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Ex Libris
C. K. OGDEN

THE LIBRARY

THE UNIVERSITY

OF CALIFORNIA

LOS ANGELES

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ANEW

UNIVERSAL HISTORY

O F

ARTS and SCIENC E, S,

SHEWING THEIR

ORIGIN, FROGRESS, THEORY, USE and PRACTICE^'

AND EXHIBITING

The hivention^ StruBure, Improvement, and Ufesy

Of the moft confiderable

IxXSTPvUMEXTSj Encinef, nnJ Machines^

WITH

Their Nature, Power, and Operation^

DECYPHERED IN

F I r T Y TWO C O ? ? E R. P L A T E S.

VOL. II.

LONDON:

Printed for J. Coote, at the King's Arms, in Pater-Nofter-Rov?.

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A NEW

UNIVERSAL HISTORY

O F

ARTS and SCIENCES.

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G E 0 M E T R r.

F^^¥^^'^ERodotus, Lib. 2. and S/w/w,
IMjwI '^ k.^ ■^'^- 17- affert the ££)'/>?/««/ to
S^ ^ be the firft inventors of Gcotne-

5J(}t)§t H §^^ ''/' and the annual inundations
}'3i!( ^ of the Nile to have been theoc-

3^""^ /*, ?*")^ cafion ; for that river bearing
it<L^^^)^^^Jt)l away all the bounds and land-
marks of men's eflates, and co-
vering the whole face of the country ; the people,
fay they, were obliged to diflinguifli their lands, by
the conlideration of their figures and quantity ; and
ihus by experience and habit formed themfelves a
method or art, which was the origin of Geometry.
A further contemplation of the draughts of figures,
,or fields thus laid down, and plotted in proportion,
jnight naturally enough lead thtm to the diicovery
of Ibme of their excellent and wonderful proper-
ties ; which fpeculation continually improving, the
.art became gradually improved, as it continues to
<iothis day. yofephus, however, feems to attribute
the invention to the Hebrews ; and others among
the antients make Mercury the inventor.

The province oi Geometry is almoft infinite : few
of our ideas but may be reprefented to our imagi-
nation by lijies j upon which they flrait become

of geometrical confideration ; it being Geometry
alone that makes comparifons, and finds the rela-
tions of lines.

All the fciences which confider things fufcepti-
blc of more and lefs, /. e. all the precife and accu-
rate fciences may be referred to Geometry.

The ufefulncfs of this fcicnce extends to almofl
every art and fcience It is by the help of it that
aftronomers turn their obfervations to advantage ;
regulate the duration of times, feafons, years, cycles,
and cpochas ; and meafure the diltance, motions,
and magnitudes of the heavenly bodies. It is by it
that geographers determine the figure and magni-
tude of the whole earth ; and delineate the extent
and bearings of kingdoms, provinces, harbours, feV.
It is from this fcience too, that architects derive
their juft meafures, in the conftruition of public
edifices as well as of private houfes. It is by the
affillance of geometry that engineers coiiduCl: ail
their works, take the fituation and plans of towns,
the diflances of places, and the meafure of fuck
things as are only acceffible to the fight. It is not
only an iiitrodu6lion to fortificati'n, but highly
necefliiry to moft mechanics, efpecially carpenters,

joiners,

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

joiners, mathematical- inftrument-makers,' and all
who profels defigning.

On geometry likewife depends the theory of
mufic, optics, fierlpeiSlive, drawing, mechanics,
hydraulics, pneumatics, i^c.

CiEoMETRY, of 71, earth, and ^iTfEii', tomeafure,
is the icicnce or dodtrine of extenlion, or extended
things ; that is, of lines^ furfaces, andfo/ids, and
it is divided in four parts,i;/2;. planirnetry, althnetr^^
lotigimctry, and Jiereometry.

Planirnttry V, that part of geography, which
confiders lines, and plain figures, without any
conllderation of heights or depths i but it is more
particularly reflraiji'd to the menfuration of planes,
or furfaces.

This art, of meafuring the furfaces or planes of
things, is performed with the fquares of long
mealures, as iquare inches, fquare feet, fquare
yards, fquare perches, i£c. that is, by fquares

A pojhdate is a clear, evident proportion
wherein it is afHrmed or denied, that fomeChing
may or may not be done.

An axiom is a felf evident truth, or a propo-
fition, whofe truth every perfon |>erceives at firfl
fight ; Thus, that the whole is greater than its
part, is an axiom.

Then of propofttions, fome propofe fomething
to be done, and are problems j as to divide a line,
to make an angle, to draw a circle thro' three
•points- not in a right line : others confider the
properties of things already made, or donej and
are called theorems. Thus if a triangle be com-
par'd with a parallelogram, {landing on the fame
bafs, and of the fame altitude, ajid partly from
their immediate definitions, and partly from other
of their properties already determin'd, it is inferred
that the parallelogram is double the triangle, that
pyopoiition is a theorem.

Two things are to be chiefly regarded in every

whofe fides are an inch, a foot, a yard, a perch, l^c. theorem., viz. the propofition, and thedemonltration :

So that the area or center of any furface is faid
to be found, when we know how many fuch
fquare inches, feet, yards, i^c. it contains.

Alt'tmetry is the art of taking or meafuring
altitudes or heights, whether acceffible or inaccefli-
ble. This art makes the firft part of geometry.

Longimetry is the art of meafuring lengths ;
both acceffible, as roads, isc, and inacceffible, as
arms of the fea.

Stereometry teaches how to meafure folid bodies,
/. e. to find the folidity, or folid contents of bodies;
as globes, cylinders, cubes, vefTels, fhips, t^c.

Geometry, again, is diffinguifhed into
fpeculative and practical.

The firft contemplates the properties of con-
tinuity; demonfirates the truth of general pro-
pofitions, called theorems.

The fecond applies thofe (peculations and the-
orems, to particular ufes in the folution o{ problems.

Speculative Geometry, again, mav be divided
into elementary and J ub/Ime.

Elementarv or common geometry is that emplov'd
in the confidv?ration of right tines, and plain
furfaces, and folids generated therefrom.

Higher or fublime geometry is that employed in
the confideration of curve lines, conick fei5tions,
and bodies form'd thereof.

But previous to either part, we muft obferve
that there are three forts of principals from which
all geometrical propofitions are deduced, viz. the
definition., pojhilate, .and axiom.

We call definition, the explication of the name,
or of the thing ; as when Ibmehody fays that he
underftands by the name of triangle, afigurt com-
fofied of three lines.

In the fiift is exprefled what agrees to fome certain
things LUider certain conditions, and what does not.
In the latter, the reafons are laid down by which
j the underflanding comes to conceive, that it does,
or does not agree thereto.

There are various kinds oi theorems; as, univer^
fal, particular, negative, local, plane, folid, reci-
procal.

Univerfal Theorem, is that,, which extends to
any Quantity, without reftriflion, univerfally ; as
this, that the reitangle of the Jum, and difference of
any two quant itits is eqifal to the difference of their
fquares.

Particular Theorem is that, which extends
only to a partic^ilar quantity ; as this, in an
equilateral right lined triangle, each of the angles is
60 degrees.

Negative Theorem is that, which expreiles the
impoffibility of an affertion ; as, that the fum of
two biquadrate numbers cannot make a fquare number.

Local Theorem is that,, which relates to a furface;
as, that triangles of the fame bafe and altitude are
equal.

Plane Theorem, is that which either relates to a
reftilinear furface, or to one terminated by the
circumference of a circle ; as, that all angles m
the fame fegment of a circle are equal. *

Solid Theorem is that, which confiders a fpace
terminated by a folid line ; that is, by any of the
three conick feftions, e. gr. this, that if a right
line cut two afympotick parabola's^ its two parts ter-
minated by themjhall be equal.

Reciprocal Theorem is one, whofe converfe is
true; as, thai if a triangle has two equal fides, it
muji have two equal angles: The converfe of

which

GEOMETRT.

which is likewite true, that if it has two equal
angles, it mull have two equal fides.

Others are only laid down in order to clear the
way for fome following demonftration ;and prefixed
either to theorems, in order to render their de-
monftration lefs perplexed and intricate; or to
problems, to make their refolution more eafy and
fhort ; and thefe are called lemmas. Thus to prove
a pyramid one third of a prifm, or paralielepid, of
t\\e fame bafe and height with it ; the demonftra-
tion whereof in the ordinary way is difficult and
troublefome; this lemma may be premifed, which
is proved in the rules of progreffion, that the fum
of the feries of the fquares., in numbers in arithme-
tical progrej/ion, beginning from o, and going on i,
4, 9, i6, 25, 36, &c. is always fubtriple of the
fum of as many terms equal to the grcateft; or is
always one third of the greateft term multiplied by
the number of terms. Thus to find the inflexion
of a curve line, this lemma is firft premifed ;
that the tangent may be drawn to the given curve,
in a given point.

Laftly, others neceflarily follow from others,
and are called corollaries.

Scholium, is a note, annotation, or remark,
occafionally made on fome propofition whereby, it
is better explained, or its ufe .or utility made more
apparent.

A propofition is faid to be the converfe of another,
when, after drawing a conclufion from fomething
firft fuppofed, we proceed to fuppofe what had
been firft concluded, and to draw from it what
had been fuppofed. Thus it is demonftrated in
geometry, that if the two fides of a triangle be
equal, the two angles oppofite to thofe fides, are
equal alfo: The converfe of the propofition is,
that if the two angles of a ■ triangle be equal, the
two fides oppofite to thofe angles are equal alfo.

This mark -{- fignifies more
zz. fignifies equality.

fignifies lefs;

From thefe general, and neceftary obfervations,
I'll pafs to t\iQ fpeculative Geometry, beginning
by the lines and angles.

Magnitude, is all that whereby a thing
compared with another of the fame kind, is faid
to be equiil, or unequal to it ; therefore it com-
prehends local extenfion, number, motion and
time.

Local extenfion, or quantity of bigncfs, is a
certain and definite fort of magnitude, viz. what
is anfwered to a perfon who aflcs, how big is fuch
a thing? and that quantity is either confidered in
length only, and is called line; or in length and
breadth, and is called fiiperficies ; or laftly, in
length, breadth, and dt^Jth, and is called /o//V/.

Vol. II.

A point in geometry, according to Euclid, is a
quantity which has no parts; or neither length*
breadth, nor thicknefs, an object the fmalleft and
leaft fenfible, made by the prick of a pen, isV.

A line is a length without breadth, or a con-
tinuation of points. There are as many forts of
lines, as the point is fufceptible of different move-
ments ; amongfl. which the right line and curve are
moft in ufe.

A right line li that, which is drawn equally
between its two extremities, whofe points tend
the fame way, as A B. Fig. i.

A curve is a line, whofe ieveral points tend
feveral ways, as C D, Fig. 2.

If two or feveral lines are contained within the
fame terms, that which is right, is the ftiorteft, as
C B, Fig. 3. And the curves which contain the
others, are bigger than thofe they contain, as C d'Q
is greater than C f B, which is only true when
thofe curve lines are incurvated in the fame part; .
for if the line contained is bent in feveral parts,
and forms feveral windings, it may be bigger than
that which contains it, as C F B is greater than
CAB.

If two lines are every where equidiftant from
each other ; and though infinitely produced would
never approach nearer, or recede farther from
each other, they are called parallel, as A B, and
C D, Fig. 4.

The aperture, or mutual inclination of two
lines, which meet in one poijit of interfeftion, is
called angle, as B A C, Fig. 5. and the point,
in which the lines meet, is called the vertex of
the angle, as A, therefore every angle is com-
monly exprcftTed by three letters, that of the vertex
being in the middle.

However the quantity of the angle is not taken
from the length of the lines v/hich form the angle,
but from the arch defcribed from its vertex, with
any radius at pleafure between its legs. For the
angle D E F, Fig. 6. is greater than the angle
G H I, Fig. 7. though formed of lefler lines :
For if the angle GHI be put on the angle DEF,
marked with points, it will be eafily underftood,
that the angle G H I is comprized in the angle
D E F, and that the lines which form the angle
DEF, are much more diftant from each other,
than thofe which form the angle GHI.

Angles, made by lines in the fuperficies, are
call'd fuperficial ; and if that fuperficies be plane,
they are call'd plane angles ; if fpherical, f>herical
angles.

A plane Angle, if made of two right lines, is

call'd re£iilinear; fuch are the angles of Fig- 5- 6,

7. if of curve, curvilinear angle; as L M N,

C Fig. 8.

TIk Univerfal Hiflory (j/" Arts and Sciences.

F\g. 8 if of a riglit, and a curve, it is called
mixt, as O P Q, Fig. 9.

Every an^U is either right., obtufi\ or acute.
A right angle, is that formed by a line falling
perpendicularly on another; or that which fubtends
an arch of 90 degrees ; as the angle B E A, Fig.
10. The meafure of a right angle, therefore, is a
quadrant of a circle ; and confequently all right
angles are equal to each other.

Therefore, when the right line A E, Fig. 10.
placed on the right B E C inclines on neither part,
and then forms angles every where equal ; thofe
two angles, A E B and A E C, are right ; and
the right line A E, placed on the other, is call'd
perpendicular.

Angles which have one fide common and are
formed of the one and other part oi that fide, are
call d contiguous angles; as Fig. 10. AEB and
BED; but if B E be produced in C, as A E is
produced in D, the angles H E A, and DEC, are
call'd oppofite angles.

An obtafe angle, is that greater than a right angle,
or whofe meafure exceeds 90°, as the angle E D C,
Fig. II.

An accute angle, is that which is lefs than a right
angle, or than 90° ; fuch is, in the fame figure,
E D B. We muft obferve, that there are obtufe
angles, as well as acute ones, bigger than the others.
The angles of any light-lined figure made with-
out it, by producing ail the fides fevcrally, are cal-
led e.vternal anj^les ; and thofe made by the f des of
any right-lined figure within, internal.

All the external angles of any figure, taken to-
gether, are equal to four right angles ; and the ex-
ternal angle of a, triangle, is equal to both the
internal and oppofite ones The fum of all the
internal angles of ^ny right-lined figure, is equitl to
twice as many right angles as the figure has fides,
excepting foiu'. The external angle is demonflratcd
to be equal to the internal oppofite one; and the
two internal oppofite ones, are equal to two right
ones.

' Alternate angles are t\\t internal angles made by a
line cutting two parallels, and lying on the oppofite
fides of the cutting line ; the one below the firll
parallel, and the other above the fecond.

Firfl Theorem. A right line refliiig on ano-
ther right line, makes again two right angles, or
equal to two rights.

For if AD, Fig. 11. falls perpendicularly on the
line C D B, the angles A D B, and A D C,
will be right angles, by the definition 1 1 and 1 2 ,
but if E D refts obli(]uely on the fame line C D B,
A D mutt be conceived the perpendicular ; fince,
then, the angles E D B acute, and E D C obtufe,

occupy the fame fpace as the two rights A D B j
and ADC will be equal to them, by the axiom,
where there is a mutual congruer.cy, there is an
equality.

Congrtiency is when things compofed together
agree in fuch a manner, that the extremities of the
one tall on the extren'.ities of the other, and neither
exceed, nor are exceeded. As if a pedal line, ap-
plied to another pedal line, the laft points of one
fliould fall on the laft points of the other, and both
form a line.

Corollaries. It will be demonftrated in the
fame manner, (if more than one right line fall on
the fame right line, at the fame point) that the an-
gles they form are, together, equal to two right
ones.

Two right lines, cutting mutually one another,
as A E D, and B E C, Fig. 10. form, in the point
of interfeftion, four angles equal to four right ones.
All the angles formed round one point C. Fig.
13. are equal to four right ones; for they are four
right ones cut into feveral parts.

Second Theorem. The angles, oppofite at-
the vertex, are equal.

For the angle B, Fig. 12. is equal to the angle C ;
which the better to demonftrate, both muft be
joined with the intermediate angld A ; for the an-
gle B, and the angle A, together, are equal to two
right angles, by the firft theorem. Likewife the
angle C, and the angle A, are equal to two right
angles, by the fame firft theorem. Therefore the
angles C and A, taken together, are equal to the aa-
gles B and A, taken together, and confequently the .
common angle A, being taken off^, the angles B and
C will rem.iin equal, by this -axiom ; that if you
ta^-e equals c^ equals, thojethat. remain wiUbe equals.,
which was to be demonftrated.-'
c. Third Theorem. If the right lii^ O P cuts
the two right parallels" N L, and MI, it. will
make the internal angle-equal to the external op-
pofite on the fame part.

For as the lines L N and M I,- Fig. 12. are
parallel, they incline equally to the line OP, to-
wards the fame parts by the fixth definition, and the
9 axiom ; therefore the angles B and F, or A and

E, formed by the inclination of the lines L N,
and I M, to the line O P, are equal.

Fourth Theorem. Alternate angles are equal
between themfelves.

For the angle B, Fig. 12. is equal to the angle
C, oppofiteto it at the vertex, by the fecond theo-
rem. But the fame angle B h equal to the angle

F, by the third theorem ; therefore the angle C is
equal to the alternate angle F, by the fecond axiom.

Fifth Theorem. If a right line cuts two pa-
rallels,

GEOMETRT.

•rallels, it makes the internal angles equal to two
rights at the lame parts.

f'or the alternate angles C and F, Fig. 12. are
equal between them, by the fourth' th'-irem ; but
the angles C and D placed again are equal to two
rights by the firft theorem ; thereioie the angles
D and F are equal to two rights, which was to be
llemonftrated.

Scholium. Converfe propofitions have place in
'the three preceding theorems ; for if the two lines
L N and I M, Fig. 12. with the third O P, render
the external and internal angles B and F, oppofed
on the fame part, equal ; they 11 incline equally to
the line O P, whence they'll be parallel by the 9
axiom.

Lilcewife, from the alternate angles C and F
"being equal, it follows that the lines L N and I M
are parallel ; for as the angles B and C, oppofite
at the vertex, arc equal, and C is equal to F ; the
external angle B will be equal to the internal angle
F; therefore by the preceding demon ftration, the
lines L N and I M will be parallel.

Laftly. If the internal angles D and F be equal
'to t vo rights, the lines L N and I M will be pa-
rallel likewife. For the angles B and D repeated,
are equal to two rights, by the firft theorem. But
"the angles D and F are alib put equal to two rights,
therefore the external and internal angles B and F
are equal between them, and confequently the lines
L N and I M are parallel.

From angles I'll pafs to Ttinrgles, ^ladrilaterals.
Pentagons, Hexagons, and other Polygons.

A figure is a fpace inclofed on all fides, and is
either plain or folid.

Plain figures are thofe which confift of lines
traced on fome fuperficies : which lines, if right,
the figure is called re£filincar; if curve, curvilinear;
if part curve and part right, mixt.

Thofe lines whereby the figure is terminated,
taken together, are called its circumference or circuit,
or perimeter. Whence figures which have an e-
qual ambit, are called of the fame name ifoperime-
tral.

Of all curvilinear, and 7ni.xt figures. Geometers
confider in a more particular manner, the circle or
paiftion of the circle.

Among the renilinears, the moft fimple is the
triangle ; becaufe conlifting only of three lines,
which form as many angles.

A triangle is divided either according to its angles,
or to its fides. If according to its angles it has ei-
ther one of thofe angles right, and it is called
reciangular, as ABC, Fig. 14. or it has one of
them obtuje, and it is called amblygonous, as D E F,
Fg. 15. or it has them all amtc, and it is called
oxyganous, as G H I, or K L M, Fig. 16. and 17.

But if it be divided according to its fides, and has
three fides unequal, it is called ficalanous, as A B C,
Fig. 14. if it has only two fides equal, it is called
ifofceles or equicrural Triangle, as K L M, Fig. ly,
if ic has all the fides equal, it is faid to heequilateralf
ix^ GUI, Fig. lb.

If two fides of a triangle be taken, they may be
called limbs or legs, and then the third fide will be
called the bafe : any fide may be taken for the bafc,
though in a re£tangular, or amblygonous triangle,
the greateft fide, viz. that which is oppofed to a
risht angle, or to an chtufe, is commonly called the
bafe, or the hypotheneufc, where it is queftion of a
rcc'lingular triangle : but in an ifofceles triangle
the uiVTjual fide is the bafe.

I'he fij^ure which follows next the triangle is
the .^ri'u'dieral, which confiftsof four right lines,
and as nuny angles.

If the quadrilateral has its oppofite fides parallel,
and equal to each other, it is called parallelogram,
as A BCD, Fig. 18. otherwife trapezium, as
EFGH, Fig. 19.

If the parallelogram has four right angles, it is
called fimply reciangular, as I KLM, Fig. 20.

If all the fides of a reciangular be equal, it is
called zfquare, as C D E F, Fig. 21. which fome
make a fpecies of parallelogram, others not : but
if there are but the oppofite fides equal, it is faid
longer on the other parts.

If all the fides be equal, and the angles unequal,
it is called a rhombus, or lozenge, as G H I K,
Fig. 22.

If both the fides and angles be unequal, it is
called a rho>nl:ides ; as A B C D, Fig. 23.

A parallchgram is marked with four letters,
placed at the four angles, as A B C D, Fig. 23.
and likewife for brevity fike diametrically oppofite,
as B C and the diameter, or diagonal line, is that
carried fromi an angle of the ^;va(:;^n'/i?/tT«/, to thr.t '
oppofite to it, as B C.

If thro' the point I, taken in the diagonal B C,
Fig. 24. the two right lines E F, G H, are drawn
parallel to the fides ; the whole parallelogram will
be divided into four *(7rrt//(?/57'<7;«j- ; two of which,
viz. E G, H F, are called parallehgrmns, towards
the diameter, and the two others, A I, ID, com-
plements.

If the fic^ure has more than four angles, and
more than four fides, it is called zpol-,gon ;■ if fix
fides, an hexagon ; if feven, a heptagon.

In every parallelogram the luni of the fquares of
the two diagonals is equal to the fum of the fquares
of the four fides. This propofition M. de Lagny
takes to be -.ne of the moft important of all Geome-
try ; he even ranks it with the celebrated 47th of
Euclid, and with that of the fimilitude of triangles;

C ^ and

Tfje Univerfal Hiftory o/'Arts ^;»^<a? Sciences.

and adds, that the whole firft book oi Euclid is only
a pflflicular cafe hereof. For if the parallelogram
be recStangular, it follows that the two diagonals
are equal ; and of confequence, the fquare of a
diagonal, or which comes to the fame thing, the
fquare of the hypotheneufcof a right angle, is equal
to the fquares of the fides. If the parallelogram be
not rectangular, and of confequence the two diago-
nals be not equal, which is the moft general cafe,
the propofitlon becomes of vafl: extent : It may
ferve, for inftance, in the whole theory of compound
motions, i^c.

Firjl Theorem. In all triangles, the outward
angle is equal to two oppofite inward ; and three
angles are equal to two rights.

Let th: triangle be A B C, fig, 2^. whofe fide
B C mud be produced in D : I fay, fi>yi, that the
external angle A C D, is equal to the two oppo-
fite internals, A and B : ficondly, that the three
angles A and B, and A C B, are equal to two
rigiU angles,

Demonjiration of the fir/} part. Let the line C E
be conducted parallel to B A; and then the right
line A C will fall on the parallels A B and C E ;
therefore the angle A, or B A C will be equal to the
alternate ACE: Likewife, the right B C' will
fall on the parallels B A and C E ; therefore the
internal angle i; ise^jual to the external E C D, and
confequjntly the two A, and B, are equal to the
two A C E, and E C D, i. e to the whole A C D.
Demonjiration of the fecond part. The two angles
A and B, are equal to the angle A C D. There-
fore the common A C B bting added, the three
angles A, and B, and A C B, are equal to the
two A CD, and A C B ; but A C D, and A C B
being repeated, are equal to two rights : therefore
the three A, and B, and A C B, are equal to two
rights, according to this axiom, that things equal
to the fi'me thing, are cilfo equal between then f elves.

Pythagoras is fuppofed the author of this impor-
tant queftion, which is the -^id of the hrl!: book
oi Euclid; as it is of a continual ufe in Geometry, it
muft be very well lear.ied. But there is another
manner of demonftrating it, which will appear
eafier and is as follows.

Let the triangle be ABC, fig.
I. That the three angles A, C,
enual to two right angles; but if the

25-
and

line

I fay,
B, are
EF be

drawn parallel to the fide C B, it is certain that
the angles c and h, adjacent to the angle A, joined
together with that angle A, are equal to two right
angles; but the angle c, is equal to the angle "C,
and the angle C to the alternate ati'^Ie B : there-
fore, likewife, the angles C and B, joined to the
angle A, are equal to two rights, according to the
&x\om, that if equals be added to equals, all will be
equal.

I fay, 2. That the external angle d, is equal to
the two internals A and C, oppofite to it; for the
external angle, d, and the internal B, taken toge-
ther, are equal to two rights : but the angles A
and C, together with the angle B, are equal, like-
wife, to two right angles, by the preceding demon-
ftration ; then the external angle d, is equal to
the two oppofite internal A and C.

Corollaries. Three angles, of any triangle,
taken together, are equal to three angles taken to-
gether of any other triangle ; for they are every
where equal to two rights.

Every triangle muft have two acute angles ; for
if it had but one, the two others would be either
right, or obtufe, which cannot be faid ; fince three
angles of a triangle are together equivalent but to
two rights.

As often as two angles in a triangle, or feparate,
or together will be equal to two angles, or feperate,
or together in another triangle, fo often the third
will be equal to the other third angle.

iSi-taW Theorem. In all triangles the greater tri-
angle, is thatoppofed to the greater fide, and vicijftm.
For the angle E, fig. 26. oppofed to the greater
fide !) F, is greater than the- angle D, or the angle
F; but as the magnitude of the angle is tak n
from the diftention of the lines it confifls of; and
the more thofe lines are diftended the greater is tlie
fide ; it is evident that the angle E, oppofite to the
greater fide, is greater than any of the two others,
DorF.

Likewife, for the fame reafon the greater fide is
oppofed to the greater angle.

Corollaries. In the equilateral triangle GHI,
the three angles are equal between them, becaufe
oppofed to equal fides. They are alfo all acutes,
for they cannot be all right, or all obtufe, by what
we have already obferved.

In the ifofceles triangle K M L, fig. 28. the
angles K and L, placed on the bafe K L are equal,
becaufe oppofed to equal fides.

The perpendicular A B, fig. 29. is the fhortefl
of all the lines, which can be drawn from the
point A , to the right B C : for as the angle B is a
right one, the angle A C B muft be acute: there-
fore A B is lefs than any of the lines A C.

From a point to a right line there cannot 'be
drawn but one perpendicular.

Third Theorem, If one fide of two triangles

be equal to one, and the other to the other ; and

, the angles contained in thofe fides be likewife

equal, the bafes and all the triangles will be alfo

equalized.

For ii' we underfiand that the triangle D E F

muft be put over the triangle ABC, the angle E

will be congruous with the angle A, equal to it,

I and

G E 0 M E T R r.

and the fides E D and EF will agree with the
equal fides A B, and A C ; fo that the three points
D, E, F, will fall on the three points B AC, there-
fore the whole bafe D F will fall 6n the whole bafeB
C, then there w.ll be a congrucncy between the an-
gles D and F, and F and C, and with all the trian-
gles; and therefore all will be equal, by the axiom,
that all things which agree tnutuaUy are equal., which
was to be demonflrated.

Corollaries. For the fame reafon, vi%. from
the congrucncy of two triangles, if they (hould have
,all their fides mutually equal, they will have, like-
wile, all the angles equal, which are oppofite to
equal fides, and all will be equal.

Likewife if in a triangle, two angles taken fcpa-
rately, were equal to two angles of another triangle,
taken alfo feparately, and one fide was equal to the
other fide, all the reft would be equal ; becaufe if a
triangle be impofed on another triangle, they'll
agree mutually.

Fourth Theorem. In all triangles, any two
fides are greater than the third : this propofition is
like the zy.\omoi Archimedes.

For, as we have already obferved, a right line is
the fliorteft of all the lines drawn from one point to
the other point : and as when one fide of the trian-
gle is conducted, in a direfl: line, from one point to
the other, the two other fides deviate from the ftrait
way i and two fides of the triangle muft be greater
than the third.

Fifth Theorem. The oppofite fides oi paral-
lelograms are equal, and likewife the angles, and
the parts made by the diameter.

Becaufe A B, and C D, Fig. 23. are parallel ;
and the right line B C falls on them, which is the
diameter, or diagonal line oi \he parallelogram A B
CD, the alternate angles ABC, and BCD,
will be equal. Likewife, becaufe A C and B D
are parallel, and the right line B C fiilis on them :
the alternate angles A C B, and C B D v/ill be
equal : therefore the whole angle A C D, is equal
to the whole angle A B !).

In the fame ma,^ncr I'll fhew the angles ,\ and D,
to be equal between them.

But becaufe the triangles ABC, and CD B,
have a common fide RC. and the angles adiacent
to that fide are equal, the fide A C will be likewife
equ.1l to that B D, as A B to C D i and likewife
thofe triangles will be equal.

Corollaries. The complements AT, ID,
Fig. 12. are alfo equal between themfelves ; for the
two great triangles C B A j and C B D, are equal to
the prcfent theorem : therc.'bre, if from them are
drawn the equal tri.mgles C I H, and C I F, and
I B G; the refiduo'is fpaces A I, ID, which are
the complements of the parallelogram, will be
equal.

Between the parallels A B, CD, Fig. 4.. the
lines A C and B D, equally inclined towards them,
are equal, 'fhe fame thing may be faid of the
lines I L and K M, Fig. 9. placed between I K
and L M, and perpendicular to them. For a pa-
rallelogram is formed on either way, whofe oppofite
fid.-s are equal.

Sixth Theorem. Parallelograms placed on the
fame bafe, and between the fame parallels, are equal.

Let the parallelograms be A E and A D, Fig. 30.
placed on the fame bafe A B, and between the
parallels A B and CD; I (ay that they are equal,
for in the triangles A C F and BED, the fide A C
is equal to the fide B E. By the preceding theo-
rem likewife the lines C E and F D, being equal
to the fame A B, by the fame theorem ; if to both
be added the common part E F, the whole fide
C F will be equal to the fide E D, in the aforefaid
triangles; but becaufe of the parallels AC and
B h, the internal and external angles A C F, and
BED are equal ; therefore the triangles A C F
and BED are equal ; therefore if the common part
G E F be taken off. both the parallelograms C B
and A D, will be equal ; which was to be demon-
flrated.

Corollaries. The fame demonftration may
be eafiy applied to parallelograms placed on equal,
bafes. and between the fame parallels.

Triangles likewife, placed on the fame or equal
bales, and between the fame parallels are equal :
for the triangle A H C, Fig. 30. is half of the pa-
rallelogram A B C E, as the triangle A F B is half
of the parallelogram ABED; and thofe paralle-
lograms A E, AD, are equal by the prefent theo-
rem ; and therefore the triangles are alfo equal by
this axiom, which are halves of the fame thing, are
equal between themfelves.

Seventh "YnEoK'EM. All polygons may be di-
vided into fo many triangles as it has fides : for if
within the heptagon B C D F G H, Fig. 30. the
point A be taken, from which lines are conceived
drav/n to every angle A B, AC, A D, is'c. it is
manifeft that there will be as many triangles, as
there are angles in the polygon.

Corollaries. All the angles together of any
regular reiSilinear figure, adequate twice as many
right angles, raking oiF four, as the figure has fides..

Let right lines be drawn from the point A,,
within the fame figure, to all its angles, which
may cut it into fo many triangles as it has fides;
J and becaufe the angles of every triangle are equal
to two rights, the angles of all together are twice
equivalent to fo manv rights as there are fides ; but
the angles placed round the point A, are e.;ual to
four rights : therefore if you take off from all the
j triangles, the angles round the point A, thcremain-

iio The Univerfal riiftory of

iiig angles placed at the circumference of the figure,
adequate twice fo many right angles, taking oft"
four, as the figure has fides.

7^hcrefore, if we want to know to how many
right angles, the angles of a regular reflilinear
figure are equivalent,we muft take 4offtheproduiSl,
the right angles will remain, which are adequated
•by the internal angles of the figure. Thus a chi-
I'tagon, or a figure of looo fides, has 1996 angles
equal to right angles.

From the triangle I'll pafs to the circk.

ACikcle is a plain figure, comprchended-under
-one fingle line, which leturns into itfelf, having a
.point in the middle, from which all the lines drawn
to the circumference are equal.

This circumference, ox periphery, is the line ter-
minating the circle, which mathematicians divide
.into 360 parts, which parts are commonly call'd
degrees: therefore, a femi-circumference is divided
into 180 parts ; and a quarter of a circle into 90 :
•each degree IS divided into 60 minutes, each minute
into bofecofids, each fecond into 60 tl.iii-ds,iic.

The tY«/t-rof the cirj:/e. is the point from which
all lines are carried equal to the circumference, as
-the point A, Fig. 32.

The diameter, is a right line pafling through the
center of thecircle, and terminated on each fide by
the circumference thereof: fuch is the line B C in
the fame Fig.

The radius ov femidiamctcr, is a right line drawn
from the center to the circumference ; as A F, and
A K, in the fame Fig.

The femicirc/e, h a figure comprehended between
■the diameter ofthe circle, and half its circumference,
• fuch is B G F C in the fac^e Fig.

The chord, is a right line, terminated at each
extreme in the circumference of the circle, without
-paffing through the center; dividing the circle into
two equal parts, call d Jegynents ; as the right line
D E, in the fame Fig.

The arch, is a part ofthe circumference ofthe
•circle, Icfs than a lialf, or femicircle ; as the right
Jiac D E, in the fame Fig.

Each arch is the meafure of an angle, compre
hended in the center of the circle, by two radii
drawn to the extremes ofthe arJj. Thus the arc!^
D L E is the meafure of the angle DAE, in tlic
fame Fig. and as in the center of "every circle then
maybe formed four right angles, which fhould divide
the whole circumference of 360 degrees into foui
arches of 90 degrees each ; each right angle mu-
be of go degrees, as B A F, or F A C in the fam
Fig. Therefore, as we have already obferved, a.
the right angles are equal between themfelv
becaufeeach coufiftingof 90 degrees; confequenu,

Arts (7;;«^ Sciences.

obtufe angles contain more than 90 deg. as G A C
in the fame Fig. but the acute angles contain lefj
than 90 degrees, and are not always equal between
themfelves, as F A G, G A B, B A D, DAE,
E A C, in the fame Fig. befides, as often feverai
angles take up the fame number of degrees of their
circumference, they are as often equal between
themfelves.

The Tangent, is a right line vv!ii:h touches
the circle, that is, meets in fuch a manner as that
though infinitely produced, it would never cut the
fame, that is, never come within the circumference :
fuch is the line H C, Fig. 35. which touches the
circle in the point C, and is call'd the tangent of
the arch B C, or of the angle B A C, meafured by
that arch. Such is likewife the line L F, called
the tangent of the arch B F, Fig. 43 or of the angle
CaF, Fig 42. and fuch is the line E B F, Fig. 33.

Tangent of a conic feSlion, as of a parabola, is
a right line which only touches or meets the curve
in one point, and does not cut or enter within the
curve.

Method ofT /Kt^CEtiTS. A method of determining
the quantity of the Tangent of any algebraick
curve ; the equation defining that curve being
given.

This method is one of the great refults of the
Calculus Differentialis.

Its ufe is very great in geometry; becaufe in
determining the tangents of curves, we determine
at the fame time the quadratures of the culvilinear
(paces, on which account it well deferves to be
here particularly infifted on.

To find the Sub-tangent in an algibraick
curve, let the femi-ordinate p m he infinitely near,
another, then will be the differential of the abfcifs,
and letting fall the perpendicular z= p ; will be the
differential of the femi-ordinate. Draw therefore
the tangent, the infinitely little arch m will be a
right-lined right-angled trir.ngle, ufually called the
charaSferiJiick triangle ofthe curve, in regard curve
lines are diiHnguifhed from each other hereby.

Now by realbn of the parallelelifm ofthe right
lines P M and /> m\ the angle M ?» R = T M P,
wherefore the triangle M rn R is fimilar to the tri-
angle T iVl P. Let therefore M ?-x? M=;', then
will P^nzMRrr^A- and R ;« rrc/v confequently.
R ^a; : M R : : P M : P T
dy: d X :: y : y d x
dy

Tf then from the given equation of any curve,
vou fubftitute the value of d x to y dx: dy, in the
,-;eneraI expreiTioii oitheftib tangent; the differential
quantities will vanifli, and the value ofthe fubtangent
will come in common quantities; whence the tan-
gent

GEOMETRT,

^^>?ritfelfh eafily determined.

iUulbate in a few examples :

-This we fhall

IS.

The equation dclining the common parabola,

ax =■ y-

Hence adx z^^ y d y

d X :=z ^ y d y : a
p. T zz-ydx-.d-y-zz-Xy^dy : a d y = 7.y'^:i7 —
% ttx : a zz 2 X. That is, the fub -tangent is double
the abi'cils.

2. T he equp.tion defining a circle i-s
a X — X X zz y y

a d X — % X d X z=. 2 y dy

d X zz. 1 y d y : {a — 7. x)

^ T zzL d X -.ydy zz 1 y'^ dy : {a — % x) dy zzl
27^". (« — 1. x)zz.{ia X — 2 X x) -.[a — 1 x) ■=.
(^„.x — xx) : (irt — .v) that is P C:.PB:: AP:

P. T-

Therefore AT- rz (<? *■ — x x') : (i c— v) — x =.
(/ix — XX — I a X + X x] : (i d — x) zz \ a x :
ll „ _ x) that is P C : P A : : C A : A f.

3. The equation defining an ellipfis, is ;

ay~ zz a b X — b x^'

Heace 2 a y d

a b It X — 7. b X a X

1 a y d y : ^a b — ^ '■> x) zz. d x

P'T = dy X : dy zz 7. a y'^ : [a b — 2 b x] zz
(i a b x2b x^-) : (a h — 2 b x)zz{2 ax — 2 a x'^):
(a — 2 x) that is. as the diflance of the femi-ordi-
natc from the center, is to the half axis, fo is the
abfci(s to the portion of the fub tangent intercepted
between thevertex of thcellipfis and the tangent. .
L^ftly, for a 1 algebraick curves, the equation
b^ing,

a y m -\- b x" -J- cy' .\^ -f d zi O

m a y "' — l d y + n b x" — i dx -\- J c q'' — -v^ — I

+ r i.

— 1 xs d y

= 0 n

X" —

I d

X +

■y

X'-

-I dx

-may'"- — 1

dy-

-1

cy—

I X'-

-dy

—

m a y

. —

1 dy — ^r c

x'dy

A" --

-I

P T =: ydx zz. m a ym — r c y' xs

ay n b xn • — 1 -\- J cy'' .\'- — !•
Suppofc, e. gr. y^ — a a=:o; then, by comparing
with the general formula,

ay m

-y-

azzi . >nzz
cy r xszzo

b X nz^a x

bzz

-a . nnzzi'
fzzo

czzo, r:

-.0. fzzo.

Thefc values being fubftituted in the moft gene-
ral formula of the /zi/; tangent, we have they^i tan-
gent of the parabola of the firft kind, ( — 2 • i y"^
— o . 0;'° .V °) : I — ax I — I + o. 0 y" x ")= — •
2y'^ ■.zz2y'^:a.

Suppofe ^' — x^ a X yzzo then will

-y

' bx

"zz

a z

z i

- 3

bzz

r X

s —

= —

a X

/ =

c zz — ar zz \ j ZL \.

Thefe values being fubftituted in the general for-
mula of the yj<i-/tf>/^t';//, we have xhz jub tangent of
the curve, whofe equation is given, P T =z ( — 3.
ly^ — ■!. — ay x) : [7^. — i;vi — i + i. —
ayxi—l)-{—7,y7,^-ayx) : (_ 3 .v ^ ---
ay] zz (3J'^ — ^i .v^) : (3 .v-f ^j/j conlbquently A r

— [Zy ^—axy): (3 x'-^ay) [—xzziy'—axy

— 3*' ^ — a x y) : (3 x ^+ «_)■)=: (3 a xy — ^ax )) '
'■^x^-i- ay. The value of v' — -v ^, that is axy :
{^ X ' -{- a y) being fubflituted from the equation '
to the curve.

In the Philofophical Tranfaflions, we have the '
following method of drawing tangents., to AX gcome-
tv'ical curves, without any labour, or calculation, ■
by M. Slufius.

Suppole a curve, whofe points are all referable
to any right-line given, whether that right-line is
the diameter or not; or whether there be more
given right-lines than one, provided their powers
do but come into the equation. In all his equa-
tions he puts v for the line DA,;/ for B A; and
for E B, and the other given lines, he puts Zi a*, ,
&c. that is, always confonants.

Then, luppofing D C to be drawn touching the -
curve in D, and meeting with E B produced in ■
C; he calls the Ibught line C A, by the name of ^.

To find which he gives this general method.
I. Rejed out of the equation all members, which '■
have not either v ox y in them ; then put all thofe
that have yon one fide ; and all thofe which have v., ■
on the other ; with their figns + or — ; and the
latter for diftinction and ea(e fake, he calls the
right, the former the left fide. 2. On the right r-
fide, let there be prefixed to each member, the-
exponent of the power, which v hath there, or >"
which is all one, let that exponent be multiplied J
into all the members. 3. Let the fame be done-:

alfo >

1 2 The Uiiiverfal Hiftory

alfo on the kft fide, multiplying each member
there by the power of the exponent of;', adding
this moreover, that one y mull in each part, be
ehanoed into a. This done, the equation thus re-
formed, will fliew the method of drawing the re-
quired tangent to the point D : for that being cjven,
as alfo;/, v, and the other quantities exprefled by
confonants, a cannot be unknown. Suppofe an
equation by — yy == vv^\n which E B is called b;
BA = >■, D A = f , and let (?, or A C be required,
fo as to find the point C, from whence C D being
drawn, fliall be a t:\x& tangent to that curve Q_D
in D. In this example, nothing is to be rejected
out of the equation, becaufe y or v are in each
member; it is alfo difpofed, as required by the
rule I ; to each part therefore, there muft be pre-
fixed the exponent of the powers of j or u, as in
rule 2 ; and on the left fide, let y be changed into
a, and then the equation will be in this form, b a —
iy a — 2VV, which equation reduced, gives eafily

the value of a = IJLl = A C, and fo the point

6 — 2 y
C is found, from whence the tangent D C may be
drawn.

To determine which way the tangent is to be
drawn, whether towards B or E, hediredts to con-
fider the numerator and denominator of the frac-
tion. For, I. If in both parts of the fraiSlion, all
the Cgns are affirmative ; or if the affirmative ones
are more in number, then the tangent is to run to-
wards B. 2. If the affirmative quantities are greater
than the negative in the numerator, but equal to
them in the denominator, the right-line drawn
thro' D, and touching the curve in that point, will
be parallel to A B : for in this cafe, a is of an in-
finite length. 3. If in both parts of the fradlion,
the affirniative quantities are lefs than the negative,
chancins; all the figns, the tangent mufl be drawn
now alfo towards B : for this cafe, after the change,
comes to the fame as the firft. 4. If the affirmative
quantities are greater than the negative in the deno-
minator, but in the numerator are lefs, or vice
verfa, then changing the figns in that part of the
fraction, where they are lefs, the iang,nt muft be
drawn a contrary way, that is, AC muft be taken
towards E. 5. But whenever the affirmative and
negative quantities are equal in the numerator, let
them be how they will in the denominator, a will
vaniih into nothing; and confequenlly, the /<?«-
gerd is either AD itfelf, or E A, or a parallel
thereto ; as will eafily be found by the data. 1 his
he gives plain examples of, in reference to the
circle ;• thus : Let there be a fcmicircle, whofe
diameter is E B, in which there is given any point :
from which the perpendicular D A is let fall to the
diameter. Let D A=i/, BA=>', BE = * ; then

of Arts and Sciences.

the equation will be by — yyzzvv, and draw-
ing the tangent D C, we have A C, or «=

Now, if b be greater than 2 y, the tangent

muft be drawn towards B ; if lefs, towards E ; if
it he equal to it, it will be parallel to E B, as was
faid in the firft, fecond, and fourth rules.

Let there be another fcmicircle inverted ; as
N D D, the points of whofe periphery are referred
to the right-line B E, parallel and = to the di-
ameter. Let N B be called d ; and all things
elfe as before; then the equation will be by — y y
^:dd-\-vv — z d V ; ■w\\\c\\ being managed accord-

... , 2 'V'U — 2 Jv

mg to his rules, you have a-=. , .

b — 2 J)

Now, fince v is here fuppofed to be always lefs
than d ; if i be greater than 2 y, then the tangent
muft be drawn towards E, if equal, it will be
parallel to BE ; if lefs, changing all the figns, the
tangent muft be drawn towards B, as by rules,
fourth, fifth, and third.

But there could be no tangent drawn, or at leafl
E B would be it, if NB had been taken equal to
the diameter.

Let there be another femicircle, whofe diameter
N B, is perpendicular to E B, and to which its
points are fuppofed to be referred. LetNB be
called b, and all the things elfe as above ; the

equation will be ^^=^w — vv,znda— .

If now b be greater than 2 v, the tangent muft be
drawn towards B, if lefTsr, towards E, if equal, DA
will be the tangent, as by rules i, 4, and 5 appears.

Jnverfe method of Tangents, is a method of
finding the equation, or the conftruflion, of any
curve ; from the tangent, or any other line, whofe
determination depends on the tangent given.

Its application we fhall give in what follows.—^
The differential expreffions of the tangent, fub-tan-
gent, i^c. being delivered under the laft article ; if
you make the given value equal to the diffe/ential
expreffion, and either fum up the differential equa-
tion, or, if that cannot be, conftrudt it, the curve
required, is had. For example :

I. To find tbe curve line, whofe fub-taneent
-2yy:a.

Since the fub-tangent of an algebraic line is
—y d X : dy we have

\ d X : d y=ii y y : a

a y d x=.2 y'^ d v

a d

V !t y

a xzzy
The curve fought therefore is a parabola.

2. To

GEOMETRT.

2. To find the cmve^whofe fub-tangentj h a third
propertional to r — x and y.

Since r — x :y=:y : y d x

~d~y
We.have r — x : y=.d y : d x

r d X- - X d x^izy dy

r X — i x'' z:i\ y-

2 r x — x xz^y

The curve fought therefore, is a circle.

3. To find a line, wherein the fub- tangent /; equal
to the femiordinatc.

Since

y d X

dy—y

y d xz

ZZV '• X

dxz

-dy

—y

Hence it appears, that the line fought, is a right-
line, which refpedts the cathetus of an equicru-
ral triangle, as an axis, or the hypothenufe of an
equicrural redangled triangle, li' x had been taken
for the arch o; a circle, the fought line had been a
cycloid.

The Vmefccmt of fome arch is a right line drawn
from the center, can led through the other extre-
mity of the fame arch, and terminated by the tan-
gent : as the line A BH, fig 45. C B is ihefedvit
of the arch, or of the angle CAB; as likewife,
the line A B L is xhtfecant of the arch d F, or of
the angle B A F.

The right fine of an arch is a right line drawn
from one extremity of the arch, perpendicularly
upon the radius drawn from tlie other extremity ;
or the fine is half the chord, of twice the aich ; as
the line B I, is the right fine of the arch B C?, in
the fameyfr Hence \hc fine of a right angle is the
radius itfelf, it being half the chord of a Jemicircle :
it is called the whole fine, viz. the great-eit of all.

The fine B G, is call'd tht fijie-complemcnt, or
cofir.e, of the arch 6 C ; becaufc the arch B F, is
tne complement of the arch B C, to a quadrant ;
for C B F, is a quadrant of a circle in the fame

The verfed fine, is part of the whole fine, or ra-
dius, intercepted bttween the right line and the
arch ; as I C S is the fine towards the arch B C,
becaufe it is part of the j'emidiameter A C, inter-
cepted between the arch B.C K, the double'of the
arch B C, as its fubtended H I K, in the fame/^.

The fines of obtufc angles, arc the fame with
thofe of their complementb to two right angles ;

Vol. II. 28.

I and that all fines of fimilar arches have the fame
ratio to their radii.

'1 he Segment of a circle, is a part of the circle
comprehended between an arch and the chord
thereof. Or it is a part of a circle comprehended
betv/een a right line lefs than a femicircle, and a
part of the circumference, as D L E, fig. 32. is
the leffer figment ; and D E F the greater figment.

The angle of a figment, is that made by the
tangent, and the chord carried through the point of
contad ; fuch are the angles E B C, of the lefTer
fegment, and F B C, of the greater fegment,^^.
32. where it muft be obferved, that the fegment
CAB, is call'd alternate.^ with regard to the angle
of the fegment C B E, as the iegment CLBis
call'd alternate, with regard to the angle of the
iegment F B C.

/Ingle in the fegment, is that contained within
two right lines, carried from the extremities of the
chord to fome point of tiie arch ; as the angle
B A C, on the fegment B A C, fig. 33. This angle
is call'd alfo angle to the circumference.

Angle at the periphery, is an angle vvhofe vertex
and legs do all terminate in t\ic periphery of a circle,
fuch is the angle B \) C, fig. 33.

The Sector of a circle, is that part of the circle,
comprehended between two radii and the arch ;
iuch is BCD, comprahended under the radii B D,
and D C, and under the arch b L*C.

Similar Segments, are thofe which contain
equal angles : thus* the figments of the greater and
leffer circle will be fimilar, if they contain equal
angles: as the arch efg in the leffer circle, and
B C D in the greater, are fimilar, becaufe they
contain the equal angles e A g, and J A D, fig. 34.

Equal circles, are thofe whofe diameceis and
radii are equal.

///y/ Thlore.v. a diam.eter, perpendicular to
the chord cut in two, viz. B D, Fig,.-^b. is
divided into two by the diameter AFC; for
the fides B F and F D, being equal, by the
definition of the circle, the triangle B F D is
ilofceles; therefore the angles in B and D are
always equal to the bafe B D ; but in the triangles
B C F, D C F, the angle to C are right, becaufe
of the perpendicidar F C, which is alio the fide
common to both : Therefore thofe triangles are
entirely equal ; and confe^uently the fide B C is
equal to the iide C D, which was to be demon-
ftratcJ.

Coaoi.LARiES. For the fame reafon it will be
demonftrated, that the right line which cuts per-
pendicuiarly the chord in two is the diameter of
the circle, or paues through the center; and the
right which panes through me center, and divides
the chord in two, is perpendicular to it.

D The

14 The Univerfal Hlftory

The rights, without the center, do not divide
theinfelves mutually.

Second I'heorem. If through the laft term B
of the diameter he carried D B, Fig. 37. perpen-
dicular to the faid diameter, it will touch the circle
in that fole point.

For any other point of that perpendicular, v. gr.
the point D will be out of the circle : And if the
line A D be conceived drawn from the center A
to the point D, there will be in ihe redhingular
triangle the angle A B D greater than the reti, to
v/hich the greater fide is oppofite, and which
therefore is greater than the radius A 13: And
thus the point D falls out of the circle ; which
was to be di^monllrated.

Corollary. No right line can he drawn be-
tween the tangent and the circumference, through
the point of" the conla£l B, in the fame Fig.
without its cutting the circle. For let it be, if it
be poffible, B C, becaufe the angle A B D is a
right angle, A B C will be acute: Therefore the
drawn perpendicular A D, will be lefs than the
Radius A B, which is oppofed to the right angle;
confequentiy the point r/ falls within the circle.

T/;;V^y Theorem. 'I'he angle at the center is
•tw-ice the angle at the circumference, if they are
both fixed to the fame arch.

Three cafes may be confidered in this Definiti-
on. The fiiji, when one fide of the angle on the
circumference falls from one fide of the angle at
the center. The fecond. when the fides of the
angles at the circumference include the angles at
the center. The third, when the fides of the
angle at the circumference, and the angles at the
center cut one another.

Let then the angles ABC, and ADC, in the
firft cafe, Fig. 38. 'be. fixed to the fame arch ; I
fay that the angle A B C in the center is double
the angle D in the periphery. For the angle
ABC is external with regard to the triangle C D B.
Therefore it is equal to two internal D and C ;
but thefe angles D and C are equal, when op-
pofed to the Radii, or equal fides, B C and
B D : Therefore the angle A B C is double the an-
gle D.

Likewife in the fecond cafe, Fig. 39. the angle
A B C is double the angle ADC: For if the
line D B E be drawn paffing thro" the renter B,
the angle A B E is double the angle A D E, and
the angle E B C double the angle E D C, by the
preceding demonflration ; therefore the whole
angle A B C is double the whole angle ADC.

LalHy, in the ihird cafe. Fig. 40. the angle
ABC, is double the angk ADC; for, if the
Line D B E, be drawn the whole angle C BE,
by the preceding demonflrations, is double the

of Arts /«;z J Sciences.

I angle C D E. Liicewife, the angle A B E is
double the angle A D E : Thefe then being taken
off, the angle ABC remaining, will be double
the remaining ADC; which was to be demo-
llrated.

Scholium. Wc have faid in the 8th definition,
that the juft: mealure of the angle placed in the
center, is the arch comprehended between two
radii. When then we fay that the meafure of any
angle, v. gr. A D C., Fig. 38, 39. is this, or
that arch, we underftand that angle to be equal
to the angle placed in the center; whereof tiiis
or that arch is the meafure. Whence we make
the following dedudfions.

