters  fhould  ftand  farther 

than  1 2  inches  from  one  another.    For  the  fizes,  or 

fcantlings  of  rafters,  it  is  provided,  by  z€t  of  par- 
liament, thzt  principal  rafters,  from  12  feet  6  in- 
ches, to  14  feet  6  inches  long,  be  5  inches  broad 

a-top,  and  8  at  the  bottom,  and  6   inches  thick ; 

thofe  from   14  feet  6  inches,  to   18   feet  6  inches 

long,  to  be  9  inches  broad   at  the  foot,  7  at  the 

top,  and  7  thick;   and  thofe  from  18  feet  6  inches, 

to  2 1  feet  6  inches,    to  be  10  inches  broad  at  the 

foot,  8   at  the  top,  and  8  thick.     Single  rafters  6 

feet  6  inches  long,   to  be  4  feet,  and  3  inches  in 

their  fquare  ;    thofe  8  feet  long,  muft  be  4j,  and 


3I  inches  fquare. 

The  hips  are  thofe  pieces  of  timber,  plac'd  at  the 
corners  of  the  roof.  The  hips  are  much  longer 
than  the  rafters,  by  reafon  of  their  oblique  pofition, 
and  are  plac'd  not  with  aright  or  fquare  angle,  but 
a  very  oblique  one  ;  and,  by  confequence,  are  not, 
at  leaft  ought  not  to  be  fquare  at  any  angle,  (as  raf- 
ters are  at  all)  but  bevel zx.  every  one  of  them;  and, 
which  is  yet  more,  as  rafters  have  but  four  plains, 
thefe  commonly  have  five.  Hips  are  called  by 
CQuntry  workmen  corners  ;    fome  call  them  princi- 


the  vallies,  and  join  a-top  w\i\\t\v:  hips ;  but  thofe 
furfaces,  or  plains,  which  make  the  back  of  the 
hips,  are  the  under  fides  of  the  flecper.  The  bads 
of  a  heap  are  thofe  two  fuperfieies,  or  plains,  on 
the  out-fide  of  the  hips,  which  lie  parallel,  both  in 
refpect  of  thcit  length  and  breadth,  with  t\ic  fuper- 
fieies of  the  adjoining  fides,  and  end  of  the  roof. 

The  higheft  part  of  the  roof,  or  rather  the  piece 
of  wood  wherein  the  rafters  meet,  is  called  the 
ridge  of  the  roof. 

Having  finifhed  the  outward  cafe  of  the  edifice, 
the  next  thing  is,  to  diftribute  the  ground- plot  into 
apartments  ;  in  which  diftribution  regard  muft  be 
had  to  gracefulnefs,  and  ufefulnefs,  for  rooms  of 
office,  and  entertainment,  as  far  as  the  capacity 
thereof,  and  the  nature  of  the  country,  will  allow. 
The  gracefulnefs  confifts  in  a  double  analogy,  or 
sorrefpondency,  firft,  between  the  parts  of  the  whole, 
whereby  a  large  fabrick  fhould  have  large  parti- 
tions, entrances,  doors,  columns,  and,  in  brief, 
ail  the  members  large;  the  fecond  between  the  parts 
themfelves,  with  regard  to  length.,  breadth,  and 
height. 

Pallailio  will  have  a  building  difpofed  and  ordered 
in  fuch  a  manner,  as  that  the  moft  noble  and  beau- 
tiful parts  of  it  be  the  moft  expofed  to  all  fpe£tators, 
and  the  lefs  agreeable  thrown  into  by  places,  and 
removed,  as  much  as  poflible,  from  publick  view  ; 
becaufe  the  refufe  of  the  houfe,  or  whatever  may 
produce  any  ill  effefl:,  or  incumbrance,  ought  to  be 
carried  thither ;  and  for  this  reafon  the  cellars,  wood- 
houfes,  coal-holes,  pantries,  kitchen,  fervants- 
hall,  laundries,  ovens,  and  other  offices,  which  are 
for  ever  in  ufe,  fhould,  in  his  opinion,  be  placed  in 
the  lower  and  moft  obfcure  part  of  the  edifice,  and 
fome  of  them  a  little  under  ground. 

The  ufefulnefs  confifts  in  having  a  confiderable 
number  of  room.s  of  all  kinds,  with  entries,  halls, 
and  light  ftair-cafes,  which  muft  be  made  fpacious, 
and  eafy,  to  go  up  and  down;  and  the  meanejl,  and 
lefs  graceful  of  them,  fituated  advantagioufly,  to 
ferve  the  other  more  fpacious  apartments.  The 
rooms  muft  be  large,  moderate,  or  middle-fiz'd, 
and  fmall,  and  all  contiguous  to  one  another.  Con- 
venient partitions  muft  be  likewife  contrived  for 
clofets,  libraries,  horfe- furniture,  and  other  things 
which  are  in  daily  ufe,  and  which  would  appear 
very  indecent  in  2.  bed-chamber,  dining-room,  or  other 
place  fet  a-part  for  the  reception  of  ftrangers. 

Palladia  orders  the.  fummer  r^ioms  to  be  fpacious, 
and  open  to  the  North  ;  and  theivinter  ones  fmall, 
and  expos'd  to  the  South  and  IFe/l.    But  the  rooms 

intended 


ARCHITECTURE. 


»73 


intended  for  fpring  and  aulumn,  ought  to  be  to- 
wards the  EqP,  and  have  'their  profpc^  towards 
greens  and  gardens.  Studies  and  clnfets  fhould  like- 
wife  have  the  fame  profpcSf.  But,  where  the  j^r- 
chitei^  is  confined  within  certain  limits,  beyond 
which  he  has  no  povicr  to  go,  ncceffity  obliges  him 
to  fuit  himfelf  according  to  the  lituation  of  the 
place. 

In  the  partition,  an  Arch'tteSi  has  often  occafion 
for  feveral  fliifts  ;  through  which  his  own  fagaciry, 
more  than  any  rules,  mufl  conduft  him.  Thus  he 
is  frequently  put  to  ftruggle  v/ith  fcarcity  of  ground  ; 
fometimes  to  damn  one  room,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
reft  ;  as  to  hide  a  buttery  under  Tijla'ir-cafe,  &c.  at 
other  times,  to  make  thofe  the  moft  beautiful, 
v/hich  are  moft  in  fight ;  and  to  leave  the  relt,  like 
a  painter  in  the  fhadow,  ds'r. 

Since  the  hall^  or  jalle.,  is  properly  the  firft,  and 
finert  partition  of  an  apartment,  and  is  placed  at 
the  entrance  of  a  fine  houfe,  palace,  or  the  like  ; 
it  therefore  deferves,  firft,  our  attention. 

Vitruvius  mentions  three  forts  of  halls  :  the  te- 
traj/y/e,  which  has  four  columns  fupporting  the 
plat-form,  or  cieling  :  the  Corinthian,  which  has 
columns  all  around,  let  into  the  wall,  and  is  vaulted 
over  ;  and  the  Egyptian,  which  had  a  periftyle  of 
infulated  Corinthian  columns,  bearing  a  fecond  order 
with  a  cieling.     Thefe  were  called  Occi. 

To  make  a  Tetrajlyk  hall,  according  to  Palladia's 
defign,  its  length  fhould  be  divided  into  five  equal 
parts,  three  thereof  muft  be  allowed  to  thebreadth. 
The  wings  (that  is,  the  fpace  between  the  wall  and 
the  pillars,  or  columns,  which  is  not  included  in 
the  breadth  of  the  hall)  have  in  breadth  a  fifth  part 
of  the  altitude  of  the  columns.  The  columns,  of 
what  order,  pleafe  moft  the  Architeft,  and  which 
he  thinks  moft  proper  for  the  ornament  and  magni- 
ficence of  the  hall ;  which,  commonly  is  the  Co- 
rinthian. The  diameter  of  thofe  columns,  ought 
to  be  equal  to  the  breadth  of  one  half  of  the  wings  : 
the  opening  above,  one  third  part  of  the  breadth  of 
the  hall. 

The  length  bf  a  Corinthian-hall,  (hould  be  the 
diagonal  of  its  fquare  ;  and  the  wings  have  in 
breadth,  two  fevenths  of  the  length  of  the  hall, 
that  is,  one  for  ever)'  wing  ;  the  diameter,  and 
height  of  the  columns,  in  proportion;  as  well  as 
the  opening  in  the  middle. 

The  Egyptian-halls,  are  very  much  like  BafiUo^s, 
or  the  courts  of  juftice  of  the  antients  ;  becaufe 
they  have  a  portico,  in  which  (he  columns  are  dif- 
tant  from  the  wall,  like  in  the  Bnfilicns ;  and  upon 
thefe  columns,  are  placed  the  architrave,  freeze, 
and  cornice.  The  fpace,  or  diftance  between  the 
columns  and  the  wall,  is  covered  with  a  platform. 


furrounded  by  a  corridore  with  rails,  and  ballufters. 
Above  the  faid  pillars  there  is  a  continued  wall, 
with  half  columns,  on  the  infide  of  it,  one  fourth 
part  lefs  than  the  lower  ones.  The  windows  which 
give  light  to  the  hall,  and  through  which,  whefi 
laid  op»n,  fuch  as  are  on  the  platform  can  look 
into  it,   are  placed  between  the  faid  half  columns. 

7  he  antients  had  another  fort  of  hall,  called 
teflitudinated;  that  is,  made  in  a  form  of  a  tortoife. 
I'he  length  of  a  tcjlitudmatcdhall,  is  equal  to  th'c 
diagonal  of  its  fquare,  and  has  its  full  breadth  in 
height  ;  which  reaches  as  far  as  the  fummer,  or 
architrave  of  the  roof.  The  rooms  on  the  fide  ai'e 
fix  feet  lefs  in  height;  and  above  the  walls,  which 
feparate  them  from  the  hall,  there  are  columns, 
which  bear  the  roofs  of  the  faid  hall.  Befween 
thefe  columns,  there  are  fome  apertures,  or  win- 
dows, which  give  light  to  the  hall.  A  little  far- 
ther are  the  perijlylos,  about  which  are  piazzas, 
that  are  the  height  of  the  columns.  The  cham- 
bers are  of  the  fame  breadth,  and  their  height  to  the 
impofts  of  the  arches,  is  equal  to  their  breadth  ;  as 
the  arches  have  in  height  the  third  part  of  their 
diameter. 

The  length  of  halls  fhould  never  exceed  twice 
their  breadth  ;  but  the  nearer  they  are  to  a  fquare, 
the  more  uniform  and  commodious  they  will  be. 

We  muft  not  confound  halls,  with  entries,  tho* 
we  often  give  to  entries,  the  name  of  halls  ;  though 
entries  be  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  houfe,  and  halls 
in  the  upper.  Entries  are  but  a  fort  of  landing- 
place,  with  which  all  the  other  principal  parts  of 
the  houfe  have  a  communication,  and  where  perfbns 
wait  till  the  mafter  of  the  houfe  appears  ;  and  after 
the  galleries,  are  the  firft  places  that  prefent  them- 
felves  to  fuch  as  enter  the  houfe. 

The  galleries  are  covered  places  in  palaces,  much 
longer  than  broad  ;  which  ferve  to  walk  in.  If 
there  be  but  one,  'tis  ufually  made  in  the  fore,  or 
hack  front  of  an  edifice  ;  if  two,  in  the  wingy. 
They  are  either  large,  or  fmall,  as  conveniency, 
and  the  quality  of  the  building,  may  require  ;  bi-t 
they  ftiould  never  be  above  twenty  feet  broad  ;  or 
lefs  than  ten.  The  galleries  of  the  Louvre  are 
magnificent. 

'1  he  rooms  muft  be  diftributed  equally  on  each 
fide  of  the  entry,  and  the  hall  ;  and  care  muft  be 
taken  that  thofe  on  the  right  hand,  anfwer  to,  and 
be  of  an  equal  largenefs,  with  thofe  on  the  left, 
whereby  there  will  be  a  juft  harmony,  and  propor- 
tion in  the  feveral  parts  of  the  edifice  ;  and  the 
wall  will  be  in  equal  proportion  prelTed  by  the  roof: 
for  if  the  ;i|iartments  arc  bigger  on  one  fide  the 
edifice  than  on  the  other,  in  the  forrticr  cafe  thcjr 
v.-iil  renft  the  WL-ig'.it  with  eaiJ,  betacle  of  the  f.- 
lidify,  and  thickncfs  of  the  w.dh  ;  but  in  theiatter 
Z   2  ,       •  the/ 


174  ^^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  /3:;^</ Sciences. 


they  will  be  too  weak,  which  will  create  great  in- 
coiiveniencics,  and  at  laft,  deftroy  the  whole 
ftrudlure. 

Palladia  fays,  that  in  the  defigning  of  rooms, 
there  are  feven  beautiful  proportions  ;  for  either 
they  are  made  round  or  fquare;  but  that  the  former 
is  now  entirely  negledted,  and  laid  afide  ;  or  their 
length  is  the  diagonal  of  their  fquare  ;  or  of  one 
fquare,  and  a  third  ;  or  a  fquare,  and  a  half ;  or 
a  fquare,  and  two  thirds  ;  or  laftly,  of  two 
fquares. 

For  the  altitude  of  rooms,  it  muft  be  taken  from 
the  different  form  of  the  cieling  ;  which  is  either 
arched  or  flat.  If  flat,  the  altitude  from  the  Jioor 
to  the  joijis,  muft  be  in  equal  proportion  to  their 
breadth  ;  and  the  rooms  over  them,  muft  be  a  fixth 
part  lower  than  thofe  beneath.  If  arched,  as  they 
ufually  are  in  the  firfl  ftory  (for  this  gives  them  a 
grace  and  beauty,  and  renders  them  lefs  liable  to 
fire)  their  altitude,  in  fquare  rooms,  is  a  third  part 
more  than  the  breadth  of  the  rooms.  But  in  thofe, 
where  the  length  exceeds  the  breadth,  an  altitude 
muft  be  fought  equal  to  their  length  and  breadth  ; 
and  dividing  the  whole  into  two  equal  parts,  one 
of  which  will  be  the  exadt  altitude  of  the  arch. 
Or  if  the  chambers,  to  be  arched,  he  twelve  foot 
in  length,  and  fix  in  breadth,  we  muft  add  the  two 
numbers  together,  and  the  fum  is  eighteen,  which 
divided  by  two,  gives  nine,  and  this  is  the  altitude 
of  the  arch  required. 

Another  method  of  finding  the  altitude  of  a 
roc7n  by  numbers,  is,  by  finding  (after  the  length 
and  breadth  of  the  room  has  been  given)  a  number 
that  bears  the  fame  proportion  to  the  breadth,  as 
the  length  does  to  it ;  which  is  performed  by  mul- 
tiplying the  lefTer  extreme  by  the  greater,  and  the 
fquare  root  of  the  produft,  will  be  the  height. 
For  examp'e,  fuppofe  the  place  to  be  arched  be 
nine  feet  long,  and  five  feet  broad,  the  altitude  of 
the  arch  will  be  fix  feet  ;  and  the  fame  proportion 
that  nine  has  to  fix,  fix  has  to  four.  But  however 
we  muft  obferve,  that  this  altitude  cannot  always  be 
found  by  numbers. 

To  find  in  numbers,,  another  altitude,  which 
though  it  be  Icfs,  will  fiill  be  in  proportion  to  the 
room  ;  we  muft  hrft  have  found  by  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  chamber,  its  alticude  according  to 
the  firft  rule  ;  which  in  the  foregoing  inftance  was 
nine,  and  having  added  the  length,  breadth,  and 
altitude  together,  we'Jl  multiply  the  nine  by  twelve, 
and  afterwards  by  fix  ;  fetting  the  produdl,  made 
by  twelve,  under  tv.elve,  and  the  product  made  by 
fix  under  fix  ;  when  this  is  performed,  we'll  multi- 
ply fix  by  twelve,  and  fet  the  product  tiiereof, 
which  is  72,  under  g  ;  laftly,  having  found  a 
number,  that,  multiplied  by  o,  produces  72,  which 


in  this  inftance  will  be  eight  ;  eight  foot  muft  be 
the  altitude  of  the  arch.  Thefe  feveral  altitudes 
have  this  relation  between  themfelves,  viz.  that 
the  firft  exceed  the  fecond,  in  the  fame  ratio,  or 
proportion,  as  the  fecond  exceeds  the  third.  Each 
of  thefe  altitudes  may  then  be  ufed,  according  to 
the  conveniency  which  they  give  for  contrivance  ; 
that  various  rooms  of  feveral  dimenfions  may  be  fo 
made,  as  to  have  all  their  arches  of  an  equal  alti- 
tude; and  be  at  the  fame  time  exactly  proportionate : 
by  this  means  the  chamber  will  look  agreeable,  and 
be  very  convenient  for  iht  Jioor  above,  which  will 
be  upon  a  level.  There  are  other  proportions  for 
the  altitude  of  arches,  which  do  not  come  under 
any  particular  rules  ;  and  are  therefore  left  to  the 
Architeci,  to  ufe  them  as  neceffity  requires. 

For  our  private  buildings,  here   in  London,   the 
parliament,    after  the  conflagration,   thought  pro- 
per to    determine   the   feveral    proportions  of    the 
'  apartments,  according  to  the  bigne(s  of  the  houfe, 
I  viz.   in  houfcs  fronting  by  ftreets  or  lanes,  of  two 
'  ftories  high,   befides  cellars  and  garrets  ;  the  cellars 
ought  to  be  fix  feet  and  a  half  high,   if  the  fpring 
1  of  water  hinder  not  ;  and  the  firft  ftory  nine   feet 
1  from  thtfoor  to  the  deling,  and  the  fecond  ftory  as 
much.     That  in  houfes  frontino;  ftreets  or  lanes  of 
note,    and   the   river  of  Thames,   which  ought   to 
,  be  three  ftories   high,  befides  cellars   and  garrets  ; 
I  the  cellars  fliould  be  fix  feet  and  half  high,  if  the 
fprings  hinder  not  ;  the  firft  ftory  full  ten  feet  from 
the  Jioor  to  the  deling  ;  the  fecond   ten  feet  ;  the 
third  nine  feet.     That  in  houfes  fronting  the   high 
and  principal  ftreets,  which  fhall  be  of  four  ftories 
high,  befides  cellars  and  garrets,    the  firft  ftory  be 
full  ten  feet  and  a  half  in  height,    from  x^ne.  Jioor  to 
the  deling  ;  the  fecond  ten  feet,  and  the  third  nine 
feet  ;    the  fourth  eight  feet  and  an  half. 

In  large  buildings,  and  fumptuous  edifices,  the 
rooms  are  arched.  Palladic  reckons  fix  kinds  of 
arches  adapted  to  that  purpofe,  viz.  croflcd,  fafci- 
ated,  flat,  circular,  grinded,  and  fliell-like ;  all 
which  are  in  altitude  one  third  of  the  breadth  of 
the  room.  The  four  firft  were  ufed  by  the  antients, 
and  the  two  laft  are  of  the  invention  of  the  mo- 
derns, who  divide  arches,  into  circular,  elliptical., 
ox Jhait  ;  and  iubdivide  the  circular,  into  Jemicir- 
adar,  J'cheme,  and  arches  of  the  third  and  fourth 
point. 

Semicircular-arches,  are  thofe  which  make  aa 
txs.&.  femi circle,  and  have  their  center  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  chord  of  the  arch  ;  called  alfo  by  the 
French  builders,  perfeSf  arches,  and  arches  en  plaine 
dnture.  Scheme-arches  z.x^  thofe  which  are  lefs  than 
a  femicircU,  and  confequently  are  flatter  arches  ; 
containing  fome  go  degrees,  others  70,  and  others 
60  :    called  alfo  imperfeSl-arches,      Arches   of  the 

dird 


ARCHITECTURE. 


175 


third  and  fourth  point,  confift  of  two  arches  of  a 
circle,  meeting  in  an  angle  at  the  top,  and  are 
drawn  from  the  divifion  of  the  chords,  into  three 
or  four  parts  at  pleafure.  Of  this  kind,  there  are 
many  in  old  Gothick  buildings  ;  but  on  account  of 
their  weaknefs  and  unfightlinefs,  they  ought,  ac- 
cording to  Sir  Henry  IVotton,  to  be  for  ever  ex- 
cluded out  of  all  buildings. 

Elliptical  arches  confift  of  a  femi-ellipfis  ;  and 
were  formerly  much  ufed,  inftead  of  mantle-trees, 
in  chimneys.  Thefe  have  commonly  a  key  ftone, 
and  chaptrcls  or  imports.  Strait-arches  are  thofe 
whole  upper  and  under  edges  zxtjlrait ;  as  in  the 
others  they  are  curved  ;  and  thofe  two  edges  alfo 
paral  el,  and  the  ends  and  joints,  all  pointing  to- 
wards a  centre.  Thefe  are  principally  ufed  over 
windows,  doors,  i^c. 

Circula?--arches,  are  made  in  fquare  chambers, 
and,  according  to  Palladia,  raifed  in  this  manner  : 
in  the  angles  of  the  room,  are  left  certain  mutules, 
or  modillons,  which  fullain  the  femi-circle  of  the 
arch  ;  which  is  flat  in  the  middle,  but  more  cir- 
culm-  the  nearer  it  approaches  the  angles. 

As  for  the  cielings  of  our  rooms,  there  are  dif- 
ferent methods  of  making  them  ;  for  fome  people 
are  very  curious  to  have  them  of  beautiful  and  well 
wrought  joijis  ;  in  which  cafe  particular  care  muft 
be  taken,  that  the  diftance  between  the  joiJls,  be 
once  the  thicknefs  and  a  half  of  the  hidjoids;  for 
that  diltribution  will  make  the  deling  very  agree- 
able, and  fo  much  of  the  wall  will  be  left  between 
the  ends  of  the  joi/h,  as  will  fuffice  to  fupport  the 
weight  over  it  ;  but  in  cafe  they  are  made  at  a 
greater  diftance,  they  will  look  very  unhandfome  ; 
and  if  at  a  leffer,  they  will  divide  as  it  were  the 
upper  wall  from  the  lower  ;  and  if  the  joijis  fhould 
prove  rotten,  or  by  any  cafualty  be  fet  on  fire  ;  the 
upper  wall  muft  fall  of  courfe.  Others  are  fond  of 
compartments  made  oi  Jhicco-zvork,  or  of  timber  ; 
thefe  they  fill  vvifl  with  pictures,  fo  that  they  may 
be  varioufly  decorated,  and  therefore  no  fixed  and 
pofitive  precepts,  can  be  prefcribcd  upon  this  to- 
p»ick.  Though  thofe  which  are  to  have  a  picture 
in  the  middle,  are  commonly  divided  into  fquare 
panntls  in  the  corners,  and  a  large  circle  in  the 
middle  proper  for  painting  ;  the  borders  or  margin, 
being  ornamented  wxxh  frets  and  guilochis. 

Note,  Th?xYK^r  m  JrchitMure,  is  a  kind  of 
knot,  or  ornament  ;  confifting  of  two  lifts,  or 
fillets,  varioLifly  interlaced,  or  woven  ;  and  run- 
ning at  parallel  diftances,  equal  to  their  breadth. 
A  neceJary  condition  of  thek  frets,  is,  that  every 
return,  and  interfedlion,  be  at  right  angles.  This 
is  fo  indefpenfible,  that  they  have  no  beauty  without 
it;  huihccome -perkiWy  Gothick.  Sometimes  the 
fret  confifts  but  of  a  Angle  filet ;    which  if  well 


j  managed,  may  be  made  to  fill  its  fpace  exceedingly 
I  well.  The  antients  made  great  ufe  of  thek  frets; 
the  places  they  were  chiefly  applied  on,  were  even, 
flat  members,  or  parts  of  buildings,  as  the  faces  of 
the  corona,  and  eaves  of  cornices;  under  the  roofs, 
fofiits,  bfc.  on  the  plinths  of  bafcs,  ^c.  The 
appellation  was  occafioned  hence,  that  the  French 
word  frette,  literally  fignified  the  timber  work  of 
a  roof,  which  confifts  chiefly  of  beams,  rafters,  i^c. 
laid  a-crofseach  other  and  as  it  were  fretted.  Frets 
and  guilochis  are  fynonimous.  Thefe  ornaments,, 
though  fmall,  if  they  be  well  adjufted,  are  very 
pleafing.  They  are  frequently  ufed  in  pifture- 
frames,  foflits,  of  arches,  and  on  architraves,  and 
fometimes  on  fafcia's,  and  the  plinths  of  bafes,  if 
the  other  members  be  carved. 

As  we  have  left  our  chimneys  without  ornaments., 
we'll  return  to  them,  and  have  them  decorated,  each, 
with  its  chimney-piece  ;  which  is  a  compofition  of 
certain  mouldings,  of  wood  or  {tone,  ftanding  on 
the  far cfide  of  the  jambs,  and  coming  over  the 
mantle-tree. 

Chimney-pieces  muft  be  made  larger,  otfmaller, 
in  proportion  to  the  fize  of  the  rooms  where  they 
are  intended.  As  for  the  various  ornaments  of 
chimney-pieces,  they  are  at  the  difcretion  of  the  y/r- 
chiteif,  provided  they  prove  anfwerable  to  the  other 
ornaments  of  the  roo?ns. 

Our  Floors  are  to  be  of  earth,  bricks,  ftones,, 
or  timber.  Palladia  obferves,  that  brick  pavements 
are  very  ornamental,  and  ftrike  the  eye  agreeably,  as 
well  on  account  of  the  va.nety  of  colours  which 
they  borrow  from  the  various  forts  of  earth  of 
which  they  are  compos'd,  as  from  the  various  forms, 
which  may  be  given  them.  He  obferves,  further, 
that  the  floors  of  chambers  are  but  feldom  made  of 
natural Jiones,  fince  they  are  too  cold  in  TVinter  ; 
but  that  they  are  agreeable  enough  \i\  galleries,  and 
apartments  for  publ'ick  entertainments. 

Carpenters  never  floor  their  rooms  with  boards 
till  the  carcafe  is  fet  up,  and  alfo  inclos'd  with, 
walls,  left  the  -weather  ihoxAdi  v/rong  the  flooring  ; 
yet  they  generally  rough  plane  their  boards  for  the 
flooring,  before  they  begin  any  thing  elfe  about  the 
building,  that  they  may  let  them  by  to  dry,  and 
feafon  ;  which  is  done  in  the  moft  careful  manner. 

It  muft  be  obferved,  that  fuch  chambers  as  are 
upon  the  Lvneflory,  muft  have  then  pavements  level,. 
and  fo  as  that  the  threfljolds  of  the  doors  may  be  no 
higher  than  the  reft  of  the  plan  of  the  rooms;  and" 
if  any  lltde  room,  or  clofet,  ftiould  not  rife  to  that 
height,  the  remainder  muft  be  fupply'd  with  a  Me- 
■zarin,  or  falfe  deling. 

He  that  intends  to  build  a  Couktp.y  Seat  has 
fome  other  matters  toconfider  peculiar  to  a  country 
life.     The  fituatioji  fliould  be  near  die  center  of 

the. 


.176  Tin  Unlverfal  Biftory  of  Arts  «;;/:3^  Sciences. 


the  eftate,  well  covered,  if  poffiblc,  frorp  th,e  win4, 
and  near  a  river,  or  fomc  head  of  water.'  ■  ' 

It  is  not  advifeable  to  build  in  valhyi  inclofcdljy 
mountains  ;  becaufe  hiufa  will  lie  concealed  in  fuch 
places,  befulcs  the  difadvantage  of  their  having  no 
diflant  profpeSls,  and  not  being  confpicuous  to  the 
eves  of  oth?is  ;  by  which  means,  all  thtxr  heauty  1% 
loft,  bcfides  their  being,  in  all  refpcfls,  prejudi- 
cial 10  health.  Being  thtn  determiji'd  to  build 
upon  an  eminence,  we  will  chufc  fuch  ■xfitaalion  as 
js  expofed  to  the  moft  temperate  region  of  the  air, 
.and  is  .neither  always  ovcrjhudoiued  by  higher  hills, 
.nov  feorchcd,  as  it  were,  with  two  funs,  by  the  r?- 
ileftion  of  the  real  one  from  fome  adjacent  rock ; 
for  in  dther  of  thefe  cafes  it  becomes  an  incsmmo- 
Jioui  hubitetion.  But  if  we  cannot  avoid  huilding 
on  lowgrcmid,  we  miift  fst  the  fi{?i  floor  above  the 
ground  the  higher,  to  fupply  what  wc  want  to  fink 
in  our  cellar  in  the  ground  ;  for  in  fuch  hiv,  and 
moift  grounds,  it  conduces  much  to  the  drynefs  and 
healthinefs  of  the  air,  to  have  cellars  uiider  the 
houfe,  fo  that  ihtfoors  be  good,  and  cielod  under- 
neath. Hiufes  built  toe  high,  in  places  expofed  to 
the  winds,  and  not  well  defended  by  hills,  or  trees, 
require  more  materials  to  build  them,  and  alfo 
more  reparations  to  maintain  them  ;  and  are  not 
fo  commodious  to  the  inhabitants  as  thofe  which  have 
thofe  advantages. 

As  for  the  diftribution  of  the  apartments,  in 
country  houfes,  it  is  made  in  the  fame  manner  as  in 
iky  houfes,  i.  e.  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
majler,  the  !iumerous  companies  he  is  to  entertain, 
and  the  number  o'i\(\i  fervants.  On  both  fides  of 
the  court  (the  houfc  being  in  the  front)  may  be 
huilt,  xhtftahles,  cellars,  granaries,  and  fuch  other 
commodious  places,  for  \hz  fervice  of  the  houfe. 

The  Architect  is  to  be  learned  alfo  in  other 
parts  of  Architecture  :  fuch  as  the  building  of 
temples,  or  churches,  bridges,  and  other  public 
edifices. 

A  Church  is  defin'd,  by  Daviler,  a  large, 
ohlong  edifice,  in  form  of  a  fldp,  with  nave,  choir, 
jjles,  chapels,  belfries,  &c. 

Palladia  is  of  opinion,  that  the  moft  agreeable, 
and  moft  regular  forms  a  church  can  be  made  in, 
are  the  round,  and  the  triangular ;  and,  again,  of 
thefe  two  he  chufes  the  round  form  as  the  moft 
perfe£l,  for  the  following  reafons  :  i.  Becaufe, 
fays  he,  the  round  form  alone,  among  all  figures, 
is  fimple,  uniform,  equal,  ftrong,  and  moft  ca- 
pacious ;  and  therefore  can  contain  a  greater  mul- 
titude of  people.  2.  That  its  being  included  in  a 
circle,  wherein  neither  end  nor  beginning  can  be 
found  ;  having  all  its  parts  alike,  and  each  of  them 
partaking  of  the  figure  of  the  tuhole,  and  the  ex- 
tream  in  every  part  being  equally  diftant  from  the 
center ;  it  is  therefore  the  moft  proper  figure  to  de- 


note the  unity,  Ellcncc,  uniformity  and  jufticc  of 
Gop, 

Churches,  according  to  the  fame  author,  (hould 
have  large  po7'tico's,  with  greater  columns  than  :ue 
requifite  in  common  buildings.  The  orders  of  the 
columns  fbould  be  as  beautiful  as  poffible,  and  each 
order  ought  to  have  its  own  proper  and  convenient 
decoration.  Churches  fhouM  alfo  be  made  of  the 
choiceft,  and  moft  valuable  materials.  White,  of 
all  colours,  continues  Palladia,  is  the  moft  fuitabie 
to  temples  ;  becaufe  the  purity  of  it,  exprefied  in 
the  purity  of  life,  is  highly  acceptable  to  the  Almighty, 
But  in  cafe  they  mull  be  painted,  there  ought  to 
be  no  ftatues  nor  piciures  in  them  that  may,  in  the 
leaft,  tend  to  the  alienation  of  man's  mind  from 
the  contemplation  of  the  Divinity. 

Thefe  are  Ralladio's  general  obfervations  on  the 
ftradiure  of  temples,  from  which  he  enters  into 
particulai-s,  with  regard  to  the  compartments  of 
churches,  confidcring  that  it  is  ablolutely  neceflary 
that  all  their  parts  fliould  correfpond  together,  and 
have  fuch  a  proportion,  that  there  be  none  of  them 
by  which  the  whole  may  not  be  meafured,  as  well 
as  every  individual  part.  But,  however,  as  he 
fuppofes  the  round  and  quadrangular  forms  the  two 
moft  regular,  he  confines  himfelt  to  give  us  the  ne- 
ceflary  direiStions  and  rules  followed  by  the  antients 
in  the  building  of  thofe  two  kinds  oi  temples. 

The  diameter  of  the  whole  fpace  which  the  temple 
was  to  take  up,  is  divided  into  three  equal  parts  ; 
one  whereof  is  given  to  the  fteps,  that  is,  the  afcent 
of  the  floor  ;  and  two  remained  for  the  ?^ot/)/^  itfelf, 
and  the  columns,  which  are  placed  upon  pedeftals, 
and  with  their  bafes  and  capitals,  are  as  high  as  the 
diameter  of  the  leaft  courfe  of  the  fteps,  and  a  tenth 
part  as  thici  as  they  arc  high.  The  architraves, 
freezes,  and  other  decorations,  are  made  according 
to  the  rules  given  in  our  treatife  of  Architeclure. 

But  fuch  churches  or  temples  as  are  made  with  a 
nave,  are  either  wing'd  round,  or  made  with  a 
portico  only  in  the  front.  The  compartments  of 
fuch  as  are  wing'd  round,  are  as  follows : 

Two  courfes  of  fteps  are  made  quite  round,  and 
the  pedeflals  are  fet  upon  them,  and  upon  thefe  the 
columns.  The  wings  are  a  fifth  part  of  the  dia- 
meter of  the  temple,  taking  the  diameter  from  the 
inner  part  of  the  pedeftals.  The  columns  are  as 
long  as  the  cell  is  large,  being  a  tenth  part  as  thick 
as  they  are  long.  The  cupola  is  to  be  raifed  above 
the  architrave,  freeze,  and  cornice  of  the  wings, 
proportionable  to  the  half  of  the  whole  work.  The 
columns,  which  begin  from  the  floor,  and  conie- 
quently  are  without  pedeftals,  render  the  temple 
more  pompous  and  majeftic  ;  pedeftals,  befides, 
obftrutling  the  going  into  the  temple.  If  a  portico 
be  erefted  in  the  front  only  ot  a  round  temple,  it 
muft  be  made  as  long  as   the  nave  is  large,  or  an 

eighth 


ARCHITECTURE, 


177 


eighth  part  Icfs ;  and  tho'  it  may  be  made  fliorter, 
yet  it  muft,  however,  never  be  fhorter  than  three 
quarters  of  the  breadth  of  the  church ;  nor  muft  it 
ever  be  made  broader  than  a  third  part  of  its 
length. 

In  quadrangular  tempks,  the  portico  s  in  the  front 
arc  to  be  made  as  long  as  the  temple  is  broad,  and  if 
the  manner  he  Eujlylos,  (i.  e.  whofe  columns  have 
proper  and  convenient  intervals)  which  is  the  moft 
elegant  and  beautiful,  the  compartments  muft  be 
made  in  this  manner  :  if  the  profpedl  be  of  four 
columns,  the  whole  front  of  the  temple  (omitting 
the  projefture  of  the  bafes  of  the  columns  in  the 
corners)  muft  be  divided  into  eleven  parts  and  a 
half ;  one  whereof  might  be  called  a  inodule,  or 
the  ftandard  whereby  the  other  parts  are  to  bemea- 
fured  ;  four  whereof  are  to  be  given  to  the  columns, 
if  they  be  one  module  thick  ;  three  to  the  middle 
intercolumnation  ;  and  four  and  a  half  to  the  other 
two;  that  is,  two  and  a  quarter  to  each.  But  in 
cafe  the  front  has  fix  columns,  it  muft  be  then 
divided  into  eighteen  parts  ;  if  eight,  into  twenty- 
four  and  a  half ;  and  if  ten,  into  thirty-one  ;  giv- 
ing always  one  of  thefe  parts  to  the  thicknefs  of 
the  columns,  three  to  the  middle  void,  and  two 
and  a  half  to  each  of  the  other.  The  height  of  the 
columns  muft  be  managed  according  as  they  are 
either  Ionic  or  Corinthian. 

The  ante-temple  was  beyond  the  portico.^  and  the 
nave  after  the  former.  The  breadth  was  divided 
into  four  parts,  and  the  length  of  the  temple  con- 
Cfted  of  eight  fuch  ;  five  whereof  ■^s.re.  given  to 
the  length  of  the  nave,  including  the  wall  wherein 
the  door  is  ;  and  the  other  three  remained  to  the 
ante-temple,  which  has  two  wings  of  walls  on  its 
fide,  continued  to  the  wall  of  the  cell.  At  the 
end  of  thefe  are  made  two  ante's,  that  is,  two  pi- 
lafters  as  thick  as  the  columns  of  the  portico's  ;  and 
fince  between  thefe  wings  there  may  be  a  greater 
or  lefs  fpace,  if  tlie  larger  be  twenty  foot,  there 
ought  to  be  two  columns  put  between  the  faid  pi- 
lafters,  nay,  more,  if  there  fhould  be  occafion, 
direftly  oppofite  to  the  columns  of  the  portico.  The 
u(e  of  them  is  to  feparate  the  ante-temple  from  the 
portico  ;  and  the  three,  or  more  voids,  that  will  be 
between  the  pilafters,  muft  be  clofed  with  pannels 
of  wood,  or  marble  ;  the  neceil'ary  opening  how- 
ever, muft  be  left  for  entering  into  the  ante-temple. 
But  if  the  breadth  exceeds  forty  foot,  there  muft 
be  other  columns  placed  within,  over-againft  thofe 
between  the  pilafters  ;  and  they  muft  be  made  as 
high  as  thofe  without,  tho'  not  quite  10  thick  ;  for 
the  open  air  will  take  away  from  the  thicknefs  of 
thofe  without,  and  the  inclofure  will  not  let  the 


fmallnefs  of  thofe  within  be  fcen,  fo  that  they  will 
appear  equal. 

Thus  the  antients  (according  to  Fitruvius)  or- 
dered the  compartments  of  their  temples,  which  had 
always  portico's  to  them,  to  fhclter  the  people,  who 
waited  forthehour  of  the  facrifice,  againft  tlie  inju- 
ries of  the  zt/^A/^^r.  But  we  Chrijlians, not  regarding 
whether  the  portico  furrounds  the  temple  or  not, 
buildouT  churches  much  like  the  antient  baftUca's,  or 
court  of  juftice,  ^N\xh  portico's  within  ;  the  reafon 
whereof  is,  that  the  firft  who  embraced  the  Chri- 
ftian  religion  ufed  to  meet  for  fear  of  the  Gentiles^ 
in  the  bafilica's  of  private  perfons  ;  and  obferving, 
afterwards,  that  this  form  was  very  convenient, 
becaufe  the  altar  could  be  placed  in  the  room  of  the 
tribunal  to  great  advantage,  and  that  the  choir 
could  ftand  round  the  altar  in  good  order,  while  the 
remaining  part  might  hold  the  people,  they  have 
not  thought  proper  to  alter  it  fince. 

Some  authors  pretend,  that  the  choir,  in  the 
Chrijlian  churches,  was  not  feparated  from  the  nave 
till  the  time  of  Conjlantine ;  that  from  that  time  the 
choir  was  railed  in  with  a  balluftrade,  with  curtains 
drawn  over,  not  to  be  opened  till  after  the  confe- 
cration.  That  in  the  1 2th  century  they  began  to 
inclofe  the  choir  with  walls,  but  the  antient  bal- 
luftrades  have  been  fmce  reftored,  out  of  a  view  to 
the  beauty  of  (7rf/;/Vf(57z/ri?.  In  nunneries,  \k\e  choir 
is  a  large  hall,  adjoining  to  the  body  of  the  church,. 
feparated  by  a  grate,  where  the  religious  fing  the 
office. 

Moft  of  the  Chrijlian  churches  were  made,  for  a^ 
confiderable  number  of  centuries,  in  the  form  of  a 
crofs.  In  that  part  which  makes  the  foot  of  the 
crofs,  is  the  entrance  over- againft  the  great  altar, 
and  the  choir  ;  and  in  the  two  ifles  extending  like 
arms  on  each  iides,  are  two  other  entrances,  or 
two  altars. 

There  are  churches  in  a  Greek  crofs  ;  and  others 
in  a  Latin  crofs.  Churches  in  a  Greek  crofs,  are 
thofe  where  the  length  of  thetranfverfe  part  is  equal 
to  that  of  the  tiave  ;  fo  called,  becaufe  molt  of  the 
great  churches  are  built  m  this  form.  Churcnes 
in  a  Latin  crofs,  are  thofe  whofe  naroe  are  longer 
than  the  crofs  part,  as  moft  of  our  antient  churches. 

There  are  alio  churches  in  rotunda,  which  are 
thofe,  whofe  plan  is  a  perfeft  circle  ;  and  which  iiv 
Palladia's  opinion,  are  the  moft  beautiful,  commo- 
dious, and  regular.  In  all  thefe  different  forts  of 
churches,  the  dimenfions,  with  refpedh  to  their- 
breadth,  length,  the  height,  and  bignefs  of  the. 
pillars  ;  their  different  orders,  ^V.  fhould  be  ob- 
ferved  as  above  prefcribed ;  avoiding  as  much  as 
poffible,  their  having  too  great  a  number  of  mon- 

ftrous 


178  T^he  Unlvcrfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


Airbus  columns  in  the  nave  ;  which  is  a  choaking 
imperfedlion,  in  our  church  of  St.  Faul's  in 
London. 

Palladio  gives  us  the  defcription  of  a  church-, 
CK\\ei\  the  B(iptif?n  of  Conjiantinc,  and  which  is  at 
St.  John  de  Lateran,  at  Rome  ;  this  he  fuppofes 
to  have  been  built  of  the  fpoils  and  ruins  of  antient 
fabrics  :  as  learned  authors  be'.ievethe  defign  beau- 
tiful, and  the  decorations  very  well  carved,  I  will 
infert  it  here,  for  the  benefit  oi  Architecls,  who 
have  not  Palladia's  works.  The  columns  are  of 
porphyry,  and  of  the  Compoftte  order .  the  bafe  is  a 
compound  of  the  Atiic  and  Ionic,  but  inftead  ot 
two  aftragals,  which  are  made  between  the  fcotias 
in  the  Ionic,  this  has  one  only,  which  takes  up  the 
room  of  two  :  all  thefe  members  are  beautifully 
carved,  and  have  fine  intaglias.  The  bafes  ot  the 
columns  in  the  portico,  are  embellifhed  with  leaves, 
running  up  along  the  Ihaft  of  the  column  ;  and 
though  the  fhafts  of  the  columns,  are  not  fo  long 
as  they  ftiould  be,  yet  by  this  management  the 
work  is  not  robbed  in  the  leaft,  of  its  beauty  and 
majefty.  The  capitals  are  compounded  of  Ionic 
and  Corinthian,  with  acanthus  leaves.  The  archi- 
trave is  very  well  carved,  its  cimafe  having  a  fufa- 
role,  and  above  half  an  ovolo ;  inflead  of  a  gula 
inverfa,  the  freeze  is  plain.  The  cornice  has  two 
guLt  re£iir,  one  above  the  other,  which  is  a  thing 
that  very  feldom  happens  :  fince  two  members  of 
theveryfame  fort,{hould  not  be  put  over  each  other, 
without  fome  other  intermediate  member  befides 
the  liftcl.  Over  thefe  gula-recbas  or  cymatiums,  is 
a  dentil,  and  then  the  corona  with  its  ogee,  and 
lafl  of  all  a  gula  refta,  or  another  cimafe  ;  fo  that 
the  Archite6i  in  this  cornice,  has,  by  making  den- 
tils, avoided  modillons. 

Vitruvius  had  diftinguiflied  temples,  with  regard 
to  their  conftruiSfion,  into  various  kinds  ;  as,  te??iple 
inantis,  ades  in  entis,  which  were  the  molt  fimple 
of  all  temples  ;  having  only  angular  pilafrers,  called 
anta,  or  paraftatc,  at  the  corners  ;  and  twoTufcan 
columns  on  each  fide  the  doors.  Tetra/iyle,  which 
was  a  temple  that  had  four  columns  in  front,  and 
as  many  behind  Projiyle,  which  had  only  columns 
on  its  front,  or  fore-fide.  Jmphiprojlyle,  which 
had  columns  both  before  and  behind  ;  and  which 
was  alfo  tetrajiyle.  Pireptere,  which  had  four 
rows  of  infulated  columns  around,  and  was  hexa- 
Jlyle  ;  that  is,  had  fix  columns  in  front.  Dioptere, 
which  had  two  wings,  and  two  rows  of  columns 
around,  and  was  alfo  oiiajlyle,  or  had  eight  co 
lumns  in  front. 

There  were  alfo  pjiudodiptere  temples,  which  had 
eight  columns  in  front,  and  a  little  row  of  co- 
kirans  all  around  ;  by  which  it  was  diftinguilhed 
from  the  dioptere,  which  had  two  rows  of  columns 


all  around.  Hypathros,  which  harl  no  roof,  or 
covering.  A'lotioptere,  which  was  round  and  with- 
out walls,  having  its  dome  fupported  by  columns. 

From  the  building  of  churches,  we  will  pafs  to 
the  ere£lion  of  Bridges,  wliich  are  edifices  either 
of  ftone  or  timber,  confifting  of  one  or  more  arches  ; 
ereiSted  over  a  river,  canal,  or  the  like,  for  the 
con/eniency  of  croffing,  or  paffing  over  from  one 
fide  to  the  other. 

Bridges  (hould  be  always  wclldefigned,  commo- 
dious, durable,  and  well  decorated.  The  piers 
of  ftone  are  to  be  equal  in  number,  that  there  may 
be  one  arch  in  the  middle,  where  commonly  the 
current  is  ftrongeft.  Their  thicknefs  not  to  be 
lefs  than  a  fixth  part  of  the  fpan  of  the  arch,  nor 
more  than  a  fourth.  They  are  commonly  guarded 
in  front  with  an  angular  ftarling,  or  fpur,  to  break 
the  force  of  the  current ;  though  this  defence  is 
fometimes  alfo  XMxntA  femicircularly  ;  in  the  antient 
bridges,  it  is  always  a  right  angle  ;  which  has  the 
advantage  of  being  ftronger,  and  more  durable 
than  acute  ones.  7"he  flrongeft  arches  are  thofe 
whofe  fweep  is  awh-ile  femicircle. 

The  breadth  of  a  bridge,  according  to  Baptijia 
Albcrti,  ought  to  be  the  fame  as  that  of  the  high- 
way which  abuts  on  it  :  the  breadth  of  the  piers  is 
to  be  one  third  of  the  apertures  of  the  arches  ;  the 
ftarling  to  be  one  half  the  breadth  of  the  piei^s,  and 
to  rife  above  the  greateft  height,  to  which  the  wa- 
ter ever  mounts. 

Palladia  fays,  that  four  things  are  to  be  confi- 
dered  in  the  eredlion  o(Jlone  bridges,  viz.  the  heads 
which  are  made  at  the  banks ;  the  piles,  or  pi» 
lafters,  which  are  fixed  in  the  river  ;  the  arches 
which  thefe  pilafters  fupport  ;  and  the  pavement 
which  is  made  over  the  arches. 

He  obferves,  that  the  heads  of  thefe  bridges, 
fhould  be  made  as  firm  and  fubftantial  as  poffibly 
can  be  ;  becaufe  they  not  only  ferve  to  fupport  the 
weight  of  the  arches  as  the  other  pilafters  do,  but 
they  likewife  keep  the  whole  bridge  together,  and 
the  arches  from  cracking  or  opening.  That  they 
are  made,  therefore,  where  the  banks  are  of  ftone, 
or  at  leaft  of  folid  earth  ;  and  that  no  bank  of  earth 
being  naturally  folid  enough  for  this  cccafion,  art 
m-aft  be  ufed  to  make  them  firm  and  ftrong,  and 
other  arches  and  buttrefles  muft  be  added  ;  that  if 
the  water  fhould  happen  to  deftroy  the  bank,  yet 
the  way  to  the  bridge  might  ftill  be  preferved. 
That  the  pilafters,  which  are  to  be  made  in  pro- 
portion to  the  largenefs  of  the  river,  fhould  always 
be  even  in  regard  to  their  number  ;  not  only  the 
better  to  fupport  the  weight,  but  that  they  ftiould 
[  likewife  ftrike  the  eye  agrceablv,  and  render  the 
I  work  more  fubftantial,  fince   the  current  of  the 

river 


ARCHITECTURE. 


179 


river  in  the  middle   (where  it  is  naturally  more  ra- 
pid, as  being  more  diftant  from  the  banks)  is  thus 
tree,  and  does  not  prejudice  the  pilaflers  by  perpe- 
tually Ifiaking  them.      ¥ox  this  reafon  the  pilafters 
ought  to  be  lo  comparted,  as  to  fall  in  that  part  of 
the  river  where  the  courl'e  is  leaft  rapid.     That  the 
foundation  of  bridges  ought  to  be  made  at  that  time 
of  the  year  when  the  waters  are  lowefl,  which  is 
in  autumn  ;  and  in  caie  the  bottom  of  the  river  be 
of  Itone  or  gravel  ffone,  or  any  foft  flone  whatfo- 
ever,  which  is  a  kind  of  earth  that    is   partly  Hone, 
the  foundations  are  already  made  without  any  trou- 
ble of  digging,  becaufe  thefe  are  naturally  the  bell 
oundations  ;  but  in  cafe  the  bottom  of  the  river  be 
and  or  gravel,  it   muft  be  digged   therein   till  the 
fworkmen  come  to   the   folid    ground  ;  or  if  that 
fdiould    prove   too   laborious   or  imprafHcable,  he 
muft  dig  moderately   deep  in  the  (and  or  gravel, 
and  then  drive  in  oaken  piles,  which  will  reach  the 
folid  and   firm   ground,    with  the   iron   by  which 
their  points  are  to  be    armed.     That  to    lay  the 
foundation   of  the  pilafters,    only  one  part  of  the 
bed  of  the  river  muft  be   enclofed  from  the  water, 
and  then  build  there,  that  the  other  part  being  left 
open,  the  water  may  have   its   free  current  ;   and 
fo  to  go  on  from  part  to  part.     T  hat  the  pilafters 
muft  not  be  lefs  in  dimenfion,  than  the  fixth  part 
of  the  breadth  of  the  arch  ;  nor  generally  fpeaking 
larger  than  a  fourth.     That  they  fhould  be  made 
of  great  ftones  joined   together  with  cramps,  and 
bars  of  iron,  faftened  with  lead,  that  they  may  be, 
as  it  were,  all   of  one  piece  by    fuch   ligaments. 
That  the  fronts  of  the  pilafters,  or  that  fide  which 
faces  the  ifream,  fhould  be  made  angular  ;  that  is, 
ending  in  a  right  angle  )  and  fometimes,   they  are 
made  circular  (as  we  have  already  obfer\'ed)   in  or- 
der to  divide  or  break  the  water  ;  and  that  thofe 
things  which   are  impetuoufly  brought  dovv'n   the 
river,  when  they  ftrike  againft  them,  may  be  fhoved 
from  the  pilafters,  and  pals  through  the  middle  of 
the   arch.     That  the   arches  too,  fhould   be  made 
^  ery  ftrong  and  fubltantial,  and  with  great  ftones, 
well  united  together,  the  better  to  refift  the  conftant 
pafling  of  carriages,  or  any  other  weight  that  fhall 
happen  to  come  over  them  ;  which  arches  are  the 
ihongeft,  when  they  confiftof  a  feniicircle,  becaufe 
they  entirely  reft  upon  the  pilafters,  and  never  prefs 
upon  each  other  ;  but,  that  if  by  the  nature  of  the 
htuation   and  difpofition   of  the  pilafters,  a  perfeft 
(emicircle  fhould  not  be  commodious,  as  renderins: 
the  afcent  and  delcent  difficult,   a  lefler  fe(£lion  muit 
be  then  made   ufe  of,  and   fuch  arches  fliould   be 
made  as  rife  only  the  third  part  of  the  diameter  ; 
and    in  this  cafe,  the  foundations   muft  be   made 
txtreamly   ftrong    upon   the   banks.     Laftly,  that 
the  pavement  of  thefe  bridges,  ought  to  be  made 
10. 


exacftly  like  thofe  of  ways  and  ftrccts.  Thefe  arc 
Palludio\  inlirudlions  and  rules  for  the  ereClion 
of  bridges. 

Notwithftandiiig  all  thefe  ruk-s  given  by  Palhidio, 
and  other  eminent  Arthilcits,  as  Alhnti,  Srnni- 
rnozzi,  Goldman,  H/iivkJ/mcr,  and  Gautur,  who 
has  a  piece  exprefs  onl.ricJga,  aiuicntanJ  modern, 
viz..  Traite  des  Poitti,  Paris,  ij lb,  l2mo,  com- 
plaints are  ftill  made,  tliat  no  demonftraiive  rca- 
fons  are  given,  of  the  feveral  proportions  of  the 
moft  effential  parts  of  bridges  ;  much  of  which  is 
ftill  left  to  the  difcretion  of  the  LuiiJer,  to  be  regu- 
lated according  to  the  circumftances,  dcfign,  place, 
magnitude,  ^c.  of  the  defigncd  edifice. 

The  current  of  a  river  is  fometimes  diminifhed, 
to  fecure  the  piers  of  the  bridge  which  are  budding 
over  it;  which  is  done  either  by  lengthening  its 
courie,  by  making  it  more  winding,  or  by  flopping 
its  bottom  with  rows  of  banks,  liakes,  or  piles, 
which  break  the  current.  The  piers  always  di- 
minifh  the  current  of  a  river:  fuppofe  this  dimi- 
nution one  fifth  part,  it  will  follow,  that  in  cafe  of 
inundations,  the  bed  muft  be  funk,  or  hollowed 
one  fifth  part  more  than  before,  fince  the  waters 
gain  in  depth  what  they  have  loft  in  breadti).  And, 
as  the  quantity  of  the  water  remains  ftill  the  fame, 
it  will  pafs  with  greater  velocity,  by  one  fifth  part, 
in  the  place  where  fuch  contradlion  is  ;  all  which 
conduces  to  wafh  away  the  foundation.  The 
ftream  thus  augmented  in  velocity,  v/ill  carry  away 
flints  and  ftones,  which,  before,  it  could  not  flir. 

Palladia  gives  us  the  draught  of  a  bridge  of  his 
own  invention,  which  was  to  be  built  over  a  very- 
rapid  river,  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet  broad. 
The  whole  breadth  of  the  bridge  is  divided  into 
three  arches,  that  of  the  middle  to  be  fixty  feet 
broad,  and  the  other  two  forty-eight  each.  The 
pillars  for  the  fupport  of  the  arches  were  twelve  feet 
thick,  being,  thereby,  a  fifth  part  of  the  middle 
arch,  and  a  fourth  part  of  the  lefier  ones  ;  which 
tho'  deviating  from  the  conmion  meafures  of  pi- 
lajiers,  were  made  fo  thick  on  purpofe  that  they 
might  projeil  very  far  from  the  body  of  the  bridge, 
in  order  to  refiil  the  rapidity  of  the  current,  and 
oppofe  the  ftones  and  trees  which  fall  down  with 
the  ftream.  The  arches  were  to  have  been  a  por- 
tion of  a  circle  lefs  than  a  feniicircle,  that  theajccnt 
and  dejcent  of  the  bridge  might  be  plain  and  eafy. 
The  archivolte  of  the  arches  to  have  been  made  a 
I  7th  part  of  the  void  of  the  middle  arch,  and  a 
14th  part  of  the  other  two.  Over  \h.c  pilajLrs 
were  to  have  been  inches,  d.\u\Jiatucs,  and  a  ior/.i^e, 
on  both  fides,  the  uhole length  ot  the  bridge. 

Bridges  are  alfo  often  made  of  wood,  and  confifv 
of  beams  and  joifls  fuftained  by  punchions,  v/(.ll 
cramp'd,  and  bound  together. 

A  a  Palladia 


8 


loo 


The    Univerfal  Hiilory  (j/'Arts  ^;^(;-/ Sciences. 


Pallad'io   pretends,  that  the  parilculars   for    tlic 
crcdlion  of  ivoodcn  bridges  bein^j  innuin(.-r;dile,   no 
certain  or  determinate   rules  can   be  given  about 
them ;  but,  however,  he   prefcnts    us   with   fome 
draughts  of  feveral  bridges  of  that  kind,  and  by  par- 
ticulari/.ing  their  feveral  proportions,  believes,  that 
an  Archiief.t  who  has  the  Jcaft  genius,  can  hence 
taicc  its  mcaiuies  for  the  ereflion  oitvooden  bridges. 
Among  his  feveral  draughts,  he  propofes  that  of  the 
fjoodcn  bridge  built  over  the  Cifmone,   a  river  which 
falls  from  the  mountains  that  divide  Italy  from  Ger- 
many,  and  enters   into  the  Bumta  a  little  above 
Bajfcmo,  as  the  moft   fubftantial,    beautiful,    and 
commodious.     The  river  over   which  this   bridge 
flands,   is  a  hundred  foot  broad,   which  breadth  is 
divided  into  fix  equal  parts,  and  at  the  end  of  each 
part  (except  at  the  banks,  which  are  ftrengthen'd 
with  two  folid  butments  of  ftone)  are   placed  the 
beams  which  conftitute  the  bed,  and  breadth  of  the 
l.ridge.     Over  thefe,  direftly    with   the  firfl:,    are 
placed  the  Colore  ti,  or  little  pillars,  on  each  fide  ; 
thefe  pillais  arc  faflen'd  to  the  beams,  (which  make 
the  breadth  of  the  bridge  J  with  iron  cramps,  con- 
triv'd  to  pal's  through  a  hole,  made  for  that  pur- 
pofe,  in  the  heads  of  the  faid  beams,  in  that  part 
which  advances  beyond  thofe  pieces  which  confli- 
lute  the  fides.     Thefe  cramps  being  in  the  upper 
part,  along  the  faiJ  ftrait  and  plain  pillars,  perfo- 
rated in  divers  places,  and^in  the  under  part,  near 
to  thofe  thick   beams  before-mentioned,   and  with 
a  moderately  big   hole,  went  into  the  pillars,  and 
faften'd   again   below  with  little  bars,  or  pins  of 
iron,  made  for  that  purpofe.     Hence  the  whole 
work  becomes,    as  it  were,  united  ;    fo  that  the 
beams,  which  make  the /r^aaf/A  of  the  ^nV/^^,  and 
thofe  of  the  fides,  are,  in  a  manner,  one  piece  with 
the  pillars ;  which  thus  come  to  fupport  the  beams 
that  make  the    breadth,    as   thefe   are  again  fup- 
ported  by  the  arms  which  extend  from  one  pillar  to 
the  other.     Thus   all   the  parts   mutually  fupport 
each  other,  and  their  difpofition  is   fuch,  that  the 
greater  wtight  there  is  on  the  bridge,  fo  much  the 
fafter  do  they  clofe  together,  and  corroborate  the 
work.     All  thofe  arms,  and   other  pieces  of  tim- 
ber, which  make   up  the  body  of  the  bridge,  are 
but  ?i.  foot  in  breadth,  and  three  foil'  ths  in  thickmfs  ; 
but  thofe  pieces  which  make  the  bed  of  the  bridge, 
that  is  to  fay,  thofe  laid  length-wije,    are  confide- 
rably  fmaller.  , 

T  he  fame  learned  author  aflures  us,  that  wooden 
bridges  may  be  made  without  any  pofts  in  the  wa- 
ter, in  the  following  manner  :  the  banks  having 
been  ftrengthen'd  with  butments,  as  far  as  it  is  con- 
venient, one  of  the  beams  which  make  the  breadth 
of  the  bridge,  muft  be  laid  at  a  fmal!  diftance  from 
them,  and  then  the  beams,  which  make  the  fides. 


difpos'd  upon  it,  which,  with  one  of  their  hcaJs, 
are  to  lay  uj)on  the  bank,  and  to  be  fallen'd  to  it ; 
then  upon  thefe,  direct  w-itii  the  beam  hiitl  for  the 
b'  eadth,   the  colonelli,    or  pillars,   mull    be  plac'd, 
which  are  to  be  faflen'd  into  the  faid  beams  with 
iron  cramps,  and  fupported  by  the  brace?  well  fix'd 
in  the  head   of  the  b'ldge;   that  is  to  fay,    in  the 
beams  which  make  the  fides  upon  the  bank.     Af- 
terwards, leaving  as  much  f])ace  as  fliall  be  left  by 
the  ("aid  beam  for  the  breadth  to  the  bank,   the  other 
beam  mull  be  laid  for  the  breadth,  which  (hall  be 
in  like  manner  fatlened  to  the  beams  which  are  te  be 
laid  over  it  length-wife,  and  to  the  pillars likewife,  as 
they  will  be  fupported  by  their  braces.     And  thus 
mull  it  be  done  from  one  end  to  the  other,  or  as  far  as 
it  will  be  requifite,  always  oblerving,  in  (w:\\bridges^ 
that  in  the  middle  of  the  breadth  there  be  a  pillar, 
the   braces  whereof  fliall  meet   over-againft   one 
another,  and  in  the  upper  parts  other  beams  muft 
be  put,  which  extending  from  one  pillarto  another, 
will   keep    them  united,    and   (together  with   the 
braces  plac'd  in  the  head  of  the  bridge)  they  will 
make  a  portion  of  a  circle  lefs  than  a  femicircle. 
Thus  making  every  brace  fupport  its  pillar,  and 
every  pillar  the  crofs  beam,  and  thofe  that  make 
the    fides,    every    part  fupports    its    own    weight. 
Such  bridges  are   large  at   their  heads,    and  grow 
narrow    near   the   middle   of  their   length.     They 
are  called  pendant,    or  hanging,    or  philofophicat 


bridges. 

Dr.  WalUs  gives  the  defign  of  a  timber  bridge, 
feventy  foot  long,  without  any  pillars  ;  and  Dr. 
Plot  affures  us,  that  there  was  formerly  a  large 
bridge  over  the  caftle  ditch  of  Tutbury  in  Stafford- 
Jhire,  made  of  pieces  of  timber,  not  much  above  a 
yard  long,  and  yet  not  fupported  underneath, 
either  with  pillars,  or  arch-work,  or  any  other  fort 
of  prop  whatever. 

TSlot:,  That  BuTMENTS,  in  this  place,  are  thofe 
fupporters,  or  props,  on,  or  againft  which,  the 
feet  oi  arches  reft.  Cramp:,  are  pieces  of  iron  bent 
at  each  extreme,  ferving  to  bind  together  pieces 
of  wood,  ftones,  or  other  things.  Brace,  a  piece 
of  timber  fram'd  in  with  bevel-joints  ;  ferving  to 
keep  the  building  from  fwerving  either  way. 

As  for  the  other  forts  of  bridges,  as  draw-bridges, 
flying-bridges,  bridges  of  boats,  &c.  which  properly 
belong  to  fortif  cation,  we'll  defer  treating  of  them 
till  we  come  to  our  treatife  of  fortif  cation. 

As  there  is  alio  an  art  in  judging  of  buildings,  as 
well  as  in  eredting  of  them.  Sir  Henry  fFotton  has 
been  fo  kind  to  lay  down,  for  that  purpofe,  the 
following  rules  :  that  before  fixing  any  judgment  a 
perfon  ought  to  be  inform'd  of  its  age,  fince  if  ap- 
parent decay  be  found  to  exceed  the  proportion  of 
II  time, 


ARirHMETlCK, 


i8i 


time,  it  may  te  concluded,  without  further  inqui- 
fition,  either  that  the  fituation  \i  naught,  or  the 
materials,  or  workmanfliip,  too  /light.  If  it  be 
found  to  bci!r  its  years  well,  we  mult  run  back 
from  the  ornaments,  and  things  which  ftrike  the  eye 
firft,  to  the  more  effential  members  ;  till  we  be 
able  to  form  a  conclufion  that  the  work  is  commo- 
dious, firm,  and  delightful ;  the  three  conditions, 
in  a  good  building,  laid  down  at  firft,  and  agreed 
on  by  all  authors. 

Vajfari  propofes  another,  viz,  by  pafling  a  run- 
ning examination  over  the  whole  edifice-,  compar'd 
to  the  firuiture  of  a  well-made  man  ;  as  whether 
the  walls  ftand  upright  on  a  clean  footing  and 
foundation  ;  whether  the  httilding  be  of  a  beautiful 
ftature ;  whether  for  the  breadth  it  appears  well 
burnifh'd  ;  whether  the  principal  entrance  be  on 
the  middle  line  of  the  front,  or  face,  like  our 
mouths ;  the  windows  as  our  eyes,  fet  in  equal 
number  and  diftance  on  both  fides ;  the  offices, 
like  the  veins,  ufcfully  diftributed,  Wf. 

Vitruvius  gives  a  third  method  of  judging;  fum- 
niing  up  the  whole  art  under  thefe  fix  heads  :  ordi- 
nation, or  fettling  the  moJel,  and  i'cale  of  the 
work ;  dijpofttion,  the  juft  expreflion  of  the  firft 
defign  thereof;  (which  two,  Sir  H.  IVotion  thinks 
he  might  have  fpar'd,  as  belonging  rather  to  the 
artificer,  than  the  cenfurer  ; )  Euryihmy,  the  agree- 
able harmony   between   the  length,    breadth,   and 


height  of  the  fcveral  roojns,  ?cc.  fymmetry,  or  the 
agreement  between  the  parts  and  the  whole  ;  Decor, 
the  due  relation  between  the  building  and  the  inha- 
bitant ;  whence  Palladia  concludes,  the  principal 
entrance  ought  never  to  be  limited  by  any  rule,  but 
the  dignity  and  generofity  of  the  mailer ;  and, 
laftly,  dijlrihution,  the  ufeful  caftiiig  of  the  feveral 
rooms  for  offices,  entertainment,  or  plcafure.  Thefe 
latt  four  are  ever  to  be  run  over,  before  a  man 
pafles  any  determinate  ccnfure  ;  and  thefe  alone. 
Sir  Henry  oblerves,  are  fufficicnt  to  condemn  or 
acquit  any  building  whatever. 

Dr.  Fulhr  gives  us  two  or  three  good  aphorifms 
in  building  ;  as,  I.  Let  not  the  common  rooms  be 
feveral,  nor  the  feveral  rooms  common ;  /.  e.  the 
common  rooms  not  to  be  private,  or  retired,  as  the 
hall,  galleries,  &c.  which  are  to  be  open  ;  and  the 
chambers,  &c.  to  be  retir'd.  2.  A  houfe  had  bet- 
ter be  too  little  for  a  day,  than  too  big  for  a  yeaj-  j 
houfcs,  therefore,  ought  to  be  proportion'd  to  or- 
dinary occafions,  no  extraordinary.  3.  Country 
houfes  muil  be  fubilantives,  able  to  ftand  of  them- 
felves  ;  not  like  city  buildings,  fupported  and 
{heltcr'd,  on  each  fide,  by  their  neighbours.  4.  Let 
not  the  front  look  al'quint  on  a  ftrauger,  but  ac- 
coft  him  right  at  his  entrance.  5.  Let  the  offices 
keep  their  due  diftance  from  the  manfion  houfe  ; 
thofe  are  too  familiar  which  arc  of  the  fame  pile 
with  it. 


ARITHMETIC  K, 


WE  have  ve:y  little  intelligence  about  the 
origin   and   invention  of  arithmetic^'  ; 
hiftory  neither  fixes  the  author,   nor 
the  time.     In  all  probability  hov^ever, 
it  muft  have  taken  its  rife  from  the  introduiSlion  of 
commerce,  and  confequently  be  oi  Tyrian  inven- 
tion. 

From  :1fia  it  pafied  into  Egypt,  (Jofephus  fays 
by  means  oi  Abraham  j  here  it  was  greatly  cultivated 
and  improv'd  ;  infomuch  that  a  large  part  of  their 
philofophy  and  theology,  feems  to  have  turned  al- 
together upon  numbers,  hence  thofe  wonders  re- 
lated by  them  about  unity,  trinity  ;  the  numbers 
feven,  ten,  four,  Is'c.  In  efFeft,  Kiicher  in  his 
Mdip.  Aig\pt.  Tom.  II.  p.  2.  fhews  that  the  Egyp- 
tians explained  every  thing  by  numbers  ;  Pytha- 
goras himfelf  affirming  that  the  nature  of  numbers 
goes  through  the  whole  univeri'e  ;  and  that  the 
knowledge  of  numbers  is  the  knowledge  of  the 
deity. 

From  Eg)pt,  a'ithmetick  was  tranfmitted  to  the, 
Greeks,  who  handed  it  forward,  with  great  im- 
provcmciitSj  which  it  had  received  by  the  compu- 


tation of  their  aftrommers,  to  the  Romans ;  from 
whom  it  came  to  us. 

The  ff;//;V?;/ Arithmetick  however,  fell  far 
fhort  of  that  of  the  moderns ;  moft  of  what  they  did 
was  to  confider  the  various  divifions  of  numbers  ; 
as  appears  from  the  treatifes  of  Nicomachus,  wrote 
in  the  third  century  of  Rome,  and  that  of  Boeihius 
ftill  extant.  A  compendium  of  the  antient  arith- 
inetick,  wrote  in  Greek,  by  Ptcllus,  in  the  ninth 
century  from  our  Saviour,  was  given  us  in  Latin  by 
Xylander,  in  1558.  A  more  ample  work  of  the 
fame  kind  was  wrote  by  Jordanus,  in  the  year 
1200  ;  publifhed  with  a  comment  by  father  Stapu- 
lenfi<,   in  1480. 

Arithmetic/:,  under  its  prefent  ftate,  is  divided 
into  different  kinds ;  viz.  Theoretical,  pra£iical, 
injlrumenial,  logarithmetica!,  numerous,  fpecicui,  de- 
cimal, dignamical,  ictraitical,  duodecimal,  Jexa- 
gefimal,   &c. 

Euclid  furnilhes  a  theoretical  arithnetich,  in  the 

feventh,  eighth',  and  ninth  books  of  his  elements 

(which  theorctical'arithmetick  is  the  fcience  of  the 

properties,    relation?,  '-Jc.  of  numbers  confidercd 

A  a  2  abftracl- 


1 82  The  Univerfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  ««^  Sciences. 

abftrafledly  with  the  reafons  and  demonrtrations  Mifli'd  by  himfelf  in  1666;  that  of  yir.  Leibnitz, 
of  the  feveral  rules.)  Barlanmus  Afonachus  hAs\  dckr'ihcd  in  the  Mi/cel/an.  Berolin  ;  that  of  the  Ps- 
ali'o  given  a  theory  for  demonftrating  the  common  lenus,  publiflied  in  the  Venetian  Mifcellany.,  1709  ; 
operations,  both  in  integers  and  broken  numbers,  the  Arithmetica  Logarithmica  oi  Hen.  Briggs,  pub- 
his  Logijiica,  publifhed  in  Latin  by  J  Chambers  j  lifhed  1624  :  and  the  univerfal  arithmetical  tables 

of  Pro/lhapharefes,  publiftied  1610,  by  Herwart 
ab  Hohe>  burg  ;  whereby  Multiplication  is  eafily  and 
accurately  performed  by  Addition,  and  Divifton  by 
!^ubtra£iion. 

The  Chinefe  have  little  regard  to  our  rules  in 
their  calculations  ;  inftead  of  which,  they  ufe  an 
inflrument  made  of  a  little  plate,  a  foot  and  half 
lona;,  a  crofs  which  are  fitted  ten  or  twelve  iron 
wires,  on  which  are  flrong  little  round  bales.  By 
drawing  thefe  together,  and  difperfing  them  again 
one  after  another,  they  count  fomewhat  after  the 
manner  in  which  we  do  by  counters  :  but  with  fo 
much  eafe  and  readinefs,  that  they  will  keep  pace 
with  a  man  reading  a  book  of  accounts,  let  him 
make  what  expedition  he  can  :  and  at  the  end  the 
operation  is  found  done;  and  they  have  their  way 
of  proving  it. 

The  deiimal  Arithmetick  is  not  of  a  very  antient 
date  ;  fmce  it  was  firft  introduced  into  Europe,  by 
Gerhert,  afterwards  pope,   under  the  name  of  Sil- 
vejier  II.  who  borrowed  it  from  the  Moors  of  Spain. 
No  doubt  it  took  its  origin  from  the  ten  fingers  of 
the  hands,  which  were  made  ufe  of  in  computation 
I  before  arithmetick  was  brought  into  an  art.     The 
eaftern  milTionaries  allure  us,  that  to  this  day  the 
Indians   are   very   expert  at   computing   on   their 
fingers,  without   any  ufe   of  pen  and  ink.     Add,* 
that  the  natives  of  Peru,   who  do  all  by  the  diffe- 
rent arrangement  of  grains  of  maife,  out-do  any 
European,  both  for  furenefs  and  difpatch,  with  all 
his  rules. 


an  Engl!j)iii.a>j,  in  1600.  To  which  may  be 
added  Lucas  de  Burgo,  who  in  an  Italian  treatife, 
publiflied  in  1523,  gives  the  feveral  divifions  of 
numbers  from  Nicomachus,  and  their  properties 
from  Euclid;  with  the  algorithm,  both  in  integers, 
fratT;ions,  extraifions  of  roots,  tsc. 

The  firfl  entire  body  of  practical  arithmetick 
(which  is  the  art  of  numbering  or  computing  from 
certain  numbers  given,  or  finding  certain  others, 
■whofe  relation  to  the  former  is  known,  as  if  a 
number  be  required  equal  to  two  given  numbers 
6  and  8)  was  given  by  Nich.  TartagUa  a  Venetian, 
in  15565  confifling  of  two  books  ;  the  former,  the 
application  of arihmetick  to  civil  ufcs  ;  the  latter, 
the  grounds  of  algebra.  Something  had  been  done 
before  by  Stifelius,  in  154.4  ;  where  we  have  fe 
veral  particulars  concerning  the  application  of  irra- 
tionals,   trV.  no  where  elfe  to  be  met  withal. 

There  is  almoft  an  infinite  number  of  pra£lical 
authors,  who  have  appeared  fince  ;  as  Gemma 
Friftus,  Aletius,  Clavius,  Ramus,  Buckley,  Diggs, 
Record,  fVingate,  Cocker,  Leyburn,  Ward,  Mal- 
chom.  Sec. 

The  theory  of  arithmetick  is  joined  with  the 
praftice,  and  even  improved  in  feveral  parts  by 
MauroUcus,  in  his  Opufcula  Mathematica,  1575  ; 
Henefchius  in  his  Ar.thmetica  Perfeiia,  i6og, 
where  the  demonftrations  are  all  reduced  into  the 
form  of  fyllogifms ;  and  Jacquet  in  his  Theoria  (S 
Praxis  Arithmetices,   1704. 

Injlrumental Arithmetick  is  that  wherethecommon 
rules,  are  performed  by  means  of  inftruments  con- 
trived for  eafe  and  difpatch  ;  fuch  are  feveral  fcalesand 
Aiding  rules  ;  more  particularly  thofe  called  Nepei  's 
Bones,  an  inftrument  whereby  multiplication  and 
divifion  of  large  numbers  are  facilitated  and  expe- 
dited ;  and  fo  called  from  its  inventor  John  Neper, 
baron  of  Marchijion  in  Zetland. 

This  inflrument  is  made  of  five  rods,  plates,  or 
lamells,  of  wood,  metal,  horn,  paft- board,  or 
other  matter  of  an  oblong  form,  and  divided  each 
into  nine  little  fquares  ;  each  of  which  is  refolved 
into  two  triangles  by  diagonals.  In  thefe  little 
fquares  are  wrote  the  number  of  the  multiplication 
table,  in  fuch  manner  as  that  the  units,  or  right- 
hand  figures,  are  found  in  the  right-hand  triangle  ; 
and  the  tens,  or  the  left-hand  figures  in  the  left- 
hand  triangle.    See  Multiplication  and  Divifion. 

To  Neper's  bones  may  be  added  Sir  Sa/n.  Mare- 
land's  inftrument,  the  defcription  whereof  was  pub- 
I 


Arithmetick  is  the  art  or  fcience  of  num- 
bering :  and  is  that  branch  of  pure  mathematicks, 
which  treats  of  the  powers  and  properties  of 
numbers. 

Number  in  arithmetick,  according  to  Euclid  is 
a  collation  or  afTemblage  of  feveral  units,  or  things 
of  the  fame  kind.  But  Sir  Ifaac  Newton  makes  it 
to  confift  in  the  abflradl  r<4io  of  a  quantity  of  any 
kind,  to  another  quantity  of  the  fame  kind,  which 
is  the  unity, 

Num'.er,   thus  defined,  is  by  him  alfo  divided 
1  into   integers,  fraSiions,  and  hundreds,    of  which 
I  refpeftively  we  fhall  treat  in  their  proper  place. 
Unit  is  the  number  one,  or  one  fingle  indivi- 
dual part  of  difcrete  quantity. 

The  manner  of  expreffing  thefe  units   in  arith- 
tnetick  is  by  certain  charailers,  or  figures. 

Nine 


ARITHMETIC  K. 


Nine  of  thefe  Characters  or  Figures  are 
czWti  jgnificant  figures,  and  are  thus  written, 

I  One 


183 


2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
o 


Two 

Three 

Four 

Five 

Six 

Seven 

Eight 

Nine 


hand  to  the  left :  the  firft  figure  or  cypher  on  the 
right  hand,  being  the  place  of  the  units  ;  the  fe- 
cond  the  place  of  the  tens  ;  the  third  the  place  of  the 
hundreds  ;  and  in  this  order,  it  muft  be  remembered 
that  a  cypher  0  or  cyphers,  give  the  value  to  the 
figure  according  to  its  place;  thus  10  fignifies  ten, 
100,  one  hundred,  lOOO,  one  thoufand;  becaufe 
the  jtgnificant  figure,  in  fuch  funis,  ftands  in  the 
place  of  tens,  hundreds,  thoufands,  he.  the  value 
of  every  figure  increafing  in  a  decuple  proportion, 
as  they  fall  back  from  the  right  hand  to  the  left  ; 
every  place  being  ten  times  the  value  of  that  imme- 
diately before  it ;  as  will  more  fully  appear  in  the 


following  fchemes. 


Numeration  Table. 


There  is  a  tenth  called  a  cypher 

Of  Numeration. 

All  Numb  ERs  are  either  AJimple  or  compound. 
Every  ftngle    figure    is    a  fimple    number  ;     as 
2,4-6,8   or   I,  3,  5,7,  9. 

A  compound  number  is  compofed  of  two  or  more 
figures  in  one  line;  as  15,  223,  1759,  ^c 

Every  fg/nfc.'int  figure  has  a  certain  and  uncer- 
tain value. 

Every  Jingle  figure  is  of  a  certain  value,  as  2  can 
fiwnify  no  more  than  two ;  3,  no  more  than  three, 
he.  but  when  any  figure  is  to  be  compounded  with 
fome  other,  it  takes  its  value  occafionally  from  its 
place  or  pofition  in  the  fum  to  be  numbered  ;  thus 
4  prefixed  to  2,  as  in  42  is  valued  at  forty,  but  if 
the  4  ftiould  be  placed  on  the  right  fide  of  the  2,  as 
in  24,  the  4  is  valued  at  no  more  than yi«r.  Thus 
c  may  be  placed  to  fignify  no  more  than  five,  and 
it  may  be  placed  fo  as  to  fignify  fifty-five  55,  five 
hundred  and  fifty-five  555,  five  thoufand  five  hun- 
dred and  fijty-five  ^^^S,  &c. 

Where  you  may  obferve  that  the  order  of  placing 
figures  to  encreafe  their  value,  is  from  the  right 

A  cypher  is  of  itkU  infignificant,  but  by  its  place  alters  the  value  of  the  fubfequent  figure  :  and,  fince  the 
value  of  each  place  is  ten  times  the  value  of  the  next  before  it,  it  is  certain 


Hundreds  of  Millions 

Tens  of  Millions 

Millions 

Hundreds  of  Thoufands 

Tens  of  Thoufands 

Thoufands 

Hundreds 

Tens 

Units 

The  numbers  in  the  Ta- 
B  L  E    are   thus    to    he 
read,  viz. 

987654321 

987    Mil.  654  Th.  321 

123456789 

23456789 

3459789 

456789 

56789 

6789 

7  8  9 

8  9 

9 

123   Mil.  456  Th.  789 

23  Mil.  456  Th.  789 

—  3  Mil.  456  Th.  789 

456  Th.  789 

56  Th.  789 
6  Th.  789 

789 

89 

9 

that 


!i  -J  -    10  ^  J.  100  ...  _  1000  _. 

2  (  '"  the  firft    \     20  /  in  the    \  200  /   in  the  \  2000  I 

3  (■  place  is      1     30  (  fecond,   )  300  (    third,  )  3000  ( 

i^c.  J  L  b'f.  J  I  ijc.  y  L  bV.  J 


in  the 
fourth, 

(Jc. 


The  value  of  each  figure  in  any  rank  of  numbers,  how  large  foever,  is  readily  found  by  the 
following  rule. 

Begin  at  units,  fet  a  point  under  t\\z  feventh  place  ;  then  reckoning  that  as  one,  count  forwards,  and 
fet  another  under  the  next  feventh  place,  fo  continue  to  the  end. 


Then  the 


f  ^'^  T 

\  fecond  I 

1  third  P 

*-  fourth,  tff.  J 


point  from  units 
ftands  under 


1 


millions, 
billions, 
trillions, 
quadrillions,  &c. 


As 


184. 


The  Uniyerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  aitd  Sciences. 

As  is  evident  in  the  following  example, 


Periods 
Half-periods 


Degrees 


F: 


gurc 


Quadril.  Trilllions  Billions  MiUlions      '     Units 

th.  units  th.   units  th.  units  th.   units       th.  units 

cxucxu  cxucxu  cxucxu  cxucxu     cxucxu 

I    123456  789098  765432  101234   567891 


N-  B.  A  Period  is  a  million  times  the  valueof  the  place  before  it.  A  Half  Period  is  a  thoufand 
times  the  value  of  the  place  before  it.  By  this  means  you  may  have  as  clear  a  notion  of,  and  may 
as  eafily  read  a  number  of  feventy  places,  as  of  feven. 

th£  excefi  above  the  ten  to  tens :  and   for  every  te» 
an  tinit   to  be   added   to  the  next  rank   of 


The  next  enquiry  is  to  find  how  thefe  figures  are 
to  be  rendered  ufeful  ;  which  will  be  fhewn  under 
diftiniSl;  Rules,  or  operations  to  tind  the  fums  or 
numbers  unknown,  and  to  facilitate  the  art  ot  com- 
putation. 

RULE       i.  ' 

Addition. 
Addition  is  the  firft  of  the  four  principal  rules 
in  Arithmetic,    whereby  we  are  taught  to  find  a  yaw 
ec]uaJ  to  feveral  fmall  ones. 

Addition  of  Simpk  Numbers. 

If  you  -were  to  add  136  and  42  together,  they 
naufl  be  placed  one  under  the  other  as  foUoweth, 

VdZ. 

136  Or,  ^l 

42  136 

Having  placed  the  given  numbers  as  before  is 
directed,  then  draw  a  ilreight  line  under  them,  and 
(beginning  at  the  place  of  units)  add  all  the  figures 
together  that  ftand  over  one  another  in  that  rank : 
putting  their  fum  under  the  faid  flrait  line ;  as  in 
this  example,  I  fay,  2  and  6  is  8,  wherefore  I  put 
8  under  the  line,  and  in  its  proper  place,  under  2 
and  6,  and  proceed  to  the  next  rank,  which  is  the 
place  of  tens  ;  faying,  4  and  3  is  7,  wherefore  I 
put  7  in  its  own  proper  place  under  the  line  ;  and 
proceed  to  the  next  and  laft  rank,  where  I  find 
only  I,  wherefore  I  put  one  in  its  proper  place 
under  the  line,  and  fo  the  work  is  finifhed  ;  and  I 
find  thereby  that  the  total  fum  of  136  and  42  to  be 
178.    Seeth-Q  operation  as  followeth. 

136  42 

42  136 

178  178 

If,  in  adding  together  any  of  the  ranks  the  fum 
amounts  to,  or  exceedeth  10,  or  any  number  of 
tens,  then  in  fuch  a  cafe  you  are  either  to  fet  down 
a  cypher  under  the  line  in  its  proper  place,  or  elfe 


carry 

figures.  As,  if  it  amount  to  30,  then  fet  down 
(q)  a  cypher,  and  carry  3  (for  the  three  tens)  to 
be  added  to  the  next  rank  ;  if  it  amount  to  34, 
then  fet  down  4  under  the  rank  that  you  add,  and 
carry  three  to  the  next,  Is^c.  And  when  you  have 
caftup  the  laft  rank  or  ferics  towards  tlie  left-hand, 
fet  down  the  total  that  it  amounteth  to,  aj  in  the 
following  examples. 


Sum  1650 


(_2_) 

4558 

6673 
2891 

1862 
15984 


(  3  ) 

1648 

3472 
1865 

3479 
10464 


(  4  ) 

20864 

78987 

62 17 

4320 

110388 


In  the  firft  of  thefe  examples  I  begin,  faying, 
2  and  6  is  8,  and  4  is  12,  and  8  makes  20,  which 
is  juft  two  tens ;  wherefore  I  put  down  0  under  the 
line,  and  carry  2  to  the  next  rank  for  the  two  tens, 
and  proceed,  faying,  2  that  I  carry,  and  4  is  6, 
and  9  is  15,  and  6  is  21,  and  4  is  25,  which  is  5 
above  20,  wherefore  I  put  down  5  under  the  line, 
and  carry  2  for  the  two  tens  to  the  next  rank,  and 
then  proceed,  faying,  2  that  I  carry,  and  2  is  4, 
and  2  is  6,  and  3  is  9,  and  7  makes  16,  where- 
fore (becaufe  it  is  the  lafl:  rank)  I  put  down  16 
under  the  line,  and  fo  the  work  is  finifhed,  the 
total  fum  of  the  Addition  being  1650.  The  fame 
is  to  be  obferved  in  the  reft  of  the  examples. 

To  prove  yoiir  Add'tisn.  after  you  have  added  up 
your  whole  fum,  draw  a  line  with  your  pen  under 
the  uppermoft  number,  and  when  you  have  fo 
done,  add  all  the  other  numba-3,  except  the  up- 
permoft ;  and  when  you  have  fo  done,  add  the 
amount  or  fum  thereof  to  the  uppermoft  fum  above 
the  line  ;  and  if  the  fum  be  the  fame  with  the  fum 
firll  found,  your  woik  is  true,  otherwife  not. 

In 


ARITHMETIC  K' 


185 


In  Addition  of  diverfe  demtninations,  place  the 
given  numbers  in  fiich  oriler  under  each  other,  that 
each  rank  from  top  to  bottom  may  confiil  of  one 
and  the  fame  value. 

Addition    of  Money. 

In  AoDiTtoN  of  English  money,  it  is  neceflary 
firft  of  all  to  underfland  the  meaning  and  fignifi- 
cation  of  all  the  characters  fuperfcribed  over  every 
fum,  as    lib.    s,    d. 

Note,  That  /il>.  fignifies  /i/frn,  a  pound,  not 
here  in  refpeft  to  common  weight,  but  money,  and 
for  diftintStion  is  called  apoiindj/er/hig.  So  s.  Hands 
for  a  {hilling,  d.  Hands  for  dcnariia,  s.  penny,  the 
1 2th  part  of  a  fhilling.  For  until  the  reign  of 
Henry  VI.  a  petjny  was  the  20th  part  of  an  ounce 
of  filver,  and  in  his  reign  made  the  30th.  By  Ed- 
ward IV.  40  penee  make  an  ounce.  By  Henry 
VIII.  there  was  allowed  45  d.  to  the  ounce.  And 
by  Qiieen  Elizabeth  an  ounce  of  filver  was  divided 
into  60  parts,  called  pence,  as  it  is  at  this  day. 


Pence  Table. 


d. 
20"^ 

30 

40 

50 
60 

70 

80 

90 
100 
no 
120 

>30> 


r 


>■%< 


s. 
1 

2 

3 

4 
5 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

10 

V.10 


d. 


8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

10 
8 

And 

6 

4 

2 

o|        ! 

10 

1          1 

d. 

12^ 

24 
36 
48 
60 

72    , 

84  r 

96 

108 

120 

132 

144  J 


s, 
I 

2 
3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 

II 

12 


English  Money. 


4  Farthings 


make 


f  One  penny. 

■s  One  fhilling. 

C  One  pound. 


d. 


Having  firft  drawn  a  line  under  the  ranks,  add 
them  together,  confidering  how  many  of  each 
fmaller  denomination  make  an  unit  of  the  next  that 
is  fuperior  to  it  (always  oblerving  to  begin  at  the 
leaft  denomination)  and  for  every  fuch  ujiit,  carry 
one  to  the  next  fuperior  denomination,  viz.  for 
every  4  in  the  farthings  you  muft  carry  i  to  the 
pence  ;  for  every  1 2  in  the  pence  carry  i  to  the 
{hillings  ;  and  for  every  20  contained  in  the  fliil- 
lings,  carry  I  to  the  pounds,  according  to  the  table; 
and  the  odd  farthings,  pence,  and  fhillings,  let 
down  in  their  proper  ranks  under  the  line,  as  in 
the  following  example. 

When  you  would  write  down  three  farthings,  or 
a  half-penny,   or  a  farthing,  write  it  thus. 


Three  Farthings. 
A  Hal-penny. 


I  i ■  A  Farthing 

Let  it  be  required  to  add  together  134/.  16  s. 
%d.l.  and  286/.  10  s.  4^/  |.  and  489/.  131. 
'^d.\.  and  794/.  18  J.  09  c/.  \.  Then  in  order 
to  the  work  I  fet  them  down,  and  draw  a  line  under 
them,   as  folio weth. 

/.  s.  d. 

134  16  8  5 

286  10 

498       13 

794  18  9  i- 


6f 


12  Pence 
20  Shillings 

Note,  Thefe  are  the  general  names  of  EngUJh 
money  obferved  in  trade  and  accounts  ;  but  there 
are  other  names  fn  common  ufe,  whofe  value  is  ac- 
cording to  the  following  table. 

A  Half-penny       1         f 


A  Two -pence 
A  Three- pence 
A  Groat 

A  Six-pence            ! 
A  Half  crown         ' 

>\ 

A  Crown 

> 

A  Qiiarter-guinea 
A  Half-guinea 

A  Guinea              ^ 

) 

/.      s. 


< 


L  J 


2 
5 
5 

10 
I 


d. 
2 

3 

4 
6 
6 

o 

3 
6 


Firft,  begin  with  the  leaf!  denomination,  whic'i 
is  that  of  farthings,  and  add  them  together,  faying, 
J  and  J  is  I  and  4  's  63  and  |  is  7  farthings,  which  is 
I  penny  and  3  farthings,  wherefore  put  3  farthings 
under  the  line,  and  under  the  denomination  of  far- 
things, and  carry  i  (for  the  penny)  to  the  next  de- 
nomination of  pence,  faying,   I  that  I  carry  and  9, 
is  10,  and  6  is  16,  and  4  is  20,  and  8  is  28,  now 
28  pence  is  2  fhillings  and  4  pence,   wheretore  put 
4  under  the  line,  and  carry  2  fhillings  to  tlie  deno- 
mimttion  of  {hillings,  faying  2  that  I  carry  and  18 
is  20,   and  13  is  33,    and  xo  is  43.   and  16  is  59 
{hillings,  which  is  2  pounds  19  {hillings  ;  whereof 
put  the  19  (hillings  under  the  line,   and  under  the- 
denomination  of  {hillings,  and  carry  2  (for  the  i 
pounds)  to  the  denomination  of  pounds,   and  pro- 
ceed,  faying,    2  that  I  carry  and  4  is  6,  and  8  is. 
14,  and  6  is  20,  and  4  makes  24,  wherefore  put 
down  4  under  the  line,    and  carry  2  for  the  two 
tens  to  the  next  rank,  faying,  2  that  I  carry  and  9 
is  1 1,  and  9  is  20,  and  8  is  28,  and  3  is  31,  which. 
is  I  above  30,  wherefore  I  put  i  under  the  line  and 
carry  3  (for  the  three  tens)  to  die  nex  rank,   and 
proceed,  faying,  3  that  I  carry  and  7  is  10,  and  4 
is  14,  and  2  is  16,  and  i  is  17,  wherefore  put  17 


j86 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  a7id  Sciences. 


under  the  line,  becaufe  it   is   the  Aim  of  the  lafl 
rank,   and  io  the  whole  work  is  finifhed,    and   we 
find   the  fum  of  the  given  numbers  to  be  17 14/. 
19;.  4^/.  iqr.  as  by  the  following  work  appeaieth. 
/.  s.  .  d. 

134  16  b| 

286  10  41 

498  13  (^l 

794  18  9i 


Note,  This  weight  difFereth  in  diverfe 
places  by  cuftom  and  ftatute  law  ;   for, 

A    barrel  of  anrhovies  weighs 
1      —  Fiizs  fiom 


Sum     1714  19  4 1 

To   prove  your  Addition,   after   you  have  added  ' 
lip   your  whole  fum,  draw  a  line  with   your  pen  ! 
under  the  uppermoft  number  or  fum,  and  then  add 
together  all  the  other  numbers,    except  the  upper-  I 
moft.      And    when   you   have    fo   done,    add   the 
amount,  or  fum  thereof  to  the  uppermoft  fum  above 
the  line  ;  and  if  that  fum  be  equal  to  the  fum  firrt:  ; 
found,   the  work  is  truj,    othcrwife  not  ! 

The  fame  method  is  ufed   to   prove  •Addition  of 
diverfe  denominations,  as  above  in  fums  of  one  de- 
nomination, j 
.  Here,  Note,  once  for  all.  That  whatfoever  fums  '• 
you  are  to  add  together,  whether  of  Money,  Weight,  \ 
Alea  we,  Time,  Sic.   that  when  you  come  to  the 
greateft  denominations,    as  you  caft  up  the  feveral 
ranks  thereof,  you  are  to   carry  the  tens  of  every 
preceding  rank   to  that  which   follows  it,  as  is  di- 
redted  in  the  ffth  Section  of  this  chapter,  and  as 
the  ranks  in  the  denomination  of  pounds  in  the  lafl: 
Example  are  caft  up. 

In  adding  up  of  money,  fi/l,  caft  up  your  pence, 
or  make  a  fmall  comma  at  every  60  d.  which  is  5  s. 
(and  it  will  be  a  great  eafe  to  the  memory  where 
fums  are  long)  and  bv  the  Table  you  may  readily 
know,  how  many  {hillings  and  pence  your  pence 
amount  to  ;  then  fet  down  your  odd  pence  under 
the  place  of  pence,  and  carry  your  fhillings  to  the 
unit  of  fhillings,  and  then  add  them  up  as  in  Ad- 
dition of  Jingle  numbers,  by  fetting  down  the  odd 
above  the  tens,  and  carry  the  tens  to  the  tens  of 
Jhillings. 

Addition  of  Weights. 

The  Weight  ufed  in  England  for  large  and 
coarfer  commodities,  as  cheefe,  wool,  lead,  &c.  is 
called  Avoirdupois:  the  pound  whereof  is  made  up 
of  fixteen  ounces,  and  bears  the  proportion  of  17 
to  14  to  a  pound  Troy. 

The  Table  for  Avoirdupois  Weight. 
16  Drams     "}         ["  One  Ounce  ox. 

16  Ounces     1    o    1  Or\z  Pound  lb. 

28  Pounds     ^"^  "(  One  Qiiarter       ^r. 
4  Q^iarters  |    ^    |  One  Hundred       C. 
20  Hundred  J         ^One  Ton  '7«. 


to 


—  Raifms 

—  Gun  powder 

—  Candles 

—  Potafh 

—  Butter 

—  Soap 

A  puncheon  of  prunes  10  or  12  C. 
A  itone  of  glafs 

Butchers  meat 

' Iron,  wool,   iSc. 

.  Butter  and  cheefe 
A  quintal  of  dry  fifh 
A  faggot  of  ftccl 
A  feam  of  glafs 
A  burden  of  gad  ftcel 
A  clove  of  cheefe  and  butter 
A  wey  in  Suff'oik 

'  in  EJex 

A  fodder  of  lead  19 


goods  and 
lb. 

■     .30 
zhl 
98 
112 

I  12 
I  20 
200 
224 
256 

S 

8 

16 
100 
120 
120 
180 
8 
256 

336 
C  and  56 


Note,  That  in  Reduflion  of  Averdupois  weight 
there  are  certain  allowances  to  the  buyer,  which 
muft  be  dedufted  out  of  the  grofs  or  whole  weight 
and  package,  before  you  can  reduce  the  neat 
weight. 

Thefe  allowances  are  called  tare,  tret  and  chff. 

Tare  is  an  allowance  for  the  weight  of  the  box, 
bag,  isfc.  according  as  fhall  be  agreed  between 
buyer  and  feller. 

Tret  is  4.  lb.  in  104 /i.  for  wafte,  bfe.  in  fome 
kind  of  goods. 

C/o^,  is  I  2  lb.  on  ev3ry  draught  above  300  lb. 
weight,  allowed  only  to  the  citizens  of  London  on 
Sumac,  Argol,    fsV. 

Sometimes  there  happens  to  be  tare  and  tret  in 
the  fame  parcel  of  goods  ;  then  you  muft  dedu  ;t 
the  tare  firft,  and  the  remainder  is  termed  the  fubtle 
weight.     See  Reduction. 

Ohferve  once  for  all.  That  the  neat  weight  of 
any  goods  is  their  real  weight  after  all  allowances 
are  deduced. 

Addition  of  Avoirdupois  w^/j/;/. 

Here  note  alfo  that  T.  ftands  for  tons,  C.  for  hun- 
dred weight  ,qr.iov  quarters  of  hundred;  lb.  (ox  pound 
weight ;   o'z..  for  ounces  ;  dr.  for  drams. 


Example. 


ARITHMETICK. 


i^y 


Kx  AMPLE. 

Ton 

C. 

?'■• 

lb. 

C. 

qr. 

/^. 

02, 

»5 

H 

0 

24. 

154 

I 

19 

10 

57 

]6 

0 

25. 

275 

3 

19 

II 

42 

10 

I 

17 

476 

2 

10 

07 

96 

14 

2 

57 

3 

14 

08 

54 

''■7 

2 

J  8. 

45 

I 

10 

10 

59 

16 

3 

22. 

17 

2 

22 

11 

35 

14 

2 

^9- 

45 

3 

17 

09 

64 

17 

3 

25 

76 

2 

19 

14 

433     04     o     i3  I  1 150     I     23    00 

Let  it  be  required  to  add  up  the  fum  above,  ex- 
prefling  Tuns.  C.  qr.  and  Pounds.  Firft,  add  up  the 
pounds  by  making  a  ipeck  or  tittle  at  every  28  you 
find  in  the  place  of  pounds,  as  you  may  i'ee  in  the 
abovementioned  Example,  where  is  found  to  be  fix 
fpecks,  and  18/Z'.  over,  which  18  place  under  the 
denomination  of  pounds,  and  carry  6  to  the  quar- 
ters, and  add  them  up  they  make  74,  which  is  6  C. 
for  v/hich  put  a  (o)  under  the  place  of  qr.  and 
carry  6  C.  to  the  place  of  C.  Then  proceed  to  add 
up  your  C.  after  the  fame  manner  as  you  carry  from 
{hillings  to  pounds,  becaufe  20  C.  make  a  Ton. 
Laftly,  add  up  the  ions,  and  the  total  will  appear 
to  be  438  tuns,   4  C.  O  qr.  18  lb. 

The  pound  Avoirdupois,  containing  i5  ounces, 
is  equal  to  14  isz.  12  divt.  Troy-weight.  And  the 
pound  Troy-weight,  confifling  of  12  ounces,  is 
about  13  ounces,  2  drams  and  a  half  oi  Avoirdupois- 
weight. 

Wool  is  weighed  with  Avoirdupois  iveight,  but 
the  divillons  are  fomewhat  different.  For  in 
wool, 

7  Pounds  is  a  clove,  2  clove  is  a  fione,  2  flone 
is  a  todd,  6  todds  i  (tone,  or  13  fione  is  a  wey, 
2  weys  is  a  fack,    12  facks  is  a  laft  of  wool. 

Note,  That  according  to  the  foregoing  divifion 
182/A.  is  a  v/ey,  bv.t  in  Come  counties  tlie  wey  is 
256  /;  Avoirdupois,  as  in  Sttjfolk,  &c.  And  in  Ej- 
j'ex  there  is  '^^i^lb.   in  a  we)'. 


Example. 


Let  it  be  required  to  add  the  followmg  particu- 
lars together,  viz.  24.^1.  ^  oz,  6  dwi.  11  gr,. 
and  i64tb.  10  oz.  14/1.  w/.  i^  gr.  arid'S2ib.  j  oz. 
17  dwt.  20 gr.  and  8  fb.  11  oz.  iS  dwt.  ZZ gr. 

To  find  out  the  fum  of  thefe  given  quantities, 
place  them  one  under  another  orderly,  as  you  fee 
here,  and  draw  a  line  under  them. 


fe. 

oz. 

divt. 

K^- 

24 

09 

06 

II 

164 

10 

14 

18 

82 

07 

17 

20 

8 

1 1 

j8 

22 

281 

03 

17 

23 

Then  begin  with  the  denomination  of  grains, 
making  a  dot  with  a  pen  at  every  24,  (for  eafe) 
and  bear  the  overplus  to  the  next  above,  faying,  22 
and  20  is  42,  which  is  18  above  24,  wherefore 
make  a  dot  at  20,  and  carry  the  i  8  up  higher,  faying 
1 8  and  i  8  is  36,  which  is  i  2  above  24,  v/hcrefore 
make  a  mark  at  18,  and  carry  the  12  to  the  next 
above,  faying,  12  and  11  makes  23,  which  put 
under  the  line  in  its  proper  place,  and  obferve  how- 
many  dots  are  made  in  the  calling  up  this  deno- 
mination, which  you  11  find  to  be  2,  wherefore 
carry  2  to  the  next,  and  proceed  (as  in  the  Jljillings 
in  Addition  of  Money,  becaufe  you  carry  one  for 
every  20)  faying,  2  and  8  is  10,'  and  7  is  17,  and 
4  is  21,  and  6  is  27,  and  (then  down  again  with 
the  tens)  10  is  37,  and  10  is  47,  and  10  is  57 
penny- zveights,  which  is  2  oz.  1  ydwt.  whei-^efore  piK 
17  du,t.  in  its  place  under  the  line,  and  carry  the 
2  OZ.  faying,  2  that  i  carr/  and  r  is  3,  and  7  is 
10,  and  9  is  19,  and  10  is  29,  and  10  is  39  ounces, 
which  is  3//;.  353.  wherefore  put  the  3  o:,nies  in 
its  projjer  place  under  the  line,  and  carrj'  3  lb.  co 
the  pounds,  and  pr-oceed  to  finifb  the  work  as  is  be- 
fore di reded  ;  which  being  done,  you  will  find  the 
total  fum  to  be  281  lb.  ^  cz.^  \j  pw.  2^  gr.  as 
above. 


Addition  of  Troy  Weight  has  its  particular        Addition  of  Apothecaries  Weight,  is  pe.-- 
marks  and  denominations,  as  in  the  following  Table.  {  formed  nearly  the  fame  way  as  Troy  weight ;  only 

the  i'libdivificns  of  the  poiuid  are  diillicnt,  as  fol- 


The  Taele  of  Troy  Weight. 


24  Grains 
20  Penny  wt. 
12  Ounces 


f  sj  f  One  penny  vvt.     d-ut 
V   o  <  One  ounce 


C  One  pound 


oz. 
lb. 


Note,  This  weight  only  gives  five  fcore  to  the 
Jlundred. 


loweth,    viz^ 

Note,  That  20  grains  is  a  iciTiplc,  3  fcruples  is 
a  dram,  8  drams  is  an  ounce,  and  i  2  ounces  is  a 
pound  weight. 

The  marks  or  charr,t?.ers,  by  which  Apofheearie; 
weigiits  are  known,  arc  thefe,  viz.  For  pounds' 
{%),  ounces  (^)5  drams  (3),  fcruples  (y),  grains 

B  b  lU. 


1 88  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  (7;^^ Sciences. 


ft. 

% 

5 

9 

gr- 

76 

00 

2 

0 

15 

54 

10 

S 

2 

17 

68 

1 1 

7 

I 

12 

ft8 

04 

4 

I 

14 

16 

10 

0 

2 

18 

35 

06 

I 

0 

14 

280 

7 

6 

I 

10 

Addition  of  Liquid  Measure. 

Theleaft  denomination  in  Liquid  Meafure'is  a 
pint,  which  was  heretofore  deduced  from  a  pound 
''Troy-ivelght,  a  pound  of  wheat  Troy-vieight  making 
a  pint  liquid  rneafurc,  but  in  regard  of  thedifagree- 
ment  thereof  with  the  rules  of  folid  Geometry  in 
the  gauging  of  brewers  vefTels,  fome  taking  288 
folid  inches  for  a  gallon,  fome  286  is'c.  it  occa- 
fioned  a  difference  between  the  brewers  and  the 
managers  of  his  Majefty's  excife,  till  the  parlia- 
ment, taking  the  matter  into  confideration, ,  or- 
dained. That  282  folid  inches  fhould  make  the 
gallon  of  beer  meafure,  and  the  gallons  being  fubdi- 
vided  into  a  pottles,  each  pottle  into  2  quarts,  and 
each  quart  into  2  pints,  fo  that  the  pint  being  the 
eighth  part  of  a  gallon,  miift  contain  %%  folid  inches 
and  7  eight  parts  of  an  inch  for  JVine  Meafure,  and 
35  folid  inches,  and  a  quarter  for  Beer  Meafure. 

Wherefore  7iote,  That  35 1  folid  inches  make  a 
pint  of  Beer  Meafure,  2  pints  a  quart,  two  quarts 
a  pottle,  2  pottles,  or  282  folid  inches,  a  gallon, 
8  gallons  a  firkin  of  ale,  g  gallons  a  firkin  of  beer, 
2  firkins  a  kilderkin,  2  kilderkins  a  barrel,  i  f  a 
barrel,  or  54  gallons  a  hogftiead  of  beer. 

In  Wine  Measures. 
2  Pints  make  a  quart,  2  quarts  a  pottle,  2  pottles 
a  gallon,  42  gallons  a  tierce,  or  third  part  of 
a  pipe  or  butt,  63  gallons  a  hogfhead,  2  hog- 
fheads  a  pipe  or  butt,  ai.d  2  pipes  or  butts  a 
tun  of  wine. 

Note,  Honey  and    e/V  are  bought  arid  fold  by  this 
meafure. 


Example  c/Wine 

Measure 

r.  hhds 

gal.  pts. 

37 

3 

18 

5 

48 

2 

24 

0 

67 

I 

20 

6 

38 

2 

17 

7 

79 

0 

47 

3 

64 

I 

52 

4 

335 

3 

55 

I 

Addition  e/  Dry  Measure. 

The  leaft  denominative  part  of  Dry  Meafure  a 
pint,  which  is  taken  from  Troy  JVeight. 

With  thefe  are  meafured  all  dry  fuWlances,  as 
corn,  fait,  coal,fandt  iic.     The  table  followeth. 

In  Dry  Meafure,  Note,  That  2  pints  make  a  quart, 
2  quarts  a  pottle,  2  pottles  a  gallon,   2  gallorts  a 
peck,  4  pecks  a  bufliel  Land  Meafure ;  5  pecks  a 
hu^dlVater  Meafure;    8  bulhels  a  quarter  ;  4 
quarters  a  chaldcr,  and  5  quarters  a  wey. 
Note,  36  Bufliel  is  a  chaldron  of  fea-coal  in  London. 
Example  of  Dry  Measure. 
Chalds.qrs.  Bufl.upec. 
148     3     6     3 


375 

I  7 

2 

296 

2  4 

3 

J28 

I  5 

0 

91 
38 

0  5 
2  4 

2 
3 

1082 

I  2 

I 

Addition  5/ Long  Measure. 

Long  Meafure  \s  ongmzWy  deduced  from  a  bar- 
ley-corn taken  out  of  the  middle  of  the  ear  and 
well  dried,  from  v/hence  is  deduced  the  following 
table. 

3  Barley-corns  make  an  inch  ;  12  inches  a  foot ;  3 
feet  a  yard  ;  3  feet  g  inches,  or  a  yard  and  a 
quarter,  is  an  ell  Englifh  ;  6  feet  a  fathom,  5 
yards  and  a  half,  or  16  feet  and  an  half,  make 
one  (latute  pole,  or  perch  ;  40  poles  or  perches' 
make  a  furlong,  and  8  furlongs  make  an  Englifh 
mile. 

Example  ff/"LoNG  Measure. 
Miles     Fur.     Perch. 


48 

7 

24 

37 

3 

18 

65 

3 

28 

36 

5 

OD 

107 

I 

07 

205 

6 

17 

501 

3 

14 

Addition  c/^Cloth  Measure. 

4  Nails  or  9  inches  make  a  quarter  of  a  yard  ; 
3  quarters  of  a  yard  make  an  ell  Flemifh ;  4  quar- 
ters a  yard  Englifh  ;  5  quarters  of  a  yard,  or  45 
inches,  is  an  ell  Englifh, 

I  Ex- 


A  R  I    T  H  M  E   r  I  C  K. 


'1B9 


Examples  of  Ctom  Measure. 


Yds. 

qr. 

na. 

Ells 

?r. 

na. 

£//i  Fl 

<7r. 

na 

1.37 

.3 

3 

376 

2 

0 

184 

I 

2 

295 

I 

2 

37« 

3 

3 

357 

2 

I 

112 

2 

3 

742 

3 

1 

475 

2 

2 

21-; 

0 

I 

97 

2 

2 

251 

I 

0 

174 

I 

2 

84 

I 

2 

164 

0 

2 

764. 

3 

0 

68 

0 

3 

87 
1521 

I 

0 

3 

1700 

0 

3 

1747 

3 

3 

2 

Addition  c/Land  Measure. 

From  the  foregoing  table  o(  Long  Meafure,  is  alfo 
Supcrfcial  Meajure  deduced;  that  of  Land  Mea- 
J'urehting  as  follows,  viz. 

In  Land  Meajure,  40  fquare  /kjiVj  or  perches  make  a 
rafl^,  and  4  roods  make  an  ^rr^. 

Example  ij/"Land  Measure. 
^a-.      i?(!5(3^     Pfr. 


120 

2 

34 

275 

3 

14 

I&2 

I 

35 

98 

2 

20 

47 

3 

30 

64 

I 

15 

769 

3 

28 

Addition  e/"TiME, 

The  denominative  parts  of  time  are  originally 
•deduced  from  the  fun's  motion  in  the  heavens, 
which  is  carried  round  the  fame  from  eaji  to  weji, 
by  the  rapid  motion  of  the  primum  mobile,  in  one 
day  natural,  .which  day  is  divided  into  24  fuppofed 
equal  parts,  called  hours,  and  each  hour  is  fubdi- 
vided  into  60  minutes,  l3c.  whence  a'rifeth  the  fol- 
lowing table. 

60  Minutes  make  an  hour,  24  hours  make  a  natu- 
ral day,  7  days  make  a  week,  4  weeks  make  a 
month  confifting  of  28  days,  1 3  months,  one 
day  and  fix  hours  make  a  year. 

JVij/i",  That  tae  minute  is  ufually  fubdivided  into  60 
feconds,  and  each  lecond  into  60  thirds,  ijic. 

The  tropical yezr,  or  the  time  the  fun  leaves  the 
tropick,  ti'l  the  time  it  returns  to  it  again,  by  the 
obfervations  of  the  mofl:  accurate  Ajhommers,  is 
found  to  coniift  of,  365  dap,  5  hours,  49  minutes, 
if  feconds,  and  21  thirds. 


Example, 


10 

13 

4 

7 

24 

60 

Ys. 

Mo. 

W. 

D. 

H. 

Min 

3'9 

3 

2 

6 

12 

H 

298 

7 

I 

5 

12 

20 

487 

9 

3 

4 

12 

30 

402 

I 

2 

3 

10 

0 

320 

2 

I 

0 

6 

7 

376 

7 

2 

4 

8 

3 

278 

I 

0 

0 

0 

0 

172 

8 

3 

5 

0 

0 

100 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2755 


31    14 


Of   SUBTRACTION. 

Subtraction  teacheth  to  take  &  kjfer  7imnhcr 
from  a  greater,  or  an  equal  from  an  equal ;  whereby 
we  difcover  the  remainder,  excefs,  or  difference. 

If  the  numbers  given  be  integers,  that  is,  con- 
fifiing  of  one  denomination,  then  place  the  bigocji 
number  uppermoji,  and  the  leffer  \i\  order  under  it, 
viz..  units  under  units,  tens  under  tens,  hunareds 
under  hundreds,  isfc.  And  draw  a  line  under  them, 
as  in  Addition. 

Then  begin  at  the  place  oi  units,  taking  the 
lowermoft  figure  out  of  the  uppermoft,  and  place 
the  remainder  under  the  line  ;  then  proceed  to  the 
place  of  tens,  and  do  in  the  fame  manner  ;  and  then 
to  the  place  ofhundredSf  kc.  till  the  whole  work  be 
finiflied.  The  number  under  the  faid  line  fhall  bt 
the  remainder  or  difference. 

Example. 
Let  it  be  required  to  find  the  difference  between 
48  and  16  ?     Place  them  thus. 
From .  48 

Take  16 

Remains        32 

Firfl,  put  down  the  bigge/l  number  48,  and  place 
1 6  the  Iffer  number  und'.;r  it,  and  under  both  draw 
a  line  ;  then  begin  at  the  place  of  units,  faying, 
6  out  of  8  and  there  remains  2,  which  place  under 
the  line  and  proceed  to  the  next  place,  iaying,  i 
from  4  and  there  remains  3,  v/hich  likewife  place 
under  the  line,  and  the  work  is  finiflied.  So  that 
the  remainder  or  difference  between  48  and  16  is  32, 
as  you  may  fee  by  the  work  above. 

But  if  the  particular  :figure,  which  you  are  to 
fubtra5i,  be  ^ri-ato- than  the  figure,  tf2</«/'which  it 
is  to  he  fubtraSIcd,  then  you  are  to  borrow  10,  and 
add  it  to  the  uppermoft  figure,  and  then  fiibtraif 
the  faid  fowermofl:  figure  from  their  fum,  and  place 
the  remainder  underneath  the  line,    and  for  that 

B  b  2  which 


1^0  Tloe  Universal  Hlftory  of  Arts  a?id  Sciengcs. 


which  youliorrow,  add  i  to  the  next  figure  in  the 
low'«mio{l  line,  and  proceed.  Let  this  be  repeated 
as  often  as  there  is  occafion. 

E    X    A    M    p    I,    E, 

Let  it  be  roqiiircd  to  riibtrni.1:  3S72  from  43758. 

4375^ 
3«7^ 


39886 

The  gii-cn  numbers  being  placed,  and  a  linedrawii 

under  them,    as  is  before  directed,  begin   at   the 

right  hand,  faying,  2  from  8,  and  there  remains  6, 

which  fet  under  the  line,  and  proceed,  faying    7 

frdni  5  r  cannot,  but  7  from  15,  and  there  remains 

S,  which  [  u;  under  the  ]jnc,  and  proceed  to   the 

n.'xt,  faying,  i  that  f  borrowed  an  J  8  is  g,  9  from  7 

J c.nnot,   but  9  fioni    17   and   there   remains    8, 

which  put  under  the  line,  and  proceed  to  the  next 

figure,  faying,  i  tiiat  [borrowed  and  3 is  4.  4  from 3 

I  cannot,  but  4   from    13  and  there    remains    9, 

which  put  under  the  line  ;  now,  becaufe  there  is 

no  figure  Itanding  under  the  4,  I  therefore  fuppofe 

a  (o)  to  be  placed  there,  and  becaufe   I   borrowed 

I  at  the  lad  figure,  therefore  I  pay  it  here  by  fub- 

traiting  it  out  of  the  4,  faying,   i  that  I  borrowed 

out  of  4  and  there  remains  3,  which   put  under 

the  line,  and  the  work  in  finiflied.    and  you  will 

.find  (after  the  work  of  Suhtrailion  is  ended;  the  7-e- 

ma'indcy  to  be  39886. 

For  proof  of  SubtraSlion,  add  the  reft,  or  ranahi- 
dcr,  to  the  number  fubtracted,  and  if  the  fum'  be 
equal  to  the  uppcrmoft  number,  [being  the  number 
from  zvhence  Subira^iionis  /fhide)  your  work  is  true, 

otherwife  falfe. 

Subtraction  c/'Monev. 

If  the  given  number  confifl  of  divers  denomina- 
tions, fuch  as  money,  weight.,  meafure,  time,  Sic. 
then  you  are  to  place  the  lefler  number  under  the 
greater  in  fuch  fort,  that  each  denomination  may 
fland  under  his  correfpondent  name,  as  has  been 
direfled  in  Addition  ;  and  draw  a  line  under  them. 

Then  proceed  to  fuhtrail  the  undermoft  from 
the  uppermoft,  beginning  at  the  laji  denomination, 
and  proceeding  gradually  towards  the  left  hand, 
fitting  the  remainder  of  each  denomination  under  the 
line,  until  the  whole  be  finiflied. 

Example. 

Let  it  be  required  to  fubtrafl  129/.  7  i.  4«/i 
from  250/.  13;.  lod-l.  Firll  place  them  down, 
the  leffer  under  the  greater,  and  draw  a  line  under 
them. 

t 


/.       s.      d.f. 
250     13     10 t 

129       7       4  I 

121       6       bk 

Then  begin  at  the  right  hand,  faying,  \  farthing 
from  -i^  farthings,  and  there  remains  2,  which  put 
under  the  line  in  the  place  of  farthings,  and  pro- 
ceed to  the  denomination  of /i«»ii\^,  faying,  4  from 
10  and  there  remain  6,  which  put  under  the  line  in 
the  place  oi pence,  and  then  go  to  the  denomina- 
tion oifliillings,  faying,  7  from  13,  and  there  reft  6, 
which  put  under  the  line  in  the  place  oi jhillings, 
and  then  proceed  to  finifti  the  work,  as  dire<Si:ed  a- 
bove  ;  which  being  ended,  we  find  the  remainder 
to  be   111  I.  6  s.  6  d\,  as  in  the  example. 

But  if  thelowermoft  number  in  any  of  the  deno- 
minations chance  to  be  greater  than  the  uppermoft, 
you  muft  in  fach  cafe  borrow  an  unit  from  the 
next  greater  denomination,  fubtrafting  the  lowcrmoft 
number  therefrom,  and  adding  the  remainder  to 
the  faid  uppermoft  number,  and  place  that  fum  un- 
der the  line,  and  then  proceed,  adding  one  to  the 
next  lowermoft  number  to  the  left  hand  for  that 
you  borrowed,  Jifc. 


Example. 

Let  it  be  required  to  fubtracl  178/.  1 5  J.  ()d.  i 
from  348/.  125.  ydi 

I.       s.       d. 
348      12     07  i 
178     15     09  I 


j,   which  add  to  7  pence,  and  that  makes  10 
t,  wherefore  put  10  pence  under  the  line,  and 


169      16      10  \ 

Firft,  place  them  dov/n  in  order,  and  draw  a 
line  under  them.  Then  begin  at  the  right  hand 
with  the  denominations  01  farthings,  faying,  i  from 
3,  and  there  remains  2,  which  put  under  the  line, 
and  proceed  to  the  denomination  of  pence,  faying, 
9  pence  out  of  7  I  cannot,  but  borrowing  i  from 
the  next  denomination,  which  is  JhilUngs,  and 
makes  12  pence,  fay,  9  from  12,  and  there  re- 
main 
pence 

proceed  to  the  next  denomination  which  is  JhilUngs, 
and  fay,  i  that  I  borrowed,  and  15  is  16,  from  12 
I  cannot,  but  (borrowing  i  pound  from  the  next 
denomination,  which  is  20  fiiUings)  16  from  20, 
and  there  remains  4,  which  added  to  the  faid  12, 
makes  16  fhillings,  which  fet  down  under  the  line, 
arid  proceed  to  the  pounds,  faying,  i  that  I  bor- 
rowed and  8  is  9,  9  from  8  I  cannot,  butg  from  18, 
cifc.  And  the  work  being  finiflied,  we  find  the 
remainder  tobei6g/.  i6.r.  10^  f,  as  appears  by  the 
work  above. 

The 


ARITHMETICK. 


The  Proof. 


/. 

348 
178 


s. 

12 
15 


d.f. 

9  5 


169 

16 

10  1 

348 

12 

li 

From 
Subtr. 

Remain 

Proof 


In  this  exajnple  the  remainder  is  found  to  be 
169/.  i6j.  iod.\^,  which  laddto  178/.  15J.  qdl 
(this  number  bemg  fubtradted,)  and  the  fum  is 
3^8/.  12  f.  7d.  J,  which  is  equal  to  the  uppermoft 
of  the  given  numbers,  wherefore  the  fubtraction  is 
truly  wrought. 


Received    29  5 


Examples  for  PraStice. 
I.       s.    d.f.  I. 


s. 
II 


d.f 


Paid 

107  14 

92 

Reft 

187  16 

51 

Proof 

295  II 

3i 

Debtor 
Creditor 

100  00 
75  00 

00 
9 

Balance 

24  19 

3 

Proof 

100  00 

00 

Received 
Difburft 

loio  10 
942  13 

10 

Reft 

67   16 

10  f 

425  00  05  t 
107  II  08  I 


317 

08 

09  1 

425 

00 

osf 

1072 

107 

01 
16 

05 
10  f 

964 

04 

06  i 

1072 

01 

05 

100 

47 

00 
00 

091 
10 

52 

19 

iif 

100  00  09  I 


If  a  fum  be  lent,  and  payment  thereof  made  at 
feveral  times  in  part,  and  you  would  know  how 
much  remains  due,  in  this  cafe  you  muft  add  the 
feveral  payments  into  one  fum,  and  fubtraft  that 
fum  from  the  fum  lent,  and  the  remainder  will 
{hew  how  much  is  due. 


191 


Example 

/.      s.    df. 
Borrowed  3475  10  05 


r  358  14  07  i 

524  07   ri  i 

Paid  at  I    294   16  09 

feveral-^    344   10  08  f 

times        365    15   ro  5 

I   795  15  07  i 
L  462   14  08 


Paid  in  all  3146 

16  02  ? 

Refts  due      328 

14  02  4 

Proof          3475 

10  05 

Borrowed  3475 


Lent 

Received  at 
feveral 
times. 

Received  in  all 
Remains  due 


s.     df. 
10     5 


358 
Paid  at  >  514 
feveral  tr  "^ 
times,        '  -^  ''■ 


f  35 

id  at    S  f 
eral     tr      " 

I  3-tf 

/  365 

^    702 


H  7  £ 

7  II  i 

16  9 

10  8  I 

15  lOi 

5  6i 


Paid  in  all  2670 
Refts  due  804 
Proof 


12  3I 


18 


I  t 


3475  10  5 


/. 

I. 

d. 

572 

II 

5 

154 

9 

7i 

95 

10 

7 

6 

14 

5^ 

72 

II 

4 

i5 

17 

2 

9 

14 

Hi 

146 

17 

9 

502  15  10  i 
69  15  6i 
572  II  5 

/.  s,     df, 

4768  17  10  I 

•347  14  7  i 

,785  II  Hi 

128  15  9  1 
420  16  5 


^124 

00 

2 

i 

1806 

18 

II 

s 
* 

2961 

18 

11 

4620 

s. 

00 

d 

00 

/ 

409 

9 

10 

276 

IS 

7f 

195 

13 

II  i 

167 

19 

10  r 

984 

19 

5* 

215 

7 

b 

2250  6  2 1 

2369  13  9  I 
4620  00  00 


Sub- 


192  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  0/  Arts  <7«^  Sciences. 

Subtraction  «/'Averdupois  IVeight. 

A  Salter  buys  45  ton,  6  C.  i  qr.  12  ft.  of  logwood, 
of  which  he  fold  19  ton,  14  C.  I  qr.  18  ft. 

I  difpofe  the  given  numbers  according  to  the 
direftions  already  given,  drawing  a  line  under  them, 
as  you  fee  in  the 


E 

XAMPLE. 

Ton 

c. 

qr. 

ft. 

45 

7 

I 

12 

19 

14 

I 

18 

25 

12 

3 

22 

Then  begin  at  the  right  hand,  which  is  poun 
weight,  faying,  18  out  of  12  I  cannot,  but  18  ou' 
28  (borrowing  a  qr.  of  a  C.  (which  is  28  ft-)  and 
and  there  remains  10,  to  which  add  the  12ft,  it 
rtiakes  22ft,  which  place  under  the  ft,  and  carry 
I  to  the  qrs,  and  fay,  \  that  I  borrowed  and  i  is 
2,  now  2  qrs.  out  of  i  I  cannot,  but  2  out  of  4 
qrs,  (which  is  C.  weight)  there  remain  2,  to  which 
add  the  i  qr,  it  makes  3,  which  place  under  the 
qrs.  and  proceed  to  the  C.  and  fay,  I  that  I  bor- 
rowed and  14  C  is  15  C.  now  15  C.  out  of  7  CI 
cannot,  but  15  C  out  of  20  C  (which  is  i  ton) 
there  remains  5,  to  which  add  the  7  C.  it  makes  12 
6'.  which  place  under  the  C.and  proceed  to  the  tons, 
and  fay,  i  that  I  carried  and  9  is  1 0,  I  c  out  of  5  1 
cannot,  but  out  of  15,  reft  5,  and  carry  I,  and  fay, 
I  that  I  carry  and  i  is  2,  2  out  of  4,  and  there  re- 
mains 2,  and  the  wdrk  is  finifhed,  and  we  find  the 
ranaindsr  or  difference  to  be  25  ton  12  C.  ^  qrs. 
2Jft. 

! 

A:fore  ei-tiHiples  fpr  the  learners  to  praSiife. 
Ton     C-     gr.   ft.        C.     qr.     ft. 


Bought 
Sold^ 

T07 
_94 

12 

10 

17 

1,2 

2 
3 

2 

5 
10 

-23 

74 
19 



54 

0 

I 

^5 
11 

Reft  • 

3 

04 

Proof 

J  07 

ID 

2 

05 

74 

0 

15 

J^' 


If  feveral  quantities  of  grofs  weight  be  given,  out 
of  which  you  would  fubtracl  the  tare,  in  fuch  a 
cafe  add  the  grofs  weight  into  one  total  :  and  add 
the  tare  likewife  into  one  total.  Then  fubtract 
the  total  of  the  tare  from  the  total  of  the  grofs,  the 
remainder  is  neat  weight. 


A  Merchant  fel 

a 

t^o.     I  Gr.    14 

Example. 

Is  6  hog/heads  «/" Sugar,  viz, 
qr.    ft.                         C.  qr.    ft. 
2     JO          Tare      i     3       5 

1  19                       205 

2  14                       2     I     10 

1  10                       2     I     16 

2  17                        2     I      12 
I     22                        I     3     22 

3 

— 16 

—17 
—18 

—14 
89 
12 

4 

5 

6 

Grofs 
Tare 
Reft  neat 

Sv 

Bought 
Sold 

Reft 

Proof 

Bought 
Sold 

Reft 

Proof 

0     c8 
3     14 

Tare    12     3     14 

76 

0     22 

ETRACTION  of  T ROY  Weight. 

ez.     dwt.  gr.              oz.     dwt.  gr. 

115       7       5           966     II       6 

94       3     10           149     14     11 

21 

3     19 
7       5 

816     16     19 
976     II       6 

ft. 

375 
196 

178 

oz     dwt. 

5  13 
10      17 

6  16 

ft.  oz.  diut.   gr. 
194     5       9      16 

95     7      14     ^^ 
98     7      14     22 

375 

5     13 

194     5  ■    9     16 

I  might  proceed  to  give  examples  in  SuhtraSfian 
of  Liquid  Rleafure,  Dry  Aleafure,  Long  Jldcaflirc, 
Apothecaries  TFeight,  Time,  Motion,  &c.  but  there 
being  no  more  difFerence  between  the  working  of 
thefc  and  thofe  examples,  than  only  obferving  the 
tables  of  each,  therefore  I  forbear ;  this  bejng  fuf- 
ficient  for  the  meaneft  capacity. 

Of  Multiplication. 

In  Multiplication  there  are  always  two  numbers 
given  to  find  out  a  third,  which  fhall  contain  either 
of  the  given  numbers,  as  many  times,  as  the  other 
containeth  a  unit. 

Of  the  two  numbers  given,  the  one  is  called  the 
TAulti;licand,  and  the  other  is  called  the  Alultiplier, 
and  the  number  found  out  by  the  operation  is 
called  the  ProduSi. 

The  Multiplicand  is  the  number  given  to 
be  multiplied,  and  is  ufually,  for  order's  fake,  the 
liggeft  of  the  two  given  numbers. 

The 


ARITHMETIC    K. 


193 


The  Multiplier  is  that,  by  which  the  Mul- 
tiplicand is  multiplied,  and  is  ufually  the  leaji 
number. 

The  Product  is  the  number  produced  by  the 
Multiplication,  and  it  containeth  the  Multiplier  as 
many  times,  as  the  Multiplicand  containeth  units  : 
or  it  containeth  the  Multiplicand,  as  often  as  the 
Adultiplicr  containeth  units. 

Mu'tipUcation  is  either /impk  or  compound. 

S'»ipU  Multi['Ucation  is  wlien  the  MultipHcand, 
and  the  Alultiplier,  do  each  of  them  confift  of  one 
Jingle  figure  only;  as  if  it  were  required  to  multiply 
4  by  3,  5  by  2,  9  by  7  ;  here  3  times  4  is  1 2,  and 
2  times  5  is  10,  and  7  times  9  is  63;  now  12. 
10,  and  63,  are  the  ProduSis  of  each  A'jultiplication. 

All  the  variety  of  Sitnple  Multiplication  is  con- 
tained in  the  following  table,  which  muft  be  learned 
by  heart,  before  the  learner  can  make  any  further 
progrefs. 


Multiplication   Table. 


3 

4 
5 
6 
Z  times  -^  7 
8 


21s    4 


6 
3 

10 

12 

14 
16 
9     iS 
10     20 


5  times   J 


r   5  is  25 

6  30 

7  35 

8  40 

9  45 
10     50 


II 
V.12 


55 
60 


II 


22 


,^12     24 


r    6  is  36 

!    7    42 


3  times  <^ 


r   3is  9 

4 

12 

5 

15 

6 

18 

^  7 

21 

^  8 

24 

9 

27 

10 

30 

II 

33 

i^I2 

36 

6  times   «^     g 


48 

54 
j  10  60 
I  II  66 
L12     72 


r  7  is  49 

I     8     56 

7  times  -^     9     ^3 


'"  4is  16 

5  20 

6  24 

7  28 
4  times  «^    8  32 

9  36 

10  40 

11  44 

12  48 


I  10     70 

I" 

Li2 

r 


77 
84 


8  times 


8  is  64 

J    9  72 

S  10  80 

I  II  88 

(_  12  96 


9  times 


{9138 
10  9 
11  9 
12  II 


91381 
90 

99 
8 


Compound  Multiplication  is  when  the  Multipli- 
cand., or  Multiplier,  or  both  of  them,  do  confifl  of 
compound  number:,  that  is,  of  more  figures  or 
places  than  one. 

As  if  it  were  required  to  multiply  324  by  2, 
here  the  Alultiplicand  is  324,  which  confifteth  of 
3  places,  and  the  Multipl  er  is  2. 

Wlien  it  is  required  to  multiply  one  number  by 
another,  firft  let  down  the  biggeft  number  for  the 
Multiplicand,  and  under  that  the  AlultipUer  in  fuch 
orderas  has  been  taught  \n  Addition  and  Suhtrailion, 
viz.  units  under  units,  tens  under  tens,  &c.  and 
and  draw  a  line  under  them. 

Ex  AMPLE. 

To  multiply  324  by  2,  fet  them  dovi'n  thus. 
The  Multiplicand  324 
The  Multiplier  2 

Then  I  begin  with  the  place  of  units,  faying,  2 
times  4  is  8,  which  I  put  under  the  line  ;  then  2 
times  2  is  4,  which  I  alfo  put  under  the  line,  and 
2  times  3  is  6,  which  I  alfo  put  under  the  line^ 
and  the  work  is  fmiflied  ;  fo  that  I  find  325  being 
multiplied  by  2,  produccth  648,  as  by  the  follow- 
ing work. 

The  Multiplicand  324 
The  Multiplier  2 


The  Producl 


648 


When  the  Produff  of  any  fingle  figure  amount^ 
to  10,  or  a  certain  number  of /^«',  then  you  are  to 
fet  down  a  cypher,  and  carry  a  unit  for  every  ten  to 
the  ProduSl  of  the  ne.\£  figure  ;  or  if  it  comes  to 
above  10,  or  any  number  of /c«j-,  then  fet  down  the 
excefs,  and  carry  an  unit  for  every  ten,  &:c.  as  in 

E  X  A  M  PL  E. 

Let  it  be  required  to  tnultiply  785641  ly  $■>  'et  it 
down  thus  : 

785641 
5 

3928205 

The  number  being  fet  down,  begin,  ftying  5 
times  I  is  5,  which  put  under  the  line,  and  pro- 
ceed, faying,  5  times  4  is  20,  whereof  put  down 
O,  and  carry  2  for  the  two  tens  to  the  next,  faying, 
5  times  6  is  30,  and  2  that  I  carried  is  32,  where- 
of put  down  2,  and  carry  3  for  the  three  tens  to  the 
next  figure,  faying,  5  times  5  is  25,  and  3  that  I 
carried  is  28,  wherefore  put  down  8,  and  carry  2  to " 
the  next,  faying,  5  times  8  is  40,  and  2  that  I 
carry  is  42,  fo  put  down  2,  and  carry  4  to  the  next 
figure,  faying,  5  times  7  is  35,  and  4  that  I  carry 

is 


l^he  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


J94 

is  39,  V.  liich  being  the  laft  figure,  put  down  39  uii-  I 
der  the  line,  and  fo  the  work  is  i'lniihcd,    and  we 
find  that  785641  being  multiplied  by  5,  the  Produa 
is  3928205,  as  appcare  by  the  whole  work  above. 

Here,  note,  that  Mnltipllcaiion  is  o  compendious 
ferforniance  of  Addition  ;   for  in  the  laft  example,  if 

inttead  of  multiplying  785641  by  5,  we  had  put 
down  the  Multiplicand  5  times  in  order  one  under 
the  other,  and  added  them  altogether,  then  the fum 
v(  them  would  amount,  to  the  Produ'i  that  was 
found  by  the  foregoing  work  of  Midtipllciitien^  as 

appears  by  the  work. 

785641 
785641 
785641 
785641 
785641 


3928205 


they  (land,  and  ihzfum  is  2150638,  which  istiie 
true  Prodiiit'^i  iifb-f^l  being  multiplied  by  46,  that 
is,  46  times  46753,  is  2150638,  and  is  equal  to 
the  fiim  of  46753,  being  fet  46  times  one  under 
another,  and  aided  together,  bee  the  whole  work 
of  Multiplication  above. 

A  general  rule  in  Multiplication  is   chiejly  to  »i- 

fc'Vc,  that   in  wiiatfoever  place  the  fgwe  of  the 

Multiplier  (vv'liether  a  cypher  or  cyphers)  ftand  from 

the  place  of  units,  in  the  fame  place  muft  the  firft 

\  figure  of  that  Multiplication  be  fet  from  the  unit  of 

1  the  Multiplicand. 

I  And  fince  the  greateft  difficulty  in  Multiplica- 
tion ariies  from  having  a  cypher  or  cyphers  in  the 
Alultijlier,  I  fliall  endeavour  to  make  it  plain  and 
eafy  by  the  following  examples. 

Example  I. 

Where  there  is  one  or  more  cyphers  in  the  Mul- 
tiplier hetwixtfignifcant  figures. 


When  the  Multiplier  confifts  of  divers  places-,  j 
then  muft  there  be  as  trnny  particular  Produces  as 
there  are  places  therein  ;  and  for  the  true  placing  of 
each  Produil,  obferve  to  put  the  firft  figure  or 
phce  of  units  under  its  proper  Mnliiplier,  and  when 
you  have  done,  draw  a  line  under  the  whole  work, 
and  add  the  feveral  ProduEls  together,  and  their 
fum  will  be  the  total  ProduSi  required. 

Example. 
Let  it  be  required  to  multiply  46753  ^J'  461; 

46753 
46 


8465008 
4006 

45793 
507 

5079004 

33860032008 
33910822048 

320551 
2289650 

23217051 

280518 

187012 
2150638 


Having    placed 
order,    and  drawn 


the   given    numbers    thus    in 
a   line  under  them,  begin  to 
multiply  with  the  6,  faying,  6  times  3  is  18,  where- 
fore put  down  8    umier  the   line,  and  carry    I  to; 
the  next,  faying  6  times  5  is  30,  and  I  that  I  carry 
1531,  ^c.  fo   that  <i\\t  PraduH  hy  6   is   280518. 
Tnen  begin  with  the  4,  faying  4.  times  3  is   12, 
wherefore^  put  down  2  (under  the  line,  and  under 
the  figure  4,  by  which  multiply)  and   carry    I    for 
cHe  ten  to  th'e  next,  faying  4  times  5  is  20,  and  1 
that  I  carry  is  21  ;  whereof  fet  down  i,  and  carry 
2  to  the  next,  Is'e.  and  we  find  the  fingle  Produa 
by  4  to  be  187012,  and   fo   the   Multiplication  is 
coded  :  then  draw  a  line  under  thefe  two  particular 
Produiis,  and  add  them  together,  in  die  order  as 


In  the  firft  example,  you  fee  that  the  cyphers  are- 
put  at  the  fame  diftance  from  the  unit  of  the  M'd- 
tiplicand  that  they  ftand  in  from  the  unit  of  the 
Muliptier ;  as  4,  the  fourth  figure  of  the  Multi- 
plier (the  firft  figure  in  that  Multiplicand,  which 
is  2)  is  fet  in  the  fourth  jilace  from  the  unit  of  the 
Multiplicand. 

Example  IL 

Where  the  Multiplier  hath  one  or  more  cyphers 
to  the  right  hand  thereof. 


54673s 
4620 


IC934700 
3280410 
2186940 

2525915700 


7645932 
4»ooo. 

61167456 
30583728 

36700S436000 


Or.  You  may  midtiply  by  the  fjnif cant  figures, 
negle(5ling  the  cyphers  (as  in  ths  fecond  {um,)  as. 
if  there  were  none,  only  to  the  produdl  annex,  as. 
many  cyphers  as  there  were  cyphers  in  the  Multi- 
plier,. 
I  Example 


ARITHMEriCK- 


95 


Example  III.  ,  12  times  5  is  60,  and  9  I  carry  is  69,  put  down  9, 

Where   the   Multiplicand  and  Multiplier  have    and  carry  6,  and  io  proceed  till  you  have  gone 


each  of  them  cyphers  at  the  right  hand. 

58400  438700 

760  67000 


3504000 
408800 


30709 
26322 


44384000  29392900000 

Or,  you  may  negled  the  cyphers,  (as  in  the  fe- 
cond  fum)  only  to  the  Produ6i  aiuiex  as  many  cy- 
phers as  there  were  ciphers  to  the  right  hand  of  the 
Aiultipticand  and  Multiplier. 

When  the  Multiplier  confifts  of  an  unit  in  the 
higheft  place  towards  the  left  hand,  and  all  the  reft 
fy^/icTj  towards  the  light  hand,  ?s  10,  100,  1000, 
bfc.  then  is  the  whole  work  performed  by  annexing 
the  cyphers  of  the  Multiplier  to  the  figures  of  the 
Multipiicartd  i  as 

Examples. 

6507      &507    6507 
1000      100      10 


6507000 


65070 


650700 
It  is  neceflary  for  all  fuch  as  would  be  dextrous 
and  ready  at  Arithmetick  to  learn  to  multiplv^  by 
theie  compmnd  numbers  following,  very  readily  at 
one  operation,  viz, 

Exa.  Mult.     5749*" 7 
by  1 1 


makes  6324637 


Mult, 
by 


842958 
12 


345876 
1 10 


Produft       38046360 


7504675 
12 

90056100 


makes 

loi 15496 

859427 
120 

makes 

103131240 

3217295 
12 

through  your  fum. 

To  multiply  any  number,   by  no,  or  120,  put 
down  a  cypher,  and  multiiiiv  as  before. 


Multiply 
by 


425760 
12000 


Prod  \x(\.    5 1 09 1 20000 


l\illltiply 
by 


543:60 
i2C'Q 


Produ(£l   652512000 


39607540 
Here  574967  is  multiplied  by  i  r  ;  thus  1 1  times 

7  's  77'  put  down  7,  and  carry  7,  and  then  11 
times  6  is  66,  and  7  I  carry  rs  73,  put  down  3, 
and  carry  7,  then  11  times  9  is  99,  and  7  I  carry 
is  106,  put  down  6,  and  carry  10;  then  n  times 
4  is  44,  and  10  I  carry  is  54,  put  down  4  and 
carry  5;  then  11  times  7  is  77,  and  5  is  82,  put 
down  ?.,  and  carr)'  8  ,  then  1 1  times  5  k  55,  and 

8  I  carry  is  63  j  which  put  down,  the  Prc.du£l  of 
574967  multiplied  by  1 1  is  found  to  be  6324637. 

In  like  manner  to  multiply  842958  by  12,  fay, 
J  2  times  8  is  96,  put  down  6,  and  carry  9,  then 

1  X*. 


There  are  alfo  fome  ahhrcviations  in   this  Art. 

Thus,    to  multiply  a  number  by  5,  you  need 

only  r.dd   a  cypher  to  it,   and  then  halve  it. 

To  multiply  by   15  do  the  fame,    then  add  both 
together,  the  fum  is  the  produdf. 

life  of  Neper'i  koniS  in  Multiplication.  To  mul- 
tiply any  given  number  by  another  ;  difpofe  the 
lamdle  in  fuch  manner,  as  that  the  top  figures  may 
exhibit  the  multiplicand  ;  and  to  thele  on  the  left- 
hand,  join  xhzlamslU  of  units;  in  which  feek  the 
right  hand  figure  of  the  multiplicator  ;  and  the 
numbers  corrciponding  thereto,  in  the  f  ^uares  of 
the  other  lamellce,  write  out,  by  adding  the  fever;U 
numbers  occurring  in  the  fame  rhomb  together,  and 
theirfums.  After  the  fame  manner  write  out  the 
numbers  correfpcnding  to  the  other  figures  of  the 
multiplicator,  let  them  be  difpofed  under  one  an- 
other, as.  jrj  the  comnio/i  Multiplic.ition  :  And 
lallly  add  the  feveral  numbers  into  one  fum.  For 
ex;imp!e  ;''''' 

Suppofe  tb^'multiplicand  5978,  and  the  multi- 
plicator 937,'  from  the  outermoft  triangle  on  the 
right-hand,  which  corrcfpond  to  the  right-hand 
figure  of  the  mul:ipJicator  7,  write  out  the  figure 
6,  placing  it  under!  In  the  next  rhomb  towards 
the  left,  add  9  and  5  ;  their  fum  being  14,  write 
the  right-hand  figure,  viz.  4  againft  6  ;  carrying 
the  left-hand  figure  i,  to  4  and  3,  which  are  found 
in  the  next  rhomb.  The  fum  8  join  to  46  already 
put  down  ;  after  the  fame  manner  in  the  laft  rhomb, 
add  6  and  5,  the  latter  figure  of  the  fum  1 1,  put 
down  as  before,  and  carry  i  to  the  3  found  in  the 
left  hand  triangle  ;  the  fum  4  join  as  before  on  the 
left  of  1846:  Thus  will  you'have  the  fad  urn  of 
7  '"to  5978  ;  and  after  the  fame  manner  will  yoa 
have  the  factum  of  the  multiplicand,  into  the  other 
figures  of  the  multiplicator.  The  whole  added  to- 
gether, gives  die  whole  produit. 
5978 


41846 

17934 
53802 

5601386 


Cc 


The 


196  1h  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^«af  Sciences. 


The  pronf  of  Miilt'ipl'icottm  can  only  be  made 
pxa£lly  by  Addition  ;  and  therefore  fhall  defer 
fliewing  the  manner  of  doing  it  till  we  come  to 
that  Rule. 

Of  Division. 

Divifion  teacheth  to  divide  any  number  into  as 
many  equal  parts  as  you  pleafe  :  Or, 

It  is  that  by  which  we  difcovcr  how  often  one 
number  is  contained  in  another. 

In  Dlvljlon  there  are  always  three  numbers  cer- 
tain^ and  a  fourth  accidental. 

Of  the  three  numbers  certain,  two  are  always 
given  to  find  out  a  third,  Wz.  The  one  of  the 
numbers  given  is  to  be  divided-,  the  other  number 
given,  is  that  by  which  the  firft  is  divided,  and  the 
number  found  out  is  the  quotient,  and  difcovers  how 
often  the  one  number  is  contained  in  the  other. 

7^hcrefore  in  this  rule  are  three  remarkable  num- 
bers, viz.  "The  dividend,  the  dlvljh;  and  the  quotient. 
The  Dividend  is  the  number  given  to  be  di- 
vided into  equal. parts. 

The  Divisor  is  the  number  given  by  which  the 
dividend  is  to  be  divided,  which  declareth  into  how 
many  equal  parts  the  dividend  is  to  be  divided. 

The  Quotient  is  the  number  obtained  by  the 
operation,  and  fliews  how  often  the  divij'or  is  con- 
tained in  the  dividend. 

And  the  remainder  is  the  number  which  remains 
after  the  dlvlfton  is  ended,  which  is  uncertain,  or 
the  fourth  accidental  number  mentioned  before. 

As,  fuppofe  15  were  given  to  be  divided  by  3, 
or  15  fhillings  to  be  divided  amongft  3  men,  here 
15  is  the  dividend,  3  is  the  divij'or,  and  5  is  the 
quotient  ;  for  3  is  contained  in  15  juft  5  times, 
without  any  remainder  ;  but  if  you  were  to  divide 
20  by  3,  the  quotient  would  be  6,  and  the  remainder 
2,  for  3  is  contained  in  20,  6  times,  and  2  remains 
over. 

In  Division  (by  one  figure)  you  are  firfl  to 
write  down  the  dividend,  and  then  draw  a  crooked 
line,  and  place  the  divifor  on  the  left  hand  thereof, 
then  draw  a  line  at  the  end  of  the  dividend,  after 
which  place  your  quotient. 

If  40  were  given  to  be  divided  by  8,  the  number 
produced  would  be  5. 

Dividend 
Divifor  8)  40  (5  Quotient 
40 


This  method  muft  be  obfervetl  in  every  divifion; 
fir/},  afk  how  many.  Secondly,  multiply.  Thirdly, 
fubtrail. 

Example. 
Let  it  be  required  to  divide  88  by  4,   firft  write 
down  the  dividend,  and  then  draw  a  parentliefis, 


and  place  the  divifor  on  the  left  hand  thereof,  then 
begin  your  work. 


Di"ld 
Divifor  4)  8ti 


;nd 


Thus  having  placed   a  parenthefts  at  each  end  of 
the  dividend,  that  on  the  left  hand  for  the  divifor, 
M\(\  that  on  the  right    for  th'j  quotient  ;    then  if  the 
dlvljor  be  a  fingle  figure,    fubfciibe  a  point  under 
the  fird  figure  of  the  dividend  towards  the  left  hand, 
and  afk  how  often  the  dlvljor  4  is  contained  in  the 
dividend  8  ;  the  anfwer  is  2,   wherefore  write  2  in 
the  quotient  ;    then  multiplying  the  divifor  4  by  2, 
(tiie  number  placed  in  the  quotient)  the  produ£t  is 
8,  which  place  orderly  under  the  dividend  S  ;    and 
after  a  line  is  drawn  underneath  the  produdt,   fub- 
tract  it  from  the  dividend  8,    and   place  the  re- 
mainder underneath   the  line.     Then  proceed  and 
place  another  point  under  the  next  place  of  the  di- 
vidend,   towards  the  tight  hand,  and  bring  down 
the  figure  or  cypher  fianding  in  that  place  to  the 
remainder;  that  is,   fet  it  next  after  it,  fo  the  whole 
will  be  a  new  dividual  :  Thus  a  point  being  placed 
under  the  other  8,  write  down  8  next  afi:er  o,  to  wit, 
on  the  right  hand  of  the  remainder  o  ;  Ibis  8  a  new 
dividual  or  number,    whereof  the  fecond  queftion 
muft  be  afked,  and  the  number  will  ftand  thus  : 


4)88 
8  . 

08 


(22 


A  new  dividual  being  brought  down,  which  is 
8,  renew  the  queftion,  and  afk  how  often  4  is 
contained  in  8  ;  the  anfwer  is  2,  wherefore  write 
2  in  the  quotient ;  then  multiplying  the  divifor  4  by 
2,  the  produiSl  is  8,  which  place  under  the  divi- 
dual 8,  and  after  a  line  is  drawn,  fubtraft  the  pro- 
duct 8,  from  the  dividual  8,  and  there  being  no 
remainder,  place  o  under  the  line:  fo  the  whole 
work  is  finifhed,  the  quotient  is  found  22.  Where- 
fore if  88  pounds  were  to  be  divided  among  four 
perfons,  the  fliare  of  each  will  be  22  pounds. 

The  operation  is  a  great  deal  more  difficult, 
when  the  divifor  confifts  of  two,  three,  ot  fever al 
figures  ;    though    it  depends  on   the  fame  rules  ; 

for  Example.  Let    it  be  required   to    divide 

896487  by  648,  or,  which  is  all  one,  to  divide 
896487  into  648  equal  parts. 

Firft  a  table  muft  be  made,  to  fliew  at  firft  fight, 
any  produfl:  of  the  divifor,  it  being  taken  twice, 
thrice,  or  any  number  of  times  under  ten,  fo  having 

written 


A  R   I    7  H  M  E   r  I  C  K. 


igy 


written  down  the  dlvifor  itfelf  648,  and  drawn  a 
line  on  the  right-hand  thereof,  place  i  on  the  right- 
hand  of  the  line  dire£lly  againll  the  dlvifor  ;  then 
underneath  the  divtfor  648,  place  the  double  thereof, 
which  is  1296,  and  place  the  figure  2  dircdly 
againft  the  faid  double  on  the  other  fide  of  the  line ; 
again  by  multiplying  the  divifor  648  by  3,  the  fum 
is  1944,  this  triple  place  under  the  double,  and  place 
3  on  the  other  fide  of  the  line  right  againft  the  tri- 
pk  ;  and  fo  proceeding,  in  like  manner,  with  the 
quadruple,  quintuple,  fextupk,  &c.  to  the  noncuple 
of  the  divifor : 

Divifor  648 
£  /'1296 
I  1944- 
S      2592 


Z<>  3240 

°  >  3888 


7 
8 

9 


648 
10 

6480 


4536 

5184 

s  L5832 

Now  for  a  proof  of  the  faid  Table,  adding  the 
laft  number  thereof,  to  wit  5832,  which 
was  found  to  be  nine  times  the  divifor,  to 
the  divijor  648,  we  find  the  fum  to  be  6480, 
which  is  ten  times  the  divifor,  as  you  may 
fee  in  the  margent  ;  wherefore  the  table  is 
true,  becaufe  the  laft  number  thereof  is 
derived  from  all  the  fuperior  numbers. 

The  principal  method  0I  Divifion  (which  to  thofe 
who  have  the  multiplication  table  by  heart,  is  eafy 
enough)  is  when  the  divijor  corSAs  of  more  places 
than  one,  to  fet  out  fo  many  figures  on  the  left-hand 
of  the  dividend  for  a  dividual,  and  then  put  a  point 
under  the  figure  of  the  dividual,  which  ftands  next 
to  the  right-hand.  Then  feek  how  often  the  firft 
figure  towards  the  left-hand  of  the  divifor,  is  con- 
tained in  the  firft  figure  towards  the  left-hand  of  the 
faid  dividual,  and  place  the  anfwer  in  the  quotient. 
Then  multiply  the  whole  divifor  by  the  faid  figure 
fo  placed  In  the  quotient,  and  place  the  produSi  in 
order  under  the  ^/ii/V/t^it/.  Which  beingdone,  fub- 
traft  the  faid  produii  from  the  dividual,  placing  the 
remainder  under  the  line.  Then  put  a  point  under 
the  next  figure  of  the  dividend,  and  annex  it  to 
the  remainder,  fo  you  have  a  new  dividual,  in  which 
you  are  to  proceed,  as  fhall  be  diredted. 
Example. 
Let  it  be  required  to  divide  8904  by  42,  here 
the  given  number  being  difpofed  of,  as  before  di- 
rected, will  ftand  thus  ; 

42)  8904( 
Then  becaufe  there  are  two  figures  in  the  divi- 
for, therefore  you  muft  take  the  two  firft  figures  on 
the  left-hand  of  the  dividend  for  a  dividual,  which 
is  89,  putting  a  point  under  the  9.    Then  aik  how 


often  the  firft  figure  4  is  contained  in  the  firft  figure 
8,  the  anfwer  is  two  times  ;  wherefore  multiply 
2  in  the  quotient  by  42  the  divifor,  and  the  product 
is  84,  which  place  direiSlly  under  89,  and  fubtraft 
it,  and  there  will  remain  5.  Then  put  a  point 
under  the  next  figure,  which  is  o,  and  annex  it 
to  the  remainder  5,  and  it  makes  50  for  a  new  di- 
dual,  and  the  operation  will  ftand  as  follows  ; 

42)  8904  (21 

Afking  afterwards  how  often  can  have  4  in  5,  the 
anfwer  will  be  i,  which  place  in  the  quotient,  and 
multiply  the  divifor  \z  by  i  which  makes  42,  which 
place  under  50,  and  fubtraft  it  from  50,  and  there 
will  remain  8,  which  place  in  order  under  the  line, 
and  thereto  annex  the  next  figure  of  the  dividend 
v/hich  is  4,  and  then  it  makes  84  for  a  new  divi- 
dual, and  then  the  operation  will  ftand  as  follows  ; 

42)8904(212 
84.. 

50 
42 


84. 

84 


For  a  conclufion,  alk  how  often  4  is  contained  in 
8,  and  the  anfwer  will  be  2  times  ;  wherefore  put 
2  in  the  quotient,  and  thereby  multiply  the  divifor 
42  by  2,  which  makes  84,  and  by  fubtrafling  84. 
from  84  the  remainder  is  nothing,  and  the  opera- 
tion is  ended  ;  fo  that  if  I  divide  8904  pounds 
amongft  42  perfons,  each  perfon  muft  have  212 
pounds. 

Whenever  the  produSi  of  the  Multiplication  by 
the  divijor  is  greater  than  the  dividual  from  which 
it  ought  to  be  fubtrafted,  fuch  produB  muft  be 
ftruck  out  ;  and  a  lefter  figure  is  to  be  placed  in 
the  quotient,  for  you  cannot  fubtradt  a  greater  figure 
from  a  leller.  For  Example,  if  it  be  required  to 
divide  4763585  by  587,  becaufe  the  divifor  ^Sj , 
is  bigger  than  the  dividual  476,  therefore  put  the 
point  to  3,  then  the  dividual  becomes  4763,  from 
which  taking  the  divifor  587  out  of  the  dividual, 
we  find  it  8  times  (for  g  times  is  too  much)  fo 
placing  8  in  the  quotient,  and  having  multiplied  the 
divifor  thereby,  which  is  4696,  and  fubtrafting  it 
out  of  4763,  the  remainder  is  67,  to  which,  by 
putting  a  point  to  5,  then  we  have  675  for  a  new 
C  c  2  dividualy 


igH  Tl^e  Unlverfai  HiPcory  of  Arts  ^;?«^  Sciences. 


dividual,  and  {o  proceeding  according,  as  before 
taught,  the  f/«//V«/ will  be  8115,  and  80  for  the 
remainder. 


Thm 


587)476.^585(8115 
4696  . . . 


3015 
2935 


80    the  Remainder. 


There  is  another  method  of  Divifton,  preferable 
to  any  common  way  of  dividing,  by  dalhing  out 
of  figures,  where  the  ffeps  of  the  divifwi  are  fo 
confounded,  by  a  promifcuous  tnultiplicatlon  and 
divijion,  that  if  any  error  happens,  it  can  fcarce 
be  corredled  without  beginning  the  work  a-new  ; 
but  in  this,  explained  underneath,  the  particular 
tnuitiplications,  fnhtra£iiom  and  remainders,  which 
belong  to  every  figure  of  the  quotient,  are  fo  dif- 
tinftly  and  clearly  fet  down,  that  if  an  error  happen 
it  may  eafily  be  reformed. 

Example. 
Let  it  be  required   to  divide  7910010295   by 
59746  ;  the  operation  will  fland  thus: 

59746)79iooi0295(«32393 
59746 


193541 
179238 

143030 
1 19492 


132393  Quotient  mult, 
^y      59746  Divifor 


794358 

529572 
926751 

1191537 
661965 


7909952178 

5  8 1 1 7  Remaniderad. 


7910010295  Proof 


2^5382 
179238 

561449 
5377H 

237355 
179238 


581 17  Remainder. 

We  mufl  obferve,  that  there  are  to  be  as  many 
points  i,i  the  dividend^   as  there  are  figures  in  the 


quotient,  as  in  this  Example,  you  have  fix  points  in 
the  dividend  and  fix  fifi:urcs  in  the  quotient. 

Divijion  is  prov?d  by  multiplying  the  qi/otient  by 
the  divifor,  or  the  divifor  by  the  quotient,  and  ad- 
ding what  remains  of  the  divifion,  if  there  be  any 
thing.  If  the  fum  be  found  equal  to  the  dividend, 
the  operation  is  'uft,  otherwife  there  is  a  miflake. 

And  the  moft'  certain  proof  of  A'lultiplieation  is 
by  Divifton.  They  interchangeably  prove  each 
other.  For,  if  the  produi}  be  divided  by  the  mul- 
tiplicand, the  quotient  will  be  equal  to  the  multiplier  : 
and  if  the  product  be  divided  by  the  jnultiplier,  the 
quotient  will  be  equal  to  the  »iult:pUcand. 

\Vhen  the  divifor  confifteth  of  any  other  number, 
v.'ith  a  cypher  or  cyphers  atmexed  thereto,  then  cut 
off  the  cyphers  of  the  divifor  with  a  dafh  of  the  pen, 
and  as  many  cvpheys  as  you  cut  off  from  the  divi- 
for, jo  many  places  muft  you  cut  off  from  the  divi- 
dend; then  proceed  to  divide  by  the  remaining 
figures  in  the  divifor,  as  if  there  were  no  fuch  cy- 
phers or  figures  of  the  divifor,  or  diz'idend  as  you 
cut  off,  and  if  nothing  remain  after  Divifion  is  ended, 
then  fhall  the  figures  you  cut  off  from  the  given 
dividend  be  the  true  remainder  ;  but  if  any  thing 
do  remain  after  Divifton  is  ended,  you  are  then  to 
annex  the  figures  of  the  dividend  that  were  before 
cut  off,  fo  (hall  the  faid  re?nainder.  with  the  figures 
annexed  thereto,  be  the  true  remainder, 

E  K  A  u  p  h  ^. 

Divide  486763  by  15000.  Firjl,  cut  off  the 
three  cyphers  of  the  divifor,  and  alio  three  places  of 
the  right  hand  of  the  dividend,  fo  we  have  15  for 
the  divifor,  and  486  for  the  dividend,  viz. 

15I000O  486)793  (32 
45 


36 

30 


By  the  fhort  way  of  Divifion. 
15I000)  486I793 


32 


-36 
6 


Here  I  find  the  quotient  to  be  32,  and  the  re- 
mainder h  6,  to  which  annexing  the  figures  cut  oft 
itom  t\\Q. dividend,  viz.  793,  it  makes  6793  for 
the  true  remainder. 

Ufe  of  Neper'j  bones  in  Divif.on.  Difpofe  the 
lamella  fo  as  that  the  upperm.oft  figures  may  exhi- 
bit the  divifor  ;  to  thefe  on  the  left-hand  jdin  the 
iamelle£   of  units.     Defcend  under  the  divifor,  till 

II  y«« 


ARITHMETICK, 


199 


you  meet  thore  figures  of  the  dividfitd,  wherein  it 
is  fiift  required,  how  oft  the  divifor  is  found,  or  at 
Jeaft  the  next  number,  which  is  to  be  fubtracElcd 
from  the  dividend  ;  the  number  correfpoiiJing  to 
this,  in  the  place  of  units,  write  down  for  a  quo- 
tient. By  determining  the  other  parts  of  the  quo- 
tient after  the  fame  manner,  the  divifion  will  be 
compleated.    For  Example  : 

Suppofe  the  .a'/w/./tW  5601386,  and  the  divifor 
5978  1  fincc  it  is  firft  alkcd  how  often  5978  is  found 
in  5601 '<,  defcend  under  the  divifor.,  till  in  the 
loweft  feries  you  find  the  number  53802  approach- 
ing nearefl:  to  56013  ;  the  former  whereof  is  to  be 
fubtraifted  out  of  the  latter,  and  the  figure  9  cor- 
refponding  thereto  in  the  lamella  of  units,  write 
down  for  the  quotient.  To  the  remainder  2211, 
join  the  following  figure  of  the  divifor  8  ;  and  the 
number  17934  being  found,  as  before,  to  be  the 
next  lefs  number  thereto,  the  correfponding  num- 
ber in  the  lamella  of  units,  3,  is  to  be  wrote  down 
for  the  quotient  ;  and  the  fubtradtion  to  be  conti- 
nued as  before.  After  the  fame  manner  the  third 
and  lail^  figure  of  the  quotient  will  be  found  to  be 
7  ;  and  the  whole  937. 

5978)5601386(937 
53802 


22118 

17934 

41846 
418^6 

00000 

CyRBDUCTION. 

Having  given  the  operations  of  the  four  chief 
Rules  in  Aritkmetick.,  we  proceed  with  thofe  «/>c- 
rations,  which  are  built  upon  them  and  invented 
for  expedition  and  exadtnefs  in  different  tranfac- 
tions  and  calculations. 

Reduction  teacheth  to  reduce  numbers,  whe- 
ther motley.,  iveight,  meafure,  time,  motion.  Sic.  from 
one  denomination  to  another,  difcovering  the  fame 
value,  but  in  different  terms. 

Reduction  is  performed  by  multipHeaticn  and  di- 
vifion. 

All  great  denominations  are  brouglit  into  Irjpr 
of  the  fanje  value  by  multiplication^  and  this  is  by 
Ibme  called  ReduStion  d^Acending. 

All y;?w// denominations  are  brought  m\.o greater 
of  the  fame  value  by  divifion,  and  this  is  by  feme 
called  Reduaion  afcendivg. 

Vo  reduce  greater  denominations  into  leffer  of 
the  fame  value.     Confider  how  many  of  the  lefier 


are  equal  to  one  of  the  greater,  and  multiply  the 
given  number  thereby,  fo  fliall  the  produdl  be  the 
anfwer  to  the  queflion. 

Example. 
Reduce  3468  ftiillings  into  pence. 
3468 
12 


41616 
Here  confider,    12   pence  is  a  {hilling,  nnd  tl>e 
pence  ought  to  be  twelve  times  the  number  o*"  (hil- 
lings, wherefore  multiply  by  i  2  at  one  operation, 
and  theproduftis  41616  pence. 

To  reduce  fmaller  denominations  into  greater 
Confider  how  many  of  the  fm.iller  are  equal  to  om 
of  the  great  r,  and  divide  thereby ;  the  quotient  is 
the  anfwer  to  the  queftion. 

Example. 

Reduce  41616  pence  into  {hillings. 

12)  41616 


3468   (hillings. 

Firft,  confider  that  i  2  pence  is  a  (liilling,  and 
that  the  (hillings  ought  to  be  a  twelfth  part  of  the 
pence;  wherefore  divide  the  given  number  by  12 
atone  operation,  and  fay,  12  in  41,  three  times, 
reft  5,  which  to  the  6  makes  56,  then  12  in  56, 
4  times,  reft  8,  which  makes  the  I,  81  ;  then  ix 
in  81,  6  times,  reft  9,  which  makes  the  6,  96, 
then  12  in  96  is  8  times,  and  the  quotient  gives 
3468  (hillings,  which  is  the  anfwer  to  the  queftion, 
and  may  ferve  for  a  proof  of  the  foregoing  example. 

In  Reduilion  oi  money,  multiply  the  (hillings  by 
1 2  at  one  operation  ;  and  likewife  divide  by  1 2  at 
one  operation. 

Example    I. 

In  685  /.  I  demand  how  many  Jhillings,  pence,   and 
farthings. 
685  pounds, 
20 


13700  Jhilling'.^ 
12 


164400  pence, 
4 


657600  fcrrthings. 

Firft,  multiply  by  20  (becaufe  20  jhillings  iv  a 
pound,)  and  the  produiS  is  1  ^-oo  fhillings  ,  then 
multiply  the y^/i'//;?^i  by  12,  (becaufe  twelve  pv-i'ce 
is  a  (hilling)  and  the  produil  is  164400  pence  ;  then 

multiply 


200  ^The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


multiply  the  pence  by  4,  (becaufe  four  farthings  is  a 
penny)  and  the  product  is  b^"  boo  farthings. 

This  or  any  other  number  of  pounds,  might  be 
reduced  into  pence  or  farthings  4t  one  operation, 
without  reducing  it  into  the  intermediate  denomi- 
nations. 

For  if  yon  multiply  pounds  by  240  (becaufe  fo 
many  pence  make  a  pound)  the  produ<fl:  will  be 
pence,  and  if  you  multiply  pounds  by  960  (becaufe 
960  farthings  is  a  pound)  the  product  will  be  far- 
things :  fo,  in  the  foregoing  example,  685/.  being 
multiplied  by  240,  the  product  you  will  find  to  be 
164400  pence,  and  if  you  multiply  68t,  /.  by  960, 
the  prod u6t  will  be  657600  farthings,  for  the  rca 
fons  before  faid. 

But  you  may  fay,  you  cannot  well  remember 
how  many  pence  or  farthings  make  a  pound,  I  will 
therefore  teach  you  how  to  find  it  out  at  any  time 
when  you  have  occafion.  You  may  eafily  remem- 
ber 20  (hillings  is  a  pound,  and  that  multiplied  by 
12  produceth  240  pence,  which  being  multiplied 
by  4,  produceth  960  farthings,  as  follows. 

20  Jhillings, 
12 

240  penccy 
4 

960  farthings, 
or  one  pound. 

Example  II. 

In  (3 ^']<)'iO farthings,  I  demand  how  many  pence, 
/hillings.,  and  pounds  ? 
This  queftion  is  the  reverfe  of  the  former,  and 
may  ies^z  for  a  proof  thereof:  firft,  I  divide  the 
farthings  by  4,  and  the  quotient  is  1 64400  pence, 
then  I  divide  the  pence  by  12,  and  the  quotient  is 
13700  fhillings,  and  the  fhillings  I  divide  by  20, 
and  the  quotient  is  685  pounds:  which  is  equal  to 
the  given  number  in  the  firlt  example.  See  the 
whole  operation  as  followeth : 

4)  b^i boo  farthings. 


12)    164400  pence. 


2|0) 

makes 


1 370(0    /hillings. 


685     pounds. 

When  in  ReduSlion  defending,  the  number  pro- 
pounded to  be  reduced  confifteth  of  diverfe  deno- 
minations, as  of  pounds,  /hillings,  pence,  and  far- 
things ;  or  o(  pounds, ounces, penny-weights, and  grains, 
lie.  then  you  may  readily  reduce  it  into  the  loweft 


denomination.  Thus  when  you  reduce  an  higher 
denomination  into  the  next  inferior,  add  to  the 
produ£l  the  exprelTed  parts  into  which  you  reduce 
it,  as  if  you  were  to  reduce  pounds  into  fhillings, 
add  to  the  produdt  (as  you  multiply)  the  (hillings 
that  are  exprcffed  in  the  number  propounded  ;  pro- 
ceed in  the  fame  method  till  you  have  reduced  the 
given  number  into  the  denomination  required,  a* 
in  the  following  example. 

Example   III. 

Reduce  567/.  15  i.  6  d.i  into  farthings. 

Firft,  multiply  by  20  to  bring  into /hillings,  fay- 
ing, o  times  7  is  o,  but  5  is  5,  (taking  in  the  5  that 
is  in  the  place  of  units  in  the  rank  of  (hillings,  and 
fetting  it  in  the  place  of  units  in  the  product)  then 
2  times  7  is  14,  and  i  is  15,  (taking  in  the  i  that 
is  in  the  place  of  tens  in  the  rank  of  (hillings)  fo 
(et  down  5  in  the  place  of  tens  in  the  produiSt,  (S'f. 
the  product  is  1 1355  (hillings,  then  multiply  the 
(hillings  by  12  to  bring  them  into  pence,  faying, 
12  times  5  is  60,  and  6  is  66,  (taking  in  the  6  that 
(tands  in  the  rank  of  pence)  isfc.  and  the  pence 
make  136266;  then  multiply  the  pence  by  4,  to 
bring  them  into  farthings,  faying,  4  times  6  is  24, 
and  3  is  27,  taking  in  the  3  which  (lands  in  the 
rank  of  farthings,  &c.  fo  the  farthings  amount  to 
545067,  as  by  the  whole  operation  appeareth,  viz. 


567/. 
20 


15^- 


6d. 


1 1355  /hillings, 
12 


136266  pence, 
4 


545067  farthings. 
Obferve  the  like  in  any  other  example. 

When  in  Reduifion  Afcending  any  thing  remains 
after  divifton  is  ended,  it  is  always  of  the  fame  de- 
nomination with  the  dividend,  as  in  the  following 
example. 

Example  IV. 
In  ^^^o6j  farthings,  I  demand  how  m&ny pounds  ? 

Firft,  divide  the  given  number  of  farthings  by  4, 
and  the  quotient  is  136266  pence,  and  there  re- 
mains 3,  which  is  3  farthings ;  becaufe  the  Divi- 
dend was  farthings. 

Then  divide  the  pence  by  12,  and  the  ^otient  is 
1^355  fi'^^'"i^y  ^n'J   there  remains  6,  which  is  6 


pence ;  be  caufe  the  Dividend  was  pence. 


Then 


ARITHMETIC    K. 


201 


Then  divide  ^t  Pnllmgs  by  20,  and  the  ^toiient 
is  567  /.  and  there  remains  15,  which  \sJhilHngs  ; 
becaufe  the  Dividend  wzspillhigs  :  fo  that  we  find 
by  the  work,  545067  farthings  to  be  576/.  151. 
bd-l  as  by  the  raliowing  work. 
4)   545067 

12)    136266  I 


2|o)      U35I5  :   bd. 

makes     £.    567  :   15^.  6/ f 
This  queftion  is  the  invcrfe  of  the  third  example, 
and  may  very  well  ferve  for  a  proof  thereof. 

Here  by  the  way  take  notice,  that  when  you  are 
(to  divide  any  number  by  20,  that  is)  to  bring  (hil- 
lings into  pounds,  the  bell  way  is  to  cut  off  a  figure 
to  the  right-hand  for  fhillings  ;  and  then  to  take 
half  the  figures  to  the  left-hand  for  pounds,  and  if 
I  remain,  it  is  10  {hillings  to  be  added  to  the  figure 
firft  cut  off.     For  example. 

Where  11 355  /hillings  are  to  be  reduced  into 
pounds,  cut  off  the  laft  figure  5  forJl}illings,  and  fay. 
Half  of  II  is  5,  half  of  13  is  6,  half  of  15  is  7, 
and  there  remains  i,  which_makes  the  5  (hillings 
to  be  15  (hillings. 

1 134/.     5  J.     od. 

makes  567  15  o 
Note,  Once  for  all,  that  Redu6lion  Afcending, 
proves  ReduSiion  Defcending,  the  one  being  a  re- 
verfe  to  the  other,  as  (hall  be  demonftrated  in  the 
queftions  that  follow,  in  all  the  varieties  of  Re- 
dufiion. 

Queft.  I.  In  7642/.  17^.  ii^.f,  I  demand  how 
Money"]  20  (mzny  half  farthings  ? 

152857  /hillings. 
12 


1834295 
8 


14674364    half  farthings. 

Ton,    C.  qr.  ft. 
Queft.  II.  In    95    II    3    15  how  razny  pounds 
Avoirdupois  1  20  (weight? 

"  ';/.  J    

191 1     hundreds. 
4 


weight 


7647     quarters, 
28 


61181 
15295 


makes    214131    />tf««a!f  weight. 


C.    qr. 
Queft.III.   In    50     2 
4 


ft. 
15 


cz. 

9      how  many 
(ounces  ! 


202 
28 

1621 

405 

5671 
16 

3403s 
5671 


makes    90745     ounces. 

By  this  you  fee,  that  if 50  C.  iqr.  i^lb.  9  az. 
be  multiplied,  the  produdt  will  be  90745  ounces, 
which  is  the  reverfe  or  proof  of  the  fecond 
Queftion. 

Queft.  IV.  In  214131  pounds  weight,  howmany 
28)     181  [tons  ? 
133 

4)    7647  2" 


2|o)   191I1  \       15     pounds. 


95:11: 

Proof  95  :  1 1  :  3  :   15.    By  this  you  fee,  that  if 
214131  pound  weight  be  divided  by  28,  by  4,  and 
by  20,  it  produces  95  ttn,  11  C.  3  qrs.  i^lb.  which 
is  the  reverfe  ol'the  fecond  Quefticn. 

Queft.  V.     In  90745  ounces,  how  many  hundred 
16)   107  (weight? 

114 

28)  5671    25 

4)   202       —     9 

■        1 5  ounces. 

C.  ^0:  2  :  15:9     proof.^  ' 

oz.    dw.     gr. 
Queft.  VI.  In  50     10     11     how  many  graim 
Troy        \  20  oi  Silver? 

Weight.  J 

1010 
24 


4041 
2021 


makes    24251     grains  of  Silver. 


Queft. 


202 


7he    Univerfal  Hiftory  of  K^t%  ^W  Sciences. 


0%.    dxv. 


i'- 


Queft.  VII.  In  507     10     II  how  many  grains 
Troy       I  20  {oi  Sliver  P 

10150    penny  weight, 
24 


Qi  ^^^'}^  48346  galkns,    how  many   Lafls  of 


oj 


4c6oi 
20301 


makes    2436 11    grains. 

Queft.VIII.  In  24361 1  grains,  how  many  ounces 
24)        36  {of  Silver? 

2lo)ioi5|o      

II 

Proof  507      10  dw.    11  grains. 

Tun.  hhd.gall. 
Queft.  IX.     In  54     2     25   how  many   quarts 


Liquid 

Meafure, 


I       -i 


{oimne? 


218     hheads. 
63 


659 
1310 


6043 


{IVheat: 


i|0)  7   15     3 
Proof    75    5     3     2 


Cloth  Measure. 

Queft.  XIII.    In   207    ells    2  quarters,     2  nails, 
5  {ho-M  many  nails  i 

1037  quarters. 
4 


makes     4150  nails. 


Queft.  XIV.    In  loy  yards,  2  quarters,    i    nail, 
4  ( how  many  nails  ? 

431     quarters. 
4 


1 3759    i^^lonf- 
4 


Proof    55036  quarts. 

Queft,  X.    In  55036  quarts,  how  many  tuns  of 
4) (mne  ? 

63)    13759 
—         115 
4)  218  529 

54  25  gallons, 

tons.    54:      2hh.   25  gallons. 

Lajl.  qr.  bujh.gall. 
Queft.  XI.  In  75     5     3     2  hovf  mzny  gallons 


Dry 
Meafure, 


10 

755     quarters. 
8 

6043     bujbels. 
8 


(of  IVluat  ? 


makes    48346    gallons. 


makes  1725     naih. 

Queft.  XV.  In  312  ^iZf  Flemifli,  2  quarters,  how 
3  (many  quarters  ? 

trnkts      938     quarters. 


Queft.  XVI.  In  112  aulns,     i  quarter,    2  nailsy 
6  (how  many  nails  ? 

673     quarters. 
4 

makes     2694     nails. 
Note,  An  auln  here  ii  reckoned  1 1  yard. 

Long  Measure. 

Queft.  XVII.  The  cirumference  of  the  earth 
being  360  degrees,  and  every  degree  60  Englijh 
miles,  demand  how  many  miles,  furlongs,  perches, 
inches,  and  barley-corns  will  reach  round  the  world  ? 

360 


ARITHMEriCK' 


360  Degrees. 
60  Miles  a  Degree. 


203 


21600  Miles  about  the  Earth. 
8 


172800  Furlongs  about  the  Earth. 
40  Perches  in  a  Furlong. 

6912000  Perches  about  the  Earth. 
33         Half  Feet  in  a  Pearch. 


20736 
20736 


228096000  Half  Feet  about  the  Earth. 
6  Inches  in  a  half  Foot. 


1368576000  Inches. 

3   Barley-Corns  is  an  Inch. 


4105728000  Barley-Corns  about  the  Earth. 

To  expedite  the  praftice,  feveral  compendious 
ways  oi  Reduifion  have  been  invented.  Thus  yards 
are  turned  into  ells,  by  fubtraiSting  a  fifth,  and  into 
ells  Flem'ijh  by  adding  a  fifth.  Ells  FUmifl)  are  re- 
duced into  yards  by  fubtrafting  a  quarter.  Ells 
Flemijh  reduced  to  ells  En:lijh  by  multiplying  by  6, 
and  cutting  off  the  right-hand  figure.  Great  pounds 
of  fillc  of  24  ounces,  are  reduced  to  pounds  of  16 
ounces,  by  adding  one  half.  Pounds  of  16  ounces 
into  pounds  of  24,  by  fubtra£ting  one  third. 

Tare  and   Tret  is  alfo  another  kind  of  Re- 
duction. 

Tare  is  an  abatement  or  deduflion  on  the  price 
'of  a  commodity,  on  account  of  the  w^eight  of  cherts, 
cafks,  bags,  frails,  i^c.  The  cafl^s,  cherts,  or 
whatever  elfe  contains  the  commodity,  is  alio 
called  Grofs. 

l7-et  is  an  allowance  made,  in  commerce,  for 
the  wafte,  or  the  duft,  that  may  be  mixed  with 
any  commodity  ;  which  is  always  4  pounds  in  eve- 
ry 104  pounds. 

The  Tare  is  very  different  in  difi'erent  merchan- 
dizes :  in  fome  th-ere  is  none  at  all  allowed.  It  is 
a  thing  much  more  regarded  in  Holland  than  in 
England,  or  elfewhere.  M.  iJ/car^  treating  of  the 
commerce  of  Amjlerdam.,  obferves  that  the  Tara 
arc   one  of  the  moft  confiderable  articles  a  mer- 


chant is  to  be  acquainted  withal,  if  he  would  trade 
with  fecurity. 

Sometimes  the  Tare  is,  as  it  were,  regulated  by 
curtom ;  but  e;enerally,  to  avoid  all  difpute,  the 
buyer  and  fjllcr  make  a  particular  agreement  about 
it.  We  rtiall  here  add  from  the  forementioned  au- 
thor, fome  inrtances  of  Tare  allowed  at  Arnjierdam, 

Span'ijh  wool  is  fubjeft  to  a  kind  of  double  Tare; 
for  firft  they  dedudt  the  Tare  marked  on  the  bales, 
and  after  th.it  24  pounds  Tare  for  every  175 
pounds  weight,  bcfides  the  rebate  for  prompt  pay- 
ment. Indeed  for  the  common  wools,  the  feller 
will  feldom  allow  above  14  -per  Cent,  for  the  whole 
Tare ;  for  which  reafon  the  bargain  is  to  be  agreed 
on  before. 

f  Roman  Allum  is  4  ft.  fer  facie. 

ilr':jh,  &c.  Butter,  20  ft  per  Cent. 
Crude  Borax,    15ft.  per  Cent. 
■>  Cinnamon,   17  ft.  the  Burthen. 
Capers  33  ft.  per  Cent. 
White  Pepper,  40  ft.  per  Barrel. 
(^  Black  Pepper,   5  ft.  isc. 
But  to  reduce  Tare  and  Tret  into  practice  with 
regard  to  arithmetick  ;  if  I  be  afked,  for  example, 
in  48  C.  3  qrs.  14  ft.  Tare.   3  C.  3  qn.  00  ft.  hew 
many  pounds  neat .''  I  proceed  thus  ; 
C.    qrs.   ft. 
48     3     14     Grofs 
3     3      00     Tare  deduced 


45 

0 

14 

4 

■ ' 

180 

Quarters 

28 

1444 

361 

5054 

Pounds 

leat 

C. 

qrs. 

ft. 

112)5054(45 

0 

14 

448 

574 

560 

neat 


'4- 
Which  pounds  neat  being  divided  by  ill,  gires 
me  45  C.  o  qrs.  14ft.  neat  weight. 


Dd 


Or. 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


204 

Or  this  other  queftion  :  in  145  C.  %qn.  16  Ife. 
Tare  14  per  C.  Tret  4  per  104,  how  many  pounds 
neat  ?  to  anfwer  which  I  proceed  in  the  following 
manner  : 

C     qrs.  ft.  C.     qrs.    ft, 

145       2       16  145       2 

4  14 


582  Quarters 
28 


4662 
1 1 65 

16312  ft.  Subtle 
2039   ft.  Tare 

14273  Remainder 
627  ft.  7>et 


580 
US 

2030 

9  allowed  for  2  qrs. 
16  ft. 


2039 


13646  ft  neat 

I  divide  the  pounds 
fubtle,  by  26,  becaufe 
4  pounds  is  the  26th 
ot  104,  the  allowance 
always  given  for  Tret. 


26)16312(627  ft.  Tret 
I56-- 

71 

192 
182 


10 


C.     qrs. 
112)13646(121      3 


ft. 

10 


1  12-  • 


Or  the  pounds  neat  being    244 
divided  by  112,  makes    224 

121   C   3  qrs.  10  ft.       

neat  weight.  206 

112 

94 
And  thus  of  all  other  commodities  or  merchan- 
dizes, in  proportion. 

Of  the  Rule  of  Three. 

The  Rule  of  Three,  otherwife  called  the 
Golden  Rule  and  the  Rule  of  Proportion, 
is  one  of  the  moft  ufeful  operations  in  Arlthmetick. 

It  is  cnher  fingle  or  compound. 

The  fingle  Rule  of  Three  is  generally  taught  to 
contain  two  branches,  called  by  the  writers  of 
Jrithmetick,  direct  and  invcrfe :  but  this  is  multi- 
plying rules  without  reafon, "as  will  appear  hereafter. 
J  he  Rule  of  Three  Direct  teaches  how 
to  find  a  fourth  proportional  number,  to  three 
others  given. 

In  this  rule  we  muft  always  obferve,  in  flating 
the  ciueftion,  to  make  our  firlt  and  third  number  be 
of  one  denomination,  and  the  fecond  figure  being 


the  fuppofition,  muft,  after  the  operation,  be  found 
in  the  fame  degree,  with  the  fourth  number 
fought.  We  muft  alfo  make  our  firft  and  third 
numbers  both  of  one  kind.  'I  hen  go  unto  the  fe- 
cond  or  middle  number,  and  reduce  that  into  the 
loweft  value  there  named  ;  then  multiply  our  fe- 
cond  number  under  our  third,  making  that  num- 
ber our  Dividend  \  and  divide  by  our  firft  number  ; 
and  the  Quotient  of  our  Divifton  anfwers  the  quefti- 
on demanded,  and  is  always  of  the  fame  denomi- 
nation with  our  fecond  number  ;  whether  pounds, 
ftiillings,  pence,  or  farthings,  or  any  other  namc 
or  kind  whatever  :  which  if  it  fhal!  happen  to  be 
of  any  greater  number,  whether  zveigbt.  meafure, 
or  time,  we  may  reduce  them  into  its  loweft  value, 
by  the  rule  of  Reduilion  before  taught. 

^eji.  If  three  degrees  of  the  equator  contain 
70  leagues,  how  many  do  360  degrees,  the  circum- 
ference of  the  earth,  contain  .'' 

The  rule  is  this  :  multiply  the  fecond  term  70, 
by  the  third  360,  divide  the  ProduSi  25200  by  the 
firft  term  3,  the  patient  8400  is  the  fourth  term 
required. 

The  ufe  of  this  rule  U  of  vaft  extent  both  in 
common  life,  and  the  fciences  ;  yet  it  has  no  place, 
but  where  the  proportion  of  the  given  numbers  is 
known.  --  Suppofe,  for  inftance,  a  large  vcflel  fuH 
of  water  to  empty  itfelf  by  a  little  aperture;  and 
fuppofe  three  gallons  to  flow  out  in  a  minute ;  and 
it  were  required  to  know  in  what  time  100  gallons 
would  be  thus  evacuated  :  here  indeed  arc  three 
terms  given  and  a  fourth  required,  but  as  it  is  evi- 
dent from  experience,  that  water  flows  fafter  at 
firft  than  afterwards,  the  quantity  of  flowing  water 
is  not  proportional  to  the  time  ;  and  therefore  the 
queftion  does  not  come  under  the  Rule  of  Three. 

The  things  which  come  under  commerce  are 
proportionable  to  their  ^r/f«  ;  twice  as  much  of  any 
commodity  cofting  twice  as  much  money,  ksc. 
The  price  therefore,  of  any  quantity  of  a  commo- 
dity being  given,  the  price  of  any  other  quantity 
of  the  fame,  or  quantity  of  the  commodity  anfwer- 
ing  to  any  other  given  him,  is  found  by  the  Rule  of 
Three. 

Example. 

If  3  ft.  coft  17^.  what  will  30  ft.  coft .''  Since 
as  3//-.  are  to  30/*!'.  fo  is  the  value  of  the  former 
17  r.  to  the  value  of  the  latter.  The  queftion 
ftands  thus  ; 

ft.  s.  ft. 

3- 17  30 

17 


8/.  \Qs.         \     3)510(170/. 


Again, 


ARITHMETICK. 


Again,  if  3  pounds  be  bought  for  17  j.  how  ma- 
ny will  1 70  J.  buy;  fince  as  17  j.  is  to  170^.  fo  are 
3  pounds  to  the  pounds  required  :  the  number  will 
be  found  thus  : 


205 


s. 

J7' 


ft. 


s. 

'170 


17)510(30  ft, 
51 


00 


If  the  given  terms  be  heterogeneous,  /.  e.  have 
broken  numbers  among  them,  they  do  not  bear  the 
fame  proportion  to  each  other  with  the  things  they 
exprefly  bear.  They  mull  therefore  be  reduced  to 
homogeneous  ones,  or  to  the  fame  denomination, 
as  pounds  into  fhillings,  iffc. 


Example. 


If  3  ft. 

coft?   Th 

and  4.  02..  coft  is.  4  (/.  what 
e  operation  will  run  thus  : 

ft. 

3 
16 

oz. 

s.     d.                ft 

4  ■ 

■      2       4  ■                    2 
12                              16 

52 

■ 

28                              28 
32 

2  15. 


256 

64 


52)896(17^.41 
52 


12 


In  many  cafes  of  commerce  and  account,  we  have 
more  compendious  ways  of  working  queftions  that 
come  under  tht  Rule  efT'ibree,  than  by  the  RuU 
itfelf,  which  by  reafon  of  their  expediting  Practice, 
are  called  Practice,  and  conftitute  a  particular 
rule  of  themfelves  ;  efpecially  where  the  firft  term 
is  I,  or  unity.  Thefe  pradlices  are  called  Italian 
PraSlices  or  Ufages,  becaufe  firft  introduced  by  the 
merchants,  and  negotiators  of  Italy.  The  moft 
ufeful  of  thefe  pradfices  are  as  follow. 

I.  Since  the  ufe  of  the  i?a/«  »/■  TZ?«^,  is  to  find 
a  fourth  proportional  to  three  given  numbers,  di- 
vide the  firft  and  fecond,  or  the  firft  and  third,  by 


fome  common  number,  if  that  can  be  done  cxadly ; 
and  work  with  the  patient  in  their  ftead  ;  as  in  the 
following  example. 

Price  of  3  ft.  is  9  s.  what  is  the  price  of  7  ft  .? 
3)  I  3  3 

makes  21  s. 
Price  of  14  ft.  is  26  s.  what  is  the  price  of  7  ft  ? 
7)2  2)—  I 

makes  13  r. 

2.  If  the  firft  term  be  i,  and  the  fecond  an  ali- 
quot part  of  a  pound,  fhilling,  or  penny;  divide  the 
third  by  the  aliquot  part ;  the  ^totient  is  the  anf- 
wer.  Note,  that  the  aliquot  part  is  fuch  part  of 
any  number  or  quantity,  as  will  exactly  meafure 
it,  without  any  remainder.  Or  it  is  a  part,  which 
being  taken  a  certain  number  of  times,  becomes 
equal  to  the  whole  or  integer.  Thus  3  is  an  ali- 
quot part  of  1 2,  becaufe  being  taken  four  times,  it 
will  juft  meafure  it. 

For  example,  if  i  cl!  coft  10  j.  what  will  957 
ells  coft  \ 

makes    478/.    10 

3.  If  the  firft  or  third  number  be  i,  the  other 
not  exceeding  large,  and  the  middle  term  a  com- 
pound, /.  e.  confifts  of  feveral  denominations  ;  it 
may  be  wrought  without  Reduction  thus  : 

Price  of  i  ft.  is  3  s.  8d.  |  what  is  the  price  of  5  ft, 
s.  d. 
3  8  I 
5 


makes  1 8  7  i 
For,  four  farthings  making  a  penny,  5  times  3  far- 
things make  3  (s'.  I  and  12  pence  making  one  fliil- 
hng,  5  times  8  pence  make  3^.  4,/.  which  with 
^d.  from  the  place  of  farthings,  make  is.'^d. 
Lafily,  five  times  3  s.  make  15^.  and  with  the  3  s. 
from  the  place  of  pence  18  j.  the  price  required 
!  therefore  is  I'i  s.  -j  d.  \. 

4.  It  the  middle  term  be  not  an  aliquot,  but  an 
aliquant  part,  refolve  the  aliquant  part  into  its  ali- 
quot parts  ;  divide  the  middle  term  by  the  feveral 
aliquots,  the  fum  of  the  ^iottent  is  the  anfwer. 
A/ff/^,  Aliquant  part  is  that  which  will  not  meafure 
or  divide  any  number  exadly,  but  fome  remainder 
will  ftill  be  left.  Or,  an  aliquant  part,  is  that 
which  being  taken  any  number  of  times,  is  always 
greater  or  lefler  than  the  whole.  Thus  5  is  an  ali- 
quant part  of  12  ;  for  being  taken  twice  it  falls 
ftiort ;  and  when  taken  three  times  it  exceeds  12. 


For  an  inftance  of  this  rule  : 
D  d  2 


If 


206  !%€  Ujiiverfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


If  I  cU  cofts  15  s. 


What  cofts  124  ells  ? 
4)  62 

makes  93  /. 

5.  Ifthefirft  or  fetond  term  be  i  ;  and  in  the 
former  cafe  the  fecond  or  third  ;  in  the  latter  the 
firft,  be  refolvable  into  fadors  ;  the  operation  may 
be  performed  in  the  mind  without  writing  down 
any  figures  :  a* in  the  following  example  : 


Price  of  I  lb.  is  24  x. 
4 


What  is  20  fc. 
4 

80 
6 

makes  480  i  .or  24/. 


-If  100 /A.  cofts  30  f.  ifd. 
2) 


What  cofts  50 IL  i 


makes   15J.  2d, 

Again  60/^.  cofts  4;. 
6 


24 
7 

186/. 


What  cofts  2520/i. 
42 

6 
7 


6.Where  one'of  the  given  numbers  is  i,we  have 
everal  compendious  ufages  to  fave  Multiplication 
and  Divifion,  e.  gr.. 

If  9  ft.  cofts  20  s.     What  does  i  Ife. 
It  is  obvious  the  fum  required  is  had  by  adding  to 
the  tenth  part  of  20  ftiillings,  vix.  zs.  the  ninth 
part  of  that  tenth,  viz.  3  d.  4  and  ?j  of  a  penny ;  the 
anfwer  thereof  is  2s.  3  ^.  i  and  ^. 

Again  if  5  iB.  cofts  45  s.    What  cofts  1  Ife. 
Since  5  is  half  of  10,    the  double  of  the  tenth 
part  of  the  given  price,  viz.   10  s.  gd.i,  9  is  the 
fum  required. 
Again  if  i  ife.  cofts  iS  d.  What  will  19  Ife.  coft  ? 
Since  19  =  20 — i  ;  from  the  given  price  doubled 
and  increafed  by  a  cypher,  viz.  360,  fubtraft  the 
fimple  18,  the   remainder  is    342i^.  =  28i.  6d.  the 
fum  required. 

7.  If  two  terms  of  the  fame  denomination  diff^er 
by  an  unit,  we  have  a  peculiar  kind  of  com- 
pound, which  will  be  clear  from  the  following  ex- 
amples, e.  gr. 

If  5  }fe.  cofts  30  s.     What  will  4  ft.  coft  ? 
Since  the  price  of  4/i.  is  one  fifth  part  fliort  of 
that  of  5  lb.  divide  the  given   price   30  by  5  ;  the 
q\iotient  6  being  fubtradted  from  the  dividend,  the 
remainder,  viz.  a^s.  is  the  fum  required. 

Again,  KSlh.  cofts  24  !.     'VVTiat  cofts  9  Ih  > 
Since  the  price  of  9  lb.  exceeds  that  of  8  by  one 
eighth  part  ;  divide  the  given  price  24  by  8,  and 
add  the  quotient  3  to  the  dividend  ;  the  fum  27  )s 

the  anfwer.  ,     r  ,    r 

8.  Sometimes  one  may  ufe  fevcral  of  thele  com- 
pounds or  practices  in  the  fame  q,ueftion,  e.g': 


The  Rule  of  Three  Inverse,  is  where  the 
natural  order  of  the  terms  is  inverted.  As  if  100 
workmen  build  a  houfe  in  2  years,  in  how  long  a 
time  will  200  workmen  build  the  fame  ? 

But  there  is  iw  necefTity  for  making  a  particular 
Rule  for  the  matter  ;  this  coming  naturally  enough 
under  the  former,  by  only  ranging^  the  terms  as  the 
nature  of  the  queftion  requires.  Thus,  it  is  evi- 
dent, that  as  the  number  of  men  200  is  to  100,  fo 
is  the  fpace  2  years,  wherein  100  build  the  houfe, 
to  the  fpace  wherein  200  will  build  the  fame.  For 
the  lefs  time  the  more  hands  are  required 
queftion  then  will  ftand  thus  : 


the 


100  M. 
2 


2Y. 


200 


M. 


200)200; I  Year. 

Compound  Rule  of  Three,  or  Rule  of  five 
l^umbers,  is  where  two  Rtdes  of  Three  are  required 
to  be  wrought,  before  the  number  fought  be  found- 
As  if  300/.  in  2  years  yield  30/.  intereft,  how 
much  will  1000/.  yield  in  12  years  ? 

Here  the  firft  thing  to  be  done  is  to  find  by  the 
Rule  of  Three,  what  intereft  icoo/.  will  give  in  2 
years  ;  and  then  by  the  fame  Rule  what  it  will  give- 
in  1 2  years  ?  ,         c    j  ■  i 

This  is  confidered  by  the  writers,  ijfc.  of  Aiith- 
metick,  as  a  particular  rule,  but  without  any  ne- 
ceffity  ;  a  double  operation  folving  it  better,  as  irt 
this  example  : 

200  /. 30  int.  —  ICOO  (. 

30 


3  [00)  300c  [0(1 00 /n^. 


2)12000(600  int. 

But  in  queftions  of  this  kind   a  fingle  Rule  of 

-    -     -      -       (JO  /.  give  the  fame- 

intereft 


.Time  may  do  thebufuicfs  i  for  j 


ARITHMETIC  K. 


intereft  in  2  years,  which  twice  300  give  in  one 
year;  and  12  rimes  looo /.  give  the  fame  intereft 
in" one  year,  that  1000  give  in  12  :  omitting  there- 
fore the  circumilances  of  time  fay,  if  twice  300 
(that  is  600)  give  36/.  interefi:  (in  one  year)  what 
will  12  times  1000  (that  is  i2ooo)  give  (in  one 
year)  ? 

600  — — ~  36  ■  1 2000 

36 


207 


72000 
36000 


6|oo)432o|oo)72o/.  Int. 


Rules  of  Practice. 
The  even  Parts. 


Of 

s. 

a  Pound, 
d.          I. 

Oj 
d. 

10 
6 

S 

4 

0     is      J 

I      \ 

0 s 

6 
4 
3 

3 

2 
2 
I 

4                      6 

6—    X 

0 ■ 

8—  ,i 

I 

0/a  Shili. 


4rf. 


"563 


I 


Example. 
254/,^.  of  Tobacco 

at   I  d. 

2|i    -   zd. 

I    -    I    -    2    Facit . 


%d.    is 

d. 

3i"c 

d. 

46"0 


254/^.  at  zJ. 


4|2  -  4 


2-4     Fadt. 


d. 

6^4 


71 16  Elh  ax  -id. 
/.  8  -  1 4  -  o  Fadt. 


25  t  lb.  at  4</. 
4-11    •    8  Fadt. 
643  Gal  at  6</. 


/    16-1-6  Fadt. 


The  three  laft  examples  are  brought  into  pounds 
at  one  operation,  after  which  manner  any  fum  in 
prafticc  may  be  readily  caft  up. 

Here  you  may  fee  that  254  pounds  of  tobacco, 
at  I  d.  a  pound,  divided  by  the  ,,!,  gives  21  s.  zd. 
and  that  divided  by  20  (by  cutting  off  the  laft 
figure,  and  taking  f  of  it,)  gives  i /.  i  ^.  ^d.  the 
price  of  254  pound  of  tobacco  ;  and  for  ^d.  a 
pound  take  the  ^,  becaufe   xd.  is  the  -5  part  of  a 


{hilling,  and  for  3<^.  a  pound  take  \  ;   and  fo  for 
the  others  at  \d.  and  bd. 

When  the  given  price  is  fuch  pence  as  are  an 
even  part  of  a  fhilling,  take  firft  the  greateft  evtu 
part  of  a  fhilling,  and  then  part  of  that  part :  add 
them  together,  and  divide  the  product  by  20,  01 
cut  oft"  the  laft  figure,  and  take  \. 


Of  a  Hand, 
lb.  C. 

^6 I 

84= i 

28 i 

.4 i 

,6 A 


When  the  given  price  is  pence,  take  your  parts 
in  (hillings,  the  produft  divided  by  20  gives  the 
anfwer  in  pounds. 

Or,  you  may  bring  it  into  pounds  at  once,  by 
cutting  off  the  laft  figure,  and  by  confidering  that 
240  pence  is  one  pound,  whereof  8  J.    is  vL,  b  d. 


d. 

4i 


2121  Ells  at 

Sd. 

707  ■'• 
1 76  -  9  </. 

88I3   -  g 

44-3  -9^ 

acit. 

748  lb.   at  7  d. 


6  d.  is  \  or  374. 
of  which    t    or  i  is  62 


d.    I 

61 
3I 


436 

245  lb.  of  Tobacco  at  <)d,  and  10  \  a  lb. 
254  at  10  d.  |. 

I  27  Sh.in  2j'4fixpences. 
84 — 8  in  254  groats. 
10 — 7  in  254half-penc. 
5— 3i- in  254  farthing'. 


127 
63 


19I0 


10-6  Fac. 


1 1-    -    6  i  Fadt. 

Detnonjiratlon.  In  254  pounds  of  tobacco  at 
10  d.  i  a  pound,  there  muft  be  254  fix-pence.Sy 
which  is  127  {hillings  and  254  groats,  vvhich  is 
84^'.  S  d.  and  254  half-pence,  which  is  10  s.  yd. 
and  254  farthings,  which  is  5  j.  3  rt'.  |  ;  all  thefc 
added  together,  make  227  s.  b  d.  f,  which  divided 
by  20,  gave  the  facit  1 1  /.   7 


61 
4i 


614/,^.    at    II  d. 


307 

204 
5'   • 

8  d. 
2 

56I2 

10 

I  M 


6  i 

41 


2 81 2  -  ID    Fadt. 


s.  6 
■,-63 

d.l 
lb.  at 

281  - 

.87  . 

70  - 

bd. 
8 

5i''9 

■  ('i 

lid. 


26  -  lg-6  |-  Fadt. 


Ir  the  given  price  be  any  number  of  pence  above 
IS.  and  lefs  than  2s.  take  the  ah'quot  parts  in; 
pence  (as  in  the  laft  precedent)  to  which  add  the 
given  quantity  for  the  i  s.   and  proceed  as  before. 


154  }b.  at 
63    -    6 


Ex 


A  M  P  L  E. 


3' 


15    -  1 7   -  6  Fadt. 


4? 


254  at  17  a*. 
84  -  8 
21    -  2 

3-19-  10 
17   -    19  -  ; 


fa.-. 


24,t> 


208 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


264  ydi.  at  18/ 
'32 

39i6 
19    -     16-0  Facit. 


295  G«//.  at  i9(/. 
147  -  6 
24  -  1 1 


46I7  J.    -   <^d. 
23-7    -   5     Tadt. 


672  /i.  at  20  d.  J 
336 
224 
42 


1274 


63   -   14  -  Facit. 


456  £///  at  21  d\ 

2z8 

152 

38 
9  -  6 


88I3 


44  /.  3  ■  6  /WaV. 


In  672  /Z-.  at  ^^d■  -'-  a  /i^.  I  take  \  for  6  d.  the 
^  for  4^.  and  the  \  for  the  \.  becaufe  J  is  the  \  of 
6  </.  by  which  you  will  find  that  in  672  fixpences 
there  is  336  fhillings,  and  in  672  groats  there  is 
224  fhillings,  and  in  672  three  farthings  there  is 
42  fliillings. 

If  the  given  price  be  fuch  fhillings  as  are  an  even 
part  of  a  pound  Sterling,  take  fuch  a  part  of  the 
given  quantity,  3.n(it\\e  quotient  is  pounds. 


Ells.     s.     d. 
433  at  I  -  8 

/.  36  -  I  -  8  Fadt. 
674  at  2  .'.  6  d. 


34  -  5  -    o  Fncit. 


i  ards. 

271   at  2  /. 

27   -    2-0  Fadl. 


495  at  3  J,  4^. 
82    10    -   o  Facit. 


Croivns. 
457   at   5  s. 

1 1 4  -  5  -  O       Facit. 


295  at  6s.  'id. 


9S   -  6-8       Fadt. 


Dollars. 
612  at  4  J. 

I  22  -  8   -  O  Fadt. 


372  at  10  s. 

I  86   -   0-0  Fadt. 


In  this  firft  Example  of  433  Ells,  at  i  j  8  ^-  I 
take  the  ^,  becaufe  i  s.  Sd.  is  the  -^i  of  2/.  and 
fay,  12  in  43  is  3  times,  reft  7,  which  makes  the  3 
to  be  73,  then  12  in  73,  is  6  times,  reft  one,  which 
is  IX.  Hd.  which  I  put  down  as  above. 

If  the  given  price  be  fuch  Tliiilings  and  pence  as 
are  no  even  parts  of  a  pound,  multiply  the  given 
quantity  by  the  number  of  fhillings,  and  take  the 
tiii,:juot  parts  of  pence,  and  proceed  according  to  the 
iccond  rule, 

J 


EUs. 

375  at  8  /.  6  d. 


3000 
187 


I     \EIU. 
'        493  at  15  «. 
'5 


318I7-  6 
159-7-6  Fadt. 


C.        s.       d. 
29;  at  12.  -  9 
12 


to/ 


2465 

493 
246   -  6  d. 

1 64  -  4  </. 

780)5   -  10 
I 

1  39°  -  5  -   '0  Fadt. 


3540 
'47 
73 


376I1  -  3 


3  facit. 


C.         s. 
214  at  7. 
7 

1498 
107 

53  -  6 
35  -  8 


11. 


169I4. 
84. 


14-2  Fadt 


If  your  given  price  be  any  number  of  pounds, 
fhillings  and  pence  ;  reduce  firft  your  pounds  and 
fliillings  into  fhillings,  and  proceed  according  to 
the  laft  rule. 


Tun.        I.     s.     d- 
176  at   3—7-10 
67        20 


Pieces 

/. 

s. 

d. 

754  at 
83 

4  — 
20 

3 

—  7 

2262 
6032 

83 

377 
62 

-  10 

630ZII 


'5' 


-    I  -   10  Fadt. 


1232 

1056 

67 

11792 

i-8 
58 

-    8 

1193I8 

-    8 

596    - 

18-8J 

If  vour  given  price  be  any  number  of  pounds, 
and  exceeding  five  pounds,  then  multiply  your 
given  quantity  by  the  number  of  the  pounds,  and 
take  your  aliquot  parts  in  fhillings  and  pence,  viz. 

C.        I.        s.     d.  hheads.     I.     s.     d. 

74atii— 12 — 6  394  at  16 — 16—3 

16 


81+ 

37 

d. 

9  - 

5  -  0 

860-5-0 


Fadt. 


^364  ?3,, 6/. 

39    i 

197  at  10  /. 
98  -  10  at  5 
19  -  1 4  at  I 
4  - 1 8  •  6  at  3</. 


6624  ■ 


2-6  Facit. 
If 


ARITHMETIC   K. 


209 


If  the  given  quantity  be  any  number  of  C.  qrs.'  2.  B's  fliare  of  the  gain,  by  ftating  thus,  if 
OT  pounds ,  or  iuns  C.  qrs.  and  pounds,  &c.  work  as  1450  /.  :  340/.  :  :  510  /.  and  working  by  the  Rule 
before,  where  no  part  is,  and  take  3'our  aliquot  parts  of  Three,  wilJ  be  found  to  be  119  /.  11  s.  ^'^d. 
in  quarters  and  pounds,   or  in  C.  qrs.  and  pounds,''      3.   C's  (hare  will  appear  112/. 


and  add  them  to  your  firft  work, 
two  will  make  this  plain 


1 1  .f.   old.  when 
dated   thus.      If 


C.          /.      d. 
75  1  at  22  -  6 

I 
z 
I 
3 

/. 

11.3 

IIJO 

37  -  6 
II  -  3 

169I8  -  g 
84.   -   18-9     Fcicit. 

40 


In  the  Example  of  6^  C I  zt  12  s.  11  d.  the  C. 


An   Example  or   worked  as  before,    after  havuig 
1450  /.  :  340/.  :  ;  480  /. 

Again,  fuppofe  three  partners,  A,  B,  and  C 
make  a  joint  ftock  in  this  manner  :  A  puts  in  24  I. 
B.  32/.  and  C  40 /.  in  all  96 /.  with  which  they 
trade,  and  gain  12  /.  required  each  man's  true  fhare 
of  that  gain  .?  The  firfi:  operation  for  A's  part  of  the 
gain  will  ftand  thus, 

96  /.  :    12  /.  :   :   24/.  :    3  =:  A's  gain. 

96  /.  :    12  A  :   :   32  A  :  4  =  B's  gain. 

96 /.  :    12  I.  :   :  40 /.  :   5  =:  Cs  gain. 

Proof  3/.  +  4  /.  +  ^  I.  —  111.  the  whole  gain. 

That  is,    if   the  total  of  all  their  particular  gains 

amounts  to   the  ivhole  gain,    the  work  is  true  ;    if 

not,  fome  miilake  has  been  committed. 

Fellowship  with  Time,   (ufually  called  the 


C.               s. 
63  1  at  iz    - 
12      Mult. 

d. 
II 

1 

31   -   6d. 

'9  -  7  f  C. 

818    -    li  Sum. 

I  \  Facit. 


weight,  I  multiply  the  C.  by  12  s.  and  take  the 

part's  in  pence  for  the  odd  pence,  then  for  the  |  of  j  Double  Rule  of  Fellow/hip,  becaufe  every  man's  mo 


C.  I  firft  take  the  i  of  the  price  of  a  C.  and  that 
makes  b  s.  5  d.  the  price  of  r  a  C  and  then  I  take 
the  I  of  that  which  giver.  3^.  2d.  f.  the  price  of  a 
qr.  of  a  C.  Add  them  together,  it  gives  the  price 
of  I  of  a  C.  which  Is  g  s.  7  d.  |.  and  muft  be  added 
to  your  firfl;  work. 

Of  Fellowship  or  Company. 

Fellowship  is  a  rule  of  great  ufe  in  balancing 
accounts  amongft  partners,  or  where  two  or  more 
have  a  joint  ftock  and  trade  together,  in  order  to 
afcertain  the  proportion  of  profit  and  lofs  to  each 
party. 

Fellowship  is  either  with  or  without  time. 

QueiHons  without  time,  or  in  the  Jingle  rule  of 
Fellowfliip,  as  it  is  frequently  called,  are  wrought 
by  the  following  proportion. 

As  the  whole  ftock  to  the  whole  gain  or  lofs,  fo 
is  each  man's  particular  ftock  to  his  particular  ftiare 
of  gain  or  lofs. 

Example. 

A,  B,  and  C  make  a  joint  ftock  :  A  puts  in 
460  /.  B  5 10  /.  and  C  480  /.  they  gain  340/.  what 
part  of  it  belongs  to  each  ? 

In  order  to  the  folution  of  this  queftion,  find  the 
total  of  their  joint  ftock,   viy,. 

A's  ftock  460/.  +  B's  ftock  510/.  +  C's  ftock 
480/.  ■=.  1450  /.  the  total  ftock.  Then  i.  To  find 
A's  (hare  of  the  gain,  ftate  as  follows  :  If  1450/. 
:  340  /.  :  :  460  /.  which  being  worked  by  the  Rule 
of  Three,  the  anfwer  will  be  107  /.  lyx,  2\d.  for 
A's  fliare  of  the  profit. 


ney  is  to  be  confidered  with  relation  to  the  time  of 
its  continuance  in  the  joint  ftock)  is  worked  thus. 
Multiply  each  man's  flock  by  the  rcfpedlive  time  he 
puts  it  in  for,  and  add  all  the  produiR:s  ;  the  total  of 
which  muft  be  your  firft  number  through  all  the 
ftatings  :  the  gain  or  lofs  the  fecond,  as  before  ;  and 
each  man's  particular  ftock  multiplied  by  its  time, 
the  third. 

Note,  Ail  the  particular  times  (if  not  fo  given) 
muft  be  reduced  into  one  denomination,  /'.  e.  all 
years,  all  months,  all  weeks,  or  all  days,  ^c.  See 
Reduction. 

Example   I. 

A  put  into  company  560  /.  for  eight  months, 
B  279'/.  for  ten  months,  and  C  735  /.  for  fix  month ; 
they  gained  loco  /.  What  fhare  of  it  muft  each 
have  \  For  the  folution  of  this  queftion  proceed  as 
follows. 

A's  ftock  560  A  X  8  its  time  =  4480,  B's  ftock 
279  /.  X  10  its  time  =  2790,  C's  ftock  735  A  x  6 
its  time  —  4410.  Then  4480  -f  2790  +  4410:= 
11680. 

Now,  I.  To  find  A's  fliare  of  the  profit,  ftate 
thus.  If  1 1680  A  :  1000  A  :  :  4480  A  which  being 
worked  by  the  Rule  of  Three,  the  anfwer  will  be 
383  A  115.  2%d.  for  A's  fliare  of  the  gain. 

2.  For  finding  B's  fliare,  ftate  thus,  if  1 1680  A 
:  1000:  :279o/.  and  working  as  before  diredfed, 
the  anfwer  will  be  238  A  17  s.  4I  d. 

3.  To  find  C's  proportion  of  the  gain,  fay,  if 
1 1680  A  :  1000  /  :  :  4410  A  then  working  it  by  the 
Rule  of  Three,  the  true  amount  of  his  fliare  will 
appear  to  be  377  I,  11  s.    4-?  d. 

Ex- 


210 


7he   Univerfal  Hiftory  <?/ Arts  <3W  Sciences. 


Example    U. 

Three  merchants.  A,  B,  and  C,  enter  into 
prtnerfhip  thus  •,  -A  puts  into  tiie  flock  65  A  for 
ei.'ht  months  ;  B  puts  in  78  /.  for  twelve  months; 


and  C  puts  in  84.  for  fix  months.     With  this  joint 
(iock  they  traffic,  and  gain  166  /.  12  j. 

It  is  required  to  find  each  man's  fharc  of  the  gain 
proportionable  to  his  ftock  and  time  of  employ- 
ing it. 


1.  A's  ftock  65  /.  X     8  montlis,  the  time  it  was  employed  =  520 

2.  B's  ftock  78/.  X  12  months,  the  time  it  was  employed  =  936 

3.  C's  ftock  84  /.  X    6  months,  the  time  it  was  employed  1=  504. 

The  fumof  all  thofe  produdls  is  196a 

Then,  as  before,   the  feveral  proportions  will  ftand  thus  : 

i960  :  166,6  ::  520  :  44,  2=44/-    4^.  for  A's  fhare. 

i960  :  166,6:  -.936:  79,56  =  79/.  II  i.  %\d.  for  B's  ftiare. 
1060  :  166.6  :  :  504  :  42,84  =  42/.  16  s.  q\d.  for  C's  ftiare. 


504  ■■42»         

The  whole  gain  =  166/.  12^. 


Of  Barter. 

Barter  is  'lae.  exchanging  oi  wares  for  zvares^  or 
one  commodity  for  another. 

Two  merchants  barter.  A.  has  3  C  2  qrs.  of 
pepper  at  13^.  f-  per  lb.  B  has  ginger  at  i^d.^per 
lb.  I  would  know  how  much  ginger  muft  be  deli- 
vered for  the  pepper.     The  procefs  is  thus  : 

I.  If  I  lb.  of   pepper  cofis    13^.!:.     What  will 
3  C  2  qrs.  i 


13d- i 

3  a  2  ^rs 

4 

4 

— — 

— — 

54 

14 

28 

112 

28 

12 

• 

392 

4)21168(5292 

[44I1 

54 

48.. 

— — 

22ll 

1568 

49 

i960 

48 

21168 

12 

Anfwer  22 1. 

I  s. 

12 

Pepper. 

2.  If  15  a".  ^  buys  I  lb.  of  ginger,  what  will  22J.  3<. 
4  2» 


61 


61)21264(348  +  It   li-   Ginger. 

296 
244 


443 
12 

531^ 
4 

21264 


524 
488 

~l6 


Anfwer  348  =  |-r  Pounds  of  Ginger 
muft  be  delivered  for  the  Pepper. 


Another    Example. 

A  has  100  pieces  of  filk,  which  are  worth  but 
3  /.  a-piece  in  ready  money,  yet  he  barters  them 
with  B  at  4  /.  per  piece,  and  at  that  rate  t^akcs 
their  value  of  B  in  wools  at  7  /.  10  s.  per  C.  which 
are  worth  but  6  /.  per  C.  in  ready  money  :  the 
queftion  will  be  to  know  what  quantity  of  wool 
pays  for  the  filks,  and  which  of  the  two,  A  or  B 
is  the  gainer,   and  how  much  ? 

To  which  I  anfwer  53  C  ^  of  wool  pay  for  the 
filk,  and  A  gains  20  /.  in  money  by  the  barter. 
Demonftrated  thus : 

T.  U 


ARITHMETI    C  K. 


I 

I.  If  7 


s. 

IC- 


/.  /. 

-become  6,  what  will   400 
Faclt   320 


/.  lb.  I. 

2.  If  6  ready  money  buys  r  of  wool,  what  will  320 

ready  money  ? 

Anfvoer.  53  C,  \  of  wools. 

So  it  is  evident  that  the  true  weight  of  the  wool 
which  B.  delivered  was  320/.  for  which  he  received 
only  of  A.  the  worth  of  300/  in  filics,  and  there- 
fore B.  loofes  20/.  by  the  barter. 

Rebate,  is  alfo  a  very  ufeful  rule  of  Arithmetic. 
Rebate  is  the  payment  of  fo  much  ready  money,  in 
lieu  of  a  fum  due  at  any  time  to  come,  which  put 
forth  at  intereft  for  any  fuch  time,  would  become 
equal  to  that  fum,  fo  due,  at  any  time  to  come. 
For  Example: 

A  merchant,  who  is  to  receive  1680/.  at  9 
months  end,  defires  to  have  his  money  immediately 
paid  him,  for  which  courtefy  he  is  willing  to  abate 
8  per  cent,  per  Ann.  intereft  ;  the  queftion  is  to  find 
how  much  prefent  money  is  equivalent  to  1680  /. 
rebating  8  /.  per  Cent.     The  rule  is  thus  : 

As  I  year  or  12  months,  or  365  days,  is  to  the 
rate  of  intereft  propoled,  fo  is  the  time  propofed 
the  third  term,  to  find  the  fourth  number  fought. 


Months 
So  if  12 


Months. 

— 9 


makes  6  /. 

/.  /.  /. 

Then  if  1 06  Rebate  come  from  1 00,  what  will  1680  ? 

100 

/.  . 

io6)i68ooo(i584  +  tS|  168000 

106 ...  •     .    '  ' 


/.        s.      d. 
Anfwer  1584      18      6 


-,^%  Facit 

I  0  6 


18 


d. 
6  +  1 


Which  faid 
prefent  money 
II. 


1584/.   18^. 
the  merchant 


6^.  I 
muft 


,  which 
receive, 


IS  the 
bein? 


211 

deduced  from  1680,  there  remains  the  money  re- 
bated, viz. 


/. 

95 

s. 

I 

I 

si 

/. 
1680 
1584 

s. 
00 

18 

d. 
0 
i>i  Subtract 

95 


I  5  f  Money  rebated. 

Queft.  2.  How  much  prefent  money  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  rent  or  annuity  of  100/.  a  year  to  continue 
five  years,  ^vi^?/?  being  made  at  the  rate  of  6  /.  for 
100  /.  for  one  year  fimple  intereft  .'' 


I 

106 

100 

100 

facit  94 

06 

0 

2 

112 

100 

100 

facit  89 

05 

6 

3 

118 

100 

100 

facit  84 

08 

0 

4 

124 

loo 

100 

facit  80 

12 

2 

5 

130 

100 

100 
verj 

facit  76 

18 

«f 

'near  425 

19 

9f 

So  that  by  this  queftion  it  is  manifcft  there  muft 
be  computed  the  prefent  worth  of  100/.  due  at  the 
firft  year's  end  ;  alfo  the  prefent  worth  of  100  /. 
due  at  the  fecond  year's  end  ;  and  in  like  manner, 
the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  years,  all  which  pre- 
fent particular  worth  being  added  together,  the 
fum  will  be  the  total  above  propounded,  viz. 

I.        s.     d. 
very  near  425     19     9| 

This  Rule  leads  us  naturally  into  what  is  called 
Intereji. 

Of  Interest. 

Interest  is  the  premium  or  money  paid  for  the 
loan  or  ufe  of  money ;  and  is  either  fimple  or 
compound. 

Simple  Interest  is  that  counted  from  the 
piincipal  only.  This  is  eafily  computed  by  the 
Golden  Rule,  either  Jimple  or  compound,  thus  : 

Let  that  which  is  the  principal  caufeofthe  Inte- 
refl  be  put  in  the  firft  place,  that  which  betokeneth 
time  in  the  fecond  place,  and  the  remaining  in  the 
third.  Under  this  conditional  part  place  the  two 
other  terms,  each  under  its  like,  and  there  will  be 
a  blank  to  fupply  under  one  of  thofe  above,  either 
under  the  firft,  fecond,  or  third. 
Months.     /. 


roo 
SO 


12 


Ec 


Here 


The  Univerflil  Hiftory  of  Arts  rW  Science: 


2  12 

Here  the   blank  will  be  under  the    third  place, | 
multiply  the  three  laft  for  a  dividend,  and  the  two  j 
firft  for   a  divifor,  the  quotient  of  thefe  gives  the  | 
fixth;    that  is,     6x50x3  =  900,    and    100x12 
=:i2oo,rovP'  1200)90000(75=  15J.  required. 

If  the  demand  had  been,  in  how  many  months 
would  50/.  have  gained  15  J.  or  if  100/.  in  twelve 


318 


s, 
00 


d. 
o 


at 


that 


months  gains  6  /.  what  fhall  the  principal   be 
III  three  months  would  .^.in  15  j.    In  thefe  cales  the 
blank    would  have  been   under  the  firfl  or  fecond 
term  ;  then  by  another  rule,  multiply  the  firft,  fe- 
cond,' and  laft  for  a  dividend,  and  the  third  and  , 
lourth  for  a  dlvifor  ;  the  quotient  is  the  ani  wer.         ! 
/.       Months     /.  [ 

joo        12         6  i 

3      75  =  15^-  i 

Then  by  the  rule  100  x  12.  x. 75  =  90000   and  | 
6  X  3=18)900.(50/.  required. 

This  Rule  fhews  SimpU  IntereJI,  and  all  that  be-  j 
longs  to  it,  with  cafe,  and  was  thus  found  :  put  P  for 
the  Principal,  T  for  the  Time,  and  G  for  the  Gain 
in  the  Conditions,  and  p  t  g  anfwering,   it  will  be 
G  P  G^'  ,  .  , 

?:G::t:p:  -^and  T:Gp: :/ -Tjrp  =  ^-,    which 

is  the  firft  rule ;  that  is,  multiply  the  three  laft  for  a 
dividend,  and  the  two  firft  for  a  divifor,  and  be- 

■^^^  -  g,  therefore  Gtp-  Tpg,  and  con- 


caufe 


IF 


TPf  TPg     ....     , 

fequently  t  =  -jj/i'^d  p  =   jr-~  whrch  is  the 

fecond  rule. 

Compound  Interest,  is-that  which  is  count- 
ed  both  from  the  principal,    and  the  fimpl^  Intcreji  | 
forborn,  called  alfo  Intere^^  upon  IntereJI.  , 

This  fort  of  IntereJI  is  commonly  worked  by  d  -  \ 
cimal  Arithmetic^  ;  but  for  the  better  underfianding  1 
of  it  I  fhall  ftate  a  few  queftions,  to  be  performed 
bv  VKlg'.-r  Arithmetick.     For  example  : 

If  300/.   be   put  out  at  bl.  per  Cent,  per  Ann. 
reckoning  intereft  upon  intereft,  what  money  muft 
I  receive  then  ? 
/,         /. 
300  at  6  per  Cent. 


18I0Q 


300 


s, 
00 

00 


d. 

o  Principal 

o  Intereft 


118    00    o 


Increafe  the 
fitft  Year. 


19I08 
20 


12 

20 

4 


c|Ho 

/. 

3  57 


/. 

318 
19 


s. 
00 
01 


A 
o 

7 


337 


01 


Increafe  the 
2d  Year. 


d.      I. 

7  at  6  per  Cent. 

6 


20 


22 
20 


/. 

357 


21  43 
20 


/.       s. 

337     I 
20     4 

1 
6  1- 

357     6 

0  ^  Increafe  Third. 

;.    d.         I. 
6     0  1  at  6  per  Cent. 
6 

16  4 


8r  6 


:6 

4 

ojSG 


/. 

3 -'7 

21 


J. 

06 
08 


d. 

o 

9 


378    14     9  I  "toMith  Year. 


So  that  at  the  fourth  year's  end  he  muft  receive 
for  priucip:il  and  intereft  378  /.  14  ^  9  ''•  *• 


The 


ARITHMETIC  K. 


213 


This  way  of  operation   is    more   compendious 
than  by  the  Rule  of  Three. 

Firit  flate  your  queftion   as   before.     If  100/. 
gain  6/.  what  will  300/.  your  principal?  Multiply! 
firlt  your  principal  by  your  interefl ;  that  done,  cut 
off  the  two  firfr  figures  towards  your  right  hand  of 
the  pounds  with  a  line.     Then  multiply  them  by  I 
20,    12,  and  4,  and  all  above  two  figures  towards  ' 
your  rijrht  hand,  carry  over  the  line  to  the  left,  as 
you  fee  in  the  above-mentioned  example.  | 

Thus   much   for  Simple  and  Compound  Intereji  j 
till  we  come  to  Decimal  Arithmetic/;, 


Of  ExC  H  AN  G  E. 

Exchange  implies  the  trade  of  money  carried 
on  between  one  nation  and  another,  by  means  of 
Bills  of  Exchange. 

Example. 
A  merchant  delivered  530  /.  fterling  in  London.,  at 
20  J  ^cr /.  to  receive  the  fame,  by  a  Bill  of  Ex- 
change., at  Am/ierdam,  the  exchange  at  thirty-three 
(hillings  and  (out  pence  FlemiJ/j,  for  a  pound  fler- 
ling,  I  demand  the  fame  in  Flemijh  money. 

Note,  That  in  the  ftating  of  your  quedion,  your 

firft  and  third  numbers  mufi:  be  both  of  one  kind; 

if  the  firft  be  Jlcrling  money,  the    third  mull  be 

Ji£rling ;  if  the  firit  be  Flemijh,  the  third  muif  be 

Fle-mi)).     Therefore  I  a(k 

If  20  J   fieri,  give  331.  ^d,  what  will  530/.  fieri,  t 
s.      d.  I. 

If  20 33     4 530 

12  20 


Or  thus  fhorter ; 

/.     s.  d. 

3)  530  at  33  4 
33 


8 


17490 
176 


400 


10600 

400 


4240C00 


t2 
20)4240000(212000(176616 
40 12  ...  . 


883I6     8 


24 
20 

40 
40 


92 

H 

80 
72 

80 


80 


8 


AnfvVer  Flm.  883/.  Gs.  8  ^A 


1766J6    8 

88316    8 

I  afk  farther  at  what  rate  when  the  Exchangt 
from  London  to  Rotterdam,  when  I  de!ive^ed  ''oo 
pounds  Sterling  in  London  ;  and  received  in  Rotter- 
dam 10 10/.  FlemiJJi? 

If  700  /.  Sterling  make  loio  /.  Flemijh,  what  will 

20  /.  Sterling  ? 

I.     s.      d. 

Facii  per 'Rule  of  Three     1     8      lo- J 


/. 

/. 

s. 

d. 

Proof  700  at 

r 

8 

10  i 

1)  700 

0 

0 

0 

8  .1.  i  of  a  /.  Sterling 

8)140 

0 

0 

0 

6  d.  1  of  4  ■'■ 

8;  140 

0 

0 

0 

^d.L  oibd. 

2)    17 

0 

0 

0 

I  <i-  \k  of  3  ''• 

8 

15 

0 

0 

i-    oiid.l. 

4 

/ 

b 

0 

0 

14 

7 

0 

lOII 


I  Small  difference. 


Of  All  I G  ATI  ON. 

Alligation  is  the  Rule  of  Jl/fixtur,-, .teaching 
to  compound  feveral  fpecies  of  ingredienls  or  ccm- 
1  modifies  together,  according  to  any  intent  or  dc- 
j  fign  propofed  ;  and  is  either  medial  or  alternate. 

Medi.a.l  Aliignfion  {hews  the  rule  or  price  of 
•  mixtures,  when  the  feveral  quan':ities  of  the  mix- 
ture and  their  feveral  values  are  known. 

To  work  this  rule,  multiply  the  ingredients 
fevcrally  by  their  own  prices,  and  divide  the  furn 
of  thofe  Produili  by  the  fum  of  the  ingredients,  the 
Sluotient  anfvvers  tlie  qHcilion. 


E  c   2 


Tlierc- 


T%e  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  «;7^  Sciences. 


214 

Therefore  repeating  again  the  above-faid  exam- 
ple, I  demand  how  much  that  miftling  is  worth  ? 
Thus  according  to  rule. 


s.     d.             s. 

s. 

d. 

28                    2 

5                    9 

13 
18 

4 
0 

add 

13     4             18 

31 
12 

+ 

376 
5  Bufhels  of  Wheat 
9  Bufhels  of  Rye 

—  add 

14  Divifor 

Dividend. 

Then  376  divide  by  14. 

Anfiuer, 

IS.  2d.  i 

12  s.  d. 
14)376(261  2  2  + 
98-  24 

-h  or  . 

7 

96      2 
84     - 

fine,  and  he  would  melt  altogether,  and  know 
what  finenefs  a  pound  weight  of  that  mafs  would 
come  to  ? 


12 

So  that  I  conclude  that  a  bufhcl  of  that  miftling 
may  be  afforded  for  2s.  2d  ^,  or  ifarth.  Which 
is  the  refolution  of  the  queflion  propofed. 

In  Alligation  medial,  the />•«?/■  of  the  work  is  by 
comparing  the  total  value  of  the  feveral  fimples, 
with  the  value  of  the  whcle  mixture  ;  and  when 
thole  turns  agree,  the  operation  is  perfeft  ;  lb  as  in 

this  example. 

s.  d. 
5  Bufhels  of  Wheat  ?X2s.%d.\s      134^  ^^^j 
9  Bufhels  of  Rye  at  2  J.  18  o  J 

all  which  amounts  unto       31  4 

which  is  likewife  the  value  of  14  bufhels  of  wheat 
at  2  1.  2d.  +  |.  For  by  the  Rule  of  Three,  if  i 
bufhel  cofl  2  5.  2d.  +  |  what  v/i'.l  14  bufhels  .'' 
Anjwer,  31  ;.  4(5?.  with  the  fradion  ',  or  \fa;th. 

The  nature,  quality,  ^c.  of  the  feveral  ingredi- 
ents of  a  mixture  being  given,  to  find  the  tempe- 
rament, or  degree  of  finenefs  refulting  from  the 
whole.  Place  the  fev^tal  quantities  of  the  mixture 
in  rows  ;  againft  which,  place  the  feveral  qualities 
or  finenefs  ;  then  as  the  fum  of  the  quantities  is  to 
their  produft,  (b  is  the  unity  to  the  quality  or  fine- 
nefs of  the  mixture.     For  example. 

A  Goldfmith  has  3  ft.  weight  of  filver  bullion  of 
7  «z.  fine,  15  ib.  of  8  M,  \  fine,  and   1 3  of  10  0%. 


ft. 

8  of 
7 

«z. 

7 

ft. 

2)15 

8 

0%. 
of  8  1 

ft.     0%. 
13  of  10 
10 

— — 

56 

120 

7 

127 

I 

X 

130 

ad 

d  56 
127  f 
130 

8 
13 

2 

36 
2 

Dividf 

:nd 

627 

Divifor 

72 

ez.  pVJt.  gr. 

72)627(8  +  -5f  or  I?  makes  14     4 
576 

51 

Anfvuer,  the  mafs  mufl  be  8  0%.  \\pivt.  4  gr. 

Given  the  total  oi  a  mixture  with  the  whole  va- 
lue ;  and  the  value  of  the  feveral  ingredients,  to 
find  the  feveral  quantities  mixed  though  unequally, 
Multiply  the  total  of  the  mixture  by  the  leaft  value, 
fubtradt  the  produft  from  the  total  value  ;  and  the 
remainder  is  the  firft  dividend.  Then  take  the  faid 
leafl  value  from  the  greatefl  valued  ingredient,  and 
the  remainder  is  the  firft  divifor.  The  quotient  of 
this  divifion  fhcws  the  quantity  of  thehigheft  priced 
ingredient,  and  the  other  is  the  compliment  of  the 
whole.  And  when  more  ingredients  than  two  are 
in  the  compofition,  the  divifors  are  the  feveral  re- 
mains of  the  lead  value,  taken  from  the  other  :  The 
dividends  are  the  remains  left  upon  the  divifions, 
till  none  remain  there  ;  which  will  be  one  fliort  of 
the  number  of  ingredients  ;  and  this  defective  in- 
gredient is  to  be  fupplied  as  a  complement  ;  and  in 
divifion  no  more  mufl  be  taken  in  every  quotient, 
than  that  there  may  remain  enough  for  the  other  di- 
vifors ;   and  the  laft  to  leave  nothing  remaining. 

Alligation  Alternate,  is  when  the  rates  or 
qualities  of  feveral  fimples  are  given  ;  and  the  quan- 
tity of  each  is  required  necefTary  to  make  a  mixture 
of  the  given  rate  or  quality.  Alligation  Alternate., 
fhcws  the  due  proportion  of  feveral  ingredients  ; 
and  counter-changes  the  places  of  fuch  excefles  or 
differences  as  arife  between  the  mean  price  and  the 

extremes  i 


y^  R    I  r  H  M  E  T  I  C  K, 


21$ 


extremes ;  afcribing  that  to  the  greater  extreme, 
which  proceeds  from  the  lefler ;  and  contrarily. 

The  Rules  which  obtain  in  Alligation  Alternate 
are  thefe. 

FirJ},  You  muft  fet  down  the  numbers  of  which 
you  will  make  the  Alligation^  orderly  one  under  the 
other  :  and  the  common  number  whereinto  you 
muft  reduce  them,  fet  on  the  left  hand.  Then 
note  which  of  the  faid  numbsrs  are  lefler  than  that 
common  number,  and  which  of  them  be  greater, 
and  with  a  draught  of  your  pen  link  two  numbers 
together  ;  fo  that  the  leaft  number  may  be  flill  link- 
ed with  the  greateft,  and  the  greateft  with  the  fmal- 
left.  Then  add  up  all  thefe  differences  into  one 
total,  which  fhall  be  the  firft  number  in  the  Rule 
of  Three,  and  the  fecond  number  the  common 
number,  then  the  third  muft  be  each  difference 
done  by  itfelf.     For  example  : 

A  Vintner  has  four  forts  of  low  wine  of  four  fe- 
veral  prizes  ;  the  firff-  at  8  ./.  per  gallon,  the  fecond 
at  JO^A  per  gallon,  the  third  at  ^5  ^.  per  gallon, 
and  the  fourth  at  18^.  per  gallon  :  now  he  would 
mix  all  thefe  forts  together,  that  a  gallon  of  thefe  | 
{lower,  decay'd)  wines  may  be  v/orth  17. d.  the 
puncheon  holding  84  gallons,     Then  : 

Gall. 

—6        If  1 5 84 6 

— 3     Makes  33  +    |  of  the  firft  fort_ 


I2< 


10 
18 


_:    if»5 


Gall 
-84- 


15 


Makes  16  +  a  of  the  fecond  fort. 


Gall. 

If  15  give 84 what  will  2  ? 

Makes  1 1  +1  of  the  third  fort. 
Gall. 

If  1 5  give 84 what  will  4  I 

Makes  22  +  1  of  the  fourth  fort. 
which  quantities  added  up  make  84,  viz. 

Fralfions 
3       ^)\o{2iov  Fractions. 
4 


add 


33 
16 
II 

22 

2       — 
—       10 


I 

2 


forts  together,  as  may  make  a  mafs  of  gold  to  con- 
tain 1 6  ounces  of  21  caradts  fine.  Then  he  pro- 
ceeds thus : 

Oz. 
If  12 60 c 


21 


1 


24- 
22- 
18- 
16- 


5 

3 
I 

3 

12 


Makes  25  ounces  oi  \)\t  firft. 

Oz. 
If  12 60 3 


Makes  15  ounces  of  the  fecond. 
Oz. 

If  12 60 r 

Makes  5  ounoes  of  the  third. 
Oz. 

If  1 2 60 3 

Makes  15  ounces  of  the  fourth. 

which  quantities  fo  taken  and  mixed,  make  up  the 
mafs  of  60  ounces  of  21  carafts  fine. 


Oz. 
viz,  25  of  the  firft  fort 
J  5  of  the  fecond  fort 
5  of  the  third  fort 
1 5  of  the  fourth  fort 

60  of  2 1  carafls  fine 
Of  Position. 

When  we  calculate  on  fevcral  falfe  numbers,  ta- 
ken at  random,  as  if  they  were  true  ones  ;  and 
from  the  differences  found  therein,  determine  the 
number  fought ;  fuch  rule  is  called  in  Arithmetick 
the  rule  of  Falfe  Pofition, 

Position  is  either  fingle  or  double.  Single  Por- 
tion is  when  there  happens  in  the  propofitions  fome 
partition  of  numbers  into  parts  proporlional,  in 
which  cafe  the  queftion  may  be  refolved  at  one  ope- 
ration by  this  rule.  Imagine  a  number  at  pleafure, 
and  work  therewith,  according  to  the  tenor  of  the 
queftion,  as  if  it  was  the  true  number  ;  and  what 
proportion  there  is  between  the  falfe  conclufion  and 
the  falfe  Pofition,  fuch  proportion  the  given  num- 
ber has  to  the  number  fought,  the  number  Ibught 
by  argumentation,  fhall  be  the  firft  term  of  the 
Rule  of  Three;  the  number  fuppofed  the  fecond 
term,  and  the  given  number  the  third.  For  example; 


for  the  Proof   84 


Three  men  build  a  ftiip  (which  coflthem  2700/.) 
viz.  A,  B,  and  C,  and  they  fo  agree  that  B  is  to  pay 
double  what  A  muft  pay,  and  C  triple  of  v/hat  B 
Further,  A  Goldfmith  has  divers  forts  of  gold,  pays  ;  I  would  know  how  much  every  man  ought 
viz.  fome  of  24  carafts,  others  of  22  caradls  Lg  pay  ?  To  refolve  this  quci'tion,  I  fuppofe  y^  paid 
others  of  18  cara6ts,  and  others  of  16  caradts  5/.  therefore  B  paid  12/.  and  C  ntuft  pay  36/.  But 
fine;  is  defirous   to  melt  as  much  of  all  thefe  four  ky  this  Pofition  of  6/. +  12/. +  36/.  added,  makts 

I  but 


2i6  Toa  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  At^t^  ^j;?^  Sciences. 


but  54/.  -which  by  the  intent  of  the  que.Tion  ought 
to  have  been  2700/.  neverthelcfs  by  thoic  fuppofiti- 
onal  numbers  I  fliall  difcover  the  true  fmns  which 
the  fevcral  parties  ought  to  pay  ;  for  I  fay,  by  the 
Ruh  of  Three  : 

I  I.  1. 

\Jl.     As  54  is  to 6 what  will  2700 

6 


16200 


54)16200(300  A  muft  pay 

l62-' 


000 


id.  As  54  is  to —  12  what  will  27C0 

12 


32400 


54)32400(600  B  mufl  pay 
324  ■• 


I.  I. 

■^d.  As  54  13  to — —36. 


/. 

•  what  will  2700 
36 


16200 
8100 

97200 


/. 
54)97200(1800  C  mufl  pay 

54--- 


432 
432 


A 
Proof    J  pays     300 
B  pays      600 
C  pays    1800 

Total  is  2700  the  fum  propounded. 


Farther,  A  gentleman  leaving  about  him  a  cer- 
tain number  of  crowns,  faid,  if  a  fourth,  a  third, 
and  a  fixth  of  them  were  added  to  what  he  had 
about  him,  they  would  make  45  crowns,  what 
were  the  number  of  crowns  he  had  about  him  .' 
Anfiver  60  crowns.  I  fuppofe  then  he  had  24 
crowns. 

Croivf:s. 

^  of  24  is  6 

J  of  24  is  8 

J  of  24  is  4 

all  which  make  1 8 

But  if  iScomeof  24  what  will  45  Crotvns  ? 

24 


180 
90 


18)    1080  (Go  Crowns. 
Crowns  108 

Proof  J  of  60  is  1 5         

i  of  60  is  20  o 

i  of  60  is  10 

makes  45  Crowns. 

The  Double  Pofttion  is,  when  there  can  be  no 
partition  in  the  numbers,  to  make  a  proportion. 
In  this  cafe  therefore,  you  muft  make  a  fuppofition 
twice  ;  proceeding  therein  according  to  the  tenor  of 
the  queltion.  If  neither  of  the  fuppofed  numbers 
folve  the  propofition,  obferve  the  errors,  and  whe- 
ther they  be  greater  or  lefler  than  the  refolution  re- 
quires ;  and  mark  the  errors  accordingly  with  the 
figns  +  and  — 

Multiply  contrarywife,  the  one  pofition  by  the 
other  error  ;  and  if  the  errors  be  both  too  great,  or 
both  too  little,  fubtrail  the  one  product  from  the 
other,  and  divide  the  difference  of  the  produdis  by 
the  difference  of  the  errors.  But  if  the  errors  be 
unlike,  viz.  one  great  and  the  other  little,  add  the 
produfls,  and  divide  the  fum  thereof  by  the  fums 
of  the  errors  added  to  the  greater  ;  for  the  propor- 
tion of  the  errors  is  the  fame  with  the  proportion  of 
the  excefPes  or  defects  of  the  numbers,  fujipbfed,  to 
the  numbers  fought.  A  i'c-w  Examples  will  de- 
monftrate  this  rule  to  be  plain  and  eafy. 

Note,  That  this  chara(3:er  —  fignifies  that  the 
lefTer  of  the  two  numbers,  betwixt  which  it  is 
found,  ought  to  be  fubtracled  from  the  greater; 
and  that  this  +  intimates  that  the  numbers  betwixt 
which  it  is  found,  ought  to  be  added  together. 


\Vr 


A   R    1    1    H    M    E    r  I    C    K. 


217 


We  muf!:  obfcrvc  farther,  that  for  the  operation 
of  this  rule,  we  inall  draw  two  lines  a-crofs,  and 
place  the  terms  of  the  falfe  pofition,  (viz..  thofe 
that  have  the  fame  denomination)  at  the  uppermoft 
end  of  the  crofs,  and  each  error  under  its  refped:ive 
pofition,  at  the  lower  end  of  the  fame  crofs. 

Example. 

A  certain  man  being  demanded  what  was  the 
age  of  his  four  fons  ?  anfwered  that  his  eldelt  was 
four  years  older  than  the  fccond  ;  the  fecond  four 
years  older  than  the  third-,  the  third  four  years  older 
than  the  fourth  ;  and  the  fourth  was  half  the  age 
of  the  eldcil  ;  We  demand  then  what  was  the  age 
of  each  fon  ? 

To  anfwer  which,  fuppofe  fuft  the  age  of  the 
eldeft  16,  then  by  the  que!' ion,  the  fccond  muft 
be  12,  the  third  8,  and  the  fourth  or  youngeft  4: 
but  it  ought  to  have  been  S  ;  fo  that  it  wants  4  of 
■what  it  ought  to  be.  Therefore  make  a  fecond  fup 
pofition,  and  take  20  for  the  age  of  the  eldefi:  fon, 
then  the  acre  of  the  fecond  will  be  16,  the  a";c  of 
the  third  12,  and  the  age  of  the  fourth  or  youngeft 
8,  which  fhould  have  been  half  20,  fo  that  it 
wants  2  of  what  it  ought  to  have  been ;  fo  that  in 
both  thefe  fuppofitions  there  are  defefts,  and  by 
confequence  alike  the  fchemc  follows  ; 


(24  both   defcfts    work    accordingly    as 
per  rule. 


20 
4 


32 


4 
2 


32  fubtradt 
48  Dividend 


J  Divifor.  2)48(24  Years  of  age  the  eldefi 

Therefore  the  age  of  the  eldeft  is 
24  eldeft  fon. 
20  fecond  fon 
16  third  Son 
12  youngeft  fon. 

Which   anfwers     the   queftion  ;     for 
youngeft  fon,  is  half  the  age  of  the  eldeft. 

Farther,  let  it  be  required  to  divide  loo/.  among 
thre,  perlons,  viz.  A.  B.  C.   in  fuch  a  manner  that 


12, 

Vl'Z.. 


the 
24. 


the  fliarc  of  B.  may  be  the  triple  of  the  fharc  of  A" 
and  4/.  over  and  above  ;  alfo  that  the  fhare  of  C* 
may  be  equal  to  the  fum  of  the  fhares  of  A.  and 
B.  and  6  /.  over  and  above.      Thus  : 

Let  the  firft  pofition  for  the  Ihare  of  A.  1  2 
be  12,  thenB.  muft  have  40/.  and  C  58/.  4.0 
but  12/.  40/.  and  58/.  is  no  /.  which  is  ic/.  58 
too   much.  

1  hen  for  a  fecond  Pofition  I  fuppofe  for  /.  S 
the  fharc  of  A.  8/.  then  B.  muft  have  28/. 
and  C.  42/.;  but  8  +  28  +  42  =  78/.;  but 
this  78/.  is  too  little  by  22  ;  for  if  1  fubtrad 
78  from  100,  there  will  remaiii  22,  v/hich  is 
too  little;  therefore  this  qnettioii,  by  the  fup- 
pofitions, proves  one  too  little  by  22,  and 
the  other  fuppofition  id.  too  much. 

264  +  80 

12  8 

241- 

ic/.   +   I  lb-  or  IC  /.    15J. 


28 
Z2 

78 


+ 

22 

32 

/. 

s. 

Proof  A. 

10 

15 

B. 

36 

5 

C. 

53 

0 

100        0    Total. 

Farther,  A  man  gives  away  his  eftate  in  this 
manner,  to  A.  f.  and  he  gave  back  10  /.  to  B.  7, 
and  he  gave  back  6  /.  and  to  C.  |,  and  he  gave 
back  4  /.  Laft  of  all  he  had  16  /.  remaining,  what 
was  his  eftate  ? 

For  fuppofition,  fuppofe 

60,  then 

60  i  30 — io=:2o 

60  4  20 —  6=14 

60  J   15 —  4=11 

45 
45  +  i6zr6i,  therefore 
is  1  too  much. 


5)240(48  360 

20.       Qo  120 


40 
40 


Second  fuppofition  ;  ag^in, 
fuppofe  I  .0/.   then, 
120'  i  60 — lOirijo 
120-   i  40—  2  =  34 
120.  I   30 —  4=126 

I  lO 

I  10+ 16— 126,    which 
is  6  lOO  much. 
His  Eftate  848  /. 

Proof, 
i   24 — 10=  14   A. 
j  16—  £  =  10  B. 
i  12—4=  8C. 


48- 
4S- 

48- 


3"  +  io  =  48/. 


Tn.KC- 


21 8  'The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  <2;?^  Sciences. 


P'ractions. 
Fraction  in  Arhhmetuk  is  a  part  ordivifionof 
an  unit  or  integer  ;  or  a  member  ;   which  (lands  to 
an  unit,  \\\  the  relation  of  a  part  to  its  whole. 

FraSiions  are  ufually  divided  into  vulgar  and 
decimal. 

Vulgar  Fractions,  called  alfo  fimply  Frac- 
tions, arc  always  expreffed  by  two  numbers,  the 
one  wrote  over  the  other  with  a  line  between 
tliem. 

The  lower,  called  the  denominator  of  the  Frac- 
tion, denotes  the  unit  or  whole  that  is  divided  into 
parts  i  and  the  upper,  called  the  numerator  of  the 
Fraction,  exprefles  the  parts  given  in  the  prefent 
cafes.  Thus  two  third  parts  of  a  line,  or  other 
things  are  wrote  |  ;  where  the  denominator  3  (hews 
that  the  whole  line  is  fuppofed  to  be  divided  into 
three  equal  parts  ;  and  the  numerator  2  indicates  or 
affigns  two  of  fuch  parts. 

Again,  twenty-nine  fixtieths  is  wrote  ||,  where 
the  numerator  29  exprelTcs  29  parts  of  an  integer 
divided  into  60  i  and  the  denominator  60  gives  the 
denomination  to  thefe  parts,  which  are  called 
fixtieths. 

The  real  defign  of  adding  the  denominator,  is  to 
fliew  what  aliquot  part  the  broken  number  has  in 
common  with  unity.  In  all  Fractions,  as  the  nu- 
7nerator  is  to  the  denominator,  fo  is  the  fraction 
itfelf  to  the  whole,  whereof  it  is  a  Fraction,  Thus 
fuppofing  J  of  a  pound  equal  to  15  ^.  it  is  evident 
that  3  :  4. : :  15  :  20,  whence  it  follows,  That  there 
maybe  infinite  Fractions  of  the  fame  value  one  with 
another ;  in  as  much  as  there  may  be  infinite 
numbers  found,  which  fhall  have  the  ratio  of  3  14. 

FraSlions  are  either  propor  or  improper.  Pro- 
per Fraction,  is  that  where  the  numerator  is 
lefs  than  the  whole  or  integer,  as  ^a.  Improper 
Fraction,  is  where  the  «»?«cr(7/ar  is  either  equal 
to  or  bigger  th.in  the  denominator  ;  and  of  courfe 
•the  Fraction  equal  to  or  greater  tlian  the  whole,  or 
integer,  as  If,  or  |^,  or  fl. 

FraFtions,  again,  are  t'lthex  fimple  or  compound. 
Simple  Fractions,  are  fuch  as  confift  of  only 
one  numerator,  and  one  denominator,  as  ^,  or  xjlsj 
i^c.  Compound  Fr.\ctions,  called  alfo  Frac- 
tions of  Fra{iions,  are  fuch  as  confift  of  feveral  nu- 
merators and  denominators,    as  f  of  -;-i  of  |  of  |t, 

Of  FraSlions  thofe  are  equal  to  each  other,  whofe 
numerators  have  the  fame  ratio  to  their  denominators. 
Thofe  are  greater,  whofe  numerators  have  a  greater 
ratio  ;  and  thofe  lefs,  which  have  lefs  :  Thus  J  :r 


-J;=T'i=:|o  =  r.     But  i  is  greater  than 


and 


lefs  than  \%.  Hence  if  both  the  numerator  and  de- 
nominator of  a  Fraction,  as  +,  be  multiplied  or  di- 
vided by  the  fame  number  2  ;  the  fai5t  in  the  form- 


er cafe,  Tx,  and  the  quotients  in  the  latter  *  will 
conftitute  FraElions,  equal  to  the  firft  Frailion 
given. 

The  Arithmetick  of  FraSlions  confifts  in  the  Re- 
duSiion,  Addition^  SuhtraSiion,  and  MultiplicatioK 
thereof. 

The  Reduction  of  Fractions  is  to  bring 
integers  into  FraHions,  or  contrarywife  FraElions  of 
divers  denominations  into  one,  or  what  you'll  want 
or  defire. 

When  three  or  more  FraSlions,  which  have  un- 
equal denominators,  arc  given  to  be  reduced,  we 
muft  multiply  the  numerator  of  each  Fraction,  and 
all  the  denominators,  except  its  own,  continually 
one  into  another  ;  fo  are  the  feveral  produ6h, 
arifing  from  fuch  continual  A'lultipHcation,  a  new 
numerator.  And  by  multiplying  all  the  denominators 
together  continually,  the  produfl  is  a  common  de- 
nominator to  all  the  new  numerators.  Thus  are  re- 
duced proper  Fraiiions.     For  Example  : 

Reduce!  *  into  one  common  denominator.  Thus: 


iS 


i6 

10 


for  three  times  5  is  1 5,  and  4  times  4 
is  1 6,  new  numerators,  and  4  times  5 
is  20.  So  that  \l  Y*  are  common  dt- 
nominalors,  and  equal  to  f  and  |. 

Likewife  reduce  -J,  |,  7°-,  %,  \\,  into  cne  denomina- 
tion, being  reduced  per  our  Rule  are  : 

Numerator  15120  18 144  2^200  13440  36720 

Denominator     3024.0  302.^0  30240  30240  30240 

To  reduce  FraSlions  of  FraSlions,  the  Rule  is  to 

multiply  all  the  fiumerators  together,  and  take  the 
produdl  thereof  for  a  numerator,  and  likewife  to 
multiply  all  the  denomiitators  together,  and  make 
the  total  a  new  denominator.     For  Example  : 

Reduce  f  of  |  of  5  into  zfingle  Trallion  ;  being  re- 
duced it  makes  4!i>  ^rid  is  z  Jingle  FraSiion. 


of  4  of  ? 


24 

Again  reduce  %  of  f  of  \  of  4  of  >,    into  a  fmgle 

FraSiion  :  

Numerator        720  |   720  |  720  |   720 
Com.  Denominator 


0720 


mo 


The  ReduSlion  of  improper  FraSlions  into  whole 
numbers,  is  done  in  dividing  the  numerator  by  the 
denominator,  fo  is  the  quotient  the  whole  number, 
or  mixed  number  fought.     For  Example  : 

I  Reduce 


A  R  I  r  H  M  E  r  I  C  K. 


219 


Reduce  i|-into  its  equivalent  mixed  number,  the 
number  will  be  S  /.  4  or  5  /.  4  s.  for  if  26  be  di- 
vided by  5,  the  quotient  is  ^  |. 

25 


Reduce 


Reduce 


i|  /<?«/ 


2/. 


4)io(2| 
8 


12)406(33. 
36- 

46 
36 

10 


Alfo  the  improper  Fra£tion  ^  will  be  reduced  in- 
to the  whole  number  13. 


To  reduce  a  mix'd  number-,  as  4  fj  into  an  im- 
proper FraSlion  of  the  fame  value.  Multiply  the 
integer  4,  by  12,  the  denominator  of  the  FraSiion  ; 
and  to  the  produ£l  48  add  the  numerator  ;  the  fum 
59,  fet  over  the  former  denominator  4-',  conftitutes 
the  Frailiqn  required. 

To  reduce  a  whole  number  into  an  improper  Frac- 
tion, multiply  the  given  number  by  the  intended 
denominator,  and  place  the  product  for  a  numerator 
over  it.     For  Example  : 

Reduce  15  into  a  Fra£lion,  whofe  denominator 
fiiall  be  12.  Facit.^^  for  15  multiplied  by  12 
Facit^W. 

12 


To  find  the  value 
parts   of    its    integer. 


merator  9  by  2C,  the  number  of  known  parts  in  a 
pound,  and  divide  the  produ<ft  by  the  denominator 
16,  the  quotient  gives  1 1  y.  Then  multiply  the 
remainder  4  by  12,  ihe  number  of  known  parts  in 
the  next  inferior  denomination  ;  and  dividing  the 
produ£l  by  16,  as  before,  the  quotient  is  ■^d.  So 
that  .^  of  a  pound  =.  11  s.  3  (/. 

Thus  much  for  Reduilion  of  Fractions.  We'll 
proceed  now  to  Addition. 

Additios  ef  vulgar  Fra£?ions.  i.  If  the  given 
FraSlions  have  different  denominators,  reduce  them 
to  the  fame  ;  then  add  the  numerators  together,  and 
under  the  fum  write  the  common  denominator. 
Thus,  for  Example. 


l  +  f— TT  +  TS — '  7  J" 


♦I- 


andKHHI'  +  IJ.+  fl= 


180 

of  a  FraSiion  in  the  known 
Suppofe   it   were  required 


to  know  what  is  ,\-  of  a  pound  \  multiply  the  nu- 
ll. 


2.  If  Compound Fraclions  are  given  to  be  added  ; 
they  muft  firft  be  reduced  to  fimple  ones  ;  and  if 
the  Fraffiom  be  of  different  denominations,  as  |  of 
a.  pound,  and  *  of  2l  Jhilling,  they  muft  lirfl  be  re- 
duced to  Frailions  of  the  fame  denomination  of 
pounds, 

3.  To  add  mixed  numbers  :  The  integers  are  firft 
to  be  added  ;  then  the  fraftional  parts ;  and  if  their 
fum  be  a  proper  Fraction,  only  annex  it  to  the  fum 
of  integers.  If  it  be  an  improper  Fraction  reduce  it 
to  a  mixed  number,  adding  the  integral  parts  there- 
of to  the  fum  of  integers,  and  the  fraSiional  part 
after  it.     Thus,  5  f +  41=10^. 

For  the  Subtraction  of  Fractions.  The 
Rule  is  —  when  the  numbers  given  are  both  fingle 
Frailions,  and  have  one  and  the  fame  denominator., 
to  fubtra(St  the  leiTer  denominator  from  the  greater, 
and  place  the  remainder  over  the  common  denomi- 
nator, fo  is  fuch  new  FraElion  the  difference  between 
the  Frailions  given.     For  Example  : 

Subtraft  \  from  |,  the  difference  is  |,  or  f . 

But  when  they  have  unequal  denominators,  they 
muft  be  reduced  into  Fractions  of  the  fame  value, 
which  fliall  have  a  common  denominator,  and  then 
find  the  difterence.     For  Example  : 

Subtraft  |  from  |  reft  3*3,  for  ^  and  {,  being  re- 
duced,>will  X\  and  ♦§,  fo  the  difference  you  ice  to 

be  7V  .         .  u  , 

When  one   of  the  numbers  given  is  a  whole 

number,  or  a  mixt  number,  or  if  either  of  them 

are  mixed    numbers,    reduce  fuch  whole   or  mixt 

numbers  into  an  improper  Fra6iion,  or  Fractions, 

and  then  work  as  before. 

Subtraa  7  1  from  12,  the  remainder  is  found  4I, 

for  thefe  two  FraSiicns  v,  ill  be  found  to  be  if,  and 

i^,  whofe  difference  is  U  or  4|. 

F  f  In 


2  20  Tloe  Univeriiil  Hifiory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

In  like  manner  3  /.  |,  being  to  be  fubtradled  from 
5  /.  I,  the  remainder  will  be  found  _,  or  2  /,  -jf, 
as  by  the  fiibfequent  operation. 

/.  /. 


5^ 
4 


f-9 
44 


1 2  Denom.     So  there  is  4 1 ,  or  2/.  -rf, 
(as  before. 


:;  Ktimerator.      For  4  multiplied  by  3  is  12  for 

(Numerator. 


21 
.T 


From  1 2  take  7  -|  Thus : 

5 

60 
38 


Reft  *| 


For  anfwer  remains  '|, 


22 
or  4  |. 

When  a  whole  number  is  given  to  be  fubtraftcd 
from  a  mixt  number,  fubtrail  the  faid  whole  num- 
ber from  the  whole  part  of  the  mixt  number  ;  and 
unto  the  remainder  annex  tht  fractional  part  of  the 
mixt  number  given,  fo  is  the  mixt  number  fo  found 
the  difference  fought.     For  Example  : 

Received  *f  of  a/««»</,  laid  out  7  founds,  what  remains  ? 

24 
7  Subtraft 

1 7  \  Remains. 

When  a  FraSi'ton  is  given  to  be  fubtrafled  fi-om 
an  integer,  fubtrail  the  numerator  from  the  denomi- 
nator, and  place  that  which  remains  over  tkiz  deno- 
minator, which  ns-w FraSfion  is  the  difFerence  fought, 
So  I  being  fubtraiScd  from  an  integer,  or  i,  the  re- 
mainder is  . 

When  a  Fraflion  is  given  to  be  fubtracled  from 
a  whole  number  greater  than  i,  fubtra£t  the  faid 
FraEiion  from  one  of  the  integers  given  by  the  lafl 
rule  ;  the  remaining  FraStions  being  annexed  to  the 
number  of  integers  leflened  by  r,  will  give  the  re- 
mainder. Thus  A  beino;  fubtrafted  from  6,  the  re- 
mainder  is  5!^. 

To  fubtradt  a  whole  number  and  a  Fraiiion  from 
a  whole  number  and  a  FraHiat,  the  FraSliom  muft 
be  firft  reduced  into  one  denomination,  then  one 
numerator  fubtradled  from  the  other ;  and  the  in- 
tegers fubtrafled,  as  in  whole  numbers.  For  Ex- 
ample : 


Received  30  /.  ^,  laid  out  10/  {,  firft  rot'uee  'and  \ 

(into  one  denominacion. 


30. 
10. 


Reft 


When  Fraiiions  of  FraBiom  are  to  be  fubtrafled, 
they  are  to  be  reduced  into  fingle  Frailions,  then 
fubtrafl:  as  before. 


Subtraa  f  of  f  from  I  of  |. 


4 

5 5 

3  s 


Being  reduced  they  are 
(I  and  i 


Reft^t 


IS 

Thofe  FraElions2xe,  always  accoifnted  the  greateft, 
whofe  numerator  multiplied  by  the  denominator  of 
the  other  Fraction  makes  the  greateft  number. 
Thus  \  is  greater  than  |  ;  for  7  times  5  is  greater 
than  8  times  3. 

\r\  Multiplication  of  vulgar  Fractions .  i.  If  the 
Fraiiions  propofed  be  both  fimple,  multiply  the  nu- 
merators  one  by  another  for  a  new  numerator,  and 
the  denominvtors  for  a  new  denominator.  Thus  \ 
into  I  produces  \l. 

We  muft  obferve  in  this  place,  that  as  whole 
numbers  multiplied  by  whole  numbers  increafe  the 
produdl  ;  fo  proper  FraSlions  multiplied  by  proper 
FraSJions  diminifii  the  produft.  For  as  i  multi- 
plied by  I  makes  but  I,  fo  that  which  is  lefs  than 
I  being  multiplied  by  |  of  a  pound  makes  but  t  a 
pound,  I  by  f  =  -5  or  f . 

2.  If  one  of  them  be  a  mixed  or  whole  number, 
it  muft  be  reduced  to  an  improper  Fraction,  and 
then  proceed  as  in  the  laft  rule.  Thus  7  f  being 
multiplied  by  5,!,  the  produ<£l:  will  be  found  42. 


7 

2 


by 


5 

s 
28 


for  28  by 
>5 


10 


l|0)42|0(42 

Though  there  may  be  other  rules  for  the  Multi- 
plication of  mixed  numbers,  that  ufed  by  joiners, 
carpenters,  and  bricklayers,  commonly  called  Crofs 
Midtiplication,  is  at  prefent  very  much  in  ufe.  Thus 
if  it  be  required  to  multiply  120  feet  \  by  48  feet  f, 
firft  multiply  the  whole  numbers  continually  ;  thus 
120  by  48,  and  place  the  produd  orderly  one  under 

the  other. 

y  Thus 


A  R   I   T  H    M   E   T  I   C   K, 


22t 


Thus  the  whole  numbers  make  5760, 
then  multiply  alternately,  or  crofs-ways, 
viz.  take  I  of  48,  which  is  is  12,  alfo 
take  J  of  120,  which  is  60,  orderly  to  be 
added  to  the  former.  Lajlly,  add  all  toge- 
ther, and  to  the  fum  add  the  producSt  of 
the  two  Fra^ions,  as  in  this  Example,  the 
produiSt  of  the  multiplication  of  j  by  -f, 
which  is  I,  fo  the  total  produ<3:  required 
will  be  5832 1,  as  you  fee  by  the  operation 
in  the  margent. 


I20i 

Operation  by  FraSiions  by  the  laft  Rule. 

481 

/. 

s. 

d. 

960 
480 

5 

20 

5 

5 

5</.  is  tIoF  »i  viz.  + 

5760 

105 

1&5 

20 

12 

60 

20 

240 

5 

20 

B 

400 
12 

4200 
210 

100 

5832! 

Tn  like  manner  multiply  4  f  by  4  i,  or  4  x.  6  ^.  by 

(4  s.  6  d. 


4f 

i6 
2 

20I 


s.       d. 

4       6     by  4  J.  6  </. 

4       6 

16 
2 

2^ 


20 


For  by  multiplying  crofs-ways,  faying  6  times  4 
is  24  d.  which  is  2  ^..  and  fo  alternately  again  it  is 
2  s.  and  the  Frailion  being  5  of  a  /hilling  is  3  ^. 
fo  that  4  ^.  bd.  multiplied  by  4  j.  6  ^.  is  20  s.   3  ^. 

In  like  manner  multiply  3  feet  6  inches  by  3 
feet  6  indies. 

Feet 

It 


1  a 


12; 


/(?f;V  12  Feet  I 


— —  25200 

4800NewPen.      ICO 


253J00  New  Num* 


48I00 


4f? 

48 

2304 


*il 


by  ^ii  253- 

253 

1265 

506 

64009 


Anfwer  ^If^  equal  to  27/.  15^.  -]d.  s-  tI. 

The  proof  of  this  quefHon  by  the  Rule  of  Three 
diredl. 


I — 

20 

20 
12 

240 


-5  '5 

20 

105 

12 

1265 


d. 

5- 


/. 

-S 

20 


d. 
5 


105 
12 

1265 
1265 

6325 

7590 
?533 
1265 

1606225. 


F  2 


i« 


22  2  T}>e  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ««fl^  Sciences. 


12 


240)1600225(6667(5515 
1440-  •  •    60      

27|i57:||  =  |  +  t| 

1602       66 
1440       60 


1622 

1440 

1825 
1680 

145 


67 
60 


If  i  of  a  yard  coft  |  of  a  pound  what  will  |  of 
a  yard. 


I- 


7 

» 


20 
7 


18 
8 


Num.  140 


i  +  oUa 


144  Denom. 

Anfwer  W\  or  -Z^ 


1*0170 
'♦♦'7-i 


Further:  If  3  yards  of  broad  cloth  coft  2/  f, 
what  will  14  I  yards  coft. 


For  the  Dlvifton  of  Fraiilom.  i.  If  the  Frail! - 
ens  propofed  be  both  fimple,  multiply  the  denomina- 
tor of  the  divifor,  by  the  numerator  of  the  dividend  j 
the  produdl  is  the  numerator  of  the  quotient.  Then 
multiply  the  numerator  of  the  divifor  by  the  deno- 
minator of  the  dividend,  the  produft  is  the  denomi- 
nator of  the  quotient.     Thus  |)|(|f . 

2.  If  either  dividend,  divifor,  or  both,  be  whole 
or  mixed  numbers,  reduce  them  to  improper  Frac- 
tions i  and  if  they  be  compound  Fraiiions,  reduce 
them  to  fimple  ones ;  and  proceed  as  in  the  firft 
rule. 

In  D'lvljion  of  Fractions,  obferve  that  the  quoti- 
ent is  always  greater  than  the  dividend ;  becaufe  in 
all  divifion,  as  the  divifor  is  to  the  unity,  fo  is  the 
dividend  to  the  quotient;  as  if  3  divide  12,  it  will 
be  as  3 : 1 : :  1 2 : 4.  Now  3  is  greater  than  i ;  where- 
fore 12  mutt  be  greater  than  4;  but  in  fraiiions, 
as  I :  I : :  ♦ :  if ;  where  |  is  lefs  than  I  ;  wherefore  J 
muft  alfo  be  lefs  than  |^. 

To  work  the  Rule  of  Three  in  Vulgar  FraHi- 
tns,  the  denominator  of  the  firft  number  muft  be 
multiplied  by  the  numerator  of  the  fecond  j  then 
that  produft  multiplied  by  the  numerator  of  the 
third  number,  and  the  produ£l  referved  for  a  new 
numerator.  That  done,  the  numerator  of  the  firft 
number  muft  be  multiplied  by  the  denominator  of 
the  fecond ;  and  the  produd  multiplied  by  the  deno- 
minator of  the  third,  which  produft  will  become 
a  new  denominator.  This  new  Fraiiion  fo  fought 
is  the  anfwer  to  the  queftion,  which  faid  Frailiom 
iffhethet  proper,  improper,  or  mixt  Fraiiions,  may 
be  reduced  into  its  equivalent  Fraifienst  as  before 
taught.    For  example ; 


Yards. 


Yards. 


5 


101 
7 


3 

5 

7 

105 


101 
14 

404  TTilofa  pound  equal 
101       to  13/.  (js.  <jd. 

1414 


Thus  proved  by  reducing  your  Fra£lion  as  before 
taught. 


105)1414(13 
105* 

364 
3»S 

49 

20 

105)980(9 
94S 

35 

12 
d. 

105)420(4 
420 


d. 
4 


By 


A  R  I  r  H  M  E  r   I    C  K. 


223 


By  this  operation  'tis  evident,  that  -rif*  is  equal 
to  13/.  9  J.  4  <^. 

Having  thus  dearly  demonftrated  the  Arithme- 
tick  of  whole  numbers  and  Vulgar  Fraifions,  I 
proceed  to  that  excellent  invention  called  Deci- 
mal A'ithmetick,  fir  ft  invented  by  Johannes  Regi- 
omontanus,  and  ufed  by  him  in  his  tables  of 
figns. 

Decimal  Fractions, are  thofe  whofe  denomi- 
nator is  i,  with  one  or  more  (rj'/)ZiiTj  ;  as   10,   100, 

1000,     10,000,      ^C.       Thus    1^,   T55.   ToVo    ^c. 

are  Decimal  FraSitons. 

In  the  writing  of  Decimal  Fradions,  we  ufually 
omit  the  denominator,  as  only  confifting  of  unity 
with  cyphers  annexed  ;  and  in  lieu  thereof  a  point, 
or  comma  is  prefixed  to  the  numerator.  Thus 
^\  is  wrote  .5 ;  -^,  .46;  fo  .125  exprefles  an  hun- 
dred twenty-five  parts  of  any  thing  fuppofed  to  be 
divided  into  lOOO  parts. 

As  cyphers  on  the  right  hand  of  integers  do  in- 
creafe  their  value  Decimally  ;  as  2,  20,  200,  ^c. 
fo  when  fet  on  the  left  hand  of  Decimal  Fra£iions, 
they  decreafe  the  value  Decimally,  as  5,  05,  005, 
i^c.  when  fet  on  the  left  hand  of  integers,  or  on  the 
right  hand  of  Decimals,  they  fignify  nothing  but 
only  to  fill  up  places;  thus  5000,  or  C005,  is  but 
five  units. 

To  reduce  Vulgar  FraSiions  into  Decimals,  add 
cyphers  at  pleafure  to  the  numerator,  and  divide  by 
the  denominator.  1  hus  |,  being  propounded  to  be 
reduced  to  a  Decimal,  will  be  changed  into  .625, 
that  is  T*o\%»  for  annexing  cyphers  unto  the  nume- 
rator 5,  it  will  be  5000,  which  being  divided  by 
the  denominator  8,  the  quotient  will  be  625,  before 
which,  prefixing  a  point,  it  will  be  .625,  that  is 
T%c%  the  Decimal  fought  j  as  it  appears  in  the  ope- 
ration. 


fo  many  figures  of  the  fum,  or  the  remainder  are  to 
be  noted  for  Decimals,  as  there  are  places  of  De- 
cimals in  tlie  greateft  given  number,  an  example 
will  make  this  clear. 

Addition  of  Decimals  SubtraHion. 
from  67.9 
take    29.8 7  <;4 

Rt;m.38.C246 

from  25.1462 
take    13-07 


8)5000(625 
48- 


•43791 

.792 

59.271 

.6124 

15.040 

•053 

3-791 

.10 

12.OC9 

.2 

7-5 
97.062 

2-19531 

Rem.  12.0762 


For  Multiplication  of  Decimals,  the 
rule  is,  fo  often  as  two  numbers  are  given  to  be 
multiplied,  and  are  both  mixt  numbers,  or  both 
Decimal  Fraiiions,  or  one  of  them  a  whole  number, 
and  the  other  a  Decimal  or  mixt  number,  to  write 
them  down  exa£l:ly  one  underneath  the  other,  as  is 
done  in  Multiplication  of  whole  numbers ;  and  when 
you  have  gotten  the  produfl:,  to  fee  how  many 
places  oi  FraHicns  are  found  both  in  the  Multipli- 
cand and  Multiplicaior  jointly,  juft  fo  many  places 
you  mud  cut  off  from  the  produft,  by  a  point, 
comma,  or  line,  towards  the  right-hand,  as  there 
arc  places  of  Decimals  in  both  factors.     Thus, 

multiply     246.25  .87 

by  35  -9 


I 23 I 25 

7387s 

8618.7s 


/83 


20 
16 

40 
40 


The  common  operation  in  Decimals,  are  per- 
formed as  in  the  vulgar  rules,  regard  being  had  only 
to  the  particular  notation,  to  dillinguifli  the  integral 
from  the  fraflional  part  of  a  fum. 

In  Addition,  and  SubtraSiion  of  Decimal  FraSii- 
ens ;  the  points  being  all  placed  under  each  other, 
the  figures  are  to  be  added  ;  or  fubtra^ted  as  in  com- 
mon Arithmetic  k  aniv/hen  the  operatic  n  is  done, 

I 


When  the  Multiplication  is  finifhed,  if  there 
arife  not  fo  many  places  in  all,  as  ought  to  be  cut 
off,  (which  may  crften  happen  when  the  produ£t  is 
a  Fraaion)  in  fuch  cafe  as  many  places  as  are  want- 
ing, fo  many  cyfhers  muft  be  prefixed  to  the  pro- 
du(S,  on  the  left  hand  thereof,  to  compleat  the 
produft.     For  example ; 

Multiply  .0375  by  .05 
.05 

187s 

Now  here  being  but  four  figures,  I  prefix  two 
cyphers  to  compleat  the  produft  of 

Multiply  .037s  is  .001875  Produa 
by       .05 


Produdt  .001875  as  by  Rule. 


In 


224  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  AaTs  fl>^<3? Sciences. 


In  Division  of  Deci?nah,  proceed  in  all  refpetSb 
as  in  dividing  of  iategeis  ;  and  when  the  operation 
is  done,  mark,  as  many  places  in  the  quotient  for 
Decima's,  as  with  tlic  number  of  Decimali  in  the 
divifor,  are  equal  to' the  ZJ^f/WM/ places  pf  the  di- 
vidend. 


.22).8o3o(3. 
66 

65 

22)S,.Q30(365 
66 

H3 

H3 

li- 

132 

no 

no 

IiQ. 

no 

0 

0 

22).8o3o(.0365 
66 

72.2)8321.9(1.13 
73^ 

143 

1002 

132 

732 

no 
no 

2709 
2196 

/     If  9  fc.  5  of  coffee  coft  3  A  15;.  how  much  will 
2781b.  icoft? 

Note,  When  the  fraiStional  parts  of  the  numbers 
in  this  qucftion  arc  converted  into  Decimals,  then 
they  will  ftand  thus. 

If9.25)fe.  of  coffee  coft  3.75/.  whatwill  278.51b. 
of  coffee  coft. 

278.5 
3-75 


o  513 

But  there  are  certain  cafes  in  Dlvifion  of  Deci- 
mals, which  require  feme  further  management :  as 
firft,  where  the  divifor  is  a  Decimal  Frailioriy  and 
the  dividend  an  integer  ;  add  or  annex  as  many  or 
rather  more  cyphers  to  the  dividend,  than  there  are 
places  in  the  divifor  ;  Thus, 

.  365)22. ooof6.o. 2 

For  there  being  three  places  of  Decimals  in  the 
divifor,  and  four  in  the  diyidend,  there  will  be  but 
one  in  the  quotient. 

2.  Where  the  divifor  is  a  mixt  number,  and  the 
dividend  a  whole  number,  add,  at  leaft,  as  many 
cyphers  to  the  dividend,  as  there  are  places  in  the 
divifor.     Thus, 

3.65)22.0000(6.02 

3.  Wherever  the  divifor  is  bigger  than  the  divi- 
dend, annex  cyphers  to  the  latter.     Thus, 

.365)22.0000(6.02 

To  work  the  Rule  of  Three  in  Decimals, 
the  operations  are  the  fame  as  in  whole  numbers, 
only  in  Decimals  refpe£l  muft  be  had  to  the  Decimal 
Rules  before  taught,  efpecially  when  you  come  to 
the  anfwer  in  your  quotient,  by  duly  feparatijig  the 
Decimals  from  the  integers.     Fpt  example. 


9-25)i04-4375("2.9 
925---- 

1193 
925 


13925. 
1949s 
8355 

104437s 

50=1  + 

9.25 


268 
1850 


8375   Jnjiver  lizl  as  id.+ 

50 

Further,  If  9  C.  wi.  of  fugar  coft  25/.  7;.  what 
will  be  the  price  of  17  C.  wt,  ? 

C.  I.  C. 

9 25 .  35 1 7 

J7 


9)43o-95(47-88/" 

70 
63 

79       Anfwer ^1 1  i-f.Zd. 

72 

75 
72 


Decimals  are  of  a  very  great  ufe  in  the  menfura- 
tion  of  fuperficies  and  folids,  which  is  acomplifh'd 
in  the  following  manner,  viz. 

There 


A  R  I    T  H  M  E   r  I  C  K. 


There  is  a  chamber  whofe  floor  is  22  feet  9  in- 
ches long,  and  9  feet  6  inches  broad,  what  is  the 
content  in  feet  and  inches  ?  Thus  decimally. 

Length  22.75  feet  and  breadth  9.5  feet  what  is 
the  content  ? 


■  IS,  as, I 


22.7s 

95 

"375 

20475 

216.125 


Anfwer  216  Feet  and  |  of  an  inch. 
Further,  How  many  yards  of  wainfcbt  does  that 
room  require,  whofe  height  is  12  feet  3  inches,  and 
compafs  104  feet  6  inches  ? 

3  Inches  in  Decimals  is  .25 
6  Inches  in  Decimals  is  .5 
Therefore  multiply  104.5 
by   12.25 


5225 

2090 
2090 
1045 


In  feet  1280.125 


To  ahfwer  the  queftion  in  yards. 
Divide  by  9)1280125(142.236 
9 

36 

20 
18 

21 
18 

32 

27 

55 
5+ 


Anfwer  142  yards,  -i^^q  or  142  yards,  2  feet; 
3  inches. 


225 

To  find  the  length  of  the  circumference  of  a 
circle,  the  diameter  being  known.  Let  there  be  a 
circle  whofe  diameter  is  42,  what  is  the  length  of 
the  circumference? — Multiply  always  the  diameter 
by  22,  and  divide  the  produ<5l  by  7,  your  quotient 
is  the  anfwer.     Thus 


42 
22 


84 


84 


7)924(132 


Anfwer  132 


The  circumference  being  given,  to  find  the  dia- 
meter as  in  the  former  circle,  the  circumference 
being  132,  and  the  diameter  required.  —  The  cir- 
cumference muft  be  multiplied  by  7,  and  the  pro- 
dud  divided  by  22,  and  the  quotient  is  the  diameter. 
Thus, 


Circumference 


132 

7 


22)924(42  the  diameter  required. 


44 
44 


The  diameter  of  a  circle  being  given  to  find  the 
Area,  or  content  thereof.  Multiply  the  diameter 
by  itfelf;  again,  multiply  by  11,  and  divide  by 
14,  and  your  operation  is  perfe(ft.     Thus, 

The  diameter  42,  the  content  of  the  circle  re- 
quired. 

Diameter 


2  26  Hjc  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


Diameter  42 
multiply'd  by  42 


1764 
multiply'd  by      1 1 

1764 

1764 


Divide  by  14)19404(13556  Content  required. 
14... 

54 
42 

120 
112 


84 
84 


Having  rhus  compleated  our  Arithmetic^,  cither 
of  Integers  or  FraSliom,  both  Vulgar  and  Decimal, 
we  muft  proceed  to  the  extradion  of  Square  and 
Cube  Roots. 

Square  Root  is  a  number  confidered,  as  the 
root  of  a  fecond  power  or  /quart  number ;  or  a 
number  by  whofe  multiplication,  into  itfeif,  a 
fquare  number  is  generated  ;  which  fquare  number 
is  the  produce  of  a  number  multiplied  by  itfeif. 
Thus  4  the  produiS  of  2  multiplied  by  2  ;  or  16 
the  produft  of  4  multiplied  by  4,  are  fquare  num- 
bers ;  therefore  the  number  2,  being  that  by  whofe 
multiplication  by  itfeif,  the  fquare  number  4  is  pro 
duced  ;  is  in  refpeft  hereof  called  a  Square  Root,  or 
the  Square  Root  of  4.  Since  as  unity  is  to  the 
Square  Root,  fo  is  the  Root  to  the  fquare  number. 

For  the  extradion  of  Square  and  Cube  Roots,  they 
have  the  fquares  and  cubes  of  all  digits  in  readinefs, 
as  exhibited  in  the  following  Table. 


Roots 

I 

s 

3 

.|s 

6 

" 

8 

9 

Square 

.         4 

Q 

,0 

15       i6      49 

64 

Si 

Cubicle 

1 

8 

i7 

64 

115     zi6 

345 

512 

7»9 

figures  i  piece ;  and  include  each  clafs  between  two 
dots,  commencing  with  the  place  of  units,  or  the 
right-hand  figure  ;  the  root  will  confift  of  fo  many 
parts  or  figures  as  you  have  clafles.  By  the  way 
obferve,  it  may  happen  that  for  the  laft  clafs,  on 
the  left-hand  there  fhall  only  be  one  figure  left. 

2.  Then  the  left-hand  clafs  being  the  fquare  of 
the  firft  figure  of  the  root  fought ;  look  in  the  ta- 
ble of  roots  for  the  fquare  figure  anfwering  to  that 
number  :  or  if  that  fquare  number  be  not  precifcly 
there,  to  the  next  lefler  number :  this  root  write 
down  for  this  firft  figure  of  the  quotient,  and  fub- 
traft  its  fquare  from  the  left-hand  clafs  to  the  re- 
mainder, bring  down  the  next  clafs  towards  the 
right. 

3.  Write  down  the  double  of  the  quotient-figure, 
under  the  left-hand  figure  of  the  fecond  clafs  ;  and 
feck  how  oft  the  decuple  is  contained  in  the  figure 
over  it :  the  quotient  gives  the  fecond  figure  of  the 
root. 

4.  Write  the  fame  quotient  \inder  the  right-hand 
figure  of  the  fame  clafs  ;  and  fubtraiS  the  produft  of 
the  whole  number^underwritten,  multiplied  by  the 
firft  figure  of  the  Root,  from  the  number  over  it,  as 
in  Divifion. 

5.  The  operation  being  repeated  according  to  the 
third  and  fourth  fteps,  that  is  to  fay,  the  remainder 
being  ftill  divided  by  the  double  of  the  Root  as  far 
as  extra£fed,  and  from  the  remainder,  the  fquare 
of  the  figure  that  laft  came  out,  with  the  decuple 
of  that  aforefaid  divifor  augmented  thereby,  being 
fubtradted  ;  you  will  have  the  Root  required.  For 
example  : 

Note,  That  by  Decuple  is  underftood  a  term  of 
relation  or  proportion,  implying  a  thing  to  be  ten 
times  as  much  as  another. 

To  extrafi   the  Root  of  99856,    point  it  after 

this  manner,  99856,  then  feek  the  number,  whofe 
fquare  fhall  equal  the  firft  figure  9,  viz.  3,  and 
write  it  in  the  quotient ;  then  having  fubtracted 
from  g,  3x3,  or  9,  there  will  remain  o ;  to 
which  fet  down  the  figures  as  far  as  the  next  point, 
vix.  98  for  the  following  operation. 

99865(316 
9 

098 
61 


To  extract  a  Square  Root  out  of  a  given  number. 
I.  Divide  the  given  number  into   clafles  of  two 


Then 


ARITHMETIC  K,  227 

Then  takin-  no  notice  of  the  laft  figure  8,  fay.  But  fince  thepioduag  x  9409,  or  84681  fubtraaed 

How  many  times  is  the  double  of  3,  or  6,  contained  from  88791  leaves  41 10,  the  number  4709  is  not 

in  the  firft  figure  9  ?  Anlwer  i,  wherefore  having  the  Root  o\  the  number  22178791  precifely,   but  •♦ 

wrote  one  in  the  quotient,  fubtratt  the  produdl  of  httle  Ie(i. 
I  X6i,  or  61  from  98,  and  there  will  remain  37, 


to  which  conned  the  laft  figure  56,  and  you  will 
have  the  number  3756  on  which  the  work  is  next 
to  be  carried  on.  Whercrore  alfo  ncgleiSting  the  laft 
figure  of  this,  v'r^.  6,  fay.  How  many  times  is  the 
double  of  31  or  62  contained  in  375,  (which  may 
be  gueffed  at  from  the  initial  figure  6,  and  37,  by 
taking  notice  how  many  times  6  is  contained  in 
37:)  Anfwer  6  ;  and  writing  6  in  the  quotient, 
fubtradt  6x626,  or  3756,  and  there  will  remain 
o  ;  whence  it  appears  that  the  bufinefs  is  done, 
the  Root  coming  out  316. 

Othei-wife    with   the  divifors  fet  down,    will  it 
ftand  thus  : 

99856(316 
9 

6)  98 
6i 

62)  3756 
3756 


22i7879i(4709,43637>  ^'^• 
16 

617 
609 


88791 
84681 


41 1000 
376736 

3426400 
2825649 


0  and  fo  in  others. 
Again,  if  you  was  to  extract  the  Root  of 
22178791  :  Firft  having  pointed,  feek  a  number, 
whofe  fqiiare  (if  it  cannot  be  exaftly  equalled) 
(hall  be  the  next  lefs  fquare,  (or  neareft)  to  22, 
the  figures  to  the  firft  point,  and  you  will  find  it  to 
be  4,  for  5x5,  or  25,  is  greater  than  22;  and 
4X4,  or  16,  is  Icfs ;  wherefore  4  will  be  the  firft 
figure  of  the  Root.  This  therefore  beina:  writ  in 
the  quotient,  from  22,  take  the  fquare  4x4,  or 
16  ;  and  to  the  remainder  6,  adjoin  the  next  figures 
17,  and  you  will  have  617  ;  from  whofe  divifion,  by 
the  double  of  4,  you  are  to  obtain  the  fccond  figure 
of  the  Root,  v'lT.  negleiSting  the  laft  figure  7,  fay. 
How  many  times  8  is  contained  in  61  ?  Anfwer  7  ; 
whercfor  write  7  in  the  quotient,  and  from  6 1 7 
take  the  product  of  7  into  87,  or  609,  and  tlierc 
will  remain  8,  to  which  join  the  two  next  figures 
87,  and  you  will  have  887  ;  by  the  divifion  where- 
of by  the  double  of  47,  or  94,  you  are  to  obtain 
the  third  figure  ;  in  order  to  which,  fay,  How  ma- 
ny tim.es  is  94  contained  in  88  ?  Anfwer  o  ;  v/here- 
Ibre  M-rite  0  iji  the  quotient,  and  adjoin  the  two 
laft  figures  91,  and  you  will  have  8S791,  by 
whofe  divilion  by  the  double  of  470,  940,  3'ou  are 
to  obtain  the  laft  figure,  viz.  fay.  How  many  times 
940  in  887^?  Ani'wcr  9  ;  wherefore  write  9  in 
the   quotient,  and   jou   will    ha^  e  \hc  Root  ^]0(). 


60075600 
56513199 

356190400 
282566169 

73624231 


If  it  then  be  required  to  have  the  Root  approach 
nearer  ;  carry  on  the  operation  in  decimals,  by  ad- 
ding to  the  remainder  two  cyphers  in  each  opera- 
tion;  thus  the  remainder  41 10,  having   but  two 
cyphers  added  to  it,  becomes  411C00  ;  by  the  divi- 
fion whereof,  by  the  double  of  4)09,    or   9418, 
you  will  have  the  firft  decimal  figure  4  ;  then  hav- 
ing writ  4  in  the  quotient,  fubtract  4.x  94184,  or 
I  376736, from  41 1000, and  there  wiJl  remain  34264; 
iand.fb  having  added   two  more  c)phers,  the  work 
Tiiay  be  crrieii  on  at  pleafure,   the  Root  at   length 
I  coming  out  4709.43637,  feV. 

Rut  when  the   Root  is   carried   on  half  way  or, 
\  above,  the  reft  of  the  figures  uiav  be  ebtained  by' 
!  divifion  alone  ;   as  in  rliis  example,    if  yoli   had  a' 
l  mmd  to  cxtrr3i^  the  Root  to  nine  figures,   aftci.the 
five  former  4709.4  are  extraL.ted,    the   four  latter, 
may  be  had,  by  dividing  the  remainder  by  the  dou- 
ble of  4709.4. 

Thus  if  the  Root  of  32976,  were  to  be  extracted 
to  five  places,  in  numbers  ;  after  the  figures  are,, 
pointed,  write  t  in  the  quotient,  as  being  the  figure 
whofe  fquare  i  X  1,  or  1,  is  the  grtateit  that  is. 
contained  in  3,  the  figure  to  the  firfJ- point;  and 
havine  taken'the  Uiuare  of  t  from  7,  there  will  .rcT 
muHi  2  ;  then  havnij:  let  the  next  figures,  f/s.  29 
to  it,  (I'.'z,  to  2,")  leek  !iow  rnanv  tin  es  the  doubli: 
Gs  '  of 


The   Unlvcrfal  Hiftoiy  ©/"Arts  «»«?  Sciences. 


228 

of  I,  vt%.  2  is  contained  in  22,  and  you  will   find 
indeed  that  it  is  contained  more  than  ten  times  ; 
but  you  are  never  to  take  your  divifor  10  times,  no, 
nor  g   times  in  this  cafe  ;  becaufe  the  product  of 
9x29,  or  261,  is  greater  than  229,  from  which 
it  fliould  be  taken,  or  fubtradted  :  wherefore  write 
only  8,  and  then  having  wrote   8  in  the  quotient, 
and  fubtrafted  8  X  2«,  or  224,    there  will  remain 
5,  and  having  fet  down  to  this  the  figures  76,  feek 
how  many  times  the  double  of  18,  or  36,  is  con- 
tained in  57,  and  you  will  find   i,  and  fo  write  I 
in  the  quotient;  and  having  fubtradted  1  X  361,  or 
361    from   576,    there  will   remain  215.      La//ly, 
I'o  obtain  the  remaining  figures,  divide  this  num- 
ber 215,  by  the  double  of  181,  viz.  362,  and  you 
will  have  the  figures  59,  which  being  writ  in  the 
quotient,  give  the /?««/ 181.59.     Thus  • 


32976(181.59 


2)229 
224 

36)576" 
361 

362)215(59,  e*f. 

After  the  fame  manner  are  Rceis  extrafled  out 
of  decimal  numbers.  Thus  the  Root  of  329.76  is 
18.159;  and  the  ^(?«/ of  3.2976  is  81.159;  and 
the  Root  of  0.032976,  is  0.18159,  and  fo  on. 
But  the  Root  of  3297.6  is  57.4277  ;  and  the  Root 
of  32.976  is  574247  ;  and  thus  the  Root  of  9.9856 
is  3.16. 

Before  we  proceed  to  the  Extradiien  of  Cube  Roots, 
we  muft  underftand  what  is  a  Cube  or  Cubic  Root, 

A  Cube  Root,  is  the  origin  of  a  Cubic  Number, 
which  Cubic  Number  is  a  number  arifuig  from  the 
multiplication   of  a   fquare   number  by   its   Root. 

Thus,  if  the  fquare  number  4  be  multiplied  by  its 
Root  2,  the  faflum  8,  is  a  Cube,  or  Cubic  h'um- 
ber ;  and  the  number  2,  with  refpedt  thereto  a 
Cube  Root.  Hence,  fince,  as  unity  is  to  the  Root, 
fo  is  the  Root  to  the  fquare  ;  and  as  unity  is  to  the 
Root,  fo  is  tht  fquare  to  the  Cube ;  the  Root  will 
alfo  be  to  the  fquare,  as  the  fquare  to  the  6'«^^ ; 
that  is,  unity,  the  Root,  the  fquare,  and  the  Cube 
are  in  continual  proportion  ;  and  the  Cube  Root  is 
thefirft  of  two  numbers  that  are  mean  proportionals 
between  unity  and  the  Cube. 


A  Cube  Number  is  either  fimple  or  compound. 
The  fimple  Cube  Numbers,  together  with  their  re- 
fpedive  Roots  are  exprefTed  in  the  table  at  the  be- 
ginning of  extra<Slion  of  Square  Roots. 


A  Compound  Cube  Number,  is  that  which 
being  produced  by  itfelf,  it  never  lefs  than  1 000, 
fo  405224  is  a  compound  Cube  Number,  being  pro- 
duced thus  : 

5476 

74 


21904 
38332 

5476  the  Square         405224  Cube  Number. 

The  Extra£fion  of  a  Cube  Root,  and  of  all  other 
Roots   may  be   comprehended   under   one  general 
rule,  viz..  every  third  figure  beginning  from  unity, 
is  firft  to  be  pointed,  if  the  Root  to  be  extracted  be 
a  Cubic  one ;  or  every  fifth,    if  it   be  a  ^uaclrato 
Cubic,  (or  of  the  fifth  power,)  and   then  fuch  a 
figure  is  to  be  writ  in  the  quotient,  whofe  greateft 
power,    (that   is,   whofe   Cube,    if  it   be    a  cubic 
power,)    or  whofe   ^adrato   Cube,    if  it  be    the 
fifth  power   fhall   either  be  equal    to   the   figure 
or  figures,  before  the  firft  point,   or  next  lefs  un- 
der them  ;   and  then  having  fubtradted  that  power, 
the  next  figure  will  be  found  by  dividing  the  remain- 
der augmented  by  the  next  figure  of  the  refolvend, 
by  the  next  \ezii  power  of  the  quotient,  multiplied 
by  the  index  of  the  poiver  to  be  extracted,  that  is, 
by  the  tt'vple  fquare,  \{  the  Root  ht  a  Cubic  one;  or 
by  the  ^intuple  Biquadratc-  (that  is  five  times  twice 
the  fquare  )\(  the  Roothe  of  the  fihh  power  ^&ic.  And 
having  again  fubtra£ted  the  power  of  the  whole  quo- 
tient from  the  firft  refolvend,  the  third  figure  will 
be  found  by  dividing  that  remainder,  augmented  by 
the  next  figure  of  the  refolvend,    by  the  nextlefler 
poiver  of  the  whole  quotient,  multiplied  by  the  in- 
dex of  the  power  to  be  extrafted. 

But  to  leave  nothing  unobferved,  before  we  pro- 
ceed farther  on  this  fubjedt,  we  muft  let  our  pupils 
know  what  we  mean  by  powers. 

Power  in  Arithrnetick  is  the  produce  of  a  number, 
or  other  quantity,  multiplied  into  itfelf.  Thus  the 
produce  of  the  number  3  multiplied  by  itfelf,  vi%.  9, 
is  the  fecond  power  of  3  ;  the  faftum  of  9  multip'i.tf 
by  3,  Wz.  27,  is  the  third  power;  and  the  product  of 
27  again  multiplied  by  3,  viz  81,  is  the  fourth 
power,  and  fo  on  to  infinity.  In  refpedt  hereof, 
the  firft  number  3  is  called  the  root  or  firft  power. 
The  fecond  power  Is  called  the  fquare,  with  re- 
fpedt  to  which,  3  is  the  Jquare  root,  (as  is  feen  in 
the  table.)     The  third  power  27,    is  called  the 

Cubi 


ARITHMETICK. 


229 


cube  ;  widi  icfpjL^  to  which,  the  t,  is  the  cube  root; 
to  be  feen  likewifc  in  the  table.  The  fourth  power 
81,  xi ciWcAthc  hiquadrare,  or  quadrato  quadratum; 
with  reipeft  to  which,   3  is  the  biquadratic  root. 

The  nutnbei-,  which  (liews  how  often  the  root  is 
multiplied  into  itfclf,  to  form  ihcpoiver;  or  how 
often  the  power  is  to  be  divided  by  its  root,  to  come 
at  the  root  is  called  the  exponent  of  tha  power  :  thus 
the  exponent,  or  index  (for  in  this  place  they  are 
two  fynonymous  teims)  of  afquare  number  is  2,  of 
a  cube  3,  6°i:. 

Now  to  proceed  on  the  Extrci^ian  of  Cube  Roots. 
To  extra£t  the  cube  root  of  13312053,  the  number 
is  firft  to  be  pointed  after  this  manner,w'z.  133 12053, 
then  you  are  to  write  the  figure  2,  whofe  cube  is  8 
in  the  firft  place  of  the  quotient,  as,  that  which  is 
the  next  lefler  cube  to  the  figures  1 3  (which  is  not 
a  perfe£t  cube  number)  or  as  far  as  the  firft  point ; 
and  having  fubtra<fted  the  cube,  there  will  remain 
5  ;  which  being  augmented  by  the  next  figure  of 
the  refolvend  3,  and  divided  by  the  triple  fquare  of 
the  quotient  2,  by  feeking  how  many  times  3x4, 
or  12,  is  contained  in  53,  it  gives  4  for  the  fecond 
figure  of  the  quotient.  But  fince  the  cube  of  the 
quotient  24,  viz.  13824,  would  come  out  too 
great  to  be  fubtrafted  from  the  figures  133 12,  that 
preceed  the  fecond  point,  there  muft  only  3  be  writ 
in  the  quotient  ;  then  the  quotient  23  being  in  a 
feparate  place  multiplied  by  23,  gives  the  fquare 
529,  which  again  multiplied  by  23,  gives  the  cube 
12167,  "^^^  '■^'^  taken  from  13312,  will  leave 
1 145  ;  which  augmented  by  the  next  figure  of  the 
refolvend  o,  and  divided  by  the  triple  fquare  of  the 
quotient  23,  viz,  by  feeking  how  many  times 
3x529,  or  1587,  is  contained  in  11450,  it  gives 
7  for  the  third  figure  of  the  quotient.  Then  the 
quotient  237,  multiplied  by  237,  gives  the  fquare 
56169,  which  again  multiplied  by  237,  gives  the 
cube  1 331 2053,  and  this  taken  from  the  refolvend, 
leaves  o.  Whence  it  is  evident  that  the  root 
fought  is  237,  as  it  appears  in  the  following  whole 
operation. 

13312053(237 
Subtraft  the  cube  8 

12)  remain.  54(4  or  3 

Subtraft  cube     12167 
1587)  remain.   11450(7 
13312053 
Remains  o 

So  to  extract  theguadrato  cubical  root  of  36430820' 
it  muft  be  pointed  over  every  fifth  figure  ;  and  the  1 
figure  3,  whofe  quadrats  cube^  or  fifth  power  243)  1 


is  the  next  leffer  to  364,  viz.  to  the  firft  point, 
muft  be  writ  in  the  quotient.  Then  the  quadrato 
cube  243  being  fubtradled  from  364,  there  remains 
121,  which  augmented  by  the  next  figure  of  the 
rc'blvcnd,  viz.  3,  and  divided  by  fiv-'  times  the 
biquadrate  of  the  quotient,  vix.  by  feeking  how 
many  times  5x81,  or  405  is  contained  in  121  3, 
it  gives  2  for  the  fecond  figure.  That  quotient  32 
being  thrice  multiplied  by  itfelf,  makes  the  biqua- 
drate 1048576  ;  and  this  again  multiplied  by  32, 
makes  the  quadrato  cube,  335,54432,  which,  being 
fubtraifted  from  the  refolvend,  leaves  2876388. 
Therefore  32  is  the  integer  part  of  the  root,  but  not 
the  true  root ;  wherefore  if  you  have  a  mind  to  pro- 
fecute  the  work  in  decimals,  the  remainder,  aug- 
mented by  a  cypher,  muft  be  divided  by  five  times 
the  aforefaid  biquadrate  of  the  quotient  by  feeking 
how  many  times  5  X  1048576,  or  5242880  is  con- 
tained in  2876388.0,  and  there  will  come  out  the 
third  figure,  or  the  firft  decimal  5.  And  fo  by 
fubtrafting  the  quadrato  cube  of  the  quotient  32,5 
from  the  refolvend,  and  dividing  the  remainder  by 
five  times  its  biquadrate,  the  fourth  figure  may  be 
obtained  ;  and  fo  on,  in  infinitum.  This  is  the 
above  mentioned  operation  at  length  : 

36430820(32.5 


243 
405)1213(2 

33554432 
5242880)2876388.0(5 

In  fome  cafes  it  is  convenient  only  to  indicate  the 
extra£lion  of  a  root,  efpecially  where  it  cannot  be 
had  exadly.  Now  the  fign  or  charafler,  whereby 
7-oots  are  denoted,  is  v^  :  to  which  is  added  tiie 
exponent  of  the  power,  if  it  be  above  a  fquare,  and 
even  fometimes  if  it  be  not.  For  example,  -v/  ^  de  - 
notes  l\\e.  fquare  root.      V  ^  the  cube  root,  Szc. 

When  a  biquadratic  root  is  to  be  extraiSted,  you 
may  extraft  twice  the  fquare  root,  becaufe  ^/*  is  as 
much  as  v*  *  X  2.  And  when  the  cubo-cubic  root  is 
to  be  extradled,  you  may  firft  extrail  the  cube  root, 
and  then  the  fquare  root  of  the  cube  root,  becaufe 
the  v/  *  is  the  fame  as  a/  "^  X  3  ;  whence  fome  have 
called  thefe  roots.,  not  cubo-cubic  ones,  but  quadrato- 
cubes.  And  the  fame  is  to  be  obferveJ  in  other 
roots,  whofe  indexes  are  not  prime  numbers. 

To  prove  the  extraiSlion  oi roots.  1.  For  s.  fquare 
root :  multiply  the  root  found  by  itfelf,  and  to  the 
produd  add  the  remainder,  if  there  were  any  :  if 
the  fum  be  equal  to  the  number  given,  the  opera- 
tion is  juft. 

2.  For  a  cube  root :  miJtiply  the  root  found  by 
itfelf;  and  the  produ£l  again  by  the  fame  root,  to 

G  g  2  the 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


'  230 

the  Lift  prod iiiSl,  add  the  remainder  if  there  were  | 

any.     If  the  fiim  come  out  the  number  firft  given, 

the  work  is  juft. 

Now  to  reduce  this  into  praflice,  efpecially  as 

to   folving  fome  arithmctic«l  and  geometrical  que- 

ftions  ;  1  proceed  thus. 

•    r.  If  I.v/ould  find  a  mean  proportional  between 
■"  two  given  numbers,  I  multiply  the  given  numbers, 

the  one  by  the  other,  and  extraft  ihefquarr  root  of 
'  the  produiit.  f<)  ftiall  that  fijuare  root  be  the  meun 

proportional  fought.     For  example  -. 

.  Let  the  given  number  be  16  and  64,  according 
,.tQ  my  rule,  I  multiply  16  .by  64,  and  the  product 
is  1024,  ihef^/uvi.  root  of  which  is  32,  fo  that 
32  is  the  mean  proportional  between  16  and  64. 
Thus; 

^^  I  multiply 

H 
96 


1024(32  fquare  ro 
9 


ot 


Again,  am  I  defired  to  find  a  third  iide  to  two 
fides  of  right-angled  plain  triangle  given  ?  J'or 
example  in  the  triangle  A,  B,  C,  the  bafe  A,  B,  is 
24,  and  the  perpendicular  B,  C,  is  18,  now  I  am 
to  find  the  length,  of  the  hypothenufe. 

C 


24  Feet 


To  anfwer  this  pnopofition,  I  mufl  firfl  fquare 
the  bafe  A  B  24,  which  is  576;  then  fquare  the 
perpendicular  1 8,  which  makes  324  ;  then  add 
thefe  two  fums  together,  and  the  produtl  is  900, 
and  the  fquare  root  of  goo  is  30,  which  gives  the 
length  of  A  C.  This  proportion  is  of  great  ufe  in 
meafuring  of  heights,  diftances,  and  other  mnthe- 
raatical  figures. 


2.  jfs  to  Solid  ALafures. —l(  the  Cide  of  a  cul/f, 
be  12  inches,  how  many  cuMcal  inches  are  con- 
tained in  tliat  cul/e  ?  To  anfwer  which  I  multiply 
the  length  by  the  breadth,  and  that  produdl  by  the 
depth  J  as  in  this  example  : 

12 

12 


144  fquare  inches 
12 


1728  cubical  inches. 


In  like  manner,  if  the  fide  of  a  cube  of  ftone  be 
2.53  feet,  the  folid  content  of  that  cube  will  be 
1 6. 19.5 27 7  feet.     Thus: 


192027 
320045 
128118 

16.194277  feet. 

Note,  That  Solid  in  Geometry,  is  the  3d  fpecies 
of  magnitude,  having  three  dimenfions,  lenoth, 
breadth  and  thicknefs. 

To  meafure  a  pyramid.  A  Pyramid  is  a  folid 
figure,  whofe  bafe  is  a  polygon,  and  whofe  fides  are 
plain  triangles,  their  feveral  tops  meeting  together 
in  one  point  at  the  top.  Now  if  the  fuperficial 
content  or  the  bafe  of  a  pyramid  be  5.756  feet,  and 
the  height  thereof  14.25,  (which  faid  height  is  the 
length  of  the  perpendicular  line,  that  falls  from  the 
top  of  the  pyramid  to  the  bafe)  what  is  the  folid 
content  of  thaS  pyramid  ?  The  operation  muft  be 
thus  : 

If  the  area  of  the  bafe  of  the pyramid'he  multi- 
plied by  j  of  the  height  thereof,  the  producS  fhall 
be  the  Iblid  content  of  the  pyramid,  therefore  j  of 
1.4.25  is  equal  to  4.75,  and  5.756,  the  bafe  be 
multiplied  by  4.75=27.341  feet,  the  folidity  of 
the  pyramid  required. 

5-756 


ARITHMETIC  K, 


231 


5-756 

475 

folid  feet 

3) 

U-2S(4-75 
1 2  ■*■  * 

28780 
40292 
23024 

22 
21 

«5    . 
15 

27.34100 

To  meafure  aglohs.  A  Globe,  is  a  perfecfl  round 
body  contained  under  one  plain  ;  in  the  middle  of 
the  ghht'  there  is  a  point,  called  the  center,  from 
whence  all  ftrait  lines  drawn  to  the  out  fide,  are  of 
equal  length,  and  called  femi-diameters,  the  double 
of  any  one  of  which,  is  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the 
globe.  Now  if  the  diameter  of  the  globe  of  ifone 
be  I  75  feet,  how  many  feet  folid  are  contained  in 
that  globe  ?  The  operation  muft  be  conducted  by 
multiplying  firfl:  the  diameter  1.75,  by  itfelf,  the 
produift  will  be  3.0625,  which  multiplied  again  by 
the  faid  1.75,  gives  for  the  produd:  5.359375,  to 
wit,  the  cube  uf  the  diameter;  which  being  multi- 
plied by  .5238,  the  product  thence  ariftng  will  be 
1.807  +  ,  which  is  th.e  folidity  of  the  globe  pro- 
pounded.    Thus  : 

•  1-75 
1-75 


Of   Surds. 


«75 

1225   . 

175 

3.0625 
1-75 

153 '25 

214375 
.  30625. 

5-359 375  cube 
.523S 


428-5000 
16078125 
1.0718750. 
267968-5, 


2.8072406250  the  foiidity  of  t}>e  globe. 


Surds  in  Arithmetic^  are  called  an  irrational  and 
incommenfurable  number  :  or  a  number  that  cannot 
be  exprefled,  or  is  incommenfurate  with  unity.  See 
Surds  in  Algebra,      p.  14. 

When  any  number  or  quantity  has  its  root  pro- 
pofed  to  be  extracted,  and  yet  is  not  a  true  figurate 
number  of  th.u  kind;  that  is,  if  \v-,Jqitare  toot  be 
demanded,  and  it  is  not  atruefquare;  \i  xii  cube 
root  be  required,  and  itfelf  be  not  a  true  cube,  isfr. 
then  it  is  impoffible  to  aflign,  either  in  whole  num- 
bers or  in  fractions,  any  exaft  root  of  fuch  number 
propofed.  And  whenever  this  happens,  it  is  ufual' 
in  Arithmetick,  to  mark  the  required  root  of  fuciv 
numbers  or  quantities,  by  prefixing  before  it  the 
proper  mark  of  radicality,  which  is  »/  :  Thus  v'  : 

2  fignifies  the  y^zwrf  root  of  2,  and  y  :  16,  or 
v'  :  (3)  16,  fignifies  the  cubicA  root  of  16  ;  which, 
roots,  becaul'e  they  cannot  be  exprefled  in  numbers 
exacSlIy,  (for  no  ertable  number,  either  integer  or 
fradlion,  multiplied  into  itfelf,  can  ever  produce  2  ; 
or  being  multiplied  cubically,  can  ever  produce  ib^ 
are  properly  ca.\\edfurcl  roots. 

I'here  is  a!fo  another  way  of  notation  now  much 
in  ufe,  whereby  roots  are  exprefled  without  a  radi- 
cal fign,  by  their  indexes  :  thus,  as  x^,  x',  x^y. 
isc.  fignifies  the  ft} uare,  cuBe,  and  fifth  power  of 
•*■;  fo  ,>|,  xj,  x^,  fignify  the  fquare  root,  cubcj 
&'c.  of  *-.  The  reafon  of  which  is  plain  enouoh- ; 
forfince  v'  :  -v  is  a  geometrical  mean  proportional, 
between  i  and  x,  fo  |  is  an  Arithmetical  mean  pro- 
portional between  o  and  i  ;  and  therefore  as  2  is 
the  index  of  the  fquare  of  x,  v  will  be  the  proprr- 
index  of  its  fquare  root,   t?V. 

VV'e  muft  obfcrvc  alfo,  that  for  convenI..'nre  or 
brevity  s  fake,  quantities  or  luuiib.is,  vvr.ich  a;c: 
notfurds,  are  often  exprefled    in  the  form  of  fjtrd! 

roots.  Thus  V  :  4,  V  ■  I.-,  V  :  27,  ^.c  tigmi'y, 
2,   1,   3,  ^^■. 

But  though  thefe/urd roots  (when  truly  fuch)  are 
inexpreffible  in  numbers,,  they  are  yet  capable  of 
Arithmt ticcd  opeimons,  (fuch  as  Addition,  Subtr ac- 
tio?/. Multiplication  and  Di-jifion,  Sic.  ^'■ 

Surdi  are  ekheijimpk  or  csmponnd. 

Simple  furds  are  thofc  v,-hich  are,  expreiTtd  by  ore 
fingle  term,  as  v/  g. 

Compound  jurds  are  thofe  formed  by  the  Addition: 

or  Subtraction  ol Jtmple  Surds :  as  </  :  5,-1-  V"  :  2  :. 

3' — ^  -  .     '■■.'  ■; 

"/  :  5  —  y  :  2,  or  V  :  7  +  \/  ■  2  :  which  Lift  is' 

sallfcdv 


23  2  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^;?fl?  Sciences. 

called  an  univeiTal  root,  an<l  fignifies  the  cubickjit  without  any  remainder  ;  and  then  prefix  the  root 
root  of  that  number,  which  is  the  refult  of  adding  of  that  power  before  the  quotient^  or  Jurd,  fo  di- 
7  to  the  fquare  root  of  2.  ;  vided  ;  this  will   produce   a  new /ar^  of  the  fame 

To  reduce  rational  quantities  to  the  form  of  any  vahie  with  the  former,  but  in  more  fimplc  terms. 
furd  root  affigned.     For  example,  if  3  were  to  be ;      This  redudlion  is  of  great  ufe,  whenever  it  can 
brought  to  the  form  of   ^  :    12,  you  muft  raife  3  '^^'  performed  ;  but  if  no  fuch /<jrK^r^,  tube,  hiqua- 
up  to  its  fourth  power,  and  then  jirefixing  the  note  '*''''"^'.  ^c.  can  be  found  for  a  divifor,  find   out  all 
.  ♦  ithe   divifors  of  the  powers  of  the  /«)</ propofed  ; 

ot  radicaUty  to  it,  it  wi|l  v^  :   81,  or  8 1  1,  which  'and  then  fee  if  any  of  them  be  a  fquare,  cube,  iic 

is  the  fame  form  with  \/  :  12.  And  this  way  may  *""  '"^^  a  power  as  the  radical  fign  denotes  ;  and  if 
a  fimple/ar^'fiaflion,  whofc  radical  fign  refers  only  ^"y  ^"^h  can  be  found,  let  that  be  u(ed  in  the  fame 
to  one  of  its  terms,  be  changed  into  another,  which  manner  as  above,  to  free  the  furd  quantity  in  part 
fhall  refpea  both  ww^ra/arlind  ^^«««/W<?r.  Thus  j  frof" 'he  radical  fign.     Thus  if  V  ■-  288   be   pro- 

pofed  ;  amongft  its  divifors  will  be  found  thefquares, 
4,  9,  1 6,  36,  and  144  ;  by  which,  if  288  be 
divided,  there  will  arife  the  quotients  72,  32,  18, 
8,  and  2  ;  wherefore  inftead  of  -v/  :  288,  you 
may  put  2  v'  :  72,  or  3  -/  :  32,  or  4  v'  :  iK, 
or  6  ^/  :  8,  or  laftly,  12  ■•  :  2,  and  the  fame 
may.  be  done  in /pedes. 


■y 


12?; 


13  reduced  to  v'  :  —  and  — i,   to  V  : 

^5  25  3  4 

where  the  radical  fign  afFecls  both  numerator  and 
denominator. 

To  reduce  Surds  to  the  loweft  term  poflible. 
Divide  the y«r(^  by  the  greateft  fquare,  eul>e,  hiqua- 
drate,  Ufc.  or  any  other  higher  power  which  you 
can  difcover,  is  contained  in  it,  and   will   meafure 


A    R    M   r. 


UNDER  this  general  name  may  be  in- 
cluded all  bodies  of  men  that  carry  arms 
under  commiflioned  officers.  So  that, 
tho'  it  is  mofi:  commonly  confined  in  dif- 
courfe  to  a  large  body  of  land  forces  ;  we  fhall  here 
treat  of  it  in  its  general  fenfe,  including  a  naval 
armament  of  fliips,  failors  and  marines,  under 
proper  officers.  But  fhall  begin  with  the  Land 
yfrmy. 

A  /and  army  is  a  large  body  of  foldiers  confifting 
of  horfe  and  foot  ;  and  a  nava/  army  is  a  number  of 
ftiips  of  war,  equipped  and  manned  with  failors 
and  marines,  under  the  command  of  an  admiral, 
with  other  inferior  officers  under  him. 

A  land  army  is  compofed,  as  I  have  already  ob- 
ferved,  of  both  horfe  and  foot,  the  horfe  being 
called  cavalry,  and  the  foot  infantry. 

The  Cavalry  (from  the  French  cavalerie,  and 
from  the  corrupt  Latin,  caballus,  horfe)  is  a  body 
of  foldiers,  who  fight  or  march  on  horfeback. 
The  cavalry  is  divided  into  horfe  and  dra- 
goons. T  he  horfe  are  either  regimental  or  indepen- 
dent troops,  to  which  latter  fort  belong  the  horfe- 
guards,  and  in  France,  the  great  gendarmes,  pro- 
perly called  the  gendarmerie,  the  moufquetaires,  the 
chevaux  legers,   and  horfe- grenadiers. 

The  horfe- guards,  by  the  Spaniards  called  guardas 
a  cavallo,  by  the  French,  gardes  de'  corps,  or  du 
corps,  and  by  the  Englijh,  ufually  life-guards ;  are 
the  guards  of  the  king's  perfon  and  body.     They 


are  divided  into  four  troops  ;  to  which  are  now 
added,  by  eflablifhment,  two  troops  of  grenadiers, 
confifting  of  80  men,  all  under  the  command  of  a 
captain. 

Each  troop  of  horfe-guards  is  divided  into  four 
divifions  or  fquadrons  ;  two  of  which  confifting  of 
100  men,  commanded  by  a  principal  commiffion'd 
officer,  two  brigadiers,  and  two  fub- brigadiers, 
with  two  trumpets,  mount  the  guard  one  day  in 
fix,  and  are  relieved  in  their  turns. 

Their  dut}'  is,  by  parties  from  the  guard,  to  at- 
tend the  king's  perfon,  when  he  goes  out  near 
home. When  he  goes  out  of  town,  he  is  at- 
tended by  detachments  out  of  all  the  three  troops. 

One  of  the  three  captains  of  the  horfe-guards  at- 
tend on  the  king  when  he  walks  on  foot,  imme- 
diately next  his  perfon  ;  carrying  in  his  hand  an 
ebony  ftaff,  or  truncheon  with  a  gold  head. 

One  divifion  of  the  grenadiers  mounts  with  a 
divifion  of  the  troop,  to  which  they  belong  ;  and  go 
out  on  fmall  parties  from  the  guard,  perform  cen- 
tinel 
i£c. 


duty  on  foot,  attend  the  king  alfo  on  foot. 


The  gardes  de  corps,  or  life-guards  in  France, 
confift  of  four  companies  of  horfe.  The  firft  was 
antiently  Scotch,  and  ftill  retains  the  name  ;  tho' 
it  now  confifts  wholly  of  Frenchmen.  Not  only 
the  name,  but  they  alfo  retain  the  antient  phrafe 
or  formula  of  anfwering  when  called  upon,  /  am 
here. 

I  The 


ARMY. 


233 


The  Scotch  guard  ■w:^%  firft  eftablifhed  in  France 
hy  C/jar/esVll.  who  chofe  himfelfa  guard  out  of 
fuch  Scots  as  were  fent  by  the  earls  oi Bucan,  Douglas, 
and  other  Scotch  lords,  to  drive  out  the  Englijh. 

The  grand  gens  d'armes,  are  alfo  a  troop  of 
gentlemen,  to  the  number  of  about  250,  who 
guard  the  Icing's  perfon.  The  king  himfelf  is  their 
captain,  and  one  of  the  prime  peers  the  captain- 
lieutenant.  When  the  king  marches  with  all  his 
houfhold  troops,  the  gens  d'ay/nes  clofe  the  march. 
Their  device  is  a  thunder-bolt  falling  from  heaven, 
with  the  motto.  Quo  jubet  iratus  Jupiter. 

The  MusQUETHERS  are  alfo  of  the  king  of 
France's  horfe  guards  ;  there  are  two  troops  oimuf- 
queteers,  diflinguifhed  into  the  grey  and  black  muf- 
qiteteers,  from  the  colour  of  their  horfes.  Thefe  arc 
young  gentlemen  of  diftindion,  inftruiEted  at  the 
king's  expence  in  all  the  rules  of  the  military  art  of 
difcipline. 

Thefe  three  bodies  of  cavalry  of  the  king  of 
France  s  houfhold,  viz.  the  gardes  du  corps,  the 
grand  gens  d'armes,  and  the  mufqueteers,  are  com- 
pofed  of  none  but  of  perfons  ofdiftin;iion. 

That  body  of  horfe  called  by  the  French,  gendar- 
merie, is  alfo  of  the  king's  houfhold,  and  confifts 
of  fixteen  companies,  viz.  the  Scotch  gens  d'armes  ; 
the  Englijh  gens  d'armes  ;  the  Burgundy  gens 
d'armes,  and  the  Flemijh  gens  d'armes,  which  four 
companies  compofe  the  king's  gens  d'armes. 

The  other  companies  take  their  names  from  the 
princes  who  command  them,  as  captains,  viz.  the 
queen's  gens  d'armes  ;  the  queen's  light  horfe  :  the 
dauphin's  gens  d'armes  ;  the  dauphin's  light  horfe  : 
the  duke  of  Burgundy's  gens  d'armes  ;  the  duke  of 
Burgundy's  light  horfe  :  the  duke  of  Orleans's  gens 
d'armes,  hz.  Each  troop  at  a  medium,  confills  of 
feventy-fix  gens  d'armes  or  light  horfe. 

Light  horfe  in  England  includes  all  the  horfe, 
except  thofe  of  the  life  guard. — The  denomination 
arofe  hence,  that  anciently  they  were  lightly  armed, 
in  comparifon  of  the  royal  guards,  which  were 
armed  at  all  points. 

The  regimental  cavalry  is  compofed  of  what  we 
call  here  troopers,  and  in  France,  cavaliers. 

The beft  qualities  for  a  Trooper  is  to  be  bold 
and  refolute,  ftrong  and  healthy,  of  a  daring  and 
fprightly  temper,  ambitious  of  honour,  and  fearful 
cf  nothing  butfhame  and  difgrace. 

The  troopers  are  formed  into  troops,  each  troop 
confifling  commonly  of  50  private  troopers,  befides 
a  captain,  a  lieutenant,  a  cornet,  and  a  quarter- 
tnajler. 

A  Captain  fliould  be  endued  with  a  great  and 
generous  foul,  preferring  his  honour  above  all 
things,  life  not  excepted.  'When  he  firft  appears 
at  the  head  of  his  troop,  he  is  to  falutc  the  i'ubal- 


terns,  and  having  produced  his  commii^on,  afTure 
them  of  his  fricndfhip ;  and  then  invite  them  to 
his  quarters. 

A  captain  muft  chufi!  a  trumpeter  who  under- 
flands  how  to  found  well,  and  particularly  one 
who  has  been  trained  up  in  the  war,  and  in  whom 
he  can  confide.  A  man  thus  qualified,  when  fent 
to  the  enemies  camp,  or  any  of  their  garrifons, 
may  give  an  account  how  the  enemy  is  ported,  the 
nature  of  their  entrenchments,  ditches,  out-works, 
and  of  their  guards  and  the  avenues  to  their  camp. 

The  Lieutenant  of  a  troop,  ought  to  be  a 
perfon  trained  up  in  the  cavalry,  and  well  expe- 
rienced in  thatpart  of  the  military  art.  When  they 
engage  the  enemy  as  by  fquadron,  his  port  is  on 
the  right  or  left,  according  to  the  feniority  of  his 
commiflion.  When  the  captain  is  commanded 
upon  the  grand  guard,  or  any  other  guard,  as  ibori 
as  he  comes  to  his  port,  the  lieutenant  having  drawn 
up  the  troop,  fhall  continue  at  the  head  of  it  on 
horfcback,  while  the  captain  receives  orders,  and 
goes  with  the  quarter  rncijler  to  place  the  vedettes 
or  out-pofts,  on  horfeback,  and  to  view  their  pofls, 
and  inftrudl  them  how  they  are  to  behave  theni- 
felves,  till  the  captain  returns  to  give  the  other  ne- 
ceflary  orders  for  his  guard. 

The  duty  of  a  Cornet  confifts  principally  in 
carrying  the  ftandard  upon  a  review,  or  other  pub- 
lic appearance,  or  to  bear  it  in  the  day  of  battle, 
and  in  an  engagement  to  defend  it;  to  falute  the 
prince,  and  in  his  abfence  the  general,  and  hispoft 
is  in  the  centre  of  t^s  fquadron,  about  half  a  horfe's 
length  behind  the  field-officer. 

A  Quarter-Master,  ought  to  be  a  man  of 
good  parts,  activity  and  experience,  fince  the 
oeconomy  of  the  fubfiftence,  and  fervlce  of  the 
troops,  depend  upon  him.  He  is  to  receive  orders 
and  the  word,  which  he  fhould  commit  to  writing, 
and  then  carry  them  to  his  officers  He  is  to  fhew 
his  orders  to  the  magiftrate,  and  acquaint  him  with 
the  captain  and  other  officers  of  his  retinue,  and 
to  view  their  quarters,  that  they  may  have  no 
caufe  to  complain  The  quarters  being  timely 
provided,  he  fhall  mount  and  meet  the  troop  as  it 
draws  near  ;  and  if  the  billets  be  delivered  to  him, 
he  is  to  conduct  the  captain  and  the  troop  to  his 
quarters,  and  drawing  up  the  troop  in  one  fingle 
rank,  caufe  the  billets  to  be  drawn  out  of  his  hat, 
and  admonifh  the  troopers  to  be  civil  to  their  land- 
lords. He  is  to  keep  an  exadl  lift  of  the  quarters, 
that  he  may  vifit  their  horfes  ;  and  if  any  of  them 
have  received  any  damage,  he  is  to  take  care  to 
have  them  fpeedily  cured. 

When  the  trumpet  iounds  to  horfe,  he  is  to 
mount  firft  and  haften  the  troopers,  and  repair  to 
the  captain's  quarters.     Upon  a  march,  his  poft  is 

upoa 


77je  Univerfal  HiRory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


234 

M-ioii  the  Rank  of  the  troo^  or  fquaJron,  and  he  is 
t.^  ridS  from  the  front  to  the  rear,  and  from  the 
rfcar  to  the  from,  to  view  the  ranks,  and  make 
thorn  kcip  their  due  djRance.  In  time  of  action 
bV  is  to  be  apon  the  fiank,  with  his  fword  drawn, 
-  tf>  pi.evcnt  the  men  falling  into  diforder,  and  to  kill 
d'.e  firft  wlio  (hall  offer  to  fly. 

Tkoops  are  formed  into  fquadrons;  three  troops 
to  e?.ch  fqtiadron  :  and  thofc  fquadrons  into  regi- 
ments ;  three  fquadrons  to  each  regiment,    which 


The  officers  of  a  company  cj  infantry  arc  a  cnp- 
tai:!,  2i  lieutenant,  an  injt^n,  aai  a  Jhrjsant. 

A  Captain  of  infantry  muft  uriderfland  perfei^iy 
the  duties  of  a  lieutenant,  cnfign^  and  ferjeant.  He 
muft  at  haP;  know  tiie  lines  of  deface,  and  how 
to  gain  a  fla:ik'd  angle,  to  carry  u;i  a  trench  to  it, 
to  make  a  good  lodgement  upon  ii,  and  to  flank  it 
well  ;  to  order  his  place  of  arms  aad  batteries  con- 
veniently :  to  begin  the  fap  at  the  foot  of  the 
g/th-i:,  on  the  edge  of  the  ditch  ;  to  make  a  defcent 


commonly  confilh  of  30O  men  :  tho'  there  arefome  '  into  a  place  that  is  eafy  to  be  defended  j  to  carry  a 


in  Germajiy  of  2000  men 

Among  us  a  rcgii^ient  of  men  is  commanded  by 
ticchiid-,  ,and' in  F"l>\'(  by  a  me/ire  dc  camp. 

Thb'rii  Are.  ciIo'nell^"'cokn::l-ltiufefia>its,  and  lieu- 
tenant co'hmls.  A  'connel  Is  an  officer,  who  ha«  th( 


gallery  a  crofs  a  ditch,  after  he   has  made  a  good 

lodgement  to  fupport  it,  well  empaled  and  flank'd ; 

fo  that  the  enemy  may  not  attack  it  without  danger; 

'  and  in  fine  to  know  how  to  lodge  himfelf  on  a  breach ; 


command  in    chief  of  the  regiment 
iijutmant,    is  he    who  commands  a 


he  .  for  though  there  are  engineers  who  are  to  order  thefe 
A  colonel-  ■  things,  yet  they  are  generally  tedious,  and  many 
regiment  of  ■  eyes  can  fee  more  than  two.  BeiirJes  as  a  captain  is 
tj'iards,  whereof  the  kini^,  prince,  or  other  psrfon  '  fometim?s  obliged  to  do  the  duty  of  a  major,  or 
ofthefirll  eminence  is  colonel.  And  a  lieutenant- \  major  of  brigade.,  he  muft  therefore  be  laborious 
cibnd,  is  the  fecond  officer  in  a  regiment;  who  is  and  vigilant,  and  underftand  their  duties,  rights, 
at  the  licad  of  the  captains,  and  commands  in  the  1  privileges  and  prerogatives.  Moreover  he  is  to 
a'bfcncc  of  the  t-5/j;if/.      Inthehorfe,  the  lieutenant- 


cvlonet  is  the  firft  captain  of  the  regiment. 

The  Dragoons  are  alfo  ranked  in  the  cavalry. 
The  dragoons  are'a  body  of  foldiers,  who  march  on 
horfeback,  and  fight  on  foot ;  tho'  moft  commonly 
en  horfeback. 

The  dragoons  are  ufually  pofted  in  the  front  of 
the  camp,  and  march  firft  to  the  charge,  like  a 
kind  of  enfans  perdus.  They  are  by  fome  reputed 
as  belonging  to  the  infantry,  and  in  that  quality 
have  colonels  and  ferjeants  ;  but  they  have  cornets 
too,  like  cavalry. 

The  Cuirassiers  belong  alfo  to  the  cavalry,  fo 
called  from  wearing  a  cuiraf,  which  is  a  piece  of 
defenfive  armour,  made  of  an  iron  plate  well  ham 


know  all  the  other  duties  of  thofe  pofis  to  pcrfedi- 
on  ;  the  articles  of  war  ;  how  cafes  have  I'een  de- 
cided upon  controverfies  formerly  ftarted  ;  the  pofts 
of  all  regiments,   and  what  is  due  to  his  own. 

A  Lieutenant  of  infantry  ought  to  know  the 
duty  of  a  foldier  to  perfeftion  ;  and,  allowing  him 
to  have  the  qualificaiions  of  an  enftgn,  he  is  farther 
to  know  hov/  to  difcourfe  pertinently  of  the  me- 
thods of  war  ;  as  how  to  gain  an  advantage  in  all 
places  arid  exigencies  ;  of  making  a  good  encamp- 
ment ;  of  intrenching  in  all  forts  of  places  ;  of 
cantoning  without  noife  or  confuuon,  becaufe  he 
commands  the  company  in  the  abfence  of  the 
captain.  He  muft  know  all  the  foldiers  of  the  com- 
pany, and  hold  intelligence  with  fome  of  them,   to 


mered  ;   ferving'  to  cover  the  body  from  the  neck  to  |  take  care  that  they  keep  their  arms  clean,   to  fend 


the  girdle,  both  before  and  bihind.  The  cuirafs 
v.'as  not  brought  in  ufe  till  abou*:  tbe  year  1300. 
Good  part  of  the  German  cavalry  are  Ciduiff.crs. 

The  Ot'oinan  cavalry  are  called  Sph  A  H  I s,  chiefly 
faifed  in  Afia,  and  the  aga  or  commander  of  the 
Spa  hi  5,  Spain  Agafi. 

The  moif  confiderablc  part  of  an  army  confifts  in 
the  foot,  or  Infantry,  divided  alio  into  corapa- 
j;ies,  battalions  and  regiments. 

A  Company  i.s  a  little  body  of  infantry,  com- 
manded by  a  captain.  The  number  of  men  in  a 
Company  is  uncertain  ;  in  the  ordinary  regiments  it 
is  fifty centinels,  befidcs  three  ferjeants,  three  cor- 
porals, two  drums,, fe't".  A  company  in  theguards 
is  eiglity  private  men.  In  the  French  guards,  the 
company  is  1 20,  in  the  Swifs  guards  200.  Com- 
panies not  imbodicd  into  regiments  are  called  tnde- 
pendent  companies. 


their  fick  to  the  hofpital,  and  to  fee  that  they  be 
diligently  attended. 

An  Ex  SIGN  fliould  be  per.fcct  in  all  the  duties 
of  a  foldier,  and  be  e.xpert  in  handling  his  arms, 
and  he  fliould  teach  and  caufc  them  to  be  taught 
before  him. 

A  Serjeant  fhould  be  perfeft  in  the  exercife  of 
the  fire-lock,  and  the  ufual  evolutions,  that  he  may 
inftnidt  raw  and  ignorant  foldiers  ;  and  he  is  to  fee 
that  the  word  of  command,  when  given  to  the  bat- 
talion, be  punctually  obeyed. 

A  Serjeant  is  to  be  diligent  in  his  duty,  both  upon 
a  march,  and  in  garrifon.  He  muft  fee  all  his  fol-^ 
diers  quartered  before  he  quarters  himfelf. 

The  Companies  of  Infantry  are  formed  into. 
battalions. 

..  ^.    t-  AB.^Ta 


A     R     M     r. 


^11 


A  Battalion,  is  a  little  body  of  infantry, 
tang'd  in  form  of  battle,  and  ready  to  engage.  A 
intta/ion  iifiuiUy  contains  from  5  to  800  men  :  but 
tlie  number  of  men  it  confifts  of  is  not  determined: 
iho'  in  England  it  is  generally  underftood  to  con- 
fift  of  700  affeiSlive  men.  Battalions  are  ufually 
drawn  up  with  fix  men  in  a  file,  or  one  before 
another. 

A  Regiment  ufually  confifts  of  feveral  batta- 
lioiis  ;  though  fome  confift  but  of  one,  which  is  too 
few,  others  of  four,  or  five,  which  are  too  many. 
The  French  regiments  confift:  commonly  of  three 
battalions,    or  fifteen  cumpanics. 

A  Regiment  is  commanded  by  a  colonel,  a  lieu- 
tenant-colonel and  a  major. 

The  Colonel  of  a  regiment  of  infantry  fhould 
be  a  man  of  credit  and  authority  ;  grave  in  his  be- 
haviour ;  lofty  in  his  deportment  ;  yet  without  va- 
nity and  haughtinefs  ;  courteous  to  all  men,  parti- 
cularly, to  the  officers  of  his  own  regiment.  He 
inuft  frequently  view  and  examine  all  the  compa- 
nies in  his  regiment,  commending  thoic  captains 
who  have  good  ones,  and  privately  reprimanding 
thofe  who  have  bad  ;  and  he  is  to  be  frequently  pre- 
fent,  when  the  regiment  performs  their  exercifc, 
and  to  encourage  fuch  who  do  better  than  the  reft. 
The  duty  of  a  Lieutenant  Colonel  is  much 

the  fame  with  that  of  a  colonel. In  the  abfenceof 

the  colonel  he  is  to  command  the  regiment,  and  then 
the  major  is  to  receive  orders  from  him. 

A  Major  of  a  regiment  of  rV;/rt«/;-^  fhould  have 
a  profound  experience  in  war ;    efpecially   in   the 

foot  fervice. He  is  to  underftand  how  to  attack 

a  place  ;  and  when  the  regiment  marches  into  the 
iieki,  he  is  to  give  notice  of  the  effeiJtive  ftrength 
of  it,  and  is  to  acquaint  the  general,  or  h'vi  fove- 
rcign,  if  he  difcovers   any  evil  defign   among  the 

officers. Befides  the  knowledge  of  drawing   up 

the  forces,  forming  battalions,  and  exercifing  them, 
the  major  of  a  regiment  is  to  fee,  that  in  marching 
they  obferve  their  diftances,  that  they  carry  their 
arms  well,  that  the  ranks  be  ftrait,  and  every  thing 
done  with  decency,  and  a  good  grace.  —  In  the 
field  he  fhould  have  two  or  three  horfes,  war-horfes, 
and  pads  ;  becaule  it  is  his  bufinefs  to  carry  orders, 
and  to  be  evejy  where  upon  occafion. —  I  he  maj.or 
muft  alfo  have  an  adjutant,  who  ought  to  be  well 
mounted,  and  be  a  pcrfon  of  experience,  ability, 
courage,  and  judgment ;  becaufe  he  is  the  major's 
right-hand,  to  eaie  him  of  part  of  the  great  burden 
of  hi?  employment,  and  upon  all  occafions  in  his 
abfence,  whether  from  v/ounds,ficknefs,or  anyother 
occafion  to  perform  all  the   duty  of  a  majo) 


Care  is  to  betaken  that  there  be  a  good  drum-major 
to  the  regiment,  who  is  to  teach  the  others  how  to 
behave  on  all  publick  occafions, 
12. 


The  Sqjiadrons  of  cavalry,  and  the  battalions 
of  infantry  are  formed  into  brigades. 

']  "he  Brigade  of  an  army,  confifts  of  ten  or 
twelve  fquadions,  or  of  five  or  fix  battalions,  and 
in  this  manner,  an  army  is  fomctimes  divided  into 
eight  brigades  ;  four  of  horfc  and  four  of  foot. 
Each  brigade  is  commanded  by  an  officer  called 
brigadier-general,  who  has  under  him  an  officer 
called  Irigadier-major,  or  major  of  a  brigade,  to 
affift  him  in  the  management,  and  ordering  his  bri- 
gades, in  which  he  adts  as  a  major-general  does  in 
an  army, 

An  Army  is  commanded  by  a  general,  who  has 
under  him  lieutenant-generals,  majors-general,  bri- 
gadiers, ifc. 

A  General  is  an  officer  whofe  command  is 
not  limitted  to  a  fingle  regiment,  but  extends  to  a 
body  of  forces,  compofed  of  feveral  regiments. 

A  Prince  can  never  be  too  cautious  in  the  choice 
of  his  generals,  fince  the  prefervation  or  lofs  of 
kingdoms  often  depends  upon  the  conduct  of  thofe 
intrufted  with  the  command  of  armies. 

The  principal  qualities  requifite  in  a  General, 
are  coura^^e,  conduft,  and  zeal  ;  and  if  a  natural 
inclination  to  war  attends  thefe  qualities,  there 
are  fcarce  any  difficulties  which  may  not  be  fur- 
mounted. 

The  duties  of  a  general  are  to  order  an  encamp- 
ment, to  poft  the  camp-guard,  to  march  an  anny, 
to  draw  it  up,  to  give  battle,  to  attack  enemy's 
quarters  or  towns,  to  form  a  blockade,  and  lay 
fiege  to  any  place.  He  muft  underftand  what  train 
of  artillery  is  requifite  in  proportion  to  the  ftrength 
of  his  army,  and  what  he  is  cap.ible  of  attempting; 
and  alfo  from  whence  he  is  to  have  his  provifions 
and  ammunition  ;  what  money  will  be  allowed  to 
pay  his  men  to  defray  the  charge  of  works,  for  his 
provifions,  artillery,  and  hofpitals,  and  for  fecret 
ferviccs  ;  upon  which  matters  of  the  greateft  im- 
portance frequently  depend. 

A  Lieutenant-G"eneral  is  next  in  rank  to 
the  general ;  he  commands  in  battle  one  of  the 
lines  or  wings  ;  a  detachment  in  a  march,  or  a 
flying  camp,  alfo  a  quarter  at  a  fiege,  or  one  of  the 
attacks,  when  it  is  his  day  of  duty. 

Major-General,  is  a  general  officer,  who 
receives  the  genci-al's  orders,  and  delivers  them  out 
to  the  majors  of  brigades,  with  wliom  he  concerts 
what  troops  are  to  mount  the  guard,  what  to  go 
on  parties,  what  to  form  detachments,  or  to  be 
fent  on  convoys,  t^c. 

There  are  other  general  officers  attending  an 
army,  as  general  of  the  artillery,  enginier-gr.i.ral, 
mujer-majier,   or  commijfary-general,  &c. 

H  h  General 


236  77j(2  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^?W  Sciences. 


General  of  Artillery,  more  properly  cul- 
led ma/hr  of  the  artillery,  is  an  officer,  wlio  has 
under  his  command  and  diTe>£lion  the  train  of  ar- 
tillery, which  follows  an  army,  and  all  the  batte- 
ries at  a  fiege.  He  has  under  him  a  great  number 
of  fubalteru  officers. 

Muster- Master,  ox  commijfary-gencral,  is  an 
officer  in  the  army,  who  takes  account  of  every  re- 
giment, thtir  ninnber,  horfes,  arms,  iJc. 

Having;  thus  formed  an  Army,  both  of  cavalry 
and  irfayitry,  appointed  and  conimiffionLd  all  the 
officers  both  general  and  private,  inftrucled  them  in 
their  feveral  duties  ;  we  muft  not  keep  it  idle  in  its 
quarters  ;  thereforewewiil  order  to  beat  \!nc  gentrale, 
in  order  for  an  encampment.  To  order  which,  I'll 
fend  the  major-general  of  the  day,  to  mark  out  the 
camp  ;  for  if  my  army  was  to  continue  long  in  it, 
it  would  be  my  duty,  as  a  Ge7ieral  to  mark  the  camp 

rtiyfelf Forthe  well  ordering  of  this,  I  fuppofe 

my  major-general  to  know  the  number  and  port  of 
the  troops,  which  compofe  the  army,  what  train  of 

artillery   there  is,    and  what  provifions. Hell 

take  with  him  the  quart er-tnajler  general  of  the 
army,  the  quarter-mailer  general  of  the  horfe,  the 
quarter-majlers  of  each  regiment  of  horfe,  the  ma- 
jors of  foot  regiments  and  their  quarter-majlers,  a 
eommiJJ'ary  of  the  artillery,   and  a  eommijfary  of  the 

provifions. The  head  officers  of  the  army  muft 

each  of  them  fend  one  of  their  guard,  to  take  up 
their  quarters  ;  and  the  provojl-inarjbal  or  his  lieu- 
tenant, with  part  of  their  men,  muft  attend  the 
major-general,  to  be  the  firft  upon  the  quarters  to 
prevent  any  body  from  foraging. 

The  prcvojl-marjhal  of  an  army  is  an  officer  ap- 
pointed to  feize  and  fecure  defcrters,  and  all  other 
criminals.  The  provojl-marfl.al  is  to  go  often 
abroad  round  the  army  to  hinder  the  folditrs  from 
pillaging ;  it  is  his  office  to  indift  offenders,  and 
to  fee  the  fentence,  pafled  upon  them,  executed. 
He  likewife  regulates  the  weights  and  meafures, 
and  the  price  of  all  provifions,  feV.  in  the  army. 
for  the  dii'charge  of  his  office,  he  has  a  lieutenant, 
a  clerk,  and  a  troop  of  provojls,  or  marjhalmen  on 
horfe-back  ;    as  alfo  an  executioner. 

The  major-general  muft  alfo  take  a  guard  fuffi- 
cient  to  conduiit  him  fafe  to  the  ground,  on  which 
he  defigns  to  encamp,  and  carry  horfe  and  foot 
enough  with  him,  if  he  is  apprehenfive  he  fnall 
meet  with  any  oppofition  from  the  enemy  ;  and  if 
he  is  not,  he  then  may  leave  the  army  a  league,  or 
three  miles  diftant  from  the  place  he  defigns  for  the 
camp  ;  but  if  he  is,  then  he  muft  not  leave  them 
above  a  quarter  of  a  league,  or  little  more  than  a 
mile  behind  him.  If  he  is  not  acquainted  with  the 
way,  he  muft  take  guides  with  him,  and  fome  of- 


ficers of  the  train  of  artillery,  with  pioneers,  and 
cart-loads  oi  tools,   to  make  the  way  eafy  for  the 
army  to  march  ;   and  if  there  be  much  work  to  be 
done,  a  guard  muft  be  left  to  fecive  the  pioneers. 
He -muft  detach  a  party  before  liim  to  go  and  view 
the  ground,  and  on  the  right  and   left  to  prevent 
ambukades,  and  to  appoint  them  a  place  of  ren- 
dezvous, which  is  generally  on  a  rifing  ground,  the 
way  he  comes  to  them,    if'^he  has  not  a  particular 
reafon  for  i^iot  ftiewing  himfelf.    If  the  detachments 
are  not  returned,  when  he  comes  up  to  the  place  of 
\  rendezvous,   he  muft  halt  theie  till  he  has  intelli- 
I  gence   of  them,  and  iend  out  parties  the  way  they 
:  fhould  come  ;  and  he  muft  not  take  the  ground  till 
i  he  has  heard   of  them,    or  at  leaft  till  the  ground 
has  been  nicely  viewed.     He  is  to  regard  the  con- 
;  venicncy  of  forage,    of  fprings,   brooks,  marfhe?, 
!  of  woods,    the  goodnefs  of  the  way,    the  conve- 
I  niency  of  filing  oft'  to  march  the   next  day,   and 
I  the  diftance  of  the  place  from  whence  the  army  fets 
out,  that  the  march  may  not  be  too  long  or  toofhcrt. 
If  the  major-general  has  more  troops  than   are 
neceffary  for  the  guard  of  the  quarters,   he  ftiall 
order  them  to  difmount,  and  let  their  horfes  graze. 
He  fhall  leave  a  fmall  guard  on  that  fide  by  which 
he  came  ;   and  if  from  an  eminency  he  cannot  dif- 
cover  all  round  the  quarters,   he  then  ftiall  ride  over 
all  the  ground,  and  in  the  mean  time  the  quarter- 
ma/ler  general  fhall  mark  out  the  ground,  and  di- 
vide  it  among  the  quarter-majlers  \  and  if  there  re- 
mains  any    after  the    general   officers   have   their 
ground,  it  muft  be  given  to  officers  of  regiments 
for  their  baggage,    they  being  obliged  to  encamp 
with  their  corps  ;  and  the  quarter-mafler-gineral  \s 
to  make   his  report  to  the  major-general,  that 'he 
may  lodge  the  general's  guard  by  his  quartets,  and 
the  others  who  are  to  be  about  him.     He  fluill  fhew 
to  the  majors  of  brigaelcs  the  ground  that  is  allotted 
to  each  of  them,  and  the  quarter-mafler  general  of 
the  horfe  where  he   is  to  encamp.     He  (ball  alfo 
appoint  the  place  for  the  cannon,  and  the  park  for 
the  train  and  provifions. 

A  quarter-majler-general  is  a  general  officer, 
whofe  bufinefs  is  to  provide  good  quarters  for  a 
whole  army.  A  quarter-majler  of  horfe,  quarters 
for  a  troop  of  horfe.  And  a  quarter- majleroi  foot, 
for  a  regiment  of  foot. 

The  park  of  the  train  of  artillery  is  generally 
near  the  cannon  ■■,  but  in  cafe  of  danger  the  fateft 
place  is  about  the  camp  ;  becaufe  an  army  may  be 
routed  bv  lofing  its  ammunition.  The  horfes  of 
the  artillery  are  to  encamp,  or  graze,  near  the  park. 
The  provifions  are  for  the  moft  part  near  the  artil- 
lery, and  the  bread  carts  are  drawn  up  in  a  ring  to 
inclofe  theirhorfes  ;  but  it  is  better  to  inclofe  the 
ammunition  with  them,  if  you  fear  die  enemy. 

II  The 


A   R    M    r. 


237 


The  cavaly  is  to  encamp  the  ncarcft  to  water, 
and  to  orchards,  or  hedges,  if  there  are  any,  that 
they  may  have  time  to  mount,  and  not  be  furprized 
in  cafe  of  an  alarm  ;  and  ways  fliould  be  cut  a-crofs 
them  towards  the  general's  (ide,  to  receive  orders, 
and  towards  the  open  plain,  to  march  out  to  the 
field  of  battle.  The  camp  of  the  hoife  is  covered 
with  that  of  the  foot,  leaving  the  fpace  of  fifty  foot 
between  them ;  but  if  the  foot  are  fo  weak  that 
ihey  cannot  cover  the  camp  of  the  horfe,  then  they 
are  to  encamp  on  that  fide  that  is  mofl:  expofed  to 
the  enemy.  The  troops  are  to  have  their  back  to- 
wards the  quarters,  and  to  face  outwards  ;  and  their 
file,  or  rows  of  huts,  being  three  paced  from  their 
arms,  which  are  always  in  the  front.  I  hsferjeunts 
have  the  front  hut,  and  the  officers  encamp  in  the 
rear. 

In  an  encampment  for  a  night,  fifty  paces  in  depth, 
of  three  foot  to  a  pace,  and  four  paces  in  breadth 
are  allowed  for  every  company,  for  the  foldiers 
huts  ;  and  if  the  company  exceed  not  feveuty  men, 
ground  is  to  be  allowed  only  for  one  row,  or  file 
of  huts.  The  fub,r!tcrns  are  next  behind  the  huts, 
tlie  captains  behind  them,  the  field  officers  behind 
the  captains,  and  a  convenient  interval  for  a  large 
ftieet  is  left,  clear  between  every  two  regiments. 
But  the  horfe  have  fifty  paces  in  depth  for  fixty 
liorfe,  and  fourteen  paces  in  breadth  for  three  rows 
of  huts ;  and  if  there  are  hedges,  they  have  as 
much  fpace  allowed  them  as  is  requifite  to  tie  their 
horfes.  If  the  enemy  be  ihonger  in  horfe,  and 
tlie  major-general  apprehends  that  the  camp  may 
be  attacked,  he  mull  order  ditches  and  trenclrcs  to 
be  cut  in  their  way,  to  prevent  their  charging  in 
good  order,  to  gain  an  opportunity  for  the  foot  to 
engage  upon  an  advantage ;  but  if  the  aiemy  be 
ftrongcr  in  foot,  then  the  maj  cr- genera  I  {hoxAA  en 
camp  on  the  edge  of  a  plain,  that  the  horfe  may 
draw  up  there,  and  the  enemy's  foot  be  afraid  to 
engage  where  they  can  have  no  advantage  aga^nfl: 
the  horfe. 

A  convenient  place  muft  be  choftn  by  the  major- 
general,  todiavv  up  the  army  in  cafe  of  an  alarm, 
and  there  the  forces  are  to  rendezvous  :  and  belides 
the  general  field  of  battle,  every  regiment  muft 
have  itj  particular  ground  to  draw  up  on,  from 
whence  it  mufl:  not  march,  'till  it  has  formed  the 
battalion,  or  fquadron  ;  othcrwifc  a  fmall  number  of 
the  enemy's  forces,  having  gained  the  field  of  bat-; 
t!e,  would  defeat  a  great  arin-j,  fliould  they  be  di-: 
vided  into  fmall  bodies,  and  thofe  ill  formed.  It  is 
dangerous  to  appoint  but  one  field  of  battle  for  ail 
the  t'orces  ;  bccaufe,  {hoiild  all  the  avenues  to  the 
camp  be  left  unguarded,  the  enemy  might  givern 
alarm  in  one  place  to  draw  the  army  thither,  and 
then  attack  it  in  another.     It  would  therefore  bsj 


convenient  to  appoint  the  befl  field  of  battle  for  half 
the  army,  and  two  or  three  others  for  the  reft  of  the 
forces,  there  to  cxpefl  the  generaFs  orders.  If  the 
fa'cty  of  the  troops  only  be  regarded,  it  is  beft  to 
have  but  one  field  of  battle,  but  if  we  confider  the 
lofs  of  the  baggage,  fomething  may  be  hazarded  to 
fave  the  whole.  When  there  is  cauie  to  fear  fuel)  an 
attempt,  the  beft  way  is  to  encamp  in  battle,  (b 
that  every  battalion  and  fquadron  drawing  up  before 
their  own  tents,  will  there  be  in  order;  and  if  the 
enemy  is  near,  and  has  no  defile  to  pafs,  the  troops 
are  to  continue  loo.'e,  and  fliall  reft  upon  their  arms, 
being  drawn  up.  If  there  be  the  leail  danger  to  be 
apprehended,  the  eldefl:  regiaient  in  the  army,  the 
artillery^  the  provifions,  and  a  great  part  of  the 
foot,  muft  encamp  near  the  general's  quarters. 
Thofe  troops,  which  are  to  have  the  van  next  day, 
niuft  encamp  on  the  mofl  advanced  part  of  the  camp, 
on  the  way  they  are  to  march,  and  fo  likewife  if 
the  quarters  are  divided. 

But  when  an  army  is  to  encamp  for  any  time,  the 
general  for  the  moft  part  orders  the  encampment. 
He  is  then  to  confider  what  provifions  are  in  or  neai 
the  place,  and  what  conveniency  of  fecuring  and 
bringing  then  to  the  army  ;  and  if  there  be  corn 
how  it  may  be  made  into  meal.  If  there  be  no  pro- 
vifions, he  muft  confider  how  to  get  them,  and  take 
care  that  they  be  not  cut  off  by  the  enemy.  The 
conveniency  of  forage,  water,  fheher,  wood,  and 
wholefomenefs  of  the  air,  to  prevent  difeafes,  arc 
alfo  to  be  confidered  :  if  he  muft  entrench,  a  conve- 
nient ground  muft  be  fought  out.  In  this  cafe  the 
manner  of  encamping  fliall  be  according  to  the  me- 
thod of  entrenchment)  and  the  head  of  the  camp 
Ihall  be  atleaft  a  hundred  paces  from  it,  without  ex- 
tending the  camp  too  far  :  and  the  intrenchment  is 
to  be  made  as  near  as  can  be  on  the  higheft  ground 
all  about  the  camp,  provided  it  be  not  at  too  great  a 
diftance;  and  though  it  feems,  when  of  the  greateft 
extent,  to  require  the  greateft  guard,  yet  fewer 
men  wi'l  maintain  it,  than  when  it  is  fmallcr,  and 
the  enemy  has  the  advantage  of  the  ground. 

The  ditch  of  the  entrciicfiment  rnuft  be  at  ie^ 
nine  feet. oyer  at  the  top,  and  .three  or  ibur  atj^e 
bottom,  and  i'i.a  in  die  deptJti;  hut  experience  ,^^s 
taught  us,  that  there  may  be  more  hopes  in  figfctii^ 

j  in  an  open  fie'd,  than  behiqd  a  lefs  .intrefichri^cjjt 
than  wercprcfent, c\'cn  thouch  our  army  be  vieakijr 
than  the  enemy;  for  the  foldiers  jjlicing  moil  _i|t 

I  their  hopes  in  the  ilreugth  of  the  intri^nrhnitjit,-  ft 
one  part  be  forced  they  abaudon;t,iie,5eil ;  ,<^iy^  ihf. 
aifailants,  ieing  |)e;faaded  tliat  all  .vhe  dttlicu^^- 
coiiiiits  in  forcing  th.--  intrenchi^ient,  think  nothi;ig 
cati  ftand  before  tiiem, '.ind  wjth  .t^  c^^^(^\i^ 
they  increaic  their  courage.  -  o.l 


Kh  2 


Mo-.v 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  <3;^<a?  Sciences. 


238 

However  this  intrenchment  is  good,  when  the 
ditch  is  12  feet  v;ide  at  the  top,  four  at  the  bottom, 
and  eight  in  depth  ;  and  when  the  earth  is  thrown 
up  out  of  it,  makes  a  proportion  1  parapet,  with  a 
^aw/Jc/ behind  it   or  the  mufketecrs  to  (hind  on.    At 
everv  eight  feet  diftance  there  muft  be  rcdam,  or 
indented  works  ;    and  it  is  obfervable  that  twenty 
fhots  flanking  do  more  execution,  than  fixty  right 
forwards.     No  redoubts  are  to  be  made  there,  be- 
caufe   if  the  enemy  ihould   once  pofl'efs   them,  it 
would  be  hard  to  diflodge  them.     It  is  alfo  dange- 
rous to  make  any  forts,  becaufe  the  lofs  of  one  ot 
them  would  open  a  way  for  the  enemy  into  the  in- 
trenchment ;  but  if  there   be  any   higher  ground 
that  might  command  the  camp,  or  advantagious 
place  within  it,  which  might  facilitate  the  rallying 
the  forces,   in  cafe  they  were  routed  ;   three  forts 
may  be  made,  provided   there  may  be  no  fear  of 
lofmg  them.     The  ditch  of  them  muft  be  fourteen 
or  fixteen  feet  over  at  the  top,  and  five  or  fix  at  the 
bottom,  and  nine  or  ten  in  depth:  Pallifadoesand  ftoc- 
kades  muft  alio  be  fixed  on  the  edge  of  the  ditch  faced 
■  with  fods,  and  fraifed  where   there   are  no  fods  ; 
the  earth  muft  be  held  together  with  fafcines,  and 
well  beaten  down,  and  chtvaux  de  frife  placed  in 
the  intervals.     Men  vary  in  their  opinion  concern- 
ing the  placing  pallifadoes.     If  they  are  placed  in 
the  ditch,  they  may  ferve  to  help  up  planks  to  come 
at  the  parapet,   and  there  may  be  pants   volans,  or 
flying  bridges,  laid  on,  fo  that   the  ditch  will  be 
ufelefs  :  but  as  it  has  this  difadvantage,  it  has  alfo 
an   advantage,   which  is,  that  the  enemy  cannot 
break  in  with  their  cannon,  as  they  can  on  the  edge 
of  the  ditch ;    and   therefore  where  there  is  more 
danger  of  a  furprize,  than  a  regular  attack,  I  would 
advife  to  place  it  on  the  edge  of  a  ditch  ;    and  in 
the  bottom,  where  they  apprehend  being  attacked 
in  form. 

When  the  army  is  encamped,  and  the  enemy  is 
not  very  near,  an  eighth  part  of  the  army  is  generally 
upon  guard,  and  difpofed  according  to  the  eafinefs, 
difficulty,  or  the  confequence  of  the  avenues,  for 
the  guard  of  horfe.  During  the  day  time,  if  the 
enemy  be  feared  but  one  way,  one  half  or  two 
thirds  of  thofe  that  mount  the  guard  fhall  be  pofted 
on  that  fide,  about  a  quarter  of  a  league  from  the 
camp,  or  fomewhat  further  if  it  be  a  champaign 
country.  About  an  eighth  part  is  detached  from 
that  guard,  feven  or  eight  hundred  paces  further  up- 
on fome  eminence,  if  there  be  any,  which  fmall 
guard  detaches  one  or  two  vedets  to  be  pofted  on 
the  moft  advantageous  ground  for  difcovery.  All 
guards  are  to  be  pofted  that  the  main  guard  may 
not  be  cut  off  from  the  camp,  nor  the  fmall  guards 
fiom  the  greater. 


Note,  There  are  feveral  kinds  of  guards,  as,   r. 
Advanced  Guard,  a  party  of  horfc  or  foot,  which 
marches  before  a  corps,  to  give  notice  of  approach- 
ing danger.     When  an  army  is  upon   the  march, 
t\\Q  grand  guard  v/h'ich  ftiould  mountthat  day,  ferves 
as  an  advanced  guard  to  the  army.     That  a  fmall 
body  alfo  of  fifteen  ortv/enty  horfe,  commanded  by 
a  lieutenant  beyond,  but  within  fight  of  the  main, 
or  before  the  grand  guard  of  a  camp,  are  called  the 
advanced  guard.       2.  The  Grand  Guai  d,     which 
confifts   of  three  or  four  fquadrons  of  horfe,  com- 
manded by  a  field-officer,    and    pofted  before  the 
camp  on  the  right  and  left-wing  towards  the  enemy, 
for  thefecurity  of  the  camp.   ■^.The  ^arterGuardy 
which  is  a  fmall  guard,  commanded  by  a  fubaltcrn 
officer,  and  pofted   by   every  battalion  of  a   camp 
too  yards  before  its  front.  4.  The  Standard  Guard, 
a  fmall  guard  of  foot,  which  a  regiment  of  horfe 
mounts   in  their  front   under  a  corporal.      5.   The 
Main  guard,  from  whence  all  the  other  guards  are 
detached.     Thofe   who    are   to    mount   the   main 
guard,  meet  at  the  refpe(5live  captain's  quarters,  and 
from  thence  go  to  the   parade  ;    where   after  the 
whole  guard  is  drawn  up,  the  fmall  guards  are  de- 
tached for  the  pofts  and  magazines  ;    and  then  the 
fubaltern  officers  draw  lots  for  their  guards,  and  arc 
commanded    by    the  captain    of  the  main  guard.. 
6.  The  Picquet  Guard,  which  is  a  number  of  horfe 
and  foot,  who  keep  themfelves  always  in  a  readinefs 
in  cafe  of  an  alarm  ;  the  horfes  being  faddled,  and 
the  riders  booted  all  the  while  :  the  foot  draw  up  at 
the  head  of  the  battalion  at  the  beating   of  the 
tattoo,  but  afterwards  return  to  their  tents,  where 
they  remain  in  a  readinefs  to  march  on  any  fudden 
alarm.     This  guard  is  to  make  refiftance  in  cafe  of 
an  attack  'till  the  army  can  get  ready;     A  Vedette 
is  a  centinel  on  horfeback,  detached  from  the  main 
body  of  the  army,  to  difcover  and  give  notice  of 
the  enemy's  defigns. 

If  the  countrv  be  inclofed,  the  main-guard  muft 
be  fo  near  the  camp  that  it  cannot  be  cut  off",  but 
yet  at  fuch  a  diftance,  that  if  the  enemy  appears, 
they  may  give  timely  notice  ;  and  to  prevent  the 
army  being  furprized,  they  muft  fend  out  little 
guards  of  two  or  three  hundred  horfe  on  the  right 
and  left,  who  fliall  poft  vedettes  for  their  fecurity. 
The  commander  fhall  from  time  to  time  vifit  the 
advanced  guard  and  vedettes  ;  and  the  time  of  the 
guard  be  fo  divided  in  relieving  them,  that  tvtTy 
man  in  his  turn  may  be  upon  the  advanced-guaid, 
who  are  not  to  difmount,  except  in  a  very  open 
place,  and  then  the  horfes  muft  not  be  un- 
bridled. The  main-guard  may  unbridle  half  the 
horfes,  the  other  remaining  in  readinefs.  If  the 
country  be  inclofed,  fcouts  muft  be  fent  from  time 

to 


ARMY, 


239 


to  time,  fome  going  ftiait  forward,  others  a-crofs 
from  one  fmall  guard  to  another,  to  take  care  that 
the  enemy  do  not  flip  in  between.  When  the 
W(7;«-^«i7rc/ is  ordered,  the  reft  of  the  fcutf/r)"  {hall 
be  divided  into  two  or  three  other  guards,  to  be 
difpofed  about  the  camp;  and  they  moy  be  ftronger 
or  weaker,  as  there  is  occafion. 

The  guards  of  foot  are  generally  at  the  head  of 
their  own  battalions,  but  if  there  be  a  fteeple, 
tower,  or  ftrong  houfe  near  the  camp,  a  guard  of 
footfhall  be  fent  to  it:  fo  likewife,  if  there  be  any 
pafs  upon  a  river,  or  any  deep  valley,  about  half  a 
quarter  of  a  league  from  the  camp,  and  the  country 
be  not  much  enclofed,  a  guard  of  foot  fhall  be  fent 
there  at  night  only.  If  the  pafs  be  at  a  diftance, 
fome  foot  may  be  fent,  fupported  by  a  guard  of 
horfe ;  but  if  the  place  be  too  dangerous  for  the 
foot,  a  few  horfe  may  be  fent  to  inform  of  the  ene- 
my, or  fcoutsmay  be  fent  thither  often.  Every  re- 
giment ought  to  fend  50  men,  according  to  its 
ftrength,  every  night  upon  the  guard,  at  the  head 
of  the  camp,  commanded  by  a  captain  and  lieute- 
nant, crone  of  them,  if  there  be  caufe  to  fear  any 
thing. 

VVhen  the  major  general  appoints  the  guard  for 
the  day,  hefhews  the  place  where  they  are  to  retire 
at  night,  which  is  generally  within  two  or  three 
hundred  yards  of  the  camp.  He  is  to  vifit  them  once 
in  a  night,  to  fee  if  they  are  pofted  according  to  his 
orders ;  that  is,  whether  the  officers  are  there,  and 
their  number  complete  ;  whether  the  detached 
guards  are  on  horfeback,  and  half  the  main-guard, 
and  the  reft  in  their  rank,  and  horfes  bridled  ;  whe- 
ther the  neceffary  number  of  vedettes  be  pofted  for 
the  fecurity  of  the  camp,  and  whether  from  time 
to  time  they  fend  out  their  fcouts,  who  are  to  be 
fent  from  one  vedette  to  another,  when  there  is  a 
poffibility  that  the  enemy  may  ftep  between  them 
and  ihtvedettes ;  or  elfe  the  veditts  being  coupled, 
as  they  ought  to  be  at  night,  one  of  them  goes  as 
far  as  the  others  on  the  right ;  and  when  he  re- 
turns, his  comrade  goes  as  far  as  the  vedette;  on  the 
left,  and  thus  they  continue  all  night.  Scouts  are 
alfo  going  continually  about  the  camp  from  one 
ffuard  to  another. 


The  guard  of  an  intrenched  camp  is  quite  dif- 
ferent ;  the  intrenchment  is  divided  among  all  th? 
foot,  who  poftcentinels  on  it,  fo  that  there  can  be 
no  palling  between  any  two  of  them  ;  and  the  guard 
of  horfe  is  weaker  than  when  the  camp  is  open.  It 
is  pofted  within  the  intrenchment  in  two  or  three 
bodies,  near  the  barriers  that  are  upon  the  great 
avenues,  and  only  fend  a  fmall  ptard  50  paces 
without  the  lines,  who  continually  patrol,  and  fend 
out  fcouts  on  the  right  and  left,  and  ftiait  for- 
wards. 

Now  we  ftial!  order  the  major -general  of  the  day 
to  make  the  difpoi'itions  for  the  march  ;  which  he 
learns  from  the  number  of  the  battalions  and  fqua- 
drons  of  which  the  army  is  compofed  ;  what  ene- 
mies may  be  met  in  the  march,  and  whether  in 
front,  on  the  right  or  on  the  left;  whether  the  way 
be  plain  or  woody,  or  incumbred  with  hedges, 
ditches,  marflies,  or  rivers;  whether  there  be  one 
or  feveral  roads  or  defiles  ;  how  many  men,  horfes, 
or  waggons  can  march  in  front;  and  which  is  the 
foundeft  and  eveneft  way  for  the  artillery. 

If  the  enemy  be  in  front,  and  the  army  in  a 
champaign  ground,  he  muft  march  in  order  of 
battle,  with  the  cannon  in  front,  the  horfe  on  the 
wing,  and  the  foot  in  the  center ;  then  the  fecond 
line,  and  after  the  two  lines  the  train  of  artillery, 
thro'  as  many  defiles  *  as  he  can,  that  they  may  be 
the  lefs  time  in  paffing.  Next  the  train  of  artil- 
lery, the  provifions,  and  all  the  beggage  of  the  ar- 
my oppofite  to  its  regiments  upon  the  fame  line 
with  the  train  of  artillery  ;  that  is,  the  baggage  of 
the  firft  line  foremoft,  and  in  the  rear  the  baggage 
of  the  fecond  line,  then  the  baggage  of  the  rear- 
guard, or  corps  de  refeive^  ^Nh\c]^  rear- guard  flrall 
march  after  the  baggage,  leaving  only  one  fqua- 
dron  in  the  rear  of  them  to  prevent  any  diforder,  or 
running  away ;  but  upon  expedition  the  artillery 
and  baggage  march  in  two  or  more  columns. 

If  the  enemy  be  in  front,  and  the  country  he 
woody,  or  encloled  with  hedges  or  ditches,  ad- 
vanced parties  of  fcouts  muft  march  before,  fupport- 
ed by  (ome.  platoons  +  of  mufqueteers,  and  thofe  by 
fquadrons  or  detachments  of  horfe,  if  the  country 
I  will  prove  fit  for  the  horfe.     If  the  country  be  en- 


•ADefile  is  a  narrow  paA  or  way  through  which  a  company  of  horfe  or  foot  can  pafs  only  in  fle\  by 
making  a  fmall  front,  fo  that  the  enemy  may  take  an  opportunity  to  Hop  their  march,  and  to  charge  them  with 
fo  much  th§  more  advantage,  in  regard  that  the  front  and  rear  cannot  reciprocally  come  to  the  relief  of  one 
another.    The  word  is  derived  from  the  F?««c/',  £)f^/^,  to  unthread  or  unftring. 

t  Platoon  is  a  fmall  i'quare  body  of  40  or  50  men  drawn  out  of  a  battalion  of  foot,  and  placed  between  the 
fquadrons  of  horfe  to  fuftam  them  ;  or  in  ambufcades,  Ureights  and  defiles,  where  there  is  not  room  for  whole 
battalions  or  regiments.  Th«  grenadiers  are  generally  polled  in  flatoo/n.  The  word  is  formed  by  corruptim  of 
ihe  French,  Pihtoii,  a  bottom  or  clue  of  thread. 


clofed. 


2  4-0  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  (3«i/ Sciences 


ory 

clofed,  fo  that  the  horfe  cannot  come  to  do  fervice, 
ab-attalion  is  to  march  after  the  firft  fquadroii,  and 
lb  all  the  horib  and  foot  are  mixed  ;  and  as  there 
are  generally  more  fquaJrons  than  battalions,  the 
(quadrons  (hail  be  equally  di\  idcd  among  the  bat- 
talions, and  each  fquadron  have  platoons  oi  maf- 
quctecrs ;  and  in  this  manner  the  TJaw-^aor^/  and 
main  body  fliall  march,  then  the  heavy  cannon, 
ihe  animiiniiion,  provifions  and  baggage. 

The  field-pieces  are  to  march  with  the  *  vati- 
^iia>-J,  and  the  heavier  pieces  with  the  main  battle, 
.and  many  Plat  ons  in  the  intervals  between  the  bag- 
gage-, for  fear  the  enemy  {hould  cut  it  off  in  the 
wood;  then  the  rear-guard  fhall  march.  It  is 
dangerous  to  place  the  heavy  cannon  between  the 
battalions  and  fquadrons  in  a  country  that  is  en- 
clofed  ;  bccaule,  if  they  were  drawn  up  in  order  of 
hattle  on  a  fuddcn,  and  the  van-guard,  fhould  be 
attacked,  it  might  hinder  the  march  of  the  troops, 
and  can  do  them  no  great  fervice.  However,  if  the 
country  be  enclofed  in  fome  places,  and  open  in 
others,  they  muft  draw  up  in  battle  when  they 
come  into  the  plain,  if  the  enemy  be  at  hand,  and 
turn  to  their  former  order  when  they  have  pafl'ed  it. 
If  there  arc  feveral  roads,  they  mult  draw  up  in  two 
or  thref  columns  %,  and  at  the  head  of  every  one 
of  them  a  cart  loaded  with  tools,  and  a  number  of 
pioneers  and  foKlicrs. 

The  better  to  regulate  the  marcf',  Come  gereral 
officcri  fhould  keep  in  the  rear  of  the  baggage,  each 
according  to  his  port,  except  among  the  foot,  where 
the  baggage  of  the  rear-guard  march  according  to 
the  feniority  of  the  regiment,  and  thofe  of  the  el- 
der regiments  march  foremoft,  though  they  make  a 
retreat.     The  futlers  and  other  trades,  who  do  not 


bel 


ong  to  any  particular  regiment. 


march  after  the 
fiment  of 


baggage  of  the  main  battle.  Every 
foot  ;ends  a  man  out  of  each  company  to  guard  its 
baggage,  under  the  command  of  a  ferjeaiit ;  and 
ea^-h  troop  of  horfe  one  trooper.  'Vhe  provojl- 
nuirj}:aU  and  all  the  other  provofls  are  to  march 
with  their  men,  to  fee  that  the  foldiers  keep  their 
rsnks,  and  to  prevent  dilorder. 

A  ca[itahi^  or  conduftor  of  the  batrgage,  is  ap- 
pointed, who  puts  the  baggage  into  the  marching 


ordor,  an  1  makes  thz  puardi  obferv:  it  as  they 
march  ;  and  every  regiment  puts  up  a  fla»  of  the 
fame  col.-ur  and  fliape,  that  their  baggage  may  the 
better  be  kept  together;  and  fome  of  them  are  car- 
ried to  the  n:njor-gcnei  al  of  the  day,  who  orders 
them  to  be  placed  at  the  head  of  every  column  of 
troops  and  baggage. 

If  the  enemy  be  on  the  right  wing,  and  the  coun- 
try plain,  they  muft  march  thus.  Thofe  who  are 
to  compofc  the  van-guard  in  the  order  of  battle, 
arc  to  be  on  the  right  of  thofe  who  are  to  compofc 
the  main  hattle  5  the  mam  battle  on  the  left  of  the 
van- guard,  and  tha  ear; s  de  refcrve  on  the  left  oi 
the  main  hattle ;  each  of  thofe  bodies  making  a 
file,  with  the  horfe  at  the  head  and  in  the  rear,  and 
the  foot  ill  the  center,  lb  that  when  the  army  halts, 
and  each  line  faces  to  the  right,  the  order  of  battle 
will  be  formed,  provided  the  van-guard  obferves  its 
due  diftance  m  marching,  and  the  troops  of  the 
ma  n-battle  keep  oppofite  to  the  intervals  of  the 
van  guard-  1  he  troops  that  guard  the  baggage 
are  to  be  on  the  left  of  all  the  refl,  making  tiie 
largeft  front  they  can,  that  tlieir  Hie' may  extend 
almoft  as  far  as  thofe  of  the  army,  and  they  are  to 
have  but  one  fquadron  on  tlie  left.  In  this  order 
of  marching,  all  the  cannon  muft  march  on  the 
right  of  the  van-gua  d,  that  it  may  be  at  the  head 
of  the  army  in  cafe  of  battle. 

If  the  country  be  enclofed  or  cut  with  trenches, 
and  the  enemy  on  the  right,  the  army  muft  march 
almoft  HI  the  fame  order  as  in  the  plain,  provided 
the  roads  will  admit  it,  or  can  be  made  without 
much  labour,  as  in  the  fummer  when  all  lands 
are  enclofed  ;  and  all  that  is  altered  at  that  time  is, 
that  a  column  on  the  right,  which  compofes  the 
van-guard,  fhall  be  ftronger  in  foot,  than  that 
which  compofes  die  mnin  hattle,  and  each  fquadron 
oC  the.  van  luard,  fhall  have  platoons  of  mufque- 
teeis.  Ihe  cannon  muft  march  between  two  co- 
lumns, becaufe  it  cannot  do  great  fervice  in  a  coun- 
try that  is  inelofed  :  and  if  it  were  upon  the  right 
of  all,  the  enemr  might  take  it,  or  nail  it,  before 
it  could  be  relieved. 

If  there  be  two  defiles,  all  the  troops  are  to 
march  through  that  on  the  right,  and  the  baggage 


*  The  \'  AN,  or  -j/in-guarJol  an  army  is  the  firft  line,  and  is  ttie  fime  with  the  front  of  an  arny^  and  gives  the 
firrt  charge  upon  the  eneniy.  Every  iirwv  being  compofed  cf  three  parts,  a  '■jan-guarJ,  rear-guard,  and  main 
ho'iy.  'Ihe  rtar-gitavd  is  tliat  part  v>'liich  march  laft,  following  ihe  viain  Le<lyXO  flop  defer  er^.  The  main  bod; 
marches  between  be  th,  and  is  oriinaiily  x\is  general'^  poll.  T  he  coifi  ,/t  rcj.'r'-je,  are  the  forces  <fifp;fed  in  the 
third  or  laft  line  of  an  arn.y,  and  dellined  to  fulta  n  the  icfl,  a;  occafion  lequircs,  and  aic  not  to  engage  but  in 
cafe  of  necefiity. 

:X  r\  Column  in  war  denotes  a  deep  fh,  or  row  of  troops  ;  or  a  divtfion  of  .'n  army,  vhich  marches  at  the 
fame  ti.ne,  and  towards  the  fame  place,  at  intervals  large  enough  to  avoid  confufioa.  An  army  marches  in  one, 
two,  three,  or  more  columns,  according  as  the  ground  will  allow,  and  the  general ksi  expedient. 


thro  U2:h 


/I   R   M  r. 


241 


through  that  on  the  kfc ;  part  of  the  field  pieces 
in  the  intervals  of  the  van  g:ianl  part  with  the  main 
battle, -^wA  fome  few  with  ihe  rear  guard.  Tlic  heavy 
cannon  is  to  march  in  the  column  of  the  baggage, 
but  not  quite  at  the  head  of  it,  left  the  enemy  fend 
fome  troops  to  attack  it,  but  after  the  bagjjage  of 
the  van-guard,  that  it  may  be  the  better  covered 
by  troops. 

The  va/i-guard  files  off  {ir(\,  then  the  T/iain  body, 
and  next  the  corps  dc  rcferve.  If  there  fliould  hap- 
pen to  be  one  dcjile,  then  all  the  van-guard  marches 
off  firft  ;  the  artillery,  the  provifions,  and  the  ^f 
neral's  baggage  next,  then  the  main-battle,  and  all 
the  other  baggage,  and  then  the  corps  de  referve. 
But  this  is  a  very  dangerous  way  of  marching  if  the 
enemy  be  near,  becaufe  the  line  being  divided  by 
the  baggage,  they  cannot  come  to  fuccour  one  an- 
other :  and  on  the  other  hand,  fhould  all  the  troops 
march  together,  and  the  baggage  after  them,  it 
would  be  too  much  expofed,  and  the  lofs  of  it  be 
as  detrimental  to  the  army,  as  the  defeat  of  a  con- 
fiderable  part  of  the  troops  ;  therefcve  to  avoid  this 
inconvenience,  the  baggage  fhould  in  this  cafe 
march  through  another  dehle,  than  that  the  troops 
march  through,  tho'  it  were  a  league  diflant  ;  and, 
fo  they  ought  to  have  a  guard  of  a  fixth  or  fourth 
part  of  the  army,  according  to  the  force  which  it 
may  be  expefted^  that  the  enemy  would  fend  to  at- 
tack it.  In  fuch  a  march  it  Ihould  have  many 
fmall  parties  of  horfe  if  they  can  be  had  ;  if  not,  of 
foot,  to  fcour  on  the  right,  and  difcover  if  the 
enemy  comes  to  attack  it,  at  which  time  furprizes 
are  moft  dangerous,  becaufe  it  is  difficult  for  troops 
when  they  are  put  into  diforder  in  a  defile,  to  rally. 
Parties  fhould  be  frequently  fent  out  towards  tlie 
enemy,  that  if  one  fhould  happen  to  be  cut  off, 
the  other  might  give  notice  of  it. 

If  the  enemy  be  in  the  rear,  the  order  prefcribcd 
muit  be  inverted  ;  and  when  there  are  defdes  in  the 
way.  great  care  mufi  be  taken  to  make  them  cafy, 
that  the  troops  may  come  to  each  others  fuccour, 
■if  the  n-ar  fhould  be  attacked.  The  field-pieces 
muft  be  lodged  on  the  edge  of  the  defile,  to  fai'our 
the  retreat  of  the  hindmofl  troops,  unlefs  it  be 
woody  ;  if  not,  then  many  field-pieces  are  more 
ncccffary  than  at  another  time. 

When  there  is  little  caufc  to  fufpecft  the  enemv, 
and  the  country  is  champain,  the  van-guard 
marches  in  two  columns,  then  the  main  battle,  and 
the  corps  de  referve  after  it ;  in  the  fame  order,  the 
bags^age  between  the  two  columns,  with  the  ar- 
tillery and  provifions  in  the  front ;  or  elfe  the  van- 
guard may  march  in  three  columns,  the  mainba  tie 
in  the  fame  manner,  and  the  artillery,  provifions,  ' 
and  baggage  after  it,  and  laft  of  .all  .the  rear-guard, 
or  corps  de  referve. 


If  the  country  be  inclofed,  and  there  is  but  one 
defiile,  then  let  the  vcn-guard  and  main  battle  march 
next  the  artillery,  provifions  and  baggage,  and 
then  the  rear-guard.  If  there  arc  many  defiles,  the 
van-guard  and  main  battle  may  march  in  as  many 
columns,  then  the  baggage  after  them,  and  the 
rear-guard  lafl: ;  or  elfe  the  troo])s  and  baggage 
may  pafs  through  feveral  ^/(T/f/fj-.  When  the  "order 
of  marching  is  rclblved,  the  major-general  is  to  ac- 
quaint the  general  with  it,  to  know  whether  it 
meets  with  his  approbation. 

The  enemy  is  in  fight,  and  I  mufi  prepare  for 
a  battle.  Let  all  my  officers  be  called  to  receive 
the  orders  for  a  general  emgagement.  Firft  let 
me  inftruft  them  how  they  are  to  behave  them- 
felves  in  fight.  Every  refpedive  officer  ought  to 
encourage  and  animate  the  foldiers  in  the  combat, 
more  by  their  courage,  intrepidity  and  valour,  than 
by  their  difcourfes  ;  fince  a  good  example  makes  a 
fironger  impreffion  on  their  mind  than  a  fludied 
and  florid  difcourfe.  The  horfe-officers  Jhould  be 
well  mounted,  and  have  horfes  with  good  mouths. 

An  officer  Ihould  not  ride  a  fleet  horfe  on  the 
day  of  battle,  except  he  rides  him  ufually  at  other 
times,  left  he  gives  occafion  to  have  it  faid,  t'lat 
he  chofe  that  horfe  to  run  away  the  fafter.  He 
muft  take  care  to  have  his  horfe's  buttocks  within 
the  front  rank,  and  the  ranks  fo  clofe,  that  thev 
may  not  be  broke  ;  for  the  ftrength  of  a  fquadrcn- 
confifts  in  being  kept  clofe.  In  purfuit  of  the 
enemy  the  fquadron  muft  be  kept  in  order  of  bat- 
tle, and  if  they  come  to  a  defile,  make  a  hair,  till 
all  are  paft,  and  then  form  a^ain.  When  a  bat- 
talion or  fquadron  is  formed  in  the  face  of  an  crie- 
my,  the  beft  way  is  to  form  them  by  tanks,  an  J 
not  by  files.  Where  there  are  ditches  or  hedges, 
.in  officer  of  horfe  muft  take  care  not  to  get  too  far 
from  the  foot,  left  he  ftioiild  w.int  their  affiftance  ;  ' 
and  therefore  platoons  fliouid  be  always  placed  be- 
tween the  fquadrons.  When  the  eneniy  is  routed, 
the  men  muft  not  ftay  for  plunder,  for  by  that 
means  the  enemy  will  gain  ground  and  get  off  fafe: 
or  the  enemy  might  rally,  and  change  the  face  of  af- 
fairs. There  are  rules  for  plundering  as  wCil  as 
tor  ever)'  thing  elfe,  and  detachments  .'ire  generally  . 
appointed  for  it.  Prifbners  taken  in  battle  are  to 
be  put  into  the  hands  of  men  dttachf^d  to  fccure 
them.  If  foldiers  will  not  refrain  from  plunder 
v/hen  they  are  ordered  another  way,  one  of  them 
iliould  be  {hot,  as  an  example  to  the  reft. 

A  Battle,   is  an  aiRion  which  paffes  between  . 
two  armies  ranged  in  order  of  battle,  and  who  en- 
gage, in  a  country  fufficiently  open  for  them   to 
encounter  in  front,  and   at  the  lame  time ;    or  at 
leaft  tor  the  greater  part  of  the  line   to  engage, 

whi'e 


242  ^he  UnlveiTal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


while  the  remainder  is  in  fight,  by  reafon  of  fome 
difficulty,  which  hinders  it  from  entering  fo  readily 
into  an  aiflion,  with  a  front  equal  to  that  which 
may  be  oppoled  to  it  by  the  enemy. 

Other  great  aflions,  tho'  generally  of  a  longer 
-Juration,  and  even  frequently  attended  with  great 
flaughter,  are  only  called /Z7V/«//7.'«. 

A  battle  loft,  almoft  always  draws  with  it  the 
lofs  of  the  artillery  of  the  army,  and  frequently  atfo 
that  of  the  baggage  :  confequently  as  the  army 
beaten  cannot  again  look  the  enemy  in  the  face, 
till  it  have  repaired  thofe  lofles,  it  is  forced  to  leave 
the  enemy  a  long  time  mafter  of  the  country,  and 
at  liberty  to  execute  all  iti  fchcmes.  Whereas  a 
great  fight  loft  is  rarely  attended  with  a  lols  of  all 
the  artillery,  and  fcarce  ever  of  the  baggage,  be- 
caufe  the  two  armies  not  meeting  in  front,  they 
can  only  have  fuiFered  in  the  part  that  has  been 
engaged. 

The  hiftory  of  battles  are  only  the  hiftory  of  the 
faults  and  overfights  of  generals. 

Therefore  we  muft  fo  contrive  the  order  of 
battle,  that  all  the  troops  may  fupport  one  another 
without  confufion,  that  when  one  body  is  broke 
it  may  not  bear  down  another  ;  and  they  fliould 
make  the  largeft  front,  as  well  to  prevent  being 
out  flanked  by  the  enemy,  if  they  are  in  more  open 
order,  as  to  enclofe  them  if  they  are  in  a  narrow 
co-mpafs.  And  yet  they  muft  not  be  extended  fo 
much,  that  when  one  body  is  broken,  there  may 
-  be  none  left  to  fupport  it,  and  to  oppofe  them  that 
have  routed  it  ;  or  that  the  battalions  and  fqua- 
drons  fhould  be  fo  diftant,  that  if  two  of  the  ene- 
mies ftiould  happen  to  join  one  of  ours,  thofe  on 
the  right  or  left  of  it,  could  not  come  to  its  relief 
before  the  enemy  had  broke  it. 

To  keep  a  due  proportion,  we  muft  draw  our 
army  in  two  lines,  viz..  the  firft  and  fecond  line, 
which  muft  be  of  equal  force,  and  the  carps  ck 
rejerve.  The  foot  fhall  be  placed  in  the  center, 
and  the  horfe  on  cIk  wings.  The  r.]uadrons  from 
one  hundred  and  fifty  men  each,  at  leaft,  to  two 
hundred  atmoff,  and  but  three  deep.  The  batta- 
lions of  five,  fix,  or  feven  hundred  at  moft,  and 
drawn  up  three  deep.  If  our  army  confift  of  forty, 
fquadrons,  and  eighteen  battalions,  we  fliould 
place  fixieen  fquadrons,  and  eight  battalions- in  the 
firft  line  ;  fixteen  fquadrons  and  ieven  battalions  in 
the  fecond,  and  eight  fquadrons  and  three  batta- 
lions in  the  rear-guard,  or  cerps  de  referve.  Or 
elfe  in  the  firfl  line  place  fourteen  fquadrons  and 
nine  battalions  ;  in  the  fecond,  fixteen  fquadrons 


and  five  battalions  ;  and  in  the  rear  guard,  tcjl 
fquadrons  and  four  battalions.  Or  elfe  in  the  firft 
line,  let  there  be  fixteen  fquadrons  and  ten  batta- 
lions ;  in  the  fecond,  feventcen  fquadrons  and  fix 
battalions,  uriAfoz  tha  rear-guard,  feven  fquadrons 
and  two  battalions. 

The  eldeft  corps  has  the  right,  the  next  the  left, 
and  fo  on  according  to  feniority,  till  the  youngcft 
meet  in  the  center.  The  firft  line  is  more  honou- 
rable than  the  fecond,  and  the  fecond  than  the  rear- 
guard. I  he  guards  are  alv/ays  in  the  line  of  bat- 
tle, and  the  carabineers  *  and  fufiletrs  are  on  the 
wings,  fomewhat  advanced  before  the  other  troops. 
The  fpace  of  two  hundred  paces  is  allowed  for  the 
diftance  between  the  firft  and  fecond  line,  and  one 
hundred  between  the  fecond  and  the  rear-guard. 

The  battalions  and  fquadrons  of  the  fecond  line 
are  placed  oppofite  to  the  intervals  between  thofe  of 
the  firft  line,  that  they  may  march  through  the 
enemy  ;  and  thofe  of  the  firft  line,  if  broken,  may 
pafs  through  the  intervals  of  the  fecond  without  dis- 
order to  either.  The  intervals  are  to  be  half  the 
breadth  of  the  front  of  the  battalion  or  fquadron 
that  it  fulbins,  when  doubled  from  three  to  fix. 
It  has  been  found  of  fervice  to  place  all  the  foot  al- 
moft  in  the  two  firft  lines,  as  beina;  very  near  ufe- 
lefs  in  the  corps  de  referve,  becaiife  they  cannot 
come  time  enough  to  relieve  the  troops  that  are 
bore  down.  More  foot  fhould  be  placed  in  the 
firft  line  than  the  fecond,  and  their  place  be  fup- 
plied  in  the  fecond  by  fome  fquadrons,  which 
would  do  great  execution,  coming  up  to  charge 
between  the  two  battalions,  after  they  had  fpent 
their  fire  ;  befides,  the  foot  would  be  greatly  en- 
couraged, who  love  to  be  fuftained  by  the  horfe, 
and  the  horfe  would  charge  with  more  alacrity, 
after  the  foot  have  given  their  firft  volleys  ;  and 
the  fire  of  the  battalions  has  more  effect  when  the 
firft  troops  have  the  nnfet,  than  when  they  are 
mixed,  and  in  confufion  ;  and  it  often  happens 
that  the  battalion  of  the  fecond  line  do  not  fpend 
half  their  fire,  being  come  up  to  puftr  of  bayonet 
before  they  make  their  difcharge. 

The  cannon  muft  be  placed  in  brigades  before 
the  firft  line,  referving  fome  few  pieces  an  hundred 
paces  behind  the  corps  de  rejerve,  guarded  by  a 
fniall  number  of  men  to  favour  a  retreat,  or  pre- 
vent being  attacked  in  the  rear.  If  there  be  any 
rifing  ground,  either  in  the  front,  or  on  the  right 
or  left,  the  utmoft  elforts  muft  be  made  to  gain  it, 
in  order  to  plant  the  cannon  there,  and  prevent  the 
enemy  taking  the  fame  advantage  of  it;   and  fome- 


*TheCARAB!srERS  are  a  fort  of  light  horfe,  carrying  longer  <:a/-rt^;'HCj  than  the  reft;  and  ufcd  fometimes  on  footj 
The  Freiifh  of  late  h?.ve  formed  entire  corps  of  thefe  carabineers,  which  cannot  but  h»i-e  good  effefl  :  this  being 
a  foitof  foldirry  chofen  out  of  the  whole  tavslry,  and  better  paid  than  tlie  reft.  Fusmeers  are  foot-fjldicr', 
aimed  with  firelock?  which  are  generally  flung.     There  is  a  regiment  of  fufileers  for  the  guard  of  the  artilleri,'. 


time* 


ARMY. 


243 


times  a  general  battle  has  been  changed  into  an  en- 
gagement of  regiments  aguinll:  regiments  to  poflcfs 
an  advantageous  ground  ;  and  the  time  being  fpent 
till  night,  both  parties  are  obliged  to  draw  ofF, 
each  finding  their  troops  much  weakened,  not 
knowing  the  damage  on  either  fide. 

The<jr;;/y  being  drawn  up,  'tis  beft  to  charge  the 
enemy  before  they  are  in  order  of  battle;  but  if  their 
ground  be  more  advantageous  than  ours,  as  being 
to  mount  a  rifing  ground,  or  to  pafs  a  brook,  ditch, 
or  hollow  way,  it  is  better  to  expeit  their  comiiig 
than  to  attack  them,  except  we  be  much  fuperior 
to  them  in  number,  and  our  cannon  be  polled  to 
advantage. 

When  the  firft  line  or  van-guard  advances,  let 
the  fecond  move  alfo,  keeping  equal  pace  with  the 
firft,  and  leaving  a  fniall  interval  between  ihem, 
left  the  firil  fliould  be  broke  before  the  fecond  can 
march  up  to  relieve  it  ;  or  if  it  (hould  break  the  firft 
line  of  the  enemy,  left  their  (econd  line  may  re- 
lieve it  before  ours  can  march  up  to  fuftain  our 
van-guard. 

The  corpi  derefeive  muft  advance  gently  towards 
the  enemy,  that  the  broken  troops  may  have  time 
to  rally,  and  they  nnift  engage  all  at  once,  and  it 
muft  be  always  obferved  to  give  them  time  to  re- 
cover their  fpirits. 

While  there  remains  any  hope  of  getting  the 
battle,  the  rally'd  forces  muft  charge  again  ;  but  if 
their  number  be  fo  fmall  in  comparifon  of  the  con- 
querors, that  all  hopes  are  loft,  then  retreat  in  the 
beft  order,  and  rally  again  as  near  the  field  of  battle 
as  you  can,  that  you  may  be  in  a  condition  to  op- 
pofe  any  fmall  bodies  of  the  enemy  that  (hall  pujfue 
you,  and  with  the  remains  of  your  troops  throw 
vourfclf  into  the  next  confiderable  town,  which  in 
all  probability  they  will  firft  attack. 

A  general's  ccnduft  is  as  often  commended  in  a 
retreat,  as  in  a  battle,  and  his  intrepidity  and  cou- 
rage as  much  fignalized.  As  it  cannot  be  reafo- 
nably  expefted  he  fhould  fight  in  too  great  a  dii- 
advantage,  proceeding  either  from  the  too  fmall 
number  of  his  forces,  when  compared  with  thofe 
ol  the  enemy,  or  from  the  fituation  of  his  army, 
or  from  his  provifions  being  cut  oft",  or  from  the 
imminent  danger  of  being  furrounded  by  the  ene- 
my, fo  as  to  be  forced  to  furrender,  or  to  be  cut  to 
pieces,  ^e.  and  that  the  reputation  oi  a  general  is 
almoft  always  loft  by  a  flight ;  he  muft  have  fome 
means  left  to  extricate  himfelf  from  thofe  difficul- 
ties with  honour,  which  cannot  be  done  otherwife 
than  by  what  is  called  an  honourable  retreat, 
which,  under  the  above  mentioned  difadvantao-es, 
muft  be  made  with  all  poffiblc  expedition,  even 
tho'  the  ar?n;)  fliould  lofe  fome  foldiers  that  could 
13 


not  keep  up  with  it,  and  z  genera!  mu^  not  quit 
all,  or  any  part  of  his  cannon,  except  the  utinoft 
neccffity  compels  him  to  it  :  but  for  the  baggage, 
if  the  retreat  be  not  ealy,  he  muft  incumber  hinj- 
(elf  with  as  little  as  may  be;  and  if  he  is  fo  hard 
prefi'ed  that  he  muft  unavoidably  come  to  a  battle, 
he  muft  chufe  an  advantageous  opportunity  for 
himfelf,  endeavouring  to  draw  up  behind  a  wood  or 
iiill,  that  he  may  lall  upon  the  enemy's  flank  ;  or 
elfe  as  they  purfue  him,  making  a  quick  counter- 
march, after  palJing  a  defile,  that  he  may  engage 
one  part  of  the  enemy's  arn;y  before  it  can  all  join 
together.  In  fuch  cafes  of  compulfion  there  is  no 
counting  the  number  of  men  ;  for,  though  you  are 
but  half,  or  the  third  part  of  their  number,  yet  you 
may  lay  hold  of  fuch  an  opportunity,  and  with  fuch 
refolution,  that  you  may  defeat  them. 

If  you  are  fo  weak  that  nothing  can  be  done  by 
fighting,  or  fpeedy  marching;  or,  if  a  too  power- 
ful number  of  the  enemy  have  got  before,  and  hin- 
der your  paffing  ;  then  the  laft  refolution  to  be  ta- 
ken, is  to  preferve  what  may  be  faved,  dividing  the 
army  into  four  or  five  bodies,  which  niuit  march 
(everal  ways  to  make  their  efcape. 

All  orders  of  battle  for  a  retreat  differ  according 
to  the  diverfity  of  circumftances  that  occur  ;  the 
ufual  method  of  retreating  is  in  columns,  except  a 
fmall  body  in  the  rear.  And  in  an  army  of  15,000 
or  20,000  men,  it  ufually  confifts  of  eight  or  ten 
fquad  ons,  and  two  or  three  battalions,  vvhich  are 
to  march  in  a  line  in  an  open  country,  only  keeping 
two  fquadrons  behind  to  amufe  the  enemy.  In  an 
enclofed  country  the  battalions  and  fquadrons  muft 
be  intermix'd,  and  detached  mufqueteers  mull 
bring  up  the  rear.  Secrecy  in  fetting  forwards,  di- 
ligence in  marching,  care  in  mending  the  wars, 
and  cunning  in  fighting,  are  all  the  advantages  in 
this  part  of  war;  and  a  general  who  manages  a  re- 
treat, in  the  different  manners  here  prefcribed,  is 
always  commended  and  admired  for  his  prudence 
and  condu(5t. 

But,  as  we  fuppofe  our  Army  to  have  gained  a 
compleat  victory,  which  has  infpircd  our  forces  with 
new  courage,  we'll  not  quit  the  field  'till  we  have 
attempted  Ibmetliing  farther  ;  therefore  we'll  march 
to  the  Siege  of  the  next  town  of  the  enemy,  where 
they  could  rally  and  recruit  their  routed  forces  ; 
which  the  better  to  effed,  we'll  view  the  ground 
round  about  it,  efpecially  on  that  fide  the  enemy 
may  come,  and  we'll  order  parties  abroad  to  give 
intelligence  of  their  march  ;  and  according  to  the 
information  we  receive,  we'H  cither  expeft  their 
coming,  in  an  advantageous  poft,  or  go  to  meet 
them,  which  laft  is  the  fureft  way  ;  for  jf  we  wait 
for  them  in  one  certain  place,  we  give  them  an  op- 
I  i  portunity 


244  ^^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


portunity  of  relieving  the  town  fome  other  way, 
which  is  not  to  be  done,  fince  wc  are  not  fo  weak, 
as  to  exped  to  fight  to  a  great  difadvantage,  for  if 
we  were,  we  ought  to  fecure  ourfelves  by  a  ftrong 
line  of  circumvallation. 

The  order  of  battle  behind  a  line  is  quite  diffe- 
rent from  the  others  ;  for  a  third  part,  or  therea- 
bouts, are  pofted  to  man  the  line,  and  fome  are  to 
be  pofted  for  the  mofl  part  in  reda>.s,  or  angles 
ijilant,  they  being  the  moft  confiderable  places  for 
defence  of  the  line.  The  reft  of  the  forces  muft 
be  drawn  up  in  two  lines,  the  firft  thirty  paces 
from  the  entrenchment,  and  the  fecond  one  hundred 
paces  from  tiie  fiift  line  ;  and  we  muft  intermix  the 
battalions  and  the  fquadrons.  It  would  be  conveni- 
ent that. every  fquadron  had  four  or  five  files,  fome- 
what  detached  from  the  reft,  to  be  ready  to  charge 
any  that  begin  to  pafs  the  line,  if  we  had  notnum- 
bers  fufficient  to  oblige  the  whole  fquadron  to  charge 
them,  unlefs  we  fliould  detach  fmall  parties  of  fif- 
teen or  twenty  men  for  this  purpofc. 

All  the  forces  muft  never  be  polled  to  guard  any 
one  part  of  the  line,  unlefs  we  bs  thoroughly  aflu- 
red  that  the  enemy's  troops  are  in  one  body,  and 
have  not  detached  any  number  to  attempt  another 
place.  The  defence  of  a  camp  that  is  intrenched 
is  the  fame  with  that  of  a  circumvallation,  (fee  For- 
tification) and  the  chief  care  is  that  the  enemy  do 
npt  fortify  themfelves  within  the  intrenchments  j 
to  prevent  which,  they  muft  be  continually  charg- 
ed as  faft  as  they  enter,  and  not  be  allowed  time  to 
draw  up  in  order  of  battle. 

A  fufficient  number  of  workmen  muft  be  ready 
to  repair  the  line,  when  the  ensm.ies  have  thrown 
it  down,  and  are  repulfed,  left  they  make  a  frefh 
attack  ;  or  elfe  in  order  to  throw  down  the  line  to 
fally  after  them  if  they  are  much  weakened,  and 
difcouraged.  Many  cannon  are  of  great  ufe  for  the 
defence  of  the  lines  ;  and  to  be  planted  in  thofe 
parts  which  command  moft  of  the  plain,  and  in  the 
redans,  from  wlicnce  they  fweep  the  length  of  the 
intrenchment. 

If  the  enemy  attempts  to  make  us  raife  the  Si  ege  ; 
and  our  trenches  are  opened,  and  no  lines  of  cir- 
cumvallation drawn,  which,  fhould  have  been  done, 
then  if  we  are  not  much  fuperiour  to  them,  v/e 
muft  draw  off  all  our  men  to  bend  our  united  force 
againll  theirs  ;  but  if  we  are  much  ftronger,  we'll 
leave  then  as  many  men  as  may  fecure  the  trenches, 
and  meet  the  enemy  with  the  reft  ;  marching  not 
too  far,  left  they  fnculd  throw  fuccours  into  the 
town,  who,  joining  with  the  ganifon,  could  gain 
our  trenches. 

But  perhaps  we  march  to  raife  a  Siege,  and  de 
Cgn  t(^, take  the  advantage  of  the  circumvallation 


being  not  finifhcd,  to  fight  the  enemy  ;  then  we 
muft  march  directly  up  to  the  place,  having  firft 
fcnt  parties  to  bring  advice  whether  they  come  to 
meet  us,  taking  particular  care  that  they  do  not 
fight  us  when  we  are  half  pafled  a  defile,  and  that 
we  do  not  attack  them  in  an  advantageous  poft  — • 
In  fuch  a  cafe  we  muft  turn  to  the  ricrht  or  left, 
and  march  another  way  to  the  place. — We  muit 
not  march  fo  clofc  that  they  may  attack  our  flank 
or  rear,  but  keep  at  a  due  diftance ;  that  if  they 
quit  their  poft,  they  may  find  us  in  a  pofture  to  re- 
ceive them. If  wc  have  no  mind  to  fight,  we'll 

keep  ourfelves  in  an  advantageous  poft,  and  at 
night  detach  two  or  three  confiderable  parties  to  re- 
lieve the  place,  and  order  them  lo  take  the  greatcft 
compafs  we  think  fit,  and  while  they  are  endea- 
vouring to  throw  themfelves  into  the  place,  we'll 
make  a  (hew  of  intending  to  fight,  that  the  ene- 
mies may  not  divide  their  forces. 

If  our  parties  fliould  happen  to  be  defeated,  and 
we  obliged  foon  to  retire,  either  for  want  of  prqi'i- 
fions,  or  for  any  other  reafon,  or  the  circumvalla- 
tion finifhed  before  our  return,  then  we'll  hazard  a 

battle,  if  the   place  be  worth  it. To  this  pur- 

pofe  we'll  fend  a  party  or  two  to  alarm  the  enemy 
in  the  night,  and  oblige  the  enemy  to  divide  their 
forces,  then  march  with  our  army  the  way  we 
think  we  are  leaft  expe(5ted.-  If  the  enemies 
have  taken  up  their  quarters  and  are  not  intrenched, 
we'll  endeavour  to  furprize  one  of  them,  and  throw 
in  our  fuccours  that  way;  and  fo  weakenincr  their 
army,  we  may  be  in  a  condition  to  fight  them. 
But  if  their  quarters  be  intrenched,  we'll  en- 
deavour to  chop  in  between  them,   and  throw  in 

our  fuccours  that  way. If  we  are  much  their 

fuperiors,  then  we'll  attack  one  of  their  quarters ; 
or  if  they  all  get  into  one,  and  we  have  put  fuc- 
cours into  the  place  we'll  encamp  between  the.Ti 
and  their  country  to  ftarve  them  ;  or  if  they  come 
out,  to  fight  them  in  their  retreat. 

If  the  line  of  circumvallation  be  finifhed,  and 
we  defign  to  force  it,  in  order  to  throw  fuccours  in- 
to the  town,  we  muft  encamp  as  clofe  as  we  can, 
that  is,  out  of  cannon-fhot,  and  at  night  divide  the 
army  into  one  main  bodj-,  and  feveral  fmall  ones,  to 
to  make  two  attacks  ;  but  they  muft  not  be  fo  far 
afunder,  that  if  the  enemy  fallies  out  upon  one  bo- 
dy and  beats  it,  the  other  cannot  come  to  its  relief^ 
and  we'll  march  in  the  night,  that  the  enemy  may 
not  difcover  our  defign. 

The  propereft  time  for  attacking  is  half  an  hour 
before  day-break  ;  for  then  the  enemy  not  being 
able  to  diftinguifh  between  a  true  and  falfe  attack, 
will  not  know  how  to  ufe  their  cannon,  and  the 
fire  of  their  fmall  arms  will  do  Icfs  execution  by 
night. 

In 


ARMY, 


245 


III  attacking  the  lini?s,  fcveral  platoons,  each  com- 
manded by  a  I'eijeant,  mull  march  before,  who  are 
to  be  followed  by  two  or  three  hundred  men,  each 
canying  a  fafcine  and  his  arms,  who,  when  they 
have  caft  their  fafcines  into  the  ditch,  endeavour  to 

mount  the  line. After  this  a  hundred  menmuft 

go  with  pick-axes  and  other  tools,  to  throw  down 
the  line  that  the  horfe  may  enter  ;  and  in  cafe  of  a 
repulfe,  other  attacks  may  be  made  with  cafe  the 
fame  way. The  men  muft  be  fuftained  by  bat- 
talions always  firing  while  the  others  ivork. — Two 
or  three  thoufaud  men  may  be  employed  in  every 
attack,  and  ordered  to  fall  on  near  one  another,  or 
at  a  fmall  diRance,  and  the  horfe  to  be  divided  to 
fuftain  them  :  and  a  ftrong  Corps  ek  Rcferve  is  to 
ftand  ready  out  of  cannon  fliot,  but  the  nearer  the 
better,   if  a  place  can  be  found  under  covert 


The  battalions,  which  iufhiin  that  which  falls  on, 
muft  not  be  direttly  in  the  rear  of  it,  but  on  the  right 
and  left,  and  at  a  greater  diflance  :  by  this  means  they 
will  fee  how  thofe,  who  attack  proceed,  and  the  bet- 
ter judge  what  they  are  to  do  themfelves,and  cannot 
be  difordercd  by  iuch  as  run  awav,  or  the  wounded 
men,  wlio  retire. 

It  would  be  proper  to  fend  a  fquadron  to  fuftain 
them  near  at  hand,  and  the  reft  are  to  be  kept 
juft  out  of  mufquet  foot,  caufing  them  to  advance, 
as  the  foo^mp.ke  themfelves  mafters  of  the  line. 
■ — Tha  regiments,  which  fuftaiu  iliould  have  fome 
tools  ;  becaule  if  the  enemy  in  a  confternatioa  quit 
any  other  place  than  that  which  was  attacked,  thofe 
regiments  may  poflefs  themfelves  of  it. 

But  perhaps  after  a  viiloiy,  or  without  a  vlSlory, 
we  enter  the  enemy's  country,  or  to  ravage  it,  or 
to  put  it  under  conirihution,  or  to  hinder  the  jun- 
<ifion  of  an  army  defigned  to  rendezvous  there,  or 
to  fight  one  already  joined. 

If  to  ravage  the  country  :  we  muft  divide  our 
army  into  ieveral  bodies,  but  not   fo  fmall   as  that 

either  of  them  may  be  beaten. If  to  take  a  poft, 

to  lay  it  under  contribution  ;  we  muft  chufe  one 
commodious  for  forage,  that  has  good  air,  and  fo 
feated,  that  we  may  have  provihons  from  our  own 
country,  in  cafe  the  place  where  we  are  cannot  fur- 
nifh  our  forces  ;  and  we  muft  take  care  to  fecure  a 
retreat,  if  the. enemy  iliould  come  upon  us  with 
ftronger  force  ;  and  it  is  fafeft  to  intrench. — If  to 
hinder  the  jundlion  of  an  army;  we  muft  haften  irfto 
our  quarters,  to  furprize  thofe  Who  {hall  not  be 
quick  enough  to  retire,  and  then  purfue  the  reft  as 
far  as  can  be. — If  10  fight  an  army  already  form- 
ed; we  muft  be  cautious,  and  know  the  ftren»th 
oi  it,  and  the  place  where  it  lies,  left  in  our  march 
we  meet  with  k,  in  a  difadvantageous  place. 


When  we  enter  an  enemy's  country,  we  muft 
confider  the  nature  of  the  rivers  we  pals  ;  as  whe- 
ther a  great  fhower  of  rain,  or  the  fun  melting  the 
fnows,  may  not  prevent  us  from  repafling.  Or  if 
wc  would  ibrce  any  confiderable  pa(s  into  if,  2Sone 
on  the  mountains,  or  over  a  river,  or  an  intrench- 
ment,  all  depend  on  expedition,  cfpecially  in  gain- 
ing pafies  on  mountains,  from  whence  it  is  not  an 
cafy  matter  to  drive  thofe,  who  have  once  lodged 
themfelves. 

If  the  enemy  are  there  before  us,  and  are  not 
numerous,  we  muft  endeavour  to  furprize  them  ; 
but  if  we  fail  herein,  and  are  obliged  to  do  it  bv 
open  force,  we  muft  ftrive  to  gain  an  eminence 
above  them,  or  if  they  are  not  very  ffron;?,  and  are 
fhut  up  with  batteries,  we  muft  attack  them  with 

Retards.,  jcnling  ladders,  and  hand granades. If 

a  tower  or  caftle  fccurcs  a  pafs,  we  muft  ufe  the 
Retard,  or  fix  the  miner  to  it :  and  remember  that 
in  all  difficult  places  we  muft  forecaft  to  fecure  a 
retreat ;  and  if  we  leave  a  pafi  behind  us,  to  place 
a  fufficient  guard  there. 

If  we  are  to  force  a  pafs  upon  a  river,  we  muft 
chufe  a  convenient  place  for  a  pafiage  on  our  fide, 
and  if  there  be  any  rifing  ground,  place  our  cannon 
upon  it,  to  prevent  the  enemy's  troops  from  draw- 
ing up. — Having  viewed  the  place,  we  muft  make  a 
fhew  oi  paffing  in  feveral  places  ;  and  when  our  can- 
non is  planted,  throw  up  a  parapet  on  the  bank  of 
the  river,  about  athoufand  fathoms  in  length, placing 
mufqueteers  behind  it,  then  launch  our  tin  boats, 
and  fend  over  fome  men,  part  foldiers  and  part 
wtarkmen,  to  throw  up  a  half  moon. — This  being 
done,  we  are  to  fend  more  to  defend  it,  in  cafe  we 
be  attacked,  and  other  workmen  to  make  another 
half  moon,  on  the  right,  or  on  the  left  of  the  firft. 
— If  we  are  not  prell'ed  by  the  enemy  while  we 
are  making  the  firft  half  moon.  We  may  carry  on  a 
horn-vv'ork,  the  wings  of  it  to  be  flanked  by  the 
i\r(i  parapet,  and  the  cannon  lodged  there. — But  if 
the  river  be  fo  broad  that  a  mufquet  cannot  defend 
the  wings  of  the  horn-work,  it  muft  be  defended 
by  half  moons  made  beyond  the  water.  In  the 
mean  time  we  muft  labour  hard  at  the  bridge,  and 
when  finiflied  caufe  the  troops  to  pafs,  if  the  ene- 
my be  not  on  the  fpot ;  if  they  are,  the  horn- work 
muft  be  finiftied,  that  they  may  not  fall  upon  the. 
troops  as  they  pafs. — When  it  is  finifhcd  as 
ftrong  as  it  ftiall  be  thought  nccefTary,  we  muft  put 
as  many  foot  in  it,  as  it  v/ill  conveniently  hold,  and 
fome  field  pieces ;  then  the  cannon  upon  the  hill 
keeping  the  enemy  at  a  diftancc  ;  the  cavaJiy  mav 
alfo  pafs. — But  yet  this  is  not  to  be  done, ■  bur 
when  their  army  is  much  weaker  than  our  own,  for 
if  they  were  as  ftrong  s.i  we,  then  when  half  our 
I  i  2  men 


24^  ^^  Univerfal  Hiflory  cf  Arts  and  Scienxes. 

men  were  over  they  would  fall  in  with  them,  and  i  other  fide  may  not  fire  upon  us,  left  they  kill  their 
our  cannon  or  mufquets  would  do  them  no  harm  ;    own  men.     If  they  make  a  parapet  on  the  edge  ot 


and  though  they  could  not  force  our  intrenchment, 

yet  they  would  cut  oft' all  without  it. Therefore 

if  their  artny  be  near  as  ftrong  as  ours,  we  muft 
finifh  the  horn-work,  and  at  the  fame  time  makiiij^ 
another  bridge  and  another  horn-work,  at  fome 
diftance  from  the  firft,  draw  a  line  from  one  to  the 
other.  The  laft  and  fureft  way  is  to  fecure  a  pafs 
at  fome  diftance  from  the  place  where  we  lie,  that 
the  enemy  may  not  prefently  have  notice  of  it ;  and 
to  keep  part  of  our  forces,  as  long  as  we  can  before 
them,  to  give  them  the  leaft  occafion  to  fufpciSt  we 
have  detached  any  troops. 

If  there  be  any  brook,  morafs,  ditch,  hollow 
way,  rifing  ground,  or  other  difficult  pafs,  or  any 
eminence  at  hand,  on  which  the  enemy  may  conve- 
niently lodge  themfelves,  and  plant  cannon  on  the 
other  fide  the  river,  where  we  defign  to  pafs ;  it 
will  be  requifite  to  make  fome  redoubts  on  the  pajfes, 
if  the  enemy  are  not  there  already  ;  for  if  they  are 
much  weaker  than  we,  they  may  come  and  intrench 
themfelves  there,  and  by  fecuring  the  fecond  pafs, 
make  the  firft  ufelefs. 


But  perhaps  we  are  to  guard  fuch  a  pafs :  there 
fore  we  muft  view  all  places  along  the  river,  which  I  men  than  we  can  of  theirs 


the  water  on  their  fide,  and  detach  fome  men  to 
make  a  half  moon,  and  their  bridge,  and  our  can- 
non and  fmall  (hot  cannot  hinder  them,  then  if 
the  place  be  convenient  for  horfe,  we  muft  fend 
fome  fmall  parties,  ftronger  than  thofe  that  are 
pafs'd  ;  for  if  vvc  fend  great  bodies,  they  will  re- 
ceive more  damage  from  the  enemies  beyond  the 
water  than  we  can  receive  by  thofe  that  are  pafs'd. 

If  there  be  any  likelihood  of  carrying  the  half- 
moon  the  enemies  have  made  at  the  pafs,  we  muft 
attack  it  with  vigour,  and  if  we  are  repulfed,  en- 
deavour then  to  prevent  their  throwing  up  other 
works,  by  porting  our  cannon  and  frnall  fiiot  ad- 
vantageoufly  for  that  purpofe.  But  if  they  have 
got  a  good  fafe  half-moon,  and  are  not  over-hafty, 
it  will  be  difficult  to  obftrudt  their  pafl'age  ;  becaufe 
their  workmen  whom  they  fend  to  make  other  in- 
trcnchments,  vvijl  retire  to  the  ditch  of  the  half- 
moon,  if  we  prefs  upon  them,  and  they  that  fuf- 
tain  them  will  force  us  with  their  volleys,  and  the 
affiftance  of  thofe  beyond  the  water  to  retire,  and 
then  the  men  viill  return  to  their  work  ;  and  as 
often  as  we  attack  them  they  will  kill  more  of  our 

However  though  thefe 


are  fit  for  that  purpofe,  and  throw  up  forts  and  re-  little  attacks  coft  us  fome  men.  yet  if  by  that  means 
doubts  before  them,  if  we  can,  and  caufe  the  coun-  we  can  retard  the  work  till  night,  it  will  be  a  great 
try  people  to  be  upon  guard,  if  we  are  afraid  to  di-  advantage  to  us  ;  for  then  being  out  of  fight  of 
vide  our  army  too  much,  that  we  may  have  notice  of  ;  their  fire,  we  may  make  lodgments  forraufqucteers, 
the  approach  of  the  enemv,  and  be  rcidy  to  receive  I  and  raife  batteries  as  near  their  works  as  poffible,  fo 
them,  and  by  our  fpies  and  other  means  get  intelli-  that  they  v/ho  are  lodged  in  them,  will,  by  their 
gence,  when  they  make  a  detachment  to  furprife  I  fire  in  the  morning,  hinder  the  enemies  from  ex- 
anther />o/}.  tending  their  works;  and  in  order  to  prevent  their 
If  thev  draw  up  their  field  pieces  on  the  edge  of.  working  by  night,  we  muft  make  frequent  fallies, 
the  water,  and  have  planted  their  heavy  cannon  on  as  often  as  they  go  about  it,  which  will  not  be 
higher  ground,  determined  to  pafs,  without  any  j  very  dangerous,  or  keep  a  continual  firing  from  our 
intrenchment,  under  the  fire  of  their  cannon  and ,  fmall  arms,  charged  with  partridge  (hot  ;  but  if 
fmall  arms,  which  they  fuppofe  will  keep  us  at  a  |  we  cannot  hinder  their  paffing,  it  will  be  eafier  to 
diftance  ;  then,  if  we  have  not  an  advantageous  retire  by  night  than  by  day.  If  we  find  the  pafs 
place  to  plant  our  cannon,  we  muft  poft  ourfelves  well  fecured  with  works,  then  if  there  be  a  morafs, 
a  muflcet-ihot  from  their  pafiage,  either  above  or  ditch,  or  ridge,  or  any  other  advantageous  ground, 
below  it,  that  h  making  an  empalement,  to  cover  we  11  entrench  ourfelves  upon  the  ridges  ot  it,  to 
us  from  their  artillery,  we  may  fire  upon  t\\t  pajs  j  obftruiSt  their  fecond  palfage. 
without  being  expofed.     If  there  are  any  hedges  or 


trees,  we  fhould  take  the  advantage  of  that  covert 
for  it  is  dangerous  to  lodge  cannon  in  the  fight  of 
great  batteries  If  there  be  a  hollow  way,  ditch, 
ridge  of  ground,  or  hedge,  v,-e'll  lodge  as  many 
foot  as  we  can  there,  and  ftrengthen  our  lodgement 
the  beft  we  can.  Yet  if  all  our  efforts  cannot  pre- 
vent the  enemy  from  paffing,  as  foon  as  a  part  which 
is  weaker  than  our  army  is  over,  we'll  rufh  in  upon 
them,  that  in  the  confufion  the  remainder  on  the 


When  both  armies  have  a  defign  topoflefs  them- 
felves of  an  advantageous  poft,  it  often  occafions 
a  battle.  The  precaution  to  be  ufed,  in  that  cafe, 
is  to  fend  our  fcouts  towards  them,  and  not  to 
march  without  a  good  number  of  fmall  parties  out 
before  us,  to  prevent  meeting  the  enemy  in  a  dan- 
crerous  place.  A  ftrong  detachment  is  to  be  fent 
from  the  Army  to  take  poflcffion  of  the  poft,  and 
expeft  the  enemy  there,  provided  our  detachment 
be  ftrong  enough,  to  maintain  it  'till  the  whole 

army 


ARMY. 


247 


c.rm\,  come  up.  If  we  know  that  the  enemv  muft 
pa!s  a  difficult  defile,  we  muft  fend  fome  parties 
thither  to  fpoil  the  waj's,  :iaJ  to  fl-:irmjlh  with 
them. 

When  we  find  ourfelves  inverted  by  an  army 
ftrongcr  than  ours,  whereby  our  provifions  are  cut 
off,  and  no  hope  of  getting  any,  without  hazarding 
a  battle,  we  muft  then  make  an  attempt,  either  in 
order,  to  get  clear  out  of  our  poft,  or  elfe  to  bring 
in  the  M/Wtfy  ;  though  it  has  happened  foinetinies, 
that  by  a  ton  great  confidence,  or  rather  prelump- 
tion  in  a  general,  an  army  has  been  fo  well  hedged 
in,  that  it  v/as  impoffible  to  fally  out,  without  its 
being  expofed  to  be  cut  to  pieces,  as  it  happened  to 
the  Czt.r,  Peter  I.  upon  the  Prutk,  where  his 
whole  army  muft  have  periflied  for  want  of  pro- 
vifions, or  fallen  by  the  fwords  of  the  Turks,  if 
the  Czarina  Catherine,  his  wife,  had  not  found  the 
fecret  of  amufing  the  Grand  Vizir  with  advanta- 
geous propofals,  to  give  time  to  the  Czar  to  extri- 
c-ate  himfelf  out  of  that  great  dilemma,  as  he  did, 
to  the  difappointment  of  Charles  XII.  King  of 
Sweden,  who  came  one  day  too  late  to  make  the 
advantage  he  expected,  from  the  diftrefs  of  his  mofl 
formidable  enemy;  which  difappointment  fo  enraged 
the  hero,  that  he  could  not  help  reproaching  the 
Grand  Vizir  with  perfidy  and  cowardice. 

If  we  defign  to  bring  in  the  convoy,  *  we  muft 
order  it  to  come  with  the  greateft  fecrefy,  through 
fuch  a  road,  as  we'll  judge  more  proper  for  us  to 
meet  it,  without  hazarding  a  diladvantageous  bat- 
tle. To  effeft  which  we  muft  march  out  with  all 
our  forces;  for  though  we  ventured  but  little  before 
the  coming  of  the  convoy,  yet  the  lofs  of  it  would 
iofe  all,  if  pur  fafety  depended  on  its  coming  fafe. 
But  if  we  think  there  is  as  much  difficulty  to  bring 
in  the  convoy  fafe  as  in  leaving  our  poft;  or  though 
it  fhould  come  fafe  it  would  fubfift  our  army  but 
for  a  few  days,  and  that  there  might  be  the  fame 
hazard  foon  after  in  biinging  another,  fo  that  the 
delay  would  be  no  advantage  to  us,  then  it  would 
be  more  prudent  to  make  an  effort  at  firft  than  to 
ftay  any  longer;  becaufe  an  army  always  declines, 
and  for  the  moft  part  lofes  courage  and  ftrength. 

In  order  to  force  our  way,  we  muft  either  leave 
our  baggage,  in  the  place  we  quit,  with  a  guard  ; 


or,  if  the  place  cannot  be  defended  without  leaving 
a  confiderable  part  of  the  army,  take  all  with  us, 
for  fear  of  weakening  ourfelves,  and  if  we  appre- 
hend that  our  bag:>;age  may  incumber  us,  and  hinder 
the  retreat  we  hope  to  make  without  it,  we  muft 
five  the  bcif,  and  burn  the  reft.  Having  firft  viewed 
the  eafieft  way,  we  muft  let  forward  towards  t\\p 
evening,  and  at  the  fame  time  fend  parties  to  alarm 
the  enemy  in  fcveral  other  places,  that  they  may  be 
doubtful  which  way  we  draw  oft'.  If  wc  carry  our 
baggage  with  us,  then  we  muft  keep  bctwec/i  it 
and  the  enemy,  that  is,  when  the  enemy  is  in  the 
rear,  and  the  baggage  before  us  ;  and  on  the  left  if 
they  are  on  the  right  ;  and  fo  on  the  right  if  they 
are  on  the  left.  If  the  enemy  be  before  us,  we 
muft  march  on,  fighting  courageoufly,  aqd  the  fame 
if  they  attack  us  brillcly  in  the  rear,  or  on  the  flank  ; 
but  if  they  come  on  but  flowly,  to  retard  us  'till  all 
their  forces  come  up,  then  we  muit  not  ftop  at  all, 
but  defend  ourfelves,  retreating,  never  lofing  time 
to  fuftain  the  troops  that  are  attacked,  though  fome 
of  them  be  loft  :  Nay,  it  is  fometimes  abfolutely 
neceflary  to  Iofe  a  imall  part  to  fave  a  greater  ;  but 
this  refolution  is  never  to  be  taken  unlefs  the  greateft 
extremity  compels  us  to  it. 

If  we  would  prevent  the  army  of  the  enemy  crof- 
fing  our  country,  we  muft  endeavour  to  cut  it  oft" 
in  the  van  at  fome  pafs,  or  fall  upon  its  rear,  when 
half  paiTed  fome  defile,  giving  it  a  check  by  this 
means,  till  the  country  is  in  arms,  and  all  our 
forces  are  joined :  and  wc  muft  endeavour  as  much 
as  poffible  to  avoid  coming  to  a  battle,  unlefs  we 
have  a  great  advantage,  becaufe  by  fighting  in  our 
own  country,  the  lofs  of  one  battle  may  Iofe  all. 

The  judgment,  prudence,  and  conduft  of  a  ge- 
neral, are  alfo  evidenced  in  the  furprize  of  an  army,. 
or  of  quarters.  To  furprize  an  army,  he  muft  un- 
derftand  the  fituation  of  the  camp,  whether  it  is 
intrenched  or  not ;  its  ftrength  in  horfe,  foot,  and 
cannon  ;  how  pofted  ;  the  manner  of  the  encamp- 
ment ;  what  guard  is  kept  within  and  without; 
where  the  guards,  centinels,  and  vedets  are  pofted, 
and  care  muft  be  taken  to  avoid  or  furprize  them. 
As  foon  as  the  enemy  has  taken  the  alarm,  he  muft 
fall  on  with  the  greateft  fury  im.aginable,  that  they 
may  not   have  time  to  form  themfelves.     If  the 


•  A  Convoy,  in  this  place,  is  a  body  of  forces  fent  to  guard  a  fupply  of  provifions,  arms  or  ammunition, 
going  to  a  camp,  to  an  army,  or  to  a  befieged  town.  There  are  two  forts  of  convoy,  'vix,,  zfmall  and  a  grand 
ecn-voy;  A  finall  convoy  conkWi  Qn^y  in  a  few  waggons,  or  horfes  loaded  wiih  ammunition  or  provifions  and  is 
efcorted  with  a  fmall  detachment  of  infantry.  A  grand  convoy  confilh  of  a  very  confiderable  number  of  waggons 
and  horfes  loaded  with  ammunition,  provifions,  and  often  with  money  for  the  payment  ol  the  army,  accompanied 
fometimes  with  a  train  of  artillery,  and  efcorted  with  (Irong  detachments  of  both  cavalry,  and  infantry,  the  ca- 
valry on  the  right  and  left,  and  the  infantry  in  the  front  and  on  the  rear. 

camp 


;48 


77j<2  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  <:2;W  Sciences. 


camp  is  intrenched,  there  muft  be  carried /^/f/wfi  * 
to  fill  up  the  ditches,  pont  volans,  hand-granades 
and  hatchets. 

If  he  will  furprize  any  'particular  quarters  of 
horfe  or  foot,  if  they  are  in  a  place  that  is  enclofed, 
he  mull:  ufe  the  fame  method  praclifed  to  furprize 
C.-iiriions,  but  if  m  an  open  place,  he  muft  ait  ac- 
cording to  their  ftrength,  guard,  and  fituation. 

In  order  to  break  a  bridge  v/'n\c\\  is  advantageous 
tost'-.e  enemy,  we  muft  flrive  to  make  ourfclves 
mailers  of  one  or  both  ends,  if  they  are  not  well 
fortified.  If  we  dare  not  attempt  the  lodgments  the 
fncmies  have  n:ade,  we  are  to  endeavour  to  burn 
the  bridge  with  firefhips,  if  it  be  a  bridge  of  boats, 
i^r  fend  fome  good  fwimmers  to  cut  the  ropes,  or 
diiv.;  down  a  (trong  veird,  heavy  laden,  to  break 
them.  If  it  be  a  wooden  bridge  upon  piles,  men 
may  be  fent  in  cover'd  boats  to  faw  them,  or  elfe  to 
daub  them  with  pitch  and  other  combuftible  matter, 
and  then  let  fire  to  it.  We  may  alfo  build  a  fmall 
bo;jy  of  ftone-work  upon  boats,  in  the  midlt  where- 
of, there  Ihall  bi  a  mine,  loaded  at  top  with  the 
iargfcll  Itones  we  can  get,  and  over  that  a  piece  of 
tmtber  to  bear  under  tlis  upper  part  of  the  bridge, 
or  upon  the  piles,  and  fo  open  a  trunk  to  give  fire 
to  tlie  mine,  which  ihall  fpiing  while  the  boats  are 
under  the  bridge.  If  we  cannot  maks  iure  of  the 
trunk  for  firincj,  a  good  fwimmer  may  carry  a  boat, 
and  tie  or  hook  it  to  one  of  the  main  pillars;  and 
having  fet  fire  to  a  faudffe,  fwim  away  as  fad  as  he 
can.  The  boats  which  have  the  mines,  may  be 
condudled  by  other  boats  ;  and  fo  the  men  in  them, 
having  faftened  the  boats  that  have  the  mines,  and 
giving  fire,  may  get  off  without  danger. 

V/e  would  not  fend  our  army  into  quarters,  be- 
fore having  befuged  a  town  in  form,  were  we  not 
to  confider,  that  Jugis  and  the  tnanner  ot  beficghig 
belong  properly  to  Fortification,  and  confequently 
is  to  be  included  in  our  treatife  on  that  fubjeft, 
under  the  letter  F.  Therefore  we  il  conclude  this 
with  ibme  general  remark i  on  armies. 

The  author  of  the  Confideraticns  Jur  les  Caufes  de 
la  Grandeur  des  Romains.  c.  3.  p.  24.  is  of  opinion, 
that  a  prince  with  a  million  of  i'ubjedls,  cannot  keep 
an  army  of  loooo  men,  without  ruining  himfelf. 
It  was  otherwife,  fay  thev,  in  the  antient  repub- 
licks  :   The  proportion  of  foldiers  to  the  reft  of  the 


people,  which  is  now  about  one  to  an  hundred, 
might  then  be  as  about  one  to  eight.  The  reafon 
feems  owing  to  equal  partition  of  lands,  which  the 
antient  founders  of  commonwealths  made  among 
their  fubje^ls  ;  fo  that  every  man  had  a  confiderable 
property  to  defend,  and  means  to  defend  it  with. 
Whereas  amongft  us  the  lands  and  riches  of  a  nation 
being  fliared  among  a  few,  the  reft  have  no  way  of 
fubfifting,  but  by  trades,  arts,  and  the  like  ;  and 
have  neither  any  free  property  to  defend,  nor  means 
to  enable  them  to  go  to  war  in  defence  of  it, 
without  ftarving  their  families.  A  large  part  of  our 
people  are  either  artizans  or  fcrvants,  and  fo  only 
minifter  to  the  luxury  and  efleminacy  of  the  great. 
While  the  equality  of  land  fubfifted.  Rome,  though 
only  a  little  ftate,  being  refufed  the  fuccours,  which 
the  Latins  were  oblijjed  to  furnifti  after  the  taking 
of  the  city,  in  the  confulate  of  Camillus,  prefently 
raifed  ten  legions  within  their  own  walls  :  which 
was  more,  Livy  afiiares  us,  than  they  were  able  to 
do  in  his  time,  though  mafters  of  the  greateft  part 
of  the  world.  A  full  proof,  adds  the  hiftorian,  we 
are  not  grown  ftronger  ;  and  that  what  fwells  our 
city,  is  only  luxury,  and  the  means  and  efFcCiS 
of  it. 

A  Legion  was  a  kind  of  regiment  or  body  of 
forces,  of  a  number  whereof  tlie  Roman  armies 
were  chiefly  compofed.  The  number  of  foldiers 
and  oiScers  whereof  the  legion  was  compofed,  was 
different  at  different  times.  In  the  time  of  Romu- 
lus each  legion  contained  3000  foot,  and  300  equites 
or  horfe  :  thefe  were  divided  into  three  bodies, 
which  made  as  many  orders  of  battle.  Each  order 
confifted  of  ten  companies  or  maniples,  ranged  at 
fome  diDance  from  each  other,  though  in  the  fame 
front.  Each  body  had  two  general  officers  to  com- 
mand it,  called  Tribunes,  and  each  inaitiple  two 
centurions. 

The  Tribunes  -were,  in  the. Roman  armies ,  much 
the  lame  with  our  colonels. 

A  Centurion  was  an  officer  of  infantry  who 
commanded  a  century,  or  hundre'd  men.  The  firft 
centurion  of  the  firft  cohort  of  each  legion,  was 
not  under  the  command  of  any  tribune,  as  all  the 
re  i:  were  ;  and  had  four  centuries  under  his  directi- 
on.   He  guarded  the  ftandard  and  the  eagle  of  the 


UC'^in. 


*  Fa9ci*jes  are  fmall  branches  of  trees,  or  bavins  bound  up  in  bundles,  which  being  mixed  with  earth,  ferve 
to  fill  up  ditches,  to  fcreen  the  men.  make  the  parapets  of  trenches,  is'c.  feme  of  them  are  dipt  in  melted  pitch 
or  tar,  and  being  kt  on  tire,  fetve  to  burn  the  enemies  1 -dgments  or  other  works.  A  pitch'd/<j/a«^  is  a  toot  and 
a  half  aboa,  ;  a  fa/cine  lOr  defence,  two  or  three  foot.  Pont  volam,  or  flytng-bridge,  is  a  kind  of  bridge  made 
of  ;wo  fma  1  bridges  laid  one  over  another,  and  fo  connived  by  means  of  cords  and  pujlies  placed  along  the 
fide^  of  the  unJer  bridge,  that  the  upper  may  be  pufhed  forwards,  till  it  join  the  place  where  it  is  defigned  to  be 
fixed':  the  whole  length  of  both  not  to  be  above  five  fathom,  left  they  Ihould  break  with  the  weight  of  the 
men. 

In 


ARMY. 


249 


In  the  time  of  Alarct's,  thefe  four  divilVons  of  the 
legions  were  united  into  one,  and  augmented  ;  and 
cohorts  were  appointed  from  five  to  fix  hundred 
men,  each  under  the  command  of  a  tribune.  Each 
cohort  confifted  of  three  maniples^  each  maniple  of 
'  two  centuries  ;  and  the  le-gion  wiis  divided  into  ten 
cohorts,  who  made  as  many  diftinft  battalions,  dif- 
pofed  in  tlirce  lines  ;  fo  that  the  legion  then  con- 
fifted of  five  or  fix  thoufaud  men. 

When  the  army  was  ranged  in  order  of  battle, 
the  cohorts,  or  battalions  were  difpofed  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner.  The  firft  cohort  took  up  the  right 
of  the  nrft  line,  as  the  companies  of  grenadiers  do 
in  our  regiments  ;  the  reft  followed  in  their  natural 
order  ;  fo  that  the  third  was  in  the  center  of  the  firft 
line  of  the  legion,  and  the  fifth  on  the  left.  The 
fecond  between  the  firft  and  third ;  and  the  fourth 
between  the  third  and  fifth.  The  five  remaining 
cohorts  formed  a  fecond  line  in  their  natural  order  ; 
thus  the  fixth  was  behind  the  firft,  and  fo  of  the 
reft. 

The  firft,  third,  and  fifth  cohorts  were  efteemed 
the  bcft,  at  leaft  it  appeared  fo  from  the  poft  they 
took  up,  which  were  looked  on  by  the  Romans  as 
the  moft  important. 

T  he  cohorts,  called  Pratorian,  from  their  place 
or  ftation,  in  the  palace  called  Fratorium,  were  the 
foldiers  of  the  Emperor's  guards.  Their  inftitution 
was  owing  to  Scipio  Africanus,  who  firft  eftabliftied 
a  company  of  the  braveft  m.en  in  his  arrny,  pick'd 
out  for  the  purpofe,  to  be  his  guard,  and  never  to 
ftir  from  his  fide  in  battle.  Di!:n  tells  us,  that  their 
number  was  at  length  increafed  to  ten  thoufand. 
They  were  commanded  by  an  officer,  created  by 
Auguflus,  called  PrcefeSiiis  Prcstorii,  the  prefedl  of 
the  palace. 

The  Stand  A  R  d  bore  by  the  legions  Vv-as  various. 
At  firft  a  wolf,  in  honour  of  that,  which  fuckled 
Romulus  ;  afterwards  a  hog,  by  reafon,  fays  Fejlus, 
war  is  only  undertaken  with  a  view  to  peace,  which 
was  concluded  hy  facrijicing  a  hog.  Sometimes  they 
bore  the  Minotaur,  to  remind  xht'w general  that  their 
defigns  were  to  be  kept  fecret  and  inacceffible  as  the 
Minotaur  in  the  labyrinth.  They  alfo  bore  a  horfe, 
a  boar,  ^c.  Pliny  tells  us,  that  Marius  was  the 
firft,  who  changed  all  iWok  Jlandarcls  into  eagles. 

The  Arms  of  the  antient  Roman  Armies,  were 
a  launce  or  javelin,  a  fword  and  a  fmall  argian 
buckler,  which  Romulus,  during  his  wars  with  the 
Sabines,  a  bold  and  warlike  nation,  changed  into  a 
broad  buckler  ;  and  what  contributed  moft  to 
render  the  Romans  mafters  of  the  world,  was,  that 
having,  fucceffively  warred  againft  all  nations,  they 
renounced  their  own  methods,  arms,  ^c,  when- 
ever they  met  with  better. 


The  armies  of  the  Grand  Signior  confift  chiefty 
of  Janizaries,  Spahis,  and  Timariots. 

The  Janizaries,  reputed  the  Grand  Seignior's; 
foot  guards,  are  the  beft  infantry  in  tlic  1  urkiflj  ar- 
mies ;  firft  inftituted  by  Amurath  I.  called  the  con- 
queror, who  chufing  out  one  fifth  part  of  the  chri- 
y?/fl;?prifoners  taken  from  '<.\\zGrecks,  and  inftruclino- 
them  in  the  difcipline  of  war,  "and  the  dodhine  of 
their  religion,  he  fent  them  to  Hagi  Bektafche  (a 
perfon  whofe  pretended  piety  rendered  him  much 
revered  among  the  Turks)  to  the  end  that  he  might 
confer  his  blcffing  on  them,  and  at  the  fame  time 
give  them  fome  marks  to  diftinguifti  them  from  the 
reft  of  the  troops.  Bektafche,  after  bleiTing  them 
in  his  manner,  cut  off  one  of  the  fleeves  of  his 
fur  gown,  and  put  it  on  the  head  of  the  leader  of 
this  new  militia  ;  from  which  time,  vi%.  the  year 
of  Christ  1361,  they  have  retained  the  name  of 
fenitcheri,  and  x\\^  fur  cap. 

As  Ln  the  Turkijh  armies  the  European  troops  are 
diftinguiihed  from  thofc  of  Afta ;  the  Janizanes  are 
alfo  diftinguiftied  into  'Janizaries  of  Conjlaniinople 
and  of  Damafcus.  Their  drefs  confifts  of  a  doly- 
man,  or  long  gown,  with  ftiort  fleeves,  which  is 
given  them  annually  by  the  Grand  Signior,  on  the 
firft  day  of  Ramazan.  They  wear  no  turban,  but 
in  lieu  thereof  a  kind  of  cap  which  they  call  ze^r- 
cola,  and  a  long  hood  of  the  fame  ftuif,  hanging; 
on  their  ftioulders.  On  folemn  days  they  are 
adorned  with  feathers,  which  are  ftuck  in  a  little 
cafe  in  the  forepart  of  the  bonnet. 

Their  arms  in  Europe,  in  a  time  of  war,  are  a 
fabre,  a  carabine,  or  mufquet,  and  a  cartouch-box 
hanging  on  the  left  fide.  At  Confiantinople,  in  a 
time  of  peace,  they  wear  only  a  long  ftafr  in  their 
hand.  In  Afa,  where  powder  and  fire-arms  are 
lefs  common,  they  wear  a  bow  and  arrow,  with  a 
poniard,  which  they  call  haniare. 

The  Janizaries  are  children  of  tribute  levied  by 
the  Turks  zmong  the  chriftians,  and  bred  up  to  the 
military  life.  They  are  taken  at  the  age  of  ^welvR 
years,  to  the  end  that  forgetting  their  country  and 
religion,  they  may  know  no  other  parent  but  the 
Sultan.  However,  generally  fpeaking,  they  are 
not  at  prefent  raifed  by  way  of  tribute ;  for  the  ca- 
rach  or  tau,  which  tiie  Turks  impofe  on  the  chrif- 
tians, for  allowing  them  the  liberty  of  their  reli- 
gion, is  now  paid  in  money,  excepting  in  fome 
places  where  money  being  fcarce,  the  people  a.'e 
unable  to  pay  in  fpecie,  as  in  Mingrclia,  and  other 
provinces  near  the  Elack  Sea. 

The  officer  who  commands  the  whole  body  of 
the  Janizaries,  is  called  Janizar  Agafi  ;  Aga  of 
the  Janizaries ;  who  is  one  of  the  chief  officers  of 
the  empire. 

The 


250  T^e  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ««^  Sciences. 


The  Spahis,  as  wc  have  obferveJ  already,  com- 
pofe  part  of  the  cavalry  of  the  Ottoman  army  ;  their 
commandant  is  called  ^pahi  Jgaft. 

The  Tim  A  RIOTS,  are  thole  who  enjoy  lands  on 
the  footing  and  tenure  of  Timar,  which  is  a  trail 
or  portion  of  land  which  the  Grand  Signior  grants 
to  a  perfon  on  condition  of  ierving  him  in  war  on 
horfeback. 

The  Timariots  are  obliged  to  ferve  in  war  per- 
fonally  with  as  many  men  and  horfes  for  fervice  as 
their  Timar,  by  the  eflimation  made  thereof,  con- 
tain? 2500  afpers,  or  about  fix  pounds  fter- 
ling  ;  and  to  maintain  them  constantly  mounted 
and  armed  after  their  manner,  to  be  ready  to  march 
at  all  hours  when  commanded,  and  that  on  pain  of 
death,  nothing,  not  even  licknefs  itfelf,  being  al- 
lowed to  excufe  them. 

BefiJes  this  fervice,  they  likewife  pay  an  acknow- 
ledgment of  one  tenth  of  their  revenue.  If  they 
have  any  children  of  age  to  bear  arms,  and  fit  for 
the  fervice  after  their  deceale,  or  in  defcdf  thereof, 
if  the?  have  any  relations  that  have  the  leafl:  in- 
tereft,  the  Timar  is  ufed  to  be  continued  to  them 
on  the  fame  conditions  ;  otherwife  it  is  transferred 
to  others. 

If  the  revenue  thus  held  of  the  Grand  Seignior 
exceed  15000  afpcrs,  or  36/.  fterling,  they  who 
hold  it  are  not  called  Timariots,  but  SubaJJi  or 
ilaims,  and  have  the  adminiftration  of  juftice  in  the 
place. 

ThcTimariots  have  different  appointments  from 
/^.  or  5000  afpers,  equal  to  about  11 1,  flerling,  to 
20,000  afpers :  but  unlefs  their  Timar  exceed  8000 
afpers,  they  are  never  obliged  to  march,  except 
when  the  Grand  Seignior  goes  to  the  army  in  perfon, 
on  which  occafion  none  are  exempted. 

The  origin  of  the  Timariots  is  referred  to  the 
firft  Sultans,  who  beiog  mafters  of  the  fiefs  or  lands 
of  the  empire,  ercijfed  them  into  baronies  or  com- 
inanderics,  to  reward  the  fervice  of  their  bravefl: 
foldiers  ;  and  efpecially  to  raife  and  keep  on  foot  a 
number  of  troops  without  difburfing  any  money. 
But  it  was  Soliman  II.  that  firft  eflablifhed  the  order 
and  difcipline  among  thefe  barons  or  knights  of  the 
empire  ;  but  avarice,  the  ordinary  fault  of  the 
orientals,  has  occafioned  their  declenfion  of  Igte 
years.  The  vice-roys  and  governors  of  provinces 
manage  their  matters  fo  at  court,  that  Timars,  even 
out  of  their  jurifdidion,  are  given  to  their  domef- 
ticks,  or  to  fuch  as  will  give  the  mofi:  money  for 
then). 


There  are  two  kinds  of  Timariots,  the  one  ap- 
pointed by  the  Porte,  the  other  by  the  Viceroy  of 
the  country  ;  but  the  revenues  of  both  are  lefs  than 
thofe  of  the  Zaims.  Thofe  who  receive  their  pa- 
tents from  the  Viceroys,  have  from  3  to  6000 
afpers  *  per  jinn. 

This  cavalry  is  better  difciplined  than  that  pro- 
perly called  the  Spahis,  though  the  Spahis  be  the 
neateft  and  brifkell,  Thefe  laft  only  fight  in  pla- 
toons ;  whereas  the  Zaims  and  Timariots  are  di- 
vided into  regiments,  and  commanded  by  colonels, 
under  the  direction  of  Bafhaws.  The  Baftiaw  of 
Aleppo,  when  in  the  army,  is  cohnel  general  of  this 
militia. 

Shepherds,  water-carriers,  and  other  fuch  un- 
difciplined  mob,  compofe  the  reft  of  the  Ottoman 
forces  or  armies. 

The  armies  of  the  Empire  confift  of  divers  bo- 
dies of  troops  furnifhed  by  the  feveral  circles. 

The  grofs  of  the  French  armies  under  the  Mero- 
vingian, or  firft  race  of  their  Kings,  conlifted  of 
infantry.  Under  Pepin  and  Charlemaign,  the  armies 
confifted  almoft  equally  of  cavalry  and  foot  ;  but 
fince  the  declenfion  of  the  Carlovingian  or  fecond 
line,  the  fees  being  become  hereditary,  the  national 
armies^  fays  Le  Gendre,  are  chiefly  cavalry.  1  he 
late  King  of  France,  Leiuis  XIV.  has  often  brought 
twelve  armies  into  the  field,  making  up  in  all 
500,000  men. 

In  England  the  land  forces  anciently  confifled 
of  a  kind  of  Militia  compofed  chiefly  of  tenants 
to  the  crown  and  vaflals  of  lands,  which  were 
held  in  capite  from  their  fovereign.  But  when  our 
Kings  were  engaged  in  the  conquefts  upon  the  con- 
tinent, we  find  them  hiring  mercenary  troops  to 
enable  them  to  meet  the  enemy  abroad,  without 
expofing  this  ifland,  by  drawing  off  the  militia,  its 
natural Jlrength.  And  fince  the  Re\'olution  in  1688 
this  nation  has  been  obliged  by  its  connections  with 
tlie  powers  in  Germany,  to  maintain  a  Jlanding 
army,  not  only  at  home,  but  alfo  of  German  mer- 
cenary auxiliaries,  for  the  moft  part  of  the  time. 

Thefe  meafures  fo  eclipfed  the  militia,  with  their 
difcipline  and  fervice,  that  it  was  reduced  almoft  to 
aftate  of  annihilation;  till  the  prefentminiftry,(con- 
vinced  of  the  neceffity  of  an  internal  defence  by  a  ?v- 
gularand  vjell-uijcipUned  militia  to  guard  the  natiou 
from  the  invafions  of  our  enemies,  and  to  deliver 
us  from  the  expcnce    and  hazard  of  hiring  foreign 


*  The  afpers  is  a  little  Turkijh  filver  coin,  worth  fomething  more  than  an  Englijh  halfpenny.  The  only 
i'.rprUTon  it  bears  is  that  of  the  Prince's  name  under  whom  i:  was  ftruck.  The  pay  of  the  JamKaries  is 
from  two  to  twelve  afp  rs  per  diem.     Moft  of  the  Grand  Seignior's  revenues  are  paid  in  ajpers. 

troops 


ARMY. 


25 


troopi  to  guard  our  coafls,  in  certain  cafes)  are  en- 
deavouring, under  the  fanflion  of  the  parliament, 
to  rc-eftabli{h  that  force,  wlsich  was  once  the  glory 
of  the  nation  and  the  terror  of  Europe.  For,  tho' 
ourgreateft  {Irength  confifts  in  our  naval  forces  or 
armies  ;  yet  this  is  only  to  he  confidered  in  regard 
to  our  quarrels  with  maritime  ftates  ;  and  our  de- 
fence by  fea  Our  land-forces  have  always  main- 
tained a  dignity  beyond  thofe  of  other  nations  in 
the  wars  of  Europe,  both  lor  their  equipment,  cou- 
rage and  condu£l. 

However,  it  mufl  be  confefled,  that  our  greateft 
ftrength  confifts  in  its  naval  forces  or  armies ;  which 
Naval  Armies  are  a  number  of  fliips  of  war, 
equipped  and  manned  with  failors  and  marines, 
under  the  command  of  an  admiral,  with  other  in- 
ferior officers  under  him. 

An  Admiral  is  a  great  officer,  who  commands 
the  naval  forces  of  a  kingdom  or  ftate,  and  takes 
cognizance  by  himfflf,  or  officers  appointed  by 
him,  of  all  maritime  caufes. 

Du  Cange  afTures  us,  that  the  Sicilians  were  the 
firft,  and  the  Genoefe  the  next  after  them,  who  gave 
the  denomination  oi  admiral  to  the  commanders  of 
their  naval  armaments,  and  that  they  took  it  from 
the  Saracen  or  Arabic  Amir,  a  general  name  for 
any  commanding  officer  ;  though  there  are  no  in- 
ftances  of  admirals  in  this  part  of  Europe,  before 
the  year  1284;  when  Philip  of  France,  who  had 
attended  St.  Louis  to  the  wars  againft  the  Saracens, 
created  an  admiral. 

The  French  have  at  prefent  an  admiral  in  chief, 
called  the  great  admiral  of  France,  who  is  always  a 
perfon  of  the  firfl  rank,  and  of  an  illuftrious  birth  ; 
and  two  vice-admirals,  one  of  the  Levant  ;  the 
other  of  the  Ponant.  The  two  vice-admirals  have 
alio  under  them  rear-admirals,  lieutenant-generals, 
and  chief  defcadres.  When  the  grand  or  high- 
admiral  commands  in  perfon,  the  vice-admirals 
command  each  his  divifion. 

A  French  fleet  is  commonly  divided  into  three 
divifions  ;  the  white  divifion  ;  the  blue  divifion  ; 
and  the  white  and  blue  divillon.  But  when 
the  high  or  grand-admiral  does  not  command  in 
perfon,  it  is  always  the  vice  admiral  of  the  Lcva?it 
who  commands  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  that  of 
the  Ponant  on  the  Ocean.  The  grand-admiral 
carries  a  fquared  flag,  at  the  main  top  maft,  of 
blue  filk,  embroidered  with  a  golden  y^«,  with  the 
\a.tc]/imgs  device  or  motto.,  nee  pluribusimpar.  The 
vice-ad7niral,  when  the  admiral  commands  in  per- 
fon, carries  Wis  fag  at  the  mizen  top-maft.  The 
kingof/"ra/jtv  has  always  50000  feamen  regiftered, 


who  are  obliged  to  pafs  in  review  before  the  com- 
miflary  of  the  marine  appointed  for  that  purpofc  in 
each  department  or  dillrict  of  the  marine  provinces, 
7^/2,.  Britannv,  Normandy,  Poitoii,  Auiiis,  Provence, 
Guienne,  Languedoc,  SiC.  on  the  firfl  notice  given 
them  by  the  faid  commilFary  ;  who  chufes  from  a- 
mong  thofe  who  appear  before  him,  as  many  boat- 
fwains,  gunners,  carpenters,  caulkers,  and  com- 
mon failors  as  he  wants,  without  being  obliged  to 
prefs  vagrants  or  men  unacijuainted  with  (ea  af- 
fairs, into  that  fervice.  Each  man  of  war,  befides 
its  complement  of  failors,  has  on  board  one  or 
two  companies  of  marines,  which  are  independent 
companies  alv/ays  kept  in  pay,  and  exercifcd  for 
that  purpofe  ;  befides  a  detachment  or  brigade  of 
guards  marines,  who  are  young  noblemen,  brought 
up  to  the  fea  at  the  king's  expence,  and  com- 
manded by  a  brigadier.  Out  of  that  body  of  the 
guards  marines,  are  taken  all  the  officers  of  the 
navy,  and  they  are  promoted  according  to  the  re- 
port made  by  their  iliperior  officer  to  the  king,  of 
their  courage,  knowledge,  and  experience. 

In  every  fea-port  there  is  a  commandant  of  the 
marine,  who  is  commonly  called  a  captain  of  haut 
bord,  as  they  call  it,  or  of  a  firft-rate  man  of  war, 
and  who  commands  all  the  marines  of  that  depart- 
ment or  diftrift  ;  an  intendant  of  the  marines,  who 
is  judge  of  the  court  of  admiralty  in  that  place  ;  and 
a  commiflary  of  the  marine,  who  has  under  him  a 
comptroller,  a  treafurer,  and  feveral  commis  or 
clerks  of  his  office,  which  they  call  le  bureau  des 
claffes,  becaufe  there  is  kept  the  regifter  of  all  the 
failors  of  that  department,  wherein  every  failor  is 
regiftered  according  to  his  rank  and  employment. 

The  Lord  High  Admiral  of  England,  in 
fome  antient  records  called  Cnpitaneus  mariniorum, 
is  judge  or  prefident  of  the  court  of  admiralty. 

He  takes  cognizance  by  himfelf,  his  lieutenant, 
or  deputies,  of  all  crimes  committed  on  the  fea,  or 
the  coaft  thereof,  and  all  the  civil  and  marine 
tranfaftions  relating  thereto:  as  alfo  of  what  is 
done  in  all  great  (hips  riding  in  any  river,  beneath 
the  bridges  thereof  next  the  fea.  We  have  had  no 
high-admiral  for  fome  years  ;  the  office  being  put 
in  commiffion,  or  under  the  adminiftration  of  the 
lords  commtjjioners  of  the  admiralty. 

Admiral  is  alfo  ufed  here,  for  the  commander  in 
chief  of  a  fingle  fleet  or  fquadron.  Thus  we  fay, 
the  admiral  of  the  red,  the  admiral  of  the  white, 
and  the  admiral  of  the  blue.  The  term  adtniral, 
is  alfo  applied  to  all  flag-officers  :  in  which  fenfe  it 
includes  vice-admirals,  and  rear-admirals.  No  na- 
tion in  the  whole  world  has  ever  produced  a  greater 
number  of  braver  admirals,  and  other  fea-officers 
tJian  England.     Their  heroic  adtions  have  been 

K  k  .  admired 


TJ^e  Univcrfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  a7id  Sciencf.  s. 


252 

admired  and  applauded  under  botli  hemifphercs  ; 
and  their  fingle  appearance  has  always  alarmed  the 
coafts  of  the  mod  formidable  encniics  of  the  Eng- 
lijl}  name ;  and  no  doubt  but  our  poflerity  will  re- 
member with  as  much  plealure  and  gratitude,  yen- 
ning,   Norris,     Hofier,   IFager,   Vernon,  Haddock, 


Shovtl,  Sec.  as  we  do  Dr/iie,  Cnifndljh.  BLke, 
Rooke,  MiUtheius,  If^.irren,  Jnjln,  liofcawen,  &c. 
For  whole  expeditions  and  a<;"tions,  and  what  elfe 
relates  to  the  BritlJIj  navy,  iff  Untick's  Navai 
History. 


ASTROLOGY. 


ASTROLOGY   [Gr-  a<,7„f,  afar, 
and  ^o7oJ,  adifcourfe)  is  defined  the  art 
of  prognofticating  or  foretelling  events 
by  the  afpccSls,  pofitions  and  influences 
of  the  hi'avenly  bodies. 


Where,by(7^^<,7is  tobeunderflcodan  angle  fonried 

by  the  rays  of  two  planets  meeting  on  tnrfli,ab!e  to 
execute  fome  natural  power  or  influence.  All 
which  will  be  better  explained  by  the  infpedHon  of 
die  following  table  :  where  you  have 


The  Characters  of  the 


h\x  Mortheru 
Signs 

isix  Southern 
Signs 

Planets 

Aspects 

"V  Aries 
a    Taurus 
n  Gemini 
2S  Cancer 
a  Leo 
»R  Virgo 

^  Libra 
Tn\  Scorpio 
jf    Sagittarius 
yf  Capricorn 
^   Aquarius 
X   Pifces 

h    Saturn 
%    Jupiter 
$    Mars 
0  Sun 
Q  Earth 
$    Venus 
§    Mercury 
])    Luna 

6    ConjuniUon 
^    Scxtile 
A   Trine 
□    Quartile 
g    Oppolition 

This  art,  or  conje<nural y^r/Vwc^,  is  principally  di- 
vided into  natural  andjudieiary. 

Natural  Astrology  confines  its  ftudy  to 
explore  natural  effe«fts  ;  as,  change  of  weather, 
winds,  florms,  hurricanes,  thunder,  floods,  earth- 
quakes, and  the  like. 

In  this  fenfe.  Astrology  is  admitted  to  be  a 
pznof  natural pLUofophy.  Mr.GoAD,  Mr.  BoYLE, 
and  Dr.  Mead  plead  for  its  ufe  in  this  light.  The 
former  endeavours  to  account  for  the  diverfity  of 
ieafons  from  the  fituations,  habitudes  and  motions 
of  the  planets;  and  to  explain  an  infinity  of /)A<«'- 
nomcyia  by  the  contemplation  of  the  liars.  The 
honourable  Mr.  Boyle  admits  that  all  phyfical 
bodies  are  influenced  by  the  heavenly  bodies  :  and 
the  dodlor's  opinion,  in  his  treatife  concerning  the 
Power  of  the  Sun  and  Moon,  Sic.  is  in  favour  of  this 
doftrine. 

Butthefe  predictions  and  influences  are  ridiculed 
and  entirely  exploded  by  the  mofl  admired  modern 
philofophers,  of  which  the  reader  has  a  learned 
fpecimen  in  Rohault'j  7ra£I.  Phyftc.  Par.  2. 
c.  27. 

Judicial  or  Judiciary  Astrology  is  a 
further  pretence  to  difcover  or  foretel  moral  events, 
or  fuch  as  have  a  dependance  on  ^t  freedom  of 
the  will. 


In  this  part  of  Afrology  we  meet  with  all  the  idle 
conceits  about  the  horary  reign  of  planets,  the 
doc'lrine  of  horofcopes,  the  diftribution  of  the 
houfes,  the  calculation  of  nativities,  fortunes,  lucky 
and  unlucky  hours,  and  other  fatalities. 

The  profeflbrs  hereof  maintain,  '  that  the  hea- 
vens are  one  great  volume  or  book,  wherein  God 
has  wrote  the  hiftory  of  the  world  ;  and  in  which 
every  man  may  read  his  own  fortune,  and  the 
tranfaiTlions  of  his  time.  This  art,  fay  they,  had 
its  rife  from  the  fame  hands  as  aflronomy  itfelf : 
while  the  antient  AJfyriam,  whofe  lerene  un- 
clouded fky  favoured  their  celeftial  obfervations, 
were  intent  on  tracing  the  paths  and  periods  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  ;  they  difcovered  a  conflant 
fettled  relation  or  analogy  between  them  and 
things  below  ;  and  hence  were  led  to  conclude 
thefe  to  be  the  parc.r,  the  defiinies,  fo  much 
talk'd  of,  which  prcfide  at  our  births,  and  difpofe 
of  our  future  ftate.' 

This  ftudy  is  fo  flattering  to  human  curiofity, 
that  it  got  early  admi.<lion  into  the  favour  of  man- 
kind, especially  of  the  weak,  ignorant  and  effemi- 
nate :  and  their  foibles  induced  the  avatitious, 
crafty,  and  defigning  knaves  to  recommend  and 
promote  it  for  their  private  interefts  and  advan- 
tage. 

We 


ASTRO     LOG     r. 


253 


We  firft  meet  with  an  account  of  Astrology 
in  Chaldca  ;  and  therefore  at  Rome  it  was  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Bah^lonijh  calculation :  againft 
which,  Horace  very  wifely  cautioned  his  readers, 
in  Lib.  I.  Ode  XI.  where  he  writes, 

nee  Babylonlos 

Tentarh  nu7neros. 

i.  e.  confult  not  the  tables  or  planetary  calculations 
ufed  h-^  Ajirologeys  of  a  Balylonijh  ongin.  This 
was  the  opinion  of  the  Rotruins.  But  others  afcribe 
the  invention  of  this  deception  to  the  Arabs. 

Be  that  as  it  v\'ill  ;  judiciciry  ajlronomy  has  been 
too  much  ufed  by  the  priefts  of  all  nations,  to  en 
crcafc  their  own  authority.  The  Egyptians,  the 
Chaldaans-,  the  Greeks  and  Romans  furnifli  us  with 
innumerable  inftances  to  confirm  the  aflertion. 
The  Bramins  amongft  the  Indians,  who  take  upon 
them  to  be  the  arbiters  of  good  and  evil  hours,  and 
fet  an  extravagant  price  upon  their  pretended  know- 
ledge of  planetary  predictions,  maintain  their  au- 
thority by  the  (ame  means.  And  if  one  had  time 
to  unveil  the  attempts  made  in  this  art  by  Chri- 
ftians,  it  would  be  found  that  Ajlrology  has  yet  its 
admirers  and  advocates  almoft  in  every  fociety  or 
family  ;  as  you  will  fee  in  the  fequel  of  this  treatife. 
For,  tho'  they  have  not  all  purfued  or  adopted  the 
fame  tecnical  method  ;  it  is  certain  that  whoever 
pretends  to  dilcover  futurity  by  any  other  means 
than  divine  revelation,  may  be  properly  reduced 
under  the  name  of  pidiciary  Ajlrologers. 

They  who  pretend  to  reduce  this  pradice  into 
a  fyftem,  prefent  the  world  with  certain  fchemes 
formed  upon  the  afpcHs  of  the  planets  :  and  at- 
tribute certain  qualities  or  powers  to  each  fign. 

Thus  to  difcover  the  influence  of  the  heavens 
over  the  life  of  a  perfon,  they  ere£t  2.  theme,  at  the 
given  time  of  the  moinent  he  or  flie  was  born  ; 
whereby  the  Ajlrologers  pretend  to  difcover  xhejlar 
that  prefidcd,  or  in  what  part  of  the  hemifphere  it 
was  placed  v.hen  fuch  peribn  was  born  into  the 
world. 

This  ere<£tion  of  their  theme,  they  pretend  to 
perform  with  the  affiftance  of  the  cclejlial  globe,  or 
of  the  planifphere,  with  regard  to  \\\e.  fixed  far  s ; 
but  as  to  the  planets,  they  do  it  with  ajlroyiomicjl 
tables.  To  accomplifh  which,  they  have  recourfe 
to  %  femi-circle,  which  they  call  pofition,  by  which 
they  reprefent  the  fix  great  circles  paffing  through 
the  interfeiStion  of  the  ?neridii2n  and  horizon,  and 
A'mdAngxhz  equator  into  twelve  equal  parts.  The 
fpaces  included  between  thefe  circles,  are  what 
they  call  the  tiuelve  houfes  :  which  they  refer  to  the 
twelve  triangles  marked  in  their  theme  ;  placing 
fix  ot  thofe  houfes  above  the  horizon,  and  fix  under- 
neath the  horizon. 


The  firft  of  the  houfes  under  the  horizon  toward 
the  eaft,  they  call  the  borofcope,  or  boufi:  of  life  ; 
the  fecond,  the  honf  of  ivealth  ;  the  third,  the 
bonfe  of  brothers  ;  the  fourth,  the  honfe  of  parents., 
he.  as  is  clearly  explained  in  the  two  following 
verfes. 

Vita,  lucrum,  fr aires,  genitor,  natique,  valetud'. 
Uxor,  mors,  pietas,  tf  munia,  amici,  inimici. 

Thus  turned  into  Englifh  metre  by  {omejludents  in 

Aflrohgy, 

The  firjl  houfe  Jhews  life,  the  fecond  wealth  doth 

give-. 
The  third  how  brethren.,  fourth  how  parents  live  ; 
Iffue  the  fifth  ;  theftxth  difeafes  bring  ; 
The  fcvcnth  wedlock,  and  the  eighth  dcat-h'sjling  ; 
The  ninth  religion  ;  the  tenth  honour  /hews  ; 
Friendjhip  the  eleventh,  and  the  twelfth  our  woes. 

The  Ajlrologers  draw  their  table  of  the  twelve, 
houfes,  into  a  triple  quadrangle  prepared  for  the; 
purpofe,  of  which  there  arc  four  principal  angles,, 
two  of  which  fall  equally  upon  the  horizon,  thc) 
Other  upon  the  meridiem,  v/hich  angles  are  fubdi-, 
vidcd  into  twelve  triangles  for  the  tivelve  houfes,. 
and  in  thofe  houfes  they  place  the  twelve  figns'  of 
the  Zodiac,  attributing  to  each  of  them  their  par-  ■ 
ticular  quality,  viz. 

Aries,  denoted  by  this  figure,  V,  is  in  their  ex- 
travagant opinion,  a  mafculine,  diurnal,  cardinal, 
equinoiSlial,  eailerly  fign,  hot  and  dry,  the  day- 
houfe  oi  Mars. 

Taurus,  s  ,  is  a  feminine,  noflurnai,  melan- 
choly, beftial,  furious  fign,  cold  and  dry. 

Gemini,  n,  is  a  mafculine  fign,  hot  and  moill, 
diurnal,  aerial,  human,  double  bodied,^;:. 

Cancer,  as,  is  a  feminine,  nofturnal,  phlegma- 
tick  fign,  by  nature  cold  and  moift,  the  only  houfe 
of  Luna. 

Leo,  Si,  is  a  fign,  mafculine,  diurnal,  beflial, 
choleric  and  barren  ;  a  commanding,  kingly  fign, 
hot  and  dry,  the  only  houfe  of  they«?z. 

Virgo,  tfE,  is  a  feminine,  nodlurnal,  melan-  1 
choly,  and  barren  fign. 

Libra,  ^,  is  a  fign  mafculine,  cardinal,  equi- 
noctial, diurnal,  fanguine  and  human,    hot   an4  . 
moift. 

Scorpio,  ^,  is  a  feminine,  nodurnal,  cold  and  • 
phlegmetic  northern  fign. 

Sagittarius,  f,  is  a  fign,  mafculine,  cho- 
leric and  diurnal,  by  nature  hot  and  dry. 

Capricorn,  lg=,  is  a  feminine,  no<Sturnal,  me-  ; 
lancholy,  folftitial,  moveable,  cardinal  and  fouthern  ; 
fign. 

Aqi'ARius,  ~,  is  a  mafculine,  diurnal,  fixed, 
fanguine,  and  human  fi^n.  -t 

Kk    2  PISCES, 


The  Uaiverfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


254 

Pisces,  Kj  's  a  feminine,  nodlurnal,  phlegma- 
tic, northerly,  double-bodied  fign,  the  lall  of  the 
twelve. 

Having  thus  houfed  their  figns,  and  directed 
them  in  their  operations,  they  afterwards  come  to 
enquire  of  their  tenants^  what  planet,  and  fixed 
ftar  they  have  for  lodgers,  at  the  moment  of  the 
nativity  of  fuch  perfon  ;  from  whence  they  draw 
conclufions  with  regard  to  the  future  incidents  of 
that  pcrfon's  life.  For  example,  if  at  the  time  of 
that  perfon's  nativity  they  find  Alercury  in  27  de- 
grees, 52  minutes  of  Aquarius,  and  in  the  fextile 
afpeSi  of  the  borofcope  ;  they  pretend  to  foretel  that 
infant  will  be  a  perfon  of  great  fagacity,  genius  and 
underftariding,  and  therefore  capable  to  learn  the 
cnoft  fublime  ftiences. 

Ajhokgers  imagine  alfo,  for  the  fame  ridiculous 
purpofe,  to  be  in  the  fame  houfes,  different  pofi- 
tions  of  the  figns  and  planets,  and  from  their  dif- 
ferent afpedts,  oppofition  and  conjun£lion,  and  ac 
cording  to  the  rules  and  axioms  they  have  pre- 
fcribed  to  themfelves  and  invented,  have  the  fa- 
crilegious  prefumption  to  judge,  in  dernier  refort, 
of  the  fate  of  mankind,  though  their  pretended  art 
or  fcience  is  quite  fterile  or  barren  in  proofs  and  de- 
monftrations. 

The  Planets  have  allowed  them,  every  one, 
except  iSu/  and  Luna,  two  figns  for  their  houfes  ;  t© 
Saturn,  the  Capricorn  and  Aquarius  ;  to  Jirpi- 
TER,  Sagittarius  and  PIfces;  to  iMars,  Aries  and 
Scorpio  ;  to  Sol,  Leo  ;  to  Venus,  Taurus  and 
Libra  ;  to  Mercury,  Gemini  and  Virgo  ;  and  to 
Luna,   Cancer 

The  Planets  by  their  continual  mutation  through 
the  fwthe  figns,  make  feveral  angles  or  afpedls,  the 
moft  forcible  of  which  are  thefe  five. 

<J  Conjunilion,  A  Trine,  D  ^ladrate,  *  Sex- 
tile,    8   Oppofition. 

A  Conjunction  is  when  two  planets  are  in  one 
and  the  fame  degree  and  minute  of  a  fign  ;  and  this 
is,  fay  our  jugglers,  either  good  or  bad,  as  the 
Planets  are  either  friends  or  enemies. 

A  Trine  is  when  any  two  planets  are  four  figns, 
or  120  degrees  diftant,  as  Aiars  in  12  degrees  of 
Aries,  and  Sol'm  12  degrees  oi  Leo.  Here  iSu/ and 
Mars  are  faid  to  be  in  trine  afpecl.  And  this  is  an 
afpect  of  perfect  love  and  ftiendfhip. 

A  Quadrat;!  afpcSi  is  when  two  planets  are 
three  figns,  or  9"  degrees  diftant,  as  Alurs  in  10 
degrees  of  Taurus,  and  Venus  in  10  degrees  of  Leo. 
1  his  particular  afpe<S  is  of  imperfect  enmity,  and 
Ajlroiogers  fay,  that  perfons  fignified  thereby,  may 
have  jars  at  fome  time,  but  fuch  as  may  be  recon- 
ciled again. 

A  Sextile  afpefl  is  when  two  planets  are  two 
figns,  or  to  degrees  diftant,  as  Jupiter,  in  15  de- 


grees of  Aries ;  and  Saturn,  in  1 5  degrees  of  Ge- 
mini ;  here  Jupiter  is  in  z  fextile  afpeft  to  Saturn, 
This  is  an  afpesSt  of  friendlhip. 

An  Opposition,  is  when  two  planetsare  diame- 
trically oppofite,  which  is,  when  they  are  fix  figns, 
or  180  degrees  (which  is  one  half  of  the  circle) 
afunder,  and  this  is  an  afpedt  of  perfe£l  hatred. 

A  Partile  afpeff,  is  when  twoplanets  are  in  a 
perfeft  afpeft  to  the  very  fame  degree  and  minute. 

Dexter  afpeifs,  are  thofe  which  are  contrary 
to  the  fucceflion  of  figns,  as  a  planet  in  Aries  carts 
its  fextile  dexter  to  Aquarius. 

Sinister  afpeif  is  with  the  fucceflion  of  figns, 
as  a  planet  in  Aries  carts  its  fextile  fmifier  in 
Gemini. 

Ajlroiogers  play  a  great  many  other  diverting 
tricks,  hence  we  read  of  the  application,  prohibi- 
tion, feparation,  tranflation,  refrenation,  combuf- 
tion,  exception,  retrogradation  Is'c.    of  planets. 

The  Applcation  of  planets  is  performed  by 
them,  three  ways.  i.  When  a  light  planet  being 
direcSl  and  fwift  in  motion,  applies  to  a  planet  more 
ponderous,  and  flow  in  motion,  as  Mercury  in  8 
degrees  of  Aries,  and  Jupiter  in  1 2  degrees  of  Ge- 
mini,  and  both  dire£t  ;  here  Mercury  applies  to  a 
fextile  of  Jupiter,  by  direifl  application.  1.  When 
they  are  both  retrograde,  as  Mercury  in  20  degrees 
of  Aries,  and  Jupiter  in  15  degrees  of  Gemini; 
here  Mercury,  the  lighter  planet,  applies  to  the 
fextile  afpeSi  of  Jupiter  ;  and  this  is  by  retrogra- 
dation. 3.  When  one  of  the /)/i3w/f  aredireft,  and 
the  other  retrograde  ;  as  fuppofe  Mercury  were  re- 
trograde in  18  degrees  of  Aries,  and  Jupiter  direct 
in  14  degrees  of  Gemini;  here  Mercury  applies  to 
z  fextile  of  Jupiter,  by  a  retrogade  motion. 

Prohibition,  is  when  twoplanets  are  applying 
either  by  body  or  afpedt  ;  and  before  they  come  to 
their  pa-rtile  afpecl,  another  planet  meets  with  the 
afpect  of  the  former,  and  fo  prohibits  it. 

Separation,  is  when  two  planets  have  been 
lately  in  conjunilion,  or  afpc£f,  and  are  feparated 
from  it. 

Translation  of  light  and  virtue,  is  when  a 
lighter  planet  feparates  from  the  body  or  afpect  of  3 
more  weighty  one,  and  immediately  applies  to 
another  fuperior  planet,  and  fo  tranflates  the  light 
and  virtue  of  the  firft  planet  to  that  which  it  ap- 
plies to. 

Refrenation,  is  when  a  planet  is  applied  to 
the  body  or  afpedt  of  another;  and  before  it  comes 
to  it,  falls  retrograde,  and  fo  refrains  by  its  retro- 
grade motion. 

Combustion.  A  planet  is  faid  to  be  combuft 
of  Sol,  when  it  is  within  8  degrees  30  minutes  of 
his  body,  either  before  or  after  their  conjunction  ; 
but  Ajlroiogers  complain,  that  a  planet  is  more  af- 

fliaed 


ASTROLOGY. 


flirted  when  it  is  applying  to  the  body  of  Sol,  than 
when  it  is  fcpararing  from  combujiion. 

Reception,  is  when  two  planets  are  in  each 
others  dignities,  and  it  may  be  either  by  houfe,  ex- 
altation, triplicity,   or  term. 

Retrogradation,  is  when  a  planet  moves 
backward  from  20  degrees  to  9,  8,  7,  and  fo  out  of 
Taurus  into  Aries. 

Frustration  is  when  a  fwift  planet  applies  to 
the  body  or  afped:  of  a  fuperior  planet  ;  and  before 
it  comes  to  it,  the  fuperior  planet  meets  with  the 
body  or  afpedi:  of  fome  ether  planet. 

To  the  feven  planets,  viz  Satur);,  'Jupiter,  Mars, 
Sol,  Venus,  Mercury  and  Luna,  Aftrologcrs  add  two 
certain  nodes  or  points,  called  the  Dragon  s-Head, 
diflinguifhed  by  this  ftgn  S,  and  the  Dragon' s-tail 
by  this  other  S .  In  thofe  two  extremities  of  the 
beaft,  our  fludents  in  Aflrology  place  fuch  virtues, 
that  they  can  draw  from  thence  wealth,  honours, 
preferments,  i3 c.  enough  to  flatter  the  avarice,  am- 
bition, vanity,  ^c.  of  the  fools  who  follow  them. 

I  am  fenfible  that  the  admirers  of  this  art  fupport 
their  principles  and  defend  their  doitrine  by  exam- 
ples founded  upon  their  own  experience,  and  upon 
the  authority  of  hiftory.  But  the  weaknefs  of  their 
arguments  have  been  fo  often  expofed,  that  it  can't 
be  required  here  to  refute  them.  Let  TuHy's  reproof 
fuffice  ;  who  during  the  darkeft  clouds,  and  greateft 
obfcurity  ofPaganifm,  while  religion  irfelffcemed  to 
countenance  Ajirology,  inveighs  feverely  againft  it. 
^am  inulta,  fays  he,  lib.  2  de  divinat.  ego  Pom- 
prio,  quam  mu'ta  Crajf",  qnam  rnulta  huic  ipfi  Ca- 
Jari  a  Cbaldnis  diSia  memini,  nerninem  eorum  nift 
feneSlute,  nifi  domi,  nifi  cum  claritate  ejje  rnoritu- 
rum  ?  Ut  mihi  per  Alirum  videatur  quemquam  extnre, 
qui  etian  nunc  credatis,  quorum  pradifia  quotidie' 
videat  re  W  eventis  refelli.  i.  e.  "  I  fo  well  remem- 
"  ber  the  Chaldaans  predictions  to  Pompey,  to 
"  Crajfus,  and  to  this  fame  Cafar,  that  none  of 
"  them  fhould  die,  but  full  of  years  and  glory,  and 
"  in  his  houfe,  that  I  am  furprized,  that  there  are 
"  yet  fome  perfons  capable  to  believe  thofe,  whofe 
"  predictions  are  every  day  contradifted  and  refuted 
"  by  the  event." 

In  [lead  o^  ajlrological  caLulations,  v/e  find  certain 
vain,  ridiculous,  and  infignificant  figures,  invented 
by  the  Chaldeeans,  Perjians,  Egyptians,  and  Arabs, 
called  in  the  y/r^i/r  language  I  alismans  ;  which 
are  the  fcal,  figure,  characier  or  inuige  of  a  heavenly 
fign,  conftellation  or  planet,  engraven  on  a  fympa- 
thetickjhne,  or  on  a  metal  corrcjponding  to  the  ftar, 
^c.  in  order  to  receive  its  influences  ;  and  to  which 
Aflro'ojrs  attribute  fome  ridiculous,  marvellous 
efFeds  ;  as  thofe  of  curing  diftempers  ;  of  rendering 
perfons  iiwulnerable,  K3c.  So  that  a  figure  of  lead, 
called  Saturn  by  the  aUbeniJls,  and  impreffed  with 


255 


the  charadler  of  Saturn,  being  tied  to  the  neck  of  a 
perfon,  who  has  the  plague,  which,  fay  they,  is  a 
Saturnian  diltemper,  will  efFecffually  cure  him. 

The  Talismans  of  the  Samothracians,  fo  fa- 
mous of  old,  were  pieces  of  iron  formed  into  cer- 
tain images,  and  fet  in  rings,  i^c.  They  were  held 
prefervatives  againft  all  kinds  of  evils.  There  were 
other  Tali/mans  taken  from  veget.ibles,  and  others 
from  minerals.  Are  not  the  amulets  flill  in  vogue 
amongft  us  the  remains  of  this  fuperftition  .' 

In  general  we  ufe  to  diftinguifti  three  kinds  of 
Talifmans  :  Aflronomical,  which  are  known  by  the 
ligns  or  conftellations  of  the  heavens  engraven  there- 
on, with  other  figures  and  fome  intelligible  cha- 
radters  :  Magical,  which  bear  very  extraordinary 
figure,  with  fuperltitious  words,  and  names  of  angels 
unheard  of;  and  mixt,  which  confift  of  figns  and 
barbarous  words,  but  have  no  fuperflitious  ones,  or 
names  of  angels. 

All  the  miraculous  things  wrought  by  Apollonius 
Tyanaus,  are  attributed  to  the  virtue  and  influence 
of  Talifman  ;  and  he  is  even  faid  to  have  been  the 
inventor  of  Talifmans. 

Ajlrclogers  have  alio  made  ufe  of  all  their  beft  ar- 
tifices, and  employed  all  the  rules  of  their  pretended 
art,  to  render  thofe  years  of  our  age,  which  they 
call  climailericks,  dangerous  and  formidable. 

CLiMACTERicK,from  the  Greek,  KT^iftaKTri^,  q.d. 
by  a  fcale  or  ladder,  is  a  critical  year,  or  a  period 
in  a  man's  age,  wherein,  according  to  thofe  jug- 
glers, there  is  fome  notable  alteration  to  ariie  in  the 
body  ;  and  a  perfon  ftands  in  great  danger  of  death. 

']  he  firft  climaSierick,  fay  they,  is  the  feventh 
year  of  a  man's  life  ;  the  reft  are  multiplies  of  the 
firft,  as  21,  49,  56,  63,  and  84  ;  which  two  laft 
are  called  the  grand  cluna  SI  cricks,  and  the  dangers 
here  fuppofed  more  certain. 

Marc  Ficinus  gives  us  the  foundation  of  this  opi- 
nion :  he  tells  us  there  is  a  year  affigned  for  each 
planet  to  rule  over  the  body  of  a  man,  each  in  his 
turn  ;  now  Saturn  being  the  moft  maleficent /j/ff;?^? 
of  all,  every  feventh  year,  which  falls  to  its  lot, 
becomes  very  dangerous  ;  cfpecially  thofe  of  63  and 
84,  when  the  perfon  is  already  advanced  in  years. 

Some  hold,  according  to  this  do£trine.  every  fe- 
venth year  an  eftablifhed  climaSierick  ;  butotherson- 
ly  allow  the  title  to  thofe  produced  by  the  multipli- 
cation of  the  climaiftcrical  fpace  by  an  odd  number, 
3>  5'  7'  95^^-  Others  obferve  every  ninth  year 
as  a  cVvnaHeriik. 

Hevc'.ibs  has  a  volume  under  the  title  o(  Annus 
Climaiiericus,  defcribing  the  lofshe  fuftained  in  the 
burning  of  his  obfervatory,  is'f.  which  it  feems  hap- 
pened in  his  firft  grand  climaSierick.  Suetonius  fays, 
Augujlus  congratulated  his  nephew  upon  his  having 

paffed 


256 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^W  Sciences. 

Jertius    £3*    denus. 


pafled  his  firfi;  grand  cUmaHericky  whereof  he  was 
very  appreheiifive. 

Some  pretend  that  the  cUma^lerick  years  are  alfo 
fatal  to  political  bodies  ;  which  perhaps  may  be 
granted,  when  it  is  proved  that  they  are  fo  to  natu- 
ral ones;  for  I  m>iit  coiifel's  that  I  cannot  difcovcr 
the  rcaion  of  fuch  danger,  nor  what  relation  it  can 
Have  with  the  number  above-mentioned.  Though 
this  bpinioii  has  a  great  ddal  of  antiquity  on  its  fide. 
jiulus  GelUtis  lays,  it  was  borrowed  from  the  Lhal- 
fia-ans,  who  might  probabiy  receive  it  from  Pyt/j,i- 
goras,  whofe  philofoph.y  turned  much  on  numbers, 
a'nd  who  imagined  an  extraordinary  virtue  in  the 
number  7. 

Authors  on  the  fubjccl,  arc  Plato,  C'l'dro,  AI erg 
biui,   Aulus   Getlius,    among  the  antients ;   y/r^o/, 
jV/ag.'rus,  and   Sij/matius   under  the  moderns.     St 
Jugujtit2,  St.  y^mhrojc,  Bcda-,  and  Boctiui  counte- 
nance the  opinion. 

yljii  ologen  ha\'c  alfo  brought  under  their  infpeiti- 
011  the  days  of  the  years,  which  they  have  the  pre- 
funiption  to  divide  into  lucky  and  unlucky  days, 
calling  even  the  i'acred  text,  and  the  common  be- 
lief of  chriflians,  in  former  ages,  to  their  afTillance 
on  this  occafion.  They  pretend  that  the  fourteenth 
day  of  the  firft  month  was  a  bleffed  day  among  the 
Ifraelites,  authorifed  therein,  as  they  pretend,  by 
the  feveral  paflages  outoi Exod.xW.  18,  40,41,42, 
51.  Levit.  xxiii.  5.  Numb,  xxviii.  i6.  Four 
hundred  and  thirty  years  being  expir,  d  of  their  dwell- 
ing in  Egypt,  even  in  the  felf  jame  day  departed  they 
ihence. 

As  to  evil  days  and  times,  they  refer  to  Amoi  v. 
\T^,and\\.  3.  Ecci'ef.  ix.l2.  Pfal.  xxxvii.iq.  Obad. 
xli.yer.  xlvi.  21. — and  to  ycicurfing  his  birth  day, 
chap.  iii.  ver.  r  to  ir.  In  confirmation  thereof, 
they  alfo  quote  a  calendar,  extraiSted  out  of  feve- 
ral antient  Roman  CathoUck  prayer  books,  writ- 
ten upon  vellum  before  the  invention  of  print- 
ing, wherein  were  inferted  the  unfortunate  days  of 
each  month,  as  in  the  following  verfes. 

January.  Prima  dies  menjis,  l^ feptima  trun- 
cal lit  erjis. 

February.  Shiarta  fublt  mortem,  profternit 
tertia  fortem. 

March.  Primus  mandentem,  dijrumplt  quart  a 
bibenfem. 

April.  Denus  U'  undenus  ejl  mortis  vulnere 
plenus. 

May.     Tertius  occidit,  is'  Jeftimus  ora  relidit. 

Tune.     Denus  pallejcit,  quindenus  feeder  a  nefcit. 

July.     Ter  denus  maSlat,  Julii  denus  labefatiat. 

August.  Piima  necat fortem, perditque fecunda 
cohortem. 

September.  Tertia  Se[tembris,  (S)  denus  fert 
mala  membris. 


October. 
atienus. 

November. 
•iita  tinitus. 

DECEf.lBER. 

ut  ansuis. 


eft  ficut  mors 
Sarpius  efl  quin'us,  W  tertius  ejt 
Septimus  exanguis,    virofus  denus 


This  poetry  taftes  much  of  the  rufticity  and  ig- 
norance of  tnofc  times,  and  13  a  convLncing  proof 
that  Chri/lianity  had  yet  a  very  ftrong  tindiure  of  the 
Pa;an  fuperflitions,  which  the  pu:ity  of  the  Gofpel 
has  not  been  capable  yet  to  blot  out  among  us. 

That  fuch  ridiculous  notion  of  lucky  and  unlucky 
days,  owes  its  origin  to  Pagat}  fuperilition,  may 
be  proved  from  the  /?fl//.<2n  hillorians,  who  mention 
that  that  very  day  four  years,  the  civil  uars  were 
begun  by  Pon:pey  the  Father  ;  Ca;far  made  an  end 
of  them,  with  his  fons,  Cneius  Pompeius  being  then 
flain  ;  and  that  the  Romans  accounted  February  the 
13th  an  unlucky  day,  becaufe  en  that  day  they 
were  overthrown  by  the  Gnuls  at  Allia,  and  the 
Fahii  attacking  the  city  of  the  Ruii,  were  all  flain 
fave  one  :  from  the  calendar  of  Ovid's  Fa;iorum. 
Aprilis  erat  Aienf.s  Greeds  aufpicatijfimui  ;  and 
from  Horace,  Lib.  2.  Ode  13.  Cuihng  the  tree 
that  had  like  to  have  fallen  upon  him. 


Ilk  nefijlo  te  pojuit  Die. 

What  has  contributed  much  to  confirm  the  Pa- 
gans as  well  as  theChiiftians  in  their  opinion  on  this 
fubjedt,  are  the  feveral  remarkable  events  that  hap- 
pened at  fome  particular  days.  As,  Alexander  the 
Great,  being  born  the  6th  oi  April,  conquered  Da- 
rius, and  died  the  fame  day.  The  emperor  Bajft- 
anus  Caracalla.  being  born  the  6th  of  April,  and 
died  the  fame  day.  Augujlus  having  been  adopted 
the  19th  oi  Augu'J,  began  \\\%  anfulate,  conquered 
the  Triumviri,  and  died  the  fame  day. 

As  for  the  Chriftians;  they  have  obferved  that  the 
24th  of  February  was  four  times  fortunate  to 
Charles  V.  emperor.  That  JVcd  efday  was  a  fortu- 
nate day  to  pope  Sextus  V.  for  on  a  tVed  efday  he 
was  born  ;  on  that  day  made  a  monk  ;  on  the  fame 
d.ay  made  a  general  of  his  order ;  on  that  day  created 
cardinal  ;  on  that  day  elected  pope  ;  and  alfo  on  that 
day  inaugurated  That  Thurfda^  was  a  fatal  day  to 
Henry  V'lII.  king  oi Eniland,  and  his  pofterity,  for 
hediedon  Thurjday;  k'lngEdwardVl.onTkurfday; 
queen  A'Jary  on  Ihurfday  ;  and  queen  Eiizcbeth  on 
Thurfday.  The  French  have  obferved  that  the  feaft 
of  Pentecoft  had  been  lucky  to  Henry  III.  King  of 
France,  for  on  that  day  he  w.ns  born  ;  on  that  day 
eledled  king  of  Polana,  and  that  day  he  fucceeded 
his  brother  Chatlcs  IX.  on  the  throne  of  France. 

Here 


ASTROLOGY. 


257 


Here,  among  ouiTelvcs  are  too  manyy^r«%i'rj ; 
efpecially  of  the  female  kind,  who  are  more  careful 
to  obferve  a  luck^i  or  ttnhuly  day,  than  to  keep  their 
family  in  gooil  order;  who  ftudy  a  ftranger  on  the 
fire-grate,  the  motions  of  a  cat,  the  howling  ©f  a 
dog,  the  death-watch,  the  itching  of  their  elbow, 
knee,  feet,  or  of  fomething  elfe,  with  great  atten- 
tion ;  who  are  two  or  thiee  hours  poring  over  an 
empty  tea-cup,  to  fee  if  they  can  difcover  in  it  a 
hufband,  who  fhall  keep  a  coa:!)  and  fix,  or  if  a 
fecret  intrigue  is  to  fucceed  according  to  expedla- 
tion,  or  a  love-letter  to  be.  anfwered,  and  an  in- 
finity of  other  ignorant,  ftupid,  fcandalous,  ridicu- 
lous, and  unchriftian-like  obfervations  ;  when  they 
Ihould  be  otherwife  employed.  T'hefe  eriors  and 
fcandalous  practices  proceed  from  a  vitiated  educa- 
tion; and  in  fome  families  this  fort  of  y^/?rfl/a^j', 
divination,  or  what  you'll  be  pleafed  to  call  it,  is  a 
kind  of  hereditary  dillemper,  which  circulates  with 
the  blood  throughout  whole  generations,  and  has 
Its  firrt  origin  from  the  auguries  of  the  pagans. 
v/hich  were  preTages  taken  concerning  futurity, 
from  birds,  beafl:s,  and  the  appearances  of  the 
heavens. 

/'Wri3  diflinguifhes  four  fpecies  of  Augurv  ac- 
cording to  the  four  elements.  Pyromancy,  or  au- 
gury by  xhcfire  ;  Aeromancy,  or  augury  by  the  air, 
Hydromancy^ox  augury  by  the  water;  and  Geomancy, 
or  augury  by  the  earth. 

Pyromancy.  The  antients  imagined  they 
could  foretel  futurity  by  inTpecSing  fire  and  flame  ; 
to  this  end  they  confidered  its  direfticn,  or  which 
way  it  turned,  (which  anfwei-s  very  well  to  the 
prognoftications  we  draw  from  the  manner  our  fire 
burns.)  Sometimes  they  add  other  matters  to  the 
fire,  e.  gr.  a  vefTel  full  of  urine,  with  its  neck 
bound  about  with  wool,  watching  narrowly  on 
which  fide  it  burfts,  and  thence  taking  their  rt^^w^. 
Sometimes  they  throw  pitch  on  it,  and  if  it  took 
fire  immediately,  efteemed  it  a  good  augury. 

HYDROMA^fCY.  Varro  mentions  the  Per/tans 
as  the  firft  inventors  oi  hydromancy,  or  divination 
by  throwing  of  water ;  adding,  that  Numa  Pompilius 
and  Pythagarasma.de  ufe  thereof. 

GEOMANCY,is  performed  by  means  of  a  number 
of  little  points  or  dots  made  on  paper  at  random  ; 
and  confidering  the  various  lines  and  figures,  which 
thofe  points  prefent  ;  and  thence  forming  a  judg- 
ment of  futurity,  or  deciding  any  queftion  pro- 
pofed. 

Polydore  Virgil,  lib.  r.  c.  23.  de  Invent.  Rer.  de- 
fines Geomancy  a.\ii\r\A  of  divination  performed  bv 
means  of  clefts  or  chinks  made  in  the  ground,  and 
takes  the  f^r/?««  Magi  to  have  been  the  inventors. 


The  particular  branches  oi augury,  are  AleSloro- 
mancy,  Anthropomancy,  Belomancy,  Ca'optromancy, 
Capnomnncy,  Gajiromancy,  Arufpicina,  Ltbanomancy, 
Lecanomancy,  Scc. 

AlecToromancy,  from  a>>£«Tfcf,  acock,  and 
j/aninx.,  divination,  is  an  antient  kind  of  divination, 
performed  by  means  of  a  cock. 

This  art  was  in  ufe  among  the  Greeks,  and  the 
ufual  manner  of  it  was  this.  A  circle  was  made 
on  the  ground,  and  divided  inio  twenty- four  equal 
portions  or  fpaces ;  in  each  of  which  fpaces  was 
written  one  of  the  letrers  of  the  alphabet,  and  upon 
each  of  thefe  letters  v/as  laid  a  grain  of  wheat. 
This  done,  a  cock  was  turned  loofe  in  the  circle, 
and  careful  obfervation  made  of  the  grains  he 
pecked.  The  letters  correfponding  to  thofe  grains 
were  afterwards  formed  into  a  word  ;  which  word 
was  to  be  the  anfvv'er  defired. 

It  was  thus  that  Libanus  and  "JarjihUchus  fought 
who  fhould  fucceed  the  emperor  fahns  ;  and  the 
cock  anfwering  to  the  fpaces  ©EOA,  they  concluded 
upon  Theodore,   by  a  miftake  inftead  oCTheodofius. 

Anthropo.mancy,  from  wrfoir^,  man,  and 
ic*a»7si«,  divination,  is  a  method  of  divination  per- 
formed by  infpedting  the  vifeera  of  a  pcrfon  de- 
ceafed. 

Belomancy,  from  Bex©.,  arrow,  and  pa*!;!*, 
divination,  is  a  kind  of  divination,  by  means  of 
arrows  praftifed  in  the  caft,  but  chiefly  among  the 
Arabians. 

Belomancy  has  been  performed  in  different  man- 
ners :  one  was  to  mark  a  parcel  of  arrows,  and  put 
eleven  or  more  of  them  into  a  bag  ;  thefe  were  af- 
terwards drawn  out,  and  according  as  they  were 
marked,  or  not,  they  judged  of  future  events. 

Another  way  vi^as  to  have  three  arrows,  upon 
one  of  which  was  wrote  God  orders  it  me  ;  upon 
another,  God  forbids  it  me;  and  upon  the  tliird, 
nothing  at  all.  1  hefe  were  put  into  a  quiver,  out 
of  v.hich  they  drew  one  of  the  three  at  random  ; 
if  it  happened  to  be  that  with  the  firft  infcription, 
the  thing  they  confulted  about  was  to  be  done  ;  if 
it  chanced  to  be  that  with  the  fecond  infcription, 
it  was  let  alone  ;  but  if  it  proved  that  without  in- 
fcription, they  drew  over  again. 

Belomancy  is  an  ancient  praftice,  and  probably 
that  which  Ezekiel  mentions,  f.  xxi.  zi.  at  leaft 
St.  'Jerorn  underftands  it  fo,  and  obfen'es  that  the 
pradfice  was  frequent  among  the  AJJyrians  and  B/t- 
byhnians.  Something  like  it  is  alfo  mentioned  in. 
Hofea,  e.  iv.  only  thatyi'(?i;i'j  are  there  mentioned 
inflead  of  arrows,  which  is  rather  rhabdcmanty- 
than  belomancy.  Grotius,  as  well  as  St.  'jerom,  con- 
founds the  two  together,  and  fliews  that  it  pre- 

vaika 


2s8 


Tie  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


vailed  much  among  the  Magi,  Chaldaam,  and  Scy  \ 
thimts  ;  whence  it    pafll'd   to   the  Sclavoinans,  and 
thence   to  the  Germans,  whom  Tacitus  oblcrves  to 
make  ufe  of  it. 

CatOPTROMANCY,  from  «caT0WT{0»,  fpccu'um, 
and  ftaiJliia,  divirsalion,  is  a  kind  of  divination  among 
the  aiiticnts  ;  fo  called,  bccaule  confifting  in  the 
aiiplication  of  a  mirrour. 

Pauftjnins  fays,  it  was  in  ufe  among  the  Achui- 
ans,  where  thofe  who  were  fitk,  and  in  danger  of 
death,  let  down  a  mirrour,  or  looking  glafs,  faf- 
tenedby  a  thread  into  a  fountain  before  the  temple 
of  Ceres  ;  then  looking  in  the  glafs,  if  they  faw  a 
ghaftly,  disfigured  face,  they  took  it  as  a  fure  fign 
of  death  :  on  the  contrary,  if  the  face  appeared 
frelh  and  healthy,  it  was  a  token  of  recovery. 
Sometimes  glaflcs  were  ufcd  without  water,  and 
the  images  of  things  future  reprefented  in  them. 

Capnomancy,  from  xaw^os,  fmoak,  and  ftaC^m, 
divination,  is  a  kind  of  divination  by  means  of 
fmoke,  ufed  by  the  antients  in  their  facrifices. 
The  rule  was,  when  the  fmoke  was  thin,  and 
light,  and  rofe  ftrait  up,  it  was  a  good  omen  ;  if 
the  contrary,  it  was  an  ill  one. 

There  was  another  fpecies  of  Ctipnomancy  confift- 
ing  in  the  obfervation  of  the  fmoke  rifing  from 
poppv,  or  jeflamin-feed,  cafi:  upon  light  coals. 

Gastromanc  Y,  fromyarl)!?,  belly,  and  /xa/ltia. 
divination,  is  a  kind  of  divination  pradtifed  among 
the  antients,  by  means  of  words  coming,  or  feem- 
ing  to  come  out  of  the  belly. 

There  is  another  kind  of  divination  called  by  the 
fame  name,  Gajlromaney,  which  is  performed  by 
means  of  glaflcs,  or  other  round,  tranfparent  veiTels  ; 
at  the  bottom  whereof  certain  figures  appear  by  ma- 
gic art.  It  is  thus  called,  by  reafon  the  figures 
appear,  as  in  the  belly  of  the  veflels.    " 

Aruspicina,  is  the  doflrine  or  difcipline  of  the 
Arufpiccs. 

The  Arufpices  were  an  order  of  priefts  among 
the  antient  Ro/tnms,  who  foretold  things  to  come, 
chiefly  by  infpeifling  the  entrails  of  bealfs  killed  in 
facrifice.  The  antients  were  fo  fond  of  this  art, 
that  nothing  of  public  or  private  affairs  fhould  be 
tranfacfed  without  it  In  Arufpicina  it  was  ob- 
ferved  whether  the  beaft  came  willingly  to  the  altar 
or  not.  Whether  the  entrails  were  of  a  natural 
colour,  and  not  ulcerated,  or  whether  any  part 
were  defeffive  or  wanting  ;  and  when  Augit^us 
found  two  galls  in  his  facrifice,  the  credulity  of  the 
people  concluded-  a  hope  of  peace  with  Anthony, 
and  the  amity  of  pcrfons  in  cholerwith  each  other. 
Cato,  who  was  himfelf  an  augur,  had  fo  bad  an 
opinion  of  the  folidity  of  the  Arufpicina,  that  he 


ufed  to  fay,   he  wondered  how  one  Arufpex  could 
look  at  another  without  laughing  in  his  face. 

The  Augurs  made  a  college  of  community, which 
at  iirft  confiflcd  of  three  perfons,  one  for  each 
tribe  ;  then  of  four,  when  Scrvius  TuHius  en- 
creafed  the  tribes  to  that  number  ;)  then  of  nine 
four  of  them  Patricians,  and  five  Plebeian: :  lajlly, 
Sylla  made  the  number  fifteen.  They  bore  an  au- 
gural flafF  or  wand,  called  lituus ;  as  the  enfign  of 
their  office  and  authority.  No  affair  of  moment, 
could  be  refolved  on,  without  firft  confulting  them  ; 
and  their  advice,  be  what  it  would,  was,  by  a  de- 
cree of  the  fenate,  appointed  to  be  exaflly  and  re- 
ligioufly  obferved  ;  but  in  all  appearance,  their 
advice  was  always  agreeable  to  the  fentiments  of 
the  fenate  ;  elfe  I  am  of  opinion,  that  they  had 
made  no  fcruple  to  follow  a  contrary  one:  or, 
which  is  the  more  likely,  thofe  advices  were  dic- 
tated by  the  fenate,  and  that  mummery  of  confult- 
ing the  augurs  was  only  to  render  their  decrees  more 
folemn  to  the  people,  who  are  al  .\'ays  eafiiy  im- 
pofed  upon  by  an  outward  fhew  of  religion  ;  for  it 
is  not  reafonablc  to  fuppofe,  that  the  moft  fenfible 
part  of  that  warlike  andjudicious  nation  could  have 
been  thus  led  by  the  nofe,  or  believed  blindly  all 
their  fuperflitious  ceremonies,  and  the  pious  frauds 
and  impoftures,  invented  with  no  other  defign  than 
to  abufe  the  ignorance,  and  too  great  credulity  of 
the  vulgar. 

To  this  chimerical  dodlrine  of  the  heavenly  bo- 
dies, we  may  add  in  this  place,  all  the  other  tricks, 
impoftures,  and  Irgersde  main,  made  ufe  of  by  v^/?a- 
logers,  jugglers,  and  fortune-tellers,  to  decoy  us 
into  their  nets,  and  pick  our  pockets.  There  is 
li:arce  a  corner  in  our  ffrcets,  which,  notwithfland- 
ing  the  falutary  laws  made  againfl  fuch  fcandalous 
and  criminal  pradtices,  is  not  peflered  with  the 
emiffaries  oljludents  in  Astrology,  and  who  take 
care  to  inform  young  buxom  laffes  in  a  longing 
condition  for  a  man  ;  wives  tired  of  their  hufbands  ; 
barren  ladies,  who  want  to  be  rendered  prolific  ; 
young  widows,  who  would  be  glad  to  be  married 
again  ;  that  in  fuch  a  place  lives  a  ftudent  in  ajlro- 
logy,  ox Jiar-ga%er,  who  refolves  all  lawful  que- 
flions  (as  he  calls  them)  by  the  help  not  only  of 
they?(7rj  and  planets,  but  likewife  oi  Brizomancy, 
Chiromancy,  Sic. 

Brizomancy,  is  the  pretended  art  of  fore- 
telling future  events  by  dreams. 

Macrobius  mentions   live   forts   of  dreams,  viz. 

r.  a  vifi:-n  ;    i.  a  difcovery  of  fomething  bet  Aieen 

fleep  and  waking  ;  3.  a  fuggeftion  cafi;   into  our 

I  fancy, 


ASTRO    LOG    r. 


259 


fancy,  called  by  Cicero,  vljum  ;  4.  An  ordinary 
drea7n\  anJ,  5.  A  divine  apparition  or  revdiation  in 
our  fleep  ;  fuch  as  were  the  dreams  of  tlie  prophets, 
and  of  'Jofeph;  as  alfo  of  the  Magioi  the  fcaft. 

The  fiftitious  art  of  interpreting /^Ci?OTf,  had  its 
origin  among  the  Egyptians  and  Chcildczans^  thefe 
countries  being  fertile  in  fuperilitions  of  all  kinds. 
The  fame  art  was  brought  from  thence  among 
the  Romans,  who  judging  feme  dreams  worthy  of 
obfervation,  appointed  perfons  on  purpofe  to  in- 
terpret them.  Thofe  ^vho  pretend  that  dreams  are 
fignificatives  of  things  to  come,  bring  in  confirma- 
tion of  their  opinion,  an  infinite  number  oi  dreams, 
which  have  been  the  fore-runners  of  very  lingular 
events  ;  viz  Calphurnia,  Julius  Cafars  wife, 
dreaming  the  night  before  his  death,  that  ihc  faw 
him  ftabbed  in  the  capitol.  Artorius,  Juguftus's 
phyfician,  dreaming  before  the  battle  of  Philippi, 
that  his  mafler's  camp  was  pillaged.,  Theomperor 
yejpafian  dreaming  an  old  woman  told  him,  that  his 
8;ood-fortune  would  begin,  when  Nero  Ihould  have 
a  tooth  drawn,  which  happened  accordingly.  Ca- 
far  dreaming  he  committed  inccfl:  with  his  mother, 
was  crowned  emperor  o\' Rome  :  and  Hippitis,  the 
Athenian  tyrant  dreaming  the  like,  died  ftiortly 
after,  and  was  interred  in  his  mother  earth.  Jlfau- 
ritius,  the  emperor,  who  was  flain  by  Pbocas, 
dreaming  a  little  before,  that  an  image  of  Chriil: 
which  was  over  the  brazen  gate  of  his  palace,  called 
him  and  charged  him  with  his  fins,  and  in  the  end 
demanded  of  him,  whether  he  would  receive  the 
punifliment  thereof  in  this  life  or  the  next ;  and  he 
anfwering  in  this,  the  image  commanded  hefliould 
be  given,  with  his  wife  and  children,  into  the 
hands  of  PI)ocas.  Whereupon  Afauritius  avpaking 
in  great  fear,  afsed  Philippus  his  l"on-in-law,  whe- 
ther he  knew  any  foidier  in  the  army  called  Phocas ; 
he  anfwered,  there  was  a  commilTary  fo  called  : 
and  Phocas  was  his  fuccefibr,  having  killed  him, 
with  his  wife  and  five  children.  Arlet,  while  with 
child  of  IVilUam  the  Conqueror,  dreaming  that  a 
light  did  fpre.id  from  her  womb,  that  (hone  all  over 
England.  Maia,  FirgiPs  motlier,  prince  of  the 
Latin  poets,  dreaming  fliewas  delivered  of  a  laurel 
branch,  is'c. 

But  it  is  ridiculous  to  compare  the  dreams  mmded 
by  the  vulgar,  and  which  they  want  to  be  inter- 
preted by  conjurers  and  fortune-tellers,  to  thefe 
forts  of  dreams ;  fmce  what  they  want  to  know,  is, 
what  is  meant  when  they  dream  that  they  fee  ants, 
ar?ned  men,  aj/es,  hlack-birds,  birds  fighting,  candles 
hurtling,  children  bom,  aerofs,  dragons,  eagles,  broken 
eggs,  fire,  files,  fountains,  white  horfes,  king  or 
.  queen,  he.  that  they  cotnmit  adultery,  eat  apples, 
cut  bacon,  eat  bacon,  bathe  in  a  clear  fountain,  in 
/liniing  water,  eat  beans,  have  a  long  beard  or  hairs, 
»3- 


hear  bells  ring,  hear  a  cock  crow,  fall  in  the  dirt, 
hear  a  dog  bark,  lofe  their  eyes,  or  their  teeth,  gather 
grapes,  fall  on  the  ground ;  and  an  infinity  of  other 
idly  queftions,  which  the  impoftor  interpreter  has 
the  impudence,  in  defiance  of  all  laws  and  autho- 
rity, to  call  lawful  queflions,  and  on  whole  inter- 
pretation the  ignorant  querift  has  but  too  often  the 
folly  to  bi;ild  an  imaginary  fortune.  The  ridicu- 
lous infauiation  of  dreams  is  fo  predominant  here, 
even  among  perfons  who  ihould  know  better,  and 
efpecially  the  fair  fex,  that  feldom  a  converfation 
pafles  without  iom<i  dreams  or  othur  being  brought 
on  the  tapis,  to  be  interpreted  by  the  company. 
I  dreamed  lafl:  night,  fays  one,  that  I  had  loft  fomc 
of  m.y  teeth  :  That's  a  fign,  fays  another,  that  you 
will  iole  fomc  of  your  relations.  I  am  afraid  I  fnall ; 
replied  the  dreamer,  for  my  coufin,  or  uncle,  cr 
brother  i'uch  a  one,  is  very  ill  :  That's  a  very  fure 
lign,  fays  a  third,  for  I  dreamed  once  the  fame 
thing,  and  my  poor  hufband  (fetching  then  an  af- 
fected figh)  died  foon  after:  Not  fo  fure  neither, 
objected  a  fourth,  for  I  dream  often  that  I  lofe  rr>y 
teeth,  and  my  hafband  is  yet  alive,  and  not  likely 
to  die  foon  as  I  know  of,  tho'  he  is  a  very  great 
rogue  to  me. 

What  furprizes  me  moft,  is,  that  this  ridiculous 
notion  is  fo  llrongly  inculcated  in  the  minds  of 
children,  from  their  very  cradle,  that  it  is  utterly 
iinpoflible  to  root  it  out  afterwards.  If  parents  are 
not  thcmfelves  afhamed  of  that  fcandaloiici  infatua- 
tion, which  is  a  plague  to  all  thofe  they  are  ac- 
quainted with,  they  fliould  however  have  lender- 
nefs  enough  for  their  children,  to  forbear  inilrucl- 
ing  them  in  the  principles  of  that  fcandalous  and 
ridiculous  doiJlrine,  which  contributes  fo  much  to- 
ward diifurbing  their  domeftic  peace  and  tranquility, 
and  render  them  infupportable  to  themfelves,  and 
to  thofe  who  are  to  live  with  them.  Often  the 
firft  falute  a  hufband  receives  from  his  wife,  in  a 
morning,  is  the  recital  of  her  dreams,  and  half  the 
day  is  fpcnt  in  nothing  elfe  but  relating  and  inter- 
preting them.  All  the  goffips  fhe  is  -vifited  by, 
muft  pafs  their  verdicSt  upon  it,  and  the  hufband 
often  obliged,  to  avoid  being  teazed  with  it,  to 
forfake  his  houfe,  till  fome  other  incidents  have 
forced  the  dreamer  to  forget  her  dream.  Such 
praflice  fmells  fo  much  ot  paganiftn  and  iddatry, 
that  it  is  a  fcandal  to  Corijliar.ity,  as  entirely  con- 
tradiiflory  of  the  orders  of  the  Divine  Provid-^nce. 
Why  does  not  our  clergy  thunder  from  the  pulpit 
againft  it,  and  rcprelent  it  as  an  artifice  of  the 
tempter  of  mankind,  to  decoy  our  fouls  into  his 
net  ? 

Avicen  makes  the  caufe  of  dreams  to  be  an  ulti- 
mate intelligence  moving  the /«<>»«  in  the  middle  of 
that  light  with  which  the  fancies  of  men  are  illu- 
1      I^  1  minated 


'The  Univerfal  Hlftory  of  Arts  <2«(a^  Sciences. 


260 

minated  while  they  fleep.  Arijlolle  refers  the  caur(|' 
thereof  to  common  fenfe,  but  placed  in  the  fancy 
Averroei  places  it  in  the  imagination.  Democritiif 
afcribes  it  to  little  images,  or  reprelcntations,  fepa- 
rated  from  the  things  themfelves.  Plato  among 
the  fpecific,  and  concrete  notions  of  the  foul.  Al- 
bertus,  to  the  fuperior  influences  which  continually 
flow  from  the  fky,  through  many  fpecific  mediums. 
And  fome  phyficians  impute  the  caufc  thereof  to 
vapours  and  humours,  and  the  afFedtions  and  cares 
of  p.rfons  predominant  when  awake  :  for,  (ay 
they,  by  reafon  of  the  abundance  of  vapours  which 
immoderate  feeding  exhales,  the  brain,  being 
therewith  fiuffisd,  forms  infinite  monllers,  and 
ftrange  chimeras,  whereof  the  greateft  eaters  and 
drinkers  may  well  fatisfy  us.  Some  dreams,  con- 
tinue they,  ;ire  governed  partly  by  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  body,  and  partly  by  the  humour  which 
abounds  molt  in  them  ;  to  which  may  be  joined, 
the  apprehenfions  which  have  preceded  the  day 
before,  which  is  difcovered  in  hounds,  and  fome 
other  creatures,  which  bray  and  bark  in  their 
fleep.  As  for  dreams,  conclude  they,  proceeding 
from  the  humours  and  temperature  of  the  body, 
we  fee  the  Cholerkks  dream  of  burning,  combats, 
yellow  colours,  fi^c.  '[he.  Phlegmaticks,  of  water, 
baths,  of  failing  upon  the  fea,  (Jc.  The  Alelan- 
cholicks,  of  thick  fumes,  defarts,  fantafies,  hideous 
faces,  £?V.  The  Sanguines,  of  merry  feafts,  dances, 
isfc.  They  that  have  the  hinder  part  of  their  brain 
flopped  with  clammy  humours,  called  by  phyfi 
cians  Ephialtcs  incubus,  or,  as  we  call  it,  the  Night  1 
mare,  imagine,  in  dreaming,  that  they  are  ftifled. 
And  they  that  have  the  orifice  of  their  ftomach 
charged  with  malignant  humours,  are  affrighted 
with  ftrange  vihons,  by  reafon  of  thofe  venomous 
vapours  that  mount  Into  the  brain,  and  dillem- 
per  it. 

Chiromancy,  from  x"ii  hand,  andf*»»l6t«,  di- 
vination ;  is  the  air  of  divining  the  fate,  tempera- 
ment, and  difpofition  of  a  perfon,  by  the  lines  and 
lineaments  of  the  hand  ;  otherwife  called  Pulmijhy. 

We  have  a  number  of  authors  on  this  vain  and 
trifling  art  ;  as  Pythagoras,  Helenus,  Ptolomaus, 
Hermes,  Avicen,  Racis,  Artemidorus,  Fludd,  and 
"Johannes  de  Indagines  ;  Taifnerus,  and  M.  De  la 
Chambreh'MeAone.  xhtheW. 

This  laft  infifts  on  it,  that  the  inclinations  may 
be  known  hy  injpefting  the  hand,  there  being  a  very 
near  torrefpondence  between  the  parts  of  the  hand, 


and  the  internal  parts  of  the  body,  the  heart,  liver, 
bfc.  whereon  the  iiaflions  and  inclinations  much 
depend.  He  adds,  however,  that  the  rules  and 
precepts  of  Chiromancy  are  not  fuflicientiv  war- 
ranted, the  experiments  whereon  they  ftand,  not 
being  well  verified.  He  concludes,  that  there 
mult  be  a  new  let  of  obfervations,  made  with 
juitnefs  and  exa<5titude  ;  in  order  to  give  Chiro- 
mancy the  form  and  folidity  which  an  art  ox  fcicnce 
demands. 

1  his  fiiftitious  art  is  only  pradlifed  by  gyp/tes, 
vagabonds,  and  filly  old  women  ;  who  have,  how- 
ever, cunning  enough  to  make  the  vulgar  belitve 
that  the  feven  planets  predominate  over  the  /even 
mountains,  which  this  or?  places  in  the  ^a/w  of  a 
man's  hand  ;  and  that  the  lines  therein  have  a  doc- 
trine of  community  with  the  length  of  life  ;  and 
that  riches,  accidents,  or  other  events,  are  to  be 
judged  of  thereby. 

Of  all  thefe  fanciful  <7r/.f  of  the  ancients,  diffufed 
among  the  moderns,  there  are  none  which  have  fo 
much  foundation  in  nature  as  Phyfiogmmy  and 
Metopofcopy. 

Physiognomy,  (fomipuffif,  nature,  and  yiwirxu, 
I  know,)  is  the  art  of  knowing  the  humour,  tem- 
perament, or  difpofition  of  a  perfon,  from  obfen'a- 
tion  of  the  lines  of  his  Face,  and  the  charaiSters 
of  his  features. 

There  feems  to  be  fomething  mPbyfiognomy,  and 
perhaps,  there  is  an  apparent  correfpondence  be- 
tween the  face  and  the  mind  ;  that  the  features 
and  lineaments  of  the  one,  are  directed  by  the 
motions  and  afFeflions  of  the  other  ;  that  there  is 
even  a  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  mufcles  of  the 
face,  a  peculiar  difpofition  of  the  countenance  to 
each  particular  aft'eclion,  and  to  each  particular 
idea  of  the  mind. 

In  elfeift,  the  language  of  the  face,  Phyfiognomy, 
is  as  copious,  nay,  perhaps,  as  intelligible,  and 
diftindt  as  that  of  the  tongue,  and  fpecch.  How- 
ever, we  can  very  well  fay,  W\thTtdlius,  Lib.  1. 
Epift.  ad  quintum  fratrem,  Eiji.  I.  Frons,  oculi, 
vultus,  perfupe  mentiitntur,  i.  e.  the  forehead,  eyes, 
and  face,  very  often  lie. 

Metoposcopy  is  no  more  than  a  branch  of 
Phyfiognomy,  with  this  fingle  difference,  that  Meta- 
pofcopy  is  the  art  of  difcovering  the  temperament, 
inclinations  and  manners  of  perfons,  by  infpeding 
the  lines  of  their  foreheads. 


AS-TRO  NO  MH, 


(    26i    } 


ASTRONOMY. 


ASTRONOMY  {Greek,  arvf,  aftnr,  and 
iiuo'^  a  rule  or  regulation)  is  the  do£lrine 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  or  the  method  of 
attaining  the  knowledge  of  the  heavens 
and  \.\\e\T  phanomnia. 

By  Heaven  here  we  are  to  underftand  that  uni- 
verfe  or  circular  region,  that  encompafs  all  the  ter- 
reftrial  globe,  and  contains  the  Jlars,  planets  and 
comets. 

The  ancient  AJironomers  fuppofed  that  there  were 
as  many  heavens,  or  at  leaft,  different  regions  in 
that  immcnfe  circle,  as  there  were  found  diiferent 
motions;  and  that  each  of  thele  regions  was  a  folid 
body  ;  according  to  the  fyjletn  of  Ptolemy,  as  de- 
fcribed  in  the  copper-plate. 

By  the  fame  rule  others  multiplied  the  number 
according  to  their  obfervations  on  the  celeftial  mo- 
tions. So  that  Eudoxus  made  them  23,  Calippus 
30,  Kcg'wnontanus  33,  Arijlotle ^1 ,  and //-rf.  Cajlor 
no  lels  than  70  heavens. 

The  figure  of  this  heaven  or  univ<rfe  is  confidered 
either  as  it  appears  to  the  naked  eye,  or  as  it  is 
conceived  by  the  underftanding.  Hence  Allronomy 
is  divided  xnlo  fpherical  and  theoretical. 

Spherical  Ajhonomy  reprefents  the  heavens  as 
a  concave,  in  whofe  center  is  the  earth  or  rather 
the  eye,  about  which  the  vilible  frame  revolves, 
with  ftars  and  planets  fixed  in  the  circumference. 

This  is  more  properly  dcfcribed  by  t\\s  fphere  in 
the  copper-plate  :  where  you'll  find  the  diameter  of 
the  earth's  orbit  is  fo  fmall  in  refpe<Sl  of  the  dia- 
meter hereof,  that  the  center  of  the  Jphere  is  not 
fenfibly  changed  by  any  alteration  of  the  fpe(5fator"s 
place  in  the  fcveral  parts  of  the  orbit  :  but  ftiil,  in 
all  the  points  of  the  earth's  furface,  and  at  all  times, 
the  inhabitants  have  the  lame  appearance  of  the 
fphere  ;  that  is,  the  fixed  ftars  feem  to  poflefs  the 
fame  points  in  the  furface  of  the  fphere. 

The  better  to  determine  the  places  of  the  hea- 
•  venly  bodies  in  the  fphere,  feveral  circles  are  ima- 
gined to  be  dcfcribed  on  the  furface  thereof  ;  hence 
called  circles  of  the  fphere ;  which  are  ten  in  number, 
viz.  fix  greater,  and  four  lelT'er. 

The  greater  are,  the  (a)  horizon,  (b)  meridian, 
(c)  equator,  (d)  ecliptick,  (e)  the  colures,  and  the 
if)  azimuths  ;  which  are  all  equal,  and  cut  each 
other  into  equal  portions  or  femicircles,  and  cut 
the  Whole  fphere  into  two  equal  parts,  or  hemifpheres, 
having  their  center  in  the  center  thereof. 


The  leffer  circles  are,  the  two  (g)  trcpich,  and 
the  two  (h  polars  ;  which  divide  the  fphere  into 
two  unequal  parts. 

Of  the  four  greater  circles,  there  are  three,  viz. 
the  horizon,  meridiem,  and  equator,  whofe  poles,  or 
the  points  they  are  underftood  to  be  drawn  or  dc- 
fcribed from,  are  of  very  great  confequence  in  the 
fphere,  and  are  called  cardinal  points.  The  two 
firft  are  the  arSlick,  or  North  pole,  which  is  that 
vifible  to  us  ;  and  its  oppofite  the  antarBick,  or  South 
pole.  Thefe  two  points,  each  90  degrees  diflant 
from  the  equator,  are  called,  by  way  of  excellence, 
the  poles  of  the  world,  and  are  the  two  extremities 
of  the  axis  whereon  the  fphere  revolves  ;  whence 
their  name  woXof,  from  <nakM^  vertere,  to  turn.  The 
next  to  thefe,  are  the  Xenith  and  Nadir,  called 
vertical  points  ;  one  direftly  over  our  heads,  which 
is  the  Zenith;  and  the  other,  viz.  the  Nadir,  di- 
reftly  under  our  feet. 

The  Zenith,  is  a  point  in  the  furface  of  the 
fphere,  from  which  a  right  line,  drawn  through  the 
Spectator's  head,  pafTes  through  the  center  of  the 
earth.  Hence  there  are  as  many  zeniths  as  there 
are  diiferent  places  on  the  earth  where  the  heavens 
may  be  feen  ;  and  upon  the  changing  our  place,  we 
alfo  change  our  zenith. 

The  Nadir,  is  that  point  diametrically  oppofite 
to  the  zenith.  The  nadir  is  the  zenith  to  our  an- 
tipodes ;  as  our  zenith  is  th''  nadir  to  them.  Thefe 
two  points  are  alfo  the  poles  of  the  horizon. 

The  other />o/k/5,  are  the  Equinoctial,  where- 
in the  ecliptick  and  equator  interft-cl:  ;  particularly 
that  whence  the  fun  afcends  towards  the  North  pole, 
is  called  the  vernal  point  ;  and  that  by  which  he. 
defcends  to  the  South  pole,  the  nntiimnal  point.  . 
"Which  points  are  confidered  as  the  poles  of  the 
Meridian. 

The  Horizon,  in  Greek  ofif«»,  from  Ifil^u.  ier- 
min.i,  defnio  ;  and  in  Latin,  fnitor,  fiiiifhcr)  is  a 
circle,  which  when,  from  an  even  and  opin  place, 
we  turn  our  eyes  round  about  us,  terminates  every 
where  our  fight,  and  fccms  to  join  the  hf  avens  and 
earth  together  ;  ?nd  fervcs,  as  I  have  already  ob- 
fervtd  to  divide  the  fphere,  or  the  world,  into  two 
equal  parts,  or  hemifpheres,  i/e.  fupcrior,  and  in- 
ferior ;  and  is  fuppofed  to  be  dcfcribed  from  the  tv  o 
points  oppofite  to  us,  /.  e.  the  zenith  and  nadir  :  So 
that  when  we  change  place,  we  alfo  change  the 7*- 
rizc7U  bccaufe  the  zenith  and  nadir  arc  changed. 
LI  2  I  he 


262 


"rhe  Univerfal  HlAory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


THcMeridmn  (the  fccond  great  c/Vf/f  in  order)  I 
is  a  circle  of  i\\a  fphere,  pafling  thro  igh  the  zenith, 
uadir,    and   pjUs  of  the  world,    and  dividing  the  ] 
fphere  into  two  hemifphcrcs,    the  one  eaftnjrn,  ajid 
the  other  weftern. 

It  is  called  meridian,  from  the  Latin,  tr.cridies, 
noon,  or  mid-day:  for  wh?n  the  Jim  is  in  this  cir- 
ch,  the  dav  is  half  fpent,  in  thofe  places  fituate 
imder  it  ;  the  fun  being  then  at  an  equal  diltance 
from  the  ca/l  and  we/}. 

The  Eqj'IATOR,  (the  third- of  the  !j;rear  i;>t7« 
v/e  have  imagined.)  is  tl  circh  of  the  jphere  equally 
diftant  from  the  two  piUs  of  the  world,  or  having 
the  fame  poles  wirii  tnofc  of  the  wnrW  It  is  called 
equator,  becaiife  when  theyivz  is  therein,  the  days 
and  nia;ht3  are  equal;  which  happens  about  the 
twentieth  day  of  March,  and  again  about  the  twen- 
ty-third of  September  ;  v/hence,  allbj  it  is  called 
cquinoSiial. 

Every  point  of  the  c^uafer  is  a  quadrant's  ditlanre 
from  the  poles  of  the  world  ;  whence  it  follows, 
that  the  eqtuitor  divides  the  fphere  into  two  hemif- 
pheres,  in  one  of  which  is  the  northern,  and  in  the 
other  the  fouthjrn  pole  ;  which  are  both  joined  by 
an  imaginary  line,  called  the  axis  of  the  world. 

The  equator,  hy  its  converfion  from  eaft  to  wefV, 
meafures  the  day.  For  the  equator  being  cut  into 
360  parts,  or  degrees,  and  the  day  divided  into 
2.4  hours,  15  of  thofe  degrees  are  elapfed  in  the 
fpace  of  an  hour.  Hence  we  have  frequent  occa- 
llon  for  the  converfion  of  degrees  of  the  equator  into 
time  ;  and,  again,  for  the  re-converfion  of  parts 
of  time  into  parts  of  the  equator.  For  performance 
whereof,   fee  trie  treatife  of  Geography. 

We  muftobferve  here,  that  from  the  various  po 
fition  of  the  equator  to  t)\e  horizon,  we  ufe  to  di- 
flinguifli  a  triple  fituation  of  the  fphere.  For  thofe 
are  faid  to  have  the  fphere  direSi,  who  dwell  under 
the  equator  ;  becaufe  the  equator  cuts  their  horizon 
at  right  angles.  On  the  contrary,  the  fphere  is  ob- 
lique to  thofe  who  inhabit  the  parts  between  the 
equator  and  the  poles  of  the  world  ;  becaufe  the 
equator  cuts  their  horizon  in  an  oblique  manner. 
And  thofe  who  are  placed  under  the  poles,  have  the 
fphere  parallel  ;  becaufe. the  equator  is  parallel  to 
their  horizon  ;  or  rather,  is  the  fame  as  their  hori- 
zon, and  is  parallel  to  the  tropieks  znd  poles. 

Between  thefe  four  great  circles,  is  a  fafcia,  or 
broad  circle,  called  Zodiack,  whofe  middle  is  in 
the  ecliptick,  and  its  extremes  two  circles  parallel 
thereto,  at  fuch  a  diftance  from  it,  as  to  bound  or 
comprehend  the  excurfions  of  the  fun  and  planets. 
It  is  called  zodiac,  from  the  Greek  ^ic»,  an  animal  j 
on  account  of  the  conflellations  therein 


drawn  in  the  middle  of  the  zodiack)  the  planets  all 
do  it,  more  or  lei's  7  heir  grcatcft  deviations,  cal- 
led latitude!,  are  the  incafurc  of  the  breadth  of  the 
■/.odiack  ;  which  is  broader,  or  narrower,  as  the 
grcatefl-  latittsde  of  the  planets  is  made  more  or  lefs. 
Accordingly,  feme  make  it  16,  fomc  18,  and  fome 
20  degrees  bioad. 

The  ZoniACK  cutting  the  f^BfT/cr  obliquely, 
makes  a«  angle  therev/ith  of  23  degrees  and  an 
half;  or,  more  precifcly,  of  23°  2g',  which  U 
what  we  tall  the  obliquity  of  the  zodiack,  and  is  the 
fun's  grcateft  declination. 

The  zodiac  is  divided  into  twelve  ptDrtions,  called 
fi^ns  ;  and  thofe  divifions,  or f^ns,  aredenominated 
from  the  couflellations  which  antiently  pofleffed  each 
part.  Jufcnius  has  comprehended  the  names  of  tliofe 
ftgns,   in  the  two  foHowrng  verfes  : 


Sunt  Aries,  Taurus,  Gemni,  Cancer,  Leo',  Virgo, 
Libraque,  Scorpius,  Arcittnen',  Caper,  Amphora, 
Pifces. 

But  the  zodiack  being  irmnoveable,  and  the  fi-ars 
having  a  motion  from  wcfr  to  caft,  thofe  conftella- 
tions  no  longer  correfpond  to  their  proper  figns  ; 
whence  arifes  what  we  call  the  preceffion  of  the  equi- 
noxes ;  a  term  applied  to  the  equinoxes,  which, 
by  a  very  flov/,  infer.fible  motion,  change  their 
places,  going  backwards,  or  v.-eftward,  i.  e.  in  an- 
tecedentia,  as  Afbronomcrs  call  it,  or  contrar)'  to 
the  order  of  the  fgns. 

When  a  ftar,    therefore,  is  faid  to  be  in  fuch  a 

ftgn  of  the  zodiack,    it  is  irot  to  be   underftood  of 

that  fii,n,   or  conjlellnti'in  of  the  firmament  ;   but 

only  of  that  twelfth  part  of  the  zodiack,   or  dodeca- 

temory  thereof. 

Cafftni  has  alfo  obferved  a  track  in  the  heavens, 
within  whofe  bounds  mofi  of  the  comets,  though 
not  all  of  them,  are  oblerved  to  keep,  which,  fcT 
this  reafon,  he  calls  the  zodiack  of  the  comets. 
This  he  makes  as  broad  as  the  other  zodiack.,  and 
marks  it  with  fii^is,  and  conflellations,  like  that  ; 
as  Antinous,  Pegafus,  Andromeda,  Taurus,  Orion, 
the  lefj'er  Dog,  Hydra,  the  Centaur,  Scorpion,  and 
Sagittary. 

The  points  of  the  ecliptick  whereby  theya«'s  af- 
cent  above  the  equator,  and  its  defcent  below  it 
are  tciminated,  are  called  folflitial  points.  The 
firft  point,  which  is  the  beginning  of  the  firfl  de- 
gree of  Cancer,  is  called  the  Mflival  or  fummer 
point  ;  and  the  latter,  which  is  in  the  beginning  of 
the  firft  point  of  Capricorn,  the  winter  point:  there- 
fore the  time  when  the  fun  is  in  one  of  the  fol/iitial 
points,  that  is,  when  he  is  at  his  grcatefl  diilance 


The  fun  never  deviates  from  the  middle  of  the    from  the  equator,  which  is  23  degrees  and  an  half,. 
xodiacky  i.e.    from  the  ecliptick,  (which  is  a  line  lis  czWeA  foljlicc,  becaufe  he  then  appears  to  y?^«^ 
-5-  '  JUH, 


ASTRONOMY'. 


263 


JttlL,  and  not  to  change  his  place  in  the  degrees  of  Hence,  i.  Since  the  declination  of  the  cclipt'uk 
the  zoJiad;  any  war;  not  that  he  does  not  follow,  '  is  the  arch  BD,  AC  will  be  the  didance  of  the 
riien,  hib  ufual  courfe  from  eaft  to  wefl,  but  becaufe  tropicks ;  which  is  double  the  grcateft  declination. 
he  is  no  longer  perceived  to  advance  towards  the  2.  ■V^'herefore,  if  the  fun's  meridian  altitude  be 
feptenirio)u  ox  meridian  ;  an  appearance  owing  to  obfeived,  both  in  the  winter  and  (\in\mcx  fcl'iicey 
the  obliquity  of  our  fphcre,  and  which  thofe  who  '  and  the  latter  be  fubtra£ted  from  the  former,  the  re- 
live under  the  equator  are  ftrangers  to.  j  maindcr  will  be  the  diftance  of  the  tropicki  ;  half 
The  Solstices  are  two  in  each  year,  the  fummer  '  whereof  is  the  greateft  declinatipn  of  the  ecUptick. 
fuljlicf,  and  tht  uii'ito-foi/Iice.  The fitmmer/o/f ice'  The  Polar  Circles,  are  two  lefTcr  circles  of 
is  when  the  fun  is  in  the  Tropick,  which  is  on  the  the  fphcrc,  parallel  to  the  (quator,  at  the  diftancc 
Z2d  of  June  ;  when  he  makes  the  longcff  day.  of  23  degrees  from  each  pole,  ferving  to  mark,  the 
The  ivintcr  foljlice  is  when  he  enters  the^fitit:  de-  ^  beginning  of  the  frigid  zones.  The  polar  circles 
gree  of  Capricorn,  which  is  on  the  23d  oi December  ;  '  are  particularly  denominated  from  their  refpeftive 
when  he  begins  to  return  towards  us,  and  makes  neighbouring  poles,  the  arffick  and  antarSiick. 
the  (horteft  day.  I  Thefe  feveral  circles  are  reprefented  in  their  na- 
This  is  to  be  undeiflood  as  in  our  northern  he-  tural  order,  in  an  artifici.1l  fpl-ere  called  annillary^ 
niifphere  ;  for  in  the  fouthern,  the  fun's  entrance  from  its  confining  of  a  number  ofy?7/2-/>,  or  rings 
into  Capricorn  makes  the  ftimmcr  folftice ;  and  that  of  brafs,  or  other  matter  ;  called,  by  the  Latins^ 
into  Cancer  the  winter  Joljiice. 

BefiJes  thefe  two  fol'litial  points  placed  in  the  be- 
ginning of  Cancer  and  Capricorn,  there  are  two 
others  in  the  beginning  of  Jrics  and  Libra,  called 
F-C^'iKOCTi  AL  ;  v.-hicli  are  the  two  points  where- 
in the  Equitor  and  ccllptick  interfcdl  each  other. 
That  in  the  firfl  point  of  Aries  is  called  the  vernal; 
and  the  other,  in  the  firfl  point  of  Libra,  the  au- 
tumnal point.  In  thefe  four  points,  viz.  the  two 
foljlitial,  and  the  two  eqninoHial,  the  four  fenfons 
of  the  year  begin  ;  viz.  the  Jpring,  ths  fammer,  the 
autumn,  and  the  winter.  I 

Through  thefe  points  paffes  two  circles,  the  lafl 
of  the  greater  ones,  called  Colures,  from  Ko^^, 
tmitilus,  or  truncatus,  and  ef«,  Tail,  q  d.  appearing 
with  the  nil  cut  off;  becaufe  never  feen  entire 
above  the  horizon  One  of  them,  becaufe  paffinc; 
through  the  fol/iitial  point  of  the  ecliptic,  is  called 
foljlitial  colure  ;  the  other  equinciiial ;  becaufe  it 
paffes  through  the  equinoftial  point.  Thefe  two 
colures  are  imagined  to  intcrfedt  each  ether  at  right 
angles,  in  the  poles  of  the  world. 

'I'he  four  k-ffer  circles,  which  divide  thtfphere 
into  two  unequal  fegmenls,  are  the  two  tropicks, 
and  the  tvfo  polars. 

The  TsoPiCKs,  /  K,  are  two  circles  parallel  to 
the  equator,  at  fuch  di fiance  therefrom,  as  is  equal 
to  the  fun's  greateft  recefs  from  the  equator  tovizris 
the  poles  ;  or  to  the  fun's  greateft  declination  ;  or 
the  obliquity  of  the  ecUptick.  Of  the  two  tropicks, 
that  drawn  through  the  beginning  of  Cancer  is 
called  the  tropick  if  Cancer  ;  and  that  through  the 
beginning  of  Capricorn,  the.  tropick  of  Capricorn. 

They  have  their  names  from  the  Greek  TfQirr,, 
turn,  converfion  ;  as  bei.ig  the  limits  of  the  fun's 
way,  or  declination  towards  the  north  and  fouth  ; 
fo  that  when  the  fun  is  arrived  at  either  of  them, 
he  turns  the  other  way. 


Artnilla:,  from  their  refembling  of  bracelets,  or 
rings  for  the  arms.  This  Armillary  Sphere  ferves 
to  give  an  idea  of  the  ofBce  and  pofition  of  each 
circle  thereof,  and  to  folve  various  problems  relat- 
ing thereto.  See  Aimitla-y  Sphere  in  the  fccond 
plate  of  AsTRON'OMY. 

Ar miliary  Sfheres  are  of  different  kinds,  with  re- 
gard to  the  pofition  of  the  earth  therein  ;  whence 
they  become  diftinguifhed  into  Ptolemaic  and  Coper - 
nican  Spheres ;  in  the  firft  whereof  the  earth  is  in  the 
center,  and  in  the  latter  near  the  circumference, 
according  to  the  polition  which  that  planet  obtains 
in  thofe  lyftems. 

The  Ptolemaic  Sphere,  is  that  commonly  in  ufe. 
In  the  middle,  upon  the  ^at/j  of  the  5/iA^rt',  is  a  bali 
t,  rcprefcnting  the  earth,  on  whofe  furface  are  the 
circles,  fsV.  of  the  earth.  The  5/>^i'r^  is  made  ta 
revolve  about  the  faid  cxis,  which  remains  at  reft; 
by  which  means  the  fun's  diurnal  and  annual  courfe 
about  the  earth,  are  reprefented,  according  to  the 
Ptole-iaich  Hyp.:thefis :  and  even ,  by  means  whereof, 
all  problems,  relating  to  the  Phanorr.cr.a  oi  the  furt 
and  earth,  are  folved  :vs  upon  the  ccleHial  globe, 
and  after  the  iame  manner 

The  Copei  n:can  Sphere,  is  very  different  from 
the  Ptolemaic,  both  in  its  conftrufiion  and  ufc ;  but 
fo  intricate,  and  inconfidcrable,  there  needs  no  do - 
fcription  thereof. 

Having  thus  f.ir  proceeded  on  the  doftrine  of 
the  Sphe'-e,  and  mentioned  here  the  Piolemaic  and 
Copernican  Spheres  ;  let  xis  now  attempt  the  feveral 
Sy ferns  or  Hjpothejes  of  the  World  ;  but  more 
particularly, 'thofe  of  Ptoleimy,  Copernicu.% 
and  Tycho  BrAhe, 

The  invention  of  ^/i'r(7''^'/n' remains  yet  a  pro- 
blen;,  though  Eeha,  king  of  Aff^ria ;  Atlas,  king 

of 


264  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^;?c/ Sciences. 


oi  Mauriiamn,  Sec.  are  complimented  with  having 
been  the  iirft  inventors  and  cultivators  ot  it. 

Some  authors  give  the  honour  to  the  ChaUaain  ; 
and  pretend,  that  a  Chaldiran.  Ajlronamer,  and  Ajlro- 
hgc  are  (ynonymous.  Others  carry  its  invention 
as  high  as  Adam, 

R'ld' tck,  compliments  the  Swedes,  in  his  Atlan- 
ticii-,   with  the  invention  of  Aflronomy. 

Pcrphyry  would  have  the  origin  oi  ajlroriomy  tra- 
ced as  far  as  the  building  of  Babel ;  becaufe,  as  he 
writes,  there  were  found  in  Babylon,  when  taken  by 
Ali-xandcr,  cclcjlialobfavaiions  for  the  fpace  of  1903 
years,  which  therefore  mufl:  have  commenced  with- 
in 1 1  5  years  of  the  flood,  or  1 5  years  of  the  build- 
ing of  Babel. 

Aihilles  Tat' us,  with  far  greater  foundation,  con- 
fiders  the  Egyptians  as  the  firft  inventors  of  Jjl-  0- 
nomy,  who  took  care  to  have  their  knowledge 
therein  tranfmitted  to  pofterity,  by  having  it  en- 
graven on  columns  and  pyramids.  La,rtius  in- 
forms us,  that  from  the  Egypt}  ms,  AJlronomy  pafTed 
to  the  Greeks,  and  that  Thatcs  Mileftus  firft,  about 
the  igth  Olympiad,  and  after  him  Eudoxus  andP;- 
thagoras,  travell'd  into  Egypt  to  be  inftruded 
therein. 

P)thi]grjros,  after  he  had  lived  in  a  clofe  commu- 
nity with  the  Egyptian  pricfts  for  feven  years,  and 
had  been  initiated  into  their  Religion,  where  he 
was  let  into  the  true  fyftem  of  the  Univerfe  ; 
paflld  afterward  into  Greece  and  Italy,  where  he 
taught  the  firft  elements  of  that  curious,  though 
very  intricate  fcience.  He  had  made  fo  confiderable 
a  progrefs  in  it,  that  he  went  further  in  his  difcove- 
ries,  than  his  mafters  ;  for  he  was  the  f  rft  who 
placed  the  jun  in  the  center  of  the/y/lem,  and  made 
the  earth  andpi'anets  to  turn  round  him.  Suppofmg 
the  diurnal  nwtion  of  the  fun  zxiA  fixed  fars  to  pro- 
ceed from  the  earth's  7notion  round  its  own  axis,  and 
confequemly  apparent  only,  and  not  real.  After 
P-ithagoras,  Aiironomy  funk  into  neglert  ;  moft  of 
the  cbfervations  brought  from  Bahylo-i  were  loft, 
and  Pto'cmy  could  recover  but  a  very  fmall  number 
of  them.  However,  Philolaus  and  Ariflarchus  Sa- 
mius,  with  a  few  more  of  his  difciples,  continu'd 
to  cultivate  Ajlronomy. 

It  continu'd  in  that  languiftiing  ftate,  till  the 
Pt  lemies,  kings  of  E^^ypt,  declar'd  themfelves  its 
proteftors,  by  ereding  an  academy  at  Alexandia, 
which  produced  feveral  eminent  Aftronomers  ;  and, 
among  the  reft,  Hipparchus,  who  undertook  to 
number  the  Jlars,  and  to  leave  the  heavens  as 
an  inheritance  to  pofterity.  He  foretold  the 
eclipfes,  both  of  the///«  and  nocn,  for  fix  hundred 
years ;  and  on  his  obfervaiions  is  founded  Ptolemy's 


Ajlronomy  was  a-frefh  introduced  into  Eur'ptif 
after  llvcral  ages  exile,  by  the  St.racens,  who  had 
got  a  tincture  of  it,  in  their  conqueft  of  Egypt, 
and  brought  what  they  knew  of  it  from  Africa  into 
Spain,  where  it  was  cul.ivatcd  hy  the  greateft  ge- 
niufles,  and  patronized  by  the  greateft  princes ;  even 
fo  far,  that  Alphonfus,  king  oiCafiile,  made  A/lro- 
'ijOTj  one  of  his  moll  fcrious  occupations,  and  en- 
riched it  with  thofc  tables  which  ftill  bear  his  name. 
Copernicus  re-eftabliftied  the  antient  P)tl agorean 
fyjlem,  and  7)fy()«  publiftied  2i  catalogue  of  j-jo  fixed 
Jlars  from  his  own  obfervations.  Kepler,  from 
Tycho's  labours,  foon  after  difcovcred  the  true  the'-ry 
of  the  IVorld,  and  the  phyjcal  laics  by  which  the 
heavenly  bodies  mo\c.  Galileo  firft  introduced 
Tclefcopes  into  Ajlrcncniy,  and  by  their  means  dis- 
covered the  Sat  I  Hit  es  of  fupiter,  the  various 
Phafes  of  Saturn,  the  Spots  in  the  Sun,  and  his 
Revolution  upon  his  axis.  Hevelius,  from  his  own 
obfervations,  furnifhcd  a  catalogue  of  fixed  jlars, 
much  more  compleat  than  Tycho's.  Huyge  s  and 
Cajfini  difcovered  tlie  Satellites  of  Situr) ,  and  his 
ring.  And  GaJJendus,  Horrox,  BulUaldus,  Ward, 
Riciiolus,  Gafcoign,  &c.  each  contributed  very  con- 
fiderably  to  the  imp-ovement  of  Ajlronomy. 

Sir  IJ'i:ac  N,wton  firft  demonftrated,  from  phyftcal 
confulerations,  the  great  laws  that  regulate  all  the 
heavenly  motions,  fets  bounds  to  the  planets  orbs, 
and  determines  their  greateft  excurfions  from  the 
fun,    and  their  neareft  approaches  to  him. 

The  Ptolemaick  Syjlein  places  the  earth,  at 
reft,  in  the  center  of  the  univerfe ;  and  makes  the 
heavens  folid  and  uncorruptible,  revolve  round 
the  fame  from  eajl  to  tveft,  and  carry  all  the  hea- 
venly bodies,  flars,  and  planets  along  with  them. 
See  the  Plate. 

It  is  called  Ptolemaick  Sypem  ;  not  becaufe  Pto- 
lemy is  the  author  of  it,  but  becaufe  he  perfected  it ; 
after  the  Egyptians  and  Chaldeans,  had,  long  before 
him,  placed  the  earth  likewife  at  reft  in  the  center 
'  of  the  univerfe  ;  and  imagining  they  had  obfened 
eisrht  different  motions  in  the  Heavens,  viz.  the 
motion  of  the  fixed  ftars  from  eaji  to  iveji  in  24 
hours ;  and  the  motion  of  the  feven  planets  from 
we/l  to  eajf,  they  thought  fit  to  diftinguifti  eight 
different  heavenly  orbs,  which  moved  round  the 
earth,  viz.  the  orb  of  the  fixed  ftars,  and  feven  orbs 
for  the  feven  planets. 

Plato^  Ar'ijlAle,  Eudoxus,  Calippus,  and  almoft 
all  the  molt  famous  Aftronomers  who  preceded  Pto- 
lemy, followed  this  fyftem,  and  were  pleafed  to  call 
the  orb  or  heaven  of  the  fixed  ftars  primum  n  obile, 
under  the  fuppofition,  that  by  its  motion  the  infe- 
lior   orbs   of  the  planets  were  carried  in  the  fpace 

of 


ASIRONOMT, 


265 


of  24,  or  rather  23  hours,  56  minutes,  4  feconcls 
from  eajt  to  lueji. 

They  had  ahb  appointed  a  certain  period  of  time 
for  the  planets  to  perfed:  their  courfe  from  weft  to 
(aft,  each  in  its  reipcftive  orb,  againft  the  motion 
of  the  primt/m  mobile,  viz.  Saturn  accompliflied  liis 
in  almoft  thirty  years,  'Jupiter  in  twelve,  Mars  in 
two,  the  Sun  in  one,  Vevui  in  a  little  more  than 
feven  months.  Mercury  in  three  months,  and  the 
Moon  in  one  month. 

The  /f/ironomers,  who  fucceeded  thefe,  particu- 
larly Arfatalis  and  Timocharis   (who  flouriflied   at 
Alexandria  about    330    years  before   the  birth  of 
Chrift,)  having  compared  their  own  obfervations, 
with  thofe  of  their  predeceflbrs   imagined   to  have 
difcovered  in  the  fixed  ftars,    a  motion  from  weft 
to  eaji  :  confirmed  therein,    by  pretending  to  have 
obfei"ved,  that  the  firft  and  the  mod  weftward  flar 
in  the  horn  of  Aries,  which  the  antient  A/Irommet  s 
had  difcovered  in  the  greater  circle  of  latitude,  paf- 
fing  through  the  poles  of  the  Zodiac  and  the  vernal 
equinoctial  point,  had,  according  to  the  order  of 
the  f'g'u,    or   by  confequence,    advanced  further 
with  the  relt   of  the  ftars,  which   was  confirmed 
two  hundred  years  afterwards  by  Hypfarchus,  and 
alfo  by  Ptolemy  himfelf,  in  the  year  of  Chrift,  130; 
therefore  above  the  firmament,  or  the  heaven  of  the 
flars,  which  Pt.lemy  fuppofed  to   be  carried  round 
its  orb,  by  its  proper  motion,  in  the  fpace  of  36000 
years,    they  thought   proper  to  imagine   a   ninth 
heaven,  as   a  primum   moh.le,  which,  in  the  fpace 
of  24  hours,  could  carry  the  other  heavens  along 
with  him,  from   eajl   to   weft;   which  opinion  was 
defended    afterwards   by    "John    de    Sacrobofco    and 
others.     But  in  the  thirteenth  century  Thcbitius  and 
Alphonfus,  king  of  Caftille  ;  and  in  the  fourteenth, 
(Jeorge  Puerhach,   and  John  Regicmtntanus  thought 
to  have  difcovered  in  the  firmament  or  eighth y^/;f/f, 
a  third  motion,  which  they  called  trepidation. 

The  fedtators  of  king  Alphonfus  conceived  three 
motions  in  the  eighth  fphere -,  the  firft  they  called 
raptus,  whereby  the  eighth  fphere,  together  with 
the  reft  of  the  inferior  orbs,  were  carried  by  the 
primum  mobile.,  in  the  fpace  of  24  hours,  from  eaft 
to  weft.  'They  were  pleafed  to  give  it  a  fecond 
motion  which  they  called  proper,  whereby,  in  the 
fpace  of  49000  years,  it  was  carried  from  weft  to 
eaf.  ;  and  the  third  they  divided  into  two  librati- 
ons,  whereby  the  fame  eighth yp^.^v  feemed  to  wa- 
ver or  librate  through  anarch  of  two  degrees  and 
twenty  minutes,  fometimes  to  the  eaft,  and  fome- 
times  to  the  weft.  7"hey  attributed  the  firft  titu- 
bation,  or  libration  to  a  ninth  fphere,  and  the  laft, 
to  a  tenth,  calling  thofe  two  fpheres  the  Chryftalline 
Heavens  ;  the  firft  ferved  to  account  for  that 
flow  motion  of  the  fi.xed  ftars  above-mentioned. 


and  the  fecond  was  to  folve  tlie  motions  oi  libraiion 
and  trepidation. 

This  fyftem  is  fo  abfiird  and  contrary  to  the  fim- 
plicity  of  nature,  and  often  contradictory  to  ap- 
pearances, that  it  foon  gave  way  to  the  folar 
fyjlcm.^ 

This  gives  motion  to  the  earth,  and  was  taught 
by  Pythagoras  and  his  difciples,  and  defended  by 
Plato  :  but  it  could  no  be  fo  well  afccrtaincd,  as  it 
has  been  fince  the  improvement  of  ajlronomical  ob- 
fervations :  By  which  Cardinal  Cufanus  brought 
this  fyftem  into  great  reputation. 

But  Nicholas  Copernicus,  a  prebend  of  Thorn  in 
Poland,  in  1530,  eftabliflied  it  upon  fuch  fure  and 
demonrtrable  principles,  that  the  learned  world 
gave  it  the  name  of  the  Copernican  f\Jfc?n;  and  is 
that  hypothefis,  on  which  all  his  fucceflbrs  in  this 
ftudy  has  endeavoured  to  improve  ever  fince. 

The  moft  celebrated  Aftronomers  in  the  Coperni- 
can fchool,  were  originally  Rothmanw,  Keppler,  Ga- 
lileo and  Des  Cartes,  who  reduced  this  fyftem  into 
fuch  an  eafy  method,  that  fome  have  ventured  to 
call  it  the  Cartefian  fyftem.  See  the  Copper  Plate. 
The  Sun  (a)  is  placed  in  the  middleofour  wr^*-, 
or  fyftem,  as  afixed  ftar.  Around  the  Sun  mo\-e  in  fc- 
veral  orbiis,  firft  Mercury  (b),  who  accompliflies  his 
courfe  in  the  fpace  of  three  months;  then  Fenus  (c), 
who  perfects  hers  in  eight  months.  Afterwards  comes 
the  great  orbit  (e),  which  the  earth  runs  round  in  its 
annual  motion.  About  the  earth  in  a  particular  orbit 
moves  the  Moon  (d),  or  rather  EWpfss,  and  who  ac- 
complifhes  her  courfe  in  the  fpace  of  a  month.  The 
great  orbit  of  the  earth  is  received  into  the  circle  of 
Aiars,  which  Mars  over- run  in  the  fpace  of  two 
years  ;  to  this  fucceeds  the  circle  of  the  orbit  of  Ju- 
pit^r;  and  to  Jupiter,  Saturn,  or  theorbit  oi Saturn; 
fo  that  Jipiter,  in  his  orbit,  in  the  fpace  of  twelve 
years,  and  Saturn  in  his,  in  the  fpace  of  thirty,  ac- 
complifh  their  courfes  or  periods.  Befides  as  the 
Mo,n  moves  round  the  earth,  likewife  four  fmall 
Moons,  or  fatellites  move  round  Jupiter,  and  five 
round  Saturn. 

Des  Cartes  improved  upon  this  fyftem,  and  adds 
that  there  are  in  our  vortex  or  fftem,  in  whofe 
center  the  Sun  is  placed,  feveral  fmaller  vortices, 
viz.  thofe  of  Saturn,  Jupitir,  and  of  the  earth 
itfelf.  In  the  earth's  vortex,  the  A^oon  moves,  as 
in  anellip/is;  and  in  the  vortex  of  Saturn,  and  of 
Jupiter  mo\ts  Saturn,  and  Jupiter's  fatellites.  The 
fame  Des  Cartes  believes,  that  what  we  have  con- 
ceived of  our  vortex  can  alfo  be  applied  or  attributed 
to  all  the  others,  which  we  may  imagine  round  the 
fixed  ftars  ;  for  every  one  of  the  fixed  ftars  feem  to 
him  as  fo  many  Suns,  which  have  every  one  of 
them  their  voi  iex. 

The 


266  TZi^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^«^  Sciences. 


Xhe  CcpL-ntiiM  and  CartefuinfyJIem,  being  thus 
elearly  demonlh-ateil,  we'll  proceed  to  the  explica- 
tion oF  its  diffjrcn!;  phattomeiTa. 

1.  When  the  ca.th  by  its  diurnal  motion,  i:  car- 
ried from  iveft  to  tv;//,  the  fun  appears  to  us  to  be 
carried  from  eaji  to  viejf,  whence  proceeds  the  vi- 
«iritude  of  the  day  and  night. 

2.  The  earth  moveynot  only  round  its  «.)(■«,  but 
proceeds,  alfo  each  day  in  the  great  orbit  or  xcdiaci, 
according  to  the  order  of  the  fi£ns,  in  the  f^nie 
manner  a  globe  rolled  nn  a  plane,  proceeds  according 
to  the  length ot"  the  plane,  v.hile  its  luperiiciet,  turns 
round  the  center  or  axis;  or  £3  a  bird,  flying  ft'oin 
©ne  end  of  a  ftip  under  fail  to  the  other,  moves 
alfo  with  the  fliip.  Therefore,  while  the  earth  is 
between  ihefun  and  one  of  the  figns,  rhe  fun  ap- 
pears to  be  in  the  fign  or.ponte  to  that,  v.  gr.  Sup- 
pole  the  earth  to  be  between  Ailes  and  the.  fun,   the 

fuit  appears  then  to  be  in  Libra  ;  if  the  earth  be  in 
Cancer^  or  between  the  fan  and  Ga>i(et\-  the  fun  will 
be  feen  in  Capricorn.  In  a  word  if  the  mrth  be  in 
Ihs  northern //^'zr,  the  fwi  will  appear  in  the  fouthern 
/!£>is,  and  vice  z:erja. 

3.  In  this  hvpothefis  the  axis  nf  the  ear/h,  mull 
always  be  conceived  parallel  to  itfelt,  and  to  the 
ii.xis  *  of  the  equator  ;  for  if  it  was  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  eciiptick,  there  would  be  a  perpetual  and 
univerfal  equinox :  That  is  to  fay,  that  the  days 
would  be  always,  and  every  where,  equal  to  the 
nights  ;  and  there  would  happen  no  changes  in  the 
feafons.  But  as  the  axis  of  the  earth,  being  paral- 
lel to  the  axis  of  the  equator,  or  of  the  world,  ex- 
ceeds 23  degrees  and  an  half  from  the  axis  of  the 
ecHptick^  and  therefore  inclines  to  the  plane  of  the 
ediptick,  fo  as  to  form  an  angle  of  66  degrees,  30 
minutes,  and  to  keep  always  its  paralklifm  with 
the  axis  of  the  world,  or  to  move  always  in  the 
fame  fenfible  parts  of  heaven  ;  hence  proceeds, 
while  the  earth  by  its  annual  motion  is  carried  round 
tht  fun,  that  fucceffion  in  the  viciflitude  or  changes 
of  feafons  ;    for  example  : 

If  at  the  beginning  of  fummer  (while  the.  fun  ap- 
pears in  Cancer,  and  the  earth  is  in  Capricorn)  the 
earth  be  placed  in  OE,  {Fig.  2.)  and  its  axis  (SM) 
be  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  world  ;  and  therefore 
diflant  23  degrees  30  minutes  fiom  the  axis  of  the 
ediptick,  and  confequently  inclined  to  the  plane  of 
the  annual  srhit  of  the  earth,  agreeable  to  the  angle, 
BOEH,  66  degrees  and  an  half,  the  ray  of  they«« 


perpendicular  to  the  farth^  or  the  ray  carried  from 
the  funs  center  to  the  earth's  center  wiii  touch  the 
fupcrficies  of  the  earth,  not  in  the  t  ;;-rcltrial  eqiuitory 
but  in  the  tropick  of  Cancer,  remote  23  degrees  30 
minutes  from  the  equator  towards  the  pck  arclick, 
and  therefore  the  illuminated  hemifphere  wiH  com- 
prehend th?  whole  ch'cle  polar,  ariJiek  j  and  ex- 
clude the  whole  anlai-iiick. 

Let  the  earth  be  transferred  into  A.  at  the  be- 
ginning of  autumn,  and  the  axis  of  the  cartli,  SM, 
always  remain  parallel,  as  well  to  itfelf,  as  to  the 
axis  of  the  world:  as  the  fun  appears  at  t'lit  time 
in  Libra,  tlie  earth  being  th.n  in  Aries,  the  ray 
conduced  from  ^e  fun's,  center  to  ^^e  iarfh'%  cen- 
ter, perpendicular  then,  to  the  axis  of  the  world, 
will  fall  on  the  fuperficies  of  the  earth  at  the  begin- 
ning of  Libra,  and  be  diflrihuted  to  both  poles. 

Let's  nov/  imagine  the  earth  in  11,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  turnter,  the  perpendicular  ray  of  the  fun  ^the 
parailelifm  of  the  axis,  S.Vl,  always  remaining) 
will  fall  on  the  tropic/:  of  Capriom  ;  and  thsrifore 
the  illuminated,  or  lighted  hemifphere,  will  otitaia 
within  itfelf  the  antar£tick  pole,  and  exclude  the 
arctick. 

Lajlly,  The  earth  being  placed  in  V.  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fpring,  i.  e.  at  the  beginning  of 
Libra,  at  which  time  t!hs  fun  zpvtc.us  in  Aries,  the 
ray  conduced  from  the  funs  center  to  the  earth's 
center  will  reach  the  fupcrficies  of  theearth  at  the 
beginning  of  Aries,  and  then  both  poles  will  be 
again  illuminated  ;  but  as  the  illuminated  face  of 
the  earth  looks  at  the  fin,  it  cannot  be  confpicuous 
to  us  who  are  placed  without  the  figurt. 

Thus  the  CoPERNiCAN's  explain,  and  elucidate 
the  viciilitudes  of  the  feafons. 

The  fpice  BC,  or  DE,  in  the  fphcre  of  the 
fixed  flats,  which  is  equal  to  the  annual  orbit  of 
the  earth,  appearing  almofl  as  a  point,  by  reafon 
of  its  too  great  diflance  from  us  ;  hence  it  follows, 
that  the  axis  of  the  earth,  in  each  point  of  its  great 
orbit,  fliould  always  appear  directed  to  the  fame 
points,  or  parts  of  the  world  ;  fo  that  there  fhould 
always  appear  the  fame  altitude  of  the  pole,  the 
the  fame  vertical  (tars,  and  of  the  fame  magnitude, 
with  refpeft  to  the  fame  part  of  the  world,  although 
the  earth,  by  its  annual  motion  in  the  ■z.odiack, 
fhould  approach  nearer  thefe  or  thofe  ftars,  or  nearer 
the  north  or  fouth. 


*  A  Parallei,ism,  of  the  earth's  axis,  is  that  fituation,  or  motion  of  the  earth's  axis,  in  iti  prcgrefs  througk 
its  orbit,  whereby  it  ilill  looks  to  the  fame  point  of  the  heavens,  'viz.  toward  the  pole  Jiar  ;  lo  that  if  a  line  be 
drawn  parallel  to  its  axis,  while  in  any  one  pofition  ;  the  axit,  in  all  o;hcr  poiltions  or  parts  of  the  orbit,  will 
always  be  para'lel  to  the  fame  line.  This  paralielifm  is  the  neceflary  rel'ult  of  the  earth's  double  motion  ;  the  one 
round  thejun,  the  other  round  its  own  axis.  Nor  is  there  any  neceflity  to  imagine  a  thirdir.otio  1,  as  iomehave 
done,  to  account  for  this  paralklifm. 


A    s    r  R    0    N    0    M    r- 


267 


If  this  hypothcfis  ftiould  appear  ridiculous,  or 
impofliblc,  to  fome,  the  Copernicans  would  tell 
them,  that  they  fhould  remember  the  great  abfur- 
dities  found  in  the  Ptolemaic  j'yjl em  ;  as  the  prodi- 
gious rapidity  with  which  the  primuni  ttiobile  muft 
accomplifli  its  diurnal  courfc  ;  then  the  revblution 
of  the  inferior  fpheres,  againfl:  the  motion  of  the 
primum  mobile,  though  they  are  daily  carried  along 
with  it.  Which  abfurditics  are  conecSted,  by  the 
Copeniican  hypothefis  ;  imce,  by  the  diurnal  motion 
of  the  earth,  that  incredible  velocity  of  xho.  fun,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  fixed  flars,  whereby  the  remoteft 
fhould  be  carried  with  400,000  times  more  rapidity 
tiian  a  ball  from  a  cannon)  is  rendered  vain  and 
ufelefs.  How  eafier  it  is,  fay  they,  for  the  fmall 
fphere  of  the  earth,  fo  fit  for  motion,  by  its  round 
fio-ure,  to. move  round  the  fun;  than  for  a  huge 
machine,  whofe  exterior  figure  is  utterly  unknown, 
to  be  carried  with  fuch  incredible  velocity  round  fo 
fmall  a  pole  as  the  earth. 

When  it  is  faid,  in  the  Copernican  hypothcfis,  that 
the  earth,  while  carried  through  its  great  annual 
07-bit,  keeps  the  parallclifm  of  its  axis  ;  this  is  not 
to  be  fo  frricirly  underftood,  as  if  that  axis  did  not 
change  a  little  \x.s  fttuation,  and  could  not  by  a  very 
flow  motion,  viz.  in  the  fpace  of  25816  Egyptian 
years,  according  to  Copsrnicus,  defcribe  a  certain 
circle,  towards  the  poles  of  the  ■zodiack,  againft 
the  order  of  the  fgns,  or  from  eafl  to  weft ;  the 
femidiameter  of  which  circle,  is,  according  to  the 
faid  Copernicus,  23  degrees  and  40  minutes  : 
Whence  it  muft  follow,  that  the  interfeftions  of 
the  ecliptick,  and  of  the  equator,  or  the  equinoBial 
points,  are  carried,  by  the  fame  motion,  againft  the 
order,  or  in  pnecedentia  of  the  figns  ;  a  motion 
called,  by  Copernicus,  the  preceffion  of  the  equinoxes. 

Hence  he  has  drawn  the  appearance  of  the  motion 
of  the  fixed  ftars,  by  which  they  feemed  to  be  car- 
ried, according  to  the  order,  or  //;  confequcntia  of 
the  figns,  from  weft  to  eaft,  and  changed  the  ap- 
parent mutation  of  diftance  of  the  fixed  ftars,  from 
the  equinoElial  points  toward  the  eaft,  into  a  real 
motion  of  preceffion  of  the  equinoxes. 

Precession,  in  this  place,  is  a  term  applied  to 
t\\e  equinoxes,  which  by  a  very  flow,  infenfibic  mo- 
tion, change  their  places,  going  backward,  or 
weftward,  i.  e.  inantccedentia,  as  Aftronomers  call 
i',  or  contrary  to  the  order  of  theftgns.  "The  pole, 
the  foljl ices,  the  equinoxes,  and  all  the  other  points 
of  the  ecliptic^,  have  a  retrograde  motion  ;  and 
are  continually  moving  from  eaft  to  weft,  or  from 
Jries  towards  Pifces,  &c.  by  means  whereof  the 
equir.oJJial points  are  carried  farther  and  farther  back, 
among  the  preceding  figns  of  ftars,  at  the  rate  of 
about  50  fecondstach  year;  which  retrograde  mo- 
tion is  called  the  preceffion,  riceffton,  or  retroceffion 
of  tixe  equinoxes. 


Hence,  as  the  fixed  ftars  remain  im'nov-ablc. 
and  the  equinoxes  go  backward,  the  f'ars  v/iil  fcem 
to  move  more  and  more  eaftward  with  refpeit  there- 
to ;  whence  the  longitudes  of  the  ftars,  which  are 
reckoned  from  the  firft  point  of  .iries,  or  the  vernal 
equinox,  are  continually  increafing. 

Hence  the  motion  of  the  axis  of  the  earth  has 
fometimes  appeared  unequal  ;  fince  from  the  time 
of  Tifnocharides  to  that  of  Ptolemy,  the  fixed  ftars 
feemed,  every  hundred  years,  to  have  moved  a  de- 
gree, according  to  the  order  of  the  figns.  From 
Ptolemy  to  Albategnius,  they  run  one  degree  every 
66  years.  At  prcfent,  they  accomplifti  one  degree, 
according  to  Tycho  Brahe,  in  70  years  ;  fo  that  their 
revolutio'n  is  finiflied  in  25806  Julian  years.  But 
in  Ricciolus's  o^mxon,  they  employ  72  years  in  run- 
ning a  degree  ;  therefore  they  cannot  accomplifti 
their  revolution  in  lefs  than  25020  years. 

To  reiiify  this  irregularity  of  motion,  and  keep 
ftill  the  fixed  ftars  immoveable,  Copernicui  has 
imagined  an  irregularity  in  the  motion  of  preceffion 
of  the  equinoxes  ;  whofe  anomaly  {hould  be  reftored 
in  ij i-j  Egyptian  ye3.rs. 

Note,  That  Anomaly,  in  Aflronomy,  is  the 
diftance  of  a  planet  from  the  aphelion,  or  apogee  j 
or  an  irregularity  in  the  motion  of  a  planet,  where- 
by it  deviates  from  the  aphelion  or  apogee. 

But  as  the  obliquity  of  the  ecUptick  had  been 
obferved  to  vary  otherwife,  by  the  anticnc  Aftro- 
nomers, and  its  anomaly  to  take  twice  the  time  of 
the  anomaly  of  the  equinoxes,  before  it  could  be 
finifhed,  viz.  3434  Egyptian  years  ;  he  has  ex- 
plained both  inequalities,  by  the  fole  motion  of  the 
poles  of  the  earth  ;  and  by  imagining  the  axis  of 
the  earth  to  be  carried  from  north  to  fouth,  and  from 
fouth  to  north,  in  the  interval  of  24  minutes  only  ; 
and  from  eaft  to  weft,  and  from  weft  to  eaft,  through 
an  arch  of  2  degrees,  and  20  minutes  ;  fo  that  by 
thofe  complicate  motions,  the  extremity  of  the  axis 
forms  a  corolla  intorta,  in  the  two  revolutions  of  the 
anomaly  of  the  equinoxes,  and  in  one  of  the  obliqui- 
ty of  the  zodiack,  following  the  order  of  the  num- 
bers I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9  :  Whence  it  is  un- 
derftood, that  feven,  or  more,  of  thofe  corolla's, 
arc  contained  in  an  entire  revolution  of  25816 
Egyptian  years  ;  during  which  time,  the  axis  of 
the  earth  is  carried  round  the  poles  of  the  zodiack, 
againft  the  order  of  the  y?fwf 

Now  as  to  what  relates  to  the  Jlations,  diredions, 
and  rctrogradations  of  the  planets,  it  rnay  be  ex- 
plained in  this  hypothcfis,  with  an  admirable  fact-  - 
lity,  and  without  being  obliged  to  haie  recourfe  to 
Epicycles.  Venus  and  Mercury  have  fooner  finiftied 
their  courfes  round  the  fun,  than  the  earrii ;  becaufc 
they  defcribe  their  circles  nearer  the  fun  ;  and  the 
earth  fooner  than  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn. 
\Vhence  it  happens,  that  the  earth  paiTes,  fome- 
M  m  tif^Cj 


268  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  avd  Sciences. 


times,  between  the  fuperior  planets  and  the  fun, 
the  fame  as  Venus  and  Mercury  pafs  between  the  fun 
and  the  earth.     For  example, 

Let  the  fun  be  k,  and  the  annual  circle  of  the 
earth  b  h  j  c  T  1 ;  the  circle  of  fome  of  the  fupe- 
rior planets,  viz..  of  Saturn,  Jupiter,  or  Mars,  be 
o  d  q  R  E  P,  an  arch  of  which,  or  at  leaft  a  por- 
tion thereof,  a  planet  fhould  vifit  while  the  earth  is 
running  through  its  whole  circle.  Let  alfo  the  fir- 
mament be  M  F  G  N. 

If  the  (art/}  he  placed  in  N,  and  the  planet  in  O, 
it  will  be  feen  in  the  point  of  the  firmament  M. 
Let  the  earth  advance  from  L  to  B,  and  the  planet 
from  O  to  D,  fo  that  the  earth  fliould  be  very  near 
to  pafs  between  that  planet  and  the  fun  ;  then  the 
planet  will  be  feen  in  G  ;  and  becaufe  it  will  appear 
to  have  haftened  its  motion  from  the  point  M,  to 
the  point  C,  fuch  motion  fliall  be  called  a  dired 
motion. 

If  afterwards  the  earth  arrives  from  the  point  B 
to  the  point  H,  and  the  planet  from  the  point  D  to 
the  point  q  ;  this  will  again  be  feen  in  G,  and  be 
called  ftationary,  which  will  be  its  firft  flation.  But 
if  the  earth  was  to  pafs  to  I,  and  the  planet  to  R, 
the  planet  will  appear  in  D  ;  and  thereby  appearing 
to  have  retrograded  again  11  the  order  of  the  figns, 
it  will  be  then  called  retrcgi-ade. 

If  the  earth  being  in  C,  the  planet  be  in  E,  it 
will  be  ken  again  in  D,  and  appear  ftationary  ; 
therefore  this  will  be  its  fecond  flation. 

Laftly,  When  the  earth  will  be  arrived  from  the 
point  C  into  T,  and  the  planet  into  P,  it  will 
appear  in  N ;  and  as  it  feems  then  to  have  ad- 
vanced according  to  the  order  of  the  figns,  it  will 
be  called  again  dlreSl. 

In  this  manner,  the  flation,  direilion,  and  retro- 
gradation  of  the  fuperior  planets,  Mars,  Jupiter, 
and  Saturn  are  very  eafily  accounted  for,  according 
to  the  Copernican  hypothcfn :  Where  we  are  to  ob- 
ferve,  that  there  is  a  greater  quantity  of  retrogra 
dation  in  Alars  than  in  Jupiter,  and  in  Jupiter 
than  Saturn. 

As  to  the  other  planets,  called  inferior,  viz. 
Venus  and  Mercury  ;  as  they  are  nearer  the  fun 
than  the  (arth,  they  alfo  perfect  their  courfe  with 
a' greater  celerity  than  Ihe  can  ;  whence  they  appear 
ibmetimes  placed  between  her  and  the  fun  ;  and 
hence  feem  fometimes  to  advance,  fometimes  to 
liand  flill,  and  fometimes  to  be  retrograde. 
"'  Let  us  then  place  the  earth  to  run  in  its  orhit 
the  part  T  B  C  D  E  F,  Fig.  i.  while  Mercury 
rum:  the  whole  circle  G  L  M  N  O.  If  the  earth  be 
in  T,  and  Mercury  in  G,  he'll  be  feen  in  the  point 
of  the  firmament  F.  But  if  the  earth  be  arrived 
at  tiie  point  B,  and  Meruay  at  the  point  1,  Mer- 
iury  will  be  feen  in  P.     And  becaufe  the  progrefs 


will  feem  then  to  be  made  with  a  greater  celerity, 
it  will  be  called  dircil.  But  where  he'll  gain  the 
point  H,  the  earth  being  in  C,  then  he  is  to  be 
flationary,  becaufe  he  feems  to  flay  almofl  in  the 
fame  point  P.     This  is  his  firft  Jlation. 

But  if  the  earth  occupies  the  point  D,  and 
Mercury  the  point  N,  he'll  appear  in  q  ;  and  thus 
will  be  retrograde,  becaufe  he  11  be  fuppofed  re- 
moved againft  the  order  of  the  figns.  But  if  the 
earth  being  in  E,  Mercury  is  in  O,  he'll  be  thought 
Jiationary,  becaufe  he'll  be  feen  in  the  fame  point 
q.     And  then  it  will  be  his  fecond  Jiation. 

Laflly,  When  the  earth  will  be  in  f,  and  Mer- 
cury in  Gj,  Mercury  will  be  referred  to  the  point  I, 
and  then  become  direct,  becaufe  the  progrefs  will 
then  appear  made  according  to  the  order  of  the 
figns. 

WTiat  is  faid  here  of  Mercury,  is  to  be  under- 
flood  of  Venus  ;  this  excepted,  that  thefe  mutations 
are  not  fo  frequent  in  her,  becaule  flie  takes  more 
time  than  Mercury  to  run  through  her  orbit. 

After  thefe  arofe  divers  great  men,  as  Gajfendus., 
Hevelius,  BuUialdus,  Ricciolus,  the  two  CaffinPs, 
Mr.  Huygens,  Horrox,  Bifhop  Ward,  Mr.  Flam- 
Jieed,  Dr.  Ilalley,  Dr.  Gregory,  Dr.  Keil,  and, 
above  all,  that  fuperlative  genius  Sir  Ifaac  Newton  j 
who  all  with  the  greateft  pains  and  diligence,  ap- 
plied themfelves  to  make  obfervations,  to  invent 
indruments,  and  to  invefligate  the  phyfical  caufes 
of  celeflial  phanomena  \  in  which  they  fo  happily 
fucceeded,  efpecially  the  lafl  great  man,  that  the 
nature,  extent,  order,  and  conflitution  of  all  and 
every  part  of  the  Solar  System,  both  of  Pla- 
nets and  Comets,  became  fo  well  defined,  ftated, 
and  eftablifiied,  as  to  admit  of  no  conteft  or  fcru- 
ple,  with  any  man  properly  qualified  to  underftand 
it  ;  and  which  therefore  ought  for  the  future  to  be 
called  the  Nev/toman  System  of  the  world. 

This  System  (no  longer  now  to  be  called  an 
hypothefis)  is  reprefented  in  a  plate  with  the  orbits 
of  all  the  planets  and  cornets  (hitherto  determined) 
and  at  their  proper  diflances  from  the  fun,  repre- 
fented by  the  central  point,  with  the  Orrery. 

In  the  fixteenth  century  the  Copernican  jyjicitt'wz% 
attempted  to  be  antiquated  by  Tycho  Brahe  a  noble 
Dane  ;  from  whofe  works  in  AJironomy  the  world 
is  favoured  with  a  lh\rd  fyfiem,  called  after  his  name 
the  Tychonic  fyftem.  See  ihefnft  plate  of  Astro- 
nomy. 

In  this  fyflem,  three  things  move  round  the  earth, 
as  round  their  centre  ;  the  moon,  which  is  the  near- 
efl  to  it,  by  a  monthly  motion  ;  the  fun,  which  is 
more  diftant  from  it,  by  an  annual  courfe  ;  and  the 
firmament,  or  the  fphere  of  the  fixed  Jiars,  the  re- 
motefl  of  all  three,  by  a  flow  motion  of  25000 
years. 

Roun4 


ASIRONOMT. 


269 


Round  the  y^K  five  errant  JIars,  or  planets,  have 
their  particular  motions,  viz.  Alenury,  of  three 
months ;  Fenus,  of  eii,ht  months,  &c.  with  this 
order,  or  rule,  that  the _//<«,  by  his  annual  motion, 
running  through  the  'Lodlac,  carries  them  all  along 
with  him.  Befides,  as  Mercury  and  Venus,  by  their 
revolutions  round  him,  do  not  embrace  the  earth  ; 
Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn,  embrace  it  by  theirs, 
but  efpecially  Mars,  which,  while  in  B,  becomes 
nearer  the  earth  than  the  fun  himfclf. 

But  there  is  no  mention  made,  in  the  Tychonick 
fyftem,  of  a  diurnal  motion  ;  thofe  who  follow  his 
hypothefis,  place  a  primum  jnobile  above  the  firma- 
'^ment,  whereby  the  whole  machine  of  the  world 
may  be  moved  by  a  diurnal  motion  ;  or  fuppofe 
thofe  three  inohiles,  the  moon,  the  fun,  and  the 
fphere  of  the  fixed  ftars,  while  by  a  flow  motion 
they  move  from  weft  to  eaft  in  the  zodiac,  to  be  alfo 
moved  daily  from  eaft  to  weft,  in  a  circle,  almoft 
parallel  to  the  equator.  Moreover  they  conceive 
that  the  five  errant  ftars,  befides  their  proper  mo- 
tions, they  have  round  the  fun  from  weft  to  eaft 
through  the  zodiac,  are  alio  carried  daily  from  eaft 
to  weft,  in  a  plain  parallel  to  the  equator,  not  by 
themfelves,  but  by  they««  who  ferves  them  inftead 
of  a  primum  mohile. 

The  Tychonicians  have  this  common,  with  the 
Copernicans,  that  they  both  acknowledge  the  hea- 
ven's fluid;  and  in  faft  the  Tychonick  fyftem  is  nothing 
elfe  but  that  of  Copernicus  inverted,  for  if  t\\c  fun 
with  Venus  and  Mercury  was  reftored  to  the  centre 
of  the  world,  the  earth  would  accomplifh  its  an- 
nual period  through  the  circle  afligned  to  the  fun, 
and  the  planets,  or  the  fphere  of  the  fixed  ftars 
would  be  underftood  to  remove  at  fuch  a-diftance, 
that  the  circle  of  Saturn  would  be  every  where 
equally  diftant  from  the  fixed  ftars  ;  and  then  the 
fyftem  would  be  the  fame  as  defcribed  by  Coper- 
nicus, 

As  to  the  number  of  heavens,  Tycho's  partifans 
admit  of  three,  viz.  the  Empyreum,  the  Firmament, 
and  the  Flanetick,  which  number  they  pretend  to 
fupport  with  the  authority  of  the  Apoftle,  who  is 
fafJ,  Eph.  ii.  Corinth,  c.  xii.  v.  12.  to  have  been 
caught  up  to  the  third  heaven  ;  i.  e.  as  they  inter- 
pret it,  to  the  Empyreum.  But  thofe  among  them 
who  place  a  primum  mobile  above  the  firmament, 
ought  to  reckon  four  heavens,  and  therefore  cannot 
be  aflifted  therein  by  the  text  of  the  apoftle,  which, 
©n  the  contrary,  the  Copernicans  and  Cat  tefians  bor- 
row to  fupport  their  hypothefts.  For  our  vortex  is 
the  firft  heaven  of  the  Cartefians  ;  that  vaft  region 
of  the  fixed  ftars  confpicuous  to  us,  eftablifhes 
another  with  refpe(5l  to  us  ;  and  all  that  is  extended 
beyond  that  immenfe  region  may  form  the  empyreum, 
or  a  third  heaven. 


Tycho  and  his  difciplcs  had  proceeded  thus  far  in 
the  explanation,  as  well  of  the  diurnal  motions  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  from  eaft  to  weft,  in  a  plane 
parallel  to  the  equator,  as  of  the  monthly,  annual, 
i^c,  from  weft  to  eaft  in  the  zodiac  ;  but  there  re- 
mained ftill,  for  them,  to  explain  the  ftation,  di- 
reSlion,  and  rctrogradation  of  the  [ilanets,  when 
Kepler,  by  an  admirable  inxention,  undertook  that 
arduous  tafk. 

This  famous  Jftronimer  (confidering  the  whole 
planetick  region  thus  drawn,  the  fun  in  fuch  a 
manner  as  for  the  axis  to  keep  always  its  parallelifm, 
and  for  each  planet,  befides,  to  have,  at  the  times 
fixed,  its  particular  motion  round  the  fun)  fhews 
how  to  compofe  a  fpiral  motion  from  thofe  two, 
viz.  of  abdudlion  from  the.  fun,  and  of  converfion 
round  the  fun.     For  example  : 

Let  the  earth  be  T,  and  the  orhit  of  the  fun, 
in  which  he  is  moved,  SSSS.  If  Jupiter  be  in 
A,  and  by  a  compofite  motion,  as  we  have  faid, 
be  carried  into  B,  it  will  htcome  Jiationary;  be- 
caufe  it  is  not  underftood  to  move,  nor  according 
to  the  order  of  the  figns,  nor  againft  it.  If  after- 
wards it  pafles  from  the  point  B  to  C,  it  will  be 
direfl;,  becaufe  it  advances  according  to  the  order 
of  the  figns  ;  and  from  the  point  C  to  the  point  D 
becomes  agzinflationary.  But  from  the  point  D  to 
E,  becaufe  carried  againft  the  order  of  the  figns, 
it  will  be  called  retrograde. 

However  the  planets  do  not  accomplifti  a  whole 
fpiral  every  year  ;  but  that  time  is  required  which 
is  neceflary  for  a  conjun£tion  of  the  fun  with  the 
planet,  particularly  if  the  beginning  of  the  fpiral 
motion,  is  taken  from  the  conjunftion  ;  or  for  an 
oppofition,  if  the  beginning  of  the  yp;V^/ 7;ii7*/'i7«  is 
expefted  from  an  oppofition.  Therefore  we  muft 
imagine  eleven  of  thok  fpirals  in  the  circle  of  Ju- 
piter ;  twenty-nine  in  the  circle  of  Saturn,  he. 
which  fpirals  are  greater  in  Jupiter  than  in  Saturn, 
and  again  greater  in  A-Iars  than  in  Jupiter  ;  whence 
thofe  fpirals  are  not  foon  perfefted  in  Mars  as  in 
Jupiter  ;  nor  fo  foon  in  Jupiter  as  in  Saturn. 

Let  us  proceed  to  demonftrate  the  diftances, 
magnitudes,  motions,  d5V.  of  the  celeftial  bodies ; 
premifing  a  i'ew  obfervations  on  the  figure  and  di- 
menfion  of  the  earth. 

The  figure  of  the  earth  is  demonftrated  to  be 
nearly  fpherical,  thus  :  the  moon  is  frequently  feen 
eclipfed  by  the  fhadow  of  the  earth ;  and  in  all 
eclipfes  that  fliadow  appears  circular,  what  way  fo- 
ever  it  be  projeiSled,  whether  towards  the  eaft, 
weft,  north,  or  fouth,  howfoever  it  in  diameter 
varies  according  to  the  greater  or  lefs  diftance  from 
the  earth. 

Hence  it  follows  that  the  fliadow  of  the  earth,  in 

all  its  fituations,  is  really  wmVfl/ ;  and  confequently 

M  m  2  the 


270  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


the  body  that  proje£ts  it,  /.  e.  the  earth,  is  nearly 
fpberical.  We  fay  it  is  nczi:\y  fpherica I ;  for  the 
inequalities  of  its  furface  prevent  its  being  perfeiStly 
,fo  ;  befides  Huygens  and  Sir  Ifaac  Nauton  have 
fiiewn  t'lat  the  tarth  is  higher  and  bigger  under  the 
eqttntor  i\\:xn  at  the  poles  :  fo  that  its  figure,  nearly, 
is  thit  of  an  oblate  fpheroid,  fwelling  out  towards 
the  equatorial  parts,  and  flatted  or  contrafted  to- 
wards the  poles.  The  reafon  of  this  inequality  is 
deduced  from  the  diurnal  rotation  of  the  earth  on 
its  axis. 

This  rcundnefs  of  the  earth  is  farther  confirmed 
by  its  having  been  frequently  failed  round  :  all  the 
circumnavigators  failing  continually  from  eaft  to 
weft,  at  length  arrived  in  Europe,  whence  they  fct 
forth  ;  and  in  the  courfe  of  their  voyage  obferved 
all  the  ph.rrtomeTM,  both  of  the  heavens  and  earth, 
to  correfpond  and  confefs  th\s  fpkerica!  figure. 

The  antients  had  various  opinions  as  to  the  fi- 
gure of  the  earth.  Anaximmder,  held  it  cylindri- 
cal; Leucippus,  in  form  of  a  drum.  But  the  prin- 
cipal opinion  was,  that  it  was  flat  ;  that  the  vifible 
hori%on  was  the  bounds  of  the  earth,  and  the  ocean 
the  bounds  of  the  horizoyi :  that  the  heavens  and 
tarth  above  this  ocean,  were  the  whole  vifible  uni- 
verfe,  and  that  all  beneath  the  ocean  was  hades  : 
of  which  opinion  were,  not  only  divers  of  the  an 
tient  poets  and  philofophers,  but  ajfo  fome  of  the 
Chriflian  fathers,  as  Lailantius,  St.  Augujlin  bi- 
ihop  of  Hippo,  &c. 

The  Magnitude  of  the  Earth,  we  are  to 
confider  next ;  and  the  number  of  miles  its  diame- 
ter contains,  has  been  varioufly  determined  by  fe- 
vcral  authors,  antient  and  modern.  The  way  to 
arrive  at  it  is,  by  finding  the  quantity  of  a  degree 
of  a  great  circle    of  the  earth. 


But  this  degree  is 


Mr.  IVlnJlon  reckons  the  amhit  of  the  earth  t<5  be 
123,249,600  Paris  feet,  or  1315630,573,  or 
thereabouts,  EngUJh  feet. 

We  are  now  to  explain  the  doftrine  of  the 
FIXED  Stars. 

Fir  ft,  we  will  begin  with  the  motion  of  thefe 
ftars.  Thefe _/?<7r5  are  called  ^aW  ;  not  from  their 
being  fixed  in  a  folid  concave ;  but  becaufe  we  ob- 
fcrve  always  the  fame  diftance  between  them. 

They  have  two  kinds  of  motions  :  one  called  the 
firjl,  common,  and  diurnal  motion,  or  the  motion  of 
the  primum  mobile  :  by  this  they  are  carried  along 
with  the  firmament  wherein  they  appear  fixed, '^' 
round  the  earth,  from  eaft  to  weft,  in  the  fpace  of 
twenty-four  hours. 

1  he  other,  called  xh&fecond,  or  proper  motion,  is 
that  whereby  they  go  backwards,  from  weft  to 
eaft,  round  the  poles  of  the  ecliptick,  with  an  ex- 
ceeding flownefs,  as  not  defcribing  above  a  degree 
of  their  circle  in  the  fpace  of  71  or  72  years,  or  51 
feconds  in  a  year.  Some  have  imagined,  that  when 
they  have  got  round  to  the  points  whence  they  firft 
departed,  nature  will  have  finifhed  her  courfe,  and 
xhejlars,  having  performed  their  career,  the  hea- 
vens will  remain  at  reft,  unlefs  the  Being,  who 
firft  gave  them  motion,  appoints  them  to  begin  an- 
other circuit.  On  the  footing  of  this  calculation, 
the  world  fhould  laft  about  30,000  years,  accord- 
ing to  Ptolemy  ;  25816,  according  to  Tycho;  25920, 
according  to  Riccioli ;  and  24800,  according  to 
Cajfini. 

In  effeft,  the  latitudes  of  the  fixed Jlars,  we  find, 
by  comparing  the  obfervations  of  the  antient  Aftro- 
nonners  with  thofe  of  the  moderns,  continue  ftill  the 
fame  ;  but  their  longitude  is,  by  the  fecond  motion. 


found  very  different,  according  to  the  different  always  increafing.  Thus,  for  example,  the  longi- 
methods  and  inftruments  made  ufe  of,  as  v^ell  &s  ]iude  of  Cor  Leonis  was  {oundhy  Ptolemy,  J.  D,  138, 
the  different  obfervers.  to  be  2°  30'  ;  in  1 1 15  ic  was  obferved  by  the  Per- 

The  method  obferved  by  Mr.  Norwood,  and  the  \fiam  to  be  17°  30';  in  1364,  by  Jlphonfus,  20°  40'; 


French  aftronomers,  Picard,  Cajfini,  &c.  viz.  by 
meafuring  the  difference  between  two  remote  places 
on  the  fame  meridian,  is  undoubtedly  the  beft  ;  and 
was  performed  with  fuch  exceeding  accurscj',  efpe- 
cially  by  M.  Cajfini,  that  hardly  any  thing  further 
or  better  can  be  expelled.  According  to  that  au- 
thor the  ambit,  or  circumference  of  the  earth  is 
323,750,720  Farii  feet ;  or  134,650,777  Englifn 
feet;  or  250311-  of  our  ftatute  miles  ;  whence, 
fuppofing  the  earth  fpherical,  its  diameter  muft  be 
7967  flatute  miles  ;  and  confequently  its  radius, 
or  femi-diameter,  may  be  taken  in  a  round  number 
200.000,000  feet; its  furface  will  be  199,444,206 
miles  ;  which  being  multiplied  into  ]  of  its  lemi- 
diameter,  gives  the  foiid  content  of  the  globe  of 
the  earth  264.85'6,ooo,ooo  cubic  miles. 


in  1586,  by  the  prince  of  HeJ/i:,  24°  11^;  in  1601, 
hyTychs,  24°  i/';  and  in  1690,  by  Mr.  Flamfieed, 
25°  31'' 20":  whence  the  proper  motion  of  the 
Jiars,  according  to  the  order  of  the^^w,  in  circles 
parallel  to  the  Ecliptick,  is  eafily  inferred. 

It  was  Hipparchus  firft  fufpefted  this  motion-., 
upon  comparing  the  obfervations  of  Tymocharis  znA 
Jrijiyllus  with  his  own.  Ptolemy,  who  lived  three 
centuries  after  Hipparchu:,  demonftrat.d  the  fame 
by  undeniable  arguments.  Some,  it  is  true,  have 
imagined  a  change  in  the  latitude  of  the  ftars  ;  but 
fuch  an  opinion  has  but  little  countenance  from 
obfervatioii.  Tycho  Brahe  makes  the  increafe  of 
longitude  in  a  century  1°  25';  Copernicus  1°  i"},'  i,o" 
1%'" ;  Bullialdus  i"  24'  54''';  Hevelius  1°  24^46" 
'^o'"  ;  whence,  with  Mr.  Flamfteed,    the  annual 

increafe 


ASTRONOMY, 


271 


increafe  of  the  longitudes  of  \ht  fixed  ftars  may  be 
well  fixed  at  50''. 

From  thefe  data,  the  increafe  of  the  longitude  of 
zjiar,  for  any  given  time,  is  cafily  had  ;  and  hence 
the  longitude  of  a  ftar,  for  any  given  year,  being 
given,  its  longitude  for  any  other  year  is  readily 
found. 

The  next  thing  which  falls  under  our  confidera- 
tion,  with  regard  to  \.he.  fixed /tars,  is  their  magni- 
tudes, which  appear  to  be  very  different ;  which 
difference  probably  arifes,  not  from  any  difference 
in  their  real  magnitudes,  but  from  their  diifances, 
which  are  different.  From  this  difference  theftars 
become  diftributed  into  feven  fcveral  claffes,  called 
magnitudes. 

The  firft  clafs,  or  Stars  of  the  firft  magnitude, 
are  thofe  ncareft  us,  and  whofe  diameters  are  there- 
fore biggeft.  Next  thefe,  are  thofe  of  the  fecond 
magnitude  ;  and  fo  on,  to  the  fixth,  which  compre- 
hends the  fmallefty?^«  vifible  to  the  naked  eye  ;  all 
beyond,  are  called  telefcopick  fears.  Not  that  all 
the/tars  of  each  clafs  appear  juftly  of  the  fame  mag- 
nitude ;  there  is  a  great  latitude  in  this  refpeil:,  and 
thofe  of  the  firft  magnitude  appear  almoft  all  dif- 
ferent ill  lulire  and  fize.  Other  fears  there  are,  of 
intermediate  magnitudes,  which  Aftronomers  cannot 
refer  to  this,  rather  than  the  next  clafs,  and  there- 
fore place  them  between  the  two. 

Procyon,  for  inftance,  which  Ptolemy  makes  of  the 
firft  magnitude,  and  Tycho  of  the  fecond,  Flamfeeed 
lays  down  as  betv/een  the  firft  3.nd  fecond.  Thus, 
inftead  of  fix  feveral  magnitudes,  we  have  really  fix 
times  fix.  Some  authors  affert,  that  the  fears  of 
the  firft  magnitude  fubtend  an  angle  of  at  leafl:  a 
minute  ;  but  the  earth's  orbit  ken  from  the  fixed 
fears,  only  fubtends  an  angle  of  20  feconds  ;  and 
hence  they  conclude  that  the  diameters  of  the  fears 
are  vaftly  greater  than  that  of  the  earth's  whole 
orbit.  Now  a  fphere  whofe  femidiameter  only 
equals  the  diftance  between  the  fun  and  the  earth, 
is,  by  feme,  fuppofcd  to  be  ten  millions  of  times 
greater  than  the  fun;  confequently  the  fixed  feurs 
muft  be  much  more  than  ten  millions  of  times 
greater  than  the  fun.  But  Mr.  JVhiJion  is  of  opi- 
nion, that  this  is  a  miftake,  and  that  the  diameters, 
even  of  the  largefl:  7?<7r^,  viewed  through  a  telef- 
cope,  v/hich  magnifies,  for  example,  a  hundred 
times,  fubtend  no  vifible  angle  at  all,  but  are  mere 
lucid  points. 

The  incertitude^  as  to  the  magnitude,  and  dif- 
tance  of  the  fixed  fears  from  us,  proceeds  from  their 
having  no  parallax  *  ;  fuice  all  Aflronomers,  both 


antient  and  modern,  aerce,  that  the  doftrine  of  the 
diftances  of  the  celcfeial  bodies  confifts  in  their  paral- 
laxes, and  that  it  is  impoffible  we  fliould  have  any 
juil  obfervation  without  it. 

Among  the  fixed  fears,  there  is  a  long,  white, 
luminous  track,  which  fecms  to  cncompafs  the 
heavens  like  a  fwath,  fcarf,  or  girdle,  called  Via. 
Lailea,  or  Galaxy,  of^a^a|Toc,  milk.  It  paffes 
between  Sagittary  and  Gemini,  and  divides  the 
fphere  into  two  parts.  It  is  unequally  broad,  and 
in  fome  parts  is  fingle,  in  others  double.  And  it 
is  an  affemblage  of  an  infinite  number  of  minute 
fears,  to  be  difcovered  only  by  a  telefcope. 

The  number  of  the  ftars  appears  to  be  vaftlj^ 
great,  almoft  infinite ;  yet  Aftronomers  have  long 
ago  afcertained  the  number  of  thofe  vifible  to  the 
eye  ;  which  are  found  vaffly  fewer  than  one  would 
imagine.  Hipparchus,  125  years  before  the /war- 
nation,  made  the  number  of  \\fi!o\e  ftars  to  be  1 022. 
Thefe  were  reduced  into  48  Confeellations  ;  and  he 
laid  it  down,  that  if  there  fometimes  appeared  more 
in  winter  nights,  it  was  owing  to  a  deception  of 
the  knk.  Ptolemy  added  four  fears  to  Hipparchus' s 
catalogue,  and  made  the  number  1026.  In  the 
yearof  Chrift  1437,  ^^"i  ^"S^'  grandfon  o(Ta- 
jnerlane,  made  a  new  catalogue,  and  gives  -J017. 
But  in  the  feventeenth  century,  when  Aftronomy 
began  to  be  retrieved,  their  number  was  found  to 
be  much  greater. 

To  the  forty-eight  Confeellations  of  the  antients 
were  added  twelve  new  ones,  difcovered  towards- 
the  fouth  pole,  and  two  towards  the  north  ;  befides 
feveral  others  not  univerfally  admitted,  as  the 
Flower-de-Us,   the  Royal  Oak,  &C. 

Tycho  Brake  publifhed  a  catalogue  of  777  fiars, 
from  his  own  ohfervations  ;  which  Kepler  from  Pto-' 
lemy  and  others  increafed  to  1163,  Ricciolus  to 
1468,  and  Bayer  to  1725  .•  Dr  Halley  373,  cb- 
ferved  by  him  within  the  Antar5iic  Circle.  Hevelius, 
from  his  own  ohfervations,  and  thofe  of  Dr.  Halley, 
and  the  antients,  made  a  catalogue  of  1888  //i?;-;  ; 
and  Mr.  Flamfeeed  has  fince  made  a  catalogue  of 
no  le.'s  than  3000  ftars,  all  from  his  own  mod:  ac- 
curate obfer\ations.  Of  thefe  3000,  it  is  true, 
there  are  many  only  vifible  through  a  telefcope  ;  nor 
does  a  good  eye  fcarce  ever  fee  more  than  a  hun- 
dred at  the  iame  time  in  the  clcareft  heaven  :  the 
appearance  of  innumerable,  mere  frequent  in  clear 
winter  nights,  arrives  from  our  fight's  being  de- 
ceived by  their  twinkling,  and'  from  our  viewing, 
them  confufediy,  and  not  reducing  thern  to  sny 
order.     Yet  fur  all  this,  the  ftars  ate-really  almoll: 


*  A  Parallax  is  an  arch  of  ihe  heavens  in'erceptcd  be:vvefn  the  true  place  oi  s.Jlar,  and  \':%  c^  parent  j  lace, 
Thi  tiu-flactoi  zfiar,  is  that  po  nt  oT  the  l:e.u'ens  wherein  it  would  be  ft  en  I;,  nneyep'aced  \n  tht  center  oi  the 
tarih.  The  «/i/fl;  tnt  place,  is  thai  point  of  ihe  heavens,  w  herein  the  far  appear£,  tu  an  e;  e  on  \\\e  frjuce  ot  the 
tarih. 


intinitc 


!})&   Univerfal  Hiftory  (j/Arts  <7«</ Sciences. 


272 

'"finite.  Ricdoli  makes  no  fcruplc  to  affirm,  in 
'•isnew  Almagfjt,  that  a  man  who  flioukl  fay  there 
Ore  above  twenty  tboufand  times  twenty  thouland, 
would  lay  nothing  improbable  ;  tor  a  good  telef- 
cope  direded  to  any  point  in  the  heavens,  difco- 
vers  numbers,  that  are  loft  to  the  naked  fight. 

In  the  fingleconftellation  of  the  Pleiades^  inftead 
of  fix  or  kvenftars  feen  by  the  bcfi:  eye.  Dr.  Hooi, 
with  a  telefcope  twelve  foot  long,  told  fcventy- 
eight  ;  and  with  larger  glaflcs  many  more  of  the 
fame  magnitude.  F.  de  Reita,  a  Capuchin,  af- 
firms, that  he  has  obferved  above  2000  f tars  in  the 
fingle  conftellation  of  Orion.  The  fame  author 
found  above  188  in  the  Pleiades :  and  Huygens, 
looking  at  the  ftar  in  the  middle  oi' Orion's  fword  ; 
inftead  of  one,    found    it  to  be  twelve.     Galileo 


are  found.     Blaycr  diftinguifhes   them   farther  by 
the  letters    of  the  Greek  alphabet  ;  and   many  of 
them   again  have  peculiar  names,  as  Ar^urus  be- 
tween the  feet  of  Bootes  ;  Gemitia  or  Lucida  in  the 
Corona  Septentrionalis  ;     PoUUtium    in    the  Bull's- 
Eye  ;  Pleiades  in  the  back,  and  Hyades  in  the  fore- 
head of  the  Bull ;  Caftor  and  Pollux  in  the  head  of 
Gemini ;   Capella,  with  the  Hctdi  in  the  fhoulder 
o^  Auriga,  Rrguliis,  or  Cor  Leonis  ;  Spica  Firginis 
in  the  hand,  and  Vindcmiutrix  in  the  fhoulder  of 
Virgo ;  Antares,  or   Cor  Scorpii  ;   Fomahaut  in  the 
mouth  of  Pifcis  Auftralis  \  Regcl  in  the  foot  of  0- 
rion  ;   Sirius,  in  the  mouth  of  Canis  major ;    and 
the  Pole-Star,  the  laft  in  the  tail  of  Urfa  minor. 

The  other y?tfr;   not  comprehended  under  thefe 
Conftellationsi  yet  vifible  to  the  naked  eye,  the  an- 


fcmnd  80  in  Or/a«'s  fword  ;   21  in  the  nebulous  y^ar    tients   called   In  formes,   or  Sporades,  fome  whereof 


of  his  head;  and  36  in  the  nebulous  y?(7r  Prafepe. 

The  aiiticnts  portioned  out  the  firmament  into 
feveral  parts,  or  Conftellations  *,  reducing  certain 
number  of  ftars  under  the  reprefentation  of  certain 
images,  in  order  to  aid  the  imagination,  and  the  me- 
mory. In  the  book  of  'Job,  mention  is  made  of  the 
name  of  certain  conftellations,  Pleiades,  Orion  : 
the  fame  may  be  obferved  of  Homer  and  Hefiod. 

The  antients  only  took  in  the  vifible  firmament, 
which  they  diftributed  under  48  Conftellations  ; 
twelve  whereof  took  up  the  Zodiac  ;  the  names 
they  gave  them  are,  Aries,  Taurus,  Gemini,  Cancer, 
Leo,  Virgo,  Libra,  Scorpius,  Sagittarius,  Aquarius, 
Capricorn,  Pifces  ;  from  whence  the  figns  of  the 
Ecliptic  and  Zodiac  take  their  names  ;  though  now 
no  longer  contiguous  to  the  Conftellations. 

The  ftars  on  the  northern  figns  of  the  Zo- 
diac, were  (i\C[toicd  Into  21  Conftellations,  ylz.  Urfa 
major  and  minor,  Draco,  Cepheus,  Bootes,  Corona 
Jtptentrionalis,  Hercules,  Lyra,  Cygniis,  Cnjfwpeia, 
Perfeus,  Andromeda,  Triangulum,  Auriga,  Pegafus, 
Equulcus,  Delphinus,  Sagitta,  Aqiiila,  Ophiculus,  or 
Serpentarius,  and  Serpens  ;  to  which  have  been 
added  fince,  Antincus,  and  Coma  Berenices. 

The  ftars  on  the  fouthern  fide  of  the  Zvdiacvftxe 
dilltibuted  into  l ^Coiftillatiorn  ;  their  names  C^/«i. 
Eiidanus,  Fluviiis,  Lepus,  Orion,  Canis  major  and 
minor,  Argo,  Hydra,  Crater,  Corvus,  Centaurus, 
Lupus,  /Era,  Corona  Meridionalis,  and  Pifcis  Au 
ftralis :  to  which  have  been  fince  added  the  follow- 
ing 17K  Phcenix,  Gri'S,  Indus,  Pavo,  Pifcis  Au- 
Jtralis,  Pijcis  volans,  Toucan,  Hydrus,  and  Xiphias. 

Ol'  thek  Conftellations  the  ]  5  hft,  with  the  great- 
eft  part  of  /l>go,  Navis,  Centaurus  and  Lupus  arc 
not  vifible  in  our  horizon. 

In  thefe  Conftellations  the  ftars  are  ordinarily  di- 
ftingiiiftied  by  that  part  of  the  image  wherein  they 


the  modern  Aftronomers  have  fince    reduced   into 
new  figures  or  Corftellations.  Thus  Hevelius,  v.  gr. 
between  Leo  and  lL/?fa  minor,  makes  Leo  minor  ;  and 
between  Urfa  minor  and  Auriga,  over  Gemini,  makes 
Lynx,  under  the  tail  oiUrJd major, Canes  Venaticl.  &c. 
Theflars  in  the  conjlellation  of  Aries,    in  PtO' 
lemy's  catalogue,   are  18  ;  in  Tycho's,   21  ;    in  the 
Britannic  catalogue,  65.     In  Taurus,    the  fecond 
in  order,    in  PtoUmy's  catalogue,  44  ;     in  Tycho's, 
41  ;   in  the  Britannic  catalogue,   135.     In  Gemini, 
the  third,    in  Ptolemy's  catalogue,   24;   in  Tycho's, 
29  ;  in  the  Britannic  cotalogue,  8g.     In   Cancer, 
the  fourth,  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue,  13;    in  Tycho's, 
15;    in   Bayer  and  Hevelius' s,  29 ;  in  Mr.  Flam- 
Jleed's,   71.     \n  Leo,   the  fifth,  in  Ptolemy's   cata- 
hgue,  32;  m  Tycho's,   37  ;  m  the  Britannic  cata- 
logue, c^-j.     In  Virgo,  the  fixth,  into  which  the  fun 
enters  in  the  beginning  of  Auguft,  in  Ptolemy's  ca- 
talogue,  32  ;   in  Tycho's,  39  ;   in  the  Britannic  ca- 
talogue, 89.     In  Libra,  the  feventh  fign,  fo  called, 
becaufe  when  theyu'i  is  in  it,  at  the  autumnal  equi- 
nox,  the  davs   and  nights  are  equal,  as  if  weighed 
in  a  ballance,  there  are  ^^Jlars.     In  Scorpio,  the 
eighth,   in  Ptolemy's  catalogue  20  ;    in  Tycho's  10  ; 
in  Flamfieed's,  49.     In  Sagittarius,   the  ninth,   in 
Ptoiem.ys   catalogue,   31  ;    in   Tycho's,   16  ;  in  the 
Britannic  catnlgue,    50.     In   Capricorn,   the  tenth, 
in  Ptolemy  and  Tycho's  catalogues,   28  ;    in  that  of 
Hevelius,    29;   in  the  Britannic  catalogue,  51.   In 
Aquarius,  the  eleventh,    in  Ptolemy's  catalogue,  45  ; 
\n  Tycho's,  40  ;  in  the  Britannic  catalogue,  99.    In 
Pifces,   the  twelfth  fign   in  Ptolemy's  catalogue,  38, 
in  Tycho's,    33  ;    in   the  Britannic  catalogue,  109. 
Of  the  other  36,   21  are  placed  on  the  north  of 
the  zodiac,    and  15  on  the  fouth. 

The  firft  of  thofe  on  the  north,  is  Urfa  major, 
a  conjlellation  placed  near  the  pole,  which  confifts. 


according  to  i'/o/i'w/s  catalogue,  of  -^^Jlars;   ac- 

•  ;.  e.  Ah  aflemblage  ofJIarS  under  the  name  and  figure  of  fome  animal  or  other  thing,  called  alfo  an  ajlerijm. 
2  cording 


ASTRONOMY, 


cording  to  Tycho's,  of  56 ;  and  according  to  the  1 
Britannic  catalogucy  of  215.  Urja  minor,  plat'd 
alfo  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  north  pole,  of  8, 
according  to  Ptolemy  and  Tycho  \  and  of  li.,  ac- 
cording to  Flamjleed.  In  Draco,  the  fecoiid  nor- 
thern conflellation,  there  are,  according  to  PtoUmy, 
31  ;    according  to  Tycho,  32  ;   according  to  Bayer, 

33  ;  and  according  to  Flamjleed,  49.  In  Ccpheus, 
the  third,  there  are,  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue,  13  ; 
in'fycho's,  11  ;  in  Hcvelius's,  40;  in  the  Britan- 
nic catalogue,  35.  In  Bootes,  the  fourth,  in  Pto- 
lemy's catalogue,  23  ;    in  Tycho's,  28  ;    in  Bayer's, 

34  ;  in  Hevelius's,  52  ;  in  Flamjleed,  55.  In  Co- 
rona Borealis,  the  fifth,  in  Ptolemy's  catologue,  8  ; 
in  Tycho's,  8  ;  in  th(i , Britannic  catalogue,  y.i.  In 
Hercules,  the  fixth,  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue,  29  ; 
in  Tycho's,  28  ;  in  the  Britannic  catalogue,  95. 
In  Lyra,  the  feventh,  in  Ptolemy  and  Tycho's  cata- 
logues, 10  ;  in  the  Britannic  catalogue,  ig.  In 
Cygnus,  the  eighth,  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue,  1 7  ; 
in  Tycho's,  19  ;  in  the  Britannic  catalogue,  107. 
InCriJ/iopeia,  the  ninth,  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue,  13; 
in  Tycho's,  28  ;   in  Flamjlced's,   56. 

InPerJeus  (the  tentli)  in  Pto'emy's  cataloeue  29  ; 
in  Tycho's  29  :  In  the  Britannick  catalogue  67.  In 
Andromeda  (the  eleventh)  there  are  two  ftars  of  the 
fecond  magnitude,  and  very  confpicuous  ;  another 
is  called  Umbiliculus  Andromedcs,  and  another  Lu- 
cida  pedis  Andromeda .  In  Ti  iangulum  (the  twelfth) 
in  Ptolemy  and  Tycho's  catalogue  4  ;  in  the  Britan- 
nick catalogue  24.  In  Auriga  (the  thirteenth)  in 
PtoleT.y's  catakgue  14  ;  in  Tycho's  23  ;  in  Hevelius 
40  ;  in  the  Britannic  catalogue  68. 

In  one  of  thefe  conjtellatlons,  called  alfo  Eriiiho- 
nius's  fhoulder,  there  is  a  very  bright  ftar,  called 
Capella,  and  near  it  three  others  lefler,  placed  in  the 
form  of  an  ifofceles  triangle,  called  Hacll. 

In  Pegafus  the  fourteenth,  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue 
20  ;  in  Tycho's  19  ;  in  the  Britannic  catalogue  93  ; 
in  Equuleus  (the  fifteenth)  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue  4; 
in  Tycho's  4  ;  in  Flamjleed' s  10.  In  Delphi nus  (the 
fixteenth)  in  Ptolemy  s  catalogue  10  ;  in  Tycho's  10; 
in  Flamjleed  18.  In  Sagltta  (the  feventeenth)  in 
Ptolemy  zndTycho's  catalogue  5.  In  Flamjleed's  23. 
In  Aqulia  (the  eighteenth)  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue 
15  ;  in  Tycho's  17  ;  in  die  Biltannlc  catalogue  70. 
In  this  conftellation  there  is  a  flar  of  the  firft  mag;- 
nitude.  InSerpcntarius  (the  nineteenth)  in  Ptolemy's 
catalogue  29  ;  in  Tycho's  25  ;  in  the  Britannic  ca- 
talogue 69.  In  Serpens  (the  twenty-iirfl:)  in  Ptolemy's 
catalogue  17  ;  in  Tycho's  19  ;  in  the  Britannic  ca- 
talogue 59. 

The  ftars  on  the  fouthern  fide  of  the  zodiack  are 
diftributed  into  i^  conjlellations,  viz. 

In  Cetus  (the  firft)  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue  there 
are  22  ftars;  'm  Tycho's  zi  ;  'm  Hevelius's  22  ;  in 
the  Britannic  78.  In  Eridanus  Fliivius  (the  fecond) 


273 


in  Ptolemy's  catalogue  30  ;  in  Tycho's  19  ;  in  Flam- 
jleed's 68.  la  Lepus  (the  third)  in  Ptolemy's  cata  ogue 
12  ;  in  Tycho's  13  ;  in  the  Britannic  19.  In  Orion 
(the  fourth)  in  Ptolejny's  cata'ogue  37  ;  in  Tycho's 
62  ;    in  the  Britannic  80. 

In  this  canjlcllatlon  there  are  tv/o  ftars  of  the  firft 
magnitude,  a  rcddifli  one  in  the  fhoulder,  called 
Betlatrlx ;  and  another  yellowifli  in  the  foot. 
There  is,  befides,  in  it  the  Balteus,  or  Girdle,  con- 
fifting  of  three  ftars.  The  antients  fuppofed  that 
Orion  raifed  tempefts  at  its  rifing  and  fetting  ;  hence 
its  name  Orion  from  the  Greek  u^iu,  to  make 
water. 

In  Canis  major  (the  fifth)  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue 
18  ;   in  Tycho's  13  ;   in  the  Britannic  32. 

In  the  mouth  of  Canls  ?najor  there  is  a  ftar,  the 
moft  brillant  or  fliining  of  all,  called  Slrlus,  at 
which,  when  the  Sun  arrives,  then  the  Canlcule,  or 
dog-days  begin. 

In  Canls  minor  (thefixth)  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue 
17.  In  {Argo  (the  feventh)  in  Piolomy's  catalogue  8; 
in  Tycho's  11;  in  the  Britannic  25.  In  Hydra  (the 
eighth)  in  PtoLmy's  catalogue  25  ;  in  Dr.  Halley's 
68.  In  Cancer  (the  ninth)  in  Ptolemy's  catalogue 
7  ;  in  Tycho's  8  ;  in  the  Britannic  11.  In  Corvus 
(the  tenth)  in  Ptolemy  s  catalogue  7  ;  in  "Tycho's  7  ; 
in  the  Britannic  10.  In  Centaur  us  with  Lupus  (the 
eleventh)  in  Ptolomy's  catalogue  19  ;  in  Tycho's  4; 
in  the  Britannic  13. 

Ara  (the  twelfth)  confifts  of  7  ftars  ;  whereof  5 
are  of  the  fourth  magnitude,  and  2  of  the  fifth.  This 
conJlcllatloH  is  not  vifible  in  our  hemifphere  ;  no 
more  than  Corona Merldlonalls,  nor  Plfcls  Aujlralls. 

The  changes  which  have  happened  in  the  ftars, 
are  very  conliderable.  The  firft  was  in  the  year 
125,  before  the  Incarnation,  when  Hlpparchus 
difcovered  a  new  ftar  to  appear. 

In  the  year  1572,  Tycho  Brahe  obferved  another 
new  ftar  in  the  conftellation  Cajf^pela.  Its  magni- 
tude at  firft  exceeded  that  of  the  biggeft  of  our 
ftars,  Slrlus  and  Lyra  ;  it  even  equalled  that  of 
f'enus,  when  neareft  the  earth,  and  was  feen  in  fair 
day- light.  It  continued  lixtecn  months,  toward 
the  latter  part  whereof  it  began  to  dwindle,  and  at 
laft  totally  difappeared,  without  any  change  of 
place  in  all  that  time.  Leovlclus  tells  us  of  an- 
other ftar  appearing  in  the  fame  Conftellation,  about 
the  year  905,  which  refemblcd  that  of  1572  ;  and 
quotes  another  antient  obfervation,  whereby  it  ap- 
pears that  a  jiew  ftar  was  feen  about  the  fame 
place  in  1264.  Dr.  Keil  takes  thofe  to  have  been 
all  the  famey?£?r;  and  does  not  know  but  it  may 
make  its  appearance  a-new  1 50  years  hence. 

Fabrlclus d'iCcoveTed  anothernew  ftar  in  the  neck 

of  the  Whale,  which  appeared  and  difappeared  fe- 

veral  times  in  the  years  1640  and  1662  :  its  courfe 

^  and  motion  is  defcribed  by  M.  Bouillaud.     Simon 

Mariui 


274  ^^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


Marin;  difcovered  another  in  Andromeda  &  Girdle  1 
in  i6i2  and  1613  ;  tho'  M.  BotiUlaud  fays,  it  had 
been  leen  before  in  the  15th  century.  Another 
was  obil-rved  by  Kep/er  in  Serpentnrius.  Another 
of' the  third  magnitude  in  the  Con(}ellationr;^_j-««;, 
near  the-bill,  in  the  year  1601,  which  diCappeured 
in  1626,  and  was  obferved  again  by  Hevclius  in 
1659,  till  the  year  1661,  and  again  in  1666  and 
1671,  as  a  Ihir  of  the  fixth  magnitude. 

It  is  certain  from  the  antient  catalogues  that 
many  of  the  antienty?^;.?  are  not  now  vifible.  This 
is  particularly  notorious  in  the  Pleiades  or  feven 
/hn,  whereof  fix  arc  now  vifible  to  the  eye  ;  a 
thina;  lontj  ago  obfcrved  by  Ovid.  M.  A-'Iontaner, 
in  his  letter  to  the  R^ycd  Society,  in  1670,  obferves 
that  there  are  now  v/anting  in  the  heavens  two 
flars  of  the  fecond  magnitude,  in  the  ftern  of  the 
£hip  Jrgo  and  its  yard,  which  had  been  ften  til! 
the  year  1664.  When  they  firll  difappeared  it  is 
not  known  ;  but  he  afllires  us,  that  there  was  not 
the  ieaft  giympfe  of  them  in  1668.  He  adds,  he 
has  obferved  many  more  changes  in  the  fixed  Jlars, 
even  to  the  number  of  an  hundred. 

Some  are  of  opinion  that  thofe  temporary _/?(?«, 
which  upon   their  difappearing   have  never  been 
found  to  return  again,   are  probably  conjedtured  to 
beofthe  number  of  Comets,  which  make  iongex- 
curilons  from  their  funs,  or  the  center  of  the  upper 
planetary  fyftems,  /.  e.  from  the  fixed  ftars  ;  return- 
u\Z  too  feldom  to  have  their  returns  perceived. 
^T^z  fixed  ftars  fiiine  with  their  own  light. 
Ariftotk,  lib.   I.   Meteor,    c.  7.     imagined    that 
Comets  were  only  a  kind  of  tranfient  fires  or  me- 
teors, confiffing  of^  exhalations  raifed  to  the  upper 
re-^ion  of  the  air,  and  there  fet  on  fire  ;  far  below 
the  moon's  courfe  ;  but  from  the   time  of  Tycho 
Brahe,  all  Ajlronomers  have  been  of  opinion,  that 
Arijiotle  was  milfaken,  and  have  all  approved  iV- 
77cf(3's  fintiments,  who,  lib.'],  natural,  que/i.c.  21. 
places  a  comet  among  the  eternal  works  of  nature  ; 
and  confiders  it  as  an  heavenly  body,   or  ftar,  or 
planet,  placed   in    another  vortex  ever  fince  the 
creation.     Behdes  it  is  incredible  that  bituminous 
and  fulphurous  exhalationj  could  remain  inflamed 
in  the  air,  for  lb  long  a  time,  as  we  fee  a  comet  3.^- 
pear ;  add  to  it,  that  a  comet  has  noparallax,  which 
is  a  convincing  proof  of  its  immenfe  diftrnce  from 
us ;    for  the  moon  has  a    fcnfible  parallax.     For 
example : 

Let  the  earth  be  A,  fig.  2.  in  which  two  fpecta- 
tors  will  be  placed,  viz.  in  B  and  C  :  he  who  will 
be  in  C,  will  fee  the  moon  D  in  J,  and  Mars  E  in 
H  -,  and  he  in  B  will  fee  the  moon  D  in  F,  and 
Mars  E  in  G.  Therefore  both  wit!  judge  that  the 
moon  and  Mars  do  not  exifl  in  the  fame  part  of  the 
heavens  or  firmament,  or  neax  the  fame  ftais  ;  but 


will  refer  them  to  difFercnt  parts  of  heaven,  and  to 
different  flars  ;  and  the  nearer  the  earth  a  flar  is 
fuppofcd  to  be,  the  greater  will  be  the  divcrfity  of 
afped.  Hence  if  the  ftar  be  the  remoteft  from  the 
earth,  fuch  as  is  L,  fo  that  the  magnitude  of  the 
earth,  with  refpeSt  to  that  diflance,  fhould  not  be 
fenfible,  or  be  like  a  point,  then  the  ftar  will  bt 
ken  in  the  fame  place  by  both  fped:ators ;  which  is 
the  reafon  why  comets  have  no  parallax,  becaufe 
feen  in  the  fa?Tie  place  from  I'everal  fpectators,  and 
from  feveral  place,  viz.  from  London,  Paris,  Rome, 
Conffantinopte,  &c.  therefore  the  comas  arc  at  an 
immenfe  diftance  from  us. 

If  any  body  was  placed  in  the  center  of  the 
world,  he  would  fee  the  right  place  of  a  flar.  As 
if  the  earth  was  in  the  center  of  the  world,  and  a 
perfon  placed  in  that  center,  the  moon  would  ap- 
pear to  him  under  thofe  ffars  it  is  really  placed  ; 
but  he  who  inhabits  the  fuperficies  of  the  earth, 
mufl  fee  the  moon  under  other  ftars,  unlefs  it  be 
placed  in  its  vertical ;  in  which  cafe,  the  lines 
of  the  true  and  apparent  place  concur.  For  ex- 
ample. 

Let  the  center  of  the  earth  be  A,  Fig.  2  ;  and 
the  moon  D  ;  the  perfon  placed  in  A,  will  fee  the 
moon  in  E  ;  and  he  in  B,  fee  it  in  D :  for  the 
arch  E  D,  is  the  difference  of  the  true  and  appa- 
rent place,  which  is  called  parallax.  But  if  one 
of  the  fpeftators  be  placed  in  A,  and  the  other  in 
C,  to  whom  the  moon  fliould  be  vertical ;  then  be- 
caufe the  ray  of  the  true,  and  the  ray  of  the  appa- 
rent place,  coincide  in  the  fame  point,  there  will 
be  no  parallax  in  the  moon,  becaufe  it  will  be  re- 
ferred in  E,  by  both  fpedators.  Therefore,  from 
a  parallax,  the  diflance  of  a  ftar  from  the  arch  is 
inveftigatcd  ;  and  where  there  is  no  p-irallax,  i.  e. 
where  the  terreflrial  femidiamer,  or  the  diverfity  of 
afpect  from  which  the  parallax  is  required,  has  no 
fcnfible  magnitude,  with  refpecf  to  the  diffance  of 
fome  celeflial  body,  becaufe  of  its  great  diflance 
from  the  earth ;  that  celeftial  body  muft  be  fup- 
pofed  far  above  the  planets  o(  our  vortex  ;  which  is 
the  cafe  of  the  comets,  which  have  no  parallax. 
'  Or  perhaps,  it  would  be  ftill  better  to  fay,  with 
Pythagoras,  and  the  Pythagorean:,  that  the  cometi 
are  fome  planets,  which,  though  ofFufcated  with 
the  too  great  radiancy  of  the  fun,  and  thereby  hid- 
den from  us,  are,  neverthelels,  fome  time  diftanced 
from  the  fun,  and  come  in  fight. 

Des  Cartes,  tert.  part,  princip.  num.  riq.  conjec- 
tures, that  comets  P,  are  only  ftars,  formerly  fixed 
like  the  refl,  in  the  heavens;  but  which  becoming- 
by  degrees  covered  with  macula,  or  fpots,  and  at 
length  wholly  robbed  of  their  light,  cannot  keep 
their  place,  but  are  carried  oft' by  the  vortices  of  the 
circumjacent  ftars  ;  and  in  proportion  to  their  mag- 
nitude' 


ASTRONOMY. 


275 


nitude   and   folidUy,    moved    in   fuch    manner,  as : 
to  be  brought  nearer  the   orb  of  Saturn,  and  thus 
coming  within  reach  of  the  fun's  light   rendered 
vifiblc. 

BermuUl,  in  his  fyflcm  of  c«wrf5,  fuppofes  fome 
primary  planet  revolving  round  the  fun  in  the  fpace 
of  four  years,  and  15  j  days;  and  at  the  diltance 
from  his  body  of  2583  femidiamcters  of  the  great 
crlit :  this  planet.,  he  concludes,  either  from  its  vaft 
diftance,  or  fmallnefs,  to  be  invifible  to  us  ;  but, 
however,  to  have,  at  feveral  diftances  from  him, 
kvtrA  fateliites  moving  round  him,  and  fometimes 
dcfcending  as  lov/  as  the  orLtt  of  Saturn  ;  and  that 
thele,  becoming  vifibic  to  us,  Vvhcn  in  their  peri- 
gerum,  are  what  we  call  cornets. 

Others  will  have  the  motion  of  comeli  made  in 
the  excentrick.  circle  of  the  ea'  tb,  fo  that  when  they 
are  in  the  apogee  of  that  circle,  they  cannot  be  feen, 
bccaufe  of  their  great  diftance  from  us  ;  and  are 
only  vifible,  when  near  the  perigee  ;  and  that  it 
might  very  well  happen,  that  even  in  the  perigee 
they  are  not  vifible,  fmce  then  they  would  be 
wrapp'd  up  in  the  rays  of  the  fun,  being  never  but 
in  day-time  on  the  horizon. 

Some  pretend  to  refute  all  thefe  hypothefcs  from 
the  very  phanometM  of  the  comets;  objecting,  I. 
That  thofe  cornds^  which  move  according  to  the  or- 
der of  the  figns,  either  advance  flower  than  ufual, 
or  retrograde,  a  little  before  they  difappear,  if  the 
earth  be  between  them  and  the  fun  ;  and  more 
fwiftly,  if  the  earth  be  fituated  in  a  contrary  part : 
on  the  contrary,  thofe  which  proceed  contrary  to 
the  order  of  the  figns,  proceed  more  fwiftly  than 
ufual,  if  the  earth  be  between  them  and  the  fun  ; 
and  more  flowly  and  go  retrograde,  when  the  earth 
is  in  a  contrary  part.  2.  So  long  as  their  velocity 
is  increafed,  they  move  nearly  in  great  circles ;  but 
towards  the  end  of  their  courie,  deviate  from  thofe 
circles ;  and  as  often  as  the  earth  proceeds  one 
way,  they  go  the  contrary  way.  3.  That  they 
move  in  ellipfes,  having  one  of  their  foci  in  the 
center  of  the  fun  ;  and  by  radii  drawn  to  the  fun, 
defcribe  areas  proportionable  to  the  times  4.  That 
the  light  of  their  bodies,  or  nuclei,  increafes  in 
their  recefs  from  the  earth  towards  the  fun  ;  and, 
on  the  contrary,  decreafes  in  their  recefs  from  the 
fun  towards  the  earth.  5.  That  their  tails  appear 
thelargeft  andbrighteft  immediately  after  theirtran- 
fit  through  the  region  of  the  fun  ;  and  that  they  al- 
ways decline  from  a  juft  oppofition  to  the  fun  to- 
wards thofe  parts  which  the  bodies,  or  nuclei,  pafs 
over,  in  their  progrefs  through  their  orbits.  6.  That 
this  declination,  cateris  paribus,  is  the  fmalleft 
wiicn  the  heads,  or  nuclei,  approach  neareft  the 
fun  ;  and  ftill  lefs,  near  the  nucleus  of  the  comet, 
than  towards  the  extremity  of  the  tail.  7.  That 
14.. 


the  tails  arc  fomewhat  brighter,  and  more  dif}ir,(fl> 
ly  defined  in  their  convex,  than  in  their  concave 
part ;  and  that  they  always  appear  broader  at  their 
upper  extrcam,  than  near  the  center  of  the  comet ; 
which  tails  are  tranfparent,  the  fmallcfl:  ftars  ap- 
pearing through  them. 

Some  arc  of  opinion,  that  Sir  Jfaac  Newton  folvcs 
all  thei'c phicnoi/ era,  by  his  fuppofmg  that  the  comets' 
are  compafl,  folid,  fixed,  and  durable  bodies  ;  jji 
one  word,  a  kind  of  planets,  which  move  in  very 
oblique  orbits,  every  way,  with  thegrcatefi  freedom, 
preferving  in  their  motions,  even  a^ainfl  the  courfe 
and  dire;5(ion  of  the  planets  :  their  tails  bein?  a 
very  thin,  flender  vapour,  emitted  by  the  head,  or 
nucleus  of  the  comet,  ignited,  or  heated  by  the  fun. 
From  whence  they  draw  the  following  conclufions, 
with  him. 

I.  That  it  is  evident,  that  the  cornets,  which  pro- 
ceed according  to  the  order  of  the  figns,  a  little  be- 
fore they  difappear,  mufi:  move  more  flowly,  or  ap- 
pear retrograde,  if  the  earth  be  between  them  and 
the  fun;  and  (wifter,  if  the  earth  be  in  a  contrary 
part :  on  the  contrary,  thofe  proceeding  againft  the 
order  of  the  figns,  ^e.  for  fince  their  courfe  is  not 
among  the  fixed  liars,  hut  among  the  planets  ;  as 
the  motion  of  the  earth  cither  conlpires  with  them, 
or  goes  againft  them,  their  appearance,  with  regard 
to  the  earth,  muft  be  changed,  and,  like  the  pla- 
nets, they  inuft  fometimes  appear  fwifter,  fometimes 
flower,  and  fometimes  retrograde.  2.  When  the 
comets  move  the  fwifteft,  they  muft  proceed  in  ftrait 
lines  ;  but  in  the  end  of  their  courfe,  decline, 
i^c.  becaufe  in  the  end  of  their  courfe,  when  they 
recede  almoft  direftly  from  the  fun,  the  part  of  the 
apparent  /notion,  which  arifcsfrom  the  parallax;  muft 
bear  a  greater  proportion  to  the  whole  appaent  mo- 
tion. 3.  The  comets  muft  move  in  ellipjes,  having 
one  of  their/oa  in  the  center  of  the  fun;  becaufe 
they  do  not  wander  precarioufly  from  one  fiditious 
vortex  to  another,  but,  making  a  part  of  the  folar 
fyftem,  return  perpetually,  and  run  a  conftant 
round.  4.  The  light  of  their  »/<f/^/  muft  increafe 
in  their  recefs  from  the  fun,  and  vice  verfa  ;  be- 
caufe as  they  are  in  the  regions  of  the  planets,  their 
accefs  toward  the  fun,  bears  a  confiderable  propor- 
tion to  their  whole  diftance.  5.  Their  tails  muft 
appear  the  largeft,  and  brightcft,  immediately  after 
their  tranfit  through  the  region  of  the  fun  ;  becaufe 
then  their  heads  being  the  inoft  heated,  will  emit 
the  moft  vapours;  which  tails  muil  ftill  decline 
from  a  ftricSV  oppofition  to  the  fun,  towards  thoii: 
parts,  which  the  heads  pais  over  in  their  progrefsthro' 
their  01  bits  ;  becaufe  all  fmoke  and  vapours  emitted 
from  a  body  in  motion,  tends  upwajds  obliquely, 
ftill  receding  from  that  part  towards  which  the 
fmoking  body  proceed*.  6.  That  declination  will 
N  n  ■  "te 


276  'The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  «W  Sciences. 


be  ftlll  the  lead  near  the  nuckui  of  the  cotnet,  and 
when  t\\c  comet  is  ncarcft  the  fun  ;  becaufe  the  va- 
pour afccnds  more  fwiftly  near  the  head  of  the  co- 
met, than  in  the  higher  extremity  of  its  tail;  and 
when  the  comet  is  at  a  lels  dirtance  from  the  fun, 
than  at  a  greater.  7.  The  tail  is  brighter,  and 
better  defined,  in  its  convex  part,  than  in  its  con- 
cave :  becaufe  the  vapour  in  the  convex  part,  which 
goes  firft,  being  fomewhat  nearer  and  denfer,  re- 
fledls  the  light  more  copioufly.  The  tail  niuft  alfo 
appear  broader  towards  the  higher  extremity  of  the 
(omet,  than  towards  the  head  ;  becaufe  the  vapour 
in  a  free  fpace  perpetually  rarefies  and  dilates.  Laft- 
ly,  the  tail  muft  be  tranfparent,  becaufe  confilling 
of  infinitely  thin  vapour,  ^c. 

There  is  no  certain  time  fixed  for  the  appearance 
of  the  comets.  The  duration  of  their  appearance  is 
alfo  very  uncertain ;  for,  fome  are  feen  for  a  few 
days  only  ;  others,  for  feveral  months. 

All  the  comets  feem  to  have  a  diurnal  motion 
from  eajl  to  iveft  towards  the  earth,  and  in  that 
fenfe  to  defcribe  circles  parallel  to  the  equator.  Be- 
fides  that  apparent  motion  they  have  in  com- 
mon with  the  other  heavenly  bodies,  they  have 
another  proper,  and  peculiar  to  them  under  the 
firmament,  which  cannot  be  regularly  determined  ; 
for  fome  arc  carried  to  the  eaji,  fome  to  the  ivejl, 
and  others  otherwife. 

The  celerity  of  this  peculiar  motion  Is  not  equal 
in  all  the  comets,  but  is  rather  various  and  unequal ; 
fince  fome  of  them  run  feveral  more  degrees  of  a 
great  circle  than  others;  neither  is  the  celerity  of 
the  motion  of  each  comet  always  equal :  for  the  arch 
B,  v^hich  it  runs  each  day,  is  fometimes  greater, 
and  fometimes  lefs,  in  fuch  manner,  however,  that 
if  feveral  right  lines  were  drawn  from  the  center  of 
the  earth,  to  be  carried  through  the  places  wherein 
the  comet  is  feen  at  that  hour,  thofe  lines  would  di- 
vide another  right  line  into  almofl:  equal  parts,  which 
Ihould  touch  the  circle  defcribed  by  the  comet,  in 
that  place  where  its  motion  appears  the  mod  rapid. 
Neither  is  the  way  they  run  through  always  equal, 
fince  fome  defcribe  a  greater  fpace  in  the  heavens 
than  others.  But,  however,  let  that  fpace  be  what 
it  will,  none,  or  very  few,  have  been  known  to 
have  defcribed  above  one  half  of  the  great  circle 
under  xhQ  firma.itcnt.^  i.  e.  to  have  run  more  than 
half  the  heavens. 

When  a  comet  is  feen  to  dart  its  rays  toward  that 
place  of  the  heavens  where  its  motion  feems  to  carry 
it,  thofe  rays  are  called  the  beard  of  the  comet  ; 
when,  on  the  contrary,  thofe  rays  are  extended  to- 
wards that  part  of  the  heavens  whence  its  proper 
motion  feems  to  recede,  they  are  called  the  tail  oi 
the  comet  ;  but  when  they  are  equally  difperfcd  on 
all  fides,  fume  call  it  the  hairs  of  the  comet.    Thus 


the  comet  v.'\\\ch.  was  feen  in  1664,  at  the  beginnin'» 
of  December,  in  the  meridional  part  of  the  world, 
to  whofe  refpedt  the  fun  was  eajf,  darting  its  rayj 
towards  the  wejl,  where  its  proper  motion  inclined, 
was  called  bearded;  being  turned  afterwards  to- 
wards the  fun,  it  fliewed  its  hairs  ;  and,  iaflly, 
having  the  fun  on  the  wejl,  its  rays  being  thcii 
darted  towards  the  eaji,  formed  a  tail. 

Rohault  believes  that  tho''e  rays,  whereof  the 
beard,  tail,  or  hairs  of  a  comet  are  imagined  to  be 
made,  are  the  rays  of  light  refleiStcd  by  the  body  of 
the  comet,  i.  e.  proceed  from  refleiSlion. 

Apollonius  Myndius  was  the  firft  who  took  comets 
for  regular  ftars ;  and  ventured  to  foretel,  that  one 
day  the  periods,  and  laws  of  their  motion,  would 
be  difcovered,  JJlronomersj  however,  are  ftill  di- 
vided on  that  head  ;  Newton,  Flamjteed,  Halley, 
and  all  the  Englifj  Aftronomers,  feem  fatisfied  of 
the  return  of  comets.  Caffiw,  and  others  of  the 
French,  think  it  highly  probable.  De  la  Hire,  and 
others,  oppofe  it. 

The  Sl'n  is  the  firfl  heavenly  body,  placed  with- 
in our  f\\/i em  that  demands  our  attention. 

The  fun  by  his  force  and  action,  communicates 
all  the  motion  and  ftrength  to  the  other  heavenly 
bodies.  The  heat  and  light  of  the  fun  demondrate 
its  being  of  a  fiery  nature. 

The  fiery  nature  of  the  fun.  Is  proved  by  its  rays 
being  collefted  by  concave  mirrors,  or  convex  len- 
fes,  burning,  confuming,  and  melting  the  moft  fo- 
lid  bodies,  or  elfe  converting  them  into  afiies. 

Hence  it  follows,  that  its  furface  is  every  where 
fluid,  that  being  the  condition  of  flame. 

The/"^z/7-^  of  the/z^^,  is  a  fpheroid,  higher  un- 
der its  equator,  than  under  the  poies  ;  v/hich  is 
proved  thus  :  the  fun  has  a  motion  about  its  own 
a.vis,  and  therefore  the  folar  matter  will  have  an  en- 
deavour to  recede  from  the  centers  of  the  circles 
wherein  it  moves,  and  that  with  the  greater  force, 
as  the  peripheries  of  the  circles  are  greater.  But 
the  equator  is  the  greateft  circle,  and  the  reft  to- 
wards the  poles  continually  d^creafe  :  therefore  the 
folar  matter,  though  at  firft  in  a  fpherical  form, will 
endeavour  to  recede  from  the  center  of  the  equatcr, 
further  than  from  the  centers  of  the  parallels.  Con- 
fequently,  fince  the  gravity  whereby  it  is  retained 
in  its  place,  is  fuppofed  to  be  uniform  throughout 
the  -whole  fun ;  it  will  really  recede  from  the  center 
more  under  the  equator,  than  under  any  of  the  pa- 
rallels. And  hence  the  fun's  diameter  drawn  through 
the  iquator,  will  be  greater  than  that  paffing  through 
the  Poles ;  and  therefore  its  figure  is  not  perfedlly 
fpherical,  hut fphersidical. 

According  to  the  Copcrnican  hypoth  fits,  which  is 
now  generally  received,  and  which  has  even  demon- 
ftration  on  its  fide,  the  fun  is  the  center  of  the  co- 

metary 


ASTRONOMT. 


277 


mtayy  uni  planetary  fyftcms ;  round  which,  all  the 
planets,  and  our  earth,  among  the  reft,  revolve,  in 
different  periods,  according  to  their  different  di- 
ftances  from  they««. 

But  it  evidently  appears,  from  the  phisnomena  of 
the  /7<«'s  nmculcs,  or  fpots,  that  he  has  a  rotation 
round  its  axis,  like  that  of  the  earth,  whereby  the 
natural  days  are  meafured,  only  flower.  Sonic  of 
thefe  fpots  have  made  their  firft  appearance  near  the 
edge,  or  margin  oi  the  fun,  and  have  been  feen  fome 
time  after  on  the  oppofite  edge ;  whence,  after  a 
ftay  of  about  14  days,  they  have  re-appeared  in 
their  firft  place,  and  taken  the  fame  courfe  over- 
again  ;  finilhiiig  their  entire  circuit  in  27  days  time, 
which  is  hence  deduced  to  be  the  period  of  ihcfuns 
rotation  round  its  axis.  This  motion  of  the  fpots 
is  from  iveji  to  eaji,  whence  we  conclude  that  of 
they«n,  to  which  the  other  is  owing,  to  be  from 
eaft  to  weft. 

Befides  this  rotation  of  the  fun  round  his  axis,  it 
haa  an  apparent  annual  motion  round  the  earth, 
whereby  he  is  feen  to  advance,  infenfibly,  towards 
the  eaftern  ftars ;  though  it  be  demonftrated  that 
there  is  no  fuch  thing,  and  that  fuch  appearance  is 
occalloncd  by  the  aimual  motion  of  the  earth. 

What's  worthy  our  obfervation  in  this  apparent 
annual  motion  of  thejun,  is,  i.  That  he  always 
appears  to  move  in  the  fame  p!ane,  or  ecliptiik  line, 
and  never  to  change  his  courfe  ;  and  that  the  earth's 
center  is  always  inherent  on  the  tame  plane,  while 
it  accomplifhes  its  courfe  round  the  fun  ;  which  is 
agreeable  to  this  general  rule,  that  all  impulfive  force 
muft  always  operate  according  to  the  direftion  of  a 
right  line  :  and  as  the  annual  motion  of  thff  earth 
proceeds  from  a  proje6iile  impulfion,  according  to  a 
right  line,  and  from  a  perpetual  attraflion  towards 
the  center  of  the  fun,  it  is  abfolutely  neccflary  that 
the  earth,  as  well  as  the  reft  of  the  planets,  Ihould 
form  her  courfe  on  the  fame  plane,  by  aline  of  di- 
re(flion  of  an  impulfive  force,  and  which  Ihould  pafs 
through  the  center  of  the/««. 

2.  That  his  motion  is  inequable,  tho'  in  the  fame 
eeliptick ;  fox  a  little  after  the  vernal,  and  fome 
time  before  the  autumnal  equinox,  his  motion  is 
moderately  fwift ;  but  a  little  after  the  ivintcr's  fol- 

Jtice,  the  fame  motion  is  fwifter;  and  after  theyi'/n- 
mcr'sjolfice,  flower.  This  inequality  of  motion  is 
occafioned  by  the  earth,  not  dcfcribing  a  circle 
round  the  fun,  but  an  cllipfis. 

3.  That  the  apparent  dieimcteroithe  fun  is  greater 
in  winter,  while  his  motion  is  fwifter,  than  \\\fum- 
mer,  while  flower;  becaufe  as  the  earth,  as  we  have 
obferved  already,  performs  its  courfe  in  an  e'lipfis, 
and  in  the  fame  eliipfis  is  always  removed  from  the 
fun,  at  an  unequal  diftance,  as  well  when  it  afcends 
from  the  perihelion  to  the  aphelion,  as  when  it  de- 
kends  from  the  aphelion  to  the  perihelion ;  and  as 


the  earth  is  in  its  perihelion  a  little  aftci  the  winter 
folftiee,  and  in  its  aphelion  a  little  aher  the  fummer 
folftice,  the  apparent  diameter  of  the  fun,  or  of  his 
reciprocally  proportional  diftance  from  the  eaith, 
muft  be  cither  greater  or  Icffer,  as  the  diftance  is 
greater  or  leffer.  Therefore  it  is  found,  towards  the 
beginning  of w;/;/fr,  verygreat;  middling,  towards 
the  beginning  of  the  fpring  and  autumn;  and  very 
(mail  about  tiie  beginning  oi  fumn.cr. 

4.  That  the  eeliptick  being  divided  into  two  parts 
by  the  equinoctial  points,  the  fun  ftays  longer  in  its 
noithcni  part,  than  in  the  fouthern  part ;  that  is  to 
fay,  the  elliptical  orbit  of  the  earth  is  divided  by  the 
eqnino"ial  points  into  two  unequal  parts  ;  for  the 
perihelion  is  not  at  a  \'ery  great  diftance  from  the 
ivintcr  foljtice  :  therefore  the  equinoffial  points  muft 
almoft  coincide,  not  with  the  great  axis,  but  with 
the  right  fide,  and  thereby  render  the  fpaccs  un- 
equal. Therefore  the  apparent  motion  of  the  fun^ 
which  in  equal  times  defcribcs  equal  fpaces,  muft  be 
unequal,  and  appear  to  ftay  fe\  cral  days  longer  in 
the  fix  northern,  than  in  the  fouthern  ftpis  ;  and 
though  this  difference  be  of  almoft  eight  days,  it 
neverthelefs  will  decreafe,  in  the  fucceeding  years, 
fo  as  to  be  reduced  to  nothing  at  laft  ;  and  again 
decreafe  and  increafe,  by  courfe,  as  long  as  the  an>- 
nual  motion  will  laft. 

5.  That,  however,  the  fpace  of  the  entire  an- 
nual revolution,  which  we  call  year,  is  equal  to 
each  other,  and  confifts  of  365  days,  5  hours,  49 
minutes ;  fince  whatever  be  the  inequality  of  the 
parts,  when  compared  to  each  other,  there  is  no- 
thing taken,  thereby,  from  the  whole  revolution  : 
for  the  whole  fpace  of  the  fame  elUpfis  is  the  fame, 
and  we  begin  to  enumerate  the  areas  from  what  place 
foever,  becaufe  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the 
numeration  will  be  the  fame.  There  is,  however, 
fome  inequality  betwixt  the  time  of  the  anomaly  re- 
ftored,  or  of  the  revolution  from  the  point,  of  the 
ellpfis,  to  the  flime  point,  (which  is  equal  to  the 
farry  year)  and  the  time  of  the  tropical  year  ;  for 
the  fiatry  year,  or  the  revolution  of  the  earth  from 
a  fixed  Ibr  to  the  fame  ftar,  is  not  always  of  the 
lame  magnitude  with  the  tropical  year. 

6.  That  the  obliquity  of  the  eeliptick,  or  the  an- 
gle wherein  it  cuts  the  equator  is  uflially  fixed  at 
23"  29';  which,  therefore,  is  the  grcateft  c/(f//nr7- 
tion  of  the  eeliptick  from  the  equator. 

The  method  of  obferving  the  greatcft  dcclinaticn 
of  the  eeliptick  is  thus  :  about  the  time  of  one  of  the 
folftices,  obferve  the  fin\  meridian  altitude,  with 
the  utmofli  care  for  feveral  days  fuccefTively  ;  from 
the  greatefl  altitude  ohkrweA,  fubtraft  the  height  of 
the  equator,  the  remainder  is  the  greateft  deelina' 
tion  in  the  folftitial  point.  Ricciolus,  e.  gr.  at  Bo^ 
logna,  in  the  year  1646,  obferved  theyan's  meridian 
N  n  2  altitudei 


278 


TlDe  Univerfal'  Hiftory  of  Arts  a7id  Sciences. 


"Ithude,  on  the  20th  of  Jwie,  to  be  68°  ^f/  55"  ; 
en  the  21IK  bif  o'  ic>'' ;  and  cm  tlic  22d,  bS" 
59' 55"".  The  gtcatcft,  then  was,  69°  o'  lo^i 
from  which  t}\t:allilude  ot  the  equator.,  4^°  29''  50'  ■> 
being  fubtraitcd,  left  23°  30'  20'',  foi  the  grcateft 
dicllntition. 

But  the  mod  eflential,  and  the  mofl  worthy  our 
©bfervation  of  :\I1  thcfunsphanonuna,  is  \\vi^>a- 
rallax,  cither  diurnal  or  monthly,  fince  thereby  we 
difcover  his  true  dill ance,  and  his  true  magnitude, 
and  with  it  the  true  diflances  and  magnitudes  of  the 
ox.\\cr  pUnu-ts. 

The  great  diftance  of  they««  renders  his /)(7r<j//ajr 
too  fmall,  to  fall  even  under  the  niceft  immediate 
obfervation :  indeed  many  attempts  have  been  made 
both  by  the  antients  and  moderns  ;  and  many  me- 
thods invented  for  that  purpofe.  The  fi'Jt,  that  of 
Hipparchu  ,  followed  by  Ptolemy,  5ic.  was  founded 
on  the  obfervation  oihinar  ecUpfis.  The  fecond  was 
that  oi  Arjjtarchui^  whereby  the  angle  fubtended  by 
the  femidiameter  of  the  moon's  orbit  feen  from  the 
fun,  was  fought  from  the  lunar  phajes :  but  thefe 
both  proving  deficient,  Aftronomen  are  forced  to 
have  recouric  to  the  parallaxes  of  the  planets  nearer 
us,  as  Alars  and  Venus  ;  for  from  then  parallaxes 
known,  that  of  the  jun,  which  is  inacceflible  by  any 
direcl  obfervation,  is  eafily  deduced.  For  from  the 
theory  of  the  motion  of  the  eai  th  and  planets,  we 
know  at  any  time  the  proportion  of  the  difliances  of 
the  fun  and  planets  from  us  ;  and  the  horizontal 
parallaxes  are  in  a  reciprocal  proportion  to  thofe 
diftances  :  knowing  therefore  the  parallax  oi  a  pla- 
net, that  of  the  f'<n  may  be  found  from  it.  Thus 
Mars  when  oppofite  to  the  fun,  is  twice  as  near  as 
the  fun  is  :  his  parallax  therelbre  will  be  twice  as 
great  as  that  o(  the  fun  :  And  Fenus,  when  her  in- 
terior conjunflion  with  the  fun,  is  fometimes  nearer 
than  he  is  ;  her  parallax  therefore  is  greater  in  the 
fame  proportion. 

Thus  from  the  parallaxes  of  Alars  and  Venus, 
Caffiit  found  the  Jun^s  parallax  to  be  ten  feconds, 
which  implies  his  diftance  to  be  22000  femi  diame- 
ters of  the  earth.  In  an  obfervation  of  the  tranfit  of 
Venus  over  the  Jun,  which  will  be  feen  in  Afay  1761. 
Dr.  Hallcy  has  fhewn  a  method  of  finding  the  fun's 
parallax,  and  diftance  to  a  five  hundredth  part  of 
the  whole. 

Before  we  proceed,  it  is  very  proper  to  explain 
what  is  underfl:ood  by /)/3w/,f,  their  diftindf  ion,  is'e. 

Planet,  in  Ajlronomy,  is  a  celeftial  body,  re- 
volving round  \kie  fun  as  a  center,  and  continually 
changing  its  pofition  with  refpedl  to  other  ffars, 
whence  its  name  roAawiIis,  wanderer,  in  oppofition 
to  7i Jlt.r,  which  remains  fixed. 

The  planets  are  ufually  diftinguifhed  into  primary 
aadfecondary. 


The  primary  planets,  called  alfo  fimply,  and' hv 
way  of  eminence,  flanets,  arc  thofc  wliich- move- 
round  the  fu)!  as  their  proper  center  ;  and  arc  again 
lubdiviJcd  into  (upcrior  and  inferior  planets.  I'he 
fupcriors  are  tho'e  further  oft'  the  fun  than  our  earth 
is.  Such  ate  Adars,  'Jupiter,  and  Saturn.  Thc- 
inferior  are  thofc  nearer  the  fun  than  our  earth  h, 
and  fituate  between  the  earth  and  the  fun.  Suclr 
are  Venus  and  A/Iercury. 

Secondary  planets,  are  fuch  as  move  round  fome 
prin.ary  planets,  as  their  refpe(ftive  center,  in  the 
fame  manner  as  the  primary  pl/mtts  do  round  the 
Jun.  Such  are  the  moon  moving  r&und  our  earth  ; 
and  thofe  others  moving  round  Saturn  and  Jupiter, 
properly  called  Satellites. 

The  Moon  is  a  dark  and  fpherical  body,  which 
has  no  light  of  itfelf,  but  only  fhines  with  that  (he 
receives  from  the  fun  ;  whence  only  that  half  turn- 
ed towards  him  is  illuminated  ;  the  oppofite  one 
remaining  in  its  native  darknefs.  The  face  of  the 
moon  vifible  on  our  earth  is  that  part  of  her  body 
turned  towards  the  earth  ;  whence  according  to  the 
various  pofitions  of  the  ?noon,  with  regard  to  the 
fun  and  earth,  we  obferve  different  degrees  of  illu- 
mination ;  fometimes  a  large,  and  fometimes  a  lefs 
portion  of  the  enlightened  furface  being  vifible, 
which  different  degrees  of  illumination  proceed  alfo 
from  the  fuperficiesof  theww^  being  rough,  unevenj 
and  not  fmooth. 

From  the  nature  of  the  moon,  we'll  proceed  to 
her  various  motions. 

Caffini  is  of  opinion,  that  the  moon  revolves,  eve- 
ry month,  round  her  proper  axis  ;  with  the  fame 
face  always  turn'd  towards  the  earth.  Which  can  be 
eafily  underftood,  if  we  confider  that  a  mxn,  who 
runs  round  the  circumference  of  a  circle  he  has  de- 
fcrib'd  on  an  ar,a,  always  looks  on  the  center  of 
that  circle,  fince  in  that  whole  cour.'e  he  muft  re- 
volve round  himfelf. 

2.  The  inoon  is  obferved  to  be  carried  every  day, 
with  the  reft  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  from  eafttoweft. 

3.  The  moon  advances,  every  day,  very  near 
thirteen  degrees,  from  weft  to  eaft ;  fo  that  fhe 
finifhes,  or  accomplices  her  courfe  in  the  fpace  of 
27  days,  and  almoft  8  hours;  which  interval,  we 
call  a  periodical  month  ;  becaufe  then  the  moov, 
moved  from  tueft  to  eaft,  accomplifhes  her  period, 
;'.  e.  from  a  determinate  part  of  the  heavens,  to  the 
fame,  or  returns  from  one  fixed  ftar,  to  the  fame 
fixed  ftar.  But  if  we  compare  the  moon  with  the 
fun,  who  does  not  remain,  like  a  fixed  ftar,  in  the 

fame  fenfible  place,  but  every  day  runs  almoft  a 
degree  in  the  xodiack,  from  weft  to  eaft ;  (he  is 
longer  in  paffing  from  one  conjunction  to  another, 
than  in  returning  from  a  determinate  point  of  the 
heavens  to  the  fame  point :  therefore  as  the  fai 

will 


A   S  r  R   0   lY  0   M  r. 


279 


will  be  af?vartceJ  26  tJegreej,  or  thereabouts,  in  the 
fpace  ot  a  perhd'uul  month,  the  mooyi  mult  .add  two 
days,  or  more,  to  tlie  periodical  rnouti),  in  order  to 
coinplcat  theyj^rj^/frt/  montl?,  and  o\'ertalcc  thcy^^, 
/.  e,  the  fpace  from  oi\s  j\z\gy  to  the  other  :  whence 
t\ic  fynodical  month  confifts  of  29  days,  12  hours, 
44  minutes,  and  3  feooiids  ;  thougli  commonly  the 
minutes  and  feconds  are  neglected,  and  \\\cfymdical 
lunar  months  are  reckoned  to  confiit  alternately  of 
29  and  JO  days. 

However,  this  motion  of  the  moon  does  not  de- 
fcrihe  a  pcrfeiSl  circle,  for  it  is  an  elliptical^  or  ap- 
proaching to  the  elliptical,  p'or  if  wc  follow  Des 
Cartei's  hypothefis,  the  vortex  of  the  moon  being 
prcilcd  on  both  fides  by  Mars  and  Venus,  muft  be 
elliptical.  Hence  the  moon  occupies  a  lefler  dianie-  1 
ter  of  that  wr/i?jf  near  the  fyzygies,  i.  e.  near  the 
conjuntSlion  and  oppofition  with  the  fun,  and  a 
greater,  when  near  the  quadratures. 

As  the  plane  of  the  moon's  orbit,  and  the  plane  of 
thc-^ecliptick,  cut  each  other  in  a  right  line,  as,  and 
in  the  fame  manner  as  the  fame  eiUptick  divides  the 
equator  \n  the  equinoSiial points;  hence  enfues,  that 
they  are  inclined  to  each  other  in  an  angle  of  about 
five  degrees.  The  points  of  thefe  inter j'en'.ons  are 
called  nodes,  by  Ptolemy  ;  whereof  that  where  the 
moon  afcends  above  the  plane  of  the  ecliptick  north- 
ward, is  called  the  afcending  node,  and  the  head  of 
the  dragon  ;.  and  the  other,  the  defcending  node,  and 
the  dragon's  tail;  and  the  interval  of  time  between 
the  moon's  going  from  the  afcending  node,  and  re- 
turning to  it,   a  dracontick  mor.tk. 

If  the  line  of  the  nodes  was  immoveable,  that  is, 
if  it  had  no  other  motion  but  that  whereby  it  is  car 
ried  round  the  fun,  it  would  ftill  Pook  towards  the 
fame  point  of  the  ecliptick,  i.  e.  would  always  keep 
parallel  to  itfelf;  but  it  is  found  by  obfeivation,  that 
the  line  of  the  nodes  conftantly  changes  place,  and 


I  fhifts  its  fituation  from  caj}  to  we/i,  contrary  to  the 
I  order  of  the  fign.s,    und   by  a  retrograde  motion 
I  finifhcs   its   circuit  in   about    19  years  ;    in  which 
;  time  each  of  the  nides  returns   to  the  point  of  tha 
j  ecliptick  whence  it  before  receded.     Hence  it  fol- 
I  lows,  that  the  mion  is  never  prccifely  in  the  eclip- 
[  tick,  but  twice  each  period,  vix.   when  fhc  is  in 
the  nodes  ;  throughout  the  reft  of  her  courfc  fhc  de- 
viates from  it,    being  nearer  or  further  from  the 
'  ecliptick,  as  fhc  is  nearer  or  further  from  the  nodes. 
Wc  call  the  moon's  diifance  from  the  nodes  her 
Uatitu/Ie,   which  is  meafured  by  an  arch  of  a  circle 
drawn    through   the    ?noo'i,     perpendicular    to    the 
ecliptick,  and  intercepted  between  the  moon  and  the 
ecliptick.     The  moon's  lat  tude,  when  at  the  greateft* 
never  exceeds  five  degrees,  and  about  18  minutes  ; 
which  latitude  is  the  meafure  of  the  angles  of  the 
nodes. 

I  M.  Coffini  obferves,  that  while  the  imon  is  per- 
forming her  revolution  round  the  earth,  fhe  varies 
[  her  diftance  from  it,  in  three  different  manners. 
For,  I .  She  runs  every  day  its  o/)»^^^,  6  minutes, 
42  feconds,  towards  the  eafi,  and  her  excentricity 
contains  42  parts  of  a  mile,  into  which  the  femi- 
diameter  of  the  orhit  of  the  mon  is  fuppofcd  to  be 
divided.  '\\\\s  excentricity  \s  lefs,  when  the_/iw  is 
at  an  equal  diftance  from  the  moon's  perigee  and 
apogee  ;  but  when  the  fun  approaches  nearer  the 
moons  apogee  or  perigee,  that  excentricity  increafes  ; 
and  when  the  fun  is  exiftant  in  the  moons  apogee  or 
perigee,  the  leffer  or  fimple  excentricity  is  increafcd 
by  a  half  part  of  it.  The  fpace  of  time  wherein 
the  fnoon,  going  from  the  apogee,  returns  to  it  again, 
is  called  the  Anomalijiick  month, 

Tycho  Brahe  has  difcover'd,  that  the  moon  changes 
her  motion,  according  to  her  different  diftance  from 
the  Syzygies  *.  That  in  the  firft  quarter,  that  is, 

from 


*  SvzYCY,  (from  the  Greek  ffv^vyix,  cor.junRio)  is  a  term  equally  ufed  for  tht  eotijun^ion  znd.  oppofition  of  a 
pUnet  with  they«';.  On  the  f.h.rnomeua  and  circumftances  of  'Vtfyz.ygies,  a  great  part  of  the  lunar  theory  depends. 
For,  I .  The  force,  which  dioiininies  the  gravity  of  the  moon  in  thc^zv;g;V/,  is  double  that,  which  increales  it  in  the 
quadratures  :  fo  that  in  fhe  (yzygies  the  gravity  of  the  moon  from  the  aftion  of  they«»,  is  diminilhed  by  a  part,  , 
which  is  to  the  whole  gravity,  as  1  to  69,36  ;  for  in  the  quadratures  the  addition  of  gravity  is  to  the  whole  gravity, 
as  I  to  178,73. 

2.  In  the  /yzygies  the  difturbing  force  is  direilly  as  the  diftance  of  the  moon  from  the  earth,  and  inverfly  as  the 
cube  of  the  diftance  of  the  earth  Irom  theyii/;.  And  as  t\\c  /yzygies  the  gravity  of  the  moon  towards  the  earth, 
receding  from  its  center,  is  more  diminifhed,  than  according  to  the  inverfe  ratio  of  the  fquare  of  the  diftance 
from  that  center.  Hence,  in  the  motion  of  the  moon  from  the  /yzygies  to  the  quadratures,  the  gravity  of  the 
moon  towards  the  earth  is  continually  increafed,  and  the  moon  is  continually  retarded  in  its  motion  ;  and  in  the 
motion  from  the  quadratures  to  t\\t  /yzygies,  the  moon'i  gravity  is  continually  diminifhed,  and  its  motion  in  '\t^  orbit 
accelerated. 

3.  Further,  in  (he  /fzygies  the  moons  orbit,  or  circle  round  the  earth,  is  more  convex,  than  in  the  quadratures  ; 
for  which  reafon,  the  mon  is  lefs  dillant  from  the  earth  at  the  former,  than  the  btter.     When  the  moon  is  in  the 

/yzygies,  her  a^yiirffi  go  backwards,  or  are  retrograde.     When  the  ration  is  in  the  /yaj^'Vj,  tht  nodes  masz  in  antece- 
dentia  fafteft  ;  then  flower  md  flower,  till  they  become  at  reft  when  the  moon  is  in  the  quadratures. 

Laftly,  When  the  nodes  are  ciinic  to  the/zygies,  the  inclination  of  the  pbne  of  ihe  orbit  is  leaft  of  all.  Thefc 
feveral  irregularities  are  not  equal  in  ezchjyzjgy,  but  all  fomewhat  greater  in  the  conjitnilion  than  the  oppofit.on. 


2  8o  Tldc  UniveiTal  Hiftory  of  Arts  a-^^j^  Sciences. 


from  the  conjumftion  to  her  firft  quadrature,  *  fhe 
abates  fomcwhat  of  her  velocity  ;  which  in  the  ic- 
cond  quarter  (lie  recovers  :  In  tlie  third  quarter 
{he  again  lofes ;  and  in  the  !aft  again  recovers. 
This  Tycbo  cail'd  the  Moon's  variation. 

There  are  other  very  confiderable  irregularities  in 
the  moons  motion,  in  that  of  her  apogee,  and  in 
the  nodes  :  for  when  the  earth  is  in  it's  aphelion, 
the  niaon  is  in  her  aphelion  lijcewile  ;  in  which  cafe, 
fhe  quickens  her  pace,  and  performs  her  circuit  in  a 
fhorter  time  :  On  the  contrary,  when  the  earth  is 
in  its  perihelion,  the  moon  is  fo  too  ;  and  then  fhe 
flackens  her  motion  ;  and  thus  revolves  round  the 
earth  in  a  fhorter  fpace  when  the  earth  is  in  its 
aphelion,  than  when  in  its  perihelion  :  fo  that  the 
periodical  rnonths  are  not  all  equal. 

The  irregularity  of  the  moon's  apogee  is  difcover'd 
by  its  being  found  to  move  forwards,  when  it  coin- 
cides with  the  line  of  the  Svzygies,  and  backwards, 
when  it  cuts  that  line  at  right  angles.  Nor  is  this 
progrefs  and  regrefs  in  any  meafure  equal  ;  in  the 
conjunflion  and  oppofition  it  goes  bri(kly  forwards, 
and  in  the  quadratures  moves  either  flowly  forwards, 
Hands  ftill,  or  goes  backward. 

The  motion  of  the  nodes  is  not  uniform ;  but 
v.'hen  the  line  of  the  nodes  coincides  with  that  of 
the  Sjzygies,  they  ftand  ftill  ;  when  the  nodes  are 
in  the  quadratures,  /.  e.  when  their  lines  cut  that 
of  the  Syzygies  at  right  angles,  they  go  backward, 
from  eaft  to  weft ;  and  this  Sir  Jfaac  Newton  fhews, 
with  the  velocity  of  i6"  iq"'  2^""  in  an  hour. 

Aflronomers  determine  the  period  of  the  moon's 
revolution  round  the  earth.,  or  the  periodical  month, 
and  the  time  between  one  oppofition  and  another, 
or  the  Jynodical  month,  by  computing  the  time  be- 
tween two  eclipfes,  or  oppofitions  ;  and  dividing 
this,  by  the  number  of  lunations  that  have  pafs'd 
in  the  mean  time :  hence  they  find  the  quotient  to 
be  the  quantity  of  ihe  Jynodical  month.  They  like- 
wife  compute  theyjw's  mean  motion  during  the  time 
of  the  fynodical  month,  and  add  this  to  the  entire 
circle  defcribed  by  the  moon.     Then,  as   the  fum 


is  to  360',  fo  is  the  quantity  of  ^t  Jynodical  month 
to  the  periodical. 

Or,  I.  The  quantity  of  the  periodical  month 
being  given ;  by  the  Rule  of  Three  we  may  find 
the  moon's  diurnal  and  horary  motion,   fc^c. 

2.  If  the  fun%  mean  diurnal  motion  be  fub- 
trafted  from  the  moon's  mean  diurnal  motion,  the 
remainder  will  give  the  moons  diurnal  motion  from 
the  fun. 

3.  Since  in  the  middle  of  a  total  eclipfe  the  moon 
is  in  the  node  ;  if  tht  fun's  place  be  found  for  that 
time,  and  to  this  be  added  fix  figns,  the  fum  will 
give  the  place  of  the  node. 

4.  The  nodes  have  a  motion,  and  proceed  in 
antecedentia,  /'.  e.  from  Taurus  to  Aries,  from  Aries 
to  Pifces,  $[c.  if  then  to  the  fnoon's  mean  diurnal 
motion  be  added  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  nodes, 
the  fame  will  be  the  motion  of  the  latitude  ;  and 
thence  by  the  Rtde  of  Three  may  be  found  in  what 
time  the  moon  goes  360**  from  the  Dragon  s  Head, 
or  in  what  time  fhe  goes  from,  and  returns  to  it  ; 
that  is,  the  quantity  of  the  D  acontic  month. 

5.  If  the  motion  of  the  diurnal  apogee  be  (ub- 
trailed  from  the  mean  motion  of  the  moon^  the  re- 
mainder will  be  the  moons  mean  motion  from  the 

■apogee  ;  and  thence,  by  the  Rule  of  Three,  is  de- 
termined the  quantity  of  the  Anomaliftick  month. 

To  find  the  moon's  age,  we  muft  add  to  the  day 
of  the  month  the  epadt  of  the  year,  and  the  months 
from  March  inclufive.  The  fum,  if  under  30  miift 
be  fubtradted  from  it  ;  if  over,  the  excels  is  the 
moons  age.  If  the  month  has  but  30  davs,  the 
excefs  above  29  is  the  moon's  age. 

To  find  the  time  of  the  moon  being  in  the  meri- 
dian, we  muft  multiply  her  age,  if  under  15  days 
by  4,  and  divide  the  produft  by  5  ;  the  quotient 
gives  the  hour,  and  the  remainder  multiplied  by 
12  the  minute.  If  her  age  exceeds  15,  we  muit 
iubtracS  15,  and  proceed  with  the  remainder  as 
before.  To  find  the  time  of  the  moons  beginning 
to  fhine,  we  muft  multiply  her  age,  if  under  15  by 
48,  and  divide   the  produdl  by  60  :    the  quotient 


*  The  Ql'adrature,  Fig.  7.  of  the  moon,  is  her  afpefl,  or  fituation,  when  (he  is  90'  diflant  from  the /a»; 
Or  her  quadrature  is  when  the  is  in  the  middle  point  of  her  orbit,  between  the  points  of  conjun^ion  and  cppoftion, 
which  happens  twice  in  her  revolution,  'vix..  in  the  firft  and  third  c^nai'ters. 

When  the  moon  is  in  her  quadrature,  fhe  exhibits  that  -phafis  which  we  call  the  half  moon,  i.  e.  (he  fhines  with 
jull  half  her  face,  and  is  ("aid  to  be  biiredted,  or  dicholamtzed.  It  is  veiy  difficult  to  fix  the  precife  moment,  when 
the  OTSoa  is  biflefted,  or  in  her  true  (//ir/^o/^^/jyr.  Obfervation  informs  us,  that  when  fhe  is  30  minutes  diftant  from 
the  quadratures,  fhe  appears  bilTefted  ;  but  Ihs  appears  lo  too  in  the  quadratmes  themfelves,  and  fometimes  after- 
wards, as  Riiciolus  acknowledges,  in  h's  Aimagejt.  So  that  fhe  appears  dichototr.i'x.ed,  or  cut  in  two,  at  leaft  for 
the  fpace  of  a  whole  hour,  in  which  time  any  moment  may  be  taken  for  the  true  point  of  dichotomy,  as  well  as 
any  other.  Hut  the  infinite  number  of  moments  of  time,  give  an  infinite  diverfity  of  dilfances.  The  moment 
in  which  the  true  dichotomy  happens,  being  thus  uncertain,  but  it  being  granted,  withal,  that  it  happens  before 
the  quadrature  ;  Ricciolus  takes  the  middle  point  between  the  quadrature  and  the  time  when  it  is  tirlt  dubious, 
whether  the  moon  be  dichotomized,  or  net,  for  the  tins  dichotomy. 

give 


ASrRONOMT. 


281 


gives  the  hour ;  and  the  remainder  the  minute.  If 
her  age  be  above  r5  days,  we  muft  (ubtrail  the 
time  thus  found  from  24  ;  the  remainder  gives  the 
time  of  flaining  in  the  morning. 

We'll  proceed  to  Eclipses  of  the  Sun  and 
Moon. 

Eclipse,  from  the  GrtV'i- ez^Il^}/^;,  from  £x>>£i7rw, 
J  fail ^  in  Ajlrommy^  is  a  privation  of  the  light  in 
one  of  the  luminaries,  by  the  interpofition  of  fome 
opaice  body,  either  between  it  and  the  eye  ;  or  be- 
tween it  and  the  fun. 

When  the  moon  pafles  between  the  earth  and  the 
/««,  and  deprives  us  of  his  afpeiSl,  that  is  called  an 
edipfeoi  (he  fin,  which  is  always  the  greater,  the 
greater  is  the  part  it  ileals  from  our  fight,  which 
may  alfo  fomctimes  be  total,  if  the  eclipfe  covers 
it  entirely. 

Edipfe  of  the  fun,  Fig.  4.  is  diftinguiflied  into 
total  and  partial. 

As  the  7noon  is  found  to  have  a  parallax  of  lati- 
tude, ^i:///)_/£'j- of  the y««  only  happen  when  the  la- 
titude of  the  maon,  viewed  from  the  fun,  is  lefs 
than  the  aggregate  of  the  apparent  femidiameter  of 
the  fun  and  moon.  Therefore  folar  etUpf-s  happen 
when  the  ?noon  is  in  conjundfion  with  the  fun,  in 
or  near  the  nodes,  i  e.  at  the  new  moons.  Confe- 
quently  the  memorable  ecUpfe  of  the  fun,  at  our 
faviour's  paffion,  happening  at  the  time  of  full 
vioon,  when  the  fun  and  moon  are  in  oppofition,  was 
preternatural. 

If  there  is  not  an  eclipfe  of  the  fun  every  new 
moon,  though  the  new  rnoon  covers  the  fun  from  the 
earth,  it  is  becaufe  the  moon's  way  is  not  precifely 
under  the  ediptick,  but  placed  obliquely  thereto ; 
only  interfeifting  it  twice  in  every  period  ;  fo  that 
edipfes  can  only  be  occafioned  in  fuch  new  moons, 
as  happen  in  thefe  interfedtions  or  nodes,  or  very 
near  them.  In  the  nodts,  when  the  moon  h.as  no 
vifible  latitude,  the  occultation  is  total,  Fig.  5  ;  and 
with  fome  continuance,  when  the  difi  *  of  the 
7noon  in  Perigao,  appears  greater  than  that  of  the 
fun  in  Apog/so,  and  its  fhadow  is  extended  beyond 
the  furface  of  the  earth  ;  and,  without  continuance, 
or  moderate  diftances,  when  the  cufp  or  point  of 
the  moo)is  fhadow  barely  touches  the  earth.  Out 
of  the  nodes,  but  near  them,  the  edipfes  are  partial. 

The  other  circumltances  of  folar  edipfes  are,   i. 


That  none  of  them  are  univerfal ;  that  is,  none  of 
them  are  fcen  throughout  tlie  whole  hemlfphcrc, 
which  the  fun  is  then  above  ;  the  moon's  difk  being 
much  too  little,  and  much  too  near  the  earth  to 
hide  the  fun  from  the  difk  of  the  earth,  which  is 
fifteen  times  bigger  than  it.  2.  Nor  docs  the  edipfe 
appear  the  fame  in  all  parts  of  the  earth,  where  it 
is  leen;  but  when  in  one  place  it  is  total,  in  another 
it  is  partial.  Farther,  when  the  moon  being  in  her 
Apogee,  appears  much  lefs  than  the  fun,  as  happens 
m.oft  fenfibly,  when  he  is  in  Perigiso  ;  the  cufp  of 
the  lunar  fhadow  not  reaching  the  earth,  Ihe  be- 
comes in  a  central  conjunftion  with  the  fun,  yet 
not  able  to  cover  his  difk  ;  but  lets  his  whole  limb 
appear  like  a  lucid  ring  or  bracelet,  hence  called 
an  anmdar  edipfe.  3.  It  does  not  happen  at  the 
fame  time  in  all  places  where  it  is  feen  ;  but  ap- 
pears more  early  to  the  weftern  parts,  and  later  to 
the  eaflcrn.  4.  Its  beginning  is  always  on  the 
weflern  fide  the  fun,  and  on  the  fame  fide  it  ends. 
5.  In  total  edipfes  of  the  fun  the  moons  darkened 
difJ;  is  feen  covered  with  a  faint  dawning  light  ; 
which  is  commonly  attributed  to  the  refleftion  of 
the  light  from  the  illuminated  part  of  the  earth. 
La/Uy,  in  total  edipjes  of  the  fun,  the  jnoon's  limb  + 
is  feen  furrounded  by  a  pale  circle  of  light ;  which 
the  late  AJlronomers  take  for  a  manifeft  indication  of 
a-lunar  atmofphere. 

To  calculate  an  edipfe  of  the  fun,  we  muft  find, 
r.  The  mean  new  moon,  and  thence  the  true  one, 
together  with  the  place  of  the  luminaries  for  the 
apparent  time  of  the  true  one.  2.  Compute  the 
apparent  time  of  the  new  moan  obferved  for  the  ap- 
parent time  of  the  true  new  moon.  3.  Compute 
the  latitude  feen,  for  the  apparent  time  of  the  new 
moon  feen.  4.  Thence  determine  the  digits  eclips'd. 
5.  We  mufl:  find  the  times  of  the  greatelt  darkncfs, 
immeriion,  and  emerfion  ;  and  thence  determine 
the  beginning  and  ending  of  the  edipfe. 

Flamfleed  has  invented  a  method  of  reprefenting 
the  folar  edipfes,  which,  by  a  geometrical  con- 
ftruiSlion,  removes  all  the  di.'Hculties  and  impedi- 
ments of  the  Calculus  ;    which  is  this  : 

There  mufl  be  underftood  innumerable  lines 
condudted  from  the  circles  of  the  earth  (through  a 
plane  which  fhould  touch  the  lunar  orbit ;  which 
plane  muft  be  level  to  the  right  line  which  connects 


*  Disk,  in  AJiroromy,  is  the  body  or  face  of  the  fun  or  mooi,  fuch  as  it  appears  to  us.  The  Dijk  is  conceivrJ 
to  be  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts  called  digits  ;  by  means  whereof  it  is,  that  the  magnitude  of  an  e:lij>fe  is 
ineafured,  or  eliimated.  Such  an  cc/ipfe  wa.s  fo  many  digits  or  parts  of  the  fun,  or  moons  diflc.  Merairj  and 
Vcmis  are  fometimes  feen  in  the  fun's,  dijl,  tranfiting  they;«"s  dtjk.  Jn  a  total  edipfe  of  either  of  thofe  luminaries, 
the  whols  dif  is  obfcured  or  darkened  ;  in  a  partial  edipfe  only  part  of  them. 

t  The  Limb  fignifies  the  outermoft  border,  or  edge  of  the  fun  or  mMn,  when  the  middle  or  difk\%  hid  in  an 
tdipfe  of  either  luminary.     Aflronomers  obferve  the  lower  and  the  upper  limb  of  the  fun,  in  order  to  find  its  true 


heighth,  which  is  that  of  its  center. 


the 


TIjc  Univcrfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


282 

the  centers  of  the/rw  and  of  the  earth)  to  the  cen- 
ter of  the  fun.  All  thofc  lines  fliall  cut  the  faid 
plane,  and  will  (hew  the  tcrrcftrial  fphcre,  projected 
■with  its  circles  on  that  plane  :  fo  that  the  eye 
■placed  in  the  fun  a  center,  muft  fee  the  earth,  and 
its  annual,  as  well  as  diurnal  motion,  accomplifhed 
'in  the  fame  plane,  in  the  fame  manner  we  fee  from 
x'tit  earth,  the  rn^on  and  t\\tfitn,  with  all  their  mu- 
tations, as  if  they  were  but  plain  fuperficies,  and 
had  their  fpherical  circles  defcribed  in  plain  difJis  : 
then  from  the  projcilion  of  fuch  fpherical  terreflrial 
fuperficies,  will  arile  in  this  plane,  a  circle  of  bafis, 
called  the  cii/k  of  the  earth  \  and  which  is  to  be 
•every  where  equal  to  the  plane  of  the  ecUptuk  :  then 
will  arife,  likcwife,  a  right  line  extended  on  each 
fide  through  its  center,  which  will  reprefent  the 
axis  of  the  eartii,  pr«jorted  iu  that  plane,  inclin'd 
■on  e<;ch  ar;  j;!e  to  the  plane  of  the  ecH^^ick,  according 
•to  the  ditFerence  of  the  (cafons.  And  the  paral- 
lelifm  of  the  lerreftria!  axis,  on  reafon  of  its  dif- 
ferent fituation  to  our  plane,  will  make  the  inequa- 
lity of  the  angle  in  the  fame  plane.  There  will 
arife,  likewife,  in  the  fame  plane,  by  the  diurnal 
motion  of  each  point  in  the  fuperficies  of  the  rar//^, 
innumerable  edipfes,  by  whole  diftlrent  fituations 
n;he  place  in  the  plane  given  will  be  determined,  and 
■feparated  from  them  all. 

Therefore,  if  in  the  foLir  edipfes  we  can  difio- 
■ver  in  that  plane,  the  lines,  and  the  ways  which 
the  moon  will  pafs  through,  we'll  dlfcover,  alfo,  the 
place  of  our  hcmifphere  which  is  to  be  at  that  time 
darkened,  by  its  interpofition  ;  which  can  be  done 
in  the  following  manner  : 

Having  found  the  leiler  didance  of  the  center  of 
the  earth,  or  of  the  ilijh  and  penumbra  of  the  cen- 
ter, and  likewife  the  diftancc  of  its  fma'Jer  line  in 
our  plane,  from  the  area  of  tlie  ediptlck,  let  be 
drawn  from  the  point  of  the  lefTer  dillance  in  the 
plane,  a  line  perpendicular  to  it  ;  this  line  will 
trace  the  pafTes  or  way  of  the  ponanhra,  in  the  bafe, 
&r  Jif/;  of  the  circle.  Then  wc  muft  mark  in  that 
■right  line  the  hours,  with  their  quarters  and 
minutes  of  our  meridian,  which  anfwer  to  the 
fhanomeita  of  the  edipfe  ;  marking,  likewife,  in 
the  ecliptick  line  of  our  plane,  the  hours,  with 
their  parts,  fo  that  each  houi',  and  each  fmaller  part 
of  the  hour,  mark  the  point  where  your  place, 
defcribed  in  the  dlipf,  is  fixed  :  In  this  manner, 
and  by  thofe  moments  of  time  given,  in  our  right, 
and  elliptical  line,  well  d\£cQ\t:T  the  phaiiomena  o( 
the  edipfe  which  are  to  appear  in  our  place.  Take 
from  a  fcale  of  equal  parts,  sfpecially  that  from 
whence  you  have  taken  your  whole  delineation,  the 
femidiameter  of  the  penumbi-a,  and  having  carried 
one  ihank  of  your  compares  through  the  paths  of 
ihe  penumbra,  and  direct  the  other  towards  <he  path 


I 


of  your  place,  if  it  cannot  reach  it,  there  will  be 
no  occultation  of  they^^  in  your  place;  but  if,  on 
the  contrary,  you  perceive  that  it  not  only  reaches 
it,  but  even  goes  beyond  it,  then  there  will  be  an 
eclipfe  ;  total,  if  there  be  an  interfeftion  between 
the  trace  of  the  penumbra,  and  that  of  your  place; 
and  only  partial,  if  there  be  no  fuch  interfeiflion. 
Likewile,  you'll  have  the  middle  of  the  edipfe  at 
that  very  time,  .  when  having  applied  the  llianksof 
the  compallcs  to  the  axis  of  the  parallel  ediptick, 
you'll  obferve  the  fame  hour  in  both  traces,  or 
paths.  Laftlv,  you'll  find  the  end  of  the  edipfe, 
when  it  will  be  proper  to  mark  the  fame  hour,  in 
the  path  of  the  center  of  the  penumbra,  and  in  the 
path  of  your  place  ;  whence  the  beginning,  middle, 
and  end  of  an  edipfe  may  be  accomplifhed  by  a 
projesStion  of  lines,  without  the  affiftance  of  a  cal- 
culus, or  parallaxes. 

Immersion,  or  incidence  of  zn  edipfe,  we  have 
(o  often  mentioned  in  this  place,  is  the  moment 
when  part  of  the  fun  or  moon's  difk  firfl  begins  to  be 
hid.  And  Emersion,  or  expurgation  of  an  eclipfe, 
is  the  time  when  the  eclipfed  lunjinary  begins  to  re- 
appear, or  emerge  out  of  the  fhadow. 

Eclipse  of  the  moon.  Fig.  6.  is  a  deficiency  of 
light  in  that  planet,  occafioned  by  a  diametrical 
oppofition  Xif  the  earth,  between  t!ne  fun  and  moon. 

When  all  the  light  of  the  moon  is  intercepted,  or 
when  her  whole  difk  is  covered,  the  edipfe  is  faid  ta 
be  total ;  when  only  part,  partial.  When  the 
total  edipfe  lafts  for  fome  time,  it  is  faid  to  be  total 
with  continuance  ;  when  only  inftantaneous,  total 
without  continuance.  Edipjes  of  the  moon  only 
happen  in  time  of  full  moon  ;  becaufe  it  is  only 
then  the  earth  is  between  theyj/«  and  moon.  Nor 
do  they  happen  every  full  moon,  by  reafon  of  the 
obliquity  of  the  moon%  way  with  refpe£t  to  the 
fun'%  ;  but  only  in  thofe  full  moons,  which  happen 
either  in  the  nodes,  or  very  near  them,  where  the 
aggregate  of  the  apparent  femidiameters  of  the 
moon,  and  the  earth's  fhadow,  is  greater  than  the 
latitude  of  the  moon,  or  the  diftance  betweai  their 
centers. 

The  moft  confiderable  circumflances  in  thcMlipf-s 
of  the  moon,  are,  r.  That  as  the  fum  of  the  femi- 
diameters of  the  7noon,  and  earth's  fhadow,  is  greater 
than  the  aggregate  of  the  femidiameters  of  the  fun 
and  moon,  it  is  evident  lunar  edipfes  may  happen  in 
a  greater  latitude  of  the  moon,  and  at  a  greater  dif- 
tance from  the  nodes  ;  and  confequently  are  more 
often  obferved  in  any  one  part  of  the  earth,  than 
folar  ones  ;  though  with  refpefl  to  the  whole  earth 
the  latter  are  as  frequent  as  the  former.  2.  Total 
edipfes,  and  thofe  of  the  longefl:  duration,  happen 
in  the  very  nodes  of  the  ediptick  ;  by  reafon  the 
fciSlion  of  the  earth's  fhadow,  then  falling  on  the 

naor^ 


^STRONG    MT. 


283 

m«««,  is  confidurably  greater  than  her  dijl:     7"here  '  her  oppofition,   together  with  the  angle  at  the  i::di 

B,  has  been  given 

The  length  of  the  earth's  (hadowy  cone  is  found, 
by  finding  the  fun  &  diftancc  from  the  rarth  for  the 
given  time.  Suppofe  for  example,  the yj/»'s  greats- ft 
diftancefrom  the  earth  34.996  femidiameters  of  the 
earth  ;  and  the  fun's  femidiamctcr  to  be  to  that  of 
the  earth,  as  153  to  I ;  then  will  the  length  of  the 
fliadowy  cone  be  found  2  jO|.  Hence,  as  the  man's 
Icart  diftance  from  the  earth  is  fcarce  64.  femidi- 
ameters, the  moor,  when  in  oppofition  to  the  fun 
in  or  near  the  nodes,  will  fall  into  the  earth's  fliadow, 
though  the  fun  and  moon  be  in  their  apogees  ;  and 
much  more,  if  they  be  in  or  near  their/iiT/V^-^r;,  by 
reafon  the  fhadow  is  then  longer,  and  the  moon 
nearer  the  bafe  of  the  cone. 

By  finding  the  fun  and  inoonA  diftancc  from  the 
earth,  and  thence  their  horizontal  parallaxes,  is 
found  the  apparent  femidiamctcr  of  the  earth's 
fhadow,  in  the  place  of  the  moon's  pafTage  for  any 
time  siven  ;    if  the  parallaxes  be  added  together. 


may  likewife  be  total  eclipfs  within  a  little  diftancc 
of  the  nodes  ;  but  the  further,  the  lefs  their  duration ; 
further  off  ftill,  there  are  only  partial  ones,  and  at 
length  none  at  all  :  as  the  latitude  and  the  femidi- 
amctcr of  the  moon,  together,  arc  either  leff,  equal, 
or  greater  than  the  femidiamctcr  of  the  fhadow.  3. 
All  lunar  ecUpfes  are  univerfal,  /.  e.  are  vifible  in 
all  parts  of  the  globe  which  have  the  moon  above 
rhcir  horizon  ;  and  are  every  where  of  the  fiime 
magnitude,  and  begin  and  end  together.  4.  In 
all  lunar  eciipfes  the  eaftern  fide  is  what  fiiil  im- 
merges,  and  alfo  emerges  ;  fo  that  though  at  firft 
tlie  mion  be  more  wefterly  than  the  earth's  fhadow, 
yet  her  proper  motion  being  fwifter  than  the  fame, 
fhe  overtakes,  and  out-goes  it.  5.  The  moon,  even 
in  the  middle  of  an  cclipfe,  has  ufually  a  faint  ap- 
pearance of  light  ;  which  GaJJ'endus,  Ricciolus, 
Kepler,  he.  attribute  to  the  light  of  the  earth's 
atmofphere  tranfmitted  thither.  Lafty,  fhe  grows 
fenfibly  paler,  and  dimmer,  before  ever  fhe  enters 


within  the  earth's  fhadow,  which   is  attributed  to    and  the  apparent  femidiamctcr  of  the  fun  be  fub- 


the  earth's  Penumbra  ;  this  Penumbra,  is  a  fiint, 
ot  partial  fhade,  obferv'd  between  the  perfeift  flia- 
dow, and  the  full  light  of  an  eclipfe.  The  pe- 
mimhra  arifes  from  the  magnitude  of  the  fun's  body ; 
were  he  only  a  luminous  point,  the  fhadow  would 


tra«fled  from  the  fum,  then  the  remainder  n  the 
apparent  femidiamctcr  of  the  fnadow.  Thus  fup- 
pofc  the  jnoon's  horizontal  parallax  56'  48''',  the 
fun's  b"  ;  the  fum  is  56'  54'^  :  from  which  the 
funs   apparent  femidiamctcr,     16'  5'',  bein^:  iub- 


be  all  perfeft  ;  but  by  reafon  of  the  diameter  of  1  traced,  leaves  40' 49"  for  the  femidiamctcr  of  the 


the  fun.  it  happens,  that  a  place  which  is  not  il 
luminated  bv  the  whole  body  of  the  fun,  does  yet 
receive  rays  from  a  part  thereof.  A  penumbra  muft 
be  found  in  all  eciipfes,  whether  of  the  fun,  tnoon, 
or  the  other  planets,  primary  or  fecondary  ;  but  it 
is  moft  confiderable  with  us  in  eciipfes  of  the  fin. 
In  eciipfes  of  the  moon  the  earth  is  encomjiafTed, 
indeed,  with  a  penumbra,  but  it  is  only  fen'iblc  to 
us  on  the  earth  near  the  total  fhadow.     The  Pe- 


fiumhra  extends  infinitely  in  length,  inafmuch  as  to    or  B,  to  a  right  angle  :  the  arch  between  the  cen 


fhadow.  M  dc  la  Hire  omits  the  fun's  parallax  as 
of  no  confideration  ;  but  increafes  the  apparent  fe- 
midiameterof  thefhadowby  a  whole  minute,  for  the 
fhadow  of  the  atmofpherc,  which  would  give  the 
femidiamctcr  of  the  fhadow,   in  our  inftancc,  41'' 

Since  in  the  fphcrical  triangle  A  I  L,  (Pig-  3^.) 
reftangular  at  I,  the  fide  A  L  is  given,  as  alfo  the 
angle  A  LI,  as  being  the  complement  of  LAI, 


each  point  of  the  diameter  of  they^.v  theie  aiiiwers 
a  point  infinite  in  length,  into  which  no  rays  enter 
from  that  point,  though  they  do  from  others.  AL 
de  la  Hire  examines  the  different  deorces  of  the 
penumbra,  and  reprcfents  them  geometrically,  by 
the  ordinates  of  a  curve,  which  fhall  be  anions 
thcml'elvcs,  as  the  fevcral  parts  of  the  fun'i  difh, 
wherewith  a  body  planted  in  the  penu/r.bra  is 
enlightened. 

Before  we  can  c.xpciR:  to  be  inafters  of  a  fure 
method  of  calculating  the  times,  places,  magni- 
tudes,  and    other  phitnomcna  of  the  ecUfjcs  of  the 


ters,  AL  is  found  by  fphcrical  trigonometry  :  and 
fincc  the  angle  L  A  I  is  equal  to  B,  each  of  them, 
with  A  B,  making  a  right  Mvfie  ;  and  the  moon's 
latitude  A  C  is  gi\  en  ;  the  arch  L  I  will  likewife 
be  found  by  fphcrical  trigonometry. 

\''e  determine  the  bounds  of  an  edipfc  of  the 
moon,  by  adding  the  apparent  iemidiamcters  of  th.e 
moon.,  in  pcrigao,  and  of  the  fhadow,  fi'ppofing 
the  fun  in  apogrvo;  by  which  we  fli;;ll  have  the  fide 
M  (J  [Fig-  36.)  Then  in  the  Spherical  triangle 
M  N  C),   having  given  the  anjlc  at  the  7wde,  whofe 


quantity    is    the    moons  greatoft    latitude 


in 


the 


moon,  we  muft:  endeavour  to  find,     I.  The  Icnctii  coniun-ltron.  the  ri'j-ht  an2;le  E,   and  the  lea  i^i  O, 

of  the  earth's  fliadowy   cone       2    The  apparent  we  muft  find  the  w;;-.--';^  diilance  from  the  K^/if  NO, 

fcmidiameter  of  the  earths  fhadow,    in  the  place  which  is  the  utmoft  bound,  beyond  which  the  ^tV/^/t- 

o(  the  moon's  paffage,  for  any  given  time.     And  cannot  reach.    Adding,  after  the  fame  manner,  the 

3.  The  arch  between  tlie  centers,   (Fig.   11.)  and  apparent  femidiameters  0/ the  ;;.'«w  in  rtp^^^ri?,   and  • 
the  arch  C.  after  the  moon's  latitude  at  the  time  of  i  of  the  fhadow  of  the  fun  in  p::rig,-o.  iy,    the  fake 
14..  O  o  of 


284  T^t,'  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^;»?J  Sciences. 


of  having  the  arch  L  K,  in  the  triangle  NLh, 
the  diftance  of  the  moon  in  the  afcending  node  will 
be  found  by  fpherical  trigonometry  ;  which  is  the 
bound  within  wliich  the  moon  will  neceflariiy  be 
eclipfed.  For  example  ;  the  femidiameter  of  the 
fliadow,  when  the  fun  is  in  cpogao,  and  the  moon 
in  pirigao,  according  to  Kapler,  is  49'  40",  and 
the  apparent  femidiameter  of  the  7noon  m  perigeio 
it"  22"  ;  confcquently,  M  O  is  66',  or  i*'  6' ;  and 
therefore  there  will  be  no  edipfe  at  all,  if  the  moon's 
latitude  be  greater  than  1^6'.  Now  as  the  fame 
angle  N,  is  fuppoicd  by  Kepler  to  be  5*^  i8' ; 


Log,  o^  fine  N 

Shu  M  O 

Whole  y7?.v 


89655337 
82832433 

lOOOOOOOO 


Log.  of  Sine*  ON     93177096 

The  Remainder  correfponding  to  which,  in  the 
tables,  is  11°  59' 50".  \'i^  therefore,  the  moo7i\ 
diftance  from  the  afcending  7iode  be  greater  than 
12",  no  ecUpfe  can  happen,  And,  in  like  manner, 
the  femidiameter  of  the  fhadow  in  the  fun%  pe- 
rigee, and  the  moon's  apogee,  is  43'  50",  and  the 
?noon's  femidiameter  in  her  apogee  15' :  confequently 
Lhis  58'  5o"j  and  therefore  therewillbe  aneelipfe, 
if  the  moon's  latitude  do  not  exceed  58'  50"  :  But  puted,    with  the  frin  and 


and  the  arch  between  the  centers   A  I  j   where  the 
arch  I  S  is  found,  as  in  the  lalt  problem. 

We'll  proceed  ftill  further,  and  find,  the  be- 
ginning, middle,  and  end  of  a  lunar  eclipfr.  Which 
to  perform,  we  11  fay.  as  the  moon's  horary  motion 
from  tht:  fun,  is  to  3600  hoiary  feconds  ;  ("0  are  the 
fcconds  of  the  arch  L  I,  (Fig.  35.)  to  the  horary 
feconds  equivalent  thereto  :  then  fubtracting  thefc 
fcruplcs,  or  feconds,  in  the  firft  and  third  quadrant 
of  the  anomaly,  from  the  time  of  full  moon  ;  and 
adding  it  to  the  fame  in  the  fecond  and  fourth,  the 
refult  is  the  time  of  the  middle  of  the  eclipfc.  Then 
we'll  fay  again,  as  the  moon's  horary  motion  from 
thcy««,  is  to  3600  fciuples,  or  feconds  ;  fo  are  the 
feconds  of  half  duration  I  N,  to  the  time  of  half 
duration  ;  the  double  of  which  gives  the  whole 
duration.  Laftly,  We'll  fubtracSt  the  time  of  half 
duration  from  the  time  of  the  middle  of  the  ecUpfcy 
the  remainder  will  be  the  beginning  of  the  cclipfe. 
And  if  we  add  the  fame  to  the  fame,  the  fum  will 
be  its  end. 

To  calculate  an  cclipfe  of  the  moon,  proceed  in 
the  following  manner  : 

I.   To  find  whether  there  will  be  an  edipfe,  or 
not.      For  the  given  time  of  the  mean   iuW  tnootiy, 
we  muft  compute  the  moon's  diftance  from  the  node. 
2.  The  time  of  the  true  full  moon  muft  be  com- 


here,  as  before,  the  argument  of  the  latitude  is 
found  1°  40'. 

If  we  will  determine  the  quantity  of  an  eclipfc,  or 
the  number  of  the  digits  eclipfed,  we  muft  add  the 
moon's  femidiameter  to  the  femidiameter  of  the 
Ihadow,  and  fubtraft,  from  the  fum,  the  arch  be- 
tween the  centers  ;  the  remainder  gives  the  fcruples, 
or  parts  of  the  diameter,  cciipfcd. 

To  find  the  titne  of  half  duration  of  an  cclipfe, 
or  the  arch  of  the  lunar  orbit  which  her  center  de- 
fcribcs  from  the  beginning  of  the  edipfe  to  the 
middle  thereof;  we  muft  add  the  femidiameters  of 
the  fhadow  A  P,  and  the  moon  P  M.,  together ;  the 
fum  gives  A  N.  From  the  fquare  of  A  N,  we  muft 
fubtract  the  fquare  of  A  I,  the  remainder  is  the 
fquare  of  1  N  ;  and  the  fquare  root  of  this  refidue 
i.-i  the  arch  1  N,  required.  But  we  will,  perhaps, 
have  the  fcruples  of  half  duration  of  total  durkncf, 
in  a  total  eclipje.     Then  we'll  fubtract  the  moon's 


true  place  reduced 


to  the  ediptick.  3.  For  the  time  of  the  true  full 
ynoon,  we  are  to  compute  the  moon's  true  latitude, 
the  diftance  of  each  luminary  from  the  earth,  with 
the  horizontal  parallaxes,  and  apparent  femidiame- 
ters. 4.  For  the  fame  time  we  muft  find  the  fun 
and  »?3«»'s  true  horary  motion.  5.  The  apparent 
femidiameter  of  the  fhadow.  And,  6.  The  arch 
between  the  centers  A  I,  with  the  arch  L  I.  7. 
Compute  the  fcruples  of  half  duration.  And  thence, 
8.  Determine  the  beginning,  middle,  and  end  of 
the  edipfe.  Lafth',  find  the  fcruples  eclipfed,  and 
thence  the  quantity  of  the  edipfe. 

From    the  j/won  let  us  defcend    to   the   lower 
planets. 

Mercury,  is  fo  fmall  a  planet,  that  it  can 
fcarcely  be  diftinguifhed,  though  almoft  equal  in 
radiancy  or  brightnefs  to  the  fixed  ftars  ;  but  is 
never  feen,  but  when  in  a  very  great  digrelTion 
from  the  fun,  and  is  feldom  difcovered  round,  even 
femidiameter  S  V,  from  the  femidiameter  of  the  |  by  the  telefcope,  but  only  divided  into  tv/o  parts, 
fhadow  AV;  the  remainder  is  AS.  In  the  tri- j  like  the /nu5«  while  in  the  quadratures, 
angle  A  I  S,  which  is  rectangular  at  I;  therefore  The  mean  diftance  of  yl/t/vw;^  frotp  the  _//<«  is  to 
wc  have  the  arch  A  b",  given  by  the  laft  method  ;    that  of  our  earth  from  the  fun,  as  387  to  icoc,  its 

*  SiNF,  ii  a  right  line  drawn  ftom  one  extremity  of  an  arch,  perpendicularly  upon  the  radius,  drawn  from  the 
other  extremity.  Or  the  /ir.e  is  half  the  chord  of  twice  the  arch.  That  arch,  is  a  part  of  any  curve  line,  for 
cxami/le,  of  a  cirdc,  dlipfu,  or  tlie  Ike.  And  that  djord,  is  the  bafe,  or  line  that  joins  the  two  extremes  of 
jtie  ar.:b. 

excen- 


ASTRONOMY. 


285 


cxccntricity  8  degrees.  The  inclination  of  its 
orblt.^  that  is,  the  angle  formed  by  the  plane  of  its 
orb'ity  with  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  is  6  degrees 
52  minutes.  Its  diameter  to  that  of  the  earth,  as 
3  to  4  ;  and  therefore  tlie  globe  oi  Mercury  will  be 
to  that  of  the  earth,  as  2  105.  According  to  Sir 
Ijaac  Nnvton,  the  heat  and  light  of  the.  fun  on  the 
furface  of  Mercury,  is  feven  times  as  intenfe  as  on 
the  furface  of  our  earth  in  the  middle  of  fummer  : 
which,  as  he  found  by  experiments  made  for  that 
purpofe  by  a  thermometer,  is  fufficieiit  to  make 
water  boil. 

The  revolution  of  Mercury  round  thzfun^  or-  his 
year,  is  performed  in  87  days  23  hours  ;  his  diur- 
nal revolution,  or  the  length  of  his  day,  is  not  yet 
determined  ;  nor  is  it  certain,  whether  he  has  fuch 
a  motion  round  his  own  axis  or  not.  The  force 
of  gravity  on  his  furface,  i  ■  feven  times  as  ftrong  us 
on  the  furface  of  the  earth.  Its  denfity,  and  con- 
fequently  the  gravitation  of  bodies  towards  the  cen- 
ter cannot  be  accurately  determined  ;  bat,  no 
doubt,  it  muft  exceed  that  of  our  earth,  by  reafon 
of  the  excefs  of  heat  there. 

Mercury  changes  his  phajes,  like  the  rnoon^  ac  - 
cording  to  his  I'everal  pofitions,  with  regard  to  the 
fun  and  earth.  As  to  his  fituation,  Mercury  is 
fometimes  obferved  betwixt  the  earth  and  the  fun  ; 
and  fometimes  beyond  the  fun.  Its  greatefl:  dillance 
from  the  fun,  with  regard  to  us,  never  exceeds  28 
degrees,  whence  it  is  feldom  vifible  ;  being  com- 
monly cither  lofl;  in  the  fun's  light,  or,  when  the 
moft,  remote  from  the  _//<«,  in  the  crepufculum. 
The  belt  obfervations  of  this  planet  are  thofe  made 
when  it  is  feen  on  the  furl's  difk  ;  for  in  its  lower 
conjun<flion  it  pafTes  before  the  y««  like  a  little  fpot, 
eclipfing  a  fmall  part  of  his  body,  which  was  firft 
obferved  by  Cajfendi  in  1632  ;  but  not  without  a 
telefcope. 

Next  to  Mercury  ^znds  Venus,  conftantly  at- 
tending the  fun,  and  never  departing  from  him  a- 
bove  47  degrees.  When  fhe  goes  before  the  fun, 
that  is,  rifes  from  him,  fhe  is  called  Phofphorus,  or 
Lucifer.,  or  the  morning  flar;  and  when  fhe  follows 
him,  that  is,  fets  after  him,  Hefpcrm,  or  Vcfpcr, 
or  the  evening  ftar. 

The  diameter  of  Venus  is  to  that  of  the  earth,  as 
JO  to  19  ;  her  diflance  from  the  fun  is  ili,\  of  the 
earth's  di  fiance  from  the  fun ;  her  excentricitv  5  ; 
the  inclination  ot  her  orbit  3°  23'  ;  her  periodical 
tourle  round  the  fun  performed  in  224  days,  17 
houib  ;  anl  her  motion  round  her  own  axis,  in  23 
hours.  Her  greatefl  diflance  from  the  earth  ac- 
cording to  C(/^«/,  is  38000  femidiameters  of  the 
earth  ;  and  her  fmallell  6000.  Her  parallax  is  3 
minutes. 

Venus^  when    viewed   through  a  telefcope,   is 


rarely  ieen  to  fhiiie  with  a  full  flicc,  but  has  phnfn 
juil  like  thole  of  the  moon  ;  being  now  gibbous, 
now  horned,  fs'c.  and  her  illumin'd  part  conflantiy 
turned  towards  the  fun-,  i.  e.  it  looks  towards  the 
eafl,  when  Phofphorus ;  and  towards  the  wcfl, 
when  Hefperus. 

The  phenomena  o\  Venus  evidently  fhew  the  fal- 
fity  of  the  Ptolemaic  fyfleni :  for  that  fyflem  fup- 
pofes,  that  Venus'^  orb,  or  heaven,  inclofes  the 
earth  ;  pafling  between  the  funzivX  Mercury.  And 
yet  all  our  obfervations  agree,  that  Venus  is  fome- 
times on  this  fide  t\\<i.fun,  and  Ibmetimes  on  that  ; 
nor  did  ever  any  body  lee  the  earth  between  Venus 
and  the  fun  ;  which  yet  mufl  frequently  happen, 
\i Venus  revoiv'd  round  the  earth,  in  a  heaven  be- 
low the  fun.  I'enus  is  eafily  diflinijuifhed,  bv  her 
brightnefs,  and  whitenel's,  which  exceeds  that  of 
all  the  other  planets,  and  which  is  fo  confiderable, 
that  in  a  duiky  place  fhe  projefts  a  fenfible  fhadow. 
Her  place  is  between  the  earth  and  Mercury. 

Tlievilible  conjun£liuns  oi Venus  with  the  fun, 
are  not  fo  frequent  as  thofe  of  Mercury,  by  reafon 
of  the  flower  motion  of  Venus,  whereby  fhe  fel- 
domer  attains  to  the  places  given.  And  becaufe 
her  periodical  times,  compared  with  the  periodical 
times  of  the  earth,  are  lefs  commenfurable,  and 
therefore  very  feldom  co-incident. 

Mars,  is  one  of  the  three  fuperior/i/^/zf/j,  and 
of  thofe  three  the  nearefl  to  us  ;  being  placed  be- 
tween the  fun  and  Jupiter.  Its  mean  diflance 
from  the  fun,  is  1524  of  thofe  parts,  whereof  the 
diflance  of  the  fun  from  the  earth  is  1000  ;  its  ex- 
centricity  141  ;  the  inclination  of  its  orbit,  that  is, 
the  angle  formed  by  the  plane  of  its  orbit  with  the 
plane  of  the  ecliptic,  i  degree,  52  minutes  ;  the 
periodical  time,  in  which  it  makes  its  revolution 
round  the  fun,   686  days,  23  hours. 

It  mufl  be  obferved,  that  in  the  Copernican  and 
Tychonic  hypothefes,  the  earth  is  contained  within 
the  circiunference  of  this  circle  ;  and  that  hence 
Mars  is,  at  certain  times,  in  oppofuion  to  they//>«  ; 
that  is,  when  near  the  earth  ;  and  fometimes 
Mars  is  nearer  to  it  than  the  fun  himfelf  ;  as  it  is 
evident  in  both  fyflems  :  and  then  he  appears  bigger 
to  us,  than  while  in  conjuniStion  with  the  fun,  tho' 
in  conjunction,  as  well  as  in  oppofition,  it  fhines 
in  full  orbit ;  but  in  conjundlion  he  is  fuperior  to 
they««,  and  at  a  greater  diflance  from  us;  but 
nearer,  when  in  oppofition,  in  the  quadratures,  he 
has  the  fame  phafes  the  moon  has,  but  they  are 
very  little  fenfible  to  us. 

Mars  always  appears  with  a  ruddy  troubled  lighe, 
whence  we  conclude  it  is  encompailed  with  a  thick, 
cloudy  atmofpherc,  which  by  dillurbing  the  rays  of 
light  in  their  pafiiige  and  repaflage  through,  it  oc- 
caiions  that  appearance, 

O  o  2  Jupiter 


86 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  aif  ARTS~^«<a? Sciences. 


JuirrtR,  is  one  of  the  fuperior  planets,  fitu- 
ate  between  Stiturn  and  Mnrs,  remarkable  for  its 
brightners,  which  by  its  proper  motioji  feems  tore 
volve  rounii  the  earth  in  about  12  yeurs.  It  has  a 
rotation  rouivi  iti  own  axis  in  9  hours  56  minutes  ; 
ami  a  periodical  revolution  round  the  fun  in  4332 
(lays,  12  hours,  20' 9":  It  is  the  biggeft  of  all  the 
planets  ;  its  diameter,  to  that  of  the  fun  appears, 
by  altronomical  obfervatfons,  to  be  as  1077  is  to 
loooo  ;  to  that  of  Sciurfi,  as  1077  to  889  ;  to 
that  of  the  earth,  as  1077  to  104.  1  he  force  ot 
gravity  on  its  lurfsce  is  to  that  on  the  furface  of  the 
fun,  as  797,15  is  to  10,0000  ;  to  that  o(  Saturn,  as 
797,15  to  534>337  ;  to  that  of  the  earth,  as 
797,15  to  407,832.  The  denhty  of  its  matter  is 
to  that  of  the  fun,  as  7404  to  loooo  ;  to  that  of 
Saturn,  as  7404  to  6011  ;  to  that  of  the  earth,  as 
7404  to  3921.  The  quantity  of  matter  contained 
,  in  its  body  is  to  that  of  the  fun,  as  9,248  to  io,ooo; 
to  that  of  Saturn,  as  9,248  to  4,223  ;  to  that  of 
the  earth,  as  9,248  to  0,0044. 

The  mean  diftance  of  Jupiter  from  the  fan  is 
5201  ofthofe  parts,  whereof  the  mean  diftance  of 
the  earth  from  th.c  fun  is  1000,  tho'  Kepler  only 
makes  it  5196  of  thofe  parts.  C<7/^«/ calculates 
Jupiters  mean  diflance  from  the  earth  to  be 
1 15,000  femiJiametersof  the  earth.  Gregorycom- 
putes  the  diftance  oi  Jupiter  from  the  fun  to  be  five 
times  as  great  as  that  of  the  earth  from  the  fun  ; 
whence  he  gathers,  that  the  diameter  of  the  fun, 
to  a!i  eye  placed  in  Jupiter,  would  not  be  a  fifth 
part  of  what  it  appears  to  us  ;  and  therefore  its 
dilk  would  be  tv.-enty-five  times  lefs,  and  his  light 
and  licat  in  the  fame  proportion. 

Jupiter  appears  almoft  as  large  as  Venus,  but  is 
not  altogether  fo  bright.  He  is  eclipfed  by  the 
moon,  by  the  fun,  and  even  by  Mars.  He  has 
three  appendages,  called  Zones  or  Belts,  which  Sir 
Ifacic  N.iL'ton  thinks  are  formed  in  his  atmofphere. 
In  thefe  are  feveral  maades  or  fpots,  carried  from 
caft  to  weft  (in  a  part  confpicuous  to  us)  in  the 
{pace  of  9  hours  56  minutes,  thedifcovery  of  which 
is  controverted  between  Eujiachio,  P.  Gotignies, 
Cajfwi,  and  Ciimpani. 

In  1610,  the  7th  of  January,  at  one  the  fol- 
lov/ing  night,  Galilao  difcovered,  round  Jupiter. 
four  little  planets  or  moons,  which  move  round 
him,  and  which  he  called  the  Jjira  Medicaa,  and 
we  the  Satellites  of  Jupiter.  Thofe  nearer  to  him 
move  with  a  greater  celerity,  than  thofe  at  a  greater 
diflaiice.  Simcn  Marcus  has  defined  their  revolu- 
tions in  the  following  manner.     Revolves  : 


The  third, 
d    h     '      " 

7  ■^i  5^  3+ 


The  fourth;^ 
d  h  '  " 
16  18  09   15 


The  fir't  and  innermoft 
d    h      '        ■' 
1   iS  28  30 


The  fecoiid. 
d    h      '       " 
3  13  18  00 


Cajjini  obferved  that  the  firft  or  innermoft  of 
thele  Satellites  oi  Jupiter,  was  five  femidiameters  of 
Jupiter,  diltant  from  Jupiter  itfelf,  and  made  its 
revolution  in  one  day,  18  hours,  and  32  minutes. 
The  fecond,  which  is  fomewhat  greater,  he  found 
eight  diameters  dillant  from  Jupiter,  and  its  revo- 
lution 3  d:.ys,  13  hours,  and  12  minutes.  The 
third,  which  is  the  greateft  of  all,  is  diftant  from 
Jupiter  13  femidiameters,  and  finilhesits  courfein 
7  days,  3  hours,  and  50  minutes.  The  laft, 
which  is  the  leaft  of  all,  is  dillant  from  Jupiter  23 
femidiameters  ;  its  period  is  16  days,  18  hours, 
and  9  minutes. 

Jupiter'^  Satellites,  when  they  enter  its  fliadow 
(like  the  moon  when  fhe  enters  the  earth's  Ihadow) 
are  eclipfed,  becaufe  they  are  opake  bodies,  and 
receive  their  light  from  the  fun.  The  three  firft 
caufe  three  eclipfes  in  each  revolution.  1.  When 
the  Sate/lite  enters  the  difk  of  Jupiter.  2.  When 
the  fhadovv  of  the  Satellite  darkens  the  difk  of  Ju- 
piter. 3.  When  the  fuperior  part  of  Jupiter  hides 
the  Satellite.  4.  When  the  Satellite  is  immergcd 
in  Jupiter's  fha''ow.  Therefore  the  firft  Satellite 
caufes  eclipfes  within  feven  days  ;  the  fecond  eight  ; 
the  third  four  ;  and  all  together  twenty-eight. 
The  firft  Satellite,  when  arrived  at  the  node,  caufej 
four  eclipfes  within  feventeen  days. 

CaJJini  has  invented  proper  tables  for  the  compu- 
tation of  the  eclipfes  of  the  Satellite  next  Jupiter, 
which  indicates  the  very  moment  of  the  eclipfe. 

Saturn  is  of  all  the  planets  the  fartheft  from 
the  earth  and  the  fun,  on  which  account,  though 
the  biggeft  of  all  the  planets  it  appears  the  fmalleft, 
and  to  fliine  but  with  a  feeble  light  Its  period,  or 
the  fpace  of  time  wherein  he  revolves  round  the 
fun  (which  makes  his  year)  according  to  Kepler,  is 
29  years,  174  days,  4  hours,  58  minutes,  25  fe- 
conds,  and  30  thirds  ;  whence  his  diurnal  mo- 
tion muft  be  2  minutes,  o  feconds,  36  thirds  ; 
though  De  la  Hire  makes  his  diurnal  motion  2 
minutes,  i  fecond.  'T  he  inclination  of  his  plane 
to  that  of  the  ecliptic,  Kepler  makes  2°  32';  De 
la  Hire  1°  33'.  Its  mean  diftance  from  the  fun  is 
326925  femidiameters  of  the  earth  ;  and  from  the 
earth  210,000  of  the  fame.  Its  fmalleft  diameter, 
according  to  Huygens,  is  30  feconds.  The  pro- 
portion of  its  diameter  to  that  of  the  earth,  as  20 
to  I  ;  of  its  furface  to  that  of  the  earth,  as  400  to 
I  ;  of  its  folidity  to  that  of  the  earth,  as  i  to 
8000. 

The  diftance  of  Saturn  from  the   fun  beins  ten 
times  greater  than  that  of  the  earth  from  the  fame, 

it 


ASTRONOMY. 


287 


it  fs  fotinJ  that  the  apparent  diameter  of  the  fun  fi-eii 
from  him,  will  not  exceed  3  minutes,  which  is  but 
little  more  than  twice  the  diameter  of  Venus. 

It  is  doubted,  whether  or  no  Saturn,  like  the 
other  planets,  revolves  round  its  axis  :  it  does  not 
appear,  from  any  agronomical  obfervations,  that 
he  docs  ;  and  there  is  one  circumftance  that  (hould 
feem  to  argue  the  contrary,  vlx.  that  whereas  the 
earth,  and  other  planets,  which  we  know  do  re- 
volve on  their  axes,  have  their  equatorial  diameters 
greater  than  their />ff/ar ;  nothing  like  this  is  ob- 
ferved  in  Saturn. 

The-  fuppofed  various  and  extraordinary  phafcs 
oi  Saturn,  have  long  perplexed  the  Aftronomers. 
But  Htiygens  has  reduced  all  his  phafes  to  three 
principal  ones,  viz.  round,  brachiated,  and  an- 
fated. 

Saturn  has  a  ring  peculiar  to  himfelf,  which  fur- 
rounds  his  middle  like  an  arch,  or  like  the  horizon 
oi  za.  armillary  fphere,  without  touching  him  any 
where ;  the  diameter  whereof  is  more  than  double 
that  of  the  planet  which  it  furrounds  ;  the  former 
containing  45  diameters  of  the  earth,  the  latter 
only  20.  VVhen  raifed  enough  to  be  out  of  the 
fliadow  of  the  body  of  5tf/z^r«,  it  refledls  the  light 
of  the  fun  very  ftrongly.  Dr/ff/// obferves,  that 
the  thicknefs  of  the  ring  takes  up  one  half  of  the 
fpace  between  its  outer,  or  convex  furface,  and 
the  furface  of  the  planet.  This  ring  is  found  to 
be  an  opake,  fulid,   but  fmooth,  and  even  body. 

Saturn  performs  his  courfe  round  the  fun,  at- 
tended with  five  Satellites,  or  fecondary  planets  ;  the 
firft-  of  which  was  difcovered  by  Cajfini,  at  the 
Royal  Obfervatory  zt  Paris,  anno  1672,  to  be  di- 
llaiit  from  the  center  of  Saturn,  a  diameter  and 
.  two  thirds  of  the  ring,  and  to  accomplifh  his  courfe 
round  Saturn  in  the  fpace  of  4  days,  12  hours,  and 
27  minutes.  The  fecond  had  been  long  before 
difcovered  by  Htiygens,  and  is  a  great  deal  bigger 
than  the  firft.  This  is  diftant  from  Saturn's  center, 
four  diameters  of  the  ring,  and  revolves  round  him 
in  16  days,  23  hours,  rht  third  wasobferved  by 
CaJJini,  anno  ibji,  towards  the  latter  endof0^7i-  j 
ier,  in  a  great  digreffion  from  Saturn,  but  foon 
vanilhed  fiom  his  fight,  and  could  not  be  feen  a- 
gain  till  towards  the  15th  of  December,  and  foon 
difappeared  again,  tiil  the  beginning  of  February, 
1673  ;  when  it  continued  vihble  for  thirteen  days 
fucceflively. 

Dr.  Hailey,  in  the 
gives  us  a  coireiiion  of  the  thtory  of  the  motion  of 
the  fourth  Satellite.  Its  true  period  he  makes  15 
days,  .22  hours,  41  minutes,  6  feconds  ;  its  diurnal 
motion,  22°  34' 38"  18'";  its  diliance  from  the 
center  oi  Saturn,  4  diameters  ofthe/7V;_f;  and  its 
oibit  to  be  little  or  nothing  diilant  from  that  of  the 


Philofophical  Tranfa  ''lions. 


t  lug,  interfering  the  orbit  of  Saturn  under  an  angle 
of  23  degrees  and  a  half. 

The  Orrery,  which  is  a  machine  (fec^thc 
figure  thereof  in  the  Copper  Plate)  that  reprefcnts 
the  true  SoL.'iR  SvsrEM,  and  gives  a  juit  idea  of 
the  number,  inotions,  order,  and  pofition;  of  the 
heavenly  bodies. 

I  his  machine  is  alfo  called  a  Planetarium,  and  ii 
fixed  in  a  frame  of  ebony,  contained  by  twelve 
vertical  planes,  on  which  are  reprefcnted  the  twclv'^ 
figns  o(  ihc  zodiac.  I  he  upper  furface  is  flat,  of 
poliihed  hrafs,  on  whole  ouiward  circumference  are 
fcrevvcd  in  twelve  brafs  pillars,  which  fupport  a 
large  flat  filvered  ring  marked  12,  reprefenting  the 
ecliptic,  with  feveral  circles  drawn  upon  it.  The 
three  innermoll  are  divided  into  tive've parts  for  tl"iC 
figp.s  of  the  zodiac,  each  of  which  is  divided  into 
thiity  degrees,  and  among  thtfe  degrees  are  praved 
in  their  proper  places,  the  uod  s,  aphJia,  and  great- 
eft  north  and  (buth  latitudes  of  the  planets.  Bo«- 
tween  the  next  two  circles  are  the  cardinal  points. 
The  next  three  circles  have  the  months  and  the  days 
of  the  month,  according  to  the  new  ftile. 

Upon  the  brafs-furface  of  the  machine  are  gra- 
duated filver-circles,  which  cany  the  planets  (reprc- 
fented  by  filver-balls)  upon  arbours  or  flcms,  that 
raife  them  up  to  the  height  of  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic ;  and  turning  about  the  handle  or  winch  of 
the  Orrery,  all  the  planets  move  at  their  propr.;-- 
tional  diflances  from  uTtith  gilt  ball  in  the  middle, 
which  reprefents  the  ///"z  ;  and  perform  their  revo- 
lutions according  to  their  periodical  times.  There 
are  fixed  indices  of  blued  fled,  which  fliew  the  lon- 
gitudes of  the  planets,  by  pointing  to  the  divifions  of 
the  filvered  rings  or  ciirks,  as  they  move  round. 
But  as  thcfe  circles,  being  concentric,  give  onlv  the 
mean  diftances,  the  true<r'^/.',  acccrding  to  their 
exeeniricities,  are  graved  on  theoutfide  of  each  cir- 
cle, with  (he  periodical  times  taken  from  the  tables. 
to  fhcw  what  the  revolutions  are,  nearer  than  can 
be  piTiormed  by  any  machine. 

The  nsde^' a.nd  ajhelia,  with  the  places  ofgreatelt 
north  and  fouth  latitudes,  are  alfo  marked  on  thofc 
o  bits. 

In  the  middle  of  this  large  circle,  dcfigncd  to  re- 
prefent  the  eclipt  c,  is  fixed  a  globe,  r.  to  reprefent 
the  fi:-n.  Nexttheyi/«  is  a  fmall  ball,  2,  to  repre- 
fent Mercury.  Next  to  this  is  Venus,  3,  rcprefent- 
ed  by  a  latger  ball.  And,  at  a  greater  diliance 
from  the  Jun,  you  fee  the  earth,  4,  reprcicnted  bv 
an  ivory  bail,  furrounded,  at  (ome  di.lance,  bv  a 
ring,  wliich  expreffes  the  ar^/r  of  the  .7r./jw,  making 
an  angle  v\  iih  the  circle  th.at  rcprefcnis  the  ecliptic, 
and  thereKy  fhewing  the  inclination  they  h^ve  to 
each  other  in  the  heavens,  and  alfo  the  line  of  tlic 
no.Ls.     Within  the  fame  ring  is  anothe-r  ivory  ball. 

5,  wish 


288  Tlie   Univerfal  Hlftory  <?/*  Arts  ^«<5^  Sciences. 


5,  with  a  black  cap  or  cafe,  to  reprefcnt  the  moon; 
the  cap  is  contri\  cd  always  to  cover  that  hemifphere, 
which  is  turned  from  theyi<»,  and  thereby  diftin- 
guiflicth  the  enlightened  part  from  the  dark  fide, 
and,  confequcntly,  her  age.  6.  Reprefents  Afari. 
7.  Is  'Jupiter  attended  with  his  fntellites,  or  four 
moons.  And  8,  the  outmoft  of  all  the  planets,  is 
Saturn  with  his  ring  or  belt,  and  five  faiellites  or 
moons.  All  thefc  are  fixed  upon  fmall  ftems,  which 
feverally  reprefent  their  axes,  each  of  which   hath 


As  the  diftances  are  in  their  true  proportions  to 
each  other,  (b  likewife  are  the  bodies  of  the  planets 
in  their  juft  proportions  to  one  another.  But  it 
cannot  be  expedted,  that  the  diameters  of  the  pla- 
nets {hould  be  in  proportion  to  the  diameters  of  the 
orbits  ;  becaufe  taking  Jupiter  under  three  inches 
diamefter,  and  the  earth  a  little  more  than  a  quarter 
of  an  inch,  it  would  require  the  fyjlem  to  be  of  the 
bignefs  of  a  mile  and  |,  the  orbit  of  Saturn  90CO 
I  feet   in   diameter,  and  fo  on  of  the  reft ;  which 


its  peculiar  and  proper  inclination   to  the  plane  of    would  make  the  machine  3000  times  biggerthan  iti 


Is 


that  circle  which  rcprefents  the  ecliptic.  9 
dial-plate.  10,  1 0,10,  Aieridians  ;  11.  The  equa- 
tor. 12.  Ihc  ecliptic  with  its  circles,  already  de- 
fcribed.  13,  1 3.  Two  keys  for  locking  and  unlock- 
ing the  diurnal  and  annual  motions  j  and  as  to  the 
ariftc  circle,  tropic  oi'  cancer, and  moved.b\e  horizon, 
they  are  named  in  the  figure. 

The  principal  ufc  of  the  Orrery  is  to  render 
the  theory  of  the  eai  th  and  the  moon  eafy  and  intelli- 
gible ;  and  to  evidence  to  our  fenfes  how  all  thefe 
appearances  happen,  which  depend  on  the  annual 
or  diurnal  rotation  t)f  the  earth,  and  the  monthly 
revolutions  of  the  moon  :  as  the  variety  of  feafons, 
the  viciflitudes  and  various  lengths  of  days  and 
nights,  the  manner  of  folar  znd  lunar  eclipfes,  the 
various  phafcs  of  the  tmon,  &c.  There  have  been 
various  forms  invented  for  this  noble  inftrument, 
two  of  which  have  principally  obtained,  viz.  the 
hemifphcrical  r.rrery,  and  the  whole _/Ji/;i^' ^  .•  though 
the  orrery  at  firfl  was  made  without  any  fphere, 
with  only  x\\z  fun,  the  earth  and  moon  revolving 
about  it;  but  as  this  was  too  imperfedl  a  flate, they 
foon  began  to  invert  it,  fome  with  a  ha.]{  fphere, 
and  others  with  a  whole  fphere  to  be  an  adequate 
reprefentation  of  the  folar  fyjlcm. 

The  hemifph  rical  orrer-,,  as  that  above  defcribed, 
has  been  made  in  greater  numbers  than  any  other, 
on  account  of  their  being  made  much  cheaper  and 
eafier  tha/i  thofe  in  li  fphere  of  the  fame  fize ;  there 
bcir.g  a  vaft  diiference  between  placing  an   hemi- 
fphere on  the  box  of  an  orrery,  and  difpofing  an 
criery  inalarge  msieable_/5^/6(r«'.    But  the  idea  given 
us  by  the  former,  is  very  imperfeiSt  and  unnatural  in 
comparifon   of  the  latter,  and    it  is  furprizing  to 
think   how  they  fhould  have   fo  great  a  run.     An 
orrery,  therefore,  adapted  to  an   armiilary  fphere, 
\s  the  only  machine  that  can  exhibit  a  juft  idea  of 
the  true  fyjiem  of  the  world,  with  the  diurnal   and 
annual  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies ;  but  is  like- 
wife  capable  of  exhibiting  the  third  motion  of  the 
earth,  viz.  that  motion  of  the  earth,  by  which  the 
poles  of  the  world  re\  olve  about  the  poles  of  the 
ecliptic,  and  occafions  what  is  commonly  called  the 
precedions  of  the  equinoxes,  or  more  properly  the 
the  retrogreffion  of  the  earth's  nodes. 


And 


if  the  bodies  were  fuited  to  the  dimenfions 
given,  the  bodies  mull  be  3000  times  lefs,  which 
would  render  them  all  invilible,  but  the  yi/;;;  and 
that  would  be  lefs  than  rtsth  part  of  an  inch.  For 
this  reafon,  as  a  ball  big  enough  to  reprefent  the 
fun  cannot  be  put  on,  we  are  to  fuppofe  tht  fun  (in 
refpccl  of  them)  as  big  as  the  inner  circle  of  the 
filvcr-ring,  which  reprefents  the  ecliptic. 

As  the  orbit  of  the  moon,  and  the  orbits  of  the 
fatellites  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  are  quite  loft  in 
his  proportion  of  the  orbits  of  the  primary  planets, 
much  more  arc  the  fatellites  thcinfelves  ;  therefore 
the  fatellites  are  ufually  not  put  on  in  this  pofition 
of  the  machine.  But  Saturn  %  ring  is  joined  to 
Saturn's  body,  according  to  its  proportion,  and  the 
inclination  of  its  plane  to  the  plane  of  Saturn's  orbit  : 
and  as  the  planet  is  carried  round,  the  ring  always 
moves  parallel  to  itfelf,  as  it  does  in  the  heavens. 
Thereby  we  fee  why  the  inhabitants  of  the  earthy 
in  one  revolution  of  Saturn,  fee  the  ring  twice  in 
the  mofl  open  fituation  of  the  Anfce,  as  at  8,  and 
twice,  as  if  it  had  no  ring,  that  is,  when  the  edge 
of  the  ring  is  towards  the  earth  (the  plane  of  the 
ring  going  through  the  obferver's  eye)  and  the  fuc- 
cclTive  increafing  and  decreafing  of  the  vifible  big- 
nefs af  the  Anjie. 

'Jupiter,  with  his  means,  is  reprefented  at  7, 
and  the  fpots  whereby  his  revolution  has  been  ob- 
ferved. 

When  you  have  a  compleat  idea  of  the  propor- 
tional bignefs  of  the  plana s,  Jupiter  and  Saturn  are 
taken  off,  and  others  put  on  three  times  lefs  than 
the  former,  in  order  to  put  fatJlites  about  them 
(and  at  the  fame  time  the  moon  is  joined  to  the 
earth)  and  fhew  how  the  fatellites  accompany  their 
primary  planet  in  its  courfe  round  the  fun.  Thefe 
fatellites,  which  are  pearls  upon  crooked  flems,  do 
not  turn  by  clock-work  round  their  primaries  (as 
has  been  done  in  fome  large  orreries)  but  are  only 
fet  by  the  hand  :  becaufe,  to  do  it,  would  be  only 
a  needlefs  expence,  to  give  a  falfe  notion  of  their 
bignefs,  diflances,  and  inclination  of  their  orbits, 
in  refpeft  of  their  primaries. 

But  to  give  a  right  notion  of  'Jupiter  and  h'la  fa- 
tellites, and  of  Saturn  and  his  fatellites,  there  is 

fliewn 


ASTRONOMY. 


289 


(hewn  for  each  of  thefc  planeti  a  Jyjiem  a-part, 
where  the  diftances  from  the  primary,  and  the  big- 
nefs  of  the  fateU'ttes,  are  exprefled  :  and  in  this 
fyjiem,  tho'jfupiti-ria  but  of  about  an  inch  diameter, 
the  outermoft  fateUite  is  as  far  diftant  from  Jufii- 
ier's  center,  as  Saturn  is  from  the  fun  in  the  ma- 
chine; which  fliews  the  inconfiftency  and  diipro- 
portion  of  making  tht  fatllitei  to  move  round  Jtipi- 
ter  in  an  orrery.  Saturn's  fatellltes  are  ftiil  more 
improperly  put  in  ;  becaufe  four  of  them  move  in 
orbits  very  much  inclined  to  Saturn  i  ecliptic  (viz. 
in  an  angle  of  above  thirty  degrees)  and  the  fifth 
has  Its  orbit  aimofl:  in  the  fame  plane  as  Saturn's 
ecliptic,  with  a  diameter  greater  than  the  diameter 
of  the  whole  orrery,  even  when  Saturn  is  three 
times  lefs  than  the  Saturn  of  the  orrery. 

The  next  thing  which  is  put  on,  is  a  contri- 
vance, to  flicw,  that  all  the  confufion  of  the  planets 
mctions  in  the  Ptolemaic  hypothefts  (called  their  fl:a- 
tions  and  retrogradations)  is  not  really,  but  appa- 
rently fo,  in  the  Caper n lean  or  true  fy/lem  of  the 
world.  And  this  is  done  by  two  fteel  Indices,  one 
of  which  being  always  applyed  to  the  fun,  and  fuc- 
ceffively  to  the  top  of  the  ftem  of  the  p/anet  to  be 
examined,  whilft  the  other  is  applied  to  the  earth 
(as  a  center)  and  the  faid  planet  :  by  turning  the 
handle  of  the  machine,  the  heliocentric  and  geocen- 
tric places  of  the  planet  are  ken  on  the  ecliptic  at 
the  fame  time  ;  fhewing  why  the  planets  feem  to  go 
backwards  and  forwards  when  viewed  from  the 
earth  ;  though  they  go  all  the  while  regularly  from 
wejl  to  ea/l,   as  they  would  be  feen  from  the  fun. 

When  the  machine  is  put  in  motion,  all  thefe  bo- 
dies move  round  that  which  reprefcnts  the  fun, 
and,  at  the  fame  time,  both  that,  and  all  thofe 
which  reprefent  fuch  of  the  planets  as  have  been 
obferved  to  have  a  rotation  about  their  axis,  turn 
round  upon  the  faid  ftems,  and  in  their  proper 
times.  '\he  JatcUitC',  or  moins,  alfo  revolve  about 
their  primaries  at  the  fame  time;  and  the  ring  that 
reprefcnts  the  orbit  of  the  moon  has  likewife  its  pro- 
per motion,  whereby  that  of  its  nodes  is  alfo  ex- 
prefled. The  whole  machine  is  put  into  motion  by 
turning  a  fmall  winch,  14,  like  the  key  of  a  clock, 
with  very  little  flrength.  And,  above  this  winch, 
is  a  cylindrical  pin,  which  may  be  drawn  a  little 
out,  or  pufhed  in  at  pleafure  :  when  it  is  pufhed 
in,  all  the  planets,  hoth  primary  a.nd  fecone/ary,  will 
move  according  to  their  refpe£iive  periods,  by  turn- 
ing the  handle  or  winch  :  when  it  is  drawn  out, 
the  motions  of  the  fatetlites  oi' 'Jupiter  and  Saiurn 
will  be  Itopped,  while  all  the  reft  move  freely. 
In  the  place  o{  the  fun,  you  may  fix  a  brafe-lamp, 
with  two  convex-glafles,  made  on  pui-pofe ;  which, 
being  placed  with  the  glafs  diredly  to  the  earth, 
and  turning  round  in  the  fame  time  with  the  earth, 
throws  a  coiuinual  ftrong  light  upon  it  and  the 


tfioon,  in  whatever  part  of  its  orbli  it  is ;  and  fo  not 
only  the  times  in  which  the  ecllpfes  of  the  fun  and 
7!icon  will  happen,  are  fliewn,  but  the  phenomena 
themfelves  are  truly  rtprelentcd 

Wlien  you  propofc  to  ufe  this  machine,  place  a 
fmall  black  patch,  or  a  bit  of  wafer,  upon  the 
middle  of  the  fun,  right  againft  the  firlf  degree  of 
V  :  you  may  alfo  place  patches  upon  Venus,  Mars, 
and  fiipltcr,  right  againft  fomc  noted  point  in  the 
ecliptic ;  put  on  the  handle,  and  pufh  in  the  pin 
which  is  juft  above  it.  One  turn  of  this  handle 
anfwcrs  to  a  revolution  of  the  ball,  which  repre- 
fcnts the  earth,  about  its  axis  ;  and,  confequently, 
to  24  hours  of  time,  as  may  be  ieen  by  the  motion 
of  the  honr  index,  9,  which  is  marked,  and  placed 
at  the  foot  of  the  wire,  on  which  the  ball  of  the 
earth  is  fixed  :  again,  when  the  index  has  moved 
the  fpace  of  ten  hours,  "Jupiter  makes  one  com- 
plete revolution  round  its  axis ;  and  fo  of  the  refl. 

By  thefe  means  the  revolutions  of  the  planets, 
and  their  motions  round  their  own  axes,  will  be 
reprefented  to  the  eye.  And  it  is  worth  obferva- 
tion,  that  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  planets  was  dif- 
covered,  by  obferving  the  motions  of  the  fpots  up- 
on the  furface  of  the  fun,  and  of  the  planets  in  the 
heavens,  after  the  fame  manner  as  we  here  obferve 
the  motions  of  their  reprefentatives,  by  that  of  the 
marks  placed  upon  them  in  this  machine. 

This  machine  is  fo  contrived,  that  the  winch 
may  be  turned  either  way  ;  fo  that  the  fame  num- 
ber of  revolutions  being  made  backwards,  they 
will  bring  all  the  planets  to  their  former  afpecls  or 
fituations  in  refpecSt  to  each  other. 

It  would  be  too  great  an  undertaking  here  to 
give  an  account  of  the  mechanifm  of  the  larger  fort 
of  Orreries,  which  reprefent  the  movements 
of  all  the  heavenly  bodies  ;  nor,  indeed,  can  it  be 
done  either  by  diagram  or  defcription,  to  reader  it 
intelligible  to  the  mofl  difcerning  reader  ;  but,  in- 
ftead  of  that,  we  (hall  exhibit  an  idea  of  the  theory 
andftruiStureof  an  ufeful,concife,  and  portable  Pi.a- 
NETARitTM,  which  any  gentleman  may  have  made 
for  a  fmall  expence,  and  will  exhibit,  very  juftly, 
the  motions  of  all  the  primary  planets  about  the  fun, 
by  wheel-work ;  and  thofc  that  have  Iccondarics, 
or  moons,  may  have  them  placed  about  their  prima- 
ries moveably  by  the  hand,  fo  that  the  whole  fliall 
be  a  juft  reprefentation  o^  the  folar  fy/lem,  or  true 
ftate  of  the  heavens,  for  any  given  time  of  the  year. 

In  order  to  this  we  mult  compare,  and  find  out 
the  proportion,  which  the  periodical  times,  or  re- 
volutions of  the  primary  planets,  bear  to  that  of  the 
earth  \  and  they  are  fuch  as  are  expreffed  in  the 
table  below,  where  the  firft  column  is  the  time  of 
the  earth's  period  in  days  and  decimal  parts  ; 
the  fecond,    that   of  the  plamts  j    the  third   and 

fourth 


290  T'he  Univcrfal  Hiftory  of  A'rts  jW  Sciences. 


fourth  are  numbers  in  the  fame  proportion  to  each 
other ;  as, 


365,25  :  224,7  ?  :  ;  52  ; 
;;65,25  :  686  9  (f  :  :  4.0  : 
_>(>5,25  :433''5  t  ■■  7  ■ 
365,25  :  10759  3  1?::  5  ^ 


70.  for  ATcrcury. 
32,  for  Verius, 
75,  for  Mars. 
83,  for  'Jupitet. 
148,  for  Saturn, 


If  we  now   fuppofe  a 
wheels    f.xcd   in:on   it 


fpindle  or  arbor  with  fix 
in  an  hori/oiital  pofition, 
having  the  number  of  teeth  in  each,  corrcfpond- 
ing  to  the  numbers  in  the  tliird  column,  vl'z.. 
the  wheel  AM  of  83  teeth,  BL  of  52,  CK 
of  50  (for  the  earth),  ])I  of  40,  EH  of  7,  and 
KG  of  5  ;  and  another  futof  wheels  mo",  rug  freely 
about  an  aibor,  having  the  number  of  teeth  in  the 
fourth  column,  viz.  AN  of  20,  BO  of  32,  CP 
of  50  (for  the  earth),  DQ_of  75,  ER  of  8  <,  and 
FSof  148;  then,  if  thofe  two  arbors,  of  fixed 
;uid  moveable  wheels  are  made  of  the  fize,  and 
fixed  at  the  diflance  from  each  other,  the  teeth 
of  the  former  will  take  thofe  of  the  lattter,  and 
turn  them  freely,  when  the  machine  is  in  mo- 
tion. 

Thefe  arbors,  with  their  wheels,  are  to  be  pla- 
ced in  a  box,  of  an  adequate  iize,  in  a  perpendi- 
cular pofition  :  the  arbor  of  fixed  wheels  to  move  in 
pivots  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  box  ;  and  the 
arbor  of  moveable  wheels  to  go  through  the  top  of 
the  box,  to  a  proper  height,  on  the  top  of  which  is  to 
he  placed  a  round  ball,  gilt  with  gold,  to  reprefent 
the  fun.  On  each  of  the  moveable  wheels  is  to 
be  fixed  a  fockct,  or  tube,  afcending  above  the  top 
of  the  box,  and  having  on  the  top  a  wire  fixed, 
and  bent  at  a  proper  diilance  into  a  right  angle  up- 
wards, bearing  on  the  top  a  fmall  round  ball  repre- 
feming  its  proper  planets. 

If  then  on  the  lower  part  of  the  arbor  of  fixed 
wheels  be  placed  a  pinion  of  fcrew  teeth,  a  winch 
turning  a  fpindle  v.-ith  an  endlel's  fcrcw,  playing  in 
the  teeth  of  the  arbor,  will  turn  it  with  all  its 
wheels ;  and  thefe  wheels  will  move  the  others 
about  with  their  piavets,  in  thcirproperand  refpeciive 
periods  of  time,  very  exadly.     For,  while  the  fixed 


on  account  of  fome  fuppofed  analogy  between  ("hofe 
celeftial,  and  fubterraneous  bodies.  Saturn  is  re- 
prefenTed  by  the  charadler  b  .  Jupiter  hy  ii.  Mars 
S  .  I'mus  ?  .  Mercury  J  .  'J'o  which  we  now 
add,   Tcllus,  the  Earth,  marked  0,  or  5. 

The  inftruments  requifite  in  Jjironomical  objer- 
vatlons,  are  Tele/copes,  of  feveral  fizcs  ;  Armitlary 
and  Tjodiacal  spheres  ;  Cele/fial globes,  AJlronomical 
quadrants,  Ax.imi'.thal  horizon;.   Sextants,  &C. 

A  Tflfscope,  is  an  optical  inflrumcnt,  con- 
fiding of  feveral  glafies,  or  lenfcs,  fitted  into  a 
tube,  through  which  remote  objeds  are  fcen,  as  if 
nigh  at  hand.  The  telefcopes  us'd  in  AJlronomical 
ohjervatiovs,  caWed  a]fo  A/lronomical  telefcopes,  con- 
fill:  of  an  objecft  glafs,  which  is  th.it  ghifs  turned 
towards  the  o'bjedt ;  and  an  cyc-glafs,  which  is 
that  next  the  eye,  both  convex. 

Armillarv  Sphere,  is  wn  Ajlronomical  in- 
fl-rument,  reprefenting  the  feveral  circles  of  the 
fphere,  in  their  natural  order  ;  ferving  to  give  an 
idea  of  the  office  and  pofition  of  each  thereof,  and 
to  folve  various  problems  relating  thereto.  It  is 
thus  called,  as  confiftingof  a  number  of  fafcia^,  or 
rings  of  brafs  or  other  matter,  called  by  the  Latins, 
armillf,  from  their  refembling  of  bracelets,  or 
rings  for  the  arm.  By  this  it  is  diftinguifhed  from 
x.\\e globe,  which  though  it  has  all  the  circles  of  the 
fphere  on  its  furface,  yet  is  not  cut  into  armilla,  or 
rings,  to  reprefent  the  circles  fimply,  and  alone  ; 
but  exhibits  alfo  the  intermediate  (paces  between 
the  circles. 

The  Celestial  Globe,  is  an  artificial  fphere, 
made  of  metal,  plaifter,  paper,  or  other  matter  ; 
on  whofe  convex  furface  the  fixed  flars  are  ])laced, 
at  proportionable  diflances,  together  with  the  prin- 
cipal circles  of  the  fphere.  1  he  ufe  of  this  inftru- 
ment  is  very  extcnfive  ;  fcarce  anv  thing  in  the 
fpherical  Ajirorinmy,  but  may  be  exhibited  thereby, 
without  having  recourfe  to  trogonometrical  calculti- 
tion.  The  principal  points  are  contained  in  the 
following  problem^,  with  their  folutions  ;  which 
will  let  the  reader  enough  into  the  nature  and  rca- 
fon  of  this  inilrumcnt,  to  apply  it,  of  his  own  ac- 
cord, in  anv  other  cafes. 

To  find,    I.  The  ri^ht  afcenfion  and  declination 


wheel  CK  moves  its  equal  CP  once  round,  the  of  a  ftar,  reprefented  on  the  furface  of  the  _j/i;Zv. 
wheel  AM  will  move  AN  a  little  more  than  four  2.  The  longitude  and  latitude  of  a  ftar.  3  ■  The 
times  round,  and  fo  will  nicely  exhibit  the  morion  y««'s  place  in  the  ecliptick.  4.  1  he  declination  of 
of  Me'cury ;  and  the  wheel  F(}  v\ill  turn  the  wheel  ;  the  /.vw.     5.    (  he  place  of  a  planet,  with  its  right 


FS  about     I  round,  and    fo  will  trulv  ri^pre- 

29,5 

fent  the  motion  of  Saturn  :  and   the  fame  is  to  be 

obi'erved  of  all  the  reft. 

The  planets  are  reprefented  by  the  fame  Cha- 

raflcrs  the  ChcmiUs  ufe  to  reprefent  their  metals  bv, 

t 


afcenfion  and  declination  :  its  longitude  and  lati- 
tudc,  tor  the  tune  given.  6.  To  re£tify  the  globe, 
or  adjurt  it  to  the  place,  Is'c.  fo  as  it  may  reprefent 
the  prcfent  flate  or  fituation  of  the  heavens.  7.  To 
know  all  the  f  ars  and  planets,  by  means  of  the 
glohr.  8.  To  find  theyi/;/"s  oblique  afcenfion,  his 
eaftern  amplitude   and  azimuth,  with  the  rime  of 

rifiii^. 


^  s  r  R   o   N  M  r. 


29 


rifing.  9.  The  futi's  oblique  dcfccnfioii,  wcfterii 
amplitude  and  azimuth,  with  the  time  of  fetting. 
10.  The  length  of  the  day  and  night.  1  r.  The 
rifing,  fetting,  and  culminating  of  a  ftar  ;  its  con-' 
tinuance  above  the  horizon,  for  any  place  and  day; 
together  with  its  oblique  afcenfion  and  dcfcenfion, 
and  its  eaftcrn  and  weflern  amplitude  and  azimuth. 
12.  The  altitude  of  the  fun,  or  zjlar,  for  any 
given  hour  of  the  day  or  night.  13.  7  he  altitude 
ot  the  fun  by  day,  or  of  a.f}ar  by  night,  being 
given  ;  to  find  the  time  of  that  day  or  night.  14. 
To  find  the  interval  of  time  between  the  rifing  of 
two  (Jars,  or  their  culminations.  And,  15.  To 
find  the  beginning  and  ending  of  the  crepufculuin, 
or  twilight. 

1.  The  right  afcenfion  and  declenfion  of  ijhir 
is  found,  by  bringing  the  fiar  to  the  graduated 
fide  of  the  brazen  meridian  ;  then  the  number  of 
degrees  intercepted  between  the  equator  and  the 
point  of  the  tneridian  cut  by  the  Jlar,  gives  its  de- 
clination ;  and  the  degree  of  the  equator,  which 
comes  under  the  meridian  together  with  the  //cir, 
is  its  right  afcenfion 

2.  By  applying  tlie  centor  of  the  quadrant  of 
altitude  over  the  pole  of  the  ecliptick,  in  the  lame 
liemifphere  with  the  J}ar,  and  bringing  its  gradu- 
ated edge  to  the  Jiar  ;  the  degree  on  the  quadrant 
cut  by  the  Jiar,  is  the  flars  latitude,  reckoned 
from  the  ediptkk  ;  and  the  degree  of  the  ecliptick 
cut  by  the  quadrant,   its  longitude. 

3.  If  we  feek  tiie  day  of  tiie  month  in  the  pro- 
per calendar  on  the  horizo/i,  we'll  find  againft  that 
day  in  the  circle  of  figns,  the  fign  and  degree  the 
fun  is  in  for  that  day.  This  done,  by  finding  the 
fame  fign  upon  the  ecliptick  on  the  furface  of  the 
globe,  we'll  have  found  the  funs  place  for  that 
day. 

4.  The  funs  place  for  the  day  given  being 
brought  to  the  meridian,  the  degrees  of  the  meri- 
dian mtercepted  between  the  equinoflial  and  that 
pLce,  are  the  fun's  declination  for  that  day,  at 
noon. 

5.  Apply  the  center  of  the  quadrant  of  altitude, 
on  the  pole  of  the  ecliptick,  of  the  lame  denomi- 
nation with  the  latitude,  and  bring  it  to  the  given 
longitude  in  the  ecliptick  ;  this  point  is  the  planet's 
place  :  and  bringing  it  to  the  meridian,  its  right 
afcenfion  and  declination  will  be  found. 

6.  To  redVify  the  globe,  &c.  i.  If  the  place  be 
in  north  latitude,  the  north  pole  muft  be  raifed 
above  the  horizon  ;  if  in  the  fouth,  the  fouih  pole. 
2.  The  quadrant  of  altitude  is  to  be  fixed  on  the 
zenith,  /.  e.  on'the  latitude  of  the  place.  3.  By 
means  of  a  compafs,  or  meridian  line,  the  globe 
niuft  be  placed  in  fuch  a  manner,  as  that  the  brazen 
meridian  may  be  in  the  plane  of  the  terrfftrial  me- 

'5- 


ridian.      4.  The  degree  of  the  ecliptick  the  fun  is 
in,  muft  be  brought  to  the  meridian,  and  the  ho- 
rary  indrx  fet  to  12:  Thus  will  the  ^/(?i^  exhibit 
j  the  face  of  the  heavens  for  the  noon  of  that  day. 
j  5.  By  turning  the  globe  till  the  index  comes  to  any 
■j  other  given  hour  :   thus  will  the  globe  fliew  the  face 
of  the  heavens  for  that  time. 

7.  The  Jlars  and  planets  are  eafily  known,  by 
means  of  the  globe;  if,  I.  We  adjuft  tlie  globe  to 
the  (late  of  the  heavens  for  that  time.  2.  If  we 
look  on  the  globe  for  fome  one  flat ,  which  we 
know,  e.  gr.  the  middlcmofty?;;?-  in  the  tail  of  the 
great  bear.  3.  If  we  obferve  the  pofition  of  the 
other  molt  conl'picuous  Jtars  in  the  fame  conftella- 
tion  ;  for  by  transferring  the  eye  from  the  globe  to 
the  heavens,  we'll  eafily  note  the  fame  there.  4. 
Thus  we  may  proceed  from  this  to  the  neighbour- 
ing conftellations,  till  we  have  learned  them  all. 

8.  By  rectifying  the  globe  for  the  hour  of  twelve, 
and  bringing  the  fun's  place  to  the  eaftern  fide  of 
the  hori/,on,  the  number  of  degrees  then  inter- 
cepted between  that  degree  of  the  equator  now 
come  to  the  horizon,  and  the  beginning  of  aries, 
is  the  fun's  oblique  afcenfion  The  degrees  on  the 
horizon  intercepted  between  the  eaft  point  thereof, 
and  the  point  wherein  the  fun  is,  is  the  ortive,  or 
rifing  amplitude.  The  hour  pointed  to  by  the  in- 
dex, is  the  time  of  the  fun's  rifing.  Turning  the 
globe  till  the  index  points  to  the  prefent  hour,  we 
muft  lay  the  quadrant  to  the  fun's  place,  the  degree 
cut  by  the  quadrant,  in  the  horizon,  is  theyw^'s 
azimuth. 

9.  The  fun's  oblique  defcenfion,  weftern  am- 
plitude, and  azimuth,  with  the  time  of  fetting,  is 
found  in  the  fame  manner,  as  its  oblique  afcenfion, 
eaftern  amplitude,  i3c.  excepting  that  the  fun's 
place  muft  be  here  brought  to  the  weftern  fide  of 
the  horizon  ;  as  in  the  former  it  was  to  the 
eaftern. 

10.  The  length  of  day  and  night  is  found, 
I.  By  finding  the  time  of  they«;j's  rifing  ;  which 
being  numbered  from  midnight-^  the  double  thereof 
gives  the  length  of  the  night.  2.  By  fubtrading 
the  length  of  the  night  from  the  whole  day,  or 
24  hours,  the  remainder  is  the  length  of  the  day. 

1 1 .  Having  adjufted  the  globe  to  the  ftate  of  the 
heavens  at  twelve  o'clock  that  day,  we'll  find  the 
eaftern  amplitude,  azimuth,  and  the  time  of  rifine 
of  a  /far,  by  bringing  the  far  to  the  eaftern  fide 
of  the  horizon  ;  and  by  bringing  the  izmejlar  to 
the  weftern  fide  of  the  horizon,  we'll  find  its 
weftern  amplitude,  and  azimuth,  and  the  time  of 
its  fetting.  The  time  of  rifing  fubtra>Sl:ed  from  that 
of  fettin  g,  leaves  the  continuance  of  the  /lar  above 
the  horiz  on  ;  and  this  continuance  above  the  hori- 
zon fubtr  afted  from   24  hours,  leaves  the  time  of 

PP  its 


292  TT^e  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


its  continuance  below  the  horizon.  Laftly,  The 
hour  to  which  the  index  points  when  the  Jlar  is 
brought  to  the  meridian,  gives  the  time  of  culml- 
fiaiion^  or  the  tranfit  of  7i.Jiar,  or  planet,  over  the 
meridian  ;  or  that  point  of  its  orbit  wherein  it  is 
at  its  greateft  altitude. 

12.  The  altitude  of  the  fun,  or  a  Jiar  for  any 
given  hour  of  the  day,  or  night,  is  found  ;  i.  By 
adjufting  the  g/ohe  to  the  pofition  of  the  heavens, 
and  turning  it  till  the  index  points  at  the  given 
hour.  2.  Then  fixing  on  the  quadrant  of  altitude 
at  90  degrees  from  the  horizon,  and  bringing  it  to 
the  fun's  or  Jlars  place,  the  degrees  of  the  quad- 
rant intercepted  between  the  horizon  and  t\\tfun  or 

Jiar,  is  the  altitude  required. 

13.  The  altitude  of  the  fun  by  day,  or  of  a 
Jlar  by  night,  being  given  ;    the  time  of  that  day 

or  night  is  found,  i.  By  reftifying  the  globe  as  in 
the  preceding  problem.  2.  By  turning  the  globe 
and  quadrant  till  fuch  time  as  the  flar,  or  degree 
of  the  ecliptick  the  fun  is  in,  cut  the  quadrant  in 
the  given  degree  of  altitude  ;  then  does  the  index 
point  at  the  hour  fought. 

14.  By  reftifying  t\\t  glebe,  and  bringing  the 
quadrant  to  the  given  azimuth  in  the  horizon,  and 
turning  the  globe  till  the  ftar  comes  to  the  fame  ; 
the  index  will  (hew  the  time  of  the  day  or  night. 

15.  If  the  pole  of  the  globe  is  rais'd  fo  many 
degrees  above  the  horizon,  as  is  the  elevation  of  the 
pote  of  the  place  ;  if  the  firftyfrzr  is  brought  to  the 
horizon,  and  the  time  obferved  the  index  points  to  ; 
if  the  fame  be  done  by  the  other  flar  ;  then  by 
fubtrafting  the  former  time  from  the  latter,  the  re- 
•mninder  is  the  interval  between  the  rifmgs  of  the  two 
Jlars. 

16.  The  crepufculum,  or  twilight,  is  found,  by 
firft  reiflifying  the^/flii?,  and  fetting  the  index  to 
the  twelfth  hour,  the  fun's  place  being  in  the  me- 
ridian. 2.  By  noting  the yi.'^i's  place,  and  turning 
the  gkbe  wcftward,  as  alfo  the  quadrant  of  altitude, 
till  the  point  oppofite  to  the  funs  place  cut  the 
quadrant  of  altitude  in  the  eighteenth  degree  above 
the  horizon,  the  index  will  fhew  the  time  when  the 
twilight  commences  in  the  morning.  3.  By  taking 
the  point  oppofite  to  the  fun,  bringing  it  to  the 
caitern  hemilphere,  and  turning  it  till  it  meet  with 
the  quadrant  of  altitude  in  the  eighteenth  degree, 
then  v/ill  the  index  fKew  the  time  when  twilight 
end;. 

An  As'tronomical  QtfAORANT,  (fee  T  in 
^e  fir  (I  plate  c/"  Astronomy)  is  an  inftrument 
ufually  made  of  brafs,  fometimes  of  wooden  bars, 
only  faced  with  plates  of  iron,  or  the  like  ;  having 
its  limb  curioufly  divided,  diagonally,  or  otherwife, 
'ito  degrees  and  minutes,  and  even  feconds,  if  pof 


inftead  thereof,  a  telefcope  ;  and  an  index  moving 
about  the  center,  carrying  either  plain  fights,  or 
a  telefcope.  Thefe  quadrants  are  of  principal 
ufe,  in  taking  obfervations  of  the  fun,  planets,  or 
fixed  ftars.  The  antients  ufed  only  plain  fights, 
but  the  moderns  have  found  it  of  great  benefit  to 
ufe  telefcopes  inftead  of  them.  And  the  contri- 
vance of  moving  the  index,  by  the  help  of  a  fcrew 
on  the  edge  of  the  limb,  and  of  readily  and  eafily 
direding  it,  and  the  quadrant  upon  its  pedeftal, 
to  any  defired  phenomenon,  by  means  of  the  fcrews 
and  dented  wheels,  is  a  flill  greater  improvement 
of  the  inftrument,  whofe  ufe  is  obvious ;  for  it 
being  adjufted,  as  above,  and  turned  horizontally 
round  on  its  axis,  till,  through  the  moveable  telef- 
cope, the  obje£l  be  ^eex\  to  fall  in  with  the  point  of 
interfeclion  of  the  crofs  bars  ;  the  degrees  cut  by 
the  index  give  the  altitude  required. 