Corollaries. The angle of rhe center A B F,
^'S- 3*^' 39- fi'^cd to the arch A F, is equal to
half the arch A <.', to which the angle A D C is
fixed at the circumference : For the angle in the
center A B C, is double the one and the othtr;
and the whole arch A C, being the meafure there-
of, the arch A F, ;'. e. half A C, will be the
mealure of the angle A B F, and confequentiy of
the angle A D C, at the circumference.

The angles in the fame fegment ADC, A dC
are equal between themfelves ; every one being
equal to half the angle ABC, placed at tr.t;
ceaiter, or have the lame meafure, according to
the preceding corollary, viz. half the arch A C,
to which they are fixed.

The angle A D B, Fig. 41. in the femieircic,
is a right angle; for its meafure is a quadrant, or
half of the circumference A E B, to which it is
fixed. For the fame reafon, the angle A A D in
the lefler fegment, will be obtufe, and the angle
A B D in the greater fegment, acute ; for that is
fixed to the greater arch, and this to the lefTer.
TlTcrefore the meafure of that will be an arch
greater than h:df the circumference, and the mea-
fure of this a leifer.

The oppofite angles D and A, or I and E,
infcribcd to the quadrilateral circle AIDE, Fig.
42. are equal, for the two arches to which are
fixed the two oppofite angles, take up the whole
circumference, which is the meafure of two right
angles.

/az/rM Theorem. The angle of the fegment
form'd by the tangent of the circle, and the chord
carried through the point of the contact, is equal
to the angle form'd in the alternate fegment

For let the tangent FAG, Fig. 42 and the
chord A D be drawn, I fay that the angle F A D,
is equal to the angle A E D, in the alternate
fegment ; and the angle GAD equal to the angle
AID, likewife in the fame fegment ; carried to
the diameter A C B, the angle FAB will be a
right angle. But the angle A D B in the femi-

circle

GEOMETRY.

circle, is a right angle ; therefore in the rcflangu-
lar triangle A D B, the two angles D A B, D B A,
are equal to a right one. But the fame angle
D A li, with the angle D A F, forms a right
angle; therefore the angles D A F, and A B D,
or A F, D in the fame leginent, even an alternate
one, arc equal.

I fay, that the angles GAD, and AID, are
equal ; for in the quadrilateral AIDE, the op-
pofitc angles I and E, are equal to two rights.
But the angle E is equal to the angle F A D, by
the preceding dcnionlhation, then the angle I,
will be equal to the angle D A G.

Corollaries. The meafure of the angle of
the lefler fegment FAD, is half the iirch AID,
fubtended by the chord A D, like the meai'ure of
the angle D A G, of the greater legnient, is half
of the arch. A E D. 1 he two tangents F B,
E D, Fig 43. are equal. For the chord B D
joiiiing the points of the contain, being drav./n,
the aniiies F B D, F D B, are made equal. The
meafuie of both being the fame, v'i%. half the arch
Ajbtended by the chord. Therefore an ifofccles
trianiile is formed.

Fifth Theorem. All polygons, circumfcribed
by a circle, are equal to a rectangular triangle,
one leg whereof is equal to the radius of the circle,
and the otlier to the whole periphery of the polygon.
. For in- the indefinite right line A A, Fig. 45.
let the bafes, A B, B D, i^c. be taken, equal
to the bafes into which the polygon is divided, Fig
46. then in the Point A, Fig. 45. mull be drawn
the perpendicular A C, equal to the radi^js C g.
Fig. 45.. /. e. equal to the altitude of the triangles
contain'd in the polygon; and let C P be parallel
to the bafe A A, that all the perpendicular lines,
c g, c h, he. Fig. 46. . may be equal to one
another, as well as to. the radius £ g. Fig. 45.

It is manifeft that the white triangles A t- B,
B- 1 D, he. Fig./^§. are equal to the triangles acl,
be dy: Szc, Fig. 46. into which the polyp-on is
is divided. But to thofe white triangles, ak equal
thofe mark'd with black lines, Fig. 45. e. gr. the
white triangle tK g c, is equal to the black triangle
A.C (T ; and the white triangle 1! eg, to the black
triangle H n c, he. therefore the whole parallelo-
gram A P, is double the white triangles.

But the fame parallelogram A P, is double the
triangle A A C ; therefore the reiftangular triangle
A A C, the one leg whereof A A, is equal to the
periphery of the polygon, and the other A C,
equal to the radiusf^; that re<9angu!ar triangle
A A C, fays I, is equal to the white triangles 45,
and confequenlly to the wliole polygon 44.

Sixth Theorem, All ordinate, or regular poly-

gons, (formed of the equal chords of a circle)
drawn in a circle, are equal to the rciftangular
triangle, one leg whereof is equal to the periphery
of the polygon, the other to the perpendicular eg.
Fig. 46. carried from the center e, to cither fide
of the polygon, a h.

The demonftration is the fame as that of the
preceding theorem

Corollary. As a polygon of almoft infinite
fides, can be circumfcribtd or infcribed by a circle;
it follows hence, that iheir pcrimctirs Ciin attain
in injiuitum, the circumference of the circle, the'
the perimeter be always greater than the circum-
ference of the circumfcribed circle, and lefler than
that of the infcribed.

But the polygon ciicumfcribcd by a circle, is-
equal to a rectangular triande, one leg whertof is
the radius of the circle, and the other the peiimetcr
of the polygon ; lor a polygon formed within a
circle, is equally equal to a rectangular trian2:ie,
one leg whereof is the perimeter of the polygon,
and the other a perpendicular drawn from the
center of the circle to any fide of the polyt^on.
I herefore tlie circle will be likewife equal to a
rcftangular triangle, one leg whereof is equal to
the radius, and the other to the circumference of
the circle; as demonilrated by //n//ym^vi>f, in his.
Imali book of the dimenfion of the circlff.

Scholium. Though the perimeter of a pwj-Vr
gon, either drawn round a circle, or withiiv a
circle, may attain in infinitum, to the magr.itu.ie
of the circumference of the fame circle, it not-
withifanding never becomes equal to it. Wlicnce,.
by that method, we can never have a line equal ts
the circumference of a circle ; in which ccnfjii the

dijficultyof the QUADRATURE OF THE ClSCtE-.*

for if W^e could find that line, we could form a
rectangular triangle^ equal to the circle; and a-
parallelogram equal to that triangle ; and a »iuad-.
rate equal to that parallelogram. As I'll fhew.by^
the pFoblems relating to this lubjed.

Of the Solids. Solid is a magmt'ude, endued'
with three dimenfions, length, breaJth, and.
depth.

The extremity of the flid; is the fuperftcies ; ;
that of the fuperficiesj a line; and that of a line,,
a point.

As a plane angle confifisof right lines drawn or>'
a plane fupcrficies, likewife zfliJ angle confifts of
feveral plane angles, but which are not placed on.
the fame plane.

Therefore a-, folid angle is re£tilinear, and is-

form'd by three or more plane angles B OA,~

C O A, isc. or DOE, E O E, Fig. 47. not.

D 2 placed-1

i6 'The Univerfal Hiflory

placed in the fame plane, but meeting in the point
O.

A -pr'tfrn is aa oblong folid, contain'd under
Hiore than four planes, and whole two bafes ABC,
and O E F, or G H, and K.L, are equal, parallel,
and alike fituated ; and the reft parallelograms.
The prifm is generated by the motion of a
rectilinear figure, defceading always parallel to
itfclf, along a right line.

If the defcribent be a triangle, the body is faid
to be a triangular prifm; if a fquare, 2i quadranguhr
one, &c.

From the genefis of the prifm, it is evident it
has two equal, and oppofite Safes ; that it is ter-
minated by as many parallelograms, as the bafe
confifts of fides ; and that all the fedlions of a
prifm parallel to its bafe, are equal,

A parallelopipcd is one of the regular folid',
comprehended under fix parallelograms, the oppo-
fite ones whereof are fimilar, parallel, and equal;
as K O L P G H I, Fig. 49. Therefore all
parallelepipeds are prifms, but all prifms are not
parallelepipeds.

If a regularyj-VW confifts of fix fquares and equal
faces, or fides, and its angles all right, and there-
fore equal, it is a cube. Whence all cubes are
parallelepipeds, but all parallelepipeds are not cubes.
The Pyramid, A B C », or D E F 0, fg. 47.
is 3 folid ftanding on a fquare, triangular, or poly-
gonal bafis, and terminating at top in a point ; or
a body whofe bafe is a regular rectilinear figure,
and whofe fides are plain triangles $ their feveral
vertices meeting together in one point.

Endid dcRnes it a folid figure, confifting of fe-
veral triangles, whofe bafes are all in the fame
plane, and have one common vertex.

Therefore the plane ABC, is called the bafs of
the pyramid; and m.ay be either a triangle, or a
quadrangle, or any other figure, from each fide
whereof triangles are/ais'd to the point O, which
is called tlw; vertex ; from whence the perpendicu-
lar O I falling, it meafures the height of the py-
ramid.

If without the plane of fome circle C F,^g. 5 1 .
from which the indefinite right line O F be drawn,
touching the circle in F ; and which, the point O
remaining fix'd, may be turn'd round the periphery
of the circle, til! it returns to the place O F, whence
it begun to move : the fuperncies, defcrib'd by the
right line F, will be conical ; and the body con-
tain'd in that fuperficies, and the circle, calKd a
cone. O is the vertex of the cone ; the circle C F
it's bafis ; the right line O I, drawn from the vertex
to the bafe, its axis ; .and the right line drawn from
the vertex to the circumference of the bafis, the
fide of the cone.

of Arts and Sciences.

A cone may be cut in five different manner*,
I. By a plane through 'the vertex AG B,y?^. 55.
and the triangle A G B is made. 2. By a plane,
parallel to the bafe, and a circle is form'd. 3. by
the plane F S F, parallel to the fide of the cone
A G, and this fection is called parabola. 4. Hy
the plane K L R, which paffes through the vertex-
of the cone, without the fuperficies thereof, that
is neither cutting, nor touching it : and the cone
being again cut by another, parallel to the former ;
and this fedtion is called ellipfts. 5. By the plane
E Q_D, which cut the cone any how through,
the vertex, and by a.nother plane parallel to the
former plane ; then the fe£tion made in the fuper-
ficies thereof is called an hyperbola. But when
geometers mention conick fecliowy none muft be
underflood but the parabola, ellipfts, and hyperbola,

A parabola i.s defin'd a figure arifing fiom the
fecStion of a cone, when cut by a plane, parallel to
one of its fides. Trom the fame point of a cone,
therefore only one parabola can be drawn ; ail the
other fections within thofe parallels being elliples,
and all without hyperbola's. IVolfius defines the*
parabola to be a curve wherein a x ^z j% that is,
the fquare of the femi ordinate, is equal to the rec-
tangle of the abjcijfe, and a given right line, called
the parameter of the axis, or lacus reSium. Hence
a parabola is a curve of the firft order; and as the
abl'cilfes increa.fe, the femi-ordinates increafe like-
wife; confequently the curve never returns into
itfelf. Hence, alfo, the abfcifle is a third propor-
tional to the parameter, and femi-ordinate; and the
parameter a third proportional to the abfcifle, and
femi-ordinate ; and the femi-ordinate a mean pro-
portional between the parameter and abfcifle.

The ellipfs is thus called from the fquare O T
of the ordinate O R, fig. 57. being equal to the -•
reftangle A S; which applied to the parameter A P,
is deficient from the reftangle O P, comprehended
under part of the axis O A, and under the para-
meter A P, all thefe are determined thus : as the
greater axis I A, is to the lefler axis M N of the
ellipfis, M N is to the parameter A P of the greater
axis. Therefore the perpendicular A P being drawn
to the extremity of the diameter I A, the triangle
I P is formed, which is called the figure of the
axis I A ; the diameter of I P thereof will occur
to the diameter I A of the ordinate line O R, and
produced in S if it be neceflary : whence will be
formed the rectangle A '-\ equal to the fquare OT
of the ordinate OR. But that reftangle AS falls
from the redangle contained under part of the an-
gle AO, and the whole parameter A P. It falls, I
fay, by the fmall rectangle S P, which is femblable
to the figure IP. If from the extremity N, of the
I lefler

G E 0 M E T R r.

IcfTcr axis N M, be deftTibcd the afch ¥ f, by tlie
interval N/", equal to the greater femi-axis CI,
the points ¥ f will be the foci of the ellipfis ; be-
cauie the ellipfis is a fio;urc, every point of the cir-
cumference whereof, are diftant in fuch a manner
from the foci, that the two diftances FN, FN,
ory>, fn, taken together are always equal to the
whole greater axis 1 A.

The ellipfis, to define it from its form, is a regu-
lar continued curve line, including a fpace that is
longer than it is broad, wherein are tvi'o points e-
qually dirtant from the two extremes of the length ;
from which two right lines being drawn to any
point, afllimed at pleafure in the ellipfis, their fiim
is equal to the length of the cHipfis. |

Laftly, the hyperbola is thus called from the !
fquare OT, of the ordinate OR, fig. 58, being '
equal to the rectangle AS, which applied to the pa- '
rameter A P, exceeds the reiStangle, made under '
part of the axis A O, and the parameter OP, by 1
the reclangle PS, becauie the figures VP are
femblable to the hyperbola BAD, and NVX are 1
called oppofite ; the point C is their center. The
line AV is the determinate axis, to which the
other undeterminate axis may be carried at right
angles. The points ¥ f, are the foci of the con-
ter-placed parabola's, which are placed in fuch a
manner, that the line F N, drawn from one focus,
at the point N of the hyperbola, will always ex-
ceed the other line F N, drawn from the other fo-
cus to the fame point N, by the bignefs of the de-
terminate axis AV; the right line CXC Y, which
drawn thro' the center C, can never occur to the
oppofite feflions, are called afymptotes.

If round thofe equal circles, and the parallels
B B, C C, fig. 55, the iiidefinite line B C be
turned till it returns to the place whence it began
to move ; fo that, while it moves, it remains al-
ways parallel to itfelf, the fuperficies defcribed by
the right line BC is called cylindricali, and the bo-
dy contained within that fuperficies, and two cir-
cles, a cylinder. The bafes of the cylinder are the
faid two circles; the axis is the right line O I,
joining the centers of the' bafes ; and the fide of
the Cylinder, is the right line B C, touching both
bafes, in the fuperficies of the cylinder.

The fhere is a folid body, contained under
one fingle furface, and having a point in the mid-
dle, called the center ; whence all lines drawn to
the furface are equal. The point C is called the
center of the fphere, fig. 59. the diam.eter of the
fphere is the right line OI, drawn through the cen-
ter, produiSted and carried to the fuperficies, fo as
to attain to both extremes ; one half whereof is
the femidiameter C O, called alfo radius.
. If a globe, or the greater circle A E B D of a

globe, fig. 60. be moved on the right fine D F, fo
as for its ceritcr C to defcribc, by an uniform mo-
tion, the line C H, then the point I) will be moved,
in fuch a manner, by a motion, compofed of a
right and a circulary, as to defcribc the curve
D d d d d d f^ called Cyclois or Trocho'is, which are
of great ufe in the ofcillatory clocks, to regulate
the motion of the pendulum : there is another line
between that, and marked with points, which is
called the companion of the trocho'is.

Thofe are called regular bodies, which are ter-
minated on all fides by regular and equal planes,
and whofe folid angles are /Jl equal. Thefe regular
bodies are five in number, w/e. the cube, C c, fig. bl,
63. which confifts of fix equal fquarcs ; the tetra-
hedron, T t, fig. 61. of four equal triangles ; the
oEiihedron, O a, fig. 64, 65 of eight; the dodeca-
hedron, D d d, fig. 66. of twelve; and the icofihc-
dron, I /, fig. 67. of twenty. — befides thefe five,
there can be no other regular bodies in nature.

Of Proportions. When two magnitudes of
the fame genus are compared between themfelves,
the firft term of comparifon is call'd antecedent,
the fecond confeqnent.

That comparation, or relation, can be made in
two different manners; viz. when we confider
by how much one of thofe quantities exceeds the
other, or is exceeded by it; and that habit is call'd
excefs, or difference : Or when it is afked, how
many times, or how one is included in the other,
or contains it ? and fuch habitude is commonly
call'd ratio.

If the firft quantity contains twice the fecond,
the firfl is faid to be the fecond in a double ratio ;
if thrice, in a triple ratio; if four times, in a
quadruple j-atio, &c. and that contained, is faid
to be in a fubduple, fubtriple, fubquadruple, &c.
as a line of eight feet, is to a line of four feet, in
a duple ratio ; and a line of four feet, to a line of
eight feet, in :i fubduple ratio.

If there be feveral magnitudes, the firft of which
has the fame ratio to the fecond, as the fecond to
the third, and the third to the fourth ; then the
firlt is faid to have a ratio duplicate of that, it has
to the fecond ; likewiie it is faid to have to the
fourth a ratio triplicate of that it has to the fecond :
That if there be four lines, the firft of which be
of fixteen feet, the fecond of eight, the third of
four, and the fourth of two; if you fearich the
7-atio of the firft line of fixteen feet to the fecond
of eight feet, I fay that it is double, or dup'e, or
as ?. to I ; and if the ratio of the firft o^ 1 6, to
the third of 4 feet, I fay that it is twice duple,
becaufe compofed of the ratio of the firft line of
16, to the fecond of 8 feet, which is duple; and
of ih^ ratio of the fecond, viz. 8, to the third 4,

whick

The Unlverfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

which is alfo dupU; whence the ratio of the firft
to the third, is tlu[>!icnte of the ratio of the fiift to
the fecond ; or is twice flul>le^ or rather /quadruple.
Now the ratio of the firll: to the fourih, or ol i6
to 2, IS triplicate of the ratio, of the firft to the
fecond. 'I herefore it mufl: be compofed of the
tliiph ratio, which is of the firft to the fecond ,
and of the quadruple ratio; which is of the fame
firft to the third, and thus it is twice qiuidruple, or
rather quadruple.

■ If the firft line has more magnitude compara-
tively to the fecond, than the third to the fourth,
the firft would be laid to have a greater ratio to the
fecond, than the third to the fourth; and the third
to have a Irjfer ratio to the fourth, than the firft to
the fecond, which is a toniiliai- manner of fpcalcing
to geornitcrs.

i'hcreibre all things which have the fanne ratio
to a third, are eaual ; and thofe things are equal
to fuc-h as they have one and the fame ratio.

If a quantity, v. g 2. bij)edal line, has fome
relation to another, vi%. a pedal line, in whatever
roauner the firft be multiplied, or divided, it will
always hav- the fame ratio to the Iccond, if the
fecond be likewife multrplitdor drvided in the fame
manner: For a= a. bipedal line is to a pedal line,
fo is a line of four feet to a line of two feet; or
f© is a line of one foot, to a femipedal line, is'c.

Thefe magnitudes, thus multiplied by equality,
are call'd aquemultiph of their fimples.

Proportio'i. is the identity, or fimilitude, of
ratio's, of difterences, or excefTes. The firft is
CAii'd ^Mt/iit)-i^'al praportii^>iy and the fecond ar/V/j-
wetii-ntl; but however, when we only mention the
iistrae of proportion, the. geomiirical proportion mud
always be underftood, as the moft eftential.

Therefore as every. ratio, or difl-crence, requires
neccflarily two terms, viz.. anteadenClinA conJeqtwTit ;
every prcpaition requires fiiur Inch terms. The
firft is c:Me6 Jir^l antu-ed^nt; the fecond y?r/? con-
Jequent;- the third fecand aiiiecedint ; the fourth
fetmi conjcqucnt . The firfl and lall: are call'd the
extremes, and the fecond and third medii. They
are marked in this maimer . 4^ 2:: 6, 3, /. e. 4
is to 2, as 6 is to 3 ; or a line of four feet is to a
line of two feet, as a line of fix feet to a line of
three feet. Thofe four terms are analogous, or
proportional ; and that the proportion is call'd
geometrical, which is an equality of ratio's. 1 he
following propotiart is arithmetieal; 4, 3 : : 2, I.
becaufe tlie excefs of the fii/} antecedent is the
f^me with refpe£t to the firft confequent; as that
oi the fecond antecedent, with refpetSt to the fecond
anfequent.

The fecond term does, fometimes, the ofBce of
ths anteiedeut and conjequent, in this manner, —

8, 4, 2. ;'. e. as 8 is to 4, fo 4 is to 2 ; or as
a line of 8 feet is to a line of 4 feet : fo the
fame line of 4 feet is to the line of 2 feet. In
which proportion, which is call'd continued, the
line of four feet is confequent, with refpect to the
firft antecedent ; and antecedent, with refpeiSt to the
fecond confeptent ; and this may happen both in the
arithmetical and geometrical proportion.

The line of 4 feet, or any other quantity, which
is the middle between two, is call'd middle propor-
tional; and this cither geometrically or arithmetically.

A feries or progrefTion, of more than four ge-
ometrical proportions, is call'd 11 geometrical progref-
fion.

If three quantities be in continual geometrical pro'
portion, theprodufl of the two extremes is equal
to the fquare of the middle term ; thus, in 6 : iz.
: : 12 : 24, the product of 6, and 24, ii equal to
the fquare of 12, w'z. 144. Hence we have a rule.

To find a mean geometrical proportional hctv/een.
two numbers, e.gr. 8 ind 72 ; multiply one of
the numbers by the other, and from the produ(it
576, extract the fquare root 24 ; this will be the
mean required : more of this in the theorems.

The third fpecies o^ proportion^ is the harmonical
proportion, which is often mentioned by the anticnt
mathematicians. This proportion confifts in three
terms, fo difpofed, that as the habit of the greater
is to the leiier, fuch is the habit of the difference of
the greater from the lefTcr, to the difference of the
middle from the lefTer, v. gr. let the numbers be
12, 8, 6 ; as the greater term 12 is to the Icfler
6, fo is 4 the dift'erence of the greater term 12 from,
the middle 8, to 2, the difterence of the middle.
8 from the Islier 6 ; fcH' as the greater term. 12 con-
tains twice the lefTer 6, fo the difFerence 4, which:
intercedes betvveen 12 and 8, contains twice the
difference 2, which intercedes between 8 and 6.

For the fame reabn, 6, 4, 3, or 6, 40, 30,
are in the harmonical prot-ortion.

Between the fides of the figures, feveral ratio's or
excejfes can occur, whereby the habit of one figure
to the other may be made apparent.

A line is carried into another, or is multiplied by
another, when a rectangular parallelogram is made
of both. Thofe two lines being the two contigu-
ous fides thereof; as the line LM is carried into
the line L I, when the re£tangu!ar parallelogram,
I K LM, Fig. 9. is made of both.

If the line AB, Fig. 12, he carried into itfelf, or
into a line equal to itfelf, viz. if C D be equal to
A B, and be multiplied by the line G E, equal to
itfelf, from that multiplication will arife the fquare
E F C D, for all its fides will be equal.

A rectangle, or an y other fuperficies, is multi-
plied by a line, when of that fuperficies aiid line is

formed

G E O M E 7 R r.

formed a rectangular parallelopiped, whofe bafc be
that fuperficies ; and the perpendicular altitude be
that line. Thus v.gr. the fuperficies /sBDH, Fig.
3?. multiplied by the line IK, or by the line B E
«qual to it, makes the foiid FA, whofe bafe is the
■fuperficies A B iJ H, and the altitude K I, or B L
«qual to it.

If tiiat fuperficies be fquare, and multiplied by a
line equal to every one of its fides, there will arife
a cube, every face whereof will be equal between
themfelves, as demonftrated by the lame figure.

Of reftilinear figures thofe are faid to l' ilmilar,
which have every angle equal to every ot.nis, and
their fides proportional to equal angles ; fuch are
the triangles ABC, and a be. Fig. 68^ 69, for the
angle A is equal to the angle a, i3~c. and as the fide
AH is to A C, fo is the iide a b to a c, (s!c. fuch
fides which anfwer to themfelves in the proportion,
are called homologous, as A B and a b, AC and
mc, Ufc.

The altitude of any figure, is a perpendicular
line drawn from i« vertex to its bafe ; as AP, Fig.
68. is the ahitude of the triangle ABC.

The fpaces, or intervals, comprehended between
the parallels are equal, if their perpendiculars be
drawn equal.

Firji Theorem. In an arithmetical proptrtlon,
the fum of the extreme terms, is always equal to
the fum of the middle terms.

As in this arithmetical proportion, 4 . 3 : : 2 . I,
the additional of the extremes, niiz. 4 and i make
5, likewife the middle terms 3 and 2 added toge-
ther make up 5, and this is eafily underllood ; bi.-
caufe, for as much 3 is furpalled by 4 ; as much
I, which is joined with 4, is furpafled by 2, which
is put with 3 ; therefore the equality is perfect
every where.

Second THEOREM. But in the geometrical pro-
portion, the multiplication of the extremes, is equal
to the piodudt of the middle terms.

As in this propofition 4 . 2 : : 6 . 3, if you mul-
tiply 4 by 3, or 2 by 6, you'll have 12. The rea-
fon is, bccaufe 4 and twice 2 are the fame thing ;
the fame as 6 and twice 3 are the fame thing.
When, therefore, you multiply 3 by 4, it is the
fame as if you was to take twice 3 and twice 3, or
rather four times 3 ; when, likewife, you multi-
ply 2 by 6, it is the fame as if you was to fay twice
3, and twice 3. When the produdl is equal eveiy
where. See F'g 70.

Corollary. If the proportion be continual,
the produ£l of the middle term, by itftlf, /. e. its
fquare, will be equal to the reftangle of the ex-
tremes.

Scholium. Therefore as often as the produdl
of the extremes will be found equal to the produifl:

of therniddle terms, fo often four terms will be in
geometrical proportion. And this will always happen
in the following permutation of terms : For if it be,
4 • 2 : : 6 . 3.
It will be by inverting 2.4 : : 3 . 6.
By alternating 4 . 6 : : 2 . 3.
By compounding 4. -{- 2.2::6. +3.3.
By dividing 4 . — 2 . 2 : : 6 — 3.3.

Thi>d I HEOREM. The fides of triangles equi-
angle, are proportional with refpedt to equal angles,
and vicijjim.

Let ABC, a be. Fig. 68, 6g be the triangles
eqiiiangle ; I fay that A Ij is to a *, as A C to
a c, and B C to b c ; and alternating thus, AB to
be to AC, and B C. as <j Z- to a c and b c.

Let the perpendicular A P in the greater triangle,

fill from the vertex ,\, and bo divided into fo many

■ '-'(i-ai parts, v. gr. 7 ; and through each divifion let

•-:gh: lines be drawn parallel to thebaic B C, whicli

j will occur to the fide AB, in the points F G, i^c.

j from every one of which mult be let fall, likewife,

j pe/pen iicular on the b,.fe, or rather on the part

\ B P of the; bafe, it is manifcll that the fide A H,

and the part ri P, of the bafe, are divided into fo

many parts, as are contained in the perpendicular

AP, which parts will be every one equal between

themfelves, as well in A B as in P.

Likewife a perpendicular beingd.awnin the lefTcr
angle c/>, in which mult be taken th - parts ad, d e,
&c. equal to the parts AD, DE, i^c. and five muft
be contain'd map, like the feven found in Al% and
through each divifion d e, &c. let right lines be
drawn parallel to the bafe b c, which will occur to
ah, in the points/^, &c. from every one of which
muft be let fall perpendiculars on the bafe, or part
of the bafe b p, it is clear that the fide a b, and part
of the bafe bp, are divided into fo many parts equal
between themfelves, as are contain'd in the perpen-
dicular a p.

Therefore the number of equal parts of the per-
pendicular A P, in the greater triangle, is to the
number of parts of the perpendicular ap in the le/Tcr
triangle, as the number of parts of the fide AB, or
of the bi.'e B P, is to the number of parts of the
fide a b, or of the bafe b p.

The fame will be demonftrated of the trian'>lcs
A PC, ape; and therefore as the fide AP is to
the fide a p, fo is the fide a c, and PC, to ^ r ; and
confequently as the whole bafe HC, is to the whole
bafe h c ; which was to be dem.onftrated.

Fourth Theorem. In reftangular triangles, a
perpendicular let fall from the right angle on the
bale, makes two triangles equal to one another,
and to the whole, v. gr. the perpendicular A D,
Fig. 71. makes the triangles DA B and D A C,
fimilar to one another, and to the whole triangle
CAB. For

20 The Univerfal Hiftory b/ Arts <3;«(a? Sciences.

For in the triangles CAB and DAB, the two '
angles CAB, which is a right angle, and A B C, i
are equal to the two A D B, which is alfo a right
angle, and AB D. Therefore. the third A C B, is ,
equal to the third DAB; and therefore thofe tri- ,
angles are equiangles ; and confequently have their
ildes proportional.

FirJ} Corollary. The perpendicular AD, in
the fame figure, is a middle proportional, between
the fegments of the bafe CI) and DB, /. e. as CD
is to 13 A, fo is D A to D B. For the triangles
CAD and DAB, being equal, likewife as C I)
the leffer angle of the triangle CAD is to DA, the
greater angle of the fame triangle, as DA the lefl'er
fide of the triangle DAB, is to D B the greater
fide.

In the fame manner CA is a middle proportional,
between the hypothenufe C B, and the fegment
CD ; for the triangles CAB and CAD being
equal, the hypothenufe C B, in the greater angle
CAB, will be to the lefier fide C A, as the hypo-
thenufe C A in the leffer triangle CAD, is to its
lefler fide C D.

Laftly B A is a middle proportional between the
hypothenufe B C and the fegment ^ D. For the
triangles B A C and BAD being equal, the hypo-
thenufe B C in the greater angle BAC, will be to
BA the greater fide, as the hypothenufe B A in the
leffer triangle BAD, is to its greater fide B D.

Hypothenufe, [horn vho^hm, fubtendo, I fubtend)
m geometry., is the longefl: fide of a right ang'ed
triangle ; or that fide which fubtends, or is oppo-
fitc to the right angle.

Segment, is a part of a circle, comprehended be-
tween an arch and the chord thereof. Or it is
part of a circle comprehended between a right line
iefs than a femicircle, and a part of the circum-
ference. 1 . ' '

Second Corollary. The fquare of the perpen-
dicular A D, in the fame figure,' is equal to the
rectangle contain'd under the fegments of the bafe
B D, and D C, becaufe it is a middle proportional
between thofe fegments. By the fame reafon the
fquare of the fide C A is equal to the reftangle made
of the bafe B C, and its fegment C D : Likewife
the fquare of the fide BA, is equal to the rectangiC
comprehended under the bafe BC, and its feg
meat BD.

Fifth Theorem. In all reftangle triangles,
the fquare of the bafe, or hypothenufe BC, is equal
to the fides of the fquares BA, and A C taken to-
gether. Fig. 71.

For the fquare E \i, muft be divided into the
two redangles B E, and C E, by the production,
or carrying on the perpendicular AD into E. 7^he
triangle B E, being contained under the bafe B C,

or rather under B'N, equal to itfelf, and under its
fegment B D ; fo that it is equal to the fquare of
the triangle B A.

For the fame reafon, the rectangle C E, con-
tained under the bafe B C, or ratner under C M,
equal to itfelf, and under CD. is equal to the fquare
of the fide AC; and thus the whole fquare BM, is
equal to the fquares of the fides B A and AC,
taken together.

Scholium. This great and curious theorem,
which is the 47th propofiiion of EuJid's elements,
is attributed to F\tbagorai.

Among the difterent ufes this problem is of, in
the mathematicks, I'll mark two principle ones,
which all philofophcrs (houldbe perfe(5tly acquainted
with.

For, firft, it is demonftrated by it that there are
fome lines which are inco?nmenfurable, i. e. lines
between which no common meafure can be found ;
or whicli are not between themftlves, as a number
to another number ; for all numbers have at leaft
unity for common meafure; from a repetition
whereof they proceed.

Therefore, let us fuppofe In the rectangular tri-
angle ABC, Fig. 7 1 . the fide A C to be of three
feet ; the fide A B of four feet ; and the hypothe-
nufe B C, of five feet : it follows hence, that the
fide of the fquare A C, viz. A 4, contains nine
fquare feet; becaufe the fquare of a hne is made of
that line, being carried into itfelf, or multiplied in
itfelf. But if three feet be taken thrice, or multi-
plied by a ternary nurriber, they will form nine feetv
Likewiie the fquare of the fide A B, viz. A F, will
be of fixteen feet ; and the fquare of the hypothe-
nufe B C, viz. B M, will contain twenty- five
fquare feet. Then if the fquare A H, 9, and A F,
16, be added together, they will make 25 ; becaufe
together they are equal to the fquare B M, which
comprehends alio, twenty-five iquaie feet. And
not only thofe fquares are exprefied by numbers,
but even their roots, or fides, can be exprefied by
numbers. For all thofe numbers, which multiplied
by themfelves, form a fqui;re are called the roots or
fides of fquares. As 2 is the root of the fquare 4,
for 2 taken twice, make up 4 ; thus 3 is the root of
the number 954 is the root of 16 ; 5 the root of
25 ; 6 the root of 36 ; 7 the root of 49 ; 8 the
root of 64 ; 9 the root of 8 1 ; 10 the root of 1 oo,
y^-. Thofe numbers 4, g, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64,
81, 100, arc fquare, becaufe they ariie from certain
numbers carried into themfelvcs, and their unity
can be difpofed in a fquare form. Thus nine
unities can be difpofed in a fquare, each fide
whereof will contain three unities. Likewife fix-
teen unities can be diipofed in a fquare form the
fide whereof will confut of four unities. The fame

may

GEOMETRT.

•may be faid of the following numbers 25, 36,
49, (sfc. But if numbers cannot be difpofed in a
'fquare, they are not to be called fquares.

Therefore a num'^er which is duple of a fquare
one, cannot be (quare, becaufe it cannot be dif-
pofed in a fquare form, "y. gr. if a quarternary
■number be taken twice, it becomes oflnnary,
■which is not a fquare, becaufe it cannot be dif-
•pofed in a fquare form. But if the quarternary
number be taken four 'times, it will produce 16,
which is a fquare.

But though a fquare number cannot be the duple
©f another fquare number ; a fquare extended,
nolwithflanding, can be thedupie of another ex-
tended fquare. For if the redtangular triangle was
ifofceles, v. gr. if both its legs were of four feet,
the fquare of either leg would be of 16 feet, and
■both taken together confift of 32 fqUarc feet ; fo
that the fquare of the hypotherrufe of that triangle
would contain 32 feet, and be the duple of one
another.

The number 32 is not fquare, but is contained
between the fquare numbers 25 and 36 ; whofe
■roots are 5 and 6, fo that the root of the nurriber
32, which is thehypothcnu-fc of the propofed tri-
angle, and marked thus R 32, mult contain more
feet than 5, and lefs than 6 ; but the magnitude
of that number cannot be precifely determined ;
neither can the foot, or any part of the foot which
meafures the fides, be the common meafure of
their fides, and hypothenufe. Therefore the hypo -
thenufe of the reftangle ifofceles triangle, fucli as
the diagonal of any fquare, is inconnneyifurabk.
Peripateticians make ufc of this argument, to
prove that the matter is divifible, in infinitum.

But there is another ufe of this theorem, which
can never be prized too much, viz. the con-
Itruftion of the tables of fines, tangents, znd. fccnnts-,
of which conftruflion I will give an example.
Having defcribed the circle AEDFBCK,/^.
35. and the radius A B being applied to the cir-
cumference from B into K, and the fide A K
drawn, the triangle BAK, will be equilateral j
and thus all its angles will be equal between them-
felves, or each of them will be of 60 degrees.
Therefore the -fide or chord B K, being in tv/o
equal parts, the arch B C will be of 30 degrees.

But becaufe the radius is commonly put of
looooooo parts, the chord B K equal to it, will be
of fo many parts: therefore its half B I, which is
the fime of the arch B C, will be of 5000000
parts.

But then in the reftangular triangle A I B> the

fquare of the hypothenufe A B, is equal to the
quadrates of the fides A I, and B I, taken toge-
ther. Therefore let the fquare of the hypothe-
nufe A B, be made by carrying looooooo into
looooooo, it will be 1 0000000000000, then from
this produft, take off the fqug^e of the fide B I,
viz. 25000000000000, there wilt remain the fquare
of the fame A I, or of G B, the fine of the com-
plement 75000000000000, from which if the t^uare
root be extracted, we fhall have the line A I of
almoft 8660254 parts.

Befides, as the triangles A B I, and A H C are
fimilar, let it be that as A I to B I, fo A C to
C H, the tangent C H fliould be had. That if the
fquares of the fides A C and C H be added together,
we will have the fquare of the hypothenufe A H;
from which if the root be extrafted, then that
hypothenufe A H, which is the fecant of the arch
B C, will appear.

I will finifli here, that part of Geometry, which
I CdWj'peculative ; and pafs to pra^ical Geometry.

E F I N I T I O N S.

Orgyfa, was an andent Grecii^n meafure, con-
taining fix of our feet. Some reprefcnt the Orgyia,
as the Grecian pace. Hefychius d-;fcribcs it as the
fpace comprehended between the two hands, when
the arms are extended, anfwering to the Roman
ulna, and our fathom.

The foot contains twelve ounces, or inches;
for the one is not only taken for a weight, in vvhich
fenfe it is a twelfth part of a pound ; but likewife
for a meafure, in which fenfe it is a twelfth part
of a foot ; as a digit is a fixteenth part of a foot.
Which, notwitliftanding, the authors of our time,
take indifferently the inch and digit, for a twelfth
part of a foot ; fo that when it is a queftion of an
eclipfe of the moon, the name of digit is taken
for a twelfth part of the apparent diameter of the
moon. Therefore wheii it is faid that the eclipfe
of the moon is of two or three digits, it is the
fame as if it wa£ faid, that it is of two or three
twelfth parts of its apparent diameter.

The foot confifts of twelve parts, which we
call lines. The anticnts had other meafures which
are not in ufe among us.

The rrieai'ures common to the Romans, and the
Gauls, are expreffed in the following verfes :

^uatuor ex granis * digitus ccmponitur unus.
Ex qttater in -palmo digitus ; quater in pede palmu:.

* By corn is underftood here barley-corns placed length-wife, againfi one anotlier j
fiood geomettical paceSj each confilUng of three feet.

Vol. II. 29 E

and by paces are under-

3uin/iui

12 Tl^e Univerfal Hiftory

^linqiie pedes % pnjfum faclunt ; pajfus quoque

Centum.
Vigent'i quinque, ftadinm dat, at Milidre
Oao dahmtjladia : duplicatum dat tibi Leucam.

The EngUjh footbcinc; divided
parts, or into iv/clve inches, the
as follows ;

London

Paris, the Royal

Amflerdcwi

Ant'Merp

Dort

Rhlneland,. or Leydcn

Lor rain

Mechlin

Middleburg

Strajhurg

Bremen

Cologn

Francfort on the Mayne

Spantjb

into one thoufand
other feet will be

Toledo

Roman

Bononia

Mantua

Venice

Dantzick

Copenhagen

Prague

Riga

Turin

Greek

Paris, by Dr. Bernard,

Old Roman

J*" Foot «^

7h. Pts. F

C looo o

1068 I

I 942 •

946 o

1184
1033

958

919
991

920

964

954

948

1001
899 o
967 o

1204

1569

1162

hi. lin.
12 O.

00 8.

" 3
II 2
02 2

00 4.
II 4

1 I o

II 9.

944
965
1026
1831
1062
1007
1066

t. 970 o 00 o

II
II
II
II

12 O

ro 7
II 6
02 4
06 8.
01 9
II
II
00
09
00
00
00

The Paris foot being fuppofed to
parts, the reft will be as follows ;
Paris t r

Rhineland

Roman

London

Swedijh

Danijh

Venetian

Conjlantinopolitan ^Foot ^

Bononian

Utrajburg

No7'imberg

Dantziik

Hall

contain 1440

1440.

1391-
1320.

1350
1320

1403

1540I

3120.
1682I
1283!
1346^

I72li

1320.

of Arts z?;?^ Sciences.

Fi>J/ Problem. In the given point of the right
line, to form an angle equal to the other given.

Let B of the line AB, Fig- 72. be the point in
which is to be formed the angle, equal to the given
angle C D E, Fig. 73'.

From the point D muft be defcrihed the arch
CE ; then the fame aperture remaining, the arch
HG muft be made from the point B, from which
muft be cut the arch HF, equal to the arch C E,.
and the line B F drawn ; then the angle A B F,
will be equal to the an:;le C D E, becaufe thofe
two angles are meafurtd by the fame arch.

Second Problem. To draw a perpendicular
from the point given in a line.

Let the point C be given in the line A B,. Fig.
74. from which is taken on each fide the equal
parts CD, C E ; and from the points D and E be
defcribed arches, cutting each other in the point I;
then from the point C, through the point I, let the
line CO be drawn, which will be the perpendicu-
lar required. Becaufe the point I, does not incline
more towards the part DA, than towards the part
E B, and vicijji?n.

Thi>-dP RoBLtM. From the point given without
a line, to carry a perpendicular to that line.

Let C, Fig. 75. be the point given, from which-
is defcribed the arch DE, cutting the line A in the
points D and E ; from thefe points D and E, let,
two arches be made, cutting one another in the
point F ; and the line CF be drawn to cut the line.
AB in O ; then the line CO will be the perpendi-
cular required ; becaufe it is not more inclined to-
wards the part D A, then towards the part E B.

Fourth Problem. Through the point givenj^,
to draw a parallel to the line given.

Let A, Fig. 76. be the point given, through
which is to be drawn a parallel to the line given
C B, let the right line A D be drawn cutting the
right line given C B in D ; and from the point D
be defcribed the arch A F, and from the point A,,
at the fame interval, be defcribed the other arch
DE, into which the arch A F is to be transferred,
from D into G ; then the right line AG will

VIZ.

be the parallel required ; becaufe the alternate an-
gles ADF, and DAG are equal.

Fifth Problem. Between two lines given to
hnd a middle proportional.

Let D, B D L', Fig. 78. be the lines given,
placed in a direil line, and form the right one BC,
from whofe middle point E muft be defcribed the
femicircle ABC, then from the point D will be
drawn the perpendicular D A, meeting with the

J The foot is of different lengths in different countries. The Paris Royal foot exceeds the Englijh by feven lines
and a half; the antient /Joman foot of the capital, confilled of four palms, equal to eieven inche-, and feven
tenths Englijh •.\\s^ Rhineland. qx Leyden foot, by which the northern nations go, is to the Roman foot, a£ g'-o to 1000.
The proporuons of the principal feetof feveral nations, compar'd with the %nglijb and Trench, are as above.

circum-

GEOMETRY,

circumference in A; I fay, that fuch line is the
middle proportional between B D, and D C.

For the lines BA and C A being drawn, the
angle B A C is formed in the femicircle, and con-
fequently is a right angle ; therefore the perpen-
dicular A D, being let to fall on the bafe B C is
the middle proportional, between the fegments, or
lines given B D, DC.

Scholium, ^y finding two proportionals be-
tween two lines given, the famous problem of
Delos of the duplication of the cube is executed ; and
that^you may have fome notion how it is done, it
muft be underftood that a fquare is made of any
quantity, vi%. a number, or a line multiplied by
itfelf, the fide or root thereof is that fame quantity;
then if the fquare be multiplied by the fame root,
there will arife a cube, whofe fide or root is the
fame quantity. For example, if you multiply 2
by 2 it will produce the fquare 4, whofe root is 2.
Again, if the fquare 4 be multiplied by the root 2
it will produce the cube 8, whofe root is the fame
number 2, Lilcewife, if you carry 4 into 4 you'll
produce the fquare 16, which fquare being multi-
plied by 4, will give the cube 64.

But if there be four quantities continually pro-
portional, fuch as 2 . 4 : : 8 . 16, the cube of the
iirft is to the cube of the fecond, as the firft is to
the fourth ; for 2 Is to 16, as 8 the cube of the
feid 2, is to 64, the cube of the faid 4. becaufe as
2 is theeighth part of the number 16 ; fo 8 is the
dghth part of the number 64.

Therefore if two lines were given, the laft where-
of was the dupla of the firft ; and between thofe
two, other two proportionals (hould be found, fo
as for the fourth proportional to become the dupla
■of the firft ; it is manifeft that the cube, which
would be form'd in the fecond proportional, would
be the du^la of that form'd in the firft ; becaufe the
cube of the firft line would be, with regard to the
fecond, as the firft line to the fourth ; but the firft
would be to the fourth as i to 2; therefore the firft
■cube would be to the fecond, as i to 2.

Therefore for the duplication of the altar of Z)^-
los, which was cubical, there fhould have been
taken a line duple each of its fides ; and between
the fide and that line, two middle proportionals
fhould have been fearched.

Sixth Problem. A triangle given, to make a
rectangular parallelogram equal to it.

Let ABC, Fig. 77 be the triangle given, thro'
whofe vertex A, muft be drawn the right line AG,
parallel to the bafe B C ; then the bafe B C is to
■be divided into two equal parts in the point D,
from which the perpendicular DE is drawn as far
-as to the parallel AG : Let E F be taken equal to
%he fide DC, and the lide CF be drawn, the

redangle D F will be equal to the triangle
given.

Seventh Problem. A parallelogram being given,
to make a fquare equal to it.

Let CDEF, Fig. 79. be the parallelogram
given, between the longitude thereof DC, and its
altitude C F, or Cf, the middle proportional CA
muft be found ; the fquare C B, of that niiddle
proportional, will be equal to the given redtangle.

Eighth Problem. To meafure an horizontal
line, which can only be acceffible by one of its
extremities.

Let it be the line AB, Fig. 89. which can only
be acceffible in the point B, the longitude of which
line is to be fearched.

Firft, let a perpendicular be drawn in the point
B, to that fame line AB, w/z. BC, in this manner:
You muft place the center of the inftrument, vi%.
oi the femicircle, defcribed Fig. 90. in the point B,
and through the holes of its immobile dioptre d d.
Fig 90, 91. look at fome fix'd obje£t, placed in the
other extremity of the line, viz. a fmall tree, or the
tower A, and move the dioptre, or mobile rule, till
it departs from the bafe, or immobile rule, by the
whole fquare, or 90 degrees : if through the holes
which are open in tha puinula of the dioptre, you
look fome mark placed in C, you'll have the right
angle ABC.

Let the inftrument be transferred into C, fo that
its center anfwers to the point C, and the holes of
the immobile dioptre d d, be di reeled on the point
B ; turn the moveable dioptre without moving the
inftrument, till the fign A appears thro' the move-
able pinnula e e ; then you'll know the quantity of
the angle ACB in the limb edoithc femicircle.

To meafure the line BC, you muft draw on paper
the line F E, Fig. 90. divided into fo many equal
parts, as there are feet found in the line BC, and let
the angle F E G, Fig. 90. be equal to the angle
B C A, afterwards the perpendicular F G muft be
drawn thro' the point F, meeting with the line
E G in the point G. If with the fcale you meafure
how many parts there are in FG equal to the parts
of the line F E : 1 fay that there are as many feet
in A B.

Demonflration, The triangle ABC, and 'G FI,
are equiangles, by conftruftion ; therefore as F D
is to F G, fo is C B to B A : fc that as many ali-
quot parts of the line E F, are contained in F G ;
fo many fimilar aliquot parts from the line B C will
be contained in B A.

'Ninth Problem. To meafure an acceffible
altitude.

Make ufe, as in the preceding problem, of the

femicircle fo difpofed, that its diameter or bafe be

parallel to the horizon j then rife or lovv'cr its mo-

E 2 bile

H^e Univerfal Hiftory of Arts «;/^' Sciences.

bile dioptre, till' through its pinnula the vertex A,
Fig. 91. be fecn ; afterwards look downward thio'
the hme pinnula, that you may have the point C ;
mark carefully the angle A I, or E I C equal to it,
to which the angle A C B is equal likewife. Sup-
pole it, for example, to be of 57 degrees, 2,5 mi-
nutes : then meafure with the hexapedea the dil-
tance CB, which will be, v. gr. of 235 feet. If a
triangle be made on paper like unto that,, the
altitude B A will be found to.be of 367 feet, and
a little more.

But this proLkm is rcfolved, with a greater accu-
racy, by the table of the Jt/ies : for if the circb be
defcribed from the point C, in the internal CB, the
rfidius CB will be the whole fine : the line CA, will
be the fecant ; and the line, or tower AB, will be

the tangent of the angle ACB. Therefore if i
be i'aid, as the ivho/e /ine, which in the table is
1O000090, ii to the tangent of the angle ACB,
57 degrees, 25 minutes, which is in the tables
156(6590 ; fo is the dillance C B, which is found
to be of 2 35 feet to the altitude or height BA : this
altitude BA will be found by the rule of proportioa
to be of 367 feet eight inches.

As that part of Geometry whicb regards the folu-
tion of triangles, or whereby their fides are known
by the rules of proportion, and expreiled by number^
is ciiiled Trigonometry, I'll defer mentioning any
thing about it, till I come to the letter T, where
I delign to write an entire treatife of that. art, 7r/«-
gonometry. .

GILDING.

GI L D IN. G. is the art of fpreading or'
covering a thing with gold, either in. leaf
or liquid.

There are feveral methods of gilding in ufe among
us, as gilding in water, gilding in oil, gilding by
fre, ^\:

Water-gilding requires more preparation than
cil-gikling, and is chiefly on. ivooden works, and
thofe made q{ Jlucco; and thefe too muft befliel-
tered from the weather. A fize is ufed for this way
of gilding made of {breads, ^f. of parchment or
leather boiled in water to the confiftence of a jelly :
if the thing to be gilt be of wood, it is firft wafhed
with this fize, boiling hot, and then.fet to dry ; and
afterwards with vvliite paint mixed up with the
fame fize. Some ufe Spanijh white for this purpoie,
2nd others plafter of Paris, well beaten andfifted ;
this fized paint muil be laid on with a ftiff brufli ;
which is to be repeated feldomer or oftener accord-
ing to the nature of the work, as ten. or twelve times
in flat or fmooth works, but feven or eight will be
fufFicicnt in pieces of fculpture. In the formercafe
they are applied by drawing the brufh over, the work,
jivthe latter by dabbing it. When the whole is
dry, they moiften it with fair water, andrub it over
with feveral pieces of coarfe linen, if it be on the
flat ; if not, the^j.-beat or fwitch it with feveral
flips of the fame linen, tied to a littie ftick, to
make it follow and enter all the cavities and empref-
fures thereof

, Having thus iiniflied the white, the next thing
to be done, is to colour it with yellow ochre: but
if it be a piece of fculpture in relievo,they flrft touch
it up, and prepare the feveral parts, which may
have been disfigured, by the fmalliron inftruments,

as gouges, chifTels, l^c. The ochre ufed for this
purpofe muil be well ground and fifted, and mixed
up with the fize before-mentioned. This colour ij
to be laid on. hot ; and in works of fculpture, fup-
plies the place of gold, which fometimcs cannot- he
carried into all the depreflures and cavities of the
foliages and other ornaments ; a lay is alfo applied
over this yellow, which ferves for the ground on
which the gold is to he laid : this lay is ufually
compofed of armenian-hole, blocd-Jlone, black-lead^
and ■Si\\tx\e. fat ; to which fome 2AA foap, and oil ol
olives ; others, burnt-bread, bijire, antimony, glafs
of tin, butter, &nA fiigar-candy. Thefe ingredients
being all ground down together with hot fize, three
lays of this compofitionis applied upon the 3'ellow,
the one after the other has been dried ; being cau-
tious not to put any into the cavity of the work to
hide the yellow.

The brufh, ufed for this purpofe, mufl be a foft
one ; and when the matter is become very dry^
they go over it again with a ftronger brufh, to rub
it down, and take ofFthe fmall grains that flick out,
in order to facilitate the burnifhingofthe gold.

To be prepared for gilding, you muft ha.ve three
forts oi pencils ; one to wet, another to touch up and
amend, and a third to flatten; alfo a gilding cujhion,
for fpreading the leaves of gold on, when taken out
of the book ; a knife to cut them, and a fquirrePs-
tail fitted with a handle ; or elfe a piece of fine foft
ftufF on a flick, to take them up diredly,. and apply
them. Hi 01 ;■': .' .

Youarefirft to begin with wetting yonr pencils;
by -vhich the laft lay laid on with water is moi-
ilencd, that it may the better receive and retain the
gold. Then you are to lay the leaves of gold oa

the

GILDING.

the cufliioni and if whole, you muft take it up with
the fquirrel's tail, but if in pieces, with the other
inftrument, or the knife wherewith they are cut,
and lay and fprcad them gently on the parts of the
work you had moiftened before. If the leaves, as
t.hey frequently do, happen to crack or break in
laying on, thefe breaches muft be made up with
fmall bits of leaf, taken up upon the repairing pen-
cil, and the whole work is to be fmoothed either
with the fame pencil, or another fomawhat larger ;
the gold being prefTed into the dents, into which it
could not be fo eafily carried by the fquirrel's tail.

The work-having been thus fargiWed, muft be
fet to dry, in order to be burnilhed or flatted.

The laft operation is the applying the vermeil in
all the little lines and cavities ; and to flop and a-
nsend any little faults with fliell-gold. The com -
pofit'on called vermeil is made of gitm-^utta", ver-
w///cfl,.and' a little of fome ruddy-brciun, ground
together with Venetian varnilh, and oil of turpen-
tine. Some gilders, inftead of this, make fhift
with fine Liaa, or dragons blood, with gum-wat'cr.