Gunters  Quadrant,  (ibid.)  thus  called  from 
the  inventor's  name,  Edmund  Gunter,  befides  the 
graduated  limb,  fixed  fights,  and  a  plummet,  as 
the  other  quadrants  ;  has  likewife  a  ftereographical 
projedlion  of  the  fphere  on  the  plane  of  the  equi  - 
nodtial,  with  the  eye  placed  in  one  of  the  poles  ; 
by  which,  befides  the  common  ufes  of  other  quad- 
rants, feveral  ufeful  queftions  in  Aftronomy  are 
eafily  folveJ,  vi%.  To  find  the  funs  meridian  al- 
titude for  any  given  day,  or  the  day  of  the  month 
for  any  given  meridian  altitude.  7..  The  hour  of 
the  day.  3.  The  fun's  declination  from  his  place 
given,  and  contrarywife.  4.  His  Right  afccnfion, 
or  contrariiy.  5.  His  azimuth,  and  contrarywife. 
6.  The  hour  of  the  night,  from  fome  of  the  five 
ftars  laid  down  on  the  quadrant. 

J.  The  thread  being  laid  to  the  day  of  the 
month  in  the  fcale  next  the  limb  ;  the  degree  it 
cuts  in  the  limb,  is  the  meridian  altitude  of  the 
fun.  Thus  the  thread  being  laid  on  the  15th  of 
May,  cuts  59°  30',  the  altitude  fought.  And  con- 
trariiy, the  thread  being  fet  to  the  meridian  alti- 
tude, will  (hew  the  day  of  the  month. 

2.  Having  put  the  bead,  which  Hides  on  the 
thread,  to  the _/«/;'$  place  in  the  ecliptick,  the /}<«'s 
altitude  muft  be  obferved  by  the  quadrant  ;  then, 
if  the  thread  be  laid  over  the  fame  in  the  limb, 
the  bead  will  fall  upon  the  hour  required.  Thus, 
fuppofeon  the  loth  of  April,  the  fun  being  then  in 
the  beginning  of  Taurus,  we  obferve  the_/««'.f  alti- 
tude by  the  quadrant  to  be  36°,  we  place  the  bead 
to  the  beginning  oiTaurus  in  the  Ecliptic,  and  lay 
the  thread  over  36°  of  the  limb  ;  and  find  the  bead 
to  fall  upon  the  hour-line  marked  3  and  9  ;  ac- 
cordingly, the  hour  is  either  9  in  the  morning,  or 
3  in  the  afternoon.  Again,  laying  the  bead  on  the 
hour  given,   (having  firft  redlified,   or  put  it  to  the 


iibie ;  with  plain  fights  fixed  to  one  fide  of  it,  or,  \fvis  place)  the  degree  cut  by  the  thread  on  the 

'  limb. 


J** 


BAKING. 


293 


limb,  gives  the  altitude.  Note,  That  the  bead 
may  alfo  be  redlified,  by  bringing  the  thread  to  the 
day  of  the  monthj  and  the  bead  to  the  ,hour-linc 
of  12. 

3.  Setting  the  bead  to  the  y««'^  place  in  the  eclip- 
tic, and  moving  the  thread  to  the  line  of  declination, 
the  bead  will  cut  the  thread  of  declination  required. 
Contrarily,  the  bead  being  adjufted  to  a  given  de- 
clination, and  the  thread  moved  to  the  ecliptic,  the 
bead  will  cut  ihefunU  place. 

4.  We  muft  lay  the  thread  on  the  fun  s  place  in 
the  Ecliptic,  and  the  degree  it  cuts  on  the  limb,  is 
the  right  afccnfion  of  the  fun.  Contrarily,  laying 
the  thread  on  the  right  afcenfwn,  it  cuts  thzjun's 
place  in  the  ecliptic. 

5.  ReiSlify  the  bead  for  the  time,  (as  in  the  fe- 
cond  article)  and  obferve  the  fun's  altitude  ;  bring 
the  thread  to  the  complement  of  that  altitude  ;  thus 
the  bead  will  give  the  Azimuth  *  fought,  among 
the  Aximuih  lines. 

6.  Fit  the  bead  to  ihsjfar  you  intend  to  obferve, 
and  find  how  many  hours  it  is  off  the  meridian,  (by 
the  fecond  article)  then  from  the  right  afcenfion  of 
the  flar,  fubtradt  the  fun's  right  afcenfion,  converted 


into  hours ;  and  mark  tho  difference ;  which  dif- 
ference added  to  the  obfervcd  hour  ofthcjiar  from 
the  meridian,  fhews  how  many  hours  the  fun  is 
gone  from  the  meridian,  which  is  the  hour  of  the 
night.  Suppofe,  for  example,  on  the  1 5th  of 
May,  the  fun  being  in  the  4th  degree  of  Gemini,  I 
fet  the  bead  to  Aroturus  ;  and  obferving  his  alti- 
tude, find  him  to  be  in  the  weft,  about  52°  high, 
and  the  bead  to  fall  on  the  hour-line  of  2  afternoon; 
then  will  the  hour  be  1 1  hours,  50  minutes  palt 
noon,  or  10  minutes  Ihort  of  midnight.  For  62', 
the  fun  s  right  afcenfion,  converted  into  time,  makes 
4  hours,  8  minutes,  which  fubtracted  from  13 
hours,  58  minutes,  the  right  afcenfion  of  Arflurus, 
the  remainder  will  be  9  hours,  50  minutes  ;  which 
added  to  2  hours,  the  obferved  diftance  of  ArBurus 
from  the  meridian,  fliews  the  hour  of  the  night  to 
be  1 1  hours,  50  minutes. 

A  Sextant,  is  an  ajlronomical  injirument, 
made  like  a  quadrant;  excepting  that  its  limb  only 
comprehends  60  degrees.  The  ufe  and  applica- 
tion of  the  fextant,  is  the  fame  with  that  of  the 
quadrant. 


Of  B     A    K    I    N    G. 


BAKING  is  the  ait  of  preparing  bread, 
or  of  reducing  meal  of  any  kind  \nto  bread. 
Who  firrt  invented  this  ufeful  art,  I  will 
not  pretend  to  fay  :  but  by  the  mention  ofjhew- 
bread  amongft  the  Hebrews,  it  was  known  to 
the  Leviles,  that  attended  the  tabernacle  in  the  wil- 
dernefs. 

Some  have afcribed  the  invention  to  the  Grecians; 
and  add,  that  it  paffed  into  Italy  about  the  year  of 
Rome  583,  after  the  war  with  Pyrrhus.  This  is 
certain,  the  Cappadocians,  and  after  them  the  Ly- 
dians,  and  the  Phoenicians,  are  the  moft  applauded 
bakers  in  antiijuity. 

At  Rome  the  bakers  were  held  in  great  cfteem, 
and  were  incorporated  with  great  privileges,  and 
fubjefled  to  certain  reflrictions. 

Ihe  fraternity  of  bakers,  by  the  Ro?nan  laws 
held  their  elfcdts  in  common,  and  could  not  dif- 
pofe  of  any  part  of  them.  Each  bake-houfe  had  a 
patronus,  who  had  the  fuperintendency  thereof ; 
and  thefe  patroni  eleifled  one  out  of  their  number 
each  year,  who  had  the  fuperintendance  over  all 
the  relt,  and  the  care  of  the  college.  Out  of  the 
body  of  the  bakers  were  every  now  and  then  one 
admitted  among  the  fenators. 


To  preferve  honour  and  honefty  in  the  college 
of  bakers,  they  were  exprefly  prohibited  all  alliance 
with  comedians  and  gladiators  ;  each  had  his  fhop 
or  bake-houfe,  and  they  were  diflributed  into  four- 
teen regions  of  the  city.  They  were  excufed  from 
guardianftiip  and  other  offices,  which  might  divert 
them  from  their  employment. 

By  the  Englijh  ftatutes  bakers  are  declared  not  to 
be  handicrafts.  No  man  for  ufing  the  myfleries  or 
fciences  of  baking,  brewing,  furgery,  or  writing, 
fliall  be  interpreted  a  handicraft,  22  H.S.  c.  13. 

The  bakers,  by  a  law  ena<5ted  in  the  laft  feffions 
of  parliament,  are  prohibited  the  ufe  of  allum  in 
their  makino;  of  bread,  under  fcvere  penalties. 

The  forms  of  baking,  among  the  Europeans,  is 
reduced  to  two  ;  the  one  for  unleavened,  the  other 
for  leavened  bread ;  though  very  few,  the  Jeivs  ex- 
cepted, life,  at  prefent,  unleavened  bread  ;  as  being 
too  infipid,  and  even  thofe  but  in  the  time  of  their 
pajfover,   or  of  fome  other  particular  feaft. 

The  other  manner  of  baking  leavened  bread,  is 
called  manchet-baking  ;  which  is  done  in  this  man- 
ner :  the  meal,  ground  and  bolted,  is  put  into  a 
trough,  and  being  opened  in  the  middle,  to  a  bufliel 
is  put  about  three  pints  of  warm  ale,  with  barm, 
P  p  2  and 


*  The  Azimuth  of  the/<«,  or  2.  far,  is  an  arch  of  the  horizon,  comprehended  between  the  meridian  of  the 
place,  and  any  given  •vfrtkal  circl  e.  The  Aximuih  is  the  complement  of  the  eaftern  and  weftern  amplitude  of  a  quadrant. 


294  ^^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


and  fait  to  feafon  it :  this  is  kneaded  together  with 
the  hands  through  the  break,  or  for  want  whereof 
with  the  feet  through  a  cloth  ;  after  having  lain  an 
hour  to  fwell,  it  is  molded  into  manchets,  which 
fcorched  in  the  middle,  and  pricked  a- top  to  give 
room  to  rife,  are  baked  in  the  oven  by  a  gentle 
fire. 

The  common  bread  making  is  performed  thus  : 
the  meal  being  in  the  trough,  Jbme  leaven  (faved 
from  a  former  batch  filled  with  fait  laid  up  to  four, 
and  at  length  dilTolved  in  warm  water)  is  {trained 
through  a  cloth  into  a  hole  made  in  the  middle  of 
the  heap,  and  worked  with  fome  of  the  flour  to  a 
moderate  confidence  :  this  is  covered  up  with  meal, 
where  it  lies  all  night,  and  fn  the  morning  the 
whole  heap  is  ftirred,  and  mixed  together  with  a 
little  warm  water,  barm,  and  fait,  by  which  it  is 
feafoned,  ftifFened,  and  brought  to  an  even  leaven  ; 
it  IS  then  kneaded,  or  trodden,  molded,  and  baked. 

In  the  kneading  of  the  mafs,  it  muft  be  obferved, 
that  it  is  not  worked  too  long,  elfe  it  would  ren- 
der the  bread  heavy,  and  hinder  it  to  rife   in  the 
oven  ;  neither  is  it  to  be  worked  in  too  great  a 
hurry,    for  then  the  mixture    proving  imperfecSl, 
would  fill  the  bread  with  lumps  of  flour,  render  it 
harlh,  and  of  an  indifferent  tafte  ;  part  of  it  being 
leavened,  and  the  other  unleavened ;  which  to  a- 
void,  the  water   muft    be  poured  by  degrees,   and 
the  mafs  worked  by  degrees  ;  waiting  to  pour  no 
more  water,  till  the  firft  poured  being  fo  incorpo- 
rated with  the  mafs,  by  the  working  of  it,  till  it 
has  brought  it  to    a  due  confiftence,    neither  too 
hard,  nor  too  foft ;  and  then  pour  more  water  upon 
that  mafs  already  worked,  and  then  the  workman 
approaches,  with  his  hand,  new   flour,  near   that 
mafs,  all  ready  worked,  incorporating  both  toge- 
ther, and  fo  on,  till  the  end  of  the  operation.  The 
water  muft  be  neither  too  hot,  nor  too  cold  ;  for 
it  too  hot,   it  renders  the  fermentation  through  the 
whole  mafs   too  great,  and  caufes  a  difagreeable 
fournefs  in   the  bread;   if  too  cold,  it  hinders  the 
fermentation,  which  renders  the  bread  heavy,  and 
skives  it  a  fweet,  unpalatable  tafte.      In  winter,  the 
leaven   is  awavs  prepared  in  a  warm  place,  elfe  it 
would  have  little  or  no  effedt ;  and  the  mafs,  after 
It  has  been  kneaded,   is  kept  longer  before  it  is  put 
into  the  oven,  than  in  the   fummer  ;  in  order  to 
give  time   to  the  leaven    to  ferment    through    the 
vvhole  mafs. 

There  is- an  art  in  heating  the  oven  for  the  baking 
of  bread  ;  for  if  it  is  too  hot,  it  hinders  the  bread 
from  rifina',  and  makes  it  almoft  all  cruft  ;  if  too 
cold,  inllead  of  evaporating  the  whole  humidity, 
it  keeps  the  greateft  part  of  it  within  the  mafs,  and 
renders  the  biead  heavy  and  difagreeable  :  there- 
fore a  gradual  heat  is  beft ;  for  then  the  bread  lifing 


and  baking  by  degrees,  acquires  a  due  confiftence, 
and  a  favoury  tafte. 

It  muft  be  obferved,  alfo,  that  the  leaven,  ar- 
rived at  an  extraordinary  fournefs,  is  not  to  be  ufed, 
not  even  in  the  fmalleft  quantity  ;  for  it  would 
communicate  a  very  difagreeable  tafte  to  the 
whole. 

BiSKET,  (;'.  e.  bis,  twice,  coHus,  baked)  which 
is  a  fort  of  bread,  for  the  fervice  of  the  fea,  is  made 
in  tlie  fame  manner  as  other  bread,  with  this  fingle 
difference,  that  it  pa(li:s  the  oven  twice.  The  firft 
time  it  is  baked  to  the  confiftence  of  common  bread, 
and  kept  till  it  has  fweated  all  its  humidity,  and 
then  put  into  the  oven  again,  to  dry  it  quite  ; 
otherwife  it  would  be  fubjedt  to  grow  mouldy,  and 
four.  For  long  voyages,  they  bake  it  four  times, 
and  prepare  it  fix  months  before  the  'embarka- 
tion. 

Ginger-Bread,  is  a  rich  fort  of  bread,  the 
flavour  and  tafte  whereof  are  heightened  and  im- 
proved with  fpices,  and  particularly  ginger,  whence 
the  name.  1  here  are  various  forms  and  prepara- 
tions oi ginger-bread.  The  following  is  well  re- 
commended. "  Into  a  pound  of  almonds  grate  a 
"  penny  white  loaf,  and  beat  them  together  ;  to 
'•  the  mixture  add  an  ounce  of  ginger,  fcraped 
"  fine,  and  annifeed  and  liquorice  in  powder,  of 
"  each  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  :  pour  in  two  or 
"  three  fpoonfuls  of  rofe-watcr,  and  make  the 
"  whole  into  a  pafte,  with  half  a  pound  of  fugar; 
"  mould  and  roll  it,  print  it  and  dry  it  in  a 
«  ftove." 

Others  make  it  with  treacle,  citron,  lemon  and 
orange-peel,  candied  ginger,  coriander  and  carra- 
way  feed,  mixed  up  with  as  much  flour,  as  will 
make  it  into  a  pafte. 

In  all  the  other  parts  of  the  world  thev  havelitJifc 
or  no  notion  oi baking,  except  in  thofe  parts  where 
the  Eurcpcam  have  iettled,  and  where  they  are  nu- 
merous ;  every  where  elfe  they  follow  yet  the  pri- 
mitive fimpiicity  of  baking  their  bread  under  the 
embers  ;  the  greateft  part  of  the  eaftern  and  weft- 
ern  nations  having  not  even  the  leaft  notion  of 
bread.  Efpecially  thofe  who  dry  their  meat  by  the 
fun,  and  eat  it  without  any  other  cookery,  as  moft 
of  the  Tartars.  In  the  Weji-Ir.dies,  and  on  the 
coaft  of  Brazil,  fome  Indian  nations  make  bread 
of  a  fort  of  root,  they  call  cajfave,  or  cajfabre, 
which  is  a  fort  of  poifon  of  itfclf,  before  its  prepa- 
ration ;  which  is  done  in  this  manner  ;  they  pound 
the  root,  to  extra(5l  all  its  juice,  in  which  confifts 
all  its  malignity  ;  they  afterwards  dry  it  in  the _//<«, 
fo  that  it  may  eafily  be  reduced  into  a  iaxtoi farina, 
or  flour,  which  they  mix  with  water,  and  mould  it 
into  the  form  of  a  large  pancake,  which  they  bake 
before  the  fire,     ^Vhcn  baked,  it  is  as  white  as  a 

{beet. 


BOOKS. 


295 


flieet 


of  paper  ;  I  have  eat  fome,  and  found  it  very  1 
palatable.     They  could,   if  they  would,    make  a  I  with  broiling  the  whole  ear  upon  the  coals,  and 


have  in  abundance  ;  but   they  content  themfeKcs 
with  broiling  the  whole  ear  upon  the 
pretty  tolerable  good  bread  of  maife,  which  they  j  eat  it  fo  without  any  other  preparation. 


Of  BOOKS,     and  particularly  of  the    Bible. 


BOOK  (formed  from  the  Saxon,  Boc,  w^ich 
comes  from  the  Northern  Buecb.,  a  beech 
tree,  on  which  our  anceftors  ufed  to  write) 
is  the  produftion  of  wit  and  learning,  di- 
gefted   in  fome  form  or  order,    and  reduced  into 
writing  for  inftruflion  or  entertainment ;  and   to 
have  it  tranfmitted  to  pofterity. 

Book  is  diftinguifhed  from  pamphlet,  and  fingle 
paper,  by  its  greater  length  ;  and  from  to?ne  or  vo- 
lume, by  its  containing  the  whole  writing  ;  which 
is  often  di\'idcd  into  feveral  volumes. 

Books  are  commonly  divided  into  divine  or facred, 
and  human  books. 

The  d'vine  or  facred  books  are  either  vi'rote  by  in- 
fpiration,  as  the  Pentateuch,  the  Prophet),  the 
Books  of  Solomon,  the  Neiv  Teftament,  Sic.  which 
feveral  books,  collected  together,  compofe  a  whole 
one,  called.  The  Bible. 

The  Bible  is  the  moft  valuable,  and  moft  re- 
fpecSled  of  all  the  divine,  facred  looks,  as  contain- 
ing, the  firfl:  precepts,  given  to  Ado/es,  by  the  Al- 
mighty himfelf,  amidft  the  thunder  and  lightening 
of  Mount  Sinai,  of  the  religious  worfhip  and  cere- 
monies, he  was  10  be  adored  with  upon  earth,  and 
the  firft  articles  of  a  true  faith. 

The  Bibles  arc  diftinsuifhed  accordins  to  their 
language,  into  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  Chaldee, 
Syiack,  Jrahick,  Coptick,  &zc. 

The  firft  traduiStion  of  the  Bib'e  is  that  of  the 
Septtiagint,  made  280  years  before  the  incarnation 
of  fefus  Chrijl,  through  the  care  of  Demetrius 
Phalereus,  under  the  reign  of  PtoU-.-'^y  Pbiladelphus, 
king  of  Egypt,  to  perfect  the  famous  library  of 
Alexandria,  which  contained  20o,coo  volumes. 
This  tranflation  was  received  by  the  "Jeivs ;  and 
our  Saviour,  as  well  as  his  Apoftles,  made  ufe  of 
it,  in  the  gofpel ;  but  it  was  corrupted  foon  after 
the  birth  of  our  Saviour,  as  well  by  the  yews,  as 
through  the  ignorance  of  the  Copyijis.  Origen  was 
the  firll,  who  attempted  to  purge  it  of  its  imperfccfli- 
ons,  and  reftore  it  to  its  priftine  purity.  h\  which 
noble  and  ufeful  undertaking  he  was  lucceeded  by 
the  martyr  Lucian.  Hefycbius,  likewife  applied 
himfelf  to  it,  and  St.  "Jerome  perfefted  it. 

Antient  authors  do  not  agree  among  themfelves 
as  to  the  manner  of  this  tranflation.  Some  fay 
that  the  feventy  worked  upon  it  feparately,  and 
that  comparing  afterwards  their  feveral  verfions  to- 
gether,  they  were  all  found  alike  ia  all  things. 


Odiers  pretend,  that  they  worked  at  it  two  and 
two.  And  others,  that  they  did  it  altogether, 
confulting  one  another  on  the  mofl  difficult  pafl'a- 
ges.  The  firft  manner  is  confidered  as  a  table, 
and  as  mere  romance,  by  a  great  many  very 
learned  divines. 

We  have  at  prefent  Bibles,  in  the  feveral  lan- 
guages above-mentioned,  both  manufcript  and  print- 
ed, and  almoft  all  according  to  the  verfion  of  the 
Jeptuagint,  but  very  imperfeft.  F.  Simon  is  of  opi- 
nion that  the  oldeit  manufcript  Hebrew  Bibles  are 
not  above  6  or  700  years  :  nor  does  Rabbi  Mona- 
ht?n,  who  quotes  a  vaft  number  of  them,  pretend 
that  any  exceed  600  years.  The  belt  are  thofe 
copied  by  the  Jews  of  Spain,  and  the  moft  com- 
mon thofe  copied  by  the  Jews  of  Germany. 

The  Bible  was  tranflated  into  Greek  by  Aquila, 
under  the  emperor  Adrian ;  but  that  verfion  was 
very  imperfeft  and  full  of  omiflions.  Theodotion 
publifhed  a  new  one  in  i8g.  Theodotion  had  been 
a  difciple  of  Tatian  ;  he  followed  Marcion,  and 
from  his  fchool,  pafTed  to  the  fynagogue  of  the 
Jews,  where  he  was  received  on  condition  that  he 
fliould  tranflate  the  OldTeJiamint  into  Greek,\^\i\<z\\. 
he  did  with  ^  more  truth  and  fincerity  than  Aquila 
had  done,  though  there  are  many  additions  and 
omi/Tions,  which  he  has  marked  with  a  great  deal 
of  care  and  attention.  The  numerous  editions  we 
have  of  the  Bible  in  Greek  can  all  be  reduced  to 
three,  vIt..  that  of  Complutum,  or  Aleala  de  Hcnares,. 
that  of  Venice,  and  that  of  Rom-.  The  firft  pub- 
lifhed in  15 1 5  by  Cardinal  Ximenes,  and  inferted 
in  the  Polyglot  Bible,  ui'ually  called  the  Com^lutcfian 
Bible.  This  edition  is  one  of  the  beft  extant,  and 
has  been  reprinted  in  the  Polyglot  Bible  oi  Antwerp, 
in  that  of  Paris,  and  in  the  4to  Bible,  commonly 
called,  Bible  of  Vatable.  The  fecond  is  that  oiVe- 
nice  in  151 8,  reckoned  full  of  faults  of  the  Copyijis, 
as  having  been  printed  juft  as  it  flood  in  the  manu- 
fcript :  it  has  been  reprinted  at  Strafburgh,  Bofil, 
Francfoit,  and  other  places.  The  beft  of  them  all 
is  the  third,  printed  at  Rome,  in  1587,  with  Greek 
Scholia,  colletSted  from  the  manu(cripts  in  the  Ro' 
man  libraries,  by  P.  Alorin.  'I  his  fine  edition  has 
bt-en  reprinted  at  Paris  in  l(/28,  by  J.  Alorin, 
prieft  of  the  oratory,  v/ho  has  added  the  Latin 
tranflation,  which  in  the  Roman  was  printed  fepa- 
rately, vi\\.\\  Scholia.  'J  he  Gnr^- edition  oi  Rome 
has  been  printed  in  the  Polyglot  Bible  of  London ;  to 

which 


2-9 6  Hoe  Unlverfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


which  are  added  at   bottom  the  various  readings 
of  the  Alexandrian  manufcript. 

The  Latin  Bibles  are  alfo  reduced  to  three  clafles, 
v'lX.  the  antient  Vulgate,  tranflated  from  the  Greek 
Septuaglnt ;  the  modern  Vulgate,  the  greateft  part  of 
which  is  done  from  the  Hebrew  text ;  and  the  new 
Latin  tranflations,  done  alfo  from  the  Hebrew  text 
in  the  fixteenth  century. 

The  antient  Vulgate  is  of  very  great  antiquity  in 
the  Latin  church,  fmce  it  was  the  common^  or  vul- 
gar verfion,  before  St.  Jerome  made  a  new  one, 
whence  it  is  named  Vulgate.  The  Vulgate  was 
held  by  St.  AugujVine  to  be  preferable  to  all  the 
other  Latin  vcrfions  then  extant ;  as  rendering  the 
words  and  fenfe  of  the  facred  text  more  clofcly  and 
juftly  than  any  of  the  reft. 

We  have,  a  confiderable  number  of  editions  of 
the  modern  Vulgate.  That  inferred  by  the  order  of 
Cardinal  Ximencs,  in  the  Bible  of  Complutwn,  is 
one  of  the  beft,  as  well  as  that  of  R.  Stephens, 
printed  in  1540,  and  reprinted  in  1545  ;  in  which 
are  added,  on  the  margin,  the  various  readings  of 
feveral  Latin  manufcripts,  which  he  had  confulted. 
This  edition  was  revifed  afterwards  by  the  doflors 
of  Louvain,  who  likewife  added  to  it  the  various 
readings  of  feveral  Latin  manufcripts. 

The  corre(Stion  of  Pope  Clement  VTLl,  in  1592, 
is  now  the  ftandard  of  all  the  Roman  churches  ; 
from  this  the  Bibles  of  Plantin  were  done,  and  from 
thofe  of  Plnntin  all  the  refl. 

There  are  great  numbers  of  Latin  Bibles,  of  the 
third  clafs,  comprehending  the  verfions  from  the 
originals  of  the  facred  books  made  within  thcfe  200 
years.  The  firft  is  that  of  Santes  Pagninus,  a  Do- 
minican, ^nntt A  dX  Lyons,  in  4to,  in  1528;  much 
efteemed  by  the  Jeivs.  This  the  author  improved 
in  Tifecond  edition.  In  1542,  there  was  a  beautiful 
edition  of  the  fame  at  Lyons.,  in  folio  ;  and  R.  Ste- 
phens reprinted  it,  with  the  Vulgate,  in  1557. 
There  is  alfo  another  £Y/;'//on  of  1586,  \n  four  co- 
lumns, under  the  name  of  Vateble.  This  verfion 
of  Pagninus,  corrected  by  Ariiis  Montanus,  was 
inferred  in  the  Polyglot  of  Ph. lip  II.  and  fmce  in 
that  of  London. 

The  Samaritan  Bible,  which  admits  no  more  for 
holy  Scripture  than  the  Pentateuch,  or  five  books  of 
Mofes,  being  the  moft  antient  of  all,  deferves  alfo 
the  firft:  rank.  This  verfion  has  never  been  printed 
alone,  nor  any  where  but  in  the  Polyglots  of  London 
and  Paris.  This  Samaritan  Pentateuch  differs  in 
fome  refpe£l  from  that  of  the  Jeivs,  and  is  written 
in  different  charafters,  called  Samaritan  CharaSlers ; 
which  Origen,  St.  Jerome,  and  other  fathers,  and 
criticks,  antient  and  modern,  take  to  be  the  primi- 
tive chararters  of  the  antient  Hebrews^  though 
others  maintain  the  contrary. 


What  we  call  Chaldee  Bibles,  are  not  properly  a 
ftrid  verfion  of  the  fcriptures,  but  only  glofles  and 
paraphrafes  upon  it,  which  the  Jews  call  Tar  gum  ; 
for   as  during  their  long  captivity  in  Babylon  they 
had  forgot  their  antient  language  the  Hebrew,  and 
now  underftood  nothing  but  the  language  of  their 
mafters,  the  Chaldeans,  there  was  a  neceflity  of  ex- 
plaining the  prophets  in  that  language  ;  and  to  this 
neceffity  is  owing  the  firft  beginning  of  the  Chaldee 
Paraphrafe,  to  make  the  fenfe  of  the  text  under- 
ftood.' Each  doctor  made  a  paraphrafe  of  fome  part 
thereof  in  the  vulgar  tongue  ;  and  as  thefe  feveral 
interpretations,  in  time,  became  very  voluminous, 
certain  Rabbins  undertook  to  collefl  them  together, 
and  this  colleftion  they  call  the  Targum.     1  hough 
they  do  not  agree  about  the  antiquity  of  the  Tar- 
gum ;  for  the  more  modern  Jews,  having  blended 
their  own  comments,  with  thofe  of  the  antients,  no 
certain  age  or  arra  can  be  fixed  for  the  whole  work. 
IVidmanJhadius  printed,  at  Vienna,  in  i<-,bl,  the 
whole  Tslew  Tejlam.nt  in  Syriac,  in  a  beautiful  cha- 
racter :  After  him  there  were  feveral  other  editions  ; 
and  it  was  inferred  in  the  Bible  oi  Philip  II.  with  a 
Latin  tranflation.     Gabriel  Sianita  alfo  publifhed  a 
beautiful  Syriac  edition  of  the  Pfalms  at  Paris,  in 
1525,    with  a  Latin  interpretation.     The  whole 
Bible  is  printed  in  Syriac  in  the  Polyglots  of  London 
and  Paris.     In  which  two  Polyglots  there  are  alfo 
Jrablck  verfions  of  the  whole  Scriptures,  that  of  the 
Old  Tejiament  being  attributed  by  fome  learned  men 
to  Saadias  \  they  give  for  reafon,  that  Aben  Ezra, 
a  great  antagonift  of  Saadias,  quotes  fome  paffages 
of  his  verfion,  which  are  the  fame  with  thofe  of  the 
Arabick  verfion  in  the  Polyglots ;  yet  others  are  of 
opinion  that  Saadias's  verfion  is  not  extant.    JuJii- 
nian,  bifhop  of  Nebio,  printed  at   Genoa  in  15 16, 
an  Arabick  verfion  of  the  P falter,  with  the  Hebrew 
text  and  Chaldee  paraphrafe,    adding  Latin  inter- 
pretations.    In  1  6j2  there  was  printed  at  Rome,  by 
order  of  the  congregation  de  propaganda  fide,  an  en- 
tire Arobick    edition   of  the  Old  TeJlamtnt.     The 
Arabick  vcrlion   of  the   P entatiuch ,   of  Erpenices, 
called  alfo  the  Pentateuch  of  Mauritania.,  as  being 
made  by  the  Jeivs  oi  Bcrhary,  and  for  their  uie,   is 
efteemed  literal,  and  very  exact;  as  well  as  the  four 
Evaiigelifts,  publiflied  at  Rcme  in  Arabick,  with  a 
Za/;«  verfion,  in  1591  ;  which  have  been  fince  re- 
printed in  the  Polyglots  of  London  and  Paris.     We 
have  feveral  authentick  manufcript  copies   of  the 
Bible  in  Coptiik  in  the  great  libraries,  efpecially  that 
of  the  king  of  France. 

The  Aithiopians  have  alfo  tranflated  the  Bible  in 
their  language  ;  of  which  we  have  a  very  accurate 
Neiv  Tejiament,  printed  at  i2«'w  in  1548,  though 
found  fault  with  by  thofe,  who  diicover  fomething 

ia 


BOOKS. 


297 


in  it,  which  riiibs  in  judgment  againft  them.  The 
fame  has  been  reprinted  in  the  Englljh  Polyglot,  *  as 
well  as  the  Pfalms,  Canticles,  fome  chapters  of  Ge- 
vefts,  Ruth,  Joel,  Jonah,  Zephaniah,  and  Mala- 
thi,  all  in  the  fame  language. 

Some  of  the  Armenian  doiSlors  about  the  time  of 
St.  Chryfojlom,  made  an  /Irwenian  verfion  of  the 
Bible  from  the  Greek  of  the  fevcnty,  which  was  firft 
printed  entire  into  4to  at  y/wy?«-^fl»7,  in  1664,  by 
one  of  their  bifliops,  with  the  New  Tcjlament 
in  8vo. 

The  Perfian  Pentateuch,  printed  in  the  London 
Polyglot,  is  the  work  of  Rabbi  Jacob,  a  Pn/tan 
Jew  ;  but  we  have  nothing  now  remaining  of  that 
antient  Perfian  verfion  of  the  old  Bible,  mentioned 
by  fome  of  the  fathers.  There  was  alfo  a  verfion 
made  of  the  whole  Bible  (the  book  of  Kings  except- 
ed) into  Gothic k,  by  Jphilas,  a  Gothick  bifliop  ;  the 
four  Evangelifts  were  printed  in  4.to  at  Dort,  from 
an  antient  manufcript  in  1 665  ;  having  nothing 
elfe  remaining  of  that  verfion.  The  reafon  given 
for  Aphilas  oirdtung  the  book  of  Kings  is,  his  being 
afraid  that  the  frequent  mention  of  the  wars  therein 
fliould  infpire  too  much  of  the  military  genius  into 
his  countrymen. 

Con.  Bafil,  duke  of  Ojlravia,  had  an  entire  Bi- 
ble in  the  Sclavonick  tongue,  printed  at  Ojlravia,  in 
Volhinia,  in  the  year  1 58 1,  at  his  own  expence,  for 
the  common  fervice  of  all  Chriftians,  who  fpeak 
the  Sclavonick  language,  whereof  the  Mufcovitijh 
is  a  dialed:,  for  which  reafon  this  verfion  is  com^ 
monly  called  the  Mufcovite  Bible. 

It  would  be  endlefs  to  rehearfe  here  the  vaft  num- 
ber of  verfions  of  the  Bible  in  other  vulgar  tongues, 
as  Englljh,  French,  German,  Spanijh,  Italian,  Dutch, 
&c.  fince  we  have  fo  m.any  catalogues  of  them  in  fe- 
veral  authors.  The  firff  efiay  towards  the  EngUfli 
tranflation  was  made  by  the  celebrated  Dr.  IVick- 
liff  a  fsvr  years  before  the  Reformation  ;  who 
tranflated  the  New  Tejiament.  But  there  was  no 
complete  Bible  in  our  tongue  till  Miles  Coverdale 
obliged  the  Reformers  with  one  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII. 

The  books  of  the  Bible  have  not  always  been  of 
an  equal  authority.  St.  Jerome  allures  us  that  the 
antient  canon,  or  catalogue  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
Tejiament,  made  by  the  'Jews  under  Efdras,  in  a 
great  affembly  of  their  doftors,  which  they  call  by 
way  of  eminence,  the  great  Synagogue,  confifted  of 
no  more  than  twenty-two  books  ;  though  it  is  pre- 
tended by  fome  authors,  -that  the  Jews  themfelves 
agree  that  they  put  books  therein,  which  had 
not  been  fo  before  the  Babylonijh  captivity  :  fuch 
are  thofe  of  Daniel,  Ezekiel,  Haggai,  and  thofe  of 
Efdras  and  Nehemiah. 


I  Some  of  the  fathers  fiave,  befides,  diftinguifhed 
the  facred  writings  into  Proto-canonical,  and  Dcu- 

!  ierocanonical.     The  Proto-canonical  are  thofe  whofe 

[  authority  has  never  been  fufpe<Sted,  and  the  Deute- 

\  ro-canonieal,  thofe,  whofe  canonicity  was  doubtful  ; 
for  which  reafon,  they  were  added  to  the  canon 
after  the  reft.  1  he  Deutero-cononical  books,  in  the 
modern  canon,  are  the  books  of  Ejlber,  either  the 

i  whole,  or  at  leait  the  feven  laft  chapters  thereof ; 

;  the  epiftle  to  the  Hebrews  ;  that  of  James ;  and 
that  of  Jud- ;  the  fecond  of  St.   Peter ;  the  fe- 

I  cond  and  third  of  St.  John ;  and  the  Revelations. 
The  Dtutero-canonical  parts  o( books,  are  in  Daniel^ 
the  hymn  of  the  three  children  ;  the  prayer  of  Aza- 
riah  ;  the  hiflories  of  Sufannah,  of  Bel  and  the 
Dragon  ;  the  laft  chapter  of  St.  Mark  ;  the  bloody 
fweat,  and  the  appearance  of  the  angel,  related  in 
St.  Luke,  chap.  xxii.  and  the  hiftory  of  the  adulte- 
rous woman  in  St.  John,  chap.  viii.. 

Among  the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Tejiament j 
the  Pentateuch,  or  five  books  of  Mofes,  viz.  Gene- 

fts.  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy, . 
are  the  firft  in  order,  as  being,  likewife,  the  firft 
for  antiquity,  fince  there  is  no  authentic  account 
of  any  other  book,  either  facred,  or  profane,  hav- 
ing been  written  before  them.  The  whole  Petita- 
teuch  is  attributed  to  Mofcs,  as  author  thereof; 
though  father  Symon,  in  his  critical  hiftory  of  the 
Old  Tejiament,  produces  feveral  pafiages  to  prove 
that  the  legiflator  of  the  Jeius  was  not  wholly  the 
author  of  the  Pentateuch,  as  we  now  have  it ;  which 
fentiment  is  very  well  fupported  by  the  interpolati- 
ons at  the  end  of  the  Pentateuch  ;  fince  it  is  abfurd 
to  fuppofe  Mofes  the  author  of  the  account  of  his 
own  death  and  burial,  and  of  the  comparifon  be- 
tween him  and  the  fucceeding  prophets  in  Ij'rael. 
Efdras  is  thought  the  author  of  the  interpolated 
pafiages,  being  fuppofed  to  have  publifhed  the  Old 
Tejiament,  or  at  leaft  a  part  of  it,  correiSfed,  and^ 
enlarged,  on  his  return  from  the  Bahylonijh  cap-- 
tivity.  See  Dr.  'James'^  fcholaftic  hiftory  of  the 
Canon  of fcripture,  and  Huetii  Demonftra  Evan- 
gel ica. 

At  the  head  of  the  Pencateuch  ftands  the  book  of 
Genefis,  which  the  Hebrews  call   Be'  efchith,    be- 
caufe  it  begins  with  that  word,  which  in  their  lan- 
guage fignifies  in  principio,  in  the  beginning  ;  and 
the.  Greeks  Genejis,  rino-ij,  production,  generation;, 
becaufe  it  begins  with  the  hiftory  of  the  produftion 
and  generation  of  all  beings.  AJofes  is  thought  to  be 
the  author  of  the  Genefis,  and  it  contains  the  rela- 
tion of  2367  year,  viz,,  from  the  beginnig  of  the 
world  to  the  death  of  Jofeph.     The  Jews  are  for-- 
bid  to  read  the  beginning  of  Genefis  and  the  begin- 
ning of  ^z^/^rV/,  before  thirty  years  of  age.. 


From  nDhv  many,  and  y^iValang  uage. 


The- 


298 


Tloe  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


The  Exodus,  by  the  Hebrews  called  Feellee  Se-  I  of  the  following,  called  the  7tt</j'«,  which  Is  a  collec-' 
t?ioth,  biec  nomha,  thcfe  are  the  names  ;  which  are  |  tion  of  feveral  little  hiftories,  which  at  firft  were  fe- 
the  initial  words  of  the  hook;  and  by  the  Gr^^i  I  parate,  but  were  afterwards  collefled  by  Eyi/raj,  or 
EfoJs-,  which  literally  imports  a  ^g'o/^j  o«/,  or  y««r-  5flOT«<'/,  into  a  fmgle  volume;  and,  in  all  likelihood, 
ney,  becaufe  the  hiftory  of  the  Ifraelites  pafTagc  out  were  taken  from  the  antient  journals,  annals,  or 
of  Egypt  is  related  therein.  The  Exodus  contains,  memoirs,  compofed  by  the  feveral  Judges, 
bcfides,  the  (lory  of  what  was  tranfafled  into  Egypt,  The  canonicity  of  the  book  of  Job  has  been  very 
from  the    death  of  Jojtph  to  the  delivery  of  the    much  difputed  among  the  learned  divines  ;    neither 

"fcws ;  as  well  as  what  pafl'ed  in  the  wildernefs,  and    can  they   agree,    as   to  the  author  of  that  book  ; 

particularly  at  mount  Sinai,  to  the  building  of  the    though   the  moft  common  opinion  is,    that  Alofes 

tabernacle.  publiflied   that  work  duriilg  the  captivity  of  the 

The   Leviticus,  called  by  the   Jews,  Vajickra  ;    Ifraelites  in   Egypt,    to  give  them   an  example  of 

unixht:  Numbers,  Fajicdabber;contimsnot\\\nge\(c    patience    in   their   miferics.     The  great  erudition 


but  the  ceremonial  and  other  laws ;  and  the  Deute 
ro>!om\,   EUch  haddelarim,  is  a  repetition,   or  reca- 
pitulation of  the  law,  which  Mofes  had  before  de- 
livered them  at  large.     And  hence  Deuteronomy  is 
Hill  called  by  the  Rabbins,  Repetition.     They  like- 
wife  call  it.  The  book  of  reprimands,  on  account  of 
the  28th  chapter,   which   is   full   of  bleiSngs   pro- 
niifed  to  furh  as  keep  the  law,  and  of  curfes  threa- 
tened to  fuch  as  tranfgrefs  it.     It  is  pretended,  that 
Deuteronomy    was   written  the    fortieth    year  after 
the  delivery  from  Eg\pt,  in  the  country  of  the  AIo- 
abites,  beyond  Jordan;   Mofes  being   then    in   the 
I20th  year  of  his  age.     It  contains  in  Hebrnv  ele- 
ven Parafches,  though   only  ten  in  the  edition  of 
the  Rabbins  atf'enicc;  twenty  chapters,   and  955 
verfes.     In  the  Greek,   Latin,  and   other  verfions, 
it  contains  34  chapters.     The  laft  is  not  of  Alofes ; 
fome  fay  it  was  added  by  Jofhua,  immediately  after 
Mofes's  death,  which  is  the  moft  probable  opinion. 
It  was  the  Greeks. ^'hcn  they  firft  tranflated  the  law, 
that   gave   the  five  parts  into  which  it  was  divided, 
the  name  of  Genefts,   Ex',di<s,  Leviticus,  Numbers, 
and  Deuteronomy,  which  is  the  reafon  why  all  thefe 
names   are  Greek,  except  the  Leviticus,  which   is 
Hebrnv  ;  for  it  does  not  appear  that  Mofes  made  any 
divifion  of  what  he  wrote,  into  hooks ;  or  that  he 
gave  different  names  and  titles  to  the  different  parts 
of  his  work  :  nor  do  the  Jews,    even  at  this  day, 
diftinguifli  them  in  the  copies  they  ufe  in  the  Syna- 
wogues ;  but  write  them  all  riuining  as  one  fingle 
work,  without  any  other  diftiniSion  befwle  that  of 
little  and  great  Parafches  ;  though  in  other  copies, 
uied  by  private  perfons,  they  are  divided  into  five 
parts,  as  among  us ;  but  they  give  them  no  other 
name,  but  the  firft  word  wherewith  each  divifion 
begins;  much  as  we  do  in  quoting  a  decree,  or 
chapter  of  the  canon  law, 

Jojhua  is  the  ;iext  in  order  of  the  canonical  books 
of  the  OldTepanunt,  and  contains  what  happened 
to  the  Ifraelites  under  the  conduit  of  that  famous 
■i^enzvs\  J ojhia  whom  Alofes  had  appointed  for  his 
fuccellbr  in  the  government  of  the  people.  The 
iiuihor  of  this  book  if  not  known,  no  more  than  that 


which  appears  throughout  the  whole,  is  certainly 
worthy  that  great  man,  who  h.id  been  inftrudted  in 
all  the  fcicnces  of  the  Egyptians  ;  but  the  learned 
in  the  Hebraick  tongue,  pretend,  that  there  are 
feveral  terms  in  it,  which  were  not  in  ufe  till  after ' 
David;  and  that  it  is  full  of  phrafes  of  the  Idu- 
mean  language  ;  which  makes  them  conjecture, 
that  the  author  who  compofed  it  was  of  that 
country.  Sorne  have  believed,  that  there  has  never 
been  fuch  a  man  as  Job  ;  that  the  author  of  the 
hook,  which  goes  under  his  name,  had  invented  the 
fubjecSl ;  but  how  does  that  fcntiment  agree  with  the 
prophet  Ez.ekiel,w\\o  mentions  Job  with  Noah  ?  and 
with  St.  James  in  his  epiftle,  chap.  v.  who  propofes 
him  to  the  Chrijlians  as  a  model  of  patience  they 
are  to  follow,  when  perfecuted  for  the  faith  .? 

Sixteen  prophets  are  ranked  among  the  canonical 
books,  four  greater,  fo  called  from'  the  length,  or 
extent  of  their  writings  ;  and  twelve  lejfer,  from 
the  fhortnefs  of  their  writings.  Thz  greater  pro- 
phets are  Ifaiah,  Jere?niah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel ; 
and  the  lejfer,  Hofea,  Joel,  Amos,  Obadiah,  Jonah, 
Alicah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Zephaniah,  Ha<rgai 
Zechariah,  and  Alalachi.  In  the  Greek  church  the 
lejfer  prophets  are  placed  in  order  before  the  great 
ones,  apparently  becaufe  many  of  the  lejfer  pro- 
phets are  more  antient  than  the  ^-rra^^'r.  The  Greeks, 
alio,  as  well  as  the  Jews,  ranked  Daniel  a.mong 
the  lejfer  prophets  ;  the  Jews  pretending  that  he  is 
no  jmore  to  be  ranked  among  the  prophets  than 
David  :  not  but  that  both  the  one  and  the  other 
foretold  many  important  things,  but  becaufe  their 
manner  of  life  differed  from  that  of  the  other  pro- 
phets. 

The  canonical  hooks  of  the  Neiv  Tejlament,  are 
the  four  Evangelifls,  the  Apocalypfe,  or  Rev  lotions, 
the  Ads  of  the  Apojiks,  and  the  epiJlLes  of  St.  Paul, 
St.  Peter,  St.  Jude,  and  St.  James. 

Among  the  four  Evangelijts,  the  gofpel  of  St. 
Matthew  is  placed  the  firlt.  He  wrote  it  in  He- 
brevj,  (Anno  Chrift.  41.  and  the  third  of  the  Em- 
peror Caligula)  for  the  inftrudtion  of  the  Jews 
who  believed  in  Chrift,  the  adlions  of  who.'e  hu- 
2  manity 


\ 


BOOKS. 


299 


manity  are  particularly  defcribed  therein  ;    it  is  for 
that  reafon,  that  St.  Mattheiv  is  reprefented,  among 
the  four  Evangelifts,   uniler  the  figure  of  a  man. 
His  gofpel  was   fo   much  cllremed,  from  the  time 
of  its  publication,  that  St.  Barnabas  us'd  to  carry 
always  a  copy  of  it  along  with  him  in  all  his  travels,  ' 
with  which  he  was  buried,  and  which  was  found 
on  his  ftomach  when  the  place  of  his  fepulchre  was 
difcovcred  under  the  Emperor  Zetio.      The  Naza- 
retKS  kept  it  a  long  while  without  making  any  al    , 
teration  in  it  ;  and  it  was   from  them   St.  'Jcyome 
had  a  copy  of  it,  in  order  to  tranflate  it  into  Latin. 
But  in  procefs  of  time  it  was  corrupted,  as  well  by 
the  Nazareiies.,  as  by  tht  Eironites,  the  Corinthians, 
and  Carpocratians,    who  took  occafion   from  the 
human  genealogy  defcribed  therein,  to  deny   the  I 
divinity  of  Chrijt.     St.  'Jerome  fays,   that  in   his 
time  the  Hebrciv  original  was  kept  in  the  library  of! 
Cafarea. 

St.  Mark  wrote  his  gofpel  by  St.  Peter's  order, 
who  had  took  a  particular  care  to  inform  him  of 
the  actions  and  miracles  of  yefus  Chrijt.  Tertullian 
fays,  that  in  his  time  it  was  called  the  Gofpel  of  St. 
Peter.  It  is  an  abridgment  of  that  of  St.  Mattheiv, 
St.  "Jerome,  St.  Augujtine,  and  St.  Chryfojhm,  are 
of  opi.'iion,  that  the  original  is  Gr^f/f  ;  and  Car- 
dinal Baroniiis,  that  St.  Alark  writing  the  hlftory 
of  Chrift  for  the  ufe  of  the  Romans,  he  muft  have 
done  it  in  a  language  thev  underftood  ;  and  that  in 
fevcral  places  of  his  gofpel  there  are  locutions  en- 
tirely Latin ;  perhaps  while  St.  Mark  was  at 
Aquileia,  (if  we  believe  an  old  tradition  which  is 
not  warranted  by  good  authors)  he  tranflated  into 
Greek  the  golpel  he  had  wrote  in  Latin.  At  Rome, 
the  Greek  tongue  was  very  common,  fince  St.  Paul 
wrote  to  the  faithful  in  that  language  ;  but  Sueto- 
nius aflures  us,  that  it  had  been  much  difcredited 
by  the  Emperor  Claudius,  in  whole  time  St.  A'lark 
wrote. 

St.  Luke's  gofpel  was  wrote  agaii;{l  the  errors  of 
feveral  hereticks,  which,  himlelf  fays  at  the  be- 
ginning, was  the  occafion  of  his  writing  it  ;  and 
that  he  has  learned  the  things  he  is  a  going  to  re- 
count, from  thole  who  had  fcen  them,  and  who 
had  been  the  firft  minifters  of  the  word,  meaning 
the  apoftles,  and  St.  Paul  in  particular,  to  whom 
Re  had  been  given,  by  the  churches,  for  a  com- 
panion in  his  travels.  He  mentions  feveral  things, 
in  his  gofpel,  of  the  birth,  preaching,  and  mira- 
cles of  Chrijl,  which  the  other  evangelifts  fay 
nothing  of ;  even  his  ftyle  is  more  elegant  than 
theirs. 

St.  John  wrote  his  at  the  intreaty  of  the  bifhops 
of  the  oriental  church,  to  refute  the  errors  of  Ebion 
and  Cerintbus, 
IS- 


St.  Luke  is  the  author  of  the  A^s  of  iln  Apojiles. 
The  principal  defign  of  this  work,  is  the  hiftory 
of  St.  Paul,  though  he  has  omitted  feveral  of  the 
nioft  important  actions  of  that  apoftle,  which  we 
find  in  his  cpiftles. 

The  epiftle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Romans,  v/hich 
is  the  firft  in  order,  was  wrote  at  Ccnchrea,  the 
port  of  Corinth.  This  epiftle  contains  the  funda- 
mental truths  of  the  chrijiian  religion,  the  corrup- 
tion of  human  nature  hy  Adam' ^  fin,  the  reparation 
by  the  grace  of  Cbri/f,  the  efficacy  of  that  remedy, 
the  fecret  of  his  eternal  eledion,  which  he  founds 
entirely  on  the  will  of  God,  who,  of  the  fame  mafs 
of  corruption,  forms  vuilcls  of  honour,  and  vefTels 
of  ignominy,  without  having  the  leaft  right  to  afk 
him  the  reafon  of  that  difference.  He  propofcs  to 
himfelf  all  the  obje6tions,  which  human  pride  can 
make  againft  that  choice  ;  butinftead  of  refolving 
them,  he  has  recourfe  to  the  unfcrutability  of  God's 
judgments,  which  are  to  be  rcfpected  by  mankind 
with  humility,  without  attempting  to  fathom  them 
with  pride,  as  if  the  creator  owed  Ibmething  to 
thofe  who  arc  all  born  in  the  fame  condemnation 
by  the  original  fin,  and  might,  without  injuftice, 
be  left  in  it. 

The  apoftle  wrote  the  firft  epiftle  to  the  Corin- 
thians at  Ephefus  ;  and  at  Rome  thofe  to  the  Ephe- 
fians,  Philippians,  Colojjians,  the  fecond  epiftle  to 
Ti?nothy,  and  the  famous  epiftle  to  the  Hebreivs  ; 
wherein,  by  the  divine  explication  of  thepriefthood 
of  Chrijl,  he  Ihews  his  profound  erudition  in  the 
law  of  Mofes,  as  well  as  in  the  fubJime  truths  of 
the  gofpel.  1  his  epiftle  has  been  a  iubjedi:  of  great 
controverfy  among  the  learned,  who  could  not  agree 
as  to  the  author  thereof,  nor  underftand  the  facri- 
fice  mentioned  therein.  From  Macedon  he  wrote 
the  firft  to  Timothy. 

The  antient  fathers  have  been  long  divided  about 
the  Apocalypfe,  or  Revelation,  The  antient  fathers, 
both  Greeks  and  Latins,  have  received  this  book  for 
canonical,  though  attributed  to  another  John.  St. 
I  Jerome  fays,  that,  in  his  time,  the  Greek  churches 
[  queflioned  if  it  had  been  wrote  by  St.  John  the 
evangel  ift.  St.  Baft  I,  and  Gregory  Nazianzen^ 
abfolutely  rejefted  it,  and  the  council  of  Laodicea 
never  mention  it  in  their  canon  of  the  facred  wri- 
tings. Diony/ius  Alexa?idrinus  cenfures  it  as  writ- 
ten in  bad  Greek,  and  even  finds  folccifms  and  bar- 
barifms  in  it,  in  abundance  :  though  he  allows  it 
to  contain  a  myftick  fenfe,  which,  he  fays,  he  ad- 
mires, even  where  he  does  not  underftand  it. 

On  the  other  hand,  St.  Jujlin,  Irenaus,  Theo- 
philus  Antiochenus,  Melito,  Apollonius,  Clemens  Alex- 
andrinus,  and  Tertullian,  make  no  doubt  of  its  being 
canonical.     The  third  council  of  Carthage  held  in 

Q  q  ■     397* 


l%e   Unlverfal  Hiftory  o/"  Arts  ^W  Sciences. 


300 

397,  placed  it  in  the  canon  of  the  New  Teflament ; 
and  the  churches  both  of  tiie  eaft  and  weft  have 
acknowledged  it  ever  fince.  Of  all  their  objections 
af'ainft  the  authority  of  this  book,  that  feems  the 
beft  grounded,  which  is  drawn  from  thofe  words, 
c.  ii.  V.  18.  write  to  the  angel  of  the  church  ofThya.- 
tira  ;  there  was  not,  fay  they,  any  Chri/iian  church 
at  Thyatira  at  that  time.  St.  Epiphanius,  who 
grants  them  this  point,  is  forced  to  have  recourie 
to  the  prophetick  i'pirit,  as  if  St.  John  had  forcfeen 
there  would  be  a  church  there  in  courfe  of  time. 
Several  orthodox  writers  have  rejeifled  the  Jpoca- 
lypfe,  as  countenancing  the  reveries  of  Cerinthus 
touching  the  carnal  reign  of  Chrljl  on  earth. 

In  the  firft  century  of  the  church,  th.;e  were  a 
great  many  other  books  attributed  to  the  apoflles, 
viz.  the  Aifls,  Gofpel,  Apocalypfe,  and  Judgment 
of  St.  Peter.  The  Gofpel  and  Apocalypfe  of  St. 
Paul ;  his  rapture  to  heaven,  forged  by  the 
Cainites  ;  his  AcSls  ;  a  third  Epiftle  to  the  Corin- 
thians, and  to  the  Tbejfaloniam,  and  one  to  thofe 
of  Laodiccci.  A  new  Apocalypfe  was  attributed  to 
St.  Jihn  ;  Cerinthus  being  fufpedted  to  have  been 
the  author  thereof.  St.  Tho/nas,  St.  Bartholomeiu, 
St.  'James  the  minor,  St.  Matthias,  St  Thadee,  and 
St.  Barnabas,  were  prefented  with  each  his  gofpel. 
Chri/l  himfelf  was  not  fpared  by  the  impoHors  of 
thofe  times,  for  under  his  name  was  publifhed  a 
book  entitled.  Of  the  magick  art,  addrelliid  to  St 
Peter  and  to  St.  Paul. 

Bocks  are  certainly  of  divine  invention,  fince  the 
oldeft  we   have  any  warranted   account  of,    and 
which  confequently  has  been  the  firft,  is  the  Deca- 
logue given  to  Alofes  by  God  himfelf,  who  wrote 
it  on  ftones.     Men  afterwards  taking  the  hint  from 
it  began  to  write  books  likewife,   but  on  different 
matters ;    for  inftead   of  ftones  they   made  ufe  of 
parts  of  vegetables  for  matter  of  their  books,  as  of 
the  leaves  and  barks  ;  efpecially  the  leaves  of  palm- 
trees,  and  the  rinds  and  barks  of  Telia  or  Phil)  ra, 
and  the  Egyptian  papyrus ;    which  continued  long 
the    common    matter   of   books-,     infomuch   that 
moft  of  the  names  and  terms  belonging  to  books, 
in  moft  languages,  are  taken  thence  :  as  the  Greek 
Bibles,  the  Latin  liber,  codex,  folium,  tabula,    and 
the  Englijh  book  itfelf.     We  may  add,   that  barks 
app)ear  ftill  in  fome  meafure  retained   for  books   in 
certain   of    the  northern  countries,  as   among  the 
Calmuck  Tartars,    where  a  library  was   lately  dif- 
covered  by  the  Rujfians,  of  an  unufual  form  as  well 
as  matter  ;    the  books  were  exceedingly  long,  but 
no  b.'^eadth  j    the  leaves   were  thick,  and  made  of 
b.irks  of  trees,  fmeered  over  with  a  double  varnifh; 
the  ink  or  writing  being  white  on  a  black  ground. 
By  degrees  w^Xj  then  leather,  were  introduced. 


efpecially  the  fkins  of  goats  and  fheep,  of  which  ' 
at  length  parchment  was  prepared  ;  then  lead  came 
in  ufc  ;    alfo  linen,   fdk,   horn  ;   and  la/Uy  Paper 
itfelf. 

We  learn  from  fcripture  that  the  firft  books  were 
in  form  of  blocks  and  tables,  under  the  appellation 
of  Sepher,  which  the  Septuagint  render  a  !'.«?, 
fquare  tables,  of  which  form  the  book  of  the  cove- 
nant, book  of  the  law,  b^ok  or  bill  of  divorce,  book 
of  curfes,  tfi.  appear  to  have  been.  But  when 
flexible  matter  came  to  be  wrote  on,  they  found  it 
more  convenient  to  make  their  lojks  in  form  of 
rolls,  called  by  the  Greeks,  xo/la«ia,  by  the  Latins, 
Volumina,  which  appear  to  have  been  in  ufe  among 
the  antient  Jews,  as  well  as  Grecians,  Romans, 
Perfians,  and  even  Indians.  The  rolls  or  volumes, 
were  compofed  of  fcveral  ftieets,  fattened  to  eacli 
other,  and  rolled  upon  a  ftick,  ox  umbilicus  ;  the 
whole  making  a  kind  of  column  or  cylinder,  whicii 
was  to  be  managed  by  the  umbilicus,  as  a  handle  ; 
it  being  reputed  a  kind  of  crime  to  take  hold  of 
the  roll  itfelf.  The  outfide  of  the  volume  was 
called  frons,  the  ends  of  the  umbilicus,  cornua, 
horns  ;  which  were  ufually  carved  ;  and  adorned, 
likewife,  with  bits  of  filver,  ivory,  or  even  gold 
and  precious  ftones.  The  title,  2u\Aaj3^,  was 
ftuck  on  the  outfide.  The  whole  volume,  v/hen 
extended,  might  make  a  yard  and  a  half  wide,  and 
fifty  long. 

Or  fuch  ^^sii  did  the  libraries  chiefly  confift,  till 
fome  centuries  after  C/6ry?.  The  form  which,  ob- 
tains among  us,  is  the  fquare,  compoiid  of  feparate 
leaves  ;  which  was  alfo  known,  though  little  ufed 
among  t!ie  antients,  having  been  invented  by  y^t- 
talus.  King  oi  Pergamus,  the  fame  who  alio  in-' 
vented  parchment  ;  but  it  has  now  been  fo  long 
in  pofll'ffion  that  the  oldeft  manufcripts  are  found 
in  it.  Montfamon  afl'ures  us,  that  of  all  the  antient 
Greek  manufcripts  he  has  feen,  there  are  but  two 
in  the  roll-form,  the  reft  being  made  up  much  after 
the  manner  of  the  modern  hooks. 

To  the  form  of  bo'A-s  belongs  alfo  the  oeconomy 
of  the  infide ;  or  the  order  and  ■  arrangement  of 
points  and  letters  into  lines  and  pages,  with  mar- 
irins,  and  other  appurtenances  ;  which  has  under- 
gone many  changes.  At  firft  the  letters  were  only 
divided  into  lines,  then  into  feparate  words;  v/hich  by 
degrees  were  noted  with  accents,  and  diftributed  by 
points  and  ftops  into  periods,  paragraphs,  chapters, 
and  other  divifions.  Jn  (bme  countries,  as  among 
the  Orientals,  the  lines  began  from  right,  to  run  to 
the  leftwards,  in  others,  as  the  northern  and  ivejicrn 
nation,  from  the  left  to  the  rightwards  ;  others, 
as  the  Grecians,  followed  both  directions  alternate- 
ly, going  in  the  one  and  returning  in  the  other, 
called  Bonjlrophcdon.     In  moft  countries  the  lines 

run 


B    0    0    K'S. 


30t 


run  from  fide  to  fide  of  the  pa^e  ;  in  fomc,  parti- 
cularly tlie  Chincft\  from  top  to  bottom.  Again, 
the  page  in  fome  is  entire  and  uniform  ;  in  others 
divided  into  columns ;  in  others  diftinguiflicd  into 
text  and  notes,  either  marginal,  or  at  the  bottom  ; 
ufually  it  is  furniflied  with  fignaturcs  and  catch- 
words; fometimes  alfo  with  a  regifter,  todifcovcr 
whether  the  book  be  compleat.  To  thefe  are  occa- 
fionally  added  the  apparatus  of  funimaries,  or  fide 
notes  ;  the  embelliflimenfs  of  red,  gold,  or  en- 
amelled initial  letters,  head-pieces,  tail-pieces,  ef- 
figies, fchcmes,  maps,  and  the  like.  'I'he  end  of 
the  book,  now  denoted  by  Finis,  was  antientlv 
marked  with  a  <;,  called  coronis,  and  the  whole 
frequently  wafhed  with  an  oil  drawn  from  cedar, 
or  citron  chips,  fl,rewed  between  the  leaves  to  pre- 
ferve  it  from  rotting.  There  alfo  occurs  certain 
formulas  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  books  :  as 
among  the  Jews,  the  words,  ejlo  fortis,  which  we 
find  at  the  end  of  the  books  of  Eiodiis,  Leviticus, 
Numbers,  Ezckiel,  &c.  to  exhort  the  reader  to  be 
courageous,  and  proceed  on  the  following  book. 
The  conclufions  were  alfo  often  guarded  with  im- 
precations againfl  fuch  as  fhould  falfify  them  ;  of 
which  we  ha\'e  an  inltance  in  the  Apocr.lypfe. 

Books,  with  regard  to  their  manufaiSture,  may 
be  divided  into  manufcripts  ;  thofe  written  with 
the  hand,  whether  originally  by  the  authors,  called 
Autographs,  or  at  fecond-hand,  by  Librarii,  or 
CopyiJIs,  &c.  Printed,  thofe  wrought  ofF  from  the 
prefs.  Books  in  quires,  or  Jheets,  thofe  not  bound, 
or  ftitched.  Books  in  folio,  thofe  wherein  a  fhcet 
is  folded  but  once,  or  makes  two  leaves  or  four 
pages.  Books  in  i^to,  where  it  makes  four  leaves  ; 
in  8w,  where  eight  ;  in  izmo,  where  twelve  ;  in 
16°,  where  fixtcen  ;  and  in  24.°,  where  twenty- 
four. 

There  have  been  erefled,  almofl:  ever  fince  the 
firft  invention  of  books,  at  leaft  from  the  time  they 
began  to  increafe  in  number,  particular  places  for 
their  receptions,  which  places,  in  procefs  of  time, 
have  been  changed  into  publick  edifices,  called  li- 
braries, whofe  origin  is  by  feveral  authors  attributed 
to  the  Hebmvs  ;  from  whom  the  other  nations 
took  the  hint,  and  Ofmanduas,  King  of  Egypt  firft; 
who  according  to  Diodorus,  had  a  library  built  in 
his  palace,  with  this  infcription  over  the  door, 
S'Kxi?;  Ialp£tti»;  nor  Were  the  Piolernys,  who  reigned 
in  the  lame  country,  lefs  curious  and  magnificent 
in  Books.  Ej'dras,  v.  17.  fpeaks  of  a  library  of 
the  Kings  of  Perfia,  which  fome  imagine  to  have 
confifted  of  the  hiflorians  of  that  nation,  and  of 
memoirs  of  the  affairs  of  ftate  ;  but  in  effeifl,  it 
appears  rather  to  have  been  a  depofitory  of  laws. 


charters,  and  ordinances  of  the  Kings.  The  He- 
breiu  text  calls  it  the  houfe  of  treafures,  and  after- 
wards the  botfe  of  the  rolls,  where  the  treafures 
were  laid  up.  We  may  with  more  reafon  call  that 
a  library,  mentioned  in  the  fecond  of  Efdras,  to 
have  been  built  by  Nehemia,  and  in  which  were 
preferved  the  books  of  the  prophets  of  David,  and 
the  letters  of  their  Kings. 

1  he  tyrant  Pifijhatus  was  the  firfi,  who  ereflcd 
a  library  at  Athens,  though  Straho  refers  the  honour 
of  it  to  Ariftotle.  Xerxes  tranfported  that  of  Pi- 
fejiratiis  into  Perfia,  which  was  afterwards  brought 
back  by  Selencus  Nieanor  fo  Athens,  long  after  .it 
was  plundered  by  Sylla,  and  re-eftablifhcd  by 
Adrian.  Plutarch  informs  us,  that  under  Eumenes 
there  was  a  library  at  Perga7nus,  containing  200,000 
books.  T yrannion,  a  celebrated  grammarian,  con- 
temporary with  Pompey,  had  a  library  of  3000 
volumes.  That  of  Alexandria,  according  to  A, 
Geltius,  contained  ^00,000  volumes,  all  in  rolls, 
burnt  by  Ctsfar's  foldiers.  Conjlantlne,  and  his  fuc- 
celTors,  erected  a  magnificent  one  at  Conjlnritinople ; 
which,  in  the  eighth  century  contained  300,000 
volumes,  all  burnt  by  order  of  Leo  Ijaiirius  ;  and 
among  the  reft,  one  wherein  the  Iliad  and  Odyjfee 
were  written  in  letters  of  gold,  on  the  fkin  of  a 
fcrpent. 

The  moft  celebrated  libraries  of  antient  Rome 
were  the  Vlpian  and  the  Palatin.  They  alfo  boaft 
much  of  the  libraries  of  Paidus  /E?niUus,  who 
conquered  Perfus  ;  o(  LucilUus  LucuUas,  of  Afmius 
Pollio,  Aiticus,  fulius  Severus,  Domitiait,  Screnus^ 
Pamphilus  Martyr,  and  the  Emperors  Gordian  and 
Trajan. 

St.  Jerome,  Anajlafms,  and  others,  inform  us, 
that  anticntly  every  large  church  had  its  library, 
which  is  yet  pratftifed  in  feveral  chriftian  countries; 
efpecially  in  the  Abbeys  and  other  Monafteries  ; 
each  of  which  has  its  library,  more  or  lefs  nume- 
rous. Moft  of  thofe  libraries  are  publick  ones  ; 
that  is  to  fay,  that  the  curious  may  refort  thither, 
at  any  time,  and  entertain  themfelvcs  with  what 
book  they  pleafe,  which  can  be  met  with  in  that 
library,  without  coftiiig  them  any  thing,  if  even 
they  were  to  copy  whole  volumes.  The  moft  an- 
tient, moft  famous,  and  moft  rich  in  original  ma- 
nufcripts,  and  moft  numerous  of  the  whole  world, 
is  that  of  the  King  of  France,  at  the  fame  place, 
began  by  Francis  I.  augmented  by  Cardinal  Riche- 
lieu, and  compleated  by  M.  Colbert,  to  which  the 
learned  and  curious  are  alfo  permitted  to  refort. 

The  next  to  this  is  that  of  the  Vatican  at  Rome, 
founded  by  Pope  Nicholas  in  1450  ;  and  though  it 
had  been  deftroyed  fince  by  the  conftable  De  Bour- 
bon, in  the  taking  of  Rome,  it  was  reftored  to  its 
Q,  q  2  priftine 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


302 

prifline  fplcndor,  by  Pope  SixtusY .  and  confiderably 
enriched  with  the  ruins  of  that  oi  Heidelberg,  plun- 
dered by  Count  Tilly  in  1622. 

The  Emperor's  library  at  Vienna,  according  to 
Lambecius,  confifts  of  80,000  volumes,  and  1 5,940 
curious  medals.  That  erected  at  Florence  by  Cofmo 
de  Medicis,  is  faid  to  be  one  of  the  moft  tompleat 
in  Europe,  over  the  gate  whereof  is  wrote.  Labor 
ahfque  lahore. 

'I'he  Bodleian  Library,  at  Oxford,  exceeds  that 
of  any  Univcrfity  in  Europe,  and  even  thofe  of  all 
the  Sovereigns  o{  Europe,  except  the  King  o{  Frana, 
and  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  which  are  each  of 
them  older  by  a  hundred  years.  It  was  firft  opened 
in  1602,  and  has  fmce  found  a  great  number  of 
benefadtors  ;    particulraly    Sir   Robert  Cotton,    Sir 


H.  Savil,  Archbifhop  Laud,  Sir  Kenelm  T>ighy, 
!Mr.  Allen,  \:>r.  Poeock,  Mr.  Selden,  and  others. 
j  The  Vatican,  the  Medicean,  that  of  Bajfarion  at 
\  Venice,  exceed  the  Bodleian  in  Greek  manufcripts, 
and  the  Bodleian  exceeds  them  in  Orientals.  The 
Cotton  library  confifts  wholly  of  manufcripts,  par- 
ticularly of  luch  as  relate  to  the  hiftory  and  anti- 
quities of  f^^/ijW,  which,  as  thc-y  are  now  bound, 
make  about  1000  volumes.  It  is  greatly  incrcafed 
by  the  addition  of  Sir  HansSloane's  Muf/um. 
Mofl:  of  the  Englifl)  nobility  and  gentry  uf'ed  to 
have  an  excellent  tafte  for  learning,  and  a  great 
number  of  them  have  a  (elect  library  of  their  own, 
which  confift  of  the  beft  authors  both  antieiit  and 
modern.  ' 


BOOK-BINDING. 


BOOK-BINDING,  is  the  art  of  gather- 
ing, and  fewing  together  the  flieets  of  a 
book,    and  covering  it  with  a  back. 

The  art  of  binding  books,  when  firft  the 
feveral  (heets  of  the  writings  of  authors  were  col- 
lected together,  was  not  attended  with  great  difficul- 
ties ;  for  the  leaves  were  only  glued  together,  and 
rolled  on  round  pieces,  or  cylinders  of  wood ; 
which  manner  of  book-binding,  whofe  invention  is 
attributed  to  the  Egyptians,  was  continued  till  long 
alter  the  age  of  Jugujlus,  and  is  (Hll  retained  by 
the  yeiuijh  Synagogues,  where  they  continue  to 
write  the  books  of  the  law  on  vellums  fewed  toge- 
ther, making,  as  it  were,  only  one  long  page, 
with  two  rollers,  and  their  clal'ps  of  gold  or  filver 
at  their  extremities,  the  whole  book  being  wrapped 
up  in  a  piece  of  filk,  which  ferves  as  a  cover  to  it. 

But  as  this  manner  of  binding  books  is  attended 
with  many  inconveniencies,  one  of  the //?/«//,  Kings 
ot  Pergamus,  invented  the  form  now  in  ufe,  of 
fquare  binding,  or  of  fewing  feveral  quires  one  over 
another,  as  more  commodious  to  the  reader,  who 
can  open  and  fhut  his  book  in  an  inftant,  and 
without  the  leaft:  difficulty,  and  without  the  leaves 
being  expofed  to  wear  out  fo  foon  as  wlien  rolled 
up,  efpecially  of  books  written  or  printed  on 
paper. 

The  feveral  tools  or  inftruments  belonging  to 
this  profeffion,  are,  folding-Jlicks,  hammers,  to  beat 
the  leaves,  and  turn  the  back,  a  feiving-prefs,  a 
iutting-prefs,  Jlieers,  a  plough,  knives,  a  fmoother, 
brujhes,  dog's-tooth,  punchions,  and  little  cylinders 
of  brafs  engraven  in  relievo,    in  various  forms  and 


devices,  for  ornaments  ;  gold  fur  gilding,  calf 
fkiiis,  parchment,  whipcord,  pack-thread,  needles 
backing  boards,  ISc. 

Falding-ftic's  zxe.  flips  of  ivory,  or  box,  of  about 
two  fingers  broad,  and  eight  or  ten  inches  long, 
edged  on  each  fide,  for  the  conveniency  of  parting 
the  leaves  afunder,  when  occafion  requires  it. 

Cuiting-prejs  is  a  machine  confifting  of  two  large 
pieces  of  wood,  in  form  of  cheeks,  join'd  by  two 
flrong  wooden  fcrews,  which  being  turned  by  an 
iron  bar,  draw  together,  or  fet  afunder  the  cheeks, 
as  much  as  is  necelTary  for  the  putting  in  of  the 
hook;.  The  cheeks  are  placed  flat  on  a  wooden 
fland,  in  form  of  a  cheft,  into  which  the  cuttings 
fall.  A  fide  of  the  cheeks  arc  two  pieces  of  wood, 
of  the  fame  length  with  the  fcrews,  ferving  to  di- 
reif  the  cheeks,  and  prevent  their  approaching  or 
opening  unequally  upon  turning  the  fcrew.  Upon 
the  cheeks  is  thefhaft  or  fufl,  to  which  the  cutting- 
knife  is  fafleneJ  by  a  fcrev/,  which  has  its  key  to 
difmount  it  on  occafion,   to  be  Iharpened. 

The  fhaft  confifls  of  feveral  parts  ;  among;  the 
refl,  a  wooden  fcrew,  or  worm,  which  catching 
within  the  nuts  of  the  two  feet  that  fufi:ain  it  on 
the  cheeks,  brings  the  knife  to  the  book,  which  is 
farteiied  in  the  prefs  between  two  boards.  This 
fcrew,  which  is  pretty  long,  has  two  direclories,  or 
pieces  of  wood,  which  both  as  to  their  form  and 
efFeiSl  refemble  thofe  of  the  fcrews  of  the  cheeks. 
To  make  the  fliaft  flide  fquare  and  even  on  the  , 
cheeks,  fo  that  the  knife  pufh'd  along  by  the  work- 
man may  make  an  equal  paring,  that  foot  of  the 
fhaft  where  the  knife  is .  not  fixed  has  a  kind  of 

groove 


BOOK-BINDING. 


3^Z 


groove,  direiSed  by  a  thread  iaftcncd  along  one  of 
eheeks.  Laftly,  the  knife  is  a  piece  of  ftcel,  fix 
or  feven  inches  long,  flat,  thin,  and  fliarp,  termi- 
nating at  one  end  in  a  point,  like  that  of  a  fword  ; 
and  at  the  other  in  a  fquare  form,  which  fcrvcs  to 
faften  it  to  that  fhaft. 

The  book-binder-  being  fiirnifhed  with  all  his  im- 
plements, begins  to  work  firfi:  with  2,  folcUng-Jhck , 
to  fold  the  fheets,  according  to  the  form,  vi%.  into 
2  'lor  folio' s -f  4  for  quartans  ;  8  for  oSiavo's,  &c.  be- 
ing direfled  therein  by  the  fignatures,  or  catch- 
words, at  the  bottom  of  the  page. 

The  ftgnature  is  a  mark  at  the  bottom  of  each 
fhcet,  to  (hew  the  number  and  order  of  the  quires 
and  fheets.  The  fignatures  confift  of  the  capital 
letter  soi^Q.  alphabet^  and  change  in  every  fheet. 
If  there  be  more  flieets  than  letters  in  the  alphabet^ 
to  the  capital  letter  is  added  a  fmall  one  of  the  fame 
fort,  /.  e.  a  little  a  after  great  A,  &c.  ox  fig.  2,  3, 
£5\'.  which  is  repeated  as  often  as  is  necefi'ary. 

The  leaves  thus  Jolded,  and  laid  over  each  other, 
in  the  order  of  the  Jigiii7tures,  are  beaten  on  a  ftone 
with  a  hammer,  to  make  them  fmooth,  and  open 
well,  and  then  preffed.  While  in  the  prefs,  they 
are  lewed  upon  bands,  which  are  pieces  of  cord,  or 
packthread,  fix  bands  to  a  folio  book,  five  to  a 
quarto,  o.lavo,  &c.  which  is  done  by  drawing  a 
thread  through  the  middle  of  each  flieet,  and  giv- 
ing it  a  turn  round  each  band,  beginning  with  the 
firlf-,  and  proceeding  to  the  laft.  The  French  book- 
binders apply  a  flip  of  parchment,  the  length  of 
the  book,  on  the  infide  of  each  pafleboard,  fo,  how- 
ever, as  that  being  cut,  or  indented,  in  the  places 
againft  the  bands,  it  comes  out  between  the  edge 
of  the  pafteboard  and  the  leaves  of  the  book,  to  co- 
ver the  back.  They  call  this  indo'fing,  and  they 
are  obliged  to  do  it  on  the  penalty  of  30  livres,  and 
the  re-binding  of  the  book.  It  is  done  in  the  prefs, 
where  the  back  being  grated  with  an  iron  inftru- 
ment  with  teeth,  to  make  the  parte  take  hold, 
wherewith  the  parchment  is  firft  faftened,  they  af- 
terwards add  ftrong  glue  to  fortify  it.  After  this 
the  books  are  glued,  and  the  bands  opened,  and 
fcraped,  for  the  better  fixing  the  pafteboards  ;  the 
back  is  turned  with  a  hammer,  and  the  book  fixed 
in  a  prefs  between  two  boards,  called  backing  boards, 
in  order  to  make  agroove  for  fixing  the  pafteboards  ; 
whicJb  being  applied,  holes  are  made,  for  fixing 
them  to  the  book,  which  is  prefled  a  third  time,  and 
then  cut  by  the  plough.  Then  the  book  is  put  at 
laft  to  the  cuuiug-prefs,  betwixt  two  boards,  the 
one  lying  even  with  the  prefs,  for  the  knife  to  run 
upon ;  the  other  above  it,  for  the  knife  to  cut 
againft;  after  which,  the  pafteboards  are  fquared 
with  a  pair  of  fti«ers. 


The  next  operation  is  the  fpriniling  the  leave' 
of  the  i«r/, -which  is  done  by  dipping  a  brufh  made 
of  hog's  briftles  into  vermilion  and  fap  green,  hold- 
ing the  brufh  in  one  hand  and  fpreading  the  hair 
with  the  other  ;  bv  which.moticn  the  edges  of  the 
leaves  are  fprinkled  in  a  regular  maimer,  without 
any  iports  being  bigger  than  the  others,  at  leaft  fo 
far  as  to  be  dilagreeable  to  the  eye. 

Some  valuable  books  are  gilded  ;  which  is  done 
by  putting  the  book  in  the  prefi  between  two  boards, 
fcraping  and  fmoothing  it,  to  take  off  all  the 
fcratches,  and  afterwards  fcraping  fome  yellow  oker 
upon  it,  which  when  fcraped  muff  be  wetted  with 
a  very  fmall  quantity  of  fize-water,  and  rubbed  ofF 
with  fome  clean  fhavings  oithebcok.  The  leaves 
being  again  wetted  with  a  brufh  dipped  in  thefize- 
watcr  (made  with  the  white  of  an  egg  mixed  with 
water,  and  well  beat  together)  the  gold  is  laid 
upon  it,  and  afterwards  dried  before  the  fire. 
When  dried,  it  is  burnifhed  with  a  dog's  tooth,  or 
an  ivory  nob. 

They  have  found  lately  a  new  invention  to  beau- 
tify the  tranchee  of  a  book,  which  produces  as  good 
an  efFedl,  or  rather  better,  than  gold  itfelf;  which 
is  marbling  it,  in  the  fame  beautiful  manner  we  io 
marble  paper,  thus ; 

They  have  a  trough  of  about  four  fingers  deep, 
of  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  largeft  volume,  to 
contain  the  liquor,  which  liquor  is  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  gum  tragacanth  macerated  four  or  five 
days  in  fair  water,  and  ftirred  from  time  to  time, 
adding  every  day  frefh  water  to  it,  till  it  be  of  a 
confiftence  fomewhat  thinner  than  oil,  and  then 
they  ftrain  it  through  a  cloth  into  the  trough. 

When  the  gum  is  well  fettled  in  the  trough,  they 
extend  a  fheet  of  paper,  and  plunge  it  very  (hallow 
into  the  liquor,  fuddenly  lifting  it  out  again,  in 
order  to  ftir  up,  and  raife  the  I'ubfiding  gum  to- 
wards the  furface,  and  for  the  more  impregnating 
of  the  liquor.  Which  done,  they  have  ail  the  co- 
lours ranged  in  gallipots  on  the  table,  viz.  for  blue, 
indico  ground  with  white  lead  ;  for  green,  indico 
and  orpiment,  the  one  ground,  and  the  other  tem- 
pered, mixed  and  boiled  together  with  common 
water;  for  yellow,  orpiment  bruifed  and  tempered; 
for  red,  the  fineft  lake  ground  with  the  rai'pings  of 
Brazil  wood,  which  has  been  prepared  by  boiling 
half  a  day.  Into  all  thefe  colours  they  put  a  little 
ox  or  fifh  gall,  which  is  two  or  three  days  old  ;  and 
if  the  colours  dilute  not  of  themfelvcs  iufliciently, 
they  add  more  gall  ;  on  the  contrary,  if  they  fpread 
too  much,  the  gall  is  over-dofed,  and  muftbecor- 
reded  by  adding  more  of  the  colour  without  gall. 
Then  they  begin,  by  dipping  a  brufh  of  hog's  hair 
into  any   colour,    commonly  the  blue  firft,    and 

fprinkle 


04  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

outfide,  and   doubled 


fpriiikJc  it  on  the  furface  of  the  liquor  in  the  trough, 
(which  is  alfo  upon  the  table)  if  the  colour  were 
rightly  prepared,  it  will  dilate  itfelf  duly  therein 
This  done,  the  red  is  applied  in  the  like  manner, 
but  with  another  pencil^  and  after  this  the  yellow; 
laftly,  the  green.  For  white,  it  is  made  b}-  only 
fprinkling  fair  water,  mixed  with  ox's  gall,  over 
the  liquor. 

When  all  the  colours  are  thus  floating  on  the  li- 
quor, to  give  them  that  fine  cainbletting  we  admire 
in  marble  paper,  they  ufe  a  pointing  flick,  which 
beinti  applied,  by  drawing  it  from  one  fide  of  the 
trough  to  the  other  with  addrefs,  ftirs  up  the  liquor 
and  flu(5luating  colours  ;  then  with  a  comb  taken  by 
the  head  with  both  hands,  they  comb  the  furface  of 
the  liquor  in  the  trough  from  one  extreme  to  ano 
thcr,  permitting  only  the  teeth  to  enter. 

The  colours  being  in  this  pofture,  the  bcok-binder 
takes  off  his  book  from  the  prefs,  keeping  it  clofely 
tyed  betwixt  the  two  back-boards,  left  the  co- 
lours fhould  penetrate  too  far  into  the  infide  of  the 
bsok,  having  moilened  it  firft  with  fair  water,  ap- 
plies each  fide,  one  after  another,  to  the  colours,  in 
fuch  a  manner,  that  the  furface  of  the  colours,  and 
that  of  the  edge  of  the  book,  may  meet  equally  on 
all  parts ;  the  operation  is  done  in  nine  or  ten 
pulfes.  Then  the  book  is  put  to  dry,  and  when 
dried  is  polifhed  with  the  ^■:^'s  tooth,  the  ivory  nob, 
or  the  like.  This  is  a  vafl:  addition  to  the  beauty 
of  the  binding,  which  being  carried  thus  far,  an 
ornament  of  filk  of  feveral  colours,  called  a  head- 
band, is  placed  at  each  extreme  of  the  back,  a-crofs 
the  leaves,  and  wove  and  twifted,  fometimes  about 
a  fingle,  and  fometimes  a  double  piece  of  rolled 
paper. 

Then  remain  the  covers,  which  are  either  of 
calfs  fkin,  01  oi  Jheep'sjkin.  AniitnxXy  books  v/ere 
almoft  all  bound  in  parchment,  and  mofl  of  our 
valuable  booki,  even  fince  the  invention  of  printing, 
have  no  other  binding:  but  the  heU binding  at  prefent 
is  in  calf,  though  binding  mjhecp  makes  as  good  a 
fioure,  but  is  not  of  fo  long  a  duration. 

The  calf  ox  Jiieep  jkin  being  moiltened  in  water, 
is  cut  out.  to  the  fize  of  the  book  with  a  knife,  then 
Imeared  over  with  pafte,  m.ade  of  Vifheat  flour,  and 
afterwards  llretched  over   the  pafteboard,  on  the 


after  having  firft 


over  the  edges  within,  and 
taken  off  the  four  angles,  and  in- 
dented and  plaited  it  at  the  head-land  ;  which  done, 
the  book  is  corded,  or  bound  firmly  between  two 
boards,  with  a  kind  of  whipcord,  to  make  the  co- 
ver ilick  the  flronger  to  the  pafleboards  and  the 
back,  as  alfo  to  form  the  bands  or  nerves  more  ac- 
curately ;  then  fet  to  dry,  and  when  dry,  uncorded, 
and  the  leaves  at  each  end  opened.  Afterwards, 
the  book  is  wafhed  over  with  a  little  pafte  and  water, 
and  then  fprinkled  fine  with  a  brufh,  by  ftriking  it 
either  againft  the  hand,  or  a  ftick  ;  unltfs  it  fhould 
be  marbled,  for  then  the  fpots  are  to  be  made  larger, 
by  mixing  the  ink  with  vitriol.  Then  the  cover 
is  glazed  twice,  with  the  white  of  an  egg  beaten, 
(as  painters  do  their  pi£lureiwhen  they  are  finifhedl 
and  at  laft  polifhed  with  a  poUJInng  iron,  pafled 
hot  over  the  glazed  cover. 

Thus  the  binding  of  a  book,  properly  {o  called,  is 
finifhed,  unlefs  it  fhould  be  lettered  ;  for  then  a 
piece  of  red  Morocco  is  pafled  on  the  back,  be- 
tween the  firft  and  fecond  band,  to  receive  the  title 
in  gold  letters  ;  and  fometimes  a  fecond  between 
the  next  bands  underneath,  to  receive  the  number 
of  the  volume.  The  gilder  makes  the  letters  on 
the  back,  and  the  rofes,  ftars,  isV.  between  the 
the  bands  with  puncheons,  engraven  in  relievo, 
which  they  prefs  flat  down  ;  and  the  lines,  em- 
broideries, ISc.  with  little  cylinders  of  brafs,  rolled 
along  by  an  iron  ruler,  by  means  of  a  double 
branch  ;  i;i  the  middle  whereof  they  are  fitted  on 
an  iron  ftay  or  axis,  that  pafies  the  middle  of  their 
diameter.  But  before  they  apply  any  of  tbefe  tools, 
they  glaze  thoie  parts  of  the  leather,  whereon  they 
are  to  be  applied,  lightly  over  with  a  pencil,  or 
fpunge  ;  and  when  half  dry,  lay  over  them  pieces 
of  leaf-  gold,  cut  out  near  the  fize  ;  and  on  thefe 
ftamp  the  punchions,  which  are  beat  down  with  a 
mallet  or  hammer,  if  the  figures  be  large,  and  re- 
quire a  great  relievo,  as  arms,  cff.  or  roll  the  cy- 
linders, both  the  one  and  the  other  reafonably 
hot.  The  gilding  thus  finifhed,  they  rub  off  the 
fuperfluous  gold  with  a  hare's  foot  ;  leaving  no- 
thing covered  with  gold,  but  the  places  whereon 
the  hot  tools  have  left  their  impreiEons. 


B 


0/   B  O  O  K-K  E  E  P  I  N  G. 

OOK-KEEPING,  is  the  ARTof/f^^/>/»^  j  nefs,  and  eafe  ;  which  tranfadions  either  relate  to 
accounts,  or  of  recording  the  tranfactions  of    perfons  dealt  with,  or  the  things  we  deal  in,  which 


one  s  affairs  in  fuch  a  manner,  that  the  true 
ihite  of  any  part,  or  of  the  whole,  may  be 
thereby  known  with  the  greateft  exaclnefs,  clear- 


are  either  money  or  goods.     As  to  the  perfon  v/e  deal 

with,  we  muft  endeavour  to  be  always  capable  to 

know  by  our  books  what  he  owes  us,  and  what  we 

2  owe 


B  0  0  K-lt  E  E  P  I  N'  G. 


owe  him  ;  and  as  to  the  commodities  we  deal  iri^' 
we  muft  take  care  to  keep  an  account  of  thc'quan- 
tity  and  value  of  every  kind  of  efFeft,  we  have  in 
our  hands,  with  the  gain  and  /a/s  on  that  fubjcft, 
within  the  time  of  the  account ;  as  alfo  of  any 
thing  whatfocver  is  received  by  us,  or  any  way,  for 
our  account,  by  our  fervants,  whether  the  fame  be 
miney  or  wares;  and  of  every  thin^  whatfoe\^ir  is 
delivered  from  us,  upon  any  account,  whether  mo- 
ney or  wares. 

Books  are  either  keptjingfe  ;  as  n.mQngretaibrs  ;  or 
dou!ile,[ca.]\'d  the  Italian  method)  among  great  mer- 
chants. For  fingle  Book-keeping,  two  Looks  are  fuf- 
ficicnt,  vi'z..  a  journal,  or  day-book,  and  a  ledger, 
orpojl-book.  But  there  are  feveral  others  rquifite 
for  keeping  hooks  double,  viz.  three  elfential,  and 
thirteen  auxiliaries. 

The  cfl'ential  ones  are,  the  wajle-look,  journal, 
and  ledger.  And  the  auxiliaries  are,  the  eajh-book, 
debt-hook,  hooks  of  numiro^s,  ef  envoi ces,  of  accompts 
current,  of  commiffions,  orders,  or  advices,  of  accep  ■ 
taiices,  of  remittances,  of  expences,  of  copits  of  Let- 
ters, of  vcffeh,  '  and  of  ivorkmer. 

This  method  of  Book-iee/ing,  in  two  parts, 
which  we  have  learned  from  the  Italian  merchants 
of  Florence,  Venice,  Genoa,  (Jc.  is  univerfally 
prajftiied  throughout  all  Europe,  and  in  the  fame 
manner,  as  to  fub ft ance  ;  but^not  as  to "  «/«'; 
which  varies  according  to  the  regulation  of  the 
coin  of  the  ftate,  where  the  merchants  are  ;  for,  in 
England  the  borks  are  kept  In  pounds,  jhiUirgs,  and 
pence.  In  France  in  livres;  fols,  and  deniers.  In 
Spain  in  maravedis,  fometimes  in  rials  and  pieces  of 
eight.  At  Lijhon,  and  throughout  Portugal,  in 
fees  and  crif ado's.  Throughout  Germany,  '\w flo- 
rins, criiitzcrs,  and  primings.  In  Holland,  ]n  flo- 
rins, patars,  and  penings.  At  Florence,  in  gold 
crowns,  Jols,  and  deniers.  ^t^Venice  in  ducats.  At 
MeJJina  and  throua;h  Sicily  in  ounces,  taris,  grains, 
and  picoli.-.  In  Mujcovy,  in  rupees,  altins,  and 
grives.  At  Dantzick,  in  rixdollars.  At  Ham- 
burgh, in  marks,  fols,  and  denic  s  lubs.  And  thro' 
all  the  the  ftates  of  the  Grand  Seignor,  in  pinjlers 
and  afpers.. 

A  pound  Englifh,  or  fterling  is  20  fhillings. 
hjhilling  12  pence. 
A  pewiy  2  halfpence,  or  4  farthings. 
A  halfpenny  '2  farthings. 

A  French  livre  is   20  fob,  2.  fol  \  farthings,  or 
Hards. 

A  maravedi  is  half  a  farthing  Englijli. 

A  rial  6  pence  3  farthings. 

A  piece  of  eight  4  fhillings  and  fixpence. 

A  rees  is  equal  to  3  fifths  of  a  farthing  Iterling. 

A  German  florin  is  3  fhillings. 

A  Dutth  florin  is  2  ftiillings. 


K'Patard  i  halfpenny,   i  fourth  of  a  farthing.'   . 

A  Fhrenee  gold  crown  5  fhillings'  arid  6  pence. 

A  Venice  ducat  4  fliillings  and  4  pence. 

At  Naples  the  carlin  is  6  pence. 
,    Thro'  Italy  the  fquin  is  9  Ihillings  and  2  penct. 
,    The  roup  4  pence  3  farthings, 
j    The  rix  dollar  4  Shillings  and  6  pence. 
i    A  Hambugh  mark  I  {hilling  and  6  pence. 
I    A /i/rt/Z^r  4  fliillings  and  6  pence.  _       , 

And  an  after  fomething  more  than  an  Englifh' 
IJialFpenny.' 

I  The  "Wastk  Book  may  be  defined  a  regiiler, 
containing  an  inveutory  of  a  merchant's  effeiis,  and  ' 
debts,  with  a  diftiniSi:  record  of  all  his  tt'anfaflions 
and  dealings,  in  a  way  of  trade,  related  in  a  plain 
finiple  ftylc,  and  in  order  of  time  as  they  fucceed 
one  another. 

The  JVafte-hock  opens  with  the  inventory,  which 
confifts  of  two  parts  ;  firfl:,  the  effedls,  theit  is,  the 
money  a  mei^chant  has  by  him,  the  goods  he  has  in 
hand,  his  part  oi  Jliips,-  hcufes,  farms,  &c.  with  the 
debts  due  to  him.  The  fccond  part  of  the  inventory 
is  the  debts  due  by  him  to  others  :  the  difference  be- 
tween which,  and  the  effe<£ts,  is  what  the  mer  • 
chants  call  neat  /lock.  When  a  man  begins  the 
world,  and  firfl  fets  up  to  trade,  the  inventory  is  to 
i)e  gathered  from  a  furvey  of  the  "particulars  that 
make  up  his  real  eftate ;  but  ever  after  is  to  be  col- 
lefled  from  the  ballanCe  of  his  old  books,  and  car- 
ried to  the  new. 

After  the  inventory  is  fairly  related  in  the  Wafle- 
book,  the  tranfadf  ions  of  trade  come  next  to  be  en- 
tered down  ;  which  is  a  daily  tafk  to  be  performed 
as  they  occur.  The  narrative  ought  to  exhibit 
tranfactions  with  all  the  circumftances  necefiary  to 
be  known,  and  no  more.  It  fhould  contain  the 
names  of  perfons  with  whom  the  merchant  deals 
upon  truft,  the  conditions  of  bargains,  the  terms  of 
payment,  the  quantity,  qucdity,  and  prices  of  goods, 
with  every  thing  that  ferves  to  make  the  record  di- 
ftindl,  and  nothing  elfe. 

The  JFafte-book,  if  no  fubfidiary  books  are  kept, 
fhould  contain  a  record  of  all  the  merchant's  tra'nf- 
afl:ions  and  dealings,  in  way  of  trade  ;  and  that 
not  only  of  fuch  as  are  properly  and  purely  mer- 
cantile, but  of  every  occurrence  that  alFeils  his 
ftock,  fo  as  to  impare  or  increafe  it,  fuch  as  private 
expences,  fervants  fees,  houfe-rents,  money  gain- 
ed, Uc. 

The  JouRNAi,,  or  Day-dook,  is  the  book 
wherein  the  tranfadions  recorded  in  the  wafle-book 
are  prepared  to  be  carried  to  the  /rr^7r,  by  having 
their  proper  debtors  and  creditors  afcertained  and 
pointed  out :  whence  it  may  be  obferved,  that  the 
great  defign  of  the  journal  is  to  prevent  errors  in  the 
ledger.  Again, 


:o6 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


Again,  after  the  lidger  is  filled  up,  the  journal 
facilitates  the  work  required  in  rcvifing  and  cor- 
rcfting  it ;  for  firft  the  wajle-book  and  journal  are 
compared,  and  then  the yaww/ and  ledger;  where- 
as to  revife  the  ledger  immediately  from  the  wa/le 
book,  would  be  a  matter  of  no  lefs  difficulty,  than 
to  form  it  without  the  help  of  3i  journal. 

Laftly  the  journal  is  defigned  as  a  fair  record  of  a 
merchant's  bufmefs,  for  neither  of  the  other  two 
books  can  ferve  this  purpofe  ;  not  the  ledger,  by 
reafbn  of  the  order  that  obtains  in  it,  and  alfo  on 
account  of  its  brevity,  being  little  more  than  a 
large  index  :  nor  can  the  ■wajle-book  anfwcr  this 
defign,  as  it  can  neither  be  fair  nor  uniform,  nor 
very  accurate,  being  commonly  written  by  different 


hands,  and  in  time  of  bufmefs.  Hence  it  is,  that 
in  cafe  of  differences  between  a  merchant  and  hij 
dealers,  the  journal  is  the  book  commonly  called 
for,  and  infpected  by  a  civil  judge. 

In  tht  journal,  perfons  and  things  are  charged 
debtors  to  other  perfons  and  things  as  creditors  .  and 
in  this  it  agrees  with  the  ledger,  where  the  liimc 
ftyle  is  ufed,  but  differs  from  it  as  to  forms  and 
order ;  fo  that  it  agrees  with  the  vuafte-hook  in 
thofe  very  things  where  it  differs  from  the  ledger ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  agrees  with  the  latter, 
in  the  very  point  wherein  it  differs  from  the  former  : 
but  in  order  to  flate  the  comparifon  betwixt  the 
waji e-book  ■i.TA  journal,  we  fhall  turn  two  or  three 
examples  of  the  wajle-book  into  a  journal  form. 


WASTE-BOOK. 


-Juue  I  ft.' 


Bought  of  William  Pope  40  yards  of  black  cloth,  at  14  s.  per  yard,  7 
payable  in  three  months,  -J 


Bought  of  James  Sloan  100  yards  of  fhalloon,  at  lod. 

per  yard.  1.     s.     d. 

Whereofpaid,  02  CO   00 

Reft  due,  at  two  months,  02  03  04 


I. 

s. 

28 

CO 

4 

03 

-34 


•  4th. 


Sold  William  Pope  four  pipes  of  port  wine,  at  27 1.  los. 

per  pipe.  1.  s.     d. 

Whereof  received  55  00  00 

Reft  due,  on  demand,  55  00  00 


no 


JOURNAL. 


-Juneift. 


Black-cloth  Dr.  to  William  Pope,  28 1. 

For  40  yards,  at  14s  per  yard,  payable  in  three  months. 


Shalloon  Dr.  to  Sundries,  4I.  3s.  4d. 

To  Gafh  paid  in  part  for  100  yards,  at  lod.  per  yard, 
To  J.  Sloan,  for  the  reft,  due  at  two  months 


1. 

s 

d. 

02 

00 

00 

02 

03  04 

•  4th. 


.1 
28 

00 

04 

03 

Sundries  Drs.  to  Port-wine,   iiol.  1.     s.    d. 

Cafh,  received  in  part  for  four  pipes,  at  27  1.  los.  per  pipe,  55  00  00 
Willliam  Pope,  for  the  reft  on  demand,  55  co  00 


04 


no 


00  } 


it 


B    0    0    K  -  K   E    E    P    1   N    G. 


JO? 


It  may  be  here  obferved,  that  every  cafe  or  ex-  | 
alnple  of  the  wajh-book,   when  entered  into  the  . 
journal,   is  ciWtA  a.  journal  prjf,  or  entrance ;  thus 
the  examples  above,  make  three  direft:  pojii. 

A  pa/i  is  ekherjimple  or  complex  ;  zjtmple  p'J?,  is 
that  which  has  but  one  ^c^^ar,  a.nd  one  cre/i/tar,  as 
the  firft  of  thefe  above ;  a  complex  po/l,  is  either 
when  one  debtor  is  ballanced  by  one  or  more  credi- 
tors, as  in  the  fecond  poft:  or  when  two  or  more 
debtors  are  ballanced  by  one  creditor,  as  in  the  third 
]ioft  ;  or  when  feveral  debtors  are  ballanced  by  feve- 
ral  cr'ditors;  and  then  the  poft  is  faid  to  be  compkx 
in  both  terms. 

This  being  premifcd,  the  following  rules  are  to 
be  obferved  fer  writing  in  the  journal,' 

1.  In  ?i  fsmple  poji,  the  debtor  is  to  be  exprefsly 
mentioned,  then  the  creditor,  and  laftiy  the  fum, 
all  in  one  line;  after  which,  the  narrative,  or  rea- 
ibn  of  the  entry,  in  one  or  more  lines,  as  in  the 
£rlt:  of  thefe  three  polls  above. 

2.  In  a  complex  pojl^  the  feveral  debtors,  or  cre- 
ditors, are  exprefled-in  the  firfi:  line,  bv  themfelves, 
with  their  refpe£live  fums  fubjoined  to  them, 
which  are  to  be  added  up,  and  their  total  carried  to 
the  money  columns,  as  in  the  fecond  and  third  pofts. 

3.  The  debtors  and  creditors  {hould  be  written 
in  a  large  letter,  or  text  hand,  both  for  ornament 
and  diftinftion. 

Before  we  proceed  to  explain  the  ledger,  we  fliall 
previoufly  inquire  into  the  nature  and  ufe  of  the 
terms  debtcr  and  creditor,  as  tbe  whole  art  of  book- 
keeping entirely  depends  on  a  true  idea  of  thofe 
terms,  the  nature  and  ufe  of  which  will  be  obvious 
from  the  following  confiderations. 

Accounts  in  the  ledger  confifts  of  t^vo  parts; 
which  in  their  own  nature  are  direftly  oppofed  to, 
and  the  reverfe  of  one  another,  which  are  therefore 
fet  fronting  one  another,  and  on  oppofite  fides  of 
the  fame  folio. 

All  the  articles  of  the  monev  received,  go  to  the 
left  fide  of  the  cajh  account;  and  all  the  articles  or 
fums  laid  out,  are  carried  to  the  right.  In  like  man- 
ner, the  purchafc  of  go'.ds  is  jiofted  to'  the  left  fide 
of  the  accounts  of  the  faid  goods,  and  the  fale  or 
difpofol  of  them  to  the  right. 

Tranfactiqns  of  trade  or  cafes  of  the  wafle-book, 
are  alfo  made  up  of  two  parts,  which  belong  to 
different  accounts,  and  to  oppofite  fides  of  the 
ledger,  e.  g.  If  goods  are  bought  for  ready-mone\, 
the  two  parts  are  the  goods  received  and  the  monev 
delivered;  the  former  of  which  goes  to  the  left  fide 
of  the  account  of  the  faid  goods,  and  the  latter  to 
the  right  fide  of  the  cafli  account. 

The  two   parts  in  any  cafe  in  the  xvafle  book, 
when  pofted  to  the  journal,  are  denominated  the 
one  the  debtor,  the  other  the  creditor  oi  that  poft; 
N^  15. 


and  when  carried  from  thence  to  the  ledger,  tho 
debtor,  (A  debtor  part,  is  entered  upon  the  left  fide 
(hence  called  the  debtor  fide)  of  its  own  account, 
where  it  is  charged  debtor  to  the  creditor  part:  again, 
the  creditor,  or  creditor  part,  is  ported  to  the 
right  fide  ox  creditor  fide  of  its  account,  and  made 
creditor  by  the  debtor  part. 

Hence  Italian  book-keeping  is  faid  to  be  a  method 
of  keeping  accounts  by  double  entry,  becaufe  every 
fingle  cafe  of  the  wa/ie-booi,  requires  at  lead  twa 
entrances  in  the  ledger,  viz.  one  fof  the  debtor,  and 
another  for  the  creditor. 

From  what  has  been  faid,  it  is  evident  that  the 
terms  debtor  and  creditor,  are  nothing  elfe  but  maris 
or  chara£!erifiics  ftamped  upon  the  different  parts 
of  tranf;t£tions  in  the  journal,  cxpreiTing  the  rela- 
tion of  thefe  parts  to  one  another,  and  Ibewing  to 
which  ffde  of  their  refpe<ftive  accounts  in  the  ledger 
they  are  to  be  carried. 

Having  explained  the  terms  debtor  and  creditor, 
we  fhall  now  proceed  to  the  ledger. 

The  ledger  is  the  principal  book,  'whereiii  all  the 
feveral  articles  of  each  particular  account,  that  lie 
fcattered  in  other  books,  according  to  their  dates, 
are  collefbcd,  and  placed  together  in  fpaces  alloted 
for  them,  in  fuch  a  manner,  that  the  oppofite 
parts  of  every  account,  are  direftly  fet  fronting; 
one  another,  on  oppofite  fides  of  the  hme  folio. 

T  he  ledger's  folios  are  divided  into  fpaces  for  con- 
taining the  accounts,  on  the  head  of  which  are 
written  the  titles  of  the  accounts,  marked  Dr.  on 
the  left  hand  page,  and  Cr.  on  the  right ;  below 
which  ftand  the  articles,  with  the  word  To  pre- 
fixed on  the  Dr.  fide,  and  the  word  By  on  the  Cr. 
fide  ;  and  upon  the  margin  are  recorded  the  dates  of 
the  articles,  in  two  fmall  columns  allotted  for  that 
purpofc.  The  money  columns  are  the  fame  as  in 
other  books:  before  them  ftand  the ya//«  column, 
which  contains  figures,  direiting  to  ^e.  folio  where 
thecorrefponding  ledger  entrance  of  each  article  is 
made:  for  every  thing  is  twice  entered  in  the  ledger, 
vi-z.  on  the  Dr.  fide  of  one  account,  and  again  on 
the  Cr.  fide  of  fome  other  account;  fo  that  the 
figures  mutually  refer  from  the  one  to  the  other, 
and  are  of  ufe  in  examhiing  the  ledger.  Befidts 
thejc  columns,  there  muft  be  kept  in  all  accounts, 
where  number,  meafure,  weight,  or  diftindlion  of 
coins  is  confidcred,  inner  columns,  to  inlert  the 
quantiiv. 

H01V  the-ledgcr  is  f.Vrd  up  frm  the  jottr'ial. 

r.  Turn  to  the  index,  and  fee  whether  the  dtb'tHf 

of  the  journal  poft,  to  be  tranfported,  be  written 

there:  if  not,  infert  it  under  its  proper  letter,  wittt 

the  number  of  the  folio  to  which  it  is  to  be  carried. 

2.  Having  diftinguifacd  the   cA-i/fr  and  the  crfl- 

ditor  fides,  as  already  dircdicd,  recording  the  dates, 

R  1'  conioiete 


;o8  lloe  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


complete  the  entry  in  one  line,  by  giving  a  {hort 
hint  of  the  nature  and  terms  of  the  tranfa£lion, 
carrying  the  fum  to  the  money  columns,  and  in- 
ferting  the  quantity,  if  it  be  an  account  of  goods, 
i^c.  in  the  inner  columns,  and  the  referring  figure 
in  the  folio  column. 

3.  Turn  next  to  the  creditor  of  ^t  journal po ft, 
and  proceed  in  the  fame  manner  with  it,  both  in 
the  index  and  ledger;  with  this  difference  only, 
that  the  entry  is  to  be  made  on  the  creditor  fide, 
and  the  word  By  prefixed  to  it. 

4.  The  pojt  being  thus  entered  in  the  ledger, 
return  to  the  journal,  and  on  margin  mark  the  y«//w 
of  the  accounts,  with  the  folio  of  the  debtor  above, 
and  the  folio  of  the  creditor  below,  and  a  fmall 
line  between  them  thus  J.  Thefe  marginal  num- 
bers of  the  j  iirnal,  are  a  kind  of  index  to  the 
ledger,  and  are  of  ufe  in  examining  the  books,  and 
on  other  occafions. 


5.  In  opening  the  accounts  in  the  ledger,  follow 
the  order  of  the  journal;  that  is,  beginning  with 
the  firft  journal  pojl,  allow  the  firft  fpace  in  the 
ledger  for  the  debtor  of  it,  the  next  for  the  creditor 
the  third  for  the  debtor  of  the  following  pofl,  if  it 
be  not  the  fame  with  fome  of  thofe  already  opened, 
and  fo  on  till  the  whole  journal  be  tranfported :  and 
fuppofing  that,  thro'  inadvertency,  fome  former 
fpace  has  been  allowed  too  large,  you  are  not  to  go 
back  to  fubdivide  it,  in  order  to  erecS  another 
account  in  it. 

Though  thefe  rules  are  formed  iox  fimpk  pofls, 
where  there  is  but  one  debtor  and  one  creditor  yet 
they  may  be  eafily  applied  to  complex  ones. 

As  examples,  how  articles  are  to  be  entered  in 
the  ledger,  take  the  two  accounts  of  Cash  and 
William  Pope,  fo  far  as  mentioned  in  the  above 
wajle-book  and  journal. 


1759 
June 


June 


Cash                      Dr. 

To  port-wine,  received  in 
part  for  four  pipes,   at 
27 1.  JOS.  per  pipe 

WiL.  Pope 

To    port-wine, 
journal. 

Dr. 

as     per 

Fo. 

1. 

S. 

d. 

'759 
June 

6 

55 

OC 

00 

6 

55 

00 

00 

Contra 


Cr. 


By  flialloon,  paid  in  part 
for  160  yards,  at  lod. 
per  yard. 


12 


Contra.  Cr. 

By   black   cloth,    for   40 
yards,  at  14s.  per  yard. 


Fo.fl 


28 


.   d. 


00 


00 


The  Cefh  Book  is  the  meft  important  of  the 
auxiliary  books.  It  is  fo  called,  becaufe  it  contains. 
Ml  debtor  and  creditor,  all  the  caflj  that  comes  In, 
and  goes  out  of  a  merchant's  ftock.  The  receipts 
on  the  debtor's  fide;  the  perfom  of  whom  it  was 
received,  on  what,  and  on  whofe  account,  and  in 
Vfh2itfpecie  :  and  the  payments  on  the  creditor's  fide; 
mentioning  alfo  the  fpecie,  the  reafons  of  the  pay- 
ments, to  wijom,  and  for  what  account  they  are 
made. 

To  your  ledger  you  mufl:  have  an  alphabet,  for 
the  ready  finding  every  account,  whether  proper, 
or  faftorage,  domeftic  or  foreign;  as  men,  wares, 
voyages,  profit,  and  lofs,  accounts  current,  i^c. 
the  method  whereof  let  be  thus,  of  having  a  page 
for,  as  there  is  occafion  for  each  letter.  GeneraUy 
it  is  the  letter  of  a  man's  furname,  and  the  proper 
name' of  the  thing,  or  commodity,  that  direfts  its 
plage  in  the  index. 

X 


Thus, 
C. 

Cafh  — 

Charges  of  merchandife 
George  Clifford  — 

D. 

Drugs         — 

G. 
Paul  Grove  "— 

H. 
Peter  Higgs  —  — 

Houfhold  Expences 

N. 

Norwich  Wares  — 

Matthew  Noble         —  — 

P. 
Jofeph  Price  — 

Profit  and  Lofs  — 


Fol.  r 

4 
2 

i 

I 

3 

4 

r 

2 

2 
3 

James 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


309 


R. 

James  Rowland  "■  . 

Raw  Silk  —  

S. 

Stock             — 

William  Stubb       — —       1  — 

T. 

Peter  Trueman,  my  account  current  — —     4 

V. 

Voyage  to  Aleppo,  configned  to  P.  Truman  i 


The  debt  book,  or  book  of  payments,  is  a  book 
wherein  is  entered  the  day  whereon  all  fums  falls 
due,  whether  to  be  paid  or  received  by  bill  of 
exchange,  merchandife,  or  otherwife ;  to  the  end, 
that  by  comparing  receipts  and  payments,  pro- 
vifion  may  be  made  in  time  for  a  fund  for  payments, 
by  receiving  bills,  l^c.  or  taking  other  precautions. 
This  book,  like  the  ledger,  muit  be  on  two  oppo- 
fite  pages,  money  to  be  received  on  the  left  hand, 
and  that  to  be  paid  on  the  right.     Thus, 


June 

1759                               To  pay 

/. 

s. 

d 

6 
8 

To  Matthew   Sullivan,   for  ) 
money  \tnx.  Jan.  r.            ) 

Vo  Jojepb  Plumtree,  a  note  \ 
under  hand  of  May  2.        i 

500 

200 

1000 
800 

CO 
00 

00 
00 

00 
00 

Remittance  of  Trueman,  of  7 
November  30,    to  Grove    J 

My  own  bill  of  the  30th  of  ? 
September  to  bearer            3 

1 

00 
00 

June 


^1S9 


To  receive 


10 
20 

25 


Rcmi  ttance  oi Peter  Trueman 

of  the  2oth  of  May 
Of  George  Dean  for  druggs, 

fold  the  30th  of  January 
Of    Simpfon  Pickthread  for 

Norwich  wares,   fold  Fe- 
bruary 3. 
Of  Paul  Grove,  for  money  ? 

lent  May  12,  S 

Of  Peter  Price,  for  money  7 

paid  on  his  account  7''«t' 6.  J 
Of  Jonah  Toms  for  200  lb.  1 

of  opium  fold  Jan.  1.       ) 


1 

i70o[oo 

300 

|«o 

150 

I"" 

225 

II 

50 

15 

as 

12 

00 
00 

03 
08 

00 
00 


The  cafli-book,  is  the  book  wherein  are  entered 
all  the  fums  received  and  paid  daily  ;  thofe  received 
on  the  left  hand,  with  the  perfon's  name  of  whom 
received,  for  what,  for  whom,  and  in  what  fpecie; 
thofe  paid  on  the  right,  mentioning  likewife  the  fpe- 
cie, the  reafon  why,  the  perfon  to  whom,  and  for  1  Example, 
whom  the    payment  is   made ;    and  once  in  a  | 


month,  or  oftener,  fum  up  your  account  of  cafh 
received  and  paid,  carrying  the  fum  to  the  ac- 
count of  cafh  in  the  ledger,  which  account,  with- 
out, without  this  book,  would  fwell  tco  big,  pro- 
vided you  (hould  enter  the  particulars  there.    Fpr 


Rr  2 


CASH- 


IP 


7T)£  Univerfal  Hifiory  of  Arts  a^hi  StiENCF=;. 


C    A    s    a  -  B    O    O    K. 


■i 


Received  for  300/.  of  fcana- 

mony,  fold  Gutrge  Dean 

in  guineas 
Received  in  part,  of  ff'iHiam 

Short,    in  pieces  of  eight 
Rccjived  in  full  for  rav/  filk, 

of  Jcif^ph  Grove,  in  moi- 

dores 
Received  in  fuH,   of  Peter  1  ) 

Price,    part  in  nioidores  f 

and  part  in  guineas  J 

Carried  to  folio  i  in  the  ledger 


307 


16. 


'337 


92 


1896 


ir 


ic 


r 


12 

15 

20 

27 
30 
31 


Paid  in  full,  to  Jchn  Baker,  7 
in  guineas  $ 

Paid  in  part,  for  Norwich  1 
wares,  to  Paul  Grove,  in  I 
thirty-fix fhillini^s,P«r//<-  ( 
gc/i  pieces  ^ 

[>ent  Peier  Price,  in  gui-  i 
neas,  at  intereft  for  three  ^ 
months  J 

Paid  Lewis  Stone,  in  pieces  7 
of  eight,  by  aflignaLion    $ 

Paid  to  ditto  Lewis,  in  gui-  ) 
neas  and  in  full,  J 

Paid  Charles  Stanyan,  in  1 
fliillings  and  crown  pieces  S 

Paid  "Jojeph  Grove,  in  part 
in  pieces  of  eight 

By  houfhold  expences  this 
month  from  folio  i. 

By  charges  on  merchandize,  ) 
this  month,  as  on  folio,  i.  ) 

Carried  to  the  ledger,  folio  I . 


1 
i 


150 
80 

500 

80 
29 

140 

31 

149 
92 


1252 


04 


I 

08  6 

15I11 

-U 

o8|o5 


The  hook  of  Envoi  CES,  is  to  keep  an  account 
of  goods,  fhipt,  either  for  your  account,  or  for 
ethers  in  commiflion,  according  to  the  bills  of 
lading  ;  with  the  virhole  charges,  till  on  board  ; 
every  envoice  following  another,  according  as  they 
happen,  i.  e  entering  the  goods  fent  or  fhipped  off 
to  be  fold,  for  your  account,  with  the  value,  and 
time  vv'hen  fent,  on  the  left  handyff//»;  and  en  • 
teriiig  the  fame  on  the  right  handya/;c,  as  you  re- 
ceive advice  of  their  fale  :  fo  you  may  readily  fee 
how  the  account  ftands  in  that  particular.     Thus, 

Envoice  of  goods  /hipped  on  board  the  America 
floop,  Buriheni^o  tuns,  Peter  Brown  mafter,] 
bound  for  Genoa  ;  the  following  gaods,  configned 
to  William  Stockwell,  for  my  account,  or  by 
order  and  the  account  of  James  Price,  and 
iC77ijany, 

Book  of  account  current,  is  kept  in  debtor  and 
creditor,  like  the  ledger  ;  and  ferves  for  accounts 
fent  to  correfpondents  to  be  regulated  in  concert 
with  them,  ere  they  are  entered  in  the  ledger.    This 


is  properly  a  duplicate  of  the  accounts  current, 
kept  to  have  recourfe  to,  on  occafion. 

Book  of  Ai.uptanus,  is  deftined  for  the  regiftring 
all  bills  of  exchange,  notified  by  letters  of  advice 
from  correfpondents  ;  to  be  able  to  know,  on  the 
bills  being  prefented,  whether  they  have  orders  to 
accept  them,  or  not.  When  they  chufe  to  decline 
accepting  a  bill  againft  the  article  thereof,  in  the 
book,  they  put  P,  i.  e.  protefl ;  that  on  offering  the 
bill  the  bearer  may  be  told  he  may  proteft  it :  on 
the  contrary,  if  they  accept  it,  they  write  againft 
it  an  A,  adding  the  date  or  day  of  acceptance. 
And  this,  upon  being  transferred  to  the  debt  book, 
is  cancelled. 

Book  of  remittances,  ferves  to  regider  bills  of 
exchange,  as  they  are  remitted  by  correfpondents, 
to  require  the  payment  thereof.  If  they  be  pro- 
tefted  for  want  of  acceptance,  and  returned  to  thofe 
who  remitted  them,  mention  is  made  thereof  againft 
each  article,  by  adding  a  P  in  the  margin,  and  the 
date  of  the  day  when  they  were  returned,  then  can- 
celled. The  books  of  acceptances  and  remittances 
have  fo  near  a  relation  to  each  other,  that  many 

merchants 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


311 


merclfiuits  oiake  bui  one  of  tlie  two,  -.vhich  tiicy 
keep  ill  debtor  and  creditor  ;  putiin;^  acceptances 
oil  the  fide  of  debt:,  and  reinittajices  to  that  ot 
credit. 


The  book  of  expences,   is   a  detail   of   the  petty    cafli  for  it.      Thus, 


cxpences,  both  domeftick  and  mercantile  ;  which 
at  the  end  of  each  month  are  fuinmed  up,  and 
make  an  article  for  the  cajh-book  ;  and  to  the  profit 
and  lofs  account  in  the  kcker  ;  which  is  debtor  to 


May 
9 


5 
10 

20 

25 
27 

30 


Houjhcld  Expences,    Debtor. 

To  cafh  pnid  Paul  Grove,  for  one  quarter's  Rent  of 
niy  dv/elling-houfc,    due  at  jMidfummer-day    1 
in  full 

To  cafh  for  my  poket  expences 

To  cafh  paid  my  wife  for  apparel,  ^c. 

To  cafh  paid  Ablgale  Pilfir,    the  houfe-keeper, 
this  month 

To  cafh  paid  for  my  children  at  fchool 

To  cafh  paid  to  my  taylor 

To  cafh  for  my  pocket  expences 


oti 


for? 


Carried  to  cafli-book.  Folio  i. 


/. 

s. 

40 

10 

4 

0 

50 

H 

50 

4 

50 

15 

4 

8 

214 

Booi  of  numero's,  or  luares,  is  kept  for  the 
tafy  knowledge  of  all  the  goods  brought  in,  lent 
out,  or -remaining  in  a  warehoufe.  On  the  left 
hand  page  are  entered  the  quantity,  quality,  and 
mirnber  or  mark  of  the  goods  brought  in  ;  on  the 
right,  the  difcharge  of  the  goods  out  of  the  ware- 
houfe, againft  the  refpeilive  articles  of  the  firft. 
Thus, 


w° 


A  bale  of  white   paper 

A  piece  of  crimfon  damatk,    ellt 


weighs 


400  /. 
63- 


March  X. 
April    2. 

6oId  to   fojcph  Grove. 

Sent  to  Peter  Price. 

Befides  thefe  books.,  each  merchant  is  to  form  to 
himfeJf  fuch  otlier  booki  of  accounts  upon  the  fame 
principles,  as  fhall  bell  fuit  his  own  particular 
dealings,  correfpondence  and  commerce,  which  are 
too  many  and  too  minute  to  be  infcrted  in  this 
treatife  :  therefore  it  remains  only  to  fhew  how  to 
olofe  the  account,  and  how  to  balance  our  books. 

To  clofe  an  account,  is  to  make  an  end,  or 
fliut  up  an  account,  when  you  intend  to  add  no 
more  thereto  ;  and  is  done  by  ballancing,  and 
drawing  a  line,   i^c. 

All  accounts  are  clofed  either  with  profit  and 
lefs,  or  with  ballance,  or  with  profit  and  lofs  and 
ballance,   or  with  ftotk. 

All  accor.nts  of  goods  or  wares,  where  all  that 
was  bought  is  fold,  are  clofed  with  profit  and  lofs ; 
which,  if  you   gain  thereby,    is  entered  on  the 


debtor  fide  of  the  account,  and  on  the  creditor  if 
you  lofe  ;  of  which  the  account  of  iiorwich  wares, 
Fcl.  I.   is  an  example. 

All  accounts  of  men  are  clofed,  with  ballance, 
on  the  debtor  fide,  if  you  owe  to  them  ;  or  on 
the  creditor  fide,   if  they  were  indebted  to  you. 

All  accounts  of  wares,  where  all  that  are 
bought  are  not  fold,  are  clofed  with  profit,  and 
lofe,  and  ballance,  /.  e.  with  profit  and  lofs  en  the 
debtor  fide,  for  the  fum  gained  by  what  is  fold  •, 
and  with  ballance  on  the  creditor  fide,  for  what, 
the  goods  remaining  unfold  cofl  ;  as  in  the  ac- 
counts of  drugs  and  raw  filk. 

No  accounts  are  clofed  with  flock,  but  with 
profit,  and  lofs,  and  ballance. 

Thefe  rules  carefully  obferved,  it  will  not  be 
difficult  to  ballance,  either  a  fingle  account,  or 
your  whole  ledger,  in  order  to  know  how  much 
cafh,  wares,  anu  debts  you  have  ;  what  debts  vou 
owe,  and  what  you  have  gained  by  tradmg  fince 
your  lafl:  general  ballance. 

To  ballance  any  fingle  account,  fum  up  the 
debtor  and  creditor  fides,  and  put  their  total  on  a 
piece  of  wafle  paper,  where  take  their  difference, 
which  is  the  tallance,  and  muft  be  entered  on  the 
debtor  or  creditor  fide,  as  is  taught  in  clofing  m\ 
account  ;  which  done,  the  fum  of  the  debtor  a-nd 
creditor  fide  fhall  he  equal.  But  in  an  account  of 
wares,  the  iaid  difference  is  the  profit  or  lofs,  and 
mufl  be  entered  on  that  fide  whofe  fum  is  leaft, 
to  make  the  fums  of  debtor  and  creditor  fides  equal. 
And  to  ballance  your  ledger,  for  the  end  above- 
mentioned,  take  a  fheet  of  paper,  and  on  one  fide 
write  ballance  debtor  ;   and  on  the  othcj  fide  write 

fcr 


n^e  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  (3:W  Sciences. 


312 

per  contra  creditor,  as  the  fheet  lies  extended  before 
you. 

To  ballance  all  your  particular  accounts,  you 
Tnuft  begin  with  cafli,  (except  ftock,  and  profit, 
and  lofs)  which  being  done  throughout  your  ledger-, 
begin  again,  at  the  account  of  the  cafh,  and  where 
an  acconipt  is  clos'd  with  ballance,  enter  the  fame 
on  the  contrary  fide  of  the  account  of  ballance  in 
your  paper,  as  in  the  account  of  ca(h  above - 
mentioned,  cafli  is  creditor  by  ballance  2185/.  m  "jd 
therefore  ballance  on  your  paper,  muft  be  made 
debtor  to  cafh  2185/.  115.  7c/. 

Like  wife,  where  an  account  is  clos'd  with  profit 
and  lofs,  enter  the  ballance  fum  on  the  contrary 
fide  of  the  account  of  profit  and  lofs  ;  as  in  the 
account  of  A^ont/t/;  wares,  which  is  clos'd  debtor 
to  profit  and  lofs  26 /.  \xs.  Therefore  profit  and 
lofs  muft  be  creditor  by  Norwich  wares.  And 
where  you  meet  with  an  account  clos'd  both  with 
profit  and  lofs,  and  ballance,  as  is  that  of  voyage 
to  Aleppo,  configned  to  P.  Trueman,  bccaufe  bal- 
lance is  on  creditor  fide,  make  ballance  on  your 
paper  debtor  to  voyage  to yf/f/j/ifl,  &c.  150/.  lis.  bd. 
and  becaufe  the  faid  account  of  voyage,  l^c.  is 
debtor  to  profit  and  lofs,  make  the  account  of 
profit  ai'.d  lofs  creditor,  for  the  like  fum  of 
150/.  i%s.  b  d.  And  thus  having  guided  you 
through  the  feveral  cafes  that  may  happen,  proceed 
with  the  refl:  of  the  accounts  to  the  end  of  your 
ledger,  leaving  profit  and  lofs  unclos'd  till  you  have 
'clos'd  and  ballanc'd  the  refl:  of  the  accounts,  ex- 
cept ftock.  Then  clofe  the  account  of  profit  and 
lofs,  with  debtor  to,  or  creditor  by  ftock,  and  carry 
the  foot  to  the  contraiy  fide  of  the  account  of 
ftock,  as  in  the  example  of  the  forgoing  account 
of  profit  and  lofs  clos'd  with  debtor  to  ftock 
896/.  \o  5.  id.  Stock  muft,  therefore  be  made 
creditor,  by  profit  and  lofs,    896/.   10s.   id. 

With  the  difterence  of  debtor  and  creditor  fide 
of  ballance,  i.  c.  with  debtor  to,  or  creditor  by 
ftock,  clofe  the  account  of  ballance,  and  carry  the 
foot  to  the  account  of  ftock,  as  in  the  foregoing 
account  of  ballance,  it  is  fo  clos'd  ;  creditor  by 
ftock  3546/.  OS.  id.  Therefore  ftock  muft  be 
debtor  10  ballance  3546/.  Of.  id.  Then  fum  up  the 
debtor  and  creditor  fides  of  the  account  of  ftock,  and 
if  they  ballance,  or  are  alike,  your  books  have  been 
kept  right,  otherwife  you  have  committed  fomeerror. 
Take  this  for  a  general  rule  for  ballance  of  ac- 
counts, that  your  prefent  ftock,  and  what  you  owed 
when  you  began  the  account  now  ballanced,  will 
be  always  equal   to  your  ftock,  when  you  began 


as  in  the  example  foregoing  of  ftock,  your  former 
neat  ftock  (debts  dedudted)  is  2649/  10  J.  od. 
and  you  have  gained  fince,  as  appears  by  the  ac- 
count of  profit  and  lofs,  896  /.  10  J.  I  d.  the  fum 
of  which  is  3546/.  0  s.  id.  n  your  prefent  ftock; 
but  if  you  add,  as  you  muft,  your  grofs  ftock,  when 
you  began  trade,  to  what  you  have  gained  fince  ; 
the  fame  will,  confequently,  be  juft  (b  much  more 
than  your  prefent  neat  ftock,  as  was  the  fum  you 
owed  when  you  began  trade  ;  which  if  you  there- 
fore add  to  your  prefent  ftock,  the  fum  muft  be 
equal  to  your  former  grofs  ftock,  and  the  fum 
gained  j    which  is  evident  in  the  example. 

For  if  2649/.  10^. — 510/.  4-896/.  10/.  id. 
be  =  3546/.  OS.  id. 

It  follows. 

That  3159/.  10  J. +  896/.  los.  i</.  is  =  3546/. 
OS.   I  (/.-}-  510  /. 

Note,  That  ( — )  is  lefs,  ( -f- )  more,  and  ( r: ) 
equal  to. 

At  prefent  the  moft  confiderable  Jhop-keepers, 
who  commonly  deal  in  a  (tvf  diff"erent  fpecies  of 
goods,  as  drapers,  mercers,  iSc.  ufually  keep  ■*. 
ledger  for  perfons  and  wares  diftinft,  without  any 
formal  conne£lion  or  reference  of  the  accounts  in 
their  feveral  articles;  whereby  there  can  no  regular 
ballance  be  made.  In  the  accounts  of  perfons 
they  ufe  the  formality  of  a  debtor  and  creditor  ftyle, 
which  is  mere  fliev/,  without  the  real  value  of  a 
regular  account  ;  there  being  no  oppofite  cor- 
refponding  debtors  and  creditors  to  be  found  ;  for 
their  ledger  of  wares,  as  they  call  it,  contains  no- 
thing of  this,  and  is  but  an  imperfect  contrivance, 
which  they  fatify  themfelves  with,  to  know  how 
much  remains  ;  but  the  worft  is,  that  in  allotting 
fpaces  for  the  account  of  wares,  they  frequently 
allow  no  more  than  they  fuppofe  may  ferve  for  the 
retail  of  the  quantity  hrft  entered  on  that  fpace  for 
a  new  parcel  ;  which,  in  a  quick  trade  is  not  only 
troublefome,  but  confufed,  if  there  be  any  of  the 
old  parcels  remaining  ;  unlefs  they  carry  it  to  the 
new  account. 

For  petty  traders,  who  deal  in  fome  hundreds  of 
trifling  warej,  and  make  fale  to  the  value  of  a 
farthing  or  halfpenny,  they  cannot  pretend  to  keep 
orderly  accounts  ;  the  beft  they  can  do  is,  to  be 
careful  that  fervants  do  not  wrong  them  ;  for  they 
have  no  accounts  of  goods  ;  and  if  they  are  afked 
what  of  any  kind  remains  with  them,  they  muft 
go  look,  if  their  memory  fail.  T  hefe  can  only 
your  accounts,  and  what  you  have  gained  'i\riZt,\\i2.wQ.-i.caJh  account,  which  they  are  to  charge  once 
to  the  day  the  general  ballance  is  made.  The  reafon  j  a  week,  with  the  money  received,  and  difcharge 
of  this  is  plain  ;  for  your  former  ftock,  and  what  for  what  they  give  out  ;  it  is  not  convenient  that 
you  have  gained  fince,  muft  be  your  prefent  ftock;  :  they  Ihould  touch  the  cajh-book  or  till,  oftener  than 

'  once 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


313 


once  a  week,  when  it  is  compleated  ;   but  if  tiieyl  and  workmsn.  Sic.      5.    A  book  of  real  accounts  ; 

do,  they  muft  keep  a  feparate  accompt  of  what  containing  an  account  of  cattle,  corn,  and  other 

they  taice  out,  to  know  what  was  received :   bcfidcs  ftock  or  furniture,  to  know  at  all  Times  what  you 

which,   they  fliould  have  a  kind   of  ledger  for  the  have,  and  how  it  is  to   be  difpofed  of.     If  a  gen- 

perfons  with  whom  they  deal  upon  credit  j  in  which  tleman  advances  no  nearer  to  the  artificial  part  of 

they  give  every  debtor  ox  creditor  an  account,  with  accounting,  he  mufl:   keep  an  account  with  every 

a  debt  and  credit  both  on  one  fide,    either  with  a  perfon  with   whom   he  has   dealings  ;   which  may 

double  »zi3n^j/-f«/?<OTw,  or  conftant  dedudlions,  as  the  be  done    in  the  fame  book  with  his  tenant's  ac- 

debts  and   credit  fucceed  one  another.     The  may  counts,  only  allotting  diftinft  parts  for  them  ;  the 


alfo,  for  the  fake  of  thofe,  have  memorandums,  or 
day-books,  wherein  all  things  of  this  nature  are  writ 
down,  and  then  carried  into  the  other. 

For  artificers,  handicraftmen,  and  the  like,  they 
may  keep  account  of  the  expences  of  living  ;  but 
it  will  alfo  be  neceflary  to  make  a  diftiniSl  account 
of  the  charges  and  profit  of  their  bufinefs,  which 
may  eafily  be  done,  by  an  exacSl  account  of  all 
they  pay  or  owe  for  the  materials  and  inftruments 
of  their  work,  with  fervants  wages,  and  taxes 
upon  their  trade  ;  and  of  all  they  receive  ;  of 
what  is  due  for  their  work.  They  may  convenient- 
ly keep  account  for  the  materials  of  their  work, 
to  fatisfy  them  of  the  difpofal  thereof,  and  ferve 
as  a  check  on  fervants,  who  have  accefs  to  thofe 
things,  and  they  muft  keep  accounts  for  the  per- 
fons  they  deal  with,  both  in  buying  and  felling. 

For  gentlemen  of  landed  eftate,  the  books  ne- 
ceffary  to  be  kept  are,  i.  A  great  wajle-book,  con- 
taining a  plain  narrative  of  all  things,  as  they  oc- 
cur, as  receipts  and  payments  ;  every  thing  given 
and  received  ;  and,  in  fhort,  whatever  is  done 
relating  to  any  thing,  or  perfon  they  are  concerned 
with  :  out  of  which  is  to  be  made  up,  2.  A  cajh- 
book,  containing  in  a  plain  narrative  ftile,  upon  the 
debtor-fide,  all  receipts  of  money  ;  and  upon  the 
creditor- fide  all  payments  ;  and  though  there  be 
feveral  articles  received  or  paid  together,  belonging 
to  the  fame  account,  which  are  entered  particularly 
in  the  wafte,  yet  they  may  be  fet  down  here,  in  a 
total  fum  ;  for  example,  there  is  paid  26  /.  for  di- 
vers pieces  of  houftiold  furniture,  all  particularly 
mention  ed  in  the  wafte-book,  yet  in  the  cajh- 
book  ther  e  needs  no  more  than  to  fay  paid  for 
houfhol  d  furniture,  bi'c.  3,  A  book  of  accounts 
■with  te  nants,  where  in  diftinct  places,  every  one's 
charger  and  difcharge  may  be  faiily  written,  without 
any  g  eat  formality  of  ftile,  and  if  it  have  a  fhew 
of  de-btor  and  creditor-fide,    it   will  be  the  more 


out  agam   for  his 
a  pocket-book  is 


laft  will  take  no  great  room  compared  with  the 
other.  Thefe  books  of  accounts  muft  have  in- 
dexes. 

For  a  perfon  in  a  fingle  ftate,   who  has  no  bufi- 
nefs but  the  receiving  at  certain  times  in  a  year,  a 
fum  of  money,  which    he  lays 
private  and  perfonal  expences, 
fufficient. 

For  one  in  a  married  ftate,  whofe  fortune  con- 
fifts  alfo  of  money,  as  he  has  greater  variety  of 
expences,  he  muft  be  careful  to  keep  an  exaiPc  ac- 
count of  what  cafli  he  receives  and  pays  ;  and  to 
make  this  account  more  diftindt  and  orderly,  it 
will  be  beft  to  keep  the  particulars  of  the  payments 
in  a  feparate  book,  and  to  bring  them  into  a  ca/!)- 
book,  once  a  week,  in  totals,  digefted  under  fuch 
denominations  as  he  thinks  fit,  as  bread,  beer,  flejh 
coals,  candles,  8ic.  Things  thus  brought  into  the 
cafh  account,  may  be  again  drawn  into  an  ab- 
ftra£l,  fhewing  the  total  of  each  kind  of  expences 
for  every  month,  by  dividing  a  page  into  twelve 
columns,  with  the  names  of  the  twelve  months  ; 
and  then  in  fo  many  articles  on  the  margin,  fctting 
the  names  of  the  feveral  heads  of  expences,  and  a- 
gainft  each,  under  the  refpecSlive  month,  the  fum  of 
that  kind  of  expences,  in  that  month  ;  then  will  the 
fum  of  the  money  in  the  columns,  under  each 
month,  be  the  total  expence  of  that  month,  and 
the  aggregate  of  thofe  fums  the  year's  expences. 

For  factors,  or  ftewardson  land-eftates,  a  gene- 
ral zuafte  book  is  neceflary  to  contain  all  matters 
tranfaifled,  relating  to  their  mafter's  concerns, 
under  their  management  ;  out  of  which  let  them- 
make  a  cajh-book  in  the  manner  above  direcSred  ;  alfo 
a  book  of  real  accounts,  that  they  may  know  what 
real  effetSs,  befides  money,  they  have  the  charge 
of,  and  how  it  is  difpofed  of  ;  particularly  the  corn 
rents,  which  have  been  delivered  by  the  tenants, 
and  put  in  the  granaries  under  their  charge,  to  be- 


diftin  6t.     4.  A  baok  of  petty  accounts  with  fervants\  difpofed,   and  given  out  according  to  order. 


Qf 


3-14  'The  Umverfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  <a;«JSciEKCEs. 


Of   BOOKSELLERS. 


Bookseller  is  one  who  trades  in  books, 
whether  he  prints  them  himfclf,  or  gives 
them  to  be  printed  by  others. 

Bciikfillcrs  are  in  many  places  ranked 
amono-  the  members  of  unlverfities,  and  entitled  to 
the  privilege  of  IVudents,  as  at  Tubingen,  Salijburg, 
and  /"ar/V, where  they  have  alwaysbc-endiftinguiih'd 
from  the  vulgar  and  mechanical  traders,  and  ex- 
empted from  divers  taxes  and  impofitions  laid  upon 
other  companies. 

The  traffic  of  books  v/as  antiently  very  incon 
■fidcrable,  in  fo  much,  that  the  book-merchants 
both  of  Etigland,  France,  and  Spain,  and  other 
countries,  were  diftinguifiied  by  tlie  appellation  of 
Stationers,  as  having  no  {hops,  but  only  ftalls  and 
Hands  in  the  (lrect.s.  During  this  ftate,  the  civil 
mao-iftrates  took  little  notice  of  the  Bcokfellers, 
leaving  the  government  of  them  to  the  univerfities, 
ro  whom  tliey  were  fuppoied  more  immediate  re- 
tainers ;  who  accordingly  gave  them  laws  and  re- 
gulations, fixed  prices  on  their  books,  examined 
■their  corredlnefs,  and  punifhed  them  at  difcretion. 
But  when,  by  the  invention  o(  P?-inting,  books 
and  BookfelUrs  began  to  multiply,  it  became  a 
matter  of  more  confequence,  and   the   fovereigns 


The  privileges  granted  to  the  Stationers  by  thi» 

charter,  were  very  confiderabIe»  No  bye-lawr  was 
to  be  made  without  the  concurrence  of  t'"e  ccmmi- 
nalty  or  body  of  freemen,  who  arc  tiereby  em- 
powered to  meet  for  fuch  purpofe  v/ithout  molefta- 
tion.  The  co/nmonalty  are  allowed  to  choofe  ■», 
tnafter  and  wardens  once  a  year  or  oftner,  (mm 
amongft  themfehes,  i.  e.  Freemen,  for  ever  ;  and  let 
remove  or  difplace  the  majter  and  wardens  at  theic 
pleafure. 

No  pcrfon  to  exercife  the  art  of  printing  for 
fale,  unlefs  he  be  free  of  the  Stationers  company 
of  the  city  of  London,  except  patentees  autho- 
rized by  his  Majelly.'s  fpccial  privilege. 

The  mafters  and  ivardens  Ate  cmpo'Axred  to 
fearch  for,  and  to  fcize,  take  away,  tear,  burn, 
or  convert  to  the  ufe  of  their  fociety,  all  prohi- 
bited books  :  to  imprifon  offenders  for  three 
months  :  and  to  levy  afine  of  five  pouncis  for  eveiy 
offence  againll  the  regulations  of  this  charter. 

This  charter  was  exemplified  and  confirmed  by 
Queen  Elizabeth  and  King  Charles  II. 

Itmay  be  proper  to  obferve  that //;/'/ ..^/w/^rneither 
conflitutes  a  court  of  affjiants,  nor  a  livery, 

Tlie  livery  of  this  company  was  granted  by  the 


took  the  diredion  of  them  into  their  own  hands  ;    city  of  London  not  till   the  2d  of  Elizabeth  ;    and 
giving  them  new  ftatutcs,   appointing   officers  to  ithen  in  fuch  a  latitude  as.  not  to  exclude  or  re- 


fix  prices,  and  granting  licences,  privileges,  (Jc 
In  London  they  were  incorporated  by  the  charter 


fufe  zny  freeman  able  and  willing  to  take  it  up. 
As  to  the  court  of  affiftants  ;  the  firft  mention 


of  Philip  and  Mary,  in  deed,  and  the  name  of  .thereof  is  found  in  the  XXth  article  of  that  arbi- 


Freemen  of  the  tnyftcry  or  art  of  a  Stationer 
of  the  city  of  London  and  Juburbs  thereof. 

The  preamble   to    this   charter   runs   in  thefe 
words.     '   WE   confidering  and    manifeftly    per- 


trary  charter  granted  by  King  Charles  II.  and  re-' 
pealed  by  ait  of  parliament  in  ad  William  and 
Mary. 

However  this  power  has   been  obtained  in  the 


'  ceivmg,  That  fevera!  feditious  and  heretical  government  of  the  Stationers  company  ;  the  livery- 
'  books  both  in  verfe  and  profe,  are  daily  pub-  men  have  always  infifted  upon  a  right  to  be  chofen 
■«  liilied,  ftamped  and  printed  bv  divers  fcandalous,  into  the  court  of  affftants  according  to  their  Se- 
'  fchiimatical  and  heretical  peribns,  not  only  ex-    niority  ;  and  in  the  cafe  of  Mr.  Giles  Sussex 


'  citing  our  fubjeiEls  and  liegemen  to  ledition  and 
•^  difobedicnce  againil  us,  our  crown  and  dignity  ; 
'  but  alfo  to  the  renewal  and  propagating  very 
'  great  and  dcteftable  hcrefies,  againft  the  faith 
*  and  found  catholic  doctrine  of  the  holy  mother 
'  the  church  ;  and  being  willing  to  provide  a  pro- 
'  per  remedy   in  this  cafe,  DO  will,  give,  grant. 

The  reafon  given  in  this  preamble  for  incor- 
porating the  Bookfcllers,  fhews  that  they  were  de- 
figncd  for  zftate-engine,  which  in  the  hands  of  a 
popijh  fovereign  might  aflift  in  the  reduction  of  the 
nation  to  the  obedience  of  the  papacy. 


(Jnno  Domini  i6qi )  ihe  court  of  lord-mayor  and 
aldermen  did  not  only  order  him  to  be  admitted  one 
of  the  ajftftants  of  the  faid  company  ;  but  com- 
mitted the  7nafter  and  wardens  for  refufing  to  ad- 
mit him,  to  thsjoal  of  Newgate. 

This  company  has  been  favoured  with  feveral 
other  royal  grants  :  particularly  K.  fames  I.  being 
informed  of  the  poor  ftate  and  condition  of  many 
freemen  of  this  company,  granted  the  corporation 
fole  right  to  print  primers,  pfalters  and  pfalms  ;  all 
almanacks,  prognoftications,  and  becks  thereunto 
tending  in  the  Englijh  tongue  for  their  helt>  and 
relnf 

11  How 


BOOKSELLERS, 


3'5 


How  far  this  'oounty  of  the  Sovereign,  which  is 
f!ill  retained  by  the  Court  of  Afliftants,  extends  to 
the  help  and-  relief  n't  (he  poor  freemen,  is  worthy  of 
their  enquiry,  who  have  power  to  call  forthe  account 
of  that  iiock,  which  has  for  many  years  been  divided 
'very  largiouflv  amongft  the  AiTiftants,  and  their  re- 
lations and  favourites. 

Sliould  we  now  confiJer  the  haokfdlers  out  of 
their  corporate  capacity  ;  and  only  view  them,  as 
individual,  each  purfuing  their  private  intereft, 
we  find  them  greatly  indulged  by  tlic  laws.  They 
are  not  under  the  caprice  of  a  licencer,  nor  re- 
flr.iined  from  piiblifhing  and  felling  any  fubjctt, 
that  does  not  alarm  the  government.  But  where 
fliall  we  meet  with  amongft  us,  a  Stephens,  a. 
Bteau,  a  Plantain,  a  Janfjen,  or  a  man  of  genius 
and  letters,  except  we  muft  allow  a  fuperior  merit 
to  this  age  for  the  art  o( pufpng^  ftriking  out  title 
pages,  and  imitating  mountebanks  in  the  art  of 
jetting  off  their  flock  by  deceitful  advertifements  : 
fo  that  the  art  and  myftery  of  bookfelling  feems  at 
prelent  to  be  dwindled  into  a  crafty  device,  to  im- 
pofe  upon  the  credulity  of  the  people. 

Moil:  of  our  bookfellcrs  labour  under  a  very  great 
difadvantage,  which  is,  that  very  few  of  them  have 
a  liberal  education  ;  therefore,  tho'  their  profcjfion 
is  one  of  the  moft  genteel  and  honourable,  and  very 
well  becoming  a  gentleman  ;  they,  neverthelefs, 
have  no  other  advantage  above  the  meaneft  trader, 
than  that  of  dealing  in  books,  while  others,  deal, 
perhaps,  in  old  bocks,  oyflers,  apples,  h.z.  which 
makes  me  compare  them  to  a  blind  man,  intro- 
duced into  a  place  adorned  with  fome  of  the  inimi- 
table pieces  of  Titian,  Michael  Angela,  Raphael, 
Rubens,  Le  Brun,  Coepel,  Holben,  Vanelike,  Kneller, 
Sic.  For  though  he  be  environed  with  fome  of  the 
mofl  beautiful  pieces  of  painting,  he  is  neverthelefs 
an  utter  ftranger  to  it,  nor  can  he  judge  of  their 
elegance  and  beauty.  Likewife,  our  bookfellers  are, 
perhaps,  every  day  amidfl  the  beft  authors  every 
age  has  produced,  and  are,  neverthelefs,  as  great 
ftrangers  to  them,  as  if  they  were  carried  all  on  a 
fudden  to  the  court  of  Prefler  John;  though  fome  of 
them  are  very  much  infatuated  with  a  pretended 
merit,  which  it  is  impoflible  any  body  elfe  fhould 
difcover  but  themfelves. 

I  wifli  our  bookfellers  would  follow  the  example  of 
thofe  of  Paris,  where  there  is  not  one  who  has  not 
ftudied,  at  Icaft,  as  far  as  rhetorick,  and  confe- 
quently  underftand  the  Greek  and  Latin  tongues  ; 
and  therefore  can  read  moft  of  their  authors,  and, 
if  they  have  any  genius,  can  likewife  underftand 
them  :  but  as  the  reading  is  the  key  to  it,  how  can 
ours  pretend  to  bejudges  of  a  work,  when  they  can- 
not fo  much  as  read  it  -^ 
lb. 


What  judgement  will  our  pofterity  form  of  the 
bookfellers,  when  they  find  that  in  their  times  they 
have  publilhed  nothing  but  obfcenity  and  ribaldry  .' 
Muft  they  not  imagine  tliat  their  minds  were  very 
much  vitiated,  or  that  our  age  produced  nothing 
elfe  but  profligates  and  blockheads,  utter  ftrangers 
to  morality  and  true  learning? 

It  is  true,  that  the  zvorks  of  thofe  authors  are 
bought  very  cheap,  confidering  what  bookfellers 
gain  by  it ;  but  thole  forts  oi  ivorks  have  but  what 
bookfellcrs  thcml'elves  call  a  run,  and  will  never 
bear  reading  tv^ice  ;  they  are  like  thofe  Spanijh  olla 
Podridas,  or  Pots  Pouris,  wliich  we  have  a  fancy 
to  tafte  once,  but  which  we  Ihould  be  lorry  to  fee 
every  day  ferved  at  our  tables,  as  a  common  food ; 
while,  on  the  contrary,  thole  written  forour  edifi- 
cation, or  inftruction,  have  always  their  merit, 
and  are  always  in  requeft  :  and  if  the  boskfcller  is 
longer  kept  out  of  his  money,  he  might,  however, 
confider  it  as  an  eltate  he  has  purchafed,  not  for 
himfelf  only,  but  likewiie  for  his  pofterity,  and 
which  is  to  bring  him  fcveral  times  the  intereft  and 
principal,  without  the  fund  being  ever  exhaufted. 
A  depraved  tafte  is  never  uni\'erfal,  and  never 
reaches  the  moft  fenftble  part  of  a  nation,  which  has 
always  the  majority  on  its  fide  ;  and  far  from  being 
hereditary,  it  is  feldom  of  a  long  duration  :  which 
confideration  muft  be  a  very  great  inducement  to  a 
bookfellcr  to  buy  valuable  copies. 

Monopoly  is  their  favourite  vice  ;  for  tho'  we  can 
judge,  from  feveral  inftances,  that  there  is  no 
great  cordiality,  or  friendjliip  fubfifting  between 
them,  they  neverthelefs  all  reunite  in  one,  (efpeci- 
ally  thofe  among  them,  v/ho  by  their  wealth  have 
acquired  the  greater  reputation)  to  opprefs  thofe  of 
their  brethren  they  have  fome  pique  againft,  which 
always  proceeds  from  felf-intereft  ;  it  feems,  be- 
caufe  they  live  \n  fplendor  and  opulence,  as  if  they 
were  determined  others  fhould  not  live  at  all.  I 
cannot  blame  them  for  oppofmg  thofe,  who  contrary 
to  all  laws  and  equity,  rob  them  of  their  property,  on 
purpofe  to  under-fell  it,  and  thereby  fruftrate  them 
oi  the  profit  they  could  reafonably  expect  from  it ; 
but  it  is  equally  unjuft  in  them,  to  attempt  to^K- 
grofs  the  whole  trade  to  themfelves.  What !  becaufc 
they  are  mafters  of  a  copy,  which  has  proved  bene- 
ficial to  them,  muft  others  be  deprived  of  the  fame 
advantages  which  they  fuppofe  they  could  m.ike  of 
another  fuch  copy  F  Muft  no  author  write,  but  thofe 
who  write  for  them  ?  Or  is  none  capable  to  write, 
but  thofe  who  write  for  them  ?  Or  does  the  whole 
merit  of  a  work  confift  in  their  publifhing  it?  Are 
there  none  good  but  thofe  whi  h  are  publiftied  by 
them  ?  Muft  every  fubjedl  be  deferred,  which  has 
been  once  treated  of  for  them?  muft  the  verfion 
Sf  of 


3i6  Tlje  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


of  the  fcripturc  by  St.  Jerome  be  defpis'd  becaufe 
that  of  the  Septuagint  was  the  firft,  and  much 
cfteem'd ?  have  the  writings  of  TertuUian,  Or'tgen, 
and  St.  Cyprian,  eclip-s'd  the  luflrc  of  thofc  of  St. 
Augujiine?  or  thofe  of  St.  Augujline  prov'd  difad- 
vantageous,  or  detrimental  to  thofe  of  TertuUian, 
Origen,  St.  Cyprian,  ilc.  Mbft  any  future  poets 
forbear  writing,  becaufe  Mr.  Pope  has  wrote  with 
a  general  apphiufc?  why  has  Mr.  Chambers  compil'd 
3.  diiiionary  of  arii  and  fciences,  fince  Corneille  had 


done  it  before  him?  what,  becaufe  he  has  pyrated 
Corneille,  and  has  made  a  kind  of  Dedalus,  which 
has  neither  beginning  nor  end,  with  a  monjirous 
confufion  of  unneceflary  and  inaccurate  references, 
which  puzzle  the  moft  judicious  reader;  and  becaufe 
our  eminent  bookfellers  (as  they  are  pleas'd  to  call 
themfclves)  have  publifli'd  that  work,  muft  no  body 
be  permitted  to  write  fomcthing  better,  and  difpolii 
it  in  a  more  inftructive  and  clearer  order.' 


Of      B     0     r    A    N    Y. 


,  O  TA  N  Y  {Greek  BoTa»»,  Herb)  is  a  fcience 
treating  of  the  vegetation,  origin,  parts,  nu- 
trition and  increafe  of  Plants  :    alfo,   of 
their  kinds,  virtues,  ufes,  analyfis,  maladies 
and  death. 

Let  us  begin  with  the  fouls  of  Plants  or  tlieir 
vegetative  life. 

Arifiotle  defines  the  vegetative  foid  of  a  plant, 
Caufa  cur  res  augeantur  et  aluntur  (lib.  2.  de  anima, 
c.  4.)  The  caufe  whereby  things  are  increafed  and 
nouriflied.  Which  caufe  is  a  certain  fpirituous 
and  mobile  fubftance,  whereby  a  body  is  inwardly 
a<jitated,  and  the  nutritive  juice  diflributed  through- 
out all  the  parts,  by  means  of  certain  fmall  pipes, 
and  duels,  form'd  by  nature. 

In  the  fchools,  the  vegetative  fid  is  commonly 
defin'd.  Alius  primus  corporis  phyfici  organici,  po- 
teftate,  vitam  vegctantem  hahentis,  i.  e.  the  firfl  adt 
of  a  phyfical  and  organical  body,  which  has  poten- 
tially a  vegetative  life. 

Thofe  things  have  a  vegetative  life,  which  are 
nourilhed,  increafe,  and  generate  ;  for  by  vegeta- 
tion this  triple  funftion  is  underftood,  viz.  nutrition, 
increafe,  and  generation  :  therefore  a  triple  faculty  is 
commonlv  attributed  to  the  vegetative  foul,  viz. 
nourijhing,  increafmg,  and  generating. 

We  will  begui  with  the  generating  faculty,  from 
this  commandment,  or  omnipotent  word  of  God, 
Let  the  earth  bring  forth  grafs,  the  herb  yielding  feed, 
and  the  fruit-tree  yielding  fruit  after  his  kind,  vuhofe 
feed  is  in  itfelf.upon  the  earth. 

Plants  have  their  origin  from  feeds,  which  being 
taken  from  the  firft  plants,  have  propagated  their 
fpecies,  by  the  Creator's  will,  as  far  as  our  times 
and  will  continue  to  do  fo,  to  the  end  of  the  world 
which  opinion  is  fupported  by  the  above  quoted 
words  of  the  fcripture,  unlefs  there  be  a  feed  which 
contains  already  the  conformation  of  the  plant, 
whofe  parts  are  unfolded  by  that  fermentation,  nei- 
ther fermentation  or  motion  can  give  origin  to  the 


plant ;  therefore,  the  Lord  God  made  the  earth,  and 
the  heavens,  and  every  plant  of  the  field,  before  it 
was  in  the  earth.,  and  every  herb  of  the  field  before  it 
grew.  Gen,  ii.  4,  5.  which  makes  me  conclude, 
that  all  plants  have  their  origin  from  the  feed,  and 
which  I  prove  thus  : 

All  plants  have  their  origin  from  what  contains 

them,  adlually,  or  potentially  ;   which  muft  be  the 

feed,  fince  the  firft  rudiments  of  a  plant  can  be  dif- 

covered  no  where  elfe,  nor  by  the  naked  eye,  nor 

even  by  the  help  of  a  microfcope  ;  fo  that  the  feed 

contains  not  only  the  coarfer  matter  of  the  plant, 

with  its  organical  parts,  which  have  the  ratio  oi  a 

body,  but  a  certain  Ipirit  likewife,  /'.  e.  an  adlive, 

mobile,  and  vegetative  fubjiance,  called y^w/;  which 

although,  in  fome  manner  afleep,  in  the  grain,  or 

feed,  is  neverthlefs  excited  to  motion,  by  the  heat 

of  the  fun,  the  warmth  of  the  earth,  and  with  the 

rain   impregnated  with   particles    of  volatile   fait, 

whereby  it  unfolds  its  parts,  and  puflies  the  plant 

forward.     A  fhortyl/iw,  or  fprig,  is  a  feed;  for  it 

being  fet  at  a  proper  time,  produces  a  tree ;  the 

fmallefty^'^^  of  thztfcion  is  agrain  of  the  fame  kind, 

and  hitherto  vifible  to  us  ;  and  though  we  cannot 

difcover  with  the  eye  the  feed  of  that  grain,  we  ne- 

verthelefs  can  form  conjeftures  of  it;    for  if  there 

was   not  fome  virtue   in  thofe  principles,    feveral 

things,  which  are  not  fowed,  would  never  grow. 

We  have  all  the  reafon  imaginable  to  believe, 
that  by  the  fecundity  of  the  fun,  and  the  culture  of 
the  earth,  feeds  are  changed  into  a  better  kind,  as 
the  poet  exprefles  it,  Georpc,  lib.  I.  in  the  follow- 


ing verfes  : 


Semina  vidi  equidem,  multos  tnedicare  ferentes 
Et  nitro  prius,  45*  nigra  perfundere  cnnurca  : 
Grandior  ut  fcetus filiquis  fallacibus  effet. 


They    likewife 
fterility  of  the  foilj 


can    degenerate, 
or  the  negligence 


through    the 

of  the  Huf- 

bandman. 


BOTANY. 


Z'i^l 


bandman,  as  the  fame  poet  is  pleafcd  to  inform  us 
in  the  fame  phice. 

Vidi  leSfa  diu,  (jf  tnulto  fpeSiata  labor e^ 
Degenerare  tamcn,  ni  vis  humana  quotannis 
Maxima  quaque  manu  legcret. 

And  Eclog  5. 

Grandia  fcepe  quibus  mandavlmus  hordea  fidcis, 
Infelix  loliiim,  (S Jieriles  dominanfur  avena. 

It  might  be  objeiEled  Hlcewife,  that  fome  plants 
grow,  or  from  afprig  or  layer  fet  into  the  earth,  or 
from  a  root  or  fcion  grafted  into  another  plant;  and 
that  therefore  all  plants  do  not  grow  from  feed. 

The  anfwef  to  this  objeftion  is,  that  tho'  plants 
grow  from  a  layer,  a  root,  or  a  fcion,  that  layer, 
root,  or  fcion  had  their  firlt  origin  from  feed  ;  and 
therefore  it  is  certain,  that  from  the  creation  of  the 
world  plants  have  been  propagated,  to  this  time, 
by  a  feminal  virtue. 

This  germ^  according  to  Dr.  Grcw%  anatom. 
plant,  c.  I.  has  two  parts,  viz.  the  radicle,  which 
is  the  embrio,  or  beginning  of  the  root,  and  the 
plumule,  becaufe  in  the  fhape  of  a  fmall  bundle  of 
feathers  :  which  in  the  vegetation  forms  the  ftallc  or 
trunk,  and  the  branches  of  the  plant. 

There  are  befides  in  the  body  of  each  feed  two 
lobes  or  parts,  which  the  bud  is  wrapped  in,  and 
whence  it  draws  its  nutrition,  like  a  chicken  fiom 
the  yolk  of  an  egg,  or  an  embrio  from  tine  pla- 
centa. 

From  the  fofteft  and  more  fpongious  part  of  the 
feed,  which  Dr.  Grew  calls  Parenchyma,  are  formed 
the  marrow  and  fkin,  and  from  the  moft:  folid  and 
compadt  part,  the  ligneous  body. 

Having  thus  examined  the  feed,  we  will  fow  it, 
and  examine  the  procefs  of  nature  in  the  vege- 
tation. 

Vegetation  is  a  fermentation  excited  in  the  earth, 
by  its  warmth  and  humidity,  and  the  heat  ot  the 
fun,  of  different  faline  particles  proper  to  unfold 
the  different  parts  of  the  plant,  contained  in  the 
feed,  as  is  in  an  embrio  ;  and  by  their  rarefaftion 
and  exaltation  form  the  juices,  which  ferve  for  the 
nutrition  and  grovjth  of  the  plant. 

The  firft  thing,  which  prcfcnts  itfelf  to  my  ima- 
gination, is  the  fun  and  earth  concerting  together, 
the  one  by  his  heat,  and  the  other  by  her  moiilure, 
how  to  fid  the  embrio  of  that  hard  tough  envelope, 
it  is  v/rapped  in,  and  which  is  the  greateft  obltacle 
to  the  explofion  of  its  parts  ;  therefore  the  earth, 
which  is  the  firft  agent  in  this  cafe,  and  which  is 
to  do  the  office  of  incubation,  makes  ufe,  firft,  of 
its  natural  moifture,  to  foften  the  outward  rind  or 
hufk,   by  having  it  percolated  through  the  pores  or 


pipes  of  the  faid  hufk,  whereby  they  are  fo  opened 
and  dilated,  as  to  facili:atc  the  introdudtion  of  the 
different  falts  appointed  to  operate  on  the  whole 
fubrtance  of  the  feed,  by  unfolding  the  different 
parts  it  contains,  and  di'jwfmg  thtm  fcverally  to- 
wards affumiiig  their  rcfpcdfive  forms. 

The  Sun  on  this  occafion  excites,  by  a  gentle 
warmth,  the  different  falts  the  moiffure  of  the 
earth  is  impregnated  with,  that  they  may  be  capa- 
ble to  conquer  the  Aubbornefs  of  the  hufk,  by 
forcing  themfelves,  firfl  into  its  alniofl  impercepti- 
ble pores,  conquering  all  the  obftacies,  and  razing 
all  the  obftru(fi:ions,  which  the  feveral  fubffances, 
to  be  ient  from  the  womb,  for  the  nutrition  and 
increafe  of  the  Foetus,  could  meet  with,  to  obfiruct: 
their  motions. 

By  this  means  a  free  paffage  being  opened,  for 
fuch  a  quantity  of  the  moiffure  of  the  Matrix,  as 
is  neceffary  to  make  a  due  feparation  of  the  hufk 
from  the  inoff  eflential  part  of  the  feed,  the  falts, 
employed  in  that  operation,  being  volatilized,  or 
already  fixed  on  that  efiential  part,  leave  the  hufk 
filled  with  nothing  elfe  but  the  Lympha,  v/hich 
groweth  turgid,  and  being  deprived  of  the  nourifh- 
ment  it  received,  when  united  to  the  fubflance  of 
the  feed,  begins  to  tend  towards  its  diilolution. 

'J  he  thicker  is  the  hufk,  and  the  clofer  the 
parts  it  is  compofed  of,  are  coadunated  together, 
the  longer  time  it  takes  to  be  impregnated  with 
the  vapours  and  exhalations  of  the  earth,  and 
the  longer  it  adheres  to  the  pulp,  or  flejh  of  the 
feed.  This  coadunation  of  its  parts  retards,  like- 
wife,  its  laceration,  which  is  of  an  indifpeniible 
necefTity,  for  the  entire  explofion  of  the  firfi:  rudi- 
ments of  the  plants  contained  in  the  gerrn  ;  which 
laceration  does  not  happen  till  the  continuity,  v/hich 
fubfiffed  between  the  pipes,  or  pores  of  the  hufk, 
by  their  being  extended,  or  dilated  out  of  meafure, 
by  the  lympha  they  are  filled  with,  is  broken.  7  he 
hufk  or  rind,  never  breaks  till  all  the  parts  of  the 
plant  are  unfolded,  and  the  organical  veffels  fo 
well  formed  and  difpofed,  as  to  be  capable  to  affiit 
each  other  in  their  mutual  growth  ;  which  is  evi- 
dent, being  often  brought  out  of  the  earth  adherr 
ing  yet  to  the  germ  ;  as  we  fee  a  young  partridge 
newly  hatched  running  with  the  fliell  of  the  egg 
flicking  yet  on  his  back. 

The  formation  of  the  plant  being  fo  far  con- 
duced by  vegetation,  and  its  organs  difpofed  for 
their  refpcftive  fundions,  the  fun,  by  his  heat, 
impregnates  the  nutritive  juices,  fupplied  by  the 
earth  for  the  nutrition  and  increafe  of  the  plant, 
with  a  principle  of  life,  more  perfe£l  flill  than  that 
it  had  received  in  the  incubation,  by  exalting  and 
volatilizing  their  different  falts,  whereby  they  are 
rendered  capable  of  circulating  through  all  the  parts 

Sf  2  of 


31  8  Tl3c  Unlverfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^;?^  Sciences. 


of  the  plant,  and  rid  thenifelves  of  the  terreftrial 
faces.,  which  could  obftiudl  that  circulation. 

The  plant  increafing  in  bigncfs,  and  its  bud,  or 
ftcm,  becoming  taller,  from  whitifh  turns  greenifh; 
the  lateral  roots,  alio  break  forth  greenifh,  and 
pyramidal,  from  the  r!;aping  flieath,  which  adheres 
clofcly  to  the  planr,  atd  the  lower  root  grows  hunger, 
and  hair}',  with  many  fibres  {hooting  out  of  the 
Tame  :  though  there  are  hairs  hanging  all  along  on 
all  the  roots,  except  on  their  tips,  and  thefe  fibres 
are  fccn  to  wind  about  the  falinc  particles  of  the  foil, 
little  lumjis  of  earth,  ^c.  like  ivy;  whence  they 
grov/  curled :  about  the  lateral  root  there  now  breaks 
out  two  other  little  ones. 

On  the  fourth,  fays  Malpighl^  the  flem  mount- 
ing upwards,  makes  a  right  angle  with  the  feminal 
leaf;  the  lafl  root  puts  forth  more,  and  the  other 
growing  larger,  are  cloathed  with  more  hairs, 
which  ftreightly  embrace  the  lumps  of  earth  ; 
and  where  they  meet  with  any  vacuity,  unite  into 
a  kind  of  net-work.  The  conglobate,  or  flower- 
leaf,  is  now  fofter ;  and  when  bruifed  yields  a 
white  fweetifii  juice,  like  barley  cream.  By 
{Gripping  it  off,  the  root  and  flem  of  the  plant  are 
plainly  feen,  with  the  intermediate  knot,  whofe 
outer  part  is  folid,  like  a  bark,  and  the  inner  more 
foft,  and  medullary. 

The  fifth  day,  in  the  opinion  of  our  author,  the 
ftalk  flill  rifing,  puts  forth  a  permanent,  or  flable 
leaf,  which  is  green  and  folded  ;  the  roots  grow 
longer,  and  there  appears  a  new  tumour  of  a  future 
root ;  the  outer,  tlie  fheath-leaf,  is  loofened,  and 
the  feed  leaf  begins  to  fade. 

The  fixth  day  the  ftable  leaf  being  loofened,  the 
plant  mounts  upwards,  the  fheath-leaf  ftill  cleaving 
about  it  like  a  bark.  The  feed-leaf  is  now  feen  finu- 
ous,  or  wrinkled,  and  faded  ;  and  this  being  cut, 
or  freed  from  the  fecundine,  or  hufk  ;  the  flefh,  or 
■peruarpium,  is  found  of  a  different  texture,  the 
outer  part,  whereby  the  outer  part  of  the  feed,  or 
grain,  is  heaved  up,  being  more  folid;  but  the  in- 
fide  veficular,  and  filled  with  humour,  efpecially 
that  part  near  the  navel-knot.  All  the  lea\'es  be- 
ing pulled  off,  the  roots  torn,  and  the  flower-leaf 
removed,  the  trunk  appears  ;  wherein,  not  far  from 
the  roots,  the  navel  knot  bunches  out,  which  is 
folid,  and  hard  to  cut :  above  there  is  the  mark  of 
the  fheath-lcaf,  which  was  pulled  off ;  and  under- 
neath, as  in  an  arm-pit,  where  the  gem  is  often 
hid-  The  hind-part  of  the  plant  fhews  the  break- 
ing forth  of  the  roots,  likewife  the  faded  pla- 
centa., &c. 

After  the  eleventh  day,  the  feed-leaf,  as  yet 
flicking  to  the  plant,  is  crumpled,  and  almofl  cor- 
rupted ;  within  it  is  hollow,  and  about  the  fecun- 
dine, the  mucous,  and  white  fubffance  of  the  feed, 
being  continued  to  the  navel  knot,  forms  a  cavity. 


I  All  the  roots  becoming  longer,    put   forth    new 

branches '-'It  of  their  iides  ;  the  feed- leaf  withers, 

and  its  velicles  are  emptied  ;    the  internodcs,  or 

;  fpaces  between  the  knots,  grow  longer  ;  new  germs 

'  appear,  and  tlie  middle  root  trows   I'l  vera!   inches 

long.     After  a  month,  the   roots  and  italk  being 

I  grown  much  longer,   new  bucio   bitak  out  at  the 

I  firft  knot    and  little  tumours  bunch  out,  which  at 

length  break  info  roots. 

Thus  the  plant  is  hurried  in  this  fhort  fpace  of 
time,  by  Malpigb:,  through  thele  various  changes 
and  mutations, which  tho'  real,  and  as  (enfibleas  he 
is  pleafed  to  reprefent  them,  are  not  accomplifhed 
with  fuch  celerity  in  all  forts  of  plants,  nor  even  in 
a  grain  of  wheat,  which  he  lakes  for  example  ;  the' 
in  fome  forts  of  plants  all  thofe  variations  happen 
in  a  fhorter  time. 

The  plant  carried  thus  far,  wants  food  for  the 
prefervation  of  its  vegetable  life,  which  being  de- 
privet!  of,  it  cannot  fubfift ;  of  which  the   natura- 
lifts  are  fo  fenfible,  that  their  common  opinion  is, 
that  water  is  the  great  vegetable  food.  Which  they 
endeavour  to   confirm,  by  often-repeated   experi- 
ments ;  efpecially  by  that  made  on  a  fprig  of  balm, 
mint,  or  the  like  plant;  which  being  fet  in  a  phial 
of  pure  water,  without  any  mixture  of  earth,  grow, 
and   put   forth   roots,  leaves,    and  branches.     But 
this  hypothefis  is  rejefted  by  others ;  who  are  advo- 
cates for  the  earthen  foil,  in  which  we  plant  or  fow  ; 
for  the  following  reafons.      i.  There  is   not  the 
leafl  reafon  to  fuppofe  that  the  humidity,  exclufive- 
ly  of  all  the  other  fubftances  the  earth  is  compofcd 
of,  afcends  up  the  veffels  of  the  plant  for  its  nutri- 
tion, fince  the  fluid  mafs  has  no  other  power  to  di- 
redl  itfelf  to  motion,   but  what  it  borrows  from  the 
faline  particles  it  is   impregnated   with,    of  which 
once  entirely  diveffed,  by  evaporation,    it   remains 
an  unadfive,  heavy,  and  dead  mafs  ;  'till  by  a  new 
fermentation  in  the  earth,  or  otherwife,  it  be  im- 
pregnated a-new.      2.   That  it  is  not  likelv  nature 
fhould  make  ufe  of  fo  heavy  a  vehicle  for  to  fupply 
the  vegetable  body  with  food,  while  the  earth  can 
furnifh  her  with  fo  many  others,  and  fo  proper  for 
the   purpofe ;    as   are  the  oleaginous,    fulphurous 
fubftances  it  is  compofed  of,  and  which  are  fo  pro- 
per for  exaltation,  and  which  once  put  into  a  fer- 
ment, by  its   natural  warmth,  afEffed   therein  by 
the  heat  of  the  fun,  can  penetrate  the   moft  com- 
pact pores  of  the  planets,  and  unite  themfelves  to 
the  nutritivejuices,  between  which  and  them  there 
is  fo  perfedl:  an  analogy.     3.  That  it  is  very  likely 
that  thofe  particles  and  falts,  in  their  fublimation, 
can  carry  along  with  them   a  fufficient  quantity  of 
the  radical  humidity,  which  is  abfolutely  neceffary 
to  temperate  the  too  great  impetuofity  of  the  juices 
in    their  circulation,  but  it  is  abfurd  to  think  that 

the 


B     0     7    A    N    Y. 


319 


the  whole  food  of  the  vegetable  body  confifts  in  that ' 
humidity  ;  elfe  the  plant  (hoiild  be  always  in  a  ca-  [ 
cochimous  condition,  as  is  evident  from  the  various 
accidents  of  the  an'n  ;1  body,  wherein  the /jiot^/;*? 
fuperabounds,  is  fubjedl  to.  4.  Humidity  is  fo 
far  from  being  capable  of  the  operations  attributed 
to  it,  that  when  once  admitted  into  the  plant,  it 
grows  ftill  more  imbecile,  in  being  diverted  by  the 
circulation,  or  continual  rotation  of  the  nutritive 
juices,  of  the  few  elaftick  particles,  it  had  brought 
into  it,  and  remains  at  laft  like  a  kind  of  excre- 
ment, or  caput  mortitum,  which  the  moft  volatile 
particles  uftier  out,  as  far  as  the  bark,  where  they 
leave  it  :  and  therefore,  5.  It  is  not  true,  that  the 
humidity,  in  its  fuppofed  emiflion  from  tiie  plant, 
carries  with  it  many  parts  of  the  fame  nature 
with  thofe  of  the  plant,  through  which  it  palTes, 
fince,  as  can  be  proved,  that  humidity  has  no 
elafticitv ;  and,  if  it  was  even  poffiblc  it  could  be 
emitted  from  the  plant,  diverted  as  it  muft  be  then, 
ofitsfaline  particles,  it  could  not  enter  into  the 
compofuion  of  our  atmofphere,  but  murt:  fall  of 
itfelf,  as  a  dead  weight.  Thofe  parts  which  Dr. 
Woodward  obferves  depofited  on  the  furface  of  the 
leaves,  flowers,  and  other  parts  of  the  plants,  which 
he  is  pleafed  to  ftile  the  groITer  particles  of  the  hu- 
midity, impregnated  with  particles  of  the  fame  na- 
ture, whereof  the  plants  confift,  are  nothing  elfe 
but  the  oleaginous  and  fulphurous  particles,  which 
compofe  the  atmofphere  of  the  plant,  and  which 
ovcrburthened  with  their  own  weight,  as  well  as 
with  that  of  the  particles  of  the  plant,  they  have 
gathered  in  their  ingrefs  and  regrefs  through  it,  reft 
thcmfelvcs  on  the  outer  parts  of  the  plant ;  and 
form  our  manna's,  honey's,  and  other  gummous 
exudations  ;  which  is  far  more  probable  than  to 
fay,  that  they  confift  of  humid  particles,  impreg- 
nated with  the  parts  of  the  plant,  fince  moft  of 
thofe  fubftances  ars  fubjedl  to  a  liquefadlion  by  heat. 
6.  If  a  greater  quantity  of  odours  is  found  exhaling 
from  vegetables  in  humid  weather  than  in  any 
other,  it  is  not  becaufe  the  air  is  impregnated  with 
the  humid  particles,  which  have  parted  through 
the  plant,  but  rather,  by  the  fulphurous  ones, 
which  chiefiy  compofe  the  atmofphere  of  the  plants, 
and  v/hich  ilrike  more  powerfully  our  organs  of 
fmell  in  humid  feafons,  than  in  any  others ;  becaufe 
then  the  atmofphere  is  more  condenfated  and  con- 
fequently  nearer  us  than  in  another  feafon. 

Water,  however,  though  it  cannot  be  a  vehicle 
to  the  vegetable  matter,  is,  neverthelefs,  very  be- 
neficial to  vegetation  ;  fince  the  aqueous  particles, 
carried  along  with  the  vegetable  ones  into  the  plant, 
moderate  the  too  great  impetuofity  of  the  nutritive 
juices,  which,  otherwife,  by  their  continual  mo- 
tion, would  become  aduft,  and  outwardly  cool  the 
I 


pores,  which,  by  their  friction  with  the  faline  par- 
ticles in  their  ingrefs  and  egreis  through  it,  could  by 
the  condcnfation  of  the  mort  fulphurous  andvifcous, 
be  obftrudted,  and  thereby  the  whole  vegetable 
fubftance  be  deprived  of  its  food.  Therefore  wa- 
ter is  of  the  fame  ufe  in  this  cafe,  as  in  the  refri- 
geratory of  an  alembick,  /'.  e.  by  regulating  the 
percolation  of  the  nutritive  juices,  which  other- 
wife  would  fiow  with  too  great  an  impetuofity  thro' 
the  organical  vertlls  of  the  plants,  hinder  a  too  co- 
pious exaltation  of  the  volatile  falts  they  are  im- 
pregnated with,  which  othervi-iie  would  caufe  a  too 
great  dillipation  of  them,  and  thereby  prove  very 
prejudicial  to  the  whole  plant. 

All  Botantjls  are  of  opinion  that  there  is  a  certain 
analogy  between  plants  and  animals  ;  fince  plants 
like  animals  are  compofed  of  certain  parts,  moved 
by  a  cert;:in  vegetative  fpirit,  and  are  poflefled  of  a 
greater  appuratus  of  organs,  for  the  performance  of 
their  vital  fundlions. 

Two  things  are  to  be  carefully  confidered  in 
plants,  viz.  the  fenfible  and  organick  body ;  and 
the  fpirit  or  the  fubtil  and  vegetative  body,  which 
is  the  caufe  of  the  whole  motion,  and  the  principle 
of  all  vital  funiftions. 

Plants  confift  of  feveral  organical  parts,  fub- 
fervient  to  this  motion,  viz..  of  a  root,  trunk, 
branches,  leave's,  &:c. 

The  Root  is  the  lower  part  of  the  plant,  where* 
by  it  adheres  to  the  earth,  whence,  by  the  gentle, 
inward  heat  of  the  earth,  the  vertical  motion  of  the 
sethereal  fubftance,  and  the  fermentation,  it  re- 
ceives its  nutritive  juices,  which  are  carried  upwards, 
for  its  prefervation.  Therefore  the  root  muft  admit, 
into  its  compofition,  a  great  number  of  pores 
and  diiiSs,  through  which  the  juices  fliould  afcend 
for  the  nutrition  of  the  plant,  fince  it  cannot  fubfift 
without  aliment ;  for  though  fome  plants  have  no 
branches,  as  wheat,  or  no  fruits,  as  jefiamin  ;  they 
all  neverthelefs  have  roots  to  fupply  them  with  ali- 
ments. This  aliment  taken  by  the  7-oot,  as  by  a 
mouth,  is  diftributed  through  the  open  pores  and 
duiSls  to  all  the  parts  of  the  plants.  Boerhaave 
confiders  the  root  as  compofed  of  a  number  of  ab- 
forbent  vefiels,  analogous  to  the  lailtal  in  animals, 
and  M.  Reaumur  takes  it  to  do  the  ofEce  of  all  the 
parts  in  xhz  abdomen,  which  minifter  to  nutrition; 
as  the  ftomach,  inteftines,  ^c. 

The  marrow,  bark,  ligneous  body,  and  the  tra- 
chaa's  are  parts  in  the  root,  which  are  equally  di- 
ftributed to  the  trunk,  and  to  the  branches;  but, 
it  is  evident  that,  the  marrow  and  the  bark 
have  the  fame  origin  ;  for  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
root,  where  the  bark  is  thicker,  there  is  little  or  no 
marrow  ;  on  the  co;itrary,  in  its  [upeiior  part,  and 

in 


20 


"The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  mid  Sciences. 


in  the  trunk,  the  bark  is  thinner,  and  the  marrow 
in  a  greater  abundance. 

B'-erhaave  obferves,  that  the  root  may  have  any 
fituation  at  plealure,  with  relpcd  to  the  body  of 
the  plant,  nor  needs  to  be  either  lowcft  or  higheft. 
Accordingly  in  the  aloe,  coral,  mofles,  fungufTes, 
is'c.  the  root  is  frequently  uppermoft,  and  its  growth 
downwards. 

Roots  are  divided  by  Botanijls  \nto  fibrous,  which 
fend  out  only  I'mall  firings  from  the  bottom  of  the 
plant,  diftindl:  from  each  other.  Such  are  thofe  of 
moll  fpecies  of  grafs.  Thick  and  grofs,  on  ac- 
count of  their  thick  and  grofs  body,  either  branched 
out  into  fubdivifions,  orelfe  fending  out  fibres  from 
it  all  along.  Thefe  lafl:  are  either  carnous,  which 
again  are  either  broad  and  fwelling,  or  long  and 
ficnder,  which  are  commonly  harder  and  more  woody. 

Broad  and  fwelling  roots  are  either  bulbous,  which 


confift  but  of  one  globe  or  head,  and  lend  out  fibres  |  or  other  liquor 


Befides  thefe  fibres  and  buds,  Mdpighi  has  alfo 
fi-)und  in  the  trunk  or  ftcm,  larger  velfcls  difpofed 
in  form  of  lameller,  or  turned  into  a  fpirc  ;  but  the 
parts  they  are  compofed'  of  are  fo  thin,  that  they 
might  be  deprefled  or  dilated  at  pleafure  ;  therefore 
he  calls  them  tracha:a  and  fplral  vcjpls.  For  he 
imagines  that  plants  have  need  of  refpiration,  and 
that  the  air  is  carried  with  the  juice  not  only  thro' 
the  ligneous  fibres,  but  likcwife  throughout  the 
fpiral  and  fpiratory  vefTel;):  and  hcmaintains  no  cor- 
poreal fubftance  can  live,  nor  in  the  earth,  nor  in 
the  water,  without  refpiration. 

The  vejjels  are  common,  perhaps,  to  all  fort  of 
plants  ;  but  each  kind  has,  befides  its  proper  veffels, 
appropriated  to  carry  fome  particular  juice,  or 
aliment,  which  are  apparent  in  feveral,  whether 
they  be  filled  with  turpentine,  as  the  terebinth  ; 
or  with  milk,  as  in  the  lactiferous ;  or  with  rofin, 

feems  more  elabo- 


which   always 
bottom  ;    and  are   either  fquamous  and  j  rate  than  that  juice  contained  in  the  ligneous  pipes 
ilies,  martagons,  Isfc.   Coated,  which  are  :  or  the  buds. 


from   the 

fcaly,  as 

involved  in  fkins,  or  coats,  as  cepa,  hy<!cinthus,  al- 

liu?/!,   he.     Tuberous,  which  are  of  a  carnous,  fo- 

lid,  airJ  continued  confiftence  ;  and    thefe  either, 

Jimple,  with  but  one  globe  or  head .  as  rapa^  crocus. 

Sic.  Manifold ;  as  afphodelus,  pcsonia,  &c. 

Long  raits  ire  either  farmentous,  i.  e.  twiggy  or 


The  marrow  is  fuppofed  to  be  of  the  fame  ufe  in 
plants,  as  are  the  heart  and  brain  in  animals  ;  and 
Aialp'iihi  believes  that  the  tranfverfe  difpofitions  of 
buds  are  defigned  for  the  fame  ufe  with  the  marrow 
itfelf ;  for  he  conjectures  that  there  is  a  crudejuice 
carried  upwards  through  the  ligneous  fibres,  which 


branchuig,  which  {hoot  or  creep  out  tranfverfe,  or    gradually   falls   into    the    buds,    and  the   marrow. 


in  breadth  ;  of  thefe  fome  are  geniculated,  knotty 
orjointy;  as  couch  grafs,  mints,  iyc.  Caullfor- 
mes,  i.  e.  ftemmy  or  ftalky,  which  fnoot  down  deep 
direftly,  though  often  fending  out  fibres  and  ftrings 
from  the  great  ftem  ;  which,  alfo,  itfelf  is  fome- 
times  divided  or  branching. 

As  to  the  trunk,  called  alfo,  in  trees,  the  Jiem, 
and  which  is  that  part  between  the  ground  and  the 
place,  where  it  divides  into  branches,  is  confi- 
dered  as  the  body  of  the  plant,  which  transfers  the 
humour  it  receives  from  the  earth,  through  the 
roots  to  the  fuperior  parts.  Outwardly,  it  is  co- 
vered with  bark,  which  is  a  fkin  to  it ;  inwardly, 
it  has  marrow,  which,  commonly,  is  called  the 
heart  of  a  tree,  except  when  very  foft,  and  fun- 
gous. As  in  the  elder.  Between  the  marrow  and 
the  bark  is  placed  what  we  call  the  lignecus  body. 
And  when  feveral  ftems,  and  of  the  fame  equality 
rife  from  the  fame  roots,  they  are  called  firubs  or 
ferments. 

Malpighi  in  the  anatomy  of  plants,  diftingulflies 
a  double  order  of  fibres,  or  parts  in  the  trunk  or 
ftem.  I.  There  are  fibres  or  fmall  pipes  colle£led 
into  bundles,  protra£bcd  lengthways  ;  tlien  between 
them  in  an  almoft  horizontal  manner  is  inferred  a 
certain  number  of  fmall  buds  or  bunches,  which 
are  fomething  like  the  infertions  defcribed  by  Dr. 
Grew  in  his  anatomy  of  plants. 


where  by  a  longer  flray,  and  the  fermentation,  it  is 
elaborated  and  perfefled,  to  be  ready  at  hand  for 
the  nutrition  of  the  young  buds  and  /caves  at  their 
eruption. 

The  branches  of  a  tree  proceed  from  the  trunk, 
as  the  members  from  the  animal  body  ;  and  are  of 
the  fome  nature  with  the  trunk  ;  for  they  are  like- 
wife  covered  with  bark,  have  marrow,  and  a  ligne- 
ous body.  Often  the  branches,  rife  Vi'ithout  or- 
der, and  in  confufion,  from  the  trunk,  as  in  the 
elm,  oak,  and  others  ;  and  fometimes  in  an  elegant 
order,  as  in  the  pitch  and  firr-trees.  The  branches 
which  grow  laft,  efpecially  when  the  top  is  cut  off, 
are  called  fcions  ;  and  thofe,  which  grow  from  the 
roots  of  the  talleft  trees,  unprofitable  branches. 

LajUy,  Every  body  knows  that  the  leaves,  flow- 
ers, and  feeds  fpring  like  new  plants  from  the 
principal  or  matter  plant.  The  leaves  themfelves 
have  alfo  their  caulicoles,  in  which  the  ligneous 
pipes  produced  from  the  trunk,  and  the  branches 
are  aflembled  together  with  the  buds  and  tra^htsd^, 
and  difplayed  in  all  the  parts  of  the  leaves  to  carry 
the  nutritive  juice. 

From  this  difiertation  we  will  proceed  to  the 
oeconorny  or  ufe  of  the  parts  of  Plants,  with  refpedl 
to  their  nutrition  and  increafe. 

The 


B   0   r  A  N  r. 


321 


The  Peripatetics  znd  Gakmjis  define  the  nutritive 
power,  a  faculty  of  the  vegetative  foul,  by  which 
it  changes  the  aliment  into  its  fubftance  for  its  pre- 
fervation.  Hence  its  proper  fundlion  is  called  nu- 
trition, which  is  defined  by  them,  a  convcrfion  of 
the  aliment  into  the  fubftance  of  what  is  fed. 

We  fuppofe  that  faculty  to  be  nothing  elfe  but 
the  vegetative  foul,  or  the  adtive  fubftance,  which 
being  excited  by  the  heat  of  the  fun,  as  welt  as  by 
that  of  the  earth,  caufes  a  fermentaton  in  the  nu- 
tritive juice,  or  which,  perhaps,  being  taken  by 
the  vertical  motion  of  the  aethereal  fubftance,  brings 
up  through  the  pores  of  the  roots,  appropriated  to 
that  ufe,  the  vegetable  matter  into  the  trunk  and 
branches,  and  which  by  a  kind  of  circulation,  re- 
turns again  to  the  inferior  parts.  For  the  nots  of 
the  plants  difperfed  in  the  earth,  produce  certain 
filaments,  and  fmall  tubes,  through  which  the  ex- 
halations of  the  earth,  or  rather  the  vegetable  fub- 
ftance, is  forced,  by  the  ambient  atmolphere,  into 
the  mafter  roots,  whence  it  afcends  through  the  lis;- 
jieous  fibres,  as  it  is  imagined,  as  far  as  the  upper 
extremity  of  the  plant.  Then  pafTes  afterwards 
into  the  buds,  whence  after  it  has  been  elaborated, 
and  fermented  a-new,  it  is  diftributed  to  every  part 
of  the  plant,  for  the  nutrition  and  increafe  of  the 
whole  vegetable  body ;  for  it  is  impoftible  that  a 
crude  and  undigefted  juice  could  nourifii  the  plant; 
therefore  when  it  afcends  upwards,  if  it  happens 
that  fome  parts  are  more  elaborated  than  others, 
they  ferve  for  the  nutrition  of  the  upper  parts  of 
the  plant ;  and  thofe  which  are  fuperfluous,  and 
more  crude,  after  they  ha\'e  been  prepared  by  a  new 
cotlion,  in  the  buds  of  the  other  parts  of  the  plants, 
and  even  in  the  marrow,  they  return  to  the  inferior 
for  their  nourifliment  likewife. 

Therefore  as  the  blood,  in  animals,  flows  thro' 
the  arteries,  from  the  heart  to  the  extremities,  and 
returns  through  the  veins  from  the  extremities  to 
the  heart ;  likewife  the  nutritive  juice  in  plants  af- 
cends from  the  roots  to  the  upper  .parts,  and  de- 
fcends  back,  again,  from  the  top,  or  upper  parts, 
to  the  roots.  Which  dodtrine  is  not  mere  con- 
jedlure,  fince  it  is  confirmed  by  a  vaft  number  of 
experiments. 

Therefore  they  imagine  that  the  air,  as  well  that 
inclofcd  in  the  trachaas,  as  that  mixed  in  the  lig- 
neous fibres,  in  the  nutritive  juice,  (whether  that 
air  exalted  from  the  earth  afcends  into  the  fibres 
and  triichaa's,  or  is  brought  in  through  the  pores  of 
the  bark,  together  with  the  nitrous  fpirits)  while 
rarrfy  d,  by  the  diurnal  heat  of  the  fun,  accelerate 
the  afctntof  the  nutritive  juice.  *  Whence  we  are 
to  imagine  a  certain  mechanical  ftrudture  of  the 
parts,  in  the  ligneous  pipes,  which  can  facilitate 
■the  afcent  of  the  juice,  and  render  its  defcent  diiE- 


cult  ;  whether  fome  fmall  fibres  be  placed  fo  as  to 
have  a  communication  from  the  inferior  part  of  the 
plant  to  the  top  ;  or  whether  wc  imagine  fome  other 
difpofiiion  of  the  parts,  which  could  fupply  the 
place  of  valvules  in  the  veins  of  animals.  Though 
it  is  inferred  from  a  branch  of  a  tree,  planted  up- 
fide  down,  fhooting  forth  other  branches,  that 
there  are  no  valvules  in  tlie  ligneous  pipes;  but  no 
body  qucftions,  at  prcfcnt,  either  the  refpiration, 
or  the  circulation  of  the  nutritive  juices  in  the 
plants.  Therefore  plants  have  their  manner  of 
refpiration.  Which  I  prove  thus  : 

Thofe  bodies  have  their  manner  of  refpiration,  in 
which  thc-air  has  its  ingrefs  and  regrefs.  That  the 
air  has  its  ingrefs  into  thi  plant,  is  evident,  from 
what  wc  have  faid  already,  that  it  being  dilated  by 
the  heat  of  the  fun,  and  mixed  with  the  nutritive 
juice,  it  afcends  the  ligneous  fibres  of  the  plants, 
which  it  unfolds ;  and  that  being  received  into 
the  trachea's,  it  dilates  them  into  a  larger  volume,, 
that  they  might  prefs  the  ligneous  fibres,  for  the 
eafier  carrying  upward  the  nutritive  juice.  Which 
air  is  expelled  from  the  plant,  by  the  contraftion  of 
the  ligneous  pipes,  and  fpiral  veflels ;  therefore 
plant;  have  their  manner  of  refpiration. 

Likewife,  there  is  a  continual  circulation  of  the 
nutritive  juice  through  the  whole  fubftance  of  the 
plant ;  which  is  alfo  proved  in  the  following 
manner : 

There  is  a  continual  circulation  of  the  nutritive 
juice,  if  that  juice,  lifted  up  by  the  vertical  motion 
of  the  aethereal  fubftance,  and  by  the  impulfion  of 
the  air,  is  carried  from  the  inferior  parts  of  the  plant 
to  the  fuperior,  and  brought  back,  through  the 
buds  from  the  fuperior  to  the  inferior  ;  which  muft 
be  a  true  fuppofition,  fmce, 

1.  Such  circulation  is  common  to  all  /arts  of 
living  bodies,  which  want  aliment,  as  well  for 
their  nutrition,  as  to  repair  their  exhaufted  fub- 
ftance. Since  the  parts  of  the  living  bodies  c^ui 
receive  no  nouriftiment  till  that  portion  of  the  ali- 
ment, which  is  well  elaborated,  be  feparated  from 
v/hat  is  crude  and  indigefted,  which  muft  undergo 
another  coftion  ;  whence  the  roots  cannot  receive 
any  nourifhment  from  the  indigefted  juice,  w;hich 
they  receive  immediately  from  the  earth  :  therefore 
a  juice,  far  better  elaborated,  muft  be  brought 
back  to  them  from  the  fuperior  part  of  the  plant, 
for  their  nourifhment. 

2.  Some  trees  die  when  they  are  divefted  of  their 
leaves,  as  it  happens  to  mulberry-trees,  whofe  leav.es 
are  often  torn  off  to  feed  filk-v.'orms ;  v.hich  feenisio 
proceed  from  the  impoffibility  the  nutritive  juice  is 
then  in  of  being  percolated  in  the  leaves,  and  of  being 
depurated  from  the  crude  particles,  that  when  carried 
back  to  the  roots,  it  might  be  a  food  for  them. 

I  3-  If 


3  22  "The    Uiiiverfal  Hiftory  (t/'Arts  ^«^  Sciences. 


3.  If  the  v:ne  be  divcflcJ  of  i.s  kaves  duiing  I 
t):e  furnmcr,  the  grapes  arc  never  brought  to  ma-  | 
turiry,  beciiuft  deprived  of  tlie  juice  wiiich  Hiould  1 
h.ive  been  ekborated   in  the   leaves,  and  brought 
back  to  thsin  for  their  aliment.  1 

4.  When  the  lacteal  plants  arc  tycd  in  the  mid-  ] 
die  of  the  (Icm,  it  fwells  abt)ve  tlie  ligatun,  v/hich 
could  not  happen,  was  not  the  nutritive  juice  flop- 
ped by   the   ligature,  in  its  defcont  from  the  upper 
pares  of  the  plant  to  the  roots. 

5.  A  cuiious  pcrfon  feledled  once  two  carpine 
trees  from  a  long  row  of  ihc  fame,  whole  trunks 
adhered  to  one  another ;  he  took  the  pains  to  cut 
one  of  them  crofs-wife,  with  a  faw,  very  nearhalf 
a  foot  under  thecohefion,  and  iaferted  a  very  fmoth  1 
ftone  between  the  divided  parts  to  fiopall  comma-  j 
nication  between  them.  1  he  following  year  he 
found  that  finall  branches  had  budded  between  the 
cohcfion  and  the  feflion,  which  young  branches 
mufl:  have  received  their  aliment  from  the  juice 
coming  back,  from  the  upper  parts  of  the  tree,  fince 
they  could  be  fupplied  from  no  where  elfe. 

Therefore  it  is  plainly  evident  that  the  nutricive 
juice  not  only  afcends  from  the  roots  to  the  upper 
parts  of  the  plants,  but  likewife  defcends  from  the 
upper  to  the  inferior  parts  ;  and  conlequently.  that 
both  the  nutrhhe  and  augmentative  faculties  of  the 
plants  are  contained  in  that  motion.  For  the  aug- 
mentattvs  faculty  is  defined,  in  the  fchools  ;  a  fa- 
culty of  th;  vegetative  foul,  whereby  it  lives,  by 
taking  inwardly  the  aliment,  and  by  changing  it 
into  its  fubftance,  acquires  its  right  form  and 
proportions. 

Though  plants  are  almoft  all  generated  in  the 
fame  manner,  and  all  compofed  of  the  fame  or- 
ganick  arid  other  parts,  have  all  the  fame  vege- 
table matter  for  their  fubfiftence,  isc.  there  is, 
neverthelefs,  the  fame  difference  between  them, 
as  there  is  between  animals  ;  fince  there  is  among 
them,  as  fome  imagine,  a  diftinftion  both  of  fex 
and  fpeiles :  and  they  are  not  only  dillinguimed 
with  regard  to  their  fpecies,  into  ierre/lrial,  aqua- 
tick,  amphibious,  annual,  bifanmial,  and  perennial ; 
but  likewife  itito  male  and  female. 

All  plants,  which  bear  no  fruits  or  feeds  and 
have  only  the  organ  of  generation,  are  confidered 
as  males :  and  thofe,  which  bear  fruit,  as  females. 
But  why  fhould  we  make  a  diftinflion  of  fexes 
in  the  plants,  to  what  end  ?  Have  they  not 
the  principle  of  generation  within  thcmfelves,  from 
that  very  moment  the  creator  commanded  the  earth 
to  bring  forth  grafs,  the  herb  yielding  feed,  and  the 
fruit  tree  yielding  fruit  after  its  kind,  whofe  feed  is 
in  itfelf  upon  the  earth.    Gen,  i.  11.     Is  not   this 


better  underftood,  and  more  agreeable  to  reafon, 
than  to  have  recourfe  to  impoiiibilities  for  the  ge- 
neration of   plan's. 

l"roiii  this  diflicult  point  we'll  proceed  to  the 
other  ditiin-iion  v^■e  iiave  mude  of  pl.mts  ;  \nto  ter- 
rejlrial,  wiiicii  are  thoie  that  live  only  on  land,  as 
oah,  beech,  ^c,  Aquatick,  which  live  either  in  rivers, 
as  the  vjater-liiy,  tuater-plantin.  Sic.  or  in  the 
fea,  as  the  fueus,  coral,  coralline,  &c.  Amphibious, 
wiiich  live  indifFerentiy  either  in  land  or  water,  as 
the  "willow,  alder,  mints,  &c.  Annual,  which  are 
thole,  whofe  root  is  formed  and  dies  the  fame  year, 
fuch  are  the  leguminous  plants,  wheat,  rye,  &c. 
Bifannuals,  which  only  produce  flowers  and  feeds 
the  fecond,  or  even  third  year  after  their  being 
j  raifed,  and  then  die  ;  fuch  are  f  nnel,  mint,  bid. 
I  Perennial,  which  never  die  after  they  have  once 
born  feed.  Of  thole,  fome  are  ever-greens,  as 
the  afarabacca,  violet,  &c  others  loole  their  leaves 
one  part  of  the  year,  ■as fern,  coltsfoot,  Uc.  Note, 
1  hat  this  diilinclion  is  not  made  v/ith  regard  to 
their  fpecies,   but  only  to  their  age  and  period. 

Plants  are  alio  dittinguilhed,  w;th  regard  to  their 
magnitude,  into  trees,  fnrubs,  and  herbs.  Treer, 
are  the  oak,  pine,  fir,  elm,  fycamore.  &c.  Shrubs^ 
are  the  holly,  box,  ivy,  juniper,  &c.  And  herbs, 
are  mint,  fage,  forrel,  thyme,    &c. 

Mr.  Ray  diifinguifhes  the   trees   and  fhrubs  of 
Engiijh  growth    into    nuciferous  trees,    which   are 
thofe,  which  have  their  flower  disjoined  and  remote 
from  the  fruit,  or  bear   nuts  ;  as  the  walnut-tree, 
the   ha%le-nut-tree,  the  beech,   the  chcfnut,  and  the 
common  oak.     Coniferous,  or  fuch  as  bear  a  fquam- 
mous    or  fcaly  fruit,    of  a  conical   figure,  and  a 
woody    or    hard   fubflance,    in   which  are  many 
feeds  ;  which,  when  they  are  ripe,  the  cone  opens 
or  gapes  in  all  its  feveral  cells   or  partitions,  and 
lets  them  drop  out.  Of  this  kind  are  the  Scotch  firs, 
male  and  female  ;    the  pine  which  in  our  gardens 
is  called  the  Scotch  fir,  the  common  alder-tree  and 
the  birch-tree.     Bacciferous,   or  fuch    as  bear  ber- 
ries,   /.  e.  fruit  covered   with  a  thin    membrane, 
wherein  is  contained  a  pulp,  which  grows  foft,  and 
moift  when  ripe,  and  enclofes  the  feed  within  its 
fubflance,  which  trees   Mr.  Ray  divides  into  four 
kinds.      I.   Such  as   bear  a  caliculate,    or  naked 
berry  ;   tiie   flower  and  calx  both  falling  off  toge- 
ther, and  leaving  the  berry  bare,  as  the  faffafrass 
tree.      2.   Such   as  have  a   monopynereous  fruit, 
that   is,    containing  in  it  only  one  feed,    as   the 
arbutus,    terebinthus,    lent: feus,   &c.       3.  Such   as 
have  a  naked  but  polypyreneous  fruit,  that  is,  con- 
taining two  or  more  kernels  or  feeds  vvithin  it,    as 
the  jafmine,    ligujlrum,    &c.      4.    Such   as   have 
their  fruit  compofed  of  many  acini,  or  round  foft 

bails 


n   0   r  A  N  r. 


323 


balls  fet  dofe  together  like  a  bunch  of  grapes,  as 
the  uva  marina,  rubus  vulgaris,  rubufulaus  ,aii(] 
the  rubus  minor  fruifu  taruleo. 

There  are  alfo  lanigerous  trees,  or  fuch  as  bear 
a  woolly,  downy  fubftance  ;  as  the  black,  white, 
and  trembling  poplar,  willows,  and  ofiers  of  all 
kinds.  Trees  that  bear  their  feeds  (having  an  ini- 
perfeiSl  flower)  in  leafy  membranes  and  cales,  a? 
the  hornbeam,  or  hardbeam,  called  in  fome  places 
the  hornbeech.  Such  as  have  their  fruits  and  flowers 
contiguous,  which  ar<;  either  with  the  flower  placed 
on  the  top  of  the  fruit,  or  adhering  to  the  bafe  or 
bottom  of  the  fruit.  Of  the  former  kind,  fome 
are  pomiferous,  as  apples  and  pears  ;  and  fome  bac- 
.ciferous,  as  the  forb,  or  fervice-tree,  the  white,  or 
hawthorn,  the  wild  rofe,  fweet- briar,  currants, 
the  great  bilbcrry-bufh,  honey-fuckle,  ivy,  bic. 
The  latter  kind  are  either  fuch  as  have  their  fruit 
foft,  and  moill,  when  ripe;  as,  1.  Pruniferious 
ones,  whofe  fruit  is  pretty  large  and  foft,  with  a 
ftone  in  the  middle,  as  the  black-thorn,  or  floe- 
tree,  the  black  and  white  bullace-tree,  the  com- 
mon wild  cherry,  the  black  cherry,  ^c.  2.  Bae- 
ciferous  trcef,  as  the  ftrawberry-tree  in  the  weft  of 
Ireland,  mifletoe,  water  elder,  the  dwarf  or  large 
laurel,  the  viburnttm,  or  way-faring  tree,  the  dog- 
berry-tree,  the  fea  black  thorn,  the  berry-bearing 
elder,  the  privet,  barberry,  common  bramble,  and 
the  fpindlc-tree,  or  prick-wood, 

Alfo  fuch  as  have  their  fruit  dry,  when  ripe  ;  as 
the  bladder  nut  tree,  the  box-tree,  the  common 
elm,  and  afh,  the  maple,  the  g.iule,  or  fweet-wil- 
low,  common  heath  broom,  dyer's  weed,  furze, 
or  gorfe,   and  lime-tree. 

Shrubs,  are  nothing  elfe  but  little,  low  dwarf- 
trees,  or  woody  plants,  of  a  fize  lefs  than  a  tree ; 
and  which,  befides  their  principal  ftems  and  branches, 
frequently  from  the  fame  root  put  forth  fcveral  other 
confiderable  fets,  or  ftems.  Such  are  the  privet, 
phyllirea,  holly,  box,  honey-fuckle,  ds'c-.  Shrubs 
are  diftinguiftied,  by  fome,  from  fufrutices,  or  under 
Jbrubs,  which  are  low  bufhes,  that  do  not  put  forth 
in  autumn,  like  trees  and  Jhruhs,  a  kind  of  buttons, 
or  gems,  in  the  axis  of  the  leaves  ;  fuch  are  la- 
vender, rue,  fage,  i^e. 

Botanijh  divide,  likewife,  the  vegetable  world 
into  ge7iera  and  fpecies  ;  though  they  do  not  all 
agree  upon,  from  what  confideration  the  diviflon 
into  Genera  is  beft  taken.  Tournefort,  one  of  the 
lateft  and  belt  writers,  after  a  long  and  accurate 
diicuflion,  has  chofe,  in  imitation  of  Gefner  and 
Colum7ia,  to  regulate  them  by  the  flowers  and  fruit 
confidcred  together  ;  fo  that  all  phints,  which  bear 
a  refemblance  in  thofe  two  refpefts,  are  of  the  fame 
genus,  (i.  e.  that  they  all  agree  in  fome  one  com- 
mon chara£ler,  in  refpett  of  the  ftrudture  of  cer- 
16. 


tain  parts,  whereby  they  are  diftinguidied  from  all 
other  plants)  after  which,  the  refpedtive  differences, 
as  to  root,  Item,  or  leaves,  make  the  different  fpe- 
cies or  fubdivifions.  He  pretends,  contrar)' to  Mr. 
Ray's  opinion,  that  hv  has  never  hitherto  met  but 
with  fourteen  dilT'erciit  fiinires  of  flowers,  which 
are  to  regulate  entirely  the  genus  or  clafs  of  plants, 
.-'nd  which  is  all  that  is  to  bj  retained  in  the  me- 
mory, CO  be  cipab! ;  t-i  dc  fcend  to  fix  hundred  and 
fevcnty  three  genera,  which  comprehend  884.6 
fpecies  of  plant, ;  which  is  the  nu.nber  of  thofe 
yet  known  by  land  and  fea. 

Since  M,  Tournefort  is  of  opinion  that  the  dif- 
ferejit  figures  of  flowers  are  to  regulate  entirely  the 
genera,  or  clafles  of  plants  ;  it  will  not  be  impro- 
per to  examine,  in  this  place,  and  previoufly  to  the 
diftinction  of  plants  made  by  Mr.  Ray,  not  only 
thofe  different  figures  of  floweis,  but  alfo  inform 
ourfelves,  in  a  more  particular  manner  than  we  have 
done  yet,  of  the  ftrufture  of  thofe  flowers,  and  firft 
of  the  definition  of  flowers. 

Flower,  is  defined,  by  Boiamjls,  that  part  of 
a  plant  which  contains  the  organs  of  generation,  or 
the  parts  neceffary  for  the  propagation  of  the  kind. 

Doftor  Grew  divides  theyy^iwr  into  three  parts, 
which  are  the  empalem^nt,  foliation,  and  attire. 

He  calls  evipalement,  or  ealix,  the  outer  part  of 
the  flower,  that  environs  the  two  others,  which 
is  either  of  a  whole  piece,  or  continued  ;  as  in 
pinks  and  carnations  ;  or  divided  into  feveral,  as 
in  rofes.  When  divided,  it  refemblesfm.all  Leonies, 
as  it  appeals  in  the_^^t<.vr.(  of  the  quince-tree,  or 
of  primrofes.  The  ealix  oi  foivers,  is  compofed 
of  the  fame  eflential  parts  which  form  the  plant, 
y/z.  of  the  fl<in,  or  cortex,  parenchyma,  and  lig- 
neous body ;  as  is  evident  in  the  artichoke,  which  is  . 
but  a  flower,  of  which,  what  is  vulgarly  called 
the  leaves,  is  the  empahment,  or  ealix.  It  even 
appears  that  the  fkin  which  covers  thofe  leaves  is 
all  of  a  piece,  from  the  inner,  which  are  lefler,  to 
the  outer  leaver,  which  arc  the  greater  ;  ih  that 
what  we  take  to  be  different  leaves,  is  only  the 
fame  empalement,  or  ealix,  which  has  leveral  plits. 

The  ufe  of  the  ealix  is,  to  fupport  and  cover  the 
other  parts  of  the  flowers ;  it  covers  them  while 
thev  are  yet  in  buds,  and  thereby  defends  thein 
agalnft  the  injuries  of  an  exceflive  cold,  or  of  an 
extreme  heat  ;  and  fupports  them  in  fuch  a  man- 
ner, as  to  keep  them  always  in  the  moif  advanta- 
geous fituation.  It  is  for  this  reafon  that  W/V«,  are 
different,  or  more  or  lefs  ftrong,  according  to  the 
diverfity  of  flowers.  There  are  fome  flowers,  which 
have  no  calix,  as  tulips  •,  becaufe  their  leaves  being 
thick  and  ftrong,  and  each  refting  on  its  proper 
bafis,  they  want  no  calix  for  their  fupport.  On  the 
T  t  contrary. 


11)6  Univerfal  Hiftbry  of  Arts  and  Scie.nces. 


324 

contrary,  carnations  and  pinks  have  a  m//';?,  which, 
to  be  ftronger,,  is  all  of  a  piece  ;  otherwife  their 
leaves,  whofc  foot  is  very  long  and  Aim,  would  part 
from  (^cli  other,  and  deviate  from  their  natural 
fituation,  or  place.  This  cdix  is  dentaied  ar-toj), 
that  it  may  the  eafier  fhut  and  cover  the  leaves, 
while  yet  too  tender  ;  and  afterwards  open,  and 
fpread  itfelf  a  little  under  the  fame  leaves,  to  fup- 
port  them,  when  the  flower  is  entirely  blown. 
Laftly,  There  are  flowers,  whofc  leaves  being  very 
long,  and  very  tender,  have  calica  compos'd  of  fe- 
vctal  pieces,  the  one  placed  above  the  other,  al- 
mod  like  the  fcales  of  a  filh,  being  thereby  more 
proper  to  fupport  and  preferve  thofe  flowers  ;  as  is 
plainly  feen  mjacees,  and  other  like  flowers. 

The  leaves  of  the  flower  are  alfo  compofed  of 
the  fame  elTential  parts  with  the  green  leaves  ;  for 
their  membranes,  pulps,  and  fibres,  are  nothing 
elfe  but  the  fkiii,  purenchyma,  and  ligneous  body, 
which  have  fpread  to  form  them. 

Mr.  Ray  divides  Jloivers  into  perfect  and  Imper- 
fefl,  and  fubdivides  the /itr/tJ?  (which,  in  his  opi- 
nion, are  all  thofe  which  have  the  petala,  though 
they  want  theftamina)  into  Jimple  and  compound. 
The  ftmple  are  thofe  which  are  not  compofed  of 
other  fmall  ones,  and,  ufually,  have  but  one  fingle 
ftyle  ;  and  the  compound  have  many  fofculi,  all 
making  but  one_^awcr. 

Singh  flozvers  are  either  monopetalous,  ox  polypcta- 
lous.  The  monopetalous  have  the  body  of  the 
flower  all  of  an  entire  leaf,  though  fometimes  cut, 
or  divided  a  little  way,  into  many  feeming  pe- 
tala s,  *  or  leaves  ;  as  in  burrage,  buglofs,  tSc. 
The  polypetalo-us  are  thofe  which  have  diflinft  pe- 
tala, and  thofe  billing  ofF  fingly,  and  not  altoge- 
ther ;  as  the  feeming  petala  of  the  monopetalous 
flowers  always  do. 

Both  thefe  are  further  divided  into  uniform  and 
d'ljf arm  flowers.  The  uniform  have  their  right  and 
left  hand  parts,  and  the  forward  and  backward  parts, 
all  alike.  But  the  difform  have  no  fuch  regularity ; 
as  in  'C'o.t  flowers  of  fage,  dead  nettle,    ^c. 

Monopetalous  difform  flowers  are,  likewife,  fur- 
ther divided  mxojemi-fiftular,  labiate,  and  cornicu- 
l(ite  flowers.  The  femi  fiftnlar  floivcrs  are  thofe 
whofe  upper  parts  refemble  a  pipe  cut  off  oblique- 
ly ;  as  in  the  ariftolochia.  T'he  labiate,  thofe  either 
with  one  lip  only,  as  in  the  acanthium  undfcoi-dium; 
or  with  two  lips,  as  in  the  far  greater  part  of  the 
labiate  flowers.  And  here  the  upper  lip  is  fometimes 
turned  upwards,  and  fo  turns  the  convex  part  down- 
ward ;  as  in  the  chameeciffuSy  &c.  but  moil  ufually 
the  upper  lip  is  convex  above,  and  turns  the  hol- 


low part  down  to  its  fellow  below,  and  fo  rcpre- 
fents  a  kind  ot  helmet,  or  monk's  hood  ;  fuch  are 
the  flowers  of  the  lamium,  and  molt  vcrticiltate 
plants.  Sometimes,  alfo,  the  labium  is  entire  ;  and 
fometimes  jagged  and  divided.  The  corniiulate  are 
thofe  hoWovi  fl'jwers,  which  have  on  their  upper 
part  a  kind  of  fpur,  or  little  horn  ;  as  in  the  //- 
naria,  Delphinum,  &c.  and  the  corniculum,  or  calcar, 
is  always  impervious  at  the  tip,  or  point. 

Compound flotuers,  are  either  difcous,  planifoUoui, 
or  fiflular.  The  difcous,  or  dfoidal,  are  thofe 
whofc  flofculi  are  fet  together  fo  clofe,  thick,  and 
even,  as  to  make  the  furfacc  of  the  floiuer  plain 
and  flat  ;  which  therefore,  becaufe  of  its  round 
form,  will  be  like  a  difcus,  which  is  fometimes  ra- 
diated, when  there  is  a  row  of  petala  ftanding 
round  in  the  diflc,  like  the  points  of  a  Itar  ;  as  ir^ 
the  matricarla,  chamamelum.  Sec.  and  fometimes 
naked,  having  no  fuch  radiating  leaves  round  the 
limb  of  its  difk  ;  as  in  the  tanacetum.  The  plant - 
folious  are  thofe  compofed  of  ^\3.\n  flowers,  fet  to- 
gether in  ci.''cidar  rows  round  the  center,  and  whofe 
face  is  ufually  indented,  notched,  uneven,  and" 
jagged  ;  as  the  hierachia,  fonchi,  &c.  The  flf- 
tular  are  thofe,  which  are  compofed  of  many  long 
hollow,  little  flowers,  like  pipes,  all  divided  into 
large  jags  at  the  ends. 

lniperfe£l  flowers  are  fuch  as  want  the  petalOy 
and  are  called,  Viktwlfe,  fla?nineotis,  apetalous,  and 
capillaceous  flowers.  Tonrmfort  calls  amentacious 
thok flowers  which hangpenduloufly  by  fine  threads, 
like  the  juli  ;   we  call  them  cat's-tails. 

The  other  divifions  of  flowers  are  into  cajnpani- 
form,  cruciform,  infundi hull  form,  cucurbitaceous,Jia- 
mineous,  leguminous,  papilionaceous,  umbelliform,  and 
verticallate  flowers.  1  he  campaniform  are  thofe  in 
fhape  of  a  bell.  Cruciform,  thofe  confifting  of 
four  petala,  or  leaves-,  the  calix,  alfo,  containing 
four  leaves ;  and  the  piftil  always  producing  a  fruit : 
fuch  as  thofe  of  the  clove- tree,  cabbage  tree,  l^c- 
Infimdibiiliform,  are  fuch  as  refemble  the  figure  of 
a  funnel,  i.  e.  are  broad  and  ample  a-top,  and  con- 
traiSled  into  a  neck  at  bottom  :  fuch  is  that  of  the 
auricula.  Cucurbitaceous  are  fuch  as  refemble  the 
floiver  of  the  gourd,  or  have  the  fame  conformation 
therewith.  Stamineous  are  fuch  as  have  no  petala, 
but  confift  wholly  of  flamina  or  threads,  with  api- 
ces a  top.  The  leaves  placed  round  the  Jlamina, 
are  not  to  be  efteemed  as  petala,  but  a  calix,  in  re- 
gard they  afterwards  become  a  capfula,  or  cover, 
including  the  feed  ;  which  is  the  office  of  the  calix 
alone.  The  leguminoi:s  are  thofe  of  leguminous 
plants ;  they  bear  fome  reiemblance  to  a  flying  but- 
terfly ^ 


•  Petala  are  the  coloured  leaves  of  a  Jloivcr. 


I 


M    0     T     A     N    r. 


325 


terfly ;  for  which  reafon  they  are  alfo  called  papl- 
lionaceousy  which  confift  of  four  or  five  leaves, 
whereof  the  uppernioft  is  called  vexillum,  or  ftand- 
ard  ;  and  the  lowed  carina,  as  refembling  the  bot- 
tom, or  keel  of  a  boat.  Thofe  between  the  two 
are  called  lateral  leaves,  or  alee  ;  from  the  bottom 
of  the  cali:v  arifes  a  piftil,  which  is  cncompafl'ed 
with  a  fheath,  or  cover,  fringed  with  Jiamina  ; 
this  piftil  always  becomes  the  fruit,  and  is  ufually 
called  the  pod,  in  Latin  fiUqua.  Umbelliform,  are 
thofe  with  feveral  leaves  double,  and  difpofed  in 
manner  of  a  rofe,  and  whofe  calix  effentially  be- 
comes a  fruit  of  two  feeds.,  joined  before  they  come 
to  maturity  ;  but  afterwards  eafily  feparated  again. 
They  are  thus  called,  becaufe  they  are  ufually 
fuftained  by  a  number  of  threads,  which  proceeding 
from  the  fame  center,  are  branched  all  round  like 
the  (Kcks  of  an  umbrella ;  of  thia  kind  ale  (he 
f.Qwers  of  fennel,  angelica,  &c.  And  the  verticil- 
late  are  thofe  ranged,  as  it  were,  in  ftorics,  rin^;s, 
or  rays,  along  the  ftems  ;  fuch  are  thofe  of  the 
horehound,  clary,  ^c. 

From  the  powers  we'll  pafs  to  the  frfiits,  Tvhieh 
are  compofed  of  the  fame  eflential  parts  defcribed 
already  in  the  other  parts  of  the  plants  ;  that  is  to 
fay,  of  the  fkins,  or  membranes  ;  of  the  pulps,  or 
parenchyma  ;  and  of  the  fibres,  or  ligneous  body. 
The  moft  common,  and  principal,  to  which  all 
others  might  be  reduced  are  apples,  pears,  prunes, 
and  blackberries. 

Apples  are  compofed  of  four  parts,  which  arc 
the /kin,  the  pulp,  the  fibres,  and  the  capfi^hs,  which 
contain  the  feed.  'I  he  fkin  is  a  continuation 
of  that  of  the  branch  extended  as  far  as  the  fruit. 
The  pulp  is  likcwife  nothing  but  the  parenchyma  of 
the  tree,  which  extends  itfelf  and  fwells,  which 
appears  manifeftly,  when  we  examine  an  apple, 
yet  very  fmall,  and  newly  fonred  ;  and  that  pulp, 
hard,  and  of  a  coarfe  juice,  at  firft,  becomes,  in 
procefs  of  time,  tender,  delicate,  and  grateful  to  the 
tafte,  the  fame  as  the  marrow,  which  ii-  commonly 
pretty  hard,  and  of  an  acerb  tafte,  becomes  tender 
and  fweet  in  fome  roots,  as  In  parihips,  turnips, 
carrots,  and  others. 

T  he  fibres  are  but  the  ramifications  of  the  ligneous 
body,  which  penetrate  the  parenchyma,  and  whofe 
bigger  joins  together,  as  in  the  haves,  by  the  inter- 
woving  of  the  fmaller.  There  are  commonly  in 
apples  fifteen  large  fibres,  ten  of  which  are  diftri- 
buted  throughout  the  whole  fubftance  of  the  pulp, 
and  at  Jaft  join  together  towards  the  umhillic,  or 
the  eye  of  the  apple  ;  and  the  five  others  pafs  in  a 
right  line  through  the  pedicle,  as  far  as  the  faid  eye 
of  the  apple,  where  meeting  with  the  firft  ten, 
they  mix,    and  ujvite  with  them  :    thefe  laft  five 


have  their  origin  from  a  fingle  one,  which  having 
extended  itfelf  all  along  the  cmter  of  the  pedicle, 
and  even  in  one  Y)art  of  the  pulp,  is  divided,  at 
laft,  into  five  branches,  to  which  are  tyed  the 
kernels  of  the  apple.  Therefore  thoigh  originally 
thofe  fibres  crofs  in  a  right  line  the  whole  pulp  of 
the  fruit,  and  penetrate  as  far  as  to  the  fiozvcr,  to 
which  they  carry  the  fap  v.'hich  makes  it  grow  ; 
nevertheiefs,  in  procefs  of  time,  the  fruit,  which 
grows  biwer,  drawing  to  itfelf  all  the  juice  which 
pafles  in  thofe  fibres,  the  flnver  withers,  a:;d  falls, 
and  thofe  five  fibres  arc  no  longer  of  ufe,  but  to  the 
fruit.  Whence  it  may  be  concluded,  that  of  the 
fifteen  large  fibres  difcerniblc  in  the  apple,  ten 
ferve  to  carry  the  fap  into  the  pwlp,  o^  parenchyma  ; 
and  five  are  deftincd  for  the  nutrition  of  the  icriici 
ox:  feed. 

The  cspfula  proceeds  from  the  marrow  ;  for  as 
foon  as  the  pulp   begins  to  grow  big,  the  juice, ' 
finding  room  enough,  enters  into  it,  and  quits  the 
marrow,     which    withers,     and    thus    forms    the 
■capfula. 

Pears  are  compofed  of  five  parts,  which  are  the 
(kin,  or  cortex,  parenchyma,  ramification,  ftone, 
and  acetarimn.  'J  he  three  firft  are  very  near  like 
thofe  oi  apples,  with  this  fingle  difference,  that  the 
fibres,  which  run  in  a  right  line  in  the  pear,  and 
ferve  for  the  nutrition  of  the  kernels,  are  in  greater 
number  ;  for  commonly  there  are  found  ten. 

The  Stone  obferv'd  chiefly  in  choaky  pears,  is 
not  an  eflential  and  vital  part  like  the  others,  but 
is  onlv  a  congeries  of  ftony  corpufcles,  difpers'J 
throughout  all  the  whole  parenchyma,  but  in  the 
greateft  plenty,  and  clofeft  together,  about  the  cen- 
ter, or  acta'-ium.  It  is  form'd  of  the  ftony,  or 
calculous  parts  of  the  nutritious  juice  of  the  pa- 
renchy?na  cxtravafated  in  mafles. 

Ths  Acetariwn  is  a  fubftance  of  a  tart,  acid 
tafte,  of  a  globular  figure,  inclos'd  in  an  aftem- 
blage  of  feveral  of  the  ftony  parts  above-mention'd. 
'Tis  of  the  fame  fubftance  with  the  pannchyma 
and  the  marrow,  though  'tis  almoft  impofllble  to 
determine  from  which  of  thofe  two  parts  it  pro- 
ceeds immediately. 

As  for  the  origin  of  the fione,  the  various  ftony 
corpufcles  'tis  compos'd  of  are  nothing  elfe  but 
icveral  parts  of  the  juice,  indurated,  and  coagu- 
lated, by  precipitation,  like  thofe  we  fee  often  in 
the  fedi'v.en!  of  uriv.",  in  vuine-cofis.  Sic. 

In  the  plumb,  cherry,  iz'c.  there  are  four  parts, 
viz.  a  coz.t,  parenchyma,  ramification,  and  ftdne,. 
01*  nucleus.  The  coat,  parenchyma,  z^nd  fibres,  have 
tl^e  fame  origin,  and  arc  form'd  in  the  fame  man- 
ner, as  in  apples  and  pears;  but  the  fibres  have  a 
dift^erent  difpofition.  There  are  in  all  forts  of 
plumbs  five  hrgefibns  extended  over  the  furface  of-  " 
T  t  2  the 


^6 


The  Univcrfal  Hifiory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


the  ftonc,  fioin  the  bafc  to  thf  point ;  four  on  one 
fule,  and  one  on  t!ie  other.  'I'he  fame  number  is 
found  in  apricots,  with  this  diflercnce,  that  the 
ftire  which  is  fmglc  on  one  fide,  is  not  extended 
on  the  furface  of  the  (tone  as  in  plumbs,  but  pene- 
trate into  the  ftone.  On  the  other  fide  there  are 
lilccwife  lound  between  the  four  large  ^/^rn  hereto 
fore  mi  ntion'd,  two  or  three  fmall  fibres,  v.'hi  h, 
after  having,  like  the  others,  a  little  extended  them- 
felves  on  the  furface  of  the  ftonc,  penetrate  into 
the  puip,  and  are  difpcrs'd  therein.  Laftly,  there 
are  in  all  the  parts  of  peaches  a  very  great  number 
of  thele  fmall  fibres. 

But  notwithltanding  the  different  difpofition  of 
thefe/'ir«,  obferv'd  in  the/rai>j  here  mention'd, 
that  which  is  fingle  is  difpos'd  in  the  fame  manner 
in  all,  /'.  e   that  it  enters  the  ftone,  at  the  bafe,  and 


and  coagulations,  which  gather  round  it,  fuffcrs  fuch 
alteration,  as  to  become  dry  and  hard  ;  (b  that  it 
is  impoffible  to  diftinguifh  it  from  thofe  parts,  which 
are  c  agulated. 

The  nut,  analogous  to  which  is  the  acorn,  con- 
fifts  of  a  (hell,  cortex,  and  medulla.  The  Shcl! 
confids  of  a  coat  and  parenchyma,  deriv'd  from  the 
baric  and  wood  of  the  tree.  The  cortex  is  alfo  a 
body  compos'd  of  feveral  different  fubftances;  its 
furface  is  a  duplicature  of  the  inner  tunick  of  the 
(hell,  which,  towards  the  bafe,  folds  itfelf,  and  ex- 
tends on  the  tort  ex,  which  it  covers  almoft  en- 
tirely ;  of  which  we  are  eafdy  convinc'd,  when  we 
examine  it.  For  we  (ee  then  that  the  bafe  of  the 
cortex  is  continu'd  with  the  parenchyma  of  the  coat, 
from  which  it  is  not  feparated  by  the  (kin.  Whence 
it   enfues,  that  the  fuperficial  part,   which  covers 


after  it  has  extended  itfelf  in  the  very  fubltance  of  •  almoft  the  whole  cortex,  and  which   ts  but  a  con 
the  ftone,  it  enters  the  middle  cavity,  through  the 
point,  where  the  kernel  is  fufpended  by  its  enve- 
lope. 

The  ftone  Is  a  compos'd  body,  though  at  firft  it  is  not  a  parend yma  femblable  to  the  coat,  but  mix'd 
appears  fimple.  Its  inner  part  is  the  thinneft,  and  ,  with  feveral  precipitated  and  coagulated  parts;  as 
is  alfo  whiter,  denfer,  and  more  polifh'd  than  the  '  in  the  floncs  I  have  defcrib'd  already,  and  are  even 


tmuation  of  the  (kin  of  the  coat,  is  not   found  ir» 

the  bafe,  whereby  the  cortex  and  coat  are  join'd. 

I  The  inner  part  of  t\\e  cortex,  wr.ich  is  the  thickeft. 


reft.  It  derives  from  the  medulla,  and  the  manner  ' 
'tis  form'd  is  \'ery  curious,  but  not  ealily  oblcrvd.  ] 
For  as  the  fib'  e  of  the  feed  does  not  penetrate  it 
diredly  through  the  bafe,  but  only  through  the 
point,  it  carries  along  with  it  a  confiderable  part 
of  the  medulla,  which  gathers  round  it,  and  forms 
a  kind  of  parenchyma ;  i'o  that  penetrating  into  the 
cavity  of  the  (tone  through  the  point,  that  medulla, 
ov  parenchyma,  which  furrounds  it,  enters  likewife, 
and  being  there  coagulated  forms  in  the  whole  ex- 
tent of  that  cavity  a  kind,  of  white  lining,  hard, 
and  poli(h'd. 

The  external  part  of  the  ftone,  which  is  the 
thickeft,  is  compos'd  of  feveral  parts,  which  are 
precipitated  and  coagulated,  as  in  pears  ;  with  this 
difference  only,that  in  plumbs,  and  oi\\ci(uc\\fruits, 
the  precipitated  parts  are  ftill  nearer  to  one  ano- 
ther, and  are  not  only  contiguous,  but  form,  like- 
wife,  a  cor.ti:i:/d  ftone,  and  all  of  a  piece.  It  is 
fo  very  true  that  x\\cj1ont-s  are  formd  thus,  that  even 
in  pears  the  /'»;•«■  is  the  fame,  efpccially  toward  the 
eye  of  the  pe^.r  -,  and  it  is  alfo  in  the  fame  manner 
that  in  animals  fome  parts  of  the  urine,  which  are 
precipitated,  form  a  gravel,  and  afterwards  ftones. 
But  we  muft  obferve,  that  as  in  the  ftones  of  pears 
there  is  3  parenchyma  mix'd  v/ich  the  ftoiiy  corpuf- 
clcs  ;  there  is  one,  Jikewilb,  in  the  ftones  of  plumbs, 
mix'd  with  the  precipitated  and  coagulated  parts. 
Tistrue,  that  the  ftone  being  formd,  thofe  pan.' 
are  not  fo  eafily  diftingui(hd  ;  but,  notwithftand 
ing,  the  foundation  of  all  ftones  is  nothing  el(e  but 
a  perfect  parenchymr,,  which  by  thofe  precipitations 


intermixed  with  feveral ^inj,  or  branches  ol  the 
ligneous  body  ;  with  this  difference,  that  in  the  cor- 
tex the  external  fibres,  which  are  not  appointed  to 
nourifh  the  feed  or  kernel,  are  in  a  confiderable 
number,  coming  from  the  parenchymn  of  the  coat^ 
to  enter  into  the  cortex  through  the  bafe,  are  fepa- 
rated in  round  like  the  threads  of  a  puff,  and  thus 
extend  themfelvcs  on  the  circumference  of  the  cor- 
tex, as  far  as  the  point,  between  the  fkin  and  the 
inner  part  of  that  cortex,  which  is  nothing  elfe  but 
a  coagulated  parenchyma.  As  for  the  inner  fibre, 
which  ferves  to  nourifh  the  feed,  tis  always  fingle, 
and  coming  from  the  coat  between  the  two  others, 
it  enters  through  the  bafe  of  the  cortex,  and  is  not 
extended  in  the  body  of  that  cortex,  as  in  the  body 
of  the  ftones  of  plumbs,  to  go  and  unire  iifelf  to 
the  kernel  hy  the  point,  but  paffes  direftly  through 
the  center  of  the  bafe,  into  the  medulla,  which  it 
penetrates  and  runs  throughout  its  whole  length, 
as  far  as  the  point  of  the  c-^rtex,  to  which  the  (kin 
of  the  kernel,  or  feed,  adheres.  But  whether  the 
medulla,  or  pulp  of  the  kernel,  arifes  from  the  pith 
of  the  tree,  or  the  cortical  part  of  the  fruit,  is 
not  agreed. 

Benie-,  as  Grapes,  &c.  are  compos'd  of  threi? 
parts,  befides  grains  of  a  ftony  nature,  viz.  the 
coat,  parenchyma,  a.nd  fibres. 

The  origin  of  the  coat  is  the  fame,  as  in  the 
other  fruits  heretofore  mention'd  ;  but  there  are 
found  in  thefc,  two  forts  of  parenchyma  :  the  firft, 
call'd  external  parenchyma,  is  adherent  to  the  coat ; 
and  as  it  is  of  an  extreme  acidity,  'tis  commonly 

fpit 


B   0   r  A  N  r. 


327 


fpit  out,  when  thofe  fj-t4iti  are  eaten.  It  derives 
from  the  parenchyma  of  the  cortex  of  the  branch  : 
and  the  pores  of  both,  as  well  as  of  the  meduHa, 
arc  vifibly  difpos'd  in  the  fame  manner.  1  he  other, 
call'd  the  inner  parenchyma,  is  that  which  is  com- 
monly eaten  ;  its  tufte  is  fo  grateful,  and  itfelf  fo 
tender  and  delicate,  that  it  feems  but  as  a  thiclcen'd 
juice,  though  it  be  a  true  parenchyma,  whofe  pores 
are  very  laigc,  and  full  of  liquor,  like  thofe  of 
oranges  and  lemons. 

1  here  are  alfoin  thcfe  fruits,  like  in  the  others, 
two  forts  of  fibres.  The  external  ones  are  extended 
in  curve  lines,  between  the  coat  and  external  pa- 
renchyma, from  the  pedicle  to  the  bafe  of  the 
flower  ;  and  though  they  be  not  always  in  the  fame 
number  towards  the  pedicle ;  however,  there  are 
ten  found  towards  the  bafe  of  the  flower;  five  of 
which  ferve  to  the  five  leaves  of  the  flower,  and  the 
five  others  to  the  leaves  of  the  calyx.  As  for  the 
inner  fibres  two  are  commonly  found  diametrically 
oppofite  to  each  other,  which,  towards  the  bafe  of 
the  flower,  are  mixed  with  thofe  already  menti- 
oned, and  being  divided  afterwards  into  feveral 
fmaller,  each  of  thefe  fmall  fibres  has  a  grain  tied 
to  it,  into  whofe  coat  it  enters  by  two  filaments, 
one  whereof  aniwers  to  the  bafe,  and  the  other 
to  the  point  of  the  grain.  "Thokfibrei  are  all  white 
and  big  enough  for  us  to  fee  eafily ;  when  cut  ob- 
liquely, they  are  hollow,  and  true  fpermatick  veflels, 
fincc  they  have  very  near  the  fame  figure,  and  the 
lame  ufe  as  thofe  of  animaJs. 

From  \^z  flowers,  and  fruits  of  plants,  I'll  pro 
ceed  to  the  diftribution  of  plants  by  JVIr.  Ray,  into 
twenty-five  genera,  or  clafies,  under  the  following 
denominations  (fee  the  Plate  of  Botany.) 

The  firll  clafs  contains  imperfecf  plants,  fuch  as 
appear  to  want  the  fl:)wer  and  feed,  as  corals, 
fponges,  trvjfles,  mofis.  The  fecond  produce  plants 
of  an  imperfeft  flower,  and  whofe  feed  is  too 
fmall  to  be  difcerned  by  the  naked  eye ;  fuch  are 
f.rn,  polypody,  ^c.  The  3d,  thofe  whofe  flowers 
want  petala,  as  hops,  hemp,  nettles,  docks,  &c. 
^.th,  Thofe  with  a  compound  flower,  and  which 
emit  a  milky  juice,  when  cut,  or  broke,  as  lettuce, 
dandelion,  fuccory^  &c.  5th,  Thofe  of  a  compound 


flower  of  a  difcous  form,  and  whofe  feed  is  winged  * 
with  down,  as  coltsfoot,  flea-bane,  &c.  The  6th 
contains  herba  capitaLc,  or  thofe  whofe  flower  is 
compofed  of  long  fiflulous  flowcis  gathered  into 
a  round  head,  and  covered  with  a  fcaly  coat,  as  the 
thiflle,  great  burdock.  Hue  bofle,  &c.  7th,  Coiym- 
byfcrous  f  plants,  with  a  difcous  flower,  but  no 
down,  as  the  daify,  yarrow,  corn-marygold.  Sic. 
The  8th  contains  plants  with  a  peifed  flower, 
but  only  one  feed  to  each  flower,  as  valerian,  agri- 
mony, brunet,  &c.  9th,  XJmbellferovs,  or  thofe  of 
five  petala,  (pread  out  like  an  umbrella,  and  two 
feeds  to  each  flower.  This  is  a  very  large  genus  of 
plants,  which  are  diftinguiflied  by  the  fame  author 
into  feven  fpecies,  w'z.  thofe  with  a  broad  fiat  feed, 
like  a  leaf,  as  wilil  garden  parfiiips ;  with  a  longifh 
and  larger  feed  fwclling  in  the  middle,  as  coiv-iveed, 
znA  wild  chervil;  with  a  fliorter  feed,  as  angelica i 
with  the  twh^xous  root,  as  the  earth  nut;  with  a 
fmall  AiMtfced,  as  caraways,  faxifrage,  and  bru- 
net; with  a  rough  \\2\ry  feed,  zs  parfy  zni  wild 
carrot  ;  with  entire  leaves  fubdivided  intoy^^x,  as 
■  fanicle,  and  thorough-wax.  The  loih  contains 
Jlellate  plants,  whofe  leaves  grow  round  the  ftalks- 
at  certain  intervals  in  form  of  ftars,  as  mug-  weed, 
wild  madder,  crofs-wort,  mollugo.,  afperula,  or  ivood- 
'  ^'ffi  goll'wn,  or  ladies  led  flraw,  aparine,  or 
cleaver  it  rubia  tinSiorum,  or  dyer's  madder;  to 
which  may  be  added,  as  a-kin  to  this  genus,  the 
nafiurtium  indicum,  Indian  crefs,  or  yelloiu  lar'k- 
fpur.  The  nth,  rough- leav'd  plants,  which  have 
their  leaves  placed  alternately,  or  in  no  certain 
order  along  the  (talks,  as  hound' s-tongtie,  moufc-ear. 
Sic.  1 2th,  Sufl'iutices.,  or  verticellatc  [iWnts,  whofe 
leaves  grow  by  pairs  on  their  flalks,  one  leaf  right 
againft  another,  the  flower  being  monopetalous, 
and  ufually  in  form  of  a  helmet.  I'he  fame  author 
makes  two  fpecies  of  thefe  vertic'.llote  plants,  i .  The 
fruliicofee,  of  iuch  whofe  fuperhcies  is  perennial  ;- 
thcfe  again  have  eitiier  a  |)lain  flower,  as  the  cha- 
n'.irdrys  v-dgnris,  thucrium,  and  the  viarum  fyria- 
curn,  or  a  flower  with  a  lip,  called  labuited  power  ; 
or  one  fomething  in  the  form  of  a  helmet,  called 
galeated,  as  the facraftacbos,  hyjfpus,  lofmarinui^ 
fatureia,  marum  vulgare.,  th\mum  vulgar e,  and  the 
polium  montanum.   1.  The  herbaccis,  or  fuch  whofe. 


*  Winged  feed  are  fnch  as  have  down  or  hairs  on  them,  whereby  tlie  wind  taking  hold,  blows  thrm  to  a 
di  (lance. 

-f-  Corymbus,  among  the  antient  hotanijls,  was  particularly  ufed  to  exprefs  the  banctiei,  or  cluflers  of  ivy- 
berries.  Some  alfo  call  the  top  of  the  ftalk  of  a  plant,  when  fo  fubdivided,  and  adorned  with  flowers,  or 
fruits,  as  to  make  a  round  fphcrical  figure,  by  this  name  ;  as  the  tops  of  L-eks,  onions,  and  the  like;  and  others 
confound  the  word  with  umbrella,  which  expreffes  the  flowery  tops  of  Iuch  plants  as  have  their  branches  and 
flowers  fprea-i  round,  into  the  form  of  an  umbrella.  Bat  among  the  nindern  hotumfis,  corymbus  is  chiefly  ufed  for  a 
compound  difcous  flower,  whofe  feeds  are  not  pappous,  /.  e.  d)  not  fly  away  in  dci»n,  nor  blown  any  where 
about  with  the  wind. 

flalks, 


328 


The  Universal  Hiftory  c/  Arts  and  Sciences, 


ftalks  are  not  perennial  j  thefe  are  the  menthie,  ver- 
bena, diiianvius,  creticus,  origanum,  majorana,  oci- 
murn,  borm'iman  galcopfis,  nepeta,  bcto/uca,  prunella, 
JlachySy  cUmpodium  vzilg'are,  lamium,  moluc  a,  hedra 
ierre/ir'u,  gaUrhulala,  calaminiha,  melijpi,  mar- 
7'ubium  commute,  nigrum,  (J  aquaticum,  chamitpitys, 
fcarodonia,  jcordium,  hu-ula,  fyderitis,  cardiaca. 

The  13th  contains  the  polyfpermous  plants,  which 
are  thofe,  which  have  more  than  four  feeds  fucceed- 
ing  each  flower,  without  any  certain  order  or  num- 
ber.    Ihefe  are  aho  fubdiridcd  into. 

1 .  Such  as  have  a  calyx  or  perianthium,  confift- 
ing  either,  firfl:  of  three  leaves,  and  the  flower 
tripeiahus,  as  plantana  aquatica,  and  the  fagittaria, 
both  water-plants,  or  the  Rower  po.'ypetafous,  and 
theca/jx  falling  with  it,  as  t\\c  chelidotiiurn  minus; 
or.  remaining  after  the  flower  is  dropped,  as  in  the 
hepatica  tnobilis.  Secondly,  Of  five  leaves,  in  fome 
deciduous  with  the  flower,  as  in  the  ranunctdus  ; 
m  others  perennial,  as  in  the  htlkborus  nigcr  feru- 
laceus ;  or  annual,  as  in  the^s;  adonis.  Thirdly, 
of  eight  leaves,  as  the  wrt/wa  and  i7/«^.  Fourthly, 
of  ten  leaves,,  as  the  caryophyllay^fragaria,  pcnta- 
phyllum,  tormcntilla,  argcntina,  altbaa,  asvi  penta- 
phylloidt'. 

2.  Such  as  have  no  calyx,  or  prerianthium,  as  the 
eh'matitis,  ji'.ipcndula,  ulmsria,  cnemone-nemorum, 
pulfatilla,  &CC. 

la  the  fourteenth,  are  the  bacciferous  plants,  or 
fiich  as  bear  berries,  as  briony,  hone\-fuckie,  folomon- 
fealf  lily  of  the-  vidley,  n'-gbtjbadc,  afparciius.  Sec. 
The  15th  contains  the  multijliiquous,  or  corniculate 
plants,  which  after  each  flower,  produce  fevcral 
long,  {leader /:liquiS,  or  cafes,  wherein  their  feed 
is  contained,  as  orpine,  navel-wort,  hears-fo.t,  co- 
lumbines, &c.  The  1 6th,  vafculiferous  plants,  with 
a  monopctalous  flower,  and  which  after  each  flower 
have  a  veflel  bendes  the  calyx,  containing  the  feed  ; 
which  is  fometimes  divided  into  cells.  They  have 
iheir  menopetalous  Jlower,  either  uniform,  or  difform. 
The  former  have  all  their  feeds  divided,  i.  Into 
two  partitions,  as  the  hyofcycimus,  incotiana,  pria- 
peia.^  and  the  gentians.  2.  Into  three  partitions, 
as  the  convolvUiUi,  fpeculum  veneris,  irachelium,  re- 
ptinculus,  or  campanula,  rtp-.mculus  coruiculatus, 
&c.  3.  Into  four  partitions,  as  the  Jlrcmonium. 
Thofe  of  the  latter  kind,  which  have  a  difForm 
nienopotalous  flower,  as  the  Imaria  pinguicuii,  an- 
tirrhinum, ari/hlochia,  Jcrophu'aria,  digitalis,  pedl- 
cularis^  tiiiiampx'um,'  ejipkrajii!.  Sic.  Mr.  Ray 
makes  three  clafTes  of  this  vafculiferous  plants, 
wliich  I  have  reduced  here  into  one;  and  therefore 
proceed  to  the  20th,  which  contains  the  leguminous 
plants,  ox  fuch  as  bear  pulfe,  with  a  papilionaceous 
flower,  confiftiiig  of  four  parts,  joined  at  the  edges, 
as  pcafc,  beans,  vetches.,  tariSy,lenUl,  liquorice,  trefoil. 
Sec.     1  he  21  ft,  plants  with  a  true  bulbous  root,  as 


garlici,  daffodil,  hyacinth,  faffron,  &C.  The  22 
thofe  whofe  roots  approached  nearly  to  the  bulbous 
form,  zsfiozver-de-Us,cnck(,w-pint,  bajlard  hellebore^ 
&c.  The  23d,  culmifercus  plants,  with  a  grafly 
leaf,  and  an  imperfea:  flower,  having  a  fmooth, 
hollow -jointed'  ftalk,  with  a  long,  fliarp-pointed 
leaf  at  each  joint,  and  the  feeds  contained  in  a 
chaff^y  hufk,  as  w!  eat,  barle;,  rye,  oats,  and  mod 
kinds  of  grafs.  The  24th,  plants  with  a  grafly 
leaf,  but  not  culmiferous,  with  an  imperfc(5l  or 
ftamirieous  flower,  as  rufties,  cats-tad,  5fc.  And 
in  the  25rh  are  contained  plants,  whofe  place  of. 
growth  is  uncertain,  chiefly  water-plaits,  as  the 
water-lily,  milk-ivort,  moufe-tail,  &c. 

Before  we  attempt  to   enumerate,   to  make-  the 
analyfis,    and   difcover  the   virtues  of  the   plants, 
contained   in  the   feveral   clafles,  or  ^ev/e-ra  above- . 
mentioned,   which  M.  Tournefort  reduces  to  four-,, 
teen,   as   lefs   burthcnfome   to  the  memory,    it  is  ^ 
proper  to  define  certain  terms,  which  are  to  be  ufed 
in  the  fequel,  and  inform  the  reader  of  the  rule  ob- 
ferved  in  the  difcovery  of  thefe  feveral  things. 

By  the  chemical  analyfis  of  plaiits  is  underftood, 
the  feparation  of  their  principles,  by  fire  and  con- 
venient veflels,  to  effe(5t  which,  frefli  plants  are 
diflilled  in  alembicks,  in  balnea  rnaria  \  or  elfe  "be- 
fore they  are  diflilled,  they  are  put  into  fermen- 
tation or  digeftion  for  fome  time,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  plants,  and  the  defigns  of  the  artift. 
1  he  fubftances  extradled  from  them  are  to  be  di- 
vided into  portions,  of  five  or  fix  ounces  each. 
That  their  refpeilivd  ctiara6ler  may  be  examined 
feparately  ;  by  that  means  are  extrafted  their 
flegma,  fpirituous  water,  or  ardent  fpirit  of  plants. 
When  the  diftillation  is  ended,  the  grounds  left 
are  put  into  a  cornue,  whence  by  a  graduate  fire, 
are  extradled  from  almoft  all  plants  an  urinous 
fpirit,  a  concrete  volatile  fait,  and  a  fatid  oil. 
From  the  caput  mortuum  lixiviated,  is  feparatcd  by 
filtration  and  evaporation,  the  fait  which  was  mixed 
with  the  earth.  Without  this  operation  it  would 
be  impoffible  to  difcover  which  fort  of  falts  are  con- 
tained in  plants,  and  which  fait  is  predominant; 
which  muft  be  neceflarily  know  n  to  difcover  the 
virtues  of  plants,  and  before  they  can  be  em- 
ployed with  any  appearance  of  fuccefs  in  medicine. 

To  proceed  with  fome  order  in  that  di'.covery, 
we  muft  previouflv  know  what's  underftood  by  the 
differcnt  falu  found  in  plants,  fince  they  all  con- 
tain fome  of  thofe  falts,  more  or  le's;  therefore, 

I.  "Siy  alkaly  znd  acid falt^  are  underftood  thofe 
two  forts  of  falts,  to  which  our  modern  phyficians 
and  chemifts  have  given  thofe  names  ;  and  which 
are  eafier  underftood  than  defined, 

.2.  Bv  0 [Tent ird [alt  is  underftood  tliat  formed  by 
the  cryilalhfalJon  of  the  juice  of  plants. 

3-  By 


B  0  7  A  N  r: 


329 


3.  By  volatile  /alt  is  un  lerftood  the  fait,  which 
By  the  diftillation  through  the  cornue,  adheres  at 
the  top  of  the  veflcl.  ' , '  '  • 

4.,  'By  tht fixed  ot  pxtftilt,  is  underftooJ  the  _/!?// 
extrafted  by  elixiviation,  from  the  afhes  of  burnt 
plants,  or  from  the  caput  mirtuum,  of  thofe  which 
are  analyfed. 

This,  'tis  true,  informs  us  of  the  difference  of 
thofe  feveral  falts ;  but  how  (hall  we  know  if  they 
arc  all  contained  in  the  plant,  or  only  in  part;  or 
which  is  tiie  predominant  ?  B.y  the  following  means. 

1.  The  aci'l fait  is  difcovered,  by  being  mixed 
with  fait  of  tartar,  or  fpirit  of  fat  armomack,  or 
like  matters,  with  which  acids  ferment  commonly. 
The  acids  are  alfo  difcovered  by  the  blue  paper, 
which  they  change  red  by  degrees,  from  a  very 
pale  red  to  a  very  high  one. 

2.  Yhe  Cpirk  of  nitre,  of  fait,  of  fulphur,  of  vi- 
triol, and  other  acids,  are  employed  with  fuccefs, 
to  difcover  the  fait  alkaly ;  for  thofe  acids  ferment 
with  the  alkaly. 

3.  As  tht  fal-armoniack  is  eafily  difcovered,  by 
its  urinous  volatile  fait,  Botavifts  and  chemifts  make 
ufe  of  the  oil  of  tartar  to  difcover  if  there  is  any 
armoniack  fait 'ir.  plants,  for  then  they  exhale  an 
urinous  fpirit,  like  to  that  exhaled  from  urine,  or 
the  armoniack  fait  itfelf. 

4.  As  the  charafter  of  n'tre  is  difcovered  by  de- 
tonation, 'tis  thought,  that  the  fureft  expedient  to 
khow  nitrous  fubftances,  is  by  throwing  them  upon 
burning  coals. 

5.  Everybody  knows  that  the  chief  quality  of 
vitriol  is  to  turn  black  the  infufion  of  galls,  there- 
fore the  matters  under  examination  are  to  be  mixed 
with  that  infufion. 

6.  To  know  if  there  is  any  fulphur  in  fome  mat- 
ter, that  matter  mufl:  be  put  into  digeftion,  in  a  very 
flrong  fpirit  of  wine.  If  the  fame  matter  burn  eafily, 
'tis  a  certain  fign  that  they  contain  abundance 
of  fulphurous  particles.  l^he  elaterium,  when 
dry,  burns  at  the  candle,  and  the.  fed um  wajus  vul- 
gare  of  C.  Bhinus,  does  not  burn,  therefore  the 
former  contains  a  iulphurous  matter,  not  to  be  met 
with  in  the  liatter  oleaginous  fubftanccs,  when 
^mixed,  makes  a  lather  when  with  oil  of  tartar. 

We'll  proceed  iiow  to  the  enn/mraticn  of  the 
plants,  and  to  the  difcovery  of  their  feveral  quali- 
ties and  virtues,  in  an  alphabetical  order,  contenting 
ourfelves  with  the  defcription  of  a  few,  which  are 
better  known,   and  more  ufeful. 

ALTHJEA,(fee  the  plate,)  Marfl)maUow.  A'lcr'i- 
fon  and  Mr.  R.ny  have  taken  the  flower  of  this 
plant  to  be  of  five  leav,'s,  though  M.  Tou'rnefort , 
fays,  that  it  is  all  of  a  piece.  The  leaves  of  marf}j- 
77'.allows  are  glutinous,  infipid,  and  do  not  change 
the  blue  paper,     The  rooti  have  the  fame  taite,  but 


change  a  little.the  blue  paper.  The  glutinous  juice 
of  this  plant  appears  to  be  a  mixture  of  a  great  deal 
of  phlegm,  of  a  confiderable  portion  of  earth, 
acid,  and  fulphur. 

All  authors  agree  that  this  plant  fweetens  the 
blood,  and  is  emollient.  It  not  only  blunts  the  cor- 
rofive  falts,  but  likewife  foftens  the  fibres,  when 
too  much  ilrain'd,  and  reftores  them  to  their  na- 
tural motion,  and  thereby  appeafes  pain.  In  diet- 
drinks,  or  ptifans,  they  are  an  excellent  remedy 
lor  a  violent  cough;  and  in  the  nephriiick  for  the 
retention  of  urine,  attended  with  inflammation. 
'Tis  alfo  adminifter'd,  for  the  fame  maladies,  in 
fyrups,  tablettes,  or  lozenges  ;  in  lohochs,  in  cly- 
fters  for  the  inflammations  of  the  abdomen  ;  in  un- 
gucntuin  for  the  fciatick  and  rheumatifm  ;  to  refolve 
tumours  with  inflammation  ;  in  poultices  with  milk, 
to  bring  thofe  tumours  to  fuppuration  when  tiie 
matter  isdifpos'd  for  it,  'dc. 

Agrimonia,-  Jgri?nony,  is  of  a  ftiptick  tafte,  a 
little  fait,    and   mix'd  with  fome  acrimony,    and 
changes  blue  paper  a  little  ;  which  makes  one  be- 
lieve that  it  contains  a  fait  which  approaches  very 
near  the  vitriolated  tartar,  or  the  fait  of  coral  made 
with  fpirit  olverdigreafe.     This  fait  in  agrimony  is 
mix'd  with  a  great  deal  of  fulphur,  and  with  much 
earth ;  therefore  'tis  ajlrtngent,   deter  five,  vulnerary, 
and  aperitive.     Agrimony  is  very  good  in  chronick 
maladies ;  for  it  abforbs  and  inciies  the  thicken'd 
lympha  which  occafions  them.     'Tis  us'd  in  diet- 
drinks,.    deco£lions,    and    in    aperitive,    cooling,, 
and  vulnerary  draughts,  or  juleps.     This  is  of- a. 
very  great  fuccour  in  the  fpitting  of  blood,  in  the- 
(jloody'flux,  and  in  the  inflammation  of  the  liven, 
Apply'd  externally,   it  is  vulnerary,   and  proper  to  ■ 
refolve  the  tumours  of  the  Jcrotum,  or  purfe  ;  and 
of  all  oth?r   parts  where   there  is   inflammation. 
Tdrgus  zK\xr?.i  us,  it  is  boiled  in  lees  of  wine,  with, 
bran  of  wheat,   and  apply'u  on  the  part. 

Alkekengi,  lllnter  cherry.  Its  leaves  are  acerb,  • 
and  bitter  ;  they  do  not  chcnge  the  blue  paper,  but 
the  fruit  ch.-mges  it  very  much.  It  appear?,  at  firft, 
fooiifh,,  and  afterwards  bitter;  which  makes  one 
conj-efture,  th;it  in  the  fruit  of  that  plant  thei'c  is  a 
fait  approaching  very  near  the  oxyfal  angeli  f«U\ 
m.ired  with  a  fmall  quantity  of  foetid  oil.  In  the 
leaz'es  that  fait  is  too  well  wrapped  up  in  fulphurous 
and  terreftrial  particles  to  be  felt.  The  alkekengi 
is  very  aperitive  and  diuretick.  Diofcorides  ufed  to 
give  it  for  the_g-r^^«-/;ti»ty},  znd  retention  of  urine. 
Arnaud  de  P'iikneuve,  and  Cefalpinus,  advifed  the 
dropfical,  and  thofe  who  hzil  ■»,  retention  cf  urlne^^- 
to  drink  wine  wherein  had  been  bruis'd  three  or 
four  fruits  of  this  plant.  The  fruit  of  alkekengi  is 
prepared  into  troches, 

A<jyi- 


2^o  The  Unlvei-ral  Hiftory  of  Auts  ^W  Sciences. 


Aquilecia  fylve/liis,  Cclanfilne,  is  aperitive., 
diuretick,  2ii\A  fudoiijick.  Tragus  ni'aiK'i  \i%.,  that  a 
diachiii  of  the  powder  of  the  root  taken  in  •wine^ 
cures  thecholick.  Cnmcrarius  relates,  that  in  Spain 
they  eat  every  morning,  for  the  calculus,  a  fmall 
quantity  of  that  root.  For  the  angina,  and  the  ul- 
-.■crs  in  the  throat,  Pena  and  Lobel  pri/.c  gargarifins 
made  with  the  fcedb  of  this  plant.  Soinc  ui'e  it  in 
the  fcurv)'.  Some  pretend,  that  taken  in  wine  it 
accelerates  the  birth.  Paul!  us'd  to  give  half  a 
drachm,  or  a  drachm  of  it,  in  a  glafs  of  water  of 
fumiterre,  o\Oi  car  duns  benedi5ius,  for  the  fmall-pox  \ 
and  mcafles.  I 

Artemksi,\,  vulgaris, Mtigit:ort,orMotherwirt, ' 
has  a  fmall  tarte  of  fait,  and  changes  a  little  the  ' 
blue  paper,  which  indicates  that  its  fait  ha5  fome- 
thing  of  the  nature  oi fal ammoniac,  but  united  with 
a  great  deal  of  fulphurand  earth.  All  its  principles 
render  the  planf  ve.'y  aperitive,  and  proper  to  regu- 
late and  provoke  the  natural  evacuations  in  women 
For  the  vapours,  the  leaves  znd  Jloivers  of  mugzvort 
are  taken,  inftead  of  tea. 

Betonica,  Betcny.  The  leaves  of  this  plant 
have  the  tafte  of  herbs,  are  a  little  fait,  and  a  little 
aromatick.  T\\e  Jlowers  change  blue  paper  a  little, 
as  well  as  the  roots  ;  which,  bcfides,  arc  very  bit- 
ter. The  hetony  is  full  of  fulphur,  mixed  with  a 
fmall  quantity  of  oily,  volatile  fait,  and  ibme  earth. 
By  the  analyfis  are  extradled  from  this  plant  a  great 
deal  of  oil,  a  little  earth  and  fixed  fait,  no  concre- 
ted volatile  fait,  but  a  fmall  quantity  of  urinous 
fpirit.  Betony  is  vulnerary,  aperitive,  diuretick, 
proper  for  the  maladies  of  the  head,  and  of  the 
abdomen.  It  is  ufed  in  lieu  of  tea,  for  the 
vapours,  fciatica,  the  gout,  head-ach,  jaundice, 
and  for  the  palfy.  The  diet-drink  made  of  betony- 
leaves,  the  water  it  has  been  macerated  in,  the  con- 
ferve  o^\i%  flowers  and  leaves;  the  juice  and  extract 
of  its  parts,  have  the  fame  virtues.  Thefe  reme- 
dies procure  the  cxpeftoration  of  purulent  matter  ; 
they  confolidate  the  inward  ulcers,  reftore  the  func- 
tions of  the  vifcera,  promote  the  urine,  and  carry 


of  bryony,  are  a  ftrong  purgative,  and  carry  off  the 
moft  obif  inate  obftrudlions  ;  theiefore  this  plant  is 
of  great  fervice  in  thedropfy,  gout,  epilepiy,  afth- 
ma ;  in  the  vapours,  palfy,  vcrtigos,  and  in  the 
moft  tedious  maladies.  The  root  is  given  in  pow- 
der, from  one  fcrupic  to  two  ;  tlie  juice  is  given  to 
drink,  from  a  drachm  to  half  an  ounce  ;  and  the 
dccocSlion  from  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce,  and  an 
ounce  and  a  half.  But  in  whatever  manner  this 
root  is  ufed,  it  muft  be  correiSled  with  cream  of 
tartar  or  vegetal  fait. 

Bursa  pajloris  major,  folia  finuato,  the  fliep- 
hcrds-purfe,  or  pouch,  taftes  a  little  fait,  and  is  de- 
terfive  ;  the  juice  of  thefe  leaves  changes  a  little 
the  blue  paper;  whence  it  is  conjectured,  that  in 
that  plant  the  ammoniack  fait,  which  is  in  the  na- 
tural fait  of  the  earth,  predominates  the  other  prin- 
ciples. This  ammoniack  fait  is  diflblved  into  a  con- 
fiderable  portion  of  phlegm,  and  is  temperated  by 
much  earth  and  little  fulphur.  This  plant  gives 
no  acid  by  the  chemical  analyfis,  and  all  extrafled 
from  it  is  almoft  alkaly.  Very  few  plants  give  fo 
much  concreted  volatile  fait,  more  lixivial  fixed, 
and  more  earth.  Thefe  principles  mixed  render 
the  burfa  proper  to  melt  the  blood,  when  too  much 
thickened  by  the  heterogeneous  acids,  which  ob- 
flrucl  the  circulation.  The  juice  of  its  leaves  drank 
from  four  ounces  to  fix,  is  of  a  great  help  in  lofles 
of  blood,  and  even  in  fluxions,  accompanied  with 
inflammation.  Its  water  diftilled  has  little  or  no 
virtue,  it  is  only  the  phlegm  feparated  from  the 
other  principles.  This  plant  is  found  during  the 
whole  year,  becaufc  it  fows  itfelf  towards  the  end 
of  the  fummcr. 

C  .'\  L  A  M I N  T  H  A  humilior, folio  rotundiorl.  Ground- 
ivy.  Cardushas  defcribed  this  plant  under  the  name 
of  chamacluna.  Its  leaves  are  very  bitter,  a  little 
aromatick,  and  fcarce  change  the  blue  paper.  By 
the  analvfis  this  plant  gives  no  concrete  volatile  fait, 
but  a  fmall  quantity  of  urinous  fpirit  •,  all  the  reft 
is  acid,  alkaly,  oil,  and  earth  ;  and  thefe  two  laft 
parts  are  found  in  it,  in  a  rcalbnable  quantity.   The 


off  the  obftrudtions  of  the  vijcera.      Of  the  Laves  ',  ground-ivy  is  very  aperitive,  deterfive,  and  vulnerary, 
of  betony  is  made  a  plaifter,   and   particularly  thofc 
of  the  head.    The  roots  have  not  the  fame  virtues. 

Bryonia  afpera,  five  alha,  baccis  rubris.  Bry- 
ony, hip,  vjbite  vine.  The  leaves  of  this  plant  are 
infipid,  glutinous,  and  do  not  change  the  blue 
paper  ;  the  root  changes  it  much,  it  is  bitter,  and 
of  a  bad  fmcll  ;  whence  it  is  conjcdtured  that  the 
icid  ©f  ammoniack  fait,  which  is  predomin.mt  in 
riiat  plant,  is  more  unfolded  in  the  root  than  in 
the  leaves,  where  it  is  wrapped  up  in  a  great  deal 
of  fulphur.  B'.'  the  analyfis  thefe  roots  give  a  great 
deal  01  acid  liquor,  and  a  confiderable  quantity  of 
w;;;creted  volatile  fait.  The  root,  tops,  and  feeds 
X 


Camerarius  and  Cejalpinus  efteem  it  much  to  pro- 
voke the  urine,  and  force  the  calculus.  Loliel  ufed 
it,   in  the  gout,  by  way  of  prevention. 

"Carduus  Stellatus,  jlarry  thijlle.  Its  leaves 
are  very  bitter,  and  the  root  taftes  of  artichoke.  It 
contains  a  fait  v/hich  approaches  very  near  the  ira- 
tural  fait  of  tlie  earth  ;  for  its  folution  is  very 
bitter,  and  loaded  with  fal  ammoniac  and  nitre. 
The  carduus  is  febrifuge,  vulnerary,  and  aperi- 
tive. Iq  an  intermittent  fever  five  or  fix  ounces  of 
the  juice  of  this  plant  is  given  at  the  beginning  of 
the  paroxifm.  The  fame  juice  carries  off  the  (pots 
in  the  eyes,  and  cures  the  wounds.    M.  de  La- 

moighon. 


BOTANY. 


331 


tnoigno)!,  intendant  of  Langucdoc  in  France,  has 
communicated  to  the  publick  a  remedy  which  liad 
cured  him  of  a  violent  nephrctick  ;  which  remedy 
is  as  follows. 

28th  day  of  the  moon,  in   every   month,  the 
patient  mull  drink  early  in  the   morning   a   large 
giafs  full  of  very  good  white  wine,  in  which  has 
been  macerated  a  drachm  of  the  firft  bark  of  the 
root  of  carduus,  gather'd  toward  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember, and  dry'd  from  the  fun,  and  powder'd  very 
fine.     This   bark  is   a  very    fmall   and  thin  fkin, 
brown  outwardly,  and  white  inwardly.     The  day 
this  remedy  has  been  taken,   mufi:  be  put  towards 
the  evening  into  half  a  pint  of  water,  a    handful 
of  parietary,  a  drachm  of  faflafras,  as  much    an- 
nifeed,  and  half  a   drachm  of  cinnamon,  in  pow- 
der :  the  whole   is  boil'd    on  a  clear  fire   for  the 
fpace  of  half  a  quarter  of  an  hour.     The  veflel  is 
taken  off  the  fire,  and   plac'd,  clofely  cover'd,  on 
the  hot  embers  ;  the  next  day  'tis  put  again  on  a 
clear  fire,  that  it  may  boil  for  another  half  quarter 
df  an  hour ;  after  which,  the  liquor  is  pour'd  over 
two   ounces  of  powder'd  fugar-candy  put   into   a 
porrenger,  or  other  fuch  veflel ;  the  infufion  flrain'd 
through   a  linnen  cloth,    with   expreflion  of  the 
ground.     When  the  fugar  is  melted,  the  patient 
drinks  it  as  hot  as  he  can,  and  muft  take  nothing 
elfefor  three  hours  after,  no  more  than  when  he 
has  taken  the  fir^  remedy. 

GHAMiEDRis  mimr,  repens.  Germander;  the 
leaves  of  the  germander  are  bitter  and  aromatick, 
and  do  not  change  the  blue  paper ;  which  fnews 
that  it  contains  principles  different  from  thofe  of 
the  centorie.  Its  fait  does  not  differ  from  the  natu- 
ral fait  of  the  earth,  which  is  a  mixture  of  fea  fait, 
nitre,  and  fal  ammoniac.  'Tis  acerb,  very  bitter, 
and  very  aperitive.  There  is  an  appearance  that 
that  found  in  this  plant«has  lofl  its  acrimony  by  the 
mixture  of  a  great  deal  of  eflential  oil,  which 
renders  the  germander  aromatick.  'Tis  febrifuge, 
Jfomachick,  aperitive,  and  dlaphoretlck.  A  handful 
of  its  leaves  are  macerated  for  a  whole  night,  from 
the  fire,  in  a  glafs  of  wine,  together  with  a  drachm 
of  vegetable  fait,  which  mufl:  be  drank  falling,  for 
the  green- ficknefs.  A  drachm  of  tlie  extract  made 
with  its  leaves  ai\6  flowers,  with  two  drops  of  oil 
of  cinnamon.,  is  prefcrib'd  for  the  fame  malady. 
Its  leaves  are  ufcd  in  infufion,  in  the  manner  of 
thofe  of  tea,  for  the  gout  and  fciatica. 

ChaMj^melum,  vutgare  leachcntenium,  Caino- 
tnile.  This  plant  is  bitter,  aromatick  and  changes 
much  the  blue  paper.  It  feems  that  it  contains  a 
fal  ammoniac  loaded  with  a  great  deal  of  acid,  and 
wrapp'd  up  in  a  great  Qiiantity  of  fulphur  and 
earth-  The  camomile  is  aperitive,  diuretic^-,  and 
febrtifuge.  In  Dlofcorlda'^  time,  the  powder  of 
16. 


camomile  flowers  was  ufed  in  intermittent  fevers. 
Rlvlerus  prefcribes  it  on  the  fame  occafion.  The 
infufion  of  the  fummits,  or  tops  of  camomile,  and 
of  me!  Hot,  give  cafe  to  thofe  troubled  with  the 
nephritlck,  and  with  a  retention-  of  urine.  It  ap- 
peafes  the  gripes,  which  often  happen  after  a  de- 
livery. Paidl  prizes  much  the  wine  in  which  ca- 
momlle  flowers  have  been  macerated,  for  the  pleu- 
rify  ;  but  there  muft  be  applied,  at  the  fame  time, 
on  the  part  where  the  pain  is  felt,  bladders  filled 
with  the  decodion  of  the  fame  plant,  heating  the 
decoflion,  from  time  to  time.  It  is  employed 
likewife  in  clyfters,  fomentations,  cataplafms,  and 
in  the  half  baths,  for  the  gout,  fciatica,  and  he- 
morrhoids, or  piles.  Its  oil  is  very  ufeful  on  the 
fame  occafion.  For  the  rheumatifm  it  is  mixed 
with  equal  parts  of  oil  of  St.  fo^n's-wort,  and  of 
camphorated  fpirit  of  wine,  for  a  liniment,  covered 
afterwards  with  a  hot  cloth. 

Chelidonium  majus,  vulgare.  Celandine.  The 
celandine  is  bitter,  acerb,  and  burning,  efpecially 
the  root,  which  gives  more  orange-coloured  juice 
than  the  other  parts  of  the  plant.  It  changes  but 
very  little  the  blue  paper,  and  fmells  like  rotten 
eggs  ;  which  makes  me  believe  that  its  juice  is,  as 
it  were,  phagenedical,  femblablein  fome  manner 
to  the  liquor  which  refults  from  a  mixture  of  folu- 
tion  of  corrofive  fublimate  and  of  lime-water.  The 
celandine,  by  the  analyfis,  gives  enough  of  that  fait 
fixed,  as  well  as  volatile  ;  but'it  is  wrapped  up  in 
a  great  deal  of  fulphur  and  earth.  This  plant  taken 
inwardly,  is  very  aperitive  ;  for  the  dropfy,  an 
ounce  of  its  root,  and  half  an  ounce  of  tincture 
of  Mars,  are  infufed,  or  macerated  during  four 
and  twenty  hours,  in  a  pint  of  white  wfne  ;  the 
infufion  is  ftrained  through  a  cloth,  two  ounces  of 
which  are  taken  twice  a  day.  The  following  pre- 
paration is  very  good  for  the  vapours,  and  for  the 
confumption.  There  muft  be  put  in  digefiion, 
during  eight  days,  twelve  pounds  of  the  whole 
plant  flightly  pounded,  three  dozen  of  craw-  fillies 
cut  in  pieces,  and  two  pounds  of  honey  ;  then  the 
alembick  muft  be  luted,  and  the  matters  contained 
in  it  diftilled  in  halnco  maria.  The  diftilled  v/aier 
is  very  good  for  the  vapours  drank  from  two  ounces 
to  four.  It  carries  off  the  infammation  of  the 
eyes,  and  dries  up  the  ulcers  of  thole  parts.  The 
herbs  pounded  cure  the  wounds  of  horfes. 

Coffee,  is  the  fruit  of  a  plant  very  commoij 
in  Arabia  Felix.  That  of  the  Levant  is  moft  ef- 
teemed,  being  greener,  heavier,  and  appeariilg 
riper  than  that  from  Mocha,  which  is  larger,  lighteii 
and  whiter.      ; 

This  is  what  Dominicus  de  Farcyy  docSlorin  phy- 

fick  of  the  faculty  of  Paris,   fays  of  coffee,    in  a 

thefis  held  in  the  college  of  phyficians  of  that  me- 

U  u  tropolis. 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^/^^/ Sciences. 


332 

tropolic,    Anno    1695.     «  The  vcjliitile   fait  with  ^ 
'  which  the  cojfee  burry  abounds,   agitates  the  fpi- 
'  rif.,   whofc   velocity  hinders  flccp  ;    befides  the 
'  aJuit  particles,  of  wliich  there  is  a  great  quantity 

*  in  the  coffee,  as  we  may  judge  by  the  fincll  and 
'  taftc,  infinuate  themfelves  firfl:  into  the  blood, 
'  then  into  the  texture  of  the  nerves,  to  which, 
'  by  the  difproportion  of  their  figure,  and  their 
'  continual  motion,  they  add  a  Simulation  ;  whence 
'  the  fpirits  are  forwarded  in  the  latent  duiSsofthe 
'  brain,  in  their  u(ual  operations.  From  the 
'  abundanceof  thefe  falts  the  blood  is  freed  from 
'  the  vifcous  humour  it  is  wrapped  up  in  within 
'  the  fubftancc  of  the  lungs,  as  well  as  the  brun- 
'  chia  of  their   fordes.     However,  a  confiderable 

•  quantity  of  the  blood  is  relblved  into  a  ferofity, 
'  wliich  being  filtrated  through  the  reins,  fall  into 
'  the  bladder.' 

Coffee  produces  thefe  efFe£ts,  particularly  with 
people  of  a  pretty  corpulent  habit  ;  being  found 
hurtful  to  thofe  who  are  thin,  lean,  dry,  and  of  a 
bilious  temperament,  as  it  dries  up  the  nerves,  and 
inclines  them  to  tremors.  It  is  faid  to  be  prejudi- 
cial, likewife,  to  thofe  who  digeft  too  faft,  where 
the  circulation  is  too  quick,  or  where  there  is  a 
fpitting  of  blood  arifing  from  the  mouths  of  any 
of  the  veins  and  arteries  being  too  open,  or  the 
blood  too  thin  and  fharp. 

The  oily  matter,  which  feparates  from  ^t  coffee, 
and  appears  on  its  furface  when  roafted,  and  its 
particular  fmell,  which  diflinguifhes  it  from  peas, 
beans,  rye,  i^c.  which  fome  fubftitute  in  lieu  of 
coffee.,  are  to  be  the  real  indications  of  its  efFefts. 
If  confidered  with  regard  to  the  oil  drawn  with  the 
retort,  this,  as  well  as  that,  contains  volatile  prin- 
ciples, as  we  have  already  obferved,  both  faline 
and  fulphurous.  It  is  to  the  dilTolution  of  its  fait, 
and  the  mixture  of  its  fulphur  in  the  blood,  that 
rts  chief  faculty  of  promoting  watch fulnefs  is  to 
be  attributed  ;  hence  alfo  its  property  of  promoting 
digeftion,  of  precipitating  foods,  of  preventing 
«ruiSlations,  and  correfling  acrimonies  of  the  fto- 
mach,  when  taken  after  meals.  Hence  alfo  that 
fermentation  in  the  blood  ferviceable  to  corpulent 
people  ;  hence  alfo  its  diuretick  virtue.  By  ex- 
perience it  is  fourtd  of  fervice  to  drink  a  glafs  of 
water  before  coffee,  to  render  it  laxative  ;  to  mix  it 
with  milk,  or  cream,  to  extinguifti  its  fulphur, 
embavrafj  its  faline  principles,  and  render  it  nou- 
rifhing. 

The  tree  that  produces  the  coffee  is  a  kind  of 
Arob'ick  ieffamine ;  the  berry,  when  ripe,  is  as 
hard  as  horn. 

The  preparation  of  coffee  confifls  in  loading,  or 
giving  it  a  jufl.  degree  of  torrcfadtion,  oil  an  earthen 


or  metalline  plate,  till  it  has  acquired  a  brownlfli 
hue,  equally  deep  on  all  fides  ;  it  is  then  ground 
in  a  mill,  as  much  as  ferves  the  prefent  occafion  ; 
a  proper  quantity  of  water  is  next  boiled,  and  the 
ground  coffee  put  into  it  ;  after  it  has  juft  boiled,  it 
is  taken  from  the  fire,  and  the  decodtioii  having 
flood  a  while  to  fettle  and  fine,  they  pour  and  de- 
cant it  into  difhes,  and  "drink  it  as  hot  as  poflible, 
with  fugar. 

Coral,  (^ee  the  figures  of  fea-plants  In  the 
copper-plate  Botany,)  is  a  produdtion  of  the  fea, 
ufually  ranked  among  the  number  of  marine  plants  ; 
though  the  antients  took  it,  without  hefitation,  for 
a  flone  ;  moft  of  the  moderns  hold  it  a  vegetable  ; 
of  late  days  one  maintains  it  partly  a  plant,  partly 
ftone  ;  while  another  curious  and  able  naturalift, 
who  has  much  ftudied  the  produdtion  of  the  fea, 
almoll  ranks  it  in  the  number  of  animals  ;  as 
imagining  it  the  work  of  certain  fea-infedts.  This 
opinion  is  now  fo  well  eftablifhed,  that  all  other 
fenfiments  feem  almoft  precluded.  Father  A'/Vcii^r 
fuppofes  entire  forefts  of  it  at  the  bottom  of  the 
fea  J  and  M.  Tournefort  maintains,  that  it  evident- 
ly multiplies  by  feed,  though  neither  its  flower  nor 
feed  be  known.  However,  the  Count  De  Mar- 
figli  has  difcovered  fome  parts  therein,  which  feem 
to  ferve  the  purpofe  of  feeds  and  flowers. 

Coral,  then,  being  eftabliflied  a  plant,  has,  in 
that  quality,  roots,  wherewith  it  is  faftened  to  th« 
rock  wherein  it  grows  :  Thefe  roots  are  covered 
with  a  bark  befet  with  flarry  pores,  which  travenS 
them  from  top  to  bottom.  Above  the  root  is  the 
ligneous,  or  woody  part  of  the  plant,  if  we  may 
call  a  fubftance  fo,  that  rather  (eems  to  refemble 
ftone  than  wood.  It  is  divided  into  branches  like 
othfcr  plants,  having  white  ftreaks  therein,  which 
feem  to  reprefent  a  kind  of  fibres.  The  extremi- 
ties  of  the  plant  are  fort,  and  rounded  with  little 
bowls,  ordinarily  divided  into  fix  cells,  filled  with 
a  humour  fomewhat  like  milk,  fatty,  fharp,  and 
aftringent.  Laftly,  thefe  bowls  are  efteemed  a 
kind  of  pods,  or  capjula,  containing  the  feed  of 
the  coral;  it  is  even  faid,. that  in  what  place,  or  oa 
what  matter  foever  this  juice  be  fhed,  it  carries 
fecundity  with  it,  and  produces  a  plant  of  coral  : 
whence  it  is,  that  in  the  cabinets  of  the  curious 
we  find  fome  of  it  on  dead  men's  fkulls,  pieces  of 
earthen  ware,  and  other  kinds  of  folid  bodies, 
which  chance,  and  the  working  of  the  fea,  have 
thrown  into  fome  of  father  Kircher's  forefts. 

Coral,,  the  Count  de  MarfigU  obferves,  grows 
chiefly  in  grottos,  whofe  mouth  or  aperture  is  tOr 
wards  the  fouth,  and  their  vault  or  concave  arch, 
nearly  parallel  to  the  furface  of  the  earth.  For  its 
growth,  it  is  ncceflaiythe  fea  be  as  quiet  as  a  pond: 

it 


BOTANY, 


333 


it  vegetates  the  contrary  way  to  all  other  plants  ; 
its  foot  adhering  to  the  top  of  the  grotto,  and  its 
branches  /hooting  downwards.  I'he  foot  takes 
the  exaft  form  of  the  folid  it  grows  to,  and  even 
covers  it  like  a  plate,  to  a  certain  extent  ;  which 
Monfieur  de  Adarfigli  thinks  a  proof  that  its  fub- 
ftance  was  originally  fluid  :  And  what  confirms 
the  thought  is,  that  the  fame  fubftance  flial!  fome- 
timcs  line  the  infidc  of  a  fhell,  which  it  could  ne- 
ver have  entered  but  in  form  of  a  fluid. 

All  its  organifm,  (according  to  MarfigU)  with 
regard  to  vegetation,  confifts  in  its  rind  ;  that  the 
tubules  of  this  rind  filtrate  a  juice  which  fills  the 
cellules,  and  runs  along  the  canals  as  far  as  the 
extremities  of  the  branches  ;  and  that  this  jui,;e 
being  petrified,  both  in  the  cells  encompafiing  the 
coralline  fubftance,  and  in  thofe  of  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  branches,  whofe  fubflance  is  not  yet 
formed,  makes  the  plant  grow,  both  in  height  and 
bulk. 

There  are  properly  but  three  kinds  o^  coral,  red, 
white,  and  black  :  the  white  is  the  rareft  and  moft 
efteemed  ;  but  is  is  the  red  is  ordinarily  ufed  in 
medicine.  It  muft  be  chofen  thick,  fmooth,  and 
fliining,  and  of  a  beautiful  red,  not  covered  with 
any  tartarous  matter.  There  is  a  kind  of  luhite 
fsri?/ pierced  full  of  holes  ;  and  a  black  corals  named 
(intipates  ;  appearing  of  a  different  nature  from  the 
refl  ;  but  thde  are  of  no  ufe.  The  chymifts  draw 
a  magiflcrial  tinfture  from  coral,  and  a  fait. 

The  virtues  attributed  to  coral,  and  its  prepara- 
tions, are,  that  it  is  cardiack,  and  therefore  of 
vtfe  in  diarrhceas,  too  large  fluxes  of  the  mcti/irua, 
and  flooding  ;  of  fervice  in  the  Jluor  albus,  and  to 
prevent  mi fcarriages;  befides  its  ufe  in  common,  as 
a  tefl:aceous  powder,  in  children's  difeafes,  i^c. 

The  time  for  gathering  this  plant  is  from  April 
to  yuly  ;  the  places  are  the  Perfian  Gulf,  Red  Sea, 
coaft  of  Africa,  towards  the  baftion  of  France  ; 
die  ifles  of  Majorca  and  Corfica  \  and  the  coaft  of 
Provence  and  Catalonia.  The  method  of  gathering 
coral,  is  nearly  the  fame  in  all  places  ;  that  ufed  at 
the  baftion  of  France,  where  there  is  an  eftablifhed 
iyhery,  under  the  diredlion  of  a  company  at  Mar- 
feilles,  is  as  follows: 

Seven  or  eight  men  go  in  a  boat,  commanded 
by  the  patron  or  proprietor  ;  the  cafter  throws  his 
net,  if  we  may  fo  call  the  machine  wherewith  he 
ufes  to  tear  up  the  coral  from  the  bottom  of  the 
lea,  and  the  other  fix  manage  the  boat.  The 
net  is  compofed  of  two  beams  tied  a-crofs,  with 
a  leaden  weight,  to  prefs  them  down  :  to  the  beam 
is  faftened  a  great  quantity  of  hemp  loofeiv  twiftcd 
round,  among  which  they  mix  fomc  ftrong  nets. 


In  this  condition  the  machine  is  let  down  into  the 
Tea  ;  and  wiicn  the  coral  k  pretty  ftrongly  embar- 
ralfed,  in  the  hemp,  and  the  net,  they  draw  it  out 
by  a  rope  ;  which  they  unwind  according  to  the 
depth,  and  which  fometimes  requires  half  a  do'ien. 
boats  to  draw  ;  if  the  rope  happen  to  brp.ik,  the 
fifhermen  arc  in  great  danger  of  drowning.  Before 
the  fitliermen  go  out,  they  agree  on  the  price  of  the 
coral,  which  is  ordinarily,  at  the  rate  of  4.^.  6^. 
per  lb.  When  the  fifliery  is  o\'er,  which  in  a  fea- 
fon  ufually  amounts  to  25  quintals  of  coral,  each 
boat,  it  is  divided  into  thirteen  parts  ;  thj  patron 
whereof,  or  maftir-coralkr,  has  four,  the  cafter 
two,  and  each  of  the  fix  companions  one,  the 
thirteenth  being  referved  for  the  company,  &c. 

Cynoglossum  majus,  vulgare,Dog' s-tongue.  The 
leaves  of  this  plant  are  white  and  filky ;  its  flowers 
are,  at  firft,  purple,  which  become  blue  afterwards. 
The  bark  of  its  root  is  a  little  bitter,  fait,  ftiptick, 
and  glutinous ;  it  changes  the  blue  paper.  It  ap- 
pears that  the  fal-ammoniack,  which  is  in  the  natural 
fait  of  the  earth,  is  predominant  in  the  cynoglojfwn, 
where  it  is  temporated  by  much  phlegm,  earth,  and 
foetid  oil.  Therefore  its  root  is  proper  to  ftop  all 
forts  of  fluxions,  and  fweeten  the  acrimony  of  the 
humours.     Its  leaves  are  vulnerary  and  deterfive. 

Dens  Leonis  latiore  folio  ;  Lion's  tooth.  The 
leaves  of  this  plant  are  very  bitter,  and  change  a  lit- 
tle the  blue  paper.  The  roots  change  it  a  great 
deal  more,  they  are  bitter,  ftiptick,  deterfive.  The 
whole  plant  is  aperitive,  diuretick,  vulnerary,  and 
febrifuge.  Targus  prefcribes  the  water  of  dent  de 
lion,  in  the  internal  inflammations.  Barbel  advJfes 
to  take  the  juice,  it  purifies  the  blood  by  urine.  To 
appeafc  an  exceflive  cough,  and  cure  a  cold,  a 
quarter  of  a  pint  of  milk,  is  drank  at  night,  with 
which  is  mixed,  boiling  hot,  as  much  of  the  de- 
coftion  of  dent  de  lion,  adding  to  it  a  fmall  quan- 
tity of  fugar  candied.  The  extradt  of  this  plant 
is  given  from  half  a  drachm  to  a  drachm  and 
a  half. 

EuPATORlUM  can'hibinum,  a  kind  of  Agrimonf ; 
in  French,  Eupataire.     The  juice  of  the  le.aves  of 
this  plant,  or  a  drachm  of  its  extraft,  and  the  diet- 
drinks   prepared  of  it,  drank  by  glafles,    are  very 
proper  to  carry  oft"  the  obftruclions  of  the  -vifcern, 
efpecially  thofe  which  fucceed  to  intermitting  fcvei-s  ; 
the  ufe  of  its  leaves,  in  infufion,  in  the  manner  of 
!  tea,    relieve  the  dropficals  :  it  muft  be  prefcribed 
j  after  the  pun6lion,   or  tapping,  and  the  legs  muft 
I  be  fomented  with  the  deco<£tion.     For  the  green- 
ficknels,  for  ti)e  itch,   and  ill  other  cutaneous  dif- 
temper.'i,  it  is  mixed  wiffc  the  fumiterre  in  whey,  or 
i  diet  drinks.     The  fuminities  loaded  with  flowers 
1  U  u  2  arc 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^^J  Sciences. 

The  roots  are  both  emetick 


334 

are  very  vulnerary, 
and  cathartick. 

FuMARiA  offidnarum  ^'  Diofcoridis^  Fumitory. 
This  plant  though  very  bitter,  changes  neverthe- 
lefs  the  blue  paper ;  therefore,  it  is  conjectured  that 
it  contains  a  fak  like  the  natural  fait  of  the  earth  ; 
but  in  which  the  fal  ammoniack  predominates  the 
nitre  and  marine  fait ;  befides,  the  fait  o^  fumitory 
is  joined  with  a  great  deal  of  fulphur  and  earth  dif- 
folved  in  a  considerable  quantity  of  phlegm.  By 
the  analyfis  the  fumitory  gives  a  great  deal  of 
concreted  volatile  fait,  a  great  deal  of  fixed  fait, 
very  lixivial,  and  a^reat  deal  of  a  very  thick  oil. 


milk  ;  the  whole  is  ftrained  through  a  cloth. 
There  muft  be  added  to  it  the  yolk  of  an  egg,  and 
fome  faffron.  Some  content  themfelves  with  boiling 
only  the  leaves  of  henbane  in  milk,  and  apply  them 
on  the  places  where  the  gout  is  felt.  Others  foften 
the  leaves  of  henbane  under  the  hot  embers,  and 
apply  them  on  the  breads  to  expel  the  milk  from 
them,  or  to  diffipate  it  when  knotted.  For  chil- 
blains, they  are  expofed  over  the  fmoke  of  feeds  of 
henbane,  burned  on  the  coals. 

Juniper  us  vulgaris,  the  Juniper-tree.  By  the 
analyfis  are  extradled  from  this  plant  fevcral  acid 
liquors,    a  fmali  quantity  of  fixed  fait,  but  no  vo- 


quantity 
moniack. 


All  thefc  principles  render  this  plant  laxative,  diu- j  latile.     We  muft   obferve,  that    the  fait  of  this 

plant  is  wrapped  up  in  a  very  great  quantity  of 
fulphur,  and  fome  terreftrial  particles.    The  wood 
of  "Juniper,  befides  an  aethereal  oil,    gives  a  great 
deal  of  thick  oil,    in  the  confiftence  of  a  fyrup. 
The  berries  give  a  great  deal  more,    and  the  fum- 
mits  a  little  lefs.     All  thefe  principles  render  the 
juniper  proper  to  reftore  the  fundtions  of  the  fto- 
mach,  to  diffipate  the  wind,    and  griping  matters, 
to  free  the  lungs,  and  difengage  them  of  that  thick 
lytnpha,  which  often  obftrudts  the  refpiration.  'I  his 
plant    is,    alfo,    fudorifick,    cephalick,    and    hyf- 
terick.    It  provokes  the  menfes,   carries  off  the  ob- 
ftru6tions  of  the  vifcera,  reftores  their  fprino-s,  and 
I  helps  the  evacuation  of  urine.     Ufe  is  made  of  the 
\  wood,   fummits,   and  berries.     The   decoftion  of 
j  the  wood  volatilizes  the  blood,   and'  purifies  it  by 
I  the  infenfible  perfpiration.     A  half  bath  is  prepared 
I  with  this  wood,  which  proves  very  beneficial  to 
1  thofe  who  have  the  gout.     The  wine  in  which  the 
I  fummits  of  juniper  are  boiled   is  very  diuretick. 
I  Tragus,   Matthiolus,  ■  Hartman,    and  Simon  Pauliy 
afTure  us,  that  they  have  cured  fome  dropfical  per- 
fons  with  this  fort  of  wine.      Tournefort  fays,  that 
I  he  has  {te.r\  feveral  perfons  very  much  eafed  bv  the 
!  pills  made  of  two  parts  of  aloes,  and  one  of  juni- 
\per-berries.     From  thefe  berries  are  extracted  an 
j  ardent  fpirit,  a  tindure,  an  elixir,  and  an  extradt ; 
'  and  of  them  are  prepared  a  ratifia,   and  a   fort  of 
honey.     The  tintSture  is  made  by  macerating  the 
j  berries  in  their  ardent  fpirit ;  the  infufion  of  the 
I  Hime  berries  in  their  fpirit    or  in   common  water 
evaporated  to   the  confiftence  of  honey,    is  called 
elixir,  or  extract  of  juniper.     The  honey  of  juni- 
per is  nothing  elfe  but  common  honey  boiled  with 
juniper-berries.     It  is  good  in  clyflers,  in  the  dy- 
fenteria,   and  tcnefma.     The  ratafia    oi  juniper  is 
made  by  macerating  its  fruit  in  brandy,  or  cham- 
paign wine,  adding  to    it  fome  fugar   and   cinna- 
rrlon,,      The  pulp   of  juniper-berries,     freed  from 
its  grains,  .and  mixed  with   fugar,    makes  a  con-- 
ferve,  which  has  all  the  virtues  of  thofe  prepara- 
tions 


retick,  proper  to  purify  the  blood,  and  for  the  de- 
fopilation  of  the  parts.  It  is  elteemed  a  fpecifick 
in  all  cutaneous  dillempers;  in  the  hypochondriacal 
melancholy;  in  the  cachexy  and  dropfy.  Its  juice 
is  adminiltered  from  t\vo  ounces  to  fix.'  The  in- 
fufion in  whey  from  fix  ounces  to  ten  or  twelve. 
The  diftilled  water  from  a  glafs  to  two.  The 
fimple  fyrup;  two  or  three  ounces  in  a  diet-drink  ; 
the  compound  fyrup  from  one  ounce  to  two,  if 
the  patient  is  to  be  purged.  The  water  of  fumitory 
is  alfo  deterfive,  and  proper  to  dry  the  ulcers  of  the 
mouth. 

Ger ANiVM,  fisrk/bill.  This  plant  is  ftiptick, 
fait,  and  foweriih  :  it  fmells  of  bitumen,  and  changes 
the  blue  paper.  There  is  fome  appearance  that  it 
contains  a  fait  like  the  alum,  mixed  with  a  fmall 
of  foetid  oil,  and  a  very  little  of  fal- ar- 
By  the  analyfis  it  gives  a  great  deal  of 
acid,  very  little  of  oil,  no  concreted  volatile  fait, 
but  a  fmall  quantity  of  urinous  fpirit.  The  Gera- 
nium is  very  aftringent,  and  very  vulnerary  ;  the 
wine,  wherein  the  leaves  bruifed  have  macerated 
for  a  whole  night,  flops  all  forts  of  hemorrhages. 

Hyoscyamus  vulgaris.  Henbane.  'The  leaves 
of  this  plant  are  infipid,  and  of  an  ill  fmell  ;  it 
taftes  of  artichoke.  It  is  conje£tured  that  the  fal 
ammoniac,  which  is  in  it,  is  wrapped  up  in  a  great 
deal  of  fulphur  and  earth  ;  for  by  the  analyfis  its 
leaves  give  a  concrete  volatile  fait,  and  a  great  deal 
of  oil.  The  henbane  is  foporiferous,  refolutive,  and 
fweetening  ;  it  is  feldom  ufed  in  internal  remedies. 
Helidaus  valued  much  its  feeds,  which  he  mixed 
with  confer ve  of  rofes,  for  the  fpitting  of  blood. 
Tragus  afTures,  that  the  juice  of  henbane,  or  the 
oiB  made  by  the  infufion  of  Its  feeds,  cured  the 
pains  in  the  ears,  by  fyringing  it  into  thofe  parts. 
The  henbane  is  employed  in  anodyne  cataplafms, 
to  refolve  the  tumours.  For  example  ;  two  hand- 
fu)#  ofi  leaves  of  henbane,  as  much  of  thole  of 
Wi;Wr^£«?-tf, -and  an '.ounce  of  feeds  of  henbane^ 
and  of  poppies,  are  boiled  in  a  certain  quantity  of 


BOTANY. 


335 


tions  heretofore  mentioned.  Laftly,  the  fruit  is 
burned  to  expel  the  bad  air,  and  macerated  in  vi- 
negar, in  the  time  of  the  plagift,  to  wafli  letters, 
Jinnen,  and  even  plates. 

Melilotus,  AleUlot.  This  plant  is  acerb, 
bitter,  iliptick,  and  odoriferous  ;  whence  it  is 
conjeftured,  that  its  fait  is  much  like  the  natural 
fait  of  the  earth,  but  mixed  with  much  effential 
oil,  and  terreftrial  particles  ;  for  by  the  analyfis,  the 
melilot,  befides  much  acid  phlegm,  gives  alfo  a 
great  deal  of  oil  and  earth,  enough  of  urinous 
fpirit,  of  volatile  concrete  fait,  and  of  very  lixivial 
fait  ;  therefore  that  plant  is  Jiuretick,  refolutive, 
and  fweetening.  The  diet-drink  made  with  iu 
fummits,  and  thofe  of  camomile,  is  excellent  in 
the  inflammations  of  the  abdomen,  the  cholick, 
and  in  the  retention  of  urine,  in  the  rheumatifm, 
and  generally  in  all  occafions  where  the  courfe  of 
humours  is  to  be  facilitated  The  water  diltilled 
from  the  flowers  of  ?neli/ot  is  of  a  grateful  fmell. 
The  iiielilot  is  ufed  in  the  carminative  clyfters,  and 
in  the  refolutive  cataplafms.  For  clyfters,  the 
flowers  of  melilot,  and  thofe  of  camomile,  are 
boiled  in  tripe's  broth,  and  to  the  decodlon,  after 
it  has  been  ftrained  through  a  cloth,  are  added 
fome  drops  of  oil  of  annifeed.  For  cataplafms, 
two  roots  of  lillies  are  boiled  with  half  a  handful 
of  flowers  of  melilot,  and  two  handfuls  of  leaves 
of  henbane  ;  the  whole  is  ftrained  through  a  fieve, 
to  which  are  added  fome  di'cps  of  fcetid  oil  of  tar- 
tar. The  juice  of  the  flowers  of  melilot,  or  the 
infufion  of  its  parts  in  boiling  water,  appeafe  the 
inflammation  of  the  eyes  ;  efpecially  if  after  it  is 
taken  off  the  fire  there  be  added  to  it  fome  cam- 
phorated fpirit  of  wine  ;  the  whole  being  ftrained 
through  a  cloth,  to  fcparate  the  needlefs  cam- 
phire. 

■  Papaver.  Erratieiim  majus.  Poppy,  in  French 
Coquelicoc.  The  flower  of  this  plant,  which  is  the 
principal  part  employed  in  medicine,  is  glutinous^ 
and  changes  a  little  the  blue  paper,  like  the  folu- 
tion  of  opiu.m  ;  whence  it  is  believed  that  it  has  a 
fait  analogous  to  it.  But  in  the  opium,  that  fait, 
which  approaches  near  the  fal  atmnoniac,  is  mixed 
with  a  great  deal  of  fiEtid  oil,  whereas  in  the  poppy 
there  is  a  great  deal  lefs  of  oil,  and  much  more 
vifcous  phlegm  ;  fo  that  the  flowers  of  this  plant 
are  fweetening,  and  proper  to  help  fpitting  in  the 
fluxions  of  the  breaft,  in  colds,  and  in  dry  coughs 
They  flop  the  hemorrhager.,  and  are  a  little  fudo- 
rifick.  The  water  diftilled  from  the  flov/ers  of 
poppies,  is  prefcribed  from  three  ouncfs  to  fix  ; 
the tiniture  is  taken  by  glafles,  in  the  fllixions  of 
the  biieaft.  1  he  foUov/ing  diet  drink  is  excellent 
for  a  dry  cough  :  you  muil  boil  thr^e  ounces  of 
roots  of  bttglcfs,  and  as  much  of'  thofe  of  gramen. 


or  grafs,  in  two  pints  of  water,  and  pour  the  boil" 
ing  decoflion  upon  an  ounce  of  flowers  of  poppies') 
and  upon  three  heads  of  white  poppies,  cut  fmall' 
and  tyed  up  in  a  little  fack.  The  dryed  flowers  o^ 
poppies  are  ufed  like  tea.  A  conferve  and  a  fyrup  is 
made  of  them. 

¥ohyeoT>iVMvulgare,  Oke-form.  The  root  of 
this  plant  analized  gives  feveral  acid  liquors,  a  fmall 
quantity  of  urinous  fpirit,  no  concrete  volatile  fait, 
a  great  deal  of  oil,  and  fome  earth.  The  antients 
believed  this  root  purgative.  Menardus  is  the  firft, 
among  the  moderns,  who  difcovered  that  it  purges 
but  llightly  ;  and  Dodoneus  cifcifefTes  that  it  does 
not  purge  at  all,  unlefs  it  be  boiled  in  the  broth 
made  of  an  old  cock,  with  mallows  and '  leeks. 
The  oke-form  fweetens  the  blood,  and  carries  ofF 
the  obftru6tions  of  the  vifcera.  It  muft  be  ufed 
for  a  dry  cough,  when  the  faliva  is  fait  ;  in  the 
afthma,  fcurvy,   and  hypochondriacal  afFeclions. 

PuLEGiUM  latifoUum,  Penny-royal.  This  plant 
is  very  bitter,  very  acerb,  of  a  penetrating  fmell, 
and  changes  much  the  blue  paper  ;  whence  it  is 
conjedured  that  it  has  an  aromatick  and  oily  volatile 
(ilk,  yet  loaded  with  acid  ;  whereas  in  tlie  artificial 
volatile  fait  this  acid  is  flopped  by  the  fait  of  tartar ; 
therefore  this  plant  is  aperitive,  hyfterick,  proper 
for  the  maladies  of  the  ftomach,  and  thofe  of  the 
breaft,  when  'tis  wanting  to  difiipate  thofe  gluti- 
nous matters  which  obftrudl:  the  bronchia,  and  ve- 
ficles  of  the  lungs  ;  efpecially  when^boiled  with 
honey  and  allocs  :  for  then,  as  Dlofcorides  obferves,' 
it  purges,  and  helps  the  expeftoration.  Tragus 
fays,  that  the  juice  of  this  plant  clears  the  fight, 
and  carries  ofl^  the  rheum.  For  the  diftempers  of 
the  eyes,  Montaniis  prefcribed  the  powder  oi  penny- 
royal mixed  with  equal  parts  of  vinegar,  honey, 
and  water.  The  conferve  of  the  flowers  and  leaves 
of  this  plant  are  good  for  dropfical  perfons,  and  for 
thofe  who  have  the  yellow  jaundice.  Mr.  R'ayaC- 
fures  us,  after  Mr.  Boyle,  that  a  fpoonful  of  the 
juice  of  penny-royal  is  a  good  remedy  to  appeafe  the 
convulfive  cough  of  children.  Cbsfneau  prefci  ibcd 
a  glafs  of  the  decodion  of  this  plant  for  hoarfcnefs, 
and  advifed  to  take  it  at  night,  going  to  bed. 

QuiNQUEFGLIUM  tnajiis  repcns,  Cinquefoil. 
Mr.  Ray  has  very  well  deicribed  the  fruit  of  this 
plant.  The  talle  of  its  leaves  has  fomething  glu- 
tinous, they  change  a  little  the  blue  paper,  but  the 
roots  change  it  more  ;  they  have  fome  acidity,  and 
iu-e  fliptick,  which  makes  us  believe,  that  amidd 
a  great  deal  of  earth  and  fulphur,  they  contain  an 
aiurhlnous  fait  modified  v,-ith  a  fm.dl  quaniitv  of 
fal  ammoniac,  which,  in  the  leaiies,  is  very  much 
embarrafied  in  a  vifcous  phlegm.  This  plant  is 
vuIneVary,  and  aftringent.  By  the  analyfis  it  gives 
a  fiifall  quantity  of  concreted  volatile  fait.  '  Befide 

the 


33^  ^^  Univcrfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^^^^  Sciencfs. 


the  extraift  prepared  of  the  roots,  they  are  alio  fuc- 
cefsfully  employed  in  diet-drinks,  and  in  the  af- 
tringent  broths,  for  the  fpitting  of  blood,  the  he- 
monhodal  flux,  for  the  heat  of  urine,  and  for  all 
ibrts  of  henioiThages  The  oiargarifm  made  with 
the  decoiSion  of  this  plant,  cures  the  ulcers  of  the 
mouth  and  fore  throats.  It  is  allured,  that  a  drachm 
of  the  powder  of  the  fame  root  taken  in  a  glafs  of 
water,  before  the  paroxyfm,  carries  off  intermit- 
tent fevers. 

Myrt'ifolius,  Butcher' s-bfoom.  The 
plant  is  one  of  the  five  common  ape- 
proper  to  carry  oft"  the  obflruClions  of 


Ruscus 
root  of  this 
ritive  roots, 
the  v'lfcera. 


and  to  accelerate  the  paflagc  of  urine. 


•For  the  dropfy,  cachexy,  jaundice,  calculus,  and 
the  retention  of  urine ;  it  is  prefcribed  in  broth, 
diet  drinks,  and  apozenis  :  for  fcrophulous  tumours 
half  a  pint  of  white  wine,  in  which  has  been  ma- 
cerated a  drachm  of  the  powder  of  the  roots  of 
rufcus,  with  equal  quantity  of  thofe  of  fcrophu 
laria,  and  fil'ipendula,  mult  be  drank  for  feveral 
days  fucceflively.  The  conferva  of  the  berries  of 
rufaii  is  very  good  for  the  exceffive  heat  of  urine. 
The  feeds  of  rufcm  are  employed  in  the  compofi- 
tion  called  bcnediSia  laxativa. 

Saubucvs,  /ru(^u  in  utnlel'a  nigra,  elder-tree. 
The  leaves  of  this  plant  have  at  firft  a  fait  tafte  j 
and,  afterwards,  they  are  bitter.  The  fruit  is 
Iweetilh. 

By  the  analyfis  the  leaves,  befidjs  feveral  acid 
and  alkaline  liquors,  give  a  concrete  volatile  fait, 
much  oil,  and  much  earth.  Therefore  there  is  ap- 
pearance, that  this  plant  operates  by  z.fal  armoniack 
more  loaded  with  acidity  than  common  ;  and  mixed 
with  a  great  deal  of  foetid  oil  and  earth.  The  fait, 
which  is  in  the  fruit  of  eUer,  approaches  nearer 
the  allum  than  t\it  fal-atmnonia.k.  There  is  but  a 
very  fmall  quantity  of  urinous  fpirit  extrafted  from 
its  parts,  but  much  of  acidity,  oil,  and  earth.  Bau- 
hi':,  and  Mr.  Ray  have  taken  the  flower  of  this 
plant  for  a  flower  of  five  leaves,  though  Tourncfort 
has  found  it  of  a  fingle  piece.  Hi[pcerates  ufed  the 
elder  to  purge,  and  tohelp  the  evacuation  of  urine. 
Diofcoriiles  fays,  that  the  decodlion  of  its  fummities 
purges  the  ferofities,  and  eafes  the  dropfical,  as 
well  as  the  wine,  in  which  the  roots  have  been 
boiled.  1  hefe  parts,  according  to  the  fame  author, 
are  good  for  the  bite  of  vipers,  and  for  the  hyfleiick 
paffion,  as  well  as  the  fruit  dtank  in  wine.  Diof- 
corides  adds,  that  the  leaves  of  elder  appeafe  the  in- 
flammation, cure  the  burnt  ulcers,  the  bite  of  a 
mad  dog,  and  the  gout.  Tragus  and  Dodineus  or- 
dered to  drink  the  juice  of  the  middle  bark  of  e  der, 
to  purge  the  bile,  and  the  ferofities,  or  had  it  ma- 
cerated in  wine  or  milk,  after  it  had  been  pounded. 
Gefnet  prefcribed  the  decodlion  of  that  bark,  for 


an  excellent  fudorifick  in  the  plague,      y.  Bauhirt 
ordered    the  dropfical  to  drink  three   times  a  day, 
an  ounce  and  a  half  of  the  water  of  the  middle 
bark  of  elder,  viz.   tiie  firft  in  the  morning,  the 
fecond  at  noon,  and  the  laft  at  night.     The  flower 
of  this  tree   fried  with   eggs,  purge  well   enough, 
but  they  muft  be  frelh  gathered,   for  they  lofe  their 
virtue  in  drying.     The  whey  wherein  thofe  dry'd 
flowers  have  been  macerated,  is   of  a  great   fuc- 
cour  to    thofe  who  have  the  fmall-pox  and   the 
ercfipele.     They  muft  drink  a  glafs  of  it  morn- 
ing and   night  and  have    their  face  waflied  with 
two  parts   of  the  w  ter    of  the    flowers    of  elder, 
and    a    part   of    good  fpirit  of  wine.       A    con- 
ferve  and  a  fyrup  are  made  of  thofe  flowers.     They 
are  put  in  vinegar,  and  boiled  flightly  with  honey, 
to  be  ufed  in  clyfters.    Of  elder-berries  are  prepared 
the   rob,    extract,     fpirit,     wine,    fyrup    and  oil. 
For  the  rob  a  pound  of  the  juice  of  elder-berries, 
with  half  a  pound  of  fugar,  is  thickened  on  a  flow 
fire.       The   extrail,  according   to   J^iercetan,    is 
made  in  the  following  manner.    The  fruits  of  elder 
dried    from   the  fun,  muft  be  put  into  a  matrafs, 
pouring  over  it  the  he(\  fpirit  of  iviiie,  which  muft 
rife  about  five  fingers  breadth  above  the  fruit,    ad- 
ding to  it  fome  fpirit  of  fulphur,   :uid  leaving  the 
whole  in  digeftion  during  five  or  fix  days  ;   which 
expired,  the  tindture  mull:  be  fi.ltratcd,  which  is  very 
good  for  the  hylierick  :   the  dofe  is  half  a  fpoonful, 
or  a  fpoonful.     To  make  the  extract,  the  fpirit  of 
iL-inc  is  drawn  off  by  diftillation,  and  the  extract  re- 
mains at  the  bottom  of  the  cucurbit.    The  dofe  is  a 
Icruple,  or  even  a  drachm,  for  the  fame  diftemper, 
and  for  the  diarrhoea.     The  ardent  fpirit  of  elder- 
berries is  a  very  great  fudorifick,  as  well  as  the  juice 
of  thofe  berries,  which  is  eafily  preferved,   or  with 
oil,  or  mixing  with  it  one  third  of  the  bed  fpirit  of 
ivine.   Of  the  grains  of  thofe  berries  is  extracted  an 
oil,  which  apppeafes  the  gout.     For  the  fame  ma- 
lady another  fort  of  oil  is  ufed,  made  by  the  refolu- 
tion  of  the  leaves  of  elder,  whofe  ribs  are  bruifed, 
and  afterwards  put  into  an  earthen  pot,  which  being 
\'eryc!ofclv  luted,  with  plaifter,  is  buried  very  low  in 
the  ground  ;  at  the  end  of  a  year  is  found  in  the  bot- 
tom of  that  pot  a  fort  of  oil,  very  good  for  the  gout. 
I"he  leaves  of  cider  boiled  in  ftrong  wine  are  very 
refolutive ;  they  carry  off  the  fwelling  of  the  legs  of  the 
dropficals,  efpecially  if  a  vaporous  bath  be  made  of 
them,  or  frequent  fomentations,  and  the  leaves  are 
applied  in  cataplafms,  it  is  proper   to  mix  with  it 
the  leaves  and   flowers   of  taniy,     Mathiole  gives 
the  defcript'on  of  an  excellent  unguentum  for  a  burn. 
He  will  have  a  pound  of  the  middle  bark  of  elder 
boiled  into  two  pounds  of  oil  of  olive  ;  the  oil  is 
llrained  through  a  cloth  ;  when  the  bark  is  become 
black,  and  fcems  to  be  done  enough,  there  are  ad- 
ded 


B   0   r  A  N  r. 


337 


deJ  to  it  two  ounces  of  new  wax,  and  as  much  of 
the  juice  of  the  tenderell  branches  of  elder,  which 
is  boiled  to  the  confumption  of  the  juice.  This 
done,  the  veflel  is  taken  of}"  the  fire.  Then  muft 
be  added  to  it  two  ounces  of  turpentine,  four  ounces 
oUbanwn,  and  two  hard  yolks  of  eggs.  The  un- 
guentum  is  preferved  in  an  earthen  pot  for  the  gout, 
for  the  inflammation  of  the  piles,  and  for  burns.  It 
fuffices  to  boil  the  middle  bark  of  the  branches  of 
elder  in  oil  of  olives,  or  in  that  of  walnuts,  and  to 
give  it  the  confiltence  of  twguentum,  v/ith  a  fuffici- 
ent  quantity  of  new  wax,  and  yolks  of  eggs  ;  no- 
thing can  cafe  more  thofe  who  have  been  burnt  with 
gunpowder,  than  to  apply  immediately  on  the  burnt 
part  the  common  honey,  and  afterv^ards  the  oil  of 
walnuts,  with  which  has  been  boiled  the  elder. 

Saxifrage  rotundifoUo,  Saxifrage.  This  plant 
is  efteemed  a  very  grand  diuretick.  The  infufion 
of  its  roots  in  white  wine,  or  in  cinnamon-ivaier, 
is  its  ufual  preparation.  Facchius  aflures  us  that  it 
provokes  the  menjes,  and  that  it  purges  the  lungs 
of  that  tiiick  lyrrpha,  which  hinders  their  motion. 

ScABIOSA  piufenjis  hirfuta  quce  ojficinarurn.  Sea 
hious.  The  figure  which  Tabernamontanus  gives 
of  this  i-lant  is  very  good.  The  fcabious  is  bitter, 
aiid  chaiiges,  a  little,  the  blue  paper  ;  whence  it  is 
conjectured  that  it  contains  a  fait  which  approaches 
near  thz  faUarmoniack,  mixed  with  great  quantity 
of  fcedid  oil  and  earth  ;  for  by  the  analyfis,  befides 
feveral  acid  liquors,  there  are  extrafted  from  this 
plant  much  fulphur  and  earth,  a  fmall  quantity  of 
urmous  fpirit,  and  of  a  concrete  volatile  fait.  The 
Jiahious  is  fudorifick,  aperitive,  deterfive,  vulne- 
rary, proper  to  help  the  cxpedtoration,  when  the 
brunchia,  and  the  veficles  of  the  lungs  are  fluffed 
with  a  thick  and  glutinous  phlegm.  The  juice  of 
this  plant  is  prefcribid  from  three  ounces  to  fix,  in 
which  is  diflclved  a  drachm  of  teriake,  and  ten 
grains  of  camphire,  when  the  patient  muft  be 
fweated.  This  remedy  is  good  in  malignant  fevers, 
in  the  fmall  pox,  the  meafles,  and  the  pleurify, 
after  the  ufe  of  the  antimonial  remedies.  The  wa- 
ter of  fcabious,  and  that  of  carduus  henediSlus,  are 
commonly  mixed  m  expeclorative  and  fudorifick 
_^uleps  A  fyrup  is  made  of  the  juce  extrafted  from 
the  whole  plant,  which  is  very  proper  for  all  cuta- 
Heous  diftempers.  But,  mean  while,  the  parts 
be  waihed  with  the  deception  of  fcabious  ;  with 
every  pint  of  that  decoition  are  mixed  three  fpoon- 
fuls  of  camphorated  brandy  ;  the  whole  is  {trained 
through  a  cloth,  to  feparate  the  camphire  chilled  on 
the  decodlion.  Drank  by  fpoonfuls,  it  is  good  for 
vapours.  Tabermemontanus  fays,  that  the  juice  of 
fabious,  mixed  with  fome  borax  and  co'nphirc, 
(wrrius  oft"  thofe  i"pots  feen  often  on  the  cornea. 


Serph.i.u.m,  wild  hetcny;  there  are  difR-rent 
fpecies  of  this  plant,  but  they  all  become  alike  by 
the  culture.  IVild  betony  is  a  little  bitter,  acerb,, 
ftiptick,  odoriferous,  and  changes  the  blue  paper. 
Tliere  is  appearance  that  it  abounds  with  aroma- 
tick  and  oily  volatile  fait;  but  this  fait  retains  yer 
part  of  the  acidity  of  the  fal  ammoniac  of  the  earth, 
when  as  in  the  artificial  oily  and  aromatick  volatilc 
falt,  the  acid  part  of  the  fal  ammoniac,  has  been 
ftopt  by  the  fait  of  tartar,  therefore  the  tvild  betony 
is  cephalick,  ftomachal,  and  proper  for  the  \'apour.>. 
It  deftroys  the  explofive  matter  which  caufes  the 
corivulfive  motions.  It  furnifhes  the  blood  v^'ith 
fpirituous  particles  :  it  reft  ores  the  natural  fun(Slion,<:j, 
and  carries  off  the  obftru6tions.  The  fpirit  of  this 
plant  and  the  water  diltilled  from  it,  arc  very  pro- 
per for  foporous  affections,  and  for  the  vapours.  Its 
effential  oil,  and  the  water  extraited  from  its 
flowers,  macerated  in  brandy,  and  diftilled  after- 
wards, are  efteemed  for  the  epilepf}-.  For  a  cold, 
or  an  old  cough,  two  large  handfuls  of  wild  betony^ 
are  thrown  ijito  a  pint  of  boiling  water.  Then  the 
pot  is  taken  off  the  fire,  and  covered  :  afterwards 
two  fpoonfuls  of  white  honey  are  difiblved  in  the 
infufion  ;  which  the  patient  muft  drink,  very  hot, 
at  night  in  going  to  bed.  The  conferve  made  of 
the  flowers  of  this  plant,  is  a  remedy  for  the  epi- 
lepfy. 

Tabacum,  tobacco,  is  a  a  plant  that  was  brought 
into  Europe  from  America  \  and  may  be  cultivated 
with  fuccefs  in  any  part  of  Europe. 

\f  tobacco  be  ufed  with  judgment  and  moderation, 
it  may  juftly  claim  the  precedency  of  all  other  re- 
medies ;  for  if  thruft  whole,  or  in  powder,  into 
the  nofe,  when  neceflity  requires,  it  pricks  the 
membrane  which  lines  the  innermoft  parts  of  the 
nofe,  and  the  bones  which  enter  into  its  compofitioni- 
that  membrane  being  thereby  contratJted,  prefier 
the  papilla  a.'id  fmall  gland  found  in  its  texture, 
and  from  them,  as  from  fponges  fqueezed  with  the 
hands,  forces  out  the  fnot,  which  being  purged, 
ftreams  of  ferofities  follov/ing  the  fame  motion, 
like  water  running  through  a  cock,  are  continu- 
ally flowing  from  the  adjacent  veffels  and  glands. 
A  like  thing  happens  when  tobacco  is  chewed  or 
finoked;  for  the  maxillary  glands,  and  falivary 
di:£ts,  being  likewife  there'try  irritated  by  a  repeated 
conlraiTdon, difchargea-confiderablequantity of  that 
faliua,  which  caules  the  flu.\ions  ;  and  by  the  fuc- 
ceffive  contraction  and  extenfion  of  the  mem- 
branes, the  lungs  purged'of  a  vifcous pitu'da,  are  free 
from  afthmaj  cough^  catarrh,  and  other  dangerous 
affections.  Tobacco  appeafes,  likewife,  bv  its  ful- 
phur, the  excruciating  pain  of  the-  teeth-;  nav,  it 
has  even  the  excellent  qualities  of,  the  Nepenthes 

at 


I 


38 


TJje  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  <3:;?^  Sciences. 


oi  Homer;  for  it  makes  us  forget  the  cares  of]  T  vssiL  ago  vulgaris,  Fole  foot,  colt' s-fcotj^orfe. 
this  life,  renders  us  happy  in  the  molt  extreme  foot.  The  leaves  of  this  plant  are  green  a-top, 
poverty,  carries  along  with  it,  into  our  veins,  i  ianuginous,  and  while  underneath  ;  they  arc  bitter, 
the  moft  flattering   hope  ;    eafcs  our   mind, 


and 
even  fupplies  the  want  of  victuals  ;  for  by  its 
means,  an  abundance  of  piiuitu  falls  into  the  fto- 
mach,  which  renders  hunger  fupportable,  and  hav- 
ing ftupified  the  fenfe  of  the  nerves,  appeafes  the 
craving  ftomach.     Tobacco  is  not  only  a  remedy  to 


glutinous,  a  little  ilyptick. ;  they  taftc  of  artichoke, 
and  change  very  little  the  blue  paper.  It  fcemi  as 
if  there  was  in  this  plant  a  fait  like  that  of  coral, 
wrapped  up  in  fulphur,  and  much  vifcous  phlegm. 
The  leaves,  ar.d  flowers  of  cohs  foot  are  fweating, 
moderately  aperitive,  and   dedicated  (if  I  may  ule 


our  internal  indifpofitions,  but  cures,  likewife, !  the  expreflion)  to  the  maladies  of  the  breaft,  cau(ed 
gnawing  ulcers,  and  by  eating  the  putrid  and  fun-  j  by  acrimonious  and  fait  ferofities.  Afthmaticks  are 
gous  fle1h,  cicatrizes  thofe  which  have  rendered  ,  ordered  to  fmoak  the  leaves,  inftead  of /oZ-awci.  Mr. 
abortive  the  virtues  of  the  beft  remedies.  But  as  ;  Boyle  advifes  to  mix  the  flowers  of  brimltoiie  with 
much  as  toljacco  is  capable  to  produce  all  thefe  falu- ,  thole  of  colt'.-faot,znd  afllires  us,  that  ithas  cured  fe 
tary  efFecfs,  it  is  as  certain,  that  it  can  alfo  be  at-  |  vcral  Phthificks.  In  Diofccrides's  time,  thofe  fort  of 
tended  with  very  dangerous  coniequences,  when  i  patients  were  made  to  receive,  by  the  mouth,  the 
taken  to  excefs,  or  without  judgment :  for  as  it  has  '  fmoke  of  the  leaves  of  colt's-foot.  'i  he  leaves  and 
a  corrofive  faculty,  whereby  it  mundifies  the  moll  j  flov/ers  are  ufed  in  pectoral  decoflions,  and  in  the 
filthy  ulcers,  and  corrodates  the  fwelling  and  cada-  loches  proper  to  facilitate  expedtoration;  a  fyrup  and 
verous  procefles,  to  the  quick  flefh  ;  what  dan- j  a  conferve  are  made  of  thofe  flowers.  The  following 
gerous  efFefls  will  it  not  produce,  by  its  burning  diet- drink  is  very  good  for  a  dry  cough  :  four  pints 
fait,  if  too  often  taken  in  fnuff,  or  fmoaked  ?  for ,  of  boiling  water  are  poured  over  four  handfuls  of 
then,  wounding  the  tenderell:  membranes,  it  ren-  the  leaves  of  M/fj-/i«/,  and  a  half  a  handful  of  its 
ders  the  nerves  of  the  throat  and  ftomach  convul- :  flowers,  half  a  handful  of  the  fummits  of  hyilbp, 
five,  and  throws  the  whole  nervous  mechanifm  :  an  ounce  of  dry'd  raifins,  and  three  fpoonfuls  of  the 
into  difordcr.  Of  what  detriment  muft  he  „ the  |  beft  honey  ;  the  whole  is  left  to  boil  for  the  fpace 
fdiva.,  if  falling  into  the  ftomach,  impregnated  ,  of  two  minutes,  then  it  muft  betaken  off  tJie  fire, 
with   that  fait,  "it  communicates  to  the  aliments,  [  and  covered,  and  the  diet-drink  ftrained  when  it  is 


already  changed  into  chyle,  that  dangerous  acri- 
mony, to  have  it  carried  through  the  whole  body 
by  means  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  .''  ISc. 

Tea.  M.  De  Farcy  fpeak  thus  of  tea :  This 
precious  leaf.  Tea,  contains  two  fubftances,  one 
fixed,  and  the  other  terreftri.al,  which  render  its 
infufion  bitter ;  but  the  other  abounding  with  vola- 
tile fait,  communicates  a  grateful  fmell  to  the 
fame  infufion,  which  infufion  produces  the  fol- 
lowing good  efiefts  :  it  diffipates  foporous  af- 
fefiions,  and  keeps  one  awake  ;  it  cures  ebriety, 
or  exceffive  drinking,  and  ftrengthens  the  ftomach  ; 
it  raifes  the  ob{tru6lions  of  the  fpleen,  or  milt, 
cures  the  cholick,  and  clean  fes  the  reins  of  a  vil- 
cous'  Lyinpha ;  it  appeafes  the  excruciating  tor- 
ments of  the  rheumatifm  and  gout,  and  perhaps 
might  render  the  cure  perfe£l. 

ToRMENTiLLA,  fylvejiris,  Torment'tlle.  The 
flower  of  this  plant  is  of  four  leaves.  The  root  of 
tormentillc  is  ftyptick,  vtry  bitter,  and  changes  a 
little  the  blue  paper ;  the  leaves  change  it  lefs  ; 
they  have  a  glutinous  tnfte.  By  the  analyfis,  this 
plant  gives  only  an  urinous  fpirit,  no  vol-atile  con-  ;  moft  violent  paroxyfms  of  the  aftiima,    a  pint  of 


cold. 

Valeriana flvcy'fris,  valerian,  oxjiewal.  The 
leaves  of  this  plants  have  no  fmell,  but  they  have  a, 
tafte  of  fait  herb,  bitter,  and  change  the  blue  pa- 
paper  ;  the  roots  change  it  but  little  ;  they  are  bit- 
ter, ftyptick,  of  an  aromatick  fmell,  but  penetrat- 
ing, and  which  has  fomething  unpleafant.  This 
plant  has  an  aromatick  and  oily  volatile  fait,  loaded 
with  part  of  the  acid  of  the  fal  ammoniac,  whereas 
in  the  artificial  oily  volatile  (alt  that  acid  has  been 
flopped  by  the  fait  of  tartar.  Therefore  the  vale- 
rian is  anti-epileptick,  fudorifick,  hyfterick,  and 
proper  to  provoke  the  menfes.  It  eafes  much  the 
afthmatick,  and  thofe  who  are  fubjecf  to  vapours. 
Canierariui  efteems  it  for  the  jaundice,  andColumna 
for  the  epilcpfy.  7  his  author  pretends  to  have 
cured  epilepfies  in  ufing  thefe  roots.  He  advifes, 
to  gather  it  before  it  flioots  forth  the  ftems,  to  re- 
duce it  into  pov/der,  and  take  half  a  fpoonful  of 
it  in  wine,  water,  milk,  or  other  liquor.  It  may 
be  given  to  children,  and  to  all  thofe  who  are  fub- 
ie>fi:  to  convulfions.     For   the  hyfterick,    and   the 


Crete  fait,  much  acid,  oilj  and  earth  ;  therefore  there 
is  appearance  that  it  contains  an  aluminous  fait, 
wrapped  up  in  a  great  deal  of  fulphur,  and  mixed 
with  very  \in\efal  ammoniac.  This  plant  is  vulne- 
rary, aftiiingent,  and  deterfive. 


boiling  water  muft  be  poured  over  an  ounce  of  the 
roots  of  this  plant,  and  the  veflel  being  taken  ofF 
the  fire,  and  covered,  the  infufion  is  taken  by 
ghifles.  The  extra  "t  of  thefe  roots  is  good  for  the 
fame  maladies.     The  dofe  is  a  fcruple,  with  a' grain 

of 


BOTANY, 


339 


of  laudanum,  or  the  laudanum  is  mixed  with  the 
powder. 

Viola  rnartia,  purpurea,  jiore  ftmplici,  the 
Viokt.  The  root  of  this  plant  is  a  little  fait,  glu- 
tinous, and  deterfive  ;  it  does  not  change  the  blue 
paper,  no  more  than  the  leaves,  which  are  infipid, 
and  more  glutinous.  The  frefh  feeds  change  it 
a  little,  and  are  falter  than  the  roots.  There  is  in 
the  vlokt  a  glutinous  fap,  which  wraps  up  the  other 
principles,  and  flops  their  a£tivity  ;  for  by  the  ana- 
lyfis  are  extracted  from  this  plant  fcveral  acid  li- 
quors, much  oil,  a  fufficient  quantity  of  concrete 
volatile  fait,  enough  lixivial  fixed  fait;  but  it  is  not 
furprizing  if  it  be  fweetened  by  its  phlegm,  and  its 
oil,  and  if  it  is  diuretick,  and  laxative  by  the  mix- 
ture of  the  other  principles.  The  fait  of  the  viokt 
participates  of  the  fal  ammoniac,  fincc  it  is  compofcd 
of  an  urinous  part.  The  infufion  of  two  ounces  of 
the  roots  of  this  plant,  is  both  emetick  and  cathar- 
tick;  the  leaves  are  emollient  and  laxative,  they 
are  employed  every  day  in  clyfters,  fomentations, 
and  cataplafms  ;  the  flowers  are  loofening.  Pote 
rius  afTures  us,  that  a  drachm  of  their  powder 
purges  well  enough.  Of  them  are  prepared  three 
forts  of  fyrup  ;  the  fimple,  whofe  colour  is  very 
beautiful,  provided  it  be  not  boiled  ;  the  compound, 
which  is  the  invention  of  Chefve  ;  and  the  purga- 
tive, of  which  Lemery  gives  the  defcription.  The 
fimple,  and  the  compound,  are  very  proper  for  the 
maladies  of  the  breaft,  caufed  by  acrimonious  and  fait 
humours;  thofe  fyrups  are  cooling.  The  purga- 
tive fyrup  is  proper  for  the  fame  diftempers,  when 
a  purgative  is  wanted  ;  for  the  feeds  and  calices  of 
the  flowers  ufed  in  that  fyrup^  purge  very  well.  The 
roots  could  very  well  be  added  to  it.  EtmulUr 
relates,  that  Timaus  ufed  to  prepare  a  very  good 
laxative  conferve  of  the  flowers  of  violets,  by  giving 
to  manna  the  confiftence  of  conferve,  with  the  juice 
of  thefe  flowers  ;  that  conferve  kept  the  body  open. 
The  dofe  was  from  a  drachm  to  half  an  ounce.  A 
fort  of  ra/T/fa  is  prepared  in  the  following  manner, 
for  thofe  who  are  cortive  :  in  fix  pounds  of  the  juice 
of  the  flowers  o(  violets  muft  be  diflblved,  on  a  clear 
and  gentle  fire,  a  pound  and  a  half  of  manna,  the 
whole  to  be  itrained  through  a  cloth,  adding  to  it  a 
pint  of  very  good  fpiritof  wine.  A  fpoonful  or  two 
of  this  ratijia  muft  be  taken,  if  necefiary,  morning 
and  night.  For  the  nephritick,  and  the  retention  of 
urine,  the  following  emulfions  are  prepared  :  let 
an  ounce,  or  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  feeds  of  violets 
be  pounded  in  a  ftone  or  marble  mortar,  adding  to  it 
fix  ounces  of  the  water  o'i gromcn  ;  ftrain  the  emul- 
fion  through  a  cloth,  and  mix  with  it  an  ounce  of 
fyrup  of  violets. 
17 


Vegetables,  like  animal  bodies,  are  fubjeft  to  an 
infinite  number  of  diftempers,  proceeding  from  in- 
ternal or  external  caufes. 

Among  the  exterior  caufes  of  the  maladies  of 
plants,  blajtipg  deferves  tlic  firft  place,  which,  pro- 
ceeding from  a  ibrt  of  vifcous  humour, corrupts  the 
fubftancc  of  the  plants,  efpccially  the  legumns  and 
corns,  in  which  it  is  found.  Hence,  Vtrgil,  lib,  I. 
Giorgic. 

Mox  bf  frumentis  labor  additus,  ut  mala  culmos, 
ejfet  rubigo. 

The  vines  are  alfo  fubje(ft  to  this  malady. 

Next  to  blajling  is  the  dexv  ;  when  by  a  too  great 
abundance  of  rain,  the  flowers  of  the  vines  are  beat 
down,  as  well  as  young  plants,  which  have  not 
yet  fhot  forth  roots  ftrong  enough  to  ftielter  them 
from  fuch  accidents. 

Then  follows  the  cold  hlaff,  of  which  Pliny,  lib. 
18.  Nat.  Hijl.  c.  28.  fpeaks  thus,  Carbiinculare, 
fays  he,  vites  dicuntur,  ut  quodam  urcdinis  carbone 
exuftie  ;  for  plants  are  imagined  burnt,  when  the 
phlegm,  by  the  cold  nights,  is  coiitradied  in  the 
bud  of  the  vine  ;  or  when,  by  the  excefTive  heat 
of  the  fun,  the  fibres  of  the  leaves,  and  of  the 
clufters  of  grapes,  are  torrificd,  and  thereby  ob- 
ftrudt  the  circulation  of  the  nutritious  juice.  Thefe, 
and  other-like  maladies,  which  proceed  from  the 
air,  zxe.  C2X\tA  fyderation. 

Vcrmiculation,  which  Pliny  mentions,  lib.  17. 
c.  24.  is  nothing  elfe  than  an  irruption  of  worms 
into  trees,  by  whom  they  are  corroded,  efpecially 
thofe  which  bear  the  fweeteft  fruits,  as  apples, 
pears,  &c.  for  the  acerbs,  if  the  oil  be  excepted, 
are  not  fo  much  expofed  to  this  malady. 

Plants  are  fubjedl  to  feveral  other  diftempers, 
proceeding  from  external  caufes,  Wz.  fcabs,  ring- 
worms, and  decortication,  occafioned  by  a  certain 
acrimonious  humour,  intercepted  between  the 
bark  and  the  ligneous  body,  which  diverts  trees  of 
their  bark,  efpecially  in  thcfpring. 

Trees  can  alfo  be  wounded,  but  their  wounds 
are  not  all  mortal  ;  for  the  pine,  ths  fir-tree,  and 
the  terebinth,  are  eafed  by  their  wounds,  which 
procure  the  evacuation  of  part  of  their  fat,  which 
otherwife  would  be  very  trouhlcfome  to  them. 
Others,  efpecially  young  plants,  die,  not  only  by 
feSiion  and  tcrcbration  ;  but  likewife  by  contufion 
and  convulfion,  whereby  the  texture  of  the  fibres 
is  lacerated  :  and  therefore  the  circulation  of  the  nu- 
tricious  juice  is  intercepted  alfo  by  the  bite  of  ani- 
mals, which  aff"efts  the  fame  nutritious  juice.  This 
is  called  a  violent  death. 

X  X  Plants 


340  ^^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

Plants  fufFer  likewifc,  and  fometimes  die,  thro'  I  being  cdntraded,  or  Wheri  they  cannot  retain  Iti 
too  great  a  heat,  or  an  exceflivc  cold.  I  nor  diftribute  it  to  the  feveral  parts  they  are  com- 

There  is,  almoft,  but  one  fole  internal  caufe  of  Ipofed  of,  through  the  imbecillity  of  their  organs : 
the  maladies  of  plants,  viz.  when  trees,  worn  out  which  is  an  infallible  prognoftick  of  their  approach- 
with  age  are  deprived  of  alinient,  by  their  veflels  |  ing  death. 


BREWING. 


IN  the  art  of  brewing  two  principal  things  ari 
to  be  confideied.      Firjl,  the   preparation   of 
the  barley-i  of  which   the  Jnalt   is  made,  and 
then  the  manner  of  extradling  the  liquor  from 
the  malt, 

'  Malt.,  is  %arhy  prepared,  to  fit  it  for  making  a 
potable  liquor  called  heer,  or  ale,  by  flopping  it 
(hort  at  the  beginning  of  vegetation; 

In  making  malt  from  barky,  the  ufual  method  is 
to  fteep  the  grain  in  a  fufficient  quantity  of  wa- 
ter, for  two  or  three  days,  till  it  fwclls,  becomes 
plump,  fomewhat  tender,  and  tinges  the  water  of 
a  bright  brown,  or  reddilh  colour.  Then  this  wa- 
ter being  drained  away,  the  barley  is  removed  from 
the  fteeping  ciftern  to  the  floor,  where  it  is  thrown 
into  what  is  called  the  wet  couch ;  that  is,  an  even 
heap,  rifmg  to  the  height  of  about  two  feet.  In 
this  wet  couch,  the  capital  part  of  the  operation  is 
performed  ;  For  here  the  barley  fpontaneoufly  heats, 
and  begins  to  grow,  fhooting  out  firfl  the  radicle, 
and  if  fufFered  to  continue,  then  the  plume,  ipire 
or  blade.  But  the  procefs  is  to  be  llopped  fhort  at 
the  eruption  of  the  radicle,  otherwife  the  ynalt 
would  be  fpoiled.  In  order  to  flop  it,  they  fpread 
the  wet  couch  thin  over  a  a  large  floor,  and  keep 
turning  it  once  in  four  or  five  hours,  for  the  fpace 
of  two  days,  laying  it  fomewhat  thicker  each  time. 
.After  this,  it  is  again  thrown  into  a  large  heap,  and 
'  tliere  fuflfered  to  grow  fenfibly  hot  to  the  hand,  as 
it  ufually  will  in  twenty  or  thirty  hours  time;  then 
being  fpread  again,  and  cooled,  it  is  thrown  upon 
the  kiln,  to  be  dried  crifp  without  fcorching. 

This  is  the  general  procefs  oi malting,  in  which 
"almoft  every  maifter  has  his  fecret,  or  particular 
■jw!ay  of  working.  But  to  render  the  operation  per- 
fect, the  following  cautions  mufl  be  obferved  : 
I.  That  the  barley  be  newly  thralhed,  or  at  leafl 
newly  winnowed.  2.  That  it  be  not  mixed,  or 
made  up  of  different  forts.  3.  That  it  be  not  over 
fleeped  in  the  ciftern,  or  fo  long  as  to  make  it 
foft.  4  That  it  be  well  drained.  ;  5.  That  .it  be 
carefully  looked  after  in  the  wet  couch,  fo  as  to 
flop  the  firfl  tendency  of  the  blade  to  fhooting. 
6.  Another  caution  is,  to  turn  the  wet  couch  in- 
fide  outermoft,  if  the  harli^  comes,  and  Ihoots  more 


in  the  middle  of  the  heap  than  on  the  fides.  7.  To 
keep  it  duly  turning,  after  it  is  out  of  the  wet 
couch.  8.  To  give  it  the  proper  heating  in  the 
dry  heap.  9.  To  dry  and  crifp  it  thoroughly  upon 
the  kiln,  but  without  a  fierce  fire,  fo  as  to  be  feve- 
ral days  in  drying  a  kiln  of  pale  malt.  And  if  thefe 
dire6lions  be  carefully  obferved,  the  malt  will  al- 
ways be  good. 

The  method  of  malting  Indian  corn  or  Virginia 
wheat,  is  much  lefs  laborious.  For,  if  this  corn 
be  buried  two  or  three  inches  deep  in  the  earth, 
and  covered  with  the  loofe  mould,  dug  up  to  make 
room  for  it,  in  ten  or  twelve  days  time  the  com 
will  fprout,  and  appear  like  a  green  field  ;  at  which 
time  being  taken  up,  and  vvafhed  or  fanned  froth 
its  dirt,  it  is  immediately  committed  to  the  kilit, 
and  by  this  means  ft  becomes  good  malt.  It  is  ob- 
fervable  of  this  corn,  that  both  its  root  and  bla<fc 
muft  (hoot  to  a  confiderable  length,  before  it  will 
make  malt ;  and,  perhaps,  this  is  the  cafe  in  all 
large  bodied  grain.  ■' ' ' 

The  importation  of  malt  from  beyorkl  the  feas  fe 
prohibited  :  and  on  its  being  exported,  it  is  ncft 
only  freed  from  paying  the  excife  of  6d.  a  bufhel, 
but  a  bounty  is  allowed  by  a£l  of  parliament. 

Malt-liquors,  from  the  different  methods  of  pre- 
paring the  malt,  are  diflinguifhcd  into  pale  and 
brown ;  and  from  the  various  methods  taken  in 
brewing  the  liquors,  they  are  divided  into  ak 
and  beer,  flrong  and  fmall,  new  and  old.  The 
colour  of  the  liquor,  and  many  of  its  effecSls,  de- 
pend on  the  manner  of  drying  the  malt  it  is  brewed 
with ;  that  which  has  the  palell  tinge,  is  made  with 
malthnt fender ly  dried  •,  whereas  that  which  is  high 
coloured,,  is  made  with  malt  that  is  high  dried.  Or 
roafted,  as  it  were,  in  compariibn  of  the  other  ; 
and  amber-ale  \s  made  of  a  mixture  of  both. 

Another  difference  in  the  preparations  of  malt- 
liquors  confifts  in  the  larger  quantity  oi  hops  in  beer, 
and  the  i'maller  in  ale ;  for  haps  add  fomething  of 
an  alkaline  nature  to  the  liquor,  and  not  only  ren- 
der it  more  eafy  of  digeftion,  and  fecretion  in  the 
body,  but  while  it  is  in  the  liquor,  prevent  its  run- 
ning into  fuch  cohefionsj  as  would  make  it  ropy, 

vapid. 


Z..JI... 


BREWING, 


341 


vapid,  and  four  :  for  this  reafon  Dr.  ^.huy  is  of 
opiuipn,  that  for  one  conflitution  injuretl  by  htcr, 
there  are  numbers  fpoiled  by  ale^  which  is  apt  to 
ftiift'  the  vefTcls  with  fiimc  and  vifcidity,  to  iriuke 
the  body  unweildy  and  corpuleiit,  and  to-  pave  fhc 
way  far  cachexies,  the  jaundice,  ajlhmas,  and  the 
clropfy. 

'ihc  different  degrees  o^Jlrength  in  malt-liquors, 
alfo  make  them  produce  different  eifedts.  7  he 
ftronger  they  arc,  the  more  vifcid  parts  they 
carry  into  the  blood  :  tJiey  are  therefore  in  general 
the  more  wholefome  for  being  fmall ;  that  is,  of 
fuch  a  ftrength  as  to  carry  (bme  degree  of  warmth 
into  the  fiomach,  but  not  fo  as  to  prevent  their  be- 
ing proper  diluters  of  our  neceffary  food.  Indeed 
people  of  robufl  conftitutions,  who  labour  very 
hard,  may  difpenfe  with  reafonable  quantities  of  the 
firongeft  ;  efpecially  as  their  food  is  frequently  poor 
and  flejider  enough,  the  deficiencies  of  which  this 
fupplies ;  and  their  continual  exercife  and  flrength 
of  body,  digefts  and  breaks  the  vifcidities  of  the 
drink  into  convenient  nourifhment :  though  in  per- 
fons  of  another  habit,  and  way  of  living,  they 
yvould  only  produce  obftrudiions  and  ill  humours. 
As  to  the  age  of  thefe  liquors,  it  has  fomewhat  the 
feme  effeiSl  as  hops,  for  thofe  that'  are  the  longeft 
kept,. are  certainly  lead:  vifcid  :  for  age,  by  degrees, 
breaks  their  vifcid  parts,  and  by  rendering  them 
fmaller,  makes  them  fitter  for  fecretion. 

The  fpirit  oi malt  is  thus  obtained  ;  make  choice 
of  good  water.  They  that  regard  the  ftrength 
more  than  the  colour  of  their  liquor,  prefer  Hand- 
ing waters  in  a  flat  ground,  if  clear  and  fweet,  to 
dpring  or  pump  waters.  But  Sir  'John  Moor  found 
iy  experience,  that  the  befl:  malt  liquor  is  made 
with  water  fupplied  by  a  rivulet,  or  brook  undif- 
turbed  bv  navigation,  fording,  or  floods  of  rain. 

All  waters  that  are  not  greafy,  and  will  bear 
foap  and  lather  without  breaking,  are  good.  But 
the  beft  pale  malt  liquor  is  brewed  with  fpring  and 
well  waters  :  and  Tliames  water  taken  up  near  Lon- 
don makes  the  beft  beer  called  Porter. 

The  Brewer  to  malt  and  water  adds  a  third  in- 
gredient called  hops. 

In  the  ufe  of  hops  confifts  chiefly  the  differences  of 
malt  liquors  ;  for  thofe  hopped  are  called  beery  and 
thofe  'unhopped,  ale.  The  difference  made  by  hop  is 
beft  difcovered,  from  the  nature  and  qualities  of  the 
ho.ps  themfelves  ;  thefe  are  known  to  be  a  fubtile 
grateful  bitter,  in  their  compofition,  therefore  with 
this  liquor,  they  add  fomewhat  of  an  alkaline  na- 
ture, t.  e.  particles  which  are  adiivc,  fublime,  and 
rigid  ;  by  which  means  the  ropy,  vifcid  parts  of 
the  fnalt  are  more  divided,  and  fubtilized  ;  and 
are,  therefore,  not  only  rendered  more  eafy  of  di- 
geflion  and  fecretion  in  the  body  ;  but  alfo,  while 


in  the  liquor,  prevent  it  from  running  into  fuch  co- 
hefions,  as  would  make  it  ropy,  vapid  and  four. 
For  want  of  this,  in  unhopped  drinks,  that  claminy 
fweetnefs,  which  they  retain  after  working,  loon 
turns  them  acid,  and  unfit  for  uk  ;  which  happens 
fooner  or  later,  in  proportion  to  the  ftrength  they 
receive  from  the  mcdt,  and  the  comminution  they 
have  undergone  by  fermentation. 

The  proportion  of  hops  may  be  half  a  pound  to 
an  hogfhead,  of  ffrong  ale;  one  pound  to  a  hogf- 
head,  of  ordinary  Rroag  beer,  to  be  foon  drank  out  ; 
and  two  pounds  to  a  hogfhead  of  March,  or  Oifio- 
her  beer  ;  and  for  the  after- worts,  which  are  not  to 
be  kept  long,  what  comes  from  the  firft  wort,  will 
ferve  well  enough  to  boil  again  with  them.  If  a 
greater  proportion  of  hops  be  put  into  the  firfl  wort, 
and  boiled  all  the  while  the  wort  boils,  tliey  will 
make  it  bitter. 

Regard  is  to  be  paid  not  only  to  the  materials, 
but  to  the  feafon  in  v/hich  we  brew,  and  to  the 
time  employed  in  the  mafhing  tub,  in  boiling  the 
worts,  and  in  working  them  in  the  tun. 

•  As  to  the  feafon :  the  belt  time  to  brew  in  is 
from  Michaelmas  to  Lady-day ;  efpecially  March 
and  October,  ioxjirong  beer,  intended  to  be  kept  the 
year  round  or  longer.  In  liot  weather  the  liquor 
will  frequently  grow  acid  in  the  mafliing  tub, 
which  will  always  be  the  cafe,  if  the  liquor  be  lefi; 
on  the  grains  till  their  earthy  particles  ferment. 

The  ftronger  the  worts,  and  the  longer  they  are  in- 
tended to  be  kept:  the  more  they  require  to  be  boiled. 

As  for  working  the  worts  in  the  tun  or  vaa, 
care  ought  to  be  had  always  to  barrel  them  up  ^ 
foon  as  the  barm  at  top  begins  to  fink.  '  .  ■ 

Five  gallons  of  drink  mull  be  proportioned  to 
every  bufhel  o{ malt,  i.  e.  favoiding  fraftions)  ele, 
ven  bufhels  of  malt,  to  every  hogfliead  of  ale  or 
hcer.  But  it  muft  be  obfcrved,  that  in  jb  great  a 
difproportion  of  7Wr-(^r/W-,  as  eight  to  five,  almoft 
a  third  of  the  liquor,  in  the  firft  wort,  will  be  ab- 
forbed  by  the  ?nalt,  never  to  be  returned  ;  and  that 
an  allowance  is  to  be  mrde  of  about  a  fixth  part,  to 
evaporate  in  boiling:  lb  that  if  it  be  expeiSled  to 
clear  a  hogfhead  of  drink,  that  is,  fifty-four  gal- 
lons, from  the  firfl  wort,  there  mult  be  put  into  the 
■mafli-tub  near  ninety  gallons  of  liquor  ;  but  for  the 
fecond  and  third  wort,  the  goods  being  wet  before, 
no  more  liquor  is  wanted,  but  what  is  intended  to 
make  drink,  except  an  allowance  of  about  a  tenth 
part  for  wafte,  this  not  boiling  fo  long  as  die  firfl: 
wort  ;  and  of  this  fecond  wort  may  be  made  a  hogfr 
head  of  good  middle  beer  or  ale,  as  ftrong  as  the 
common  ale-houfe  drink  m London.  The  third  wort 
will  make  one  hogfliead  of  good  fmall  beer.  In  or- 
dinary brewing,  fix  or  feven  bufhels  of  7nalt  will 
make  one  hogfliead  of  good  ftrong,  and  another  of 
X  X  2  fmall 


542  'The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^«i/ Sciences. 


jmull  h:cr\  and  in  fiich  cafe,  two  moakfes  will  as 
wc'l  take  out  the  ftrength  of  the  malt,  as  three  in 
the  other. 

The  neccfiary  utenfds  for  brewers,  are  a  copper, 
majh-vat,  rueiver,  or  under-back,  rudder,  lead-,  or 
fump^  hmul-jet,  coolers,  or  cool-bncks  ;  tubs,  tuns,  &C. 
All  thefe  utenfils  fliould  always  be  kept  very 
clean,  efpecially  the  majh-vat,  coolers,  tuns,  tubs, 
&c.  and  waftied  well  with  cold  water,  which  is 
better  than  hot ;  for  boiling  water  drives  back  into 
the  wood,  a  certain  four,  fulfome  quality,  which 
the  former  wort  has  left  behind  ;  which  fournefs 
communicates  itfelf  to  the  next  wort,  and  impreg- 
nates it  v.ith  that  fharp  quality  called />r/V^^,  which 
is  often  the  occafion  why  brewers  ale,  in  hot  fea- 
fons,  will  not  keep  above  four  or  five  days,  or 
thereabouts  ;  which  inconveniency  could  be  eafily 
prevented,  by  keeping  the  veffels  clean.  Thofe 
that  brew  only  for  their  own  private  family, 
Ihould  have  their  majh-vat,  and  coolers,  tinned 
over;  which,  in  fome  meafure,  would  prevent  the 
fouring  ot  pricking  of  their  i?/^,  in  fummer. 

For  Alaich,  or  Oclober  beer,  it  is  advifeable  to 
have  large  vefiels  bound  with  iron  hoops,  containing 
two,  three,  or  four  hogfheads,  according  to  the 
quantity  intended  to  be  made,  putting  all  into  one 
veflel ;  that  fort  of  drink  digefting,  and  mellowing 
beft,  in  the  largeft  quantities.  If  the  veffels  were 
not  iron  hooped,  the  March  beer  would  be  in  dan- 
ger to  be  lofl,  or  fpoiled. 

Being  provided  with  all  the  implements  necefla- 
ry  for  brewing,  we  will  begin  the  operation  by 
putting  our  liquor  into  our  copper  ;  which  done,  we 
will  ftrew  a  handful  or  two  of  bran,  or  meal,  upon 
it,  not  fo  much  to  ftrengthen  our  liquor,  as  to  make 
it  heat  quickly ;  for  limple  water,  alone,  is  long 
ere  it  boils. 

Some  put  their  malt  firfl  in  the  majh-vat,  and 
then  pour  in  their  liqudr  for  the  firft  wort ;  but  as 
we  follow  Sir  y.  Moor,  we  will  pour  in  our  liquor 
firft,  for  our  firfl  wort ;  and  let  our  liquor  remain 
in  the  majh-vat  till  the  vapour  from  it  be  fo  far  fpent 
that  we  may  fee  our  face  in  the  liquor  ;  and  then 
pour  in  the  malt  upon  it ;  we  have  this  further  ad- 
vantage, that  we  can  keep  our  liquor  longer  hot, 
and  it  will  fink  gradually,  diflributing  its  (trength 
to  the  liquor  equally,  without  matting;  and  if  it 
does  not  defcend  faft  enough  itfelf,  we  will  prefs  it 
down  with  our  hands  or  rudder,  with  which  we 
ufe  to  ftir  our  moaks.  This  muft  be  done  by  de- 
grees, always  remembering  that  we  {hake  our  facks 
before  we  remove  them,  over  the  fides  of  the  majh- 
vat,  to  get  out  the  flower  of  the  malt  which  Hicks 
to  them.  And  after  all  the  malt  is  fettled,  and  the 
liquor  appears  above  it,  we  mufl  put  into  the  majh- 
vat  as  much  more  hot  water  out  of  the  coppery  as 
1 


will  make  in  all  ninety  gallons  for  one  hogfhead  ; 
then  we  will  ftir  it,  almoft  without  ceafing,  till  it 
has  been  in  the  majh-vat  about  two  hours  from  the 
firft  putting  up  the  malt. 

After  this,we  will  pull  outthe  rudder,  and  putting 
a  little  dry  malt  a- top,  we  will  cover  it  clofe,  and 
leave  it  to  ftand  half  an  hour  undifturbed,  that  it 
may  run  off  clear,  and  the  malt  being  funk  to  the 
bottom,  the  liquor  a-top  will  run  through  it  all 
again,  and  bring  away  the  ftrength  of  it.  After 
this,  we  muft  lift  up  our  tap-Jlaff,  and  let  out 
about  a  gallon  into  the  long-handle  jet,  and  put  it 
back  again,  flopping  the  tap  hole  :  we  will  do  this 
two  or  three  times,  till  wc  find  it  runs  clear,  which 
it  will  not  do  at  firft,  though  our  tap-hole  is  never 
fo  well  adjufted. 

In  the  North  of  England,  where  much  the  beft 
malt-drink  is  made,  they  are  fo  careful  of  makino- 
their  drink  fine,  that  they  let  their  firft  wort  ftand 
in  the  receivers  till  it  is  very  clear,  all  the  grofs 
parts  being  funk  to  the  bottom  ;  this  they  continue 
to  do  about  three  hours  in  fummer,  and  ten  or 
twelve  hours  in  the  winter,  as  occafion  requires 
which  they  call  blinking;  after  which,  leaving 
the  fediment  behind,  they  only  lade  out  the  fine 
into  the  copper  ;  which  cuftom  is  peculiar  to  the 
North,  and  wholly  unpraftifed  in  other  parts. 

When  all  is  run  out  into  the  receivers,  or  under- 
back,  we  will  lade,  or  pump  out  our  fccond  liquor, 
ordered  fo  as  to  be  juft  then  ready  to  boil,  on  our 
moaks  ;  and  putting  the  firft  wort  into  the  copper 
again,  we  will  letit  boil  reafonablyfaft  (which  boiling 
will  be  accelerated  by  the  hops  put  on  it)  for  about  an 
hour  and  a  half,  for  March,  or  Oiiober  beer,  to  be 
kept  long ;  and  an  hour  for  ftrong  ale  to  be  drank 
new.  But  luort  muft  rather  boil  reafonably  faft, 
than  to  ftand  long  to  fimmer;  becaufe  common  ex- 
perience fhews,  it  waftes  lefs,  and  ferments  better, 
after  fo  long  boiling,  than  fimmering. 

Our  firft  wort  being  thus  boiled,  muft  be 
pumped,  or  laded  off  into  one  or  more  coolers,  or 
cool-backs,  in  which  we'll  leave  the  fullage  behind^ 
and  let  it  run  off  fine  ;  the  more  coolers,  and  the 
thinner  it  ftands,  and  the  fooner  it  cools,  (efpe- 
cially in  hot  weather)  the  better.  We'll  let  it  run 
from  the  cool  backs  into  the  tun,  very  cool,  and  will 
not  fet  it  there  to  work,  in  fummer,  till  it  is  as  cool 
as  water  ;  in  winter  it  muft  be  near  blood-warm ; 
at  leaft  the  bowl,  in  which  we  put  the  yeaft,  to 
fet  the  reft  on  working,  muft  have  a.  mixture  of 
wort  hot  enough  to  make  it  all  ferment.  When 
we  find  that  it  begins  to  work  up  thick  to  a  yeaft, 
we'll  mix  it  again  with  our  hand-jet,  and  when  it 
has  worked  itfelf  a  fecond  time  to  a  yeaft,  (if  we 
defign  it  for  ale,  and  fpeedy  drink,  and  hop  it  ac- 
cordingiyj  we'll  beat  in  the  yeaft  every  five  hours, 

for 


BREWING, 


343 


for  two  days  together,  in  fummer,  or  more,  ac- 
cording as  the  weather  is  ;  and  for  three  or  four 
days  in  winter  ;  covering  the  vat  clofe,  that  it  falls 
not  into  the  working  tun.  When  the  yeaft  begins 
to  work  fad,  and  upon  turning  the  concave  of  the 
bowl  downward,  flicks  faft  to  the  infide,  fkimming 
ofF,  then,  the  yeafl:  firft,  we  muft  clean  the  refl 
into  the  velTel,  leaving  all  the  dregs  in  the  bottom 
of  the  tun,  and  putting  only  the  clean  up.  After 
it  has  a  little  fermented  in  the  velfel,  we'll  find  it, 
in  a  few  days  fine,  and  fit  to  drink  ;  though,  ac- 
cording to  the  quantity  of  the  hops,  we  may  pro- 
portion it  for  longer  keeping.  If  we  brew  in 
March,  or  OSlohcr,  and  have  hopped  it  for  long 
keeping,  we  muft  then,  upon  its  fecond  working 
to  a  yeaft,  (after  once  beating  in)  cleanfe  it  into 
the  veffel  with  the  yeaft  in  it,  filling  it  ftill,  as  it 
works  over,  and  leaving,  when  wc  ftop  it  up,  a 
good  thick  head  of  yeaft  to  keep  it. 

Some  make  their  firft  wort  in  this  manner : 
they  make  their  liquor  nenr  boiling  hot,  as  above 
mentioned,  then  pour  juft  fo  much  into  their  maP)- 
vat  as  will  wet  their  malt,  which  they  ftir,  and  let 
ftand  half  an  hour,  which  they  pretend  prepares 
the  malt  the  better  to  communicate  its  ftrength  to 
the  liquor  ;  they  afterwards  pour  the  whole  quan- 
tity of  liquor  over  the  malt,  and  let  it  ftand  an 
hour  and  a  half,  or  two  hours,  if  they  want  to 
have  their  firft  wort  very  ftrong,  and  the  feafon  be 
not  too  hot :  then  they  put  what  quantity  of  hops 
they  think  proper  into  their  receivers,  and  let  their 
wort  run  to  them  ;  and  after  their  hops  have  infufed 
an  hour  and  a  half  in  their  wort,  they  ftrain  it  off 
into  the  coolers,  and  thus  pretend  to  have  perfedted 
their  firft  wort.  Then  they  put  upon  the  malt 
their  fecond  liquor,  near  as  hot  as  the  firft,  rather 
cooler,  if  there  be  any  difference,  which  they  let 
ftand  on  the  malt  no  longer  than  an  hour,  at  moft  ; 
then  take  what  quantity  they  pleafe  of  frefli  hops, 
which  they  put  into  their  receivers  as  before,  and 
let  the  fecond  wort  run  to  them  ;  then  take  both 
fecond  wort,  and  hops  together,  and  put  it  into 
the  copper,  where  they  let  them  infufe  till  the  wort 
is  near  boiling,  and  then  ftrain  this,  alfo,  into  the 
coolers. 

Others  boil  a  quantity  of  water,  which  is  left  to 
cool  till  the  height  of  the  fteam  be  over  ;  then 
pour  fo  much  to  a  quantity  of  malt  in  the  majhing- 
tub,  as  makes  it  of  a  confiftence  ftiff  enough  to  be 
}uft  well  rowed  up  :  after  ftanding  thus  a  quarter 
of  an  hour,  a  fecond  quantity  of  the  water  is  ad- 
ded, and  rowed  up,  as  before.  Laftly,  the  full 
quantity  of  water  is  added,  and  that  in  proportion 
as  the  liquor  is  intended  to  be  ftrong,  or  weak. 
This  part  of  the  operation  they  call  majhing.  The 
whole  now  ftands  two  or  three  hours,  more  or  leis. 


according  to  the  ftrength  of  ihe  wort,  or  the  dif- 
ference of  weather,  and  is  then  drawn  off  into  a 
receiver,  and  the  mafliing  repeated  for  a  fecond 
wort,  in  the  fame  manner  as  for  the  firft ;  only 
the  water  to  be  cooler  than  before,  and  not  to 
ftand  above  half  the  time. 

They  then  mix  the  two  worts,  add  the  intended 
quantity  oi  hops,  and  cover  the  liquor  clofe,  boiling 
it  in  a  copper  for  the  fpace  of  an  hour,  or  two; 
then  they  let  it  into  the  receiver,  and  the  hops  ftrain'd 
from  it  into  the  coolers  ;  when  cold,  they  apply 
the  yeaft,  or  barm,  and  leave  it  to  work,  or  fer- 
ment, till  it  be  fit  to  tun  up. 

It  is  pretended,  that  March  is  the  beft  month  for 
brewing,  and  the  water,  then,  better  than  in  O^o- 
ber  ;  but  Sir  J.  Aloor  fays,  that  he  has  always 
found,  that  the  OHober  beer,  having  fo  many  cold 
months  to  digeft  in,  proves  the  better  drink  by 
much  ;  and  requires notfo  much watching,and  tend- 
ing, as  the  March  beer  does,  by  being  obliged  to 
open  and  ftop  the  hole  on  every  change  of  weather. 
He  fays,  again,  that  he  always  broached  his  at 
about  nine  months  end  ;  his  March  beer  at  Chrijl- 
mas,  and  his  October  at  Midfummer  ;  at  which  time 
he  fuppofes  it  generally  the  beft  ;  and  likewife, 
that  it  would  keep  very  well  in  bottles  a  year  or 
two  more. 

The  veflel,  where  the  beer  is  kept  in,  muft  be 
flopped  clofe  with  cork,  not  clay  ;  and  there  muft 
be  made  near  the  bung-hole  a  little  vent-hole, 
flopped  with  a  fpilc,  which  is  never  to  be  pulled 
out  till  we  bottle  or  draw  off  a  great  quantity  to- 
gether ;  by  which  means  it  is  kept  fo  clofe  flopped, 
that  it  flufties  violently  :)ut  of  the  cock,  for  about 
a  quart,  and  then  flops  on  a  fudden,  and  perlcs, 
and  fmiles  in  a  glafs  like  any  bottled  beer,  though  in 
Winter  ;  but  if  once  the  vent-peg  is  pulled  out  to 
draw  a  quantity  at  once,  it  will  fenfibly  lofe  this 
briflcnefs,   and  be  fome  time  before  it  recovers  it. 

¥  ox  J  mall  bier,  there  is  a  third  maftnng,  with  the 
water  near  told,  and  not  left  to  ftand  above  three 
quarters  of  an  hour,  to  be  hipped  and  boiled  at 
difcretion. 

But  the  beft  finall,  or  table  beer,  is  made  by 
adding  a  larger  proportion  of  liquor  to  the  malt, 
(according  as  one  would  have  it)  and  then  mixing 
the  firft  and  fecond  wort  equally  together. 

Sir  '/.  Moor  fays,  that  the  reafon  why  publick 
and  common  brewers  feldom  or  never  brew  good 
drink  is,  that  they  wet  more  malt  at  once  than  it 
is  poffible  they  can  have  veffels  and  fervants  enough 
to  work,  and  fet  it  cool  enough  to  ferment  kindly  ; 
and  withal  brew  fo  often,  that  they  cannot  fuffi- 
ciently,  between  one  brewing  and  another,  cleanfe 
and  fcald  their  brewing-vejjels  and  barrels,  giving 
them  due  time  to  dry  ;  but  that  they  will  retain 

fuch 


44-  I'he  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  «;?<:/ Sciences. 


fuch  a  ruft  (as  I  have  obferved  already)  as  will  al- 
ways char  z.nd  four  their  liquor.  My  brewers,  ("ays 
he,  have  been  (o  cautious  in  this  particular,  that 
if  any  fervants  had,  by  accident,  made  ufc  of  any 


long-handed  jet,  hand- jet,  or  pail,  waflied  with  cold 
water,  during  the  brevJing,  they  would  (cald  it 
a-new,  and  let  it  dry,  butbrc  they  would  ufe  it 
ao;ain. 


Of   CANDLE-MAKING. 


CANDLES  are  made  of  various  kinds  of  | 
materials.     A   candle  confifts  of  an  out- 
ward and  an  inward  matter.      The  out- 
ward matter  is  either   wax,  fpermO'Ceti, 
talloiu,  or  fat    of  hearts.     The  inward  matter  is 
either   twiiied  cotton,  tow,    or  rujhes  properly   pre- 
pared. 

As  to  the  form  of  candles  ;  they  are  made  of 
various  fizes,  both  as  to  length  and  thickncfs  ;  and 
their  common  figure  is  cylindrical ;  and  they  are 
commonly  of  an  even  fuperficies  ;  but  the  mofl 
genteel  are  fluted. 

Wax  is  the  produce  of  bees,  and  the  beft  way 
to  chufe  it  is  by  its  colour,  fmell  and  fubftance  : 
for  the  beft  is  that  of  a  high  colour,  an  agreeable 
fmell,  brittle,  and  which  does  not  ftick  to  the 
teeth  \\-hcn  chewed. 

This  fort  of  wax  is  bleached,  or  whitened,  by 
reducing  it  firft  into  little  bits,  or  grains,  by  melt- 
ino-  it,  and  throwing  it,  while  hot,  into  cold  water ; 
or  elfe  by  fpreading  it  into  very  thin  leaves,  or 
fkins.  This  zvax,  thus  granulated,  or  flatted, 
(though  it  is  beft  to  be  granulated)  is  expofed  to 
the  air  on  linen  cloths  flretched  tight  on  a  frame, 
raifed  three  or  four  feet  above  ground,  and  expofed 
in  an  open  place,  or  garden,  to  the  moft  powerful 
beams  of  the  fun  ;  the  granulated  luax  is  fpread 
thin  over  it,  where  it  refts  night  and  day,  having, 
equal  need  of  fun  and  dew.  Then  it  muft  be 
melted,  and  granulated  over  again,  feveral  times, 
ftill  laying  it  out  to  the  air  in  the  intervals  between 
the  meltings.  When  the  fun  and  dew  have  at 
length  perfeifly  blanched  it,  we'll  melt  it  for  the 
laft  time,  in  a  large  kettle,  out  of  which  we'll  cafl 
it  with  a  ladle  upon  a  table,  covered  over  with 
round  cavities,  of  what  bignefs  we  pleafe  to  form 
our  wax  into  cakes ;  h.iving  firft  wetted  tliofe  moulds 
with  cold  water,  that  the  wax  may  be  the  eafier 
got  out.  Thefe  cakes  muft  be  laid  out  to  the  air, 
for  two  days,  and  two  nights,  more  or  lefs,  ac- 
cording to  their  thicknefs,  to  render  it  more  tranf- 
parent,  and  drier. 

Our  -wax  thus  prepared,  we'll  go  to  work,  be- 
ginning with  tapers.  Tapers  are  of  a  conical  figure, 
ftilldimlniftiing  from  the  bottom,  which  has  a  hole 
to  receive  the  hook  of  the  candleftick ;  and  are 
made  cither  with  a  ladle,  or  with  the  hand. 


To  make  topers  with  die  ladle,  the  wicks  muft 
be  cut  of  the  proper  length,  and  a  dozen  of  them 
tyed  by  the  neck,  at  equal  diftances,  round  an  iron 
circle,  fufpended  directlyover  a  large  bafon  of  cop- 
per tinned,  and  full  of  melted  wax  ;  then  a  large 
ladle  full  of  this  wax  is  poured  gently,  by  inclina- 
tion on  the  tops  ot  the  wicks,  one  after  another ; 
fo  that  running  down,  the  whole  wick  is  thus 
covered,  the  furphis  returning  into  the  bafon ; 
where  it  muft  be  kept  warm,  by  a  pan  of  coals 
underneath  it.  Wc  muft  thus  continue  to  pour  on 
the  wax  till  the  taper  arrives  at  its  deftin'd  bignefs ; 
ftill  obferving,  that  the  three  firft  ladles  be  poured 
on  at  the  top  of  the  wick,  the  4th  at  the  height  of 
f ,  the  5,th  at  i,  and  the  6th  at  | ;  by  which  means, 
the  taper  arrives  at  its  pyramidal  form  :  which  done, 
the  tapers  muft  be  taken  down  hot,  and  laid  a  fide 
of  each  other  in  a  feather-bed  folded  in  two,  to 
preferve  their  warmth,  r.nd  keep  the  wax  foft ;  then 
they  are  to  be  taken  and  rolled  one  by  one,  on  an 
even  table,  ufually  of  walnut-tree,  .with  a  long 
fquare  inftrument  of  box,  fmooth  at  the  bottom, 
the  roller  having  been  before  moiftened  with  water, 
to  hinder  the  zvaxfvom  flicking  to  it.  The  taper 
being  thus  rolled  and  fmoothed,  its  biggeft  end  is 
cut  ofi^,  and  a  conical  hole  made  in  it  with  a  peg 
fhaped  in  that  form,  which  muft  be  alfo  moiftened 
with  water,  and  the  taper  rolled  all  the  while  the 
]  faid  peg  is  thrufting  into  it,  to  facilitate  its  intro- 
dudion.  While  the  ^ff/><?;- is  yet  warm,  rofes,  and 
other  figures  may  be  made  upon  it,  with  pihcers 
made  oi box,  and  maybe  adorned  with  gold  leaves. 
This  firft  manner  of  making  tapers,  has  been  for  a 
confiderable  time  almoft  out  of  ufe,  by  reafon  of 
-its  being  too  tedious,  too  precarious,  and  becaufe 
tapers  thus  made  are  very  fragile,  or  eafily  broken, 
even  when  expofed  to  theieaft  heat. 

Therefore  the  moft  praftifed  method  of  makino- 
tapers  at  prefent,  is,  by  the  hand ;  ivhich  is  done 
thus  :  the  wax  being  cut  into  pieces,  and  each  piece 
weighed,  according  to  the  intended  weight  of  each 
taper  ;  thofe  pieces  are  put  into  hot  water  contained 
in  a  brafs  cauldron  tinned,  very  narrow  and  deep, 
to  be  foftened  ;  which  is  not  done  by  the  hot  water 
alone,  but  the  wax  muft  be  worked  with  the  hands 
feveral  times  in  the  hot  water,  to  reduce  it  to  a  due 
foftnefs,  that  it  may  be  worked  with  eafe,  and 
I  without 


CANDLE-MAKING, 


345 


without  being  brittle  :  We  muft  obferve,  lilcewife, 
that  the  water  ftiould  not  be  too  hot ;  for  then  it 
would  make  the  wax  run,  and  flick  to  the  handi  ; 
but  it  muft  be  of  fuch  a  moderate  heat,  as  the 
workman  may  bear  his  hands  in  it  to  take  out  the 
•wax  \  which  being  brought  to  a  competent  foftnefs, 
the  workman  hangs  an  end  of  his  wick  on  a  hook 
fixed  on  fome  place  and  at  a  moderate  height  ; 
then  takes  out  a  piece  of  the  wax^  which  he  works 
for  the  laft  time  in  his  hands  ;  then  having  given 
it  the  fhape  of  a  little  channel,  fixes  it  on  the  wick 
at  that  end  tyed  to  the  hook  ;  then  greafmg  his 
hands  with  oil,  or  lard,  but  moft  commonly  with 
oil,  difpofes  his  zv^?*-,  by  little  and  little,  round  the 
•wick,  beginning  with  the  biggeft  end,  and  dimi- 
nifhing  gradually,  till  he  arrives  down  to  the  lower 
end,  which  is  to  be  the  neck  of  the  taper,  and 
where  he  cuts  its  wick  ;  and  then  carries  his  taper 
to  the  table  to  be  rolled,  and  perforated,  as  thofe 
made  with  the  ladle.  Tapers  made  in  this  manner 
are  ftronger,  and  burn  a  great  deal  longer,  and  in 
hot  weather  will  rather  bow  than  break. 

Cylindrical  wax  candles,  are  either  for  the  table, 
or  drawn.  The  firft  kind  are  made  of  feveral 
threads  of  cotton  loofely  fpun,  and  twifted  toge- 
ther, covered  with  the  ladle,  and  rolled,  as  the 
conical  ones,    but  not  pierced. 

Drawn  wax  candles,  are  fo  called,  becaufe  ac- 
tually drawn,  in  the  manner  of  wire,  by  means 
of  two  large  rollers,  or  cylinders  of  wood,  turned 
by  a  handle  ;  which  turning  backwards  and  for- 
wards feveral  times,  pafs  the  wick  through  melted 
wax  contained  in  a  brafs  bafon,  and  at  the  fame 
time  through  the  holes  of  an  inftrument  like  that 
ufed  for  drawing  wire,  faftened  at  one  fide  of  the 
bafon  ;  fo  that  by  little  and  little  the  candle  acquires 
any  bulk  at  pleafure,  according  to  the  different 
holes  of  the  inftrument  through  which  it  pafies. 
By  this  method  may  four  or  five  hundred  ells  length 
be  drawn  running. 

Tallow  is  a  fort  of  animal  fat  melted  down, 
and  clarified.  There  are  fcarce  any  animals  but  a 
fort  of  tallow  may  be  prepared  from  ;  but  thofe 
which  yield  the  moft,  and  whereof  the  moft  ufe 
is  made,  are  the  horfe,  buliock,  fheep,  hog,  goat, 
deer,  bear,  ^'c.  But  the  beft  tallow  for  candles, 
muft  be  half  fheep's,  and  half  bullock's  ;  that  of 
hogs  making  them  gutter,  gives  an  ill  fmell,  and 
a  thick  black  fmoke.  Candles  made  of  dripping 
or  other  kitchen -ftuff"  as  they  call  it,  are  of  little 
or  no  fervice  ;  for  bcfides  that,  they  give  but  a 
very  bad  light,  they  are  almoft  as  ibon  burnt  as 
they  are  lighted. 

The  belt  tallow  is  that  which  is  hard,  has  a 
blueifli  caft,  and  when  handled  does  not  feel  grea- 
fy.     This  tallow  is  made  by  cutting  the  fat  of  die 


animal,  viz.  of  bullocks  and  flieep  into  pieces, 
(though /a//aw  made  wholly  o^  fheep's  fat  be  the 
beft,  and  makes  finer  candles )  and  throwing  it  into 
a  pot  or  boiler,  while  it  is  melting  it  muft  be 
fkimmed  of  all  its  impurities  ;  and  when  entirely 
melted,  it  is  ftrained  through  a  fieve  made  for  that 
purpofe,  to  free  it  of  the  impurities  which  could 
have  efcaped  the  fkimmer  ;  which  is  a  great  deal 
better  method  than  that  of  throwing  water  into  it 
to  precipitate  thofe  impurities  ;  for  the  water  com- 
municates a  certain  humidity  to  the  talloiv,  which 
hinders  the  candles  from  burning  well,  and  is  the 
caufe  why  they  fo  often  crackle  and  fpit  in  the 
burning.  Though  it  be  the  common  pradice  here 
in  England,  where,  after  tha  tallow  is  melted,  they 
empty  it,  thro'  a  fierce,  into  a  tub,  having  a  top 
for  letting  it  out  as  occafion  requires ;  and  ufe  it 
after  it  has  ftood  three  hours. 

The  liquid  tallow  is  drawn  off  from  the  tub, 
which  has  a  tap  for  letting  it  out  into  a  vefltl  called 
the  mould,  fink,  or  abyfs,  of  an  ajigular  form, 
like  a  prifm,  except  that  it  is  not  equilateral  ;  the 
fide  on  whicli  it  opens  being  only  ten  inches  high, 
and  the  others  which  makes  its  depth,  fifteen.  On 
the  angle,  formed  by  the  two  great  fides,  it  is  fup- 
ported  by  two  feet,  and  is  placed  on  a  kind  of 
bench,  in  form  of  a  trough,  to  catch  the  drop- 
pings, as  the  candles  are  taken  out  each  dip.  In 
France,  their  mould,  fink,  or  abyfs,  is  a  ftone 
veflel,  glazed  within  and  without,  of  about  two 
feet  long,  a  foot  and  a  half  deep,  and  four  or  five 
inches  broad  a- top.  This  they  fill  up  from  the 
copper,  ox  poile,  as  they  call  it,  wherein  they  keep, 
their  tallow  melted  over  a  very  flow  fire,  to  keep  it 
always  in  a  due  confiftcnce,  that  they  may  be  ca- 
pable to  fupply  the  ftock  in  the  mould,  when  it 
begins  to  be  too  much  diminifhed.  Before  the  artift 
fets  his  mould  for  the  operation  of  dipping,  he  lias 
all  his  wicks  finged  over  a  flame,  to  finge  off  all  the  ' 
nap,  which  would  be  upon  them,  v^hich  is  fo  often 
the  occafion  why  candles  run  and  flear  ;  and  after 
they  are  thus  fing'd,  they  ar  rubbed  again  with  a 
piece  of  cloth,  to  make  thena  "mooth.  Then  they 
are  all  put  upon  five  or  fix  bro.  'hes,  more  or  Ic-li;,. 
according  to  their  quantity,  and  -ach  broach  im- 
merged  once,  the  tvicks  being  all  i..  a  heap  upon 
each  broach  ;  after  which  immerfion  the  luicks  are 
all  parted,  one  by  one,  fmoothed  and  ftraitened. 
with  the  fingers,  and  then  flrung  on  other  broaches, 
by  fixteen,  if  the  candles  be  eight  in  the  pound  ;  by 
twelve,  if  of  fix  in  the  pound,  isfc.  In  my  opi- 
nion, this  firft  dipping  contributes  much  towards 
making  the  candles  lirait,  as  well  as  facilitating 
the  firft  immerfions,  v/hicb  otherwife  would  be 
attended  with  fome  difliculty,  each  %vick  without 
it  being  too  light  to  be  immerg'd  with  eafe  j  while, 

on 


34-6  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  «;?^  Sciences. 


on  the  contrary,  being  rcndcr'd  iieavicr  by  the 
iallow  they  have  gather'd  in  that  in'^  immerfion, 
that  weight  hclpd  towards  their  precipitation  into 
the  tallow,  and  keeping  at  a  due  diftancc  from  each 
other. 