Sometimes inftead of burnifhing the gold, they
burnifti the ground or compofition laid on the laft
before it, and only aftervir-rds vvafti the part over i
with the fiza. This method is chiefly praftifed
for the hands, face, and other nudities in relievo :
which, by this means, do not appear fo very bril-
liant as the parts burniftied ; though much more fo
than- the parts perfedtly flat.

To gild a piece of work, and yet preferve white
grounds, they apply a lay oi Spem/fn white, mixed
with a weak fifh-glue on all the parts of the ground,
whereon the yellow or-thelaft lay might run.

Gilding in oil requires much lefs apparatus
than that before-mentioned. The bafis or matter
whereon the gold is laid, in' this method, is the-
jcmaiiis of colours found fettled to the bottom of
the pots iu'which painters wafli their pencils. This
matter,, which is very vifcid or ftieky, is' firft
ground, and then pafted through a linen-cloth,
and thus laid on the matter to be gilt, after it is
wafticd once or twice over with fize ; and if it be
wood, with fome white paint.

When this isalmoft dry, but yet is ftill unfluous
enough to catch and retain the gold, the leaf-gold
is laid on, either whole, if the work be-large, or cut
to pieces, if fmaller ; the leaves of gold are taken
up and laid on with a piece of fine, foff, well-carded
cotton ; or fometimes by a palat for the purpofe ;
or fometimes with the knife witb which the leaves
were cut, according to the parts of the work that
are. to be gilded, or the breadth of the gold that is
to he laid on. As the gold is laid on, they pafs
over it a c a. ie ftifF pencil or brufli, to make it ft ick
and as it were incorporate with the ground j and

after this they mend any cracks that may have hap-
pened in it, either with the fame pencil or one that
is fmaller, as has been Ihcwn before in vjater-
gUding.

This kind of gilding is chiefly ufld for dome:
and roofs of churches, court.":, banqueting houfts,
&c. and for figures of plafter of Paris, lead, He.

Gilding with liquid gold is performed by gold
reduced to a calx and amalgamated with mercury,
in the propc »tion of about an ounce of mercury to iv
dram of gold. 7"o perform this, they heat a cru-
cible red-liot, and then- put the gold- and mercury
into ir, ftirring them gently about till the gold be
found melted, and incorporated into a mafs with
the mercury. When this is done, they caft them
into water, to wafh and purify them ; and out ot
that into other waters, where the amalgam'a, which
is alrhoft as liquid as if there were nothing but
quick-filver in it,, may be prelerved a- long time
for ufe;

Before they proceed to lay this amalgamated gold
on the metal, they firft render the metal rough, by
wafhing it over with aqua-fortis, or eiqua jeciinda ;
and ' afterwards rinfe the metal in fair water, and
fcour it a little with fine fand, and then it is- ready
for the gold;

I They next cover over the metal with the mixture "
'of gold TiwA mercury, taking it up with a flip of
copper, or a brufli made of brafs-wire, fpreading it
as even as poffible ; to do which they wet the bruih ■
from time to time in fair water. Then they fet
the metal to the fire, upon a grate, or in- a fort of
cage, under' which ftands a pan of coals ; and in
proportion- as the mercury, evaporating and flying .
off", difco vers the places where gold is wanting, they
: take care to fupply them by adding new parcck of
' amrJgama.

I Then the work is rubbed over with the wire- ■

brufli, dipt in beer or vinegar, whicii leaves it in a

condition to be brought to a colour, which is the

' laft part of the proceis, and which the gilders keep.

' to themfelves as- a nifghty fecret.

To gild By fire on metal. To prepare the metal',
they fcratch it well, or rake it ; then polifti it wit 1
apolilher-, r.iid afterwards fet it to the fire to blue,
i. e. to heat, till if appears of a blue colour. 'When
this has been done, they clap on the firft lay of
leaf-gold,- rubbing it lightly down with^a polilher ;
and expofc it thus to a gentle fire. They ufually
give it but three fuch lays, or four at the moft, each
lay confifting of a fingle leaf tor common works,
and of two for extraordinary ones : after each lay,
it is fet a-frefti to the fire ;' and after the laft lay,
the gold is in condition to be burniflied.

To gild paper, grind bole-armoniac with rain-
j v/ater, and give one laying of it ; when it is dry;
• take.

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

take glair of eggs, and add to it a little fugar-candy
and gum-water, which lay over the former, and
upon this, when it is dry enough, lay leaf-filver, or
leaf-gold.

To gild the leaves of books, take bole-armoniac,
eight penny-weight; fugar-candy, two penny-
weight : mix and grind them with glair of eggs :

then on a bound book (while it is in flie prefs, after
it hath been fmeared with glair of eggs, and is
dried ) fmear the faid compofition, let it dry, then
rub it well and polifh it; then with fair water wet
the edges of the book, and fuddenly lay on the gold,
prefs it down gently with cotton ; let it dry, and
then polifli it with a tooth.

GLASS.

GLAS S (from the Lathi word glajlwn) feems
to take its name from its colour, which
is naturally a-2.ure or fky colour; or from
its reiemblance to glaaes or ice, or from its tran-
fparency.

It is a tranfparent, brittle, faiSlitious body or
metal produced by the a£tion of fire; and it is
the laft effeft of fire, as all its force is not able
to carry the change of any natural body beyond
its vitrification.

The origin of this metal can't be quite afcertain'd,
for fome authors carry its invention as high as the
antediluvian age, and patronize it with the name
of Tubal Cain, the Ion of Lamech ; becaufe fay
they, it is fcarce poffible to calcine metals, without
reducing them into glafs; and it is allowed that
Tubal was the firft that found out the art of melting
metals. See Gen. iv.

Others rather chofe to find its origin amongft
the Brick-makers, employed in the building of
Babel; imagining it impoffible to burn clay after
their manner, without meeting with vitrification,
or fome part thereof run into glafs. However
this may be, it is certain that glafs is mention'd
in the Bible, not very diftant from that epocha.

The great Henries, father of philofophers, was
])oflefIed of this art of making glafs. And Lucre-
tius, lib. iv. gives us another evidence of the
greater antiquity of this invention.

Pliny, pretends to fix its invention in the
city of Sidon, where he affirms the firlt glafs
ve[fels were made, lib. 26. cap. 26. and fpeaking
of this art in another place, lib. 5. cap. 19. he
allows, that we are indebted to chance for its
invention, which was on the banks of the river
Belus, in Syria, where certain merchants drove a-
fhore, difcover'd that the herb Kali on that coaft
feeing reduced to afhes by the fires they made to
drefs provifions, and mixing it witli fand and
ftones, "became a fort of melted glafs. See alfo
fofephus^s itars of the Jews, Yih. -n cap. 9. 17.
which in a great meafure confirms this account.

Venice for many years excel, ed all Europe in the
manufafture of glafs. But England now furpafles

all the world, in all the different branches of this
manufadlure.

The feveral charaSlers and properties of Glass
vv'hereby it is diftiuguifhed from all other bodies,
are thus enumerated by our learned countryman
Dr. Merret.

I . It is an artificial concrete of fait and fand, or
ftone. 2. Fufible by ftrong fire. 3. When fufed,
tenacious and coherent. 4. It does not wafte nor
confume in the fire. 5. When melted, it cleaves
to iron. 6. When it is red hot, it is ductile, and
may be fafhloned into any form ; but not malleable ;
and capable of being blown into a hollownefs,
which no mineral is. 7. Frangible, when thin,
without annealing. 8. Friable, when cold. 9.
Diaphanous, whether hot or cold. lo. Flexible
and elaftic. 11. DifToluble by cold and moifture.
12. Only capable of being graven or cut with a
diamond, or other hard ilone, and emery. 13.
Receives any dye or colour both externally and
internally. 14.. Not difloluble by aqua fortis,
aqua regia, or mercury. 15. Neither acid juices
nor any other matter extra£t either colour, tafte,
or any other quality from it. 16 Admits of po-
lilhing. 17. Neither lofes weight nor fubftance
by the longed and moft frequent ufe. 18. Gives
fufion to other metals, and foftens them. 19. The
moft pliable thing in the world, and that which
beft retains the falhion given it. 20. Not capable
of being calcined. 21, An open glafs being filled
with water in the fummer- time, will gather drops
of water on the outfide, juft fo far as the water on
the infide reaches ; and a perfon's breath blown on
it will manifeftly moiften it. 22. Little glafs balls
filled with water, mercury, and other liquor, and
thrown into the fire; as alfo drops of green glafs
being broken, will fly afunder with a great noife.

23. Neither wine, beer, nor any other liquor, will
make it mufty, or change its colour, or ruft it.

24. It may be cemented, as ftones and metals.

25. A drinking-glafs, partly filled with water, and
rubbed on the brim with a wet finger, yields mu-
fical notes, higher or lower as the glafs is more or
Ids full, and will make the liquor frifk and leap.

The

G L A S S,

The materials v/\itttoi glafs is made, are fait and
fand, or flones. The fait here ufed, is procured
from a fort of afnes, brought from the Levant,
called pohcritie, or rochetta ; which afhes arc thofe
of a foit of water-plant, called kali., cut down in
fummer, dried in the fun, and burnt in heaps, ei-
ther on the ground, or on iron grates ; the afhes
falling into a pit, grow into a hard mafs, or ftojie,
fit for ufe..

To extract the fait, thefe afhes, or polverine,
are powdered and fifted, then put into boiling
water, and there kept till one-third of the water be
confumed ; the whole being ftirred up, from time
to time, that the afhes may incorporate with the
fluid, and all its falts be extrafted : then the vellel
is filled up with new water, and boiled over again,
till one-half be confumed ; what remains is a fort
of lee, (trongly impregnated with fait This lee,
boiled over again in frefh coppers, thickens in a-
bout twenty-four hours, and fhoots its fait ; which
is to be laded out, as it flioots, into earthen pans,
and thence into wooden fats to drain and dry.
This done, it is grofsiy pounded, and thus put in
a fort of oven, cailed calcar, to dry.

It. may be added, that there are other plants, be-
fides-i(j//, which yield a fait fit ior glofs : fuch are
t!i\stilga 01 fea-weed, the common ivay-thijik, bram-
ble, heps, ivormwood, woad, tobacco, fern, and the
whole leguminous tribe, as peaje, beans, ^ c.

1 he fand or flone, called by the artiits tarfo, is
the fecond ingredient in glajs, and that which gives
it the body and fiimnefs. Thefe ilones, Agricaia
obfeives, mufl be fuch as will fufe ; and of thefe,
fuch as are white and tranfparent are beft ; fo that
tryjlal challenges the precedency of all others.

At Venice they chiefly ufe a fort of pebble, found
in the river 1 ejino, refembling white marble, and
called cuogolo. Ant. Neri afl'ures us, that all flonesj
which will flxike fire with fleel, are fit to vitrify :
but Dr. Merrei fhews, that there are feme excep-
tions from this rule. Flints are admirable ; and
when calcined, powdered, and fearched, make a
pure white cryffalline metal. Where proper ftones
cannot be fo conveniently \\-i.^, fand\i ulcd ; which
fhould be white, and fmall, and well waflied, be-
fore it be applied : fuch is ufually found in the
mouths and fides of rivers-. Our glafs-houfes are
furnifhed with a fine fand for cryftal, from Maid-
Jione and Yarmouth, the fame with that ufed for
fand-boxes, and in fcouring ; and with a coarfer
for green-glafs from Woolwich.

For Lryjtal-glafs, to 200 lb. of tarfo, pounded fine,
they put 1301b. of falt.of^a/t'WKt'jmix them together,
and put them into the calcar, a fort of reverberatory
furnace,beingfirftwell heated. Here they remain bak-
ing fry ing,aad calciningjfor five hows, during which

the workmen keeps mixing them with a rake, to
make them incorporate : when taken out, the
mixture is calledyV//, or bolUto.

Glafs might be made by immediately melting
the materials without thus calcining, and making
thcmy>-/>; but the operation would be much more
tedious.

A glafs much harder than any prepared in the
common way may be made by means of borax, m
the following manner. Take four ounces oi borax,
and an ounce of fine white fand, reduced to pow-
der, and melt them together in a large clofe cruci-
ble, fet in a wind furnace, keeping a ffrong fire for
half an hour : then take out the crucible, and when',
cold, break it ; and there will be found at the bot-
tom a hard, pure glafs, capable of cutting common
glafs almoft like a diamond. This, experiment duly-
varied, fays Dr. Shaw, may lead to fome confider-
able improvements in the. art of glafs, enamels, and
artificial gems. It fhews us an expeditious method
of making glafs without the ufe of fixed (alts, which
has generally been thought an cfR-ntial inp;redient
in glafs, and which is the ingredient that gives
common glafs its foftnefs ; and it is not yet known,
whether calcined cryflal, or other fubflances, being
added tO' this fait, inftead of fand, might not
make a glafs approaching to the nature of a dia-
mond.

Next to the materials or ingredients of which
glafs is made, it is neceffary to fubjoin an account
of X^z furnaces and injlriements required for the-
work.

A Glass-Maker mufl be furnifhed with

Furnaces; ^7z. with one to prepare the y>-/r,

called the calcar; a fecond to work the o-/<v/}; and

I a third called xk\^leer, to anneal it.

I The firft furnace, called the cakar, is made in

fafhion of an oven, ten foot long, fcven broaJ, and

' two deep. The fuel is feacoal and wood, and is put

I in a' trench, on one fide of tiie furnace : the

flame reverberates from the roof back upon the frit,

in order to calcine it.

The fecond is the working furnace, ferving to
melt the metal in, or make the glafs ; its figure is
round,-three yard's in diameter, and two high, being
arched over. R.ound the infide, are eight or more
pots placed, and piling pots on thefe. I he num-
ber of pots fhould be double that of the bocca's or
mouths, . or that of the workmen ; that each may
have one pot refin'd, to work out of, and another
for metal to refine in, while he works out of the
former.

The furnace has two partitions, the lower, fepa-
rating the pots from the fire-place, has a circular-
hole in the center, covered with a grate, through
which the flame p,afi<?s from the fire-place into the

furnaa ,

The Universal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

furnate ; from the arched fides and roofs whereof it
is reverberated into the melting pots. The fecond
partition divides this from the Uer^ or annealing
furnace. Through the bocca's or working holes,
the metal is taken out of the pots, and the pots put
in the furnace. Thefe bocca's are ftopp'd with
moveable covers, made of lute and brick to (kreen
the workmen's -eyes from the fire. On each fide
the bocca is a boccarella, out of which coloured
glafi., or the finer metal, is taken from the piling
pots to the furnace; likewife ovens, or holes.near
the leer, for the calcining of tartar, iron, i^c.

The /c-i-r, which ferves to anneal and cool the
veffels, and which Agrkola makes a paiticular fur-
nace, confifts of a tower befides the leer. ! he
tower lies diredliy over the melting yirwrtff, w-ith a
partition betwi.xt them a foot thick ; having an
apertu''e called Occhio or LumeUa, through which
the flame or heat afcends out of the furnace into
the tower : oii the floor, or bottom of this tower,
the veflels fafliioned by the mafters are fet to an-
neal. It has alio two bocca"s, or mouths, by which
the glajfis are put in with a fork, and fet on the
floor.

- The leer, is an avenue five or fix yards long,
continued to the tower: through this the glajjci.,
when annealed, are drawn in iron pans called
frajhei ; by which they come to cool by degrees:
being quite cold by that time they reach tlie mouth
of the leer, which enters Hor farsfel, ai room where
t!ie glajps are to be fet.

The third is the green glafs furnace, which is a
kind of compound of all the former. It is made
fcjuare (the two former being circular) having an
srch at each angle thereof, for annealing and cool-
ing the glafles. The metal is wrought on two
oppofite fides ; and on the other two they have their
eakan, into which are made linnet holes, for the
fire to come from \k\e. furnace to bake theyV/V, and
alfo to difcharge the fmoak. Fires are madean the
arches to anneal the veflels, fo that the whole pro-
cefs is done in one furnace.

The injlruments made ufe of .in this work, may
be reduced to thefe that follow. A blowing pipe,
made of iron, about two feet and a half long, with
a wooden handle. An iron rod to take up the
glafs, after it is blown, and to cut ofi:' the former.
Sciflars to cut the glafs when it comes off from the
firfl hollow .iron. Shears to cut and fliape great
glaflfes, y.f. an iron ladle, with the end of the
handle cafed with v/ood, to take the metal out of
the refining pot, to put it into the workmens pots.
A fmall iron ladle, cafed in the fame manner, to
ikiin the alkalic fait, that fwims at top. Shovels,
one like a peel to take up the great glaffes j another,

' like a fire fhovel, to feed the furnace with coals.
A hooked iron fork, to ftir the matter in the pots.
An iron rake for the fame purpofe, and to ftir the
frit. An iron fork, to change or pull the pots out
of the furnace, i^c.

By thefe means there may be made many fort*
of glajs ; the principal of which, rr. ufe, are, i.
The cry/lal flint glafs. 7..'Y\\Z cryflol luhiie glafs.
3. Normandy or Crown glafi. 4. Green-window,
or NewcnjUi glafs, and 5. Bottle glafs.

Of the firfi fortis made pUite glafs, for coaches,
mirrors, telefcopes, SiC. Of the fecond fort, ail
kind of drinking giafles, decanters, mugs, cups,
ca'f. for the table ; toys, phials, (s^f. Oi the third
fort is made the beft glazing for windows, and pic-
tures. Gf the fourth fort is made the ordinary
glazing for windows : and the fifth fort ferves for
nothing but bottlei, for beer andother liquors in
the -cellar.

We 11 begin the operation with cry/lal and white
glafs. To prepare the matter for making white and
cryjlal glafs, which muft be of the wliiteft tarfo.,
(pounded fmall, and fifted as fine as flour) twa
hundred pounds, and an hundred and thirty pounds
o{ i\\e{z\t of poherine : thefe -are mixed together,
and put into the furnace, caHd calcar, firft heating
it ; for an hour keeping a moderate fire, and ftirring
continually the matetials, that they may incorpo-
rate, and calcine t02:ether : then increafins the fire
for five hours ; after which the matter muft be
taken out, which, being now fu/Ficiently calcined,
is called yV;/; and which from the calcar, is to be
put in a dry place, and covered up from the daft,
for three or four months.

1 he glafs, or cryftal, is made, by taking of this
frit, called alfo hollito, and fetting it in pots, in the
furnace ; adding to it a due (\\i2s\\\ty oi manganefe :
when the two are fufed, the fluor iscaft-into fair
water, to clear it of the fait, ciW dfandever, which,
othcrwife, would make the cryftal obfcure, and
cloudy. This lotion muft be repeated again, and
again, as often as needful, till the cryftal be fully
purged. Then it muft be fet to boil four, five, or
fix days ; which done, it muft be fecn if it has
manganefe enough ; if not, and it be greenijh yet,
more manganefe is to be added to it at difcretion,
by little and littk at a time ; taking care not to
Qverdofe it, by reafon the manganefe inclines it to a
blackijh hue. Then the metal is fet to clarify, till
it becomes of a clear and fliining colour ; which
done, it is fit to be blown, or formed into veflels,
at pleafure.

Our materials thus prepared, we'll begin the

operation, by blowing round glares, and prefuppofing

that our furnace is heated as it Ibould be, and the

! matter

GLASS-MAKING.

(natter in the two of the fix pots, placed in it, fuf-
ficiently vitrified we'll take our blowing iron., and
dipping it in one of thefc two pots, turn it about
in it ; the metal will ftick to the iron like a gluti-
nous, or clammy juice, much like turpentine.

For each gliij$ we'll dip it four times, and at each
dip roll the end of our blowing iron, wiUi the glafs
thereon, on apiece of iiun, over which is a vcllcl
of water, the coolnefs whereof helps to confolidate
thtglajs more readily, and difpofes it the better to
bind with the next to be taken out of the pot.

After we have dipped a fourth time, and there
is now matter enough on the inftrument, we begin
to blow gently thro' the iron ; by which we rife,
according to the nature of the work, the fame as
we do by blowing in a bladder ; and to give it a
polifh, we roll it to and fro on a ftone, or mar-
ble. This done, we blow a fecond time, and thus
form the bunch, or belly of the^i/y'}, tht matter,
by this fecond blaft, afliimes the figure of a gourd.

As often as we blow into the iron we mufi:
remove it haftily from our mouth to our cheek,
left we ftiould draw the flame into our mouth,

when we re apply it to the iron. V/e muft

whirl our iron-rod many times round our head, to
lengthen and cool the glafs ; fometimes the^A?/},
thus blown round, is returned to the fire, where
it flattens a little of itfelf; when flatten'd, it is
taken out, and cool'd ; and^ if needful for the de-
f.gn, we muft flat its bottom, by preffing it on the
marble, or mould it in the {lamp-iron, and thus
deliver it to the mafter-workman to break off the
collet -y which collet is the narrow part, which clave
to the iron.

To fet the glafs at liberty, he muft lay a drop of
cold water on the collet ; which by its coldnefs will
cut, or crack about a quarter of an inch : after
which giving it a flight blow, the fracSture is com-
municated all around the collet.

This done, we dip an iron-rod, or ponteglo, in
the melting pots, and with the matter that fticks
thereto, we'll apply and faften it to the bottom of
the velTel, oppofite to the collet. — The veflel thus
fuftained by the iron-rod, is carried to the great
bocca to be heated, and fcalded ; and while another
perfon takes cai e thereof, the former operator refts,
and prepares himfelf for the branching, or making
the bowl, which is done by thrufting in an iron in-
ftrument, called pa]Jago., whereby the aperture is
opened, and afterwards augmented further, and
widened with the procelh : in turning this inftru-
mcnt about, to form the bowl, the edge becomes
thickned ; the glafs being, as it were, doubled in
that part ; whence the hem obferved on the cir-
cumference of our gl'i/fes. What is fuperfluous,
is cut off with the fhears.

The veffcl thus opened is returned to the great
Vot. II, 29.

bocca, where being fufficicntly heated a fecond time*
the workman gives the bowl its finifliing by tuin-
ing it about with a circular motion ; which it in-
crcafcs in proportion as the bowl opens, and en-
laryes by means of the heat and agitation.

The glafs thus finifhed, they earry it from the
!weca ftill turning it round, to a kind of earthen
bench coi'ered v. ith brands, or coals extinguifhed :
here they let it cool a little, and come to its con-
fiftence ; having firft detached it from the iron-rod,
by a ftroke or two with the hand. Thus with
blowing, fcalding, amplifying, and cutting, the
glafs is framed into the fliape. preconceived in the
workman's mind. If need be he proceeds to put
on a foot and handle, and with the fpiet puts on
rigarines and marblings.

When the matter has finiflied a number of them,
a fervitor takes them with .in iron-fork, and fpec-
'■ dily places them in the tower or leer, to anneal uni
harden.

Jnnealing, or nealing of glafs, is the baking of
glajs to dry, harden, and give it the due confift-
ence, after it has been blown and fafliioned in the
proper works. Nealing is alfo ufcd in the art of
flaining glafs with metal colours.

What has been here feid, of w/vVc or cryjlal glafs,
holds equally of common or green glafs , the work-
ing being the fame in all, and the difference only
in the fait or polverine.

So many matters as there are, fo many pots at
leaft, and fo many boeca's there muft be ; each man
having his proper fiation. They fit in large wide
wooden chairs, with two long elbows, to v/hich
their inftruments are hung. They v/ork fix hours
at a time, mealured by a fingle glafs ; after which
they are relieved by others for the like time, fo that
the furnaces are never idle.

From round, cryflal, and white glajfes, we'll pafs to
the blowing crown, Normandy or table- glajjes : for
which operation the furnace, melting-pots. Materials,
znd fire, are nearly the fame as for -round-glafs ; and
the difi-erence only commences a.'ter the operator
has dipped his blowing-iron the fourth time in the
melted metal. The glafs then being in this condi-
tion, they blow it ; but inftead of rounding, or
forming it into a bunch, the particular motion the
workmen gives it in thedirecitingand managing the
wind, and the way of rolling it on the iron, makes
it extend in length 16 or 20 inches, and form a
cylinder, which being recommitted to the fire, and
blown afrefh, when taken out, becomes of the ex-
tent required for the table of glafs to be formed.

Then the i/ w^r prefents it to the _/?(?/ cr, or the

inafler glajs-maker, who, being ready with a

pointiU i. e. an iron-rod tipt with a fmall quantity

of hot metn.l, claps it clofe to the center of the bot-

F toin

n^e Univcrfal Hiflory

torn of the round ball of metal thus blown : which
immeilia!.ciy uniting or ctmenting together, the
collet is broke by the blower, and the mafter takes
away the^fcitH of metal, and prefents it to the mouth
of the-fliiftiing furnace, »\'hofe flames fallying forth
at a la)ge mouth, and entering into ihc meta' pre
fcntcd by the hole made in the collet, enlarges the
aperture, till it at laft brings the globular metal in-
to a circuhir plane of an equal thicknefs, excepting
where a noh is made in the center by the tool that
holds it : the mafter, with great dexterity, all the
time keepine it twirling round in the flame, upon
an iron prop before the mouth of this furnace.
This performed, the table is (truck oft" in the iame
maimer as direfted in the cutting of the collet ; and
delivered to the proper perfon to place it in the leer,
to anneal, or temper.

The procefs for green glnfi for iv'rndows is nearly
the fame ; only that when the green glnjs is blown :
to its proper extent, it is I'mallcr at the end faftened ^
to the iron, than at the other extremity ; being
blown cylindrical or long : fo thst to render the
two ends nearly of the fame diameter, after adding
■A little ?-/^j to that oppoftte to the iron, they draw
it out with a pair of iron pincers ; then they cut
off the fame end v/ith a little water ; and carrying
the cylinder back to the bcc:a, they cut it likewife
with water in two other places, one eight or ten
inches from the iron, and the other the whole length.
The gUifs cylinder thus abridged of both its ex-
tremities, is next heated on a kind of earthen table,
fomewhat raifed in the middle, in order to promote
rts opening at the place incided longitudinally. The
workman here makes ufe of an iron, wherewith he
alternately lowers and raifes the two fides, or halves
of the cylinder, which now begin to open and un-
fold like a fheet of paper, and at length grow per
fectly flat. The table of glafs is now in its laft
perfedion, and needs nothing further but to be
heated over again : when taken out they lay it on
a table of copper ; when, after it has cooled and
come to its confifience, they carry it on forks to
the tower of the furnace, where they leave it to
anneal for twenty four hours. See the Plt^te of a
Glass-house.

The laft, and moft curious operation perform'd
in a glafs-houfe, is that of bloiuing, and cajling
Looking-Glass Plates; which, tho' made of
much the fame materials as other glajfs, viz. of
alkali fait and fand ; it muft, however, be obferved,
that thcfeilt fhould not be that extrafled from pol
verine, or the afties of the Syrian kali, but that
from barilUa, or the aflies of a plant of that name,
of the genus of kalies, but growing about Alicant
in Spaii7. This barillia is feldom to be got pure ;
the Spmiards. in burning the herb, making a prac-
tice of mixing another herb along with it, which
alters its quality, or of adding fand to it, to Miweafc

of Arts ^W Sciences.

he weight ; which is eafily difcovercd, if the ad-
dition be only made after the boiling of the afhes i
but ncxtto impofllble, if made in the boilinz : it is
from this adulteration, that thofe threads, and other
defeds in plote-glafi arif'j.

'I'o prepare the fait, it mud be well purged of
all foreign matters ; pounded, or ground with a
kind of mill, and fifted pretty fine.

The fand is to be fifted, and waflied, till fuch
time as the water comes off very clear ; and when,
it is well dried, again, it is to be mixed with the
fait, paffing the mixture through another ficve. This
done, they are laid in the annealing furnace for a-
bout two hours ; in which time the matter becomes-
very light and white, and in which ftate they are
calledyr/V, and are to be laid up in adry clean place,.
to give them time to incorporate, for atleaft a year.
When t\\\i fi it is to be employed, it muft be laid,
for fome hours in the furnace ; adding to fome the
fragments, or fliards, of old glafs; taking care,,
firif, to calcine the fhards, by heating them red-
hot in the furnace, and cafting them into cold
water : to the mixture mufl: likewife be added
manganeje, to promote the fufion, and purification.
The matter thus prepared, is equally fit for plate-
glafs, to be formed by blorving, or by cajiing.

The furnaces for melting the materials of this
manufadfure, are of enormous fize ; and thofe for
annealing the glajfes, when formed, much more
lb. Round a melting furnace there are, at leaft,
twenty- four annealing furnaces or ovens, each from
twenty to twenty five foot long : they are called
carquajfes, each carquajfe has two tijfarts, or aper-
tures, to put in wood, and two chimneys. Add,
that befides the annealing furnace-s is'c. there are
others for the m.iking ofy)?"/ and calcining oUglafe.
As locking-glaf Plates are made in two dif-
ferent manners, viz. by blowing, and by cafting ;
we'll begin with the moft eafy manner, which is
that of blowing ; and v.'hich is performed thus : —
The materials to be blown, are fufed in melting-s
pots, thirty-eight inches in diameter, and thirty-
five feet high. After thofe materials are vitrified by
the heat of the fire, and the glafs is fufHciently re-
fined, the mafter-workman dips in his blowing
iron once and again, till he has got matter enough
thereon. — This done, he mounts on a kind of
block, or ftool five feet high, to be more at liberty
to balance it, as it lengthens in the blowing. If
the work be too heavy for the workmen to luftain
on his blowing iron, two or more attendants afKft:
him, by holding pieces of wood under the glafs, in
proportion as it ftretches, for fear it fhouJd fall off
the iron by its own weight.

When after feveral repeated heatings and blow-
ings, the glafs is at length brought to the compafs
proper for its thicknefs, and the quantity of metal
' takes put j tbey cut it off with/ort-^^;, at the ex-
tremity

GLASS-GRINDING.

tremity oppofite to the iron, in order to point it
with the pointil, which is along firm piece of iron,
having a piece going acrofs one of its ends in man-
ner of a T. To point the glafs they plung^e the
head of the T into the melting pot, and with the
liquid glafs flicking thereto, they fallen it to the
extremity of the glafs before cut oft". When it is
fufficiently faftened, they feparate the other extre-
mity of the ^/rt/} from the blowing iron, and inflead
thereof make ufe of the pointil to carry it to the
furnaces apointed for that end ; where by feveral
heatings they continue to enlarge it, till it be equally
thick in every part.

This done, they cut it open with the forceps ;
not only on the lides, by which it lluck to the bloiv-
ingiron, but likewife the whole length of the cylin-
der: after which, giving it a fufEcicnt heating, it
is in a condition to be entirely open'd, extended,
and flatten'd : the manner of doing which is much
the fame as for table glafs, Laftly, the glafs beina;
fufficiently flatted, is laid to anneal for ten, or fif-
teen days, according to the fize and thicknefs.

See the Copper-Plates, B is the blowing-
furnace ; C the metal taken out of the pot ; D a
glas-blower ; E the flaflier enlarging and opening
the glafs, as mentioned in tlie crown glajs ; Fis the
block to fupport the man.

Lookiiig-glajfes thus blown-, fliould never be above
forty-five, or at moft fifty inches long, and of a
breadth proportionable. 'I hofe exceeding thefe di
menfions, cannot have the thicknefs fufficient to
bear the grinding ; and, befide, are fubjeiSt to warp,
which prevent theui from regularly refledtingobjects.

The next operation, the molt curious and molt
valuable, it that of running, or cojihig large look-
ing-glafs plates.

The utenfils of the ghfs-houfes for this operation,
confifts in melting-pots as big as hoglheads, and
capable to contain above two thoufand weight of
metal ; in cijierns, which ferve for the conveyance
of the liquid glafs, v/hich is drawn out of the pots
to the calling tables ; of a tablemzile. of pot-metal, a-
bout nine feet long, and broad in proportion, where-
on (hzglnfs is to be run ; oi iron-rulers or reins, &c.

The firft thing to be done in this operation, as in
■all others of this kind, is to heat the furnace red-hot.

When the furnace is red-hot, the pots are filled
with materials at three different times, to facilitate
the fufton. When the matter is fufficiently vitrified,
refined, and fettled, which ufually happens in twen-
ty-four hours ; the ciffcrns are filled^ which are in
the fame furnace, and which are left there about fix
hours longer, til! fuch time as thev appear all white,-
through the excelTive heat. See the Plate for caj}-
ing and running Plate-Glass.

To get the cifiern K with the metal out of the
furnace G, they make ufe of a large iron chain.

which opens and fhuts with hooks and eyes ; from
the middle whereof, on each fide, arife two maflivc
iron pins, whereby, with the alTiftance of pullies I,
the ciftern is raifed upon a kind of carriage; of a pro-
per height, and thus conduced to the place where
the glafs is to be run : here flipping ofi^the bottom
of the ciftern, there rufhes out a torrent of matter
O, all on fire, wherewith the table M, prepared
for that purpofe is prefently covered. This table
is fupported on a wooden frame, with truflles, for
the convenience of removing from one carquaffe, or
annealing furnace, to another ; in proportion as

they are filled. To form the thicknefs of a

glafs, there are two iron rulers, or reins NN, placed
around the edge of the table ; and on thefe reft the
two extremes of a kind of roller L Q, which ferves
to drive the liquid matter before it, to the end of
the table, or mould. The iron rulers beinf move-
able, and capable of being fet clofer, or fiu-ther a-
part, at pleafure, determine the width of the^/jT/^y,
;ind retain the matter, that it does not run off at the
edges. P P are the glafs. makers, R the labourer,
H the mouth of the furnace, and A is a man break-
iT)2;frit for ufe.

As foon as the matter is arrived at the end of the
table, and the glafs is come to a confiftence, which
is in about a minute, they fhovc it oft' into the an-
nealing furnace, where itflideswith eafe enough,
by realbn of the fand ftrewed thereon.

As faft as the ciftems are emptied, they carrv'
them back to the furnace, and take frefh ones',
which they empty as before : this they continue to
do, as long as there are any full ciitcrns ; layino-
as many plates in each carguaj/e as it will hold, and
flopping them up as foon as they are full ; to let them
anneal, and cool again,v.'hich requires at leaft ten days.

The firft running being difpatched, they prepare
another, by filling the ciftems anew, from the
matter in the pots ; and after the fccond a third,
and even a fourth time, tiff the melting pots are
quite empty. — The ciftems, at each running, fhould
remain, at leaft, fix hours in the furnace to whiten;
and when the firfi annealing furnace is full, the
cajling-table is to be carried to another.

The glafs, wlien taken out oi" the annealing fur-
nare, needs nothing further than to be ground,
poliflied, and foliated.

Glafs thus manufactured is ft'-bjeft to feveral ope-
rations. It is g'ouncl and poliJh.-A to give it luftre.

In order to grind plate-glaf, they lay it horizon-
tally upon a flat ftone table, made of a very fine
granied tree- ftone ;. and for its greater fecurltvtbey '
piafter it down with lime, or ftucco } for othcrwvfe
the force of the woikmen, or the motion of the
wheel, with which they giind it, would move it
about.

F 2 This

7^^ Univerikl Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

This ftone-table is fupported by a ihong frame,
made of wood, with a ledge quite lound its edges,
rifinc;; about two inches higher than the glafs.
Upon this glaCs to be ground, is laid another rouiih
glafs not above half fo big, and fo loofe as to Aide
upon it ; but cemented to a wooden plank, to
guard it from the injury it muft otherwife receive
from th2 fcraping of the wheel, to which this plank
is faflened ; and from the weights laid upon it,
to promote the grinding, or friture, of the glafles.
The whole is covered with a wheel, made of hard
light wood, about fix inches in diameter ; by pul-
ling of which backwards and forwards alternately,
and fomctimes turning it round, the workmen who
always (land oppofite to each other, produce a con-
ftant attrition between the two glaffes, and bring
them to what degree of fmoothnefs they pleafe by
firfl: pouring in water and couri'e fand : after that a
finer fort of fand as the work advanceth, till at la(l
they muft pour in the powder of fmalt. As the
upper or incumbent glafs poliflies, and grows
fmoother, it muft be taken away, and another from
time to time put in its place.

This engine is called a millhy the artifts, and is
iifed only in tlie largeft fize gbfles ; for in the
grinding of the leffer glafies, they are content to
work without a wheel, and to have only four wooden
handles faftened to the four corners of the fione,
which loads the upper plank, by which they work
it about.

When the grinder has done his part, who finds
it very difficult to bring the glafs to an exact plain-
nefs, it is turned over to the care of the polifher,
who with the fine powder of tripoli-ftone, or emer^',
brings it to a perfeft evennefs and luftre. 7'he in-
ftrument made ufe of in this branch, is a board,
furnifhod with a felt, and a fmall roller, which the
workman moves by means of a double handle at
both ends. The artift in working this roller, is
aiBfted with a wooden hoop, or fpring, to the end
of which it is fixed : for the fpring, by conftantly
bringing the roller back to the fame points,
facilitates the aflionof the workman's arm.

This operation only makes a plane ; but our ar-
tifts are now arrived at fuch a perfciSUon in grinding
of glafs., that they can cut or grind it into a variety
of forms, in the fame manner as diamonds are cut
by a wheel. The cutting wheel is made of ftone ;
which, with the help of fand and water, makes the
impreffion : and when the glafs is cut into the form
intended, it is delivered to the polifher, who with
emery, and a leaden or wooden wheel, gives every
part its luftre. As we fee in /welling bottles, table-
creiuits, and other houfhold glafs furnitotfi.

The moft admirable operation in the grinding

way, is the grinding of optic glajfe! ; which 1.1
thus directed to be performed by Mr. Htiygens.
Make, fays he, the breadth of the concave tool, plate,
difh, or form in which an objcdt-glafs mutt be ground,
alniort three times the breadth of the glafs. Though
in another place he fpeaks of grinding a g'afs whole-
focal dirtance was 2C0 feet, and breadth 8| inches^
in a plate only fifteen inches broad. But for eye-
glafles, and others of leiler fphcres, the tools muft
be broader in proportion to the breadth of thefe
glaflbs, to afford room enough for the motion of
the hand in poliftiing. Mr. Huygens made his
tools of copper, or of caft biafs, which, for fear they
fhould change their figure by bending, can hardly
be caft too thick : hov/ever, he found by experi-
ence, that a tool fourteen inches broad, and half an
inch thick, was flrong enough for the forming
glafl'es to a fphere of thirty-fix feet diameter ; when
the tool was ftrongly cemented upon a cylindrical
ftone an inch thic.<, with hard cement made of
pitch and afhes.

Iftorder to make moulds for cafting fuch tools
as are pretty much concave, he direds, that wooden
patterns ftiould be turned in a lathe, a little thicker
and broader than the tools themfelves ; but for tools.
that belong to fpheres above twenty or thirty feet
diameter, he fays it is fufficient to make ufe of flat
boards turned circular to the breadth and thicknefs
required. , When the plates are caft, they muft be
turned in a lathe exaftly to the concavity required ;
and for this purpofe it is requifite to make a couple
of brafs gages in the manner following, according
to the direfliors of Mr. Molyneux.

Take a wooden pole, a little longer than the
radius of the fphcrical furface of the glafs to be-
formed ; and tjirough the ends of it ftrike two fmall
fteel points, at a diftance from each other, equal to
the radius of the fphere intended ; and by one of
the points hang up the pole againft a wall, fo that
this upper point may have a circular motion in a
hole or focket made of brafs or iron, fixt firmly to
the wall. Then take two equal plates of brafs or
copper, well hammered and fmoothed,whofe length
is fomewbat more than the breadth of the tool of
caft brafs ; whofe thicknefs may be about a tenth
or a twelfth of an inch, and whofe breadth may be
two or three inches. Then having faftened thefe
plates flat againft the wall in a horizontal pofition,
with the moveable point in the pole, ftrike a true
arch upon each of them. Then file away the brafs
on one fide exadly to the arch ftruck, fo as to make
one of the brafs edges convex, and the other con-
cave ; and to make the arches correfpond more
exaftly, fix one of the plates flat upon a table, and
grind the other againft it with emery*

But

G LASS-GRINDING,

But if the radius of the fphere be very great,
Mr. Huygens direfts the gages to Ire made as fcl
lows. Imagine the hne A E, drawn upon the
A _J? EKE

— "*

""f

G G G G G

brafs plate to be the tangent of the required arch
A F C, whofe radius, for example, is 36 feet, and
diameter 72. From A fet off the parts A E, E .E,
iJc. feverally equal to an inch, and let them be con-
tinued a little beyond half the breadth of the tool
requirefi : then as 72 feet, or 864 inches is to i
inch, fo let i inch be to a fourth number : this
will be the number of decimal parts of an inch in
the firft line E F, reckoning from A. Multiply
this fourth number fucceflively by 4, 9, 16, 25,
iS£. the fquares of 2, 3, 4, 5, ^c. and the feveral
produds will be the number of parts contained in
the 2d, 3d, 4th, - th, E F refpeftively. But becaufe
thefe numbers of parts are too fniall to be taken
from a fcale by a pair of compafles, iubtracS them
feverally from one inch, reprefented by the lines
E G, and the remainders being taken from a fcale
of an inch divided into decimal parts, and trans-
ferred by the compafles from G to F, will deter-
mine the points F, F, i3'c. of the arch required.
And the fame being done on the other fide of the
line A D, the brafs plates muft be filed away exaflly
to the points of this arch, andpolifhed as before.

Mr. Huygens would have his plates or tools firft
formed in a turning lathe, and then ground toge-
ther with emery ; that is to fay, the concave and
convex tool of the fame fphere together ; but the
tools of very large fpheres, he would have ground at
firft quite plane, by a flone-cutter ; and then ground
hollow with a round flat ftone and emery, to the
defired aatre.

The tools thus ground muft be polifhed by an
incruftation of pitch and emery, and perfefted with
blue hones.

The glafs being planed to an equal thicknefs,
and polifhed a little by a glafs-grinder, and rounded
by a grind-ftone ; take away the plate with feveral
fteel cavities, and with fome fifted emery, made
into a cement, fix on a fmaller round piecs of
brafs, or rather fteel, truly flat, and turned, about
the bignefs of a farthing, but thicker, having nru
made in the center thereof, with a triangular fteel
punch, a hole about tiie bignefs of a gocfe-qv.il!,
and about the depth of -^i of an inch ; and at the
very bottom of this triangular hole, a little round
hole muft be punched fomewhat deeper, with a
very fmall fteel punch. A fmall fteel point, of
about an inch longj mufl: be truly {haped ajid fitted

to this triangular hole, and at the very apex to the
Imall round deep impreflion. Neverthelefs irmuft
not be fitted fo exaiSIy, but that it may have the
liberty to move a little to and fro ; the apex always
contiruiing to prefs upon the furface of the round
hole below. This fteel triangular point muft be
fixcil to the end of a pole ; to the other end of
which another round iron point muft be fixed, of
about five or fix inches long, to play freely up and
down in a round hole, in a piece of braCs let into a
board, fixed agninft the ceiling for that purpofe ;
perpendicularly over the bench and over the center
of the tool, which muft be ftrongly and truly fixed
horizontally thereon, as here reprefented.

Having thefe things
prepared, with fome
pots of emery of vari-
ous fineneftes, take of
your rougheft fort a
fmall pugil, wetting
the fame, and daubing:
it prettv equably on the -^
tool ; then lay on your
glafs, and fix up your
pole, and continue to
grind for a quarter of
an hour; not preflins;
upon the pole, but barely carrying the glafs round
thereby : then take a little quantity of fome finer
emery, and work another quarter of an hour there-
with : then take the like quantity of emery ft ill
finer, and work for the fame time : laft of all take
a lefs quantity of fome of the very finell you have,
which will be fufRcient for a glafs of five inches
diameter, and work therewith for an hour and a
half; taking away by little and little fome of the
emery with a wet fponge. Do not keep it too wet
nor too dry, but about the confiftence of pap : for
much depends on this. If it be too dry, your
emery will ftick, clog, and incorporate, and cut
little or none at all. befides it will fcratch and cut
your glafs irregularly ; and if it is too wet, and too
much diluted, it will, from the iirei^rular feparatioa
of its parts, cut in fome places more than others,
as in the other cafe.

liut Mr. Huygens tells us, that this method of
ufing various forts of frefh emery is not good ;
finding by experience, that the furfaces of large
glaffes are often fcratched. And therefore he fays,
that it is beft to take a large quantity of the firft:
and fecond emery, and fo work with the fame horn,
the firft to the laif, t.aking away, by little and little,
every half hour, or quarter of an hour, more and
mere of the em.ery with a wet fponge ; by which
means he could bring the glafs extitmely finooth

aod.

34 "^^ Univerfal Hlftory of Arts and Sciences.

and fine, fo as to fee pretty diftinilly, a candle or | pounds; divide them into three parts ; and add to
the fafti-windows well defined through it, which is ' them as much fal nitre ; put them into a crucible,
a mark when it is ground enough to receive a polifh . j and melt them with a flrong fire ; and when it is

When you firlt begin to grind, and the emery I cold, powder it, and grind it on a porphyry. For
begins tobefmooth, the glafs will ftick a little to\gold colour, take filver, an ounce ; antimony, half
the tool, and run ftifF; then frefh emery is to be : an ounce ; melt them in a crucible; then pound
added. . the mafs to powder, and grind it on a copper plate;

The method hitherto defcribed of grinding with jadd to it yellow oker, or brick-duft calcined again,
emery, is what is recommended by Mr. i/?o'^^ny, fifteen ounces ; and grind them well together with
Z.^ Pfr« C/i^TOi/« prelcribes another material, which I water. For purple, take minium, one pound;
is the grit of a hard grind-Jione, well beaten into a brown Jhne, one pound ; white Jiint, five pounds ;
fine powder, and fifted pretty fine : and here in j divide them into three parts, and add to them as
Eiigland the fame thing was ufcd to be performed much fal nitre as one of thefe parts ; calcine, melt,
by Mr. Cox, with common clean white fand, and grind it as you did the green. For red, take
taking away by little and little the faid grit and jet, four ounces ; litharge of fiiver, two ounces ;
fand, as it is ground finer and finer ; but it feems red chalk, one ounce ; powder them fine, and mix
this method is now quite difufed. them. For w^/'/^", take 7V? two parts ; vi\\\X.^ flint,

ground on a glafs very fine, one part ; mix them.

But the mofi beautiful improvement of this art Yor yellow, tzkcfpanijh brown, ten parts; Laf-ftlver,
is painting upon glafs. one part ; antimony, half a part ; put all into a cru-

Theantient manner of /)(j//j/?wj-?c/)<!K^&/f was very . cible, and calcine them well,
fimple, and confequentlv very eafy ; it confifted in I Thofe beautiful works which were made in the
the mere arrangement of pieces of glafs of different glafs-houfes were of two kinds. In fome, the
colours in fome fort of fymmetry, and conftituted colour was difFufed through the whole fubftance of
what is now called mofaic work. the giafs. In others, which were the more com-

In procefs of time they came to attempt mere mon, the colour was only on one fide, fcarce pene-
regulardefigns, and alfo to reprefent figures height- 1 trating within the fubftance above one third of a
cned with all their fhades : yet they proceeded no line; though this was more or lefs according to the
farther than the contours of the figures in black [nature of the colour; the yellow being always
with water-colours, and hatching the draperies I found to enter the deepeft. Thefe laft, though not

after the fame -manner, on glafles of the colour of
the objed: they defigned to paint. For the carna-
tion, they ufed glafs of a bright red colour ; and
upon this they drew the principal lineaments of the
face, i^c. with black.

But in time, the tafle for this fort of painting
improving confiderably, and the art being found
applicable to the adorning of churches, difc. they
found out means of incorporating the colours in the
glafs itfelf, by heating them in the fire to a proper
degree ; having firfl: laid on the colour'.

The colours ufed in painting or ftaining of glafs,
are very different from thofe ufed in painting either
in water or oil colours.

For black, take (cales of iron, one ounce ; fcales
Ki^ copper, one ounce; jet, half an ounce ; reduce
them to powder, and mix them. For hbte, take
powder oj blue, one pound ; fal nitre, half a pound ;
mix them and grind them well together. For
tarnation, take 7Td chalk, eight ounces ; iron fcales
and litharge of fiiver, of each two ounces ; cum
arable, half an ounce; difl'olve in v/atcr ; grind all
together for half an hour as ft iff as you can ; then
put it in a glafs and flir it well, and let it ftand to
fettle fourteen days. For^r^^w, take read lead, one
pouad i fcales of (oj>^er, one pound ; andjlint, five

fo ftrongand beautiful as the former, were of more
advantage to the workmen, by reafon that on the
fame glafs, tho' already coloured, they couH fhew
other kind of colours, where there was occafion to
embroider draperies, enrich them wi'h foliages, oi^
reprefent other ornaments of gold, fiiver, i^c.

In order to this, they made ufe of emery, grind-
ing or wearing down the furface of the glafs, till
fuch time as they were got through the colour to
the clear glafs. This done, they applied the proper
colours on the other fide of the glafs. By this
means, the new colours were hindered from running
and mixing with the former, when they expofed
the glafies to the fire.

When indeed the ornaments were to appear
white, the glafs was only bared of its colour with
emery, without tinging tlie place with any colour
at all ; and this was the manner by which they
wrought their lights, and heightenings, on all kinds
of colour.

The firft thing to be done, in order to paint, or
ftain glafs, in the modern way, is to defign, and
even colour the whole fubjefl: on paper. Then
they choofe fuch pieces of glafs as are clear, even,
and fmooth, and proper to receive the feveral parts,
and proceed to diftribute the defign itfelf, or papers

G L A S S- PA I N r I N G.

it Ts drawn on, into pifccs fuitable to thofe of tli.
glafs ; always taking care that the glafll'S may join
in the contours of the figures, and the folds of the
draperies ; that the carnations, and other finer
parts, may not be impaired by the lead with whicii
the pieces arc to be joined together. The difiribu
fion being mad?,, they mark all the gl.ifTes as well
as papers, that they may be known again: which
done, applying every part of the defign upon the
glai's intended for it, they copy, or transfer, the de-
fign upon this glafs with the black colour diluted
in gum water, by tracing and following all the
lines and ftrokes as they appear through the glafs.
with tlie point of a pencil.

When thefe flrokes are well dried, which will
happen in about two davs, tlie work being only in
black and white, they give a flight wafh over with
urine, gum arable, and a little black ; and repeat it
fevcral times, according as the fhndesare defired to
be heightened, with this precaution, never to apply
a new wafli till the former is fufficiently dried.

This done, the lights and riftngs are given by
rubbing off the colour in the refpective places with
a'. wooden point, or the handle of the p?rKil.

As to the other colours above-mentioned, they
are ufed with gum- water, much as in painting in
miniature ; taking car to apply them lightly for
fear of effacing the out-lines of the defign ; or even,
for the greater lecurity, to apply them on the other
fide ; efpecially yellow, which is very pernicious to
the other colours, by blending therewith. And
here too, as in pieces of black and white, particu-
lar regard muft always be had not to lay colour on
colour, or lay on a new lay, till fuch time as the
former are well dried.

It may be added, that the yellow is the only co-
lour that penetrates through the glafs, and incor-
porates therewith by the fire ; therefl, and particu-
larly the blue, which is very difficult to ufe,
remaining on the furface, or at leall entering verv
little. When the painting of all the pieces is finifh-
ed, they are carried to the furnace, or oven, to
anneal, or bake the colours.

The furnace here ufed is fmall, built of brick,
from eighteen to thirty inches fquare ; at fix inches
from the bottom is an aperture to put in the fuel,
and maintain .the fire. Over this aperture is a grate,

made of thrce-fquare bars of iron, which traverfe
the furnace, and divide it-into two parts. Two in-
ches above this partition, is another little aperture,
through which they take out pieces to examine hov/
the codtion goes forward. On the grate is placed
a fquare earthen pan, fi\ or fe'/en inches deep ; and
five or fix inches lefs every way than the perimeter
of the furnace. On the one fide hereof is a little
aperture, through which to make trials, placed di-
reiStly oppofite to that of the furnaces deftincdfor..
the fame end. In this pan are the pieces of glafs-
to be placed, in the following manner : Firft, the
bottom of the pan is covered with three firata, or
layers, of quick lime pulverized j thofe llrata be-
ing feparated by two others of old broken glafs, the
defign whereof is to fecure the painted glafs from-
rhe too intenfe heat of the fire. 'I'his done, the
glafTes are laid horizontally on the laft or uppermoft;
layer of lime.

The firft row of glafs they cover over with aj
layer of the fame powder, an inch deep ; and over
this, they lay another range of glafles, and thus •
alternate! 7 till the pan is quite full ; taking care
that the whole heap always end with a layer of the.
lime-powder.

The pan being thus prepared, they cover up the.
furnace with tiles, on a fquare table of earthen-
vi?are, clol'ely luted all round ; only leaving five
little apertures, one at each corner, and another in
the middle, to ferve as chimnies. Things thus ..
difpofed, there remains nothing but to give the fire :
to the work. The fire for the firlt two hours mufl
be very moderate, and muft be increafed in propor-
tion as the coction advances, for the fpace of ten ■
or twelve hours ; in which time it is ufually com-
pleated. At laft the fire, which at firft was char-
coal, is to be of dry wood, lb that the flame covers
the wliole pan, and even ililies out at the chim-
nies.

During the laft hours, they make eflays, from
time to time, by taking oat pieces laid for the pur-
pofe through the little aperture of the furnace, and '■
pan, to fee whether the yellov/ be perfedl, and the
other colours in good order. When the annealing
is thought fufficient, they proceed with great hafte
to extinguifli the fire, which otherwife would fociii
burn the. colours, and break the glalTes, .

GLAZING..

The Univerfal Hiftory ©/"Arts ^«<a? Sciences,

GLAZING,

GLAZING is the art of polifliing or cruHing
over earthen-ware, by running melted lead
or litharge over the clay-veirel, ts'c.
The common ware is glazed with a compofition
of 50 lb. clean fand, 70 lb. lead-afhes, 30 lb.
wood-afhes, and 12 lb. fait, all melted into a cake.
With this m.ixture they glaze it over, and then let
it in an earthen glazing pan ; taking care that the
vcflels do not touch one another. As feveral colours
are ufed for this purpofe, we fliall give the follow
ing receipts, from Smith's Laboratory, i. For a
black, take lead-afhes, 18 parts; iron filings, 3 ;
copper afhes, 3 ; and zaffer, 2: this, when melt- '<
ed, will make a brown black; and if you would
have it blacker, put fome more zaffer to it. 2.
For blue, take lead-afhes, i lb. clear fand or peb-
ble, 2 lb. fait, 2 lb. v/hite calcined tartar, lib.
Venice or other glafs, 16 lb. and zaffer, half a pound;
mix them well together ; and after melting quench
them in water, and then melt them again ; which
operation is to be repeated feveral times ; and if
you would have it fine and good, it will be. proper
to put the mixture into a glafs "furnace for a day or
two. 3. A brown jrlazing mav be ^iven with a
mixture of lead-glafs, 12 parts, and common glafs
a.nd manganefe, of each one part. 4. A citron-
yellow may be made of 6 parts of red-lead, 7 parts
of fine red brick duft, and two parts of antimony.

all melted together. 5. A fle/h-colour, with \t
parts of lead-aihes, and I of white glafs. 6. For
a green -colour, take 8 parts of litharge, 8 parts of
Venice glafs, 4 parts of brafs duft, and melt them
together for ufe ; or melt together two parts yellow-
plafs, with as much copper-duft. 7. For a gold-
yellow, take of antimony, red-lead, and fand, an
eijual quantity, and melt them into a cake. 8.
For a fine purple brown, take lead-afhes, 15 parts;
clear fand, 18 ; manganeie, i ; white glafs, 15
meafures ; and one of zaffer. q. For a fine red,
take antimony, 2lb. litharge, 3 lb ruftofiron cal-
cined, I lb. and grind them to a fine powder. 10,
For a fine white glazing, take 2 lb. of lead, lib.
of tin, and calcine them to afhes ; of which take
2 parts ; of calcined flint or pebble, i part ; of fait,
I part ; and mixing them well together, melt them
into a cake At Rotterdam, they make a fine ihin-
ing white glazing, by melting together 2 !b. clean
tin- afhes, 10 lb. iead-afhes, 2 lb. fine Venice glafs,
and half a pound tartar. 1 1 . A yellow glazing is
made of 4 ouncea of red-lead, and two ounces of
antimony, melted together. 12. For a fine yel-
low, take red lead, 3 pints ; antimony and tin, of
each 2 lb. then melting them into a cake, grind it
fine ; and repeating this feveral times, you will
hav^e a good yellow.

GOLD-BEATING.

"^HIS is the art of reducing gold into
exceeding thin leaves : for which pur-
pofe there muil be chofen gold with
as little alloy as poffiblc.

Tilt gold- hecier's fliop is fumiflied with a fmall
forge, a fmall anvil, crucibles, ifc, and likevvife
with three forts of hammers formed like mallets, of
polifhed iron. 'I he fird, which is to v.-eigh three
of four pounds, v/jll ferve to chace, or drive ; the
fecond, of eleven or twelve pounds, to clofe ; and
the thirds which muft weigh fourteen or fifteen
pounds, to ftretch and finiCi. Befides this, there
muft be a block of black marble, about a foot
fquare, and wiiich is to be railed three foot high ;
and a'.fo four moulds of different fizes, viz. two
of vellum, the fmalleft whereof mufl: confift of
forty or fifty leaves ; and the largeft of two hund
red j the other two confilliiig each of five hundred

leaves, made of bullocks guts well fcoured ani
prepared.

Irocecd to work, by melting a proper quantity
of gold, and forming it into an ingot; this done,
reduce that ingot, by forging, into a plate about
the thicknefs of a flieet of paper ; and then cut it
into -little pieces, about an inch fquare, and lay
them in the firft, or fmalleft mould, to begin to
flretch them. After they have been hammer'd here
a while with the fmallefi hammer, cut each of them
into four ; and put them into the fecond mould, to
be extended further.

LTpon taking them hence, cut them again into
four, and put them into the third mould ; out of
which they are taken, divided into four as before,
and laid in the laft or finifning mould, where beat
them to the degree of thinnefs required : obferving
that the gold is beaten more or lefs according to

the

G,0 L D - W 1 RE-DRAWING,

the kind or quality of the work it is intended /or: I
that for the gold-wire-drawers to gild their ingots'
■withal, muft be left thicker than that for o;iidlin<r '
frames of pictures, y^. withal. I

It is computed that an ounce may be beaten into
fixteen hundred leaves, eacii three inches iquare ;
in which ftate it takes up more than 15.9092 times ^
its former fpace.

The leaves thus finifhed are taken out of the
mould, and difpofed in little paper books prepared ,
with red bole, for the gold to liick to : each book ;

ordinarily containing twenty-five gold leaves. There
are two fizes of thefe books ; twenty-five leaves of
the ftnalleft only weighs five or fix grains ; and the
fame number of the largeft Jiine or ten grains.

Shell gold ufed by the illuminers, and where-
withal we write gold letters, is made of the parings
of leaf-gold, and even of the leaves themfelves, re-
duced into an impalpable powder, by grinding on
a marble with honey : and after it has been left to
infufe fome time in aqua-fortis, it is put in (hells
where it flicks.

G 0 L D- WIRE-DRAWING.

GOLD-WIRE-DRAWING, is the me-
thod of managing gold in order to fit it to
be fpun on filk, or to be ufed flat as it is,
without fpinning, in certain fluffs, laces, embroi-
deries, bfc.

The operation is performed by forging, firft, an
ingot of filver of twenty-four pounds into a cylinder
about an inch in diameter : then drawing it through
eight or ten holes of a large coarfe wire drawing
iron, both to finiOi the roundnefs, and to reduce it
to about three fourths of its former diameter. This
done, it is filed very carefully all over, to take off
any filth remaining of the forge: then it is cut in
the middle, making thus two equal ingots thereof,
each about 26 inches long, which aredrawn through
feveral new holes, to take ofF any inequalities the
file may have left, and to render it as fmooth and
equal as poffible.

The ingot thus prepared, is heated in a charcoal
fire ; then taking fome gold leaves, each of .about
four inches fquare, and weighing twelve grains ;
four, eight, twelve, or fixteen of thefe are joined
together, as the wire is iiitended to be more or leis
gilt ; and when they are fo joined as only to make
a fingle leaf, the ingots are rubbed reeking hot with
a burniflier.

Thefe leaves thus prepar'd, are applied over the
whole furface of the ingot to the number of h,N,
over each other"; burnifliing or rubbing them well j
down with the blood- ftone, to ciofe and fmoothen i
them.

When gilt, the ingots are laid a new in a coal-
fire ; and when raifed to a certain degree of heat, |
the artift goes over them a fecond time with the i
blood -ftone, both to folder the gold more perfeftly, I
and to finifli the polifhing. 1

The gilding finilhed, it remains to draw the in-
got into wire. In order to this, it is palled through
twenty holesof a moderate drawing- iron, by which

Vou 11. 29.

it is brought to the thicknefs of the tag of a lace :
from this time, the ingot lofes its name, and com-
mences gold^ wire. Twenty holes more of a leffer
iron, leave it fmall enough for the leaft iron : the
fineft holes of which laft, fcarce exceeding the hair
of the head, finifh the work.

Before the wire be reduced to this excelTive fine-
nefs, it is drawn through above an hundred and
forty different holes ; and each time they draw it,
it is rubbed frefh over with new wax, both to faci-
litate its paffage, and to prevent the filver appearing
through.

To difpofe the wire to be fpun on filk, they pafs
it between two rollers of a little mill. Thefe
rollers are of poliflied fleel, and about three inches
in diameter. They are fet very clofe to each other,
and turn'd by a handle faften'd to one of them,
which gives motion to the other. The gold zuire
in paffing between the two, is render'd <|uite flat ;
but without lofing any thing of its gilding ; and is
render'd fo exceedingly thin and flexible, that it is
eafily fpun on filk-thread, by a hand-wheel, and fo
wound on a fpool or bobbin.

The prodigious dudtility, which makes one of
the dilHnguifliing characters of gold, is no where
more confpicuous than in this gilt wire. A cylin-
der of 48 ounces of filver, cover'd with a coat of
gold, Dr. Ha'.ley infoims us, is commonly drawn
into a wire, two yards of which weigh only one
grain : whence ninety-eight yards of the wire
weigh only forty-nine grains. And one fingle
grain of gold, covers the faid ninety-eight yards:
fo that the ten thoufandth part of a grain, is above
half an inch long. The fame author computing
the thicknefs of the fkin of gold, found it to be
only TT+'ron part of an inch. Y"et fo pertedllv does
it cover the filver, that even a microfcope does not
difcover any appearance of the filver underneath,
Mr. Rohault obferves, that a like cylinder of filver
G cover'd

The Univerfal Hiftory 0/ Arts ^/z^ Sciences.

covcr'd with gold, two feet ei^ht inches long, and iits former length. Mr. Boyle rz\z.^ti, that ei"ht
two inches nine lines in circumference, is drawn grains of gold, covering a cylinder of filver, \%
into a wire 307200 feet long ; /. e. into 1 15200 I commonly drawn into a wire 30000 feet lon».

GRAMMAR,

HOSE who are well \'erfed in Grammar.,
or who tearh Grammar., are called
Grammarians. — The Grammarian is
conceived as a perfon wholly attentive to the tni-
nuties of language ; induftrioufly employed about
words and phrafes ; incapable of perceiving the
beauties, delicacy, extent, cfr. of a fentiment.
Sialiger, however, confidered Grammariam in ano-
ther light ; titinum ejjim, fays he, borats grammati-
cus : Jiifficit enim a, qui omnes authores vult intelli-
gere, ejje grammaticum — The title Grammarian,
it is certain, was antiently a title of honour; being
given not only to fuch as applied themfelves to
Grammar, or excelled in philology ; but to all who
were reputed learned in any art, or faculty what-
ever ; as is fhewn by Ger. [^ojftus, in his book of
Grammar. The word was properly a title of lite-
rature and erudition, and frequentlygiven to perfons
who excelled in all, or many arts, call'd alfo .Poly-
hijiores. Thus Pbiloponus, a famous philofopher
in yu/iinian''s time, remarkable for the extent and
variety of his knowledge, was furnamed Gramma-\
ticus. So Saxo, the Danijh hiftorian, in the I3thi
century, got the appellation grammaticus : and as
late as the year 1580, Thomas d' Averfa, the fa-
mous Neapolitan lawyer, was furnamed the Gram-
marian.— The title grammarian was antiently be-
Itov/'d on thofewe nowcall critids^xntn of learning,
erudition, letters, iSc. and particularly fuch as ,
wrote well, and politely in every kind. It is in
this fenfe that Suetonius entitles his book, which he ■
wrote on the bell Z(7//» authors, of the celebrated ^^
grammarians ; and that Cornelius Nepos calls the ,
commentators on the orators, and poets, gramma-
rians. And laftly, it is in this fenfe the apellationj
is attributed, by the antients to Apion, Fhilopenus, \
and Solinus. — The mod celebrated grammarians of
the fecond century, were Aper, Poltio, Eidychius, '
Proculus, Athrcncus, Julius Pollux, Macrobius, and '
Aulus Gellius. T he works of thefe lafl: authors are '
an aflemblage of abundance of very different things
and fubjects, relating to the criticifms of the antient
writers, and polite literature. — If the name have
loft its antient honour, it is through the fault of
thofe who have allumed it ; by treating of grammar
in a low, pedantick, and dogmatick manner ; re-
ducing it to words and fyllables ; and dwelling
I

I altogether on trifling, puerile remarks and cenfurcs,
I whereas its antient office was to make an accurate,
and thorough cxamen of an author ; to enter into
all his views, to point out the beauties and the de-
feds thereof ; to diftinguifh the true beauties from
the falfe ; and the genuine productions of an author
from the fuppofititious : that is, z gramjnarian was

then, what we call a critick now Thofe who

only taught to read, underitand, and explain au-
thors, were call'd grammaticks, grammatijia ; in
contradiftinftion from grammatici : though, in
courfe of time, the grammatijles have rofe into the
place of grammatici, who are preferred to that of
critici.

Diogenes Laertius relates, after one Hermippus,
that Epicurus was the firft who gave the rules of
grammar for the Greek tongue j but that Plato was
the firft who had taken the thing intoconfideration,
and even made fonie difcoveries on that fubject. —
At Rome, Crates, furnamed Mallotes, contempo-
rary with Arijiarchus, gave the firft leflures thereon
to the Romans, during the time of his being em-
bafTador for King Attalus, to the common-wealth,
between the fecond and third Punick wars, foon
after Er.nius'% death. Before him it was not known
at Ro7ne what grammar meant.

Grammar is the art of fpeaking and writing a
language with propriety, or corre(Stnefs ; and it is
divided by fome authors into four parts. Orthogra-
phy, Profody, Etymology^ and Syntax.

Others chufe to divide grammar fomewhat more
obvioufly, into the doctrine of letters or founds,
which coincides with orthography, and orthopy ;
that oi fyllables, their accent, time, i^c. which fells
in with profody ; that oi words, their kinds, deri-
vations, changes, analogy, is'c. which amounts to
etymology ; and that of feniences, which confiders
the placing or joining of words together, called
fyntax.

Grammar is the fame in all languages, as to its
general principles and notions, which it borrows
from philofcphy, to explain the order and manner,
wherein we exprefs our ideas by words ; but as
each language has its particular turns, its feveral
characters and genius, different from the genius and
charadter of other languages, hence aril'e as many

grammars

GRAMMAR.

grammars as languages Therefore to give a tiiic
notion of thofe feveral different languages, I niuft
take notice in this trcatifc, of t.\\<t mQi\ ejjintial rul::i
peculiar to each different graimnar; and as the
{loQrine of l^ETTF'S.i is the firft part of ourdivifion
of grammar, we'll begin, as all grammarians do,
with the Alphabet, which is the feveral letters of

a language, difpos'd in theirnatural or accuftom'd
order ; and as there are as many forts of alphabets,
likewife, as there are languages, (for this they may
ufe the fame charaiier or letters, they differ in the
pronunciation of thefe letters) I'll give here fome
of thofe different forts, vix. the EngUJh, French,
Latin, Greek, and Hebrew.

liNGLISH

1 French.

Latin. |

Hebrew.

1 Greek.

26 Letters

'24 Let-
ten

Pronun-
ciation.

22 Let-
ters

pronoun

ced lik

French

» Names.

Figures

SinrJi-

Poivers.

Figures

Names.

Po-wers.

fftritus

Aa.

Alpha

Aleph

lenis

B/3?

Beta

Gheth

ryf

Gamma

Ghimel

Delta

Dhaleth

;;a

E e

F.pfilon

e, hrcn)e

Zeta

g«

Vau

V, Con.

H „

Eta

e, longum

aihe

Zajiti

0 es

Theta

Chcth

I >

[ota

ell

Teth

Kappa

k, c

Jodh

j, Con.

'0 A A

LambJa

Chaph

:?T

ch, X

M f*

Lamed

3°

NT »

pc-

Mem

H 1

kuu

Nun

5°

Omicron

0, paruum

Samech

1", acutum

7 !r w
p 0 .

'Jhnajin

ghn, ngh

Rho

Phe

D-l

ioo„

T t)

200* ..

30° V

Sigma

Tzade

Tau

fioph
Refch

Upfilon
Phi

e Greek

Schin

\fj

■ch Ih

Chi

zede

Sin

t*^

Pfi pf

Phau

3mega 0, tnagnum

It is proper here to obferve, that the Chaldee,
Syrlae, and Samaritan alphabets, have, like the
Hebreiv, each 22 letters ; the Arabick 28 ; the
Perfian 31 ; the Turkijh 33; the Georgian 36 i
the Coptick 32 ; the Ahifcovite 43 ; the Selavonian
27 ; the Dutch 26 ; the Spanijh 27; the Italians
of Bengal 1 1 ; the Baramas 1 9 ; and the Ethiopick
no lefs than 202 ; there being 7 vowels, which
they combine v/irheach of their 26 confonants; to
which they add 20 other afpirated fyllablcs. The
like is faid of theTartarian, each of their letters is a
fyllable, having one of the vowels join'd toits con-
fonant, as la, le, li, &c. The Chinefe have no al-
phabet, properly fpeaking, except we call their
whole language their alphabet ; their letters are

words, or rather hiercglyphicks, and aie in number
about 80,000.

Note alfo, That alphabets were not contrived
with defign, according to the juft rules of reafon,
and analogy ; but fucceffively framed and altered,
^f. as occafion offered.

The charaSlers now ufed in all the alphabets of
modern languages, throughout all Europe, are the
Latin Charadlers of the antients.

Thefe charaSiers are divided, by grammarians,
into vowels and confonants ; into mutes, dipthongs,
liquids, and characleriflieks ; and are commonly
called letters.

A Vowel, is a letter which affords a compleat

found of itfelf ; or a letter fo fimple, as only to

D 2 need

Ihe Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^W Sciences.

need a bare opening of the mouth to make it heard,
and to form a dilUniil voice. Such are a, e, i, 0, u;
which are called vowels, in contradiftinftion to cer-
tain other letters, which depending on a particular
application of fome part of the mouth, as the teethe
lips, or palate, can make no perfect found without
an opening of the mouth, that is, without the ad-
dition of a vowel ; and are therefore called con-
ibnants.

Though we ordinarily only reckon five vowels,
yet, bei'ides, that each of thefe may be either long,
or fliort, which occafions a confideiable variety in
the found ; to confider only their differences refult-
ing from the different aperture of the mouth in the
Englijh pronunciation, one might add four or five
more vowels to the number. — For the e open, and
the e clofe, are different enough to make two vow-
els, as in fea and depth ; fo aUb the 0 open, and 0
clofe, in bojl and organ. Add, that the u pronoun-
ced ou, as the Latins did, and as Italians (lill do,
has a very different found from the a, as pronoun-
ced by the Greeks, and as at this day by the French
and Englijh. — Again, eo, in people, make but one
fingle found, though written with two vowels.

LaJUy, the e mute is, originally, no more than
a furd joined to a confonant, when that is to be
pronounced without a vowel, as when it is imme-
diately followed by other confonants. Thus, with
out regarding the differences of the fame found, or
vowel, as to length or fhortnefs, one may diffin-
guifh ten feveral vowels, exprefled by the following
characters a, e, i, 0, 0, eu, ou, u, e, mute.

The Consonant, is a letter, which produces
no found alone, or without fome vowel joined with
it : and confidered philofophically, it is nothing
elfe but the modification of a found, producAl by
means of the organ of the voice, not a produiflion
of found itfelf: thus v. gr. the founds fignified by
the charaiSers, a, e, i, 0, u, are differently modified,
when we fay ab than when we fay, ae, or ea, a.i,
01 da; and thofe modifications are called confonants.
Csnfonants are divided into fingle, as b, h, m, q,
he. and double, as ax, in axillary ; correfponding
to the I of the Greeks.

Confonants, again, are divided into liquid, as /,
r, m, n ; and mute, as b, d, and the reft, which
make no found at all without a vowel.

But the Hebrew grammarians, who have been
imitated therein by the grammarians of other orien-
tal languages, divide the confonants into five claffes.
with regard to the five principal organs of the
voice.

Thefe organs are the throat, -palate, tongue, teeth,
and lips ; wlience the five claffes of confonants are
denominated guttural, palatal, lingual, dental, and
labial.

There are fixteen confonants in the Englijh al-
ph.-tbet, V12.. b, c, d,f, g, k, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, x,
z ; to which the h, the j confonant, and v con-
fonant, make the whole number, of confo-
nants nineteen ; one whereof is guttural, viz. the
afpirate /; ; five palatal, viz. c, as when pronounced
before a, 0, and u, as in cavern, corn, curiofity ; g,
as in Gen.va ; J confonant in julep ; i, in kernel;
and q, in query. — The four lingual confonants are d,
I, n, t ; the four dental are, r, s, x, z.; the three
la t whereof are hilFers ; and five labial, h,f, >n, />,
and v confonant.

With regard to which divifion, it may be ob-
i'erved, that though the g be modified in three
different manners, as is comes before an a, an 0,
or an u; yet it is ftill a confonant of the palate ;
that they confonant differs, in nothing but its
figure, from the ^ before c, or /; that k has the
fame pronunciation with the c ; that .v compre-
hends the found of two letters in its found, viz.
c, or k, and f, or another c, as in Alexander, and
in Alexis, which we pronounce as if wrote Alec-
fander, and Aleccis, or Alecfis ; and that the c be-
fore an e or / is no confonant of the palate, becaufe
in that cafe it lofes its proper found, and affumes
the hliling found of they!

The excefs of confonants, in one language a.
bove another, only confifts in this, that there are
more modifications of found received, and efta-
bliihed in the one than in the other ; for all men,
having the fame organs, may form the fame mo-
dificaJons ,■ fo that it is entirely owing to cuftom,
nothing to nature} that the Englijl) have not the
9 of the Greeks, the Aln and Hetb of the Hebreius,
the CO of the Germans, the gn of the French, the
gl of the Italians, the II of the /Felch, &c.

Alfo that the Chineje have no r, the Iroquis no
labial confonants, the Hurons abundance of afpi-
rates ; and the Arabs and Georgians abundance
of double confonants ; which laft is owing to this,
that they make feveral organs concur ftrongly, and
equally to the modification of a found ; whereas,
in the reft, only one organ is moved very flrongly
and fenfibly, and the reft weakly.

It is alfo vifible, that, in all languages, the
afpirates, or guttural letters are real confonants,
fince the throat modifies the found as much as the
palate, tongue, or lips.

Lcjlly, To find all the confonants that may be
formed in any language, there needs nothing but
to obferve all the modifications that the founds of
fpecch will admit of. by which we Ihall have all
the confonants pracSticable.

An afpirate is alfo a rnodifcatlve, or confonant,
as having all the pro^tvties of a. conj'onanl ; fox, i.
It refults from amotion of the organ, which of it-
felf

GRAMMA R.

folf produces no found ; thus the fpiritia of the
Greeks, the Fren b, and EngUfli h afpirate, has no
more found of itfelf than h, c, <•/, &c. and the fame
thing may be obferved of the Alcph, Beth, and
Caph, of the eaftern languages. 2. On the con
traiy the EngUftj h , t\\e fpiritm of the Greeh, and
the other afp i rates jull mentioned, are pronounced
with all the vowels, in the fame manner as coiifa-
nants are. They modify thofe vowels, and are
eftects of a motion of the organ fuperadded to the
motion neccflary to form the vowel. Thus to
pronounce Atf, two motions of the organ are re-
quired as well as (ot ba or ca, S:c. one for «, which
itfelf is a found ; the other for h, which yields no
found no more than b, but adds fomething to a,
which modifies it, and makes that ha in not mere
(I, nor bii, nor ca, &c. and this muft hold (till
more fenlibly in the ilronger afpirates of the ori-
ental tongues ; in all which there are evidently two
motions, the one for the vowel, and the other to
modify it : now this being the nature and efl'ence
of a confonant, it follows, that let them be denoted
in what manner they will, whether as the Englijh
h, as the oriental do, i. e. by proper charadters in
the courfe of the words themfelves ; or, as the
Greeks do fome of theirs, by a ilgn of afpiration
placed over the vowel, it matters not. The afpi-
rote is no lefs a confonant in «i^m than in %«>?« ;
in iu, than in x^'^> '< i" "'^i than in J^o^^) ; and fo of
others. The third and laft reafon is, that the
eaftern languages, which do not exprefs the vow-
els, do yet exprefs the afpirates. Add, that the
afpirate is frequently changed into a confonant, and
exprelfed by a confonant: thus if ;| is made fex ;
of sTrla, feptem of iavi^oq, Vefperus, 6cc. of the He-
breu) p', Jiraf, and thence Vinum, Sec. nay even
in the fame language, //ty/ij(/ fpeaking of Hercuks's
buckler, ufes 'H^a-tn for Qn^aw ; making no differ-
ence between a © and an afpirate. Hence it evi-
dently follows, that afpirates are real confonants ;
and that it mufl be an error to rank {<,n,\*, of
eaftern languages among the vowels ; and to ex-
clude the h mEngliJ}) out of the number of letters.

Mute letters, are thofe which are not founded,
or heard in the , pronunciation, or letters which
yield no found of themfelves, and without a vowel.

The tnutes in the EiigUfl} alphabet are eleven,
vi%. B, C, D, F, G, y, K, P, ^, T, V. They
are called mutes, becaule a liquid cannot be found-
ed in the fame fyllable before them, as rcpo ; but
a mute may be pronounced in the fame fyllable
before a liquid, as pro.

Liquids are certain confonants oppofed to mutcs;
I, ?n, n, and p, are liquids.

Dipthong is a double vowel, or the union, or
fixture of two vowels pronounced together, fo as

only to make one fyllable ; as the Latin a e, ec, oe,
or ffi" ; the Greek «», s, ; the Englijh ai, au, he.

Ae anfwers to ai, the proper, and « the impro-
per dipthong of the Greeks, e.g. Aiwixf, Jneas ;
<7(pci.l^cc Sphaerae, &c. And on the contrary, the
Romans when they had occafion to divide thi;ir ae,
changed it into the Greek ai, e. g. aulai for aulae,
&c.

Ai by fome is made a Latin dipthong, as in aio,
caius, &c. But in ais and ait, i nianifcicly belonj-s
to the latter fyllable ; and the Greeks write not
Talos, but Faio; ; whence it feems plain that ai in
the Latin tongue is not a dipthong ai in the
Greek.

The Latins pronounced the two vowels in their
dipthongs much as we do, with this exception, that
the two were not heard equally, but the one was
fomewhat weaker than the other, though the divi-
fion was made with all the delicacy imaginable.
Among the Englift) moft of the Latin dipthongs
are lofl in the pronunciation ; their a and ce are
only fpoke as fV, fo as alfo the Englijh ea, oa, &c.
though wrote with two charatSlers, are pronounced
as fimple founds

In French, Englifl), and divers other }anguao-e<!,
one may diilinguifh dipthongs with regard to the
eye, from d'pthmgs with regard to the ear.

Englijl) dipthongs proper, are ai, as in fair ; ati^
inland; ee, in bleed; oi, m void; 00, in food;
and ou, in houj'e.

Englijh improper dipthongs, are aa, pronounced
only like (7, as in Aaron ; ea, like a, as \n Jwear,
heart ; or like e, as already ; or like ee, as veal :
eo, like e, in feoffe ; or like 0, in George : eu, or
eiv, like ?/, 1^% Deuteronomy -, ie, like <>, as deling^
field : ^/,like a, m feign; or like^, in deceit : oa, as
in cloak, doat : oe as doe, oeconomy : ue, as in guefs :
and U! as in guile, recruit.

From thefe different divifions of letters, we'll
pafs to every letter cf our alphabet.

A is a vowel, and the firit letter of the French
Englijh, and mofl other alphabets ; and it is ob-
ferved to be that, which dumb perfons are foon-
eft taught to pronounce, l^he reafon is, that it
does not depend on the mufcles, and other or-
gans of the mouth and tongue, which are gene-
rally wanting in mutes ; but on thofe of the
throat and nofe, which they commonly have.

It is fo much the Language of Nature, that
upon all fuddf.n and extraordinary occafions we
are necefTarily led to it, as the indrument readieft
at hand. With this we fpeak our admiration,
joy, anguifh, averfion, apprthenfion of danger,
kc. where the paflion is very ftrong, we "fre-
quently enforce the A, by adding an Afpirate, as
ah.

42 !7^^ Unlverfal Hiftory

It is obferved of the En^lijh pronunciation,
th:it ttiey i'])cak: the A with a flenderer and more
puny found than any of their neighbours : Or-
dinarily it is fcarce broad enough for a French E
neuter ; and comes far fliort of the grofs A of
the Germans, which would make i\\t\r au or aw,
or 0, — In fome words, however, as talk, wall,
Jlatl, he. the A is broad, and deep enough;
hut this, it is obferved, may not be the mere
found of A, but the efFc£i of the anticnt ortho-
graphy, which, as low as queen Elizabeth, fre-
quently added an u to the A, and wrote tauli,$ic.

B, the fecond letter of moft alphabets, is the
firft confonant, and firft mute, and in its pronunci-
ation is fuppofed to refemble the bleating offtieep.

£ is alfo a Labial, becaufe the principal organs
employed in its pronunciation are the lips. It has
a near affinity with the other labials P and V,
and is often ufed for P, both by the Ar?nenians,
and other orientals ; as in Betrus hr Petrus, Ap-
fens for Abfens, &c. and by the Romans for F, as
in amabit for amavit, Be>na for Fenia, &c.
whence arofe that jell of Aure.ian on the Empe-
ror Bo'iofus, Non ttt vivat natus eji, fed ut bi-
hat.

B requires an entire clofure and prefllire of
the lips to pronounce it, and therefore can fcarce
ever end the found of a word : But when you en-
deavour to pronounce it there, you are obliged to
add an E to open the lips again ; as in Job,
which is founded 'Jobe.

C, is the third letter, or fecond confonant of
the alphabet, and is formed from the k of the
Greeks, by retrenching the ftem, or upright line.

All the Grammarians agree that the Romans
pronounce their q like our c, and their c like our
k : F. M'ibilhn adds, that Charlemagne was the
firll who wrote his name with a C ; whereas all
his predeceflors of the fame name wrote it with a
K, and _the fame difference is obferved in their
coins.

D, the fourth letter of the alphabet, and the
third confonant, is generally ranked by the gram-
marians among the Ungual letters, as fuppofing
the tongue to have the principal fliare in the pro-
nunciation thereof.

The form of our D is the fame with that of
the Latins, and the Latin D is no other than the
Greek A, rounded a little by making it quicker.

£, the iifth lett?r of the alphabet, and the
fecond vowel, admits of fome variety in the pro-
nunciation in moft languages; whence gramma-
lians ufually diftinguifii leveral E's, or kinds of
Ii. The Greeks, e gr. have their fhort and long,
■uiz. I and u, Epfilon and Eta. The Latins have
an opener e, called vajlius, fuch was the fecond

of Arts and Sciences.

e in the word here, ,mafter ; and another clofer,
as that in the adverb, here, yeflerday. 1 his later
e they frequently ufed promifcuoufly with /; thus
for here they wrote hcri, and in divers places we
meet with yjic, qitaje, &c. fox Jibi, q'.afl, &c.

In Engliflj they eafily diftinguifh three E's, or
founds of E ; the firft mute, and not heard at all,
as in Amjlerdam, fenfe, blue, &c. the fecond
clofc, or fhort, pronounced with the Lips near-
ly fhut ; as in equity, nettle, he. the third open
or long, as in fear, eafe, &c.

The French have, at leafl, fix kinds of E ; the
firft pronounced like a, as in emporter, orient, &c..
the fecond a final mute, in tae laft Syllable of divers
words not pronounced at all ; as inbonne, donne. Sic,
the third an imperfect mute, pronounced much like
the dipthong ^a, asjV, ri'e, ic; the fourths fe>me,
or e mafculine, mark d at the end of words with
an /, as in 'Jugi, Chafiie, &c. the fifth is e ou-
vert, or long, having the i'ame found with ai, as
in Msre, Fefte, &c. in the middle of words it is
fometimes marked with a circumflex, and in the
end with an accent i : the fixth is an intermediate E
between the ouvert and ferme, as in Cabaret,
Lettre, &c Some add a feventh kind of e,
not reducible to any of the former, as that in
grammarien,hijhrien, &c. and others admii of on-
ly of three kinds, viz, the mute, open, and Jlmt :
but they make variations therein, which amounts
to the fame thing.

As to the figure of the letter E, we borrow it
from the Latins, who had it from the Greeks.

The little e was formed of the great one, by
writing it faft, and making the crofs ftrokes at
top and bottom without taking the pen off the
paper, and then adding the flroke in the middle.

F, the fixth letter of the alphabet, and the
fourth confonant, may be coniidered abfolutely,
and in itfelf, or with regard to the particular Lan-
guages where it is found. In the firft view, f
is generally placed by fome grammarians among
the mutes, like the * among the Greek gramma-
rians ; though others give it the quality of a femi-
vovvel.

This letter is derived tous fiom the Romans,
who borrowed it from the /£«//'««/, which of con-
fequence, is no other than a corruption of the
Greek * : yet the found was much fofter among
the Latins than among the Greeks ; as was long ago
obferved by Tcrentianus.

It may be added that the pronunciation of the /"
is almoft the fame with that of the v ; as will be
evident by attending to the manner of pronouncing
the following words, favour, vanity, felicity, vice,
foment, vogue, &c. The French, particularly, in
borrowing words from other languages, ufually
1 turn

GRAMMA R.

turn the final v into any", as Chetif, of the Italian
Cattlvo ; Ncuf, of the Latin Nevus ; Nef of the
Latin NLTvis, 5:c.

In the latter Roman writers we find the Latin f
and Greek <p, ph, frequently confounded ; as in
Falanx, for Phalmix; Filofophia, for Philofophia,
&c. which is ftill retained by many French writers,
who write Filofopbie, Filippe, Epifane-, he. and by
the Englijh., as in Fantafy, Filtre, he. *

G, the feventh letter of our alphabet, and the
fifth confonant, is of the mute kind, and cannot be
any way founded without the help of a vowel : it
is formed by the refletSlion of the air againft the
palate, made by the tongue, as the air pafTcs out of
the throat. So that G is a palatal letter.

which is the fame with our h, is frequently changed
for any^ as d.:a<;.fal; mta feptem, &c.

I, the ninth letter of the Englijh alphabet, is
both a vowel and a confonant, agreeable to which
two different powe'S^ it has two different forms.

The Hebrews called the / confonant /»(/, "] ' T,
from "il, handM\& fpace; becaufe it is fuppofed to
reprefent the hand clenched, fo as to leave the
fpace underneath void. With them it was pro-
nounced as the confonant _>>, as it ftill is among the
Germans, and fome other people. The Greekshz.il
no j confonant, and for that reafon ufed their
vowel / inftead of it, as coming the neareft in
found. The French zniEngliJl) have two kinds of
j confonants, the firft has a fnufflina: kind of found,

The Latins took the liberty to drop the letter G and fervcs to modify that of the vowels, pretty

at the beginning of words before an n ; as in gna-
tus-, gnofco, gnobilis, ^narrat,hc. which they ordi-
narily wrote natus, nofco, nobilis, narrat, he. they
alfo frequently changed it into C, zsGamehis, into
Camclus ; Gragulus into Graculus, he. fometimes it
was put inftead of A'^ before a C, and another G ;
as Jgchifes, yfgora, Jgguilla, he. for Jnchijes, An-
chora, Anguilla, he.

The northern people frequently change the G
into P" or W; as in Gallus, IVallus ; Gallia, TValUa,
Vallia, he. for in this inftance it muft not be faid
that the French have changed the IF into G, by
reafon they wrote Gallus long before J f alius., or
TFallia were known, as appears from all the antient
Roman aiid Greek writers.

The form of our G is taken from that oPthe
Latins, who borrow'd it from the Greek samma r.

H, the eighth letter of the alphabet, and the
fixth confonant. Some will only have it an afpi-
ration or Jpirif, becaufe its found is fo weak.

But it is already fhewn that the h, like all the o-
thcr a/pirates, from the time it is afpirated, and for
this very reafon that it is afpirated, is not only
letter, but a real confommt ; it being a motion, or
eftort of the larynx, to modify the found of the
vowel that follows ; as is evident in the words
heaven, health, hero, he. where the vowel e is dif-
ferently modified from what it is in the words
endive, eating, cleSi, he. and fuch modification is
all that is eflential to a confonant.

The h then is a letter, and a confonant of the
guttural k\x\A, i. e. a confonant, to the pronuncia-
tion whereof, the throat concurs in a particular
manner, more than any other of the organs of
voice.

When the /; is preceded by a c, the two letters
together have frequently the founrl of the Hebreiv
K;, with a point over the right horn, as in charity,
chyle, he.

The afpirate, or fharp accent of the Greeks,

much liLe g ; as in jeiv, juj}, jovial ; the latter is
pronounced like the Hebrew jod ; inftances of
which we have in fome of our words, which are
indifferently wrote with aj or an / before a vowel,
as voiage, voyage, loial, loyal, he. in which cafes
the / Is apparently a confonant, as being a motion
of the palate, which gives a modification to the
following vowel.

The vowel /, according to Plato, is proper for
exprefling fine and delicate, but humble things, on
which account that vcrfe in Virgil,

Accipiunt inimicum imbrem, yimifque fatijcunt>

which abounds in z's, is generally admired.

K, a double confonant, and the tenth letter of
the alphabet, is borrowed from the Greek Kappa,
and was but little ufed among the Latins : we
feldom find it in any Latin author, except in the
word Kahnda, where it fometimes ftands in lieu
of a c.

In the Englljl) the k is ufed much more than need
be, particularly at the ends of words, after <.-, as in
publick, phyfick, where it is of no manner of fer-
vice.

L, a femi-vowel or liquid, makes the eleventh
letter of the alphabet. It has a fweet found, and
is pronounced by applying the tongue to the
palate.

The Spaniards and TFelch ufually double the / at
the beginning of a word, which founds nearly the
fame with the Englijli hi, or f.

The figure of our / we borrow from the Latins,
they from the Greeks.

M, a liquid confonant, and the twelfth letter in
the alphabet, is pronounced by ftriking the upper
lip againfl the lower.

^(intilian obferves, that the Greeks always
change ?n, at the end of a word, into «, for the
fake of the better found,

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

N, a liquid confonant, and the thirteenth Ictrei
of the Greek, Latin, French, Englijf), &c. Al
phabets, founds lilce a d, palled through the nofe.
The Abbot Dangeau obferves, that' in the French
the n is frequently a mere nafal vowel, without any
thing of the found of a confonant in it ; he calls it
the Sclav onick vowel.

N before />, b, and m, the Latins change into m,
and frequently into / and r, as in-ludo, illudo ; in-
rigo, irrigo, &c. The Greeks alfo, before «, y, %,
», changed the > into y ; in which they were fol-
lowed by the antient Romans ; who for Angulus,
wrote Aggulus, Sic.

O is the fourteenth letter of the alphabet, and
the fourth vowel. 1 he grammarians call It a clofe
vowel, btcaufe pronounced with the mouth fhut.

Among the Latins, the o bore fo great an affini-
ty with the u, that they frequently confound them;
writing confol, and pronouncing conjid.

The Greeks had two c's, viz. Omicron o, and
Omega, u; the firft pronounced on the tip of the
lips with a fharp found, the fecond in the middle

In the French the r is never pronounced at the
end of a word, unlefs it be immediately before a
vowel, e. gr. aimer fon roy, that r in aimer is not
founded, and the word is pronounced as if there
was none, and as if it was wrote aime fon roy : on
the contrary, in aimer a Loire, the r is pronounced,
becaufe immediately before a vowel ; but then the
pronunciation of the r muft be very foft, as if the
tongue (hould pafs flightly over it, to lay the whole
ftrels on the a.

S, a confonant, and the eighteenth letter of the
alphabet ; is accounted one of the three hiffing con-
fonants, the other two, being z and j. It is alfo
held a femi-vowel, as forming a kind of imperfeiSt
found, without the afliftance of any vowels.

Of all others, the f is neareft a kin to the r ;
hence it was frequently changed, by reafon of its
difagreeable found into r.

The old and the new orthography of the French,
differ chiefly on the ufeof they : the latter omitting
it in writing, where it is not heard in the pronun-
ciation, and the former retaining it. Thus the fol-

of the mouth with a full found, equal to oo in Eng- ' lowers of the one, particularly the academy, in their

/ijh. The long and fliort pronunciation of the
Englijh 0, are an equivalent to the two Greek ones;
the firft as in fuppofe, the iecond as in obey.

P, is a confonant, and the fifteenth letter in the
EngUfii alphabet. When the P is followed with
an /^, in the fame word, it has the found of an F ;
thus philofophy is pronounced fikfophy.

i^, a confonant, and the fixteenth letter of the
alphabet, is always followed by an a,

The Q_is formed from the Hehrciw T? Caph ;
which moil other languages have borrow'd.

In efleiit, there is that relemblance between the
Q_and C in fome languages, and K in others, that
many grammarians, in imitation of the Greeks,
banifli the Q_as a fuperfluous letter.

In the French, the found of the q and k are fo
near akin, that fome of their niceil authors think
the former might be fpared.

Some very learned men make q a double letter,
as well as k and jr. According to them, q is evi-
dently a c and m joined together. It is not enough
that the fouiid is the fame, but they fee the traces
of c u in the figure of Q_; the V being only laid
obliquely, to as to come within the cavity of the
C, as C <.

R, is a liquid confonant, and the feventeenth
letter of tlie alphabet. The grammarians hold it
a femi-vowel, efpccially in the Greek, where, in
common with the other vowels, it admits an afpi-
rate,C5t-. tho' whether the afpirate fliould be founded
before or after it, is fOmc doubt.

The Hebrews allow the r the privilege of a
guttural, that is, they never double it.

dicfaonary. ■wnte tempc/Je, huijire, Jiujh ; thofe of
the other, tempete, huitre, fute, &c. In the fame
language, s is never pronounced, or founded at the
end of a word, unlefs, like tlie r it be immediately
before a vowel ; as, javois chant'e, s in javois, is
not founded before chant'e and the word is pro-
nounced as if there was no s, viz. javoi chante ; but
it is not the fame in javois aime, where the s is
pronounced, as if it was wrote javoi faime.

T, a confonant, and the nineteenth letter in the
alphabet, in found, bears a refemblance to the d,
for which reafon they are often put for each other.

The t is one of the five confonants. which the
Abbot Dangeau calls palatal, and which are d, t,
g, k, and n : the four firft whereof have the fame
relation to each other, as the labial b, p, and v,f,
have. D, for inltance, having the fame relation
to /, that b has top, or v tof.

U, is the fifth vowel, and the twentieth letter in
the alphabet. Befides the vov/el u, there is a con-
fonant of the fame denomination, wrote v, or V.

The pronunciation of th^ u. as now ufed among
the Englijh, trench, &c. is borrow'd from the an-
tient Ggulifn ; for all the other weftern people,
with the Romans, pronounce it ou.

W, is a letter particular to the northern lan-
guages and people, as the EfigUJti, Dutch, Polijh,
and others of Teuionick and Sclavonick original, and
admitted into the French, Italian, &c in proper
names, and other terms, borrowed from the lan-
guages where it is ufed.

In Englifb, the w is ufually a confonant, and as
fuch may go before all the vowels, except in « .• as

GRAMMAR.

in want^ -weapon., winter, world, &c.

It is fometimcs alfo a vowel, and as iuch follows
any of the vowels, a, e, », and unites with them
into a kind of treble vowel, or tripthong ; as in
laiv, ewe, fow, he.

X, is a double confonant, and the twcnty-llcond
letter of the Englijh alphabet.

The X of the Latins, and ^ of the Greeks, are
compofed of e s, and x a- ; whence to this day the
letter x, in the Englijh and French, has the fame
found with c f, or k f. Thus we pronounce Alex-
mider, as if wrote Alecfander or AUkJaniler.

The Italians have no x at all in their language,
but both fpealc and write AleJJbndro. The Speiniards
pronounce the x like the Englijh e before a ; viz.
Alexandro, as if it were Alecandro. The Portuguefe
pronounce it lik.e>Z>, as muxois i^vono\in<zs<lmujho.

In foreign words ufed in Englijl?, they fometimes
foften the x into a double_y; as BruJJcls, for Brux-
elUs, Sec.

This letter is not known in the Hebrew, or other
oriental languages ; but in lieu of it, they write the
two fimple letters, whereof it is compounded, and
the like do the modern Germans.

y is the twenty-third letter in the Englijh zl^hz-
bet, borrowed originally from the Greek v

It is occafionally both vowel and eonjonant. As a
vowel, fome authors have judged it unnocefTarv in
Englijh, in regard its found is precifely the fame
with that of the /. Accordingly it is but little ufcd,
except in words borrow'd from the Greek, to denote
their origin, by reprefenting the Greek YiXov.

The vowel y has a place in fome words purely
in EngliJIi, and that both in the middle thereof, as
in dying, frying, &c. and at the end as in lay, &c.

Z is the laft letter in the alphabet, and one of
the double confonants, both ^mong the Latins and
Greeks. The found was not always the fame as it
is now, which is but as it were half that of an S.

All the letters of the alphabet, heretofore men-
tioned, were alfo numeral charaiiers among the
antients, vi%.

A ftgnified 500, with a dafli a-top a it flood
for 5000. This ufage was introduced in the days
of barbarifm.

b" flood for 3000 ; with a kind of accent below
it flood for 200 : but among the Greeks as well as
Hebrews, this letter fignified only two.

C, among the Romans, fignified 100.

D fignified 500 ; U denotes 5000.

E fignified 250.

F fignified 40.

G fignified 400 ; g fignified 40,000.

H fignified 200 ; h fignified 200,000.

I, in the ordinary Roman way of numbering,
Vol. II. 30.

fignifies one ; and when repeated, fignifics as many
units as it is repeated times, i, c. 100.

K fignified 250; K flood for 250,000.

L fignified 50 ; T flood for 50,000.

M fignified I coo ; M fignifics a thoufaad times
a tlioufand.

N fignified 900; FT flood for 9000.

O fignified i i ; o" fignified 11.000.

P fignified the fame wiih G, viz. 400, though
Baronius thinks it rather flood for feven : "p flood
for 400,000.

Q_ fignified 500 : Q[_denoted 500,000.

R fignified 80: R fignified 80,000.— •

S fignified feven.

T fignified 160: t fignified 160,000.

V fignifies five : v" fignified 5000.
X denotes 10.

Y fignified 150, or according to Baronius 159 ;
"fignified 150,000.

Z fignified 2000 : z fignified two ihoufend
times two thoufand.

The numeral charaflers, now chiefly in ufe, are
the eommon and the Roman ; to which may be ad-
ded the Greek.

Ccnnnon characters, are thofe ordinarily called the
Arahich, as fuppoied to have been invented by the
Arahick aftronomers ; though the Arabs themfelves
call them the Indian charaiiers, as if they had bor-
rowed them from the people of India. The Arei-
bick charafters are ten, viz. i, 2. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, o, the laft called a cypher.

The Reman charaSier, confifts of the majufculc
letter of the Roman alphabet.

The numeral letters, that compofe the Reman
chara^ers, are feven, viz, I, V, X, L, C, D, M.
The I denotes one, V five, X ten, L fifty, C hun-
dred, D five hundred, M a thoufand. The I re-
peated twice makes two, II; thrice, three III ;
four is exprefled thus IV; I before V or X taking
an unit from the number exprefled by each of thofe
letters. To exprefs fix, an 1 is added to a V, VI :
for feven, two, VII : and for eight, three, VIII :
nine is exprefled by an I before X, IX, agreeable
to the preceding remark. The like remark may
be tnade of the X before L or C, except that the
diminution is by tens, not units, thus XL fignifies
forty, and XC ninety : and L followed with an X
fixty, LX, l3e. The C before D or M, diminifhcs
each by a hundred. Eefides the letter D which
exprefles five hundred, that number may alfo be
exprefled, by an I before a C inverted, thus l3,
and thus in lieu of the M, which fignifies a thou-
fand, is fometimes ufed an I between two C's, the
one ereft, the other inverted, thus CIO : agreeable
to this fix hundred may be exprefled loC, and
feven hundred lOCC, ^c,

H The

46 The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts «;7^ Sciences.

The Greeks had three ways of expreffing num- j nor compounded from any other word of the fame.

Thus God K a. primitive, godly a. derivative, god-like
a compound.

bers, the moll: fiiTiple was for every fingle letter,
according to its place in the alphabet, to denote a
number from a i, to w 24, in which manner the
books of Homcr\ Iliads are diflinguifhcd. Another
way was by dividing the alphabet into 8 units , a 1,
^ 2, &c. tens ; 1 12, « 20, &c. Hundreds ; 5 100,
c 2C0. Thoufands they exprefled by a point, or
accent under a letter, e. gr. a. 1000, C2000, &c.
A third way was by fix capital letters, thus I (ia for

f/Act) I, n^OTiKls) 5, A [ItKa) 10, H (HixaTCv) 100,
X (xi^ia) lOOO, M (pojia) lOOOO.

The Hebrew alphabet was divided into 9 units :
K I,. 2 2, &c. — 9 tens: * jo, 2 2o, &c. 9 hun-
dreds ; p 100, "1 200, &c. "j 500, O 600. \ 700,
pi 800, Y 900. — Thoufands were fometimes ex-
prefled by units preiix'd to hundreds, as, "I'^IN*,
1534, &c.

From the doflrine of letters and charaBers, we'll
proceed to Syllables. A fyllable is part of a word,
confifting of one or more letters, which are pro-
nounced together ; or a compleat found, uttered
in one breath, confining either of a vowel alone, or
of a vowel and one or more confonants : or, accord-
ing to Scaliger, z. fyllable is an element under one
tone or accent, that is, which can be pronounced at
once : or, according to Prijcian, a comprehenfion
of feveral letters falling under one accent, and pro-
duced at one motion of the breath : or, a literal or
articulate voice of an individual found.

In every word, therefore, there areas m?ir\y fylla-
bles as there are vocal founds, and as many vocal
founds, as there are fimple, or compound voivcls ;
each whereof requires a diftinft motion of the
peroral m\i(c\es. Thus a, «, a, make three y^/Zf?-
bles., formed by fo many motions, diftinguiflied by
fmall flops between each expiration.

From the number of fyllables in words, they are
denominated monafylhihles, b: fyllables, trifyllables,
polsfyllables, q d. words of one fyllable, two fylla-
bles, three fyllables, and many fyllables.

Words are diftiniH: articulate founds aereed on
by mankind, to convey their thoughts and Icnti-
ments.

Words, as obferved, are divided into monofyllables,
bifyllables, he.

MonojyUahles are words of a fingle fyllable, or
which confiiL of one or more letters pronounced
together.

[Vurds, again, are divided into primitives and
derivatives, fimple and compound, fynonymons and
equivocal.

Primitive, is a root, or a word in a language,
which is neither derived from any other language,

Derivative is a word which takes its origin frfi:n
another word, called its primitive. Manhood,
deity, lavjyer, &c. are derived from man, deus, law,
Sic.

Equivocal h a word or expreffion,that is dubious,
and ambiguous ; or that may have feveral fenfes,
one true and another falfe. — Such is the word
emperor, which is both the name of a dignitv, the
proper name of a perfon, and the name of a
plant.

In thefe cafes one word denotes divers concep-
tions, and divers things.

Synonymous is a word that has the fame import,
or fignification with another.

The mofl celebrated Grammarians divide words
into eight clajfes, called parts of fpeech ; which are
Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Con-
junction, Prepofition, and Interjection ; to one or
other of which, all the words, and turns in all
languages, which have, or may be invented to
expreCs our ideas, are reducible.

Noun is the name or word, which exprefles the
fubject fpoke of; or exprefles a fubjecSt, whereof
fomething is, or may be affirmed ; as man, food,
whitenefs, Henry, &c. A Noun, therefore, in lan-
guage, anfwers to an idea in Logick

Nouns, again, are divided into Nouns Subftan-
tive, and Nouns AdjeElive.

They are called Subfiantives, when the objefls,
they defign, are confider'd Amply in themfelves,
and without any regard to their qualities.

They are called Adje£lives, when their objedls
are confidered as cJoath'd with any qualities.
Thus, when I fay fimply, the Heart, in Englijh,
the word Heart, is called a Noun Suhftantive,
inafmuch as it does not exprefs anvof its qualities j
but if I fay in Englifh, the generous Heart, I then
confider the Heart, accompanied with the quality
of generous. For this realbn, the word generous
is called a Noun Adjefilve ; becaufe it adds a quali-
ty to the objeft.

Nouns are again divided into proper and appella-
tive. Nouns proper are thofe, which exprefs a par-
ticular thing or perfon, (o as to didinguifh it from
all other things of the fame kind, as Socrates,
Peter, Paul, James, Sic. Nouns appellative are
thofe common to feveral individuals, of the fame
kind, as Man, Angel, &c.

There are alfo heterogeneous Nouns, which
are fuch as are of one gender in the Angular num-
ber, and of another in the plural. Thefe Nouns
are alfo called Heteroclite, of which we have
I various

GRAMMA R.

various forts, viz. dcfe£live and redundant Hcte-
roclitcSf &c. Under the clafs of //k'/^r«(,///i.f come
Aptotes, Dlptotes, Moiiaptotcs, Iriptotes, Tetrap-
totes, Pcntaptotes, &c.

Aptote is a noun without any variation of cafe ;
as, fas nihil, &c.