The  iv'ichi  being  thus  difpofed  upon  the  hroacbes, 
they  are  huna;  on  a  rack,  and  then  the  workman, 
fitting  at  a  due  diftancc  from  his  mound,  takes 
two  broaches,  at  a  time,  and  holding  them  equi- 
diftant,  by  means  of  the  fecond  and  third  fingers 
of  each  hand,  which  he  puts  between  them,  he 
immerges  the  wicks  two  or  three  times  for  their  firft 
lay,  and  holding  them  fometimcs  over  the  top  of 
the  veflel,  to  let  them  drain,  ftrikes  gently  the 
ends  of  the  cnndlcs  againfl:  the  faid  top,  to  make  it 
round,  (which  ftriking  is  repeated  every  time  the 
candles  are  immerg'd,  and  till  they  are  quite  finifh  d, 
which  faves  the  trouble  of  pafling  them,  after  they 
are  made,  over  a  flat  brazen  plate,  heated  to  a 
proper  pitch  by  afire  underneath,  to  take  ofF  their 
peak'd  ends,  or  bottoms)  then  he  places  again  the 
broach  on  the  fame  rack  he  has  took  it  from,  which, 
for  greater  conveniency,  (hould  be  placed  on  his 
right  hand,  beginning  at  the  end  next  to  him,  and 
proceeding  thus  to  the  further  end,  that  when  he 
has  immerg'd  all  his  broaches,  he  may  come  back 
to  the  firft  broach  he  had  begun  with,  and  fo  on  to 
the  others  fucceffively,  that  each  broach  may  have 
time  to  dry  before  'tis  dipp'd  again ;  which  dipping 
is  to  be  repeated  as  often  as  the  workman  judges  it 
proper  to  bring  the  candles  to  the  thicknefs  propofed ; 
with  the  laft  dip  the  candles  are  naked,  /.  e.  plung'd 
below  that  part  of  the  wick  where  the  other  lays 
ended.  During  the  whole  operation,  the  tallow  is 
to  be  ftirred  from  time  to  time. 

We'll  proceed  to  the  making  of  mould  candles  ; 
which  to  perform,  we  have  provided  ourfelves  with 
brafs  and  tin  moulds,  which  are  the  befl:,  which 
moulds  confift  of  three  pieces,  the  neck,  fhaft,  and 
foot.  The  fhaft  is  a  hollow  cylinder,  of  the  dia- 
meter and  length  of  the  candle  propofed  ;  at  the 
extremity  of  this  is  the  neck,  which  is  a  little 
cavity,  in  form  of  a  dome,  hav  ng  a  moulding 
within  fide,  and  pierced  in  the  middle  with  a  hole 
big  enough  for  the  wick  to  pafs  through.  At  the 
other  extremity  is  the  foot,  in  form  of  a  litle  tun- 
nel, through  which  the  liquid  tallow  runs  into  the 
mould.  The  neck  is  foldered  to  the  fhaft,  but  the 
foot  is  moveable,  being  applyed  when  the  wick  is 
to  be  put  in,  and  ta'.cen  oft' again  when  the  candL  is 
cold.  A  little  beneath  the  place  where  the  foot  is 
applied  to  the  fhaft,  is  a  kind  of  firing  of  metal, 
which  ferves  to  fupport  that  part  of  the  mould,  and 
to  prevent  the  fnaft  from  entering  too  deep  in  the 
table,  to  be  mentioned  hereafter.  Laftly,  in  the 
hook  of  the  foot  is  a  leaf  of  the  fame  metal,  fol- 


dered within-fide,  which  advancing  into  the  center, 
ferves  to  keep  up  the  wick,  which  is  here  hooked  ori 
precifely  in  the  middle  of  the  mould. 

Having  thus  defcribed  the  mould,  we'll  proceed 
to  the  operation,  by  introducing,  firft,  by  a  piece 
of  wire,  the  wick  inio  the  mould,  through  the 
aperture  of  the  hook,  till  it  comes  out  at  the  neck, 
to  which  it  muft  be  tyed,  fo  that  in  drawing  the 
wire  back  the  wick  comes  along  with  it,  leaving 
only  enough  atop  for  the  neck  ;  the  other  end  is 
faftened  to  the  hook,  which  keeps  it  perpendicular. 
Then  we'll  difpofe  the  moulds  in  the  table  above- 
mentioned,  pierced  full  of  holes,  each  an  inch  in 
diameter  :  Thefe  holes  receive  the  moulds  inverted 
as  far  as  the  ftring  in  the  foot.  Being  thus  placed 
perpendicularly,  we'll  fill  them  with  melted  talloiv, 
(prepared  as  before)  by  pouring  it  into  the  foot  with 
a  pot,  or  ladle.  After  the  moulds  have  ftood  long 
enough  to  cool,  for  the  tallow  to  have  arrived  at 
its  confiftence,  the  candle  is  taken  out,  by  taking 
oft'  the  foot,  which  brings  the  candle  along  with  it. 
This  fort  of  candles  is  more  agreeable  to  the  fight, 
light  better,  and  laft  longer,  than  the  dipped  ones, 
and  coft  but  a  trifle  more. 

All  thefe  candles  and  tapers  are  made  of  cotton 
or  inv. 

The  cotton  is  bought  in  flceins,  ready  fpun,  by 
chandlers.  In  the  countries  where  that  commo- 
dity is  not  eafdy  come  at,  its  want  is  fupplied  by 
tow,  which  being  fpun  and  whitened,  makes  as 
good  wicks  as  cotton  itfelf.  The  threads,  either 
of  cotton  or  tow,  are  winded  of  three  or  four  to- 
gether, according  to  the  intended  thicknefs  of  the 
wicks,  into  bottoms  or  clues,  whence  they  arc 
cut  out  with  an  inftrument,  contrived  for  that 
purpofe,  into  pieces,  for  the  length  of  the  candle 
required.  If  the  threads  be  made  of  tow,  care 
muft  be  taken,  in  cutting  the  wicks,  to  pick  out 
and  free  it  of  all  the  fmall  rufhes  which  could  have 
been  left  in  it,  and  which  otherwife  would  make 
the  candle  flear,  and  run ;  each  wick,  after  it  is 
cut,  muft  be  flightly  twifted,  and  rubbed,  with  a 
coarfe  piece  of  cloth,  elfe  it  would  not  keep  on 
twifted.  Then  they  muft  be  put  on  the  fticks  or 
broaches,  then  hung  up  to  dry,  in  fome  place  near 
the  fire,  or  in  a  flow  ;  for  unlefs  the  wick  be  tho- 
roughly drj',  the  candle  will  never  give  a  good 
light. 

The  candles,  whofe  wicks  are  made  of  rujhes 
are  called  rujh-lights,  and  are  generally  ufed  by 
poor  people,  or  to  burn  fteady  inftead  of  a  lamp 
in  a  bed-chamber,  where  a  light  is  required. 

Theiyis  another  fort  of  candles  called  Jiambeau. 

Flambeaux  are  made  fquare,  ufually  of  four 
wicks,  or  branches,  of  an  inch  thick,  and  about 
three  feet  loixg,    made  of  a  coarfe  hempen  yarn 

half 


CHIRURGERT, 


half"  twilled.  They  arc  made  with  the /^(-//t-,  much 
the  lame  as  tapers  are,  viz.  by  firft  pouring  the 
melted  wax  on  the  tops  of  the  feveral  riifpciiJcd 
luicis,  and  letting  it  run  down  to  the  bottom  :  this 
is  repeated  twice.  After  each  7vick  has  thus  got 
its  feveral  cover  of  wax,  they  are  laid  to  dry,  then 
rolled  on  a  table,  and  four  of  them  joined  together 
by  being  foldcrcd  with  a  red  hot  iron.  When 
joined,  more  wax  is  poured  on  them,  till  the  f  ant- 
beau  is  brought  to  the  fize  required,  which  is  ufu- 
ally  a  pound  arid  a  half,  or  two  pounds.  T'hcir 
form,  or  outfide,  is  finiflied  with  a  kind  of  polifh- 
ing  inftrument  of  wood,  by  running  it  along  all 
the  angles  formed  by  the  union  of  the  branches. 
The  Jiambeaux   of  the    antients    were   made  of 


347 


wood  dry 'd  in  furnaces,  orotherwifc.  They  ufcd 
divers  kinds  of  wood  for  tiiis  [yurpofe  ;  the  moll 
ufual  was  pine.  Plitiy  hyi,  that  in  his  time  they 
frequently  alfo  burnt  oak,  elm,  and  hazel.  lii 
the  7th  book  of  the  Mneid,  mention  is  made  of 
a  Jlatnbrau  of  pine  ;  and  Servlus  on  that  pafTagc 
remarks,  that  they  alfo  made  them  of  the  cornel- 
tree.  Flambeaux  are  foinetimes  made  of  zihite 
wax,  and  fbmetimes  of  yellow  ;  but  thoi'e  made  of 
white  wax  are  finer,  light  beft.  and  are  of  a  lefs 
otFenfive  fmell  ;  though  in  d]\  famheaux,  let  them 
be  made  of  white,  or  yellow  wax,  both  forts  of 
luax  are  always  more  or  lefs  fophiflicatcd.  They 
ferveto  burn  a- nights  in  the  ilreets,  as  alfo  at  fune- 
ral proceflions,  illuminations,    i^c. 


Of    CH IRURGERT,  or   SURGERY. 


CHIRURGERY,  or  Surgery,  is  that 
branch  of  ?nedicine,  which  teaches  the  me- 
thod of  curing  WOUNDS  of  all  kinds,  and 
perfoFming  a  variety  of  manual  operations 
necefiary  in  dijlocatlons,  amputations,  cutting  for  the 
Rone, fraSrures,  phlebotomy, the  Cafarean  fe^ion,  &c. 

It  is  derived  from  the  Grcc^  X^^!>^  hand,  and  tfyof, 
operation,  and  it  is  divided  into  Jpeculative  and  prac- 
tical,  one  whereof  does  that  in  eiTect,  which  the 
other  teaches  to  do. 

All  the  operations  oi Chirurgcry  are  reduc'd  under 
four  kinds  ;  l.  the  fynthefis,  2.  dicercfis,  3.  exarefis, 
and  4.  prothcfis. 

The  Synthesis  is  that,  which  reunites  all  the 
divided  parts;  as  are  the  wounds. 

The  Div5;resis  is  that,  which  divides  and  fepa- 
rates  the  parts,  whofe  union  hinders  the  cure  of 
maladies;  as  is  the  continuity  of  thtjkin,  and  of 
the  flefli  in  abfcefles,  which  muft  be  open'd  to 
procure  the  evacuation  of  the  pus  contain'd  therein. 

The  Ex^REsis  is  that,  which  extrafts  from  the 
body  all,  which  could  be  hurtful  to  it;  as  bullets, 
arroivs,  pus,  isfc. 

The  Prothesis  is  that,  which  fupplii-s,  artifi- 
cially, the  want  of  fome  parts  ;  as,  of  legs,  arms, 
tfc.  when  the  natural  ones  are  loft.  It  adds,  befides, 
fome  inftrument,  to  help  the  weak  parts;  :is pcjfa- 
ries,  to  keep  the  matrix  in  its  place,  when  it  falls ; 
crutches  to  help  walking,  when  a  perfon  is  weak,  i^c. 

The  foundation  of  Chiru^gery  confifts  in  three 
things,  viz.  in  the  knowledge  of  the  human  body; 
of  the  ma'adies,  which  want  the  operation  of  hands ; 
and  of  the  proper  remedies. 

The  knowledge  of  the  /.'uman  body  is  acquir'd  by 

the  ftudy  of  Jinatomy,  of  which  we  have  given  an 

accurate  treatife  under  the  letter  A.    That  of  the 

msladies,   i.  By  reading  good  books,  and  the  leffons 

17. 


of  the  beft  mafters  in  Chirtirgery ;  and,   2.  By  a 
conftant  and  affiduous  pradlice. 

The  tnaladies  which  fall  under  the  confideration 
of  a  Chirurgeon,  aretumours,  impoftumes,  wounds, 
ulcers,  fradlures,  diflocations,  and  generally  all 
maladies,  which  can  be  the  fubjedls  of  operations. 

The  Means  and  Instrui^ents  us'd  in  Chirur- 
gery,  to  cure  thofc  maladies,  are  the  hand,  bandages, 
medicaments,  iron,  and  fire. 

The  Instruments  zk  portative,  z.nA  non-por- 
tative. 

The  portative  injlruments  are  thofe,  which  aChi- 
rurgeon  carries  in  his  cafe,  together  with  his  box  of 
itnguentums,  as  a  good  pair  of  fcillars,  a  razor,  a 
bijiouri,  ftrait  and  bow'd,  ■&  fpaiula,  a  great  lancet 
for  the  abfcefs,  fmaller  ones  for  bleeding,  a  holloiu 
probe,  of  filver  or  fteel,  feveral  other  probit,  ftrait, 
bow'd,  (Sc.  of  feveral  fizesj  a  filver  canule,  or 
pipe,  to  carry  the  button,  or  knob  of  fire  to  a 
diftant  part  without  any  danger  of  burning  the 
neighbouring  ones  ;  another  canule,  or  pipe,  for  a 
cafe  for  needles,  made  like  a  whiftle  at  one  end, 
for  the Juturcs  ;  a  big  triangular  needle,  calld  car- 
let,  a.  myrtle  lea f  zfmall file,  m&T\m\cnts  for  tooth- 
dravving,  a  lenticulary,  an  errhir.a,  &c. 

The  injlruments  r.oti-portativ,  are  the  trepan,  to 
open  the  bones  of  the  head,  or  other  parts;  the  alga- 
bus,  or  probes,  for  men  and  women  in  the  ftone,  and 
difEculties  of  urine;  large  bow'd  cutting  knives, 
a  faw  for  amputations,  great  three-fquare  needles 
for  felons,  fmall  needles  for  the  ablation  of  the  ca- 
taraft,  fmall  plates  and  buckles. 

From  the  inflrunients,  we'll  proceed  to  com- 
prejfes;  ban:ls,  fplinicrs,  fattens,  tents,  and  lint. 

A  Band  is  a  long  and  large  ftring  made  of  linen, 
wherein  the  parts  and  apparatus  are  wrapp'd  up, 
and  contain'd, 

Y  y  A  Band- 


34-8 


The  Univcrfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  <2/?(^  Sciences. 


A  BANDAtiE  is  the  l/a'u!  upply'd  on  the  part. 
There  are  as  many  different  forts  of  bandages,  as 
there  are  parts  to  be  ty'J  j  therefore  they  are  either 
f.mple or  compound. 

The  Compresses  muft  be  made  even,  foft,  and 
in  proportioa  to  the  bigncfs  of  the  part,  or  of  the 
wound.  They  muft  bcgariiKhed  in  uneven  places, 
that  the  bandages  may  be  the  caficr  rolled  ovei'  them. 


To  proceed  in  the  cure  of  tumours,  let  us  tegrra 
with  the  phlegmon. 

The  Phlegmon,  from  the  Greek  q>>^y(f/,  to 
burn  or  inflame,  is  a  tumour  attended  with  rednefs, 
tenfion,  renitency,  puifation,  and  great  pain  ;  which 
when  occafion'd  by  an  extravafatcd  blood,  good  and 
laudable,  but  only  pe.~cant  in  quantity,  is  call  d, 
true  [hlegmon  ;  but  if  that  blood  be  adulterated  with 


and  humevSled  with  fome  liquor  proper  to  the  malady,  i  bile,  or  pituita,  it  is  call'd  ba/lard  ph.egm;n. 

The  different  Maladies  which  fall  under  the  I  There  are  two  forts  of  remedies  proper  for  the 
illfpeii^ion  of  a  Chiru'rgeon  are  tumoui  s  in  general.     |  cure  of  phltgmons,  the  one  general,  and  the  other 

A  ruMoR,  or  tumour,  is  a  particular  rifmg,  or  ,  particular.  The  general  remedies,  which  carry  off 
eminence,  on  any  part  of  the  body ;  otherwi!e,  it  the  antecedent  caufe,  are  bleeding,  and  an  cxadl 
is  a  fohition  of  continuity,  arifmg  from  fome  liu- i  diet.  Purgatives  cure  fometimes  the.  phlegmon  \n 
mour  collected  in  a  certain  part  of  the  body,  which  its  antecedent  cavfe,  by  diminifliing  the  plenitude, 
disjoins  the  continuous  parts,  infinuatcs  itlelf  be-  heat,  and  alteration  of  the  blood.  Fomentations, 
tween  them,  and  deftroys  their  proper  form.  ;  cataplafms  and  plafters,  cure  it  in  its  conjoint  caufcy 

This  gathering  of  humours  in  the  parts  of  the  by  procuring  the  refolution,  or  fuppuration ;  all 
body,  is  call'd  depofttum,  which  depofitum  is  made  '  which  different  remedies  ought  to  be  adminiftred  in 
tiiiKvhy  fluxion,  QV  congCjl ion.  I  order,  and  with  judgment,  v.  g.  Bleeding  is  to  be 

A  Depofitum  \>y  fluxion  Is  that,  which  forms  the  done  in  the  beginning  and  augmention,  or  increafe 
tu'iicur  all  on  a  fudden,  or  in  a  very  fliort  time,  by  ;  of  the  phlegmon.  The  refolutive  and  anodyne  re- 
ihe  fluidity  of  the  matter.  And  a  Depofitum  by  medics  are  neceffary,  fuch  as  thofe  prepared  with 
cot'geftion  is  that,  which  produces  the  tumour  by  f/^^rwY  boiled  in  whey,  to  which  is  to  be  added 
degrees,  and  almoft  infenfibly,  thro'  the  flownefs  fome  faffron,  to  wafh  the  tumour  with,  which  muft 
and  thicknel's  of  the  matter.  ]  be  wrapt  in  cloths  dipped  in  the  fame  liquor.    The 

The  moft  dangerous  of  all  tumours  are  thofe  fperm  of  frogs  alone,  or  lime  and  foap  water  mixed' 
made  by  ci5«^^//5;;  ;  bccaufe  their  coarfe  and  thick  together ;  or  elfe  oak  and  plantain  leaves  bruifed' 
matter  renders  their  cirre  very  difficult.  and  applied  on  the  part,  are  alfo  very  good  reme- 

The  general  rules  which  a  C/:'/rar^if3;j  is  indifpen-  dies  for  the  phlegmon;  avoiding  above  all  things 
fibly  oblig'd  to  obferve  before  he  undertakes  the  i  cold  remedies,  oil,  and  greafe,  which  are  pernicious, 
zwxe.  oi  tumours,  are  thefe :  I.  He  muft  examine  in  great  inflammations.  Thefc  are  the  remedies 
the  nature  of  the  tumcur;  bccaufe  that  which  is  by  which  we  muft  begin  the  cure, 
natural,  is  otherwife  treated  than  that  which  is  \  But  in  the  augmention  of  the  tumour,  and  of 
ankifled,  critical,  or  malignant.  2.  The  time  of  |  the  pain,  it  mult  be  foftened  by  refolution;  and' 
its  formation,  i.e.  its  beginning,  increafe,  ftate,  [  for  that  purpofe  acataplafm  is  compofed  with  leaves 
and  dcclenfton;   in  which  different  periodj   there    of  elder,  with    mallows,  camomile,    and   melilot. 


muft  be  apply'd  difterent  remedies.  And,  3.  Its 
fituation,  that  the  Chimrgeon  may  avoid,  in  the 
opening  of  the  tumour,  the  encounter  of  a  neigh- 
bouring artery  or  tendon. 


to   which   is   added   pounded    linfeed,  boiling   the 
whole  in  whey,  adding  to  a  pound  of  it  the  yolk 
of  an  egg,  twenty  grains  of  faffron,  a  quarter  of  a- 
pound  of  honey,  and  crumbs  of  bread,  till  it  has. 


We  muft  obferve,  alfo,  that  all  tumours  tcrmi- j  acquired  a  due  confiftence  for  a  cataplafm,  which 
nate,  or  are  remov'd  by  fuppuration,  or  refolution.  '  muft  be  renewed  every  twelve  hours  at  leaft. 
The  fafeft  manner  tacure  a  tumour,  is  by  refolution.  When  the  phlegmon  is  arrived  at  its  height,  if  it 
except  when  the  tumours^  cr  ahjcrffes,  are  critical  ;  could  not  be  brought  to  a  refolution,  its  fuppuration, 
and  malignant ;  tor,  then  the  Juppuraticn  is  not '  might  be  procured,  by  adding  to  the  aforefaid  cata- 
only  the  furcft  v.'ay,  but  muft  be  procured  even  by    plafm,    garlick,   the  roots  of  white  lilies  broiled 


opening  it;  without  waiting  for  a  perfedl  matu- 
rity. In  fuch  opening,  the  Chirurgeon  muft  take  a 
great  deal  of  care  not  to  cut  the  fibres  of  the  muf- 


under  the  embers,    whey  and  bafilicon :  Or  elfe 

we  II  take   only  a  glafs  of  whe^',  in   which   we'll ' 

melt  an  ounce  of  foap,  to  dip  cloth  in  it,  which 


cles,  and  ought  not  to  procure  an  entire  evacuation  j  we'll   apply   on  the  tumour,   reiterating  it  often., 
of  thtpus  at  once,  efpecially  in  great  ahfceffes,  for  j  T'he  plaiftcr  diaftlphuris  is  very  excellent  alone, 
fear  the  patient  Ihould  faint  away  ;  neither  is  fuch        When   the   malignity    is   conquered,    and    the 
opening  to   be  made,  always,    longitudinally,  or    thlegmon   is  on  its  declenfion,   the  ulcer  muft  be 

dried  by  degrees  with  the  plaifter  diafulphuris,  or 


according  to  the  ftraltnefs  of  the  fibres  ;  for  when 
the  tumours  are  large,  and  there  is  2.cjjlis,  the  in- 
cifion  muft  be  aucial,ov  x\A  i    cr  ofs- wife. 

t 


the  diachylum,  afterwards  we'll  ufe  thofe  of  cerufe. 
If,  during  the  inflammation,  the  gangrene  fhould" 

happea'i 


CHIRURGERT. 


349 


happen,  there   mufl:  be  difToU'cd  in   an  ounce  of 

the  beft  vinegar,   a  drachm  of  white  vitriol,  with 

the  fame  qua.nl\ty  of  fal-a/mnoniac,    to   bathe   the 

tumour  with,    or    cife    we'll    take    the    tindlure 

of  myrrh,    and    of  aloes,     with    fome    /Egyptiac, 

and  we  will  make  afterwards  a  ditreftive  with  tere- 

.... 
binth,  yolks  of   eggs,  and  honey,  mixing  with   it 

fome   fpirits  of  wine,  or  brandy,   if  any  purulent 

matter  vrs-s  left  behind. 

Baftard  phlegmons.,  otherwife  phlegmonous  tu- 
mours, are  buboes,  carbuncles,  furuncles,  antrax, 
phigetcn,  phyma,  &:c. 

All  thefe  tumours  are  cured  with  emollient,  refo- 
Julive,  and  fuppurative  cataplafms  and  plaifters, 
applied  with  judgment,  and  in  proportion,  as  'tis 
done  to  the  phlegmons. 

The  fame  cannot  be  faid  of  the  gangrene,  which 
is  diftinguiflied  into  gangrene  P.nd  fphacelus,  though 
they  be  but  one  and  the  fame  thing;  ths  gangrem 
being  a  mortification  begun,  while  yet  the  part 
retains  fome  knCe  of  pain,  and  a  fliare  of  natural 
heat ;  and  the  fphacelus  a  thorough  mortification, 
where  there  is  no  fenfe  or  warmth  left. 

The  gangrene  is  a  difeafe  in  the  flefh  of  the  part, 
which  it  corrupts,  confumes,  and  turns  black; 
fpreading  and  feizing  itfelf  of  tfie  adjoining  parts  : 
it  proceeds  from  a  ftoppage  or  interception  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood,  which  by  this  means  fails 
to  furnifh  the  part  with  the  nutritious  and  fpirituous 
juices,  neceflary  to  preferve  its  warmth  and  life. 

To  ftop  the  progrefs  of  the  gangrene,  Phyficians 
prefcribe,  internally,  fudorificks  and  alexipharmicks: 
Externally,  decoctions  of  quick  lime,  either  fimple, 
or  with  the  addition  o{  fulphur,  mercurius  dulcis, 
znil  fplrit  of  wine  camphorated.  In  a  fevere  ftage 
of  the  diitcmper  we  fcarify  deep  to  the  very  quick  ; 
and  afterwards  apply  hot  liquors,  cataplafms,  is'c. 
Some  recommend  horfe-dung  boiled  in  wine,  or 
urine  :  The  unguent  Mgyptiac  alfo  comes  into  ufe. 
Bcllofe  prefcribes  the  following  as  the  moft  effica- 
cious remedy  known  for  gangrenes,  viz.  quickfilver 
diiTolved  in  double  the  quantity  of  fbirh  of  nitre, 
or  aquafortis;  a  linen  cioth  dipped  therein,  and 
applied  to  the  gangrenous  part:  this  alone,  he 
alfures  us,  is  fufficient.  lithtgangrene  be  occafioned 
br  an  Intenfe  froft,  fnovj-water,  or  a  linen-cloth 
dipp'd  in  cold  water,  and  applied  to  the  part 
affedled,  Beerhaave  dircds  as  the  bcrt  cure.  If 
the  gangrene  proceed  to  an  entire  fphoce'-ation,  and 
be  feated  in  any  of  the  limbs,  or  extreme  parts, 
aecourfe  muft  be  had  to  amputation. 

'Wis.  panaris,  panaritium,  o-c paronychia,  (from  the 
Greek  Traforr^ia,  q  d.  an  abfcefs  at  the  root  of  the 
iiailsjis  a  'ttwcKrorinfiammationarifingontheextrc- 
mities  of  the  fingers  or  toes,  properly  called  xvhitloc. 

An  infallible  remedy  for  the  pamiris,  is  to  open 
it  cither  with  a  pohit  of  a  lancet,  or  with  fome  un 


guent,  and  then  to  dip  the  finger  in  a  lixiviurrn, 
made  of  pine  afhes. 

Chiliihlains  are  cured  by  wafliing  and  holding, 
for  fome  time,  the  heel  or  other  part  afFe<£led  in 
hot  wine,  where  have  been  boiled  allum  and  fa/t,  of 
which  a  cataplafm  is  made,  afterwards,  by  addin* 
to  it  rye-fozver,  honey,  and  fulphur.  The  juice  of 
radlflies  and  alfo  of  turneps  applied  hot,  with 
unguent  of  rofes,  is  alfo  a  very  good  remedy. 

The  burn  is  cured  by  anointing  the  part  with 
fweet  oil,  or  with  foft  for.p,  or  with  white  oint- 
ment, mixed  with  u'7guen/ of  rofes,  and  of  [opuleon, 
the  yolk  of  an  egg  and  quick  lime.  If  the  burn  be 
in  the  face,  there  muft  be  particularly  ufed  the 
mucilage  of  quince-feeds,  and  of  pfyllium,  of  [perm 
of  frogs,  equal  part  of  each,  and  to  four  ounces 
thereof  muft  be  added  twenty  grains  of  fugar  of 
faturn.  This  remedy  is  fpread  on  the  face  with  a 
feather,  aild  over  it,  is  applied  a  piece  of  giey 
paper.      1  his  remedy  is  excellent. 

If  the  burn  has  made  a  cruft,  'tis  taken  ofF 
with  frefh  butter,  fpread  on  a  cabbage- leaf,  ap- 
plied hot :  or  opened  for  the  evacuation  of  the  pus^ 
which  would  caute  a  deep  ulcer,  if  kept  long  under 
it,  and  there  muft  be  applied  to  it  the  unguent  of 
quick  lime,  with  oil  of  rofcs,  and  yolks  of  eggs. 
j  The  next  fort  of  tumours,  to  be  confidered  are 
the  eryfipclas,  and  its  dependencies. 

Eryftpelas  is  an  eruption  of  a  fiery  or  acrid  hu- 
mour, from  which  no  part  of  the  body  is  exempted^ 
though  it  chiefly  attacks  the  face. 

As  to  the  material  caufe  of  an  eryfpelas,  it  feems 
to  be  of  a  cauftic,  acrid,  and  putrifying  nature ; 
perhaps  corrupted  .bile,  v^hich,  being  conveyed 
into  the  mafs  of  blood,  indifpofes  the  whole  nervous 
and  vafcular  fyflems,  and  excites  a  fever,  till  it  is 
at  laft  driven  out  to  the  furface  of  the  body.  Per- 
fons  of  a  ianguine  habit,  young  people,  and  preg- 
nant women,  are  moft  fubjeift  to  it;  and  all  hot 
things,  violent  pafTions,  and  whatever  occafions 
other  inflammations,  likewife  give  rife  to  this. 

The  patient  is  tr.ken  fuddenly,  whilii;  he  is  in 
the  open  air,  with  chilnefs,  a  (hivering  and  other 
fymptoms  common  in  a  fever:  the  part  afFedted 
fwells  a  little  with  great  pain,  and  intenfe  rednefs, 
and  is  befet  with  a  vaft  number  of  fmall  puftules» 
which,  when  the  inflammation  is  increafed,  are 
converted  into  fmall  blillers.  The  malady  gradu- 
ally creeps  further  and  further,  fpreads  itfelf  from 
place  to  place,  and  is  attended  with  a  fever. 

There  is  another  fort,  though  itfeldom  hapnensj 
commonly  arifing  from  a  furfeit,  or  a  debauch  of 
drinking  I'piricuous  liquors.  A  fmall  fever,  which 
precedes  it,  is  follov/ed  prefently  by  an  eruption  cf 
puftules,  almoft  all  over  the  body,  which  look  like 
the  iiings  of  nettles,  and  fometimes  rife  up  into 
bladders:  prefently  they  go  away  again,  with  an 
Y  V  2  itching 


350  The  Univerfal  Hiftory 

itching  fcarce  tolerable ;  but  as  often  as  they  are 
fcratchcd.   they  appear  again. 

This  dillempcr  has  a  great  affinity  with  a  pefti- 
leiitial  fever,  as  it  is  attended  with  mofl:  of  the 
fvmptoms  in  that  cafe  :  but  this  is  to  be  underftood 
of  the  worft  icind  of  eryfipelas.  On  the  third  and 
fourth  day,  the  malignant  matter  is  thrown  out  on 
the  furfaceof  thebody,  and  then  the  fymptoms  a  little 
abate.  There  is  often  a  pain,  rednefs,  and  tumour  in 
the  inguinal  glands,  from  whence  the  matter,  of  a 
hot,  fiery  quality,  defcendsto  thefeet.  If  the  head  is 
attacked,  the  parotid  glands  are  affe(3ed;  if  the  breaft, 
the  axillary.  The  mammary  and  axillary  glands 
are  not  feldom  ulcerated,  and  afFe6l  the  joints  with 
a  virulent  corruption  ;  and  likewife,  as  in  the  plague, 
there  is  nothing  more  dangerous  than  the  expelled 
matter  to  return  back  from  the  furface  of  the  body 
to  the  inward  parts. 

In  fome,  efpecially  young  perfons,  the  matter  is 
not  fo  violent,  nor  the  fever  fo  great :  the  glands 
remain  unafFeiSted,  and  the  eruption  happens  on 
the  fecond  day.  This  is  not  at  all  dangerous.  In 
children,  the  umbilical  region  generally  fufFers, 
with  a  fatal  event.  If  in  a  day  or  two  the  tumour 
fubfides,  the  heat  and  pain  ceafe,  the  rofy  colour 
turns  yellow,  the  cuticle  breaks,  and  falls  ofF  in 
fcales,  the  danger  is  over.  When  the  eryfipelas  is 
large,  deep,  and  falls  upon  a  part  of  exquifite  fenfe, 
the  patient  is  not  very  fafe  ;  but  if  the  red  colour 
changes  into  black  and  blue,  it  will  end  in  a  morti- 
fication. If  the  inflammation  cannot  be  difcufled, 
it  will  fuppurate,  and  bring  on  ^/«/(7x  znd  z  gan- 
grene:  when  the  patient  is  cacochymical,  the  leg  will 
fometimes  fwell  three  times  as  big  as  the  natural 
fize,  and  is  cured  with  great  difficulty.  Thofe  who 
die  of  this  difeafe,  die  of  the  fever,  which  is  gene- 
rally attended  with  difficulty  of  breathing,  fome- 
times adelirium,  fometimes  with  fleepinefs;  and  this 
in  feven  days  time. 

Let  the  patient's  diet  be  water-gruel  or  barley- 
broth,  with  roafled  apples.  If  he  drinks  any  beer, 
let  it  be  very  fmall,  and  let  him  keep  out  of  bed 
fome  hours  in  a  day. 

The  medicinal  writers  do  not  agree  in  their  opi- 
nions, concerning  purging  in  the  cure  of  the  e>yfi- 
pelas;  but  what  they  deliver  upon  this  fubjeft,  is 
full  of  doubtings  and  uncertainties,  and  that  at  a 
point  of  time  when  the  diftempcr  is  mod  dangerous 
and  threatning :  however,  it  is  the  general  opinion 
in  this  cafe,  that  it  is  a  right  pratSlice,  more  efpe- 
cially if  the  head  is  affected  with  an  eryfipelas,  and 
there  comes  upon  it  a  coma,  a  dtUrium,  or  convul- 
fions,  wherein  the  brain  is  evidently  attacked  ;  then 
purging  is  the  only  indication  that  can  afford  any 
hopes  of  recovering  the  patient :  nor  in  thefe  diffi- 
culties fhould  the  matter  be  delayed  till  the  fever  is 
abated,  or  the  humour  fubfidcd,     1  herefore,  the 


of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

beft  practice  appears  to  be  that  of  taking  away  nine 
or  ten  ounces  of  blood,  and  the  next  morning 
giving  the  patient  the  common  purging  portion. 

It  will  be  fafeft  to  avoid  external  applications, 
unlcfs  a  powder  madeof  elder-flowers  and  liquorice 
fprinkled  on  the  part;  or  lime-water  mixt  with  a 
fourth  part  of  fpirit  of  v/ine  and  camphire,  dipping 
a  linen  cloth  in  it  feveral  times  doubled,  and  ap- 
plying it  hot  to  the  part. 

An  infufion  of  fcordium,  elder-flowers,  and  fen- 
nel-feed, drank  in  the  manner  of  tea,  is  ufefuj  to 
expel  the  morbific  matter.  If  the  difeafe  does  not 
yield  to  the  firfl:  bleeding,  let  it  be  repeated.  If  that 
will  not  do,  let  it  be  reiterated  twice  more,  one  day 
being  interpofed  between.  On  the  days  free  from 
bleeding,  prefcribe  a  clyfter  of  milk,  and  fyrup  of 
violets;  alfo  the  cooling  emulfion  and  julep. 

Turner  commends  much  a  mixture  of  oL  famhu- 
cin.  and  aqua  calcis,  with  fome  fpirit  of  wine  cam- 
phorated. A  cataplafm  of  cow's  dung  is  very  good 
to  eafe  the  pain. 

In  zfymptomatic  eryfipelas,  the  following  lini- 
ment is  good :  R  0!.  famhuctn.  lixiv.  tenueor.  ana  p. 
ae.  m.  let  them  be  fhaked  in  a  phial  till  they  unite 
in  an  ointment. 

In  -A  fcorbut'tc  eryfipelas,  befides  externals,  fudo- 
rifics  are  to  be  given  ;  as  rob.famhucln.fpi.  famb  ci 
bezoar.  min.  fp.  fal.  ammon,  cochlear,  &c. 

From  the  eryfipelas  we'll  pafs  to  the  Oedema. 

The  OEDEMA,  (from  the  Greek  oiian,  I  fwe'.l ; 
\\'hence  oiJjjfca,  a  tumour,)  is  z.  tumour,  which  ap- 
pears whitifh,  foft,  and  lax,  without  any  notable 
change  of  colour,  heat,  pain,  or  pulfation  ;  and 
which  yields  tothe  prelTuie  of  the  finger,  fo  as  for 
fome  time  to  retain  the  dent  or  impreffion  thereof. 

Its  chief  feat  is  in  the  legs  :  In  a  leucophhgmatia 
the  whole  body  is  (edematous. 

Fomentations,  cataplafms,  liniments,  and  plai- 
fters,  are  very  good  remedies  for  the  cedema.  The 
fomentations  are  made  with  loall-wort,  tied  in 
bundles,  covered  with  hot  wine,  and  put  in  an  oven 
after  the  bread  has  been  took  out ;  they  are  alfo 
took  out  fmoaking  hot,  the  bundles  are  untied, 
and  the  part  is  wrapp'd  up  within  them,  covering 
them  over  with  a  hot  cloth.  This  being  often 
reiterated,  the  humour  tranfpires  by  fweat.  The 
cataplafm  are  compofed  of  camomile,  melilot,  St. 
John's  wort,  [age,  parietary,  the  root  of  briony, 
onions ;  the  whole  boiled  in  zvbite  wine,  with  honey. 
Cataplafms  are  alfo  made  with  horfe-dung  and  cum- 
min feeds  boiled  in  ftrong  vinegar,  mixing  with 
it  barley-f.our  to  the  confiftence  of  pap.  The 
plaifters  are  prepared  with  an  ounce  oi  diachylum  de 
gummis,  half  an  ounce  of  rrartiatum,  a  pound  of 
oil  of  lilies,  half  an  ounce  of  cummin-feeds  in  pow- 
der, half  a  drachm  of  fal-ammoniaci,  and  an  ounce 
I  of 


CHIRURGERT. 


S-Ji 


of  yelhiv  wax,  to  bring  it  to  a  confidence.  If 
there  was  a  hardnefs,  the  plaiftcr  made  with  the 
gum  of  bdellium,  ammoniac,  zndgalbatium,  diflblved 
in  vinegar,  muft  be  ufed. 

Oedematous  apojlhumes,  or  tumours,  which 
partake  of  the  nature  of  the  Oedctna,  are,  the 
phlyifains,  cmpyfnna,  batracos,  or  ranuncle,  the 
wyne,  the  tal-pa,  the  broncocel,  the  ganglion,  the 
fungus,  the  king\-evil,  and  all  the  fpecies  of 
dropfies,  general  and  particular. 

All  the  remedies  preicribed  for  the  cedema  arealfo 
employed  varioufly  in  all  thefe  maladies,  as  are 
liniments,  fomentations,  cataplafms,  and  plaifters. 
Internal  remedies,  fuch  as  diaphoreticks,  fudori- 
ficks,  and  purgatives,  fupported  with  an  exaft 
diet,  are  of  great  fcrvice.  The  decoflion,  of  bri- 
ony,  and  marflmmllow  roots,  with  belony,  liquorice, 
and  all  other  diureticks,  which  pufh  by  urine,  give 
a  great  deal  of  eafe. 

The  SciRRHUs,  (from  the  Greek o-xif©',  a  piece 
of  marble)  is  a  hard  indolent  tumour,  formed  gradu- 
ally in  the  foft  glandulous  parts  of  the  body  ;  fome- 
times  internal  and  fometimes  external. 

Thefcirrhus  is  cured  by  foftening  and  refolving 
it,  feldom  by  bringing  it  to  fuppuration.     'Tis  fof- 


tened  by  the  application  of  cataplafms,  made  of  the  I 

leaves  of  violets,  mallows,  marjhmalloivs,  leeks,  alder,  \fitum  of  mixt  and  corrupted  humours,  whofe  mat 


I  the  nofe,  or  introduced  into  it  with  fmall  tents, 
often  renewed,  adding  to  it  fome  tinflure  of  m}rrh, 
and  I) mey.  If  the  diltemper  cannot  be  conquered 
by  remedies,  recourfe  mult  be  had  to  the  extirpation 
thereof. 

The  Nacte,  longing,  is  a  tumour  or  excrefcence 
of  the  flefh,  which  grows  on  the  lace,  and  every 
where  elfe  ;  occafioned  by  the  urgent  defires  of 
the  mother  during  geftation,  for  things  v.'hich  fhe 
has  not  enjoyed,  as  fhe  could  vvifh. 

The  Cancer,  is  a  roundifli,  hard,  ragged  im- 
moveable tumour,  of  an  afli  or  livid  colour;  en- 
compaflcd  round  with  branched,  turgid  veins,  full 
of  black  muddy  blood  ;  fituate  chiefly  in  the  glan- 
dulous  parts.  'I'here  have  been  fome  found  in  the 
gums,  belly,  neck  of  the  matrix,  ureter,  lips,  nofe, 
checks,  abdomen,   thighs,   and  even  the  flioulders. 

StoUer/orth  obicrves,  that  it  has  been  often  cured 
by  mercury  and  falivation.  It  is  ufually  cured,  while- 
yet  a  fmall  tumour  of  the  bignefs  of  a  nut,  or  at 
moft  of  a  fmall  egg,  by  extirpation :  when  it  feizes 
the  breaft,  or  is  burft  into  an  ulcer,  amputation 
takes  place. 

Having  thus  treated  of  all  the  different  fpecies  of 
true  tufnours,we']\  pafsto  the encij/ed or  baJJardones. 

Encisted  tumours,  are  thofe  formed  by  a  depo- 


rue,  and  wormwood;  with  cainomih Jioivers,  horfe 
and  cow's  dung,  and  roots  of  white  lilies,  all  this 
is  boiled  together  in  wine,  to  which  are  to  be  added 
honey  and  hog's-lard,  to  make  a  cataplafm,  with 
crumbs  of  bread.  'Tis  rejolvcd  vf'ith  pi  a  i  Iters  com - 
pofed  of  diachylum,  melilot,  and  mucilages,  to  which 
are  added  the  oil  of  worms  and  the  Jlour  of  fulphur. 
And  to  render  the  remedy  more  efficacious,  the  oil 
of  tobacco  and  gum  ammoniack  diflblved  in  vinegar. 
Thefe  topical  or  external  remedies  muft  be  accom- 
panied with  internal,  which  ferve  to  prepare  the 
humours  to  be  evacuated,  as  the  decodion  of  far - 
faparilla,  the  ufe  of  good  wine,  and  light  aliments, 
of  aneafy  digeftion. 

The  Polypus,  woAub-oi/s  or  TroXtwof,  is  a  flefhy 
tumour  or  excrefcence,  on  the  infide  of  the  noftrils, 
prejudicial  to  refpiration,  or  fpeech  ;  call'd  alfo,  by 
way  of  diftiniSlion,  polypus  narium. 

Polypus  is  alfo  us"d  for  a  morbid  excrefcence  in 
the  heart ;  confifting  of  a  tough  concretion  of  gru- 
mous  blood  lodg'd  therein. 

The  polypus  of  the  noflrils  may  be  cured  in  its 
beginning,  but  when  neglefled,  or  ill  managed, 
it  degenerates  into  an  incurable  cancer.  The  ge- 
neral remedies  are  fmall  bleedings,  and  reiterated 
purgatives,  with  an  exadl  diet ;  of  the  particular 
ones,  are  thofe  which  dry  up  and  confume  the  ex- 
crefcence ;  as  the  decoiStion  of  plantain,  betony,  and 
parictary,  in  red  wine,  which  muil  be  drawn  up 


ters  are  contained  in  cyfli:,  or  membraneous  bags. 

1  he  fpecies  of  thofe  tumours  are  the  featomOf 
atheroma,  meliceris.  Sec.  The  Jieatoma  is  known. 
by  its  matter,  which  refembles  tallow;  the  atheroma 
bv  its  foftnefs  refembles  pap  ;  and  that  of  meliceris' 
refembles  honey. 

Thefe  forts  of  twnours,  like  the  others  heretofore 
mentioned,  fhould  be  refolved ;  but  however,  the 
fureft  way  is  to  bring  them  to  J uppur at.  on,  and  to 
extirpate  the  cyjlis,  which  is  lubjedt  to  he  filled 
again,  after  the  refolution  of  the  humour.  All  the 
remedies  ufed  for  the  ceden.as  c\i\d  fcirrhus  are  very 
good  for  thefe  tumours.  1  he  fpecifick  ones  are 
thefe  :  Takerofemary,  fage,  wormwood,  elder,  ca- 
momile, melilot,  St.  John's  wort,  put  them  to  boil 
in  white  wine,  with  mercurial  honey,  add  to  it  the 
feeds  of  cummin  pounded,  and  the  oil  of  worms,  to 
compofe  a  cataplafm,  which  mult  be  renewed  twice 
a  day,  after  which,  if  the  //^wczit  caimot  be  diffi- 
pated,  you  mull  apply  the  following  plalfter,  which 
is  excellent :  take  equal  parts  of  diachylum  and  of 
devigo,  four  parts  of  mercurial  plaifter,  melt  them 
together,  and  mix  with  them  faffron  and  oil  of 
tobacco,  to  make  a  plaifter,  which  you'll  fpread 
upon  a  piece  of  leather  and  apply  on  the  t:  mour, 
without  removing  it  but  once  in  eight  days  ta 
renew  it. 

As  for  the  extirpation  of  the  cyftis,  it  is  made  by 
dividing  the  tumour  into  four  paits,  by  procuring 

the 


35  2  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  a'/^J  Sciences. 

tlie  fuppui'ation,    and  confuming  the  c\fiis  by  de- '  phoretick  antimony,    from    fix    to    thirty  grains; 
grces.  I  mei\urius  dulcts,  from  fix   to  fixtcen   grains  ;  dia- 

The  Scurvy  is  a  malady  common  among  us. '  phoretick  OT(7j-j,  from  ten  grains  to  twenty ;  ape- 
IViillh  fays,  that  x}s\<i  fcurvy  \%  not  a  particular  dif-  ]  ritive  crocus  nMrtis,  (rem  ten  grains  to  twofcruplcs; 
cafe,  but  a  Irpion  of  difeafes,  by  its  attacking  the  the  volatile  fpirit  ofy^j/^/w/aowwi-,  from  fix  to  twenty 
fcvcral  parts  of  the  body  at  once.  I  drops  ;  the  fpirit  of  guaiactim,  from  half  a  drachm 

The  moft  ufual  (ymptoms  of  the  fctirvy,  are,  to  a  drachm  and  a  half ;  tnrtarum  vhriolatum,  from 
ftinkins;  ulcers  in  the  mouth,  a  copious  falivation,  '  ten  grains  to  thirty  ;  tindture  of  antii^ny,    from 

four  drops  to  twenty  ;  tiie  volatile  fait  of  tartar, 
urine,  vipers,  and  hartfliorn,  from  fix  to  fifteen 
grains  of  each  ;  fpWh  of  gum  ammoniac,  from  eight 
drops  to  lixteen  ;  and  the  mercurial  panacea,  from 
fix  grains  to  two  fcruplcs. 

Em.ollient  and  deterfive  clyflers  muft  be  admini- 
ftcrcd  to  the  patient  v/hen  he  goes  to  bed,  keeping 
his  body  open  with  ptifan';.  He  may  take  afterwards 
fudorificks,  made  of  decoctions  of  fumitory,  wild 
fuccory,  dandelion,  fcolapendria,  fcabious,  german- 
der, borage;  the  roots  of  fcarz-.nera,  polypody, 
parfley,  and  fennel  ;  the  flowers  of  green  broom, 
alder,  marygolds,  Is'c. 

The  decoctions  to  wafh  the  mouth  with,  are 
made  of  fage,  rofereary,  hyffop,  the  leaves  of  oak, 
cochelaria,  creffes,  nicctiana,  the  roots  of  arijlolo- 
chin,  tormentil,  iris,  and  red  rofes. 

To  fcrengthen  the  gums,  gargarifms  are  made 
with  fimple  antifcorbuticks  ;  as  the  fpirit  of  cochle- 
aria,  two  drachms  ;  a  fcrupie  of  fpirit  of  vitriol,  a 
fcruple  of  common  fait,  four  ounces  of  rofe  and 
plantain- water,  two  of  each.  If  the  gums  are  rot- 
ten, they  muft  be  rubbed  with  honey  of  rofes,  and 
fome  drops  of  fpirit  of  fait. 

To  appeafe  the  pains  in  the  limbs,  there  muft 
be  prcfcribed  baths  and  fomentations  externallv; 
and  internally  the  decoiStion  of  faffafras,  with  fome 
drops  of  laudanum. 

To  appeafe  the  gripes,  there  muft  be  admi- 
niftered  clyfters  made  of  whey,  fugar,  fyrup  of  pop- 
pies cochlearia,  camomile,  melilot,  and  oil  of  worms. 
n  he  ufe  of  milk  hinders  vomiting  ;  the  loofenefs 
is  flopped  by  the  fpirit  of  maftick  ;  the  fever  by  the 
febrifuges  and  antifcorbuticks;  the  fpots  are  fo- 
mented with  the  decoftions  of  aromatick  and  anti- 
fcorbutick  herbs,  with  nitre,  and  unguent  of  fto- 
rax  :  for  the  ulcers  of  the  legs,  lint  covered  with  a 
■powder  made  of  equal  parts  of  fugar  of  fat  u  jr., 
crocus  martis,  myrrh,  and  mercur'ius  dulcis,  muft 
be  applyed  upon  them.  The  following  remedy  is 
very  good  to  fweetcn  the  acidiry  of  the  humours  : 
take  half  an  ounce  of  fpirit  of  cm?kar'w,  two 
drachms  of  tartarized  fpirit  of  ammoniac,  and  one 
drachm  of  the  tindlure  of  worms  ;  fifteen  drops  of 
which  liquor  are  taken  thrice  a  dav,  in  a  decociion 
of  parietary. 

Asjainft  the  tuhercLi,  take  two  handfuls  of  the 
flowers  of  camomiit  and  alder,  tv,o  drachms  of  the 

roots 


head-ach,  vertigo's,  epilepfies,  apoplexies,  para 
lyfies  ;  the  face  appears  of  a  pale  and  dark  red, 
Iwelied,  inflamed,  and  covered  with  puiftules;  the 
teeth  fall,  the  gums  fwell,  itch,  putrify,  and  ulce- 
rate ;  they  become  cancerous,  and  the  jaws  are  al- 
moft  immoveable  ;  and  the  ulcers  raufe  fometimes 
fo  much  iliforder,  that  the  jaws  are  all  /eaten  with 
it,  and  the  teeth  feeji.  There  happens  a  relaxa- 
tion of  the  parts,  the  patients  grow  ftupid  and 
fleepy,  they  breathe  but  with  difficulty,  have  a 
palpitation  of  the  heart,  cough,  and  faint  away ; 
they  have  frequent  reachings,  loofcnefles,  gripes, 
have  red  and  livid  puftulcs  on  the  belly  and  na- 
tural parts,  ,the  whole  habit  of  the  body  grows 
dry,  £?"<•. 

In  the  beginning  of  this  malady  it  is  eafily  cured, 
but  when  it  is  rooted,  has  attacked  the  vifcera,  or 
when  it  is  a  difeafe  of  the  country,  or  the  patients 
are  old,  the  cure  h  next  to  impoffible.  One  of  the 
beft  remedies  for  this  diftcmper  is  exercifc,  and  en- 
deavouring to  conquer  drowzinefs,  which  is  one  of 
its  moft  dangerous  fymptoms. 

A  very  exaiJt  diet  is  held  of  more  efFeft  than  the 
beft  medicines  ;  bleeding  does  not  avail,  ftrong  pur- 
gatives are  hurtful,  fo  is  lligar,  and  all  fweet  things. 
A4ercurius  dulcis  ul'ed  internally,  fo  as  not  to  fali. 
vate,  but  only  raife  a  fweating,  is  found  excellent. 
Dolxus  undertakes  to  cure  Tmy  fcuruv  in  twelve 
days  time,  by  the  ufe  of  this  alone,  only  the  pati- 
«nt  muft  drink  nothing  all  that  time  but  the  de- 
coftion  of  fimple  antifcorbuticks,  fuch  as  that  of 
horferadilli,  forrel,  butterbur,  fcarzonera,  fowthirtle, 
zedoary,  polypody,  elecampane,  guaiacum,  faffa- 
fras, muftard-feed,  tiajiuriium  aquiiticurn,  trifoUum, 
pahidojum,  &c.  oranges,  lemons,  juniper-berries, 
i^c.  are  alfo  very  f;ood  remedies. 
,  Chsfcldcn  recommends  a  continued  ufe  of  milk. 
Etmuller  makes  copious  vomiting  the  bafis  of  the 
cure  of  the  [curvy.  Strong  catharticks,  he  obferves, 
are  prejudicial  ;  but  gentle  ones  good  ;  for  the  bo- 
dy is  to  be  ftill  kept  open.  He  forbids  the  ufe  of 
vinegar,  but  allov.-s  the  juices  of  fruits  and  vegeta- 
bles to  be  wholfome.  The  ufe  of  lemon-juice  is 
much  recommended  by  Dr.  Lifter.  The  decoc- 
tion of  muftard-feed,  to  wafii  the  mouth  with,  is, 
to  the  full,  as  excellent.  Thefe  remedies,  taken 
rnternally,  are  very  good  for  this  difeafe,  'ol-z..  the 
tiiiilure  9f  flint,  from  ten  giains  tj  thirty  ;  di.a- 


CHIRURGERT, 


353 


roots  of  briony,  and  an  liaiutful  of  crumbs  of  bread ;  i 
and  have  the  whole  boil'd  in  whey  for  cataplafms.  . 
I'o  appeafe  the  head-ach,  muft  be  taken  twenty  | 
five  or  thirty  drops  of  the  tindture  of  fuccinum,  in  I 
the  antifcorbutick  fpirits,  or  waters.  To  facilitate 
refpiration,  muft  be  prefcrib'd  two  fpoonfuls,  ftve-  ! 
ral  times  in  a  day,  of  a  medicine  made  with  two 
drams  of  antifcorbutick  water,  two  drams  of  | 
the  effence  of  elecampane,  and  half  a  drams  of  I 
fpirit  of  gum  ammoniack. 

To  hinder  the  putrefaction   of  the   gums,  they 
muft  be   rubb'd   often  with  a   liquor   made   of  h 
dram   of  the  tincture  of  gum  lack,    three  drachms 
of  fpirit   of  cochlearia,  and  fifteen  or  twenty  drops  ' 
of  oil  of  tartar  per  deliquium.  All  the  lotions  made  i 
of  waters  and  deco6tions  of  antifcorbutick  fimples, 
are  very  good  for  tliis  ufe.     They  ufe  at  the  Hotel-  ; 
dieu,  at  fan's,  the  unguent  of  Uorax,  to  take  off  I 
the  ipots,  and  refolve  the  hardnefs  in  the  legs.  ! 

We'll  pafs  now  to  the  examen  of  wounds  and 
ulcers,  and  to  the  mofl  eafy  manner  how  to  cure 
them. 

A  Wound  is  a  folution  of  the  continuity  of  a 
fitlhy  part,  made  by  feme  penetrating  body,  while  it 
yet  remains  frefh,  bloody, and  without  putrefaftion. 

The  two  firft  tilings  to  be  cbferv'd  in  the  treat- 
ment of  wounds,  are  their  differences,  and  the  in- 
itrumcnts  they  are  made  by. 

In  wounds  where  any  large  artery  is  quite  6ut  in 
two,  the  flux  ulually  proves  mortal.  A  lelTer  ar- 
tery, cut  tranfverfly,  flies  back  again  ft  the  folid 
parts,  and  v/ill  have  its  mouth  itopp'd  ;  if  an 
artery  be  not  quite  cut  off,  there  ariies  a  perpetual 
flux;  or  if  that  be  ftopp'd,  an  aneuryfrna.  A  nerve 
being  cut  off,  flies  back,  produces  a  pain  and  ob- 
ftruction  about  the  wound,  and  below  it  a  numb- 
nefs  and  wafting  immobility  ;  the  cafe  is  much  the 
fame  in  luounded  tendons,  and  membranes.  Wounds 
of  the  temporal  mufcle  are  rarely  curd,  but  gene- 
rally bring  on  horrible  convulfions. 

All  wounds  are  reputed  more  dangerous  and  difH- 
cult  of  cure  in  winter  than  in  fumnier;  in  autumn, 
than  in  fpring. 

The  cure  of  tvounds  confifts  in  helping  nature 
to  make  the  reunion  of  the  parts,  which  had  been 
divided,  after  having  took  off  and  appeas'd  all  that 
could  be  an  obftacle  to  it;  which  are  all  foreign 
bodies,  as  bullets,  burs,  wood,  ftones,  tj'c.  or 
the  accidents  they  are  attended  with  ;  as,  haemor- 
rhages, inflammation,  mortification,  excrefcence  of 
flefh,  hyperfarcofa,  diflocation,  fradture  of  a  bone, 
fplinters,  and  fometimes  a  bad  air. 

The  moft  dangerous  fymptoms  in  a  ivound,  are 
the  haemorrhages:  therefore  it  may  be  ftopp'd  with 
the  following  remedy. 


Take  two  ounces  of  vinegar,"  a  drachm  of  col- 
cothar,  or  red  vitriol,  two  tlrachm.s  of  aftringcnt 
crocus  mciit!s,-And  beat  the  whole  together;  inwhi^h 
the  lint  to  be  apply'd  to  the  ivourul  muft  be  dipp'd. 
There  is  alio  the  aSlucA  and  potential  cautir),  or 
the  ligatures  alone.  The  a£lual  cautery  is  not 
always  fafe;  3.  potential  cautery  has  always  the  c'e- 
fir'd  fuccefs;  fuch  as  this:  take  veiy  near  eqnal 
parts  of  vitriol,  and  the  powder  of  whats  vulgaily 
call'd  tcad-Jlool;  and  apply  it  with  ibmc  lint  on  the 
place  whence  the  blocd  flows,  and  the  blood  v.  ill 
be  inftantly  ftopp'd,  taking  care  not  to  touch  the 
nerve  or  tendon;  becaufe  vitriol  is  capable  to  excite 
convulfions. 

If  the  wound  be  attended  with  an  inflammation, 
caufcd  by  z  foreign  body,  that  foicign  body  muft  be 
immediately  extracted  with  a  proper  inftrumcnt. 
If  the  inflammation  is  occafioncd  by  a  quantity  (jf 
pus,  the  pus  muft  be  evacuated.  If  it  proceeds 
from  exccfTive  pains,  thofe  pains  muft  be  appealed 
with  anodyne  cataplafms  and  liniments  ;  fuch  as 
thofe  which  have  been  propofed  in  the  cure  of  the 
phlegmon  ;  or  the  part  muft  be  bath'd  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  fpirit  of  wine  and  water.  Sugar  of 
fat  urn  in  lime-water  has  the  fame  effedf. 

Againft  the  mortification  of  the  part,  is  ufed  a 
decoiStion  of  wormwood,  St.  "John's-wort,  rofemary, 
and  aloes  made  with  wine  ;  or  the  tindture  of  aloes 
and  ?nyrrh  ;  or  camphoratcd_/^/r//  of  wine  alone. 

In  great  wounds  it  is  very  proper  to  cover  the  ap- 
paratus wittx  fuch  a  cataplafm  as  this  :  take  the 
leaves  and  flowers  of  camomile  and  melilot,  fum- 
mits  of  v/ormwood,  mallows,  marfhmallows,  an- 
nifeed  and  cummin-feed,  in  powder,  which  muft 
be  boil'd  together  in  wine,  adding  to  it  barley- 
flour,  to  give  it  a  due  confiftence.  If  there  was 
the  leaft  appearance  of  a  gangrene,  there  fiiould  be 
mixed  with  it  faif'ron, myrrh,  aloes,  and  fpirit  of  wine. 
It  is  not  necefTary  to  thrult  tents  into  all  forts  of 
ivcunds ;  for  in  the  fmall  ones  it  fuiEces  to  make 
the  reunion  with  the  baliiims  alone  ;  becaufe  they 
are  not  to  be  brought  to  fuppu ration. 

Laf.ly,  The  whole  fecret  confilfs  in  cleaning  the 
wounds,  whether  with  cloths,  or  with  injeiSions 
of  tin£lure  of  myrrh  and  aloes,  or  with  fimplc 
decoiStions'of  wormwood,  fcoidium,  and  bugle,  in 
white  wine;  prefcribing  internally  the  vulnerary 
decodtions  of  alchymiila,  veronica,  ground-ivy,  iir. 
John's  wort,  woini.wcod5  centaury,  bugle,  chervil, 
and  others. 

The  Sutures  are  often  of  very  great  help  for 
the  re-union  of  wounds,  which  cannot  be  reunited 
by  the  bandage  ;  iot  futures  are  not  to  be  made  but 
while  the  zvciwds  rje  recent  and  bleeding,  when 
there  is  no  contufion,  lofs  of  fubftance,  nor  great  ■ 
hemorrhages ;  when  they  are  not  made  bv  bites 

<sf- 


Hdc  Univerfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


354- 

of  venomous  beads;  when  there  are  no  great  in- 
flammations, and  the  bones  are  not  dii'cover'd  ;  be- 
caufe  they  commonly  are  to  be  exfoliated.  Neither 
■  are  they  made  on  the  breaft,  becaufe  of  its  motion. 

Instruments  to  make ya?«r«  with,  are  ftrait 
and  bow'd  needles,   wax'd  thread.,   and  x.\\e  finre'  s. 

The  antients  invented  a  great  variety  of  Su- 
tures; as,  the  iNCARNATivEy«/z/r^,  fo  called, 
becaufe  by  rejoining  the  edges  of  a  wound,  and  keep- 
ing them  together  b)'  means  of  a  thread  run  a-crofs 
with  a  needle,  they  grow  together,  and  incarnate 
as  before. 

The  Restrict:  vEy5v/?^r«  ferved  to  flop  the  flux 
of  blood  from  large  wounds,  where  any  confiderabie 
veflels  were  cut. 

.It  is  ftill  in  ufe  for  wounds  in  the  inteflines,  and 
called  the  Jh'inners futi4re;  becaufe  they  ufethe'like  in 
fewing  up  the  holes  made  by  the  butchers  in  fleaing 
ofF  the  fkin. 

The  Intertwisted  _/«/«rf  is  when  the  nee- 
tiles  are  left  flicking  in  the  wound,  and  the  thread 
is  wound  round  them,  much  after  the  fame  manner 
layers  do  the  threaded  needles  they  keep  in  their 
fleeves,  iyc.  T'n\s  futu- e  is  performed  two  ways; 
for  cither  the  needles  arc  palled  a-crols  the  wound, 
or  they  are  ftuck  on  the  fide  thereof. 

All  the  futures  hitherto  mentioned,  sre  made 
v/ith  needles  and  thread  ;  befides  which,  there  is 
another  kind  called  dry  futures,  which  are  per- 
formed with  glue,  fize,  or  other  proper  vifcous 
matter. 

The  Dry  future  is  ordinarily  made  with  fmall 
pieces  of  leather,  on  linen  cloth  indented  like  a 
faw,  fo  that  the  teeth  may  fall  between  each  other, 
and  the  whole  row  may  be  clofed.  The  cloth, 
before  it  is  cut  into  this  form,  is  fpread  with  fome 
proper  plaifter,  in  order  to  i  s  firm  adhefion.  The 
plairters,  thus  prepared,  being  cut  into  this  form, 
are  applied  on  the  firm  flefh,  according  to  the 
length  of  the  wound,  reaching  from  it  to  the 
diftance  of  fome  inches  ;  and  after  they  are  dried, 
or  well  faften'd  to  the  part,  the  lips  of  the  wound 
being  approach'd,  they  may  conveniently  be  held 
together  by  the  /utire  in  that  pofture.  This  kind 
of  ,uture  is  principally  ufed  for  wounds  in  the  face, 
to  prevent  unfightly  fears.  It  is  likewife  convenient, 
when  the  fibres  of  the  mufcies  are  cut  a-crofs,  and 
where  it  is  difficult,  or  impoflible  to  apply  a  ban- 
dage. 

In  the  other  kinds  of  futures  the  flitches  ought 
always  to  be  taken  of  a  depth  proportionable  to 
that  of  the  wound  ;  care  being  had  to  avoid  the 
nerves  as  much  as  polTible.  In  long  wounds  they 
are  befl  bea;un  at  the  ends,  but  in  ftiort  ones  at  the 
middle.  If  the  wound  be  angular,  they  mufi:  be 
begun  at  the  angles.     Before  the  knot   be  made, 


the  lips  of  the  wound  muft  be  as  near,  and  aj 
even  as  polliblc,  approached  near  unc  anotner ; 
the  knots  are  begun  by  that  of  the  middle.  A 
fimple  one  is  made  fiift  on  the  fide  oppofite  to  that 
where  the  matter  is  to  be  evacuated ;  a  fmall  com- 
prefs  of  waxed  linen  cloth  may  be  put  on  that 
knot,  on  which  comprefs  niuft  be  made  a  running 
knot,  to  be  untied  eafily,  if  fome  accident  fliould 
happen.  If  a  plaifter  is  to  be  placed  on  the  wound 
alter  the  future,  a  fmall  comprefs  is  to  be  put  on 
the  knots,  left  they  fhould  iiick  to  the  plaifter. 
If  there  happens  an  inflammation  in  the  wound, 
the  knots  naift  be  relaxed  ;  and  when  the  accidents 
are  paft,  tyed  up  again  :  but  if  the  inflammation 
continues,  the  threads  muft  be  cut,  by  pafling  a 
probe  under  it.  When  the  re-union  of  the  wound 
is  perfected,  the  thread  muft  be  alfo  cut,  by  palfmfr, 
likewife  a  probe  under  it.  To  extia<it  the  threads, 
a  finger  muft  be  applyed  on  the  knot,  for  fear  of  re- 
opening the  wound. 

Of  Wounds  in  the  Head  two  things  are  to  be 
confidered. 

That  vjoundh  CdWtA  fuperficial,  which  goes  no 
farther  than  the  fkin  ;  and  that  deep,  which  pene- 
trates as  far  as  the  pericranium,  cranium,  or  the 
iubftance  of  the  brain. 

If  the  iiound  he  only  fupe> fie ial.  it  may  be  cured 
with  Hungarywater,  or  with  bnlfam,  putting  over 
it  a  plaifter  of  betony  If  the  wound,  or  the  tear- 
ing of  the  fkin  be  large,  it  muft  be  fewed  up. 

If  the  luound  be  deep,  and  in  the  pericranium,  it 
muft  be  kept  open,  waiting  for  the  fuppuration. 
If  it  penetrates  as  far  as  the  cranium,  there  is  either 
contufion,  or  fraflure;  ifcontufion,  the  Chirurgeon 
muft  wait  for  the  fuppuration,  and  the  fall  of  the 
fplinter,  by  keeping  the  wound  open.  Iffra£iure, 
that  fracfure  is  either  in  the  firft  or  fecond  table, 
or  in  both.  It  is  known  to  be  in  the  fecond 
table,  only,  when  attended  with  no  accidents  ;  and 
in  both  tables,  when  the  figns  appear,  and  by  the 
incifion  crucial  of  the  flefh,  and  the  difcovery  of  the 
fijjitra. 

1  he  figns  of  the  fra£Iure  of  both  tables  of  the 
cranium,  and  of  the  extravafation  of  blood,  on  the 
membranes  of  the  brain,  are  the  lofs  of  judgment 
or  reafon,  at  the  very  inftant  the  wound  is  received, 
the  haemorrhage  through  the  nofe,  mouth,  and 
ears,  a  drowzinefs  and  heavinefs  of  the  head,  and 
efpecially  bilious  vomiting :  whence  it  is  conclud- 
ed that  the  operation  of  the  trepan  is  abfolutely 
necefiiiry. 

Wounds  in  the  Face  are  to  be  treated  with  the 
greateftcare;  to  avoid,  as  much  as  poflible,  incifions 
and  fuppuration  ;  which  would  caufe  Icars  and  de- 
formities in  the  face. 

Of  the  wounds  of  the  Breast. 

When 


CHIRURGERT. 


355 


When  the  Chirurgesn  is  Aire  that  the  wound  pe- 
netrates  into  the  capacity  of  the  bread,  he  muft 
examine  which  part  is  wounded,  by  obierving  the 
fituation  of  the  wound,   and  its  accidents.     If  the 
lungs  are  wounded,  there  is  a  frothy  fpitting  of 
bright  blood,  with  a  difficulty  of  rel'piration,  and 
a  cough.     If  fome   of  the  large  veflels  be  open, 
-the  patient  fceli>  a  weight  in  the  bottom  of  the  breait, 
has  cold  fwcats,  breathes   with   ditSculty,  vomits 
blood,  which  likewife  comes  out  of  the  wound. 
If  the  diaphragm  is  cut  in  its  tendinous  part,  the 
patient  has  laughing  convulfions.     If  the  heart  be 
wounded   in    it,    bafis,    or   in   its   ventricles,    the  | 
wounded  faints  av/ay,   and  dies  :  but  if  the  probe  j 
cannot  penetrate,  and  none  of  the  accidents  above-  | 
mentioned  appear,  it  is  certain  that  the  wound  is! 
not  of  great  coniequence. 

When  the  wound  penetrates,  and  there  is  no  | 
part  offended,  but  only  an  effufion  of  blood  on  the  | 
diaphragm,  recourfe  mult  be  had  to  the  cmpyetna;  ■ 
otherwife  the  extravafated  blood  would  putiefy,  I 
caufe  inflammation,  the  gangrene,  and  confequent  I 
ly  death.  Which  empyema'is  an  opLration,  where-  i 
by  the  matters  extravafated  on  the  diaphragm,  are  j 
evacuated  by  an  aperture  made  on  the  bi  caji. 

From  the  breajiy  we  will  delcend  to  the  Abdo- 
men. 1  he  qualities  of  a  wound  made  in  the 
Abdoinen  are  known  by  probing  it,  obierving 
its  fituation,  and  minding  its  accidents.  By  prob- 
ing it  is  difcovered  whether  the  wound  penetrates 
into  the  capacity,  or  not. 

In  the  cure  of  the  wounds  of  the  Abdomen,  care 
rnult  be  taken  not  to  let  the  air  enter  into  them  ; 
they  muft  be  dilated  to  few  the  wounded  intefline, 
and  reftore  it  to  its  place  ;  the  epiploon  or  cmvl,  if  it 
comes  out  through  the  wound,  muft:  be  tied  and 
cut,  left  growing  putrid,  it  fhould  infeft  the 
neighbouri.ig  parts,  which  muft  be  wafhed  with 
Urong  wine,  in  which  have  been  boiled  camomile- 
Jiowers,  I'offs,  and  wormivood ;  they  muft  be  pow- 
dered with  aloes,  myrrh,  and  oilbwmm,  and  the 
■wound  fewed  to  be  dreflcd  outwardly  ;  jirefcribing 
an  exacS  diet  to  the  patient ;  and  abftaining,  on 
thefe  occafions,  frbm  clyflers,  efpecially  if  one  of 
the  great  guns  be  wounded,  uiing  rather  fuppo- 
fitories,  and  laxative  ptilans,  or  diet-drinic,  to 
avoid  dilatation. 

Another  kind  of  wounds,  which  deferve  a  parti- 
cular attention  and  fkill,  are  thofe  made  with 
Fire-Arms.  Thofe  wounds  are  always  with  la- 
ceration, lofs  of  fubitance,  fracafiement,  and  break- 
ing in  tlie  bonv-'s.  'J  hey  are  red,  black,  livid,  and 
with  inflammation.  'I  hey  are  feldom  accompa- 
nied with  bamcrrhages:  they  are  commonly  round, 
narrower  at  the  entrance  than  at  the  exit,  unlefs 
they  have  been  made  with  quartered  bijlieti,  isc. 
»7- 


If  thofe  wounds  penetrate  the  fubftance  of  the 
brain,  the  medull i  fpinalis,  the  heart,  ihc  pericar- 
dium, the  large  veflels,  and  others  of  the  noble 
parts,  it  is  almoft  always  prefent  death  :  but  all  the 
fuperficial  ones,  thofe  made  in  any  other  parts  of 
the  body,  are  curable. 

To  do  it  with  judgment,  and  hope  of  fuccefs, 
the  patient  muft  be  put,  if  poflible,  in  the  fame 
fituation  he  was  when  wounded,  the  eafier  to  know 
the  diredicn  of  the  wound  by  the  jirobe,  v/ith 
which  the  bullet  muft  be  (earched,  or  ibme  other 
extraneous  bodies,  as  wood,  burr,  linen,  Jluff,  and 
the  like,  which  muft  be  extraitcd,  throus;h  the 
fame  aperture  they  have  entered  into  it,  avoidino- 
lacerating  the  part  in  extrading  them.  If  the  ope- 
rator has  v^orkcd  in  vain  for  extraneous  bodies,  he 
will  make  a  counter  opening  at  the  oppofite  part, 
on  the  place  where  any  hardnefs  is  felt,  without 
touching  the  veftcls:  the  incifion  made,he  mu'l  ex- 
trait  tholebodics  with  his  finger,  or  fomc  inftrument. 

If  the  bullet  be  to  !ar  in  thi'  bone,  that  it  cannot 
be  extracted  witiiout  fpiitting  it,  it  is  better  to  leave 
it  there.  If  there  is  a  great  fracafiement  of  bones 
in  the  legs  or  arms,  they  muft  be  amputated.  The 
pain  and  inflammation  are  to  be  aj;peafed  by  bleed- 
ing, anodyne  topicks,  cooling  clyftero,  and  purga- 
tives ;  if  there  lad  Ix-en  a  too  great  ettufion  of  blood, 
bleeding  is  to  be  avoided. 

The  purgatives  mult  be  very  gentle,  as  are  tlie 
cajfia,  manna,  tamarinds,  fyrup  cf  violets,  and  that 
oi  damafk  rofes.  Anodynes  to  appeafe  the  pain  are 
cataplafms  made  with  crumbs  oi bread,  milk,faff'ron, 
and  the  ;■«//£■  of  an  egg  Oil  of  rofes,  alone,  made 
hot,  is  a  very  good  remedy.  T"o  appeafe  the  great 
inflammations,  there  mult  be  applied  cjj  the  part 
oil  of  rofes,  the  white  of  an  egg,  znA  vinegar,  the 
whole  beaten  together. 

Spirituous  remedies  are  the  firft,  which  are  to  be 
applied  on  the  wound;  lint  dipped  in  camphorated 
fpirit  of  wine,  and  applied  on  the  part,  is  excellent; 
but  if  the  blood  was  to  flow,  there  fhould  be  ap- 
plied//yp^/i:,^  water,  or  other  .aihingent  remedies,  ail 
which  are  to  be  applied  hot.  To  haften  the  fuppii- 
ration  of  contuied  wouui^s,  a  digci'tive  muft  be 
prepared  oi  oil  cf  rofes,  yolks  of  eggs,  and  terebintiue 
cfVemce.  If  the  wound  v.'as  on  tlie  nerves,  ttn- 
dons,  or  other  nervous  pares,  noiie  but  fpiritur.us 
remedies  fhould  be  ufed,  never  unguents,  whi^a 
would  only  putrefy  the  parts. 

The  balfani  of  Peru,   the  diftilled  oils  (.:'     rebin- 

tine,  o\  wax,  of  laver.der,  oi bays,  and  tiial  of /"i/- 

I'jj'ophers  ;  the  Daliam  of .''/.  "Johns  tjor!,  fpirit  of 

wine,  and  gum   elen:y,    r.;e  excellent  remedies  for 

the  nerves.     Take  four  ounces  of  unguent  of  al- 

\thea,  a  drachm  and   a  half  of  diliilleJ  ci^  of  bens, 

;  which  being  mixed  together  are  apj-lied  ;  c,  laLe 

I  Z  z  ari 


35^  ^hs  Unlverjfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  «;?^  Sciences. 


wr\.  onncc:  oi  A\^\\\fzA  oU  of  tereblntine,  a  drachm  of 
Jpint  ofivine,  half  an  ounce  of  camphire,  mix  it 
together,  and  let  fome  of  it  be  dropped  in  the 
wound  ;  or,  take  a  fcrupic  of  euphorbium,  half  an 
ounce  of  terehintine,  and  fbme  ■wc4x ;  mix  them  to- 
gether, to  be  applied  hot  to  the  nervous  parts. 

If  the  wounds  are  deep,  injections  are  to  be  made 
with  the  following  vulnerary  water  ;  it  is  very  good 
for  all  (orts  of  contufions,  for  the  ^i7«g-r<'M^  and  ul- 
cer. 'Jake  ^rmW fuge,  muguiort,  comjfrey,  of  each 
four  handfuls;  plantaiti,  nicotiana,  betony,  St.  'Johns 
wort,  wormwood,  of  each  three  handfuls  ;  fennel, 
centaury,  bugle,  fcrophulary,  of  each  three  handfuls  ; 
three  otnices  of  round  ariftoloch,  and  two  ounces 
of  the  long:  let  the  whole  be  in  digefting,  during 
thirty  hours,  in  eight  quarts  of  good  white  wine, 
and  dilhlled  afterwards  in  balneo  maria,  to  the  con- 
fumption  of  a  third  part. 

If  the  gangrene  happens  to  the  part,  we  will  ufe 
iS\z  fpirit  of  matricaria,  made  of  two  drachms  of 
wmJVic,  riyrrh,  oltbanum,  fucdnum,  and  a  quart  of 
wine  reiStified  ;  the  whole  muft  be  diftilled.  This 
is  a  very  good  fomentation  :  take  equal  parts  of 
camphorated  wine,  and  of  water  of  quick  lime, 
with  two  drachms  o{  camphire.  This  fomentation 
muft  applied  hot. 

From  Wounds  we  will  pafs  to  Ulcers.  Ulcer, 
ulcus,  is  a  folution  or  difcontinuity  of  texture,  or 
lofs  of  fubftance  in  the  flefhy  parts  of  the  body, 
proceeding  from  an  internal  caufe. 

Old  ulcers  are  rarely  cured  without  the  ufe  of  in- 
ternal remedies,  which  are  to  be  fuch  as  deftroy 
and  abforb  the  acidity  ;  fudorificks,  efpecially  de- 
coftions  of  the  woods,  antimonials,  viperines,  and 
volatiles  ;  but  above  all  things  vomitories  often  re- 
peated ;  in  the  moft  obftinate  ulcers,  mercurial 
ialivation  is  often  required.  Old  ulcers  are  fre- 
quently incurable,  without  making  an  ifTue  in  the 
oppoilte  part. 

The  cure  of  ftmple,  fnallow  ulcers  is  commonly 
efFefted  by  applying  a  pledget  armed  with  liniment 
arcai,  or  bafdick  fiozver  to  the  part  ;  a  plaiiler  of 
diachyl.fmpl.  or  de  minio,  being  laid  over  it,  and 
repeating  the  drefling  once  a  day,  or  feldomer.  If 
only  the  cuticida  be  loft,  or  eaten  away,  nothing 
more  than  a  \\i\.\e  unguent,  deftcatlv.  rub.  or  diapan- 
phol,  kc.  fpread  thin  upon  linen,  need  be  applied. 

If  fpungy  flefhfhould  grow  up,  in  either  cafe,  it 
may  be  kept  down  with  a  little  Rcmciti  vitriol,  &c. 
Evacuations  are  indifpenfibly  necefiary,  in  the  cure, 
oi  ulcers  of  the  compound  kind,  where  the  confti- 
tution  will  admit  thereof.  If  the  zilcer  be  fiftulous, 
finuous,  cancerous,  is'c.  and  the  matter  fetid,  thin, 
or  fanious,  it  is  found  proper  to  join  calomel  with 
the  purgatives,  or  to  give  it  in  fmall  dofes,  be- 
tween the  repetitions  thereof,  fo  as  not  to  falivate. 


Befides  the  ufe  of  evacuating  medicines,  it  will 
here  alfo  be  proper  to  order  a  courfc  of  diet- drink, 
made  with  the  fudorifick  woods,  efpecially  where 
the  ulcer  is  fulpedted  to  be  venereal.  In  the  mean 
time,  proper  dreffings  are  to  be  ufed. 

When  the  ulcer  obftinately  refifts  this  treatment, 
a  falivation  is  generally  propofed,  and  feldom  fails 
to  promote  the  cure,  though  all  other  remedies 
fhould  have  been  tried  in  vain.  If  the  patient  be 
too  weak  to  undergo  the  fatigue  of  a  thorough  fali- 
vation, it  may  be  moderated,  and  kept  up  the 
longer,   in  proportion  to  his  ftrength. 

txternal  medicines,  for  ulcers,  are  digeftives, 
cleanfers,  farcoticks,  and  epulotlcks.  Mr.  Bullock 
gives  us  a  medicine  of  lingular  efficacy  in  the  cure 
of  ulcers  ;  and  it  is  no  more  than  a  decoction  of 
walnut-tree  leaves  in  water,  with  a  little  fugar  ; 
in  which  a  linen  cloth  being  dipped,  is  to  be  laid 
on  the  ulcer,  and  this  to  be  repeated  every  fecond  or 
third  day.  This  fimple  and  vulgar  medicine,  he 
finds,  fuppurates,  deterges,  incarnates,  refifts  pir- 
trefracHon,  i^c.  more  than  any  other  medicine 
known. 

The  Venereal  Difeafe  falls  next  under  our  confi- 
deration,  which  we  defign  to  examine  through  its 
different  ftages,  vi'z..  the  clap,  ehordee,  gonorrhceoy 
Jhankers,   bubo's,  ?LnA  t\\e  grand  po.^. 

Venereal  Disease,  called  the  French  pox, 
is  a  contagious  malady,  contracted  by  fome  impure 
humour,  generally  received  in  coition;  and  dif- 
covering  itfelf  in  ulcers,  and  pains  about  the  geni- 
tal, and  other  parts. 

The  tradition  is,  that  the  venereal  difeafe  firft 
broke  out  in  the  French  army,  when  it  lay  en- 
camped before  Naples  ;  and  that  it  was  owing  to 
fome  unwholfome  food  :  on  which  account  the 
French  call  it,  the  Neapolitan  difeafe,  and  the  Ita- 
lians  and  Englijh  the  French  pox :  but  others  go 
much  higher,  and  fuppofe  it  to  be  the  uker  Job 
complains  of  fo  grievoufly. 

Phyficians  and  Chirurgeovs  divide  the  venereal 
difeafe  into  feveral  Itages,  of  which  the  clap  is  the 
firft. 

Dr.  Ccckburn,  and  others  after  him,  will  have 
the  clap  to  confift  in  an  ulceration  of  the  mouths  of 
the  glands,  of  the.  urethra  m  mtn,  and  of  the  glan- 
dular lacuncE  in  women  ;  and  difcovers  itfelf  by  a 
painful  tenfion  in  the  penis,  an  excruciating  pain  in 
making  water;  by  the  urine  appearing  whitifh,  and 
full  of  fmall  threads. 

If  the  perfon  be  afFeded  with  a  running  of  a  thin 
confiftence,  a  yellow  or  green  colour,  and  in  great 
quantity,  and  the  tefticles  fwelled,  it  is  ufually 
termed  a  gonorrhoea  virulenta,  and  the  clap  fuppoied 
to  be  in  its  fecond  Itage. 


CHIRURGERT. 


357 


A  clap  is  often  attended  with  an  ir.flainmatioi) 
and  contiadiion  of  the  fra-num,  and  the  ur.J'ji- pari 
r?  the  punis  called  chordee^  and  which  rentiers  crec 
tion  painful.  If  the  chordce  be  violent,  or  does  not 
decreafe  proporticnably  to  the  other  fymptoms  in 
gniorrh'cea's,  an  emctick  of  turbith  mineral  is  ufu- 
aily  civen  v.ith  fucccfs,  it  caufing  a  revulfion  from 
tli'e  part. 

Clap  is  alfo  often  called  a  virulent  Gonorrhrca, 
to  diftinguifh  it  fiom  a  fimple  Gonorrhcea^  which 
takes  its  rife  from  violent  exercifes  and  flrainings  ; 
the  immoderate  ufe  of  hot  foods,  and  particularly 
fermented  licjucrs,  as  beer,  wine,  cyder,  ^c. 
This  is  cured  by  indulging  reH",  nourifhii;g  foods, 
broths,  ^c. 

The  cure  Is  effected  by  emollient  cataplafms, 
and  fom.cntations  upon  the  part,  and  a  half  bath. 
For  the  other  fpecies,  more  powerful  means  are  to 
be  ufed.  The  principal  remedies  are  mercurial 
purges,  an  emuifion  of  green  hempfeed,  cuttle- 
fifli  bone,  turpentine,  faccharinn  faturn':.  Sec.  we 
have,  likewife,  great  commendations  of  green  pre- 
cipitate of  mercury,  and  mercurhn  dulds.  Balf. 
faturn,  tereb'mthinatitm,  prepared  with  a  gentle  fire, 
of  Jaccharum  faturui^  and  oil  of  turpentine,  is 
much  applauded  where  the  heat  is  great  about  the 
reins  and  genitals  ;  as  alfo  camphire.  An  infufion 
of  cantharides  in  wine  is  the  noflrum  of  a  noted 
Dutch  ph)fician.  Refin  of  the  wood  guaiacum  is 
alfo  recommended  ;  and  balfam  of  cupaiha  is 
held  a  fort  of  fpecifick  ;  to  which  muft  be  added, 
antimonhim  dlaphorcticiim,  hezoardiwri  /niticrale, 
water  wherein  mercury  has  been  boiled  ;  injefli- 
ons  of  lime-water,  tnetcurius  dulds,  faccharum  fa- 
iurni,  tie. 

^  Shankers  are  the  next  thing  in  the  venereal 
<///ftf/^  worthy  attention.  They  are  round  ulcers, 
caved  in  the  middle,  which  rife  on  the  glans  and 
the  prepuce. 

To  cure  Jhankers,  they  muft  be  touched  with 
the  infernal  ftone,  and  brought  to  fuppuration, 
with  red  precipitate  mixed  with  the  unguent  of 
Andre  de  la  Crcix.  Oil  of  Mercury,  put  upon 
lint  is  very  good  to  o^en  Jhankers,  and  to  confume 
the  flefh.  The  patient  muft  be  very  well  purged 
with  calomel  and  fcammony ;  after  which,  he  muft 
take  the  mercurial  panacea's,  which  is  a  veiy  good 
remedy  fcf  all  but  a  confirmed  pox. 

Next  tojljunhcrs  come  Bubo's,  which  are  large 
tumours,  or  abfcefles  happening  in  the  groin.  Bu- 
boes  muft  not  be  left  to  come  to  a  perfect  maturity 
before  they  be  opened.  They  muft  fuppurate  a 
long  while,  and  care  muft  be  taken  to  purge  the 
patient  with  calomel  and  fcammony. 

All  thefe  abovementioned  are  but  the  forerunners, 


of  the  pox,  which  fometimes  begins  by  a  virulent 
^on^rrha^a. 

When  the  p.ix  is  but  juft  begun,  it  is  eafily 
cured  ;  but  if  it  be  an  old  confirmed  one,  and  the 
patient  of  a  bad  conftirution,  has  his  voice  hoarfe, 
and  ulcers,  caries  and  cxojhjcs ;  the  cure  is  very 
difficult. 

The  patient  being  prepared  by  proper  pursrativcs 
muft  be  brought  to  a  lalivation  by  frUlions, 
made  with  unguent  of  mercury.  This  unguent  is 
compofed  of  crude  mercury,  mixed  with  turpentine 
in  a  mortar ;  the  whole  being  mixed  afterwards 
with  hog's-lard;  i.  e.  one  part  oi' mercury  upon  three 
of  hog's-lard. 

The  fri(^ions  begin  at  the  fole  of  the  foot  ;  from 
thence  they  are  continued  to  the  legs,  and  to  the 
infide  of  the  thighs,  taking  care  not  to  touch  the 
back  bone.  When  the  patient  is  of  a  tender  con- 
ftitution,  fometimes  a  fingle  friftion  fufficcs.  He 
muft  be  rubbed  by  the  fire,  after  he  has  took  feme 
chicken  broth.  He  muft  not  be  rubbed,  each  time, 
with  m.ore  than  one  or  two  drachms  of  mercury 
without  reckoning  the  greafe.  He  is  rubbed  with 
the  hand,  fo  that  no  greafe  appear  on  his  fkin; 
after  which,  he  muft  be  put  to  bed.  The  Chirtir- 
^  geon  muft  often  look  in  the  mouth' of  the  patient, 
to  fee  if  the  mercury  operates,  which  is  eafily 
known  ;  becaufe  the  tongue,  gums,  and  amigdala 
I  fwell,  and  grow  thick  ;  the  patient  has  the  head 
ach,  his  breath  is  ftrong,  his  face  red,  he  has  fome 
difficulty  to  fwallow  his  fpittle,  or  begins  to  fali- 
vate. 

During  the  friiElions,  the  patient  muft  be  fed 
with  chicken  broth,  eggs,  iSc,  which  he  muft 
take  every  two  hours,  at  leaft.  He  muft  keep  his 
bed  in  a  warm  room,  and  muft  not  get  up,  but 
v/hen  the  falivation  is  to  be  flopped,  which  com- 
monly lafts  20  or  25  days,  or  rather  till  the  faliva-- 
tion  be  fine,  /.  e.  no  longer  ftinking,  nor  coloured} 
but  clear  and  fluid. 

If  a  loofenefs  happens  during  the  falivation,  it 
flops;  but  it  muft  be  procured  again,  by  flopping 
the  loofenefs,  with  clyfters  made  with  milk  and 
)olks  of  eggs  ;  and  if  it  could  not  be  procured  that 
way,  a  flight  friftion  muft  be  made  ;  if  the  faliva- 
tion was  too  copious,  it  muft  be  diminiflied  with 
fome  gentle  purgatives. 

The  patient  falivates,  ordinarily,  three  or  four 
pounds  every  day,  in  a  bafon  made  on  purpofe ; 
which  he  keeps  in  his  bed  near  his  mouth,  into 
which  t\\Q  faliva  runs.  A  fmall  flick,  tied  round 
with  fome  linen  cloth,  muft  be  thruft,  from  time 
to  time,  between  the  teeth  and  the  jaws,  which 
otherwife  would  glue  together. 


Z  Z    2 


If 


358 


The  tJnivcrfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


If  rhe  ra'.ivatijn  does  not  ftop  of  itfdf,  in  a  due  Jiachai.  and  the  like.     The  bands  mu.1  be  dipped 


time,  to  flop  it,  the  patient  rnuft  be  purged.  If 
there  are  ulcers  left  in  hJs  mouth,  they  muft  be 
dried  with  gargarii'ms  made  of  barley-water,  honey 
of  rofcs,  or  warm'd  wine.  Warts  are  cured  with 
being  tied,  if  the  ligature  be  pofllble ;  and  if  not, 
they  muTt  be  confumed  with  cauOicks.  Sometimes 
they  are  cut,  and  left  bleeding,  and  wafked  after- 
wards with  hot  V.  ine. 

When  tlie  patient  is  up,  he  mufl  be  changed  of 
linen,  bed,  and  room,  and  purged  -,  after  which, 
he  will  recover  his  Ilrength  by  being  fed  with  good 
aliments,  and  by  drinking  good  wine.  If  he  be 
too  much  weakened,  he  muft  drink  cows  milk, 
with  fugar  of  rofts. 

From  the  maladies  of  the  fledi,  v/e  will  proceed 
to  thofie  of  the  honcs^  which  are  five  in  number, 
f.z.  the  luxation,  fraHure,  caries,  or  uken,  the 
exoftojis,  and  the  nodu!. 

Luxation,  or  ritf.ocation,  (from  the  latin,  lux- 
are,  to  loofen)  is  the  flipping  of  the  head  of  a  lone 
from  its  proper  receptacle  into  another  place, 
whereby  the  natural  motion  of  the  joint  is  de- 
Ifroy'd. 

The  cure  of  a  fuJ^p'c  luxation,  is  by  a  fpeedy 
redudtion  of  the  diflocated  member  to  its  natural 
place.  To  this  are  necefl'ary,  i.  Extcnjtin,  a»Ii{acn{, 
that  the  head  of  the  bone  may  more  directly  be 
introduced  into  its  feat. 

This  extenfion  is  made  either  by  the  hands 
alone,  or  by  ligatures  or  towels ,  or  by  inftruments 


or  great  machines. 


when  the  luxation    is  difficult 
2.   After  extenfion  follows  the  in- 


and  inveterate. 

truding  of  the  joint  into  its  natural  cavity  :  which 
likewife,  may,  either  be  efrefted  by  the  hands  cnly, 
or  by  the  heel  (as  when  the  head  of  the  os  humeri 
is  fallen  into  the  arm  pit)  or  by  means  of  ladders, 
doors,  pefiles,  or  Hippccrales's  inftrument,  called 
awh '. 

Lajlly^  It   is   ne'ccflary,    yet   further,    to   apply 


eomprcfles  and  bandages 


by  which  means  tiie  ar- 
ticulation is  preferved  fafe,  'till  the  ligaments  may 
accjuire  their  ufual  ftrength  of  elailicity  and  afiric- 
tion. 

The  luxation  of  the  thigh  with  the  hip,  is  fel- 
dom  or  never  rtdiaced.  'T  hat  of  the  finl  vertebra 
is  very  difficult.  That  of  the  inferior  jaw-bone, 
and  of  the  fole  of  the  foot  is  mortal. 

If  ar»  inflammation  fhould  h.ippen  before  the 
rr.ember  is  reduced,  nothing  ought  to  be  attempted 
'till  that  inflammation  is  appeafed,  but  in  order  to 
prevent  and  appeafe  it,  the  reduced  member  muft 
be  bathed  with  hot  v/ine,  in  which  have  boiled  the 
lummits   of  St.    'John's  litcrt,  ca-moinile,  rofmarin, 

t 


in  tlie  fame  liquor. 

If  an  cedemaloits  tumour  rifes  on  the  luxated 
member,  after  the  aniculaiion  has  been  reduced, 
fudoriilcks  muft  be  admiuiftcred  to  the  patient,  and 
the  member  anointed  with  oil  of  iSV.  John's  wortSy 
or  of  turpentine,  and  covered  with  a  plaifter  made 
o( yellow  wax,  and  white  refin ;  the  whole  being 
melied,  there  muft  be  added  to  it  white  J'uuin,  and 
gumelemi;  ofeachafufiicientquantitytomake  amafs, 
which  muft  be  incorporated  with  the  batfum  of  Peru. 
When  the  diflocated  bone  has  not  been  reduced 
foon  enough,  there  is  formed  in  the  cavity  a  coagu- 
lii/n,  which  hinders  the  redu<5fion ;  this  coagulum 
may  be  melted  with  the  following  oils  before  the 
reJudtion  of  the  i5«^.  Take  one  part  of  diftilled 
oil  ol  human  hones,  two  parts  of  fetid  oil  oi  tartar  ; 
mix  the  whole  together,  and  put  qiiitk  lime  over  it 
to  have  it  diftilled  through  a  retort  i  the  part  muft 
be  fomented  with  this  oil. 

If  the  lu'xation  has  happened  through  A  too  great 
relaxation  of  the  ligaments,  they  muit  be  ftrength- 
cned  by  the  part  reduced  beinij  kept  in  its  pla  e  by 
good  bandages,  prefcribing  all  remedies,  impreg- 
nated with  an  oily  volatile  fait,  as  thofe  produced 
by  ihtfajfafras.  farjaparilla,  jal-ammoniack,  &c. 

The  moft  ordinary  luxations  are  of  the  vjrijt,  of 
the/^j,  of  the  rotula,  of  they>«;,and  of  the  jaw-bones. 
The  bone  being  reduced  into  its  natural  place, 
there  are  bandages  ufed   to  keep  it  there,    in  the 
following  cafes.       i.  In  the  luxations  proceeding 
from  internal  caufes  ;  bccaufe  the  ligamcnLs  having 
been  relaxed,    a  bandage  muft  fupply  their  want. 
2.  In  the  luxation  of  the  jaw-bone,  efpecially  wiien. 
it  happens  in  gaping  ;  becaufe  the  ligaments  havi.ng 
been  weakened,   and  foftened,  by  iome  humidity, 
want  help  to  keep  up  the  jaw  bone,  who.^e  wcigiit 
tends   tovvsrds   a  new  luxation  ;  to  which  muft  be 
added,  that  the  patient  can  fcarce  be  at  reft,    and' 
that  the  continual  motions  he  is  obliged  to  make, 
either  to   fpeak,  or  eat,  could  caufe  a  fecond  lux- 
ation.    3.  In  the  luxations  of  the   vvrift   and  the 
foot  ;  becaufe,  as  we  have  obferved  already,  they 
are  ordinarily    accompanied  with  ftartings  of  the 
cubitus  and  radius,  and   of  the  tibia  and  peroneum,^ 
a  bandage  muft  be  made,  from  above  down  wards,, 
to  bring  together  gently   the   ftartcd   bones,  and 
keep  them  firm  ;  which  muft   be  done  without  a. 
compreffioa  on  the  affiifted  part.     4.  In  the  luxa^ 
tlons   of  the  clavicle,  with  the  f.crnum,  the  arm 
muft  be  kept  up,  by  means  of  the  fcarf. 

In  ail  other  luxations,  there  wants  no  bandage, 
unlefs  there  be  an  inflammation  ;  and  the  bandage 
ought  to  be  contentive  only,  to  keep  up  what's 
put  on  the  afflided  part.     For  the  thigh,  leg,  ISc-. 

thej 


CHIRURGER 


359 


the  patient  mud  keep  his  bed  for  two  ortiirec  days, 
to  (hengthen  the  part. 

Let  us  proceed  to  FRACTURES. 

Fracturk  is  a  folution  of  continuity  in  a 
bone,  when  it  is  crufhed  or  broken  by  ibme  ex- 
ternal caufe. 

In  the  cure  of  fraSlures,  the  Chirurgeon  ha.s 
two  things  to  attend  to  ;  firft,  to  rertore  the  frac- 
tured bone  to  its  natural  fituation  ;  and  to  keep 
it  tigtit  with  fplinters,  and  bandages  :  in  which 
cafe,  nature  takes  on  herfelf  the  ofHce  of  healing 
and  conglutinating  it    by  forming  a  callus  thereon 

li  t\ie.  frai^wc  betranfverfly,  the  redudtion  muft 
be  made  by  extenllon,  and  counter-extenfion  ;  and 
if  Icnirthwife,  coaptation  fuffices.  If  the  fraiiiure 
be  complicated  with  a  wound,  the  cure  muil  begin 
by  the  redu(3ion,  and  the  other  remedies  are  ad 
miniftered  afterwards,  as  in  the  fimpje  fratiure. 

When  there  are  fplinters  left  in  rhefraSlure  afttr 
the  redu6tion  made,  they  are  not  to  be  pulled  out, 
but  the  Chirurgeon  muft  wait  patiently  their  coming 
out  with  the  pus,  or  help  their  coming  out  with 
the  ufe  of  injedlions  made  with  the  tinfture  of 
Biyrrh  and  aloes,  and  with  proper  plaifters,  and 
alfo  with  pincers. 

There  is  more  or  lefs  time  required  in  the  cure 
of  zfraSlure,  as  the  fraJIureJ  bones  are  different 
in  bignefs  ;  thus  the  callus  of  the  fra5inred  jaw- 
bone is  formed  in  20  days  ;  that  of  the  clavicle, 
erfhoulder,  in  24  ;  that  of  the  humerus  in  40  ; 
that  of  the  cubitus  in  30  ;  that  of  the  bones  of  the 
carpus,  and  of  the  fingers,  in  20  ;  that  of  the 
ribs  in  20  ;  that  of  the  femur-,  or  thigh,  in  50  ; 
that  of  the  tfl/ia,  or  leg,  in  40  ;  and  that  of  the 
bones  of  the  tarfus,   and  of  the  toes,  in  20. 

To  facilitate  the  formation  of  the  callus,  the 
frafiured  '(ra.n  muft  be  rubbed  with  oil  of  worms, 
and  hot  fpiritof  wine,  mixed  together.  1  he  La- 
pis Abtcocolis  is  a  fpecifick  on  this  occafion. 

All  the  fraifmes  of  the  Cranium  do  not  ob- 
lige the  Chirurgeon  to  have  recourfe  to  trepanning, 
but  only  the  deep  ones  ;  as  for  the  fuperficial,  they 
are  cured  by  exfoliation,  or  fcaling  of  the  bone. 

The  deep  fraSlure  of  the  cranium,  which  ob- 
liges to  trepanning,  is  that  made  of  both  tables  of 
that  part,  and  which  penetrates  to  the  Meninges,  on 
which  there  is  then  an  extravafated  blood,  which 
muft  be  took  off  by  the  operation  of  the  trepan 

"The  accidents  or  figns  of  the  failure  of  the 
cranium,  are,  dimnefs  of  the  eyes,  and  lofs  of 
judgment,  both  which  happen  at  the  very  inftant 
of  the  blow,  or  fall,  with  a  bilious  vomiting,  which 
follows  foon  after.  Thefe  figns  are  called  univocal; 
there  are  others  called  equivocal,  which  are  for  a 
confirmation  of  the  firft  :  as  the  lofs  of  blood  thro' 
the  nofe,  eyes,  and  ears  ;  rednefs  of  the  eyes,  hea- 


viness of  the  head,  fwelling  of  the  face,  and  after- 
wards drowzincl's,  fhivcring  of  the  whole  body, 
fever,  convuifions,  l3c.  but  it  is  not  necefiarv  that 
all  thole  figns  ihould  appear,  tojudge  of  the  neccf- 
fity  of  trepanning,  lince  it  fuffices  to  have  the  equi- 
vocal ones  to  make  the  crucial  incifion  in  the  place 
of  the  wound,  and  difcover  the  bone  to  find  the 
fracture.      See  the  practice  of  trepanning  hereafter. 

The  wounds  with  fra^ure  mull  abfolurely  be 
trepanned  ;  in  which  operation,  oil  of  turpentine 
mull:  be  ufed  to  dillil  on  the  membrane  of  the 
brain  ;  or  fpirit  of  wine  mixed  with  oil  of  al- 
monds ;  and  the  Chirurgeon  muft  by  all  means 
bring  it  to  a  copious  fuppuration.  The  patient,- 
bcfidcs,  muft  be  let  blood  before  and  after  the  ope- 
ration^  efpecially  if  there  be  a  fever,  or  plenitude; 
taking  care  to  facilitate  the  natural  evacuations  by 
means  of  clyflers,  at  leaft  every  other  day,  pre- 
fcribing  an  exacl  diet,  free  of  all  agitations  of  the 
body  and  mind,  abftaining  even  from  eating;  till  the 
fourteenth  day  ;  and  from  coition,  which  is  mortal 
at  that  time,  for  forty  days  from  that  of  the  opera- 
tion ;  as  it  is,  likewife,  in  all  confiderable  wounds. 

The  method  to  be  obferved  in  the  wounds  of 
the  head,,  and  the  fraSiures  of  the  cranium,  is  as 
follows  : 

In  the  fimple  wounds  of  the  head,  none  but  bal- 
fams  are  to  be  ufed,  applying  a  plaifter  of  diachylum 
over  if.  When  there  is  contufion,  either  in  the  pe- 
ricranium, or  cranium,  the  wound  ought  to  be 
kept  open  till  after  the  fuppuration,  or  exfoliation. 
When  there  is  only  a  bump,  without  wound,  or 
accidents,  it  muft  be  refolved  with  verjuice,  vine- 
gar, or  fpirit  of  wine  mixed  with  oil  of  St.  John's 
wort,  in  which  comprelFes  are  dipped,  and  applied' 
to  the  part. 

The  third  malady  of  the  Bones,  is  the  caries  ; 
which  is  the  putrefaction  of  the  (iiblta-ice  of  the 
bone,    or  an  ulcer,  and  the  gangrene  in  that  part. 

The  Caries  has  either  an  mternal  or  external 
caufe. 

When  the  caries  is  known  to  proceed  from  an 
external  caufe,  the  beft  remedy  is  the  powder  of 
Iris,  which  fuffices,  when  the  caries  is  fuperficial ; 
but  the  oil  of  guaiacuni  muft  be  employed  on  line, 
which  is  applied  on  the  ulcer,  when  it  is  deep  ; 
or  brandy,  in  which  have  been  macerated  iris-root^ 
cinnamon,  and  cloves.  Laftly,  the  a£lual  cautery 
muft  be  applied. 

When  the  caries  arifes  from  an  internal  cauie, 
the  flefh  muit  be  opened,  to  give  vent  to  the  f antes, 
which  runs  from  the  ulcerated  bone,  the  better  to 
procure  its  exfoliation  ;  and  if  the  ulcer  has  not 
yet  opened  the  bone  outwardly,  the  trepan  muft 
be  applied  to  it,  treating  the  ulcer  afterwards  as 
above  direiSted.- 

The- 


360 


Tlje    Unlverfal  Hiflory  <?/ Arts  <3W  Sciences. 


'J"hc  Exostosis,  (which  is  thu/owth  malady  of 
the  Bones)  is  a  tumour,  yviiich  riles  on  the  luper- 
ficies  of  the  bone  ;  occafioned  by  the  d'!pofitum  of 
an  unfiltrateJ  humour  in  its  own  fubllance.  This 
tumour  is  commonly  accompanied  with  violent 
pains  ;  bccaiife  in  growing  ami  riling  iiiicnfibly,  it 
pul'hes,  raifes,  and  lacerates  the  perlojhum. 

1  here  are  feveral  kinds  of  thcie  tumours,  and 
tiicy  are  treated  di.tereiitly,  viz.  Exo/hjes  of  thofe 
afflicted  with  the  pox,  are  cured  by  a  good  faliva- 
tioii ;  and  when  they  come  to  rot,  the  hand  and 
fire  mull  be  joined  to  remedies,  to  melt  what  is 
carious.  jil'Jccffes  of  the  articulations,  can't  be 
conquered  but  by  the  amputation  of  the  part ;  it  is 
true,  that  fonie  are  cured  without  amputation,  but 
it  is  with  a  great  deal  of  care,  and  it  takes  a  long 
time  ;  but  when  the  whole  bone  is  exojiofed,  it 
muft  be  cut  off.  The  cxo/lofes,  or  tiodm,  which 
rife  on  the  bones  of  the  head,  are  more  difficult 
10  cure  than  others  ;  as  alfo  the  caries  of  that  part. 
There  are  other  maladies  of  the  Bones  ;  as  the 
foftnefs  of  the  bones,  their  brittlenefs,  bowing,  or 
rachitis,  vulgarly  called  rickets  ;  and  cracking. 

The  Softness  of  the  bones  proceeds  from  the 
nutritious  juice  of  the  bone  being  too  little  impreg- 
nated with  laline  and  acrimonious  particles,  and 
their  marrow  too  abundant;  fince  that  watery  juice 
produces  the  fame  effeci  in  the  bones  it  does  in 
trees,  and  in  horn.  One  thing  is  to  be  obferved, 
that  there  is  never  a  Joftnejs  in  the  hones  but  where 
there  has  been  left  fome  leven  of  the  rachitis. 
The  beft  remedies  for  this  malady,  are  fudoriticks, 
diureticks,  and  abforbents. 

7  he  Rachitis,  or  riclets,  is  a  diforder  affect- 
ing the  bones  of  children,  and  caufing  a  confide- 
rable  protuberance,  incurvation,  ordiftortion  there- 
of It  arifes  moft  commonly  from  the  neglect  of 
a  dirty,  lizy  nurl'e,  who  does  not  keep  the  child 
clean,  nor  give  him  proper  exercife.  Or  it  may 
be  occafioned  by  fome  fault  in  the  digeftion,  occa- 
fioning  the  aliment  to  be  unequally  applied  to  the 
body,  by  which  fome  parts  of  the  bones  increafe 
in  bulk  more  than  the  reft. 

When  the  diforder  is  taken  early,  it  may  be  re- 
medied by  proper  boUlers  and  bandages,  fuited  to 
the  parts  affeiled  ;  but  when  the  bones  are  grown 
rigid  and  inflexible,  other  mechanical  contrivances, 
as  puddings,  lirait  boots,  and  feveral  forts  of  ma- 
chines or  engines  made  of  paftcboard,  whalebone, 
tin,  is'c.  are  made  ufe  of,  to  redore  the  diftorted 
bones  to  their  natural  flraitnefs. 

Mercurius  dukis,  fyrup  of  chicory  and  of  rofes, 
manna,  and  fcammony,    are  accounted  very  good 
purgatives  in  the  rickets  ;  together  with  diuretick 
I 


and  diaphoretick  ptifans  made  of  china.,  farfapa- 
rilla.,  he.  abCorbcnt  powder,  which  corrcds  the 
acidity  of  humours,  the  infufion  of  millepedes,  or 
wood-lice,  and  dry  fridlions  made  over  the  whole 
lody  with  a  warm  linen  cloth  before  the  fire,  cf- 
pccialiy  on  the  parts  affedted,  are  found  of  lervice. 
A  liniment  of  rum  and  palm  oil,  or  a  plaifter  de 
minio,  and  oxycroceum,  applied  along  the  back,  to 
cover  the  whole  fpine,  are  much  efteemed  ;  alio 
the  oil  of  fnails  is  very  famous  for  the  fame  in- 
tention ;  being  what  drains  from  them  after  bruifing 
and  fufpending  them  in  a  flannel  bag  ;  with -this 
the  limbs  and  fpinal  bones  are  anointed 

Certain  bones  have  been  feen  feveral  times  to 
break  eufdy.  A  man  coming  out  of  the  pox,  and 
walking  in  his  room  broke  at  once  both  his 
thighs. 

What  caufes  the  fragility  of  the  bones  is,  that 
their  parts  being  difunited,  and  touching  but  flight- 
ly  each  other,  they  are  feparated  by  the  leaft  vio- 
lence made  to  them. 

The  Crack  iNG,  or  cliquetis  of  the  bones,  which 
is  heard  fometimes  in  the  motion  of  the  members, 
depends  on  the  acidity  or  drinefs  of  the  articula- 
tions, occafioned  by  the  liquor  they  are  moiflened 
with  being  exhaufted  ;  as  it  happens  in  certain 
psrfons  affiifted  with  the  gout,  who  hear  a  noife 
in  their  knees  while  they  walk.  This  noife  may 
be  caufed  by  the  extenfion  of  the  ligaments  and 
tendons,  which  furround  the  articulation,  and 
flriking  flrongly  againfl:  the  air,  caufe  that  noife. 

Let  us  now  proceed  to  Chirurgical  operations. 
This  is  the  niceft  point  of  the  whole  art.  For 
this  purpofe  it  will  be  neceffary  to  take  a  view  of 
thofe  ijijhiiments  ufed  in  the  common  operations  ; 
fuch  as  are  neceffary  to  make  a  cautery,  zfeton,  and 
for  bleeding,  cupping,    and  blifters. 

A  Cautery,  Cauterimn,  (from  the  Greek 
KCivrrif,  or  aaur^-.ipioi',  formed  from  «aiu,  /  hiirti) 
is  a  medicine  to  burn,  eat  through,  or  corrode  fome 
folid  part  of  the  body.  Cauteries  are  of  two  kinds, 
a£iual  and  potential. 

Ailv.al  Cauteries,  are  thofe  v/hich  produce 
an  inftantaneous  effedl: ;  as  hre,  or  a  red-hot  iron, 
which  are  applied  in  the  fiftula  lachrymatis,  after 
extirpation  of  cancers,  amputations  of  legs  or 
arms,  ^c.  in  order  to  flop  the  haemorrhages, 
and  produce  a  laudable  fuppuration.  They  are  alfo 
fometimes  applied  to  carious  bones,  abfceffes,  and 
malignant  ulcers,  in  order  to  open  a  paffage  for  the 
difcharge  of  the  peccant  humours.  The  irons 
us'd  on  thefe  occafions,  are  fometimes  crooked  at 
the  extremity,  and  that  varioufly,  according  to  the 
various  occafions ;  whence  fome  are  called  cultel- 

laryy 


CHIRURGERT. 


361 


lary,  others  punHual,  others  olivary.  Sic. 

The  aSlual  cautery  of  hot  iron  is  frequently  ap- 
plied for  the  making  of  ifllies  in  parts  where  ciirtliig 
is  difficult,  or  inconvenient;  It  makes  a  little  round 
hole,  which  is  to  be  filled  up  with  a  pea,  or  ivy- 
berry,  to  keep  it  open  for  the  humour  to  pafs 
through. 

Potential QavtEkizs,  are  compofitions  of  cau - 
ftick  medicines,  ufually  of  quick-lime,  black  fopc, 
and  chimney-foot. 

In  the  operation  the  acfual  cauteries  are  the 
fureft  ;  but  in  haemorrhages  potential  cauteries  are 
the  fureft.  | 

Cauteries,  otherwife  called   Issues,   are  applied 
wherever  there  is   to  be  attraftion,  to  corredt    the 
intcmperics,  or  flop   the  courfe  of    humours,    by 
making  a  fear  to   the  part  ;  however,    the  places  ' 
they  are  commonly  affixed  to,  are  the  fontancila 
on  the  head,  the  back,  between  the  firft  atid  fecond  . 
vertebra,  at  the  exterior  part  of  the  arm,  in  a  fmall 
hollow  which  is   between  the  mufcle  dcltoides,  and  ^ 
the  biceps  ;   between  the  mufcle  pfoas,  and  'uajlus 
inlirnus  in  the  infide  of  the  knee,  above  'lW^  flexores\ 
of  the  leg  ;  obferving,  that  the  ijjue  be  placed  every  | 
where  near  the  great  veffels,  that  it  may  draw,  and  j 
purge  more  abundantly.  | 

There  is  an  eafy  way  of  making  an  ijfue,  which  1 
fucceeds  beft  in  children  ;  it  is  done  after  this 
manner  :  having  applied  a  fmall  piece  of  bliftering 
plaifter,  about  the  bignefs  of  a  fmall  pea,  to  the 
part  where  you  would  have  an  iJfue,  and  letting  it 
lie  on  for  a  'i^vi  hours,  it  will  caufe  a  blifter  ;  the 
/kin  being  raifed,  apply  a  pea  as  ufual,  and  com- 
prefs  it  tight  with  a  bandage,  till  by  degrees  it 
links  in,  and  forms  an  ifTue. 

The  Seton,  Setaceum,  is  a  wound  made  in  the 
fkin  of  the  hind-part  of  the  neck,  or  elfewhere, 
which  is  kept  fuppurating  by  means  of  a  little 
fkein  oi  filk  or  cotton  paffed  tlirough  it,  and  which 
has  very  near  the  fame  effect,  as  a  cautery.  The 
fkein  of  filk  ought  to  be  dipped  in  oil  of  rofes, 
and  one  of  its  ends  fhould  be  longer  than  the  other, 
to  procure  the  evacuation  of  the  humours.  It 
often  happens,  that  a  Chirurgeon  is  obliged  to  ufe 
it  In  wounds  maJe  with  a  fmall  fword,  or  with  a 
mufket,  which  run  thro'  and  thro',  the?i  the  fkein 
is  foaked  in  proper  medicaments,  and  every  time 
the  apparatus  is  rais'd,  that  part  drenched  with 
pus  muft  be  cut  off,  which  is  then  drawn  from  the 
ulcer. 

Cupping,  is  an  operation  for  the  difcharge  of 
blood  and  other  humours,   by  the  fkin.     It  is  per 
formed  by  collecting   the  humours  into  a  tumour 
under  the  cutis,  and   letting  them  out  thence  by 
fcarification. 

Cupping  is  performed  either  dry  or  wet.    Dry 


cupping  is  when  it  is  done  without  opening  the 
fkin  ;  and  the  humid,  or  wet,  when  madi  with 
fcarifications.  The  operation  is  performed  thus  : 
The  veflel  is  heated  with  candles,  tow,  a  torch, 
lamp,  or  the  like;  but  in  my  opinion  tow  is 
belt,  and  lefs  troublefome.  A  ball  of  it  is  made 
flightly  between  both  hands,  and  thruft  into  the 
Lucurbitula,  which  is  afterwards  held  over  a  candle; 
the  flame  of  the  candle  catches  the  tow,  v.-hich 
immediately  appears  all  in  flames  ;  in  which  flate 
the  veffel  mult  quickly  be  applied  clofe  to  the  part, 
which  is  no  fooner  done  but  the  flame  is  extin- 
guiiiied,  and  the  tumour  begins  to  rife  ;  for  the 
air  in  the  cavity  of  the  veflel  being,  by  this  means, 
rarefied,  and  brought  near  to  the  condition  of  a 
vacuum  ;  that  part  of  the  body  covered  by  its  be- 
coming lefs  prefled  by  the  air  than  the  reft,  its 
juices  are  forced  up  with  the  cutis,  and  ralfe  a 
bunch  in  the  cavity  of  the  veffel  ;  to  which  the 
fcarificator  being  applied,  and  ten  or  twelve  in- 
cifions  made  at  the  fame  time,  a  plentiful  evacu- 
ation is  effefted. 

Bleeding,  more  properly  called  Phleboto- 
my, (from  the  Greek  lp^£^^,  vein,  and  Ttf/.uv,  to 
cut)  is  a  fpecies  of  evacuation  of  the  utmoft  im- 
portance in  medicine,  performed  by  the  Chirurgeon 
by  the  artificial  incifion  of  a  vein  or  artery. 

The  veffels  opened  in  phlebotomy,  are  the  prepa- 
rate  vein,  in  the  forehead  ;  the  ranula,  under  the 
tongue  ;  the  jugulary  veins  and  arteries  in  the  neck; 
the  temporal  arteries  in  the  temples ;  the  hafiUca, 
ccphalica,  and  mediana,  in  the  arms  ;  the.  falvatella 
between  the  annularis  and  little  finger;  the  faphena 
on  the  internal  malleous,  or  ankle  ;  and  the  ifchia- 
tica  on  the  external. 

The  conditions  rcquifite  to  bleed  well,  are,  to 
chufe  well  the  veffel,  to  not  prick  at  a  venture,  to 
not  bleed  without  neceffity,  or  the  advice  of  a 
phyfician,  who  muft  know  the  proper  times  for  it, 
as  that  of  the  intermiffion  in  intermitting  fevers, 
the  cool  of  the  morning  in  fummer,  and  tov/ards. 
noon  in  winter  ;  and  how  to  make  difttrent  ori- 
fices ;  for  in  fummer  they  ought  to  be  fmaller,  and. 
greater  in  winter. 

To  avoid  pricking  the  artery  in  bleedingy  you 
muft  know  that  the  artery  is  placed  in  the  arm 
under  the  bafilica,  and  that  you  muft  fee!  it  before 
you  make  the  ligature,  and  obferve  well  if  it  be 
profound,  or  fuperficial  ;  for  if  it  be  fuperficial, 
it  may  be  eafily  avoided,  by  pricking  the  vein- 
higher  or  lower  ;  but  however,  when  an  artery 
has  been  opened,  if  it  be  well  opened,  the  blood 
muft  be  let  to  flow,,  till  the  perfon  falls  into  -d.  fyn- 
cope,  or  faints  away,  and  through  that  means  it  is 
eafier  to  Hop  the  blood  afterwards  ;  which  will  be 
done  by  making  a  good  bandage  with  feveral  coin- 

preffes^ 


3^2 


Hoe  Univerfal  HiRory  of  Arts  a';/;^  Sciences. 


p  fflcs,  putting  ill  the  firft  a  piece  of  chewed  paper 
with  graduated  comprcflls  over  it. 

That  in  the  hkcdtngo'i  the  foot,  there  are  very 
few  or  no  accidents  to  be  feared,  becaufe  the  vein= 
of  the  miifcles  are  accompanied  with  no  arteries, 
nor  tendons.  Therefore  it  is  faid  that  the  arm 
iiiuft  be  given  to  a  mailer  ChWurgeon,  and  the  foot 
can  be  given  to  a  prentice. 

The  firft  operation  made  on  the  head,  and  the 
moll  confiderable  one,  is,  that  of  Trepanning, 
to  relieve  cuts,  contufions,  caries's,  and  fradlures 
in  theflcull,  by  means  of  an  inftrument  called  the 
trfpanum,    or  tnpan. 

Ikfore  we  begin  this  opsration,  it  will  be  ne- 
cefiary  to  obferve,  I .  That  there  is  no  trepanning 
on  the  fuperciliousy/«2//j,  becaufe  of  their  cavity, 
nor  on  the  futures,  becaufe  of  the  vellels  which 
pafs  there  ;  nor  on   the  temporal  bones,  without 


head,  and  laftly  upon  the  occiput,  and  fo  round 
till  you  meet  with  the  feat  of  the  diforder. 

After  having  pitched  upon  the  part  to  be  tre- 
panned, your  next  bufmels  is  to  Taive  the  fcalp, 
and  make  an  incifion  through  the  integuments  to 
lay  bare  the  cranium,  except  it  be  done  already  by 
the  wound.  The  incifion  of  the  integuments  may 
be  made  in  the  form  of  a  crofs,  or  of  the  letters' 
X,  V,  or  T,  large  enough  to  admit  the  crown  of 
the  trepan  upon  the  bone.  The  wound  may  be 
enlarged,  and  the  haemorrhage  ftopped,  after  the 
integuments  and  periojlcum  are  feparated  arid  ele- 
vated from  the  cranium,  by  inferting  a  large  quan- 
tity of  icraped  lint.  Next  a  comprcfs  dipped  in 
warm  camphorated  fpirit  of  wine  muft  be  applied 
and  retained  by  the  kerchief  bandage.  Then  the 
patient  is  to^be  left,  if  the  diforder  will  permit, 
for  a  few  hours,    that  the  blood  may  be  (topped 


an  uinin"  necefiity,  efpecially  on  that  part  which  i  before  the  trepan  is  applied, 
joins  "with  the  parietal,  becaufe  tlie  extremiry  of  |  Among  the  apparatus,  or  inftruments  and  dref- 
that  bone  would  part,  being  only  applied  on  the  i  fings,  which  muft  be  provided,  before  the  operation 
parietal  ;  nor  on  the  middle  of  the  coronal,  and  j  is  entered  upon,  the  firft  and  principal  is  the  tre- 
occipital,  becaufe  of  an  interior  eminence  to  which  (/><7«  with  its  crown,  (yJ'^  the  plate,  ^^.  i.)  made 
the  dura  mater  adheres  ;  nor  on  the  lateral  fintn's  |  in  the  ftiape  of  a  common  gimblet.  with  a  handle 
which  are  fituated  on  the  fide  of  the  occipital.  I  turning  round.  The  crown  of  this  in'Irument, 
2.  That  if  the  fraifure  be  very  narrow,  t\\^  trepan  \n\d.xkcA  A,  is  joined  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
may  be  applied  upon  it  ;  but  it  is  better  to  trepan  j  handle,  B,  by  a  fcrew,  fo  that  it  may  be  taken 
on  the  fiJe  of  the  fra>Slure,  on  the  inferior  part  ;  |  otF  and  put  on  at  pleafure,  or  el(e  that  a  crown 
that  the  trepan  is   never  applied  on   hollownelles  ;  j  of  another  fize  may  be  fcrewed  in  its  place. 


and  that  if  the  bones  part,  there  ought  to  be  no 
other  trepanning  than  to  raife  them  with  the  ele 
vatory. 

Notwithftanding  thefe  cautions,  if  a  violent 
fraiSure  ftiould  happen  in  or  near  thefe  parts,  you 
fhouW  trepan  as  near  them  as  poflible  ;  and  if  the 
fracture  has  palled  acrofs  the  futures,  you  muft 
trepan  within  a  finger's  breadth  of  the  future  ot\  each 
fide.     Sometimes  it  is  impofTible  to  difcover  the 


The  trepan  is  diftinguifhed  into  male  and  fe- 
male ;  in  the  firft  of  which  the  crown  is  furnifhed 
with  a  (harp  point  E,  but  when  the  faid  point,  or 
pyramid,  Jig.  2.  is  taken  out  by  the  winch,  fg.  3. 
the  trepan  is  then  termed  female. 

You  muft  alfo  be  provided  with  a  fcalpel  of  a 
particular  make,  with  a  round  and  flat  he^d,  as 
reprefcntcd  in  fg.  4.  which  is  denominated  the 
lenticular  fcalpel;  to  which  is  added  another  inftru- 


particular  part  of  the  cranium  which  is  injured,  j  ment  for  gradually  deprelling  the  dura  mater,  of 
the  patient  in  the  me.in  time  being  a(Tecbed  with  j  the  fhape  reprefented  in  fg.  5.  There  muft  be 
the  moft  dangerous  and  urgent  fymptoms.  In  thefe  alfo  a  perforating  inftrument  provided, y?j.  6.  which 
cafes  it  will  be  necelTary  to  trepan  fird  on  the  right  muft  be  fcrewed  into  the  cavity  U  of  the  handle, 
fide,  then  on  the  left,   afterwards  upon  the  fore-  fig.  1 .  alfo  a  hair-brufh  and  an  elevatory.  * 

*  F.LETATORY,  ekiiatorium,  is  an  indrument  for  raifing  deprefled  or fraftured  parts  of  the  fcidl,  to  be  ap- 
plied after  the  iinetumei;ts  anA  periojleum  are  removed.  If  th^re  is  any  hole,  tne  inftrument  mult  be  fallened  to 
it;  but  if  there  is  none,  ihe  ferine. end  of  the  inftrument  muft  be  applied,     i'^  plate,   No.  1. 

But  as  thefe  elevatories  are  fo  contrived,  that,  where  the  neighbouring  bones  are  fraftured  or  deprefled,  they 
cannot  be  appH  d  witliout  gready  increafing  the  pnin,  Surgeom  have  invented  another  kind  which  might  be  ap- 
plied with  more  fafeiv,  called  t,ipef,  from  the  riimber  of  its  feet.  It  is  near  twice  as  hig  as  the  figure  we  have 
.given  of  it ;,  {ibid.  Fig.  2.)  and  the  feet  AAA  Hand  nearer  or  farther  from  each  other,  as  th-jre  is  occafion. 
I  he  manner  of  applying  it  is  this  :  the  feet  are  to  be  applied  to  the  fiund  parts  of  the  head,  and  the  fcre\y  B  C, 
by  frequency  turning  its  handle  DD,  will  prefenily  lay  hold  of  the  depreflcd  part  of  the  cranium,  efpecially  if 
z  fiTia'l  hole  has  been  made  in  it  with  the  point  of  a  ftiarp  awl.  J  hen  upon  tu  ning  the  fcrew,  E  E.  the  trepan 
is  raifcd  by  degrees,  and  with  it  the  depr.  f.'ed  part  of  the  cr,.7ihim.  But  if  any  opening  fliall  appear  between 
t'le  fra.lured  parts,  it  w:ll  be  proper  to  takeoff  the  pointed  end  of  the  inftrument  B,  and  in  its  room  fix  the 
tlevatory  G,  bv  the  fcrew  H,  about  the  pr.rt  F  of  the  figure  No.  2.  by  the  aftillance  of  which  it  wid  be  cafy  tc» 
rait'ethe  denrelled  part.     Sec  the  manner  of  applying  this  inftruoient  reprefented  ibid.  No.  3. 

The 


CHIRURGERT. 


The  apparatus  of  drc/Ting  and  bandage,  to  be  i 
applied  after  the  operation,  confifls  of  a  do/Til  of  I 
lint;,  of  an  orbicular  figure,  which  muft  be  tied 
round  the  middle  with  a  piece  of  thread  about  a 
fpaa  long  ;  there  mud  be  pledgi's  of  lint  for  co- 
vering the  other  dreflitigs,  and  filling  up  the  ca- 
vity of  the  cranium,   &c. 

The  apparatus  being  thus  provided,  in  order  to 
perform  the  operation  with  greater  readinefs  and 
exa(5lnefs,  the  patient  muft  be  difpofed  in  fuch  a 
convenient  pofture  that  the  Chirurgeon  and  afliflants 
may  have  free  accefs  to  perform  each  their  part. 

The  dreffings  being  removed  the  wound  is  to 
be  cleanfed  ;  after  which,  the  head  being  placed  in 
a  convenient  manner  upon  a  pillow,  the  Chiritrgeon 
takes  the  perforating  trepan.  Fig.  6.  and  adapting 
it  to  the  handle  B,  Fig.  i.  inftead  of  the  crown  A, 
fo  that  by  turning  round  the  handle  D,  he  makes 
a  full  entrance,  or  aperture,  with  his  inllrument, 
and  then  applies  the  male  tri-p/in,  with  a  crown  A, 
Fig.  I.  Upon  the  topof  the  handle  CC  the  C/.'/'/v^r- 
Tcsw  fixes  his  left  hand,  upon  which  he  places  his 
chin  or  forehead,  while  with  his  right  he  flowly 
and  carefully  turns  round  the  handle  till  the  crown 
of  the  trepan  with  its  fpindle  have  made  a  circular 
entrance  deep  enough  in  the  cranium,  and  then  he 
removes  the  fpindle,  and  continues  his  work  with 
tlie  crown  of  the  trepan  only  as  long  as  he  fees 
convenient  ;  all  the  faw  duft  being  firll  brufhed  ofF 
from  the  cranitim,  and  the  teeth  of  his  inftrument, 
with  the  brufhes.  He  now  continues  to  ufe  the 
trepan  till  the  faw-duft  becomes  bloody,  which  de- 
notes that  he  has  penetrated  the  diplo'e  :  however, 
he  may  not  always  meet  with  this  fign,  becaufe 
in  fome  fkulls  the  diploe  may  be  wanting  in  the  part 
trepanned  ;  but  when  the  fa w-duft  becomes  bloody, 
the  inftrument  is  to  be  laid  afide :  and  after  wafliing 
away  the  blood  with  a  fponge  dipt  in  fpirit  of  wine, 
he  then  fcrews  the  elcvatory,  by  two  or  three  turns 
Lnto  the  fmall  aperture  in  the  middle  of  the  tre- 
panned piece  of  the  bone,  and  takes  it  out  again, 
making  two  or  three  more  turns  with  the  crown  of 
his  trepan  :  then  he  examines  with  a  probe,  whe- 
ther the  plates  of  the  cranium  are  fufficiently  fawed 
through,  v/hich  cannot  be  better  known  than  by 
attending  to  the  colour  of  the  circular  groove  ;  for 
-when  that  appears  blue  or  grey,  it  is  a  fign  that  you 
have  penetrated  thro'  the  lower  plate  of  the  bone,  fo 
far  as  to  render  the  drtra  mater  almoft:  confpicuous 
thro'  it  ;  but  if  the  bony  plate  appears  livid  in 
one  pah  of  the  circular  groove,  and  white  in  another, 
it  is  a  fign  that  the  trepan  has  not  cut  equally 
through,  and  therefore  it  muft  be  inclined  and 
prefTed  a  little  harder  upon  the  whiteft  parts,  mo- 
ving round  the  handle  till  the  faw-teeth  of  the 
crown  have  cut  deep  enough  to  make  the  round 
i8. 


3^3 


piece  of  the  bone  loofe  or  moveable.  In  thai  cafe 
it  will  not  be  convenient  to  cut  totally  through  tiic 
bone  v.'ith  the  faw-tceth  of  the  trepan. 

Having  thus  extracted  the  round  piece  of  the 
cranium,  the  blood  ufually  follows  it:  which  being 
wiped  ofF,  the  Chirurgeonis  toexamine  whetherthcre 
beany  fragments  remaining  to  be  exira'ftcd  and 
looiencd  ;  for  then  you  muft  Imooth  the  rough 
parts  about  the  lower  margin  of  the  aperture,  by 
applying  the  fcalpel.  Fig.  4.  to  prevent  the  dura 
?nalcr  from  being  piicked  and  injured  by  any  of 
the  fliarp  fplinters. 

This  done,  the  blood  will  more  readily  difchargc 
itfelf,  but  to  pioniate  its  exit  you  may  gently  in- 
cline the  patient's  head  to  one  fide,  and  another 
tenderl)'  prelTing  the  duret  mater  itfelf,  either  by  the 
hand  oh\\c  fcalpel  or  t\\c  deprejfar.  Fig.  5,  by  which 
means  tlie  patient  is  no  fooner  iclieved  from  the 
preirure  of  the  cxtravafated  blood  on  his  brain,  but 
he  inftantly  begins  to  recover  his  (enfes:  the  Chirur- 
geon flioulj  then  dire^l  him  to  fetch  a  deep  breath, 
or  hold  it  with  a  ftrain,  like  one  that  has  a  hard 
ftool. 

The  drcflings  and  deligation  are  to  be  made  with 
a  round  pledgit  of  dry  lint  laid  next  the  dura 
mater,  with  a  thread  faftened  to  it,  and  hanging 
out  of  the  aperture,  that  it  may  be  placed  under, 
and  drami  out  fiom  beneath,  the  cranium  ;  upon 
which  pledgit  is  afterwards  poured  fome  honey  of 
rofes  diluted  with  a  little  fpirit  of  wine  :  you  then 
impofe  a  like  pledgit  of  lint,  furnifhed  with  a 
ftring  with  other  dollils,  till  the  cavity  is  replete  : 
and  in  the  next  place,  the  cranium  and  wound  itfetf, 
is  to  be  drefied  with  lint,  fpread  with  fome  digef- 
tive  ointment,  upon  which  add  a  fquare  comprefs 
dipt  in  warm  fpirit  of  wine,  and  then  fecure  the 
whole,  without  a  plaifter  by  the  head  bandage.  In 
the  iubfequent  dre/fings,  which  muft  be  repeated 
once  or  twice  every  day,  you  muft  avoid  fat  and 
oily  applications. 

The  wound  being  conftantly  attended,  you  wilt 
have  an  exfoliation  of  a  thin  plate  from  the  tre- 
panned  margin  of  the  bones,  ufually  within  forty 
or  fifty  days,  which  ought  not  to  be  pulled  away 
by  force.  The  exfoliation  being  obtained,  there 
will  appear  new  flefli  and  callus  ftooting  up  from 
the  clean  bone  and  dura  mater,  fo  as  at  length  to 
fill  up  the  whole  cavity. 

That  inftrument  called  the  exfollating-trcpcin., 
is  fometimes  ufed  to  pare  away  a  carious  part  in  a 
bone.  It  is  reprefcnted  in  Fig.  7,  and  when  ufed 
is  to  be  fcrewed  into  the  handle  B  of  Fig.  i,  in 
order  to  be  turned  round  :  A  is  its  point :  B  B  the 
wings,  which  fcrape  the  bone  while  the  inftruaient 
is   turninii  about. 


A  a  a 


Frotm 


364.  The  Univcrlal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^W  Sciences. 


From  the  cranium  we'll  dcfcend  to  the  eyes^  and 
make  the  operation  of  the  fijlula  laihrymaHs,  and 
the  ablation  of  the  catara£f. 

The  operaiion  of  \.\\z  fijlula  Uuhrymalh  is  made 
when  there  ia  a  fifhdous  iilctT  at  the  great  angle  of 
the  eye,  at  the  place  of  the  glandula  lachrymalis. 

For  the  operation  of  the  fijlula  lachrymalis,  the 
patient  is  put  in  a  commodious  fiiuation,  his  found 
eye  is  covered,  to  hinder  him  from  fceinj;  the  in- 
ftruments ;  the  bad  eye  mult  be  kept  ftcady  with 
a  fpoon  ;  an-incifion,  in  form  of  a  half  moon,  is 
made  on  the  tumour  with  a  lancet,  avoidin;;  cut- 
ting the  eye-lid,  or  the  fmall  cartilage  which  ferves 
as  a  pully  to  the  great  obliqum  ;  and  if  the  bone 
was  carious,  a  fmall  aBiial  cautery  fliould  be  thruft 
into  it  ;  for  this,  a  fmall  funnel  is  made  ufc  of, 
through  which  is  introduced  the  cautery  on  the 
bone. 

The  apparatus  and  bandage  of  this  operation,  is 
made  by  filling  up  the  wound  with  fmall  dry  tents 
of  lint  covered  likewife  with  lint,  a  plaifter  over 
it,  and  a  comprefs  over  the  plaifter.  The  bandage 
is  made  with  a  handkerchief  folded  triangular, 
whofe  ends  are  tied  behind  the  head.  If  the  flefli 
e;rows  too  much,  it  mult  be  confumcd  with  the 
vifernal  Jlone ;  and  if  it  be  necefTary  to  dilate  the 
wound  to  facilitate  the  exfoliation,  fmall  pieces  of 
tpunge,  prepared  with  wax,  muft  be  thruft  into 
IX  ;  afterwards  the  callofities  mull  be  confumed 
with  caujlicks  mixed  with  oily  remedies,  to  weaken 
the  a£lion,  taking  care  that  they  fhould  not  in- 
rommode  the  eye.  If  the  bone  was  carious,  eu- 
phorbiurn  muft  be  applied  to  it,  or  fmall  tents  of 
lint  dipped  in  tinfture  of  myrrh  and  aloes.  The 
ulcer  muft  be  treated  afterwards  as  ;ill  other  ulcers. 

The  C.\TAR.A.CT  is  a  fuffufion  of  fight  arifing 
from  a  little  film,  or  pellicle,  which  fwimming  in 
the  aqueous  humour  of  the  eye,  and  getting  before 
the  pupil,  intercepts  the  rays  of  light.  The  ope- 
ration is  made  to  blue,  green,  pearl-colour,  is'c. 
cataraits.  To  know  if  the  catarail  be  in  a  con- 
dition to  be  couched,  the  patient  is  ordered  to  rub 
his  eye  ;  if  the  cataraSl  remains  immoveable,  it 
muft  ie  couched  ;  but  if  it  changes  place,  the  ope- 
ration muft  be  deferred  till  it  has  grown  folid.  The 
fpring  and  autumn  are  the  moft  proper  feafons  for 
this  operation,  which  muft  be  eftedled  in  the  fol- 
leyving  manner  : 

The  patient  is  made  to  fit  down,  the  eyes  turned 

iowards  the  light  ;  after  the  found  eye  Ihall  have 
>een  covered,  the  Chirurgeon  muft  fit  on  a  feat 
hi'^hcr  than  that  of  the  patient,  a  fervant  muft  hold 
the  patient's  head,  who  muft  be  oidered  to  turn  the 
eye  towards  the  nofe  ;  the  globe  of  the  eye  muft 
bi:  kept  fteady,  with  the  fipeculum  oculi,  which  is 
a  tnall  machine  in  form  of  a.   fpoon,    pierced  in 


the  middle  ;  through  which  the  eye  is  made  to 
pafs.  The  Chirurgeon  takes  a  round,  or  flat  fteel 
needle,  which  he  judges  beft  ;  with  which  he 
pierces  the  adnata.,  by  the  edge  of  the  cornea,  on 
the  fide  of  the  little  canthus,  or  fmall  angle  of  the 
eye,  puihing  boldly  his  needle  till  he  comes  to  the 
middle  of  the  catarait.  He  puflics  t\\tcatara£t  up- 
wards, to  loofen  it,  and  then  downwards,  keepini' 
it  fometimcs,  with  the  point  of  his  needle  beneath 
the  pupil  ;  if  it  re-afccnds  after  he  has  quitted  his 
hold,  it  muft  be  brought  down  again.  7  he  ope- 
ration is  ended,  when  the  catarait  remains  where 
he  has  lodged  it,  in  the  bottom  of  the  eye.  In 
pulling  out  the  needle,  he  muft  clofe  the  eye  lids, 
and  prefs  them  a  little  upon  the  eye. 

Tlie  apparatus  and  bandage  of  this  operation  is 
to  clofe  both  the  eyes  of  the  patient,  and  put  a 
band  over  them.  He  muft  keep  his  bed  for  feven 
or  eight  days,  and  fome  defcnfive  is  put  upon  the 
eye,  to  hinder  the  inflammation. 

There  are  other  operations  made  on  the  eyes, 

1.  There  is,  fometimes,  /iw  under  the  c^rw^a  ;  to 
extraft  which  the  eye  is  kept  fteady  by  means  of 
the  fipeculum  oculi  ;  a  fmall  incifion  is  made  with  a 
fine  lancet,  and  the  eye  a  little  preflTed,  to  procure 
the  evacuation  of  the  pus.  If  it  was  too  thick  it 
muft  be  extradled,  by  fucking  it  foftly  through  a 
fmall  pipe,  in  the  middle  thereof  there  muft  be  a 
fmall  phial,  into  which  the  pus  falls,  while  fucked, 

2.  A  fmall  tumour  grows  often  in  the  eye.  That 
tumour  muft  be  tied  by  the  root  with  a  running- 
knot,  to  tie  the  tumour  fafter,  from  time  to  time, 
to  make  the  tumour  fall.  If  the  tumour  was  oii 
the  hole  of  the  pupil,  this  operation  muft  not  be 
attempted,  becaufe  it  would  hinder  the  paliage  of 
the  light  3.  Sometimes  there  is  a  pretty  hard 
membrane,  called  unguis,  formed  at  the  great 
canthus,  or  angle  of  the  eye.  If  that  tumour  was 
not  adherent  to  the  great  angle,  it  fhould  be  cut  djc. 
its  root,  by  tying  it  ;  this  is  performed  with  a 
blunt  needle,  with  a  thread  which  muft  be  run 
under  the  membrane,  and  then  tied.  4.  If  the 
eye-lids  were  glued  together,  the  operator  muft 
take  a  bowed  needle,  blunted  and  threaded,  which 
he  muft  run  under  the  eye-lids,  drawing  afterwards 
the  ends  of  the  thread  to  raife  the  eye- lids  ;  and 
then  they  are  to  be  feparated  with  a  lancet.  5.  If 
the  cils  or  hairs  prick  the  eye,  they  muft  be  pulled 
out  one  by  one,  with  a  pair  of  pinchers.  6.  If 
there  were  fmall,  hard,  and  tranfparent  tumours 
on  the  eye-lids,  they  muft  be  opened,  for  to  eva- 
cuate the  pus. 

The  operation  of  the  Polypus  is  m.ade  when 
there  are  cxcrefcences  of  flefli  in  the  noftrils.  If 
the  polypus,  or  cxcrefcences  of  the  flefh  were  livid, 
ft  inking,   hard,  painful,  and  very  adherent,  they 

ouglu 


CHIRURGERT. 


365 


ought  not  to  be  touched,  they  arc  canceis,  and  not 
polypus ;  but  it"  they  are  whitifli,  red,  hanging, 
and  without  pain,  the  extirpation  nuift  be  made 
with  pinchers.  The  polypus  is  feized  as  near  its 
roet  as  poflible  ;  the  forceps  is  moved  from  one  fide 
to  the  other,  to  loofen  the  polypus.  If  the  polypus 
defcends  into  the  throat,  it  muft  be  extracted 
through  the  mouth  with  bowed  pinchers  If  after 
the  operation  there  happens  an  haemorrhage,  it  is 
flopped  by  introducing,  into  the  noflrils,  tents  dip- 
ped in  fome  ftyptick  liquor  ;  or  the  liquor  fhail  be 
fyringed  into  tjie  part. 

Yrom  the  nofe  we'll  defccnd  to  the  mouth,  and 
make  the  operation  of  the  Hare-lip,  This  opera- 
tion is  made  when  the  lip  is  JpUt. 

To  make  this  operation  ;  if  the  lip  was  adherent 
to  the  gum,  it  muft  be  loofen'd  with  a  bijiotiry, 
without  touching  the  gum.  The  edges  of  the  lip 
muft  be  a  little  pared  with  the  fcifiars,  to  help  the 
reunion ;  which  to  perform  with  the  more  cafe, 
the  edges  of  the  lip  fiiould  be  laid  hold  of  with 
pincers.  The  fervant  who  fupports  the  head  of 
the  patient,  muft  prefs  his  cheeks  forward,  to  ap- 
proach the  edges  of  the  lip  ;  then  a  needle  threaded 
with  a  waxed  thread  muft  be  run  through  both  the 
edges  of  the  wound,  from  outwards,  inwards,  at 
one  line  diftance  from  the  edges  ;  the  of>erator  muft 
take  care  that  the  two  edges  of  the  lip  fhpujd  be 
very  well  adjufted  together,  and  very  equal  ;  the 
thread  is  turned  round  the  needle,  by  crofting  over. 

For  the  apparatus  and  hamlage,  the  lips  of  the 
wound  muft  be  wafhed  with  hot  wine  ;  the  points 
of  the  needles  are  cut,  and  fmall  comprcffes  applied 
to  their  ends.  Lint  with  fome  good  balfam  is  ap- 
plied on  the  wound,  and  a  piece  of  linen  cloth 
dipped  in  fome  deficcative  liquor  placed  between 
the  lips  and  the  gum,  to  hinder  them  from  gluing 
together,  if  they  muft  have  been  feparated.  Over 
all  is  put  an  agglutinative  plaifter,  which  muft  be 
fuftained  with  an  uniting  bandage,  which  is  a  fmall 
band  pierced  in  the  middle.  'Tis  pafl'ed  behind 
the  head,  and  brought  before;  one  of  its  ends  is 
pafi'ed  through  the  hole,  which  is  applied  on  the 
wound,  and  both  ends  of  the  hand  palled  where 
it  is  tied.  A  number  of  nce<]les  muft  be  put  in 
proportion  to  the  length  c.f  the  wound,  which 
wound  muft  be  dreffed  three  days  afterwards.  For 
the  firft  time  no  other  thread  but  that  of  the  middle 
needle,  if  there  be  three,  is  to  be  put  round  it;  to 
eftedt  which,  a  fervant  muft  pufli  the  cheeks  for- 
ward. The  eighth  day  the  middle  needle,  if  it 
be  a  young  child,  mult  be  taken  off,  though  the 
needles  are  not  to  be  taken  oft"  till  the  edges  of  the 
wound  appear  to  be  joined  ;  neither  are  they  to  be 
left  too  long,  becnufe  the  holes  they  have  made 
could  not  be  clofed  without  fome  difficulty. 


CJur  next  operation  is  in  the  Thro.-\t  and 
called  the  hroiichatomy. 

This  operation  is  to  cut  into  the  wind-pipe  to 
prevent  fuffocation  in  a  fquinancy.  It  is  performed 
thus;  the'  body  of  the  patient  being  prepared,  an 
incifion  is  made  between  the  third  and  fourth  annu '/, 
oj-  in  the  tracbaa.  In  feparating  the  mufcles  Jler- 
nohioitles,  care  muft  be  taken  not  to  cut  the  recur- 
rent nerves,  bccaufe  the  patient  would  lofe  his 
voice  ;  nor  the.  glands  tyrolds.  The  fl-cin  and  in 
teguments  divided,  and  the  mufcles  removed,  a 
fiver  tube  is  applied,  {hort  and  flat,  a  little  bov/'d, 
and  not  thrull:  too  far,  for  fear  it  fnould  caufe  a 
cough.  This  tube  muft  have  two  fmall  rings,  to 
fix  two  ribbands  on  them,  which  muft  be  tied 
round  the  neck.  '7"is  left  in  the  wound  till  the 
accidents  are  over,  after  which  it  is  took  out,  and 
the  lips  of  the  wound  approached  near  one  another 
with  the  uniting  bandage  abo\c  defcribcd,  and  the 
wound  drefi"ed. 

Leaving  the  throat,  we'll  lean  on  the  Breast, 
to  make  the  operation  of  the  cancer. 

It  muft  be  done  in  the  following  manner. 

Tlie  patient  being  laid  on  a  bed,  the  arm  on  the 
fide  of  the  cancer  muft  be  raifed  upwards,  and  back- 
wards, to  give  a  greater  relief  to  the  tumour. 

Take  a  forceps,  turned  at  both  ends,  in  form  of 
a  half  moon ;  fo  that  both  ends  of  the  tv/o  half- 
moons  pafs  over  one  another,  when  the  forceps  are 
ftiut:  and  the  brcaft  is  taken  and  drawn  with  the 
forceps,  and  cut,  at  one  blow,  with  a  flat  and  very 
ftiarp  knife.  I  he  operator  begins  to  cut  at  the 
inferior  part,  that  the  mammary  vefllls  fliould  he  cut 
laft  ;  for  tear  ot  being  incommoded  by  the  hjemor- 
rhage. 

If  the  tumour  was  not  yet  ulcerated,  a  crucial  in- 
cifion is  made  to  the  fkin,  without  penetrating  intt* 
the  glandulous  body;  the  forc-picccs  of  ft<in  are' 
feparated  from  the  glands,  the  cancrous  tumour  is 
embraced  with  the  pincers,  and  cut.  If  there  are 
fwellcd  vefl'els,  they  muft  be  tied  before  the  extir- 
pation of  the  tumour.  If  the  tumour  was  adherejit 
to  the  ribs,  itought  not  to  be  touched. 

From  the  out  -fide  of  the  ireafl  we'll  penetrate 
into  its  in-fide,  to  make  the  operation  of  the  Em- 
pyemn . 

1  he  Empyema,  from  the  Greek  a,  in,  and  ovor, 
pus,  is  a  colledtion  of  pus,  or  purulent  matter,  in 
the  cavity  of  the  brcaft;  difcharged  thither  upon 
theburfling  of  fomeabfccfs,  or  ulcer,  in  the  lungs, 
or  membranes  that  inclofe  the  brcaft.    , 

The  cure  is  difficult,  from  the  difficulty  of  ab- 
forbing,  or  evacuating  fuch  extravafated  matter  .• 
if  nature  fliews  any  endeavour  to  throw  it  ofl"  by 
vomiting,  urine,  or  the  like,  flic  muft  be  fecondcd 
and  affifted  thcreiji.  Thus  if  the  urine  be  purulent, 

A  a  a  2  adininiftca- 


366 


7^^  Univeifal  Hiftory  of  Arts  <2«(/ Sciences. 


ailminiftcr  diurcticks ;  it'  the  llools,  laxatives  ;  if 
the  fpitting,  expectorants ;  but  never  emeticks. 
Otherwiib  rccour(e  muft  be  haJ  to  the  operation, 
whiL-h  muft  be  performed  as  follows  : 

If  the  tumour  appears  outwardly,  the  abfcefs 
muft  be  opened  between  the  ribs  ;  but  if  there  are 
no  exterior  figns,  the  operator  muft  chufe  the  moft 
commodious  place  to  make  his  ap>-rture.  The  pa- 
tient fct  up  in  hi  i  bed,  fupported  by  fomebody,  the 
aperture  is  made  bctv/cen  the  fourth  and  fifth,  or 
the  fifth  and  fixth  ribs,  reckoning  from  the  lowcft, 
at  four  fingers  breadth  diftance  from  the  ffi/m.  'To 
make  it,  the  (kin  is  pinched  tranfverily,  to  cut  it 
leiigthwife,  the  operator  holds  it  on  one  fide,  and 
a  fen  ant  on  the  other;  the  iixcifion  is  made  with  a 
ftrait  lii/Ioury,  anil  muft  liave  three  or  four  fingers 
breadth  in  length ;  the  fibres  of  the  great  dorfalis 
are  cut  tranfverdy,  that  they  may  not  ftop  the 
aperture;  the  index  of  the  left  hand  is  thruft  into 
the  iuclfion,  to  put  afidc  the  fibres  ;  the  interco/laes 
mufcles  are  to  be  cut,  and  the  point  of  the  h  jhnry 
guided  with  the  finger,  to  pierce  ^iAtpkurOy  for  fear 
of  wounding  the  lungs,  which  are  often  adherent  to 
it;  The  aperture  being  made,  if  the  pus  runs  out 
well,  ft  muft  be  left  running;  if  not,  the  index 
muft  be  put  into  the  wound,  to  break  the  adhe- 
rcnces  whereby  the  lungs  are  tied  to  the  pleura; 
which  is  done  by  turning  the  tinget  round  between 
the  pleura  and  the  lungs. 

To  facilitate  the  evacuation  of  the  pus,,  the  pa- 
tient is  made  to  lean,  (hut  his  mouth,  ftop  his  nolc, 
and  to  pufh,  as  if  he  would  blow;  if  blood  is  con 
tained  in  the  part,  more  of  it  muft  be  evacuated 
than  it  it  was  pus ;  becaufe  the  evacuation  of  pus 
weakens  more  than  that  of  blood. 

In  making  the  incifion,  the  interco/laUs  mufcles 
muft  be  cut  tranfvcrfly,  not  to  difcover  the  edges  of 
the  ribs;  thus  the  wound  will  not  become  fo  loon 
filfulous. 

If  it  be  judged  that  there  is  pus  on  both  fides  the 
bresift,  both  iides  muft  be  opened ;  becaufe  the 
fereaft  is  divided,  into  two  by  the  media/linum;  in 
that  cafe  both  apertures  niufi  not  be  kft  open,  for 
fear  of  fuftbcating  the  patient. 

The  Apf.\ratus,  and  bandage,  is  made  v/it.h 
a  tent  covered  with  balfim;  it  muff  be  foft,  and 
blunted  at  the  end,  and  muft  enter  no  further  than 
between  the  ribs,  for  fear  it  Ihould  wound  the 
lungs.  If  the  tent  was  made  of  lint,  it  would  be 
a  great  deal  better  than  one  made  of  linen ;  a 
thread  muft  he  tied  to  it,  otherwifc  it  would  ciiai-.cc 
to  fall  into  the  breaft.,  Pledigets,  or  lint,  muft  be 
put  upon  the  wound,  a  plaifter,.  and  a  good  com- 
prefs,  overalL  I  his  apparatus  is  fuppoitcd  with  a 
napkin  pinneJ  round  the  breaft,  v/hich  napkin  is 
•d{(\  fupported  with  a  fcapulary,  which  is  a  band  fix 


fingers  broad,  pierced  in  the  middle  to  pafs  ths 
head  through,  one  of  the  ends  falling  behind,  and 
the  other  before,  both  to  be  pinned  to  the  napkin. 
Ibis  done,  the  patient  is  put  into  bis  bed  half 
fitting,  if  the  lungs  were  to  iiinder  the  evacuation 
of  the  pus.  the  operator  muft  have  recourfe  to  a 
can 'la. 

We  muft  continue  our  progrefs,  and  fall  from 
the  breaft  to  the  abdornen,  for  the  operation  of  the 
paraccntefts. 

Paracentesis,  from  th^Greek  ■aaf»,  with,  and 
*i»Ti4»,  to  prick,  is  an  operation,  which  confifts  in 
the  opening  a  little  hole  in  the  lower  venter,  Of 
belly,  to  let  out  waters  coUedted  in  the  cavity 
thereof,  or  between  the  teguments,  in  an  a/cites, 
or  water  dropfy. 

Tliis  operation  is  made  with  a  kind  of  ftillet,  or 
bodkin.  The  patient  is  fupported  in  his  bed,  that 
the  waters  may  defcend  the  eafier.  A  fervant  muft 
prefs  the  belly  with  both  hands,  to  make  it  form, 
a  tumour.  The  operation  is  ufually  performed  two- 
or  three  fingers  breadth  on  one  fide  the  navel,  fome- 
times  a  little  lower,  but  always  fo  as  to  avoid  the 
litea  albu  Before  the  punfture,  it  would  be  very 
proper  to  raife  the  fkin  a  little  ;  the  bodkin  is  accom- 
pani-cd  with  its  cannula,  which  remains  in  the  belly 
after  the  puniiure  ;  the  bodkin  is  took  out,  to  let 
the  water  flow  as  long  as  the  patient's  ftrength  will  . 
allow  ;  the  beft  operators  draw  all  the  water  at 
once.  When  a  new  punilure  is  wanted,  it  mull 
be  made  under  the  firft. 

The  Apparatus  and  bandage  are  made  with  a. 
large  comprefs  four  times  double,  fupported  with  a 
napkin  folded  into  three  or  four,  and  this  napkia 
lupported  with  the  fcapulary. 

Inhere  are  feveral  operations  made  in  the  abdtii- 
men,  ^sthe  ga/?rerap  y,  that  of  the  ewmphalus,  of 
the  bubonocele,  and   compleat   hernia,  of  the  cajirar 
ticn,  of  ihejhne,  of  the  puncture  of  the  pireneum^  . 
and  of  thcfijiula  in  ano^ 

The  operation  of  the  Gastroraphy  is  made, 
when  there  is  a  wound  in  the  belly  big  enougii  to 
let  the  inteftiues  or  guts  come  out.  If  there  be  a 
wound  in  the  inteftine  or  gut,  it  muft  be  fewed  up 
with  the  fkinner's  future.-  If  the  epifJoin  or  cozul 
was  mortified,  what's  mortified- miift  be  cut  oft; 
for  this,  a  needle  threaded  with  waxed  thread,  is 
run  through  the  found  part  of  the  epiploon,  with- 
out prickijig  the  ve/Tels  ;  the  epiploon  is  tied  on  both 
fides  with  each  of  tbofe  threads,  which  have 
been  run  double  throueh  it,  and  cut  oft'  an  inch 
bc-neath  the  ligature.  The  threads  muft  come  out 
at  the  wound,,  to  be  took  otF  after  the  fuppuration. 
Then  the  guts  muft  be  thruft  again,  alternately* 
with  the  ends  of  the  fingers,  into  the  bellv.  IjF 
they  cannot  be  reduced  with  eafe,  they  muft  h? 

fomented 


CHIRURGERT. 


z^i- 


fomented  with  fj-iritiious  fomentations,  made  of  a  }  The  operation  of  the  Exomphalus,  is  made 
handful  of  flowers  of  camomile  and  meliUt,  an  ;  when  the  inteftines  have  formed  a  hania  in  the 
ounce  of  anmfced.  with  as  n\\ic\\  fennel  And  cummin-  j  ombilick.  '1  he  patient  is  laid  on  his  back,  and  an 
feeJ,  half  an  ounce  nf  cloves  ai;d  nut;  egs;  the  whole  incifion  made  on  the  tumour  as  far  as  the  fat,  ia 
muft  be  boiled  in  millc,  adding  to  it  an  ounce  of  pinching  the  fkin,  if  pofiible  ;  otherwife  it  muft  be 
camphorated  _/^fV;V  5/' w/w,  two  drams  oi  faccha-\n\:\i!ic  on  the  tumour  as  far  as  the  fat,  withouc 
rum  of  faturn,  with  two  fcruples  of  oil  of  annifccd,  \  pinching  it.      Afterwards  the  membranes  are  tore 


which  fomentation  muft  be  ufed  hot. 

Before  the  operator  makes  the  f:.ture5  of  the  in- 
tcflines,  or  guts,  he  muft  have  them  fomented  with 


with  nails,  to  difcover  the  peritoneum,  for  fear  of 
cutting  the  intefline.  When  the  operator  perceives 
the  pcritofiaum,  he  draws  it  upwards  with  his  nail.-, 


camphorated  fpirit  of  u-irie;  but  if  the  inteftines  '  to  make  a  fmall  aperture  to  it:  he  introduces  the 
were  mortified,  they  muft  not  be  fevvcd  up,  but  index  of' the  left  hand  into  the  belly,  to  guide  the 
only  fomented' with  fpirituous  liquors.  Clyfters  are  i  point  of  the  fciftars,  with  which  the  incifion  is  to 
not  to.  be  admiiiiftred  to  the  patient,  left  they  !  be  dilated.  He  thrufts  again  the  gut  into  the  belly, 
Ihould  fwell  up  the  inteftines,  but  fuppofitories,  or  1  and  if  the  epiploon  was  adherent  to  the  tuRioiR-,  he 
laxative  ptifans  mtift  be  ufcd,  if  natural  evacuations  |  would  loofen-it  from  it;  but  if  the  inteftines  were 
be  neceliary.  The  putieirt  ought  to  be  very  fober  \  adherent  to  the  epiploon.,  they  muft  be  feparated  by 
while  the  cure  lafts,  and  take  no  other  aliments  but  '  cutting  part  of  the  epiploon,  rather  tlian  touch  the 
good  broth  and  gellies.  '  inttltine      The  intelline  being  reduced,,  a  fervant 

If  the  intfjfines  cannot  be  reduced,  the  wound  muft  prefs  the  belly  on  the  edges  of  the  wound.  If 
muft  be  dilated,  as  far  as  poflible  from  the  linea  alba,  \  there  was  a  mafs  of  flefti  at  the  epiploon,  formed  bv 
rather  towards  the  inferior  part  of  the  belly  than  to-  the  adherence  of  the  epiploon  with  the  mufcles,  and 
wan's  the  (uperior,  if  the  wound  be  in  the  fupcrior.  the  pe-  itomcum,  that  muft  be  loofened,  and  then  a 
To  dilate  it,  the  inteftines  arc  placed  on  one  fide  of   ligature  made  to  carry  it  off  with   the  epiploon,  as 


the  wound,  and  a  compicfs  dipped  in  hot  wine,  is 
put  over  them,-  which  muft  be  held  by  fomebody; 
1  proper  probe  is  introduced  into  the  belly,  taking 
care  not  to  engage  the  gut  between  the  probe  and 
the  pen  ton^wr;  to  avoid  which,  tire  gut  muft  be 
a  little  drawn  ap :  thie  probe  is  held  with  the  left 
hand,  to  run  ahov/edbifoury  Inro  it's  canelure,  and 
the  teguments  are  equally  cur,  outwards  and  in 
wards,  and  the  inteftines  thruft  altiernately  into  the 
wound  with  the  index  fingers. 

Vhcfiture  muft  be  mterwifted  ;  it  I's  made  with 
two  bowed  or  crooked  needles,  .threaded  at  each 
end  with  the  fame  thread  $  the  index  of  the  left 
iiand  is  introduced  into  the  belfy  to  ktep  up  the 
ferit'n<sum,  tlie  mufcles,  and  the  fkin,  on  the  edge 
of  the  wound  ;  the  needle  is  ran  with  the  othef- 
hand  into  the-  belly,  condu61ing  the  point  of  the 
needle  with  the  index,  and  piercing  pretty  deep. 
The  other  ne;dle  is  niit  into  the  other  lip  of  the 
wound,  infide  of  the  belly,  obferving  the  fame  thing 
as  in  the  firft,  it  feveral  ftitrhes  were  to  be  made,  the 
procefs  is  the  fame.  A  fervant  muft  approach  the 
edges  of  the  wound,  ar.d  make  ti>e  kiiots.  The 
wound  is  to  be  dreffed,  and  the  apparatus  fupported 
with  the  napkin,  and  fcapula'ry.  Thfe  patient  .muft 
iye  on  his  belly,  for  the  firft  duvs,  to  ciaitiife  the 
wound  of  the  belly,  or  of  the  guts. 

If  the  intefline  was  cntireiv  cut,  it'  llVoidJ  be 
fewed  all  arround  the  wound  fo  as  to  remain  always 
open:  if  the  patient  fliould  live,  he.wjuld  render 
his.  excr^ements  th'at  wav. 


we  have  done  iii  the  gajfroraphy,  dreffing  the 
wound  afterwards.  The  fame  precautions  menti- 
oned in  the  gajlroraphy,.  muft  be  uied  in  this;  and 
the  apparatus  fupported  v/ith- the  napkin  and  fcapu- 
lary. 

7'he  operation  of  the  Bubonocele  ismadewhen  r 
the  inteftinal  parts  are  fallen  into  the  groins,  or  the 
ferotum.     For  this  the  patient  is  laid  on-hii  back, 
the  biittocks  a  little  riferi,  the  fkin  is  pinched  trani- 
verfly  on   the  tumour ;   the  operator  holds  the  fkisi 
by  one  fide,  and  the   fervant  by  the  other,  and  • 
makes  an  incifion  in  following  the  plit  of  the  groin-; 
when  l;e  has   difcovered  the  fat,  he  muft  tear  with  • 
an  inftrument,  or  with   his  nails,  every  thing   he 
meets  with  'till  he  comes  to  the  imeftine,  -s^hich  he 
muft:  take  out,  .a  little,  if  it  does  not  adhere  to  tlie 
annul:    of  the    n-kulcies,    and    handle   it   foftly,    to 
diftblve  the  excrements.     This  done,  the  inteftinal  ^ 
parts-  are  reduced  alternately  with  the  indices  into 
the  belly,  if  poffiblcj  if  not,   the  wound   mtiH  be 
dilated  upwards,,  by   in'roducint:  a  probe    into  the 
belly,  to  run  tiie   fcili'ars  through  its  candure.     If  - 
the  probe  cannot  enter,  the  inteftine  muft  be  drawa-' 
out  a  little,  ia  putting,  the  finger  upon  it  near  the 
annulus,  and  a  fmall  fcarification  Ihall  be  made  to 
the  awuihts  with  a   ftrait  hifhury,  which  muft  be  • 
condy'cled  with  the  finger  to  introduce  the- probe, 
upon  whJch  fliall  bs  ruii  a  bovi^cd  or  cro-oked  hi/ljury 
to    cut  the  am-'.lu,^    or   ring,  ./.  e.    to  dil.ite  the 
wound  within  fids.-    The  operator  rr.uft  r.ot  go.  too 
far,  for  fear  he  Ihou'd  cut  a  branch  of  arteries  ;  af- 
iterwards  the  parts  are  reduced  into 'the  belly.-    If 


368 


72)^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


the  ep!ploo>ihAd  caufed  the  hernia,  it  muft  be  tied, 
and  what's  altcrated  cut.  The  annulm  muft  he 
(caiifled  within,  in  order  to  make  a  good  citatricc 
or  fcam. 

The  Apparatus  and  bandage  muft  be  made 
with  a  very  foft  and  blunted  tent,  big  and  long 
enough  to  hinder  that  the  impuHion  of  the  in- 
terlines fliould  make  them  re-enter  between  the 
annuU;  and  that  tent  muft  be  tied  to  a  thread,  to 
be  extraiSted  at  pleafure.  The  wound  mud  be 
filled  with  lint,  covered  with  a  good  digeflive, 
made  with  turpentine,  and  the  yolk  of  eggs  ;  a 
plaifter,  and  a  comprefs  of  a  triangular  figure,  and 
bandage  Spica. 

The  rtperation  of  the  complcnt  Hernia  is  made 
when  the  inteftinal  parts  fall  into  the  fcrotum  in 
men,  and  in  women  to  the  bottom  of  the  lips  of  the 
fiiatrix.  For  this  operation  the  patient  is  laid  on 
his  back,  as  in  the  bubonocele,  and  the  incifion  is 
made  in  the  fame  manner  ;  this  is  made  as  far  as 
into  theyt-r«/;/w,  and  the  membranes  are  lacerated 
as  far  as  the  inteflinc.  The  operator  examines  if 
the  parts  be  adherent  to  the  tefticle ;  if  it  be  the 
fpiphon,  it  muft  be  loofened,  and  a  piece  of  it  left 
to  the  tefticle  ;  but  if  it  was  the  inteftine,  and  it 
could  not  be  feparated  without  offending  the  one 
or  the  other,  it  is  better  to  oftend  the  tefticle  than 
the  inteftine.  If  the  epiploon  was  alterated,  it  muft 
be  cut  as  far  as  into  its  found  part ;  the  wound  is 
filled  with  lint  J  and  for  bandage,  the /pica,  as  in 
the  bubonocele. 

The  operation  of  theC  astr  ation  is  occafioned 
by  the  mortification  ov  fnrocele  of  the  tefticles.  In 
this  operation  the  patient  is  made  to  lie  on  his 
back,  his  backfide  higher  than  his  head,  to  open 
his  legs,  which  are  held  by  fervants  ;  then  the 
operator  pinches  the  ftcin  of  the  fcrotum,  giving 
one  end  to  hold  to  a  fervant,  while  he  holds  the 
other,  to  which  he  makes  a  longitudinal  incifion 
from  top  to  bottom.  The  carnofity  of  the  dartos, 
which  wraps  in  the  tefticle,  is  feparated.  The 
veflels  are  tied  betwee;i  the  annul!  and  the  tumour, 
and  cut  a  finger's  breadth  under  the  ligature.  The 
fpermatick  veft^els  are  not  to  be  ty'd  too  hard,  for 
fear  of  a  convulfion  ;  one  end  of  the  thread  muft 
be  left  to  come  out  of  the  wound.  If  the  excref- 
cence  of  the  flefh  was  adherent  to  the  tefticle,  and 
is  felt  moveable,  it  muft  be  feparated  dextrouily, 
leaving  a  fmall  piece  of  that  flefh  to  the  tefticle. 
If  fome  confiderable  veflels  were  to  appear  on  the 
tumour,  they  (hould  be  tied,  before  it  is  cut. 

The  Apparatus  and  bandage  are  made  by 
filling  the  fcrotum  with  lint.  The  bandage  muft 
be  the  fufpenfor  of  the  fcrotum,  called  paucke;  it 
is  a  btindiige  Vf\i\\ 'ioViV  cWiek,  the  fuperior  ferving 
ibr  a  girt,  and  the  inferior  pafs  between  the  thighs, 


and  are  tied  behind  to  the  gist.  There  is  another 
bandage  of  the  fcrotum  with  four  chiefs,  the  iupe- 
rior  ferve  for  a  girt ;  it  is  fplit  at  the  bottom,  is 
witiiout  fcam;  the  inferior  chiefs  crofs  over  one 
another,  to  pafs  between  the  thighs,  and  be  tied 
to  the  girt;  both  are  pierced  through  for  the  paf- 
fagc  of  the  penis. 

The  next  operation,  which  falls  under  our  con- 
fideration,  is  a  very  great  one,  called  tht  operation 
of  the  Stonf.. 

Mr.  Sharp  lays  down  the  following  method  of 
fearching  for  the  ftone.  The  patient'being  laid  on 
a  horizontal  table  with  his  thighs  elevated,  and  a 
little  extended,  pafs  the  found,  or  catheter,  with 
the  concave  part  towards  you,  till  it  meets  with 
fome  refiltance  in  the  perinceum,  a  little  above  the 
anus  ;  then  turning  it  without  much  force,  pufli  it 
gently  on  into  the  bladder,  and  if  it  meets  with  an 
obftruftion  at  the  neck,  raife  its  extremity  upwards, 
by  inclining  the  handle  of  it  towards  you;  and  if 
it  does  not  then  ftip  in,  withdraw  it  a  quarter  of 
an  inch,  and  introducing  your  fore-finger  into  the 
rcElum,   lift  it  up,  and  it  will  feldom  fail  to  enter. 

Though,  upon  fearching,  the  Chirurgeon  may  be 
aflured  of  a  ftone  in  the  bladder,  yet  he  is  not 
without  farther  enquiry  to  operate  immediately  ; 
fince  there  are  fome  obftacles  that  forbid  the  ope- 
ration, either  abiblutely,  or  only  for  a  certain  time. 
Among  thcfe,  that  of  the  greateft  confequence  is 
the  gravel  or  ftone  in  the  kidneys,  which  is  known 
by  the  pain  in  the  loins,  vomiting,  rctra<£tion  of 
the  tefticles,  numbnefs  of  tiie  thighs,  and  often 
by  matter,  which  the  inflammation  produces  in 
the  kidneys.  Dift'crence  of  age  make  an  extreme 
difference  in  danger ;  infants  and  young  people 
almoft  always  recovering  ;  but  ftill  the  operation 
1  is  advifeable  in  thofe  ad\-anced  i;i  years,  though  it 
is  not  attended  M'ith  near  the  fame  fuccefs. 

Before  the  operation  is  performed,  it  is  proper  to 
prepare  the  patient  with  a  gentle  purge  the  pre- 
ceding day,  and  a  clyfter  early  in  the  morning, 
which  will  be  of  great  fervice  in  cooling  the  body 
and  making  the  operation  lefs  daiigerous,  where 
the  rcitum  is  liable  to  be  wounded,  when  full'. 

The  moft  convenient  time  for  the  operation  of 
lithotomy  is  fpring  or  autumn,  though  when  the 
patient  is  in  exquifite  torment,  or  his  life  in  danger, 
the  prefent  opportunity  fhould  be  embraced. 

Lithotomy  is  of  two  kinds  :  that  made  into  the 
bladder  is  termed  cfotomy  ;  but  when  the  ftone  is 
in  the  kidneys,  which  very  rarely  happens,  the 
operation  is  termed  neplrrotomy. 

With  refpeJl  to  the  feveral  methods  of  perform- 
ing lithotomy  for  the  ftone  in  the  bladder,  thev,  ac- 
cording to  Hcijler,  are  four  :  the  firft-,  and  nioft 
antient,  is  the  apparatus  minor,  called  likewife  the 

eeffuin 


C  H  I  RU  R  G  E  R  r. 


69 


cejjid'i  or' gtiidonian  method  ;  the  fecond,  the  tippa- 
raliii  ma^nits,  or  Muriariiis's  method  ;  the  latter 
being  termed  the  new,  and  the  former  the  old 
method  :  the  third  is  the  apparatus  alius,  or  hy~ 
pogrctjTu  fciSlion ;  wherein  the  incifion  is  made  at 
the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen  in  the  anterior  fid'S 
of  the  bladder,  immediately  above  the  os  puhis  ; 
whereas  in  the  rei'l  it  is  made  in  the  perina-um, 
between  the  anus  and  l\\e  Jcrotum  :  the  fourth,  and 
moft  modern  method,  was  invented  towards  the 
end  of  the  laft  century,  and  is  termed  the  lateral 
operation. 

The  firfl  method  is  now  entirely  laid  afide  ; 
thnuj^h  Heijhr  thinks  it  praflicable  on  boys  under 
fourteen  :  the  wound  of  the  bladder  in  this  ope- 
ration, fays  Sharp,  is  made  in  the  fame  place  as  is 
now  pradtifed  in  the  lateral  method  ;  but  its  being 
impracticable  on  fome  fubjefts,  and  uncertain  in 
all  others,  has  made  it  to  be  univerfally  e\ploded. 
'  In  performing  lithotomy  by  the  apparatus  major, 
Mr.  Sharp's  direflions  for  the  fituation  of  the  pa- 
tient are  thus.  Having  laid  the  patient  on  a  fquare 
horizontal  table,  three  feet  four  inches  high,  v.ith 
a  pillow  under  his  head,  let  his  legs  and  thighs  be 
bent,  and  his  heels  made  to  approach  his  buttocks 
by  tying  his  hands  to  the  foles  of  his  feet  with  a 
couple  of  ftrong  ligatures  ;  and  to  fecure  him  more 
efteftually  from  ilruggling,  pafs  a  double  ligature 
under  one  of  his  hams,  and  carry  the  four  firings 
round  his  neck  to  the  other  ham  :  then  pafTmg  the 
loop  underneath,  make  a  knot  by  threading  one 
of  the  fmgle  ends  through  the  loop  ;  and  thus  the 
thighs  are  to  be  widened  from  each  other,  and 
firmly  fupported  by  proper  perfons. 

The  patient  thus  fituated,  Heifier,  direcis  the 
0[5eratioii  as  follows  :  the  operator,  dipping  the  beak 
of  a  fizeahle  and  grooved  flee!  cathettr  A,  (fee  the 
plate  fig.  I,)  in  oil,  he  conveys  it  through  the  u> e- 
thra  into  the  bladder,  and  being  afTured  there  is  a 
ftonc,  turns  the  crooked  part  of  the  catheter  in  the 
bladder  and  urethra  towards  the  left  fide  of  the 
perintcum,  but  the  handle  and  penis,  which  contains 
it,  towards  the  right  inguen,  then  delivers  it  to  the 
afiillant,  who  holds  up  the  fcrdum  in  the  other 
hand;  for  the  crooked  convex  part  of  the  caheter, 
thus  elevated  in  the  perlnaum,  renders  that  part 
of  the  urethra,  wliich  is  to  be  divided,  fufficiently 
perceptible  both  to  the  fight  and  touch.  He  next 
lays  hold  of  the  integuments  of  the  perirtaum  with 
the  fingers  of  his  left  hand,  holding  in  his  right 
the  intifun-knife,  B,  wrnpptd  in  linen,  as  he 
would  do  a  pen  for  writing:  with  this  he  makes  a 
longitudinal  incifion  downwards,  about  the  middle 
of  the  left  fide  of  the  perinaum  near  the  future, 
through  the  fat ,  then  he  again  feels  for  the  cat'-eter, 
and  afterwards  divides  the  urethra  in  a  direct  line 


downwards,  fo  that  the  end  of  the  knife  may  pafs 
into  the  groove  of  the  catheter. 

After  a  proper  incifion,  the  furgeou  parts  with 
his  knife,  inferting  in  the  groove  of  the  catheter,  if 
an  afliltant  holds  it,  the  nail  of  his  finger  or  thumb: 
then  he  takes  a  male  conduSlor,  C.  dips  it  in  warm 
oil,  a!id  having  palled  it  through  the  groove  of  the 
catheter  and  neck  of  the  bladder  into  the  bladder 
itfelf,  extradts  the  catheter.  The  male  conductor 
being  thus  paffed,  a  fctnale  conductor,  D,  is  intro- 
duced upon  it,'  in  fuch  a  manner  as  the  latter  re- 
ceives the  prominent  back  of  the  former  in  its 
groove,  and  conveys  it  fafely  into  the  bladder  through 
its  neck. 

After  this  the  two  conduSlors  are  gently  feparated 
by  their  haiidles,  and  then  a  flraight  yirtv/ix,  E, 
dipt  in  oil  and  fiiut  very  clofe,  is  carefully  conveyed 
into  the  bladder  between  the  conduclors,  Theyir- 
ceps,  after  it  is  introduced,  and  the  conduHoi  s  with- 
drawn, mult  be  opened  feveral  times  to  dilate  the 
wound,  and  then  fliut  to  fearch  for  the  ftone:  when 
the  ftone  is  found,  they  m.uft  be  opened  with  both 
hands,  in  fuch  a  manner  that  one  jaw,  ifpoffible, 
may  lay  hold  under  the  ftone,  and  the  other  above 
it.  When  the  ftonc  is  thus  intercepted,  the  for- 
ceps, by  a  gentle  motion  from  fide  to  fide,  muft  be 
brought  towards  the  reSlum,  and  the  ftone  extraiSted 
downwards  ;  becaufe  the  parts  dilate  and  yield  more 
eafily  that  way,  while  upwards  they  meet  with  a 
refiftance  from  the  os  pubis  :  but  if  it  lies  concealed 
in  any  part  of  the  bladder,  and  cannot  be  laid  hold 
of  by  the  forceps,  the  operator  muft  pafs  the  two 
firrt  finsers  of  his  left  hand  into  the  anus,  elevate  the 
ftone,  and  force  it  into  them.  If  it  is  fituated  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  bladder,  behind  the  ojjii pubis', 
the  inferior  part  of  the  abdomen  muft  be  prelled 
dovv'nwards  by  the  hrsnd,  that  it  may  commodioufly 
be  taken  hold  of,  and  drawn  out  by  the  ftraight  or 
a  crooktil  forceps ;  and  if  it  is  lodged  on  either  fide, 
the  crooked  inilrument  F  is  moft  convenient. 

When  the  ftone  is  too  large  to  be  extracted 
whole,  it  mufl-  be  broken  by  a  forceps,  G,  with 
teeth,  and  the  fragments  to  be  drawn  out  one  after 
another,  Laftly,  if  the  ftone  is  loo  large  and  too 
hard  to  be  either  cxtrafied  or  broken,  a  prudent 
furgeon  will  defift,  and  heal  the  wouni!,  or  leave  a 
fiftula  for  thedifcharge  of  the  urine. 

The  ftone  being  thus  extraded,  :ind  the  bladder 
cleared,  the  wound  is  cleanfed  \A-itli  a  fpongc,  the 
ligatures  untied,  the  patient  put  to  bed,  and  the 
wound  now  drefted  with  doffils  of  fcraped  lint  :  if 
the  haemorrhage  be  too  profufe,  it  may  be  flopped 
by  pledgits  of  lint  dint  in  a  proper  ftyptic,  and 
the  arteries  compreffed  with  the  fingers  till  it  ftops. 
Thefe  muft  be  covered  with  a  linen-bolfter,  and 
a  large  fquare  comprefs  without  a  plaifter,  fecuring 

the 


Tfjz    Univerfal  Hiftoiy  c/"  Arts  ^W  Sciences. 


3.70 

the  whole  widi  the  T  bandage,  or  that  with  four    which   prefcrves  the  reaum  better  than  the  btcral 
heads  ;  and  if  they  are  inett'eftual,  the  artery  muft    method. 

Amoii!r  Chcfddcns  emendations,    Do<£l;or   John 

pa- 


be. tied  up  with  .1  crooked  needle  and  thread. 

After  drcfling,  the  patient  muft  be  fupp.Hed  with  i  Dmiglas  cnunierates  ihcfc.      i.   If  he  findi  the 


■plenty  of  ptifan,  barley-water,   or  a  {l:rcn'Uhenin:r 
and  compofmg  emuifion  ;    his  diet  fhould  be  the 
fame  as  for  people  in  fevers,  or  after  great  wounds. 
The  apparntus  altiis,   or  high  operation,   is  per- 
formed as  follows.     The  patient  beiii"-   duly  pre- 
pared, and  laid  in  a  proper  fituation,    a  hollow  fil- 
vcr  catheter,  with  a  fle.\ilile  leathern  tube  H.  (ibid  ) 
at  the  end  of  it,  is  to  be  introduced  into  the  blad- 
der :  to  the  tilbe  muft  be  fitted  a  large  fyriiige,   for 
the  injecting  of  fuch  warm  water,  barley-water, 
or  milk,   as  the  patient  can  betir.     \Vhen  this   is 
done,  the  catheter  is  extraiSlcd  :   then  while  an  af- 
.fiilant  introduces  his  two  fore-fingers  into  the  i7«Ki 
to  elevate  the  Hone  and  bladder,  the  operator  makes 
an  incifion  in  a  right  line  through   the  fkin,    fat, 
and  abdominal  mufcles,   immediately  above  the  cja 
Jiubis.   The  external  wound  fliould  be  three  fingers- 
■.breadth  long.in  children,  and  four  in  adults;  then 
.introducing  the  left  index,  the  Surgeon  feels  for  the 
.liquor  that  didends  the  bladder,  and  then  makes  an 
;  incifion  into  the   bladder  immediately    above   the 
juncture  of  the  ojfa  pubis  :  after  which  he  pailes  a 
fmall   knife  into  the  body  of  the  bladder,  fo  as  to 
make  a  fmall  wound  with  the  point  only;   through 
this  aperture  he  pafTes   a  crooked  or   ftraight  knife, 
■armed   with  a  button,    whereby    he  enlarges   the 
•  wound  upwards  the  breadth  of  one  or  two  fingers. 
He  then  introduces  his  left  index  to  draw  the  upper 
part  of  the  bladder  towards  the  navel,  and   then 
enlarges  the  wound  downwards.  Immediately  after, 
he  introduces   the   fore-finger  of  the  other  hand, 
and  examines  the  fize  and   fituation  of  the  ftone, 
and  accordingly  he  enlarges  the   wound  either  up- 
wards or  downwards,     in  order  to  extract  it.     And 
when  the  ftojie  is  extrafled,  and  nothing  left,   the 
woUnd  is  drefll'd,  and  the  patient  treated  much  in 
the  fiime  manner,  as  in  the  former  cafe. 

The  fourth  method,  which  is  called  the  lateral 
operation,  is  performed  thus  :  every  thing  being 
properly  prepared,  introduce  a  catheter,  and  after- 
wards make  an  incifion  of  a  proper  Jength,  begin- 
ning where  they  end  in  the  apparatus  major,  and 
continuing  it  downwards  between  the  accelerator 
W!?!^,  and  ereJlor  penis,  on  the  left  fide  of  the  in- 
tejiinum  reiliim  ;  and  direcfttng  the  knife  to  the 
pofterior  part  of  the  catheter,  through  the  inferior 
.and  lateral  part  of  the  bladder,  behind  the  proftate 
gland,  and  above  the  feminal  vcficles,  then  con- 
tinue it  forwards  through  the  fphinc^er  of  the  blad- 
der, and  left  fide  of  the  profiate  glands  into  the 
^nembraiious  part  of  the  urethra  e\xn  to  its  bulb. 


tient's  puifc  lov/  after  the  o[x;ration,  he  applies 
blilters  to  the  arms,  which  e&ectually  raife  his  fpi- 
rits.  2.  If  the  wound  grows  callous,  he  lays  on 
a  piece  of  bhfter-plaifter  to  erode  it,  by  which  new 
flefh  pullulates,  and  the  wound  unites.  3.  If  the 
wound  be  putrid,  he  mixes  a  little  verdigreafe  with 
fome  digellive  ointment. 

Women  are  lefs  fuhjeft  to  the  floBC  in  the  blad- 
der than  men,  and  their  urinary  paffiges  are  more 
fliort  and  lax,  io  that  in  general  the  Hone  being 
but  fmall,  difcharges  itfei-f  with  the  urine,  and 
when  it  happens  to  increafe  in  the  bladder,  we 
have  inftances  of  its  coming  away  fpontaneoufly. 
DoiSlor  Douglas  propofes  to  exttail  a  fmall  (lone 
in  a  woman,  by  dilating  the  uretina  with  a  tent 
of  gentian-root,  or  prepared  fponge  ■,  butwhcji 
the  Hone  is  large,  he  approves  of  the  high  opera- 
tion, diftcnding  the  bladder  with  warm  water,  end 
comprcfling  the  urethra  by  an  affiftant's  finger  in 
the  vagina,  and  then  making  an  incifion  into  the 
bhdder  immediately  above  the  cs  pubis.  Tiiis, 
Hei/ler  fays,  is  a  very  proper  method,  when  the 
(tone  is  very  large,  and  the  patient  young  and 
healthy  ;  but  Alorand.  when  the  (lone  is  fi.iall, 
prefers   the  apparatus  major. 

Upon  the  wlioie,  lithotomy  aj)pears  to  be  a  dan- 
gerous and  precarious  operation,  nor  can  one  me- 
thod alone  be  depended  on  ;but  the  Chirurgeon  muft 
be  determined  iji  the  choice,  by  the  particular  cir- 
cumflanccs  of  the  cafe. 

Nephrotomy,  the  feccnd /pedes  oi  lithotomy, 
is  by  mod  writers  on  the  fubjedt  thought  imprac- 
ticable, who  therefore  abfolutely  rejedl  it ;  though 
we  have  many  inftances  of  perfons,  who  have  been 
cured  of  wounds  of  the  back  penetrating  to  the 
kidneys.  Heijier  mentions  one  cure  of  this  kind 
performed  by  himfelf.  Wounds,  therefore  of  the 
kidneys,  etpecially  thofe  inflicled  on  the  back, 
.without  penetrating  into  the  cavity  of  the  abdimen, 
he  fays,  are  often' curable.  And  though  Hippo- 
crates prohibits  his  pupils  from  praclifing  lithotomy, 
yet  in  tre.iting  of  dilbrders  in  the  kidneys,  in  his 
work  de  Intern-  j^ffcui.  he  direiSts  to  make  an  inci- 
fion near  the  kidney,  when  it  is  tumefied  and  ele- 
vated, and  after  extradling  the  pus,  to  dilcharge 
the  gravel  by  diuretics  ;  for  this  opening  may  pre- 
ferve  the  patient,  who  miill  otherwise  die  :  and 
again,  he  fays,  when  the  kidney,  being  fuppurated, 
tumefies  near  the  fpine,  a  deep  incifion  (hould  be 
made  upon  the  tumour  near  the  kidney,  or  into  the 
kidney  itfelf.     Rctifct^  RiolanuSy  and  others,  think 

nephntcmy. 


C  H  I  R  U  R  G  E  R  r. 


Z7'»- 


nephrotomy  may  be  prafliftd  with  fuccefs,  if  the 
opening  is  made  where  the  ftone  is  perceptible,  and 
neither  the  emulgent  artery,  vein,  nor  ureter 
wounded,  nor  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen  penetrated. 
But  beyond  all  difpute  it  miili:  be  rcafonablc,  when 
nature  points  out  the  place  by  a  tumour  or  abfccls 
in  the  loins,  proceeding  from  a  Hone  in  the  kid- 
neys. 

The  inferior  parts  are  fubjecft  to  another  dange- 
rous difordcr  or  malady,  which  requires  a  nioft 
fevere  operation.     It  is  the  Fistula  in  Ano. 

This  is  a  deep  winding,  callous,  cavernous 
ulcer,  yielding  a  virulent  matter  in  the  anus  or 
fundament. 

The  ancients  reckoned  four  kinds  of  Fijlulas  In 
am  ;  but  the  beft  writers  of  late  reduce  them  to 
tv/o.  The  firjl  are  thofe  arifing  from  a  phyma  ; 
thefe  are  very  painful,  and  difficult  to  cure,  as  en- 
tering deep  among  the  interfaces  of  the  mufcles, 
and  forming  various  cunicuU,  or  ftnus's  ;  which 
the  more  remote  they  are  from  the  Anus,  the  worfe 
they  arc,  by  reafon  they  do  not  alloW  of  being  cut. 
The  fecond  owe  their  origin  to  an  inteinal  hicmor- 
rhage,  or  extravafation  between  the  coats  of  the 
return  ;  and  have  a  fmall  perforation  near  the  ci»- 
cumference  of  the  anus,  whence  they  yield  a  thin 
fanies,  or  ichor,  without  pain  ;  they  in  time  bring 
on  itchings  and  excoriations,  and  the  orifices  at 
length  become  callous,  and  are  fometimes  clofcd, 
and  fometimes  open  again. 

The  frefh,  fimple  ^//wA?,  may  be  cured  vi'ithout 
danger,  by  cutting,  where  that  may  be  done  with- 
out damage  to  the  mufcle  of  the  anus,  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner  : 

If  ih.e  fijhtla  be  open  outwards,  the  patient  mud 
lie  on  his  belly  at  the  edge  of  the  bed,  his  legs 
afunder  ;  the  operator  mull  make  a  fmall  incifion 
with  a  bifloury,  at  the  orifice  of  the  fifula,  to  run 
into  it  a  fmall,  thin,  and  bowed  or  crooked  bif- 
toury  ;  at  the  end  thereof  there  muft  be  put  a  fmall 
pointed  iHllet,  with  a  fmall  filver  tongue  to  it,  to 
recover  it,  that  it  may  enter  without  caufing  any 
pain  ;  this  htfloury  muft  be  introduced  into  the 
Ji;:u!a.,  having  the  index  of  the  left  hand  in  the 
anus,  and  its  tongue  muft  be  drawn  out ;  the 
hani'.Ie  of  the  biftoury  muft  be  held  with  one  hand, 
and  theftillet,  which  pierces  the  anus,  with  the 
other.  1  he  inftrument  is  drawn  out  to  cut  the 
JiJIulci  all  at  once. 

If  xhzfi/lula  opens  in  the  inteftine,  an  incifion 
muft  be  made  outvv-ards,  at  the  bottom  of  the  fif- 
tida,  to  open  it  in  the  place  where  ordinarily  ap- 
pears a  fmall  tumour,  or  inflammation  ;  or  where 
the  patient  feels  fome  pain  when  the  part  is  touched, 
if  the  tumour  was  far  from  the  outs,  it  miL'ht  be 
58. 


opened  with  the  potential  cautery  to  avoid  caufing 
pain.  When  tJie  -bottom  of  the  fack  is  opened, 
the  biftoury,  with  its  ftillct  and  tongue,  is  intro- 
duced into  it.  The  end  of  the  ftillet  is  extracted 
through  the  anw.,  and  the  flefh  cut  all  at  once. 
If  ths  f./lula  was  too  far  in  the  anus,  t!ie  fphiiuSler 
of  the  anus  fliould  not  be  entirely  cut,  for  after- 
wards the  patient  could  not  be  able  to  retain  his 
excrements. 

After  the  fijlula  has  been  opened,  all  the  fmuo- 
fities  found  in  it  mu't:  be  ciit,  likcwifc,  with  fcif- 
iars  ;  the  wound  is  filled  with  tents  made  of  lint, 
dipped  in  fome  anodyne  pledgets,  a  pkifter,  a  trian- 
gular comprefs,  and  the  whole  fuppyrted  with  the 
bandage  called  T. 

From  the  trunk  of  the  hody  wc"ll  defcend  to  the 
extremities,  and  make  the  ainputation  oi  the  Leg. 

For  the  ampuidtion  of  the  leg,  the  patient  is  made 
to  fit  on  the  edge  of  his  bed,  or  in  a  chair  ;  he  muft 
be  fupported  by  two  fcri'ants,  one  to  hold  the  leg 
at  the  bottom,  and  the  other  to  draw  the  fkin  up- 
wards above  the  knee,  that  the  flefli  may  cover  the 
bone  after  the  operation.  A  pretty  thick  comjjref'j 
is  placed  within -fide  the  knee  on  which  arc  made 
two  ligatures  ;  the  firft  above  the  knee,  to  flop  the 
blood,  to  be  (Iraitened  with  the  gripe  ;  the  fecond  ' 
under  the  knee,  to  ftraitcn  the  flefli  for  the  knife. 
Before  the  firft  ligature  beftraitencd,  a  piece  of  card 
muft  be  put  under  it,  for  fear  of  pinching  the  fkin. 
The  leg  being  madt  very  fteady,  the  operator  pLic'd 
to  the  infide  of  the  limb,  makes  the  incifion  with  a 
bow'd  knife,  turning  circularly  to  the  bone,  keep- 
ing one  of  his  hands  on  the  back  of  the  knife,  and 
endeavouring  to  feparate  the  flefh  from  the  bone 
\\'\i\\  a  ftroke  or  two  ;  then  divides  alfo,  the  pe- 
riojicum  from  the  bone  with  the  back  of  the  knife, 
or  a  biftoury,  and  cutting  the  flefh  and  veflels  which 
are  between  the  two  bones.  The  flefti  being  cut, 
a  fplitted  band  muft  be  put  upon  it,  whofe  chief 
muft  be  croflx^d,  to  draw  the  flefli  upwards,  that 
the  bones  may  be  cut  further,  and  covered  by  it 
after  the  amputation,  and  alfo  to  facilitate  the  paf- 
fage  of  the  faw.  The  Chirurgcon  muft  then  take 
the  leg  with  his  left  hand,  and  the  faw  with  the 
right,  which  he  muft  apply  on  the  two  bones,  to 
cut  them  both  at  the  fame  tim.e,  beginning  by  the 
peron(sum,  and  ending  by  the  tibia.  He  mult  in- 
cline the  faw,  and  go  foftlv,  at  firft,  to  make  the 
way  ;  after  which,  he  mult  go  fuiftcr,  and  with 
as  few  ftrokes  as  poffible. 

The  ligature  of  the  veflels  is  done  by  laying 
hold  of  their  mouths  with  a  forceps  with  iprings  ; 
which  forceps  is  given  to  a  fcrvant  to  hold  ;  a 
needle,  threaded  with  a  wax  thread,  is  run  thro' 
the  flefli  under  the  vcfiel,  and  run  again,  and  then 
B  b  b  ali- 


372  iToe  Univerfal  Hiftory  0/ Arts  ^W  Sciences. 


gature  is  made  with  the  two  ends  of  the  thread  to 
the  veffel.  The  gripe,  is  talcen  ofF  with  the  band, 
the  patient  is  ordered  to  bow  a  little,  the  ftump 
and  the  flefh  is  brought  down  to  cover  the  bone. 

'I'ho  Apparatus  and  bandage  are  made  by  put- 
fincf  fmall  comprclles  on  the  vellels,  and  dry  pled- 
gets on  the  tow  bones,  and  feveral  other  pledgets 
covered  with  aftringent  powders  ;  over  it  another 
great  pledget  of  cotton  or  tow  covered  with  aftring- 
ent  powders,  the  whole  being  wrapped  up  with  a 
plaificr,  and  a  comprcfs  in  form  of  a  crofs  of  Mal- 
ta, with  three  or  four  longitudinal  compreffes,  and 
a  circidar  one.  The  crois  of  Malta,  and  the  com- 
prefs,  are  placed  within-fide  of  the  knee,  whofe 
cniets,  or  ends,  are  croffed  over  the  flump  ;  they 
muft  be  held  by  the  fervant  who  fupports  the  part ; 
the  other  chiefs  are  crolled,  likewife  ;  the  two  lon- 
gitudinal compreffes  croffing  one  another,^  are  placed 
at  the  center  of  the  ftump,  and  a  third  longitudinal 
is  made  to  run  round  the  ftump,  to  flop  the  two 
firft  ;  they  muft  be  three  fingers  in  breadth,  and 
long  enough  to  pafs  on  the  ftump. 

This  done,  the  bandage  is  made  with  a  band 
four  ells  long,  and  three  fingers  broad,  rolled  to  a 
globe,  with  which  are  made  three  circularies  on  the 
edge  of  the  part  cut,  rifing  upwards  by  doloirs,  and 
paiTing  obliquely  the  band  under  the  knee,  and 
defcending  again  over  the  firft  turns  ;  continuing 
thus  to  defcend  and  rife  till  the  whole  ftump  be  co- 
vered ;  the  band  muft  be  ftopped  above  the  knee. 
In  three  or  four  days  the  dreffing  may  be  removed. 


and  proper  digeftives,  mixed  with  aftringents,  ap- 
plied ;  having  an  aftual  cautery,  or  fome  powerful 
ftyptick,  in  readinefs,  in  cafe  of  a  violent  hemor- 
rhage at  the  firft  opening.  M.  Sabourin,  Chiiurgeon 
of  Geneva,  is  recorded  in  the  hiftory  of  the  Rcytil 
Academy  of  Sciences,  Anno  1702,  for  an  improve- 
ment in  the  method  of  amputation,  propofed  to  the 
academy.  The  whole  fecret  confilts  in  faving  a 
piece  of  flefli,  and  fkin,  a  little  lower  than  the 
place  where  the  fedfion  is  to  be  made  ;  wherewith 
the  ftump  !<:  to  be  afterwards  covered.  The  ad- 
vantages whereof  arc,  that  in  lefs  than  two  days 
time  this  flefti  unites  with  ti-.e  extremes  of  the  di- 
vided veflels,  and  fo  faves  the  neceflity  either  of 
binding  the  ends  of  thofe  veflels  with  thread,  or 
of  applying  caufticks,  or  aftringents  ;  which  are 
methods  very  dangerous,  or  at  Icaft  very  incommo- 
dious. Bcfides  the  bone,  thus  covered  up,  does 
not  exfoliate. 

From  thefe  examples  Tcompared  with  ourtreatife 
on  Anatomy)  the  curious  enquirer  into  Surgery 
may  form  a  judgment,  not  only  of  the  ufe  of  this 
art ;  but  alio  of  the  manner  of  executing  many 
cures  and  operations,  not  particularly  mentioned  in 
this  treatife. 

As  for  the  practice  of  Midwifery,  which  is 
acknowledged  amongft  chirurgical  operations  ;  the 
fubje£t  is  of  that  confequence,  that  it  deferves  a 
treatife  by  itfelf ;  and  therefore  fhall  refer  the  reader 
to  the  the  letter  M,  in  the  courfe  of  this  work. 


Of    CHRONOLOGY. 


CHRONOLOGY   is    the   regulation  of 
times,  in  regard  to   civil  and  ecclefiajlical 
hiftory;  {hewing  by  remarkable  figns  and 
tokens,  notes  and  charadlers,  the  exadl 
lime  when  every  memorable  adtion  has  happened 
fince  the  Creation  :  whence  it  has  it  name  from 
pCfojos,  time,  and  Acy:);  a  difcourfe. 

Its  bufinefs  is  to  afcertain  and  adjuft  the  various 
epochas  and  other  periods  mentioned  in  hiftory, 
fo  that  the  eftablifiiment  and  revolutions  of  empires 
and  kingdoms,  and  other  remakable  events  may 
be  truly  ftated. 

Mr.  Locke  writes,  that  hiftory  owes  its  ufe  and 
•beauty  to  Chronokgy ;    and  that,   without  its   aid, 
hiftory  would  be  a  jumble  of  fafts  confufedly  heap- 
ed together,  not  capable  of  giving  either  plcafure 
'or  inftrudtion, 

Thii  fcience  begins  with  fome  preliminary  defi- 
nitions. For  before  chronological  fa£ls  can  be  af- 
certained,  it  is  neccfiary  to  agree  upon  the  defini- 
tion and  divifion  of  Timj;. 


Firjl,  Time  is  the  meafure  of  motion,  which 
motion  has  always  been  calculated,  or  computed 
by  the  motion  of  the  jun  and  moon  ;  as  the  moft 
regular  and  conftant. 

Secondly,  Upon  this  dodlrine,  time  has  been  ufu- 
ally  divided  into  folar  and  lunar  revolutions,  called 
years  and  months. 

The  folar  year  is  the  fpace  of  time  the  fun  takes 
to  pafs  through  the  twelve  figns  of  the  zodiaci, 
confifting  of  365  days,  5  hours,  and  49  minutes. 
This  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  natural  or  ajlro- 
nomical  year.  But  there  are  other  annual  d'lv'ii'ions 
of  time  devifed  by  the  church  and  ftate,  called  arti- 
ficial  or  iv'"//,   and  ecclefia/lical years. 

Hence  arofe  the  variety  of  computations,  which 
fo  much  perplex  our  hiltories. 

The  civil  year  is  that  form  of  year,  which  each 
nation  has  contrived  to  cbmpute  time  by ;  or  it  is 
the  tropical  year  conMcTtd  Tis  only  confifting  of  a 
certain   number  of  whole  da\s,    viz.   365   days, 

without 


C  H  RO  N  0  L  0  G  r. 


373 


without  any  regard  to  the  furpltis  of  hours  and  mi- 
nutes ;  which  every  fourth  year  being  added  toge- 
ther make  one  whole  day,  ?.ud  then  the  civil  year 
contains  366  days,  which  is  called  biJJixtUe  or 
leap-yt-ar  ;  the  invention  of  "Jtdiui  Cafar,  to  make 
the  iioil yt\ir  keep  pace,  with  the  tropical  or  ajtro- 
nomlcal.     Of  which  more  particularly  hereafter. 

In  the  year  1582,  it  being  obferved  that  the  ver- 
nal equinox,  was  by  this  calculation  brought  back 
from  the  20th  to  the  loth  oi  Alarch,  Pope  Grego- 
ry XIII.  caft  out  ten  days  at  once  in  the  computa- 
tion,  by  ordering  \.\\z  firjl  oiOdohcr  to  be  held  for 
the  ilcventb,  &c.  And  to  prevent  the  like  excefs 
for  the  time  to  come,  in  the  Lalian  computation, 
he  ordained,  that  at  the  end  ot  every  century,  the 
bijfcxiilc  or  ifitenalaiy  day  fliould  be  omitted,  ex- 
cept the  fourth  century,  when  it  is  to  be  retained  ; 
becaufe  the  eleven  minutes,  that  the  Italian  exceeds 
the  natural  year,  do  not  amount  to  a  day  in  lefs 
than  131  years.  —  This  is  what  was  called  the 
New-Stile  in  contra-diftinftion  to  the  Italian 
computation,  which  was  continued  by  feveral  na- 
tions for  a  long  time,  where  the  Pope's  power  was 
not  acknowledged.  But  in  i  752,  the  parliament 
oi  Great  Britain  enacted,  that  the  3d  o(  September 
in  that  year  fliould  be  held  for  the  fourteenth  ;  and 
that  for  the  future  this  nation  ftiould  compute  time 
by  the  Ncui-Jlik,  and  to  begin  the  year  on  thejirji 
day  of  "January,  which  before  did  not  commence 
till  the  25th  of  March. 

The  lunar  year  correfponds  with  the  moon's  re- 
volution only.  For,  as  the  moon  takes  up  29 
days,  12  hours,  4.4  minutes  and  3  feconds  in  palling 
through  the  12  ll^ns  ;  twelve  of  thefe  monthly  re- 
volutions make  cnc  /«/w;- year,  confiftiiig  of  354 
days,  8  hours,  48  minutes  and  38  feconds.  So  that 
the  difference  between  the  common  lunar  year  and 
the  ajlronomical  folar  year  is  1 1  days,  5  hours  and 
49  minutes. 

The  firlt  divifion  of  time  by  years  appears  to  have 
been  made  by  Romulus :  but  it  was  very  far  from 
being  exa6t  :  for  it  confifted  only  of  304  days  di- 
vided into  ten  unequal  months  of  30  and  31  days 
alternately.  The  inconvenience  that  arolc  from 
this  calculation  was  fomewhat  removed  by  the  ad- 
dition of  as  many  days  yearly,  as  he  found  would 
make  the  ftate  of  the  heavens  correfpond  to  the 
firft  month,  which  additional  days  remained  with- 
out any  diftinft  appellation  till  the  reign  of  Nuina 
Pompilius,  who  divided  them  into  two  months  by 
the  name  of  January  and  February  :  yet  the  qftro- 
nomical  obfervations  of  his  fucceilbrs  finding  that 
the  entire  revolution  of  the  fun  could  not  be  ac- 
compllihed  in  this  number  of  days,  Julius  Cafar 
added  1 1  days  and  6  hours  more  ;  which  brought 
it  to  that  exadlnefs,  which  has  been  ever  fince  the 


bafis  of  our  computations,  though  Pop;  Gregory, 
as  mentioned  above,  has  eftablifhed  it  upon  a  more 
nice  calculation. 

Julius  Cafar  obfcrving  that  time  had  loft  67 
days  by  the  fault  of  the  ponlifices,  who  had  the 
charge  of  regulating  its  motion  at  Kome,  fuice  the 
days  of  Numa,  invited  Sifigenes,  the  eminent  ma- 
thematician from  Egypt,  to  affift  him  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  more  regular  annual  computation  ;  who, 
refolving  to  fix  the  beginning  of  the  year  to  the 
ivinter  Joljlice,  was  obliged  to  make  that  year  con- 
fiftof445  days,  dividedinto  15  months,  which  is 
there  called  annus  confuftonis,  the  year  of  con- 
fujion. 

The  Egyptians  computed  time  by  a  year  of  36  ^ 
days,  divided  into  12  months  of  30  days  each  ;  bc- 
fides  5  intercalary  days  added  to  the  laft  month. 
This  is  called  NabonaJJirs  year  ;  and,  as  it  loofcs 
one  whole  day  of  the  Julian  year  in  every  four 
years  ;  fo  its  beginning  in  the  conrfe  of  460  runs 
through  every  part  of  the  Julian  year  till  they  meet 
again.  However,  as  this  year  is  ufed  by  Ptolemy  ; 
it  is  ufeful  in  comparing  the  ancient  ajlronomical 
obfervations  with  the  modern. 

Nabonajfer's  year  after  the  battle  of  Aclium,  was 
obliged  in  fome  meafurc,  with  the  f^jf/i^/a;/ liberty, 
to  give  way  to  the  regulations  of  the  i2ffOT(7«  conque- 
rors :  and  this  year  thus  reformed  is  ftilcd,  annus 
ylSiiacus.  The  Egyptian  year  was  the  fame,  only 
differing  as  to  the  names  of  the  months. 

The  Greeks  originally  computed  time  by  a  lunar 
year,  confifting  of  12  months,  each  of  30  days  ; 
but  were  changed  into  months  of  f^O  and  29  days 
alternately  computed  from  the  firft  appearance  of 
the  new  moon,  with  the  addition  of  an  intercalary 
month  of  30  days,  every  3d,  5th,  8th,  nth,  14th, 
1 6th  and  19th  year  of  a  cycle  of  19  years,  in  order 
to  keep  the  neiv  and  Jnll  moons  to  the  fame  term  of 
feafqns  :  alway  commencing  at  the  full  moon  next 
after  the  fummer  foljiue. 

The  Macedonian  year  differed  from  the  Attic 
originally,  only  in  the  names,  and  order  of  the 
months.  But  the  modern  Macedonian  year  Is  folar, 
and  perfectly  agrees  with  the  Julian  year. 

The  ancient  J eiui/h  yszr  w&s  alfo  lunar,  confift- 
ing of  1 1  months,  v/hich  alternately  contained  29 
and  30  days :  and  was  made  to  agree  with  the 
folar  year  by  11  and  fometimes  by  12  days  at  the 
end  of  the  year,  or  by  an  intercalary  month. 
The  modern  Jews  compute  alfo  by  a  lunar  year, 
but  they  reckon  12  months  in  common,  and  in  a  . 
cycle  of  19  years,  they  add  an  intercalary  month 
to  the  3d,  6th,  8th,  nth,  14th,  17th,  and  igtli 
year. 

The  Syrian  is  a  folar  year,  and  begins  with 
OSlober  in  the  Julian  account  of  time, 

B  b  b  2  The 


374  -^''-'  ^1"^^^^^^'^^  Hutory  of  Arts  «;^^  Sciences. 


ThaPerfianycarh  ^\'iofihr,  coiififting  of  365 
days,  dlv'uicd  into  lamoiulis,  with  5  days  uddcd 
to  the  la!V.  This  w.is  ca'lcd  the  Yiz^degerdich  yem\ 
to  dillinguifh  it  from  the  GalalcMt  or  fixed  folur 
year,  introduced  in  Pcrji^i  in  the  year  of  1079, 
which  was  formed  by  an  intercah'.tion  made  fix  or 
feven  times  in  four  years,  and  then  Once  every 
fiftli  year  :  the  former  was  NabonaJJera  year  ;  the 
latter  is  accounted  the  heft  and  juftelt  for  keeping 
the  foiftices  and  equinoxes,  and  for  aiifweiin^  ac- 
curately to  the  fo/iir  motions. 

The  Anibs  and  Turis  dift'er  from  the  Syrian  year, 
OJily  in  placing  the  intercalary  mouth,  which  they 
add  every  adj'sth,  7th,  loth,  i  3th,i5th,i8th,  ?ifi:, 
24th,  2'';th  and  29th  year  in  a  cycle  of  29  years. 
The  Jevjs,  and  molt  other  nations  in  the  eaft 
had  a  civil  year,  v/hich  arbitrarily  began  with  the 
new  tnoon  in  September  :  and  an  ecekftajUcal  year, 
which  commenced  from  the  new  moon  in  March. 

The  civil,  or  legal  year  has  varied  much  in  divers 
nations.  In  France,  during  the  reigns  of  the  Me- 
rovingians, it  began  on  the  firll  day  of  March. 
Under  the  Carlovingians,  on  Clorijlmas-day.  Un- 
der the  Capetians,  the  prefent  race,  on  Eajler-clay  ; 
which  is  ftill  the  commencement  of  the  ecckftajii- 
cal  year  in  the  Gallic  church  :  but  Charles  IX.  in 
1  564,  ordained  that  the  civil  year  iliould  thence 
forward  commence  on  the  firil:  day  of  January. 

In  England  the  leg  d  commencement  of  the  year, 
till  the^rar  17535  was  upon  the  25th  oi  March  ; 
according  ■  to  which  beginning  of  the  ye.ir,  our 
forefathers  were  obliged  to  date  all  their  civil  af- 
fairs. But  we  now  by  aft  of  parliament  begin  our 
year  the  firft  day  oi  January  :  the  church  of  Eng- 
land, however,  as  to  her  liturgical  forms  begins 
the  ecdefiajlical year  on  the  firjl  fimday  in  Advent. 
"Ttit  Mahometans  begin  then  year  the  minute  the 


fpend  5  days  entirely  in  mirth.  Tlie  Alyjftncs., 
who  begin  their  year  on  the  26th  oi  Augujl,  divide 
their  time  in  the  like  manner,  and  finifti  the  year 
with  five  days  mirth,  which  they  called  pago- 
nuii.  The  Greeks  begin  their  year  from  the  firft 
day  of  Sep'.emb  r, 

Iw  courfe  of  time  the  annual  calculations  by  ajlro- 
nomical  obfervations  were  formed  into  cycles,  olym- 
piads, lujlrums,  indictions,  centuries,  ages,  periods, 
•pochas,  or  aras. 

A  Cycle  is  a  certain  period  or  feries  of  years, 
which  reirularly  proceed  from  the  fiiil  to  the  laft, 
and  then  returjvagain  to  the  iirft,  and  circulate 
perpetually.  , 

The  moft  confiderable  cycles  are  thofe  of  the_/««, 
of  the  moon,   and  of  the  Reman  indiitiov. 

The  cycle  of  the  fun  confifts  of  twenty  eight  yearf, 
which  contain  all  the  poflible  combinations  of  the 
dominical  letters,  in  refpecc  to  their  fucceflive  order, 
as  pointing  out  the  common  years  and  leap-years  •, 
fo  that,  after  the  expiration  of  the  cycle,  the  days 
of  the  month  return  in  the  fame  order  to  the  fame 
days  of  the  week,  throughout  the  next  cyt\V  >  ex- 
cept that  upon  every  centefnnal  year,  which  is  not 
a  leap  year,  the  letters  muft  always  be  removed  one. 
place  forward,  to  make  them  anfwer  to  the  years 
of  the  yJtf ;.  for  inftance,  if  the  year  1800  wera 
a  leap-year,  as  every  centefnnal  year  is  in  the  Julian 
account,  the  dominical  letter  would  be  E  D,  and  C 
would  be  the  dominical  letter  oi  t\\c  next  year  :  but 
as  it  is  a  common  year  in  the  Gregorian  account^ 
D  is  the  dominical  letter  of  r8oi,  which  anfwersto 
the  eighteenth  of  the  c  cle,  C  to  the  nineteenth, 
i^e.  until  the  next  centefimal  year. 

To  find  the  year  of  this  cycle  for  any  year  of  the 
chrijiian  asra,  add  9  to  the  current  year  of  Christ, 
becaufe  the  cycle  commenced  nine  years  before  tht 


fun  enters  Aries:  the  Perjians  m  the  month  that  \chrijiian  asra,  and  divide  the  fum  by  28,  the  quo- 
anfwers  our  June :  the  Chinefe  and  mtiil  of  tl^  In-  tient  will  fhew  the  number  of  cycles  which  revolved 
d7a«  nations  begin  the  year  with  the  firtt  moon  in  fince  the  beginning  of  that  in  which  t\\c  chriJlian 
March:  the  Braehmans  do  not  begin  their  year  sera- commence  J  :  and  the  remainder,  if  any,  fhews 
till  the  new  moon  in  April.  The  Aiexicans  begin  the  current  year  of  the  cycle  :  but  if  there  be  no  ra- 
the year  on  the  23d  of  i^t'i  ^(7ry  ;  being  directed  by  mainder,  it  fhews  that  it  is  the  laiti  or  twenty - 
the  firft  appearances  of  the  fpring,  or  the  leaves  of  eighth  year  of  the  cycle. 

trees  putting  forth  about  that  time:  and  they  di-  The  dojninical  letter  of  each  year  in  this  cycle, 
vide  their  year  into  18  months  of  20  days  each,  until  the  year  1800,  appears  By  the  following 
making  in  all    360  days,  at  the  end  of  whifch  they    table; 


I 

DC 

S 

FE 

9 

AG 

n 

CA 

17 

ED 

21 

GF 

25  B  A 

2 

B 

6 

D 

10 

F 

H 

B 

18 

C 

22 

E 

26      G 

?, 

A 

7 

C 

II 

E 

1=; 

G 

IP 

B 

23 

D 

27      F 

4 

G 

8 

B 

12 

D 

16 

F 

20 

A 

24 

C 

28      E 

Cyclt 


C  H  R  0  N  0  L  0  G  r. 


375 


CycU  of  ihe  moon,  or  Ihnar  cyile,  .calL'd  alio  the 
^'iLhn  nuntber,  is  a  period  of  nineteen  years,  after 
\i  hich  the  nciv  -awA  full  moons  return  on  tiie  fame 
clays  of  the  months,  only  one  hour  twentv-eight 
minutes  fooner :  fo  that,  on  whatever  days  the 
luin  VLtid  full  moon  fall  this  year,  they  will  happen 
nineteen  years  hence,  on  the  fame  days  of  the 
months,  except  when  a  ante fimal  common  year  falls 
\vithiii  the  cycle,  which  will  move  the  nem  Mvi  ftdl 
i.'ioons  a  day  later  in  the  calendar  than  othervi'ife 
they  would  have  fallen,  infomuch  that  a  nnv  moon 
which  fell  before  the  centcfimal  year,  fuppofe  on 
Jidarch  10,  v/ill  fall.nineteen  years  afterwards,  on 
Alfirch  II.  The  number  of  years  elapfed  in  this 
cjcle  is  called  the  ■prime,  from  its  ufc  in  pointing  out 
the  day  of  the  ^few  moon,  prifmmi  luna:,  and  the 
gulden  number.)  as  defcrving  to  be  writ  in  letters  of 
gold. 

The  golden  numbers  are  thofe  placed  in  the  frji 
column  of  the  calendar,  betwixt  .^]</wi7;  21  and 
y'prll  18,  both  incluilve,  to  denote  the  days  upon 
which  thok  full  moons  fall,  which  happen  upon,  or 
next,  after  March  21,  in  thofe  years,  of  which 
they  are  refpeflively  the  golden  numbers. 

For  finding  the  gold  n  number,  add  one  to  the 
current  year  of  our  Lord,  becau'e  one  year  of 
this  iycle  was  elapfed  before  the  (  krijVian  asra began, 
and  divide  by  ig,  the  remainder  is  the  current  year 
of  this  cycle,  or  goJc^n  number ;  but  if  nothing  re- 
mains, it  (hews  that  it  is  the  lafl:  year  of  the  cycle, 
and  confequentiv  the  golden  number  is  19. 

Cycle  of  the  Roman  indiilion,  is  a  period  oiffteen 
years,  in  ufe  among  the  Ro7nans,  eommeacing 
iiom  the  third  year  before  Christ.  This  cycle  has 
no  connedlion  with  the  celejlial  motions ;  but  wab 
inftitutcd,  according  to  Baronius,  by  Conflcntine ; 
who  having  reduced  the  time  which  the  Romans 
were  obliged  to  ferve  ;  to  fifteen  sears,  he  was  con- 
fequtntly  obliged,  e\e\j  fifteen  years,  to  in. pcfe,  or 
indicere,  according  to  the  Latin  e.xpreflion,  an  ex- 
traordinary tax  for  the  payment  of  thofe,  who  were 
difcharged  ;  and  hence  arofe  this  cycle. 

To  iind  the  cicle  of  indiSlion  tor  any  given  year, 
add  3  to  the  given  year,  and  divide  the  fum  by  it,, 
the  remainder  is  the  current  year  of  the  cycle  of 
indiSfion  ;  if  there  be  no  rcmaiiider,  it  is  the  fif- 
teenth orlaft  year  of  the  indiiiiou. 

Thefe  three  cycles  multiplied  into  one  another, 
that  is,  28  X  19  X  15,  amount  to  7980,  which  is 
called  the  fulian  period,  after  which  the  three  fore- 
going cycles  will  begin  again  together.  This  period 
had  its  imaginary  beginning  710  years  before  the 
creation,  according  to  the  common  opinion  among 
chronologers  concerning  the  age  of  the  world,  and 
is  not  yet  complete.^  It  is  much  ufed  in  chronolo- 
gical tables. 


The  Olympiad  is  a  fpace  o^ four  yean  invented 
by  the  Greeks,  and  named  by  them  from  Olympia  in 
Peloponnefus,  where  they  wo:fhipped  Jupiter  with 
•great  ceremony  and  games.  This  inilitution  in 
in  Chronology  is  dated  in  the  776th  year  before 
Christ,  or  24  years  before  the  building  of  Rome, 
Some  have  been  led  to  compute  the  Olympiad  a 
term  of  five  years,  becaufe  it  is  written  that  the 
Olympic  games  ufcd  to  be  celebrated  c\ery  fifth 
vear.  But  the  late  archbifhop  Potter  in  his  Grecian 
antiquities  difcovers  a  fallacy  in  that  ocprefTion, 
and  fhews  that  the  games  were  celcbra'ed  every  fif- 
tieth lunar  month  :  that  this  being  the  fecond  month 
after  the  expiration  of  four  lunar  years,  might  be 
<:?\\tii  tht  fifth  year  :  but  that  if  the  intercalation 
be  duly  coafidercd,  an  Olym.piad  will  anfwer  pretty. 
exactly  to  four  folar  years  and  no  more. 

The  Lustrum  was  the  fpace  of  five  years.  It 
wasaninftitution  by  the  Romans,  and 'particularly 
regarded  the  time  of  paying  their  taxes  and. 
fubfidies. 

The  Indication'  is  alfo  of  Roman  extraftion-, 
and  related  only  to  affairs  of  flatc.  It  confifts  of 
three  luftra  or  fifteen  years. 

Other  fiates  have. made  ufe  of  the  like  inenfura- 
tion  of  time.  The  papacy  ever  fuicc  the  days  of 
Charlemain,  has  ufed  this  term  in  the  date  of  bulls,. 
beginning  from  the  ift  of  January.  VVc  alfo  find 
an  indication  at  Con/iantinoplc,  which  commcnceth 
on  the  firft  of  September,  and  another  in  the  empire,. 
called  the  imperied  or  Cafarian  indiftion,  which 
takes  its  date  from  the  14th  of   September. 

A  Century  is  the  fpace  of  one  hundred  folar 
years,  by  which  Chronologers  generally  divide  the 
age  or  duration  of  the  world. 

Age  is  a  computation,  which  divides  time  into, 
three  parts  ;  viz.  The  age  of  nature  ;  which  com- 
prehends  the  whole  time  fr^m\-Jdam  to  the  publi-- 
cation  of.  the  law    by  Mofes.       The  age  of    the 
Jeivijh  law  ;    which   takes    in   all   the  time  from^ 
Mofes  to  Jesus  Christ:    and   the  ^^^  of  gr.a.c 
which  are  the  years  elapfed  from, the  incarnation  ot"; 
the  Soyi  of  God. 

By  another  computation  ufed  in  antient  author.'^, 
the  duration  of  the  v/orld  is  alfo  divided  into  ages 
thus  :  The  fir ff,  from  the  creation  to  the  deluge  in 
Greece  in. the  reign  of  Ogyges,  called  the  objcure,. 
or  uncertain  age.  The  fecorui,  follows  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Olympiads  :  and  there,  the  third.,. 
or  the  hijiorical  age  commenceth. 

The  poets  divide  the  duration  of  the  world  into^ 
four  ages,  viz.  the  golden  age  ;  the  filvsK;  the  ha- 
zen  ;  and  the  iron  age. 

The  definitions  of  period,  epscha,  and  araate  for; 
nearly  alike,  that  they  are  generally  ufed  as  fyno- 
nymous  tenps  to  fignify  the  firft  point,  or  certain\ 

time 


376  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^W Sciences. 


time  remarkable  for  fome  event,  from  which- the 
ancients  number  the  years  that  followed. 

The  ireaiisn  of  the  zvor/d  is  the  grand  period, 

.  or  t^pocha  fur  the  beginning  of  the  account  of  time  ; 

in  all  nations.     But  there  is  great  variety  amongft 

Chronologijls  in  regard  to  the  number  of  years,  the 

world  has  exifted. 

However,  it  will  be  neceflary  to  produce  the 
principles  upon  which  Chronology  in  its  prefent  ftate 
depends.  Which  is,  Fir/l,  the  teflimony  of  wri- 
ters  or  authors  :  Secondly-,  Aftronomical  ob(er\'2.tions, 
efpccially  edipfes  of  the  Sun  and  tnoon  :  and  Thirdly, 
fuch  epochns,  as  are  allowed  to  be  certain  in 
hiftory. 

Of  all  writers  or  authors  the  tejiimony  of  the 
Bible  deferves  the  greateft  credit.  The  hiftorical 
fables  of  the  Chaldaans  or  Bahylonians,  pretended 
to  be  grounded  on  aftronomical  obfervations,  carry 
the  foundation  of  their  empire  back  to  fo  many 
myriads  of  years,  and  relate  fuch  obvious  falfities, 
that  Arijlctle  could  not  refrain  numbering  them 
amongft  the  incredible  and  falfe  writers. 

The  Egyptian  account  of  342^1  years,  which 
they  affign  to  the  government  of  their  nation  by 
th-"  gods  and  demi-gods,  before  ever  a  man  ruled 
their  empire,  brought  upon  the  hiftorians  of  that 
nation  this  difadvantageous  reflexion  by  Plato, 
That  the\  were  iniferably  ignorant  cf  antiquity  ;  and 
fhould  difcredit  Z'lzr^  particular  afTerted  upon  fo 
bad  a  computation. 

The  Chine fe  are  not  more  to  be  regarded.  They 
date  their  hiitories  many  ages  before  the  creation, 
and  they  are  fluffed  with  fuch  unaccountable  fto- 
ries,  and  contradi£tions,  that  there  can  be  no  ex- 
pedtation  of  arriving  at  an  exatft  computation  of 
time  by  their  books. 

I  don't  deny  that  fome  objcftions  lie  againft  the 
Chronology  of  the  Bible  alfo  :  but  thofe  objeilions 
are  quite  of  a  difFerent  fort.  They  are  not  fup- 
ported  by  proofs  of  falfities  and  felf-contradiflion  ; 
but  arife  from  a  iiaiiation  in  the  accounts  of  ages 
of  men  and  periods  of  events,  delivered  in  the 
Hebrew  and  Greek  copies  of  that  facred  book. 
They  both  agree  in  the  fails,  but  differ  in  the  du- 
ration of  time,  and  that  at  the  moft  but  1500 
years,  which  the  Septuagint  carries  the  world  higher 
than  the  vulgar  account  :  whereas  the  Chaldeans 
pretend  that  the  world  \%  forty  thov.f and  years  older. 
&i^the  fcripture  account  defended  in  Hearne's  Duc- 
ter  hi/hricus,  vol.  I.  p.  18,  t^c.  and  Card.  Pezron's 
jintiquite  de  Terns. 

•  If  we  look  into  the  hiftories  of  all  nations,  their 
origin  is  attended  with  great  obfcurity.  No  people, 
but  the  Jews,  vfere  blcffed  with  an  infpired  writer 
of  their  firft  tranfac^ions.  And  I  might  add  that 
no  other  nation  can  produce  the  firfi:  writer  of  its 


fettlement.  So  that  there-are  now  extant  no  ma- 
terials for  compiling  a  Chronology  of  the  firft  ages, 
but  the  Moly  Scriptures. 

Another  difficulty  in  Chronology  arifes  from  the 
different  /Eras  and  years  in  divers  nations.  The 
Grecians  computed  from  the  beginning  cf  the 
Olympiads :  the  Romans  from  the  building  of  their 
city  :  the  commencement  of  the  JJ/jrian  monarchy, 
bciiig  doubtful,  makes  that  jSra  doubtful  alfo  : 
the  fame  is  remarked  of  the  Nabcnajfarcan  Epocha 
ufed  by  the  Egvptians.  Some  nations  have  ufcd  no 
epocha  at  all  :  and  the  Chrijlians  did  not  bci'in  to 
compute  from  the  birth  of  Christ  till  532  years 
after  he  was  born. 

The  beginning  of  the  year  both  in  fevcral  na- 
tions, and  in  the  difi^erent  epOi.has  is  fo  various,  that 
it  alfo  creates  much  perplexity  in  the  acciunt  of 
time.  Before  the  law  was  given  by  Mofes  the 
creation  is  dated  from  the  autumnal  equinox  :  but  at 
the  inftitution  of  the  paffover  God  commanded 
Nifan  at  the  vernal  equinox  to  be  the  firft  month. 
The  Grecians  began  the  year  with  the  olympiad  at 
the  full  moon  after  the  fummer  folftice.  Some 
reckoned  the  beginning  of  the  Roman  year  from  the 
2ift  of  April ;  others  dated  it  from  the  iftof  Ja- 
nuary. And  thus  of  others,  as  above  obferved,  in 
the  account  of  the  years. 

It  ought  alfo  to  be  remarked,  that  ^z poets,  who 
have  taken  the  liberty  to  forge  people  and  tenets 
that  never  exifted,  or  brought  fiories  from  difFerent 
ages  fo  near  together,  as  to  deftrov  their  credibility, 
have  greatly  contributed  to  perplex  Chronology;  and 
they  ought  to  be  carefully  avoided. 

Hence  it  appears  that  the  tejiimony  of  authors 
(the  fcripture  only  excepted)  is  very  precarious. 

By  fcripture  we  may  gather  a  certain  fuc- 
ceffion  of  time  for  3500  years,  after  which  He- 
rodotus and  other  credible  authors,  who  write  the 
hiftories  of  their  own  time?,  will  enable  us  to 
proceed. 

In  the  mean  time  let  us  examine  tht  fecond prin- 
ciple in  Chronology  ;  this  is  the  hook  of  nature^ 
wherein  the  motions  and  afpedts  of  the  fun  and 
n,oon,  and  other  planets,  give  us  a  certain  guide  in 
this  ftudy. 

An  Eclipse  of  the  fun,  or  of  the  moon  is  fuch 
an  identical  mark  of  a  year,  that  it  is  eafy  todif- 
tinguifli  it,  at  any  diftance  of  time  from  an  infinite 
number  of  other  years.  Nothing  therefore  can  fo 
well  afcertain  the  year  of  a  battle,  the  foundation 
of  a  city,  the  death  of  a  Prince,  iJc.  as  an  eclipfe 
that  happens  on  or  near  the  fame  day  :  becaufe  by 
ajlronomical  tables  it  is  difcovered,  that  an  eclipfe 
feen  upon  fuch  and  fuch  a  day,  ought  neeejfarily 
to  have  happened  in  fuch  and  fuch  a  year.  Thus 
by  an  eclipfe  of  the  _/}/«  mentioned  by  juftin  to  have 

happened 


CHRONOLOGY. 


Z11 


happened  at  the  time  the  tyrant  Agathocles  crofled 
the  feas  from  Sicily  to  invade  the  Carthagenians,  it 
is  found  by  aftronoviical  calculation  to  have  been 
done  in  the  year  of  the  world  3634,  and  316  years 
before  the  vulgar  ^r«  of  Christ,  on  the  i  5th 
of  Auguft. 

Again,  as  it  is  obfervcd  that  the  great  conjunition 
of  Saturn  and  Jupiter  happens  at  the  end  of  every 
800  years  in  the  fame  degree  of  the  Zoclimk  ;  this 
pha'nomenon  might  alfo  be  adapted  to  diftinguiih 
and  charadterize  the  times.  There  have  been  eight 
of  thefe  great  conjunctions  fince  the  creation  :  one 
of  which,  according  to  Archbifhop  UJher,  was  in 
3998,  two  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and 
the  laft  of  them  happened  in  December  1603- 

The  fame  ufe  might  be  made  of  the  afpecfl?  of 
all  thofe  planets,  which  happen  but  feldom.  See 
this  principle  largely  treated  of  in  Calvisius,  and 
in  the  Reverend  Mr.  Bedford's  fcripture  Chro- 
nology. 

The  mofl:  general  principle  obferved  by  hiftorians 
in  the  account  of  time,  is  to  obferve  certain  con- 
ftant  etochas  agreed  upon  by  all  writers. 

Thefe  Epochas  are  divided  into  fucred  and 
civil. 

The  moft  eminent  facred  epochas  are  reduced  to 
thirteen.,  viz. 

1.  The  Creation. 

2.  The  Flood,  A.M.   1656. 

3.  The  calling  of  Abraham  ;  before  C.  1921. 

4.  The  deliverance  and  departure  of  the  Jews 
hom  Egypt,  before  C.  1491. 

5.  The  building  of  Solomon's  temple,  before  C. 
1012. 

6.  The  reftoration  of  the  Jews  by  Cyrus,  and 
foundation  of  theyftwz^/ temple,  before  C.  536. 

y.  The  finifhing  of  the  fecond  temple  in  the  6th 
of  Darius  H\Jlafpes,  whom  the  fcripture  names 
Ahafucrus.     before  C.  515. 

8.  The  birth  of  our  Saviour,  Jesus  Christ. 

9.  The  martyrdom  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul, 
after  C.  67. 

10.  The  dellruEiion  of  the  temple  and  difperfion 
of  the  Jews,    after  C.   70. 

11.  The  iEra  of  Dioclesian,  ox^t  martyrs, 
302. 

12.  Peace  given  tothechurch  by  Const antine 
the  Great,    312. 

I  3.  The  firft  general  council  at  Nice,    324. 

The  civil  epochas  of  moft  note  are, 

1.  The  taking  of  Troy,   A.  M.  2766. 

2.  The  ^r^  olympiad,   A.M.    3 1 74. 

3.  The  building  of  Rome  A.M.  3197  or  8. 

4.  The /Era  o?  Seleucides,  A.M.  3637. 


5.  The  firft  Julian  year  in  which  Cafar  re- 
formed the  calendar.     Before  C.  45. 

6.  The  building  of  Conflantinople,    A.  D.  33O. 

7.  The  Hcgciia  or  flight  of  Mahomet  from 
Mecca  ;  July  16,  A.  D.  622,  inflituted  by  Sultan 
Omar  III. 

8.  Charlemain,  or  Charles  the  Great, 
cftablifhes  the  new  empire.     A.  D.  800. 

9.  Conjiantinopk  taken  by  Mahomet  II.  A.  D. 
1453- 

Befides  thefe  univerfals,  e.ach  nation  have  their 
peculiar  epochas  of  memorable  events,  as  in  Eng- 
land. I.  The  invafion  ofBRiTAiN  by  C^sar. 
2.  The  eflablifliment  of  the  Saxon  heptarchy.  3. 
The  expulf  on  of  the  Saxons  by  the  Dunes,  a. 
Norman  conquejl.  5.  The  union  of  the  houfes  of 
York  and  Lancajler.  6.  The  reformation  in  reli- 
gion and  expulfion  of  popery.  7.  The  acceifion 
of  the  houfe  of  Stuart  to  the  throne.  8.  The 
beheading  of  King  Charles  I.  9.  The  ufur- 
pation  of  the  throne  by  Oliver  Cromzvell.  10. 
The  reftoration  of  K\ng  Charles  II.  11.  The 
Revolution.  12.  The' union  with  Scotland,  i?. 
The  acceffion  of  the  houfe  of  Hanover  to  the 
crown  of  Great  Britain. 

Therefore  we  will  run  through  the  moft  material 
parts  of  the  Chronology  of  every  nation  that  is  come 
to  our  knowledge  ;    beginning  with 

The  Chronology  of  the  cwzV^/ Patriarchs. 

This  part  begins  Vv-ith  Adam,  recounting  his 
children  and  their  defcendants  as  far  as  the  death 
of  the  patriarch  Isaac. 

Jacob  is  the  firft  amongft  the  names  in  the  Chro- 
nology of  the  Hebreiu  judges  :  which  epocha  end.s 
with  Samuel,   who  gave  his  nation  a  King. 

Within  this  fpace  of  time  the  AJ/yrian  empire 
was  eftabliftied,  A.M.  1774  by  Nimrod,  whom 
prophane  hiftory  names  Bclus  the  firft  King  isi  the 
world.  This  monarchy  continued  upwards  of  i  300 
years,   when  it  was  deftroyed  by  the  Medes. 

In  the  mean  time  Saul  was  anointed  King 
over  the  Hebreivs,  divided  into  the  kingdoms  of 
Ijrael  and  Judah  :  and  notwithftanding  the  power- 
ful oppofition  this  little  ftate  met  with  frequently 
from  the  neighbouring  nations,  and  the  de(fru6tion 
brought  upon  their  liberty  by  the  powerful  enemies 
of  their  God  and  religion  ;  the  Jeius  kept  up  the 
fucceiiion  of  their  Kings,  till  the  death  of  Agrippa 
the  fon  of  Herod  Agrippa,  about  70  vears  after 
Christ. 

The  Medes  began  to  reign  at  Nintveh  under 
Arbazes,  at  the  expulfion  of  Sarduimpalus  the  AJfy- 
rian  monarch  ;   and  they  maintained  their  conqucft 

of 


478 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


of  the  Affyrian  empire  about  325  years,  when  the 
AJfyrtm\\\\Kt  was  reftored  in  the  pcrfon  of  Phul, 
who  was  lineally  fucceeded  by  TiglatipUefcr,  Sal- 
Tnanaffar-,  Sennacherib,  and  Affarhaddon,  in  vihom 
the  Ajjyrlaii  monarchy  expired  for  ever.  For  after 
liim  there  is  no  mention  made  of  kings  of  AJfjiia, 
but  of  Babylon  only  :  the  firft  of  whom  was  Me- 
rodiich  Bnltulan^  and  the  laft  the  prophane  Beljhaz- 
zar  or  Baitaffar,  who  was  killed,  in  the  midfl:  of 
his  debaucheries  by  Cyrus,  wiio,  on  the  entire  ruin 
of  the  Babylonifl}  empire  or  kingdom,  the  conqueror 
founded  the  Ferfitin  monarchy. 

With  Cyrus  we  begin  the  Ghror.ology  of  the  Per- 
ftiin  empire  :  which  with  his  other  conquefts,  was 
divided  at  the  death  of  Akxcmder  the  Great,  about 
260  years  after,   amongft  his  captains. 

Upon  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  his 
conqueds  and  dominions  were  ere(£led  into  four 
monarchies  ;  viz.  Macedon,  Egypt,  Syria, '  and 
Ajia 

Macedon  was  pofTefTed  by  Philip  Aridcia,  and  con- 
tinued till  the  death  of  Perfes,  v/hen  after  a  fuc- 
tv/nsn  of  145  years  this  kingdom,  became  ex- 
tinct. 

Egypt  fell  to  the  lot  of  PtoLrr.y,  natural  brother 
to  Alexander,  and  his  memory  was  fo  revered  by  his 
male  fucceflors  on  the  throne  of  this  kingdom,  that 
thev  all  took  the  iiame  of  Ptolomy,  at  their  acceflion 
This  kingdom,  at  the  death  of  Qiieen  Cleopatra, 
became  a  Roman  province  ;  288  years  from  its  firfl 
foundation  by  the  Ptolomies. 

Syria  was  feizcd  by  the  mighty  warrior  Se- 
LEucusNi  CANOR,  i.d.vinorious.  This  is  he,  who 
extended  his  dominion  over  Syria,  Paf:a,  Media, 
and  Babylon  ;  and  who  gives  name  to  the  /era  of 
the  Seleticides,  by  which  the  Maccabees  begin  to 
reckon  the  kingdom  of  the  Greeks  and  Seleucides. 
•Here  we  find  a  fuccclfion  of  nineteen  kings,  befides 
the  founder,  within  the  compafs  of  263  years, 
when  it  was  reduced  by  the  Romans  and  became  a 
province  to  them. 

The  Romans,  whofe  power  at  this  time  over- 
awed the  whole  world,  were  firfl  eftablifhed  in  the 
form  of  a  monarchy  by  Romui-US  ;  but  authors 
differ  very  much  about  the  date  of  Rome's  foun.da- 
tion  :  Toriiiel  fixes  this  epocha'm  A.  M.  3300,  Capel 
in  3247,  Genebrard  in  3403,  Claiijius  in  3198, 
Salian  in  3302,  Farro  in  3197,  Cato  in  3198. 

In  this  ftate  it  was  governed  hy  f'x  kings  for  the 
fpace  of  220  years  according  to  Livy,  and  Hati- 
carnajfus. 

At  the  expulfion  of  Tarquin  the  proud,  it  de- 
generated into  a  republic  under  the  government  of  a 
fenate  and  confuls,  who  were  two,  chofen  annually, 
lor  the  term  of  462  years;  when  Julius  Caesar 


ufurpe4  the  fovereign  power,  and  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  Roman  empire  in  his  own  perfon. 

During  the  republic,  the  Roman  hiltory  records 
fcveral  alterations  in  the  form  of  government,  for 
though  the  confuls  njaintained  their  dignity,  their 
power  was  fomewhat  cojitrouled  by  introducing  a 
new  magiflrate  by  the  name  and  {\\\eoi  tribur.e  cf 
the  people^  thofen  out  of  the  commonalty  to  pro- 
teiit  them  from  the  oppreflion  of  th,;  great,  and  to 
defend  the  liberties  of  the  people  againft  the  in- 
croachments  of  the  fenate  and  confuls.  1  his  ma- 
giftrate  wat  firft  erected  in  the  2  ;ift,  year  U.  C. 

In  the  year  303  U.  C.  the  confuls  for  the  time 
being  gavefuch  a  general  difguft  by  their  iniquitous 
practices,  that  the  government  was  lodged  in  the 
hands  of  a  new  inagiftracy  of  ten  men,  called  decern- 
viri,  with  power  to  draw  up  and  make  liws  for  the 
people.  But  this  fovereign  power  fo  intoxicated 
the  heads  of  the  new  magiftrates,  that  in  lefs  than 
three  years  they  found  it  necefTary  to  put  an  end  to 
it,  and  the  conjular  power  was  again  reltorcd. 

In  311  U.  C.  the  fenate  and  people  agreed  to 
chufefixm////i7;'^'  tribunes ;  three  by  the  general  of  the 
army,  and  three  by  the  people  in  the  comilia,  who 
were  invefled  with  confular  honours  and  authority  ; 
in  order  to  prevent  any  exccfs  of  power  in  the  ad- 
miniftrators  of  the  republic. 

Befides  thefe  officers,  we  alfo  meet  with  a  fu- 
preme  temporary  magiflrate,  created  by  the  name  of 
diciat.r  by  the  fenate  or  the  people  on  fome  extra- 
ordinary occafion,  to  command  with  fovereign  au- 
thority in  all  affairs,  whether  military  or  civil. 
The  firfl  officer  of  this  kind  was  T.  Largus  cre- 
ated in  253  U.  C. 

The  military  hiftory  of  this  nation  contains  fcve- 
ral remarkable  epochas:  as  the  taking  of  i^sOTe' by 
the  Gauls  in  the  year  365  U.  C.  The  Roman  war 
with  K.  Pyrrhus  in  473  U.  C.  I  he  firfl  Punic 
war,  and  the  firft  appearance  of  the  Romans  upon 
the  fea,  in  4S9  U.  C,  The  fecond  Punic  war,  in 
537  U.  C.  The  Macedonian  war  begun  with  K. 
Philip  in  554  U.  C.  The  end  of  the  Aftatic  war, 
in  564  U.  C  The  beginning  of  the  third  Punic 
war  in  602  U.  C,  The  Numantian  war,  in  620 
U.  C.   The  Jugurthine  war  in  643  U.  C. 

The  concjuefls  made  by  the  Romans  were -not 
able  to  defend  their  liberty  againft  the  ambition  of 
thofe  entrufted  with  their  armies. 

Julius  Caesar  turned  their  own  ftrength  againft 
theconftitutionof  his  country,  and  changed  the  re^- 
public  into  a  monarchy.  From  his  ufurpation  the 
Roman  empire  takes  it  epocha,  about  48  years  before 
the  birth  of  Christ. 

This  monarchy,  continued  down   to  the  year 

454  after  Ch  r  ist,  when  FaUntinian  the  third  was 

II  mur- 


CHRONOLOGY, 


379 


murdered  by  the  intrigues  of  his  general   AJaxl- 
mus 

A4j\im!is  fupported  ])is  tyranny  only  77  days, 
and  his  lucceflbrs  down  to  ]\Ianilius  or  Ali- 
GUsTULUs,  fo  little  deferve  the  name  and  dignity 
of  emperors,  being-  railed  to  the  government  by 
factions  and  murders,  that  though  Odoacer  did 
not  put  an  end  to  the  Roman  empire  till  the  year 
475'  y^^  ^^  ^^''^  fcarce  admit  any  of  the  fucceflbrs  of 
Valentinlan  III.  to  have  a  place  amongft  the  em- 
perors. 

The  Roman  empire,  as  cfliiblifiied  by  Julius 
CiESAR,  was  intended  by  him  to  be  hereditary: 
and  accordingly  we  find  that  it  pafTed  either  by 
heirfliip,  adoption,  or  by  the  will  of  the  emperors 
in  fucceiTion,  till  the  cruelties  of  Nero  provoked 
the  army  to  place  Galea  upon  the  throne  at  his 
death,  by  their  own  ele6lion.  And,  though  many 
examples  fhew  that  the  children  and  nephews  fre- 
quently fucceedcd  afterwards  to  their  relatives,  it' 
is  certain  that  the  army  never  gave  up  this  power, 
and  exerciud  it  fomLtimes  fo  liceiitioufly,  that 
diif'ereiit  parts  of  the  army  would  fet  up  divers 
emperors  at  a  time. 

The  fenate  alfo  claimed  a  right  to  name  an  em- 
peror ;  as  may  be  feen  in  the  exaltation  of  Pap  i  E- 
Nus,  Balbinus,  and  Gordian  the  yfr/?  and 
fe.ondt  whom  they  fuccefllvcly  placed  in  the  impe- 
rial feat  in  oppofition  to  Afiixiwinus,  that  monfter 
of  cruelty  and  intemperance,  who  is  recorded  to 
eat  64  pounds  of  meat,  and  drink  24  quarts  of  wine 
in  one  day.  But  the  military  fadtion  having  the 
power  in  their  own  hands  foon  convinced  the  fenate, 
by  putting  their  emperors  to  death,  that  they  had 
loft  their  authority  and  liberty,  by  permitting  the 
army  to  fwell  above  the  capacity  of  the  civil  power. 

From  the  time  of  Cokstats'tine  the  Great, 
the  firft  ChrijUan  emperor,  and  founder  of  the 
city  of  Conftanthiople  (which  he  honoured  with  a 
fenate,  and  the  citizens  with  the  rights  and  privi- 
leges of  the  city  of  Rome)  the  fucccfiion  was  re- 
gulated in  a  much  better  manner,  and  the  empire 
for  Ibme  generations  defcended  in  a  right  line,  till 
the  weaknefs  and  vices  of  Falentinian  III.  favoured 
the  ambition  of  Maximus,  who,  after  killing  his 
ibvereign,  ufurped  his  throne,  and  married  his 
widowEuDoxiA  by  compulfion. 

Here  we  mufl:  date  the  foundation  of  the  re- 
public oi  Venice  A.  D.  452,  by  the  fame  Valen- 
TINIAN,  who  flying  before  the  arms  of  Attila 
king  of  the  Huns, who  had  invaded  Ita'y,  retired  in 
the  27th  year  of  his  reign  into  thofe  iflands  of  the 
Adriatic  fea,  where  Venice  now  ftands. 

Here  alfo  we  fix  the  tpocha  of  the  eruption  of 
the  Vandals  with  the  Roman  empire ;  who  in- 
vited by  the  difgufted  EuDoxi  a,  to  take  vengeance 


on  Maxim  us,  landed  in  Italy  under  the  command 
of  G enf'-r/c ^-  iheir  genera),  uncxpcdled,  and  entered 
Rome  without  oppofition.  1  he  Vandals  plundered 
the  city,  and  having  burnt  fuch  parts  thereof  as  thev 
thought  proper,  they  retired  with  their  booty  back  to 
the  coall  of  Africa. 

After  Maximus,  the  army  in  Gaul  fet  up  one 
A  VITUS,  who  abdicated  the  throne  after  ten 
months,  and  made  way  for  a  new  ele£tion  by  the 
fenate  and  army  together,  who  raifed  Majorian  to 
the  purple.  He  was  murdered  by  the  perfidy  of 
his  general'J/imo  K/^citaek:  who  firft  placed  Se- 
vERUs  LiBii  s  in  his  feat,  and  afterwards  caufed 
him  to  be  poifoned,  to  make  way  for  Antiie- 
Mius.  But  this  creature  of  the generalij/im^y  falling 
alfo  under  his  difpleafure,  was  killed  by  his  pro- 
curement, to  enable  him  to  give  the  imperial  dig- 
nity to  one  Ol  I  BR  I  us. 

Thus  the  Roman  empire  was  obliged  to  receive 
four  emperors,  and  their  lives  fported  away  at  the 
will  and  pleafure  of  a  man,  who  had  been  raifed  to 
the  chief  command  of  their  armies  from  the  con- 
dition of  a  common  centinel. 

Racimkr  died  foon  after  the  advancement  of 
Ol  I  BR  I  us :  and  the  dilfra;ted  ftate  of  the  empire 
encouraged  the  Goths,  to  attempt  its  redudlion. 
They  accordingly  invade  Rome,  kill  Olibrius, 
and  place  Glycerius  upon  the  throne,  who  was 
depofed  by  Julius  Nepos  ;  as  he  himfelf  vi'as, 
after  fifteen  months  by  Or  estes  general  of  his  army, 
to  make  way  for  his  own  fon  Manilius,  nick- 
named Augustulus,  who  was  obliged  to  fubmit 
to  Odoacer  king  of  the  Erules  or  Heruli,  a  people 
from  the  Euxine  fea  Vv'ho  alTumed  the  name  of  king 
of  Italy,  on  23d  Augujl,  \-]b. 

Thus  ended  the  R'man  empire  in  the  IVeJl.  But, 
as  Conjiantine  the  Great  had  laid  the  foundation  of 
another  empire,  or  fucceffion  of  emperors  at  6  n- 
Jiantinople  in  the  Eaji,  it  muft  be  remarked,  that 
this  eftablifliment  did  not  follow  the  fate  of  Rome. 

The  Eaihrn  empire,  which  began  in  the  year  of 
Christ  306,  flouriftied  till  the  death  of  Alexis  V. 
in  the  year  1204  (except  we  fhould  allow  it  to 
continue  in  the  iuccelTion  of  Lascaris  at  Nice,  as 
below). 

Upon  his  death  the  Eaftern  throne  was  filled  by 
Theodore  Lascaris.  But  the  factions  and  de- 
ftrucSlions  of  its  ftate  were  fo  great,  thac  the  Frer.ch 
were  encouraged  to  difpoflefs  him  :  and  they  accord- 
ingly drove  hnn  from  Constantinople  ;  and  their 
general  Baudouin,  earl  of  Flaiulcrs,  was  faluted 
emperor  by  his  army.  In  which  llate  Conjlantincple 
continued  from  1 6th  of  May,  in  the  year  1 204,  for 
58  years. 

Lascaris  on  his  expulfion  from  the  imperial 
feat  of  Conjlantincple  in   1204,  retired  to  Nice  in 

C  c  c  Jftay 


380  Tl^e  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  «;?</ Sciences. 


jifia^  where  he  relumed  the  title  of  emperor,  ar)J 
colleiSled  and  jiroteited  the  icattered  parts  of  his 
empire.  By  tliis  means  the  EajUrn  empire  may.  be 
liiid  to delcend  lb  low  as  the  conqueft  of  Conjtant't- 
n  pie  by  Mahomet  II.  in  the  year  1453.  ^7  which 
computatbn  the  empire  founded  in  the  Eaft  by 
CoNSTANTiNE  Z/!)^  GVw/,  lafted  1147  years. 

After  the  extirpation  of  the  Wijlern  -branch  of 
the  Roman  empire,  foupdcd  by  Julius  Cafar,  we 
find  another  eredted  under  the  fame  name  by 
Charlemain,  who  was  crowned  emperor  of 
the  IFe/i  01  of  German)',  on  the  25th  of  Decei.-iber 
800,  in  whofe  houfe  the  I'ucceflion  continued  for  the 
fpace  of  1 1 2  years,  whofe  defeat  by  the  Hungarians 
»nd  death  made  way  for  Conrade  I.  duice  of 
Franconia  and  Hcjfc. 

Conrade  was  the  fiift:  German  that  governed 
that  empire.  He  began  his  reign  in  the  year  of 
Christ  912.  He  was  fucceeded  by  Henry  I.  fon 
of  Otho  duke  of  Saxony,  whether  by  elei^ion  or 
otherwife  does  not  appear.  But  it  is  certain,  that 
the  imperial  dignity  continued  in  his  family  for 
five  generations.  1  o  the  fourth  of  whom,  Ot/jo  III. 
authors  generally  attribute  the  inftitution  of  the 
tleSioral  college. 

From  this  family  the  eleftors  transferred  their 
choice  to  Conrade  II.  a  fon  of  Hermandus, 
duke  of  Worincs  and  Franconia.  In  which  the 
purple  was  worn  for  four  generations. 

By  this  elective  power  we  find  alfo  that  the  fa- 
milies of  3uabia,  Hubsbourg,  FJaJj'au,  Luxembourg, 
Bavaria  and  Auftria  have  enjoyed  the  fovereignty 
of  the  empire  of  Germany  :  and  in  particular  that 
the  Aujlrian  fadlion  in  the  electoral  college  has  pre- 
vailed, and  always  given  it  to  one  of  that  family 
ever  fince  the  30th  of  May,  1438,  when  Al- 
bert, II.  archduke  of  /}u/}r!a,wzs  elected  emperor 
of  Germany  :  except  Charles  Albert  duke  and 
eledlor  of  Bavaria,  who  was  introduced  by  the 
intrigues  of  France  in  the  year  1 741. 

Upon  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Roman  empire, 
,  we  are  to  view  the  ereiSion  of  feveral  powerful  king- 
doms, befides  the  partitions  already  mentioned.  As, 

The  kingdom  of  the  Visigoths  eredled  in  the 
year  of  Christ  409,  or,  according  toothers,  in 
412,  by  J.'olf,  who  tore  Spain  from  the  dominion 
of  'the,Ro?nans. 

1  his  kingdom  flourifhed,  and  its  kings  not  only 
drove  the  Romans  entirely  out  of  Spain,  where 
they  had  kept  a  footing  almoft  700  years,  viz.  to 
.  the  year  of  Christ  485,  but  greatly  extended 
their  dominion.  But  at  laft,  in  713,  t\\e.  Vifigoths 
were  themlelves  overpowered,  and  an  end  was  put 
to  their  kingdom  by  the  Moors,  called  in  by  a  dif- 
contented  nobls;man  to  revenge  the  difhonour  done 
hy  king-/v«/£7vV,  who  had  deflowered- his  daughter. 


The  kingdom  of  the  Franks  or  French,  exc&.cA^y 
Pharamond  in  the  year  420  or  421,  was  another 
remnant  of  the  Roman  empire. 

Pharamono  was  fucceeded  by  his  fon  Clo- 
DION  ;  whofe  fuccefs  againft  the  Romans  and  their 
allies  in  Gaul,  enabled  him  to  remove  the  place  of 
his  refidence  from  the  caflle  of  Infpruck,  fituate 
between  the  towns  of  JVefcl  and  Dujfeldorp,  (the 
very  fpot  lately  occupied  by  the  allied  army  under 
prince  Ferdinand  of  Brunfwick)  to  the  city  of 
Lambray, 

The  acquifitions  obtained  by  his  arms  put  his 
family  upon  a  moft  refpedlable  footing. 

He  was  fucceeded  in  his  power  and  dignity  by 
Merovee,  a  younger  fon  of  Clcdion,  eledled  by 
the  French  at  Amiens  for  his  good  qualities,  in  pre- 
ference to  his  brethren:  and  from  this  ftock  the 
French  derive  the  genealogy  of  their  kings,  by  the 
name  of  the  Mtrovingian  race. 

Merovee  therefore  is  accounted  the  founder  of 
the  French  monarchy:  whofe  reign  began  in  448'. 
He  changed  the  name  of  Gaul  into  that  of  France, 
and  placed  the  feat  of  his  refidence  near  Strasbourg. 

1  his  race  of  kings  became  extinft  in  Chil- 
DERic  III.  who  was  dethroned  for  his Jlupidity  in 
the  year  751,  by  Pepin,  one  of  his  great  oflicers, 
who,  favoured  by  the  clergy,  was  crowned  king  in 
his  itead,  in  the  fame  year;  and  his  race  held  the 
French  fceptre  till  Louis  the  i-^le  refigned  his  breath 
and  his  kingdom  in  987,  to  Hugh  Capet  the  moft 
powerful  amongft  the  nobility,  and  the  father  of 
the  Capetian,  or  third  race  of  French  kings, 
which  in  his  prefent  majefty  amount  to  the  number 
thirty  one. 

In  Britain,  the  kingdom  of  Scotland  was  efta- 
blifhed  by  Eugene  in  theyear427,  which  continued 
under  its  own  fovereigns  alone  till  the  year  1603, 
v/hen  yamcs  VI.  of  Scotland  afcended  the  EngH'jh 
throne.  From  that  time  Scotland  fell  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Kings  of  England;  and  by  the 
Union  in  1706,  Scotland  is  united  there  to  England 
by  the  name  of  Great  Britain. 

The  Chronology  of  the  kings  of  England 
begins  properly  at  the  Epacha,  when  Egbert  the 
firft  monarch  united  the  Heptarchy  under  one  domi- 
nion and  name  of  England.  He  defeated  the  Danes, 
who  had  invaded  three  times,  fucceffively,  his  do- 
minions, in  the  year  830.  He  died,  in  the  ye.ir 
836,  after  he  had  reigned  37  years. 

Ethelwulf  fucceeded  his  father 
the  year  836;  he  was  very  wife,    and 
He  died  in  the  year  857,  after  he  had 
years. 

Ethelbald,  his  fon,  fucceeded  him,  in  the 
year  857  ;  he  had  once  already  endeavoured  to  have 
himfelf  acknowledged  king,   during    his   father's 

abfence. 


Egbert,  in 
very  bra^c. 
reigned  21 


CHRONOLOGY. 


381 


:aW"enoe,  v/ho  was  gone  to  Rome;  but  he  was 
fruftrated  in  his  attempt.  He  died,  after  he  had 
reigned  two  years. 

Ethelbert  fucceeded  him,  in  the  year 
860 ;  he  was  gentle,  prudent,  and  brave.  He 
died  in  the  year  866,  after  he  had  reigned  five 
years . 

Ethelred  fucceeded  him,  in  the  year  866  ; 
he  was  brave  and  juft.  Under  his  reign  the  Danes 
ravaged  England,  againft  whom  he  fought  nine 
tattles  in  one  year.  In  one,  fought  near  Rending., 
he  gained  a  compleat  vi£lory  over  them  :  but  in 
another,  near  Baftng,  he  received  a  mortal  wound, 
of  which  he  died  in  871,  after  he  had  reigned  fix 
years. 

Alfred,  an  accomplifhed  prince  fucceeded  him, 
in  the  year  871  ;  he  obliged  the  Danes  cither  to 
quit  his  dominions,  or  to  be  baptifed.  He  founded 
the  univerfity  of  Oxford,  the  fecond,  for  antiquity, 
in  all  Europe,  and  died  in  900,  after  he  had  reigned 
20  years. 

Edward  I.  fucceeded  him;  he  rendered  him- 
felf  famous  for  his  prudence,  piety,  and  the  good 
laws  he  made  ;  he  fignalized,  likewife,  his  valour, 
againft  the  Danes  and  tlie  Britons.  He  died  in  the 
year  925  ;  after  he  had  reigned  24  years. 

Adelstan  fucceeded  him,  in  the  year  925; 
he  had  a  vaft  deal  of  wit  and  courage,  was  a 
great  admirer  of  learning,  and  of  the  learned, 
gained  fevera!  great  victories,  was  pious,  and  libe- 
ral to  churches.  He  died,  after  16  or  17  years 
reign. 

Edmund  I.  fucceeded  him  in  the  year  941; 
he  was  juft,  pious,  and  brave.  He  gained  feveral 
viftories  over  the  Danes,  and  died  in  the  year  946, 
after  he  had  reigned  6  years. 

Edred  was  crowned  king  at  the  demife  of 
Edmund,  his  brother,  in  the  year  946;  he  protefted 
the  good,  and  chaftifed  with  feverity  the  profligate. 
He  maintained  his  authority  againft  the  revolt  of 
thofe  of  Northumberland,  and  defeated  them  in  a 
battle.  He  took  fpecial  care  to  promote  religion 
and  piety,  and  died,  with  the  reputation  of  a  faint, 
in  the  year  955. 

Edwin,  his  nephew  fucceeded  him  in  the  year 
955;  he  was  impious,  inceftuous,  and  cruel ;  and 
hated  of  his  fubjefts,  who  revolted  againft  him. 
He  died  in  the  year  959,  after  he  had  reigned  4 
years. 

Edgar  fucceeded  him  In  th'e  year  959  ;  he 
was  religious,  juft,  prudent,  and  pacifick ;  and 
though  of  a  lowftature,  very  great  in  courage  and 
valour.  He  ordered  Z-;/«/zyrt/,  prince  of  '/^/ri-,  to 
deliver  every  year  300  wolves,  inftead  of  a  tribute 
which  king  yideljian  had  impofcd  upon  him,  to 
free  his  dominions  from  thofe  wild  and  voracious 


creatures.     He  died  in  the  year  975,  after  he  had 
reigned  16  years. 

Edward  II.  fucceeded  him,  in  the  year 
975  ;  he  v,»as  meek,  pious,  juft,  prudent,  ;nid 
brave.  lie  was  killed  by  the  perfidy  of  iiis  mother- 
in-law  Elfrida,  who  \^■.^ntcd  to  place  her  fon  Ethel- 
red  on  the  throne,  in  the  year  9-9,  after  he  had 
reigned  three  years. 

Ethelred  II.  came  thus  to  the  throne,  by  the 
crime  of  his  mother,  in  the  year  979,  and  thEt 
crime  brought  upon  England  an  infinite  number  of 
calamities  :  for  the  Danes  invaded  the  kingdom, 
Vvhere  they  committed  great  ravages.  Ethclnd 
was  a  negligent,  proud,  and  avaricious  prince. 
The  day  of  his  coronation  there  was  feen,  all  over 
England,  a  cloud,  one  half  like  blood,  and  the 
other  half  like  fire.  He  gave  fccret  orders,  through- 
out all  his  dominions,  that  on  the  30th  of  A'?- 
vemher,  all  thc£>^;;«  found  amoifg  them  fhould  Ic 
mafl'acrcd  ;  which  orders  were  executed  in  the  yetr 
1002.  He  died  in  the  year  1016,  aiter  he  hi.d 
reigned  27  years. 

Edmund  II.  began  to  reign  in  1016;  he  was 
good,  juft,  prudent,  brave,  and  gained  great  viilo- 
ries.  He  divided  his  kingdom  with  Canute,  and 
died  fo me  time  afterwards,  in  1017. 

Canute  I.  who  fucceeded  him  in  1017,  is 
celebrated  for  his  piety,  cour.ige,  prudence,  and 
conquefts.  He  died  in  the  year  1036,  after  hchad 
reigned  20  years. 

Harold  fucceeded  him  in  the  year  1036  ;  he 
was  a  vicious  prince,  abandoned  to  all  forts  of 
crimes.  He  died  in  the  year  1039,  after  he  had 
reigned  four  years. 

Hardicanute  fucceeded  him,  in  the  1  enr 
1039  ;  he  was  cruel  and  avaricious.  He  had  the  b(  dy 
of  his  brother  dug  up,  and  thrown  into  the  Thames^ 
He  died  at  table  at  Lamleth,  of  the  fumes  of  a 
debauch,  in  the  year  104 1,  after  he  had  reigned 
two  years. 

St.  Edward  III.  called  tht  confijjlir,  fucceeded 
him  in  the  year  1041  ;  he  was  prudent,  brave, 
good,  juft,  grateful,  and  very  religious.  He  died 
in  the  year  1065,  after  he  had  reigned  23  years. 

Under  Edwa'  d  the  confejjbr's  reign  there  fell  to 
great  a  quantity  of  fnow,  that  a  vaft  number  of 
animals  died  of  hunger.  The  year  following  hap- 
p-ned  a  violent  earthquake,  accom.panied  with 
lightning,  which  burnt  the  corn  in  the  fields,  and 
caufed  a  great  famine. 

William  the  Conql'eror,  Duke  of  AV- 
mandy,  came  iiito  £«e/c?w' in  the  year  1066,  and 
having  defeated  Harold,  eledred  king  by  the  Eng- 
lifn,  afcendeJ  the  throne.  The  defeat  of  Hdrold'i 
army  was  fo  great,  that  6.iooo  of  his  m-'n  were 
flain  in  the  field  of  battle.      ffiWam   abolifhed 

C  c  c  »  the 


;82  Hoe  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^;^^  Sciences. 


the  EngVifl)  laws,  and  eftabliflied  thofe  of  'Nor- 
mancl)  ;  after  which,  he  returned  into  France,  took 
and  plundered  Mantes.,  and  died  at  Rouen,  m  JoSy, 
after  he  had  reigned  21  years;  during  which  hap- 
pened a  frightful  earthquake,  contagious  maladies, 
inundations,  and  incredible  conflagrations. 

WiLiAM  II.  called  Rujus,  fucceeded  his  father, 
in  the  year  1087;  he  was  brave,  liberal,  incon- 
itant,  in  his  enterprifes  had  but  little  judgment, 
and  perfecutcd  the  bi/hops.  While  he  was  hunting 
in  A'fif  Fore/},  firel,  one  of  his  fervants,  wounded 
him  unawares  with  an  arrow,  of  which  wound 
he  died  in  1 100. 

Under  Rufus's  reign  happened  an  earthquake,  in 
which  the  fea  overflowed  its  limits,  and  in  that 
inundation  the  eftate  of  the  earl  oi  Godwin  in  Kent, 
was  entirely  fwallowcd  up;  the  fame  which  we 
call  at  prefent  the  L  oodwin-fands ;  and  near  Abing- 
tlon  a  fource  fprung  up,  which  run  fifteen  days, 
and  caufed  the  plague  and  the  famine. 

Henry  I.  feized  on  the  treafures  of  his  father, 
by  which  means  he  was  preferred  to  Robert,  his 
eldeft  brother,  then  abfent  in  the  Holy  land,  where 
he  helped  to  take  the  city  of  Jeri.faLm.  Robert, 
at  his  return  into  E  gland,  was  maletreated  by 
Henry,  who  caufed  his  eyes  to  be  put  out :  Henry 
died  in  1135,  after  he  had  reigned  35  years. 

Under  Henry  I.  a  lady,  called  Juga,  left  a  ham, 
a  year,  for  every  hufband  and  wife,  who  fhould 
have  pafTed  a  year  and  a  day  in  the  conjugal  ftate, 
without  having  repented  and  violated  the  laws  of 
marriage,  of  which  they  were  to  take  an  oath  at 
Dunmo'M  in  FJfex. 

Stephen  of  Blois  fucceeded  him  in  the 
year  1 135  ;  his  reign  was  accompanied  with  conti- 
nual troubles,  and  he  had  feveral  very  great  diffe- 
rences with  the  emprefs  Aiaiilda,  who  had  been  de- 
clared heirefs  of  Henry  T.  her  father  :  He  died  in 
the  year  1 154,  after  he  had  reigned  19  years. 

Henry  II.  fon  of  Matilda,  fucceeded  him  in 
the  year  1 154 ;  he  was  a  prince  adorned  with 
feveral  very  great  and  excellent  qualities;  he  con- 
quered Ireland,  and  had  very  great  differences  with 
'Thomas  Becket,  archbifliop  of  Canterbury.  Henry 
had  the  difpleafure  to  fee  his  own  children  revolt 
againft  him  :  He  died  in  the  year  i  i8g,  and  reigned 
34  years. 

Under  Henry  II's  reign  there  fell  in  the  Ijle  of 
Wight,  a  rain  of  blood,  which  lafted  two  hours 
Fifhermen  took  up  in  their  nets,  on  the  coaft  of 
Suffolk,  a  monfter,  covered  all  over  with  hairs, 
who  had  a  human  form,  and  who  efcaped  from 
them,    and  re-plunged  into  the  fea. 

Richard  I.  fucceeded  him  in  the  year  1189  ; 
he  was  brave,  and  fignalized  his  zeal  for  the  faith, 
by  carrying  his  arms  into  the  Holy  Land,  where 


he  waged  war  againft  the  enemies  of  the  chriftian 
name.  He  died  in  the  year  1199,  after  he  had 
reigned  10  years. 

John  I.  fucceeded  him  in  the  year  1199:  be 
was  an  unfortunate  prince,  and  loft  Normandy, 
which  was  re- united  to  the  crown  of  France:  he 
was  hated  by  his  fubjedis,  who  revolted  againft 
him;  the  extreme  forrow  he  conceived  for  it  caufed 
his  death,  which  happened  the  19th  of  Oiloher,  in 
the  year  1216,  after  he  had  reigned  15  years. 

Henry  ni.  fucceeded  him  in  the  year  1216; 
he  died  the  i6th,  or  20th  of  November  1272,  and 
reigned  65  years. 

Edward  I.  fucceed  him  in  the  year  1272;  he 
was  vigilant,  brave,  juft,  and  very  fortunate  in  his 
enterprifes  :  he  defeated  at  Berwick  the  Scotch,  in  a 
pitched  battle,  where  70,000  of  them  were  killed 
in  the  field:  he  died  in  1307,  after  34  years,  7 
months,  and  21  days  reign. 

Edward  II.  fucceeded  him,  in  the  year  1307; 
he  proved  unfortunate  in  his  war  againft  the  Scu/r '', 
who,  with  30,000  men,  defeated  100,000  EngUfh 
in  a  pitched  battle  near  Bannokfhorcugh  :  he  was 
inhumanly  treated  by  his  own  fon,  and  died  of  a 
violent  death,  the  2gth  of  Jannary  1327,  after' 
20  years  of  a  reign  continually  difturbed  by  dome- 
ftick  divifions. 

Edward  III.  fucceeded  him  in  the  year  1327  ; 
he  gained  the  famous  battle  of  Crcjfy.  where  the 
French  loft  30,000  men,  and  1500  perfons  of  note. 
The  next  day  the  Englijh  cut  again  7000  Fre>;ch  to 
pieces.  In  that  battle  fought  in  the  year  1346, 
there  was  no  quarter  given.  David,  king  of  Scot- 
land, having  entered  England  at  the  head  of  an 
army  of  60,000  men,  was  beaten,  and  himfelf  taken 
prifoner.  In  1356  prince  Edward,  fon  of  Ed- 
ward III.  gained  the  famous  battle  of  Poitiersy 
where  "John,  king  of  France,  was  taken  prifoner. 
Edwa'd  III.  died  the  21ft  of  y«;:«  1377,  after 
he  had  reigned  51  years. 

Richard  II.  fucceeded  him  in  the  year  1377; 
he  was  brave  and  loved  glory :  he  died  in  the.  year 
1399,  after  he  had  reigned  22  years. 

Henry  IV.  afcended  the  throne  by  a  regicide, 
having  caufed  his  own  king  to  be  killed,  in  the 
year  1 399 ;  his  reign  was  a  texture  of  perpetual 
revolutions,  which  filled  England  with  blood  and 
miferies:  he  died  the  20th  of  March,  14 1 3,  after 
he  had  reigned  1 3  years  and  an  half 

Henry  V.  fucceeded  him  in  the  year  1415  ;  he 
gained  over  the  French,  in  1415,  the  glorious 
vidlory  of  /Jgincourt  in  Picardy:  he  died  in  1422, 
after  he  had  reigned  9  years. 

Henry  VI."  afcended  the  throne  in  the  year 
1422;    his    reign  proved  unfortunate,    and   was 

difturbed 


CHRONOLOGT. 


3S3 


difturbed  with  civil  wars:  he  died  the  21ft  of  Alay, 
1461,  after  he  had  reigned  39  years. 

Edward  IV.  I'ucceeded  in  the  year  146 1  ;  he 
was  a  very  fine  prince,  brave,  and  liberal :  he 
defeated  in  a  battle  Henry  VI.  who  retreated  into 
Scotland,  and  was  afterwards  killed  in  the  Tower  of 
London  by  Edwards  order,  after  a  life  mixed  with 
profperity  and  adverfity.  Edward  died  the  gth  of 
Wpril  of  the  year  1483,  after  he  had  reigned  22 
years. 

Richard  III.  duke  of  Gloucefler,  having  killed 
the  young  Edward^  fon  of  Edward  IV.  and  pub- 
liflied  that  Edward  TV.  was  a  baflard,  ufurped  the 
throne  in  1483  :  he  was  a  hypocrite,  impious, 
cruel,  and  plunged  in  all  forts  of  vices :  he  was 
vanquifhed  and  killed  by  Henry  earl  of  Richmond  in 
the  year  1485 

Henry  VII.  gained  the  throne  by  the  defeat  of 
i?/'tZ)(7;'^IlI.  in  the  year  1485  ;  he  was  very  pious, 
loved  learning,  and  the  learned.  He  died  the  2ifl: 
oi  April,  1509,  after  he  had  reigned  24  years. 

Henry  VIII.  his  fon,  fucceeded  him,  in  the 
year  1509  ;  he  had  a  vaft  deal  of  Wit  and  capa- 
city, but  was  turbulent  and  inconftant.  He  made 
a  divorce  with  the  church  oi  Rome  ;  declaring  him- 
felf  head  of  the  church  of  England.  He  dyed  the 
28th  of  January  1547,  after  he  had  reigned  39 
years,  and  g  months. 

Edward  VI.  his  fon,  fucceeded  him  in  the  year 
1547.  Under  his  reign  the  mafs  was  abolifhcd. 
He  died  in  the  year  1553,  after  he  had  reigned 
fix  years. 

Mary  fucceeded  him,  in  the  year  1553.  She 
married  Philip  II.  king  of  Spain,  and  reftored  the 
exercife  of  the  Popijh  religion.  She  died  of  the 
dropfy,  in  the  year  1558,  after  Ihe  had  reigned 
five  years. 

Elizabeth,  her  fifter,  fucceeded  her,  accord- 
ing to  their  father  Henry  VIII's  teflament,  in  the 
year  1558.  She  had  a  vaft  knowledge,  fpoke  five 
or  fix  languages,  was  a  great  politician,  and  had 
feveral  other  excellent  qualities ;  but  fhe  caufed 
Mary  Stuart,  queen  of  Scotland,  whom  fhe  had  de- 
tained prifoner  for  feveral  years,  to  be  beheaded. 
Eli%abcth  died  the  4th  of  April  1603,  after  fhe 
had  reigned  40  years,  and  in  the  70th  year  of  her 

age- 

James  I.  fucceeded  her,  in  the  year  1603;  he 
was  prudent,  learned,  and  a  lover  of  the  learned. 
He  died  in  the  year  1625,  after  he  had  reigned  22 
years. 

Charles  I.  fucceeded  him,  in  the  year  1625  ; 
he  was  an  extraordinary  good  piince,  very  much 
inclined  to  clemency,  and  brave  ;  but  he  wanted 
one  of  the  moft  effential  qualities  of  a  great  prince, 


which  is  firmnefs  ;  and  his  weaknefs  made  him  fa- 
crifice  his  firft  miniftcr,  the  earl  of  Strafford,  to  the 
fury  and  rage  of  the  declared  enemies  of  monarchy  ; 
which  unpolitical  ftep  gave  fo  violent  a  fhake  to  his 
crown,  that  it  made  it  fall  with  his  head.  This  his 
unhappy  catallrophe  happened  the  30th  of 'January y 
1648-9,  after  he  had  reigned  24.  years. 

Oliver  Cromwill,  about  four  years  after  took  the 
reigns  of  the  government,  under  the  title  of  Lord 
Protestor  of  the  Commonwealth  i5/"England  ;  and,  in 
fome  meafure,  obliged  the  greatcll  powers  of  Eu- 
rope to  acknowledge  him  as  fuch  ■,  though,  in  fact, 
they  could  not  confider  him  otherwife  than  as  an 
ufurper,  who  had  dyed  his  facrilegious  hands  in  the 
innocent  blood  of  his  legitimate  fovereign.  Crom- 
well  had  certainly  all  the  qualities  capable  to  adorn 
a  throne,  had  he  been  born  for  it;  for  he  was 
brave,  prudent,  grateful,  wife,  a  great  politician, 
and  liberal  without  prodigality  :  but  his  extrava- 
gant ambition,  hypocrify  and  crueltv,  which  made 
him  facrifice  to  his  fecurity  the  lives  of  fo  many 
of  his  fellow-fubjefts,  on  which  he  had  not  thelenfl: 
right,  and  which  was  the  fame  thing  as  murdering 
them  in  cool  blood,  eclipfed  all  his  virtues,  and 
muft  render  his  memory  infamous  throughout  all 
ages.      He  died  the  3d  of  iSt'/>/«//i/!i/r  1658. 

Charles  II.  fucceeded  his  father  the  30th  of 
"January  1648  9,  but  was  kept  from  his  domini- 
ons by  his  revolted  fubjeds  till  1660  (  when  he 
was  reftored  to  his  throne  by  the  prudent  condudt 
of  Monk,  general  of  the  army  of  the  mock- 
commonwealth  in  Scotland.  Charles  II.  died  the 
i6th  of  February  1685,  after  he  had  reigned  36 
years,  and  7  days. 

James  II.  his  brother,  fucceeded  him  the  i6th 
of  Fihruary  1685  ;  he  was  a  brave  and  learned 
prince,  but  fo  attached  to  Popery,  as  made  him 
unfortunate.  He  abdicated  the  throne  and  his  fa- 
mily was  excluded  by  att  of  parliament.  He  re- 
tired into  France,  where  he  died  at  Germain  en 
Laye,  the  13th  of  February  1 70 1. 

William  and  Mary,  after  king  James's  re- 
treat into  France,  were  proclaimed  king  and  queen 
of  England  in  1689.  William  III.  was  cert  inly 
one  of  the  greateft  heroes  of  bis  time,  but  often 
beaten  by  the  French.  His  wifdom  was  as  great  as 
his  magnanimity,  and  both  contributed  much  to 
the  kccpinij;  him  on  the  throne,  uotwithftanding  all 
the  efforts  of  his  enemies,  and,  perhaps,  of  (ome 
of  his  former  friends,  who  can  never  like  long  the 
fame  face,  let  it  be  ever  fo  beautiful.  Qiieen  Mary 
died  in  1691;,  and  king  WilUain  died  the  8th  of 
March,   \-]Qi. 

Anne,  queen  of  Great  Britain,  fucceeded  hirw, 
the  8th  of  March  1 702.     She  has  been  one  of  the 

greateft 


384 


The  Univcrfal  Hiftoryo/'  Arts  ^^^  Sciences. 


greateft  ornaments  of  the  Britijl)  throne.  She  en- 
tered into  thnt  grand  alliance  formed  by  all  the 
other  powers  of  Europe  zg&ii\{t  Frmtc  alone,  and  her 
forces  had  a  very  great  (hare  in  thofe  (everal  viiElo- 
ries  gained  by  the  grand  allies.  Qiieen  Anne  united 
En[iland  to  ScotLmd,  a  project  which  fome  of  her 
predeceflors  had  formed,  but  had  found  very  diffi- 
cult in  the  execution.  She  died  the  ift  of  Augujl 
of  the  year  17  14,  after  {he  had  reigned  12  years, 
4  months,  and  23  days. 

George  I.  of  the  moll  illuftrious  hou'fe  oi  Ha- 
nover, fucceeded  her,  the  lA  o{  /fi/gujf  17  14.  He 
was  one  of  the  mod  excellent  princes  of  his  time; 
'for  he  was  extreamly  good,  very  much  inclined  to 
■clemency ;  very  brave,  wife,  judicious,  prudent, 
and  a  great  politician.  He  died  on  his  journey  to 
Hanover,  the  nth  of  June  1727,  after  he  had 
reigned  12  years,   10  months,  and  10  days. 

George  II.  his  fon,  fucceeded  him,  the  nth 
■of  yune  lyzy ;  he  g  verns  his  fubjeiSls  with  mo- 
deration and  prudence. 

The  kingdom  of  Den'm  ARK  is  of  a  later  date:  Tor 
Harold  1.  is  the  .reputed  founder  thereof,  about  the 
year  of  Christ  930.  The  kingdom  of  Norway 
was  united  to  it  by  the  marriage  oi  Aquinus  king  of 
that  countr}'  with  Margaret^  who  fucceed  her  fa- 
ther Valdemare  III.  on  the  throne  of  Denmark,  in 
year  1376,  though  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
hereditary  in  any  family  till  the  ftates  complimented 
Frederick  the  third  with  power  to  leave  the 
crown  to  his  fanuly.  This  epocha  happened  in  the 
year  1669. 

Though  Norway  was  united  to  Denmark  till  the 
-year  i  376,  yet  the  firft  notice,  that  we  have  of  this 
kingdom  inform  us,  that  it  was  fubjeifl  to  Suenon  or 
Sucin,  king  of  Norway  in  998.  This  kingdom 
had  kings  of  its  own  from  that  epocha  down  to  its 
union  with  Denmark,  as  above  related.  But  fome 
will  bring  its  independency  fo  low  as  to  the  year 
1439,  when  Christopher  the  third  confirm- 
ed their  union,  which  has  always  continued  ever 
fuice. 

The  kingdom  of  Sweden  is  of  a  later  date. 
CoMUT  the  firll  king  began  to  reign  in  the  vear  of 
Christ  1182.  It  has  been  fometimes  hereditary, 
and  at  other  times  elective.  No  king  could  rule 
more  arbitrarily  than  Charles  XII.  and  yet 
the  prefent  king  is  fo  circumfcribed  in  his  power 
and  authority  by  the  fenate,  that  he  is  obliged  to 
look  and  fee  his  fubje£ls  opprefTed,  and  even  to 
fign  what  his  confcience,  and  the  publick  intereft 
tells  him  is  ruinous  to  his  country. 

The  empire  of  Muscovy  or  Russia,  which,  in 
thefe  days,  makes  fuch  a  figure  on  the  theatre  of 
Europe,  was  known  as  early  as  the  }ear  988,  by 
the  name  of  a  dukjedom:  when  duke  JVokdlmine 


embraced  tb.e  Chr'ijlian  faith,  and  took  the  name o' 
Baxil  in  his  baptifm.  As  for  its  hiltory  previous 
to  this  epocha,  there  is  no  dependence  upon  it 

Their  wars  with  the  Tartars  ^Sxrx  this  kept  them 
always  employed ;  and  fometimes  in  fub  ection. 
In  the  year  i^'j'j,yohn  Bifilides  or  the  Great  amend- 
ing the  throne,  he  (hook  oft'  their  yoke,  and  put 
his  country  in  a  more  refpe(ftab]e  condition.  But 
the  prefent  flourifliing  flate  of  this  country  and 
people,  is  entirely  to  be  afcribed  to  the  prudence, 
v.'ildom  and  courage  of  Peter  I.  who  afiumed  the 
title  of  Czar,  or  Caesar,  i.  e.  emperor  o^  all  the 
RuJJias,  and  died  in  the  year  1725. 

The  kingdomof  Poland  was  eredted  byPoLEs- 
L.^s  I.  who,  in  the  year  999,  obtained  the  title  of 
king  from  the  emperor  Otho.  This  kingdom  has 
a  particular  form  of  government.  It  is  under  a 
king,  as  fupreme  governor  ;  but  in  itfclf  it  is  a  re- 
public. The  nobles  eledl  the  king,  and  his  ma- 
jefty  can  do  no  a£b  but  what  his  elecfbors  authorize 
him  to  do. 

Befides  thefe  temporal  empires  and  kingdoms, 
there  is  a  fpiritual  or  ecclefiaftical  ftate  in  Europe., 
called  the  patrimony  of  St.  Peter,  and  governed 
by  a  prince  named  Papa  or  Pope,  that  at  prefent, 
and  for  the  nioft  part  has  kept  his  refidence  in  the 
city  of  Rome  ;  originally  nominated  by  the  wejlcm 
emperor ;  but  for  feveral  centuries  elcfted  by  a  fet 
of  ecclefiajiical  creatures  named  Cardinals,  promoted 
to  that  dignity  by  the  pope  himfelf 

The  chronolog)'  of  t\it  Popedom  is  very  unfettied. 
The  advocates  for  the  papal  Juprerrmcy  and  infalli- 
hiliiy  feek  for  its  epocha  in  the  perfon  of  St.  Peter, 
who  they  affirm  was  the  firft  Pope  of  Rome. 
Others  with  greater  plaufibility  diftinguifh  between 
the  ecclejiajlical  and  political  ftate  of  the  Popedom; 
and  allowing  the  fucceffion  of  bifhops  in  the  church 
to  rife  from  St.  Peter,  deny  the  exiftence  of  the 
Pope's  power,  as  a  temporal  prince  before  the  pon- 
tificate of  Silvester  I.  whom  Constantine 
the  Great  favoured  with  fome  temporal  exemptions, 
immunities  and  power  for  the  better  regulation  of 
the  cbrijiian  church.  And  they  who  have  entirely 
thrown  ofFall  communion  with  the  Pope,  not  only 
laugh  at  the  lucceffion  from  St.  Peter  ;  but  with 
ftrong  vouchers  undertake  to  fiievv  that  the  rife  and 
progrefs  of  the  papal  power  has  been  a  work  oi 
time,  obtained  firft  from  the  weaknefs,  inadver- 
tency, and  bounty  of  princes  and  emperors,  or 
procured  by  frauds,  violence  and  rebellion,  which 
in  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  VII.  who  was  chofen 
Pope  on  the  22d  oi  April  1073,  moft  daringly  ufurp- 
ed  a  right  to  ablblve  fubjefts  from  their  natural  al- 
legiance, and  depofe  kings  and  emperors ;  and 
claimed  a  fupreme  right  over  the  confcience  of 
all   men,  and  to  impofe  what  interpretation  they 

pleaffJ 


CHTMISTRT, 


Z^S 


piea/icf  upon  the  facred  text  of  the  New  and  Old 
Tcftaments. 

I  fliall  fubjoin  the  empire  of  the  Turks.  This 
is  a  colIeiSlive  power,  compofed  of  feveral  branches 
lopped  ofFfrom  the  limbs  of  the  old  Roman  empire, 
by  OJman,  or  Ottoman  I.  in  the  year  of  Christ 
1300.  He  made  himfelfmafler  of  feveral  provin- 
ces in  lower  Afia ;  which  conquefls  were  extend- 
ed by  his  fon  Orchan,  who  fucceeded  him  in 
1326. 

SoLiMAN  I.  who  fucceeded  him  in  i358,carried 
his  arms  towards  ^//rfl/if,  and  made  himfelf  mafterof 
Jdrlanople.  In  which  undertaking  he  was  feconded 
by  his  brother  Amurath  I.  He  pufhed  his  con- 
queft  towards  Europe  by  the  help  of  the  Gemcfe  ;  and 
ravaged  the  coafts  of  Macedonia,  crofTed  the  ftreights 
of  Gallipoli,  and  defeated  the  prince  of  the  Bul- 
garians. 

BajAzET,  who  fucceeded  him  in  1302,  ravaged 
Macedonia^    ovftv-rixn  Albania,   plundered    TbeJJaly,  ^ 
and  bid  fair   for  imiverfal  monarchy,  had  not  Ta- 
merlane emperor  of  the  Aloguls,  llopt  his  career 
and  taken  him  prifoner. 


Mahomet  I.  who  afcendcd  the  throne  in  1413' 
fubdued  Pantus  and  Cappadocla :  and  MahoMET 
II.  totally  deftroyed  the  empire  of  the  Eajl  by  the 
conqued  oi  Con/lantinople  m  1453,  and  bringiii'j- 
twelve  more  kingdoms  under  his  fubjeftion  ;  and 
was  preparing  to  enter  Italy  with  a  vicSlorious  army, 
when  death  cut  him  off  near  Nicomedia. 

Rajazet  II.  added  Lepante  and  Modcn  in  the 
Hlorea  to  the  Ottoman  empire.  And  Selim  I.  who 
began  to  reign  in  1512,  reduced  many  places  in 
Per/la;  took  Grand  Cairo  in  Egypt,  and  put  an 
end  to  the  empire  of  the  Mamelus. 

SoEOMAN  the magnif cent,  in  i52l,took  Belgrade; 
Rhodes  in  1522,  entered  Ruda  in  1526,  and  pc'- 
netrated  to  the  wzWs  oi  Vienna.  And  Selim  If. 
reduced  Cyprus  in  1570. 

Such  was  the  rapid  incrcafe  of  the  Ottoman  em- 
pire; which  now  fecms  refolved  to  remain  content 
with  its  prefent  extent  ;  and  fufEciently  employed 
to  keep  its  different  and  diftant  countries  in  due 
obedience. 


Of    C  H  r  M  I  S  7  R  r. 


CH  Y  M I  S  T  R  Y  [Greek  xvfio,,  juice,  and 
Xvu,  to  melt)  is  the  art  of  feparating  the 
feveral  fubftances,  whereof  mixed  bodies 
are    compofed,   by  the  means  of  fire,  or 
other  fuch  powerful  agent ;  and  of  compofing  new 
bodies  in  the  fame  way,    by  the  mixture  of  leveral 
fubftances,  or  ingredients. 

By  mixed  bodies,  we  underfland  thofe  things  that 
naturally  grow  and  increafe,  as  minerals,  vegetables, 
and  animals.  Under  the  name  of  minerals  are  in- 
cluded the  feveral  metals,  minerals,  ftones  and 
earth  :  xxnAtx  vegetables,  all  manner  of  plants,  gums, 
rofins,  fruits,  fungus's,  feeds,  juices,  flowers,  molTes, 
and  all  their  produftions  :  and  under  animals,  all 
forts  of  animals,  their  parts,  excrements,  and  what 
ever  belongs  to  them. 

Chymistry,  like  other  arts  has  its  particu- 
lar obje£l  :  and  therefore,  it  will  be  neceflary  to 
confider  thofe  natural  bodies  called  mixts,  which 
are  its  proper  ohjefts,  by  fome  called  the  principles 
of  chymijlry. 

Thefe  principles  are  three  aSiive,  viz.  fpirit,  oil 
and  fait :  and  two  pajjive,  viz.  'water  and  earth. 
Becaufe  the  three  firft  by  their  great  motion  caufe 
all  manner  oi a^ion  ;  and  the  two  laft  fervc  to  flop 
the  quick  motion  of  the  affives. 

T\\e  fpirit,  which  is.  called  mercury,  is  the  firft 
of  the  aSlivs  principles  that  appears  to  us,   when 


we  make  the  anatomy  of  a  mixtbody,  It  is  a  fuh- 
tile,  piercing,  light  fubftance,  that  is  more  in  mo- 
tion, than  any  of  the  others.  It  is  this  which 
caufes  all  bodies  to  grow  in  more  or  lefs  time,  ac- 
cording as  it  abounds  in  them  more  or  lefs.  But 
it  happens  that  the  bodies  wherein  it  abounds  are 
more  liable  to  corruption,  by  rcafon  of  its  too  great 
motion,  r.nd  this  is  obferved  in  animals  and  vege- 
tables. On  the  contrary,  the  greafeft  part  of  mi- 
nerals, as  containing  but  a  very  fmall  quantity  of 
it,  dofeem  to  be  incoiruptible.  It  cannot  be  drawn 
pure.  But  either  it  is  involved  in  a  little  oil,  that 
it  carries  along  with  it,  and  then  may  be  called  a 
Volatile  fpirit,  fuch  as  the  fpirit  of  wine,  of  rofes, 
of  rofemary,  of  juniper;  or  elfe  is  detained  by 
(ome /alts,  which  check  its  volatility,  and  then 
may  be  called  a  Jixt  fpi?-it,  as  the  acid  fpirit  of  vi- 
triol, alum,   fait,  &c. 

The  oil,  which  is  cailed  fulpbur,  by  reafon  of  its 
infianimability,  is  a  fweet,  fubtile,  un<Sluous  fub- 
ftance  that  rifes  after  the  fpirit.  This  is  faid  to 
caufe  the  diverfity  of  colours  and  fmells,  according 
to  its  difpofition  in  bodies  :  this  gives  them  their 
beauty  and  deformity,  uniting  together  the  other 
principles  :  this  alfo  fweetens  the  acrimony  offalts, 
and  by  fhutting  up  the  pores  of  a  mixt,  hinders  it 
from  corrupting,  either  through  too  much  moift*ire 
or  cold.     Wherefore  many  trees   and  plants  that 

have 


3'86 


7^^    Univerfal  Hiflory  c/ Arts  ^W  Sciences. 


have  a  great  Jcal  of  oil,  arc  wont  to  laft  green 
much  longer  than  others,  and  can  relilt  the  extre- 
mity of  ill  weathers.  It  is  always  drawn  impure, 
for  cither  it  is  mixt  witli  fpirits,  as  the  oils  of  rofe- 
iriary,  of  lavender,  which*  fwim  above  the  water  ; 
or  e](c  it  is  filled  with  falts,  that  it  draws  along  with  i 
it  in  tlic  diftillation,  as  the  oil  of  hox,  gucJciium,] 
cloves,  which  do  precipitate  to  the  bottom  of  the 
water  by  reaion  of  their  weight. 

Sail  is'  the  lafl  of  the  active  principles,  whicii  re- 
mains difguifed  in  the  earth,  after  the  other  princi- 
ples are  extracted.  It  is  a  fixt,  incombuftible  fub- 
ftance,  that  gives  bodies  tlieir  confidence,  and  pre- 
ferves  them  from  corruption.  This  caui'es  the  di- 
verfuy  of  talles,  according  as  it  is  diverfly  mixed. 

There  are  three  dilferenty^//^,  as  thejixt,  vola- 
tile, and  ejfcntiah  The  fixt  fait  is  that  which  re- 
mains after  calcination  :  which  is  drawn  thus.  The 
calcined  matter  is  fet  to  boil  in  much  water  for  dif- 
Iblving  the  fult,  then  tiie  dilTohition  is  filtrated  : 
and  when  all  the  moifture  is  evaporated,  the  fait  is 
found  dry  at  the  bottom  of  the  veflel.  The  fait  of 
plants  drawn  after  this  manner,  is  called  lixivious 
fait :  The  volatile  is  tK^t  which  eafily  rifeth,  as  the 
fait  of  animals  :  and  effeniial  fait  is  that  which  is 
obtained  from  the  juice  of  plants  by  cryftallization. 
This  lafi:  is  betwixt  they?^-/  and  volatile. 

IVater,  which  is  called  phlegm,  is  the  firft  of 
the  pajfive  principles  :  it  comes  in  difliilation  before 
the  fpirits  when  they  me  fixt,  or  after  them  when 
they  are  volatile.  It  is  never  drawn  pure,  but  al- 
ways receives  fome  impreffion  from  the  aSiive  prin- 
ciples. And  this  caufes  it  to  have  a  more  detei"five 
virtue  in  it  than  common  water.  It  ferves  to  fe- 
parate  the  aiiive  principles,  and  to  bridle  their 
motion. 

The  earth,  which  is  called  caput  tnortuum,  is 
the  lafi  of  the  paffive  principles,  and  can  no  more 
be  feparated  pure  than  the  reft,  but  will  fWl  retain 
fome  fpirits  in  it  ;  and  if  after  you  have  deprived 
it  of  them  as  much  as  you  are  able,  you  leave  it  a 
good  while  expofed  to  the  air,  it  will  recover  new 
fpirits  again. 

Yet,  the  word  principle  in  Chymijlry  mufi:  not  be 
underftood  in  too  nice  a  fenfe  :  for  the  fubflances 
which  are  fo  called,  are  only  principles  in  refpeft  of 
us,  and  as  we  can  advance  no  farther,  in  the  divi- 
fion  of  bodies  ;  but  we  well  know  that  they  may 
be  ftill  divided  into  abundance  of  other  parts,  which 
may  more  juftly  claim,  in  propriety  of  fpeech,  the 
name  of  principles  :  wherefore  fuch  fubitances  are 
to  be  underftood  by  chymlcal  principles  as  are  fepa- 
rated and  divided,  io  far  as  we  are  capable  of  doino- 
it  by  our  weak  imperfeift  powers.  And  becaufe 
Chymijlry  is  an  art  that  demonjlrates  what  it  does, 


it  receives  for  fundamental  only  fuch  things  as  are 
palpable  and   demonllrable. 

Ubfervc  aUo,  that  under  the  general  idea  offplrit 
are  comprehended  liquors  of  quite  oppofite  natures  ; 
forne  being  acid,  and  others  alkaline  ;  v.l.ich  laft 
are  (uch  enemies  to  the  former,  that  as  foon  as  they 
are  put  together  they  rail'c  a  violent  efTervefcence, 
and  grow  hot  :  and  to  thefe  may  be  added  a  third 
fort,  called  vinous  or  iniiammable  fpirits ;  which 
though  very  fubtile  and  penetrating,  are  not  maiii- 
feilly  either  acid  or  alkaline. 

All  thefis  forts  of  fpirits  Mr.  Boyle  fliews  to  be 
producible  :  and,  i.  1  he  vinous,  which  nature 
fcarce  ever  produces  of  herfelf,  are  the  creatures 
of  vinous  fermentation,  or  are  aftually  produced, 
though  not  feparated,  in  that  operation. 

2.  The  alkaline  or  volatile  fpirits,  called  alfo  the 
urinous,  by  reafon  of  their  afnnity  in  many  qua- 
lities with  Ipiiit  of  urine,  are  manifeflly  not  fimple 
but  compound  bodies  ;  confiiling  of  the  volaule  full 
of  the  refpedlive  concretes  diflolved  in  the  phlegm, 
and  for  the  moft  part  accompanied  with  a  little  oil  : 
fo  that  thefe  may  be  refened  to  the  clafs  of  volatile 
falts. 

3.  Acid  fpirits  appear  to  be  producible  ;  becaufe 
thofe  dra-\n  from  common  fait  and  nitre  are  very 
dilierent  in  refpedl  of  tafie,  iSc.  from  the  bodies 
they  are  procured  from,  which  are  not  properly 
acid  :  fo  that  it  does  not  appear  that  thefe  fpirits 
pre-exifted  in  that  ftate  of  thofe  bodies. 

What  farther  confirms  this  doctrine  of  fpirits  is, 
that  the  fame  body,  merely  by  different  ways  of 
ordering  it,  may  be  brought  to  afford  either  acid, 
vinous,  or  urinous  fpirits  ;  add,  that  whereas  fait 
is  accounted  the  principle  of  all  talle,  ft  follows 
that  fpirits,  being  fapid,  muft  contain  fait  ;  fince 
it  is  talle  that  charatlerizes  and  diflinguifhes  it 
from  phlegm,  and  denominates  it  acid,  villous,  or 
urinous  fpirit. 

Spirits  diliilled  from  fermented  liquors,  confift 
of  very  different  ingredients,  viz.  a  pure  fpirit  or 
alcohol,  phlegm,  a  certain  acetous  fermented  acid, 
and  a  fmall  quantity  of  ill-fcented  oil  ;  fo  that  it 
becomes  neceflary,  in  order  to  obtain  the  fpirit  per- 
fedly  pure,  to  re-dif^il  it  feveral  times.  By  re- 
ducing fpirit  therefore,  to  the  utmoft  degree  of 
purity,  an  alcohol  is  obtained  ;  which,  as  Do£tor 
Shaw  exprefles  it,  is  a  liquor  fui  generis,  and  pof- 
fefled  of  many  peculiar  qualities  ;  as,  i.  When 
abfolutely  purified,  it  is  an  uniform  and  homogene 
liquor,  capable  of  no  farther  feparation,  without 
lofs  or  deftru61ion  of  fome  of  its  homogeneous  parts. 
2.  It  is  totally  inflammable,  leaving  no  foot,  nor 
any  moifhire  behind.  3.  It  has  no  peculiar  tafte 
or  flavour,  any  more  than  pure  water,  except  what 

is 


CHTMISTRY 


387 


is  owing  to  its  nature  as  alcshol,  or  pcrfetSHy  pure 
(pirit.  4.  It  is  an  undtunus  and  crifpy  fluid,  run- 
ning veiny  in  the  diftillation,  and  its  drops  rolling 
on  the  furface  of  any  other  fluid,  like  peas  upon  a 
table,  before  they  unite.  5.  It  appears  to  be  the 
eflential  oil  of  the  body  it  is  obtained  from,  broken 
very  fine,  and  intimately  and  ftrongly  mixed  with 
an  aqueous  fluid,  which  is  affimilated,  or  changed 
in  its  nature,  in  the  operation.  6.  And  laflly,  it 
feems  to  be  a  kind  of  univerfal  fluid,  producible 
with  the  fame  properties  from  every  vegetable  fub- 
jeft ;  but  to  produce  it. thus,  requires  fomc  care  in 
the  operation. 

On  thefe  principles  is  founded  the  opinion,  that 
all  fpirits  may  be  reduced  to  a  perfect  fimilarity  or 
famenefs,  from  whatever  fubjefl:  they  arc  produced, 
and  on  this  depends  their  convertibility  into  one 
another  ;  for  when  once  they  are  brought  to  this 
flandard  of  fimplicity,  there  needs  nothing  more 
than  to  add  the  oil  of  fuch  of  the  finer  fpirits  as  is 
required  to  convert  the  fpirit  into  that  particular 
kind.  By  this  means  the  fame  taftelefs  fpirit,  whe- 
ther obtained  from  malt,  fugar,  or  grapes,  may 
be  made  into  either  malt  fpirit,  brandy,  or  r«w, 
by  adding  the  eflential  oil  of  the  grape,  fugar,  or 
?>ialt  ;  and  thus  what  was  once  malt  fpirit,  fhall 
become  brandy,  or  whatever  elfe  the  operator 
pleafes. 

Many  methods  have  been  attempted  to  obtain 
the  firft  point,  that  is,  the  reducing  the  fpirit  to 
perfeft  and  pure  alcohol:  the  moft  practicable  means 
feem  to  be  long  digeftion,  and  the  repeated  diftilla- 
tion  from  water  into  water,  where  the  eflential  oil 
■will  at  once  be  left  upon  two  furfaces,  a.id  the  acid 
imbibed  :  the  fliorter  ways,  are  thofe  by  reflifying 
from  neutral  abforbent  falts  and  earths  ;  fuch  are 
fiigar,  chalk,  and  the  like;  and,  laflily,  the  ufe  of 
fixed  alkalies  may  be  tried,  for  thefe  very  forcibly 
keep  down  both  the  phlegm  and  oil;  infomuch  that 
this  laft  method  promifes  to  be  the  fliorteft  of  all, 
if  the  art  were  known  of  utterly  abolifhing  the  al- 
kaline flavour,  which  the  alcohol  is  apt  to  acquire. 

For,  2.5  vinous  fpirits  arife  with  a  lefs  degree  of 
heat  than  watery  liquors,  if  due  regard  be  had  to 
this  circumflancc,  very  weak  fpirits  may,  by  one 
or  two  wary  diftillations,  in  a  degree  of  heat  lefs 
than  that  in  which  water  boils,  be  tolerably  well 
freed  of  their  a  ]ueous  phlegm:  and  in  order  to  free 
it  from  Its  foul  oil,  add  to  every  gallon  of  it  a 
pound  or  two  of  pure,  dry,  and  fixed  alkaline  fait, 
which  being  digefted  together  for  feme  time,  the 
alkali,  from  its  own  property  of  attrafiing  water 
and  oils,  will  imbibe  the  remaining  phlegm,  and 
fuch  part  of  the  difagreeable  unctuous  matter  as 
may  be  ftill  left  in  thelpirit,  and  fink  with  them  to 
the  bottom  of  the  veflel,  If  the  fpirit  be  now  again 
19. 


gently  drawn  over,  it  will  arife  entirely  (iqq  from 
its  phlegm  and  naufcous  flavour  ;  but  as  fome  parti- 
cles of  the  alkaline  fait  are  apt  to  be  carrie<^  up  with 
it,  and  give  it  an  urinous  rel if h,  a  fmall  proportion 
of  any  fixed  acid  liquor,  or  rather  of'aii  'acid  fait, 
as  vitriol  or  alum,   fhould  be  added  to  it. 

The  fpirit  obtained  by  this  procefs  is  called  alco- 
hol, and  is  extremely  pure,  limpid,  perfecSlly  fla- 
vourlefs,  and  fit  for  the  finefl:  purpofes  :  it  may  be 
reduced  to  the  flrength  commonly  underftood  by 
proof-fpirit,  by  mixing  twenty  ounces  of  it  (by 
weight)  with  feventeen  ounces  of  water.  The 
diftilled  cordials  made  with  thefe  fpirits,  are  much 
more  elegant  and  agreeable  than  when  the  common 
redified  or  proof  fpirits  of  the  fliops  are  made 
ufe  of. 

There  are  many  occafions  in  which  Chymijls, 
and  other  artificers,  ftand  in  need  of  the  true  and 
puTcH  alcohol,  the  lealt  remainder  of  water  rendering 
the  operation  unfuccefsful  :  hence  it  is  abfolutely 
necefiary  we  fnould  have  fome  marks,  by  which  to 
diflinguifli  whether  our  alcohol  be  pure  or  not.  The 
principal  of  thefe  are,  I.  If  the  fuppofcd  alcohol 
contains  any  oil  diflTolved  in  it,  and  fo  equably  dif- 
tributed  through  it,  that  it  is  ho  ways  perceptible, 
then  upon  pouring  of  water  into  it,  the  mixture 
will  grow  white,  and  the  oil  feparate  from  the  al- 
cohol. 2.  If  any  thing  of  an  acid  lies  concealed  in 
the  alcohol,  a  little  of  it  mixed  with  the  alcaline 
fpirit  o^  fal  ammoniac  will  difcover  the  acid  by  an 
efFervefccnce  excited  by  the  efi'ufion  of  the  acid  ; 
for  otherwife  there  would  be  only  a  fimple  coagu- 
lation. 3.  If  there  be  any  thing  of  an  alkali  in- 
termixed, it  will  appear  by  the  effen'efcence  excited 
by  the  eflufion  of  an  acid,  4.  But  it  is  a  matter 
of  great  difficulty  to  difcover  whether  there  be  any 
water  intermixed  with  it. 

The  beft  method  of  doing  this  is  the  following: 
take  a  chymical  vefiel  with  a  long  narrow  neck,  the 
bulb  of  which  will  hold  four  or  fix  ounces  of  alco- 
hol. Fill  this  two  thirds  full  with  the  alcohol  you 
intend  to  examine,  into  which  throw  a  dram  of 
the  pureft  and  drieft  fait  of  tartar,  coming  very  hoC 
out  of  the  fire  ;  then  mix  them  by  fliaking  them 
together,  and  fet  them  over  the  fire  till  the  alcoholis 
jult  ready  to  boil.  Being  thus  fhakcn,  and  heated, 
if  the  fait  of  tartar  remains  perfecftly  dry,  without 
theleaftfign  of  moifture,  we  are  fure  that  there  is 
no  water  in  the  alcohol.  The  learned  Boerhaave 
tells  us,  that  by  this'method  he  difcovered  water  in 
alcohol v^\\\q\\  had  been  looked  upon  as  pure,  having 
undergone  every  other  method  of  trial. 

Animal  oils  are  their  fats,  which  are  originally 
vegetable  oils  :  all  animal  fubftances  yield  them, 
together  with  their  volatile  falts,  in  dijlillation. 


Ddd 


(^ege- 


388 


Hie  Unrvcrfal  Hiftoi^  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


Vegftiihlc  oi!s  are  obtained  by  exp?  ejpin,  infujton, 
and  dijlillfitlon. 

The  eih  hv  expreffton  arc  obtained  from  the  feed, 
leaves,  fruit,  ami  bark  of  pliints  ;  thus,  the  feed' 
of  muflard,  and  of  the  fun-flower,  almonds,  nuts, 
beech-maft,  iy'c  afi;brd  a  copious  oil'  by  exprefjion  ; 
and  the  leaves  of  rofcmary,  mint,  rue,  wormwood, 
fhymc,  fage,  ^c.  the  berries  of  juniper,  olives, 
Indian  cloves,  nutmeg,  mace,  t^c.  the  barks  of 
cinnamon,  faflafras,  and  clove,  yield  a  confidera- 
blc  proportion  of  cfiential  oil  hv  diflillation. 

The  method  of  procuring  oils  by  exprrjfisn  is  very 
Ample  :  thus,  if  either  fvveet  or  bitter  almonds, 
that  are  frefh,  be  pounded  in  a  mortar,  the  oil 
may  be  forced  out  with  a  prefs,  not  heated  ;  and  in 
the  fame  manner  fliould  the  oil  be  preflt  d  from  iin- 
feed  and  muftard.  l"he  avoiding  the  ufe  of  heat 
in  preparing  thefe  oris,  intended  for  internal  medi- 
cinal ufe,  is  of  great  importance,  as  heat  gives 
them  a  very  prejudicial  rancidnefs. 

This  method  holds  of  all  thofe  vegetable  mat- 
ters that  contain  a  copious  oil  in  z  Joofc  manner,  or 
in  certain  caviti',.s  or  receptacles;  the  ffdes  whereof 
being  broken,  or  fqueezed,  makes  them  let  go  the 
oil  they  contain  ;  and  thus  the  zeft  or  oil  of  lemon- 
peel,  orange- peel,  citron-peel,  d!ff.  may  be  readily 
obtained  by  preilure,  without  the  ufe  of  fire.  But 
how  far  this  method  of  obtaining  oils  may  be  ap 
plied  to  advantage,  fcems  not  hitherto  confidered. 
It  has  been  commonly  applied  to  olives,  almonds, 
linfeed,  rape  feed,  beech-mafts,  ben-nuts,  wal- 
nuts, bay-berries,  mace,  nutmeg,  i^c.  but  not  that 
we  know  of  to  juniper-berries,  cafliew-nuts,  iii 
dian  cloves,  pine -apples,  and  many  other  fub- 
flances  that  might  be  enumerated,  both  of  foreign 
and  domtflic  growth.  It  has,  however,  been  of 
late  fuccefsfully  applied  to  muflard-feed,  fo  as  to 
extraft  a  curious  gold  coloured  oil,  leaving  a  cake 
behind,  fit  for  making  the  common  table  muflard. 

Certain  dry  matters,  as  well  as  moift  ones,  may 
be  made  to  afford  oils  by  expreffion,  by  grinding 
them  into  a  meal,  which  being  fufpended  to  receive 
the  vapour  of  boiling  water,  will  thus  be  moiftened 
fo  as  to  afford  an  oil,  in  the  fame  manner  as  al 
monds  ;  and  thus  an  oil  may  be  procured  from  lin- 
feed, hemp-feed,    lettuce-feed,   white  poppy-feed* 

As  to  the  treatment  of  oils,  obtained  by  expref- 
fion, they  fliould  be  fuiTercd  to  depurate  themfelves 
by  ftanding  in  a  moderately  cool  place,  to  fe- 
parate  from  their  water,  and  depofite  their  faeces  ; 
from  bcth  which  they  ought  to  be  carefully  freed. 
And  if  they  are  not  thus  rendered  fufficiently  pure, 
they  may  be  waflied  well  with  frefh  water,  then 
tho;ojghly  feparated   from   it  again,  by  the  fepa- 


rating-glafs,  whereby  they  will  be  rendered  bright 
and  clcar, 

Thc  next  dafs  of  oils  are  thofe  made  by  infufion- 
or  decoSiion,  wherein  the  virtues  of  fomt  hi  '  or 
flower  are  drawn  out  in  the  oil ;  as  the  oils  of  ;  , 
camomile,  hypcricum,  elder,  l:fc.  Hov/fver, 
thcfe  require  to  be  differently  treated  :  thus,  for 
the  fceiued  flowers^  particularly  rofes,  jnfolation 
dees  beU  ;  becaufe  much  boiling  would  exhale  their 
more  fragrant  parts  :  but  oils  impregnated  with 
green  herbs,  as  thofe  of  camomile  and  eldc-/,. 
require  loi  boiling,  before  they  recei'.e  the  green ^ 
colour  delircd.  /^nd,  in  general,  no  oils  will  bear 
to  be  boiled  any  longer  tiian  there  remains  fome  ■ 
aqueous  humidity,  without  turning  black. 

i  Jicre  are  many  co-ripound  c:rs  prepared  in  the 
fame  manner,  viz.  by  boiling  and  irifolation,  and: 
then  ftraining  off  the  oil  for  ufe. 

The  fame  contrivance  has  likewife  its  ufe  In 
making  elTences  for  the  fervice  of  the  perfumer; 
not  only  where  eirential  oWi  can.-ot  be  well  ob- 
tained in  fufficicnt  qua.  liticj,  but  alfo  where  they 
are  too  dear.  Ihe  ef  ential  oil  of  jefTamine- flowers,., 
honey-fuckles,  fweet-briar,  damafk- rofes,  .lilies  of 
the  valley,  ^c.  are  cither  extremely  dear^  orfcarce 
obtainable  by  diflilfation.;  and  in  fonie  of  them, 
the  odorous  matter  is  fo  fubtfle,  as  almoft  to  be 
lofl  in  the  operation.  But  if  thefe  flowers  be  bare- 
ly infufed  in  fine  oil  of  nuts,  or  oil  of  ben,  drawn 
without  heat,  and  kept  in  a  cool  place,  their  fub- 
tile  odorous  matter  will  thus  pafs  into  the  oil,  and 
richly  impregnate  it  with  their  flavour.  And  thefe 
efTences  may  be  rendered  ftill  more  perfe£l  by 
flraining  off  the  oil  at  firft  put  on,  and  letting  it 
fland  again,  without  heat,  upon  frefh  flowers  ;  re- 
peating the  operation  twice  or  thrice. 

•  Oils,  or  fats,  may  likewife  be  obtained,  by 
boiling  and  expreffion,  from  certain  animal  fub- 
flances  ;  for  the  membranes  which  contain  the 
fat,  being  chopped  fmall,  and  fet  in  a  pan  over  the 
fire,  become  fit  for  the  tan-,  as-bag,  and,  by  pref- 
fure,  afford  a  large  quantity  of  fat  ;  as  we  fee  m ; 
the  art  of  Chandlery,  which  thus  extracting  the 
oily  matter,  leaves  a  cake  behind,  commonly  called 
graves. 

As  to  the  eiTentlal  oils  of  vegetables,  they  are 
obtained  by  diffillation,  with  an  alembic  and  a  large 
refrigeratory.  IVater  muft  be  added  to  the  mate- 
rials, in  fufficient  quantity,  to  prevent  their  burn- 
ing ;  and  they  fhould  be  macerated  or  digefted  in  • 
that  water,  a  little  time  before  diffillation.  The 
oil  comes  over  with  the  water,  and  either  fv.ims  on 
the  top,  or  finks  to  the  bottom,  according  as  it  is 
fpecifically  heavier  or  lighter  than  water. 

Txfis 


C  H  r  M  I  S  T  R  r. 


This  procefs  is  applicable  to  the  diftilling  of  the 
ffi'ential  oils  from  flowers,  kaves,  barks,  roots, 
woods,  gums,  and  ballams,  with  a  flight  altera- 
tion of  circumftances,  as  by  longer  digcftion,  brilker 
diftillation,  i^c.  according  to  the  tenacity  end  hard- 
nefs  of  the  fubjecSt.  the  ponderofity  of  the  oil,  is'c. 

EJfential oils  may  be  divided  into  two  claiTes,  ac- 
cording to  their  different  fpecific  gravities;  foms 
floating  upon  water,  and  others  readily  finking  to 
the  bottom.  Thus,  the  ejfcntlal  oils  of  cloves, 
cinnamon,  and  faffafras,  readily  fink  ;  whereas  thofe 
cf  lavender,  marjoram,  mint,  ^c.  fwim  in  water  : 
the  lighteft  of  thefe  eflential  oils,  is,  perhaps,  that 
of  citron-peel,  which  even  floats  in  I'pirit  of  wine; 
and  the  heavieft  feems  to  be  oil  of  failafras. 

For  obtaining  the  full  quantify  of  the  more  pon- 
derous oils  from  cinnamon,  cloves,  faffafras,  Wc, 
it  is  proper  to  reduce  the  fabjei51s  to  powder  ;  to 
digeft  this  powder  for  fome  days  in  a  warm  place, 
with  thrice  its  quantity  of  foft  river-water,  made 
very  faline  by  the  addition  of  fea-falt,  or  (harp  with 
oil  of  vitriol  ;  to  ufe  the  ftrained  decodlion,  or  li- 
quor left  behind  in  the  ftill,  inftead  of  common 
water,  for  frefh  digeftion  ;  to  ufe  for  the  fame  pur- 
pofe  the  water  of  the  fecond  running,  after  being 
cleared  of  its  oil  ;  not  to  diftil  too  large  a  quan- 
tity of  thefe  lubjects  at  once  ;  to  leave  a  confide- 
rable  part  of  the  ftill,  or  about  one  fourth  empty  ; 
to  ufe  a  brifk  fire,  or  a  ftrong  boiling  heat,  at  the 
firft,  but  to  flacken  it  afterwards  ;  to  have  a  low 
ftill-head,  with  a  proper  internal  ledge  and  current 
leading  to  the  nofe  of  the  worm  ;  and,  finally,  to 
cohobate  the  water,  or  pour  back  the  liquor  of  the 
fecond  running  upon  the  matter  in  the  ftill,  repeat- 
ing this  once  or  twice. 

As  to  the  falts  ;  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  we 
don't  know  the  precife  figure  of  each  fort ;  but  we 
jsiuft  judge  of  them  by  their  effefts,  acid  falts 
fhould  feem  to  be  pointed,  and  thofe  points  tipped 
with  fulphureous  matter  :  whereas  the  urinous  and 
lixivious  falts  feem  to  be  like  a  fponge,  containing 
a  part  of  the  acid,  and  a  little  fetid  oil. 

Acid  falts  are  ranged,  by  Homberg,  under  three 
olaffes,  viz.  fuch  as  contain  an  animal  or  vegetable 
fulphur  ;  as  all  the  acids  diftiUed  from  plants,  fruits, 
woods,  bfc.  and  fpirit  of  nitre  ;  fuch  as  contain  a 
bituminous  fulphur,  to  which  belong  the  acids  of 
vitriol,  common  fulphur,  and  alum  : 
contaiA  a  more  fixed  mineral  fulphur  ; 
drawn  from  the  i'ea-falt,  and  fal  gem. 

Thofe  of  the  firft  clafs  aft  more  fwiftly  than 
thofe  of  the  others,  and  thofe  of  the  fecond  are  the 
leafl:  nimble.  Acid  falts,  joined  with  lixivious  ones, 
compofe  w/A-^/:/ or  intermediate  falts  :  thus,  fpirit  of 
nitre,  with  fait  of  tartar,  produce  a  true  falt-petre  ; 
fpirit  of  fait,  with  fait  of  tartar,  produce  true  com- 


and    fuch   as 
as  the  acids 


3^9 

mon  fait  ;  and  fpirit  of  vitriol,  with  fait  of  tartar, 
produce  true  vitriol ;  which  are  all  mixed  or  inter- 
mediate falts,  i.  e.  partly  fixed  and  partly  volatile, 
the  ingredients  ftill  retaining  their  original  natures. 
Acids,  joined  with  urinous  /a!t.s,  compofe  another 
fait  called  ammoniac  falts,  which  are  always  vo- 
latile. 

In  all  native  falts,  both  fojple,  vegetable,  and 
animal,  after  the  violence  of  the  firs  has  feparated 
all  the  volatile  parts,  there  ftill  remains  a  fixed  fait, 
to  be  drawn  from  the  fttces  by  lotion,  or  lixivj- 
ation  ;  hence  called  a  lixivious  fait,  which  is  no 
other  hut  the  relicks  of  the  acid  falts,  that  the  fire 
was  not  able  to  feparatefrom  the  earth  of  the  mixed 
body,  but  may  be  leparated  by  difiblving  them  \n 
common  water.  The  tafte  of  thefe  lixivious  falts 
is  very  different,  according  to  the  quantity  of  the 
acids  itill  remaining  after  calcination  ;  part  of  which 
is  ftill  capable  of  being  volatilized  by  a  more  in- 
tenfc  heat,  or  by  diffolution,  digeftion,  filtration, 
and  evaporation  frequently  repeated  ;  or,  by  adding 
fome  urinous  i'alt,  to  abforb  the  fame. 

We  have  three  forts  of  urinous  falts,  viz.  that 
of  plants  or  animals,  which  is  the  fame  ;  the  fe- 
cond is  foffde  ;  and  the  third  of  an  intermediate 
kind,  partaking  both  of  the  foffile  and  vegetable 
nature  :  the  firft  is  volatile,  and  the  two  latter 
fixed . 

By  urinous  falts.  we  mean  all  fuch  as  partake  of 
the  tafte  or  fmell  of  urine  ;  their  eftecl  in  volatili- 
zing fixed  falts  is  well  known  ;  for  being  added  fo 
common  fait,  there  arifes,  by  fire,  a  volatile  ialt, 
C3.\]ed  fal  ammoniac.  However,  for  volatilizing  the 
fixed  i'alts  of  plants,  the  urinous  falts  of  plants  are 
not  fo  proper  as  the  urinous  falts  of  the  interme- 
diate clafs,  fuch  as  alum  ;  and  lor  the  fixed  falts  of 
foffils,  the  urinous  fait  is  fitteft,  viz.  borax. 

All  the  fbr;s  of  falts,  then,  appear  evidently 
compound  and  unelementar}' ;  and  that  they  are 
producible  ^£'?z«w,  and  convertible  into  one  another, 
is  ftrenuoufty  argued  by  Mr.  B-^yle.  The  two  chief 
qualities  wherein  ihcy  all  agree,  he  obferves,  are 
to  be  eafily  difibluble  in  water,  and  to  affeiSl  the 
palate,  fo  as  to  caafe  a  fenfe  of  tafte.  Now  that 
a  difpofition  to  be  diiibluble  in  a  liquor,  may  be  ac- 
quired by  mixture,  and  a  new  texture  of  parts,  ap- 
pears from  many  inftances  ;  and  as  for  the  tafto,  it 
is  fomequcftion,  how  far  the  neceffity  thereof  may 
confift  with  another  principle  ;  for  the  pureft  oils 
are  fapid,  yet  will  not  diflblve  in  water;  fo  that 
there  does  not  appear  any  ftrict  connection  between 
being  fapid  and  foluble  in  that  fluid. 

For  acid  falts,  we  may  inftance  in  nitre  ;  which, 

though  it  have  no  acid  tafte,  may  be  made  to  afford 

by  diftillation,   above  three  quarters  of  its  weight, 

of  a    highly  acid   liquor  :   yet  it  dees  not  appear, 

D  d  d  2  that 


T'he  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ««</ Sciences. 

acids;    they  are  both  corrofive,  hot,    fiery » 


that  fuch  a  great  proportion  of  acid  particles,  or 
poflibly  any  proportion  at  all,  is  employed  by  nature 
in  the  compohtion  of  nitre. 

For  urinous  fcilts,  we  have  an  inftance  of  their 
production,  in  the  fait  obtained  by  diftilhttion  from 
foot:  for  though  the  wood,  we  burn  in  our  chim- 
neys, feems  to  have  nothing  of  the  tafte  or  fmell 
of  urine,  nor  have  the  diffolutions  of  the  faline 
parts  of  fuch  wood  been  obfervcd  to  have  any  affi- 
nity, in  tafte  or  odour,  thereto ;  yet  when  wood 
is  burnt  in  .the  fire,  and  the  foot  afforded  by  it  di(- 
tilled,  we  get  a  white  volatile  urinous  fait,  like 
what  is  obtained  from  blood,  urine,  or  the  like. 

For  lixivious,  or  the  fxed  falts  of  calcined  bo- 
dies, the  Chymijls  thcmfelves  are  not  entirely 
agreed  ;  for  however  the  prevailing  opinion  may  be, 
that  thofe  fixed  alkalies  pre-exift  in  mixed  bodies, 
Hehnont  very  ingenioufly  propofes  another  origin, 
and  holds  them,  as  to  their  alkaline  form,  produc- 
tions of  the  fire,  by  whofe  violent  aftion  a  part  of 
the  fait,  which  in  the  concrete  is  all  naturally  vo- 
latile, laying  hold  of  fome  parts  of  the  fulphur  of 
the  fame  body,  both  become  melted  together,  and 
thus  fixed  into  an  alkali. 

In  order  to  lellen  the  trouble  and  expence  of 
procuring  the  volatile  fait  of  animal  fubjeils^  they 
Ihould  be  firft  purged  of  their  oil  and  unfluous 
parts,  by  boiling  in  water  ;  after  which,  they  will 
afford  volatile  falls  and  fpirits,  as  pure,  or  purer, 
than  thofe  obtained  from  unboiled  hartfhorn. 

Obferve  farther,  that  the  unrecSified  volatile  falts 
of  vegetable  and  animal  fubflances,  are  tme  J  ales 
volatiles  oleofi  ;  and  according  to  the  difference  of 
the  oil  wherein  they  abound,  they  are  properly  dif- 
tinguifhed  into  fait  of  hartfhorn,  of  ox-bone,  of 
human  blood,  of  filk,  isfc.  But  that  when  thefe 
oils  are  totally  feparated  from  them,  they  become 
one  and  the  fame  undiflinguifhable  volatile  fait ; 
for  that  it  is  the  admixture  of  oil  that  gives  the  co- 
lour to  volatile  falts,  they  being  permanently  white 
when  the  oil  is  feparated . 

Thefe  volatile  falts  are  obtainable  from  all  kinds 
of  land -animals,  the  amphibious  and  fubterraneous 
tribe,  birds,  fifhes,  and  reptiles  ;  alfo  from  alkaline 
vegetables  without  putrefiicf  ion,  and  from  other  ve- 
getables after  putrefaction;  from  foot,  horns,  hoofs, 
and  all  refufe  animal  and  vegetable  matters,  as  urine, 
the  blood  of  flaughter-houfes,  i^c.  and  this  as  pure 
and  perfect  as  from  hartfhorn  ;  whence  volatile  al- 
kalies, and  ial  ammoniac,  might  be  afforded  very 
cheap. 

The  volatile  animal,  and  fixed  vegetable  falts, 
differ  chiefly  with  regard  to  their  volatility,  and 
fixednefs,  and  the  effects  thereon  depending ;  but 
agree  in  other  refpefts  :  thus  they  both  make  an 
effervefcence,    and   turn  neutral,    when  faturated 


with 

The  nature  and  ufes  of  water^  will  befl  appear 
from  the  following  experiments.  1.  That  water  is 
contained  in  many  folid  bodies,  and  to  appearance 
in  dry  bodies,  was  proved  thus  :  a  piece  of  the 
hardefl  and  drieft  bone  being  procured,  and  diflilled 
in  an  earthen  retort,  with  degrees  of  fire,  a  very 
large  proportion  of  water,  along  with  much  oil  and 
volatile  fait,  was  obtained :  whence  it  appears,  that 
animal  matters  are  refolvable  into  the  four  chymical 
principles,  water,  oil,  fait  and  earth. 

This  experiment  holds  true  even  of  the  oldefl 
hartfhorn,  the  driefl  and  hardefl  woods,  earths  and 
pulverized  flones.  Whence  it  alfo  appears;  that 
water  may  be  concealed  in  folid  bodies,  and  make 
a  conflituent  part  thereof:  for  it  is  not  meant  that 
water  infmuates  itfelf  into  the  fuperficial  pores  of 
bodies,  fuch  as  wood,  fkins,  t^c.  fo  as  to  fwcll 
them  in  moift  weather,  and  leave  them  fhrunk  in 
dry  ;  but  that  it  remains  permanently  intermixed 
as  an  effential  ingredient,  or  as  a  part  of  folid  bodies. 

2.  That  water  may  be  collected  from  the  drieft 
air,  or  in  the  hottefl  climate,  was  proved  by  the 
following  experiment.  Half  a  pint  of  common 
water  was  put  into  a  cylindrical  glafs  wiped  per- 
fe£tly  dry  on  the  outfide ;  then  was  added  to  the 
water  two  ounces  and  three  quarters  of  pulverized 
and  dry  fal  ammoniac;  thefe  were  ftirred  brifkly 
together ;  whereupon  the  water  floating  in  the  ex- 
ternal air  was,  by  the  coldnefs  thus  produced,  con- 
denfed  on  the  outfide  of  the  glafs  as  the  fait  dif- 
folved  within,  and  trickled  down  in  fmall  veins, 
into  the  fhallow  bafon  fet  underneath  to  receive  it. 
This  experiment  holds  in  all  climates  and  places  of 
different  heights  where  it  has  been  tried  ;  whence  by 
tlie  law  of  induction  we  may  make  it  univerfal,  till 
any  contradidtory  inflance  appears.  Thus,  there- 
fore, it  may  hold  in  the  moft  parching  countries, 
and  hottell  feafons,  fo  as  to  afford  an  agreeable 
method  of  cooling  potable  liquors,  and  rendering 
them  morerefrefhing.  For  if  the  containing- glafs 
of  the  fait  and  water  be  fet  in  any  liquor,  the  liquor 
will  be  cooled  thereby;  and  if  any  confiderable  im- 
provement could  be  made  in  the  contrivance,  it  is 
obferved,  that  it  might  in  fome  meafure  ferve  to 
fupply  the  thirfty  traveller  in  parched  defarts,  and 
the  iailors  with  frefh  water  at  fea. 

3.  To  determine  the  proportion  of  water  con- 
tained in  an  affigned  portion  of  the  atmofphere,  we 
are  direiSted  by  the  following  experiment,  flavin? 
by  means  of  the  air-pump,  and  an  exadt  pair  of 
fcales,  found  the  weight  of  a  certain  quantity  of 
air  contained  in  a  large  glafs-veffel,  there  was  in- 
cluded therein  a  certain  known  weight  of  well  dried 
potential  cautery,  whofe  property  it  is  powerfully 

to. 


C  H  r  M  IS 


TRY. 


391 


to  attEa£l:  the  moidure  of  the  air.  This  vcfltl  v/as 
kept  clofe  ftopt  for  fcveral  hours  ;  during  which 
time,  the  potential  cautery  was  grown  wet,  in  which 
flate  being  weighed  again,  it  was  found  confide- 
rably  to  increafe  ;  which  muft  be  either  owing  to 
the  water  attracted  out  of  the  air  in  the  glafs,  or  to 
a  condenfation  of  the  air  itfelf,  into  an  aqueous 
fluid  ;  for  fuch  a  fluid  might  now  by  diftilJation 
he  obtained  from  the  matter  thus  run  per  deli- 
quium. 

-It  is  obferved  that  there  is  room  to  fufpe(5):,  that 
if  this  experiment  were  made  in  perfection,  a 
weight  of  water  almoft  equal  to  that  of  the  air 
included  in  the  vefiel,  might  be  thus  obtained,  which 
might  prove  a  very  extraordinary  difcovery,  and 
fliew  what  fome  have  endeavoured  to  prove,  that 
the  matter  of  common  air,  is  little  more  than 
water. ' 

4.  That  an  earthy  fubltance  is  naturally  con- 
tained in  water,  was  proved  as  follows.  Three  fe- 
veral  glafl^es  were  filled  with  pure  rain  water,  fpring 
water,  and  Thames  water,  and  fuffered  to  iland, 
clofe  covered,  for  fome  days  before  they  were  ex- 
hibited. There  was  an  earthy  fediment  then  de- 
pofited  in  all  the  three,  but  moft  in  the  Thames 
water,  the  fediment  whereof  was  not  only  larger, 
but  alfo  more  foul  and  muddy  than  in  the  rain 
water  ;  though  here,  alfo,  it  was  dirty,  perhaps, 
bfecaufe  not  carefully  collefted  ;  whereas,  in  the 
pump  water,  it  was  white,  fcaly,  flaky,  and  flii- 
ning,  like  fine  fpangles  of  talc.  This  experiment 
is  alfo  univerfai,  fo  far  as  it  has  been  tried  with 
care,  and  holds  true  of  the  waters  of  all  fpecies, 
and  all  countries,  particularly  in  thofe  called  mi- 
neral waters,  from  which  an  earthy  fuhftahce  may 
ufually  be  precipitated  by  art,  in  a  confiderable 
proportion. 

Certain  experiments  carefully  made,  and  re- 
peated, fhew  that  the  terreftrial  matter'  naturally 
contained  in  water,  has  a  principal  fhare  in  the 
growth  and  increafe  of  vegetables  ;  all  the  plants 
that  thrive  in  water  appearing  to  enlarge  their  bulk 
in  proportion  to  the  earthy  matter  they  draw  from 
the  water.  Whence  pure  elementary  water  feems 
but  a  kind  of  vehicle  to  convey  this  nutrimental  or 
fubftantial  part,  and  depofiteit  in  the  veflels  through 
which  the  water  moves,  in  order  to  its  general  exit 
at  the  furface  of  vegetables.  But  we  are  not  here 
to  exclude  the  inftrumcntal  efficacy  of  the  two 
other  elements,  fire  a.nd  air. 

And  this  appearing  to  be  the  general  office  of 
water  in  the  whole  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms, 
v'12..  the  conveyance  or  diftribution  of  the  alimen- 
tary matter  to  ali  their  parts,  it  may  be  proper  to 
confider  its  phyfical  properties,  which  would  won-  1 
derfully  fit  it  for  this  office. 


The  figure  of  its  component  parts  appears  to  be 
fmooth  and  fpherica!,  like  thofe  of  quickfilvcr  ; 
Vifhence  it  becomes  exXremcly  moving  and  pene- 
trating. Thus  it  readily  enters  tiie  pores  of  wood, 
leather,  fkins,  chords,  mufical  ftrings,  is'c.  thus 
likewife  it  becomes  capable  of  moving  and  agi- 
tating particles  of  matter  lefs  a^Hvethan  itfelf,  and 
fo  proves  the  more  immediate  phyfical  agent  of  fer- 
mentation, putrefa£tion,  fohition,  ^c.  and  thus  it 
alfo  conveys  earthy  and  faline  matters  through  our 
filtres  of  paper,  ftone,  iffe.  and  even  raifes  fome 
proportion  of  them  in  diftillations.  Its  particles 
likewife  a;ipear  to  be  extremely  minute,  and  fo  have 
a  large  fhare  of  furface.  Hence  water  is  admirably 
fitted  for  a  folvent,  or  for  readily  entering  the  pores 
of  falts,  and  coming  into  full  contacT:  with  all  their 
particles ;  and  thus  it  will  pafs  where  air  cannot, 
on  account  of  its  moifl:ure,  or  lubricating  power, 
whereby  it  faftens  mucilaginous  matters,  and  will 
therefore  foak  through  the  clofe  pores  of  a  bladder. 

From  the  experiments  of  Dodtor  Shaw,  made 
upon  water,  he  deduces  the  following  axioms  and 
canons.  Fir/I,  we  have  feen,  That  water  is  na- 
turally contained  in  fome  of  the  driefl  and  hardeft 
bodies,  and  in  the  drieft  air.  2.  That  itfelf  na- 
turally contains  an  earthy  fubftance.  3.  That  it 
is  the  proper  menllruum  of  falts,  diflblving  more 
of  one,  and  lefs  of  another.  4.  That  one  good 
fign  of  its  purity  and  wholefomnefs  is  levity.  5. 
That  the  ingredients  of  a  mineral  water  may  be 
difcovered  by  chemical  expedients  :  ajid,  6.  That 
mineral  waters  are  imitable  by  art  from  fuch: 
difcovery. 

Seeo?idly,  That  water  is  of  infinite  ufe  in  all  the 
works  both  of  nature  and  art,  as  without  it  there 
could  be  no  generation,  nutrition,  or  accretion 
performed  in  any  of  the  animal,  vegetable,  mine- 
ral, marine,  or  atmofphcrical  regions.  ']  he  blood 
could  not  flow  in  the  veins,  the  fap  in  the  vefleis 
of  vegetables,  nor  the  particles  of  minerals  con- 
crete and  grow  together,  without  water.  It  is 
this  that  makes  the  largest  part  of  our  blood,  our 
drink,  and  other  aliments.  There  could  be  no 
corruption,  fermentation,  or  di.Tolution  carried  on 
without  it,  no  brewing,  no  diftilling,  no  wines, 
no  vinegar,  no  fpirits,  made  without  it. 

Thirdly,  That  we  meet  with  water  under  an  in- 
finite variety  of  forms,  and  in  an  infinite  variety 
of  bodies,  as  that  of  air,  '  vapour,  clouds,  fnow,, 
hail,  ice,  fap,  wines,  blood,  flefh,  bone,  horn, 
ftone,  iSe.  through  all  which  it  feems  to  pafs  un- 
altered, as  an  agent  or  inftrument  that  fuiFers  no 
alteration  bvre-a£lion,  but  remains  capable  of  re- 
fuming  the  form  of  water  again  upon  cccafion. 

Fourthly,  That  water  in  its  ov.'n  common  ftate 
appears  to  be  a   combination  of  all  the  elements 

together,. 


I'he  Unlverfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  SciI'Ncfs. 


.392 

together,  as  containing  a  quantity  of  fire,  which  I 
keeps  it  fluid,  a  quantity  of  air,  and  a  quantity  of 
earth  ;  whence  it  can  be  no  wonder  that  water 
alone,  as  it  appears  to  the  fenfes,  Tnoiild  fufficefor 
vegetation  in  fome  cafes,  where  little  earth  is 
wanted,  or  for  fupporting  animal  and  mineral  life, 
where  no  great  degree  of  nutriment  is  required  ; 
and  hence  it  proves  a  gluten,  or  cement  to  fome 
bodies,  and  a  folvent  to  others  ;  thus  it  confolidates 
brick,  plaifter  of  Paris,  ftone,  bone,  i^c.  but 
diilolves  falts,  and  t'ubtile  earths  approaching  to 
falls,  and  becomes  the  inftrumcntal  caufc  of  their 
zSlion. 

Fifthly,  That  luater  conveys  nourifliment,  or  a 
more  fixed  and  folid  matter  to  the  parts  of  vege- 
tables, where  having  depofited  it,  the  finer  fluid 
perfpires  into  the  atmofphere,  which  gives  us  the 
phy Ileal  caufe  of  the  dampnefs  and  unwholefolne- 
nefs  of  woody  countries,  as  they  remarkably  find 
in  Arneyica,     For  all  lar2;e  vegetables  aft  after  the 

>2'nanncr  of  forcing  pumps,  and  continually  draw  in 
large  quantities  of  water  at  their  roots,  and  dif- 
charge  it  at  their  leaves,  which  intimates  a  method 

-of  coUeiEling  water  in  dry  countries,  and  likewife 
of  making  fal t- water  frefh. 

Sixt})ly,  That  the  ivatcr  in  paffincr  thro'  plants, 
after  having  depofited  its  more  terreffrial  part,  does 
not  always  go  off  pure,  but  impregnated  u  the 
•finer  effluvia,  or  more  fubtile  particles  of  the  ve- 
getable ;  thus  making  an  atmofphere  round  every 

.plant,  according  to  its  nature  odoriferous  or  other- 
wife,  which  fupplies  us  with  a  rule  for  procuring 
the  odoriferous  waters  of  vegetables  by  dillillation 
Sivcnthly,  That  the  particles,  not  tine  enough 
to  go  off  thus  along  with  the  luater,  are  left  be 
hind  upon  the  furface  of  the  leaves  and  flowers  of 
plants,  being  now  thickened  or  flrained  from  their 
moiller  parts,  and  remaining  in  the  form  of  honey, 
manna,  gums,  balfams,  l5ic.  according  to  the  na- 
■ture  of  the  vegetable.  And  hence  appears  the  phy- 
fical  caufe  of  plants  proving  more  odoriferous  and 
fweet  when  the  weather  is  both  warm  and  nioilf, 
as  immediately  after  a  fummer's  fhowcr. 

Eighthly,  That  the  i-.^vot/W  operator  fliould  form 
to  himfelf  an  hygrcmctsr  for  the  fcrviceof  his  labo- 
ratory to  determine  the  pr-cportion  of  vjater  at  all 
times  contained  in  the  air,  which  continually  mixes 
with  his  preparations,  differently  augments  their 
weight,  and  promotes  or  hinders  many  of  his  ope- 
rations. 

Ki?ithly,  That  pure  ivatcr  makes  the  largeft  part 
of  mineral  waters^  where  it  is  impregnated  as  a 
mcnflruum,  with  feveral  ingredients  that  it  dilTolves 
or  drinks  up  in  its  paifage  through  the  earth. 

Earth  m  weight  exceeds  ivater,  falls,  and  the 
rpirits  of  animals  aud  vegetables.    When  pure,  or 


perfeiSlly  "feparated  from  other  bodies,  it  is  confiif- 
tcnt,  hard,  and  fine,  thou^'V,  brittle  with  regard  to 
our  fenfes,  and  eafily  reducible  by  trituration  into  a 
certain  powder,  in  which  refpect  it -differs  from  the 
true  metals  and  gems  ;  though  -ftill  more  in  this, 
that  it  remains  fixed  and  unchanged  in  the  molt 
violent  fire,   even  fo   far  as  not  to  flow  therein. 

Boerhaave  fays,  he  never  could  obtain  elementary 
earth  from  metals,  but  it  may  be  obtained  from 
■water,  from  calcined  vegetables^  from  fwoak  and 
foot,  from  putrified  animals,  from  diffilled  animal 
fiiids,  from  foffile  faks,  and  from  fluid  and  folid 
fulphurs.  Whence  he  concludes,  that  the  fame 
fimple  elementary  earth  contributes  as  a  conftitucnt 
principle  to  form  the  part'cula,  corporeal  fabric  of 
animals,  vegetables,  and  fome  fjifils  of  a  lefs  per- 
manent and  lefs  fimple  nature,  and  in  them  all 
ferves  as  a  firm  bafis  to  their  form,  whilft  it  unites 
the  other  principles  to  itfelf,  and  to  one  another,  fo 
as  to  conllitute  one  determinate  individual.  Hence 
alfo,  fays  he,  the  property  of  affimulating  other 
fublfances  into  the  nature  of  every  body  that  re- 
ceives nutriment,  and  confequently  the  feminal  pro- 
perty of  producing  their  like,  is  principally  owing 
to  the  efficacy  of  this  earth  ;  for  their  properties 
no  longer  remain  after  the  particular  texture  de- 
pending principal!}'  upon  the  earth  is  deffroyed,  or 
wanting  in  any  body. 

Before  the  Chymij]  can  pretend  to  work  upon 
thefe  elements,  he  muff  be  well  inllrufted  not  only 
in  the  different  terms  of  art  ;  but  how  to  prepare 
and  manage  theyfrfj",  and  chufe /D^^/i  proper  for 
the  wcrk. 

The  Terms  ufcd  in  Chynnflry  are  thus  ex- 
plained. 

JEthiops  Mineral  h%  a  preparation  oi  mercury  and 
fi'.lphur ;  which  name  has  been  given  to  it,  to  ex- 
prefs  a  mineral  matter  as  black  as  an  /Ethiopean. 

Al,  is  an  Arabian  particle,  fignifying  the  :  bat 
it  is  commonly  ufed  at  thebeginning  of  a  word,  to 
exprefs  fomewhat  excellent ;  becaufe  it  alfo  fignifies 
God  hi  Hebrew. 

Alchymy,  from  al  and  %tw,  fiindo,    to  melt,  is 

that  part  of  Chymijlry  which  teaches  the  tranfmu- 

tation  of  metals,      See  oar  Treatife  on  Alchym y. 

j      Alembick,  from  the  Arabick  particle  al  and  afi?t'|, 

vaf.s  fpecies,  a  particular  kind  of  velfel. 

Alkahejl,  is  compofed  of  two  German  words  al 
gcejl,  that  is  to  iay,  all  fpirit  :  or  an  univerfid 
difiolvent.     iS^f  our  Treatile  onALcHYMY. 

Alkali,  is  compofed  of  the  Arabian  particle  al 
and  of /tf/i' ;  as  if  one  fhould  fay,  the  kali,  (which 
is  the  Jlandard  of  an  alkaline  fait.) 

To  alcohoUxe,  or  reduce  into  alcohol,  fignifies  to 
fubtilize,  as  when  a  mixt  is  beaten  into  an  impal- 
pable 


C  H  r  M  I  S  T  R  r. 


393 


gable  pov/Jer.  This  word  is  alfo  uft  J  to  exprefs  a 
very  pure  fpirit ;  thus  the  fpirit  of  wine  well  recli- 
fled,  is  calleJ  the  a.'cjjol  of  wine. 

Amalganate  is.  to  mix  mercury  with  fome  melted 
metal ;  this  operation  ferves  to  render  the  metal  fit 
to  be  extended  on  fome  works,  as  gold  ;  or  elfe  to 
to  reduce  it  into  a  very  fuitable  powder,  which  is 
done  by  putting  the  umalgame  ^nto  a  crucible  over 
the  fire ;  for  the  mercury  fubliming  into  the  air 
leaves  the  nietal  in  an  impalpable  powder ;  nei- 
ther iron  nor  copper  can  by  any  nxeans  be  amal- 
gamated. 

Aqua  Stygia  is  aqua  rega/is,  thus  called  for  its 
corrofivc  quality,  in  cornparifon  with  the  water  of 


Cohobate^  fignifies  to  repeat  the  diftillation  of  the 
fame  liquor,  having  poured  it  again  upon  the  mat- 
ter that  remains  in  the  veflel.  This  operation  is 
ufcd  to  open  bodies,  or  to  volatilize  the  ipirits. 

Concretion,  is  a  thickening  coagulation  or  indu- 
ration of  any  fluid  ;  as  falts  diffolved  again  fhoot 
into  figures  and  chryflalize. 

Congeal,  is  to  let  (qme  matter  that  is  melted  fiv, 
or  grow  into  a  confiftence,  as  when  we  let  a  metal 
cool,  after  it  has  been  melted  in  a  crucible  ;  or 
eife  it  is  when  wux,  fat,  butter,  ot  the  like,  are 
taken  from  the  fire,    and  let  to  cool. 

Depart,  is  a  reparation  of  one  metal  from  ano- 
ther, with  which  it  was  intimately  mixed  ;  for  ex- - 


a  river  imagined  by  the  poets  to  be  in  hell,  called  j  aniplc,  when  we  pour  aqua  fouls  upon  a  mixture 
^yx.  -  I  of  gold  and  fiUer,  the  filver  is  taken  up,  but  the 

Aqua  Regalis,  fo   called  j  becaufe  it  diftils  gold,  ;  gol^  being  not  penetrated  by  this  diffolvent,fubiides 


the  king  of  metals, 

Aqua fectinda,  is  aquafortis.^  watered  by  the  filver 
which  it  had  diflblved. 

Aquila  Alba,  is  a  fweet  fublimatc :  this  name 
feen.s  to  have  been  given  to  it,  as  it  expref- 
fes  a   white   matter,  that   in  its  fublimation   re 


at  the  bottom  of  the  vefTels. 

Detonation,  is  a  noile  that  is  made  when  the  vo- 
latile parts  of  any  mixture  do  rufh  forth  with  im- 
pctuoficy  ;   it  ts  alfo  cnWedfnhnina'lon. 

Dlgejllon,  is  when   fome  body   is   put  to  flcep  • 
or  infufe  in  a  coiivenient  me?ijlruu?n,  over  a  very 


fembles   the  flight  of  an  eagle  :  but  fince  for  the  \  gentle  heat. 

fame  tefemblance  this  matter  might  be  given  to  |      Di£alve,  is  to  turn  fome   hard  matter  out  of  a 


other  white  fublimations,  it  is-  probable  that  this 
term  has  been  in  particular  given  to  the  fweet  fubli- 
mate,  which  is  a  medicine  ufed  inwardly,  in  order  \ 
to  difUnguifh  it  from  the  corrofive  fublimate  which 
is  a  rank  poifon,  and  to  take  away  the  name  of 
fublimate  as  that  was  obnoxious  to  the  people. 

Athanor,  or  Athanv.or,  is  derived  from  tanuaron, 
which  figniiics  a  furnace.  This  is  very  commodi- 
ous to  make  fuch  chymical  preparations  which  de- 
mand only  a  moderate  fire,  fuch  as  for  digeflions  ; 
fome  call  it  the  philofophical  furnace  ;  others,  the 
furnace  for  Arcana. 

Cement  is  a  manner  of  purifying. goldj  It  is  done 
by  flrati.hcation  with  a  hard  paltc  made  of  one  part 
dfal  armoniack,  two  of  common  fait,  and  four  of 
potters  earth,  or  bricks  powdered,  the  whole  hav- 
ing been  moiflened  with  a  fufticient  quantity  of 
urine  :  this  compofition  is  called  ?  oyal  cement. 

Chryfuka,  from  xi'"'^^'  aurum,  gold.  This 
name  is  given  to  the  aqua  regalis  ;  becaufe  it  dif- 
folves  golil.  ^ 

Circulation  is  a  motion  given  to  liquors  contain- 
ed in  a  double  veflel,  excited  by  fire,  and  caufing 
the  vapours  to  afcend  anddcfccnd  to  and  fro.  This 
operation  tends  either  to  fubtilize  the  liquors,  or 
to  open  fome  hard  body  that  is  mixed  with  them. 

Coagulate,  is  to  give  a  confiflence  to  liquids,  by 
evaporating  fome  part  of  t^em  over  the  fire,  or  elfe 
by  mixing  liquors  together  that  are  of  a  different 
siaturc. 


hard  into  a  liqiiid   form,    by  means  of  a  certain 
liquor. 

To  diflil  per  afcenfum,  is  when  fire  is  put  under 
the  veflel  that  contains  the  matter  which  is  to  be 
heated. 

To  ^x'^A  per  defccnfum,  is  when  fire  is  placed' 
over  the  matter  that  is  toi)e  heated  ;  for  then  the 
moift  parts  being  rarified,  and  the  vapour  which 
rifcs  from  them  not  being  able  to  arife  away  up- 
wards, as  it  would  do  if  it  not  hindered,  it  preci- 
pitates and  dillils  at  the  bottom  of  the  veflel. 

Edulcorate,  is  to  fweeten   fome  matter  that  is  ■ 
impregnated    with    falts,     by  means    of  common 
water. 

Effcrvcfc'ency,  is  the  ebullition  of  a  liquor  w^ith- 
out  the  feparation  of  its  parts  ;  as  when  new  milk, 
or  any  other  liquor's  fet  a  boiling  on  the  fire  ;  for 
after  the  ebullition  is  over,  it  continues  of  the  fame 
niiture  as  before. 

Evapora'e,  is  to  wafte  a  liq^or  by  the  fire  or 
fun. 

Expreffton,  is  to  prefs  any  matter  hard  to  get 
out  its  juice,  or  any  other  liquor  with  which  it  is 
charged. 

E-xtrail,  is  to  feparate  the  purer  part  from  the 
groifer. 

Fer7nentatlon,  is  an  ebullition  raifed  by  the  fpi- 
rits  that  endeavour  to  get  out  of  a  body  ;  for  meet- 
inij  with  grofs  earthy  parts  that  oppofe  their  pafiage, 
they  fwell  and  raiify  the  liquor  until  they  find  their 

way.- 


394  ^^'''  Univerfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  afid  Sciences. 


way  out  ;  now  in  this  fcp^iatlon  of  parts,  the  fpi- 
rits  do  divide,  fulnilize  and  feparatc  the  principles 
fo,  as  to  make  the  matter  be  of  another  nature  than 
it  was  before. 

Tliough  there  be  fome  difference  between  effer- 
vefcency  :!Lm\  fermentation^  as  has  been  fllcwn,  yet 
■generally  thefetwo  forts  of  ebullitions  are  confound- 
ed, and  no  body   fcruples  to  ufe  the  one  for  the 
other. 

Filtrate,  is  to  purify  a  liquor  by  pafling  it  thro' 
a  coffin  of  brijwn  paper. 

Fumigate,  is  to  make  one  body  receive  the  fume 
of  another. 

Granulate,  is  to  pour  a  melted  metal  drop  by 
drop  into  cold  water,  that  it  may  congeal  into 
grains. 

Levigate,  is  to  reduce  a  hard  body  into  an  im- 
palpable powder  upon  a  marble. 

Miigijlery,  is  a  name  which  the  ancient  Chjmijls 
gave  to  certain  white  and  very  light  precipitates  ; 
and  by  it  they  undcrftocd  a  feparation  very  fubtile 
and  exquifite. 

Matter  Alkaline,  (the  fame  as  alkali)  is  any  ear- 
then or  faltifh  matter,  penetrable  by  acids,  and  re- 
ceptive of  their  influences. 

A  Mcnjlruum  fignifics  in  Chymijlry  a  dijfolvent , 
which  is  fo  called,  becaufe  that  Ahhymifts  thought 
the  perfect  diflblution  of  a  mixt  body  was  corn- 
pleated  in  one  of  their  philofophical  months,  which 
confirts  of  forty  days. 

Mortify,  is  to  change  the  outv/ard  form  of  a 
mixt,  as  is  done  in  mercury.  Alio  fpirits  are  faid 
to  be  mortified,  when  they  are  mixed  with  others 
that  hinder  and  deflroy  their  ftrength. 

Piger  Henrlcus,  is  the  athanor  furnace,  thus 
called ;  becaufe  it  may  be  managed  by  any  idle 
perfon  without  much  care  and  pains. 

Precipitate,  is  to  feparate  a  matter  that  is  diflblv- 
ed:  fo  as  to  make  it  fall  or  fettle  at  the  bottom. 

ProjeSiion,  is  when  any  matter  to  be  calcined  is 
put  into  a  crucible,  fpoonful  after  fpoonful. 

Rectify,  is  to  diftil  fpirits,  for  the  feparation  of 
what  heterogeneous  parts  might  have  been  drawn 
along  with  them. 

Reverberate,  is  to  caufe  the  flame  of  the  wood 
or  coals  that  is  lighted  in  the  furnace,  to  beat  back 
upon  the  vefTel,  \>y  means  of  a  dome  placed  over  it. 
Revive,  is  to  reftore  a  mixt  to  its  former  condi- 
tion that  lies  difguifed  by  falts  or  fulphurs.  Thus 
cinnabar,  and  the  other  preparations  o'i  jncrcury,  arc 
revived  into  quick  filver. 

Scories,  is  the  fcum  of  metals  or  minerals. 
Salt  acid,  is  a  fait  havingvery  clofe  or  fmall  pores, 
which  doth  not  ordinarily  ferment  with  acid,  and 
from  whence  is  extracted  by  diftillation  an  acid  fpi- 
rit,  as  of  falt-petre,  vitriol,  and  allum. 


Salt  Alkali,  is  properly  the  fait  of  ay///',  but  com- 
monly all  fait  is  fo  called  which  ferments  with  acids, 
as  fait  of  tartar,  of  wormwood,  b'c 

Salt  Efi'cntial,  is  an  acid  fait,  extracted  from 
plants  by  cryftallization. 

Salt  fixed,  is  that  which  will  fuffcr  the  fire  with- 
out confiderable  diminution. 

Salt  Fluid,  isan  acid  fait  which  remains  fluid,  and 
which  condenfates  not  without  the  interpofition  of 
fome  earthy  matter  that  gives  a  body  to  it ;  fuch  are 
the  acid  fpirits  of  falt-petre,  common  fait,  and  di- 
ftilled  vinegar.    And  this  is  called  the  principleoffalt. 

Salfalfum,  is  an  alkaline  fait,  filled  with  an  acid, 
as  the  fal  gem  and  fea  fait. 

Sal  Volatile,  is  a  fait  v/hich  rifes  v/ith  the  leaft 
heat,  fuch  is  that  of  vipers,  hartfliorn,  i!fc. 

Stratafy,  is  to  lay  different  matters  bed  upon 
bed.  7  his  operation  is  performed  when  we  would 
calcine  a  mineral  or  metal  with  a  fait,  or  Ibme  other 
matter. 

Sublime,  is  toraife  by  fire  any  volatile  matter  to 
the  top  of  the  cucurbit,  or  into  its  head. 

Tranfmutation,  is  changing  the  nature  of  one 
body  into  that  of  another  more  perfeft,  as  if  one 
would  make  gold  of  filver,  or  copper  of  iron. 

The  Fires  and  their  feveral  degrees  ufed  in  Chy- 
miftry,  may  be  thus  exaplained.  (Seethe  Furnaces, 
&c.  in  the  Copper  Plate.) 

Chvmists,  in  their  operations,  make  ufe  of 
heats  with  fand,  file-dufi:,  and  afhes  ;  of  the  re- 
verberatory  fire, of  a  fire  for  fufion,  of  the  lamp,  the 
balneum  ?narics,  the  balneum  vaporis,  and  the  heat 
offupprefiion.  They  alfo  make  ufe  of  infolation, 
the  warmth  of  dung,  and  of  quick-lime. 

The  fires  or  heats  of  fand,  file-duil,  and  of 
aflics,  are  ufed  when  the  velTcl,  containing  the 
matter  to  be  heated,  can  be  placed  in  them,  and 
gradually  warmed. 

The  reverberatory  fire  is  made  in  a  furnace  cover- 
ed with  a  dome,  to  the  end  that  the  flame  or  heat, 
which  always  tends  upwards,  may  reverberate  upon 
the  veflel,  which  is  to  be  placed  on  two  iron  bars. 

What  is  properly  called  a  naked  fire,  or  putting 
a  vefiel  into  a  furnace  of  bare  fire,  is,  when  nothing 
is  fct  between,  fo  that  the  diftilling  veflfel  touches 
the  fire,  and  immediately  receives  the  heat. 

The  fire  hr  fufion  is,  by  putting  hot  coals  round 
a  crucible,  or  another  veflel  that  contains  the  matter 
to  be  put  into  fufion. 

The  lamp  is  made  ufe  of,  when  the  matter  con- 
tained in  the  veflel  is  warmed  by  that  heat  only,  and 
which  rnuft  be  alw.iys  equal.  It  is  alfo  ufed  to 
heat  the  necks  of  fome  vefl"els,  fo  as  they  may  be 
hermetically  feaied.  The  lamp  or  candle  is  like- 
wife 


C  H  r  M  I  S  T  R  r. 


wife  employed  to  lier.t  a  finall  matrafs  or  back  of 
any  glafs-hcad,  where  one  would  have  it  broke  by 
the  application  oF  a  cold  wee  rag  immediately  to 
that  part. 

The  oil  employed  for  lamps  miift  be  very  clear 
and  fit  to  burn  ;  for  if  it  be  foul,  it  will  frequently 
clog  the  match,  fo  as  to  damp  the  light  and  heat.  I 
To  prevent  which  inrronveniency,  the  oil  may  be 
purified  and  prepared  in  the  manner  following 
1  ake  fix  pound  of  oil,  mix  it  v/ith  a  pound  of  vi- 
triol dried  to  a  whitenefs  and  powdered  ;  let  the 
mixture  hoi!  upon  a  fmall  fire,  to  the  end  the  vi- 
triol may  abfo'rb  or  dry  up  the  wacr)-  hiimidity  of  the 
(lil  :  the  vitriol  will  remain  undiublved,  and  the 
oil  may  be  poured  off  for  ui'e. 

The  match,  moft  commodious  for  a  lamp,  ought 
to  be  of  the  alumen  ptumofum  ;  b  caufe  it  will  noi 
confume  in  the  fire;  but  it  is  inconvenient,  upon 
its  aptnefs  to  go  out,  when  the  operation  is  inter- 
rupted in  the  time  of  kindling  the  fame  ;  the  beft 
match  is  therefore  of  cotton. 

1  he  hnlncum  trariee  is,  when  the  alembick,  which 
contains  the  matter  to  be  heated,  is  placed  in  a 
veffel  filled  with  water,  under  which  fire  is  put,  to 
the  end  the  heated  water  may  alfo  heat  the  matter 
in  the  alembick. 

The  balneum  vapoyis  is  made  when  a  vefiel, 
which  contains  the  matter,  is  heated  by  the  vapour 
of  hot  water. 


and  grows  red  hot.  The  afh  heat  is  moft  gentl**' 
becaufe  they  retain  lefs  heat  than  the  other  fub- 
ftances. 

The  revcrbernton  fire  has  its  degrees  from  the 
firft  to  the  fourth  ;  but  is  ordinarily  raifed  to  the 
greateft  violence. 

The  fire  for  fufion  is  always  violent  without  de- 
gree, becaufe  it  ferves  only  for  calcinations,  and 
meltings,  where  only  vefiels  of  earth  are  ufcd,  and 
which  eafily  refift  the  greateft  fires. 

ft  is  impoflible  to  make  a  veffel  receive  different 
degrees  of  heat  from  a  lighted  lamp,  by  putting  it 
more  or  lefs  near;  but  when  the  veffel  is  once 
heated,  it  will  be  continued  always<equal,  becaufe 
the  match  of  the  lamp  burns  equally  alike  in  the 
ianie  furnace  where  it  is  placed. 

The  hahiciim  ?naria:  and  vaporis,  have  alfo  their 
degrees  ;  for  according  as  the  water  is  more  or  lefs 
warmed,  the  di"  illation  is  more  or  lefs  forwarded. 
The  heat  therefore  of  the  maria  or  vaporis  may  be 
faid  to  be  in  the  firff  degree  when  it  is  but  luke- 
warm, which  they  muff  neceffarilybe  in  to  digeft 
any  matter  committed  to  the/r  influence.  The 
heat  of  the  fecond  degree  is,  when  the  water  or  va- 
pour is  too  hot  for  one's  hand,  which  they  muff  be 
in  order  but  to  a  foft  dirtillation.  The  heat  of  the 
'.bird  degree  is,  when  the  water  boils,  in  order  to 
haften  the  diltillation. 

1  he  fire  of  fuppreffion  has  its  degrees  ;  hot  aflies 
The  fire  of  fuppreffion  is  made,  when  to  diftil    are  only  fometimes  ufed  to  excite  a  gentle  heat  :  and 

per  (kjcenfum.,  fire  is  put  above  the  matter,  fo  that  ,  this  is  the  firft  degree;    at  others  they  are  mixed 

the  humidity  which  is  forced  thence  by  the  heat  is    with  a  few  embers,  and  that  is  the  fecond  degree  ; 

conftrained  to  fubfidc  in  the  bottom  of  the  veffel.        and  fometimes  with  light  coals,  and    that   is  the 
Infolation   is,   by  expofing  to  the  rays  of  the  fun 

any  matter  to  be  put  into   fermentation,  or  to  be 

digefttd. 

The  dtnig-heat^  alfo  called  the  horfe's  belly,  is, 

when  a  veffel  containing  fome  matter  to  be  digeffed 

or  difiilled,  is  placed  in  a  great  heap  ot  hot  dung. 
The  heat  of  quick-lime  moiliened   or  wetted, 

may  ferve   in  fome  dilf  illations  ;   for  in  a  mixture 

\f,'\x\\  fill  amiion'inc^   it  will  occaficn   a  lubtlc   fpirit 

to  diftil  from  thence  without  any  other  fire. 

To  make  a  fire  of  the  firft  degree,  two  or  three 

coals  lighted  will  fuff.ce  to  raife'a  moft  gentle  heat. 

For  a  fire  of  the  fecond  de2;rce,  three  or  four  coals 

will  ferve,  to  give  i'uch  a  heat  as  is  able  fcniibly  to 

warm  a  veff?],  but  fo  as  a  hand  may  be  able  to  bear 

it    fome  time.     For   a   fire  of  the   third    degree, 

muft  be  a  good  coal  fire.      For  the  fourth  degree, 

life  coal?  and  wood  together,    fo  as  to  excite  a  vio 

lent  heat. 

The   fires,    or  heats  of  fand,  file- duff,  and  of 

afhes,  have  ordinarily  their  degrees  from  the  fiiff 

to  the  third  ;  but  the  filc-duft  yields  more  heat  than 

the  other,  becaufe  it  more  eafily  receives  the  heat, 

19 


and  fometimes  with  light  coals, 
third  degree. 

Inlblaticn  hath  alfo  its  degree,  according  to  the 
force  of  the  fun  to  which  the  matter  is  ex-pofed. 
The  beft  time  for  this  is  in  'July  or  Augujl ;  bect;u-fe 
then  the  i'un  has  the  moft  vigour. 

The  dung-heat  has  its  degrees,  accordin-j  to  the 
bignefs  of  the  heap,  and  according  to  th.a  plate 
where  the  fame  is  ;  for  a  greater  heap  v.'ill  yield  a 
greater  heat  than  a  fmall  one  ;  and  if  it  be  in  a  fta- 
ble,  or  any  other  hot  and  covered  place,  it  will  be 
the  warmer,  and  will  confcquently  be  more  effec- 
tual for  digeflion  or  diftillation,  than  any  other 
that  is  expoled  to  the  air. 

I  he  iicat  of  quick-lime  hath  alfo  its  decrees;  as 
we  order  it  to  be  greater  or  lefs  :  it  is  more  or  lefs 
expofed  to  the  air  in  powder  to  make  it  weaker  ; 
but  if  we  would  have  all  its  heat,  it  muft  be  ufed 
all  quick. 

The  fire  is  often  raifed  to  fo  hicli  a  degree  as  will 
meltglafs  retorts  in  a  revcrbjratory  furnace  ;  wheie- 
fore  it  will  be  convenient  to  coat  them  over  with 
fuch  a  lute,  as,  when  dry,  is  able  to  preferve  and 
contain  the  matter  that  is  put  into  them  to  be 
Fee  diililled. 


39^  7^^  Unlverfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  fl';?<a?  Sciences. 


diHiUed.    This  lute  may  be  made  after  the  manner 
wh  ch  follows. 

Take  faiid,  the  drofs  of  iron,  potters  earth 
in  powder,  of  each  five  pounds,  horfe  dung  cut 
iitiall  a  pound,  glafs  beaten  into  powder,  and  fea- 
falt,  of  each  four  ounces  ;  mix  them  all,  and  with 
a  fufBcient  quantity  of  water  make  a  paiie  or  lute, 
with  which  you  muft  coat  the  retort  all  round  to 
half  its  neck,  and  fo  fct  it  a  drying.  This  fame 
lute  will  ferve  to  flop  clofe  the  junctures  of  the 
retort  with  the  recipient;  but  becaufe  when  it  dries, 
it  grows  exceeding  hard,  and  it  proves  difficult  to 
imlute  it,  it  is  needful  to  wet  it  with  wet  clothes, 
when  you  would  take  the  retort  afunder  from  the 
receiver. 

The  lute.,  fays  Lemery,  that  I  commonly  ufeforfuch 
occafions,  is  compounded  only  of  two  parts  of  fand, 
and  one  of  clay,   tempered  together  with  water. 

If  you  would  have  a  lute  to  feparate  eafily  when 
the  operation  is  done,  you  muft  temper  fine  and 
well  powdered  afhes  in  water,  and  make  a  parte 
of  it :  but  this  lute  is  much  more  porous  than  the 
former,  and  it  may  ferve  as  often  as  you  pleafe, 
only  by  tempering  it  over  again  with  water. 

As  fortheconjunclion  of  lembicks,  ordinary  glue 
up©n  paper  will  ferve  the  turn :  but  when  forne- 
thing  very  fpirituous  is  diftilled,  fuch  as  the  fpirit 
of  wine,  ufe  a  wet  bladder,  which  carries  a  glue 
along  with  it,  that  flicks  very  well.  But  if  the 
bladder  happens  to  be  eaten  or  corroded  by  the 
fpirits,  have  recourfe  to  the  following  glue. 

Take  flower,  and  lime  ilackt,  of  each  an  ounce, 
potters  earth  in  powder  half  an  ounce,  mix  them, 
and  make  a  moifl:  paile  with  a  fufHcicnt  quantity  of 
the  whites  of  eggs  well  beaten  before  hand  with  a 
little  water.  This  pafte  may  likewife  ferve  to  flop 
the  cracks  that  happen  in  glafs  velTels :  there  muft 
be  three  lays  of  the  pafte  bound  on  with  paper. 

To  feal  hermetically,  is  to  flop  the  mouth  or 
neck  of  a  glafs  veflel  with  a  pair  of  pincers  heated 
red  hot.  To  do  this,  the  neck  is  .heated  by 
little  and  little  with  burning  coals,  and  the  fire  is 
encreafed  and  continued,  until  the  glafs  is  ready  to 
melt.  This  w.ay  of  fealing  a  veiTel  is  ufed,  when 
you  have  put  fome  matter  within  it  that  is  eal'y  to 
be  exalted,  and  you  have  a  mind  to  make  it  circu- 
late. 

The  furnace  which  is  moft  in  ufe  among  Chy- 
mijls  is  that  which  is  called  the  Reverberatory  ;  it 
muft  be  large  enough  to  hold  a  great  retort,  for  the 
diftillation  of  acid  fpirits.  and  other  things.  This 
furnace  muft  be  fixed,  and  made  of  brick,  joined 
together  with  a  lute  compounded  of  one  part  of 
potters  earth,  fo  much  horfe-hung,  and  twice  as 
much  fand,  the  whole  kneaded  together  in  water  ; 
Jet  it  be  two  bricks  breadth,  that  ths  furnace  being 


the  thicker,  the  heat  may  be  retained  the  longer: 
let  the  afli-hole  be  a  foot  high,  and  the  door  con- 
trived, if  poflible.  on  the  fide  that  the  air  comes, 
that  when  you  have  a  mind  to  open  it,  the  fire  may 
be  lighted  or  encreafed  the  more  eafily :  the  fire- 
room  need  not  be  quite  fo  high ;  you  muft  lay 
acrofs  it  two  iron  bars  of  the  bignefs  of  your 
thumb,  which  will  ferve  you  to  fct  your  retort 
upon ;  and  the  furnace  muft  be  ftiil  raifed  near 
about  a  foot  higher,  to  cover  the  retort ;  fit  to  it  a 
dome,  or  cover,  that  may  have  a  hole  in  the  middle 
with  its  ftopple,  and  a  fmall  chimney  a  foot  high, 
for  to  place  upon  this  hole,  when  the  ftopple  is 
taken  out,  and  when  you  would  raife  a  great  heat ; 
for  the  flame  prefcrving  itfelf  by  means  of  this  little 
chimney,  it  reverberates  the  more  ftrongly  upon 
the  retort.  This  cover  may  be  made  of  the  fame 
parte,  that  I  {ball  prcfently  defcribe,  fpeaking  of 
portable  furnaces. 

It  will  be  neceflary  to  have  feveral  furnaces  of 
this  fame  faftiion;  but  they  muft  be  of  different 
fizes,  to  work  conveniently,  according  to  the  big- 
nefs of  the  veflel  you  would  place  in  it.  For  that 
the  fire  may  a£I  more  vehemently  upon  the  retort, 
there  muft  be  left  but  only  the  fpace  of  a  finger's 
breadth  all  round  between  the  furnace  and  the 
retort.  lhefeya/'«(7f«  may  alfo  ferve  for  diftilling 
by  the  refrigeratory,  in  the  fea  bath,  the  vaporous 
and  the  fand  bath  ;  for  you  may  place  the  copper 
body  upon  the  iron  bars,  when  you  would  diftil  by 
the  refrigeratory.  It  is  eafy  to  do  the  fame  with 
the  balneum  marta.  As  for  the  fand  bath,  lay  an 
iron  or  earthen  pan  on  the  bars,  and  put  fand 
enough  into  it  to  cover  the  bottom  and  fides  of 
the  veflel  you  defire  to  heat. 

There  ought  alfo  to  be  a  furnace  for  many 
retorts,  which  one  and  the  fame  fire  may  a6l  on  at 
once:  \.\\h furnace  muft  be  made  as  the  former,  but 
only  fo  much  larger,  that  the  retorts  may  be  placed 
conveniently  upon  it,  and  that  the  fire,  in  the  fire- 
room,  which  hath  only  one  door,  may  a£t  equally 
upon  all  the  veflels. 

If  you  would  make  ih\s  furnace  large  enough  to 
contain  fix  or  twelve  retorts,  it  muft  be  built  long- 
ways, and  the  door  muft  be  at  one  of  the  ends. 
I  have  obferved,  that  in  thefe  great  furnaces  there 
is  no  need  of  an  iron  grate  or  afti-room,  in  order 
to  diftillations,  becaufe  they  generally  put  in  much 
wood,  which  burns  fufficiently  to  heat  the  rptorts, 
if  at  the  other  end  there  be  a  hole  towards  the 
dome,  big  enough  for  one's  fift,  to  let  in  the  air  to 
the  fire,  or  to  let  out  the  fmoke  of  the  wood.  A 
furnace  vf\t\\o\xt  a  grate  waftes  lefs  wood  and  char- 
coal than  that  which  has  one ;  fo  that  by  this 
means  there  is  much  lefs  expence,  efpecially  in 
diftillations  which   continue    three  or  four  davs. 

The 


CHTMISTRT. 


397 


The  fire-place  muft  be  large,  and  above  it  there 
ought  to  be  placed  Ihong  bars  of  iron  for  fupport- 
ing  the  retorts,  both  on  the  one  fide  and  the 
other. 

\i t\\&  furnace  be  made  for  twelve  retorts,  it  will 
require  fix  bars  of  iron  acrofs,  but  three  will  ferve, 
if  it  be  only  for  fix.  The  hole  or  pafl'age  to  the 
fire  place  mufl:  have  a  door  of  iron  made  pro- 
per to  ftiut  and  open,  as  there  is  occafion,  for 
managing  the  fire.  It  is  convenient  alio  to  make  a 
border  or  ledge  about  the  furnace,  on  which  the 
receivers  may  be  fet,  as  you  may  fee  in  the  figure. 
The  ordinary  retorts  are  not  fo  proper  for  thisy«r- 
fiace.  The  receivers  muft  be  made  fo,  that  they 
may  not  take  up  too  much  room. 

The  dome  of  t\\\%  furnace  m\.\&.  be  made  of  the 
fame  matter  with  the  otliers,  and  divided  into  two 
or  three  pieces  which  may  join  eafily  :  for  if  they  be 
too  great,  they  will  be  in  hazard  of  breaking : 
but  I  have  found  it  mofl  convenient  to  make  a 
particular  dome  of  tiles  at  every  diftillation,  which 
I  place  over  the  retorts,  and  plaifter  with  a  lute  made 
of  common  afiies,  fifted  and  moiftcned  with  water, 
which  lute  may  be  kept,  after  the  diftillation,  to 
ferve  at  another  time,  by  diluting  or  tempering  it 
with  new  water. 

As  (o^fufions,  you  muft  build  z  furnace  of  the 
fame  matter  and  form  as  thofe  fpoken  of  before  ; 
only  you  muft  forbear  laying  the  two  iron  bars  in 
it,  that  you  did  in  the  others,  for  fupport  of  the 
veffel. 

Moveable  furnaces  are  made  of  a  pafte  that  con- 
fifts  of  three  parts  of  broken  pots  in  powder,  and 
two  parts  of  clay  tempered  together  with  water. 
Their  ftrudture  is  juft  like  that  of  the  reverberatory 
furnace.  You  may  alfo  leave  holes  through  which 
the  iron  bars  may  pafs,  which  fupport  the  retort, 
that  they  may  be  eafily  taken  out,  when  you  have 
a  mind  to  ufe  xk\\%  furnace  (or  fufions.  A  furnace  of 
this  form,  whether  fixt  or  moveable,  may  be  called 
polychrefi,  (or  general)  becaufe  fuch  a  one  may  be 
uled  for  all  forts  of  operations. 

It  is  likewife  convenient  {oc  fuftons,  to  have  a 
moveable  y«r«fl«  of  the  fame  matter  as  the  others  ; 
it  muft  be  round,  and  may  be  fet  upon  a  flool :  it 
is  to  have  only  one  grate,  and  fix  regifters,  or  holes 
on  the  fides,  to  let  in  the  air  to  the  fire.  The  dome 
may  be  made  of  the  fame  matter,  for  to  cover  it, 
and  a  fmall  earthen  chimney  for  to  place  upon  the 
hole  of  the  dome,  that  the  fire  may  keep  the 
ftronger. 

You  muft  be  fure  to  put  ftnd,  or  broken  pots,  or 
fuch  like  things,  into  the  pafte  that  you  ufe  for  the 
hniMimo  furnaces,  either  fixt  or  moveable,  to  hin- 
der them  from  cracks,  when  they  come  to  dry  ;  for 


thefe  matters  rendering  the  clay  more  porous,  the 
wet  breathes  out  much  more  eafily. 

A  fmall  non furnace  with  its  iron  pot,  and  a 
cover  to  it,  is  convenient  for  performing  many 
operations  ;  this  pot  may  ferve  for  a  balneum  ma.  ta, 
and  for  a  vaporous  bath,  when  there  is  no  other. 
It  may  be  likewife  ufed  to  diftil  by  an  alembick  in 
a  bath  of  fand,  afhes,  or  of  filings  of  iron. 

A  great  iron  furnace  fhould  likewife  be  had, 
whereon  to  place  a  copper  balneum  maria,  for  to 
diftil  with  four  bodies  at  once.  In  the  middle  of 
this  bath  there  ftiould  be  a  pipe  railed,  the  top  of 
which  muft  be  made  like  a  funnel,  mto  which  \ou 
are  to  pour  hot  water,  in  place  of  that  which  con- 
fumes  away  in  vapour. 

It  is  neceffary  to  have  a  common  iron  furnace 
with  three  feet  for  warming  and  boiling  many  things 
upon  occafion ;  it  ought  to  be  plaiftered  with  a 
Itite,  and  fonie  pieces  of  brick  or  tile,  to  make  the 
heat  more  durable. 