Diptole has only two cafes ; as, Nom. fors, Abl.
forte.

Triptotes have only three cafes ; fuch is dicn,
dicas, dicam.

TelmptotebAve only four cafes, as yepetunda,$cc.

Pentaptote has only five cafes.

Pronoun is a part of fpeech, ufed in lieu
of noun, or name; whence the denomination from
pro and nomcn, q. d. for noun or name.

As it would have been difagreeable to have been
always repeating the fame name, there are words
invented in all languages, called Pronotms, to fave
the neceffity thereof, and to ftand in the place of
names ; as in EngUJh, I, thou, he.

They are called Pronouns, becaufe ufed in the
place of particular Nouns.

Thz grammarians ordinarily diflinguifh Pronouns
into four clalTes, with regard to their different fig-
nification, formation, l^c. viz. Pronouns perfonal,
relative, pojfejfive, and demonjirative, to which may
be added, indeterminate Pronouns.

Perfonal Pronouns are thofe ufed in lieu of names
of particular perfons ; fuch are /, thou, he, we, ye,
they ; or in French, may, toy, luy, nous, vous, eux.

Pronouns relative are thofe placed after Nouns,
with which they have fuch affinity, that without
them they fignify nothing, fuch are who, that ; or
in French, qui, cela, &c.

Pronouns poffeffive are thofe, which exprefs what
each poiTefles, or what belongs to him, as mine,
thine, his ; or in French, mien, tien, fiene. Sec.
Thefe are pure Adjeflives, and only differ from
the reft by the relation they bear to Pronouns,
whence they are derived, and by fome particular
inflexions, which they have in fome languages.

Pronouns demonjirative are thofe, -which ferve to
indicate or point out the fubjeit fpoken of; as this,
thofe ; or in French, cecy, cela, ceuxla, or celles la,
&c.

Pronouns indefinite are thofe, which exprefs their
fubjeft indeterminately ; as however, any, &c.

Pronouns are likewife divided into Sub/lantive
and JdjeSiive. To the firft belong /, thou, he ;
to the fecond, my, mine, who, luhat, he,

pronouns may alfo be confider'd in two ftates ;
the firft or foregoing ftate, as /, we ; the fecond
or following one, as tne, us.

It has been thought proper, in order to render

difcourfe more exprefs and dilL'n<Sl, as alfo to em-
bellifh it by a variety of terminations, to contrive
certain diverfities in Adjedlives, accommodated to
the Subfluntives they are applied to : v/hence from
a regard to that notable difference there is betv/ecn
the two fcxes, all Nouns Subftantive have been di-
ftinguiOied, iii tnafadine znd feminine genders ; and
the Nouns Adjedive alfo varied to correfpond
therewith.

But as there was an infinity of words, which had
no proper relation, either to the one lex or the other,
they had genders afligned them, rather out of ca-
price than reafon ; and hence it is that the gender
of a Noun, is frequently dubious and flaftuating.

This inftitution of genders was introduced by
cuftom and ufage. At firfl: there was only a dif-
ference between the names of animals, when fpokc
of males and females ; by degrees the fame regula-
tion was extended to other things : the Grammari-
ans have only noted and allowed what ufagc had
eftabliflied.

The oriental languages frequently neglefl: the
ufe of genders ; and the Perfian language has none
at all. The Latins, Greeks, &c. generally con-
tent themfelves to exprefs the different genders by
different terminations ; zs Lonus equus, a good horfe;
bona equa, a good mare ; but in Englijh they go
farther, and exprefs the difference of fex, by dif-
ferent words ; as boar, fow ; boy, girl ; buck,
doe ; bull, cow ; cock, hen ; dog, bitch , l^c.
The French follow in fome things the praiSice of
the Latins, and in others that of the Englijh. For
they fometimes exprefs the difference of genders,
by different terminations ; as afne, afnejfe ; chien,
chiene ; chat, chatte, &c. and fometimes by differ-
ent words ; as gargon, file : tareau, vache ; cerf,
biche, &C.

The Englijh have only about twenty-four fe-
minines, diflinguifiied from the males, by the varia-
tion of the termination of the male into efs ; of
which number are abbot, abbefs; count, countefs ;
after, actrefs ; heir, heirefs ; prince, pr incefs, l^c.
which is all the Englijh know of any thing like
genders.

The eaftern languages, as well as the vulgar ones
of the weft, have only tvio genders ; the mafculine
and feminine. The Greeks zndLatins have likewife
the neuter, common, and the doubtful gender ; and
befides thefe, they have the epicene or promifcuous,
which under one fingle gender or termination, in-
cludes both the kinds.

The A-t.fuIinc Gender, is that which belongs
to the male kind, or fomething analogous to it.

The Feminine Gender is that which denotes
the noun or name to belong to a female.

H 2 The

.8 The UnlveiTal Hiftory of Arts ^;Z(a? Sciences.

The Neuter Is a fort of gender of nouns, which
are neither mafculinc nor feminine. In Etiglifl:,
and other modern languages, there is no fuch thing
as Neuter Nouns.

Epicene is a term applied to Nouns, which un-
der the fame gentler and termination, mark indif-
ferently two kinds or fexcs ; ("uch in Latin is aqutla,
vefpertilio, &c. which fignify equally a male or
female eagle, or hat

Grammarians diftinguifh between Epicene and

Common. A Noun is faid to be common of two

kinds, when it may be joined either with a mafcu-
line or a feminine article ; and Epicene, when it is
always joined to fome one of the two articles, and
yet lignifles both genders.

The Inflection of a Noun, according to its
different cafes, is called Declension, which is a
different thing in the modern languages, which
have not properly any cafes, from what it is in the
antient Greek and Latin which have.

Decknfion in languages, wherein the Nouns ad-
mit of changes, whether in the beginning, middle,
or end, is properly the expreffing or reciting of all
thofe changes in a certain order, and by certain
degrees, called cajei.

In languages wherein the Nouns do not admit
of changes, declenfion is the expreffing of the dif-
ferent ftates or habitudes a Noun is in, and the
different relations it has ; which difference of rela-
tion is mark'd by particles, called articles, as <?,
the, to, from, &c. and in French (in the fmgular
number) le, la, iu, o, au, or a, le ; and in the
plural number, les, des, aux, les. Sec.

Every declenfion has commonly two nuiKhers,
viz. t\ii: fmgular and the plural; which numbers
are a modification of Nouns, Wi'. toacccmmodate
them to the varieties in their objedls, conuder'd with
regard to number.

When a Noun indicates an ohjc£l:, confider'd as
fingle or alone, or a number of them con der'd as
united together, it is faid to be of the fingular num-
ber ; as a tree, a troop, a temple. Sec. or in Fremh,
un homme, un file, un temple, he.

When it indicates feveral objeiSs, and thofe as
diftinct, it is of the plural number ; as temples, trees,
&c. or in French, hommes, files, &c. Thus when
I f])eak of myfelf, as making part of fcvcral ethers,
infleadof/, I fay ic;^, m French, nous, !ic.

The Greeks have a third number, which they
call the dual number, as fiinifying two. The He-
brews have fomething like it, but then it only takes
place when the words fignify a thing double liy na-
ture, as the hands, the eyes, ^'c. or by art, as
V-iffars, tongs, ^c.

As to common und appellative names, they feem

all naturally to require a plural number ; yet there
are feveral which have none, as the names oi gold,
Jleel, he.

The difference of numbers in Nouns, is exprefs'd
by a difference q^ termination or ending.

In Englijh and French, the fmgular is ufually
converted into plura', by adding s ; as tree, trees,
hand, hands ; and in French, arbre, arbres, main,
mains, he. where the pronunciation requires it in
Eitgli/l), as when the fmgular ends in s or x, Jh or
cA, it is ufually done by the addition of «,inftead of x.

The plurals of Adjeftives, though varied from
the fuigulars in moft other languages, yet in Eng-
lijh are generally the lame.

Every number has commonly ftx cafes, or dif-
ferent inflexions, or terminations of nouns ;
ferving to exprefs the different flates or relations
they bear to each other, and to the things they
reprefent.

They are called Nominative, Genitive, Dative^
Accufative, Vocative, and Ablative.

Though feveral of thefe cafes be frequently alike,
as the Gentive and Dative fingular, of the firft de-
clenfion of the Latin ; the Dati\e and Ablative
plural ofthefecond, ^c. the Genitive and Dative
dual of the Greek, he. fo that the termination is
not the fole criterion of the cafe.

The fimple pofition, or laying down of a noun
or name, which is declinable, is called the Noml-
tive cafe, yet it is not fo properly a cafe, as the
matter, or ground whence the other cafes are to
be form'd, by the feveral changes and inflecfions
given to this firft termination. Its chief ufe is to
be placed in difcourfe before all verbs, as the fub-
jeifts of the propolition or affirmation, as dominus
regit me, the Lord governs me ; Deus exaudtt 7nc,
God hears me.

The relation of one thing, confider'd as belong-
ing in feme manner to another, has occafioned a pe-
culiar termination of nouns, called the Genitive cafe.

In Englijh, the genitive cafe is made by pVcfixing
the particle of; in French, de, or du, he.

The Dative expreffes the ftate or relation of a
thing, to vifhofe profit or lofs fome other thing is
referr'd. It is called Dative, becaufe ufually go-
vern'd by a verb imp'ying fomething to be given
to fome perfon ; as commodctre Socrati, to lend to
Socrat»i.

In Englijh this relation is exprefled by the fign
to or for ; and in French, by the fign a, or au.

The Accufative is the fourth cafe of nouns, that
are declin'd. Its ufe may be conceived from this,
that all verbs, which exprefs a<3ions, that pafs
from the agent, as to beat, he. muft have fubjefts

GRAMMAR,

to receive thofe anions ; for, if I heat^ I muft beat
fomething ; fo that fuch Verb, evidently requires
after it a Noun or name, to be the objedt of the
a<Sion cxpreffed. Hence in all languages, v/hich
have cafes, the Nouns have a termination, which
the\' call Acaifaiive ; as, amo Drum, I love God.

In Englifti and French, they have nothing to dif-
tinguifh this cafe from the Ntmir.ative ; but as they
ordinarily place words in their natural order, it is
eafily difcovered ; the Nominative conftantly pre-
ceding, and the Acaijatiiie following the Verb.
Thus when we fay x.\\-xt'John loves Jane^ and 'Jane
loves John ; "John is the Nominative in the firft,
and the Accufative in the lail ; and 'Jane is the A:-
cufative in the firft, and the Nominative in the
laft.

The Vocative is the fifth cafe, or ftate of Nouns.
When we name the perfon we are fpeakinjr to, or
addrefs ourfelves to the thing we are (peaking of, as
if it were a perfon, the Noun or name requires a
new relation, which the Latins and Greeks exprefs
by anew termination caWzA Focative. ThusofZ>3-
minus. Lord, in the Nominative, the Latins have
made Domine,0 Lord, in the Vocative; o\ Amonius,
Antmii, &c. But as this was a thing not abfolutelv
neceffary, and as the Nominative cafe might ferve
On fuch occafions, this new cafe or termination,
was not univerfal in the plural ; for inftance, it was
the fame with the N^ominative; even in the lingular,
it was only praftifed in the fecond declenfion a-
mong the Latins ; and in Greek where it is the
moft common, it is frequently negledted, and the
Nominative ufed inftead of it ; as in that paffage in
the Greek Pfalms, quoted by St. Paul, to prove the
divinity of JeJusChri/i, S^onot o-u 5 ©ao;, thy throne
O God!

In Englijh, and moft of the modern tongues,
this cafe is ordinarily cxprefled in Nouns, that have
an article in the Nominative, by fuppreffing that
article ; as, Tl)e Lord is my hope. Lord, thou art
my hope ! Though on many occafions we ufe an
Interjedtion.

The Ablative is the fixth cafe of Latin Nouns.
The Ahiative is oppofite to the Dative ; the firft
exprcffing the aflion oi taking away, and the latter
that o( giving.

Ill EngUp, French, &c. thpre Is no precife mark,
whereby to diftinj^uifh theAl^lat've from other cafes;
and we only ufe the term in anr.logy to the Latin.
Thus in the two phrafes, the magnitude of the city,
and hefpokc much of the city; we fay, that of the city,
in the firft k Genitive, and in the latter Ablative ;
becaufe it woaid be fo, if the two phrafes were cx-
prefled in Latin.

Verbs are thus called of the Latins^ verhwn.

word, by way of eminence ; the Verb being the
principal word of a fcntence.

The common definition given by grammarians,
is, that a Verb is a word that betokens being, doing,
or juff'ering,

T o conceive the origin and office of Verbs, it
may be obferved, that the judgment we make of
any thing, as when I fay, the earth is nund, nc-
ccilarily includes three terms. The firlt called the
fubje£i, is the thing we affirm of, e. gr. earth. The
fecond called attribute, is the thing affirmed, e. gr.
round. The third, is, conneiffs thofe two tcims
together, and exprelles the action of the mind, af-
firming the attribute of the fubjedl.

This laft is what we properly call Verb. Its prin-
cipal ufe is to fhew the difcourle, wherein that word
is ufed, is the difcourfe of a man, who does not
only conceive things, but judges and affirms fome-
vt'hat of them.

Verbs are varioufly divided : with refpect to the
fubje<5l they are divided into aiiive, paffive, neuter,
he. With refpetSt to their inflections, into rt-gular,
and irregular ; perjonal, and im^erfonal, auxiliary,
fubjlantive. Sic,

Verb aiiive is a Verb, which expreftes an ac-
tion, that falls on another fubjed,or objedt. Such
are, I love, I work, &c. which fignify the aiStioa
of loving, working, &c. — Ofthefe Grammarians
make three kinds ; the one called tranfitivc, where
the adion pafles on a fubjeft different from the
agent; — refietled, where the aftion returns upon
the agent — reciprocal, where the adlion returns
mutually upon the two agents that produce it.

Verb pajjive is that, which exprefles a p.iffion,
or which receives the a£lion of fome agent, and
which is conjugated in the modern tongues witli
the auxiliary Verb, I am, jc Juis, &c.

Verb neuter is that, which fignifies an aclion,
that has no particular obje£t whereon to fall ; but
which, of itfelf, takes up the whole Idea of the
action ; — as, / Jlcp, thou yawnejl, he fnores, we
lualk, you run. theyjhind. — The Latin's call them
neuters, b}' reafon they are neither ofiive nor p if-
ftve ; though they have the force and figniScatio.n
of both : as Ilanguifl}. fignifies as much as to fay lam
lariguijhing ; I ob,y, as much as / excrcife oledience,
he. only that they have no regimen to particularize
this fign',n> at ion.

Ofthefe Verbs there are fome, which form their
tenl'es bv \l:':auxiUa-yVerb,tc have ; as, Ihaveflept, you
have "UK. — Grammarians call thele Neuters aciive.

OtlvT;: cic -e are, which form their compound
parts by the auxiliary, to be ■, as to come, to arrive,
&c. for we fay / am come, net / halite come ; in
French., fe fuis venu, not Jai vennu, he. Thefe
are are crJIed Neuters paffive.

iToe Univerfal Hiflory of Arts and Sciences.

A Vnv.'R fubj^anlive IS th?Li, which exprefies the
being, or fubftance, which the mind forms to itielf,
or fuppoil'S in the ol)je(5l ; whether it be there or
rot ; as, I am, thou art; in French, Jc fuis, tu es.

Auxiliary, or helping Verbs, are t-hofc, wiiich fcrve
in conjugating aSlive zi\dpqffive Ferbs ; fuch are, /
am, I have, &c.

Ferbs in the EngUJ)), and mod modern tongues,
do not change their endings, as in Latin, to denote
the fcveral times, modes, i3c. of their being, do-
ing, or fufFering ; but in lieu thereof, make ufe
of auxiliaries : as, have-, am, be, do, will., jhall,
may, can, &c.

Regular Verbs are thofe, which are conjugated
after fome one manner, rule, or analogy.

Irregular, or anamolous Verbs are thofe, which
have fomething lingular in the terminations, or
formation of their Tenfes.

The irregularity \n Englijh Verbs lies wholly in
the formation of the preter Tenfe, and paflive
Participle. — The firff, and moft general irregula-
rity, took its rife from the quicknefs of our pro-
nunciation, by changing the confonant d into t ;
the vowel e, in the regular ending ed, being cut off,
that the pronunciation might be more ready : thus
for divelled, keeped,fnded, we fay dwelt, kept, jent.

Verbs imperfonal are thofe, which have only
the third perfon, as it behoves, i^c.

As the Nouns are declined, the Verbs are conju-
gated : and what is called Declenfion, with regard
to Nouns, ^f. is called Conjugation with regard
to Vei bs.

Conjugation is an orderly diftribution of the
feveral parts or inflexions of Z^^''^/, in their different
Moods and Tenfes, to diftinguifh them from each
other.

The Latins have four Conjugations, diffinguifli-
cd by the terminations of their Infinitive, are, ere.
ere, ire ; and mofl of the French grammarians re-
duce the Conjugations of their language to the fame
number, ending in er, re, ir, and oir.

In F.n"lijh, where the Verbs have fcarce any na-
tural inflexions, but derive all their variations from
additional Particles, Pronouns, i^c. we have hardly
ai!v iuch things as ftrict Conjugations.

'Conjugations confift of Moods, Tenfes, Perfons,
and Numbers.

Mood, or Mode is ufed to fignify the different
manners of conjugating Verbs, agreeably to the
different aflions, or affeiSlions to be expreffed ; as
/hewing, commanding, wijhing, &tC.

Hence arife five Moods, viz the Indicative, Im-
perative, (jptative, Subjunifivt', and Infinitive.

Some Grammarians reckon but four Moods, con-
founding the Optative with the Subjunilive, and

fome make Jix, dividing the Optative into Poten-
tial, and Optative.

The Greeks have five Moods of Verbs differing
in termination ; but the Latins have but four. —
In Englijh, the terminations arc the fame in all the
Moods.

The Indicative is the firll Mood, or manner of
conjugating Verbs, (hewing either the time pre-
fent, pa(r, or future.

The Imperative is the Mood, or manner of con ■
jugating a Verb, fervingto exprefs acommandment,
as ^», come; or in French, cdles, venes, &c.

The Optative is the third Mood, in the conju-
gation of Verbs, ferving to exprefs an ardent defire,
or wifh for any thing.

Inftcad of a particular Mood, or a particular fet
of infle(5lions to exprefs this defire, the Engli/h,
Latins, Sec. exprefs it by an Adverb of wilhing
prefixed to it ; the Latins by utinam ; and the
Engli/h by vjould to God, &c.

The Suhjuniiive is the fourth Mood, or manner
of conjugating Verbs ; thus called, becaufe ufually
fubjoined to Ibme other Verbs, or at leafl: to fome
other particle, as if I love ; tho' this were true.
Sec.

The Greek is almoll the only language, that
properly has any Su'jun^iive Mood ; though the
French, Spani/h, and Italian have fome fhew there-
of.— In all other languages the fame inflections
ferve for the Optative and Subjunilive Moods.

The Infinitive is the fifth Mood, or manner of
conjugating of Verbs.

'1 he Infinitive does not denote any precife time,
nor does it determine the number, or perfons, but
expreffes things in a loofe indefinite manner, as ta
teach, &c.

In mofl: languages both antient and modem, the
Infinitive is diftinguifhed by a termination peculiar
to it, as TtwJnv in the Greek, fcrihere in the Latin,
ecrire in the French, fcrivere in the Italian, &c. but
the Englifi) is defeciive in this point ; fo that to de-
note the Infinitive, they are obliged to have re-
couri'e to the article to, except ibmetimes when
two or more Infinitives follow each other.

Of all thz Moods we have mentioned, the orien-
tal languages have none but the Imperative. The
method taken for it in Englifii is either to omit the
Pronoun, or tranfpole it j thus, we love, is a fimple
affirmation ; love we,ox let us, an Imperative.

Tense, time (the next thing I confider in the
conjugation of Verbs) is one inflexion of Verbs,
whereby they are made to fignify, or diftinguifh
the circumitance of time, of the thing they affirm
or attribute.

The afF.rmatives made by Verbs, are different
as to point of time j fince we may affirm a thing is,

was.

GRAMMAR,

was, or will be ; hence a neccflity of a fct of in-
flexions, to denote thofe fcvcral times ; wliic'i in-
fledlions the EngUjh Gi»nimarians call bjr a barba-
rous word tenjes, from the Luiiii teniptts, time ;
and mod other languages call them fimply
times.

There arc but three fimple Tenfes -, the prefent,
as I love, amo, in Latin, J'aiMe, in French; the
pretcr, frdcr.t, or pafl, I have loved, amavi, in
Latin, j'ai aime, in French ; and the future., as /
VJill love, amaho, in Latin, j'aimerai, in French.

'The feveral tenfes or times, are properly denoted
in the Greek and Latin by particular inflexions : in
the Englijl}, French, and other modern tongues,
the auxiliary Verbs to be, and to have, etre and
avoir are called in.

As to the oriental languages, they have only two

fmple tenfes, the pcjl, and future, without any dif-

■ tinXions o? imperfeSi, more than perfeSf, Sec. which

renders thofe languages fubjeiSt to abundance of

ambiguities, which others are free from.

:••'•■ 'Verbs when 'conjugated, are applicable to three

-different />.t/o«j-, r.gr. — I love, jdime, is a Verb

ufed in the fiffi perfon ; thou loveji, tu aime, defigns

the fecond perfon ; he loveth, il aime, marks the

third, and thus in the plural number: for Verbs in

their conjugations, like Nouns in their declenfions

admit of two numbers, vi%. \^t. fingular , and the

plural number.

From the Verbs we'll pafs to the Participle,
which is an AdjeXive formed of a Verb ; fo called,
becaufe it ftill participatrs of fome of the properties
of the Verb, retaining the regimen and fignification
thereof j whence moft authors confound it with
Verbs.

There are two kinds of Participles, the one
called aSiive, becaufe expreffing the fubjeX, which
makes the aXion of the Verb ; as Irgens, atcdiens,
reading, hea'ing. The other called />f?^j;^, becaufe
expreffing the fubjeX that receives the aXion of
the Verb, as leSfum, anditum, read, heard.

As the Englijh AdjeXives are not declined, the
participls being real Adjectives, are not declined
neither; in the Latin, See. where the AdjeXives
are declined, the participles a£five, are declin'd like-
wife. Thus they fay audlens, aiidieniis, audienti,
&c. and in the French, the participles paffive are de-
clinable as their Adjectives, zsfai leu, il a leu, nous
avous lus, he.

In the Englijh, the Participles and Gerunds are
not at all diftinguifhable.

Gerund is a fort of tenfe or time of the infi-
nitive Mood, like to the participle, but indeclina-
ble

It differs from the participle, in that it cxprcllis
the tim?\ which the participle docs not. And from
the tenfe, properly fo call d, in that it cxprelles
the mimncr, which the tenfe does not.

Grammarians are much cmbaraded to fettle the
nature and characcr oi C-eruruis : it is certain they
are no verbs, nor diftinX moods of verbs, in regard
tiiey do not mark any judgrrjcnt or afnrmation of
the mind, which is the eCcnce of the verb And
bcfides they have cafes, which verbs have not.
fome, therefore, will have them to be adjectives
pafiive,whofc fubflantive is the infinitive of the verb,
on this footing, they denominate them vei bal nouns,
or names formed of verbs, and retaining the ordi-
nary regimen thereof; thus fav they, timpus e/fle-
gendi lihrcs, or librerum, is as much as to fay, tem-
pus ell T« legere libros, v I Uhrorum ; but otiiers
ftand up againft this dccifion.

The Ad\'ERb is a particle join'd to a verb, aJ-
jeXive, or p.irticiple, to exprefs their manner of
afiing or fuffcring j or to mark fome circumftance
or quality fignified by them.

The word is formed from the prepofition ad, to,
and vcrbuin, a word, and fignifies literally a word
joined to a verb, to fhew how, or when, or where
one is, does, or kiffers ; as the boy paints «(?fl/'/y,
writes /// ; the houfe flands there, he.

Not that the adverb is confin'd purely to the
verb, but becaufe that it is moft ordinarily in ufe,
whence it becomes fo denominated, xar' thpf^rt. We
frequently find it join'd to adjeftives, and fome-
times even to fubftantives, particularly where thofe
fubftantives fignify an attribute, or quality of the
thing fpoken of ; v. gr. he is very fick, he -acXs pru-
dently, he is truly king.

An Adverb is likewife join'd fometimes to ano-
ther Adverb, to modify its meaning, v. g. very de-
voutly ; in French, fort devotement, whence iome
Grammarians chule rather to call zA\'zrh&,modifica-
tivcs ; comprizing under this one general term,
both adverbs, conjunillons, prepofitions, and even
adjeifives.

Adverbs are very numerou^, but may be reduced
under the general clafles of Adverbs of time, of p. ace,
of order, of quantity, of quality, of manners, of a_ffir-
maticn, oi doubting, and of comparifon.

A Conjunction is a particle, which expreflesa
relation, or dependance between words and phrafes,
thus called, becaufe ferving to join or connedt the
parts, or members of a difcourfe.

Cor'junitions render the diicourfe more fmooth,
and fluent ; and ferve very good purpofes in the
argumentative and narrative %le, but mull ever be

omitted

Th Univcrfal Hiftory of Arts ^;^d^ Scien ces.

Let us now proceed to the lafl divifion of Gram-
mar, i.e. \\\. do^.lrini oi feutences, which confiders
the placing or joining words together, cdWcAfyntax.

omitted where a perfon fpeakb with emotion,
ferviiig to weaken and enervate it.

C'.njun^ions are of various kinds. — Copulative.,
or con)u:i£live Conjunf.liom are thofe, which exprefs
a relation of union, or comparifon between things;
as, and, ^; only, tanttim ; as rv.w.'.: as, tantum
quan'um; in the fame manner zs, quemarlmodum;
neither more nor leis, tantumdem ; ina'r.iuch as,
.quippe ; not only, non modo ; butalfo, yi// etiam, &c.
Conjunctions adverjative are thofe, which
exprefs a reftridion, or contrariety ; as, but, y^fl';
neverthelefs, tamen ; although, ciiamjl ; far from,
adeo non.

Conjunctions caufal are thofe, that (hew that
the reafon of fomething is brought; as, for, nam; be-
caufe, feeing, quippe quia-, the rather fince, eo magis
quo ; inafmuch as, quatevus.

Conjunctions condufive are thofe, which de-
note a confequence drawn ; as, for which reafon,
qua propter ; but then, atqui ; of confequence,
ideoque : fo that, ita ut, &c.

Conjunctions feKfi';7/(?«a/ are thofe, which im-
port a condition ; as, if, fi ; if not, /i minus ; on
condition that, ed lege ut ; provided that, dummodo
ut ; in Q2S(: oi, fi vero.

Conjunctions coniinuative are thofe, which
.exprefs a fucceflion,or continuation of the difcourfe;
as in efFe£t, reipfa ; even, etiam ; whatever it be,
quicquid fit.

Conjunctions (i/y««<f7//ir are thofe, which ex-
prefs a relation of feparation or divifion ; as, nei-
ther, ncc; whether, /w or vel.

Conjunctions, tluhitative are thofe,which ex-
prefs fome doubt or fufpenfion of opinion, as if,
- that is to fay ; if, ^c.

Ccnjukctioks exceptive are, if it be not, ni/tfn
unlefs that, «//?, &c.

A Preposition is an indeclinable particle,

which yet ferves to govern the nouns (either of the

■ accufative, or ablative cafe) that follow it : fuch are

per., p-o, propter, in, with, through, from, by, is\:

They are called prepo/itiotis, becaufe prepofttions

are placed before the nouns they govern.

Interjection, is an expreflion ufed to denote
fome fudden motion, or paffion of the mind ; as
ch ! he !, &c.

As the greateft part of the expreflions ufed on
thofe occafions are taken from nature alone, the
real interjc^icns in moft languages are monofylla-
bles. And as all nations agree in thofe natural
paflions, lb do they agree in the figns and indica-
tions of them, aa of Jove, mirth, is'c.

The Gre h confound their iiiterjeSJions with
adverbs : and the Hebrews confound them with
tiieir adverbs and prepofitions, calling them all by
the general name particle.

The Syntax is the conftruction, or connec-
tion of the words of a language into fentences, or
phrafes : or the .nanner of conftrudling one word
vvith another, wuh rep.ird to thedifFereiit termina-
tions thereof, prefcribud by the rules of Grammar.
For the nflice of Syntax is to confider the natural
fuitablenefs of words v.'itii refpecl to one another ;
in order to make them agree in the gender, num-
ber, perfon, mood, i^'c.

It io properly the Syntax that gives the forms to
language, and it is that on which turn the moft
ellcntial parts o( Grammar.

There are two kinds of Syntax, the one of con-
cord, wherein the words are to agree in gender,
number, cafe and perfon. 1 he other of regimen or
government, wherein one word governs another,
and occafions fome variation therein.

The fird, generally fpeaking, is the fame in all
languages, as being the natural feries of what is
ufed almoft every where ; the latter to diftinguifli
difcourfe. Thus the diltincf ion of two number*,
fingular and plural, has rendered it neceffary to
make the adjeftive agree with the fubftantive in
number ; that is, to make the one fingular or plu-
ral, when the other is ic ; for as the fubftantive is
the fubjeft confufedly, though direftly marked by
the adjecStive ; if the fubftantive exprefles feveral,
there mufl be feveral fubjefts exprefled in that form
by the adjedive ; and by confequence it ought to
be in the plural, as homines doSli, learned men : but
there being no variety of termination in the ad-
jedive, in En^liJ}}, to diftinguifh the number, it is
only implied.

The diftinflion of mafculine and feminine
gender obliges the languages, which have diftincl
terminations to ha\e a concordance, or agreement
between the fubftantive and adjective, in gender, as
well as number : and for the fame reafon, the verbs
are to agree with the nouns and pronouns in num-
ber and perfon. If at any time we meet with any
thing that feems to contradi£t thefe rules, it is bv a
figure of fpeech, /. e. by having fome word under-
ftood, or by confidering the thoughts rather than
the words themfelves.

The Syntax of groernment, on the contrary, is
I generally arbitrary, and on that account differs in
j moft languages. One language, for inflance, forms
' their regimen by cafes, as the Latin and Greek :
I others ufe particles, in lieu thereof, as the French,
I En?UJh, Italian, SpaniJIj, &c.
I One or two general rules, however, may be here
I noted, which obtain in all languages, i. That
' there is no nominative cafe, but has a relation to

fome

GRAMMAR.

fomc verb, tithcr exprcfTed or underftooJ : fincc v/e
do i;ot only (peak to cxprefs what we perceive, but
to exprefs what we think of what wc perceive,
which is done by the verb.

2. That there is no verb, but has its nominative
cafe, either exprcfled or underftood ; for the ofHce
of the verb being to affirm, there rnuft beifomething
to affirm of, which is the fub'edt, or nominative
cafe of the verb, except before an infinitive, where
it is an accufative, as, Icio Petrum eJJ'e doSlum^ I
know Peter to be learned.

"5. There is no adjeSiive but has a relation to
forne/Hi/j'««//W, hecaufe the adjective marks con-
fufedly the fubftantive ; which is the fubjeft of the
form or quality, marked by the adjeftive.

4. That there never comes any genitive cafe,
but what is govern'd by fome other noun.

5. T\\<i government of verbs is frequently taken
from various forts of references, included in the
cafes, according to the pradlice of cuflrom or age ;
which yet does not change the fpecifick relation of
each cafe, but only fhews that cuftom has made
choice of this or that. Thus the Latins (&y, juvare
aUque?n, i3' opitulari aUeui : the French, fervir
quelqu'un, IS Jervir a quelque chofe; and in the
hpanij}), the generality of verbs govern indifFercntly
a dative and an accufative cafe.

It is eafy to underfland, that thefe general rides
are the foundation of the dt.£lrine oifentences ; lince
zfentence denotes a period, or a fet of words com-
prehending fome perfeft fenfe, or fentiment of the
mind.

'Every fentenee comprehends at leafl three words.

In every fentenee there are two parts neceflarily

requir'd ; a noun for tht fuhjeil, and a definite verb :

v/hatever is found more than thefe two, affects one

' of them, either immediately or by the intervention

of fome other, whereby the firft is afFeiled.

Again, zvtxy fentenee is cither fimple or conjunB :
a fimplc I entente is that confifting of one fmgle fub-
jecl, and one finite verb. — A co)ijun£J fentenee con-
tains feveral fubjedls, and finite verbs, either exprefly
or implicity.

A fihiple fentenee needs no point or diftiniPcion,
only a period to clofe it ; as, a good man loves virtue
for itjelf. In fuch a fentenee, the feveral adjuncts
afFeiSt either the fubjeiSt or the verb in a different
manner ; thus the vjovd good, expreifes the quality
of the fubjeft; virtue, the objei't of the adtion; and,
for itfelf, the end thereof. Now none of thefe ad-
juncts can be feparated from the reft of the fentenee,
for if one be, why fhould not all the reft ? and if
all be, the fentenee will be minced into almoft as
many parts as there are words.

But if feveral adjuncts be attributed in the fame
manner, either to the fubjetii or to the verb, the
Vol. II, 30.

fentenee becomes conjuncl, and is to be divided into
parts.

In every conjtinn fentenee, as many fubjeiSs, or

as manylinite verbs as there arej either exprefly, or

implied, fo many diftindtions may there be ; thus,

my hopes, fears, j'ys, pains, all center in you ; p.nd

i\\\xi Cicero; Catilma a biit, exeefft , evafit , erupit.1 hs

realbn of which pointing is obvious ; for as many

fubjefts or finite verbs as there are in zfc?itence, fo

many members does it really contain. Whenever,

therefore, there occur more nouns than verb", orccn-

trarywife, they arc to be conceived as equal ; fince,

I as every (ubjccl; requires its verb, fo every verb re-

i quires its fubjedt, wherewith it may agree, except-

j ing perhaps in fome figurative expreffions.

Indeed there are fome other kind i of fentences,

I which may be ranked among the conjunH kind,

1 particul.-irly the abfolute ablative, as it is called;

; thus, phyfieians, the (J'feofe once dij cover d, think tht

I cure half wrought. Where the words, difeafe once

difcover'd, are equivalent to, when the caufe of the

difeafe is difcovered. So alfo in nouns, added by

appofitioni as, the Scots, a hardy people, endured it

all ; foalfo in vocative cafes, and interjeftions ; as,

this, my friend, you mufl allow me ; and, what, for

heaven fake, would he be at ?

The cafe is much the fame when feveral adjun£ls
affecl: either the fubjeft of theylvrf^jtf, in the verb,
' in the fame manner, or at leaft fomething whereby
i one of them is affcdled ; as, a good, uife, learned
: man, is an ornament to the common wealth ; where
the feveral adjectives denoting fo many qualities of
the fubjedt, are to be feparated from one another.
' Again, when I fay, ■jOur voice, countenance, gejlure
, terrified him. The feveral nominative cafes denote
fo many modes of the verb, v/hich are likewife to
I be diftinguifhed from each other. The cafe is the
j fame in adverbs ; as, he behaved himfelf 7nodeflly,
prudently, vi-tuoufly. In the firft example, the ad-
juncts immediately affedl the fubjedt; in the third,
the verb ; in the following one, another adjunct ;
as, J faw a man loaden with age, ficknefs, wounds.

Now as many fuch adjuncts as there are, fo
many feveral members does the fentenee contain,
which are to be diftinguifhed from each other, as
much as feveral fubjecSts, or finite verbs ; and that
this is the cafe in all conjunEl fentenccs, appears
[ hence, that all thofe adjunfts, whether they be
vcibs or nouns, ISc. will admit of a conjunStion
cji>ulative, whereby they may be joined together ;
■ but wherever there is a copulative, or room for it,
there a nev/ member of a jentence begins.

"r\\Q points ufed to divide a difcourle into peri-
ods, and members of periods (to exprefs the paufes
to be made in the reading thereof) are four, viz.
the period or point, colon, femicolon, Mid iornma.
I Th«

54 1^^ Univerfal Hiftory

The period^ pointy or full ftop, is thus formeda
( . ) and (hews that the fenfe of the fentence is
complete.

A colon is a point or charafler, formed thus ( : )
fervingto maK a paufe, and to divide the members
of a period. Grammarians generally aflign the ufe
of a colon, to mark the middle of a period, or to
conclude a ("cnfe lefs perfcrt than the dot or period.
Others fay a colon is to be ufed when the fcnfc is
perfeiS, but the fentence not concluded.

The mark or chara£>er of the fcmicolon is ( ; )
It has its name, as having a fomewhat lefs ef^eft
than a colon, or as demanding half its paufe. The
Jemholon is properly ufed to diilinguifh the conjunfl
members of fentences. By a conjur»ft member of
a fentence, we mean fuch a one as contains at teaft
two fimple members. Whenever then a fentence
can be divided into feveral members of the fame
degree, which are again divifiS'e into other fimple
members, the former are to be feparated by a
jem'icolon.

A comma is a point or charaifler form'd thus ( , )
ferving to mark a (hort flop or paufe ; and to divide
the members of a period.

The ccjuma ferves to diflinguifh thofe members
ef a period, in each whtreof is a verb, and the no-
minative cafe of the verb. Befides this, the comma
is ufed to diftinguifh in the fame member of a pe-
riod, feveral nouns fubftantive, or nouns adjective,
or verbs not united by a conjunftion ; for it they be
united by a conjunction, the comma is omitted : it
may .ilfo be omitted between two phrafes that are
very fhort, efpecially if they depend on the fame
regimen, and are united by a conjuni£lion.

The paufes to be made at each of thefe points or
{{•ops, are equal to the time we can fay one for a
toninia : one, one, for a (emicolon : one, one, on:, for
a colcn : and o?!e, one, one, one, for a period.

Belides thefe above-mention'd, the Graminat ad-
mits of other punctuations, viz. th' parenthefis
mark'd thus ( ) and which includes fome words,
which, if left out, would not break, or alter the
fcnfe, or fmoothnefs of the ftyle The interrogation
mark'd thus ? and which is made at afking a
queftion. Note of admiration or exclamation thus !
Hy;hen thus - '.vhich couples together two words,
as well-Jpring, and is ufed when a word is parted
into fyllables, at the end of a line The feftion
thus § which divides a large difcourfe into feveral
parts. A'lerijm thus * which refers to the margin.
Obelijk thus t notes from the matter to the margin.
No'.e of citation thus " when authors are cited word
for word. Apoilrofihe thus ' when a letter is pur-
pofely left out, as 'tis, for it is ; 'twas, for it luas.
Induction thus a is made to bring in foniething
omitted. Dicrrefs or Dialyjis thus •• is ufed to part
a dipthong, and is made over the vowels air, poita,

of Arts and Sciences.

I that it may not be pronounced ar, pacta. Grave ac-
cent thus ' ufed over a vowel, when the voice is de-
prcflcd. Acute accent thus ' when the voice is to be
raifcd higher. Crc/zi tiius " ufed over f/;i:/wy?i?r fylla-
bles, long by nature, as di for dij,amayunt\Qv ama-
vtrnnt.

Grammar admits of figures, which occafion
changes in the form, l^c. of words, there are

Jyncope, apocope, apoftrophe, apha:refis, projlhefts,
epcnthefis, paragoge, metathofis. Sec.

Syncope denotes an elifion or retrenchment of
one or more letters, or fyllables from a word : as
when we fay virum, for virorum, and manet alta
repojlum, for repofitum.

Apocope is a figure wherein part of the end of a
word is cut ofF ; as in die for dice, fac for face, nil
for nihil, hyp or hypo, for hypochondriacal.

Apostrophe denotes anote or character, placed
over a letter, in lieu of a vowel, to denote that the
vowel is cut off, and not to be pronounced: as ev'n
for even ; tU angelick hofl, (ox the angcUck, &c.

ApHj5;resis is a figure, whereby fomething is
taken away from the beginning of a word ; thus
Ciconin, by apharefts, is wrote Conia ; contemnerty
temnere ; omittere, mittere, iSc.

Prosthesis is a fpecies of metaplafm ; being the
prefixing of fome letter, or fyllable at the beginning
of a word ; as, in gnavus, for navus.

Epenthesis is the addition, or infertion of a
letter or fyllable, in the middle of a word. — As
relligia for religio ; mavors for wars.

Paragoge is a figure, whereby a Word is length-
ened out, by adding a fyllable at the end thereof;
as in dicier for did.

Metathesis is a fi2:ure, whereby letters or fyl-
lables of a word are tranfpofed, or (hiftcd out of
the natural fituation : as evandre for evander, ipus
for prai.

I fhall add to this treatife on grammar, fome re-
marks upon languages.

A Language is a fet of words, which any peo-
ple have agreed upon, whereby to communicate
their thoug-hts to each other.

There is found a conftant refemblance between
the genius, or natural complexion of each people,
and the language they fpeak. — Thus the Greeks, a
polite, but voluptuous nation, had a language per-
fedtly fuitable, full of delicacy and fwcetnefs. — The
Romans, who feem'd only born to command, had a
language noble, nervous, and augufl; and their
defcendants, the Italians, are defcended into foft-
nefs and effeminacy ; which fome fay, is as vifible
in their langi.age, as in their manners. — The lan-
guage of the Spaniards, is full of that gravity, and
jhaughtinefs of air, which makes the diftinguifhing

charadler

G R A^ M M A R.

character of that people. — The French., who have
a world of vivacity, have a language that runs cx-
ti'eiTiL-ly brifk and lively. — And the Englifl], who
are naturally bJunt, thoughtful, and of few words,
have a language exceeding (hort, concife, and fen-
ten tious.

The diverfity oi languages is generally allowed to
have taken its rife from the confufion of Babtl, both
by Jeivs, Chri/iians, and Mahometans.

Languages are divided into original, or mother
tongues ; as the Hebrevj and Arahick in the caft,
the Teutonick and Selavonick in the weft,

Secundarf or derivative languages, which arc
thoie formed of a mixture of fevcral others, ds Latin,
Engllfi, French, iic.

Kircher will have the Coptick a mother tongue
indepcndant of all others. Du 'John maintains the
Gothick., a primitive language, and the mother of all
the Teutonick tongues ; that is, of all thofc fpoke in
the noith. Some add the Bafque or Bijccyan, and
Bas Briton, to the number of motlier tongues, ima-
gining them to have been thofe of the antient Celt a
or Gauls.

Languages are alfo diiidcd into learned, or dead
languages, and living langu .ges.

Learned, or d ad languages, a:e thofe which only
fubfifl: in books, and which muft be learned by the
rules ot Grammar, as t'le Hebrew, Arabick, Syriack,
Chaldee, Greek, and Latin.

Hebrew is the language fpoke by the Hebrews,
and wherein all the booksof the Old Teftamentare
wrote. Whence it is alfo called thz holy And facred
language.

1 he Hebrew appears to be the mod antient of
all the languages in the world, at lead it is fo with
regard to us, who know no older.

The Hebretv, fuch as we have it in the holy
fcripture, is a very regular, analogical language ; and
particularly fo in its conjugations. Properly ipeak-
ing, there is but one funplc conjugation, but this is
varied in each verb, fcven or eight ways, which has
the efk'fl; of fo many diflerent conjugations, and
affords a great number of exprellions, whereby to
reprefent under one fingle word, all the different
modifications of a verb ; and feveral ideas at once ;
which in the modern, and mofl of the antient and
learned languages, are to bo exprciled only by
phrafes

The original and primitivewords in this language,
which they call radices, i. e. roots, rarely confift of
more than three letters, or two iyllablcs, which are
■exprefled by two founds, or by the fame found redou-
bled, which is indicated by a point.

Ufually they oi:ly reckon five vowels in the He-
brezu, which are the fame with ours, viz. a, e, i,
«, u ; but then each vowel is divided into two, a.

long, and a, breve, or Jhort : the found of the for-
mer is fomewhat graver and longer ; and that of
the latter (horter, and more acute. It muff be ad-
ded that the two laft vowels have quite different
founds ; different we mean in other refpeds befides
quantity and degrees of elevation.

To thefe ten or twelve vowels mufl be added
fbmc others, called femi-voweU, v/hich are only
flight motions ferving to connect the confonantsL
and make the eafier tranfitions from one to another.
The number of accents is prodigious in the Hcf
brew ; there are near forty different ones ; and of
thefe there are feveral whole ufe is not well afcer-
tained, notwithflanding all the inquiries of the
learned into that matter.

fn the general, we know thefe three things,
I. That they ferveto diffinguiili thefentences, and
the members thereof, like the points, and comma's,
isV. in Englijh. 2. To determine the quantity of
the fyilables : and ■^. To mark the tone wherewith
they are to be (J5oke or fung. It is no wonder
then, there fliould be more accents in the Hebrew
than in other languages ; as they do the ofSce of
three different things, which in other languages
are called bv different names.

The language ufed by the Rabbins in the writings
they have compofed, is called rabbinical, or modern
Hebrew. The bafis or body hereof is the Hebrew
and Chaldee, with divers alterations in the words
of thofe two languages ; the meaning whereof they
have confiderably enlarged and extended. Abun-
dance of things they have borrowed from the Ara-
bick. The re't is compofed of words and exprefTions
chiefly from the Greek, fome from the Latin, zt\d
others from the other modern tongues ; particularly
that fpoken in the place where each F.abbin lived,
or wrote.

The rabbinical Hehreiv, mufl be allowed a very
copious language. M. Simon obferves, that there
is fcarce any art or fcience, but the Rabbu2S have
treated thereof in it. They have tranilated mo'i: of
the antient philofophers, mathematicians, affrono-
mers, and phyficians ; and have wrote themfelves
on mofl fubjefts ; they do not want even orators
and poets. Add, that this language, notwithfland-
ing it is fo provided with foreign words, has its
beauty viiible enough in the works of thofe who
have wrote well.

The Araeick is a branch or dialeci of the
Hebrew. Father Angela de St. Joleph, fpeak*
much of the beauty and copioufnefs of the Arabick.

The Syriack, and Chaldei:, are alfo dialedts
of the Hebrew. — The C/'rt/.i'tc parapiirafe in the
rabbinical Hile, is called Tar gum.

The Greek, abfolutely lo called, istlie language

fpoken by the antient Grecians, aiid itiil preiervcd

I 2 in

56 The Univerfal Hiitory of Arts ^W Sciences.

in the works of their authors, as Vlato, Artjhtk, ' weft, abandon'd all care of the Latin tongue, and
Jfocrates, Deinojlbenes, Thucyclides, Xenoph^n, //a- i allowed their judges to pais fentence in Greek,
mer, Hejiod, Sophocles, Euripides, &c. Charlemagne coming to the empire of the weft.

The Greek has been preferved entire longer than appointed the law proceedings in fovcreign courts
any other language known, maugre all the revolu- to be in Latin, and the notaries were to draw their
tions that have happened in the country where it a£ls and inftrumcnts in the fame tongue : this prac-
was Ipoke. tice continued a long time through a great part of

The Greek has a great copia, or ftock of words : Europe, but at length it gave -way, and the French
its inflediions are as remarkable for their variety as took place of the Latin, not only in Prance, but in
thofe ofmoftofthe other European tongues, for fome meafurc in England too; and the reafon
their flmplicity. | given for it was, that abundance of difticulties arofe

The Greek was the language of a polite people, ^ about undcrftanding of Latin terms.
who had a tafte for arts and faiences, which they The Latin however, was prodigioufly degene-
cultivated with fuccefs. In the living tongues are rated and corrupted ere ,it came to be laid afide.
ftill preferved a great number of GV<;i'^ terms of The incurfions of the G»(/;; and /''iv-'ji;/;?// into //<7i^,
art ; fome defcended to us from the Grecians, and brought an inundation of foreign words and phrafes
others formed a new. When a new invention, into it, infomuch that Fa/la calls Boethius the laft
machine, rite, order, inftrument, bfc. has been Latin 7i\ithor. But that was not all ; when it once
difcovercd, recourfe has commonly been had to the got into the courts of juftice, it was {till worfe
Gr«^/^ for a name ; the facility wherewith words are handled, till at laft being introduced among the
there compounded, readily affording us names ex- Monks, and become the common language of
preffive of the ufe, effect, fefc. of fuch inltruments. \ A'/iJ/iils Txnd Breviaries, it was debauched to that

Modern, or vulgar Greek, is the language now degree, that it was almoft become fcandalous to
fpoke in Greece. One may uiftinguifh three ages ufe it.

of the Greek tongue ; the firft ended at the time I Living Languages, are thofe flill fpoke in fome
■when Can/liintinople bec3.me the capital of the ^Rs- country or other, and which may be learned by
man empire ; not but there were feveral books, par- converfation. The moft popular among thefe are
ticularly of the fathers of the church, wrote with the French, Italian, Spani/li, Englijli, German, &:c.
great purity after that time ; but as religion, law. The French, as it now ftands, is no original, or
and policy, both civil and military, began then to mother language; but a medley of feveral : fcarce
introduce new words into the language, it feems
neceflary to begin the fecond age of the Greek
tongue from that epocha ; which lafted to the
taking of Conftantinople by the Turks, where the
laft age commences.

The Latin was firft fpoken in Latium, and af
terwards at Rome.

Some authors rank the Latin among the number
of original languages, but by miftake ; it is formed
principally from the Greek, and particularly the
/Eolick dialect of that tongue ; tho' it has a great
number of words which it borrowed from the lan-
guages of the Etrufci, Ofci, and other antient people
of Italy: and foreign commerce and wars, in couri'e
of time added a great many more.

The Latin is more figur^itive than the Englifi^
lefs pliant than the French, lefs copious than the
Greek, lels pompous than the Spanljh, lefs delicate
than the Italian, but clofer and more nervous than
any of them.

After tftetranflation of the feat of the empire from
Rome to Conjhi'itiyiople., the en-,perors of the eaft
being always dehrous of retaining the title oi Roman
emperors, appointed the Latin to be ftill rctain'd in
ufe, both in their refciipts and ediifls. But at
length the emperors negleding the empire of the

any language, but it has borrowed words, or per-
haps phrafes from.

The languages that prevail moft, and that are,
as It were, the bafis thereof, are, I. The Ceflic ;
whether that were a particular language itfelf, or
whether it were only a dialeft of the Gothic, as fpoke
in the weft, and north. 2. The Latin, which the
Rowans carried with them into Gaul, when they
made the conqueft thereof. And, 3. The Teuto-
nic, or the dialetSt of the Teutonic, fpoke by the
Franks, when they palled the Rhine, and eftab-
lifhed themfelves with the G.iuls.

Of thefe three languages, in the fpace of about
1300 years, was the French formed ; i'uch as it k
now found : its progrefs was very flow ; and both
the Italian, and Spanijh, were regular languages
long before the French.

As to the analogy of Gramrnar, and the fim-
plicity wherewith moods of verbs are formed ; the
Englijh has the advantage, not only over the French,
but over all the known languages of the v/orld :
but then the turns, theexprefllons, and the idioms
of the Engl'fl) are fometimes fo quaint, and extra-
ordinary, that it lofes a great deal of the advan-
tage, which its grammatical iimplicity gives it over
the reft.

The

GRAMMAR.

The French have but few compound words,
wherein it differs widely from the Greek, High
Dutch, and Englijh. This the Fre>ich authors own
a great difadvantage in their language ; the Gnv/
and Dutch deriving a great part of their force and
energy, from the compofition of words ; and fre-
quently exprefiing, that in one founding word,
which the French cannot exprefs but by a periphra-
fis. And the diminutives in the French are as few
as the compounds ; the greatefl pa't of thofe re-
mainina: in ufe, haviiiK loll their diminutive figni
fication. But what dilHnguilhes the French moft,
is itsjuftnefs, purity, accuracy, and flexibility.

French is the moft univerfal and extenfivo lan-
guage in Europe ; the policy of ftates and courts,
has render'd it necefTary for theminiftersoF piinces
and their officers, isfc. and the taile of aits and
fciences has had the fame efFe£t with regard to the
learned.

Tho' the court of Vienna was a long while an
exception from this rule ; French was there very
little ufed : The Emperor Leopold could not bear
to hear it fpoke in his court.

The feveral nations who fpealc Sclavonic/:, do
not fo much fpeak the fame language, as difjerent
dialefts of the fame language. In feveral parts of
Europe, there are as many dilferent languages as
there are ftates ; and in Italy there are reckoned no
fewer than ten or twelve dialefts, fome of which
differ as much from the common Italian, as fiom
the French or SpaniJJj.

The Italian is derived principally from the Latin,
and of all the languages formed from the Latin,
there is none which carries with it more vifible
marks of its original, than the Italian. It is ac-
counted one of tiie moft perfect among the modern
tongues, containing words, and phrafcs to repre-
fent all ideas, to exprefs all fentiments, to deliver
one's felf on all fubje£f:s, to name all the inllru-
ments and parts of arts, (5V.

The Spaniards feem to place the noblenefs and
gravity of their language, in the number of fyllables,
and the fwelling of words, and fpeak lefs to be un-
derftood than to be admir'd. Their terms are big
and fonorous, their expreflions haughty and boifte-
rous, and pomp and oftentation run through all
they fay : their language cannot paint a thought to
the life ; it always magnifies it, frequently diftorts
it, and does nothing, if it does not exceed nature.

The Englijh, or Englijh tongue, is of Gothic
or Teutonic extraflion : this was the root or ftock, \
upon which feveral other dialcds have been fince .
grafted.

The language anticntly fpoke in this ifland, was
the BritiJI), or IVclch, which is pretended was com-
mon to the Britons and Gauls ; and which ftill

fubfifts in more or K-fs pu'ity in the principality of
/Talcs, the county of Cor'^vjat, the illands, and the
province of Bretagne in France.

As the E.of/:au Kmpir:, extending itfolf towar<ls
the wefteni parts oi Europe, cams to take in Gaul
and Britain, the Roman tongue became propagated' •
therewith ; all the edids, &c, relating to pubir<?!t"'
affairs, being dcTignedly wrote in that langua'Tje. f'*^'

■J he Latin, however, it is certain, never g(5t fo
much ground, or prevaild fo far in Enghnd,' as iti"'
Lomhardy, Spain, ajid the GatAi ; partly, on it-
count of its great di lance from Rome, and'thc fmall
refort of Romans hither ; and partly for that the
entire redudtioa of the kingdom was. not efFeiited
till fo late as the Empt-ror Claudius, when the em-
pire was on the declining hand, and the new pro-
vince was forced to be foon deferted by its conquer-
ors, called to defend their territories nearer h.omc.
Britain thus left naked, became an eafy prey to
the Angli, or Anglo-Saxons, a ftroling nation from
y inland and Nor-iuay, who took an eafy pofleflion
thereof; much about the time that the Franks,
another German nation, enter'd Gaul. The Gauls
and Franks, it feems, at length came to terms, and
found means to unite it into one nation : thus the
antient GauUJh, with its mixture of Latin, con-
tinued the prevailing tongue, only further inter-
mix'd with the Francic, or Lingua Franca, of their
new inmates : But the Britons were more conftant,
and determin'd abfblutely to refufe any fuch coali-
tion ; they had embraced chriftianity, and their'
competitors were heathens ; rather than admit of
fuch an union, therefore, they chofc to be fliut up,
with their language, in the mountainous parts of
Cambria or IVales.

The Englijh Saxnns thus left abfolute lords,
changed every thing; their own language vvas now
fully cftablifhed, and the very name of the country
was henceforth to be Anglo-Saxon.

The new language remained in good meafure,
pure and unmixed till the Norman invafion : the
attempts of the Danes, and the neighbourhood of
the Britons, indeed wrought fome ielfer innovations
therein; but, in the main, it preferved itielf : for
as to the Danes their language was not much dif-
ferent therefrom. William I. and his Normans,
having got pofleflion of England, an alteration was
foon attempted : the conquefl was not compleat,
unlefs the conqueror's language, the French or
Franco Gallic, was introduced; and accordint'ly
all his a<Ss, diploma's, edicts, pleadings, and other
judici:il matters were written, i^c. in that tongue.

Under Henry II. Dr. Swift obfcrves, ."he French
made a ftill greater progrefs, by reafon of the large
territories he pofTefled on that continent, both from
his father and his wife, which occailoned frequent

journies

Hie Unlverfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

Journies thither, with numerous retinues, Uc. and
for forne centuries after, -Jiere was a frequent inter-
courfc between France and England, by the domi-
nions the Englljh poflcfled there, fo that the lan-
gu;\ffe two or three hundred years ago, feems to
have had more Fictuh than at prefent.

Befidcs this alteration from the conquerors, the
language in procefs of time, underwent divers
others ; and came to have numerous words and
phrafes of foreign dialedh, ingrafted into it, in lieu
whereof the antient Snxon ones gave way j particu-
larly by means of negotiations, and commerce with
other nations ; by the marriages of royal families ,
bv the affed ation of many writers in moft ages, who
are fond of coining new words, and altering the
ufual forms of fi->ccch, for the greater delicacy; and
by the neceffity of framing or borrowing new words,
according, as new things and inventions turn up.
And by fucli means was the old Anglo-Sa:<on con-
verted into the prefent Englijh tongue.

The perfections afcribed to the 'Engiijh, and that
in a degree fuperior to any of the other modern
tongues, are, — i. That it is ftrong and fignificant;
to which the finely compounded words, formed on
the model of the Gru;'cs, do not a little contri-
bute.

2. Copious ; of which Mr. 'Greenwood gives us
infbnces in the \no\A jfriking : v/hich the Englijh
have about 30 fynonymous expreflions for ; as to
Jmlte^ hang, beat, bajle, buffet, cuff, hit, thump,
■ihi'Jack, f-ap, rap, tap, kick, /print, box, yerke,
pummel, punch, &c. and the word anger, for which
he enum.erates above 40.

3. Mufical and harmonious ; in which refpefl
Mr. Dennis makes no fcrup'.e to affert it fuperior
■even to any other. '

The Tei'tonic language is the antient language^
oiGivmany, which is ranked among t!ie mother-,
tongues. . ■

The Teutonic, now called the German or High.
Dutch, is diftinguiflied into Upper and Loivcr.

The L'ppir has two notable dialects, viz. i. the
Sdlidian, Danijh, or perhai^s Gothic ; to which be-
lou'T the languages fpoke in Denmark, -Norway,
.Sivcden, and Iceland. 2. The Saxon, to which
•belong the leveral languages of the Englifij^. Scots,
frijinn, and thofe on the north of the Elbe.

Vo the Lower belong the Loiu Dutch, Flcmijl},
lie. fpoke through the Nctherleuds, iic.

The Sclavonic, is the language of the Sclavi, an
antient people oi' Scythia Europca; who about the
year 518, quitting their native country, ravaged
Greec'-, and eitabhihcd the kingdom of Poland itnd
Ahravia, and at laft fettled in Illyria ; which
thence took the name of Sdavonia.

The Sclavonic -h held, after the Jrabick, the moft

extcnfive language in the world : it is fpoke from
the Adriatick to the North Sea, and from the Ca/-
pian to Saxony, by a great variety of people, all
thedefcenJants of the antient Sclavi, viz. the Poles,
Mufcovltes, Bulgarians, Corinthians, Bohemians.,
Hungarians, Pruffians, Suabians, &c. each of whom
however, have their particular dialect ; only the
Sclavonic is the common mother of their fevcral
languages, viz. the Polijh, Ruffian, Hungarian,
&c.

The "Japanefe language is very curious, wherein
they have foveral words to exprefs one thing, fome
in derifion, others in honour-; fome for the prince,
others for the people ; as alfo for the quality, age,
and fax of the Ipeaker, and perfon f[X)ke to.

The Ethiopian, or Abyjjinian tongue feems to
have fome affinity with the Hehrtvj, and Chaldee.

The languages of other countries in /Ifrica, and
America are but mere jargons, wholly rude, and
harlh to themlelves, and unknown, as well as un-
intelligible to us.

'i'he difiirence and affinity of feveral languagts,
may be fcen from that famous fentence cA Habba~
kuk, ii. 4. But the juj} Jhall live by bis faith, ex-
prefTed in thiny-thisc languages, oi feveral tonguei,
which I have fet down in our common printing
letters.

Hebrew'] Ve-tzaddig, be emunatho jichjch.
Chaldee] Vetzaddikaia al kufhethon jith kaigemun.
Syriack] Decana min himenuta nacha.
Arabick] Vaadili minalamj anjjaccaij.
Greek] Ho dc di'<aios ec fteoos mec zefetaij.
Latin] Juftus autem ex fide fua vivet.
Spanijh] Eljuftoen fu fe bivira.
Italian] II giuftovivera per la fua fede.
Portugal] Oa juflo em fua fei vivara.
French] Mais le ju(t vivera de fa foy.
Armenian] Shedeck mart eer ferdovtn kapree,
Per/tan] Raft adem eis fifk hodmigzcratt.
Georgian] Aiortalee katfeca tavis fumartlitta dar-

cliebis.
Java'!, Ma Hay] Ozany betool deah-pooniah

emaun ollough cubbool.
Eaji Indian, .Surat] Neck zaut oousfkah eraa uh

coodawtah haut.
I i'ejl- Indian, Nezv- England] Sampivenfleanutapifti

pomantum kiike wunnamptamoouke.
Hungarian] Azigar ember pedig hit altellel.
Tranftlvanian] Affigas embcrjiedig itt altcJ el.
Moldavian] Worn kudireptate kuiege alui tray-

efti.
Tartarian, Coffuckian] Ho dikaios athropos metia

bifte too zee.
High-German] Dun der Gercchte bebet lines

glaubens.

Bohemian]

G U N N E R r.

Bohemian'] Geft fprawcdlivvy zlw budzwiTry.
Sclavonifin] Pravedne oot vearea zeove boudct.
Mojcovian, Ruffian'] Prawidliv/y zejut pize vviarc.
Turkijh] Sadick adam onung ich tikat eila

decillct.
Lattoifn] Taifus per wicra fawo gircns.
Pol'ijh] Spravicdliwij Z. wiarij fwey bendzie zil.
DaniJ!)] Den retferdige fcal leffve aff fin tro.
Svjedijif] Then retferdiga fcall lefF ve afFfine tro.
Nethcrlandifb] De rechtverdigc fal uyt den Gc-

loove leven
Irijh] Dce-yov/ een fccrian flawhaunus le creddifF.
IVelJh] Y cyfiawn a fydd hyw tnvy fydd.
Engiijh] Butthe juft {hall live by his faith.

The beft of the modern Grammars are, i. FoTj
tJse Hebrew, that o{ Pagninus, the edition of Hen
ry Steph.m, or k Preux, at Geneva, in 1592 ; that
of Petrus Martinitn, at Rochel, 1592 ; that of
Buxtorff \ that of Ludovicus Deus, in three Ian'-
guages ; that of Sixlinus /imama, which is a col-
ledtion from Alartinitis and Buxtorff ; that of Bei-
hrmine, with the notes of Aluis ; that of Father
bylanUr is ufcful for beginners. — For Cbaldee, the
beft are thofe of Martin'ius , Buxtorff, and Lud.
Deus, in three languages.— 3. For the Syf-iaci,,

thofe of Jmira, Myricaus, IFaferu!, and Beve-
ridge ; with the ChaldeeznA Syriack ones of Bux-
tcrff, of Lud. Deus, in three languages, and that
oi' Lemldcn. — 4. For the Coptic, the Podronius
Coptus, and Lingua jEgyptiaca Rcjiituta of Kir-
cher. — 5. The Arabick, that of Erpenius, and
that of Golius, which is only Erpeniits\ a little aug-
mented.— 6. For the Ethicpiii, that of y. ZWs/-
phus. — 7. p'or the Ptrfian, that of Lud. Deuu
— 8. For the Armenian, thofe of Shrcder and Ca-
lamus.— g. For the Greek, thofe of Mart. Rulan-
dus, Sylburgus, F. Mocquet, Fojius, Port Royal,
and Busby. — 10. For the Latin, thofe of Defpau-
te ■, the Minerva of Saniiius, thofe of Voffim and
!ip at, that of l^ort Royal, which is only a coliedion

j from the reft, and that of Loive, the nioft exadt
of all. — 1 1. For the Italian, thofe of Berger, Lan~

\fredini. Port Royal, and Feneroni,-:— 12. For the
Spanijh, thofe of Salazar, Port Royal, the Abbot
de Feir.ic, &c. — 13. For the Portuguefe, xhzt oi
Pere'ra. — 14. For the French, thofe of the Abbot
Regnier, and F. Buffier.—i^. For the Higb Dutch,
ihofe of CInius, Hertsburgenfis, Scb:tte/ius,. Bcedi-
cher, and Steinhach. — 16. For the Englijh, that of.
IVadis, Brightland, and Greenwood.

G U N N E. R r.

UNNERY, is the art of charging,
dire£ting, and exploding fire-aims, as
cannons, mortars, mufkets, i3c. to the
bell advantage.

To the Art of* Gunnery belongs the know-
ledge of the force and effcdl of gunpowder, the
djmenfions of cannon, l^c, and the proportion of
the powder and ball they carry, with the method
of managing, charging, pointing, fpunging, he.

A cannon is a military engine, or fire-arm, for
throwing iron, 'lead, or ftone- bullets, by force of
f un-powder, to a place exa(ftly oppofite to the axis
of the cylinder whereof it confiffs.

Cannons-arc made cylindrical, that the motion of
the ball might not be retarded in its paflage ; and
that the powder, when on fire, might not flip bfe-
tween the ball and the furface of the cannon, which
would hinder its efFett. ,

The names of the- brafs ^ff«w»j, antiently caft,
their weight, length, and the weight of the ball,
01 their calibtry were as follows :

Wa M E 3.

The Bafdici,
The I'iragcn;
The Flying Dragon,
The Serpentine,
The Culverine,
The Half Culverine,
The Saker,
The Sacret,-
The Falcon,
1 heFalconet,
The Ribadepiin, .
The Emerilion,

Calibtr, cr n.'jl.
oj'tbi iron ball.
lb.

^Mt.oftle Lengif).
iunuon.
lb.
7200

7C0O

Feet.

48 7200 10

40 7C0O ' ibl

32 7200 22

24 4300 13

20 7000 16

10 4250 II

5 2850 13

4- 2500 12j

3 2300 8

2 1350 lOi

1 : 750 8.

i . 4P0 A or 5

The names of the feveral r^. -«.";?, their length. -
weight, and that of their balls as they obtain iri
England and France, are already fet down under
the title Foundery, on page 516, 517, with
fome obfervations upon the F;i)gi.h, charge, and-
members of a cannon.

In-

TIjc Univerfal riiftory of Arts (^-W Sciences.

Ill the laft century was invented, at Lyons, a
piece of ordnance, called fumelli', or double can-
non, the figure whereof is in our plate. — The two
cannons carry a ball or bullet four pounds weight :
they arc caft together, with a finglc touch-hole for
both, and they are charged with two iron bars tied
together, of i 2 foot extent, and 65 pounds weight.
This was improved, as inav be feen in the Armory
in the Tower of London ; where there are cannon
made in this form, with 3, 4, and 12 bores. But
they are not found fit for ufe.

Each fort of ordnance is more or lefs fortified ;
which fortification is reckon'd by the thicknefs of
the metal at the touch-hole, at the trunnions, and
at the muzzle, in proportion to the diameter of
the bore.

There are three degrees ufed in fortifying each
fort of ordnance, both cannons and culvcrin:s.
Firfl:, fuch as are ordinaiily fortified, which are
called legitimate pieces. Secondly, fuch whofe forti-
fications arc leflen'd, which are called bajlard
pieces : Thirdly, double fortified pieces, or extra-
ordinary pieces.

The cannons double fortified have full one dia-
meter of their bore in thicknefs of metal, at their
touch hole, and 7^ at their trunnions, and i^c at
their muzzle. The kfjejicd cannons, have at their
touch -hole, but \ or 41 of the diameter of their
bore in thicknefs of metal, and -^ at their trunni-
on?, and -f'j at their muzzle. The ordinary forti-
fied cannons, have ' at the touch- hole, | at the
trunnions, and 4 at the muzzle. All the double
frtified cidverincs, and all lefier pieces of that kind,
have one diameter and \ at the touch-tole, \\ at
the trunnions, and -,?^ at the muzzle. And all the
ordinary fortified culvcrines, are fortified every way
as the double fortified cannons ; and the leffen'd cul-
•verines^ as the ordinary cann-ns in all points.

Gun powder is a compofition of Jalt petre, fnl-
phur, and charcoal mix' d together.

The fulphur znd falt-pctre being purified, and re-
duced to powder, are put with the charcoal-duji in a
inortar, moiften'd with water or fpirit of wine, or
the like, and pounded 24 hours together; taking
care to wet the mafs from time to time, to prevent
its taking fire. Laftly, fqueezing It through a lieve,
it is formed into little grains or globules; which
being dried the powder is compleat.

There are three kinds of ■^■^■-jijder, viz. cannon-
powder, mnjket powder, ar.dpi/hlpnvder ; and each
of thefe forts, is Jlronger and weaker : which diffe-
rences arife only from the different proportions.

In the /Irongcr cannon-poivd r, to every hundred
pounds of fait ^f/r^; twenty-five pounds of fulplntr,
are generally allowed, with the fame quantity of
*':arcoal ; and in the zocaier cannon-powder, to every

hundred pounds of fa/t-petre, twenty pounds of
fulphur, and twenty- four of charcoal.

Semienoiuitz prefcribes for mortars, an hundrtd
pounds of fait- petre, tyvfenty-five of fulphur, and as
many of charcoal ; for great guns an hundred
pounds of falt-petre, fifteen of fulphur, and eighteen
of charcoal.

Miethus extols the proportion of one pound of
falt-petre to three ounces of charcoal ; and two,
or two and a quarter of fulphur. He adds, that the
ufual pradlice of making the gun powder weaker
for mortars than cannons, as in the example above,
is without any foundation, and renders the expence
needlefly much greater : for, whereas, to lo::d a
large moitar, twenty four pounds of common pow-
der is requir'd ; and confequently to load it ten
times, two hundred and forty pounds ; he (hews,
by calculation, that the fame eft'eiff would be had
by one hundred and eighty pounds of the ftrong
powder.

There are three ways to prove the goodnefs of
gim-poiuder . 1. ^y fight ; for if it be too black, it
is too moift, or has too much charcoal in it ; fo
.ilfo if rubbed upon white paper, it blackens it more
than good powder docs : but if it be a kind of azure
colour, fomewhat inclining to red, it is a fign of
good powder. 2. By touching ; for if in crufhing
it \Vith your fingers ends, the grains break eafily
and turn into duft, without feeling hard, it has too
much coal in it ; or if, in prefTmg under your fin-
gers upon a fmooth, hard board, fome grains feel
harder than the reft, or, as it were, dent your fin-
gers ends, the fulphur is not well mix'd with the
nitre, and the powder is naught. 3. By burning ;
wherein heaps of powder are laid upon white paper,
three inches or more afunder, and one of them
fired ; which, if it only fires all away, and that
fuddenly, and almoft imperceptibly, without firing
the reft, and make a fmall thundering noife, and a
white fmoak rifes in the air, almoft like a circle,
the powder is good ; if it leaves black marks, it
has too much coal, or is not well burnt: if it
leaves a greafinefs, the fulphur or nitre is not well
cleanfed or order'd. Again, if two or three corns
are laid on paper an inch diftant, and fire be put to
one of them, and they all fire at once, leaving no
fign behind but a white fmoaky colour in the place,
and the paper not touch'd, the powder is good.

To recover damag'd powder, the method of the
powder merchants is, to 'put part of the powder on
a fail-cloth, to which they add an equal weight of
what is really good ; and With a fhove! mingle it
well together, dry It in the fun, and barrel it up,
keeping it in a dry and proper place.

Ohfervations on the force of Gv^-VOWDEVt.. Gurt-
poiuder fired either in vacuuttiy or in air, produces

G U N N E R r.

by its cxplofion a permanent claflic fluid. For if
a red-hot iron be included in a receiver, after be-
ing exhaulted, and gun-powder be let fall on the
iron, the powder will take fire, and the mercurial
gage will fuddenly defcend upon the explofion ;
and though it immediately al'cends again, yet it
will never rife to the height it firft ftood at, but
will continue deprefied by a fpace proportioned to
the quantity of gun-powder which was let fall on
the iron.

The fame produi5lion iikewife takes place, when
gun-powder is fired in the air: for if almall quan-
tity of powder be placed in the upper part of a glafs
tube, and the lower part of the tube be immerged
in water, and the water be made to rile fo near the
top, that only a fmall portion of air is left in that
part where the gun-powder is placed ; if in this
fituation the communication of the upper part of
the tube with the external air be clofed, and the
powder be fired, which will eafily be done by a
burning-glafs, the water will in this experiment
defcend upon the explofion as the quickfilver did in
the lafl: ; and will always continue deprefied below
the place at which it flood before the explofion ;
and the quantity of this depreffion will be greater,
if the quantity of powder be increafed, or the di-
ameter of the tube be diminished. From whence
it is proved, that as well in air as in a vacuum, the
explofion of fired powder produces a permanent
eiaflic fluid. It alfo appears from experiment, that
the elafticity orprefTureof the fluid produced by the
firing of gun-powder, is, cecteris paribus., direftly
as its denfity.

This follows from hence, that if in the fame
receiver a double quantity of powder be let fall,
the mercury will fubfide twice as much as in the
firing of a fingle quantity.

To determine the elafticity and quantity of this
elaftic fluid, produced from the explofion of a given
quantity of gun-powder, Mr. Robins premifes, that
the elafticity of this fluid increafes by heat, and di-
minilhes by cold in the fame manner as that of the
air; and that the denfity of this fluid, and confe-
quently its weight, is the fame with the weight of
an equal bulk of air having the fame elafticity, and
the fame temperature.

From thefe principles, and from his experiments,
for a detail of which we muft refer the reader to
h\5 new principles 0^ gunnery, mfcholium, to prop.
II. he concludes, that the fluid produced by the
firing of gun-powder will be -rs of the weight of
the gun-powder, and the ratio of the refpedlive
bulks of the powder, and the fluid produced from
it, will be in round numbers i to 244.

Hence we arc certain, that any quantity of pow-
der fired in any confined fpace, which it adequately
Vol. II. 30.

fills, exerts, at the inltant of its explofion, againft
the fides ofthe vcfRls containing it, and the bodies
it impels before it, a force at leaft 244 times greater
than the elafticity of common air ; or which is the
fame thing, than the preflure of the atmofphere-,
and this without conlidering the great addition,
which this force will receive from the violent de-
gree of heat, with which it is endued at that time,
the quantity of which augmentation is the next
head of Mr. Rohim's enquiry.

He determines that the elafticity of the air is aug-
mented when heated to the extremeft heat of red-
hot iron, in the proportion of 796 to 194}, and
fuppofing that the flame of fired gun-pov.-der is not
lefs hot than red hot iron, and the elafticity of the
air, and confequently of the fluid, generated by the
explofion, being augmented by the extremity of
this heat in the ratio of 796 to 194 J, it follows
that if 244 be augmented in this ratio, the refultino-
number which is 999} will determine how many
times the elafticity of the flame of fired powder ex-
ceeds the elafticity of common air, fuppofing it to
be confined in the fame fpace, which the powder
filled before it was fired.

Hence, then, the abfolute quantity of the pref-
fure exerted by gun-powder, at the moment of its
explofion may be aftigned : for fince the fluid then
generated has an elafticity of 999}, or in round
numbers 1000 times greater than common air;
and fince common air by its elalticity exerts a pref-
fure on any given furface equal to the weight of
the incumbent atmofphere, with which it is in
equilihrio, the preflure exerted by fired powder, be-
fore it has dilated itfelf, is 1 000 times greater than
the preflure of the atmofphere ; and confequently
the quantity of this force on a furface of an inch
fquare, amounts to above fix tun weight, which
force however diminishes as the fluid dilates itfelf.

The variations of the denfity of the atmofphere
does not any way alter the aftion of powder by any
experiment that can be made. But the moifture
of the air has a very great influence on the force of
it : for that quantity which in a dry feafon would
communicate to a bullet a velocity of 1700 feet
in one fecond, will not in damp weather commu-
nicate a velocitj' of more than 12 or 1300 feet in
a fecond, or even lefs, if the powder be bad and
negligently kept.

The velocity of expanfion of the flame of gun-
powder, when fired in a piece of artillery, without
either bullet, or any other body before it, is pro-
digious. By the experiments of Mr. Robins, it
leems this velocity cannot be much lefs than 7000
feet in a fecond. This, however, muft be under-
ftood of the moft acStive part of the flame. For as
was obferved before, the elaftic fluid in which the
K adiviy

Tin Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^«<a? Sciences.

of the

a^Slivity of gun-powder coniifts, is only to
lubftance of the powder, the remaining /b will in
the explofion be mixed with the elalHc part, and
will by its weight retard the adlivity of the explo-
fion J and yet they will be fo compleatly united, as
to move with uncommon motion ; but the unelaf-
tic part will be lefs accelerated than the reft, and
fome of it will not even be carried out of the bar-
rel, as appears by the confiderable quantity of
un6luouii matter, v.'hich adheres to the infide of all
fire-arms, after they have been ufed. Thefe ine-
qualities in the expanfive motion of the flame ren-
der it impradticable to determine its velocity, other-
wife than from experiments.

A bullet is an iron ball, wherewith cnnnons are
loaded. A bullet fhould be very round, well Ihaved,
and without vacuities.

There are bullets of various kinds, viz. red-hot
bullets, intended to let fire to places, where com-
buftible matters are found. The bullet is made red-
hot, by digging a place in the earth, and lighting
in it a great quantity of charcoal, or fea-coal ; and
placincr over it a ftrong iron grate. When the fire

wherein a right line is fo divided, as that the firft
part being equal to the diameter of an iron or
leaden ball, of one pound weight, the other parts
are to the firft, as the diameters of balls of two,
three, four, t^c. pounds, are to the diameter of
one ball of one pound.

The caliber confifts of two thin pieces of brafs,
fix inches long, join'd by a rivet, fo as to move
quite round each other : the head, or one end of
the piece, is cut circular, and one half of its cir-
cumference divided into every fecond degree. On
the other half are divifions from one to ten; each
again fubdividcd into four : the ufc of which divi-
fions and fub-divifions, is when the diameter of a
bullet, &c. not exceeding ten inches, is taken, the
diameter of the femi-circle will, among the divi-
fions, give the length of the diameter, taken be-
tween the points of the calibers, in inches, and
fourth parts.

The degrees on the head, ferveto take the quan-
tity of an aw^/?, the method of which is obvious.
If the angle be inward, apply the outward edges to
the planes that form the angle ; the degree cut by

is well lighted, the bullets are placed on the grate, \ the diameter of the fenii-circle, fhews the quantity
where, in a very fhort time, they grow red-hot ; " ■ - - -

they are taken out v/ith tongs, or iron ladles for
the purpofe, and carried into the piece ; having
before put fome clay over the powder the cannon is
loaded with, left it fhould be fet on fire by the red-
hot bullet : then the piece is fired. Wherever the
bullet pallcs, and meets v/iih ccmbuftible m.ntters,
it fetsthemon fire. But when a trench is before the
battery of red-hot bullets, hay is rammed over the
powder ; becaufe, if it was clay, the pieces of it
would wound and kill the workmen.

Red-hot bullets are never fir'd but with: eight or
four poun:lers. For if they were of a ftronger caliber,
the bullets could not be fcrv'd eafily.

Hjillow bullets are {hells made cylindrical, with
an aperture and fufee at one end, which giving fire
to the infide, when in the grsiund, it burits, and
has the fame effect with a mine.

Chain bwlets cojifift of two bails joined by a
chain, three or four foot a part.

Branch bullets are two balls joined by a bar of
iron, five or fix inches a part.

Two-headcd-lulhts , called alfo angels, being two
halves of a bullet, jc/incd by a bar or chain : thefe
are chiefly ufcd at fea, for cutting of cords, cables,
fails, tifc. See all thofe bullets in the plate.

As bullets, as well as the pieces of ordnance, arc
of difFerent caliber, which caliber, in a piece of
ordnance, is the diameter of the mouth thereof .
and in a cullet, its circumference ; there are means
found I.) proportion thefe two calibers to one ano-
ther, viz, with an infirunjent called caliber- rule,

of the angle fought. For an outward angle, open
the branches till the points be outward, and apply-
ing the ftrreight edges to the planes that form the
angle, the degrees cut by the diameter of the femi-
circle, ftiew the afigle requir'd ; reckoning from
1 80, towards the right hand.

On one branch of the calibers^ on the fame fide,
are, firft fix inches ; and each of thefe fubdivided
into ten parts. Secondly, a fcale of unequal divifi-
ons, beginning at two, and ending at ten, each
fubdivided into four parts. Thirdly, two othet*
fcales of lines, fhewing when the di?.meter of the
bore of a piece, is taken with the points of thz ca-
libers outwards, the name of the piece, whether of
the iron or brafs, /. e. the weight of the bullet it'
carries, or that it is fuch or fuch a pounder, fromf
one to forty- two pounds. '

On the other branch of the calibers, on the fame
fide, is a line of cords to about three inches radius;
and a line of lines on both branches, as on the
fevftor ; with a table of the names of the feveral
pieces of ordnance. On the fame face is a hand
graved, and a right line drawn from the finger to-
wards the center of the rivet, fhewing by its cutting
certain divifions made on the circle, the weight of
an iron (hot, when the diameter is taken by the
points of the calibers. Laftly, on the circle or head,
on the fame fide, are graved feveral geometrical
figures, infcribed in each othe.'-, with numbers ; as
a cube, whofe fide is fuppofed one foot ; a pyra-
mid on the fame bafe or altitude, and the pro-
portions of their weight, l^c. a fphere infcrib-
ed

G U N N E R r.

«d in a cube ; a cylinder, cone, circle, fquare,'
^c.

The outfide of the caliber ferves to take the dia-
meter of the mouth of the piece ; and the infide,
called the hiei, that of the iu//rt.

There is another method of taking the ca/ikr of
the pieces, which is to have a rule very well divid-
ed, on which are graved the calibers-, both of the
pieces and bullets. That rule mart be applied on
the mouth of the piece, and the caliber is prefeiitly
found.

But to be more particular on this important fub-
jeiSl, here follows the different cd//6wi of the pieces
of ordnance.

A piece which receives a bullet an ounce weight
(twelve fuch ounces to the pound) has of aperture
at iti mouth, 9 lines and ts of a line.

That which receives a bullet iv/o ounces weight,
has of aperture at its mouth, 1 1 lines and i oi a,
line. I'll continue according to the fame order.

Weight of the bullet. Aperture of the caliber.

Ounces. Inches. Lines. FraSions.

I o

2
3
+

7
8

9
1 1
I

z
+
4

I
8

9
10

T
1 *

I O

The piece that receives the hulht one pound
weight, which makes fixteen ounces, has ofaperture
at its mouth, i inch, 1 1 lines, and f of a line.

^Yight of the bullet. Aperture of the caliber.

Ounces. helves. Lines. FraBions.

3
4
S
6

7
8

1 1
12

'3
'4
'5
16

«7
i8

2
3
3
5
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
S
5

S
9
I

+
6
8
ft
o
2
4
S
7
8

9
1 1
o
I

Ounces.

20 .

21 ■

22 •

23 •

24 ■

2J -

26 .

27 .
28

3=- ■
3«

32 '
35 ■

34 •

35 •
36

37 ■

38 .

4Z •

4';
46

47
48

49
50 .

1^0

Inches.

Lines. Fra^iois.

S
S
5
5
5
S
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6

6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7

3
4
?
6

9
10
1 1
o
I
I

'«

3
4
4

7
8

I.I

7
10

■5

-H
i

1 £

I X

T
_»

t
7i

Sometimes, in lieu of bullets, the pieces are
charged with cartouches, which are cafes loaded
with mufket balls, nails, chains, and pieces of
old iron ; fometimes, alfo, with fmall cannon balls.
Sec the Fig. on the plate of Gunnery.

There are cartouches made in form of grapes,
which are mufket balls joined together with pitch,
and difpofed on a fmall board, in a pyramidal form
round a wooden flick, which ariies from the middle
of the board.

The cartouches made of tin are the beft, becaufc
they carry further.

There are alfo cartouches made in form of pine-
apples, whofe figure is pyramidal. Their bafe is
equal to the caliber of a bullet, propofed for the
piece they are to be fired with ; their height is of
a caliber and a half; they are dipped in tar, and
afterwards rolled on mulket balls, and when well
covered with thofe balls, dipped again in the fame
tar, after which they may be ufed, thrulling the
biggefi: foremoil into the piece. Thefe pine-apples
are very good at fea, becaufe, befides that the
mulket balls flying about wound a great number
K 2 of

The Univerlal Hiftory o/" Arts ^«</ Sciences.

of people, the bullet which is at the bottom of
the cartouch, do* alfo much execution.

There are fevcral forts of carriages, for ordnance,
viz. Bajiard carriages^ with low wheels ; and
high wheels. Sea carriages, made in imitation of
thofe for (hip guns: And carriages for field-pieces,
of which there are two kinds.

The carriages muft be proportion'd to the pieces
mounted on them. — The ordinary proportion is,
for the carriage to have li of the length of the
gun ; the wheels to be half the length of the piece
in eight ; four times the diameter or caliber, gives
the depth of the planks at the fore end, in the
middle 3J.

The piece thus moimted on its carriage, feveral
inftruments are employed, fome to prepare the
piece to be loaded, fome to load it, others to point
it, and others to cleanfe it, d5c. Thofe inftru-
ments have each their proper name, which are as
follows :

The lantern or ladle, (/i/V.) which ferves to carry
the powder into the piece, and which confifts of
two parts, viz. of a wooden box, appropriated to
the caliber of the piece for which it is intended,
and of a caliber and a half in length with its vent ;
and of a piece of copper nailed to the box, at
the height of a half caliber.

being

This lantern muft have three calibers and a half
in length, and two calibers in breadth,
rounded at the end to load the ordinary pieces

The rammer, (ibid) which is a round piece of
wood, commonly called a iox, faftened to a ftick
twelve foot long, for the pieces from twelve to
thirty-three pounders ; and ten fdr the eight and
four pounders ; which ferve to drive home the
powder and ball to the breech.

The fpunge, [ibid.) which is a long ftafFor ram-
mer, with a piece of flieep or lamb fkin wound
about its end, to ferve for fcouring the cannon
when difcharged, before it be charged with frefti
powder; to prevent any fpark of fire from remain-
ing in her, which would endanger the life of him
who fhould load her again.

JVad-Shevj, {ibid.) which are two points of iron
turned ferpeiit-wife, to extrad: the wad out of the
pieces, when one wants to unload them, or the
dirt which had chanced to enter into it.

The houtefeu!c, [ibid.) which are fticks two or
three feet long, and an inch thick, iplit at one
end, to hold an end of the match twifted round it,
to fire the cannon.

The priming iron, (ibid.) which is a pointed iron
rod, to clear the touch-hole of the pieces of pow
dtr or dirt ; and alfo to pierce the cartridge, that
it may fooner take fire.

The primer, (ibid.) which muft contain a pound
of powder at Icaft, to prime the pieces.

The gusin of mire, (ibid.) which are pieces of
wood with a notch on the fide to put the fingers
on, to draw them back or pufh them forward,
when the gunner points his piece. They are placed
on the fole of the carriage.

Leaden plates, which are ufed to cover the touch-
hole, when the piece is charged, left fome dirt
fhould enter it and ftop it.

Before you charge the piece fpunge it well, to
clean it of all filth and dirt within fide ; then the
proper weight of gunpowder, which powder drive
in and ram down ; taking care that the powder be
not bruifed in ramming, which weakens its efFeft ;
run over it a little quantity of paper, hay, or
the like; and then throw in the ball.

To point, level, or direiSl the piece.fo as to play
againft any certain point, is done by the help of a
quadrant with a plummet j which quadrant confifts
of two branches made of brafs or wood; one
about a foot long, eight lines broad, and one line
in thicknefs; the other four inches long, and the
fame thicknefs and breadth as the former. Between
thefe branches is a quadrant, divided into 90
degrees, beginning from the fhorter branch, and
furniflied with thread and plummet.

Place the longeft branch of this inftrument in
the cannon's mouth, and elevate or lower it till the
thread cuts the degree neceflary to hint the propofed
objeft. Which done, prime the cannon (if not
done before) and then fet fire to it.

To point a cannon well, fo as to do the ex-
ecution propofed, we muft know the path of a
bullet, or the line it defcribes, from the mouth of
the peice to the point where it lodges, which path
is commonly called range.

If the piece be laid in a line parallel to the
horizon, it is called the right or level range; and if
it be mounted to 45 degrees, the ball is faid to
have the utmoft range, and fo proportionably ; all
others between 00 degrees and 45, being called
intermediate ranges.

A fhot made when the muzzle of a cannon
is raifed above the horizontal line, and is not

defigned to fhoot directly or point-blank, is called
random fnit.

The utmoft random of any piece is about ten
times as far as the bullet will go point-blank ;
and the bullet will go furthelt when the piece is
mounted to about 45 degrees above the level range.

Mr. Norton obferves, that

Paces.

G U N N E R r.

A Baft flioots -
A Rabinet, —
A Falconet,
A Fa /con, —
IWinton ordinary
Minion large/},
Sacker leaji.

Paces.
Level.

- 60
70

- 90
130

- 120

- 125
150

- 160
163
174

Paces.

Utmofl Random

600

700

900

1300

1200

1250

1500

1600

1630

1740

1750

1780

1800

1810

1830

1560

1620

1800

1850

Sacker ordinary,

Sacker eld Sort,

Demi-culverine leajl,
Demi-culverine ordinary 175
Demi ciilverine old Sort 1 y 8

Culverine lea/l, 180

Culverine ordinary ^ 18 1
Culverine largeji, 1 83

Demi-cannon leal}, 156
Demi cannon ordinary, 162
Demi-cannon large, 180
Cannon-Royal 185

A 24 pounder may very well fire 90 or roo
fliots, every day in fuinmer; at 60 or 75 in winter.
In cafe of neccffity it may fire more. And fome
French officers of artillery affure, that they have
caufed fuch a piece to fire every day 150 fliots in
a fiege.

A 16 and a 12 pounder fire a little more,
becaufe they are eafier ferv'd- There have even
been fome occafions, where 200 fhots have been
fired from thofe pieces, in the fpace of nine hours,
and 138 in the fpace of five.

To range pieces in a battery, take care to re-
connoitre well the ground where it is to be placed,
and the road to convey to it, in the night-time,
the cannon and the munitions. See page 507, 508.

The pieces muft be arm'd, each with two lan-
terns or ladles, a rammer, a fpunge, and two prim-
ing-irons. The battery muft alfo be provided with
carriages, and other implements, neceflary to re-
mount the pieces, which the enemy fhould chance
to difmount.

To ferve expeditioufly and fafely a piece in bat-
tery, it is neceflary to have to each a facte of
leather, large enough to contain about twenty
pounds of powder to charge the lanterns or ladles,
without carrying them to the maga7ine; and to
avoid thereby making thofe trains of powder in
brini^ing back the lantern from the magazine, and
the accidents which frequently happen thereby.

A battery of 3 pieces, muft have 30 gabions, be-
cauie fix are employ'd on each of the two fides or
epaulments, which make twelve, and nine for each
of the two merlons.

There ought to be two gimncrs and fix foldicrs
to each piece, and four officers of artillery.

The gunner polled on the right of the piece,
muft take care to have always a pouch full of pow-
der, and two priming-irons ; his office is to prime
the piece, and load it with powder. '1 hat on the
left, fetches the powder from the liulc magazine,
and fills the laiuhern or ladle which his comrade
holds ; after which he minds that the match be
very well lighted, and ready to fet fire to the piece
at the firft command of the officer.

There muft be three Ibldiers on the right, and
three on the left of the piece. The two firft to
take care to ram, and fpunge the piece, each on his
fide. The rammer and fpunge muft be placed on
the left, and the lantern or ladle on the right. Af-
ter having rammed well the wad put over the
powder, and that put over the bullet, they then
take each a handfpike, which they pafs between
the foremoft fpokes of the vi'heel, the ends whereof
wilLpafs under the head of the carriage, to make
the wheel turn round, leaning on the other end of
the handfpike, towards the embrafure.

It is the office of the fecond foldier on the right,
to provide wad, and to put it into the piece, as well
over the powder as over the bullet; and that of his
comrade on the lefe, to provide 50 bullet=^,and every
time the piece is to be charged, to fetch one of
them and put it into the piece, after the powder
has been rammed. Then they both take each an
handlpike, which they pafs under the hind part of
the wheel, to pufh it in battery.

The officer of artillery muft take care to have
the piece diligently ferved.

In the night he muft employ the gunners and
foldicrs, who fhall relieve thofe who have ferved
24 hours, to repair the embrafures.

If there be no water near the battcy, care muft
be taken to have a cafk filled with it, to dip the
fpunges in it, and cool the pieces, every ten or
tvveli'e rounds.

The Mortar Is a fliort piece ofordnajice,
thick and wide, proper for throwing bombs, car-
caftes, fhells, ftones, ^c.

There are chiefly two kinds oi mortars : the one
hung or mounted on a carriage with low wheels,
after the manner of guns, called pendent or hanging
mortars ; the other fix'd on an immoveable baie,
caWedJlanding mortars. Seethe P/rt/t' Gunnery.
At the head of the bore, or chafe of the mortar,
is the chamber for the charge of the powder. This
is uiually made cylindrical, all but the bafe v;hich
they make hemifpherical : though fome of the
later engineers prefer hemifpherical chambers ; as
the furface of thofe being lefs, under equal capaci-
ties, make leCi refiftance to the gun-powder.
i The

The Univerfal HlPiory of Arts /^W Sciences.

The tliickucfs of the mortar about the chamber,
is to be much greater than about the chafe, by
r.'afon the gun-powder makes a much greater effort
about the chamber than elfewhere. The diameter
of the chamber to be much Icis than that of the
bore; by reafon bonih;, fnells, ^c. are much
lighter than the bullets of equal diameters, and
confequently lefs powder fuffices.

The firlt monar-piece ufed for throwing ftones,
weighs commonly icoo lb. and whofc utmoft
random is 150 fathoms, loaded with two pounds of
powder, it lias 15 inches of diajneter at its mouth,
and 2 foot 7 niches ialicight.

The depth of its bore or cha,fe is r foot 7 inches,
and the depth of its chamber, without including
the entrance where the tampion is placed, 8 inches.
The tourillons have 5 inches of diameter.

Ilic chamber mult enter an inch into the tou-
rillons. 'The thickncfs of the metal about the
chamber, 3 inches ; the thicknefs of the belly, 2
inches ; and the length of tlie chafe, i inch and f- ; '
about each ring, i inch and |.

'Alortars, for throwing bombs, are of feveral
kinds.

There are fome, in the antient manner, of 6,7,8,
9,10, Ii,i2,and 18 inchesdiamcterattheirmouth,
and which '^ccntain in their chambers, 3, 4, 5, 6,
and 12 pounds of powder.

The chamber where the powder is put is cylin-
drical, z. e. of the iame breadth every where, and
a little rounded at bottom.

Thofe of new invention, have a concave cham-
ber. And of thefe there are fome which have 12
inches and | at the mouth, and contain in their
chambers 18 pounds of powder ; others 12, and
others 8.

The proportions of mortars are as follow. The
mortar which throws a bomb of 17 inches 10 lines
of diameter, has the bore 27 ^ inches long, and 18
inches 4 lines of diameter ; it has in thicknefs be-
tween the bourelet, and its fmall reinforced ring,
3 k inches ; its fmall reinforced ring, is 3 1 inches
.thick; its great one, 4 inches; the entrance of its
chamber has 5 | inches of diameter ; the chamber,
in form of a pear, is 1 3 inches long, and 7 \ inches
of diameter at its greateft breadth ; and alfo -j^-
thick, and contains 12 pounds of powder.

The tourillons of the mortar have 32 inches in
length from one end to the other, and g of diame-
ter. The mortar has in height 4 foot 4 inches.

The bomb has 17 inches 10 lines of diameter, is
2 inches thick every where, except the bottom,
which has 2 inches 10 lines. 'I he aperture of the,
touch-hole is of 20 lines within and without.

The bomb contains 48 lb, of powder, and weighs
490 lb. and a little more.

The bore of the concave mortar, whofe chamber
contains 18 pounds of powder, has 12 f inches of
diameter, and is 18 j inches long. It has in thick-
nefs, between the bourrelet, and its reinforced ring,
3'- inches; and its reinforced ring is 4! inches
thick. Its chamber has 9 inches 7 lines of diame-
ter at its greateft width : the higher part thereof
has 6 inches of diameter, and 4 inches in height;
and its lower part i\ inches. The thicknefs of the
metal round the chamber is of '26 inches 9 lines.
The tourillons have from one end to the other 8
inches of diameter. The mortar has in height 3
fftct 5 inches 4 lines. It throws a bomb of i r iji-
ches 8 lines diameter, which is I inch 4 lines thick
every where, except at its cullot^, which has i irich
8 lines. The aperture of its touch-hole is 16 lines
infide and outfide. The bomb contains 15 pounds
of powder, and weighs 130 pounds, or thereabout.

The bore or chai'e of the arcave mortar, whpfe
chamber contains 12 pounds of powder, has 12 in-
ches 6 lines of diameter, and 17 inches 6 lines in
length. Its thicknefs between the bourrelet and
its reinforced ring, is of 2{ inches. Its reinforced
ring is 3 inches thick. Its chamber has of diamiter
at its greateft width, 9 inches 6 lines. The por-
tion of that chamber a top has 5 inches 4 lines of
diameter, and 2 inches at bottom. The thicknefs
of the metal round the chamber is 6 inches. The
tourillons are from one end to the other, 30 inches
lo.ng, and 7 inches of diameter ; and .the mortar is
in all 3 foot 2 inches high.

It throws a bomb, 1 1 inches 8 lines of diameter,
which is I inch 4 lines thick every where, except
at itscullot, which has i inch 8 lines.

The aperture of its touch-hole, outfide and in-
fide, is 16 lines.

1 The bomb contains 15 lb, of powder, and
weighs 130.
! The mortar, which has a concave chamber con-
taining 8 pounds of powder, muft throw a bomb
of 1 1 inches 8 lines. — Its diameter is of 1 2f inches ;
its bore 18 inches long; its thicknefs at the chaf»
' 2f inches ; its reinforced ring 6 inches long, and
' 3 inches thick ; its concave chamber 8 inches 8
lines long, and 7 inches in diameter ; the thicknefs
of the metal round it 5 inches ; its tourillons 3 in-
ches long from one end to the other, and 7 inches
in diameter. — The concave chamber contains 8
pounds of powder, and throws a bomb as above.

The ordinary mortar, which throv.'s a bomb of
1 1 inches 8 lines, has a bore of 1 2 inches diameter^
and 18 long; its thicknefs at the neck 2 inches ;
at its reinforced ring 2 f inches, its chamber 9 i
inches in length, its diameter of 5 5 inches, the
thicknels of the metal round the chamber 7 inches,
which chamber contains 6 pounds of powder ; the

tourillons

GUNNERY.

tburillons have in length ftom one end to the other
28 inches, and 8 inches of diameter.

The mortar, which throws a bomb of 8 inches,
has the bore t2 inches long, and 8 inches 4 lines
in diameter; its thicknefs
chafe ; its

they join a vantrain proportioned to it, and made
like thole which fervctothe cariages of cannons

Having mounted our mortars on its carriage, the
next thing we do we'll caliber oxxi bomb, by means
1 inch 4 lines at the of a grezt caliper, (Seethe plate of Gunnery) the
reinforc'd rings 4 inches 8 lines long, two branches whereof embrace the whole circum-
and I inch 8 lines thick ; its chamber 6 inches ference of the bomb: Thefe two branches are
long, and 2 inches 8 lines ofdameter; its touril- ! brought on a rule where the different calibers are
Ions 18 inches 8 lines in length, and 4 inches 8 line^ marked, among which that of the bomb is found,
of diameter. — The bomb of 8 inches of diameter is A bomb is a hollow iron ball, or fhell filled with
10 lines thick every where, except at the cullot, gunpowder, and furnifhed with a vent for a fufee
which is 13, and its touch-hole i inch of diameter | or wooden tube filled with combuftible matter to
infide and outfide. The chamber contains 4 pounds be thrown out from a mortar. The method of
of powder, and the bomb weighs 40 lb. preparing a bomb is as follows : A hollow iron

The bore of the mortar, which is to throw a globe is caft pretty thick, having a round aperture
bomb of 6 inches, is of 6 | inches of diameter, and by which it may be filled and lighted ; and circular

9 inches long ; its thicknefs at the chafe i inch
its reinforced ring i 5 inch thick, and 3 f inches

long

anfss for the commodious putting it into the mor-
tar. To prove whether it be {launch, after heat-

its chamb.r 4 f inches long, and 2 inches ^ ing it red hot on the coals, it is expofed to the air,
of diameter ; the thicknefs of the metal 2 inches, ': {o as it may cool gently ; for fince fire dilates iron,
and from the bottom of the chamber to behind the, if there be any hidden chinks or perforations, they
recoil of thfe mortar 4 inches thick. will thus be opened enlarged ; and the rather be-

That common mortars are very good for the caufe of the fpring of the included air continually, .
borfibardment of a place, when they can be carried , afling from within. This done, the cavity of the
near the place ; thro vi'ing the bomb to 45 degrees of globe is filled with hot water, and the aperture
elevation, and to 700 fathoms diftance : the cham- 1 well flopped, and the outer furface wafhed with
ber charged with 5 or 6 pounds of powder, which cold water and foap ; fo that if there be the fmalleft
is the greateft charge, and carries further: the [leak, the air, rarified by the heat, will now per-

nearer a place a mortar is mounted, the lefs powder
is wante;d for its charge. The mortars with a con-
cave chamber of the fame diameter, /'. e. of 12 and
1 2 f inches pointed at 45 degrees, are proper to
hbtnbard places afar off; they carry their bombs
from I 20c to 1800 fathoms. Thofe whofe cham-
ber contains 8 pounds of powder throw the bomb
to 1200 fathoms, and weigh 2000 lb. Thofe of
12 pounds of powder will carry their bombs to
14C0 fathoiiiG, aiid weigh 2500 /i. Thofe of 18
jiounds of powder will carry to 1800 fathoms, and
weigh 1,000 lb.

The Liirriage for a mortar of 12, inches of diame-
ter muft be 6 foot long, the flalts 12 inches long,
and j^o thick. The trunnions are placed in the
nliddie of the carriage.

The carriage of 1 8 muR be 4. foot long ; and the
fJafks 1 1 inches high, and 6 thick.

'I o mount the mortars of new invention, they
ufe 'catf'ia^es of call iron.

In Germany, to mount mortars from 8 to 9 in-
ches, and carry them into the field, and execute
them horizontally as a piece of cannon, they make
life of a piece of wood 8 feet 2 inches long, with a
hole in the middle to lodge the body of the mortar
and its trunnions as far as their half diameter, and
mounted on two wheels four feet high, to which

fpire and form bubbles on the furface.

If no defeat be found in the bomb, its cavity is
filled, by means of a funnel, with whole gunpowder;
a little fpace or liberty is left, that when a fufee or
wooden tube, of the figure of a truncated cone, is
driven through the aperture (with a wooden mallet
not an iron one, for fear of accident) and failened ■
with a cement made of quick lime, afhes, brick-
dull, and Heel -filings Worked' together in a gluti-
ous water, or of four parts of pitch, two of colo-
phony, one of turpentine, and one of wax ; the
powder may not be bruifed. This tube is filled
with a combuflible matter, made of tv.'o ounces
of nitre, one of fulphur, and three of gunpowder-i
duft well rammed.

This fuiee let on fire, burns fldwly till it reaches .
the gunpowder, which goes off at once, burfting
the fbell to pieces with incredible violence. Special
care however mufl; be taken, that the fufee be fo
proportioned, as that the gunpowder do not take
fire ere .le (hell arrives at the deftined place ; to
prevent which, the fufee is frequently wound round .
with a wet clammy thread.

Our mortar mounted on its carriage, and the
bomb ready, we'll place our piece in batteryj
which battery muftconfift; — i. Of an epaul-
mejit to flielter the mortars from the fire of the
enemy. 2. Of platforms on which ^^niortan

ace

68 TJoe Univerfal Hiftory

•"re placed. 3. Of fmall magazines of powder. 1

4. Of a boyau which leads to the great magazines '

5. Of ways which lead from the battery to the ;
magazine of bombs. 6. Of a great ditch before
the cpaulment. 7. Of a berm or retraiie. See
page 507, 5c8.

The platforms for mortars of 1 2 inches mult
have 9 feet in length, and 6 in breadth. — The
lambcwds for common mortars mjift be 4. inches
thick; thofe of a concave chamber of 8//^. of
powder, 5 inches ; thofe of 12/i. 6 inches; thofe
i8/i. 7 inches, or thereabouts. Their length is
at difcretion, provided there be enough to make
the platforms 9 feet long. — The fore-part of the
plat-form will be fituated at two foot diftance of

the epaulment of the battery The bombardiers,

to flielter themfelves in their battery, and not be
feen from the town befieged, raifed an epaulment
of 7 foot or more high, which epaulment has no
embrafures.

To ferve expcditioufly a mortar in battery are
required, — five ftrong handfpikcsy a dame or ram-
mer, of the caliber of the conick chamber, to ram
the wad and the eaith, a wcoden knife a foot
long to place the earth round the bomb, an iron
fcraper two foot long, one end whereof muft be
4 inches broad and roundwife to clean the bore,
and the chamber of a mortar, and the other end
made in form of a fpoon to clean the little chamber,
a kind of brancard to carry the bomb, a fhovel,
and pick-ax.

The officer who is to mind the fervice of the
mortar muft have a quadrant to give the degrees
of elevation.

Five bombardier!, or others are employed in that
fervice; the firft muft take care to fetch the powder
to charge the chamber of the mortar, putting his
priming-iron in the touch-hole before he charges
the chamber ; and never going to fetch the powder
before he has afked his officer at what quantity of
powder he defigns to charge, becaufe more or lefs
powder is wanted according to the diftance where
It is fired ; the fame will take care to ram the wad
and earth which another foldier Ihall put in the
chamber.

That on the right will put again two fliovels
full of e«rth in the bottom of the bore, which fhodd
be likewife very well rammed down.

This done the rammer or dame fhall be returned
into its place againfi: the epaulment on the right of
the mortar : he'll take an handfpike in the fame
place to poft himfclf behind the carriage of the
mortar, in order to help to pufli it into battery
having laid down his handfpike, he'll take out his
priming-iron, and prime the touch-hole with fine
powder.

o/"Arts and Sciences.