It  is  convenient  to  have  a  {m2^A  furnace  of  tin  for 
many  operations,  to  be  managed  with  a  lamp  ;  vi% 
digeftions,  where  the  f»re  ought  always  to  be  equal. 
This yi^rwtfff  muft  be  round,  about  two  foot  high> 
and  one  foot  diameter;  and  it  muft  have  a  hearth, 
or  bottom,  where  the  lamp  is  to  be  placed.  This 
hearth  is  to  be  a  foot  and  half  high,  and  pierced 
with  five  or  fi.K  holes,  at  fmall  diftances  from  one 
another,  to  give  air  to  the  lamp,  and  continue  its 
burning;  the  whole  muft  contain  a  fort  of  bafon,  a 
little  mofe  than  half  a  foot  high,  and  flat  at  bot- 
tom ;  which  is  to  hold  the  fand,  and  the  vefi'el  that 
fuftains  the  matter  to  be  digefted  ;  and  it  is  to  bg 
covered  with  a  dome  of  the  fame  metal,  a  foot  and 
half  high.  The  lamp  muft  have  three  holes,  through 
which  three  cotton  matches  are  to  be  put,  and 
thefe  foaked  and  fupplied  by  the  oil  in  the  lamp. 
The  lamp  muft  be  of  fufficient  length,  to  be  taken 
from  time  to  time  from  the  hearth,  and  to  re-kindle 
the  matches  in  cafe  they  go  out,  and  alfo  to  clean 
away  the  foot  that  will  gather  from  them,  and 
damp  their  heat. 

The  Vessels  (fee  the  copper  plate)  and  other 
ute-fih  necefifary  in  this^work,  are, 

Aiembicki,  retorts,  pelicans,  jerpeni'ines,  recipient s^ 
or  receivers,  matrajfes,  crucibles,  m-iulds  of  i'everal 
forts,  Ungot'erres,  bells,  mortars,  and  funnels  of 
glafs,  is'c. 

Alembick,  from  the  Jrablck  particle  al,  and 
the  Greek  ef*?i|,  is  a  chymical  velTel  confiftitig  of  a 
matrafs,  fitted  with  a  roundifn  head,  terminating 
in  a  Hoping  tube,  for  the  condeni'ed  vapours  to  pafg 
through  in  the  diftillation.  Alembick  is  properly 
underftood  of  the  whole  inftrument  of  diftillation, 
with  all  its  apparatus  ;  but  in  the  proper  fenfe  of 
E  e  e  2  tile 


398 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  ^j/Arts  «;?«^  Sciences. 


the  word,  it  is  only  a  part  thereof,  vt%.  a  vefl'el, 
ulunlly  ot  copper,  whereto  a  concave,  globular, 
tnetallirie  head  is  clofely  luted,  fo  as  to  flop  the 
riling  vapours,  and  diredl  them  into  its  ri!/?r«/7»,  or 
beak.  The  heat  of  the  fire  raifing  the  volatile 
parts  of  the  fubjcft  expofed  in  the  bottom  of  the 
vciVel,  they  are  received  into  its  head,  where  they 
are  condenfed,  either  by  the  coldnefsof  the  ambient 
air,  or  by  water  externally  applied;  and  becomes 
a  liquor,  which  runs  out  at  the  beak  into  another 
vellfil,  called  the  recipient.  The  head,  or  capital, 
of  the  alewbick,  is  fometimes  incompaflld  with  a 
vellcl  full  (if  cold  water,  by  way  of  a  refrigeratory; 
though  this  intention  is  now  more  commonly 
anUvered  by  a/erpertine. 

There  are  divers  kinds  of  nlctnblcks;  an  open 
ah'tibick,  where  the  head  and  cucurbite  are 
two  feparate  parts;  a  blind aUmhick,  or  blind  head, 
where  the  capital  is  fealed  hermetically  upon  the 
cucurbite,  which  cucurbite  is  an  earthen  or  glafs 
veirel,  of  the  figure  of  a  gourd,  or  a  pear,  wherein 
are  put  the  matters  to  be  diftilled.  It  is  alfo, 
fometimes  made  of  tin,  and  fometimes  of  brafs 
tinned. 

Retort,  is  a  kind  of  crook€d  matrafs,  or  a 
round  bellied  veflel,  either  of  earth,  or  glafs,  with 
a  flender  crooked  beak,  or  nofe,  to  which  the  reci- 
pient is  to  be  faftcned-  When  the  retort  is  of  glafs, 
it  is  ufually  lined  with  a  lute  of  parte  an  inch  thick, 
to  enable  it  to  bear  the  fire  the  better.  The  retort 
ferves  to  draw  fpirits  and  oils  from  woods,  gums, 
minerals,  earths,  and  other  matters  which  require 
a  ffrong  fire. 

'The  retort  is  a  kind  of  compendium.,  or  improve- 
ment of  the  cucurbite  and  bolthead,  anfwering  all 
the  purpofes  of  both,  without  the  afliftance  of  a 
capital,  or  head,  which  the  other  frequently  re- 
quires. 

Pelltcan,  is  a  kind  of  double  veflel,  ordina- 
rily of  glafs,  ufed  in  diftilling  liquors  by  circu- 
lation. 

Serpentine,  or  worm,  is  a  pipe  of  copper,  or 
pewter,  twiffed  into  a  fpiral,  and  ai'cending  from 
the  bottom  of  the  alembick  to  the  capital,  and  ferv- 
ing  as  a  refrigeratory  in  the  diftillation  of'  liquors. 

Recipient,  or  receiver,  is  an  appendage  of 
an  alemb'ck,  retort,  isV.  being  a  vefTel  luted  to  the 
beak  thereof,  to  receive  the  liquor  raifed  in  diltilla- 
tion,  i^c. 

Matrass,  is  a  glafs  vefTel  ufed  in  diftillation, 
and  other  operations.  The  matrcifs  is  made  in 
form  of  a  bottle,  fomewhat  bellied  in  the  middle, 
with  a  long  narrow  neck.  It  is  luted  v/ith  earth, 
when  it  is  to  be  placed  on  a  very  hot  fire ;  when  it 
is  required  it  fliould  be  flopped  very  clofe,  we  feal 
it  hermetically. 


Crucible,  from  the  French,  ereufef,  which  fig- 
nifies  the  fame,  is  a  little  veflel,  ordinarily  of  earth, 
fometimes  iron,  without  any  handle ;  wherein 
Chymijh,  coiners,  goldfmiths,  glaziers,  and  other 
artificers  ufe  to  melt  and  calcine  gold,  filver,  or 
other  metals,  whereon  they  work.  Earthen  cruci- 
bles are  made  of  potters  clay,  with  ftone  potfherds 
pounded  and  fifted.  They  are  of  various  fizcs,  but 
generally  of  the  fame  form,  which  refembles  that 
of  an  inverted  cone,  or  pvramid.  Iron  crucibles 
are  in  form  of  little  buckets,  without  handles, 
made  of  iron  well  forged  and  hammered.  The 
beft,  and  ftrongefl  earthen  crucibles,  are  thofc 
made  in  Germany. 

CoPPEL,  copel,  or  co'ipelle,  is  a  vefTel  ufed  to  trv, 
and  purify  metals.  "The  coppel  of  may,  is  a  little 
flatvefTtl,  made  of  vine  aflies  and  bones  of  fiieep's 
feet  calcined,  and  lixiviated,  to  feparate  the  falts, 
which  would  otherwife  make  it  crackle.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  vefTel  is  a  little  cavity  filled  with  a 
kind  of  white  varnifh,  compofed  of  hartfhorn,  or 
pike-bones,  calcined,  and  diluted  in  water.  '  he 
ufe  of  this  liquor  is^  that  the  gold  or  filver  to  be 
elTayed  may  be  more  conveniently  lodged,  and  that 
the  button  of  the  efTay  may  be  feparated  the  moie 
eafily. 

Lingotierre,  or  tngotierre,  is  a  mould,  or 
cavit\',  wherein  we  caft  our  melted  metals,  or 
regulus  of  antimony. 

Of  Minerals. 

Being  thus  furnifhed  with  necefTaries  for  per- 
forming any  experiment,  let  us  begin  with  mi- 
nerals. And, 

Firji,  let  us  begin  with  |-5A/,  thatchief  of  metals. 
Gold  cannot  be  diftblved  radically,  fo  as  to  feparate 
from  it  fait  and  fulphur.  But  though  it  receives  no 
change  for  health  ;  yet  the  preparations  made  from 
gold  vrxth  fpirits  are  highly  valued  ;  for  it  is  thefe 
fpirits  that  give  certain  determinations  to  gold  ac- 
cording to  their  nature,  and  makes  it  operate,  as  it 
is  frequently  known  to  do.  For  example. 

The  aurum  Julwinans,  is  gold  impregnated 
with  fome  fpirits,  which  difperfe  its  particles  with 
violence  when  put  in  the  fire.  The  operation 
is  made  in  the  foUov/ing  manner. 

Take  what  quantity  you  pleafe  of  gold  reduced 
into  filings,  put  it  into  a  vial,  or  matrafs,  pour  over 
it  three  or  four  times  its  \{e\<^to\ aquaregalis:  place 
the  matrafs  over  a  very  moderate  farKi-heat,  and  leave 
it  there  'till  the  aqua  rcgalis  has  difTolved  as  much 
gold  as  it  can  contain,  which  you'll  know  by  the 
ebullitions  being  over;  pour  by  inclination  the 
liquor  into  a  glai's  ;  and  if  any  of  the  goli  be  left  in' 
the  matrafs,  have  it  difiblved,  as  before,  v/ith  fome 

aqua 


C  H  r  M  I  S  r  RT, 


399 


a<]ua  regalis.  You  muft  mix  your  dinblutions,  and 
afterwards  pour  over  the  mixture  flowly,  (bme 
volatile  fpirit  of  fal-ammoniac,  or  oil  of  tartar  per 
deliqu'nim.  There  will  happen  an  effervefceuce  with 
heat,  and  you'll  fee  the  gold  precipitated  at  the 
bottom  of  the  glafs  in  a  yellow  powder.  Leave  it 
to  fettle  a  long  while ;  and  to  lofe  none  of  the  gold, 
pour  over  it  as  much  common  water  ;  then  having 
poured  by  inclination  all  the  liquor,  you  11  wafa 
your  powder  with  warm  water  till  it  is  grown 
infipid  ;  after  which  it  mud:  be  dried  on  a  paper,  at 
a  very  flow  heat,  becaufe  fire  catches  it  ea'ily,  ai'd 
the  powder  flies  off  with  much  noife.  If  you  have 
employed  a  dram  of  gold,  you'll  extradt  four  fcru- 
pies  of  gold  fulminans,  very  dry ;  fome  call  it  chalk 
of  gold. 

This  preparation  of  gold  is  prefcribed  to  provoke 
fweat,  and  expel  the  malignant  humours  by  per- 
fpiration;  it  is  adminii1:tred  in  the  fmall  pox,  from 
two  to  fix  grains,  in  lozenges,  or  in  an  ele<Sluary. 
It  flops  vomiting,  and  is  likewife  very  proper  to 
moderate  the  too  violent  aftion  of  mercury. 

Silver,  the  fecond  in  dignity  among  metals,  is  the 
finefl,  the  pureil,  mofl  duclile,  and  moll  precious  of 
them,  except  gold.  'Tis  called  Moon,  becaufe  of 
its  colour,  and  the  influences  vvhich  aftrologers 
imagine  it  receives  from  the  moon. 

Sdv,  r  can  be  adminiffered  like  gold,  in  mnladies 
cauied  by  having  taken  n  too  great  quantity  of  mer- 
cury ;  for  it  amalgamates  very  well  wiih  it,  and 
hinders  its  motion. 

The  ckymical  preparations  of  ftlvcr,  which  we 
iiiall  exemplif) ,  are  called  cryjlah  of  fiher,  or  vitriol 
oj  the  moan. 

This  operation  is  filver  penetrated  and  reduced 
in  form  of  fair,  by  the  acid  points  of  fpirits  of 
nitre;  which  to  perform,  we  caufe  two  ounces  of 
filver  of  ccppel  to  be  diflolved  in  tv/o  or  three  times 
as  much  fpirit  of  nitre,  pouring  this  difTolution  into 
a  fmall  ciuurhite  of  g-iafs,  and  caufing  a  fourth  part 
of  the  humidity  to  be  evaporated  at  a  very  flow 
fand  heat;  and  what  remains  being  left  to  cool 
without  moving  it,  cryftals  will  be  formed  upon  it. 
which  muft  be  feparated  from  the  humidity  ;  and 
having  been  dritd,  they  are  to  be  kept  in  a  vial  very 
well  corked.  Then  we'll  have  half  of  the  liquor 
remaining  evaporated,  and  cryCrallized,  as  before  ; 
which  evaporations  and  cr)ftallizations  muft  be 
reiterated,  till  all  the  fiher  l^-  extra£ltd  in  cryffals. 

Thefe  crvffals  are  ufed  otitwardlv  for  rauflicks, 
and  adminiffered  inwardly,  from  one  (/rain  to  three, 
for  the  dropfy,  in  (bme  waters  appropriated  to  the 
diftemper.  It  purges  the  ferofities  of  the  abdomiCn. 

Another  chymical  preparation  of  f:h<cr,  is,  the 
lapis  inftrnalis,   or   the  perpetual  caultick,  which 


is  filver,  rendered  cauflick  by  the  falts  of  fpirit  of 
nitre,  in  the  following  manner : 

We'll  take  asmuch  as  we  pleafe  of  refined /A  er, 
which  we'll  put  to  ho  diflolved  in  a  vird,  with  twice 
or  three  times  as  much  of  fpirit  of  nitre;  and  put 
afterwards  our  vial,  thus  filled,  to  a  fand- heat,  to 
have  two  thirds  of  the  humidity  evaporated,  throw- 
ing what  rem.ains  into  a  good  German  crucible,  and 
a  pretty  big  one,  becauieof  the  embullitions  which 
v/ill  happen.  This  crucible  muff  be  put  into  a  (mall 
fire,  r.nd  left  there  till  the  matter  being  much  rare- 
fied, iails  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  crucible  ; 
then  the  fire  mufl  be  increafed,  and  the  matter  will 
become  like  oil  ;  at  which  time  it  muff  he  thrown 
into  a  lingotierre.  or  mould,  where  it  will  coagulate. 
This  lapis  infervalls  is  to  be  kept  in  a  vial  well 
cor'ied,  and  w  ill  be  a  perpetual  cauflick,  provided 
it  is  not  left  expofcd  to  the  air.  If  we  have  em- 
ployed an  ounce  oi  filver,  we  fhall  have  an  ounce 
and  five  drachms  of  lapis  infrnalis. 

The  next  metal  in  order  and  dignity  is  Tin  ; 
which,  not  being  of  a  malleable  nature,  cannot 
be  reduced  into  a  powder  after  the  ufual  ways  of 
powdering.  Therefore  1 11  give  you  a  method  how 
to  do  it  eafily  enough. 

Melt  in  a  crucible  what  quantity  of //«  you  think 
fit,  and  caft  it  into  around  v  oodcn  box,  that  has 
Deen  rubbed  within  on  all  fides  with  a  piece  of 
chalk,  enough  to  whiten  it,  cover  this  box,  and  pre- 
fently  fhake  it  about,  until  your  tin  is  become  cold, 
and  lo  you'll  find  it  converted  into  a  gray  powder. 

Lead  may  be  pulverized  after  the  fame  manner. 
The  wooden  box  mufl  be  round,  becaufe  that 
figure  is  the  mo!t  proper  to  fliake  a  thing  in;  and 
the  clefts  of  the  box  mult  be  joined  together  a-s 
clofe  as  may  be  ;  and  but  little  of  the  tin  muff  be 
put  into  the  box  at  a  time,  that  the  parts  may  be 
the  better  able  to  feparate  and  fall  into  a  powder, 
by  means  of  the  motion  or  agitation.  Indeed  the 
thing  may  be  done  without  lubbing  the  box  with 
chalk,  but  by  this  means  the  melted  tin  is  hindered 
from  burning  the  box,  as  it  otherwife  would. 

Lead,  called  alfo  Saturn,  is  a  coarfe,  heavy, 
impure  metal,  of  all  others  the  foftefl:  and  mofi 
fufible,   when    purified. 

Lead  contains  a  little  mercurv,  fome  fulphur, 
and  a  great  deal  of  bituminous  earth. 

There  are  five  ehymieal  preparations  to  be  made 
of  lead,  viz.  calcination  of  lead,  fait  oi  faturn, 
magiflerium  of  faturn,  balfam  or  oil  of  faturn,  and 
dillillation  of  the  fait  of  faturn. 

We'll  begin  by  the  calcination  of  lead.  For  the 
calcination  of  lead,  we  mufl  have  it  melted  in  an 
earthen  pan,  which  is  not  glazed,  and  is  not  to  be 
flirted  with  a  fpatub,  till  it  be  reduced  into  pow- 
der. 


Tlje   Univerfal  Hiftory  (j/Arts  ^??<a^  Sciences. 


400 

der.  If  we  increafe  the  fire,  and  calcine  the  matter 
for  an  hour  or  two  longer,  the  lead  will  be  more 
open,  and  more  proper  to  be  penetrated  by  acids 
If  we  calcine  that  pnvder  at  a  reverberatory  fire, 
during  three  or  four  hours,  it  will  turn  red,  and  it 
is  what  we  call  minium. 

Lead  is  alfo  prepared  into  cerufe,  by  expofing  it 
to  the  vapour  of  vinegar,  for  then  it  changes  into 
a  white  ruft,  which  is  gathered  and  formed  into 
(jiiall  cakes.  To  make  what  we  caW  plnmbutn  uftum, 
or  burnt  lead,  we  muft  melt  two  parts  of  lend  in  a 
pot,  or  in  a  crucible,  ami  add  to  it  one  part  of  ful- 
phur  or  brimflone,  to  which  we  mufl:  fet  fire,  and 
whtn  the  brimftone  is  burnt,  the  matter  is  found 
in  a  black  powder,  which  is  the  plumbum  ujlum. 

All  thefe  preparations  of  lead  are  deficcative, 
they  are  mixed  in  unguents  and  plaillers,  and  unite 
thcmfelve.s  in  boiling  with  oils  and  greafe,  and  give 
them  a  confiiknce. 

To  make  the  fait  of  fat  urn,    which  is    a  lead 
penetrated,  and  reduced  in  form  of  fait  by  the  acid 
of  vinegar,    we'll   reduce  the  cerufe  into  powder, 
which  we'll  put  into  a  large  glafs  or  ftone  veffel  ; 
we'll  pour  uponit  diftilled  vinegar  to  the  heighth  of 
four  fingers,  there  will  happen  an  effervefcence  of 
a  fenfible  heat.     The  whole  is  to  be  put  in  digef- 
tion  at  a  fand-heat  for  three  or  four  days,  ftirring 
the  matter  from  time  to  time,  then  leaving   it  to 
fettle,  and  pouring  out  the  liquor  afterwards  by  incli- 
nation ;    which  done,    new  diftilled  vinegar  muft 
be  poured  on  the  cerufe  left  in  the  vefl'el,  proceed- 
ing as  before,   continuing  to  pour  on  dillilled  vi- 
negar, and  to  pour  out  the  liquor  by  inclination, 
'till  very  near  half  the  matter  be  diffolved.     Then 
we'll    mix    all    our   impregnations   together,    and 
having  poured  them   into  a  fione  or  glafs  vefl'el, 
we'll  have   evaporated,    at  a  very  flow  fand  heat, 
about  two  thirds  of  the  humidity,    or  'till  a  fmall 
pellicle  be  formed  over  it  ;  then  we'll  take  the  vef- 
fel foftly  off  the  fire,  and   leave  it  to  cool  without 
ftirring  it  :  there  will  be  formed  cryftals  upon  it, 
which  we  mufl:  take  ofF,  and  caufe   the  liquor  to 
be  evaporated  as  before,    and  put  it  to  cool,  con- 
tinuing the  evaporations  and  cryfl:allifations  'till  we 
have  extrafted  all  our  fait,  which  muft  be  dried  in 
the  fun,  and  kept  in  a  glafs  vefl'el.     If  we  defire 
to  have  our  fait  whiter,  we'll  have  it  melted   in  an 
equal  quantity  of  diftilled  vinegar  and  common  wa- 
ter, then  filtrated  and  cryftalliied  as  before. 

Salt  of  faturn  is  commonly  employed  in  poma- 
tums for  ringworms  and  inflammations  ;  we  alfo 
ufe  the  impregnation  of  Saturn,  made  with  diftilled 
vinegar  for  all  cautaneous  diflempers  ;  when  mixed 
with  a  great  deal  of  water,  it  makes  a  white  liquor, 
called  lac  virginale. 


Salt  if  faturn  taken  inwardly  is  efteemed  very 
good  for  the  fquinancy,  to  flop  the  immoderate  fiux 
of  menfes,  of  piles,  and  the  dyfcnteria.  The 
dofe  is  from  two  to  forty  grains  in  plantain-water, 
or  mixed  in  gargariliiis. 

Magijlerium  of  faturn,  is  /i-fl^diflfjlved  and  pre- 
cipitated in  the  following  manner :  we  muft  diflolve 
two  or  three  ounces  oi  fait  of  faturn,    purified  as 
above,  in  a  fufficicnt  quantity  of  water  and  diftilled 
vinegar;    we'll  filtrate   the  diflLlution,    and  drop 
upon  it  oil  of  tartar  per  deliquium,  which  forms  at 
nrft  a  fort  of  milk,    then  a  coagulum,  which  pre- 
cipitates  in  a  white  powder  to  the  bottom  of  the 
vefTel  ;  the  whole  muft  be  mixed  again  together, 
and  poured   into  a   funnel  lined  with  grey  paper  : 
the  liquor  will  run  thro'  clear  as  water,  and  the 
powder  remain,   which    is   to   be  waflied    feveral 
times,    by  pouring  water  upon  it,  to  carry  off  the 
impreflion  of  the  vinegar  ;    afterwards  it   muft  be 
dried,   and  we  fhall  have  a  very  white  magijlerium, 
employed  for  beautifying  the  face  ;  it  is  al;o  mixed 
in  pomatum  for  ringworms. 

Balfam,  or  oil  of  faturn,  is  a  diflblution  of  the 
fait   of  faturn  in  oil  of  turpentine  ;    done  in  this 
manner :   eight  ounces  of  fait  oi  faturn,  in  powder, 
is  put  in  a  matrafs,  and  fpirit  of  turpentine  pour'd 
upon  it,  that  it  may  fwim  over  to  the  height  of  four 
fingers  ;   the  matrafs  muft  be  placed   at   a  flow  fire 
of  fand,  in  digeftion  during  a  whole  day  ;  then  we 
fhall  have  a  red  tincture  :  we'll  pour  out  the  liquor 
by  inclination,  and  pour  more  fpirit  of  turpentine 
on  the  matter  left  in  the  matrafs  ;  we'll  leave  it  in 
digeftion,  as  before,  pouring  out,  likewife,   by  in- 
clination, the  liquor,  which  will  have  fome  colour: 
then  we'll  put  our  diffolutions  into  a   glafs  retort, 
which  we'll  place  at  a  fand-heat,  and  having  adapted 
a  recipient  to  it,  we'll  diftil,  with  a  moderate  fire, 
very  ne.^r  two  thirds  of  the  liquor,  which  will  be 
the  fpirit  of  turpentine  :   we'll  put  out  the  fire,  and 
the  retort  being  cold,  well  pour  what  it  contains 
into  a  vial,  to  keep  it.     This  halfam  of  faturn '\s 
excellent  to  cleanfe  and  cicatrize  ulcers.   The  moft 
malignant  fliankers  are  touched  with  it,    becaufe 
they  refift  putrefadiion. 

The  dijiillatim  of  the  fait  of  faturn,  is  a  fepa- 
ration  of  the  fubftanccs  contained  in  that  fait ; 
which  ought  to  be  effecred  thus  :  two  thirds  of  a 
ftone  or  glafs  retort  muft  be  filled  with  fait  oi faturn, 
which  retort  is  to  be  placed  in  a  furnace,  and  a 
pretty  large  recipient  adapted  to  it,  luting  exadly 
the  joints,  and  giving  under  the  retort  a  flow  fire  at 
firft,  then  increafing  it  by  degrees,  and  towards  the 
end  puftiing  it  with  that  violence  as  to  make  the 
retort  red-hot,  then  leaving  the  vefiels  to  grow 
cold  ;   after  which,  they  muft  be  unluted  :     what 

is 


CHTMISTRT. 


is  contained  in  tlie  recipient,  muft  be  poured  into; 
an  alembick  of  glafs,   and  redlified  by  diftilling  at  I 
a  flow  fand-heat,  very  near  half  the  liquor;   which  | 
done,  we  (hall  have  a  fpirit  of  faturn,  as  inflamma- 
ble as  brandy,  and  of  an  acerb  tafte. 

This  fpirit  is  very  good  to  refill:  the  putrefaftion 
of  the  humours.  It  is  given  to  hypochondriaclc 
melancholicks,  from  8  to  i6  drops,  in  broth,  or 
other  liquors  appropriated  to  the  diftemper  ;  and  it 
muft  be  ufed   15  mornings  fucceflively. 

The  other  half  of  the  liquor  left  in  the  alem- 
bick, is  improperly  called  oil  of  fat  urn  ;  it  is  good 
to  cleanfe  the  eyes  of  horfes. 

Having  done  operating  upon  had,  we'll  pafs  to 
Copper,  which  is  a  hard,  dry,  heavy,  and  of  all 
metals  the  moft  duftile  and  malleable,  after  gold 
and  fdver,  and  abounds  much  in  vitriol  and  fulphur. 

Aflrologers  call  it  Venus  ;  and  by  the  analyfis  it 
appears  compofed  of  a  fulphur  ill  digefted,  a  ycl- 
lowifli  mercury,  and  a  red  fait. 

The  calcination  of  copper  is  a  feparation  made 
of  its  muft  volatile  oily  particles,  by  means  of  com- 
mon fulphur  and  fire,  to  render  it  more  compaift ; 
which  to  perform,  muft  be  ftratified  in  a  large  cru- 
cible, lamina  of  copper,  with  brimftone  in  powder  ; 
the  crucible  is  to  be  covered  with  a  tile,  or  forr.e 
thing  clfe  which  has  a  hole  in  the  middle  for  the 
evacuation  of  the  fmoak.  The  crucible  is  placed 
in  a  wind  furnace,  and  a  great  fire  made  round  it, 
till  no  more  fmoak  appears  ;  when  the  lamina  mud 
be  taken  out  quite  hot,  and  feparated.  This  is 
the  cei  ufium,  or  burnt  copper,  employed  in  exter- 
nal remedies  as  a  deterfive.  It  may  be  reduced  into 
powder  in  a  mortar. 

Iron,  is  a  hard,  fufible,  and  malleable  metal, 
very  porous,  compofed  of  vitriolick  fait  and  ful- 
phur, very  ill  mixed  and  digefted  together  ;  there- 
fore the  diflblution  of  its  parts  is  eafily  made.  Iron 
is  alfo  called  Mars,  contains  a  vitriolick  acid,  it  is 
neverthelefs  an  alkali ;  becaufe  it  ferments  with 
the  acids,  which  will  not  at  all  appear  furprizing, 
when  we  confider  that  there  is  a  great  deal  more  of 
earth,  than  fait,  in  that  metal  ;  and  that  this  earth 
keeping  the  fait  embarrafled,  it  has  enough  pores 
left  to  receive  the  points  of  the  acids  poured  over  it, 
and  to  do  the  ofEce  of  an  alkali. 

The  Mars  is  almoft  always  aftringent  through 
the  abdomen,  becaufe  of  its  terreftrial  particles  ; 
and  aperitive  by  urine,  not  only  becaui'e  of  its  fait, 
which  is  penetrating  ;  but,  likewife,  becaufe  the 
abdomen  contrafting  itfelf,  the  humidities  are  fil- 
trated by  urine. 

There  are  eleven  chymical  preparations  made  of 
iron,  viz.  three  forts  of  aperitive  crocus  martis,  af- 
tringent crocus  martis,  two  forts  of  fait,  or  vitriol 
of  mars,  fpirit  of  mars,  tinilure  of  mars  with  tar- 


401 


tttr,  extras  cf  mars  aperitive,  extraSf  of  mars  af- 
tringent, and  diaphoretlck  of  mars.  Some  of  which 
follow. 

The  aperitive  crocus  martis,  is  but  the  ruft  of 
iron,  made  by  lamina  of  iron  ;  which  wafhed  are 
expofed  to  the  dew  for  a  confiderable  time,  where 
they  will  grow  rufty.  This  crocus  is  the  beft  of  all 
the  preparations  of  iron  called  crocus.  It  is  excellent 
for  the  obftrudlions  of  the  liver,  the  pancreas,  and 
the  mefentery.  It  is  ufed  with  fuccefs  for  the  re- 
tention of  the  tnenfcs,  the  dropfy,  and  other  mala- 
dies proceeding  from  epilations.  The  dofe  is  from 
ten  grains  to  two  fcruples,  in  lozenges,    or  pills. 

We'll  prepare  next  the  fait,  or  vitriol  of  mars, 
which  is  iron  penetrated,  and  reduced  in  the  form 
of  fait,  by  an  acid  liquor,  thus  :  we'll  take  an  iron 
pan,  very  clean,  and  pour  into  it  an  equal  weight  of 
(pirit  of  wine,  and  oil  of  vitriol  extracted  from 
EngUJl)  vitriol  ;  we'll  expofe  the  pan,  for  fome 
time,  to  the  fun,  and  leave  it  afterwards  in  a  dark 
place,  without  ftirring  it ;  when  we  fliall  fee  the 
liquor  incorporating  itfelf  with  the  ot^tj,  and  form- 
ing a  fait,  which  muft  be  left  to  dry,  or  harden  : 
then  it  muft  be  feparated  from  the  pan,  and  kept  in 
a  bottle  well  corked. 

Thisy^iV^  is  an  excellent  remedy  for  all  maladies 
proceeding  from  obftructions-  The  dofe  is  fiom 
iix  grains  to  a  fcruple,  in  broth,  or  fonie  other  li- 
quor appropriated  to  the  diftemper. 

The  preparations  of  ^ichflver  are  worthy  of 
particular  attention. 

Wc  won't  difpute  whether  this  be  a  metal  ox  fe- 
mimetal :  our  bufinefs  is  to  mnke  it  ulcfid  to  the 
human  body.  Which  may  be  done  beft  by  chy- 
mical preparations. 

It  is  called  juercury  in  the  fhops,  which  have 
fourteen  preparations  of  it,  vi%.  the  Mthiops  m:m- 
ral,  the  black  inercurial  panacea,  the  corrofive  fubli- 
mate,  the  fublimate  mercury,  called  aquila  alba,  the 
mercurial  panacea,  the  ivhite  precipitate,  another 
white  precipitate,  xht  red  precipitate,  the  red  preci- 
pitate without  additioti,  the  green  precipitate,  the 
turbith  mineral,  or  yellow  precipitate,  the  oil  or  li- 
quor of  mercury,  another  oil  of  mercury,  and  another 
'precipitate  of  mercury. 

The  j^thiops  mineral,  is  a  m.ixture  of  mercury 
and  fulphur,  made  by  putting  in  tufion,  on  the  fire, 
what  quantity  we  pleafe  of  fulphur  in  an  earthen 
pot,  without  glazing,  and  which  will  bear  the  fire, 
and  mixing  with  it,  by  degrees,  with  an  iron  fpa- 
tula,  an  equal  quantity  of  quickfilver  ;  we'll  fet 
fire  to  the  mixture,  and  the  fulphur  being  burnt, 
it  will  remain  a  black  mafs,  friable  and  ponderous, 
which  muft  be  left  to  cool,  and  afterwards  fepa- 
rated from  the  pot,   and  kept. 

This 


402  77?^  Univerfal  Hidoty  of  Arts  and  Siciekces. 


This  pi-epriration  is  g-ood  for  the  afthma,   epilcp- 
fv,  rhcutnntirm,  venerea!  tiifeafe,  aiid  for  fcrophu 
la's,   ami   the  king's  evil.     It  operates  chiefly   by 
perfpiration,  and  leldom   by  falivation.     The  dofe 
is  from  tight  grains  to  two  fcruples,  in  a  bolus. 

The  h/t:d  m^rcuy'ta! panacea,  which  is  our  fecond 
operation  on  mercury,  is  mercury  penetrated,  and 
impregnated  wi.h  fome  portions  of  lulphur  and  fa! 
aviinoiiitjc,  tliiis  :  vvc  put  in  fufion  in  an  earthen 
pot  without  glazing,  four  ounces  of  fulphur,  or 
biimftone  ;  we  take  it  off  the  fire,  and  mix  with 
i:,  by  dep-recs,  three  ounces  of  fal  amminiac,  in 
powder  ;  it  then  raifes  a  fmoak,  proceeding  from 
the  phlegm  of  the  fa/  ammoniac  ;  we  feparate  the 
matter  from  the  pot  before  it  is^  quite  hardened,  and 
f.ud  twelve  ounces  and  fix  drachms  of  it  -.  which, 
when  cold,  we  pulverize,  and  put  into  a  matrafs, 
to  fill  but  one  third  of  it  ;  we  place  the  matrafs  in 
a  fand-hear,  and  give  but  a  fmal!  fire,  at  firfi:,  to 
heat  the  vcfitl  ;  then  wc  increafe  it  gradually  to  the 
third  degree,  and  continue  it  during  five  hours,  or 
till  no  more  vapours  come  out  through  the  neck  of 
the  matrafs  ;  then  we  leave  the  vcflel  ti  cool,  and 
break  it  afterwards  :  vve  find  at  the  top  fome  white 
flowers,  which  we  throw  away  as  ufelefs,  and  at 
the  bottom  a  matter  difpofed  by  beds  of  different 
colours  ;  the  firft  yellow,  the  fecond  white,  the 
third  grey,  and  the  fourth  black.  We  pound  this 
matter,  and  put  it  into  a  matrafs,  pufliing  it,  as 
before,  by  a  graduated  fire,  during  feven  hfmrs  : 
then  leaving  it  to  cool,  and  breaking  the  veiTe!,  we 
find  the  matter  difpofed  by  beds  of  different  colours, 
as  in  the  firfl  calculation  ;  which  we  reduce  again 
into  powder,  and  put  into  a  new  matrafs,  puihing 
ity  for  the  third  time,  as  before,  by  a  graduated 
fire,  during  feven  hours  ;  then  breaking  the  ma- 
trafs, we  take  out  the  matter,  rj?duce  it  again  into 
powder,  put  it  in  another  matrafs  and  puln  it,  /or 
the  fourth  time,  by  a  graduated  fire,  as  before,  but 
increafing  it  towards  the  end,  to  make  the  bottom 
of  the  vefftl  red- hot  ;  then  we  break  it,  and  find 
the  matter  fcparated  into  f.vo  beds  of  different  co- 
lours i  that  a-top  is  yellow  and  light ;  and  that  un- 
derneath is  commonly  black  ;  fometimes,  alfo, 
purple,  and  ponderous.  We  take  this  la'1  por- 
tion, which  is  the  />/aci  panacea. 

This  preparation  is  fiidorifick,  proper  for  the 
rheumatifm,  venereal  difeafe,  afthr.ip.,  epilepfy, 
fcrophulce,  worms,  and  to  raife  the  ob'aru£lions. 
The  dofe  is  from  twelve  grains  to  half  a  drachm 
in  a  bolus.  The  vellow  matter  a-top  is  a  mixture 
of  fulphur  and  fal  ammoniac  impregnated  with 
Ibmc  portion  of  mercury.  It  mud;  be  reduced  into 
ppwder,  and  kept.  It  may  be  employed  externally 
for  the  itch,  mi.\ing  two  drachms  of  it  in  an  ounce 
of  pomatum. 


j  Oar  third  preparation,  is  that  of  corrofii:e  fthU- 
tnate,  which  is  mercury  penetrated  by   acids,    and 

'  exalted  by  the  fire,  to  the  lop  of  the  veflel.     T!ic 

\jublimate  mercury  is  prepared  by  putrino-  fixteen 
ounces  of  inercury  into  a  matrafs,  and  pouring  up- 
on it  eighteen  ounces  of  fpirit  of  nitre.  The  ma- 
trafs is  placed  at  a  fmail  fand-heat,  and  left  there 
till  the  dillolution  be  made  ;  which  diflolution  is 
poured  into  a  glafs  veflel,  or  a  <*one  pan,  to  eva- 
porate flowly,   at  a  fand   heat,    all  the  humiditv, 

\  till  it  remains  but  a  white  mafs;  whi^h  muft  be 
pounded  in  a  glafs  mortar,  and  mixed  with  lixteen 

'  ounces  of  vitriol  calcined  white,  and  as  much  decre- 
pitated fait  :  this  mixture  is  put  into  a  matrafs, 
two  thirds  whereof  are  left  empty,  its  neck  having 

i  been  cut  in  the  middle  of  its  height :  this  matrafs 
is  placed  on  the  fand,  and  the  artift  begins  to  give  a 

'  fmall  fire,  which  he  continues  during  three  hours, 

,  and  then  increafes  it;   when  there  will  be  formed  a 

^  fuhlimate  at  the  top  of  the  matrafs  :  the  operation 
muft  be  ended  in  feven  or  eight  hours.  The  ma- 
Ira's  is  left  to  cool,  and  then  broke,  the  artift 
avoiding  a  light  powder,  which  flies  into  the  air 
when  the  matter  is  ftirred.  The  red  drofs  left  at 
the  bottorn  of  the  veflel.  is  thrown  away  as  ufelefs. 
The  corroftve  fublimate  is  a  violent  cfcharotick, 
and  eats  away  proud  flelh.  Half  a  drachm  of  it, 
dilTolvid  in  a  pound  of  lime  water,  turns  if  yel- 
low, which  is  then  called  phaged-  nick  water.  It 
is  ufed  to  wafti  ulcers,  and  tetterous  eruptions. 

Mcrcurius  chilcis,  our  fourth  operation  on  7ner- 
<.ury,  is  the  corrofive  fublimate  diverted  of  its  acid 
fheath,  in  the  following  manner  :  fix  ounces  of 
corrofive  fublimate  are  reduced  into  powder,  in  a 
glafs  or  flone  mortar,  and  twelve  ounces  of  quick - 

Jiher  mixed  with  it ;  the  mixture  is  ftirred  with  a 
vn'oodcn  peftle,  till  the  quickjUuer  be  imperceptible; 
that  mixture,  which  will  be  grey,  is  ])ut  into  fe- 
veral  vials,  or  into  a  matrafs,  two  thirds  whereof 
ought  to  be  empty  :  the  veffel  is  put  in  the  fand, 
and  a  fmall  fire  given  to   it,  at  firfl,  which   is  in- 

1  creafed  afterwards  to  the  third  desjree,  and  conti- 
nued in  that  condition  during  five  hours,  to  fub- 
limate, and  fweeten  the  matter  ;  then  the  veilels 
are  left,  to  cool,  and  afterwards  broke,  wherein  are 
found  three  different  forts  of  matter,  vi%.  a  fmall 
quantity  of  a  light  earth  at  the  bottom,  which  muft 
be  rejcfttd  as  ufelefs  ;  another  matter  adhering  to 
the  neck  of   the  vials,  or  of  the   matrafs,  which 


may  be  kept  to  mix  with  una;uents  for  the  itch  ; 
and  a  white  one  in  the  middle,  which  mufl-  be  ga- 
thered carefully,  pounded,  and  put  into  vials  to  be 
iublimated  a  lecond  and  a  third  time,  proceeding  in 
thefe  two  lal  fublimations  as  has  beeii  done  in  the 
firft.  '  '!  he  matter  f 'und  in  the  middle,  after  the 
laft  fublimation,  will  be  very  well  dulcified. 

This 


CHYMISTRT. 


403 


This  mercur'iut  dulc'is  purges  gently  by  ftool  ;  it 
is  ufed  in  all  forts  of  venereal  difeafes  ;  it  is  difob- 
ftruftive,  and  kills  worms.  The  dofe  is  from  fix 
to  thirty  grains,  in  pills.  If  it  be  fublimated  twice 
more,  itlofcs  its  purgative  virtue,  and  is  more  dif- 
pofed  to  work  by  perfpiration  and  falivation.  If, 
on  the  contrary,  it  be  fublimated  but  twice,  its 
purgative  virtue  will  be  greater. 

The  mercurial  panacea,  is  a  fublimate  of  mer- 
cury dulcified  by  feveral  fublimations,  and  fpirits  of 
wine,  thus  :  We'll  take  what  quantity  v/e  pleafe 
of  the  fuhlhnatc  mercury  laft  mentioned,  which 
having  reduced  into  powder  in  a  fione  or  glafs  mor- 
tar, we'll  put  into  a  matrafs,  three  parts  whereof 
are  to  be  left  empty,  and  its  neck  cut  at  the  middle 
of  its  height ;  which  matrafs  mufl:  be  placed  in  a 
furnace,  at  a  fand-bath,  and  a  fmall  fire  made  under 
it,  during  an  hour,  to  heat  flowly  the  matter  ;  after 
which,  the  fire  is  to  be  increafed  to  the  third  de- 
gree, and  continued  in  that  condition  about  five 
hours,  during  which  time,  the  matter  will  fubli 
jnate.  The  velTel  being  left  to  cool,  and  after- 
wards broke,  a  finall  quantity  of  red  and  light  earth, 
found  at  the  bottom,  mul  be  thrown  away  as  ufe- 
lei's,  and  all  the  fiihllmate  feparated  from  the  glafs 
reduced  again  into  powder,  and  fublimateJ  as  be 
fore  ;  which  fublimations  are  to  be  repeated  feven 
times  more,  changing  the  matrafs  each  time,  and 
each  time  rejedling  the  red  earth  found  at  the  bot- 
tom :  this  done,  the  fublimate  is  to  be  reduced  into 
an  impalpable  powder  on  the  porph.  ry,  and  put  into 
a  glafs  cucurbite,  pouring  upon  it  alcoholized  fpirit 
of  wine,  to  the  height  of  fix  fingers  breadth  ; 
then  the  cucurbite  mud  be  covered  with  its  capital, 
and  the  matter  left  in  infufion  during  fifteen  days, 
flirring  it  from  time  to  time  with  a  wooden  fpatula  : 
at  the  end  of  the  fifteen  days,  the  cucurbite  mufl: 
be  placed  at  the  balneum  marirs,  or  vaporous  bath, 
adapting  a  recipient  to  it :  and  having  luted  exactly 
the  junflures  with  a  wet  bladder,  all  the  fpirits  of 
wine  muft  be  diftilled  by  a  moderate  fire,  which 
accomplifhed,  the  vefTel  is  left  to  cool,  and  being 
unluted  afterwards,  we  fhall  find  our  panacea  at  the 
bottom  of  the  cucurbite,  which  if  not  drv  enough, 
muft  be  dried  at  a  fmall  fand  hear,  by  ftirring  it 
with  a  wooden  fpatula  in  the  fame  cucurbite,  till 
it  grows  into  powder,  which  muft  be  kept  in  a 
glafs  veffel. 

This  panacea  is  a  very  good  rtmedv  for  all  the 
venereal  dileafes,  inveterate  rheumatifms,  obftruc- 
tions,  fcurvy,  king's  evil,  itch,  fcald  heads,  worms, 
afcarldes,  and  old  ulcers.  The  dofe  is  from  fix 
grains  to  two  fcruples,  in  a  bolus,  or  pills. 

The  white  precitiitate  of  mercury,   is  a  mercury 
difiblved  in  fpirit  of  nitre,   and  precipitated  by  fait 
into  a  white  powder,  in  this  manner :  fixteeii  oun- 
19, 


ces  of  crude  mercury  are  difiblved  in  a  glafs  cucur- 
bite with  eighteen  ounces  of  fpirit  of  nitre  :  thedif- 
folution  made,  we'll  pour  upon  it  fil' rated  falt- 
water,  made  of  ten  ounces  of  fea  fait,  melted  in 
two  pints  of  water,  adding  to  the  whole  about 
an  ounce  of  volatile  fpirit  of  lal  rimmoniac  :  then 
there  v>'ill  be  made  a  very  vcbitc  precipitate,  which 
is  to  be  left  to  fettle,  pouring  out,  afterwards,  the 
water  by  inclination,  and  waftiing  the  precipil-.te, 
feveral  times,  with  ipring-water,  and  drying  it  in 
the  fun. 

"This  precipitate  is  ufed  to  excite  a  falivation  ;  it 
is  fomewhat  vomitive.  The  dofe  is  from  four  to 
fifteen  grains,  in  pills.  It  is  alfo  mixed  in  poi:ia- 
tum  for  cutaneous  di'lempers,  from  half  a  drachtn 
to  a  drachm,  for  an  ounce  of  pomafum. 

The  other  fort  of  ivhite  precipitate  is  the  corrofive 
fublimate,  diflblvcd  with  fal  ammoniac  m^'ivJ  in 
water,  and  precipiratcd by  oil  or  tartar,  th. is:  Four 
ounces  of  lal  ammc>iiiac  are  melted  in  iixtecn  oun- 
ces of  water,  the  liquor  ia  filtrated  through  a  grey 
paper,  and  four  O'mc^s  of  corr/n'e  j-d-i  mate,  in 
powder  added  to  it.  which  will  melt  foon  ;  th;;n 
oil  of  tartar  per  cleliquium  is  poured  gently  on  the 
diflblution,  whence  an  ebuiliiion  will  enfue,  and 
afterwards  a  white precip'tate  :  the  artift  continues 
pouiing  the  oil  of  tartar  til;  he  fees  that  nothing 
more  is  precipitated,  then  pours  a  gieat  quantity  of 
water  into  the  vefiel,  and  leaves  the  matter  to  lettle, 
till  the  liquor  grows  clear  ;  tnen  he  pours  out  the 
matter  by  inclination,  wafhing  feveral  times  \ts  pre- 
cipitate-, and  having  it  dri^id,  afterwards,  from  the 
fun,  it  conimonly  turns  a  little  ye, low.  Thispr^- 
cipitate  has  the  fame  virtues  as  the  other,  and  the 
dofe  is  the  fame. 

The  red  precipitate  is  a  mercury  wrapped  in  fpirit 
of  nitre,  and  calcined  by  fire,  in  this  manner  :  i'he 
artift  takes  eight  ouncTes  of  crude  rnercury,  v/hich 
he  caufes  to  be  diiiolved  in  eight  or  nine  ounces  of 
fpirit  of  nitre.  He  pours  the  diflblu  ion  into  a  vial, 
or  matrals,  with  a  Ihort  neck,  which  he  places  on 
the  fand,  and  makes  under  it  a  moderate  fire  to 
evaporate  the  humidity  till  it  remains  nothing  but  a 
wiiite  mafs  :  then  he  puflies  flov.'ly  the  fire  to  the 
thi'd  degree,  and  keeps  it  in  that  condition  till  the 
mafs  is  turned  red,  then  takes  it  oft'  the  lire,  and 
having  left  the  veft'el  to  cool,  he  breaks  it  to  take 
out  the  precipitate. 

This  precipitate  is  an  excellent  efcarotick,  it  eats 
proud  flefh,  it  is  ufed,  mixed  with  burnt  allum, 
jEgyptiack,  and  fuppurative,  to  open  fh;-nk.crs. 

The  green  precipitate  is  a  mixture  of  quick-filver, 
copper,  and  acid  fpirits,  made  in  the  following  man- 
ner. We  will  put  four  ounces  of  quick-fthcr  into 
a  matrafs,  and  one  ounce  of  copper,  cut  into  fmall 
pieces,  into  another.  We  will  pour  upon  the 
F-ff  ^uick- 


404  I'be  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


lu'uk-ftlvcr  four  ounce?  of  fpirit  of  nitre,  or  of  good 
.aquafortis.,  and  on  cop-per  one  ounce  and  a  half  of 
the  fame  diflolvt-nt  :  wc  will  place  our  matraffes  on 
afand  heat,  and  leave  them  there  till  the  metah  be 
diffolved  ;  we  will  mix  our  diirolutions  in  a  (lone 
porringer,  and  caufc  the  humidity  to  be  evaporated 
at  a  fand-hcat,  till  they  be  reduced  into  a  mafs:  we 
will  incrcalc;  the  fire  under  the  porringer  to  calcine 
the  mafs  for  about  one  hour  and  a  half;  we  will 
put  the  fire  out  afterwards,  and  leave  tiie  mafs  to 
cool  ;  then  wc  will  take  out  the  mafs>  and  reduce 
it  into  powder  in  a  ftone  mortar  ;  which  done, 
wc  will  pour  upon  it  diflilled  vinegar  to  the 
heighth  of  fix  inches,  or  there  abouts  ;  we  will 
ftirthe  mixturi:  very  well  together,  and  place  the 
niatrafs  in  digeflion  at  a  fand-heat,  where  we  will 
leave  it  twenty-four  hours,  ftirring  it  from  time  to 
time:  we  will  afterwards  increafe  the  fire  to  make 
the  liquor  boil  for  about  an  hour,  or  'till  the  vine- 
gar has  took  a  green  colour,  inclining  to  blue, 
leaving  it  to  cool,  and  afterwards  pouring'it  out  by 
inclination.  We  will  pour  other  vinegar  upon  what 
remains  in  the  matrafs,  and  proceed,  as  before,  to 
extract  the  tiniSlure,  nftixing  our  difixjlutions  toge- 
ther, and   having  the  humidity  hereof  evaporated, 


Tijis  turbithminera/is  purges  violently  upwards 
and  dbwnWaitls  ;  it  is  prefcribcd  in  the  \cncrcal 
difeafes.  Thfe  dofe  is  from  two  grains  to  fix  in 
pills. 

The  oil  or  liquor  of  mercury  is  prepared  by  put- 
ting into  a  ftone-pan  the  lotions  of  the  white  mafs,. 
of  ivhrch  the  turlith  tmneralis  has  been  made,  and 
caufing  all  the  humidity  to  be  evaporated,  at  a 
fand-hcat  'till  a  matter  remains  at  the  bottom  in 
form  of  fait  ;  then  the  pan  is  to  be  carried  to  the 
cave,  where  it  muft  be  left  'till  almoft  all  the  mat- 
ter be  refolved  into  a  liquor,  which  is  ufed  to  open 
the  venereal  (hankers,  and  to  eat  the  proud  flcfli, 
by  applying  it  upon  them  on  pledgets. 

There  is  another  oil  of  mercury.,  which  is  but 
the  corrofive  fublimate  dilfolved  in  fpirit  of  wine  ; 
thus  :  One  ounce  of  corrofive  fublimate  is  reduced 
into  a  very  fubtile  powder,  and  put  into  a  matrafs  ; 
four  ounces  of  very  well  redfified  fpirit  of  wine  are 
poured  over  it,  the  matrafs  well  flopped,  and  the 
1  matter  left  to  macerate,  in  the  cold,  during  feven 
j  or  eight  hours,  when  the  fublimate  will  be  diflblv- 
ed ;  but  if  fomething  was  left  at  the  bottom,  the 

'  liquor  mufl  be  poured  out  by  inclination,  and  a 

I ,-     --  -        - 


fmall  quantity  of  other  fpirit  of  wine  poured  upon 
jn  a  ftone  or  glafs  vefl'el,  at  a  fand  heat,  'till  the  the  matter  left,  leaving  it  to  macerate  as  before,  to 
matter  appears  in  the  confiftence  of  a  thick  h:ney  ;  '  perfe(5t  the  difTolution  :  thefe  difiblutions  are  mixed. 
then  we  will  take  it  off  the  fire,   it  will  harden  in    and  kept  in  a  bottle  well  corked. 


cooling.  We  will  reduce  it  into  powder  and  keep 
it. 

The  green  precipitate  is  a  fpecifick  for  virulent 
gonorrhoea's  ;  it  is  adminiftered  when  they  run, 
and  to  flop  them  after  they  have  ran  ;  it  may 
be  ufed  in  the  pox  for  the  phimofis  and  ftiankers, 
given  inwardly,  and  applied  outwardly.  The  dofe 
is  from  two  grains  to  fix,  in  pills,  or  in  a  bolus ; 
it  purges  upwards  and  downwards.  There  will  re- 
main in  the  matrafs  a  Jiiatter  which  has  not  been 
diflblved  by  the  vinec(ar,  it  refcmbles  much  the 
turlitb  mineralis  ;  it  muft  be  wafhed  and  dried,  and 
can  be  ufed  in  pomatums  for  the  itch,  a  drachm  to 
an  ounce  of  pomatum. 

The  iurbith  mineralis,  or  yellow  precipitate,  is 
mercury  impregnated  with  the  acid  particles  of  the 
oil  of  vitriol  :  thus,  the  artift  puts  four  ounces  of 
quick-fiher  into  a  glafs  retort,  and  pours  upon  it 
fix  ounces  of  oil  of  vitriol  ;  he  places  his  retort  on 
the  fand,  and  when  the  7nercury  is  diflclved,  he 
makes  a  fire  under  it,  ar.d  diftils  the  humidity  ; 
then  puflies  the  fire  towards  the  end  to  force  out 
one  part  of  the  laft  fj-irits :  he  breaks  afterwards 
his  retort  and  reduces  into  powder,  in  a  glafs  mor- 
tar, a  white  mafs  he  has  found  in  the  retort ;  then 
pours  warm  water  upon  it,  which  water  changes 
the  powder  yellow,  which  he  mundifies  with  feveral 
repeated  lotions,  and  afterwards  dries  it  in  the  fun. 


This  oil  of  mercury  is  fofter  than  the  firft,  and 
proper  for  the  venereal  fhankers,  efpecially  when 
we  fear  the  gangrene  ;  it  may  be  ufed  on  pledgets, 
as  the  other. 

T  here  are  three  other  forts  o( precipitate  of  mer^ 
cury  befides  thofe  heretofore  mentioned,  which  are 
nothing  elfe  but  the  corrofive  fublimate  precipitated 
into  powders  of  different  colours.  Thofe  three 
precipitates  are  prepared  in  the  following  manner. 

Four  or  five  ounces  of  corrofive  fublimate  are 
ftirred  in  a  glafs  mortar,  with  eight  or  nine  ounces 
of  warm  water,  during  one  hour  ;  then  the  liquor, 
is  left  to  fettle,  and  afterwards  poured  out  by  in- 
clination, filtrated,  and  divided  into  three  parts,  in. 
three  vials. 

'I  hen  throwing  into  one  of  thofe  vials  fome 
drops  of  oil  of  tartar  per  deliquium,  there  will  be 
made  immediately  a  reel prec/pitate.  Pouring  into 
another  vial  fome  volatile  fpirit  of  fal-ammoniac, 
there  will  be  made  a  vuhite  precipitate.  And  mix- 
ing in  the  laft  vial  five  or  fix  ounces  of  lime- 
tvater,  there  will  be  made  a  yellow  water,  called 
phagedenic!;,  or  ulcerary,  becaufe  it  is  a  deterfive,. 
and  proper  to  cure  ulcers.  If  the  water  is  left  to 
fettle,   there  will  be  made  th  yellow  precipitate. 

To  take  out  thofe  three  forts  of  precipi'ates,  the 
wat^  muft  be  poured  out  by  inclination  j  they 
miift  be  wafhed,  dried,  and  kept. 

The 


CHTMISJRT. 


TTie  redpridpitaie  Is  ufed  like  the  other  hereto- 
fore defcribed,  but  it  is  not  fo  ftjong,  it  is  the  true 
red  precipitate,  which  is  very  much  efteemed  for 
the  pox.  The  dofe  is  four  grains.  The  white 
precipitate  has  the  fame  virtues  as  the  other  white 
precipitate.  The  yellow  precipitate  is  employed  in 
pomatums  for  the  itch,  mixing  half  a  drachm,  or 
a  drachm  of  it  with  an  ounce  of  pomatum. 

N  te,  AH  the  preparations  of  mercury  hereto- 
fore-mentioned are  but  difguifemcnts  of  that  metal, 
made  by  acids  or  alkali  fpirits,  which  having 
ceafed  it  in  a  different  manner,  make  it  produce 
different  effefls. 

I  (hall  conclude  the  preparations  of  mineral  fiib- 
jcils  with  fome  operations  in  antimony,  which  af- 
lumes  as  many  different  forms,  as  mercury.  We  will 
begin  with  the  Stomachic  of  Poterius,  oxpo- 
ter.  This  is  a  martial  rcgulus  of  antimony  fixed,  and 
mixed  with  gold, thus:  We  reduce  into  powder  four 
ounce  of  martial  reguhis  of  antimony,  and  twelve 
ounces  of  fait  petre.  which  we  mix  exaftly  with 
half  an  ounce  of  fine  gold  ;  and  ha\'ing  made  a 
crucible  red-hot,  between  coals,  in  a  furnace,  we 
throw  into  it  a  fpoonful  of  our  mixture  ;  there  hap- 
pens a  fmall  detonation,  which  being  over,  we 
throw  another  fpoonful,  and  continue  thus  till  the 
whole  mixture  be  in  the  crucible  ;  which  having 
left  to  calcine  for  about  an  hour,  we  throw  it,  af- 
terwards, into  a  large  quantity  of  warm  water,  and 
leave  it  there  fome  hours  to  fteep,  for  the  diffolu- 
.tion  of  the  fait  petre :  we  pour  out  the  water  by 
inclination,  and  having  wafhed  feveral  times  the 
powder  left  at  the  bottom,  we  put  it  to  dry,  then 
calcine  it  again  in  another  crucible  for  the  i'pace  of 
an  hour,  ftirring  it  with  an  iron  fpatula;  then  the 
operation  is  ended. 

This  antimonial  preparation  is  edeemed  proper 
to  ftrengthcn  the  ftomach  and  the  heart,  to  repair 
a  decayed  conftitution,  to  excite  the  pcrfpiration 
of  humours,  to  purify  the  blood,  to  refill  venom, 
to  ftop  hemorrhages,  for  the  pally,  and  for  mala 
dies  caufed  hy  mercury. — The  dofe  is  from  lo  grains 
1030. 

Glass  of  Antimony,  is  a  regulus  of  antimony 
vitrified  by  a  long  fufioii,  in  this  manner  :  we  cal- 
dne,  at  a  flow  fire,  one  poimd  oi  antimony,  in  pow- 
der, in  an  earthen  pan  without  glazing,  (lining 
continually  the  matter  with  an  iron  fpatula,  till  it 
has  done  fmoaking,  and  is  changed  into  a  grev 
powder,  which  powder  mull:  he  put  into  a  good 
crucible  covered  with  a  tile,  and  placed  in  a  wind 
furnace,  where  we  will  make  a  very  violent  fire 
round  the  crucible,  that  the  matter  be  put  in  fufion ; 
about  an  hour  afterwards,  we  will  uncover  the 
crucible,  and  introduce  into  it  an  iron  rod,  where- 


405 


by  we  fliall  difcover  in  faking  it  out,  if  the  matter 
adhering  to  it  be  very  diaphane  ;  and  if  it  be  fo,  we 
will  throw  it  upon  a  hot  porphyry,  where  it  will 
congeal,  and  we  fhall  have  a  very  fine  ;;^/«/i  of  anti- 
mony,  which  we  will  I'^ave  to  grow  cold. 

T\\\%  glafs  is  excellent  in  agues,  but  one  of  the 
moll  violent  emeticks  made  oi  antimony  ;  the  eme- 
tick  wine  is  a  preparation  of  it :  by  having  it  fteeped 
in  white  wine.  It  is  given  in  fubftai-.cc  from  two 
grains  to  fix. 

The  DiAPHfiRETic  ANTiMor/y,  is  the  ful- 
phur  of  that  mineral  fi.xed  by  fait- petre,  which  hin- 
ders it  from  adling  otherwife  than  by  fweat. 

To  make  this  preparation,  we  pulverize,  and 
mix  exa<Sly,  one  j)art  of  antimony  with  three  parts 
of  refined  falt-petre ;  and  having  m.ade  a  crucible 
red  hot,  between  the  coals,  we  throw  into  it  a 
fpoonful  of  our  mi.Kture  :  there  happens  a  detona- 
tion, which  being  over,  we  th/ow  in  another 
fpoonful,  and  continue  thus  till  the  whole  mixture 
is  ill  the  crucible,  leaving  a  very  violent  fire  round 
it  during  two  hours,  that  the  matter  may  liquify, 
or  be  in  a  fort  of  fufion  :  then  we  throw  that  mat- 
ter which  is  white  into  an  earthen  pan  almoll  full 
of  fpring- water,  and  leave  it  to  fteep  during  ten  or 
twelve  hours,  for  the  diffolution  of  the  fixed  falt- 
petre  ;  afterwards  we  pour  out  the  liquor  by  incli- 
nation, and  wafli  the  powder  left  at  bottom  five  ov 
fix  times,  wich  warm  water  and  dry  it.  This  is 
what  we  call  diaphoretic  antimony,  or  chalk  of  an- 
timony. 

This  diaphoretic  antimony  is  fuppofed  to  refift 
venom,  and  confequently  very  good  for  malignant 
fevers,  the  pox,  plague,  and  for  all  other  contagi- 
ous maladies :  it  is  allringent.  Tile  dofe  is  from 
fix  to  thirty  grains. 

Flowers  of  Antimony,  are  the  mod  volatile 
parts  oi  antimony  exalted  by  fire,  thus  :  We  place  in 
a  furnace  a  very  good  earthen  pot,  without  glazing 
which  can  bear  !  re,  which  has  a  hole  in  the  middle 
of  its  height,  with  a  cork  to  it ;  znd  adapt  over  it 
three  other  pots  of  the  fam.e  earth,  without  bottoms 
to  them,  and  on  the  fuperior  pot  a  capital,  with  a 
fmall  vial  for  a  recipient:  we  luteexa^ly  the  'oints, 
and  take  care,  by  means  of  fome  bricks  and  lutes, 
that  the  fire  in  the  furnace  does  not  tranfpire  thro* 
feme  hole  or  other,  but  only  heat  the  bottom  of  the 
inferior  jxit  :  then  we  give  a  graduate  fire,  that  the 
pot  may  heat  by  degrees,  and  grow  red-hot  at  laft. 
When  red-hot,  we  throw  into  it,  thro' the  hole,  a 
fmall  fpoonful  of  antimony,  in  powder,  and  fpread,at 
the  fame  time,with  a  bowed  iron  fpatula,  the  matter 
on  the  bottom  of  the  pot :  v/e  take  out  the  fpatula, 
and  (lop  the  hole,  that  the  flowers  may  afcend.  and 
(tick  againft  the  upper  pots  ;  we  continue  a  greqt_ 
fire  to  keep  always  the  pot  red-hot,  and  when  wc 
F  f  f  2  fee 


72j     Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


4.06 

f.c  that  nolhing  more  fubliniaics,  we  throw  the 
fame  quantity  ofat.timony,  obfcivingthe  fame  rules 
prjfcribed  before,  and  continue  to  throw  thus  into 
the  pot,  till  we  have  flowers  enoug!» :  then  putting 
out  the  fire,  when  the  vtfll-Is  are  cold  we  unlute 
them,  and  find  round  the  three  fuperior  pots,  and 
I  he  capitf.l,  ilie  flowers,  which  wc  gather,  and 
keep  in  a  vial. 

'I'hckf  Divers  cf  antimony  are  a  ftrong  emctick  ; 
they  are  given  for  the  quartan  ague,  intermitting 
fevers,  and  evei)  for  the  cpilepfy.  The  dofe  is  from 
tv^o  grains  to  fix,  in  lozenges,  or  broth. 

Balsam  of  Sulphur  is  a  diflblution  of  the  oily 
p'TWtkks  o(  co/mnan /tilphur,  in  oil  of  turpentine. 
The  operation  is  condu<flcd  thus  :  An  ounce  and  a 
h:i\f  of  flowers  offulpbur  is  put  into  a  matrafs,  and 
e  ffht  ounces  of  oil  of  turpentine  poured  upon  it: 
the  matrafs  is  plated  on  the  fand,  and  a  fmall  fi;e 
of  dio-eftion  given  to  it,  during  one  hour,  which 
fire  is  a  little  increafcd  afterwards,  -.ind  continued 
thus  for  half  an  hour  longer,  and  then  the  oil  takes 
a  red  colour  ;  and  when  the  veflel  is  cold,  the  clear 
balfam  is  feparated  from  ihcfulphur,  which  could 
not  be  dillblved. 

This  haifam  is  an  excellent  remedy  for  the  ulcers 
of  the  lungs,  and  of  the  breaft,  and  for  the  aflhma. 
The  dofe  is  from  one  drop  to  fix  in  fome  liquor  ap- 
propriated to  the  dillemper.  Applied  outwardly  it 
refolves  the  hasmorrhoides  or  piles. 

If  the  balfim  offvlphw  be  prepared  with  oil  of 
annlieed,  inftead  of  that  of  turpentine,  it  will  be 
more  agreeable,  and  not  fo  acrimonious. 

Under  the  head  of  Vegltables,  the  C/ymi/! 
has  a  vaft  variety  of  fubjeiSs  to  exercifc  his  (kill, 
for  the  health  and  other  ufes  of  life.  The  defcrip- 
tion  of  this  part  of  the  creation  has  been  already 
made  in  the  treatife  of  Botany.  What  remains  to 
be  confidered  by  the  Chymij},  is  the  analyfis  of 
thofe  fubjecSts,  and  by  means  of  chymical  operati- 
ons, which  I  propofe  to  exemplify  by  fuch  princi- 
ples as  are  befl:  known,  and  of  moft  ufe  in  me- 
dicine. 

Extract  of  Rhubarb,  is  a  reparation  of  its 
pureft  part  from  the  tereftrial,  made  in  the  follow- 
ing manner  :  We  bruife  fix  or  eight  ounces  of  good 
rhubarb,  which  wc  put  to  fteep  warm,  for  twelve 
hours,  in  a  fufficient  quantity  of  water  of  chicory, fo 
that  the  water  fwims  four  fingers  above  the  rhubarb  ; 
making,  afterwards,  the  infufion  to  boil,  for  about 
a  minute  ;  then  we  drain  the  liquor  through  a  flan- 
nel, pouring  again  the  fame  quantity,  as  before, 
of  water  of  chicory, on  the  rhubarb,:An(.\\t:\\/\ngit  to 
fteep  for  the  fame  fpace  of  time ;  after  which,  we 
ftrain  it  through  the  fame  flannel ;  we  mix  our  im- 
pregnations, or  tiniStures,  and  after  we  have  left 
'  iliem  to  fettle,  wefiluatethem,  and  caufe  the  hu- 


midity to  be  evaporated  at  a  flow  fand-heat,  till  the 
matter  be  reduced  to  the  confiftence  of  thick  honey. 
It  is  what  we  call  extraif  of  rhubarb,  v/iii' h  we 
keep  in  a  pot. 

This  exiraSi  of  rhubarb  purges  gently,  in  bind". 
ing  and  fl;'.iigtheni:]g ;  it  is  proper  for  the  di- 
arrhea, pain  in  tlic  ftomach,  i.iid  to  excite  the 
app'  titc.  It  is  particularly  eflecmed  for  the  ma- 
ladies of  the  liver.  The  dofe  is  from  ten  grains  to 
two  fcruples. 

The  f/3)'OT/tfl/ preparation  of  Cimnamok  is  that 
of  its  oil,  or  cffence,  of  its  <eihercal  -ujaUr,  and  its 
tinfiure  is  extracted  thus  :  Four  pounds  of  the  beft 
cinnamon  are  bruifed,  and  put  to  Keep  in  iix  quarts 
or  twelve  pounds  of  common  water;  the  whole  is 
left  in  digeftion  in  an  earthen  veflel,  well  corked, 
for  nine  or  ten  hours  ;  and  the  infufion  poured  af- 
terwards into  a  larger  copper  alembick,  to  which  is 
adapted  a  lar;;e  recipient,  and  the  joints  thereof  are 
exadly  luted  A-ith  wet  bladders  ;  then  three  or  four 
pounds  of  the  liquor  are  diftilled  at  a  great  fire,  and 
the  alembick  being  unluted  afterwards,  the  diftillei 
water  in  the  recipient  is  decanted  into  the  alem- 
bick, and  the  oil  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  recipi- 
ent put  into  a  vial,  which  mu(t  be  v^rj  well  corked  ; 
the  liquor  is  ditiilled  as  before,  and  the  oil  found 
at  the  bottom  of  the  recipient  mixed  with  that  in 
the  vial  :  thofe  cohobations  are  reiterated  till  no 
more  oil  afcends,  then  the  fire  is  put  out,  and  the 
water  in  the  recipient  reflified  in  the  fame  manner 
we  redtify  the  fpirit  of  wine. 

The  'jil  of  cinnamon  is  an  excellent  corroborative  ; 
it  flrengthens  the  flomach,  and  helps  nature  in  its 
evacuations ;  it  is  given  to  accelerate  the  birth  to 
women  in  labour,  and  to  promote  the  menfes ;  k 
alfo  excites  the  feed. 

The  fpirituous  water  of  cinnamon  has  the  fame 
virtues.  The  dofe  of  the  water  is  two  or  three 
drachms  ;  and  that  of  the  oil  from  fix  to  15  drops. 

The  tinSlure  of  cinnamon  \i  an  exaltation  of  the 
mofl:  oily  particles  of  cinnamon  in  Ipirit  of  wine-, 
prepared  in  the  following  manner. 

We  put  what  quantity  we  pleafe  of  bruifed  cinner- 
mcn  into  a  matrafs,  and  pour  upon  it  fpirit  of  wir.e 
till  it  rifcs  a  finger's  breadth  above  the  cinnamon. 
Wc  ilop  well  the  matrafs,  and  put  it,  in  digeftioii, 
in  a  dunghill,  during  four  or  five  days :  by  that 
time  the  fpirit  of  wine  will  have  took  a  tin£ture 
of  cinnamon  ;  we  feparate  that  tindlure  from  the 
cinnamon,  filtrate  it,  and  keep  it  in  a  vial  well 
corked. 

This  tinflureis  an  excellent  cardiack,  it  flrengtl>- 
ens  the  ftomach,  and  rejoices  all  the  vital  parts: 
the  dofe  is  lefs  than  that  of  cinnamon  water. 

Our  next  operations  are  to  be  on  ^linqulna,  or 
.^;«a^a/n<p}  called  alfo  China  china,  and  Kin  Una. 

QyiK.- 


CHTMISTRT. 


407 


Qj;iNQUiN-A  is  a  medicinal  bark,  brought  from 
t\\tlVeJl  /W/«,  called  a!fo  by  v/ay  of  eminence,  the 
bark;  znd  Cirtex  Pcruvitinuf,  the  Peruvian  bark^ 
from  the  country  whence  it  is  brought  ;  and  popu- 
larly they^^'.v/'/'j/wr/', becaufe  at  itshrft  introdudlion 
it  was  chieHy  fold  and  adminiftered  by  the  JeVuits. 

The  Tincture  of  Quinquin  i,  is  an  ex- 
traction of  its  moft  oleaginous  and  loofe  particles  in 
fpirit  of  wine,  made  in  the  following  manner:  we 
put  into  a  matrafs  four  ounces  of  good  quinquina, 
coarfely  pulverifcd,  and  when  we  have  poured  up- 
on it  enough  fpirit  of  wine  to  raife  it  four  TRngcrs 
breadth  above  the  mitter,  we  flop  the  matrafs  v/ith 
another,  to  make  of  it  a  circulatory  veiFel,  which 
we  lute  exaiSlly,  and  place  in  dung  to  the  vaporous 
bath  for  four  days,  fhaking  the  veiTel  from  time  to 
time  ;  the  four  days  elapfed,  we  unlute  the  vefl'els, 
and  filtrate  the  tiniiure,  which  is  red,  through  a 
grey  paper,  and  keep  it  in  a  bottle,   well  corked. 

This  tinSlureh  a  febrifuge  for  intermitting  fevers, 
which  muft  be  taken  three  or  four  times  every  day, 
at  fome  di(*ance  from  the  paroxifm,  and  the  ufe 
continued  for  fifteen  days  fucceflively.  The  dofe 
is  from  ten  drops  to  a  drachm,  in  water  of  centaury, 
or  of  juniper-berries,  or  wormwood,  or  in  red  wine. 

If  we  fleep  fome  coriander,  or  cinnamon,  in 
•wine,  or  water,  difTolve  fome  fugar  in  the  colature. 
and  mi.x  it  with  the  tiniiure  of  quinquina,  we  fhal! 
have  a  fort  of  febrifuge  ratafia,  which  may  b^' 
eafily  given  to  children. 

The  Extract  of  Qjjinq^ina,  is  a  fepara- 
tion  of  the  moft  fubftantial  particles  of  the  quinqui- 
na, made  thus  :  Eight  ounces  of  quinquina  are  put 
to  fleep,  warm,  in  a  fufficicnt  quaiVLity  of  diflilled 
water  of  walnuts  for  twenty-four  hours,  which 
being  expired,  the  infufion  is  made  to  boil  gently, 
and  after  it  has  been  percolated  with  a  ftrong  ex- 
preflion,  the  quinquina  left  is  put  to  fteep  again  in 
other  water  of  walnuts,  and  the  infufion  made  to 
boil,  and  percolated,  as  before ;  which  done,  the 
colatures  are  mixed  together,  and  left  to  fettle  ; 
when  fettled,  the  clear  liquor  a-top  is  decanted 
and  the  humidity  left  made  to  evaporate,  in  a 
glafs  cr  ftone  veflel,  at  a  flow  far.d  heat,  to  the  con- 
fiitence  of  thick  honey. 

This  exraEl  is  a  febrifuge  like  the  preceding 
ones.  The  dofe  is. from  twelve  grains  to  hall'  a 
drachm,   in  pills,  or  diflolved  in  wine. 

The  dilHllation  of  a  plant  which  is  not  odorife- 
rous, fuch  as  Carduus  Benedictus,  is  con- 
dudled  in  this  manner:  we  pound  in  a  mortar  a 
good  quantity  of  Carduus  bened  iius,  while  in  its 
greatslt  flrength,  and  having  filled  the  third  part 
of  an  a  embick  with  it,  we  draw  by  exprelTion 
a  fufficient  quantity  of  the  juice  of  other  Carduus 
Imedi^us,  which  we  pour  into  the  aUrnbick.,  that 


the  herbs  fwiinming  in  the  juice  may  not  be  iri 
danger  of  (ticking  to  the  bottom  of  the  cucubite 
during  the  diltillation  :  v;e  adapt  a  capital,  with' 
its  recipient,  to  the  cuctirb  tc,  and  having  luted  ex- 
actly the  joints,  we  caufe  to  be  diHilLu,  at  a  lire 
of  the  fecond  decree,  about  half  the  :i<]uo'- 

1  he  -Wdtcr  oi' Carduus benfd'.'Jus  is  fudorifick;  itis 
ufed  in  the  fmall  pox,  plague,  and  malignant  fevers. 

We  exprefs  through  a  linen  cloth  v/hat  remainS' 
in  the  alewl/ick,  and  after  we  have  left  thi' juice  to 
fettle,  and  filtrated  it,  we  caufe  two  thirds  of  the 
humidity  to  be  evaporated  in  a  glal^  or  f:one  veflel, 
at  a  flow  fire,  and  carry  the  veffel  to  a  cool  place, 
where  we  leave  it  for  eight  or  ten  days,  durin'- 
which  time,  there  are  cryftals  formed  round  the 
veflel,  which  we  fcparate,  and  keep  in  a  vial,  well 
corked.  Thefe  rryllals  are  called  ejjcntial  fa't, 
which  is  fudorifick.  The  dofe  is  from  llx  to  fixtcea 
grains,  in  its  own  water. 

Chicory,  fumitory,  fcabious,  and  allother  plants,, 
which  are  not  odoriferous,  and  have  a  deal  great  of 
juice,  are  to  be  diflilled  like  the  Carduus  betu-diSlus;. 
and  this  method  will  ferve  to  extradl  the  ililt  of  any 
plant. 

When  we  want  but  the  fait  fixed  of  fome 
plants,  vve  do  it  by  only  drying  the  plant,  burn- . 
ing  it,  to  reduce  it  into  afhes,  and  throwing 
ihofe  afhes  into  boiling  water,  leave  them  there  to 
fteep;  we  afterwards  filtrate  the  infufion,  and 
cauhng  the  humidity  to  be  evaporated  in  an  earthen 
pan,  we  find  left  in  the  x-eflel  a  brownifli  fait,, 
which  we  calcine  afterwards  in  a  crucible  till  it 
grows  white  ;  which  done,  we  have  it  melted  in 
water,  filtrate  the  diflblution,  and  hare  all  the 
humidity  evaporated  in  an  earthen  pan :  there 
remains  a  very  pure  and  white  fait,  which  we  i.eep 
in  a  bottle,  well  corked.  The  beft  method  to 
extrait  falts  is,  while  in  the  country,  in  fair  wea- 
ther, and  when  there  js  a  great  quantity  of  heibs 
to  be  burnt,  to  dig  a  hole  in  the  earth,  to  put  the 
plant,  well  dried,  into  it,  to  fct  fire  to  it,  and  to 
cover  the  whole  with  ftones,  or  other  earth,  leav- 
ing no  other  aperture  than  what  is  neceftary  for  ths^ 
admiirion  of  air,  to  keep  the  fire:  the  plant  will  be 
burnt  gently,  and  calcined.  The  operation  is  ended 
when  the  earth  a-top  is  quite  cold;  then  the  whole 
is  uncovered  gcntlv,  and  the  afnes  are  found  in  it, 
adhering  to  one  another  by  lumps,  which  is  a  mark 
of  a  good  calcination,  and  of  the  rea.'bnable  quan- 
tity of  fait  they  contain.  The  b^ft  method  to  bum 
plants  in  a  laboratoiy,  is,  to  have  a  furnace  of 
fnfion,  and  placing  that  firnace  under  the  chimney, 
to  fill  it  up  with  the  plant,  well  dried;  and  havina; 
fct  fire  to  it,  to  cover  the  furnace  with  its  dome, 
and  little  chimney.  The  plant  burns  flov.ly  :  when 
it  is'  half  confumed,  the  furnace  is  filled   up  with 

ano 


40  8 


Hoe  Unlverfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  /7;^<a^  Sciences. 


another  quantity  of  it,  continuing  thus  to  put  in 
the  phmt  till  it  is  all  gone,  or  x\\i:.  furnace  is  full  of 
aflics;  then  they  arc  left  to  calcine,  for  if  the  plant 
lias  been  cro'.vd(.d  into  \\iz  fu  nace  every  time  it 
was  put  into  it,  the  aflics  will  remain  lighted  for 
ten  or  twelve  hours  after  they  have  done  fmoaking: 
they  are  gathered  when  quite  cold; 

We'll  make  two  r/jjw/Vc// preparations  of  Rofes, 
viz.  the  u'dliT  of  roft's,  and  thcfpirit  of  rofes. 

Water  of  Roses,  is  a  feparaiion  of  the  mofl 
aqueous  and  odoriferous  part  of  the  rofes,  by 
diftillation,  conduced  thus  :  ten  or  twelve  pounds 
of  rofcs,  the  mofl:  odoiiferous,  gathered  Tome  time 
before  fun  rifmg,  in  dry  weather,  and  fcnarated 
from  their  pcculc,  are  pounded  in  a  mortar  till  they 
are  reduced  to  the  confiftence  of  paffe  ;  and  being 
put  afterwards  into  a  large  copper  cucurhite,  the 
juice  of  other  rofs,  newly  extrafted  is  poured  upon 
them,  till  they  arc  fufficiently  humcfled  ;  then  a 
bolt  head,  with  its  refrigeratory,  and  a  recipient, 
are  adapted  to  the  cucurbitf,  and  the  joints  exadtly 
luted  :  the  cucuriite  thus  prepared,  is  placed  in  a 
furnace  on  a  moderate  fire,  and  the  water  in  the 
refi  igeratory  changed  as  often  as  it  grows  hot : 
when  about  half  the  liquor  is  diftilled,  the  fire  is 
put  out,  for  fear  the  matter  (hould  flick  to  the 
bottom  ;  the  vefTels  are  feparated,  and  what  remains 
in  the  ciumhitc  ftrained  through  a  cloth  with  ex  • 
prefTion  ;  the  liquor,  or  juice  extrafled  from  it,  is 
put  into  a  cucurbite,  aud  two  thirds  of  its  humidity 
diiiilled  at  a  flow  fire  :  this-  fecond  diftillation  is 
mixed  with  the  firft,  and  after.vards  put  in  bottles, 
which  are  left,  uncorked,  expofed  to  the  fun,  for 
fcveral  days,  to  excite  the  fragrancy  of  it;  and  the 
bottles  are  afterwards  corked. 

When  it  is  wanted  to  draw  the  water  of  flowers 
which  have  but  little  humidity,  as  flowers  of  laven- 
der, bctony,  fage,  rcfcmary,  &c.  they  muft  be 
humedted  with  white  wine,  and  h:;\  ing  been  left 
two  days  in  maceration,  they  are  diftilled  in  baluco 
tiuvict,  or  at  the  vaporous  bath. 

1  he  Spirit  of  Roses,  is  an  exaltation  of  the 
mod  oily,  fubtile,  and  eflential  part  of  the  rofcs, 
into  a  liquor  made  in  the  following  manner:  Four- 
teen or  fifteen  pounds  of  damafl'.  rofs,  with  their 
pecule,  are  pounded,  and  put  into  a  large  f'one  pot, 
one  third  whereof,  at  leal!,  is  left  empty;  fix 
pounds  of  juice  of  other  rfes,  but  of  the  fame 
kind,  which  has  been  heated,  and  eight  or  ten 
ounces  of  beer  yeft,  mixed  wiih  it,  are  poured 
upon  it :  the  mixture  is  well  flirreJ  with  a  fiick, 
and  the  pot,  being  well  flopped,  is  put  in  digeflion, 
in  a  dunghill  for  three  or  four  days,  which  bein-j; 
expired,  the  matter  is  put  in  diftillation  to  the 
vaporous  bath  ;  and  when  about  four  pounds  of  the 
liquor  is  diftilled,  the  fire  is   put  out,   the  recipient 


taken  off',    and    what    it   contains   redlified    in  a 
matrafs.  , 

The  rp'irit  of  rofes  fortifies  the  heart  and  fto- 
mach,  either  taken  inwardly,  or  applied  out- 
wardly: it  is  adminiilered  to  men  for  fyncopes,  and 
the  palpitations  of  the  heart  ;  but  is  not  proper  for 
women,  becaufe  it  excites  the  vapours.  The  dofe 
is  from  half  a  dram  to  two  drams,  in  rofe-w ttcr. 

We'll  make  hut  one  fingle  c^jw/trt/ preparation 
of  f  gar,  which  is  xxi  fpirit  \  vi\\\'.\i  fpirit  is  a 
mixture  of  the  acid  of  theyw^ar  with  flowers  of 
fal- ammoniac 5  mads  thus:  We  pulverize  and  mix 
eight  ounces  oi  fugar  candy  with  four  ouncei  of 
fal  ammoniac,  and  fill  a  third  part  of  a  flone  or 
■^\i.kcu:!'.rbite  with  the  mixture  ;  we  adapt  a  capital 
to  it,  and  a  recipient,  lute  exactly  the  joints,  and 
place  it  in  z.  furnace  on  fand,  making  a  fmall  fire  in 
ihe. furnace  for  an  hour,  to  heat  the  veiTe),  then 
increafingit  to  the  fecond  degree,  a  liquor  will  drop 
into  the  recipi:nt,  and  towards  the  end  of  the 
operation  white  vapours  rife  to  the  capi'al,  which 
when  we  perceive,  we  increafe  the  fire  till  nothing 
comes  out  of  the  cucurbite  ;  which  v.  e  unlute,  when 
cold,  and  find  in  the  recipient  four  ounces  of  a 
brown  liquor  of  a  bad  fmell,  and  a  fmall  quantity 
of  black  oil  flicking  to  its  fides.  We  pour  th.e 
whole  into  a  glafs  cucurbite,  and  having  adapted  a 
capital  and  a  recipient  to  it,  and  luted  exactly  the 
joints,  we  diftil,  at  a  fand  heat,  three  ounces  and 
a  dram  of  a  very  acid  fpirit,  clear,  agreeable  to  the 
tafte,  and  without  any  fmell, 

lAt\s  fpirit  of  figar  is  a  very  good  aperitive 
againft:  the  gravej  and  dropfy;  it  is  proper  to  ftop 
diarrhc-ea's  and  dyfenteria's  ;  fome  believe  it  good 
for  the  difeafes  of  the  bicafl.  The  dofe  is  from  ten 
drops  to  an  agreeable  acidity,  in  fome  liquor  appro- 
priated to  the  diftemper.  What  remains  at  the 
bottom  of  the  cucurbite  may  be  ufed  to  clean  old 
ulcers. 

Spi  R  I T  OF  W I NE,  is  tiie  oleaginous  part  of  the 
wine,  rarefied  by  acid  fal  ts,  thus:  We  fill  a  large 
matrafs,  with  a  long  neck,  half  full  of  brandy,  and 
having  adapted  a  capital  and  a  recipient  to  it,  and 
luted  exactly  the  junctures,  we  place  it  on  a  pot 
half  full  of  water,  to  diftil,  at  the  vaporous  bath, 
tne  fpirit,  v\;hich  will  be  feparated  of  its  phlegm, 
'and  afccnd  pure;  we  continue  that  degree  of  fire 
till  it  has  done  diftilling,  and  we  have  a.  fpirit  of 
■ci/iw^divefced  of  its  phlegm,  in  the  firft  diftillation. 
Spirit  of  wine  ferves  as  a  difiolvent  to  feveral 
things  in  Cbymifiiy  ;  half  a  fpoonful  of  it  is  gi\'en 
in  the  apoplexy  and  lethargy,  to  make  the  patient 
come  to  himfelf.  It  is  a  very  good  remedy  for  burns, 
if  applied  as  foon  as  it  is  made ;  it  is  alfovery  good 
for  the  palfy,  contufions  and  other  maladies  where 
the  pores  are  to  be  opejied. 

Spirit 


c  H  r  M  I  s  r  R  r.. 


409 


Spirit  of  wine  with  tartar,  is  a  prepa- 
ration of  the  fpirit  of  ivlne,  which  has  exalted  a 
fmall  portion  of  fait  of  tartar,  in  its  leparation 
from  its  phlegm.  This^preparation  is  made  in  the 
following  manner: 

A  pound  of  tartar  is  put  in  a  glafs  cnctirblte,  and 
four  pounds  of  fpirit  of  ivlne  poured  upon  it  ;  the 
vefll'l  is  placed  in  a  furtiace,  on  the  fand,  and 
covered  with  a  capital,  and  a  recipient  adapted  to 
it,  the  jundlures  having  been  exadlly  luted  with  a 
wet  bladder  ;  a  graduate  fire  is  made  under  it,  and 
continued  till  about  three  parts  ot'{he  fpirit  of  wine 
are  didillcd  ;  then  the  fire  is  put  out,  and  t\\ti  fpirit 
kept  in  a  bottle,  well  corked. 

This  fpiiit  is  more  fub;ile  than  the  common 
fpirit  of  wine,  but  has  the  fame  virtues.  The  dofe 
is  from  half  a  dram  to  two  drams,  in  fome  liquor 
appropriated  to  thediftemper. 

Tartar,  tart  rm,  or  tartarum,  is  a  kind  of 
fait  which  rifes  from  wine,  and  flicking  to  the  top 
and  fides  of  the  cafks,  forms  a  cruft,  which  hardens 
to  the  confifcence  of  a  ftone.  Tartar,  fays  an  in- 
genious author,  has  the  juice  of  the  grape  for  its 
fether,  fermentation  for  its  mother,  and  the  cafk 
for  its  matrix. 

Crystal,  or  cream  of  tartar  is  but  t!.ie 
tartar  purified  of  its  mofl:  terreftrial  particles,  thus: 
we  boil  what  quantity  we  pleafe  of  tartar  in  v/ater 
'^till  it  is  melted,  and  flrain  the  liquor  hot,  through 
a  flannel,  into  an  earthen  veil'el  ;  and  having  caufed 
about  half  the  humidity  to  be  evaporated  on  the  fire, 
we  carry  the  vcffel  to  a  cool  place  for  two  or  three 
days  ;  during  that  time  little  cryftals  are  formed  at 
the  fides  of  the  vcfiels,  which  we  take  out ;  and 
have  again  half  of  what  is  left  of  the  humidity 
evaporated,  carrying  afterwards  the  vciTel  to  a 
cool  place,  where  will  be  formed  cryftals  as  before  ; 
we  continue  thus  'till  we  have  extracted  all  our 
tartar,  which  we  dry  in  the  fun  and  keep  for  ufe. 

The  cream,  or  cry/ial  of  tartar  is  purgative  and 
aperitive,  proper  for  the  dropfy,  afthma,  tertian  and 
quartan  ague.  The  dofe  is  from  half  a  dram  to 
three  drams,    in  broth,  or  fome  other  litjucr. 

When  the  cry/lal  of  tartar  is  taken  in  a  liquor, 
it  mud  be  boiled  in  that  liquor,  and  the  liquor 
drunk  very  hot,  otherwifethe  cryjlal  of  tartar  would 
precipitate  to  the  bottom  of  the  porringer. 

The  Fixed  salt  of  tartar,  and  its  liquor, 
called  oil  per  diliquium,  are  prepared  in  the  follow- 
ing manner  :  We  break  the  retort  which  has  lerved 
for  the  diftillaticn  of  tartar,  and  take  out  the  black 
mafs  found  in  it,  which  we  calcine  between  the 
coals,  'till  it  be  white;  when  v.'hite,  ve  throw  i 
into  a  great  deal  of  water,  and  make  a  lixivium  o 
it,  which  having  filtrated  into  a  glafs  or  fton, 
veffel,  wc  caufe  afterwards  all  the  humidity  to  be 


evaporated  at  a  fand-heat.  There  remains  at  the 
bottom  of  the  vefTel  a  white  fait,  which  is  called 
alkali  fait  of  t at  tar. 

This  fait  is  aperitive,  it  is  ufod  to  cxtra(fi  the 
tiniSture  of  vegetables,  and  given  for  obflruotions. 
The  dofe  is  from  ten  grains  to  thirty,  jn  broth,  or 
in  laxative  iufufions. 

If  this  fait  be  expofed  for  fome  days  in  a  flat 
glafs  or  ftone  veflel,  in  the  cellar,  or  fome  other 
damp  place,  it  will  refolve  into  a  liquor,  impro- 
perly called  oil  of  tartar  per  cleliqui'irn. 

'\\\\s  oil  of  tat  tar  is  ufcd  for  the  ring-worms, 
and  to  refolve  tumours  ;  ladies  mix  it  with  water 
of  white  lilies    to  wafli  their  face  and  their  hands. 

The  extraSl  of  opium,  called  Laudanum,  is 
the  only  chymical  preparation  made  of  it.  J  his 
preparation  is  the  purefl  part  of  the  opium,  ex  traded 
by  rain  water  and  fpirit  of  wine ;  and  fometimes 
reduced  in  confiftence  of  extraiSl  ;  thus :  we  flice 
four  ou.nces  of  good  opium,  and  put  it  into  a 
.matrafs ;  we  pour  upon  it  a  quart  of  rain-water 
very  well  filtrated,  andftop  well  the  matrafs,  which 
having  placed  on  fand,  we  make  a  little  fire  under 
it  at  firfl:,  which  we  increafe  afterwards  by  degrees, 
to  make  .he  liquor  boil  for  two  hours  ;  we  percolate 
that  liquor  while  hot,  and  pour  it  into  a  bottle.  We 
take  the  opium  left  indiflbluble  in  the  rain-water, 
have  it  dried  in  a  pan  on  a  little  fire,  and  put  it 
afterwards  in  a  m.atrafs,  pouring  upon  it  fpirit  cf 
wine  to  the  heighth  of  four  fingers  breadth  :  we 
flop  the  matrafs,  and  put  the  matter  in  digefiion  on 
hot  embers,  for  twelve  hours,  and  percolate  the 
liquor  afterwards.  We  caufe  our  two  difTolutions 
of  opium,  viz.  That  with  rain-water,  and  the 
other-with  fpirit  of  wine,  to  be  evaporated  fepa- 
patelv,  in  ftone  or  glafs  velTels,  at  a  fand-heat,  to 
the  confiftence  of  honey  :  then  mix  them  together, 
and  have  that  mixture  dried  at  a  flow  fire,  to  give 
it  the  confidence  of  pills. 

(here  is  no  other  difference  betv/een- this  folid 
laudanum  and  the  liquid;  but  that  in  the  liquid 
there  is  humidity  enough  left  to  render  it  fluid,  that 
it  may  be  kept  in  a  bottle.  Which  is  effefled  by 
mixing  both  impregnations  together,  without  eva- 
poration of  the  humidity. 

I  he  virtue  of  opium  is,  by  calming  the  too  great 
impetuofity  of  the  fpirits,   to  promote  fie  p. 

txTR.^CT  OF  zAL'.iEs,  is  cloh  depurated  of  the 
drols  it  contains,  in  the  following  mantier :  we 
melt  eight  ounces  oi  ficcotrinc  aloa  on  the  fire,  in 
a  fufHcient  quantity  of  juice  of  rofes,  or  in  a 
ftrona  deco£lionof  flovfrers  of  violetsi-we  leave  the 
!lfi"oiu;ion  to  fettle,  for  the  fpace  cf  fix  hours,  and 
.hen  decant  it,  filtrate  it,  and  make  the  humidity 
ev  iporate  gently,  till  the  matter  has  acquired  a  con- 
.^iftcncc  of  extract,  which  we  keep- in  a  pot. 

This 


410  '72»^  Unlverfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  <3;^^  Sciences. 


This  is  a  vt-fj  good  remedy  to  pucge  the  ftomach, 
in  fortifying  it.  The  dofc:  is  from  fifteen  grains  to 
a  dram,  in  pills. 

They  feldom  purge  before  the  day  following. 
They  excite  the  piles,  and  the  mcnfcs;  becaufe 
aloes  rarefy  the  blood,  by  its  fermenuiive  fait,  and 
pufhes  it,  with  impetuofity,  out  of  the  veins. 

To  prepare  the  Oil  of  J'obacco,  we  Chymijls 
pi't  eight  ounces  of  good  tobacco  bached,  into  a 
glafs  cucurhite^  and  pour  upon  it  about  the  fame 
weight  of  phlegm  of  vitriol ;  we  cover  the  cucur- 
i'lte  with  its  capital,  and  leave  the  matter  in 
digeftion,  on  afand  heat,  for  a  v/hole  day;  then 
adapting  a  recipient  to  the  veffcl,  we  diftil,  by  a 
flow  fire,  about  five  ounces  of  the  liquor,  which 
we  keep  in  a  vial. 

Thisff//  is  a  ftrong  vomitive;  it  is  very  good  for 
ringworms,  and  the  itch,  by  anointing,  gently  the 
parts  with  it. 

A  drop  or  two  of  the  chyrnlcal  oil  of  tobacco, 
being  put  on  the  tongue  of  a  cat,  produces  violent 
convulfions,  and  death  itfelf,  in  the  fpace  of  a 
minute;  yet  the  fame  oil  ufed  on  lint,  and  applied 
■to  the  teeth,  has  been  of  fervice  in  the  tooch-ach  ; 
though  it  muft  be  to  thofe  who  have  been  ufed  to 
the  taking  of  tobacco,  otherwife  great  ficknefs. 
Teachings,  vomitings,  i^c.  happen;  and  even  in  no 
eafe  is  the  internal  ufe  of  it  warranted  by  ordinary 
practice. 

The  Tincture  of  Mvrrh,  is  a  diffolulion  of 
the  oily  parts  of  the  myrrh  in  Ipirit  of  wine,  thus  : 
-we  put  what  quantity  we  pleafe  of  fine  myrrh, 
.pulverized,  into  a  matrafs,  and  pour  upon  it  fpirit 
of  wine,  to  the  height  of  four  fingers  breadth  ; 
we  ftirwell  the  matter,  and  put  it  in  digeftion,  on 
.a  fand  hear,  for  two  or  three  days,  or  till  the  fpirit 
of  wine  be  loaded  with  the  tlnHureoi  the  my  rh : 
we  pojn-  then  the  liquor  by  inclination,  and  keep 
it  in  a  vial,  well  corked. 

Tinilure  of  myrrh  can  be  ufed  to  haften  delivery, 
prom.ote  the  menfes,  for  the  palfy,  apoplexy, 
Jethar^y,  and  all  other  maladies  proceeding  from 
the  corruption  of  humours.  U  is  i'udorifick,  and 
aperitive.  The  dofe  is  from  fix  drops  to  fifteen  in 
fome  liquor  appropriated  to  the  diltemper. 

Let  us  now  proceed  to  the  anhnal  kingdom,  and 
ihew  what  the  chymUol  art  can  do  with  thofe 
principles  for  the  health  and  ufes  of  life.  In  thefe 
operations  we  will  begin  with  the  V':per,  famed  for 
its  2:reat  ufe  in  medicine.  » 

The  firil  preparation  made  of  the  Viper  is  the 
powder,  v.-hich  to  make,  vipers  mull  be  taken, 
while  they  are  in  their  greateft  vigour  ;  the  females 
full  of  eggs,  or  with  young,  are  not  fo  good  as  th;.- 
others;  having  been  fkinned,  gutted,  and  ttuir 
beads  cut  offj^they  are  put  to  dry  from  the  fun,  :.nd 


afterwards  pulverized  in  a  mortar :  but  as  this  pow- 
der is  not  tafily  kept,  bec^uie  worms  get  into  it, 
a  paflc  is  made  of  it,  vtith  a  fufficient  quantity  of 
gum  tragac;;nth  and  troches,  and  fmall  balls  m.ade 
of  it,  v.'hich  m'jfi:be  pulverized,  when  wanted. 

This  powder  is  adminiftcrcd  in  the  fmall  pox, 
malignant  fevers,  and  all  maiadits,  where  it  is 
neceflary  to  refift  venom,  and  to  pui  iry  the  humours 
by  tranfjiration.  The  dofe  is  from  eight  grains  to 
thirty  in  broth,  or  fome  other  liquor  appropriated  to 
the  diftcmperr 

The  heart  and  the  liver  are  dried  in  the  fun, 
pulverized  together,  and  have  the  fame  virtues  as 
the  body  of  the  viper ;  but  the  dofe  is  a  little  lefs. 
This  preparation  is  called  bez9ar  mineral. 

The  gall  of  the  viper  is  fudorifick.  The  dofe  is 
from  cne  to  two  drops,  in  water  of  carduus  baie- 
diSlits. 

The  fat  found  in  the  entrails  of  the  viper,  is 
melted,  then  ftrained,  to  feparate  it  from  its  mem- 
branes :  it  is  clear  as  oil,  and  ufed  in  I'everal  coun- 
tries for  the  fmall  pox,  and  fevers.  The  dofe  is 
from  one  drop  to  fix,  in  broth.  It  enters,  like- 
wife,  in  plaillers,  and  refolutive  unguents. 

But  we  fhould  prefer  the  Distillation  of 
TH£  Viper,  which  is  a  feparation  of  the  princi- 
ples of  ^z  viper,  viz.  of  its  phlegm,  volatile  fait, 
and  oil,  from  its  terreftriety  ;  which  to  perform, 
we  put  fix  dozen  of  vipers,  dried  from  the  fun,  as 
above,  into  a  flone  or  glafs  retort,  which  we  lute, 
and  place  in  a  reverberatory  furnace  ;  we  adapt  a 
large  recipient  to  it,  and  having  luted  exactly  the 
jundfurcs,  begin  the  diliillation  by  a  little  fire,  to 
heat  gently  the  retort,  and  to  bring  out  a  phlema- 
tick  water :  AVhen  we  perceive  that  it  has  done 
dropping,  we  increafe  the  fire  by  degrees,  to  bring 
out  white  clouds,  the  fpirits  which  fill  the  recipient, 
and  afterwards  a  black  oil,  and  the  volatile  fait 
which  flicks  to  the  infide  of  the  recipient  :  we 
continue  the  fire  till  nothing  more  comes  out,  after 
which,  we  leave  the  veflcls  to  grow  cold,  and  then 
unlute  them  ;  we  fhake,  a  little,  the  recipient,  to 
loofen  the  vo'atile  fait  which  flicks  to  the  fide,  and 
pour  all  into  a  matrafs  with  a  long  neck,  to  which 
we  adapt  a  capital,  and  a  little  recipient,  luting 
cxadlly  thejunftures  :  we  place  our  matrafs  on  the 
faiid,  and  make  under  it  a  fmall  fire,  to  fublimate 
the  volatile  fait,  v/hich  will  liick  to  the  capital,  and 
to  the  fuperior  pa*!  of  the  matrafs  ;  which  fait  we 
Icolen,  and  keep  in  a  vial  well  corked. 

The  vclauie  fait  of  vipers  is  one  of  the  beft  re- 
medies we  have  in  medicine  :  It  is  good  for  malig- 
nant and  intermitting  fevers,  the  fmall  pox,  apo- 
plexy, epilepfv,  palfy,  hyll  crick  diftempers,  and 
for  the  bite  of  venomous  bealls,     The  dofs  is  from 

fix 
t 


CLOCK-MAKING, 


411 


fix  to  fixtcen  grains,  in  fome  liquor  appropriated  to 
the  diftemper. 

We  pour  wliat  remains  in  the  matrafs  into  a 
funnel  lined  v/ith  gray  paper  ;  the  fpirit  and  the 
phlegm  run  through,  but  tlie  {linking  oil  remains 
on  the  paper  ;  which  oil  may  be  given  to  fmell  to 
women  attacked  with  the  hyfiericks,  and  fcrvcs 
alfo  to  anoint  the  parts  in  the  palfy. 


We  pour  the  fpirit  and  the  phlegm,  mixed  con- 
fufedly  together,  into  an  alcmbick,  and  diUil,  at  a 
vaporous  bath,  about  halt'  the  liquor,  which  is  the 
fpir'it  of  viper,  and  has  the  fame  virtues  as  the 
jalt.     The  dofe  is  from  ten  to  thirty  drops. 

In  the  fame  manner  may  be  extraded  the  volatile 
flit  of  toads,  hartjlwrn,  ivory,  blood,  the  cranium, 
hair,  and  other  parts  of  animals. 


C  L  0  CK-MAKING, 


Clock  is  a  machine  compofed  of  wheels, 
weights  or  fprings,  pendulums  or  ballances, 
for  an  equal  horary  divifion  of  time :  which 
in  fome  countries  is  meafured  by  a  gradu 
ation  of  twenty-four  hours  ;  but  molt  commonly, 
as  in  Britain,  by  twelve  hours. 

This  machine  when  it  is  wrought  up  into  fuch  a 
volume,  as  to  be  fit  to  carry  in  the  pocket,  changes 
its  name,  and  is  called  a  Watch. 

To  both  thefe  arc  added  feveral  peculiarities  both 
as  to  ufe  and  ornament. 

The  Clock  has  a  bell,  on  which  the  number  of  the 
hour  is  ftruck  by  a  hammer  regulated  by  a  particu- 
lar part  of  the  machine  ;  and  on  which  alfo  the 
alarum  is  rung  in  fmall  clocks,  and  the  chimes  in 
church  and  mufical  clocks.  —  But  there  is  a 
kind  of  clocks,  made  for  the  ufe  of  cofFee-houfes 
and  other  public  places  of  entertainment  and  con- 
verfation,  called  Dials,  which  give  the  hour 
and  the  minutes   by   proper  indexes,  but  have  no 

bell. 

The  watch  is  made  exa(5tly  upon  the  fame  prin- 
ciple, as  the  clock.  But  a  bell  is  no  effential  part 
of  its  compofition,  and  is  feldom  ufed  in  watches 
for  the  pocket.  Our  fore-fathers  made  a  watch 
with  a  bell  that  inclofed  the  works  of  the  machine, 
which  was  thence  called  a  Cochet-clock  :  but  this 
kind  was  chiefly  ufed  by  ladies  at  their  fides  ;  and 
has  fvice  been  improved  into  thofe  curious  Jlriking 
and  repeating  watches  now  fo  much  efteemed  by  the 
fair-fex  and  gentlemen  of  fortune. 

It  muft  be  allowed  that  the  ancients  had  a  ma- 
chine which  fomewhat  refemblcd  s.  clock  ;  as  there  is 
mention  of  fuch  a  one  invented  by  Boetius,  about  the 
year  of  Christ  510.  But  that  art  was  fo  far  loft, 
that  the  Germans  about  225  years  ago,  who  revived 
it,  claimed  the  honour  of  its  invention.  Nor  was  it 
till  the  laft  century  that  the  ufe  of  pendulums  was 
found  out :  an  invention  difputed  between  Galileo 
and  Huygens. 

The  iirft  pendulum  clock  made  in  England  was 
in  the  year  1622,  by  M.  FromentcU  a  Dutchman, 
according  to  M.  Huygetis  method,  which  prevailed 
20. 


for  feveral  years ;  'till  afterwards  Mr.  Clement  in- 
vented a  new  method,  whereby  the  pendulum  was 
to  go  V.  ith  lefs,  and  to  vibrate  but  a  fmall  compafs, 
which  is  now  the  univerfal  method  of  the  royal 
pendulums  :  But  Dr.  Hook  denies  Mr.  Clement  to 
have  invented  this,  and  fays  that  it  was  his  inven- 
tion, and  that  he  caufed  a  piece  of  this  nature  to 
be  made,  v/hich  he  fhewed  before  the  Royal  So- 
ciety foon  after  the  fire  of  London. 

There  is  alfo  a  difpute  between  the  partifans  of 
M.  Huygens  and  thofe  of  Dr.  Hook  for  the  inven- 
tion of  pocket-watches. 

Mr.  Derham,  in  his  artificial  Clock  maker,  fays 
roundly,  that  Dr.  i/«(?/f  was  the  inventor,  and  that 
he  contrived  various  ways  of  regulation  ;  one  way 
was  with  a  load-ftone,  another  with  a  tender  ftrait 
fpring,  one  end  whereof  played  backward  and  for- 
ward with  the  ballance,  fo  that  the  ballance  was  to 
fpring  as  the  bob  of  a  pendulum,  and  the  little 
fpring  as  the  rod  thereof.  A  third  method  was 
with  two  ballances,  of  which  there  were  divers 
forts,  fome  have  a  fpiral  fpring  to  the  ballance  for 
a  regulator,  and  others  without.  But  the  way  that 
prevailed,  and  which  continues  in  mode,  ^#as  with 
one  ballance,  and  one  fpring  running  round  the 
upper  part  of  the  verge  thereof.  Though  this  has 
a  difadvantage,  which  thofe  with  two  (prings  were 
free  from,  in  that  a  fudden  jerk  or  confufed  fhake 
will  alter  its  vibrations,  and  put  it  in  an  unufual 
hurry. 

The  time  of  thefe  inventions  was  about  the  year 
i6c8,  as  appears,  among  other  evidences,  from  an 
infcription  on  one  of  the  dor.ble  bailance  watches 
prefented  to  King  Charles  II.  viz.  Rob.  Hook, 
invent.  1658.  T.  Tampion,  fecit,  1675.  The  in- 
vention prefently  got  reputation  both  at  home  and 
abroad  ;  and  two  of  them  were  fent  for  by  the 
Dauphin  of  France. 

After  this  M.  Huygens's  watch,  with  a  fpiral 
fpring,  got  abroad,  and  made  a  great  noife  in  Eng- 
land, as  if  the  longitude  could  be  found  by  it.  One 
of  thefe  the  Lord  Brumkerknt  for  out  of  France, 
where  M.  Huygens  had  a  patent  for  them.  I'his 
G  g  g  watch 


4.12  T}:>e  Univeifal  Hiflory  of  Arts  fl!«<5^  Sciences. 


watch  of  M.  Huygcm  agices  wiUi  that  of  Dr 
Hiok,  in  the  application  of  the  Ipring  to  the  ba!- 
hnce  :  Only  M.Huygens  had  a  longer  fpiral  fpring, 
and  the  pulk's  or  beats  were  much  flower.  That 
wherein  it  differs  is,  i.  the  verge  has  a  pillion  in - 
ftead  of  pallets  ;  and  a  contrate  wheel  runs  therein, 
and  drives  it  round  more  than  one  turn.  2.  The 
pallets  are  on  the  arbor  of  the  contratc-whed.  3. 
Then  follows  the  crown-wheel,  is'c.  4.  Thcbal 
lance  inftead  of  turning  (carce  quite  round,  (as 
Dr.  Hod's)  does  turn  fcvcral  rounds  every  vi- 
bration. 

Mr.  Durham  favs,  that  this  watch  of  M.  Huygens's 
is  a  very  pretty  and  ingenious  contrivance,  but  lub- 
jed  to  fome  defects,  viz.  That  when  it  ftands  (till 
it  will  not  vibrate,  until  it  is  fet  on  vibrating  : 
which  though  it  be  no  defed  in  a  pendulum  clock, 
may  be  one  in  a  pocket- watch,  which  is  expofed 
to  continual  jogs.  That  it  alfo  fomewhat  varies  in 
its  vibrations,  making  fomctimes  longer,  fometimes 
Ihortcr  turn.s,  -and  fo  fome  flower,  fome  quicker 
vibrations. 

The  repetition  of  watches  was  the  invention  of 
Mr.  Barlo'M,  a  Romip  prieji,  and  firft  put  in 
praiSlice  by  him  in  large  movements  or  clacks,  about 
the  year  ib-]b.  The  contrivance  im.mediacely  fet  the 
other  artifls  to  work,  who  foon  contrived  divers 
ways  of  efFedting  the  fame  :  but  its  application  to 
pocket- watches  was  not  known  before  Kir)g 
James  II's  reign,  when  the  ingenious  inventor 
above-mentioned,  having  direfted  Mr.  Tampion  to 
make  a  repeating  watch,  endeavoured  with  the 
Lord  Chief  Juftice  j^lUbone,  and  fome  others,  to 
get  a  patent  for  it.  The  talk  of  a  patent  engaged 
Mr.  ^are  to  refume  the  thought  of  a  like  contri- 
vance which  he  had  had  in  view  fome  years  before  : 
He  now  tfFeaed  it,  and  being  prefTed  to  endeavour 
to  prev.iu  Mr.  Bar/oiv's  patent,  a  watch  of  each 
kind  was  produced  before  the  King  and  council  ; 
upon  trial  of  which  the  preference  was  given  to 
Mr.  I^uar/s.  The  difference  between  them  was, 
that  Barlow's  was  made  to  repeat  by  pufhing  in 
two  pieces  on  each  fide  the  watch-box  ;  one  of 
v/hich  repeated  the  hour,  and  the  other  thequarter: 
whereas  ;^iares  was  made  to  repeat  by  a  pin  that 
ftuck  out  near  the  pendant  ;  which  being  thruft  in 
(as  now  it  is  done  by  thrufting  the  pendant  itfelf) 
repeated  both  the  hour  and  quarter  with  the  fame 
thruft. 

At  prefent  the  variety  of  works  introduced  into 
clocks  and  watches,  fhcws  that  this  art  is  capable 
of  great  improvements  for  demonftration  in  the 
fciences,  and  for  delightful  recreations.  For  which 
we  need  only  view  the  Cometarium,  the  M:crocofms, 
and  Miifical-clocks,  which  fill  every  fpedator  with 
admiration,  and  every  eat  with  pleafurc. 


The  machine  difpofed,  cither  in  a  large  or  nar- 
row compafs,  is  called  movement.  This  movement 
is  often  divided  into  two  parts,  viz.  the  watch- 
work,  which  meafures  the  time  ;  and  the  clock- 
work, which  ftrikcs  it. 

There  is  no  other  difference  between  the  watch- 
work  of  the  movement  of  a  clock,  and  that  of  the 
movement  of  z  pocket-zuatch,  but  in  the  volume  of 
the  different  members  they  are  both  equally  com- 
pofed  of ;  and  the  rules  to  make  both  movements 
are  the  fame,  though  not  the  materials ;  for  the 
movement  of  a  clock  is  made  of  iron,  and  that  of  a 
watch  is  made  part  of  iron,  and  part  of  brafs,  /.  f. 
that  all  the  wheels  are  made  of  brafs,  and  the 
fpindle?,  or  arbors  of  the  wheels,  the  fprings,  ijfc. 
made  of  iron,  and  fteel.  There  is  alfo  this  dif- 
ference between  them,  that  the  movement  of  a 
clock  is  placed  within  a  frame,  compofcd  of  feveral 
iron  bars,  difpofed  fquare-wife  ;  and  that  of  a 
watch,  in  a  cafe,  compofed  of  two  round  brafs 
plates,  fupported,  and  joined  together,  by  four  brafs 
pillars. 

In  thcfe  machines  the  force  required  for  aftion 
is  by  3  fpring  or  weight,  and  muft  be  fuch  as  fhall 
overcome  the  vis  inertia  and  friftion  of  all  the  parts 
in  motion  :  which  in  watches  is  very  inconfiderable, 
but  in  clocks  is  much  greater,  and  that  in  proportion 
as  they  are  more  compounded. 

The  manner  that  a  weight  ads  upon  the  cylinder, 
about  which  the  line  or  cord  (to  which  it  hangs)  is 
wound,  is  eafy  to  be  underftood  by  all:  but  the  ac- 
tion of  the  fpring  coiled  up  within  the  cylindric 
barrel,  or  box  of  a  clock  or  watch,  is  fomewhat 
more  nice  and  myfterious  ;  and  the  manner  how  it 
atSs  upon  the  fufee  always  with  an  equal  force,  by 
means  of  the  chain;  and  the  proper  figure  of  the 
fufee,  for  that  purpole,  is  therefore,  to  be  explained. 

The  chain  being  fixed  at  one  end  of  the  fufee, 
and  at  the  other  to  the  barrel,;  when  the  machine 
is  winding  up,  the  fufee  is  turned  round,  and  of 
courfe  the  barrel  ;  on  the  infide  of  which  is  fixed 
one  end  of  the  fpring,  the  other  end  being  fixed  to 
an  immoveable  axis  in  the  center.  As  the  i  irrel 
moves  round,  it  coils  the  fpring  feveral  times  about 
the  axi<;,  thereby  encrcafing  its  elaffic  force  to  a- 
proper  degree  :  all  this  while  the  chain  is  drawn 
off  the  barrel  upon  the  fufee,  and  then  when  the 
inftrument  is  wound  up,  the  fpring,  by  its  elaftic 
force  endeavouring  conftantly  to  unbend  itfelf,  a£fs 
upon  the  hariel,  by  carrying  it  round,  by  which 
the  chain  is  drawn  off  from  the  fufee  ;  and  thus- 
turns  the  fufee,  and  confequently  the  whole  ma- 
chinery. 

Now,  as  the  fpring  unbends  itfelf  by  degrees,  its 
elaftic  force,  by  which  it  afFefts  the  fufee,  will 
gradually   decreafe ;    and   therefore,    unlefs  there 

were 


CLOCK-MAKING. 


413 


were  fome  mechanical  contrivance  in  the  figure  of 
the  fuperficics  of   the  fufec,   to   caufe,  that  as  the 

ffring  grows  weak,  the  chain  fhall  be  removed 
farther  from  the  center  of  dncfiijee,  fo  that  what  is 
loft  in  ^ttfpring'i  elaflicity,  is  gained  in  the  length 
of  the  lever  :  were  it  not  for  this  contrivance,   the 

Jp'tng  s  force  would  always  be  unequal  upon  the 

fitfee,  and  thus  would  turn  the  fufee,  and  confe- 
quently  the  whole  machinery  unequally.  All  which 
is  remedied  by  the  conical  figure  of  ^ixt  fufee.     1  he 

fufee  being  acfled  upon,  or  put  in  motion,  by  an 
uniform  force,  \k\ii  great  -whecU  which  is  fixed  to  it, 
is  put  into  motion,  and  that  drives  the  pi^iioti  of  the 
center- wheel,  which  center- zvheel  drives  the  pinicn  of 
the  third  wheel,  anil  this  drives  the  pinion  of  the 
coitrate  wheel,  and  this  the  pinion  of  the  ballauce- 
wheel,  which  plies  the  two  pallets  on  the  axis  of 
the  ballance,   and  keeps  the  hallame  in  motion. 

The  ballance  in  a  watch  is  inftead  of  the  pendu- 
lum in  a  clock.,  both  ferving  to  govern  the  motion 
of  the  whole  machinery.  To  this  ballance  is  fixed 
a  fmall  &.et\  fpiral  fpring,  which  regulates  the  mo- 
tion thereof,  and  makes  it  equable  :  whence  it  has 
its  name  of  regulator. 

When  the  watch  is  wound  up,  the  chain  from 
tha  fpring  exerts  a  force  upon  the  fifee,  which  gives 
motion  to  all  the  parts  of  the  machine,  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner;  as  will  be  eafy  to  underftand,  when 
the  number  of  teeth  in  each  zvheel,  and  leaves  in 
the  pinions,  which  they  drive,  are  fpecified,  and 
thefe  in  modern  thirty-hour  luatches  are  as  follows  : 


Teeth. 

Leaves. 

Great  wheel        48 

12 

Center-wheel       54. 

6 

Third  wheel        48 

6 

Contrate  wheel    48 

6 

Ballance- wheel     15 

2  pallets 

Hence  it  is  cafy  to  conceive  how  often  any  one 
wheel  moves  round  in  the  time  of  one  revolution 
of  that  which  drives  it. 

Thus  the  great  wheel  on  the  fufee,  ha.ving  forty- 
eight  teeth,  and  driving  the  center-wheel  hy  a  pinion 
of  twelve,  muft  caufe  the  center-wheel  to  move  round 
four  times  in  one  turn  of  the  fufee,  and  fo  for  all  the 
reft,  as  follows. 


I2)48(4=:turns  of  the  center 
6)54(9  =  turns  of  the  third 
6)48(8=:turns  of  the  contrate 
^)48(8=turns  of  the  ballance 


awheel 


Whence  it  follows,  that  the  turns  of  each  of 
thefe  wheels  refpedively,  in  one  turn  of  the  fufee, 
will  be  had  by  multiplying  thofe  feveral  quotients 
together  fucccflively  as  follows. 


I 

4x1=       4 

9x4x1=     36 

8x9x4x1=  288 

8x8xgx4X  1=12304 


fufee  wheel, 
center-wheel, 
third  wheel, 
contrate  wheel, 
ballance  wheel. 


The  feveral  members  of  the  watch  part  are, 
I.  The  ballance,  confifting  of  the  rim,  which  is 
its  circular  part  ;  and  the  verge,  which  is  its  ipin- 
dle,  to  which  belong  the  two  jjallcts  or  Icvcis  that 
play  in  the  teeth  of  the  crown-M'heel.  2.  The 
potence,  or  pottance,  which  is  the  ftrong  ftud  in 
pocket  watches,  whereon  the  lower  pivot  jof  the 
verge  plays,  and  in  the  middle  of  which  one  pivot 
of  the  ballance-whccl  plays  ;  the  bottom  of  the 
potence  is  called  the  foot,  the  middle  part  the  nofe, 
and  the  upper  part  the  Pmilder.  3.  The  cock, 
which  is  the  piece  covering  tlie  ballance.  4.  The 
regulator  or  pendulum  fpring,  which  is  the  fmall 
fpring  in  the  new  pocket  watches,  underneath  the 
ballance.  5.  The  pendulum,  whofe  parts  are  the 
verge,  pallets,  cocks,  and  the  bob.  6.  The  wheels, 
which  arc  the  crozvn-whecl  in  pocket-pieces,  and 
fwing-wbeel  in  pendulums,  ferving  to  drive  the  bal- 
lance  or  pendulum.  7.  Tiie  contrate-ivhcel,  which 
is  that  next  the  crown-W'heel,  kc.  and  whofe  teeth 
and  hoop  lie  contrary  to  thofe  of  other  wheels  ; 
whence  the  name.  8.  The  great  or  /r/?  wheel, 
which  is  that  the  fufee,  isfc.  immc-diately  drives  : 
after  which  are  the  fecond  wheel,  third  wheel,  i^c. 
9.  Laftly,  between  the  frame  and  dial-p!ate,  is  the 
pittion  of  report,  which  is  that  fixed  on  the  arbor  of 
the  great  rvheel,  and  fervcs  to  drive  the  dial-wheel, 
as  that  ferves  to  carry  the  hand. 

Spring  or  pendulum  Watches,  are  pretty  much 
upon  the  fame  principle  with  pendulum-clocks : 
whence  their  denomination.  If  a  pendulum  de- 
fcribing  little  arches  of  a  circle  makes  vibrations  of 
unequal  lengths,  in  equal  times,  it  is  becaufe  it 
defcribes  the  greater  with  a  greater  velocity.  For 
the  fame  reafon  a  fpring  put  in  motion,  and  making 
greater  or  lefs  vibrations,  as  it  is  morg  or  lefs  ftiff, 
and  as  it  has  a  greater  or  lefs  degree  of  motion  given 
it,  performs  them  nearly  in  equal  times.  Hence, 
as  the  vibrations  of  the  pendulum  had  been  applied 
to  large  clocks  to  redlify  the  inequality  of  their  mo- 
tions ;  fo  to  corred:  the  unequal  motions  of  the  bal- 
lance of  watches,  a  fpiing  is  added,  by  the  ifochro- 
nifm  of  whofe  vibrations  the  corredion  is  to  be 
effeaed. 

The  fpring  is  ufually  wound  into  a  fpiral,  that, 
in  the  little  compafs  allotted  it,  it  mav  be  as  lon^ 
as  poflible,  and  may  h.ave  ftrength  enough  not  to  be 
maftered  and  dragged  about  by  the  inequalities  of 
the  ballance  it  is  to  regulate.  The  vibrations  of 
the  two  parts,  viz.  the  Ipring  and  iKiiiance,  fliould 
G  g  g  2  be 


414  ^^     Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  /s:;^^^?  Sciences. 


be  of  fome  length  ;  only  fo  adjufteJ,  as  that  the 
fpring,  being  more  regular  in  the  length  of  its  vi- 
brations than  the  ballance,  may  on  occafion  com- 
municate its  regularity  thereto. 

The  Aflrsnomical  Watch  was  invented  by  that 
great  artift  and  philofopher,  Mr.  Neai-e  of  Lon- 
don, for  folving  feveral  y^/row^OT/Vfl/ problems.  It 
has  two  glafles  ;  that  in  the  front  covers  a  dial-plate, 
as  in  common  watches ;  the  other,  on  the  back-fide, 
covers  a  plate  forming  a  fegment  of  a  globe,  on  which 
are  drawn  twenty  -four  merid  ian  lines,  with  the  names 
of  fo  many  countries,  at  15°  difference  of  longitude 
from  ea(;h  other  (See/i:W.)  'fhis  plate  makesan  entire 
revolution  in  twenty- four  hours;  and,  confequently, 
every  country  thereon  pafles  by  the  fun,  reprefented 
by  A  ;  round  this  plate,  is  a  circle  divided  into  24 
hours,  alfo  at  reft  ;  by  means  of  which,  when  the 
moveable  plate  is  made  to  correfpond  to  the  true 
time  (hewn  by  the  hands  on  the  common  fide,  the 
time  of  day  or  night,  at  the  feveral  countries  fpe- 
cified,  is  fliewn  by  the  hour-circle.  Round  the 
moveable  plate,  and  between  it  and  the  circle  of 
hours  above  defcribed,  moves  a  narrow  circle,  on 
which  is  engraved  the  moon's  age  ;  and  over  agf 
is  placed  an  ivory  ball,  B,  reprefenting  the  moon  : 
and  at  the  right  angles  each  way,  are  placed  two 
pins,  G  and  D,  one  eaftward,  and  the  other  weft- 
ward  ;  by  means  of  which,  the  time  of  the  moon's 
rifing,  fouthing  and  fctting,  at  thofe  different  pla- 
ces,  is  {hewn  in  a  very  entertaining  manner. 

To  find  the  heats  of  the  ballance  in  all  watches 
going,  or  in  one  turn  of  any  wheel.  Having  found 
the  number  of  turns  which  the  crown-wheel  makes 
in  one  turn  of  the  wheel  you  feek  for,  thofe  turns 
of  the  crown-wheel  mn\up\\e6.  by  its  notches,  give 
half  of  the  number  of  beats  in  that  one  turn  of  the 
wheel.  For,  t\it  ballance  or  fwing  hzs  two  ^r6k.ts 
to  every  tooth  of  the  crown-wheel,  inafmuch  as  each 
o£  the  two  pallets  hath  its  blow  againft  each  tooth 
of  the  crown-wheel ;  whence  it  is  that  z  pendulum^ 
that  beats  feconds,  has  in\\.s  crown-wheel  only  thirty 
teeth. 

To  explain  this,  fuppofe  the  numbers  of  a  fixteen- 
hour  watch,  in  which  the  pinion  of  report  is  4,  the 
dial-wheel  32,  the  great  wheel  55,  the  pinion  of 
the  fecond  wheel  5,  is'c.  The  number  of  the  notches 
in  the  crown-wheel  17  being  multiplied  into  6336 
(the  produ£l  arifmg  from  the  continual  multiplica- 
tion of  the  quotients  8,  9,  II,  8)  gives  107712 
for  half  the  number  of  beats  in  one  turn  of  the 
dial-wheel ;  for  8  times  17  is  136,  which  is  half 
the  number  of  beats  in  one  turn  of  the  centrate- 
wheel  40;  and  9  times  136  is  1224,  the  half 
beats  in  one  turn  of  the  fecond  wheel  ;  and  1 1 
times  1224)  ^^  '34^4>  ^'^^  half  beats  in  one  turn 


of  the  great  wheel  55  ;  and  8  times  1 3464  make* 
1077 1 2.  If  you  multiply  this  by  the  two  pallets, 
that  is  double  it,  the  produ(5t  will  be  215424, 
which  is  the  number  of  beats  in  one  turn  of  the 
dial-wheel,  or  twelve  hours. 
4)32(8 


5)55(11 

5)45)9 

5)40(8 


17 

To  know  how  many  beats  this  watch  has  in  an 
hour,  divide  the  beats  in  twelve  hours  into  twelve 
parts,  and  it  gives  17952,  the  train  of  the  watch, 
or  beats  in  an  hour.  By  the  beats  and  turns  of  the 
fufee,  the  hours  that  any  watch  will  go,  may  be 
found  thus.  As  the  beats  of  the  ballance  in  aa 
hour  are  to  the  beats  in  one  turn  of  the  fufee  :  :  fo 
is  the  number  of  the  turns  of  the  fufee  :  to  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  watch's  going.  Thus  20196  : 
26928  :  :  12  :  16. 

To  find  the  beats  of  the  ballance  in  an  hour,  the 
proportion  is,  as  the  hours  of  the  watch's  going,  to 
the  number  of  the  fufee  :  :  fo  are  the  beats  in  one 
turn  of  the  fufee  :  to  the  beats  in  an  hour.  Thus, 
16  :  12  :  :  26928  :  20196. 

All  that  has  been  hitherto  faid,  fhews  only  the 
minutes  of  an  hour,  and  feconds,  or  quarter  feconds 
of  a  minute  5  for  nothing  has  been  yet  mentioned 
relating  to  the  mechanifm  for  fhevving  the  hour  of. 
the  day.  This  part  of  the  work  lies  concealed 
from  fight,  between  the  upper  plate  of  the  watch- 
frame  and  the  dial-plate.  In  this  work,  ABC 
(See  the  Plate  of  Mechanic  Arts,  C/ffc'i-wsr/f, 
No.  I.)  is  the  uppermoft  fide  of  the  frame-plate, 
as  it  appears  when  detached  from  the  dial-plate  : 
the  middle  of  this  plate  is  perforated  with  a  hole, 
receiving  that  end  of  the  arbor  of  the. eentcr-wheel, 
which  carries  rhe  minute-hand ;  near  the  plate  is. 
fixed  a  pinion  a  b  of  ten  teeth  :  this  is  called  the 
pinion  of  report ;  it  drives  a  wheel  c  d  of  forty 
teeth  ;  this  wheel  r  Scarries  a  pinion  ^y  of  twelve 
teeth  ;  and  this  drives  a  wheel  g  h  with  thirty  fix 
teeth. 

As  in  the  body  of  the  vjatch  the  wheels  every. 
where  divide  the  pinions,  here,  on  the  contrary, 
the  pinions  divide  the  luheels,  and  by  that  means 
decreafe  the  motion,  which  is  here  neceflary;  for  the 
houB-hand,  which  is  carried  on  a  focket  fixed  on 
the  wheel  ^/;,  is  required  to  move  but  once  round, 
while  the  pinion  a  b  moves  twelve  times  round. 
To  this  end  the  motion  of  the  wheel  c^  is  -^  of  the 
pinion  a  b  :  again,  while  the  wheel  e  d,  or  the  pi- 
nion «_/" goes  once  round,  it  turns  the  wheel  gh 

bulr 


C  L  0  C  K-M  A  K  I  N  G. 


4^5: 


but  \  part  round ;  confequently  the  motion  o^  gh 
is  but -J  of^  of  the  motion  o^  ab;  but  4  of  i=^i, 
that  isj  the  hour-wheel  g  h  moves  once  round  in 
the  time  that  the  pinion  oi  report,  on  the  arbor  of 
the  center  or  minute-wheel.,  makes  twelve  revoluti- 
ons,  as  required. 

Having  thusfhewn  the  nature  and  mechanifm  of 
a  watch,  the  ftrudure  of  that  part  of  a  clock  which 
is  concerned  in  the  fhewing  of  the  time,  will  eafily 
be  underftood. 

The  mechanifm  of  a  clock  confifts  of  two  parts, 
one  to  fhew  time,  the  other  to  report  it,  by  ftrik- 
ing  the  hour  upon  a  bell.  Each  part  is  acluated 
or  moved  by  weights,  as  in  common  clocks  ;  or  by 
/firings  included  in  boxes  or  barrels,  as  that  repre- 
fented  by  A.  (ibid  No.  2.)  This  cylinder  moves 
the  fufee  B,  and  the  great  wheel  C  (to  which  is 
fixed)  by  the  line  or  cord  that  goes  round  each, 
and  anfwers  to  the  chain  of  the  watch. 

The  method  of  calculating  is  here  much  the 
fame  as  before :  for,  fuppofe  the  great  wheel  C 
goes  round  once  in  twelve  hours,  then  if  it  be  a 
royal  pendulum-clock,  fwinging  feconds,  we  have 
60  X  60  X  12=143200  feconds  or  beats,  in  one  turn 
of  the  great  wheel.  But  becaufe  there  are  60 
fwings  or  feconds  in  one  minute,  and  the  feconds 
are  {hewn  by  an  index  on  the  end  of  the  arbor  of 
the  fwing  wheel,  which  in  thofe  clocks  is  in  an 
horizontal  pofition  ;  therefore,  it  is  necefTary 
that  the  fwing  wheel  fhould  have  thirty  teeth, 
whence  6o)432000(=:7  2o  the  number  to  be  bro 
ken  into  quotients  for  finding  the  number  of  teeth 
for  the  other  wheels  and  pinions,  as  before. 

In  fpring  clocks,  the  difpofition  of  the  wheels  in 
the  watch-part  is  fuch  as  is  here  reprcfented  in  the 
figure,  where  the  fwing  wheel  F  is  in  an  horizon- 
tal polition,  the  feconds  not  being  fhewn  there  by 
an  index,  as  is  done  by  the  large  pendulum  clocks. 
Whence  in  thefe  clocks,  the  wheels  are  difpofed  in 
a  different  manner,  as  reprefented  in  No.  3.  ibid. 
where  C  is  the  great  wheel,  D  the  center  or  mi- 
nute wheel,  both  as  before  ;  but  the  contrate 
wheel  E  is  placed  on  one  fide,  and  F  the  fwing 
wheel  is  placed  with  its  center  in  the  fame  perpen- 
dicular  line  G  H,  with  the  minute  wheel,  and 
with  its  plane  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  as  are 
all  the  others.  Thus  the  minute  and  hour-hands 
turn  on  the  end  of  the  arbor  of  the  minute- wheel 
at  a,  and  the  fecond  hand  on  the  arbor  of  tire 
fwing-wheel  at  b. 

With  regard  to  the  machinery  of  the  flriking 
part  of  a  clock,  is  to  be  obferved  that,  as  in  the 
watch  part,  the  priinium  mobile  is  a  large  fpring, 
in  the  fpring-barrcl  G,  ////(/.  No.  2.)  but  in  long 
pendulums,  it  is  a  weight.  Thus,  by  its  cord  and 
fufee,  it  moves  the  great  wheel  H  j  that  gives  mo- 


tion to  the  pin-wheel  I ;  that  continues  it  to  the 
detent  or  hoop-wheel  K,  and  that  to  the  warning- 
wheel  L,  which  at  Jafl:  is  fpent  on  the  flying  pinion 
Q_;  this  carries  the  fly  or  fan  ;  and  by  its  great  ve- 
locity it  meets  with  much  refifiance  from  the  air  it 
ftrikes,  and  by  this  means  bridles  the  rapidity  of 
the  clock's  motion,  and  renders  it  equable.  AH 
thefe  wheels  are  quiefcent,  unlefs  when  at  the  be- 
ginning of  each  hour,  the  detent  O  is  lifted  up, 
by  which  means  the  work  is  unlocked,  and  the 
whole  put  into  motion,  by  means  of  the  fpring  in 
the  box  G.  During  this  motion  the  pins  e,  c,  e,  e, 
of  the  pin  wheel  I,  take  the  tail  of  the  hammer  T, 
and  carrying  it  upwards,  removes  the  head  of  the 
hammer  S  from  the  bell  R ;  then  being  let  go  by 
the  pin,  it  is  made  by  a  firong  fpring  to  give  a  for- 
cible ftroke  upon  the  bell,  and  this  is  reported  as 
often  as  the  hour  requires,  by  means  of  a  contri- 
vance in  another  part.  This  confifts  of  moveable 
wheels  and  feveral  leaves  and  other  parts  which, 
cannot  be  underftood  by  a  bare  defcription,  or  even 
a  reprcfentation  in  a  draught,  fo  well  as  any  perfon 
may  have  an  idea  of  by  taking  ofF  the  face  or  dial- 
plate  of  a  late  made  eight  day  clock. 

Perhaps  we  want  our  clock  to  flrike  the  quarters, 
which  are  generally  a  diftinctpart  from  that,  which 
ftrikes  the  hour.  In  this  cafe,  t\ia  /Irikiiig-vjheel 
may  be  the  Jirjl,  fecond,  &c.  wheel,  according 
to  o\i\- clock's  continuance;  unto  which  wheel  we 
may  fix  the  pinion  of  the  report.  The  Ixiing-vjheel 
muft  be  divided  into  4,  8,  or  more  equal  parts, 
fo  as  to  ftrike  the  /quarter,  and  lock  at  the  firft 
notch  ;  the  half  hmr,  and  lock  at  the  fecond 
notch,  tfc.  and  in  doing  this,  we  may  make  it  to 
chime  the  quarters,  or  ftrike  them  upon  two  bells, 
or  more. 

It  is  ufual  for  the  pin-wFeel,  or  the  locking  ■:vhcel, 
to  unlock  the  hour  part  in  thefe  clocks,  which  is- 
eafily  done  by  fome  cog,  or  latch,  at  the  end  of 
the  laft  quarter,  to  lift  up  the  detents  of  the  hour 
part. 

If  we  would  have  our  clock  ftrike  the  hour  at  the 
half  hour,  as  well  as  the  ivhole  hour,  we  muft  make 
the  locking  wheel  of  the  hour  part  double,  /.  e.  it 
muft  have  two  notches  of  a  fort,  to  firike  i,  2,  3, 
4,  twice  a-piece. 

To  calculate  numbers  for  Chimes,  and  to  fit 
and  divide  the  chimc-berrcl,  it  muft  be  obferved, 
that  the  barrel  muft  be  as  long  in  turning  round,  as, 
we  are  in  finging  the  tune  it  is  to  play. 

As  for  the  chime -barrel,  it  may  be'  made  up  of 
certain  bars,  which  run  athwart  it,  with' a  conve- 
nient number  of  holes  punched  in  them,  to  put  in. 
the  pins  that  are  to  draw"  each  hammer;  by  this- 
means,  the  tune  may  be  change'd,  without  chano-- 
In  this  cafe,  the  pins,    or  nuts^ 

which 


ing  the  barrel. 


4.16  'fha  Univ'crfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


which  draw  the  hammers,  muft  hang  down  from 
the  bar,  fome  more,  Come  lefs,  and  Tome  (landing 
upriglit  in  the  bar  ;  the  reafon  whereof  is,  to  play 
the  time  of  the  tune  rightly  :  for  the  diftance  of 
each  of  thcfe  bars  may  be  a  femibrevc  ;  but  the 
ul'ual  way  is  to  have  the  pins  which  draw  the  ham- 
mers fixed  on  the  barrel. 

Yox  the  placing  of  thcfe  pins,  wc  may  proceed 
by  the  way  of  changes  on  bells,  w/z.  I,  2,  3,  4,  ^c. 
or  rather  make  ufe  of  the  mufical  notes  ;  where  it 
muft  be  obferved,  what  is  the  compafs  of  the  tune, 
or  how  many  notes,  or  bells,  there  are  from  the 
higheft  to  the  loweft  ;  and,  accordingly,  the  barrel 
inuil  be  divided  from .  end  to  end.  Thus  if  the 
tune  be  of  eight  notes  compafs,  the  barrel  is  ac- 
cordingly divided  into  eight  parts  ;  thcfe  divifions 
arc  ftruclc  round  the  barrel,  oppofite  to  which  arc 
the  hammer-tails. 

We  fpcalc  here  as  if  there  was  only  one  hammer  to 
each  bell,  that  it  may  be  more  clearly  apprehended  ; 
but  when  two  notes  of  the  fame  found  come  toge- 
ther in  a  tune,  there  muft  be  two  hammers  to  that 
bell,  to  ftrike  it :  fo  that  if  in  all  the  tunes  we  in- 
tend to  chime,  of  eight  notes  compafs,  there  fliould 
happen  to  be  fuch  double  notes  on  every  bell,  in- 
flead  of  eight,  we  muft  have  fixtecn  hammers  ; 
and  according  we  muft  divide  our  barrel,  and  ftrike 
fixteen  ftrokes  round  it,  oppofite  to  each  hammer- 
tail  ;  then  we  are  to  divide  it  round  about  into  as 
many  divifions  as  there  are  mufical  bars,  femibre/es, 
minims,  iffc.  in  our  tune. 

Thus  the  hundredth  pfalm  tune  has  twenty  fe- 
mibreves,  and  each  divifion  of  it  is  a  femibreve ; 
the  firft  note  of  it  is  alfo  a  femibreve,  and  there- 
fore on  the  chime-barrel  muft  be  a  whole  divifion, 
from  five  to  five. 

Indeed,  if  the  chimes  are  to  be  compleat,  we 
ought  to  have  a  fet  of  bells  to  the  gamut  notes,  fo 
that  each  bell  having  the  true  found  oi  fol,  la,  mi, 
fa,  &c.  we  may  play  any  tune,  with  its  flats  and 
fharps ;  nay,  we  may,  by  this  means,  play  both 
the  bafs  and  treble  with  one  barrel;  and  by  fetting 
the  names  of  our  bells  at  the  head  of  any  tune,  that 
tune  may  eafily  be  transferred  to  the  chime -barrel, 
without  any  fkill  in  mufic  :  but  it  muft  be  obferv- 
ed, that  each  line  in  the  mufic  is  three  notes  di- 
Itant,  that  is,  there  is  a  note  between  each  line,  as 
well  AS  upon  it. 

To  conclude  this  treatife  of  Clock-making,  we 
will  fet  down  here  numbers  ready  calculated  for  fe- 
x-eral  movements,  for  the  benefit  of  thofe  who  are 
unacquainted  with  the  art  of  calculation. 

Numbers  of  an  eight  Day-Clock,  with  fix- 
teen turns  of  the  barrel,  the  pendulum  to  vibrate 
fcconds,  Ihew  minutes,  fcconds,  is'c. 


The  Watch-Part. 
8)96 

8)60— 48)48--6(72 
7)56 


3-5 


77;,?  Clock-Part. 
8)78 

6)48.8  Pins 
6)48 


In  the  watch-part  the  wheel  60  is  the  minute- 
wheel,  phiced  in  the  middle  of  the  clod,   that  its 
Ipindle  may  go  through  the  middle  of  the  dial-plate, 
to  carry  the  minute-hand.     Alfo,  on  this  fpindle  is 
a  wheel   48,  which  drives  another  wheel  of  48, 
which  laft  has  a  pinion  6,  which  drives  round  the 
wheel  72  in  12  hours.     There  are  two  things  to 
be  obferved  here  :    i.  That  the  two  wheels  48,  arc. 
of  no  other  ufe  than  to  fet  the  pinion  6  at  a  con- 
venient diftance  from   the  minute-wheel,  to  drive 
the  wheel  72,  which  is  concentrical  with  the  mi- 
nute-whcel.      For  a   pinion    6    driving   a   wheel 
72,   would  be  fufficient,  if  the   minute-hand  had 
two  different  centers.     2.  Thefc  numbers   60 — 
48)48 — 6(72,  fet  thus,  muft  be   read   thus,  viz. 
the  wheel  60  has  another  wheel  48  on  the  fame 
fpindle,  which  wheel  48  turns  round  another  wheel 
48,  which  has  a  pinion  6  concentrical  with  it  j 
which  pinion  diivcs  a  wheel  of  72.     For  a  line 
parting  two  numbers,  (as  60 — 48)  denotes  thofe 
two  numbers  to  be  concentrical,  or  to  be  placed 
upon  the  fame  fpindle  ;    and  when   two  numbers 
have  a  hook  between  them,  (as  48)48)  it  fignifies 
one  to  run  in  the  other. 

In  thtjlriking-part  there  are  8  pins  on  the  fecond 
wheel  48  ;  the  count- wheel  may  be  fixed  to  the 
great-wheel,  which  goes  round  once  in  12  hours. 

Numbers  oi  3.  clock  of  32  days,  with  16,  or  12 
turns  both  parts  ;  the  iLatch  flicwing  hours,  mi- 
nutes, and  feconds ;  and  the  pendtilum  vibrating 
feconds. 

The  Watch-Part. 


With  16  Turns. 
16)96 

9)72 
8)60—48)48—6)72 

7)56 

With  1 2  Turns. 

12)96 
9)72 

8)6:— 48)48—6 
7)56 

30 

Or  thus,  wit 

30 
h  16  Turns. 

12) 

8 

7) 

72 
64 
60 
56 

3° 


The 


CLOCK-MAKING, 


417 


The  Striking  Part. 


With  16  Turns. 
10)130 

6)72  double  hoop. 
6)60 


Witl)  12  Turns. 
8)128 

g,   „    5  26  Pins. 
^^'^n    8)24 
8)96  double  hoop. 
8)80 


The  pinion  of  report  is  fixed  on  the  end  of  the 
arbor  of  the  pin-wheel  :  this  pinion  in  the  firft  is 
12,  the  count-wheel  39;  thus,  12)39,  '"' ''  "^^Y 
be  8)26  ;  in  the  latter  (with  12  turns)  it  may  be 
6)18,  or  8)24. 

Numbers  of  a  tivo-jnonth  clock,  of  64  days,  with 
16  turns;  the  pendulum  vibrates,  feconds,  and 
fliews  minutes,  feconds,  ^c. 


Watch  Part. 


9)90 
•8I70 
8)60- 
7)56 

?o 


-48)48—6)72 


Clock-Part. 
10)80 
10)65 

,       C  12  Pins. 
9)541    8)52 
5)60  double  hoop. 
5)50 


Here  the  third  wheel  is  the  pin-wheel,  which  alfo 
carries  the  pinion  of  report  8,  driving  the  count- 
wheel  52. 

Or,  Thus  : 


Watch-Part. 
8]8o 
8)76 

8)60-48)48 
7)56 


6)72 


30 


Clock-Part. 
6)144 

6)72  double  hoop. 
6)60 


Numbers  for  a  clock  of  thirteen  weeks,  with  pen- 
dulum, turns,  and  motions,  as  before. 

Watch-Part. 


Numbers  for  a  feventh-month  clock,  with  turns, 
pendulum  and  motions. 


The  Watch. 

The  Clod: 

8)60 

8)56 
8)48 

6)45-48)48-6)72 

5)40 

8)96 

8j88— 27)12 
8)64—16  Pins 
6)48  double  hoop? 
6)48 

30 


Numbers  for  a  year  clock  of  384  days,  with  twrnsi 
pendulum,   and  motions. 


The  Watch. 
12)108 

9)   72 

8)  64 

8)  60—48)48—6)72 

7)  56 


30 


The  ClocL- 
10)120 

8)  96-36)9 

6)  78—26  Pins 

6)  72  double  hoop. 

6;  60 


If  we  will  rather  have  the  pinion  of  report  on  the 
fpindle  of  the  pin-wheel,  it  mult  be  13)39. 

Numbers  for  a  clock  of  30  hours,  the  pendiilum 
about  6  inches. 


The  Watch. 
12)8 

6)78 

6)60 
6)42 


15 


7he  Clock. 
8)48 


6)78— 1 3  Pins 

6)60 

6)48 


8)96 

8)88 

8)60—48)48—6)72 

7)56 


30 


Clock-Part. 
8)72 

8)64—37)30 
8)48— izPins 

6)48  double  hoop 


Or,  Thus : 

6)72 

6)bo 

6)48—48)48—6)72 

t')45 

30 

Or,  Thus : 
5)145 
6)90  l_j 


6)-2 

6)60 


-24)62 


Numbers   for  an   eight-day  clock  with    16  tarns 
pendulum,  about  6  inches,  to  Ihew  minutes,  fe- 
conds, ^c. 

The  Watch. 
8)96 

8)64—48)48—6)72 

8)60 

8)40 


15 


Ther/«c^may  be  the  fame  with  the  eight-day 
piece. 

All  the  heretofore  defcribed  numbers  are  for  large 
pieces,  but  the  following  ones  are  for  pocket- 
watches, 

Numben 


4i8  'Tl:>e  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ami  Sciences. 


Numbers  for  a  wntch  to  go  8  days,  with  12  turns, 
to  fhew  minutes  and  feconds,  the  train  1600. 

Note,  That  the  train  of  a  watch  is  the  number  of 
beats,  which  a  watch  makes  in  an  hour,  or  any 
other  certain  time. 

6)96 
6)48—12)48—12)36 

6)45 
6)42 


19 
On  the  wheel  42  is  the  fecond's  hand  placed, and 
on  the  wheel  48  the  minute  hand. 

Numbers  oi  zwo^tx  fuch  a  -watch  without  mi- 
nutes and  ieconds,  to  go  with  only  8  turns 

2C)lO 


6)66 
6)60 

5)50 
5)45 

19 


Numlcrs  of  a  pocket  watch  of  32  hours  with  8 
turns,  to  (hew  minutes  and  feconds,  train  as  the 
iaft. 

12)48 
6)48—12)48—12)36 
6)45 Second's  hand. 

19 
If  this  crown  wheel  be  too  large,  llie  following 
numbers  may  be  uied. 

12)48 
6;48 

6.^4  S 

6)48  Second's  hand. 


15 


The  ufual  numbers  of  30  hours  pendulum  watches 
with  8  turns,  to  fiiew  the  hour  and  minute. 
12)48 
6)54—12)48—12)36 

6:48 

6)45 


15 


COINING. 


•^HE  ara  of  the  inveniion  of  money  is 
not  eafy  to  be  determined  ;  the  firft 
tidings  we  hear  of  it  is  in  the  time  of 
Abraham,  who  paid  400  fhekels  for 
a  burying-place.  The  Greeks  refer  the  invention 
of  money  to  Hermoclice,  wife  of  king  Midai  ;  and 
the  Latins  to  Janus.  Money  being  a  common 
meafure  for  reducing  wares  to  a  ballance,  it  was 
called  by  the  Grerks  Norn'fir.a,  not  from  king 
Numa,  but  from  Nomos,  as  being  eflabliflicd  by 
law.  By  the  Latins  it  was  called  Pecunia,  either 
becaufe  the  wealth  of  thofe  days  confifled  in  their 
cattle  ;  or,  as  Pliny  will  have  it,  becaufe  their  firft 
eoin  was  {lamped  with  the  figure  of  a  cow.  They 
alfo  call  it  Moneta.,  a  moncndo,  as  Suidas  obferves  ; 
becaufe  when  the  Rori.ans  were  in  want  of  money, 
Juno  admoniftied  them  to  ufe  juftice,  and  there 
ihould  be  no  want  of  money.  The  effecS  whereof, 
when  they  had  found,  fhe  was  furnamed  Juno 
moneta,  and  money  was  coined  in  her  temple. 

Copper  is  that  money  thought  to  have  been  firft 
coined;  aherwTirds  filrer,  and,  laftly,  gold. 

Among  the  antient  Britons,  iron  rings,  or,  as 
fome  fay,  iron  plates",  were  ufed  for  money  ;  among 
the  Lacedemonians,  iron  bars  quenched  with  vine- 
gar, -that  they  might   not  ferve  for  any  other  ufe. 


Seneca  obferves,  that  there  was  anciently  ftamped 
money  of  leather,  which  was  alfo  pradlifcd  during 
the  barons  wars  in  England,  and  by  Frederick  II. 
at  the  fiege  of  Alilan.  In  1574,  the  Hollanders 
coined  great  quantities  of  pafteboard,  reduced  to  it 
by  neceffity;  for  they  had  not,  then,  thofe  tons  of 
gold  they  have  reckoned  by  fince.  Numa  Pom- 
pilius  made  money  of  wood  and  leather,  neither 
does  it  appear  that  the  Romans  were  much  ac- 
quainted with  the  art  of  coining  in  m.etal,  during 
the  time  of  their  kings.  The  firft  filver  money 
they  coined  vi3.s  in  the  year  of  Rome  484,  and  their 
firft  gold  money  in  546. 

Some  authors  pretend,  on  the  contrary',  that  the 
firft  moneys  were  of  metals,  and  that  it  was  natural 
for  men  to  have  recourfe  to  them,  as  being  almoft 
the  only  things  vvhofe  goodnefs,  and,  as  it  were, 
integrity,  is  not  diminiftied  by  partition,  befides 
their  firmnefs,  neatnefs,  cleanlinefs,  durablenefs, 
univerfality,  and  the  conveniences  of  rhelting  and 
returning  them  again  into  a  mafs  of  any  fize,  or 
weight.  That  it  was  this  property'  of  m.etals 
which  firft'  accuftomed  people,  who  trafficked  toge- 
ther, to  account  them  in  lieu  of  quantities  of  other 
merchandizes  in  their  exchanges  ;  and  at  length  to 
fubftitute  them  wholly  in   their  ftead.     That  they 

would 


CO    I  N  I  IV  G. 


419 


would  not  -fay,  that  in  the  firft  ages,  tnonej',  or  coins 
of  metal,  had  any  determinate  form,  or  (hape  ;  that, 
on  the  contrar}',  they  are  of  opinion,  that  each 
perfon  could  cut  his  metal  into  what  forms  rnJ 
lizes  he  pleafcd,  according  to  the  quantity  he 
thought  he  could  give,  or  according  to  the  demand 
of  the  feller,  or  the  quantity  ftipulated  between 
them  ;  that  by  degrees  it  was  found  more  commo- 
dious to  have  pieces  ready  weighed,  and  as  there 
were  difFerent  weights  required,  according  to  the 
value  of  the  different  wares,  all  thofe  of  the  fame 
weight  began  to  be  diiHnguifhed  with  the  fame 
mark,  or  figure;  that  at  length  the  growing  com- 
merce of  money  beginning  to  be  difturbed  by 
frauds,  both  in  the  weight  and  the  matter,  the 
public  autliority  interpofed,  and  hence  the  firft 
fiamp,  or  imprellion,  on  money ;  to  which  fuc- 
ceeded  the  names  of  the  moniers,  and  at  length 
the  effigy  of  the  prince,  the  date,  legend,  and 
other  precautions,  to  prevent  the  alterations  of  the 
fpecics;  and  that  thus  were  coins  compleated,  and 
a  right  form  given  to  money :  which  form  has 
much  varied,  as  to  the  weight,  figure,  imprellion, 
and  value. 

It  is  believed  ty  feveral,  that  the  Jews  were  the 
firft  who  made  any  impreffion  on  money;  it  is  true, 
that  we  find  fhekels,  in  the  cabinets  of  antiquaries, 
one  fide  whereof  is  ftaniped  with  the  golden  pot, 
which  contained  the  manna,  and  the  other  with 
Jaron's  rod  ;  but  we  do  not  know  precifely  the  time 
when  thofe  fliekels  were  ftamped  ;  though  we  have 
all  the  reafon  imaginable  to  fuppofe  that  the  fhekel 
was  their  firft  coin,  which  had  been  perpetuated 
among  them  ever  fince  Abraham,  and,  confe- 
quently,  that  they  were  the  firft  nation  who  made 
ufe  of  a  regular  coin.  Befides  the  fhekel,  they 
had,  in  procefs  of  time,  feveral  other  coins,  both 
of  gold  and  filver. 

l^he  filver  coins  were,  the  gerah,  behah,  Jhekel, 
i/ianeh,  or  mina  hcbraica,  and  talent.  Ten  gerahs 
made  a.  bekah ;  twenty  gerahs  made  two  bekahs  ; 
and  two  bekahs  a  Jhekel :  Twelve  hundred  gerahs 
made  an  hundred  and  twenty  bekahs ;  an  hundred 
and  twenty  bekahs  fifty Jliekels  ;  fifty Jhekcls  a  maneh, 
'or  iniiia  hebraica.  Sixty  thoufand  gerahs  made  fix 
thoufand  bekahs ;  fix  thoufand  bekahs  made  three 
thourandy?)(?/(vA  ;  three  thoufandTZ^^i^/j-  fixty  manehs ; 
and  fixty  manehs  a  talent  of  filver. 

The  Dardans  ftamped  on  their  money  two  cocks 
fighting  ;  the  king  of  Macedon,  a  horie  ;  the  Athe- 
nians., an  owl,  or  an  ox  :  whence  the  proverb,  on 
bribed  lawyers,  Bos  in  lingua.  They  of  JEglna,  a 
tortoife  ;  whence  that  other  proverb,  Virtutem  & 
fapientiam  vincuni  tejiudines. 

The  current  money  of  the  Greeks  were  of  three 
forts  of  metals,  viz,  of  copper,  filver,  and  gold. 


The  copper  money  were  the /epton,  ehalcus,  dichnl- 
cus,  hemioboHum,  obolus,  diabolum,  and  tetrobolum. 
That  of  filver  were,  the  drachma,  didrachmon, 
tetradrachmon,  /later,  and  pentadrtichmon.  And  that 
of  gold,  the  Jl at cr  aureus,  /later  Cyzieenus,  /later 
Philipi'icus,  Alexandrim.iS,   Daricus,  and  Crcefius. 

Among  the  Romans  t+ie  Monetarii  fometirnes 
imprelTed  on  the  coins  the  images  of  men  that  had 
been  eminent  in  their  families ;  but  no  living 
man's  head  was  ever  Itampcd  on  a  Roman  coin  till 
after  the  fall  of  the  commonwealth  ;  from  that  time 
they  bore  the  emperor's  head  on  one  fide,  and  hence 
the  praiftice  of  ftamping  the  prince's  image  on 
coins  has  obtained. 

The  Romans  had,  likewife,  money  of  copper, 
filver,  and  of  gold.  The  copper  m.oney  were  the 
teruncius,  femUibeVa,  libella,  and  as  ;  fomttimes 
triens,  fextans,  uncia,  fextula,  and  dupondius.  The 
filver  money  were,  the  fejhirius,  quinarius,  viSio- 
riatus,  and  denarius.  And  the  gold  coin  was  the 
aure:iS. 

Chamberhyr,  and  others,  fay,  that  it  was  the 
Romans  who  brought  firft  the  ufe  of  gold,  filver, 
and  brafs  coin,  into  Great-Britain,  when  Jul-us 
Cafar  invaded  the  ifland  ;  that  foon  after  the  Bri- 
tons imitated  them,  coining  both  gold  and  filver  with 
the  images  of  their  kings  ftamped  on  them.  When 
the  Ro?nans  had  I'ubdued  the  kings  of  the  Britons, 
they  alfo  fiipprefled  their  coins,  and  brought  in 
their  own,  which  weie  current  here  from  the  time 
of  Claudius  to  thzt  of  Falentinian  the  younger,  about 
the  fpace  of  500  years.  Cdmhdcn  obferves,  that 
the  moft  ancient  EngUftj  coin  he  had  known,  was 
that  of  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent.,  the  firft  Chrijiian 
king  in  the  ifland,  in  whofe  time  all  money  accounts 
began  to  pafs  by  the  names  of  pounds,  (hillings, 
pence,  and  mancufes. 

Pence  feems  borrowed  from  the  Latin  pecunia,  or 
rather  from  pendo,  on  account  of  its  juft  weight, 
which  was  about  three  pence  of  the  prefent  money ; 
thefe  were  coarfly  ftamped  with  the  kings  image  on 
one  fide,  and  either  the  mint-mafter's,  or  the  city's 
where  it  was  coined,  on  the  other.  Five  of  thefe 
pence  made  their  fcilling,  probably  fo  called  from 
Scilingus,  which  the  Romans  ufed  for  the  fourth 
part  of  an  ounce.  Forty  of  thefe  fciliings  made 
their  pound,  and  400  of  thefe  pounds  v/ere  a  leg.icy, 
or  a  portion  for  a  king's  daughter;  as  appears  by 
the  laft  will  of  king  Alfred.  By  thefe  names  they 
tranflated  all  fums  of  money  in  their  old  Englijh 
teftaments,  talents  by />s«)/rt'i;  TWaj's  30  pieces  of 
filver,  by  thirty  fcHiniga  ;  tribute  money,  by  Pe- 
nining ;  the  mite,  hy  furthling.  But  it  muft  be 
obfervcd,  that  they  had  no  other  real  money  but 
pence  only,  the  reft  being  imaginary  moneys,  /.  e. 
names  of  numbers,  or  weights.     Thirty  of  theie 

H  h  h  pence 


420  72-^  Univerfal  Hiftory  0/ Arts  «W  Sciences. 


pence  made  a  mancus,  which  fome  take  to  be  the 
fame  with  a  mark  ;  ii:anca,  as  appears  by  an  old 
maiiufcript,  was  qu'tnta  pars  uncics.  Thefe  mancas, 
or  mancui's  were  reckoned  both  in  gold  and  filver; 
for  in  the  year  680,  we  read,  that  Ina,  king  of 
the  weft  Saxons^  obliged  the  KentiJ}}  men  to  buy 
their  peace  at  the  price  of  30000  manca's  of  gold. 
In  the  notes  on  king  Canute's  laws,  we  find  this 
diftinftion,  that  mancufa  was  as  much  as  a  mark  of 
filver;  nnd  ma>ua  a  fquare  piece  of  gold,  valued  at 
thirty  pence. 

The  Di3»es  introduced  a  way  of  reckoning  money 
by  ORES,  per  orai,  mentioned  in  Doomfday-book; 
but  whether  they  were  fevcral  coins,  or  a  certain 
fum,  does  not  plainly  appear.  This,  however, 
may  be  gathered  from  the  abbey-hook  of  Burton, 
that  20  ores  were  equivalent  to  two  marks.  They 
had  alfo  a  gold  coin  called  bizantine,  or  bezant,  as 
being  coine  I  at  Cff)^'/fl«//«/>/^,  then  called  Byzantium, 
the  value  of  which  coin  is  not  only  now  loft,  but 
was  fo  ciuirely  forgot,  even  in  the  time  of  king 
EdivardWl.  that  whereas  the  biftiop  of  Norwich  was 
fined  a  bizantine  of  golJ,  to  be  paid  the  abbot  of 
St.  Edmunds-Bury,  for  infringing  his  liberties,  (as 
it  had  been  enafted  by  parliament  in  the  time  of  the 
Conqueror)  no  man  then  living  could  tell  how  much 
it  was  ;  fo  it  was  referred  to  the  king  to  rate  how 
much  he  fhould  pay  ;  which  is  the  more  unac- 
countable, becaule  but  an  hundred  years  before, 
two  hundred  thoufand  lefants  were  exacted  by  the 
foldan  of  Egypt  for  the  ranfom  of  St.  Louis,  king 
of  Fiance,  which  were  then  valued  at  one  hundred 
thoufand  livres. 

Though  the  coining  of  money  be  a  fpecial  prero- 
gative of  the  king,  yet  the  antient  Saxon  princes 
communicated  it  to  their  fubjefls ;  infomuch,  that 
in  every  good  town  there  was  atleaft  one  mint,  but 
at  London  eight,  at  Canterbury  four  for  the  king, 
two  for  the  archbifhop,  one  for  the  abbot  at  TVin- 
chejicr,  fix  at  Rochefttr,  at  Hafiinis  two,  ^c. 

The  Norman  kings  continued  the  fame  cuftom 
of  coining  only  pence,  with  the  king's  image  on 
one  fide,  and  on  the  other  the  name  of  the  city 
where  it  was  coined,  with  a  crofs  fo  deeply  im- 
preffed,  that  it  might  be  eafily  parted,  and  broken 
into  two  halves,  which  fo  broken,  they  called 
half- pence;  or  into  four  parts,  v/hich  they  called 
fourthings,  or  farthings. 

They  who  defirea  particular  account  of  the  vari- 
ation of  the  £>;^/.:/^  coin,  both   as  to  its   intrinfic    '^'^^^^^^'^   dearth,  made  hollow   in  manner  of  a 
value   and  form,   will  find   it   at  large  in  biftiop    ^     ^j    ^j^j,  ^  vent-hole  in  the  fore-part    thereof; 


guinea  and  half  guinea ;  the  filver  are,  the  crown, 
half  crown,  /killing,  and  fixpence  ;  the  copper  are, 
the  halfpenny,  and  farthing. 

Two  fathings  make  a  halfpenny  ;  48  farthings, 
or  24  halfpence,  make  a  fhiiliiig;  120  farthings, 
or  60  halfpence,  or  if  fhillings,  make  half  a  crown  ; 
240  farthings,  or  120  halfpence,  or  5  {hillings,  or 
2  half  crowns,  make  a  crown  ;  960  farthings,  or 
480  halfpence,  or  20  fhillings,  or  8  half  crowns, 
or 4 crowns,  make  a  pound  ftcrling;  ioc8  farthings, 
or  504  halfpence,  or  21  fhillings,  or  8  half 
crowns  \  and  \,  or  4  crowns  and  -j,  or  I  pound 
and  _'      make  a  guinea. 

In  Scotland,  by  the  articles  of  the  Union,  it  is 
appointed,  that  all  coins  be  reduced  to  the  Englifh, 
and  the  fame  accounts  oblerved  throughout;  till 
then,  the  Scots  had  their  pounds,  fhillings,  and 
pence,  as  in  England;  but  their  pound  was  but 
20  pence  ErgUjli,  and  the  others  in  proportion. 
Accordingly,  their  mark  was  13!^.  Scotch,  current 
in  England  at  iT,\d.  their  noble  in  proportion  Be- 
fides  thefe,  they  had  their  turnorer  pence  and  half- 
pence, their  penny  _'_  of  that  oi  England;  befides 
bafe  money  of  achifons,  babees,  and  placks ;  the 
bodle,  -s  of  the  penny,  5  of  the  achifon,  ^  of  the 
babee,  and  \  of  the  plack. 

In  Ireland^  the  coins  are  as  in  England,  viz. 
fhillings,  pence,  &c.  with  this  difference,  that 
their  fhilling,  or  harper,  is  but  equal  to  9  pence 
fterling  ;  whence  their  pound  is  only  |  of  the  Eng- 
lifl)  pound,  or  15^. 

The  art  of  making  of  this  money  is  called 
COINING;  in  which  adt  there  are  two  things 
neceflary  ; 

The  metals  to  be  coined,  and  the  inftruments 
they  are  coined  with. 

The  metals  moft  commonly  coined,  are  gold, 
filver,  and  copper,  though  in  fome  countries  of 
Europe,  befides  thefe  three  metals,  they  coin  bul- 
lion, as  in  France,  Holland,  and  the  low-coun- 
tries. 

The  inftruments,  or  rather  utcnfils  for  coining 
are,  i .  Furnaces  for  the  melting  of  metals,  of 
which  there  are  two  kinds,  viz.  thofe  with  wind, 
and  thofe  with  bellows.  The  wind-furnace  (thus 
called,  becaufe  the  air  entring  through  the  vent- 
hole  at  bottom,  which  is  always  open,  ferves  the 
fame  purpofe  as  bellows  in   othtv  furnaces )  has  a 


Fleetwood's  Chronicon.  Preciofmn,  and  the  hiilo 
rical  account  oi Er.gUJh  Coins  by  Stephen  Mar- 
tin Leake,  efq;  Carter,  king  at  arms. 

The    prefent  current  coins  in  England,  are   of 
gold,  filver,  and  copper.     The  gold  coins  are,  tlie 


over  the  vent-hole  is  a  grate  fealed  in  the  maffive 
of  li\t  furnace;  and  over  the  grate  is  th:  place  for 
the  crucible  Furnace  with  bellows  confifts  of  a 
flat  hearth  at  bottom,  into  which  the  air  is  admitted 
by  a  hole  contrived  therein.     On  a  level  with  the 

hearth 


COINING. 


421 


hearth  is  a  fecond  aperture,  which  gives  paflage  to 
the  pipe  of  the  bellows,  from  which  iVi^: furnace  is 
denominated.  About  a  foot  over  this  is  a  moveable 
grate,  which  may  be  taken  olF  and  put  on  at 
pleafure.  Over  this  is  the  place  where  the  crucible 
is  fet,  which  is  fquare,  and  made  of  the  fame 
eatih  with  the  crucible;  of  breadth  fufficient  to 
bear  a  range  of  coals  around  the  crucible.  Gold 
is  ufually  melted  in  this  kind  oi  furn.:ces,  as  requir- 
ing an  intenfer  heat  before  it  fufes ;  and  filver  and 
copper  are  commonly  melted  by  the  wind-fur- 
nace. 

2.  Earthen  crucible  for  the  melting  of  gold  ;  and 
pots  or  crucibles  of  iron  for  filver  or  copper. 

3.  Moulds  ot  frames  for  carting  the  metals  into 
long  flat-baris. 

4.  Alodds  or  patterns,  which  are  flat  plates  of 
copper,  about  fifteen  inches  long,  and  nearly  of 
the  thicknefs  of  the  fpecies  to  be  ilruck. 

5.  A  ?/,///  to  prepare  the  lamin.E  or  plates  of 
metal,  and  to  give  them  the  proper  thicknefs, 
hardnefs,  and  confiftencc,  before  they  be  ftruck  or 
{lamped.  This  machine  confifts  of  fevcral  wheels 
dented  like  thofe  of  a  clock,  i^c.  which  moves 
two  cylinders  of  fteel,  between  which  the  metal  is 
pafl'ed  to  be  brought  to  its  proper  thicknefs.  It  was 
formerly  turned  with  water,  fince  with  horfes, 

6.  A  cutting  iiijirurtient  faftened  to  the  lower  ex- 
tremity of  an  arbor,  whofe  upper  end  is  formed  into 
a  fcrew,  which  being  turned  by  an  iron  handle 
turns  the  arbor,  and  lets  the  fteel,  well  ftiarpned 
in  form  of  a  punch-cutter,  fall  on  the  plate,  and 
thus  is  a  piece  punched  out 

7.  Files  or  rafps  to  bring 
rafping,  to  the  weight  of 
they  are  to  be  regulated. 

8.  Scales  to  adjuft  the  pieces,  and  to  feparate 
thofe  which  prove  too  light  from  thofe  which  are 
too  heavy. 

9..  Two  copper  veffels,  wherein  the  blanks  are 
blanched  or  whitened. 

10.  A  machine,  confiding  of  two  plates  of  fteel, 
in  form  of  rulers,  about  the  thicknefs  of  a  line, 
on  vvhich  the  legend  or  edging  is  engraven,  half 
on  the  one  and  half  on  the  other,  to  mark  the 
edges  of  the  planchets,  or  pieces  to  be  ftamped,  to 
prevent  the  clipping  or  paring  of  the  fpecies. 

11.  The  puhchions  or  dyes,  which  are  pieces  of 
good  fteel  of  a  rubick  form,  wherein  are  engraven 
the  prince's  effigies,  with  the  arms,  legend,  is'c. 
They  are  alio  called  matrices,  becaufe  in  the 
cavities  or  indentures  thereof  the  coins  feem  formed 
or  generated,  as  animals  are  in  the  matrix  of 
their  mother.  See  Plate  I.  of  Mechanic  Arts. 

12.  A  mill  or  prefs,  by  the  French  called  a  ba- 
lancier,  whofe  chief  parts  are  a  beam,  fcrew,  arbor, 


the  pieces,  by  filing  or 
the  ftandard,  whereby 


t^c.  all  contained  in  the  body  of  the  machine,  ex' 
cept  the  firft,  which  is  a  long  iron  bar,  with  a 
heavy  bail  of  lead  at  each  end,  and  rings,  to 
which  are  fattened  cords,  which  give  it  motion  ;  it 
it  placed  horizontally  over  the  body  of  the  ma- 
chine. 

In  the  middle  of  the  beam  is  faftened  a  fcrew, 
which,  by  turning  the  beam,  ferves  to  prefs  the 
arbor  underneath  it ;  to  the  lower  extremity  of 
which  arbor,  placed  perpendicularly,  is  faftened 
the  dye  or  matrice,  of  the  reverfe  or  arms  fide,  in 
a  kind  of  box,  or  cafe,  containing  the  d)  e  of  the 
image  fide,  firmly  faftened  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
engine. 

This  machine  was  invented  by  a  Fre^uhman, 
czWed  Jntoine  Bruchc'-,  in  1553,  and  fiift  tried  at 
the  Louvre,  the  king  of  /^rfl/i^^'s  palace  at  Paris,  for 
the  coining  of  counters  ;  before  this  invention, 
coining  was  performed  by  the  hammer,  which  could 
never  ftrike  the  fpecies  with  that  neatnefs  and 
perfedion  the  halancier,  or  mill,  does. 

Having  thus  provided  ourfelves  with  all  the 
neceflary  implements  for  coinng,  we  11  be2;in  by 
mixing  and  melting  our  metal,  for  the  coining 
of  guineas,  or  lords  d'ors,  or  Spanijl}  piftoles, 
or  what  gold  fpecies  you  pleafe;  we  mix 
the  metal,  becaufe  there  are  no  fpecies  coined  of 
pure  gold,  or  filver,  but  always  a  quantity  of  alloy 
of  copper  is  mixed  with  them  :  the  reafons  are, 
partly  the  fcarcity  of  thofe  two  metals,  partly  the 
neceflity  of  making  them  harder  by  fome  foreign 
mixture,  and  partly  to  defray  the  expences  of 
coining. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  alloying,  or  mixing; 
the  firft  where  the  gold  or  filver  has  not  been  ufed 
for  money  before ;  the  other,  where  fevera!  kinds 
of  fpecies,  or  ingots  of  different  ftandards,  and 
values,  are  to  be  melted  down  into  a  new  money. 
The  proportioning  of  the  alloy  w  ith  the  fine  metal, 
is  eafy  in  the  firft  cafe,  in  the  other  more  difficult; 
though  M.  Boifard  has  given  us  a  ready  and  eafy 
method  of  doing  it,  by  advifing  us  to  write  down 
the  feveral  matters  to  be  melted,  their  quality, 
weight,  and  finenefs,  in  two  diftinft  articles;  the 
one  containing  thofe  above  the  ftandard  ;  the  other 
thofe  under  it.  He  fays,  that  by  catling  up  the 
firft,  we  ftiail  have  the  excefs  ;  and,  by  the  latter, 
the  defeat  :  and  by  comparing  the  two  fums,  after- 
wards, we  ftiall  find,  by  fubtraftion,  how  m.uch 
alloy  muit  be  added,  to  bring  the  feveral  matters 
to  the  fineneis  required.  We  have  followed  this 
method,  and  mixed  our  metal  accordingly,  /.  e. 
two  carats  of  filver  and  copper  (which  is  the  alloy 
for  gold)  v/ith  a  pound  troy  of  gold,  to  bring  our 
fpecits  to  the  Engli/1)  ftandard. 

H  h  h  2  V»^e 


42  2  lie  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^W  Sciences. 


We  put  our  metal,  thus  mixed,  in  an  earthen 
crucible,  place  our  crucible  on  a  little  plate  of 
forged  iron,  which  we  have  before  took  care  to 
lay  over  the  grate  of  our  bellows-furnace  ;  we  cover 
our  crucible  with  an  iron  or  earthen  lid,  then  fill 
the  furnace  with  charcoal,  and  when  it  is  well 
lighted,  and  the  crucible  fufficiently  hot,  we  ftop 
the  vent-hole,  and  throwing  on  frcfli  coals,  ftop 
the  furnace  with  an  iron  lid,  thus  continuing  to 
work  the  bellows,  and  fupply  frefh  fuel  till  the 
metal  being  in  balnea,  i.  e.  entirely  melted,  we  ftir 
it  with  a  (lirrer  of  baked  earth;  then  take  our 
crucible  ofF  the  fire,  with  a  kind  of  tongs,  and 
pour  the  metal  into  our  moulds,  which  wc  have 
had  the  precaution  to  range  near  l\\c  furnace,  to 
be  in  readinefs  to  receive  it,  as  it  comes  out  of  the 
crucible. 

We  take  our  bars,  or  plates,  out  of  the  mould, 
when  cold,  and  after  we  have  fcraped  and  brufhed 
them,  we  heat  them  again  in  a  furnace,  and  quench 
them  in  v/ater,  to  foften,  and  render  them  more 
dudlile  i  then  pafs  them  fevcral  times  through  the 
mill,  to  flatten  them  further,  and  bring  them  to 
the  ju{l  thicknefs  of  the  fpecies  to  be  coined. 

Theie  plates,  thus  reduced,  as  near  as  poflible, 
to  their  thicknefs,  are  cut,  with  our  cutting  inftru- 
ment,  into  round  pieces,  called  blanks,  or  planchets, 
near  the  fize  of  the  intended  fpecies;  thefe  pieces 
are  given  to  be  adjuft-ed,  and  brought,  by  filing,  or 
rafping,  to  the  weight  of  the  ftandard  whereby 
they  are  to  be  regulated,  Hning  what  remains  of 
the  plate  between  the  circles  of  the  inftrument,  to 
be  melted  again. 

To  know  if  the  pieces  thus  prepared  are  brought 
at  laft  to  the  weight  of  the  ftandard,  they  are 
weighed  in  a  balance,  and  thofe  too  light  feparated 
from  thofe  too  heavy  ;  thofe  too  light  are  melted 
again,  and  thofe  too  heavy  filed  down  :  this  diffe- 
rence in  the  weight,  proceeds  either  from  that  the 
mill  through  which  the  plates  havepaffed  to  be  flat- 
tened, can  never  be  fo  jufl,  but  there  will  be  fome 
inequality,  whence  will  arife  a  difference  in  the 
blanks,  as  from  the  inequality  of  the  matter,  fome 
parts  being  more  porous  than  others. 

V/hen  the  blanks, ov planchets,  are  exactlybrought 
to  the  ftandard,  they  are  fent  to  the  blanching,  or 
whitening  houfe,  to  be  coloured,  which  is  done  by 
heating  them  mz  furnace;  and  when  taken  out, 
and  cool,  boiling  them  fuccefli/ely  in  two  copper 
vclFels,  v/ith  v/ater,  common  fait,  and  tartar ;  when 
they  are  of  the  colour  intended,  they  are  taken 
out  of  the  boiler,  and  put  in  a  copper  fieve  ;  then 
fcoured  well  with  fand,  wafhed  with  common  wa- 
ter, and  dried  over  a  wood  fire,  in  the  fame  cop- 
per fieve  they  were  put  in  when  taken  out  of  the 
boilers. 


When  dry,  they  are  fent  to  be  edged,  which  is 
performed  by  means  of  thofe  two  plates  of  ftecl  in 
form  of  rulers,  abovementioned,  one  v/hereof  is 
immoveable,  and  ftrongly  bound  with  fcrews  to  a 
copper  plate,  and  that  again  to  a  ftrong  board,  or 
table ;  the  other  is  moveable,  and  Aides  on  the 
copper  plate,  by  means  of  a  handle,  and  a  wheel 
or  pinion  of  iron,  the  teeth  whereof  catch  in  a 
kind  of  other  teeth,  on  the  furface  of  a  Aiding 
plate.  The  planchet,  or  piece  of  plate,  is  placed  hori- 
zontally between  thefe  two  plates,  and  by  that  time 
it  has  made  half  a  turn,  it  is  found  marked  all  round. 

The  planchets,  thus  edged,  are  carried  to  the 
balancier,  and  laid  one  after  another  on  the  image 
matrice,  upon  which  two  men  draw,  each  en  his 
fide,  one  of  the  ropes  of  the  beam,  and  turns  the 
fcrew  faftened  to  it;  which  by  this  motion  lowers 
the  arbor  to  which  the  dye  of  the  arms  is  faftened ; 
by  which  means,  the  metal  being  in  the  middle, 
at  once  receives  an  impreflion  on  each  fide,  from 
each  dye. 

Silver  is  coined  in  the  fame  manner,  with  thefe 
few  differences ;  i.  That  the  alloy  of  filver  is  cop- 
per alone,  1 8  pennyweights  of  which  are  allowed 
in  a  pound  trey  for  ftandard  filver  in  England. 
2.  Silver  is  melted  in  a  wind  furnace.  3.  When 
melted,  it  is  taken  with  a  ladle  out  of  the  crucible, 
to  be  poured  into  the  aperture  of  the  mould. 

When  the  blanks,  either  of  gold,  filver,  copper, 
or  bullion,  have  all  their  marks  and  impreflicns 
both  on  the  edges  and  faces,  they  become  money, 
but  have  no  currency  till  they  have  been  weighed 
and  examined  ;  for  which  reafon,  monfieur  Boifard 
very  pertinently  defines  money,  a  piece  of  matter, 
to  which  public  authority  has  affixed  a  certain  value 
and  weight,  tp  ferve  as  a  medium  in  commerce. 

7  he  place  where  the  money  is  coined  is  called 
the  Mint.  In  France  there  are  as  many  mints  as 
there  are  letters  in  the  alphabet,  and  it  is  known 
by  the  letter  of  the  alphabet  placed  in  the  exergue 
of  the  coin,  where  the  piece  has  been  ftruck.  All 
the  fpecies  coined  at  Paris  are  marked  with  the 
letter  A.  Thofe  coined  at  Rouen  in  Normandy  with 
the  letter  B,  ^'c.  In  the  province  of  Britanny  there 
are  two  mints;  one  at  Rennes,  where  the  money 
is  marked  g.  and  another  at  Nantz,  where  they 
are  marked  with  the  letter  T. 

Though  therewereantiently  w/«/r  in  moft  cities 
of  England,  there  is  at  prefent  but  one,  and  that 
in  the  Tower  of  London.  This  Mint  was  made  a 
corporation  by  a  charter  of  king  Edward  III.  and 
confifts,  I.  Of  the  warden  or  keeper  of  the  ex- 
change and  mint,  whofe  office  is  to  receive  the 
bullion  brought  in  by  merchants,  goldfmiths  and 
others,  to   pay  them  for  it,  and  to  over-fee  all  the 

other 


CONFECriONRAY, 


other  officers.  2.  The  mafter- worker,  who  receives 
the  bullion  from  the  wnrdcn,  caufes  it  to  be 
melted,  delivers  it  to  the  moncycrs,  and  takes  it 
fi-om  thern  again,  when  coined:  his  allowance 
formerly  was  not  any  fet-fce,  but  according  to  the 
pound  weight;  as  by  an  indenture  under  the  great 
feal.  3.  The  comptroller,  who  fees  that  the  money 
be  made  to  the  jull  affize,  to  overfee  the  officers, 
and  reprimand  them  if  the  money  be  not  as  it 
ought  to  be.  4.  The  afiay-mafter,  who  weighs 
the  filver  and  gold,  and  fees  whether  it  be  ftandard. 
5.  The  auditor,  who  takes  and  makes  up  the 
accounts.  6.  The  furveyor  of  the  melting,  who 
is   to  fee  the  filver  caft  out,  and  that  it  be  not 


altered  after  it  is  delivered  to  the  melter,  ;'.  e.  after 
the  affay-mafter  has  made  trial  of  it.  7.  The 
clerk  of  the  irons,  who  is  to  fee  that  the  irons  be 
clean,  and  fit  to  work  with.  8.  1  he  graver  who 
engraves  the  dies  and  {lamps  for  the  coinage  of 
money.  9.  The  melters,  who  melt  the  bullion 
before  it  comes  to  coining,  10.  The  blaiichers, 
who  anneal  or  boil  and  cleanfe  the  money,  x  I.  The 
porters,  who  keep  the  gate  of  the  mint.  12.  The 
provoft  of  the  mint.,  who  provides  for  all  the  mo- 
ncyers,  and  overfees  them.  And  lajily,  the  mo- 
neyers,  fome  of  which  fhear  the  money,  fome 
forge  it,  fome  ftamp  or  coin  it,  and  fome  round  and 
mill  it. 


Of   CONFEC'TIONART, 


f  ■^"tHE  art  of  the  Confectioner  is  to  pre- 
ferve  all  {ovts  of  vegetcibks,  as  flowers,  fruits, 
herbs,  roots,  and  their  juices,  in  fuch  a 
manner,  as  to  prcferve  their  natural  form,  colour, 
tafte,  fmell,  tfc.  for  a  confiderable  length  of 
time. 

This  may  be  performed  by  honey,  but  the  mo- 
derns do  it  with  fugar  prepared  different  ways  ; 
which,  according  to  its  different  degrees  of  con- 
fiflence  acquired  by  boiling,  is  known  by  the  name 
of  icy  fugar,  pearl  fugar,  feather  fugar  and  break- 
ing fugar. 

Sugar  is  boiled  to  the  confiftence  of  ice,  if  the 
middle  finger,  being  dipped  into  it,  and  applied 
afterwards  to  the  thumb,  the  fugar  remains  im- 
moveable, and  round,  like  a  fmall  pea,  upon  the 
thumb.  It  is  faid  to  be  boiled  to  a  pearl,  when,  by 
opening  the  finger  and  the  thumb,  which  had  been 
before  joined,  t\-ie.  fugar  forms  a  fmall  thread.  It 
is  boiled  to  feathers,  when  a  fpatula,  having  been 
dipped  into  it,  and  fliaken  afterwards,  the  fugar 
flies  into  the  air  ;  for  if  it  runs  yet,  it  is  not  done. 
And,  laftlv,  it  is  reduced  to  the  confiflence  of 
breaking,  if  a  fmall  flick,  which  has  been  before 
dipped  into  cold  water,  being  dipped  afterwards- 
into  the  hoWw^Jugar,  and  dipped  again  into  cold 
water,  the  f/gar  breaks,  and  grows  dry  in  the 
water  ;  for  if  it  be  yet  flicky,  it  is  not  of  a  right 
confiflence.  Of  thefe  four  preparations  of  fugar, 
.  all  forts  of  confers  are  made. 

Mix  about  a  quarter  of  a  pint  of  water  for  every 
pound  of  prepared  fugar,  and  no  more,  for  if  there 
was  more,  it  mufl  be  evaporated,  before  the  fugar 
can  acquire  its  due  confiflence. 


Confers  are  reduced  to  eight  kinds,  vi%.  liquid 
confeSis,  marmalades,  jellies,  pafes,  dry  canfeSis^ 
confervas,  candies,  2cn^  dragees,  ox  fugar  plumbs. 

Liquid  Confects,  are  thofe  whofe  fruits, 
either  whole,  in  pieces,  feeds,  or  cluflers,  are 
confited  in  a  fluid  tranfparent  fyrup,  which  takes  its 
colour  from  that  of  the  fruit  boiled  in  it;  if  they  be 
too  little  fugared,  and  too  little  boiled,  they  turn  ; 
and  if  too  much  fugared,  or  too  much  boileij,  they 
candy. 

Ail  fruits  for  confers  mufl  be  a  little  green,  and 
gathered  when  they  begin  to  ripen,  except  goofe- 
bcrries,  cherries,  pears,  and  quinces.,  thefe  mull  be 
ripe,  and  confeHed  at  a  great  fire  ;  except  quinces, 
which  want  but  a  flow  fire,  as  well  as  the  fruits, 
which  are  to  be  green;  which  fruits  mull  be  boiled 
in  water  at  a  flow  fire,  pouring  upon  them  Ibme 
acid,  as  vinegar,  or  fpirit  of  vitriol,  to  render  them 
of  a  flill  more  beautiful  green  :  but  when  they  are 
in  t\\z  fugar,  they  mufl  be  difpatched  at  a  great  fire. 

There  muft  be  a  pound  of  fugar  to  every  pound 
of  fruit;  except  che?-ries,  a  pound  of  which  wants 
but  half  a  pound,  or  three  quarters  of  a  pound  of 
fugar;  but  every  pound  of  quir.ces  wants  a  pound 
and  a  quarter  of  fugar. 

The  manner  of  performing  thi=i  art  may  be  fuffi- 
ciently  known  by  the  folio v.ing  prepaiatioiis,  to 
which  examples  all  others  may  le  reduced. 

All  forts  of  Plumbs,  for  confers,  mufl  be  taken 
when  they  begin  to  ripen ;  pare  them,  and  put 
them  into  cold  water,  and  afterwards  into  hot  wa- 
ter, ready  to  boil,  in  which  leave  them  till  they 
begin  to  grow  green:  then  take  them  off  the  fire, 
and  let  them  grow  cold,  in  the  fame  water.  Being 
'  cold 


424  'The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^W  Sciences. 

cold  take  them  out,  and  put  them  into  cold  water ; '  next  morning,  keeping  all  the  while  a  fmall  flri 


from  that  water,  and  after  they  have  been  well 
drained  of  their  water  throw  them  into  feathered 
fugnr  boiled  at  a  grfat  fire,  and  fliim  them;  then 
boil  them,  which  done,  they  are  to  be  taken  off 
the  fire,  and  left  to  grow  cold,  and  put  again 
on  the  fire,  and  boiled,  till  the  fyrup  has  ac- 
quired the  confiftence  of  pearl;  then  they  are 
to  be  taken  off  the  fire,  and  put  into  pots:  which 
pots  are  to  be  covered,  when  thz  [^lumbs  are  cold. 

Cherries  are  preferved  either  with  their  ftones, 
or  without.  If  with  their  ftoncs,  the  ftalk  mufl:  be 
cut  very  fhort;  if  without,  they  mu(t  be  pulled 
out  gently  by  th.'  llalk,  without  bruifing  the  cher- 
ries ;  which  are  to  be  gathered  very  ripe,  the  chcr 
r'les  called  morclla's  are  the  moft  proper  for  confeEli; 
the  cherries  are  put  into  feathered  fugar,  boiled  at 
a  great  fire,  ard  fkimmed ;  which  done  they  are 
taken  off  the  fire,  and  left  to  grow  cold  -,  then  put 
again  on  the  fire,  and  made  to  boil  fall,  and 
fkimmed  again,  if  it  be  iieceiTary.  When  taken 
off  the  fire,  for  the  laft  time,  put  them  into  pots 
and  cover  them  when  cold. 

Ra/berries  muff  be  gathered  as  whole  as  poffible, 
and  before  they  are  quite  ripe.  Their  ftalks  muft 
be  pulled  off'.  Then  put  them  into  a  glazed  earthen 
pan,  flat  at  the  bottom  ;  feathered  fugar  poured 
upon  them,  and  having  been  left  to  grow  cold,  the 
whole  mixture  is  poured  afterwards  gently  into  a 
copper  bafon,  and  made  to  boil,  and  (kimmed,  till 
the  fyrup  be  reduced  to  the  confiffence  of  pearl, 
which  done,  they  are  taken  off  the  fire,  and  put 
into  pots  as  before. 

For  green  liquid  Apricocks;  they  muft  be  ga- 
thered green  and  tender,  pared,  and  thrown  into 
cold  water,  and  afterwards  put  into  warm  water, 
where  they  are  left  till  they  begin  to  grow  green  ; 
then  they  are  taken  off  the  fire,  and  left  to  grow 
cold  in  the  fame  water:  being  cold,  they  are  put 
into  frefh  water,  out  of  vvhi  h  being  taken  after- 
wards, and  drained,  they  are  put  into  icy  fugar ; 
where  they  are  left  to  boil  for  a  very  fhort  fpace  of 
time ;  then  they  are  taken  off  the  fire,  and  left  to 
grow  cold  a  little,  and  afterwards  put  again  on  the 
fire,  and  left  to  boil  till  the  fyrup  be  reduced  to  a 
pearl  Confiftence:  Then  they  are  put  into  pots,  as 
other  liquid  confers. 

For  ripe  liquid  Apr  icocks,  they  muft  be  pared 
as  well  as  poffible,  without  bruifing  or  disfiguring 
them,  and  afterwards  put  into  boiling  water,  where 
they  muft  boil  gently  for  the  fpace  of  two  minutes. 
Then  they  are  taken  off  the  fire,  and  thrown  into 
cold  water:  while  they  are  in  the  water,  fugar  is 
boiled  in  form  of  a  conferve,  in  which  the  apricocks 
muft  boil  two  or  three  gallops;  which  done,  they 
are  carried  to  the  ftove,  where  they  are  left  till  the 


under  it. 

Peaches  are  preferved  after  the  fame  manner; 
except  that  they  muft  be  ftoned,  and  boiled  in 
pearl  fugar. 

^inces  muft  betaken  very  ripe,  cut  into  halves, 
or  quarters,  pared,  and  cleanfed  of  their  cores  : 
as  they  are  pared,  they  are  thrown  into  cold  water, 
and  from,  thence  into  boiling  water,  where  they 
are  left  till  they  arc  grown  foft  ;  which  done,  they 
are  taken  out,  and  put  into  cold  water:  While 
they  are  in  the  frefti  water,  fugar  muft  be  boiled 
according  to  our  firft  preparation,  into  which  the 
quinces  are  put,  and  made  to  boil  at  a  flow  fire,  co- 
vering theipi,  if  they  be  wanted  very  red  ;  they  muft 
be  taken  off  the  fire  by  intervals,  and  put  again 
upon  it,  till  the  fyrup  has  acquired  the  confiftence  of 
jelly;  then  they  are  put  into  pots,  and  covered 
when  cold. 

Marmalades,  area  kind  of  paji:s  half  liquid, 
made  of  the  pulp  of  fruits  or  flowers. 

Pasts  arc  thickened  to  a  degree,  by  boiling,  (o 
as  to  afl'uume  any  form,  when  put  into  little  moulds, 
and  dried  in  an  oven.  The  moft  in  ufe,  are  thofe 
of  goofelerries,  quinces,  apphs,  apricocks,  and  orange, 
flowers. 

To  make  a  pa/Je  of  cherries,  take  the  largeft, 
and  ripeft,  take  off  the  ftalks  and  ftones,  and  boil 
the  fruit  a  little  in  a  very  fm.all  quantity  of  water, 
ftrain  it  afterwards  through  a  cullender  putting 
under  it  a  difh,  to  receive  what  paffes  through 
while  you  ftir  and  fqueeze  the  cherries.  When  all 
the  fruit  is  ftrained  through,  it  muft  be  put  into  a 
very  clean  copper  bafon,  and  dried  on  the  fire, 
ftirring  it  without  intermiffion,  left  it  fliould  burn, 
and  till  your  cherries  begin  to  dry,  which  you'll 
perceive  by  their  flicking  no  longer  to  the  bafon. 
Then  m\x.  with  them  half,  or  three  quarters 
of  a  pound  of  fugar,  in  powder  ;  which  done, 
you  muft  fpread  your  pajle  upon  flates,  giving  it 
what  form  you  pleafe,  and  carrying  it  afterwards 
to  the  ftove  to  dry. 

To  make  a  pajle  of  ra/berries,  you  muft  take 
them  very  ripe,  pull  off  the  ftalks,  and  ftrain  them 
through  a  fieve,  proceeding  afterwards  as  in  the 
pajie  of  cherries. 

The  fajle  of  apricocks  is  made  by  paring  them, 
when  very  ripe,  taking  out  the  ftones,  boiling  them 
in  water  ;  draining  them  ;  ftraining  them  through 
a  fieve,  and  making  a  pqftc  like  that  of  cherries. 

To  make  a  pqfte  of  quinces,  you  muft  take  them 
very  ripe,  pare  them,  take  out  the  cores  and  ftones, 
boil  them  in  water  till  they  be  very  foft,  ftrain  them 
through  a  coarfe  fieve,  and  afterwards  make  your 
pajle  as  you  did  that  of  cherries. 

Thers 


CONFECriONAR   Y, 


425 


"There  are  pajlet  of  fugar,  called  hijkets  ;  as 
common  bijkcts,  bifkcts  of  orange-Jiowers,  jcjfarninc, 
citron,  favoy  bijkcts,  common,  royal,  and  curled 
maffcpcins,  $cc. 

The  cominon  bifucts  are  made,  by  taking  eight 
eggs,  or  thereabouts,  breaking  them,  and  putting 
the  yolks  and  whites  together  in  a  copper  bafon, 
and  beating  them  for  half  an  hour  with  a  wooden 
fpatula  ;  which  done,  a  pound  of  fugar,  in  pow 
der,  muft  be  added  to  it,  and  the  whole  very  well 
mixed,  and  beat  together  for  another  half  hour  : 
then  the  pajie  muft  be  left  at  reft  for  fome  time, 
and  afterwards  put  into  moulds  of  tin,  or  paper, 
mixing  with  it  fome  fugar,  in  powder,  to  glaze  it. 
The  moulds,  thus  filled,  are  put  into  an  oven,  not 
fo  hot  as  one  could  not  bear  his  hand  in  it,  or  into 
a  copper  ftovc,  which  muft  have  lighted  coals  a  top 
and  underneath,  but  a  little  more  a-top  than  under- 
neath ;  where  they  muft  be  left  till  the  bi[keti  be 
very  well  rifen,  and  aftumed  a  golden  colour ;  for 
then  they  are  taken  out  of  the  moulds,  with  the 
point  of  a  knife,  and  put  into  a  hot  place,  till 
they  be  thoroughly  dry. 

The  common  majfcpain  is  made  in  this  manner  : 
Take  a  pound  of  fweet  almonds,  blanch  them  in 
hot  water,  and  put  them  afterwards  in  cold  ;  take 
them  out,  dry  them  upon  a  napkin,  and  pound 
them  in  a  ftone  mortar,  with  a  wooden  peftle, 
moiftening  them  often  with  whites  of  eggs,  and 
rofe  or  orange-flower  water,  till  they  be  reduced 
to  a  pafte  ;    which  done,   it  muft  be  thrown  into 

feathered  fugar,  mixed  together,  put  on  the  fire, 
ftirred  continually  with  a  fpatula,  taking  care  that 
nothing  burn  at  the  bottom  or  fides  of  the  bafon  ; 
and  when  you  perceive  that  nothing  fticks  to  it, 
you  muft  take  out  your  pnjle,  and  (pin  it  in  what 
form  you  pleafe,   and  carry  afterwards  your  maf- 

fepains  to  the  oven  to  be  baked. 

Jellies,  are  juices   of  feveral   fruits,  wherein 

Jtigar  has  been  diftblvtd,  and  the  whole,  by  boiling, 
reduced  to  a  pretty  thick  confiftence;  fo  as,  upon 
cooling,  torefemble  a  kind  of  thin  tranfparent  glue, 

jell/rsare  made  of  various  kinds  of  fruits,  efpecially 


goofeherries,  apple:,  and   quinces.     There  are  other 
jclli-:s  made  of  flefli,  fifti,  hartfhorn,  is'c. 

To  make  jellies,  you  may  take  what  fort  of 
fruits  you  pleafe,  cut  them  into  pieces,  and  boil 
them  in  water  till  they  be  very  foft ;  they  muft  be 
ftrained,  with  a  ftrong  expreffion,  through  a  clean 
piece  of  cloth,  toextraiSt  from  it  as  much  deco(Slion 
as  poftible.  A  quart  of  that  decodlion  muft  be  put 
into  a  bafon,  with  a  pound  o^  fugar,  and  boiled 
together,  till  xhtjely  be  formed,  which  will  be 
known,  if  by  taking  forne  of  the  compofition  with 
a  ipoon,  it  falls  from  the  fpoon  in  large  lumps,  and 


not  in  running  or  fpinning.  When  it  has  acquired 
that  confiftence,  it  muft  be  taken  off  the  fire,  and 
put  into  pots. 

The  je//y  of  harijiiorn  is  made  by  boiling  a  fuffi- 
cient  quantity  of  hartftiorn  fliavin-s  in  white  wine 
for  the  fpace  of  two  hours,  more  or  lefs,  at  the 
confeSiioner  s  difcretion  ;  when  boiled,  it  is  ftrained 
thro'  a  cloth,  and  afterwards  put  in  a  bafon  with  a 
fufKcient  quantity  of  fugar,  (i.  e.  a  pound  of  fugar 
for  two  pounds  of  hartftiorn)  and  lemon  juice; 
when  it  is  ready  to  boil,  whites  of  new-laid  egtrs 
muft  be  mixed  with  it,  and  immediately  after  the 
whole  mixture  muft  be  thrown  in  the  flannel,  and 
kept  in  a  cool  place.  The  green,  yellow.:  blue,  &c. 
jellies,  are  the  fame  jelly,  only  coloured  with  thofe 
difFerent  colours. 

The  h/anc  mang.r  is  made  of  the  fame  jelly, 
warmed  with  almonds  very  well  pounded,  and  the 
whole  ftrained  through  a  cloth. 

All  forts  of  red  or  green  je.lies  muft  be  done  at  a 
flow  fire,  and  covered ;  and  all  white  jellies  at  a 
great  fire,  and  uncovered. 

The  jelly  of  goofeberries  is  made  by  ftrainfng  them 
through  a  napkin,  or  other  cloth,  adding  three 
quarters  of  a  pound  of  Jugar  to  a  quart  of  the 
juice,  and  boiling  them  together  till  the  mixture 
has  acquired  the  confiftence  abovementioned. 


Dry  Confects,  aie  thofe,  whofe /«<//;,  after 
having  been  boiled  in  the  fyrup,  are  taken  out 
again,  and  put  to  dry  in  an  oven.  The  moft  con- 
liderable  are,  ci/ion  and  orange-peel,  plumbs,  pears, 
cherries,  apricoch,    &c. 

Oranges  are  often  preferved  whole,  ;'.  e.  with- 
out being  cut  in  pieces  ;  which  is  done  in  this 
manner  :  pare  oranges,  as  thin  as  poflible  ;  flit 
them  at  the  eye  ;  put  them  in  boiling  water,  and 
make  them  boil  for  about  half  a  quarter  of  ait 
hour;  take  them  out,  and  put  them  in  cold  v/ater; 
then,  with  a  fpoon  or  fcoop  made  for  that  purpofe, 
take  out  all  the  pulp;  throw  them  into  mere  cold 
water,  and  afterwards  into  boiling  water,  making 
them  boil  as  before  ;  and  again  iino  boiling  water, 
repeating  the  fame  operation  three  times  fucceiEve- 
ly;  and,  laftly,  put  them  into  the  fineft  icy  Jugar  ; 
where  they  rruft  boil  for  half  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
and  afterwards  be  taken  off  the  fire,  and  left  to 
cool  :  when  cold,  they  are  put  again  on  the  fire, 
to  boil  till  the  fugar  be  reduced  to  the  confiftence 
of  being  fhalien  into  flakes  ;  which  done,  they 
muft  be  taken  oft'  the  fire,  and  when  cold,  and 
well  drained  of  the  fugar,  difpofed  upon  clean  llraw. 
There  is  as  much  fugar  wanted  to  preferve 
oranges  and  citrons,  that  the  fruit  may  fwim  in  it  ; 
but  what  is  left  of  it,  may  ferve  for  other  things. 

A  PR  I- 


426 


!7^£?  Univerfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  /2W  Sciences. 


Apricocks  areconfefled,  by  ta'dngfmall  green 
apricocks  very  tender,  paring  them,  and  liavingthcm 
done  in  hot  water,  without  boiling,  till  they  begin 
to  grow  green  ;  for  then  they  mull  be  taken  out, 
and  put  in  cold  water,  and  after  they  have  been 
very  well  drained,  boiled  in  fugar  of  the  confidence 
of  our  firi't  pteparation,  till  the  fyrup  be  reduced 
to  the  confiftence  of  our  fecoiid  preparation  of 
fuoar  ;  then  they  are  put  into  an  earthen  pan, 
where  they  are  left  for  eight  days  :  that  time  ex- 
pired, they  are  pilt  into  a  copper  bafon,  and  boiled 
till  the  fyrup  be  once  more  reduced  to  a  pearl  con- 
filUnce  ;  which  done,  they  are  put  again  into  the 
earthen  pan,  and  when  cold  they  arc  difpofed  on 
flates,  and  put  to  dry  in  the  flovc,  where  they  are 
often  turned,  till  they  be  thoroughly  dry.  Then 
they  are  put  into  boxes,  upon  paper,  fo  that  they 
may  not  touch  one  another. 

For  cbetries,  after  the  ftones  have  been  taken 
out,  they  muft  be  boiled  in  a  fmall  quantity  of 
Water,  that  thev  may  pour  out  their  juice  ;  and 
when  they  have  been  well  drained,  they  are  boiled 
in  fugar  reduced  to  a  pearl  confiftence,  till  the  fy- 
rup has  acquired,  likewife,  a  pearl  confiftence ; 
which  done,  they  are  put  in  an  earthen  pan;  where 
they  are  left  for  eight  days  ;  after  which,  they  are 
once  more  boiled  till  the  fyrup  has  acquired  the 
fame  confiftence  as  before  :  when  they  are  done. 


I'ugar,  and  putting  them  in  fugar  reduced  to  the 
confiftence  of  being  fhaken  into  flakes  ;  but  the 
vcfiLl  which  contains  the  fugar  muft  be  flat,  that 
the  oranges  may  not  touch  one  another,  nor  the 
bottom  of  the  pan  :  then  they  are  carried  to  the 
ftove,  where  they  are  left  twice  twenty  four  hours, 
which  being  expired,  they  are  taken  out,  and  put 
upon  ftraw  to  dry.  Jpriot!,  peaches,  and  all  other 
fruits,  are  candied  in  the  fame  manner. 

Conserves,  are  a  kind  of  dry  confers,  made 
with  fugar,  and  paftes  of  flowers,  fruits,  (sfc. 

To  make  the  conferee  of  cherries ;  'take  out  the 
ftones,  and  make  the  fruit  boil  in  a  fmall  quantity 
of  water  ;  when  boiled,  you  muft  drain  them,  cut 
them  to  pieces,  and  throw  them  afterwards  in 
fugar  reduced  to  the  confiftence  of  being  fliaken 
Into  flakes  ;  then  drefs  your  conferve  upon  paper. 
The  fugar  muft  be  off"  the  fire  when  you  throw  the 
fruit  into  it. 

Conferve  of  rofes,  is  made  by  taking  red  rofes,  in 
powder,  diiTolving  them  in  the  juice  of  lemon,  and 
mixing  the  diflblution  with  fugar  reduced  to  the 
confidence  of  being  fl\aken  into  flakes. 

To  make  the  confetve  of  violets,  you  muft  take 
the  leaves  of  flowers  of  violets,  pound  them  in  a 
mortar,  ftrain  them  through  a  cloth,  to  extraft  the 
juice,  and  mix  that  juice  with  fugar  reduced  to  the 
fame  confiftence  as  above  ;  when  you  drefs  the  con- 


they  are  left  to  grow  cold,  when  cold  they  are  dii-  \fervc,  you  muft  mix  v/ith  it  fome  juice  of  lemon, 
pofed  upon  flates,  and  put  to  dry  in  the  ftove,  where  j  to  give  it  a  livelier  colour 


they  muft  be  turned  twice  every  day,  if  they  want 
it,  till  they  be  quite  dry  :  being  dry,  tney  are  put 
in  boxes  upon  paper,  making  one  bed  of  paper,  and 
another  of  cherries,  and  thus  fucceffivcly,  till  they 
are  all  packed  up.  The  paper  muft  be  changed  at 
leaft  every  fortnight,  and  if  they  be  kept  long,  and 
the  paper  under  them  is  found  wet,  it  muft  be 
-changed  likewife,  as  well  as  that  under  all  forts  of 
dry  confecSs,  if  we  defign  to  keep  them  long.  They 
muft  even  be  put,  from  time  to  time,  to  the  ftove, 
when  they  want  it. 

Plumbs  muft  be  neatly  pared,  and  as  they  are 
pared  thrown  into  cold  water,  and  afterwards  into 
other  water  ready  to  boil,  where  they  muft  be  left 
on  the  fire,  covered,  and  without  boiling,  till  they 
grow  green  ;  which  done,  they  are  thrown  again 
into  cold  water,  and  afterwards  preferved,  and  dried 
like  cherries.  All  forts  of  plumbs  are  done  in  the 
fame  manner  ;  as  alfo  peaches. 

Candies  are  ordinarily  entire  fruits,  and  flow- 
ers, candied  over  with  fugar,  after  having  been 
boiled  in  the  fyrup  ;  which  renders  them  like  little 
rocks  cryftallized,  of  various  figures  and  colours, 
according  to  the  fruits  inclofed  within  them. 

Oranges  are  cnndied  whole,  by  taking  whole 
oranges  newly  confedcd,  and  not  much  loaded  with 


Sugar  Plumes,  are  made  of  fmall  fruits,  or 
feeds,  little  pieces  of  bark,  or  odoriferous  and  aro- 
matick  roots,  &c.  incruftated,  and  covered  over 
with  a  very  hard  fugar,  ordinarily  very  white- 

To  make  all  forts  of  fugar-plumbs,  there  muft 
be  had  a  large  copper  bafon,  with  two  handles  to 
it,  fufpendcd  with  two  cords,  at  the  height  of  the 
wafteband  ;  under  which,  there  muft  be  an  earthen 
pan,  or  chafing-difn,  with  a  moderate  fire,  to  make 
the  pearled  fugar-plumbs :  there  is  wanted,  befides, 
a  kind  of  funnel,  through  which  the  fugar  muft 
pafs,  to  make  pearled  fugar-plumbs. 

Pearled  almonds,  are  made  of  fweet  ahnotids,  very 
well  dried  over  the  fire,  pouring  upon  them, 
through  a  funnel,  the  fugar,  reduced  to  the  con- 
fiftence of  our  firft  preparation,  fliaking  the  bafon 
all  the  while,  and  turning  the  fugar-plumbs,  that 
they  may  all  take,  as  near  as  pofllble,  an  equal 
quantity  of  fugar.  They  may  alio  be  ftirred  with 
the  hand,  and  parted,  if  they  ftick  together.  The 
fyrup  can  likewife  be  flopped  running,  to  give  time 
to  the  fugar-plumbs  to  dry. 

The  glazed  almonds  arc  made,  by  pouring  upon 
them  in  the  bafon,  with  a  ladle,  about  a  quarter  of 
a  pint  at  once  of  fugar,  reduced  to  the  confiftence 
of  our  firft  preparation,  ftirring  often  the  almonds 

with 


C    0    0    K    E    R    r. 


427 


'vrifh  the  hands,  and  leaving  them'  fometimes  at  I  the  fame  manner,  after  they  have  been  very  well 
reft.     Carraways,  annifeeds^   &c.    are  prepared   in  I  cleanfed  of  all  their  duft,  ftalks,  tiff. 


Of    C    0    0    K    E    R    r. 


COOKERY,  is  the  art  of  preparing  meats 
for  food,  that  they  may  be  both  wholeforrie 
and  agreeable  to  the  palate. 
I'll  begin  with  the  manner  of  making  Soups. 
Take  that  piece  of  beef  called  the  moufe  buttock, 
fome  mutton,  and  fowls,  regulating  the  quantity 
of  meat,  according  to  the  quantity  of  broth  wanted  : 
put  that  meat  in  a  pot,  with  a  bunch  of  parfley, 
young  onions,  and  thyme,  tycd  together,  and  a 
few  cloves  ;  fill  the  pot  with  water,  keeping  al- 
ways warm  water  ready  to  re-place  that  of  the 
pot,  which  evaporates  in  boiling  5  and  when  the 
meat  is  boiled  almoft  to  rags,  ftrain  the  brcth 
through  a  napkin,  to  ufe  it  as  occafion  fei  ves. 

Thefe  forts  of  broths  may  be  eaten  without  any 
other  addition,  except  pulfe,  if  one  likes  it,  vi-z.  cab- 
bages, turnips,  ^c.  which  pulfe  are  to  be  boiled  in 
a  pot  a-part,  and  after  they  are  well  drained  of  their 
liquor,  they  are  put  in  the  breth,  to  boil  two  or 
three  gallops  more,  and  afterwards  put  in  a  difli, 
and  carried  to  table. 

To  make  the  foup  of  jiblets,  after  they  have 
been  well  fcalded,  they  muft  be  fried  like  a  fricafly 
of  fowls,  and  afterwards  put  in  a  pot  with  our  beft 
broth,  where  they  are  left  to  ftew  at  a  flow  fire, 
for  three  quarters  of  an  hour. 

To  make  peafe  foup  ivith  a  green  goofe,  we 
put  our  green  goofe  to  boil  very  well  in  a  pot,  and 
our  peafe  in  another  ;  when  the  peafe  are  well 
maflied,  we  put  in  it  a  bundle  of  fweet  herbs,  and 
fat  bacon  melted  in  a  frying-pan  :  we  have  bread 
ftewed  in  the  broth  of  the  green  goofe,  and  pour 
the  peafe  foup  upon  it. 

To  make  the  foup  of  fowls  with  green  peafe, 
put  the  fowls  to  boil  with  broth,  and  fkim  them 
well ;  then  pafs  the  green  peafe  through  a  frying- 
pan,  with  butter,  or  melted  bacon  ;  and  afterwards 
have  them  ftewed  a-part,  with  lettices  :  and  when 
the  fowls  are  done,  mix  the  broth  and  peafe  toge- 
ther, and  fend  it  to  the  table. 

To  make  the  foup  of  a  capon  with  rice  ;  boil 
the  capon  in  broth  well  feafoned  ;  pick  the  rice, 
wafh  it,  and  have  it  dried  before  the  fire  ;  then 
put  it  to  boil  flowly  in  a  very  good  broth,  with  a 
blade  or  tv/o  of  mace  ;  and  when  the  capon  and 
j-ice  are  done,  we  mix  them  together,  and  fend 
them  to  the  table. 

The  fov/ls  ufed  to  make  thefe  forts  of  foups, 
are  commonly  ferved  whole  a-top'of  the  foup,  and 


the  difli  garnifhed  either  with  chicory,  muflirooms, 
truffies,  capers,  cr  onions,  according  to  the  different 
forts  of  faps. 

To  make  her^  foup,  you  muft  hafii  very  well 
together,  forrel,  buglofs,  burragc,  and  a  good 
quantity  of  lettices;  then  fry  them  in  fiefli  butter, 
and  put  them  afterwards  in  boiling  water,  with 
other  fefh  butter,  and  a  cruft  of  bread,  making  it 
boil  flowly,  for  the  fpace  of  an  hour,  at  leuft. 
When  the  foup  is  to  be  carried  to  table,  you  may 
whiten  it  if  you  pleafe,  with  yolks  of  eggs  beaten 
with  fome  of  the  foup. 

To  make  a  foup  of  crawfijh  ;  after  the  cravs'fifh 
have  been  cleaned  well,  they  are  boiled  in  wine, 
vinegar,  fait,  and  pepper  ;  being  done,  the  claws 
and  t^ils  are  fried  with  frefli  butter  and  fi.ime  panley, 
and  the  bodies  beaten  in  a  mortar  with  an  onion, 
hard  eggs,  and  crumbs  of  bread  :  this  done,  the 
mixture  is  put  to  ftew  with  fome  of  the  herb  foup, 
or  othet  foup  ;  when  ftewed,  it  is  ftrained  through 
a  cloth,  and  put  afterwards  before  the  fire,  to  keep 
it  hot ;  then  you  fry  fome  parfley  in  frefh  butter, 
which  you  put,  when  fried,  together  v.'ith  the  but- 
ter, in  your  foup,  well  feafoned,  which  muft  ftew 
a  little  longer.  When  the  foup  is  carried  to  table, 
the  difh  muft  be  garniftied  with  the  cla.vs  and  tails 
of  the  crawfijh. 

To  make  3.  foup  of  carps,  we  take  out  all  the 
bones,  and  put  them  to  boil  in  peafe  foup,  with 
fome  onions,  and  crumbs  of  bread  ;  being  boiled, 
they  muft  be  fried  with  fome  parfley,  and  put  again 
in  the  foup  :  while  they  are  boiling,  vie  make  a 
hafh  of  the  flefh  of  the  cnrps,  which,  v/hen  done, 
is  put  over  the  toafted  bread,  and  the  broth  poured 
upon  it,  garnifhing  the  difh  with  flices  of  lemon 
and  mufhrooms. 

To  make  a  fortp  of  fluffed  mufhrooms ;  we  pick 
and  wafh  them  well,  then  put  them  to  boil  in 
water,  with  an  onion  larded  v/ith  cloves,  thyme, 
pepper,  and  fait ;  when  boiled,  we  ftrain  the  broth 
through  a  cloth,  and  put  it  in  a  pot ;  then  fry  the 
muflirooms  with  butter,  parfley,  and  capers,  and 
put  them  afterwards  in  the  broth  ;  and  when  ready 
to  be  carried  to  table,  we  fill  the  bottom  of  the  difh 
with  a  hafh  of  carps,  and  pour  the  broth  upon  it, 
garnifliino;  the  difh  with  mufhrooms  ftuffed  with  the 
fame  hafli.   ■  , 

To  mzke  onion  foup,  we  flice  the  onions  very  Ihiri', 

and  then  fry  them  ;    we  put  them  in  a  pot  with 

I  i  i  water, 


428  l^je  Univerfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  aW  Sciences. 


water,  and  more  butter,  making  them  boil  till  they 
are  well  tlcne  ;  then  we  put  a  cruft  of  bread  in  it, 
with  feme  fait  and  pepper,  leaving  it  to  boil  for  a 
little  while  longer.  When  fit  to  be  carried  to  ta- 
ble, we  beat  yolks  of  eggs  with  a  drop  or  two  of 
vinegar  or  verjuice,  with  which  we  thicken  and 
blanch  the  foup.  Some  add  to  it,  while  it  is  boil- 
ing, a  few  fpoonfuls  of  peafe  foup,  and  then  it 
wants  no  eggs. 

To  make  a  foub  of  green  peafe,  you  muft  take 
them  as  young  as  poflible,  and  having  been  fried  in 
frefh  butter,  they  are  put  to  ftew,  well  feafoned 
with  parflcy  and  young  onions  ;  vrhen  ftewed,  they 
are  mixed  with  herb  joup,  and  carried  to  table. 

To  make  a  ragout  of  ducks,  they  muft  be  larded, 
fried,  very  well  feaibned  with  fait,  pepper,  fpices, 
young  onions,  and  parfley,  and  put  in  a  pot  to 
ftew,  with  a  little  of  our  beft  broth. 

To  make  a  ragout  of  pigeons ;  they  muft  be  larded, 
fried  in  lard,  feafoned,  and  put  to  ftew  in  a  little 
of  our  beft  broth,  with  a  fmall  bundle  of  fine 
herbs. 

To  make  a  ragout  of  fowls  ;  they  muft  be  larded, 
cut  in  halves,  feafoned,  and  put  to  ftew  in  broth, 
with  a  fmall  bundle  of  fine  herbs,  truffles,  mufli- 
rooms,  and  a  few  fmall  pieces  of  roafted  pork,  to 
give  them  a  relifh. 

To  make  a  ragout  of  a  pig  ;  it  muft  be  cut  in 
four  quarters,  well  feafoned,  and  fried  ;  when  done, 
it  is  garniflied  with  capers,  truffles,  and  mufli- 
rooms. 

To  make  a  ragout  of  calves  feet ;  when  they  are 
well  done,  they  muft  be  floured  and  fried  in  lard, 
and  afterwards  put  to  ftew  in  broth,  with  verjuice, 
a  fmall  bundle  of  fine  herbs,  and  a  piece  of  lemon, 
the  whole  well  feafoned,  and  the  fauce  (hort.  They 
muft  be  carried  to  table  with  capers. 

A  ragout  of  double  tripes,  is  made  by  cutting  the 
tripes  very  fmall,  frying  them  in  lard,  with  parfley 
and  onion,  and  having  been  feafoned  with  capers 
and  vinegar,  they  are  left  to  ftew  a  little  while  in 
the  frying-pan. 

To  make  a  ragout  of  a  fillet  of  veal,  it  muft  be 
larded,  and  a  little  more  than  half  roafted  on  a  fpit, 
and  afterwards  put  to  ftew  with  very  good  broth,  a 
fmall  bundle  of  fine  herbs,  pepper,  and  cloves,  in 
a  pot  covered  clofe.  When  done,  the  fauce  muft 
be  thickened  with  yolks  of  eggs  well  beaten,  with 
a  little  veijulce,  or  the  juice  of  a  lemon,  or  fome 
vinegar. 

To  make  a  ragout  of  the  loin  of  a  deer,  after  it 
has  been  larded,  and  half  roafted,  it  muft  be  bafted 
till  it  is  quite  done,  with  a  fauce  made  of  pepper, 
y/\^y  e:  ar,  and  broth,  and  the  fauce  thickened  aftcr- 
^  ds  w  h  crumbs  of  bread, 
a  To   make  -i  ragout  of  a  hare,  after  it  has  been 

I 


half  roafted,  it  is  cut  in  pieces,  fried,  and  then 
put  to  ftew,  flowly  in  a  difti,  with  the  juice  of 
oranges,  capers,  and  crumbs  of  bread. 

To  make  a  ragout  of  foles,  they  muft  be  floured, 
and  half  fried  ;  then  they  are  opened  all  along  the 
bone,  and  the  bone  taken  out ;  which  done,  they 
are  filled  with  a  ftufl'ing  made  of  capers,  mufhrooms, 
truffles,  foft  rows,  and  crumbs  of  bread  ;  and  put 
afterwards  to  ftew  in  a  pot,  with  frefti  butter,  an 
onion  cut  fmall,  verjuice,  and  fome  broth.  When 
carried  to  table,  the  difti  muft  be  garniflied  with 
flices  of  lemon. 

To  make  a  ragout  of  pikes,  they  muft  be  cut  in 
flices,  and  put  to  ftew  with  white  wine,  a  bundle 
of  fweet  herbs,  frefti  butter,  and  well  feafoned 
with  fait,  pepper,  capers,  and  muftirooms  ;  when 
done,  the  fauce  is  thickened  with  yolks  of  eggs, 
beaten  with  fome  vinegar,  or  verjuice. 

To  make  a  ragout  of  tench,  they  muft  be  cut  in 
pieces,  well  waihed,  and  boiled  in  water,  with  fait, 
pepper,  and  an  onion,  adding  to  it,  afterwards, 
half  a  pint  of  white  wine,  and  fome  haflied  parfley. 
When  done,  the  fauce  is  thickened  with  yolks  of 
eggs,  as  above. 

To  make  a  flew  of  carps,  they  muft  be  cut  in 
pieces,  put  to  boil  in  a  pot  with  white  or  red  wine, 
and  well  feafoned  with  haflied  onion,  fait,  cloves, 
pepper,  capers,  and  fome  crufts  of  bread  ;  when 
they  are  well  done,  the  fauce  is  thickened  with 
yolks  of  eggs. 

To  make  a  ragout  of  fluffed  carps,  the  carps 
muft  be  opened  all  along  the  back  bone,  the  fkin 
raifed,  the  fleili  haflied,  and  feafoned  with  parfley, 
frefti  butter,  fait,  pepper,  and  yolks  of  eggs,  with 
which  we  fill  the  fkin  ;  then  we  make  it  boil  in 
broth,  feafoned  with  \erjuice,  muQirooms,  afpa- 
ragus,  young  onions,  and  frefh  butter  :  when  al- 
moft  done,  the  fauce  murt  be  thickened  with  crumbs 
of  bread,   adding  capers  to  it. 

To  make  a  ragout  of  falmon,  it  muft  be  larded 
with  cloves,  and  roafted ;  when  roafted,  it  muft 
be  ftewed  flowly  in  wine,  with  fait,  pepper,  and 
frefh  butter,  till  the  fauce  grows  very  fl:iort. 

To  llevj  falmon,  it  muft  be  cut  in  flices,  larded 
with  cloves,  and  put  to  ftew  in  white  or  red  wine, 
well  feafoned,  with  frefli  butter,  fait,  pepper,  ca- 
pers, and  an  onion  haflied,  till  the  fauce  grows 
very  fliort. 

To  make  a  ragout  of  oyflers,  they  muft  be  put  to 
ftew  in  their  own  liquor,  with  frefli  butter,  onions, 
haflied  parfley,  capers,  and  crumbs  of  bread,  well 
feafoned  with  pepper  and  fait. 

To  make  a  ragout  of  founders,  they  muft  be 
put  in  a  ftew-pan,  with  butter,  young  onions, 
beaten  cloves,  fait,  pepper,  capers,  fome  white 
wine,  or  vinegar,   and  muflirooms  ;   when  done 

th. 


C      0 


0      K 

Plalfe 


E    R    r. 


4.29 


the  fauce  is  thickened  with  yolics  of  eggs. 
are  done  in  the  fame  manner. 

To Jiew  eelsy  we  cut  them  in  pieces,  and  (lew 
them  in  white  wine  or  water,  with  parfley,  capers, 
and  frefli  butter,  the  whole  very  well  fcafoned,  with 
fait,  pepper,  and  beaten  cloves. 

To  drefs  collared  eels  ;  flit  the  eel  in  half,  take 
out  the  bone,  beat  the  flefh  well,  and  feafon  the 
two  pieces  with  pepper,  fait,  butter,  and  hafhed 
parfley  ;  then  roll  them,  and  lye  them  very  tight 
with  packthread  :  thus  prepared,  put  them  to  boil 
in  white  wine,  well  feafoned  ;  and  when  done, 
take  them  out  and  fend  them  to  table  in  flices. 

Tojluff  apke^  itmufl:  be  flit  all  along  the  back- 
bone, the  flcin  left  from  the  head  to  the  tail,  half 
the  flefh  taken  off  with  the  fmall  bones,  and  the 
back-bone  left,  to  keep  up  the  pike  when  fluffed  ; 
then  we  take  half  the  flefh  of  the  pke,  and  half 
flefh  of  carps-,  or  eels^  and  hafli  them  together,  with 
yolks  of  eggs  raw,  parfley,  fait,  pepper,  fweet 
herbs,  butter  and  milk  mixed  together,  and  mufh- 
rooms  ;  with  which  we  fluff  the  pike,  {^vf  it  up, 
and  then  put  it  to  boil,  making  the  fauce  with  flfh 
broth,  a  drop  or  two  of  vinegar,  or  veijuice, 
parfley,  capers,  and  mufhrooms,   well  feafoned. 

To  broil  mackerel,  they  mufl  be  wrapped  in  fen- 
nel, and  put  upon  the  gridiron,  at  a  charcoal  fire, 
turning  them  often  ;  when  roafled,  they  mufl:  be 
opened,  and  a  good  fauce  made  under  them,  with 
butter,  parfley,  and  goofeberries,  the  whole  very 
well  feafoned. 

To  broil  frejh  herrings,  they  mufl  be  put  on  the 
gridiron,  and  when  they  begin  to  roall,  rubbed 
over  with  butter  ;  when  roafled,  a  fauce  mufl  be 
made  with  frefh  butter,  a  drop  or  two  of  vinegar, 
fait,  pepper,  nutmeg,  and  fome  muflard. 

To  make  a  ragout  offrejh  cod,  it  mufl  be  rubbed 
over  with  butter,  put  upon  the  gridiron,  feafoned 
with  fait  and  cloves,  and  while  roafting,  bafled 
with  butter,  in  which  we  put  parfley  hafhed  and 
onions,  mixing  with  it  fome  broth,  vinegar,  and 
hafhed  capers  ;  then  we  put  the  roafled _/>ty2i  cod  to 
flew  a  little,  in  that  fauce,  and  carry  it  to  table 
with  fome  muflard. 

To  make  a  la  mode  beef,  you  mufl  take  a  piece 
of  the  buttock,  beat  it  well,  and  lard  it ;  then  it 
mufl  be  put  in  a  pot,  with  good  broth,  pepper, 
beaten  cloves,  and  a  fmall  bundle  of  fine  herbs  ; 
and  the  pot  being  covered  clofe,  is  put  on  a  flow 
fire,  where  it  remains  till  the  beef  is  done. 

To  drefs  capons  with  oyjler-fauce,  the  capon  mufl 
be  larded,  i.  e.  the  fore  and  hind-part  covered  with 
a  thin  flice  of  bacon,  and  over  it  a  buttered  paper  ; 
then  it  is  put  to  roafl ;  the  oyfters  mufl  be  fried 
with  the  dripping  of  the  capon,  and  feafoned, 
while  frying,  with  mufhrooms  and  onion,  and  a 


fmall  bundle  of  fine  herbs :  when  they  are  well 
fried,  they  are  put  in  the  body  of  the  capon,  the 
bundle  of  herbs  excepted,  before  it  is  quite  done. 

To  make  a  ragout  of  calf's  liver,  it  mufl  be 
larded  with  big  lardons,  well  feafoned,  with  a  fmall 
bundle  of  fweet  herbs,  orange-peel,  and  capers, 
and  pjit  in  a  pot  to  flew  with  fome  good  broth. 

To  mal-..e  a  Jlew  of  fowls,  they  mufl  be  cut  in 
fmall  pieces,  and  put  to  flew  with  very  good  broth, 
white  wine,  and  frefh  butter,  and  well  feafoned 
with  onions  and  parfley  haflicd  together ;  when 
they  are  done,  the  fauce  mufl:  be  thickened  with 
yolks  of  eggs  well  beaten  with  verjuice,  or  vi- 
negar. 

To  fry  a  calf's  head,  after  it  has  been  well 
boiled,  the  bones  mufl  be  taken  off  j  then  make  a 
batter,  or  liquid  pafle,  with  flour  and  eggs,  which 
mufl  be  feafoned  well  with  pepper  and  fait,  and  in 
which  the  flefh  of  the  head  mufl  be  dipped,  and 
then  fried  in  lard  :  when  well  fried,  it  mud  be 
ferved  with  flices  of  oranges,  and  fried  parfley, 
round  the  difh. 

To  fry  calves  feel,  after  they  are  well  boiled, 
they  are  cut  in  fmall  pieces,  and  fried  with  butter  ; 
after  they  have  been  turned  three  or  four  times  in 
the  frying-pan,  we  throw  into  it  onions  and  parfley, 
well  hafhed  together,  a  little  good  broth,  and  fea- 
fon well  the  whole  :  when  they  are  ready  to  be 
carried  to  the  table,  we  beat  fome  yolks  of  eo-gs, 
with  verjuice  or  vinegar,  in  proportion  to  the  meat, 
vi%.  to  four  calves  feet,  three  yolks  of  egi-s,  with 
which  we  thicken  the  fauce. 

To  hajh  roajied  mutton,  the  meat  mufl  be  hafhed 
as  fine  as  for  minced  pies  j  which  done,  it  mufl  be 
put  to  flew  flowly  with  fome  gravy,  an  onion, 
fome  frefh  butter,  and  crumbs  of  bread.  HaJIjed 
partridges  are  prepared  in  the  fame  manner. 

To  make  a  pigeon  pye,  we  feafon  well  the  pi- 
geons with  fait  and  pepper,  then  put  them  in  the 
pafte,  with  beef  marrow,  afparagus,  mufhrooms, 
bottoms  of  artichokes,  yolks  of  eggs,  truffles,  and 
fome  verjuice  or  goofeberries. 

To  make  a  veal  pye,  it  mull  be  hafhed  well  with 
twice  as  much  marrow,  or  beef  fuet,  well  fea- 
foned, and  afterwards  put  in  pafle. 

To  make  a  capon  pye,  all  the  bones  of  the  capon 
being  taken  out,  it  mull  be  liuffcd  with  cocks-  combs 
and  flones,  mufhrooms,  trutfles,  marrow,  capers, 
and  veal  fweetbreads  ;  and  being  well  feafoned,  it 
is  put  in  pafle. 

To  roafl  a  pheijant,  there  mufl  be  left  to  it  a 
wing,  the  neck,  and  the  tail  ;  and  after  it  is  well 
larded,  the  wing,  tail,  neck,  and  head,  where  the 
feathers  are  are  left,  mull  be  wrapped  in  buttered 
paper,  then  fpitted,  and  roafled  j  the  paper  mufl 
be  taken  off  before  the  plieafant  is  carried  to  table. 
I  i  i  2  A  hart 


'lie  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


430 

A  hare.,  before  it  is  put  to  roaft,  muft  be  rubbed  j 
over  with  its  blood,  and  larded  j  when  done.  It  is 
fervcd  with  a  fweet  fauce,  made  of  white   wine, 
fugar,  m.ice,  fe'f.    or  v/itli  a  poivrade,  gravy,  and 
pliiin  melted  butter. 

Partridges  are  roafted  larded. 

Green  gecfe  are  roaftcd  without  being  larded, 
but  you  muft  make  under  them  a  ftuffin^,  with  the 
liver,  thyme,  parfley,  i^c.  ha(hcd  well  together, 
and  well  fealbnf  d  ;  and  fried  afterwards  in  butter, 
with  a  few  yolks  of  eggs. 

A  y:u>ig  turkey  is  roafled  larded. 

A  plover  is  ror.fted  larded,  and  carried  to  table 
with  a  toaft,  and  fauce  under  it. 

A  haunch  of  vcnifon  is  roafled  larded,  and  a  polv- 
rade  made  under  it,  when  carried  to  table,  or  a 
fweet  fauce. 

An  ortclan  is  roa.({etlkrded,  and  v/rapped  in  vine 
leaves,  in  their  feafon  ;  in  the  fpring  it  mufl  be 
drawn. 

A  xroodcoci  is  roafled  larded,  and  a  toaft  made 
finder  it,  while  roaffing,  with  which,  and  fome 
flices  of  feville  oranges,  it  is  carried  to  table. 

hfuwn  is  roafled  larded,  and  with  its  head  on, 
which  muft  be  wrapped  in  buttered  pappr,  left  the 
hairs  fliould  be  finged.  It  is  carried  to  table  with  a 
fvveetlajce. 

The  fweet  fauce  is  made  with  vinegar,  fait, 
onion,  and  lemon,  or  orange-peel,  boiled  together. 
The  green  fauce  is  made  with  green  corn,  a  toaft 
burnt  with  vinegar,  ibme  pepper,  and  fait ;  the 
wliole  pounded  very  well  in  a  mortar,  and  ftrained 
through  a  cloth.  Pigs  and  lamb  are  ferved  with 
this  fauce.  The  rabbet  with  the  juice  of  oranges, 
and  pepper.  The  plover  with  a  fauce  made  of  ver- 
juice, len"ion-peel,  vinegar,  pepper,  fait,  and  onion; 
v.'ithout  forgetting  a  toatl. 

To  drefs  pig's  ears,  and  feet,  after  they  have 
been  well  boiled,  they  muft  be  cut  in  pieces,  fried 
in  butter  with  onions,  and  well  feafoned  ;  v.'hen 
fried,  two  or  three  fpoonfuls  of  good  broth  are  put 
into  the  pan,  and  when  they  have  been  left  to  ftew 
for  five  or  fix  minutes,  the  fauce  is  thickened  with 
yolks  of  eggs  beaten  with  vinegar,  and  fome  muf- 
tard. 

7"o  m.ake  a  venifon  pa  fly,  if  the  flefh  is  hard,  it 
muft  be  well  beaten,  fkinned,  larded,  well  feafoned 
with  pepper,  fait,  beaten  cloves,  and  vinegar  ;  and 
afterv/ards  put  in  pr.ftc,  and  carried  to  the  oven, 
where  it  is  left  for  the  fpace  of  three  hours.  When 
done,  the  hole,  which  had  been  left  to  give  it  vent, 
muft  be  flopped. 

To  make  a  hampye.  after  it  has  been  well  foaked, 
it  muft  boil  a  g.iUop  or  two,  and  afterwards  be 
flcinned  ;  when  fkiimec,  it  is  put  in  pafte,  likeve- 
ni  on,  and  feafoned  with  pepper,  cloves,  and  parf- 

t 


ley :    if  it  be  a  big  one,  it  muft  ftay  five  hours  in' 
the  oven,  and  thus  in  proportion  to  its  bignefs. 

To  make  a  ragout  of  truffles,  they  muft  be  pared 
very  clean,  cut  very  thin,  and  fried  v.'ith  butter, 
fome  hafhed  parfley,  and  broth,  where  they  are 
left  to  ftew  for  a  little  while  ;  they  muft  alfo  be 
very  we!l  feafoned. 

To  make  fritters  of  marrow,  we  take  th«  big- 
geft  pieces  of  beef  marrow  we  can  get,  iiice,  and 
dip  them  in  a  pafte,  or  batter,  made  of  flour,  eggs, 
and  milk,  well  feafoned ;  and  afterwards  fry  them 
in  butter.  The  fritters  of  apples  arc  made  in  the 
fam.e  manner. 

Fritters  of  artichokes,  are  made  of  bottoms  of 
artichokes  half  boiled,  fliced,  and  dipped  in  batter, 
made  as  above. 

To  fry  artichokes^  they  muft  be  cut  in  pieces^ 
the  choke,  and  all  the  leaves,  except  one  of  the 
fmalleft,  left  on  each  piece,  taken  off,  and  thrown 
into  boiling  water,  to  blanch  them  ;  afterwards 
they  are  dried,  floured,  and  fried  in  lard,  or  burnt 
butter.  They  are  carried  to  table  hot,  and  garnifhed 
with  fried  parfley. 

To  make  a  ragout  cf  mujhr.ooms ,  after  they  have 
been  well  cleaned,  they  are  fried  in  frefh  butter, 
with  parfley  and  young  onions  haflied  together, 
well  feafoned,  and  lemon -juice  added  to  it,  with 
fome  blanc  manger,  when  they  are  ready  to  be  car- 
ried to  table. 

To  fry  mujhrooms,  they  muft  be  blanched  in  cold 
water,  dried,  an3  afterwards  pickled  in  vinegar, 
fait,  pepper,  and  onions.;  and  when  they  are-  to 
be  fried,  a  batter  ir.uft  be  made,  with  flour  and 
yolks  of  eggs,  in  which  the  muflirooms  are  put, 
and  then  fried. 

To  make  a  Weflphalia  ham,   we  put  our  pork  in 
a  wine  or  beer  cellar  for  four  days  ;  during  which 
time,    a  fort  of  water  will  come  from  it,    which 
muft  be  wiped  very  often  ;    if  it  be   wet   wear 
ther,    it   muil  be  left  there  but  two  days,  and  two 
nights  ;  it  is  afterwards  put  to  be  prefted  between 
two  boards,  and  left  there  as  long  as  the  bog  has 
been  dead  ;  after  which,  it  is  failed,  and  feafoned 
with  pepper,    beaten  cloves,    and  anifeed.     The 
hams  miift  be  left  in  fait  for  the  fpace  of  nine  days, 
and  afterwards  taken  out,  and  put  in  lees  of  wine, 
for  nine  days  more  ;  which  elapfed,  they  are  wrap- 
ped in  h.iy,  and  buried  in  the  cellar,  in  a  place  not 
too  damp  :    being  taken  out,    they  are  hung  to 
fmcke,  and  muft  be  perfumed  twice  a  day,    with 
the  fmoak  of  burnt  juniper  ;   when  dry,  and  little 
fmoken,  they  are  carried  to  a  diy  place,  where  they 
are  kept,    and  vifited   often,   left  they  fbould  rot, 
till  they  be  wanted  ;    when,  after  they  have  been 
cleaned,  and  foaked,  they  are  boiled  in  a  pot  full 
of  water,   feafoned  with  fine  herbs,  and  without 

wine 


COSMOGRAP  H  T' 


431 


wine.  When  done,  the  rind  muft  be  raifed,  and 
the  flefh  larded  with  cloves,  and  fpread  over  with 
pepper,  and  hallied  parfley  ;  then  the  rind,  or  fl^in, 
is  put  upon  it,  and  the  ham  kept  in  a  cool  place  till 
wanted. 

To  make  a  rabhct  pye,  they  muft  be  larded  with 
bia;  lardons,  and  well'  feafoned  with  fait,  pepper, 
beaten  cloves,  and  vir.r^ar. 

To  make  a  chicken  pye,  they  muft  be  larded,  well 
feafoned,  and  put  in  a  fine  parte. 

To  make  a  veal  pye,  you  muft  take  a  fillet  of 
veal,  lard  it,  feafon  it  well,  and  put  it  in  'p;ifte. 
Another  manner  of  making  a  veal  pye,  is,  to  hafh 
the  veal  with  marrow,  or  beef  fuet,  to  fi^afon  it 
well,  and  to  garnifh  it,  while  in  gafte,  with  mufh- 
rooms,  bottoms  of  artichokes,  fweetbreads,  and 
yolks  cf  eggs  hard. 

To  mzke  z  lamb  pye,  the  lamb  muft  be  larded 
with  big  lardons,  fca'or.cd  with  haftied  parfley,  pep- 
per, fait,  beaten  cloves,  and  garniilied  with  mufh- 
rooms,  morilles,  and  capers.  When  baked,  it  muft 
be  carried  to  tabic  with  a  white  fauce,  made  of 
yolks  of  eggs,  beaten  with  verjuice. 

'i  o  make  an  eel  pye,  we  cut  the  eels  in  pieces, 
and  put  them  in  pafte,  very  well  feafoned,  with 
yolks  of  eggs,  parfley,  muflirooms,  afparagus,  ver- 
juice, or  goofeberries,  in  the  feafon,  butter,  fait, 
and  pepper. 

To  drefs  a  turbtit,  it  muft  be  put  to  boil  gently 
in  white  wine,  feafoned  with  fait,  pepper,  cloves, 
and  fweet  herbs,  as  rofemary,  thyme,  and  onions ; 
being  done,  it  muft  be  fent  to  table  garniftied  with 
parfley. 

Puffed  pa^e  is  made  in  this  manner  :  Take  four 
pounds  of  fiour,  mix  that  flour  with  cold  water  and 
a  little  fait  ;  when  mixed,  leave  it  a  little  at  reft, 
and  afterwards  woik  it  with  tw'o  pounds  of  butter, 
extending  it  to  cover  it  with  that  butter,  after 
which,  fold  it  up  in  three,  extending  it  again  to 
fi>ld  it  in  four  ;  this  done,  make  again  three  or 
four  fuch  turns,  then  carry  it  to  a  cool  place,  to 
ufe  it  as  wanted.  The^;/^  pa/le  is  made  with  four 
pounds  of  flour,  and  a  pound  and  a  half  of  butter,  , 


very  well  worked  together  with  fait.  The  pajie 
with  tvarm  water  is  made  in  the  fame  manner,  e>;r 
cept  that  you  heat  the  water  and  butter. 

k\\  fijh  pies  are  baked  in  two  hours. 

To  make  a  pye  of  falmon,  it  muft  be  larded  with 
eels,  or  carps,  and  feafoned  witli  pepper,  fait,  and 
beaten  cloves  ;  then  it  Is  put  in  pafte,  and  over  it  a 
bay-leaf,  with  a  good  quantity  of  frefli  bujte'f,  and 
a  little  vinegar;  which  done,  .the  pye  is  clqfed,  in 
form  of  the  fifh.  li^ 

To  make  a  tart  of  oyjiers,  they  muft  be  blanched 
in  warm  water,  and  afterwards  fried  iii  frefli  butter, 
with  parfley  and  onions  haftied,  and  mufhrooms, 
the  whole  well  feafoned,  and  afterwards  ■  put.  in 
puffed  pafte,  and  garnifhed  with  yolks  of  eggs. hard, 
bottoms  of  artichokes,  morilles,  and  afparagus. 
When  the  tart  is  baked,  a  fauce  is  made  with  two 
or  three  young  onions,  whole  pepper,  fait,  and  a 
little  vinegar,  toflcd  in  the  frying- paji  with  butter  ; 
when  the  lauce  is  brown,  the  ojiions  muft  be  taken 
out,  and  two  yolks  of  eggs  mixed  with  it ;  then 
the  fauce  is  thrown,  boiling  hot,  into  the  pye. 

I'll  conclude  this  trcatiie  of  Cookery,  with  a  ca- 
talogue of  all  the  different  meats  in  feafon,  thorough- 
out  the  whole  year. 

From  Eafter  to  Midfummer,  ere  in  feafon. 
Chickens,    young  turkies,    green  geefe,  lamb, 
pigeons,  young  hares,  partridges,  pheafants,  orto- 
lans, and  rabbets^ 

From  Midfummer  to  the  middle  of  Oiftober,  ere 
in  feafon. 

Young  partridges,  young  pigeons,  turtles,  young 
pheafants,  young  quails,  young  hares,  turkies; 
young  capons,  pigeons,  fat  geefe,  fat  fowls,  orto- 
lans, young  ducks,  favi-ns,  ^\, 

From  the  middle  of  Odober,  to  Lent,  are  in  feafon. 
Fat  capons,,  fat  fowls,  turkies,  lamb,  ^iaj-es; 
partridges,  woodcocks,  plovers,  teals,  wood-phea- 
fants,  fat  quails,  fat  geefe,  ducks,  both  wild  and 
tame,  larks,  pigs,  ISc. 


C  0   S   M  0    G   R   A  P   H  7\ 


OSMOGRAPHY    (horn  Greei  x^rf^ac,  \  how   to    reprefent  them   on    a   pi 
the  world,  and  ypijiu,   to  defcribe)  is  the  j  confifts   of  two  parts,   Aflrommy 


ne, 
and 


This  art 

Geography. 


art  which  teaches,  the  conftruition,  figure  I  'Iherefcre  the  leader    will   find  unt:er   thefe  two 
and  difpofitionof  all  partsof  the  world,  and  1  heads  all  that  is  neceiliiry  to  explaiti  it. 


Of 


432  Thz   Univerfal  Hiftoiy  o/"  Arts  ^«(^  Sciences. 


Of     CURRYING. 

"NURR  YING  is  the  preparation  of  leather   lye  ;  and  the  (kin  faftened  to  the  table,  and  cleaned 


■  with  oil,  tallow,  or  fome  other  matter,  to 

^lJ  make   it   pliable,    more   fightly,    and  fit 
for  ufe.     By  this  art  the  leather  receives 
either  a  black,  white,  red,  yellow,  or  green  co- 
lour on  the  hair  fide  of  the  (kin. 

A  Currier  s  (liop  mufl:  be  provided  with  long  two- 
handed  knives,  to  pare  the  leather  with;  a  fteel,  made 
fomewhat  in  form  of  a  bodkin,  to  turn  in  the  edge 
of  the  knife  ;  a  flat  iron  inftrument,  to  beat  down 
the  grain  ;  a  pommel,  or  call  ;  a  table  to  ftretch 
the  leather  upon ;  a  horfe,  or  leg,  to  pare,  and 
pommel  the  leather  upon  ;  pumice  (tones,  oil,  tal 
low,  colours,  i3c. 

There  are  four  manners  of  currying  leather,  in 
black,  with  the  grain  ;  for  the  (kins  are  either  put 
in  tallow  on  both  fides,  or  oil  is  ufed  in  lieu  of 
tallow  on  the  flefh-fide:  or  tallow  is  ufed  alone, 
on  the  hair-fide,  and  nothing  on  the  other  :  or  tal- 
low is  ufed  on  both  fides,  and  no  grain  ralfed. 

The  two  firft,  are  ufed  for  cows  and  calves  lea- 
ther; the  fecond,  is  the  only  way  ufed  for  Jheep  ; 
and  the  two  laft,  are  ufed  occafionally,  for  ww  and 
bullock  :  for  calf  ■i.TiA  flnep^  they  ufe  fumach  on  the 
fle(h-fide,  which  gives  an  orange-caft. 

For  neat's-Jiin,  in  black  ;  the  (kin  coming  from 
the  tanner,  is  wet  feveral   times  with    a  broom, 
rolled,  and  trod  under  foot  to  make   it   tradable, 
drained,  and  as  much  of  the  remaining  flefh   as 
poffible,  taken  ofF  with  the  knife  ;  hung  in  the  air 
till  half  dry,  then  wet  and  trampled  again  and  again. 
This  done  it  is   rubbed  over  with  a  pommel,  hav- 
ing niches  in  manner  of  teeth,  to  render   it  (Vill 
more  pliant,  and  finged  with  ftraw  to  prepare  it  to 
receive  the  taliow ;  which  is  applied  boiling  hot  on 
both  fides.     The  fkin  is  then  finged  a  fecond  time, 
laid  four  hours  in  a  velTel  of  fre(h  water,  trampled, 
and  worked  a  fecond  time  with  the  pommel,  on 
each  fide,  and  ftoutly  drained  ;  fmeared  over  with 
its  firfi  black,  made  of  galls  and  ferailles,  boiled 
in  beer-agre,    or  four-beer ;  half  dried,    (Iretched 
on  a  table,  and  the  grain   beat  down  with  the  flat 
iron  inftrument  drawn  over  it  from  place  to  place. 
It  now  receives  its  fecond   black,  made  of  galls, 
copperas,  and  gum-arabick  ;  when  dry,  and  ftretch- 
ed  on  the  table ;  it  is  fmeared  over  with  beer-agre; 
then  folded  from  corner  to  corner,  upon  the  bench, 
and  the  pommel  drawn   over   it  to  cut  the  grain, 
nift,  on  the  hair  fide,  then  on  the  fle(h-fide;  the 
laft  with  a   pommel  of  cork  :  the  beer  hanging  in 
it,  is  taken  out  with  a  hair  rubber  boikd  in  hatter's 


with 


the  iron  inftrument  above-mentioned,  and 
again  wiped  with  a  piece  of  worfted  ftocking. 
The  (kin  is  now  brightened,  on  the  hair-fide,  with 
a  luftrc  made  of  barberries,  to  prepare  it  to  receive 
its  laft  grain.  The  grain,  we  already  obferved,  is 
begun  by  folding  the  fkin,  the  hair-fide  inwards, 
feveral  ways  :  to  finifh  it,  it  is  again  folded,  after 
its  firft  luftre,  two  ways  firft ;  firft  from  corner  to 
corner,  a  little  flanting,  then  acrofs,  /'.  e.  firft  di- 
reiStly,  or  from  eye  to  eye ;  then  from  head  to  tail. 
The  grain  thus  formed,  the  laft  luftre,  which 
makes  the  laft  preparation  is  given ;  compofed  of 
gum-arabic,  garlick,  beer,  vinegar,  and  Flanders 
fize,  boiled  together,  and  applied  cold. 

Calf-fkin  in  black  is  prepared  much  after  the 
fame  manner ;  though  begun  differently.  After 
wetting,  taking  off  as  much  of  the  flefli  remaining 
as  po(rible,  and  drying,  they  pounce  the  flcfh  with  a 
hard,  rough,  pumice-ftone,  which  makes  it  more 
fmooth  and  gentle  ;  then  give  the  grain  with  th» 
pommel,  put  on  the  tallow  ;  the  reft  as  before. 

'\N\\2X.  Jhecp  Jkim  \\\  black  have  peculiar  in  their 
preparations,  is,  that  they  are  firft  ftretched  on  a  ta- 
ble to  get  off  the  bourre,  or  tan,  wherewith  they 
are  laden  ;  then  wet,  trod  under  foot,  and  tallow 
added  on  the  hair-fide  :  they  are  again  wet,  again 
trod,  ftretched  on  the  table,  and  the  water  fqueez- 
ed  out  with  the  pommel;  then  blacked,  repaffed 
under  the  pommel  on  each  fide  ;  dyed,  and  all  the 
roughnefs  and  inequality  pared  off  with  a  flat, 
round,  cutting  inftrument :  the  reft  as  before. 

Sleek' leather^  or  that  without  any  grain,  made 
of  cows  or  bullocks  (kins,  differs  a  little  in  its  pre- 
paration from  the  former.  1  he  (tins  being  wet, 
trod,  and  paffed  under  the  pommel,  the  fle(h  is 
taken  off ;  the  reft  ai  in  the  fiift  article  :  obferving 
that  the  tallow  be  applied  on  both  fides  as  thick  as 
poflible:  being  now  fteeped  in  water,  trod,  frized, 
and  blacked  the  firil  time ;  the  fecond  black  is  next 
laid  on,  till  the  hair-fide  be  quite  fmooth  ;  laftly, 
after  receiving  the  two  luftres,  they  are  preffed  be- 
tween two  tables  ;  ^vithout  plaiting  or  folding  them 
in  any  manner  during  the  whole  preparation. 

The  method  of  preparing  the  leather,  called 
Morocco,  is  alfo  a  branch  of  the  art  of  Currying. 

The  Morocco  islhe  (km  of  a  goat,  or  fome  other 
animal  .refembling  it,  called  rr.enon,  frequent  in  the 
Levant,  dreifed  in  fumach,  or  galls,  and  coloured 
of  any  colour  at  pleafur^-,  much  ufed  in  tapiftry, 
book-buiding,  flippers,  islc. 

To 


C  U    R    R    r   I    N    G, 


433 


To  prepare  blacJc  Morocco,  the  (kins  having  been 
dried,  are  fteeped  iix  clear  water  three  days  and 
nights,  ftretched  on  a  wooden  horfe  or  leg,  beaten 
with  a  large  knife  for  that  purpofe,  and  fteeped 
afrefh  in  water,  changed  daily  till  they  be  well 
come  again.  In  this  ftate  they  are  thrown  into  a 
large  vault  in  the  ground,  full  of  water,  wherein 
quick  lime  has  been  flaked,  where  they  lie  15 
days ;  whence  however  they  arc  taken  and  again 
returned  night  and  morning:  they  are  then  thrown 
into  a  frefli  vault  of  lime  and  water,  and  fhifteJ 
night  and  morning  as  before,  for  15  days  longer; 
then  rinfed  in  clear  water,  and  the  hair  taken  off, 
on  the  leg  with  the  knife,  returned  into  a  third 
vault,  and  ftiifted  as  before,  for  about  18  days; 
fteeped  12  hours  in  a  river,  taken  out,  rinfed,  put 
in  pails,  where  they  are  pounded  with  wooden 
peftles,  changing  the  water  twice,  then  laid  on  the 
horfe,  and  the  flefli  taken  off,  returned  into  pails 
of  new  water,  taken  out,  and  the  hair  fide  fcraped; 
returned  into  frefh  pails,  taken  out,  and  thrown  into 
a  pail  of  a  particular  form,  having  holes  at  bottom; 
here  they  are  beaten  the  fpace  of  an  hour,  and  frefh 
water  poured  on  from  time  to  time  ;  ftretched  on 
the  leg,  and  fcraped  on  either  fide  ;  returned  into 
pails  of  frefli  water,  taken  out,  ftretched,  and  fewed 
up  all  around  in  manner  of  bags,  leaving  out  the 
hind  legs,  which  ferve  to  make  an  aperture  for  the 
conveyance  of  a  mixture  mentioned  hereafter. 

Thefkins  thus  fewed,  are  put  in  luke  warm  water, 
where  dogs  excrement  has  been  diffolved.  Here 
they  are  ftirred  with  long  poles  half  an  hour,  left  at 
reft  a  dozen  hours,  taken  out,  rinfed  in  fair  water, 
and  filled  by  a  tunnel  with  a  preparation  of  water 
and  fumach,  and  kept  ftirring  four  hours  fucceffive- 
ly,  taken  out,  and  heaped  on  one  another ;  after 
a  little  time  their  fides  are  changed  ;  and  thus  they 
continue  an  hour  and  a  half,  till  drained  :  this 
done,  they  are  loofened  and  filled  a  fecond  time 
with  the  fame  preparation,  fewed  up  .igain,  and 
kept  ftirring  two  hours,  piled  up,  and  drained  as 
before.  This  is  again  repeated  a  third  time,  with 
this  difference,  that  they  are  now  only  ftirred  a 
quarter  of  an  hour;  after  which  they  are  left  till  the 
next  morning,  when  they  are  taken  out,  drained 
on  a  rack,  unfewed,  the  fumach  taken  out,  folded 
in  two  from  head  to  tail,  the  hair-fide  outwards, 
laid  over  each  other  on  the  leg,  to  perfedt  their 
draining,  ftretched  out,  and  dried  ;  then  trampled 
under  foot  by  two  and  two,  ftretched  on  a  wooden 
table,  what  fiefh  and  fumach  remains  fcraped  off, 
and  the  hair-fide  rubbed  over  with  oil,  and  that 
again  with  water. 

Having  thus  received  their  oil  and  water,  they 
are  wrung  in  the  hands,  then  ftretched  and  preffed 
tight  on  the  table,  with  the  iron  inftruraent  ufed 


for  common  leather,  the  flefh-fide  uppermoft  ; 
then  turned,  and  the  hair-fide  rubbed  ftrongly  over 
with  a  handful  of  rufhes,  to  fqueeze  out  as  much 
of  the  oil  remaining  within  as  polTible,  The  firft 
courfe  of  black  is  now  laid  on  the  hair-fide  by 
means  of  a  lock  of  hair  twifted,  and  fteeped  in  a 
kind  of  black  dye,  prepared  of  four  beer,  wherein 
pieces  of  rufty  iron  have  been  thrown.  When  half 
dry,  by  hanging  in  the  air,  they  are  ftretched  on  a 
table,  and  rubbed  over  every  way  with  the  pumice, 
to  raife  the  grain,  over  which  is  paffed  a  light  couch 
of  water,  then  flecked,  by  rubbing  them  with  rufhes 
prepared  for  the  purpofe.  Thus  flecked,  they  have 
a  fecond  couch  of  black,  then  dried,  laid  on  the 
table,  rubbed  over  with  a  pommel  of  cork,  to  raife 
the  grain  again  ;  and  after  a  light  couch  of  water, 
flecked  over  anew,  and  to  raife  the  grain  a  third 
time,  a  pommel  of  wood  is  ufed. 

After  the  hair  fide  has  thus  received  all  its  pre- 
parations, the  flefhTide  is  pared  with  the  knife; 
the  hair-fide  rubbed  ftrongly  over  with  a  woollen 
cap,  having  firft  given  it  a  luftre  with  barberries, 
citron,  or  orange.  The  whole  is  finiflied  by  raif- 
ing  the  grain  lightly,  for  the  laft  time,  with  the 
pommel  of  cork,  which  leaves  them  in  a  condition 
for  fale  and  ufe. 

They  prepare  the  red  Morocco,  by  fteeping  the 
(kins  24  hours  in  a  river,  taking  them  out,  ftretching 
them  on  the  leg,  beating  them  with  the  knife,  re- 
turning them  into  the  water  for  24  hours,  reheating 
them  on  the  leg,  refteeping,  throwing  them  into 
a  vault,  for  three  weeks,  taking  them  out,  and 
turning  them  every  morning,  to  difpofe  them  to 
peel.  Being  taken  out  for  the  laft  time,  they  are 
fcraped  with  the  knife,  and  when  the  hair  is  quite 
off,  thrown  into  pails  of  frefti  water,  where  they 
are  rinfed  ;  then  the  fleilvfide  fcraped,  thrown  into 
the  pails,  and  thus  alternately  from  the  leg  to  the 
pails,  till  they  leave  the  water  quite  clean  :  then 
they  are  put  in  luke-warm  water,  with  the  fu- 
mach as  before,  and  after  12  hours  rinfed  in  clear 
water,  and  fcraped  on  the  leg  on  both  fides,  pound- 
ed in  pails,  and  the  vrater  changed  three  times  ; 
then  wrung,  and  ftretched  on  the  leg,  and  paffed  af- 
ter each  other  into  water,  with  allum  diffolved 
in  it.  Thus  allumed,  they  are  left  to  drain  till 
the  morning,  then  wrung  out,  pulled  on  the  leg, 
and  folded  from  head  to  tail,  the  fiefti  inwards. 

In  this  ftate  they  received  their  firft  dye,  by 
pafEng  them  after  one. another  into  a  red  liquor, 
prepared  with  lacca,  and  fome  other  inoredient^i 
kept  fecret  among  the  Moroquineers.  This  they 
repeat  again  and  again,  till  the  ftins  have  got  their 
firft  colour  :  they  are  then  rinfed  in  clear  water, 
ftretched  on  the  leg,  and  left  to  drain  12  hours; 
thrown  into  water,  into  which  whits  galls  pulve- 
rized- 


434  ^^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

ri^ed  have  been  pafled  through  a  fieve,  and  ftirred  I  againft  red,  and  red  agalnft  white,  and  In  the 
inceflantly  for  a  day  with  long  poles,  taken  out,  I  morning  the  water  ftirred  up,  and  the  flcin  returned 
huno-  on  a  bar  a-crofs  the  water  all  night,  white  I  into  it  for  24  hours. 


C    U    T    L     E     R    r. 


CUTLERY  is  the  art  of  making  knives, 
razors,  fciffars,  lancets,  and  all  other  edged 
tools  and  inftruments. 

This  art  is  divided  by  workmen  into  feveral 
branches  ;  fome  Cutlers  make  only  knives,  and  un- 
dtrfland  little,  or  nothing  of  the  other  branches  ; 
others  razors  ;  others  lancets  ;  others  inftruments 
of  furgery  ;  others  tools  for  joiners,  carpenters, 
fculptors,  i^c.  with  this  difference,  that  thofe  who 
can  make  lancets,  and  other  inftruments,  can  like- 
wife  make  razors,  knives,  fcillars,  penknives,  £5'^. 
whereas  hv/  of  thofe  v/ho  make  knives,  or  fcillars 
only,  don't  underftand  how  to  make  a  good  razor, 
a  lancet,  or  any  other  inftruments. 

The  fhop  of  a  Cutler,  praftifing  any  of  the  above- 
mentioned  branches  oi  Cutlery,  muft  be  fitted  with  a 
forge,  anvils,  hammers,  round  whet-ftones  of  dif- 
ferent fizes  and  grain,  fome  coarfer,  fome  finer ; 
a  large  wheel,  in  the  form  of  a  fpinning  one,  to  turn 
round  the  ftones,  and  the  poliiliing  tools,  a  fink,  to 
keep  the  water,  with  vviiich  the  whet  ftones  are 
wetted,  and  on  which  they  are  fixed  ;  befides  the 
whet-ftones,  and  the  poliftiing  wheels,  made  of 
walnut-tree  an  inch  thick,  and  of  a  diameter  at 
pleafure :  the  Cutlers  for  razors,  lancets,  and 
other  fuch  inftruments,  muft  alfo  have  hones,  to 
fet  thofe  inftruments  upon. 

The  chief  art  of  Cutlery  confifts  in  forging, 
tempering,  and  polifhing  well  the  work. 

A  Cutler  cannot  ufe  too  much  precaution,  in 
forging  his  work  ;  not  only  in  giving  it  a  proper 
Ihape,  and  fuitable  to  the  infirument  he  defigns 
to  make,  that  it  may  both  be  ufeful,  and  ftrike 
agreeably  to  the  eye  ;  but  likewife  that  heat  nlcef- 
fary  ta  render  it  fit  for  tejnpering  :  which  heat  muft 
neither  be  too  cold  nor  too  hot.  For  if  too  cold 
the  igneous  particles  do  not  penetrate  intimately 
enough,   thofe  of  the  work,  to  difpofe  them  to 


that  clofcr  coadunation,  which  they  muft  acquire 
in  the  tempering;  and  if  too  hot,  it  would  red- 
fear,  and  crackle,  and  thereby  caufe  a  very  great 
deformity  in  the  piece  of  work. 

7  he  tempering  of  the  work  (which  is  done  to 
render  it  more  compact,  hard,  and  firm;  or  even 
more  fcft,  or  pliant,  according  to  the  refpedlive 
occafion->)  is  to  plunge  it,  while  red-hot,  in  fome 
liijuor,  prepared  for  the  purpofe :  fometimes  into 
pure  water,  and  in  efFeft,  lockfmiths,  &c.  fcarce 
ufe  any  other;  fometimes  into  a  compofition  of  di- 
vers juices,  liquors,  is'e.  which  is  varied  according 
to  the  manner,  and  experience  of  the  workman  ; 
as  vinegar,  moufe-ear-water,  nettles,  or  Spanijh 
raddilb- water,  the  wattr  oozing  from  broken  glafles, 
foot,  ialt,  oil,  diftilled  wine,  fal-ammoniack,  isc. 
A  French  Cutler,  told  me  once,  that  there  could  be 
no  better  tempering  thgn  tallow. 

To  harden  and  temper  Englijh,  Flemi/h,  and 
Svueclijli  fteel,  we  muft  give  them  a  pretty  high 
heat,  then  fuddenly  quench  them  in  lijuor,  to 
make  them  hard  ;  but  Spanijh  and  Venice  fteel, 
will  need  but  a  blood-red-heat,  before  it  be 
quenched. 

After  the  injlrument  has  been  tempered,  it  is 
grinded  upon  a  grind -ftonc,  or  whet-ftone,  to  take 
oft'  the  rou2:hnel's,  and  to  form  the  edge  ;  which 
done,  it  is  polifhed  on  the  poliflier  (turned  by  the 
gre.-it  wheel)  with  emmery  and  putty  :  And  laftly, 
(if  it  be  a  razor,  lancet,  ^c.)  it  is  fet  on  the  horu-y 
and  rubbed  afterwards,  on  a  ftrap  of  leather,  pre- 
pared for  that  purpofe. 

The  making  o(  Siuord-blcides,  sad  foils,  is  alfo 
another  branch  of  cutlery,  different  from  all  others. 
Sword-bladcs,  are  commonly  forged,  with  the  help 
of  a  mill,  which  works  heavy  hammers  for  th^ 
purpofe. 


Of    DAMASKEENING. 


^  Amaskeenin'G,  is  tlie  art  of  adorning 
iron  and  fteel,  bymakingincifionsthcrein, 
and  filling  them  up  with  gold  or  filver- 
wire;  firft  pradliied  at  Damafcus  in  Syria, 

andchiefiy  ufed  in  enriching  fword-blades,  guards, 

aiid  gripes,  locks  of  piftols,  i£(. 


Damafiicening,  is  partly  mofaick  work,  partly 
engraving,  and  partly  carving.  As  mofaick  work, 
it  confifts  of  pieces  inlaid  ;  as  engraving,  the  metal 
is  indented,  or  cut  in  creux  ;  and,  as  carving,  gold 
and  filver  are  wrought  thereby  in  relieve. 

There 


DANCING. 


435 


There  are  two  manners  of  damajhecning ;  in  the 
firft,  which  is  the  moft  beautiful,  the  artift  cuts 
into  the  metal  with  a  graver,  and  other  tools,  pro- 
per for  engraving  on  iteel ;  and  afterwards  fills  up 
the  incifions,  or  notches,  with  a  pretty  thick  filver, 
or  gold-wire.  In  the  other,  which  is  only  i'uper- 
ficial,  they  content  themfelves  to  make  hatclies,  or 
flrokes  acrofsthe  iron,  l^c. 

For  the  firfl:  manner  of  damafkeenlng,  it  is  necef- 
fary,  the  gravings  and  incifions,  be  made  in  the 
dove-tail  form,  that  the  gold  or  niver-wire,  which 
is  tHruft  forcibly  into  them,  may  adhere  the  more 
ftrongly. 

The  fecond  method  is  the  moft  ufual,  and 
praclifed,  by  heating  the  fteel  till  it  changes  to  a 
violet,  or  blue  colour,  hatching  it  over  and  acrofs 
with  a  knife  ;  then  drawing  the  defign,  or  orna- 
ment intended,  on  this  hatching,  with  a  fine  brafs 
point,  or  bodkin.  This  done,  a  fine  gold  or  filver- 
wire  is  taken,  and  conducting,  or  chafing  it  ac- 
cording to  the  figures  already  dcfigned,  it  muft  be 
funk  carefully  into  the  hatches  of  the  metal,  with 
a  copper  tool. 

This  art  of  damafkeening,  was  much  in  vogue  in 
the  two  laft  centuries,  but  is  fo  much  difregarded 
in  ours,  that  we  find  no  artificers  capable  to  imi- 
tate the  curious  pieces  ot  workmanfhip  we  have  left 
in  that  tafte. 


Chnfmg,  on  enchaftng,  is  ufed  in  lieu  thereof; 
for  thofe  pieces,  which  in  paftages  were  damajkeen- 
ed^  as  guards,  and  gripes  of  fwords,  i^c.  and  which 
is  the  art  of  enriching  and  beautifying  gold,  filver, 
and  other  metal  works,  by  feme  defign,  or  figures, 
reprefented  thereon,   in  low  relievo. 

Chafing  is  only  pradtifed  on  hollow,  thin  works  ; 
as  watches,  cane-heads,  tweezer- cafes,  or  the  like. 
It  is  performed  by  punching,  or  driving  out  the 
metal,  to  form  the  figures  from  within  fide,  fo  as 
to  (land  out  prominent  from  the  plain,  or  furface  of 
the  metal.  In  order  to  this,  they  have  a  number 
of  fine  fleei  blocks  or  puncheons,  of  divers  fizes  ; 
and  the  defign  being  drawn  on  the  furface  of  the 
the  metal,  they  apply  the  infiJe  upon  the  heads  or 
tips  of  thefe  blocks,  direftly  under  the  lines  or  parts 
of  thefe  figures.  Then  with  a  fine  hammer,  flriking 
on  the  metal  fuffained  by  the  block,  the  metal 
yields,  and  the  block  makes  an  indenture,  or  ca- 
vity on  the  infide ;  correfpondent  to  which,  there 
is  a  prominence  on  the  outfide,  which  is  to  ftand 
for  part  of  the  figure.  Thus,  the  workman  pro- 
ceeds to  chafe,  and  finillies  all  the  parts  by  fucceffive 
applications  of  the  block  and  hammer,  to  the  fevc- 
ral  parts  of  the  defign.  And  it  is  furprizing,  with 
what  beauty,  and  exaftnefs,  by  this  fimple  piece 
of  mechanifm,  the  artifts,  in  this  kind,  will  repre- 
fent  foliages,  grotefques,  animals,  hiftorics,  ^c. 


Of     DANCING. 


DANCE  is  an  agreeable  motion  of  the  body 
adjufted  by  art  to  the  meafures,  or  tune  of 
inlhuments,  or  of  the  voice. 

Dancing,  has  always  been  in  ufc  among  all  nati- 
ons, both  civilized  and  barbarous  ;  though  held 
in  efteem  among  fome,  and  in  conempt  among 
others.  Almoft  every  body  is  of  opinion,  that  of 
itfelf,  dancing  is  harmlefs.  There  is  a  time,  fays 
the  preacher,  to  dance,  and  fometimes  it  is  even 
made  an  afl:  of  religion.  Thus  David  danced  before 
the  ark,  to  honour  God,  and  exprefs  his  exccfs  of  joy 
for  his  return  into  the  city  of  Sion.  Socrates  learned 
to  dance  of  Afpafia ;  and  the  people  of  Crete  and 
Spuria  went  to  the  attack  dancing.  On  the  other 
hand,  Cicero  reproaches  Gabinius,  a  confular  man. 
with  having  danced.  Caflor  and  Pollux  are  faid  to 
be  the  firft  who  taught  the  art  of  dancing  ;  and  that 
to  the  Lacedemonians  :  though  others  attribute  the 
invention  to  Minerva,  who  danced  for  joy  after  the 
defeat  of  the  giants. 

The  antient  had  three  kinds  of  dances,  the  firfi: 
grave,  called  e?nmelia,  anfwering  to  our  low  dances 
and  pavanes;  the  fecond  gay,  called  cordax,  anfwer- 
ing to  our  courants,  galliards,  gavots,  and  vaults ;  the 
21 


third  called  fccinis,  was  a  mixture  of  gravity  and 
gaiety.  Neoptoltmus,  fon  of  Achilles,  taught  the 
Cretans  a  new  fort  of  ^'(j?;;:^',  called /)iV;7r/;(7,  or  the 
artned  dance,  to  be  ufed  in  going  to  war  ;  aitho' 
according  to  the  Mythologifts,  the  Curetes  firil  in- 
vented this  danc;,  to  amufe  and  divert  the  infant 
"Jupiter,  with  the  noife  and  clafli  of  their  fwords, 
beating  againft  their  bucklers. 

Diodorus  Siculus,  in  the  4th  of  his  libliothcca, 
afTures  us,  that  Cyhelc,  daughter  of  Aierios,  king  of 
Phrygia,  and  Dindymenis,  his  wife,  invented  divers 
things,  and  among  others,  the  flageolet  of  feveral 
pipes,  dancing,  the  tabor,  and  the  cymbal.  It  is 
certain,  that  Numa  inftituted  a  fort  of  dance  for 
the  Salii,  priefts  of  Mars,  who  made  ufe  of  wea- 
pons therein.  From  thefe  dances  were  compofed 
another,  cMedfaltatio  ?nimicorum,  or  the  buffoon's 
dance ;  wherein  the  dancers  were  drefled  in  little 
corflets,  with  gilt  morions,  bells  on  their  legs, 
and  fwords  and  bucklers  in  their  hands. 

The  chief  end  of  the  art  o(  dancing,  is,  that  a 
perfon  fhould  learn  toprelent  himfelfin  company, 
with  an  eafy  and  unaffedled  air,  and  toilep  graceful- 
ly ;  the  generality  of  mankind,  zon(\ii<tt  dancing, 
K  k  k  aE 


43^  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


as  a  noble  exercife,  or  diverfion,  praflifed  with 
pleafurc  by  perfoiis  of  all  ranks  and  conditions, 
even  by  princes  and  heroes. 

Dayicing  is  not  like  feveral  other  arts,  for  it 
cannot  be  learned  perfectly,  without  the  affiduous 
attendance  of  a  maO^er,  and  a  continual  practice. 
A  beginner,  or  pupil,  befides  the  voice  of  his 
mailer,  finging  to  his  cars,  one  two,  one  tv/o 
three,  ^c.  muft  be  led  by  him,  by  the  hand,  as 
an  infant  v/ho  learns  to  walk,  that  he  may  ftep 
forward,  flop,  cadence,  and  bow  his  knees,  when 
wanted.  The  man,  in  a  minuet,  rigaioon,  hz. 
muft  have  a  gentle  motion  of  his  hands,  but  only 
as  if  it  was  natural,  and  without  the  leaft  afFeda- 
tion  ;  and  the  woman  muft  let  fall  her  hands  as 
gently,  clofe  to  her  fides,  the  head  modeftly  ere£t- 
ed,  alfo  without  afFedation  ;  both  enlivening  and 
cadencing  their  ftcps,  according  to  the  meafurcs  of 
the  inftruments. 

A  country-dance  is  nothing  but  a  couplet,  or 
part  of  a  (sfa^iv,  always  repeated,  Hrft  by  two,  by 
four,  fix,  eight,  ten,  {^c.  and  at  laft,  by  as  many 
couple  as  the  number  of  people  amounts  to.  I 
call  ccuple,  the  man  and  the  woman  that  figure  to- 
gether. A  couplet,  in  country  dances,  is  a  certain 
quantity  of  figures  that  fill  up  the  tune  :  the  fame 
country  dance,  may  have  feveral  couplets  or  parts, 
which  are  like  feveral  verfes  of  fongs  upon  the 
fame  tune. 

Each  couplet  of  a  country  dance,  is  divided  by 
figures,  viz.  i  fig.  2  fig.  3  fig.  4  fig.  5  fig.  i^c.  The 
firft  figure  is  always  that  by  which  one  begins, 
and  goes  on  till  you  arrive  at  the  laft,  which,  will 
be  the  end  of  the  part,  and  is  to  be  repeated,  not 
only  by  them  who  have  begun,  but  alfo  by  all  the 
other  couples,  who  muft  follow  the  fame  way  as 
the  firft,  and  (hall  likewife  continue  in  the  fame 
order,  till  every  body  be  arrived  at  the  fame  place, 
from  whence  they  begun  ;  and  then  the  whole 
part  will  be  entirely  finiftied,  and  every  couple 
make  their  honour  as  they  finifli.  But  if  there  be 
a  fecond  part,  you  muft  inftead  of  making  your 
honour,  go  on  in  the  fame  order,  as  you  have 
done  in  the  firft,  and  put  off  making  your  honour, 
till  you  come  to  the  end  of  the  laft  part. 

Country  dances,  are  danced  with  as  many  perfons  as 
you  pleafe,  provided  it  be  an  even  number,  I  mean 
as  many  men  as  women,  placed  upon  two  lines,  the 
men  on  one  fide,  and  the  women  on  the  other,  of 
which  all  the  couples  ought  to  be  diftinguifhed, 


viz.  firft  couple,  fecond,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  fixth, 
couple,  ^c 

There  are  two  chief  defigns  of  country  dances^ 
upon  which  all  the  different  figures,  that  may  be 
invented,  are  founded.  The  firft  defign,  is,  that 
every  perfon,  whatever  figure  he  makes,  ends  all 
the  repetitions  to  the  fame  fide ;  that  is  to  fay,  that 
the  man  muft  not  change  his  place,  but  with  ano- 
ther man,  and  the  woman,  but  with  another  wo- 
man. The  fecond  defign,  is,  when  the  men  end 
all  their  repetitions  in  the  women's  places,  and  the 
women  in  the  men's  places. 

In  the  firft  defign,  four  things  are  to  be  obferved 

I.  When  a  couple  have  begun  to  dance,  they  muft 

!  not  give  off"  till  they  are  come  down  to  the  laft  cou- 

'  pie.     2.  Every  repetition  muft  begin  always  at  the 

[  firft  couple,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  room,  and  end 

at  the  fecond  couple,  then  to  the  third  couple,  to 

the  fourth,  ^c.  and  fo  to  come  down  from  couple 

to  couple,  till  you  arrive  to  the  laft  couple;  where 

then  all  the  repetitions  of  the  laft  couple  are  at  an 

j  end  ;  and  that  couple  dances  no  more,  till  another 

I  couple  coming  down,  in  their  turn  they  move  up. 

I  3.  That  a  couple  ought  not  to  begin  to   dance  till 

\  they  are  come  into  the  firft  couple's  place.  4.  That 

'  a  couple  that  is  come  to  the  firft  couple's  place, 

'  muft  not   begin   to  dance,  till  the  preceding  couple 

have  made  two  repetitions  before. 

It  muft  be  obferved,  likewife,  that  every  time 
;  that  a  couple  end  their  repetitions  under    another 
couple,  the  couple  that  is   above  muft   move  up, 
and  take  the  place  of  them  that  go  down. 

In  tlie  fecond  defign,  there  are  alfo  four  things 
to  be  obferved.  i.  When  a  couple  begins  to  dance, 
from  whatever  place  they  begin,  they  muft  not  dif- 
continue,  till  they  are  arrrived,  not  only  to  the  laft 
couple's  place,  but  alfo  to  the  very  place  where 
they  have  begun.  2.  Ei'ery  time  that  a  repetition 
begins  again,  the  fame  increafes  always  by  couples, 
fo  that  the  dance  which  before  was  but  of  two, 
comes  to  be  of  four,  then  of  fix,  of  eight,  ten,  iSc^ 
till  every  body  be  in  motion.  3.  When  a  couple 
comes  into  the  firft  couple's  place,  they  muft  follow 
the  fame  way  which  the  preceding  couples  have  gone. 
4.  When  a  couple  is  come  down  to  the  laft  couple, 
and  finds  there  nobody  more  to  dance  with,  then 
that  fame  couple  dances  again  together,  and  after- 
wards moves  up,  always  dancing,  till  they  come  to 
the  fame  place  where  they  have  begun,  and  then 
all  the  repetitions  of  that  couple  are  at  an  end. 


Of 


(     437     ) 


Qf     DESIGNING. 


DESIGN  is  ufed  in  painting,  for  the  firft 
idea  of"  a  large  woric,  drawn  roughly, 
and  in  little,  with  an  intension  to  be  ex- 
ecuted arid  finiflied  in  large. 
It  is  the  fimple  contour,  or  outlines  of  the  figures 
intended  to  be  reprefented,  or  the  lines  that  termi- 
nate and  cijcumicribe  them :  fuch  defign  is  fome- 
times  drawn  in  crayons,  or  ink,  without  any  flia- 
dowsatall;  fometimes  it  is  hatched,  that  is,  the 
fliadows  arc  cxprcffcd  by  fenfible  outlines,  ufually 
drawn  acrofs  each  other  with  the  pen,  crayon,  or 
graver.  Sometimes,  again,  the  fliadows  are  done 
with  the  crayon  rubbed  fo  as-  that  there  do  not  ap- 
pear any  lines  :  at  other  times,  the  grains  or  ftrokes 
of  the  crayon  appear,  as  not  being  rubbed  :  ionic- 
times  the  defign  is  wafhed,  that  is,  the  fliadows 
are  done  with  a  pencil  in  Indian  ink,  or  fome  other 
liquor;  and  fometimes  the  defign  is  coloured,  that 
is,  colours  are  laid  on  much  like  thofc  intended  for 
the  grand  work. 

The  eflcntial  requifitesofa  defign  are  correiSl- 
nefs,  good  tafte,  elegance,  chara£ler,  diverfity, 
cxpreffion,  and  perfpedl:i:'e.  Correftncfs  depends 
on  the  juftnefs  of  the  proportions,  and  knowledge 
of  Anatomy.  Tafte  is  a  certain  manner  of  correft- 
nefs  peculiar  to  one's  felf,  derived  either  from  na- 
ture, mafters,  or  ftudies,  or  all  of  them  united. 
Elegance  gives  a  delicacy  that  not  only  ftrikes  per- 
fons  of  judgment,  but  communicates  an  agreea- 
blenefs  that  pleafes  univerfally.  The  chara6ler  is 
what  is  peculiar  to  each  thing,  wherein  there  mufl- 
be  diverfity,  infomuch  that  every  thing  has  its  pe- 
culiar charailer  to  diftinguifh  it.  The  expreflion 
is  the  reprefentation  of  an  objeCl:,  according  to  the 
circumftances  it  is  fuppofed  to  be  in.  Perfpedtive. 
is  the  reprefentation  of  the  parts  of  a  pain:ing,  or  a 
figure,  according  to  the  fituation  they  are  in  with 
regard  to  the  point  of  fight. 

The  defign  or  draught,  is  a  part  of  the  greateft 
import  and  extent  in  painting.  It  is  acquired 
chiefly  by  genius  and  application,  rules  being  of 
lefs  avail  here  than  in  any  other  branches  of  the 
art,  as  colouring,  i3c.  The  principal  rules  that 
regard  defign  are,  that  novices  accuftom  themfelves 
to  copy  good  originals  at  firft  fight  ;  not  to  ufe 
fquares  in  drawing,  left  they  flint  and  confine  their 
judgment;  to  delign  well  from  life,  before  they 
praiSlii'e  perfpeftive  ,  to  learn  to  adjuPr  the  fize  of 
their  figures  to  the.vifual  angle,  and  the  difiance  of 
the  eve  from  the  model  or  objeft  ;  td  mark  out  all 
the  parts  of  their  defign  before  they  begin  to  fliade  ; 


to  make  their  contours  in  great  pieces,  without 
taking  notice  of  the  little  mufcles,  and  o;her  breaks; 
to  make  themfelves  mafters  of  the  rules  of  |ier- 
fpeiSlive  ;  to  obferve  the  perpendicular,  parallel, 
and  diftance  of  every  ftroke  .  to  compare  and  op- 
pofe  the  parts  that  meet  and  traverfe  the  perpendi- 
cular, fo  as  to  form  a  kind  of  fquare  in  the  mind, 
which  is  the  great  and  almoft  the  only  rule  of  de- 
figning  juftly  ;  to  have  a  regard  not  only  to  the 
model,  but  to  the  parts  already  defigned,  there  be- 
ing no  fuch  thing  as  defigning  with  ftri(f1- juftnefs, 
but  by  comparing  and  proportioning  every  part  to 
the  firft.     All  the  other  rules  relate  to  perfpeflive. 

There  are  feveral  methods  of  defgning  mecha- 
nically. The  follov/ing  is  the  method  of  the  learned 
Sir  Christopher  Wren,  and  may  be  put  in 
practice  with  great  eafe. 

A  is  a  fmall  fight,  with  a  fhort  arm  B  (See  plate 
of  Mechanic  Arts)  which  may  be  turned  round 
about,  and  moved  up  and  down  the  fmall  cylinder 
CD,  which  is  fcrewed  into  the  piece  ED,  at  D  ; 
this  piece  E  D  moving  round  about  the  center  E, 
by  which  means  the  fight  may  be  removed  either 
towards  E  or  F. 

F  F  is  a  ruler  faftened  on  the  two  rulers  G  G, 
which  rulers  (erve  both  to  keep  the  fquare  frame 
S  S  S  S  perpendicular,  and,  by  the-ir  Hiding  through 
the  fquare  holes  TT,  they  ferve  to  ftay  the  figlit, 
either  farther  from,  or  nearer,  to  the  faid  frame ; 
on  which  frame  is  ftuck  on,'  with  a  little  wax,  the 
paper  O  O  O  O,  whereon  the  pifiure  is  to  be 
drawn  by  the  pen  I.  The  pen  I  is,  by  a  fmall 
brafs-handle  V,  io  fixed  to  the  ruler  H  H,  that 
the  point  I  may  be  kept  very  firm,  fo  as  always  to 
touch  the  paper.  H  H  is  a  ruler  that  is  conftantly, 
by  means  of  the  fmall  firings  aaa,  ibb,  moved  hori- 
zontally, or  parallel  to  itfelf;  at  the  end  of  v/'hich 
is  ftuck  a  fmall  pin, whofe  head  P  is  the  fight,which 
is  to  be  moved  up  and  down  on  the  out-lines  of  any 
object. 

The  connivance  of  the  ftrings  i."?  this :  the  two 
firings  i7ij^,/'Z>i.areexaiftl3-of  an  equal  length.  7'wo 
ends  of  them  are  faftened  into  a  fmall  leaden  weight, 
which  is  employed  in  a  focket  on  the  backfide  of 
the  frame,  and  ferves  exactly  to  counterpoife  the 
ruler  H  H,  being  of  an  equal  weight  with  it.  The 
other  two  ends  of  them  are  faftened  to  two  fmall 
pins  H  H,  after  they  have  rollfd  <ibout  the  fmall 
pullies  M  M,  L  L,  K  K  ,  by  means  ff  which  pul- 
iies,  if  the  pen  I  be  taken  hold  of,  £nd  moved  up 
and  down  the  paper,  the  ftrin'g  moving  veiy  enfilv, 
Kkk    2  the 


43^  7^^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  «;7a?  Sciences. 

the    ruler   will  always   remain    in   an   horizontal  I  the  fight  A,  holding  the  pen  I  in  your  hand,  move 
pi  fition.  I  ^^  'i'-'^'^  of  the  pin  P  up  and  down  the  out-lines  of 

The  manner  of  ufing  it  is  this  :  fet  the  inftru-  j  the  object,   and  the  point  of  the  peni  will  defcribe 
nient  upon  a  t.ible,  and  fix  the  fight  A  at  what  |  on  the  paper  OOOO  the  (hape  of  the  object  io 
height  above  the  table,  and  at  what  diftancc  from  l  traced. 
the  frame  S  S  S  S,  you  pleafe.    Then  looking  thro'  j 


Of     DIALING. 


DI  ALI  Nf  Cr   is   the  art  of  drawing  fchemes 
upon  a  plane  or  furface  of  any  given  body, 
fo  contrived  as  to  find  out  the   mcafure  of 
juft  time,  by  the  fun,  moon  and  fliars. 

The  antiquity  of  diah  is  beyond  doubt  :  fomc 
attribute  their  invcr.tion  to  Anaxhncncs  ATilefim  ; 
others  to  Thales.  Fityuv.'us  mL-ntions  one  made  by 
the  antient  Chaldee  hiilorian  Bcrofus,  on  a  reclin- 
ing plane,  almoft  parallel  to^the  equinoiStial.  Ari- 
Jlarchus  Samhts  invented  the  hemifpherlcal  dJal. 
And  there  were  (bme  fphcrical  ones  with  a  needle 
for  a  gnomon.  'I"he  difcus  of  Arljlarchus  was  an 
hoiizontal  diul^  with  its  limb  raifed  up  all  around, 
to  prevent  the  ihadow  ftretching  too  far  :  but  it 
was  late  ere  the  Ron!a?u  became  acquainted  with 
dials.  The  fir&  fun  dial  at  Rome  was  fet  up  by  Pa- 
ptrius  Ciirfor^  about  the  year  of  the  city  460,  be- 
fore wliich  time,  fays  Pliny,  there  is  no  mention  of 
any  account  of  time,  but  by  the  fun's  riling  and 
fetting  ;  it  was  fet  up  at  or  near  the  temple  of  .^i- 
riniis,  but  went  ill :  about  30  years  after,  M.  ya- 
Icriiis  Mejfala  being  conful,  brought  out  of  Sicily 
another  dial,  which  he  fet  up  on  a  pillar  near  the  ; 
Ro/lrum;  but  for  want  of  its  bemg  made  for  that  | 
latitude,  it  could  not  go  true.  They  made  ufe 
of  it  99  years,  till  Martius  Phitippus  fet  up  another 
more  exaft. 

But  there  feem  to  have  been  dials  among  the 
yeivs  much  earlier  than  any  of  thefe.  Witnefs  the 
dial  of  Ahaz,  who  began  to  reign  400  years  beiore 
A'cxandcr,  and  within  12  years  of  the  building  of 
Rome. 

The  firft  profeffed  writer  on  Dialing,  is  Clavius, 
who  demonfl-rates  all.  both  the  theory  and  the  ope- 
rations, after  the  rigid  manner  of  the  antient  ma- 
thematicians ;  but  fo  intricately,  that  nobody,  we 
dare  (;iy,  ever  read  them  all.  Dechahs  and  0%a- 
nam,  give  much  eafier  in  their  courfes,  and  TVolfius 
in  his  e'ements.  M.  Picard  has  given  a  new  me- 
thod of  making  large  dials,  by  calculating  the  hour 
lines  ;  and  M.  de  la  Hire,  in  his  dialing,  printed 
in  1683,  a  geometrical  method  of  drawing  hour 
lines,  from  certain  points  determined  by  obferva- 
tion.  Eberhardus  Welperus,  m  1625,  publifhed 
his  dialling,  wherein  he  lays  down  a  method  of 
drawing  theprimary  diah  on  very  cafy  foundation  : 


the  fame  foundation  is  defcribed  at  length  bv  Se- 
bajlian  Munjler,  in  his  Rudimenta  Alatlnmatica, 
publifhed  in  15^1-  Stur7nius  in  1672,  publifhed  a 
new  edition  of /i^t'/jft^r/w's  dialing,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  a  whole  fecond  part,  about  inclining  and  de- 
clining i/w/j,  he.  In  1708,  the  fame  work  with 
Sturmius's  additions,  was  republifhed  v.'ith  the  ad- 
dition of  a  fourth  parr,  containing  Picard's  and  de 
la  Hire's  methods  of  drawing  large  diats^  v.'hich 
makes  much  the  heft  and  fulleft  book  on  the  fub- 
jed. 

In  order  to  perform  this  .irt,  it  will  be  nece/I'ary 
to  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  circle  of  the 
fphere,  which  is  an  inftrumcjit  (as  we  have  already 
obferved  in  our  treatife  of  Ajirsriomy)  whereby  we 
explain  the  daily  motion  of  the  celelHal  bodies,  ac- 
cording as  they  appear  to  us  to  move  always  fron 
eaft  to  weft,  and  alfo  the  proper  motion  of  the  fun, 
which  moves  from  wefl  to  eaft,  and  makes  its  re- 
volution through  the  twelve  celeftial  figns,  in  the 
fpace  of  one  year.  We  will  only  defcribe  here, 
thofe  circles  of  which  thcfpbere  is  compofed,  that 
belong  to  our  prefent  fubjecl: :  thofe  circles,  whofe 
planes  pafs  through  the  center  of  the  earth,  are 
called  great  circles  of  the  fphere,  and  all  the  others 
are  lefs  ;  but  before  we  fpeak  of  thefe  circles,  we 
ought  to  confider  the  (2A7j  of  the  _/^//;^rir,  which  we 
have  already  conceived  to  be  a  ftrait  line,  about 
which  the  inftrument  is  turned.  The  earth  is 
placed  in  the  middle  of  this  inftrument,  and  confe- 
qucntly  the  axis  paiTes  through  the  center  thereof. 
The  plane  of  the  equinoSlial  circle,  or  equator,  is  at 
right  angles  to  the  axis,  and  we  have  been  informed 
in  our  treatife  of  Aftronomy,  that  this  circle  divides 
the  fphere  into  two  equal  parts,  whereof  one  is  called 
fcptentrional,  and  the  other  meridional.  Tne  eclip- 
tick,  is  another  great  circle,  whofe  plane  makes 
an  angle  with  the  equinoiiial,  of  23  degrees  30 
minutes  ;  the  fun  moves  under  this  circle,  going 
from  the  weft  towards  the  eaft,  and  makes  one  entire 
revolution  in  3615  days  and  near  6  hours.  The  in- 
clination of  this  circle  towards  the  equinoSlial,  caufes 
the  diff'erent  declinations  of  the  fun,  in  regard  to  the 
equinoifial:  itisdivided  intotwelveequal parts,  called 
figns  ;  and  we  begin  from  the  interlcdlion  thereof 
with  the  equino^ial,  proceeding  towards  the  north. 

The 


DIALING. 


439 


The  tropicks  are  two  circles  parallel  to  the  egui- 
noSlial.,  which  touch  the  ecllptick  in  the  points  of 
its  grcsteft  diflance  from  the  equinoSlial ;  therefore 
thefe  circles  are  diftant  from  the  equinoSiial  11 
degrees  30  minutes,  on  one  fide  towards  the  north, 
and  on  the  other  fide  towards  the  fouth  ;  fo  that  it 
is  manifeft,  that  when  the  fun  is  in  the  common  in- 
terfedtion  of  the  ed'iptick  and  equator.,  the  motion 
of  the  IpLere  about  its  axis,  which  goes  from  eafl 
to  weft,  and  is  called  the  motion  of  the  primum  mo- 
bile, makes  him  appear  to  us  in  the  equinoctial ;  and 
alfo  when  he  is  in  his  greatcft  diHance  of  the  cqui- 
n^iiial,  the  fame  motion  of  the  primum  mobile 
makes  him  appear  to  us  to  move  in  the  tropicks. 
7  he  zenith  is  an  imaginary  point  in  the  Jphere, 
marked  by  a  flrait  line  coming  from  the  center 
of  the  earth,  and  paffing  by  fome  place  of  the  fu- 
perficies  thereof.  This  line  is  called  the  vertical 
line  of  that  place.  The  horizon  \s  a  great  circle, 
whofe  plane  cuts  the  vertical  line,  at  right  angles. 
The  horizon  of  a  place  diftingulflies  the  vi!lble  part 
of  the  heaven  of  that  place,  from  that  part  of  the 
heaven  which  is  not  there  feen.  The  meridian  is 
a  great  circle  which  pafles  through  the  poles  and 
zenith,  the  plane  whereof,  at  right  angles  with  the 
planes  of  the  equitioi^inl  znd  horizon  ;  becaufe  this 
circle  paifes  through  the  zemtl:  and  pcles. 

If  we  fuppofe  the  equinoirial  to  be  divided  into 
24  equal  parts,  beginning  from  the  meridian,  the 
6th  and  8th  part  (hall  fall  on  the  interfedions  of  the 
horizon  and  equinoilial,  becaufe  the  meridian  and 
horizon  are  at  right  angles  to  one  another  ;  and  if 
v.'e  imagine  other  circles,  like  the  meridian,  that  is 
to  fay,  that  pafs  through  the  poles  of  the  world, 
and  point  of  divifion  of  i\\tequinc£ii<il;  thofe  circles, 
which  we  call  muridians,  fhall  be  the  hour  circles, 
among  which  is  the  OTfr/(//ij«  of  the  place  whereof 
all  the  planes  interfeft  one  with  another  in  the 
axis.  We  may  alio  conceive  others,  which  divide 
each  parts  into  two,  or  four,  to  mark  the  half 
hours,  and  quarter  hours  ;  for  if  we  fuppofe  thefe 
circles  to  be  fixed,  then  when  the  primum  mobile, 
turns  the  fun  with  his  sdiptick  about  the  axis,  the 
time  of  his  apparent  courfe  Ihall  be  divided  into 
hours,  halves",  a;id  quarters,  by  thefe  meridians. 
Alfo  \ye  number  the  declination  of  the  fun,  upon 
the  like  meridians,  which  do  all  interfeft  the  equi- 
noilial  at  right  angles,  which  we  make  to  pafs 
through  the  center  of  the  fun  in  the  icliptick  :  we 
number  this  declination  from  the  equinofiial  to 
wards  tlie  poles;  therefore,  if  it  is  either  fouth  or 
north,  the  angles  of  declination  are  meafured  by 
arches  or  circles.  ^ 

Thofe  circles  that  pafs  through  the  vertical  lines, 
are  called  vertical  circles,  or  azimuth,  and  their 
planes  are  perpendicular  to  tlie  plane  of  the  horizon; 


they  ferve  to  meafure  the  heighth  of  the  fun  above 
the  horizon,  which  is  numbered  from  the  horizon 
towards  the  zenith. 

It  is  manifeft  from  that  which  has  been  firid  be- 
fore, that  there  are  infinite  horizons  and  meridians, 
and  that  there  are  only  thefe  two  great  circles, 
which  may  change  according  to  the  different  places 
on  the  earth,  for  they  are  eftabliftied  by  the  verti- 
cal line.  The  amplitude  of  rifing  or  fetting,  is 
counted  on  the  horizon,  beginning  from  the  points 
where  the  eqiiinoSlial  cuts  the  horizon,  and  is  num- 
bered towards  the  fouth  or  north.  If  we  conceive 
that  in  the  revolution  of  one  day  the  horizon  moves, 
as  being  faftened  to  the  axis,  fo  as  it  cannot 
change  its  inclination,  then  when  it  fliall  pafs  by 
the  24'equal  divifions  of  the  equinoilial,  it  fliall  re- 
prefent  the  24  circles  of  the  Italian  or  Babylonian 
hours. 

There  are  difrerent  forts  of  fun  dials,  which  di- 
verfity  arifes  from  the  different  fituation  of  the  plane, 
and  the  different  figure  of  the  furfaces,  wncrcon 
they  are  defcribed  ;  whence  they  become  deno- 
minated, equinoiiial,  horizontal,  Vi-rt.'cal,  polar, 
direii,  ereci,  declining,  inclining,  reclining,  cylindri- 
cal,  &c. 

We  will  begin  with  z.  fun  dial.  The  principal 
parts  of  -i.  fun  dial  are  the  center  of  the  dial,  and 
the  different  lines  it  is  divided  into.  The  center 
of  the  dial  is  any  point  taken  on  the  fuperficies  of 
the  earth,  and  confidered  as  its  center  in  relation 
to  the  motion  of  the  fun  ;  therefore,  if  we  place  a 
flyle  (which  is  a  pointed  rod)  upon  any  plain  fur- 
face,  and  then  confider  the  point  of  that  ftylc,  as 
the  center  of  the  earth,  the  interllction  of  that 
furface,  with  the  planes  of  the  hour  circles,  of  the 
equinoiiial  or  equator,  of  the  hsrizon,  and  of  the 
other  great  circles,  ftiall  be  ftrait  lines,  which 
retain  the  names  of  the  jilanes  of  the  circles  from 
whence  they  are  produced.  All  thefe  lines  on  that 
plain  fiirface  with  the  ftyle,  make  the  fun  dial. 
The  iliadow  of  the  point  of  the  ftvle,  which  is  one 
of  the  points  of  the  c.v/j',  fhews  the  hours:  and  if 
the  axis  which  pafles  by  the  points  of  that  ftyle, 
meets  with  the  plane  of  the  dial  in  any  point,  that 
point  is  called  the  center  of  the  dial ;  for  it  is  evi- 
dent that  all  the  hour  lines  {hall  meet  in  that  point. 
It  is  alfo  evident  that  the  fhadow  of  the  point  of  the 
ft}le  gives  the  hours,  and  fliews  when  the  fun 
meets  with  any  one  of  the  circles  of  the  fphere ; 
for  when  the  fun  comes  to  a  great  circle,  the  Iha- 
dow  of  the  axis  is  extended  in  the  plane  of  that  cir- 
cle, if  that  circle  pafles-  by  the  axis ;  and  if  it 
p-fTcs  not  by  the  axis,  the  fhadow  of  the  point  of 
the  ftyle  Ihall  be  in  the  plane  of  that  circle  ;  for 
the  planes  of  great  circles  pafs  by  the  point  of  the 
ftyle. 

If 


'TJje  Univerfal  Hiflory  iy/"  Arts  ^;?(5?  Sciences. 


44-0 

If  we  conceive  a  conical-  fuperficies,  which  has 
for  its  bale  a  lei's  circle  o'i  i\\i.  fphere,   and  for  its 
vertex  the  point  of  the  ftylc,  that  conical   fuper- 
ficies fhall  meet  the  furlace  of  the   dial  \\\  a  curve 
line  ;  fo  as  when  the  center  of  the  fun  fhall  touch 
that  lefs  circle,  which  is   the  bafe  of  the   conical 
fuperficies,  the  {hadow  of  the  point  of  the  ftyle  fliall 
touch  the  curve  line,  which  is  the  meeting  of  that 
curve  fuperficies  with  the  plane  of  the  dial;  for  the 
point  of  the  ftyle  is  on  that  fuperficies  whereof  it  is 
the  vertex.     The  foot  of  the  ftyle  is  that   point  on 
the  plane  of  the  dialy  whicli  is  the  meeting  of  a 
flrait    line  drawn   perpendicularly    to  that  plane, 
and  which  paftesby  the  point  of  the  ftyle. 

If  the  plane  of  the  dial  be  confidered  as  the  plane 
of  the  horizon  of  any  place,  the  flrait  line  that 
pafles  by  the  point  of  the  ftyle,  and  by  its  foot, 
fhall  be  the  vertical  line  of  that  place  ;  and  the 
plane  that  pafTcs  by  the  vertical  and  by  the  axis, 
Ihall  be  the  proper  meridian  of  that  place,  confidered 
lis  the  horizontal  of  a  place. 

The  meeting  of  the  meridian  and  furface  of  the 
dial,  is  called  the  fubftylar  line,  or  the  tneridian  of 
the  plane  or  furface  of  the  dial,  which  we  ought 
to  diltinguifli  from  the  meridiai  of  the  place,  which 
is  the  meeting  of  the  meridian  proper  to  that  place, 
and  of  the  furface  of  the  dial,  at  leaft  if  they  be 
not  coincident,  which  happens  when  the  dial  docs 
not  decline  from  the  eaft  or  weft.  Wc  fee  by  the 
pofition  of  thefe^lines,  that  the  fubftylar  line  is  al- 
ways at  ri2;ht  angles  with  the  cquinoSiial  line. 

We  ought  to  make  the  dial  fo  as  the  foot  of  the 
ftyle  be  not  incumbered,  for  that  point  fervcs  for 
many  operations  ;  therefore,  the  ftyle  muft  be 
planted  a  little  obliquely  upon  the  furface.  By  the 
height  and  length  of  the  ftyle,  is  underftood  the 
flrait  line  drawn  from  the  point  to  the  foot 
thereof.  The  arches  of  the  ftgns  on  the  furface  of 
the  dial,  are  the  defcriptions  of  the  parallels  to 'the 
cquinoiiial,  which  pafs  through  the  12  equal  divi- 
fions  of  the  ediptick  line,  which  fhews  the  begin- 
ning of  the  figns. 

How  to  find  thofe  principal  parts,  and  how  to 
mark  or  draw  thofe  lines  ;  or  rather,  how  to  re- 
duce the  Art  if  Dialing  into  practice,  is  our  next 
enquiry. 

This  pravStice  has  for  its  chief  fohndation,  the 
marking  exaftly  the  points  of  Jhadoiv,  which  the 
«c«z/OT/>rrf  renders  very  difficult ;  but  which,  how- 
ever, can  be  eftefted  two  ways. 

The  fi.ft  is  to  fit  a  fmall  round  plate  to  the  point 
of  the  ftyle,  which  may  be  parallel  to  the  plane  of 
the  dial,  whereof  the  center  may  be  joined  to  the 
point  of  the  ftyle  ;  then  having  drawn  the  fhadow 
of  the  faid  plate  on  the  plane  of  the  dial,  take  the 
middle  of  that  ftiadow,  which  fliall  be  the  fliadow 


of  the  end  of  the  ftyle,  at  the  fame  time  when  we 
obfcrvcd  the  ftiadow  of  the  plate. 

The  fecond  way  is  to  make  a  fmall  round  hole  in 
a  little  piece  of  paftc-board,  or  thin  plate,  or  other 
like  body,   and  having  applied  it  to  the  end  of  the 
ftyle,    fo  as.  the  center  of  the  hole  may  be  joined 
to  the  point  of  the  ftyle,  and  that  the  fmall  plate 
may  regard  the  fun  perpendicularly  ;    the  light  of 
the  fun  fliining  through    the   hole,   fhall   make  a 
clear  circle,  or  oval,    D  E,  Fig.  2.  in  the  fhadow 
of  the  plate  on  the  plane  of  the  dial,    which  we 
draw  on  the  faid  plane  ;  and  if  it  be  an  oval,  having 
drawn  a  flrait  line,    D  P  E  from    the    point  P  ; 
which  is  the  foot  of  the  ftyle,  whereof  F  is   the 
point,  which  may  pafs  through  the  center  of  that 
oval,  and   cut  it  in  D  and  E,  or  draw  DG   and 
E  F,  parallel  to  one  another,  and  making  any  an- 
2,le  with  D  E,  D  G  being  made  equal  to  D  S,  and 
E  F,  equal  to  E  S,  the  line  G  F,  fliall  cut  D  E, 
in  the  point  A,  which  fhall  be  the  fliadow  of  the 
point  of  the  (iyle  S,  at  that  time   when   the  oval 
was  drawn      But  we  may  take  the  center  of  the 
oval  for  the  point  A,   without  falling  into  any  fen- 
fible  error,  as  we  may  fee  by  the" operation  in  the 
plate.     But  if  the   flialow  be  a  circle,  the  center 
of  that  circle  fhall  be  the  fliadow  of  the  point  of  • 
the  ftyle. 

After  we  have  marked  the  points  of  fhadow,  we 
muft  draw  the  horizontal  line,  by  applyino-  a  rule, 
Fig.  3.  A  S,  fo  as  one  of  the  edges  thereof  may 
be  level,  and  touch  the  point  S,  of  the  ftvle,  which 
is  planted  upon  the  plane  of  the  dial,  and  that  end 
of  the  edge  of  the  ruler,  may  touch  the  plane  of 
the  dial  at  the  point  A,  which  fhall  be  one  of  the 
points  of  the  horizontal  line.  By  the  point  A,  v/c 
draw  a  level  line  on  the  plane  of  the  dial,  which 
fhall  be  the  horizontal  line. 

P'rom  this  we  pafs  to  the  fubflylar  line,  which  is 
eafily  found  by  the  amplitude  of  the  fun's  rifino- 
and  fetting  upon  the  plane  of  the  dial,  in  this 
manner  :  whzn  the  fun  begins  to  rife  on  the  plane 
of  the  dial,  we  muft  mark  the  fliadow  of  a  fmall 
thread  extended  from  the  foot  of  the  ftyle  to  its 
point ;  and  do  the  fame  when  the  fun  fets  on 
the  plane  of  the  dial,  the  angle  comprehended 
between  thefe  two  lines  of  fliadow,  whofe  vertex 
is  at  the  foot  of  the  ftyle,  being  divided  into  equal 
parts,  fliall  give  the  fubflylar  line. 

^rhcfub/lylar  line  being  made,  we  find  the  center 
of  the  dial,  by  placing  a  ftyle  on  the  plane  of  the 
dial,  whofe  foot  we  fuppofe  to  be  P,  and  point  S, 
Fig.  4..  and  the  point  of  fliadow  A,  dnd  fubjiylar 
line  C  P,  we  m  ke  the  angle  dia,  equal  to  the 
fiimor  difference  of  a  right  angle,  and  of  the  fun's 
declination;  S^i  being  made  equal  to  S  A,  we  take 
any  point,  as  d,  upon  the  line  S  d,  and  draw  the 
I  I  ftrait 


D     I   A    L     I    N    G. 


441 


ftrait  line  ^  i/.  From  the  point  A,  we  draw  the 
ftrait  line  A  R,  perpendicular  to  the  fuhjlylar  line 
C  P,  and  from  the  fame  point  A,  as  a  center,  and 
at  the  diftance  ad,  we  dcfcribc  the  arch  N,  cutting 
the  fuhjlylar  line  in  N.  From  the  point  R  as  a 
center,  and  at  the  diflance  R  N,  we  delcribe  the 
arch  ND;  then  we  ere6l  the  perpendicular  PZ 
at  right  angles  to  the  ful/Jiylar  line,  and  equal  to 
P  S  the  height  of  the  ftyie,  then  from  the  point 
Z,  as  a  center  at  the  dillance  Sd,  defcribe  the  arch 
GD  cutting  the  arch  N  D  in  D  :  the  line  ZD 
determines  the  fituation  of  the  axis,  in  refpeft  of 
the  fubjlylar  line,  and  if  it  meets  at  the  fub/lyLir  line, 
as  at  the  point  C,  that  point  C  fhall  be  the  center 
of  the  dial. 

The  center  of  the  dinl  being  found,  we'll  draw 
the  eqiiinoilial  line,  by  drawing  the  ftrait  line 
Z  £,  perpendicular  to  Z  D,  meeting  thefid'Jlylar 
line  in  E;  the  line  V  E  perpendicular  to  the  fiib- 
f.ylar  line  drawn  through  the  point  E,  fliall  be  the 
equinoSlial  line. 

Our  next  operation  is  to  place  the  fubjlylar  and 
equinoSiitl  lines,  and  the  center  of  the  dial,  and  to 
determine  the  pofition  of  the  axis  (any  two  points 
of  fhadow  being  given,  with  the  declination  of  the 
fun  at  the  time  of  obfervation  of  the  points  of 
fhadow)  which  cannot  be  done  without  having 
placed,  firft,  a  flyle  on  the  plane  of  the  dial, 
whereof  the  point  may  be  S  and  P.  Fig.  5.  the  foot, 
and  any  two  points  of  ihadow,  A  and  B  taken  at 
pleafure ;  making,  befides,  upon  a  certiin  plane, 
the  angle  d'^a,  equal  to  the  fum  or  difference  of  a 
right  angle,  and  that  of  the  declination  of  the  fun, 
on  that  day  on  which  the  points  of  the  fhadow 
were  marked,  according  as  the  declination  is  north 
or  fouth;  for  we  will  have  a  point  of  the  fub/Iylar 
Inie  as  Q,  which  may  anfwer  to  a  point  of  the  axis, 
which  may  be  more  north  than  the  point  of  the 
ftyle  ;  we  muft  make  the  angle  d  S  a,  equal  to  the 
fum  of  a  right  angle,  and  angle  of  the  declination 
of  the  fun,  if  the  declination  be  north  ;  but  equal 
to  the  difFerence  of  a  right  angle,  and  angle  of  the 
declination,   if  it  be  fouth. 

This  done,  we'll  take  two  fmal!  rods  of  any 
firm  matter,  as  of  wood  of  a  fufEcient  thicknefs, 
or  of  iron;  and  inake  them  pointed  at  the  ends, 
and  equal  in  length  to  the  ffrait  lines  ad,bd; 
it  is  not  material  whether  they  be  ftrait  or 
crooked,  if  the  diftances  between  their  points  be 
equal  to  a  d  and  b  d.  'We'll  put  one  of  the  points 
of  that  rod  which  is  equal  to  ad,  on  the  point  of 
fhadow  A,  and  one  of  the  points  of  the  other 
rod  to  the  point  of  fhadow  B  and  join  them  toge- 
ther by  the  other  points,  but  Co  as  the  points  that 
are  joined  together,  may  approach  or  fall  back  from 
the  point  of  the  fl:yle,  without  a,ltering  the  other 


points  of  the  rods,  which  are  fct  on  the  points  of 
fhadow  A  and  B ;  then  we  take  with  the  com- 
pafTes,  or  otherwife,  the  diftancc  between  the 
points  a  and  d,  and  fet  that  diftance  between  the 
points  of  the  ftyle  and  the  points  of  the  rods  that 
are. joined  togetlier :  by  this  means  the  common 
points  of  the  rods  being  fixed,  ftial!  be  one  of  the 
points  of  the  axis,  which  ought  to  pafs  by  the 
point  of  the  ftyle,  therefore  the  fituation  of  the 
axis  fhall  be  determined. 

By  the  common  point  of  the  rods  fo  fixt,  which 
I  call  D,  having  drawn  a  line  perpendicular  to  the 
plane  of  the  dial  which  fliall  meet  it  in  the  point 
Q,  the  line  P  Q^fliall  be  the  fubftylar  line.  The 
point  C,  on  the  plane  of  the  dial,  where  it  is  met 
by  the  line  D  S,  drawn  by  the  point  of  they/;  A', 
S,  and  by  the  end  of  the  rod  D,  fhall  be  the  center 
of  the  dial;  from  whence  we  may  draw  the  equi- 
noP.ial line  in  the  manner  above-mentioned. 

But  fuppofe  we  had  but  one  fingle  point  of  fha- 
dow given,  with  the  declination  of  the  fun,  and- 
the  height  of  the  pole  above  the  horizon  j  we  muft 
place  the  fuhjlylar  line,  the  center  of  the  dial,  and 
the  equinoSlial  line  in  the  following  manner : 

Having  placed  a  JlyU  upon  the  plane  of  the  dialy 
whofe  point  may  be  b  P,  Fig.  6.  the  foot,  and  A 
one  point  of  the  Jhadoiu,  we  draw  a  horizontal  line, 
in  the  manner  abovcde  monftrated,  and  by  the  point 
P  draw  the  lines  B  P  H,  perpendicular  to  the  hori- 
zontal line  hVi,  and  PZ  parallel  to  H  /;,  and  equal 
to  the  height  of  the  Jlyk  V  S  ;  then  fiom  the  point 
H,  where  P  H  meets  with  the  horizontal  line,  we 
draw  HZandZB  perpendicular  to  Z  H,  which 
fhall  meet  with  H  P  at  the  point  B  ;  if  the  hori- 
zontal line  paft"es  not  through  the  point  i>,  firft  we 
let  it  meet  at  the  point  B. 

Then  we  make  the  angle  i/S  «,  upon  fome  plane^ 
equal  to  the  fum  or  difference  of  a  right  angle,  and 
of  the  declination  of  the  fun  at  the  time  when  the 
point  of  fhadow  was  obferved ;  and  make  the 
angle  dib  equal  to  the  fum  of  a  right  angle,  and 
the  height  of  the  pole  above  the  ho'rizon.^Taking 
afterwards  at  pleafure,  the  point  d  on  the  line  S  d, 
•ve  make  'i>b  equal  to  Z B,  and  S«  equal  to  the 
length  of  the  flaadow  from  the  point  of  the  flyle  S 
to  the  point  of  fhadow  A,  and  draiv  the  ftrait 
lines  ad,  bd.  By  the  points  A  and  B  we  draw  the 
ftrait  line  A  B,  and  from  tl^.e  point  B,  as  a  center, 
at  the  diftance  b  d,  we  defcribe  the  arch/^,  either 
above  or  below  the  hne  A  B  ;  and  likewife  from: 
the  point  A  as  a  center,  and  at  the  diftance  a  ^4 
defcribe  the  arch  g  d,  cutting  the  arch  L  F  at  the 
point  L,  and  from  the  point  L  draw  the  ftrait  line 
O  L  perpendicular  to  A  B. 

Froin  the  pcint  O  as  a  center,  at  the  diftance 
O  L  we  defcribe  the  arch  D  L ;  and  from  the  point 

P  draw 


442  7^^  Univerfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  ^W  Sciences. 

P  draw  the  ftrait  line  P  G  K,  perpendicular  to  ]  which  we  may  fee  to  pafs  by  the  line  of  the  pliim- 
O  L;  and  from  the  (iime  point  P,  at  the  diftancc  [  met,  with  the  point  C,  and  the  line  C  M  fliuU  be 
^S,  dffcribc  the  arch  1,  cither  on  the  one  or  the  |  the  meridian.  We  may  alfo  draw  this  meridian  line 
other  fide  of  G,  cutting  the  line  I.  O  at  tlie  point  I.  !  in  the  night  with  a  candle,  in  holding  it  at  a  diftancc 
Then  we  make  G  K  equal  to  P  S,  the  heighth  of  |  from  the  line  of  the  plummet,  fo  as  the  fhadow 
t\\e.J}yle,  and  from  the  point  K,  at  the  diltance  I  thereof  may  pafs  by  M,  or  by  the  point  C,  which 
G  I  defcribe  the  arch  R  D,  cutting  the  arch  D  L  of  them  is  given  ;  for  the  (liadow  of  that  line  fhall 
in  D,  and    from  the   point  D  draw  the   ftrait  line  |  be  the  meridian  line. 

D  Qj)erpendicular  to  L  b,  and  the  line  P  Q,  which  |  When  only  one  point  of  fliadow  is  given  with  the 
paftes  through  the  points  P  and  Q.,  is  the  Jubj?ylar  |  height  of  the<pole,  and  the  declination  of  the  fun, 

we  draw  the   meridian 


line.  If  the  point  Q_  be  too  near  to  P,  we  may  I 
iind  another,  by  taking  another  point  don  the  line 
fd;  confcquenily  we  place  the  f5'?««5i.7/a///;2^,  and 
the  center  of  the  dial.,  as  we  have  done  it  in  the 
preceding  practices  ;  having  this  advantage,  be- 
ftdes,  that  the  line  whicii  partes  through  the  point 
B,  and  through  the  center  of  the  dial,  fhall  be  the 
meridian  line. 

If  the  horizontal  line,  pafTes  through  the  point  P, 
or  if  the  point  B  be  too  far  diftant  from  the  point 
P,  we  inuft  faften  7ii\ot\\cr  Jlyle  upon  the  plane  of 
the  dial,  whereof  the  point  may  pafs  by  the  line 
of  the  plummet  hanged  from  the  point  S  of  the 
jlylc,  the  point  of  that  fecond  jlyle  being  called  B, 
we  perform  the  operation  as  before  to  find  the 
lines  da,  db ;  but  we  may  ufe  the  fmall  rods 
above-mentioned,  otherwife  the  operation  would 
be  too  long. 

Next  we  muft  endeavour  to  find  the  points  of 
the  hours  of  6  and  i2  on  the  equnoSlial  line.  Fig. 
14.  and  to  draw  the  tneridian  line,  \vh\c\i  muft  be 
done  by  fjppofing  P  S  to  be  the  height  of  thejiyk, 
whereof  P  is  the  foot,  and  S  the  point;  and  fup- 
pofing,  likewife,  N  S  to  be  the  horizontal  line,  and 
M  N  the  equino{Jial  line;  the  point  N  where  the 
equinoSiial  line  meets  with  the  horizontal  line,  is  the 
point  where  the  hour  of  6  interfe(3s  the  equino£iial 
line. 

From  the  center  N,  and  at  the  diftance  N  S, 
equal  to  the  height  of  the  Jiyle,  we  defcribe  the 
arch  K  II,  and  taking  any  point  as  O,  in  the  equi- 
no£}ial  line,  for  a  center,  at  the  diftance  O  S  we 
defcribe  the  arch  I  H  interfecfiing  the  arch  K  H  in 
H,  then  draw  the  ftrait  line  N  H,  and  H  M  per- 
pendicular to  NH,  the  point  M  where  H  M  meets 
the  eqiiinooiial  line,  is  the  point  where  the  meridian 
line  ought  to  intcrfecl  the  eqninoSiial  line. 

Then  having  hanged  up  a  line  with  a  plummet 
f,  fo  as  the  line  may  pafs  by  S  the  point  of  the 
ftyle,  we  mark  any  point  as  C  on  the  plane  of  the 
dial,  fo  as  we  may  fee  with  one  eye,  the  points 
M  and  C  both  hid  together  by  the  line  of  the  plum- 
met, this  is  called  burning,  and  the  line  M  C  ftiall 
be  the  meridian  line.  But  if  the  center  of  the  dial 
was  given,  and  that  it  was  the  point  C,  we  muft 
mark  fome  point,  as  M,  on  the  plane  of  the  dial. 


line,  and  find  the  point  of 
the  hour-line  of  6,  on  the  horizontal  line,  by 
placing  a  ftyle  on  the  plane  of  the  dial,  whofe 
point  be  S,  and  the  foot  P.  Fig.  15.  drawing  the 
horizontal  line  H  h  ;  and  from  the  point  P  drawing 
likewife  P  H  perpendicular  to  H/;  ;  drawing  after- 
wards P  Z  parallel  to  H  h,  and  equal  to  P  S  the 
height  of  the  ftyle,  and  making  H  E  equal  to  H  Z. 
Then  having  marked  the  point  of  fliadow  A,  as 
far  from  noon  as  it  is  poffible,  we  hang  a  plummet 
T,  fo  as  the  line  thereof  may  pafs  by  S  the  point 
of  the  ftyle,  and  burn  it  (as  v/e  did  in  the  foregoing 
pra£Iice  for  the  meridian)  marking  the  point  h  on 
the  horizontal  line,  by  which  we  fee  the  line  pafs, 
then  when  it  alfo  pafTes  by  the  point  of  the  fhadow 
A,  we  draw  the  ftrait  line  h  E  ;  drawing  after- 
wards an  arch  of  a  circle  Z  0  f  on  the  center  C  at 
any  diftance,  and  making  Z  0  equal  to  the  height 
of  the  pole  above  the  horizon,  and  drawing  the  lines 
0  c,  z  c,  to  c  the  center  of  the  circle. 

We  then  make  the  arch  0  m  equal  to  the  decli-. 
nation  of  the  fun,  at  the  time  when  the  point  of 
fliadow  was  made  towards  Z,  if  the  fun  be  in  the 
north  figns,  and  towards  f  if  it  be  in  the  fouth 
figns,  for  thofe  that  have  their  zenith  in  the  north 
part  of  the  fphere  ;  but  on  the  contrary,  for  thofe 
that  have  it  in  the  fouth  part ;  and  draw  a  m  paral- 
lel to  0  c.  We  afterwards  draw  c  f  perpendicular 
to  c  z,  from  the  center  c,  and  make  the  angle  dcf, 
equal  to  the  angle  h  S  A,  and  draw  the  line  de  pa- 
rallel to  f  c,  meeting  cz  in  0,  and  a  mm  a. 

On  the  point  E,  as  a  center,  at  the  diftance  d e, 
we  defcribe  the  circle  B  D,  meeting  E  h  (prolonged 
if  it  be  neceflary)  at  the  point  B  ;  we  make  BM 
equal  to  da,  and  from  M  raife  DM,  perpendicu- 
lar to  E  B,  interfeccing  the  circle  B  D  in  D,  then 
drawing  ED  (prolonged  if  itbe  necefliiry)  and  the 
pointy  where  it  interfedts  the  horizontal  line,  fhall 
be  the  point  of  th?  meridian  upon  the  horizon  ;  and 
E  G  being  drawn  perpendicular  to  E  D,  gives  the 
point  G,  where  the  hour-line  of  6  meets  with  the 
horizontal  line. 

T  he  Line  M  D,  which  is  drawn  perpendicular 
to  B  E,  may  meet  with  the  circle  B  D  on  either 
fide  of  the  point  B  ;  but  we  muft  take  care  that  if 
the  point  of  Ihadow  A,  is  marked  before  noon,  to 

make 


DIALING. 


443 


make  ufe  of  the  point  D,  which  is  on  the  right  j  %le  S  P,  being  given,  we  may  take  what  point 
hand  of  the  point  P,  as  in  the  example  ;  and  if  the 


pomt  A  was  marked  after  noon,  we  muft  take  the 
point  D  where  M  D  meets  the  circle  on  the  left 
hand  of  B,  to  have  the  pofition  of  the  meridian 
line;  if  D  E  meets  not  with  the  horizontal  line, 
but  is  prolonged  towards  E,  the  point  F  fhall 
appertain  to  the  line  of  midnight :  all  this  muft  be 
underftood  of  thofe  that  have  their  zenith  on  the 
north-fide  of  the  equim£lial,  for  it  is  contrary  with 
thofe  which  have  their  ■zenith  in  the  fouthern  he- 
mifphere.  If  the  line  E  D  meets  not  not  the  ho- 
rizontal line,  being  likewife  prolonged  towards  E, 
then  the  dial  (hall  have  no  line  of  mid-day,  nor  of 
mid-night,  and  the  plane  of  the  dial  fliall  be  either 
oriental,    or  occidental. 

The  angle  H  E  F,  made  by  the  line  E  D,  with 
the  horizontal  line  E  H,  is  the  angle  of  the  decli- 
nation of  the  plane.  By  the  foregoing  pra6tice,  the 
meridian  line,  or  the  line  of  midnight,  may  be 
drawn  by  the  point  /. 

Some  of  the  foregoing  operations  may  be  abridg- 
ed in  the  following  manners. 

I.  Hzvlng  found  the  fu/'Jlylar  line  p  e.  Fig.  i8. 
and  the  equino£iictl  line  e  v  for  the  ftyle  S  p,  if  we 
would  remove  the  fubjlylar  and  equimSlial  Una  to 
another  place  of  the  plane  of  the  dial;  the  line  PE 
parallel  to  p  e  fliall  be  another  fubjlylar  line,  and 
V  E  parallel  to  e  v,  or  perpendicular  to  P  E,  fhall 
be  the  equinoilial  line,  and  we  determine  by  the  I 
following  method,  the  pofition  of  a  ftyle  for  the 
two  lines  P  E,  E  V,  whereof  the  height  fhall  be 
given  of  any  length,  or  we  will  determine  the 
height  of  a  ftyle,  whereof  the  pofition  lliall  be 
given  upon  the  fuhjlylar  line  P  E.  Firft,  we'll  let 
the  line  A  R  be  given  for  the  height  of  the  ftyle, ! 
which  ought  to  be  fet  for  the  fubjlylar  and  eqidnoElial   height  is  given. 


we  will  in  tiie  fuh/lylar  line,  afk  for  the  center  of 
the  difil,  without  altering  the  fuh/iylar  line,  or  equi- 
noSiial ;  and  the  line  K  m  drawn  parallel  to  C  M, 
ftiall  be  the  meridian  line  ;  but  if  the  height  and 
pofition  of  the  ftyle  muft  be  changed,  by  making 
E  z  equal  to  P  S,  and  drawing  M  P  and  P  Z,  and 
m  R  and  R  Z  parallels  to  M  P  and  P  Z,  and  the 
point  R  fhall  be  on  the  fubjlylar  tine,  which  is  the 
foot  of  the  ftyle,  whereof  the  height  R  Z  is  per- 
pendicular to  the  point  R  on  the  plane  of  the 
dial. 

3.  If  the  fuh/lylar  line  C  E,  was  given  with 
the  meridian  line  C  M,  anfwering  to  the  ftyle  P  S, 
we  may  take  any  point,  as  p,  to  be  the  foot  of  a 
ftyle,  whereof  tbe  height  is  to  be  determined  j  or 
the  ftyle  being  given  of  any  height,  to  determine 
the  pofition  of  the  foot  p,  without  changing  either 
the  meridian,  or  the  center  of  the  dial.  If  the  foot 
of  the  ftyle  be  given,  and  we  are  to  determine  its 
height  by  the  foot  of  the  ftyle  P,  for  the  finding  of 
the  meridian  and  juhfiylar  line,  we'll  draw  P  S, 
perpendicular  to  the  fubjlylar  line,  and  equal  to  the 
height  of  the  Cime  ftyle,  drawing  C  S  by  the  center 
of  the  dial,  and  from  the  given  point  p,  drawing 
likewife  p  s,  parallel  to  P  S,  till  it  meets  C  S  in  the- 
point  S,  and  p  S  (hall  be  the  length  of  the  height 
of  the  ftyle,  which  ought  to  be  placed  at  the  point 
p,  and  the  meridian  C  M,  and  the  center  of  the 
dial  C,  are  not  changed  But  if />  S  were  given 
for  the  height  of  tbe  ftyle,  it  muft  be  put  uport 
P  S  prolonged,  if  it  be  neceflary,  then  P  z  and 
z  S  muft  be  drawn  parallel  to  C  P,  to  meet  with 
the  line  C  S  in  m  S,  and  S  p  being  drawn  parallel  to 
S  P,  ftiall  give  the  point  p,  on  the  fuh/lylar  line, 
for  the   foot   of  the   ftyle  required,    whereof  the- 


lines  P  E,  E  V.  We'll  make  E  P  equal  to  e  p, 
and  fet  it  the  fame  way,  (that  is,  we'll  fet  the  point 
P  above  the  point  E,  if  the  point  p  be  above  the 
point  e ;  and  below  it,  if  it  be  below  it)  and  make 
E  Z  equal  to  p  f,  and  E  Z  equal  to  R  A  given  ; 
and  we'll  draw  zP  and  ZR  parallel  to  ZP,  meet- 
ing E  P  in  R  ;  and  the  point  R  fliall  be  the  foot  of 
the  ftyle,  the  height  whereof,  RjA,  is  given  : 
therefore  if  we  fix  a  ftyle,  whereof  the  foot  may 
be  R,  and  the  diftance  between  the  point  thereof 
A,  and  foot  R  may  be  the  height  equal  to  the  line 
Z  E,  the  propofition  is  fatisfied  :  but  if  the  point 
R  were  given  for  the  foot  of  the  ftyle,  and  the 
height  were  required,  we'll  draw  P  Z  as  before, 
and  by  the  point  R,  draw  R  Z  parallel  to  P  z,  and 
E  Z  fhall  be  the  height  of  the  ftyle,  whofe  foot,  is 
the  given  point  R. 

2.  The  fubjlylar  line  C  E,  the   equinoSiial  line 
E  V,  and  the  meridian  line  C  M,  anfwerable  to  the 
2i.      . 


4.  The  meridian  CM,  Fig   19    being   give^^, 
with  the  eqidnoiliat  line  E  M,  we  may  find  another 
equinoSiial  as  e  M,   without  changing  the  meridian, 
the  which  equinoctial  e  M,    fliall   make  the  angle- 
EMC,    but  we  muft  find   another  ftyle  by  the 
following  method  :    If  the  center  of  the  dial  be 
given  at  the  point  C,  having  drawn  (by  the  foot  of 
the  ftyle  p,  which  has  ferved  to  find  the  meridian 
and  the  center  C)  />  S  perpendicular  to  the  fub/lylar 
lineCp,  and   equal  in  length   to   the   fame  ftyle, 
we'll  draw  ^S  parallel  to  h,  S,    and  from  the  point 
S,  S  p  parallel  to  S  p,  meetingthe  fub/lylar  line  in 
the  point  p,   which  fhall   be  the  foot  of  the  ftyle 
required,  whereof />  S  fliall  be  the  height      But  if 
we  have  not  the  center  of  the  dial,  we  muft  draw  the- 
line  S/by  the  point  S,  which  determines  the  incli- 
nation of  the  axis  by  the  fuh/lylar  line,  and  we  fliall 
find  as  before,  the  point  p  for  the  foot  of  the  ftyle 
required,  whereof  the  height  fliall  be  p  S. 

L.I1  5-  ^f 


The   Univerfal  Hiftory  o/*Arts  flrwa?  Sciences. 


444 

c.  If  after  we  have  drawn  the  meridian  lliieCyi, 
Fig.  20.  and  the  fuhjlylor  Vine  B  />,  we  cannot  have 
the  equinoSiial,  becaufe  the  J}yle  has  been  put  too 
long,  we  may  diininifli   it  as  much  as  wc  plcafe, 
■without  changing  the  foot  thereof,  or  the  fuhjiylar 
line;  but  we  muft  find  another  meridian  and  anotlier 
horizontal  line,   which   may   anfwer  to  that  Jlyle, 
and  thefe  meridian  and  horizontal  lines,  fhall  be  pa- 
rallel   to    the  Jirjl  meridian   and   horizontal  lines. 
Therefore  we  draw   the  line  em    by   any    point 
of  the  fubJlyUr  line  at  e,  which  may  be  perpendi- 
cular to  it  ;    that  line  may  be  the  equinoliial  line  : 
but  the  height  of   the  ^yle  muft  be  changed  in 
drawing  e  S   perpendicular   to  the  line  S  s,   which 
determines  the  inclination  of  the  «;>.;j  with  the  fub- 
/iyle,  and  that  line  ^S  meeting  S/>,  which  is  per- 
pendicular to  the  fubjiylar  line  by   the  foot  of  the 
^lyle,  and  which  is  its  height,  fo  that  for  the  equi- 
'iiotlial  line  em,  p  z  (hall  be  the  height  ofthejiyle  re- 
quired ;  but  there  muft  be  another  meridian  found, 
whether  the  center  of  the  dial  be  found  or  not. 

6.  A  dial  being  drawn  on  a  plane,  we  may 
transfer  it  into  what  other  place  we  will  on  the 
fame  plane,  by  drawing  of  parallel  lines  to  thofe 
that  are  drawn,  fo  that  we  keep  the  fame  order 
and  the  fame  proportion  between  them  in  their 
meetings,  but  the  /?yU  ought  to  be  put  at  the  point 
which  anfwers  to  the  point  of  the  firft,  which  is 
for  its  foot. 

Though  all  the  foregoing  practices  feem  to  be 
clearly  enough  dcmonftrated,  as  well  in  the  plate, 
as  by  the  reafoning,  they  neverthelefs,  cannot  be 
well  executed  without  fome  farther  inftruftions, 
viz.  With   regard   to  the  different  expofitions  of 
the  planes  propofed,  on  which  the  fun-dials  are  to 
be  drawn.     2.  How   to  mark  the  points  of  the 
ajlronomical  hours  on  the  equinoiiial  line,   and  how 
to  draw  by  thofe  points,   the  hour-lines.     3.  How 
to  mark  the  points  of  the  aftronomical  hours  on  the 
horizontal  line,  and  how  to  draw  the  hour-line  by 
thofe  points.     4.  Six  intervals  of  hours  following 
one  another  being  given,  how  to  draw  all  the  other 
hours.    5.  How  to  draw  the  parallels  of  the  twelve 
figns.     6.  The  equino^ial  line  being  given,    if  we 
draw  a  parallel  to  it  by  a  point  given  on  an  hour- 
line.     7.  How  to  draw  the  Italian  and  Babylonian 
hours  upon  an  horizontal  plane.     8.  How  to  draw 
the  Italian  and  Babylonian  hours  on  a  plane  which 
is  not  horizontal,     g.  How  to  continue  the  defcrip- 
tion  of  the  Italian  and  Babylonian  hours,  when  the 
parallel  of  the  equator  is  wanting  on  the  plane  of 
the  dial.    10.  Four  ajlronomical  hours  being  given, 
following  one  another  in  order,  with  the  equinoiiial 
line,    how  to  find  the  other  hours.     1 1 .  A  dial 
being  given,  which  is  already  drawn,  how  to  find 
the  foot  of  the  ftyle,  which  ferved  to  draw  it,  and 
u»  determine  the  height  thereof.     i%.  How  to 


place  the  axis.     13.   How  to   draw  dials  by  re- 
flexion. 

We  may  know  the  difpofition  of  the  plane  in 


I. 


regard  of  north  or  (buth  (which  muft  be  ncceflarily 
known  before  we  begin  any  thing)  by  a  fmall  de- 
clinatory,   which  prefently  {hews  on  what  fide  is 
the  north,  fouth,  caft,  or  weft  ;    which  thofe  that 
are  ufed  to  obferve  the  fun,  may  know  by  feeing  in 
what  manner  it  Ihines  upon  the  plane,  according 
to  the  hour  and  feafon  of  the  year.     Then  we 
may  well  conceive  after  what  manner  the  axis  fhall 
meet  with  the  furface,  and  confequently  may  judge 
of  the  pofition  of  the  fub/lylar    line,  of  the  equi- 
noclial,  and  alfo  of  the  whole  dial.      But   confi- 
dering  a  dial  wholly  made,  it  is  not  difHcult  to 
know,  among  divers  manners,  which  we  may  ufe, 
that  may  be  moft  fit,  and   moft  cafy  for  the  con- 
ftruftion  of  the  dial  ;    therefore  we  may  eafily  fee 
that  it  would  be  ufelefs  to  find  the  center  of  a  dial, 
or  the  meridian  of  a  plane  which  comes  near  either 
to  the  eaft  or  weft,  and  that  the  equinoiiial  line  be- 
ing fet  on  fuch  a  plane,  we  need  not  find  the  point 
of  mid  day,  and  that  we  muft  ufe  the  point  of  the 
fixth  hour,   to  begin  the  divifions  of  the  horary  in- 
tervals on  that  line,  or  on  the  horizontal  line.  That 
on  thefe  forts  of  planes  we  cannot  ufe  the  pra£lices 
where  we  ought  to  have  the  points  of  fhadows  after 
mid'day,  which  may  be  anfwerable  to  others  taken 
in  the  morning ;    for   if  the   firfl   point  has  been 
marked  a  little  too  far  from  the  meridian,  we  can 
never  have  its  correfpondent  point :  that  we  mult 
not  ufe  the  praftice  of  correfpondent  points  of  fha- 
dows,  or  the  tra£t  of  the  fliadow,    if  the  circle 
that  is  defcribed  from  the  foot  of  the  Jiyle  as  a 
center,  meets  that  tradt  in  angles  too  acute  ;   for 
we  cannot  determine  exaftly  that  meeting,  and 
this  inconveniency  may  happen  to  all  praftices  on 
all  forts  of  planes  in  any  feafon  of  the  year :  that 
if  the  dial  be  large,  and  the  declination  of  the  fun 
has  changed  confiderably  between  the  obfervations 
of  the  points  of  fhadow,  we  have  not  exaiStly  the 
lines  which  we  feek  by  thofe  pratStices,  where  we 
fuppofe  that  it  has  not  been  changed  between  the 
obfervations. 

In  the  following  practices,  we  fuppofe  always 
that  the  equinoiiial  or  horizontal  line  is  drawn,  and 
that  we  have  marked  on  that  line,  the  point  where 
the  hour  12  or  6  meets  with  it  ;  at  which  points 
we  begin  the  divifion  of  the  hours  on  thofe  lines;  but 
to  draw  them  we  muft  have  the  center  of  the  dial, 
or  at  leaft  the  inclination  of  theaxis  to  the  fub/lylar 
line. 

2.  We  mark  the  points  of  the  aftronomical  hours 
on  the  equinoiiial  line,  and  by  thofe  points  draw 
the  hour  lines  in  this  manner;  we  fuppofe  P  S, 
Fig.  21.  to  be  a  /lyle,  whereof  S  is  the  point,  and 
P  the  foot,  and  £  7  is  the  equiniiJialiingf  on  which 

the 


DIALING, 


445 


the  point  7  is  the  meeting  of  the  equimUial  with  | 
the  meridian^  and  the  point  8  is  the  meeting  thereof 
with  the  hour  of  6  and  with  the  horizon  ;  P  E  A 
is  ihz  fubjlylar  line,  which  meets  with  the  equinoc- 
tial in  E. 

This  prefuppofed,  we  make  E  A  on  the  fubflyU 
equal  to  E  S,  which   is  the  diftance  between  the 
point  E  of  the  equinoiiial,  and  S   the  point  of  the 
flyle  ;    we  draw  A  7  or  A  8,  or  both  of  them,  if 
we  have  thefe   two  points  on  the  equinoSiial  line; 
which  two  lines  A  7,  A  8,  ought  to  make  a  right 
angle  at  the  point  A.     Then  on  the  point  A  as 
a  center,    at  any  diftance,  we  defcribc   an  arch 
of  a  circle  b  c,  which  cut  the  lines  A  7  and  A  8, 
at  the  points  b  and  ^,  and  divide  the  circle  from 
15,  to  15  degrees,  beginning  at  the  point  b,  or  at 
the  point  C  ;   then  we  draw  ftrait  lines  from  the 
center  A,  and  by  the  points  of  the  divifion  of  the 
circle,  which  muft  be  prolonged,  if  it  be  neccffary, 
to  the  equinoSiial  line,  on  which  it  gives  the  divifion 
of  the  hours,  which  are  to  be  marked  according  to 
the  apparent  motion  of  the  fun  from  eaft  or  weft  : 
then  by  the  center  of  the  dial,  and  by  the    points 
of  the  hours  which  are  marked  upon  the  equinofiial 
lint,    we  draw   ftrait  lines,  which   are   the  hour 
lines. 

But  if  we  have  not  the  center  of  the  dial,  and 
have  only  the  inclination  of  the  axis  I  z,  to  the 
Juhjlylar  line  <:  E,  we  muft  take  any  point  as  e,  on 
the  fubjlylar  line  e  12,  parallel  to  the  equinoiiial 
line  E  ;(■  1 1,  and  drawing  e  z  perpendicular  to  Z  z, 
make  e  a  equal  to  e  z,  and  by  the  point  a  draw  the 
ftrait  lines  a  11,  a  12,  a  i,  (sfe.  parallel  to  the 
lines  A  II,  A  12,  A  i,  ^c.  and  by  thefe  points, 
where  thefe  lines  meet  with  the  line  ^  12,  and  by 
thofe  which  are  correfpondent  to  them  on  the  equi- 
no£iial  line,  draw  the  hour-lines  11  XI,  12  XII, 
1 1,  2  II,  i^c. 

3.  We  mark  the  points  oit\^ajtrononucat  hours 
on  the  horizontal  line,  and  draw  the  hour-line  by 
thofe  points,   in  the  foliovi'ing  manner  : 

We  make  the  line  MHD,  Fig.  22.  the  hori- 
zontal line,  and  S  the  point  of  the  Jiyle  given, 
whereof  P  is  the  foot ;  by  that  point  P,  wc  draw 
the  line  P  H  perpendicular  to  the  horizontal  line  ; 
making  M  the  point,  where  the  meridian  line  in- 
terfefls  the  horizontal  line  ;  upon  the  line  H  P, 
we  fet  H  S  equal  to  H  S,  and  draw  the  ftrait 
lineSMisr,  and  m.ake  the  angle  MSA  equal  to 
the  angle  of  the  elevation  of  the  pole  above  the 
horizon  ;  then  from  any  point  as  A,  taken  on  the 
Jine  S  A,  we  raife  a  perpendicular  from  12  to  S  A, 
till  it  meets  with  SM  in  12,  and  draw  the  lines 
9,  12,  4,  perpendicular  to  S  a,  and  make  12  a 
equal  to  1 2  A  i  and  from  the  point  A  as  a  center, 
we  defcribe  a  circle  at  any  diftance,  and  divide  it 


of  mid -day  on  the 
but   D  the  point  of 


into  equal  parts  from  1 5  degrees  to  15  degrees,  be- 
ginning the  divifion  where  the  line  a  1 2  interfedls 
the  circle,  and  draw  lines  from  the  point  a  to  the 
divifions  of  the  circle,  to  meet  with  the  line  9,  4, 
at  the  points  9,  lo,  1 1,  12,  i,  2,  3,  4,  ^c.  and 
by  the  fame  points  and  the  point  S,  we  draw 
ftrait  lines,  which  we  make  to  meet  the  horizon- 
tal line  in  the  points  of  the  hours  required,  which 
we  mark  according  to  the  diurnal  motion  of  the 
fun,  of  which  the  point  M  is  noon,  and  D  the 
point  of  the  hour  6.  If  the  line  S  D  drawn  per- 
pendicular to  SM,  meet  with  the  horizontal  line  zt 
the  point  D,  that  point  fhall  be  the  hour  6  on  the 
horizontal  line,  which  is  the  fame  point  where  the 
horizontal  line  ought  to  meet  with  the  horizontal 
line. 

If  we  have  not  the  point 
horizontal  line,  and  we  have 
the  hour  6  ;  we  then  draw  S  D  and  S  M  perpen- 
dicular to  S  D  ;  then  we  do  the  fame  as  we  did 
before  to  find  the  points  of  the  hours  on  the  hori- 
zontal line.  The  hour  lines  are  to  be  drawn  from 
C  the  center  of  the  dial,  and  by  the  points  of 
the  hours  which  have  been  found  on  the  horizontal 
line. 

4.  We  fuppofe  the   6   intervals  of  hours  from 

Fig.  23.  C  A  to  Cy  to  0  be  given,  we  draw  all  the 

other  hours,  by  making  E^  parallel  to  c  5,  cutting 

<:  A  in  the  point  A  C  B,  in  the  point  BCD,  in 

the  point  D,  ^c.  and  we  make  A  b,  equal  to  A  B 

A  d  equal  to  A  D,  i^c.    and  from  the  center  C, 

and  through  the  points  bdc,  isfc.   we  draw   the 

lines  of  the  hours  that  follow  the  precedent  hours. 

When  we  will  alfo  have  other  hours  following  the 

firft  or  laft  found,  we  muft  repeat  the  operation  in 

drawing  another  line  as  E  e,  parallel  to  that  which 

is  the  laft  of  the  fix   intervals  of  hours.     If  the 

dial  has  no  center,  we  muft  draw  another  line  as 

S  /  parallel  to  E  e,  on  which  we  are  to  find  the 

points  of 

line  E^, 

two  parallel  lines  E  e  and  S  t,  we'll  have  the  hour 
lines  required. 

5.  We  draw  the  parallels  of  the  twelve  figns. 
Fig.  24.  by  drawing  firft  the  lines  S  C  and  S  tr  at 
right  angles  to  it  at  the  point  S  ;  we  make  the  an- 
gles a  S  d,  a  S  k,  each  20  degrees  30  minutes  ; 
and  the  angles  a  Sf,  a  S  i,  each  of  20  degrees  1 1 


on 

the  hours  as  we  have  found  them  on  the 
and  in  joining  the   horary  points  of  the 


mmutes,  and  the  angles  a'Si  g,  a%  k,  each  of  1 1 
degrees  30  minutes  :  the  line  S  a  denotes  the  cqui- 
nodial,  which  is  the  beginning  of  y/r/«  ami  of  Li- 
bra ;  the  line  S  K,  denotes  the  beginning  of  Tau- 
rus and  Virgo  ;  S  /  the  beginning  of  Gemini  and 
Leo  ;  S  /f  the  beginning  of  Cancer,  which  is  the 
tropick  of  the  fame  fign  j  S  ^  the  beginning  of 
Scorpio  and  Pifus  ;  8/  the  beginning  of  Sagittarius 
Lll  2  and 


44-6  The  Unlvci-ral  Fliftdry  Gf  Arts  (2;7<5^  Sciences.  . 

Tind  Aquar'tu!  ;  S  </  the  beginning  of  Capricorn,  ,  point  of  the  firft  hour  after  noon  of  the  parallel, 
which  is  the  tropick  of  the  fame  fign.  If  the  center  I  (hall  be  the  line  of  the  13th  Italian  hour.  The 
of  the  tiia/  be  towards  the  North  in  regard  to  the'  ftrait  line  c  VIII,  which   pafles  by  the  point  of 


point  of  the  flyle,  we  make  S  c  equal  to  S  C  of  the; 
dial,  which  is  the  diilance  between  the  point  of  the 
Jlyle  and  the  center  ;  but  if  the  center  be  towards 
the  fouth,  in  refpeft  of  the  point  of  the  Jlyle,  we 
make  S  c  upon  c  S  prolonged  on  the  other  fide  of 
the  point  S. 

Next  we  muft  find  the  points  of  the  parallels  of 

the  figns  upon  the  hour  lines  ;   as  for  example,    on 

the  line   of  mid-day,    we  muft  take  the  diftance 

,    S  XII,  from  the  point  of  the  Jlyle  S   to  the  point- 

XII,  which  is  the  interfeiSlion  of  the  line  of  mid- 
day with  the  equinoSllal,  and  fet  it  fiom  S  to  12 
upon  the  line  S  a,  and  having  drawn  the  line  c  l^, 
which  cuts  the  lines  of  the  figns  in  the  points 
^»  /■>  gi  ^j  '>  ^5  then  we  tranfport  the  intervals 
12  A,   12/,   12^,   12^,    12/,    12^,    in   XII H, 

XIII,  XII  K,  XII G,  XII /,  XII  D,  on  the 
one  and  other  fide  of  the  equino^ial  line,  gs  they 
are  on  both  fides  of  the  line  S  a.  And  in  the  fame 
manner  having  found  the  other  points  upon  each 
hour-line,  and  likewife  on  the  halves  and  quarters, 
or  other  lines  coming  from  the  center,  we  draw  by 
all  the  points  which  belong  to  the  fame  fign,  the 
line  of  the  parallel  of  the  fign,  and  thuE  for  each 
of  them  in  particular.  But  if  we  have  not  the  in- 
terfeftion  of  the  equinoBial  line  upon  the  hour-line, 
on  which  we  would  have  the  points  of  the  figns,  in 
that  cafe  we  may  have  always  the  center  of  the  dial ; 
but  if  we  have  not  the  center  of  the  dial,  we  may 
have  always  the  equinoBial  line  ;  therefore  having 
taken  (for  example)  the  third  hour,  on  which  we 
would  have  the  points  of  the  parallels  of  the  figns, 
and  the  point  R  at  pleafure  ;  and  having  marked 
S  3  on  the  line  S  a  equal  to  S  III,  which  is  the 
diftance  between  the  point  of  the  Jlyle  S,  and  the 
point  where  the  third  hour  propofed,  interfefts  the 
equinoiiial  line  ;  on  that  line  S  3  for  the  bafe,  we 
muft  make  the  triangle  S  3  r  equal  to  the  triangle 
S  lit  R,  which  has  S  III  for  its  bafe  ;  and  draw 
r  3  prolonged,  which  fhall  interfect  the  lines  of 
the  figns  in  points,  which  are  to  be  transferred  to 
the  line  of  the  third  hour. 

6.  The  aflronomical  hours  being  drawn  on  the 
dial.  Fig.  26.  whofe  center  is  C,  and  the  meridian 
C  A,  and  V  A  the  equimcfial  line  ;  c  E  being  di- 
vided into  two  equal  parts  ;  to  draw  the  Italian  and 
3abyloman\\.o\x\S'ji'^QX\  a.n  horizrrttal  pHne,  we  muft 
find  on  the  hour- lines  the  points  &,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g, 
/j,  tjfe.  of  a  parallel  to  the  equator  ;  which  done, 
the  line  A  12  parallel  to  the  equinoctial,  fhall  be  the 
line  of  the  12th  Italian  hour.  The  ftrait  line 
b  VII,  which  palFes  by  the  point  of  the  feventh 
hoar  in  the  morning  of  the  cquino£lial,  and  by  the 


the  eighth  hour  in  the  morning  on  the  equinoiiial 
line,  and  by  the  point  of  the  fecond  hour  afternoon 
of  the  parallel,  ftiall  be  the  14th  Italian  hour. 
The  ftrait  line  d  IX,  which  pafles  by  the  point 
of  nine  in  the  forenoon,  on  the  equinoilial,  and  by 
the  point  of  three  in  the  afternoon,  on  the  paral- 
lel, fliall  be  the  1 5th  Italian  hour,  and  thus  of 
the  reft  ;  there  being  always  fix  hours  diftance 
between  the  hour  of  the  equinoilial  and  that  of 
the  parallel. 

The  Babylonian  hours  are  marked  after  the  fame 
manner,  but  only  that  which  is  done  on  one  fide 
of  the  meridian  for  the  Italian  hours,  is  made  on 
the  other  fide  of  the  meridian  for  the  Babylonian 
hours,  and  they  are  counted  after  another  manner; 
as  for  example,  the  ftrait  line  that  pafles  by  the 
point  of  mid-day  of  the  equator,  and  by  the 
point  of  the  fixth  hour  in  the  morning  of  the  pa- 
rallel, is  the  fixth  Babylonian  hour ;  that  which 
pafles  by  the  firft  hour  after  noon  on  the  equinoBial, 
and  bv  the  point  of  the  feventh  hour  in  the 
morning  on  the  parallel,  fhall  be  the  feventh  Ba^ 
bylonian  hour,  and  thus  following  ;  fo  as  A  I2  pa- 
rallel to  ^e  equator,  fliall  be  the  12th  Babylonian 
hour  for  the  hori-z.ontal  dial. 

7.  If  we  Wint  to  draw  the  Italian  and  BahyU- 
nian  hours,  on  a  plane,  which  is  not  horizontal. 
Fig.  28.  the  ajifunomical  hours  being  defcribed,  and 
the  h-.rizon  R  H,  which  is  one  of  the  hours  re- 
quired, being  drawn  on  the  plane  of  the  dial  with 
the  equinoilial  line,  we  muft  draw  a  parallel  to  the 
equator,  d  b  K  e  f  g,  which  pafles  by  R  the  inter- 
fection  of  the  horizon  with  any  hour  line.  And 
feeing  that  the  horizon,  which  is  the  line  of  the 
24th  Italian  hour  interfefts  the  f>arallel  in  R,  at 
the  point  of  the  fecond  hour  after  noon,  on  the 
equinoilial  line  at  the  point  of  the  fixth  hour  after- 
noon, the  line  of  the  firft  Italian  hour  fliall  pafs 
by  the  point  -;  of  the  parallel,  which  is  the  third 
hour  after  noon,  and  by  the  point  of  the  equinoilial; 
tlie  line  of  the  fecond  Italian  hour  fliall  pafs  by  the 
pointy  of  the  parallel,  which  is  the  fourth  hour, 
and  by  the  point  of  the  eighth  hour  on  the  equinoc- 
tial line,  and  thus  of  the  reft  ;  for  we  muft  find  all 
the  points  by  which  the  Italian  hours  are  to  pafs, 
fo  as  the  18  Italian  hours  may  pafs  always  by  the 
point  of  mid-day  of  the  equinoilial  line,  and  by  a 
point  of  the  hour  of  a  parallel,  which  fliall  be  (o 
far  from  the  point  of  mid-day,  as  the  point  R  of 
the  fame  parallel,  which  is  the  interfeiStion  of  it 
with  the  equinoilial  line. 

But  if  the  point  R,    by  which  the  parallel  to 
the  equator  is  defcribed,  was  the  interfedlion  of  an 

hour 


D     I     A    L     I    N    G. 


447 


hour  before  noon,  we  muft  confider,  that  that  pa- 
rallel ought  to  rneet  alio  the  horizon  in  a  point  of 
an  hour,  which  is  fo  far  from  noon,  as  is  that  by 
which  we  have  defcribed  it ;  for  exarnple,  if  the 
point  R  was  the  interfedtion  of  nine  in  the  morning 
with  the  horizontal  line,  the  parallel  to  t\\c  equntor, 
defciibcit  by  the  point  R,  ought  to  meet  the  hori- 
zontal line  in  the  point  H,  which  is  upon  an  hour 
line,  f«,far  diftant  from  noon  as  is  the  point  R  ; 
that  is  to  fay,  that  the  point  H  fhall  be  the  meeting 
of  the  third  hour  afternoon  with  the  horizontal  line, 
and  the  line  of  the  24th  Italian  hour,  which  is  an 
occidcjital  portion  of  the  horizon,  ought  to  be  taken 
from  the  point  of  the  third  hour  of  the  parallel, 
with  the  point  of  the  fixth  hour  after  noon  of  the 
equator,  and  in  reckoning  as  we  have  done  before, 
we  fhall  find  that  the  firlt  Italian  hour,  (hall  pafs 
by  the  point  of  the  fourth  hour  on  the  parallel, 
and  by  the  point  of  the  feventh  hour  after  noon  on 
the  equinoctial  ;  and  that  the  line  of  the  iecond 
Italian  hour,  ftiali  pafs  by  the  point  of  the  fifth 
hour  of  the  parallel,  and  by  the  point  of  the  eightii 
hour  of  the  equinoilial,  and  fo  on  ;  and  we  draw 
only  thofe  that  are  viTible,  for  the  others  are  of  no 
ufe,  and  ksvQ  only  to  count  and  to  place  thofe 
which  are  of  no  ufe. 

Thefe  rules  are  for  the  Italian  hours,  but  for  the 
BabylonianhowK,  which  have  for  the  twenty-fourth 
hour  the  oriental  part  of  the  horizon,  if  the  pa- 
rallel, which  is  defcribed  by  the  point  R  of  the 
horizon,  was  the  meeting  of  the  horizon,  with 
the  line  of  the  ninth  hour  before  noon,  the  firft 
Babyhnian  hour  fhall  pafs  by  the  point  of  the  tenth 
hour  in  the  morning  of  the  parallel,  and  by  the 
point  of  the  feventh  hour  in  the  morning  on  the 
equinoctial ;  the  line  of  the  Iecond  Babylonian  hour 
flial!  pafs  by  the  point  of  eleven  before  noon  on  the 
parallel,  and  by  the  point  of  eight  on  the  equinoc- 
tia',  and  fo  of  the  rert  ;  and  if  the  point  R  of  the 
parallel,  was  the  point  of  any  afternoon  hour,  we 
mufl  take  its  correfpondent  before  noon,  to  begin 
to  count  the  Baiylonianhours,  which  is  the  contrary 
of  that,  which  we  have  done  for  the  Italian 
hours. 

8.  It  happens,  fometimes,  that  the  parallel,  or 
the  equator,  is  wanting  on  the  plane  of  the  ilial, 
rotwithflanding  which,  we  may  continue  the  de- 
fcription  of  the  I.  alian  and  Babylonian  hours;  if 
the  point  h  be  the  laft  which  is  found  on  the  pa- 
ralL'l,  by  means  of  the  equinoctial  line,  and  the  line 
h  III  be  the  laft  Italian  hour,  which  we  can  mark 
by  the  help  of  that  parallel  ;  that  line  h  III,  fliall 
meet  with  fome  aftronornical  hour  in  fome  point, 
as  m,  if  we  find  the  points  I  n  0  of  the  parallel 
which  pafTes  by  ?»,  and  if  they  be  on  the  hour  be- 
fore, or  after  that,  on  which  is  the  point  ni  ;  for 


then  we  continue  to  draw  the  lines  of  the  Italian 
or  Babylonian  hoars,  by  the  points  of  the  hours  of 
the  parallel  m  n  0,  and  by  the  points  of  the  hours 
of  the  equator,  in  following  the  fame  order  as  be- 
fore, and  if  the  equator  be  wanting,  we  fhall  find 
the  points  of  another  parallel,  by  the  parallel  that 
is  given,  and  then  we  may  join  the  points  of  the 
hours  on  the  two  parallels,  in  following  the  former 
order. 

9.  Thsfe  four  hour  lines  following  one  another, 
Fig.  31.  wz.  h.a,  B^,  Q,c,  D  J,  with  the  equi- 
noctial line  E  /  being  given,  we  find  the  other 
hours,  by  drawing  from  a  point  a  taken  at  plea- 
fure,  in  one  of  the  laft  lines  A  a,  the  line^D 
which  cut  B  b  in  B,  and  C  c  in  ^  ;  alfo  by  the 
fame  point  a,  having  drawn  a  C  which  cuts  B  b 
in  h,  and  A  h  which  meets  C  c  in  c,  and  B^  which 
meets  D  d  in  d ;  we  prolong  c  b,  c  d,  to  the  points 
Ey.in  the  equinoctial  line  ;  and  the  hour  lines  E  e, 
f  f,  drawn  by  the  points  £_/",  fliall  be  the  hour 
lines  required,  whereof  E  e  Ihall  be  diftant  frorri 
A  a  one  hour,  and  ff  fliall  be  two  hours  from 
D  d  ;  therefore  B  D  being  prolonged  tof  in  the 
line  /  f,  and  f  d  to  h  in  the  line  B  b,  having 
drawn  Cy"  which  cuts  D  ^  in  /,  //  prolonged  Ihall 
meet  the  equinoctial  in  M,  by  which  the  hour  line 
M  OT,  fliall  be  between  the  two  hour  lines  D  d, 
andyy,  and  thefe  feven  hour  lines  being  found, 
we  may  have  all  the  reft  by  the  practice  of  the 
third  article. 

There  are  many  cafes  where  three  hour  lines  are 
fufficient  with  the  equinoctial  and  horizon  ;  for  ex- 
ample, if  we  have  three  hour  lines.  Fig.  31.(22, 
i  3,  «:  4,  and  the  equinoctial  litis  24,  and  horizon- 
tal line  a  c,  having  drawn  a  4  which  cuts  i  3  in 
d,  and  having  drawn  d  2  which  cuts  c  4  in  yi 
drawn  c  2  which  cuts  ^  3  in  ^,  and  e  4  whicli  cuts 
a  2  in  Z)  ;  a  ftrait  line  muft  pafs  hy  the  three 
points  f  b  h,  which  fhall  meet  the  equinoctial  \n 
the  point  g,  which  is  one  point  of  the  hour  as  far 
f"rom  b  3,  as  is  the  hour  line  of  fix  :  Therefore,  if 
the  hour  line  b  e,  be  the  fourth  hour,  a  h  flialj 
be  the  third,  and  g  i  the  fecond  ;  but  in  this  exam-r 
pie,  b  e  being  the  third  hour,  g  i  fhall  be  the 
twelfth  hour.  The  firft  hour  between  12  and  2, 
is  found  by  drawing  g-  c  which  cuts  at  in  /6,  and 
k  4  which  cuts  the  hour  line  g  i,  wiiich  was  drawn 
by  the  pointy  to  the  point  i,  and  in  drawing  /  2 
which  cuts  g  h  in  n,  the  hour  line  by  the  point  n 
fhall  be  the  firft  hour. 

I.  We  find  the  foot  of  the  fty'e.  Fig.  32.  which 
has  ferved  to  draw  a  dial,  and  determine  the  height 
thereof,  by  fuppofing,  firft,  the  line  A  B  to  be  thq 
equinoctial  line  ;  and  the  diftance  A  B  on  the  line, 
to  be  the  interval  of  any  fix  hours:  then  haying 
divided  A  B  into  two  equal  parts  in  the  point  Gj 

from 


448  iT^e  Unlverfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


from  the  point  G  as  a  center,  we  defcribe  on  the 
diameter  A  li,  the  circle  A  S  B  df,  and  mark  the 
points  L  and  /,  which  divide  the  femicircle  into 
two  equal  parts :  A  y,  /  D  and  D  B,  are  each  the 
interval  of  two  hours  on  the  equinoiiial  line  \  the 
lines  rfD,  //,  ought  to  meet  the  circumference  of 
the  circle  at  the  point  S,  and  the  like  SEP  drawn 
perpendicular  to  the  equinoillal  line  {hall  be  the 
ftthftyle.  If  we  have  C  the  center  of  the  dial-,  hav- 
ing defcribcd  on  the  diameter  C  E,  the  femicircle 
C  Z  E,  and  having  drawn  in  it  the  line  E  Z  equal 
to  E  S;  Z  P  being  drawn  peipendicular  to  the/ui- 
Jlylar  line  E  P,  and  meeting  it  at  the  point  P,  that 
point  fliall  be  the  foot  of  the  ftylc,  whereof  P  Z 
(hall  be  the  height.  But  if  we  have  not  the  center 
of  the  dial,  having  drawn  a  e  parallel  to  the  equi- 
noUial,  and  from  the  point  a  draw  a  S  parallel  to 
A  S,  which  meets  the  ftth fly lar  line  in  S,  from  the 
point  ^  as  a  center,  and  fcmidiameter  S,  we'll  de- 
fcribe the  arch  x,  and  draw  the  ftrait  line  *•  z, 
which  fhall  touch  the  two  arches  *•  and  z,  and  that 
line  X  z  fhall  determine  the  inclination  of  the  axis 
to  t\\t  fiihjlylar-line,  and  having  drawn  E  z  perpen- 
dicular tor  z,  from  the  point  E,  and  from  the  point 
z,  the  ftrait  line  z  P  perpendicular  to  i\\s  fubflylar 
line  E  P,  the  point  P  fliall  be  the  foot  of  the  ftyle, 
whereof  P  Z  fhall  be  the  height. 

II.  If  we  would  have  the  hours  (hewn  only  by 
the  fliadow  of  the  point  of  the  flyle,    we  muft 
make,  and  place  it  after  fuch  a  manner,    as  may 
ferve  without  changing  it  j  and  though  we  can 
give  it  various  forms,  the  beft  is  to  make  it  waved 
to  the  end,  that  the  (hadow  thereof  may  not  unite 
with  the  hour  lines  in  any  place,  and  that  we  may 
always  know,  that  it  is  only  the  fhadow  of  the 
point   that  ferves  to  Ihew  the  hours.     But  if  we 
would  have  a  portion  of  the  axis  to  £hew  the 
hours,  and  that  the  axis  be  reprefented  by  an  iron 
rod,  the  ftyle  we  have  placed  ought  to  have  the 
point  very   fmall,  that   it  may  enter  into  a  little 
hole  made  in  the  rod,  fo  as  the  point  of  the  ftyle, 
may  exadly  anfwer  to  the  middle  of  the  thicknefs 
of  the  rod;  the  ftyle  may  remain  if  we  would  have 
it  to  fupport  the  axis  ;  but  if  the  axis  be  not  very 
long,  and  if  it  be  ftrong  enough  to  fuftain  itfelf 
alone,  being   faftened  at  one  end,  we  may  take 
away  the  ftyle  when  the  axis  is  fixed  on  the  furface 
of  the  dial.     We  may  do  the  fame,  if  we  faften  , 
to  the  end  of  the  ftyle  a  [X)int  of  an  iron  wire,  | 
which  there  may  be  very  fmail,  and  take  but  half 
the  thicknefs  of  the  rod,  fo  as  the  dial  being  drawn 
to  that  point,  there  remains  nothing  to   be  done, ' 
but  to  take  it  away  to   place  the  axis,  the  middle  I 
of  the  thicknefs  whereof  ought  to  anfwer  to  that 
point  ;  therefore,  whether  the  ftyle  remains  to  up-  ■ 
hold  the  axis,  or  whether  we  take  it  away  when 
the  axii  is  fixed  ia  its  place,  we  muft  faflcn  it  to' 


the  end  of  the  ftyle  to  ftay  it,  which   ought  to 
anfwer  to  the  center  of  the  dial,  if  it  has  any. 

The  rod  which  ferves  for  the  axis,  may  be  made 
as  marked  in  the  figure,  fo  as  the  hole  fignified  by 
A,  Fig.  33.  can  be  made  to  lodge  the  point  of  the 
ftyle  :  and  that  it  maybe  let  in  as  far  as  the  middle 
of  the  thicknefs  of  the  rod,  the  point  B,  which 
anfwers  alfo  to  the  middle  of  the  rod,  ought  to  be 
applied  exadlly  to  the  center  of  the  dial:  this  rod 
being  thus  ftayed  at  the  point  B,  and  at  the  point 
A,  we  muft  faften  the  foot  on  the  plane  of  the 
dial.  But  if  we  would  not  have  a  foot  to  the  axis, 
as  G,  and  that  we  would  only  fix  the  rod  to  the 
center  of  the  dial,  we  muft  draw  various  lines, 
which  may  pafs  by  the  center  of  the  dial,  and  ftay 
the  rod  on  the  point  of  the  ftyle  A,  fo  that  the  end 
may  enter  in  a  hole  made  in  the  plane  of  the  dialy 
at  the  place  of  the  center,  and  be  divided  by  the 
middle  of  its  thicknefs,  by  each  line  that  pafTes  by 
the  center. 

If  we  make  ufe  of  a  thin  plate,  cut  according 
to  the  inclination  of  the  axis  with  the  fubjlylar 
line  ;  it  muft  be  fet  perpendicularly  on  the  plane  of 
the  dial,  in  applying  one  of  its  fides  to  the  fubjlylar 
line,  and  the  other  line  pafTmg  by  the  pcJnt  of  the 
ftyle  (hall  ferve  for  the  axis. 

Thus  far  we  have  inftrucled  our  pupils,  who- 
defign  to  make  fome  progrefs  in  the  art  of  Dialing, 
in  all  the  general  and  particular  rules  belonging  to 
that  art ;  and  thereby  rendered  them  capable  to 
draw  all  the  different  lines  which  compofe  s.  fun- 
dial.  I  propofe  no  particular  conftrucfion  on  the 
horizontal  and  vertical  planes,  which  only  gives 
particular  rules  for  each  cafe ;  and  which,  in  the 
ordinary  way  happens  very  feldom;  therefore  thefe 
methods  are  for  all  forts  of  planes  indifferently  con- 
fidered.  I  know  very  well  that  there  are  various 
cafes  where  we  might  find  abridgments,  but  thefe 
abridgments  confiftonly  in  certain  lines  and  points, 
which  come  to  be  united  in  the  general  pra£fices, 
which  I  have  given  here. 

Dials  are  alfo  drawn  by  rejie^ion^  in  making  ufe 
of  a  fmall  piece  of  polifhed  metal,  very  even  and 
flat ;  of  a  round  form,  and  of  about  an  eighth  part 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  having  placed  and 
faftened  it  in  a  firm  place,  we  mark  the  points  of 
light  on  the  plane  where  we  defign  to  draw  the 
dial,  which  ferve  inftead  of  the  points  of  (hadow ; 
the  middle  of  the  mirror  or  glafs,  ought  to  be  con- 
fidered  as  the  point  of  a  ftyle,  whereof  we  find  the 
foot  in  drawing  from  the  middle  of  the  glafs,  a  line 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  dial;  the  point 
where  this  line  meets  with  the  plane  of  the  dial, 
(hall  be  the  foot  of  the  ftyle.  We  may  find  the 
fubjlylar  line,  the  equinoSiial  line,  the  center  of  the 
dial  and  meridian^  by  the  praiStices,  where  we  make 

no 


DIALING: 


no  ufe  of  the  horlzmtal  llnCt  nor  of  the  height  of 
the  pole. 

Having  found  the  equlnoSltal  line.,  and  the  point 
where  the  meridian  line  interfedts  it,  we  draw  the 
hours,  following  the  methods  heretofore  defcribed. 

If  the  inclination  of  the  glafs  be  never  fo  little 
changed,  it  will  cauie  a  confiderable  alteration  in 
the  J/j/;  therefore  this  (ortoi  dials,  feldom  lafts 
many  years  in  good  condition;  but  there  always 
happens  fome  alteration  to  the  wall  on  which  they 
are  fixed.  But  if  in  the  place  of  the  glafs,  we  fill 
fomefmall  veflel,  either  of  glafs  or  potter's  earth,  of 
about  an  inch  in  diameter,  with  water  or  quiclc-fil- 
ver,  that  veffel  being  put  upon  a  place  marked  on 
fome  tranfum  of  a  window,  or  the  like,  fhall  give 
the  hours  on  the  dial, 

Beiides  fun -dials,  there  is  a  noiiurnal,  ot  night- 
dial,  which  fhews  the  hours  of  the  night:  of  this 
there  are  two  kinds,  lunar  dSidfiderial. 

The  MooN-DiAL,  or  Lunar-Dial,  is  that 
which  fhews  the  hours  of  the  night,  by  means  of 
the  light  or  fhadow  of  the  moon,  projected  thereon 
from  an  index. 

To  defcribe  a  MooN-DiAL,  fuppofe,  c.  g.  a 
horizontal  moon-dial ;  there  mufl:  be  drawn  firft  a 
horizontal  fun-dial,  then  two  perpendiculars  erecfted 
to  the  line  of  12  o'clock,  and  dividing  the  interval 
into  twelve  equal  parts,  through  the  feveral  points 
of  divifion,  there  muft  be  drawn  lines  parallel 
thereto.  Now  appropriating  the  firft  line  to  the 
day  of  the  new-moon,  and  the  fecond,  to  the  day 
when  the  moon  comes  an  hour  later  to  the  meridian 
than  the  fun;  their  interfeflions  with  the  hour- 
lines  will  give  points,  through  which  draw  a  curve 
line  12  12,  for  the  meridian  line  of  the  moon. 
After  the  like  manner  are  determined  the  hour-lines 
I  I,  2  2,  3  3,  (Jfc.  which  the  fhadow  of  the  moon, 
projedled  from  the  ftyle  of  the  dial,  interfefts  at 
the  refpeflive  hours.  We  muft  blot  out  the  hour- 
lines  of  the  fun-dial,  together  with  the  perpendi- 
culars, whereby  the  lunar-hours  were  drawn,  and 
divide  the  interval  by  other  parallel  lines  into  15 
equal  parts,  anfwering  to  the  15  days  between 
new  and  full-moon.  Laftly,  to  thefe  lines  we  muft 
write  the  feveral  days  of  the  moon's  age.  Now 
the  moon's  age  being  learned  from  the  calendar ; 
the  interfedlion  of  the  line  of  the  rnoon's  age,  with 
the  lunar  hour-lines,  will  give  the  hour  of  the 
night. 

We  draw  a  portable  moori'dial,  by  defcribing  a 
circle  on  a  plane  that  may  be  raifed  according  to 
the  elevation  of  the  equator,  and  dividing  its  cir- 
cumference into  29  equal  parts.  From  the  fame 
center  we  defcribe  another  moveable  circle,  which 
we  divide  into  24  equal  parts,  or  hours.  In  the 
center  we  ereiSl  an  index,  as  for  an  fquinoSiial  dial. 


449 

This  dial  being  daily  placed  after  the  manner  of  an 
equinoctial  dial,  and  the  1 2  o'clock  line  brought  to 
the  line  of  the  moon's-agc :  the  fhadow  of  the 
index  will  give  the  hour. 

To  find  the  hour  of  the  night  by  ^fun-dial,  we 
obferve  the  hour  which  the  (hadow  of  the  index 
points  at  by  moon-light ;  find  the  moon's  age  in 
the  calendar,  and  multiply  the  number  of  the 
days  by  three-fourths  ;  the  produdl  is  the  number 
of  hours,  to  be  added  by  the  hours  fhcwn  by  the 
fhadow,  to  give  the  hour  required. 

There  are  alfo  ring-dials,  and  quadrantal-diati. 

A  Ring-Dial,  is  a  kind  of  dial  ufually  fmall 
and  portable,  confifting  of  a  brafs-ring,  or  rim, 
feldom  exceeding  two  inches  in  diameter,  and  one 
third  of  an  inch  in  breadth.  In  a  point  of  this 
rim  is  a  hole,  through  which  the  fun-beams  being 
received,  make  a  lucid  fpeck  on  the  concavity  of 
the  oppofite  femicircle,  which  gives  the  hour  of  the 
day  in  the  divifions  marked  therein;  but  it  only 
holds  good  about  the  time  of  the  equinox.  To 
have  the  dial  perform  throughout  the  whole  year, 
the  hole  is  made  moveable;  and  the  figns  of  the 
zodiaei,  or  the  days  of  the  month  are  marked  on 
the  convex  fide  of  the  ring,  by  means  whereof, 
the  dial  is  reflified  for  the  time.  To  ufe  it,  put  the 
moveable  hole  to  the  day  of  the  month,  or  the 
degree  of  the  zodiaci  the  fun  is  in ;  thcti  fufpent'ing 
it  by  the  little  ring,  turn  it  towards  the  fun,  till  his 
rays,  as  before,  point  out  the  hour  among  the 
divifions  on  the  infide. 

An  univerfal  or  afironomical  ring-dial,  is  a  ring'- 
dial  which  ferves  to  find  the  hour  of  the  day  in  any 
part  of  the  eartli ;  whereas  the  former  is  confined 
to  a  certain  latitude.  It  confifts  of  two  rings,  or 
flat  circles,  from  two  to  fix  inches  in  diameter;  and 
their  breadth,  fcff.  proportionable.  The  outward 
ring  reprefents  the  meridian  of  any  place  you  are 
at;  and  contains  two  divifions  of  90  degrees  each, 
diametrically  oppofite  to  one  another;  ferving,  the 
one  from  the  equator  to  the  north,  the  other  to  the 
fouth  pole.  The  inner  ring  reprefents  the  equator, 
and  turns  exaiEtly  within  the  outer,  by  means  of 
two  pivots,  in  each  ring  at  the  hour  of  12.  Acrofs 
the  two  circles,  goes  a  thin  riglet  or  bridge,  with  a 
curfor,  that  Aides  along  the  middle  of  the  bridge. 
In  the  curfor  is  a  little  hole  for  the  fun  to  fhine 
through.  The  middle  of  this  bridge  is  conceived 
as  the  axis  of  the  world,  and  the  extremities  as  the 
poles ;  and  on  the  one  fide  are  drawn  the  figns  of 
the  zodiack,  and  on  the  other,  the  days  of  the 
month.  In  the  edge  of  the  meridian  Aides  a  piece, 
to  which  is  fitted  a  ring  to  ful'pend  the  inftru- 
ment  by. 

To  ufe  this  univerfal  ring-dial,  we  muft  place 
the  line  which  is  on  the  middle  of  the  fliding  piece, 

over 


450  ^^  Univerfal  Hiftory 

over  the  degree  of  latitude  of  the  place  (for  exam- 
ple CI  decrees  for  London)  and  put  the  line  which 
croiTes  the  hole  of  the  curfor  to  the  degree  of  the 
fif^n,  or  day  of  the  month.  Then  we  open  the 
inftrument,  fo  as  the  two  rings  be  at  right  angles 
to  each  other,  and  fufpend  it  by  the  rings,  that  the 
axis  of  the  dial,  rcprelented  by  the  middle  of  the 
bridge,  may  be  parallel  to  the  «*•;;  of  the  world. 
Afterwards  we  turn  the  flat  fide  of  the  bridge 
towards  the  fun,  fo  as  his  rays  ftriking  through  the 
little  hole  in  the  middle  of  the  curfor,  fall  exadly 
on  a  line  drawn  round  the  middle  of  the  concave 
furface  of  the  inner  ring;  in  which  cafe,  the  bright 
fpot  (hews  the  hour  of  the  day  in  the  faid  concave 
furface  of  the  ring. 

The  hour  of  12  is  not  fhewn  by  this  dial,  by 
reafon  the  outer  circle  being  then  in  the  plane  of 
the  meridian,  hinders  the  fun's  rays  from  falling  on 
the  inner  circle  ;  nor  will  this  dial  fhew  the  hour 
when  the  fun  is  in  the  equino5lial,  by  reafon  his 
rays,  then,  fall  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  inner 
circ.'e. . 

QuADRANTAL-DiAL,  or  horodiilicnl  quadrant, 
is  a  pretty  commodious  inftrument,  thus  called  from 
its  ufe  in  telling  the  hour  of  the  day.  Its  con- 
ftruiSlion  is  fimple  and  eafy,  and  its  application 
ready. 


of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

We  firft  make  a  quadrant,  and  from  the  center 
of  that  quadrant,  whofe  limb  is  divided  into  90 
degrees,  we  dcfcribe  kven  concentrick  circles  at 
intervals,  at  pleafure,  and  to  thefe  add  the  figns  «f 
the  zodiad,  in  the  order  they  are  reprefented  in  the 
fcheme.  Secondly,  applying  a  ruler  to  the  centre 
and  the  limb,  we  mark  upon  the  feveral  parallels, 
the  degrees  correfponding  to  the  altitude  of  the  fun 
when  therein,  for  the  given  hours ;  we  connect  the 
points  belonging  to  the  fame  hour  with  a  curve 
line,  to  which  we  add  the  number  of  the  hour. 
We  fit  a  couple  of  fights  to  the  radius  and  tie  a 
thread  with  a  plummet  to  the  center  of  the  qua- 
drant, and  upon  the  thread  a  bead  to  Hide. 