The fecond foldiers on the right and left, will
have by that lime brought the bomb ready loaded,
to be placed in the mortar, which muft be recei\fcd
in the mortar by the firft foldier, and placed very
ftrait in the bore or chafe of the mortar.

1 he firft, on the right, fhall furnifli him with
earth to put round the bomb, which he muft
take care to ram clofe with the knife given him
by the fccond on the left.

This done, each fliall take a handfpike, which
the two firft, on the right and left, ftiall put un-
der the pegs of retreat of the fore part, and the
two behind, under thofe of the hind-part ; and
they together fliall pufh the mortar in battery.

Afterwards the officer fhall point or direct the
mortar.

During that time the firft foldier (hall take
care to prime the touch-hole of the mortar, with-
out ramming the powder; and the laft on the
right, ftiall have the match ready to fet fire on
the fuiee of the bomb on the right, while tlie
firft fliall be ready with his on the left, to fet
fire to the touch-hole of the mortar; which he
ought not to do till he fees the fufee well lighted.

The foremoft foldiers will have their hand-
fpikes ready to raife the mortar upright, as foon
as it has difcharged ; while the hindmoft on the
left fliall, with the fcraper, clean the bore and
chamber of the mortar.

The magazine of powder for the fervice of th».
battery, fliall be fituated 15 or 20 paces behind,
and covered with boards, and earth over it. —
The loaded bombs are on the fide of the faid
magazine, at 5 or 6 paces diftance.

The officer who commands the fervice of the
mortar, muft take care to difcover, as much as
poffible with the eye, the diftance of the place
where he intends to throw his bomb, giving the
mortar the degrees of elevation, according to the
judgment he has formed of the diftance. Having
thrown the firft bomb, he'll diminifli or increaie
the degrees of elevation, according to the place
upon which it fhall fall. Several make ufe oi ta-
bles to difcover the different diftances according to
the differences of the elevations of the mortar, ef-
pecially the degrees of the quadrant from i to 45.

M. Blondcl hd.s wrote a large treatife on that
fubjeiS, where he pretends to give a demonftration
to throw bombs with great exadtnefs.

They fay then (fays M. Blondtl fpeaking o^ bom-
bardiers) that the mortars chafe more or lefs, ac-
cording as it is more or lefs charged with powder ;
and that a mortar, for example, of 12 inches cali-
ber, charged in its chamber with 2 lb. of powder,
gives every degree 48 feet difference in the ran-
dom, and for the greateft extent under the elevation
of 45 degrees, 2 1 60 feet. The

G U N N E R r.

The fame mortar will give every degree 50 foot |
difference, if it be charged with 2* of the fame j
goodnel's, and 2700 foot for the greatefl random.

Laftly, it will give 72 foot difference every de- 1
grce, if the charge be of 3 lb. of the fame powder,
and at the elevation of 45 degrees, which, they fay, !
is the greatefl: random, it will throw the bomb at j
the difliance of 3240 foot.

On this foundation they have made the follow-
ing tables.

TABLEsy*;- Mortars 0/12 inches o/'Caliber.

F'trji Table at 2 pounds oi powder.

Tables y^r mortars of ei^ht hides caliber.
FirJI table at half pound of powJe'..

That the difference is of 48 feet every degree.
Second Table at two pounds and half of powder.

Randoms

Randoms
2 1 bo Feet
2200
2280
2340
2400

That the difference is of 60.
77;;V^ Table at three pounds of powder.

Degrees

5 -

10 —

1 1 —

12 —

13 -

14 —

15 —
j6 —

17 -

18 -

19 -

20 —

21 —

22 —

23 -

24 -

25 —

26 -

27 -

Randoms

- 2ioFeet

- 420

- 460

- 504

- 54-6

- 588

- 630

- 672

- 714-

- 756

- 798

- 840

- 882

- 924

- 966

- 1008

- 1050

- 1092

- "34

The difference is of 42 feet every degree.
Second table at three quarters of a pound of powder-

Degt ees

31 -

32 -

33 -

34 -

35 -

36 -

37 -

38 -

Randoms
• 1922 Feet
1984
2046
2108
2170
2232
2294
2356

The difference is of 62.

Feet

Degrees

42 -

43 -

44 -

45 -

The difference is of 72.
Vol. n. 31.

Degrees

Randoms

2664 Feet

2736

2808

2880

2952

Randoms
3024 Feel

3096

3168

3240

Degrees

Randoms

3362 Feet

3444

■ 3526

- 3608

• 3690

TZ>;V^ table at one pound of poivder.

Randoms
2870 Feet
2952

3034
3116

3198
3280

Granadoes are charged like the bombs, and are
very much like them, except that they have no
anja.

A Gran ADO, (ilid) is a hollow ball, or fhell o'
iron, brafs, or even glafs, or potters earth, filled
with gun powder, and fitted with a fufee to give
it fire.

L Of

7© T'Jje Univerfal Hiftory

Of thefe there are fcveral kinds, the one large for

.ditches, or folTees, called fometimes bombs, whole

caliber is the /'anie with that of the bullets of 33 lb.

and which weigh \blb. of 24, and whicii weigh

izli. of 16, which wei^h 8 Ih.

'] hofe Granadoci arc rolled from the ramparts,
or other works into tiie ditch, or on a breach, and
do much execution.

The other are hand granadoes, of the bignefs or
caliber of a bullet of 4 Ih. and weigh only 2 lb.
containing 4 or 5 ounces of powder, or thereabout.

Thefe ferve to throw with the hand into the
trenches, or retrenchments, in the middle of a
troop or company, and they infallibly lame or kill

Care is taken, as much as pofTible, that they be
well emptied, fhaved, and of brittle iron. Their
aperture or orilice,niuft: have fix lines, or thereabout.

Sma.l lanterns or ladles of copper, and fmall
rammers are uled to charge the granadoes.

As to the proportions oi granadoes, thofe of the
caliber of a bul et of 33, have 6 inches of diame-
ter, and fomething more, they are 8 lines thick,
and weigh 16 / .

Thofe of the caliber of 24, have 5 inches 5 lines
diameter ; are 6 lines thick, and weigh i 2 lb.

Thofe of the caliber of 16, have 4 inches 9 lines
of diameter, are 5 lines thick, and weigh 8 lb.

1 hofe which weigh 6 lb. have 3 inches 5 lines
diameter, and 5 lines in thicknefs.

Thofe of 5 lb. weight, have 3 inches 2 | lines
diameter, and 5 lines in thicknefs.

1 hofe which weigh 3 lb. have 2 inches 8 lines
diameter, and are 4 \ lines thick.

Thofe of lib. weight, have 2 inches 4 lines
diameter, and 4 lines in thicknefs.

Thofe of I lb. weight, have i inch xo lines dia-
meter, and are three lines thick.

Thofe of I, have i inch 8 lines diameter, and
are 3 lines thick.

Thofe of i, 'have i inch 6 lines diameter, and
are 3 lines thick.

Thofe of a |, have i inch 2 lines diameter, and
are 2 \ lines thick.

All thefe granadoes muft be thicker at bottom
than any where elfe.

Thefe different forts o^ granadoes have alfo differ-
ent forts of fufees.

Thofe ofthe caliber of, 33 24 16 12 8 4

are,atthebiggeftend,of 12 //«. 11 lof 10 9J 8f

The diameter of ?

the orifices, i ^ 4 3 3 3 2

The fufees are in > , . , ,

length, in all, of \ 5^«^^. 5 4 4 3f 2r

And as the large granadoes, which are made to
throw into the foja, or ditches, or with fmall

of Arts <3;W Sciences.

mortars, they muft have fufees of different length?;
thefe are for fmall mortars ; thofe for ditches mjft
be fhorter.

The Germans cover over the fufee with paper
or parchment, tied with a thread round the fufee.

In France they ufe a compolition of black pitch,
mixed with a little tallow, w ith which they rub
over the fufee, when fixed to tho granado.

The fufee muft burn lo 'ong, and no longer, as
is the time of the motion of the bomb or granado,
from the mouth of the mortar, ^ c. to the place
where it is to fall, which time is about 27 feconds;
fo that the fufee muft be cont;ived, either from
the nature ofthe compofition, orthe lensth of the
pipe, which contains it, to burn juft that time.

At Paris they charge the fuiees for the bombs
and granadoes, with a compofition made with pow-
der-duft and charcoal, very well pounded, and
fifted very fine, putting two ounces of charcoal on
each pound of powder, and make feveral proofs, to
know if the compofition be not too quick.

There are feveral other compofitions to charge
the fufees for bombs or granadoes.

The firft is of 4 lb. of powder, 2 lb. of falt-petre,
and I lb. of fulphur.

The fecond is of 5 lb. of powder, 2 lb. of falt-
petre, and I pound of fulphur.

The third, which is the beft, is of 3 lb. of pow-
der, %lb. of fait petre, and i lb. of fulphur.

The fourth is of 3 lb. of powder, 2 lb. of falt-
petre, and i /i. of fulphur.

The fufees muft be charged even, /. e. they muft
burn without fpitting.

The fufee of the hand-granado, which is of the
caliber of 4, muft be 2 inches 2 lines long, 9 lines
of diameter, and 6 lines at the fmall end : the ori-
fice of the fufee i\ lines.

As foon as the fufee is placed to the granado, the
head thereof muft be fauced in meltf.-d pitch, and
afterwards dipped in water, which hinders the com-
pofition from fpoiling, and the wood from rotting.

The Petard [ibid.) is the next piece of artil-
lery, which deferves our attention, and is a kind of
engine of metal, lomewhat in ftiape of a high-
crown'd hat, ferving to break down gates, barri-
cades, draw-bridges, or the like works ; which are
intended to be furprized. It is very fhort, narrow
at the breech, and wide at the muzzle, made of
copper mix'd with a little brafs, or of lead with tin.

The petards are not always of the fame hei>;ht
and bignefs : they are commonly 10 inches hie;h, 7
inches of diameter a-top, and 10 inches at bottom.
They weigh commonly 40, 45, and 50 pounds.

The Madrier {ibid.) on which the petard is
placed, and where it is tied with iron circles, is of
two feet for its greateft width, and of 18 inches on

the

GUNNERY.

the fides, and no thicker than a common madrier.
Under the madrhr are two iron bars paiFed crofs-
wife, with a hook, which ferves to fix the
Retard.

To charge a. petard 15 inches high, and 6 or 7
inches of caHber or diameter at the bore, the infide
muft be firlt very well cleaned and heated, fo that
the hand may bear the heat ; then take the beft
powder that may be found, throw over it fome
fpirit of wine, and expofe it to the fun, or put it
in a frying-pan, and when it is well dried, 5 or
6 lb. of this powder is put into the petard, which
reaches within three fingers of the mouth : the va-
cancies is filled with tow, and (topped with a
wooden tampion ; the mouth being ilrongly bound
up with cloth tied very tight with ropes ; then it is
fixed on the madrier, that has a cavity cut in it to
receive the mouth of the petard, and faftened down
with ropes.

Some, inftead of gun-powder for the charge, ufe
one of the following compofitions, viz. gun-pow-
der kvQn pounds, mercury fublimate one ounce,
camphor eight ounces ; or gun-powder fix pounds,
mercury fiiblimate three ounces, and fulphur threcj

or gun powder fix, beaten glafs \ an ounce, and

camphor |.

What has been faid of the art of charging and
diredling of cannons, may be properly illulhated
by a few problems in the dodtrine o\ projeililes : for,
as an author of great repute in this fubjecl ob-
ferves, it is only the great importance of Gunnery,
that makes it a diftindt do£lrine from proje/jiles in
general ; it being no more than an application of
thofe laws, which all bodies obferve, when call:
into the air, to fuch as are put in motion by the
explofion of guns or other engines of that fort. And
it is the fame thing whether it is treated in the
manner oi projeflilcs in general, or of fuch only as
belong to gunnery ; for, from the moment the force
is impreffcd, all diftinftion with regard to the power,
which put the body firfl: in motion, is loft, and it
can only be confidered as a fimple proje£lile.

Prch. I. The impetus of a bali, and the hori-
zontal diftance of an objefl: aimed at, with its per-
pendicular height or deprellion, if thrown on af-
cents or defcents, being given, to determine the
diredlion of that ball.

From the point of projedlion A draw A m repre- .

Fl G.

fenting the horizontal diftr.nce, and B m the per- j annl-s with the horizon, and bifeft it perpendicu
pendicular heit,ht of the ob'eJt aimed at' i-:r,n. !i-_f . • !.i. .u. 1 ^ /-. t , ,. , ^

bifedt jlarl/ iii c, with the Ime G G. Let the fine AC
Am in H, and AH in/, on H and /erect HT, b.- ii.irmal to the plane of pnv,e6tion AB, and cut-
/F perpendicular to the horizon, and bifeflino; A3
the^ oblique djftance or iadined plane in D, and

AD in F. On A raife the impetus A M. at right

;arly ni c,

b.- .i.irmal to the plane of projedtion AB,
ting GG in C ; f.om C as center, with the radius
C A, defcrihe the circle AG M cutring if pofTible
the line FS in S,^, points equally diilant irom G ;
L 2 lines

Tlje Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ««^ Sciences.

lines drawn from A through S, s will be the tan-
gents or direflions required.

Continue AS, A ^ to T, / ; bife£l DT, D /,
in V 'L'; and draw lines from M to S, i ; then the
^ A S F = z. M A S = z. AM s = /. sAV ;
and for the fame reafon /. A s V= /. M A s :z
/- A M S = A S A F ; wherefore the triangles
MAS, S A F, J A F are fimilar, and A M : A s
:: As: sF =z tv; confequently A T is a tangent
of the curve pafling through the points A, v, and
B ; becaufe tv =. vD, A D is an ordinate to the
diameter T H, and where produced mufl: meet the
curve in B.

In horizontal cafes (Fig. 7.) v is the higheft
point of the curve, bectiufe the diameter T f H is
perpendicular to the horizon.

When the mark can be hit with two directions
(the triangles SAM, ^ A F being fimilar) the an-
gle which the loweft diredtion makes with the plane
of projedtion is equal to that which the higheft
makes with the perpendicular AM, or /.s A F =:
aSAM. And the angle S Aj, comprehended
between the lines of direftion, is equal to the an-
gle SCG, and is meafured by the arch S G.

When the points S, s coincide with G, or w4ien
the directions AS, Ax become AG; {fig- 8.)
AB will be the greateft Jiftance that can be reach-
ed with the fame impetus on that plane ; becaufe
S F coinciding with G^ the tangent of the circle
at G, will cut off A ^ a fourth part of the greateft
amplitude on the plane AB. The rectangular
triangles m AB, cA C are fimilar, becaufe the an-
gle of obliquity >n AB =: c A C ; wherefore m A :
w B : : i impetus : c C, and m A : A B : : A c :
AC.

Horiz:ntal projeSlions [ibid. Fig. "J,^.) When
the impetus is greater than half the amplitude, there
are two directions, TAH, and / AH for that am-
plitude ; when equal to it, only one ; and when
lets, none at all : and cdfiverfe?y. For in the firft
cafe the line F S cuts the circle in two points S, s.
in the fecond cafe it only touches it, and in thelaft
it meets not with it at all ; and converfely. When
there is but one direCtion for the amplitude A tn,
the angle of elevation is of 45'' ; and when the
angle of elevation is of 45" Am is the greateft am-
plitude for that impetus, and equal to twice the
impetus. 1 he impetus remaining the fame, the
amplitudes are in proportion to one another as the
fines of double the angles of elevation, and con-
verfely. For drawing xN [Fi^-. 7.) parallel and
equal to A F a fourth part of the amiilituje, and
fuppofi g lijies drawn from s to the points C and
M, the angle AC s — 2 AM s — 7. ^ AY ; there-
fore N s the fine of A C j, is the fine of twice the
angle sA¥; half the irhpctus being radius.

Whence, at the directions of 15" or 75° the

amplitude is equal to the impetus : for from what
has been faid, half the impetus being radius, a
fourth part of the amplitude is the fine of twice the
angle of elevation ; but the fine of twice 15°, that
is, the fine of 30", is always equal to half the
radius ; or in this cafe a fourth part of the impetus
is equal to a fourth part of the amplitude.

From this and the preceding prop- there are two
eafy practical methods for finding the impetus of
any piece of ordnance. The fourth part of the
amplitude is a mean proportional between the im-
petus at the curve's principal vertex and its altitude.
For M N : N X : : N X -. N A = i F = 1- D.

The altitudes are as the verfed fines of double
the angles of elevation, the impetus remaining the
fame. For making half the Impetus radius, AN
the altitude is the verfed fine of the angle AQ s z=.
twice /. i AF. And alfo, radius : tangent /i. ele-
vation : : I amplitude : altitude, that is, R : tan-
gent Z. s A/: : Af:fs = D v.

Projeiiions on afcents and defcents. Fig. 5. 6.

If the mark can be hit only with one directi-
on AG, the impetus in afcents will be equal to
the fum of half the inclined plane and half ths
perpendicular height, and in defcents it will be '
equal to their difference ; but if the mark can be
reached with two directions, the impetus will be
greater than that fum or difference. For when
AG is the line of direction, the A g GA being:=
MAG=:GA^; G^=:A^, and gz added to or
fubtraCted from both makes G z half the impetus
equal to the fum or difference of hg a fourth part
of the perpendicular height. In any other directi-
on F P is greater than Yo = AF; and Yf added
to or fubtraCted from both, makes f¥ half the
impetus greater than the fum or difference of AF
a fourth part of the inclined plane, and Y f a
fourth part of the perpendicular height. Whence
if in afcents the impetus be equal to the fum of
half the inclined plane and half the perpendicular
height,or if in defcents it be equal to their difference,
the mark can be reached only with one direCtion;
if the impetus is greater than that fum or difference,
it may be hit with two directions ; and if the im.-
petus is lefs, the mark can be hit with none at all,

Prob. II. The angles of elevation, the hori-
zontal diftance, and perpendicular height be given,
to find the impetus. Fig.. 5. 6.

From thefe data you have the angle of obliquity,
and length of the inclijicd plane; then as

As-: AM :: S. A A Mi : S. A A j M : :S. Z.
X AF : S. A M A F and AF : Ax : : S. A MAs :.
S. aMAF; whence by : the ratio of equalit)-,
AM "^ '~

; S. A X rt. F X S. A MA X : S. /.

M A F X S. A M A F, vyhich gives this rule.

Add

G U N N E R r.

Add the log. of AF to twice the logarithmic
fine of the angle MAF ; from their fum fubtradl
the logarithmic fines of the angles s AF and MAj,
aiid the remainder will give the logarithm of AM
the impetus.

When the impetus and angles of elevation are
given, and the length of the inclined plane is re-
quired, this rs the rule. Add the log of AM to
the log. fines of the angles x AF and M'\f; from
their fum fubtraft twice the log. fine of Z. MAF,
and the remainder will give the log of AF the
fourth part of the length of the inclined plane.

If the angle of elevation t AH and its amplitude
AB {Fig. 8.) and any other angle of elevation
^ A H is given ; to find the amplitude Kb for that
other angle, the impetus AM and angle of obliqui
ty DAH remaining the fame.

Defcribe the circle AGM, take AF a fourth
part of AB, and h.f a fourth part oi Kb : from the
points F,y, draw the lines F s and fp parallel to
AM, and cutting the circle i,n the points j, p ; then
AF: AMjj_S. Z-yAFlTsTz. M Ar : S. Z.
MAF x_S_£_MAF ; and A M: A/:: S.
z. MAF X Sn MAF: S. z. /. a/x S. z.
/> A M ; whence by the ratio of equality.

AF : A/: : S. Z. ^ A I'T'^l- M A s : S-
^ p Af X, S. Z./)A M, which gives this rule.

Add the log. of A F to the log. fines of the an-
gles/) Ay, /) A M ; from their fum fubtradl: the
log. fines of the angles j- A F, s A. M. and the re-
mainder will give the log. of A_/", a fourth part of
the amplitude required.

Prob. 111. To find the force or velocity of a
ball or projectile at any point of the curve, having
the perpendicular height ofthat point, and the im-
petus at the point of piojecdon given. From thefe
two data find -out the iinpeuis at that point ; then
2 X i6 feet I inch is the velocity acquired by the
defcent of a body in a ftcond of time; the fquare
of which (4 X G i6 feet i inch) is to the fquare
of the velocity required, as i6 feet i inch is to the
impetus at the point given; wherefore multiplying
that impetus by four times the fquare of i6 feet i
inch, and dividing the product by i6 feet i inch,
the quotient will be the fquare of the required ve-
locity ; whence this rule. Multiply the impetus
by four times i6 feet i inch, or 64 feet \, and the
fquare root of the prouuiiVis the velocity.

1 hus fupppfe the impetus at the point of pro-
je£1ion to be 3000,. and the perpendicular height of
the other point "100; the impetus at that point
will be 2900. Then 2900 ftet multiplied by
64 j feet gives 186566 feet, the fquare of 432
ncarlv, the fpace which a body would run through
in one fecond, if it moved uniformly.

And to determine the impetus or height, from
which a bodymuft defcend,foasat the end of the de-
fcent itmayacquire a ;;ivcn velocity , this is the rule:
Divide tiic fcjuare of the given velcjcity (expreiihi
in feet run through in a fecond) by 64 7 feet, and
the quotient will be the impetus.

I he duration of a projedion made perpendicu-
larly upwards, is to that of a projection in any
other dirc(£tion whofe impetus is the fame, as the
fine complement of the inclination of the plane of
projection (which in horizontal proieCtion.s is ra-
dius) is to thefmeof the angle contained between
the line of diredtion and that plane.

Draw out A / {Fig. 5.) till it meets m B conti-
nued in E, the bodv will reach the mark B in the
fame time it would have moved uniformly through
the line A E : but the time of its fall through M A
the impetus, is to the time of its uniform motion
tliro' AE, as twice the impetus is to A E, And
therefore the duration of the perpendicular pro-
jection, being double the time of its fall, will be to
the time of its uniform motion through AE, as
four times the impetus is to A E ; eras A E is to
E B ; that is, as A /■ is to / D; which is as the fine
of the angle / DA (orMAB its complement to a
femicircle) is to the fine of the angle t A ]J),

Hence the time a projection will take to arrive
at any point in the curve, may be found from the
following data, viz. the irnpetus, the angle of di-
reClion, and the inclination of the plane of pro-
jection: which, in this cafe, is the an^le the horizon
makes with a line drawn fronvthe point of projection
to that point.

Hence alfo in horizontal cafes, the durations of
projections in dilFerent directions with the fame
impetus, are as the fines of the angles of elevation.
But in afceats or deicents their durations are as the
fines of the angles which the lines of direction
make with the inclined plane. Thus, fuppofe the
impetus of any projection v/ere 4500 feet ; then
16 feet I inch : i'''' : : 4500 feet : 275" the fquare
of the time a body will take to f.ill perpendicularly
thro' 4-, 00 feet, the fquare root of which is ib"
nearly, and that doubled gives 32" the duration of
the proieCtion made perpendicularly upwards.
Then to find the duration of a horizontal projection
at any elevation, as 20° ; fay R : S. Z. 20° : : 32''' :
duration of a projection at that elevation v/ith the
impetus 4500. Or if with the lame impetus a body
at the direction of 35° was projected on a plane in-
clined to the horizon 17°, fay as fine 7 j'' : fine
18" : : 32^^: duration required.

The two following tables, at one view, give all
the neceflary cafes as well for {hooting at objeCts on
the plane of »he horizon, with proporuons fortheir
folutions, as for fliooting .on afcepts end defrents,

Table

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts afid Sciences.

T ABLE I For horizontal projcaions. Fh_. i.

Givtn.

Required.

Proportions. 1

AM, Am

/AH
H^

2-AM; km: Am;: R -.S. z.^/AH
R:T.^/AH::— Ho-.

z
3

5
6

AM, /AH 1

A m

R:S.2/./AH :: 2 AM: Act.

Aot, /AH

A M

S. 2Z./.^H:R: :— : A M

AM, Ho..

A m

v/AN xNM=— .orfLog
AN + i Log. N M =z Log. \ A m.

A OT, H 'V

/AH

^:H-^::R:T. A /AH.

AN:''^"::'^'":NM, and A N
-1- N M = A M.

H a, / A H

A m

T. L. /AH: R : :H'i.: —

/AH, A;»
and any other angle.

any other amplitude.

any other amplitude
belong. to thatangle.
any other angle be-
long, to that ampl.

;S. 2 Z. /AH: S, 2 anyother /_ ::
A CT : amplitude required.
A m : any other amplitude : : S.
zz. /AH:S. 2Z. required.

/AH. H-i-,
any other angle.

any other altitude.

any other altitude,
any other angle

V. S. 2 z. / A H : V. S. 2 any
i other /_ :: Hi; : altitude required.
' H'Z' ; any other altitude; : : V.S.2
1 /. / A H : V. S. 2 A required.

TABLE II. For projeftions on afcents and defcents. Fig. 5, 6

2
3

Given.

Required.

Proportions.

AM, A »j,
B vt, A B.

TAH.
/AH.

A ?« : B « : : R : T. Z. B A CT, h.nU
of which added to 4:°. gives /.
GA2.AM:AB::Af:Aez=CG.
T. /lGA2:R::G2:Az, and
A z— A/=:/z=P G.
CG:PG ::R:V. S.'fSG.half
of wh'ch added to, or taker. f:om
Gh.%, gives the higher or lower
direction required.

TAH, /AH, AF

A M

Log. ' f A M = Log. of A F 4 2
Log.S.Z-MAF— Log S.Z.JA1-
—Log. S. Z. M A/.

TAH,/AH,AM

Log. of A K — Log. A M ;
Leg. -■ A J A F + Log. S. /_
MAj-2Log. S. /. MAF.

B .\ m, / A H, A B,
and any other ar.crle
/AH °

k b the ampl tidt for
that other .-.ngle.

Fig 8.
Log. A/=Log. AF + W-
SA/'-V*-' '"g-S Z./>AM— Log.
S Z./AF— Log.i.Z. M A/.

AM, DAH

Fig 5, 6. T. Z.GAs::SeC.
A^Az :: Gz : A^.

Befose

GUNNERY.

Before any of thefe pieces are appropriated for .
fervice, it is necefTary to have each undergo a par-
ticular trial of its foundnefs, which is called a
proof, to be made by or before one authorized for
the purpofe, called the proof- majlcr.

To make a proof of the piece, a prop r place is
chofen, which is ti> be terminated by a mount of
earth very thick to receive the bullets fired againft
it, that none of them may run through it. The
piece is laid on the ground, fuppnrtcd oii'v in the
middle by a nlock of \'/ood. It is fired three times :
tiie firlt with powder of the weight of the bullet
and the two others with j of the weigljt ; after
which a little more powder is put in to finge the
piece ; and after this water, which is imprelTed
witha fpunge, putting the finger on the touch-hole,
to difcover if there be any cracks; which don^
they are examined with the cat, which is a piec^
of iron with three grafps, difpofed in the form ot a
triangle, and of the caliber of the piece ; then it is
vilited with a wax candle, but it is of very little
iervice in the fmall pieces, becaufe if they be a lit-
tle long, the fmoak extinguifhes it immediately.

The proof of mortars is made in this manner :
where there are carriages of cafl: iron, the mortar
is placed on one of thofe carriages. Under that car-
riage is made a platform of madriers 5 or 6 inches
thick, the mortar is charged with the beft powder,
and with asmuch of it as its chamber can contain,
obferving to leave no vacuity at the neck of the
mortar but what is necellary to put a little wadd
over the powder, and which is rammed with the end
of an handfpike, to keep the powder together as
much as polTible. A large green turf, with earth
two fingers deep is put over the wad, which muft
have width enough to fill up the bottom of the mor-
tar. This turf and earth are very well rammed
down, thenthebomb is placed over it as upright as
poflible, leaving a fmall place round it, which is to
be filled with clay as tij;ht as polhble, preifing it
between the mortar and the bomb with a pointed
flick ; and as it is not neceilary to fpend much
powder in thefe fort of proofs, the bomb niuft be
filled with asmuch earth as it would contain pow-
der.

For want of cariiages of call iron, holes are dug
in the earth where the mortars are buried as far as
the touch-hole ; and in order that the mortars thus
buried may find more refifiance, and make a greater
effort, large pieces of wood in form of joifts arc put
under the mortar, chufing always the hardeil
ground, to refifl: better the recoil of the mortar.

A fufee forgranado's is put on the touch- hole of
each mortar, that the gunner may have time to re-
tire, in cafe the mortar was to burft in the proof ;
which is alfo pradiifcd in the proof of the pieces.

This proot is made three times, without increaf-
ing or diniinilliing any thing.

Befides the large pieces mcntion'd throughout
this "ireatife, invented for the dcrtruflion of man-
kind, there are others called Im.dl guns, w'z.
miijlcets of ramparts, common mufkets, fufi s, cara-
bines, mufketoons, and pifoh.

A mnfict, or mufqiut, is a fire-arm borne on the
ihoulder, and ufcd in war. formerly fir'd by the ap-
plication of a lighted match, but at prefent with a
flint and lock.

The common mufkets are of the caliber of 20
leaden balls to the pound, and receive balls from
7 2 to 24 : its length is fix'd to 3 feet 8 inches from
the muzzle to the touch pan.

A fufil, or fire-lock, has the fame length and
caliber; and ierves at prcfent infteaJ of a mulliet,
A carabine is a (mail fort of fire arm, fhorter
than a full!, and carrjing a ball of 24 in the pound,
borne by the light-horfe, hanging at a belt over
the left (houlder.

The carabine is a kind of medium between the
pillol and the mufkct ; .ind bears a near afK:iity to
the arquebufs, only that its bore is Imaller. It was
formerly made with a match lock, but of late only
with a flint lock.

1 he mifqiietoon is of the fame length of the ca-
rabine, the barrel polilhed, and clean within.

The mufquctoon carries five ounces of iron, or
feven and a half of lead, with an equal quantity of
powder.

The barrel of a pi flol is generally 14 inches long.

As to the invention of ir(7w;fl« and gun pozvJery
we are certain that they are difcoveries of a modern
date : but there is no depending upon the various
accounts given of them by authoi-s. All that can
be faid with certainty is, that there is mention
made of gun-powder, in the regiller of the cham-
ber of accounts in France, in the year ot Chrift
1338. That Alphonfus XI. king of 6V'A', be-
fie2:fd the Moors with iron mortars, in the year
of Chrifl 1 34^5 and that our king Edward in
1346, firft carried thofe thundering machines of
war and death into France, whL-re he availed him-
Itlf of five or fix pieces of cannon at the battle of
Crefji; which after ages remember with lb much
honour to England. -

Before the invention of thefe inftruments of war,
the ancients made \ik of iheAvKS, or Battering-ra?ny
the Caiapulta, the BalliJIa, Scerp on, and Tejfudo.

The Arifs, or battering ram, was an engine
with an iron head, to batter and beat down the
walls of places befieged.

Of this there were two kinds ; the firft, fimple
and plain, the other artificial and compound.

The

The Univerfal Hidory of Arts and Sciences.

Syrians. Some authors make it the fame witii the

The Tn-ft fecms to have been no more tliai) a
great !>c-iim, which the foltliers bore in their arms,
and with an end of it, by main force, afl'ailcd the
walls.

The fecond, or compound ram, is defcribed by
Jjfiphus, (de excid. H'leroj'ol. 3.) thus: ' The ram
' is a vaft long beam like the mad of a fliip, '
' flren^^thned at one end with a head of iron, fome-
' thing refembling that of a ram, whence it took
' its name. This is hung by the middle with ropes
' to another beam, which lies acrofs acoupleof
' pods, and hanging thus equally balanced, is by
' a great number of men violently thruft forwards, i
' and recoiled backwards, and (b firake the wall
' with its iron head, nor is there any tower or i
' wall fo thick or ftrong, as to refift the repeated
' aiTautts of this forcible macliine. '

JVJ. Fellibhn defcribes another fort of hatterir.g
ram, which runs on wheels, and was the molt
perfedt and eftcclual of them all.

V'uruvius affirms, that the battering ram was
firft invented by the Carthaginians, while they laid
fiege to Cadiz. That was the fimple kind above-
mentioned. Pcphafmenos a Tyrian, contrived to
fulpend it with ropes ; and Polydus the TheJfuUan,
to mount it on wheels at the fiege of Byzantium,
under Philip of Macedon. Yet Pliny affures us the
ram was invented at the fiege of Troy ; and that
this gave occafion to the fable of a wooden horle.

Plutanh tells us, that Mark Antony, in the Par-
thian war, ufed a ram of 80 feet long ; and Vitru-
vius aflures us they were fometimes made 106, and
fometimes 1 20 feet long, to which perhaps, the
force of the engine was in a great meafure owing.

The ram was managed at once by a whole cen-
tury of foldiers, fo that it played continually, and
without intermiffion ; being uiually covered with
a vinca to proteifl it from the attempts of the ene-
my.

The vinga was a kind of mantelet, or moveable
parapet, built flighter, and yet larger than ours,
being eight or nine feet high, as many broad, and
fixteen long : they were defended by a double
covering, the one of boards, the other of faggots,
with the ribs of ofiers, and ca(ed without with
it.ins Jtec-ped in water, to prevent fire ; for in pro -
cefs of time, a certain compofition of combulfibles
was invented, called grtwi five, becaufe firft ufed
by the (Jreeh, to burn thofe machines.

The compofition was made of fulphur, naphtha,
pitch, trum, and bitumen ; and was only extin-
guifliitble \>i vinegar, mixed with fand and urine,
<;r with raw hides.

The C.1TAPULTA was a machine us'd for
throwing huge flones, and fometimes large darts,
and javelins 12 or 15 feet long on the enemy.

The Catapulta is faid to be the invention of the

Ballilia : others different.

The Ballista is a round iron cylinder
faftencd between two planks, from which reaches
a hollow fquarc beam placed crofs ways, failened
with cords, to which are added (crews ; at one end
of this flands the engineer, who puts a wooden
fliaft with a big head into the cavity of the beam;
this done, two men bend the engine by drawing
fome wheels : when the top of the head is drawn
to the utmoft end of the cords, the fliaft is driven
out of the Srt/.///<7, &c.

The Scorpion w.isalfoa military machine of
the antients,ufed chiefly in the defence of walls, b*^'.
MarcelUnus defcribes the Scorpion, as confiding
of two beams bound together by ropes : From
the middle of the two rofe a third beam, fo difpof-
ed as to be pulled up and let down at pleafure ;
and on the top of this were faftened iron hooks,
where was hung a fling, either of iron or hemp.
Under the third beam lay a piece of hair-cloth
full of chaff tied with cords.

To ufe the engine, a round flone was put into
the fling, and four perfons on each fide, loofening
the beams bound by the ropes, drew back the eredt
beam to the hook ; when the engineer {landing on
an eminence, giving a ftroke with a hammer, on
the cord, to which the beam was faffened with
its hook, fet it at liberty; fothat hitting again the
foft hair-cloth, it ftruck out the ftone with a great
force.

It has its name Scorpion, becaufe when the long
beam or tiller was crefted, it has a (harp top in
manner of a fting — more modern times have given
it the name of Onager, wild afs.

The Testudo, Tortoife, was a kind of cover,
or fkreen, which the foldiers, e. gr. a whole com-
pany made themfelves of their bucklers, by hold-
I ing them up over their heads, and {landing clofe
to each other, this expedient ferved to fiielter them
' from darts, {tones, iSc thrown upon them, efpe-
, ciaily thofe thrown from above, when they went
j to the affault.

Trjludo was alfo a kind of large wooden tower
! which moved on feveral wheels, and was covered
1 u'ith bullocks hides f^ead,ferving to {helter the fol-
diers when they approached the walls to mine them,
or to batter them with rams. It was called Tejiudo
from the flrength of its roof, which covered the
workmen, as the fhell does the Tortoife.

I here were alfo moveable /sw^n 9/"wi;i5fl? mounted
on wheels, to fet the befiegers on a level with
the walls, and drive the befieged from under the
fame. Thet'e towers were fometimes 30 fathom
high ; they were covered with raw fkins, and 100
men employ'd to move them.

HAT-

( 77 )

HAT- MAKING.

AT-MAKING is the art of preparing, ! and form, tiiey are both joined together, fo aj to

make them meet in an angle at top, makinp- onlv
one conical cap.

The next procefs is to remove the hat to a
trough, refcmbling a mill-hopper, which is a cop-
per-kettle filled with water and grounds, kept hot
for the purpofc ; and, after being dipped i^i the
kettle, the hat is laid on the floping fide, called the
plank. Here they proceed to work it, by rolling
and unrolling it again and again, one part after
another, firft with the hand, and afterwards with a
fmall wooden roller, taking care care to dip it fron\
time to time, till at length, by thus fulling and
thickening it four or five hours, it is brought to the
dimenfions intended. In this violent labour, the
workmen ufually guard their hands with thick lea-
ther, which they call gloves.

The hat thus wrought into the form of a coni-
cal cap, is reduced into proper fhape on a block of
the fize of the intended crown, by tying it round
with a firing, called a commander ; after which,

mixing, and working together the hair
of beaver, of hares, rabbits, or other ani-
mals, into a certain form to cover the head, both
for ufe and ornament.

Theantiquity of this manufacfture goes no higher
than about the year 1400. Before this time the
head was covered with a chapcroon or (o:t of a hood,
ornamented and enriched, according to the degree
or rank of the man that wore it.

Some date the ufe of caps at the fame epocha :
but, it is certain, from antient paintings, that the
pileus or cap is of a much antienter invention and
vS^. The cap made of velvet was called mortier,
and was wore only by princes, kings and knights.
The fecular clergy and graduates in univerfities,
wore peculiar caps by way of di(tin6lion.

They that make hats muil be provided with a
commodious fhop, one part furniflied forpreparing
the hair or wool ; and the other for makins; the
felts, and for dying and fini/hing the hats.

To make the beaver hats, they tear off the long with a bent iron, called a Jicmper, they gradually

' beat down the commander all round, till it has

reached the bottom of the b!r,ck, and what remains
at the bottom below the firing forms the brim.

In this ftation it is let to dry, and afterwards
finged, by holding it over the blaze of a fire, made
of ftraw, orfhavings-; it is then rubbed with pu-
mice Jioiie, to take off the coarfer nap ; then rubbed
over with feal-fkin, to lay the nap ftill finer ; and
laftly, carded with a fine card, to raife the fine
cotton, with which the hat istoappear when fi-
nifhed : then fitting it to the block, they tie it, cut
round the edges, and deliver it to the dyers.

The dye being completed, the hat is dried by-
being hung in the roof of a ftove, heated with a
charcoal-fire ; and, when dry, it is ftifTened with
melted glue, or tdiher gum-fenega, which is fmeared
over the hat with a brufh, and rubbed in with the
hand. Then, having fpread a cloih over the
fleaming balbn, which is a little fire-place raifed
about three feet high, with an iron plate laid over

and fiiort hair from the fkin, with knives

After which they proportion the quantity of the
feveral forts of beaver hair, by mixing one third of
die dry cajior to two thirds of old coat: which is a
term 4k a (kin that has been worn fome time by
the Indians of dmerica, who catch and fell them to
the Europeans.

The hair, fo mixed, is carded and weighed out
into parcels, according to the fize and thicknefs of
the hat intended. The ftufF is laid upon the
hurdle, with an inftrument called a bow, refembling
that of a violin, but larger ; whofe ftring being
worked with a fmall bow-ftick, and made to
play on the furs, they fly, and mix themfelves to-
gether, the duft and filth at the fame time palling
through the chinks.

Thus hats are formed of an oval figure, ending
with an acute angle at the top : with what fluff
remains they ftrengthen them where ilendereft, yet
defignedly make them thicker in the brim near the
crown, than towards the circumference, or in the
crown itfelf. They next harden the fluff, fo ma-
naged, into more compact flakes, by prcfllng down
a hardened leather upon it.

This done, they are carried to the bafon, upon
which laying one of the hardened hats they fprinkle
it over with water, and mould it ; and the heat of
the fire, with the water and prefling, imbody the
fluff into a flight hairy fort of felt; after which,
turning up the edges all round over the mould,
they lay it by, and proceed with another, which
being inlike manner reduced to thcfame confiftence
Vol. II. 31.

it, exactly covering the fire, the hat is laid upon
the cloth, with the brim downwards, the cloth
being firft fprinkled with water, to raife a ftrong
fleam, to force in the fliffening. When it is m-o-
derately hot, the workman ftrikes gently on the
brim, with the flat of his hand, to make the join-
ings incorporate, and bind fo as not to appear,
turning it from time to time, and at laft fetting it
on the crown. And when it has been fufEcientljr
fteamed and dried, it is put again on the block,
bruflied, ironed, well fmoothed, and fitted for lining.
' Hats are alfo made for women's wear, of chips,
M flravr.

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts -^W Sciences.

flraw, orcane, by phtting, and fewing the plats
together ; beginning v/ith the center of the crown,
Rnd working round till the whole is finifhed. Hats

for the fame purpofe are alfo wove and made of
horfe-hair, iilk, ^c.

HERALDRY.

ERALDRY, is the art of armory and
blazoning; or, the knowledge of what
relates to the bearing of arms, and the
laws and regulations thereof.

Arms, or Armories, are marks of dignity and
hon'^ur, regularly compofcd of certain figures and
colours, given or authorized by fovereigns, and
bore in banners, fnields, coats, iSc. for the dif-
tinftion of perfons, families, and ftates, and paf-
fing by defcent to poflerity.

They are called arms, in regard they are bore
principally on the buckler, cuirafle, banners, and
other apparatus of war ; and by the EngUjh cuati of
arms, coat armour, Sic. becaufe antiently ern!)roi
der'd on a cloak or habit, worn by the anuerit
knights over their arms, both in war and at tour-
naments ; and fiill borne by the heralds at arms.

It was a kind of furcoat, reaching only as low
as the navel, open at the fides, .with fhort fleeves ;
fometimes furred with ermi e and voir, wherein
were applied ^^ armories of the knight, embroi-
dered with gold and filver, and enamelled with
beaten tin, colour'd Hack, green, red, and blue \
whence the rule never to apply colour on colour,
nor metal on metal.

The coats of arms were frequently open, and
diverfified with bands and fillets of feveral colours,
alternately placed, as we flill fee cloths fcarleted,
watered, &c. Hence they were alfo called divices,
or divifes, and being divided, orcompofed of feve-
ral pieces fewed together, whence the words fe/fe,
pale, chevron, bend, crofs, falter, lozenge. Sec. which
have fmce become honourable pieces, or ordinaries
of thefhield.

The furcoat being embroider'd with gold and
fiver, was the occafion that thofe two metals have
been fince placed in the coats of arms, under their
French name of or and argent ; and there being
colour'd black, green, red, and blue ; that thofe dif-
f erent colours have alfo been introduced in them :
therefore,

There are two metals in Heraldry, viz. or and
argent -j'ltndfcven colours, which 3.re, gules, azure,
fable, vert, pur'pure, iettne, and fanguinc.

Or, in the coats of arms is painted yellow, and
leprefenfed in engraving by fmall points or dots,
all over the field, or bearing.

In the coats of nobles it is called topaz ; and in
thofe of foyereign )^rincss Jol j by the EngliJJ) He-

Without this, or argent, there can be no good
armory; and it is accounted thefymbol of wifdom,
temperance, faith, force, conflanty, ^c.

Argent, from the Latin argentum, filver ; is
painted white in the efcutcheons, and cxprelled in
engraving, by the parts being left plain, without
any ftrokes from the graver.

The Englijl) obferve the fame diflinction in this,
as in or, and call for baron5 and all nobles, the
white colour pearl; and for fovereign princes,
luna.

In the doubling of mantles, where the white is
fuppofed to reprefent a fur, and not a metal, it
may be blazon'd white.

Gules, is painted red; and in engraving cx-
prelfed by perpendicular Jirokes, drawn from the
top of the efcutcheon to the bottom.

Gules is reputed a fymbol of charity, valour,
hardinefs, generofity, and reprefents blood colour,
cinnabar, and true fcarlet. Antiently it was pro-
hibited any perfon to wear gules in his coat armour,
unlefs he was a prince, or had permiflion from the
prince.

AziTRE, is painted bine; and in engraving is re-
prefented by flrokes or hatches drawn horizontally.
Sable, is painted black ; and evprefled in en-
graving by perpendicular and horizontal hatches
drawn a-crofs each other.

Vert, is painted green ; and in engraving is
expreffed by diagonals, or lines drawn athwart froth
right to left, from the dexter chief corner to the
finifter bafe.

PORPURE, or Purple, is a compound nf gules
and azure ; bordeiing on violet, it is painted in its
natural colour, and reprefented in engraving by
diagonal lines drawn from the finifter chief to the
dextei bafe point, as in the Plate.

Spebnan allows purple the preference before all
other colours, as having been an enfign of royalty
for many ages ; yet he allows it to have been ex-
cIuJ2d by the antient Heralds as only an iinperfeiSt
colour.

Tenne, Tenny, or Tawny, is a bright
colour made of red znA yellow mixed, fometimes
alfo called brufk. and exprelled in engraving by
thwart or diagonal flrokes or hatches, beginning
from the finiller chieF, like purpure.

Sanguine is the colour ufually called murrey.,
being made of red lake, tinged ',\ith a litde Spanifi
brown.

HERALDRY.

It is reprefented in engraving by tranfvcrfe '
hatches like purpura, and is molHy ufcJ in the
coats of knights of the bath.

An efcutcheon * is a fliield or coat, wherein the
bearing or arms of any perlon is reprefented, and
is of a fquare figure, excepting the bottom part,
which is ufually a little rounded, ending in a point
in the middle.

Till within a few hundred years the efadcheons
of the FrenJ] and EngUJh were triangular : thofe
of the Spaniards arc IHII quite round at bottom
without any point : thofe of the It.dia'is are oval ;
and thofe of the Germans in form of cartoozes.

The antient efcutchcons were generally couched
or inclin'd ; and they only began to place them
upright, when crowns, i^c. were put over them by
way of creft.

The feveial parts or points of the efcutchconh-Avz
their feveral names, viz. the dexter chief point ;
the middle chief; and the fmijler chief point ; the
honour point ; the fcjfe point \ the nombril point ;
the dexter bafe ; the middle, and the fmijhr hafe
point.

The efcutcheon is diverfly denominated, accord-
ing to its divifions. It is called dcxtercd, when
the perpendicular line that divides it, is to the
rjcrht of a third part of the efcutcheon ; finifercd,
when on the left ; tiereed in pale, when this line
is double, and divides the efcutcheon into three equal
parts ; paled, when increafed to the number of fix,
eight, or ten. A horizontal line makes the chief,
when at a third part from the top; the plcin, when
at a third part from the bottom ; and when double,
in the middle, at an equal diftance from both ex-
tremes, it makes the fefs, and the tiereed in fefs ;
when it is multiplied, it denominates it yi^if ;
when there are 8 or lO equal fpaces, burelle ; a
diagonal from the dexter point of the chief, to the
finiiler of the bafe, makes it tranche ; the contrary,
double. If it be double at equal diftances, the firft
makes lande^ and the tierce in hende, and the other
barre, or tierce in bar ; increafing the number of
the firfl: makes bande and cottice ; and increafing
that of the fecond, barre and traverfe.

There is alfo ejcutcheon of pretence, which is an
inefctitcheon, or little efcutcheon, which a man who
has married an heireis, and has ilTue by her, may
bear over his own coat of arms ; and In it the arms
of his wife ; and the furviving ifTue will bear both
coats quarterly.

The furface, or face of the efcutcheon, iS' called
the Field, becaufe it contains the atchievements

antiently acquir'd in the field of battle, e. gr. the
field in the coat of arms of England, is gules ; in
that of Fri7«<r^', azure, &c. which field is always
named in blazoning, before any other part of the

ejcutcheon.

The field being laid, we'll charge it with fome
pieces, obferving that all common charges, or bear-
ings are born in, upon, within, or between, chief,
pales filtier, chevron, crofs, canton, fefs, gyron,
pile, efcutcheon, bordure, or orle.

Counter-charges of colour or metal, is when a
field is divided by a fingle line, and the charge ex-
changes colour as it goes over both.

There are different lines in the efcutcheon, a?
right, crooked, engrailed, inveckcd, waived, crenellcd,
01 embattled, nebuled,ox cloudy, indented,znd dancctte.

A right line is carried equally throughout the
efcutcheon, without rifing or falling.

A croookedUne\& either bunched or corner' d, which
crooked line is the origin of all the follov/ing ones,

Engrailed, or Ingraii-IZD, (from the French
grefle, hail) is when a thing is reprefented v iih its
edges, ragged, or notched circularly, as if broke by
fomething falling on it.

InvjiCted denotes, a thing flatted or furrowed
and is the jufi: reverie of engrailed, becaufe the
points o{ invccled a.re turn'd inward to the ordinary.

Waved, is when a bordure, or any ordinary
charge, has its outer lines indented, in manner of
the rifing or falling of waves. 1 his is alfo called
undy, wide, or ondc.

Crenelled, or Embattled, is when any
honourable ordinary is dented, after the manner
of battlements of a wall.

Nebuled is when a coat Is charged with feve-
ral little figures in form of clouds, running with-
in one another, or, when the outline of a bordure,
ordinary, i^c. is indented or waved.

Indented, Indentee is when the outline of
a bordure, ordinary, i^c. is notched in form of
the teeth of a faw.

Dancette is when the outline of any bordure,
or ordinary, is indented very largely ; the large-
nefs of the indentures being the only thing that
dillinguiilics it from the indented.

There is alfo a bearing of a bend, called double
dancette ; thus he be.ireth azure, a bend double
dancette argent.

Of thefe different lines are compofed all bordures,
and honourable ordinaries, an efcutcheon is charg-
ed with.

* From the Latin jcutum, (liield ; which was the place, arms were originally bore on, before ever they came
in banners ; and dill wherever they are placed, it is on fomething reprefenting the form of a fliield. The Latin
/cutum, no doubt, came originally from the Greek Qtil^ leather, wherewith the iliields were ufually covered.

M 2 A

The Univerfal Fliftory of Arts and Sciences.

A crofi patee is a crofs fmall in the center, and
widening towards the extremes.

A crofr-patce Jitched on the foot, is a crofs whofc
foot is made fharp, that it may be more apt to be
faftencd any where.

A crofi patee on three parts, and fitJied on the
fourth, which is a crof whofe whole fourth part is
fi^elivt.

A crofe tngraile'd, wliich is a crcfs whofe edges are
ragged, or notched circularly.

A crofi patonee, which is a crofi formed of bunch-
ed lines ; extending and ftretching to a certain
patee form. Colomb calls it croix enbencee, and not
patonee.

Crofs feury, which is a crofs, that turns down
its extremities like a Fleur de lys.

A crofs velane, which is a crofs whofe quarters
refemble the filbcrd nuts.

A crofs croffeUt, which is a crofs terminating in
croffcleis, or little crojjes.

A crofs botone, which is the crofs the French
heralds call trefflee, from ireffie, a trefoil, or three-
leaved grafs, which the ends of this crofs imitate.
A crofs pomel, which is a crofs whofe extremities
are in the form of round balls, liice the end of the
guard and grafp ot a fword, whence it borrows
the name pomel.

A crofs urde, which feems to be the fame witli
what we call xlechee.

A crofs degraded fchee, which is a crofs with
degrees or ibrt of fteps at each extream.

A crofs potent, which is a crofs with its extreams
in the form of a crutch.

A crofs cavalry, which is a crofs long in the pale,
and fhort in the arms, refembling the crofs of our
redemption fixed on Mount Calvary.

Patriarchal crofs, which is that, where the
fhaft is twice croffed, the lower arms or traverfc
being longer, and the upper fhorter; it is alfo
called a crofs of Lorrain.

An anchored crofs, which is a crofs, whofe points
are made fliarp, lilce thofe of an anchor.

A crofs moline, which turns round both ways_at
all its extremities, though not fo wide or fharp as
that faid to be anchored.

Crofs clechee, which is a crofs open to the light,
or pierc'd through v/ith another inner one of the
fame figure, e. gr. when a crofs appears as if
charged with another crofs of the fame colour with
the field, or as if the field appear'd through the
apertures thereof.

Crofs fiory, or feur de life, which is z crofs, the
extremities whereof are in the form of flowers, li-
lies, flower de luces.

A crofs double fiche, or double fichy, •which is a crofs
whofe extremities are pointed at each angle j that

A EoRDURE is a kind of addition on the limb
of an efcutcheon, in form of a hem, or girdle, en-
compailjng it all round. The bordure inuft be a-
bout one fixth part of the breadth of the fliield.

Simple bordure, is that which is of the fame co-
lour or metal throughout; and is the firfl addition
of younger brotheri.

There are others componed, c.untered, iiigrailed,
indented, and charged with other pieces ; which
make different additions for younger brothers, in
feveral degrees.

If the line which conftitutes the bordure be
ftrait, and the bordure phun, the colour of the
bordure alone is named : as he bcareth gules, a bor-
dure or. If a bordure be charged with any parts of
plants or flowers ; they fay, verdoy of trefoils. If
it confift of ermines vairy, or any of the furs, the
term is perjlnv of ermines. If the bordure be charged
with martlets, the word is, charged with an enaluron
of martlets, &c.

The Honourable, or honourable ordinaries,
are the principal ordinaries or bearings, which,
when in their full extent, may pofiiefs one third of
the field.