If  now  the  bead  be  brought  to  the  parallel  wherein 
the  fun  is,  and  the  quadrant  direfted  to  the  fun,  till 
a  vifual  ray  paffes  through  the  fight,  the  bead  will 
fhew  the  hour  ;  for  the  plummet  in  this  fituation 
cuts  all  the  parallels  in  the  degrees  correfponding  to 
the  fun's  altitude :  fince,  then,  the  bead  is  m  the 
parallel  which  the  fun  then  defcribes,  and  thro'  the 
degrees  of  altitude,  to  which  the  funis  elevated  evenr 
hour,  there  pafs  hour-lines ;  the  bead  muft  fhew 
the  prefent  hour. — Some  perfons,  who  are  not 
mighty  nice,  reprefent  the  hour-lines  by  arches  of 
a  circle,  or  even  by  ftrait  lines ;  and  that  without 
any  fenfible  error. 


Of  rilSflLLING,      fee    C  H  T  M  I  S  T  R  T. 


Of     D     I    V    I    N    G. 


DIVING  is  the  art  of  defcending  under 
water,  to  cbnfiderable  depths,   and  abid 
ing  there  a  competent  time  ;    the  ufes  of 
which  are  confiderable,    particularly   in 
fifhing  for  pears,  corals,  fponges,  wrecks  of  fhips, 

There  have  been  various  engines  contrived  to 
render  the  bufinefs  of  diving  fafe  and  eafy  ;  the 
great  point  is  to  furnifh  the  diver  with'frefli  air, 
without  which  he  mufl  either  make  but  a  fhort 
ftay,  or  perifh.  Thofe  who  dive  for  fponges  in  the 
Mediterranean,  carry  down  fponges  dipt  in  oil  in 
their  mouths,  but  confidering  the  fmall  quantity  of 
air  that  can  be  contained  in  the  pores  of  the  fponge, 
and  how  much  that  little  will  he  contrafted  by  the 
prefTure  of  the  incumbent  air,  fuch  a  fupply  can- 
not fubfift  a  diver  long,  fince  a  gallon  of  air  is  not 
fit  for  refpiration  above  a  minute. 

Hence  it  was  necefiary  to  contrive  a  more  fafe 
conveyance  o£  a  diver  to  any  reafonable  depth,  and 
whereby  he  may  flay  more  time  under  water  : 
which  is  the  Diving  Bell. 


That  the  reader  may  have  a  juft  idea  of  the 
diving-bell,  according  to  the  lateft  improvements 
by  Dr.  Halle y,  and  Mr,  TRiEWALDof  Stock- 
holm, we  have  exhibited  two  figures  of  it,  on  the 
firft  plate  of  Mechanic  Arts,  The  firft  is  that  of 
Dr.  Halley's  form,  which  was  three  feet  wide  at 
top,  five  at  bottom,  and  eight  feet  high,  and  con- 
tained about  fixty  three  cubic  feet,  or  near  eight' 
hogfhcads  in  its  concavity. 

This  was  coated  with  lead,  fo  heavy,  that  it 
would  fink  empty,  and'  the  weight  was  diftributed' 
about  the  bottom  I  K,  fo  that  it  would  do  down 
in  a  perpendicular  pofition,  and  no  other.  In  the' 
top  was  fixed  a  ftrong  but  clear  glafs  D,  to  let  in 
the  light  from  above  ;  and  likewife  a  cock,  as  at 
B,  to  let  out  the  hot  air  that  had  been  breathed  ; 
and  below,  was  fixed  a  circular  feat  L  M,  for  the 
divers  to  fit  on  ;  and  laftly,  from  the  bottom  was 
hung,  by  three  ropes,  a  ftage  for  the  divers  to 
ftand  on,   to  do  their  bufinefs. 

This  machine  was  fufpended  from  the  maft  of 
a  fliip  by  a  fprit,  which  was  fufficicntly  fecured  by . 

ftajs 


DIVING. 


45^ 


■flays  to  the  maft-heaci,  and  was  dirciSted  by  braces  I  in  the  bell  ;  but  then  the  Doftor  perceived  ho  could 
to  carry  it  over- board,  clear  of  the  fide  of  the  fliip,  keep  a  candle  burning  in  the  bell,  as  long  as  he 
and  to  bring  it  in  agaiti.  '  pleafed,  it  being  found,  by  experiment,   that  one 

To  fupply  the  bcJl  with  air  under  water,  two  candle  confumes  much  about  the  fame  quantity  of 
barrels  fuch  as  C,  of  about  fixty-three  ^jallons  each,  :  confined  air,  as  one  man  docs,  v/z,  about  a  galloa 
were  made,    and  cafed   with   lead,     io  that   they   per  minute. 

might  fink  empty,  each  having  a  hole  in  itsloweft  j  The  only  inconvenience  the  Do£lor  complain- 
part,  to  let  in  the  water,  as  the  air  in  them  is  con-  j  ed  of,  was,  that  upon  firft  going  down,  they 
denfed  in  their  defcent,  and  to  let  it  oiit  again  when  !  felt  a  finall  pain  in  their  ears,  as  if  the  end  of  a 
they  were  drawn  up  full  frorn  below.  And  to  a  quill  were  forcibly  thruft  into  the  hole  of  the  ear. 
hole  in  the  top  of  the  barrel  was  fixed  a  hofe,  or  j  This  may  proceed  from  its  being  fome  time  before 
hollow  pipe,  well  prepared  with  bees- wax  and  oil,  ;  the  air  can  get  from  the  mouth,  through  the  fmall 
which  was  long  enough  to  fall  below  the  hole  at  I  canal  of  the  eu/lachian  tube,  v/hich  lr-:>ds  to  the 
the  bottom,  being   funk  with  a  weioht   appended,  j  inner  cavity  of  the  car,  where,  when  ii  comes,   it 


fo  that  the  air  in  the  upper  part  of  the  barrels 
could  not  efcape,  unlefs  the  lower  end  of  thefe 
pipes  were  firft  lilted  up 

Thefe  air  barrels  were  fitted  with  tackle  proper 
to  make  them  rife  and  fall  alternately,  like  two 
buckets  in  a  well  In  their  defcent.  thcyv/eredi- 
reiled  by  lines  faftened  at  the  under  edge  of  the 
bell  to  the  man  (landing  on  the  ftage  to  receive 
them,  who,    by  taking  up   the  ends  of  the  pipes 


makes  an  equilibrium  with  the  outward  air,  prcf- 
fing  on  the  t)'mpanum,  and  thus  the  pain,  for  a 
fliort  time,  ceafes  :  then  defcending  lower,  the 
pain  of  the  ear  returns,  and  is  again  abated  ;  and 
fo  on,  till  }  ou  come  dovv-n  to  the  bottoiji,  where 
the  air  is  of  the  fame  denary  coiuinually. 

This  bell  was  fb  improved  by  the  Dodor,  that 
he  could  detach  one  of  his  divers  to  the  diftance  of 
fifty  or  a  hundred  yards  from  it,    by  a  contrivance 


above  the   furface  of  the    water  in  the  bell,    gave  i  of  a  cap.  or  head-piece,  fomewhat  like  an  inverted 
occauon  for  the  water  in  the  barrels  to  force  all  the  ;  hand-baflcct.   as  at  F,  with  a  glafs  in  the  fore-part. 


air  in  the  upper  parts  into  the  bell,  while  it  entered 
below,  and  filled  the  barrels  ;  and  as  foon  as  one 
was  difcharged  by  a  fignal  given,  it  was  drawn  up, 
and  the  other  defcended  to  be  ready  for  ufe. 

As  the  cold  air  rufhed  into  the  bell  from  the 
barrel  below,  it  expelled  the  hot  air  (which  was 
lighter)  through  the  cock  B,  at  the  top  of  the 
bell,  which  was  then  opened  for  that  purpofe.  By 
this  method  air  is  communicated  fo  quick,  and 
in  fuch  plenty,  that  the  Docftor  tells  us,  he  him- 
felf  was  one  of  the  five  who  vi  as  at  the  bottom  in 
nine  or  ten  fathom  water,  for  above  an  hour  and 
'a  half  at  a  time,  without  any  fort  of  ill  confe- 
quence  ;  and  he  might  continue  there  fo  long  as 
he  pleafed,  for  any  thing  that  appeared  to  the  con- 
trary. 

In  going  down,  it  is  n^cefiary  it  fhould  be  very 
gentle  at  fiifi,  that  the  denfe  air  may  be  infpired 
to  keep  up,  by  its  fpring,  a  ballance  to  the  prefTure 
of  the  air  in  the  bell  :  upon  each  f.velve  feet  def- 
cent, the  bell  is  ftopt,  and  the  water  that  enters  is 
driven  out  by  letting  in  three  or  four  barrels  of  frefli 
air. 

By  the  glafs  above,  fo  much  light  was  tranf- 
mitted,  when  the  fun  fhone,  that  he  could  fee 
perfectly  well  to  write  and  read,  and  by  the  re- 
turn of  the  air- barrels,  he  could  fend  up  order.'-, 
'written  with  an  iron  pen,  on  fmall  pieces  of  lead, 
dirtK^ting,  that  they  w  ere  to  be  moved  from  place 
to  place:  but  in  dark  weather,  when  the  fea  was 
rough  and  troubled,  it  would  be  as  dark  as  night, 
21 


for  him  to  fee  his  way  through.  This  cap  was  of 
lead,  and  made  to  fit  qiiite  clofe  about  his  flioul- 
ders  ;  in  the  top  of  it  was  fixed  a  flexible  pipe, 
communicating  with  the  b.dl,  and  by  which  he  had 
air,  when  he  wanted,  by  turning  a  flop  cock  near 
his  head-piece.  There  was  alfo  another  cock  at 
the  end  in  die  bell,  to  prevent  any  accident  hap- 
pening from  the  perfon  without.  This  perfon  was 
always  well  cloathed  with  thick  flannels,  which 
were  warmed  upon  him,  before  he  left  the  bell, 
and  would  not  lufter  the  cold  water  to  pLnetrate. 
His  cap  contained  air  enough  to  ferve  hmi  a  minute 
or  two  :  then  by  raifing  himJelf  above  the  bell, 
and  turning  the  cock  F,  he  could  replenifli  it  with 
fiefh  air.  I'his  pipe  he  coiled  roun8his  arm,  which 
fervtd  him  as  a  clue  to  find  his  way  to  the  bell 
again. 

This  divi-iig-hell  received  its  laft  improvcmiCnt 
ficm  Mr.  Martin  Trihwald,  F  R  S.  and  mili- 
tary archite£l  to  his  ^r^'fiVZ/^Majefi-y.  The  maniur 
and  form  whereof  is  fhewn  in  a  figure  of  his  own 
drawing  (ibid.  N°  2.)  A  B  is  the  bell,  which  finks 
with  leaden  weights  D,  D,  apptridcd  at  the  bot- 
tom :  the  fubftance  of  tht  bell  is  copper,  and  tin- 
ned within  all  over  :  the  bell  is  illuminated  v.ith 
three  ftrong  convex  lenfes  G,  G,  G,  with  copper 
lids  H,  H,  H,  to  defend  them.  The  iron  ring,  or 
plate  E,  i'eivcs  the  diver  to  ftand  on,  when  he  is 
at  work,  and  it  is  fufpcnded  at  iuch  a  diftance  frcm 
the  bottom  of  the  bell,  by  the  chains  F,  F,  F, 
that  when  the  diver  ftands  upright,  his  head  is 
M  m  m  jult 


452  T'h^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  «;?<:/ Sciences. 


juft  above  the  water  in  the  bell,  where  it  is  much 
better  than  higher  up  in  it,  becaufe  the  air  is  colJer, 
and  confequently  more  frefh,  anil  fit  for  refpiration: 
but  as  there  is  occafion  for  the  Diver  to  be  wholly 
in  the  bell,  and  his  head  of  courfe  in  the  upper 
part,  Mr.  Triev/ald  has  contrived  that,  even 
there,  when  he  has  breathed  the  hot  air  as  long  as 
he  well  can,  by  means  of  a  fpiral  copper  tube  b  c, 
placed  clofe  to  the  infide  of  the  bell,  he  may  draw 
the  cooler  and  frelher  air  from  the  lowermoft  parts; 
to  which  end,  a  flexible  leather  tube,  about  two 
feet  long,  i.i  fixed  to  the  upper  end  oi  the  tube  at 
b  J  and   to  the  ocher  end  of  this  tube  is  fixed  an 


ivory  mouth-piece  for  thcDiver  to  hold  in  his  mouth, 
by  which  to  refpire  the  air  from  below. 

BorelUy  contrived  another  machine  for  diving 
under  water  to  great  depths,  called  a  Diving- 
Bladder,  to  be  made  of  brafs  or  copper,  and 
about  two  feet  diameter.  This  is  to  contain  the 
Diver's  head,  and  is  to  be  fixed  to  a  goat's  fkin  ex- 
a£lly  fitted  to  the  body  of  the  Diver.  Within  the 
vcfica  are  pipes,  by  means  of  which,  a  circulatiorv 
of  air  is  contrived,  and  the  perfon  carries  an  air-  . 
pump  by  his  fide,  in  order  to  make  himfelf  heavier 
and  lighter,  as  the  fiflies  do  by  contradting  or  di- 
lating their  air-bladder. 


Of     DYING. 


DYING   is  the  art  of  giving  a  lafting  co- 
lour  to    filks,    cloths,    and   other    things, 
whereby  their    beauty  is  much  improved, 
and  iheir  value  inc:eal'cJ. 

The  Art  of  Dying  \i  of  great  antiquity,  as  it 
appears  from  the  traces  of  it  in  the  oldert  facred,  as 
well  as  profane  writers.  The  honour  of  the  in- 
vention is  attributed  to  the  Tyrians,  though  what 
leflens  the  merit  of  it,  is,  that  it  is  faid  to  have 
owed  its  rife  to  chance.  The  juices  of  certain 
fruit  ,  leaves,  Wr.  accidentally  cruflied,  are  fup- 
pofed  to  have  furnifhed  the  fi;ft  hint.  Pliny  afiures 
us,  thit  even  in  his  time,  me  Gauls  made  ufe  of 
no  other  dyes  :  it  is  aided,  that  coloured  earths  and 
minerals,  wafhed  and  (baked  with  rain,  gave  the 
next  dying  matc.ials.  But  Purple,  an  anim-il  juice, 
found  in  a  fhell-fifil  called  Adurex,  Conchyliam,  aiid 
Purpura,  feems  from  hiftory,  to  have  been  before 
any  of  them,  and  rcferveJ  for  the  ufe  of  Kings 
and  Piinces  ;  for  private  perfons  were  forbidden  by 
law  to  wear  the  leaft  fcrap  of  it. 

Till  the  tinie  of  Alexander,  we  find  no  other 
dye  \n  ufe  but  j  urple  and  fcarlet.  It  was  under  the 
fuc  elTors  of  that  monarch,  that  the  Greeks  applied 
themfelves  to  the  other  col  -urs  ;  and  invented,  or 
at  leaft  perfected  blue,  yellow,  green,  Is'c.  For 
the  antient  purple  it  has  been  long  loft. 

Amoni  the  Romans^  Dye-houfes,  Baphia,  were 
all  under  the  direction  of  the  Comes  facrarum  lar 
gitionum,  though  they  had  each  their  particular 
Prapofitus,  as  at  Alexandria,  Tyre,  &c.  Th( 
Dyers  of  London  make  the  thirteenth  company  of 
of  the  city,  incorporat'  d  under  Henry  VI.  con- 
fifting  of  a  mafttr,  wardens,  and  livery.  The 
Perfiiin  Dyers,  notwithftanding  all  their  Mahotne- 
tanifm,  have  tho:ei\  Jefus  for  the  patron  of  their 
art  ;  infomuch,  that  among  them  ^dye-botife  is  cal- 
led Cbrijfs-Jljop. 


All  perfons  occupying  the  trade  of  dying  wool- 
len manutaftures  within  the  ci:y  of  London,  or  ten 
mi  es  round  it,  fhall  be  fubjeit  to  the  infpedion  of 
the  company  of  dyers  of  London  ;  and  the  mafter, 
wardens,  and  court  of  aflUlants  of  the  faid  com- 
pany may  appoint  Cearchcrs  within  the  faid  limits ; 
and  out  of  thefe  limits,  jufticcF,  at  their  quarter- 
feflions,  may  appoint  fucrt  fearchers,  who  t.  king 
to  their  affiftance  a  conftablc,  or  other  peace- 
officer,  may,  at  all  feafonable  times,  enter  the  fhop 
or  work-houfe  of  any  perfon  ufing  the  trade  of 
dying,  and  fearch  all  cloths  or  other  woollen  goods 
to  be  dyed  black  or  blue  ;  and  any  perfon  oppofing, 
forfeits  lo  /. 

Every  perfon  dying  cloths,  i^c.  maddered,  and 
not  woaded,  fhall,  before  delivery,  fix  a  feal  of 
lead  to  them,  with  the  letter  M,  on  forfeiture  for 
every  yard,  Isc.  3/.  \d.  Any  perff  n  within 
England,  IVaks,  or  Berwick,  dying  black  any  bays, 
or  other  woollen  goods,  as  inadder-blacks,  not  be- 
ing dyed  thioughout  with  woad,  indigo,  and  mad- 
der only,  or  dying  any  cloths,  long  ells,  isc,  for 
woaded  blacks,  not  being  woad(.d  throughout,  ihali 
forfeit  for  every  long  jBo.^/'f -bays,  containing  fe- 
ventv  yards,  44  s.  For  every  Colchejler  bays,  con- 
ta  ning  thirty-five  yards,  225.  and  fo  in  proportion 
for  other  bay;.  For  every  cloth  dyed  black,  not  being 
woaded  throughout,  containing  forty-four  vards, 
40  J.  All  woollen  goods  truly  maddered  black, 
iliall  be  marked  v/ith  a  red  and  Mue  rofe  ;  and  all 
woollen  goods  truly  woaded  black,  with  a  blue 
rcjfe  ;  and  any  perfon  counterfeiting  the  faid  marks, 
or  fixing  fuch  to  any  goods  fallly  dyed,  for  mad- 
dered or  woaded  blacks,  forfeits  4/.  for  every 
piece  fo  marked.  Any  perfon  ufing  logwood  in 
dying  b!ue,  fhall  forfeit  40  s.  for  every  piece  fo 
dyed,  containing  forty-four  yards. 

This 


D      T'     I    N     G. 


453 


This  art  depends  chiefly  on  three  things,  viz. 
I.  Difpofing  the  furface  of  the  fluffs  to  receive  and 
retain  the  colours,  which  is  performed  by  wafliing 
them  in  different  lyes,  digefting,  beating  them, 
^c.  in  which  human  urine  putrified,  a  fharp  fait 
of  afhes,  divers  foaps,  and  galls  of  animals,  are 
of  principal  ufe  ;  by  means  whereof  the  vifcous 
gluten  o!  the  filk-worms  naturally  adhering  to 
their  threads,  is  waflie  1  and  cieaiifcd  from  them, 
and  thus  they  become  fitted  gradually  to  imbibe  the 
colours.  By  thefe  alfo  thegreafy  foulnefs  adhering 
to  wool  and  flax  is  fcouted  ofi^. 

2.  So  to  grind  the  colours,  as  that  they  may  en- 
ter the  body  duly  prepared,  and  prtfervc  their 
brightnefs  ur.diminifhed. 

3.  The  third  ccuifift^  in  having  beautiful  colours. 
Accord  112  to  Sir  W.  Pe  tty's  account  of  what 

is   done   in  particular  trades  by  the  art  of    dying, 
I.  There  is  a  whitening  of  wax,  and  feveral  forts 
of  linen  and  cotton  cloths  by  the  iun,  air,  and  re- 
ciprocal cft'ufioiis  of  wafer.    2.  Colouring  of  wood 
and  leathe-r,  by  lin-.e,  fal:  and  liquors,  as  in  ftovcs, 
canes,  and  marble  leathers.      3.   Colouring  of  pa- 
per, viz,   the  marbled  paper,   by  Jillempermg   the 
colour^  with  ox-gall,    and   applying   them    upon  a 
fliff'    gummed    liquor.      4.  Colouring,    or  rather 
dif::o!ouring,   the  colours    of   filks,    tiffanies,  &c. 
by  brimftone.     5.  Colouring  of  feveral  iron   and 
copper-works  into  bl-.ck   with  oil.     6.  Colouring 
of  leather  into  gold-colour,    or  rather  filver  leaves 
into  gold  by  varniflies,   and  in  other  cafes  by  urine 
anJ  fulphur.      7.  Dyina:  of  marble  and   alabafter, 
with  heat   and  coloured  oils.      8-  Colouring  fiKer 
into   the  brafs-colour,    with  brimftone   or   urine. 
g.  Colouring   the    barrels  and  locks  of  guns   into 
blue  and  purple,     with  the   temper  of  fmall-coal 
heat.      10.  Colouring   of    glafs    (made  of    fands, 
flints,  i^c.)  as  a'fo  of  cryltals   anil  earthen-ware, 
with  the  rufts  and  folution-,   of  metals.      11.  The 
colouring  ot  live  hair,  as  in  Polind,  horfe  and  man's 
hair  :  as  alfo  the  colouring  of  fur^.    12.  Enamel- 
ing and  annealing.      13.  Appl)  ing  colours,    as   in 
the    printing   of  bocks   and    pictures,     and   as    in 
making  of  playing  cards,  being  each  of  them  per- 
formed in  a  different  way.      14..   Gilding  and  tin- 
ning With  mercury,  block-tin,  fal  aninii^niac.      15. 
Colouring  of  metals,  as  copper,  with  calamy,  into 
brafs,  and  with  zink  or  fpeltsr  into  a  golden  colour, 
or  into  a  filver  one  with  arfenic  ;  and  of  iron  into 
a  refemblance  of  ctipper  with    Hungarian    vitriol. 
16.  Making  painters-colours  by  preparing  of  earth, 
chalk,  and  ^itta;  as  in  umber,  ochre,  cullen-earth, 
iJc.     as  alfo   out  of  calces  of  lead,    as  cerufe  and 
minium  ;  by  fublimates  of  mercury  and  brimftone, 
as  in  Vermillion;  by  tinging  whole  earths  varioufly, 
as  in  vtrdeter,  and  feme  of  the  lakes  ;  by  concrete 


juices,  orfaecula;,  as  in  gambogium,  indigo,  pinks, 
fap-green,  and  lakes  ;  as  alfo  by  rufls,  as  in  ver- 
digreafe,  Uc.  17.  The  applying  thefe  colours  by 
theadiiifion  of  ox-gall,  as  in  the  marble  paper 
aforefaid  ;  or  by  gum-water,  as  by  limning  ;  or 
by  clammy  drying  oils,  fuch  as  the  oiL  of  linfeed, 
nuts,  i3'c.  18.  The  watering  of  tabbies,  ig.  The 
colouring  of  wool,  linen,  cotton,  filk,  hair, 
feathers,  horn,  leather,  and  the  threads  and  web« 
of  them  with  woods,  roots,  herbs,  feeds,  leaves, 
falts,  litries,  lixiviums,  water-,  he;:ts,  fermenta- 
tions, macerations,  and  other  great  variety  of  ma- 
nagement; an  account  of  all  which  is  a  flidrt  hif- 
1  tory  of  dying. 

The  materials  tifcd  in  the  art  of    DyiNG,    are 

j  iron  and  ffeel,  or  what  is  produced  from  them,   in 

I  all  true  blacks  called   Spanijh   blacks,  though    not 

'  in  Flanders  blacks,  viz.  they    ufe  c  ppera-,    ffcel- 

I  filings,  and  flippe  ;  they  alfo  ufe  pewter  for  Bcw- 

d,e    fc.irlet,  viz.  they   didblve  bars   of  pewter    in 

aqua  foriis  ;  litharge  is  alfo  ufvd  by  fome,   though 

atknowhdged   by   few  to  add   weight  to  dyed  filk. 

Antimony  io  much  ufed  to  the  fame  purpofe.     /Irfe- 

nic   is  ufed     \ncii?nfon    upon   pretence   of   giving 

ludre.      Verdipeafe    is  alfo  ufed    by   Unen-diCrs   in 

their  yclloiu  2.uA  greenijh  colours  ;  though,  of  itfelf, 

it  ftrikes  no  deeper  colour  than  that  of  a  pale  ftraw, 

Oi    mineral  falts   ufed    in    "ying.,     the   chief  is 

alum  ;   the  true  ufe  whereof  feems  to  be  in  regard 

to  the  fix.,tion  of  colours.     The  next- mineral  fait 

is  falt-pitre,  not  ufed   by  antient  dyers,  and  but 

by  few  of  the  modern  :     nor  is  it   yet  ufed  but  to 

br  ghtcn  colours,    by    back-boiling    of  them,   for 

wbich  argol  is  more  commonly  ufed  :  lime\s  much 

ufed  in  working  blue-vats. 

Of  the  animal  family  are  ufed  cochineal,  urine  of 
labouring  men  kept  till  it  be  ftale  and  ftinking,  ho- 
ne,, yolks  of  eggs,  and  ox-gall;  the  ufe  of  the 
urine  is  to  kour,  and  help  tne  tennenting  and  heat- 
ing of  woad ;  and  is  ufed  alfo  in  blue-vats  inftead 
of  lime:  it  difchargcth  the  yellow,  and  therefore  is 
ufed  to  fpend  weld  withal. 

Dyers  ufe  t;vo  forts  of  water,  viz.  river  and 
well-warer  ;  the  laft,  which  is  harfli,  they  ufe  in 
reds  and  other  colours  wanting  reflringency,  and 
in  dying  Riaterials  of  the  flacker  contextures,-  as 
in  caliicoe,  fuftian,  and  the  feveral  fpecies  oi  cAlon- 
works  ;  but  is  not  good  for  blues,  and  makes 
yellows  and  greens  look  x\i^y.  River-water  is 
more  fat  and  oily,  and  is  therefore  ufed  in  moft 
cafes,  and  muff  be  had  in  great  quantities  for  wafh- 
ing  and  rinfing  their  cloths  after  dying.  Water  is 
called  by  Dyers  white  liquor;  but  a  mixture  of  one 
part  bran,  and  five  of  river-water  boiled  an  hour, 
and  put  into  leaden  cifterns  to  fettle,  is  what  they 
call  liquor  abfolutely. 

M  m  m  2  Gurtf 


454-  ^^^  Unlvcrfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ««(^  Sciences. 


Gmm  have  been  ufed  by  dyen  about  filk,  v\%. 
gum  arable,  trygacantb,  made,  dragoon's  blood. 
Thcfe  lend   little  to  the  tinclure,    any  more  than 


7.  That  although   green  be  the  moft  frequen 
and  mofl;  common  of  natural  colours,   yet  there  vs 
nofimple  ingredient  now  ufed  alone  to  d-,  e  green 


gum  in  writing  ink,  which   only  gives  it  a  confif-  |  with  upon  any  material  ;  fap  green  being  the  near- 
tence  ;  fo  gum  may  give  the  filk  a  gloflinefs  ;   and, '  elt,  which  is  ufed  by  coui^ry  people, 
laflly,  to  encreafi  the  weight.  i      8.    1  here  is  no  black  tlung  in   ufe  which  dyc-3 

The  three  peculiar  ingredi  nts  for  hlaci  are  cop-  i  black,  though  byth  the  coal  an  J  foot  of  moft  things 
peras.   filings  of  Jit-el,  and  Jlipl^e  :    the  reftringcnt    burnt    or    fcorched   be  of   that  colour,    and   the 


binding  msterials  are  alder-bark,  pomegranate-peels, 
Wiilnut  rinds  and  roots,  oaken -fa  ling  bai  k  knd  faw- 
dujl  of  the  f.ime,  crah-tree-hark,  galls,  -irA  furnach- 

The  falls  aie  alum,  falt-petre,  fal  ammoniac, 
pot-aflies,  and  ftone  lime  ;  among  which  urine 
may  be  enumerated  as  a  liquid  fait. 

The  liquors  are  well  and  river-water,  urine, 
aqifavita,  vinegar,  lemon-juice,  aquafortis,  honey, 
and  molafT*?. 

Ingredients  of  another  clafs  are  bran,  wheaten- 
flour,  yolks  of  eggs,  leaven,  cummin-feed,  fenu- 
greek-feed, agaric  and  fenna. 

The  abjhrfive  ,  are  fuller's  earth,  foap,  linfeed- 
oil,   and  ox  gall. 

The  metals  and  minerals  are  pewter,  verdigreafe, 
antimony,  litharge,  and  arftnic. 

"The  colourings  are  blue,  yellow,  and  red  ;  of 
which  logwood,  old  fuflic,  inJigo,  and  madder, 
are  the  chief. 

General  ohfervations  upon  Dying. 

1.  All  materials  which  of  themfclves  do  give 
colour  are  either  red,  yellow,  or  blue  ;  fo  that 
out  of  them,  and  the  primitive  fundamental  colour 
white,  all  that  great  variety  wh  ch  we  fee  in  dyed 
fluffs  doth  arife. 

2.  That  few  of  the  colouring  materials,  as  co- 
chineal, fo,it,  wood -wax,  woad,  tsff.  are  in  their 
outward  and  fiift  ajipearance  of  the  fame  colour, 
which  by  the  flighteft  diftcmpers  and  folutions  in 
the  weakeft  menltrua,   they  dye   upon  cloth,  filk, 

3  Thi'.t  many  of  them  will  not  yield  their  co- 
lour, without  much  grinding,  (feeping,  boiling  aiid 
fermenting,  or  corrofion  by  powerful  menflrua,  as 
led  wood,  'weid,  woad,   arnotto,   iSc 

4.  That  many  o'f  them  will  of  themfelves  give 
no  colouring  at  all,  as  copptras  or  galls,  or  with 
much  difadvantage,  unlcfs  the  cloth  or  other  fluff 
to  be  dyed  be  as  it  were  fiifl  covered,  or  incruf 
tatcd  with  fome  o.her  matter,  though  colourlefs 
aforehand,  as  madder,  weld,  brazi',  with  alum 

5.  That  fome  of  them,  by  the  help  of  other 
colourlefs  ingredients,  do  ffrike  dfferent  colours 
from  what  they  would  of  themfclves,  as  cochi- 
neal, brazil,  i^c.  1 

6.  That  fome  colours,  as  madder,  indigo,  and 
woad,  by  reiterated  tindlures,  will  at  laft  become 
black. 


blacker,    by  how   much  the  matter  before   being 
burnt  was  whiter,  as  in  ivory  black.  • 

9.  ]  he  lindure  of  fome  d\iiig  fluffs  wtiH  fade 
even  with  lying,  or  with  the«air,  or  will  ftain  with 
water  only,  but  very  much  with  urine,  vinegar,  (iff. 

10.  Some  of  the  dying  materials  are  ufed  to- 
bind  and  flrengthen  a  colour ;  fome  to  brighten  it; 
dime  to  give  lulfre  to  the  fluff  ;  fome  to  discharge 
and  take  off  the  colour,  either  in  whole,  cr  m 
pait;  and  fume  out  of  fraud,  to  make  the  mate- 
rial dyed,   if  coftly,  heavier. 

11.  That  fome  dying  ingredients,  or  drugs,  by 
the  coarfenefs  of  their  bodies,  make  the  thread  of 
the  dyed  fluff  feem  coarfer  ;  and  fome,  by  fhrink- 
ing  them  fmaller ;  and  fome  by  fmoothing  them, 
finer. 

12.  Many  of  the  fame  colours  are  dyed  upon 
feveral  fluffs  with  feveral  materials,  as  red-wood 
is  ufed  in  cloth,  not  in  filks;  arnotto  in  filks,  not 
m  cloth,  and  may  be  dyed  at  feveral  price. 

13.  That  fcouring  and  wafhing  of  fluffs  to  be 
dyed,  is  done  with  Ipecial  materials,  as  fonietimes 
with  ox-galls,  fometlmcs  with  fullers-earth,  and 
fomeiimes  ioap ;  this  latter  being,  in  fome  cafes, 
pernicious,  where  pot-aflies  will  ftain,  or  alter  the 
colour. 

14.  Where  great  quanti;ies  of  fluffs  are  to  be 
dyed  together,  or  where  they  are  to  be  done  with 
any  fpeed,  and  where  the  pieces  are  very  long, 
broad,  thick,  or  otherwife,  they  are  to  be  dif- 
ferently handled,  both  in  refpeiTl  to  the  veffels  and 
ingredients.  ' 

1  5.  Ill  fome  colours  and  fluffs  tie  tingent  liquor 
muft  be  boiling,  in  other  cafes  blood-warm,  and 
in  fome  it  m^iy  be  cold. 

16.  Some  tingent  liquors  are  fitted  for  ufe  by 
long  .keeping,  and  in  fume  the  viriues  wear  away 
by  che  keeping. 

17.  Some  c  lours  or  fluffs  are  beft  dyed  by 
reiterated  dippings  in  the  fame  liquor,  fome  by 
cor,tinulnt»  longer,  and  others  a  leffer  time  therein. 

1 8.  In  lome  cafes,  the  matter  of  the  vcffel 
wherein  the  liquors  are  heated,  and  the  tinfture 
prepared,  muft  be  regarded,  as  the  kettles  muft 
be  pewter  for  Bow-dy 

liquor  is  ulcd  \n  proportion  to  the  dying  drugs,  it  be- 
in^  rather  adjufted  to  the  bulk  of  the  fluffs,  as  the 

veffels 


er-j  IS  little  reckoning  made  how  much 


D     TING. 


45  ■? 


veflels  are  to  their  breadth  ;  the  quantity  oF  dying 
drugs  being  proportioned  both  to  the  colour,  high- 
er or  lower,  and  to  the  ftufFs  ;  as  likewile  the  (alts 
■  are  to  the  dying  drugs. 

Concerning  th6  weight  that  colours  give  to  fillc, 
(in  which  it  is  jnoft  taken  notice  of,  being  fold  by 
weight,  and  a  commodity  of  great  price)  it  is  ob- 
fervcd  that  one  pound  of  raw  filk  lofeth  four  ounces 
by  wafiiing  out  the  gums,  and  the  natural  fordes. 
That  the  fame  fcoured  filk  may  be  railed  to  above 
'thirty  ounces  from  the  remaining  twelve,  if  it  be 
dyed  black  with  galls,   i^c. 

Next  to  galls,  old  fuilic  encreafes  the  weight 
about  I J  in  12  ;  madder,  about  one  ounce  ;  weld, 
half  an  ouncsj  i  he  blue  vats  in  deep  blues  of 
the  fifth  flail,  give  no  confiderable  weight  ;  neither 
doth  logwood,  cochineal,  nor  even  copperas,  where 
galls  are  hot  ;  flippe  adds  much  to  the  weight,,  and 
giveth  a  deeper  black  than  copperas  itfelf. 

For  b'.ack,  in  woollen-manuftufiurcs.,  it  is  begun 
with  a  flrong  dccocSion  of  woad  and  indigo,  that 
communicate  a  deep  blue  ;  after  which  the  ftufts 
being  boiled  with  alum  and  tartar,  or  pot-afli,  are 
to  be  maddered  with  coinmon  madder,  then  dyed 
black  with  Aleppo-galls,  copperas,  andfumach,  and 
finiflicd  by  back-boiling  in  weld.  Wools  for  ta- 
peftry  are  only  to  be  woaded,  and  then  put  in  black. 
For  fcarlet,  wool  and  woollen  manufactures  are 
dyed  with  kermcs  and  cochineal,  with  which  may 
alio  be  ufed  agaric  and  arfenic.  Crimlon-fcarlet  is 
dyed  with cochinc'a!,maftic, aquafortis,  fal  ammoniac, 
fiiblimate,  and  fpirit  of  wine.  Violet-fcarlet,  purple, 
amaranth,  and  panfj'-fcarlets,  are  .qiiven  with  woad, 
cochineal,  indigo,  braziletto,  brazil,  and  orchal. 
Common  reds  are  given  with  pure  madder,without 
any  other  ingredient.  Crimfon-reds,  carnations, 
flame  and  peach  colours,  are  given,  according  to 
their  feveral  hues,  with  cochineal,  maftic,  without 
madder  or  the  like.  Crimfon-red  is  prepared  with 
Roman  alum  with  cochineal.  Orange  aurora, 
brick  colour,  and  onion-peel  colour,  are  dyed  with 
woad  and  madder,  mixed  according  to  their  feveral 
fliades.  For  blues,  the  daik  are  dyed  with  a  flrong 
tiniture  of  woad ;  the  brighter  with  the  fame 
liquor,  as  it  weakens  in  working.  Dark  browns, 
minims,  and  tan  colours,  are  given  u  ith  woad, 
weaker  in  decoilion  than  for  black,  with  alum  and 
pot  afhes,  after  which  they  are  maddered  higher 
than  black:  for  tan-colours,  a  little  cochineal  is 
added.  Pearl  colours  are  given  with  galls  and 
copperas  ;  fome  are  begun  wirh  walnut-tree  roots, 
and  finifhed  with  the  former;  though  to  make  them 
mere  ufcful,  they  generally  dip  them  in  a  weak 
tin6fure,cf  cochineal.  Greens  are  begun  with 
woad,  and  finifiied  with  weld.  Pale  yellows. 
lemon-colour,  and  fulphur-colour,  are  given  with. 


weld  alone.  Olive-colours  of  all  degrees  are  fi  ft 
put  in  green,  and  taken  down  with  foot,  more  or 
lefs,  according;  to  the  Ihade  that  is  required.  Fetile- 
morty  hair  colour,  mulk,  and  cinnamon-colour, 
are  dyed  with  weld  and  madder.  Nacaiet,  or 
bright  orange,  is  given  witli  weld  and  goats  hair' 
boiled  with  pot  afhesi 

Dying  offtlks  is  begun  by  boiling  them  in  foap, 
iSf.  then  fcouring  and  waflilng  them  in  water,  and 
fleepiiig  them  in  cold  alum- water.  For  crinifon, 
they  are  fcoured  a  iecond  tiine,  before  thcv  are  put 
ititothe  cochineal-vat.  Redcrimfon  is  given  with 
pure  cochineal,  maflic,  adding  galls,  turmeric, 
arfenic,  and  tartar,  all  mixed  in  a  copper  of  fair 
water,  almotl  boiling:  with  thefe  the  filk  is  to  be 
boiled  an  hour  and  an  half,  after  which  it  is  allowed 
to  fiand  in  the  liquor  till  next  day,  Violct-crimion 
is  given  with  pure  cochineal,  arfenic,'  tartar,  and 
galls;  but  the  ga'ls  in  lefs  proportion  than  in  the 
former  :  when  taken  out,  it  is  waihed  and  put  in  a 
vat  of  indigo.  Cinnamon  crimfon  is  begun  like 
the  violet,  hut  finifhed  by  back  boiling,  if  too 
bright,  with  copperas,  and  if  dark,  with  a  dip  of 
indigo.  Light  blues  are  given  in  a  back  of  indigo. 
Skv  blues  are  begun  with  orchal,  and  finifhed  with 
indigo.  For  citron-colours,  the  filk  is  firil  alumed, 
then  welded  with  indigo.  Pale  yellows,  after 
aluming,  aredved  in  weld  alone.  I'aleand  brow/i 
autora's,  after  aluming,  are  welded  flrongly,  then 
takendown  with  rocou  and  difTolved  with  pot- afhes. 
Flame  colour  is  bagun  with  rocou,  then  alumed, 
and  afterwards  dipped  in  a  vat  or  two  of  brazil. 
Carnation  and  rofecolours  are  firft  alumed,  then 
dipt  in  brazil.  Cinnamon-colour,  after  aluming, 
is  dipt  in  brazil,  and  braziletto.  Lead  colour  is 
given  with  fuliic,  or  with  weld,  braziletto,  galls 
and  copperas.  Black  filks  of  the  coarfcr  fort,  are 
begun  by  fcouring  them  with  foap,  as  for  other 
colours:  after  which  thes'  are  wafiied  out*  wrung, 
and  boiled  an  hour  in  old  gall.s~,  where  they  aie 
fuffcred  to  Iland  a  day  or  two:  then  they  aic 
waflred  again  with  fair  v.'ater,  wrung  and  put  ' 
into  another  vat  of  new  galls;  afierv.'ards  waihed 
again,  and  wrung,  and  finifhed  in  a  vat  of  black. 
Fine  black  filks  are  .only  put  once  iirco  galls  of  the 
new  and  fine  fort,  that  has  only  boiled  an  hour: 
then  the  fili^s  are  wafhcd,  wrung  cut  and  dipped 
thrice  in  black,  and  aftcrwaids  taken  down  by 
back-boiling  with  foap 

.  The  dying  of  thread  is  begun  by  fcouring  it  in  a 
lye  of  good  afhes :  afterv/.irds  it  is  wrung,  rinfed 
out  in  river-water,  and  wrung  again  A  bright 
blue  is  given  with  br.'ziletto  and  indigo:  bright' 
green  is  fiiit  dyed  blue,  then  back-boiled  with 
braziletto  and  verdetcr,  and  lafily  wcaded.  A  dark' 
green  iagiven  like  the  former,  only  darkened  more 

before 


45^  Tl^e  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^t;^/ Sciences. 


before  woading.  Lemon  and  pale  yellow  is  given  I 
with  weld  mixed  with  rocou.  Orange  iikbella,  I 
with  fuftic,  weld,  and  locou.  Red,  both  bright 
and  dark,  with  flame  colour,  ^ c.  are  given  with 
brazil,  either  alone  or  with  a  mixture  of  rocou. 
Violet,  dry  rofc,  and  amaranth,  are  given  with 
brazil,  taken  down  with  indigo.  Feulemort  and 
olive-colour  arc  given  with  galls  and  copperas, 
taken  down  with  weld,  rocou,  or  fulHc.  Black  is 
given  with  galls  and  copperas,  taken  down  and 
linifhed  with  braziletto  wood. 

Thread  IS  dyed  likewife  of  all  forts  of  colours, 
and  begun  by  fcouring  it  in  lye  of  good  a(hes  ;  af- 
ter which  it  is  wrung  rinfed  out  in  river  water, 
and  wrung  again.  Thus  prepared  the  <3'yfr  gives 
it  what  colour  he  pleafes,  with  the  following  drugs, 
viz.  red  colour,  both  bright  and  dark,  Jiatne  colour, 
&c.  with  brazil,  either  alone,  or  with  a  inixtureof 
rolac.  Fiolet,  dry  rofc,  and  amaranth,  with  brazil, 
taken  down  with  indigo.  Bright  blue,  with  bra- 
ziletto and  indigo.  Bright  green,  is  firft  dyed  blue, 
then  back  boiled  with  braziletto,  and  verdet,  and 
liflly  woaded.  Dark  green,  is  given  like  the  for- 
mer, only  darkening  more  before  woading.  Lemon 
ox  pale  yellow,  with  weld  mixed  with  rolac.  Fcu- 
.Icmort  and  olive  colour,  with  galls  and  copperas, 
taken  down  with  weld,  rolac,  or  fuftick.  And 
hli-ik  with  galls  and  copperas  taken  down  and  finiih- 
ed  with  braziletto  wood. 

Hats  are  dyed  with  braziletto,  galls,  copperas, 
and  verdigreafe,  dilFolved  and  boiled  in  a  copper 
c.^.pable  of  receiving,  befides  the  liquor,  twelve 
dozens  of  haU  on  their  blocks  or  moulds.  Here 
the  hati  are  left  to  boil  fome  time  ;  after  which 
they  are  taken  out,  and  left  to  ftand  and  cool ;  then 
dipped  again,  and  thus  alternately,  oftner  or 
feldomer  as  the  fluff  is  of  a  nature  to  take  the  dye 
with  more  or  lefs  difliculty. 

Leather,  fkins.  Sec.  are  alfo  dyed  red,  blue,  fky 
colour,  purple,  green,  yellow,  orange  colour,  &c. 

The  red  colour  is  given  by  wafliing  the  {kins, 
and  laying  them  two  hours  in  galls,  then  wringing 
them  out,  dipping  them  in  a  li  juor  made  with  li- 
gitflrum,  alum,  and  verdigreafe,  in  water ;  and 
laRIy,  in  a  dye  made  of  brazil  wood  made  with  lye. 
Blue  by  keeping  the  leather  or  jkins  a  day  in  urine 
and  indigo,  then  boiling  it  with  alum  ; .  otherwife 
by  tempering  the  indigo  with  red  wine^and  wafhing 
x\\<i  fkim  therewith.  Sky  colour  is  given  with  indi- 
go (ieeped  in  boiling  water,  and  the  next  morning 
warmed  and  fmeered  over  the  fkin.  Purple  by 
wetting  the  fkin  with  a  folution  of  roch  alum  in 
warm  water,  and  when  dry  again,  rubbing  them 
with  the  hand  with  a  decoftion  of  logwood  in 
cold  water.  Green  by  fmeering  the  fkin  with  fap- 
green  and  alum  water  boiled  ;    and  a  little  more 


indigo  may  be  added  to  darken  the  colour.  Dark 
green  is  given  with  fteel  filings  and  (al  ammoniack 
fleeped  in  urine  till  foft,  then  fmeered  over  the 
fkin  ;  which  is  to  be  dried  in  the  fiiade.  Tcllow 
by  fmeering  the  fkin  over  with  aloes  and  linfeed  oil 
difiblved  and  flrained  ;  or  by  infufing  it  in  weld. 
And  orange  colour  is  given  by  fmeering  with  fuftic 
berries  boiled  in  alum  water  ;  or  for  a  deep  orange 
with  turmerick. 

Bones,  horn  and  ivory,  are  alfo  dyed  of  different 
colours,  viz.  Black  by  fteeping  brafs  in  aqua  fortis  " 
till  it  be  turned  green,  wafhing  the  bone,  horn  or 
ivory,  once  or  twice  with  this  liquor,  and  then 
putting  it  in  a  decoflion  of  logwood  and  warm 
water.  Red  by  boiling  it  firif  in  aluoi  water,  and 
afterwards  in  a  dccodfion  of  quick  lime  fleeped  in 
rain  water,  ftrain  it,  adding  to  every  pint  an  ounce 
of  brazil  wood,  in  which  the  ivory,.  Use.  muft  boil 
till  it  be  fufficiently  red.  Gr^en  by  boiling  the 
bone,  (Jc.  firfl:  in  alum  water,  then  with  verdi- 
greafe, fal  ammoniack,  and  white  wine  vinegar; 
keeping  it  hot  therein  till  fufficientlv  green. 

To  difcover  whether  a  cloth  has  been  duly  treat- 
ed by  the  dyer,  and  the  proper  foundations  laid,  a 
white  fpot,  by  the  French  called  rofette,  of  the  big- 
nefs  of  a  fhilling,  ought  to  be  left,  befides  a  white 
(tri/-e  between  the  cloth  and  the  lift.  Further- 
proof  is  had  by  boiling  the  dyed  fluff  in  water  with 
other  ingredients  different  according  to  the  quality 
of  the  dye  to  be  proved.  If  the  colour  fuftain  the 
tcfl,  i.e.  do  not  difcharge  at  all,  or  very  little,  fothat 
the  water  is  not  tinftured  by  it,  the  dye  is  pronounced 
good  :  otherwife  falfe. 

There  are  alfo  proofs  of  the  dyes  of  filks,  viz. 
For  red  crimfon,  the  proof  is  made  by  boiling  the 
filk  with  an  equal  weight  of  alum.  For  fcarlet 
crimfon.  it  is  boiled  with  foap,  almoft  of  the  weight 
of  the  fiTi.  For  violet  crimfon,  with  alum  of 
equal  weight  with  the  filk,  or  with  citron  juice 
about  a  pint  to  a  pound  of  filk.  Thefe  ingredients 
are  to  be  mixed,  and  put  in  fair  water,  when  it 
begins  to  boil ;  after  which,  the  filks  are  alfo  to  be 
put  in  ;  and  after  boiling  the  whole  for  half  a  quar- 
ter of  an  hour,  if  the  dye  be  falie,  the  li:juor  of  the 
red  crimfon  wiil  be  violet,  in  cafe  it  have  been  dyed 
with  orchal,  or  very  red,  if  with  brazil.  That  of 
crimfon  fcarlet,  if  rolac  have  been  uled,  will  become 
of  an  aurora  colour,  or  if  bcazil  has  been  ufed,  red. 
And  that  of  violet  crimfon,  if  brazil  or  orchal  have 
been  ufed,  will  be  of  a  colour  bordering  on  red. 
On  the  contrary,  if  the  three  forts  of  crimfon  be 
truly  dyed,  their  liquor  will  difcover  very  little 
alteration. 

To  difcover  whether  other  colours  h%ve  been 
dyed  with  galls,  the  filk  is  put  in  fair  boiling  wa- 
ter, with  pot  afhes,  or  foap,  nearly  of  the  weight 

of 


ELECTRICITT. 


ofthefiik)  after  fome  time,  it  is  taken  out;  upon 
which  if  it  lias  been  dyed  with  galls,  the  colour 
will  be  all  vaniflied,  and  nothing  but  that  of  the 
galls  left,  which  is  a  fort  o^  fculeniort^  or  wood  co- 
lour. The  dying  filk  with  galls  may  alfo  be  de- 
tedled  by  putting  it  in  boiling  water,  with  a  gal- 
lon of  citron  juice;  bdng  taken  out  and  wafhed  in 
cold  water,  and  then  dipped  in  a  black  dye^  if  galls 
have  been  ufed  it  will  turn  black,  if  not  it  will  be 
of  a  brown  bread  colour. 

To  difcovcr  whether  black  fiiks  have  been  over- 
dyed with  2;alls,  fteel  filings,  or  Hippe,  it  is  boiled  in 
fair  water,  with  tvv'ice  its  weight  of  ibap :  if  it  be 
laden  with  galls,  it  will  turn  reddifh,  otherwife  it 
will  keep  its  colour. 

To  difcovcr  whether  black  cloths  have  been  firft 
woaded  and  maddered,  a  fample  of  it,  and  at  the 
fame  time  a  fample  of  ftandard  black,  kept  for  that 
purpofe  by  the  dyer\  company,  is  to  be  taken  ;  and 


457 


then  as  much  Reman  alum  as  is  equal  in  wei'>^ht  to 
both,  together  with  a  like  weight  of  pot  a/hes,  is 
to  be  put  over  the  fire  in  a  pan  of  bran-water ; 
when  it  begins  to  boil  the  two  famples  are  to  be  put 
in  ;  and  after  half  an  hour  to  be  taken  out  and 
compared  ;  the  piece  wliich  has  only  been  woaded 
will  be  found  blucifh,  with  fomewhat  of  a  dull 
green  ;  if  it  hath  been  both  woaded  and  maddered, 
it  will  be  of  a  tan  or  minim  colour ;  and  if  it  hath 
been  neither  woaded  nor  maddered,  its  colour  will 
be  duniiifh  between  yellow  and  fallow.  For  cloths 
dyc-d  of  a.  minim  colour,  the  proof  is  to  be  made 
after  the  (ame  manner  as  that  of  blacks. 

To  know  whether  fcarlet,  or  crimfon  cloth  have 
been  dyed  with  pure  cochineal,  they  are  to  be  boiled 
with  an  ounce  of  alum  to  a  pound  of  cloth.  For 
cloths  of  other  colours,  the  proof  is  to  be  made  in 
the  fame  mannej;  as  that  of  blacks  and  minims. 


RLE   c  r  R  I  c  I  r  r: 


ELECTRICITY  is  that    property    in    certain 
bodies,  whereby,  after  being  rubbed,  ex- 
cited, or  heated  in  fome  particular  degree, 
they  acquire  a  power  of  attra£ling  and  re- 
telling other  remote  bodies  ;  and  frequently  of  ^?;«V- 
ting  fpaiks  and  ftreams  of  light. 

The  antients,  having  oblerved  that  amler^  which 
they  called  eleSlrum,  upon  being  rubbed,  attradls 
bits  offlraw,  down,  and  other  light  bodies,  firfl: 
gave  this  property  the  name  of  EL'Sirlclty,  which 
they  thou^:ht  peculiar  to  amber  and  a  few  flones 
mentioned  by  Theophrqjlui,  Pt:ny^  and  fome  others. 
But  the  philofophers  of  the  lalt,  and  more  parti- 
cularly of  the  prefent  age,  have  found  that  numbers 
of  other  bodies  pofl'efs  this  quality  ;  and  made  fo 
manv  difcoverie'  in  EleSiridty,  that  there  is»fcarce 
any  other  fubjeft  in  natural philofophy  that  has  given 
occafion  to  more  experiments. 

This  quality  is  of  two  forts,  viz.  Vitreous  Elec- 
tricity, or  that  which  belongs  to  glafs  ;  and  rejinous 
Eleclricity,  or  that  which  belongs  to  amber,  rofin, 
wax,  gum,  and  fuch  like  fuhllances. 

The  bodies  llifceptible  of  Elettrictty,  are  alfo  di- 
vided into  two  clalfes  :  the  one  are  eleiirical  of 
themfelves,  ar  ekSirlca  per  fe\  that  is,  they  contain 
that  quality  in  themfelves,  and  neid  only  be  rubbed, 
l3c.  to  e.xcite  it  :  the  others  do  not  contain  that  vir- 
tue in  themfelves,  or  they  have  lo  little  of  it,  as  to 
be  reckoned  to  have  none  at  all  ;  yet  they  acquiic 
it  by  communication,  or  by  emanation  derived  to 
them  by  a  body  that  is  electrical  ^i-ry^  .•  thofe  bodies 
are  fimply  called  non-ekiiria,  or  non  ckolrica  per  fe. 


The' ele^rlcs  per  fe,  or,   as  they  are  otherwife 

called,  the  originally  ele"rics,    are,    acccrdinf   to 

Ml'sc  H  EN  BRO£CK,all  forts  of  gems,  feveral  I'ones, 

all  chrx'ftals  and   relinous   fubftances,  fulphur,  red- 

arfenick,  falts,    alum  ;  all  forts  of  glafs,  porcellane, 

dried  vegetables  ;  all  woods,  ropes,  threads  of  lint, 

'paper,  the  leaves  of  trees,  the  harder  refms,  pitch, 

I  cotton  ;  parts  of  animals,  as   their  feathers,    hair, 

j  horns,  bones  of  ivory,  whale-bone,  the  hide,  parch- 

I  ment,   the  fliells  ot   fifties,    filk,    firings   made  of 

dried  guts,  gum,  fealing-wax,  feathered  or   hairy 

living  animals,  as  cats,  dogs,  cocks,  &c. 

The  non-ele^.rics  diXt  feveral  naked  animals,  or 
fuch  as  are  covered  with  neither  hair  nor  feathers  ; 
metals,  femi  metals,  earths  and  duft,  which,  bv 
reafon  of  its  minutenefs,  will  not  bear  to  be  rubbed 
fcparately ;  all  watry  gums,  opium,  galbanum, 
ammoniac,  affa  foetida,  camphor;  all  forts  of  bo- 
dies that  liquify  with  a  fmail  hea',  all  moift  bodies, 
all  fluids  which  will  not  bear  rubbing,  i^c. 

Eleiiricity,  according  to  the  fame  author,  con- 
(ifts  in  iubtile  exhalatic;ns,  which,  in  exciting  the 
ele  .riecd  body,  are  put  into  motion  ;  and  which,  by 
(lying  to  and  from  it,  agitate  all  thofe  light  bodies 
that  fall  within  the  fphere  of  their  attraflion. 

Th  t  thefe  exhalatio  .s,  or  fubtile  effluvia,  con- 
ftitute  Eleiiricity.  appears  from  hence,  i.  From 
the  touch  as  thee  bodies  are  perceived  to  be  fur- 
rounded  with  a  moft  fubtile  atmofphere,  or  covered 
with  a  aciideblafl:  of  wind,  that  continues  to  breath 
every  where  around  them.  2.  From  that  offenfive 
fmell,  which  refembles  phofphorus,  the  phlegm  of 

uciua 


458  Tlje  Univerfal  JTiftory  of  Arts  /t;?^  Sciences. 

aqua  reg'ta,  or  ihe  fpirit  of  vitriol. '  3.  V>  ing  taken  \  fame  didance  from  tlie  tube,  and  may  be  conveyed 
into  the  mouth,  they  yield  an  acid  anJ  aitringent  I  in  tiiis  fitualion  quite  round  the  room  ;  but  if  it 
tafte.  4..  They  fecm  to  adlicre  to  the  extreini  its  j  touch  any  other  body,  it  v,  ill  come  back  and  ad- 
of  the  bodies  which  they  furround,  and  fromwhich  !  here  to  the  tube,  and  then  it  will  be  repel  ed  anew 
they  recede,  in  the  form  of  fparks,   and  of  a  fub-ile  !  as  at  the  firft. 


lucid  flame.  5. '!  his  flame  is  fometimes  attended 
with  an  explofion,  thiit  may  be  heard  at  the 
diSance  of  two  hundred  paces  :  befides,  the 
greater  flames  occafion  a  ccntinued  hiffng,  or 
crackling  noife  in  the  air.  Since,  ihcre'ors,  the 
eUilrkal  effluvia  affefl  all  the  human  '  fenfes, 
we  can  no  longer  doubt  of -their  being  a  corpo- 
real jlul'L 

Mr.  Watson  thinks,  that  EleSJriciiy  is  notfur- 
nifhed  from  the  ekitric  bodies  employed  in  the  ex- 
periments, nor  from  the  circuinanihicnt  air;  but 
that  it  is  the  effeift  of  a  very  fubtile  and  ela'Hc  fluid 
•occupying  ail  bodies,  in  conta£l  with  the  terraque 
OU3  globe;  that  every  where,  inits  naturalftate, -it 
h  of  the  fame  degree  of  denfity  ;  that  glafs  and 
other  bodies,  which  are  etcciries  per  fe,  h  ive  the 
power  of  taking  this  fluid  from  one  body  and  con- 
veying it  to  another,  in  a  quantity  fufficiesit  to  be 
obvious  to  all  our  fenfes  ;  that,  under  certain  cir- 
cumltances,  it  is  poflible  to  render  the  Ele5lricity  in 
fome  bodies  more  rare  than  it  n.itiiralLy'  is,  that  by 
•  communicating  this  to  other  bodies,  to  give  them  an 
additional  quantity,  and  mak: 

denfe;  and  that  thefe  bodies  will  thus  continue, 
until  their  natural  quantity  is  reftored  to  each  ; 
that  is,  by  thofe  which  have  loft  part  of  theirs,  ac- 
. quiring  what  they  have  lofi,  and  by  thofe  to  whom 
more  has  been  communicated,  parting  with  their 
additional  quantity.  iJoih  one  and  the  other  of 
-thefe  is,  from  the  elafticity  of  the  eiecLic  matter, 
attempted  to  be  dons  from  the  neareft  non-eharic ; 
and  when  the  air  is  moiif,  this  is  foon  accompliiied 


2.  Again,  if  the  tube  be  rubbed  anew,  pretty 
brifldy,  it  will  attra<St  a  feather,  or  other  light  bo- 
dy, at  a  confiderabie  di.laiftc  ;  and  after  they  have 
ftuck  to  -it  for  fomi.  time,  they  arc  again  driven  ofT, 
and  it  will  conftantly  repel  them,  till  they  are 
toi-xhed  by  fome  other  non-deilrical  body,  as  a 
finger  or  ftick :  on  uhich  they  will  be  again  at- 
tracted by  the  -tube  ;  and  if  the  finger  be  hchl 
pretty  near  the  tube, "die  feather  will  alternately  fly 
from  the  tube  to  the  fing-r,  and  back  again  ;  al- 


ways flretching  out  its  fibres  the  way  that  it  is  go- 
in.;,  and  that  before  it  comes  ofFfrom  the  fing.r  or 
tube      See  plate,  No.  2. 

Before  we  proceed  to  more  complicated  experi- 
ments,  it  will  be  proper  to  obferve,  that,  in  order 
to  know  that  non-ikctria  have  received  the  com- 
municated Electricity,  they  mull  be  infulated  :  tliat 
is,  th'_-y  muft  not  be  fufpended  frorr-,  ncr  fuj- 
ported  by  anybody,  but  what  is  3.n  eieihic  per  J'. 
For  if  one  non-eketricjoe  touched  by  another,  and 
this  by  a  thvrd,  &.c.  all  the  Electricity  received  hy 
the  firft  will  go  to  the  fecond,  and  from  tliis  to  the 
tiieir  Ehi'.'riciiy  more  !  third,  (3c.  till  at  iaft  it  be  loft  upon  the  ground. 
But,  if  feveral  uon-elei.r:c  bodies,  touchmg  one 
another,  ate  at  length  terminated  by  ^.V///t  ^j(^/V.^, 
in  tiiac  refpeft  they  make  but  one  body,  and  recci'.>e 
a.id  retain  Electricity  for  fome  time.  From  hence 
it  may  be  <  bfcrved,  that  non-clefiria  are  conductors 
oi  Eicclricity.  Vv  ater  conduits  it  very  well,  but 
metals  are  the  moil  convenient  conductors. 

3.  Let  a-n  iron-rod,  pointed  at  one  end,  be  fuf- 
pended on  filk  Jines,  and  by  means  of  a  glafs   or 


by  the  circumambient  vapours,  which  here  may  be  i  rofin-fphcre  ( wiii.h  can  be  more  regularly  and  con- 
confidtred   as  preventing,  in  a  veiy  great  degree,  j  flautly  exci.ed    than  a  tube)  be  electriiied,  it  will 


our  attempts  to  infulate  non-ehSiric  bodies. 


be  I'ound  to  have  all  the  properties  of  the  e.xcited 


In  order  to  i!lufl:rate  the  phtenomena  oi  Ele£iri-\  tube  already  mentioned  :  that  end  of  the  iron  rod, 
n.'v,  we  fliall  give  fome  feledl  experiments.  \  fufpended  as  already  mentioned,  which  is  next  the 

I  Qzt  a  cku's  tube  A  E,  of  about  three  feet  and  '  fphere,  muft  point  to  it  at  the  dif^ance  of  a  quarter 
a  half  in  length,  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter, '  of  an  inch.  This  apparatus  being  difpofed,  as  re- 
and  its  fides  a  line  tiiick;  rub  it  with  a  piece  of '  prefcntcd,  ilicl.  No  3  the  globe  will  be  eleCtrificd 
fluff,  paper,  or,  which  is  fliii  better,  with  the  In  whiiling  round  againft  a  leather  culliion  rubbed 
hand,  provided  it  be  very  dry:  you  "'ill  fucceedjwith  whiting,  or  dry-hand  rubbed  in  the  fame 
better  if  your  hands  be  lubbed  with  chalk,  or  white  :  manner.  When  the  rod,  by  this  means,  is  ftrongly 
lead.  Afterwards  bring  thio  rubbed  tube  near  any' electrified,  a  ftream  of  light,  in  diverging  rays, 
lii:;ht  bodies,  as  gold  leaf  laid  up  na  glafsfland  CD;  will  be  feen  to  ifTue  from  that  point  of  it  which  is 
then   will    the    ijold-leaf  be    attraCted  and  repelled    molt  diliant  from  the  fphere  ;  and  if  any  ?;277tVt-t7;7V 

body,  a-  a  finder,  be  placed  within  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  of  the  laid  flame,  it  will  perceive  a  gentle  blafl 
of  wind  from  the  end  of  the  iron ;  that  is,  the 
eleiJrical  fire  will  ifTue  out  from  the  point  in  fuch 
a  manner,  as  to  blow  againft  the  finger  very  fenfi- 

bly, 


then  will    the    gold -leaf  be    attracted  and  repei, 
:in  the  manner  reprefented  in  the  plate,  f  ig.  i . 

If  you  do  this  in  fuch  a  manner,  that  the  gold- 
leaf,  for  example,  be  perpendicularly  repelled 
above  the  tube,  ai.d  that  it  meet  with  no  other  bo- 
.dy,  it  will  fuflain  itfelf  in  the  air,  always  at  the 


ELECTRICirr. 


459 


bly;  and  if  the  finger  be  ftill  held  nearer,  the  large  I  neccffary,    as    the    prime    condudor  ;    but    Mr. 


Watson  fays,  that  a  folid  piece  of  metal,  of  any 
form,  is  equally  ufeful  :  having  oblervtd  the  ftroke 
from  a  fword,  as  violent  as  that  from  a  gun- 
barrel 

If,  to  the  fufpended  barrel,  a  fpunge,  thoroughly 
dry,  ba  hung,  it  gives  no  appearance  of  fire,  which 
fliews  it  to  be  an  ekSlric  fubilance  ;  but  if  when  the 
fpunge  has  been  immerfcd  in  water,  it  be  fuTpend- 
cd  to  the  b:irrcl,  and  the  finger  applied  near  It,  tl'.e 
fire  ifiucs  out  with  confiderable  force  and  fiiappings  ; 
and  the  drops,  which,  before  the  fpunge  was  ap- 
plied, fell  very  flowly,  will  now  fall  as  faft:  if  the 
room  be  darkened,  thefe  drops  will  appear  to  be 
drops  of  fire,  and  illuminate  the  bafoa  into  which 
they  fall, 

8.  If  a  phial  of  water  is  fufpended  to  the  prime 
conductor  by  a  wire,  let  down  a  few  inches  into 
water  through  thecorlc;  and  fome  metallic  fringes 
infertcd  into  the  barrel,  touch  the  globe  in  motion, 
the  elecirical  power  may  be  fo  accumulated  in  the 
phia!,  that  a  man  grafping  it  with  one  hand,  and 
touching  the  gun-barrel  with  a  finger  of  the  other, 
will  receive  a  violent  {hock  through  both  his  arms, 
efpecinlly  at  his  elbows  and  wrifta,  and  acrofs  his 
breall. 

The  commotion  arifing  from  the  dilcharge  of 
accumulated  EhSlridty  in  a  phial,  may  be  felt  hy  a 
great  number  of  men  at  oj'.cc.  Al.  l£  Monniek, 
at  Paris,  is  faid  to  have  communicated  this  fhocic 
through  a  line  of  men,  and  other  f!c:i-elfi^rii:s,  rr.ea- 
furing  nine  hundred  toifes,  being  more  than  an 
Engiijh  mile  ;  and  the  Jbbe  Nu  llet  made  the  ex- 
periment upon  two  hundred  perfons  ranged  in  two 
parallel  lines. 

g.  If  the  eleEirlcal  machhie,  and  the  man  who 
turns  the  wheel  thereof,  be  mounted  on  eleirkal 
cakes,  the  eleSirical  power  is  \o  far  from  being  in- 
crealed,  that,  on  the  contrar)',  it  is  fo  much  di- 
miniflied,  as  to  be  oftentimes  not  at  all  perceptible. 
1 0.  A  perfon  ftanding  on  a  cake  of  rofin,  hold- 
ing a  chain   fiiftened  to  the  prime  condudor.   v.  ill 


pencil  of  rays  will  be  condcnfed  in  fuch  a  manner, 
as  to  run  out  from  the  point  \ipon  the  finger,  in  a 
ftream,  or  body  of  dcnfe,  yellow  fire,  and  ftrikc 
the  finger  like  a  gentle  /'«/  d'eau.  The  rod  fuf 
pended  before  the  glafs-fphere,  is  properly  termed 
the  ^irime  condudlor  in  this  machine. 

if.  While  the  flame  continues  to  appear  from 
the  end  of  the  iron-rod,  the  finger  bcins;  placed  any 
where  upon  it,  the  flame  at  the  end  difappears  im- 
mediately ;  and  when  the  finger  is  taken  off,  it 
again  inftantly  appears ;  and  fo  by  putting  the 
finger  off  and  on  fuccefHvely,  the  eleflric  flame 
will  appearand  difappear  alternately.  Thefe  erup- 
tions of  the  elecfrical  fire  will  fnap  very  fenfibly, 
both  to  the  eye  and  the  ear,  upon  any  part  of  the 
rod  that  the  finger  is  pointed  to.    See  ibid  No.  3 

5.  If  a  chain,  or  hempen  cord,  be  fufpended  by 
filken  ftrings  all  round  the  room,  of  any  length 
you  pleafe,  and  one  end  ther.o  be  hung.,  by  a 
loop,  acrofs  the  rod,  the  electrical  fire  will  inftantly 
be  tranfmittcd  through  the  whole  length  of  the 
chain,  and  appear  upon  every  part  of  the  approach 
of  the  finger,  and  be  heard  to  fnap  and  (Irike  with 
as  great  force  as  from  the  rod  itfelf. 

6.  Take  two  plates  of  metal,  very  clean  and 
dry,  whofe  furfaces  are  nearly  equal ;  hang  one  of 
them  horizontally  to  the  eledlrificd  rod,  and  bring 
under  it,  upon  the  other,  any  thin  light  body,  as 
filver  leaf,  i^c.  When  the  upper  plate  is  made 
eleftrical,  the  filver  will  be  attrafted  by  it;  and  if 
the  under  plate  is  held  at  a  proper  diftance,  will  be 
perfedfly  fufpended  at  right  angles  to  the  plates, 
without  touching  either  of  them  ;  but  if  they  are 
either  brought  nearer  together,  or  carried  farther 
afunder,  the  leaf  will  ceafe  to  be  fufpended,  and 
will  jump  up  and  down  between  them. 

The  fame  eiFeiSl:  v/ill  be  produced,  if  the  experi- 
ment is  reverfed^by  ehiirifying  the  bottom  plate, 
and  fufpending  the  other  over  it. 

7.  The  following  improvement,  upon  the  elec- 
trical machine  of  the  Ahbc  Nollet,  already  exhi- 
bited, was  made  by  JMr.  Watson  in  T746.  \n  he  elcS^trifed ;  that  is,  he  will  be  all  over  pofTefied 
the  periphery  of  his  machine,  fee /7^;V.  No.  4.  were -i  with  ek£iric  virtue;  and,  at  the  fame  tin'.c,  feci 
cut  four  grooves,  correfponding  with  four  globes,  ;  nothing  of  it,  unlefs  fome  perfon,  (landing  by,  put 
whichweredifpofed  vertically  :  one,  two,  or  the  whole    his  finger  near  to  any  part,    and   then   the  virtue 


number  of  thefe  globes  might   be  ufed  at  pleafure 

They  were  mounted  upon   fpindles,  and   the  lea- 

ther-cufhion  with  which  they  were  rubbed,  was 

fluffed   with  an  elaflic  fubftance,    as   curled  hair, 

and  rubbed  over  with  whiting.     One  of  the  globes 

was  lined  to  a  confiderable  thicknefs  with  a  mixture  \  ele£lric  fire  thereto,  kindles  tlic  rifing  vapour,  and 

of  wax  and  rofin,  but  no  difference  appeared  in  the    fo  fets  the  whole  on  fire.     In  this  manner  any  fort 


will  be  em.itted  in  form  of  fire,  and  fnap  and  be- 
come very  fenfible  to  both  parties.  See  /  id  Fig  5. 
II.  A  perfon  {landing  on  rofin,  holding  the 
chain  of  the  conductor,  points  his  finger  to  the 
warm  fpirits  of  wine;  and  by  communicating  th 


power  of  this  ^lobe  from  the  others. 

For  performing  moll  of  the   following  experi 
aients,  fome  have  imagined  a  gun-barrel  abfolutely  '  ibid.  Fig.  6 
22.  '  N 


of  m:.tter,  which,  when  waimed,  will  fend   forth 
an  inH.^mmable  viipour,  will   be   fct  on  tire.     Scc 


The 


460 


The  Univerfal  Hillcry 


■  The  f/i'67;7Vrt/ commotion,  ivicntioned  in  exfcrl-  ' 
vient  8,  arifing  from  an  accumhuion  oi  i\\c  ek  Sir  leal  \ 
fire,  has  been  made  very  fenfible  quite  acrofsthe  river  | 
Thames,  by  the  communication  of  no  other  medium 
than  the  water  of  that  river,  and  fpirit  of  wine  fired 
at  that  diltance. 

IJy  comparing  the  refpedlive  velocities  of  Elefiri- 
dty  and  found,  that  of  Ele£irldty,  in  any  diltance 
yet  experienced,   appears  inflantaneous. 

12.  If  the  globe  be  exhaulled  of  all  its  air,  and 
then  whirled  about,  the  Eleiirkity  will  be  obferved 
to  ait  wholly  within  the  globe,  where  it  will  ap- 
pear, in  a  du^rkencd  room,  in  form  of  a  cloud  or 
flame  of/eddifh  or  purple-coloured  light,  filling 
the  whole  capacity  of  the  globe. 

13.  If  a  loadltone,  armed  with  iron,  be  hung  on 
to  the  gun-barrel  by  an  iron-wire,  the  elef.h-k  virtue 
will  rufh  out  from  every  part,  but  more  forcibly 
from  the  iron  than  from  the  ftone  itfelf :  for  from 
the  ftone,  it  feems  to  be  emitted  in  a  more  lax 
manner,  and  diftufed  in  a  fort  of  fleam,  or  fiery 
vapour;  whereas  from  the  iron,  it  iillies  in  a  more 
impetuous,  denfe,  and  penetrating  fteam  ;  by 
which  we  learn,  that  the  two  molt  confiderable 
powers  of  nature,  El-Siricity  and  magnetifm,  do 
not  always  interfere,  or  impede  each  other's  a£ti- 
ons. 

14.  The  method  of  firing  gunpowder  by  the 
/'/e'^nV  flame,  has  fomething  particular  in  it ;  as  it 
does  not  require  any  inflammable  vapour  to  be 
previoufly  raifcd.  The  powder  may  be  fired  thus  : 
a  fmall  cartridge  is  filled  with  dry  powder,  hard 
rammed,  fo  as  to  bruife  fome  of  the  grains:  two 
pointed  wires  are  then  thruft  in,  one  at  each  end, 
the  p'^ints  approaching  to  each  other  in  the  middle 
of  t.he  cartridge,  till  v.'ithin  thediftance  of  half  an 
inch:  then  the  cartridge  being  placed  in  the  circle, 
w!ien  four  eleSirified  ^3.k  yixs  are  difcharged,  the 
eleSiric  flame  leaping  from  the  point  of  one  wire  to 
the  point  of  the  other  within  the  cartridge,  among 
the  powder,  fires  it,  and  the  explofion  of  the  pow- 
der is  at  the  fame  inftant  with  the  crack  of  the 
f/f:.7;7Vfl/  difcharge. 

I ;.  As  to  metals,  Mr.  Franklin  tells  us,  that 
he  has  been  able,  by  eleStrhhy,  to  give  polarity  to 
needles,  and  to  reverfe  it.  A  fliock  from  four  large 
glafs-jars  fent  through  a  fine  fevving  needle,  gives  it 
polarity. 

16.  In  confequence  of  Mr.  /7-(7«i-//«'s  hypothefls, 
of  being  able,  by  a  proper  apparatus  to  coUeft  the 
ekSfrkity  from  the  atmofphere  during  a  thunder- 
.ftorm,  it  has  t>een  found,  that  a  pointed  bar  of 
iron,  forty  feet  high,  being  placed  upon  an  eleSiric 
body;  and  a  ftormy  cloud  having  palled  over  the 
place  where  the  bar  ftood,  thofe,  appointed  to 
oblei^ve  it,  attraded  from  it  fparks  of  fire,  perceiving 
2 


of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

the  fame  kind  of  commotion i  as  in  the  common 
eleSirical  experiments.  The  like  cffcft  followed 
when  a  bar  of  iron  ninety-nine  feet  high  was 
placed  upon  a  cake  of  rofin  two  feet  fquare,  and 
two  inches  thick:  thefe  were  the  firft  experiments 
made,  but  they  have  fince  been  fulEciently  varied 
and  verified,  fo  that  it  feenis  now  certain,  i.  That 
a  bar  of  iron,  pointed  or  not,  is  elci^rifed  during  a 
ftorm.  2.  I  hat  a  vertical,  or  horizontal  fituation, 
is  equally  fitting  for  thefe  experiments.  3.  That 
even  wood  is  eUSlyifed.  4.  T  hat,  by  thefe  means^ 
a  man  may  be  fufficiently  ele£lrifed  to  fet  fire  to 
fpirit  of  wine  with  his  finger,  and  repeat  almoft  all 
the  ufual  experiments  of  eleSlrkhy. 

i-j.  Mr.  Franklin  has  contrived  a  very  inge- 
nious and  eafy  method  of  trying  experiments  of 
this  kind,  by  means  of  an  eleSlrkal  kite,  made  of 
a  large  thin  filk  handkerchief,  extended  andfaftened, 
at  the  four  corners,  to  two  flight  ftrips  of  cedar, 
of  fufficient  length  for  this  purpofe.  This  kite 
being  accommodated  with  a  tail,  loop,  and  firing, 
will  rife  in  the  air  like  thofe  of  paper.  To  the  top 
of  the  upright  Itick  of  the  crofs,  is  to  be  fixed  a 
very  fharp  pointed  wire,  rifing  a  foot  or  more  above 
the  wood.  To  the  end  of  the  twine,  next  the 
hand,  is  to  be  tied  a  filk  ribband ;  and,  where  the 
twine  and  filk  join,  a  key  may  be  fattened.  The 
kite  is  to  be  raifed  when  a  thunder  guft  appears  to 
be  coming  on  ;  and  as  foon  as  the  thunder  clouds 
come  over  the  kite,  the  pointed  wire  will  draw  the 
eleSlric  fire  from  them,  and  the  kite,  with  all  the 
twine,  will  be  eleSirrfied;  and  the  loofe  filaments 
of  the  twine  will  ftand  out  every  way,  and  be 
attrafted  by  an  approaching  finger.  When  the  rain 
has  wet  the  kite  and  twine,  fo  that  it  cannot  con- 
duit the  eUSlrit  fire  freely,  it  will  ftream  out  plen- 
tifully from  the  key  on  the  approach  of  a  man's 
knuckle.  At  this  key  a  phial  may  be  charged;  and 
from  the  eleSlrk  fire,  thus  obtained,  fpirits  may  be 
kindled,  and  all  the  other  electrical  experiments  be 
performed,  which  are  done  by  the  help  of  a  glafs- 
fphcre  or  tube  ;  and  the  famenefs  of  the  eleilrk 
matter  with  that  of  lightning,  may  thereby  be  com- 
pletely demonftrated. 

From  this  identity  fome  have  conceived  hopes  of 
depriving  the  clouds  of  all  their  thunder,  and 
thereby  rendering  thunder  ftorms  harmlefs. 

18.  Mr.  Stephen  Gray,  juft  before  he  died, 
^hit  upon  an  experiment  which  feemd  to  indicate, 
that  the  attra(5tive  power,  which  regulates  the  mo- 
tions-of  the  heavenly  bodies,  is  of  the  eleilric  kind. 
The  experiment  was  thus:  he  fixed  a  large,  round, 
iron-ball  upon  the  middle  of  a  large  cake  of  rofin 
and  wax  ;  and  exciting  the  virtue  ftrongly  in  the 
cake,  a  fine  feather,  fufpended  by  a  thread,  and 
held  near  the  iron-ball,  was  carried  round  it,  by 

the 


ENAMELLING, 


461 


the  effluvia,  in  a  circular  manner,  and  pcrfornied 
feveral  revolutions:  it  moved  the  fame  way  with 
the  planets,  from  weft  to  eafl,  and  its  motion,  like 
theirs,  was  not  quite  circular,  but  a  little  ellip- 
tical. 

Thefe  being  mofl:  of  the  capital  experiments  hi- 
therto exhibited,  in  EleSlricity,  we  fhal)  conclude 
this  head  by  mentioning  fome  of  the  medlcinnl  vir- 
tues lately  attributed  to  this  fubjeil  of  philofophy. 

Jt  has  been  pretended,  that  odours  will  pervade 
ele£lrijied  globes  and  tubes  of  glals  ;  and  that  the 
•medicinal  eftefts  of  drugs  might  likewife  be  tranf- 
mitted  this  way;  as  alfo,  that,  ifperfons  were  to 
hold  in  their  hands,  or  place  under  their  naked  feet, 
odoriferous  or  purging  fub^ances,  and  were  then  to 


be  difirifed,  they  would  bc  fenfible  of  the  cfFcdls 
of  thcfe  fubftances  ;  but  this  fccms  now  to  be  an 
impofition  on  the  credulity  of  the  world,  no  fuch 
effcfts  having  ever  been  perceived.  However,  it 
does  not  follow  that  medicinal  advantages  are  not 
to  be  gained  from  ekSlridty  itfclf ;  fo  fubtile  and 
fo  elafiic  a  fluid  admitted  in  a  large  quantity  into 
our  bodies,  as,  from  undoubted  experience,  it 
greatly  heats  the  flefti  and  quickens  the  pulfe,  may 
more  efpecially,  when  affiiled  with  the  expedation 
of  fucGcfs  in  the  patient,  in  particular  cafes,  be 
attended  with  advantages.  In  affedl,  we  meet  with 
fome  cures  performed  in  paralytic  cafes,  by  the 
force  of  cUilriclty. 


Of     EMBROIDER    r. 


EMBROIDERY  is  a  work  with  gold,  or  filver, 
or  filk  thread,  wrought  by  the  needle  upon 
cloth,  fluffs,  or  muflin,  into  various  figures. 
In  embroidering  fluffs,  the  work  is  performed 
in  a  kind  of  loom,  becaufe  the  more  the  piece  is 
ftretched,  the  eafier  it  is  worked.  As  to  muflin, 
they  fpread  it  upon  a  pattern  ready  defigned ; , 
and  fometimes,  before  it  is  ftretched  upon  the 
pattern,  it  is  itarched,  to  make  it  more  eafy  to 
handle.  Embroidery  on  the  loom  is  lefs  tedious 
than  the  other,  in  which  while  they  work  flowers, 
all  the  threads  of  the  muflin,  both  lengthwife  and 
breadthwife,  muft  be  continually  counted  ;  but  on 
the  other  hand  this  laft  is  much  richer  in  points, 
and  I'ufceptible  of  greater  variety.  Cloths  too 
much  milled  are  fcarce  fufceptible  of  this  orna- 
ment, and  in  effect  we  feldom  fee  them  embroidered. 
The  thinneft  muflins  are  the  beft  for  this  purpofe: 
and  they  are  hnbroidered  to  the  greateft   perfedlion 


in  Saxony:  m  other  p^irts  of  Europe,  however,  they 
embroider  very  prettily,  and  elpecially  in  France. 

There  are  feveral  kinds  of  embroidery;  as,  r. 
Embroidery  on  the  ftamp,  where  the  figures  are 
raifed  and  rounded,  having  cotton  or  parchment 
put  undir  them  to  fupport  them.  2.  Low  em- 
broid  ry,  where  the  gold  and  filver  lie  low  ujwn  the 
fkctch,  and  are  flitched  with  fdk  of  the  fame  co- 
lour. 3.  Guimped  embroidery:  this  is  performed 
either  in  gold  or  lllver;  they  firft  make  a  flcetch 
upon  the  cloth,  then  put  on  cut  vellum,  and  after- 
wards fow  on  the  gold  and  filver  with  filk-thrcad  : 
in  this  kind  of  embroidery  they  often  put  gold  and 
filver  cord,  tinfel,  and  fpangles.  4.  Embroidery 
on  both  fides ;  that  which  appears  on  both  fides  of 
the  fluff".  5.  Plain  embroidery,  where  the  figures 
are  flat  and  even,  without  cordj,  fpangles,  or  other 
ornaments. 


Of     ENAMELLING. 


ENAMELLING  is  the  art  of  laying  ena- 
?>iel*  upon  metals,  as  gold,  filver,  copper, 
^c.  and  of  melting  it  at  the  fire,  or  of 
making  divers  curious  works  in  it  at  a  lamp.  It 
iignifies  alio  to  paint  in  enamel.     The  painting  in 


enamel,  is  performed  on  plates  of  gold  or  filver,  and, 
moll  commonly  of  copper,  enamelled  with  the 
white  enamel  ;  whereon  they  paint  with  colours, 
which  are  melted  in  the  fire,  where  they  take  a 
brightnefs  and  luftre  like  that  of  glafs.  This  paint- 
N  n  n  2  .  in* 


•  Enamel,  a  kind  of  coloufcd  glafs,  ufed  in  enamelling  and  painting  in  enamel. 

Enamels  have  for  their  bafis  a  pure  cryftal-glafs  or  int,  ground  up  with  a  fine  calx  of  lead  and  tin  prepared 
for  the  purpole,  with  the  addition  iifually  of  white  fait  of  tart;ir.  The'e  ingrfdients  fufed  together,  aie  the 
matter  of  all  enamels,  which  are  made  by  adding  colours  of  this  or  tl.at  kind  in  f  owxier  to  this  matter,  and  melt- 
ing or  incorporating  them  together  in  a  furnace. 

For 


462 


Tlje  Univerfal  Fliidory  of  Arts  ^;7(a?  Sciences. 


ing  is  the  moft  prized  of  all  for  its  peculiar  bright-  1 
nefs  anJ   vivacity,  which   is  very   permanent,  ihc 
force  of  its  colours  not  being  effaced  or  fullicd  with 
time,  as  in  other  painting,  anJ  continuins?;  iilways 
as  frefh  as  when  it  came   out  of  the  workman's 
hnnJs.   It  is  ufuatly  in  miniature,  it  being  the  more 
difficult  the  larger  it  is,  by  rcafon  of  certain  acci- 
dents it  is  liable  to  in  the  operation.     Enamelling 
fhould  only  be  practifed  on  plates  of  gold,  the  other 
mctalj  being  lefs  pure  :  copper,  for  inftance,  fcales 
with  the  application,  and  yields  fuir^ps  ;  and  fdver 
turns  the  yellows  white.     Nor  mull:  the  plate  be 
made  flat;  for  in  fuch  cafe,   the  enamel  cracks  ;  to 
avoid  which,  they  ufually  forge  them  a  little  round 
or  oval,  and  not  too  thick.      The  plate  being  well  ' 
and  evenly  forged,  they  ufually  begin  the  operation  \ 
by  laying  on  a  couch  of  white  enamel    (as  we  ob-  ■ 
ferved  above)   on  both   fides,  which  prevents   the 
mortal  from  fwelling  and   bliftering;  and  this  (nil: 
lav  ferves  for  the  ground  of  all  the  other  colours. 
The  plate  being  thus  prqpared,  they  begin  at  rirft 
by  drawing  out  exaftly  the  fubjefl   to  be   painted 
with  red  vitriol,  mixed  with  oil  of  fpike,  mnriciiig 
all  parts   of  the   defign  very  lightly  with  a    fmall 
pencil.     After  this,  the  colours  (which  are  to  be 
before  ground  with  water  in  a  mortar  of  agate  ex- 
tremely fine,  and  mixed  with  oil  of  fpike  fomewhat 
thick)  are  to  be  laid  on,  obferving  the  mixtures  and 
colours  that  agree  to  the  different  parts  of  the  fub- 
jecl;  for  which  it  is  necellary  to  underfland  paint- 
ing in  miniature.      But  h^ie  the  workman  muft  be 
very  cautious  of  the  good  or  bad  qualities  of  the 
oil  of  fpike  he  employs  to  mi.x  his  colours  with, 
■  for  it  is  very  fubjeft  to  adulterations. 

Great  care  muft  likewife  be  taken,  that  the  leaft 
dufl:  imaginable  come  not  to  youf  colours  while  you 
are  either  painting  or  grinding  them  ;   for  the  leaft 


("peck,  when  it  is  worked  up  with  it,  and  when  tlie 
work  comes  to  be  put  into  the  reverberatory  to 
be  ted  hot,  will  leave  a  hole,  and  fo  deface  the 
work. 

When  the  colours  are  all  laid,  the  painting  muft 
be  gently  dried  over  a  flow  fire  to  evaporate  the  oil, 
and  the  colours  afterwards  melted  to  incorporate 
them  with  the  enamel,  making  the  plate  red  hot  in 
a  fire,  like  what  the  Enamellers  ufe.  Afterwards 
that  part  of  the  pointing  mufl  be  pafled  over  again 
which  the  fire  hath  any  thing  eflFaced,  flrengtben- 
ing  the  Oiades  and  colours,  and  committing  it 
again  to  the  fire,  obferving  the  fame  method  as 
before,  wliich  is  to  be  repeated  till  the  work  is 
fmifhcd. 

Moft  cnamclh'd  vfnrV.%  are  wrought  at  the  fire  of 

a  lamp,  in  which,  inftead  of  oil,  they  put   melted 

horfe-greafe,  which  they  call  cahallim  oil.       The 

lamp,  which   is   of  copper  or  white  iron,  confifts 

of  two  pieces,  in  one  of  which  is  a  kind   of  oval 

plate,  fix   inches  long,  and    two  high,  in  which 

they  put  the  oil  and  the  cotton.      The  other  part, 

■  called    the  box,    in  which    th?  lamp   is   inclofed, 

ferves  only  to   receive  the  oil  which  boils  over  by 

the  force  of  the  fire.    This  lamp,  or  where  feveral 

[  artifts  work  together,  two  or  three  more  lamps  are 

''  placed  on  a  table  of  proper  heighth.  Under  the  table, 

;  about  the  middle  of  its  heighth.  is  a  double  pair  of 

I  organ-bellows,   which  one  of  the  workmen  moves 

1  up  and  down  with  his  loot,  to  quicken  the  flame  of 

'  the  lamps,  which  are  by  this  means  excited  to  an 

incredible  degree   of  vehemence.     Grooves   made 

with  a  gauge  in  the  upper  part  of  the  table,  and 

covered  with  parchment,  convey  the  wind  of  the 

bellows  to  a  pipe  of  glafs  before  each  lamp  ;  and 

that  the  Enamellers  may  not  be  incommoded  with 

the  heat  of  the  lamp,  every  pipe  is  covered  at  fix 


For  nvhtte  enamel,  Neri  De  Arte  Viliiar.  direfls  only  mangar-efe  to  be  added  to  the  matter  which  conftitutes 
tUe  bafis.  For  azure,  zatF^r  mixed  with  calx  of  brafs  for  green,  calx  of  brafi  wi:h  fcales  of  iron,  or  with 
crocus  martls.  For  black,  zafFer  with  manganefe,  or  with  crocus  marti'^ ;  or  manganefs  with  tartar.  For  red, 
manganefe  or  calx  of  copper  and  red  tartar.  For  purple,  manganefe  with  calx  of  brafs.  For  yellow,  tartar 
and  manganefe.     And  for  vio'et-coloured  enamel,  manganefe  wicri  thrice  calcined  brafs. 

In  making  thefe  f«ijA«f/(,  the  following  general  cautions  are  neceflary  to  be  obferved.  i.  That  the  pots  muft 
llg  glazed  v.  ii,h  v.'hite  i;lais,  and  muil  be  luch  as  will  bear  the  fire.  2.  That  the  matter  of  enamek  mull  be  very 
nicely  mixed  \vi;h  the  colours.  3.  When  the  e>iamel\s  good,  and  the  colour  well  incorpoi-a:ed,  i:  muft  be  taken 
fiom  the  fire  with  a  pair  of  tongs.  4.  The  general  way  of  making  the  coloured  f?/a»;f/y  is  this;  powder,  fift, 
and  CTrind  all  the  colours  very  nicely,  and  firft  mix  them  with  one  another,  and  then  with  the  common  matter  of 
tiiamels ;  then  fet  them  in  pot^  in  a  furnace,  and  when  they  are  well  mixed  and  incorporated,  call  them  into  wa- 
ter; and  when  dry,  fet  them  in  a  furnace  again  to  m-jlt ;  and  when  melted,  take  a  proof  of  it.  If  loo  deep  co- 
loured, add  more  of  (he  common  m  :tter  of  ename'.s  ;  and  if  too  pale,  adU  more  of  the  colours. 

Enamels  a"?  ufed  either  in  counterfe  ting  or  imitating  precious  ftones,  in  painting  in  enamel,  or  by  ename'Iers, 
jewellers,  and  goldhniths,  in  g<^ld,  filver,  and  other  metals.  The  two  firft  kinds  are  ufually  prepared  by  the 
workmen  thimfelves,  who  are  employed  in  thefe  arts.  That  ufed  by  jewelers,  &°c.  is  brought  ro  us  chiefly  from 
Venice  or  Hillanrl,  in  little  cakes  of  different  fizss,  comm.only  about  four  inche;  diameter,  having  the  mark  of 
the  maker  ftruck  upon  it  with  a  punchion.  It  pays  the  pound  is.  7i*^d.  on  impoitation,  and  drav.s  back 
'  I  s.  5  tSo^'  atthe  rate.of  4  s.  per  pound,  a  manufadure  of  this  kind  is  now  eredled  with  great  approbation  in  London. 

inches 


ENGRAVING. 


463 


inches  dift-ance  with  a  little  tin  plate,  fixed  into 
the  table  by  a  wooden  handle.  When  the  works 
do  not  require  a  long  blall,  they  only  life  a  glafs- 
pipe,  into  which  they  blow  with  their  mouth. 

It  is  incredible  to  what  a  degree  of  finencfs  and 
delicacy  the  threads  of  enamel  may  be  drawn  at 
the  lamp.  Thofe  which  are  ufed  in  making  falfe 
tufts  of  feathers  are  fo  fine,  that  they  may  be 
wound  on  the  reel  like  filk  or  thread.  T'he  ficti- 
tious jets  of  all  colours,  ufed  in  embroideries,  are 
alfo  made  of  enamel ;  and  that  with  fo  much  art, 
that  every  fmall  piece  hath  its  hole  to  pafs  the 
thread  through  wherewith  it  is  fewed.  Thefe  holes 
are  made  by  blowing  them  into  long  pieces,  which 
they  afterwards  cut  with  a  proper  tool. 

It  is  feldom  that  the  Venetian  or  Dutch  enamels 
are  ufed  alojie  ;  they  commonly  melt  them  in  an 
iron-ladle,  with  an  equal  part  glafs  or  cryftal ;  and 
when  the  two  matters  are  in  perfect  fufion,  they 
draw  it  out  into  threads  of  different  fizes,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  work.  They  take  it  out 
of  the  ladle  while  liquid,  with  two  pieces  of  bro- 
ken tobacco-pipes,  which  they  extend  from  each 
ether  at  arms  length.     If  the  thread  is  required  ftill 


longer,  then  another  workman  holds  one  end,  and 

continues  to  draw  it  out,  while  the  firft  holds  the 

enamel  to  the  Hame.     Thofe  threads,  when  cold, 

are  cut  into  what  lengths  the  workman  thinks  fit, 

but  commonly   from  ten  to  twelve  inches ;  and  as 

they  are  all  round,   if  they  are   required  to  be  flat, 

they   muft  be  drawn  through  a   pair  of   pincers 

while  yet  hot.  They  have  alfo  another  iron-inftru- 

I  ment  in   form  of  pincers,  to  draw  out  the  enan-.cl 

'  by  the  lamp  when  it  is  to  be  worked  or  difpofed  in 

'  figures.     Laftly,  they  have  glafs  tubes  of  vario'.is 

i  fizes,  ferving  to  blow  the  enamel  into  various  figures, 

I  an<l   preferve  the  necefTary  vacancies  therein ;   as 

!  alfo  tofparc  the  ftuft'and  form  the  contours.  When 

the  Enameller  is  at  work,  he  fits  before  his   lamp 

'  with  his  foot  on  the  fiep  that  moves  on  the  bellows, 

and   holding   in    his    left    hand   the    work    to    be 

enamelled,  or  the  brafs  or  iron-wires  the  figures  are 

to    be  formed   on,  he   diredls  with  his  right  the 

enamel  thread,  which  he  holds  to   the  flame  with 

a    management    and   patience    equally    furprifing. 

There  are  few  things  they  cannot  make  or  reprel'ent 

with  enamel ;   and  fome  figures  are  as  well  finifhed, 

as  if  done  by  the  moft  (kilful  carvers,  and  painters. 


Of    E    N    G    R    AV    I    N   G, 


ENGRAVING  (from  lat.  cavare,  to  hollow)   is  j 
the    art   of.   cutting   metals,    and  precious 
{tones,  to  reprefent  figures,  letters,  or  other 
matters  thereon. 

The  ancients  excelled  in  the  art  of  engraving  on 
precious  ftones,  there  being  divers  antique  agates, 
berils,  cornelians,  and  onixes,  which  furpafs  any 
thing  of  that  kind  the  moderns  have  produced. 
Pyrgoteles  among  the  Greeks,  an3  Diofcorides  under 
the  firft  emperors  of  Rome,  aie  the  moft  eminent 
engravers  we  read  of.  The  former  was  fo  efteemed 
by  Alexander,  that  he  foibad  any  body  clfe  to  en 
grave  his  head  ;  and  Jngu/lus's  head,  engraven  by 
the  latter,  was  found  fo  beautiful,  that  the  fuc- 
ceeding  emperors  chofe  it  for  their  feal.  Ail  the 
polite  arts  having  been  buried  under  the  ruins  of 
the  Roman  empire,  the  art  of  engraving  en  Jiones 
met  the  fame  fate. 

That  art  was  retrieved  in  ltaJ\<  at  the  beginning 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  one  'fohn  ot  Florence, 
and  after  him  Dominic  of  Milan,  performed  work 
of  this  kind  no  way  to  be  defpifed  From  that  time, 
pieces  of  that  kind  became  common  enough  in 
Europe,  and  particularly  in  Germany,  whence  great 
numbers  were  fent  into  other  countries  ;  but  they 
came  ftiort  of  the  beauty  of  thofe  of  the  antients, 
cfpecially  thoie  en  precious  ftones ;  as  for  thofe  on 
cryftal,   the  Germans,    and   after  their    example, 


the  Englijh  and  French,  have  very  well  fuc- 
cceded. 

Engraving,  properly  a  branch  of  fculpture,  is 
divided  into  feveral  other  branches,  according  to 
the  matter  whereon  it  is  employed,  and  according 
to  the  manner  of  performing  it. 

Thefe  branches  are  denominated  cutting  in  ivcod; 
etching,  mezzotinto,  and,  what  is  properly  and 
originally  called,  engraving. 

We  are  indebted  for  the  invention  of  cutting  in 
vjood,  as  well  as  that  in  copper,  to  Majo  Finirucrra, 
a  goldlmith  of  Florence,  in  the  year  1460  ;  and  for 
its  pcrfeftion  to  Albert  Diirer,   Martin  of  Antwerp, 
and  Mark  Antony.      At  the  fame  time,  Hugo  of 
Carpi,  an   Italian   printer,  invented   a  manner  of 
cutting  in  VJOod ;  by  means  whereof,  the  prints  ap- 
peared as    if  printed   in   clear-obfcure :  in  order  to 
this  he  made  three  kinds   of  ftamps  for  the   fame 
defign,    which     were    drawn    after   one    another, 
through  the  prefs,  for  the  fame  print  ;  they  were  fo 
conduced,  that  one  ferved  for  the  grand  lights,  the 
fecond  for  the  demi-teints,  and  the  third  foi"  the 
out-lines  and  the  deep  fhadows. 
I       The  art  of  cutting  in  ivood  was  certainly  carried 
I  to  a  very   great  pitch  about  150   years   ago;  and 
\  might  even  vye,  for  beauty  and  juftncfs,   v^ith  that 
i  of  engraving  on  copper ;  At  prefent  it  is  in  a  very 

low 


464 


Tl^e  Unlverfal  Hiflory 


low  condition,  as  having  been  long  neglected;  and 
the  application  of  artifts  v.'hoUy  employed  on  cop- 
per, as  the  mofl:  cafy  and  promifing  province : 
Not  that  but  wooden  cuts  have  the  advantage  of 
copper  on  many  accounts ;  chiefly  for  figures  and 
devicesin  books,  as  being  printed  at  the  fame  time, 
and  on  the  fame  prefs  as  the  letters ;  whereas  for 
the  other,  there  is  required  a  particular  impreffion. 

The  cutters  in  wood  need  no  other  ini'ruments 
than  little  fliarp  Icnives,  little  chilTels,  and  gravers 
of  different  fizes,  according  to  the  bigncfs  or  deli- 
cacy of  their  woric.  The  firft  thing  they  do  is  to 
take  a  block  of  pear-tree,  or  box  ;  box  is  the  beft, 
they  prepare  that  block,  of  the  fize  and  thicknefs 
intended,  and  make  it  very  even  and  fmooth  on  the 
fide  to  be  cut.  On  this  block,  thus  prepared,  they 
draw  their  defign  with  a  pen  or  pencil,  juft  as  it 
ought  to  be  printed.  Thole  who  cannot  draw  their 
own  defign,  make  ufe  of  a  defign  furnifhed  them 
by  another,  which  they  faften  upon  the  block  with 
parte  made  of  flour  and  water,  with  a  little  vine- 
gar ;  the  itrokes  or  lines  turned  towards  the  wood. 

When  the  paper  is  dry,  they  wafli  it  gently  over 
with  a  fpunge  dipped  in  water;  which  done,  they 
take  ofFthe  paper  by  little  and  little,  ftill  rubbing 
it  a  little  firft  with  the  tip  of  the  finger,  till  at 
leneth  there  be  nothina;  left  on  the  block  but  the 
flrokes  of  ink  that  form  the  defign,  which  mark 
out  fo  much  of  the  block  as  is  to  be  left  ftanding : 
The  reft  they  cut  off",  as  curioufly  as  they  can,  with 
the  points  of  their  fharp  tools. 

This  fort  of  engraving  is  ufed  for  various  pur- 
pofes  ;  as  for  initial  or  figured  letters,  head  and 
tail  pieces  of  books;  and  even  for  fchemes  and 
other  figures,  to  fave  the  expence  of  engraving  on 
copper ;  and  for  prints  and  ftamps  for  paper,  calli- 
coes,  linens,  (s'l-. 

Etching  is  a  method  of  engraving  on  copper, 
in  which  the  lines  or  llrokes,  inftead  of  being  cut 
with  a  tool  or  graver,  are  eaten  in  with  aquafortis. 

Etching  is  done  with  more  eafe  and  expedition 
than  fK^rffwwg- .■  it  requires  fewer  inftruments,  and 
reprefents  moft  kind  of  fubiedts  better  and  more 
agreeable  to  nature,  as  landfcapcs,  ruins,  grounds,  and 
TLllfmall,  faint,  loofe,  remote  objefts,  buildings,  isc. 

The  method  of  etching  is  as  follows:  choofe  a 
well  polifhed  copper-plate,  and  furnifh  yourfelf 
with  a  piece  of  ground,  tied  up  in  a  bit  of  thin 
filk,  kept  very  clean,  to  be  laid  upon  the  plate 
when  both  have  been  warmed ;  proper  needles  to 
hatch  with  on  the  ground  ;  a  pencil  or  brujii,  to 
wipe  away  the  bits  of  ground  which  rife  after 
hatching;  z  polijhe  ;  two  or  three  ^rawn ;  a  pair 
of  compajfjs,  to  mcafure  diftances  and  draw  circles ; 
a    ruler,    to    hatch  ftrait  lines;   green  vjax,    to 


of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

make  the  wall  round  the  edges  of  the  plafe,  to 
contain  the  aquafortis  ;  an  oil-flone ;  a  bottle  of 
aquafortis;  fomc  red-lead,  to  colour  the  backfide  of 
the  copy  ;  a  Jlift,  and  a  hand-vice,  to  hold  the 
plate  over  the  candle. 

To  make  the  ground;  take  three  ounces  of  af- 
phaltum,  two  ounces  of  clean  rofin,  half  an  ounce 
of  burgundy-pitch,  three  ounces  of  black  wax,  and 
three  ounces  of  virgin's  wax  :  let  all  thefe  be  melted 
in  a  clean  earthen  pipkin  over  a  flow  fire,  ftirring 
it  all  the  time  with  a  fmall  fiick  ;  if  it  burn  to  the 
bottom,  it  is  fpoiled.  After  the  ingredients  are 
well  melted,  and  it  boils  up,  put  it  into  a  pan  of 
fair  wa'er;  and  before  it  be  quite  cold,  take  it  out» 
and  roll  it  into  fmall  lumps  to  be  kept  from  duft; 
this  ground  is  what  others  call  the  varv.ijh. 

The  next  thing  is  to  clean  the  plate  to  receive  the 
ground:  take  a  piece  of  lifting,  roll  it. up  as  big  as 
an  egg,  tie  it  very  tight,  fo  as  to  make  it  a  rubber, 
and  having  dropped  a  fmall  quantity  of  fweet  oil, 
and  added  a  little  powder  of  rotten-ftone  on  the 
plate,  rub  it  with  this  ball,  till  it  will  almoft  fhew 
your  flice.  Then  wipe  it  all  off  with  a  clean  rag, 
and  after  that,  make  it  quite  dry  with  another  clean 
rao;,  and  a  little  fine  whitina;. 

The  next  thing  is  to  lay  on  the  varni/h;  to  do 
which  aright  you  mu!t  take  a  hand-vice,  and  fix  it 
at  the  middle  of  one  part  of  the  plate,  with  a  piece 
of  paper  between  the  teeth  of  the  hand-vice  and  the 
plate,  to  prevent  the  marks  of  the.  teeth :  then 
laying  the  plate  on  a  chajfing-difti,  with  a  fmall 
charcoal  fire  in  it,  till  the  plate  be  fo  hot,  that,  by 
fpitting  oil  the  backfide,  the  wet  will  fly  off:  rub 
the  plate  with  the  gnund  tizd  up  in  filk,  till  it  be 
covered  all  over;  and  after  that  dawb  the  plate  with 
a  piece  of  cotton  wrapped  up  in  filk  till  the  ground 
be  quite  fmooth.  Keeping  the  plate  a  little  warm  all 
the  time.  The  varnijh  being  thus  fmoothed  upon 
the  plate,  it  muft  be  blacked  in  the  following  man- 
ner: take  a  thick  tallow  candle  that  burns  clear, 
with  a  fhort  fnuff,  and  having  driven  two  nails  into 
the  wall,  to  let  it  reft  upon,  place  the  plate  againll 
the  wall  with  the  varnijh  fide  downward,  and  take 
care  not  to  touch  the  ground  with  your  fingers: 
then  taking  the  candle,  apply  the  flame  to  the  var- 
nifii  as  clofe  as  poffible,  without  touching  thevarni/h 
with  the  fnufi?"  of  the  candle,  and  guide  the  flame 
all  over  it,  till  it  become  perfectly  black. 

On  this  ^r»?i;n(^  thus  blackened,  the  back  of  the 
defign  or  draught  is  laid.  This  done,  the  defign 
remains  to  be  chalked  or  transferred  upon  the  plate; 
which  is  more  eafily  eftefted  than  in  the  common 
grauitig ;  for  the  back  of  the  defign  having  been 
before  rubbed  over  with  red  i  halk,  nothing  remains 
but  to  trace  over  all  the  lines  and  ftrokes  of  the 
draught  with  a  needle  or  point;  which  prefling  the 

paper 


ENGRAVING. 


paper  clofe  down  to  the  ground,  occafions  the  wax 
therein  to  lay  liokl  of  the  chalk,  and  fo  bring  ofF 
the  marks  of  the  feveral  lines ;  fo  as  at  length,  to 
(hew  a  copy  of  the  whole  defign  in  all  its  corredt- 
nefs.  The  draught  thus  chalked,  the  artilt  pro- 
ceeds to  draw  the  feveral  lines  and  contours,  with 
a  point,  through  the  ground w^ow  the  copper.  To 
finiih  his  work,  he  makes  ufe  of  points,  of  diverfe 
fees,  or  bignefs;  and  preflis  on  them  fometimes 
more  ftrongly,  and  other  times  more  lightly,  ac- 
cording as  the  feveral  parts  of  the  figures  require 
more  or  lefs  ilrengtli  or  boldncfs;  fomc  of  the  points 
being  as  Hne  as  needles,  for  the  tender  hair-ftrokes, 
and  the  remoter,  fainter  objects  ;  and  Others  again 
as  big  as  bodkins,  made  oval-wife,  for  the  deeper 
fhadows,  and  the  figures  in  the  front  of  the  work. 

Things  thus  prepared,  a  rim,  or  border  of  wax, 
is  raided  round  the  circumference  of  the  plate,  and 
aqtinfortis  poured  on ;  which  by  the  faid  border  is 
kept  from  running  oft" at  the  edges.  The  ground 
being  impenetrable  to  that  corrofive  water.  The 
plate  is  defended  from  it  every  where  but  in  the 
lines  or  hatches,  cut  through  it  with  the  points  ; 
which,  lying  open,  the  water  palTes  thioiigh  them 
to  the  copper,  and  eats  into  the  fame,  to  the  depth 
required.  Whicli  done,  it  is  poured  ofF  again. 
The  aquafortis  having  done  its  part,  the  ground  is 
taken  off,  and  the  plate  wafhed  and  dried;  after 
which  nothing  remains  but  for  the  artift  to  examine 
the  work  v;ith  the  graver  in  his  hand,  to  touch  it 
vip  and  heighten  it,  where  ths  aqu.nfortis,  &c.  has 
mifTed. 

Etching-grounds  aVe  either  foft,  or  hard  :  and  the 
aquafortis,  either  white,  which  is  only  ufed  with 
th^  iok  ground,  and  is  applied  as  above  direfted  ; 
or  green,  made  of  vinegar,  common  fait,  fal-am- 
moniac,  and  verdigreafe:  This  is  u/ed  indifterently 
with  either  kind  o^ ground:  Its  application  is  fome- 
what  different  from  that  of  the  white.  Without 
making  any  border,  they  pour  it  on  the  plate,  which 
is  placed  for  that  purpofe  a  little  inclined;  and  as 
the  water  runs  off,  it  is  received  in  a  velTcl  placed 
underneath.  This  they  repeat,  pouring  it  again 
and  again,  till  it  has  eaten  deep  enough;  and,  the 
aquafortis,  of  which  kind  foevcr  it  be,  mull:  not 
continue  equally  long,  or  be  poured  equally  often, 
on  all  the  paits  of  the  defign :  the  remote  parts 
muft  be  eaten  more  flightly,  than  thofe  nearer  to 
the  view.  To  man.age  this,  they  have  a  compo- 
fition  of  oil  and  greafe,  wherewith  they  cover  the 
pans  that  are  to  be  bitten  no  farther  :  or  elfe  they 
lay  the  compofition  on  as  a  defenfitive  at  firft,  and 
take  it  off  again  when  they  think  proper.  In  efFe(Sl:, 
they  are  every  now  and  then  covering  and  un- 
covering this  or  that  part  of  the  defign,  as 
occafion  requires;  the  management  of  the  aqua- 


465 


\fortis  being  one  of  the  principal  concerns  in  the 
whole  art,  and  that  on  which  the  efFe£t  of  the 
whole  very  much  depends.  The  operator  is  alfo 
to  be  .very  attentive  to  the  ^ra««rt',  that  it  do  not 
fail  or  give  way,  in  any  part  to  the  water  ;  and 
where 'it  does,  to  ftop  up  the  place  with  the  com- 
pofition aforefaid.  Ladly,  it  is  to  be  remembered, 
that  a  frefh  dip  of  aquafortis  be  never  given,  with- 
out firft  wafliiiig  out  the  plate  in  fair  water,  and 
drying  it  at  the  fire. 

Mezzotinto  is  the  art  of  reprefenting  figures  ' 
on  copper  in  imitation  of  painting  in  in  Han  ink. 

The  difcovery  of  the  art  of  engraving,  in  tail/! 
douce,  on  copper,  is  afcribed,  to  Mafo  Finiguerra, 
a  goldfmith  of  Florence,  who  ufed  to  engrave  or> 
his  works,  and  who,  in  moulding  them  in  melted 
iulphur,  perceived  that  what  came  out  of  the 
mould  marked,  in  its  imprcflions  the  fame  things, 
which  were  engraved  on  the  piece  of  work,  by  the 
black  which  the  fulphur  had  extracted  from  the 
lines  ;  he  attempted  the  fame  thing  on  plates  of  filver 
with  wet  paper,  in  running  over  it  a  very  fmooth 
roller,  in  which  he  fucceeded.  This  new  difcoverv 
prompted  another  goldfmith  of  the  fame  city,  called 
Baccio  Baldini,  to  try  the  fame  thing;  and  the 
fuccefs  encouraged  him  to  engrave  feveral  plates  of 
the  in.ention  and  defign  of  Sandra  Botticallo;  and 
on  thefe  proofs  j^ndrew  Monteign-:,  who  was  then 
at  Rome,  engraved  feveral  of  his  own  works. 

The  knowledge  of  this  invention  having  pafiTed 
mto  Flanders,  Martin  oi  Antiverp,  who  was  then 
a  famous  painter,  engraved  feveral  plates  of  his 
own  invention,  and  fent  feveral  prints  of  them 
into   Italy,  which  were  marked  thus  ;  M.C. 

A'Ie%%otlntos  are  made  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  take  a  well  poliflied  copper  plate,  and  be- 
ginning at  one  corner,  rake  or  furrow  the  furface 
all  over  with  a  knife  or  inftrument  made  for  the 
purpofe,  firfi:  one  way,  and  then  the  other,  till  the 
whole  is  of  a  regular  roughnefs,  without  the  leaft 
fmooth  part  to  be  feen  ;  in  which  f^ate,  if  a  paper 
was  to  be  worked  off  from  it  at  the  copper-plate 
prefs  it  would  be  all  over  black.  When  thir  is 
done,  the  plate  is  rubbed  over  with  charcoal,  black 
chalk,  or  black  lead,  and  then  the  defign  is  drawn 
with  white  chalk,  after  which  the  out-lines  are 
traced  out,  and  the  plate  finifhed  by  fcraping  off 
the  roughnefs,  fo  as  to  leave  the  figure  on  the  plate.- 
The  out-lines  and  dcepeft  fhades  are  not  fcraped  at 
all,  the  next  {hades  are  fcraped  but  little,  the  next 
more,  and  fo  on,  till  the  fhades  gradually  falling 
off,  leave  the  paper  white,  in  whicli  places  the  plate 
is  neatly  burniflied. 

By  an  artful  difpofition  of  the  (hades,  and  diffe- 
rent parts  of  a  figure  on  different  plates,  vie%zo- 

iintds 


466  TJ^e  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  a'W  Sciences. 


t'lntoi  have  been  printed  in  colours,  fo  as  nearly  to 
icprcfcnt  very  beautiful  paintings. 

Engraving  properly  fo  called,  is  performed  on 
flceU  copper,  or  jhncs. 

ENGRAVtNG  onjlcel  is  chieilv  employed  in  cut- 
ing  feals,  punches,  matrices,  and  dyes  proper  for 
linking  coins,  medals,  and  counters.  The  method 
of  engraving  with  the  inflruments,  i^c.  is  the  fame 
for  coins  as  for  medals  and  counters  :  All  the  diffe- 
rence confills  in  their  greater  or  lefs  rcliev:i,  the 
relievo  oi  coins  being  much  lefs  confiderable  than 
tliatof  medals,  and  that  of  counters  Itill  lei's  tlian 
that  of  coins. 

Engravers  in  fled  commonly  begm  with  punches, 
which  are  in  relievo,  and  ferve  for  making  the 
creiix  or  cavities,  of  the  matrices,  and  dyes  :  though 
fometimcs  they  begin  with  the  ereux,  or  hollow- 
;nefs,  but  then  it  is  only  when  the  intended  work 
is  to  be  cut  very  (hallow.  The  firft  thing  done, 
.is   that  of  defij^ning   the  figures;  the   next    is  the 


heightened,  Uc,  according  to  the  tenor  of  tlie 
defign,  with  the  graver,  which  muft  be  very  (harp, 
and  well  pointed. 

In  the  eonclwl  of  the  graver  <:onfi^s  almofl:  all 
the  art,  which  depends  not  fo  much  up  )n  rules,  as 
upon  preiiiicc,  the  habitude,  difpofition,  and  genius 
of  the  artift,  the  principles  of  engraving  being  the 
fame  with  thofe  of  pahiting;  for  if  an  engraver  be 
not  a  perfect  mafter  of  defign,  he  can  never  hope 
to  arrive  at  a  degree  of  perfection  iii  this  art.  In 
conducing  the  ihokes,  or  cuts,  of  the  graver,  he 
mull  obferve  the  action  of  the  fmgofs,  and  of  all' 
their  parts,  with  their  out-lines  ;  and  remark  hovir 
they  advance  towards,  or  fall  back  from  his  fight, 
and  then,  condudt  his  graver,  according  to  the 
rifnigs  or  cavities  of  the  muscles,  or  folds,  widen- 
ing the  ftrokes  in  the  light,  and  contracting  them 
in  the  (h.vJe.).;  as  alfo  at  the  extremity  of  the  out- 
lines, to  which  he  ought  to  condufl  the  cuts  of  the 
graoer,  that  the  figures  or  objects  reprefented,  may 
not  appear  as  if  they  were  gnawn ;  and  lightening 


moulding  them  in  wax,  of  the  fize  and  depth  they  i  his  hand   that  the  out-lines  may  be  perfe£tly  found. 


are  to  lie,  and  from  this  wax  the  punch  is  engraven. 

When    the  punch  is  fini(hed   they  give  it  a  very 

high  temper,  that  it  may  the  better  bear  the  blows 
.of  the  hammer  with  which  it  was  (truck  to  give  the 
.impreffion  to  the  matrix. 

The  /ieel  is  made  hot  to  foften  it,  that  it  may 

the  more  readily  take  the  imprellion  of  the  punch  ; 


without  ajjpearing  cut  or  flit;  and,  although  his 
(Irokes  necell'arily  break  off;  where  a  mufcle  begins, 
yet  they  ought  always  to  have  a  certain  comiedtiou 
with  each  other,  fo  that  the  Jirfl  ftroke  (hould  often 
(cr\'c  to  make  the  fecond,  becaufe  this  will  (hevi^ 
the  freedom  of  the  graver, 

\i  h;'.ir  be  the  fubjeit,  let  the  engraver  begin  his 


and  after  (Iriking  the  punch  on  it,  in  this  (tate,  they  work  by  making  the  out-lines  of  the  principal 
proceed  to  touch  up  .or  linifh  the  ftrokes  and  lines,  !  locks,  and  (ketch  them  out  in  a  carelefs  manner, 
where,  by  reafon  of  their  finenefs,  or  the  too  great ;  which  m.ay  be  finiflied,  at  leifure,  with  finer  and 
relievo,  they  are  any  thing  defeitive,  with  rteel  thiner  itrokes  to  the  very  extremities, 
gravers  of  different  kinds,  chifTels,  flatters,  £5"  iT.  being  The  engraver  muft  avoid  making  very  acute 
the  principal  inirruments  ufcd  in  graving  on  (Ieel.      angles,  efpecially   in  reprefenting  fiefh,  when  he 

The  figure  being  thus  finifhed,  they  proceed  to  crolFes  the  firft  ilrokes  with  the  fecond,  becaufe  it 
engrave  the  reft  of  the  medal,  as  the  mouldings  of  will  form  a  very  difagreeable  piece  of  tabby-like 
the  border,  tlie  engrailed  ring,  letters,  iSjc.  with  lattice-work ;  except  in  the  reprefentation  of  fome 
little  (Ieel  punches,  well  tempered,  and  very  (harp.  \  clouds  in  tempefts,the  waves  ofthefea,and  inrepre- 

Engraving  en  copper,  is  employed  in  repre- !  fentations  of  (kins  of  hairy  animals,  and  leaves  of 
fenting  portraits,  hiftories,  landflcips,  foliages,  fi- |  trees.  So  that  the  medium  between  fquare  and  acute 
gures,  buildings,  i^c.  either  after  paintings,  or  ^  feems  to  be  the  beft  and  moft  agreeable  to  the  eye. 
defigns,  for  that  purpofe.  He  that  would  reprefent  fculpture,  muft  remem- 

It  is  performed  with  the  grover  on  a  plate  of  cop-  ,  bcr  that,  as  Itatues,  Uc.  are  moft  commonly  made 
per,  which,  being  well  polifhed,  is  covered  over  ,  of  white  marble,  or  llone,  whofe  colour  does  not 
thinly  widi  virgin-wax,  and  then  fmoothed,  while  !  produce  fuch  dark  (hades  as  other  matters  do,  have 
warmed,  with  a  feather,  fo  that  the  wax  be  of  an 
£qual  thicknefs  on  the  plate  ;  and  on  this  the 
draught  or  defign,  done  in  black  lead,,  red  chalk, 
or  ungummed  ink,  is  laid  with  the  face  of  the 
drawing  on  the  wax :  then  they  rub  the  backfide, 
which  will  caufe  the  whole  defign  of  the  dravv'ing 
to  appear  on  the  wax.  The  delign,  thus  trans- 
ferred, is  traced  through  on  the  copper,  with  a 
point,  or  needle;  then  heating  the  plate,  and  tak- 
ing off  the  wax,  the  (Irokcs  remain  to  be  followed, 

2 


no  black  to  their  eyes,  nor  hair  of  the  head,  and 
beard  flying  in  the  air. 

If  the  engraver  would  preferve  one  quality  and 
harmony  in  his  works,  he  (hould  always  (ketch 
out  the  principal  objeiSts  of  his  piece  before  any  part 
of  them  are  hniflied. 

The  inftruments  necefTary  for  this  ibrt  of  engrav~ 
ing  are,  befides  a  graver,  a  cujhlon,  or  jand  hag, 
made  of  leather,  to  lay  the  plate  en,  in  order  to 
give  it  the  necefTary  turns  tnd  motions  j  a  liirnijhrr., 
\  made, 


ETHICS. 


467 


made  of  iron,  or  flcel,  round  at  one  end,  and 
ufually  flattifh  at  the  other,  to  rub  out  flips  and 
failures  foften  theftrokcs,  ^c.  z.fcraper,  to  pare  ofF 
the  furfnce,  on  occafion ;  and  a  rubber  of  a  black 
hat,  or  cloth  rolled  up,  to  fill  up  the  ftrokes  that 
they  may  appear  the  more  vifibte. 

In  cngr.:v!Vg  on  precious  Jhncs,  they  ufe  either 
the  diamond,  or  the  emery.  The  diamond,  which 
is  the  hardeil  of  all  ftoncs,  is  only  cut  by  itfelf,  or 
with  its  own  matter. 

The  firft  thing  to  be  done  in  t'lis  branch  of 
engraving,  is  to  cement  two  rough  diamondi  to  the 
ends  of  two  flicks  big  enough  to  hold  them  fieady 
in  the  hand,  and  to  rub  or  grind  them,  againft:  each 
other,  till  they  be  brought  to  the  form  defired. 
The  duft,  or  powder  that  is  rubbed  off  lerves  after- 
wards to  polifh  them,  which  is  performed  with  a 
kind  of  mill  that  turns  a  wheel  of  foft  iron.  The 
diamond  is  fixed  in  a  brafs-dilh,  and,  thus  applied 
to  the  wheel  is  covered  with  diamond  duft,  mixt 
up  with  oil  of  olives  ,  and  when  the  diamond  is  to 
be  cut  facet  wife,  they  apply  firft  one  face,  then 
another,  to  the  wheel. 

Rubies,  fapphires,  and  topazes,  arc  cut  and 
formed  the  fam.e  way  on  a  copper  wheel,  and 
poliflied  with  tripoU  diluted  in  water.  As  to  .igates, 
amethvfts,  emeralds,  hyacinths,  granates,  rubies, 
and  ofhers  of  the  Ibfter  Hones,  they  arc  cut  on  a 
leaden  wheel,  moillncd  with  emery  and  water,  and 
poliflied  with  iripo/i,   on  a  pewter  wheel.   Lopis- 


lazuli,  opal,  £5V.  n.rc  poliflied  on  a  wooden  wheel. 
To  fafliion  and  engrave  vafes  of  agate,  cryftal,  lapit- 
lazuli,  or  the  like,  they  make  ufe  of  a  kind  of 
lathe,  like  that  ufed  by  pcwterers  to  hold  tlie 
veficis,  which  are  to  be  wrought  with  proper  tools; 
that  of  the  engraver  gentrtiWy  holds  the  tools,  which 
are  turned  by  a  wheel  ;  and  the  veflel  is  held  to 
them  to  be  cut  and  engraved,  either  in  relievo  or 
otherwife;  the  tools  being moiflened,  from  time  to 
time,  with  diamond  dull  and  oil;  or,  at  leaft, ' 
emery  and  water. 

I'o  engrave  figures  or  devices   on   any  of  thefe 
ftones,  when  poliihed,  fuch  as  medals,  feals,  i^c. 
they  ufe  a  little  iron  wheel,  jhe  ends  of  whofe  axis' 
are  received  within  two  pieces  of  ioi,  placed  up- 
right, as. i;i  the  turner's  lathe;  and  to  be  brou£,ht 
clofcr,  or  fet  further  apart,  at  pleafure:  at  one  end- 
of  the  axis   are  fitted  the  proper  tools    being  kept. 
tight  by  a  fcrew.     Laftly,   the  wheel  is  turned  by ' 
the  foot,  ind  the  ftone  applied  by  the  hand  to  the 
tool,    and    is   Ihifted  and  conducted    as  occafion' 
requires. 

The  tools  are  generally  of  iron,  and  fometimes 
of  brafs  :  their  form  is  various,  but  it  generally 
bears  fome  refemblance  to  chifTels,  gouges,  is'c. 
Some  have  fmall  round  heads,  like  buttons,  others 
like  fcrrels,  to  take  the  pieces  out,  and  others  fiat, 
feV.  when  the  ftone  has  been  engraven,  it  is  polifhed 
on  wiieels  of  hair-brufhes  and  tripoU, 


T      H 


S. 


E\  Thics,  or  moral  philofophy,  is  the fcience  of 
MANNERS  or  DUTY,  wnich  it  traces  from 
^  man's  nature  and  condition,  and  fhews  to 
tnniinate  in  his  happinefs:  therefore  it  is  called 
ETHICS  or  moral  difcipline  ;  and  may  be  properly 
defined  the  knowledge  of  our  I>vrY,a.ad  FELICITY  ; 
or,  the  art  of  being  virtuous  and  keippy. 

It  is  an  art,  btcaufe  it  contains  a  iyflem  of  rules 
to  promote  our  happinefs,  for  whoever  pradtiles 
thofe  rules,  attains  an  habitual  po*\er  or  facility  of 
becoming  virtuous  and  happy. 

It  is  alfo  a  fcience,  becaufe  it  deduces  thofe  rules 
from  the  principles  and  conneOLions  of  our  nature, 
and  proves  that  the  obfervancc  of  them  is  pro- 
ductive of  our  happinefs. 

Hence  it  is  evident,  that  men's  duty,  or  his  con- 
duct in  the  feveral  moral  capacities  and  tonnefiions, 
which  he  fuftains  is  the  objeiSfof  this  philofophy  ; 
and  that  its  ofHce  is  to  dire6t  us  in  the  praftice  of  ihe 
great  duties  to  CiOD,  our  neighbour,  and  ourfelves. 

Therefore  this  treatife  will  be  properly  divided 
into  four  parts.  22 


Firf},  We  will  treat  of  the  fovereign  good,  or 
final  objedt  of  all  human  acliotis. 

Secondly,  Of  human  arts,  and  their  rules. 

Thirdly,  Of  virtues  and  vices. 

Fourthly,  Of  the  various  offices  of  life,  in  regard 
to  GoD,^urifleig;h[/jur,   and  ourfelves. 


Fir/i,  iLemvs  be  well  inform'd  what  is  the  fo- 
veieign  go'od. 

There  is  but  one  ejfentiai  good,  which  is  God 
himfelf,  who  alone  is  properly,  and  of  himielf, 
good.     As  Chri/l  witnefles  it,  Luite  v.  ig. 

Good  by  particip.  tion  is  a  created  good,  and  ihis 
is  either  a  thing  or  Subffance,  which  is  good  to  us ; 
as  are  the  aliments,  cloaths,  (s'c.  or  the  modifica- 
tion or  atfcdfion  of  a  thine,  which  helps  us  l.kewife, 
whether  it  has  a  report  to  the  body  or  to  the  mind. 
Hence  good  is  commorly  dillributed  into  the  good 
of  the  hidy  ;  fucli  as  health,  Ifrenglh,  beauty,  ff. 
Good  of  the  wind ;  as,  fcience,  virtue,  tsc,  »iv\  goods 
of  fortune  ;  fuch  as  houfes,  lands,  money,  isc. 


O  0  o 


VV, 


468 


The   Unlverfal  Hiftoiy  (?/' Arts  /s;;^^  Sciences. 


We  defire  all  thefe  thing?,  becaufe  they  are  ufuful, 
or  agreeably  only,  or  honeft  ;  whence  that  famous 
divifion  of  good,  into  hontft,  agreeable,  and  ufeful. 
We  call  honeji,  that  which  is  agreeable  to  order, 
or  rather  to  the  rules  of  our  reafon,  as  pr'.bity,  or 
virtue  :  agreeable,  that  which  pleafcs  or  delights  us  ; 
V.  g.  fome  are  pleafcd  with  plays  and  fpcdiacles, 
fome  in  company,  others  with  ftudying  the  liberal 
arts,  and  ihe  praftice  of  virtue,  others  with  telling 
their  money,  i^c.  Laftly,  the  t/ti/e,  which  is  that 
which  procures  us  fome  other  good,  as  a  bitter  po- 
tion, which  can  procure  the  recovery  of  iiealth. 

Our  next  enquiry  muft  be  for  the  Jinal  objedt  of 
all  human  anions;  or,  the  end  of  things:  we  arc 
very  fure,  that  the  Creator  has  appointed  an  end 
for  each  created  thing  in  particular. 

Therefore  all  corporeal  things,  either  cekflial  or 
fublunary,  even  the  brutes,  which  have  no  faculty 
to  govern  themfelvcs,  or  reafon,  are  diredtcd  and 
moved  by  the  omnipotent  being  towards  their  end, 
as  an  arrow  is  liireited  1^  the  archer. 

But  rational  creatures  tend  toward  their  end 
of  their  own  proper  will  ;  and  chufe  the  ways 
which  they  judge  the  moft  proper  to  condu£t  them 
to  their  ends  :  Whence  they  are  invited  by  the 
end;  neither  could  they  ever  be  perfuaded  to  aft, 
without  fome  end  ;  but  move  themfelves  of  their 
own  accord,  and  with  a  previous  knowledge  of 
their  underflanding  towards  that  end,  which  they 
know  very  well  to  be  fuch. 

An  end  is  defined  by  /friftatle,  lib.  i.  phyjic.  c.  3. 
id  cujus  gratia  fit  aliquid;  i.  e.  that  in  view  whereof 
fomething  is  done. 

There  are  two  forts  of  ends,  viz.  the  end  which 
is  defired,  and  the  end  for  which  fomething  is  de- 
fired.  For  example,  the  end  defired  in  the  con- 
flruftion  of  a  hou'e.  is  a  commodious  habitation  ; 
and  the  end  for  which  that  commodious  habitation 
is  defired,  is  the  perfon  who  is  to  live  in  it.  Again, 
there  is  the  end  of  the  work,  and  the  end  of  the 
vjorkman. 

The  end  of  the  work,  or  operation,  is  that  intend- 
ed by  the  work  itfelf,  as  the  end  of  ftudy  is  the 
knowledge  of  truth  ;  becaufe  we  mufl  fludy  only 
to  difcover  the  truth. 

The  end  of  the  operator,  or  artificer,  is  that  in- 
tended by  him  ;  as  the  end  of  him  who  learns  or 
teaches  philofophy,  can  be  the  love  of  truth,  or  a 
vain  curiofity,  or  fume-thing  elfe. 

Laftly,  the  end  either  of  the  work,  or  of  the 
workman  ;  one  is  the  firft,  which  is  firft  intended  ; 
the  other  the  fecond,  or  that  wh  ch  is  placed  be- 
tween two,  and  the  other  the  laft,  to  which  all 
the  oihers  have  a  relation.  Which  laft  end  is  no- 
thing elfe,  but  God  himfelf,  from  whom  all  things 
flow,  and  to  whom  they  all  return. 


But  though  all  things  tend  towards  procuring  the 
glory  of  the  Creator,  and  are  all  moved  by  his 
fpecial  favour  ;  the  rational  creatures  are  faid,  not- 
wi'.hftanding,  to  have  that  tendency  towards  God, 
as  tiieir  fovereign  good  in  a  more  particular  man- 
lier ;   as  being  folc  capable  of  his  pofTeflion. 

This  laft  end  is  defined  by  Cicero,  lib.  2.  definib, 
ban.  is"  tnal.  That,  by  which  all  things  are  done  well, 
and  are  related,  and  itfelf  is  related  to  nothing.  In 
the  fame  fenfe  it  is  defined  in  the  fchools,  that 
which  is  defired  for  itfelf.,  and  all  things  defired  far 
it.  This  end  is  either  the  true,  proper,  and  na- 
tural end  of  all  things,  /.  e.  to  which  all  other 
things  have  a  natural  tendency  ;  or  is  arbitrary,  de- 
pending either  on  the  levity,  or  impetuofity,  or 
afFetSlion  of  the  mind  ;  fuch  is  money  with  refpe£t 
to  the  avariciou';,  voluptuoufnefs  with  refpect  to 
the  voluptuous,  ^c. 

But  however,  let  it  be  how  it  will,  it  is  certain, 
that  the  laft,  true,  proper,  and  natural  end  of  all 
citated  beings,  is  God  himfelf. 

But  that  motion  whereby  all  men  incline  towards 
God,  ib  often  interrupted  by  them  ;  efpecially  when 
they  repofe  themfelves  in  the  creatures,  and  fearch 
the  fovereign  good  where  there  is  no  true  and  folid 
good,  but  only  an  apparent  one  to  be  found.  Tho' 
this  cannot  be  an  obltacle  to  God's  being  called  the 
proper  and  natural  end  of  all  created  beings,  but 
more  particularly  of  men  ;  either  becaufe  all  things 
and  all  adions  are  terminated  in  God,  or  becaufe 
God  alone  is,  laftly,  fearched  by  us,  though  fome- 
times  we  know  nothing  of  it  ourfelves  ;  becaufe  he 
can  alone  appcafe  our  defires,  or  gratify  them.  Eft 
enirn,  fays  Boetius,  lib.  3.  de  ConfAat  Philofoph.  prof. 
2.  Omnium  furmr.um  bonorum,cun£iaque  intra  fe  bona 
continens.  cui  ft  quid  abforet,  fummum  effe  mn  poffet, 
quoniam  non  relinqueretur  extrinfecus  quod  poffet 
operari.  Therefore  in  him  alone,  and  not  in  a 
created  good,  confin'd  within  very  narrow  limits, 
we  ought  to  put  our  whole  felicity,  which  accord- 
ing to  the  definition  of  the  fame  Boetius,  is  a  ftate 
perfeS^  by  the  affemblage  of  all  forts  of  good-. 

Secondly,  In  fearch  after  the  human  a£fs,  and 
enquire  how  many  there  are,  to  be  diredied  by  the 
rules  of  Ethicks  towards  this  end. 

We  muft  fearch,  firj}.^  what  is  a  human  a<£t, 
and  how  many.  Secondly,  if  all  human  acts  be 
voluntary.  Thirdly,  if  it  be  free.  Fourthly,  if  all 
human  a£ts  be  good  or  bad,  and  none  indifferent. 
Fifthly,  which  is  the  ufage  of  the  afFciftions  of  the 
foul  ;  and  if  they  be  fubje£l  to  the  rules  of  the 
Ethicks. 

I  call,  with  Thomas  Aquinas,  I,  2.  quefl.  i.  art. 
I.  a  human  aft  that  which  is  done  by  a  man,  afting 
like  a  man  ;  i.  e.  with  prudence  and  reflection  :  fo 
that  a  huiian  aft  may  be  diftinguifhed  from  that 

called 


E      T     H     I    C    S. 


469 


called  the  a£l  of  a  man,  and  which  Is  done  without 
the  leaft  reflexion. 

Ofthofe  kuman  aSls,  feme  are  interiors,  gain'd 
from  the  will,  and  are  accomplilhed  in  it ;  as  the 
a£ly  of  hve  and  hatred. 

Others  are  exterior  ails,  commanded  from  thc- 
will  ;  but  are  executed  by  our  corporeal  ftrength,  as 
■walking,  fpeaking,  writing,  &c.  and  even  ot  thcfc 
a£ls  feveral  are  called  tranlitory  ;  becaufe  thty  pafi 
from  the  aclive  caufe,  to  a  foreign  objed,  as 
writing,  JiriUng,  building,  &c.  Others  are  called 
immanent  ;  becaufe  they  produce  nothing  fenfible 
beyond  the  aftive  caufe,  as  fliaking  the  head,  the 
motion  of  the  arm,  rubbing  the  eye,  i^c.  But 
however,  thofe  are  more  properly  called  imminent 
aSls,  which  remain  in  the  mind,  as  love  and  hatred. 
To  find  the  number  of  the  inte;  ior  a£Is,  every 
one  muft  be  attentive  to  what  palles  within  him. 

Fox  firjl,  we  irrefiftibly  defire  good  in  general, 
or  our  beatitude,  and  avoid  evil  or  mifery  ;  whence 
the  firft  a£l  of  our  will,  is  the  love  of  good  in  gene- 
ral, or  of  our  felicity,  and  a  hatred  for  evil  or 
mifery.  Therefore  good  in  general,  or  our  felicity, 
if  it  be  confidered  as  it  is  convenient  to  us,  is  very 
well  term'd,  the  primary  objedl  of  our  will.  But 
if  it  be  confidered  as  it  fixes  and  terminates  our 
defires,  it  is  called  the  laft  end.  Laftly,  if  it  be 
confidered  as  rendering  us  happy  by  its  pofllflion, 
it  is  called  our  felicity'. 

Secondly,  That  we  may  gain  the  goodznd  avoid 
the  bad,  there  are  means  to  be  taken  ;  therefore  the 
fecond  aft  of  our  will  is  confultation,  or  an  enquiry 
into  the  means  to  condudt  us  to  our  end. 

Thirdly,  After  that  confultation,  we  chufe  one  of 
thofe  means,  and  thus  the  third  a6t  of  our  will  is 
eleSjicn  f  which  is  not  ill  defined,  the  aflumption 
of  one  means  before  another,  inorder  to  gain  our  end. 
Fourthly,  Where  through  that  means  we  have 
gained  our  end,  we  repofe  ourfelves  in  it  and  enjoy 
it,  efpccially  if  nothing  remains  to  be  defircd  ; 
whence  the  laft  adt  of  our  will  is  friiiti.n.  But  if 
by  misfortune,  any  body  was  condeiShed  to  a  bad 
end,  he  would  complain  and  grieve  at  it,  efpecially 
if  he  could  not  extricate  himfelf  from  it. 

All  human  afh,  i.  e.  adled  by  a  man  in  a  human 

manner,  are  always  Waw/ar^,  unlefs  violence,  or 

a  great  fear,  or  an  infuperable  ignorance,  interferes. 

The  next  thing  we  are  to  confider,  is,    if  all 

human  ails  be  free. 

We  call  a  free  aft,  that  which  is  done  without 
compulfion,  or  can  be  done  or  omitted,  at  pleafure. 
For  divines  diftinguifh  two  forts  of  liberty,. wz. 
liberty  from  an  external  necejftty,  or  coaiiion,  and 
liberty  from  an  intrinjic  or  natural  neceffity. 

Divines  call  liberty  from  ccadion,  or  liberty  of 
fpontaneity,  that,  which  removes  all  external  vio- 


lence, /'.  e,  proceeding  from  an  external  principle 
againft  the  propenfity  of  the  will.  By  which  li- 
berty the  will  loves  good  in  general,  and  hates  evil 
in  general  ;  and  therewith  the  bleffed  are  (-aA  to 
love  God,  becaufe  they  freely,  and  without  con- 
(haint,  adhere  to  him  by  love.  Thcref  )re  liberty 
from  coaSlion  is  the  fame  as  voluntary  or  fpontane- 
ous ;  in..fmuch  as  it  is  done  by  the  will  without 
coaftion  ;  and  therefore  all  voluntary  atti  are  free 
from  coaSlion. 

Liberty  from  necejftty,  or  liberty  of  eleilion  and 
indifference,  which  ij  alfo  called  yV^^-tf/V/  and  Jimple 


liberty,  is  that  which  excludes  all  kinds  of  neceffity, 
r  ither  natural  or  internal,  or  extcrna!,or  of  coaction. 
I  call  natural  necejftty,  a  certain  determination  or 
propenfity,  which  our  lilerty  has  naturally  to  purfue, 
or  avoid  neceffiirily,  certain  things  ;  v.  g.  to  love 
necefl'arily,  and  by  cleftion,  good  in  general,  and 
hate  evil.  I  call  likewife  necejft  y  of  coaftion,  or 
coaSiion  itJJf,  a  certain  violence  offered  to  fame  body 
againjl  his  own  inclination ;  as  when  any  body  is 
put  in  prifon. 

Therefore  the  coaSiion  differs  from  a  natural  ne  ■ 
cefftt;,  i;i  that  coaftion  proceeds  from  an  intrinGck 
principle,  againft  the  inclination  of  the  wil.',  and 
therefore  deprives  us  of  our  liberty.  And  the  ne- 
ceffity .of  natu.al  incHnaticrt,  proceeds  from  the  will 
ittelf ;  and  therefore  does  not  deprive  us  of  our  will, 
but  only  of  our  liberty,  taken  in  a  ftrift  fenfe,  which 
proceeds  from  eleilion. 

That  if  the  neceffity  of  afting  or  nor  afting  be 
only  hypothetical,  and  follows  the  confent  or  elec- 
tion of  the  will,  it  by  no  means  affefts  our  free- 
will, or  liberty  of  indifference  and  eleSlion  :  v.  g, 
Suppofe  I  have  determined  myfelf  to  fpeak,  I  fpeak 
neceflarily  :  but  that  neceffity  does  not  force  me 
to  fpeak,  nor  hinders  me  from  fpeaking  ;  whence 
a  free-will  remains  in  me  ftill,  fince  I  have  ftiil 
the  power  of  elcftion,  which  confiih  in  this, 
that  one  may  aft,  or  abftaLn  from  afting  as  he  pleafes. 

Therefore  liberty  of  eleifion,  is  very  well  defined 
an  ekifive  faculty,  i.  e.  a  faculty  to  chufe  one  thing 
before  another :  and  as  in  eleftion,  one  is  to  acl  or 
not  ail ;  and  the  other,  to  aif  this  or  that,  in  this 
or  that  manner;  we  diftinguifh  two  forts  of  liberty 
of  eleilion  and  indiff'erence  ;  one  to  aft  or  not  aft, 
call'd  liberty  of  contradiiiion,  becaufe  ailing  or 
not  ailing  are  contrjdiftories  ;  and  the  other  to  aft 
this  or  that,  in  this  or  that  manner,  v.  g.  to  love 
or  to  hate,  to  fpeak  or  to  write,  which  is  called 
liberty  of  contrariety,  or  diverjtty  \  becaufe  to  love 
and  to  hate,  are  contrary  or  oppolite  ;  and  to  fpeak 
and  to  tvrite,  are  different. 

Free-will,  can  alfo  be  defined  a  faculty  determin- 
ing itfelf;    or,  a  faculty  ivhich  having   all  things 
requifite  to  ail,  can  ait,  or  not  aif,  or  even  ail  the 
1  O  00  2  con.rciry; 


470  7^^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  consciences. 


tMtrary  ;  whence  it  may  be  tniVrred,  that  the 
liberty  uf  the  will  does  not  regard  generally  the  chief 
end  of  our  actions,  or  our  felicity,  becaufe  it  is 
impoflibic  we  (hould  not  lielire  our  telicity. 
Neith;.r  dots  it  tend  tow,-irds  thofe  things  which 
■  have  a  ncccfl'iry  caniicai-Jii  with  our  fovcrtign 
good,  and  without  which  we  cannot  pin  ihat  (o- 
veicign  good;  fuch  as  aie /«  ^^,  and /r'w,  fince  we 
are  ncvClRtated  to  love  thoie  things. 

From  this  rUpaf',  to  the goodncjS  of  tjn human  a£is. 

Human  aclions,  compared  with  the  rules  oj 
manners^ixc  called  moral;  and  if  they  be  agreeable 
to  thofe  rules,  are  eltcemed  good ;  but  if  they  dieclinc 
from  them,  bad;  fo  that  the  mwality  is  nothing 
■clfe  but  its  reiatUn  to  its  rule,  whereby  it  is  deter- 
mined morally  good  or  bad. 

The  rules  of  manners  (at  lead  the  primary  rules) 
whereby  a  human  act  muft  be  meafur'd,  are  the 
ttcrnal  digrees,  or  divine  leno,  and  right  reafon. 
An  human  afl  is  to  be  with  thefe  rules,  as  well 
with  regard  to  the  objetl,  and  the  end,  as  to  the 
circumltances  ;  for  every  body  knows  tliat  an  hu- 
man ad,  confifts  in  the  objed,  end  and  circumflances. 

The  objedt  of  a  human  adl  is  tnat,  towards  which 
that  aiSt  tends,  and  which  can  be  confidered  either 
materially  o\  formally. 

It  is  coniidered  materially,  as  f.r  as  it  is  a  matter 
fubjedt  to  certain  ads,  with  regard  to  which,  feveral 
other  moral  a£ls,  though  of  a  different  kind,  can 
be  done  ;  as  the  hme  man  can  bean  objea  of  love 
or  of  hatred ;  of  adulation  or  of  reproaches,  i3c. 
An  object  thus  confidered  is  always  good,  of  an 
identical  goodnefs,  it  being  either  God  who  is  per- 
feftlv  good,  or  a  created  thing,  which  is  good  bv 
participation  ;  but  has  neither  a  moril  goodnefs, 
nur  amoral  vitu'fity  ;  becaufe  it  is  neither  agiceible 
to  the  rules  of  manners,  nor  contrary  to  them; 
and  confjquently  cannot  give  to  the  adion,  either 
a  good  or  bad  Spfci--s,  in  the  gender  of  manners. 

Theobj-a  is  confidered  formody,  when  confider- 
ed under  ii>n\t  form,  eitlier  phyfical  or  moral  ; 
and  then  it  eftablifhes  a  fpecies  of  the  a<ft,  either 
phvfical  or  moral  ;  and  as  far  as  it  is  agreeable  or 
repugnant  to  phyfical  or  moral  principles,  commu- 
nicat'es  to  the  action  either  a  phyfical  or  moral 
goodnefs,  or  vitiohty.  But  it  m'ght  happen  th.it 
an  objca  is  good/ar-wa/j,  according  to  a  phyfical 
fpecies,  and  bad  formally  according  to  a  moral 
fpecies,  and  the  contrary.  For  mitance,  if  a  painter 
paints  in  an  elegant  manner  fome  obfcer.e  iiguris, 
the  objeft  will  be  good  phyfically,  and  bad  morally  ; 
fo  that  the  aiStion  will  be  g^o^  formally,  according 
to  the  ph\  fical  ficcies,  and  with  regard  to  the  ex- 
ecution of  the  rules  of  his  art  of  painting  ;  but  will 
be  hTidfrmally,  according  to  the  mora!  ipecies,  that 
is  to  i-^y,  if  compared  with  the  rules  of  manners. 


The  end  of  a  human  aff,  is  that  for  v/liich  the 
a6t  is  done  ;  and  can  likewife  be  confidered,  either 
phyftcolly,  or  morally,  V.  g.  if  any  body  takes  a  me- 
(licinc  for  the  recovery  of  his  health,  this  end  is 
grjod  phyfically  ;  but  is  neither  good  nor  bad  morally, 
but  wlien  compared  with  the  rules  of  manners ; 
therefore  the  end  is  good  morally,  if  any  body  wifh 
lor  his  heilth,  with  the  intention  of  making  it 
fubfcrviunt  to  God's  glory  ;  and  Dad  if  he  defiresit 
to  gratify  his  p.iflions. 

Yhe  formal  ohji£l  of  a  human  i.Q.,  is  alfo  fome- 
times  called  motive;  v.  g.  God's  goodnefs,  or  the 
relation  he  has  with  our  nature,  which  wants  fe- 
veral things  from  him,  w/z.  his  alTiitance,  and  that 
he  may  perfc£t  it,  is  called  ihe  motive,  or  reafon 
whv  We  love  him.  Sometimes  the  motive  is  taken 
for  the  end,  as  when  health  is  faid  to  be  the  motive, 
which  induces  fuch  a  pcrfon  to  take  a  medicine. 
Lartly,  motive  is  alfo  taken,  thriiigh  very  feldom, 
for  liie  efficient  caufe  ;  as  the  advice  which  has 
engaged  fomebody  in  a  good  or  bad  adtion,  is  faid 
to  be  the  motive,  whereby  it  has  been  done. 

Ltiflly,  We  Call  circum/iances  of  an  aifion,  all  the 
things  v.hich  accompany  the  a6ti"n,  as  the  place, 
the  ti?ne,  the  manner,  and  the  ajfjiance,  and  all  .thefe 
thin2>i  are  included  together,  with  the  cbje^,  end, 
and  tffcilive  caufe,  in  the  following  verfe  : 

^tis,  quid,  uhi,  quibus  auxiliis,  cur,  quomodo,  quando. 

We  muft  next  inform  ourfelves  of  the  rules  of 
moi'al  goodntfs  and  nalice. 

j^quina!,  1,2  qiucf.  71.  art.  6.  has  eflablifhed 
two  rules  of  the  human  adis  ;  one  which  is  the  firft, 
and  remote,  viz.  the  eternal  law,  which  is  the  ab- 
folute  will  ofCiod,  or  the  order  wheieby  all  things 
are  wifely  difpofed  ;  the  other  derived,  and  ne::rer, 
viz.  human  reafon,  which  is  like  a  certain  participa- 
tion of  that  abfolute  and  divine  will. 

All  law  is  e\t\itx  pofttive  or  naturJ ;  that  is  mu- 
table, and  this  is  not  fubjfdl  to  change. 

The  natural  law  is  either  confidered  in  Got',  or 
n  us  :  in  God,  it  is  called  an  eternal  law,  or  an 
eternal  order  ;  and  in  us,  it  is  either  called  right 
reafon,  or  natural  light  ;  or  retains  the  name  of 
natural  law  only. 

It  is  a  general  received  opinion,  that  the  eternal 
law  is  the  fource  of  all  others,  and  the  firft  rule  of 
the  human  actions.  This  eternal  law  is  nothing  elfe 
but  an  eternal  order,  eftabliftied  by  the  fovereign 
wifdom,  and  which  contains  all  that  we  are  to  do, 
or  to  avoid.  The  eternal  law,  fays  St.  Juguftin, 
lib.  22.  cot.tr.  faujl.  c.  27.  is  a  divine  order,  or  Gods 
will,  commandirg  to  preferve  the  natural  order,  and 
forbidding  I0  difv.rb  it.  The  fame  father  explains, 
lib.  I.  de  ordi.  c.  10.  whjt  the  natural  order  is.  It 
is  an  ardery.  fays  he,  by  which  every  thing  is  done 

that 


ETHICS, 


471 


that  God  has  cflablljhed :  therefore  the  eternal 
law  is  an  imnutable  orJer.  To  vvhicli  is  agreeable, 
all  that's  done  ri^ht;  and  all  that's  clone  wronsr, 
difagreeable.  Whence  the  fame  Sr.  Augujline, 
lib.  I.  di  lib.  arbit.  c.  6.  To  explain  to  you,  fays  he, 
as  much  as  I  am  capable,  and  as  concifcly  as  p'ljji'jle, 
•what  that  notion  is  «/"  thir  eternal  law,  zv'iich  is  im- 
printed within  us,  it  is  that  tvbereby  it  is  juft  that  nil 
things  fljouli he  in  order.  Then  lower,  cxiKiUMdiiig 
in  th  j  fame  book,  c.  1  5.  which  is  the  firft-  piecept  of 
that  fame  law,  he  fays,  that  the  eternal  law  com- 
mands, to  turn  our  hea'  t  from  things  temporal  t'.wards 
the  eternal.  Neither  does  he  believe  that  men  can 
otherwife  fin,  than  by  turnisg  th.-mfelves  from  God 
towards  the  creatures,  either  to  fix  their  affc(!rtions 
on  them,  or  to  enjoy  them  :  for  though  we  are  to 
nialce  ufe  of  things  created,  we  are  never  to  enioy 
them.  Neither  are  we  to  make  ufe  of  them,  but 
inafmuch  as  they  are  conducive  towards  obtaining 
the  fruition  of  the  f  ivereign  good.  The  good,  fays 
the  famcdii£l:)r,  lib.  15.  deci.it.  Dei,  c.  7.  mtm.  i 
make  uft  of  the  world  to  attain  to  the  fruition  of  God ; 
end  the  bad,  en  the  coiTr.iry,  want  to  make  ufe  of 
God  to  enjoy  the  world. 

The  <atural  law,  which  is  alfo  called  rizht  rea- 
fan,  natural  Ugh',  and  natural  order,  is  that  fame 
eternal  law,  or  a  certain  participation  of  the  eternal 
law  in  a  ration^il  creature,  whereby  (he  ii  rendered 
capable  to  m.ike  the  difference  betwixt  good  and 
evil.  According  to/fya/«(7j  I,  2  qnaft.  91,  art. 
2.  where  he  qucites  the  words  of  the  royal  proph'.t, 
Pfal.  iV.  6-  0_ff'er  the  facrifces  of  righteoufnefs  ;  and 
put  your  truft  in  the  Lord.  And  if  any  body  was 
asking  which  are  the  deeds  of  juftice,  the  fame  royal 
prophet  adds,  There  be  many  that  fay,  ivhowil!  Jhew 
usany good?  Aufw-rringthat  que.'ri;;n,  he  fays.  Thou 
haft  n.ade  the  light  of  thy  countenance  to  Jhineupon  us  ; 
I.  e.  the  lighr  o!  a  natural  reafon,  whereby  we  make 
the  difference  between  good  and  bad:  which  natu- 
ral law  is  within  us  n  turally.  According  toCicero, 
lib.  I.  de  leg.b.  Lex  ejt  ratio  fumna  inftta  in  natui a, 
q.ia  jubet  ea  qute faciindn  funt,  prohihetque  cintraria: 
ea-lcm  ratio  cum  :ft  in  b-.minis  nientc,  confirmata  y 
confeBa  lex  eft 

The  .firfJ:  principles  of  that  natural  law  confifl-  in 
tRejoveof  God  above  all  things;  and  of  our  neigh- 
bours, for  ths  fike  of  God. 

Firft,  We  fhouldlove  God  with  all  the  faculties 
of  our  foul,  and  above  all  things  ;  and  return  him 
perpetual  thanks  for  the  daily  favours  wc  receive 
from  him.  Therefo'C  the  apoftle,  Koni.  \.  20. 
declares  inestcufable  thofe  who  %vhen  they  knew  God, 
they  glorify  d him  not  as  God,  neither  were  thankful ; 
but  bccam:  vain  in  their  imaginations,  and  their 
Joolifh  heart  was  darkened. 

Secondly-  If  we  love  God  as  we  ought ;  Hecaufe 
irder  requires  it,  from  which  ih^  natural  reafon  can- 


[  not  deviate  without  fin  ;    we  muft  alfo  Icvc  other 
men,  created  by  the  (ame  being,  fur  his  fake  ;  and 
give  to  everyone  of  them  his  own.    Therefore,  fays 
St.  Peter,  1  Epift.  ii.  13.     Submit  yourfclves  to  every 
ordinance  of  man  for  the  Lord  s  fake :  whether  it  be 
to  toe  king,  as  fupreme  ;   or  unto  governors,  as  unto 
them  that  are  fint  by  him  for  the  punijhment  of  eiil 
doers,  and  fir  tie  praife  of  them  that  do  well;  and 
all  other  men,  either  our  equals  or  inferiors,  wc 
mufl  love  as  our  brethren  ;  not  only  by  doing  them 
no  harm,  but  rather  by  rendering  them  all  the  good 
offices  we  can.      Therefore  we'll  bare  no  falf;  wit- 
nefs,    we'll    commit  no  theft,    no    murder,    is'c. 
becaufe   thofe   things  are  contrary   to   order,     and 
confequently  to  the  love  of  God  and  ourneighbours. 
Therefore  all  the  moral  duties  of  men,  are  con- 
tained in  thefe  two  precepts,  or  are  deduced  from 
them.    As  Chrift  himfelf  witnefTcs  it,  /lj'att.xxu.-2j, 
and  following  ;    where  aphyii.  ian  and  a  doifior  of 
the  lawnsking  him, which  was  thegre^te''  command- 
ment in  the  law,  he  anfwers  thus :  Thou  fha/t  love 
the  Lord  thy  God  with  ail  thj  heart,  and  with  all  thy 
foul,  and  with  all  thy  fn'nd.      Ami  the  fecond  is  like 
unto  it ;   thoufl}<ilt  love  thy  neig!  hour  as  thyfelf    On 
thefe  two  commandments,  hang  all  the  law  and  the 
prophets.     Therefore   the  firfl:  precepts  of  the  na- 
tural  law   confift  in   the  love  of  God   above  all 
things,  and  of  our  neighbour  for  the  fake  of  God. 

To  underft-.nd  better  what  has  been  faid,  and 
what  is  t.:,  be  faid,  we  muft  propofe  in  this  place 
Tome  definitions  relating  to  the  love  of  God  and  of 
our  neighbour. 

I.  Love,  is  a  propenfity  of  our  will  towards  the 
obicdt  which  delights  us  ;  and  that  propeniity  is  fo 
great  or  in  ftrong  towards  the  fovereign  good,  or 
our  ftlicity,  that  wc  cannot  refift  it.  We  are 
never  otherwife  induced  to  love,  but  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  good,  or  of  the  delnftablc,  and  often 
of  both  ;  without  which  there  could  be  no  love 
excited  within  us.  For  if  we  puruie  riches,  hc- 
n.jurs,  and  plealures,  it  is  becaufe  we  difcover 
fom-  thing  in  them  uhich  fiatt..;rs  our  nature.  If 
we  love  our  parents,  friends,  and  relations,  we  are 
attraiited  to  it  by  an  in  war.;  fenfe  of  pleafure,  Vi'hich 
can  be  bettei;  Kit  than  explained.  Therefore  in 
all  kinds  of  love,  there  is  always  fomething  agree- 
able to  our  nature,   which  affeiSfs  u'--. 

If  love  be  confiJered  with  regard  to  its  objeft, 
it  is  of  two  kinds  ;  for,  one  is  the  love  of  God, 
and  the  oth  r  is  the  love  of  creatures;  viz.  either 
of  us,  of  other  men,  or  of  other  things,  33  riches, 
honours,  pleafures,  bfc.  Again,  if  it  he  conli- 
dered  with  regard  to  the  manner  we  incline  to- 
wards the   thing   we  love,    one   is  ca 


d   lo'  e  of 
define,  whereby  we  pine  after  an   abferit  objecfl  ; 
and  the  other  love  of  fruition,  whereby  we  cleave 
to  the  oojedt  we  poffcfs,  £?V.  but  we  muft  remem- 
ber. 


472  T^^e  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  ^q.vlv.zy.%. 


ber,  all  kinds  of  love  for  the  created  things  ou":ht 
to  be  referred  to  God,  as  to  che  orig,in  or  foiirct  of 
all  forts  of  goods  ;  fo  that  God  muft  be  beloved 
above  all  things,  and  the  creaUires  for  his  fake. 

2.  To  love  God  above  all  things,  is  to  prefer 
him  to  all  created  beings,  or  to  incline  towards 
him  as  the  fovereign  good,  with  .all  the  faculties 
of  our  foul  ;  and  to  love  all  other  things  for  his 
fake,   and  as  it  is  agreeable  to  order. 

3.  Our  love  for  God,  ought  to  be  alone,  and 
properly  a  hve  of  complaifar.ee,  or  a  love  whereby 
we  are  pleafcd,  or  delighted  in  God  as  in  our  fo- 
vereijn  good.  And  as  that  love  has  no  other  ob- 
jec):  but  God  himfclf,  and  u  diverted  of  all  human 
views  or  confiderations,  it  muft:  be  called  gratuity, 
not  mercenary,  which,  fay  the  antient  fathers,  it 
is  required  of  you  that  you  fhould  ferve  him  gra- 
tis ;  not  becaufe  he  gives  th;  temporal  things  ;  but 
hccaufe  he  warrants  the  eternal.  St.  Auguftine, 
in  Pfalm  xliii.  16,  17.  and  on  Pfalm  liii.  6. 
ra3's,  God  vudl  be  ferved  gratis,  be  loved  gratis, 
i.  e.  of  a  chafte  love  ;  not  be  loved  becaufe  he  gives 
fomething  lefides  himfclf,  but  becaufe  he  gives  himfelf. 

4.  The  love  of  our  neighbour,  is  a  hve  of  bene- 
volence ;  whereby  we  wifh  him  all  the  good  we 
defire  for  ourfelvcs.  When  this  love  has  for  its 
objecS  our  parents,  or  our  country,  it  is  called 
piety  ;  if  there  is  a  reciprocal  love  between  us  and 
our  neighbour,  it  is  called  a  love  of  friendfliip,  or 
it  is  a  true  amity. 

Hence  every  perfon,  that  cannot  plead  invinci- 
ble ignorance,  may  eafily  infer,  that  he  ought  not 
to  do  to  his  neighbour,  what  he  would  not  have 
done  to  himfelf ;  whence  it  follows,  that  he  is  not 
to  rob,  nor  to  kill,  i^c. 

The  precepts  of  the  natural  right,  are  alfo  im- 
mutable, and  no  body  can  be  excufed  from  obferv- 
iiig  them. 

The  moral  good  and  evil,  or  the  honeft  and 
difhoneft,  are  diftinguifbcd  not  only  by  men,  but 
by  nature  itfelf ;  becaufe  the  honeft  is  conformable 
to  the  good  order  eftabliflied  among  us  by  our  di 
vine  Creator,  and  the  difhonelt  contrary  to  it. 
Cicero  has  confirmed  this  truth,  by  feveral  very 
folid  and  pcrfuafive  arguments.  Lib.  i.  de  leg. 
Nothing  certainly  is  more  charming,  fays  he,  than 
to  underjtand  clearly,  that  tve  are  all  horn  to  juftice, 
not  only  in  man's  op/nio:!,  but  of  a  natural  right.  And 
a  little  lower,  fVhere  is  the  nation  that  does  not  love 
a  ccmplalfani  and  grateful fpirit  ?  Jnd  where  is  that 
people  ivhich  does  not  dcffife  and  hate  the  proud,  the 
"vindiiiive,  the  cruel,  and  the  ungrateful?  Whence  it 
follows,  that  we  are  all  naturally  horn  juft,  for  a 
mutual  communication  with  one  another. 

From  this  I'll  pafs  to  Confcience,  which  fome 
confound  promifcuoufly  with  Synterefis;   though 


Aquinas  diftinguifhcs  the  one  from  the  other,  and 
f.ys,  that  coyf'icnce  is  properly  the  adt  whereby  we 
pply  our  kr,  wledge  to  our  a£lions  ;  znA  fynterefis, 
■in  h.ibit,  which  inclines  us  to  give  our  afient  to 
the  firfl.  moral  and  praflical  piinciples.  Whence 
in  that  fcnfc  the  habitual  knowledge  of  ihe  firft 
moral  prmciples,  or  intelligence,  \%  fynterefis  ;  and 
their  applications,  which  is  like  the  conclufion  of  a 
pri(3ical  fyllogifm,  is  confcience  ;  thereby  every  one 
knows  actually,  not  only  that  he  exifts  and  under- 
ftands,  but  likewife  when  he  act?,  or  has.afled 
right  or  wrong  ;  therefore  our  confcience  approves 
or  reproves  all  our  adlions  ;  and  though  it  feems 
to  be  in  fome  meafure,  afleep,  in  the  obdurate  and 
impious  ;  it,  notwithftanding,  never  is  entirely  ex- 
tiiiguifhed,  not  even  in  the  damned  fouls,  accord- 
to  this  pafTage  of  Ifaiah  Ixvi.  24.  For  their  worm 
(/'.  e.  the  remorfe  of  their  con'ciencejy^a//  not  die. 

Therefore  Cicero  fpejks  thus  of  the  confcience, 
Uh.  de  fcneii .  The  confcience  of  a  good  life,  and  the 
remembrance  of  a  great  number  of  good  deeds,  is 
agreeable. 

Thofe  who  treat  of  manners,  diftinguifli  different 
ftates  of  the  confcience.  For  the  cor.fc  ience  is  either 
true  and  certain,  or  probable,  or  dubious,  or  erro- 
neous, or  falf?. 

The  confcience  is  faiJ  to  be  true  and  certain,  when 
we  undcrftand  clearly  and  diftiniSl)',  what  is  com- 
manded or  forbidden  ;  and  therefore  what  wc  muft 
do  or  omit,  v.  g.  every  body  knows,  that  we  are 
not  to  do  to  others  what  we  would  not  have  done 
to  us :  becaufe  that  law  is  engraven  on  our  mind. 

A  probable  confcience  is  that  founded  on  probable 
arguments.  So  that  if  the  arguments  on  both  fides 
be  of  an  equal  ftrength,  the  confcience  becomes  du- 
bious. Whence  zconfcience  is  called  dubious,  where- 
by the  mind  remains  uncertain  of  what  it  ought  to 
do;  and  has  not  a  plain  fecurity.  There  is  a  great 
affinity  between  this  and  a  fcrupulous  confcience  ; 
which  ihough  (he  walks  upright,  is  neverthelefs 
retarded,  by  fome  fcruple  or  other. 

Scruple,  is  properly  a  fmall  (harp  ftone,  which 
hurts  the  foot,  and  hindereth  from  walking  with 
cafe.  But  metaphorically,  it  is  the  anxiety  of  the 
mind,  proceeding  f:om  a  true  and  juft  reafon,  or 
from  a  vain  and  ridiculous  one.  Whence  Cicero.^ 
oral,  pro  Sexto,  fpeaks  thus  oi  Cornelius  Chryfogonus: 
He  deftres  you  would  be  pleafed  to  eradicate  from  his 
mind  that  fcruple  which  night  and  day  teazes  and 
pricks  him. 

An  erroneous,  or  falfe  confience,  is  that  which 
didlates  what  is  forbidden  by  the  law,  or  forbids 
what  the  law  commands. 

What  is  done  againft  our  confcience,  is  always 
morally  bad  ;  and  what  is  done  according  to  the 
diiStates  of  our  confcience,  is  not  always  good. 

All 


E     r    H    I    c    s. 


473 


All  that  IS  afled  againft  the  diflates  of  our  con- 
fcicnce  is  bad,  bccaufe  it  always  includes  a  perver- 
fiiy  of  mind,  and  an  inclination  to  (in  ;  and  he  that 
afts  thus,  knows  that  he  afls  ill. 

Likewife  all  that  is  done  according  to  the  dic- 
tates of  our  conli-'icnce,  is  not  always  good  ;  becaufe 
it  may  be  done  againft  the  order  and  the  law,  as  it 
happens  when  the  confcience  errs.  As  th.ntof  ihofe 
mentioned  by  Chrift,  to  his  apoftks,  John  xvi.  2. 
Tea  the  time  comes,  that  whofoever  kills  yu,  will 
think  that  he  does  God  fervice. 

Therefore  the  confcience,  generally  fpeaking, 
cannot  be  confidered  as  a  very  fecure  rule  of  our 
aftion ;  but  only  when  it  is  true  and  certain,  or 
when  it  is  agreeable  to  good  ordpr  and  the  law ; 
all  that  is  agreeable  to  it  being  good,  and  all  that 
is  repugnant  to  it  being  bad. 

A  confci:nce  which  errs,  excufes  from  fin,  when 
the  error  proceeds  from  that  ignorance  which  renders 
an  aiSlion  unvoluntary  ;  but  if  it  does  not  proceed 
from  fuch  an  ignorance,  it  cannot  excufe  from  fin. 

A  probable  confcience,  feems  fecuve  in  the  prac- 
tice; as  far  as  the  arguments  whereby  it  is  fupported 
are  folid,  and  morally  certain,  and  are  not  in  con- 
currence with  a  contrary  authority,  or  reafon  of 
an  equal  force. 

When  the  confcience  is  dubious,  we  muftmake 
ufe  of  the  rule  prefcribed  by  St  Paul,  Epift.  i. 
Thejfal.  v.  21.  Prove  all  things,  hold f aft  that  which 
is  good.  And  confequently  if  the  reafons  are  of  an 
equal  force  on  both  fides,  we  muft  either  abfiain 
from  a(£ling,  if  poflible,  or  incline  on  that  fide, 
which  is  more  agreeable  to  the  good  order,  and 
favours  lefs  our  cupidity  :  for  though  that  fide 
{hoiild  not  appear,  perhaps,  the  more  probable,  or 
fupported  with  the  ftrongell  reafons  ;  it  is,  noiwith- 
fianding,  themofl  fecure,  and  fartheft  from  danger. 

If  we  follow  that  rule  of  St.  Paul,  it  will  be 
difficult  to  determine,  if  we  can,  with  a  fafe  con- 
fcience follow  the  doiStrine  of  prcbability,  in  our 
condudl.  That  dodlrine  confifts  in  this,  that  a 
probable  opinion,  provided  it  be  probable,  though 
in  concurrence  with  one  more  probable  and  fin- 
cere,  can  be  propoftd  a  falfe  rule  of  our  aflions 
or  condu£l.     Whence  it  follows, 

1.  That  any  probable  opinion,  can  be  preferred 
to  one  more  probable. 

2.  That  when  a  divine  is  confulred,  he  can 
anfwer  according  to  a  lefs  probable  opinion,  tho' 
in  concurrence  with  one  more  probable  ;  and 
even  againft  his  own  fentiment,  give  advice  ac- 
cording to  the  opinion  of  another,  tho'  lefs  probable; 
becaufe  that  opinion  lefs  probable,  is  notwithfland- 
ing  probable  ;  and  confequently  according  to  that 
dodrine,  very  fecure. 

They  diftinguifli  two  iortsoi probability,  viz..  an 
intrinfic  probability,    and  an  extrinf.c  probability. 


They  call  intrinfic  probability,  that  taken  from  a 
probable  argumtnt,  whereby  the  mind  is  inwardly 
afftfted.  And  extrinftc probability,  that  which  is 
fupported  by  the  fentiment  and  authority  of  fome 
emnient  dlvmes.   Thus  talk  the  Schoolmen  :  But, 

For  my  part  I  am  of  opinion,  that  this  doc- 
trine of  probabiliiy  is  to  be  banifhed  from  among  us, 
as  very  prejudicial  to  the  good  order  of  a  civil 
fociety  ;  and  for  other  reafons. 

The  next  thing  we  are  to  do,  is  to  enquire  if 
the  afl-Ldlions  of  the  foul  are  fubject  to  the  pre- 
cepts of  a  moral  difcipline,  and  what  is  their 
ufe. 

The  Schools  diftinguifhtwo  forts  of  principles  of 
the  human  ads,  viz.  thofe  which  are  born  with 
us,  and  thofe  which  are  acqwrtd :  thofe  have  been 
granted  to  us  by  nature,  viz.  underflanding  and 
will  ;  and  thcfe  are  acquired  by  application,  and 
repeated  a£ts.  Thefe  are  good  and  ill  habiis,  or 
w/;<«  and  vices  :  of  which  i'il  treat  in  this  place, 
as  well  in  general,  as  in  particular ;  and  firft  we 
muff  know   what's  v'rtue    and  what's  vice. 

Three  things  are  to  be  confidered  in  the  foul, 
fays  Ariftotle,  lib.  2.  eihic.  c.  4.  viz.  its  thoughts 
and  motions,  a^,  perception,  love,  (Jc.  afterwards 
the  faculties  or  natural  powers  neceffarv  to  &&.  or 
fufFcr,  as,  the  underftanding  and  ivill.  Laflly,  the 
habits,  either  good  or  bad  :  that's  to  fay,  which 
incline  us  either  to  good  or  evil.  The  good  habits 
are  called  virtues,  and  the  bad  vires. 

I'll  fpeak  firft  of  the  virtues  infufed,  which  are 
thofe  infufed  into  us  by  the  Almig'  ty  without  our 
concurrence;  fuch  are  the  virtues  called  theological,  . 
v'.z.  faith,  hope,  and  charity.  To  thefe  are  joined, 
by  a  certain  t\e  of  afHnity,  the  habitual  and  fanc- 
tifying  grace,  the  gift  of  perfeverance,  or  the  grace 
of  petfevering  in  the  praftice  of  virtue^to  the  latter 
end  of  one's  life,  the  gifts  of  the  Holy  Cjhoft, 
IsSc. 

Faith  is  a  theological  virtue,  divinely  infufed, 
whereby  a  created  foul  confents  or  agrees,  that  all 
that  God  has  revealed  is  true,  though  It  be  {..r 
above  our  appreheiifu  11  or  underftanding.  Whence 
the  material  objeif  of  faith  is  God  ;  and  the  for- 
mal one,  or  the  manner,  wherewih  God  is  con- 
fidered by  faith,  is  ccmmonly  exprelTed  in  thefe 
words,  inafmuch  as  Gcd  is  the  firft  truth  j  that  is 
to  fay,  as  he  cannot  deceive  or  be  deceived  ;  and 
conftquently  he  deferves  the  confent  ot  our  will, 
and  the  fubJLcffion  of  our  underftanding,  in  all  thofe 
things  hepiopofes  for  ohjeds  of  our  f:iith  ;  whence 
it  appears,  that  our  natural  knowledge  of  God,  and 
even  of  our  own  mind,  precedes  fai  h  :  for  if  we 
were  net  to  know  thatGod  is  fovereignly  true,  and 
fovereignly  potent,  and  ihat  our  mind  is  nunh 
limited  in  its  conceptions,  we  could  not  eafily 
fubjed  ourfelves  to  the  m\fteiies  of  faith. 

Hope, 


474  ^^  Unlverfal  Hlflory  of  Arts  /t??^/ Sciences. 


Hope,  is   a  t'ncdogical   virtue,   wliich  regards 
the  fovereigii  good,  as  abfent ;  and  with  a  certain 
confidence,  that  it  is  fometimes  to  be  obtained  or  ; 
poiTefled.  Or,  it  is  a  virtue  divinely  infufed,  wliereby  i 
v/e  expQ£i:,  with  a  certain  confidence,  our  (alva-  \ 
tioii,  or  eternal  ttlicity  ;    its  material  chjei^l,  is  alio  \ 
God  ;  and  its   formal  obje:),  is  exprefled  in   thefe  I 
terms,    inalmuch  as   God   is  to   be  obtained   or 
poflcired  in  limeto  come  :  therefore />5/)^incl>jdes  the 
dt^re  of  an   Bbltnt  good  j  and  without  that  det'irc 
tiicre  would  be  no  liope. 

Char  IT  y,  is  a  theoiogica!  virtue,  V/hereby 
God  is  beloved  above  all  things;  and  for  hinifeif, 
or  for  his  fuprcnie  goodncfs  ;  and  all  the  otlier 
things  for  God.  For  this  is  the  order  of  love,  t'^at 
the  fupreme  good  fhould  be  beloved  for  himfelf, 
and  all  other  things  for  him.  And  as  that  order, 
when  it  invites  uj  by  its  btautv,  is  nothing  elli; 
but  God  himfelf:  Chaifty  is  nothing  elfe,  likewifc, 
but  a  fupernatural  love  of  the  order,  whereby  God 
is  beloved  for  himfelf,  becaufe  he  is  fovereignly 
good,  and  all  other  things  for  him. 

The  natural  and  ac^juired  virtues,  are  thofe  ac 
quired  by  repeated  acls,  and  thel'e  are  called  cither 
inteileftual,  or  moral. 

Thofe  are  called  intelle^lual  virtues,  which  pro- 
mote the  knowledge  of  the  mind  ;  and  which, 
confcquentlv,  have  a  greater  relation  to  the  un- 
•deritanding ;  fince  knowledge,  or  perception,  is 
the  office  of  the  underiianding. 

Jlrljiotk,  lib.  6.  Eihlc.  c,  2.  reckons  five  of 
thefe  habitual  virtues,  viz.  underjiandlug,  ivijdom, 
fclcnce,  prudence,  and  art. 

Several,  after  Arlflotle,  define  Wisdom,  a  cer- 
tain jnlTane  fcieucc,  or  a  knowledge  of  fu  lime 
things. 

UndciyTandlrg  is  the  kmvjhdge  of  the  fir/l  prin- 
ciples, or  mojl  common  tiollons,  which  is  not  fo 
much  a  new  habit  of  the  mind,  as  it  is  the  mind 
itfclf,  naturally  confidered.  For  the  mind,  by  the 
Ible  didfatts  of  nature,  perceives  and  embraces  the 
common  notions,  or  adlions  ;  fuch  as  thefe,  it  is 
impojfblc  to  he,  and  not  to  he,  at  one  end  toe  fame 
time.  The  whole  is  greater  than  a  part  thereof 
&c. 

The  name  of  zvifdom,  is  to  be  taken  in  two 
m:inners,  viz..  either  for  a  collection  of  all  forts  of 
fciences,  or  for  the  knowledge  of  all  things,  as 
well  univerfal  as  fublime. 

Science,  is  commonly  defined,  a  true,  certain, 
and  evident  knowledge  of  every  thing. netejjiiry,  and 
imnaitohle,  for  the  true  and  pr- per  caufs  for  ivhieh 
it  is  fitch ;  or  for  xvhicb  it  is  confantly  affirmed  or 
denied  that  it  is  fuch. 

It  is  firft  laid  a  hiowledj'c,  or  cognition,  not 
a<3:ual  as  they  fpeak,  but  habitual,  /.  e.  the  facility 


of  knowing,  not  the  aft  or  motion  of  him  that 
knows.  F"or  the  fcience  of  a  thing,  remains  even 
in  a  perfon  while  aflccp,  and  ^ict  at  all  thinki.ng  o^ 
that  thing;  provided  he  has  before  rendered  him- 
felf pcrfcit  in  that  knowledge,  by  his  aiiiduous  ap- 
plication and  ffudy;  that  he  may  underibnd  it 
when  he  refleiSls  on  it. 

Secondly,  [t  is  a  true  knowledge,  not  of  all 
things  indiiiercntly,  butof  a.  necefiary  thing,  orof 
a  thing  which  cannot  be  otherwix.  Thus  he  whe 
knows  that  the  eclipfe  of  the  moon,  happens  from 
the  intcrpofition  of  the  earth  between  the  fun  anci 
the  moon,  knows  a  thing  which  cannot  be  other- 
wife  ;  for  it  is  impofTiblc  that  the  moon  fhould  not 
fuffer  an  eclipfe,  by  the  interpofition  of  (b  opake  a 
body  as  is  the  earth,  between  her  and  the  fun, 
from  which  (he  borrows  her  whole  light.  In 
which,  fcience  is  diftinguiflied  from  prudence  and 
art,  which  are  employed  about  things  contingent, 
as  well  as  about  thofe  which  are  necefiary. 

S'ience,  is,  befijes,  &  cognition  or  knowLdge  of  « 
thing  by  its  caufcs,  or  the  reafon  why  that  thing  is ; 
or  efc,  for  which  it  is  affirmed  or  denied  to  be  fo. 
Whereby  it  is  evident,  that  fcience  is  not  a  bare 
perception  of  a  thing,  or  to  fpeak  the  language 
of  the  Ichools,  an  apprehenfion,  without  afHrma- 
tion  or  negation ;  but  a  knowledge  acquired  by 
ratiocination,  and  coniequcntly  joined  with  the 
judgment,  or  alfo  a  collection  of  feveral  percep- 
tions and  judgmeiKs.  However,  fcience,  belides 
the  perception  of  the  underflanding,  wliich  is 
paffive,  includes  the  afTent  of  the  will,  or  the 
judgment  which  is  active.  For  we  do  not  only 
conceive  a  thing  by  means  oi  xht  fciences,  but 
affirm,  befidcs,  that  what  we  conceive,  is  fuch  as 
we  conceive  it. 

Science  is  a!(b  a  fiire  knnvledge,  i.  e.  firm,  per- 
manent, and  fupported  by  certain  immutable  argu- 
ments ;  to  diftinguifh  from  opinion,  which  is  un- 
certain. 

Laflly,  it  is  an  evident  knowledge,  /.  e.  mani- 
feft  and  perfpicuous,  or  eftabiifhed  on  clear  and 
evident  principles,  to  diftinguifh  it  from  faith; 
which  is  true  and  certain,  but  dark.  Thus  it  is 
true  and  certain  that  in  the  blefTed  Trinity  there  is 
one  nature  and  three  perfons,  but  that  is  oblcure, 
and  known  by  the  fole  authcritv  oi  God,  who  has 
revealed  it,  and  not  bv  an  evident  reafon. 
!  Prudence,  as  well  as  wifdom,  is  taken  in  two 
lenfcs,  viz.  either  for  fciefice,  or  general  knowledge 
of  things,  which  pertains  to  life  and  manners,  and 
this  is  called  a  general  prudence ;  or  for  the  practical 
and  eflicacious  knowledge  of  thofe  things,  which 
on  all  occafions  are  to  be  adted  by  an  honeit  man, 
and  is  ciilled  particular  prudence,  or  cardinal  virtue  : 
of  which  I  will  fijeak  by  and  by. 

Lailly, 


E 


r 


Hies, 


4  m  ^ 


Lafily,  art,  ii  the  praH'tcal  knowledge  of  things 
which  can  he  accompliflied  by  indiijiry  ;  which  confifls 
oF  two  parts,  t)\i  firft  and  fuperior  part  of  art^  is 
the  knowledge  of  the  mind  ;  if  it  be  either  intelli- 
gence only,  or  fcience :  the  fecond  and  inferior,  is 
the  execution,  or  work  of  the  artilt.  Though 
jirijfotle,  lib.  6.  Ethic,  c.  4.  makes  a  difference 
between  what  is  called  effsSlion,  and  aftion,  or 
praflice;  that  praSlice  is  a  moral  aSlion,  in  winch 
the  intention  of  the  perfon  that  affs,  is  confidered 
comparatively  to  a  moral  honejly;  and  cffcllion  is 
any  operation.,  in  which  the  inJuilry  or  (kill  of  the 
perfon.,  who  ail<,  is  confidered.  In  which  fenfc  the 
effe^ion  is  good,  while  the  aSiion  is  bad,  as  when 
a  perfon  robs  another  of  his  purfe  with  great  dex- 
terity; and  the  aSiion  good,  while  the  effeSlion  is 
bad,  as  it  happens  in  a  mother,  who  to  fave  her 
fon  from  an  imminent  danger,   fulTocates  him. 

Moral  virtues  are  thofe,   which  incline  our  will  to 


other  caufc  :  and  likcwife,  he  can  have  the  virtue 
of  temperance,  or  a  conftant  love  for  order  in  the 
objeft  of  temperance,  though  he  cannot  very  v:^ll 
praiSlife  the  adfs  of  temperance. 

The  next  thing,  which  falls  under  our  confide- 
ration,  is  the  divifion  of  the  moral  virtues. 

If  virtue  can  be  confidered  as  nothing  elfe,  out 
an  habitual  love  ef  order,  or  a  firm  and  conjlant  love 
of  an  bone/i  mediocrity,  governed,  or  direP.ed  in  arv 
jubjcil,  by  right  reafon  -.  there  is  certainly  a  general 
virtue,  which  for  the  different  reafons,  or  manners, 
by  which  order  is  prefcrved  in  difTersnt  material 
objeds,  can  be  divided  into  difTerent  kinds  ;  and  is 
in  fafl,  divided  into  cardinal  virtues,  i.  e.  thofc, 
which  ought  to  give  motion  to,  or  influence  all  the 
anions  of  our  life  ;  and  in  adjuitSf,  or  concern  'lant, 
which  flow  from  the  cardinals,  and  are  referred  to 
them. 

We  commonly  reckon  four  cardinal  virtues,  viz. 


a  moral  good,  which  the  infufed  virtues  do,  as  well    prudence,  juftice,  fortitude,  and  temperance.  This 


as  the  moral  ones.  Therefore,  virtue,  generally 
fpeaking,  is  very  well  defined  by  St.  Augujlin,  lib.  ' 
eSiogint.  quxjl.  3 1 .  An  habit  of  the  mind,  agreeable 
to  nature  and  reajon,  i.  e.  inclining  to  aiff,  what  is 
placed  in  fojufta  mediocrity,  that  it  neither  ex- 
ceeds the  juft  limits  of  reafon  and  order,  nor  falls  \ 
fliort  from  it. 


number  is  allerted  by  the  authority  of  feveral  divine 
writers:  and  iirfl,  JVifd.  viii.  7.  For  the  wife 
teacheth  folriety,  i.e.  temperance  a):d  frudence,  juf- 
tice and  virtue,  I.  e..  fortitude;  nothing  in  life  being 
?nore  ufeful  to  manki>id. 

Cicero  enumerated   thofe  four  virtues,  lib.  i.  de 
officiis.     All  that  is    honej},  fays  he,  proceeds  from 


A  virtue,  or  good  habit  of  what  kind  (bever,  fonte  of  thcfe  four  parts ;  for  it  is  either  employed  in 
coniifts  of  two  parts,  one  fuperior,  which  com-  the  conftderation  of  the  truth,  or  in  fecuring  the  good 
mands  and  governs,  and  the  other  inferior,  which  ,  order  in  a  civil  fociety,  by  promoting  and  countenanc- 
ferves  and  obeys.  \ing  the  dijlributive  jufiice,  and  encouraging  probity  \ 

The  fuperior  part  of  virtue  is  that  affeSIion  or  or  in  fitpporting  magnanimity  and  courage;  or  pre- 
difpofition  of  the  mind,  which  follows  every  where  ferving  a  good  order,  or   a  jufl  fubordination,  in 


an  honefl  temperament,  with  regard  to  the  perfon 
that  a£ls,  the  place,  the  time,  and  all  the  circum- 
ftances.  For  the  fame  things  do  not  become  every 
one,  nor  the  fame  things  become  the  fanie  perfon 
at  all  times. 


which  confijls  modefly  and  temperance. 

Thofe  virtues,  s'lihtv  cardinal  or  adjunSf,  are  Co 
well  united  together,  that  none  of  them  can  he 
obtained  in  a  perfect  {late,  without  the  others:  For 
a  perfeil  virtue  being  a  firm  ^and  con/lant  love  of 


The  inferior  part  of  virtue  is  the   facility  of,  order,  that  love  includes  all  virtues,  or  rather 


afting,  which  is  placed  entirely  in  the    impreffions 
received  in  the  brain,  in  the  determination   of  the 


but  one  and  the  fame  virtue,  which  to  be  perfect, 

requires  a  peife-ft  will  to  purfue  what  is  right  and 

animal  fpirits,  and  in  the  other  difpofitions  of  the  juft  in  every  fubjeit :  For,  that  man.  v.  g.  is   not 


body,  and  confequently  is  corporeal. 

This  inferior   part    may  be  confidered,    as  the 
is-Zy  of  virtue,  fince  it  is  this  part  that  operates,  or 


perfedllyjuft,  who  wants  fortitude,  or  tem.peranc?, 
or  liberality,  /.  e.  if  he  wants  the  love  of  order,  or 
the  fubjedl  of  temperance,  or  of  liberality,  or  of 


aiSVs,  V.  g.  he  X.h.At\\?iS  xhe  virtue  of  te7nperance,  t\\\s    fortitude;  an  intemperate  judoe,  for  example,  can 


through  an  inclination  to  order,  moderates  the 
fenfuality  of  the  tajie  and  touch ;  and  has  acquired 
to  him  by  a  long  ufe  and  ofcen  repeated  afls,  the 
facility  of  refraining  his  appetite.  And  that  faci- 
lity, which  has  its  feat  in  the  body,  is  rather  an 
zQi  of  virtue,  than  virtue  itfelf.  Becaufe  without 
the  leaft  inclination  for  a  good  order,  any  body 
may  acquire  the  facility  of  pra£tifnig  fome  acts  of 
temperance,  vi-z,.  when  he  refiains  his  appetite 
through  infirmity,  or  to  avoid  fitknefs,  or  for  any 
22 


be  tempted   by  plealure,  an   avaricious   one  cor- 
rupted by  money,  and  a  pu.lilaiiimous  one  frighted 
by  menaces.     Likewife,    no  body  can  obtain  tem- 
perance in  a  peifedt  ftate,   without  prudence,    idxi' 
the  other  virtues. 

Therefore  one  virtue  cannot  be  perfect  in  ;i  fib- 
Jcift,  but  in  fociety  with  all  the  others,  i  fay  that 
it  cannot  be  pcrfcift  without  the  others,  for  it  can 
be  imiK-rfcft  without  them;  fiiice  we  commonly 
diflinguilh  after  Ariftctle,  lib.  7.  Ethic,  c.  i.  three 


Ppp 


dijTer 


ent 


47^  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  (3!«<a^  Sciences. 


diffcient  ftates  of  virtue,  viz.  the  Imperfeil  flatc, 
called  the. /late  of  continetice ;  the  middle  jiate,  callud 
xhzjlate  of  temperance  \  and  laftly,  the  perfeStJiate, 
called  the  heroical. 

The  imperfefi  fiate  of  virtue  is  that,  in  which 
one  is  agitated  by  the  motions  of  his  affedlions,  to 
which  he  refifts,  though  with  a  certain  reludtancy; 
and  this  ftate  is  that  of  the  beginner!,  who  are  not 
yet  confirmed  in  virtue.  To  which  ftate  is  oppofed 
that  of  infirmity^  or  incontinence,  in  which  he  is 
not  yet  abandoni;d  to  vice,  and  entirely  reprobate, 
but  is  conquered  by  concupifccnce,  though  he  faintly 
refifts  it. 

The  middle  ftate  of  virtue  is  that,  in  which  one 
is  fo  confirmed  in  goodnefs,  that  though  he  be 
tempted  by  his  concupifccnce,  he  notwithftanding 
refiiis  to  it  the  eafier;  becaufe  he  has  made  a  long 
practice  of  that  refiftance;  and  this  is  the  ftate  of 
thofe,  who  make  a  progrefs  in  virtue.  To  which 
is  oppxjfed  the  ftate  of  perverfity,  or  malice,  in 
which  he  is  fo  ufed  to  vice,  that  he  feldom 
refifts  it. 

Laftly,  xheftdte  of  pcrfc5lion  of  virtue,  or  the 
heroical,  is  that  whereby  the  afi^ections  are  fo  well 
conquered,  that  they  cannot  maice  the  leaft  im- 
preffion  on  virtue ;  which  ftate  is  that  of  the 
perfefi.  To  which  is  oppofed  the  ftate  of  bruta- 
lity, whereby  one  is  brought  fo  much  beneath  the 
common  condition,  even  of  the  weakeft,  that  he 
in  fomc  meafure  degenerates  to  that  of  the  brutes ; 
whicli  ftate  is  commonly  called  the  ftate  oi obdurate 
nefs,  of  blindnejs,  and  of  Pharaoh.  In  both  ftates, 
viz.  the  middle  ftate,  and  the  perfedi,  but  more  par- 
ticularly in  the  perfeft,  or  heroical,  all  the  other 
virtues,  either  cardinal  or  concomitant,  are  united 
together;   but  not  in  the  imperfed  ftate. 

I  niufi  at  prefent,  fpeak  of  each  moral  virtue  in 
particular,  their  potential  and  integrant  parts. 

I  will  begin  by  prudence,  which  is  an  habit  a£iing 
in  concert  with  right  reafon,  in  thofe  things  which  are 
either  good  or  bad,  "xith  refpeii  to  man,  i.  e.  an  ha- 
bit whereby  we  know,  not  only  what  muft  be 
done  or  avoided,  but  likevvife,  whereby  we  love  to 
a£l,  and  a£l  what  is  to  be  acfted,  and  abftain  from 
v/hat  is  to  be  avoided,  becaufe  order  requires  it. 

In  the  fame  fenfe,  prudence  is  defined  by  Cicero, 
lib.  2.  dc  invc7it.  The  fcience  of  good  and  bad  things, 
and  of  both.  And  by  St.  Augujlin.  lib.  i.  de  liber. 
cirbi'.  c.  13.  the  fcience  of  things  to  be  defired,  and  to 
be  folded. 

We  commonly  reckon  after  Arijlotle,  three  po- 
tential parts,  or  three  offices  of  prudence,  vItc.  to 
confult  well,  to  ji:d/\e  right,  and  to  reduce  into  prac- 
tice, what  has  L^ en  judged  or  decreed. 

'Thomas  A'{ui:  as,  2  quafl.  48.  mentions  eight 
integi  ant  parts  of  prudence,  and  has  taken  them  in 


part  from  Arijlotle,  lib.  6.  ethic,  c.  10,  11,  and  12. 
in  part  from  Tully,  lib  1.  de  invent,  in  part  from 
Macrohius,  lib.  I.  infomn.  Scipion.  c.  8. or  alfofrom 
St.  Augu/lin,  lib.  83.  quaff.  31.  where  he  has 
tranfcribed  Cicero  word  for  word.  And  thofe 
integrant  parts  are  thefe,  memory,  iiUelligence, 
foreftght,  reafon,  docility,  dexterity  (to  which 
muft  be  added  fagacity)  circumfpeSlion,  and  cau- 
tion. 

Therefore,  to  xQnAiiT  ^t  prudence  perfeSf,  i»ne- 
ceflliry,  i.  Memory,  i.  e.  the  remembrance  of 
things  paft.  2.  Intelligence,  i.  e.  the  knowledge 
of  things  prefent.  3.  Forefight,  i.e.  the  prefence 
of  things  to  come.  4.  Reafon,  i.  e.  the  facility  of 
collefting  what  is  to  be  done  from  the  things  paft, 
prefent,  and  to  come.  5.  Docility,  or  a  good  dif- 
pofition  of  mind  to  take  and  follow  the  advice  and 
counfels  of  others.  6.  Sagacity  d,i\ii  dexterity,  i.e. 
an  eafy  apprehenfion,  and  application  of  the  means 
conducive  to  the  end  ;  for  fagacity  finds  and  dexte- 
rity executes  happily.  7.  CircumfpeHion,  or  a  fe- 
rious  confideration  of  all  the  circumftances.  8.  Cau- 
tion, or  care,  or  folicitude,  to  avoid  all  that  could 
be  an  obftacle  to  the  undertaking. 

The  fpccies  or  kinds  of  prudence,  zre  the  prudence 
wherewith  we  govern  ourfeives,  and  the  prudence 
wherewith  we  govern  others.  And  this  laft  fort  of 
prudence  is  again  divided  into  other  kinds  ;  for  it  is 
either  ceconomical,  whereby  a  family  is  governed  ; 
or  political,  whereby  a  city  or  republic  is  govern- 
ed :  but  thekfpecies  do  not  differ  among  themielves, 
with  regard  to  their  principles,  viz.  to  a  mind 
loving  order  ;  but  only  with  regard  to  the  object  it 
confiders  ;  and  then  they  differ  only  with  regard  to 
the  material  object,  viz.  with  regard  to  what  is 
a(fted  in  a  family,  or  a  city ;  but  not  with  regard  to 
the  formal  objects. 

The  vices,  oppofite  to  pruder.ce,  wound  it  ei;her 
through  excefs  or  defedt. 

The  vices  which  affedt  prudence  through  excefs,, 
are,  i.  The  prudence  of  the  fejh  ;  which  is  employ- 
ed in  gratifying  our  fenfual  appetites.  2.  A  too. 
great  folicitude  for  temporal  goods  ;  which  proceeds 
either  from  an  immoderate  defire  of  pofleffing 
them,  or  from  an  exceftlve  fear  of  lofmg  them. 
3.  Fraud,  ox fineffe,  or  deceit;  which  is  concert- 
ing dangerous  meafures  to  deceive  others.  When. 
^('iV/V  confifts  only  in  words,  it  is  called  ^«^; 
2cc\i  fraud,  v/hen  it  proceeds  to  fa£ts :  though  oft- 
ner  deceit  and  fraud  zse  indiiFerently  taken  for  one 
and  the  fame  thing. 

The  vices  oppofite  to  prudence,  proceed  very  of- 
ten from  ignorance  ;  and  therefore  may  be  gene- 
rally ftyled  want  of  prudence :  of  this  there  are  feve- 
ral  kinds,  viz.  precipitation^  inconjideration,  ir.con- 
Jlancy,  and  negligence, 

Prcci- 


ETHICS. 


Precipitation  is  a  vice  whereby  any  one  under- 
takes fo:Tiething  without  a  mature  deliberation  ;  and 
this  oppofitc  to  conrukation. 

Inconfidertition  is  a  vice,  vv^hereby  a  judgment  is 
given,  or  pronounced  without  the  leaft  attention  to 
the  means  ;  and  rhi.j  oppollte  to  a  good  underl'caiid- 
ing  or  intelligence. 

Inconjlnmy  is  changing  one's  opinion,  on  any 
flight  or  frivolous  account. 

Negligence  is  a  want  of  diligence,  or  care  in  the 
execution  of  our  affairs. 

'I  he  term  Justice  is  often  taken  in  a  wide 
fenfe,  vi%.  for  lanititv,  or  the  aflemblage  of  all 
forts  of  virtues  :  thus  it  is  ufed  in  the  facred  fcrip- 
turcs,  Matth,  i.  19.  yof-ph  is  called  juji,  i.  e. 
eminent  for  faniSity. 

The  firft  kind  of  juftice  is  commonly  called  ge- 
neral jujiice^  ov  legal  juftice  ;  which  contains  all  the 
law,  and  all  the  other  virtues:  but  there  is  another 
fort  of  juftice,  called  particular  or  fpecial,  the  fe- 
cond  among  the  cardinal  virtues  ;  and  properly 
called  dijlributive  juftice,  whereby  we  give  every 
one  his  own.  This  ju/f ice  is  defined  by  the  empe- 
ror 'yuylinian,  a  conftant  and  perpetual  will,  to  give 
everv  one  his  due,  or  right. 

Rigl't  is  all  that  is  juft  and  equitable;  or  what 
is  a  medium  between  two  vicious  extreams :  there- 
fore, thofe  who  contend  or  difpute  for  fomething, 
have  recourfe  to  a  judge,  as  to  a  divifor  or  partiti- 
oner,  who  divides  between  them  what  they  contend 
for,  according  to  the  rules  of  equity,  and  declares 
what  part  belongs  to  every  one. 

The  fpecial  juftice,  which  is  the  fecond  among 
the  cardinal  virtues,  is  divided  into  commutative,  and 
dijlrihutive,  as  into  fpecies. 

The  commutative  jujVice  is  that  which  keeps  or 
maintains  an  equality,  in  commutations  of  goods, 
in  contrafts  and  covenants. 

The  dijiributive  jujlice  is  that  which  diftributes 
rewards,  or  recompence,  according  to  the  merit 
and  condition  of  perfons  ;  and  when  it  inflicts  anj 
puniflimeiit,  according  to  the  atrocity  of  the  crime, 
it  is  called  vindiHive. 

Both  eftablifh  a  certain  equality  :  but  in  the  di- 
Jlribut've  jujlice,  is  obferved  a  geometrical  propor- 
tion ;  and  in  the  commutative,  an  arithmetical  one. 
For  when  the  dijiributive  juftice  is  employed  in  di- 
ftributing  recompences,  or  inflifting  punifliments, 
it  has  not  only  regard  to  the  merit,  recompence, 
or  to  the  pain,  but  likewife  compares  the  perfons; 
for  there  is  to  be  the  fame  difference  between  the 
pains,  or  the  rewards,  as  there  is  between  the  per- 
fons, or  the  merits  or  deferts;  and  therefore  as 
much  as  a  captain  furpaffes  a  private  foldier  in 
rank  or  dignity,  lb  much  greater  muft  be  his  re- 
compence, when  they  have  both  equally  done  a 
brave  adion. 


477 


But  the  cojnmutative  jujlice  wants  a  perfefl  equa- 
.lity,  and  has  no  regard  to  perfons  or  to  any  other 
circumftanccs.  So  tlv»t  as  much  as  the  thing  de- 
duced in  the  commutation,  or  in  the  contradl,  is 
worth  ;  as  much  muft  be  worth  the  price  given 
for  that  thing,  without  the  leaft  regard  to  the  per- 
fons who  change,  or  to  the  manner  thev  chano-ein  ; 
or,  which  is  the  fame,  as  much  one  thin^  exceeds 
the  other,  as  much  muft:  the  price  of  that  one 
thing  furpafs  the  price  of  the  other. 

There  are  two  integrant  parts  o^ jujlke,  viz.  to 
aljiain  from  evil,  and  to  do  good ;  becaufa  thofe 
parts  are  requifite  for  a  perfedl  act  oi juftice. 

There  are  eight  potential  parts  of  jujlice,  where- 
by it  performs  its  operations,  as  if  they  were  (o 
many  faculties  or  organs,  viz.  religion,  piety,  re- 
fpe£f,  truth,  gratitude,  correSiion,  liberality,  and 
amity,  to  which  they  add  affability.  See  Cicero^ 
de  inventione. 

Religion  is  that  moral  virtue,  which  renders  to 
God  the  worfliip  due  to  him,  in  confeffing  his  fu- 
prcme  power  and  excellence.  That  wor/hip,  is  ren  - 
dered  to  God,  either  inwardly,  /  e.  by  devotion  and 
meditation,  or  outv/ardly,  by  adoration,  vows,  i2c. 

Piety,  according  to  Cicero,  is  a  virtue,  whereby 
we  acquit  ourfelves  of  our  duties  to  our  prince,  to 
our  country,  to  our  parents,  and  to  all  our  other 
relations.  Piety  is  alfo  taken  among  chriftians  for 
devotion. 

Refpecl  is  that  part  oi jujlice,  whereby  men  re- 
fped  and  reverence  thofe,  who  are  above  them, 
either  by  their  age,  wifdom,  honour,  or  dignity. 

Truth,  or  as  fome  others  call  it  veracity,  is  a 
moral  virtue,  whereby  we  take  care  that  nothino- 
fliould  be  faid  but  what  really  is,  has  been,  or  is  to  be. 

Gratitude  is  that  which  contains  the  remem- 
brance of  paft  fervice,  or  kindneffes,  and  the  will 
of  rewarding  them. 

Corre^ion,  according  to  Tidly,  is  a  virtue  where- 
by we  repel  the  violence  and  ahronts  offered  to  us, 
to  ours,  and  all  thofe,  who  are  dear  to  us,  and 
whereby  we  punifli  crimes.  But  it  is  not  licit,  but 
to  thofe  only,  who  are  placed  above  the  reft,  to 
corred  the  delinquents,  or  at  leaft  reprimand  them, 
to  procure,  or  maintain  the  public  tranquiiit\^,  and 
to  countenance  jay? Av. 

Liberality  is  defined  hy  Arijlotle,  lib.  4.  ethic,  c.  I. 
a  virtue,  which  keeps  a  medium  between  given  and 
receiving  money.  It  is  faid  to  differ  from  beneft- 
cence,  in  that  beneficence  confifts  in  the  diltribution 
of  all  forts  of  goods  ;  2.<[\A  liberality,  only  in  that  of 
money. 

Affability  is  a  virtue,  whereby  we  ftudy  to  be- 
have ourfelves  in  a  civil  fociety,  with  that  freedom 
and   complairance,    which  become  us  ;    to  which 
are  oppofed,  infalence,  haughtinejs,    and  morofity. 
P  P  P  2  Arjiotle 


47^  The  UniverM  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^«^/ Sciences. 


Arljlotle  defines  amity,  lih.  8.  ethic,  c.  2  en  oppn 
mutual  benevolence.",  founded  on  fome  good,  either 
profitable,  agreeable,  or  honefi;  ;  but  that  only. 
which  is  founded  on  the  honei}  good,  deferves  that 
appellation  ;  becaufe  it  is  a  part  of  juftice  whereby 
we  return  love  for  love. 

The  \'ice  generally  oppofed  to  juftice,  is  injujlice, 
.Tnd  which  can  offend  juftice  in  different  manners, 
z/z.  either  through  ^.vccy}  or  rt'^i-^;?,  thougli  in  both 
it  retains  the  name  of  injujlice. 

Therefore,  i .  The  dijirihutive  juf.ice,  can  be  of 
fended  through  defecEt,  either  in  the  diftribution  of 
recomiiences,  or  of  painsjforif  a  prince  grants  more 
honour,  more  glory,  and  greatpr  recompences  to  a 
perfon  than  he  really  deferves,  he  fms,  thro'  excels  ; 
if  lefs,  through  defeft.  Likewife,  when  greater 
punifliments  are  infiifted  on  the  guilty,  than 
their  crime  deferves,  the  excefs  is  in  the  mat- 
ter of  the  vindidive  juftice,  and  is  called  cruelty  ; 
if  the  punifhment  is  much  more  lefs  than  the  crime, 
it  is  a  defect,  or  a  too  great  indulgency. 

7..  Excefs  znA  Defect,  have  place  in  the  matter  of 
commutative  juji ice,  v.  g.  when  fomething  is  fold  or 
bought  too  dear,  or  when  in  commutation  of  goods, 
fomething  is  given  or/eceived  befides  the  principal, 
juftice  is  oftended  through  excefs  ;  if  lefs  is  paid  than 
received,  then  we  deviate  from  iuftice,  through  de- 
fc£i.  Whence  juftice  can  be  ofFended  not  only 
through  ^f/f<f?,  but  likewife  through  excefs,  with 
regard  to  its  matter,  or  as  they  call  it,  its  material 
obje£f. 

Fortitude'is  defined  by  Arifictle,  lib.  3.  ethic  c.  9. 
A  mediocrity  or  medium,  betvueen  temerity  and  fear. 
It  can  alfo  be  defined,  A  virtue  between  temerity  and 
fear,  in  the  dangers  our  rtafon  commands  us  to  en- 
counter, or  in  fupporting  with  ccniiancy.  the  adverfi- 
ties.  Therefore,  the  material  fubjecl:  of  fortitude 
are  the  perils  we  are  to  encounter,  when  our  reafon 
requires  it,  v.g.inz  juft  war,  undertaken  in  the 
defence  of  religion,  of  our  prince,  or  of  our  coun- 
try ;  or  the  adverfities,  which  are  either  to  be 
repelled  where  they  aflail,  or  fupported  with  con- 
ftancv. 

Therefore,  there  are  two  oppofiteacls  in  fortitude, 
viz.  to  encounter,  or  admit  the  peril  when  it  is  pro 
per  ,  a.ndfupport,  or  fufi:er  with  an  heroical  con- 
ftancv,  the  greateft  adverfities  ;  both  afts  muft  be- 
entirely  direfted  by  right  reafon,  or  the  love  of 
order.  For  we  are  not  to  attempt  any  thing  with 
a  too  great  temerity,  nor  fear  it  wjthout  reafon.  But 
a  brave  man  muft  be  always  in  a  certain  medium 
between  temerity  and  fear. 

Aquinas,  2.  2.  queft.  128.  art.  I.  reckons  four 
integrant  parts  of  fortitude,  which  can  be  called  po- 
ftntial,  viz.  confidence,  magnificency,  patience,  and 
perfcverance.     Which  7«/'/y  remembers  alfo,  lib.  x 


de  invent,  of  thefe,  confidence  and  magnificency  re- 
gard more  particularly  the  aggrejfion,  and  patience, 
and  perjeveranee,  the  adt  of  fupporting ;  thou"li 
every  one  of  them  fcems  to  be  agreeable  to  both 
adts. 

Therefore,  corfdence  can  be  defined  that  part  of 
fortitude,  whereby  the  mind  imagines,  that  it  caa 
undertake  and  fupport  the  moft  difficult  things^ 
where,  and  wlien  it  is  proper.  But  if  rhofe  thornr 
and  arduous  things  are  not  common,  and  not  to  be 
undertaken  by  ordinary  aiffs,  then  they  become' 
the  objc£t  of  magnanimity,  which  difteis  both  in. 
name  and  effeft  from  fortitude. 

Magnificency,  according  to  TuHy,  is  the  execu- 
tion of  great  and  pompous  things,  which  if  it  con- 
fifts  in  expences,  has  a  \e.iy  ftridf  connedtion  with" 
liberality. 

Patience,  or  conjlancy,  is  a  virtue  whereby  our 
mind  is  fuftained,   and  ftrengthened  in  adverfities. 

Perfcverance,  is  a  firm  refolution  in  what  we  have 
once  determined,  if  it  be  either  to  attack,  defend 
or  fupport. 

It  would  be  needlefs  to  rehearfe  here,  the  vices 
oppofite  to  fortitude,  fince  they  are  contained  in  its 
definition.  For  temerity  is  oppofed  to  it,  through" 
excefs,  and  fear  and  cowardice,  through  defe£I. 
1  hus  pride  and  pufillaniiriity  are  oppofed  to 
magnanimity,  fays  Arifhtl ,  lir.  4.  ethic,  c.  9.  for 
a  man  mult  be  intrepid,  but,  not  mad,  as  the 
Gauls,  who,  fays  Ariflotle  again,  lib  3.  ethic. 
c.  10.  were  afraid  neither  of  earthquakes,  nor  of 
tempefts. 

1  call  temperance,  with  Ariflotle,  lib.  3.  ethic. 
c,  13.  a  cardinal  virtue  winch  inoderates  the  fen- 
[ual  appetite,  efpecially  in  the  tajle  and  touch. 

The  fpecies  or  kijids  of  temperance,  are  abjlinence, 
fohriety,  chaftity,   and  purity. 

Ahflinence  is  imagined  to  confift  in  eatino-,  antf 
fohriety  in  drinking  ;  chaftity  is  to  abflain  from  all 
illicit  pleafures  ;  purity  from  ^1  impure  fights 
and  touch  or  feeling  :  but  there  are  three  degrees 
of  chaftity,  viz.  virginal,  conjugal,  and  of  viduiry. 

Purity  is  derived  from  pudor ,  <and  pudor  is  a 
trouble  of  the  mind,  occafioned  by  any  thing  which 
can  caufe  fhame. 

There  are  two  integrant  parts  of  temperance,  viz. 
modefly,  and  honejly.  Alodefty  is  the  flying  from  all 
that  has  the  leaft  mark  of  intemperance ;  and  ho- 
nefty  is  what  appears  moft  honourable  in  the  afts 
of  temperance.  Therefore,  honeft  znd  honourable, 
in  this  place,  fignify  the  fame  thing  ;  in  which 
fenfe,Tully  fays,  lib.  i.  de  offic  that  what  is  honour- 
able is  hnejl,  and  what  is  honeji  honourable. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  tell  exaftly  the  number  of 
X^i^  potential  parts  of  temperance.  The  firft  \f,  con~ 
tinence,  which  refills  the  motions  of  the  concupi- 

fcence 


ETHICS. 


479 


Iccncc  provoking  to  intemperance.  The  fecond  is 
humility,  which  inclines  a  man  to  confefs  ingenu- 
oully  his  iniper.cdlions.  The  third  is  meeknefs, 
which  moderates  rath,  as  clemency  does  venge- 
ance. Tlie  fourth  i=  mod<:/ly,  v  iiich  keeps  in  due 
order  the  internal  and  external  motions  of  the 
mind;  and  is  defined  by  Cicero,  lib.  z.  de  invent,  a 
virtue,  whereby  an  hontjl  fliam-  acquire >  ajujl  undpcr- 


greateft  fentiments  of  gratitude  towards  that  fupreme 
and  eternal  Being,  who  has  been  pleafed  to  diftin- 
guiOi  us  in  (b  particular  and  excellent  a  manner 
from  the  reft  of  hi;,  creatures  ;  and  to  raife  our  mind 
from  the  contemplation  of  our  own  excellency,  to 
that  of  the  divine  architect,  who  has  mwde  us  his 
mailer-piece.  'I  hat  contemplation  will  foon  make 
us  underftand  that  we  ought  to  love  him,  vviih  all 


manent  authority.      I  he  fihhisjiifdioufnefs,  which  '  the  faculties  of  that  foul  he  has  created  of  fo  noble 

and  fo  excellent  a  nature;  and  modeli^e  all  the 
actions  of  our  life,  according  to  thofe  falutary  rules, 
which  in  his  great  wifdom  he  lias  elt'.bliliitd  to 
render  them  agreeable  to  him  ;  and  which  is  not  to 
be  confidered  as  a  laborious,  but  rather  as  an  ho- 
nourable tafk.  For  what  muft  we  be,  whofe  vows 
and  prayers  a  fupreme  and  immenfe  Being  will 
have  the  condefcenfion  to  hear  and  excufe  ?  there- 
foie  none  but  thofe  who  foriret  themfelves,  will  alfo' 


confines  the  defire  of  knowledge  within  juft  limits 
The  fixth,  urbanity,  which  regulates  our  recreati- 
ons and  diverfions.  The  fevcnth,  msderation, 
which  direiSls  us  in  the  care  we  take  of  our  perfon. 
■  The  wV«  oppofite  to  temperance  are  either  thro' 
excefs-,  or  thro'  defcti  ;  but  feveral  of  them  have  no 
name.  Therefore,  i.  Intemperance,  whereby  one 
abandons  himft-lf  beyond  meafiire  to  the  pleafures 
of  the  i'lT/?^  -Mvl  feeling,  is  oppofed  to  temperance 
through  excefs  and  through  defe<5l  ;  infenfibility, 
when  the  fen fual  pleafures,  ordered  even  by  God 
himfelf,  for  the  prefervation  of  human  nature^  are 
negleiSed  without  reafon.  2.  Gluttony,  drunken- 
nej'i,  lux'  ry.  and  impurity,  are  oppofed  through 
excefs  to .ahlVi^unce,  fobricty,  chaflity,  and  purity; 
and  through  defeSi,  the  vices  «  hich  have  no  name. 
3,  To  modei'y,  and  hone/iy,  are  oppofed  through 
excefs  -  immodsjly,  impudence,  and  turpitude  ;  and 
through  defect  the  vices  which  have  no  proper 
rames.  4  Inc.ntinence  to  c-.ntinence.  pride  to  hu- 
?/,.///,■,  wrath  lO  meeknef ,  curiofity  to  jludioujnef , 
fcurr  l.ty  t)  wbanity,  and  lUxuiy  to  parfimony,  are 
repui^nani  though  excefs.  The  vices  oppofed  to 
them,  through  defed,  have  no  name. 

From  the  principle  heretofore  eftablifhed,  can  be 
deduced  certain  general  rules,  whereby  all  human 
aiSions  inay  be  directed  towards  the  falutary  end 
prcpofed  to  all  men. 

We  will  therefore  proceed  to  examine  the  duties 
of  men  in  general 

"^hok  duties  are  either  of  a  man  to  God,  and 
to  himielf  i  or  of  a  man  to  other  men,  either  with 
regard  to  a  family,  or  to  a  republic.  Which  diffe- 
rent duties  are  all  as  follow. 

It  fcems  that  man  was  formed  to  God's  image, 
and  created  for  no  other  reafon,  and  for  no  other 
end  than  to  know  and  love  him  ;  and  to  obtain, 
througn  ineans  of  a  religious  worfnip,  the  fruition 
of  that  divine  object,  who  alone  can  render  him 
truly  happy.  Which  to  facilitate,  God  himftlf 
has  infufcd  within  him  an  immortal  foul,  capable 
of  uiiderftanding,  of  religion,  and  of  an  eternal  feli- 
city; fo  that  though  this  vifible  world  were  entirely 
deftroyed,  that  foul  will  remain,  by  the  condition 
of  its  nature,  always  the  fame,  and  uncorruptible  ; 
which  is  nioie  than  fuflicient  to  infpire  us  with  the 


forget  fo  much  honour  done  to  them.  But  how- 
ever, if  we  believe  the  royal  prophet  Pjalm  xlix. 
12.  Nevertheltfs,  man  being  in  honour  abides  not : 
he  is  like  the  beafs  that perijh.  Which  is  the  great- 
eft  punilhinent  which  can  be  infliiled  on  thoie  un- 
grateful men,  who  are  not  fenfible  of  the  ad\anta- 
ges  of  their  condition,  to  be  reduced  to  that  of 
the  brutes,  to  have  no  tafte  but  for  terreftrial  things, 
to  naufeate  the  celeftial,  and  refufe  to  be  cured  of 
the  wound  they  do  not  feel. 

Therefore  we  muft  perfuade  ourfelvcs,  i.  That- 
God  is  the  principal  and  end  of  all  things  :  that  his 
power  is  diffufed  throughout  this  vaft  univerfe. 
And  his  wifdom  in  the  government  and  difpofition 
ot  all  things,  attains  powerfully  f -cm  end  ta  end,  and 
difpofes  all  things  with  pleafiire  ;  that  all  that  is  done, 
may  be  done  with  a  juft  oeconomy  and  for  him, 
that  we  all  live,  move,  and  reft  in  him,  fo  that  he 
can  never  be  too  much  worftiippcd  and  beloved  by 
us,  and  we  alv/ays  love  him  lefs  than  we  ought  to  do. 

2.  And  becaufe  the  figure  of  this  world  paftcs, 
and  we  have  but  one  eflenrial  obligation,  which  is 
to  obferve  the  law  of  God  ;  we  muft  learn  as  per- 
fe(ft!y  as  poftible,  that  divine  law,  make  it  the  iub- 
jedt  of  our  moft  feriOus  meditations,  and  notneg- 
ledt,  ifpoffible,  even  the  leaft  article  of  it. 

3  We  muft  not  content  ourfelves  with  an  in- 
ward worfhip,  but  likewife  praclife  an  outward 
one,  confifting  in  public  vczi-s  and  prayers,  in  the 
company  of  the  faithful,  that  others  may  be  edified, 
by  our  example  Coimus  in  cerium  l3  congregati- 
onem,  fays  TertuUian,  Apologct.  c.  39.  ?//  ad  Deum  > 
qucift  manu  facta  precationibus  ambiamus  orantes. 
Htec  vis  Deo  grata  cfi. 

4.  With  regard  to  the  prayer,  whereby  we  alk 
fomething  of  God,  we  muft  fcriouflv  confide'r  what 
and  from  whom  we  afk.  For  we  arenotto  afk  ofGci 
trifling  things,  much  lefs  thofe,  which  are  illicit  or 

imi'jft ; 


480  7"Z»^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

uiiuift  ;  but  a(k  onlv  tliofc,  which  can  be  acceflary  1  cording  to  ihc  difFerencc  of  perfons  :  but  however, 

J  '.  .  '  .  ,■  .,  .-,-  .Li  ..l...l_. 1 /•_!  1  . 


to  our  falvalion,  and  comfortable  to  life. 

Therefore  what  it  isjuft  we  ftiould  afic  of  Ood, 
is  thst  which  can  be  advantageous  to  us  and  to 
Others,  v/'z.  a  mind  ready  to  execute  the  divine 
commandments,  and  a  will  inclined  to  do  good  to 
thoie  we  live  with 

5.  We  muft  alio  be  thankful  for  ail  the  benef.ts 
or  favours  we  have  received  from  him  :  and  the  beft 
manner  to  (hew  our  gratitude  on  thofe  occafions,  is 
to  (hew  always  the  fame  cqualitv  of  mind,  and  the 
fame  tranquility,  cither  in  adverfity  or  profperity  ; 
for  God  docs  not  love  leU  thofe  he  is  plealed  to 
tempt  by  adverlity,  than  tbofe  he  loads  with  tem- 
poral favours. 

From  the  love  of  God  we  will  pafs  to  the  love 
of  our  neighbours :  for  none  is  ne:frer  to  us  than 
our  felves. 

Thataman  maylovehimfelf  with  that  love  which 
is  ufeful  and  )u(t,  w'z.  with  regard  to  an  everlafHng 
life,  he  muj}  lay  apart  all  fu-perfluity  of  malice,  and 
keep  himfelf  unjpotted  from  the  world;  according 
to  St.  Jartus",  epiji.  i.  21,  27.  Whence  it  is 
necelTary  to  take  a  great  care  to  moderate  all 
the  faculties  and  afFedfiuns.of  our  foul. 

And,   I.  W^ith  regard  to  our  body,  it 
fed  with  nece(rary  but  not  fuperfluous  aliments,  that 
we  may  neither  fall  under  its  burthen,  nor  revolt 
againft  the  ipirit. 

2.  We  ought  not  to  be  idolaters  of  our  body, 
nor  break  it  by  idlenefs  ;  but,  on  the  contrary, 
ftrengthen  it  by  e.Kcrcife  and  labour:  for  there  is 
nothing  more  prejudicial  to  it  than  to  indulge  it  in  1 
luxury  and  indolence,  which  not  only  weakens 
and  corrupts  it,  but  likewife  proves  contagious  to 
the  foul,  and  plunges  it  into  all  forts  of  irregulari- 
ties and  vices. 


i.heie  genera!  rules  may  be  prefcnbed  ;  that  there  rs 
-.1  certain  medium,  or  fubordinaiion,  to  be  obferv- 
ed,  cither  in  the  judgment,  v  hi-.h  every  body  forms 
of  himfelf;  or  in  his  external  g^ftures  or  motions  ; 
or  in  his  outward  apparel;  or  in  his  table  and  equi- 
page.    For  as  'Juvenal  fays,  Salyr.  1 1. 


Otla  ft  tollas,   tcriere  Cupidlnis  arcus, 
Contanptaque  jacent,  i^  fine  luce  fceces. 

3.  We  muft  put  a  guard  to  our  fenfes ;  fince 
what  enters  through  our  ears,  or  eyes,  make  often 
fo  great  an  imprefTion  on  our  mind,  as  to  excite  its 
affections  beyond  mcafure,  as  to  be  a!mo!t  impofli- 
ble  afterwards  to  conquer  them  when  3'ou  pleafe. 
"Whence  fnvinal.  Satyr  14. 

"Nil diSlufadum  vij'uque  hcsc  Um'ma  tangat. 
Intra  qua  puer  ejl, 

4.  We  muft  endeavour  to  adorn  our  foul  with 
virtue  and  ifnowledge  ;  that  with  their  affiftance  it 
may,  with  a  greater  facility,  govern  herfelf,  and  the 
body,  wfhich  is  u.ndcr  her  command. 

5,-  It  is  impojTipie  to  defcribe  every  one  of  the  du- 
ties of  a  man  to  himielf,  fince  they  ^e  different  ac- 


JSofcenda  efl  menfura  fui,  fpeflandaqtie  rebus 
Infummh  m'tnhmfque  :  etiam  cum  pfcis  emeiur, 
Ne  multum  capias,  ciitnfit  tibi  gobio  tdntum 
In  loculis. 

Therefore  we  are  not  to  live  either  with  more  fplcn- 
dour,  or  with  a  greater  parfimony  ;  but  every  one 
muft  have  regard  to  his  birth,  fortune,  and  facul- 
ties ;  that  there  may  be  a  certain  fubordination,  in 
the  houfes,  equipage,  and  cloaths. 

Auream  quifquis  mediocritatem 
Diligit,  tutus  caret  ohfoleti 
Sordibus  teili,  caret  invidenda  ? 
Sobrius  aula  ? 

Neither  are  we  to  envy  thofe  who  live  in  a  more  ele- 
gant manner  than  wz  do,  for  every  condition  has 
muft  be  ^"'^  ''^  advantage  and  diiHcuities.  Whence  the 
apoflle  St.  Paul  wilely  admonilhes  us,  i  Cor.  vii. 
20.  that  every  man  r/iu/l  abide  in  the  fame  calling 
wherein  he  was  called;  without  envying  that  of 
another. 

Therefore  they  act  with  prudence,  who  ftudy 
carefully  all  that  belong  to  their  vocation,  follow 
it,  and  remain  in  it.  But  that  kind  of  life,  to  love, 
what  becom.es  us  moft,  is  the  work  of  heaven,  and 
not  a  human  one.  And  the  difficulty  is  ftill  grea- 
ter, when  we  have  made  choice  of  a  ftate  of  life, 
when  v/e  were  too  young,  yet,  to  make  that 
choice:  Therefore,  in  an  affair  of  that  importance, 
we  are  firfl  to  implore  heaven's  affiftance,  that  we 
may  chufe  what  is  more  convenient  to  us,  and 
more  agreeable  to  God:  and  afterwards  confultour 
friends,  not  every  one,  but  thofe  only  we  know  to 
have  a  greater  (hare  of  judgment,  prudence,  and 
difcretion,  and  a  real  friendfhip  for  us. 

This  leads  us  infenfibly  to  the  confideration  of  a 
mans  duty  toivards  his  family,  whi  h  Arifiotle  has 
defcribed  in  two  books,  and  which  is  called  Oecono- 
tnical  Doctrine,  (to  which  I  refer  the  reader).  The 
firft  coufifts  of  fix  chapters,  where  he  (hews  the 
difference  between  the  a-conomic  and  politic;  and 
treats  of  the  different  parts  of  a  houfe,  of  tlie  man- 
ner of  acquiring  wealth,  of  the  conjugal  duties  of 
hufband  and  wife,  mafters  and  fervants :  the  la(t, 
which  is  not  divided  into  chapters,  is  almoft  en- 
tirely hiftorical,  where  he  defcribes  feveral  forms  of 
the  (economic.  He  has  alfo  inferted  in  his  firft  book 
oi politics,  feveral  things  relating  to  the  fame  fub- 

jea> 


FALCONRY, 


481 


jeft;  all  which  are  fo  fully  explained  in  Wool-  [hands  of  moft  readers,  that  makes  it  needlefs  ta 
laston's   Nature  delineated;    bifhop  Wilkin's    take  up  your  time  in  repetition  of  thofc  duties  in 
Religion  of  Nature  ;  and,  under  the  Rrldiive  duties,  \  this  place. 
in  the  new  Whole  Duty  of  Man,  which  are  in  the  I 

F    A    L     C    0     N    R     r. 


FALCONRY  is  the  art  of  taming,  ma- 
naging, feeding,  (sfc.  the  falcon,  or  other 
kinds  of  haiuks,  and  employing  them  in 
the  purfuit  of  taking  of  birds  or  game. 
This  by  others  is  called  Hawking,  much  ufed  by 
our  anceflors. 

The  birds  employed  in  this  fport  are  firft  divided 
into  long  winged  zndjhort  winged  Hawks. 

To  the  long  zvinged  hawks,  belong  the  falcon, 
haggard  falcon,  ger  falcon,  lanner.,  hobby,  faker,  mer- 
lin, and  bawler  ;  all  which  are  reclaimed,  manned, 
fed,  and  mewed  much  after  the  fame  manner.  Of 
the  Jliort  winged  haivks,  properly  fo  called,  are  the 
gos-hawks,  and  fparroiu  hawks. 

The  former  are  gene-rally  brought  to  the  lure, 
and  feize  their  prey  with  their  foot,  breaking  their 
neck  bone  with  their  beak  before  they  plume,  or 
tear  it.  The  latter  are  brought  to  the  fill:,  and 
kill  their  game  by  ftrength,  and  force  of  wiiig, 
at  random,  and  proceed  immediately  to  plume  them. 

The  Falcon,  or  Faucm,  is  a  bird  of  prey  of 
the  hawk  kind,  fuperior  to  all  others  for  couriv^e, 
docility,  gentlenefs,  and  noblenefs  of  nature.  The 
beft  is  that  whofe  head  is  round,  the  beak  thick  and 
Ihort,  the  neck  long,  the  {houlders  broad,  long 
thighs,  (hort  legs,  large  feet,  the  feathers  of  the 
wings  flender,  the  pounces  black,  ^c. 

The  Falcon  is  excellent  at  the  river,  brook,  and 
even  in  the  field,  and  flies  chiefly  at  the  largelt  game, 
as  wild  goofe,  kite,  crow,  heron,  crane,  pye,  fho- 
veller,  ISc. 

The  haggard  falcon,  called  here,  alfo,  peregrine 
falcon,  pafjenger,  and  traveller ;  becaufe  no  native 
of  this  land;  is  not  inferior  for  ftrength,  courage, 
hardinefs,  and  perfeverance.  She  is  larger,  longer, 
armed  with  a  longer  beak  and  talons,  a  higher 
neck,  ^c.  than  the  ccimmnn  falcon.  She  will  lie 
longer  on  the  wing,  and  is  more  deliberate,  and 
advifed  in  her  ftooping,  isc. 

The  ger  falcon,  or  gyr  falcon,  is  the  l.irgeft  bird 
of  the  j'alcon  kind,  and  of  the  grcateft  ftrength,  next 
an  eag/e.  She  may  alfo  be  called  a  pafingcr,  her 
ayrie  being  in  Prujfuu  .Mufcovy,  and  the  n.oun- 
tains  oi  Norway. 

T\\t  faker,  or  fail e,  is  the  third  in  efleem  next 
the  falcon,  and  ger  falcon,  but  difficult  to  be  ma- 
naged, being  ti  p.flngr,  or  p-rcgrine  hawk,  whofe 
ayrii:  has  not  yet  been  dikoveied,  but  chiefly  found 


in  the  iflands  of  the  Levant;  file  is  fomewhat  longer 
than  the  haggard  falcon ;  her  plume  rulty  and 
ragged  :  the  fear  of  her  foot  and  beak  like  the  lan- 
ner  ;  her  pounces  fhort,  and  her  train  the  longeft 
of  all  birds  of  prey  ;  {he  is  very  ftrong  and  hardy  to 
all  kind  of  fowl,  being  a  great  deal  more  difpofed  to 
the  field,  than  the  brook,  and  delighting  to  prey  on 
great  fowl,  as  the  heron,  goofe,  ISc.  but  for  the 
crane  fhe  is  not  fo  free  as  the  haggard  falcon  ;  fhe 
alfo  excels  for  the  lefTer  fowl,  as  pheafants,  par- 
tridges, i^c.  and  is  much  lefs  dainty  in  her  diet,  as 
long  winged  hawks  ufually  are. 

The  lanner,  or  laner,  is  a  hawk  common  in  moft 
countries,  efpecially  in  France ;  making  her  ayrie- 
on  lofty  trees  in  forefls,  or  on  high  clifts  near  the 
fea  fide.  She  is  lefs  than  the  falcon,  gentle,  fair 
plumed,  and  has  fhorter  talons  than  any  other  fal- 
con. Such  as  have  the  largeft  and  belt  feafoned 
heads  are  efteemed  the  beft.  There  is  none  fo  fit 
for  a  young  falconer  as  this,  becaufe  flie  is  not  in- 
clined to  furfeits,  and  feldom  melts  greafe  by  being 
over-flown. 

There  is  another  (ort  oi  lanncrs,  whofe  <7y«V  is 
in  the  Jlps,  having  their  heads  white,  and  flat  aloft, 
large  and  black  eyes,  flender  nares,  fhort  and  thick 
beaks  :  their  tail  marbled  and  ruflet  ;  breaft  fea- 
thers white  and  full  of  ruflet  fpots,  and  the  points 
and  extremities  of  their  feathers  full  of  white  drops  j 
their  fails  and  trains  long,  fliort  legged,  with  a 
fdot  lefs  than  that  of  a  falcon,  marble  (eared.  This 
hawk  never  lies  upon  the  wing,  after  fhe  has 
flown  to  a  mark ;  but  after  once  ftooping,  makes  a 
point,  and  like  the  goshawk  waits  the  fowl.  She  is. 
flown  at  field  or  brook,  and  will  maintain  long^ 
flights,  by  which  means  much  fowl  is  killed.  Ta 
fly  them  they  muft  be  kept  very  fliarp  ;  and  be- 
caufe they  Iceep  their  caftings  long,  they  muft  have 
hard  caftin-j  made  of  tow,  and  knots  of  hemp. 

The  Merlin  is  the  fmalleft  of  all  birds  of  preyv 
and  bears  a  refemblance  to  a  haggard  falcon  in; 
plume,  as  alfo  in  the  fear  of  the  foot,  beak,  and. 
talons,  and  not  unlike  her  in  conditions  i  when 
wt'l  manned,  lured,  and  carefully  looked  after,_ 
ftie  proves  an  excellent  hawk;  eipecially  at  par- 
tridge, thrufh,  and  lark. 

The  hobiy  is  afoit  of  hawk,  that  naturally  creeps 
on  doves,  larks,  anu  other  fmall  !;ame.  She  is  a 
hawk  of  the  lure,  and  not  of  the  fiu,  and  is  an  high 

flyer^ 


482  IIh  Univerfal  Hiftory 

flyer,  being  in  every  refpeft  like  the  faker,  b\it  (he 
is  of  a  much  Icfs  fizc  ;  for  ftie  is  not  only  nimble 
and  Ii2,ht  of  wing,  but  dares  to  encounter  ki'es, 
buzzards,  or  crows,  and  vvill  give  blow  for  blow, 
till  ibmeliines  they  feize,  and  come  tumbling  dov.n 
to  the  ground  both  together.  But  (he  is  chi-."fly 
for  the  lark.  The  hobby,  alfo,  makes  excellent 
iport  with  nets  and  (paniels,  for  when  the  dogs 
.range  the  fields  to  fpring  the-  fowl,  and  the  kohhy 
fears  aloft  over  them,  the  poor  birds  think  it  fafer 
to  be  clofe  on  the  ground,  and  fo  are  taken  in  the 
nets.     This  fport  is  called  daring. 

The  gos-haivk,  or  gofs-hawk,  q.  A.  grofs-havik,  is 
a  large  fliort  winged  hawk,  of  which  there  are  fe- 
veral  forts  differing  in  goodnefs,  force,  and  hardi- 
nels,  according  to  the  diverfity  of  their  choice  in 
cawking.  There  are  gojhjwki  from  moft  coun- 
tries, but  none  better  than  thofe  bred  in  the  north 
of  Ireland.  To  di'linguilh  the  ftrength  of  the 
bird,  tie  divers  of  them  in  fevcral  places  of  one 
chamber,  or  m.ew  ;  at(d  that  hav.  k  that  flies  and 
mutes  highcft  and  fartheft  ofF,  may  be  concKucJ 
to  be  ftrongell.  1  he  gojhawk  flies  at  the  pheafant, 
mallard,  wild  goofe,  hare,  and  coney,  nay  {he 
will  venture  to  feize  a  kid  or  goat.  She  is  to  be 
kept  with  care,  as  being  very  choice  and  dainty  ii; 
eating,  i2c. 

The  fparrow  haivk,  is  alfo  a  kind  of  fhort 
winged  hawk,  whereof  theie  are  fevcrai  .'ort?,  .dif- 
ferent in  plumes  :  fome  fmall  plunv  .i  and  l^'ack, 
others  ol'  a  larger  fearher ;  iom?  nin.ii:  J  like  the 
quai',  fomebrcan  or  canvas  mail,  tsc.  ijlie  ferves 
both  for  winter  and  fummer  \>,  ith  great  picai'ure,  and 
will  fly  at  all  kinds  of  frarjic.  more  than  \.\\c falcon. 

t  Terms  proper  'or  die  fivfcral  Actions  of 
falcon!:. 

"vV  hen  the  bird  Dufters  with  her  wiji^^s,  as  if 
flriving  to  get  a.vay,  eitL< .  from  perch  or  lilt,  flie 
is  faid  to  bate. 

Crabbing,  is  when  the  birds  (landing  too  near, 
they  fight  with  each  other. 

Coloring,  is  when  the  young  ones  quiver  and 
fhake  their  wings  in  obedience  to  the  elder. 

To  feak,  is  when  the  bird  wipes  her  beak  after 
feeding. 

To  jack,  is  when  (lie  ileeps. 

Intermewing,  is  the  interval  between  exchanging 
her  coat,  and  Turning  white  again. 

Treading,  is  called  cawking. 

Mantling,  is  w  hen  fhe  ftretches  one  of  her  wings 
after  her  legs,   and  then  the  other. 

Her  dung  is  called  muting  ;  when  flie  mutes  a 
good  way  from  her,  (he  is  faid  to  f ice;  when  flie 
does  it  dire6l]y  down  inftead  of  yerking  backwards, 
ilie  is  faid  to  fime;  and  if  it  be  in  drops,  it  is  called 


of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

dropping,;  when  (lie,  as  it  were,  fneczes,  it  is  called 

fniting. 

To  rouze,  is  when  (he  raifes  and  (hakes  herfelf. 

To  warble,  is  wheji  after  mantling,  (he  crolTes 
her  wings  together  over  her  back. 

To  bind,  is  v/hen  (he  fcares. 

To  plume,  is  when  after  feizing  (he  pulls  off  the 
feathers. 

Trujftng,  is  when  fhe  raifes  a  fowl  aloft,  and  at 
length  defccnds  with  it  to  the  ground. 

t^tooping,  is  when  being  aloft,  (he  defccnds  to 
feize  her  prey. 

Torake,  is  when  (lac  flies  out  too  far  from  the 
game. 

To  check,  is  when  forfcking  her  proper  game, 
(he  flies  at  P3'es,  crows,  isc.  that  chance  to  crofs 
her. 

Tofy  on  headfis  when  mifling  the  fowl,  (he  be- 
takes herfelf  to  the  next  check. 

7  he  quarry,  is  the  fowl  or  gair.e  (he  flies  a^. 
1  he  pelt,  is  the  dead  body  of  ti)e  fowl  killed  by 
the  hiiwk. 

To  car:y,  is  when  (he  flies  away  with  the 
quarry. 

Conceliering,  is  when  in  (looping  (he  turns  two 
or  three  times  on  the  wing,  to  recover  he  Tclf  ere 
(he  leizes. 

RiiJ^,  is  when  (he  feizes  the  prey,  yet  does  not 
trufs  !t. 

Reclaiming,  is  the  m;iking  a  hawk  tame  and 
gentle. 

Manning,  is  the  bringing  her  to  endure  com- 
pany. 

A  }nake  hatvl:,  is  an  old  (lanch  one,  ufed  to  fly 
and  fet  example  to  a  young  one. 

Be  ties  the  above-mentioned  terms,  there  are  alio 
feveral  others  proper  to  the  art  of  fdUonry,  viz. 
ca/ting,  plumage,  rangle.  gleaming,  enfeaming,  gur- 
gi:ting,  imping,  tiring,  ink,  pill,  or  pelf . 

Cajii'-.g,  is  fomethmg  given  a  hawk,  to  cleanfe 
and  purge  her  gorge. 

J-lumage  are  Irnall  feathers  given  to  make  her 
caft 

Rangle,  Is  gravel  given  her  to  help  bring  down 
her  ftomach. 

■Gleaming,  is  her  throwing  up  filth  from  the  gorge 
after  carting  " 

Enframing,  is  the  purging  of  her  greafe,  bfc, 

A  being  Ituffed  is  called  gurgitting. 

Imping,  is  the  inferting  a  feather  in  her  wing,  in 
lieu  of  a  broken  one. 

Tiring,  is  the  giving  her  a  leg,  wing,  or  pinion  of 
a  fo'vl  to  pull  at. 

7"he  ink,  is  the  neck  of  a  bird  the  hawk  preys  on. 

The  pill,  or  pelf,  is  what  the  hawk  leaves  of 
her  prey. 

The 


FALCONRY. 


4^3 


The  terms  proper  for  her  furniture  arc,  |  he  can,  reclaims  her  without  over-watciiing.    The 

The  bciiuits  or  the  leathers,  with  bells  buttoned  \  falcon   muft  be   borne  continually  on  the  Eft,   till 


on  her  legs. 

o 

1  he  Uafc,  or  Ica'.h,  is  a  leathern  thong  where- 
by the  falconer  holds  the  hawk  ;  the  little  flraps 
by  which  the  kafe  is  faftened  to  the  legs,  are  called 
jejfis  ;  and  a  line  or  pack-thread  faftened  to  the 
leafe^  in  difciplining  the  hawk,   a  creance. 

Hood,  is  a  cover  for  her  head  to  keep  her  in  the 
dark;  a  large  wide  hood,  open  behind,  to  be  wore 
at  firft,  is  called  7i  rafter  hood;  and  to  draw  the 
firings,  that  the  hood  may  be  in  readinefs  to  be 
pulled  off,  is  called  unftriking  the  hood. 

Seeling,  is  the  blinding  a  hawk,  juft  taken,  by 
running  a  thread  through  her  e)'elids,  and  thus 
drawing  them  over  the  eyes,  to  prepare  her  for  be- 
ing hooded. 

A  lure ^  is  a  figure  or  refemblance  of  a  fowl, 
made  of  leather  and  feathers. 

The  pearch  is  her  refting  place,  when  off  the 
falconer's  fiff. 

The  hack  is  the  place  where  her  meat  is  laid. 

The  ?ncw  is  the  place  wherein  flic  is  fet,  while 
her  feathers  fall  and  come  again. 

The  Managemen't  and  Discipline  of  the 
falcon,  is  the  next  fubje<5l,  and  the  foundation  of 
the  art  of  falconry. 

When  a  young  falcon  is  firfl:  taken,  flie  muft  be 
feeled,  and  the  feeling  at  length  gradually  (lacken- 
ed,  that  (he  may  be  able  to  fee  what  provifions  are 
brought  her.     Her  furniture  is  to  hsjeffcs  of  lea- 
ther, mailed  leajhes,  with  buttons  at  the  end,  and 
bewits ;   befides  a  fmall   round   ftick,   hanging    in  a 
firing,  to  ftroke  her  frequently  wiihal  ;  which   the 
oftner  it  is  done,  the  fooner  and  better  will  fhe  be 
manned  :  two  bells  on  her  legs,  that  flie  may   be 
the  more  readily  found,  or  heard,  when  fhe  ilirs, 
fcratches,  &c  and  a  hood  railed,  and   boiled    over 
her   eyes.     Her   food   to  be   pigeons,    larks,   and 
other  live  birds,  of  which  fhe  js   to  cat  twice  or 
thrice  a  day,  and  till  fhe  be  full   gorged.     When 
the  falconer  is  about  to  feed  her,  he  niuif  hoop  and 
lure,  that  fhe  may  know  when  to  expedl  it ;  then 
imhooding  her  gently,  he  gives  her  two   or  three 
bits,  and  putting  her  hood  on  again,  gives  her  as 
much  more  ;  but  takes  care  that  fhe  be  cloie  feeled, 
and  after  three  or  four  days,    leffens  her   diet ;  at 
going  to  bed  he  fets  heron  a  pearch  by  him,  that  he 
may  awake  her  often   in  the  night,  continuing  to 
do  fo  till  fhe  grows  tame  and  gentle.     When  flic 
begins  to  feed  eagerly,  he  gives  her  {beep's  hearts  ; 
now  he  begins  to  unhood  her  hy  day,  but  it  muft 
be  done  far  from  company  ;    feeds  her  and   hoods 
her  again,    as  before,  but  takes  care  not  to  fright 
her  with  any  thing  when  he  unhoods  her,  and  if 
23 


file  be  thoroughly  manned,  and  induced  to  feed  in 
company  :  for  two  or  three  days,  give  her  wafiud 
meat,  and  then  plumage,  according  as  you  clieem 
her  foul  within  ;  if  flie  cafts,  hood  her  again;  and 
give  her  nothing,  till  fhe  gleams  after  her  cafling  : 
but  when  flie  has  gleamed  and  caft,  give  her  a  little 
hot  meat  in  company  ;  and  towards  evening,  let 
her  plume  a  hen's  wing,  likevvife  in  company; 
cleanfe  the  feather  of  her  cafting,  if  foul  and  flimy; 
if  file  clean  within,  give  her  gentle  calling;  and 
when  fhe  is  well  reclaimed,  manned  and  made 
eager  and  fharp  fet,  venture  to  feed  her  on  the 
lure. 

Three  things  arc  to  be  confidered  before  you  lure 
your  falcon,  i.  That  flie  be  bold  and  familiar  in 
company,    and    not    afraid    of   dogs    and    horfes. 

2.  Sharp-fet  and  hungry,  having  regard  to  the  hour 
of  morning  and  evening,  when  you  would  lure  her. 

3.  Clean  within,  and  the  lure  well  garnifhed  with 
meat  on  both  fides.  When  you  intend  to  give  her 
the  length  of  a  leafe,  you  muft  abfcond  yourfelf ;  flie 
muft  alfo  be  unhooded,  and  have  a  bit  or  two  given 
her  on  the  lure,  as  fhe  fits  on  your  fift  ;  that  done, 
take  the  lure  from  her,  and  fo  hide  it  that  fhe  may 
not  fee  it ;  when  fhe  is  unfeeled,  caft  the  lure  fo 
near  her,  that  fhe  may  catch  it  within  the  length 
of  her  leafe ;  and  as  foon  as  fhe  has  leized  it,  ufe 
your  voice  as  falconers  do,  feeding  her  upon  the 
lure  on  the  ground. 

After  you  have  lured  your  falcon,  in  the  evening 
give  her  but  little  meat,  and  let  this  luring   be  fo 
timely,  that  you  may  give  her  plumage,  Is'c.  next 
morning    on    your  fift ;    when  fhe    has   caft  and 
gleamed,  give  her  a  little  beaching  of  warm  water  :  .. 
about  noon,   tie  a  creance  to  her  lealc,  go  into  the 
field,  there  give  her  a  bit  or  two  upon  the  lure,  and 
unfeel  her  ;   if  you  find  file   is  fiiarp-fet,  and  has 
eagerly  feized  on  the  lure,  let  a  man  hold  her  to  let 
her  off  to  the  lure  ;  then  unwind  the  creance,  and 
draw  it  after  you  a  good  way,  and  let  him  who  has 
the  bird,  hold  his  right  hand  on  the  taffel  of  her 
hood,  ready  to   unhood   her    as  foon   as  you    be- 
gin  to  lure  ;    to  which  if  fhe  comes  well,  fioop 
roundly  upon  it,  and   haftily  feize  it,  let  her  caft 
two  or  three  bits  thereon  ;  that  done,  unfeize,  take 
her  off  the  lure,  and  deliver  her  again  to  the  perfoii 
that  held  her,  and  going  further  off  the  lure,  feed 
her  as  before  ;  and  fo  daily  further  and  further  off 
the  lure.     Afterwards  you  may  lure  her  in   com- 
pany, but  do  not  fright  her  ;  and  having  ufed  her 
to  the  lure  on  foot,  do  it  alfo  on  horfeback,  which 
may  be  fooner  accomplifhed,  by  caufing  horfemen 
to  be  about  you,  when  you  lure  her  on  foot ;  it  is 
alfo  fooner  done  by  rewarding  her  upon  the  lure 

Q.qq  on 


484 


77)^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  is;;^^  Sciences. 


on  horfeback,  p.ir.ong  horfemcn.  And  when  {he 
is  gro-.vn  I'.imiiiJi  tills  way,  let  fome  body  a  foot 
hold  thf:  li.ivvlc,  nnd  he  that  is  on  horfeback  muft 
Cell),  a:i'.l  caft  the  hire  about  his  head,  while  the 
liolder  takes  off  the  liood  by  the  tafiels  ;  and  if  ihe 
(tiz.es  eai-eilv  on  the  liirc,  without  fear  of  a  man 
or  horfc,  then  take  off  the  creance,  and  lure  at  a 
c;renter  dillance.  Laftly,  if  you  would  iiave  her 
\o\c.  dogs  as  well  as  the  lure,  call  dogs  when  you 
grve  her  pluinugc. 

If  the  hawk  isc  intended  for  fome  particular  fort 
of  game,  her  lure  mud:  be  a  refemblance  of  that 
fort  of  <>-ame  \  and  the  falconer  ought  to  make  a 
frequent  praftice  of  feeding,  and  rewarding  her 
jhevcon,  or  on  a  train  of  the  fume   kind ;   calling 


her  when  feeding,    as  if  (he   was  called  to  the 
lure. 

A  hrancher,  foar-hawk,  or  ramage-haw!;,  needs 
no  nurfmg  ;  flie  is  to  be  brought  down  from  her 
wildnefs,  and  habituated  to  another  courfe  of  life  ; 
and  in  purfuance  of  her  own  views  and  interefls,  to 
be  made  fubjedt  to  thofe  of  her  rnufter.  An  eyefs, 
needs  no  reclaiming,  (he  is  to  be  carefully  nurfed,^ 
and  brought  up  in  her  natural  taments. 

The  perfon,  who  brings  up,  tr-mes,  and  makes, 
that  is,  tutors  and  manages  birds  of  prey,  as  fal- 
cons, hawks,  bic.  is  called  falconer;  the  emperor 
of  the  Tiirki  ufually  keeps  fix  lhoufandy<7/f«n^Tf  in 
his  fervice.  The  king  of  France  has  a  grand  fal^ 
1  coner. 


FENCING. 


^Encing  is  a  genteel  accomplifliment,  as   it 
teaclies  a  man  to  place  himtclt  in  a  proper 
upright    pofture,  and  inftructs  him   in  the 
means  of  Iclf  defence.  Kence  i 

Fencing  is  the  art  of  defence,  or  of  ufmg  the  ! 
fword,  to  wound  an  enemy,  and  flicltcr  one's  felf  I 
from  his  attacks  1 

The  art  of  fenci'^g  is  acquired  by  praftifing  with 
foils,  called  in /«</«,  rudes.  j 

Pyrad  affuies  us,  that  the  art  of  fencing  is  . 
fo  highly  efteomed  in  the  Eaji  Indies,  that  princes 
and  noblemen  teach  it.  They  wear  a  badge  or  ; 
cognizance  oa  their  right  arms,  called  in  their 
languasre  Efaiii,  which  is  put  on  v  ith  gi'eat  cere- 
monv,  like  the  badges  of  our  orders  of  knighthood, 
bv  the  kin2;s  themfelves- 

Fencing  is  divided  in;o  two   parts,  ftm'^k  and 
compound. 

Simple,  is  that   performed  diredly,  and   nimbly 
©n  the  fame  line;  and  is  cither  offenfiv«,  or  defen.- 

five.- The  principal   objecl  of  the  firff,  is, 

whatever  may  be  attempted  in  pufhing  or  making 
paffcs  fvoni  this  or  that  point,  to  the  nioft  unco- 
vered part  of  the  enemy. The  fccond  con- 

fifts  in  parrying  and  repsliing  the  thrufts  aimed  by 
the  enemy. 

The  compound,  on  the  offenfive  fide,  includes  all 
the  poCibIc  arts  and  inventions  to  deceive  the 
enemy,  and  make  him  leave  that  part  we  have  a 
dcfi"-n  on,  bare  and  unguarded,  upon  finding  we 
cannot  come  at  it  by  force,  nor  by  the  agility  of 
the  fimple  play. 

The  principal  means  hereof  are  feints,  appeals, 
clafhings,  and  intanglings  of  fwords,  half  thrufts, 
Uc.  and  in.the  deftnuve,  to  pufh  in  parrying. 


Parrying  is  the  aflion  of  defending  a  man's 
felf,  or  of  ftaving  off  tlie  ftrokcs  offered  by  ano- 
ther.  Good  fencers  pulli  and  parry  at  the 

fame  time. The  Spaniards  parry  with  the 

poniard  ;  the  ancients  parried  with  their  bucklers. 

Feint  is  a  falfe  attack,  or  a  fhew  cf  making  a 
ftroke  or  pufh  in  one  part,  with  defign  to  bring  the 
enemy  to  guard  that  part,  and  leave  fome  other 
pari  unguarded,  where  the  ftroke  is  really  in- 
tended. 

Feints  are  either  fmgle,  or  double,  high,  or 
low,  without,  or  in  the  whole  circle;  of  one, 
two,  or  three  meafures. 

lL"ne.  fimple  feint  is  a  meer  motion  of  the  wriff, 
without  ftirring  the  foot,  fs'c. 

Guard  is  an  aflion  or  poffure  proper  to 
fcrecn  the  body  from  the  attacks  of  an  enemy's 
fword. 

There  are  four  general  guards  of  the  fword :  to 
underftand  which,  it  will  be  necefiary  to  imagiiie  a 
circle  drawn  on  an  upright  wall,  and  divided  into 
four  cardinal  points,  w'z.  top,  bottom,  right,  and 
deft. 

Now  when  the  point  of  the  fword  is  direcbed  to 
the  bottom  point  of  the  circle,  and  confequently 
the  head  of  the  fword  tilted  up  to  the  top  point, 
with  the  body  inclining  forwards  ;  this   is  called 

prime,  or   the  firji  guard. The  fccond  guards 

.hich  fome  improperly  call  the  third,  is  when  the 
point  of  the  fword  is  directed  to  the  right,  or  fecond 
point  of  the  fame  circle,  a  quadrant  diflant  fioni 
the  firft;  with  the  fort  of  the  fword  turned  to  the 

right,    and    the   body   raifed    propoitionably. 

Tierce^  or  the  third  guard,   is  performed  by  diredt- 
ing  Uie  fword's  point  to  the  uppermoft  point  of  the 

fame 


FISHING. 


485 


fame  circle,  diametrically  oppofiteto  that  o( prime; 
in  which  cafe  rhe  body,  arm,  and  fword,  are  in 
their  natural  difpofition,  being  the  mean  between 

the  extremes  cif  their  motion. ^^art,  or  the 

fourth  guard-,  is,  when  the  point  of  the  fword  is 
dircdied  to  the  fourth  point  of  the  circle,  defcend- 
ing  to  the  right,  as  far  as  one  fourth  of  the  tierce, 
with  the  external  fide  of  the  arm,  and  the  flat  of 
the  fword  turned  toward';  the  ground  ;  and  theijody 
■out  of  the  line   to  the  right,  and  the  fort  of  the 

fword  towards  the  line  to  the  left There  is 

alfo  quint,  or  a  kind  of  fifth  guard,  being  the 
return  of  the  point  of  the  fword  on  the  riglit, 
after  tranfverl'.ng  the  circle,  to  the  point  of  the 
prime,  whence  it  had  dcprirted  ;  and  yet,  with  a 
different  difpofition  of  the  body,  arm,  and 
fword.    . 

Thefe  guards  are  alfo  callcd^«r«  and  pofturei; 


and  the  common  center  of  all  their  motions,  is  to 
be  in  the  (liouidcr. 

In  all  thefe  kinds  of  guards  there  are  high  ad~ 
vanced,  higli  retired,  and  high  internirdiatc  guards, 
when  difpofud  before  the  upper  part  of  the  body, 
either  with  the  arm  quite  extended,  quite  with- 
drawn, or  in  a  mean  flate. Mean  advanced 

guard,  or  fimply  mean  guard,  is  when  the  fword 
is  d^fpofcd  before  the  middle  part  of  t'le  body. 
Liti!  acbbance'l,  retired,  or  intertnediate  guards,  are 
thofe  where  the  arm  and  iword  are  advanced,  with- 
drawn, or  between  the  two  extremes,  before  the 
lower  part  of  the  body. 

Some  will  have  priiiie  the  principal  guard  ;  others 
quint;  others,  with  better  rc-ilon,  tierce,  becaufe 
it  confiils  of  right  lines,  which  are  eafier  defended 
than  oblique  ones  ;  fuch  as  thofe  of  prime,  fi-cond, 
quart,  and  quints 


FISHING. 


FIsHlKG  is  the  art  of  catching  fifli  with  nets, 
fpears,  lines,  rods,  hooks  ifc.  either  mfali- 
luattr,  or  \n  frrjh  ivater,  rivers  or  ponds. 

We  will  begin  w-ith  the  Jaltwater  fiflxry,  and 
confitie  our  pen  to  thofe  fubjefe  as  fliall  fcetn  mofl: 
interefriiig  and  entertaining,  fuch  as 

Anchovy  Fishery.  Anchovies  are  fiflicd  on 
the  coaft  of  Provence,  in  the  months  oi  Alay,  June, 
'and  July,  at  which  feafon  fhoals  of  this  fifh  regu- 
larly come  into  the  Mediterranean  through  the 
Streights  of  Gibraltar.  7  hey  are  llkewifc  found  in 
plenty  in  the  river  of  Genoa,  on  the  coafl  of  Sicily, 
and  on  that  of  the  ifland  of  Gorgone,  oppofite  to 
Leghorn  ;  thefe  lad  arc  reckoned  the  beft.  It  is  re- 
markable, th&t  anchovies  are  feldomfifhed  but  in  t^e 
night-time.  If  a  fire  be  kindled  on  the  poop  of  the 
-veilels  ufed  for  this  fifhing,  the  anchovies  will  come 
in  greater  numbers  into  tiie  nets;  but  then  it  is 
aflerted,  that  the  anchovies  taken  thus  by  fire,  are 
neither  fo  good,  nor  fo  firm,  and  will  not  keep  fo 
Tvell  as  thofe  which  are  taken  without  fire.  When 
the  fifiicry  is  over,  they  puli  off  tlie  heads  of  all 
the  anchovies,  gut  them,  and  afterwards  range  them 
in  bar! els  of  different  weights,  the  largeft  of  which 
do  not  weigh  above  25  or  26  pounds,  and  they  put 
a  good  deal  of  fait  in  them.  ;-ome  alfo  pickle  them 
in  irnall  earthen  pots  made  on  purpofe,  of  two  or 
three  pounds  weight,  more  or  lefs,which  they  cover 
■with  plaller,  to  keep  them  the  better. 

The  CoD-FisHERY.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
cod-fijli,  the  one  green  or  luhife-cod,  and  the  other 
aried  or  cured -cod,  tho'  it  is  all  the  fame  fifti  diffe- 
rently prepared ;  the  former  being  fometimes  faked 


and  barrelled,  thr-n  taken  out  far  ufc  ;  and  the  lat- 
ter having  laid  feme  competent  time  in  fait,  is  dried 
in  the  fun  or  fmoke.  We  fliall  therefore  fpeak  of 
each  of  thefe  apart,  and  firll:  of 

TheGs-^EN  Cod-Fishery.  The  chief  fiflieries 
(or  green  cod  zre  in  the  bay  of  Canada:  on  the  great 
bank  o(  Newfoundland,  and  on  the  iile  of  St.  Peter., 
and  the  iflc  of  Sable:  to  which  places  vellels  refort 
from  divers  parts  both  of  Europe  and  America. 
They  are  from  100  to  150  tuns  burden,  and  will 
catch  between  30  and  40  thoufand  cod  e.ach.  The 
mofl:  effential  part  of  the  fifliery,  is  to  have  a  mafler 
"who  knows  how  to  cut  up  the  cod,  one  who  is 
fkilled  to  take  the  head  off  properly,  and  above  all, 
a  good  falter,  on  which  the  preferving  them,  and 
confequently  the  fuccefs  of  the  voyage,  depends. 
l"he  befl:  feafon  is  from  the  beginning  of  February 
to  the  end  of  April;  tiie  fifh,  which  in  the  winter 
retire  to  tho  decpell  water,  coming  then  on  the 
banks,  and  fattening  extremely.  What  is  caught 
from  March  to  y^/^t- keeps  well,  but  thofe  taken  in 
Jul:,  Augu/f,  and  September,  when  it  is  warm  on 
the  banks,  are  apt  to  fpoil  foon.  Every  fifiier 
takes  but  one  at  a  time:  the  moft  expert  v^ill  take 
from  350  to  400  in  a  day,  but  that  is  the  mofl; 
the  weight  of  the  fifh  and  tlie  great  coldnefs  on 
the  bank  fatiguing  very  much.  As  foon  as  the  cods 
are  taken,  the  head  is  taken  off;  they  are  opened, 
giitted  and  faltcd,  and  the  falter  flows  them  in  tiie 
bottom  of  the  hold,  head  to  tail,  in  bcd.>  a  fathom 
or  two  ii]uare ;  laying  layers  of  iiilt  and  fiih  alter- 
nately, but  never  mixing  filh  caught  on  difierent 
days.  When  they  have  lain  thus  three  or  four  days 

Q_q  q  2  to 


486 


Hoe  Univerfal  Hiftory 


to  I'rain  ofFthe  water,  they  are  replaced  in  another 
part  of  the  (hip,  and  falted  again ;  where  they 
remain  till  the  veii'el  is  loaded.  Sometimes  they  are 
cut  in  thick  pieces,  and  put  up  in  barrels  for  the 
conveniency  of  carriage. 

The  Dry  Cod-Fishery.  The  principal  fifliery 
for  dry  cad.,  is  from  Cape  Rofe  to  the  Bay  dcs  Ex- 
ports, along  the  coaft  of  Placentla,  in  wliich  coin- 
pafs  there  are  divers  commodious  ports  for  the  fifh 
to  be  dried  in.  Thefe,  though  of  the  fame  kind 
with  the  frefh  cod,  are  much  fmalier,  and  there- 
fore fitter  to  keep,  as  the  fait  penetrates  more 
eafily  into  them  The  fifhery  of  both  is  much 
alike,  only  this  latter  is  moft  cxpcnfive,  as  it  takes 
up  more  time,  and  employs  more  hands,  and  yet 
fcarcc  half  fo  much  fait  is  fpent  in  this  as  in  the 
other.  I  he  bait  is  herrings,  of  which  great  quan- 
tities are  taken  on  the  coaft:  of  Placentia.  When 
fevers!  vefleis  meet  and  intend  to  fifli  in  the  fame 
port,  he  whofe  fhalioop  firll  touches  ground,  be- 
comes intitled  to  the  quality  and  privileges  of  ad- 
miral :  he  ha"!  the  choice  of  his  ftation,  and  the 
refufal  of  all  the  wood  on  the  coaft  at  his  ar- 
rival 

As  faft  as  the  mafters  arrive,  they  unrig  all  their 
veffols.  leaving  nothing  but  the  fhrouds  to  fuftain 
the  mafts,  and  in  the  mean  time  the  mates  provide 
a  tent  on  fhore,  covered  with  branches  of  trees, 
and  fails  over  them,  with  a  fcaffold  of  great  trunks 
of  pines,  twelve,  fifteen,  fixteen,  and  often  twenty 
feet  high,  commonly  from  forty  to  fixty  feet  long, 
and  about  one  third  as  much  in  breadth. 

While  the  fcafFold  is  preparing,  the  crew  are  a 
fiflaing,  and  as  faft  as  they  catch  they  bring  their 
fifh  afhore;  open  and  fait  them  upon  moveable 
benches ;  but  the  main  falting  is  performed  on  the 
fcafrbld.  When  the  fifh  have  taken  fait,  they 
wafli  and  hang  them  to  drain  on  rails;  when 
drained,  they  are  laid  on  kinds  of  ftages,  which 
are  fmall  pieces  of  wood  laid  acrofs,  and  covered 
with  branches  of  trees,  having  the  leaves  ftripped 
off,  for  the  pafTage  of  the  air.  On  thefe  ftages, 
they  are  difpofed,  a  fifh  thick,  head  againft  tail, 
with  the  back  uppermoft,  and  are  turned  carefully, 
four  times  every  twenty-four  hours.  When  they 
begin  to  dry,  they  are  laid  in  heaps  ten  or  twelve 
thick,  in  order  to  retain  their  warmth  ;  and  every 
day  the  heaps  are  enlarged,  till  they  become  dou- 
ble their  firft  bulk ;  then  two  heaps  are  joined  to- 
gether, which  they  turn  every  day  as  before  ;  laftly, 
they  are  falted  again,  beginning  with  thofe  firft 
falted,  and  being  laid  in  huge  piles,  they  remain 
in  that  fituation,  till  they  are  carried  on  board  the 
ihips,  where  they  are  laid  on  the  branches  of 
trees  difpofed  for  that  purpofe,  upon    the   ballaft, 


of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

and  round  the  fhip,  with  mats  to  prevent  their 
contracting  any  moifture. 

There  are  four  kinds  of  commodities  drawn 
from  cod,  v'i%.  the  zounds,  the  tongues,  the  roes^ 
and  the  oil  extraftcd  from  the  liver.  The  firft  is 
falted  at  the  fifliery,  together  with  the  fifti,  and 
put  up  in  barrels  from  6  to  700  pound.  The 
tongues  arc  done  in  likemanner,  and  brought  in  bar- 
rels from  4  to  500  pounds.  The  rocs  are  alfo 
falted  in  barrels,  and  ferve  to  caft  into  the  fea  to 
draw  filli  together,  and  particularly /i/V^iari/x.  The 
oil  comes  in  barrels,  from  400  to  ^20  pounds,  and 
is  ufed  in  dreffing  leather.  The  Scots  catch  a  fmall 
kind  of  cod  on  the  coafts  of  Buchan,  and  all  along 
the  Murray  Firth  on  both  fides  ;  as  alfo  in  the 
Firth  of  Forth,  Clyde,  is'c.  which  is  much  efteemed. 
They  fait  and  dry  them  in  the  fun  upon  rocks,  and 
fometimes  in  the  chimney.  They  alfo  cure  Jiait, 
and  other  fmalier  fifh  in  the  fame  manner,  but  moft 
of  thefe  are  for  home  confumption. 

The  Coral-Fishery.  Red  eoral  is  found  in 
the  Mediterranean,  on  the  fliores  of  Provence,  from 
Cape  de  la  Couronne  to  that  of  St.  Tropez ;  about 
the  ifles  of  Alajorca  2nd  Minorca;  on  the  fouth  of 
Sicily;  on  the  coafts  of  Africa;  and,  laftly,  in  the 
Ethlopic  ocean,  about  Cape  Negro.  The  divers 
fay,  that  the  little  branches  are  found  only  in  the 
caverns  whofe  fituation  is  parallel  to  the  earth's 
furface,  and  open  to  the  fouth.  The  manner  of 
fifhing  being  nearly  the  fame  v/herever  coral  is 
found,  it  will  fuffice  to  inftance  the  method  ufed  at 
the  baftion  of  France,  under  the  dircflion  of  the 
company  eftablifhed  at  Marfeilles  for  that  fifliery. 
Seven  or  eight  men  go  in  a  boat  commanded  by 
the  patron  or  proprietor,  and  when  the  net  is 
thrown  by  the  cafter,  the  reft  woik  the  vefl~el,  and 
help  to  draw  the  net  in.  The  net  is  compofed  of 
two  rafters  of  wood  tied  crofs-wife,  with  leads 
fixed  to  them :  to  thefe  they  faften  a  quantity  of 
hemp  twifted  loofely  round,  and  intermingled  with 
fome  large  netting.  This  inftrument  is  let  down 
where  they  think  there  is  coral,  and  pulled  up 
again  when  the  coral  is  ftrongly  entangled  in  the 
hemp  and  netting.  For  this  purpofe,  fix  boats  are 
fometimes  required  i  and  if  in  hauling  in,  the  rope 
happens  to  break,  the  fifhermen  run  the  hazard  of 
being  loft.  Before  the  fifhers  go  to  fea,  they  agree 
for  the  price  of  the  coral,  which  is  fometimes 
more,  fometimes  lefs  a  pound ;  and  they  engage, 
on  pain  of  corporal  punifhment,  that  neither  they 
nor  their  crew  fhall  embezxle  any,  but  deliver  the 
whole  to  the  proprietors.  When  the  fifliery  is 
ended,  which  amounts  one  year  with  another  to 
twenty  five  quintals  for  each  boat,  it  is  divided 
into  thirteen  parts,  of  which  the  proprietor  hath 
four,  the  cafter  two,  and  the  other  fix  men  one 

each^ 


FISHING, 


487. 


each,  the  thirteenth  belongs  to  the  company  for 
payment  of  the  boat  furnifhed  them.  Sec  Diving. 

7'(^^H£RRiNG-FisHERV.  Hc7-rings  arc  chit  fly 
found  intheNorth-fea.  They  are  a  fifhof  paffage,  and 
commonly  go  in  fhoals,  being  very  fond  of  f(illaw- 
ing  fire  or  hght,  and  in  their  paffage  they  rcfcmble 
a  kind  of  Hghtning.  About  the  beginning  of  Jufif, 
an  incredible  (hoal  of  herrings,  probably  n'uch 
larger  tlian  the  land  of  Great-Britain  and  Ireland, 
come  from  the  north  on  the  furface  of  the  fea  ; 
their  approach  is  known  by  the  hovering  of  the  fea 
fowl  in  expedtation  of  prey,  and  by  the  fmoothnefs 
of  the  water  ;  but  where  they  breed,  or  wh:!t  par- 
ticular place  they  come  from,  cannot  be  eafily  dif- 
covered.  As  this  great  (hod  pafft-s  between  the 
{bores  of  Greenland  and  the  North-Cape,  it  is  pro- 
bably confined,  and  as  it  reaches  the  extremities  of 
Great-Britain,  is  neceflarily  divilcd  into  two  parts. 
For  we  find  one  part  of  the  herrings,  (leering  weft, 
orfouth-wcft,  anJ  leaving  theiflands  oi' Shetland  and 
Orkney  to  the  left,  pafs  on  towards  Ireland,  where 
being  interrupted  a  fccond  time,  fome  keeping  the 
(here  of  B  itain,  pafs  away  fouth  down  St.  George's 
Channel ;  while  the  other  part  edging  ofF  to  the 
fouth  weft,  coaft  the  weftern  ocean,  till  they  reach 
the  fouth  (liore  of  Ireland,  and  then  fteering  fouth- 
eaft,  join  the  reft  in  St.  George's  Channel.  The 
other  part  of  the  firft  divifion  made  in  the  north, 
parting  a  little  to  the  eaft  and  fouth-eaft,  pafs  by 
Shetland,  and  then  make  the  point  of  Buchan-nefs, 
and  the  coaft  oi  Aberdeen,  filling  as  they  go,  all  the 
bays,  firths,  creek-,  tffc.  with  their  innumerable 
multitudes.  Hence  they  proceed  forward,  pafs  by 
Dunhar,  and  rounding  the  high  (hores  of  St.  Abbe's 
Head,  and  Berwick,  are  feen  again  oft"  Scarborough  ; 
and  even  then  not  dimini(hing  in  bulk,  till  they 
Gome  to  Yarmouth-Roads,  and  from  thence  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Thames  ;  after  which,  paffing  down 
the  Britijh  Chamul,  they  feem  to  be  lu(t  in  the 
weftern  ocean. 

The  vaft  advantage  of  this  fifliery  to  our  nation 
is  very  obvious,  v;heii  we  confider  that  tho'  her- 
rings are  found  upon  the  fhores  of  North  America, 
they  are  never  feen  there  in  fuch  quantities  as  with 
us  ;  and  that  they  are  not  to  be  met  with  in  con- 
fidcrable  numbers  in  any  of  the  fouthern  kingdoms 
of  Europe,  as  Spain,  Portugal,  or  the  fouth  parts 
of  France  on  the  fide  of  the  ocean,  or  in  the  Me- 
diterranean, or  on  the  coaft  of  Africa. 

There  are  two  feafons  for  fi(hing  herring,  the 
firft  from  "June  to  the  end  oi  Augujl,  and  the  (econd 
in  Autumn,  when  the  fogs  become  very  favourable 
for  this  kind  of  fifliing. 

The  Dutch  begin  their  herrlng-fi/hing on  the  24th 
of  "June,  and  employ  no  Icfs  than  two  thoufand 
»e(tcls  therein  called  bufles,  being  between  forty - 


five  and  fixty  tons  burthen,  and  carrying  three  or 
four  finall  cannon.  They  never  (lir  out  of  port 
without  a  convoy,  unlefs  there  be  enough  together 
to  make  about  eighteen  or  twenty  cannon  among 

_  them,  in  which  cafe  they  are  allowed  to  go  in 
company.  Bcfiire  they  go  out,  they  make  a  verbal 
agreement,  wh.ch  has  the  fame  force,  as  if  it  were 
in  writing. 

The  regulations  of  the  admiralty  of  Holland  are 
partly  followed  by  the  Fiench,  and  other  nations, 
and  p  irtly  improved  and  augmented  with  new  ones  : 
as,  that  no  fi(hi'r  (hall  caft  his  net  within  a  hundred 
fathoms  of  another  boat :  that  while  the  nets  arc 
caft,  a  light  (h..ll  be  kept  on  the  hind  part  of  the 
vefTel  :  that  when  a  boat  is  by  any  accident  obliged 
to  leave  ofF  fifhing,  the  light  (hall  be  caft  into  the 
fea  :  that  when  the  greater  part  of  a  fleet  leaves  off" 
fifhing,  and  cafts  anchor,  the  reft  fhall  do  the 
fame,  i^c. 

By  the  late  a£t  of  parliament  in  Great  Britain^ 
the  regulation-;  are,  that  ereiy  vefTcl  intiiled  to  the 
bounty,  mu't  Cdrry    twelve  JVincheJier  bufliels  of 

I  fait  in  new  barrels,  for  every  laft  of  fifh  fuch  vefl'el 
is  capable  of  holding  ;  and  as  many  more  new  bar- 
rels as  fuch  vefl"els  can  carry  ;  and  two  fleets  of 
tanned  nets,  that  is,  a  veftel  of  feventy  tons  (hall 

j  carry  one  fleet  of  fifty  nets,  each  net  to  be  thirty 
yards  full  upon  its  rope,  and  feven  fathoms  deep; 

I  and  fo  in  proportion  for  greater  or  Imaller  vefl'cls  ; 
arid  be  provided  with  one  other  fleet  of  fifty  like 
nets,  on  board  a  tender,  or  left  on  (hore  in  a  proper 
place  for  the  ufeof  the  faid  vefTel,  isc. 

There  is  nothing  particular  in  the  manner  of  this 
fiftiing.  The  nets  wherein  the  fifh  are  drawn,  (liould 
regularly  have  their  me(hes  an  inch  fquare  to  let  all 
the  lefl"er  fry  go  through. 

The  curing  and  prepaying  herring.  The  com- 
merce of  herring,  both  white  or  pickled,  and  red,  is 
very  confiderable.  The  ivhite  Dutch  herrings  are 
themoftefteemed,  being  diftinguifhed  into  four  forts, 
according  to  their  fizes ;  and  the  beft  are  thofe  that 
are  fat,  flefhy,  firm,  and  white,  falted  the  fame 
day  they  are  taken,  with  good  fait  and  well  bar- 
relled. The  Brhifn  herrings  are  little  inferior,  if 
not  equal  to  the  Dutch,  for  ui  fpite  of  all  their  en- 
deavours to  conceal  the  fecret,  their  method  of 
curing,  lafting,  or  casking  the  herrings,  has  been 
difcovered,  and  is  as  follows. 

After  thev  have  bawled  in  their  nets,  which  they 
drag  in  the  fternsof  their  ve(rels  backwards  and  for- 
wards in  traverfing  the  coaft,  they  throw  them 
upon  the  fliip's  deck,  which  is  cleared  of  every 
thing  for  that  purpjfe  :  the  crew  is  feparated  into 
fundry  divifioiis,  and   each   divifion  has   a  peculiar 

task  :  one  part  opens  and  guts  the  herrings,  leaving 

the  melts  and  roes  :  another  cures  aad  falts  them^ 

by 


488 


7^5  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  «;/(^  Sciences. 


■  by  lining  or  rubbing  their  infide  with  fait :  the  next 
paclcs  them,  and  between  each  row  and  divifion  1 
they  fprinkle  handfuls  of  fait:  laftly,  the  cooper 
puts  the  finifhing  hand  to  ali  by  heading  the  casks 
very  tight,  and  flowing  t'iem  in  the  hold.  It  is 
>cuftomary  with  us  to  waih  the  herring  in  freili 
water,  and  fteep  them  twelve  or  fifteen  hours,  in  a 
■flrong  brine,  bjf  jie  we  proceed  to  barrel  them- 

Rd  H:rringi  niufl;  lie  twenty  four  hours  in  the 
brine,  in  as  much  as  thcv  are  to  take  all  their  fait 
there,  and  when  they  are  taken  out,  they  are  fpittcd, 
that  is,  ftrung  by  the  head  on  little  wooden  fpits, 
.  and  then  hung  in  a  chimney  made  for  that  purp  fe. 
After  which,  a  fire  of  bruih-Wuod,  which  yields  a 
deal  of  fmolce,  but  no  flame,  being  made  un  er 
them,  they  remain  there  till  fufficienrly  fmoked 
,and  dried,  and  arc  afterwards  barrelled  up  for 
■Jcee'ping. 

TifiifMAcKREL-FisHERY.  Theil/flf/'v/y are  found 
in  large  fli  lals  in  the  ocean,  but  efpeci^lly  on  the 
-'French  an  I  EnglijJ)  coafts.  They  enter  the  E'lgliJJ} 
channel  in  April,  and  proceeding  as  the  fummer 
advances  ;  al»o'.it  JwiCy  they  are  on  the  coafts  of 
jCvni-uall,  Sujpx,  Normandy,  Plcardy,  isfc.  where 
the  lifhe:y  is  moft  confiderab'e. 

They  are  taken  either  with  a  line  or  n.ts  :  the 
latter  is  preferable,  and  is  ufu.illy  performed  in  th.e 
night-time.  They  are  pickled  two  ways,  fir.'t  by 
opening  and  gutting  t!:em,  and  crammijig  thtir 
bellief,  as  hard  as  poflibie,  with  fait,  by  means  of 
a  Hick,  and  then  laying  them  in  rows  at  the  bottom 
of  the  velTel,  ftrevving  fait  between  each  layer.  The 
fecond  way  is  putting  them  direflly  into  tubs  full  of 
brine,  made  of  fait  and  frefh  water,  and  leaving 
them  to  fteep  till  they  have  taken  filt  enough  to 
keep.  After  this,  thej  are  barrelled  up  and  preiLd 
clofe  down. 

The  PiLcrfARD-FrsHERY.  The  chieT pilchard 
fifheries  are  along  the  coafts  o^ Da/matia,  on  the 
..coaft  of  Brcfagne,  and  along  the  coafts  of  Cornwall 
.and  Dcvanfi.lre.  That  o\  Dalmati.i  is  very  plenti- 
ful :  that  on  the  coafts  of  Bretagne  employs  annually 
about  300  fli  p"s.  The  pilchards  caught  on  our 
coafts,  tiio'  big?er.  are  not  (o  much  valued  as  thofe 
on  the  coafts  of  France,  owing  prir.cipally  to  thrir 
no:  being  fo  th  )i-oughly  cured.  They  naturally 
follow  the  light,  whicii  contributes  much  to  the 
facility  of  the  filhery  :  tiie  feafon  is  from  June  to 
September,  On  the  coafts  of  France  they  make  ufe 
of  the  roes  of  thecod-nfti,  as  a  bait,  which,  thrdwn 
into  the  Tea,  makes  them  rife  from  the  bottom,  and 
run  into  the  nets. 

0.1  our  c  >afts  there  are  perfons'pofted  afhore, 
who  r>>irig  by  the  colour  of  the  water  where  the 
'fhoals  are,  make  figns  to  the  boats  to  go  aniong 
them  to  caft' their  'nets.      When  taken,  they  are 


brought  on  fh  .-re  to  a  warehoufe,  where  they  are 
laid  up  in  broad  piles,  fupported  with  backs  and 
files,  and  as  th'.-y  are  piled,  they  fait  them  wi.h 
bay  fait,  in  which  lying  to  foak  twenty  or  thirty 
days,  they  tun  out  a  deaJ  of  blood,  with  dirty  pickle 
and  bittern  :  then  they  wafli  them  clean  in  fea- 
watcr,  and  when  dry,  barrel  and  prefs  rhem  hard 
down  to  fqvieeze  out  th."  oil,  which  iilj.s  out  at  a 
hole  in  the  bo'tom  of  the  cask.  The  Co'ni/h  men 
ohtrvc  of  the  pilchard,  that  it  is  the  leaft  fi  h  in 
fize,  inoft  i;i -number,  and  greateft  for  giin,  of  any 
thev  take  out  of  the  fca. 

The  Salmon-Ki^hlry.  The  cW\ef fahion- 
fPjerre!  in  Europe  iire  in  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,  in  the  rivers,  and  on  fea  coafts  adjoining  to 
the  river  mouths.  Tliofe  moft  diftioguifhei  for 
falmon  in  Scotla'.'d,  are  the  river  Tivecd,  the  Clyde^ 
the  Tay,  the  Dee,  the  Don,  the  Sfey,  the  TV^/x, 
the  Bewley,  (^c.  in  moft  jf  which  it  is  very  com- 
inon  about  the  height  of  fammfr,  efpecially  if  the 
weather  happen  to  be  very  h  >•.,  to  catch  four  or  five 
fcore  of  falmon  at  adrau-fht.  The  chief  dvers  in 
England  for  folmcn  are  the  Tyne,  the  H  ear,  the 
ITrctit,  ihc  Severn,  and  t*:e'7/jamrs.  The  fiftiing 
I  ufeallv  begins  about  'January,  and  in  Scotland,  they 
are  obliged  to  give  over  ab-  ut  the  15'h  of  j^ugtiji, 
becaufe,  as  it  is  then  fuppofed  the  filh  come  up  to 
fpawn,  it  would  requite  depopulating  the  rivets  to 
continu;  fifhing  any  longer.  It  i^  performed  with 
tiets,  and  fometiriies  With  a  kind  of  locks  or  wears 
made  on  pinpo'e.,  which  in  certain  places  have  iron 
or  wo^^den  grates  fodifp, fed,  in  an  angle,  that  being 
impelled  by  any  force  in  a  contrary  direction  to  the 
courfe  of  the  river,  t^ey  may  give  way  and  open 
a  li'tle  at  the  point  of  conra£t,  ar.d  immediately 
(hut  again,  clofing  the  angle.  The/<7//n?;, 'here- 
fore,  coming  up  into  the  riv?rs,  a  e  admitted  into 
rhefe  grates,  which  open,  ai  d  lufTer.  them  to  pafs 
thro',  but  fiiiit  again,  and  prevent  their  return. 
Sabmn  are  alfo  c;  ught  with  a  fpear,  which  they 
dart  into  him  uhen  (hey  fee  him  fwimming  near 
the  fuiface  of  the  water.  It  is  cuftomary  likewife 
to  catch  them  with  a  candle  and  lanthorn,  or  wifp 
of  ftraw  fet  on  fire  ;  for  the  fifti  naturally  ioUowing 
the  light,  are  ftruck  with  the  fpear,  or  taken  in  a 
net  fpread  for  that  purpof'e,  and  lifted  with  a  fud- 
den  jerk  from  the  bottom. 

The  curing  Salmon,  When  the  falmon  are  taken, 
they  open  them  along 'the  back,  take  out  the  guts 
and  gills,  'and  cut  out  the  greateft  part  of  the  bones, 
'  endeav,  uring  to  ma'-e  the  infide  as  finooth  as  pof- 
fible,  then  fait  the  fifli  in  large  tubs  for  the  purpofe, 
where  they  lie  a  confiderable  time  foaking  in  brine, 
and  about  GSlober,  they  are  packed  clofe  up  in  bar. 
rels,  and  fent'to  London,  or  exported  up  the  Medi 
ierranean.     They  have  alfo  in   Scotland,   a  great 

deal 


FISHING. 


deal  of  falmon  faltcd  in  the  common  way,  which 
after  foaking  in  brine  a  competent  time,  is  well 
preir.-d,  and  then  dried  in  fmoak :  this  is  c.illed 
kipper,  and  is  chiefly  made  for  home  confump  ion, 
and  if  properiy  cured  and  prepared,  is  reci.oned 
very  delicious. 

The  Sturgeon-Fisheiiy.  The  grestefl  y?«r- 
geonjifljcry  is  in  the  mouth  of  the  Folga,  on  the 
Cafpian-fea,  where  the  iVhifcovites  employ  a  great 
number  of  hands,  and  catch  them  in  a  kind  of  in- 
ciofurc  formed  by  huge  ft;i!ces,  reprcfentin j;  the 
letie;  Z,  repeated  feveral  times.  Thefe  fiflieries 
arc  open  on  the  fide  next  the  fea,  and  clofe  on.  the 
other,  by  which  means  the  fi.h  afcending  i;i  its 
fealon  up  the  river,  is  emb-irralTed  in  the'e  narrow 
aiig'iLir  retreats,  and  io  is  eafily  killed  with  a  harp- 
ing iron. 

HiU'Sions,  when  frefli,  eat  delicioully,  aiifl  in 
order  to  make  them  keep,  they  are  faltej  or  pick- 
led m  large  pieces,  and  put  up  in  cags  fro-n  thirty 
to  lift)  pjunds.  B'Jt  the  great  object  of  this  fifliery 
is  the  roe,  of  which  tlie  Alujavites  are  exireaiely 
fond,  a. id  ot  whic'n  is  made  the  cavear  or  kavia, 
fo  m;ici>  efl-cmed  by  the  Italians. 

The  Whale-Fisher V.  IFhalcs  are  chiefly 
cajght'in  the  Njrth-Jea  .•  the  largeft  fort  arelound 
about  Greenland,  or  Spit-zhergen. 

The  wbate-fijhery  begins  in  .'//a/,  and  continues 
all  'June  an^l  'July  ;  but  whether  the  rni|.s  have 
(vood  or  bid  fuccefi^,  they  muff  come  away  and  get 
clear  oi  the  ice  by  the  tnd  of  Auguji. 

The  minner  of  taking  zvhale,  at  prefent  is  as 
fo'lows.  As  foon  as  the  fiihurmen  hear  the  wha'e 
blow,  they  cry  out,  fall!  fall!  and  eve.y  fhip 
octs  out  its  long-b  at,  in  each  of  which  there 
are  fix  or  f;ven  men  :.  they  row  till  they  come  pret- 
ty near  the  whale,  then  the  harponner  flrikcs  it  with 
his  harpo.n.  Tnis  requires  great  dexterity,  for 
through  the  bone  of  his  head  there  is  no  uriking, 
but  near  his  f[yout  there  is  a  fft  piece  of  flefh,  ino 
which  the  iron  finks  with  eafe.  As  f  ion  as  he  is 
ftruck,  they  take  care  to-  give  him  rope  enough, 
»>;herwife,- when  he  goes  down,  as  he  frequently 
d  les,  he  would  inevitably  fink  the  boat :  this  rope 
he  draws  with  fuch  violence,  that,  if  it  were  not 
well  wat.r.'d,  it  would  b'  iis  fricfi'.m  againft  the 
iides  of  tlie  boat,  be  foon  fet  on  fire. 

The  line  faftcned  to  the  harpoon  is  fix  or  feven 
fathoms  long,  and  is  called  the  fore-runner  :  it  is 
made  of  tiie  fineft  and  fofteflhemp,  that  it  may  flip 
the  eafier :  to  this  they  join  a  heap  of  Ime.-  of  90 
or  100  fathoms  each,  and  when  there  are  not 
enourrh  in  one  long  boat,  they  borrow  from 
another. 

The  man  at  the  helm  obferves  which  way  the 
jope  goes,  and  fleers  the  boat  accordingly,  that  it 


489^ 


may  run  exadlly  out  before.      When   the  whale  i; 
ilruck,  the  other  long-  boats  row  before,    and  ob- 
ferve,  which  way  the  line  fl.-nds,  and  fometimes 
pull  it  ;  if  they  feel  it  fliif,  it  is  a  fign  the  tuhale 
ft  11  pulls  in  ffrength  ;  but  if  it  hangs  loofe,  and  the 
boat  lies  equally  high   before  and  behind  upon  the 
water,  they  pull  it  in  gently  ;  but  take  care  to  cci! 
it  fo,  that  the  whale  may  have  it  again  cafily  if  ho 
recovers  flirength  :  they  take  care,  however,  not  to  ' 
give  him  too  much  line,  becaufe  he  fometimes  en- 
tangles it  about  a  ruck,  and  pulls  out  the  harpoon. 
The  fat  w'(?/t'j  do  not  fmk  as  fjon  as  dead,  but  the 
lean  one's  do,  and  come  up  fome  days  afterward?. - 
The  whale  being  laflied  along-fide,  they  lay  ic  on 
'one  fide,  and  put  two  ropes,  one  at  tlie  head,  and 
I  the  other  in  t;'.e  place  of  the  tail,   which  together 
(•with  the  fins  is  fi:ruc!c  off,    as  foon  as  he  is  taken, 
!  to   keep  thofe  extrcmi:ies  above  water.     On  the 
jofiF  fide  of  the  iv'ale  are  two  boats  to  receive  the  ^ 

■  pieces  of  fat,   utenfils,  and  men,  that  might  other- 
.  wife  fall  into  the  water  on  that  fiiie. 

I      Thefe  prcauaons  being  taken,  three  or  foarmcn 

',  with  ir.-ns  at  thtir  feet,  to  prevent  flipping,  get  on 

!  the  whale,  and  begin  to  cut  out  pieces  of  about  > 

thiee  feet  thick,  and  eight  long,  which  are  hauled 

up  at  the  capftane  or  windlafs.     When  the  fat  'n 

all  got  ofF,  they  cut  off  the  whiskers  of  the  upper 

ja'v  with   an  ax.      Before   thev  cut,  they  are  al! 

iafhed  to  keep  them  firm,  which  alfo  facditates  the 

cutting,  and   prevents  them  from  falling  into  the 

I  fea :  when  on  board,  five  or  fix  of  them  are  bundled 

■  together,  and  properly  flowed,  and  after  all  is  got 
j  off,   the  carcafs  is  turned  adrift,   and  devoured  by 

the  bjars,  who  are  very  fond  of  it.  • 

In  proportion  ai  the  large  pieces  of  fait  are  cut  off, 
the  re;!  of  the  crew  are  employed  in  flicing  them 
fmaller,  and  picjcing  out  all  the  lean.  When  ihis 
is  prepared,  they  flow  it  under  the  deck^  v/here  it 
lie,^  till  the  fat  of  all  the  luhala  is  on  hoard;  then  - 
cutting  it  fiill  fmaller,  they  put  it  up  in  tubs  in  the 
bold,  cumming  them  very  fuii  and  clo'e.  ^  The  ■ 
fat  is  to  be  boiled  and  melted  down  into  train  oil, 

Beftdts  thefe  fijherie.-,  there  are  feveral  others  - 
both  on  the  coafts  of  G-  eat  Britain  and   in  the 
North -feas,   which  although  not  much  the  fubjedt  ■ 
of  merchandize,  neverth.:lefs  em.ploy  areat  numbers 
both  of  fhips  and  men;    as,    i.  The  oyfter-fifoing  ' 
at  Cokhefer,  Fevcrjliam,  the  ifle  of  IVlght,   in  the 
liiuales  of  the  Aled-way,  and  in  all  the  creeks  be- 
t«'een   Souihamptsn  and   Chlchcjler,  from  whence 
hey  are  carr'ed  to  be  fed  in  pits. 

2  The  lohfle'  -ffliing  all  along  the  Biitijl)  Chan- 
nel, the  Firth  of  Edinburgh,  on  the  coafl  of  Nor- 
ihuwherland,  and  on  the  coaff  of  Norzuay ;  from 
whence  great  quantities  are  brought  to  London. 
And  laftly,  the  fifhing  of  the  poi-ffi,  fnfijh,  fea- 

untcorn' 


'The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


490 

unicorn,  fea-horfe,  and  the  feal^  or  dog-fifl) ;  all 
■which  arc  found  in  the  fame  feas  with  the  whala, 
and  yield  blubber  in  a  certain  degree. 

The  Pearl-Fishery.  Pearl  is  a  hard,  white, 
•fliiniiig  body,  is  ufually  roundifh,  found  in  a  tefta- 
ceous  fifhrefembling  an  oyfter  :  and  though  efteem- 
ed  in  the  number  of  gems,  and  highly  valued  in 
all  ages,  proceeds  only  from  a  diftcmper  in  the 
creature  that  produce?  it. 

The  fifh  in  which  pearh  are  ufually  produced, 
is  the  Eajt  Indian  pearl  oyfter,  as  ic  is  commonly, 
though  not  very  properly,  called  .  it  has  a  very 
large  and  broad  fhcll,  of  the  bivalve  kind,  fome- 
times  meafuring  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  over, 
but  thofc  of  eight  inches  are  more  frequent:  it  is 
not  very  deep  ;  on  the  outfide  it  is  of  a  du-ky 
brown,  and  within  of  a  very  beautiful  white,  with 
tinges  of  feveral  other  colours,  as  expol'ed  in  dif- 
ferent diredlions  to  the  light. 

Befides  this  (hell,  there  are  many  otliers  that  are 
found  to  produce  pearls  ;  as  the  common  o\/}er,  the 
inufc'.e,  the  pinna  marina,  and  feveral  others  ;  the 
pearls  of  which  are  often  very  gooi,  but  thofe  of 
the  true  Indian-berberi,  or  piorl-oyfter,  arc  in  general 
fuperior  to  all. 

The  fmall  or  feed-pearls,  alfu  called  ounce  pearls, 
from  their  being  fold  by  the  ounce,  and  not  by  tale, 
are  vaflly  the  mofi;  numerous  and  common.  The 
fineft,  and  what  is  called  the  true  fliape  of  the 
pearl,  is  a  perfect  round.  Their  colour  ought  to 
be  a  pure  white,  and  that  not  a  dead  and  lifelcfs, 
but  a  clear  and  brilliant  one  ;  they  mufl  be  perfedHy 
free  from  any  foulnefs,  fpot,  or  ftain,  anj  their 
furfaces  mufi:  be  naturally  fmooth  and  glofl"  ;  for 
they  bring  a  natural  polifh  with  them,  which  ait 
is  not  able  to  improve. 

All  pfails  are  formed  of  the  matter  of  the  (hell, 
and  confifts  of  a  number  of  coats  fpread  with  per- 
fedl  regularity  one  over  another,  in  the  manner  of 
the  feveral  coats  of  an  onion,  or  like  the  feveral 
■ftrata  of  the  (tones  found  in  the  bladders  or  (lomachs 
cf  animals,  only  much  thinner. 

This  valuable  article  of  commerce  is  notthepro- 
du£l  of  any  peculiar  part  of  the  world.  The  eaft 
Indies  and  America  produce  the  pearl  ihell-fifh  in 
abundance,  and  it  is  found  with  good  pearls  in 
many  parts  of  Europe.  The  coafls  of  the  idand 
Ceylon  afford  pearls  fuj-rrior  to  thofe  of  all  the  Enft 
in  the  beauty  of  their  colour,  but  there  are  no  very 
large  ones  found  there.  The  Perjian  Gulph  abounds 
with  the  pcarl-fj}},  and  fifljcries  are  eltablifhed  on 
the  coafts  of  the  feveral  iflands  in  it.  In  America, 
there  are  fiflieries  in  thi  gulph  of  Mexico,  and  along 
the  coaft  of  Terra  Fir  ma,  all  which  yield  confi- 
derable  advantage.  The  European  pearls  are  prin  - 
cipally  found  on  the  coafts  of  Scotland,  and  the 
neighbouring  parts. 


There  arc  two  feafons  for  fiJlAng  pearls,  in  tJie 
Enft  Indies ;  the  firft  in  March  and  April,  the  le- 
coiid  mAuguJt  and  September;  the  more  rain  fdU,  in 
the  year,  the  more  plentiful  are  the  fifheries.  In 
the  opening  of  the  feafon,  there  appear,  fometimes, 
two  hundred  and  fifty  barks  on  the  banks.  In 
the  larger  barks  are  two  divers  ;  in  the  fmaller,  one. 
Each  bark  puts  off  from  (liore  e'er  fun-rife,  by  a 
land-breeze,  which  never  faiU  ;  and  returns  again 
by  a  fea-breezc,  which  fucceds  at  about  noon.  As 
foon  as  the  barks  are  arrived,  and  have  caft  anchor, 
each  diver  bind-;  a  (tone  fix  inches  thick,  and  afoot 
long  under  his  body  ;  which  is  to  fcrve  him  as  a 
ballaft,  and  prevent  his  being  driven  away  by  the 
motion  of  the  water  ;  and  to  enable  him  to  walk 
more  (teadily  a-crofs  the  v.'aves.  Befides  this  they 
tye  another  very  heavy  ftdne  to  one  foot,  whereby 
they  are  funk  to  the  bottom  of  the  fea  in  a  moment. 
And  as  the  oyfters  are  ufually  (trongly  faften'd  to 
the  rocks,  they  arm  their  fingers,  with  leathern 
mittens,  to  prevent  their  being  wounded  in  fcraping 
them  violently  off;  and  fome  men  carry  an  iron 
rake  for  the  purpofe.  Laftly,  each  diver  c.trries 
down  with  him  a  large  net,  in  manner  of  a  lack, 
ty'd  to  his  neck  by  a  long  cord,  the  other  end 
whereof  is  faftened  to  the  fide  of  the  barkf  The 
lack  is  intended  for  the  reception  of  the  oyfters 
gathered  from  the  rock,  and  the  cord  to  pull  up 
the  diver  V.  hen  the  baj,  is  full,  or  he  want-,  air. 
In  this  equipage  he  precipitates  himfelf,  fome:iaies 
above  fixty  feet  under  water.  As  he  has  no  time 
to  lofe  there,  he  is  no  fooner  arrived  at  the  bottom, 
than  he  begins  to  run  from  fide  to  fide,  fometimes 
on  afand,  fometimes  on  a^cla3ey  earth,  and  fome- 
times among  the  points  of  rocks  ;  tearine  off-"  the 
oyfters  he  meets  withal,  and  cramming  them  into 
his  budget.  At  whatever  depth  the  divers  be,  the 
light  is  fo  great,  that  they  eafily  fee  whatever  palTcs 
in  the  fca,  with  the  fame  clearnefs  as  on  laiid. 

The  beft  divers  keep  umlsr  vi'ater  for  half  an 
hour,  tbe  reft  do  not  (lay  lefs  than  a  quarter.  Dur- 
ing which  time,  they  hold  their  breath  without  the 
ufe  of  oil-:,  or  any  other  liquors  ;  when  they  find 
themfelves  ftraitened,  they  pull  tbe  rope  to  which 
the  bag  is  faftened,  and  hold  faft  by  it  with  both 
hands  ;  when  the  people  in  the  birk  taking  the 
fignal,  heave  them  up  into  the  air,  and  unload 
them  of  their  fifti.  Some  of  the  divers  need  a  mo- 
ment's refpite  to  recover  breath  ;  others  jump  in 
a'^ain  iiiftantly,  continuing  this  violent  exerclfe-, 
without  intermiffion,  for  rs?any  hours  See  Diving. 

On  the  (here  they  unload  their  barks,  and  hy 
their  oyftets  in  an  infinite  number  of  little  pits,  dug 
four  or  five  feet  fquare  in  the  fand  ;  raifing  heaps 
of  fand  over  them  to  the  height  of  a  man,  wh  ch, 
at  a  diftance,   look  like  an  army  ranged  in  battle. 

In 


FISHING. 


In  this  condition,  thry  are  left  till  the  rain,  wind, 
and  fun,  have  obliged  them  to  open,  which  foon 
kills  them.  Upon  this  the  flcfh  rots  and  dries, 
and  the  pearli,  thus  difcngaged,  tumble  into  the 
pit,  upon  taking  the  oyfters  out. 

The  (eafon  tor  fiflihig  in  the  Weft  Indus,  is  ufu- 
aliy  from  Oiloher  to  March.  In  this  time  there  let 
out  from  Carthagena  ten  or  twelve  barks,  under  the 
convoy  of  a  man  ot  wzx ^CiMedLarmadilla,  each  hark 
has  two  or  three  (laves  for  silvers.  Among  the  barks 
there  is  one  called  Catitana  ;  to  which  all  the  reft 
are  obliged  to  bring  at  night  what  they  have  caught 
in  tlie  day,  to  prevent  frauds.  The  divers  continue 
fometimes  under  water  above  a  quarier  of  an  hour. 
The  reft  is  the  fame  as  in  the  Eajt  India  fijhery. 

The  Ji/hing  in  frefli  water  is  commonly  perform- 
ed by  Angling.  For  this  purpofe,  there  mufl  be 
provided  rods,  lines,  hooks,  floats,  both  natural 
and  artificial  y?/w*,  i3c. 

The  Fishing-Rod  is  a  long  taper  lod  or  wand, 
to  which  the  line  is  fattened  for  angling.  Of  thefe 
there  are  feveral  forts  ;  as,  i.  The  troller,  or 
trolling-rod,  which  has  a  ring  at  the  end,  for  the 
line  to  go  through,  when  ic  runs  ofFa  reel.  2.  The 
whipper,  or  whipping  rod,  which  is  weak  in  the 
middle,  and  top-heavy,  but  very  {lender.  3.  The 
dopper,  which  is  a  ftrong  rod,  and  very  light.  4. 
Tlie  fnapper,  or  fnap  rod,  which  is  a  ftrong  rod, 
peculiarly  ufed  for  the  pike.  5.  The  bottom-rod, 
which  is  the  fame  as  the  dapper,  only  fomewhat 
more  pli.;ble.  6.  The  fniggling  or  pokiiig-ftick, 
which  has  a  bow'd  ftick  at  the  end,  a  ftrong  line 
and  needle  baited  with  a  lob-worm  :  this  is  only 
ufed  for  eels  in  their  holes. 

To  makea//«*,  after  the  beft  manner,  the  hairs 
ought  to  be  very  round,  of  an  equal  bignefs,  and 
twilttd  even  :  afterwards  lay  them  in  water  for  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  to  find  which  hairs  do  fhrink 
then  twift  them  over  again:  fome  mix  filk  in  the 
twifting,  which  is  never  fogood  asaline  of  allhairs, 


4.91 


or  all  filk.  The  beft  colour  for  lines  is,  the  forreU 
white,  and  grey  ;  the  twolalt  for  cicar  waters,  and 
the  firft  for  muddy  rivers.  In  the  making  your 
line,  leave  a  bow  at  both  ends,  the  one  to  put  it  to 
and  take  it  from  the  rod,  the  other  to  hang  your 
loweft  link  upon,  to  which  your  hook  is  faftened. 

1  he  hook  ought  to  be  long  in  the  fliaiik,  fome- 
what round  in  its  circumference,  the  point  ftsnding 
even  and  ftrait ;  and  let  the  bending  be  in  the  ftiank. 
Strong,  but  fniall  filk,  is  to  be  ufed  in  the  fetting 
on  of  the  hook ;  and  the  hair  laid  on  the  iiifide  of  it. 

The  _^oats  are  made  divers  ways  :  f  mie  ufe  the 
Ahfcovy  duck  quils,  which  are  the  beft  for  ftill 
waters  ;  but  for  ftrong  ftreams,  take  good  found 
cork,  without  flaws  or  holes,  and  bore  it  through 
with  a  hot  iron ;  then  put  into  it  a  quill  of  a  fit 
proportion  ;  then  pare  your  cork  into  a  pyramidical 
form,  of  what  bignefs  you  think  fit ;  after  this 
grind  it  fmooth. 

To  plumb  your  ground,  you  muft  carry  with  you 
a  mufket-ball,  with  a  hole  made  through  it,  or  any 
other  fort  of  plummet,  tying  this  to  a  ftrong  twift, 
hang  it  on  your  hook,  and  fo  you  will  find  the 
depth  of  the  water.  And  that  you  may  not  incom- 
mode your  tackle,  it  will  be  very  requifite  to  make 
feveral  partitions  in  pieces  of  parchment  fewed  to- 
gether, by  which  each  utenfil  may  have  a  place  by 
itfelf ;  not  forgetting  to  carry  a  little  whetftone  with 
you  to  fharpen  your  hooks,  if  you  find  them  blunt 
and  dull  ;  and  having  feveral  bags  of  divers  fizes 
for  )our  hooks,  corks,  filk,  thread,  lead,  flies,  isfi:. 
Likcwife  linen  and  woollen  bags  fot  all  forts  of 
baits  ;  and  a  fmall  pole  with  a  loop  at  the  end  there- 
of, to  which  you  may  faften  a  fmall  net  to  land 
great  fifh  withal. 

There  are  many  different  forts  of  natural  Jlies, 
but  fome  better  beloved  by  fome  fort  of  fifh  ;  which 
is  eafily  diftlnguifheil,  when  coming  in  the  morning 
to  the  river-fide,  you  beat  the  bufhes  with  your 
rod,  and  take  up  what  variety  you  may  of  all  (brts 
of  flies,  and  try  them  all,  by  which  means  you  will 


*  To  make  thefalmerj?y,  the  angler  muft  arm  his  line  on  the  infide  of  the  hook  ;  then  with  a  pair  of  fcifTars 
cut  fo  much  of  the  brown  of  a  mallard's  feathers,  as  he  fhal!  think  fuflicient  to  make  the  wings  ;  then  lay  the 
outemioll  part  or  the  feather  next  the  hook,  and  the  point  of  the  feather  lowaids  the  (hank  of  the  hook  ;  and 
afterward.-,  whip  it  three  or  four  times  about  the  hook,  vsitli  the  fame  filk  he  armed  it  with,  then  he  makes  his 
filk  fail  ;  which  done,  he  takes  a  plover's  top,  or  ihe  hackle  of  the  -.reck  of  a  cock,  of  which  he  takes  one  fide 
of  the  feather;  then  takes  the  hackle,  filk,  or  geld  or  filver  thread,  and  makes  all  thefe  fait  at  the  bend  of  the 
hook,  working  them  up  to  the  wings ;  every  turn  (hifting  hii  fingers,  and  mah.ing  a  Hop,  that  the  gold  may 
fall  right,  uhich  is  to  be  made  faff  ;  and  the  hackle  worked  up  to  the  fame  place,  and  a'fo  made  fall  :  then  he 
takes'the  hook  betwixt  his  finger  and  thumb,  in  the  left  hand,  and  with  a  needle  or  pin  parts  the  v\ings  in  two: 
then  with  the  arming  filk  he  twills  it  about,  as  it  falls  crofs  between  the  wings,  and  v.  ith  his  thumb  mull  ;urn  the 
points  of  the  feathers  towards  the  bend  of  the  hook,  working  it  three  or  four  times  about  the  fhank,  and  after- 
wards fallening  it.  If  he  makes  the  grcund  of  hog's  wool,  fandy,  black,  or  white,  or  of  bear's  wool,  or  of  axed 
bullock,  he  muft  work  thefe  groundsmen  a  waxed" filk,  and  muft  arm  and  fet  on  the  wings  as  above  mentioned. 
The  body  of  the  May-fy,  muft  be  wrought  with  fome  of  thefe  grounds ;  which  will  be  very  we!!,  when  ribb'd 
with  black  hair.  He  muft  make  the  oak-f,y,  with  orange  tawney,  and  black  for  the  body  ;  and  the  brown  of  the 
mallard's  feather  for  the  wings. 

23  R  r  r  quickly 


Tlje   Univerfal  Hiftory  c/"Arts  fl;;zd^  Sciences. 


492 

quickly  know  which  are  in  the  greateft  cfteem 
among  them. 

Though  there  are  reckoned  no  lefs  than  twelve 
forts  of  the  artlficiol  Jly^  it  is  much  better  to  find 
the  fly  proper  for  every  fcafon,  and  that  which  the 
fifh  at  that  t'me  moft  eagerly  covet,  and  make  one 
as  like  it  as  poffible  you  may,  in  colour,  (hape,  and 
proportion ;  and  for  your  better  imitation,  lay  the 
natural  fly  before  you.     See  the  note  on  p.  490. 

The  bcft  Rules  for  artlfcial  Jiy-fi/hitig,  are, 

1.  To  filli  in  a  river  fomewhat  difturbed  with 
rain  ;  or  in  a  cloudy  day,  when  the  waters  are 
moved  by  a  gentle  breeze ;  the  fouth  wind  is  btft ; 
and  if  the  winds  blow  high,  yet  not  fo  but  that  you 
may  conveniently  guard  your  tackle,  the  fifh  will 
rife  in  plain  deeps;  but  if  the  wind  be  fmall,  the 
beft  angling  is  in  the  fwift  flreams. 

2.  Keep  as  far  from  the  water-fide  as  may  he ; 
fifh  down  with  the  flreara,  with  the  fun  at  your 
back,  not  fuffcring  your  line  to  touch  the  water, 
but  only  your  fly. 

3.  In  clear  rivers,  ever  angle  with  a  fmall  fly, 
with  flcnder  wings  ;  but  in  muddy  places  ufe  larger. 

4.  When  after  rain  the  water  becomes  brownifh, 
ufe  a  red  or  orange  fly  ;  in  a  clear  day,  at  night, 
a  colourM  fly  ;  a  dark  fly  for  dark  waters,  ^c. 

5.  Let  the  line  be  twice  as  long  as  the  rod,  un- 
lefs  the  river  be  encumbered  with  wood. 

6.  For  every  fort  of  fly  have  feveral  of  the  fame 
differing  in  colour,  to  fuit  with  the  different  com- 
plexions of  fevera!  waters  and  weathers. 

7.  Have  a  nimble  eye,  and  adlive  hand,  to  flrike 
prefentiy  with  the  rifing  of  the  fifh  ;  or  elfe  he  will 
be  apt  to  fpew  out  the  hook. 

8.  Let  your  fly  fall  firfl  into  the  water ;  for  if 
your  line  fall  firft  it  fcares  the  fifh,  and  therefore 
you  muft  draw  again  and  cafl. 

9.  In  flow  rivers,  or  ffill  places,  cafl  the  fly  crofs 
over  the  river  ;  and  let  it  fink  a  little  in  the  water, 
and  draw  it  gently  back  with  the  current. 

Laffly,  Salmon  f'tes,  fhould  be  made  with  their 
wings  ffarding  one  behind  the  other,  whether  two 
or  four.  That  fifh  delights  in  the  gaudiefl:  colours 
that  can  be  ;  chiefly  in  the  wings,  which  mufl  be 
long  as  well  as  the  tail. 

In  angling  the  following  rules  are  to  be  obferved. 
I.  To  place  yourfelf  fo  that  your  fliadow  do  not  at 
any  time  lie  uport  the  water  if  fhallow.  2.  To  angle 
in  a  pond  near  the  ford  where  the  cattle  go  to  drink, 
and  in  rivers,  in  fuch  places  as  the  fifh  you  intend 
to  angle  for,  ufually  frequent  ;  as  for  breams,  in 
the  deepcfl  water  ;  for  eels,  under  banks  ;  for  c/;v3, 
in  deep  fbaded  holes;  for  pearch,  in  fcowrs;  for 
roach, \nthe(amQ  places;  for  trouts, in  quick  flreams. 

The  beft  times  for  angling  are  from  April  to 
OSfober ;    for  in  cold  ftormy   weather,  or   bleak 


eafterly  winds,  the  fifh  will  not  bite.  The  time 
of  the  day,  in  the  warm  months,  is  in  the  morning, 
about  nine  o'clock,  and  in  the  afternoon,  between 
three  and  four. 

In  order  to  attradt  the  fifh  to  the  place  intended 
for  angling,  it  will  be  proper  once  in  four  or  five 
days  to  cafl  in  fome  corn  boiled  foft,  garbage, 
worms  chopt  to  pieces,  or  grains  fteeped  in  blood, 
and  dried  ;  and  if  you  fifh  in  a  ffream,  it  will  be 
beft  to  caft  in  the  grains  above  the  hook. 

The  beft  way  of  angling  with  ihtjiy,  is  down 
the  river ;  and  in  order  to  make  them  I  ite  freely, 
be  fiire  to  ufe  fuch  baits  as  you  know  they  are  na- 
turally inclined  to,  and  in  fiich  manner  as  they  are 
accuftomed  to  receive  them. 

If  you  fifh  for  carp,  you  are  to  arm  yourfelf  with 
patience,  for  they  are  very  fubtilc  :  they  alv;ays 
chufe  to  lye  in. the  deepcfl  places  ;  they  feldom  bite 
in  cold  weather,  and  in  hor,  a  man  cannot  be  too 
early,  or  too  late  for  them  ;  when  they  do  bite, 
there  is  no  fear  of  the  hold.  The  baits  are,  the 
red- worm,  in  March  ;  the  cadew,  in  June  ;  and 
the  rafhopper,  in  July,  Auguft,  and  September. 
Proper  partes  may  alfo  be  prepared  for  them  ;  as 
honey  and  fugar,  wrought  together,  and  thrown 
in  pieces  into  the  water,  fome  hours  before  you  be- 
gin to  angle.  Honey,  and  white  crumbs  of  bread 
mix'd  together,  do  alfo  make  a  good  parte. 

Xiiox  dace,  and  dare,  which  refembJe  much  one 
another,  in  kind,  fiz°,  goodnefs,  feeding,  cunning, 
l3c.  The  dace,  or  dare,  will  bite  at  any  fly,  but 
efpecially  the  Jlone  cadicejiy,  or  May  fly,  the  latter 
end  of  April,  and  the  beginning,  or  moft  part  in 
May,  is  a  moft  excellent  bait,  floating  on  the  top 
of  the  water,  which  they  rarely  lefufe  in  a  warm 
day  ;  but  when  you  fill;  under  water  for  them,  it  is 
beft  to  be  within  a  handful,  or  fomething  more  of 
the  ground.  To  catch  dace  in  water,  the  bait  is  a 
white  worm,  with  a  read  head,  as  big  as  the  top 
of  a  man's  little  finger,  gather'd  after  the  plough, 
in  heaths,  or  fandy  grounds. 

The  ftlver  eel  may  be  caught  with  divers  baits  ; 
particularly  powder'd  brcf,  garden  worms,  or  lobs, 
minnows,  hens  guts,  fifh,  garbage,  i^c.  But  as 
they  hide  themfelves  in  the  mud,  without  fl:irring 
out  for  fix  months,  and  in  the  fummer,  take  no 
delight  to  be  abrosd  in  the  day,  the  moft  proper 
time  to  take  them  is  in  the  night ;  by  faftcning  a 
line  to  the  bank-fide,  with  a  laying  hook  in  the 
water,  or  a  line  plumbed  with  a  float,  to  difcover 
where  the  line  lies  in  the  morning.  The  roach 
does  here  very  well  for  a  bait,  the  needle  being  laid 
in  his  mouth. 

There  is  another  way  of  taking  eels,  called  fni-- 
gling,  perform'd  in  the  day-time,  by  taking  a  ftrcng 
line  and  needle,  baited  with  a  lob,  or  garden  worm, 

and 


S      H    1     N      G, 


493 


and  fefortingto  fuch  holes  afld  places,  as  eels  ufed  to  I 
abfcond    in,    near  mills,    wears,    or   flood-gates, 
wlicre  the  bait  being  gently  put  into  the  hole,  by ' 
the  help  of  a  cleft  ftick,  fixt  at  the  end  of  our  rod, 
the  eel  will  certainly  bite. 

Bobbing  Jor  eels,  is  done  by  taking  vcrv  large 
1  >bs,  fcoLiring  them  well,  and  with  a  needle,  run 
fome  ftrong  twilled  filk  through  them  from  end  to 
end  ;  taking  fo  many  as  may  be  wrapped  a  dozen 
times  round  a  board  :  then  they  muft  be  tied  faft 
with  the  two  ends  of  the  filk,  that  they  may  hang 
in  fo  many  links.  This  done,  they  are  to  be 
faftened  all  to  a  cord,  and  about  an  handful  and  a 
half  above  the  worms,  a  plummet  is  fixed,  three 
quarters  of  a  pound  weight ;  and  the  cord  made  fafi: 
to  a  flrong  pole.  Fiftnng  with  thefe  in  muddy 
water,  the  eels  will  bite  haftily  at  the  bait ;  when 
you  think  they  have  fwaliow'd  it,  gently  drawn  up 
the  line,  and  bring  them  afhorc. 

Others  ufe  an  eel  fpear,  with  three  or  four  forks, 
or  jagged  teeth,  which  they  ftrike  at  random  into 
the  mud. 

In  April,  May,  'June,  and  July,  you  may  fifh 
for  Jlaunders  all  day  long,  either  in  a  fwift  ftream, 
or  \n  the  (till  deep,  with  red- worms,  wafps,  and 
gentles. 

If  you  fifh  for  gudgeon,  which  is  a  fmall  fifh  of 
a  delicious  tafte,  and  fpawns  three  or  four  times  In 
the  fummer  fcafo.-n,  feeding  in  ftreams,  and  on 
gravel  :  bait  with  a  fmall  red-worm,  fifhing  near 
the  ground.  The  gudgeon  may  either  be  fifhed  for 
with  a  float,  the  houk  being  on  the  ground  ;  or  by 
hand  witli  a  running  line  on  the  ground,  without 
cork,  or  float.  He  will  bite  well  at  wafps,  gentles, 
and  cod-baits.  When  you  angle  for  gudgeons,  ftir 
up  the  fand  or  gravel  with  a  long  pole,  which  will 
make  them  gather  to  the  place,  and  bite  the  faflrer. 

The  pearch,  or  perch,  fpawns  but  in  February 
or  March,  and  feldom  grows  longer  than  two  foot. 
He  bites  beft:  when  the  fpring  is  far  fpent.  The 
proper  baits  are  the  minnow,  and  fmall  frog;  but 
a  worm  called  a  brandling  is  befl:  ;  though  the  min- 
now yields  the  bell  fport,  which  is  to  be  alive  and 
fludt  on  the  hook  through  the  upper  lip,  or  back- 
fin,  and  kept  fwimming  about  mid-water,  orfome- 
what  loWer  :  for  which  purpofe,  you  muft  have  an 
indifferent  large  cork,  with  a  quill  on  your  line. 
When  you  fifli  with  a  frog,  you  mull  faften  the 
hook  through  the  flcin  of  his  Jeg,  towards  the 
upper  part  thereof.  You  may  alfo  bait  with  lob- 
worms well  fcour'd,  bobs,  oak  worms,  gentles, 
colewort  worms,  minnows,  dois,  wafps,  and  cad- 
baits.  When  the  fifh  bites,  as  he  is  none  of  the 
leathern-mouth'd  kind,  he  muft  have  time  to  pouch 
his  bait.  The  beft  place  to  filh  for  him,  is,  in  the 
turning  of  the  water  eddy,  in  a  good  gravel  bot- 


tom. He  bites  well  all  the  day  long,  in  cool  cloudy 
weather  ;  but  chiefly  from  eight  in  the  morning  till 
ten,  and  from  three  in  the  afternoon  till  about  fix  ; 
but  will  not  bite  at  all  the  feafonsof  the  year,  cfpe- 
cially  in  winter,  for  then  he  is  very  abftcniious  ; 
yet  if  it  be  warm,  he  will  bite  thtn  in  the  middle 
of  the  day  ;  for  in  winter,  all  fifh  bite  beft  about 
the  heat  of  the  day. 

There  are  two  ways  of  fifl.'ing  for  the  pike  ;  by 
the  ledger-bait,  and  the  walking-bait. 

The  ledger-bait,  is  that  fixed  in  one  certain  place, 
and  which  the  angler  may  leave  behind  him.  And 
this  muft  be  a  living  bait,  either  _fifh  or  frog.  Of 
fifti,  the  beft  are  the  dace,  roach,  or  perch  ;  for 
frogs,  the  yelloweft  are  the  beft. 

To  apply  it ;  if  a  fifh,  ftick  the  hook  through 
his  upper  lip  ;  then  faftening  it  to  a  ftrong  line,  ten 
or  twelve  yards  long,  tie  the  other  end  of  the  line, 
either  to  fome  ftake  in  the  ground,  or  to  fome 
bough  of  a  tree,  near  the  pike's  ufual  haunr,  or 
where  you  think  it. is  like  he  may  come.  Then 
wind  your  line  on  a  forked  ftick  (big  enough  to 
keep  the  bait  from  drawing  it  under  water)  all  a- 
bout  half  a  yard,  or  fomewhat  more,  and  your  ftick 
having  a  fmall  cleft  at  the  end,  faften  your  line 
therein;  but  fo,  that  when  the /)/-^^  comes,  he  may 
eafily  draw  it  forth,  and  have  line  enough  to  go  to 
his  hold  and  pouch.  If  the  bait  be  a  frog ;  the  arm- 
ing wire  is  to  be  put  in  his  mouth,  and  out  at  his 
gills,  and  one  of  the  legs  to  be  ftitched  cr  tied  over 
the  upper  joint  of  the  wire. 

The  ivalking-bait,  is  that  which  the  fifher  cafts 
in,  and  conduits  with  a  rod,  i^c.  This  is  perform'd 
by  a  trole,  with  a  winch  to  wind  it  up  withal.  At 
the  top  of  the  rod  is  to  be  placed  a  ring  for  the  line 
to  run  through.  The  line  for  two  yards  and  a  quar- 
ter next  the  hook,  to  be  of  filk  double,  and  armed 
with  wires,  the  length  of  foven  inches :  on  the 
fhank  of  the  hook  is  to  be  faftened  a  fmooth  piece 
of  lead,  fo  as  to  fink  the  fifli  bait,  which  is  to  be  a 
gudgeon  with  his  head  downwards.  Thus  difpofe 
the  bait  to  be  caft  up  and  down,  and  if  you  feel  the 
fifh  at  the  hook,  give  him  length  enough  to  run  a- 
way  with  the  bait,  and  pouch  it ;  then  ftrike  him 
with  a  fmart  jerk. 

To  fifti  with  a  dead  bait,  ufe  a  minnow,  yellow 
frog,  dace,  or  roach,  anointed  with  gum  of  jey, 
diflblved  in  oil  of  fpike  ;  and  caft  it  where  the  pike 
frequents.  After  it  has  lain  a  little  while  at  the 
bottom,  draw  it  to  the  top,  and  foup  the  ftream, 
and  you'll  foon  perceive  z  pike,  in  earneft  purluit 
thereof.  This  fifti  bites  beft  about  thiee  in  the  af- 
ternoon, in  clear  water,  with  a  gcnt!e  gale,  from 
the  middle  of  fummer,  to  the  end  of  autumn  ;  but 
in  winter  all  day  long;  and  in  the  fpring  he  bitcj 
beft  early  in  the  morning,  and  late  at  jiight. 

R  r  r  2  To 


494-  ^^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


To  angle  for  roacha  in  Aprils  the  cads,  or  worms, 
are  proper  baits  ;  and  fmall  white  fnails,  or  flies  ; 
whicti  baits  mufl  be  under  water,  for  7 caches  will 
not  bite  at  the  top.  Others  ufe  a  May-Jiy  in  that 
feafon  with  good  fuccefs.  In  autumn  you  may  fifh 
for  them  with  pafte,  only  made  of  the  crumbs  of  fine 
white  bread,  moulded  with  a  little  water;  and  the 
labour  of  your  hanJs,  into  a  tough  part,;,  coloured, 
not  very  deep,  with  red  lead,  with  which  you  may 
mix  a  little  flue  .ot'on,  or  lint,  and  a  little  butter  ; 
thefe  latt  vrtll  make  it  hold  on,  and  r.oc  wafn  off  your 
hook,  with  which  you  mufl  fifh  with  moft  circum- 
fpeifl  on,  or  you  lofe  your  bait.  In  winter  gentles 
are  the  befl  bait.  Sprouted  nialr,  the  young  brood  of 
wafps,  and  bees  dipped  in  blood,  and  the  thick  blood 
of  Iheep,  half  dried,  are  nojlrums  in  this  iorto^  fiPnng. 
The  feafon  for  catching  tench,  is  in  June,  July, 
and  /lugujl,  very  early  and  hue,  or  even  all  nighr, 
in  the  11:111  part  of  rivers.  His  baif  is  a  large  red 
worm,  at  which  he  bites  very  eagerly,  if  firft  dipt  in 
tar,  i-]e  alfo  delights  in  all  (bits  of  paftes,  made  up 
of  itrong  fcentcd  oils,  or  with  tar :  or  a  pafle  of 
brown  bread  and  honey  ;  nor  docs  he  refufe  the 
cad-worm,  lob-worm,  flag-worm,  green  gentles, 
cad   bait,  or  foft  boil'd  bread  grain. 

The  trout  is  ufually  caught  with  a  worm,  min- 
now, or  fly,  natural  or  artificial.  There  are  feveral 
forts  of  worms,  which  are  baits  for  the  angler  ; 
the  earth- woim,  the  dung- worm,  the  maggot,  or 
gentle ;  but  for  the  trout,  the  lob-worm,  and 
brandling  are  the  beft ;  or  the  fquirrel-tail,  having 
a  red  head,  ftreak'd  down  the  back,  and  a  broad 
tail.  The  brandling  id  commonly  found  in  an  old 
dunghil,  cow-dung,  hogs-dung,  or  tanners-bark. 
VV  hatever  worms  you  fiOi  withal,  they  are  the 
better  for  keeping  ;  which  mufl  be  in  an  earthen 
put  with  mofs,  to  be  changed  often  in  fummer, 
that  is,  once  in  three  or  four  days,  and  in  twice  as 
long  time  in  winter. 

When  you  fifli  for  a  trout  by  hand,  on  the 
ground,  take  a  lob-worm,  and  run  your  hook 
through  him,  a  little  above  the  middle,  and  out  again 
a  little  below  it ;  then  draw  your  worm  above  the 
arming  of  your  hook,  making  your  firft  entrance 
at  the  tail-end,  that  the  point  of  the  hook  may 
come  out  at  the  head.  When  you  fifh  with  a  min- 
now, take  the  whiteft  and  middle  fize,  flip  the  hook 
through  his  mouth,  and  the  point  and  beard  out  of 
the  tail,  fo  as  it  may  lie  almoft  ftraight  on  the  hook  ; 
then  try  againft  the  flream  whether  it  will  turn.  In 
defect  of  a  minnow,  a  fmall  loach  may  ferve  the 
turn  ;  or  for  want  of  either,  an  artificial  one  may  be 
made  of  cloth,  to  the  life,  which  is  found  every 
whit  as  good  a  bait  as  the  natural  one. 

We'll  finifh  this  treatife  with  fome  obfervations 
on  fijh  ponds,  and  on  the  feeding,  breeding,  and 
preferving  of  fi£h. 


Fijh-ponds  are  no  fmall  improvement  of  watry 
and  boggy  lands,  many  of  which  arc  fit  for  no 
other  ufe. 

In  making  of  a  pond,  its  head  fhould  be  at  the 
loweft  part  of  the  ground,  that  the  trench  of  the 
flood-gate  or  fluice,  having  a  good  fall,  may  not  be 
too  lojig  in  emptying.  The  befl  way  of  making 
the  head  fecure,  is  to  drive  in  two  or  three  rows  of 
flakes  above  fix  feet  long,  at  about  four  feet  dif- 
tance  from  each  other,  the  whole  length  of  the  pond 
head,  whereof  the  firft  row  fhould  be  rammed  at 
leaft  about  four  feet  deep.  If  the  bottom  is  falfc, 
the  foundation  may  be  laid  with  quick-lime,  which, 
flacking,  will  make  it  as  hard  as  a  ftone.  Some  lay 
a  layer  of  lime,  and  another  of  earth  dug  out  of  the 
pond,  among  the  piles  and  flakes  j  and  when  thefe 
are  well  covered,  drive  in  others,  as  they  fee  occa- 
fion,  ramming  in  the  earth  as  before,  till  the  ponJ- 
head  be  of  the  height  defigned. 

The  dam  fhould  be  made  floping  on  each  fide, 
leaving  a  wafte  to  carry  off  the  overabundance  of 
water  in  times  of  floods  orrains ;  and  as  to  the  depth 
of  the  pond,  the  deepeft  part  need  not  exceed  fix 
feet,  riling  gradually  in  fhoals  towards  the  fides,  for 
the  fifh  to  fun  themfelves,  and  lay  their  fpawn. 

Gravelly  andfandy  bottoms,  efpecially  the  latter, 
are  beft  for  breeding  ;  and  a  fat  foil  with  a  white 
fat  water,  as  the  wafhings  of  hills,  commons,  ftreets, 
finks,  y<r.  is  beft  for  fattening  all  forts  of  fifh. 

For  ftoring  a  pond,  carp  is  to  be  preferred  for 
its  goodnefs,  quick  growth,  and  great  increafe ;  as 
breeding  five  or  fix  times  a  year.  A  pond  of  an 
acre,  if  it  be  a  feeding  and  not  a  breeding  one,  will 
every  year  feed  two  hundred  carps  of  three  years 
old,  three  hundred  of  two  years  old,  and  four 
hundred  of  a  year  old.  Carps  delight  in  ponds  that 
have  marl  or  clay-bottoms,  with  plenty  of  weeds 
and  grafi,  whereupon  they  feed  in  hot  months. 

Your  pond  fhould  be  drained  every  three  or  four 
years,  and  your  fifh  forted.  If  it  is  a  breeding  one, 
the  fmaller  ones  are  to  be  taken  out,  to  ftore  other 
ponJs  with  ;  leaving  a  good  ftock  of  females,  at  leaft 
eight  or  nine  years  old,  as  they  never  breed  before 
that  age.  In  feeding  ponds,  it  is  beft  to  keep  them 
prettv  near  of  a  fize. 

When  fifh  are  fed  in  large  pools  or  ponds,  either 
malt  boiled,  or  frcfh  grains,  ii  the  beft  food  ;  thus 
carps  may  be  railed  and  fed  like  capons,  and  tenches 
will  feed  as  well.  The  care  of  feeding  them  is  beft 
committed  to  a  gardener,  or  the  butler,  who  fhould 
be  always  at  hand.  in  a  ftevv,  any  fort  of  grain 
boiled,  efpecially  peas,  and  malt  coarfe  ground  ; 
alfo  the  grains  after  brewing,  whilft  frefh  and  fweet : 
but  one  bufhel  of  malt  not  brewed,  will  go  as  far 
as  two  of  grains. 

Of 


[  495  ] 


Of     FORTIFICATION, 


FORTIFICATION  is  military  architelfure,    or 
the  art  of  fortifying  or  ftrengthening  a  place, 
by    raifing   works   around    it   for    defence 
againft  a  powerful  enemy. 

Some  authors  go  back  to  the  beginning  nf  the 
world  for  the  author,  or  origin,  of  military  archi- 
ieSlure,  or  fortification.  According  to  them,  God 
himfelf  was  the  firft  engineer  ;  and  paradife,  or 
the  garden  of  Eden,  the  firft  fortrefs.  Cctin  im- 
proved on  the  hint,  in  building  the  firft  city, 
Gen.  iv.  17.  after  him  came  Nimrod,  Gen.  x.  10. 
then  Semiramis,  as  Polyrsmis  relates.  Stratagem. 
lib.  8.  c.  27.  the  Catiaanites,  i\umb.  xiii.  19. 
Di'Ut.  i.  28.  David,  2  Kingsv.  9.  Solomon,  2  Chron.  iii 


The  regular  fortification,  has  the  baftions  all 
equal;  built  in  a  regular  polygon:  whofe  fides  and 
angles  are  generally  about  a  mufkct-fliot  from  each 
other.  In  this  fort  oi  fortification  the  parts  being 
all  equal,  have  the  advantage  of  being  equally 
defenfible,  fo  that  there  are  no  weak  places. 

'I'he  irregular  fortification  is  that  wherein  tlie 
baftions  are  unequal  and  unlike ;  or  the  fides  and 
angles  not  all  equal  and  equidiftant.  In  this 
fort  o(  fortification  the  defence  and  ftrength  being 
unequal,  there  is  a  neccflity  for  reducing  the  irre- 
gular figure,  as  near  as  may  be,  to  a  regular  one. 
And  as  the  irregul.irity  of  a  figure  depends  on  the 
quantity  of  angles  and  fides ;  the  irregularity  of  a 


5.  Rchohoam  his  fon,  2  Chron.  viii.  5.  and  other  fortification  arifes  either  from  the  angles  being  too 
kings  of  Jiidah  and  Ifrael;  and  at  length  the  fmall,  or  the  fides  being  too  long  or  too  fhort. 
Greeks  and  Romans,  Vitruv.  lib.  10.  c.  ult.  and  lib.  1  Confequently  an  irregular  figure  being  propofed  to 
I.  f.  J.  ibe  fortified,  all  the  angles,  with  the    quantity  of 

Such  is  the  feries  of  thofe  who  fortified  places  ;  the  fides,  muft  be  found,  to  be  able  to  judge  how 
to  which  might  be  added  Pharaoh,  the  perfecutor  ,  it  is  to  he  fortified. 
of'  the  IJf-acliti's,  who    built   the  cities   of  Pi, horn.        Fortifications  are   reprefentcd  either   by   defif^ns 


on  paper,  or  by  models  of  wood,  plaifter,  or  pafte- 
board.  There  are  four  forts  af  delineations,  viz. 
the  defgn,  ichnography,  orthography,  and  fcenogra- 
phy. 

The  Design  is  the  firft  draught  of  ^forti- 
fication, by  fimple  lines,  to  know  the  length 
thereof. 

The  Ichnography  denotes  the  p'an,  or  re- 
prefentation  of  the  length  and  breadth  of  a  fortrefs : 
the  diftincSl  parts  of  which  are  marked  out,  cither 
upon  the  ground  itfeJf,  or  upon  paper. 

The  Orthography  is  the  profile,  or  repre- 
fentation  of  a  fortification,  or  a  draught  fo  con- 
duced, as  that  the  length,  breadth,  height,  and 
thicknefs  of  the  feveral  parts  are  cxprefled :  fuch 
as  they  would  appear,  if  it  were  perfpeiStive. 

The  ScENOGR.'i.PHY  is  the  reprefcntatinn  of  a 
fortification,  on  a  perfpedlive  plan,  or  a  defcription 
thereof  in  all  its  dimenfions,  fuch  as  it  appears  to 
the  eye. 

Before  we  proceed  we  muft  give  fome  general 

rules  to  be  neccfi^arily  obferved  in  ^z  fortification  of 

rory.  '  places,      i.   The  manner  oi  fgrtifying  mult  be  ac- 

Durahle  fortifications  are  the  walls,  i^c.  of  cities,  ,  commodated  to  that  of  attacking ;  fo  that  no  one 

frontier  towns,  isc.  \  manner  can  be  afilired  will  alv.  ays  hold,  unlefs  it 

Temporary  fortifications  are  thofe  ereded  for   the  j  be  aflured  the  manner  of  befieging  be  incapable  of 

fecurity  of  a  camp,   for  feizing  and  maintaining  a    being  altered;  and  to  judge  of  the  perfeflion  of  a 

poft  or  pafs,  and  on  fuch  like   emergent  occafions.  [fortification,  the  method  of  befieging  at  the  time 

Again:  the  ^«/-«Wf  kind  are  divided  into  r^^«/flr    when  it  was  built,  muft  be  confidered.    2    All  the 

and  irregular:  parts 'of  z  fortification,  fhould  be  able  to  refift  die 

moft 


and  Raamfes,  Exod  1.   ii.  1 

But  how  ancient  foever  the  furrounding  of  cities 
with  walls,  towers,  ifff.  may  be,  the  name  forti-  \ 
fication,  and  the  art  now  underftood  thereby,  are 
of  no  very  old  ftanding.  They  had  their  rife  fince 
the  invention  of  cannons ;  the  terrible  effects 
whereof  rendered  it  necefTary  to  change  the  ftruclure 
of  the  antient  walls,  and  add  fo  many  things 
thereto,  that  thofe  changes  were  thought  enough 
to  conftitute  a  new  art,  which  was  called  fortifi- 
cation, by  the  ftrength  it  afforded  thole  in  cities,  to 
defend  themfelves  againft  an  enemy. 

T  he  firft  authors,  who  have  wrote  on  fortifi- 
cation, confidered  as  a  particular  formed  art,  are 
Ramelli  and  Cutanea,  Italians  ;  after  them  Errard, 
engineer  to  Henry  the  Greats  king  of  France;  Ste- 
vinus,  engineer  to  the  prince  of  Orange;  Marolois, 
the  chevalier  de  Ville,  Lorini,  Coehorn,  the  count 
de  Pagan,  and  the  marfhal  de  Vauban :  Which 
laft  two  noble  authors  contributed  greatly  to  the 
perfeilion  of  the  art. 

Fortifications  are  either  durable  ox  tempo- 


49  6 


T^e  Univerfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


moft  forcible  machine:;  ufcd  in  beficging.  3.  A 
fcrt'ificalion  fliould  be  lb  contrived,  that  it  mav  be 
defended  with  as  few  men  as  poflible.  4.  That 
the  defendants  may  be  in  the  better  condition, 
■  they  mult  not  be  expofcd  to  the  enemies  guns  and 
mortars;  but  the  aggre(I()rs  be  cxpofed   to  theirs. 

Hence,  5,  all  the  parts  of  a  fortification  fhould 
be  fo  difpofed,  as  that  they  may  defend  each  other  ; 
in  order  to  this,  every  part  therein  is  to  be  flanked, 
»'.  e.  capable  of  being  feen  and  defended  from  fome 
other,  fo  chat  there  be  no  place  where  an  enemy 
can  lodge  himfelf  cither  unfeen,  or  under  fhelter. 
6.  All  the  campaign  around  mufl  lay  open  to  the 
defendsnts,  fo  that  no  hills  or  eminences  muft  be 
allowed  ;  behind  which  the  enemy  might  fhelter 
himfelf  from  the  guns  of  the  fortification,  or  from 
which  he  might  annoy  thein  witli  his  own.  The 
fortrefs,  then,  is  to  command  all  the  place  round 
about ;  confequently  the  outworks  mult  be  lower 
than  the  body  of  the  place.  7.  No  line  of  de- 
fence to  he  above  point  blank  mufket-fhot,  which 
is  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  fathom.  8.  The 
acuter  the  angle  at  the  centre,  the  ftronger  is  the 
place ;  as  confifting  of  more  fides,  and  confe- 
quently more  defenfible. 

Mr.  Vauhan,  as  well  as  count  Pagan,  admits 
of  three  forts  oi  fortifications,  viz.  the  great,  where 
the  exterior  polygon  has  always  tv/o  hundred  fa- 
thoms; the  middle,  which  has  always  one  hundred 
and  eighty;  the  fmall  which  has  but  one  hundred 
and  fixty  fathoms. 

All  fortifications  confift  of  lines  and  angles, 
which  have  various  names  according  to  their  diffe- 
rent offices. 

Tht  angles.  Fig.   i.  are  the  angle  of  the  centre, 

the  angle  of  the  polygon,  the  angle   of  the  bajiion, 

the  angle  of  the  coiirtine,  the  ayjgle  of  cltfence,  the 

Jlanking  angle,   the  fianked  angle,  and  the   angle  of 

the  cpatile. 

The  lines  are  thofe  of  the  exterior  polygon,  of 
the  interior  polygon,  of  the  perpejidiciilar,  of  the 
line  of  defence,  of  the  complement,  of  the  great 
fefni-diamctcr,  of  the  little  femi-diamcter,  of  the 
capital,  of  the  face,  of  the  demi-^orge,  of  the 
fiank,  and  of  the  coiirtine. 

Of  thefe  lines  and  angles,  are  formed  hajlions 
and  coiirtines,  and  fometimes  demi-bajiions,  accord- 
ing the  fituation  of  the  ground ;  cavaliers,  ram- 
parts, fauffe-braye'  ditches,  countetfarps,  covert- 
wayr,  half  moons,  ravelins,  horn-iuorks^  crown- 
works,  out-ivorks,  efplanades,  redoubts,  and 
tenailles, 

A  Bastion,  in  the  modern  fignification,  is  a 
huge  malfive  of  earth,  ufually  faced  with  fods, 
fometimes  with  brick,  larely  with  ftone,  ftanding 
out  from  a  rampart,  whereof  it  is  a  principal  part, 


and  anfwers  to  what  in  the  antient  fortifications  is 
called  bul-uark. 

A  ^fl/?/5K  confifts  of  two  faces,  and  two  flanks : 
the  faces  are  the  lines  ii  C,  andCS;  irlcluding 
the  angle  of  the  baftion.  The  flanks  arc  the  line 
B  A  S  D,  Fig.  I.  in  the  plate  Fortification. 

The  union  of  the  two  faces  makes  the  outrrfoft 
or  faliant  angle,  called  alfo  the  angle  of  the  baftion, 
B  C  S.  fig.  r.  Tlie  union  of  the  two  faces  to  the 
two  flanks,  makes  the  fide  angles,  called  the 
Jhoulders,  or  epaules  of  the  haftion.  An^  the  union 
of  the  two  other  ends  of  the  flanks  to  the  two 
courtines,  the  angles  of  the  flanks  of  the  haftion 

The  foundation  of  the  baftion,  i.  e.  of  a  work 
confifting  of  flanks  and  faces,  is,  that  great  rule 
\n  fortification,  viz.  that  every  part  of  a  work  muft 
be  feen  and  defended  from  fome  other  part ;  mere 
angles  therefore  are  not  fufficient,  but  flanks  and 
faces  are  indifpenfably  requifite.  If  the  baftions 
EFG,  and  HIK,  Fig.  8.  confifted  of  faces 
alone,  the  angles  G  and  H  could  not  be  defended 
from  the  lines  F  G,  or  I  H  ;  but  if  the  baftion  con- 
fifts  of  flanks  and  faces,  as  A  B  C  S  D,  all  the 
points  may  be  defended  from  the  flanks,  there 
being  none,  v.  g.  in  the  face  B  C,  but  what  may 
be  defended  from  the  oppofite  angle  E  L,  nor  anv 
in  the  courtine  A  E,  but  what  may  be  defended 
from  the  adjacent  flanks  B  A,  and  EL;  nor  any 
in  one  flank  B  A,  but  may  be  defended  from  the 
other  EL. 

For  the  proportion  of  the  faces,  they  are  not  to 
be  lefs  than  twenty-four  rhine-land  perches,  nor 
more  than  thirty. 

Thefianlcs  of  the  baftioii,  the  longer  they  are, 
the  better ;  provided  they  ftand  at  the  fame  angle, 
under  the*  line  of  defence.  If  the  angle  of  the 
baftion  be  lefs  than  fixty  degrees,  it  will  be  too 
fmall  to  give  room  for  guns;  and  befides  fo  acute 
as  to  be  eafily  beaten  down  by  the  enemies  guns  : 
Therefore  a  triangle  can  never  be  fortified,  in 
regard  fome,  or  all  the  angles  will  be  either  fixty 
degrees,  or  lefs  than  fixty. 

Degree,  in  this  place,  is  a  divifion  of  a  circle, 
including  a  three  hundred  and  fixticth  part  thereof. 
Every  circle,  great  and  fmall,  is  fuppofed  to  be 
divided  into  '<6o  parts,  c?l\\zi\  degrees ;  the  degree 
is  fubdivided  into  60  lefler  parts,  called  minutes ; 
the  minute  into  60  others,  cziledfeconds,  the  fccond 
into  60  thirds,   &c. 

BaOlons  are  of  divers  kinds,  _/i//W,  void,  fiat,  cut, 
&c.  The  folid  baftions  are  thofe  that  are  filled 
up  entirely,  and  have  the  earth  equal  to  the  height 
of  the  rampart,  without  any  void  fpace  towards 
the  center.  Void  or  hollow  baftions,  are  thofe 
furrounded  with  a  rampart,  and  a  parapet  only 
ranging  round  their  flanks  and  faces,  fo  as  to  have 

a  void 


FORTIFICATIOm 


997 


a  void  fpace  towards  the  center;  where  the  ground 
is  fo  low,  that  if  the  rampart  be  taken,  no  retrench  - 
mentcan  be  made  in  the  center,  but  what  will  lie 
under  the  fire  of  the  befieged.  A  flat  baflion,  is  a 
baftion  built  on  a  right  line  in  the  middle  of  a 
courtinc,  when  it  is  too  long  to  be  defended  by  the 
baftion  at  its  extremes.  A  cut  baftion,  is  that, 
whofe  point  is  cut  ofF,  and  in  lieu  thereof,  has  a 
re-entring  angle,  or  an  angle  inwards,  with  two 
points  outwards ;  fometimes  alfo  called  a  baftion 
with  a  tenaille ;  uled  either  when  without  fuch  a 
contrivance,  the  angle  would  be  too  acute,  or 
when  water  or  other  impediment  hinders  the  car- 
rying on  the  baftion  to  its  full  extent. 

There  are,  likewife,  compofed,  regular,  irregu- 
lar, deformed,  demi,  and  double  baftions.  A 
compofed  baftion,  is  when  the  two  fides  of  the 
interior  polygon  are  very  unequal,  which  makes 
the  gorges  alio  unequnl.  A  regular  baftion,  is  that 
which  has  its  due  proportion  of  faces,  flanks,  and 
gorges  ;  the  faces  being  of  an  equal  length,  the 
flanks  the  fame,  and  the  two  angles  of  the  ftioulder  ] 
equal.  An  irregular  baftion  is  where  this  pro- ' 
portion  and  equality  is  not  ohferved.  A  deformed 
baftion  is  where  the  irregularity  of  the  lines  and 
angles  makes  the  baftion  out  of  fhape,  as  when  it 
wants  one  of  its  demi-gorges,  one  fide  of  the  inte- 
rior polygon  being  too  fhort.  A  demi-baftion,  is 
that  which  has  but  one  face  and  one  flank,  called 
alfo  an  epaulement ;  to  fortify  the  angle  of  a  place 
that  is  too  acute,  they  cut  oft  the  point,  and  make 
two  demibaftions,  which  form  a  tenaille,  or  a 
re-entring  angle.  Their  chief  ufe  is  before  a  horn- 
work,  or  crown-work.  A  double  baftion,  is  that 
which  on  the  plain  of  the  great  baftion,  has  ano- 
ther baftion  built  higher,  fomewhat  after  the  man- 
ner of  a  cavalier ;  leaving  twelve  or  eighteen  feet 
between  the  parapet  of  the  lower,  and  the  foot  of 
the  higher. 

Every  baftion  hath  its  capitals,  gorges,  and 
diftances.  The  capital  of  a  baftion,  is  a  line 
drawn  from  the  angle  of  the  polygon,  to  the  point 
of  the  baftion.  Thofe  capitals  are  from  thirty- 
five,  to  forty  fathom  long,  from  the  point  of  the 
baftion,  to  the  point  where  the  two  dcmi-gorges 
meet.  The  gorge  of  a  baftion  is  what  remains  of 
the  fides  of  the  polygon  of  a  place,  after  retrench- 
ing the  courtines  :  In  which  it  makes  an  angle  in 
the  center  of  the  baftion;  fuch  is  A  H  D,  Fig.  i. 
The  demi-gorge,  or  half-gorge,  is  the  entrance 
into  the  baftion  ;  not  taken  directly  from  angle  to 
angle,    where  the  baftion  joins  to  the  courtine, 


from  the  angle  of  the  flank  to  the  center  of  the 
baftion,  or  angle  the  two  courtines  would  make, 
were  they  thus  protrafled  to  meet  in  the  baftion. 
The  diftance  of  the  baftions  is  the  fides  of  the 
exterior  polygon. 

The  Courtine,  curtain^  or  curt'in  (the  next 
piece  oi  fortification  which  falls  under  our  confi- 
deration)  is  that  part  of  a  wall  or  rampart,  which 
is  between  two  badions;  or  which  joins  the  flanks 
thereof:  qq^  Fig.  8.  The  courtine  is  ufually  bor- 
dered with  a  parapet  five  foot  high;  behind  which 
the  foldiers  ftand,  to  fire  upon  the  covert-v/ay,  and 
into  the  moat.  Befiegers  feldom  carry  on  their 
attacks  againft  the  courtine,  becaufe  it  is  the  beft 
flanked  of  any  part. 

The  courtine  has  its  angle  and  complement.  The 
angle  of  the  courtine,  or  of  the  flank,  is  that 
made  by  or  contained  between  the  courtine  and  the 
flank.  The  complement  of  the  courtine,  is  that 
part  of  the  interior  fide  thereof,  which  makes  the 
demi-gorge. 

The  Cavalier  is  a  mount,  or  elevation  of 
earth,  either  round  or  oblong,  having  a  platform 
on  the  top,  bordered  with  a  parapet,  to  cover  the 
cannon  placed  on  it,  and  cut  with  embrazures  to 
fire  through ;  ferving  to  overlook  and  command  all 
around  the  place.  Cavaliers  are  raifed  in  fieges  on 
the  baftions  and  courtines  of  ramparts,  in  order  to 
fire  on  the  eminences  around,  and  oblige  the 
enemy  to  get  farther  off,  as  vt'ell  as  to  fcour  the 
trenches.  But  the  gorge  of  the  baftion,  is  the 
place  where  cavaliers  are  moft  properly  erefled  ; 
thofe  raifed  on  the  courtine,  being  rather  called 
platforms. 

A  Platform,  is  an  elevation  of  earth,  on 
which  cannon  is  placed  to  fire  on  the  enemy.  Such 
are  the  mounts  on  the  middle  of  the  courtine  ;  and 
there  is  always  one  on  the  ramparts  where  the  can- 
non are  mounted.  The  platform  is  made  by  heap- 
ing up  of  earth  on  the  rampart ;  or  by  an  arrange- 
ment of  madriers,  *  rifing  infenfibly  for  the  can- 
non to  roll  on ;  either  in  a  cafemate,  or  on  an 
attack  in  the  outworks. 

The  Rampart,  is  a  maflj'  bank,  or  elevation 
of  earth,  raifed  about  th^  body  of  a  place,  to 
cover  it  from  the  great  fhot.  Upon  the  rampart 
the  foldiers  continually  keep  guard,  and  pieces 
of  artillery  are  planted  for  th'j  defence  of  the 
place. 

To  flielter  the  guard  from  the  enemies  /hot,  the 
outfide  of  the  rampart  is  built  higher  than  the 
infide,  .''.  e.  a  parapet  is  raifed  upon  it  v.ich  a  plat- 


Long  and  broad  planks  for  fupporting  earth. 


form. 


4g8 


TJoe  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  <77?V  Sciences. 


form.  The  rampart  is  built  with  a  tnhs*,  or  flope. 
both  on  the  inner  and  outer  fide.  The  rampart  is 
ibmetimes  lined,  /.  e.  fortified  with  a  ftone  wall 
within  fide;  otherwife  \l\\?iS  z  berme\.  It  is  en- 
compaded  with  a  moat  or  ditch,  out  of  vPhich  the 
earth  that  forms  the  rampart  is  dug.  The  height 
of  the  rampart  (hould  not  exceed  three  fathoms, 
this  being  fufHcient  to  cover  the  houfes  from  the 
battery  of  the  cannon  ;  neither  ought  its  thickncfs 
to  be  above  ten  or  twelve,  unlefs  more  earth  be 
taken  out  of  the  ditch,. than  can  be  otherwife 
beftowed.  The  ramparts  of  half-moons  are  the 
better  for  being  low,  that  the  fmall  fire  of  the 
defendants,  may  the  better  reach  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch  :  but  yet  they  muft  be  fo  high,  as  not  to 
be  commanded  by  the  covert-way. 

Fau?sk-bray£,  is  an  elevation  of  earth,  two 
or  three  fathoms  broad,  round  the  foot  of  the  ram- 
part on  the  outfide,  defended  by  a  parapet,  which 
parts  it  from  the  bermc,  and  the  edge  of  the  ditch  : 
Its  ufe  is  for  the  defence  of  the  ditch. 

TheDrrcH,  c^^\t6faJp^nA  moat^  is  a  trench 
duo-  round  the  rampart,  or  wall  of  -a  fortified  place, 
between  the  fcarp  and  counterfcarp,  hhh,  \\g.  8. 
Somt  ditches  are  dry,  others  full  of  water  ;  each 
whereof  have  their  advantages.  The  ditch  fhould 
be  of  fuch  a  breadth,  as  that  the  tailed  tree  may 
not  reach  over  it,  /.  e.  from  15  to  20  fathoms. 

The  Counterscarp  is  properly  the  outward, 
or  exterior  talus  of  the  ditch  ;  though  at  prefcnt  is 
underftood,  under  that  name,  \\\?^covert-u<ay,  with 
its  parapet.     » 

But  they  are  miflaVcn,  for  the  covert-way  is  a 
fpace  of  ground,  level  with  the  adjoining  country, 
on  the  edge  of  the  ditch,  ranging  quite  round  ihr 
ha'lf-moons,  and  other  works  without-fide  the  ditch. 
hb.  Fig  8.  It  it  otherwife  called  corridor,  and 
has  a  parapet  together  with  its  banquette  and  gla- 
cis, which  form  the  height  of  the  parapet.  One 
of  the  "reateft  difRculties  in  a  fiege  is  to  make  a 
lodgment  on  the  civert-woy  ;  becaufe,  ufually,  the 
beiieged  pallifade  it  along  the  middle,  and  under- 
mine it  on  all  fides.  This  is  alio,  fometimes,  exiled 
the  counterfcarp;  becaufe  it  is  on  the  edge  of  the 

fcarp. 

A  Banquette,  i.a  little  foot-bank,  or  eleva- 
tion of  earth,  forming  a  path  which  runs  along  the 


infide  of  a  parapet;  by  which  fhc  niufqueteers  get 
up,  to  difc»ver  the  counterfcrap,  or  to  fire  on  the 
enemies  in  the  moat,  or  in  the  covert-way.  Th;- 
banquette  is  generally  a  foot  and  a  half  high,  and 
almofl:  three  feet  broad  ;  having  two  or  three  fleps 
to  mount  it  by.  Where  the  parapet  is  very 
hij;h,  they  make  a  double  banquette,  one  over 
another. 

A  parapet  orbreaft-work,  is  a  defe.-,ce  orflcrcen, 
on  the  extream  of  a  rampart,  or  other  work,  ferv- 
ing  to  cover  the  foldiers,  and  the  cannon  from  the 
enemies  fire.  Parapets  are  raifed  on  ail  work.s, 
where  it  is  neccflan'  to  cover  the  men  from  the 
enemies  fire,  both  wii'ain  and  without  the  place, 
and  even  the  approaches.  The  parapet  royal,  or 
that  of  the  rampart,  is  to  be  of  earth,  cannon- 
proof,  from  eighteen  to  tweenty  feet  thick,  fix 
feet  high  towards  the  place,  and  four  or  five 
towards  the  rampart.  This  difference  of  height, 
makes  a  glacis,  or  flope,  for  the  mufqueteers  to 
fire  down  into  the  ditch,  or  at  leaft  the  counter- 
fcarp. The  parapet  of  the  Wall  is  fomcumes  of 
ftone.  The  parapet  of  the  trenches  is  either 
made  of  the  earth  dug  up,  or  of  gabions,  fafcines, 
facks  of  earth,  or  the  like. 

Glacis  is  a  Hoping  bank,  which  reaches  from 
the  parapet  of  the  counterfcrap,  or  covert-way.  to 
the  level  fide  of  the  field,  a  a  a  c.  Fig  8.  The 
glacis,  otherwife  cfplanade,  is  about  fix  feet  high, 
and  lofes  itfelf  by  an  infcnfible  diminution  in  th.e 
Ipace  of  ten  fathoms. 

The  Half-Moon,  is  an  outwork  confifting  of 
two  faces,  forming  together  a  faliant  angle,  whofe 
sorge  is  turned  like  an  half-moon.  Half-moons 
are  fometimes  raifed  before  the  courtine,  when  the 
ditch  is  wider  than  it  ought  to  be  ;  in  which  cafe 
It  is  much  the  fame  with  the  ravelin,  only  that  the 
gorge  of  an  half-moon  is  made  bending  in  liie  a 
bow,  or  crefcent,  and  is  chiefly  ufed  to  cover  the 
point  of  the  baftion  ;  whereas  ravelins  are  alwavs 
placed  before  the  courtins. 

R.AVELIN  is  a  detached  work,  compofed  only  of 
two  faces,  which  make  a  faliant  anjie,  without 
any  flanks ;  and  raifed  before  the  courtine  on  the 
counterfcarp  of  the  place.  A  ravelin  is  a  trian- 
gular work,  refembling  the  point  of  a  baftion, 
with  the  flanks  cut  off,  i  i  i.  Fig.  8.   Its  uk  before 


*  There  is  an  exterior  talus,  ar.d  an  interior  one.  The  e,>;terior  ta'us  for  work,  is  i^s  flope  on  the  fide  towards 
the  country  ;  wVk.' ■  is  always  made  as  little  as  podible,  to  prevent  the  enemies  fcahdo ;  unlefs  tire  earth  be  bad, 
and  then  it  is  ab'olutely  neceffari  y  to  allow  a  corfiJerable  talus  for  its  parapet.  The  interior  talus  of  a  work, 
is  its  flope  on  the  ^nfrde  t'Oivards  the  place. 

t  A  final  Tpace  of  o-rojnd,  four  or  five  feet  w'de,  left  without  the  rampart,  between  its  foot  and  the  fide  of 
the  moat  to  receive  the  ea  ih  that  rolls  down  fi-cm  the  rampart,  and  prevent  its  falling  into,  and  filling  up  the 
moat,     'i  his  is  alfo  called /riswv,  relais,  reiraite,  fas  de  Jouris,  foulaad,  &c.  Sometimes  for  more  fecutity,  the 

be.  me  is  pallifaded. 

a  cour- 


FORTIFICATION. 


499 


a  courtine  is,  to  cover  the  oppofite  flanks  of  the 
two  next  baft!ons.  It  it  uf(.-d  alfo  to  cover  a  bridge 
or  a  gate,  and  is  always  placed  without  the  moat. 
What  the  engineers  calls  a  ravelin,  the  foldieis 
generally  call  a  hali'-moon.  There  arc  alfo  double 
ravelins,  which  ferve  to  dcf;nd  each  other.  They 
are  faid  to  be  double  when  they  are  joined  by  a 
courtine. 

To  cover  and  defend  a  courtine,  baftion,  or 
other  places  fufpeftcd  to  be  weaker  than  the  rert, 
as  alfo  to  poiTefs  a  height,  there  is  a  fort  of  out- 
work erected,  and  advancing  towards  the  field  called 
horn-work,  which  confifts  of  two  demi-bailians, 
as  L  M  N  and  O  P  Q;  Fig.  g  joined  by  the  cour- 
tine N  O.  Its  fides  or  flanks  are  ufually  parallel, 
though  fometimes  they  approach  or  contract  to- 
wards the  place,  forming  what  they  call  z  fwalkw's 
tail;  when  the  flanks  are  too  long,  thty  fometimes 
make  epaulements  to  flank  tlicm.  The  parts  of  the 
horn  work,  next  the  country,  is  to  be  dd'enJed 
by  a  parapet. 

T  wo  horn- works  joined  together  make  a  crown- 
work,  which  is  an  out  wor!;  running  into  the 
field  ;  dcfigned  to  keep  off  tli:?  tntmy,  gain  feme 
hill,  or  advantageous  poll,  and  cover  the  out-works 
if  the  place,  //,  Fig.  8.  The  crown-woik  con- 
fifts of  t^^'o  demi  balUons  at  the  extremes,  and  an 
e.itire  baftion  in  the  middle  v.ithcourtines. 

All  thofe  works  made  without  fiJe  the  ditch,  or 
f'jjjc,  to  cover  and  defend  it  are  called  out- works 
which  ferve  to  cover  the  body  of  the  place,  and 
to  keep  the  enemy  at  a  diflance,  and  to  prevent 
their  taking  advantage  of  the  cavities  and  eleva- 
tions, ufually  found  in  the  places  about  the  coun- 
terfearp. 

There  is  a  kind  of  work  indented  in  form  of  the 
teeth  of  a  faw,  wich  faliant,  and  rc-entring  angles, 
to  the  end  that  one  part  may  flank  or  defend  ano- 
ther, called  Reuen'S,  redans,  or  rttiai'.t.  It  is 
alfo  called  faw- work,  and  indented  vjok,  and  is 
frequently  ufed  in  the /ir//;}/;;^  of  walls,  where  it 
is  not  nccefl'iry  to  be  at  the  expencc  of  buildiui 
bartions  ;  as  when  they  ftand  on  the  fiJe  of  a  rivcr^ 
a  mavfh,  the  fca,  is'c.  The  parapet  of  the  carr/i/isr 
is  frequently  redcnted,  or  carried  on  in  the  way  of 
rcd.ns. 

There  is  alfo  a  kind  of  out- work,  confifting  of 
two  parallel  fides,  with  a  front  wherein  is  a  re- 
entering angle,  called  Tenaille,  which  is  of 
two  kinds,  --ji-z.,  fimple  ?i\\A  duible.  ThzfsmpU,  or 
ftngle  tenaille,  is  a  large  out- work,  as  D  A  8  C  E. 
confifling  of  two  faces  or  fides,  A  f5,  and  Ci>,  in- 
cluding a  re-entering  angle  B,  Fig.  9,  and  Fig  8,  d. 
Double,  or  flanked  tmaille,  is  a  large  out- work, 
confilHng  of  W.-aJimple  tenailles,  or  three  fidinnts, 
and  two  te-entring  angles,  F  G  H,  and  HIK, 
2.3 


Fig.  8,  e.  The  great  defe£Is  of  tenailles  are,  that 
they  take  up  too  much  room,  and  on  that  account 
are  advantageous  to  the  enemy  ;  that  the  angle  B, 
is  undefended  ;  the  height  of  the  parapet  hindering 
the  feeing  down  into  it,  fo  that  the  enemy  caiv 
lodge  there  under  covert  :  and  that  the  fulcs  A  D 
and  C  E,  are  not  "fufficiently  flanked  For  thefe 
reafons,  tenailles  2.K  now  excluded  out  of  fortifi- 
cations by  the  beft  enr^ineers,  and  never  made,  but 
where  there  wants  time  to  form  a  horn-work.  '\  he 
tenaille  of  the  place,  is  the  front  of  the  place,  com- 
prehended between  the  points  of  two  neighbouring 
baftions  ;  including  the  courtine,  the  two  flanks 
raifed  on  the  courtine,  and  the  two  fides  of  the 
baftions  which  face  one  another  ;  fo  that  the  tena- 
ille is  the  fame  with  what  is  otherwife  called  the 
face  of  the  fortrefs.  The  ^va-?///^  of  the  ditch,  is  a 
low  work  raifed  before  the  courtine  in  the  middle  of 
thefojfe,  or  ditch.  It  is  of  three  forts,  the  firll  is 
compofed  of  a  courtine,  two  flanks,  and  two  faces  l 
the  rampart  of  the  courtine,  including  the  parapet 
and  talus,  is  but  five  fathoms  thick  ;  but  the  ram- 
part of  the  flanks  and  faces,  (even,  c  Fig.  8.  The 
fecond,  which  M.  Vauban  fays  he  found  to  be  of 
very  good  defence,  is  compofed  only  of  two  face-', 
made  on  the  lines  of  defence,  w  hofe  ramparts  and 
faces  are  parallel.  The  third  fort  only  differs 
from  the  fecond  in  this,  that  its  rampart  is  parallel 
CO  the  courtine  of  the  place.  All  three  forts  are  good 
defences  for  the  ditch,  and  lie  fo  low,  that  they 
cannot  be  hurt  by  the  befiegers  cannon,  till  ihey  are 
mafters  of  the  covert-way,  and  have  planted  their 
artillery  there. 

T  here  have  been  invented  various  methods  of 
fortifying;  the  principal,  and  thofe  which  chiefly 
obtain  through  Europe,  are  thofe  of  Vauban,  Blon- 
de!, Pagan,  Coehorn,  and  Scheiter,  from  which  all 
the  reil  are  eafily  conceived. 

The  figure,  or  perimeter  (i.  e.  the  ambit,  oc 
extent  that  bine's  a  figure,  or  body)  of  a yi);//-^}, 
ov  fortified  phce,  is  called  Poi.VGO.\',  which  is  a 
figure  whole  perimeter  confifts  of  more  than  four 
fides,  and  angles.  If  the  fides  and  angles  be  equal, 
the  figure  is  called  a  regular  polygon.  Polygons  are 
difiinguifhed  according  to  the  number  of  their  fides. 
Thofe  of  five  fides,  are  called  pentagons  ;  thofe  of 
fix,  hexagons;  thofe  of  feven,  heptagons;  thofe  of 
eight,  offagons,  he.  The  polygon  of  a  place  is 
diftinguifhed  into  exterior,  and  interior  polygon. 
The  exterior  polygon  is  a  right  line  drawn  from  the 
vertex,  or  point  of  a  baftion,  to  the  vertex,  or  point 
of  the  next  adjacent  baftion.  The  interior  polygon 
is  a  right  line  drawn  from  the  center  of  one  baftion, 
to  the  center  of  gnother. 

We  will  begin  by  making  a  draught  of  a  regular 
Jientagon,  according  to  M.  Vauban  s  method  of  his 
S  f  f  middle 


500  Ihe  Univei'fal  Hiftory  of  Arts  <3!«<:/ Sciences. 


m\AA\z  foytlficatlon,  which  has  always  180  fathoms 
Therefore,  to  divide  the  circumference,  we  will 
take  76  (0  h  (i.  and  make  a  circle  of  it,  which  wc 
will  divide  into  five  equal  parts,  each  whereof  will 
have  90,  (^,  we  will  divide  the  fides  into  two 
parts,  and  draw  from  the  center,  as  well  through 
the  angles  of  the  figure,  as  through  the  points 
found  in  the  middle  of  the  fides,  right  lines.  We 
will  give  from  the  fame  middle,  on  the  lines  drawn 
towards  the  center,  to  the  fquare  the  eighth  part, 
to  the  pentagon  the  feventh,  and  to  all  the  others, 
the  fixth  part  of  the  exterior  fide ;  which,  makes 
the  perpendicular  A  \,  Fig.  2.  afterwards  we  will 
draw  through  that  point  of  the  double  angle  of  the 
neighbouring  gorges,  the  lines  of  defence  A  P, 
OB. 

To  form  the  flank,  the  faces,  and  the  courtine, 
we  will  put  on  the  lines  of  defence,  the  faces  of 
the  angles  A  B,  ft.  which  are  at  all  the  polygons  ; 
at  the  firilrank,  27  (a,  at  the  fecond  25  ;  and  at 
the  third  23,  (asA<7  V>b)  we  will  take,  bcfides, 
the  diftance  between  the  two  extremes  of  the  faces, 
as  a  b,  placing  firfl  one  leg  of  the  compaffes  in  tf, 
and  directing  the  other  towards  the  line  of  defence, 
where  we  will  make  the  point  P,  and  afterwards 
rell  the  compalles  in  h  ;  and  dircfting  it,  likewife, 
from  the  point  a  towards  c,  we  draw  a  0  l>  and  P 
together,  to  make  up  the  flanks,  and  a  P  to  make 
up  the  courtine. 

To  form  the  orlllon,  as  well  as  the  bnfure!,  and 
the  hollow  tower,  we  divide  the  flanks  found  into 
three  equal  parts,  and  put  on  the  iuperior  parts  fe- 
mi-circles,  which  touch  the  lines  of  defence,  and 
that  is  what  makes  the  orilion.  Bcfides  which,  we 
draw  lines  from  the  points  A,  B  ;  for  example  from 
the  points  u,  0,  r,  P,  oc.  towards  the  capital,  as  r, 
J]  w,  /,  &c.  O  0,  P/>,  &c.  of  three  verges  in  length. 
We  afterwards  take  the  diftance,  u  0,  or  r  P,  and 
make  of  u  and  of  0,  aswell  as  of  P  and  7-,  outward 
intcrfec.tion5,  which  will  give  the  center  for  the  arch 
/  ofp,  which  is  called  the  hollow  tower. 

To  make  the  tenallle  of  the  faiijje-braye,  we  put 
the  angles  of  the  fhoulder,  or  epaulc,  three  verges 
from  a  and  b,  on  the  lines  of  defence,  in  c  and  e, 
dividing  what  remains,  by  the  interJeftion  of  the 
lines  of  defence,  as  C  c,  and  e  i,  into  two  parts  in  d 
andy,  thus  c  d  and  ef  make  the  faces  of  the  te- 
7iaiUe  in  the  ditch  or  fojp.  We  draw  from  d,  the 
line  dg,  I'o  that  it  be  perpendicular,  or  make  a 
right  angle,  with  the  line  of  defence  gf.  Like- 
wife,  we  draw /"A,  to  be  perpendicular  on  the  line 
d  h,  thus  thole  lines  will  be  the  flanks,  and  g  h 
will  give  the  courtine 

The  icbnrgraphy  of  the  pentagon^  on  the  draught, 
is  made  by  means  of  this  table,  which  may  be  ufed 
in  all  works,  either  regular,  or  irregular. 


Feet. 

66 

21 

3 
I 

120 

36 
60 


The  bafe  of  the  rampart  — — 

The  bafe  of  the  parapet,  

The  banquette  of  the  parapet,  - 

The  other  banquette,  

The  ditch,  

The  covert-way,  

The  gorge  of  the  place  of  arms, 

Its  face  fix  verges,  fix  verges  and  a  half,  to 
feven. 

The  glacis  ten  to  twelve  verges. 

The  ufe  of  this  table  is  as  follows : 

We  take  66  feet  for  the  bnfe  of  the  rampart ,  and 
draw  them  parallel,  inwards,  with  the  faces,  hollow 
towers,  inferior  brifures,  and  the  courtines.  But  if  we 
would  have  folid  baftions,  we  make  no  lines  to  the 
hollovf  towers,  nor  to  the  faces,  but  join  the  lower 
ones  with  the  brifures  by  a  right  line,  or  by  demi- 
circles.  To  make  the  line,  round  the  hollow 
tower,  parallel,  we  mufl  put  the  66  feet  of  the  bri- 
fure,  ftill  more  inwards,  ;Mid  take  the  dillance  of 
the  hollow  tower  to  that  place,  with  which  the  pa- 
rallel is  drawn  from  the  fame  center. 

We  take,  befides,  for  the  parapet,  21  feet,  and 
draw,  likewife,  with  the  line  of  the  draught,  pa- 
rallels inwards,  to  the  faces,  orillons,  hollow  tow- 
ers, inferior  brifures,  and  to  the  courtines,  before 
the  ichnography  of  the  parapet.  To  that  line  we 
draw  another  parallel  three  feet  more  inwards,  and 
rtill  more  inwards,  another  of  a  foot  and  a  half 
broad. 

The  ditch  is  drawn  parallel  to  the  faces,  120 
feet  broad,  its  lines  cutting  one  .another  before  the 
courtine,  and  it  is  made  round  at  the  point  of  the 
bartion,  that  it  may  be  of  an  equal  breadth  every 
where.  If  the  ditch  is  marfhy,  it  mufi:  be  full  of 
fmall  herbs,  if  dry,  of  fmall  points  ;  and,  if  to  be 
filled  with  water,  of  fomething,  which  can  repre- 
fent  water. 

For  the  covert  vjay,  we  trace  round  the  ditch, 
outwards,  a  par.allel,  36  feet  long.  Of  the  re- 
entring  angles  of  thofe  lines,  a  b  and  c,  we  put  on 
each  fide  (in  b  c,  and  d c)  five  verges  outwards,  for 
the  gorges  of  the  places  of  arms  ;  we  make  of  thofe 
points,  with  the  breadth  of  fix  verges,  interl'ecti- 
ons,  inland  g  \  and  join  the  lines  b  f,  and  cfdg, 
and  f^,  together;  clofing,  lallly,  on  both  fidt.^, 
the  angles  ^/i,  iLnAtnno,  and  drawing  afterwards 
the  line  p  h  i  k  fm  n  0  q,  as  the  interior  line  of  the 
glacis. 

For  the  t raver fe!,  we  continue  the  faces  of  the 
places  of  arms,  vtz.  ofcdef  downwards  as  far  as 
the  ditch  j  and  afterwards  make  parallels  outwards  of 
the  places  of  arms,  18  feet  broad,  Laftly  we 
draw  on  both  fides,  inwards,  banquettes  of  two 
feet  broad,  fo  that  the   fpace  in  the  middle  be  14 

feet 


FORTIFICATION, 


501 


feet  broad  ;  and  that  Js  what  is  called  travcrfes. 
Further,  we  draw  parallels  with  the  interior  line  of 
the  glacis,  infide,  towards  the  covert-way,  with 
the  breadth  of  eight  feet  for  a  large  banquette,  in 
the  middle  thereof  we  place  paliii'adjes  ;  we  after- 
wards draw,  befides,  fliil  more  inwards,  an  ordi- 
nary I  anquette  of  a  foot  and  a  half.  Lartly,  we 
draw  an  exterior  line,  of  the  breadth  cf  ic  to  12  ver- 
ges^ and  join  them  together  with  tranlverfiag  lines. 

We  draw  parallels  to  the  faces  and  flanks  of  the 
tenaille  of  the  faujfe-braye,  inwards,  iwe  vert^es 
broad,  and  join  thorn  together  before  the  courtinc;  by 
a  par<.liel  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  verga  in 
breadth,  which  makes  the  bafe  of  the  rampart. 
The  parapet  to  the  faces,  is  equal  to  that  of  the 
great  rampart,  or  thereabouts ;  but  that  of  the 
courtine  is  but  eij^ht  feet  broad. 

To  put  a  half-moon^  or  ravelin  before  the  cour- 
tine, we  take  the  difiance  of  the  angle  of  the  flr.nk, 
and  of  the  courtine,  as  far  as  the  angle  of  the  eiauh, 
or  flioulder,  over  againft  it,  and  diaw  from  thence 
an  arch  which  intcrfefts  the  line  drawn  through  the 
middle  of  the  polygon;  there  is  found  the  point  of 
the  half-moon  ;  then  draw  from  thence  the  faces, 
on  each  fide  towards  the  angles  of  the  epaiile,  ■7t%'fdx 
as  the  ditch.  If  we  want  to  make  fianfcs,'  we'  put 
a  rule  to  the  interior  line  of  the  glacis,  and  mark 
the  points  where  it  interfedls  the  faces  oi  the  half- 
moon,  or  ravelin:  from  hence ';°e  make  lines  fall 
perpendicularly  on  thofe  of  the  ditch  ;  thele  are  the 
fl.inks  of  the  ravelin. 

For  the  bafe  of  the  rampart,  it  is  made  parallel 
to  the  flank  and  faces,  five  verges  in  breadth  ;  the 
parapet  is  every  where  equal  to  that  of  the  great 
rampart;  the  ditch  is  parallel  to  the  faces,  and  fix 
yards  broad. 

To  make,  a  horn  work  hffore  the  curtain,  we  put 
the  point  of  the  capital  of  the  ravelin,  on  the  line 
which  comes  out  through  the  nvddle  o't  the  poly- 
gon, 44  verges  outwards,  (as  Ci_G,  Fig.  5.)  we 
make  of  the  point  G,  on  each  fide,  an  arch  of  30 
yards,  and  interfe(f(.  thofe  two  arches  of  the  epaule, 
with  70  yards  in  H  and/,  and  draw  H  f.  After- 
wards we  will  put,  from  the  middle  of  that  line  in 
G,  10  yards  inJide  towards  H,  and  draw  from  E 
andyiines  of  defence  crofs-wi!"e,  on  which  we 
will  put  the  faces  18  yards  bng;  forming  the  flanks 
with  their  orillons  and  hollow  towers,  in  the  fame 
manner  we  have  done  it  to  the  body  of  the  place, 
except  that  four  yards  muft  always  be  taken  from 


the  flank  for  the  orillon,  and  the  reft  remains  for 
the  covert-flank,  with  the  hollow  tower. 

The  oril!:n  is  a  ftnall  rounding  of  earth,  lined 
with  a  wall,  raifed  on  the  flioulders  of  thofe  baffi- 
ons  which  have  cafemates ;  to  cover  the  cannon  in 
retired  flank,  and  prevent  their  being  difmounted 
by  the  enemy.  There  arc  other  forts  of  orillons 
properly  called  epaukments. 

From  E/we  draw  the  wings  towards  the  angles 
of  the  fliouldcr,  as  far  as  the  ditch  ;  and  thus  the 
defign  of  the  horn-mork  is  made  in  the  fame  man- 
nei  as  that  of  the  body  of  the  place,  except  that 
the  meafures  are  different,  viz.  the  bafe  of  the 
rampart  has  four  yards,  that  of  the  parapet  18  feet, 
and  the  breadth  of  the  ditch  five  yards. 

To  make  a  horn-iLcrk  before  the  baflion,  we  put 
the  point  of  the  bafiicn  lengthened  44.  yards,  out- 
wards, as  far  as  B,  Fig.  6  ;  draw  through  B,  the 
line  C  D,  which  inter.edts  the  lengthened  diame- 
ter into  right  angles.  We  make  B  C,  B  D  30 
yards  each,  and  form  on  that  the  hornworky  with 
its  faces,  flanks  and  courtines.  '.Ve  place  the  angle 
of  the  Ihoidder  of  the  body  of  the  place  on  the 
faces,  fix  yaids  and  a  half  in  0  and  />,  and  draw  to- 
wards thofe  points  the  wings  of  our  horn-work., 
v.>hich  compleats  the  defign.  But  thefe  forts  of 
works  are  feldom  ufed. 

We  make  a  crown-work.  Fig.  7  before  the  cour- 
tine,  by  placing  the  point  of  the  ravelin  (or  in  cafe 
there  \v:»s  none  in  the  place  where  that  point  fhould 
be)  50  yards  outwards  towards  B.  Making  of 
that  point  on  each  fide,  an  angle  of  the  line  A, 
Fig.  7.  each  whereof  is  to  have  from  64  to  70  de- 
grees, as  C  B  A,  and  DBA  ;  we  put  on  thofe 
lines  B  C  and  B  D  twice  25  yards  in  E  C,  and/"  D. 
From  E  and  f,  we  draw  perpendiculars  cf  nine 
yards  each,  as  E  G,  /H  ;  and  draw  thereby,  from 
E  ^ndy,  the  lines  of  defence  crofs-ways  ;  on  which 
we  place  the  faces,  of  15  yards  in  length,  and  form 
the  rianks,  as  in  the  korn-'i-vork  ;  and  thus  the 
ccui  tines  form  thcnifelves.  We  put  the  angle  of 
the  fiioulder  of  the  body  of  the  place  five  yar"ds  on 
the  facea,  and  draw  towards  thofe  points  the  win»s 
of  the  crown-work  as  far  as  the  ditcli.  If  we 
Ihould  want  to  place  a  ravelin  before  the  courtine  of 
the  horn-work,  or  crown-work,  the  procefs  is  the 
fame  as  demonftrated  in  the  body  of  the  place;  the 
bafe  of  the  rampart  has  three  yards,  that  of  the 
parapet  15  feet ;  and  the  ditch  three  yards  and  a  half. 

When  we  defign  to  make  the  great  lunettes  *  cf 


•  The  lunette  is  an  enveloped  counter-guard,  or  elevation  cf  earth,  made  in  the  middle  of  the/«/^,  before 
the  courtine,  about  five  fatlioms  in  breadth.  Lunettes  are  ufually  made  in  ditches  full  of  water,  and  iei  vc  to  the 
lame  purpofe  ^%faii([e-trays,  to  dilpute  the  paflage  of  the  ditth,  The  lunttte  confifts  of  two  faces,  which  form  a 
re-ent.ing  ang'e  a'ld  its  terreplain  ceing  only  twelve  feet  wide,  is  a  httle  raifed  above  the  levei  of  the  water, 
having  a  parapet  three  fathoms  thick. 

Sff2  m.Vau. 


502  Th:  Univcrfai  Hiftory  of  Arts  c«^  Sciences. 


M.  fauhurti  having  made  the  draught  of  the  rave 
lin,  which  ought  to  be  done,  prcvioufly  to  an} 
thing  ell'e,  we  continue  its  faces  on  both  fides, 
from  A  (Fig.  9.  A)  into  13  and  C,  placin-j  after- 
wardi  the  \\nc%  1?  D,  and  t  C,  of  the  ditch  of  the 
ravelin  outwards,  which  muft  be  fiom  22  to  7,5 
vardi  long.  On  the  lines  B  ].),  and  C  E,  we  make 
the  anjr'es  DBy",  and  E  C  G,  ot  60  degrees  ;  and 
thus  the  lunettes  will  be  made.  The  profile  of  the 
rampart',  and  of  the  ditch,  is  the  fame  as  to  the 
horn -work. 

If  we  will  make  fmall  Lunettes.,  as  well  as  Coun 
ter-gw:r;ls,  of  the  re-entring  angles  A  H.  Fig.  g. 
B,  which  the  fcj/e  of  the  ravelin,  and  the  great 
ditch  make  ;  we  muft  put  on  each  fide,  outwards, 
in  C  D,  ajid  E  F,  10  yards  forthedemi-gorges  of 
the  lunettes,  and  make  the  inrerlecflions  in  (t  and 
H,  12  or  13  yards  broad,  placing  the  compaiKs  on 
the  points  found  of  the  demi  gorges  ;  and  thus 
C  G,  DG,  EH,  F  H,  will  give  the  faces  of  the 
lunettes. 

For  the  defign  of  the  counter-guards,  we  put  of 
the  ditch,  five  yards  outwards,  and  draw  from  the 
ditch  to  the  lengthened  diameters,  thro  thofe  points, 
lines  parallel  to  the  ditch  ;  as  I  K,  and  L  M.  For 
the  ichnography  thereof,  we  give  to  the  rampart 
the  thicknefs  of  three  and  a  half  or  four  yards  ;  to 
the  parapet,  without  the  banquettes,  eighteen  feet ; 
for  the  breadth  of  the  ditch  from  four  to  four  yards 
and  a  half. 

The  profile  muft  be  drawn  in  this  manner.  Af- 
ter we  have  made  a  long  right  line,  as  A  H,  Fig.  3. 
and  AB,  which  reprefents  the  ground  or  the  hori- 
zon ;  we  put  firft  upon  it,  according  to  Fia;.  i  "^^  the 
profile  of  the  rampart  of  the  body  of  the  place,  a, 
is  the  firft  point  of  the  baf.',  behind  which  we  put 
imniediately  on  the  fame  line,  for.  Feet. 

The  talus  of  the  interior  Wall,  I 

'["he  cordon  which  is  on  the  wall,  I 

The  talus  of  the  terreplain,  3 

The  breadth  of  the  terreplain  of  the  rampart,   30 
The  breadth  of  the  firft  banquette,  li 

The  breajth  of  the  fccond  banquette,  3 

The  interior  talus  of  the  parapet,  I 

Its  fuperior  breadth,     j  8 

The  exterior  talus  of  the  parapet,  t 

The  «r^5«  above,  at  the  exterior  lining,  2 

The  talus  of  the  exterior  lining,  3 

Bafe  of  the  ra.Tipart,  or  fum,  —  66 


That  of  the  firft  b.-inqiiette,              — 
i  hat  of  the  fecond  bnnquette. 
The  exterior  heigiu  cf  the  parapet. 
The  interior  hci:iiit  


Sum, 

From 
line,  wc  > 


Ji 

X 

4f 


'-  26 

the  points  wh  -h  are  on  the  hori/onia) 
'raw  lines  upv.  .rds  to  be  parallel  to  the 
perpendiculars  already  d:a  v  1,  and  from  the  points 
of  the  perpendiculars,  we  w  other  lin.-s,  to  be 
parallels  to  the  horizontal.  1  hat  manner  the  in- 
tcrfeftions  give  us  a  retz,  in  •-•.hich  we  can  eafi.'y 
trace  the  lines  of  the  profile,  a :  c  d  efg  hi  k  I  m 
n  0  /),  in  drawing  only,  according  to  the  fi 
from  one  point  of  interfe-.'ion  to  the  other 
horizontal  line  is  marked  with  fmall  points  ;  but 
for  thofe  of  the  retz,  or  net,  thev 
out  afterwards. 

The  profile  of  the  ravelin  is  made  in  the  fame 
manner ;  it  is  but  of  earth,  except  trie  ditch,  which 
muft  be  lined 

The  meafures  of  the  rampart,  are  the  following 
ones,  marked  on  the  horizontal  line.  Fig.  3.  For, 

Feet. 
The  interior  talus., 
The  terreplain. 


ij^ure. 
The 


are  eafily  blotted 


f  he  breadth  of  the  firft  banquette. 
The  breadth  of  the  fecond  banquette. 
The  interior  talus  of  the  parapet, 
The  i'uperior  breadth  of  the  parapet 
The  exterior  talus  of  the  parapet  and  rampart  7 
together,  -■  S 


6 
25^ 


We  r.fterwards  erefl  perpendiculars  on  the  firft 
and  laft  point,  and  place  upon  them  the  following 
M  -ifures,  one  aft^r  another  ;  f  jr.  Fee; 

The  height  of  the  iuterioi  lining,  J2 

Tnat  of  the  terreplain^  ■  6 


The  bafe  of  the  rampart,  a  0,  Sum 

Ofi  the  Perpendiculars,  for 
The  height  of  the  rampart, 
T  hat  of  the  firft  banquette. 
That  of  the  fecond  banquette. 
The  exterior  height  of  t'le  parapet. 
Its  interior  height,         

Surn,  


60 

13 

If 

If 
I 

-        41 

2li 

In  the  fame  manner  is  made  the  defiy^n  of  the 
ramparts  of  the  outworks,  the  meafure  thereof  can 
be  ord.narily  this.  Fig.  3. 


tor 


On  the  horiz.:ntal  line. 

The  exterior  talus,  

The  trrreplain,  • 

The  firil:  t/a'iquelte,  •  

The  fecond  banquette,  

The  interior  talus  of  the  parapet. 

The  fuperior  height,  

The  exterior  talus  of  the  rampart  with  the 
par.ipet,  ■ 

Bafi;  of  the  rampart,   Sum, 


>5F 

3 
I 

15 
6 


48 
On 


FORTIFICATION. 


On  the  perprndiailorsy    for 
Tlic  height  of  the  ranipiirt, 
f  hat  of  the  hill  bauquelte, 

Of  the  fccond,  ~ 

The  exterior  height  of  the  parapet, 
Its  interior  height,  

Sum • 


8 
li 

i\ 

IT 

4 
i6f 


As  for  the  profile  of  the  ditches,  it  is  made  in 
this  manner  ;  where  the  ramparts  are  only  made  of 
earth,  without  being  lined,  a  ler?>ie  is  left  at  the 
bottom,  fix  feet  broad,  as  o  q.  Fig.  3.  But  when 
the  rampart  is  lined,  the  ditch  is  joined  imnicJiately 
to  the  rampart ;  the  fuperior  breadth  ot  the  ditch 
having  been  marked  on  the  horizontal  line,  wc 
place  likewife  on  both  fides  of  the  ditch  inwards, 
the  breadth  for  the  talus  ;  and  lower  from  thence, 
perpendiculars,  on  which  we  put  the  depth  of  the 
ditch.  Afterwards  we  make  the  ditch  with  its  two 
tahti's,  and  inferior  breadth.  The  meafures  of  the 
dihh  are  the  following  ones, 

Tf>  the  ditch  of  the  body  of  the  place.  Feet. 

The  fuperior  height,     114 

The  bafe  of  the  interior  and  extetior  talus,  3 

The  infeiior  breadth,              • 108 

1  he  depth,              ■              • 18 

To  the  ditch  of  the  ravelin.  Feet 

The  fuperior  breadth,              _____  72 

The  bafc  of  the  interior  and  exterior  talus,  2 

The  depth,               ■ 12 

The  inferior  breadth,          68 

To  the  ditches  of  the  other  out- works. 

The  fuperior  breadth,  54 

The  bafe  of  the  interior  and  exterior  talus,  1  \ 

l^he  depth,  8 

The  inferior  breadth,  5 1 

Laftly.  the  covert-way  with  its  parapet,  is  made 
thus  :  We  put  on  the  horizontal  line  27  feet  for 
the  covert-way,  and  one  foot  and  a  half  for  the  firft 
banquette  as  ufuai ;  for  the  I'econd  eight  feet,  on 
which  are  placed  pallifadoes,  almoft  in  the  middle. 
All  the  reit  is  made  in  the  manner  of  the  other  pa- 
rapets ;  putting  at  the  end  144  feet,  on  the  hori- 
zontal line,  for  the  breadth  of  the  parapet,  and 
drawing  a  right  line  from  the  inferior  height,  as  far 
as  there. 

The  pieces  of  the  profiles  may  be  all  joined  one 
to  another,  as  plainly  fecn  in  Fig.  3. 

We  mult  now  trace  a  Fortress  in  the  field. 
The  beft  infirument  he  can  ufe  for  that  purpofe  is  a 
circle,    or  demicirclc,   divided  into  360  degrees. 


CO?. 

each  whereof  alfo  fhoiild  be  fubdivided  into  four 
or  fix  parts.  Commonly  this  delirrn  is  made  out- 
wards to  the  polygons  ;  but  is  far  better,  if  it  be 
poffible,  to  make  it  of  the  center.  I'l]  (hew  both 
methods  in  the  regular  pentagon. 

M  Vaubari^  new  method  is  niofl  efteemed,  as 
beft  anfwering  the  end  propofcd  in  tiie  fortifications 
of  places  ;  and  founded  on  the  icvcn  followinL''  ex- 
cellent maxims  ;  vi%.  1.  The  defence  of  the  fiaiik 
niuft  be  fuch,  that  both  the  cannon  and  mufquecry 
may  be  ufed  at  one  and  the  fame  time.  2.  The 
flank  ought  to  be  lb  well  covered,  as  to  be  not  en- 
tirely ruined  by  the  enemy.  3.  The  ditches,  ho- 
rizontally railed.  4.  1  he  baftions  are  to  be  fo 
contrived,  that  thofe  who  defend  them  may  be  (hel- 
tered  againft  the  bombs.  5.  Some  places  and  paf- 
fages  are  to  be  contrived  for  the  fallies.  6.  I'he 
greater  the  number  of  ditches,  the  better.  7 .  The 
counterfcarp  muft  be  well  covered. 

To  reduce  the  firfl  of  thefe  maxims  into  pradlice, 
M.  Vauban  makes  his  flanks  in  fuch  a  manner,  that 
the  line  of  defence  may  have  70  yards. 

To  cover  well  the  flank,  which  is  M.  Vauhan's 
fecond  maxim,  he  places  a  good  ravelin  before  the 
courtine,  and  contrives  the  flank  fo,  that  two  pieces 
of  cannon,  at  leaft,  may  be  hidden  behind  the 
orillon. 

To  raife  the  ditch,  which  is  the  third  maxim, 
M.  Vauban  will  have  made,  under  the  flank  of  the 
tenaille  of  the  faujfe-braye,  arches,  under  which 
cannons  may  be  planted  on  carriages  ufed  for  (hip's 
cannons.  The  embrafures  are  fliut,  and  never 
opened,  but  when  the  enemy  wants  to  crofs  the 
ditch  under  the  face.  There  are  alfo  arches  made 
for  three  pieces  of  cannon,  over- againft  the  ditch 
of  the  ravelin. 

Ai.  Vauban  has  found  three  means  to  flielter, 
as  much  as  poffible  (accordin.g  to  his  fourth  maxim) 
the  baflions  againft  the  bombs  ;  of  traverfes,  of 
the  feparation  of  the  tenaille  of  the  faufle-braye, 
from  the  body  of  the  place,  by  a  ditch,  and  of 
vaults  under  the  ram[>arts. 

To  order  fecurely  places  and  pafTages  for  the  fal- 
lies, which  is  M.  Vauban  s  fifth  maxim,  he  inter- 
fefts  in  feveral  places  the  glacis  of  t'ne  counterfcarp 
with  narrow  paflages,  garnifned  with  three  ftrong 
gates,  enfiled,  or  enliladed,  with  works  ;  as  ;/  «;, 
Fig.  9. 

To  oblige  the  enemy  to  crofs  fevera]  ditches, 
M.  Vauban,  according  to  his  fixth  niacin-.,  makes 
a  great  many  out-wofks  ;  and  even  ui'es  dry  ditches 
round  the  glacis  of  the  counterlcarj)  :  as  plainly 
feen  in  Fig.  9. 

To  cover  well  the  counterfcarp,  which  is  the 
feventh  maxim,  the  fame  exctllent  engineer  has 
found    three    expedients  :     firlt,     he  makes    the 

covert- 


504  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

covert-way,  fo  as  to  be  always  higher  at  the  1  The  Horn-works,  or  Grov/n-works,  are 
points  than  at  the  re-entering  angles.  Secondly,  very  proper  to  fortify  a  fuburb  ;  which,  othcrwife, 
he  makes  the  parapet  of  the  counterfcarp  very  high,    the  befieged   are  forced   to    abandon,    and  deftroy, 

when  the  place  is  attacked  ;  for  thofe  works  are 
not  fo  good  as  redoubts  of  ftone,  to  occupy  and 
indole  a  height  ;  for  they  require  a  vaft  number 
of  men  to  be  well  defended. 


Laftly,    he  ufes  traverfes  near  the  places  of  arms. 
Fig.  4- 

The  method  how  to  make  the   angle  of  the 
b.iftion,  or  flanked  angle,  the  beft  manner  is  to 
make  the  perpendicular  to  the  polygon  from  151     Before  an  engineer  has  entirely  finlfhed  the  body 
to  7  0  yards.  of  the  place,    he  muft   take  a   particular   care   to 


yards 
M.  B ImtJcl m&kes  ihc  Jlank'mg  angle  obtufe  ;  the 
Count  ih  Pagan,  and  Rufmjiein  make  it  right ; 
but  moft  of  the  other  engineers  make  it  more  or 
lefs  acute,  Al-  Vauhan  caufes  his  orillon  to  make 
with  the  line  of  defence,  an  angle  fomewhat  acute  ; 
the  re-entring  flank,  an  angle  a  little  obtufe  j  and 
that  of  the  tenaille  of  the  faufle-bray,  a  right 
angle. 

The  line  of  defence^  is  that  which  reprefents  the 
courfe  or  flight  of  the  bullet,  of  any  fort  of  fire- 
aims,  more  efpecially  of  a  muflcet-ball,  from  the 
place  where  the  mufketeer  muft  ftand  to  fcour,  and 
defend  the  face  of  the  baftion  :  there  is  a  line  of 
defence ^i:^(7«/,  and  a  line  of  defence  ra-z-ant. 

The  line  of  ieknce.  Jichant,  is  drawn  from  the 
angle  of  the  courtine,  to  that  of  the  oppofite  baf- 
tion ;  without  touching  the  face  of  the  baftion  : 
This  muft  never  exceed  800  feet,  which  is  rec- 
koned the  diftance  at  which  a  mufket-ball  will  do 
execution. 

The  line  of  defence  razant,  is  that  drawn  from 
the  point  of  the  baftion  along  the  face,  till  it  comes 
to  the  courtine  ;  and  fliews  how  much  of  the  cour- 
tine will  fcour  or  clear  the  face. 

M.  Vauban  puts  his  firft  flank  on  a  line  of  de- 
fence of  70  yards,  and  that  of  the  faulle  braye  on 
a  line  of  defence  of  57  yards. 

As  the  Face  is  always  attacked,  and  it  is  a  very 
great  advantage  for  the  enemy  to  attack  a  line  of  a 
large  front,  the  faces  fhould  always  be  fmall  ;  the 
faces  of  25  or  27  yards,  as  thofe  of  M.  Vauban, 
are  always  in  a  condition  to  make  a  tolerable  good 
counter-battery  ;  efpecially  when  provided  with  a 
rifen  faufle- braye. 

The  Flanks  muft  be  made  large  enough,  and 
■ftrong  enough.  A  ^\m^\e  fank  can  never  be  large 
enough,  therefore  a  low  one  muft  be  made  near  it, 
at  a  reafonable  diftance  from  the  high  flank,  and 
even  to  part  it  from  it  by  a  ditch. 

It  is  alfo  very  proper,  that  the  flank  fliould  not 
be  every  where  of  the  fame  height  ;  but  it  muft  be 
higher  at  the  angles  of  the  ftioulder,  always  going 
in  diminiftiing  towards  the  courtine. 

From  thefe  we'll  pafs  to  the  out  works  ;  begin- 
ning with  the  ravelins,  which  muft  be  made  fo 
ftrong  that  the  cannon  may  be  played  upon  it 
boldly. 


make  a  very  good  Couterscarp,  fmce  it  is  of  a 
very  great  ufe  for  the  defence  of  a  fortrefs.  To 
make  a  very  good  counterfcarp,  the  overt-way  muft 
be  very  large  ;  room  muft  be  left  to  put  up  palli- 
fadoes,  at  the  places  which  are  attacked  ;  the 
points  of  the  counterfcarp  ought  to  be  covered  with 
bonnets;  they  muft  be  mined  ;  there  muft  be  ca- 
ponieres  at  the  angles,  to  ftielter  the  foldiers  ; 
places  of  arms  well  covered  ;  a  good  convcniency 
to  make  fallies  ;  it  fliouId  be  eafily  feparated  into 
feveral  parts  ;  and  it  would  be  very  proper  to  make 
it  in  fuch  a  manner,  that  fome  pieces  of  cannon 
may  be  eafily  planted  upon  it.  A  counterfcarp, 
with  all  thefe  advantages,  would  not  coft  fo  much 
as  a  few  ojt-works  ;  though  it  could  be  capable  fo 
to  fatigue  an  enemy,  that  but  very  little  ftrength 
would  be  left  him  for  the  attack  of  the  body  of  the 
place  :  becaufe  the  counterfcarp  has  this  advantao-e 
over  all  the  other  works,  that  it  cannot  be  ruinated 
by  the  cannon  of  the  enemy.  Whence  the  three 
beft  engineers,  Vauhan,  Rimpler,  and  Coehorn^ 
have  ufed  all  their  beft  endeavours  to  ftrengthen 
this  part  of  the  fortification. 

A  Rampart,  all  entirely  of  earth,  without 
counterrrvines,  or  arches,  is  good  for  nothing. 

A  Parapet  muft  be  of  earth,  but  very  hard 
and  tight,  interwoven  with  twigs  ;  it  fliould  have 
embrafures,  alfo  interwoven  with  twigs  :  but  that 
interwoving  ought  not  to  be  all  of  a  piece,  for  fear 
fome  mifchance  fliould  happen  to  the  parapet  by 
fire,  or  fome  ebraulement. 

Where  the  water  is  from  feven  to  eight  feet 
above  the  horizon,  there  will  be  beautiful  ditches, 
if  they  be  made  ten  yards  broad,  and  eight  yards 
only  near  the  body  of  the  place,  but'  towards  the 
covert-way,  they  fhould  remain  dry,  at  two  yards 
in  breadth  :   as  it  may  be  feen  Fig.  9. 

There  are  befides  thefe  great  works,  fome  fmal! 
ones,  auxiliary  to  the  conftru£lion,  as  the  capo- 
tiieres,  bonnets,  fmall  ditches  of  feparation,  the  blo- 
chus's,  and  the  traverfes. 

The  Caponieres  is  a  covered  lodgment,  funk 
four  or  five  feet  into  the  ground,  encampafled 
with  a  little  parapet  about  two  feet  high,  ferving  to 
fupport  feveral  planks  covered  with  earth.  The 
caponiere  is  large  enough  to  contain  fifteen  or  twenty 
foldiers  ;  and  is  ufually  placed  in  the  glacis,  on  the 

extremity 


FORTIFICATION. 


505 


extremity  of  the  countciTcaip,  and  in  dry  moats, 
haviii'^  liitli;  embralurcs  or  holes  for  ihe  foldiL-rs  to 
fire  through. 

The  Bonnet  is  a  kind  of  little  ravelin,  without 
a  ditch,  having  a  parapet  three  feet  high  ;  an- 
tiently  placed  before  ihe  point  of  the  faliant  angles 
of  the  glacis  ;  being  pallifadoed  round  :  of  late 
alfo  ufed  before  the  angles  of  battions,  and  the 
points  of  ravelins,  and  fauife  brayes  ;  in  Fig.  8.  m. 
The  bonnet  has  two  faces,  from  ten  to  fifteen,  or 
more  rods  long  :  the  parapet  is  made  of  earth, 
from  thirty  to  thirty-fix  feet  thick,  and  from  nine 
to  twelve  feet  high :  it  is  environed  with  a  double 
row  of  pallifadoes,  ten  or  twelve  paces  diftant 
from  each  other  ;  hath  a  parapet  three  feet  high, 
and  is  like  a  little  advanced  i.crps  de  guard. 

For  an  example  of  the  fundamental  rules  above- 
defcribed,  there  will  be  found  in  the  plate  of  For- 
tification Fig.  9.  A.  a  defign  lo  fortify  in  the 
manner  of  M.  Vauban  ;  widi  a  new  ordnance  of 
a  fauffe-bray  before  the  face,  and  a  particular  man- 
ner of  covering  the  ravelin. 

A  Citadel  is  alfo  a  fortrefs,  compofed  of  all 
the  works  above-mentioned  ;  but  as  they  are  or- 
dered in  a  particular  manner,  we'll  join  here  the 
general  rules,  and  particularly  of  that  ordinance, 
and  reduce  them  into  praclice. 

A  citadel  (Fig.  8.)  is  a  fort,  or  ^\?ice.  fortified 
with  four,  five,  or  fix  baftions,  built  fometimes  in 
the  mod  eminent  part  of  a  city,  and  fometimes 
only  near  the  city.  In  the  firfi:  cafe  the  citadel 
ferves  to  defend  the  city  againft  the  enemies  ;  in 
the  latter  it  ferves  to  command  it,  and  to  keep  the 
inhabitants  in  their  obedience  :  for  which  purpofe 
the  city  is  left  unfortified  on  the  part  towards  the 
citadel  ;  but  the  citadel  is  fortified  towards  the 
city.  The  moft  ufual  form  of  a  citadel  is  that  of  a 
pentagon,  a  l(:|uare  being  too  weak,  and  a  hexagon 
too  big. 

The  general  rules  for  citadels  are  thefe  :  i.  The 
moft  exalted  place  muft  be  chofen  for  a  citadel  : 
2.  If  the  city  be  provided  with  a  navigable  river, 
the  citadel  muft  be  fituated  at  the  influxion  :  3.  The 
river  diiembouging  into  the  fea,  it  is  beft  to  place 
the  citadel  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  :  4.  In  cafe 
the  citadel  could  not  be  built  on  the  moft  eminent 
place  of  the  city,  the  eminence  muft  be  fo  near  the 
citadel,  that  it  may  be  joined  to  it  by  a  line  of 
communication,  and  be  feparated  from  the  city  : 
5.  1  he  citadel  ought  to  be  fo  well  fortified  towards 
the  country,  that  the  enemy  may  find  more  diffi- 
culty to  artac'<  it  on  the  outfide,  than  he  would 
have  to  attack  it  on  the  infide  after  the  taking  of 
the  citv  :  6.  There  muft  be  a  large  efplanade  be- 
tween the  citadel  and  the  city :  7.  It  muft  have  two 
gates,  one  towards  the  city,  and  the  other  towards 
the  country. 


To  trace  fuch  a  citadel,  there  muft  be  made  firft, 
an  exaiSt  ichnography  of  the  city  and  of  all  it.s 
fortifications  ;  after  which  is  drawn  on  a  paper  onc 
part  of  the  defign  of  the  citadel,  whofe  interior 
polygon  muft  have  no  lefs  than  80,  nor  more  than 
90  yards.  We  take  it  afterwards,  cut  it  all  around, 
and  put  it  on  the  ichnographv  ot  the  city,  turning 
it  from  fide  to  fide  till  we  find  it  well  placed  :  then 
we  mark  that  defign  with  fmall  points,  and  make 
the  whole  plan,  but  with  colours  diifcrent  from 
thofe  of  the  city,  that  we  may  eafily  know  what 
muft  be  deinolifhed  of  the  fortrefs.  Care  muft  be 
taken  befides,  that  the  tv/o  laft  lines  of  the  forti- 
fication of  the  city  near  the  citadel,  may  not  be 
oppofite  to  it,  but  eafily  enfiled  by  it. 

From  this  we'll  pafs  to  the  irregular  fortification, 
which  is  pra(£Iired  efpecially  in  three  cafes  :  i. 
When  z.  fortification  is  to  be  made  in  a  place,  which 
does  not  allow  a  regularity  in  the  defign.  2.  When 
a  city  irregularly  built,  muft  be  fortified.  And  3. 
When  o\A  fortifications  arc  to  be  corre^f^ed. 

In  the  firft  cafe  the  fortification  of  the  exterior 
polygon  infide,  is  the  moft  commodious.  In  the 
fecond  it  is  beft  to  fortify  the  interior  polygon  out- 
wards. In  the  third  cafe  the  body  of  the  place 
muft  be  left  as  it  is,  according  to  M.  Vauban  % 
cuftom. 

Places  on  rivers  are  alfo  fortified  in  a  particular 
manner,  and  in  this  cafe  an  engineer  muft  mind 
not  to  make  too  many  works,  nor  too  iew.  Simple 
lines  in  form  of  tenaiiles  without  flanks,  as  it  is  feea 
at  Drefden,  are  not  fufficient ,  though  it  be  not 
neceflary  to  build  whole  baftions  on  the  river's  fide  ; 
therefore  it  is  beft  to  make  ordinary  baftions,  whofe 
polygons  and  faces  ought  to  be  larger,  and  the  flanks 
fmaller  than  ufual ;  which  is  done  in  proportion  to 
the  breadth  and  depth  of  the  river. 

If  there  be  a  bridge  over  the  river,  a  fmall  for- 
tification muft  be  placed  beyond,  and  before  it  ; 
and  the  beft  for  that  purpofe  is  half  a  regular  hex- 
agon, whofe  polygon  muft  have  from  50  to  70 
yards.  In  cafe  there  ftiould  be  an  ifland  in  the 
river,  before  the  city,  the  bridge  muft  be  carried 
upon  it,  and  the  firtification  adjufted  before  the 
bridge,  that  it  may  be  fired  from  the  iiland,  by 
means  of  batteries  made  on  purpoie. 

The  fmall  flanks  of  fuch  Fortification,  of  a  city 
on  a  river,  can  very  well  be  double  ;  and  in  that 
manner  it  fuffices,  that  one  could  put  three  can- 
nons abreaft,  taking  a  particular  care  to  place  thofc 
cannons  in  vaults  under  the  rampart,  which  razes 
the  river  horizontally. 

If  the  river  runs  through  the  city,  the  fortifica- 
tion muft  be  ordered  in  fuch  a  mannsr,  that  a  baf- 
tion  may  touch  each  fide  of  the  river  with  its  flank, 
and  the  river  run  through  where  the  courtine  fliould 

be. 


5o6  The  Univerfal  Hiftory 

be  ;  and  a  courtine  (hould  even  be  made,  with 
arches,  over  the  river.  It  is  alfo  necelTary  to  raifc, 
out  of  the  city,  out-works  on  both  fides  of  the 
river,  which  fliould  raze  it  crofs-ways  :  but  in 
cafe  the  river  fhould  be  fo  wide,  that  the  out-woiks 
on  both  fides  could  not  reach  one  another  (though 
rivers  of  fuch  a  breadtli  feldom  run  through  a  city) 
a  work  ouiiht  to  be  erected  in  the  middle  of  the 
river.  At  larire  naviirable  rivers  it  is  beft  to  inclofc 
the  principal  part  o\  tlie  city  towards  the  nver 
with  a  rampart,  and  part  it  from  the  other,  as  a 
diil'erent  town.  In  this  manner  the  Elbe  pafi'es 
between  the  old  and  the  new  city  of  Drcfdcn. 

The  waters  of  fniall  rivers  being  neceffary  for 
the  mills  of  the  city,  and  being  ftopt  for  that  pur- 
pofe  with  dikes,  fuch  dikes  are  commonly  made  in 
the  ditch,  which  are  of  a  double  ufe  ;  for  firlt, 
they  hinder  the  waters,  which  are  round  the  city, 
from  running,  without  paffing  through  the  mills  of 
the  city  ;  and  fecondly,  the  ditches  are,  thereby, 
always  kept  in  good  condition.  It  niuft  be  ob- 
ferved,  that  thofe  dikes  are  to  be  placed  at  the 
poiiit  of  the  baftions,  for  fear  the  enemy  fliould 
make  ufe  of  it  ;  though  others  are  of  opinion,  that 
thev  are  better  placed  before  the  middle  of  the 
courtine,  becaufe  the  reafon  why  the  enemy  feldom 
attacks  the  point  of  the  baftion,  is,  that  he  would 
be  obliged  to  cover  his  paffage  with  fides,  which 
would  be  too  difficult  ;  but  if  he  finds  there  a  dike 
to  cover  himfelf  with,  he  will  make  no  difficulty 
to  faften  himfelf  to  the  point,  where  the  mufke- 
teers  cannot  fo  well  fire,  as  at  the  bottom  of  the 
face. 

I  here  is  alfo  a  particvdar  manner  of  fortifying 
places,  fituated  on  eminences. 

The  cities  which  are  fituated  on  hills,  as  Mom 
and  Strafpourgh,  are  much  expofed,  becaufe  neither 
the  houfes  nor  the  ftreets  can  be  covered  by  the 
fortifications  ;  though,  without  this  inconveniency, 
fuch  places  are  very  proper  to  be  fortified  ;  but  the 
fortifications  on  a  mountain  ought  to  be  made  very 
high  at  the  bottom,  and  come  Hoping  down,  for 
fear  they  fhould  be  enfiled.  If  the  lines  are  fo  long, 
that  they  mufl  be  raifed  at  the  bottom,  it  is  beft  to 
make  them  by  degrees,  covering  them  with  para- 
pets and  traverfes. 

None  but  fmall  forts  and  citadels  are  built  on 
high  rocks,  becaufe  of  the  narrowncfs  of  the  fpace. 
The  befl  method  is  to  adapt,  as  much  as  poflible, 
the  lines  of  t\is  fortification,  to  the  fides  and  figure 
of  the  mountain  ;  the  ramparts  muftbe  made  low  ; 
and  as  the  ditches  are  commonly  dry,  the  beft  de- 
fence muft  be  made  at  the  bottom.  The  road  to 
the  fortrefs  muft  have  from  diftance,  in  diftance, 
retrenchments  very  well  defended.  The  engineer 
mud  alfo  take  care  to  make  all   forts  of  works, 


of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

whence  the  foot  of  the  mountain  can  be  beaten 
moft,  they  ought  to  be  difpofed  in  fuch  a  manner, 
that  thofe  who  defend  them  may  retreat  from  them 
in  fafety,  and  annoy,  without  interruption,  the 
enemy,  when  he  has  rendered  himfelf  mailer  pf 
them. 

Againft  the  eminences,  which  are  near  a  fortrefs, 
there  ftiould  be  ere£ted  not  only  good  ravelins  on 
the  ramparts,  but  thofe  eminences  themfelves  fhould 
alfo  be  fortified,  by  works  capable  to  rcfift  the  ene- 
my. At  the  higheft  place  of  the  mountain  is  drawn 
a  line  ef  the  height  and  thicknefs  of  a  parapet,  fo 
that  it  may  be  enfiled  by  the  cannon  of  the  fortrefs. 
Farther  towards  the  fortreis,  where  the  mountain 
grovifs  lower,  are  erected  redoubts  of  ftone,  which 
are  open  on  the  fide  of  the  fortrefs,  and  diftant  from 
one  another  of  a  mufket-fhot ;  and  contrived  fo 
low  that  they  fhould  raze  the  mountain.  Taking 
care  befides,  left  the  enemy  fliould  cut  the  retreat 
into  the  fortrefs  to  the  foldieis,  who  are  lodged  on 
thole  redoubts,  or  annoy  them  with  his  cannon. 

The  fortification,  according  to  Count  Pa''ans 
method,  fuppofes,  in  the  larger  fortifications,  the 
external  polygon  A  B,  to  be  loo,  the  face  AG, 
30  perches  ;  in  the  fmaller,  the  firft  80,  and  the 
fccond  25  ;  and  in  the  middle  fize,  the  firft  90, 
and  the  lecond  27I  :  The  perpendicular  CD,  15; 
and  the  flanks  G  F,  and  H  E,  perpendicular  to 
the  lines  of  defence  A  F  and  B  E,  covered  with  an 
orillon,  and  three- fold  :  to  which  add  a  ravelin 
and  counterguard  to  ferve  for  out-works.  This 
method  was  received  with  great  applaufe.  But  it 
has  its  defeats  ;  for  befides  that  the  frtifying  of 
places  by  it,  is  very  expcnfive,  its  triple  flank  is 
too  clofe,  fo  as  to  be  expofed  to  the  \  ijlence  of  the 
bombs  ;  the  orillon  is  fo  large  as  to  prejudice  the 
length  of  the  flanks  ;  the  outer  rampart  of  the 
baftion  is  too  big,  i^c- 

M.  Blo/idci's  method  (See  the  Plate,)  has  a  great 
affinity  with  that  of  the  Count  Pagan,  only  that 
the  quantity  of  the  angles  and  lines  are  differently 
determined,  tlius  a  light  angle  being  fubtracted 
from  the  angle  of  the  polygon,  and  to  a  third  part 
of  the  remainder  fif:een  added  ;  the  fum  gives  the 
diminifhed  angle.  In  the  gvczLiei- fortifications,  the 
outer  polygon  is  one  hundred,  and  the  fmaller 
eighty-five.  The  internal  polygon  beintj  divided 
into  ten  parts,  feven  of  them  give  the  lines  of  de- 
fence, and  the  faces  are  half  thofe  of  the  tenaille. 
This  method  is  very  well  calculated  for  the  purpo- 
fes  of  architeifture,  only  being  fomewhat  expcnfive, 
it  is  but  little  ufed. 

Schelter,  in  his  method  of  fortification,  fuppofes, 
the  external  polygon,  in  the  larger  fort  fiatlons,  to 
be  100  perches  ;  in  the  middle  fize,  90  ;  in  the 
leffer,   80  ;   the  flanks  perpendicular  to  the  lines  of 

defence : 


X 


i?    0    R   riFICATION. 


5^7 


defence  :  and  the  lines  of  defence  in  the  greater 
fortifications,  70  perches  ;  in  the  middle  fize,  65; 
and  in  the  lefTer,  60.  It  detaches  baftions  from  the 
courtine,  and  forms  a  kind  of  inner  recefs  behind 
the  courtine  ;  it  affumes  the  angle  of  thcbaflion  in 
a  fquare,  to  be  64  degrees  ;  to  this  adding  eight, 
the  produd:  is  the  angle  of  the  pentagon  ;  to  which 
adding  fix  degrees,  the  fum  is  the  angle  of  the  baf- 
tion  in  an  hexagon,  and  adding  five  to  this,  the 
fum  is  the  fame  angle  in  an  heptagon. 

When  the  general  has  refolvcd  upon  the  places 
for  carrying  on  the  attacks,  the  engineers  mufl  go 
to  furvey  the  ground  fo  accurately,  as  to  be  able  to 
make  the  moll  advantage  of  it ;  and  to  fee  whether 
there  are-  ridges,  hedges,  or  ditches,  to  run  the 
trenches  along  them;  if  there  are  any  dales  or  hol- 
lows, to  make  ufe  of  them  for  places  of  arms  ;  to 
contrive  the  fituation  of  the  redoubts,  fo  that  they 
may  defend  the  trenches,  and  look  down  into  the 
faid  deeps  and  hollows ;  and  though  the  way  be 
longer  by  thofe  places,  than  if  the  trenches  were 
carried  along  the  plain  j  yet  it  is  generally  fafer,  for 
taking  the  advantages  that  lie  in  the  way. 

T  he  works  made  for  the  attacks,  by  means 
whereof  we  approach  the  place,  and  force  it  at  lull: 
to  furrender,  are  generally  underftood  under  the 
nzmeoi  trenches,  and  cv.v\h(\^  \n  places  of  arms,  ap- 
pyoaches,  bo^aux,  and  diches  of  communication,  bat 
teries,  lodgments,  Japs^  gaUencs.   &c. 

A  Place  of  Arms,  in  a  ficge,  is  a  fpacious, 

place  covered  from  the  enemy,  by   a  parapet,  or 

epaulment,  where  the  (bldiers  are  poflied  ready  to 

fuftain  thofe  at  work   in   the  trenches  a2;ain{l  the 

•foldicrs  of  the  gnrrifon. 

Approaches,  or  lines  of  approach^  are  particu- 
larly ufcd  for  trenches  dug  in  the  ground,  and  their 
earth  thrown  up  on  the  fide  next  the  place  be- 
fieged;  under  fhelter  or  defence  whereof,  the  fol- 
diers  may  approach,  without  lofs,  to  the  parapet  of 
the  co'/ert-way  ;  and  plant  guns,  i3c.  wherewith 
to  cannonade  the  place.  The  lines  of  approach  are 
to  be  conncded  by  parallels,  or  lines  of  communi- 
cation. The  befieged  frequently  make  counter-ap- 
proaches, to  interrupt  and  defeat  the  enemies  ap- 
proaches.     See  the  Plate. 

BoYAU  is  a  branch  of  the  trenches,  or  a  line,  or 
cut,  which  runs  from  the  trenches  to  cover  fome 
fpot  of  ground ;  being  drawn  parallel  to  the  de- 
fence of  the  place,  that  it  may  not  be  enfiladed, 


that  is,  that  the  fhot  from  the  town  may  not  fcour 
along  it. 

A  Battery  denotes  an  eminence  caft  up, 
whereon  to  plant  artillery,  that  it  nnay  play  to  bet- 
ter advantage.  In  all  batteries,  the  open  faces  to 
put  the  muzzles  of  the  great  guns  out  at,  are  called 
embrazures,  and  the  diftances  between  the  embra' 
zures,  merlons.  The  guns  are  generally  twelve 
feet  diftant  from  one  another,  that  the  parapet 
may  be  ftrong,  and  the  gunners  have  room  to  work. 
The  battery  of  a  camp,  is  generally  furrounded  with 
a  trench  and  palifadts  at  the  bottom  ;  as  alfo  with  a 
parapet  on  the  top,  having  as  many  holes  as  there 
are  pieces  of  artillery,  and  two  redoubts  on  the 
wings,  or  certain  places  of  arms,  capable  of  cover- 
ing tlie  troops,  which  are  appointed  for  their  de- 
fence. 

There  are  different  forts  of  batteries,  viz.  funk, 
or  buried  batteries,  crofs  batteries,  battery  d'  enfilade, 
battery  en  echarpe,  battery  de  revers,  battery  joint,  or 
par  camaradc,  and  battery  en  rouage. 

Sunk,  or  buried  Battery,  is  that,  whofe 
platform  is  funk  or  let  down  in  the  ground,  with 
trenches  cut  in  the  earth  againd  the  muzzles  of  the 
guns,  to  fcrve  for  embrazures.  l^his  fort  is  gene- 
rally ufed  upon  the  firft  making  approaches,  to  beat 
down  the  parapet  of  the  place. 

Cross-Batteries,  -ixftViNO  batteries,  at  a  con- 
fiderable  diftance  from  each  other,  which  play 
a- thwart  one  another  at  the  fame  time,  and  upon 
the  fame  point,  forming  right  angles  ;  where,  what 
one  bullet  fliakes,  the  other  beats  down. 

Battery  a?' ^w^W^  fweeps  the  whole  length  of 
a  llrait  line,  a  ftreet,  i3c. 

Battery  en  echarpe  plays  obliquely. 

Battery  de  revers,  or  murdering  battery,  is  one 
that  plays  on  the  back  of  any  place  ;  and  being 
placed  on  an  eminence,  fees  into  it. 

Battery  joint,  or  par  camarade,  or  carmaretta, 
is  when  feveral  guns  play  at  the  fame  time  upon 
one  place. 

Battery  en  rouage  is  that  ufed  to  difmount  the 
enemies  cannon. 

Lodgment  is  a  work  caft  up  by  the  befiegers, 
during  their  approaches,  in  fbme  dangerous  poft, 
which  they  have  gained,  and  wheie  it  is  abfolutely 
neceflary  to  fecure  themielves  againfl  the  ene- 
my's fire.  Lodgments  are  made  by  cafting  up 
earth,   or  by  gabions  *,  or  palifades,  wool-packs. 


*  Gabions  are  large  bafkets,  made  of  ofier  twigs,  woven  of  a  cylindrical  form,  fix  feet  high,  and  four  wide  ; 
which  bsing  filled  with  earth,  ferve  as  a  defence,  or  fhelter  from  the  enemy's  fire.  They  are  commonly  ufed  in 
batu-.ta,  to  fcreen  the  engineers,  i£c.  in  order  to  which,  one  is  placed  on  either  fide  each  gun,  only  leaving 
room  for  the  innzzle  to  appear  through.  There  are  a'fo  a  fmaller  fort  of  gabions,  ufed  on  parapets,  trenches, 
CS"-'.  to  cover  tl,e  mufqucteers  ;  being  placed  fo  clofe,  as  that  a  mufcet  can  but  juft  peep  through.  They  alfo 
fetve  as  a  parapet  on  lines,  lodgments,  l^c.  where  the  ground  proves  too  hard  to  dig  into.  To  render  the  gabi- 
ons ufelefs,  they  endeavour  to  fee  them  on  f  re,  by  thrcwing  pitched  faggots  among  them. 

24.  T 1 1  fafcines 


5o8 


Tlje  Univcrfal  Hiftory  of  AitTS  Gftd  ScrENCEs. 


f:ircines  t,  mantelets  1!,  or  any  thing  capable  of 
covering  ibldiers,  in  the  place  they  have  gained, 
and  are  determined  to  keep. 

There  mufl  be  prepared,  from  the  very  begin- 
ning, at  the  tail  of  the  trench,  a  place  of  fafcines, 
lacks  of  earth,  and  the  like,  for  a  fecure  retreat 
a^ainft  the  cannon  of  the  place,  for  tliofe  who  co- 
ver the  works,  who  are  nioft  cavalry  ;  for  the  in- 
fantry is  commanded  to  the  approaches  :  hence  a 
trench  is  dug,  fonr  feet  deep,  and  which  has,  at 
the  beginning,  but  font  or  fix  feet  in  width  ;  the 
earth  being  thrown  up  on  the  fide  of  the  place. 
That  trench  is  feldom  made  longer  than  40  yards, 
and  always  made  in  the  night ;  taking  ali  tiie  pre- 
cautions imaginable  to  hinder  it  from  being  enfi- 
haded,  either  from  the  place,  or  from  the  counter- 
approaches,  the  befieged  could  build. 

Three  nights  and  two  days,  are  generally  fpent 
in  putting  batteries  into  good  condition  ;  and  thf 
third  night  the  guns  are  planted  ;  but  if  care  be 
tak^n,  batteries  of  two  or  three  cannons  may  be 
finifhed  in  two  -nights  and  one  day. 

The  trenches  are  to  be  carried  on,  and  a  place  of 
firms  made  the  fixth  night. 

A  redoubt  ftall  be  made  the  fevcnth  nii,ht,  and 
all  behind  is  put  into  a  good  pofture. 

The  trenches  fhall  be  carried  on  the  eighth 
night,  and  a  great  place  of  arms  made  within  a 
hundred  paces  of  the  glacis. 

The  more  the  approaches  are  advanced,  the 
deeper  they  mull  be.  At  the  beginning  they  are 
made  greater  by  degrees ;  fo  that  having  at  firft 
buP'four  feet  in  width,  they  are  made,  afterwards, 
from  eight  to  nine  feet  broad,  that  the  cannon  may 
be  tranfportcd  that  way  to  the  batteries.  The 
places  of  arms  muft  be,  as  much  as  polTlble,  over- 
againft  one  another,  that  they  may  flank  one  ano- 
ther, though  traverCes  muft  be  put  to  thofe  places 
of  arms,  to  flielter  thofe  polled  in  them  againft  the 
bombs.  The  approaches  muft  interfecV  one  ano- 
tfaer  ;  and  every  where,  if  practicable,  there  ought 
to  be  deep  places,  covered  with  trees,  and  earth, 
againft  the  bombs  ;  and  if  a  ditch  m.uft  be  con- 
duced di.'-eclly  towards  the  place,  it  is  proper  it 
(hould  be  made  towards  the  end  of  the  faces  of  the 
ravelin,  towards  the  angles  of  the  epaule  of  the  ba- 


ftion,  and  obliquely  towards  the  points  of  the  ra- 
velin ;  but  an  engineer  muft  be  very  exail  in  tracing 
them. 

Thefe  rules  alfo  are  to  be  followed  with  regard 
to  the  batteries  :   i.  Thofe  made  to  beat  the  place, 
ought  not  to  be  above  500  paces  diftant  from   it. 
2.  The  beeinninjr  of  the  breach  can   be  made  at 
300  paces.      3.   To  end  the  breach,  batteries  muft 
be  erecEied  on  the  glacis,  carried  off  from  the  coun- 
terfcrap      4.  Againft  works  lined  v/ith  ftones,  the 
batteries   arc    eredled    perpendicularly,     the  flioti 
which  ftrlke  perpendicularly  being,  in   that  calij, 
the  beft  :  but  againft  works  of  earth,  it  is  btft  to 
difpole  them  fo,  that  it  may   be  beaten  with   the 
heavy   cannon  perpendicular!}',  and  on  both  fides, 
alfo  crofs- ways.      5.   The    parapets   muft  be  very 
high  and  thick,  well  interwove  with  hofiers,  twigs, 
and  faggots,  and  provided  with  good  embrafures  ; 
and,  in  cafe  of  necefTity    there  muft  be  ufed  gabi- 
ons and  wool  packs :  there  iliould  be  always  a  fpacc 
from  18  to  24  feet  between  each  piece  of  cannan, 
according  to  their  bignefs ;  whence  the  place  of  a 
battery  of  12  cannons,  of  the  fecond  rank,  muft 
have  24  yards  in  length.     6.  The  embrazures  muft 
be  made  from  two  to  three  feet  broad  on  the  infide, 
anj  from  10  to  J2  on  the  outfide.     7.  The  floor 
for  the  .cannons  is  compofed   of  good  boards,  and 
muft  be  very  even,  that  the  gunner  may  be  more 
fare  in -pointing  his  cannon.     8.  A  ditch  muft  be 
made  beliind  the  batteries  for  the  powder,  the  in- 
fide very  well  lined  with  boards,  covered  a  top  with 
cows   f!<ins,    and  defended  with  gabions,  covered 
with   earth   againft   the  bombs.     There   are  alio 
made  behind  the  batteries  feveral  crols  ditches,  like 
the  approaches,  where  the  munition  is  diftributed 
into  feveral  places. 

When  the  works  are  advanced  near  the  place,  if 
there  be  no  ridg.e  of  ground,  or  hollow  capable  of 
covering  men,  a  ferjeant  and  fifteen  men  only  fliall 
be  pofted  at  the  head  of  the  work,  and  battalions 
in  the' neareft  places  of  arms,  and  behind  the  re- 
doubts, which  are  neareft  the  place,  to  fuilain  the 
workmen  in  cafe  of  a  fally. 

If  the  lines  drawn  from  the  laft  place  of  arms» 
cannot  come  within  four  or  five  paces  of  the  foot  of 


+  Fajclr.es,  are  fraa?!  branches  of  trees,  cr  bavins,  bound  up  in  bundles ;  which  being  mixed  wirh  earth,  ferve 
to  fill  up  ditches,  to  i'creen  the  men,  make  the  parapets  of  trenches,  i^c.  Some  of  them  are  dipped  in  melted 
..pitch  or  tar  ;  and  being  fet  on  fire,  fcrve  to  burn  the  enemy's  lodgments,  or  other  works.  A  pitched _/%/?;««  is  a 
■foi')t  and  a  half  about:  a  fafcine  {or  defence  two  or  thres  feet. 

II  l\1antehtiy  are  a  kind  of  moveable  parapets  made  ot  planks,  abou:  three  inches  thick,  nailed  one  over  ano- 
ther, to  the  height  ahnoll  of  fix;  feet,  generally  cafed  with  tin,  and  fet  upon  little  wheels  ;  lo  that  in  a  fiege,  t'liey 
may  be  driven  before  the  pionter;,  and  ferve  as  biuids  to  Ih.-ker  them  trom  the  enemy's  fmull  fliot.  Tliere  are 
otjier  forts  of  mantikti  covered  on  the  top,  whereof  the  miners  make  ufe  to  approach  the  wall  of  a  town  or 
.caftle. 

the 


FORTIFICATION, 


!^^9 


tie  glacis,  one,  or  rather  two  rap5*{hould  be  made 
toward  the  angle,  til!  you  are  within  the  laid  di- 
Itance,  and  from  thence  you  muit  attempt  tn  lodge 
yourfelfon  the  covert  •  way,  v/hich  is- generally  th:.- 
moflr  tlitJkiik  and  bloody  aftion  of  a  fiege  ;  and 
whith  is  done  in  fevcral;  manners,-  For,  Ibnie  are 
for  marching  bare-faced  to  diflodge  the  enemy, 
when  the  trench  »is  within  12  or  15  feet  of  the  glacis, 
iind  make  a  lodgment  on  the  angle  at  the  fame 
time.  Bi't  the  F,:igliJ}},  Germans,  and  Dutch,  are 
of  a  contrary  opinion ,  judging  it  more  fafe  to  make 
their  lodgments  by  laps. 

In  order  to  make  the  lodgments,    by  gaining 
ground  without  open  force,   the  (renches   muft  be 
carried  on  to  the  nearefl  place  that  may  be,  with- 
out expofing  them  to  enfilnde  ;  then  three  or  four 
faps  muft:  be  carried   on  by  fteps,  defcending  di- 
re£Hy  towards  the  angle-faliant  of  the  covert-'way  : 
They  are  made  by  driving  a  mantelet,  fct  on  two 
wheels  before  them,   or  elfe  rolling  along  z  f(iu:!jj'e, 
and-  placing  fafcines  or  gabions  on  the  right,  or  lefr, 
as  they  draw  near  the  place,  and  blinds  at  certain 
diftanccs,  to  prevent  the  enemy  from   locking  into 
the  trenches: : This  work  mutt  be  continued   day 
and  nights  and  the  men  being  relieved  from  time 
to  time,  .that  being  always  frefti  they  may  do  the 
more  work..    When  the  fap  has  been  carried  on 
eight  or  ten  fathom,  lines   muft  be,  drawn  on  the 
right  and   lef^  parallel  to  ;-;e  place,  and   four  or 
five  fathom  long,  which  are  maJe  fmall  places  of 
arms  to  cofitain  fome  foldiers,  both  to  fulb.in  the 
head  of  the  work,  and  make  the  neceflary  provi- 
f.ons  for  advancing  it.      When  you  come  within  a 
fl-ones  throw:  of  the  covert-u:ny,  the  fap  muft   be 
covered  with   clay,  and  icme  earth  thrown  at  the 
top  of  theiTT.  to  defend  them   againft  ftones,   and 
hand  grRaadoes :  And  when  you  come  to  the  foot 
of  the  filaeis,  vou  muft  begin  ihs  fourncaux,  which 
are  ftill  to  be  carried  on  defcending,  to  avoid  the 
counter- mines;   and  that  having  more  earth  upon 
rhem,  they  may   take  the   m.orc  efFeift ;  a;id  they 
muft  be  carried  far  enough  to  blow  up  the  parapet 
of  the  angle. 

When  ihc  fourneatix  are  carrying  on  from  middle 
lines,  the 'other  faps  muft  be  carried  on   as   iar  as 


may  be  on  the  glacis ;  and  mines  muft  alfo  be 
carried  on  to  difappoint  the  enemy,  if  you  appre- 
hend that  he  will  make  other  fo?4t)u{iux\ 

As  foon  as  thefoiirncnux  are  ready,  they  nuift  be 
fprung  by  night  o;-  dav,  and  armed  workmen  fhail'' 
be  fenc  at  the  fame  time,  fuftained  bv  cjood  foldiers, 
to  place  fome  gabions  on  the  part  demolifhcd  by 
the  fourneaux,  and  to  fill  them  with  earth,  which 
mav  be  eafily  done,  becaufe  the  blowing  up  will 
loofen  it  all. 

As  foon  as  the  lodgment  U  finifhed,  there  muft  ' 
be  faps  carried  on,  both  to  go  down  into  the  covert-  ' 
ivay,  and  to  continue  the  lodgments  on  the  top  of 
the  glacis.      The  defcent  into  the  covert-zvay  m«ft ' 
be  very  deep,  that  it  may  not  be  feen  by  the  oppo- 
fite    flank,    and    not  be  opened  till  night-fall,  at " 
which  time  a  traverfe   is  to  be  made  on  each  fide,  ■ 
and  the  head  of  the  lodgment  on  the   ed2;e  of  the  ' 
ditch.     While  one  part  of  the  workmen  are  em-  ■ 
ployed  about  the  lodgment,  the  reft  are  to  carry  on  ' 
the  trenches   along  the  edge  of  the  glacis,  which 
muft  be  done  by  fap,  if  the  enemy  make  a  good 
defence;  but   if  they  make  a   had  one,  this  lodg- 
ment muft  be  done  like  that  of  the  angle,  that  is, 
with   gabions  filled   with  earth  j  and   the   empale- 
ments  with  chandeliers  or  wooden  frames  full  cF 
faggots    to  cover  the  workmen  inftead  of  a   pa- 
rapet. 

If  you  would  attack  the  left  face  of  the  baftion,' 
the  lodgment  R  fhall  be  made  a  battery  to  xlif- 
mount  the  guns  on  the  oppoflte  flank,  and  ruin  it- 
as  much  as  may  be.  While  the  battery  R  is' 
firing,  the  lodgment  V  is  to  be  made  to  cover  it,' 
from  whence  the  traverfe  X,  TnaH  be  drawn  ar.J- 
made  cannon-proof.  The  battery  ilia!!  be  encioted 
behind,  by  the  line  Y,  and  if  the  eiiemy  be  ftrong'. 
and  daring,  the  redoubt  Z  ihall  be  made  to  fecure 
the  batteries  againft  fallies,  and  all  the  head  of 
the  trenches.  'When  the  batterv  R  is  finiftied,  and- 
fecured  by  works,,  the  line  S  fhall  be  puflied  on' 
rewards  the  gorge  of  the  half  mooJi,  and  defcents 
and  traverfes  Ihal!  be  made  in.to  the  covcrt-vjay  at  3 
and  4,  as  alfe  the  line  2.  If  you  are  imcomitroded 
by  the  enemies  traverfes  in  the  cove^-t-ivay.,  they 
muft  be  attacked  in  the  rear  'by  night,  aiid  v/hen- 


*  J.?/*,  denotes  a  work  canied  on 'J nder  ground,  to  fjain  the  defcent  of  a  ditch,  counterfc.irp,  or  the  like.  It 
i^  ptrf. lined  by  digging  a  deep  trer.cU,  diifcending  by  ireps  from  top  to  botto.ii  under  a  cor/idor ;  carrying  it  as 
fjr  as  the  bottom  of  ti-.e  ditch  wlicn  ti.at  is  dry,  or  the  fiirface  o.*^  the  u-atev  whin  wet  When  the  covert-v.ay  is 
w.'ll  defcnde.l  by  uiufiuete-rrrj,  ihe  beficgers  niaketheir  way  down  into  it  by  Tapping.  When  they  are  got  near  the 
foot  of  tl  e  .  i-icis,  the  trench  is  carried  on  dirsitiy  forwards ;  the  workmen  covering  themfelves  with  bliriO?,  v.ool- 
packs.  fand  bags,  and  ma.-.relets  upon  \v!:ee!s.  They  alfo  make  epaulment^  or  tr;;verfe3,  on  each  fide,  to  lodge 
a-good  body  of  inen.  1  hi/i/i  is  ufually  made  five  or  fi.\  fathom.' from  the  faiiant  angle  of  the  glacis,  where  the 
men  are  only  covered  fide  v.'ays ;  for  uhich  reafcn  they  lay  planks  over-heaJ  with  hurdler,  ar.d  earth  above  ihcm. 
V/hen  they  have  forced  tie  enemy  to  quit  the  covert  i*ay,  the  pioneers  immediately  with  far.d  bag;,  wocl-packs, 
or  other  fsnces,  njake  a  lodgment,  and  cover  thwnfelve;  as  well  as  they  can,  from  the  f.ie  of  the  oppofite  taliicn. 

T  t  t  2  -  •    they 


Tlje  Un'iveri'al  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


510 

they  arc  dlllodgcd,  you  may  lodge  yourfelf  there, 
if  the  head  of  the  work  be  not  far  off",  or  clfe  you 
muft  raze  them.     See  the  Plate. 

The  lodgments  on  the  covcrt-wciy  of  the  half- 
moon,  which  arc  of  the  fame  nature  as  thofs  that 
are  made  on  the  angle  that  covers  the  point  of  tlie 
baftion,  are  to  be  perfeifted,  firfi:  if  you  can  only 
make  one  at  once,  or  both  together,  provided  that 
you  have  men  enough  to  carry  on  both.  There 
muft  be  trenches  along  the  edge  of  the  glacis,  and 
in  the  covcrt-wny,  to  meet  at  the  gorge  with  thofe 
made  before  the  face  of  the  baftion.     ' 

If  the  half  moon  can  be  battered  with  cannon, 
the  parapet  beaten-down,  the  defcent  into  the 
ditch  cafy,  and  little  or  no  water  in  it,  then  you 
may  march  boldly,  and  lodge  yourfelf  on  it,  being 
provided  with  all  things  necefTary  to  make  a  good 
lodgment,  and  a  way  to  go  to  and  come  from  it, 
under  cover.  If  the  ditch  of  the  place  is  full  of 
water,  and  the'  enemy  can  have  no  communication 
with  it  but  by  boats,  there  will  be  no  very  great 
danger  in  attempting  this  fort  of  lodgment;  but  if 
the  ditch  be  dry,  or  if  the  enemy  have  one  fide  of 
the  ccvcrt-wa}!  free  to  fuccour  tlie  half-moon,  and 
the  garrifon  is  flrong,  it  muft  be  attempted  with 
more  precaution. 

To  pafs  the  ditches  of  half-moons,  when  tliey 
are  full  of  water,  after  you  have  made  the  defcents 
on  the  edge  of  the  water,  lafcines,  loaded  with 
ftones,  muft  be  thrown  into  the  ditch,  till  they 
are  above  water,  and  then  earth  or  ftones  caft  over 
both  to  fettle  them  ;  and  to  prevent  their  being 
burnt,  and  an  empalenicnt  made  with  earth  and 
fa.'cines  next  the  place. 

As  foon  as  you  are  maftcr  of  the  half  moon, 
you  muft  contrive  to  pafs  the  ditch  of  the  place,  in 
order  to  fix  the  miner  to  the  face  of  the  baftion  ; 
but  before  you  attempt  to  pafs,  lodgments  muft  be 
made  all  along  the  covert-wny,  both  on  the  top  of 
the  glacis,  and  the  edge  of  the  ditch. 

If  the  ditch  is  dry,  and  its  counterfcarp  is  very 
fteep,  or  faced  with  a  wall,  you  muft  begin  the 
defcent  from  the  foot  of  the  glacis  of  the  covcrt- 
way  ;  or  farther  ofF,  if  the  ditch  be  very  deep ;  if  it 
were  but  eight  or  ten  feet  deep,  you  might  begin 
the  defcent  within  tlie  ccvert-u-ay.  If  the  enemy 
bci!rongatid  bold,  fevcral  defcents  muft  be  made, 
that  the  lodgments  may  be  fuccoured  with  more 
eafe,  and  the  men  in  the  ditch. 

'.'"he  palTige  of  the  ditch  being  fecured,  all 
polTiblc  care  muft  hz  taken  to  advance  the  mines; 
and  to  oblige  the  miners  to  work  more  vigorouflv, 
you  nuift  encourage  them  with  money.  It  is  alfo 
expedient  to  enhance  their  price  according  to  the 
expedition  they  make  in  finifiiing  the  mine :  as  for 
example,  if  they  are  to  have  fifteen  pounds  for  mak- 


ing a  good  one  in  three  or  four  days,  promife  them 
double,  if  tiiey  perform  it  'n  two. 

Opinions  vary  as  to  tUe  part  of  the  face  of  the 
baftion,  to  which  the  miner  is  to  be  fivcd:  Some 
will  iiave  him  towaras  the  angle,  bccauie  the  femi- 
circle  made  in  the  baftion,  by  the  effedt  of  the 
mine,  is  not  feen  from  the  baftions  of  the  place  : 
others  v/i!l  have  the  mine  made  nearer  the  flank 
than  the  flanked  angle,  to  blow  up  the  retrench- 
ment, if  tfie.-'c  be  any. 

If  the  oppofite  faces  B  and  A  are  attacked,  the 
miners  will  be  better  in  the  midft  of  the  place,  or 
rather  nearer  the  flank  to  ruin  entirely  the  face  of 
the  baftion,  and  the  firft  retrenchment,  and  to 
draw  the  nearer  to  the  gorge  of  the  baftion,  where 
is  generally  a  fccond  retrenchment.  Hut  if  only 
one  face  of  the  baftion  be  attacked  en  one  front  of 
the  place,  the  mine  will  be  better  at  the  angle,  to 
prevent  the  effeft  of  the  mine's  beina;  laid  in  the 
view  of  the  oppofite  baftion  :  mofl:  men  defiring 
that  the  effedl:  of  the  m.ine  may  be  great,  making 
a  large  breach  in  the  wall,  and  overthrowing  abun- 
dance of  earth,  that  there  may  be  an  eafy  afcent 
to  the  baftion,  and  many  men  mount  a-hreaft  to 
make  a  lodijment :  but  as  the  Iod:rments  defigncd 
on  the  top  of  the  baftion  feldom  fucceed,  and  when 
they  do,  they  are  attended  with  a  great  lofs  of 
men,  it  is  better  to  make  an  indiff"erent  breach 
only  to  overthrow  th-  wall,  to  present  counter- 
mines; and  then  begin  another  mine  on  the  ruins, 
to  be  carried  on  into  the  body  of  the  baftion,  to 
take  the  intended  efft(St. 

Many  inconveniences  attend  large  breaches,  if 
you  fail  to  lodge  yourfelf  upon  them :  one  is  the 
ealV  defcent  it  gives  to  tiie  befieged  to  come  down 
upon  the  lodgments  you  are  making,  or  have 
made,  either  at  the  bottom,  or  half  way  up  the 
breach,  in  order  to  fix  the  miner.  Another  is, 
that  the  enemy  having  raifed  a  parapet  on  the  edge 
of  the  mine,  the  !ar2;er  it  is  the  more  it  overlooks 
all  the  ruins  of  the  faid  mine.  Bcfides,  it  muft  be 
confidered,  that  to  the  end  the  mine  may  have  a 
great  effect,  it  muft  be  carried  far  into  the  earth, 
which  often  gives  you  an  opportunity  of  difappoint- 
ing  the  enemy's  countermines  :  I  would  therefore 
make  the  mijie  in  the  wall,  and  after  the  effect, 
make  a  lodgment  at  one  third  of  the  height  after 
this  manner.  Ten  or  twelve  fturdy  foldiers  with 
fhovels,  fhall  go  as  privately  as  poflible,  to  level 
the  place  where  the  lodgment  is  to  be  made,  fo  that 
three  or  four  gabions  may  ftand  on  it,  in  a  range  ; 
then  four  ranks  of  gabions,  at  about  feven  or  eight 
feet  diftance  from  one  another,  fhall  be  puftied  on 
covered  with  wool-packs  ;  and  then  two  or  three 
foldiers  fhall  throw  earth  on  them,  to  fecure  the 
lodgment  againfl  every  thing  that  may  be  thrown 

from 


FORTIFICATION, 


5" 


from  above.  Thus  four  ranks  of  gabions  covered, 
as  heretofore  defcribed,  will  make  three  little  lodg- 
ments-; the  middlcmoft  (hall  ferve  for  the  miners, 
who  fhall  prefently  fall  to  work  to  make  a  mine  in 
the  earth  of  the  baftion ;  and  the  lodgments  on 
the  right  and  left,  fliall  each  of  them  contain  four 
or  five  foldiers  well  armed,  with  head-pieces  and 
brcaft-plates,  mufket-proof,  and  with  javelins  and 
piftols. 

For  the  greater  fecurity,  two  lines  may  be  made 
at  the  fame  time,  one  at  the  angle,  and  the  other 
towards  the  orillon,  that  the  fecond  line  may  ruin 
the  retrenchments  made  within,  as  thofe  in  the 
baftion  ABC,  which  might  be  ruined  by  the 
eff"e£c  of  the  mine,  were  it  not  for  fear  they  fhould 
be  difappointed,  and  the  enemy  be  in  a  condition 
to  ruin  the  lodgment  on  the  top  of  the  breach. 

If  the  retrenchment  be  made  as  in  the  baftion  C, 
and  its  ditch  -deep,  it  will  be  hard  to  be  mafter  of 
it,  unlefs  vou  lodge  yourfelves  on  the  top  of  the 
baftion,  after  the  firft  or  fecond  mine  have  taken 
effect.  There  if  you  think  you  cannot  eafily  begin 
a  mine  at  the  breach  of  the  rampart,  you  may 
carry  it  under  the  ditch  of  the  retrenchment,  fpring 
it,  and  by  that  means  plant  cannon  at  the  top  of 
the  baftion,  and  batter  the  retrenchment;  or  elfe 
make  a  lodgment  at  the  edge  of  its  ditch  ;  then 
pafilng  it,  fix  the  miner  to  the  retrenchment. 
While  the  firft  mines  are  carrying  on,  it  will  be 
proper  to  begin  other  mines  in  fuch  places  where 
the  elTeitofthe  firft  may  not  ruin  them,  fo  that  the 
one  may  be  tiled  if  the  other  be  difappointed  ;  or 
elfe  by  that  means  to  carry  on  mines  into  the  body 
of  the  baftion,  and  under  the  retrenchments,  if  it 
fliould  prove  more  pradicable  that  way,  than  by 
the  breach  the  firft  mines  have  made. 

Ifthere  be  a  gallery  in  the  ihickncfs  of  the  wall, 
either  of  the  body  of  the  place,  or  of  the  detached 
V.'Orks,  three  fmnuaux  fhall  be  made  at  the  fame 
time,  upon  one  and  the  fame  face,  which  fhall 
only  blow  up  the  thicknefs  of  the  wall  as  far  as  the 
gallery ;  and  being  laid  open  in  three  places,  the 
middle  may  ferve  to  fix  the  miner  again  to  make  a 
large  mine,  and  the  holes  on  the  right  and  left  will 
prevent  the  enemy  from  palling  the  gallery,  to 
obftrufl:  the  work  of  the  mine.  But  when  the 
out-works  are  taken,  and  a  breach  made  in  the 
baftions,  the  town  generally  furrenders. 

The  befiegers  encompafs  their  camp,  to  defend 
it  againft  any  army  that  may  attempt  to  relieve 
the  place  with  lines  of  circumvallaU'in.,  countcr- 
vrdlatiani,  and  communication.  A  line  of  circum- 
vallation,  is  a  line  or  trench,  with  a  parapet,  which 
muft  be  cannon-fliot  diftant  from  the  place,  ordi- 
ririly  about  twelve  feet  broad,  and  feven  deep  ;  it 
is  bordered  with  a  breaft-wprk,  and  flanked  with 


redoubts,  or  little  forts,  ereflcd  from  fpacc  to 
fpace  :  It  (erves  both  to  prevent  any  fuccour  from 
being  fent  into  the  place,  to  keep  in  deferters,  and 
prevent  incurfions  of  the  enemv's  garrifon.  Care 
muft  be  taken  that  the  line  of  circumvallation  never 
pafTes  by  the  foot  of  an  eminence  ;  left  the  enemy, 
feizing  on  the  eminence,  lodge  there  his  cannon, 
and  command  the  line.  Cotmtervallaiion,  is  a 
counter-line,  or  ditch,  made  around  a  place  be- 
fieged,  to  prevent  the  fallies  and  excurfions  of  the 
garrifon  when  it  is  ftrong.  Along  its  edge,  on  the 
fide  of  the  place,  runs  a  parapet,  and  it  is  flanked 
from  fpace  to  fpace.  It  is  without  mufkct  fliot  of 
the  town,  and  fometimes  goes  quite  round  it, 
iometimes  not,  according  as  the  general  finds  occa- 
fion.  I  he  army  forming  a  fiege,  lies  between  the 
lines  of  circumvallation,  and  ccunteyvallation.  Tlie 
lines  of  communication  are  trenches  fix  or  izwtn. 
feet  deep,  and  twelve  broad,  made  between  one 
fort,  or  work,  and  another ;  in  order  for  a  fafe 
paflage  between  one  quarter  and  another. 

While  a  place  is  befieged,  the  befieged  are  em- 
ployed in  works  for  their  own  defence,  and  to 
oppofe  the  befiegers.  The  v.'orks  they  do,  on 
that  occafion,  are  counter-approaches',  retrenchments^ 
capanicres,  countermines,  jougacles,   &c. 

Counter-approaches  are  lines  or  trenches 
made  by  the  befieged,  when  they  come  out  to 
attack  the  lines  of  the  befiegers  in  form.  A  line  of 
counter-approach,  is  a  trench  which  the  befieged 
make,  from  their  covcrt-icay,  to  the  right  and  left 
of  the  attacks,  in  order  to  fcour  or  enfilade  the 
enemy's  works.  It  fl:iould  commence  in  the  angle 
of  the  place  of  arms  of  the  half  moon  that  is  not 
attacked  ;  above  50  or  60  fathom  from  the  attacks  ; 
and  continued  as  far  as  fhall  be  found  neceflary,  in 
order  to  fee  the  enemy  in  his  trenches  and  parallels. 
This  line  muft  be  perfei'ly  enfiladed  from  the 
covert-way,  and  the  half-moon,  that  if  the  enemy 
get  pofleffion  of  it,  it  may  be  of  nofervice  to  him. 
In  this  line  the  governor  muft  frequently,  in  the 
night-time,  fend  fmall  parties  of  horfe  and  foot,  to 
drive  the  workmen  from  their  pofis  ;  and  if  pofiible 
carry  ofFthe  engineers,  who  have  the  direction  of 
the  work. 

The  Caponiere,  or  caponniere,  is  a  covered 
lodgment,  funk  four  or  five  feet  into  the  ground, 
enconipafled  with  a  little  parapet  two  feet  high, 
ferv/ng  to  fupport  feveral  planks  covered  with 
earth.  The  caponiers  is  large  enough  to  contain 
fifteen  or  twenty  foldiers ;  and  is  ufually  placed  in 
the  glacis,  on  the  extremity  of  the  counterfcarp, 
and  in  dry  moats  ;  having  little  embrazures  for  the 
foldiers  to  fire  through. 

Counter-mine  is  a  fubterraneous  vault,  run- 
ning the  whole  length  of  a  wall,  three  feet  broad, 

and 


5  i  2  T/je  Univerfal  Iliftory  of  Arts  a^d  Sciences. 


antl  fix  deep,  ■  with  feveral  holes  and  apertures 
therein,  contrived  to  prevent  the  effect  of  iniaes, 
in  cafe  the  enemy  fhould  make  any,  to  blow  up  the 
wall;  but  this  fort  of  counter-mine  ib  now  little 
in  ufe.  The  modern  counter-rnine  is  a  well,  or 
pit,  and  a  gallery,  funk  on  purpofe  till  it  meets 
the  enemy's  mine,  and  prevent  its  effecl;  it  being 
firft  pretty  well  known  whereabouts  it  is. 

FouGADE,  tjxfiugaJJ}^  is  a  little  mine  in  the  man- 
ner of  a  well,  icarce  exceeding  ten  feet  in  width, 
and  twehe  in  depth;  dug   under  fomc  work,  or 


poft,  that  is  like  to  be  loft;  and  charged  with 
barrels,  or  facks  of  gunpowder,  covered  with 
earth:  It  is  fet  on  fire,  like  otlicr  mines,  with  a 
Jhudffc,  i.  c.  a  long  train  of  powder  (ewed  up  in  a 
roll  of  pitched  cloth,  about  two  inches  in  diame- 
ter; the  length  of  \he  faucijji  is  to  extend  from  the 
chamber  of  the  mine,  to  the  place  where  the  en- 
gineer ftands  to  fpring  the  mine.  There  arc 
ufuaily  two  faucijjes  to  every  mine,  that  if  one 
fhould  fail,  the  other  may  take  effect. 


FOUNDER     r. 


^OuNDERY   (from  the  latin   word  fi/ndo,    I 
melt)  is  the  art  of  melting  and  cafting  all 
(brts   of  metals ;    particularly    brafs,    iron, 
bell  -  metal,- &:c. 

For  the  exercifmg  of  this  art  in  general,  the 
workman  mu'l  be  provided  with  furnaces,  moulds, 
prefTes,  and  other  tools  proper  for  particular  branches 
t.^ereof 

The  branches,  into  which  we  fhall  divide 
foundery,  fnall  be  that  of  ( I.)  _/W// Wffr,^j,  or  the 
art  of  cafling  in  £ind,  which  is  thus  performed. 

The  fand  uTeJ  for  cafting  fmall  works,  is,  at 
firft,  of  a  pretty  foft,  yellowifh,  and  clammy  na- 
ture :  but  it  being  neceflary  to  ftrew  charcoal  dufl 
in  the  mould,  it  at  length  becomes  of  a  quite  black 
colour.  This  land  fs  worked  over  and  over,  on  a 
board,  v/ith  a  roller,  aaid  a  fort  of  knife  ;  being 
placed,  over  a  trough  to  reccFve  it,  after  it  is  by 
thefe  moans  fufficiently  prepared. 
'  This  done,  they  take  a  wooden  board  of  a 
length  and  breadth  proportional  to  the  things  to  be 
cart,  and  putting  a  ledge  round  it,  they  fill  it  with 
fand,  a  little  moiftencd,  to  make  it  duly  cohere. 
Then  they  take  either  wood  or  metal  models  of 
what  they  intend  to  caft,  and  apply  them  fo  to  the 
mould,  and  prei's  them  into  tlic  fand,  as  to  leave 
their  impieffion  there.  Along  the  middle  of  the 
mould  is  laid  half  a  fitiall  brafs-cylinder,  as  the 
chief  canal  for  the  metal  to  run  through,  when 
melted,  into  the  models,  or  patterns  ;  and  from 
this  chief  canal  are  placed'  feveral  others,  which 
extend  to  each  model  or  pattern,placed  in  the  frame. 
After  this  frame  is  finifhed,  they  take  out  the 
pattern^,  by  firlt  loofening  them  all  round,  that 
the  fand  may  not  give  way. 

Th;-n   they  proceed  to   work  the  other  half  oi 
the  mould  wiih  the  fame  patterns  in  juit  fufh  ano 
ther  frame,  only  that  it  has  pins,  whicli,  entering 
into  holco  that  correfpond  to  it  in  the  other,  make 
the  two  cavities  of  the  pattern  fall  exafl:ly  on  each. 


The  frame  thus  moulded,  is  carried  to  the 
melter,  who,  after  extending  the  chief  canal  of  the 
counterpart,  and  adding  the  crofs  canals  to  the 
feveral  models  in  both,  and  ftrewing  mill  duft  over 
them,  dries  them  in  a  kind  of  ovi.n  for  that  pur- 
pofe. 

Both  parts,  of  the  mould  being  dry,  they  are 
joined  together  by  means  of  the  pins  ;  and  to  pre- 
vent their  giving  way,  by  reafon  of  the  melted 
metal  paffing  through  the  chief  cylindrical  canal, 
they  are  fcrewed  or  wedged  up  like  a  a  kind  of  a 
prtfs. 

While  the  moulds  are  thus  preparing,  the  metal 
is  fufing  in  a  crucible  of  a  fize  proportionate  to 
the  quantity  of  metal  intended  to  be  caft. 

Some  of  thefe  fmall  work  founder's  furnaces  are 
like  a  fmith's  forge ;  others  fland  a  few  feet  under 
'  ground  for  the  more  eafdy  and  fafely  taking  out  a 
j  weighty  pot  of  metal ;  which  is  done  by  means  of  a 
■  circularpair  of  tongs  tliatgrafps  round  the  top  of  the 
crucible.  \'k^hen  the  metal  is  melted,  the  work- 
;  man  pours  it  through  the  chief  can.il.  of  each  mould, 
i  which  conveys  it  to  every  diflinct  pattern. 
j  VV'hen  the  moulds  are  coolifh,  the  frames  are 
'  unfcrev^ed,  or  unv.'edged,  and  the  caft  work  taken 
;  out  of  the  fand,  which  fand  is  worked  over  again 
:  foj  other  callings. 

(2.)  Of  Statues.  The  cafting  of  flatues  de- 
!  pends  on  the  due  (reparation  of  the  pit,  the  core, 
the  wax,  the  outer  mould,  the  inferior  furnace  to 
meltoff  the  wax,  and  the  upper  to  fufe  the  metal. 
The  pit  is  a  hole  dug  in  a  dry  place  fom.ethiirg 
deeper  than  the  intended  figure,  and  made  accord  - 
ing  to  the  prominence  of  certain  pa  ts  thereof.  The 
infidc  of  the  pit  is  commonly  lined  with  ftone,  or 
!--rick;  or  when  the  figure  is  very  large,  they  fome- 
times  work  on  the  ground,  and  raife  a  proper  fence 
to  refift  the  impulfion  of  the  melted  metal. 

The   iimer  mould,  or  core,  is  a  rude  mafs  to 

which  is  given  the  intended  attitude  and  contours. 

2  It 


FOUNDER  r. 


Tt  is  ralfed  on  eii  iron-grate,  ftrong  enough  to 
fuftain  it,  and  is  ftrcngthcned  within  by  fevcral 
bars  of  iron.  It  is  generally  m;idc  either  of  potter's 
clay,  mixed  with  hair,  and  horfe-dung ;  or  of 
piafer  of  paris  mixed  with  brick-diift.  The  ufe 
cf  the  core  is  to  fupport  the  wax,  the  fhell,  and 
leflcn  the  weight  of  the  metal.  The  iron-bars, 
and  the  core  are  taken  out  of  the  brafs  figure 
through  an  aperture  left  in  it  for  that  purpofe, 
which  it  foldered  up  afterwards.  It  is  neceilary  to 
leave  fome  of  the  iron- bars  of  the  core,  that  con- 
tribute to  the  fteadinefs  of  the  projeifting  part,  within 
the  brafs  figure. 

The  wax  is  a  reprefentation  of  the  intended  fta- 
tue.  If  it  be  a  piece  of  fculpturc,  the  wax  fhould 
be  all  of  the  fcuipture's  own  hand,  who  ufualiy 
forms  it  on  the  core ;  though  it  may  be  wrought 
feparately  in  cavities,  moulded  on  a  model,  and 
afterwards  aranged  on  the  ribs  of  iron  over  the 
grate ;  filling  the  vacant  fpace  in  the  middle  with 
liquid  plafter  and  brick-duft,  whereby  the  inner  core 
is  proportioned  as  the  fculptuie  carries  on  the  wax. 


513 


wrought  on  the  fpot  where  it  is  to  be  caft.  This 
is  performed  two  ways ;  in  the  firfl  a  fquare  hole  is 
dug  under  ground,  much  bigger  than  the  mould  to 
be  made  therein,  and  its  inlidc  lined  with  walls  of 
free-flonc,  or  brick.  At  the  bottom  is  made  a  hole 
of  the  fame  materials  with  a  kind  of  furnace,  hav- 
ing its  aperture  outwards  :  in  this  is  a  fire  made  to 
dry  the  mould,  and  afterwards  melt  the  wax.  0\'er 
this  furnace  is  placed  the  grate,  and  ujioa  this  the 
mould,  ij^c.  formed  as  above.  Laftl/,  at  one  of 
the  edges  of  the  fquare  pit,  is  made  another  large 
furnace  to  melt  the  metal.  In  the  other  way,  it  is 
fufficient  to  work  the  mould  above  ground,  but 
with  the  like  precaution  of  a  furnace  and  grate 
underneath.  VVhen  finiflied,  four  walls  are  to  be 
run  around  it,  and  by  the  fide  thereof  a  maffivc 
made  for  a  melting  furnace.  For  the  reft,  the 
method  is  the  fame  in  both.  The  mould  being 
finifhed,  and  inclofed  as  defcribed,  whether urtier- 
grouiid  or  above  it,  a  moderate  fire  is  lighted  in 
the  furnace  under  it,  and  the  whole  covered  with 
planks,  that  the  wax  may  melt   gently  down,  and 


When  the  wax,  which  is  the  intended  thicknefs  '  run  out  at  pipes  contrived  fur  that  purpofe;  at  the 
of  the  metal,  is  finifhed,  they  fill  frnall  waxen  tubes  !  foot  of  the  mould,  which  are  afterwards  exaflly 
perpendicular  to  it  from  top  to  bottorn,  to  ferve    clofed  with  earth,  fo  fbon  as  the  wax  is  carried  off. 


both  as  canals  for  the  conveyance  of  the  metal  to 
all  parts  of  the  work  ;  and  as  vent-holes,  to  give 
palFagc  to  the  air,  which  woidd  othervvifs  occahon 
great  diforder,  when  the  hot  metal  came  to  encom- 
pafs  it. 

The  work  being  brought  thus  far,  muft  be  co- 
vered with  its  fhell,  which  is  a  kind  of  cruft  laid 
over  the  wax,  and  which  being  of  a  foft  matter, 
eafily  receives  the  imprellion  of  eve.-y  part,  which 
is  afterwards  communicated  to  the  metal  upon  its 
taking  the  place  of  the  wax,  between  the  fhell  and 
tlie  mould.  The  matter  of  this  outer  mould  is 
varied  according  as  different  layers  areapplied.  The 


firft  is   generally   a  compofition  of  clay,  and  old  ]  one  to  put  in  the  wood,  another  for  a  vent,   ana 
white  crucibles  well  ground  and  fifted,  and  mixed    third  to  run  tiie   metal   out  at.      From   this   la 


This  done,  the  hole  is  filled  up  with  bricks  throvvTi 
in  at  random,  and  the  fire  in  the  furnace  aus:- 
mentcd,  till  luch  time  as  both  the  bricks  and  mould 
become  red  hot.  After  this,  the  fi.j-e  being  extin- 
guifhed,  and  every  thing  cold  again,  they  take 
out  the  bricks  and  fill  up  their  place  with  earth, 
moiftened,  and  a  little  beaten  to  the  top  of  the 
mould,  ill  order  to  make  it  the  more  firm  and 
fteady.  Thefe  preparatory  meafures  being  duly 
taken,  there  remains  nothing  but  to  melt  the  metal, 
and  run  it  into  the  mould.  This  is  the  ofl':ce  of 
the  furnace  above  dcfcribed,  which  is  commonly 
made  in  the  form  of  an  oven  with  three  apertures, 

a 


vip  with  water,  to  the  confiftence  of  a  colour  fit  for 
painting :  accordingly  they  apply  it  with  a  pencil. 


aperture,  which  is  kept  very  clofe,  while  the  metal 
is  in  fufion,  a  fmall  tube  is  laid,    whereby  the 


laying  it  feven  or  eight  times  over,  and    letting  it  ]  melted  metal  is  conveyed  into  a  large  earthen  bafon, 
dry  between   whiles.      For  die  fecond  imprellion,  |  over  the  mould,  into  the  bottom  of  which  all  the 


horfe-dung. 


they   add 

former  compofition 

horfe-dung  and  earth. 


and   natural    earth   to  the 
The  third  imprelfion  is  only 
Laflly,  the  fhell  is  finifhed 
by  Laying  on  feveral  more  impreflions  of  this  laff 
matter,  made  very  thick  with  the  hand. 

The  flieil,  thus  finifhed,  is  fecured  by  feveral 
iron- girts,  bound  round  it,  at  a  about  half  a  foot 
diflance  from  each  other,  and  faftened  at  the  bot- 
tom to  the  grate  under  the  ftatue,  and  at  top  to  a 
circle  of  iron  where  they  all  terminate. 

If  the  ftatue  be  fo  big  that  it  would  not  be  eafy 
to  move  the   moulds   with  lafety,   they  muft  be 


big  branches  of  the  jets,  or  calls,  wliich  are  to 
convey  the  metal  into  all  the  parts  of  the  mould, 
are  inl'erted, 

Thefe  cafts,  or  jets,  are  all  terminated  with  z 
kind  of  plugs,  which  are  kept  clofe,  that,  upon 
opening  the  furnace,  the  brafs,  which  gufhcs  out 
.vi;h  violence,  may  not  enter  any  ot  them,  till 
tiie  bafon  be  full  enough  of  matter  to  run  into 
them  all  at  once.  Upon  which  occafion,  they  pul! 
out  the  plugs,  which  are  long  iron-rods  with  a  head 
at  one  end,  capable  of  fillino;  the  whole  diameter 
of  each  tube.  The  whole  of  the  furnace  is  opened 

with 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


514 

with  a  long  piece  of  iron  fitted  at  the  end  of  each 
pole,  and  the  mould  filled  in  an  inftant.  This 
completes  the  work  in  relation  to  the  calling 
part ;  the  reft  being  the  fculptor's  or  carvers  bufi- 
nefs,  who  taking  the  figure  out  of  the  mould  and 
earth,  wherewith  it  is  encompaffed,.  faws  ofF  the 
jets  with  which  it  appears  covered  over,  and  repairs 
it  with  chiffels,  gravers,  puncheons,  i!fc. 


(3  )  FouNDERY  OF  Bells.  The  metal,  it  is  to 
be  obferved,  is  different  for  bells,  from  what  it  is  for 
fta'.ues  ;  there  beinff  no  tin  in  the  ftatue  metal :  but 
there  is  a  fifth,  and  fometimes  more,  in  the  bell- 
metal 

-The  dimenfions  of  the  core,  and  the  wax,  for 
bells,  if  a  ring  of  bells  efpeciallv,  are  not  left  to 
chance,  but  muft  be  meafured  on  a  fcale,  or  dia- 
pafon,  which  gives  the  height,  aperture,  and  thick- 
nefs  necelFary   for  the  feveral  tones  required. 

ft  is  on  the  wax  that  the  feveral  mouldings  and 
other  ornaments  are  formed  to  be  reprefented  in 
reliiJvo,  on  the  outfide  of  the  bell. 

The  bufmefs  of  bell-foundcry  is  reduced  to  three 


two  different  legs,  joined  by  a  third  piece.  And 
laft  of  all,  the  founders  (helves,  on  which  are  the 
engravings  of  the  letters,  cartridges,  coats  of 
arms,  iSc. 

They  firft  dig  a  hole,  of  a  fufficient  depth  to 
contain  the  mould  of  the  bell,  together  with  the 
cafe,  or  cannon,  under  ground;  and  about  fix 
inches  lower  than  the  terreplain,  where  the  work 
is  performed.  The  hole  muft  be  wide  enough  for 
a  free  paffage  between  the  mould  and  walls  of  the 
hole;  or  between  one  mould  and  another,  when 
feveral  bells  are  to  be  caft.  At  the  center  of 
the  hole  is  a  ftake  ere£ted,  that  is  ftrongly  fattened 
in  the  ground.  This  fi^pports  an  iron-peg,  on 
which  the  pivot  of  the  fecond  branch  of  the  com- 
paffes  turns.  The  ftake  is  encompaffed  with  a 
folid  brick-work,  perfedtly  round,  about  half  a 
foot  high,  and  of  the  propofed  bell's  diameter. 
This  they  call  a  mill-ftone.  The  parts  of  ths 
mould  are  the  core,  the  model  of  the  bell,  and 
the  ihell.  When  the  outer  furface  of  the  core  is 
formed,  they  begin  to  ralfe  the  core,  which  is 
made  of  bricks  that  are  laid  in  courfes  of  equal 


the  metal 

The  proportions  of  our  bells 
thofe  of  the  Chinefe:  in  ours 
portions  are  to  make  the  diameter  fifteen  times 
the  thicknefs  of  the  brim,  and  twelve  times  the 
height. 

'I'here  are  two  kinds  of  preparations,  viz.  the 
fimple  and  the  relative :  the  former  are  thofe  pro- 
portions only  that  are  between  the  feveral  parts  of 
a  bell,  to  render  it  fonorous  ;  the  relative  propor- 
tions eftablifh  a  requifite  harmony  between  feveral 
bells. 

T  he  particulars  neceffary  for  making  the  mould 
of  a  bell,  are,  x.  The  earth  :  the  moft  cohefive  is 
the  beft:  it  muft  be  well  ground  and  fifted,  to 
prevent  any  chinks.  2.  Brick-ftone;  which  muft 
be  ufed  for  the  mine,  mould,  or  core,  and  for  the 
furnace.  3.  Horfe-dung,  hair,  and  hemp,  mixed 
v/ith  the  earth,  to  render  the  cemen:  more  binding. 

4.  The   wax  for  infcriptions,  coats  of  arms,  fJc. 

5.  Tile  tallow  equally  mixed  with  the  wax,  in 
order  to  put  a  flight  lay  of  it  upon  the  outer  mould, 
before  any  letters  are  applied  to  it.  6.  The  coals 
to  dry  the  mould. 

For  making  the  mould,  they  have  a 
confiiling   of  four  boards,    ranged    upon 
Upon  this,  they  carry  the  earth,  grofsly 
to  mix  it  with  horfe-dung,  beating  the  whole  with 
a  lar^c  fpatula. 

Tr^e  compafrjs  of  conftruftion  is  the  chief  in- 
ilruiijenc  for  making  the  mould,  which  coiifift  of 


particulars,  i.  The  proportion  of  a  bell.  2.  The ;  height  upon  a  lay  of  plain  earth.  At  the  laying 
forming  of  the  mould;  and,  3.  The  melting    of  each  brick,  they  biing  near  it  the  branch  of  the 

I  compaffes,    on  which   the  curve   of    the   core  is 

differ  much  from   fliaped,  fo 

the  modern  pro- 


fcaffold 
treflels. 
diluted, 


as  that  there  may  remain  between  it 
and  the  curve  the  diftance  of  a  line,  to  be  after- 
wards filled  up  with  layers  of  cement.  The  work 
is  continued  to  the  top,  only  leaving  an  opening 
for  the  coals  to  bake  the  core.  This  worit  is 
covered  with  a  layer  of  cement,  made  of  earth 
and  horfe-dung,  on  which  they  move  the  com- 
paffes of  conftruftion,  to  make  it  of  an  even 
fmoothnefs  every  where. 

The  firft  layer  being  finifhed,  they  put  the  fire  to 
the  core,  by  filling  it  half  with  coals,  through  an 
opening  that  is  kept  ftiut,  during  the  baking,  with 
a  cake  of  earth,  that  has  been  feparately  baked. 
The  firft  fire  confumes  the  ftake,  and  the  fire  is 
left  in  the  core  half,  or,  fometimes,  a  whole  day: 
the  firft  layer  being  thoroughly  dry,  they  cover  it: 
with  a  feconJ,  third,  and  fourth;  each  being 
fmoothed  by  the  board  of  the  compaffes,  and 
thoroughly  dried  before  they  proceed  to  another. 

The  core  being  completed,  they  take  the  com- 
paffes to  pieces,  with  intent  to  cut  off  the  thick- 
nefs of  the  model,  and  the  compaffes  are  immedi- 
ately put  in  their  place,  to  begin  a  fecond  piece  of 
the  mould.  It  confifts  of  a  mixture  of  earth  and 
hair,  applied  with  the  hand  on  the  core,  in  feveral 
cakes  that  clofe  together.  This  v/ork  is  finifhed  by 
feveral  layers  of  a  thinner  cement  of  the  fame 
matter,  fipjoothed  by  the  compaffes,  and  thoroughly 
dried,  before  another  is  laid  on.  The  firft  layer 
of  the  model  is  a  mixture  of  v\?ax  and  grcafe  fpread 

over 


P   0    U    N   D  E  R  Y, 


5»5 


<yfet  the  whole.  After  which  are  apphed  the  in- 
fcriptions,  coat  of  arms,  ^c.  befnieared  with  a 
pencil  dipped  in  a  veffel  of  wax  in  a  chaffing-difh  : 
•this  is  done  for  every  letter.  Before  the  fhell  is 
begun,  the  compaffcs  arc  taken  to  pieces,  to  cut 
oft"  all  the  wood  that  fills  the  place  of  the  thicknefs 
to  be  given  to  the  fhell. 

The  firft  layer  is  the  fame  earth  with  the  reft, 
fiftcd  very  fine  ;  whilft  it  is  tempering  in  water,  it 
is  mixed  with  cow's  hair,  to  make  it  cohere.  The 
whole  being  a  thin  cullis,  is  gently  poured  on  the 
model,  that  fills  exatStly  all  the  finuofitics  of  tiie 
figures,  ^c.  and  this  is  repeated  till  the  whole  is 
two  lines  thick  over  the  model.  When  this  layer 
IS  thoroughly  dried,  they  cover  it  with  a  fecond  of 
the  fame  matter,  but  fomcthing  thicker  :  when  this 
fecond  layer  becomes  of  fonie  confiftcnce,  tliey 
apply  the  qompafles  again,  and  light  a  fire  in  the 
core,  fo  as  to  melt  oft' the  wax  of  the  inferiptions. 

After  this,  they  go  on  with  other  layers  of  the 
fhell,  by  means  of  the  compafles.  Here  they  add 
to  the  cow's  hair  a  quantity  of  hemp,  I'pread  upon 
the  layers,  and  afterwards  fmoothed  by  the  board 
of  the  compaftes.  The  thicknefs  of  the  fhell 
comes  to  four  or  five  inches  lower  than  the  mill- 
fione  before  obfervedj  and  furrounds  it  quite  clofe, 
which  prevents  the  extravalation  of  the  metal. 
The  wax  fhould  be  taken  out  before  the  melting  of 
the  metal. 

The  ear  of  the  bell  requires  a  feparate  work, 
which  is  dope  during  the  drying  of  the  feveral  in- 
cruftations  of  the  cement.  It  has  fevcn  rings,  the 
feventh  is  called  the  bridge,  and  unites  the  others., 
being  a  perpendicular  fupport  to  ftrengthen  the 
cuives.  It  has  an  aperture  at  the  top,  to  admit  a 
large  iron-peg,  bent  at  the  bottom ;  and  this  is 
introduced  into  two  holes  in  the  beam,  failencd 
with  two  ftrong  iron- keys.  There  are  models 
made  of  the  rings,  with  mafles  of  beaten  earth, 
that  are  dried  in  the  fire,  in  order  to  have  the  hol- 
low of  them.  Thefe  rings  are  gently  preflcd  upon 
a  layer  of  earth  and  cow's  hair,  one  half  of  its 
depth ;  and  then  taken  out,  without  breaking  the 
mould.  This  operation  is  repeated  twelve  times 
for  twelve  half-moulds,  that  two  and  two  united 
may  make  the  hollows  of  the  fix  rings :  the  fame 
they  do  for  the  hollow  of  the  bridge,  and  bake 
them  all,  to  unite  them  together. 

Upon  the  open  pLice  left  for  the  coals  to  be  put 
in,  are  placed  the  rings  that  conllitute  the  ear. 
They  firft  put  into  this  open  place  the  iron-ring  to 
fupport  the  clapper  of  the  bell  ;  then  they  make  a 
round  cake  of  clay,  to  fill  up  the  diameter  of  the 
thicknefs  of  the  core.  This  cake  after  baking,  is 
clapped  upon  the  opening,  and  foldercd  with  a  thin 


mortar  fprcad  over  it,  which  binds  the  cover  clofc 
to  the  core. 

The  hollow  of  the  model  is  filled  with  an  earth, 
fufficicntly  moift,  to  fix  on  the  place,  whirh  is 
llrewed,  at  feveral  times,  upon  the  cover  of  the 
core ;  and  they  beat  it  gently  with  a  pcftle,  to  a 
proper  height  j  and  a  workman  fmooths  the  earth 
at  top  with  a  wooden  trowel  dipped  in  water. 

Upon  this  cover,  to  be  taken  oft'  afterwards, 
they  ailemble  the  hollows  of  the  rings.  When 
ever)'  tiring  is  in  its  proper  place,  they  ftrengthen 
the  oullides  of  the  hollows  with  mortar,  in  order 
to  bind  them  with  the  bridge,  and  keep  them 
fleady  at  the  bottom,  by  means  of  a  cake  of  the 
fame  mortar,  which  fills  up  the  whole  aperture  .of 
the  fliell.  This  they  let  dry,  that  it  may  be  re- 
moved without  breaking.  To  make  room  for  the 
metal  they  pull  oft"  the  hollows  of  the  rings,  through 
which  the  metal  is  to  pais,  before  it  enters  into 
the  vacuity  of  the  mould.  The  flicll  being  un- 
loaded of  its  ear,  they  range  under  the  mill-ftone 
five  or  fix  pieces  of  wood,  about  two  feet  long, 
arrd  thick  enough  to  reach  almoft  the  lower  part  of 
the  Ihell ;  between  thele  and  the  mould  they  dri\3 
in  wooden  wedges  witii  a  mallet,  to  ftiake  the  fliell 
of  the  model  whereon  it  refts,  fo  as  to  be  pulled 
up,   and  got  out  of  the  pit. 

W^hen  this  and  the  wax  are  removed,  they  break 
the  model  and  the  layer  of  earth,  through  whiclt 
the  metal  muft  run,  from  the  hollow  of  the  rings, 
between  the  Ihell  and  the  core.  They  i'rnoke  riie 
iirfide  of  the  fliell,  by  burning  ftraw  under  it,  that 
helps  to  fmooth  the  furfaceof  the  bell.  Then  th«y 
put  the  fhell  in  the  place,  fo  as  to  leave  the  fame 
interval  between  that  and  the  core;  and  before  the 
hollows  of  the  rings  or  the  cap  are  put  on  again, 
they  add  two  vents,  that  arc  united  to  the  rings, 
and  to  each  other,  by  a  mafs  of  baked  cement. 
After  which  they  put  on  this  mafs  of  the  cap,  the 
rings,  and  the  vent,  over  the  fheil,  and  folder  it 
with  thin  cement,  which  is  dried  gradirally  by 
covering  it  with  burning  coals.  Then  they  fill  up 
the  pit  with  earth  ;  beating  it  ftrongly  all  the  time, 
round  the  mould. 

The  furnace  has- a  place  for  the  fire,  and  another 
for  the  metal.  The  fire-place  has  a  large  chimney 
with  afpaciousafli-hole.  'I'he  furnace  which  co:Kains 
the  metal,  is  vaulted,  whofe  bottom  is  made  of  eartli 
rammed  down ;  the  reft  is  built  with  brick.  It 
has  four  apertures  ;  the  firft,  through  which  the 
flame  reverberates  ;  the  fecond  is  clofed  with  a 
ftopple  that  is  opened  for  the  metal  to  run  ;  the 
others  are  to  feparate  the  drof;,  or  fcoriae,  ot  the 
metal  by  wooden  rakes  :  through  thefe  I  aft  aper- 
tures pallcs  the  thick  fmoke.  The  ground  of  the 
furnace  is  built  Hoping,  for  the  metal  to  run  down. 

U  U  U  "  FoUNDERV 


516  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ««</ Sciences. 


^4.)  FoUNDERY  of  great  gum  and  mortar-p'teces.  \ 
The  method  of  cafting  thefe  pieces  is  little  different 
from  that  of  bells :  they  are  run  mafly,  without  any 
core,  being  determined  by  the  hollow  of  the  (hell ; 
;i.id  they  are  afterwards  bored  with  a  fteel  trepan, 
that  is  worked  either  by  horfes,  or  a  water-mill. 

Tlie  metal oi  which  cannons  are  compofed,  is  ei- 
th:;r  iron,  or  which  is  more  ufual,  a  mixture  of 
cctppcr,  till,  arxibrafs;  the  tin  beinj  added  to  the 
copper,  to  make  the  metal  more  denfe  and  compaft; 
fo  that  the  better  and  heavier  the  copper  is,  the  lefs 
tin  is  required.  Some  to  an  hundred  pounds  of 
Copper  add  ten  &f  tin,  and  eight  of  brafs  ;  others 
ten  of  tin,  five  of  brafs,  and  ten  of  lead.  The  fieur 
Bereau  pretends,  that  when  old  pieces  of  metal  are 
ufed,  the  founder  ou^ht  to  add  to  cuie  hundred 
weight  of  that  metal,  tvcenty-five  pounds  of  good 
copper,  and  five  pounds  of  tin.  Braudius  defcribes 
a  method  of  making  cannon  of  leather  :  and  it  is 
certain  the  Swedes  made  ufeof  fuch  in  the  long  war 
of  the  laft  century  ;  but  thefe  burft  too  eafily  to  have 
much  efftd:. 

A  can  .on  confids  of  Jeveral  members,  the  princi- 
pal ot  whicii  are  as  follows, ii/z.  The  uppermoft  part 
round  about  the  piece  is  t\\tjuperfic'iis  of  the  metal ; 
the  fubflance  or  whole  mafs  of  metal  is  called  the 
body  oi  the  cannon;  the  hoUownefs  is  called  the 
concave  cylinder,  ot  foul ,  the  whole  length  is  the 
chafe;  that  part  of  the  bore,  which  contains  the 
powder  and  (hot,  is  the  cheimber,  or  charged  cylin- 
der; the  remainder  is  the  vacant  cylinder;  the 
fpindles  or  ears  are  called  trunnions,  and  the  fpace 
between  them  x\\s  gravity  of  her  center  ;  the  pumel 
at  her  coyl  is  called  the  cafcahel,  or  deck  ;  the  little 
hole,  the  touch-hole  ;  the  metal  behind  the  touch- 
hole  is  called  the  hreec'\  or  coyl ;  the  greateft  ring 
at  the  touch  hole,  her  hafe  ring  ;  the  next  ring,  cr 
circle,  is  the  reinforced  ring  ;  the  next  to  this,  the 
trunnion  ring  ;  and  the  foremoft  circle  is  the  mu-z,%le 
ring ;  the  ring  between  the  trunnion^  and  muzzle 
ring  is  called  the  cirnijh  ring  ;  and  all  the  r'ngs. 
Circles,  and  eminences  at  her  muzzle,  are  called 
the  frixe. 

Cannons  are  diftinguiflied  by  the  diameters  of  the 
balls  they  carry.  The  rule  for  their  length  is,  that 
it  be  fuch  as  that  the  whole  charge  of  powder  be  on 
lire,  before  the  ball  quit  the  piece.  If  it  be  too 
1  jing,  the  quantity  of  air  to  be  drawn  out  before  the 
ball,  will  give  too  much  refiftance  to  the  impulfe  ; 
and  that  impulfe  ceafing,  the  fridlion  of  the  ball  a- 
giinft  the  fufface  of  the  piece,  will  take  off  from 
the  motion. 


In  former  days,  cannon  were  made  much  longer 
than  they  are  now  ;  but  experience  has  taught  us, 
that  a  ball  moves  with  a  greater  impetus  thro'  alcfs 
fpace  than  a  greater:  and  accordingly  it  is  found, 
that  an  iron  ball  of  48  pound  weight,  goes  farther 
from  a  fhort  cannon,  than  another  ball  of  g6  pourld 
out  of  a  longer  piece  ;  whereas,  in  other  refpeft., 
it  is  certain,  the  larger  the  bore  and  ball,  the  greater 
the  range.  It  is  found  too,  by  experience,  that  of 
two  cannons  of  equal  bore,  but  different  lengths, 
the  longer  requires  a  greater  charge  of  powder  than 
the  fhorter.  But  the  ordinary  charge  of  a  cannon  is, 
for  the  weight  of  its  gunpowder  to  be  half  that  of 
its  ball. 

A  table  exhibiting  the  names  of  the  feveral  can- 
non, their  length,  their  weight,  and  that  of  their 
ball,  as  they  obtain  among  us. 


wt 

or  Aveieht  1 

length 

Names  of  cannon. 

.;n  ir  jn  '  of  the  1 

i>i  the 

ball     ' 

.     cannon.  1 

cannon- 

tb.oz.!  ft. 

ft  inch. 

Cannon  royal 

48 

0  8000 

12   0 

Demi-cannon  large 

36 

0  6000 

12    0 

Demi-camun  ordinary 

32 

o'56oo 

12    0 

Demi  cannon  leaft 

30 

o|5400 

II    0' 

Culverin  largeft 

20 

0  4800 

12   0^ 

Culverin  ordinary 

17 

5I45CO 

12   0 

Culverin, leaft 

15 

0  4000 

11,0 

Dcmi-culvcrin  ordinary 

10 

II  27CO 

I  I    0 

Dc-mi-ctjlverin  L-aft 

9 

0  2000 

ID    0 

Sak-r  ordin  ry 

fa 

0 

15:0 

10  0 

Saker  leaft 

4 

12 

1400 

8  0 

Minion  largeft 

3 

12 

ICCO 

8  0 

;  A'linlon  orjinary 

3 

4 

803 

7  0 

Falcon 

2 

8 

7io 

6  0 

Falconet 

I 

5 

400 

5  6 

Rabinet 

0 

8 

300 

5  6 

'  Bafe 

Q 

5 

2C0 

4  6 

Cannon  are  likewife  diftinguiflied  according  to 
the  diam.'ter  of  their  mouth,  or  calibre  This 
calibre  is  divided  into  thirty  fix  parts,  in  order  to 
determine  by  thefe  parts  the  dimenfions  of  the  dif- 
ferent  moulds  for   cannon. 

An  account  of  the  dimenfions  of  the  feveral  parts 
of  cannon  of  five  different  calibres,  as  they  are  re- 
giilated  by  an  order  of  the  king  of  France,  on 
OSi.  7,   1732,  in  the  following  tabic. 


Pieces 


JF     0    U   N    D    E    R    r. 


5^7 


Pieces  of  cannon 

of  24 

of  16 

of  12 

of  8 

of4        ( 

Length  of  the  bore 
Depth  of  the  chamber 
Thicknefs  of  metal  at  breech 
Length  of  the  cafcabcl 
Diameter  of  the  trunnions 
Projeflion  of  the  trunnions 
Calibre  <Jf  the  piece 
Diameter  of  the  ball 
Length  of  the  whole  piece 
Weight  of  the  piece 

9 

3" 

s- 

n 

*6 

3 

7f 
ra 

9 

3 
n 

n 
2 

5 

en 

8 

5' 
0 

re 

8 

a' 

7 

5' 

10 

P 

n 

1  i; 

6 

2 

6 

I 

10 

1 

5 

5 

4 

9 

4 

4 
S 

3 

9 

3 

10 

1 1 

9 

6 

8 

7 

-7 
/ 

6 

J 

5 

4 

9 

4 

4 

3 

10 

3 

S 

_S 

4 

9 

4 

4 

3 

10 

5 
S 

8 
6 

4 

1 1 

4 

6 

3     " 



3       2 

4 

9 

4 

4 

3 

9 

3 

1 1 

5400 

— 

10 

6 

lO 

8 

10 

7 

3 

4200        1 

3200 

2iro 

ijoffi. 

Letter -FouNDERY,  or  cajllng  of  printing 
letters.  T  he  firft  thing  requifite  is  to  prepare  good 
fteel-punches,  on  the  face  of  which  is  drawn  the 
exaiEt  fhape  of  the  letter  with  pen  and  ink,  if  the 
letter  be  large,  or  with  a  fniooth  blunted  point  of 
a  needle',  if  fmall  ;  and  then,  with  proper  gravers, 
the  cutter  digs  deep  between  the  (Irokes,  letting  the 
marks  Hand  on  the  punch  ;  the  Wurk  of  hollowing 
being  generally  reguhited  by  the  depth  of  the  coun- 
ter punch  ;  then  he  files  the  outfide,  till  it  is  fit  for 
the  mitrix. 

They  have  a  mould  to  juftify  the  matrices  b)', 
Vkhich  confifts  of  an  upper  and  under  part,  both 
which  are  alike,  except  the  ftool  and  fpring  behind, 
and  a  fmall  roundifh  wire  in  the  upper  parr,  for 
making  the  nick  in  the  fhank  of  the  letter.  7'htfe 
two  parts  are  exattly  fitted  into  each  other,  being  a 
male  and  femalegage,toflidebackwardsand  forwards. 

Then  they  juftify  the  mould,  by  caiting  about 
twenty  fiimples  of  letters,  which  are  let  in  a  com- 
pofing  ftick,  with  the  nicks  towards  the  right  hand  ; 
and  comparing  thefe  every  way  with  the  pattern- 
letter?,  Ut.  up  in  the  fame  manner,  they  find  the 
exadt  meafure  of  the  body  to  be  caft. 

Next  they  prepare  the  matrix,  which  is  of  brafs 
or  copper,  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  and  of  a  propor- 
tionable thicknefs  to  the  fize  of  the  letter  it  is  to  con- 
tain. In  this  metal  is  funk  the  face  of  the  letter, 
by  ftriking  the  letter-punch  the  depth  of  an  n. 
After  this,  the  fides  and  face  of  the  matrix  are  juf- 
tified  and  cleared,  with  files,  of  all  bunchings  that 
have  been  made  by  finking  the  punch. 


Then  it  is  brought  to  the  furnace,  vvli'ch  is  built 
upright  o(  brick  with  four  fquaie  fides,  and  a  fi:one 
at  top,  in  which  is  a  hole  for  the  pan  to  ftand  in. 
They  have  feveral  of  thcfe  furnaces. 

Printing  letters  are  made  of  lead,  hardened  with 
iron  or  ftub-nails.  To  make  the  iron  run,  tliey 
mingle  an  equal  weight  of  antimony,  beaten  fmail 
in  an  iron  mortar,  and  ftub-nails  together.  They 
charge  a  proper  number  of  earthen  pots,  that  bear 
the  fire,  with  the  t*o  ingredients,  as  full  as  they 
can  hold,  and  melt  it  in  an  open  furnace  built  for 
that  purpofe. 

When  it  bubbles,  the  irori  is  then  melted,  but 
it  evaporaies  very  much.  This  melted  compoft  is 
ladled  into  an  iron  pot,  wherein  is  melted  lead,  that 
is  fixed  on  a  furnace  dole  to  the  former,  jlfe.  of 
melted  iron  to  25ife.  of  lead  ;  this  they  incorporate 
according  to  art. 

The  carter  taking  the  pan  off  the  flone,  and 
hav/ng  kindled  a  good  fire,  he  fi:ts  the  pan  in  again, 
and  metal  in  it  to  melt.  If  it  be  a  fmall-bodied 
letter,  or  a  thin  letter  with  great  bodies,  that  he 
intends  to  caft,  his  metal  muft  be  very  hot,  and 
fometimes  red  ho',  to  make  the  letter  come.  Then 
taking  a  ladle,  of  which  he  has  feveral  forts,  that 
u'iU  hold  as  much  as  will  make  the  letter  and  break, 
he  lays  it  at  the  hole  where  the  flame  burfts  out  ; 
then  he  ties  a  thin  leather,  cut  with  its  narrow  end 
againft  the  face,  to  the  leather  groove  of  the  matrix, 
by  whipping  a  brown  thread  twice  about  the  leather 
groove,  and  fafteningthe  thread  with  a  knot.  Then 
he  puts  both  pieces  of  the  mould  together,  and  the 
U  u  u  2  matrix 


llje  Univeiial  Kiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


S^8 

matrix  into  the  matrix-cheek  ;  and  pkccs  the 
foot  of  the  matrix  on  the  ftool  of  the  mould,  and 
the  broad  ci:d  of  the  leather  on  the  wood  of  the 
upper  hafl;  of  the  mould,  but  not  tig.ht  up,  left  it 
binder  the  foot  of  the  matrix  from  finlciiig  cUie 
down  upon  the  ffool,  in  a  train  of  work.  After- 
wards laying  a  little  rofiii  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
mould,  aiKi  having  his  cafling  ladle  hot,  he,  with 
the  boiling  fide,  melts  the  rcifin  and  prelles  the  broad 
end  of  the  leather  hard  down  on  the  wood,  and  fo 
fa(l'':ns  it  thereto,  | 

Now  he  comes  to  caftinjr,  when  placing  the  un-  i 
der  half  of  the  mould  in  his   left  hand,  with  ths 
bo  ik  or  iag  forward,  he-  holds  the  ends  of  its  wood 
between  the  lower  part  of  thj  ball  of  his  thumb  and 
his  three  liindcr  lingers  ;  then  he  lays  the  upp.-r  h.alf 
fcf  the  mould  upon  the  under  half,  fo  as  the  male 
gases  may  fall  into  the  female;  and,   at  the  fame 
lime,  the  foot   of  the  matrix  places  itfelf  upon  the 
ftool,  and  clj''pinghis  left  hand  thumb  flrongly  over 
she  upper  half,  he  nimbly  catches  hold  of  the  boy 
or  fpring,  with  his  right  hand  fingers  at  the  top  ot 
it,  and  his  thumb  umier  it,  and  places  the  pjint  of 
it  againit  the  middle  of  the  notch  in  the  backfide  of 
the  matiix,  prcfTmg  it   forwards,  as  well  towards 
the  mould,  as  downwards,  by  the  fhnulder  of  the 
notch,  Ciofe  upon  the  ffool,  while  at  the  Time  ti:ne 
with  his  hinder  finger*,  as  aforefaid,  he  draws  the 
under  half  of  themould  towards  the  ball  of  his  thumb, 
and  thurfts,  by  the  ball  of  his  thun-,b,  the  upper  part 
towards  his  fingers,  that  both  the  regiflers  of  the 
mould  may  pafs   againfl:  both  fides  of  the  matrix, 
aifll  his  thumb  and  fingers  prefs  both  fides  of  the 
mould  clofe  togechir. 

Then  he  takes  the  handle  of  his  ladle  in  his  r'ght 
hand,  and  with   the  ball  of  it  gives   two  or  three 
flrokss  outwards  upon   the  furface  of   the  melted 
mc-ta',  to  clear  it  of  the  fcum';  then  he  takes  up  the 
hdle  full,  and   having  the  mould   in  the  left  hand, 
turns  his  left  fide  a  little  from   the  furnace,  and 
brings  the  be.:k  of  his   ladle  to  the  mouth  of  the 
mould  ;  and  turns  the  upper  part  of  his  right  hand 
towards  him,  !o  pour   the  metal  into  it,  while,  at 
tlie  fame  inftint,  he  puts  the  mould  in  h^s  left  hand 
forwards,  to  rrceive  the  metal  with  2  ft-ong  fnake, 
not  only  into  the  bodies  of  the  mould,  but,  while  the 
metal  is  yet  hot,  into  the  very  face  of  the  matrix, 
to  receive  i's  perfeft  form  there,  as  well  as  in  the 
fhank.    Then  he  takes  the  upper  half  of  the  mould 
ofF,  by  pLciiig  his  right  thun.b  on  the  end  of  the 
•wood  next  his  left  thumb,  and  his  two  mid  le  fin- 
gers at  the  other  e;.d  of  the  wood  :   he  toTes  the 
letter,  break  and  all,   out  upon  a  fheet  of  wafte 
paper,  laid  on  a  bench,  a  little  beyond  his  left  hand  ; 
and  then  is  ready  10  cait  another  letter,  as  before, 
and  likewife  the  whole  number  in  that  matrix. 
Theivboys,  commonly  cinployed  for  this  pur- 


pofe,  feparate  the  breaks  from  the  ftiank?,  and  rui^ 
them  on  a  ftonc,  and  afterwards  a  man  fixes  them 
in  a  wooden  frame  and  cuts  them  all  of  an  e\c.T 
height  with  a  carpenter's  plane,  which  finifhes  the 
f  )uut.  A  workman  will  ordinarily  caft  3000  of 
thefe  letters  in  a  day. 

The  perfection  of  letters  thus  caftj  .confifts 
in  their  being  all  feverally  fquare  and  ftrait  on 
every  fide  ;  and  all  generally  of  the  fame  height, 
andevecly  lined,  without  floopingo'ie  way  or  other; 
neither  too  big  iti  the  foot,  nor  the  head  ;  well 
grooved,  fo  as  the  two  extremes  of  the  foot  contain 
half  the  body  of  the  letter  ;  and  well  ground,  barbed,, 
and  fcraped,  with  a  fenfible  notch,  iSc. 

A  fet  or  quantity  of  letters,  and  all  the  appen- 
dages   belonging  thereto,    a^  numeral   charadlers,. 
quadrats,    points,  is'f.     cafl    by   a   letter-founder, 
and  forted,   is  called  a  Fount.     Founts  are  large  or 
fmall,  according  to  the  deniand  of  the  printer,  who 
orders  them  by  the  hui-.dred  weight,  or  by  Iheets. 
When  a  printer  orders  a  fount  of  five  hundred,  he 
means  that  the  fount,  confil^ing  of  letters,  points, . 
fpaces,  quadrats,  life,  fhall  weigh  5co}fe.     When 
he  demands  ?.  fount  often  fheets  it  is  underftood,. 
that  wiih  that  fount  he  (hall  be  able  to  compofe  ten 
fheets,  or  twenty  forms,  without  being  obliged  to 
diflribute.    The  founder  takes  his  meafures  accord- 
ingly ;    he  reckons    120  Jfe.  for  a  (heet,  including 
the  quadrat',  isfc.    or  6c  fe.  for  a  form,  which  is 
only  half  a  fheet :  not  that  the  fheet  always  weighs 
120  fti.  or  the  form  60  fe.  on  the  contrary,  it  va- 
ries according  to  the  fiis  of  the  form  ;  befides,  it 
is  alwavs  fuppofed  that  there  are  letters  left  in  the 
cafes.     As  therefore  every  fheet  does  not  compre  ■ 
hend  the  fame  number  of  letters,  nor  the  fame  fort 
of  letters,  wc  mu(t  obfcrve,  that,  as  in  every  lan- 
guage fome  founds  recurmore  frequently  than  others, 
f«me  letters  will  be  in  much  more  life,  and  oftenei; 
repeated  than  others  :  and  confequcntfy  their  cells 
or  cafes  {h.uld  he   better  ftored  than  thofe  of  the 
letters,,  which  do  not  recur  fo  frequently  :  thus,   a 
fount  does  pot  contain  an  equal  number  of  a  and  i/>, 
or  of  ^  and  c,  (ffc.   the  letter-founders  have  there- 
fore a  lift  or  tariff,  or,  as  the  Frensh  call  it,  apoHre, 
hy  which  they  n-gulate  the  proportions  between  the 
different  forts  of  charafters  that  compofe  a  fount; 
and  it  K  evident  that  this  tariff  will  vary  in  different 
languages,  but  will  remain  the  fame  for  all  forts  of 
characters  employed  in  the  fame  language.    . 

The  art  of  cafling  ft-atues  in  brafs  is  very  antient; 
infomuch  that  its  origin  was  too  remote  and  obfcure, 
even  for  the  refearch  of  P/;«y,  an  author  admirably 
flcilled  in  difcovering  the  authors  of  other  arts.  All 
we  can  learn  for  certain,  is,  that  it  was  praCtifcd  in 
all  jtj  perfeflion,  firfl,  among  the  Greeks,  and  after- 
Wards,  araOPgthe  Romans  j  and.  that  the  number  of 

itatues 


F    0     fF    L 

ftatues  coiilccrated  to  the,  gods  and  heroes  fuipafled 
i\\\  belief.  Tlie  fingle  cities  of  Athens,  Delphss, 
Rhides,  &c.  had  each  3000  ftatues ;  -and  A'larcus 
Scaurus,  tho'  only  MiWs,  adorned  the  Circus  with 
iio  lefs  than  three  thoufand  ftatues  of  brafs,  for  the- 
time  of  the  Ciranfmn  games.  Tliis  tafte  for  ftatues 
was  carried  to  fiich  a  pitch,  that  it  became  a  pro- 
verb, that  in  Rome  the  people  of  brafs  were  not  lefs 
numerous  than  the  Roman  people.  Among  us  the 
calling  of  fiatues  was  but  little  known  or  practifed 
before  the  fcventcenlh  century. 

We  find  mention  made  of  /cZ/j  in  the  poets,  OwV, 
Tilullus,  JiL:riial,  Statins,  A'lanil'us  and  the  Greek 
authors,  under  the  appellations  of //«//;:Mto/7,  and 
founding  l>rafs  Suetiai/s,  DioK,  Sttaho,  Po/yl/ius, 
yofphus,  and  others,  mention  them  under  the 
names  of  Petafus,  Tihtitinabulum,  Mravier.tum, 
-'  Cratai'ijn,  SigKwn,  8ic.  but  thcfe  appear  to  have 
been  no  more  thitn  bauldts,  and  iiirle  hke  the  laV'^c 
bells,  in  ufe  among  us.     Hiero/tymus  Alarius,  wno 


/    JV    G.  5.19. 

has  a  trcatife  exprefly  on  I'M  (wrote, v/hcn  in  chains 
in  Turkey,  and  which  is  accounted  very  remarkable, 
purely  from  his  memory  without  the  afllftance  of 
any  books)  makes  large  bells  a  modern  invention. 
Indeed  we  do  not  hear  of  any  before  the  fixth  cen- 
tury :  in  6iO,  we  are  told.  Lupus  bifhop  of  Orkntr, 
being  at  f>tns,  then  befieged  by  the  army  of  Clo- 
tharius,  freighten'd  away  the  befiegers,  by  ringing 
the  bells  of  St.  Stvphen.  'I"he  firftdarge  bells  in  Kng  ■ 
land  AVe  msntioned  by  Bede,  towards  the  latter  end 
of  that  century.  They  feem  to  have  been  pretty 
ccmmon  in  the  year  816. 

All  authors  agree,  tbat  the  Srft  cannon  werec.fl; 
in  the  fourteenth  century  ;  tiio'  fome  fix  the  Lvcr'.*:-- 
to  the  year  i'338>  ar»d  others  to  1380. 

Letter- founding; was;  invented  by  Faust,  a  Ger-- 
man,  .ibout  the  year  1450,  who  was  the  fiiil:  printer' 
aTid  fou.'ider  of  fcperate  metal  types,  in  the  manner 
now  practifedi. 


F    0   TV  L  I    N    G. 


FOWLING  is  the  art  of  catching  birds,  which  j  grenfe  as  w:ll  mjke  it  run;  to  which  are  cddcd, 
is  done  either  by /;tf  If /froi'other  birdsof  preyj  two  fpoonfuls  of  ftrong  vinegar,,  a  fpoonful  of  the. 
trained  up  for  the  game  ;  and  t'.en  is  called '  heft  fallad  oiU  and  a  fmall  quantity  of  turpentine  ; 
Falconry,  alre.idy  treated'of:  or  by  nets^  bird  hme, '  thofe  ir.gredients  muft  be  increafed,  or  diminifhcd,. 
decovs,  and  by  other  devices,  which  moderns  prac-  j  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  bird  lime.  HeiPji,. 
tife;'and  aifo  how  to  feed  birds.  All  which  fliall  i  thus  mixed  together,  they  mufc  be  boiled  gently 
be  thefubicft  of  this  trCitifc  over   a  flow  fire,  flifring  them  continually  :    theii 

The  F  wler  muft  provide  him'elf  with  fuch  im-    they  are  taken  off  the  fire  and  left  to  cool       Tiiis 


plements.,  as  the  branch  of  his  art  or  game  requires 
— For  SMALL  BIR  DS,  with  bird-Ume^tiets,  and  decoys^ 

The  nets  muft  be  proportioned  in  the  iize  -)f  their 
mefhcE  to  the  bi'inefs  of  the  birds  fe>ught  after :  made 
of  the  bcft  packthread,  about  tv/o  fathom  deep, 
and  fix  long  ;  verged  on  each  fide  with,  ftrong  cord, 
and  extended  at  each  end  with  poles  made  on 
p-arpofe. 

The  bird  lime  \\  a  vifcid  preparation  from  holly- 
bark;  made  after  this  ni'mner.  Boil  this  bark  ten 
or  tv/clve  hours,  then  feparate  the  green  coat  there- 
of from  the  other  part,  and  place  it  cover'd  in  a 
moift'  place  for  a  fortnight  :  then  pound  it  into  a 
tough  pafre,  fo  as  no  fibres  of  the  wood  be  left  ; 
and  v^afti  it  in  running  water  'ill  no  m  us  appear : 
then  after  it  has  fermented  tour  or  five  days  more, 
and  ftcimmed  as  often  aS'  needful,  it  will  be  fit 
for  ufe. 

To  make  the  btrd-linte  bear  water,  a  pound  of 
it  muft  be  wafhed  in  fpiing-water,  till  made  very 
pliable  ;  and  beaten  afterwards,  till  no  water  is  per- 
ceived in  it ;  and  after  it  has  been  well  dried,  it  is 
gut  in  an  eaithen  pot,  mix'd  with  as  nmch  capon's 


fort  of  bhd-lime  is  the   beft,  efpecially  for   fiiipes 
and  feld  fares. 

Deays  ive  pipes,,  whiftles,   and  calls, - 

For  BIRI^S  of  a  LARGER  SIZE,  fit  for  food,  v.o 
muft  provide  not  only  nets,  but  decoys  of  another  forr^ 
fowling -pieces, and  ^«ij.s  properly  trained  for  the  game. 

The  nets  muft  be  made  l>rongcr  and  larger,  both 
in  the  me.'hes  and  in  their  lengtli  and  breadth,  ac- 
cording to  the  fpecies  of  birds  to  be  fouiht. 

Tne  decoys  are  either  a  place  made  to  trap 
pigeonSy.  or  other  wild  fowl;  or,  ar  bird  (for  ex- 
ample, a  duci  )  trained  to  deceive  its  own  fpe- 
cies. Thus  a  decoy  duck  is  one  that  flies  abroad, 
and  lights  into  a  company  of  vyiid  ones,  and  being 
become  ;icquainted  with  them,  by  her  allu'rcmenc 
draws  them  into  the  decoy  place,  where  they  be- 
come a  prey.  » 

Of  fowling-pieces,  thofe  are  reputed  the   beft, . 
whicn  have  the  longeft  barrel,  viz.  from  5^,  to  6  ■ 
feet  ;    with  an  indifferent  bore  under  the  ha.'aae-. 
bus  ;  tho'  for  uitFerent  cccafions  they  fliouid  be  of- 
diff"erent  forts  and  fizes  ;    but  it  its  eli'ential,  the 
barrel  be  well  poliflied  ani.  fmooth   within,   and 


520  n^e  Univerfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  ^W  Sciences. 

the  bore  of  a  bignefs  from  tnd  to  end  ;  which  may  The  laft  leflbn  which  muft  be  given,  is  to  drop 
be  proved  by  thurfting  in  apiece  of  wood,  cut  ex-  fomething  which  the  dog  does  not  fee  ;  and  being 
adtly  to  the  bore  of  the  muzzle,  down  to  the  .  gone  a  little  way  from  it,  fend  him  back  to  feck  it, 
touch-hole.  [  by  faying,  Back^  I  have  lojl.  If  he  appears  amazed. 

The  powder  muft   not  be   too   old,  for  keeping  '  he  muft  be  urged  to  feck  out  till  he  has  found  it. 
we.ikens  it  much,  cfpecially  if  it  grov/s  damp.  Then  fomething  muft  be;  dropped  at  a  greater  dif- 

The  dkg$  ufeJ  in  this  art  are  of  two  fi  rts  ;  fuch  j  tance,  and  he  made  to  find  out  that  too  j  till  he  is 
as  are   trained  up   for  the  water,  and  fuch  as  are 
tiugiit  to  hunt  partridges  and  other  land  bird^. 

The  dog  trained  for  water-fowling,  is  to  be  well 
prnportioncd  in  hii  body,  and  muft  be  well  broke 
to  the  fport.  His  hairs  muft  be  long,  curled,  nei- 
ther loole  nor  fliagged  ;  his  head  round  and  curled, 
his  ears  broad  and  hanging,  his  eye  full,  lively  and 
quick,  his  nofe  very  (hort,  his  lip  hound-like,  his 
cliops  furnifhcd  with  a  full  fet  of  flrong  teeth,  his 
neck  thick  and  ihort,  hi-,  breaft  fhaip,  his  flioulders 
broaJ,  his  fore-legs  ftrait,  his  chin  fquare,  his  but- 
tocks round,  his  belly  gaunt,  his  thighs  brawny, £i?f. 

For  the  training  fuch  a  dog  ;  as  ft  on  as  he  can 
lap,  he  muft  be  taught  to  lie  down,  not  daring  to 
ftir  from  that  poPiire  without  leave,  neiiher  is  he 
pL-rmitted  to  eat  any  thing  till  he  defeives  it;  nor 
allowed  more  teachers,  feeders,  and  cheriiliers  than 
one.  That  teacher  muft  never  alter  the  word  he 
firft  ufed  in  his  lefTons  ;  for  the  d'^g  takes  notice  of 
the  found,  not  of  the  language.  When  he  is;x- 
quainted  with  the  word  fuitable  to  his  lelTon,  he  muft 
next  be  taught  the  word  of  rcprchenfion  ;  which 
at  firft  fhould  not  be  ufed  without  a  jerk.  He  muft 
alfo  be  ufed  to  cherifhing  words,  which  gives  him 
encouragement  when  he  does  well  ;  and  which 
ought  to  be  always  the  fame,  and  a;tcnded  with 
fpittinij  in  his  mouth,  ftroking   him  with  the  hand 


brouiiht  to  (TO  back  a  mile. 

To  train  him  for  the  gi.n,  he  muft  be  made  to 
ftalk  after  the  fowler  fl:ep  by  ftep,or  elfe  couch  and 
clofe  till  he  has  fliot. 

The  laft  ufe  of  the  wafer  dog  is  in  moulting- 
time,  when  wild  fowls  cjft  their  feathers  and  are 
unable  to  fly  ;  which  is  towards  the  latter  end  of 
the  fummer.  At  this  time  the  dog  muft  be  brought 
to  their  coverts,  and  hunt  them  out  into  the  ftream ; 
and  there  they  will  be  taken  in  the  nets. 

The  fttting  dog  to  hunt  partridge!,  ijc.  is  a  big 
land  fpanie!,  taught  by  nature  to  hunt  the. partridge 
rriore  than  any  chace  whatever,  running  the  fields 
over  with  fuch  alacrity  and  nimblenefs,  as  if  there 
was  no  limit  to  his  fury  and  dLfire,  and  yet  by  art 
un  ler  fuCh  excellent  command,  that  in  the\ery 
height  of  his  career,  by  a  hem,  or  found  of  his 
m;^fter's  voice,  he  fliall  ftand,  gaze  ab.iUt  him,  look 
in  his  mafter's  f?.ce,  and  obferve  his  direction', 
whether  to  proceed,  ftjnd  ftill,  or  retire  :  nay, 
when  he  is  even  juft  upon  his  prey,  that  he  may 
even  take  it  up  with  his  mouth,  yet  his  obed'vnca 
is  fo  fr  meJ  by  art,  that  prcftntiy  he  fhall  either 
ftand  ftill,  or  fall  I'o'vn  flat  on  his  belly,  without 
daring  either  to  make  any  noife  or  mo: ion,  till  his 
mafter  comes  to  biir,  and  then  he  will  proceed  in 
all  t'-incs  to  follow  his  direflions. 

To  train  a  dog  from  a  whtlp  till  he  comes  to 
that  perfciStion,  yiu  muft  choofe  him  a  land  fpaniel, 

of  a  gcod  and  H'mble  fize,  rather  fmall  than  great, 

words,  he  muft  be  taught  next  to  lead  orderly  in  a  >  and  of  a  cci:rageous  mettle,  and  tho'  thefe  good 
firing  or  collar,  neither  runr/ing  too  for^vard,  nor  qualities  cannot  be  difcfrned  while  young ;  yet  they 
banging  backward.  This  ii-ftrudion  is  followed  •  may  be  juftly  guefTed  at,  from  a  right  breed,  which 
by  that  of  coming  clofe  at  his  mafter's  heels,  with-  ;  have  been  ki'.own  to  be  ftrong,  lufty,  a'^d  nimble 
out  leading  ;  for  he  muft  not  range,  unlefs  it  be  to    rangers,  of  adive  feet,   wanton  tails  and  bufy  nof- 

bcat  the  fowl  from  their  covert,  or  to  fetch   the  |  trils, wh(  fe  tail   was   without  wearinefs,  their 

wounded. 

His  next  lelTon  muft  be  to  fttch  end  carry,  any 
thing;  his  mafter  throws  to  him  out  of  hia  hands. 
He  iniift  be  tried  firft  with  the  e,love,  fhaking  it  over 


under  the  belly,   f5t.     There  is  alfo  a  word  of  ad- 
vice to  inftrutfl  him  when  he  does  amifs. 

When  the   doa   underftand:>   well    thefe   feveral 


feareh  without  changeablenefs,  and  which  no  de- 
light did  tranfport  beyond  fear  and  obedience. 

When  the  fowler  has  made  choice  of  his  dog,  he 
begins   to    inftruft   him,  while  about    four   or  fix 

his  head,  and  m.aking  him  fnap  at  it ;  and  fometimes  |  months  old  ;  firft  by  making  him  loving  and  fami- 

(ufFcrinc  him  to  hold  it  in  his  mouth,  and  ftriving  lliar  with  his  mafter,  to  know  him  from  any  o;her 

to  pull  it  from  him  ;  and  at  laft  throwing  it  a  little    perfon,  and  following  him  wherever  he  goes:  which 

vva\',  and  letting  him  worry  it  on  the  ground  ;  and 

fo  by   degrees  m.kinjr  him  bring   it  wherever   it  is 

Li.iov.-n.      Fri  m   the  glove   he  muft  be    taught  to 

fe'ch  cudgels,  bags,  nets,  i^c.  It  will  not  be  ami(s 

to  ufe  him  to  carry  dead  fowls  ;  for  by  that  means 

he  will  nevuT  tear  or  bruii'c  what  fowl  is  fhot. 


the  better  to  cfFeft,  he  muft  very  feldom  receive 
his  food  from  any  other  hand  but  his  ;  and  when 
he  corrects  him,  to  keep  him  in  awe,  he  muft  ra- 
ther do  it  with  words  than  blows.  A  dog  thus 
inftructed  will  follow  none  but  his  mafter,  and  can 
diftinguifh  his  frown  from  his  fmile,  and  fmooth 

words 


FOWLING. 


521 


words  from  rough.  Then  he  muft  teach  him  to 
lie  down  clofe  to  the  ground  ;  firfl,  by  laying  him 
often  on  the  ground,  and  crying,  lie  clofe :  when 
he  has  done  any  thing  to  his  nufter's  mind  and 
pleafure,  he  muft  be  rewarded  with  a  piece  of  bread ; 
if  otherwife,  chaftized  with  words,  but  few  blows. 
After  this,  he  muft  be  taught  to  come  creeping 
with  his  belly  and  head  clofe  on  the  ground,  as  far, 
or  as  little  a  way  as  his  maftcr  fhall  think  fit  ;  and 
this  the  mafter  may  do  by  faying,  come  nearer,  come 
nearer^  or  the  like  ;  and  at  firft,  till  he  underftands 
his  meaning,  (hewing  him  apiece  of  bread,  or  fome 
other  food,  to  entice  him.  If  he  offers  to  raife  his 
body  or  head,  the  part  thus  raifed  muft  not  only  be 
thruft  down,  but  he  muft  likewife  be  threatened 
with  an  angry  voice  ;  which  if  he  feems  to  flight, 
two  or  three  jeiks,  with  a  whipcord-lafti,  muft  be 
added  to  the  voice.  Thefe  leftbns  muft  be  often 
repeated,  till  he  be  very  perfect,  ftill  encouraging 
him  when  he  does  well.  If  the  fowler  walks  abroad 
with  his  dog,  and  he  takes  a  fancy  to  range,  even 
when  he  is  moft  bufy,  he  muft  fpeak  to  him,  and 
in  the  height  of  his  paftime  made  fall  upon  his  belly, 
and  lie  clofe  ;  and  afterwards,  come  creeping.  The 
next  which  muft  be  given  him,  is  to  lead  in  a  ftring 
or  line,  and  to  follow  h  s  mafter  clofe  at  his  heels, 
without  trouble  or  ftraining  of  his  collar.  By  the 
time  the  dog  has  learned  all  thefe  Icilons,  he  muft 
be  near  twelve  months  old  ;  at  which  time,  the 
feafon  of  the  year  bi;ing  proper,  he  muft  be  taken 
into  the  fie'd  and  permitted  to  range,  but  ftil!  in 
obedience  to  his  mafter's  command. 

Be'n"'  brought  to  good  temper,  and  right  obe 
dience  ;  as  foon  as  he  comes  upon  the  haunt  of  any 
partridge,  (which  is  difcover'd  at  his  greater  eager- 
nefs  in  hunting,  as  alfo  at  a  kind  ofwimpering  and 
whining  in  his  voice,  being  very  defirous  to  open, 
but  not  daring)  his  mafter  fhal!  fpeak  to  him,  bid- 
ding him  take  heed,  and  the  like  :  but  if,  not- 
withftanding,  he  either  rufhes  in,  and  fprings  the 
tai  tridge,  or  opens,  and  fo  the  partr'ulge  efcapes, 
he  muft  be  corretfted  feverely,  caft  oft'  again,  and 
made  to  hunt  in  foms  haunts  where  the- fowler 
knows  a  covy  lies,  and  fees  whether  he  has  mended 
his  fault :  and  if  any  paririJge  be  catch'd  with  the 
net,  the  dog  muft  have  the  head,  neck,  and  pinions, 
for  his  future  encouragement. 

The  implements  for  fowling  thus  provided,  it  is 
ri'^ceflary  to  divide  the  winged  game  intJ  proper 
cla"es  ;  as,  water  fowls,  anti  land  fowls. 

The  VMtt.r  fowls  are  fo  callt-d  from  their  natura' 
de'ight  in  a  d  about  water,  for  their  habitation  and 
fjtfiftan.e  in  and  from  that  elemen..  Tijis  kind  of 
fowls  are  naturally  the  fubtikft,  and  wif  ft  of  ail 
birds,  and  moft  careful  of  thsT  own  fafety  :  hence 
they  have  been  compared  10  u  camp,  iiuvihg  fcouts 


at  land  afar  off,  guards,  centinels,  and  a'l  forts  of 
other  wjtchful  officers,  furrounding  the  body,  to 
give  an  alarm,  on  any  approach  or  fccming  danger. 
They  always  fly  in  company,  fo  that  when  a  fingle 
fowl,  or  a  couple  fly  together,  they  muft  have  been 
feparated  from  the  reft,  either  by  the  approach  of 
men,  or  the  beating  of  fome  birds  of  prey  on  the 
river.  But  though  thus  feparated,  they  fcldom 
leave  wing  till  they  meet  togither  again. 

There  are  two  forts  of  water  fowls,  viz.  thofe 
that  live  of  the  water,  and  thofe  that  live  on  the 
water.  The  one  take  their  food  from  the  water, 
by  wading  and  diving  for  it  with  their  long  legs, 
and  without  fvvimming  thereon  ;  the  others  are 
web-foo"^,  and  fwim,  as  the  fvvan,  goofe,  mal- 
lard, ^c. 

The  large  water  fowls,  or  thofe  which  divide  the 
foot,  frequent  moft  commonly  the  edge  of  ftiallqw 
rivers,  bruoks,  and  flaflies  of  w.iter  ;  and  never  fly 
in  company,  but  are  to  be  found,  here  o;ie,  there  a 
couple,  and  the  like  ;  which  renders  it  difficult  to 
take  them  by  decoys,  nets,  or  any  other  implement 
of  that  kind.  Th;y  delight  likewife  in  low  and  bog- 
gy places,  dry  parts  of  drown'd  fen :,  overgrown 
with  tall  and  long  rufhes,  reeds,  and  hedges  ;  hair' 
drown'd  moors,  or  the  hollow  vales  of  downs, 
heaths,  or  plains,  where  there  is  flielter  either  of 
hedges,  hilis,  tufts  of  bufties  or  trees,  where  they 
may  lurk  ob'curcly. 

To  catch  them  with  jieis,  the  fowler  muft  know 
where  they  feed  in  the  morning  and  evening  ;  and 
coming  to  the  place,  two  h  jurs  at  leaft  before  that 
time,  fpreads  his  net  fm.joth  and  flat  upon  the 
ground,  ftaking  the  two  lower  ends  firm  thereon, 
and  leaving  the  upper  ones  extended  upon  the  long 
cord,  the  further  end  whereof  muft  be  ftaked  taft 
down  to  the  earth,  two  or  three  f  ithom  from  the 
net,  and  the  ftakes  which  ft.ike  down  the  cord, 
ftand  in  a  direct  and  even  hne  with  the  lower  verge 
of  the  net  ;  then  he  fliall  hold  in  his  h.md,  at  the 
uttermoft  diftance,  the  other  end  of  the  cord,  which 
muft  be  at  leait  t;n  or  tw  Ive  fithom  long  ;  tliere 
he  muft  make  fome  artificial  fnelter  either  of  grafs, 
fods,  earth,  or  fuch  like  matter,  where  he  may  he 
out  of  fight  of  the  fowl.  He  ought  alfo  to  take 
Cure  to  ftrew  over  all  his  net,  as  it  lies  upon  the 
g-ound,  fome  grafs,  that  he  mjy  bide  it  from  the 
fowl.  It  will  not  be  improper  to  ftake  down  near 
the  net  a  live  hern,  or  lome  oth.r  fowl  formerly 
taken  for  z.flale. 

When  the  fowler  fees  a  fufficient  number  of 
fowls  to  come  within  the  verge  of  his  net,  He  ought 
then  to  dra.v  fuddenly  his  crd,  and  fo  caft  his  net 
over  them  ;  continunrg  to  aiS  in  th..t  fame  manner, 
till  the  fun  be  near  an  hour  high,  and  no  longer  ; 
for  then  the  fowls  feeding  is  over  for  that  time ;  but 

he 


522  Tloe    Univerfal  Hiftor 

he  may  return  in  the  evening,  from  about  fun-fet  till 
-twilight.  By  thjfc  means  he  may  not  only  take 
great  quantities  of  large  wild  fowls,  but  alfo  plo- 
•ver:.,  which  take  their  food  as  much  from  land  as 
water. 

The  Icjfcr  fowhy  which  arc  web-footed,  haunt 
-continually  drown'd  fens,  where  they  may  have 
■plenty  of  water,  and  fwim  undiftuibed  by  man  or 
beaft ;  m;iin  ftreams  of  livers,  where  the  current 
is  fwifteft  and  leall  fubjectto  freeze  ;  and  the  broader 
and  deeper  fuch  rivers  are,  the  greater  delight  thefj 
fowls  take  therein  ;  the  wild-goofc  and  barn?.clc 
excepted,  which  never  abide  on  waters  above  their 
■founding  ;  for  when  the'/  cannot  reach  the  ouze, 
they  inftantly  remove  thence,  feeking  out  more 
fhallow  places.  Thefe  two  laft  named,  are  ex- 
trenuly  delighted  with  green  winter  corn  ;  therefore 
■they  are  to  be  fearch'd  after,  where  fijch  grain  is 
fjvvn;  cfpecially  if  the  end!>  of  the  lands  have  much 
Water  about  them. 

Thefe  finaller  fowls  do  alfo  much  frequent  fmall 
brooks,  rivers,  pond*,  drown'd  meadows,  paflures, 
-moors,  loughs,  and  lakes,  efpecially  'f  well  ftored 
■with  iflands  unfrequented,  and  well  i'urnilhed  with 
'fhrubs,  bufhes,  reed?,  l^c.  They  frequent  fuch 
places  winter  and  fummer,  and  brecii  iheie. 

To  take  thefe  fmaller  fowls  with  nets,  they  muft 
be  pitch'd  for  the  evening  flight  before  fun-fet, 
flaking  them  down  on  each  fide  of  the  river,  about 
half  a  toot  within  the  water,  the  lower  fide  of  the 
yiet  being  fo  plumb'd,  that  it  may  fink  lo  far  and  n  > 
farther  :    its  upper  fide   is  to  be  placed  flantwi/e, 

-Ihoaling  againft  the  water,  yet  not  touching  it  by 
near  two  foot.     The  firings  which  fupport  tliis  up  - 

'per  fide,  ought  to  be  faften'd  to  fmall  yielding  flicks 

■iet  in  the  bank,  which  as  the  fowl  ftrikes  may  give 

•liberty  to  the  net  to  rangle  and  entangle  them. 
Several  of  thefe  nets  may  be  placed  over  divers 

<patts  of  the  river,  at   a  competent  diftance  from 

•one  another,  or  as  the  river  or  brook  fhall  give 

"leave. 

To  haften  the  fowls  to  fly  to  the  tiets,  the  fowler 
mult  fire  his  gun  in  the  fens  and  plaflies,  round  a- 
bout  the  river  where  they  are  placed;  for  thereby 
the  fowls  will  be  fo  frighted,  that  they'll  inftantly 

■poft  to  the  river. 

This  kind  of  fowls  are  alfo  taken  with  lime-tiyi;;s, 

-by  fitting  them  in  length  according  to  the  depth  of 
the  river,  bel'mearing  them  with  very  ftrong  water- 
Jime,  fuch  as  no  wet  or  froft:  can  injure  ;  and  prick- 
ing them  in  the  water,  fo  tliat  as  much  of  the  rod 
as  is  lim'd,  be  above  water  ;  fiakinghere  and  there 
among  tiie  rods,  a  livey/ff/r,  as  a  mallard,  widgeon, 

•or  teal. 

The  fowler  needs  not  to  wait  continually  on  his 

(rods,  but  may  come  thrice  a  d%y  to  fee  what  is  taken, 


J  of  A-RTi  «3';^<'/ Sciences, 

viz.  early  in  the  morning,  at  noon,  and  late  In  the 
evening;  and  then  he  muft  be  accompanied  with  hi» 
water-spaniel ;  for  if  he  perceives  any  of  his  rods 
miffing,  he  may  imagine  that  fome  fowls  arc  faften'd 
to  them,  which  are  crept  in  fome  hole,  bufli,  or 
he'^ge  by  the  river  fide,  which  his  dog  will  help 
him  to  find. 

Small  water  fs-wls  may  alfo  te  taken  by  ywa//, 
or  great  fprings,  which  is  done  in  the  following 
manner. 

Having  took  notice  where  the  fowls  feed  mornins; 
nnd  evening,  of  ihe  furrows  and  water- traifl's 
where  they  ufually  ftalk  and  paddle,  to  findv/orms, 
float-grafs  roots,  and  the  like ;  the  fowler  muft 
mark  where  many  furrows  meet  in  one,  and  break 
out,  as  it  were,  into  one  narrow  pafliige,  which  di- 
vides itfelf  afterwards  into  other  parts  and  branches: 
then  he  marks  how  every  furrow  breaks  and  comes 
into  thii  I  enter  or  little  pit,  whicliis  moft  paddled 
with  the  fowl,  or  which  is  eafieft  for  fowl  to  wade 
in  :  this  being  done,  he  takes  fmall  and  fhort  ftick^^, 
and  pricks  them  crofs  wife  athw.irt  over  al)  the 
other  pafl'ages,  one  fiick  within  half  an  inch  of  the 
other,  making,  as  it  were,  a  kind  of  tlncc  to  guard 
every  w;iy  but  one,  through  which  he  will  have  the 
fowl  to  paf:-. 

Havin.'^  thus  hemmed  in  all  ways  but  one,  he 
takes  a  ftifl^'  ft^ick  c  ut  fiat  on  the  one  fide,  and  pricks 
both  ends  down  into  the  water,  making  the  upper 
pjrtoftlie  flat  fide  of  the  ftick,  to  touch  the  water 
and  no  m.jre:  this  done,  he  makes  a  how  of  fmall 
hazel,  or  willow,  of  a  foot  long,  and  five  or  fix 
inches  broad^  in  the  form  of  a  pear,  broad  and 
round  at  one  end,  narrow  at  the  other,  making  a 
fmail  nick  at  the  narrow  end  :  then  he  takes  a  good 
ftift  grown  plant  of  hazel,  free  fiom  knots,  three  or 
four  inches  about  at  the  bottom,  and  an  inch  at  the 
top,  and  having  fliarpened  the  bottom  end,  he 
falfens  at  the  top  a  very  ftrong  loop  of  about  an 
hundred  horfe-hairs,  plaited  very  faft  together  with 
llrong  packthread,  and  made  fo  fmooth  that  it  will 
run  and  flip  at  pleafure.  Near  this  loop  he  faftensa 
little  broad  tricker,  within  an  inch  and  half  of  the 
end  of  the  plant,  which  he  makes  equally  (harp  at 
both  ends :  he  thr-jfts  the  bigger  fliarp  end  of  the 
plant  into  the  ground,  clofe  by  the  edge  of  the 
water ;  and  brings  the  fmaller  end  with  the  loop 
and  the  tricker  down  to  the  firtt  bridge,  and  then 
the  hoop  being  laid  on  the  bridge,  one  end  of  the 
tricker  is  fet  upon  the  neck  of  the  hoop,  and  the 
other  end  againft  a  nick  made  on  the  fmall  end  of 
the  plant,  which  bv  the  violence  and  bend  of  the 
plant,  makes  them  ftick  together  until  the  hoop  be 
moved.  This  done  he  lays  the  fwickle  on  the  hoop 
in  fuch  a  manner  as  the  hoop  is  proportioned  ;  then 
from  each  fide  of  the  hoop  pricks  little  ftickj,  mak- 
ing 


0       W    L     I    N    G, 


523 


iiig  an  impaled  path  to  the  hoop;  and  as  he  goes  far- 
ther from  the  hoop  and  fpring,  he  makes  the  way 
wider  ;  therefore  the  fowl  can  enter  a  good  way  be- 
fore he  perceives  the  fence,  and  thereby  will  be  en- 
ticed to  wade  up  to  tiie  fpring,  which  w:ll  be  no 
fooner  touch'd,  than  the  p.irt  of  the  bird  which 
touches  it,  will  be  prefently  catch'd  ;  and  thus  ac- 
cording to  the  ftrength  of  the  plant,  a  fowler  may 
take  a  fowl  of  any  bignefs. 

The  fpring  for  leffer  fowl,  as  woodcock,  fnipe, 
plover,  i5ff.  is  made  after  the  fame  manner,  differing 
only  in  ftrength,  according  to  the  bignefs  of  the 
bird  we  intend  to  catch. 

When  t\\t  fowler  feeks  for'fport  more  than  pro- 
fit, he  only  takes  his  piece  and  his  dog  ;  in  which 
cafe  he  muftobferve,  m  /hoyting,  to  fhoot  with  the 
wind  if  poflible,  and  not  againft  it :  and  rather  fide- 
ways,  or  behind  the  fowl,  than  full  in  their  faces. 
Chufing  the  myft  convenient  fheiter  he  can  find,  as 
either  hedge,  bank,  tree,  or  any  thing  elfe,  which 
may  hide  him  from  the  view  of  the  fowl. 

If  he  has  not  fheiter  enough  by  reafon  of  the  na- 
kednefj  of  the  banks  and  want  of  trees,  he  muft 
creep  upon  his  hands  and  knees  under  the  banks, 
and  laying  flat  upon  his  belly,  put  the  nofe  of  his 
piece  over  the  bank,  and  fo  take  his  level ;  for  a 
water  fowl  is  fo  fearful  of  a  man,  that  though  a 
hawk  were  foaring  over  her  head,  yet  at  the  fight 
of  a  man  fhe  would  betake  herfelf  to  her  wing,  and 
run  that  danger.  But  it  happens  fometimes  that 
the  fowls  are  fo  fhy,  there  is  no  getting  a  {hoot  at 
them  without  a  fkreen,  or  device  to  hide  the  fow- 
ler, and  amufe  the  game,  while  he  gets  within 
fhot 

This  device   is  called  JIa!king ;   and  there  is  a 
Jlaliing  hedge,    a  Jialking  horfe,   a  Jialking    tree, 
&c. 

A  Jialking  hedge,  is  an  artificial  hedge,  two  or 
three  yards  long,  and  a  yard  and  half  high,  made 
with  fmall  wands,  to  be  light  and  portable,  yet 
bufhed  out  like  a  real  hedge,  with  ftakes  to  fupport 
it,  while  the  fowler  takes  his  aim. 

Stalking  harff,  is  an  old  jade  trained  up  for  the 
purpofe,  which  will  gently  walk  up  and  down  as 
you  wou'.d  have  him  in  water,  iSc.  beneath  whofe 
fore-flinulderthefportfman  iTielters  himfelf  andgun. 
When  thus  got  within  fliot,  he  takes  aim  from  be- 
fore the  fore-part  of  the  horfe,  which  is  much  bet- 
ter than  {hooting  under  his  belly.  To  fupply  the 
defe£t  of  a  real  Jialking  horfe,  an  artificial  one  is 
frequently  made  of  old  canvas,  fliaped  in  form  of  a 
horfe,  with  his  head  bent  down,  as  if  grazing ; 
fluffed  with  any  light  matter,  and  painted  :  in  the 
middle  it  is  fixed  to  a  ftafFfhod  at  the  foot,  to  ftick 
into  tiie  ground  while  aim  is  taken.  For  change, 
when  the  fowls  begin  to  be  ufed  to  the  Jialking 
horfe,  and  to  know  it,  iomejiali  with  an  ox,  cow 
24 


deer,  or  the  like.     Others  ufe  zjialiing  tree,  and 
others  .ijlalking  bujh. 

TheLANoFowLsarefocalleH  from  their  delight- 
ing priiicipaily  in  the  cover  and  fubfiftance  they  n.ect 
v/ith  upon  the  earth.  Thefe  are  of  divers  forts, 
fome  are  either  fit  for  food,  ds  pigeons  of  all  forts, 
rook,  pheujant,  partridges,  quails,  rails,  feldfares, 
&c.  or  for  plfiifute  only,  as  all  manner  ot  birds  of 
prey,  t'/z.  cajlrefs,  ring-tails,  buzzard;,  &c.  or  for 
food  and  pleafure  together,  as  black- iird,  thrujh^ 
nightingale,  linnet,  lark,  and  huV.-jinch. 

Thel'e  land  fowls,  of  all  forts,  are  taken  either 
by  day  or  by  night.  If  by  day,  it  is  done  with  the 
great  net,  cominonly  called  the  crow-net,  not  at  all 
different  in  length,  depth,  bignefs  of  m.cfh,  man- 
ner of  laying,  l^c.  from  t\\e  plover-net ;  only  it  will 
not  be  amifs  if  the  cords  be  longer. 

This  net  may  be  laid  before  a  barn  door,  or 
where  corn  has  been  winnowed,  or  in  ftubble-fields; 
and  it  mufl  be  hidden,  that  the  fowls  may  not  dif- 
cover  the  fnare.  When  the  fowler,  who  muft  lie 
concealed  ifar  off,  with  the  cord  in  his  hand,  per- 
ceives a  quantity  of  fowls  within  the  net,  fcraping 
for  fooJ,  he  muft  quickly  pull  the  net  over  them. 
But  tofucceed  well  in  this  manner  of  fport,  he  muft 
carefully  obferve  the  morning  and  evening  haunts 
of  the  fowl,  when  they  come  to  feed  upon  the 
green-fvvarth,  and  there  lay  his  net,  where  he  will 
meet  with  as  good  fuccefs  as  any  where  elfe ;  pro- 
vided he  takes  care  to  hide  himfelf,  and  does  not 
pull  his  cord  too  haftily,  but  wait  till  he  fees  a  good 
number  of  fowls  within  the  net,  then  pull  freely 
and  quickly  ;  for  the  leaft  deliberation  after  the  net 
is  rais'd,  proves  the  ruin  of  the  fport. 

There  is  another  manner  of  taking  land  foivhy 
efpccizWy  fmall  birds,  with  bird-lime,  particularly  in 
froft  and  fnow  ;  for,  as  thofe  fmall  birds  then  af- 
femhle  in  flock-,  (as  larks,  chaffinches,  linnets,  gold- 
finches,yellow-hammers,  buntings,  fparrows.  Sic.  they 
all,  but  the  lark,  perch  on  trees  or  bufhes,  as  well 
as  feed  on  the  ground)  the  fowler  muft  go  into  a 
field  and  fcatter  chaff  and  threfh'd  ears,  twenty 
yards  wide,  (it  is  beft  in  fnow)  and  then  ftick  the 
limed  ears  up  and  down,  with  the  ears  leaning,  or 
at  the  end  touching  the  ground:  then  he  retires 
from  the  place,  and  traverfes  the  ground  round  a- 
bout ;  the  birds  being  thereby  difturbed  in  their 
haunts,  fly  to  the  ears,  and  pecking  at  them,  they 
ftick ;  which  perceiving,  they  ftraitways  mount 
up  from  the  earth,  and  in  their  flight  the  bird-limed 
ftraws  lay  under  their  wings,  and  falling,  are  not 
«  able  to  difengage  themfelves  from  the  ftraw,  and 

fo  are  certainly  taken. 

I      Land  fowls  are  taken  by  night,  with  the  help  of 

la  low  bell,  and   of  a  net,   whofe   mefti   is  twenty 

yards  deep  ;  and  fo  broad,  that  it  may  cover  five  or 

X  X  X  fix 


524  ^^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Art z  and  Scizncns. 


fix  lands  or  more,  according  to  the  company  the 
fowler  has  to  carry  it:  this  cannot  be  uTed  but  in 
plain  champa  n  countries,  from  the  end  of  Offober 
until  the  end  of  March. 

With  thcfe  implements  the  fowler  goes  into  a 
corn-field  ;  the  foremofl:  carries  the  bell,  toll- 
ing it  as  he  goes,  very  mournfully  ;  next  follows 
the  net,  borne  up  at  each  corner  and  on  each  fide, 
by  feveral  perfons  ;  then  another  carries  fome  iron 
or  earthen  vcfl'el,  with  burning,  but  not  blazing 
coals  in  it ;  at  which  coals  bundles  of  flraw  mufl  be 
lighted,  unlefs  one  fliould  chufe  to  carry  links.  The 
nets  being  pitched  where  the  game  is  fuppofed  to 
lie,  the  ground  muft  be  beaten,  and  a  noife  made, 
at  which  the  fowls  life,  and  are  entangled  in  the  net. 

There  is  another  manner  of  taking  birds  by  night, 
which  rooft  in  buflies,  flirubs,  hawthorn-tree,  is'c. 
called  Bat-Fowling;  and  which  is  thus:  the 
fowler  muft  be  very  fdent  till  his  lights  are  blazing  ; 
and  may  chufe  if  he  will  carry  nets  or  not.  If  he 
carries  none,  he  muft  havFlong  pole^  with  great 
bufhy  tops  fixed  to  them  ;  and  having  froin  a  veffel 
to  carry  fire  in,  lighted  liis  ftraw  or  other  blazing 
matter,  he  muft  beat  thofebufhes  where  he  thinks 
birds  are  at  rooft  ;  which  done,  if  there  be  any  in 
thofe  bufhes  or  trees,  he  will  inftantly  fee  them  fly 
above  the  flames,  fo  that  thofe  who  have  the  bufliy 
poles  may  beat  them  down  at  pleafurc,  and  take 
them  up. 

Larks^  huntings,  merlins,  hobbies,  and  any  birds 
which  will  ftoop  either  to  ftalc,  prey,  gig,  glafs, 
or  the  like,  may  bs  taken  from  Atigujl  to  September, 
with  the  day-net,  which  muft  be  planted  before  fun- 
riling;  and  the  milder  the  air,  the  brighter  the  fim, 
and  the  pleafanter  the  morning,  the  better  will  be 
the  fport,  and  of  longer  continuance. 

The  place  chofcn  for  this  kind  of  fport  muft  be 
a  plain,  either  on  barley  ftubble,  green  lays,  and 
level  and  flat  meadows,  remote  from  villages,  but 
near  corn-fields. 

Thefe  nets  being  flaked  down  with  ftrong  flakes, 
tight  on  their  lines,  fo  as  to  be  caft  to  ant  fro  at 
pleafure,  with  a  mmble  twitch,  a  dozen  of  hand- 
lines,  or  drawing  cords,  a  fathom  long,  muft  be 
faftsned  to  the  upper  end  of  the  foremoft  ftaves, 
and  extended  of  fuch  reafonable  ftraitneG,  as  with 
little  ftrength  they  may  raife  up  the  nets  and  caft 
them  over.  When  the  nets  are  laid,  ftales,  decoys, 
or  playing  wantons,  muft  be  placed  twenty  or  thirty 
paces  beyond  thsm,  upon  fome  perching  boughs, 
whicli  will  not  only  cnticg  birds  of  their  own 
feathers  to  ftoop,  but  alfo  hawks,  and  otiier  birds 
of  prey  to  fwoop  into  the  nets. 

A  day-net  muft  be  made  of  fine  pack-thread,  the 
mefti  fmall,and  not  above  half  an  inch  fquare  half- 
way ;  three  iathom  in  length,  and  one  in  breadth  ; 


like  the  crow-net  in  fliape ;  verged  about  in  the 
fame  manner  with  a  fmall  ftrong  cord,  the  two 
ends  whereof  extended  upon  two  fmall  long  poles, 
luitable  to  the  breadth  of  the  net,  with  four  flakes, 
tail-ftrings,  and  drawling  lines,  as  heretofore  men- 
tioned ;  only  whereas  tiiat  was  but  one  fingle  net, 
here  muft  be  two  of  one  length,  breadth,  and  (hape. 
Thefe  nets  muft  be  placed  oppofite  to  each  other, 
yet  fo  clofe  and  even  tog'-thcr,  that  v/hen  they  are 
drawn  and  pulled  over,  the  fides  may  touch  one 
another. 

Particular  TiiRt.criovs  for  catching  fnipes,  fcld- 
fares,  pigeons,  magpyes,  pheafants,  partridges, 
rails,  quails,  moor-posts,  &c. 

To  cztch  fnipes  with  bird-lime,  the  fowler  muft 
know  the  places  they  frequent  moft,  which  is  eafily 
difcovered  by  their  dung;  and  there  fit  two  hundred 
limed  twigs,  more  or  lefs  (efpccially  if  it  be  hard, 
frofty,  or  fnowy  weather,  where  (he  water  lies 
open  ;  for  commonly  they  lie  very  thick  in  fuch 
paces.)  The  twigs  muft  be  at  a  yard  diftant  from 
one  another,  and  floping,  fome  on;  way  and  fome 
another  ;  then  the  fowler  retiring  at  a  conve-  lent 
diftance  from  the  place,  muft  wait  tlie  fuccefi  of  the 
fport,  and  not  be  too  hafiy  to  ftir  at  the  firft  he  fees 
taken  ;  for  the  fnipe  will  feed  with  the  t#ig  under 
his  wing'!,  and  be  a  means  to  entice  thofe  down, 
who  come  over  the  place.  When  he  fees  the  coaft 
clear,  and  hut  few  that  are  not  taken,  he  muft  then 
take  up  his  birds,  fattening  one  or  two  of  the m,  that 
the  other  flying  over,  may  alight  at  the  fame  place. 
If  there  be  any  other  open  place  near  that  where 
the   twigs  are  planted,    they  ought  to  be   beaten 

Feldfares,  as  well  zs  fnipes,  are  alfo  wmtcr  bird'-, 
and  are  taken  by  fetting  a  dead  one  at  the  top  of 
a  great  birchen  bough,  cover'd  with  fmall  lime 
tvvigs,  and  plan  iiig  the  bomh  w'lere  the  feldfares 
refort  in  a  morning  to  feed.  B)^  this  means,  others 
flying  but  near,  will  quickly  efpy  the  top-bird, 
and  fail  in  whole  flocks  to  him. 

Pheafants  are  taken  three  feveral  ways,  vi%.  by 
itet,  lime-  bujh,  or  driv.  r. 

Nets  for  phafants,  muft  be  made  of  double 
twij)ed  brov/n  thread,  dy'd  blue  or  green,  the  mefh 
reafonibly  large  and  fquare,  almoft  an  inch  be- 
tween knot  and  knot ;  its  length  about  three  fathoms, 
and  about  feven  feet  broad,  verged  on  each  fiJe 
with  ftrong  fmall  cord,  and  likewife  at  the  ends, 
that  it  may  lie  com-.iafswife  and  hollow. 

In  this  kind  of  fport,  the  fowler  muft,  as  in  all 
others  heretofore  mentioned,  know  the  haunts  of 
the  fowl,  which  are  never  in  open  fields,  nor  in  old 
high  woods,  fince  pheafants  feldom  frequent  any 
other  place,  but  young  copfrs  well  grown  ;  and  of 
thofe,  none  but  fuch  as  are  folltary,  and  unfrequent- 
ed 


P     0     IF    L     I    N    G. 


525 


ed  by  men  or  cattle.  But  the  moft  certain  way  of  | 
finding  them  out,  is  to  have  a  pheafant-call,  which  [ 
he  piuft  learn  how  to  ufe ;  underftand  all  their  notes,  ! 
and  how  to  apply  them  :  iot  pheafants  have  feveral 
and  different  notes  ;  one  to  cluck  them  together 
when  the  hen  would  fesd  them,  another  to  chide 
them  when  they  ftraggle  too  far,  a  third  to  call 
them  to  meat  when  (he  has  found  it,  a  fourth  to 
make  them  look  out  for  food  themfelves,  and  a 
fifth  to  call  them  about  her  to  fport  withal.  The 
call  may  be  ufed  early  in  the  morning,  at  which 
time  they  ftraggle  abroad  to  find  provender ;  or  elfe 
in  the  evening  juft  before  fun-fetting,  which  is  their 
time  likewife  for  feeding.  Tho'  they  may  be  called 
at  any  other  time  of  the  day,  by  only  changing 
note  ;  for  as  before  fun-rifing,  and  at  its  fetting, 
the  note  muft  be  to  call  them  to  feed ;  in  the  fore- 
noon, and  afternoon,  it  muft  be  to  call  them  to 
brood,  or  chide  them  for  flraggling,  or  give  them 
notice  of  fome  approaching  danger. 

With  all  thefe  neceflary  inftruiftions,  the  Fowler 
muft;  lodge  himfelf  as  clofe  as  poflible,  and  then  call 
at  firft  very  foftly,  left  the  pheafants  being  lodged 
very  near  him,  ihould  be  frighted  at  a  loud  note, 
but  if  nothing  reply,  he  muft  raife  his  note  higher 
and  higlic-r,  till  he  extends  it  to  the  utmoft  compafs; 
and  if  there  be  z.pheafant  within  hearing,  (he  will 
anfwer  in  a  note  as  loud  as  his  own,  provided  it  be 
not  untunable,  for  that  would  fpoil  all.     As  foon 
as  be  hears  this  anfwer,  if  it  be  from  afar,  and  from 
a  fingle  fowl,  he  muft  creep  nearer  and  nearer  unto 
it,  fo  will  the  pheofant  to  him,  and  as  he  alters  his 
note  fo  will  ftie,  and  in  all  points  he  muft  endea- 
vour to  imitate  her,  whereby  hell  get  fight  of  her 
at  laft,  either  on  the  ground   or  perch  ;   which  got 
he  ceafes  his  calling,  and  fpre^ids  his  net  between 
the  pheofant  and  himfelf,  in   the  moft  convenient 
place  he  can  find,  with  much  fecrecy  and  filence, 
making  one  end  of  the  net  faft  to  the  ground,  and 
holding  the  other'end   by   a  long  line  in  his  hand, 
whereby  when  any  thing  ftrains  it,  he  may  pull  the 
net  clofe  together.     This  done  he  calls  again,  and 
as  foon  as   he  perceives  the  pheofant  come  under- 
neath the  netj  he  rifes  up  and  (hews  himfelf,  where 
by  \.\iii  phenfant  being  frighied,  ofteiing  to  mount, 
finds  herfelf  entangkd  within  the  net- 
But  if  it  happens  that  the  Fowler  hears  many  an- 
fwers,  and  from  different  parts  of  the  wo<jd,  he  muft 
not  ftir,  but  keep  his  place,  and  as  he  hears  them  by 
their  found,  to  come  nearer  and  nearer  unto  him,  he 
muft  make  his  nets  ready,  and  fpread  them  conve- 
niently about  hiiji,  one   net   en  the  one  fide,   and 
another  on  the  other  ;  then  lie  clufe  and  appU-  him- 
felf to  the  call,  till  he  h.is  allured  them  ui:der  his 
nets,  which  done,  he  muft  ftaild  up    nd  fhew  rim- 
felf,  t<  fright  them,  and  make. them  laount,  wiieic- 
by  they  are  entangled. 


Pheafant-poivt!,  or  young  pheafants,  are  driven 
into  nets,  with  an  inftrument  made  of  ftrong  white 
wands,  orofiers,  fet  faft  in  a  handle,  twilled  about 
in  two  or  three  places,  and  bound  with  other 
wands,  in  the  fliape  of  thofe  things  cloth  •dre(lt;rs 
ufually  drefs  their  cloth  withal.  With  this  driver 
the  Fowler  muft  make  a  gentle  noife,  raking  upon 
the  boughs  and  bufhes  round  about  him,  which 
will  make  the  povuts  run  from  it  a  little  way,  and 
then  ftand  and  liften,  keeping  all  clofe  together, 
till  by  another  rake  of  the  driver,  they  are  made' 
to  run  again  as  before,  and  by  thus  raking  they  will 
be  driven  like  fo  many  (heep  into  the  nets,  which 
muft  be  placed  acrofs  the  little  pads  and  ways 
which  the  fowler  fees  they  have  made,  which  are 
like  (heep-tracks,  and  as  near  their  ordinary  haunt 
as  poffible,  which  may  be  difcovered  by  the  barcn- 
nels  of  the  ground,  mutings,  and  loofe  feathers. 

Two  things  are  to  be  obferved  in  ufing  the  dri- 
ver ;  the  firft  is  fecrecy  in  concealing  one's  felf 
from  the  fight  of  the  pheafants  ;  for  if  they  chance 
to  fee  the  Fowler,  they  will  inftantly  hide  them- 
felves  in  holes  and  bottoms  of  huflies,  and  will  not 
ftir  from  thence  till  night.  The  other  is  circum- 
fpe6lion  in  the  work,  for  nothing  obftru£ts  this 
paftime  more,  than  too  much  precipitation  or  hafte, 
for  pheafants  are  fearful  creatures,  foon  llartle,  and 
when  once  alarmed,  thev  all  fly  in  an  inftant, 
without  flaying  to  behold  what  they  are  fo  much 
afraid  of. 

To  take  pheafants  v/ith  a  lime-bufh  ;  the  Fowler 
having  difcovered  their  haunts,  befmears  the  top 
branch  of  a  willow,  or  fingle  rod  twelve  inches 
long,  with  the  ftongeft  birdlime.  The  branch  muft 
have  a  pretty  long  handle,  made  (harp  at  bottom 
to  ftick  it  into  the  ground,  or  into  fiirubs  and 
bufhes  ;  which  muft  be  done  near  the  branch  or 
tree,  where  the  pheafant  perches.  When  the  bu(h 
or  rods  are  placed,  the  Fowler,  lying  clofe,  takes 
out  his  call.  If  the  call  be  good,  and  he  knows 
how  to  ufe  it,  he  will  foon  have  all  the  pheafants 
within  hearing  about  him,  and  if  one  happens  to 
be  entangled,  fhe  will  go  near  to  entangle  all  the 
reft,  either  by  her  extraordinary  fluttering,  or  their 
own  amazement  and  confufion  ;  and  as  they  ai^e 
taken  by  the  rods  on  the  ground,  they  will  likewife 
be  furprifed  with  the  bufhes,  for  being  feared  from 
below,  they  will  mount  to  the  perch  or  bufhes,  to 
fee  what  becomes  of  their  companions,  and  there 
be  taken  themfelves. 

Lime  is  only  for  the  winter- fcafon,  beginning 
from  November  when  the  trees  have  flied  their 
leaves,  and  ending  in  May.  Nets  are  ufed  from 
the  beginning  of  May,  till  the  latter  end  of  OSio- 
ber.  So  that  there  is  no  time  of  the  year  but  their 
X  X  X  2  breeding- 


526  Tlje  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


breeding-time,  which  may  not  be  employed  in  this 
pleafure. 

Partridges  are  alfo  taken  feveral  wa  s,  either  by 
net,  engine,  driving,  or  fctting.  They  are  natu- 
rally fo  fearful  and  fimple,  that  they  may  eafily 
be  deceived,  without  any  train,  bait,  or  othtr 
device. 

The  ufual  haunts  of  partridges  are  corn-fields, 
either  while  the  corn  grows,  or  after  it  is  cut 
down.  In  winter,  when  the  fields  are  ploughed 
up,  or  over-foiled  with  cattle,  they  fly  to  the  up- 
land meadows,  and  lodge  in  the  dead  grafs,  or  fog, 
under  hedges,  among  mole-hills,  or  under  the  roots 
of  trees.  Sometimes  they  fly  to  copfes,  and  under 
woods,  efpecially  if  any  corn-fields  be  near  ;  or 
where  broom,  brakes,  fern,  is'c.  grows.  In  the 
harveft  time,  when  every  field  is  full  of  men  and 
cattle,  they  are  found  in  day-time,  in  the  fallow- 
fields,  next  to  the  corn-fields,  where  they  lie  lurk- 
ing till  the  evening,  and  then  feed  among  the 
{hocks,  or  (heaves  of  corn,  which  they  do  likewife 
in  the  morning. 

When  the  haunts  of  partridges  are  known,  the 
Fowler  has  feveral  ways  to  find  them  ;  either  by 
the  eye,  for  they  are  a  very  lazy  bird,  and  fo  un- 
willing to  take  to  the  wing,  that  the  Fowler  may 
even  fet  his  foot  upon  them  before  they  will  ftir, 
provided  he  do  not  ftand  and  gaze  on  them,  but 
be  in  continual  motion,  otherwife  they  will  ipring 
up  and  be  gone  :  Or,  by  going  to  their  haunts 
early  in  the  morning,  or  at  the  clofe  of  the  evening, 
which  is  called  the  juciing-li/iu;  and  there  lillening 
for  the  calling  of  the  cock  partridge,  and  for  the 
anfwering  of  the  hen  ;  after  which  they  meet  to- 
gether, which  may  be  difcovered  at  their  rejoicing, 
and  chattering ;  then  the  Fowler  may  take  his  range 
about  them,  drawing  nearer  to  the  place  he  hears 
them  juck  in,  and  cafting  his  eyes  towards  the  fur- 
rows of  the  land,  he  will  foon  find  where  the  covy 
lies.  Or  by  the  call,  having  firft  learned  the  true 
and  natural  note  of  the  partridge,  and  how  to  tune 
it  in  its  proper  key.  Being  perfeft  herein,  he  muft 
frequent  their  haunts  morning  and  evening,  and 
hiding  himfelf  in  fome  fecret  place,  where  he  may 
fee  and  not  be  feen,  liften  if  he  can  hear  the  par- 
tridges call  ;  if  he  hears  them,  he  muft  anfwer 
them  in  the  fame  notes,  and  imitate  them  as  near 
as  poffible,  as  they  change  or  double  thofe  notes  ; 
continuing  thus  till  they  draw  nearer  unto  him. 
Having  them  in  view  he  lays  himfelf  on  his  back, 
as  if  he  was  dead,  without  motion,  by  which  means 
he  may  count  their  whole  number. 

Having  proceeded  thus  far,  the  next  thing  he 
muft  do  is  to  catch  them.  If  he  wants  to  do  it  with 
nets,  having  found  out  the  covy,  he  draws  forth 
his  nets,  and  taking  a  large  circumference,  walks 


a  good  round  pace  with  a  carelefs  eye,  rather  from 
them  towards  the  partridges,  till  he  has  trimmed  his 
nets,  and  made  them  ready  for  the  purpofe,  which 
done,  he  muft  draw  his  circumference  lefs  andlefs, 
till  he  comes  within  the  length  of  his  net,  then 
pricking  down  a  ftick  about  three  foot  in  length, 
faftens  one  end  of  the  net  to  it,  and  walking  about, 
letting  the  net  flip  out  of  his  hands,  he  fpreads  it 
open  as  he  goes,  and  thus  lays  it  all  over  the  par- 
tridges. But  if  they  (hould  lay  ftraggling,  fo  that 
he  cannot  cover  them  all  with  one  net,  he  muft 
draw  forth  another,  anjl  do  with  that  as  he  has 
done  with  the  former,  which  being  done,  he  rufhes 
in  upon  them,  who  frightened  will  fly  up,  and  fo 
be  entangled  in  the  nets. 

Partridges  are  taken  with  birdlime,  either  in 
ftubble  fields,  from  Auguji  till  Chrijimas,  or  in 
woods,  paftures,  or  meadows.  If  in  ftubble  fields, 
the  Fowler  muft  take  the  largcft  wheat-ftraws  he 
can  get,  and  cut  them  off"  between  knot  and  knot, 
and  lime  them  with  the  ftrongeft  lime.  Then  he 
goes  to  the  haunts  oi partridges,  and  calls  ;  if  they 
anfwer  he  pricks  at  fome  diftance  from  him,  his 
lime-ftraws  in  many  crofs  rows  and  ranks  acrofs  the 
lands  and  furrows,  taking  in  two  or  three  lands  at 
leaft  ;  then  lies  clofe  and  calls  again,  not  cf6afing 
till  he  has  drawn  them  towards  him,  fo  that  they 
be  intercepted  by  the  way  by  the  limed  ftraws, 
which  they  (hall  no  fooner  touch,  but  they  will  be 
enfnared,  and  by  reafon  they  all  run  together  like 
a  brood  of  chickens,  they  will  fo  befmear  and  daub 
one  another,  that  very  few  of  them  will  efcape. 

But  if  partridges  are  to  be  taken  in  paftures, 
woods,  or  meadows,  the  rods  muft  be  limed  as  for 
pheafants,  and  ftuck  in  the  ground  after  the  fame 
manner. 

The  moft  pleafant  manner  of  taking  partridges 
is  by  2.fctting-dog.  The  Fowler  mult  take  him 
where  partridges  do  haunt,  caft  him  off^,  and  by 
fome  word  of  encouragement  wh'erewith  he  is  ac- 
quainted, engage  him  to  range,  but  never  too  far 
from  his  mafter,  who  muft  ice  that  he  beats  his 
ground  jufily  and  even,  without  cafting  about,  or 
flying  here  and  there,  which  the  mettle  of  fome 
will  do  if  not  corre£led  and  reproved.  Therefore 
when  the  Fowler  perceives  this  fault,  he  muft  pre- 
fently  call  his  dog  in  with  a  hem,  and  fo  check  him, 
that  he  dare  not  do  the  like  again  for  that  day  ;  fo 
he  will  range  afterwards  with  more  temperance. 
If  in  the  dog's  ranging  he  be  perceived  to  ftop  on 
a  fudden,  or  ftand  ftill,  his  mafter  muft  then  make 
in  to  him  (for  without  doubt  he  has  fet  the  par- 
tridge) and  as  foon  as  he  comes  to  him  command 
him  to  get  nearer,  and  if  he  goes  not,  but  either 
lies  ftill,  or  ftands  fhaking  of  his  tail,  as  if  he 
would  fay,    here  they  are   under   my  nofe  ;    and 

wJthil' 


FOWLING. 


withal  now  and  then  looks  back,  then  the  Fowler 
muft  ceafe  urging  him  further,  and  take  his  cir- 
cumference, walking  faftwith  a  carelefs  eye,  look- 
ing ftrait  before  the  nofe  of  the  dog,  and  thereby 
fee  how  the  covy  lies,  whether  clofe  or  ftraggling  : 
Then  commanding  the  dog  to  lie  (till,  he  draws 
forth  his  net  and  pricks  one  end  to  the  ground,  and 
Ipreads  it  all  open,  and  thus  covers  as  many  of  the 
partridges  as  he  can.  Which  done  he  makes  in  with 
a  noifeand  fprings  up  the  p^itridges,  which  no  fooner 
rife  but  they  are  entangled  with  the  net.  The 
Fowler  muft  always  let  go  the  old  cock  and  hen. 

Rails,  Quails;  More-poots,  i^c.  are  taken 
in  the  fame  manner  as  partridges^  either  with  nets, 
limed  bufhes  or  rods,  engine,  or  a  fetting  dog. 
The  way  of  finding  them  is  alfo  the  fame,  by  tlie 
eye,  the  ear,  and  haunt ;  though  the  chiefeft  of 
all  is  \.\\&  call  or  pipe  ;  to  which  they  liften  with 
fuch  earneftnefs,  that  you  can  no  fooner  imitate 
their  notes,  but  they  will  anfwer  them,  and  purfue 
tlie  call  with  fuch  greedinefs,  that  they  will  play 
and  (kip  about  you,  nay,  run  over  you,  efpecially 
the  quail.  The  notes  of  the  male  and  female  differ 
very  much  ;  therefore  the  Fowler  muft  have  them 
both  at  his  command  ;  and  when  he  hears  the  male 
call,  he  muft  anfwer  in  the  female's  note  ;  and 
when  the  female  calls,  anfwer  in  the  male's  note  ; 
and  thus  will  have  them  both  come  to  him.  Their 
haunts  are  alfo  much  like  thofe  of  partridges,  only 
the  quail  loves  moft  the  wheat  fields  ;  the  morepoot 
the  heath  and  foreft-grounds  ;  and  the  rails  the 
long  high  grafs,  where  they  may  lie  obfcure. 

We'll  clofe  this  treatife  with  directions  for 
catching,  preferving  and  keeping  Singing  Birds  ; 
and  with  remedies  for  their  peculiar  diftempers. 

The  nightingale  claims  our  firft  attention.  She 
is  the  chief  fongfter  in  the  woods,  where  Ihe  ap 
pears  at  the  latter  end  of  March,  or  at  the  begin- 
ning of  jlpyil  She  builds  her  neft  commonly  about 
two  feet  abovetheground,  either  in  quickfet-hedges, 
or  in  beds  of  nettles  ;  hatching  her  young  ones 
about  the  beginning  of  May,  and  naturally  de- 
lightin«;in  cool  places,  where  fmall  brooks  are  gar- 
nilhed  with  pleafant  groves,  where  they  fing  me- 
lodioufly  till  they  have  hatched,  for  then  they  grow 
mutes. 

Nightingales  muft  be  taken  out  of  their  nefts  ; 
when  they  are  indiff'erently  well  fledged  ;  for  if 
well  feathered  they  will  be  fullen,  and  if  too  little, 
they  are  fo  tender  the  cold  will  kill  them. 

The  way  of  taking  old  and  young  is  thus  :  for 
the  yoang,  you  muft  take  notice  where  the  cock 
fmgs  ;  and  if  he  fings  long  the  hen  is  not  far, 
who  often  betrays  her  off"-fpring  by  being  too  care- 
ful :  for  when  you  come  near  her  neft,    (he  will 


S^7 


fweet  and  cur  :  if  notwithftanding  this  you  cannot 
find  her  neft,  ftick  a  meal-worm  or  two  upon  a 
thorn,  and  laying  down  or  ftanding,  obfervc  v/hich 
way  it  is  carried  by  the  old  one,  and  drawing  near, 
you  11  hear  the  young  ones  while  (he  feeds  them. 
When  you  have  found  out  the  neft  touch  not  the 
young  ;  for  if  you  do,  they  will  not  tarrv  in  the 
neft. 

T\\z  branchers,  or  pu/!:ers  (thus  called,  becaufc 
when  thoroughly  fledged,  the  old  ones  pa(h  them 
out  of  the  neft)  are  taken  with  a  bird-trap,  or  net- 
trap,  made  with  green  lilk  or:  thread,  about  the 
compafs  of  a  yard,  and  in  the  (hape  of  a  (hove-net 
for  filhes  ;  then  a  large  wire  bended  round,  and  the 
two  ends  joined,  muft  be  put  into  a  (hort  ftick 
about  an  inch  and  an  half  long,  and  a  piece  of 
iron,  with  two  cheeks  and  a  hole  on  each  fide, 
through  which  muft  be  ran  fome  fine  whip-cord 
three  or  four  times  double,  that  it  may  hold  the 
piece  of  wood  the  fafter,  into  which  the  ends  of 
the  wire  are  put,  and  with  a  button  on  each  fide 
of  the  iron  the  whip-cord  istv/ifted  ;  then  the  net 
is  faftened  to  the  wire,  and  the  two  checks  of  the 
iron  joined  at  the  handle  of  a  board  of  the  compafs 
of  the  wire  ;  to  which  is  added  a  piece  of  ftick 
about  two  inches  long,  with  a  hole  at  the  top  of  it, 
which  muft  have  a  plug  to  put  in,  with  two  wires 
to  ftick  the  meal-worm  upon  ;  then  a  ftrmg  is  tied 
in  the  middle  of  the  top  of  the  net,  which  net  is 
to  be  drawn  up,  and  having  an  eye  at  the  end  of 
the  handle  to  put  the  thread  tlirough,  it  muft  be 
pulled  till  it  ftands  upright.  When  the  net  and 
worms  are  ready,  having  firft  fcraped  the  place, 
ants  muft  be  put  into  the  trap-cage  ;  which  cao-e  is 
to  be  placed  near  the  place  where  the  nightingales 
are  heard  calling,   and  left  there 

When  the  nightingales  are  taken,  the  ends  of 
their  wings  muft  be  tied  with  fome  thread,  to 
hinder  them  from  beating  themfelves  againft  the 
cage,  which  ought  to  be  above  half  covered  with 
green  bays,  and  they  left  for  four  or  five  days  un- 
difturbed  ;  though  they  muft  be  fed  fix  times  a  dav 
with  Iheep's  heart  and  egg  (bred  very  fine,  and 
mingled  with  fome  pifmires  ;  and  if  thro'  fullen- 
nefs  they  refufe  to  eat,  their  bill  muft  be  forced 
open.  » 

In  the  fummer  they  muft  be  fed  every  day  with 
frefti  meat  ;  and  when  they  begin  to  moult,  with 
half  an  egg  hard  boiled,  and  half  a  flieep's  heart, 
mingled  with  faiFron  and  water  ;  and  fometimes 
red  worms,  caterpillars,  hog-lice,  and  meal- 
worms. 

The  nightingales  taken  in  yuly  or  Jugujl,  will 
not  fing  till  the  middle  of  Oaoher,  and  then  they 
will  hold  in  fong  till  the  middle  of  June ;  but  thofe 
taken  from  the  firft  of  Jpril  to  the  twehtieth,  are 

the 


528  The  Unlverfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^W Sciences. 

the  beft  birds  for  fong.  The  neftUngs  and  bra)ichers\\.\\z{Q  are  good  figns  of  a  healthy  bird  ;    but  if  he 


bolts  his  tail  like  a  nightingale,  after  he  has  dunged, 
it  fliews  he  is  not  well ;  though  he  feems  lively  for 
the  prefent,  there  is  fome  diftemper  near  attending : 
like  wife,  if  he  either  dung  very  thin  and  w;ury,  or 
of  a  flimy  white,  and  no  blacknefs  in  it  ;  thefe 
are  dangerous  figns  of  approaching  death. 

Canary-Birds  above  three  years  old  are  called 
Runts  ;  at  two  years  old  they  are  called  Eriffs  ; 
and  thofe  of  the  firfi:  ytar  are  called  Bvanchen  ; 
when  they  are  new  flown,  and  cannot  feed  thcm- 
Iclvcs,  they  are  called  Pujhcrs  ;  and  thofe  that  are 
brought  up  by  hand,  Ne/Ilings. 

The  Blackbird  builds  her  neft  upon  old 
flumps  of  trees  by  ditch-fides,  or  in  thick  hedges  ; 
they  are  brought  up  almoft  with  any  meat  what- 
foever  ;  but  above  all,  they  love  ground  worms, 
fheep's  heart,  hard  eggs,  and  white  bread  and  milk, 
mixed  together.  This  bird  fings  fomewhat  more 
than  three  months  in  the  year;  his  note  is  harfh 
and  loud,  therefore  to  add  a  value  to  him,  he  mult 
be  taujrht  to  whiftle. 

There  are  five  kinds  of  thruflies,  viz.  thsmijlk- 
thruj})^  the  northern-thrujh,  or  fcldfare,  the  wiiid- 
thrujh,  the  wood- fong-thrujh,  and  the  hsath-thpijh. 
The  firfl  is  the  largefl  of  all  five,  and  the  moft 
beautiful  ;  but  as  he  fings  but  little,  and  his  notes 
are  ramblin'2;  and  confuf;d,  he  is  not  worth  the 
keeping.  (he  fecond  is  the  y;?/^;'}?.'-^,  v/ ho  comes 
into  England  before  Adickadmas,  and  goes  av/ay 
about  the  beginning  of  March.  They  breed  upon- 
certain  rocks  near  the  Sceiijh  fhore  three  or  four 
times  a  year,  and  are  tliere  in  very  great  numbers: 
they  are  not  fo  fit  for  the  cage  as  for  the  fpit, 
having  a  moft  lamentable  untuned  chattering  tone. 
I  he  third  is  the  wind-trujlo,  or  wbindlc,  which 
travels  with  t)\efeldfare  out  of  the  north,  and  is  a 
pon  s  greafe  muft  be  nfed  :  if  they  be  melancholy,  fmaller  bird,  with  a  dark  red  under  his  wing.  She 
fome  liquorice  with  a  little  fugar-candy  mufl:  be  put  breeds  in  woods  and  fhaws  ■SL'^fong-ihrtifl^es  do,  and 
in  their  drinking  pots.  j  has  an  indifferent  fong  exceeding  the  two  former  ; 

The  Canary-Birds  are  originally  from  the  but  yet  is  fitter  for  the  pot  or  fpir,  than  for  a. 
Canary- IJIands  ;  from  whence  they  were  brought '  cage  or  avery.  The  fourth  is  the  vjood-fong-thrujhy 
into  Europe.  They  are  in  colour  much  like  our  \  and  fings  moft  incomparably,  both  lavifnly  and 
green  birds,  but  clifFer  much  in  their  fong,  and  j  with  variety  of  notes  ;  and  fings  at  leaft  nine  of 
nature  :  for  as  other  birds  are  fubjeiSl:  to  be  fat,  the   the  twelve  months  in  the  year      She  builds  about 


(except  they  have  an  old  bird  to  fing  over  them) 
have  not  the  true  fong  for  the  firft  twelve  months. 
When  they  are  fo  tamed  that  they  begin  to  cur  and 
fwcet,  with  chearfulnefs,  and  record  foftly  to  them- 
fclvcs,  it  is  a  certain  fign  that  they  eat,  one  need 
not  trouble  himfelf  with  feeding  them  ;  but  if  they 
fing  before  they  feed,  they  commonly  prove  excel- 
lent birds  :  thofe  which  are  long  a  feeding,  and 
make  no  curring  nor  fwecting,  are  not  worth  the 
keeping.  One  which  flutters,  and  bolts  up  his 
head  in  the  night  agairift  the  top  of  the  cage  ought 
not  to  be  kept ;  for  he  is  not  only  good  for  nothing, 
but  his  bad  example  will  teach  the  beft  of  birds  to 
do  the  like. 

The  beft  fort  of  nightingales  frequent  high-ways, 
orchards,  and  fing  clofe  by  houfes :  thefe  when 
taken  will  feed  fooneft,  being  more  ufed  to  com- 
pany ;  and  after  their  feeding  will  grow  familiar, 
and  fing  fpeedily. 

To  diftinguifh  the  cock  from  the  hen  ;  the  cock, 
is  both-longer  and  bigger  :  if  a  nejUing  (before  he 
he  can  feed  himfelf  )  records  a  little  to  himfelf,  and 
in  his  recording  his  throat  is  perceived  to  wag,  he 
is  a  cock;  but  when  they  come  to  feed  themfclves, 
the  hen  will  record  as  well  as  the  cock.  Branchers, 
whether  cocks  or  hens,  (when  taken  and  do  feed 
themfclves)  will  record  ;  but  the  cock  does  it  much 
longer,  louder,  and  oftner. 

N'ghtingales  are  fubje<fl  to  feveral  difeafes  ;  for 
if  they  are  not  kept  clean,  their  feet  are  clogged, 
their  claws  rot  off ;  and  they  are  fubjeft  to  the 
gout  and  cramp.  To  cure  them  of  thefe  difeafes, 
their  feet  muft  be  anointed  four  or  five  days  with 
frefh  butter,  and  they  will  be  well  again.  They 
are  likevvife  troubled  with  impofthumes  and  break- 
ings out  about  their  eyes  and    neb,  for  which  ca- 


cocks  of  thefe  are  always  lean,  by  reafon  of  the 
greatnefs  of  their  mettle,  and  their  lavifh  finging  : 
the  beft  are  long  fhaped,  ftanding  ftrait  and  boldly. 
There  are  no  certain  rules  to  be  given  for  the  choice 
of  Canary-birds,  every  one  confulting  his  own 
fancy.  * 

To  difcover  if  a  Canary-bird  be  in  health,  before 
he  is  purchafcd,  he  muft  be  taken  out  of  the  ftore 


the.  fame  time,  place,  and  manner  the  blackbird 
does  ;  the  compofure  of  her  neft  is  fo  marvellous 
that  it  cannot  be  mended  by  the  art  of  men  ;  be- 
fides  the  curious  building,  (he  leaves  a  little  hole  in 
the  bottom  of  her  neft,  to  let  out  the  water,  as  may 
be  fuppoied,  if  a  violent  ftiower  fhould  come,  that 
fo  her  eggs  or  young  ones  may  not  be  drowned* 
If  the  weather  favours  them,  they  go  very  foon  to 


cage,   and  put  into  a  clean  one  alone  ;  where  if  he  neft,  and  breed  three  times  a  year.  vi%.   in  March^ 
fla.nds  bo  dlv  without  crouching,  without  (hrinkingj  April,  May  and    June  ;  but  the  firft  birds  ufually 


feathers,  and  his  eyes  looking 
I 


brife  and  chearfullv 


[  prove  the  beft  ;  which  muft  be  taken  in  the  neft 

when 


F    0     Tr    L    I    N    G. 


429 


when  fourteen  days  old,  and  kept  warm  and  clean, 
not  fufFering  them  to  fit  on  their  dung,  but  mufl: 
be  fo  contrived  that  they  dung  over  the  neft.  They 
are  to  be  fed  with  raw  meat  and  fome  bread  chop- 
ped together  with  bruifed  hempfeed,  wetting  the 
bread  before  it  is  mingled  with  the  meat.  Being 
thoroughly  fledged,  they  muft  be  put  in  a  cage 
with  two  or  three  perches,  where  they  may  have 
room  enough,  and  fome  mofs  at  the  bottom  to  keep 
them  clean  ;  for  otherwife  they  will  be  troubled 
with  the  cramp,  and  for  want  of  delighting  in 
themfelves  their  fmging  will  be  fpoiled.  They  muft 
alfo  have  frcfli  water  twice  a  week,  that  they  may 
bathe  and  plume  themfelves  therein,  otherwife  they 
will  not  thrive.  The  fifth  and  laft  is  the  hcaih- 
ihniJI),  which  is  the  leaft  we  have  in  Engltind, 
having  a  dark  bread.  Some  are  of  opinion,  that 
this  bird  exceeds  the  fong-tbnJJ?,  having  better 
notes,  and  neater  plume.  The  hen  builds  bv  the 
heath-fide  in  a  fern-bufli,  or  ftump  of  an  old  haw- 
thorn, and  makes  not  fliaws  and  woods  her  haunt 
as  other  thruflies  do.  She  begins  to  breed  towards 
the  middle  of  April,  and  breeds  but  twice  in  a  year; 
and  if  kept  clean  and  well  fed,  will  fing  three  parts 
in  four  of  the  year,  'fo  know  the  cock  from 
the  hen,  according  to  fome,  is  to  chufe  the  top 
bird  of  the  neft,  which  commonly  is  moft  fledged. 
Others  think  that  to  be  the  cock  which  has  the 
largeft  eyes  and  moft  fpeckies  on  his  breaft.  Others 
chufe  the  cock  by  the  pinion  on  his  v/ing  ;  but  the 
beft  marks  are  a  white  gullet,  with  black  ftreaks 
on  each  fide,  the  fpots  on  the  breaft  large  and 
black,  and  the  head  of  a  light  fhining  brown,  with 
black  ftreaks  under  each  eye,  and  upon  the  pinion 
of  the  wing. 

The  Robin- rkd-Br  EAST,  for  fvvectnefsof  note, 
is  very  little  inferior  to  thtnlghtingnlc :  He  is  taken 
cither  in  a  pit-fall,  or  with  a  trap-cage  and  a  meal- 
worm. They  breed  very  early  in  the  fpring,  and 
commonly  twice  a  year.  When  the  young  ones 
are  about  ten  days  old  they  muft  be  taken  from  the 
old  ones,  and  kept  in  a  little  bower-bafket.  They 
are  fed  in  all  refpe£ls  like  the  nightingale  :  when 
they  grow  ftrong  they  are  put  in  a  cage,  with  mofs 
at  the  bottom  ;  but  as  they  are.  very  tender  biids 
the  cage  muft  be  lined,  to  keep  them  warm.  The 
cock  has  his  breaft  of  a  darker  red,  and  his  red 
goes   further  up   upon  the  head  than  the  hen. 

The  Wren  is  a  little  bird,  as  pleafant  to  the 
ear  as  he  is  to  the  eye  :  he  builds  twice  a  year 
about  the  latter  end  of  April,  in  flirubs  where  ivy 
grows  thick,  and  fometimes  in  old  hovels  and  barns. 
They  lay  a  numerous  quantity  of  eggs.  Their  fe- 
cond  time  of  breeding  is  in  the  middle  of  June  ;  of 
either  breed,  what  you  intend  to  keep  muft  be  taken 
out  of  the  neft  at  thirteen  and  fourteen  days  old  ; 


and  fed  every  day  very  often,  but  a  little  at  a  time, 
with  flicep's  hearts  and  eggs  minced  very  fmall  ; 
and  when  they  begin  to  pick  their  meat  of  their 
own  accord,  ofF  the  flick  they  are  fed  with,  they 
muft  be  caged,  and  meat  put  in  a  littlcv  pan,  and 
about  the  fides  of  the  cage,  to  entice  them  to  eat, 
though  they  muft  be  fed  too,  left  they  neglccl  them- 
felves and  die.  When  they  can  feed  themfelves 
very  well,  a  fpider  or  two  muft  be  given  them  once 
in  three  days.  The  browncft  and  largeft  of  the 
young  wrens  are  the  cocks. 

The  Wood  Lark,  is  by  fome  preferred  to  the 
nightingale,  bccaufc  he  has  a  great  variety  of  very 
excellent  and  pleafant  notes.  'I  he  wood-lark  breeds 
the  fooneft  of  any  bird,  by  reafon  of  his  extraor- 
dinary mettle  ;  therefore  if  they  are  not  taken  in  . 
the  begiiming  of  February  at  leaft,  they  grow  fo 
rank  that  they  v/ill  prove  good  for  nothing.  He 
delights  m.oft  in  gravelly  grounds  and  hills  lying 
towards  the  orient,  and  in  oat-ftubs.  Their  build- 
ing is  in  layery-grounds,  where  the  grafs  is  rank 
and  niftct,  making  their  nefts  of  ben  grafs,  or 
dead  grafs  of  the  iield,  under  fome  laroe  tuffs,  to 
ftielterthem  from  the  injury  of  the  weather.  Thefe 
birds  are  never  bred  from  tiie  neft,  for  they  die  in 
a  week  either  of  the  cramp  or  fcowring.  The 
times  of  the  year  to  take  them  is  in  'June,  July, 
Augii'L  with  a  hubby,  in  this  manner  :  go  in  a 
a  dewy  morning  to  the  fides  of  fome  hills  which 
lie  to  fun-rifing,  where  they  moft  ufually  frequent, 
and  having  fprung  them,  obferve  where  they  fall, 
then  furround  them  twice  or  thrice  with  your  hob- 
by on  your  fift,  caufing  it  to  hover  when  you  draw 
near,  by  which  means  they  will  lie  ftlll  till  you 
clap  a  net  over  them.  If  tiiree  or  four  go  together, 
take  a  net  made  in  the  fame  manner  as  that  for  par- 
tridges, when  you  go  with  a  fetting-dog,  only  the 
mefli  muft  be  fmaller,  /.  e.  alark  mefti,  and  then 
your  hobby  is  to  the  lark  v.  hat  a  fetting-dog  is  to 
partridges.  Thofe  taken  in  this  feafon  are  called 
young  branchers,  becaufe  they  have  not  moulted 
yet ;  and  will  fing  prefently,  but  will  not  laft  long, 
by  reafon  of  their  moulting. 

Wood-Larks  taken  at  the  latter  end  of  September, 
having  then  moulted  cannot  be  diftinguidied  whe- 
ther old  or  young.  Thofe  taken  in  January  and 
February  will  fing  in  five  or  fix  days,  or  fooner,  and 
they  are  the  beft,  being  taken  in  full  ftomach,  and 
are  more  perfe£t  in  their  fong  than  thofe  taken  in 
other  feafons. 

Upon  the  firft  taking  of  the  wood-lark,  two 
pans  muft  be  put  into  the  cage,  one  for  fheep's 
heart  minced  fmall,  and  mingled  with  bread,  eo-o-, 
and  hemp-feed  ;  and  another  for  o.atmeal  and 
whole  hemp-feed.  The  bottom  of  the  cage  ought 
to  be  covered  with   red  gravel,    which   muft  be 

fliifted 


530  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^«^  Sciences. 


ftifred  every  week  at  furthef?,  and  the  perch  lined 
with  green  bays  ;  and  left  they  Ihonid  not  find  the 
pan  foon  enough,  to  prevent  f^imine,  there  muft 
be  flrcwed  upon  the  fand  fome  hemp  feed  and  oat- 
meal ;  and  if  they  grow  poor  at  the  beginning  of 
tlic  fpring,"  there  mull  be  given  to  them  every  two 
cr  three  days  a  turf  of  three  leafed  grafs.  The 
cock  is  diftiuguifhed  from  the  hen,  by  the  large- 
r.efs  and  length  of  his  call,  by  his  tall  walking, 
his  ftrong  finging,  and  the  doubling  of  his  notes  in 
the  evening. 

'1  hefe  birds  are  very  fubjeft  to  the  cramp,  gid- 
dinefs  in  the  head,  and  louzy.  The  beft  remedy 
to  prevent  the  cramp  is  to  fhift  the  cage  often  with 
frcfh  gravel,  othcrwife  the  dung  will  clog  to  the 
feet,  which  caufes  the  cramp.  The  giddinefs  of 
the  head  proceeds  from  feeding  upon  much  hemp- 
ieed,  and  is  cured  with  gentles,  or  hog-lice,  em- 
mets and  their  eggs,  with  liquorice,  all  put  into 
water.   Louzinefs  is  cured  by  the  fmoak  of  tobacco. 

The  Sky-Lark  is  a  hardy  bird,  and  will  live 
upon  any  food,  provided  he  has  once  a  week  a  turf 
of  three-leaved  grafs.  Sky-larks  comnionly  build 
in  corn,  or  thick  high  grafs  meadows,  and  feldom 
have  more  than  four  young  ones,  which  they  hatch 
towards  the  middle  of  May.  They  muft  be  taken 
when  a  fortnight  old,  and  fed  at  firft  with  minced 
flieep's  hearts,  mixed  with  hard  eggs  ;  when  they 
can  feed  alone,  they  eat  hemp-feed  and  oatmeal  ; 
they  muft  have  fand  in  the  bottom  of  their  cage, 
and  no  perch. 

Sky-Larks  are  taken  either  with  a  net  and  hobby, 
or  a  trammel,  or  a  pair  of  day-nets  and  a  glafs,  or 
with  a  low-bell,  or  with  pack-thread. 

The  trammel  is  only  ufed  in  dark  nights,  and  is 
above  fix  and  thirty  yards  long,  aad  fix  yards  over, 
run  thro'  with  fix  ribs  of  pack-thread  ;  which  ribs 
at  the  ends,  are  put  upon  two  poles  fixteen  feet 
long,  made  taper  at  each  end,  and  fo  is  carried 
between  two  men  half  a  yard  from  the  ground, 
to  caufe  the  birds  to  fly  up,  otherwife  the  net  might 
be  carried  over  them  without  difturbing  them  ; 
when  they  are  heard  to  fly  againft  the  net,  it  muft 
be  clapped  down.  The  day-nets  are  commonly  fe- 
ven  feet  deep,  and  fifteen  long,  knit  with  French 
mefi],  and  very  fine  thread.  Thefe  nets  take  all 
forts  of  fmall  birds  that  come  within  their  compafs, 
as  bunting-larks,  and  linnets  in  abundance.  To 
take  larks  with  the  low-bell,  the  bell  and  a  great 
light  in  a  tub  muft  be  both  carried  by  one  man, 
and  the  net  by  another ;  this  bell  and  light  fo 
amazes  them,  that  they  lie  as  dead,  and  ftir  not 
till  the  net  over-caft  them.  To  take  them  with 
pack-thread,  a  hundred,  or  two  hundred  yards  of 
packthread  muft  be  provided,  when  there  is  abun- 
dance of  fnow  upon  the  ground,  faftening  at  every 


fix  inches  a  noofe  made  with  horfe-hairs,  two  hairs 
are  fufliicient. 

Larks,  dcfigned  to  be  kept  for  finging,  muft  be 
taken  in  OSlober  or  Novernler,  chufing  the  ftraiteft, 
largeft  and  loftieft  bird,  and  he  that  has  moft  white 
on  his  tail  ;  for  thefe  are  the  marks  of  the  cock. 

The  Linnet  builds  his  neft  in  thorn-bufties, 
and  fir-bufties,  and  fome  of  the  hotter  fort  will 
breed  four  times  a  year.  The  young  ones  may 
be  taken  at  four  days  old,  if  you  intend  to  teach 
them  to  whiftle,  or  learn  the  fong  of  other  birds, 
for  being  fo  young  they  know  not  the  tune  of  the 
old  bird  ;  then  they  muft  be  kept  very  warm,  and 
fed  often,  and  a  little  at  a  time,  with  bruifed  and 
foaked  rape-feeds,  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
white  bread.  The  cock  is  known  from  the  hen 
by  the  brownnefs  of  his  back,  and  the  white  of 
his  wing  ;  that  is  to  fay,  take  your  young  linnet 
when  the  wing  feathers  are  grown,  and  ftretch  out 
his  wing,  holding  his  body  faft  with  the  other 
hand,  and  then  obferve  the  white  upon  the  fourth, 
fifth,  and  fixth  feather  ;  if  it  caft  a  gliftering  white, 
and  it  goes  quite  to  the  quill,  it  is  a  fure  fign  of  a 
cock. 

This  bird  is  fubje^t  to  feveral  difeafes,  as  the 
phthyfick,  known  by  his  panting,  flaring  feathers, 
lean  breaft,  and  fpilling  his  feeds  up  and  down  the 
cage.  Which  diieafe  happens  for  want  of  v/ater, 
or  for  want  of  green  meat  in  the  fpring :  he  is 
troubled  alfo  with  flrains,  or  convulfions  of  the 
breaft;  fometimcs  with  hoarfenefs,  being  over- 
ftrained  in  finging  ;  fometimes  he  is  melancholy, 
at  other  times  afflicted  with  fcouring,  of  which 
there  are  three  forts,  the  firft  is  thin,  or  with  a 
black  or  white  fubftance  in  the  middle,  not  very 
dangerous  ;  the  fecond  is  between  a  black  and  white, 
clammy  and  flicking,  this  is  bad  ;  but  the  third 
and  laft  is  moft  mortal,  which  is  the  white  clammy 
fcouring. 

The  GoLD-F INCH  breeds  commonly  in  apple 
trees,  and  plumb  trees,  thrice  a  year.  Gold-finches 
are  taken  in  great  plenty  about  Michaelmas,  and 
will  foon  become  tame.  The  young  ones  are  taken 
with  the  neft  at  ten  days  old,  and  fed  with  the  beft: 
hempfeed  pounded,  fifted,  and  mixed  with  the  like 
quantity  of  white  bread,  with  fome  flour  of  canary- 
feed.  They  muft  be  kept  very  warm  till  they  can 
feed  themfelves. 

The  Tit-Lark  appears  at  the  fame  time  of 
the  year  as  the  nightingale  does,  which  is  the  be- 
ginning of  April,  and  leaves  us  at  the  beginning 
of  September^  He  breeds  about  the  latter  end  of 
April,  or  the  beginning  of  May,  and  builds  his 
neft  on  the  ground  by  fome  pond  or  ditch.  The 
til- larks  are  fed,  when  taken,  as  the  nightingale. 
They  are  eafily  brought  up,  being  hardy,  and  are 

not 


F     U    L^  L    I    N    G. 


53^^ 


not  fubjecjl  to  colds  or  cramps,  but  live  long  if  pre 
ferved  with  care.     The  fong  of  this  bird  is  fliort 
and  fwcet. 

The  Chaffinch  builds  his  neft  in  hedges,  and 
trees  of  all  forts,  and  has  young  ones  twice  or 
thrice  a  year,  which  are  feldom  bred  up  from  the 
neft,  becaufe  they  are  not  apt  to  take  another  bird's 
fong,  or  to  whiftle.  The  chafinch  has  but  one 
fliort  plain  fong. 

The  Starling,  to  be  excellent,  muft  be  taken 
from  the  old  ones  at  the  end  of  three  or  four  days; 
for  if  taken  fledged  out  of  the  neft,  they  retain  too 
much  of  their  own  natural  harfti  notes.-  They 
learn  to  whiftle,  or  fpeak,  or  an  other  bird's  fong, 
by  hanging  under  him. 

The  Bullfinch  has  no  fong,  nor  whiftling  of 


his  own,  but  is  very  apt  to  learn  any  thing,  if 
learned  with  the  mouth. 

The  Greenfinch  breeds  three  times  a  year  by 
the  highways,  and  early  before  the  hedges  have 
leaves  upon  them.  The  young  ones  are  very  hardy 
birds  to  be  brought  up,  and  may  be  fed  with  white 
bread  and  rape-feed  bruifed  and  foaked  The  Green- 
finch is  a  beautiful  bird,  but  very  dull. 

The  Hedge-Sparrow  builds  in  a  white  thorn, 
or  private  hedge,  laying  eggs  of  a  fine  blue  colour. 
Thcfe  birds  arc  taken  at  the  latter  end  of  'Janua-yy 
or  beginning  of  February^  and  will  feed  almoft  on' 
any  thing.  They  are  very  traftable,  and  will 
take  any  bird's  fong,  if  taken  young  out  of  the 
neft.  Old  or  young  they  will  become  tame  very 
quickly. 


BULLING. 


FULLING  is  the  arf  or  afl  o^ fcouring  and 
prejjing  cloths,  fluffs,  ftockings,  tfc.  to 
cleanfe,  thicken,  and  render  them  more 
firm  and  ftrong,  which  is  done  by  means 
of  a  water-mill.  See  yl-w/.-i  plate  of  Mechanic 
Arts,  Fig.  i.  in  which,  i.  is  the  track  of  the 
wheel,  that  turns  on  the  outfide  ;  2.  a  front  view 
of  the  wheel;  3.  the  arbour  with  its  leavers,  which 
as  they  pafs,  raife  the  heads  of  the  wooden  mallets, 
and  let  them  fall  alternately  ;  4.  the  trough,  which 
in  the  plate  is  hid  behind  the  timber  work,  and  is 
only  expreffed  by  dots  that  fhew  its  pofition  :  each 
trough  has  at  leaft  two,  and  fometimes  three  mal- 
lets ;  5,  th'e  head  of  the  mallet,  with  three  or  four 
notches,  which  hinder  the  ftiff"  from  flicking  under 
the  hammer  ;  6.  the  arm  or  handle  ;  y.  the  end  of 
the  mallet  faftened  by  a  pin.  8.  In  the  troughs  are 
laid  the  cloths,  fluffs,  ^c.  intended  to  be  fulled  : 
then  letting  the  current  of  water  fall  on  the  wheel, 
the  mallets  are  fucceflively  let  fall  upon  them,  when 
by  their  weight  and  velocity  they  flamp  and  prefs 
the  fluffs  very  flrongly,  which  by  this  means  be- 
come thickened  and  condenfed. 

In  this  operation,  fuller's  earth  is  ufed  with  fome 
proportion  of  foap  ;  but  foap  alone  would  do  much 
better,  was  it  not  dearer  than  fuller's  earth. 

Fulling  of  ftockings,  caps,  (Jc.  is  performed 
either  with  the  hands  or  feet,  or  a  kind  of  wooden 
machine,  either  armed  with  wooden  teeth,  or  thofe 
of  horfes  or  bullocks.  The  ingredients  generally 
ufed  on  this  occafion  are  fuller's  earth,  urine,  white 
foap  and  green  foap.  But  water  foftened  with 
chalk  is  far  preferable. 
25. 


I      The  following  is  M.  Colmet's  method  o^ fulling 
with  foap,  grounded  on  experiments  made  by  order 
'of  the  Marquis  de  Louvois.     Let  a  coloured  cloth 
'of  about  45   ells,  be  laid  in  the  ufual  manner  in 
the  trough  of  a  fulling-mill,  without  firft  foaking  it 
in  water,  as  commonly    pradifed   in  moft  places. 
j  To  full  this  troughful  of  cloth,  fifteen   pounds  of 
foap  are  required,  one  half  of  which  is  to  be  melted 
;in  two  pails  of  river  or  fpring  water,  made  as  hot 
!as  the  hand  can  bear.     Let  this  folution  be  poured 
I  by  little  and  little,  upon  the   cloth,  in   proportion 
las  it  is  laid  in  the  trough  :  thus  it  is  to  be  fulled  for 
at  leaft  two  hours  ;  after  which,  let  it  be  taken  out 
I  and  ftretched.      This  done,  let  the  cloth  be  imme- 
diately  returned    into   the   fame  trough,    without 
frefh  foap,  and  there  fulled  two  hours  more.   Then 
take  it  out,  wring  it  well,  and  exprefs  all  the  greafe 
and    filth.     After  the  fecond   fulling,  diflblve  the 
remainder  of  the  foap,    as    the   former  part,  and 
throw  it  at  four  feveral  times  on  the  cloth,  not  for- 
getting to  take  it  out  every  two  hours,  to  undo  the 
plaits  and  wrinkles  it  got  in  the  trough.     When  it 
is  fufficiently   fulled,  and  brought  to  the  requifite 
quality  and  thicknefs,  it  is  fcoured  out,  for  good,  in 
hot  water,  keeping  it  in  the  trough  till  it  be  tho- 
roughly clean.     As  white  cloths  full  more  eafily 
than  coloured  ones,  a  third  part  of  the  foap  may  be 
fpared . 

The  art  of  fulling  was  invented,  according  to 

Pliny.,  lib.  7.  c.  56.  by  one  Nicias  the  fon  of  Her^ 

mias  :  and  it  appears  by  an  infcription  quoted  by 

Sir  George  TVheeler,  in  his  travels  through  Greece, 

Y  y  y  'liat 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


532 

that  this  fame  l^tdas  was  a  governor  in  Greece,  in 
the  time  of  the  Romans, 

The/ullers,  among  the  Romans, w^fhcd,  fcoured, 
and  fitted  up  deaths,  and  their  office  was  judged  of 


that  importance,  that  there  were  fevcral  laws  pre- 
fcribed  them  for  the  manner  of  performing  it :  fuch 
was  the  iex  de  fullonibus,  &c. 


GAMING. 


GAMING  confidered  only  as  an  artful 
contrivance  to  take  advantages  over  the 
ignorant  and  unguarded,  has  at  all  times 
been  detefted  by  the  wife  and  virtuous, 
looked  upon  as  a  praflice  pernicious  to  fociety,  and 
in  many  places  feverely  prohibited  by  law. 

In  England,  the  ftatute  33  Hen.  VIII.  gives 
juftices  of  peace,  and  head  officers  in  corporations, 
a  power  to  enter  all  houfes  fufpefted  of  unlawful 
games  ;  and  to  arreft  the  gamefters,  till  they  give 
fecurity  not  to  play  for  the  future. 

Perfons  keeping  any  unlawful  gaming-houfe,  are 
fined  40  J.  and  the  gamefters  bs.  %d.z  time. 

If  any  perfons  by  fraud,  deceit,  or  unlawful  de- 
vice, in  playing  either  at  cards  or  dice,  tables, 
bowls,  cock-fighting,  horfe  races,  foot-races,  ^c. 
or  bearing  a  fliare  in  the  flakes,  or  betting,  fhall 
win  any  money  or  valuable  thing  of  another,  he 
fhall  forfeit  treble  the  value  thereof:  likewife  if  any 
perfon  {hall  play  at  any  of  the  faid  games  upon  tick, 
and  not  for  ready  money,  and  lofe  the  fum  of  100/. 
on  credit,  at  any  one  meeting,  if  the  money  be  not 
paid  down,  his  fecurity  taken  for  it  fhall  be  void, 
and  the  winner  becomes  liable  to  a  forfeiture  of 
treble  value  of  fuch  money  won.  16  Car.  II. 
c.   7. 

Not  only  all  notes,  hills,  bonds,  mortgages,  or 
other  fecurities  given  for  money  won  at  gaming, 
are  declared  void  ;  but  alfo  where  lands  are  granted. 


two  juftices  of  the  peace,    i^c.     Stat.  ibid.     See 
2  Geo.  II.  c.  28. 

The  ace  of  hearts,  pharaoh,  baffet,  and  hazard, 
are  judged  to  be  lotteries  by  cards  or  dice  ;  and  per- 
fons who  fet  up  thofe  games,  are  fubje£l  to  200/. 
penalty.  And  every  adventurer,  who  fhall  play, 
ftake,  or  punt  at  them,  forfeits  50/.  Alfo  any 
fales  of  houfes,  goods,  plate,  l^c.  in  fuch  a  way, 
are  void,  and  the  things  forfeited  to  any  who  will 
fue  for  the  fame.     1  2  Geo.  II.  c.  28. 

However,  confidered  amongft  the  recreations  of 
mankind,  and  ferving  for  amufement  in  our  leifure 
hours,  it  is  proper  to  treat  of  this  art  in  fuch  a  man- 
ner, as  to  (hew  the  nature  and  hazard  o{ gaming  ; 
and  alfo  to  give  a  few  direcStions  towards  form- 
ing a  juft  idea  of  certain  games,  that  are  moft  in 
fafliion. 

The  nature  and  hazard  oi  gaming  appear  from 
the  do<Sl:rine  of  chance,  whofe  variety  may  be  un- 
derftood  from  what  follows. 

Suppofe  p  the  number  of  cafes  in  which  an  event 
may  happen,  and  q  the  number  of  cafes  wherein  it 
may  not  happen,  both  fides  have  the  degree  of 
probability,  which  is  to  each  other,  as  p  to  q. 

If  two  gamefters,  A  and  B,  engage  on  this 
footing,  that,  if  the  cafes  p  happen,  A  fhall  win  ; 
but,  if  q  happen,  B  fliall  win,  and  the  ftake  be  a; 

the  chance  of  A  will  be    — —  and  that  of  B  -i-^  = 


they  ftiall  go  to  the  next  perfon  intitled,  after  the  confequently,  if  they  fell  the  expedances,  they 
deceafe  of  the  perfon  fo  incumbering  the  fame  :  (hould  have  that  for  them  refpedlively. 
perfons  lofing  by  gaming  at  one  time  lo/.  may  re-  |  If  A  and  B  play  with  a  fingle  die,  on  this  conditi- 
cover  the  money  loft,  from  the  winner,  by  an  on,  that,  if  A  throw  two  or  more  aces  at  eight  throws, 
adlion  of  debt,  brought  within  three  months  ;  and  he  fhall  win ;  otherwife  B  ftiall  win,what  is  the  ratio 
on. the  lofer's  not  profecuting,  any  other  perfon  of  their  chances?  Since  there  is  but  one  cafe  where- 
may  lav/fully  do  it,  and  recover  treble  the  value,  j  in  an  ace  may  turn  up,  and  five  wherein  it  may  not, 
with  cofts.     ()  Jnn.  c.  Of.  |  let   a-=.i,    audits.     And  again,    fince  there  are 

Thofe  who   cheat  at  cards,    dice,  &c.  befides  eight  throwsofthedie, letn  =  8  j  and  you  will  have 

their  forfeitures,  have  inflifted  on  them  fuch  infa- 1  .  >i      ,«  .n  ^^  i'l-^i"      r-    »k,*   ;c 

,  ,        -n         ^        .        ,       ,      .         1/7-1-Ai — b — nab — i,  to  b-\-nab — i.    that  is, 

my  and  corporal  punifhment,  as  in  ca(es  of  perjury ;  «+''/  ^  ,      ■„  ,  \  r  n         ^, 

and   beatins  or   challenging  any  other  perfon  to  the  chance  of  A  will  be  to  that  of  B,  as  663991 
fight,  on  account  of  money  won  by  gaming,  fhall ,  to  10156525,  or  nearly  as  2  to  3. 
forfeit  all  their  goods,  and  be  imprifoned  two  years:       A  and   B    are   engaged  at  fingle   quoits,  and, 
and  where  perfons  play  that  have  no  vifible  eftates,  after    playing   fome   time,  A   wants   4    of  being 
and  do  not  make  it  appear  that  the  principal  part  of,  "P.  and  B  6;   but  B  is  fo  much  the  better  gamefter, 

'*--'  his   chance  againft  A   upon    a  lingle  throw 
be  as  3  to  2  j    what  is  the  ratio  of  their 

chances 


fthat 


their  maintenance  is  got  by  other  means  than  gam-  | 

they  may  be  bound  to  their  good  behaviour  by ,  would 
I  I 


»"g. 


GAMING, 


S^Z 


chances  ?  Since  A  wants  4,  and  B  6,  the  game 
will  be  ended  at  nine  throws  ;  therefore,  raife 
a.Jth  to  the  ninth  power,  and  it  will  be  o'  +  9«*i 
+  360' W  +  84«*i'+I26<7'M+l26  a*b\  1084 
fl'i*  +  36  «ai7  +  6  ^i'  +  i' :  call  (73,  and  b  ^, 
and  you  will  have  the  ratio  of  chances  in  numbers, 
vi%.  1759077  to  194048. 

A  and  B  play  at  fingle  quoits,  and  A  is  the  beft 
gamefter,  fo  that  he  can  give  B  2  in  3,  what  is 
the  ratio  of  their  chances  at  a  fingle  throw  ?  Sup- 
pofe  the  chances  as  z  to  r,  and  raife  2:+  i  to  its 
cube,  which  will  be  2;^  + 3  z^+ 72+ i.  Now 
fince  A  could  give  B  2  out  of  3,  A  might  under- 
take to  win  three  throws  running;  and,  confe- 
quently,  the  chances  in  this  cafe  be  as  z'  to  32^  + 
32+ I.       Hence  z' zr  3 z^  +  3 z -f- 1  ;  or,     2z'  = 

2'  +  3z^+3z+i.    And,  therefore,  zi/2=:z-j- 1; 

and,   confequently,    z  =- The    chances, 


-,  and  I,  refpedlively. 


therefore,  are  — 

Again,  fuppole  I  have  two  wagers  depending,  in 
the  firft  of  which  I  have  3  to  2  the  beft  of  the  lay, 
and  in  the  fecond  7  to  4  ;  what  is  the  probability  I 
win  both  wagers  ? 

1.  The  probability  of  winning  the  firft  is  |,  that 
is  the  number  of  chances  I  have  to  win,  divided  by 
the  number  of  all  the  chances :  the  probability  of 
winning  the  fecond  is  tt  :  therefore,  multiplying 
thefe  two  fraflions  together,  the  product  will  be 
•jI,  which  is  the  probability  of  winning  both  wa- 
gers. Now,  this  fraftion  being  fubtradted  from  i, 
the  remainder  is  j*,  which  is  the  probability  I  do 
not  win  both  wagers  :  therefore  the  odds  againft 
me  are  34  to  2i. 

2.  If  I  would  know  what  the  probability  is  of 
winning  the  firft,  and  lofing  the  fecond,  I  argue 
thus  :  the  probability  of  winning  the  firft  is  |,  the 
probability  of  lofing  the  fecond  is  ^\:  therefore 
multiplying  |  by  T-t,  the  produdt  \\  will  be  the 
probability  of  my  winning  the  firft,  and  lofing  the 
fecond  ;  which  being  fubtra<5led  from  i,  there  will 
remain  -^|,  which  is  the  probability  I  do  not  win 
the  firft,  and  at  the  fame  time  lofe  the  fecond. 

3.  If  I  would  know  what  the  probability  is  of 
winning  the  fecond,  and  at  the  fame  time  lofing  the 
firft,  I  fay  thus  :  the  probability  of  winning  the  fe- 
cond is  -f  r ;  the  probability  of  lofing  the  firft  is  | : 
therefore,  multiplying  thefe  two  fraftions  together, 
the  produfi;  {I  is  the  probability  I  win  the  fecond, 
and  alfo  lofe  the  firft. 

4.  If  I  would  know  what  the  probability  is  of 
lofing  both  wagers,  I  fay,  the  probability  of  lofing 
the  firft  is  |,  and  the  probability  of  lofing  the  fe- 
cond 7t :  therefore,  the  probability  of  lofing  them 


both  is -si;  which  being  fubtradcd  from  i,  there, 
remains  -f| :  therefore,  the  odds  of  Jqfiflg,  both  wa- 
gers is  47  to  8.  \    .    ,  ■ ,     ;|, 

This  way  of  reafoning  is  applicable  to  the  hap- 
pening or  failing  of  any  events  that  may  fall  under 
confideration.  Thus  if  I  would  know  what  the  pro- 
bability is  of  miffing  an  ace  4  times  together  v/irh  a 
die,thisl  confiderasthefailiiigoffourdiflerent  events.. 
Now  the  probability  of  miffing  the  firft  is  |,  the  {^-, 
cond  is  alfo  |,  the  third  i,  and  the  fourth  | ;  therc> 
fore  the  probability  of  miffing  it  four  times  together 
is  -I  X  -5  X I  X  |=:t5||  ;  which  being  fubtradled  from 
I,  there  will  remain  t|-J^  for  the  probabilityofthrow- 
ing  it  once  or  oftner  in  four  times  :  therefore  the 
odds  of  throwing  an  ace  in  four  times  is  67 1  to  625. 

But  if  the  flinging  an  ace  was  undertaken  in  three, 
times,  the  probability  of  miffing  it  three  times  would 
be^xix-|=:iT^;  which  being  fubtracted  from  I, 
there  will  remain  ^rij  for  the  probability  of  throw- 
ing it  once  or  oftner  in  three  times :  therefore  the 
odds  againft  throwing  it  in  three  times  are  125 
to  91. 

Again,  fuppofe  we  would  know  the  probability  of 
throwing  an  ace  once  in  four  times  and  no  more ;  fince 
the  probability  of  throwing  it  the  firft  timeis^.andof 
riiffing  it  the  other  three  times  is^  x  -|  X  |;  it  follows 
that  the  probability  of  throwing  it  the  firft  time,  and 
miffing  it  the  other  three  fucceffive  times,  is  -J  X  | 
X|x|=:tI|-5;  but  becaufe  it  is  poffible  to  hit 
it  every  throw  as  well  as  the  firft,  it  follows,  that 
the  probability  of  throwing  it  once  in  four  throws. 


and  mifling  the  other  three,  is! 


being 


4XiZ5_   ;oo 
1296""  1  296 


^•hich 


fubtracSled  from    i,  there  will  remain   -^ 


for  the  probability  of  throwing  it  once,  and  no 
more,  in  four  times.  Therefore,  if  one  undertake 
to  throw  an  ace  once,  and  no  more,  in  four  times, 
he  has  500  to  796  the  worli:  of  the  lay,  or  5  to  8 
very  near. 

Suppofe  two  events  are  fuch,  that  one  of  them 
has  twice  as  many  chances  to  come  up  as  the  other, 
what  is  the  probability  that  the  event,  which  has 
the  greater  number  of  chances  to  come  up,  does 
not  happen  twice  before  the  other  happens  once, 
which  is  the  cafe  of  flinging  7  with  2  dice  before  4 
once.'  Since  the  number  of  chances  are  as  2  to  i, 
the  probability  of  the  firft  happening  before  the 
fecond  is  |,  but  the  probability  of  happening  twice 
before  it,  is  but  |  x|  or  -J :  therefore  it  is  5  to  4 
feven  does  not  come  up  twice  before  4  once. 

But,  if  it  were  demanded,  what  muft  be  the 
proportion  of  the  facilities  of  the  coming  up  of  two  ' 
events,  to  make  that  which  has  the  moft  chances 
come  up  twice,  before  the  other  comes  up  once  \ 
The  anfwer  is  12  to  5  very  nearly  :  whence  it  fol- 
lows, that  the  probability  of  throwing  the  firft  be- 
Y  y  y  2  fore 


53^^ 


*The  Univerfal  Hlftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

and  the  probability  of  B's  winning  will  be 


fore  the  fecond  is  -Jy.  and  the  probability  of  throw- 
ing it  twice  is  17  x  vf,  or  i^J;  therefcjre,  the  proba- 
bility of  not  doing  itis-ijj:  therefore  the  odds 
againflitare  as  14510  144,  which  comes  very  near 
an  equality. 

Suppofe  thtii'  is  a  heap  of  thirteen  cards  of  one 
colour,  and  another  heap  of  thirteen  cards  of  ano- 
ther colour,  what  is  the  probability  that,  taking 
one  card  at  a  venture  out  of  each  heap,  I  (hall  take 
out  the  two  aces  ? 

The  probability  of  taking  the  ace  out  of  the  firft 
heap  is  -jj,  the  probability  of  taking  the  ace  out  of 
the  fecond  heap  is  tj  ">  therefore  the  probability  of 
taking  out  both  aces  is  TT^xj^ifs?  which  being 
fubtradfed  from  I,  there  will  remain  \\%  :  there- 
fore the  odds  againft  me  are  168  to  i. 

In  cafes  where  the  events  depend  on  one  ano- 
ther, the  manner  of  arguing  is  fomewhat  altered. 
Thus,  fuppofe  that  out  of  one  fmgle  heap  of  thir- 
teen cards  of  one  colour  I  fhould  undertake  to  take 
out  the  firft  ace  ;  and,  fecondly,  the  two  :  though 
the  probability  of  taking  out  the  ace  be  ^J,  and  the 
probability  of  taking  out  the  two  be  likewife  ij; 
yet,  the  ace  being  iuppofed  as  taken  out  already, 
there  will  remain  only  twelve  cards  in  the  heap, 
which  will  make  the  probability  of  taking  out  the 
two  to  be  ^i:;  therefore  the  probability  of  taking 
out  the  ace,  and  then  the  two,  will  be  T-jXTi- 

In  this  laft  queftion  the  two  events  have  a  de- 
pendence on  each  other,  which  confifls  in  this, 
that  one  of  the  events  being  fuppofed  as  having 
happened,  the  probability  of  the  others  happening 
is  thereby  altered.  But  the  cafe  is  not  fo%in  the 
two  heaps  of  cards. 

If  the  events  in  queftion  be  «  in  number,  and  be 
fuch  as  have  the  fame  number  a  of  chances  by 
which  they  may  happen,  and  likewife  the  fame 
number  i  of  chances  by  which  they  may  fail,  raife 
a+b  to  the  power  n.  And  if  A  and  B  play 
together,  on  condition  that  if  either  one  or 
more  of  the  events  in  queftion  happen,  A  fhall 
win,  and  H  lofe,  the  probability  of  A's  winning 
'—b'. 


h^ 


will  be 


a  +  / 


and  that  of  B's  winnins:  will 


b" 


for  when  a-^b\s  aftually  raifed  to  the 


he  

a-\-b 

power  «,  the  only  term  in  which  a  docs  not  oc- 
cur is  tlie  laft  bn  :  therefore  all  the  terms  but  the 
laft  arc  favourable  to  A. 

7~husif«r:3,  raifing  fl-f-i  to  the  cube  a' -f- 30^ 
/i -f  3  fl ^"^ -}- i%  ail  the  terms  but  i^  will  be  favou- 
rable to   A  ;  and  therefore  the  probability  of  A's 

=%— .  or 


winning  will  be ! 


<r+7]' 


a^b,:  • 

But  if  A  and  B  play  on  condition,  that  if  cither 
two  or  more  of  the  events  in  queftion  h^ppi.n,  A 
fhall  win  ;  but  in  cafe  one  only  happen  ,  or  none,  B 
fh  11  win  ;    thu  probability  of  As  winning  will  IjC 


10  — h 


n-^h\ 


;  for  the  only  two  terms  in 


which  a  a  does  not  occur,  are  the  .two  laft,  viz. 
nab"  —  ^  and  b". 

The  games  infafhion  are  divided  into  game  ofex- 
ercife^  znAaddrefs ;  and  g-imtsoi  chance,  or  hazard- 

Under  the  inrft  appellaiion  we  reckon  tennis, 
billiards,  chefs,  boivls  :  under  the  fecond  are  num- 
bered cards,  dice,   &:c. 

The  game  at  tennis  is  the  moft  aflive  and  genteel. 
The  exercife  is  moft  violent  ;  is  performed  with 
racquets  and  hard  balls,  and  requires  a  g'-od  fight 
and  great  agility  and  dexterity  in  catching  and 
fti  iking  the  ball. 

Billiards  is  a  game  play'd  on  an  oblong  table, 
covered  with  green  cloth,  wiih  ivory  balK  ftruck 
with  iiicks  made  on  purjofe  :  the  whole  fecret  of 
this  game  confifts  in  Jodging  the  ball  of  our  antago- 
nift  in  one  of  the  pockets  or  holes,  of  which  there 
are  three  on  each  lide  of  the  table. 

The  party  that  is  ftruck  into  the  pocket,  lo'Tes 
two;  and  he  that  niifles  his  antagonili's  ball,  loofcs, 
every  time  he  mifl'es,  one. 

He  that  v/ould  play  well  at  this  game,  m.uftnu- 
deiftand  perfectly  we;l  how  to  ufe  his  majp  and  alfo 
the  tail  or  cut-,  when  his  ball  is  nailed  clofe  aaainft 
the  fide  of  the  table,  or  fo  near  that  of  his  adver- 
fzry,  that  he  cannot  ufe  the  mcjp  whhcut  running 
the  risk  of  touching  the  ball  of  his  adverfary,  as 
well  as  his  own.  He  muft  al'b  endeavour,  as  much 
as  poflible,  to  touch  always  the  ball  of  his  adver- 
fary in  full,  fv>r  when  he  touches  it  corner-wife, 
tho'  he  fometimes  blouzes  his  adverfary,  he  feldom 
niilxs  of  blouzlng  himfelf  alfo.  He  fhould  befides 
underftand  how  to  draw  perpendiculars,  diagonals, 
and  equilateral  lines  with  his  eyes,  either  to  touch 
always  the  ball,  or  to  lodge  it  in  the  hazards  or 
pockets.  The  adverfary  is  diftrefTed  in  feveral 
manners,  i.  By  pocketing  him.  2.  By  nailing  his 
ball  clofe  againft  the  fide  of  the  table.  3.  By  bring- 
ing it  upon  the  edge  of  a  hole,  that  he  may  run  the 
lisk  of  pocketing  himfelf,  or  mifs  touching  our  ball. 

Chess  requires  both  art  and  addrefs,  but  no 
ftrength  nor  agility. 

The  theatre  upon  which  this  game,  is  a(£fed,  is  a 
chequered  board,  half  black  and  half  white,  like  a 

draught- 


GAMING. 


535 


draughtboard  ;  and  by  two  little  armies  drawn  up 
in  ordor  of  b^tde,  oppofite  to  each  other ;  each 
army  is  Corn:Tianded  by  a  king  and  fgvcral  great 
officers,  who  in  all  (the  king  includudj  are  eight 
principal  perfons. 

The  king  is  the  firft  in  rank  and  order  ;  next  to 
him  Hands  the  queen;  two  rok$  n'Xt  ;  next  tc  the 
two  rooks,  two  knights  ;  two  bijlj^ps  next  ;  eight 
fawns.,  who  are  no  other  than  common  foidiers. 

The  method  of  drawing  up  this  little  army,  is  to 
place  the  principal  pieces  on  the  loweft  rank  of  the 
board  next  to  the  gameflcr,  viz,  the  king  firft  upon 
the  fourth  fpot  from  the  corner,  which  is  Vv'hite  ; 
the  queen  on  the  black  fpot  on  his  right;  the  two 
bijljops,  one  next  the  kitig,  and  the  other  next  the 
queen ;  the  knights  on  the  fides  of  the  hijhops,  and 
the  two  rook  ,  one  in  each  corner.  The  pawns 
are  placed  juft  in  the  rank  before  thofe  illuftrious 
perfons,  to  ferve  as  their  rampart.  The  other 
aimy  is  drawn  up  on  the  oppofite  fide  in  the  fime 
manner  ;  anl  left  they  fhuuld  not  be  d,ftingu;fhcd 
when  they  are  engaged,  one  army  is  always  cloa^hed 
in  black,  the  other  in  white. 

The  king  never  moves  but  from  one  chequer  to 
another  ;  forward  in  a  line,  or  (ide-ways  in  a  line, 
or  backward  in  a  line.  If  he  meets  with  any  fco'ji 
of  the  enemy  in  his  way,  he  may  take  him  prifoncr, 
and  place  himftlf,  where  he  flood  ;  and  when  it  is 
his  turn  to  move  again,  lie  may  go  backward-,  fiJe- 
ways,  or  retire.  The  king  can  alfo,  the  firft  mo- 
tin,  p^fs  over  oie  chequer,  but  after  that  he  can 
only  move  from  chequer  to  chequer. 

The  queen,  pro\'ided  the  paflage  be  clear,  may 
p  ifs  from  one  enj  of  the  board  to  the  other  at  one 
movement,  either  in  a  line  forwards,  or  in  a 
line  fide-ways  ;  and  if  an  enemy  ftands  in  her 
way,  fhe  may  take  him  prifoner,  and  fiand  in  his 
place. 

The  bijhop's  motion  is  oblique  ;  he  may  either 
move  from  chequer  to  chequer,  or  run  along  a 
whole  row,  according  as  he  fees  an  advantage  to 
fnap  an  enemy.  One  bijhop  ftands  upon  a  black 
chequer,  and  the  other  upon  a  white;  but  he  who 
flands  upon  a  black  chequer  muft  always  move  up- 
on the  bLck  row,  without  touching  the  white  ;  as 
he  who  ftands  upon  a  white,  muft  always  move  on 
the  white  row,  without  touching  the  bl.;ck. 

The  knight  jumps  from  black  to  white,  and 
from  white  to  black,  in  the  form  of  a  demi-circle  ; 
and  if  one  of  the  enemy  fhould  ftand  next  to  him, 
he  can  jump  over  his  head. 

The  knight  is  of  great  ufe  in  the  beginning  of  the 
battle;  for  very  often  he  makes  a  paflage  through  , 
the  enemy's  army,  and  forces  his  way  up  to  the , 
king,  whom  he  attacks,  and  to  whom  he  gives: 
(heque-mate. 


The  motion  of  the  rools  is  in  a  direcft  line  every 
way;  thi  y  can  nfrithcrcn/s  thechcquer,as  thebiJJjops 
o,  nor  hop  like  the  knights :  they  may  either  move 
from  chequer  to  chequer,  or  t  Ife  as  far  as  the  pafTage 
is  clear.  If  any  of  the  enemy  ftands  in  their  way  to 
interrupt  their  march,  they  may  take  him  prifoner, 
and  ftand  in  his  place,  as  a'l  the  others  muft  when 
they  take  a  prifoner,  till  the  next  movement. 

The  eight  pawn-,  at  the  firft  movement,  may,  if 
it  be  thought  necefiary,  pafs  ever  tvifo  chequers, 
reckoning  that  they  come  from  one ;  but  afterwards 
they  can  only  move  from  chequer  to  chequer  in  a 
dire£l  line  f  >r\vards:  but  if  one  of  the  enemy  fhould 
ftanh  next  to  one  of  them  in  an  oblique  manner, 
ihey  may  take  him.  And  if  any  of  them  fhjuld 
make  his  way  up  to  the  firft  rank  of  the  enemy,  he 
is  immediately  preferred  and  made  an  officer;  and 
the  king  may  prefer  him  to  the  poft  of  any  officer 
he  lias  loft.  If  the  qucet  herfelf  had  been  taken 
prifoncr,  fhe  muft  be  exchanged  for  this  pawn. 

The  general  rules  to  be  obferved  in  playing  at 
chefs,  are,  i.  To  play  at  the  beginning  with  a  great 
deal  of  caution,  and  not  too  open,  as  if  there  was 
no  danger  while  the  enemy  is  at  a  diftance  ;  fince 
the  queen,  a  bijhop,  and  a  rook,  c^n  take  a  prifoner 
frum  one  end  of  the  bnard  to  the  other,  it  he  lies 
uncovered.  2.  1  hat,  as  it  is  impoflible  to  proceed 
without  expofing  the  men  or  officers,  a  good  play- 
er Will  give  up  an  inferior  officer  to  take  a  fuperior 
one  from  the  enemy.  For  inftance,  he'll  play  his 
knight ]\i{\  in  the  mouth  of  a  r-ook,  when  he  has 
placed  another  officer  in  ambufcade  to  furprize  the 
rook.  3.  A  good  player  endeavours  always  to  get 
behind  the  enemy,  to  attack  the  king,  and  give  him 
cheque-mate.  4.  The  king  can  be  chequered  two 
ways  ;  the  firft  is  z.  fimpl  chequer,  when  the  king 
can  either  retire  out  of  danger,  or  cover  himfelf 
with  an  inferior  man,  or  take  that  man  which 
chequers  him  :  the  fecond  is,  when  the  king  is  fo 
befieged  and  over- powered,  that  he  can  neither 
move  nor  defend  himfelf,  nor  cover  himfelf  with 
another:  this  is  called  cheque  mate,  in  which  cafe 
j  the  game  is  loft. 

7  here  are  belid_es  feveral  particular  rules  given 
by  captain  J^fiph  Bertin,  as  will  perfeft  thofe,  who 
are  fomewhat  skilled  in  the  game  of  chefs;  which 
rules  are  thefe  :  i.  The  pawns  of  the  king,  bifhop, 
and  queen,  muft  move  before  the  knights  ;  for 
were  they  to  move  laft,  the  game  would  be  crowd- 
ed by  ufelefs  removes.  2.  The  queen  is  not  to  be 
played  till  the  gt.me  be  well  opened;  fince otherwife 
fome  moves  would  be  loft.  3.  For  the  fame  reafon 
ufelefs  cheques  ought  rot  to  be  given.  4.  Upon 
being  well  pofted,  either  for  attack  or  defence,  no 
opportunity  of  taking  your  adverfary's  men  mufl 
tempt  you,  for  this  may  divert  you  from  gaining 

the 


53^  7^^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences.  * 


the  main  defigii.  5.  Do  not  caftle,  but  when  very 
iieceflary  ;  becaufe  the  move  is  often  loft  by  it.  6- 
Never  attack  or  defend  the  king  without  a  fufficicnt 
force  i  and  take  care  of  ambuflies  and  traps.  7. 
Never  ciosvd  your  game  by  too  many  men  in  one 
place.  8.  Cunfider  well  before  you  play,  what 
harm  your  advcrfary  is  able  to  do  you,- that  you 
may  oppofe  his  defigns.  9.  To  free  your  game, 
take  off  fome  of  your  adverfary's  men  if  poflible, 
for  nothing  ;  though  to  fucceed  in  your  defign,  you 
inuft  oitcn  give  away  fome  of  your  own,  as  oc- 
tafion  ferves.  10.  He  who  plays  firft,  is  under- 
Itood  to  have  the  attack.  When  the  game  is  open- 
ed you  muft  endeavour  to  defend  in  your  turn  j  for 
the  defence,  if  well  played,  is  ftill  the  beft  againft 
the  gambets,  in  which  you  change  all  your  pieces 
except  the  gambet  that  gives  three  pawns,  which 
will  be  neceflary  to  keep  a  rook,  to  condu£l  your 
pawns  to  the  queen.  11.  A  good  player  ought  to 
forefee  the  concealed  move,  from  3  to  5  and  7 
moves.  The  concealed  move  is  a  piece  that  does 
not  play  for  a  long  time,  but  lies  fnug  in  hope  of 
getting  an  advantage.  12.  At  the  beginning  of  a 
game  you  may  play  any  pawn  two  moves  without 
danger.  13.  The  gambet  is,  when  he  who  firft 
gives  the  paivn  of  the  king's  biftiop  in  the  fecond 
move,  for  nothing,  the  other  keeps  it,  or  takes 
another  for  it,  if  he  is  obliged  to  lofe  it.  14.  The 
clofe  game  is,  when  he  that  plays  firft,  gives  no  men, 
unlefs  to  make  good  advantage;  but  in  giving  a 
piwn  firft,  he  lofes  his  advantage.  15.  He  who 
caftles  firft,  the  other  muft  advance  his  three  pawns 
on  the  fide  of  his  adverfary's  king,  and  back  them 
with  fome  pieces,  in  order  to  force  him  that  way, 
provided  his  own  king  or  pieces  are  not  in  danger 
in  other  places.  16.  When  your  game  is  opened, 
to  gain  the  attack,  you  muft  prefent  your  pieces  to 
change  ;  and  if  your  adverfary,  who  has  the  at- 
tack, refufes  to  chanoc,  he  lofes  a  good  fituation  ; 
and  either  in  exchanging  or  retiring,  the  defence 
gets  the  move  :  Ex.  gr.  In  the  beginning  of  a 
game,  to  fh.;w  the  neceffity  of  playing  the  pawns 
before  the  pieces,  if  there  were  but  two  pawns  on 
each  fide  of  the  board,  viz.  the  pawns  of  the  rooks, 
the  firft  that  ftiould  play  would  foon  win  the  game, 
by  taking  the  other  pieces  by  cheque  ;  and  that 
fituation  may  come  in  lefs  number  of  pieces,  i  j. 
•To  play  well  the  latter  end  of  a  game,  you  muft 
calculate  who  has  the  move,  on  which  the  game 
always  depends.  18.  To  learn  well  and  faft,  you 
muft  be  refolute  to  guard  the  gambet  pawn,  or  any 
other  advantage  againft  the  attack  ;  and  when  yoii 
have  the  leaft  advantage  you  muft  change  all,  man 
for  man.  A  draw  game  (hews  both  players  to  be  good. 
The  common  opinion  is,  that  chefs  was  invented 
by  Palamtdes,  at  the  fiege  of  Troy,  to  divert  tedious 


evenings  during  that  long  fiege.  Others  attribute 
the  invention  to  D'lomedes,  who  lived  in  the  time 
of  Alexander :  the  Romance  of  the  Rofe  afcribes  it  to 
one  Attnlus ;  but  the  truth  is,  the  game  is  fo  very 
antient,  there  is  no  tracing  its  author. 

In  China  it  makes  a  confiderable  part  of  the  edu- 
cation of  their  maids,  and  feems  to  take  the  place 
of  dancing  among  us.  In  Spain  whole  cities  chal- 
lenge each  other  at  chefs, 

Donatus,  on  Terence' i  Eunuch,  obferves  that  Pyr- 
rhus,  the  moft  knowing  and  expert  prince  of  his 
age,  ranging  a  battle,  made  ufe  of  the  men  at  chefs 
to  form  his  defigns  j  and  to  fhew  the  fecrets  thereof. 

Bowling  is  a  game  of  recreation,  exercife,  and 
addrefs,  which  confifts  chiefly  in  having  a  kind  of 
compafs  in  the  eye,  to  meafu'e  well  the  diftance 
between  the  place  the  gamefter  lets  fall  his  bowl  at, 
and  the  jack,  that  it  may  neither  fall  fliort  of  it, 
nor  run  too  far  from  it. 

Amongft  tht  games  with  Cards,  Ifliall  only  ex- 
emplify the  fociable  game  at  piquet,  much  ufed  in 
the  polite  worlJ.  It  is  play'd  between  two  p?r- 
fons,  with  only  32  cardj  ;  all  the  duces,  threes, 
fours,  fives,  a.nd  fixes  being  fet  afiie. 

In  reckoning  at  this  game,  every  card  goes  for 
the  number  it  bears,  as  ten  for  ten  ;  all  court-cards 
go  for  ten,  and  the  ace  for  eleven  ;  and  the  ufual 
game  is  one  hundred  up.  In  playing,  the  ace  wins 
the  ilng,  the  king  the  queen,  and  fo  down. 

Twelve  cards  are  dealt  round,  ufually  by  two  and 
two,  which  done,  the  remainder  are  laid  in  the  mid- 
dle; if  one  of  the  gamefters  finds  he  has  not  a  court- 
card  ill  his  hand,  he  is  to  declare  he  has  carte  blanche, 
and  tell  how  many  cards  he  will  lay  out,  and  defire 
the  other  to  difcard  that  he  may  fhew  his  game,  and 
fatisfy  his  antagonift  that  the  carte-blanche  is  real ; 
for  which  he  reckons  ten. 

Each  perfon  difcards,  /.  e.  lays  afide  a  certain 
number  of  his  card?,  and  takes  in  a  like  number 
from  the  ftock.  The  eldeft  hand  is  allowed  to 
take  five,  though  he  can  take  lefs ;  for  he  muft 
always  leave  three  to  his  adverfary,  who  may  take 
them  all  three  if  he  pleafes  ;  he  can  alfo  take 
more  than  three,  if  his  adverfary  leaves  more,  pro- 
vided he  difcards  as  many  as  he  takes ;  and  fee 
thofe  he  leaves  ;  and  the  eldeft  hand  alfo,  if  he  de- 
clares what  card  he  will  lead  :  both  are  obliged  to 
difcard  at  leaft  one  card.lettheir  game  beever  fogood. 

After  difcarding  the  eldeft  hand  examines  what 
fuit  he  has  moft  cards  of,  and  reckons  how  many 
points  he  has  in  that  fuit ;  if  the  other  has  not 
fo  many  in  any  one  fuit,  he  is  to  tell  one  for 
every  ten  of  that  fuit :  an  example  will  make  this 
plain. 

If 


GAMING. 


537 


If  the  eldeft  has  ace,  king,  queen,  and  knave,  of  i  he  plays  above  a  nine,  and  the  other  follows  him  ni 
any  fuit ;  he  afks,  are  41  good  ?  If  the  other  can-    the  fuit ;  and  the  higheft  card  of  the  fuit  v/ins  the 

trick.  If  two  cards  of  different  fuits  are  play'd, 
that  which  leads  wins  the  trick,  though  the  firft 
was  but  a  7  and  the  laft  an  ace. 

It  is  not  the  perfon  that  wins  the  trick-,  who  al- 
ways reckons  for  it,  and  in  fome  cafes  both  reckon 
one  for  the  fame  trick:  of  which  this  is  an  example. 
If  the  perfon  who  leads  plays  a  tenth  ca:d,  he 
reckons  one  for  it  as  foon  as  he  plays  it  down  ;  it 
another  plays  another  card  that  is  higher  he  wins  it, 
and  alfo  reckons  one  ;  thus  they  both  reckon  for 
the  fame  frick. 

If  the  leader  plays  an  8  or  7  he  reckons  nothing ; 
andifihe  follower  (hould  win  it  with  a  n'ne  he 
reckons  nothing  ;  for  as  it  has  been  obferved  be- 
fore, a  card  under  a  ten  cannot  count  at  this  game  : 
neverthtlefs  that  trick  ferves  towards  winning  the 
cards.  It  mufl  be  obferved  that  the  follovirer,  that 
is,  he  who  plays  laft,  never  reckons  for  his  cards 
unlefs  he  wins  the  trick ;  and  that  he  who  wins 
the  laft  trick  reckons  one  for  it,  though  it  be  won 
by  any  card  under  a  10;  and  if  it  be  won  with  a 
10  or  upwards,  he  reckons  2  for  it. 

When  the  cards  are  played  out,  each  is  to  count 
his  tricks,  and  he  that  has  moft  is  to  reckon  10  for 
winning  the  cards  ;  if  they  have  tricks  alike,  neither 
is  to  reckon  any  thing. 

The  firft  thing  that's  reckoned  at  piquet,  is  the 
carte-  blanche;  if  there  be  no  carte- blanche,  the  point 
is  the  firft  thing.  The  fecond  thing  is,  the /cqi/en- 
ce<,  as  tierces,  quartes,  quintcs,  &c.  The  next  are 
the  threes  or  quat0r7.es ;  as  three  aces,  or  four 
knaves,  or  tens.,  queens,  or  kings  :  for  inftance,  if 
both  parties  fhould  be  95  of  the  game,  and  one  has 
in  his  hand  45,  or  50  for  point,  which  we  will 
fuppofe  to  be  good  ;  and  the  other  a  quint,  or  a 
quatorze  of  aces,  he  who  has  the  point  wins  the 
game,  becaufe  it  is  to  be  reckoned  firft  ;  and  the 
reft  have  the  fame  preference  according  to  their 
ranks.  If  one  be  99  of  the  game  before  he  plays 
down  the  firft  card,  he  plays  it  up  if  it  be  a  tenth 
card,  tho' he  lofes  the  trick.  If  the  parties  aie 
99  each  when  they  are  to  play  down,  the  leader 
muft  win  the  game  if  he  plays  a  tenth  card  ;  be  • 
caufe  he  tells  as  foon  as  he  plays  down,  the  other 
cannot,  till  after  the  trick  is  won.  When  the  points, 
tierces,  quattes,  or  qiiintcs,  are  ec]ual  in  both  hand?, 
neither  is  to  reckon  any  thing  for  them. 

He  who  wins  all  the  tricks,  inftead  of  reckoning 
ten,  which  is  his  right  for  winning  the  cards,  rec- 
kons 40  :  and  this  is  called  a  capot. 

He  who  without  playing  down,  can  reckon  up 


not  reckon  up  as  many  or  more,  he  fhall  tell  4  for 
them  ;  for  if  he  had  50  he  fhould  tell  5  ;  if  60,  6, 
and  fo  on.  But  fuppofe  35  in  either  hand  fliould 
be  good,  he  who  has  them  is  to  reckon  as  much  as 
for  40,  that  is  to  fay  4;  and  the  fame  for  any 
number  betwixt  35  and  40  ;  but  for  any  number 
Iefsthan5,  nothing  is  reckoned  :  and  for  41,  42, 
43,  or  44,  you  reckon  but  4.  He  who  thus 
reckons  moft,  is  faid  to  win  the  poixit. 

The  point  being  over,  each  examines  what  fe- 
quences  he  has  of  the  fame  fuit,  vi%.  how  many 
tierces,  quartes,  or  fours,  quintts,  or  fives,  Jixiemes, 
or  fixes,  is'c.  For  a  tierce  they  reckon  three  points, 
for  a  quarte  four,  for  a  quinte  fifteen,  and  for  a 
ftxieme  fixteen,  i^c.     And  the  fevera!  fequences  are 
diftinguifhed   in  dignity  by  the  cards  they   begin 
from  :  thus,  ace,  king,  and  queen,  are  called  tierce 
major  ;  king,   queen,    and   knave,  tierce  to  a  king  ; 
knave,  ten,  and  nine,  tierce  to  a  knave  :  all  which 
tell  three.     Likewife  ace,  king,  queen,  and  knave, 
are  called  quarte  major ;    king,  queen,  knave,  ten, 
quarte  to  a  king,  and  thus  of  the  queen  and  knave, 
as  in  the  tierces  ;  which  quartes  tell  4.     The  ace, 
king,  queen,  knave,  ten,  are  qjjint.e  major  f    the 
king,  queen,  knave,  ten,   and  nine,  qjuinte  to 
a  king,  &c.  all   quintes  tell    15.     The  ace,   king, 
queer,  knave,  ten,  nine,    are  a  sixieme   major, 
and   this  fequcnce  follows  the  fame  order  of  the 
others,  and  tells    16.       The  beft  tierce,    quarte, 
quinte,  ox  fixicme,  i,  e.  that  which  takes  its  defcent 
from  the  beft  card,  prevails,  fo  as  to  make  all  the 
others  in  that  hand  good,  and  deftroy  all  thofe  in 
the  other  hand.     In  like  manner  a  quarte  in  one 
hand  fets  afide  a  tierce  in  the  o;her. 

The  fequences  over,  they  proceed  to  examine 
how  many  aces,  kings,  queens,  knaves,  and  tens,  each 
holds  ;  reckoning  for  every  three  of  any  fort,  three  : 
but  here  too,  as  \n  fequences,  he  that  with  the  fame 
number  of  threes  has  one  that  is  higher  than  any 
the  other  has,  ex.  gr.  three  aces,  has  all  his  others 
hereby  made  good,  and  his  adverfary's  a'l  fet  afide  : 
for  example,  if  I  have  three  aces,  three  knaves,  and 
three  tens,  and  my  adverfary  three  kings,  my  three 
aces  fets  his  three  kings  afide,  and  make  my  three 
knaves  and  three  tens  good  ;  fo  that  I  reckon  of  this 
article  only,  nine,  while  my  adverfary  reckons  no- 
thing. Four  of  any  fort,  viz.  four  aces,  or  four 
kings,  queens,  knaves,  or  tens,  are  called  a  quatorze, 
and  tell  14.  The  quatorze  of  aces,  letting  afide 
that  of  kings  ;  that  of  kings,  the  quatorze  of  queens  ; 
and  thus  of  the  knaves  and  tens,  for  you  are  allowed 
nothing  for  the  nines,  eights,  and  fevens. 

All  the  game  in  hand  being  thus  reckoned,  the 
eldeft  proceeds  to  play,reckoningone  for  every  card 


30  in  ban*',  either  in  carte-blanche,  points,  quintes, 
or  quutorzes,  when  the  other  has  reckoned  nothing, 
reckons  90 for  them  j  and  this  is  called  a repjc  que: 

and 


53B 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


and  if  he  can  makeup  above  30  in  hand,  he  reckons 
as  much  above  90  ;  e.  g.  if  he  has  32,  33,  or  34, 
he  reckons  g2>  93,  94,  and  fo  on. 

He  who  can  make  up  30,  part  in  hand  and  part 
by  play,  before  the  other  has  told  any  thing,  reck- 
ons them  for  60  ;  and  this  is  called  picquE. 

There  is  a  great  number  of  accidents  attending 
thisg.^me,  and  which  are  attended  with  penalties:  for, 

1.  if  the  dealer  by  miftake,  or  otherwife,  (hould 
give  a  card  too  many,  or  too  few,  it  is  at  the  option 
of  the  eldcft  hand  either  to  play  the  game,  or  make 
him  deal  again. 

2.  It  the  eldeft  having  13  cards  dealt  him,  will 
play,  he  muft  lay  out  5  cards  and  take  in  but  4  ;  and 
if  he  plays  when  he  has  but  1 1  cards  dealt  he  muft 
lay  out  a  card  lefs  than  what  he  takes  in.  The 
dealer  is  to  do  the  fame,  if  1 1  or  13  cards  fall  into 
his  hand  ;  with  this  difference,  that  it  is  the  choice 
of  the  eldeft  to  play,  or  make  him  deal  again. 

3.  If  one  (hould  have  15  cards,  or  but  9  dealt 
him,  which  may  happen  when  the  dealer  docs  not 
think,  what  he  is  doing  ;  in  this  cafe  the  cards  muft 
be  dealt  again,  and  neither  have  power  to  hinder  it. 

4.  He  that  has  carte- blanche,  point,  qu'inte,  or 
quatorxe  in  his  hand,  and  plays  down  a  card  before 
he  remembers  to  name  it,  lofes  the  benefit  thereof ; 
and  fo  he  does  of  every  thing  that  is  to  be  told  in 
hand,  if  he  does  not  name  them  before  he  plays 
down. 

5.  If  one  party  names  his  point,  and  the  other 
allows  it  to  be  good,  and  does  not  remember  to  fliew 
it  before  he  plays  down  a  card,  he  muft  not  reckon 
it ;  the  fame  muft  be  faid  of  tierces,  quartes,  and 
quintes,  if  he  forgets  to  fhew  them  before  he  plays 
down  a  card  ;  which  gives  an  opportunity  to  his 
antagonift  of  telling  his  points,  tierces,  quartcs,  or 
quintes,  &c.  thouoh  they  are  not  fo  good  ;  but  the 
antagonift  muft  likewife  fhew  them  before  he  plays 
down  to  the  leader's  card,  otherwife  he  lofes  the 
right  of  rec'coning  them  as  well  as  the  other. 

6.  He  that  \\3.s  three,  or  quatorzes  of  acrs,  tings, 
queens,  knaves,  or  tens,  is  not  obliged  to  fhew  them. 

7.  If  one  fliould  counts  three  or  quato'ze,  which 
he  has  not  in  his  hand,  though  he  laid  it  out  by 
miftake,  or  otherwife,  if  the  other  finds  it  out  ai 
any  time,  before  the  cards  are  cut  for  the  next  dea', 
he  cuts  him  off  from  all  he  reckoned,  and  he  is  to 
count  nothing  that  he  got  by  the  deal.  And  if  the 
eldeft  fliould  count  3  aces  when  he  laid  out  one  of 
them,  and  the  other  three  kings,  or  an^  thing  elfe, 
he  ftiall  count  his  three  king-,  though  he  does  not 
difcovcr  the  other's  falfe  reckoning  till  the  end  ot 
the  deal.  But  it  muft  be  obferved,  that  though  he 
who  reckons  falfe,  can  count  nothing  by  the  deal, 
yet  what  he  has  in  his  hand  may  hinder  the  other, 
and  fave  a  plcque  or  a  rcpicque  :  as  for  example,  he 


who  counts  3  aces  falfe,  and  has  a  quinte-mejor  in 
his  hand,  though  he  cannot  count  for  it,  yet  it  cuts 
the  other  off  from  counting  one  inferior  quinte, 
quarte,  or  tierce. 

8.  He  that  takes  in  a  card  more  than  he  lays  out, 
counts  nothing ;  but  he  that  takes  in  a  card  lefs 
than  he  lays  out,  may  count  his  game;  and  muft 
play  card  for  card  with  the  other  as  long  as  his 
cards  laft. 

9.  When  one  has  12  can^s,  and  the  other  but 
10  ;  if  he  who  has  the  12  cards  fliould  win  10 
tricks  fucceflively,  then  he  has  2  cards  left  in  his 
band,  which  we'll  fuppofe  to  be  the  king  <j(  fpad^s, 
and  any  fmall  card  of  another  fuit  ;  the  other  has 
but  one  card,  which  we'll  fuppofe  to  be  the  ace 
of fpades  ;  if  the  firft  plays  his  fmall  card,  the  other 
muft  play  the  ace  offpades  to  it.  Thus  he  fufFers 
a  capot  for  want  of  another  card  ;  and  this  feems 
juft,  bccaufe  it  was  his  own  fault  that  he  wanted 
\  card. 

10.  When  a  card  is  once  p'ayed  out  of  hand, 
it  cannot  be  taken  up  again,  unlcfs  it  be  the  cafe  of 
a  renounce;  if  then  by  miftake,  one  fhruM  throw 
down  a  card  of  a  different  fuit  when  he  has  one  of 
the  fame  in  his  hand,  he  may  take  it  up  again  and 
play  down  the  other. 

11.  If  the  leader  fh-iuld  play  a  king,  and  the 
other  having  the  ace  of  the  fame  fuit  in  his  hand, 
fhould,  in  furprize,  play  a  fmall  card  of  the  fame 
fort,  he  cannot  recal  it,  but  muft  be  content  to 
lufe  the  trick. 

12.  If  a  player  has  thrte  aces  in  his  hand,  and  by 
miftake,  fhoald  count  three  kings  inftead  of  three 
aces,  he  counts  nothing  that  deal,  provided  he  does 
not  recolledt  his  miftake  before  he  plays  down  his 
firft  card  ;  if  he  does,  he  faves  the  penalty. 

13.  If  when  the  deal  is  half  played  cut,  one  of 
the  parties  expei5lingto  win  no  more  tricks,  fhould 
throw  up  the  cards,  and  mix  them  with  the  reft  ; 
if  he  repents  after,  and  would  take  his  cards  up 
again,  he  is  not  allowed  :  but  if  they  are  not  mixed 
with  the  reft  he  may  take  them  up  again,  and  play 
)Ut  the  deal. 

14.  When  the  cards  are  play'd  out,  except  two 
or  three  on  one  fide,  and  one  fuppofing  the  other's 
cards  to  be  better  than  his  own,  fhould  throw  them 
Jown  ;  but  finding  himfLlf  miftaken,  he  takes  up 
his  cards  again,  he  {hall  be  obliged  to  play  what 
card  the  other  directs  him. 

15.  It  is  not  allowed  in  any  cafe  to  difrard  twice; 
nor  to  Icok  before  difcarding,  to  examine  the  cards 
you  are  to  take  in,  even  on  the  outfide,  left  they 
ftiould  be  known  by  their  back. 

16.  He  that  takes  in  firft,  fhould  alvvavs  tell  how 
many  he  leaves,  if  he  does  not  take  in  all  his  five  ; 


that  the  other  may  difcard  accordingly. 


17.  He 


GAMING. 


17.  He  that  takes  in  a  card  too  many,  and  ppr- 
oeives  it  before  lie  looks  on  them,  may  turn  it  back 
a^ainyunlefs  he  mixes  it  with  the  relt  of  his  game  ; 
in  which  cafe  he  lofes  the  whole  profit  of  tliat  deal, 
and  reckons  nothing. 

18.  If  :iny  one  t.ikes  the  cards  to  deal  when  it  is 
not  his  turn,  and  fliould  deal  them  all  out ;  and 
if  the  other  examines  his  cards,  provided  he  that 
dealt  by  miftake  has  not  looked  on  his  cards 
alfo ;  he  may  throw  them  up  to  be  dealt  by  the 
other. 

IQ.  If  the  perfon  who  is  to  fpeak  firfi-,  fhould 
fliew  a  pot  lit,  or  .i  fierce,  quarts,  or  qulnti,  tjfc-  or 
■d  three,  or  quatorze  of  any  thing,  which  the  other 
two  flioiild  allow  to  be  good  ;  if,  after  this,  he 
fii'oulJ  find  he  was  miltaken,  and  that  he  has  a 
better  of  that  fort  than  the  eldeft  fliew'd,  he  may 
count  it  afterwards  ;  and-  l:e  fufFcrs  nothing  by 
this  miftake,  provided  there  be  not  a  card  play'd 
down. 

20.  He  that  has  nothing  in  his  hand,  but  the 
tarte-hlanche,  faves  a  picque  or  a  reliqw. 

21.  If  you  fhould  have  in  your  hand  three  aces, 
three  kini;s,  three  cj-ucens,  three  knaves,  or  three 
tens,  and  in.difcarding  by  out  one,  or  either  of  thcfc, 
you  are  to  count  but  three:  then  the  other  may 
ask  you  which  a<:e,  which  khig,  isc.  you  laid 
out,  and  you  are  obliged  to  tel!  him  ;  and  if  he 
jcquires  it,  you  muft  fhew  him  which  you  Liid  out. 

22.  If  it  fhould  happen  that  the  pack  fhould  be 
falfe,  (as  fometimes  there  may  be  two  cards  of  a 
fort)  when  it  is  found  out,  that  de.iJgoes  for  no- 
thing; ;  but  if  you  have  pky'd  feveral  deals  before 
wi:h  (he  fame  pack,  they  are  all  good.  If  the  pack 
■fhould  be  found  falfe,  the  very  firff  deal  yfu  play 
vou  muft  adjufl  the  pack,  and  begin  again  ;  but 
you  are  not  to  cut  again  for  deal,  for  the  firft  cut- 
Mig  (lands  good. 

23.  Every  gamefler  i^  to  lay  his  difcard  near 
himieh";.  Vv'hich  he  has  the  liberty  of  looking  on  a^ 
often  as  he  pleafea. 

24.  He  that  cuts  the  cards  is  not  to  look  at  the 
bottom  ;  if  he  fhould,  for;j;etting  what  he  was   a 
bout,  they  muft  be  f!-,uiBed,  and  cut  again. 

25.  Whoever  is  found  taking  a  card  in,  th:.t  he 
h.id  laid  out  before,  lofes  the  gime. 

26.  When  hv  miftake  one  ha^  taken  a  caid  in, 
more  than  he  had  laid  out  befcre;  and  to  avoid 
the  penalf-v,  which  is  of  reckoning  nothing  that 
deal,  he  fiioulJ  attempt  fcQretly  to  lay  it  out  again, 
he  is  to  lofe  the  ganic^ 

Vv'ith  DiCH  the  m oft  ingenious  and  f.iir  game  ib 
httck-^-"mmo>!.  It  :  °qi:ire>  much  fkill  to  play  it  w.ll. 

The  men,  which  are  30  in  number,  are  equally 
divided  between  you  and  your  adverfary,  and  are 


539 


thus  placed;  2.  on  the  ace  point,  and  5  on  the 
fide  of  )  our  left-hand  table,  and  3  on  the  cinque, 
and  5  on  the  ace-point  of  your  right-hand  table,  an- 
I'wered  on  the  like  points  by  your  adverfary 's  men 
with  the  fame  number ;  or  thus,  2  of  your  men 
on  the  ace-point,  5  on  the  doubleyS'if,  ox  ficccitKfue 
points,  3  on  the  cinjue-polntin  your  tables,  and  five 
on  the jice-poinf  at  home,  and  all  thefe  pointed 
alike  by  your  adverfary. 

In  your  play  have  a  care  of  being  too  forward; 
and  be  not  rafli  in  hitting  every  blot,  but  with 
difcretion  and  confideration,  move  flowlv,  but  fe- 
curcly. 

Be   fij re  to  make  good  yo\iv  trey- ace-points  ■.  hit 
boldly,  and   come    away   as  faft  as   _\oti   can;  to  • 
which  end  if  your  dice  run  high,  you   will  make 
the  quicker  difpatch. 

When  you  come  to  bearing,  have  a  care  of 
making  when  you  need  not ;  and  doublets,  now, 
will  Hand  you  moft  in  ftead. 

If  your  table  be  clear,  before  your  adverfary's 
men  be  come  in,  that  is  a  back-gam?mn,  which  is 
three,  four  or  the  game. 

To  play  this  game  accurately  the  gamefler  muft 
guard  himfelf  againfl  difiippointment  in  the  dice, 
and  not  cloud  his  reafon  with  impatience  and 
paffion:  and  confider  well  the  chance  before  he 
moves  his  man.  For  which  he  will  do  well  to 
calculate  upon  the  doflrine  of  chances  laid  down 
at  the  beginning  of  this  trentife,  and  alfo  the  fol- 
lowing calculation. 

To  find  the  number  of  cafes,  wherein  any  given 
mimher  of  points  may  he  thrown  vjith  a  gii:en  nwubcr 
of  dice.  Let  p-\-\,  be  the  given  number  of 
points;  n  the  number  of  dice;  and  _/"the  number  of 
iides  or  faces  of  each  die  ;  let/>  — fzz.  a,  q — fr::.r, 
r — f^^h  •*  ■ — A='*  ^'^-  ^^^  number  of  cafes 
will.  be. 


T-I        p  —  2 

—  y^' — , 

2        3 


kc. 


+  — X 
I 


X^ 

2  3 

-I       r — 2 


&c. 


&c. 


&'C.  A—  X 


X—. 
I 

n      n — I 

<  — X . 

1  2 

I — 1       n — 2 

"  *     3 


S  1 1         s 2 

which  feries  is  to  be  continued  till  fome  of  th'S 
faiStors  either  become  equal  to  nothirtg,  or  negative. 
And   note,  fome  factors   of  the   feveral  produfts 


4_1        p^2 

■  X  a , 


&e. 


) 


a  ■ 


z 
in  n — s. 

Tj  ■Z.'S,  : 


3  123 

''  lie.  are  to  be  taksn  as.  there  are  units 


0:^1  S.- 


[  540  ] 


GARDENING. 


GARDENING  is  the  art  of  laying  out  in  tafte, 
and  cultivating  a  fpot  of  ground  with  a  va- 
riety of  plants,  flowers f  JItiubs,  and  fruit 
trees.  Hence 

Gardens  are  ufually  difllngulflied  into  flmver-gar- 
den,  frult-g,irtleii,  and  kitchen-garden;  the  firft  of 
which,  being  defigncd  for  pleafure  and  ornament, 
is  to  be  placed  in  the  mod  confpicuous  part,  that 
is,  next  to  the  back  front  of  the  houfc;  and  the 
tv/o  latter,  being  defigned  for  ufe,  (hould  be  placed 
lefs  in  fight.  But  though  the  fruit  and  kitchen- 
gardtns  are  here  mentioned  as  two  diftinft  gardens, 
yet  they  are  now  ufually  in  one;  and  that  with 
good  reafon,  fince  they  both  require  a  good  loil  and 
expofure,  and  equally  require  to  be  placed  out  of 
the  view  of  the  houfe. 

In  the  choice  of  a  place  proper  for  a  garden, 
the  moft  eflential  points  to  be  confidered  are  the 
fituation,  the  foil,  the  expofure,  water  and  pro- 
fpeft. 

lit.  As  to  the  fituation,  it  ought  to  be  fuch  a 
one  as  is  wholefome,  and  in  a  place  neither  too ' 
high  nor  too  low;  for  if  a  garden  be  too  high,  it  | 
will  be  cxpofed  to  the  winds,  which  are  very  pre-  j 
judicial  to  trees ;  and  if  it  be  too  low,  the  dampnels, ' 
the  vermin,  and  the  venomous  creatures  that  breed 
in  ponds  and  mafhv  places,  add  much  to  their  infa-  i 
liibrity.  The  moft  happy  fituation  is  on  the  fide 
■of  a  hill,  efpecially  if  the  flope  be  eafy,  and  in  a 
manner  imperceptible ;  if  a  good  deal  of  level 
ground  be  near  the  houfe,  and  if  it  abounds  with 
fprings  of  water  ;  for,  being  fheltered  from  the 
fury  of  the  winds,  and  the  violent  heat  of  the  fun, 
a  temperate  air  will  be  there  enjoyed  ;  and  the 
water  that  defcends  from  the  top  of  the  hill,  either 
from  fprings  or  rain,  will  not  only  fupply  fountains, 
canals,  and  cafcades  for  ornament,  but  when  it  has 
preformed  its  office,  will  water  the  adjacent  val- 
leys, and,  if  it  be  not  fufFered  to  ftagnate,  will 
render  them  fertile  and  wholefome.  Indeed  if  the 
<leclivity  of  the  hill  be  too  fteep,  and  the  water  be 
too  abundant,  a  garden  on  the  fide  of  it  may  fre- 
quently fufter,  by  having  trees  torn  up  bv  torrents 
and  floods ;  and  by  the  tumbling  down  of  the 
earth  above,  the  walls  may  be  demolifhed,  and  the 
walks  fpoiled.  It  cannot,  however,  be  denied, 
that  the  fituation  on  a  plain  or  flat,  has  feveral 
advantages  which  the  higher  fituation  has  not :  for 
floods  and  rain  commit  no  damage;  there  is  a  con- 
tinued profpevit  of  champaigns,  interfccted  by  rivers, 
ponds,  itnd  brooks,  meadows  aud.hilli  covered  with 


woods  or  buildings ;  befides,  the  level  furface  j» 
lefs  tirefome  to  walk  on,  and  lefs  chargeable,  than 
that  on  the  fide  of  an  hill,  fince  terrace  walks  and 
(leps  are  not  there  neceflary:  but  the  greateft  dif- 
advanlage  of  flat  gardens,  is  the  want  of  thofc 
extcnfive  profpcdts  v/hieh  rifing  grounds  afford. 

2dly.  A  good  earth,  or  foil,  is  next  to  be  cciifi- 
dered  ;  for  it  is  fcarce  poffible  to  make  a  fine  gar- 
den in  a  bad  foil;  there  are  indeed  ways  to  melio- 
rate ground,  but  they  are  very  expenfive;  and  fome- 
times  when  the  expencehas  been  beftowed  oflaying 
good  earth  three  feet  Jeep  over  the  whole  furface,  a 
whole  garden  has  been  ruined,  when  the  roots  of 
the  trees  have  come  to  reach  the  natural  bottom, 
lb  judge  of  the  quality  of  the  foil,  obferve  whe- 
ther there  be  any  heath,  thirties,  or  fuch-like 
weeds  growing  fpontaneoufly  in  it ;  for  they  arc 
certain  figns  that  the  ground  is  poor.  Or  if  there 
be  large  trees  growing  thereabouts,  oblerve  whe- 
ther thev  grow  crooked,  ill-fhaped,  and  grubby, 
and  whether  they  are  of  a  faded  green,  and  full  of 
mofs,  or  infefted  with  vermin  ;  if  this  be  the  cafe, 
the  place  is  to  be  rejected :  but,  on  the  contrary, 
if  it  be  covered  with  good  grafs  fit  for  pafture,  you 
may  then  be  encouraged  to  try  the  depth  of  the 
foil.  To  know  this,  dig  holes  in  feveral  places, 
fix  feet  wide,  and  four  feet  deep  ;  and  if  you  find 
three  feet  of  good  earth,  it  will  do  very  well;  but 
lefs  than  two,  will  not  be  fuffi.cient.  The  quality 
of  good  ground  is  neither  to  be  ftony,  nor  too 
hard  to  work ;  neither  too  dry,  too  nioift,  nor  too 
fandy  and  light;  nor  too  flrong  and  clayey,  which 
is  the  worft  of  all  for  gardens. 

3dly,  The  next  requtfite  is  Water,  the  want  of 
which  is  one  of  the  greateft  inconveniences  that 
can  attend  a  garden,  and  will  bring  a  certain  mor- 
tality upon  whatever  is  planted  in  it,  efpeciallv  in 
the  greater  droughts  that  often  happen  in  a  hot  and 
dry  fituation  in  fummer;  befides  its  ufefulnefs  in 
fine  gardens  for  making  fountains,  canals,  cafcades, 
^c.  which  are  the  greateft  ornaments  of  a  gar- 
den. 

4th!y,  The  lait  thing  to  be  confidered,  is  the 
profpe>ft  of  a  fine  country ;  and  though  this  is  not 
i'oabfolutely  neceflary  as  water,  yet  it  is  one  of  the 
moft  agreeable  beauties  of  a  fine  garden  :  befides, 
if  a  garden  be  planted  in  a  low  pL-ce  that  has  no 
kind  of  profpe£t,  it  will  not  only  be  difagreeable, 
but  unwholfome. 

In  the  laying  out  and  planting  of  gardens  the 
beauties  of  nature  (hould   always  be  ftudicd ;  for 

'  the 


GARDENING. 


the  nearer  a  garden  approaches  to  nature,  the  longer 
it  will  pleafe.     The  area  of  a  handfomc  garden, 
may  take  up  thirty  or  forty  acres,  but  not  more ; 
ami  tlie  following  rules  Hiould  be  obferved  in  the 
difpofition   of  it.     'J  here   ought  always   to  be  a 
dclcent  of  at  leaft  three  fteps  from  the  houfc  to  the 
garden ;  this  will  render  the  houfe  more  dry  and 
wholefome,  and  the  profpect  on  entering  the  gar- 
den more  extenfive.     The  firft  thing  that  fhould 
prefcnt  itfelf  to  view>  ftiould  be  an   open  lawn  of 
grafs,  which  ought  to  be  coiifiderably  broader  than 
the  front  of  the  building  ;  and  if  the  depth   be  one 
half  more   than  the  width,  it  will  have  a  better 
eftVifb :   if  on  tlie  fides  of  the  lawn  there  are  trees 
plant'-d  irregularly,  by   way  of  open  groves,  the 
regularty  of  the  lawn  will  be  broken,  and  the  whole 
rtndered  more  like  nature.    For  the  convenience  of 
walking  in  damp  weather,  this  lawn  fhould  be  fur- 
rounded   with  a    gravel   walk,  on    the  oudide   of 
which  fhould   be  borders   three  or  four  feet  wide, 
for  flowers:  and  from  the  back  of  thei'e,  the  pro- 
fpe£l  will   be   agreeably  terminated  by  a   Hope   of 
ever-green  fhrubs,  which,  however,  (hould  never 
be  fuflered  to  exclude  agreeable   profpecSls,  or  the 
view    of  handibme  buildings.      Thefe  walks  may 
Icid     through    the    different   plantations,    gently 
winding  about  in  an  eafy  natural  manner,  which 
will   be  more  agreeable    than   either  thofe    lona; 
ilrait    walks,    too   frequently    feen   in  gardens,  or 
tliofe  ferpentinc  windings,  that  arc  twiitred   about 
into  fo  many  fhort  turns,  as  to  r;  nder  it  difficult  to 
walk   in   them  :   and  as  no  garden  can  be  pleafmg 
where  there  is  a  want  of  fliade  and  fheker,  thefe 
walks  fhould  lead  as  foon  as  poffible   into  planta- 
tions, where  perfons  may  walk  in  private,  and  be 
flickered    from   the  wind.     Where   the  borders  of  i 
the  gardens  are  fenced  with   walls  or  pales,  they 
fhould   be  concealed  with  plantations  of  flowering 
flirubs   intermixed   with  laurels,   aiid  other  ever- 
greens, which  will  have  a  good  effe(£f,  and  at  the 
lame  time  conceal  the  fences,  which  are  difagreea- 
ble,  when   left   naked  and  expofed    to   the  iight. 
Groves  are  the   moft  agreeable   parts  of  a  garden, 
fo  that   there  cannot  be    too  many   of  them;  only 
that  they  muft   not  be  too  near  the  houfc,  noi;  be 
futTcicd  to  blcc'.v  up  agreeable  profpecSts.     To  ac- 
company  parterres,    groves    opened   in     compart- 
ments, quincunxes,  and  arbour-work  with  foun- 
tains, i3'(',    are  very   agreeable.     Some   groves    of 
ever-greens  ihould  be  planted  in  proper  places,  and 
fome   fquares   of  trees   of  this   kind  may   alfo  he 
planted  among  the  other  wood. 

Narrow  rivulets,   if  they  have  a  conftant  ftrcam, 
and    are  judicioully  led    about   a  garden,,  have  a 
better  effect  than  many  of  the  large  Ifagnatingponds  j 
or  caiiiils,  fo  frequently  made  in  Jarge  gardens. 


54^ 

I  When  wildernefles  are  intended,  they  f^iould  not 
be  cur  into  ftars  and  other  ridiculous'figures,  nor 
formed  into  mazes  or  labyrinths,  whichin  a  great 
defign  appear  trifling.  Buildings,  ftatues,  and 
i  vafes,  appear  very  beautiful ;  but  t"hcy  fhould  never 
be  placed  too  near  each  other :  magnificent  foun- 
tains are  alfo  very  ornamental  ;  but  they  ought 
never  to  be  introduced,  except  there  be  water" to 
keep  then  conflantly  running.  The  fame  rnay  alfo 
be  obferved  of  cafcades  and  other  falls  of  water. 

in  fhort,  the  feveral  parts  of  a  garden  flwulil  be 
diverfifitd  ;  but  in  places  where  the  eye  takes  in 
the  whole  .at  once,  the  two  fides  fhould  be  always 
the  fame.  In  the  bufinefs  of  defigns,  the  aim 
fhould  be  always  at  what  is  natural,  great  and 
noble.  The  general  difpofition  of  a  garden,  and 
of  its  parts,  ought  to  be  accommodated  to  the 
different  fituations  of  the  ground,  to  humour  its 
inequalities  to  proportion  the  number  and  forts  of 
trees  and  fhrubs  to  each  part,  and  to  fliut  out 
from  the  view  of  the  garden  no  objefts  that  may 
become  ornamental.  And  before  a  garden  is 
planned  out,  it  ought  ever  to  be  confidered,  what 
it  will  be  when  the  trees  have  had  twenty  years 
growth. 

The  art  of  gardening  affords  a  variety  of  de- 
lights. It  teaches  how  to  difpofe  fruit  trees,  flowers, 
and  herbs  to  the  beft  advantage,  whether  for  profit 
or  pleafure ;  and  fliews  how  to  prepare  the  foil  for 
fowing  the  different  kinds  of  feeds,  as  well  as  how 
to  treat  the  plants  when  grown  up. 

So  much  for  Gardens  in  general.  But  to 
defcend  to  particulars. 

The  KncHEN  Garden,  or  a  commodious 
piece  of  ground  laid  out  by  art  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  fruit,  herbs,  pulfe,  and  other  vegetables, 
for  the  ufe  of  the  kitchen,  ought  to  be  fituated  on 
one  fide  of  the  houle,  near  the  ftahles,  from: 
whence  the  dung  may  be  eafily  conveyed  into  it ; 
and  after  having  built  the  wall,  borders  fhoidd  be 
made  under  them,  which,  according  to  Miller,. 
ought  to  be  eight  or  ten  feet  broad  :  upon  thofe  bor- 
ders expofed  to  the  fouth,  many  ibrts  of  early 
plants  may  he  ibwn ;  and  upon  thofe  expofed  to 
the  north,  you  may  have  fome  late  crops,  taking 
care  net  to  plant  any  fort  of  deep-rooting  plantSj, 
efipcci.dly  beans  and  pea^,  too  ne.ar  the  fruit  trees. 
You  fhould  next  proceed  to  divide  the  ground  into 
qu.arters;  the  belt  figurt  s  for  thefe  is  a  fquare,  or. 
an  oblong,  if  tiic  ground  wiil  admit  of  it ;  other- 
wile  they  may  be  of  that  fiiape  which  will  be  moft 
advantageous  to  the  g:oand  :  the  fize  of  thefe 
quarters  fhould  be  proponioned  to  that  of  the  gar- 
den :  if  tbey  are  too  (mall,  your  ground  will  be 
lolt  in  walks,  and  the  quaiters  being  enclofed  by 
efpalicrs  of  fruit-fruits,  the  plants   will  diaw  up 

Z  z  2,  2  AerJer, 


I'he  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  <2;?</ Sciences. 


542 

(lender,  for  want  of  a  more  open  expofure.     The 
walks  ftiould  alfo  be  proportioned  to  the  frze  of  the 
ground  ;  thefe  in  a  fmall  garden  fiiould  be  fix  feet 
broad,  but  in  a  larger  one  tei: }  and  on  each  fide  of 
^he  walk  there  flio-jIJ  bt  allowed  a  border  three  or 
.four  feet  wide,  between  it  and  the  efpalier,  and  in 
ihefe  borders  may  be  fovvn  fome  fmall  fallads,  or 
any  other  herbs  that  do  not  take  deep  root,  or 
continue  long :  but  thefe  quarters  (hould  not  be 
fown  or  planted  with  the  fame  crop  two  years  toge- 
ther.    In  one  of  thefe  quarters,  fituated  neareft  to 
the  ftables,  and  beft  defended  from  the  cold  winds, 
lliould  be  the  hot-beds,  for  early  cucumbers,  me- 
lon?, is'c.  and   to  thefe  there  fliuuld  be  a  paflage 
from    the  ftables,   and  a  gate  through   which   a 
fmall  cart  may  enter.     The  moft  important  points 
of  general  culture  confift  in  well  dig2,ing  and  ma- 
nuring the  foil,  giving  a  proper  diitance  to  each 
plant,  according  to  their  different  growths,  as  alfo 
in   keeping  them  clear  from  weeds ;  for  this  pur- 
pofe  you  Ihoiild  always  oblbrve  to  keep  your  dung- 
hills clear  frcm  them ;  if  this   is  not  done,  their 
feeds  will  be  conftantly  brought  in,    and  fpread 
with  the  dung. 


The  FLOWJIR-GARDEN,  which  A\o  is  called  the 
pkafure  gardeti,  is  compofed  of,  or  laid  out  in  par- 
terres^ VI ft  as,  glades,  graves,  compartments,  quin- 
cunxes, verdant  "walls,  arbour  work,  mazes,  laby- 
rinths, fountains,  cabinets,  cajcades,  canals,  ter- 
races, is'c. 

The  PAJRTERRE,  is  a  level  divifion  of  ground, 
which,  for  the  moft  part,  faces  the  fouth,  and  beft 
front  of  thfi  houfe,  and  is  generally  furnilhed  with 
greens,  flowers,  ije. 

There  are  parterres  of  embroidery  ;  parterres 
cut  in  fliell-woik,  in  fcroll-work,  t?"f.  with  fand 
alleys  between. 

An  oblong,  or  long  (quate,  is  accounted  the 
moft  proper  figure  for  a  parterre,  the  fides  v.'hereof, 
to  be  as  two,  or  two  and  a  half  to  one. 

FloW£Rs  make  the  greateft  ornament  of  a 
parterre ;  thefe  flowers  are  diftingiiifned  into  early 
or  fpring  Jicivers,  which  fiourifh  in  the  months  of 
March,   Jpril,  and  Alay. 

Such  are  the  aiiemonies,  daffodils,  hyacinths, 
tulips,  jonquils,  cowflips,  primrofes,  £?'<:. 

Summer  Flowers,  which  open  in  June,  July- 
•and  Augujl,  as  pinks,  ^illiflowers,  lilies,  daifies, 
^campanulas,  poppies,  fun-fiov/ers,  is'c. 

Autumnal,  or  late  Flowers,  denote  thofe  of 
September  and  Gftober;  as  indian  pinks,  rofes, 
panfy,  flower-gentle,  i^c. 

Of  thefe  Flowers,  thofe  which  fubfift  all  the 
year,  we  mean  in  the  ftem,  or  root,  at  leaft,  are 
.called  perennials. 


And  thofe  which  are  to  be  planted,  or  fowed 
afrcfti   every  year,    according   to   the  feafon,  are 

called  annuals. 

Vista  is  an  open  and  light  paffage  made 
through  a  thick  v;ood,  grove,  or  the  1  ke,  by 
lopping  off  the  branches  of  trees,  along  the 
way. 

Grove,  in  large  and  magnificent  gardens,  is 
ufually  a  plot  of  trees,  inclofed  witli  pJ'Hidoes, 
confifiing  of  tall  trees,  as  elms,  horic  di. 'huts, 
isc.  the  tops  whereof  make  a  tuft,  or  plump,  and 
fhade  the  ground  below. 

Compartment  is  a  defign  compofed  of  fe- 
veral  different  figures,  difpofed  with  fymmctry,  to 
adoin  zpartorre. 

Alley,    in  gardening,,  is  a  flrait,  parallel  walk, 
bordered   or  bounded    on   each  hand   v/ith   tree?, 
!  ftirubs,  or  the  like. 

I       Alleys  are  ufually  laid   cither  with  grafs  or  '^x\- 
ivel. 

i  An  alky  is  diflinguiflicd  from  a  path  In  this  ; 
that  in  an  alley  there  muft  always  be  room  enough 
for  two  perfons,  at  leaft,  to  walk  a-brcaft. 

In  the  planting  of  fruit- trees,  if  the  foil   be  a 
hungry  gravel,  or  land,  Mr.  S-mit-zer  directs  where 
the  trees   are  to  be  planted,  to  be  dug  tvio  feet 
deep,  and  three  or  four  over,  and  filled  with  rotten 
horfes  or   cows  dun^,    mixed   with   rich   mould: 
if  it  be  marie  or  ftift'  clay,  a  compoft  of  rubbifti, 
lime,  pieces  of  brick,  aflies,  fand-,  l^c.  will  be  the 
beft  to  mix  with  dung  and  mould  ;  though  he  is  of 
opinion,  that  untried   earth,   dug  from  a  vv:\fte  or 
common  where  cattle  have  been  fed,  would  prove 
the  beft  foil  for  young  trees. 

The  trees  being  now  taken  out  of  the    nurferj'. 


the  biggeft  roots  are  to  be  fhoitened  to  about  fix 
inches  ;  all  the  fmall  fibres  taken  oft';  and  the  head 
to  be  pruned,  fo  as  not  to  leave  above  two  branches ; 
and  thofe  not  above  fix  inches  long. 

The  wall -trees  to  be  placed  as  far  from  the  wall 
as  pofnble ;  that  there  may  be  the  more  room  for 
the  roots  to  fpread.  Then  filling  up  the  hole  with 
mould,  there  remains  nothing  but  to  fecure  the 
roots  from  the  winter's  froft,  by  covering  the  fpot 
with  ilraw,  fern,  dung,  Isic.  And  in  fummer,  from 
the  fun  ;  by  fand,  and  pebble  ftones. 

For  trees  planted  in  borders,  the  common 
practice  is  to  make  a  trench  by  the  wall  fide,  two 
Seet  broad,  and  as  many  deep.  This  trench  they 
fill  with  old  dung,  mixed  with  earth,  lightly  laid, 
near  as  high  as  the  borders  are  iirtended  to  be  ;  and 
then  trodden  down  to  half  the  height  in  the  places 
where  the  trees  are  intended  to  be.  It  is  prudent 
to  plant  the  trees  fhallow,  and  to  raife  the  earth 
about  them;  cfpccially  in  a  wet,  clayey  foil. 

.    •  The 


GARDENING: 


543 


The  places  near  the  walls  are  mod  advant:ige- 
-oufly  filled  with  dwarfs;  they  feldotn  grow  above 
•four  or  five  feet  high,  and  the  fruit  they  yield  is 
uiHially  thu  fined  and  belt. 

There  are  di\crs  ways  of  producing  dwarfs. — 
'divarf-pears  are  ufually  had  by  inoculating  on 
quince-ftocks,  which  grow  the  dwarfs  height. 

As  for  dwarf-applfs,  the  flocks  they  chufe  to 
eraft  on   are  thofe  raifed   of  the  cuttinsrs   of  the 

apple-tree. In  order  to  provide  fl-ocks  of  each 

kind,  they  chufe  fuch  ftems,  and  branches,  as 
grow  ftraitdt,  in  the  month  of  Otiohcr,  from  trees 
whofe  cutttings  will  grow,  or  which -in  the  places 
they  are  to  be  grafted  in  are  at  leaft  an  inch  thick : 
Thefe  they  cut  off  an  hand's  breedth  below  the 
knots  or  burs,  which  are  the  places  where  they 
.ufually  put  forth  their  roots  ;  and  cut  off  the  top 
that  they  inay  not -he  above  a  yard  long.  If  they 
cannot  be  got  fo  long  of  quinces,  fliorter  muft  do. 
Cut  off  all  fide  branches  clofe  to  the  body,  except 
one  fmall  twig  near  the  top  for  the  fap  to  vent  itfelf 
at.  Set  them  in  beds,  as  feed  plants  are  :  and  keep 
them  a  foot  above  ground. 

Such  trees  alone  as  are  apt  to, put  forth  roots,  are 
proper  for  dwarf  flocks  ;  as  the  Kentifh  codlin. 
genneting,  fome  forts  of  fweet  apples,  bitter- 
fweets,  the  quince-tree,  mulberry-tree,  paradife 
apple- tree. 

As  for  divarf  pear-ti-ees,  flocks  may  be  railed 
for  them  from  the  fuckers  of  old  pear-trees  :  Eife 
cut  off  the  top  of  fome  old  ill  pear-tree,  and  the 
roots  will  caft  forth  fuckers. 

For  (/zt/ar/" cherries  and  plumbs,  fuckers  of  the 
common  red  cherry,  and  ordinary  plumb-tree  are 
the  bell:. 

As  to  the  grafting  or  inoculating  oi  divarf  Jlocks, 
Jt  mufl:  be  done  as  low  as  may  be,  with  two  cyons, 
and  thofe  longer  than  in  grafting  for  long  ftandards 
•that  they  may  fpread  from  the  ground. 

As  to  the  planting  of  dnarftrecs  it  is  befl:  in  a 
light,  hot  earth,  from  the  beginning  of  Otlober, 
to  the  end  of  November.  In  cold,  wet  foil,  it  is 
beft  in  Alarch  and  April.  The  ftem  of  the  tree 
to  be  cut  off  feven  oi  eitrht  inches  above  the  graft : 
and  remember  to  cut  off  half  the  length  of  the 
roots  and  hairy  fibres  ;  to  turn  the  cut  of  the  tree 
towards  the  north  ;  to  let  the  graft  always  be  two 
or  three  inches  above  the  ground,  leaft  it  take 
foot ;  to  plant  them  {hallow,  as  being  apt  of  thcm- 
felves,  in  light  ground  to  fink  a  foot  deep,  which 
js  fufficient ;  and  to  cover  the  ground,  when  they 
are  planted  with  horfe-litter. 

^^'"ith  regard  lo  fruit-trees,  Monf.  ^inline  oh- 
ferves,  i.  'I'hat  the  cutting  and  trimming  of  young 
trees,  liinderi  them  from  quick  bearing ; 


it  contributes  both  to  tlic  beauty  of  the  tree,  and 
the  richnefs  and  flavour  of  the  fruit. 

2.  That  kernel  fruit-trees,  come  later   to   bear 

ih'dn /lone  fruit-trees  ;  the  time  required  by  the  firtt 
before  tiiey  arrive  at  a  fit  age  for  bearing,  being, 
one  with  another,  about  four  or  five  years :  but 
that  when  they  do  begin,  they  bear  in  greater 
plenty  than  fi one-fruit. 

3.  Th-dtfhnefriiit,  figs,  and  grapes,  commonly 
bear  confiderably  in  three  or  four  years;  and  bear 
full  crops  the  fifth  and  fixth  years  ;  and  hold  it 
for  many  years,  if  well  ordered. 

4.  That  fruits  in  the  fame  neighbourhood  will 
ripen  a  fortnight  fooner  in  fome  grounds,  than  in 
others  of  a  differe!it  temperature. 

5.  That  in  the  fame  fpot,  hot  or  cold  fummers 
fet  confiderably  forward,  or  put  backwards  the 
famey"r;/;V. 

6.  That  the  fruits  of  wall-trees  generally  ripen 
before  thofe  on  ffandards ;  and  thofe  on  flandards 
before  thofe  on  dwarfs, 

7.  That  the y)"///^  of  w-all- trees  planted  in  the 
fouth  and  eafl:  quarters  commonly  ripen  about  the 
lame  time  ;  only  thole  in  the  fouth  rather  earlier 
than  thofe  in  the  eaft;  thofe  in  the  weft  are  later 
by  eight  or  ten  days,  and  thofe  in  the  north  by 
fifteen  or  twenty. 

Monfieur  de  Rejfins,  in  the  fnemiirrs  de  I'aca- 
de?nie  Royale  di's  Scieriees,  anno  1 7 16,  gives  a  me- 
thod of  grafting  fione  fruit-trees  without  lofing  of 
time;  fo  that  a  tree  which  bore  forry  fruit  the 
preceding  year,  fhall  bear  the  choiceft  the  year  fol- 
lowing. 

In  order  to  this,  it  Is  to  be  obferved  ;  that  there 
are  three  kinds  of  branches  :  Wood-branches  grow- 
ing immediately  from  the  ftem  or  fl:ock  of  the 
tree  :  fruit  branches  ;  and  branches  half  wood  halt 
fruit  ;  being  fuch  as  arifing  from  the  largeft  wood 
branches  prefcrve  the  charafler  thereof,  but  which 
in  two  years  time  will  produce  fruit  branches.  Now, 
it  is  thefe  intermediate  kind  of  branches,  that  we 
are  to  chufe  for  fcutcheons  or  o-rafts.  They  are 
readily  known  by  being  bigger  than  the  fruit 
branches,  and  lefs  than  the  wood- branches :  th';y 
have  each  of  them  two,  three,  four,  or  even  five 
leaves  to  each  eye,  and  the  eyes  are  further  diftant 
from  each  other  than  thofe  of  the  fruit -tranches, 
but  clofer  than  thofe  of  the  wood  branches.  It 
muft  be  added,  that  the  eyes  on  fuch  tranches  are 
three;  one  intended  for  a  wood  branch,  being 
fituate  between  the  two  leaves,  and  advancing  lur- 
ther  than  the  other  two,  which  are  intended  for 
fruit,  and  are  placed  without  fide  the  leaves.  Thc'e 
laft  are  the  precife  fubjeds  to  be  chofea  for  the 
thougli '  grafting  withal.  Twelve  of  thefe  btanches,  more 
I  or  lefs,  according  to  the  ftrength  of  the  tree  to  be 
I 


"rafted 
o 


544  ^'^  Univcrfal  Miftory  of  Arts  ^w/ Sciences. 


grafted  on,  being  duly  applied,  we  may  deperul 
oil  a  crop  of  good  fruit  the  very  next  year,  on 
the  fame  tree,  which  lad  year  produced  the 
worft. 

Engrafting,  Grafting,  or  Graffing, 
ir»  agriculture  and  gordcmng,  h  the  art,  or  a£t,  of 
inferting,  or  fixing  a  cyon,  fhoot,  or  bud  of  one 
tree,  in  the  fiock  of  another  ;  in  order  to  correct 
and  improve  its  fruit. 

Engrafti>!g  is  the  art  of  applying  a  graft,  or 
{hoot  of  one  plant,  to  the  ftuck  of  another  ;  in 
fuch  manner,  as  that  tlic  lap  paffing  freel)'  through 
both,  the  tree  grafted  on  may  produce  the  fame 
kind  of  fruit  with  that  whence  tlie  graft  is  taken. 

Engrafting  only  differs  from  inoculation,  in  that 
the  latter  is  performed  when  the  fap  is  at  the  highefl: 
in  fumnier  ;  and  the  former  ere  it  riles,  at  leaft, 
in  any  quantity. 

Inoculation,  in  Agriculture  and  gardening, 
is  a  kind  of  grafting,  or  an  artificial  operation,  by 
which  the  bud  of  one  fruit-tree  is  fet  into  the 
branch  or  flock  of  another,  fo  as  fometimcs  to 
make  different  forts  of  fruit  grow  on  the  fame 
tree. 

There  are  various  ways  of  performing  this :  the 
anticnt  method  was,  by  making  a  (hallow  incifion 
in  the  bark,  where  the  knot,  or  a  fhoot  or  eye,  ocu 
lus,  f  whence  the  operation  takes  its  name)  begins 
lo  bud  forth,  into  which  a  prom.ifiiig  flioot  of 
•another  kind  was  inferted,  and  the  incifion  doled 
\ip  with  fat  earth  or  clay. 

The  method  of  inoculation  now  in  the  beft  re- 
pute, as  delivered  by  Mr.  Lawrence,  is  as  follows: 
they  cut  ofF  a  vigorous  flioot,  from  the  tree  that  is 
to  be  propagated,  a  month  before,  or  after,  mid- 
summer ;  then  chufe  out  a  fmooih  place  in  the  flock 
(which  fhould  not  be  above  three  or  four  years 
growth)  making  a  perpendicular  flit  in  the  bark  a 
^little  ab')ve  an  inch  long,  and  another  at  right 
angles  to  it,  at  the  lower  end,  to  give  way  to  the 
opening  of  the  bark.  This  done,  the  bark  is 
gemly  loofened  from  the  wood  on  both  fides  with  a 
pen  knife  beginning  at  the  bottom. 

'i  hey  then  prepare  the  bud,  cutting  It  ofF  from 
the  aforefaid  vigorous  llioot,  and  taking  with  it  as 
much  of  the  woo.!  above  as  below  it,  and  as  near 
as  may  be  to  the  Lngth  of  the  flit  in  the  flock. 
When  the  bud  is  thus  cut  off,  they  take  out  the 
woody  part  of  the  bud,  and  put  the  bud  it.elf  in 
between  the  bark  and  the  wood  of  the  flock,  at 
the  crofs  flit  before  opened,  leading  it  upwards  by 
the  ftalk  where  the  leaf  grew,  til!  it  exaftly  clofes. 
They  then  bind  it  about  v,  ith  woollen  yarn,  the 
better  to  make  all  parts  of  it  clcfe  exadlly,  that 
the  bud  Hiay  imbody  itfclf  v/ith  the  flock,  which 
it  will  do  in  thrte  weeks  time. 


This  opera  I  ion  is  faid  to  befl  performed  In  a 
cloudy  day,  or  in  an  evening  ;  and  it  is  obfcrvcd, 
that  the  quicker  it  is  done,  the  better  it  fucceeds. 

This  pra£Hce  has  the  advantage  of  engrafting  in 
many  refpe^ts,  both  as  it  is  more  fecure,  itfcldom 
lailiug  of  having  effeft,  efpecially  if  two  or  three 
buds  are  put  into  the  fame  ffock  ;  a:3d  as  its  fuccefs 
is  more  readily  d  if  covered.  Indeed  when  large 
''ocks  are  to  be  praclifed  on,  inociilntion  is  not  pro- 
per, and  thsy  are  obliged  to  have  rccourfe  to 
grafting. 

This  one  rule  is  obferved  to  hold  univerfally,. 
vix.  That  no  fuccefs  is  to  be  expected  in  inocu- 
lation, if  the  fap  does  not  run  well  ;  that  is,  if 
the  bark  will  not  part  readily  from  the  wood  of 
the  flock. 

Engrafting  is  one  of  the  principal  operations 
in  gardening,  and  that  whereon  the  goodnefs  of 
our  fruit  greatly  depends. 

It  is  very  extraordinary  that  the  feeds,  or  ker- 
nels, or  ftones  of  a  fruit,  as  an  apple,  pear,  peach, 
plumb,  cherry,  ISc.  being  fown.  degenerate  in  the 
ground  ;  fo  that  the  tree  arifing  from  it  is  of  ano- 
ther kind,  a  fort  of  wilding,  harfhcr,  fourer,  and 
coarfer  than  that  of  the  parent  tree.  To  correiSl 
thi-'',  trees  thus  reared,  XTM^hz  grafted  from  other 
better  kindj. 

Apples  are  commonly  raifed  by  engreifting  the  in- 
tended kinds  on  crab-flocks,  procured  by  fowing- 
the  kernels  :  fo  are  pears  procured  by  grafting  o;i 
the  wild  pear- flock  :  tho'  for  dwarf  or  wall-trees, 
they  generally  chufe  to  engraft  on  the  quince- 
flock. 

'Ihey  will  do  alfo  if  grafteion^x  white-thorn. 
Peaches  are  produced  on  an  almond  or  plumb- 
ffock.  Indeed  in  this  fruit,  it  fometimes  happens 
that  the  flone  fown  produces  better  fruit  than  that 
from  which  it  was  taken  ;  but  this  is  not  common  ; 
bcfidc,  that  the  tree  in  fuch  cafe,  is  long  ere  it, 
comes  to  bear.  Plumbs  are  railed  by  engrafting 
on  a  damfon,  or  wild  plumb-flock  ;  and  cherries 
on  rhe  black  cherrj',  or  merry-flock,  raifed  from, 
flones. 

Our  beft  gardeners  likewife,  erpraft  their  lefs- 
kindly  trees  from  other  better  of  the  fame  fort,  to 
mend  them  ;  as  alfo  the  fmaller  and  fmgle  flowers, 
gilliflowers,  l^c.  from  the  larger  ^nd  finer. 

To  produce  Jiocks  for  ENGRAFTING  on.  The 
curious  furnifli  us  with  other  extraordinary  and 
anomolous  inflances  of  engrafting  :  as  of  apples  on 
plane,  elder,  thorn,  cabbage-flalk,  isc.  and  the 
like  of  pears,  is'c.  Pears  on  apple-trees,  on  elms^ 
&c.  Cherries  on  the  lawrel  ;  coral  berries  on  the 
plumb  :  beech  on  the  chefnut,  oak  on  tbe  elm, 
goofberry  en  the  curiant,  tbe  viae  on  the  cherry- 


tree,  l^(> 


The 


GARDENING: 


54-5 


Tlie  tAethods,  or  kinds  Bf  engrafting  are  various ; 
as  grafting  in  the  cleft,  grafting  in  the  rind,  wiiip 
grafting,  grafting  by  approach,  fcutcheon  grafting, 
root  gyaftin^  reiterated  grafing,  grafting  on 
branches,    ^c. 

The  apparatus,  or  inftrument  ufed  therein,  are 
faws  to  cut  oft'  the  heads  of  flocks  ;  knives  to 
make  clefts  ;  a  chiflel  to  pare  away  the  wood  ; 
clay,  mixed  with  horfe-dung,  to  prevent  freezing, 
and  with  tanners  hair  to  prevent  cracking  ;  bafs- 
llrings,  or  woollen-yarn,  to  tie  the  grafts  with, 
«nd  grafting  wax. 

Grafting  in  the  deft,  ory7«C/(-,  called  alfo  Slit 
Grafting,  is  the  moft  antient,  and  ordinary 
way  ;  we  have  a  very  beautiful  defcription  of  it  in 
P^irgii,  Geor.  II.  v.  78.  It  is  chiefly  ufed  for  mid- 
dle-fized  flocks,  from  one  to  two  inches  diameter. 
Its  feafon  is  the  months  of  fanuaryy  Fi-bruary,  and 
Aiarch. 1  he  method  sn  now  pradifed  is  thus 

The  head  of  the  flock  being  fawn,  or  cut  off 
fmooth  and  clean,  a  perpendicular  cleft  is  made 
therein,  nearly  two  inches  deep,  with  a  ftrong 
knife,  orchifTel,  as  near  the  pith  as  may  be  to  mils 
it.  In  this  cleft,  the  ^V(7/i/;/^^  chiflel,  or  wedge,  is 
fut  to  keep  it  open.  Yhz  graft,  orcyon,  is  pre- 
pared by  cutting  it  aflope,  in  form  of  a  wedge,  to 
fuit  the  ck-ft  ;  only  leaving  a  fniall  (houldcr  on  each 
fide  :  and,  when  cut,  is  to  be  placed  exactly  in 
the  cleft,  fo,  as  that  the  inner  bark  of  the  cyon 
may  aptly  and  clofely  join  in  the  inner  part  of  the 
bark  or  rind  of  the  flock  ;  in  the  dexterous  per- 
formance of  which,  the  chief  fecret  confifts,  if 
the  cleft  pinch  too  tight,  a  fmall  wedge  may  be 
left  in  it  to  bear  the  flrefs.  And  laflly,  the  cleft 
is  covered  over  with  clay  ;  or  rather,  as  Mr.  Gentil 
advifes,  with  mofs,  or  the  frefh  bark  of  a  tree 
bound  on  with  oficr. 

Grafting  in  the  rind,  or  Jhoulder  grafting, 
called  alfo  fiicing,  and  packing,  is  praiSifed  in  the 
latter  end  of  April,  or  the  beginning  of  May. 
The  method  is  as  follows. 

The  top  of  the  flock  is  cut  off  in  a  fmooth,  flrait 
place  :  then  the  cyon,  or  graft  is  prepared  by 
cutting  on  one  fide  from  the  joint,  or  feam  down 
flopewife,  making  the  flope  about  an  inch  long; 
and  obferving  its  bent,  diat  fo  when  the  cyon  is 
fixed  to  the  flock,  it  may  ftand  nearly  upright. 
At  the  top  of  the  flope  they  make  a  fno-jlder, 
whereby  it  i"?  to  refl  on  the  flope  of  the  flock. 
The  whole  flope  to  be  plain  and  fmooth,  that  it 
may  lie  even  to  the  fide  of  the  flock.  As  to  thei 
length  of  the  cyon,  for  a  ftand:'.i-d-tree,  it  may 
lie  about  four  inches  from  the  ilioulder ;  but  for  a ' 
dwarf  or  v/a!l-ticc,  fix  inches. 

The  cyon  prepared  ;  the  out  fide  is  applied  to 
the  weflo  or  ibuth-weft  fide  of  the  flock,  and  its 


length  and  breadth  raeafured  thereon;  which  done, 
the  bark  of  the  ftock  is  cut  away  to  thofc  dimen- 
fions,  that  the  cut  part  of  the  cyon  may  fit  it. 
Wherein,  regard  is  to  be  had  to  the  bignefs  of  the 
ftock,  and  the  thicknefs  of  the  bark,  to  proportion 
the  length  and  breadth  of  the  chip  thereto  ;  other- 
wife  the  paflages  of  tlic  juice  in  the  ftock  and  cyon 
will  not  meet.  Laflly,  laying  the  cut-part  of  the 
cyon  on  that  of  the  ftock,  they  bind  them  together 
with  woollen-yarn,  and  cover  the  whole  with  clay 
an  inch  above,  and  as  far  below,  the  flock's  head ; 
working  it  round  the  cyon  till  it  become  fliarp  at 
top,  that  the  rain  may  run  down  it. 

Grafting,  in  the  bark,  is  performed  thus. 
Prepare  the  ftock  and  cyon,  as  in  grafting  in  the 
rind  ;  but  inftead  of  cutting  the  bark  of  the  fiock, 
flit  the  fame  on  the  fouth-wefl  fide  from  the  top, 
almofl  as  long  as  the  floped  part  of  the  cyon,  and 
at  the  top  of  the  flit  loofen  the  bark,  with  the  top 
of  your  knife.  Thruft  your  inflrument,  made  of 
ivory,  filver  or  the  like,  and  formed  at  the  end  like 
the  flope  end  of  the  cyon,  but  much  lefs,  down, 
between  the  bark  and  wood,  to  ma!ie  room  for  the 
cyon  ;  which  being  put  in  the  b;uk  is  to  be  fo 
managed,  as  that  it  may  fail  clofe  to  the  flock  and 
edges  of  the  cyon. 

Grafting  i_y  approach,  called  vXh  inarching^ 
and  ahlaSlation. 

//-^j/^  Grafting,  or  Tj^^z-y-Grafting,  i.<  a 
fort  of  grafting  in  the  rind,  proper  for  fniali  flocks, 
from  an  inch  diameter  to  a  quarter  of  ari  inch. 
Mr.  London  fpeaks  of  it  as  the  mofl  efteclual  way 
of  any,  and  that  mofl  in  ufe. 

In  this,  the  flock  and  cyon  are  to  he  of  the  fame 
bignefs.  The  cyon  to  be  floped  off"  a  full  inch,  or 
more  ;  and  the  like  to  be  done  to  the  ftock  ;  and 
fo  the  one  to  be  tied  to  the  other.  Othcrwife  the 
top  of  the  flock  being  cut  oft",  a  ftioulder  is  to  be 
made  in  the  graft  :  and  the  reft  to  be  performed  as- 
already  fliewn  under  grafting  in  the  rind. 

This  method  is  alfo  improved  by  what  they  call 
tipping  or  tonguing  ;  which  is  the  making  a  flit  with 
a  knife  in  the  bare  part  of  the  flock  downwards  ; 
and  the  like  in  the  floped  face  of  the  cyon,  upwards; 
and  then  joining  them,  by  thrufting  one  flice  into 
the  other,  till  the  bare  place  of  the  cvon  cover  that 
of  the  flock. 

Side  Grafting.  In  this  the  cyon  is  prepared 
as  in  ivhip-grafting,  but  the  head  of  the  flock  is 
not  cut  off",  only  from  a  fmooth  part  on  the  w.-fl: 
fide,  10  much  of  the  bark  is  pared  off"  as  the  cyorj 
will  cover  ;  then  flitting  both  cvon  and  flock,  as  in 
the  lall  article,  they  bind  the  two  toc;ether,  ajul 
clofe  them  up  with  clay.  At  the  years  end  the  top 
of  file  ftock  is  cut  off  at  the  grafted  place,  flope  • 
wife,  and  the  j^iace  covered  with  chy. 

Sctilcheoii 


54-6 


7^^    Univerflil  Hlftorjr  o/"  Arts  /jW  Sciences. 


Scutcheon  Grafting  is  another  nieihod  of 
graftiugy  in  the  rind,  praitifcd  in  'June,  'Juh,  and 
Augitjl ;  when  the  bark  will  not  par,t  from  the 
ftock.  It  is  performed,  by  flitting  the  bark  of  the 
ilock  in  furm  of  the  capital  letter  T,  looll-ning  it 
with  the  point  of  a  knife,  and  clapping  in  a  cyon, 
prcpari-d  as  above. 

Croiun  Grafting  is  when  four  or  more  grafts 
are  placed  round  the  ftock,  between  the  baik  and 
die  rind,  fomewhat  in  the  manner  of  a  crov^n.  — 
This  is  only  praiflifcd  in  the  larger  trees,  which 
are  capable  of  receiving  a  number  of  grafti,  and 
are  too  big  to  be  cloven.  The  method  is  in  all 
refpe(fts  the  fame  as  that  already  delivered  for  graft- 
in"  in  the  rind. 

o 

^5«?Grafting  is  a  modern  invention,  treated 
of  at  large  by  Agrualn  :  Its  intention  is  fomewhat 
tlifFcrcnt  from  the  former,  being  for  the  propaga- 
tion, or  multiplication  of  plants. 

To  perform  this,  take  a  graft,  or  fprig  of  a 
young  tree,  which  you  intend  to  propagate  ;  and  a 
fmall  piece  of  the  root  of  another  tree  of  the  f;une 
kind,  or  very  like  it  \  or  elfe  pieces  of  roots  cut  ofl"  of 
other  trees,  in  tranfplantiiig  ;  2.ivlivhip-graft  them 
together  :  obkrving  that  the  two  but-ends  of  the 
sraft  and  root  he  united,  and  that  the  rind  of  the 
root  join  that  of  the  graft.  Thcfc  may,  after- 
wards, be  planted  out  at  plcafure,  and  the  piece  of 
root  will  draw  the  fap,  and  feed  the  graft,  as  the 
■(lock  does  the  other  way. 

This  way  of  propagation  is  very  eafy  and  expe- 
<'.itious  ;  roots  being  more  plentiful  than  flocks  : 
by  this  method  the  pieces  of  roots  of  one  crab 
liock,  or  apple-iiock,  will  ferve  for  twenty  or  thirty 
apple  grafts,  and  the  like  of  other  trees.  The 
i.wns  is  ai:  excellent  way  for  raifing  of  tender  trees, 
that  will  hacdly  bear,   being  graftsd  u\  the  ilork. 


To  do  this,  half  or  more  of  the  bra:i»hes  niuft 
be  lopped  off,  and  grafts  of  three  or  four  yei-K 
old  be  applied  to  them  ;  taking  care  to  have  (lakes 
or  other  things  to  fupport  them  aeainft  the  wind', 

He  adds,  that  by  this  method,  you  will  have, 
perhaps,  the  lame  year,  at  kail,  the  fecond  or 
tl.ird,  filch  a  quantity  of  fruit,  as  the  youngeft  and 
foundeft  tree  v/ou!d  hardly  produce. 

All  forts  of  trees  are  railed  in  a  nurfcry.,  which 
is   a  fcminmj  or  feed-plot. 

Some  authors  make  a  difference  between  mirferv, 
2.[\d  fcmintiry,  holding  the  former  not  to  be  a  place 
wherein  plants  arc  Ibwn  ;  but  a  place  for  the  re- 
ception and  rearing  of  young  plants,  which  are 
removed,  or  tranfplanted  hither  from  the  feminary, 
Uc. 

Mr.   Lmmcnce    recommends   the  luiving  feveral 
nurferii-Sy   for  the  feveral   kinds  of  trees  :    one   for 
tall    Hand;; 
»aks,  pears 


irds  ; 


vix.  apples^  aftjesy.  tlms,  limes, 
lycamores,  ^c.  Another  for  dwarfs  ^; 
viT..  fuch  as  are  intended,  for  apricots,  cherries, 
peaches,  plumbs,  Uc.  And  a  third  for  cverr 
greens. 

The  nurfery  for  flandards  fliould  be  in  a  rich, 
light  foil,  fown  with  the  proper  feeds,  in  Oiioher  or 
Novimiher.  For  apples,  and  pears,  crab  and  wild 
pear  kernels,  are  to  be  preferred  for  flocks  :  elms 
and  lime  aje  to  be  railed -from  planted  fucl.ers  ; 
walnuts  to  be  fown  with  the  green  fliell  upon  theiTL, 
to  prefcrve  them  from  mice.  This  mirfers,  if  it 
be  well  managed  and  weeded  f'>r  two  years,  tl>2 
crabs  and  pears  will  be  fit  for  grafting  and  inocu-r 
lating  the  third  year. 

Firs  and  pines  are  to  be  raifed  from  thofc  littLj 
feeds  taken  out  of  their  large  apples.. 

The  nurfery  for  dwarfs  dees   heft  by  itfelf,   thnt 


Add,  that  trees  th.us  grafted.,   bear  fooner,  and  are  \  it  mav  not  be  over-topped  by  taller  trees.     Stones 
more  eafilv   dwarfed   than  thofc  done   any  other  j  of  apricots  and  peaches  are  not  proper  to  raife  tho'e 

trees  ;  but  in  lieu  thereof,  fow  theilones  of  pearr 
■afting  by  a  double,  \  plumbs,  miiflel,  or  boniim  magnum  plumb  j  which 
prove  better  and  more  lafting  than  the  former. 
For  flocks  of  all  forts  of  cherries,,  black  cherry^ 
Ilones  do  befL 

Mr.  yk'{ir/;ff;«- dire£ls  all  flone-fruit  to  be  fown  . 
quickly  after  gathering  ;  for  that  if" they   be  kept,, 
they  will  be  two  years  e'er  they  come  up.     Add, 
that  if  they  have  not  all  the  moifiure  of  the  winter 
to  rot  the  fhells,    the  kernel  will  fcarce  come  up 
at  all. 

To  furnilh  the,  nurfery  of  ever-greens,  the  feveral 
forts  of  feeds  or  berries,  as  yew,  .holly,  juniper, 
^c,  are  to  be  put  in  fo  many  diflindt  pots  en 
boxes,  with  fine  mould  over  them,  and  thus  bu^ 
ried  for  a  year  ;  after  which,  they  are  to  be  taken-, 
out  and  fowJi. 

Ever* 


■way. 

Reiterated  Grafting,  or  ^'; 
or  triple  incifi'in,  is  another  method  mentioned  bv 
^igricola  :  Vo  perform  which,  firft  e;raft  a  good 
tvon  on  a  flock,  aird  cut  it  away  to  one  hiilf,  or  a 
third  part ;  then  fix  another  graft  to  it,,  of  a  better 
kind  ;  md  a  third  to  that :  for  flill  the  ofrner  a  tree 
is  engrafted,  the  finer  fruit  it  produces. 

Bv  this  method,  that  author  afllires  vs,  he  pro- 
duced mufcat  p^ars  tiiat  were  admirable  ;  making, 
it  firft,  ufe  of  a  flock  grafted  with  a  pound  pear, 
on  whidi  he  grafted  a  fummer  hon  cin-etien  ;  and 
when  the  branch  of  this  latter  had  fliot,  he  grafted 
en  it  a  cyon  of  bergamot,  which  he  alfo  cut,  and 
grafted  on  it  a  cyon  of  mufcat  pear. 

Engrafting  of  hrayiche',  Jgricola  mentions 
as  a  very  certain  and  profitable  operation  beft  prac- 
tifed  on-large,  full  grown,  and  even  old. trees. 


GARDENING. 


54-7 


EvER-GREENS  are  a  (pedes  of  perennials,  which 
■continue  their  verdure^  leaves,  (s'c.   all  the  year. 

Of  tliefe,  our  gardeners  reckon  tv/elvc,  fit  for 
Engl'ijh  air,  Wz.  the  alternus,  arbutus,  bay  tree, 
tox-tree,  hollej',  juniper,  lauruftinus,  phyllirea, 
pyracantha,  or  ever  green  thorn,  //(?/;««  green  pri- 
vet, and  the  yew  tree.  If  they  were  to  be  fown 
when  gathered,  lilce  other  feeds,  they  would  not 
come  up  the  firft  year,    nor  grow  fo  kindly. 

Orchards  are  {locked  by  tranfplantation  ;  fcl- 
dom  by  femination. 

The  feafon  for  tranfplanting  apple-trccs  into 
■orchards,  h  in  ihe  months  of  October  and  No- 
vember. 

If  the  leaves  be  not  all  off  at  the  time  they  are 
removed,  they  muil:  be  pulled  off.  They  arelike- 
■wifc  to  be  pruned.  Trees  may  be  tranfplanted  into 
orchards,  after  three  years  grafting  ;  and  ought  not 
to  be  fet  at  a  le(s  djftance  than  eiglit  yards,  nor 
greater  than  fourteen  :  and  the  richer  the  land,  the 
greater  the  diflance. 

The  trees  are  tranfplanted  to  beft  purpofe, 
when  young  :  for  trees  ten  or  twelve  years  old,  a 
■narrow  trench  muft  be  dug  the  November  before, 
,deep  enough  to  meet  the  fpreadiiig  roots,  at  fuch 
a  diltance  all  around  the  tree,  as  tiie  roots  are  to 
"be  cutoff  at  ;  in  making  the  trench,  the  roots  to 
be  cut  oft^  clean,  and  without  fplitting  or  bruifino" 
the  hark,  and  the  trench^ filled  up  again.  T  his  will 
«nablc  the  tree,  upon  removal,  to  draw  more  nou- 
rifliment  than  otherwife  it  v/ould  ;  and  fo  thrive 
Letter  in  its  new  manfion. 

The  fide  branches  of  all  tall  orchard  (rwt-ircts, 
arc  to  be  cut  off,  till  the  tree  be  arrived  at  the 
height  defired. 

If  the  tree  be  to  fpread  low,  fome  are  to  be  left 
on  each   fide  ;    fb  as  to   form  a  kind  of  ballance. 


not  run  too  faft  upwards,  and  of  the  tap  or  hearts 
root,  that  it  may  not  pafs  direcVly  downwards  ; 
left  it  go  beyond  the  good  foil.  The  holes  or  pits 
to  be  fo  deep,  as  that  the  plants  may  ftimd  foine- 
what  deeper  in  the  ground,  than  when  in  the  feed- 
plot  ;  clofe  the  mould  about  ihem,  and  if  it  be  a 
dry  time,  water  them  the  firft  day,  and  cover  the 
foil  with  old  fern. 

Mr.  Bradley  gives  us  a  new  method  of  iravS- 
fla-thig  trees  of  .all  kinds  and  ages  with  fafety, 
either  while  they  arc  in  the  bloffoni,  or  with  fruit 
upon  them,  thus :  the  holes  to  receive  the  trcci 
are  to  be  prepared  before  the  trees  are  ta'.cn  up ; 
and  the  earth  which  comes  out  of  the  holts  to  b'; 
made  very  fine  and  put  into  large  tubs,  and  mixed 
with  water,  till  it  be  about  the  confiftence  of  thin 
batter.  Then  the  holes  wherein  the  trees  are  to 
be  planted,  are  to  be  filled  with  this  thus-tempered 
earth,  before  the  earthy  parts  have  time  to  fettle. 

The  advantage  hereof  is,  that  the  trees  thus! 
planted  have  their  roots  immediately  inclofed  and 
guarded  from  the  air ;  and  the  warm  feafon  of  the 
year  difpofing  every  part  of  the  tree  for  growth  and 
fliooting,  it  will  lofe  very  little  of  its  vigour.  la 
winter  it  does  not  fucceed. 

The  fame  author  adds,  that  in  confideratioii  of 
the  circulation  of  the  fap,  it  is  as  neceffary  to  pre- 
ferve  the  vcffels  of  the  trees  entire,  as  thole  in  ani- 
mal bodies,  and  therefore  in  tranfplanting  trees  in 
the  fummer  feafons,  it  is  not  proper  to  cut  off  any 
of  the  branches,  or  wound  any  of  the  veffels,  till 
they  have  renewed  their  roots,  which  it  is  of  ab- 
folute  ncceffity  to  wound  in  tranfplanting  them. 
For  the  wounded  roots  he  has  provided  a  plaifter  of 
a  mixture  of  gums,  to  prevent  the  canker  and  rot, 
and  promote  their  healing. 

Pruning  in  gardening  and  agriculture,  is  the 
operation  of  lopping  or  cutting  off  the  fuperfluous 


For  the  firft  three  years,    at  lead,  they  muft   not   branches  of  trees  ;  either  to  difpofe   them  to  bear 


grow  thick  and  buftiy  headed  :  this  muft  be  pre- 
vented by  cutting  off  fome  of  the  infide  ftioots, 
and  fuch  as  grow  crofs  each  other,    or  pendant. 

The  foil,  if  not  rich  enough,  is  to  be  amended 
jn  two  or  three  years  ;  by  opening  it  around  the 
tree,  and  on  the  outfide  of  the  ground  firft  duo-, 
when  the  tree  was  fet  ;  and  in  a  month's  time 
filling  it  up  again  with  a  proper  compoft  or 
manure. 

Transplaktikg  of  fruit-trees. After  a 

Aimmer's  growth  of  fruit  feedlings  in  the  fcminary, 
fuch  are  ^pulled  upas  are  above  a  foot  high,  and 
tranfplanted  into  a  nurfery  j  the  reft  to  be  left  in  the 
feed -plot  till  another  year. 

When  drawn  up,  the-  fprigs  are  to  be  cut  off 
from  about  the  top,  the  ftrings  from  the  roots, 
and  the  extremities  both  of  the  top,  that  it  may 
25. 


better,   to  grow  higher,  or  appear  more  regular. 

Pruning  is  one  of  the  moft  important  branches 
of  the  gardener's  province;  and  that  whereon  the 
weal  OP  woe  of  his  fruit-trees,  as  well  as  the  form 
and  regularity  of  his  garden,  in  great  meafure 
depends. 

Pruning  is  an  annual  operation  ;  the  amputation 
is  ufually  made  Hoping,  fometimcs  ftump-wife.  Its 
beft  feafon  is  about  the  end  of  February,  though 
it  may  be  begun  as  foon  as  the  leaves  are  offj  viz. 
in  November ;  and  continued  to  the  time  frefh 
leaves  cotnes  on,  viz.  in  April. 

As  the  Gardener  has  ufually  three  kinds  of  trees 
to  manage,  viz.  Some  too  weak,  others  too  ftrong, 
and  others  in  a  juft  plight  ;  he  will  find  pruning- 
rvork  enough  through  all  that  fpace  ;  it  being  pro- 
per to  prune  fome  fooner  and  fo.mc  later.  I  he 
4  A  weaker 


54-^ 


n^e  Univerfal  Hiftory 


weaker  and  more  languiftiing  a  tree  is,  the  fooner 
it  ought  to  be  pruned-,  to  eafe  it  of  its  offenfivc 
branches  :  and  the  more  vigorous  the  tree  is,  the 
longer  may  the  pruning  be  deferred. 

For  Pruning  it  tree  of  the  fir/i  year,  i.  e.  a  tree 
planted  the  year  before  :  if  it  have  only  (hot  one 
fine  branch  from  the  middle  of  the  ftem,  it  niuft 
be  cut  to  that  branch,  and  the  branch  Shortened  to 
four  or  five  eyes  or  buds :  the  efFe6l  of  which  is, 
that  the  next  year  there  will  be,  at  leaf},  two  fine 
branches  oppofite  to  each  other. 

If  the  tree  produce  two  fine  branches,  well 
placed,  with  wealt  ones  among  them,  all  required 
is  to  fhorten  them  ec|ua!ly,  to  tiie  compafs  of  five 
or  fix  inches  in  length  ;  care,  however,  being  taken, 
that  the  two  laft  eyes  or  buds,  of  the  extremes  of 
the  branches  thus  fhortenc-d,  look  on  the  right  and 
left,  to  the  two  bare  fides,  that  each  may  brinj 
forth,  at  lealt,  two  new  ones,  and  the  ft>ur  being 
fo  well  placed,  that  they  may  be  all  prefcrved.  It 
one  of  the  two  branches  be  much  lower  than  the 
other,  or  both  on  one  fide,  or  the  like,  only  one  is 
to  be  preferved,  and  that  the  Httefl  to  begin  a  fine 
figure  ;  the  other  to  be  cut  oft"  fo  clofe,  as  that  it 
never  may  be  able  to  produce  thick  ones  in  the  fame 
place.  If  a  tree  have  put  forth  three  or  four 
branches,  all  in  the  extremity,  or  a  little  beneath, 
they  muft  be  all  pruned  by  the  fame  laws  as  the 
two  above-mentioned  :  if  thev  be  equally  thick 
they  are  to  be  ufed  alike;  if  fome  of  them  be  fmal- 
'ler  than  the  reft,  they  muft  only  be  pruned,  wiih  a 
profpect  of  getting  a  fuigle  branch  each,  taking 
care  to  have  it°on  that  fide  which  fhall  be  found 
empty;  in  order  to  which,  they  fhould  be  fhortened 
to  an  eye  or  bud,  that  looks  on  that  fide  ;  and  the 
lame  care  to  be  taken  in  the  larger,  in  order  to  be- 
gin to  fill  up  the  better  ;  if  thefe  fine  branches  fhoot 
a  little  below  the  extremity,  it  is  but  fliortening  the 
ftem  to  them  :  on  the  contrary,  if  the  branches 
be  moft  of  them  ill  ones,  two  at  leaft,  if  pofTible, 
are  to  be  preferved,  and  pruned  in  the  fame  manner 
as  the  two  fine  ones  above.  Good  weak  branches 
are  to  be  carefully  preferved  for  fruit,  only  cutting 
them  a  little  at  the  extremity,  when  they  appear 
too  weak  fpr  their  length,  not  failing  to  take  av/av 
all  th2  faplefs  branches.  If  the  tree  have  produced 
live,  fix,  or  feven  branches,  it  is  fuflicient  to  pre- 
■ferve  three  or  four  of  the  bcft  ;  the  reft  to  be  cut 
quite  ofF,  at  leaft  if  they  be  thick  ;  but  if  they  be 
weak,  /.  e.  fit  for  fruit  branches,  they  fhould  be 
kept  till  they  have  performed  what  they  are  capable 
of  doing  ;  and  if  among  the  great  ones,  there  hap- 
'pcn  to  be  many  fmall  ones,  two  or  three  of  the 
befl  only  to  be  preferved,  pinching  off  the  ends  of 
the  longefl. 

Pruning  of  a  tree  the  fecond  year.  —•'  If  .having 


of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

put  out  two  fine  wood  branches,  and  one  or  two 
fmall  ones,  for  fruit  the  firft  year,  the  fap  have  al- 
tered its  courfe  in  the  fecond  year,  from  the  thick 
branches  to  the  frnall  ones,  fo  that  the  fmall  be- 
come wood,  and  the  large,  fruit  branches.  If  a 
tree  from  the  firft  year's  pruning,  have  produced 
four  or  five  branches,  or  more,  it  muft  needs  be 
very  vigorous  :  for  which  reafon  it  may  be  fome- 
times  advifeable  to  preferve  thofe  branches;  even 
though  it  be  not  necefTary  to  the  figure  of  the  tree> 
but  even  to  confume  part  of  the  fap,  which  might 
otherwife  be  prejudicial  to  the  fruit  branches;  thefe 
fuperfluous  branches  may  be  left  long,  without  any 
ill  confequence  ;  but  thofe  efTcntial  to  the  beauty  of 
the  tree,  muft  be  all  pruned,  a  little  longer  than 
thofe  of  the  preceding  year,  /.  e.  about  two,  or  at 
moft.  three  eyes,  or  a  good  foot.  This  is  making 
an  advantage  of  the  figure  of  the  tice,  which  with- 
out this  would  not  yield  fruit  in  a  long  time  ;  the 
redundant  fap  converting  all  the  fap  in  wood- 
branches.  In  thefe  vigorous  trees,  fome  branches 
cut  (tumpwife  are  to  be  left  on,  and  even  fome 
thick  ones,  though  of  falfe  wood,  efpecially  where 
ihey  are  necefiary  to  the  form  of  the  tree,  or 
employ  the  excefs  of  fap,  and  prevent  its  doing  mif- 
chief.  ,StiI!  more  to  alTuage  its  violence,  it  may- 
be necefTary  to  preferve  many  long,  good,  weak, 
branches,  when  placed  fo  as  to  occafion  no  confu- 
fion,  and  even  on  the  thick  branches,  a  good  num- 
ber of  out-lcts  for  the  fap  to  range  in.  Be  it  a  ge- 
neral rule,  rather  to  fpare  the  lower  branches,  and: 
cut  off  the  higher,  than  the  contrar}' :  by  this  means 
the  tree  fprcads  more  eafily  to  the  bottom  of  the 
wall. 

Pruning  of  a  tree  ^f  the  third  year.     In  a  tree- 
that  has  been  planted  three  years,  and  pruned  twice,.. 
if  it  be  vigorous,   as  many  old  branches  as  pofilble,, 
are  to  be   preferved,   efpecially  for   fruit  :    if  it  be 
weak,    it  muft  be  eafed  of  the  burden  of  old  bran- 
ches, as  well  thofe  for  fiuit,    as  wood;    it  muft  be 
cut  fhort,    to  enable   it  to  flioot  out  new  ones  ; 
which  if  it  cannot  do  with  vigour,   let  it  be  pulledt 
up,  and   a   new  one,    with  frefh  earth,  planted  in  - 
its  place. 

In  all  pruning,  provifion  is  to  t>e  made  for 
branches  to  proceed  from  thofe  now  under  the 
prw.ing  knif;  to  prepare  fuch  as  may  be  proper 
for  the  form ;  v.'itli  this  afTurance,  that  when  the 
high  branch  is  taken  down  from  over  the  lowtr, 
this  latter  being  reinforced  with  the  fap  that  wonld 
have  gone  to  the  former,  will  certainly  produce 
more  branches,  than  it  would  have  done  v,icnout 
fuch  reinforcement. 

General  rules  of  Pruning  fruit  trees,  i.  Tiie 
more  the  branches  "fhoot  horizontally,  the  apter 
and  better  difpofed-the  tiee  is  to  bear  fruit  ;    con- 

fequtntly 


GARDENING, 


fequently  the  more  upright  the  branches,  the  more 
inclined  is  the  tree  to  increafe  in  wood,  and  the  lefs 
in  fruit. 

Hence,  ever  take  care  to  keep  the  middle  of  a 
tree  from  great  wood,  or  thiclc  branches  ;  and  as 
thofe  increafe  and  grow  upon  you,  you  cut  them 
out  entirely ;  for  the  place  will  be  foon  filled  with 
better  and  more  fruitful  wood. 

In  dwarfs,  you  are  to  prune  all  open,  and  clear 
of  wood,  leaving  none  but  horizontal  branches  ; 
and  in  wall  trees,  if  you  do  but  furnilh  your  walls 
with  horizontal  branches,  nature  will  provide  for 
the  middle.  Chufe  therefore  fuch  {hoots  as  are 
not  vigorous,  to  furnifh  bearing  branches. 

2.  Take  care  the  tree  be  not  left  over  full  of 
wood ;  nor  even  of  bearing  branches  ;  as  it  is 
frequently  feen  in  the  management  of  peaches, 
nedlarines,   and  cherries. 

Nature  cannot  fupply  them  all  with  juice  enough ; 
whence  none  will  be  fupplied  well  :  the  confe- 
quence  of  which  is,  that  either  the  blollbms  will 
fall  off,  or  the  fruit  dwindle.  It  is  certain,  a  mul- 
titude of  branches  crouding  on  one  another,  pro- 
duces neither  fo  good,  norlo  much  fruit,  as  where 
there  is  a  convenient  fpace  ;  befide  the  difagreeable 
efFeft  of  croffing  one  another. 

3.  All  ftrong  and  vigorous  branches  are  to  be 
left  longer  on  the  fame  tree,  than  weak  and  feeble 
ones  ;  confequently,  the  branches  of  a  fickly  tree, 
muft  be  pruned  ftiorter,  and  fewer  in  number  than 
thofe  of  a  ftrong  healthful  tree. 

4.  All  branches  fhooting  direftly  forward  from 
trees  that  grow  againft  a  wall,  are  to  be  pruned 
clofe  to  the  branch  whence  they  fpring,  i3c. 

5.  When  a  branch,  well  placed  either  againft  a 
wall,  or  in  a  dwarf,  has  fhot  fome  falfe  wood, 
neither  fit  for  the  figure  nor  the  fruit,  prune  it  off 
within  the  thicknefs  of  a  crown  piece,  or  floping- 
ly  ;  though  this  is  beft  pinched  off  in  the  beginning 
of  fummer. 

6.  Cut  off  all  branches  arifing  from  hard  knobs 
■whereon  pear-ftalks  grew  j  or  from  fliort  branches, 
like  fpurs. 

7.  If  a  tree,  in  its  years,  have  produced  branches 
of  moderate  vigour,  and  afterwards  puts  fortli  ftrong 
Xjnes,  well  placed,  though  of  falfe  wood  ;  the  lat- 
ter may  be  ufed  as  the  foundation  of  the  figure, 
and  the  other  kept  a  time  for  bearing  fruit. 

8.  When  an  old  tree  {hoots  lUonger  branches 
towards  the  bottom  than  the  top,  and  the  top  is  in 
ill  cafe,  cut  it  off,  and  form  a  new  figure  from  the 
lower  ones.  If  the  top  be  vigorous,  cut  off  the 
lower  ones,  unlefs  well  placed. 

g.  The  order  of  nature,  in  the  produdlion  of 
roots  and  branches,  is,  that  branch  is  always  lefs 
than  that  out  of  which  it  {hoots  ;  if  this  order  be 
inverted,  ufe  them  as  falfe  wood. 


549 


ID.  Regard  to  be  always  had  to  the  eftofls  of 
former  pruning,  in  order  to  corred  its  defcfts,  or 
continue  its  beauties. 

In  vigorous  trees,  the  weaker  branches  arc 


II. 


the  fruit  bearers;  in  weaker  trees,  the  ftrongcr 
chiefly  :  therefore  in  the  latter,  prune  6ff  the  feeb'le 
and  fmall. 

12.  In  vigorous  trees,  three  good  branches  may 
put  forth  at  one  eye  or  bud  ;  in  which  cafe,  the 
two  fide  branches  are  generally  to  be  prefei-ved, 
and  the  middlemoft  cut  off  in  May  or  June. 

13.  It  is  difficult  to  {Irengthen  a  weak  branch, 
without  cutting  off  others  above  it  ;  fometimes  it 
can  fcarce  be  done,  without  cutting  off  the  end  of 
the  branch  it  (hoots  out  of 

14.  The  pruning  of  vigorous  peach  trees,  to  be 
deferred  till  they  are  ready  to  bloffom,  the  better  to 
know  which  are  likely  to  bear  fruit. 

15.  Fruit-buds,  next  the  ends  of  branches,  arc 
commonly  thick  and  better  fed  than  others.  In 
weak  trees,  therefore,  it  may  be  beft  to  prune  them 
early,  that  the  fap  may  not  wade  itfclf  in  fuch  parts 
as  are  to  be  retrenched. 

16.  The  farther  a  weak  branch  is  from  the 
trunk,  the  lefs  nourilhment  it  receives,  and  there- 
fore, the  more  it  is  to  be  fhortened ;  but  thick 
branches,  the  more  diftant  they  are  from  the  heart, 
the  more  they  receive  ;  and  are  therefore  to  be  re- 
moved, that  the  vigour  may  extend  itfeif  to  the 
middle,  or  lower  part. 

17.  A  branch  for  wood  muft  never  be  prunedy 
without  efpecial  occafion  ;  as  where  it  annoys 
others. 

18.  If  an  old  well-liking  tree  be  difordered  with 
falfe  wood,  through  ill  pruning,  or  want  of  pru- 
ning J  take  it  lower,  by  cutting  off  a  branch  or  two 
yearly,  till  it  be  fufficiently  reduced.  Some  trees 
put  forth  fo  vigoroufly,  that  they  cannot  be  reduced 
to  compafs,  in  one  year  ;  but  muft  be  allowed  to 
extend  themfelves,  othcrwife  they  will  produce 
fali'e  wood. 

19.  All  trees  have  a  predominant  branch  or  two, 
if  not  more;  yet  the  more  equally  the  vigour  is  dt* 
vided,  the  better  ;  where  it  runs  much  on  one  fide, 
it  is  faulty. 

20.  Thebuds  of  all  ftone-fruit,  frequently  form 
themfelves  the  fame  year,  in  which  the  branch  they 
grow  on  was  formed  :  the  fame  holds  of  pears  and 
apples  ;  tho'  it  is,  generally,  at  leaft  two  or  three 
years,  ere  the  latter  come  to  perfedtion. 

21.  All  fhoots,  put  forth  in  autumn,  are  to  bs 
pruned  oS  as  naught :  the  fame  may  be  faid  of  all 
faplefs  branches. 

22.  When  a  tree  puts  forth  much  {Ironger  {hoots 
on  one  fide,  than  the  other,  a  great  part  of  the 
ftrong  ones  muft  be  cut  off  clofe  to  the  body,  or 
fome  of  them  {lump-wife, 

4  A  2  43.  In 


55©  The  Univcrfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 


23.  In  all  trees,  lefs  length  to  be  allowed  the 
weak,  than  ftrong  branches. 

24.  Upper  branches  to  be  cut  off  clofe  to  others, 
that  they  may  heal  over  :  lower  branches  arc  to  be 
cut  Hoping,  or  at  a  little  diftancc,  that  new  ones 
may  grow  out  of  them. 

25.  If  a  young  crooked  tree  produce  a  fine 
branch  beneath  the  crook,  cut  the  head  off  clofc  to 
the  branch. 

26.  Though  five,  fix,  or  fcvcn  inches,  be  the 
ordinary  lengths,  wood-branches  are  left  at  ;  yet 
muft  this  be  varied  on  occafion  of  the  vigour  or 
weaknefs  of  the  tree,  thicknefs,  or  fmallnefs  of  the 
branch,  the  fulnefs  or  vacuity  of  the  place,  ^c. 

27.  Be  careful  not  to  prune  many  thick  branches 
Randing  over  weak  ones  ;  left  the  fap,  which  fed 
the  larger,  flow  fo  plentifully  into  the  lefs,  as  to 
occafion  them  to  put  forth  ill  wood  and  fuckers. 


28.  Branches  {hot  from  the  ends  of  others  are 
ufually  good  wood  ;  fometimcs  it  happens  other- 
wife,  and  then  they  muft  be  prwtcd. 

As  to  the  grznA  y£a)  !y  prunitigs  : — Fruit  branches 
being  of  fhort  continuance,  and  perifhing  the  firft 
year,  wherein  thc.y  [iroduce  fruit,  are  to  be  cut  off, 
unlefs  they  put  forth  fhoots,  for  bloflbms  the  fuc- 
cecding  year.  In  the  fecond  pruning,  about  the 
middle  of  Alay,  where  the  fruit  is  fo  clofe  as  to 
be  like  to  ohftrudi:  each  other,  fome  of  them,  and 
their  branches  arc  to  be  taken  off,  as  muft  alfo  the 
multitude  of  young  flioots,  that  caufc  confuCon. 
Branches  more  luxurious  than  others,  to  be  cut 
clear  ofF. 

To  preferve  old' trees,  they  muft  be  difburdened, 
by  leaving  few  branches,  for  wood  on  them,  and 
thofe  to  Liefhortcned  to  five  or  fix  inches ;  and  very 
few  weak  ones,  and  none  dry,  and  nigh  wafted,. 


GAUGING. 


GAUGING  is  the  art  or  a£t  of  meafuring 
the  capacities  or  contents  of  all  kinds  of 
veftcls,  and  determining  the  quantities  of 
Huids  or  other  matters  contained  therein. 

The  art  of  gauging  is  that  branch  of  the  matlje- 
matics  c^iWe-A  J! erec/}neiry,  or  the  meafuring  offolids; 
becaufe  the  capacity  of  all  forts  of  veftels  ufed 
tor  liquors,  as  cuhica!,  parallelopipedaly  cylindrical, 
Jphercidal,  conical,  Src.  are  computed  as  though  they 
were  really  folid  bodies,  and  reduced  thcicby  to 
fome  known  cubic  meafure,  as  gallons,  quarts,  pints, 
he.  '1  he  principal  veflels  that  come  under  its 
operation  are  pipes,  barrels,  rundlcts,  and  other 
cnjks ;  alfo  hiuks,  coolers,  tats,  &cc. 

The  folid  content  of  cubical,  paraliclopipedal, 
and  prifmatical  veflels  is  cafily  found  in  cubic  inches, 
or  the  like,  by  multiplying  the  area  of  the  bafe  by 
the  perpendicular  height.  And  for  cylindrical 
,  vefiels,  the  fame  is  found  by  multiplying  the  area 
cf  the   bafe   by  the  perpendicular   altitude  as  be- 


lore. 


;,  Ca&s  of  the  ufual  form  of  hogflieads,  kilderkins, 
(s'i.  may  be  cor.fidered  as  feginents  of  a  fpheroid  cut 
etff  by  two  planes,  perpendicular  to  the  axis  ;  which 
brinc^s  them  to  Ou-btred's  theorem  for  meafuring 
ale  ;Tnd  wiue-cafks,  which  is  thus  : 

Add.  twice  the  area  of  the  circle  at  the  bung,  to 
the  area  of  the  circk  of  the  head  \  multiply  the  funr 
by  one  third  of  the  length  of  the  calk,  the  produdt 
is  the  content  of  the  veHel  in  cubic  inches. 

But  foi  accuracy.  Dr.  IVidlis,  Mr.  Caf-wcll,  and 
others,  think  th.,t  muft  of  our  cafKS  had  better  be 
coufidered  asy;7v//!<;/;j  of  paiabolic  fpindles,  which 


are  lefs  than  the.  frii/i urns  of  fphercids  of  the  hmc 
bafe  and  height,  and  give  the  capacity  of  veftels 
nearer  the  truth  than  either  Oi/ghtrcd's  method, 
which  fuppofcs  them  fpheroids  ;  or  than  that  of 
multiplyinir  the  circles  of  the  bung  and  head,  into 
half  the  length  of  the  cafk,  which  fuppofes  them 
parabolic  conoids ;  or  than  that  of  Clavius,  &c. 
who  takes  them  for  two  truncated  cones,,  whicH  is 
fartheft  ofF  of  all. 

The  common  rule  for  all  wine  or  ale-ca.Ois,  is  to 
take  the  diameters  at  the  bung  and  at  the  head,  \>y 
which  you  may  find  the  area  of  the  circle  there  ; 
then  taking  two  thirds  of  the  area  of  the  circle  at 
the  bung,  and  one  third  of  the  area  of  the  circle  at 
the  head,  and  adding  them  together  into  one  fum  ;. 
this  fum  multiplied  by  the  internal  ler.gth  of  the 
cafk,  giv«s  the  content  in  folid  inches;  which  are 
converted  into  gallons  by  dividmg  by  2S2  for  ale,, 
and  231  for  v.ine-gallons. 

Gcvging,  as  now  prainifed,  is  chiefiy  done  by 
means  of  iiijhs/mr.ti  called  gaugifig-rcds  or  rules,. 
which  do  the  bufinefs  at  once,  and  anCwers  the 
queftion  without  fo  much  calculation  :  which  is  no 
inconfiderahle  addition  both  totheeafe  and  difpatch 
of  the  work,  though  it  is  not  fo  much  to  be  de- 
pended on. 

The  methods  of  gauging  which  are  moftly  ufed,  is 
by  the  four-f^ot  gauging-rcd,  and  Everard'i  Jliding 
rule:  the  defciiption  aiid  ufes  of  both  are  as 
follows: 

Thefiur-foot  Gauging-rod  (See  the  figure  on 
the  plate  of  Survey ikg)  is  ufually  made  of  box, 
and  conlifts  of  four  rules,     each  a  foot  long,  and 

about 


GAUGING. 


551 


about  three  eights  of  an  inch  fquare,  joined  toge- 
ther by  three  brafs-joints  ;  by  which  means  the  rod 
is  rendered  four  feet  long  when  the  four  rules  are 
opened,  and  but  one  foot  when  all  are  folded 
together. 

On  the  firft  face  of  this  rod,  marked  4,  are  placed 
two  diagonal  lines,  one  for  beer  and  the  other  for 
wine  ;  by  means  of  which  the  content  of  any  com- 
mon veffcl  in  beer  or  wine-gallons,  may  be  readily 
found,  by  putting  the  brafed  end  of  the  gauging- 
rod  into  the  bung-hole  of  the  cafk,  T/ith  the  diago- 
nal lines  upwards,  and  thruft  this  brafed  end  to  the 
meeting  of  the  head  and  flaves  ;  then  with  chalk 
make  a  mark  at  the  middle  of  the  bung-hole  of  the 
veffel,  and  alfo  on  the  diagonal  lines  of  the  rod, 
right  againft  or  over  one  another,  when  the  brafed 
end  is  thrufl:  home  to-  the  head  and  Haves ;  then 
turn  the  gauging-rod  to  the  other  end  of  the  veffel,. 
and  thrull  the  brafed  end  home  to  the  end  as  be- 
fore. Laflly,  fee  if  the  mark  made  ;  n  the  gauging- 
rod,  come  even- with  the  mark  made  on  the  hung 
hole,  when  the  rod  was  thruft  to  the  other  end  ; 
which  if  it  be,  the  mark  made  on  the  diagonal  lines, 
will,  on  the  fame  lines,  fhew  the  whole  content  of 
the  calk  in  beer  or  wifie-gallono.  li  the  mark 
made  on  the  bung  hole  he  not  right  againft  that 
made  on  the  rod,  when  you  put  it  the  other  way, 
then  right  againlt  the  mark  made  on  the  bung- hole, 
make  another  on  the  diagonal  lines  ;  and  the  dlvi- 
fion  on  the  diagonal  line,  between  the  two  chalks, 
will  (how  the  whole  content  of  the  velTel  in  beer  or 
wine-gallons. 

Thus,  ex.  gr,  if  the  diagonal  line  of  a  veffel  be 
28  -(■♦  inches,  its  content  in  beer-gallons  will  be 
nearly  51,  and  in  wine  gallons  62. 

If  a  veffel  be  open,  as  a  half  barrel,  tun,  or 
copper,  and  the  meafui'€  from  the  middle  on  one 
fide  to  the  head  and  flaves  be  38  inches,  the  diago- 
nal line  gives  122  beer-gallons  ;  half  of  which,  viz. 
61,   is  the  content  of  the  half-tub. 

If  you  have  a  large  veilel,  as  a  tun  or  copper, 
and  the  diagonal  line  taken  by  a  long  rule  be  70 
inches  ;  then  every  inch  at  the  beginning- end  of 
the  diagonal  line  call  10  inches:  thus  10  inche.s 
become  I'C  inches;  and  every  tenth  of  a  gallon 
call  1  GO  gallons;  and  every  whole  gallon  call  loco 
gallons. 

On  the  fecond  face,  5,  are  a  line  of  inches  and 
the  gauge  line,  whicli  is  a  line  expreffing  the  areas 
of  circles  (whofe  diameters  are  the  correfpondcnt 
inches  /  in  alo-galions  :  at  the  beginning  is  wrote 
dk'Orea.  Thus,  to  find  the  content  of  any  cylin- 
drical veffel  in  ale-gallons:  feck  the  diaineterof  the 
veffel  in  inches,  aiidjuit  againft  it,  on  the  gauje- 
line,  is  the  quantity  of  ale-galions  contained  at  one 


inch  deep;  this  multiplied  by  the  length  ofthecy' 
linder,   will  give  its  contents  in  ale-gallons. 

On  the  third  face,  6,  are  three  fcalts  of  lines; 
the  firfi,  at  the  end  of  which  is  written  hogfieaJ.., 
is  for  finding  how  many  gallons  there  are  in-  a 
hogfhead,  when  it  is  not  full,  lying  with  its  axis 
parallel  to  the  horizon.  The  fecond  line,  at  the 
end  of  which  is  written  B.  L.  is  for  the  fame  pur- 
pofe.  The  third  is  to  find  how  much  liquor 
is  wanting  to  fill  up  a  butt,  when  it  is  ftanding ; 
at  the  end  of  it  is  wrote  B.  S.  fignifying,  iutt 
Jland'mg. 

Half  way  the  fourth  face  of  the  gauging-rod, 
7,  there  are  three  fcales  of  lines,  to  find  the  wants 
in  a  firkin,  kilderkin,  and  barrel,  lying  with  their 
areas  parallel  to  the  horizon.  They  are  diftin- 
guiflied  by  the  letters  F.  K.  B.  fignifying  a  firkin, 
kilderkin,    and  barrel. 

The  nfc  of  the  lines  on  the  two  laft  faces  is  very 
cafy  ;  you  have  only  to  put  it  downright  into  the 
bung-hole  to  the  oppofite  ftaves,  if  the  veffel,  you 
want  to  know  the  quantity  of  ale-gallons  contained 
therein,  be  lying :  and  then  where  the  furface  of 
the  liquor  cuts  any  one  of  the  lines  appropriated  to 
that'  veftel,  will  be  the  number  required. 

Everard's  Jliding-ru'le  is  principally  ufed  in- 
gauging,  being  ordinarily  made  of  box,  a  loot  long,- 
an  inch  broad,  and  i  il  inch  thick,  with  two  fmall 
fcales  to  Aide  in  it,  which  may  be  drawn  out,  one 
towards  the  right  hand,  and  the  other  towards  the 
left,  till  the  whole  be  three  feet  long.  See  the 
figure  thereof,   ibid. 

On  the  firft  broad  face  of  the  inftrument  are  four 
lines  of  numbers;  thehrft  marked  A,  confining  of  two 
radius's,  numbered  i,  2,  3,4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  g,  10; 
.".nd  then  2,  3,  4,  5,  feV.  to  10.  On  this  line  are  four 
brafs  center-pins,  two  in  each  radius;  one  in  each^ 
whereof  is  marked  M  E,  to  fignify  that  the  num- 
ber it  is  fee  againft,  2150.42,  is  the  cubic  inches 
in  a  malt  bufliel ;  the  other  two  are  marked  with  A, 
to  fignify  that  the  numbers  they  are  fet  againft,  ii/z. 
287,  are  the  cubic  inches  in  an  ale-gallon.  The 
fecond  «nd  third  lines  of  numbers  are  on  the  Aiding, 
pieces,  and  are  e.xacily  the  fame  with  the  firft. 
Clofe  to  the  figure  7,  in  the  fini  rsdius,  is  a  dot 
marked  S  /,  i'etexaftly  over  707,  denoting  .707  to 
be  the  ilde  of  a  fquare  infcribed  in  a  circle,  whofe 
diameter  is  unity.  Clofe  to  9,  is  another  dot, 
mark'dSf.  fet  over  .886,  which  is  the  fide  of  aiquare, 
equal  to  the  area  o  a  circle  whofe  diameter  is  unity. 
Another  dot,  nigh  W,  is  fet  over  231,  the  number' 
of  cubic  inches  in  a  wine  gallon .  and  another  near 
C,  is  fet  over  3. 14,  the  circumference  of  a  circle, 
whofe  diameter  is  unity.  The  fourth  l:.';e  of  num- 
bers marked  M  D,  to  jfignify  malt  depth,  is  a  broken' 

line 


552  l^he  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^«^Sciences< 


line  of  two  radius's,  numbered  2,  ro,  9,  8,  7,  6, 
5,  4,  3,  2,  I,  9>  8,  7,  ^c.  the  number  i  being 
directly  fet  againft  M  B  on  the  firft  radius. 

On  the  fecond  broad   face,  marked    c  d,  are,  i . 
A  line  of  numbers  of  one  radius,  numbered  i,  2, 
3,  Ciff.  to  10,  noted  by  the  Letter  D,   on  this  are 
four  center  pins ;    the  firft  marked  W  C?,  is  the 
gauge-point  for  a  wine-gallon,  /.  e.  the  diameter  of 
a  cylinder,  whofe  height  is  an   inch,  and  contents 
9.31  cubic  inches,  or  a  wine-gallon,  which  is  17.15 
inches ;  the  fecond  center-pin  A  G,  ftands  at  the 
gauge-point   for   an    ale  gallon,    which    is     18.95 
inches;  the  third  M  S,  ftands  at  46.3,  the  fide  of 
a  fquare,  whofe  content  is  equal  to  the  inches  in  a 
folid   bufhcl ;    the   fourth   MR,   is    the  gauging- 
point  for  a  malt  bufliel,  which  is  52.32    inches. 
— 2.  Two  lines  of  numbers  on  the  Aiding  piece, 
which  are  exaiflly  as   thole  on  the   Aiding   piece 
on    the  other   fide.      Clofe   to  the  divifion    8    is 
a  dot  marked  c,  which  is  fet  to  .795,  the  area  of 
a  circle   whofe  diameter    is   unity ;    and    another 
marked   J,    ftands  at   .785,   the  area  of  a  circle 
whofe  diameter  is   unity.  —  3.  Two  lines  of  ieg- 
ments,  each  numbered   i,  2,  3,  ^c.  to  100  ;  the 
firft  for  finding  the  ullage  of  a  cafk,  taken  as  the 
middle  fruftum  of  a  fpheroid,  lying  with  its  axis  pa- 
rallel to  the  horizon  ;  and  the  other  for  finding  the 
ullage  of  a  cafk  ftanding— Again,  on  one  of  the 
narrow  fides,    noted   e,    are  i,  A  line  of  inches, 
numbered  i,   2,  3,  f^c.  to    12  ;    each  fubdivided 
into   ten  equal  parts.     2.  A  line  by  which,  with 
that  of  inches,  we  find  a  mean  diameter  for  a  cafk, 
in  the  figure  of  a  middle  fruftum  of  a  fpheroid  ;  it 
4s  numbered  i,  2,  3,  (^c  to  7,  and   marked  fphe- 
roid.    3.  A  line  for  finding  the  mean  diameter  of 
a  cafk,  in  the  figure  of  a   middle  fruftum  of    a 
parabolic  fpindle,  which  gaugers   call  the  fecond 
variety  ofcafks;  it  is  numbered    i,  2,  3,  4,  toV. 
and  noted  fecond  variety.     4.  A  line  by  which  we 
find  the  mean  diameter  of  a  cafk  of  the  third  vari- 
ety, i.  e.  of  a  cafk  in  the  figure  of  tv/o   parabolic 
conoids,  abutting  on  a  common  bafe  ;  it   is  num- 
bered 1 ,  2,   3,  and   noted  third  variety. — On  the 
other  narrov/  face,    marked  y,  are,    r.  A  foot  di- 
vided  into    100  equal  parts,  markedyM.     2.  A 
line  of  inches,  like  that  before-mentioned,  noted 
IM.     3    A  line  for  finding  the  mean  diameter  for 
the  fourth  variety  of  cafks,  which    is   the  middle 
fruftum  of  two  cones,  abutting  on  a  common  bafe  ; 
it  is  numbered   1,  2,  3,  is'e.  and  noted  /C,  fig- 
lufyingfrujlum  of  a  cane. — On  the  backfide  of  the 
two  fli ding  pieces,  are  a  line  of  inches,  from  13  to 
36, when  the  two  pieces  are  put  endwife ;  and  againft 
that  the  corrcfpondent  gallons,  or  hundred  parts,  that 
any  fmall  tub,  as  the  like  open  veffel  from  13  to  36 
inches  diameter,  will  contain  at  one  inch  deep. 


After  this  defcription  of  Everard's  Jliding  rule, 
we  muft  apply  it  to  the  ufc  we  intend  to  make  of 
it  in  this  place,  viz.  gauging.  Beginning,  by  find- 
ing the  area  in  inches,  or  in  wine,  or  a!e-gallons, 
of  the  diameter  of  a  circle  given  ;  and  fuppofing 
that  diameter  20  inches,  we  will  fet  i  upon  D,  to 
.785  (noted  d)  on  C,  then  againft  20  on  D  is 
314.159  the  area  required.  Now  to  find  that 
circle's  area  in  ale-gallons,  we  will  fet  18.95 
(n.arked  A  G)  upon  D,  to  i  on  C  ;  then  againft  the 
diameter  20  upon  D,  is  the  number  of  ale  gallons 
on  C,  viz.  I.I  I.  The  fame  may  feive  for  wi.ie-gal  J 
ions,  having  only  regard  to  the  propi^r  gauge-point. 

The  two  diameters  of  an  ellipfis  being  given,  to 
find  the  area  in  ale-gallons.  Sappofe  the  tranfverfe 
diameter  72  inches,  and  the  conjugate  50;  we 
will  fet  359.05,  the  fquare  of  the  gauge  point  on 
B,  to  one  of  the  diameters  (fuppofe  50)  on  A  ; 
tlien  againft  the  other  diameter  72  on  B,  we  will 
have  the  area  on  A,  viz.  10.02  gallons,  the  con- 
tent of  this  ellipfis  at  one  inch  deep:  the  like  mar 
be  done  for  wine-gallons,  if  inftead  of  359.05  wc 
ufe  249.1 1  the  fquare  of  the  gauge-point  for  wine- 
gallons. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  triangular  fof ace,  in  ale- 
gallons  :  fuppofe  the  bafe  of  the  triangle  260 
inches,  and  the  perpendicular  let  fall  from  the  op- 
pofite  angle  1 10  inches  ;  we  will  fet  282  (marked 
A)  -upon  B  to  130,  half  the  bafe  on  A  ;  then  againlt 
r  10  on  B  is  50.7  gallons  on  A. 

To  find  the  content  of  an  oblong  in  ale-gallons  : 
fuppofe  one  fide  130  inches,  and  the  other  x8o  ; 
we  will  fet  282  on  B,  to  180  on  A  ;  then  againft 
130  upon  B  in  82.97  ale-gallons,  the  area  re- 
quired. 

To  find  the  content  of  a  regular  polygon,  in 
ale-gallons,  one  of  the  fides  being  given  :  we  find 
the  length  of  the  perpendicular  let  fall  from  the  cen- 
ter to  one  of  the  fides  ;  this  multiplied  by  half  the 
fum  of  the  fides,  gives  the  area.  For  inftance  : 
fuppofe  a  pentagon,  whofe  fide  is  i  inch  ;  here  the 
perpendicular  will  be  found  .837,  by  faying  as  the 
fine  of  half  the  angle  at  the  center,  which  in  this 
polygon  is  36°,  is  to  half  the  given  fide  .c,  fo  is 
the  fine  of  the  complement  of  36^,  viz,  54°  to  the 
perpendicular  aforefaid:  whence  the  area  of  a  pen- 
tagon, whofe  fide  is  unity,  will  be  found  1,72 
inches  ;  which  divided  by  282,  give  .0061  the  ale- 
gallons  in  that  polygon. 

To  find  the  content  of  a  cylinder  in  ale-gallons  ; 
fuppofe  the  diameter  of  the  bafe  of  the  cylinder  120 
inches,  the  perpendicular  height  36  inches ;  we 
will  fet,  therefore,  the gauging-point  {AG)  to  the 
height  36  on  C;  then  againft  120,  the  diameter 
on  D,  is  feund  14436,  the  content  in  ale- 
gallons. 

The 


GEOGRAPHY. 


453 


The  bung  and  head  diameters  of  any  cafk,  to- 
gether with  its  length,  being  given  ;  to  find  its 
content  in  ale  or  wine-gallons  :  i.  Suppofe  the 
length  of  a  cafk  taken  (as  the  middle  fruftum  of  a 
Ipheroid,  which  is  the  firfl  cafe  or  variety)  be  40 
inches,  its  head-diamer  24  inches,  and  bung-dia- 
meter 32  inches  >  we  will  fubtraft  the  head  dia- 
meter from  that  of  the  bung,  the  difFcience  is  8. 
Then  we  look  for  8  inches  on  the  line  of  niches, 
on  the  firft  narrow  face  of  the  rule;  and  againil  it, 
on  the  line  fpheroid,  ftands  56  inches,  which  added 
to  the  head-diameter  24,  gives  29  6  inches  for  that 
cafk's  mean  diameter ;  we  fet  therefore  the  gauge- 
point  for  ale  (marked  AG)  on  D,  to  40  on  C  ;  and 
againft  29  6  on  D,  is  97-45,  'he  content  of  the 
cafk  in  ale-gallons.  If  the  gauge-point  for  wine 
(marked  W  G)  be  ufed  inflead  of  that  for  ale,  we 
will  have  the  veflcl's  content  in  wine-gallons. 
2.  If  a  cafk  of  the  fame  dimenfions  as  ths  former  be 
taken  (as  the  middle  fruflum  of  a  parabolic  fpindie, 
which  is  the  fecond  variety)  we  will  fee  what  inches, 
and  parts,  on  the  line  marked  fecond  •variety^  flan  J 
againft  the  difference  of  the  bung  and  hcad-diame- 
ters,  which  in  this  example  is  8  ;  and  we  will  hnd 
5.1  inches,  which  added  to  24,  the  head  diame- 
ter, makes  29.1  inches,  the  mean  diameter  of  the 
cafk,  we  will  therefore  fet  the  rule  as  before,  and 
againft  29.1  inches,  we  will  have  94.12  ale- 
gallons  for  the  content  of  the  cafk.  3.  If  the  cafk 
taken  be  the  middle  fruflum  of  two  parabolic  co- 
noids, which  i.^  the  third  variety;  againft  8  inches, 
the  diftcrenice  of  the  head  and  bung-diameter,  on 
the  line  of  inches,  we  will  find  4.57  inches  on  the 
lidie  called  third  variety  ;  tliis  added,  as  before,  to 
24,  gives  28.57  for  the  cafk's  mean  diameter:  pro- 
ceeding as  before,  we  will  find  the  content  go  8 
gjdlons.     £,)  If  the  cafk  taken  be  the  fiuflums  of 


two  cones,  which  is  the  fourth  variety,  againft  8 
inches,  on  the  line  of  inches,  we  will  find  on  the 
line  marked  fC  41  inches,  to  be  added  to  24 
inches  :  the  reft  carried  on  as  before,  gives  the  con- 
tent of  the  cafk  87.93  ale-gallons. 

A  caflc  partly  empty,  lying  with  its  axis  parallel 
to  the  horizon,  to  find  the  quantity  of  liquor  there- 
in, we  find  its  whole  content  as  above;  which  fup- 
pofe  97-455  gallons,  and  fuppofe  the  inches  left 
dry  8,  and  the  bung  diameter  32:  then  as  the 
bung-diameter  on  C  is  to  100  on  the  line  of  feg- 
ments  L^  fo  are  the  dry  inches  on  C  to  a  fourth 
number  on  the  line  of  (egments :  and  as  100  upon 
B  is  to  the  cafk's  whole  content  on  A,  fo  is  that 
fourth  number  to  the  liquor  wanting  to  fill  up  the 
cafk  ;  which  fubtrafted  from  the  whole  content  of 
the  cafk,  gives  the  liquor  remaining  therein,  ex.gr. 
Set  32,  the  bung-diameter  on  C,  to  joo  on  the 
fegment  line  L  ;  then  againft  8,  the  dry  inches  on 
C,  ftands  17.6  on  the  fegment  line  :  fet  therefore 
100  on  B,  to  the  cafk's  whole  content  on  A  ;  and 
againft  i7.6onB,  you  have  16,5  gallons  on  A  ; 
fubtradting  therefore  the  faid  gallons  from  97  45> 
the  vefTel's  whole  content,  the  liquor  in  the  cafk 
will  be  8.95  gallons. 

To  find  the  liquor  in  a  cafk  ftanding  upright,  or 
with  its  axis  perpendicular  to  the  horizon  ;  fuppofe 
the  length  of  the  cafk  40  inches,  and  10  of  them 
dry;  we  will  fet  40  inches  on.  the  line  C,  to  100 
on  the  fegment  line  S  ;  and  ■  againft  10,  the  dry 
inches  on  the  line  C,  ftand  24.2  on  S,  the  fegment 
line.  Then  we  fet  loO  on  B,  to  97.455,  the  cafk's 
whole  content  on  A;  againft  24.2  on  B,  we  will 
have  23.5  gallons,  which  is  what  is  wanting  to 
fill  up  the  cafk  ;  this  therefore  fubtrafted  from 
the  whole  content  97.455  gives  73  955  gallons, 
for  the  quantity  of  liquor  remaining  in  the  caflc. 


GEO    G    R  A   P    H  r. 


HE    fcicnce   of  Geogr  AP  H  Y   (from 

Vi'f  earth,  and  yga'^w,  I ivrite)  chieflycon- 

fiiTS  in  a  deicripvion  of  the  furface  uf  the 

terrejirial  or  terraqueous  globe  ;   fo  called , 

b'ccaufe  \t  is  compofed  oVland  and  v-atcr :  f(j  that  it 

differs  from  chorography.nni  topography, ■a.^^  the  whole 

from  a  part;  and  injm.  cojmography,  as  a, part  fiom 

.the  whole. 

CcsMoCRAPHY  defciibes  thewhole  vifible world, 
both  the  heavens  and  the  earth. 

ChuRographv  defcribes  feme  principal 'part  of 
the  earth,:  as  England,  France,.  &c. 

ToPOGPsAPHY   only  defcribes   fome  particular 
diftria,  city,  {?V.  in  that  principal  part. 


The  beft  Geographers  divide  Geography  into  ■ 
general  .and  fpcciii!^  or  univerfal  and  partictdur. 

By  ::niv:rfal geography  .is  underftood  that  part  of 
the  fcience  v/hich  confiders  the  vvhole  earth  in  ger 
nerr.l,  and  explains  its  properties  without  regard  to 
particular  countries.  1  his  divifion  is  diftinguifhed 
into  throe  pzris,  alflute,  rt'ative,  and  comparative. 
The  ahfolute  part  refpeifs  the  body  of  the  earth 
itfelf,  its  parts  and  peculiar  properties,  as  its  figure, 
magnitude,  and  motion  ;  its  lands  fcas,  and  rivers, 
&c.  7  he  relative  part  accounts  for  the  appearances 
and  accidents  that  happen  to  it  frorn  celeftial  caufes; 
and,  laftly.  the  eo/rpa/ ative  contains  an  explana- 
tion of  thofe  properties  which  arile  from  comparing 
different  parts  of  the  earth  together. 

Special 


554-  ^^  UniverHil  Hiftory  of  Arts  <^;^<ar  Sciences. 


special  or  particular  geography,  is  that  divifion  of 
the  fcience  which  defcribes  the  conflitution  and 
fituation  of  each  Angle  country  by  ilfclf;  and  is 
twofold,  viz.  cborograpbical  or  topographical. 

Hcr.ce  t!ie  objed:  or  fubjedl  of  geography  is  the 
earth,  efpecially  its  fuperficies  and  exterior  parts. 

The  properties  of  ^^^^rrrf/iiy,  are  of  three  kinds. 
viz.  cclcjiial,  terrejlrial,  and  human.  The  ccUj'lial  pro- 
perties axe  fuch  as  affecl  us  by  reafon  of  the  appa- 
rent motion  of  the  fun  and  liars.  Thcfe  arc  eight 
in  number,  i.  The  elevation  of  the  pole,  or  the 
difta«ce  of  a  pl.ice  from  the  equator.  '4.  The  obli- 
quity of  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  ftars  above  the 
horizon  of  the  place.  3.  T  he  time  of  the  longefl: 
and  lliortdl  day.  4.  The  climate  and  zone. 
5.  Meat,  cold,  and  the  feafons  of  the  year;  with 
rain,  fnow,  wind,  and  other  meteors.  6.  The 
rifin^j,  appearance  and  continuance  of  the  flars 
above  the  horizon.  7. The  ftars  that  pafs  through 
the  zenith  of  a  place,  8.  The  celerity  of  the  mo- 
tion with  which,  according  to  the  Copernican  hy- 
potheHs,  every  place  conllantly  revolves. 

The  terrejlrial  pioperties  are  thofe  obferved  in 
the  face  of  each  country,  and  are  ten  in  number. 
I.  The  limitb  and  bounds  of  each  country.     2.  Its 


3     Its    magnitude.      4.    Its    mount.iins. 


figure. 

5.  Its  wsters,  ■;:;/':;.  fpriiig.';,  rivers,  lakes,  and  bays. 

6.  Its  woods  and  defarts.  7.  1  he  fruitfulncfs  and 
barrennefs  of  the  country,  with  its  various  kinds  of 
fruits.  8.  The  minerals  and  foffils.  9.  The  liv- 
ing creatures  there.  10.  1  he  longitude  and  lati- 
tude of  the  plare. 

Tlie  third  kind  of  obfervations  to  be  made  in 
every  country  is  called  human  ;  bccaufe  they  chiefly 
regard  the  inhabitants  of  the  place,  and  thcfe  are 
alfo  ten  in  number,  i.  Their  totijre,  fhape,  co- 
lour, and  the  length  of  their  lives  ;  their  origin, 
iRcat,  and  drink.  2.  Theit  arcs,  and  the  profits 
vvhich  arife  from  them,  with  the  merchandize  and 
wares  they  barter  one  with  another.  3.  Their 
virtues  and  vices,  learning,  capacities,  and  fchools. 
4.  Their  ceremonies  at  births,  marriages  and  fu- 
nerals. 5.  The  language  which  the  inhabitants 
ufe.  6.  Their  political  government.  7.  Their 
religion  and  church  government.     8.  Their  cities 


Geography  is  very  antient,  at  leafl  the  fpecial  pirt 
thereof;  for  the  antients  fcarce  went  beyond  the 
dcfcriptlon  of  countries.  It  was  a  conftant  cuftom 
among  the  Romans,  after  they  had  conquered  and 
fubdued  any  province,  to  have  a  map  or  printed 
reprelentation  thereof,  carried  in  triumph,  and  ex- 
pofed  to  the  view  of  the  fpeitators.  Hiftorians 
relate,  that  the  Roman  fenate,  about  in  hundred 
years  before  Christ  fcnt  geographers  into  divers 
parts  to  make  an  accurate  furvey  and  menfuratioa 
of  the  whole  globe,  but  they  fcarce  ever  faw  the 
tweiiiieth  part  of  it. 

Before  them,  Neco  king;  of  Hgypt,  ordered  the 
Phcfnicians  to  make  a  furvey  of  the  whole  coaft  of 
Africa,  which  they  accomplifhed  in  three  years. 
Darius  procured  the  Ethlopic  fea,  and  the  mouth  of 
the  Indus  to  be  furveyed ;  and  Pliny  relates,  that 
Alexander,  in  his  expedition  ij>to  Afia,  took  two 
geographers  tp  meafure  and  defcribe  the  roads  ;  and 
thatfromtheir;//««-i»)/«,  the  writers  of  the  following 
ages  took  many  particulars.  Indeed  this  may  be 
obferved,  that  whereas  mod  other  arts  and  fciences 
are  fufFerers  by  war,  geography  T^nii  fortification  alone 
have  been  improved  thereby. 

Geography,  however,  mufl  have  been  exceedingly 
defeSiive,  as  a  great  part  of  the  globe  v\as  then  un- 
known, particularly  all  America,  the  northern  parts 
of  Europe  and  Afia,  with  the  Terra  Aujlralis,  and 
Magcllanica ;  and  as  they  were  ignorant  of  the 
earth's  being  capable  to  be  fai'ed  round,  and  of  the 
torrid  zone's  being  habitabjc,  £?V> 

The  lionour  of  rcducinj  geography  to  art  and 
fyftcm  was  referved  for  Ptolemy,  who,  by  addin;'' 
mathematical  advantages  to  the  hiftorical  method  in 
which  it  had  been  treated  off  before,  has  defcribed 
the  wojld  in  a  much  more  intelligible  manner  :  he 
has  delineated  it  under  more  certaiij  rules,  and  by 
fixing  the  bounds  of  places  from  longitude  and  latit- 
tude,  hath  difcovered  others  miftakes,  and  has  leff 
us  a  niethod  of  d.ifcovering  his  own. 

We  will  begin  with  general  or  Univerfal  Gee- 
graphy. 

This  divifion  of  the  fcience  confiders  the  earth 
as  zfpherical globe,  or  nearly  fo  ;   whofe  circumfe- 


and  famous  places,     g.  Their  remarkable  hillories.  i  rence  is  360  degrees,  of  6c  geographical  miles  each; 


TO.  Their  famous  men,  artificers,  and  inventions 
of  the  natives. 

Thefe  are  the  three  kinds  of  occurrences  to  be 
explained  in  Jpecial geography. 

in  Univerfal  Geography,  the  abfolute  divifion  of 
the  earth,  and  the  conititution  of  its  parts,  are  ex- 


amined ;  and  the  celeftial 
are  to  be  applied  to  their 
fpecial  geography. 


phenomena  in  general 
rcfpe(Stive  countries  in 


fo  that  the  whcJe  circuit  is  21600  fuch  miles,  and 
if  the  diajneter  wgs  a  third  part  of  the  circumference, 
the  diameter  would  be  7200  miles  ;  but  the  diame- 
ter is  as  7  to  22,  which  makes  it  Ibmething  lefs 
than  a  third  part  of  the  circumference.  If  we  re- 
duce the  geographical  miles  to  Englijh  miles  the 
circumference  of  the  earth  will  be  about  24,000 
miles,  and  the  diameter  8000. 

This   globe  refls    upon    nothing,    but  appears 
equally  furrounded  by  the  heavens  on  every  fide, 

for 


GEOGRAPHY, 


SS5 


for  the  better  utiderftanding  whereof,  it  will  be  ne- 
ceflary  to  obferve  the  feveral  imaginary  circles  de- 
fcribcd  on  the  artificial  globe,  viz.  i.  The  equator 
and  the  circles  parallel  to  it.  2.  The  firft  meridian, 
and  the  reft  of  the  meridional  lines.  3.  The  zo- 
diac, which  includes  the  ecliptic.  4.  The  hori- 
zon 5.  The  two  tropics.  6.  The  arctic  and  an- 
tardlic  circles.  It  is  fuppofed  alfo,  that  aline  pafTes 
through  the  center  of  the  globe,  called  its  axis, 
round  which  it  moves  every  24.  hours,  the  ends  of 
which  axis  are  called  the  poles  of  the  earth  ;  that 
in  the  north  called  the  arSfic  or  north  pole,  from  a 
Ifar  in  the  heavens  opnofite  to  it,  which  forms  part 
cf  the  conftellation  called  t\\e  little  Lear,  and  that 
in  the  fouth  called  the  antarSiic  or  fouth  pole,  as  di- 
ametrically oppofite  to  the  other. 

By  the  equator  the  globe  is  divided  into  two  equal 
parts  or  hemifpheres,  and  on  this  circle  arc  marked 
the  degiees  of  Tongitude,  from  the  firft  meridian, 
either  eaft  or  v/cft.  The  paraUd  circles  are  fo 
called  from  their  running  parallel  to  the  equator ,  of 
which  there  are  nine  in  number  inclufive,  between 
the  equator  and  either  pole,  ten  degrees  diftant  from 
each  other,  every  degree  of  latitude  being  60  geo- 
graphical  miles,  and  every  ten  degrees  600   fuch 

miles.     Confequently  it   is   5400  miles  from   the 

equator  to  either  pole,  which  is  one  quarter  of  the 
circumference  of  the  globe. 

The  firji  meridian  is  reprefented   by  the  brazen 

circle  in  wliich  the  globe  moves,  dividing   it  into 

the   eaftern    and   weftern  hemifpheres,    on  which 

circle  are  marked  the  degrees  of  latitude,  which  are 

counted  northward  from  the  equator  to  the  north 

pole,  and  fouthward  from  the  equator  to  the  fouth 

pole. 

Where  the  meridional  lines  are   24  in  number, 

they  are  15  degrees,  or  one  hour  afundcr;    thofe 

who  live  under  the  meridian  line  on  the  right  hand, 

that  is,  to  the  eaftward  of  the  firft  meridian,  have 

the  fun  one  hour  before  us  ;    and   thofe  who  live 

under  the  meridional  line  on  the  left  hand,  that  is,  j  climate,  the  fun  pafling  over  it  twice  every  year. 

weft  of  us,  have  the  fun  an  hour  after  us  ;  and  this         i  he  ivfo  frigid  zones  lie  within  the  polar  circles, 

fhews  what  is  meant  by  the  eaftern  and  weftern   and  are  fo  called  from  the  exceffive  cold  within 

longitude.     And  as  longitude  is  nothing  more  than  '  thofe  circles. 

the  diflance  any  place  is  eaft  or  weft  of  the  firft  |      The  northern  temperate  zone  lies  between  the 

meridian,  fo  latitude  is  the  diftance  a  place  is  from  /r»/i/V  of  d^r/ctr  and  the  ar£i i c  circ\e,  andthe_/oa- 

the  equator,  north  or  fouth.      If  it  be  north  of  the  them  temperate  zone  between  the  tropic  of  Capricorn 

equator,  it  is  called  north  latitude;  and  if  it  be  fouth  ■  and  the  antarilic  circle. 

oi  i\\e  equator,  it  is  called  fcuth  latitude.  j      Hence  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth    are  diftin- 

The  yfr/?  meridian  in  the  old   maps  was  placed   guiftied   into  Periaci,  Jnttsci,  or  Antipodes :    ac- 

either  at  Tencrijf,  one  of  the  !  'anary  ides,  1 7  degrees  cording  to  their  fituations. 

weft  of  London,  or  at  Ferra,  another  of  the  Ca-  |      The  Peria-ci  are  fituate  under  the  fame  parallel, 

nary    ifles,     ig    degrees    weft    of   London.      But,  but  oppofite  meridians:    it  is  midnight  with  one 

everv    nation  almoft  at   this   day  places  the  Jir/i'  when  it  is  noon  with  the  other,   but  the  length  of 

meridian  at  their  refpeflive  capital  cities   in  their  their  days  and  their  feafons  are  the  fame  ;  thefe  are 

feveral    maps.     In  Moll's   maps,  London   is  made  .found   bv  turning  the  horary  index   12  hours,  or 

the  firft  meridian  at  one  end  of  the  map,  and  Ferro  turning  the  globe  half  round. 

26  4  B  The 


at  the  other  ;  Ferro  being  ig  degrees  weft  of  Lon- 
don, And  in  thefe  maps  the  upper  end  is  always 
the  north,  the  lower  end  the  fouth  ;  the  right  hand 
caft,  and  the  left  hand  weft,  the  degrees  of  longitude 
being  marked  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  each  map, 
and  the  degrees  of  latitude  on  the  fides  of  the  map. 

The  zodiac  is  that  circle,  which  cuts  the  equa- 
tor obliquely,  and  is  divided  into  twelve  Jigns, 
through  which  the  fun  feems  to  pafs  within  the 
Ipaceof  12  months,  each  fign  containing  30  degrees 
of  longitude. 

The  ecliptic  is  a  line  paffing  through  the  middle 
of  the  zodiac,  and  fhews  the  fun's,  or  rather  the 
ea'th's  path  or  orbit,  in  which  it  moves  annually. 

The  horizon  is  the  broad  circle  in  which  the 
globe  ftaiids,  dividing  it  into  the  upper  and  lower 
hemifpheres  ;  the  place  where  any  one  ftands,  is  the 
center  of  the  horizon  and  hemifphere  ;  the  fenfible 
horizon  Ceems  to  touch  the  furface  of  the  earth,  and 
is  the  utmoft  limits  of  our  fight  upon  an  exten- 
five  plain  The  rational  horizon  is  fuppofed  parallel 
to  this,  and  to  be  extended  to  the  heavens. 

The  poles  of  our  horizon  are  two  imaginary  points 
in  the  heavens,  called  the  zenith  and  nadir  ;  the  zenith 
being  the  vertical  point  directly  over  our  heads,  and 
the  nadir  that  point  of  the  heavens  under  our  feet, 
diametrically  oppofite  to  the  zenith. 

The  tropics  fliew  how  far  the  fun  or  rather  the 
earth  proceeds  north  or  fouth  of  the  equator  every 
year.  The  tropic  of  Cancer  furrounds  the  globe 
23  f  degrees  north  of  the  equator,  and  the  tropic 
of  Capricorn  2^  k  fouth  of  the  equator. 

The  polar  circles  are  drawn  23  f  degrees  diftant 
from  each  pole,  and  66  f  diftant  from  the  equator. 

The  earth  is  divided  into  five  zones,  viz.  The 
torrid  zone,  the  two  frigid  zones,  and  the  two 
temperate  zones :  and  they  are  denominated  zones  ; 
becaufe  they  encompafs  the  earth  like  a  girdle. 

The  torrid  zone  lies  between  the  two  tropics,  and 
is  fo  denominated  from  the  exceffive  heat  of  the 


S?5 


Tlie  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


The  Antned  are  fituatc  under  the  fame  meridian, 
but  oppofite  parallels  ;  thefe  have  the  fcafons  op- 
pofite  to  ourS,  and  the  fame  length  of  days ;  but 
when  their  days  are  longeft,  ours  are  fhorteft.  Thefe 
are  found  by  numbering  as  many  degrees  on  the 
oppofire  {ide  of  the  equator  as  wc  are  on  this. 

The  Ani'ipodes  lie  under  oppofite  meridians,  and 
oppofite  parallels  ;  thefe  have  different  feafons,  and 
their  noon-day  is  our  mi'Jnight,  and  their  longeft 
day  our  fhorteft:  Thefe  are  found  by  turning  the 
horary  index  12  hours  from  the  given  place,  or 
turning  the  globe  half  round,  and  then  counting 
as  many  degrees  on  the  oppofite  fide  of  the  equator, 
as  the  given  place  is  on  this. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  earth  are  diftinguifhed 
by  their  different  fhadows  at  noon-day,  and  are 
denominated  cither  Amphifdi,  Afcii,  Heterefcii,  or 
Perifcii. 

The  Amphifdi  inhabit  the  torrid  zone,  and 
have  their  noon  day  fhadows  both  north  and  fouth  : 
When  the  fun  is  fouth  of  them,  then  their  fha- 
dows  are  north,  and  when  the  fun  is  north  of 
them  their  fhadov/s  are  fouth  ;  thefe  are  alfo  called 
Afcii,  bccaufe  the  fun  is  vertical  twice  every  year 
at  noon-day,  and  then  they  have  no  fliadow. 

The  Htterofdi.  who  inhabit  the  temperate  zones, 
have  their  fhadows  alv^'ays  one  way  at  noon-day. 
In  the  northern  temperate  zone  their  fhadows  are 
always  north;  and  in  the  fouthern  temperate  zone, 
their  fhado  >.  s  are  always  fouth  at  noon-day. 

The  Pcrifdi  inhabit  within  the  polar  circles,  and 
have  their  fhadows  every  way,  the  fun  being  above 
their  horizon  all  the  24  hours,  feveral  months  in 
the  year,  *;z.  when  it  is  on  the  fame  fide  of  the 
equator  they  are  of;  and  if  there  were  any  inhabi- 
tants at  either  of  the  poles,  they  would  have  but  one 
day  of  6  months,  and  one  night  of  the  fam;  length. 

The  ancients  nf)t  being  acquainted  with  the 
manner  of  difcovering  the  fituation  of  places  by 
the  height  of  the  pole  and  latitude,  or  diftance  of 
the  equator,  they  fought  the  fituation  by  the 
difference  in  the  length  of  the  days:  And  therefore 
they  divided  the  furface  of  the  terreftrial  globe, 
by  means  of  circles  parallel  to  the  equator,  into 
certain  parts  orfmall  zones,  each  of  which  to  con- 
tain the  fame  length  of  days,  and  called  them  by 
the  name  of  climates,  (from  K^tfta,  inclination) 
and  thefe, were  fubdividcd  by  a  circle,  or  parallel 
line,  into  tw?o  detni- climates,  to  which  they  gave 
the  name  of  parallel;  (o  that  each  climate  contains 
two  parallels,  or  demi-climates. 

There  are  two  forts  of  climates.  Thofe  which 
are  between  the  equator,  and  the  polar  circles, 
where  the  artifict:il  d.iys  increafe  infenfibly,  are 
regulated  by  half  hours;  and  thofe,  who  Ii\e  be- 
tween the  polar  circlee  and  the  poles,  which  con- 


tain continual  days,  are  regulated  by  months,  or 

30  continual  days. 

The  parallels  are  likewife  of  two  forts,  the  one 
divides  the  climates  of  half  hours  into  quarters,  and 
the  other  divides  the  days  of  a  month  into  15  days. 

Therefore  climate  is  a  fpace  of  the  furface  of  the 
terreftrial  globe  contained  between  tvyo  parallel 
circles,  or  lines,  between  which  there  is  a  variation 
of  an  half  hour,  or  of  30  days  in  the  longeft  days 
of  the  year. 

Likewife  the  parallel  is  a  fpace  of  the  earth 
contained  between  two  lines,  or  parallel  circles, 
between  which  there  is  a  difference,  either  of  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  or  of  15  days  in  the  longefl 
days  of  the  year. 

The  climates  and  parallels  are,  between  them, 
very  unequal ;  in  thofe  of  artificial  days,  the  more 
they  approach  the  equator,  the  broader  they  are, 
and  diminifh  in  proportion  as  they  depart  from 
the  equator  and  approach  the  poles. 

The  climates  of  continual  days,  on  tlie  contrary, 
are  broader  in  proportion  they  are  nearer  the 
poles  ;  and  diminifh  as  they  depart  from  them,  and 
advance  towards  the  tropicks. 

The  inequality  of  the  latitude  of  the  climates,  as 
well  of  artificial  as  of  continual  days,  proceeds 
from  the  different  obliquities  of  the  horizons,  with 
regard  to  the  courfe  of  the  fun,  when  it  is  in  the 
tropick;  where  it  determines  the  length  of  the 
lor.  'eft  days,  for  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  fame 
hemifphere. 

There  are   fixty  climates,    thirty    between  the 

I  equator  and  the  ard:ic  pols,  for  the  northern    he- 

milphere,  and  thirty  between  the  equator  and  the 

I  antarflic  pole  for  the  oppofite  hemifphere,  which 

we  commonly  call  fouthern. 

The  thirty  climates  of  each  hemifphere  are  di- 
vided into  climates  of  half  hours,  or  artificial  days, 
and  climates  of  continual  days. 

The  climates  of  half  hours  are  reckoned  between 
the  equator  and  the  polar  circles,  to  the  number 
of  24.  Becaufe  the  artificial  day  being  always  of. 
12  hours  under  the  equator,  and  of  24  hours,  in 
the  longeft  day  of  the  year  under  the  polar  circles, 
the  increafe  is  of  12  hours,  which  make  up  24(. 
half  hours,  and  confequently  24  climates. 

The  climates  of  continual  days  are  reckoned  be- 
tween the  polar  circle  and  the  pole,  to  the  number 
of  fix,  and  by  months;  becaufe  the  longeft  day 
under  the  polar  circle,  is  of  a  natural  day,  /.  e. 
of  24  hours,  and  of  fix  months  under  the  poles ; 
which  make  up  fix  months  of  inrreafe,  which  are 
diftributed  by  months,  each  whereof  makes  a 
climate. 

The  fixty  climates  making  np  120  demi-climates^ 
or  parallels,  i.  e.  60  parallels  for  each  hemifphere, 

there 


GEOGRAPHY, 


557 


there  will  be  48  by  quarters  of  an  hour,  for  the 
24  climates  of  half  hours,  and  12  for  the  climates  of 
months,  which  together  make  up  the  120  parallels. 

The  people  under  the  equator  have  no  climate  ; 
thofe  whofe  longeft  day  is  of  12  hours  and  an  half 
have  one  climate  ;  or  are  towards  the  end  of  the 
firft  climate :  Thofe  whofe  longeft  day  is  of  11 
hours,  have  two  climates,  and  thus  in  order  to 
66  degrees  31  minutes,  where  there  are,  as  I  have 
obferved  already,  24  climates,  i.  e.  that  they  are  at 
the  end  of  the  laft  climate  of  an  hour,  bccaufe 
their  longeft  day  lafts  24  hours  ;  and  as  from  the 
end  of  the  twenty -fourth  climate,  every  quarter  of  a 
league  towards  the  pole,  the  day  increafes  24 
hours  at  once,  afterwards  a  week,  a  month,  (3'c. 
the  fix  laft  climates  have  been  determined  by  the 
difference  of  a  month  of  continual  day  more  at 
their  end  than  at  their  beo-inning-. 

Thefe  particulars  well  confidered,  we  proceed  to 
the  defcription  of  the  artificial  globe. 

The  ARTIFICIAL  GLonE  of  the  earth  is  a  fphere 
on  whofe  furface  are  delineated  the  principal  partsof 
the  earth  in  their  proper  fituations,  diftances,  ifjc. 
and  alfo  the  imaginary  circles  already  defcribed. 

This  globe  is  by  its  pofition  fometimes  called  a 
right  fphere,  at  other  times  a  parallel  fphere,  and 
an  (7W;y«<7  fphere.  And  by  the  various  pofition  of 
the  horizon  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  are  fome- 
times diftinguifhed. 

In  a  right  fphere  the  equator  pafles  through  the 
xenith  and  nadir,  and  the  parallel  circles  fall  per- 
pendicularly on  the  horizon,  which  is  the  cafe  of 
thofe  people  who  live  under  the  equinoflial  line. 

In  a  parallel  fphere,  the  poles  are  in  the  ■zenith 
and  ?ta/iir ;  the  equator  is  parallel  to,  and  coincides 
with  the  horizon,  and  the  parallel  circles  are  pa- 
rallel to  the  horizon,  which  can  only  be  faid  of 
people  under  either  pole. 

In  an  oblique  fphere,  the  inhabitants  have  one  of 
the  poles  above,  and  the  other  under  the  horizon, 
and  the  equator  and  parallel  circles  cutting  the  ho- 
rizon obliquely,  as  is  the  cafe  of  all  people  that  do 
not  live  under  the  equinoflial  or  the  poles. 

In  order  to  find  the  true  fituation  of  a  place  upon 
theglobe ;  let  it  be  kt  upon  a  level  table,  and  the  brazen 
meridian  ftand  due  north  and  fouth  ;  then  bring  the 
given  place  to  the  brazen  meridian,  and  let  there  be 
90  degrees  between  that  place  and  the  horizon,  both 
north  and  fouth,  and  the  given  place  wjll  be  in  the 
zenith ;  the  globe  beiag  thus  redtified,  you  may 
proceed  to  folve  any  problem. 

As  the  longitude  of  a  place  will  be  found  by 
numbring  on  the  equator  fo  many  degrees  as  the 
place  lies  eaft  or  weft  of  the  lirft  meridian  :  And 
the  latitude  will  be  found  by  counting  fo  many  de- 
grees on  the  brazen  meridian,  as  the  place  lies 


north  or  fouth  of  the  equator:  You  mufl  turn  th*^ 
globe  therefore  either  eaft  or  weft,  till  the  given 
place  is  brought  to  the  brazen  meridian,  and  you 
will  fee  the  degree  of  longitude  marked  on  the 
equator;  and  the  latitude  is  found  at  the  fame  time, 
only  by  numbering  the  degrees  on  the  brazen  meri- 
dian either  north  or  fouth  of  the  equator,  till  you 
come  to  the  given  place. 

To  find  what  places  are  under  the  fame  meridian 
with  a  given  place;  bring  the  given  place  to  the 
brazen  meridian,  and  obferve  what  places  lie  under 
that  meridian,   either  north  or  fouth  of  the  equator. 

To  find  what  places  have  the  fame  latitude ;  turn 
the  globe  round,  and  obferving  on  the  brazen  meri- 
dian what  places  come  under  the  fame  degree  of 
latitude,  as  the  given  place  is.  ;   , 

To  find  the  fun  s  place  in  tiie  ecliptic  at  any  time 
of  the  year.  Having  found  the  month,  and  day 
of  the  month,  you  will  find,  upon  the  v/ooden 
horizon,  the  fign  in  which  the  fun  is  oppofite  to 
the  day  of  the  month;  which  is  they««';  place  in 
the  ecliptic  at  that  time. 

To  know  the  length  of  the  days  at  any  time  and 
at  any  place,  bring  the  given  place  to  the  zcni  h\ 
then  bring  the  fun's  place  in  the  ecliptic  to  the  eaft 
fide  of  the  horizon,  and  fet  the  index  of  the  hour 
circle  to  12  at  noon,  or  the  upper  figure  of  12, 
and  turn  the  globe  till  the  faid  place  in  the  ecliptic 
touch  the  weftern  fide  of  the  horizon,  and  the 
number  of  hours  between  the  upper  figure  of  12, 
and  the  hour  the  index  points  to,  fhews  how  many 
hours  the  day  is  long,  and  confequently  the  length 
of  the  nights  ;  becaufe  fo  many  hours  as  the  day 
falls  Ihort  of  24,  muft  be  the  length  of  the  night  ; 
as  when  the  day  is  16  hours  long,  the  night  muft 
of  courfe  be  8  hours  long. 

To  find  thofe  places  on  the  globe  where  the 
fun  is  in  the  meridian  at  any  time.  The  globe 
being  reflified,  and  the  place  where  you  are 
brought  to  the  brazen  meridian,  fet  the  index 
of  the  horary  circle  at  the  hour  of  the  day  at 
that  place,  then  turn  the  globe  till  the  index 
points  to  the  upper  12,  and  you  will  fee  all  thofe 
places  were  the  fun  is  in  the  meridian  ;  as  for  ex- 
ample, if  it  be  II  in  the  morning  at  London,  and 
you  fet  the  index  at  11,  turn  the  Globe  till  the 
index  points  at  the  upper  12,  and  you  will  find 
Naples,  which  is  an  hour  or  15  degrees  eaft  of 
London.  And  in  all  places  under  the  fame  meri- 
dian as  Naples  is,  it  muft  confequently  be  12  at 
noon  at  that  time. 

In  like  manner  if  itbe  4in  the  afternoon  at  Lon- 
don, and  you  fet  the  index  at  4,  and  turn  the  Globe 
till  the  index  points  at  the  upper  12,  you  wil  find 
Barbadoes,  v/hich  is  four  hours  or  60  degrees  weft 
of  London,dii\d  at  all  places  imder  die  fame  merit 

4  B  2  dian 


558 


Tide  Univerfal  Hiflory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


ilian  as  Barhackfi  is,  it  muil  confcqucntly  be  12  at  i      To  find  the  dijlancc  of  one  place  from  another 
noon  at  that  time.  j  upon  the  globe  :  If  both   phiccs  lie  under  the  fame 

To  difcover  where  xko.  fun  is  vat'ical  at  any  time  '  meridian,  bring  them  to  the  brazen  meridian,  and 
of  the  year,  (as  ^\cfnn  can  only  be  vertical  in  fuch  count  thereon  how  many  degrees  of  latitude  the 
places  as  lie  between  the  tropics)  to  know  this,  you  two  places  arc  from  each  other,  which  being  re- 
are  only  to  find  what  place  the  fun  is  in  the  ecliptic,  |  duced  to  units  is  the  true  dijlance.       Every  degree 


and  bringing  that  place  to  the  brazen  meridian,  ob 
fervc  what  degree  of  latitude  it  has,  for  in  all 
places  in  tliat  latitude  the  fun  will  be  vertical  that 
day,  and  you  will  find  all  thofe  places,  only  by 
turning  the  glohe  round,  and  obferving  them  as 
they  come  to  the  brazen  meridian. 

To  find  where  the  /««  is  above  the  horizon,  or 
Ihines  zvithout  fetting  all  the  24  hours  in  the  northern 
hemifphere.  'I'he  day  given  muft  be  whenthe/!/«  is 
in  the  northern  figns,  and  having  found  the  fun's 
place  in  the  ecliptic,  you  mult  bring  that  place  to 
the  brazen  meridian,  then  count  the  fame  number 
of  degrees  from  the  north  pole  towards  the  equator, 
as  there  is  between  the  equator  and  the  fun's  place 
in  the  ecliptic;  then  turn  the  globe  round,  and  in  all 
the  places  palling  under  the  iaft  degree  counted  from 
the  north  pole,  the  fun  begins  to  fhine  conftantly 
without  fetting  on  the  given  day  :  and  the  rule  will 
ferve  vice  vcjfa  for  any  place  fet  in  the  fouthern 
hemifphere,  when  the  fun  is  in  the  fouthern  figns. 

To  difcover  the  length  of  the  longeft  and  fhortcft 
days  and  nights  at  any  place  in  our  northern 
hemifphere  ;  recSlify  the  globe  according  to  the  lati- 
tude of  the  given  place,  or  which  is  the  fame 
thing,  bring  the  given  to  the  zenith,  then  bring 
the  firft  degree  of  Cancer  to  the  eaft  fide  of  the 
horizon,  and  fetting  the  index  of  the  hour  circle 
to  the  upper  figure  of  1 2,  turn  the  globe  till  the 
fiijn  of  Cancer  touch  the  weft  fide  of  the  horizon, 
and  obferve  the  number  of  hours  between  the  upper 
figure  of  12,  and  the  hour  the  index  points  to,  and 
that  is  the  length  of  the  longeft  day,  and  the 
fhortcft  night,  confcqucntly  confifts  of  fo  many 
hours  as  the  day  falls  fliort  of  24  ;  and  as  for  the 
length  of  the  days  and  nights  in  fouthern  latitude, 
they  are  juft  the  reverfe  of  thofe  in  northern  lati- 
tude, and  the  table  of  the  climates  fhews  both  the 
one  and  the  other. 

To  find  in  what  places  the  fun  is  rifing  or  fet- 
ting, or  in  its  meridian :  or  what  parts  of  the  earth 
are  enlightened  at  any  particular  time :  Firft  find 
where  the  fun  is  vertical  at  the  given  hour,  and 
bring  that  place  to  the  zenith,  under  the  brazen 
meridian  ;  then  obferve  what  places  are  in  the 
eaftern  femi-oircle  of  the  horizon,  for  there  the 
fun  is  fetting,  and  in  thofe  places  in  the  weftern 
femi-circle  of  the  horizon  the  fun  is  rifing,  and  in 
all  places  under  the  brazen  meridian  it  is  noon- 
day :  all  thofe  places  in  the  upper  hemifphere  of 
of  the  globe  are  enlightened,  and  thofe  in  the  lower 
hemifphere  are  in  darknefs. 


of  latitude  containing  60  geographical   miles,  as 
has  been    obferved   already ;   and   60  geographical 
miles    make  near  70   Englifh   miles.     If  the  two 
places  lie  under  the  fame  parallel  of  latitude,  then 
obferve  on  the  equator  howr  many  degrees  of  longi- 
tude they  are  afunder,  and  obferve  in  the  table  A, 
how  many  rnilcs  a  degree  of  longitude  makes  in 
that  latitude,  and    then  numbering  the  degrees  of 
longitude  on   the   equator,  reduce  them  to  miles, 
and  that  will  give  the  diftance  of  the  two  places. 
For  inftance,  fuppole  Rotterdam  lies  in  52  degrees 
of  north  latitude,  and  4  degrees  of  eaftern  longi- 
tude, and  Pyrmont  lies  under  the  fame   parallel  5 
degrees  eaft  of  Rotterdam,  and    I    find  that  every 
degree  of  longitude  in  this  latitude  makes  37  miles, 
then  I  multiply  37  by  5,  which  makes  185  beingthe 
number  of  miles  between  Rotterdam  and  Prymont.. 
Where  the  two  places  difi^er  both  in  longitude 
and  latitude,  the  diftance  may  be  found  by  meafur- 
ing  the  number  of  degrees  they  are  afunder  bv  the 
quadrant  of  altitude,  and  reducing  thofe  degrees  to 
miles.     For  example,  if  I  find  the  two  places  are 
the  length  of  10  degrees  afunder  by  the  quadrant, 
they  muft  neceflarily  be   600   miles  diftant  from 
each  other;  becaufe  60  miles  which  is  the  extent 
of  one  Aegree  of  latitude,  multiplied  by  10,  makes 
600  miles  on  the  globe,  in  whatever  direction  one 
place   lies  from  another,   as    north,    eaft,    fouth, 
weft,  fSc. 

To  find  how  one  place  bears  of  another,  that  is, 
whether  it //Vx  north-eaft,  fouth -weft,  or  on  any 
other  point  of  the  compafs  from  another  place: 
Bring  one  of  the  places  to  the  zenith,  and  fix 
the  quadrant  of  altitude  there;  then  extend  it  to 
the  other  place  whofe  bearing  you  woidd  know, 
and  the  lower  part  of  the  quadrant  will  interfe£t 
the  wooden  horizon  at  the  point  of  the  compafs 
infcribed  on  the  wooden  horizon,  which  is  the 
true  bearing  of  the  given  place. 

To  find  on  what  point  of  the  compafs  the  fun 
rife's  orfets  at  any  place  :  Bring  the  given  place  to 
the  zenith,  and  having  found  the  funs  place  in  the. 
ecliptic,  bring  the  fame  to  the  eaftern  fide  of  the 
horizon,  and  it  will  fhew  on  what  point  of  the 
compafs  the  fun  rifes.  On  the  other  hand,  if  you 
bring  the  fun  s  place  in  the  ecliptic  to  the  weft  fide 
of  the  horizon,  it  will  (hew  on  what  point  of  the 
compafi  the  fun  fets. 

The  contents  of  this  GIOBE  are  divided  firft  into 
land  and  water. 

I  The 


GEOGRAPHY. 


THe  land  on  the  earthy  part  is  again  divided  into 
continents,  Ijlands-,  penhijulas,  iJthmus'Sy  promontories 
or  capes. 

A  continent  is  a  large  portion  of  land,  containing 
feveral  countries,  (6  united  together  as  not  to  be 
feparated  by  feas:  As  Europe,  Afia  and  Africa, 
form  but  one  continent  in  the  eaft ;  and  America 
another  in  the  weft. 

An  ijland  is  a  portion  of  land  furrounded  by  wa- 
ter,   as  Great-Britain  is  from  all  the  world. 

A  peninjula  is  a  portion  of  the  earth  furrounded 
by  water,  except  on  one  part,  where  it  is  joined  to 
fome  other  land  by  a  narrow  neck,  or  ijihmus.  As 
Africa  is  joined  to  Afia  by  the  ijlhmus  of  Suez;  and 
the  Morca  is  joined  to  Achaia  by  the  if.hmus  of 
Corinth. 

An  ijihmus  is  that  neck  of  land,  which  joins 
two  countries  together;  as  the  ijlhmus  o^  Darien 
joins  north  and  fouth  America,  and  the  ijihmus  of 
Corinth,  Achaia  and  the  Morca, 

A  promontory  or  cape  is  a  point  of  land  which 
extends  itfelf  into  the  fca ;  as  the  cape  of  Good-Hope 
in  Africa,  and  cape  Comorin  in  the  Eaji- Indies. 

The  waters  are  divided  \n\.ooceans,feas,Jiraights, 
hays  or  gulphs,  lakes  and  rivers. 

Oceans  are  vaft  feas  which  divide  one  part  of  the 
earth  from  another;  as  the  Atlantic  ocean,  which 
divides  Europe  and  Africa  from  America,  and  the 
pacific  ocean  or  fouth-fea,  which  divides  America 
from  Afta. 

Seas  are  lefs  bodies  of  waters  which  divide  one 
country  from  another;  as  the  Mediterranean, 
which  divides  Europe  from  Africa;  and  the  Baltii, 
which  divides  Stcedcn  horn  Germany. 

A  hay  or  gulph  is  a  fea  encompaffed  with  hnd, 
except  on  one  part  whereby  fhips  enter  it ;  as  the 
gulph  of  Mexico  in  America,  and  the  gulph  of 
Finland  in  the  Baltic.  And  the  kficr  bays  are 
frequently  called  creeks  or  founds,  as  Plymouth  found. 
AJlraight  is  a  narrow  paflage  into  fome  fea,  as 
the  jiraight  of  Gibralter,  and  this  is  alfo  fometimes 
called  2.  found;  as  th.s  Jiraight  by  which  we  enter 
,the  Baltic  fea  is. 

A  lake  is  properly  a  great  water  furrounded  by 
land,  which  has  no  vifible  communication  with 
any  fea,  as  the  Cafpian  fea  in  Afta;  but  many 
other  waters,  which  have  a  communication  with 
the  fea,  are  denominated  lakes  alfo  ;  at:  die  Onega 
,  lake  in  Rufjia,  and  the  lake  of  Nicaragua  in 
America. 

A  river  is  a  ftream  ifluing  from  fome  fountain, 
which  after  it  has  run  a  confiderable  courfe,  dif- 
charges  itfelf  ufually  into  fome  fea  ;  as  the  Danube, 
which  rifing  in  the  mountains  of  the  Alps,  after  it 
has  run  a  courfe  of  many  hundred  miles  from  weft: 
to  eaft,  through  great  part  of  Germany,  Hungary, 


559 


and   Turkey,  difcharges  itfelf  into  the  Euxine  fea 
by  ff  veral  channels. 

From  the  Globe  let  us  proceed  to  the  defcription 

of  geographical  Maps. 

A  Map  is  a  plain  figure  reprefenting  the  furface 
of  the  earth,  or  a  part  thereof,  according  to  the 
laws  of  perfpe£live. 

In  maps  thefe  three  things  are  efTentially  requi- 
fite.  I.  That  all  places  have  the  fame  fituation 
and  diftance  from  the  great  circles  therein,  as  oa 
the  globe,  to  fliew  their  parallels,  longitudes, 
zones,  climates,  and  other  celeflial  appearances^ 
2.  That  their  magnitudes  be  proportionable  to  their' 
real  magnitudes  on  the  globe.  3.  That  all  places 
have  the  fame  fituation,  bearing  and  diftance,  as 
on  the  earth  itfelf 

The  true  chart  performs  the  firft  and  laft  of  thefe 
very  exactly,  but  fails  extravagantly  in  the  fecond  ; 
and,  indeed,  no  kind  of  prejection  yet  found  caa 
exhibit  more  than  two  of  them  at  once,  by  reafon 
of  the  great  difFerenee  between  a  plane  and  convex 
fuperficies. 

Maps  are  not  always  to  be  ufed  as  they  lie  before 
us,  for  fometimes  any  part  is  uppermoft  ;  but,  ge- 
nerally, the  top  is  the  north  part,  the  bottom  the 
fouth,  the  right  hand  the  ea/l,  and  the  left  hand 
the  wejl,  and  marked  with  thefe  words,  or  latin- 
ones  of  the  fame  import. 

There  is  alfo  infcribed  acompafs,  pointing  to  alt 
the  quarters  of  the  world,  the  north  one  being 
marked  with  afower  de  luce. 

The  degrees  of  longitude  are  always  numbered  at 
top  and  bottom,  and  the  degrees  of  latitude  on  the 
eaft  and  weft  fides.  In  all  right-lined,  and  general 
circular  nwps,  except  thofe  of  Wright'^  projection,, 
the  degrees  of  latitude  on  the  fides  are  of  an  equal: 
breadth  ;  and  in  all  circular  and  right-lined  maps,, 
except  the  faid  Wright's,  and  the  plain  charts,  tlia 
degrees  of  longitude  are  unequal. 

In  general  maps,  the  circles  correfponding  to 
thofe  in  the  heavens  are  infcribed,  viz..  the  equa^ 
tor  is  expreffed  by  a  itrait  eaft  and  weft  line  j, 
and  the  nrft  meridian,  the  polar  circles,  the  tropics,; 
and  the  other  meridians  and  parallels,  which  are. 
drawn  at  every  five  or  ten  degrees,  interfedl  each, 
other  at  right  angles. 

In  feveral  maps  there  are  three  forts  of  fcales  of 
miles,  according  to  the  various  computations  in, 
different  parts  of  the  fame  country,  viz.  greater, 
lelFer,  and  mean  ;  befides  which,  there  are  often, 
afHxed  fcales  of  other  Countr)'-meafures,  as  'Dutch,-. 
French,  Italian,  &c. 

As  for  other  matters,  regarding  maps  in  general,, 
the  charadters  ufed  to  denote  cities,  rivers,  roads,, 
boundaries,  and  the  like,. they  are  ufually  explained. 

itti 


560  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


in  the  maps  themfelves.     We  fhall  therefore  pro- 
ceed to  (hew  the  feveral  methods  of  conftruding . 
the  geographical  maps  in  order  :  and  firft  of  j 

The  flereographic  projcSfion  of  Maps  upon  the  ; 
plane  of  the  equator,  the  eye  being  fuppofed  placed 
in  one  of  the  poles.     To  do  this  proceed  thus :  ; 
from  P,  the  pole.     {See  the  fecond  plate  of  Geogra-  j 
phy.  Fig.    I.  N**  i.)  draw  a  circle  A  BCD,   of 
what  circumference  you  plcafe,    to  rcprefent  the 
equator,    whicS   crofs  with   two  diameters  A  C, 
B  D,  dividing  it  into  four  quadrants,  then  fiibdiVide 
each  of  thefe  into  nine,  and  thefe  again  into  ten 
more,  if  the  largenefs  will  admit ;  and  from  D, 
the  point  of  interfeftion  of  thr  f.rft  meridian  B  D, 
number  every  tenth  degree  with  figures,    both  on  j 
the  right  hand  and  on   the  left,    till   the)'  meet  in 
the  oppofite  point  B  180  ;     fo  will  the  map  be  di- 
vided into  eaft  and  weft  longitude.     Then  from 
the  pole  draw   right  lines   to  every  fuch  tenth  de- 
gree in  the  equator,    as  is  done  in  the  quadrant 
D  C  ;    and  thefe  will  reprefent  the  meridians,  and 
the  figures  will  {hew  the  longitude. 

To  delineate  the  parallels  of  latitude,  from  B 
draw  lines  to  every  tenth  degree  in  the  quadrant 
A  D  ;  and  where  they  interfeft  the  diameter  P  A, 
through  thofe  points  muft:  circles  be  defcribed  from 
the  center  P,  and  then  numbered  from  the  equator 
towards  the  pole  with  10,  20,  30,  ^c.  Thus 
you  have  the  meridians  and  parallels  projected  ; 
and  fince  the  polar  circles  and  tropics  are  only  pa- 
rallels, at  a  certain  diflance  from  the  pole  and 
equator,  w/z.  23°  30';  therefore  fet  ofF  23''  30', 
on  the  equator  from  D  to  E,  as  alfo  from  C  to  F  ; 
then  through  the  points  H  and  I,  where  the  points 
B  E  and  B  F  interfecc  A  C,  defcribe  double  circles 
to  diftinguifh  them  from  other  parallels.  So  fhall 
P  H  reprefent  the  ar£tic  circle,  and  P I  the  tropic 
of  Cancer.  The  lineaments  of  your  map-  being 
thus  proie£led,  places  may  be  inferted  by  help  of  a 
table  of  latitudes  and  longitudes,  as  reprefented 
{ibid  N"  2.)  But  in  thefe  maps,  the  mutual  bear- 
ings and  diftances  of  places  cannot  be  determined  ; 
alfo  countries  near  the  equator  take  up  more  room 
than  proportionably  they  fhould. 

Orthographic  pro; eSlbn  of  Maps  upon  the  plane 
of  the  equator,  wherein  the  eye  is  fuppofed  to  be 
at  an  infinite  diftance  in  the  axis,  two  hundred 
femi-diameters  at  leafl: ;  by  which  means  the  places 
about  the  pole,  which  may  be  difcerned  at  any  dif 
tance,  will  have  a  larger  projection  than  thofe  nearer 
the  equator  ;  juft  the  reven'e  of  what  happened  in 
the  former  projeilion. 

In  this  projeftion,  the  equator  muft  be  drawn 
and  divided,  and  meridians  delineated  in  the  fame 
iTiarnci  as  taught  above  ;  then  to  defcribe  the  pa- 
rallels proceed  thus  :  from  either  fide  of  tlie  firft 


meridian  AP  (ibid.  Fig.  2.  N"  i.)  draw  right  linei 
through  the  correfponding  degrees,  or  every  tenth 
degree  of  the  quadrants  A  B,  A  D,  parallel  to  the 
diameter  B  D  ;  and  through  the  points  where  thefe 
cut  the  meridian  A  P,  draw  circles  reprcfenting  the 
parallels,  numbering  them  with  10,  20,  30,  iJc. 
from  A  to  the  pole  P,  to  fhew  the  degrees  of  la- 
titude. To  delineate  the  polar  circles  and  tropics, 
fet  off  from  B  to  G,  and  from  D  to  H  23'  30'  ; 
as  alfo  from  A  to  I,  and  from  A  to  K  ;  and  draw- 
ing lines  between  each,  through  the  points  of  in- 
terfedion  of  the  firft  meridian  A  P,  draw  circles  : 
thus  P  L  will  reprefent  the  polar  circle,  and  P  M 
the  tropic  of  the  Cancer.  The  ecliptic  may  be  pro- 
jected, and  places  laid  down  in  the  fame  manner  as 
above  ;   ibid.  N*  2. 

This  kind  of  the  equatorial  projedion,  fliews 
the  true  decreafe  of  the  degrees  of  the  equinoctial, 
or  of  longitude,  in  every  parallel  of  latitude  :  the 
circumpolar  regions  maybe  delineated  better  in  this 
than  in  the  former  projeflion  ;  and  fomay  Tartary^ 
and  the  north  parts  of  Europe^  as  Sweden,  Norway 
and  Mufcovy. 

But  befides  the  inconveniencies  already  men- 
tioned, attending  thefe  two  kinds  of  proje£tion, 
there  is  no  bringing  all  the  places  in  the  eaftern  or 
weftern  hemifphere  into  lefs  than  two  hemifpheres, 
fo  as  to  exprefs  Europe,  Afia  and  Africa,  or  Ame- 
rica by  itfelf,  in  one  map;  Geographers  have  there- 
fore invented  another  way,  fomewhat  more  difficult 
indeed,  but  much  more  natural  and  ufeful,  viT.. 

The  fiereographic  projeSiion  of  maps  upon  the 
plane  of  the  firft  meridian,  wherein  you  muft  con- 
ceive the  eye  to  be  fituated  in  that  point  of  the 
equator,  which  is  cut  by  the  meridian  90^  diftant 
from  the  firft  meridian.  In  this  projection  the  equa- 
tor is  a  right  line,  as  is  alfo  the  meridian  90°  diftant 
from  the  prime  one,  and  cutting  it  in  the  point  of 
the  eye's  pofition  :  but  the  other  meridians,  and 
all  the  parallels,  are  arches  of  circles,  and  the 
ecliptic  an  ellipfis. 

The  method  is  this:  defcribe  the  circle  NESW, 
(ibid.  Fig.  3.)  reprcfenting  the  firft  meridian  ;  crofs 
it  with  two  diameters  at  right  angles,  and  W  C  E 
fliall  reprefent  the  equator,  W  the  weft  part,  and 
E  the  eaft  ;  and  the  other  diameter  N  C  S  will  be 
the  meridian,  90°  diftant  from  the  firft,  N  reprc- 
fenting the  north  and  S  the  fouth  pole,  and  C  the 
point  where  the  eye  is  fuppofed  to  be. 

To  delineate  the  meridians,  proceed  thus  :  from 
Ndraw  lines  through  each  tenth  degree,  or  each 
degree,  if  you  think  fit,  of  the  quadrants  W  S  or 
S  E,  which  fhall  cut  the  quadrant  of  the  equator 
W  C  in  F,  G,  H,  I,  K,  L,  O,  P  ;  or,  to  avoid 
fcores  in  your  paper,  make  a  point  in  the  line  where 
the  fide  of  the  ruler  cuts  it.     You  need  only  divide 

one 


GEOGRAPHY. 


one  quadrant,  becaufe  the  divifions  in  it  may  be 
transferred  into  the  lines  CN,  CE  and  CS,  which 
will  fave  the  trouble  of  their  particular  divifions. 
Thus  are  the  points  in  the  equator,  through  which 
the  meridians  are  to  pafs ;  as,  alfo,  thofe  points  in 
the  perpendicular  meridian,  determining  the  ambit 
of  the  parallels  found  out.  The  centers  of  ail  thofe 
meridians,  whofe  diftance  from  the  fiifl  meridian, 
N  W  S  E,  does  not  exceed  45°,  may  be  found  out 
in  the  line  C  E,  reckoning  every  fecond  degree 
from  the  point  C,  for  the  centers  of  each  degree 
from  the  point  W.  By  the  fame  proportion,  we 
muft  take  every  twentieth  degree,  or  point,  from 
C,  in  the  line  CE,  for  centers  to  each  tenth  de- 
gree or  point,  from  W,  in  the  line  W  C  :  there- 
fore Q_will  be  the  center  of  F,  R  of  G,  T  of  H, 
and  V  of  I.  But  becaufe  the  centers  of  the  meri- 
dians, exceeding  45*^,  lie  without  the  circumference 
of  the  firft  meridian,  in  the  line  C  E  extended  ; 
therefore,  laying  the  ruler  upon  N,  and  every  fe- 
cond degree,  or,  according  to  the  projection  upon 
every  twenuetii  degree  of  the  quadrant  NE,  make 
points  in  the  extended  line  CE,  which  (liall  be  the 
centers  of  all  the  other  meridians  where  the  edge 
of  the  ruler  cuts  it.  Ihus  X  will  be  the  center  of 
K,  the  meridian  50°  diftant  from  the  primitive, 
and  fo  on.  And,  in  the  like  manner,  may  the 
meriJians  be  defcribed  through  the  points  in  the 
line  C  E,  by  transferring  the  center-points  of  CE 
to  C  W  continued. 

The  points  for  the  projetStion  of  the  parallels  be- 
ing alrea  iy  marked  in  the  hues  CN  and  CS,  to  find 
the  centers  of  thefe  point-,  eredt  a  perpendieu'ar  at 
E,  as  a  .i" ;  and  from  C,  through  each  tenth  degree 
of  the  q\iadrant  NE,  draw  fecant  lines  to  cut  the 
faid  perpendiouiar  in  c,  d,  e,/,  tfc.  Then  take  the 
diftance  Cc  in  your  compafl'es,  and  transfer  it  upon 
the  Ime  CN,  continued,  from  C  to  i,  which  will 
be  the  center  to  the  parallel  h  So  h  ;  C  d  transferred 
to.Ca  will  give  the  center  of  the  parallel  /  70  i  ; 
C  3zrC  If  will  be  the  center  of  i  60  /f ;  and  fo  on 
for  the  reft  of  the  parallels. 

To  projcdt  the  tropics  and  polar  circles,  fet  off, 
on  each  fide  the  equator  and  poles,  23°  o''  ;  tlien 
draw  a  fecant  from  C,  through  thefe  points,  and 
transfer  the  point  of  interfeftion  with  the  tangent 
line,  as  before,  for  the  centers  of  thofe  circles. 

The  conftru6tion  of  the  parallels  of  the  other 
hemifphere  is  performed  in  the  fame  manner,  7 /a. 
by  transferring  the  centers  found  by  the  interfedtion 
of  the  iecants  with  the  tangents,  to  the  line  C  S, 
continued. 

There  are  two  ways  of  projefling  the  ecliptic  ; 
for  fuppofing  C  to  be  the  firft  point  of  Aries,  and 
the  eye  to  be  in  the  vertical  colure,  it  will  be  re- 
prciented  by  a  right  liiie,  drawn  from  the  beginning 


561 


of  Cancer  B,  through  the  beginning  of  Aries  C, 
to  the  beginning  of  Capricorn  M  ;  which  bein^ 
graduated  like  the  equator,  the  dt-grees  of  each 
fign  are  to  be  marked  upon  it.  To  do  thi<i,  crofs 
the  ecliptic  BM  with  a  line  at  right  angles,  drawn 
from  the  oppofite  points  of  the  polar  circles  in  the 
meridian,  Z,  D  ;  divide  the  quadrant  BD  into  nine 
equal  parts,  each  containing  10";  and  laying  a  ruler 
upon  Z,  and  upon  each  divifion  of  the  quadrant 
HD,  cut  the  line  BM  as  you  did  the  equator.  But 
all  this  trouble  may  be  fpared,  by  transferring  the 
divifions  of  the  equator  upyn  the  ecliptic  BM. 

The  other  way  of  proje£lmg  the  ecliptic,  where 
the  eye  is  fuppofed  to  be  in  thj  folftitial  colure,  is 
the  fame  as  in  all  maps  of  the  hemifphercs,  where 
it  cuts  the  points  of  the  intcrfeftion  of  the  hrft  me- 
ridian and  equator,  at  W  and  E  ;  and  the  third 
point  is  that  wherein  the  tropic  BAY  cuts  the  me- 
ridian NCS  at  A. 

The  conftruction  is  now  ready  for  inferring  the 
places  in  the  maps,  which  may  be  done  by  the  help 
of  a  table  of  longitudes  and  latitudes,  as  in  the  for- 
mer methods. 

The  advantages  of  this  projeftion  are  thefe  :  i. 
It  very  agreeably  reprefents  the  hemifphere  inter- 
cepted between  the  two  poles,  with  all  the  parts 
entire.  2.  It  fhews  the  longitudes,  latitudes,  and 
diilances  ofpl^ces  from  all  the  great  circles,  exactly 
as  on  the  alobe  itfelf. 

Its  defeats  are  alio  two.  i.  That  the  decrees 
of  the  equator,  merid'ans,  and  parallels,  are  une- 
qual, except  thofe  of  the  firft  ineridian,  encrenfinr 
gradually  the  nearer  they  approach  to  the  firft  or 
prime  meridian;  and  coniequently  the  parts  about 
C  are  lefs,  and  thofe  about  A  and  C  greater  than 
they  ought  :  and,  in  the  fame  manner,  the  places 
about  the  poles  bear  an  unequal  proportion  to  thofe 
nearer  the  equator.  2.  The  courfe  and  diftance 
between  places,  are  ne  ther  with  eafe  or  exaftne.rs 
found  in  tlieir  projedlioii. 

If  you  would  pri'ject  amapofanv  particular  por- 
tion of  the  eafth,  lefs  than  an  hemisphere,  you  muft 
make  the  projettion  proportionable  to  the  extent 
of  the  map  you  intend  to  draw,  an  J  then  cut  out 
(o  much  of  it  as  is  terminated  by  the  greateft  de- 
gree of  hmgitude  and  latitude  of  the  country  to  be 
pr(  jeded.  For  exr.mple,  fuppofe  you  would  drawr 
a  map  of  Europe  according  to  this  conftrudion, 
which  being  Lid  down  as  dircfted  above,  throuah 
the  points  where  the  parallels  of  the  greater  and 
lefllr  latitude  of  Europe,  viz.  J2°  and  34°,  cut 
NC,  draw  lines  parallel  to  the  equator:  and  be- 
caufe, in  the  common  maps,  Europe  includes  q-j* 
of  longitude,  therefore  fee  cfF,  viz.  46"  3c/  from 
■n  tog  and  from  n  to  p,  and  draw  g p  =  q2'',  the 
extent  of  Europe  in  longitude ;  then  ere<9:  perpen- 
diculars 


562  TJoe  Unlverfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


diculars  on  the  points  g  and  ^,  to  fquare  your  map  ; 
or,  to  fave  this  trouble,  fet  o^ng  from  q  to  r,  and 
from  q  to  /,  and  cut  out  your  map  accordinf2;ly. 
However,  it  is  beft  to  allow  a  lit'.le  more  room  in 
feparating  your  map  from  the  reft  of  the  proje£lion 
to  exprefs  the  fituation  thereof  in  refpeft  of  other 
countries. 

'Y\\t  orthographic projeSl'ion  of  Maps  on  the  plane 
of  the  meridian,  in  which  the  parallels  of  latitude 
are  ail  right  lines,  and  all  the  meridians,  except 
the  firfl,  femi-ell:pfes,  is  in  conftrudtion  formed 
by  fuppofing  perpendiculars  to  fall  from  all  points 
of  each  hemifphere  on  the  plane  of  the  firfl:  me- 
ridian. 

Thus  let  NESW,  [ibid  fig.  4.)  the  meridian, 
be  divided,  as  in  the  former  method,  into  four 
quadr.iiits,  and  each  q  ladrant  into  9  or  go  equal 
parts  or  degrees  ;  from  each  tench  degree  of  the 
quadrants  NW  and  WS,  draw  lines  to  each  cor- 
re'ponding  tenth  degree  in  the  quadrants  NE  and 
ES,  parallel  to  the  equator  WE,  and  thefe  will  be 
the  parallels  of  latitude  :  and  having  numbered  each 
parallel  on  thefiift  meridian,  and  in  CN  and  C>, 
transfer  the  interfccliins  of  thefe  parallels  with  CN 
or  CS  into  C  W  and  CE,  which  wdl  give  the  points 
in  the  equator  ti. rough  which  the  meridians  muft  ; 
pafs  ;  and  number  thefe  from  W  towards  E,  for 
degrees  of  longitude. 

Then,  fince  the  meridians  are  femi-ellipfes,  you 
may  deferibe  them  through  the  given  points,  viz. 
the  two  poles  an  J  the  divifions  of  the  equator  WE, 
with  ehiptical  compafi'es  ;  or,  by  help  of  a  fcftor, 
you  may  find  the  points  in  each  parallel  of  latitude, 
through  which  the  ellipfes  may  be  formed.  The 
ecliptic,  in  this  projeftion,  will  be  reprefented  by 
an  elliptical  or  ftra.t  line,  in  the  fame  manner  as 
in  the  former  method. 

The  maps  of  this  conftruflion  have  this  advan- 
tage above  the  preceding  methods,  that  they  exhi- 
bit the  true  proportional  decreafe  of  the  degrees  of 
the  equator  in  each  parallel ;  but  this  advantage  is 
counter-ballanced  by  a  great  inconvenience,  vix. 
the  too  great  contraftion  of  the  meridians  the  nearer 
they  lie  to  the  firft,  which  makes  this  projection 
unfit  for  general  maps  ;  Africa  being  the  only  quar- 
ter of  the  globe  that  wouid  nearly  retain  its  dije 
figure  and  dimenfions. 

The  Jiereograp'ic  proje£iion  of  Maps  upon  the 
plane  of  the  horizon,  the  eye  being  fuppofed  in  the 
zenith  for  the  upper  hemifphere,  and  in  the  nadir 
for  the  lower  one- 

The  common  method  of  conftru£lion  s  ihis  : 
fuppofe  it  were  required  to  d  fcribe  an  horizontal 
projedtion  for  the  city  pf  London,  in  latitude  50° 
32';  from  L  or  Z,  (Plate  ibid  fig.  5.)  the  t-enith 
and  London  bein^  here  the  fame,  defcnbe  the  circle 


NESW  of  what  extefit  you  pleafe;  to  reprefent 
the  horizon,  quarter  it,  and  divide  each  quarter 
into  90^  ;  or,  to  avoid  confufion,  divide  only  one 
quadrant  N  W  or  WS;  draw  the  diameter  NS, 
which  let  be  the  firfl:  meridian,  then  will  WE  be 
the  prime  vertical,  or  azimuth  of  eaft  and  weft. 
Next  take  51°  32'  from  the  divided  quadrant  NW, 
and  fet  it  off  from  N  to  A;  then  draw  a  line  from 
VV  to  A,  and  where  the  ruler  cuts  NS  make  a  point, 
which  (hall  reprefent  the  arftic  pole  P.  Thirdly, 
take  the  diftance  of  thearchof  any  of  the  quadrants, 
as  NE,  and  fet  it  ofF  froiTi  A  to  13  ;  and  where  the 
line  WB  cuts  the  diameter  NS,  that  point  Q_will 
be  the  point  of  the  interfedlion  of  the  meridian 
with  the  equator.  Fourthly,  divide  the  femicircle 
N  A  E  B  S,  from  B,  into  degrees,  the  fame  in  pro- 
portion to  thofe  of  the  quadrant  NW  ;  and  from 
W  to  each,  or  each  tenth  degree,  lay  a  ruler,  and 
mark  where  it  cuts  the  line  NS,  for  there  will  be 
the  points  of  the  interfcciion  of  the  parallels  with 
the  finl  meridian,  which  fall  within  the  periphery 
of  the  pr  ijedtion.  But  if  y.ju  would  find  the  op- 
pofite  point  of  each  parallel,  in  order  to  delineate 
them  cafily  on  the  projection,  continue  the  divjiion 
of  the  periphery  from  the  equatorial  point  B,  upon 
the  quadrant  N  W,  and  draw  lines  as  before  through 
each  point  to  cut  the  diameter  NS  continued  ;  then 
deferibe  circles  thr  -ugh  the  p^^ints  of  equal  degrees 
from  the  pole  P,  throigh  80,  70,  60,  Uc.  in  the 
line  PS,  and  80,  70,  60,  ^c.  in  the  line  PN  ex- 
tended. Thus  may  all  the  parallels,  tropics,  and 
polar  circles  be  prtjetted. 

In  the  conftrudlion  of  the  meridians  proceed  thus : 
firft:,  through  the  points  W,  P,  E,  draw  a  circle, 
the  half  of  which  is  CPD,  and  delineate  thereon 
the  meridian  projeft  on,  by  dividing  it  into  360"  ; 
then  drawing  lines  fro/n  P  to  every  det^ree,  or  tenth 
degree :  and,  lailly,  defcribing  circles  from  the 
centers  founf  in  the  line  C  D,  continued  at  both 
ends,  through  the  divifion  in  the  diameter  W  E, 
and  the  poles,  in  the  fame  manner  as  dire£led  in 
the  flereographic  projeflion  upon  the  meridian,  the 
parallels  excepted,  which  muft  not  be  drawn.  In 
defcribing  the  meridians,  obferve  to  draw  each  thro' 
the  pole  to  touch  the  horizon,  which  will  be  the 
meridians  north  of  the  pole.  Tlius,  when  you  de- 
feribe the  meridian  F  P,  deferibe  at  the  fame 
time  FPG  ;  and  the  fame  holds  of  all  the  reft. 

When  you  have  proceeded  thu;  far,  deferibe  a 
circle  round  the  horizon  pretty  clofe,  to  contain 
the  degrees  of  gr.iduation,  which  muft  be  made 
between  the  meridians,  and  not  the  parallels, 
each  into  ten  paits  or  degrees,  to  fhew  the  longi- 
tudes of  places.  The  latitude  muft  be  graduated 
on  the  fiift  mcri.lian  NS,  ;ind  numbered  from  the 
.equator  towards  cither  pole,  and  from  the  pole 
'  backward. 


GEOGRAPHY, 


563 


backward,  towards  N.  This  done,  draw  a  circle 
with  this  again,  wide  enough  to  hold  the  figures 
belonging  to  the  numbered  degrees.  Laftly,  de- 
fcribe  two  more  circles,  the  firll  near  the  former, 
and  divide  the  quadrants  into  eight  equal  parts  each, 
or  thirty-two  in  all,  to  reprefent  the  points  of  the 
compafs,  and  {hew  the  bearings  of  places  in  relpeft 
of  London  the  center.  The  outward  graduated 
circles  fupply  the  place  of  azimuths,  to  draw  which 
would  occalion  confufion  in  the  fcheme ;  for  if  a 
central  rule  be  fixed  upon  a  pivot  in  the  center,  or 
place  reprefenting  London^  and  graduated  with  the 
fam"e  divifions  as  ZN,  by  moving  it  about  to  any 
place,  we  may  eafily  difcover  not  only  the  bearing, 
but  the  diftance  of  that  place  from  London. 

All  thefe  circles  are  expreded  in  the  lower  figure, 
in  which  fo  much  of  the  earth  is  defcribed  as  is  con- 
tained within  the  horizon  of  London.,  as  a  fpecimen 
of  the  nature  and  ufe  of  this  projection.  Thus  your 
projection  being  completed,  it  is  cafy  to  infert  the 
places,  according  to  their  latitudes  and  longi- 
tudes. 

The  horizontal  projeSfion  of  Maps,  with  azimuth 
lines.  Thofe  who  are  unwilling  to  take  the  trou- 
ble of  laying  down  the  former  projeflion,  and  are 
content  to  know  the  bearings  and  diftances  of 
places  from  the  center,  without  the  longitude  or 
latitude,  may  divide  the  circle  NESW(/Z/;^  tig-6.) 
into  degrees  and  points  of  the  compafs ;  where  NS 
reprefents  the  meridian,  W  E  the  eafl:  and  weft 
line,  and  Z  the  zenith,  or  place  in  the  center. 
This  done,  you  may  put  London,  or  any  other 
place  in  the  center  ;  and  by  the  help  of  the  fcale 
of  equal  parts  ZA,  fixed  in  the  center,  the  bearings 
and  diftances  of  places  may  be  laid  down  from  the 
globe  or  maps. 

j1  new,  cafy,  and  exai}  method  of  projeiilng  par- 
ticular Maps.  Suppofe  you  would  draw  a  map  of 
fome  part  of  the  earth,  containing  6°  of  latitude, 
viz.  from  39°  to  45°,  let  the  longitude  be  what 
it  will.  I.  Draw  the  line  EF,  [ibid.)  and  in  its 
middle  raife  tfie  perpendicular  DC,  which  divide 
into  fix  equal  parts,  or  degrees  of  latitude ;  and 
through  C,  draw  a  line  parallel  to  EF.  2.  Divide 
a  degree  into  ten,  or  if  large  enough  to  admit  it, 
into  fixty  equal  parts  ;  and  in  the  table  for  decreaf- 
ing  longitude,  find  the  content  of  a  degree  of  lon- 
gitude in  the  latitude  of  39°,  iiiz.  46.62  miles. 
3.  From  the  degree  fo  divided,  take  the  parts 
46.62  ;  divide  that  diftance,  and  from  D  fet  off 
one  half  to  E,  and  the  other  half  to  F.  4.  Find 
the  content  of  a  degree  in  latitude  45",  viz.  42.43 
miles  ;  take  that  diftance  from  the  fcale  of  the  de- 
gree; divide  it,  and  from  the  point  Clay  one  half 
to  I,  and  the  other  half  to  K.  5.  Draw  ftrait 
lines  from  I  to  E,  and  from  K  to  F  j  divide  them 
26 


in  like  parts  with  C  D,  and  through  thofe  marks 
draw  parallel  lines. 

Thus  I  K  F  E  is  a  projeftion  for  one  degree  of 
longitude,  including  fix  degrees  of  latitude  ;  which 
may  be  transferred  upon  the  piper,  as  often  as 
there  is  occafion,  by  the  following  method. 

1.  If  the  compaftes  be  large  enough,  or  the  pro- 
jeflion  will  admit  it,  take  the  diftance  from  E  to 
K,  or  from  F  to  I,  and  fetting  one  foot  firft  in  E 
and  then  in  F,  defcribe  the  arches  L  and  M.  In 
like  manner  fet  one  foot  firft  in  I  and  then  in  K,  and 
with  the  fame  extent  draw  the  arches  N  and  >.) : 
take  the  diftance  with  another  pair  of  compaftes, 
between  E  and  F,  and  fet  it  off^  from  E  to  N,  and 
from  F  to  O  :  likewife  fet  the  diftance  between  I 
and  K,  from  I  to  L,  and  from  K  to  M  ;  draw 
lines  between  L  and  N,  and  M  and  O  ;  divide 
them  into  degrees,  and  draw  parallels  from  thufe 
points  to  the  correfponding  points  in  the  meridians 
IE  and  KF.  And,  after  the  fame  manner,  may 
meridians  and  parallels  be  drawn,  to  as  many  de- 
grees of  longitude  as  your  map  contains. 

2.  If  the  map  be  very  large,  fo  that  the  com- 
paftes cannot  extend  to  the  fartheft  degree,  or  from 
F  to  I,  then  you  may  draw  one  or  more  diagonals, 
as  you  can  conveniently,  at  once ;  and  then  proceed 
to  draw  the  reft.  Thus,  when  you  have  laid  down 
the  fquares  PGEN  {ibid.)  and  HQ.OF,  in  the  fame 
manner  as  dircfted  above  ;  go  on  to  d;aw  Ll  GP 
and   KMQ_H,  by  the  fame  method. 

In  this  projection,  the  diagonals  being  all  equal, 
places  lying  in  the  remoteft  longitudes  or  diagonals, 
are  as  truly  exhibited  as  thofe  near  the  middle,  and 
confequently  their  diftances  conformable  to  one 
common  meafure  ;  fo  that  the  compafl'es,  extended 
between  any  two  places,  and  applied  to  the  fcale, 
gives  the  diftance  without  mi  re  ado.  The  bear- 
ings too  will  be  very  confpicuous  by  means  of  a 
compafs  drawn  on  a  corner  or  fide  of  the  mnp. 

The  fcale  on  the  fides  is  that  by  which  the  dif- 
tances are  meafured  ;  but  it  muft  be  graduated  on 
one  of  the  meridians,  and  not  on  the  out-lines  of 
the  map,  as  is  commonly  done. 
A'^.B. Printed  maps, on  being  imported  from  abroad, 

pay  a  duty  of  15  x.  4 ^.  ^trr  ream  ;  and  draw 

back,  on  exportation,   13  ;.  (yd.  and,  if  in  frames, 

7,6- 
for  each  map  i  s.  z^—^  d.    the    drawback    being 
*^  100 


I  s. 


9H 
100 


d. 


Thus  far  of  general  or  unlverfal  geography,  we 

now  enter  upon  that  part  of  the  divifion  ( ailed  _/^^- 

cial  or  particular  Geography,  which  reprefents 

the  earth,  firft  to  be  two  great  continents,  f/a.  thg 

4  C  new 


564  1'he  Univerial  Hiftory  of  Arts  <3;«^  Sciences. 


new  and  old  world;  or,  the  eajlern  aiic]  wejlern  con- 
tinents :  the  eajlern  «;)</«?«/ comprehending  Europe, 
Jfia,  and  Africa  ;  Europe  in  the  north  weft  divifion  ; 
y?/7o  in  the  north  eaft  divifion  ;  and  Africa  in  its 
fouth  divifion  :  and  the  weftevn  continent  all  that 
vaft  region  on  the  left  hand  of  a  map  of  the  world, 
called  America. 

We  novi'  defccnd  to  particulars  ;  and  firft  begin 
with  Europe. 


Europe  is  fituate  between  36  and  72  degrees 
of  north  latitude,  and  between  10  degrees  of  weft, 
and   65  degrees  of  eaftern  longitude,  bounded  by 
the  frozen  ocean  on  the  north,  by  /!fia  on  the  eaft, 
(from  which  it  is  feparated  by  the  Archipelago,  the 
tlellefpont  or  ftraight  oi  i\\cDardaiieUs,  thcPropontis 
or  fea  of  More.',  the  Rcfpborus  or  ftraight  of  Con- 
ftantinople,   the  Euxine  fea,  the  Palus  Aleotis,  the 
river  Don  or  Tanais,  and  aline  drawn  from  that 
river  to  the  rivers //-//'j  and  Oby,  which  being  unit- 
ed, run  into  the  frozen  ocean.)     The  Mediterra- 
nean fea  divides  Europe  from  Africa  on  the  fouth, 
and  the  Atlantic  ocean  divides  it  from  /Imerici  in  the 
weft.      The  greattft  length  of  Europe,  viz.  from 
cape  St.  Vincent  in   the  weft,  to  the  mouth  of  the 
liver  Ohy  in  the  north  eaft,  being  about  three  ihou- 
fand  miles  ;  and  the  breadth  fr:  m  north   to  fouth, 
•viz.  from  the  north  cape  in  Norway,  to  cape  Cagha, 
or   Mdtapar   in    the   Morea,  the  moft  fouthern 
promontory    in  Europe,  being  about  rwo  thoufand 
ilve  hundred  miles. 

Europe  is  ufually  thrown  into  three  grand  divifi- 
ons,  viz.  the  north,  the  middle,  and  the  fouthern 
divifion. 

The  northern  divifion  comprehends,  i.  RuJJia, 
or  Mofccvy.  2.  Sweden.  3.  Denmark^  and  Nor- 
vjay.  And  4.  the  irtands  of  Britain,  Iceland, 
Greenland,  and  the  iftands  of  the  Baltic. 

The  middle  divifion  comprehends,  i.  Poland. 
■%.  Germany,  and  the  Auftrian  doininions  conti- 
guous thereto.  3.  The  Netherlands.  And  4. 
Francs,  and  its  conquefts  on  the  Rhine. 

The  fouth  divifion  contains  Turkey  in  Eurcpe, 
(the  antient  Greece)    Romania,  Servia,  Bulgaria, 


and  l)y  Poland,  the  Baltic  fc-a,  Finland,  and  Swedi/h 
and  Norwegian  Lapland  on  the  weft. 

The  chief  towns  are  Peterfburgh,  Mofco,  and 
Riga. 

I  he  principal  rivers  of  European  Ruffa,  are  the 
Wolga,  the  Don,  the  Boryjlhenes,  and  the  two 
Dwina's. 

The  conftitution  of  the  Rvfjian  empire  is  an  ab- 
folute  monarchy,  and  the  crown  hereditary  ;  but 
different  branches  of  the  royal  family  have  of  late 
been  advanced  to  the  crown,  and  the  military  men 
feem  to  difpofe  of  it  as  they  fee  fit. 

Sweden  is  fituate  between  55  and  69  degrees  of 
north 'a:itude,  and  between  loand  30  degreesof  E. 


longitude,  bounded  by  Norwegian  Lapland  on  the 
north  ;  by  Rujfta  and  Ruffian  Lapland  on  the  eaft  ; 
the  Baltic  fea,  which  feparates  it  from  Germany  and 
Livonia  on  the  fouth,  and  by  Denmark  and  Norvjay 
on  the  weft,  from  which  it  is  feparated  by  the 
ftraight  called  theSound,  and  the  Dofrlne  mountains. 
The  chief  towns  in  Sweden,  are  Stockholm  and 
Gottenburg.  This  is  a  mixed  monarchy,  and  the 
king  has  very  little  power. 

Denmark  is  fituate  between  54  and  58  degrees 
of  north  latitude,  and  between  8  and  13  degrees  of 
eaftern  longitude ;  being  bounded  by  the  Categat 
fea,  which  divides  it  from  Norway  on  the  north. 
By  the  fame  fea  and  the  Sound  which  feparates  it 
from  Sweden  on  the  eaft,  by  ths  Baltic  Sea  and  part 
of  Germany  on  the  fouth,  and  the  German  ocean 
on  the  weft. 

This  is  an  abfjlute  monarchy,-  and  the  crown 
hereditary.  The  capital  city  is  Copehhagen.  Norr- 
way  is  fituate  between  58  and  72  degrees  of  north 
latitude,  and  between  4  and  30  degrees  of  eaftern 
longitude,  bounded  by  the  Atlantic  ocean  on  the 
north  and  weft.  By  ihe.  Difrine  mounfains,  which 
divide  it  from  Sweden,  on  the  eaft  ;  by  the  Categats 
fea  on  the  fouth,  and  the  German  ocean  on  the 
weft.     Ths  chief  town  is  Bergen. 

This  kingdom  is  now  a  province  to  Denmark. 

The  iflaads  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  the 


Bofnia  and  Dalmatia,  with  the  tributary  provinces  ,  Orcades,  Hebrides,  the  Ife  of  Alan,  and  the  reft^ 
oi  IValachia  and  Moldavia,  Grim,  Little  Tariary,  of  xht  iflands  fubjedt  to  Great  Britain  ;  including 
Budziac  Tartary  and  Beffarabia,     %■  Sivitzerland, !  Shetland,  are  fituated   in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  be- 


with  the  Grifons,  and  the  reft  of  their  allies.  3. 
Italy.  4.  Spain  and  Portugal.  And  5.  the  iflands 
of  the  Mediterranean,  viz.  thofeofthe  Archipelago, 
Sicily,  Sardinia,  Corfica,  Majorca,  and  Ivica. 

Rujfta  in  Europe  lies  between  46  and  72  degrees 
of  north  latitude,  and  between  21  and  65  degrees 
of  eaftern  longitude,  bounded  by  the  frozen  ocean 
on  the  north,  by  Mofcovy  in  Afia  on  the  eaft,  by 
the  Palus  Meotis,  and  Little  Tartary  on  the  fouth, 


tween  50  and  62  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and 
between  ten  degrees  weft,  anJ  3  degrees  of  eaftern 
longitude,  bounded  by  the  northern  or  Caledonian 
ocean  on  the  north,  by  the  German  fea,  which 
feparates  them  from  Denmark,  Germany,  and  the 
Netherlands  on  the  eaft,  by  the  Englijh  channel 
and  the  Atlantic  ocean  on  the  fouth,  and  by  ano- 
ther part  of  the  Atlantic  ocean  on  the  weft. 

England,  the  fouth  divifion  of  Great  Britain,  is 
fituate  between  50  and  56  degrees  of  north  latitude, 

and 


GEOGRAPHY. 


and  between  6  degrees  weft,  and  2  degrees  eaft 
longitude,  bounded  by  Scotland  on  the  north,  the 
German  fea  on  the  caft,  the  Engli/h  channel  on  the 
fouth,  and  the  Iri/h  or  St.  George's  channel  on  the 
wefl,  about  400  miles  long  from  north  to  fouth, 
and  300  broad  from  eaft  to  weft.  The  capital, 
London;  where  we  place  the  firft  meridian,  [fiiuate 
on  the  river  Thames  in  the  county  of  Midillcfex ;] 
the  latitude  whereof  is  51  degree  30  minutes,  being 
200  miles  north  weft  of  Paris,  180  weft  of  Jm- 
Jlerdam,  600  north  weft  of  Vienna,  and  800  north 
eaft  of  Madrid.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Thames, 
the  Severn,  the  Trent  or  Humber,  and  the  Med- 
tvay.  England  is  a  limited  monarchy,  and  the 
crown  hereditary. 

Scotland,  the  north  divifion  of  Great  Britain,  is 
fituate  between  54  and  60  degrees  of  north  lati- 
tude, and  between  i  and  6  degrees  of  weft  longi- 
tude ;  bounded  by  the  Caledonian  ocean  on  the 
north,  the  German  fea  on  the  eaft,  by  Eng'and  and 
Sohuay  Frith  on  the  fouth,  and  by  the  Irijh  fea  and 
Atlantic  ocean  on  the  weft,  being  about  300  mi'es 
long  from  north  to  fouth,  and  from  50  to  150 
miles  in  breadth  from  eaft  to  weft.  Thecapiral  city 
Edinburgh,  \i\  the  fliire  o^ Lothian,  two  miles  fouth 
diflant  of  the  Frith  of  Forth,  and  400  miles  north- 
weft  oi  London.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Tay,  the 
Olyde,  the  Spcy,  the  Dee,  and  the  Don.  Scotland  is 
imited  to  £w^/ana'and  fubjeft  to  the  fame  fovereign. 

Ireland  is  fituate between5r  and  56degrees  north 
latitude,  and  between  6  and  10  degrees  of  weftern 
longitude  ;  bounded  by  the  northern  ocean  on  the 
north,  by  5r.  Gw^f's  channel,  which  feparates  it 
from  Great  Britain  on  the  eaft  and  by  the  Atlantic 
and  weftern  ocean  on  the  fouth  and  weft,  being  a- 
bout  250  miles  long  from  north  to  fouth,  and  ge- 
nerally 150  miles  broad  from  eaft  to  weft.  The 
capital  city,  Dublin  The  chief  rivers  are,  the 
Shannon,  Boyne,  Liffy,  Lee,  Blachvater,  and  Bar- 
row. Ireland  is  a  province  to  England,  and  many 
of  the  Englijh  laws  are  introduced  there  ;  but  they 
haveadiftin£l  parliament,  and  fomelaws  peculiar  to 
that  kingdom  ;  however,  no  law  can  be  enabled 
till  approved  by  the  privy-council  of  Great  Britain, 
and  tlic  fubjcft  may  appeal  from  the  courts  of  Ire- 
land to  thofe  in  Great  Britain.  An  aft  of  parlia- 
ment of  G«i7/  Britain,  will  bind  Ireland whtre  that 
kingdom  is  exprefly  named. 

Iceland  is  an  ifland  fituate  in  the  Atlantic  ocean 
between  64  and  67  degrees  of  north  latitude,  500 
miles  off  the  coaft  of  Norway,  and  almoft  as  many 
north  of  Scotland,  being  about  300  miles  in  length, 
and  150  in  breadth.  The  capital  town  is  Bejlede,  in 
thefouth-weft  partof  the  ifland,  {\xh]<iik\.o Denmark. 

Wejl  Greenland  extends  from  the  firft  meridian 
to  50  degrees  of  weft  longitude,  and  from  60  to 
upwardsot  80  degrees  of  north  latitude,  andin  a  cold 


56s 


barren  country  with  few  inliabltants,  but  fubjecSl:  to 
the  Danes,  who  have  fome  colonies  here;  and 
claim  the  fole  right  of  fifliing  on  the  coaft,  which 
the  Dutch  difpute  with  them. 

Eajl  Greenland,  or  Spitfberg,  lies  between  10 
and  30  degrees  of  eaftern  longitude,  and  between 
77  and  82  degrees  of  north  latitude,  fo  cold  and 
barren  a  country  that  there  are  no  inhabitants,  and 
{^■w  animals  or  vegetables  ;  the  very  fifti  and  fowl 
forfake  the  coaft  in  winter.  There  is  a  night  of 
of  four  months  and  upwards,  the  feas,  as  well  as  other 
waters,  aie  frozen  up  in  vi'inter.  Buthere  is  the  beft 
whale-fiftiery  in  the  world,  whither  the  Dutch  re- 
fort  about  Midfummer,  and  kill  whales  fufficient  to 
fupply  all  Europe  with  wbalc-bone.  The  Engli/h 
begun  this  fifherj',  but  were  beaten  out  of  it  by  the 
Dutch  for  fome  time  ;  but  they  now  have  recover- 
ed it  again,  and  improved  it  greatly.  This  coun- 
try is  fuppofed  to  be  contiguous  to  IFeJl  Greenland 
by  fome,  and  to  extend  as  far  as  the  north  pole, 
though  it  is  generally  taken  to  be  an  ifland. 

The  chief  iflands  in  the  Baltic  fea,  are  Zealand., 
Funen,  and  Lafland ;  which  belong  to  Denmark, 
and  are  fituate  at   the  entrance  of  the  Baltic  fea. 

The  iflands  of  Aland,  Gothland,  Oeland,  Born- 
holm,  and  Rugen,  which  belong  to  Sweden. 

The  iflands  of  Dagoe  and  Ofel,  on  the  coaft  of 
Livonia,  which  are  fubjeft  to  Rujfia, 

The  middle  divifion  of  Europe  contains  Poland^ 
Ger?nanY,  the  Aufirian  dominions  in  and  contigu- 
ous to  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  and  France. 

Poland  is  fituate  between  46  degrees  30  minutes, 
and  57  degrees  30  minutes  north  latitude,  and  be- 
tween 16  and  34  degrees  of  eaft  longitude,  being 
bounded  by  the  Baltic  fea,  Livonia,  and  Ritjfia 
on  the  north ;  by  RuJJia  and  Budziac  Tarfary 
on  the  eaft  ;  by  Bejpirabia,  Moldavia,  Tranfilva- 
nia,  and  Hungary,  (from  which  it  is  feparated 
by  the  Carpathian  mountains)  on  the  fouth,  and 
by  Silefia  and  Brandenburgh  on  the  weft;  being 
660  miles  in  length  from  north  to  fouth,  and  560 
in  breadth  from  eaft  to  weft.  The  chief  towns  are 
TVarfaw,  Cracow,   and  Dantzick. 

The  chief  rivers  in  Poland  are  the  Vijlula,  the 
Memen,  the  Dwina,  the  Nieper  or  Boryjlhenes,  the 
Niejler,  and  the  Bog.  The  moft  confiderable  hills 
are  the  Carpathian  mountains,  which  divide  Poland 
from  Hungary  and  Tranftlvanla. 

Poland  is  a  republic,  with  a  king  at  the  head  of 
it,  who  is  elected  by  the  gentlemen  of  the  country 
when  the  throne  is  vacant ;  but  both  the  legiflative 
and  executive  power  is  lodged  chiefly  in  the  fenate, 
and  diet  or  parliament ;  the  king  however  has  the 
nomination  of  officers,  but  can  difplace  none  with- 
out the  concurrence  of  the  diet. 

4  C  2  The 


566 


n^e  Univerfal  Hiftory 


The  Aujlr'ian  dominions  contiguous  to  Germany 
are  the  kingdoms  oi  Bohemia  and  Hungary^  Tran- 
Jilvania,  Scaivonia,  and  Croatia. 

The  kingdom  of  Bohemia  comprehends  Bohemia 
Proper,  part  of  SHe/ia  and  Aloravia,  and  is  fituated 
between  48  and  52  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and 
between  12  and  19  degrees  of  ealt  longitude,  ex- 
tending near  300  miles  in  lenf:th,and  250  in  breadth. 
The  chief  towns  Prague,  Brejlaiv,  and  Olmuts. 

Hungary  isfuiiate  between  45  and  49  degrees  of 
north  latitude,  and  between  16  and  23  degrees  of 
eaftern  longitude,  being  bounded  by  the  Carpathian 
mountains  which  divide  it  srom  Poland  on  the  north; 
by  Tranfihania  and  Walachia  on  the  eafl  ;  by  the 
river  Drove,  which  divides  it  from  Servia  and 
Sdavonia  on  the  foutb  ;  and  hyjujlria  and  Moravia 
on  the  weft  :  and  is  300  miles  in  length  from  eaft 
to  weft,  and  240  in  breadth  from  north  to  fouth. 

The  chief  twwns  are  Prejhurg  and  Buda. 

TranJ.l  'ania  is  fituate  between  45  and  48  degrees 
of  nonh  1  .titude,  and  between  22  and  26  degiees 
of  eaft  longi  ude,  being  bounded  by  Poland  on  the 
north,  by  Moldavia  and  IValachia  on  the  eaft,  by 
Bulga>ia  on  the  fouth,  and  hy  Hungary  on  the 
weft,  being  200  miles  in  length  from  north  to  fouth, 
and  120  miles  in  breadth  from  eaft  to  weft. 

The  chief  rivers  are  the  Atlanta,  and  Meri/b  : 
the  chief  mountains  the  Carpathian,  which  divide 
it  from  Plun^ary,  and  the  Irongnte  mountains, 
which  divide  it  Irom  Turky  :  and  the  chief  town 
is  Hermanjlat, 

Tranfilvan  a  was  heretofore  a  diftinft  principality, 
but  is  now  annexed  to  Htingay,  as  well  as  the 
bannat  of  'Temefwaer,  and  fubjeit  to  the  crown  of 
Hungary 

Sdavonia  is  fituate  between  45  and  47  degrees 
of  north, latitude,  and  between  x6  and  21  degrees 
of  eaftern  longitude,  bounded  by  the  rivers  Drove 
and  Danube,  which  divide  it  from  Hungary  on  the 
north-eaft,  and  by  the  river  Save,  which  ieparates 
it  from  Bofnia  and  Servia  on  the  fouth  weft,  being 
2C0  miles  and  more  in  length,  and  60  in  breadth. 
The  thief  town  is  PoJ,-ga.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Danube,  the  Drove,  and  the  Save.  This  country 
alfo  is  fu!  je£l  to  the  Jujirian  family,  who  are  as 
abfolute  here,  as  in  Hungary. 

Croatia  i;  fituate  between  45  degrees  30  minutes, 
and  46  degrees  20  minutes  north  latitude,  and  be- 
tween 16  and  18  degrees  of  eaft  longitude,  bounded 
by  Sdavonia  on  tlie  north  and  eiift,  by  the  river 
Unna  which  divides  it  from  Bofnia  on  the  fouth, 
and  by  Curniola  on  the  weft,  being  about  7  c 
miles  long  and  60  broad.  The  chief  town  is 
Carljlat.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Save,  the  Culp, 
and  the  Unna.  This  country  is  alfo  fubje^t  to  the 
huufe  of  Aujlria, 


of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

Germany  Proper  is  fituated  between  45  and  5* 
degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  between  5  and  ig 
degrees  of  eaft  longitude,  bouniled  by  the  German 
ocean,  Denmark  and  the  Baltic  fea  on  the  north, 
by  Poland  and  Hungary  (if  we  include  Bohemia)  on 
the  eaft,  by  Switzerland  and  the  Alps,  which  fepa- 
rate  it  from  Italy  on  the  fouth,  and  by  the  domini- 
ons of  France  and  the  Netherlands  on  the  weft  :  be- 
ing divided  into  ten  circles,wz.  i. three  circles  in  the 
north  of  Germany,  i.  e.  the  circle  of  Upper  Saxony, 
the  circle  of  Lower  Saxony,  and  the  circle  of  JVeJl^ 
phalia. 

1.  Three  circles  about  the  middle  of  Germany^ 
viz.  the  circle  of  Franconia,  the  circle  of  the  Up- 
per Rhine,  and  the  circle  of  the  Lower  Rhine. 

3.  Three  circles  in  the  fouth  of  Germany,  viz. 
the  circle  of  Auftria,  the  circle  of  Bavaria,  and 
the  circle  of  Swabia. 

In  the  circle  of  Upper  Saxony  is,  i.  The  mar- 
quifate  of  Brandenburg,  fubje£t  to  the  eleftor  of 
Biandenburg  (king  o{  PruJJia).  2.  Thedutchyof 
Pomcrania,  fubjecl  to  the  fame  prince,  and  the  king 
of  Sweden.  3.  The  dutchy  of  Saxony,  Mifnia, 
Lufatia,  and  Thuringia,  the  greateft  pat  t  whereof 
is  fulijedt  to  the  eledlor  of  Saxony  (king  of  Poland). 

The  chief  towns  in  the  circle  of  I//)/i^r  Saxony  are, 
I.  Berlin,  rhe  cap\td.\  o(  Brandenburgh.  Note,  The 
elecSor  of  Brandenburgh,  has  at  prefent  the  largeft 
territories  of  all  the  fovereigns  of  Germany,  except 
the  king  oi  Bohemia  ;  for  befides  his  marquifate,  he 
is  pofiefl'ed  in  If^eJlphaUa  of  the  principality  of 
Minden,  of  the  dutchy  of  CLves,  of  the  counties 
of  £a  Alark,  oi  Revenfperg,  and  of  the  lordfhip  of 
Revenjlein  in  Brabant.  He  holds  in  ,Lower 
Saxony,  the  principalities  of  Magdeburg,  and  of 
Alberjlad :  the  ulterior  Pomerania,  and  the  ducal 
Prujfta  ;  alfo  was  declar'd  legitimate  heir  of  Neu- 
chatell,  and  Velangin,  to  the  exclufion  of  the  other 
pretenders  ;  and,  laftly,  he  has  almcft  all  Silefta. 

2.  Stitin,  the  capital  of  Brandmburg  Pomerania, 

3.  Stralfund,  the  capital  of  Swedijh  Pomerania. 

4.  Drefden,  the  capital  of  Mijnia,  and  of  all  the 
elector  of  Saxony's  German  dominions. 

The  countries  comprehended  In  the  circle  of 
Lower  Saxony  are  the  dutchies  of  Honovtr,  Zell, 
Lunenburg,  Bremen,  and  Verden,  fubjedt  to  the 
cleftbr  of  Hanover,  king  of  Great  Britain.  The 
dutchies  of  Brunfwick  and  Wdfembuttle,  fubjedl  to 
the  duke  of  Brunfwick  and  Wolfemluttle.  The 
bifhoprick  of  Hildefhcim,  fubje6t  to  the  eleflor  of 
Cologn.  The  dutchies  of  Magdeburg,  and  Halber- 
jiat,  fubje(£l  to  the  eIe(ftor  of  Brandenburg.  The 
dutchy  of  Holjlein,  fubJ26t  to  the  king  of  Denmark, 
and  the  duke  of  Holjlein.  The  dutchy  of  Ale<  ilen- 
burg,  .'ubjcct  to  the  liake  ;  and  the  dutchy  of  Law- 
enburg,  fubje*^  to  the  fclei^or  of  Hanover. 

The 


GEOGRAPHY, 


S^7 


The  chief  towns  in  the  circle  of  Lower  Saxony 
are,  r.  Hanover,  the  capital  of  the  king  of  Great 
Britain's  Gtrman  dominions. 

2.  Brunfwick,  the  capital  of  the  duke  of  Bra«/^ 
wicii'  Wolfembuttle'i  territories. 

3.  Magdeburg,  the  capital  of  the  eleftor  of  Bran- 
denburg's dominions  in  this  circle.   - 

4.  Gujlraw,  the  capital  of  the  duke  of  Meck- 
lenbttrg's  dominions. 

5.  Hamburgh,  an  imperial  city  and  port  town, 
fituate  on  the  river  Elbe. 

6.  Lubeck,  an  imperial  city  and  port  town,  fitu- 
ate on  the  river  Trave,  near  the  Baltic  fea. 

•7.  /Sl'.ena,  the  capital  of  the  king  of  Denmark's 
territories  in  Holjlein. 

8.  Lawenburg,  the  capital  of  the  dutchy  of 
Lazvcnburg. 

9.  Bremen,  the  capital  of  the  dutchy  of  Bremen, 
an  Imperial  city,  fituated  on  the  river  IVcfer. 

The  countries  comprehended  in  the  circle  of 
It'ejlphalia  are  the  dutchies  of  Munjler  and  Weft- 
phaiia,  the  bifhopricks  of  Ofnahurg  and  Paderborn, 
fubjeift  to  the  eleiSlor  of  Cologn  ;  the  dutchies  of 
Juliers  and  Bergue,  fubjeil  to  the  ele£lor  Palatine; 
the  dutchy  of  Cleve,  and  thecounties  of  Murk  Ra 
venjb.irg  and  Binthcim,  fubje:!  to  the  eleftor  of 
Brandenburg;  the  bifhoprick  of  Liege,  fubjei£b>to 
itsbifhop;  the  counties  of  Lippe,  Schawenburg, 
Hoye,  Dicpholt,  Oldenburg,  Dehmnhurjl,  Emhden, 
TeckUnhurg,  Pyrmont,  Li' gen.  Stein  fort,  Corbey, 
Abbey,  and  feveral  towns  and  fmall  territories,  fub- 
jedt  to  their  refpe£five  fovereigns. 

The  chief  towns  in  IVeftphalia  circle  are,  i. 
Munjler,  the  capital  of  fVeJiphalia. 

2.  DuJJeldorp,  capital  of  the  dutchy  of  Be-g,  and 
of  the  e!e6lor  Palatine's  dominions  in  (■Pcflphalia. 

3.  Jix  la  Chapelle,  or  Aken  an  impet'al  city  in 
the  dutchy  of  JuUers,  celebrated  for  its  baths. 

4.  Liege,  capital  of  the  bifliopriv.k  of  Z;Vji?,  fitu- 
ate on  the  river  Alaes. 

The  countries  comprehended  in  the  circle  of 
Franconia  are  the  territory  of  Nurevburg,  the 
bifhopricks  of  Bambirg  nn  '  TVurtJburg,  tlie  mar- 
qu'f  te  of  Anfpach  or  Onfpach,  the  counties  of 
Holach.,  Archjht,  and  JVertheim,  and  the  territories 
of  the  grand  mafter  of  the  Teutonick  order. 

The  confiderjble  towns  in  the  circle  of  Fran- 
tonia  are,  \.  Nurenburg,  the  capital  of  the  terri- 
tory of  Nurenburg  and  of  -Al  Franconia,  an  imperial 
city. 

2.  5i7/«3^r^,  capital  of  the  h\Vi,:^'^i:\Q^  of  Bamberg. 

3.  TVu'tsburg,  capital  of  the  bifhoprick  of 
Wurtjhurg. 

The  countries  comprehended  in  the  circle  of  the 
Upper  Rhine  are  the  dutchy  of  Deux  Fonts,  the 
landgravates  of  HeJJi-CaJfd  anJ  Hejfi-Darmfta^y  ' 


and  formerly  the  landgravatc  of  Aljatia.,  but  that 
is  now  a  province  of  France. 

The  chief  towns  in  the  circle  of  the  Upper  Rhing 
are,   i.    Heidelburg,  xha  cz'^hd]  of  the  Patatincte. 

2.  Hejfe  Cajpl,  the  capital  of  th-it  landgravate. 

3.  HeJfe  Darmftat,  capital  of  that  landsravate. 

4.  Worms,  an  imperial  city,  fituate  on  the  Rhine. 
The  countries  comprehended  in  thf  ci de  of  the 

Lower  Rhine,  are  the  three  fpiritual  e'.eftorates  of 
Ment%,  Triers,  and  Cologn,  and  moft  part  of  the 
Palatinate  of  the  Rhine,  with  the  territory  of 
Francfort. 

The  confiderable  towns  in  this  electorate  are, 
r.  Mentz,  capital  of  the  eljdt.rate  of  Mentz. 

2.  Francfort,  fituate  on  the  river  Maine,  a  free 
imperial  city,  fometimes  placed  in  the  circle  of  the 
T^jVjer  Rhine,  and  at  other  times  in  Franconia. 

3  Triers  or  Treves,  firuate  on  the  river  Mofclle, 
capital  of  the  eleilorate  of  Triers. 

4.  Cilogn,  capital  of  the  electorate  of  Cologn, 
and  of  all  the  circle  of  the  Lower  Rhine. 

The  countries  contained  in  the  circle  of  Sivabia 
are  the  dutchy  of  Wirtemburg,  the  marquifate  of 
Baden,  the  Burgaw,  the  bifhopricks  of  Sajburg 
and  Conftance,  the  territories  of  C//ot,  the  Brifgaw,. 
and  feveral  imperial  cities  and  forefl  towns.  W  here- 
of the  dutchy  of  [Virtemburg  is  fubjedl  to  the  duke 
of  JVirtemburg,  and  the  territories  of  Baden  to  the 
princefs  of  Bi-den  ;  the  Burgozv,  Brifgow,  Foreft 
Towns,  and  feveral  pr'ncipalities  of  Swabia,  are 
fubjfft  to  the  houfe  of  Aujtria. 

The  chief  towns  in  Swabia  zre,  r.  Augjburg,  an 
imperial  city,  capital  of  the  Burgow. 

2.  Ulm,  an  imperial  city,  fituate  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  rivers  Danube  and  Iller. 

3.  Stutgart,  capital  of  the  duke  of  Wirtemburg'i 
dominions,  fituate  on  the  river  Neckar. 

4.  Conftance,  fituate  on  the  lake  of  Conftance^ 
and  fuhjeif  to  the  houfe  of  Aujlria. 

5.  Baden,   capital  of  the  marq  jifate  of  Baden. 
6     Frihurgh,  capita]  of  the  Brifgow. 

The  countries  contained  in  the  circle  of  Bavaria 
are  the  dutchy  of  Bavaia,  the  palatinate  of  Ba- 
varia, the  dutchy  of  Newburg,  the  territory  of 
S'ltsbach,  the  archbifiiopritk  of  Saltsburg,  and  the 
bifhopricks  of  PafJ'au,   and  Freifmger.. 

The  chief  towns  in  Bavaria  are,  i.  The  city  of 
Munich,  capital  of  the  dutchy  and  eleiiorate  of 
Bavaria. 

2.  Ratisbon,  an  imperial  city  where  the  diet  of 
the  empire  is  ufed  to  be  helu.  ■ 

3.  Amhfrg,  capital  of  the  palatinate  of  Bavaria. 

4.  Saltjbtrg,  the  capital  of  the  archbiihoprick 
of  Saltsburg. 

5.  Newburgy  the  capital  of  the  dutchy  of 
Newburg, 


568 


noe   Unlverfal  Hlftory  o/Arts  ^;/^  Sciences. 


6.  Pajfati,  the  capital  of  the  biflioprick  of  Paffau. 

Tile  Countries  within  the  circle  oi  Aufiria  are 
the  archdutchy  of  Auftria,  the  dutchies  of  Stiria, 
Carinthia,  and  Carmola,  the  country  of  Tyrol,  and 
the  billiopricks  oi  Trent  and  Brixen. 

The  chief  towns  in  the  circle  of  Auftria  are,  i. 
Vienna,  the  capital  of  the  archdutchy  oi  Auftria, 
and  of  the  German  emp  re. 

2.  Gratz,  the  capital  of  the  dutchy  of  Stiria. 

3.  Clagenj'urt,  the  capital  of  the  dutchy  of  Ca 
rinthia, 

4.  Landbach,  the  capital  of  the  dutchy  of  Car- 
niola. 

5.  Infpruck,  the  capital  of  the  county  of  Tirol, 
Jituate  on  the  river  Inn. 

6.  Tretit,  the  capital'of  the  biflioprick  of  Trent, 
fituate  on  the  river  Adige. 

The  confiderable  rivers  in  Germany  are  the 
Danube,  the  Rhiyu,  the  Elbe,  the  JVefcr,  the  Oder, 
the  il^(7«,  the  Inn,  the  AJofelle,  and  the  Havel. 

The  Germans  are  not  fuppofed  to  be  furniflied 
with  a  vaft  real  of  wit,  but  they  are  very  good  ar- 
tifts,  liberal,  noble,  brave,  good,  fincere,  and  very 
fociable ;  they  are  for  the  generality  very  handfome, 
and  of  a  ftrong  conftitution.  They  love  naturally 
war,  and  good  cheer ;  but  they  are  not  efteemed 
the  beft  civilized  people  in  Europe. 

Note  alfo,  that  the  empire  of  Germany  is  com- 
pofeJ  of  five  forts  of  powers,  viz.  the  emperor, 
who  is  chief,  but  not  mafter,  fince  he  can  difpofe 
of  nothing  but  his  ovirn  :  the  eieiftors  to  the  number 
of  nine,  wz.  die  archbifliop  of  Mentz,  high  chan- 
cellor of  the  empire  in  Germany  :  the  archbifhop  of 
Triers,  high  chancellor  of  the  empire  in  Gaul :  the 
archbiftiup  of  Cchgn,  high  chancellor  of  the  em- 
pire in  Italy:  the  k\ngo{ Bohemia,  great  cup-bearer: 
the  duke  of  Bavaria,  high  fteward  :  the  duke  of 
Saxony,  grand  marefchal ;  the  marquis  of  Branden- 
lurg^  grand  chamberlain:  the  count  Palatine  of 
the  Rhine,  high  treafurer  ;  the  duke  of  Hanover, 
called  likewife  high  treafurer  :  the  ecclefiafticlc 
princes  ;  the  fecular  princes  ;  the  free-towns,  which 
are  as  many  republicks  ;  fome  of  thofe  towns,  or 
cities,  are  called  imperial,  and  appear  at  the  affem- 
blies,  or  diets,  on  the  benches  of  Swabia  and  of  the 
Rhine:  others  are  called  Hanfe  towns,  and  appear 
under  four  colleges,  whofe  feats  are  Lubeck,  Cologn, 
Brunfwick,  and  Danizici :  thefe  towns  have  re- 
ceived the  name  Han/.,  from  the  Ger.-an  words. 
j^n  zee  Stette,  i.  e.  cities  fituated  on  the  fea  ;  be 
caufe  the  fiifl:  which  began  the  confedeiac  were 
all  fituated  on  the  fea,  or  at  leaft  on  fome  confider- 
able rivers  :  they  formed  this  confederacy,  to  main- 
tain themfelves  mutually  in  trade  ;  and  they  h  d 
Gncecompting-houfes  inco.iimon,  viz.  one  at  Lon- 
don, in  England  ;   one  at  Bruges,  in  Flanders,  and 


afterwards  at  Jntwerp;one  at  Novogrod,  inMufcmj, 
then  at  Revel,  in  Livonia,  and  afterwards  at  Narva^ 
and  the  other  at  Bergen,  in  Norway. 

The  German  powers  depend  no  otherwife  on  the 
emperor,  than  by  doing  homage  to  him  ;  othervi'ife, 
they  can  make  war,  alliances,  and  confederacies 
with  foreign  princes,  provided  they  do  not  prove 
prejudicial  to  the  empire. 

TheNETHERLANDS  are  fttuate  between  50  and 
53  degrees  north  latitude,  and  between  2  and  7  de- 
grees of  eaft  longitude,  bounded  by  the  German  fea 
on  the  north,  by  Germany  on  the  eaft,  by  Lorrain 
and  Fance  on  the  fouth,  and  by  another  part  of 
France  and  the  Biitifn  feas  on  the  weft,  extending 
near  300  miles  in  length,  and  2CO  in  breadth. 

Thefe  provinces  are  17  in  number,  whereof  7, 
which  are  under  the  dominion  of  the  Dutch,  are 
called  the  United  Provinces,  the  other  ten  are  called 
the  Aullrian  and  French  Netherlands,  being  mofl 
of  them  fubjei5t  to  thoie  powers. 

The  names  of  the  United  Provinces  are,  i.  Hol- 
land. 2.  Zealand.  3.  FiieJIand.  4  Groningen. 
5.  Overijj'el.  6.  Gelderland  with  Zutphen,  and 
7.   Utrecht. 

The  chief  towns  in  the  United  Provinces  are, 
i.^AmJicrdam,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Hol- 
lanJ,  and  of  all  the  United  Provinces. ' 

2.  Rotterdam,  fiiuate  on  the  river  Maes. 

3.  Middlebuyg,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Zealand,  fuuate  in  the  iflaud  of  Walcheren. 

4.  Niineguen,  fituate  on  the  river  Waal,  in  the 
province  oi  Gelderland. 

5.  Utrecht,  the  capital  of  the  province  Utrecht, 
fituate  on  the  channel  of  the  Old  Rhine. 

6.  Levuarden,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Friejland. 

1  he  chief  rivers  in  the  United  Provinces  are  the 
Rhine,  the  Lech,  theUaal,  theMaes,  and  theScheld. 

The  names  of  the  other  ten  provinces  are,  i. 
Brabant.  2.  F'/anders  3.  Hainault.  4.  Limburg. 
5  Luxemburg.  6.  Namur.  7.  Artois.  8.  The 
Cambrefts.  9.  The  marquifate  of  y/«/iwr/i.  And 
10.  The  lordfhip  of  AJalines,  or  AIe,hlin :  Of  thefe 
the  French  p.  fiefs  the  entire  provinces  of  Artois 
and  Cambray,  part  of  Flanders,  Hainauh  and  Lux- 
emburg ;  and  the  Dutch  pofiefs  the  north  of  Bra- 
bant a:,d  Flanders;  all  the  reft  are  fubjecl  to  the 
houfe  of  Auftria. 

The  chef  towns  in  the  Aufrian  and  French  Ne- 
thrland:  zre,  1.  Brujfcls,  the  ca^^^it.J  oi  Brabant, 
and  of  all  the  Auftrian  Netherlands.,  fituate  on  the 
river  Senne 

2.  Ghent,  or  Gau  t,  the  capital  of  Auflrian 
Flanders,  fituate  on  the  four  rivers  of  the  ScheUf 
Lyi,  Lieue,  and  Alourwater. 


GEOGRAPHY' 


3.  LiJJe,  the  capital  of  the  French  Netherlands, 
fituate  in  the  province  of  Flanders,  on  the  river 
Deule. 

4.  Mons,  the  capital  of  Hainault,  fituate  near 
the  banks  of  the  rivers  Haine  and  TrouUk. 

5.  Namur,  the  capital  df  the  province  o(  Namur, 
fituate  at  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Sambre 
and    Maes. 

6.  Antwerp.,  the  capital  of  the  marquifdte  of 
Jntxverp,  fituate  on  the  river  Scheld. 

7.  MaUnes,  or  Mechlin,  the  ciipital  of  the  lord- 
fliip  of  Mechlin. 

8.  Luxemburg,  the  capital  of  the  dutchy  of  Lux- 
emburg, fituate  on  the  river  Elfe 

9.  Lhnbwg,  the  capital  of  the  dutchy  of  Llm- 
hurg,  fituate  on  the  river  Vefe. 

The  principal  rivers  in  Flanders  are  the  Maes, 
the  Sambre^  the  Sch  Id,  the  Lys,  the  Scarpe,  the 
Senne,  the  Mehaln,  the  Deule,  the  Dyle,  and  the 
Dcmer. 

France  is  fitua'e  between  5  degrees  weft  and  7 
degrees  eaft  longitude,  and  between  43  and  5  r  He- 
greesof  north  latiiiide, being  bounded  by  laeEngliflj 
channel,  and  the  Netherlands  on  the  north,  by  Ger- 
many, Swi'zeiiand,  Savoy,  and  Piedmont  on  the 
eaft,  by  the  Meditenanian  fea  and  the  Pyenean 
mountains  on  the  fouth,  and  by  the  bay  of  Blfcay 
on  the  weft,  being  almofl  fquare,  and  upwards  of 
500  miles  over  either  way. 

The  provinces  or  gevernments  in  France  are,  i. 
P'uardy.  2.  Normandy.  3.  Britanny  ;  and  4.  the 
iHe  of  France,  on  the  north. — 5.  Orhafio!s,nr\d  6. 
Li'^nois,  in  the  middle. — 7.  Guienne,  and  Gafcony. 
8.  Languedoc.  9.  Provence;  and  10  Dauphine, 
on  the  fouth. — 11.  Burgundy.  12.  Champa  gn. 
13.  T\'\s  French  Netherlands.  14.  Lorraine;  a.nd 
15.   Jlfacc,  on  the  eafl:. 

The  chief  towns  are,  r.  Partr,  the  capital  of' 
the  ifle  of  France,  afid  of  the  whole  kingdom,  fitu- 
ate on  the  river  Se)ne,  in  48  degrees  50- minutes 
north  latitude,  and  two  degrees  25  minutes  eaft 
longitude. 

2.  Rouevi  capital  of  the  province  oi  Normandy, 
fituate  en  the  Seyne. 

3.  Orleans,  capital  of  the  governmcDt  ofOrlea- 
nois,  fituate  on  the  river  Loyre. 

4.  Lions,  the  capital  city  of  the  government  of 
Lio'wis,  fituate  at  the  confluence  of  the  rivers 
Rh.ne  and  Soane. 

5.  Thoulon,  or  Toulon,  the  heft  port-town  in 
France,  is  fituate  tn  Pravence,  on  a  bay  of  the  Me- 
diterranean oppofite  to  the  iflands  of  Hieres^. 

6.  Thoulafe,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Lan- 
guedoc, is  fituate  on  the  river  Garonne. 

•J-  Bourdeaux  thetapLtaiof  the  province  cfBsur- 


569 


dekls,  and   of  the  government  of    Guienne   and 
Gafcony,  fituate  on  the  river  Garonne. 

8.  Nants,  a  great  port-town  in  the  province  of 
Britanny,  fituate  on  the  river  Loyre. 

9.  Brcjl,  the  moft  confiderable  port-town  of 
France  upon  the  ocean,  fituate  on  the  coaft  of 
Britanny. 

The  chief  rivers  in  France  are  the  Rhone,  the 
Soane,  the  Garonne,  the  Loyre,  the  Seyne,  the  Dor- 
donne,  the  Oyfe,  the  Marne,  the  Aube,  the  IJerty 
and  the  Durance. 

The  chief  mountains  are  the  Alps,  which  fepa- 
rates  France  from  Italy ;  the  mountains  of  the 
Ccvennes  and  Auverne ;  the  mountains  of  Vauge, 
which  divide  Franche  Comte  from  Alface  and  iar- 
rain ;  and  the  Pyrennes,  which  divide  it  from  Spain. 

The  king  of  France  \'^  his  dominions  (the  con- 
quefts  excluded)  promotes  to  eighteen  archbijhoprics, 
a  hundred  and  ten  bijhoprics,  to  feven  hundred 
and  fifty  abbeys  of  monks,  without  reckoning  thofe 
who  have  been  re-unitcd  to  other  commonalties  or 
benefices ;  and  to  more  than  two  hundred  abbeys- 
of  nuns.. 

The  eighteen  Archbishopricks,  are,  Alx, 
Alby,  Ambrun,  Aries,  Auch..  Befancon,  Botirdcaux, 
Bourges,  Cambray,  Lyons,  Narhonne,  Paris,  RheimSy 
Rouen,   Sens,  Touloife,   Tours,   Vienne. 

The  hundred  and  ten  Bishopricks,  are,  Agde, 
Agen,  Air.,  Alet,  Amiens,  Anglers,  AngouUme,  Apt, 
Arras,  Avranche,  Autun,  Auxerre;  Bayeux,  Bay- 
onne.  Bazas,  Beauvois,  Bellay,  Bcthlecm,  Beziers, 
Blois,  Boulogne,  St.  Brieu;  Cahors,  Carcaffone, 
Ca/ires.,  Chaalons,  Chalons,  Chartres.  Cijieron,  Cler- 
mont. Cotninges,  Condom,  Cornoiiaille,  Cotiferanr, 
Coutance;  Dax,  Die,  Digne,  Dole;  EvREOX  j 
S.  Flour,  Frejus;G f\.V,  Geneve,  Glandeve,  Grace-, 
Grenoble;  Kebeo  Laitoui*,  Langres,  Ldon,. 
Lavaur,  Levn,.  Lifcar,  Limoges,  Lifieux,  Lodeve, 
Lombes,  Lucon ;  M  A  AGON,  S.  Malo^  Mande, 
Mam,  Marfeiile,  Meaux,  Metz,  Mireptix,  Mon- 
tauhan,  Montpelller ;  Nantes,  Never s,-  Nice^. 
Nimt's,  Noyon;  Oleron,  S.  Omer,  Orange,  Or- 
leans; Pamiers,  S.  Papoul,  S.  Paul  trois  Cha- 
teaux, Perigueux,  Perpignan;  PoiSiiers,  S.  Pot  de 
Leon,  S,  Pons  de  Tani ere s,  P«v;  Rennes,  Ricux, 
Riez,  Rochelle.  Rode'^ ;  Saintes,  Sais,  Sarlat, 
Senez,  Senlls,  Soiffins,  Strafbourg;  Tarbes,  Tout, 
Toulon,  Tournay.  Trequier,  Troyes,  Tulles  ;  Vabr  ES, 
Valence,  Vannes,  V^yice,  Verdun,  Viviers,  Ufaiz, 

Turkey  in   Europe,    is    the   fouth -eaft    part  of. 
Europe  and  comprehends  all  thofe  countries,  enu- 
merated already  in  the  general  divifion  of  ii?/r«j6^,. 
which  lie  between  36  and  44  degrees  of  north  lat, 
and  between  17  and  40  deg«es  of  eaftern  long., 
extending   1000  miles    and  upwards    in  lengtli! 

fronx. 


57^ 


llDe  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


from  eaft  to  weft,  and  500  miles   in   breadth  from 
north  to  fouth. 

The  chief  towns  of  Turkey  iii  Europe,  are 

1.  Conjlanlinople.,  fituate  on  the  Bofphorus  or 
Straight,  which  fcparates  Europe  from  Jlfia,  being 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  Romania,  and  of  the 
whole  Turkijh  empire. 

2.  Adrianople,  lituate  in  the  province  oi  Romania. 

3.  Belgrade,  the  capital  of  the  piovincc  of  tier- 
via,  fituate  on  the  river  Danube. 

4.  Salonichi  or  Tbeffaknica,  a  port-town  of  Mace- 
donia, fituate  on  the  Archipelago,  or  Egean  fea. 

5.  Athens  or  Settines,  the  capital  of  Achaia  or 
Livadia. 

6.  Napoli  de  Romania,  a  port-town,  the  capital 
of  the  Morea. 

7.  Lepanto,  fituate  on  the  gulph  of  Lepanto  in 
the  province  of  Achaia. 

8.  Ncgropont  or  Egripos,  the  capital  of  the 
ifland  of  Negropont,  the  largeft  ifland  in  the  Egean 
fea  or  Archipelago. 

The  chief  rivers  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  are  the 
Danube,  the  Save,  the  Alauta,  the  Niejler,  and 
the  Pruth. 

The  chief  mountains  are  thofe  of  Rhodope  or 
Argcntum,  which  divide  Romania  and  Macedon 
from  Bulgaria  and  Servia,  and  the  mountain  Ptfr- 
najfus  in  Greece. 

The  principal  Turkijh  Iflands  in  Europe  are  the 
numerous  iflands  in  the  Archipelago  or  Egean  fea, 
are  all  fubjedl  to  the  Turks,  whereof  part  lies  in 
Europe,  and  part  in  ^rt,  of  which  the  largefi: 
European  ifland  is  that  of  Negropont  already  menti- 
oned, anciently  called  Euhea,  fituate  north  eaft  of 
the  coaft  of  Achaia  or  Livadia,  by  which  it  is 
feparated  by  the  narrow  fea  called  the  Euripus, 
remarkable  for  its  irregular  tides,  which  flow  fome- 
times  13  or  14  times  in  24  hours.  The  iflands  of 
hemnos,  Sciros,  Andros,  and  Melos,  are  of  a  con- 
fiderable  extent.  Thefe  and  the  reft,  are  inha- 
bited chiefly  by  Grecian  chriftians. 

Italy  is  fituate  between  38  and  46  degrees  of  north 
latitude,  and  between  7  and  19  degrees  of  eaftern 
longitude,  being  about  600  miles  long,  and  from 
80  to  400  broad.  It  is  bounded  by  Sivitzerland, 
and  the  /h'ps,  which  fepaiate  it  from  Germany  on 
the  north,  by  the  gulph  of  Venice  on  the  eaft,  by 
the  Mtditerrenean  fea  on  the  fouth,  and  by  the  fame 
fea  and  the  Alps,  which  fcparate  i:  fr.-m  France,  on 
the  weft ;  and  comprehends  the  folh  .wing  coun- 
tries: viz.  I.  The  principality  of  Piedmont,  the 
dutchy'of  Savoy,  and  the  dutchy  of  Monferrat, 
fubjeft  to  the  king  of  Sardinia.  2.  The  dutchies 
of  Milan,  Padua,  and  Parma,  fubject  to  the 
houfe  .of  Attfiria.   ^3.  ^rXhe  dutchy  of  Modena, 


fubjecl  to  its  own  duke.  4.  The  large  dominions 
of  ihe  rcpublick  of  Venice  \  all  which  lie  in  the 
noith  of  Jtaly.  5  The  liulchy  of  Tufcany,  fubje6l 
to  the  grand  duke,  the  preiisnt  emperor  of  Ger- 
many. 6.  The  little  republic  of  Lucca.  7.  The 
))i>pe's  extenfivc  territories,  which  laft  three  lie  ia 
tlie  middle  of  Italy.  8.  The  kingdom  of  Naples, 
which  takes  up  the  fouth  of  Italy,  and  is  fubjedl 
to  the  kin^r  of  the  two  Sicilies. 

The  chief  towns  in  Italy  are.  i.  Turin,  the 
capital  of  Piedmont,  and  of  the  king  of  Sardinia's 
dominions,,  fituate  on  the  river  Pa. 

2.  Chamberry,  the  capital  of  Savoy. 

3.  Genoa,  the  capital  of  the  republick  of  Gf«ffa. 

4.  Milan,  the  capital  of  the  dutchy  of  Milan 
and  of  the  Aujlrian  dominions  in  Italy. 

5.  Mantua,  the  capital  of  Mantua,  fituate  in 
the  middle  of  a  lake. 

6.  Parma,  the  capital  of  the  dutchy  of  Parma. 

7.  Venice,  the  capital  of  the  Venetian  domini- 
ons, fituate  on  feveral  iflands  at  the  bottom  of  the 
gulph  of  Venice,  five  miles  from  the  continent. 

8.  Florence,  the  capital  of  the  dutchy  of  Tufcany, 
fituate  on  the  river  Arno. 

9.  Leghorn,  or  Livorno,  the  moft  confiderabl* 
port  town  in  all  Italy,  fituate  on  the  Tujcan  fea. 

10.  Modena,  the  capital  of  the  dutchy  of  Modena. 

11.  Lucca,  the  capital  of  the  republick  of  £a::trt. 

12.  Rome,  the  capital  of  the  Campania,  and  of 
all  the  pope's  dominions,  fituate  on  the  river 
Tiber,  once  the  feat  of  univerfal  empire. 

13.  Naples,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
fituate  on  a  bay  of  the  Tufcan  fea. 

The  moft  confiderable  rivers  of  Italy  are  the 
Po,  the  Adige,  the  Stura,  the  Arno,  the  Tiber, 
and  the  Volturno. 

The  higheft  mountains  are  the  Alps  which 
divide  Italy  I'rom  Germany,  and  France;  and  the 
Appenine,  which  run  the  whole  length  of  Italy; 
and  mount  Vefuvius  in  Naples,  remarkable  for  its 
vulcano. 

The  moft  confiderable  Italian  iflands  are  Sicily, 
Sardinia,  Corfica,  the  Lipari  iflands,  and  that  of 
Elba. 

Sicily,  is  fituate  in  the  Mediterranean  fea,  be- 
tween 37  and  38  degrees  30  minutes  north  latitude, 
and  between  12  and  15  degrees  of  eaft  longitude, 
being  about  160  miles  long,  and  1 00  broad,  fepa- 
rated from  the  kingdom  of  Naples  in  Italy,  by  the 
narrow  ftraight  of  Mejfma. 

The  principal  towns  are  i.  Palermo,  the  capi- 
tal of  Sicily. 

2.  Mejfma,  a  great  port  town,  fituate  at  the 
eaft  end  of  the  ifland,  oppofite  to  Regio  in  Naples. 
This  ifland  with  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  is  fub- 


GEOGRAPHY. 


571 


jc^  to  Don  Carlos,  who  flilcs  himlllf  king  of"  the 
Two  Sicilies, 

In  the  iflaiid  of  Sicily,  is  Mount  Etna,  the  mofl: 
terrible  vulcano  in  Europe,  which  has  by  its  erup- 
tions and  earthquakes,  dcflroyed  fome  of  the  bell 
towns  in  the  ifland. 

Sardinia  is  fituate  in  the  Mediterranean  fea,  be- 
tween ^g  and  41  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and 
between  8  and  10  degrees  of  eaftcrn  longitude, 
being  140  miles  in  length  from  north  to  fouth,  and 
70  in  breadth  from  eaft  to  weft;  the  capital  town 
Cagliari,  fituate  on  a  bay  of  the  lea,  at  the  fouth 
end  of  the  ifland  in  39  degrees  of  north  latitude, 
and  9  degrees  of  ealtern  longitude,  fubjedl  to  the 
king  of  Sardinia. 

Cor/ica  is  fituate  between  41  and  43  degrees  of 
north  latitude,  and  hetv/een  9  and  10  degrees  of 
Ciift  longitude,  in  the  Alediterrancan  fea,  leparated 
from  the  ifland  of  Sardinia,  on  the  fouth  by  the 
fktsX^'iX.  of  Bonifacio;  the  chief  town,  Bajiia,  is 
fituate  on  the  eaft  fide  of  the  ifland,  in  42  degrees 
40  minutes  north  latitude,  and  9  degrees  50  mi- 
nutes eaft  longitude.  The  ifland  is  fiibjed:  to  the 
republic  of  Genoa. 

Switzerland  is  fituate  between  45  and  48  degrees 
of  north  latitude,  and  between  6  and  to  degrees  of 
eaft  longitude,  bounded  by  Germany  on  the  north 
and  eaft,  by  the  territories  of  Venice,  Piedmovt,  and 
Savoy  in  Italy,  on  the  fouth,  and  by  France  on  the 
weft,  being  180  miles  in  length  from  eaft  to  weft, 
and  :4oin  breadth  from  north  to  fouth,  confiiling 
of  a  great  many  independent  cantons,  or  republicks, 
of  which  thofe  of  Bern,  Zurich,  and  the  Grifons, 
are  the  chief. 

The  chief  towns  in  Swit%crlar.d  are  i.  Bern, 
the  capital  of  the  canton  of  Bern,  and  of  all  Swit- 
zerland, fituate  on  the  river  Aar. . 

2.  Coire,  the  capital  of  the  Grifons,  fituate  on 
the  river  Rhine. 

3.  Zurich  the  capital  of  the  canton  of  Zurich, 
fituate  at  the  noich  end  of  the  lake  of  Zurich. 

4.  Geneva,  hciiate  on  the  river  Rhone,  at  the 
weft  end  of  the  'ike  Lemain  or  Geneva. 

5.  Ba/il,i\\>.  capital  of  the  canton  of  5rt/7/,  fituate 
on  the  river  Rhine,  near  the  confines  of  Alface, 

6.  Baden,  the  capital  of  the  territory  of  Baden, 
where  the  ftates  or  reprefentatives  of  the  cantons 
aftemble. 

Stvitzerland  is  the  moft  mountainous  country  in 
Europe,  being  fituate  on  the  Jlps. 

Several  of  the  largeft  rivers  alfo,  have  their 
fourcej  here:  viz.  the  Danube,  the  Rhine,  the 
Rhone,  and  innumerable  torrents,  which  fall  preci- 
pitately from  the  mountains  on  the  melting  of  the 
fnow :  and  there  are  lakes  on  the  tops  of  their 
highefl  mountains. 

26 


Spain  is  a  peninfula,  furrouiided  by  the  Atlantic 
j  ocean  and  the  Mediterranean  fea,  except  on  the 
north  eaft  where  it  is  joined  to  France,  by  the 
Pyrenean  mountains,  and  is  fituate  between  36  and 
44  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  between  10  de- 
grees weft,  and  3  degrees  eaftern  longitude,  being 
bounded  by  the  bay  of  Bijcay,  part  of  the  Atlantic 
ocean  and  i^r.7««  on  the  north,  hy  ths  Mcditcrra~ 
ncan  and  the  ftraight  of  Gibraltar  and  the  Atlantic 
ocean  on  the  fouth,  and  by  the  fame  Atlantic 
ocean  on  the  weft,  being  upwards  of  600  miles  in 
length  from  eaft  to  weft,  and  almoft  as  many  in 
breadth  ;  but  in  this  defcription  Portugal  is  in- 
cluded, which  was  once  a  province  of  Spain. 

The  provinces  comprehended  in  the  king- 
dom of  Spain  are,  i.  Galicia.  2.  Ajluria.  3.  Bif- 
cay  on  the  north.  4.  Navarre.  5.  Arragon, 
6.  Catalonia,  j .  Fakncia  on  the  end.  S.Mtacia. 
9.  Granada.  10.  Andalujia  on  the  fouth.  11.  Old 
Ca/lile.  12.  New  Cajii'e.  13.  Leon,  and.  14.  Eftre- 
madura  in  the  middle  of  Spain. 

The  chief  towns  in  Spain  are  i.  Madrid,  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom,  fituate  in  the  province  of 
New  Cajlile. 

2.  Toledo,  heretofore  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom, fituate  in  the  province  of  New  Cajlile,  on 
the  river  Tagus. 

3.  Compojlella,  the  capital  of  Galicia. 

4.  Bilboa,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Bifcay. 

5.  Saragojfa,  the  capital  of  the  pro\'ince  of 
Arra'ron. 

6.  Barcelona,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Catalonia. 

7.  Valencia,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Va- 
lencia. 

8.  Carthagcna,  in  the  province  of  Mercia,  fitu- 
ate on  a  bay  of  the  Mediterranean,  one  of  the  beft 
harbours  in  Spain. 

9.  Granada,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Granada. 

10.  Gibraltar,  a  ftrong  fortified  port- town  in 
Andalufta,  fituate  on  the  ftraight,  between  the  ocean 
and  the  Mediterranean,  which  feparates  Europe 
from  Africa. 

ri.  Cadiz,  the  moft  confiderable  port- town  in 
Spain,  chief  ftation  of  the  Spanijh  men  of  war  and 
galleons,  fituate  on  the  ifland  of  Leon,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Andalufta. 

12.  Seville,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  An- 
dalufta, fituate  on  the  river  Guadalquivir. 

The  moft  confiderable  rivers  and  mountains  in 
Spain  ai-e  the  Ehro,  the  Guadalquivir,  the  Gua- 
diiJia,  the  Tagus,  the  Doura,  and  the  Minho. 

The  moft  confiderable  mountains  are  thofe  of 
the  Pyrenees,  which  feparate  France  and  Spain,  and 
branches  of  thofe,  under  feveral  names,  run  through. 

4  D  Spain 


c72  The  Univcrfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  /^W Sciences. 


Spain  from  eafl  to  weft  ;  it  being  generally  a  very 
mountainous  country.  Mount  Calpe  which  covers 
the  town  of  Gibraltar  is  one  ot  the  pillars  of 
Hercules;  that  of  Mount  Abilc  in  ylfr'ua  on  the 
oppofitc  fide  of  the  ftraight  of  Gibraltar  being  the 
other. 

The  chief  Spanijh  iflands  are  thofe  anciently 
called  the  Baleares :  viz.  Majorca,  Miiiorca,  anJ 
Ivica. 

Majorca  the  largeft,  is  fituatc  between  2  and 
3  degrees  of  caftcrn  longitude,  and  between  39 
and  40  degrees  of  north  latitude;  the  chief  town 
A^ajorca. 

Afuwrca,  the  Icaft  of  thcfe  iflands,  is  fituatc  in 
40  degrees  north  latitude,  and  4  degrees  of  eaft 
longitude ;  the  chief  town  Port  rnahone,  lately 
taken  by  France  from  Great  Britain. 

Ivica,  is  fituate  in  39  degrees  of  noith  latitude, 
and  I  degree  of  eaft  longitude. - 

Portugal  is  fituate  between  37  and  42  degrees  of 
north  laritnde,.  and  between  7  and  10  degrees  of 
■well  lor»gitude,  being  upwards  of  300  miles  in 
length  from  north  to  foutli,  and  100  in  breadth^ 
bojnded.bv  the  Spatujh  province  of  Galicia  on  the 
north,  by  other  parts  of  Spa:n  on  ihc  eafl.  and  by 
the  Jtlantic  ocean  on  the  fouth  and  wef}. 

The  proi/inces  comprehei^ded  in  Portugal  are 
X.  Entre  and  Minha  Douro.  2.  Tralos  Monies  on 
the  north  3.  Beia,  and  4.  Ejlremadura  in  thu 
middle.   5   Jlentcio,  and  6.  y//^'7rwi  in  the  fouth, 

The  chief  towns  are  i.  Ujbon,  tht- capital  of 
the  province  of  Ejlremadura  and  of  the  whole- 
kingdom,  fituate  i^ear  the  mouth  of  the  river  Tagus; 
and  the  Atlantic  ocean,  in  38  degrees,  45  minutes 
norljh  latitude,  and  g  degrees  wefl  longitude.  It 
■was  almoft  totally  deftioyed  by  an  earthquake  on 
Nov.  I,  1755,  and  is  now  rebuilding  in  a  more 
iuajnificent  tatie. 

2-  St.  Vbi.!^  fituate  on  ab.iy  of  the  Atlantic  oci.7i-\. 

3.  Porto.,  iituate  nesj  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Dourc,  and  the  ocean,-  in  the  province  of  Eutre 
MinliO  and  Douro. 

The  chief  rivers  in  Portugal-,  are  the  Tagw.,  .the. 
Cuadiaaa,. the  AHhImi,  and  the  Douro. 

There  are  fcveral  forts  of  governments  in  Europe, 
t'/z.' Tiie  monarchical;  as  in  France,  Spain,  &c. 
The  deftotick, .  as  in  Turky,  and  Mufcovy ; .  the 
arijhcratical,  as  the  republick  of  Venice  in  Italy  ; 
the  djmocratical,,.  as  that  of  Sioitzsriancly  and  of 
the  united  provinces.  Otliers,  which  are  a  mixture 
of  moiuirchy;  ari/iocracy,  and  democracy ;  as,,  in 
England.,  Gcrnamy,  and  Poland. 

The  m'manhialjlatc,  is  that  governed  by  a  fole 
fovc'tign.. 


The  defpotick,  is  that  where  a  foverci^''n  has 
po'Acr  of  life  and  death  over  his  fubjedts,  without- 
any  other  formality  than  his  own  will. 

The  arijlocracy,  is  that  which  is  governed  by 
the  nobles. 

The  democratick,  is  that  where  the  governor? 
are  chofen  among  the  people. 

There  are  feveral  forts  of  religions  profeiTed  in 
Europe;  though  among  fo  many  there  are  but  five 
principal,  the  others  being  only,  branches,  or  fects' 
of  thofe  five. 

1.  The  moft  general  of  the  five  "is  the  Roman 
CATHot-icK  Religion  ;  which  is  the  reigning 
one  in  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  part  of  Ger- 
many, Poland,  &c.  and  in  all  places,  that  belong  in' 
America,  AJia  and  Africa,  to  the  crowns  of  France, 
Spain,  Portugal,  &c. 

2.  LuTHERANisM,  piofeffcd  in  G«-«.wj,  in 
Sweden,  Denmark,  &c. 

3.  CALviNiSiM,  profefled  in  Scotland,  in  fome 
parts  of  Germany,  Poland,  &c.  ' 

4.  The  ESTABLISHED  CHURCH  OF  EnGLAND^- 

profefled  in  moil:  of  the  Bkitis.h  dominions. 

5.  The  Greek  Religion,  profelied  in  the: 
dominions  of  the  grand  feignior,  in  Mufcovf,  and 
in  fome  parts  of  Poland. 

Europe  has  five  general  languages,  four  of- 
which  are  natural  to  its  inhabitants,  viz.  the  Latin,- 
Greek,  Teutmick,    Efclav:nic,    and   a  foreign  one 
which  they  h;ue  received  from  Afia,  and  which  is' 
the  Tartariun.\xn<l&t  which  is  comprifed.the  Turkijh 
tongue. 

Eur.pe  has  one  prince  ecclefiaftick,  three  em- 
peroi's,  ten   kings,  fix  republicks,   and  more  thani 
three   himdred  lovereign    princes;    whofe  ellates 
are  as  fiefs  or  tributaries  of  I'upertor  powers. 

The  ecclefiaftick  prince  is  the  pope,  who  flyle!- 
h.lrs\kKServus  Servorum  .Dei. 

The  three  emperors  are,  the  emperor  «" 
Germany,  called  empei'orof  the  holy  Roman  empire. 

The  EMPEROR  of  the  Turks,  who  calls  himfelt"* 
fultan  of  the   Ottomans,  or  grand  feignior  of  the 
Turks 

The  emperor  of  Mufcovy,  who  aflumes  the 
title,  of  emperor,  of  the  Two  i2//^ffi ;.  vulgarly' 
called  Czar  of  Mujcovy. 

The  ten  kings  are; . 

The  ynoji  c  hristian  king,  or  king  of  France^ 
who  notwithftanding  the  vaft  extent  of  his  domi- 
nions, compofed  of  feveral  fovereignties,  viz.  Bri=> 
tanny,  Normandy,  Burgundy..  Provence,  Languedoc,  ■ 
kc.  'takes  no  other  title  than  that  of  king  of" 
France  and  Navarre. 

The  catholick  king,  or  king  of  Spain. 

The  King  of  GiiEAT  Britain^  and  defendfr 
of  ^z  faith. 

The- 


GEOGRAPHY. 


4-73 


The  King  of  Portugal. 

The  King  of  Sweden. 

The  King  of  Denmark. 

The  King  of  Poland. 

The  King  of  PmJJia. 

The  King  of  Nnplc;  and  Sicily. 

And  the  King  of  Sardinia. 

The  fix  republicks,  are  i.  Venice.  2.  Genoa. 
3,  Lucca  in  Italy.  4.  Yhe  United  Provinces.  5.  The 
Switzers.  ■6.  The  Grifons,   in  Germany. 

'I  he  300  fubaltern  fovereign  Princes,  are  of 
two  forts,  viz.  Ecclefinjlicki  and  Laicks. 

Among  the  Ecclrjiaflicks  are  two  Grand  Alajiers. 

1.  The  Grand  Master  of  the  Knights  of 
Malta. 

2.  The  Grand  Master  of  the  Tcutonick 
■Order. 

Four  Archlnfiwps.,  and  the  throe  fiift  ElcSlors  of 
the  emphre. 

1.  The  Archbishop  and  Elector  oi Menfz. 

2.  The  Archbishop  and  Elector  of  Treves. 

3.  The  Archbishop  and  Ei  ec  1  oR  of  Cologn. 

4.  The  Archbishop  of  Saltzhourg. 
Tv/enty-two   Bifhrps,    who  are,     1.  Munflcr. 

2.  Paderborn.  3.  Liege.  4.  JForms.  5.  Spire. 
6.  Strajloi.rg.  7.  /?^/.  8.  iSys?/.  g.  C»/Vc.  10. 
Brifeen.  11.  Trente.  12.  Conjlance  i-j^.  Jugjbourg. 
1  ^.  Frijingue.  i^.Pa/piu.  \b.  Rati/bon.  Ij.Rich- 
jlott.  18.  JVurtzbourg.  ig.  Ed'nherg.  20.  Hidel- 
Jlnim.    21.   Ofnahrug.  22-   Luheck. 

A  Grand  Prior  of  Malta.,  who  calls  himfcif 
Grand  Prior  of  Germany. 

Several  Abbots,  that  of  Fuhle,  who  has  a 
greater  extent  of  lands  than  any  of  the  others. 

Several  Prevogties,  the  rnoft  confiderable  of 
which  is  that  of  Berclrtclfgaden. 

Among  the  £tf/t-;f  Sovereigns,  are  five  Elec- 
tors. 

The  Elector  and  Duke  of  Bavaria. 

The  Elector  and  Duke  of  Saxony. 

The  Elector  and  Marquis  of  Branden- 


I. 

2. 

3- 

lurg. 

4- 
5 


The  Elector  and  Count  Palatine. 
The  Elector  and  Duke  of  Hanover. 

An  Archduke  of  Auftria. 

A  Gteat  Duke  of  Tufcany. 

The  feveral  Dukes  are  thofe  of  Nnvhourg 
IVelmar,  Lunenbourg,  Brunjivick,  JFertemberg, 
Mecklenbourg,  Lawenbourg,  Holjlein,  &c.  and  all 
in  Germany. 

Thofe  of  Savoy,  Mantua,  Modena,  Parma,  and 
feveral  others  whofe  territories  are  of  a  lefler  extent, 
are  in  Italy. 

That  of  Bouillon  is  between  Franci  and  the 
Z.?w-  Countries. 

And  that  of  Courjand  in  Poland. 


Among  the  Marquifjcs,  the  moft  conriderah!<r 
are,  thofe  of  Baden,  and  Durlach,  of  Anfpach, 
and  of  Culmbach  in  Germany. 

And  feveral  in  Italy,  but  whofe  territories  are  of 
a  little  extetit. 

Several  Landgraves,  fome  of  whom  arc 
Princes,  viz,. 

The  Landgrave  of  Hejfe-Cajfel,  and  of  Hejp- 
Darwjiad. 

Several  Princes,  and  the  moll  confiderable  amon^ 
them  are, 

7  he  Prince  of  Anhalt  in  Germany. 

The  Princes  of  Monaco,  of  Solfarini,  and  of 
Cajlillione  in  Italy. 

Several  Counts  or  Earls,  among  whom  are  the 
Princes,  of  Najfau,  Furjianberg,  JVefl-Fyifelandy 
Hohenzo'.lern,  Amberg. 

Befidcs  whom  are. 

The  Cham  of  the  Little  Tartary, 

The  Vaivodes  of  Tranfilvania,  TValachia,  Mol- 
davia, and  of  Vkrania. 

And  the  republick  of  Ragusa.^ — This  repub- 
lick,  and  the  five  laft  Princes,  are  tributaries  of  the' 
Ottoman  empiie. 

From  Europe,  we  will  pafs  into  Afia,  which 
is  the  mod:  eaftern,  and  the  moft  extended  of  the 
parts,  the  antient  woild,  or  our  continent,  is  com- 
pofed  of;  chofeii  by  a  fpecial  favour,  by  the  author 
of  nature,  for  the  creation  of  the  firfi:  m  in.  It 
has  been  the  laboratory  (if  I  may  ufe  that  ex- 
preflion)  where  he  has  formed  all  his  other  works: 
It  has  the  advantage  of  having  ferved  as  a  facred 
temple,  where  the  almighty  has  pronounced  his 
oracLs:  It  has  furniflied  the  matter  on  which  he 
himfelf  printed  the  facred  charadlers  of  his  divine 
commandments,  to  give  them  to  Mcfes  :  And  it 
had  the  glory  to  witnefs  the  birth  of  the  faviour 
of  the  world  ;  to  have  pofTefTed  his  divine  prefence 
during  the  whole  courfe  of  his  mortal  life  ;  having 
been  as  a  new  temple,  where  he  has  accomplifhed 
the  myfteries  of  our  redemption, 

I  will  fay  more,  that  it  is  from  Ajia  all  the  colo- 
nies which  have  peopled  the  other  parts  of  the 
world  have  been  taken;  that  it  has  been  the  feat  of 
the  moft  antient  and  mofl:  powerful  monarchies  of 
the  earth  :  For  after  the  deluge,  it  (kw  the  begin- 
ning of  the  empire  of  the 'y^rwrj-  by  Belus,  or 
Ninus,  which  continued  as  far  as  Sardanapalus :  It 
palled  afterwards  to  the  Mcdes  by  Arbaces,  as  far 
as  Ajlyages  ;  to  the  Persians  by  Cyrus,  as  far  as 
Darius  ;  and  to  the  Greeks  by  Alexander  the  Great. 
The  Parthians  eftabliftied  there  likewife  a  very 
flourifhing  empire,  which  ended  under  Alexander 
Stverus,  and  pafled  to  the  Perp.ans,  till  it  was 
fwallowed  up  by  the  Turks  and  Saracens. 

4  D  2  Chrijli- 


574  ^^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^;?(^  Sciences. 


Chrijiianhy,  Mahovietanlfm^  and  Paganlfm,  are 
the  three  reigning  religions  in  yl.a. — Chrijli- 
anity,  is  divided  into  eleven  kSiS,-'  viz  i.  Of 
the  Greeks;  2.  Of  the  Rujimis ;  3.  Of  the 
Georgians;  4.  Of  the  Syrians;  5.  Of  the  JacQ-' 
iites;  6.  Of  the  Jrmcniaus ;  7.  Of  the  Ne/ic- 
rians;  8.  Of  the  Cophts,  or  Egypfians ;  9.  Of 
the  JhyJ[:nes,  or  Abyffmians;  10.  Of  the  Maroniies; 
and  II.  Of  St.  Tiicmas :  Thefe  two  laft  acknow- 
ledge, at  prefent,  the  Roman  churcli. — The  Crrf^^ 
is  the  reiii^ion  of  the  natives  of  part  of  Turky  in 
Afia^  whofe  patriarch  is  that  of  Conjlantinople. — 
The  Knfjian  is  profefTed  In  the  dependencies  of 
that  empire,  whofe  patriarch  refidcs  at  Mofcow. — 
The  Georgian  is  the  religion  of  the  people  of 
MingreUii,  who  have  their  own  patriarch. — The 
Syrian,  extends  in  Syria,  or  Serijiati,  which  is  a 
province  of  Turky  in  Ajia,  whofe  patriarch  is  that 
of  Antiocb,  refiding  at  Damajais. — That  of  the 
''Jacobites  is  in  the  Diarbeck,  or  Mefopotamia,  and 
in  the  Holy  Land,  under  two  patriarchs  ;  one  re- 
fiding ztCaracmid,  who  ftiles  himfelf  patriarch  of 
Antioch  \  and  the  other  at  JerufaUm,  for  the  Holy 
Land. — That  of  the  Armenians,  is  profefled  in 
both  Armeniiis,  under  two  patriarchs,  one  for  the 
great,  and  the  other  for  the  little  Armenia. — That 
of  the  Cophts,  is  in  Egypt,  whofe  patriarch  is  that 
of  Alexandria,  refiding  at  Cairo. — That  of  the 
Jbyjftnes,  is  that  of  the  dependencies  of  the  empire 
of  the  fame  name. — That  of  the  Ne/iorians, 
extends  in  the  Erzerum,  or  AJfyria,  in  the  Diar- 
ieck,  the  Gerack,  or  antient  Ckialdaa,  and  in  ibme 
provinces  of  Ps'fia,  under  the  patriarch  of  Mojul, 
which  is  the  antient  Niniveh ;  this  feft  was  once 
the  snoft  extended.  Among  all  thefe  fchifmatJcal 
fcfts,  there  are  bat  the  Ritjjian,  AhyJJinian,  and 
Georgian,  which  are  profefTed  by  fovereign  princes; 
the  others  being  mofl:  of  them  fubjeft  to  the  Ala- 
hs:netai2  princes,  in  whofe  dominions  they  are 
profefTed. 

The  Mahofnetanifm  in  Afta,  is  alnioft  the  fole 
religion  of  Arabia;  and  is  the  reigning  one  of 
"turky  in  Afsa,  of  Perf.a,  of  the  Mogul,  of  the 
Y/efterji  jiarts  of  i]\e  great  Tartary,  of  the  northern 
part  of  the  peninfula  of  'India.,  this  fide  the  liver 
Ganges,  tf  the  MaUiivia  Ijlands,  and  of  moft  of 
the  Ijhs  of  Sunda,  and  of  the  Mohucd's, 

Among  the  Pagan  k&s,  that  of  the  Parfa; 
was  antieiitly  the  reigning  religion  of  Perfia  ;  but 
cverfiuce  Mahonutanij'm  has  gained  the  alcendancy,- 
there  are  but  few  of  the  natives  who  profeis  it, 
fbme  of  v/hom  have  fettled  on  the  coaits  of  the 
Mogul,,  near  Perfia,  and  in  fome  places  of  the 
peninfula  of  India,  this  fide  the  river  Ganges. — 
The  rtlivion  of  the  Br.ichmans,  was  once  the  only 
one  of  all  Lido/ian,  and  cf  the  peninfula,  this  fide 


the  river  Ganges ;  and  fince  Mahometanifn  hat 
been  eflabliflied  in  thole  countries,  it  is  yet  the 
moft  followed  religion,  and  molT  general  of  the  na- 
tives of  the  dominions  of  the  Mogul,  and  of  the 
Mahometan  dates  of  the  peninfula  lA  India,  this  fide 
the  Ganges ;  is  the  reigning  one  in  other  domini- 
ons of  the  fame  peninfula,  and  tliofe  of  the  Raya; 
of  Indcflan,  who  have  maintained  themfelves 
agaiiift  the  Mogul. — The  religion  of  Jukaio,  is  the 
particular  religion  of  men  of  letters  in  China,  and 
that  of  the  court. — The  religion  of  the  Laura,  is 
alfo  profefled  no  where  but  in  China. — That  of  the 
Lamas,  which  has  fome  remains  of  chriftianity,  is 
tlie  religion  of  all  the  regions  of  Tartary,  near 
China,  as  of  the  Ti.nbet,  of  Tangu,  Kin,  and  has 
been  introduced  in  China  by  the  conqucft  the 
Tartars  have  made  of  that  country. — "judaifm  is 
alfo  profefTed  throughout  all  Afia,  but  is  fubjed  ta 
the  three  others  above  metioncd. 

Asia  has  fix  general  languages,  zndfve  partieu- 
lar  ones. 

Among  the  general  languages^  three  are  natural 
to  it,  vsz.  the  Arabic,  Tartarian,  and  Chinefe;   and- 
three  foreign,  which  it  borrows  from  Europe,  viz^ 
the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Teutonic. 

The  five  particular  languages  are  the  fapanefe,- 
the  Armcniar.,  the  Guzarate,  Malabar,  and  Ma~ 
!aya7i.— The  Japanefc  is  the  only  one  of  the  inha- 
bitants of  Japan,  without  any  mixture  of  foreign 
languages. —  The  Armoiian  is  veiy  much  in  ufe 
for  the  commerce  in  Turky,  and  Perfia. — The 
Guzarate.,  Malabar,  2.ni.  Malayan,  have  their  courfc 
on  the  coafis  of  India,  and  in  the  neighbouring 
iflands  ;  particularly  the  Malayan,  which  is  efteemed; 
the  moft  beautiful  and  elegant  of  the   Eqjl-Ind'ia. 

Afsa  is  fituate  between  the  equator  and  72  de- 
grees north  latitude,  and  between  25  and  148  de- 
grees of  eaft  longitude,  being  4800  miles  in  length 
from  eaft  to-  weft,-  and  4300  in  breadth,  from 
north  to  fouth,  comprehending,. 

I.  The  empire  of  CZ/^Zi?,  znd  CMnefian  Tartary, 
Tibet,  and  independent  Tartary,  with  Japan  and 
the  other  oriental  iflands  in  the  eaft.  2.  India, 
JJfbeck  Tartary,  Calmuci  Tartary,  and  Siberia  in' 
the  middle.  3  The  kingdom  of  Perfia,  Arabia.,. 
A/lracan,  Circalftan  Tartary,  and  Turky  in  Afta  on 
the  weft;  £nd  is  bounded  by  the  frozen  ocean  on 
the  north,  by  the  pacific  ocean  on  the  eaft,  by  the 
Indian.  Ocean  on  the  fouth,  by  the  Red  fea,  which 
feparates  it  from  Africa,  on  the  fouth-weft,  and  by 
Europe  on  the  north-weft, 

China,  comprehending  Chine/tan  Tartary,  is  fitu- 
ate  between  95  and  13^  degrees   of  eaftern  longi- 
tude, and  betwein  Zi  and  25  degrees  north  lati- 
1  tuJej 


GEOGRAPHY, 


^1^ 


tude,  being  about  2000  miles  in  length  from  north  i 
to  fouth,  and  1000  miles  in  breadth,  from  eafl:  to 
weft  ;  bounded  by  Rtiffim  Tartary  on   the  north,  j 
by  the  pacific  ocean  oa  the  eaft  and  ibuth,  and  by 
Tonqu'm  Tibct^  and  the  territories  of  RuJJia  on  the 
weft. 

The  chief  towns  in  China  are, 

1 .  Pekhip,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Peking, 
and  of  the  whole  empire 

2.  Nmikin^.,  ;he  capital  of  the  province  of  iV^«- 
kingy  fituare  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Kiam  and 
the  Kcng  fea. 

3.  Canton.,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Canton, 
fituate  on  the  river  To. 

The  chief  rivers  are  the  Crocceus  or  Hocmbn,  and 
the  Kiam  ;  and  there  are  two  confiderable  iflands 
on  the  coaft  oi  China,  fuhjeft  to  that  empire,  vi%. 
Hainan,  in  the  fouth  of  China,  and  Formcfa,  on 
the  fouth-weft  of  China. 

Tibet  and  independent  Tartary  lie  between  30 
and  35  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  betwe^;n  75 
and  85  degrees  of  eaftern  longitude,  having  Siberia 
on  the  north,  China  On-  the  eaft.  India  on  the 
fouth,  and  the  IJpeck  and  Calmuch  Tartan.,  and 
another  part  of  Siberia  on  the  weft. 

The  iflands  of  Japan  are  fituatcd  between  30 
and  40  degrees  north  latitude,  and  between  130 
and  140  degrees  of  eaft  longitude,  of  which  there 
are  great  numbers,  but  the  three  chief  are  thofe  of 
1.  Japan  Proper  or  I\'iphsn.  1.  Sacock,  and  3. 
Ton/a. 

1.  'Japan  Proper,  the  moft  northerly  of  thefe 
iflands,  is  about  600  miles  in  length  from  irorth  to 
fouth,  and  from  100  to  150  miles  broad. 

2.  Saeock,  is  about  500  miles  in  circumference. 

3.  Torij'A,  is  4C0  miles  in  circumference. 

The  chief  towns  are,  i.  Jeddo  or  Yedo,  the  ca- 
pital of  the  empire, 

2.  Saceai,  Bongo,  and  Nangafaque. 

The  other  iflawds  comprehended  under  the  name 
cf  the  oriental  iilands,  are  all  the  iflands  fouth  i 
of  Chin  I,  and  the  farther  India  may  properly  be  | 
called  the  oriental  ifiand?,  particularly,  i.  The  ! 
Philippine  iflands.  2.  Gilolo  with  the  Moluccas  or 
clove  iflands.  3.  Ceram  with  Amhoyna,  Banda,. 
and  the  reft  of  the  nutmeg  iflarids.  4.  Celebes  or  \ 
Maeajfnr.  5.  Borneo.  6.  Java,  with  the  iflands  | 
of  BaHy  and  Florin,  and  the  reft  of  the  iflands  eaft  i 
of  Java,     Andy.  The  ifland  of  5/<«/^//r^.  ] 

The  PI)ilHpine  iflands  are  very  liumerous,  and 
lie  between  5  and  19  degrees  north  latitude,  and 
between  i  14  and  1  27  degrees  of  eaft  longitude, 
whereof  the  iflands  of  Manilla  or  Luconia,  and 
Alindunao  are  the  chief 

I.  That  of  Manilla QX  Luconia  is  400  miles  long 
and  206  broad.     '1  he  chief  town  Manilla, 


The  ifland  ol  Mindanao,  is  fituate  between  5  and 
10  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  between  120  and 
126  degrees  of  eaft  longitude.  The  chief  town 
Mindaniio. 

2.  Gilolo  with  the  Molucca  or  clove  iflands,  are 
fituate  between  i  degree  of  fouth  latitude,  and  2' 
degrees  north  latitude.  The  chief  of  the  clove 
iflands  is  Ternate,  fituate  in  1  degree  15  minutes 
north  latitude,  and  12  degrees  of  eaft  longitude^ 
fcarce  30  miles  in  circumference.  This  with  the 
reft  of  the  clove  iflands  was  ufurped  by  the  Dutch 
in  the  reign  of  king  James  I.  and  the  cloves  are 
now  eradicated  and  planted  only  in  the  ifland  of 
Arnboyna,  which  is  fituate  in  3  degrees  40  minutes 
fouth  latitude,  and  126  degrees  of  eall  longitude. 
It  was  here  that  the  Dutch  tortured  and  mafl".icred 
feveral  of  the  Englijh  faflors  and  merchants,  and 
then  drove  the  reft  out  of  the  clove  iflands. 

3.  Ceram  and  the  iflands  of  Banda,  which  only 
produce  nutmegs,  are  fituate  between  3  and  4  de- 
grees of  fouth  latitude,  and  between  125  and  129 
degrees  of  eaft  longitude.  Here  the  Dutch  de- 
ftroyed  both  the  Englijh  and  the  natives  in  the  reign 
of  king  James  I.  ufurped  the  dominion  of  thefe 
iflands  alfo,  and  have  kept  poflefiion  of  them  ever 
fnice. 

4  The  ifland  of  Cekhes  or  Macajfar,  is  fituate 
between  2  degrees  north:  and  6  degrees  fouth  lati- 
tude, and  between  116  and  124  degrees  of  eaft: 
longitude,  being  500  miles  long,  and  200  broad. 
The  chief  town  MaeaJJar, 

5.  Borneo,  the  largeft  ifland  in  the  known  world, 
fituate  between  7  degrees  30  minutes  north  latitude, 
and  4  degrees  of  fouth  latitude,  and  between  107 
and  117  degrees  of  eaftern  longitude.  It  is  fruitful 
in  the  btft  pepper.     The  chief  town  Borneo. 

6.  The  ifland  of  %'y'7)  fituate  between  5  and  8 
degrees  of  fouth  latitude,  and  between  102  awd- 
113  degrees  of  eaft  longitude.  The  capital  city 
Batavia.  The  capital  of  all  the  Dutch  fettlements 
in  j^ia,  and  the  eaft  coaft  of  /Africa. 

7.  The  ifland  of  Sumatra,  fituate  between  5 
degrees  fouth,  and  5  degrees  north  latitude,  and 
between  91  and  105  degrees  of  eaft  longitude. 
The  capital' city  Acben,  fituate  at  the  north  end 
of  the  ifland. 

The  two  laft  are  ufually  called  the  Sunda  iflands,. 
from  the  ftraights  of  .S7/?7i7rf,which  lie  near  them  be- 
tween joVii  and  Sumatra. 

India  is  ufually  divided  into  two  parts,  the  onn 
beyond  the  river  Ga>ige.,  contiguous  to  China,  and 
the  other  on  this  fide  the   Ganges,  next  to  Perjia, 

India  beyond  the  Ganges  compreliends,  i.  Ton- 
quuu  1.  Cochin  China.  3,  Laos  4.  Cumbodia-,- 
5.  Simn  and  Malacca,    6.  PegV:,  Ava,  and  Achain. 

\.  Ton^ 


57^ 


Hie  Univerfal  Hiftory 


I.  Tonqnin  is  fituate  between  17  and  26  degrees 
of  north  latitude,  and  between  lor  and  108  degrees 
of  eafl  longitude,  bounded  by  China  on  the  north 
and  cafl-,  by  Cochin  China  on  the  fouth,  and  by  the 
kingdom  of  Laoi  on  the  weft.  The  capital  city 
Cachao  or  Kea'w. 

1.  Cochin  China,  fituate  between  104.  and  109 
degrees  of  eaft  longitude,  and  between  10  and  17 
degrees  of  north  latitude,  bounded  by  Tmqu'in  on 
the  north,  by  the  Indian  ocean  on  the  eaft  and  foyth, 
and  by  Cambodia  on  the  weft. 

3.  Laos  is  bounded  by  China  on  the  north,  by 
Tonqiiln  on  the  eaft,  by  Slam  and  Cambodia  on  the 
I'outh,  and  by  Ava  and  Pi'gu  on  the  weft. 

4  Cambodia,  fituate  between  8  and  ij  degrees 
of  north  latitude,  bounded  by  Lacs  on  the  north, 
by  Cpchin  China  on  the  eaft,  by  the  Indian  ocean 
on  the  fouth,  and  by  the  bay  of  Slam,  on  the  weft. 
The  chief  town  Cambodia. 

•  5.  Slam  including  Malacca,  is  fituate  between 
the  equator  and  18  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and 
between  92  and  102  degrees  of  eaft  longitiide.  Ihe 
chief  towns  Siam  and  Malacca. 

Malacca,  the  capital  of  the  territory  o^ Malacca, 
is  fituate  on  the  ftraight  between  Malacca  and  Suma- 
tra, to  which  it  gives  name,  and  with  the  adjacent 
country  is  fubjeil  to  the  D;/^.'>,  who  being  mafters 
of  this  ftraight,  and  that  of  5a«^i2,  have  it  in  their 
power  to  exclude  all  nations  from  trading  to  China 
and  the  oriental  iflands  on  the  eaft. 

6.  Pegu.,  including  Ava  and  Acham.  T  hefe  coun- 
tries are  fituate  on  the  eaft  fide  of  the  bay  oi  bengal, 
between  15  and  25  degrees  of  north  latitude, 
and  between  91  and  100  degrees  of  eaftern  longi- 
tude.    The  capital  city  is  Pegu. 

Befides  the  iHands  already  mentioned,  are  thofe 
of  the  Ladroncs,  fituate  in  the  pacific  ocean,  in 
140  degrees  of  ealt  longitude,  and  between  12  and 
28  degrees  of  north  latitude.  Alfo  the  Andaman 
and  Nlcobar  iflands,  near  the  coaft  of  Siam,  on 
the  eaft  fide  of  the  bay  of  Bengal. 

/W/(?onthisfide  the  Ganges,  or  the  hither /W/V?,  moft 
properly  called  India,  or  Indoflan,  is  fituate  between  7 
and  40  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  between  66  and 
92  degrees  of  eaft  longitude,  being  ajjout  2000  miles 
in  length  from  north  to  fouth,  and  from  300  to  I  i;oo 
in  breadth  from  eaft  to  weft,  bounded  by  Vfbeck 
'Tartayy  and  Tibet  on  the  north,  by  another  part  of 
Tibet,  the  kingdoms  of  Acham,  Ava,  and  Pegu  on 
the  eaft,  by  the  bay  of  Bengal,  and  the  Indian  ocean 
on  the  fouth,  and  by  the  fame  ocean  and  the  king- 
dom oiPerfia  on  the  weft.  1  he  chief  towns  Agra, 
Delly,  Lahor,  and  Sttrat. 

The  chief  rivers  are  thofe  of  Ganges,  Indus,  and 
Aitock. 

The  chief  mountains   arc    thofe  of  Balcgate, 


of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

1  which  run  through  the  middle  of  India  from  north 
to  fouth,  and  thofe  which  divide  India  from  Tartary 
called  Bplch  and  Bember,  faid  to  be  branches  of 
Mount  Cajicafus. 

UJleck  Tartary,  and  Alogul  or  Mogul  Tartary  arc 
the  fame  ;  this  being  the  country  of  Tamerlane,  the 
firft  great  Mogul,  who  was  not  only  fovercitrn  of 
thefe  countries,  but  of  Perfia  and  India,  and  from 
whom  the  Moguls  of  India  are  defcended. 

The  prefent  country  denominated  Ufieck  Tar- 
tary js  fituate  between  35  and  45  degrees  of  north 
latitude,  and  between  64  and  77  degrees  of  eaft 
longitude,  having  the  Calmuck  Tartars  on  ihe  north, 
independent  Tartary  on  the  eaft,  India  and  Perjia 
on  the  fouth,  and  a  defert  which  lies  between  this 
country  and  the  Cofpian  fea  on  the  v.'eft. 

Their  chief  towns  are  Bochara  and  Samarcand. 

The  Calmuck  Tartars  lie  north  of  Ufieck  Tartar^, 
and  the  Cafpian  fea,  and  have  no  towns  or  fettled 
habitation,  but  have  lately  put  ihemfelves  uridcr 
the  proteclion  of  Rujfta,  and  therefore  may  now 
well  be  efteemcd  a  part  oi  Siberia. 

Siberia,  if  we  include  Calmuck  Tartary,  is  fitu- 
ate between  44  and  72  dejrees  nortli  latitude,  and 
between  60  and  100  degrees  of  eaft  longitude, 
bounded  by  the  frozen  ocean  on  the  north,  by  the 
pacific  ocean,  China,  and  independent  Tjrtary  on 
the  eaft,  by  another  part  of  independent  Tartary  and 
Ufieck  Tartary  on  the  fouth,  and  European  Rujfia, 
and  Ajlracan  on  the  weft.  The  chief  town  Toboljli. 

Perfia  is  fituate  between  25  and  45  degrees  of 
north  latitude,  and  between  45  and  67  degrees  of 
eaft  longitude,  being  1200  miles  long,  and  almoft 
as  many  broad,  bounded  by  Circajjian  Tartary,  the 
Cafpian  fea  and  the  river  Oxus,  which  feparates 
it  troni  VJbcck  Tartary  on  the  north  ;  by  India  on 
the  eaft,  by  the  Indian  ocean,  the  gulphs  of  Ormus 
and  Boffora  on  the  fouth,  and  by  the  Turkijh  em- 
pire on  the  weft.  The  chief  towns  are,  Ifpahan, 
Schiras,  Gombron,  Alefchcd,  Aflerabat,  and  Tauris. 

The  chief  rivers  in  Ferfa,  are  the  Kur  or  Cyrus, 
Arras  or  Araxe:,  Oxus,  and  Herat. 

(he  chief  mountains,  Caucafus ;  of  which  Ar- 
rarat  is  a  part,  iituate  between  the  Euxine  and 
Peifian  feas  ;  and  mount  Taurus,  which  runs  crofs 
Perfa  from  Turky  to  India  ;  the  branches  whereof 
very  muchincumber  this  kingdom,  itbeingoneofthe 
mountainous  countries  in  Afa,  and  has  at  the  fame 
time  fcarce  one  navigable  river. 

Arabia  is  fituate  between  II  and  30  degrees  of 
north  latitude,  and  between  35  and  60  degrees  of 
eaft  longitude,  being  upwards  of  1200  miles  in 
length  and  900  in  breadth,  bounded  by  Turky  on 
the  north,  the  kingdom  and  gulph  of  Perfia  or 
Boffora  on  the  eaft,  the  Indian  ocean  on  the  fouth, 

and 


GEOGRAPHY. 


»nd  the  Red-fea  which  feparates  it  fionl  Africa  on 
the  weft:  tin;  north-weft  part  of  itj  between  Egypt 
and  Palejilney  is  denominated  Arabia  Pctraa,  the 
middle  of  it  Arabia  Dcferta,  and  the  fouth  Arabia 
Felix;  but  the  limits  of  any  of  them  have  never 
been  exaftly  defcribed 

The  chief  towns  &re  Medina,  Mecca,  Mocho, 
Aden,  Mufcat,  and  BoJJira. 

Medina  is  remarkable  for  Mahontefs  tomb, 
fituate  in  24  degrees. 

Mecca  is  celebrated  for  the  Kaaba'Qr  IIoly-Hoiifc 
to  which  the  Mahometan  mtioits  go  in  pilgrimaoe, 
and  for  being  the  place  of  AJahomet's  iianvity. 

There  are  no  navigable  rivers  in  Arabia  but  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris,  which  unite  their  frreams  m 
the  province  of  Iraca  Arabia,  and  fall  into  the 
gulph  of  Pcrfia,  or  Boffiira,  a  little  below  the  City 
of  Bojjhra  in  30  degrees  north  latitude. 

There  are  feveral  mountains,  among  which  thofe 
of  Mount  Sinai  and  Mount  Horeb  in  Arabia  Petreea, 
are  the  moft  remarkabk. 

Turkey  in  /ifia  is  fituate  between  30  and  44  de- 
grees of  north  latitude,  and  between  26  and  45 
degrees  of  eaft  longitude,  comprehending  the  coun- 
ties of  I.  DiarbecK,  the  ancient  Mefopotarnia. 
1.  Curdrjian,  part  of  the  ancient  Ajjyria.  3  Tur- 
comania,  the  ancient  Arjnetiia.  4.  Part  of  Georgia, 
Mengrelia,  and  Circajfia.  5.  Syria  and  Palejiine; 
and  6.  Natolia  or  /Ifta  AJinor. 

The  chief  towns  of  Turkey  in  A'ia  are, 

1.  Erzerwn,  the  cajjital  of  the  province  of  Ti/r- 
comania  or  Armenia. 

2.  DiarbiC,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  £>/flr- 
hec  or  Mefopotarnia. 

7^.  Aleppo,  the  capital  of  the  Reglerbelic  of 
Aleppo. 

4.  Jerufulim,  the  capita!  of  Palefline. 

5.  Damafcus  ot  Scham,  the  capital  oi  Syria. 

6.  Smyrna,  a  port  town  in  the  leffer  A/ia,  fitu- 
ate on  a  bay  of  the  Archipelago. 

■7.  Eiirja  or  Pufa,  the  capital  of  5;'//w;w. 

8.  Tofrt.',  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Amafta  in 
the  lefler  Afii^. 

9.  Trepifond  or  Trapefond,  a  port  town  of  Amafa 
in  the  Idler  -'^w,  fituate  in  the  Euxine  fea. 

The  ehkf  rivers  and  mountains  of  Twkey  in 
yf/;i7  are  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 

The  mountains  are  Taiiri!S.Anti-taurzts,Caucafus, 
Arrctrat,  Libanus,  mount  '£ion,  the  mountains 
about  Je'ufalem,.  and  mouint  Olympus  m  B-ithinia. 

The  kingdom  oiAflracan  is  part  of  th€  Ruffian 
ifominio-ns  in  yS^I^'i  and  fituate  on  the  north  fids  oi 
the  Cojpian  fea,  bttv.'een  45  and  50  degrees  of 
north  latitude,  and  between  51  and'5;j  .degrees  of 
eaft  longitude. 

Ajfir-acan  city»  the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  is  fuu- 


577 


ate  on  the  river  JVolga,  in  47  degrees  north  lati- 
tude, and  52  degrees  of  eaft  longitude. 

Afr  r  c  A.  This  part  of  the  antient  world  is  the 
moft  fouthern,  and  the  greateft  peninfula  of  thi 
univerfe.  Jofephus  aflijres  us,  that  the  word  Africa 
comes  from  Afer,   Abraham^  grandfon. 

It  extends  from  35  degrees  of  northern  latitude, 
to  35  of  fouthern  latitude ;  and  from  3  degrees  of 
longitude,  to  83  ;  fo  that  it  may  have  i6o(J 
leagues  in  length,  at  the  altitude  of  the  river  Niger ^ 
about  half  under  the  equator,  and  always  diminifh- 
ing  as  one  goes  fouth  ward  :  it  has  very  near  1400 
leagues  in  breadth,  towards  the  lake  Zaire,  and 
about  600  in  Guinea  ;  therefore  it  is  believed  to  have 
more  than  5000  leagues  of  coafts. 

It  confines  northward  with  the  Mediterranean  ; 
eaftward  with  the  ifthmus  of  S'uas,  the  Red  Sea, 
and  the  eaftern  ocean  ;  fouthward  with  the  fea  of 
Ethiopia  ;  and  weftward  with  the  Atlantick. 

Its  fituation  fhews  us,  that  the  equator  paflcs 
juftly  in  the  middle,  and  that  two  thirds  thereof  arc 
in  the  torrid  zone,  which  residers  the  climate  ex-> 
tremely  hst :  add  to- this,  that  the  middle  of  the 
country  L  full  of  ftiining  fand,  which  rcfletfls  the 
rai'softhe  fun  with  a  burning  and  infupportable 
heat.  All  this  fandy  land  is  unculivated,  very 
little  inhabited,  and  abounds  with  ferocious  beafts : 
anfiong  which  are  found  the  lion,  the  leopard,  the 
jjanther,  the  elephant,  the  monkey,  the  wild  horfe 
and  als,  the  fea-ox  and  horfe,  the  camel,  ^c.  the 
Iheep,  oxen,  is'c.  are  very  good,  and  extraordinary 
large  and  fat.  The  foil  produces  delicious  fruit, 
and  medicinal  plants  :  it  has  in  feveral  places  mines 
of  gold  and  filver,.  and  feme  of  fait. 

Its  moft  confiderable  rivers  are  the  Nile  and  the 
Niger ;  the  tirft  fprings  from '  the  lake  Zaire,  cr 
from  a  fmall  river  which  enters  into  it  in  Abyffinic% 
which  it  traverfes  from  fouth  to  north  by  enft;  as  it 
does  N-ubia  and  Egypt  from  fouth  to  north  It 
difcmbogues  into  the  Mediterranean  through  feve- 
ral mouths,  after  it  has  divided  itfelf  into  feveral 
branches,  which  form  a  triangle,  called  the  Delta 
oi  Egypt,  becaufe  it  has  very  near  the  form  of  that 
Greek  letter.  The  Niger  takes  its  fource  from  a 
lake  of  the  fame  name  in  Ahyjfinia,  runs  from  fouth 
to  north  between  that  empire  and  the  kingdom  of 
Congo ;  then  entering  the  kingdom  of  Borno,  lofcs 
it/eit  in  the  mountains;  then  appeairs  again  near  the 
lake  Borno,  thro'  which  it  paffes,  and  traverfes  after- 
Wards  all  Nigritiai'rom  eaft  to  weft,  form  ing  the  ifland 
which  the  Arabs  call  Nub,  between  Gangara  and 
Zanfara,  and  the  kke  Gitareh,  in  the  kingdom  of  the 
Agades.  then,  before  it  difemboguesinto  the  oceanj 
it  dix-iJes  itfelf  into  feveral  branches,  the  moft  confi- 
derable  whereof  are  Rio  Grande  fouthward,  Gamhie: 
in  tlie  middle,  and  Senegal  northward:  the  moft 

fouthern 


578  TJje  Univerfal  Hlftory  of  Arts  ^;?^  Sciences. 


fouthern  point  of  the  ifland,  formed  by  thefe  two 
laft,  is  what  we  call  the  Cape  Verd. 

Africa  may  be  divided  into  eight  principal 
parts,  which  are  Egypt,  Barbary\  the  Bildulgerld, 
'Z.oaray  or  the  Defart,  Nigritia,  Guinea,  Ethiopia, 
and  Nuhia  ;  to  which  may  be  added,  for  a  nin'.h 
part,  the  ifles  depending  thereon. 

The  Africans  were  always  idolaters,  and  adored 
the  flars,  the  fire,  f5V.  The  queen  of  Sbeha,  who 
yifitcd  Sohmon,  in(tru(fted  them  in  the  Jewifli  reli- 
gion ;  and  they  received  afterward  the  light  of  the 
gofpe!  from  the  eunuch  of  queen  Candace,  who  was 
baptized  by  the  apoflie  St.  Philip.  At  prefent  there 
are  found  in  it  Mahometans,  Idolaters,  Caftes, 
"Jew!,  and  three  forts  of  Chrlftians,  vi%.  the  Aby- 
jftnlam  of  the  Greek  Church  ;  the  fubjefts  of  the 
kings  of  Spain  and  Portugcd,  who  are  of  the  Roman 
church  ;  and  the  fubjects  of  Great-Britain,  hie 
who  are  of  the  reformed  church. 

Egypt.  This  kingdom  extends  from  60  degrees 
of  longitude  to  67,  and  from  the  22  of  latitude  to 
31,  30  min.  (b  that  it  may  have  near  100  leagues 
of  extent  from  eaft  to  weft,  and  180  from  fouth  to 
north. 

It  confines  eaftward  with  the  Red  Sea,  and  the 
ifthmus  of  5z<^x,north\vard  with  the  Mediterranean ; 
weftward  with  Barhary  and  the  defart  of  Bare-  ; 
and  fouthward  with  Nubia  and  the  Abyffnians. 

The  climate  of  Egypt  is  unwholfome,  becaufe  of 
the  exceflive  heats,  and  the  waters  of  the  Niie\  for 
the  water  which  remains  on  the  earth  after  the 
overflowing  of  that  river,  generates  a  prodigious 
quantity  of  infects  of  different  fpecies,  which  infe£l 
the  air. 

The  ifthmus  of  Suas,  which  parts  the  Red  Sen 
from  the  Mediterranean,  is  30  or  ^.5  leagues  broad. 
Several  kings  of  Egypt  have  attempted  in  \ain  to 
cut  it,  to  join  the  two  lesa  together. 

Four  leagues  off  Cairo,  are  feen  the  three  fa- 
mous pyramids,  which  have  paffed  for  one  of  the 
feven  wonders  of  the  world  :  the  greateft  of  thefe 
pyramids  has  86  fathoms,  4  feet  in  length  ;  each 
iide  of  its  ba!l^  has  1 13  fathoms,  4  feet  ;  and  each 
face  of  its  psdeftal  is  270  fathoms,  5  feet  long. 

Egypt  is  divided  into  higher,  m'ddie,  and  lower, 
and  more  particularly  into  twelve  Cailiwicks  or 
prefe£lures. which  are  found  fituated  in  the  following 
manner. — Firft,  between  the  Nile  and  fh.^  Red  Sea,. 
are  inclofed  the  government  of  Cairo,  and  the  Caili- 
wicks of  Cojftr  and  Cherjicffe  ,  the  country  called 
Saide  extends  fouthward,  and  contains  weft/vard 
t\it  Calltwick  of  Girgi-c,  and  eaftv/ard  that  of  M'nio, 
thofe  of  Monfelont,  Benefuef,  Fium,  and  Geza, 
which  are  alfo  weftward  of  it.  The  government 
of  Alexandria,  the  Cul/iwicis,   of  Calliccnbicij,  ofi 


Menoufts,  and  of  Garbia,  are  on  the  JIAediterra- 
nean,  taking  up  the  whole  extent  of  the  Delta : 
laftly.,  that  of  Manfoura  is  on  the  ifthmus  of 
Suiss. 

The  city  of  Alexandria  was  the  antient  capital 
of  Egypt ;  but  Cairo  poffeffes  at  prefent  that  advan- 
tage. I  his  city  is  fituated  on  the  border  of  the 
Nile,  over-againft  the  ruins  of  the  antient  Mem- 
phis. 

Barbary.  It  extends  along  the  Mediterranean, 
from  9  degrees  30  minutes  of  longitude,  to  60  j 
and  from  27  of  latitude,  to  the  35,  30  minutes 
fo  that  it  may  have  very  near  900  leagues  in  lengtli, 
and  only  80  in  its  greateft  breadth. 

It  confines  eaftward  v.-ith  Egypt,  northward  vvith 
the  Miditerranean,  weftward  with  the  Atlantick 
ocean,  and  fouthward  with  the  Bileduhcrid. 

The  climate  is  temperate  enough  :  the  foil  pro- 
duces cotton,  maiz,  and  excellent  fruit.  It  feeds 
be.autiful  horR-s  and  cattle,  who.'e  leather  is  much 
efteemed  ;  and  a  great  quantity  of  coral  is  fiflied 
Gil  the  coafls. 

It  is  divided  at  prefent  into  fix  kingdoms,  called 
of  Barca,  of 'Tripoli,  of  Tunis,  of  Aigier,  of  Fez, 
and  of  Morocco  ;  wiiich  are  found  in  tiiis  order  go- 
ing from  eaft  to  wcIr,  on  the  c^nft  of  tne  Mediter- 
ranean except  the  laft  which  is  on  the  ocean,  at 
the  fouth  by  .veft  of  that  of  Fez.. 

The  kingdom  or  country  of  Barca,  is  fituated 
between  Egypt  an  1  the  great  Syrtes,  called  Seiche: 
of  Barbary,  and  contains  about  30  leagues  of  coafts, 
and  30  or  40  in  breadth 

This  country  is  v.ry  fterile  and  full  of  rocks :  it 
is  watered  by  the  rivers  Nachel,  Docr.i,  and  Melcla, 
which  rpring  from  the  mount  Mayes  in  the  de- 
fart. 

This  kingdom  depends  on  the  grand  feignor, 
who  keeps  a  fangiack  at  Barca.  The  inhabitants 
are  Mahometans. 

The  kingdom  of  Tripoli  is  fituated  between  that 
of  Tunis,  and  the  country  of  Barca,  extending 
about  250  leagues  on  the  coaft,  from  the  mouth  of 
the  fmall  river  of  the  Salins,  in  the  great  Syrtes,  or 
gulph  of  S\d>a,  as  far  as  to  that  of  the  Capes,  or 
little  Syrtes :  its  breadth  is  very  irregular,  of  13,  of 
25,  and  of  40  leagues. 

This  countiy  is  divided  in  two  by  the  river  of 
Tripoli,  on  wl.ich  is  the  city  of  the  fame  name, 
which  ;s  the  capital. 

In  the  caftern  part,  which  is  almoft  deferted, 
except  the  coafts,  aie  found  thefe  four  rivers,  viz. 
the  Teffura,  Macer,  Mijirata,  and  that  of  Salins. 
h\  the  weftern  part,  befides  the  of  river  Tripoli,  are 
found  thofe  of  Rafamalbafa,  of  Porter  a  .^  and   of 

Cafa' 


G    E    0    G    R    A    P  :B   r. 


sn 


Cafarnncara.  Thefe,  as  well  as  the  firR,  fpring 
from  mount  Atlas.  .... 

The  kingdom  of  Tunis,  is  fitiiatec!  between  that; 
bi  jilgier  ivA  the  Utile  Syr tes.  Jt.s  peateft  length! 
from  eaft  to  v.xft  is  of . libout  70  leagues,  and- its. 
greatefi:  breadth  90.     -  '.   1.   ■,    :• 

T'Wa.Guadalbarbar  \K2,Xsx%  its  moft  weftorn  part, 
Ip'inging  froni  the  Biledulgerid  ;  after  it  has  diviJec' 
itfelf  iiito  two  arms,  the  moft  weftern  thereof  runs 
io  fcrpcnt-like,  that  in  the  extent  of  a  ftrait  line  of 
about  25  leagues,  one  could  make  more  than  90, 
if  one  would  follow  its  fliore.  The  Other  arm  is 
called  Magrida.  The  other  rivers  are  Alagerada, 
Capallia,  he.  which  fpring  from  it. 

The  city  of '///«/j,  capital  of  this  kingdom,  is  a 
port  advantageoufly  fituated,  at  the  bottom  of  a 
gulph.  Its  entrance,  which  is  narrow,  is  defended 
by  the  fort  La  Goulcttr,  It  is  alfo  governed  in  form 
of  a  republic,  under  the  protedlion  of  the  grand 
ieignior. 

The  ifles  Galata,  Pavthalarea^  Lampedufa, 
Limifa,  Cheicbara,  Gamehra,  and  fome  otheis, 
are  dependencies  of  this  kingdom. 

The  kingdomof  Algier  is  fituated  between  that 
©f  Tunis,  and  that  of  Fez.  Its  greatcft  length  is  of 
about  220  leagues,  and  its  breadth  of  80  or  90. 

This  country  is  full  of  high  mountains,  particu- 
larly fouthward,  where  it  is  confined  by  a  part  of 
mount  jitlas. 

Among  its  rivers  are  found  the  great  one,  which 
.fprings  from  the  lake  Mezzal,  and  traverfes  mount 
jitlas  ;  the  others  which  comes  from  that  mount, 
are  the  Titnei,  Sejlifas,  Aliromus,  Sefay,  &c. 

This  kingdom  is  divided  into  five  provinces:  firfl, 
that  oi  Jlgier  is  in  the  middle;  that  of  Bugick 
eaftward  of  it;  that  of  Conjlantine  h  likewife  eaft- 
.ward  of  this  ;  that  of  Tenefe  is  weftward  of  Algier  ; 
and  that  of  Tremefrn,  or  Tellenfm,'  is  the  rnofl: 
eaftern. 

The  city  of  Algier,  which  is  the  capital,  is  alfo 
governed  in  form  of  a  republic,  under  the  proteftion 
of  the  grand  feignior,  who  has  not  the  leaft  autho- 
rity in  it.  It  fei-ves  for  a  retreat  to  pyrates,  among 
whom  the  famous  B^rbarovjfa  alarmed  the  Mediter- 
ranean during  the  reign  of  the  emperbi-  Charles  V. 

The  other  cities  are  fituated  on  the  coafts,'  ex- 
cept Tremcfm.,  which  is  6  or  7  leagues  more  ad- 
vanced in  the  country,  and  Conjluntiue^  which  is 
an  ifland  made  by  a  river  towards  the  middle  of  its 
province.  The  king  of  Spain  keeps  Marfalqiiivir., 
and  Oran  on  this  coaft.  , 

The  kingdomof  Fez,  which  is  part  of  the  anti- 


about  120  leagues,  and  its  breadth,  as  far  as  to  the 
ftreight  of  Gibraltar ,   of  go. 

Jt  is  feparated  from  the  kingdom  of  Algier,  eaft- 
ward,- by  the  river  Mtilviti ;  at  fouth  by  weft  the 
Ommirali  parts  it  from  M.kocco  ;  and  i'outhward, 
mount  Atlas  divides  it  from  the  Segelakeff'e. 

This  country- is  the  beft  cultivated,  and  moft  in- 
habited of  all  SarZ'^jrj; ;  and  though  it  be  full  of 
moujuaifis,  feveral  pretty  large  cities  are  found  in 
it  towards  the  middl-e. 

T'his  kingdom  is  divided  into  feven  provinces, 
fituated  thus,  firft  Fez,  Afgar,  and  Temefne,  are  en 
the  ocean  ;  Habut  on  the  ftraight ;  Errif^^nd  Gaiet, 
on  the  Mediterranean  ;  and  Chaus,  which  contains 
almoft  half  the  country,  is  farther  in  the  land. 

Fez,  is  the  capit<t!,  and  is  fituated  in  the  middle 
of  the  kingdom,  on  the  fm  all  tiwfiUn'.on,  between 
Suha,  and  Bunajar,  This  city  pafles  for  one  of 
the  faireft-  of  the  whole  world,  and  for  the  orna- 
ment of  all  Africa. 

This  kingdom  is  governed  by  a  prince,  who 
ft iles  himfelf  emperor  of  Africa,  Vmg  of  Ahrocco, 
Fez,  Sus,  and  Tafilet,  lord  of  Gagi,  Dare  and 
Guinea,  grand  xmf  of  Adahomet ,  Sec. 

The  king  of  Spain  keeps  fome  places  on  tliis 
coafts  ;  as  Ceuta,  Pennon  de  Velcz.  The  Porlu- 
guefe  are  matters  ofCazar,  Ezaghir, 

The  kingdom  of  Morocco,  which  is  the  other 
part  of  the  Tangitana  Mauritania,  is  fituated  at  the 
fouth  by  weft  of  that  of  Fez,  between  Segehvc/fi  and 
the  Atlantiek  ocean. 

Its  greateft  length  is  of  about  120  leagues,  from 
cape  Nan  to  the  mountains,  which  part  it  from  the 
Segelmelie;  and  its  greateft  breadth  is  of  about  1 10, 
along  the  coafts  of  the  ocean,  from  the  fame  cape 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Ommirabi. 

Its  rivers  are  the  Ommi,  abi,  Tenftf,  Sus,  Cua- 
delhalii,  which  difembogue  into  the  Ommirabi,  and 
the  AJJimeal,  which  runs  to  the  Tenff. 

The  foil  is  fertile  in  corn,  fruit,  oil,  and  fugar; 
delicious  grapes,  each  of  which  is  as  big  as  a 
pigeon's  egg,  are  found  in  fome  of  its  mountains  j 
and  it  has  mines  of  gold,  filvcr,  and  copper. 

This  kingdom  is  divided  into  feven  principal  pro- 
vinces, which  are  Morocco,  Hafcora,  Tcdles,  Duo- 
calia,  Hea,  Sus,  and  Guzalu. 

The  city  of  Morocco,,  fituated  near  the  river 
Tenff,  is  the  capital  of  this  kingdom. 

The  kings,  princes,  and  people  of  Barbary,  ar? 
all  Mahometans.  . 

The  Bilerhifgerrd.  This  country,  which  con- 
tains very  near  the  antient  Nmnidia,  is  called  Bile- 


ent  lingitana  iVJauritania,  is  fituated  between  t\\:>.t\  dulgeridhy  ihe  Arabs, hczzMfz  of  thzgtQ-d.t  numhtr  oi 
of  Algier  and  the  ocean.     Its  greateft  length  is  of  dates  it  produces. 

27  I  4  E  If 


580 


Hie  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  /7«(^  Sciences. 


ft'ne  defart  of  Barca  lie  inclvided  in  it,    it  ex- 1  groun<.l,  for  the   (face  of  ftvcn   or  eight  leagiiej, 
fends  from  the  5  decree  of  longitude  to  the  60,  antl   then  appears  anew  in  Nubia;  that  o(  Ghir,  and 


from  the  22  of  latitude  to  the  3?.,  fo  that  its 
greateft  extent  is  about  1000  leagues  j  and  its 
breadth,  which  is  very  irregulai,  is  from  3010  160 
in  fome  places. 

It  confines  eaftward  with  Egff>t,  northward  with 
Barhary^  v  cftw;ird  with  the  ocean,  and  fouthward 
with  the  Zjtira,  or  defait. 

The  climate  is  very  hot,  and  notwithftandmg 
very  wholfome.  The  foil  is  fandy,  uncultivated, 
and  very  little  inhabited  in  feveral  places  :  in  other 
places  it  produces  barley  and  anis-feed,  and  a  little 
wheat ;  but  its  fertility  confills  in  the  great  quan- 
tity of  date;  it  produces,   and  in  its  camels. 

Among  the  rivers,  which  run  through  it,  the  moll 
remarkable  are  the  great  river,  that  of  .'alma,  the 
^uadlluarbar,  the  Tegorarin,  Ghl%,  Z/z,  and 
others  :  which  all  fpring  from  fome  lake  or  foun- 
tain. 

It  is  divided  into  ci^ht  principal  provinces,  rec- 
koning the  defart  of  Ba>ca. 

7  his  country  is  inhabited  by  the  natives,  and  the 


that  of  the  Horfes. 

This  country  is  divided  iiito  feveral  principal 
provinces  ordefarts,  which  bear  the  name  of  fom« 
of  their  moft  confiderable  cities.  Borno,  GargOf 
Bercha,  Lcnfta,  Targa,  ZuiHzlga,  and  Zan- 
haga. 

The  inhabitants  are  brutifh,  wild,  and  great 
thieves.  Part  of  them  live  in  cities  with  a  littls 
more  humanity ;  but  the  others  are  vagabonds  in 
the  fields,  where  they  keep  their  flocks  or  f;ek  for- 
tunes; and  thole  have  neither  laws  nor  policy. 

They  have  kings,  or  particular  lords,  whom 
they  call  Zequcs. 

Several  follow  the  doctrine  of  Mahomet;  thj 
others  have  neither  faith  jior  religion. 

Nigritia.  This  part  of  Jfvica,  borrowed  its 
name  from  the  river  Nigtr,  receives  its  name  from. 
the  country,  and  that  of  the  country  comes  froia 
the  colour  or  hue  of  its  inh;ibitants. 

It  extends  between  the  8  and  23  degree  of  lati- 
tude, from  the   3   degree  of  longitude  to  the  44; 


Arabs:  the  fiift  arc  brutifti,  lafcivious,  and  very  land  may  have  800  leagues   in  length,  near  300  iu 
'rreat  thieves  ;  tht  others  have  more  humanity:  but :  its  greateft  breadth,  and  140  in  its  lefTer. 
in  general  all  thele  people  are  violent,  and  it  is  dan-        It   confines    northward  and  eaftward  with  th* 
gerous  falling  into  their  hands.  \'Lr,ara\    fouthward   with    Guinea;    and  weilwari 

It  is  in   part  guv-rned  by   fome  petty  kings  or  ,  with  the  y///<J/?r/<r  fftvaw. 
lords,  who  are  moft  of  them  tributary  to  the  Turks       The  climate  is  very  hot,  but  fo  wholefome,  that 
of  Ai:\cr,  of  Ti  yui,  or  of  Ti  ifoU  ;  in  part  by  fome  of  itielf  it  cures  maladies.     The  foil  produces  rice, 
republics;    and   in   fome  places   thofe  people   livejflax,  and  cotton.     It  has  mines  of  gold,  and  cop 


without  laws  or  policy;  as  fome  bands  of  Ara' s, 
who  live  in  the  dcl'arts,  and  put  feveral  cities  under 
contribution. 

All  thofe  princes  and  the  people  are  Mahometans. 
The  reft  fdlow  the  Jen^i/h  religion,  and  have  their 
iVnagogues  in  moft  of  the  greateft  cities,  where  they 
are  all  merchants. 

The  Zaara,  or  Defart.  This  country  is  called 
Zaara  by  the  Arabs,  i.  e.  Defart,  becaufe  fo  little 
inliabited. 

It  is  fituated  under  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  between 
the  12  and  2',  degree  ct  latitude,  and  extends  from 
the  4  of  loni^itude  to  the  56  ;  fo  that  it  may  have 
more  than  950  leagues  in  length,  and  40,  60, 
100,  even  as  as  far  as  250  in  breadth,  according  to 
the  different  places. 

It  confines  northward  with  the  BUedulgerU,  eaft- 
ward with  Nubia,  fouthward  with  Ni^jitia,  and 
weftward  with  the  ocean. 

It  enjoys  a  vei-y  wholfome  climate,  though  very 
hot.     All  its  riches  confift  in  camels. 

There  are  but  three  confiderale  rivers  fouird  In 


per  ;  ambergreafe,  and  fome  fruit-trees.  The  foil 
in  this  country  is  moit  fertile  than  in  any  other 
part  of  Africa. 

The  principal  rivers  are  the  Niger,  and  its 
branches,  which  all  have  different  names,  as  Senei^ 
gal,   Gambia,  Rio  San  Domingo,  and  Rio  Gran'Ic. 

This  country  is  divided  into  fixteen  principal 
kingdoms,  found  along  the  Niger,  r«  afcending 
towards  its  fource  in  the  following  order.  Firft, 
northward  of  this  river,  Genchoa,  and  Galate, 
which  are  on  the  ocean  ;  then  Tanbitt,  Agades, 
Cam,  Cajfeua,  and  Gavgara,  in  which  the  Niger 
forms  an  ifland,  100  leagues  long,  and  50  broad. 
Between  the  rivers  Senegal  and  Gambia,  are  lA- 
clofed  the  kingdoms  of  the  fame  lume,  the  people 
whereof  are  called  fakjfi;  between  Ginnbia  and 
Rio  San  Domingo,  are  the  kingdoms  of  the  CaJ/a/i- 
gas ;  between  San  Domingo  and  Rio  Grande,  thofe 
of  the  Bijagos  ;  fouthward  of  the  great  river,  are 
found  following  one  another,  the  kingdoms  of  the 
Biaffnri,  AI  Hiy  Soufos,  Mandiga,  Guker,  Gago, 
Zegazcg,  and  Zavfara,  which  ends  at  the  lake 
Bcrtio.  Moft  of  thefe  kingdoms  are  fubdivided  into 
it,  v'fz  that  of  Nubia,  which  alter  it  has  pafled  feveral  others  lefler,  which  have  all  their  capital 
the  defarts  of  Z,«///'/fl,  zni  Bornoy  hides  itfelf  under  cities  of  the  fame  namej  that  of  lanbut  being 

I  mors 


G   E    0    G    R    A  P   H   r. 


581 


more  confidcrable  and  larger,  than  thofc  of  Man- 
digtus  and  Cam. 

The  negroes  are  lefs  wild  than  the  people  of 
Barbary^  and  of  the  Bikdtilgerid ;  but  they  are 
not  lefs  brutifh  in  their  amours.  Mofl:  of  them 
carry  on  the  commerce  of  flaves,  whom  they  take 
fi'om  their  neighbours,  and  even  fell  their  wives, 
children,  fathers,  and  mothers  to  the  Europeans. 

The  Icings  of  ithis  country  are  very  abiolute  in 
rheir  refpecHve  dominions. 

They  are  all  Aiahometam,  or  idolaters,  and 
great  enemies  of  the  Jaws.  Thofe  of  the  defarU 
five  without  religion. 

Guinea.  It  extends  between  the4and  i2degrce 
of  latitude,  from  the  9  of  longitude,  to  the  38 ; 
fo  that  it  may  have  550  leagues  in  length,  140  in 
ks  greatefl:  breadth,  and  about  60  in  ils  lefTcr,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Benin. 

it  confines  eaftward  with  the  kingdom  of  Bia- 
fara  \  northward  with  Nigritta ;  weftwaid  with 
Sierra  Lcoria;  and  fouthwaid  with  the  fca  of  the 
fame  name. 

The  climate  is  exccflively  hot.  The  land  is  low, 
fat,  and  very  fertile,  watered  by  feveral  linall  bjooks, 
and  frequent  rains.  The  foil  produces  pepper, 
iugar-canes,  cotton,  rice,  millet,  barley,  and 
feveral  other  forts  of  corn,  and  fruit.  It  has  feveral 
golden  mines,  and  feeds  a  vaft  number  of  ele- 
phants, peacocks,  monkeys,  tygers,  leopards,  (s'c. 
and  the  inhabitants  carry  on  a  great  commerce  of 
ivory.  A  great  quantity  of  excellent  fifh  is  taken 
on  the  coalis,  among  which  are  the  Dorade^  the 
Bfnite,  Sec. 

The  moft  remarkable  of  its  rivers  arc  the  Sweira 
da  Cofla,  thofe  of  Da  volta.  Lag:,  Calctbri,  Del 
Rey,  Benin,  and  Dos  Camarones,  which  parts  it 
from  Biafara. 

Guinea  is  divided  into  three  principal  parts : 
which  are  the  particular  kingdom  of  Guinea,  fitu 


Guinea  is  governed  by  feveral  kings,  among 
whom  that  called  emperor  of  Guinea  is  moft  pow- 
erful, having  feveral  other  kings  and  princes  for 
tributaries,  and  fubjc£ls.  That  of  Benin  is  likewife 
very  powerful,  having  feveral  kingdom?  in  hii 
dominions.  The  province  of  Malaguette  is  poflefied 
by  a  great  number  of  princes  and  people  towards  the 
mountains.  Some  place  it  in  thekingdom  of  Sierra 
Leona:  T\ic  Engl ijh,  Dutch,Portuguefe,  See.  have 
each  their  fadlories  on  the  coafts  of  Guinea. 

The  people  are  ftill  idolaters. 

Ethiopia.  All  the  reft  of  the  continent  of 
Africa,  is  commonly  known  under  the  name  of 
Ethiopia,  \Vhich  is  divided  into  inward  und  outivard. 
The  inward  Ethiopia,  contains  Ahyjjinia,  or  the 
empire  of  the  AbyJJl'iians.,  ^ni  Nubia,  noithwardof  it. 
The  outward,  or  exterior  Ethiopia,  contains  the 
kingdoms  of  Biafora,  and  of  Coti'^o  ;  the  coailj 
or  country  of  the  Cafres  ;  the  empire  of  Mononia- 
tapa,  and  of  Monoemogi  ;  the  coafts  of  Zanguebar, 
Ajan,  and  Abcx,  which  are  properly  of  Abyjfmia, 
though  they  be  at  prefcnt  in  the  power  of  the  Turks. 
AbyJJinia  extends  from  48  degree  of  longi- 
tude to  about  the  74  ;  and  from  the  20  degree  of 
northern  latitude,  to  the  14  of  fouthern  latitude; 
fo  that  it  may  have  very  near  700  leagues  in  its 
greatefl:  extent  from  north  to  fouth,  and  about 
500  from  eaft  to  well. 

It  confines  northward  with  Nubia;  caflward 
with  the  coafts  of  Abex,  Ajan  and  Z  nguebar  \ 
fouthward  with  the  empire  of  Monoemogi ;  and 
weft  ward  with  the  people  fubjefts  o^  Cong?,  and  of 
Biafara,  and  the  Gales,  who  are  veiy  powerful. 

The  climate  is  very  temperate,  with  regard  to 
its  fituation,  particularly  on  the  mountains,  and  in 
the  flat  country,  but  in  the  valleys,  it  is  exceffively 
hot.  It  is  very  fertile  in  barley,  millet,  maiz,  and 
feveral  other  iorts  of  corn  unknown  to  us,  as  the 
ated  in  the  middle;  eaftv.'ard  of  this,  the  kingdom  Tefet,  or  Tafo,  Agoup.a,  and  Machclla,  of  whicl* 
of  Benin  ;  and  the  province  of  Mologucttc,  or  they  make  bread  and  beer.  It  produces  all  forts 
Maniguate,  weftward  Thcfe  kingdoms,  and  this  of  gums,  ginger,  fugar,  honey,  and  wax,  wiiich 
province,  is  again  fubdivided  into  feveral  others  ferves  to  make  candles,  cotton,  &c.  Mines 
v«ry  confiderable,  2.%  Sahou,  Fatu.  Aecaria,  Arda,\  o\'  goM,  filver,  tin,  copper,  iron,  and  fulphur  arc 
&c.  but  as  we  have  very  little  knowledge  of  them,'  found  in  that  empire  almoft  every  where.  There 
Ivvill  content  myfelf  with  faying  that  the  particular,  arc  fcen  in  't  ek-p'ianrs,  tygers,  lions,  panthere, 
ooaft  of  Guinea  is  diftinguiftied  by  three  dilferent  rhinocero's,  giraS,  monkeyi,  wild-bears,  harts, 
names.  |  deers,    hares,  civets,   goats,    wild  oxtn,    camels. 

The  moft  extended  and  moft  eaftern,  is  called  horfes,  aftcs,  cows  and  fliecp;  in  a  word,  all 
the  Golden  Coajl;  becaufe  of  the  quantity  of  gold  forts  of  game  an  J  fowo  we  have  in  Euripe,  and 
carried  away  from  thence :  The  moft  wettern  feveral  ethers  unknown  to  us.  There  are  alio 
is  called  the  Ivory  Cuajl,  for  the  fame  reafon  :  and  found  in  the  rivers,  crocodiles,  and  wijd  horfes. 
this  is  again  fubdivided  into  two  parts,  the  moft  The  moft  confiderable  rivers,  which  water  th<ii; 
eaftern  whereof  is  called  the  coafts  of  Good  People;  vaft  country  arc,  the  Nile,  the  rivers  Aiianhi,  and 
and  the  moft  weftern  the  coaft  of  Bad  People.  \TacaJp,  the  river  Niger,  with  its  lake,  the  lakes  7.airi 

The  people  of  Guinea  are  witty,  dextrous,  and  1  from  fouth  to  .north,  aboiit  80  leagues  in  breadth, 
Kndcrftand  commerce  very  well.  (     4  E  2  ,  a^d 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sctknces. 

pricfls,  the  reliaiion 


and  more  than  350  in  circuit.  The  lake  Xojian 
has  more  than  300  leagues  in  circuit.  There  are 
in  this  lake  feveral  ifles  of  30,  40,  and  50  leagues 
round.  The  lake  'Niger  is  about  160  leagues  in 
circuit.  ■  ' 

Ayjfttua  is  governed  by  a  prince  called  Art't- 
(labeijfi  by  the  Arabs^  and  Ncgm  by  the  Ahyffi- 
nians ;  we  call  him  Prefer  'John :  this  emperor 
pretends  to  be  delcended  from  the  race  of  David. 
The  greateft  part  of  the  coaft  of  Abex  are  in  the 
power  of  the  grand  feignior. 

The  AbyJJinians  pretend  to  be  defcended  from 
the  firlt  chrillians,  and  to  have  been  firfl:  inflructed 
in  the  yewifi  religion  by  the  queen  of  Sheba,  who 
went  to  vifit  king  Solomon;  by  whom,  they  fay, 
flie  had  a  fon  called  Melilech,  who  governed  them 
after  his  mother's  death,  and  that  they  received 
the  li^ht  of  the  gofpel  by  means  of  queen  Candace, 
whofe  eunuch  was  baptized  by  St.  Philip,  and  af- 
terwards by  St.  Thomas,  St.  Matthew,  and  St.  Bar- 
tholomew. Ever  fince  that  time  they  have  pre- 
ferved  the  name  of  Chrijiians,  but  they  have  been 
corrupted  by  the  errors  of  Eutyches  and  Diofcorus  : 
They  have  a  patriarch  whom  they  call  Abuna, 
inferior  to  that  of  the  Cophti,  who  refides  at  Alex- 
andria in  Egypt,  by  whom  he  muft  be  confirmed. 
They  circumcife  their  children,  afterwards  baptize 
them,  viz.  the  males  forty  days  after  their  birth, 
and  the  females  fi.xty;  which  is  always  done  on 
Saturday  and  Sunday. 

Nubia.  It  is  fituated  in  fuch  a  manner  between 
the  10  and  23  degree  of  latitude,  and  extending 
from  the  48  of  longitude,  to  the  65  degree  30 
minutes,  that  it  may  have  about  370  leagues  in  its 


is   almoft  entirely  dcftroycd, 
y'hich  they  have  neglected. 


with  their  churches, 

This  country  is  fituated  hetwecn  the  34  and  43 
degree  of  longitude,  and  extends  from  the  13  de- 
gree of  northern  latitude;,  to  the  2  of  the  foutheni : 
So  that  it  takes  up  near  300  leagues  in  its  greateft 
extent,  from  north  to  fouth,  and  280  from  eaft  to 
weft:. 

It  confines  eaftward  with  the  river  and  lake 
"^iger,  and  fome  mountains  which  part  it  from 
Abyjfmia,  and  the  Glaqiii,  people  of  Congo  ;  north- 
ward with  the  kingdoms  of  Congo,  and  Xanfara  ; 
wcftward  with  that  of  Benin,  and  the  ocean;  and 
Ibuthward  with  the  territories  of  Congo. 

The  climate  is  extremely  hot  at  all  times  :  win- 
ter is  not  diilinguiflied  but  by  long  and  violent 
rains,  which  fall  from  the  month  of  April  to  that 
of  Anguft;  their  fummer  begins  in  September. 

Tlie  inhabitants  are  wild;  cheats,  and  thieves: 
They  are  guilty  of  the  moft  infamous  anions, 
laying  together  without  diftinction,  the  father  and 
the  daughter,  the  mother  and  the  fon,  brothers 
and  fifters,  all  things  being  in  common  among 
them  ;  they  paint  their  bodies  with  various  colours, 
and  adorn  it  with  fmall  toys,  as  rings,  little  {hells, 
i3c.  The  kings  rub  their  faces  and  hands,  with 
chalk  to  appear  more  beautiful. 

They  are  all  idolaters,  adore  the  devil,  fun, 
moon,  the  trees,  and  the  earth,  for  which  they 
have  fc>  great  a  refpe£f,  that  they  will  not  permit 
one  fliould  fpjt  upon  it,  becaufe  it  produces  die 
things  neceflary  for  their  fubfiftence. 

Congo.  This  country  is  fituated  on  the  weftern 
coaft  of  /Ethiopia,  between  jo  and  20  degrees  of 


greateft  extent  from  fouth  by  weft  to  north  by  eaft, '  longitude    eaft,    and    between    the    equator    and 
and  190  in  its  greateft  breadth. 

It  confines  northward  with  the  defart  of  Barca, 
and  Egypt;  eaftward  with  the  kingdom  of  Barna- 
gas,  and  the  ifland  Guegere ;  fouthward  with  the 
Dffarts,  which  are  of  the   empire  of  the   AhyJJi- 


mans ;  and  weftward  with  the  defarts  of  Borno  and 
Gaoga. 

'I'he  climate  is  exceffive  hot  every  where;  the 
foil  produces  a  great  quantity  of  fugar-canes,  but 
the  inhabitants  have  not  the  fecret  of  purifying  it, 
who  leave  the  fugar  in  its  blacknefs:  It  has  beCdes 
mines  cf  gold,  fanders-wood,  civet,  and  abun- 
dance of  ivory :  Eaftward  the  land  Is  uncultivated, 
and  defart 

The  natives  are  courageous  and  cunning  ;  they 
ipply  themfelves  to  commerce  and  hufbandry : 
They  are  extremely  black,  and  cloath  themfelves 
with  cotton  cloth.  , 

Some  authors  pretend,  that  the  Nubians  are 
neither  Chrijiians,  Jews,  Mahometans,  nor  idola- 
tcrsi  and  liiy,  that' having 'wanted   bifljops^'and 


IB  degrees  of  fouth  latitude,  fo  that  it  has  very 
near  300  leagues  in  its  greateft  extent  from  north 
to  fouth,  and  260  in  breadth. 

It  confines  northward  with  the  kingdoms  of 
Gabon  and  Macoco,  whofe  king  is  called  by  fome, 
prince  or  king  of  the  Anzlcans,  eaftv/ard  with  the 


kingdom  of  Darmtt,  and  the  lake  Zair  ;  fouthward 
with  the  kingdoms  of  Malemba  and  Maiaman, 
and  weftward  with  the  ocean,  called  the  fea  of 
Congo. 

The  climate  is  exceffive  hot,  the  great  rains 
vi'hich  fall  during  the  months  of  April,  May,  June, 
July,  Auguft,  and  make  their  winter,  caufe  the  in- 
undations of  the  Nile,  of  the  Niger,  of  the  Zair,  and 
of  other  rivers,  which  water  the  foil,  and  render  it 
fertile  in  all  things  necelTary:  for,  J^fe.  Jt  produces 
abundance  of  rice,  maize,  white  millet,  and  ano- 
ther fmall  fort  of  corn,  called  L/<eo  hy  the  inhabi- 
tants, and  of  which  they  make  very  good  bread; 
There  are  ftea  in  it  fruit-trees  of  feveral  fpecies,. 
36  orangfe-.trees,  lemon-tr^es,   and. palm- trees  of 


\ 


GEOGRAPHY. 


three  forts.  It  feeds  oxen,  cows,  hogs,  goats,  and 
fheep,  which  bear  three  or  four  times  a  year ;  and 
alfo  elephants,  tygers,  monkeys,  civets,  and  other 
animals  unknown  to  us,  as  the  zebra,  which 
refemblcs  a  mule  ;  the  daut,  and  the  empalariga 
which  have  almoft  the  figure  of  a  heifer.  Pelicans, 
peacocks,  pheafants,  partridges,  and  feveral  other 
fpecies  of  volatiles :  There  are  found  in  it  large 
ferpents,  and  very  venomous  vipers.  It  has  mines 
of  filver,  copper,  and  cryftal. 

Befides  the  river  Zair,  which  flows  from  the 
lake  of  the  fame  name,  and  traverfcs  the  whole 
country,  are  found  in  it  the  Loango,  Lelunda,  Lo- 
an%a,  and  feveral  others,  which  flow  from  the  lake 
Aqvilanda. 

This  country  is  divided  into  feveral  kingdoms, 
and  different  people,  the  mofl:  remarkable  of  which 
are  the  kingdom  of  Congo  in  the  middle  ;  that  of 
Loango,  with  the  people  of  Anzican,  northward  ; 
that  of  Angola^  fouthward  ;  and  eaftward  the  peo- 
ple called  Giaqui,  who  inhabit  the  mountains  of 
the  fun  towards  the  dominions  of  the  Grand 
Negus. 

The  city  of  Congo  was  once  called  Baza  by  the 
natives  ;  at  prefent  the  Portuguefe  call  it  St.  Sal- 
vador. 

The  capital  of  Loango  bears  the  fame  name. 

The  capital  of  Angola  is  Longo,  or  Engaze. 

The  king  of  Congo  is  the  mod  powerful  j  and 
his  people  have  fo  great  a  veneration  for  him,  that 
they  never  fpeak  to  him  but  kneeling.  The  king- 
dom is  hereditary  in  his  family,  and  only  the 
male  children  can  pretend  to  the  crown,  with  the 
excluflon  of  the  female.  The  governor  of  Batta 
is  the  mofl-  confiderable  of  the  kingdom,  and  his 
court  is  very  little  lefs  numerous  than  that  of  the 
king. 

The  king  of  Loango  is  alfo  very  much  refpefted 
by  his  fubjefls  :  That  of  Angola  is  almoft  as  pow- 
erful as  that  of  Congo,  though  he  pays  a  fort  of 
tribute  to  him;  the  governors  he  keeps  in  each 
province  are  called  Sohas. 

'Empire  of  Alonomotapa.  This  country  called  by 
feme  the  empire  of  Monc7r.otapa,  by  others  Beno 
motapa,  and  Bencmoiaxa,  extends  from  the  13th 
degree  30  minutes  of  northern  latitude  to  the  31ft  ; 
and  from  the  43  degree  30  minutes  of  longitude, 
to  57  degree  36  minutes,  fo  that  it  mufi:  have  350 
leagues  in  its  greateft  extent  from  north  to  fouth, 
and  1 50  in  its  greateft  breadth. 

It  confines  northward  with  the  mountains  of  the 
moon,  which  part  it  from  the  empire  of  the  Iklonoe- 
mugi,  and  from  the  kingdom  of  Alalemia ;  on  the 
three  other  fides  it  is  environed  with  the  Cafrery. 

The  climate  is  temperate;  the  foil  very  fat,  and 
fertile  in  rice,  fugar- canes,  fruit-trees,  and  mea- 


^^Z 


dows.  A  great  quantity  of  gold  is  found  in  it;  in 
which  metal,  and  ivory,  confifts  the  commerce  of 
the  country. 

The  moil  confiderable  of  its  rivers  are  the  Za/V, 
the  Rio  de  Sp'trttu  Santo,  and  the  river  Ciunijfa. 

The  people  are  witty  enough,  and  veiy  cou- 
rageous, but  inconftant,  and  i"ubje£t  to  revolts  : 

This  country  is  under  the  dominion  of  an. 
emperor,  commonly  called  Monomstapa,  to  whom 
all  the  other  kings  or  priuLes  are  fubjed  or  tribw--.^ 
tary.  ... 

Empire  of  the  Monoemugi.  This  empire  coBt. 
fines  northward  with  Ahyjjinia,  eaftward  with  the 
coafts  of  Zangncbar,  fouthward  with  Munonir.tqpa,, 
and  weftward  with  the  kingdom  of  Malemba,  and 
the  lake  Zamhre. 

It  has  very  near  the  qualities  of  the  empire  of 
Alonomotapa,  except  that  it  is  fuller  of  tnountains, 
including  tbofe  of  the  tnoon  :  The  river  Cu,ama,  of 
Za.'uhre,  traverfes  it  from  eaft  to  weft  ;  by  means 
whereof  a  commerce  is  carried  on  with  thofe  of 
.^/iJja. 

The  country  is  in  the  power  of  a  king,  called 
Monvemugi,  to  whom  all  the  other  petty  kings  are 
fubjedl,  or  tributary  :  Part  of  the  Giaqui  aije  un- 
der his  dominion.  And  idolatry  ftill  reigns  in  this 
empire. 

'rhe  countries,  or  coafts  of  the  Cafres,  extends 
along  the  coaft  from  Angra  de  Negro,  on  the 
weftern  fhore  of  Ethiopia,  under  the  14  degree 
30  minutes  of  fouthern  latitude,  to  Punto  do  Sal, 
on  the  eaftern  fhore,  about  the  1 8  degree  of  the 
fame  latitude,  including  the  famous  cape  of  Good 
Hope;  So  that  its  coaft  tread  more  than  1000 
leagues:  Its  breadth  is  very  irregular;  in  fome 
places  it  is  more  than  100  leagues  broad,  and  ia 
others  not  50. 

It  confines,  outward  with  the  ocean ;  and  in- 
ward with  the  mountains  of  the  moon;  and  wiih 
Alontes  Fragofos,  which  part  it  from  Alonomotapa. 

Cattle  are  numerous  but  lean,  and  the  {heep  are 
clothed  with  hairs  inftead  of  wool. 

The  moft  confiderable  rivers  are  the  Zambrc,  de-. 
Spirit li  Santo,  CumlJJ'a,  St.  Blaife,  St.  Ambroje,, 
the  Green  River,  and  St.  Mary's. 

The  city  of  Sophala  is  very  advantageoufly  fitu- 
ated  in  an  ifland,  which  is  in  the  middle  of  a 
little  gulph,  into  which  falls  a  little  liver  called: 
Sophala;  it  is  fituated  on  the  eaftern  coaft,  about 
the  20  degree  of  latitude,  near  the  coaft  of  Zon- 
guebar.  .  .-j- .  \ 

The  Cafres,  are   wild,  brutifh  and  cruel:  they  .1 
live  in  mouritains  and  caves  like  beafts;  thofe  who 
inhabit  the  temperate  zone  are  lefs  black  than  the 
others;  they  eat  rice,  flefli  and  fifli.      There  is 
very  little  commerce  carried  on  in  tliis  country, 

CXC-'ft 


c84  Tloe  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


except  at  Sophola,  where  the  people  are  more 
tra£tab]e.  This  commerce  confifts  in  gold  and 
ivory,  which  the  natives  change  for  fluffs,  i^c. 

As  to  the  government :  this  country  is   in  part 
fubjecl  to  Moiiomotapa,  and  ia  part  to  the  king   of, 
Mataman^  the  third   part   is   under  the  dominion 
of  the    king   of    Sophola,  tributary  of    the   Por- 
tuguefty  who  are  mafters  of  the  capital. 

Coafts  of  Znnguehai\  called  by  the  antients 
Barbarxa  Regia ;  coniain  the  kingdoms  of  3/«»- 
galie  or  Jngo.hf,  of  Mozamhick,  of  ^tiloa,  of 
Mombaze,  of  Melvtdt,  and  tlie  territories  of  fomc 
petty  kings,  as  Lamm,  Pata,  &c.  fituated  in  this 
order  afcending  from  fouth  to  north. 

This  country  extends  from  the  equator,  to  the 
1 8  degree  of  fouthcrn  latitude,  may  have  450 
leagues  of  coafts,  and  60,  80,  or  100  in  breadth: 
And  confines  northward  with  the  coaft*  of  Agnfj; 
caftward  with  the  ocean;  fouthvard  with  the 
Cnfrery;  weftward  with  the  territories  of  Prejhr 
Jnhn. 

The  climate  in  general  is  unwholfome,  and 
particularly  in  the  kingdom  of  ^I'lloa.  Tlie  land 
is  low  and  mafhy,  and  docs  not  produce  fufficiently 
what  is  neccilary  for  life  ;  it  produces  millet,  rice, 
pulfcs,  oranges,  and  lemons:  It  feeds  oxen,  goats, 
and  fhcep,  which  are  fo  big  and  fo  fat,  that  one 
of  their  tails  weighs  full  thirty  pounds :  tiiere 
are  found  in  it  wild  hearts,  fowls,  and  a  vafl  num- 
ber of  elephants;  and  it  has  mines  of  gold,  filver, 
and  other  metals.  There  is  a  great  commerce  of 
gold  and  filver. 

The  river  ^almauca  is  the  mofl  confiderable ; 
the  others  are  thofe  of  Meiind,  of  Mcmbaze,  of 
^ika,  Dei  Giido,  of  MTZarnhick,  and  of  Gu- 
am 1. 

The  people  of  this  country  are  much  more 
tratStable  than  the  Cafres,  they  are  'black,  and  feed 
themfelveswith  the  flefli  of  wild  beads,  milk,pulfes, 
and  wild  fruits. 

The  natives  are  either  hUluters  or  Mahometans , 
according  to  thedodrineof  a  certain  zaid,  Haly's 
nephew  ;  fo  that  the  Titrks  believe  them  hereticks 
in  their  faith. 

The  king  of  ilngofda,  or  Mongalle^  is  fuppofcd 
tributary  of  the  Monamagl  and  a  Mahometan.  He 
refide*  in  the  city  of  Angai,  capital  of  his  domi- 
nions. 

The  kino-  of  Aftzamiick  is  ajfo  a  Alahometan  ; 
but  feveral  petty  kings  and  lords  live  in  that  king- 
dom without  religion,  The  Portugtuft  arc  rnafters 
of  the  capital,  and  of  the  idand  in  which  it  is  built. 
The  king  of  Monbaxe  is  extremely  dreaded,  and 
rclpeited  by  his  fubje£ks. 

The  king  of  Mtl'mde  is  fo  much  refpcfled  by 
hie  fubjeds,  that  when  he  appears  in  public,  the 


ladies  fing  his  praifes  before  him,  and  make  a  kind 
of  fimphony  in  ftriking  brafs  bafons  with  ivory 
flicks.  He  is  a  very  great  friend  of  the  Portu- 
gucfe,  with  whom  his  fubjecSts  trade  in  all  liberty, 
and  with  a  great  de.il  of  bonefty.  He  refides  at 
AlrUnde,  capital  of  his  kingdom,  and  fituated  on 
the  fea  fhore,  with  a  very  fine  j)ort,  where  the 
Portuguefe  have  built  a  fortrefs  which  commands  it 
entirely  ;  and  eighteen  or  twenty  churches  in  the 
city. 

Coafts  of  Ajan  extend  from  the  equator  to  the 
12  degrees  of  latitude,  between  the  63  and  70  of 
longitude;  fo  \hat  it  may  have  3C0  leagues  of 
coafts  on  the  ocean,  as  far  as  cape  Gardajuy  ;  and 
140  from  that  cape  to  the  ftrcight  of  Bebelmandil. 
Its  greateft  breadth  is  of  .about  150  leagues,  and 
its  lefTer  of  60. 

It  confines  northward  with  the  kingdom  of  Dan- 
aili,  and  the  flreight  of  Bebd'nandel;  eaftward 
with  die  ocean  ;  iouthward  v/iih  the  river  ^lil- 
manca,  which  parts  it  from  Zayguebar ;  and 
weftward  with  the  dominions  of  Vrejhy  John. 

It  is  fertile  in  wheat,  millet,  barley,  and  various 
forts  of  fruits,  and  palurcs  ;  and  therefore  feed*, 
a  great  quantity  of  cattle,  ashor.'es,  cows,  goats, 
and  fheep.-  It  alfo  produces  honey,  wax,  gold,  and 
ivory.  ^ 

Among  its  rivers  the  moft  remarkable  are  the 
^lilmanc:!,  Magadoxo,  and  Xeila :  weftward  of 
the  city  Aiogadoxo  is  found  the  lake  of  the  monks, 
with  an  ifland,  and  a  city  in  tlie  middle  of  it, 
which  bears  the  fame  name. 

This  country  is  diviJcd  into  four  principal  ilates, 
t/z  the  kingdom  of  Adel,  which  is  the  largeft,  and 
the  moft  northern  ;  that  of  /Idea,  which  is  in  the 
middle  ;  and  that  of  Magadoxo,  with  the  repub- 
lick  of  Brava,  which  is  the  mofr  fouthern. 

The  inhabitants  of  this  country  are  of  three 
forts:  Some  arc  white  towards  the  coafts:  fomc, 
black  towards  Abyjfima ,  and  others  called  Beduini., 
of  Arabian  extraction,  who  are  vagabonds,  live 
without  laws,  without  care,  and  are  all  thieves. 

The  rcpuWick  of  Brava  is  the  only  one  know^n 
in  Afrka.  The  city  which  is  fituated  on  the 
coaft,  between  Baraboa  and  Magadoxo,  is  go- 
verned by  twelve  Xcqui,  chofcn  among  the  moft 
antient  of  the  families  of  the  fcven  brothers,  by 
whom  it  was  founded.  It  is  tributary  to  the  Por- 
tuguefe, and  the  inhabitants  carry  on  a  great 
commerce  of  gold,  filver,  ivory,  ambergreafe, 
wax,  l^c. 

Coafts  of  Abex.  This  country  extends  from  the 
ftreight  of  Bebe'mandel  to  the  mountauis,  which  part 
it  from  Egypt,  about  the  22  degree  of  latitude  ;  {o 
that  it  takes  up  more  than  350  leagues  of  coafts  on 
tte  Red  fcaj  and  has  not  50  in  its  greateft  breadth, 

and 


GEOGR^PHT. 


5^5 


and  50  in  its  Icflcr.  It  is  almoft  all  defart  and 
tincultivated,  becaufe  of  its  exceflive  beat  and 
want  of  water.  T  he  climate  is  burning  and  iin- 
wholfome ;  the  foil  fandy,  and  flerile,  particularly 
northward. 

The  northern  p.irt  is  in  the  power  of  the  grand 
feignior,  who  keeps  a  Beglierbcg  in  the  city  of 
Suaquen,  fituated  on  the  coaft  of  the  Red  fea ;  he 
IS  called  at  the  pcrte,  the  Btglierbcg  Bafnaw  of 
JbaJJlti. 

The  city  of  Ercoce,  on  the  fame  coaft,  and  the 
ifland  Mafua  over-againft  it,  are  of  this   govern 
ment.     All  the  inhabitants  follow  the  do<ftrine  of 
Alahomtt. 

Eaftward  of  cape  Gard'fay,  is  found,  under 
the  86  degree  of  longitude,  the  ifland  Zoco- 
fra,  whic!i  may  have  45,  or  50  leagues  of  cir- 
cuit. 

The  climate  is  very  hot,  the  foil  dry  and  pretty 
fteriie,  having  nothing  recommendable  but  aloes, 
called  of  its  name  Xocoirina,  and  Sanguis  Druconis, 
whith  it  produces  in  abundance. 

This  ifland  is  in  the  power  of  the  king  of  Far- 
ia.h,  in  /Irabin,  who  keeps  in  it  a  Xequi,  or 
povcrnor.  The  inhabitants  are  idolaters,  and  adore 
(he  moon. 

The  ifland  Madagafcar.  This  illand  is  one  of 
the  greatclt  and  richeft  of  the  whole  world.  The 
natives  give  it  the  name  Madugafcar,  i.  e.  the 
Ifund  of  the  Moon.  That  of  St.  Laurence  was 
given  to  it,  becaufe  difcovered  on  that  faii'.ts  day; 
and  the  French  call  it  Ifle  Dnuphine. 

It  is  fituated  eaftward  of  the  coafts  of  Zanguc- 
iar,  and  of  the  Cafrery.,  between  the  I  2  and  3  6 
degree  of  fouthern  latitude ;  and  extends  from  the 
43  tlegree  of  eaft  longitude,  to  the  5  i ;  fo  that  it  may 
have  about  350  leagues  in  its  greatcft  extent  from 
north  to  fouth,  /'.  e.  from  cape  Natal,  to  cape  iSV. 
Mary;  100  in  its  greateft  breadth;  and  900  of 
circuit. 

The  climate  is  wholefome  enough  and  tempe- 
rate :  The  foil  very  fertile  in  fruits,  as  oranges, 
Jcmons,  (Jc.  and  in  pulfcs.  It  produces  rice,  tot- 
ton,  fugar,  ginger,  faftron,  the  igname,  and  other 
Tcry  good  roots  ;  and  alfo  wax  and  honey.  It  has 
mines  of  gold- and  fdver;  and  feveral  trees  grow 
there  which  are  very  rare  among  us,  as  e' ony, 
-brazil-wood,  red,  yellow,  and  white  fanders. 
Lions,  elephants,-  camels,  and  feveral  other  ani- 
mals are  fo  common  in  it,  tiiat  ibmetimes  a  fhecp 
hasbcL;i  given  for  a  fheet  of  paper,  and  four  cows 
for  a  poor  jaf  ket. 

The  middle  of  this  ifland  is  full  of  forefts  and 
mountains,   from  which  flow   feveral  rivers,   the 


greateft  of  whiih  are,  Janltarok,  Marcucou,  and 
Macabarou, 

It  has  feveral  veiy  commodious  ports,  v'17..  An- 
tongit.,  I  ingagora,  ht.  Andrew,  St.  Atigujlin,  An- 
tipera,  the  port  of  the  gakons,  (sc. 

Thofe  who  inhabit  the  middle  of  the  ifland 
are  brutifh,  wild,  and  without  faith,  like  the 
Cafes  ;  they  go  quite  naked,  and  dwell  in  very 
low  huts.  Thofe  towards  the  coafts  are  a  little 
more  trainable,  and  all  love  pleafure  to  excefs  : 
They  are  witty  enough,  firong  and  courageous. 

Some  are  idolaters,  or  without  the  kaft  ftiadow 
of  religion,  and  thofe  towards  the  coaftg  Maho- 
metans. 

Between  the  weftern  coaft  of  Mcidagafcar, 
and  thofe  of  Zanguebar,  are  found  the  ifles  of 
Coniorra  and  feveral  others  lefs  confiderabic,  as 
thofe  of  ^crimba,  Anifa,  Jan,  Nuova,  which 
will  be  found  in  my  particular  defcription. 

The  ifles  of  Cotncrra  are  fituated  between  the 
II  and  13  degree  of  latitude,  towards  the  72 
and  73  of  longitude. 

I  hey  produce  rice,  banana's,  cocoa-nuts,  oranges, 
lemons;  and  feed  cows,  goats,  fheep,  pigeons, 
hens,  Is'c. 

The  inhabitants  of  thefe  ifles  are  tradtable  enough, 
and  trade  freely  with  the  Pertugicefe  of  Mofam- 
bic^ue 

They  have  each  a  king,  which  every  fhip  at  it? 
arrival,  is  obliged'  to  acknowledge  with  a  prefcnt. 
And  none  but  the  king  wears  cloaths  and  fhoes,  all 
his  fubie(51s  going  naked,  except  that  they  hide 
wh.it  modelTy  forbids  to  expofe  to  publick  view. 

Towards  the  coafts  oi  Zanguebar,  is  found  under 
the  6  degree  of  ibuthern  latitude,  the  ifland  Zanzi- 
bar, from  which  the  v.  hole  country  has  borrowed 
its  name.  Ii  may  have  about  90  leagues  of  cir- 
cuit. The  ifland  Pcmba,  fituated  under  the  4 
degree,  has  more  thin  no  leagues  of  circuit; 
that  ot  A^onfia\\AS,  50. 

Thefe  ifles  produce  rice,  millet,  lemons,  oranges, 
and  fugar-canes,  but  the  inhabitants  have  not  the 
wit. to  purify  the  fugar.  Thev  fee(i  a  great  quan- 
tity of  cattle,  in-  which  coniilts  their  commerce 
with  thofe  of  the  main  land. 

Each  of  thefe  ifles  has  its  particular  king,  who 
are  made  tributary  to  the  king  of  Portugal.  Thefe 
kings,  and  th.-ir  llibjc(5is,  Tii^ 7ii\  Mahome'ans. 

Tne  naii\'es  of  the(e  ifles  are  lean,  pun\-,  ene- 
mies of  war,  applying  tbemrelves  to  agriculture 
and  connmerce..  Their  women  love  to  be  adorned 
Vkitn  chaijis,  bracelets,  ear  rings,  and  other  jewel.?. 
At  so  leagues  diftance  from  the  main  land 
of  the  kingdom  of  Biafn  ra,  is  found  the  ifland 
St.  Thomas  which  has  given  name  to  the  gulnh  in 
which  It  is  fituated  under  the  equator. 


5^0  TIh  Unlverfal  ITiRory  of  ARYs  (JZ)/^  Sciences. 


Its  figure  is  a'.moft  round,  and  fome  lay  that  it 
njay  have  45,  z\v\  others  60  leagues  of  circuit. 

The  climate  ii  unwhollome  for  foreigners,  but 
not  for  the  natives  :  The  foil  proJuecs  all  that  is 
necefiary  for  the  life  of  the  negroes,  but  not  of 
the  Europeans ;  for  it  has  neither  corn  nor  wine, 
but  mai-ic,  palm-trees,  potatoes, .and  a  great  quan- 
tity of  fugar. 

The  Dutch  conquered  t;his  ifiand.  from  the  Por- 
tuguefe^  who  retook  it  afterwards^  and  kc«p  a 
governor  in  the  city  Pavoojim,  which  is  the  capital. 
The  inhabitants  aremoft  of  thenj  catholjcks,  and 
there  is  even  a  bi(hop  in  the  capital. citv.  ..  •..- 

The  IJlanil  of  the  Prince^  was  thus  called  by 
the  Porluguefe,  beeaufe  the  prince  of  Portugal  hzd 
the  revenue  thereof.  ... 

Jt  is  fituated  at  the  north  by  eaft  of  th.-it  of  St. 
Iho/nas,  under  the  7.  degree  of  latitude,  and  the 
32^  30  minutes  of  longitude  i  and  has  about  .^5 
leagues  of  circuit.  .  ' 

1  he  climate  is  wholfome,  and  the  foil,ve)-y  near 
like  that  of  the  ifloUid  St.  Thomas.  It  is  in  the 
power  of  the  Portuguefc,  and  the  inhabitants  arc 
chriftians. 

Tht  ijland  of  Fernando  Poo,  is  fituated  frill  fur- 
ther into  the  gulph  of  St.  Thomas,  between  that 
of  t^e  Prince,  and  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  des  Ca- 
marones,  in  the  main  land,  it  is  very  near  as  big 
as  that  of  St.  Thomas. 

Its  climate  and  foil  is  like  that  of  the  ijland  of 
the  Prince,  and  its  government  and  religion  like- 
wife  the  fame. 

The  ijicind  Jnnobon,  was  thus  called  beeaufe 
eifcovered  the  firft  day  of  the  year. 

It  is  fituated  under  the  28  degree  of  longitude  ; 
and  2°.  30  minutes  of  fouthern  latitude. 

Its  extent,  foil,  government,  and  religion,  is 
y,er;y;little  different  from  that  of  Fernando  Poo. 

IflesofCAPE-VEP.D.  Some  authors  pretend  that 
there  are  twenty  of  them,  but  we  reckon  but  ten 
priiicipal ;  St.  Anthmy,  St.  Vincent,  St.  Lucia, 
St.  Nicolas,  the  if  and  of  Salt,  of  Bona  vifla,  of 
May, .  St.  fames,  Del  Fuego,  and  Bravo. 

They  are  lituated  weftward  of  Nigritia,  between 
the  353. and  the  357  degree  of  longitude,  extend- 
ing from  the  13  degree  30  minutes  of  latitude,  to 
the  19. 

.  The  If  and  St.  James,  is  the  greateft  of  them 
all>  and  may  have  45 'leagues  in  its  greatefi:  length 
from  fouth 'by  ea(V,  to  north  by  wefl,  10  in  its 
greateft  breadth,  and  95  of  circuit. 

The  climate  of  thefe  ifles  is  generally  hot,  and 
unvtdaolfome.  1  he  foil  is  ftony  yet  they  produce 
rice,  maize,  ignana's,  banana's,  lemons,  oranges, 
cocoa-nuts,  pomegranates,  wine,  ajid  cotton:  And 


thefc  fruits  are  gathered  twice  a  year.     They  feed 
a  great  number  of  cattle  and  fowls. 

I'hefe  ifles  were  difcovered  by  a  Genoefe;  they 
are  now  fubj,;i£l  to  the  king  of  Portugal  who  keeps 
a  governor  in  the  city  of  St.  fames,  fituate  in  the 
ifland  of  .the  fame  name.  This  city  is  not  only 
capital  of  the  ifles,  but  likewife  of  all  die  places, 
which  the  Portuguefe  poflefs  on  the  coaft  of  the 
Higher  Guinea.  It  is  an  epifcopal  fee,  fufFra- 
gan  of  Lijhon. 

The  Canary  ifles  are  ten  or  twelve  in  number, 
among  which  tliere  are  fcven  principal,  viz.  the 
Lancelotie,  Forteventura,  Canary,  Teneriff,  Gomer, 
the  ifland  Del  Ferro,  and  that  of  Palma. 

H  hey  extend  from  the  firit  degree  of  longitude, 
to  beyond  the  28  or  i.<),  if  we  will  fpeak  of  the 
four  fruall  ones,  which  are  northward  of  Lancelotte. 

The  climate  of  thefe  ifles  is  very  good,  though 
a  Jiitle  hot.  7"he  foil  is  very  fertile  in  all  things, 
and  produces  wheat,  barley,  millet,  and  delicious 
wines,  which  are  exported  throughout  all  Europe; 
and  likewife  all  forts  of  excellent  fruits,  as  figs, 
oranges,  lemons,  pomegranates,  fugar,  i^c.  It 
feeds  a  great  quantity  of  goats  and  wild  afles. 

In  the  ifland  Teneriff,  there  is  towards  the  rnitT; 
die  a  high  mountain,  by  the  Spaniards  called  El 
Pico,  which  rifes  like  a  fugar  loaf,  and  palTes  for 
the  highell  of  the  whole  world.  .  ■ 

The  inhabitants  of  thefe  ifles  are  almolt  all 
Spaniards.     The  natives  are  great  epicures. 

They  are  fubjefls  of  the  king  of.  Spain,  who 
keeps  a  viceroy,  or  governor,  in  the  city  of  Cana-iyf 
fituated  in  the  ifland  of  the  fame  name.  There  is 
in  that  capital  a  royal  audience,  a  biihop,  and  an 
inquifition. 

The  ifland  Madera,  is  fituated  under  the  firft 
degree  30  minutes  of  longitude,  and  under  the  32 
degree  30  minutes  of  latitude:  20  leagues  in  length, 
8  in  its  greateft  breadth,  and  40  of  circumference. 

The  climate  is  much  more  temperate  than  in  the 
Canaries,  and  the  foil  flill  more  fertile  in  corn, 
wine,  fugar,  and  fruits :  it  is  watered  with  five  or 
^\x  rivers.  When  it  was  difcovered  by  the  Portu- 
guefe in  1420,  it  was  all  covered  with  w-ood^ 
whence  it  takes  its  name :  for  Madera  in  Fortti^ 
guefe  fignifies  timber  or  wood. 

The  king  of  Portugal's  governor  refides  at  Forfr 
xal,  the  capital  of  Madera,  an  epifcopal  fee,  fuffra- 
gan  of  Lifion, 

The  ifles  Azores  may  be  ranked  among  thofp 
Africa,  though  very  diftant  from  it. 

They  are  found  between  the  36  and  40  degree 
of  latitude,    and  between  the  346  and  the   354 

of 


GEOGRAPHY. 


of  our  longitude :  but  the  Dutch  make  their  firft 
meridian  to  pals  at  the  iflaiiJ  Tcrceira,  which  is  the 
moft  confiderablc  of  all. 

The  climate  is  very  wholfome,  and  the  foil 
very  fertile  in  corn,  wine,  and  fruits. 

Thefe  ifles  are  nine  in  number,  and  thu  mofl: 
confiderable  of  all  is  the  ifland  Terceira.,  it  having 
15  or  16  leagues  of  circumference  ;  and  its  capital 
is  Jugerc^  which  is  an  cpifcopal  fee. 

Thefe  ifles  began  to  be  inhabited  by  the  Partu- 
guefe  about  the  year  1449  ;  and  ever  fmce  that 
time  they  have  remained  in  their  power,  except 
during  the  ufurpation  of  the  kings  of  Spain. 

Having  travelled  through  the  different  parts, 
which  compofe  the  antient  world,  I  will  pafs  to  the 
other  continent;  fo  called,  becaufe  on  the  furface  of 
the  globe  it  is  fcparated  from  our  continent  by  the 
fea;  new,  becaufe  it  was  not  known  300  years 
ago  ;  inferior,  becaufe  in  the  vulgar's  opinion  it 
iaould  be  under  ours  ;  zvejlern,  becaufe  it  is  de- 
Ibribed  weftward  of  the  firft  meridian,  in  the  map 
of  the  terreftrial .  globe ;  America,  from  the  name 
of  one  of  the  firft  navigators  who  difcovered  it  j 
and  laftly,  the  vulgar  gives  it  the  name  of  JVeJl- 
Indics,  Indies,  becaufe  its  riches  equal  thofe  of  the 
true  hidies  j  and  iveji,  becauie  they  are  weftward 
of  Europe. 

America,  extends  from  the  63  degree  of 
northern  latitude,  at  the  ftraiglit  of  Hudjon,  to 
that  of  Magellan,  under  the  54  of  the  fouthern; 
and  from  Aguh(%a  del  Goto,  below  the  ifland  of 
California,  under  the  240  degree  of  longitude,  to 
the  moft  advanced  point  of  the  Brazil,  under  the 

348- 

Northward  it  confines  with  the  tea,  which  parts 

it  from  Greenland,  by  tlic  Straight  of  Hiidfon,  &c. 

Eaftward  with  the  Atlautick  Ocean;  fouthv.'ard  with 

the  Straight   of   Magellan,    which   parts    it    from 

Terra'' del  Fiicgo  ;  and  weftward  with  the  Pacifick 

Ocean,  or  South -Sea. 

This  quarter  of  the  world  confifts  of  continent  01 
main  land,  and  of  a  number  of  iflands  ;  and  is  di- 
vided amongrt  various  proprietors  or  ftates  in 
Europe  ;  whofe  claim  to  their  refpeflive  provinces 
and  iflands  is  founded  upon  preoccupany  or  their  firft 
difcovery  and  pofieiIion:or  upon  conqueft.  There- 
fore we  fhall  divide  our  furvey  thereof, 

firjl,  into  north  SLudfouth  America. 

Secondly,  into  continent  and  iflands. 

Thirdly,  into  their  refpective,^awrn;w«/j-  or  con- 
nexions with  the  powers  in  Europe. 

Fiifl,  South  America  is  a  great  peninfula, 
which  extends  between  292  and  the  348  degree  of 

27 


587 


lougitnde ;  from  cape  Coquibocoa,  under  the  12 
degree  30  minutes  of  northern  latitude,  to  the  ftraight 
oi  iMagellan,  under  54  of  the  fouthern:  fo  that  it 
may  have  1330  leagues  in  its  greateft  extent  from 
north  to  fouth,  and  1140  in  its  greateft  breadth 
from  eaft  to  weft,  and  very  near  5000  of  circuit. 

It  is  chiefly  under  the  dominion  of  Spain,  and 
contains  Terra  Firma,  Pe^  u.  Chili,  La  Plata,  or 
Paraguay. 

Terra  Firma,  formerly  known  by  the  name  of 
Caflill.'i  de  Oro,  is  the  northernmoft  province  oi South 
America,  and  extends  between  the  12  degree  3b 
minutes  of  northern  latitude,  from  the  ifthmus  of 
Panama,  under  the  293  of  longitude,  to  the  328 
degree  30  minutes,  having  fouthward  the  country 
of  the  Amazons,  with  Peru  ;  and  northward,  the 
northern  fea. 

The  climate  is  extremely  hot,  and,  notwith- 
ftanding,  very  wholfome,  except  towards  the  ifth- 
mus of  Panama,  where  the  land  is  very  marfhy, 
and  the  heat  would  be  infupportable,  if  not  a  little 
temperated  by  the  northern  winds.  The  foil  pro- 
duces but  little  corn,  but  a  great  quantity  of  maize, 
except  in  tlie  places  where  it  is  traverfed  with 
marfhes  and  mountains  ;  it  is  fertile  enough  in 
pafture,  and  abounds  in  cattle,  as  cows,  fheep, 
hogs,  and  others.  It  produces  feveral  fruits  un- 
known to  us,  as  ananas,  Indian  figs,  ^c.  but 
not  equally  every  where.  There  is  found  in  it  a 
great  quantity  of  gold,  filver,  copper,  and  azure; 
rocks  of  emeralds,  and  feme  other  precious  ftones. 

The  molt  remarkable  of  its  rivers  arc  that  of 
Oronoque,  which  fprings  from  it,  and  traverfes  it 
through  all  its  courfe  ;  thofe  of  the  Magdelen,  Rio 
Grande,  and  St.  Martha,  which  join  together  be- 
tween the  governments  of  Carthagma  and  of  St. 
Martha  :  it  has  likewife  tlie  lake  Parime  under  the 
equator,  at  3  tg  degree  of  longitude,  ail  environed 
with  mountains,  1  29  leagues  long,  40  or  50  broad, 
and  which  may  have  3ooof  circuit.  A  little  higher 
the  lake  CaJ/ipal,  under  the  4  degree  of  latitude, 
and  which  is  more  than  100  leagues  round;  and 
.another  30  leagues  diftant  from  the  lake  Pariu.e, 
caftwa-d,  and  which  may  have  90  of  circuit. 

This  province  is  divided  into  eleven  govern- 
ments ;  feven  of  which  are  on  the  northern  fea, 
going  from  eaft  to  weft,  viz.  Cajlilla  de  Oro,  cr 
Terra  Firma,  Cnrthagena,  Santa  Martha,  Rio  de 
la  Hatha,  Ventze^ila,  Na.va  A-iidahfa,  and  Cari- 
hana.  The  four  others  arc  found  fouthward  of 
tiicfe,  returning  from  eaft  to  weft,  in  this  order, 
Guiana,  Paria,  Neuva  Granaia,  and  Popayana,  m 
part;  the  other  part  is  in  the  government  of  Peru. 

The  capital  city  is  Santa  Fe  de  Begotta,  fituated 
in  the  province  oi  Neuva  Granada  ;  it  is  an  arcbi- 

4  F  ep*f- 


588  H^e  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  fl;«(a^ Sciences. 


Cpifcopal  fee,  the  feat  of  a  governor,    and  of  the 
royal  audience  of  hll  the  Terra  Flrma. 

'!"he  natives  are  well  {haped,  and  of  a  brafs 
colour;  they  go  naked  to  the  waift. 

Peru  is  fituated  between  the  292  and  316  degree 
of  longitude  ;  exending  on  the  Sr,ufh-Sea,  from  the 
5  degree  of  northern  latitude,  including  the  coun- 
try of  Popayann,  to  the  26  degree  of  the  fouthern  ; 
fo  that  it  may  have  660  leagues  of  coafts,  260  in 
its  greateft  breadth  from  calf  to  weft,  and  140  in 
its  lefler. 

It  confines  eaflward  with  Paraguds,  and  the 
country  of  the  Amazons,  from  which  it  is  feparated 
by  its  river,  and  that  of  Maragnari,  which  fprings 
from  it;  northward  with  the  m  tin -land;  fouth- 
ward  with  Paraguay,  Tucttmano,  and  Chili, 

The  climate  is  various.  It  is  very  hot  at 
all  times  in  the  vallies,  becaufe  it  never  rains  there, 
and  a  very  great  cold  is  fometimes  felt  on  the  moun- 
tains,  becaufe  of  the  frequi-nt  and  violent  winds : 
there  are  very  few  rivers  in  it,  and  it  has  neither 
fountains  nor  wells. 

The  foil,  though  verv  dry,  is  fertile  enough, 
particularly  towards  the  rivers,  where  grows  wheat, 
maize,  fugar-canes,  cotton,  and  excellent  wine  in 
fome  places.  In  the  valleys  is  found  a  plant  of  fin- 
gular  virtue,  called  cocoa,  whofe  leaf  being  put 
into  the  mouth,  nouriihes  and  is  a  prefervative 
againft  hunger  and  thirlf. 

Peru  is  divided  into  three  principal  governments, 
or  provinces,  which  are  Peru,  Los  Choreas,  and 
^ito  :  the  firft  is  in  the  middle,  the  fecond  is 
fouthward,  where  is  found  the  rich  mine  of  Potofi  ; 
and  the  third  is  northward,  fubdivided  into  three 
fmall  provinces,  which  are  ^ito,  weftward  ; 
Los  ^ixos,  and  Pacamores,  eaftward  ;  one  at  the 
Jiorth,  the  other  at  the  fouth. 

Lima,  or  Los  Reyes,  fituated  on  the  coaft,  is 
the  capital  of  the  whole  province,  and  the  refidence 
of  the  viceroy  of  South  America:  it  is  honoured 
with  an  archiepifcopal  fee,  a  royal  audience,  and  an 
imiverfity  ;  but  curfed  with  an  inquifition. 

Ciifco,  was  antiently  the  place  where  the  Incas, 
iir  kin^s  of  Peru    kept  their  court  ;  and  is,  at  pre 
fent,  an  epifcopal  fee.      Plata,  in  the  province  of 
Los  Choreas,  is  adorned  with  an  archiepifcopal  fee. 

The  natives  of  Peru  are  inconftant  and  with- 
out faith ;  thofe  who  inhabit  the  mountains, 
and  near  the  equator,  are  more  ingenious :  thefe 
people  are  v/hiter  than  the  Spaniards,  though  they 
inhabit  the  torrid  zone. 

TucuMANo.  It  extends  between  the  303  and 
317  degree  of  longitude,  from  the  23  to  37  of 
latitude :    fo  that  it  has  about  280  leagues  in    its 


greateft  extent  from  fouth  to  north  ;  and  more  than 
200  from  eaft  to  weft. 

It  confines  eastward  with  Paraguay,  fouthward 
with  the  Palagons,  weftward  with  Chili  and  Peru, 
and  northward  with  the  fame  province,  l^c. 

The  climate  is  temperate ;  the  foil  fertile  in 
pafture,  produces  very  fine  cotton,  and  feeds  a  vaft 
number  of  ftneep  ;  but  it  has  no  mines  of  metals. 

The  moft  remarkable  of  its  rivers  are  thofe  of 
Plata,  Dejaguadero,  Barharanna,  and  Rio  Vermejo, 
or  Salado. 

The  people  are  not  fo  wild  here,  as  in  the  other 
provinces  ;  they  love  working  ;  they  are  vindidlive 
when  they  have  been  offended. 

Part  of  this  province  is  yet  in  the  pofleflion  of 
the  natives,  who  chufe  from  among  themfelves 
Caciques,  or  commanders  to  govern  them,  and  lead 
them  to  war.  The  other  part  which  the  Spaniards 
have  conquered,  is  in  the  power  of  the  catholic 
king,  who  keeps  a  governor  in  the  city  oi'Jago  del 
S.  Ejlero.  This  city,  which  was  called  Varco,  is 
fituated  on  the  river  Plata,  i?  the  capital  of  the 
province,  and  the  feat  of  a  governor,  and  of  a 
bifhop. 

Chili.  This  country'  is  called  Chilt  by  the 
natives,  /.  e.  cold,  in  their  language,  becaufe  the 
climate  is  extremely  cold  bv  its  fituation,  which  is 
between  the  296  and  308  degree  of  longitude,  ex- 
tendino;  alon^;  the  coalts  from  the  26  of  latitude  to 
the  47  :  fo  that  it  has  about  420  leagues  in  length 
from  north  to  fouth,  150  in  its  greateft  breadth, 
and  90  in  its  lefler. 

It  confines  northward  with  Peru;  eaftward  with,, 
Tuciimano,  and  Magellanick  land,  from  which  it  is- 
feparated  by  a  long  ridge  of  mountains,  called  by 
the  Spaniards,  Sierra  Nuevada  de  los  Andes ;  fouth- 
ward with  the  Patagons. 

The  climate  is  very  near  the  fame  as  in  Spain  ; 
except  in  the  winter,  which  is  fometimes  fo  ex- 
ceflively  cold,  that  it  kills  men  and  beafts,  parti- 
cularly on  the  mountains;  which,  notwithftanding, 
the  foil  is  fertile  enough  in  corn  and  maiz.  It 
produces  wine  like  that  of  France,  and  a  great 
quantity  of  all  forts  of  European  and  American 
fruits.  It  has  mines  of  gold,  and  the  meadows 
are  covered  with  a  great  number  of  flieep,  almoft 
as  big  as  camels. 

It  has  feveral  rivers  which  freeze  during  .the 
night,  and  thaw  in  the  day  time,  but  they  are  not 
confiderable. 

This  province  is  divided  into  three  other  fmall 
ones,  which  are  Chill,  Imperial,  and  Chiculto. 
The  two  firft  are  on  the  coafts,  one  northward, 
the  other  ibuthward;  and  the  laft  is  eaftward,  fepa- 
rated 


G    E    0    G    R    A    P    H    Y. 


589 


rated  from  the  two  others  by  a  ridge  of  mountains, 
called  Cordcleras. 

The  city  of  Conception,  was  once  the  capital  of 
Chili,  and  the  feat  of  a  royal  audience,  which  was 
afterwards  transferred  to  Peru ;  but  at  prefcnt  St. 
"jfago  has  that  advantage,  being  the  feat  of  a  go- 
vernor, and  of  a  bifhop. 

The  Chilians  are  ambitious,  impatient,  bold,  and 
very  brave.  They  bear  eafily  all  forts  of  incom- 
modities,  are  ftrong,  tall,  and  well  proportioned. 
They  excrcife  their  children  to  run,  hunt,  and  to 
ufe  arms,  the  moft  confiderable  among  them  are 
thofe  of  the  valleys  of  Arauco,  Tucapcl,  and  Puren, 
which  the  Spaniards  could  never  conquer.  They 
are  commonly  covered  with  (kins  of  beafts. 

The  province  of  Chili  depends  in  part  on  the 
viceroyalty  of  Peru,  under  the  direftion  of  a  go- 
vernor, fent  thither  by  the  king  of  Spain,  and  in 
part  is  in  the  power  of  the  favages,  who  chufe 
from  among  them  caciques,  or  captains  to  lead 
them  to  war,  to  adminifter  juftice,  and  the  pub- 
lick  affairs. 

The  greatcfl  part  of  the  natives  are  yet  idolaters, 
and  adore  the  devil,  whom  they  call  Eponamon, 
i.  e.  powerful. 

Magellanick  land  or  Patagonia.  This 
province,  which  the  natives  call  ChiJJ'a,  is  called 
Magellanick  Land,  from  the  name  of  the  perfon, 
who  difcovered  it.  Some  call  it.  Country  of  the 
Patagons,  from  the  name  of  its  inhabitants. 

It  is  more  advanced  towards  the  fouth,  than  all 
the  other  provinces  of  America,  and  extends  like 
a  point  into  the  fea,  called  alio  Magellanick,  be- 
tween the  296  and  322  degrees  30 minutes  from  the 
36  de2:ree  of  fouthern  latitude,  to  the  Streight  of 
Magellan,  under  the  54  ;  fo  that  it  may  have  about 
400  leagues  in  its  greatcfl  extent  from  eaft  to  wefl, 
and  360  from  north  to  fouth. 

The  Paraguay,  Tucnmano,  and  Chili,  confine  it 
northward  ;  and  the  ftreight  fouthward. 

The  climate  of  this  country  is  very  cold,  and 
the  foil  not  very  fertile,  except  in  paftures  and 
forefts. 

Its  rivers  are  the  Defaguedero,  which  comes 
from  Chili,  and  pafles  in  the  Tucwnano,  and  the 
Rio  de  Its  Camarones,  which  are  pretty  confiderable. 

The  Patagons  are  flrong,  bold,  and  very  fwift, 
•  love  hunting,  and  dancing,  live  without  care, 
paint  their  faces,  cut  their  hair  fliort,  and  cover 
themfelves  with  fkins  of  beafts. 

We  know  nothing  of  their  government,  nor  of 
their  religion.  They  only  fay  that  they  fear  a 
great  horned  devil,  which  they  call     etebos, 

Paraguay.  This  province,   which  the  mo- 


derns call  Paraguay,  from  the  name  of  a  river, 
which  waters  it,  is  called  by  Hcrrera,  Rio  de  la 
Plata,  from  the  name  of  another  river  more  con- 
fiderable than  the  firft. 

It  extends  between  the  309  and  the  338  degree 
of  longitude,  from  the  21  of  fouthern  latitude,  to 
the  37  ;  fo  that  it  may  have  about  500  leagues  in 
length  and  breadth. 

It  confines  eaftward  with  the  northern  fea; 
northward  with  Brajil,  and  the  country  of  the 
Amazons ;  weftward  with  Peru,  Tucumao,  and  the 
Magellanick  Lands   and   fouthward  with  the  ocean. 

The  climate  is  very  temperate  and  wholfome. 
The  foil  very  fertile  in  corn,  fruits,  and  cotton  ; 
has  beautiful  meadows  round  its  rivers,  which  arc 
in  great  number,  and  marfhes  full  of  fugar-canes. 
A  great  quantity  of  filver  is  found  at  the  bottom 
of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  from  which  its  name  has  been 
formed. 

In  the  great  number  of  its  rivers,  there  are  fix 
principal  ones,  viz.  Rio  de  la  Plata,  Paraguay^ 
Parana,  Vraguay,  Rio  Bianco,  and  Rio  Vermejo ; 
the  firfl  receive  the  waters  of  five  others. 

The  Spaniards  divide  this  whole  country  into 
fix  principal  parts  or  provinces,  three  of  which 
are  Ibuthward,  viz.  Rio  de  la  Plata,  Parana,  and 
Uraguay.  1  he  three  others,  Paraguay,  Chaco,  and 
Guayra,   are  northward. 

The  king  of  Spain  is  almoft  entire  mafter  of 
the  whole  country ;  and  there  are  but  very  few 
people  who  are  not  fubjecl  or  tributary  to  him. 
He  keeps  a  governor  there,  who  anfwers  to  the 
viceroy  of  Peru,  and  refijes  in  the  City  of  the 
Ajjiunption,  capital  of  the  whole  country,  fituated 
on  the  river  Paraguay  ;  this  city  is  adorned  with  a 
royal  audience,  and  is  an  epifcopal  fee,  as  well  as 
Buenos  Ayres,  and  Paraguay,  whofe  bifhops  are 
fuffragan  of  the  archbifhop  of  La  Plata. 

The  Jefuits  claim  the  Ibvereignty  of  the  whole 
country  between  the  river  Paraguay  and  Brazil; 
a  moil:  defirable  fituation  both  for  the  climate  and 
foil,  it  being  allowed  to  be  one  of  the  moft  fruitful 
countries  in  the  world. 

The  Portugucfe  have  very  extenfive  dominion* 
on  this  continent  of  South  America,  and  havegivea 
them  the  name  of  Brazil. 

Brazil.  This  country  was  difcovered  in  1501, 
by  Alvarez  Cabral,  a  Portuguefe,  and  is  the  mofi 
eaftern  of  all  America,  extending  between  the  322, 
and  the  349  degree  of  longitude,  from  the  firft 
degree  of  fouthern  latitude,  to  the  tropick  of 
Capricorn,  being  2500  miles  in  length  and  700 
miles  broad. 

It  confines  northward  and  eaftward  with  the 
northern  fea  j  fouthwajd  with  the  Paraguay ;  and 

4  F  2  we  ft  ward 


:^go  The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  consciences. 


weftward  with  the  fame  country,  and  that  of  the 
Amdtom. 

The  climate  is  hot,  but  very  wholfomc,  and 
agreeable;  the  foil  is  very  fertile  in  pafiiires :  It 
bears  feveral  forts  of  fruits,  as  orangp';,  and  lemons, 
anana's,  acajou's,  araticou's,  potatoes,  and  feveral 
others  unknowji  to  us,  as  the  aypi^  ami  nwhiH, 
of  which  they  make  bread  and  pap.  Its  greateft 
fertility  is  in  fugar;  it  produces  alfo  tobac  o,  and 
trees,  commonly  callec\  brazil-wood,  of  which 
there  are  whole  forefts.  It  abounds  with  gold  and 
diamonds. 

■'  The  moflrremarkable  among  the  rivers  which  all 
fpring  from,  and  roll  their  waters  in  that  country, 
are  the  Miary,  Pinara,  Taboucow-ou,  Siope,  that 
of  S.  Frtificis,  and  feveral  others. 

The  Brazilims  are  cruel,  vindidtive,  and  very 
violent;  but  they  are  very  patient  and  abftemious. 
They  are  bold,  and  even  raih  on  occafions. 

The  middle  of  the  country  is  inhabited  by  feveral 
different  people,  among  which  the  Topi?iambi7s,  the 
Marjogas,  tne  Ouitafe,  the  Paraibas,  and  the 
I'apoujh^  are  the  moft  confiderable.  The  one  are 
governed  by  a  chief,  whom  they  chufe  among  the 
moft  notable:  the  others,  vi%.  the  Maramonlns, 
Coriges,  &c.  live  without  law,  and  without  con- 
dudtor. 

The  Portugucfe  are  mafters  of  all  the  coafts  ; 
and  of  about  150  or  160  leagues  further  into  the 
inland.  This  part  is  divided  into  fourteen  Capi- 
taneries,  eleven  of  which  are  found  on  the  eaftern 
coaft,  afcending  from  fouth  to  north  in  the  fol- 
Jowing  order:  firft,  San  Fincente,  Rio  Janeiro, 
Spiriiu  Santo.  Port  St-guro,  Itheos,  Balria,  Sere- 
g'ppe,  Permimbuco,  Tamaraca,  Paraibn,  and  Rio 
Grande.  The  three  others  are  fituated  on  the 
northern  coaft,  alfo  in  order,  going  from  eaft  to 
weft,  and  are  Siara,  Al:iragnan,  and  Para.  There 
is  a  governor  in  each  capitanate,  all  ot  them  under 
the  diredlion  of  the  viceroy  of  the  whole  country, 
who  rehdes  at  St.  Salvador,  capital  of  the  whole 
province,  and  fituated  m  the  Bay  of  all  Saints,  on 
the  eaftern  coaft;  it  is  alio  an  epifcopal  fee. 

Country  of  the  Amazons.  I  call  by  this  name, 
not  only  the  Guiana  of  the  antients,  but  likewife, 
the  whole  extent  of  the  country  Vv-hich  is  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  great  river  of  the  Ama%on!, 
between  the  300  and  the  328  degree  of  longitude, 
and  extending  from  the  fecond  of  northern  lati- 
tude to  the  16  of  the  fouthern ;  fo  that  it  may 
have  near  560  leagues  in  length,  and  near  300  in 
breadth. 

This  country  conSnes  eaftward  with  Brazil; 
northward  with  Terra  Firma,  weftward  with  Pent ; 
and  fouthward  with  the  Paraguay. 


Th»  climate  is  hotter  here  than   in   any  other 
part  of  America.     The  foil   is  fertile  in   meadows, 
but  wc  know  very  little  elfe  of  the  country,  ex- 
cept that  it  muft  have   mines  of  gold,  becaufc  the 
natives  change  thatjmetal  for  European  commodities. 
'Ihe   river  of   Am  -zcnt  traverfes   all   this   vaft 
country,  from  weft  to  eaft,  rolling  its  waters  in  an 
extent  of  more  than  700  leagues,  forming  feveral 
ifles  in  its  courfe,  as  towards  Peru,  that  inhabited 
by  the  Homagui ;  the  ifland  of  the  Tapiiiabous,  and 
(everal  others  at  its   mouth,  which   is   50  or   60 
leagues  broad.  This  river  receives  feveral  other  great 
rivers,  fouthvvard,  as  Maragnon,  Ainarumaye,  Tapy 
Catua,  Cufgnares,  Cayana,  and  Topayfa,  the  leffer 
whereof  is  mprethan  200  leagues  long;  and  north- 
ward the  Rio  Nrgro  which  is  a  branch  of  Oronoque, 
Several  dift'eient  people  inhabit  this  count;ry,  the 
principal  prcv-rrrccs  whereof  are  Caribana,  Aparia, 
Apanta,  and  Coropos,  northward  of  the  great  river  j 
Cayana,   Mataya,  Para?j(iyba,  &c   fouthward  of  it. 
Thefe   people   are    wild,    cruel,    and  go   quite 
naked,   men  and   women  without  ftiame.      They 
have  always  their  bodies  pai.-ited  of  different  co- 
lours, and  covered  with  feveral  little  ftones,  thruft 
into  the  fkin  from  their  infancy. 

Lvery  one  lives  as  he  plcafes,  for  they  have  nei- 
ther chief,  nor  condudtor;  doing  themfelves  juftice 
for  the  wrongs  they  have  received. 

North-America.  The  northern  continent  of 
the  new  world  is  divided  amongft  other  fovereigns. 

This  fecond  part  of  the  NEW  world  is,  in  the 
opinion  of  fome,  a  great  peninfula^  whofe  extent 
and  limits,  weftward  and  northward,  are  not  cer- 
tainly known,  towards  which,  fome  Geographers 
imagine,  that  it  is  joined  to  the  Ar£lick  land. 

1  he  Dutch  make  it  to  extend  from  the  S'treight 
of  Anian,  under  the  195  degree  of  longitude  of 
the  firft  meridian  of  the  Azores,  i.  e.  about  the 
187  of  the  ifland  Del  Ferro,  to  the  330 ;  and 
from  the  ijlhmus  of  Panama,  under  the  7  degree 
and  50  minutes  of  latitude,  to  beyond  the  63. 

Great  Britain  claims  all  that  tradtof  land, 
which  is  bounded  by  the  Froztit  ocean,  on  the 
north;  bv  the  Atlantic  ocean,  on  the  eaft:  by 
Florida,  on  the  fouth,  and  by  unknown  lands  on 
the  weft. 

Within  thefe  bounds  are  fituate  Neiv  Britaip 
or  Efkimaux,  Britijh  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  New 
England,  New  Tori,  the  'Jerfeys,  Penfihania, 
Maryland,  Virginia,  North  and  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia. 

New-Britain.  This  country  called  alfo 
EJkimauxy  including  Britijh  Canady,  and  Hudfon's 

bay. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


bay,  contains  1600  miles  in  length,  and  1200 
miles  in  breadth  ;  bounded  by  unknown  l;nds, 
about  the  pole  on  the  north;  by  the  Atlantic  and 
Boffin's  bay  on  the  eaft  ;  by  the  bay  and  river  of 
St.  Laitrntcc,  and  French  Canada  on  the  ibuth  ; 
and  by  unknown  lands  on  the  weft. 

It  is  watered  with  the  Black  river,  Riifert  river, 
Albany  or  Chickcrvan  river,  Moofe  ri\'er,  Severn 
river,  Nelfon  river,  Berray  rirer,  Mercour.  river, 
and  Merrtckh  river. 

Within  this  region  we  have  divers  feas,  bays, 
ftraights  and  capes,  which  take  their  names  from  the 
difcoverers.  ' 

The  Seas  that  border  on  thefe  countries  are  the 
Atlantic  ocean  and  theextenfive  fea,  called  Hudfon's 
bay;  in' whicli  are  many  leffer  bays,  us  jfawes's 
bay,  Biittons's  bay,  Baffin  s  bay,  Sir  Thomas  Roes 
welcome,  Brig's  bay,  Cumberland's  bay  ;  and  the 
ports  or  bays  of  Rupert,  Albany,  Nelfon,  and 
ChurchU!. 

The  Bays  in  Neiu-Britaiu  zveEJklmaux,  Hcld- 
ivith-Hcpe,  and  Phillipeaux. 

The   Straits  are   Hudfon,  Davis,  z.ni  BelHjJe. 

The  Cap£s  are  Cape  Caries  on  the  ftraights  of 
B  Uif.e;  Cape  Defire  at  the  entrance  of  Hudfon's 
ftraight.  Cape  Henry,  Cape  James,  and  Cape  IVor- 
fcnham  near  the  entrance  of  Hudfon's  bay ;  Cape 
'Henrietta  and  Maria  on  the  fouth  weft  part  of  the 


591 


Of  the  feathered  kind  they  havs  geefe,  buftard,-, 
ducks,  partridges,  and  all  manner  of  wild  fowl. 

Of  fifh,  there  are  whales,  morfes,  feals,  cod  fifh, 
and  a  white  fiili  preferable  to  herrings  ;  and  in 
their  rivers  and  frefh  waters,  pike,  perch,  carp,  and 
trout.  Their  foxes,  hares,  and  partridges  turn 
white  in  the  winter  ;  their  partridges  are  as  large  a» 
hens.  There  have  been  taken  at  port  Nelfon,  in  one 
feafon,  90,000  partridges,  and  25,000  hares. 

The  food  of  tiie  Indians  is  chiefly  what  they  take 
in  hunting  or  fifhing. 

The  Engli/h  kill  beef,  pork,  mutton,  and  venifon, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  winter.  Thefe  are  preferved 
by  the  froft  fix  or  feven  months  free  from  putre- 
fadion  :  alfo  geefe,   partridges,   and   other  fowls, 

"  d  at  the  fame  time,  are  hung  up  with  their 
feathers  on,  and  their  guts  in,  and  hold  good  all  the 
winter.  In  lakes  and  ft.uiding  waters,  which  are 
not  ten  feet  deep,  the  water  is  frozen  to  the  bot- 
tom, and  the  fifh  killed  ;  but  in  waters  of  greater 
depth,  and'  rivers  near  the  fea,  the  fifh  are  caught 
all  the  winter,  by  cutting  holes  in  the  ice,  to  which 
they  come  for  air. 

As  foon  as  they  are  taken  out  of  the  water,  they 
are  immediately  frozen  .ind  ftift',  but  may  bethaw'd 
again  by  being  immerfed  in  cold  water. 

And  thus  it  is  that  people  thaw  and  frefhen  their 
faltprovifion  here  :  they  let  do'A'n  the  meat  through 


hay,  and  Cape  Comfort,  and  Cape  A£'umption  on  I  a  hole  in  the  ice  into  the  water,  and  in  a  little  time 
the  north  part  of  the  bay.  it  becomes   foft  and  pliable,  as  if  it  never  was  fro- 

This  country  is  full  of  lakes,  bogs,  morafles,  j  zen,  and  eats  very  well ;  whereas,  if  you  roaft  or 
which  being  covered  with  ice  and  fnow  great  part  boil  it  while  it  is  frozen,  it  will  be  fpoiled,  and  eat 
of  the  year,  makes  the  air  exceflive  cold.  as  if  it  was  rotten. 

The  natives  are  favage  heathens  :  but  the  EngUJh        There  is  no  want  of  food  in  Hudfon^s  bay,  at  any 


have  fettlements  on  the  weft-  fide  of  Hudfpns  bay, 
called  fort  Churchill.  Neljov,Ne:v  Severn, ^i\A  fortAl- 
tany, {uhjtct  to  the  diredtion  of  the  Hud fonh^y com- 
pany,  who  claim  by  charter  an  exclufive  right,  to  the 
trade  and  country  within  the  limits  of  the  northern- 
moft  feas  and  continent;  on  condition  of  their  mak- 
ing a  fearch  for,  and  attempting  to  difcover  a  padage 
through  thofe  feas  to  the  Eaji-Indics  and  China. 
But  how  far  their  diligence  in  this  grand  attempt 
is  to  be  commended,  is  too  well  known  by  their 
difcouragement  of  eveiy  projeifl  for  carrying  ii 
into  execution,  and  by  their  abandoning  Fort 
Charles  and  Fort  Rupert,  and  feveral  more  fituate 
at  the  bottom  of  the  bay,  to  the  French,  rather 
'than  be  at  the  charge  of  maintaining  them  againft 
thofe  competitors  for  trade. 

The  north  part  of  the  EfJcimaux    is  generally 
known  by  the  name  of  Terra  dc  Labrador. 


time  of  the  year.  In  April  come  the  geefe,  buftards, 
and  ducks,  of  which  they  kill  as  many  as  they 
pleafe.  About  the  fame  time  they  take  great  num- 
bers of  rein  deer,  and  thofe  do  not  return  to  the 
north  till  July  or  yluguli.  In  the  fummer  alfo  they 
take  pike,  trout  and  carp,  and  a  white  nfh  like  a 
herring  ;  and,  in  the  beginning  of  winter,  all  man- 
ner of  wild  fowl  return  ai;ain. 

There  eome  down  ufually  to  port  Nelfn,  every 
feafon  to  trade  with  the  Englijh,  a  thoufand  men, 
and  feme  Indian  wom.cn  in  about  600  canoes.  They 
come  from  far  diftant  countries,  and  are  much  de- 
layed in  their  voyages,   bv  being  obliged  to  go  on 
(hore  every  day   to  hunt  for  provifions  ;  for  their 
canoes  are  fo  (mail    holding  only  two  men  and  a 
pack  of  a  hundred  beaver  (kins,  that  they  cannot 
carry  much   provifion  with  them ;  and  they  are  fo 
difcouraged   by   the  high  price  the  company  fets 
Their  animals  are    the  moufe  deer  or  elk,  (tags,   upon  the' European  goods,  that  if  it  were  not  for 
rein   deer,   bears,   tygers,  buifaloes,  wolves,  foxes,   the  necelTity  they  are  under  of  having  guns,  pow- 
beavers,  otters,  lynk'Sj  martins,  fquirrels,  ermins,  der,  and  fhot,  hatchets,  and  other  iron  tools  for 


wild  cats,  and  hares. 


bunting. 


s^« 


TJjz  Univ(^i5ral'Bffto'ry 


hunting,  with  tobacco,  brandy,  and  paint,  they 
■would  not  go  down  to  the  factory  at  all. 

When  the  Indians  came  to  the  factory  in  June 
1742,  they  could  get  but  a  pound  of  gunpowder  for 
four  beaver  fkins,  a  pound  of  fhot  for  one  beaver, 
an  ell  of  coarfe  cloth  for  fifteen,  a  blanket  for  twelve, 
two  fifh -hooks  or  tlircc  flints  for  one,  a  gun  for  25 
(kins,  a  piftol  for  ten,  a  hat  with  a  white  lace  for 
feven,  an  ax  for  four,  a  hedging  bill  for  one,  a  gal- 
lon of  brandy  for  four,  a  check'd  fhirt  for  fcven  : 
all  which  were  fold  at  that  monftrous  profit  of 
2000  per  cent.  Notwithftanding  which  dhcourage- 
ment,  the  Indians  brought  down  to  port  Nelfon  that 
feafon  50,000  beaver  fkins,  and  9C00  martins,  thefe 
beaver  fkins  being  worth  5  or  (ys.  a  pound;  whereas 
thofe  the  EngUJh  piirchafe  at  I'^ezu  York  are  not 
worth  above  3  s.  and  6  d.  a  pound. 

Befides  thefe  (kins,  the  Indians^  the  fame  year 
1742,  brought  to  the  fadlory  at  Churchill  20,000 
beaver  fkins. 

As  to  the  trade  on  the  caflern  and  fouthem 
{horcs,  the  company  have  In  a  manner  abandoned 
it,  and  fufter  the  French  to  rim  away  with  it,  though 
this  country  was  confirmed  to  Great-Britain  by  the 
peace  of  Utrecht,  Anno  1 7 14.  If  the  trade  was  laid 
open, and  the  fouthem  and  eaftern  countries  fettled, 
we  might  regain  that  trade,  and  vaftly  increafe  it, 
by  fumiliiing  the  natives  with  woollen  goods,  iron 
tools,  guns,  is't.  atreafonable  rates.  1  he  number 
of  hunters  would  increafe,  and  we  (hould  bring 
home  four  times  as  many  furrs,  and  other  valuable 
fkins,  as  we  do  now.  Hy  increafing  our  fettlements 
to  the  fouthward,in  the  bottom  of  the  bay,  we  (hould 
make  the  native^  our  friends ;  being  able  to  afford 
our  goods  cheaper  than  the  French  can,  we  might 
force  the  French  put  of  the  trade  upon  the  eaft 
main,  and  the  countries  north  of  the  Huron  lake, 
and  the  other  lakes  of  Canada,  The  company  have 
no  other  place  of  ftrength  than  York  fort,  with  25 
men,  and  the  prince  of  IFaLs's  fort  at  Churchill,  in 
which  they  keep  but  28  men,  though  there  are  40 
guns  mounted. 

This  company  which  does  not  confift  of  above 
nine  or  ten  merchants,  exclude  all  the  relt  of  the 
Britljh  fubjects  from  this  trade,  by  virtue  of  a  pa- 
tent, extremely  to  the  preiudice  of  their  native 
country  ;  for  if  the  reft  of  the  king's  fubjeils  had 
been  fufFered  to  fend  colonies  thither,  and  traffic 
with  the  Indians,  they  would  have  underfold  the 
French,  and  confequently  beat  them  out  of  that 
trade,  and  out  of  thofe  countries  which  were  yielded 
to  Britain  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht. 

The  eaftern  fliores  of  this  country  were  firft  dif- 
covered  by  Sehajfian  Cabot  for  Henry  VII.  king  of 
England,  in  the  year  1498  :  they  were  afterwards 
vifited  by  Davis  and  other  BrltiJh  mariners.     Mr. 


6f  ART^S  <!?«tfl?'^IENCE8. 

Liiidfon  made  four  voyages  thither,  between  th« 
years  1607  and  161 1  -,  in  the  laft  of  which  his  men 
forced  him  and  eight  more  of  their  officers  into  a 
boat,  and  left  them  to  ftarve  in  the  bottom  of  the 
bay,  and  they  were  never  heard  of  more  ;  but  the 
fliip  and  the  reft  of  the  men  retiu'ned  home. 

Sir  Thomas  Button  perfued  the  difcovery  in  i6iz> 
and  Capt.  James  in  1631,  in  hopes  of  finding  a 
north -weft  pafl'age  to  China  :  Capt.  Gilham  failed 
to  the  bottom  of  the  bay  in  1661,  and  at  his  return 
his  owners  procured  a  patent  for  planting  this  coun- 
try, jfnno  1670.  The  firft  Englijl)  governor,  who 
went  thither,  was  Charles  Batky,Y.\i.\\  who  built 
a  fort  on  Rupert  river,  calling  it  Charles  fort,  and 
foon  after  fettled  another  factory  at  Nelfon.  In  the 
Year  1684,  the  chief  Ejiglijh  fa<ftory  was  at  Jlbanvy 
and  a  fort  ere{5led  for  its  defence, 

The  French  invaded  our  fettlements,  and  took 
fort  Rupert  and  Jlbany  in  July  1686,  though  we 
were  then  at  peace  with  France.  In  king  IFilliam'% 
war,  Jn:io  1693,  the  EngUJh  recovered  their  fettle- 
ments ai^aiii. 

During  the  war  in  queen  Ann'%  reign,  the  French 
reduced  all  our  fettlements  except  Albany,  but  were 
obliged  to  reftore  them  at  the  peace  of  Utrecht, 
Anno  17 14,  when  the  French  king  having  feized 
fome  Er:glifiJ  fettlements  in  thefe  countries,  he  was 
obliged  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in  the  year  17 13, 
to  reftore  to  Great  Britain  the  bay  and  ftraights  of 
Hudfon,  with  all  the  lands,  feas,  fea-coafts,  rivers, 
and  places,  (ituate  on  the  faid  bay  and  ftraights, 
(which  comprehend  all  New-Britain  and  Britijh 
Canada,  or  Nova-Scotia)  and  it  was  agreed,  that 
commiflioneis,  on  the  part  of  Gj-eat- Britain  and 
France,  i'i\o's\A  determine,  within  the  fpace  of  a  year, 
the  limits  between  the  dominions  of  G/-^/-5r/to/« 
and  Frenice  on  that  fide;  which  limits  thefubjefts 
oi  Great-Britain  and  France,  were  not  to  pafs  over 
to  each  other  by  fea  or  land  ;  but  thefe  limits  were 
never  fettled,  which  delay  brought  on  at  laft  the 
prefent  war. 

By  the  12th  article  of  the  fame  treaty.  Nova 
Scotia,  with  the  fortrefs  of  Jmiapolis,  and  all  the 
lands  and  dependencies  thereunto  belonging,  were 
yielded  to  Great-Britain  ;  and  the  fubje£ts  of 
France  were  entirely  excluded  from  all  kinds  of 
fifheries  in  the  feas  of  Nova  Scotia,  efpecially  thofe 
which  lie  towards  the  eaft,  and  within  thirty  leagues 
thereof,  beginning  at  the  ifland  of  Cape  Sable,  and 
extending  from  thence  to  the  north  eaft. 

Nova  Scotia  is  bounded  by  the  river  of  St. 
Lawrence,  on  the  north  ;  by  the  bay  of  St.  Laiu- 
rence,  and  the  Atlantic  ocean,  ea(l ;  by  the  fame 
ocean  and  New  England,  fouth  ;  and  by  French 
Canada,  weft ;  extending  500  miles  iji  length,  and 
400  in  breadth.  Tif 


GEOGRAPH 


1 , 


The  chief  towns  arc,  i.  Annapolis  Royal,  2.  Ha- 
Ttfax.  3.  Minnes.  4.  Chenlgto,  al]  in  the  foLithern 
peninfula  ;  5.  CanfcaUi  upon  an  ifland  at  thecalt 
endoFthe  peninfula,  near  the  ftraight  which  divides 
Nova  Scotia  from  Capi  Breton. 

Here  are  feveral  good  rivers.  The  river  of  St. 
Lazvrence,  which  forms  the  northern  boundary. 
The  rivers  Rijgouche  and  Nipifiguit  run  from  weft 
to  eaft,  and  fall  into  the  bay  of  St.  Lawrence.  The 
rivers  of  St.  John,  P ajjamagnadi  Penobfcot,  and  St. 
Croix,  which  run  from  north  to  i'outh,  fall  into 
Fundi  bay,  or  the  fea  a  little  to  the  eailvvard  of  it. 

The  feas  adjoining  to  it  are,  the  bay  of  St.  Law- 
rence ;  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  Fundi  bay.  The 
lefTer  bays  are,  Chenigto,  and  Green  bay  upon  the 
ilthmus,  which  joins  the  north  part  oiNova  Scotia 
to  the  fouth  ;  the  bays  of  Gajpe  and  Ghcileurs  on 
the  north  eaft  ;  the  bay  of  ChebuSio  on  the  fouth 
eaft  ;  the  bay  of  the  IJ'ands.  The  ports  of  Bart, 
ChebuSlo,  Profper,  St.  Margaret,  La  Heve,  port 
jVJaltois,  port  Rcjignol,  port  i' ert  and  port  foly,  on 
the  fouth  ;  port  La  Tour  on  the  fouth  eaft  ;  port 
St.  Aj'ary  Annapolis,  and  Minnes  on  the  fojth  ilde 
of  Fimdi  bay. 

The  chief  capes  are,  Rojfer  and  Gafpc  on  the 
north  eaft.  The  capes  Portage,  Ecoumenac,  loiir- 
inentin,  cape  Port  and  Epis,  on  the  eaft.  Cape 
Fogeri,  and  cape  Catijeau,  on  the  ibuth  eaft.  Cape 
Bianco,  cape  Vert,  cape  Theodore,  cape  Dore,  cape 
Le  Htvc,  and  cape  Negro,  on  the  fouth.  Cape  Sable 
and  cape  Fourche,  on  the  fouth  weft. 

This  country  is  a  great  foreft  :  where  it  has  been 
cleared  and  cultivated,  it  affords  good  corn  and 
pafture.     The  timber  is  fit  for  building,  and  will 


593 


and  ere^ied  forts  on  the  lake  and  on  the  river  Oijio,to 
defend  their  encroachments  on  that  fide.  Whereup- 
on iomc  forces  under  the  command  of  general  lira- 
dock  were  fcnt  todiflodgethem,who  fell  into  anam- 
bufcade,  near  fort  Duquefne,  and  were  defeated,  and 
the  general,  and  many  of  the  officers  were  killed. 

In  the  mean  time  general  John/on  marched  with 
a  body  of  troops  from  Albany  in  New-York,  and 
obtained  a  victory  over  the  French,  near  the  lake  of 
Chdmplain,  and  erected  fome  forts  to  reftrain  the 
incurhons  of  the  enemy  from  fort  Frederic  or  Crown 
Point ;  otlier  detachments  of  the  Englijh  keep  pof- 
feffion  of  the  forts  on  the  ifthmus,  which  unite  the 
peninfula  to  the  continent  of  Nova  Scotia  ;  and  of 
thofe  the  French  had  erected  on  the  north  fide  of 
the  bay  oi  Fundi, {'mQt  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
Since  then  we  have  reduced  Cape  Breton,  and  the 
ifland  of  St.  John^  fort  Duquefne,  and  fort  Frontenae, 
ifc.  and  are  upon  an  expedition  -dgMnil  Crown  Point 
and  j$hiebec. 

The  illand  of  Cape-Breton,  called  by  the  French 
IJle  Royal,  is  fituated  between  the  45th  and  47th 
degree  of  north  latitude,  and  forms,  together  with 
the  illand  of  Newfoundland,hom  which  it  is  diftant 
only  15  or  16  leagues,  the  entry  of  tlie  gulph  of 
St.  Lcnvrence.  The  ftreight,  which  feparates  it 
from  Acadia  or  Nava  Scotia,  is  only  five  learrues  in 
length,  and  one  in  breadth.  The  French  caW  it 
the  pailiige  of  Fronjac  ;  but  the  Englijh  the  ftreight 
of  Canfo. 

The  length  of  the  ifland,  from  north-eaft  to 
fouth-wett,  is  not  quite  50  leagues  ;  and  itsgreateft 
breadth,  from  eaft  to  weft,  is  not  above  33.  It  is 
of  a  very  irregular  figure,  and  almoft  interleaedby 


produce  pitch  and  tar  ;  and  the  toil  is  proper  for  |  lakes  and  rivers,  fo  that  the  two  principal  parts  join 
hemp  and  flax ;  fo  that  all  manner  of  naval  ftores  !  together  only  by  an   ift^hmus  of  about  an  hundred 


might  be  had  there. 


paces'  over,,  which    feparates  the   bottom  of  port 


It  .abound)  in  deer,  wild  fowl,  and  all  manner  of  j  Touloufe  from  feveral  lakes,  which  arc  called  Lalna 


game  ;  and  there  is  one  of  the  finelt  cod-fifheries  in 
the  world  on  the  coaft 


dor.,    llieie  lakes  difcharge  themfelves  eaftwards 
into  the  fea,  by  two  channels,  of  unequal  breadth, 
No  provifion  was  made  to  plant  the  reft  of  Nova  ,  formed  by  the  ifland  Verderonne,  or  la  Boularderie 


Scotia,  until  the  year  i  749,  when  about  three  thou 
fand  Englijh  families,  under  the  command  of  gover- 


which  is  (even  leagues  in  length. 

The  climate  of  this  illand   is  nearly  the 


fame 


nor  C'erntta///r,  were  lent  thither,  and  ercded  the  ■' that  of  4'j"'^<'t ;  and,  though  fogs  are  here  mor 


town  of  HaliJ'ax  in  Chcbuoio  bay. 


frequent,    the   people  do   not  complain  of  an  un- 


The  difpute  between  Great-Britain  and  France,  ,  healthy  air.  All  the  laj)ds  are  not  good,  yet  they 
is  not  whether  Nova  Scotia  was  yielded  to  Great-  \  produce  trees  of  all  forts.  Here  are  oaks  of  a  pro- 
Britain  by  the  treaty  oi Utrecht,  but  what  were  the  digious  magnitude,  pines  proper  for  malts,  and  all 
Bounds oi Nova  Scotia:  ■w\\\Qh.t\\eBritiJhcomm\i\di-  kinds  of  timber  for  carpenters  work.  The  moft 
ries  demonftrated  extended  to  the  river  of  St.  Laiu-  common  forts,  befides  the  oak,  are  the  cedar  the 
rejice,  on  the  north,  by  i'evcral  treaties  between  the  aft,  the  maple,  the  plane,  and  afpin-tree.  Fruits 
tv/o  nations;  whereas  the  French  inl'iled  that  only  efpecially  apples  ;  pulfe,  corn,  and  other  grains  ne- 
a  fmall  part  of  the  peninfula  was  ceded  to  Britain.    '  ceffary  ior  life  .  as   alfo  hemp  and  flax,  are  in  lefs 

The  French  alio  encroached  upon  F/rg-/V«  on  abundance,  but  as  good,  in  quality,  as  thofe  of 
the  fide  of  the  Ohio-  near  tlie  lake  of  Erie ;  made  Canada.  It  has  been  obferved,  that  the  mountains 
ieveial  of  thefubjects  of  Great-Britain  prifoners,    here  will  bear  cultivation  up.  to  the  top,  and  that 

the 


594-  ^^  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  ^^^^Z  Sciences. 


the  beft  lands  are  upon  their  fouthern  declivities, 
which  are  defended  from  the  north  and  north-well 
winds,  by  the  hills  which  bound  them  on  the  fide 
of  St,  Laurence's  river. 

All  domeftic  animals,  as  horfes,  black  cattle, 
hogs,  fliecp,  goats,  and  poultry,  find  hereprovifions 
in  abundance.  The  chace  and  the  fifhcry  are  fuf- 
ficicnt  to  nourifh  the  inhabitants  a  good  part  of  the 
year.  Here  are  a  great  plenty  of  excellent  mines 
of  pit-coal.  As  thcfe  mines  are  in  the  mountains, 
■  there^is  no  occAlion  for  digging  deep  underground, 
or  to  be  at  the  e.<pence  ol  making  drains  to  carry 
off  the  water,  as  in  fomc  other  countries.  Lime- 
ftone  is  alfo  found  here.  The  cod  fiflicry  is  here 
carried  on  with  perhaps,  better  fuccefs  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  world  ;  nor  can  greater  convcnicn- 
cies  be  found  for  drving  tifli.  Formerly  this  ifland 
was  full  of  wild  beads,  but  at  prefcnt  they  are  very 
Tare,  efpccially  elks.  The  partridges  here  are  a! 
moft  as  large  as  pheafants,  and  feathered  very  much 
like  them.  In  fnort,  Sflieries  of  feals,  porpoifes, 
and  fea  cows,  or  grampufe.';,  might  be  conveniently 
carried  on  for  the  benefit  of  their  oil,  there  being 
great  plenty  of  them. 

AH  the  ports  on  the  eaft  fide  round  to  the  fouth 
are  open,  for  the  fpace  of  fifty- five  leagues,  begin- 
jiing  with  port  Dtu/phin,  and  proceeding  to  port 
"Touloufe,  which  is  almoft  at  theentry  of  the  ftreight 
of  Canfo,  or  paiTage  of  Froiifac.  Every  where  elfe 
it  is  difficult  to  find  anchorage,  even  for  fmall  vef- 
iels,  either  in  the  bays  or  between  the  ifles.  All 
the  north  coaftis  very  high, and  almoft  inacceffible  ; 
nor  is  it  more  eafy  to  go  on  fliore  on  the  weft,  till 
you  come  to  the  ftreight  of  Caiifo  ;  upon  leaving 
which,  3'ou  fall  again  upon  port  Touhufe^  formerly 
called  St.  Peter's. 

This  port  lies  properly  between  a  kind  of  gulph, 
called  Little  St.  Peter's,  and  the  ifle  of  St  Peter, 
Gver-againfl  the  ifles  of  Madame  or  Maurepas. 
From  thence  advancing  to  the  ibuth-ealt,  and  paf- 
fing feveral  other  bays,  you  come  to  that oiGahoius, 
or  Gaboron,  the  entrance  ofv/hich,  about  20  leagues 
from  the  iflands  of  St.  Petec,  is  a  league  broad  be- 
tween i^es  and  rocks.  This  bay  is  two  leagues 
deep,  and  affords  very  good  anchorage.  Here 
Admiral  Bofca-wcn  landed  the  forces  that  todkLouis- 
l/owg,  (jc.   in  1758.' 

The  haven  di Lauijhsurgh,  formerly  called  Englijh 
Haven,  is  a  league  diftant  from  the  above  bay.  It 
is  one  of  the  fineii  of  all  America  ;  it  is  near  four 
leagues  in  circumference,  and  every  where  there 
are  fix  or  (even  fathoms  water.  The  anchorage  is 
good,  and  you  may,  without  danger,  run  a  Ihip 
sfliore  on  the  mud.  The  entrance  is  not  above 
two  hiindred  fathoms  wide,  and  lies  between  two 
fmall  iflands  i  and  it  may  be  known  twelve  leagues 


off  at  fea,  by  the  cape  of  Loremhec,  which  lies  but 
a  fmall  diltance  from  it  to  the  north  caft. 

Two  leagues  higher  is  Port  de  la  Baleine,  or 
Whale  Port,  the  entry  of  which  is  difficult,  bccaufc 
of  feveral  rocks,  which  the  fea  covers  when  't  runs 
high.  Ships  of  above  300  tons  cannot  enter  here, 
but  then  they  are  quite  fafe  when  they  are  got  in. 
From  hence  it  is  but  two  leagues  to  the  bay  of 
Panadou,  or  Menadou,  the  entrance  of  which  is  a- 
bout  a  league  broad,  from  whence  it  run;  in  abour 
two  leagues  Aimofl  over-ag;iinft  it  is  the  ille  of 
Scutari,  formerly  called  Little  Cape  Breton,  which 
is  about  two  leagues  long.  The  bay  of  Mire  ii 
leparated  from  it  only  by  a  very  narrow  neck  of 
land.  The  entrance  of  this  bay  is  two  leagues 
over,  and  runs  eight  leagues  into  the  country.  It 
grows  narrow  the  farther  you  go  into  it,  and  re- 
ceives a  great  many  rivulets  and  fmall  ftreams. 
Large  fhips  may  run  up  it  fix  leagues,  and  find  very 
good  anchorage,  and  be  fhehe;edfrom  the  winds 
by  the  hills. 

Befides  the  ifland  o(  Scatari  there  are  many  other 
imali  oni;s,  and  rocks,  which  the  fea  never  covers, 
and  may  be  ken  at  a  great  diltance.  The  largeft 
of  the  rocks  is  called  the  Foriiion. 

1  he  bay  of  Morienne  is  higher  Hill,  and  feparated 
from  the  bay  of  Mire  by  CapeBru'e  or  Cape  Burnet. 
A  little  higher  is  Flat  ljle,ox  Gunfint  Ijie,  lying  in 
46  degrees  8  minutes  of  north  latitude.  There 
are  good  openings  between  all  thefe  iflands  and 
rocks,  and  they  may  be  approached  without 
danger. 

Advancing  from  thence  to  the  north  weft,  we 
come  to  hidiana,  which  is  a  good  haven  for  fmall 
vellels,  but  has  not  water  enough  for  large.  From 
Indiana  to  Spaniards  Bay  is  two  leagues,  and  the 
latter  a  very  fine  haven  The  entrance  is  not  a 
mile  over,  but  enlarges,  as  we  advance  inwards, 
and  at  the  diftance  of  a  league  divides  into  two 
branches,  w  hich  ma;,  be  failed  up  for  two  leagues. 
They  are  both  very  good  ports,  and  might  be  made 
better  at  a  fmall  expcnce.  From  this  bay  to  the 
leiler  entrance  of  Labrador  is  two  leagues,  and  the 
ifland  which  feparates  the  leffer  entrance  from  the 
greater,  is  about  the  fame  breadth. 

Labrador  is  a  aulph,  about  twenty  leagues  long, 
and  three  or  four  over,  where  broadeft.  It  is  reck- 
oned only  a  league  and  a  half  from  the  large  entrance 
of  this  gulph  to  port  Dauphin  or  St.  Anne's  port, 

1  and  you  may  anchor  with  fafety,  almoft  any  where 
among  the  iflands  of  Cihou.    A  flip  of  lard,  or  kind 

J  of  natural  mole,  almoft  entirely  fhuts  up  this  port, 
and  leaves  room  for  the  paffage  of  only  one  fliip  at 
a  time.  The  port  is  about  two  leagues  in  circum- 
ference, and  fhips  hardly  feel  the  wind  there,  by 
reafon  of  the  height  of  the  mountains  that  I'urround 

'  it. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


it.    The  fliore  is  every  where  fo  bold,  that  you 
may  ride  as  near  to  it,  as  you  pleafe. 

New  England  is  bounded  \iy  New  Scotland, 
on  the  north ;  by  the  Atlantic  ocean,  on  fhe  eaft 
and  Xouth ;  and  by  Nevj  York,  on  the  weft,  and  is 
300  miles  long,  and  200  broad,  divided  into  four 
governments,  viz.  1.  New  Hampjhire,  or  Pifcata- 
tvay.  2.  The  Majfachufets  colony.  3.  The  co- 
lony of  Rhode  illiLnd,  Provide/ice  plantation ;  and 
4.  Conneilicitt  colony. 

It  is  divided  into  four  provinces,  viz.  i.  Neiu- 
Hampjblre.  2.  Mq{J'aclnifets  co\ony.  3.  Rhode\^3.nd. 
4.  Cotmeiiicut.  Whofe  chief  towns  are  Portfmouth, 
BoJIon,  W.  .long.  71.  N.  lat.  42.  Neioport,.  London, 
and  Hertford. 

Here  are  the  rivers,  i.  ConneSl'tciit ;  1,  Themes; 
3.  Paiuxent ;  4.  Merimac;  5.  Pifcataway;  6.  Saco; 
7.  Cafco  ;  8.  Kinebeqiie;  and,  g.  Pcnohfcot,  or 
Pentugonet. 

The  moft  remarkable  bays  and  harbours  are 
thofe  form  d  by  Plymouth,  Rhode  ifland,  and  Provi- 
dence plantation  ;  Monument  bay  ;  IFeJl  harbour, 
'form'd  by  the  bending  of  cape  Cod;  BoJIon  harbour; 
Pifcataway  ;  and  Cafco  bay. 

The  chief  capes  are,  cape  Cod,  Marble  Head, 
cape  Anne,  cape  Eiitick,  cape  Porpus,  cape  Elizabeth, 
and  cape  Small  Point. 

The  climate  is  generally  healthful,  and  agreeable 
to  EngUJl)  conftitutions. 

The  fruits  of  Old  England  come  to  great  per- 
fection here,  and  particularly  peaches,  which  are 
all  ftandard-trees. 

Englijh  wheat  does  not  thrive  here.  They  eat 
mriize  or  Indian  corn  chiefly  :  one  grain  whereof 
frequently  produces  twelve  hundred  grains,  and 
fometimes  two  thoufand.  BefiJes  the  foreft-trees 
oi  Old  England,  they  have  cedar,  cyprefs,  pine,  and 
fir-trees  Their  fir-trees  are  of  a  prodigious  bulk, 
and  furnifli  the  royal  navy  of  England  with  mafls 
and  yaids,  and  they  draw  from  thefe,  and  other 
trees,  pitch,  tar  and  rolin,  turpentine,  gums,,  and 
balm  ;  and  the  foil  is  proper  for  hemp  and  flax.  A 
fhip  may  be  built  and  rigged  out  with  the  produce 
of  the  foil;  fo  that  fliip-building  is  a  confiderable 
employment  in  this  country. 

The  animals,  which  feem  almoft  peculiar  to 
New  England,  and  the  refl  of  North  America,  are 
the  m'' of e  deer  &n6i  the  beaver. 
'  The  fpermaceti  whale  alfo  is  found  upon  this 
coaft:  of  which,  and  other  whales,  the  New  En- 
gland people  take  great  numbers,  and  fend  fome 
ihips  every  year  to  fifh  for  whales  in  Greenland. 
Befides  the  whale-firhery,  there  is  a  very  fine  cod- 
iilhery  on  the  coaft  of  Nova  Scotia. 


27 


595  ' 

The.  New-England  people  have  a  great  trade  bX 
fea  to  the  Britijh  fugar  colonies,  and  with  the  Dutch 
at  Surinam  and  Curaffoa  near  Terra-  Firrna  :  whither 
they  fend  horfes,  fait  provifions  and  lumber,  that  is 
deal-boards,  pipe-ftaves,  hoops,  and  fhingles. 

The  appointment  of  a  governor,  lieutenant  go- 
vernor, fecretary,  and  all  the  offices  of  the  admiralty, 
is  vefted  in  the  crown.  The  power  of  the  militia  is 
wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  governor,  as  captain 
general.  All  judges,  juftices,  and  ftieriifs,  to  whom 
the  execution  of  the  law  is  intrufted,  are  nominated 
by  the  governor,  with  the  advice  of  the  council ; 
and  the  governor  has  a  negative  on  the  choice  of 
councellors,  peremptory  and  unlimited.  All  laws 
enacSted  by  the  general  affembly  are  to  be  fent  to 
the  court  of  England,  for  the  royal  approbation  ; 
and  no  laws,  ordinances,  elecStions  (of  magiftrates, 
I  prefume,)  or  aits  of  government  whatfoever,  are 
valid,  without  the  governor's  confent  in  writing. 

In  one  of  the  reprefentations  of  the  board  of 
trade,  they  inform  the  privy-council,  that  in  the 
colony  of  the  Maffachufets  only,  there  were  upwards 
of  ninety-four  thoufand  fouls:  and  that  their  militia 
confliled  of  fix  regiments  of  foot,  and  fifteen  troops 
of  horfe,  of  an  hundred  men  in  each  troop.  The 
fame  reprefentation  {hews,  that  they  employed 
near  five  hundred  fail  of  fliips,  and  four  thoufand 
feamen,  annually  in  their  trade;  and  if  this  calcula- 
tion be  right,  it  muft  be  allowed,  that  the  reft  of 
the  colonies  north  of  Virginia  and  Ma-yland,  viz. 
Conncclicut,  Rhode  If  and.  New  Tork,  the  ferfeys., 
and  Pennfylvania,  can  raife  at  leaft  as  many  more.  - 
All  that  feems  wanting,  in  order  to  render  thefe 
forces  ufeful  and  capable  of  oppofing  an  invafion,  is 
a  generaliiTimo,  impowered,  on  any  exigencies,  to 
oblige  every  coloiiy  to  raife  their  refpecStive  quota's 
of  fupplies  and  troops,  and  to  command  them  when 
aflembled  in  the  field  ;  for  thefe  are  particulars, 
which  it  is  never  to' be  expelled  the  colonies  fliould 
agree  on  among  themfelves,  or  at  leaft  time  enough 
to  prevent  the  ravages  of  a  potent  enemy,  as  fome 
late  proceedings  have  convinced  us. 

New  England  was  planted  by  the  Independents  a 
little  before  the  commencement  of  the  civil  wars  in 
England.  Thefe.-  people  tranfported  themfelves 
thither,  rather  than  conform  to  the  eftabliftied 
church.  Though  they  complained  of  the  govern- 
ment here,  for  not  allowing  a  toleration,  they  per- 
mitted no  other  fe6t  or  denomination  of  chriftians, 
but  themfelves,  to  have  any  fliare  in  the  govern- 
ments they  eretSed  there ;  and  were  fo  far  from 
allowing  a  toleration  to  thofe  that  differed  from 
them,  that  they  hanged  feVeral  quakers.  It  is  but 
very  lately  they  have  fufFered  any  member  of  the 
church  of  England  to  have  a  fhare  in  the  magiftra- 
cy,  or  to  be  eleiSted  a  member  of  the  commons*,  or 

4  G  hou/e 


The  Univerfal  Hidory  of  Arts  rjW  Sciences. 


59^     . 

houfe  of  rf  picfc-ntatives ;  and  there  arc  not  more 
than  two  or  three  admitted  at  this  day  into  their 
councils. 


Nkw-York  with  the  Jkrsevs.  Thefe  are 
bounded  by  Canada,  or.  the  north;  by  NiW-Eig- 
land  eaft  ;  by  the  American  fca  fouth  ;  and  by  De 
hi  JVar  river,  which  divides  it  from  Pemifyhmnia^ 
on  the  weft  :  200  miles  lori;4  and  100  broad.  It  is 
divided  into  three  provinces,  viz.  1.  Niiv-York., 
2,  The  'Jerfeys ,  3.  Long-Jjhndy  and  the  reft  of 
the  iflands  near  Hudfon's  river;  whofe  chief  towns 
are,  NtM-Tork,  \V .  Ion.  72--30.  N  bt.  41. 
Albany  ;   BiirHngton  ;   Elizahetb  ;  Southampton. 

The  chief  rivers,  b'jfides  thofe  of  Hudfon  and 
De  la  JF(ir\  are  the  Ahbawk  river ;  Onandago,  Ra- 
ritaii,  and  Maurice  rivers. 

The  Capes  are  Cape  Mnry.,  on  the  eaft  entrance 
©f  De  la  JVar  river  ;  Sandy  point,  near  the  entrance 
of  Raritcai  river  ;  and  Ahatung  Point,  at  the  eaft 
end  of  Long-IJliind. 

There  are  very  extenfive  Lakes  on  the  north- 
weft,  vl'z..  the  takes  of  Chainplain,  Ontario,  and 
Erie  'J'he  Iroquois,  or  five  nations,  lie  upon  the 
lakes  of  O'ltario  and  Erie. 

New  York  and  the  ferfeys  abound  in  cattle  and 
-a  good  breed  of  horfes,  ami  have  plenty  of  wheat 
and  other  grain,   as  well  as  fifti.      They  fupply  the 
fugar   colonies   with    flour,    fait  beef,  pork,    and 
fait  filh:  and  with  timber,  plank,  ami  pipe-ftaves  ; 
and  as  they  ate  much  employed  in  the  M^cr)',  they 
export  a  great  deal  of  dried  .Txid  faked  fifti  to  Spain, 
Portugal,   Italy,  and  other    countries   of   Europe. 
They  traffick  alfo  with  the  logwood  cutters  in  the 
hav   of  Honduras,    and   with    the    Spanijb    fettle- 
raents,    exchanging  the  minufaclures   of  Europe 
for  treafure,  which  they  fend   to  England  as   mer- 
chandize. They  bring  over  alfo  wh:ile  oil  and  bone, 
and  return  with  the  manufactures  of  Great  Britain. 
The  people  oi New- England.,  Nezu-Yor k,  and  our 
other  northern  colonies,  of  late,  export  a  great  deal 
of  timber  to  Portugal,  and  other  countries  in  Europe. 
Everv   iiation   of  the  Iroquois   is  a  diftindt  re- 
public, governed  by    their  fachetns   or   civil    ma- 
giftratcs  in  time  of  peace,  and  by  their  warriors  or 
captains    in  their   wars  ;  but  their    chiefs  neither 
refolve,     nor   execute    any   thing  of   importance, 
without  confulting  the  heads  of  their  tribes. 

The  church  of  England  is  eftablifhed  in  this  and 
all  the  royal  governments  in  Britijli  America. 


Pennsvlv.xnia,  is  bounded  by  the  country  of 
the  Iroquoit,  or  five  nations,  on  the  north  ;  by 
De  la  War  river,  which  divides  it  from  the  fer- 
feys, on  the  eaft ;  and  by  Maryland  on  the  fouth 
and  weft^,  200  miks  long  and  200  broad.  It  is  di- 


vided into  north  and  fouth,  and  thofe  dlvifions  fub^ 
divided  into  fix  counties,  viz.  Duekingham,  Phi- 
ladelphia, Chejhire,  Newca/lle,  Kent,  SuJ/ix,  whofe 
chief  towns  are  Brijlol,  Philadelphia,  W.long.  -j/^o. 
N.  lat.  40.  50.  Chcjler,  Netutajlle,  Dover,  and 
Letvcs. 

The  coaft  near  the  fea  rs  flat,  but  rifes  gradually^ 
having  the  ApalaMan  mountains  on  the  weft. 

i  he  Rivers  are,  i.  The.  De  la  IVar.  2.  Saf- 
quahanna  ;  anil,   j.   Skoolkil. 

The  mercliandife  confifts  of  horfes,  pipe-ftaves, 
pork,  beaf,  and  fifh,  falted  and  barreled  up ;  fkins 
and  furrs  ;  all  forts  of  grain,  i;/z.  wheat,  rye, 
peafe,  oats,  barley,  buck-wheat,  Indian  corn, 
Indian  pe.ife,  and  beans,   pot-afties,  wax,  Wr. 

They  have  Ibme  rice ;  and  a  little  tobacco  of 
the  worft  fort.  The  cfdonies  of  Pennfylvania,  the 
'Jerfeys  and  New-Tork,  appear  extremely  proper  to 
produce  hemp  and  flax  where  they  are  cultivated. 
Their  trade  with  the  Indians  confifts  but  in  few 
articles  ;  they  receive  of  the  natives  chiefly  fkins 
and  furrs  ol  their  wild  beafts,  for  which  they  give 
them  cloathing,  arms,  ammunition,  rum,  and 
other  fpirits,  in  return. 


Marylakd,  isbounded  by  Pennfylvania,  on  the 
north,  by  another  part  of  Pennfylvania,  and  the 
Athmtic  ocean,  eaft;  by  Virginia,  fouth  ;  and  by 
the  Apalaehian  mountains  weft,  extends  140  miles 
in  length  and  135  in  breadth  :  and  is  divided  into 
two  parts  by  the  bay  of  Cheefepcak,  viz.  j.  The 
eattern  ;  and,   2.  The  weftern  divifion. 

The  eaft  divilion  contains  four  couiities,  i.  So- 
mer/et,  2.  Dorchejhr,  3.  Talbot,  county,  4.  Cecil 
county.  The  weit  divifion  contains  fix  counties, 
I.  St.  /i/flj-j/'s county,  2.  Charles  county,  3.  Prince 
George  county,  4.  6Wz,v;?  county,  5.  Anne  Arun- 
del county,  6.  Baltimore  county;  whofe  chief 
towns  are  Soiwrfet,  Dorckejlcr,  Oxford,  St.  Marf^ 
Briiiol,  Majierkout,  Abingdon,  Annapolis,  W.  Ion. 
78.  N.  Lat.  39-25.   and  Baltimore. 

This  country  is  watered  with  innumerablafprings, 
which  form  a  great  many  fine  rivers,  of  which  the 
chief  are  j.  Potomack.  2.  The  Pocotnoac.  3.  '!  h&. 
Pataxent.  4.  Severn.  5.  Cheptonk.  6.  Sajfafras. 
7.   IVicomoca;  and,   8.   The  river  of  St.  George. 

It  is  feparated  from  Virginia,  on  the  ibuth,  by 
the  river  I'atowmack. 

The  air  of  this  cou^ntry  is  exceffive  hot  fome 
part  of  the  fumnacr,  and  equally  cold  in  winter, 
when  the  north-weft  wind  blows. 

Tobacco  is  planted  and  cultivated  here  with 
much  application,  and  their  principal  traffick  with 
England  is  in  this  article  ;  though  the  country  pro- 
duces moft  of  the  grain  and  fruits  of  Europe  and 
America. 

They 


GEOGRAPHY. 


They  are  governed  by  the  fame  laws  as  in  Eng- 
land, only  fome  a£ls  of  aflembly  they  have  relating 
to  particular  cafes,  not  under  the  verge  of  the 
Ewli/li  laws,  or  where  the  laws  of  England  do  not 
aptly  provide  for  fome  circumftances,  under  which 
their  way  of  living  hath  put  them.  The  church  of 
England  is  eflabliflied  here  ;  churches  are  built, 
and  there  is  an  annual  flipend  allowed  for  every 
minifter  by  a  perpetual  law  ;  every  chriftian  male 
fixteen  years  old,  and  negroes,  male  and  female, 
above  that  age,  pay  40  lb.  of  tobacco  to  the  mi- 
nifter, which  is  levied  by  die  fheriif  among  other 
publick  levies ;  which  make  the  revenues  of  the 
minifters,  one  with  another,  about  twenty  thouf.ind 
pounds  of  tobacco,  or  one  hundred  pounds  flerling 
per  annum. 

Virginia  is  bounded  by  the  ri\'er  Patozvma^k, 
which  divides  it  from  Maryland,  on  the  north-eaft; 
by  the  Jllantic  oce;\i\,  on  the  eaft;  by  Carolina, 
on  thefouth;  and  by  the  Apalachian  mountains, 
on  the  weft :  extending  240  miles  in  kiigth  and 
20b  miles  in  breadth  ;  and  may  be  divided  into 
four  parts,  'ulz.  I.  The  north  divifion.  2.  The 
middle  divifion.  3.  The  fouth  divifion.  And,  4. 
Tlic  eaft  diviilon. 

The  north  divifion  contains  five  counties;  i. 
NorthutnhirUmd.  1.  Lancajhlre,  3.  Ji'climori'land. 
4.  Richmond.  5-  Stafford.  The  middle  divifion 
contains  ten  counties;  6.  EJfex.  7.  Middlejcx. 
8.  Gloucrjlcr.  9.  King  Sind  i^tttvw  county.  10  King 
U'llliam  county.  11.  New  Kent.  12.  Elizabeth 
1 2- Warwick  county.  14.  Fo;-;f  county.  15.  Pri'icefs 
jinne  county.  The  fouth  divifion  contains  eight 
counties.  16.  Norfolk  county.  17.  Nanfamund 
county.  18.  Iflc  of  Wight  county.  19.  Surrey 
county.  20.  Prince  Geon'e  countv.  21.  Charles 
county.  22.  Henrico  county.  23.  fames  county 
The  L-aftern  divifion  between  Cheefepeak  bay  and 
the  ocean  is  oniy  one  county.  24.  Acomac  county. 
Thefe  counties  are  divided  into  pariflies,  viz..  JVinco- 
moca  parifh,  Chrift-Church,  St.  Paufi,  Farnham, 
Chrijl-Church.  Abingdon,  Stratton,  St.  John's,  St. 
Peter's, Elizabeth^Dcnby^Tork,  l.ynhaven,  Elizabeth, 
Chuiatid,  Newport, Southii'ark,  IVyanoke,  IVejhver, 
Biiflol,  James  Town,  JVilliatvfburg  and  Acomac 

Irlto  tiie  weft  fide  oi  Checfeprnkhd.y  fall  four  great 
rivers,  which  rife  in  the  Apalachian  mountains, 
runninu;  from  the  north-weft  to  the  fouth-ea!f; 
fhe  moft  foutherly  of  thefe  is  James  river,  the  In- 
dian name  whereof  vvas  Poivhatan,  being  gene- 
rally about  two  miles  over,  and  navigable  at  leatt 
fourfcore  miles.  York  river,  whofe  Indi.in  name 
was  Paamtmh,  is  a  little  to  the  northward  of 
James  river.  North  of  York  river  is  the  river  Rap 
■pahitnock ;     north    of    Rappahamck,   is   the  great 


597 


river  of  Patoxumaci,  which  is  navigable  near  tw® 
hundred  miles ;  being  nine  miles  broad  in  fom^ 
places,  but  generally  about  {even. 

The  great  bay  of  Cheefepeak  runs  up  through 
Virginia  and  Maryland,  almoft  due  north,  three 
hundred  miles  and  upwards,  being  navigable  moft 
part  of  the  way  for  large  fliips.  We  enter  this 
bay  between  two  promontories  called  Cape  Charles 
and   Cape  Henry. 

As  we  approach  Virginia  from  the  Ocean,  it 
appears  to  be  low  land  ;  and  for  an  hundred  miles 
up  into  the  country,  th5>-e  is  a  fcarce  a  hill  or 
a  fione  to  be  met  with.  People  travel  with  eafc 
through  thefe  foreds  on  horfeback,  and  never  want 
a  fine  fhade  to  defend  them  from  the  fummer 
heats. 

Snow  falls  fometimes  in  pretty  great  quantities, 
but  rarely  continues  there  above  a  day  or  two  ; 
their  fpring  is  about  a  month  earlier  than  In  Eng- 
land; in  April  they  have  frequent  rains  ;  May 
and  June  the  heat  increafes,  and  it  is  much  like 
our  iiimmer,  being  mitigated  with  gentle  breezes, 
that  rile  about  nine  of  the  clock,  and  decreale  and 
increafe  as  the  fun  rifes  and  fails.  July  and  Au- 
gufl  thofe  breezes  ceafe,  and  the  air  becomes  ftag- 
nant ;  then  the  heat  is  violent  and  trouHefome- 
In  Siptemler  the  weather  ufually  breaks  fuddenly, 
and  there  falls  very  confidcrable  rains,  when  many 
tall  fick,  this  being  the  time  for  cachexies,  fluxes, 
fcorbutic  dropfics,    gripes,   or  the  like. 

It  is  computed  there  are  in  Virginia  upwards  of 
an  hundred  thoufand  fouls,  befides  fervants  and 
flaves,  which  are  above  twice  thatnumbtr. 

No  country  produces  greater  quantities  of  ex- 
cellent tobacco. 

Of  fpontaneous  flowers  there  arc  great  variety  ; 
the  fineft  crown- imperial  in  the  world,  the  car- 
dinal flower,  fo  much  extolled  for  its  fcarlet  co- 
lour; and  almoft  all  the  year  round  the  plains  and 
vallies  are  adorned  with  flowers  of  one  kind  or 
other. 

There  is  alfo  found  the  fine  tulip-bearing  lau- 
rel-tree, which  has  the  pleafanteft  finell  in  the 
world,  and  keeps  bloflbming  and  feeding  feveral 
months  together. 

The  woods  produce  great  vaiiety  of  incenfe  and 
fweet  gums,  which  diftil  from  feveral  trees. 

All  forts  of  naval  ftores  may  be  produced  there, 
as  pitch,  tar,  rofin,  turpentine,  plank-timber, 
m.ifts  and  yards,    befides  fails,  cordage,    and  iron, 

Horfes,  cows,  flaeep  and  hogs,  run  wild  in 
their  forefts.  Beef  and  pork  are  fold  from  one 
penny  to  two  pence  a  pound.  Their  fatteft  pul- 
lets are  fixpence  a  piece;  chickens  at  three  or 
four  fliillings  a  dozen;  Geefe  at  ten  pence  a-pjece; 
a  turkey  for  eighteen  pence.     P'ifti,  oyftcrs,  ani- 

4  G  2  wili 


598 


Tlje  Unh'erfal  Hi{VoTy 


wild  foiivi,  arc  tlis  ch'eapcft  food  iii  this  country  in 
the  fcafon.  And  deer  are  fold  from  five  ftiillings  to 
ten  fhillings  a-piece. 

The  governm'.'nt  of  the  EngUJh  is  formed  upon 
the  E?!^UJh  model ;  the  governor  a£fe  as  kijig  j  the 
council  fupplics  the  place  of  a  Koufe  of  lords,  and 
the  houfe  of  reprefentatives  the  commons. 

There  are  no  other  forces  in  Virginia  but  mi- 
litia. Every  freeman,  (that  is,  all  that  are  not 
fervants)  from  fixteen  to  fixty  years  of  age,  are 
lifted  in  the  militia,  ai^^l  are  muflered  once  a  year 
at  a  general  mufter,  and  four  times  a  year  by 
troops  and  companies  in  their  refpective  counties  ; 
and  they  are  reckoned  to  be  about  twenty  thou- 
f;ind  men  ;  the  whole  inhabitants,  men,  women 
and  children,  amotmting  to  upwards  of  one  hun- 
dred thoufand,  and  Haves  and  fervants  to  twice 
that  number. 

There  is  a  college  at  IVilliamfvurgh,  fituate  be- 
tween James  and  Tork  rivers.  King  IVilliain  and 
queen  Alary  gave  two  thoufand  pounds  in  1692, 
towards  its  foundation,  endowed  it  with  twenty 
thoufand  acres  of  land,  and  a  revenue  of  one  pen- 
ny in  the  pound  on  all  tobacco  exported  Hence 
this  college  is  called  IViUiam  and  Mary  Co!lege, 
for  a  refident,  fix  profeflors,  and  a  hundred  flu- 
dents.  This  college  has  acquired  a  very  confide- 
rable  donation  alfo  from  the  Hon.  Mr.  BoyU^  for 
the  education  of  Indian  children. 

Carolina,  comprehending  North  Carolina, 
South  Carolina,  and  Georgia,  is  fituated  between 
75  and  86  degrees  weft  longitude,  and  between 
33  and  36  degrees  north  latitude. 

If  we  were  to  extend  Carolina  to  the  weft  ward, 
as  far  as  their  charters  would  juftify  them,  or  as 
far  as  the  country  of  the  Cherokee  Indians  our  al- 
lies extends,  we  might  make  the  river  Mijjijftppi 
the  weftern  boundary,  which  falls  into  the  gulph 
of  Mexico,  in  gj  degrees  of  weftern  longitude  ; 
but  if  we  take  in  no-more  than  is  adlually  planted 
by  the  Englijh,  we  muft  not  extend  it  above  two 
hundred  miles  weft  of  the  Jtlantick  ocean.  As  to 
the  French  fettlements  on  the  river  MijfiJJippi,  they 
are  but  late  intruders  there,  fince  the  year  17  20, for 
all  to  the  eaftof  that  river  properly  belongs  tothe 
Englijh  ;  and  all  towards  the  weft  to  the  Spaniards  ; 
and  the  Spaniards  actually  deftroyed  fome  of  the 
forts  the  French  had  erefted  on  the  weft  fide  of 
that  riveri  though  fmce  the  ftriifl;  Union  between 
the  two  kingdoms  of  France  and  Spain,  the  Spa- 
niards wink  at  the  French  Incroachments. 

I  ftialt  take  the  libe'ty,  however,  to  give  C«- 

rolina  the  bounds   it  ought  to  have,    both  againft 

French  ar>d    Spanijh  Florida,    and   bound   Carolina 

'  by  Virginia  on  the  north  ;    by  the  Atlantick  ocean 


of  Arts  and  Sciektces. 

on  the  eaft  ;  by  the  river  of  St.  John  on  the  fouth; 
and  the  river  MiJJiJJlppi  on  the  weft  ;  and  throw 
it  into  three  divifions,  viz.  i.  North  Carolina,  2. 
South  Carolina,  and  3.  Georgia ;  extending  five 
hundred  miles  in  length,  with  an  uncertain  breadth. 

North  Carolina  contains  three  counties,  viz. 
Albemarle,  Bath  county,  and  Clarendon  in  part, 
which  are  divided  into  parifties,  but  have  no  towns. 

The  middle  divifion,  or  South  Carolina,  contains 
five  counties,  viz.  Clarendon  in  part.  Craven  coun- 
ty, Berkeley  county,  Colleton  county,  and  Gran- 
ville county  ;  whofe  chief  towns  are  St.  James, 
Chriji-Church,  Charles-Town,  weft  long.  79,  north 
latitude  32.  30.   and  Port-Royal. 

The  South  divifion  contains  only  Georgia, 
whofe  chief  towns  are  Savannah,  Frederica,  and 
Purijbtirgh. 

The  chief  rivers  are,  i.  Albemarle.  2.  Pentague. 
3.  Neufe.  4.  Cape  Fear,  or  Clarendon  river.  5. 
IVateree.  6.  Santee.  7.  AjlAey.  8.  Cooper,  g. 
Collelon,  1 0.  Cambahee.  I  r .  Savannah.  1 2.  Ala- 
tamaha  ;  and  13.  That  noble  river  St.  Johns, 
which  divides  Georgia  from  Spanijh  Florida;  all 
which  rivers  rife  in  the  Apalachian  mountains, 
and,  running  eaft,  fall  into  the  Atlantic  ocean. 

There  has  not  yet  been  found  one  tood  harbour 
in  North  Carolina ;  the  beft  are  thofe  of  Roanoaky 
at  the  mouth  of  Albemarle  river,  and  Pimlico.  In 
South  Carolina  there  are  the  harbours  of  Winyaw, 
or  George-  town,  Charles-town,  and  Port-Rofal. 
In  Georgia,  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  Savannah, 
and  Alatamaha,  form  good  harbours. 

The  moft  remarkable  promontaries  arc  Cape 
Hatteras,  in  350°  odd  min.  north  latitude  ;  Cape 
Fear  to  the  fouth  of  it,  and  Cape  Carteret  ftill  fur- 
ther South. 

It  has  a  low  level  coaft  ;  not  a  hiil  to  be  fcen 
from  St.  Augujiin  to  Virginia,  and  a  great  way  be- 
yond. The  country  lifes  into  hills  about  loo 
miles  weft  of  the  coaft,  and  continues  to  rife  gra- 
dually to  the  jfpalachian  mountains,  which  are 
about  1 50  miles  diftant  from  the  ocean. 

Carolina  is  fituate  between  the  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold ;  but  the  heat  is  more  troublefome  in 
fummer,   than  the  cold  in  winter. 

The  vegetables  are  innumerable,  for  all  that 
grow  in  £'«r»/>e',  grow  there,  and  many  that  cannot 
ftand  our  winters  thrive  there. 

This  country  hath  produced,  and  would  ftill  pro- 
duce, filk,  wine,  and  oil,  if  it  was  properly  cultivat- 
ed; mulberry-trees  and  grapes  grow  fpontaneoufly. 

They  fhip  ofF  yearly  from  Carolina  about  60,000 
barrels  of  rice,  each  barrel  containing  400  weight, 
and  export  70,000  deer  (k\ns per  annum  at  a  medium, 
for  ten  years  fucceflively ;  alfo  20,000  barrels  of 
pitch ;  and  they  have  fent  home  70,000  barrels  of 

tar 


G   E    0    G    R    A    P    H 


r. 


599 


tar  in  a  j'car:  wlrereby  they,  reduced- the  price  of 
Norivay  tar,  from  50s.  a  bn<rcl,  to  12  s.  and  15  s. 

The' Engl'rJI]  trafficlc  with  the  natives  for  deer- 
fkins,  bear  and  bufialoc  fkins,  for  which  they  give 
them  guns,  powder,  knives,  fciflars,  looking- 
glaiTts,  beads,  and  feme  coarfe -cloth,  and  diiffils. 
The  EngUJh  ciiapmen  carry  thefe  on  pac'.-.  horfcs  5 
or  600  miles  into  the  country,  weft  of  Charles 
Town;  but  moft  of  the  trade  is  confined  within 
the  limits  of  the  Creek  and  Cljero^ee  n^itlons,  which 
do  not  lie  above  300  miles  from  the  coalt. 

Georgia,  the  moCc  fouthern  province,  is  not  a 
fruitful-  country;  b"ut  having  feveral  fine  rivers 
running  through  it,  the  banks  of  them  are  forti- 
fied, and  make  a  very  good  barrier  for  the  Caioli- 
nas,  which  were  before  expofed  to  the  incurfions 
and  ravages  oHhe  Spaniards  and  their  Indian  alVies. 

On  this  fame  continent  our  moft  inveterate  and 
natural  enemies  the  Freneh  have  got  a  ftrong  foot- 
ing, and  were  contriving  means  to  ruin  the  Britijh 
empire  and  trade  in  thefe  parts,  till  by  their  en- 
croachments we  were  provoked  to  maintain  our 
right  by  the  prefent  war. 

Theii'  claim  is  to  onfe  traft  of  land  meafuring 
1800  miles'ln  length  and  1260  in  breadth,  which 
■  they  call  Frrnch  Canada  or  New  France  ; 
and  to  which  they  fet  the  bounds  of  Neiv-Britain 
and  Britifn  Canada  on  the  north ;  New  Seot/and, 
New  England  and  Neiu  York  on  the  eaft,  and  un- 
known lands  on  the  weft.  To  another  trad:, 
which  they  call  Louisiana,  extending  1400 
'miles  in  length  and  900  in  breadth,  and  bounding 
on  the  river  and  lake  of  Ilhnois  on  the  north  ;  by 
'Carolina  on  the  eaft;  by  the  gulph  of  Mexico  on 
'the  fouth,  and  by  New  Mexico  on  the  weft,  and  to 
a  third  province,  which  they  name  Caen  or  Equi- 
NocTiAL  France,  honndtdi  hy  Surinarn  on  the 
riohh;  by  the  y///««/;V  ocean,  on  the  eaft  ;  by  the 
'Amaz,ons  on  the  fouth,  and  by  Guiana  on  the  weft, 
'which  extends  300  miles  in  length,,  and  240  miles 
in  breadth. 

But,  we  Ciy  that  French  Canada  or  New 
Fr.^,nce,  ftripped  of  the  encroachments  made 
upon  the  Britijh  difcoveries  and  fettlements,  is  but 
a  fmall  province,  confined  to  the  coaft  of  the 
fouth  and  eaft  fides  of  the  river  of  St.  Laurence. 
Its  chief  town  is  ^ebec,  about  no  leagues  from 
the  fea.  It  is  an  epifcopal  fea,  and  adorned  with 
feveral  convents  and  churches  for  Jefuits,  religious 
of  both  fexes,  and  parochial.  The  whole  extent 
of  the  place  is  covered  by  a  regular  fortification 
with  a  citadel  and  feveral  redoubts,  well  furniflied 
with'  artillery.  This  is  the  largeft  and  ftrongeft 
town  "in  New  France,  and  generally  maintains  a 
ftrong  army,  to  over  awe  both  their  Itidian  and 


Britrjl)  neighbours  :  fo  that  the  reduftion  thereof 
muft  entirely  deflroy  the  power  and  intereft  of 
France  on  that  continent.  ' 

Though  Canada  is  fituated  in  the  midft  of  the 
temperate  7.one,  yet  the  air  of  it  is  prodigioufly 
ftiarp  :  fo  that  their  winter,  which  fets  in  about 
the  middle  of  November,  and  lafts  to  the  middle  of 
May,  is  exceffively  fevere,  the  greateft  rivers  being 
frozen  over,  and  the  fnow  two  or  three  feet  deep 
on  the  ground.  But,  notwithftanding  this,  the 
French  boaft  very  much  of  the  fertility  of  this 
country;  and,  indeed,  where  it  is  cultivated,  it 
yields  Indian  and  other  forts  of  corn,  peas,  beans, 
and,  in  ftiort,  all  kinds  of  herbs  and  vegetables  in 
great  plenty.  There  is  likewife  plenty  of  flags, 
el  lis,  bears,  foxes,  martins,  and  other  wild  crea- 
tures in  the  woods,  befides  wild  fowl  and  other 
game.  The  fouthern  parts,  in  particular,  breed 
great  numbers  of  wild  bulls,  deer  of  a  fmall  fize, 
divers  forts  of  roebucks,  goats,  wolves,  .and  a 
great  variety  of  other  animals,  both  wild  and 
tame. 

The  meadow  grounds,  .which  are  all  well  wa- 
tered, yield  excellent  grafs,  and  breed  great  quan- 
tities of  large  and  fmall  cattle;  and,  where  the 
."table  land  is  well  manured,  it  produces  large  and 
rich  crops.  The  mountains  abound  with  coal 
mines,  and  fome,  we  are  told,  with  filver,  and 
other  metals ;  though  we  do  not  learn  that  any 
great  advantage  is  made  thereof  The  marftiy 
grounds,  which  are  likewife  very  extenfive,  fwarm 
with  otters  and  beavers,  and  the  rivers  and  lakes 
with  fifti  of  all  forts. 

With  regard  to  the  produtSt  of  this  colony,  it 
confifts  of  furs,  efpecially  caftors,  which  they  pur- 
chafe  from  the  Indians ;  feveral  kinds  of  hides  or 
fkins,  which  they  likewife  purchafe  from  the  na- 
tives ;  fifh,  and  what .  we  call  lumber,  that  is, 
planks,  pipe  ftaves,  and  other  things  of  that  na- 
ture. The  greateft  part  of  the  commerce  of  the 
country  is  carried  on  in  light  canoes,  made  of  bark', 
proper  for  the  navigating  their  lakes  and  rivers, 
incumbered  with  water  falls,  which  fender  them 
unfit  for  other  kinds  of  vcfR-ls.  In  winter  they 
make  ufe  of  a  kind  of  fledges,  which  are  drawn 
either  by  horfes  or  by  dogs,  and  are  very  proper 
for  pafTuig  over  vaft  trails  of  fnow  and  ice,  and 
enable  them  to  continue  their  commerce  with  the 
Indians  all  the  winter :  which,  however,  the  French 
tell  us,  is  attended  with  one  great  inconveniency. 

The  perfons,  who  carry  on  this  trade,  muft 
have  licences  granted  by  the  governors,  which  are 
confined  to  a  certain  number  every  year ;  and, 
though  this  brings  them  in  large  fums,  yet  by  hin- 
derinsi  the  refort  of  hidlans  to  their  fairs  in  fum-- 
iher,  when  every  man  i4  at  libetty  to  make   the 

moft 


6oo 


Tloe   Univerfal  Hiftoiy  ©/"Arts  ^;^^  Sciences. 


mofl  of  his  goodi,  this  prejudiced  the  colony  in 
general. 

As  for  their  modern  claim  to  the  \'afl  tradl  of 
Jands,  to  which  the  French  Geographers  give  the 
pompous  name  of  Louisiana,  nothing  can  be 
more  chimerical.  The  whole  is  an  encroach 
ment  upon  Britijl)  property ;  whofe  prior  difco- 
veries  give  the  Englijh  a  right  to  the  v.'hole  conti- 
nent, that  lies  eaft  of  the  river  MiJfiJJtppi. 

The  French  in  1687,  formed  fchemes  to  con- 
quer Neiv  York,  which  twite  mifcarried,  as  did 
their  defign  on  Bo/hn'm  ihgy. 

The  O/'.'fo  country  was  known  early  to  the  E'lg- 
I'ljh,  and  thoroughly  difcovered  beyond  the  Mijjif- 
ftppi  by  colonel  Wood,  from  1654  to  1664,  as  alio 
by  captain  55!'/  in  1670  In  1698  two  fhips  fent 
by  Dr.  Ll9x  of  New  fci-fcy^  difcovered  the  mouth 
of  that  river,  and  i'ailing  up  100  miles,  took  pof- 
(clTion,  and  called  it  Carolana.  Next  year  the 
French  firfl  found  and  fettled  on  it.  From  thence 
to  Illinois  river,  in  40°  latitude  they  call  it  Louifiana, 
(the  trade  of  which  was  granted  to  M.  Crojht  in 
1712.) 

Since  the  peace  of  Ut'eeht  they  have  daily  en- 
croached. In  1 7 19,  they  began  to  difputc  our 
■title  to  Nova  Scotia.  In  1726  they  repofiefled  fort 
Dcnonville,  near  the  i'aWs  of  Niaguara,  bordering 
weft  on  tlie  Six  Amotions.  In  1731  they  built  fort 
Frederick  zt  Croivn  Point,  120  miles  Ibuth  of  St 
Laurence  river.  In  1750  they  fcized  two  parts  in 
three  of  Nova  Scotia,  by  eredting  forts  at  Sheguikto, 
Bay  Vcrte,  and  at  the  mouth  of  St  'John's  river  in 
I752.and  54  ;  two  more  on  lake  Erie,  in  1752 
»nd  53. 

In  1754,  they,  "by  force,  took  our  two  forts  on 
<he  Ohio  and  in  the  Great  Aieadoivs  ;  drove  our 
people  out  of  their  back  fcttlements ;  and,  as  it 
were,  kept  Virginia  befieged  ;  all  this  they  have 
done  in  time  of  peace.  About  17 16,  they  built 
a  fort  on  the  Alabama  river,  in  the  country  of  the 
Creek  Indians,  to  curb  and  ftraiten  South  Caro- 
lina; thus  they  hemm'd  in  our  coloaiies  with  forts, 
and  cut  off  our  trade  and  alliance  with  the  Indians. 

To  the  two  /vmi./;  colonies  there  are  only  two 
inlets,  the  ri-vers  St.  Laurence  and  Mijfifitpi,  whofe 
mouths  are  above  1000  leagues  afimder,  and  both 
their  entrances  of  difficult  accefs  ;  the  lirft  being  full 
of  rocks;  the  fecond  fhoaly. 

Canada  in  1753  had  not  more  than  45000  inha- 
bitants, of  which  15000  were  fighting  men  ;  ^e- 
bec  had  15000  inhabitants  and  500  foldiers,  or  more 
than  at  both  Trois  Rivieres  and  Alontreal,  their 
other  two  fcttlements.  Louifiana  has  not  one 
twelfth  the  number  of  men  as  in  Canada,  whereas 
our  colonies  contain  between  900,000  and  a  million 
of  Englijl),  out  of  whom  90  or  100,000  men  for 


defence,  may  be  raifed  ;  but  a  few  united,  are  ail 
overmatch  for  divided  numbers. 

The  French  are  intruders  into  Canada,  part  of 
Cabot's  difcovery,  and  have  no  right  but  by  trea- 
ties, as  appears  from  thtir  claiming  under  Verro- 
zam^s  difcovery  1524,  though  twenty  ieven  years 
after  Cabot's. 

The  Dutch  have  one  fettlement  upon  this  con- 
tinent called  Surinam  of  the  extent  of  300  miles 
in  length  and  100  miles  in  breadth  ;  bounded  on 
tlie  nortli  and  eaft  by  the  Atlantic  ocean  ;  and  on 
the  fouth  and  weft  by  Caen,  and  the  other  parts  oi 
Guiana  or  Caribbiana. 

The  native  Indians  are  ftill  in  poftlffion  of  many 
regions  m  America ;  as  i.  i'he  countries  north- 
welt  of  JlJexico.  2,  The  country  of  the  Amazons, 
and  the  greateli  part  of  Caribbiana  or  Guiana;  and, 
lajtly,  the  fouth  part  of  South  America,  viz.  P.:ia' 
gonia  and  Terra  del  Fuego.  Thefe  are  generally 
barren  defai  t  countries,  which  no  Europeans  have 
thought  it  worth  their  while  to  plant. 

Amu%onia  extends  from  Peru  to  Brazil,  lying 
upon  or  near  the  equator,  having  Terra  Firma  on 
the  north,  and  La  Plata  on  the  Ibuth. 

Guiana  or  Caribbiana,  is  bounded  by  the  northern 
or  Atlantic  ocean,  on  the  north  and  eaft  ;  by  the 
country  of  the  Jmazons,  on  the  fouth;  and  by 
the  pro\'inccs  of  Granada  and  New  Andalujia,  on 
the  weft.  It  extends  from  the  equator  to  the  8th 
degree  of  north  latitude,  and  lies  between  50  and 
63  degrees  of  weftern  longitude,  extending  1200 
.miles  and  upwards  along  the  Atlantic  ocean,  viz. 
from  the  mouth  of  the  river  Oronotiue  to  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Amazon;  fome  divide  it  into  two  parts, 
calling  that  on  the  fea  coaft  Caribbiana,  and  the 
inland  country  Guiana. 

For  though  feveral  European  powers,  have  fct- 
tlements on  or  near  the  fea  coafts  of  this  country, 
particularly  the  Spaniards,  the  French,  and  Dutch^ 
yet  the  natives  are  poirelicd  of  much  the  greateft 
part  of  the  inland  country. 

There  are  abundance  of  confiderable  rivers,  (be- 
fides  thofe  of  Oronoque  and  the  river  Amazon)  and . 
thefe  having  their  fources  in  the  mountains,  on  the 
fouth  weft,  generally  run  towards  the  north-caft, 
and  fall  into  ihs-Atlantic  ocean. 

The  fea  coaft  of  this  country  is  low,  and  fub- 
je£t  to  inundations  in  the  rainy  feafon  ;  the  air  is 
exceffive  hot  and  unhealthful,  efpecially  in  fuch 
parts  of  the  country  as  are  not  cleared  of  the  woods. 

The  EngUfn  had  formerly  feveral  fettlements  on 
the  coaft  of  Surinam,  which  were  yielded  to  the 
Dutch  by  the  treaty  of  Breda,  in  the  year  1 667  ; 

and 


GEOGRAPHY' 


60 1 


and  the  DiitJi  and  French  have  flill  a  great  many 
forts  and  fettlemcnts  here. 

There  is  a  good  extent  of  country  near  the 
mouths  of  the  rivers,  which  furnffh  them  with 
fugar,  tobacco,  cotton,  flax,  fkins,  or  peltry,  dying 
woods,  and  fcvcral  other  confidcrablc  articles. 

IVe  fliall  dole  this  ttcatife,  on  Geography, 
with  a  de(i:rip[ion  of  the  American  Islands  ; 
obferving  the  fame  method  of  phieing  them  under 
their  refpeiSlive  fovereigns. 

Spanish  Islands  in  America. 

1.  Cuba  is  fituate  in  the  Atlantic  or  American 
ocean,  between  74  and  87  degrees  W.  long,  and 
between  20  and  23  degrees  N.  Lat.  upwards  of 
800  miles  long  from  E.  to  W.  and  70  miles  broad. 

A  chain  of  hills  run  through  the  middle  of  the 
ifland,  but  the  land  near  the  coall  is  generally  a 
level  champaign  country,  well  watered  with  rivu- 
lets and  fli)oded  in  the  rain)'  iealbn,  when  tb.e  fun 
IS  vertical  ;  but  there  are  Icarce  any  navigablerivers, 
as  they  run  (b  fliort  a  courie  from  the  hills  into  the 
fea.  I  "here  are  feveraf  good  harbours  in  the  inland, 
the  chief  whereof  are  thole  ot  St.  'J^igo,  towards  the 
eait  end  of  the  ifland  ;  Cumberland  harbour  further 
eaft;  and  the  Havanna,  at  the  N.  W.  part  of  the 
ifland. 

The  chief  towns  are,  i.  St.  y^igo,  W.  Lon,  77. 
Lat.  20,  Itrongly  fituated  and  well  fortified,  the 
capitaf  of  the  ifland. 

2.  The   Hiwaiindy  W.  long.  83    lat.  23.  a  fe 
cure  capacious  harbour  of  difficult  accefs,  where  the 
galleons    from  Carthagcra  and  Vera  Cruz,  rendez 
vous  on  their  return  to  Spain. 

3.  Barnccoa,  fituate  on  the  N.  E.  coaft  of  the 
ifland,  has  a  good  harbour  for  fmall  vefl'els. 

4.  Parto  del  Principe,  fituate  alio  on  the  N.  coaff, 
300  miles  eaft  of  the  Havanna. 

5.  Santa  Cruz,  fituate  on  the  N.  coall,  30  miles 
«aft  of  the  Havanna. 

This  ifland  produces  the  fame  animal-s  as  the- 
continent,  under  the  fame  parallel  ;  the  hills  are 
pretty  well  planted  with  timber. 

The  foil  produces  maize,  calfavi-root,  tob.acco, 
fjgar,  hides,  cotton,  indigo,  ginger,  aloes,  and  long- 
pepper ;  but  Eicropean  wheat,  hemp,  or  fl.i.x,  do 
not  thrive  here  any  more  than  vines. 

II.  Hisi'.'VNiOLA,  or  St.  Domingo  is  fituate  in 
f  the  Atlantic  or  Americ  ocean,  between  67  and  74 
degrees  W.  long,  and  between  18  and  20  degrees 
N.  lat.  upwards  of  400  miles  long,  and  120 
Viroad  ;  50  miles  eaft  of  C'«/5'(j,aiid  70  E.  oi'  Jamaica, 
and  300  miles  N.  of  Terra-Jhma  ;  fometimes  called 
St.  Domingo,  from  its  capital. 

In  the  middle  of  the  cguntry  are  mountains  well 


planted  with  foreft-trees,  and  other  mountainous^ 
barren  rocks. 

The  reft  of  the  country  confifts  of  fine  fruitful' 
plains,  which  produce  fugar,  cotton,  indigo,  tobacco, 
maize,  and  callavi- root ;  anxl  the  European  cattle 
are  lb  multiplied,  that  they  run  wild  in  the  woods, 
and  are  hunted  for  their  hides  and  tallow.' 

This  idand  is  now  divided  between  the  Spaniards 
and  the  French  ;  the  Spaniards  poffefling  moft  of 
the  fouthern  fhores,  and  the  French  the  north  and' 
weft. 

The  chief  towns  arc,  i.  St.  Psw^a,  capital  of 
the  Spanijh  fettlements,  fituate  on  a  fpaciouj  har- 
bour oil  the  fouth  fide  of  the  ifland,  W.  long.  70 
degrees,  N.  lat.  18,  the  moft  ancient  royal  audi- 
ence in-  A'.  America,  and  feat  of  the  governor  ;  the 
inhabitants  a  mixture  oi Europeans,  Creols,  Mulatto's, 
Meflees,  and  Negroes  ;  not  a  fixth  part  Spaniards, 
founded  by  Bartholomeiu  Colambns,  brother  to  the 
admiral,  in  1504. 

2.  Conception  ik  la  Vega,  25  leagues  north  of  St. 
Lhmingo,  founded  by  Columljus,hom  whence  he  had 
the  title  of  Duke  De  la  Vem. 

The  chief  towns  belonging  to  the  French  in 
Hijpaniola,  aie, 

1.  Petit  Guava-'s,  W.  long.  73  degrees,  N.lat, 
16.  a  port  town,  fituate  on  a  bay  at  the  weft  end  of 
the  ifland. 

2.  Logane,  another  port  town,  fituate  on  the 
fame  bay. 

3.  Port  Lewis,  a  good  harbour  on  the  fouth-weft 
part  of  the  ifland. 

4.  Cape  Francis,  the  moft  eafterly  fettlement  of 
the  French  on  the  north  fhore. 

III.  Porto  Rico,  is  fituate  between  64  and  67 
degrees  W.  long-,  and  in  18  N.  lat.  about  120 
miles  long,  and  60  broad.  This  ifland  confifts  of 
little  fruitful  hills  and  vallies,  and  produces  the  fame 
fruits  as  the  former  tflands,  and  is  etjualiy  unhealth.- 
ful  in  the  rainy  feafon. 

The  town  oi  Porto  Rico,  or  St.  John,  n  fituate 
in  65  degrees  W.  long.  1  8  N.  lat.  in  a  little  ifland 
on  the  nortli  fide  of  the  main  iiland,  forming  a  ca- 
pacio'us  harbour,  and  joined  to  the  chief  ifland  by  a 
caufey,  and  defended  by  forts  and  batteries,  which 
render  the  town  inaccefiible. 

IV.  1  he  Virgin  Isla."<ids,  fituate  at  the  eaft 
end  ot  Porto  Rico,  are  exceeding  fmall. 

V.  The  ifland  of  Trinidad  is  fituate  in  the 
.///a«//t- ocean,  between  60  and  62  degrees  W.  long, 
and  between  10  and  1 1  N.  lat.  90  miles  long,  and- 
60  broad  ;  feparated  from  the  continent  of  /Inda- 
lufia,  in  Terra- firrna,  by  the  narrow  flraight  of  Boco 
eiA  Drago,  80  miles  N.  W.  of  the  river  Oronoque  j 
an  unhealthful,  but  fruitful  foil,  producing  fogar, 
tobacco,  indigo,  cotton,  ginger,  aixl'  Indian  corn-. 

VL 


TTje  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


602 

VI.  Margaretta  is  fitiiate  in  65  degrees 
tV.  long,  .-ind  11 — 30  N.  lat.  60  miles  N.  ot"  the 
continent  of  'terra-Jirma,  and  200  W.  of  Trinhy, 
being  50  miles  long,  and  24  broad  ;  there  is  very 
little  wood  or  water  in  this  ifland. 

The  principal  iflands  belonging  to  Spain,  in  the 
Pacific  ocean,  are,  CInloe,  on  the  coaft  of  Chiliy  and 
thofe  in  the  bay  of  Panama,  called  the  Kings,  or 
Pearl  iflands  ;  Juan  Firmincks,  fituate  in  the  Pa- 
cific  ocean,  300  miles  wellof  Chiii  in  jimerica, 
W.  long.  83.  South  lat.  33  degrees. 

Gallipago's  iflands  fituate  in  the  Pacific  ocean, 
under  the  equator,  400  miles  W,  of  Pei'u,  between 
85  and  90  degrees  W.  long. 

Golden  ifland,  ifle  of  Pines,  Sambnllas  iflands,  and 
Bajlimcntos  near  Porto  Bella,  m  Terra-firma. 

The  PoRTEGUEZE  have  only  three  fmall  Iflands 
at  prefent,  which  lie  on  the  coaft  of  Brazil,  where 
fhips  touch  fometimes  for  provilions  in  their  voyage 
to  the  &tt//.>-5<?fli;  particularly,  i.  Fernandes,  in  3 
degrees  S.  lat.  .2.  St  Barbara,  in  18  degrees 
S.  lat.  and,  3.  St.  Catherine' %  in  28  degrees  S.  lat. 

American  Islands  under  the  British  do- 
minion. 

I.  Jamaica  meafures  140  miles  in  length,  and 
60  miles  in  breadth.  It  lies  in  the  Jmerican  fea, 
about  100  miles  fouth  of  Cuba,  and  70  weft  of 
Hifpaniola. 

There  are  near  100  fmall  jivers  inthe  ifland, 
but  none  navigable.  ' 

Their  well-water,  near  the  fea,  is  brackilh  and 
unwholfome.      , 

The  bays  and  capes  are,  i.  The  port  of  point 
Jllorauty.zx  ,the  eaft  end  of  the  ifland.  2.  The 
•^arbour  of  Port  Royal.  3 .  The  port  of  old  Har- 
iour.  4..  The  harbour  a^id  point  of  cape  Negril. 
^■.-■Blewfield  my,  .  -6.  PoitPMo;  and  7.  Blaci 
■point  i.all  on  the  fouth  fide  of  the  ifland  j  and 
there  arc  fome  others  on  the  north. 

In  May  and  October,  it  rains  violently  night  and 
.day  for  a  fortnight., 

There  is  a  ridge  of  hijls  runs  from  e aft  to  weft 
tbrough  the  ifland,  Thefe  hills  confift  either  of 
rock,  or  ftrong  clay,  and  are  covered  with  wood. 

The  vallies  .or  Savannahs  are  exceeding  level, 
and  without  ftones,  fit  for  paflurc,  a  hen  cleared  of 
wood  ;  the  moft  fruiiful  lying  on  the  fouth  fide  of 
the  ifland. 

The  ifland  is  dii/ided  hnto  14  pari/hes  or  pre- 
cincts ;  they  have  very  few  towns  ;  the  chief  are, 
I.  St.  J  ago  de  la  Vega,ot  Spa:.ijh  town      1.  King- 
Jion    3.  Port-Pajfage  ;  and,  4.  that  oi  Port- Royal. 

St.  fago  de  la  Vegj,  or  Spnuifh  j.'cwn,  is  pleafarivly 
lituated  in  a  fuie  plain,  upon  ciie  river  Cpbre^  y/hich 
I  "        '  ■      "  -I 


falls  into  a  bay  of  the  fea  that  forms  the  harbour  of 
Port-Royal,  about  7  miles  below  ;  it  confiils  of 
800  or  1000  houfes. 

Kingjlon  is  a  port  town,  fituate  on  the  north  fide 
of  the  bay  oi  Port -Royal,  jo  or  12  miles  fouth-eaft 
of  St.  yago,  and,  fince  the  repeated  misfortunes  of 
the  town  of  Port-Royal,  is  become  a  large  and 
populace  place,  much  frequented  by  merchants  and 
feafaring  men. 

Port-Pajfage  is  a  fea-port  town,  fituated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Cobre,  feven  miles  fouth-eaft  of 
St.  fago,  and  obtained  its  name,  from  being  the 
greateft  thorough-fare  in. the  ifland. 

Port-Royal,  before  it  was  deftroyed  by  an  earthr 
quake  in  the  year  1692,  was  fituated  in  the  fouth- 
eaft  part  of  the  ifland,  at  the  extremity  of  a  long 
flip  or  point  of  land,  running  wefterly  about  12 
miles  from  tlie  main  ifland,  having  the  ocean  on  the 
fouth,  and  a  fine  bay  of  the  fea,  which  forms  the 
harbour,  on  the  north,  well  defended  by  feveral 
forts  and  platforms  of  guns ;  the  harbour  is  about 
three  leagues  broad  in  moft  places,  and  fo  deep  that 
a  fliip  of  700  tons  may  lay  her  fide  on  the  fliore, 
and  load  and  unload  at  pleafure ;  nor  does  there 
want  good  anchorage  in  any  part  of  it. 

The  principal  vegetables  and  produce  of  this 
ifland  are,  fugar- canes,  cocoa,  of  which  chocolate 
is  made  ;  oranges,' lemons,  citrons,  palms,  coco, 
trees,  cotton,  indigo,  tobacco,  the  prickle  pear, 
woods  for  dying,  fait,  ginger,  cod-pepper,  or  Pie- 
mcnto,  drugs,  fuch  as  guaiacum,  China  root,  farfa- 
parilla,  caflia-fiftula,  tamarinds,  venelia's,  gusins  aa4 
roots,  ufed  in  medicines  and  furgery. . 

Here  grows  the  manchineel  tree,  which. bears  a 
beautiful,  biit  poifonous  apple,  and  the  mahogany, 
and  animals  ;  and  they  have  the  like  foreft-trees  as 
are  found  in  the  continent  oi  America,  in  ,tlje  l^me 
climate. 

T  here  are  in  the  Savannahs  great  plenty  of  cattle, 
but  they  cannot  keep  beef  many  days,  tho'  it  b^ 
faked,  and  frcfli  beef  is  ready  to  corrupt  in  four  or 
five  hours.  Butchers  always  kill  in  the  morning^ 
therefore,  juft  before  day,  and  by  fcven  o'clock  th^ 
markets  for  frefli  meat  are  over. 

This  and  all  the  othergpvernments  in  the Briiijb 
Americar.  iflands  are  royal  governments.  The  king 
appointi  the  governor  and  council,  and  the  repre- 
fentatives  are  chofen  by  the  freemen;  and  thcfe 
afiemblies  make  laws,  but  they  muft  be  confirmed 
by  the  court  of  England. 

The  principal  part  of  the  Revenue,  accruing  to 
the  crown  of  Great  Britain  fro.Ti  yamaica,  is  the 
duty  arifing  from  fugar,  rum,  .''nd  moloffes,  imported 
from  thence,  which  is  very  confiderable. 

The  inhabitants  are  either  Englijh,  or  oi  Engli/h 
exUa(5lion  born  in  the  ifland  j   Indians,  Negroes, 

Mulatto's, 


GEOGRAPHY, 


Mulatto's.,  or  Mejlhe,  or  the  defccndants  of  them. 
The  EngUjh,  and  thole  oi  Englijb  extraflion,  may 
be  40,000.  1  he  Indians  are  but  (c\v,  mod  of  the 
natives  having  been  deftroyed  by  the  Spaniards. 
'\  he  negroes  on  the  ifland  are  about  one  hundred 
thoufand. 

The  religion  of  the  church  of  England  is  alfo 
the  eftabliflied  religion  in  all  the  Britijh  iflands  ; 
but  there  are  no  bilhops  ;  the  hifhop  of  London'^ 
commiflary  is  the  principal  ecclefiaftick  in  thcfc 
iflands. 

''Jamaica  was  difcovered  by  Columbus  for  the 
Spaniards,  in  his  fecond  voyage  to  America,  Anno 

1493- 

In  the  year  1596,   Sir  Anthony  Shirley,  with   a 

fingle  man  of  war,  made  a  defcent  on  this  ifland, 

and  took  their  capital  town  St.  Jago  dc  la  Vega, 

{now  SpaniJhToivn  ]  confifting  of  about  2ooohou(es, 

and   plundered   it.     It   was   taken   and  plundered 

again  by  Colonel  'Jackfon,  who  landed  500  men 

here,  about  the  year  1638,  and  the  Spaniards  were 

compelled  to  raife  him  a  very  confiderable  fum  to 

ranfoni  it  from  burning. 

In  the  year   1656,  Admiral  Pcnn  and   Venahles 

were  commanded  by  CroTtiiucll \.o  invade  Hifpaniola; 

and  not  fucceeding  there,  they  made  a  deicent  on 

Jamaica,  and   reduced    the  whole   ifland  ;  which 

conquefl  was  confirmed  to  Gi  cat  Britain  by  a  fub- 

kquent  treaty. 

II.  Newkoundland.  Newfoundland  h  {ituzte 
in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  between  47  and  52  degrees 
of  north  latitude,  and  between  55  and  60  degrees 
of  welt  longitude  ;  feparated  from  New  Britain  by 
the  ftraights  of  BelUJle,  and-from  Canada  hy  the 
bay  of  St.  Laivnnce,  being  350  miles  long,  and 
200  broad.  It  is  a  barren  mountainous  country, 
covered  with  fnow  great  part  of  the  year ;  but  has 
feveral  commodious  harbours,  and  the  greateft  cod- 
fifheiy  in  the  world  upon  its  coaft.  The  chief 
tow-ns  arc,  Placentia,  Bonavijia,  and  St,  Johns. 

Several  hundred  fhips  are  loaded  with  fifh  upon 
thefe  banks  every  year,  and  carried  to  Ewope. 

There  do  not  above  a  thoufand  families  remain 
here  in  winter.  The  French  were  permitted  to 
fettle  here  in  the  reign  of  king  Charles  IF.  but 
were  obliged  to  quit  the  ifland  bv  the  peace  of 
[//j-tv/^r, //««»  1713,  only  they  were  left  at  liberty 
to  dry  their  nets  on  the  northern  fliores  of  the  ifland. 

It  was  the  firft  American  ifland  difcovered  forj 
England,  by  Scbajiian  Cabot,  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  V\. 

III.  Barb.'VDoes.  The  \i[And  o?  Barbadoes  \s 
fituate  in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  in  59  degrees  of  weft 
longitude,  and  >  3  degrees  of  north  latitude  ;  being 
the  moft  eafterly  of  all  the  Caribbee  iflands ;  90 
miles  fouth-eafl;  oi  Martinico^  and  70  miles  eaft  of  1 

29 


603 


St.  Vincent;  25  miles  long,  and  15  broad;  generally 
a  level  country,  with  fomc  fmall  hills,  and  but  little 
wood,  corn,  or  grafs. 

It  produces  fugar,  rum,  molofles,  cotton,  indigo, 
ginger,  pine  apples,  guava's.  plantains,  oranges, 
citrons,  and  other  tropical  fruits. 

The  chief  town  is  Byidge-Toxvn,  on  the  fouth- 
weft  coaft  of  the  ifland. 

A  college  is  ere£ted  here  with  a  revenue  for  pro- 
feflbrs  in  the  feveral  (ciences :  Colonel  Codringion 
was  the  principal  benefactor. 

The  number  of  v/hite  inhabitants  are  computed 
to  be  20,000,  and  of  tlieir  negroe  flaves  100,000. 

They  get  their  corn,  flour,  cattle,  flefti,  and  faked 
fifh,  from  Pennfylvania,  and  other  Britijh  northern 
colonies,  or  from  Ireland ;  and  their  furniture  and 
cloathing  from  Old  England. 

This  ifland  was  firft  reforted  to  by  the  Englijh  in 
the  reign  of  King  James  I. 

The  adventurers  applied  themfelves  at  firft  to  the- 
planting  oiTohacco,  which  not  thriving  as  they  ex- 
pelled, they  planted  cotton  and  indigo,  which 
yielded  a  confiderable  profit :  but  they  made  little 
iugar  till  1647,  when  Colonel  Midford,  Colonel 
Drax,  and  Colonel  IValrond,  and  other  cavaliers, 
living  uneafy  under  the  ufurpation,  converted  their 
eftates  into  money,  and  tranfported  themfelves  to 
Barbadoes,  where  they  ereiSted  fugar-vvorks,  and 
acquired  very  great  eftates. 

King  Charles  II.  purchafed  the  property  of  this 
ifland  of  the  proprietors  in  the  year  1 66 1,  ever  fince 
which  Barbadoes  has  been  a  royal  government,  and 
the  colony  granted  a  duty  of  4  and  a  \\z\t  per  Cent. 
on  their  fugars,  for  maintaining  the  forces  and 
fortifications  in  the  ifland,whichamountstoio  ooo/., 
per  Ann.  De  Rtiyter,  the  Dutch  admiral,  treache- 
roufly  attempted  to  furprife  this  ifland  in  1664,  in 
a  time  of  peace,  but  v.as  bravely  repulfed. 

IV.  St.  Christopher's.  The  ifland  of  St. 
Chrijlopher's  is  fituate  in  62  degrees  weft  longitude, 
and  17  north  latitude.  It  is  20  miles  long,  and  7 
or  8  broad,  produces  the  greateft  quantit)  of  fugar, 
next  to  Jamaica  and  Barbadoes,  and  fome  years  it 
produces  full  as  much  as  Barbadoes.  It  produc>ss 
alfo  cotton,  ginger,  and  the  tropical  fruits. 

A  mountain  runs  through  the  middle  of  it,  from 
whence  there  iflue  feveral  rivulets.  The  Fremh 
were  pofle/Ted  of  the  fouth-fide  of  the  ifland  till  the 
peace  of  Utrecht,  1 7 1  j,  when  they  yielded  it  to 
Great  Britain. 

Chrijiopher  Columbus,  in  the  fervice  of  Spain, 
difcovered  this  ifland  in  T-nj3,  and  gave  it  his 
chriftian  name  :  i'he  Spaniards  deferting  it,  the 
Englijh  and  French  arrived  here  in  1625,  and  di- 
vided it  between  them. 


4H 


V.  Antigua. 


6o4  Tf^e  Unlverfal  Hiftory 

V.  Antigua.  The  ifland  of  i^«/7]g-«a  is  fituate 
in  6 1  degrees  weft  long,  and  17  deg.  north  lat. 
60  miles  eaft  of  St.  Chr'tftophers  ;  it  is  of  a  circular 
form,  almoll  20  miles  ever  either  way,  and  has  a 
great  many  good  harbours  ;  the  governor  of  the 
Ciirihhee  iflands  ufually  refides  at  St.  Johns,  the 
chief  town. 

The  produce  is  chiefly  fugar,  ginger,  cotton, 
pine-apples,  plantain,  and  other  tropical  fruits ; 
they  have  no  other  water  but  the  rains,  which  fall 
in  the  fpring  and  autumn  ;  this  they  referve  in 
cifterns,  and  if  the  rains  fail,  they  are  in  great 
diftrefs,  being  forced  to  fetch  their  frcfti  water  from 
the  neighbouring  idands.  Some  fprings  of  frefh 
.water  have  been  lately  found  here. 

VI.  Nevjs.  A^t-Li/x  is  a  little  fugar  in.uid  on  the 
eaft  of  St.  Chrijiopher's,  from  which  it  is  divided  by 
c  very  narrow  channel.  YV^e.  Etiglijh  fent  the  firft 
O  lony  to  Nevis,  Anno  1628. 

Vli.  DoMiNLCA.  Dmun'ica-h  a  fmall  ifland, 
in  15  degrees  north  lat.  30  miles  north  of  Marti- 
mco,  but  very  little  cultivated. 

'J  his  was  agreed  to  be  a  neutral  ifland  at  the  laft 
itreaty  oi  Aix.la  Chappelk,  though  this,  as  well  as 
the  other  .three,  »/.i.  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent,  and 
Tobago,  were  in  re  dity  deemed  part  of  the  terri- 
tories of  Great  Britain  before  this  treaty,  as  appears 
hy  a  commillion  given  by  the  late  King  George,  to 
the  late  duk.e  oi  Montague,  to  fend  colonies  to  the 
i/land  of  St.  Lucia,  in  the  year  J722. 

VIII.  Barbuda.     Barbuda    is   fituate  in    18 

deg.  north  lat.  The  inhabitants  apply  themfelves 

chiefly  to  the  breeding  of  cattle,  and  raifing  provi- 

fions,   with   which  they  fupply  the  neighbouring 

innds. 

This  ifland  is  the  property  of  the  Codrington  fa- 
milv,  who  have  a  great  number  of  negroes  here  and 
in  the  ifland  of  Barbadocs. 

JX.  Anguilla.  Anguilla  is  fituate  in  18  de- 
grees odd  minutes  north  latitude;  60  miles  north- 
weft  of  St.  Ckrijiophers  ;  being  about  30  miles 
long,  and  lo  broad. 

The  inhabitants  apply  themfelves  chiefly  to  feed- 
ing of  cattle,  pl.uuiiig  of  Indian  corn,  and  other 
parts  of  huft)andry. 

X.  MoNTSERRAT.  AJontferrat  h  ^\X.\i^ti.  T^Q 
miles  fouth-weft  of  ./fK//fzw,andaftbrds  its  propor- 
tion of  fugar. 

XI.  Tobago.  Tobago  is  fituate  11  deg.  odd 
minutes  north  latitude,  120  miles  fouth  of  Barba- 
does  ;  a  fruitful  foil,  capable  of  producing  whatever 
the  fugar  iflands  produce.  King  Charles  II.  granted 
it  to  the  duke  of  Courland,  by  whofe  authority  a 
colony  of  Englijb  andanother  of  Dutch  were  fettled 
here  ;  but  their  plantations  were  fo  haralfed  and 
(lifturbed  by  the   Caribbca   of  the  neighbouring 


of  Arts  a1^d  Sciences. 

continent,  that  they  left  the  iJland  ;  the  Englijh  tS 
Barbadoes  only  vifiting  it  fometimcs  to  cut  wood 
here. 

It  was  efteemed  however  part  of  the  territories 
of  Great  Britain,  till  denominated  a  neutral  iiland 
by  the  treaty  of  Aix  la  Chapelle,  Anno  1748.  The 
French  had  no  colour  to  claim  it. 

XII.  St.  V.iNCLNT.  St.  Vincent  is  fituate  60 
miles  and  upwards,  weft  of  Barbadoa,  and  is  20 
miles  long,  and  almoft  as  many  broad. 

St.  Lucia.  St.  Lucia  is  near  80  miles  north- 
weft  of  Barbadoes  ;  the  foil  of  thefe  two  laft  iflands 
is  as  good  as  that  of  any  of  the  Caribbees,  and  has 
the  advantage  of  good  wood. 

To  thefe  we  may  add  tlie  conqueft  lately  made 
by  the  Britijh  arms,  of  Guadalupe  and  Mariga- 
lante. 

Xni.  Guadalupe,  fo  caUedby^ff/Kwiz/i, frorti 
its  hills  refembling  thofe  of  that  name  in  Spain,  is 
fituate  in  1.6  degrees  north  latitude,  and  61  degrees 
weflern  longitude,  about  30  leagues  north  oi Mar- 
tinico,  and  almoft  as  much  fouth  of  Antigua  ;  it  is 
faid  to  be  the  largeft  of  all  the  Ctiribbce  iflands,  being 
22  leagues  in  length,  and  half  as  much  in  breadth  at 
each  end  ;  but  almoft  cut  in  two  by  a  deep  gulph, 
or  bay,  on  each  fide,  fo  that  the  ends  are  joined 
together  by  a  very  narrow  illhmus.  This,  liice 
iVlartinico,  abounds  in  fugar,  cotton,  indigo,  gin- 
ger, irV. 

The  French  began  to  fend  colonies  to  this  ifland 
about  the  year  1632. 

XIV.  Marigalan'te  is  fituate  in  16  degrees 
N.lat.  a  little  to  the  fouth-eaft  of  Guadalupe,  and  is 
about  five  leagues  in  length,  and  four  in  breadth  ; 
it  was  difcovered  by  Columbus  in  his  fecond  voyage 
to  America,  Anno  1493,  and  named  by  him  Mari- 
galante,  or  the  Gallant  Mary,  after  the  name  of  his 
ftiip.  The  French  began  to  fend  colonies  thither 
about  the  year  1647.  '  ^'^  produce  is  the  fame 
with  the  reft  of  die  Caribbees. 

XV.  Lucaya's  or  Bahama  Is  lands  are  fitu- 
ate between  73  and  81  degrees  weft  long,  and  21 
and  27  degrees  north  lat.  are  very  numerous,  and 
12  of  them  pretty  large.  Thefe  were  the  firft 
lands  difcovered  in  America,  by  Columbus,  Anna 
1492. 

The. Ifland  of  Providence  is  now  planted  and  for- 
tified by  Great-Britain,  being  fituate  in  78  weft  ■ 
long.  25.  north  lat.  and  is  200  miles  eaft  of  the 
continent  of  Florida:  None  of  the  other  iflands 
are  inhabited,  but  the  Englijh  have  plantations  on 
Ibme  of  them. 

XVI.  Bermuda,  or  the  Summer  Islands. 
Thefe  iflands  were  fo  called  from  Sir  George  Summer^ 

wh« 


GEOGRAPHT, 


who  loft  \As  fliip  on  their  rocks,  Jnno  1 609  ;  they 
are  fituafe  in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  W.  long.  65  de- 
•grees,  N.  lat.  32  degrees  20  minutes,  700  or  800 
miles  eait  of  Charles  Totun  in  fouth  Carolina ;  being 
'a  clufter  of  fmali  iflands,  in  the  fhape  of  a  fhep- 
Jierd's  crook,  containing  20,000  acres,  walled 
round  with  rocks.  No  part  of  the  world  enjoys  a 
■purer  air,  or  more  temptrate  chmate,  or  is  more 
remarkable  for  health,  and  plenty  of  flefti,  fifh, 
poultry,  fruits,  herbs,  and  roots.  The  chief  town 
is  St.  George,  in  the  north -weft  part  of  tlie  ifland, 
containing  1000  houfes.  There  are 'fine  groves  of 
■cedar,  'with  which  they  built  their  houfes,  and 
their  fwift  failing  Hoops,  which  they  fell  to  the 
fugar  iflands,  as  well  as  provifions. 

The  French  Caribbee  Islands,  are  St. 
Martin,  St.  Barthdomnv,  Deftada,  Mariinico-, 
Grar.ada,  Part    of  Hijpaniola,     and,  St.  Crcix. 

1.  St.  Martin's  an  ifland  of  no  great  confc- 
tjuence,  fituate  a  little  to  the  north  weft  of  St. 
Bariholomew-s. 

2.  St.  Bartholomnv's,  is  a  fmall  ifland  about  ten 
leagues  north  of  St.  Chrijlophcr's,  taken  by  the 
■EtigUJh  under  the  command  of  Sir  Timothy  Thorn- 
hill,  in  the  year  1689,  but  reftored  to  the  French 
at  the  peace  of  Ryfwick. 

3.  Defeada,  or  Defiderada,  the  Defirable  ijlatid, 
(o  called  by  Colimihns,  becaufe  it  was  the  firft  land 
he  difcovered  in  his  fecond  voyage  to  America, 
y1n?io  1493  ;  it  is  fituate  about  ten  leagues  north- 
eaft  of  Guadalupe. 

4.  Martinico  is  fttuate  between  14  and  15  de- 
grees of  north  latitude,  and  6 1  degrees  of  weftcrn 
longitude,  lying  about  40  leagues  north-weft  oi 
Barhadoes  ;  it  is  20  leagues  in  length,  but  of  an 
unequal  breadth.  The  inland  part  of  it  is  hilly, 
and  at  a  diftance  appears  like  three  diftintt  moun- 
tains, being  exceedingly  well  watered  by  nume- 
rous rivulets,  which  fall  from  the  hills ;  and  there 
are  fcveral  commodious  bays  and  harbours  on  the 
coaft,  fome  of  them  well  fortified. 

5.  Granada  is  fituate  in  12  degrees  north  lati- 
tude, about   30  leagues   i'outh-weft  of  Barhadoes, 

'and  about  the  fame  diftance  north  of  CaribhiarM, 
or  New  Andalufia ;  this  ifland  is  25  leagues  in  cir- 
cumference, and  has  .feveral  good  bays  and  har- 
ybours,  fome  of  which  are  fortified:  it  is  efteemed 
a  fruitful  foil,  and  well  watered,  producing  fugar, 
and  fuch  other  plants  that  are  found  in  the  reft  of 
the  Carihhee  iflands;  there  are  abundance  of  very 
fmall  iflands  that  lie  at  the  north  end  of  Granada, 
which  are  called  the  Granadilla's. 

6.  Hijpaniola  has  been  already  defcribed  amongft 
the  Spanijh  iflands. 


605 

7.  St.  Croix,  or  Saniia  Cruz,  another  fmall 
ifland  fituate  in  17  degrees  30  minutes  north  lat. 
about  20  leagues  weft  of  St.  Chrijhpher's, 

The  Dutch  Islands  are,  i.  CuraJJia.  2.  Bo- 
naire, 3.  Aruba,  nc-dt  the  coaft  of  7'crra-Firmir. 
4.  Enjlatia ;  and,  5.  Saba,  among  the  Caribbee 
illands. 

Nine  or  ten  leagues  from  the  continent  of 
Terra-Firma,  lies  the  ifland  of  CuraJJoa,  or  ^e- 
rijfao,  the  moft  northerly  point  of  it,  in  12  degrees 
40  minutes  tiorth  latitude  ;  there  is  a  good  harbour 
on  theibuth  eaft  part  of  the  ifland,  where  the  Dutch 
have  a  confiderable  town, defended  by  a  ftrong  fort; 
the  country  is  level,  and  feeds  abundance  of  cattle; 
they  have  alfo  fome  fugar-farms,  and  fmall  planta- 
tions of  fruits  and  roots  ;  but  this  ifland  is  not  fo 
much  eftecned  for  its  produce,  as  its  fituation 
for  trade  with  the  Spanijh  JVcJl- Indies.  Formerly 
the  harbour  was  never  without  fhips  from  Cartha- 
gena  and  Porto  Bello  ;  the  Spaniards  purchafing 
1000  or  1500  negroes  at  a  time  of  them,  befides 
great  quantities  of  European  commodities  ;  but  part 
of  this  trade  has  of  late  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the 
Englijh.  However,  the  Dutch  have  ftill  a  very 
extenfive  trade  in  the  Spanijh  IVefl- Indies,  fending 
fhips  of  good  force  from  Holland,  freighted  with 
European  goods,  to  this  coaft,  from  whence  they 
make  very  profitable  returns.  Let  the  Spanijh  go- 
vernors prohibit  this  fmuggling  trade  never  lb  fe- 
verely,  the  Spaniards  ftand  fo  much  in  need  of 
European  commodities,  that  they  run  any  hazards 
to  deal  with  the  Dutch ;  and,  as  it  is  their  common 
intereft  to  connive  at  this  kind  of  traifick,  the  peo- 
ple cannot  be  very  hearty  in  their  endeavours  to 
prevent  it. 

The  Dutch  iflands  of  Bonaire  and  Aruha  are 
confiderable,  chiefly  for  their  fituation  near  the  coaft 
oi  Terra- Firtna,v/K\c\\  gives  the  inhabitants  an  op- 
poitunity  of  carrying  on  a  clandeftine  trade  with 
die  Spanljli  fettlements  in  Terra-Firma. 

T\iQ  Dutch  iflands  of  Saba  and  Euflatia  produce 
fugar,  i^c.  as  the  reft  of  the  Caribbee  iflands  do. 

Danish  America,  confifts  only  of  the  ifland 
of  St.  Thomas,  one  of  the  Caribbees,  producing 
fugar,  ^c. 

There  are  alfo  certain  Islands  within  the  limits 
of  America,  which  do  not  acknowledge  the  fove- 
reignty  of  any  European  power  or  ftate,  as  the 
Island  of  California.  Weftward  of  Nnu- 
Mexlco  is  found,  in  the  South- Sea,  one  of  the 
greateft  ifles  of  the  ■wor\i,C2.\\t^  California,  which 
was  thought,  for  a  very  confiderable  time,  joined 
to  the  main  land, 

4  H  2  Thii 


The  Univerfal  Hiftory  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 


606 

This  idand  is  fituated  between  the  23  and  46 
degree  of  latitude,  feparated  from  New  Mexico,  by 
tht  FarmeilU  fea;  fo  that  it  is  fuppofed  to  have 
more  than  4'^^o  leagues  in  its  greatefl  length  from 
fouth  to  north  ;  150  in  its  greateft  breadth,  and 
about  1 100  of  circumference. 

The  climate  is  very  wholfome,  but  cold  with  re- 
gard to  its  fituation.  Along  the  coafts  arc  found 
fome  ifles,  as  St.  Clement,  PaiarM^  Ceintas,  and 
feveral  others. 

Arctick  Lands,  Thefe  lands  are  called 
ArSiicky  becaufe  of  the  pole  of  the  fame  name, 
round  which  they  are  fituated.  They  are  almoft 
all  fituated  in  the  frigid  zone. 

They  confine,  in  our  fuperior  hemifphere,  with 
the  Glacial  Sea,  which  fcparates  them  from  Aiuf- 
tovy,  and  Tartary ;  and  in  the  other  part  with  the 
South  Sea,  and  part  with  the  Cbrijlian  Sea,  and  the 
ftreight  of  Hiidjln,  which  parts  them  from  America, 
vi%.  Spitzberg.  This  land,  which  is  the  moft 
northern  of  the  Jrilicks,  was  thus  call'd  from  the 
name  of  Spit/berg,  a  Dutch  Captain  who  difcover'd 
it ;  or  becaufe  of  the  great  number  of  its  fliarp 
mountains. 

It  is  lituated  northward  ofZ«/>«;nV;,  under  the  60 
degree  of  longitude,  and  the  78  of  latitude ;  but  we 
know  nothing  of  its  extent :  fome  make  an  iflarKl 
of  it,  equally  diftant  from  the  pole,  and  from  the 
polar  circle. 

The  climate  is  fo  cold,  that  thefe  fent  thither 
have  had  the  fame  fate  of  others  upon  Gr^^«/ijn(/.  The 
foil  produces  nothing,  atleaft  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  coafts.  The  Englifii  and  Dutch  difpute  with 
one  another  the  dominion  of  that  country  ;  they 
filh  whales  on  the  coaft. 


NcvA  Zembla.  This  land,  which  is  the  Cct- 
ramhice  of  the  antients,  was  called  Nova  Zembla  by 
the  Dutch,  ever  fwice  they  fearched  a  paflage  througjv 
it  t  J  the  Eajl- Indies 

It  is  fituated  northward  o(  Mufcovy,  from  which 
it  is  feparated  by  the  flrcightof  li^eigatz,  or  Najfau^ 
through  which,  it  was  imagined,  that  the  fea  of 
Mufcovy  had  a  communication  with  that  of  Tartary.^ 

Land  5/"  Jesso.  We  fcarcely  know  any  thing, 
of  this  country  but  the  name,  though  it  be  of  ft 
vaft  extent :  our  relations  fpeak  only  of  its  coafts  j 
found  about  the  42  degree  of  latitude,  and  which 
is  the  moft  known. 

It  is  fituated  between  Afia  and  America ;  eaft- 
vv^rd  of  the  firft,  and  weft  ward  of  the  other. 

It  feems  to  me,  as  if  it  was  feparated  from  thofe- 
two  regions,  by  two  great  arms  of  fea  ;  and  forrie 
have  imagined,  that  through  its  ftreight  the  fea  of 
China  had  communication  with  the  northern  ocean, 
but  others  pretend,  that  there  is  an  ifthmus  which 
parts  them.  We  know  nothing  particular  of  its 
quality. 

The  inhabitants  of  thefe  coafts  live  on  fifti  and 
game;  and  cloath  themfelves  with  fkins  of  beafts  : 
they  carry  on  a  commerce  with  the  Japanefe,  of 
fifh,  (kins,  tongues,  and  fat  of  whales. 

Part  of  this  country  acknowledges  the  king  of 
Japan ;  and  the  governor,  who  refides  in  the  city 
of  Matzumay,  carries  him,  every  year,  fJver,  fea- 
thers of  various  colours,  and  furrs.  Does  not  this 
give  encouragement  to  profecute  the  long  defired 
difcovery  of  a  paflage  thro'  this  coaft  to  'japan,i^c. 

Nevj-Detimark,  New  North-JVaki ,  and  the 
ifles  of  Cumberland,  iffc.  are  fituated  northward  oH 
America,  in  the  Chrijtian,  or  Hudfon  Sea. 


The  End  of  the  firfi  Volume, 


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