Thefe arc ten in number, wz. xhecrofs, chief, pale,
bend, fejfe, bar, faltier, chevron, bordure and orle.
The Cross is defined hyGiiillim, an ordinary
compofed of four-fold lines ; whereof two are per-
pendicular, and the other two tranfverfe ; for fo
we muft conceive of them, though ihey be not
drawn throughout, hut meet by couples, in four
right angles, near the fefs-point in the ejcutcheon.

The content of a crofs is not always the fame :
for when it is not charged, canton'd, nor accom-
panied, it has only the fifth part of the field ; but
if it be charged it muft contain the third part thereof.
This bearing was firfl beftow'd on fuch as had
perform d, or at leafl: undertaken, fome ferviee for
Chrijf, and the chriliian profeflion ; and is held by
divers the moft honourable charge in Heraldry.
What brought it into fuch frequent ufe, was the
aiitient expeditions into the Holy Land; and the
holy war pilgrims, after their pilgrimage, taking
the crofs for their cognizance, and the enfign of
that war being the crof ; whence its name croifade.
St. George' & erf s, or the r<;<-/ crofs, in a field ar-
dent, is now the iiandard oi England.

Guillim enumerates thirty-nine ditferent forts of
croffes, viz.

A crofi voided, which differs from the crofs frim-
briated, in that this latter does not fnew the field
through it, as the other does. And the fame ob-
tains in other ordinaries.

A crofs wavy -void d, which is a. crofs whofe out-
•Jines are indented, in manner of the rifing and
falling of waves.

HERALDRY.

I?» each extremity has two points: In contiaJi-
IHnftion xofiche, where the extremity is fliarpened
away to one point.

Crofs a fei%e pointes, which is a aofi, each ex-
tremity whereof has four points.

Crofs milrine, which is a crofs, the extremities
v^htrcof are hooked.

A raguled crofs, which is a crofs whofe outlines
are jagged or knotted.

A ^crofs pall, which is a crofs reprefentlng the
pallium, or archiepifcopal ornament fent from Rome
to metropolitans.

A tau, or crofs of St. Anthony, which is a crofs
in the form of a T.

A crofs pierced, which is a crofs perforated, or
ftruck through, (hewing as it were a hole in it.

This piercing is to be expreffed in blazon, as
to its fhape : Thus if a crofs has a fquare hole or
pgrforation in the center, it is blazon'd fquare
pierced. When the hole or perforation is round,
it muft be expreffed round piercrd, wliich Gibbon,
in Latin cvHih perforata, becaufe all holes made with
piercers or augers are round. If the hole in the
center be in the fhape of a lozenge, it is expreffed
pierced lozenge ways.

All piercings muff be of the colour of the field,
becaufe piercing implies the {hewing of what is
under the ordinary or bearing. Though when
fuch figures appear on the center of a r ofs, &;c.
of another colour, the crofs is not to be fuppofed
pierced, but that the figure oh it is a charge,
and muft be accordmgly blazoned.

The Saltier is a kind of St. Andrew's crofs,
and was antiently called the crofs of Burgundy.- —
The Saltier may be faid to be compofed of a bend-
ed dexter and finifter, 'croffing each other in the
center of the efcutcheon. Its ordin.iry breadth
when alone is one third of the efcutcheon. It is
fometimes bore alaize, and fometimes in number,,
placed m different parts of the field : Sometimes
charged, countercharged with the field, accompa-
nied, raguled, engrailed, indented, quarlerly-
qua'tered, isfc.

Cdombiere adds thirty-three more forts of croffes
to thofe above- mentioned, viz. — A croix remplie,
which is only one crofs charged with another ; a
crofs party, that is, one half of one coijur, and
the other of another; a crofs quartered, that is,
the oppufite quarters of feveral colours ; a crofs
of five pieces, that is, of fo many colours ; a
crofs mouff He and abaijfee; a crofs barbee ; a irofs
croifjantie, or crefcented, that is, having a crefcent
at each end ; a crofs forked of three points ; a
crofs panitee of three pieces ; a crojs refferccUc ; a
crofs pointed; a crofs anker ed, i.ni fur ankered; a
crofs ankcred with fnakes heads;, a crofs orlcd ; a

high crofs; a crofs rayonnante, or cafting out raya
of glory ; a crofs of Malta \ a crofs of the holy Gho/t i
a crofs forked like the antient refts for mufkets ; a
croJs ivith eight points ; a crofs botirdonnee ; a crofs
cramponee and tour nee ; a crofs cablee ; a crofs inclin-
ing ; a crofs pater nojirec, that is made of beads,
though we mofl: properly call it ur.e croix en chapel-
Id ; a crofs treflee ; a crofs fieuronie ; a crofs vaidee,
clcchee, and poniK'utee ; a crofs crenelUe and battilee;
a crofs with four fteps to every arm ; a crofs round-
ed; a croJs and an half; z. crofs e/ioiltee or ffarwaysj
a crofs corded; a croJs doubled of fix pieces fet too-c-
ther; a double crofs folit in pale, a long crofs ci.t
in pieces and difmcmbered ; a c>ofs couped, or cut
through in feffe, of the two contrary colours to
the field ; a chevron furmounted by an half crofs ;
four tails of erm.ines in a crofs, the tops of the
ermines oppofite to each other in the middle ; four
pieces of wire placed crofs-ways, and counter-
pointing in the center; the crojs or fojord of St.
James ; crofs jotence cramponee on the dexter upper
arm, and a potence about the middle of thefhaft,

Thefe are the various crojfs we find in authors,
which fome may think too many, as not beins all
ufed in England; but Ileialdry, like all otherarta
and fciencts, extends to all coun'rles, and all terms
ufed requiie to be explained.

The Chief is the fecond honourable ordin^y,
and IE placed athwart the top of the coat, contain-
ing one third part of its height.

When the efcutcheon is cut in ftone, or in re-
lievo, the cAAy Hands prominent beyond the rcfr,.'
and is fuppofed to reprefent the diadem of the an-
tient kings and prelates, or the cafks of the
knights. *

It is Irequtntly vviihout any ornament ; fume ■
times it is charged with other beariags ; fcimetiiiies
it is of a colour or metal different from that of die
coat.

The line that binds it at Bottom is fometimes
ftrait, fometimes indented, engrailed, enibiitte'td,
lozenged, l^c. Thus, fay th y, the fieid is gults, a.
chief argent, £5t. Again he bears gules, a chitf
crenelc, or embatteled argent.

Sometimes one chief is borne on another, ex-
preffed by a line drawn along the upper part of the
chief; when the line is along the under part it is
called A fillet. 1 he firffis an addition oi honour,
the fecond a diminution.

The chief is faid to be abaifed, when it is de-
tached from the upper edge of the coat, by the co-
lour of the field which is over it ; and which re-
trenches from it one third of its height. — Thev
alfo fay, a chief is chevroned. paled, oj: bended, when
it has a chevron, pale, or bend contiguous to it,
and of the fame colour with itfclf. — A chief is faid

Tlje Univerfal Hiflory of Arts and Sciences.

to be fupportcd, when the two thirds a-top are of
the colour of the field, and that at bottom of a dif-
ferent colour.

Pali?, the third honourable honorary, is the re-
prefentation of a pale or flake placed upright ; and
comprehending the whole height of the coat, from
the top of the chief to the point — When t\\cpale
is fingle, it is V^ contain one third of the breadth
of the fliield ; when there are feveral more properly
called pallets, they are proportioned fo, as that two
take up two fifths of the (liield, and three take up
three fevenths : and in thofe cafes the number of
liieces is fpecihed as well as that of thofc they are
charged withal, i3c.

Pales are bore various ways, as zuavy, crenelle,
fuillis, inaentea, mgrauea^ &c. There are alfo
.cimeted, ana Jlaming pales, whic'. are pointed,
fometimes waved, i^c.

A Pallet, in the £«^///Z) Heraldry, is the moi-
■t'tv or ojie half of the /!«/£>, and therefore receives
its name of diminution, as being a demy or little
pale: and an endorfe is the fourth part of the
pallet.

The Bend, our next honourable ordinary, is
formed by two lines, drawn diagonally or athwart,
from the upper part of the ftiield on the right, to
the lower part on the left ; being fuppofed to re-
prefent a flioulder belt, or fcarf worn over the
ihoulder. — It contains a third part of the field
when charged, and a fifth when plain. It is fome-
times indented, ingrailed, iSjc.

Heralds fpeak of a i^w/ dexter, and a bend fmi-
Jler. — A btnd dexter is that properly and abfolutely
called a bend; which word dexter is ufually an-
nexed to prevent niiftakes, and didinguil'h it from
the beiid finijhr, which is the fame with what is
otherwife called after the Fnnch heralds, a bay,
barre.

The bend fini/ler is fubdivided into the fearf or
fceirp, and the battoon ; which latter is the fourth
part of the bend, and the moft ufual mark of illegi-
timacy ; but then it never extends itfelf quite
athwart the fhield,but iscutofFa little at each end

When two flrait lines drawn within the li^'W,
.run nearly parallel to the outward edges of it, this
is called voiding ; and he that bears it, is faid to
hear a bend voided.

A bend is fubdivided into a benlet or bandelet,
which is the fixth part of the Qiield ; a garter,
which is the moiety of a lend ; aca/?, which is the
fourth part of a bend; and a ribband, which is the
.moiety of a co/l or cotife.

Fesse, the next honourable ordinary of the ef-
cutcheon, divides it horizontally in the middle, and
feparates the chief from the point. It is fuppofed
to reprefent a broad girdle, or belt of honour.

which knights at arms Were antiently girded with-
al. Thcfrjp poffeffes the center of the efcutcheon,
and contains in breadth one third part thereof.
When it takes up Icfs than its proper breadth it is
called a bar.

Chevron, or Cheveron, the next ordinary,
reprefents two rafters of a houfe joined together,
without any divifion. It defcends from the chief
towards the extremities of the coat, in form of a
pair of compafles half open.

When it is alone it fhould lake up the third part
of the coat : when it is accompanied with any other
bearings, its breadth muft be adjufted thereby.

It is bore divers ways, fometimes in chief, fome-
times in bafe, fometimes marched, fometimes re-
verfed, ts'e.

The chevron is fometimes charged with another
chevron, one third of its own height.

Two chevrcw are allowed in the fame field, but
not more ; when they exceed that number they are
called chevronivife or chevroneh. There are che-
vrons of feveral pi(fces.

A chevron is faid to be abafcd, when its point
does not approach the head of the chief, nor reach
further than the middle of the coat; mutilated whtn
it does not touch the extremes of the coat ; cloven,
when the upper point is taken ofF, fo that the pie-
ces only touch at one of the angles ; broken, when
one branch is feparated into two pieces ; couched,
when the point is turned towards one fide of the ef-
cutcheon ; divided, when the branches are of feveral
metals, or when metal is oppofed to colour ; in-
verted, when the point is towards the point of the
coat, and its branches towards the chief.

A coat is faid to be chevroned, when it is filled
with an equal number of f^fwaw, of colour and
metal.

Ctunter-ehevroned, is when it is fo divided, as that
colour is oppofite to metal, and viceverfd.

The next in order to the chevron is the bar,
barr, or harre, nearly refembling the feffe ; from
which it only differs by its narrownefs, and by this,
that the bar may be placed in any part of the field,
v;hereas the fefs is confined to a fingle place.

GiRON is an ordinary confifting of two fl:rait
lines drawn from divers parts of the efcutcheon,
and meeting in an acute angle in the fefs point of
the fame.

The word is French, and literally fignifies the
gremium or lap. In Latin they are called pinnula
oJiorns, and merli oSlango-laxi by the Italians.

If the G irons be eight in number, fays Mackcnvj,
they need not be exprefied, but if there be fewer,
or more, it mufl.

Girons are bore diverfely, 'w'z. fingle, by couples
of fix, of eight, of ten, and of twelve.

When

HERALDRY.

When a coat has fix, eight, or ten of thefc Gl-
rons, meeting or centering in the middle of the
coat, il is faid to be gironne or girrony.

Some, inftead oi gironne., [ay pa ti, couppe, tran-
che, and fai/L', by reafon the Girons are formed by
fuch divilions of the field. Four Girons form a
falticr, and eight a crofs.

The heralds give fevcral reafons for the hereto-
fore mention'd ordinaries, being called honourable.
I. Their great antiquity, as having been iifed ever
fince armory was let on foot. And, 2. For that
they denote the ornaments moft neceflary for noble
and generous men : thus the f/i/V/"reprelents the
helmet, wreath, or crown, covering the head : the
pale rcprcfcnts his lance orfpear : the bend and Oar,
his belt : the fe//i; his fearf : the erofs and Jultier,
his fword : the chevron, his boots and fpurs : and
the bcirdure'a.nd orle, his coat of mail.

As to the allottine or difhibuting of thefe ordi
naries, fomo authors write, that when a gentleman
having behaved himfelf gallantly in fight, was pre-
fented to the prince, or general, and a fuitablecoat
armour order'd him ; if he were wounded in the
head, they gave him a chief j if in the legs he had
a chevron ; and if his fword and armour were dil-
colour'd with the blood of enemies, a crofs or bor-
durc.

Befides the above mention'd honourable ordina-
ries, there are other ordinaries, compofed of the like
lines, viz.

The Canton, which is a fquare portion of the
efcutcheon,. parted from the reft. It has notany
fixed proportion; tho' regularly it fliould be le!s
than a quarter : it is often only a ninth part, and
ufcd as an addition or difference, frequently to ex-
prefs baflardy.

The canton is fometimes placed at the right
corner, and fometimes at the left, in.v«hich latter
cafe, i. is called -jLcianton fmiiler.

The canton isform'd of two ftrait lines, the one
dravn perpendicularly from the chief, and the
other tranfverfe from the fide of the efcutcheon,
and meeting therewith in a right an»le, near to the
corner of the efcutcheon.

The QuART£R, an ordinary of the likecompo-
fition with the canton, and occupies the fame
places, and bears a great reiemblance to it; info-
mach that the fame rules that ferve for the one,
may be attributed to the other. The fole differ-
ence between them is, that the canton keeps only
a cantle or fmall portion of the efcutcheon ; and
the quart r comprehends the full fourth part of
the efcutcheon.

The Pile, which is an ordinary confiliinn; of
two-fold lines, formed in the manner of a wedge ;

that is to fay, broad at the upper end, and diminifli-
ing by degrees throughout with a comely narrow-
nefs, and taper growth, meeting together at the
lower end in an acute angle.

The /)//(.' is borne inverted, ingrailed, (j^c. like
other ordinaries, and iflues indifferently from any
point of the verge of the efcutcheon. He bears
a pile gules by the name of Chandois.

The Flask, orFLANCH, which is an ordi-
nary formed by an arched line, which begins at
the corner of the chief, and ends in the bafe of
the efcutcheon. Flanches are always borne by
pafi's.

• The Voider, an ordinary, whofe figure is
much like that of the Flajk or Fianch ; only that
it docs not bend fo much.

This armory, they fay, is properly the reward
of a gentlewoman that has well ferved her prince.
It is always borne by pairs.

Befides the above- mention'd charges of the
efcutcheon, which are called proper, there are
others called common charges, viz. celeftial intelli-
gences, as Angels, Cherubinis , &c. Planets, as the
Sun, Moon, Stars, Sec, Foffils, as all forts of
precious and other ftones; Vegetables, as Fruits,
Frees, Flowers, &c. Animals, as Lions, Leopards,
IFolves, Horfes, GriJJins, Bears, Eagles, Cocks,
&c. FiJIics of all forts.

Angels and cherubinis, are either '•Jolent,Jlanding,
or kneeling, with their wings either e.'^tended, dif-
playtd, ox crojfed; and thefe are often of'diffeient
metals or colours. The angels almolf always at
full length ; and the cherubinis with only their
head and wings.

Of the heavenly b'.dies,. the Star is the firfl in
dignif.

The Star in Heraldry, ufiially confifts of five
ravs or fparks. When it has fix or eight, as
amonf the Germans and Italians, particular men-
tion maff be made thereof in blazoning.

The Sun is blazoned according to his different
phafes, and is either called in its glory, or rayon-
ing, when in its greatefl radiancy ; or eclipfed, or
in a cloud, and fometim.es none but his rays ap-
pearing.

The Afoon is alfo blazon 'd according to its
' phafes ; and is either crefcent, when with her horns
up to the chief of the efcutcheon ; or- wtr^^w/,.
j when (he enters into her firfl quarter, and has her
i horns towards the dexter part of the efcutcheon ;
I and when in her ccli|ife, it is csJIed detriment.
j . A Co:net lias alio its place in Heraldry, and is^
ciWed ftrcaming.

The elements^ fometimes found in an cicut-

cheons, are.

The.

-84 ^^ Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

The Fire, which is confider'd as the moft noble
of them, and is either Jlamant or fcintilknt, and
Sometimes both.

The Sea, which we'll take for water in general,
is blazon'd waved in Fretuh ondoiee.

' Tlic Earth, is feldom or never reprefentcd but
in part,, in. the blazon, which admits only of
mountains, rocks, and iilands, which are differ-
enced by their metal or colour.

Of all precious ftones, the efcarbuncle is the
moft in ufe in Heraldry ; and is a charge or beSir-
inn- coiififting of eight radii, or fpokes ; four
whereof make a common crofs and the four a
faltier.

Some call thefe radii battons, or Jlaves, becaufe
round and enriched with butto:is, or pearl'd like
pilgrims ftaves ; and frequently tipped or terminated
yvith flower de luces. Others blazon them royal
Itcpters, placed in faltier pale and feflc.

We'll pafs from thefe to the vegetables, and
among them place trees firfl in order ; which are
lilazoned in- a diri'erent manner, according to their
different produfts, fliapes, i£c. for example, ac-
cording to their produdfs, an oak is blazoned acorn-
ed, a pine apple-ticc, pear-tree, lie. fru£led; if
reprefcnted with fruits on them.

According to their fhapes, they arc either trunks
of trees, and are blazon d eradicated, or mooted tip
by the root i or limbs of trees, and are blazon'd
ininkatcd or raguled, or botli ; or flocks or flumps of
trees, and are blazon'd Cjufcd, or eradicated or
both ; 6r branches of trees, which are blazon'd
cither (larved or Jlipped, or both : or flips or leaves,
which are blazon'd either pend<i>/t, be/idways, bar-
ways, Jiipped, proper, in falti-r, or eri-S?ed.

The fruits of trees have alfo their place in He-
raldry, and are either Jiipped, pendant, ere^led, pro-
per, or have their {talks trunkated.

Trees, their trunks, limbs, branches, flips,
fruits, i3c. are all of the different metals and co-
lours adapted to Heraldry.

Flowees are the next charges which fall under
our cohfideration ; and are blazon'd either bearded,
f ceded, or Jiipped.

Corn is blazon'd either coupei, hladed, eared,
or in Jlalks, or in gar be or jlicaf, which flieaf is
fubjed^ to different changes, according to the dif-
ferent metals and colours of Heraldry,

The fieur de lys, which is the bearing of the
kings of France, are blazon'd either or, argent, he,
according to the different forts of metals, and co-
lours oi Heraldry.

Trefoil is blazon'd either crazed in th: Jlalk,
or jiipped ; as well as tlie cinquffoiL,

Animals are the next in order.

Lions, griffins, wolves, and bears, if exaftly
in pale, are faid to be rampart ; but if fet more
bend- ways, lions, wolves, and bears, are faliant;
griffins, fegrant. Lions are alfo langued (i. e.
tongued) and armed, i. e. have their nails of feme
different colour from that of the body. Griffins
are armed, i. e. their talons are of a different co-
lour from the reft of their body. Eagles and fwanS-
membered, i. e. when their feet are of a different
colour from the reft of their body. Hawks are
jejjed and balled ; jejfed, when they feer'i to fpring
or fhoot out- of ibme -other charge. Cocks arc
armed, crefled, and vclloped. Crc/ied when their
creft is different from the reft of the bbdv. Ca-
pons are armed, cre/ied, and jowloppcd.

Lions arc moft commonly borne whole, and then
they are either rampant, guardant, or rampant-re-
gardant. When they are fet more bend ways, they
are terin'd Jaliant. Alfo they are borne pajjhnt,
pftjfant regardant, fejant [or fitting) couchant [or ly-
ing) dormant [or Jleeping) jejfant, ijfuant, and naijfa>:t.

Lions, or any other creature that proceeds from
the bottom of any ordinary, is term'd ijfuant; when
over two colours, jejfant ; when from the middle,
naiffant, or fwimmtng ; yet thefe are fometime?
called dcmi lions. A lion, or ether thing, faid
to be unbraled, is when the fhape is only ticked
out with a pencil, and the field appears through it.
Lions are fometimes borne barry, vairy, nebulee, &c.

Stags are blazon'd either tripping, ftar.di-ig at
gaze, lodged (when refting on a mount) fpringing
J'onvard, and currant (when running). Bucks,
when their horns are fpoke of, are faid to be attir-
ed. All creatures that are fet one paffing contrary
to the other, are iaid to he counter pnjfant ; if two
ftand face to face upiight, they are term'd com-
balant ; if back to back, endorfcd.

Creatures partly borne, as the bead, kg. Sec. are
either erafed (torn off) or couped (cut off) The
paw of a lion being called a ganib.

When lions, eagles, and other fierce creatures
are eating, they are termed ravening ; but when
they appear with flower de luces, isfc. in their
mouth, it may be faid fwallowing or devouring. •

All Fowls are borne going, fitting, /landing, or
volan, i. e. flying. The beeks and feet of cocks,
iSe. are termed armed. But eagles feet are called
talons, they are often borne with two heads, and
now and then clofed, which is when their wings
are not ipread.

Fishes are either term'd naiant or hauriant.
Naiant or natant, when drawn in an horizontal
pofture, feffe-wifc, or traverfly a- crofs the efcut-
t cheon j

HERALDRY.

thcon; that being their fwimmingpofturc. Hatiriant '
when rtauding upright. When three or four are
borne intermixing with each other, it is termed
//•( tted.

Beaftf, birds, flowers, or any other thing, when ;
but three in the iield, and not faid to be in /»«/., in \
bend, ox in frjp', they always ftand two above, and '
one below; and when there arc fiv, tliree. two,
and one. If there be any ordinary in the field,!
where are three things, it alters not their pofition ;
but if there be fix, they are commonly fet other '
wife. :

Beafts, birds, flowers, &c. when of the colour |
natural to them, in blazoning, are term'd pro;er.

Martlets are birds always painted without legs,
■becaufe they never ufe them, although they have
them ; and aleriom are birds wanting beaks, legs,
and feet. ;

Furs have alfo a place in Heraldry, particularly
errr.in, or ermine, which is a whiteyiw, powder'd
or mterfpcrftd with black fpots.

It is fuppofed to reprefent the (kin of an animal
of the fame denomination ; which fome will have j
zvjater-rat, others a fort of iveefil, and others an
Armenian moufc. In clTett, there is no animal
whofe fkin naturally correfponds to the herald's
frmine. I

The fable fpots in ermine, are not of any deter- !
•minate number, but may be more or lefs at the I
pleafure of the painter or furrier.

We call ermine, v. g. a crojs ermine, a crofs com-
pofed of four ermine fpots. It muft be obferved,
that the colours in fuch arms are not to be ex-
preffed, by reafon neither the crofs nor the arms
can be of any colour but white and b!ack.

Vair is alfo a kind of fur or doubling, confift-
ing of divers little pieces, argent and azure, lefem-
•bling a Dutch U, or a bell-glafs.

Vairs have their point azure, oppofite to their
point argent, and the bafe argent to the azure.

When there are only two or three vairs, the
antient Heralds call it great vair ; and when they
are more [mall vair.

It was properly the fkin of a kind of fquirrel,
called alfo in French vair, and in Latin fcriveus ;
which was white underneath, and dove-colour
a-top.

Regularly there muft be but four rows, or ranks
of vair in the fhield ; if there be either mere or
lefs, the number muft be fpecified. The fmalleft
number being three rows, is called defray de vair ;
and the moft being five or fix, is called menu or
fmall vair.

The Beffroy is alfo known by the firft figure on

the dexter fide of the efcutcheon, being alwavs of

Vol. II, 31.

metal, and in form of a belt ; whereas that of mere
vair, is in fliape of a glafs.

When a coat is charged, or chequcr'd with vair
it is blazon'd vairy, ox voire.

When the colours are urgent and azure, or Vv'hite
and blue, it is very proper ; if it be otherwife, the
colours are to be exprefly named, viz. vairy, of
fuch a colour or metal. He b ars vairy, or, and
vert. This is particularly called vair ccmpofed.

The bearings are likewife faid to be vairy, when
they arc charged with vairs. When chiefs, croli'es,
pales, feflcs, isc. happen to be vairyt the number
of ranks are to be fpecified.

Artificial things have alfo been borrowed by the
inventors of the art of Heraldry, to make of them
charges for their efcutchcons, as crowns, fcepters,
fwords, rings, battering-rams, cannons^ bows,
arrows, ftirrups, horfe-fhoes, rowels of ftirrups,
lozenges, fufils, is"!-. All whicli charges have the
fame different pofuions in a fhield, with the hono'tr-
ahle ordinaries ; for they are either placed in chief,
in pale, or in point, or faliier-wife, bend-wife, or
bar-wi!'e, i^c.

There are feveral charges, Angular in their kind,
and which are found no wheie but in Heraldry, and
have fcarce any meaning, viz. fret, compony, and
gobony.

Fret is a bearing confifting of fix bars, crofled,
and interlalTedy^f/ ^'fe, from the French woid fret
in architedure. Some call this the true lover's knot;
others H irrin:to?i's knot, becaufe it is their arms,
and nodo fiymo the motto. Gibbon is for calling it
heroldorum nodus nmatorius.

When it confifts of more than fix pieces, the
number muft be fpecified.

CoMPON y — A bordure compone, is that form'd
or compos'd of a row of angular parts, or che-
quers of two colours.

Compound or compofed, is alfo ufed in the general
for a bordure, a pale, orafefle, compofed of two
different colours or metals difpofed alternately, fc-
parated, and divided by fillets, excepting at the
corners ; where the juncStures are made in the
form of a goat's foot.

Gobony, is the fame as compony.

Checky, is where the fhield, or a part thereof,
as a bordure, ischccquer'd, or divided into chequers,
or fquares.

Where there is but one row of fquares, it is not
properly called checky, but counier-componed.

Checky, according to Colombierc, is one of the
moft noble, and antient figures in all armory j
and ought never to be given but to perfoiis who
have diilinguifhed themielves in war : for itrepre-
fents a chefs- board, which itfelf is a reprefentation
of a field of battle. The pawns and men, placed
I N o«

86 T})e Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

on both fides, reprefent the foldiers of the two their father, and therefore they invented arms for
armies; which move, advance, attack, or retire, themfelve";. The difference for the king of Frank's
according to the vi'ili of the two gamefters, who legitimated children, is a battony pery en barre.
are the generals. But had Colomhiere been aci]uaint- i

ed with England, he had known that fo noble a' Having given an exn£l defcription of all the dif-
piece of armory is rendered fo defpicable here, as ferent charges of any kind whatfoever an efcut-
to be made the diflringuifliable fign of an ale-houfe; cheon can be charged with, and of the pieces,
becaufe, perhaps, it is often made a field of battle, i which mark the difl:in£tion of families, and the dif-
when the knights of malt find themfelves infpired ference between brothers, I muft pafs to thofe
with a warlike humour. which Heralds have placed over the efcutcheon, to

Cheeky is always compofed of metal and colour, mark the difference of nobility, beginning with the

Some authors would have it ranked among the
forts of furs.

helmet.
The

Helm ET was antiently an armour of dc-

Whcn the whole efcutcheon is chequcr'd, it fence, wore by the cavaliers, both in war and in
fliould ordinarily contain fix ranges: there is no tournaments, as a cover and defence of the head i
need of blazoning to exprefs them ; only it muft and ftill ufed by way of creft or ornament over the
be obferved to begin to blazon by the firft fquare fhield, or coat of arms.

in chief on the dexter fide ; fo that, if that be or, \ The helmet is known by divers other names, as
and the next gules, the houfe or family is faid to the cafk, headpiece, fleel cap, is?c.
bear cheeky, or^ and gules. \ The helmet cover'd the head and face, only

When the whole fhield is not checquer'd, but leaving an aperture about the eyes, fecured by bars,
only the chief, a bend, crofs, or the like, the which fcrved as a vifor.

number of ranges fhould be exprelTcd, The helmet is bore in armory as a mark of no-

bility ; and by the different circumftances of the
Heralds have alfo invented pieces, wherewith bearing of the A^/m^/, are the different degrees of
they charge their efcutcheon to diftinguifh families, | nobility indicated. In France, the following rules
and make a difference between brothers, as alio to , obtain.

diftinguifh legitimate from natural iffues, or chil- 1 A per/on newly enobled, or made a gentleman,
dren. I bears over his efcutcheon a helmet of bright iron or

Thofe pieces are, a label of three points for the fleel, in profile, or ftanding fideways ; the vifor
eldeft fon. ! quite clofe.

A label is efteemed the moft honourable of all ; A ^^^w/ /«■/««» of three defcents bears it a little open,
differences, and is form'd by a fillet ufually placed but ftill in profile ; fhewing three bars of the vifor.

Antient knights, ^c. have it in profile, but
fliewing five bars ; the edges of filver.

A baron's helmet is of filver, the edges gold ;
drops under the' with feven bars, neither quite in profile, nor yet
When there are; in front; with a coronet over it, adorned with

in the middle, and along the chief of the coat,

without touching its extremities. Its breadth ou2;ht

to be a nintji part of the chief It is adorn'd with

pendants, fomething like the

triglyphs in the dorick freeze.

above three pendants, the number muft be fpecined i pearls.

in blazoning. There are fometimes fix.

A crejcent for the fecond fon.

A mullet for the third fon.

A martlet for the fourth fon.

An annulet for the fifth fon

A floujer de luce for the fixth fon.
And they have appointed for the eldeft
the fecond houfe, a label u|)on a crefccnt ;

fon of
the fe-

cond a crefcent upon a crefcnt ; the third a mullet
upon a crefcent ; and fo on.

And for the eldeft fon of a third houfe, a label
upon a rr.ullet, the feqond a crefcent upon a mullet,
&c. but daughters all bear their father's coat with-
out any difference.

Ik bajlar'\ arms fliould be croffed v.'ith a bar,
fillet, or travcrfc from the left to the right. They
were not formerly allowed to carry the arms of

Vifcounts, and earls, formerly bore a filver hel-
met, with gold edges, its pofition like the former;
but now they bear it quite fronting, with acoronet
over it.

Marqwps bear a Ciher helmM, damafked, front-
ing ; with eleven bars, and their coronets.

Dukes, and princes, hav: their he met damafked,
fronting ; the vifor almoft open, and without bars;
with their coronets over them.

Laftly, the helmets of kings and princes are all of
gold, damafked, full fronting, and the vifor quite
open, and without bars.

The helmets of ba/lards are turned to the left,
to denote their baftardy.

Am' ng the Englijh Heralds, thefe laws are of
late fomev.'hat varied. — Leigh will have the hel-
met in profile, and clofe, to belong to knights :
I but

HERALDRY.

but all other authors give it to cfquircs and gen-
tlemen.

To a knight they aflign the he met landing
rinht forward, and the bearer a little fipcn.

The helmet in profile, or pofited Tideways, and
open, with bars, belongs to a nobleman under
the condition of a duke.

The helmet right forward, and open, with many
bars, is affigned to dukes, princes, and kings.

Over the helmet is placed a crown, or crotiet,
different, according to the different degree of no-
bility, from a baron to an c?nperor.

Over the helmet of a baron, the Englijh He-
ralds put a coronet, which has but fix pearls, four
of them in fight : the French Heralds place a gold
circle, adorned with pearls turned round it, in
form of necklaces.

Over that of a vtfcount, a coronet fet full of
pearls clofe to the circle. — And the French, one
which has but lix pearls, three of them in fight.

Over that of an earl, a coronet of pearls,
and lirawberry leaves. — And the French, one fet
of pearls, clofe to the circle or ring.

Over that of a marquis, a coronet of ftrawberry
leaves, and pearls. — And the French the fame.

Over that of a duke, a coronet, all ftrawberry
leaves. — The French the fame.

Over that of a prince, a coronet compofed of
Croffes and flower de luces. — The French all
flower de luces for the princes of the blood.

The eleSioral crown, or coronet, is a fcarlet cap,
turned up with ermine, clofed with a femi-circle
of gold, all covered with pearls : on the top is
a globe with a crofs thereon.

The Spanijh crown is adorned with large in
dented leaves, covered with diadems, bordering
on a globe, furmounted with a crofs.

The Englijh crown is adorned with four crofles,
in the manner of thofe of Malta ; between which
are flower de luces : it is covered with four dia-
dems, which meet at a little globe fupporting a
crofs.

The French crown is a circle of flower de luces,
cncompalled with fix diadems ; bearing a-top a
double flower de luce, which is the creft of France.

The Imperial crown is a bonnet, or tiara, with
a femi-circle of gold, fupporting a globe, with a
crofs a-top.

In the remoteft antiquity, the crown was only
given to gods : Pliny fays, that Bacchus was the
firft who ufed it.

The firft crowns were no more than a bandelet
or head-band, drawn round the head, and tied be-
hind ; as we ftill fee it reprefented on medals, a-
round the head of Jupiter, the Ptolemies, and the
kings of Syria. Afterwards they confifted of two

bandelets ; by degrees thoy took branches of trees
of d vers kinds : at leneththey addi-d flowers ; in-
fomuch that lertulUan de Corona afluresus (from
Claudiui Saturn/mis who hud wrot^e expreflyon the
I :bje<il) there was not an plant whereof crowns
lu'j not been made. Woods and groves were
fcarcbed to iliid different crowus for th-j fe\eral
dciiies.

The Roman emperors had four kinds of crowns,
ftill fcen on medals, viz. a crown of laurel, a ra-
diating cr')wn, a crown adorne<l with pearls and
precious flones, the fourth a kind of bonnet, or
cap.

The firft was that ordinarily ufed from the time
(if Julius Co-far: the right of bearing it was
2;ranted him by the fenate ; Ju/iiaian was the firft
who took that of the bonnet-kind.

Among the Romans there were various kinds of
crowns, diftrlbuted as rewards of military atchieve-
ments. The oval crown was the firft made of myr-
tle ; and was beftowed on generals who had been
viciorious over flaves (jr enemies unwortiiy of the
Roman valour, and who were entitled to the ho-
nour of the leffer triumph, called ovation.

The fecond was the naval, or roftral crown,
confifting of a circle of gold, raifed with prows and
poops of {hips ; given to the captain who firft
grappled, or the foldiers who firft jumped aboard
an enemy's (hip.

The third called vallaris or cajlrenfts, was alfo
a circle of gold, raifed with piles or pallifades, given
him who firft leaped into the enemy's camp, or
forced the pallifades.

The fourth called mural crown, was a circle
of gold, indented or imbattled ; given him who
firft mounted the wall of a place befiegcd, and
there lodged a ftandard. This crown we alfo find
given on medals, to the particular genii and guar-
dians of provinces and places.

The fifth the civick crown, made of a branch
of green oak ; given him who had faved the life
of a citizen in a battle or an a/Tault.

The fix:h was the triumphal crown, made of
branches of laurel, given to a general who had
gained a battle, or conquered a province. This
was afterwards made of gold.

The feventh, xhs corona ohfidicnalis, ox grami-
nea, made of grafs or herbs found on the ground }
given to a general who had delivered a Roman2iX-
iny, befieged by the enemy, and obliged them to
decmip.

Th- ei2;hth was alfo a crown of laurel, given
by the Greeks to their athletes ; and by the Romans
to thoft who had negotiated or confirmed a peace
wi'h an en my ; this was theleaft efleemed. Be-
fi ,es ihcfe in antiquity we meet with radiul crowns,
1 N 2 given

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^;?</ Sciences.

given to princes at their tranflrition among tlie
gods, whether before or after their death. Cafau-
ban fa)'S, this fort of crowns w.is peculiar to dei-
ties, yet it is certain Nero took it in liis life-time.

jthiet/ci crowr\s were deftined to crown vidtors
at the publick games.

Galiot deflves the word corona, whence crown,
from the Latin corim, horn ; bccaufe the antient
crowns were pointed in manner of horns ; which
wereantiently, both by Jews and Gentiles, efteem-
ed as marks of power, ftrength, authority, and em-
pire. Hence, in the holy fcriptures, horns are
ufed for the regal d gnity : and accordingly horn
and croA'n in the Hebrew, are exprefTed by the
fame words.

Bifhops and abbots, inflead of a helmet, place
a mitre over their eicutcheon ; the bifhops theirs
in front, and that of an abbot in profile. Tho'
bifhops in Fiance, caufe to be placed over their
efcutcheon, the coronet borne by their houfe or
family, together with the mitre, placed froQt-
wife, on the right of the coronet, and the crofier
on the left. An archbifhop, befiJes the mitre and
crofier, [ hices a double crofs in pale behind his
efcutcheon, the double arms of the crofs, fur-
mounting the coronet, and placed in front. The
bifhops of the church of England content them-
felves with impaling their arms with thofe of their
diocefe, over which is placed a mitre in front

If the biihop be a cardinal, the cardinal's hat
with fixteen loops is placed over all.

The pope has over his efcutcheon a crown
compofed of a cap or tiara, and a triple crmnn
incompaffing it, having two pendants like the
bifhop's mitres : thofe three crowns are fuppofed
to reprefent the triple capacity attr bated to him
by the catholicks, viz. as high prielJ-, fupreme
jud^e, and fole legiflator of the chriftians.

The helmet, crown, coroner, isc. are alfo
often furmounted with what is called cre/i ; which
is always one of the pieces of Heraldry, oftener
«r. animal, or part thereof, than any thing elfe.

Guillim fays, that next to the mantle, the
creji or cognizance claims the higheft place, be-
ing feated on the moft eminent psrt of the hel-
met; yet fj as to admit an int> rpofition of fome
c.'"cro], wrtath, chapeau or hat, crown, i^c.

The cre/i of the arms of Englinci, a lion fa f-
fani gardant, crowned with an imperial crown.

The antient warriors bore crejis to flrike ter-
ror in their enemies, r.t the fight of the fpoils of
animals they had killed ; or to give them the more
formidable mien, by making them appear tal-
ler, Wf.

ments ; to which none were admitted till they
had given proof of their nobility. Sometimes
it ferves to dift nguifh the feveral branches of a
family : it has ferved on occafions, as the diftin-
guifhed badge of factions.

The motto of an efcutcheon, is a fliort fcn-
tence or phrafe tarried in a fcroU, generally un-
der the arms, alluding to the name of the bearer,
fumetimes to the bearing, and fometimes to neither.
Jn flridtnefs it fhould exprefs fomething in the
atchievement ; but ciiftom has now received
whatfoever is the fancy of the devifer.

Next we will put fupporters to our efcutcheon,
thus charged and adorned ; which fupporters are
figures in an atchievement, placed by the fide of
the fliield, and feeming to hold" or fupport it.

Supporters are chiefly figures of beafts ; figures
of human creatures ufc-d for the like purpofcs, are
more properly called tenants.

Some make another difference between tenant
and fupporter ; when the fhield is bore by a fingle
animal, it is called tenant, when by two, they
are called fupporters.

The figures of t!»ings inanimatcd fomctimes
placed afide the efcutcheons, but not touching,
or feeming to bear them ; though fometimes cal-
led fupporters, are more properly called cotifes.

The fupporters of the Englijh arms are a lion
and an unicorn; f me of the former kings had a
leopard and an unicorn, others griffins, and others
eagles.

In England none below the degree of a banne-
ret are allowed yi(/'/>i?r/frx, which are reflrained to
thofe called the high nobility. — The Germans per-
mit none but princes and noblemen of rank to
bear them. Amono: the French the ufe is more
promifcuous.

Supporters are always the laft blazoned.

1 he efcutcheon of kings, princes, and dukes,

with all its ornaments zn6 fi/ppo>terSf is wrapped

in a mantle, which has the appearance of folding

of cloth, flourifhing, or drapery, that is in any

atchievement drawn about the coat of arms.

It is fuppofed originally to have been the repre-
fentation of a mantle, or military habit worn by
antient cavaliers over their armour to preferve it
from rufl: : or as others hold, a fnoi-t covering
only worn over the helmet; which in after-times
was lengthened, and made to hang fiom the hel-
met below the whole fhield.

The mantle is always faid in blazon to be dou-
bled, that is, lined throughout with one of the
furs, as ermine, pean, vairy, &c.

The mantle is feldom mentioned in blazoning

The cre/l is efteemed a greater mark of nobi- 1 a coat of arms, and it is not at all ncccfTary to
lity than the armory, as being bore at _tourna- do it. Having

heraldry:

Having thus compleated oar efcutcheon, we muft
proceed to the btazoning it ; which is deciphering
it, and naming all the parts thereof in their pro
per and particular terms ; and which cannot be
done without having regard to the following rules.

I. The metal, or colour of the field muft be
named firft. — As cr, argent, or gules ^ &c. 2.
The manner of the divifion of the efcutcheon -by
line, whether downright or bendwife, and alfo
the difference of the line, whether it be indented,
ingrailed, i^c, 3. The charge which is on the
field. 4. Having thus expreffed the field, the di-
vifion, and the charge, if there be more parts of
the field occupied by the charge than one, you
aie to name the principal part of the field firfi:.

5, If there be more than one kind of charge in a
field, that in the chief part is to be named firft.

6. No iteration or repetition of words is to be ufed
in blazoning a coat, efpecially of any of thcfe four
words, of, or, and, with, 7. That there are but
two forms of blazon, viz. metals and colours.
8-. That metal upo.n metal, and colour upon co-
lour is falfe Heraldry ; which admits of no ex-
cept'on but in the arms of yeriifcilem, which are,
ergcrit,. a cro's potent between for croflets or.

Thefe previoufly confidered, we will begin by
blazoning the moft fimple efcutcheon,, which is
always accounted the nobleft ; for the great quan-
tity of different pieces an efcutcheon is charged
with, is not a greater mark of the nobility of the
family who bears it.

The arms of the kings of England, as kings of
England only, are very fimple, and are blazoned,
giiUs three lions pa£ant gardant in pale, or.

The arms oi Ireland are hui azure a harp or,
Jlrxtng orgint.

'From thefe fimple efcutcheons,.!']! pafs to thofc
W-iiich are chaj'ged with more pieces.

The arms of the duke of Norfolk, firfi: dulce,
and hereditary earl marftial of England, are bla-
zoned thu--, in EngUfli. — Gules a hand between fix
crofs-croflets, f.fljee argent, ivith an augm:ntation,
viz. in the middle of the bend an inefcutcheon, or,
charged with a demi-lion rampant, pierced through
the mouth luith an a'Tczv, within a d.ouble trejfwe
contrefiet'.ry gules, — Or thus ; Gules a band argent,
charged encceur with a lion rampcnt, arrowed in the
month., within a trejjure contre-fleury gules, the
band accompanied with ftx crofs-croflets argsnt, three
and three.

As the different alliances ccntraded between
noble houfes, feldom fail making fome aJditio:-.'
to thefr efcutcheons, and engage a family to
quarter their arms with thofe of another, or fcvc-
ral houfes, according as they judge thofe quarters
more capable to honour their ownj we muft give

here fome inftrudions or rules relating to quarter-
ing efcutcheons.

gartering, in the French manner, is to divide
the efcutcheon into four equal parts, by drawing
firfi: a line perpendicularly from top to bottom,
which divides it exaflly into two equal parts,
and another a-crofs which divides it into two
o;her equal parts, which together make four equal
parts or quarters, which is told thus, I, 2, 3, 4.
The quarter on the left, a-top, being the firft'
quarter; the next to it the fecond ; the quarter
on the left at bottom, the third j and the next
to it the fourth, or laft.

If the firft and the laft quarter are the fame coat,
they are blazon'd together firft j and the fecond
and third together, if they be likewife the fame
Coat ; which always happens if there be but two
coats in the fourth quarter. For example, in the
French efcutcheon, where the arms of France are
only quartered with thofe of Navarre, the French
efcutcheon is the firft and laft ; a.id that of Na^
varre the fecond and third ; therefore we blazon
it, quartered in the firft and laft of Francs ; and
in the fecond and third of Navarre ■. naming, if
we pleafe, the different colours and pieces of the
efcutcheon; though there is much more fkill to
blazon an efcutcheon, which contains feveral quar-
ter.":, in naming the family to which the quarter
hclongs, than jn bl.izoning the pieces. For ex-
ample, I fuppofe that the arms of the duke of
Norfolk were quartered with thofe of that excel-
lent nobleman the. vifcount Montacute Broivn, I
would fay,, quartered in the firft and laft -of Nor-
folk; and. in the" fecond and third of Aionta-
cute.

Bur perhaps. the efcutcheon thus qiiartcrcd, con--
tains fi.ur different coat of arms ; that of the duke
of Norfolk, of the duke of Montague., of the ead
of Harrington, and of the vifcount Monlacuie ;
I'll fay, quartered in the firft of Norfulk, in the
fecond of Montague, in the third of Harrington, .
and in the \?i.'ik'oi Montacute. .

1 o divide the efcutcheon int > fix qu.^>rters, we
draw two perpendicular lines, which divide it in-
to three equal parf,. then draw another a-crofs,,
which divides thofe three parts into fix, which
parts are told (beginning at the firfi on the left a-
tcp, proceeding to the nest to it, from t'^ence to ■
the next to that, which is that on the right a-top, .
then to the firll on the left at bottom, from it to ■
the next, ending at that on the light at bottom)
I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. This ;he F)ench heraljs do
not call quartered, but coupe of three pieces; for
e.xample, the duke of Lcdigui^res, in France,
bears coupe of three pieces in chief fupportid luiih
three itP point,. In the fiift, or a ciequicr gules, _

which .

90 T:he Umverfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

which is of Cvequl. la the R-cond, or two lions two uppcrmoft quarters, and the two uppermoft
leopardcd gules, which is of Blanche f nit. In , in wa.-d corners of the lowermoft quarters.

the third, or a wolf hauriant flz«r/', ^incd guUi,
which is of Sault agoult. in the fourtli (which is
the firil of the point) a-z.nre three towers or, which
is of Montoulum. In the fifth, axure three pa'.es or,
a chief of the fame, which is viiVefc. inthefixih,
and la'.l, or two leopards o%\i.re, which is of
Montlaur. And over all of bonne, which is guki.

There has been a great difpute among the learn-
ed, about the origin of arms, lavyn will have them
to have been from the beginning of the world ;
SegAn from the time of Noah ; others from that
oi Ojiris, which is fupported by fome palTages in
Diodo us S'uu'us ; otiiers from the time of the

a lion or, the chief couPj ^zz^r^ charged wuhUMreus, in regard arms vAcre given lo Mofes^

three rofts argent.

The French have but this kind o^ parti, which
is the lame as xha Englijh parti per pale ; ihtEng-
lijh Heralds applying the word to all the forts of
partitioning, and never ulb it without fome addition
tofpecify the particular one intended. Thus they
have parti, or parted per crofs, per chirf, per pale,
per fefs, per lend dexter, per bend Jinijler, per
chevron, &c.

Parti per pale, is when the chief is divided per-
pendicularly into two halves, by a cut in the mid-
tile from top to bottom. This, and this only,
the French cull parti.

Parti per fefs, is when the cut is a-crt)fs the
middle, from fide to fide; which the French call
coupe.

Parti per bend dexter, is when the cut comes
from the upper corner of the fhield on the right
hand, and defcends a-thwait to the oppofite lower
corner; called by the F?vwA, tranche.

Parti per bend finijhr, is when the cut coming
from the upper left corner, defcends a-crofs to the
oppofite lower corner one, called by the French

taille. , ■ • r -i

When the fliield is parii and coupe, it is laid to

be quartered, or ecartele

Jcjfjua, the twelve tribes, David., &c.

Others will have them to have taken their rife
in the hcroical age, and un'ler the empires of the
AJfyrians, Medes, and Perflans ; b j.Iding upon
Phil firatus, Xenophon, anJ ^intus Curtius.

Sume pretend that the ufc of arms, and the
rules of bldZon, were regulated by Alexander.
Uthers will have them to have had ti'eir original
under the empire of Auguflus ; others during the
inundations of the G'ths ; and others under the
empire of Lharlcmaigne.

Chorier obfervcs, that among the antient Gauls,
each man bore a mark on hii buckler, by the fight
whereof he mig'it be knowi to his fellows; and
hence he refers the original of the arms of noble
families. Camden has obferved fornetbing like ihis
of the antient Picis and Britons, who going nak-
ed to the wars, painted their bodies with blaz'ins,
and figures of divers colours, which he fuppofes to
have been different in different families, as they
fought dividea by kindreds. Yet Spleman fays,
that the Saxons, Danes, and Normans firft brought
arms from the north into England, and thence in-
to France.

Upon the whole, it is certain, that from time
immemorial, there have been fymbolical marks in

It is faid to be parti one from the other, when nfe among men, to diftinguifh them in armies,
the whole fhield is charged with fome honourable and to ferve as ornaments of fhields and enfigns ;
bearing divided by the fame line that parts the ^ but thefe marks were ufed arbitrarily as devices,
fhield Here it is a rule, the one fide be of me- emblems, hi;roglyphicks, fs'f. and wore not re-
tal and the other of colour. §"'•»'■ armories like ours, which (hould be heredi-

When the quarters are quartered over again, 'tary marks of the nobi ity of a. hoiife, regulated
fub-divided each into four, this is called by the according to the rules of Heraldry, and autho-
French, contre-ecartele, and by the Englifh, coun-
ter-quartered.

1 here are counter-quartered coats, which have
twenty or twenty-five quarters.

When the quartering is by a faltier (which is
fometimes ufed in the Eyighfli Heraldry) the chief
and point are the firft and fecond quarters, the
right fide the third, the K ft the fourth.

In the middle of a quarter fnield, is almofl al
ways placed the proper coat of the family, who
quarters it with others, which i^ Mazon d over all
in Englifl), and fur U tout in French, bcc^ufe it
covers the two lowtrmoit inward corners of the

rized by princes.

Before Marius, even the eagle was not the con-
fiant enfign of the Roman army, but they bore in
their flandards a wolf, leopard, or eagle indiffe-
rently, according to the fancy of the general';.

The fame diverfitv has been obferved witli re-
gard to the French and Englifb; on which ac-
count authors are divided, when they fpcak of the
antient arms of thofe countries. In effect, it ap-
pfurs from all the bcft authors, that the armories
ijf houfes, as well as the double names of families,
were not known before the year looo ; and feve-

ral

HERALDRY.

ral have even cndea\oured to prove, that the ufe
of arms did not begin, till the time of the firft
croifades of the (hri/lians, fur the conqueft of ihe
Holy Land

The truth is, it appears to have been the an-
tient tournaments, that occ^fioned the fixing of
armories. Henry the fowler, who regulated the
tournaments in Gtrmany, was the firft who intro-
duced thefe marks of honour, which appear to
be of an older ftanding in Germany, than any other
part of Europe. It was then that coats of arms
were firft inftituted, which were a kind of livery,
competed of feveral bars, fillets, and co'cuts ;
whence came the feffe, pale, bend, and lozenge, !
which were fome of the firft elements of armories.
Thofe who had never been concerned in any tour-
nament had no arms, tho' they were gentlemen.

Such of the nobility and gentry as ciofteJ the
fea, in the expeditions to the Holy Land, alfo al
fumed thefe tokens of honour to diltinguifh theni-
felves.

Before thefe times, we find nothing upon an-
tient tombs but crofre:>, with Gothick infcriptions
and reprefentations of the perfonsdeceafcd. Ihe
tomb of i^o'pQ Clement lY . who died in 12685 is
the firft whereon we find any arms ; nor do they
appear on any coins ftruck before the year 1336.
We meet with figures, it is true, much more an-
tient, both in ftandards and on medals ; but nei-
ther princes nor cities ever had arms in form ; nor
does any author make mention of bhczoning before
that time.

Originally none but the nobility had riL'ht of
bearing arms; but Charles V. king of Frame,
having enobied the Parijians by his charter, in
13^1, permitted them to bear arms: From
whole example, the moft eminent citizens of other
places did the like.

Camden refers the original of hereditary arms
in England, to the time of the firft Norman kings.
He fays their uie was not cftabliilied till the reign
of king Henry HI. and inftances in feveral of the
moft confidcraljle families in England, wherein,
till that time, the fon bore always different arms
from the fatner. About the fame time it became
the cuftoai here \i\ E ;gla:id, for private g^nilemtn
to bear aims; bo:uiwing them from the lords of
whom they held in fee, or to whom they were
the moft devoted.

Arms, at prefent, follow the nature of titles,
which being made hereditary, thefe are alio be-
come fo ; being the feveral marks for diltinguiAing
of families and kindred, as names are of pcrlons
and individuals.

What relates to the making out arms ; the
re£lifying of ahules committed th'rein, i^e. is
chiefly committed to the king at armsy whofe bull-

nefs befides is to diredt the heralds, prefide at their
chapter, feV.

There are three kings st arms in England, viz.
Garter, Clarencleux, and Norroy.

Garter is the principal king at arms. — As
principal king at arms, he has pjv^er to make
arms, i^c. And as garter he is to attend the
fervice of the order of \he. garter \ for which he
is allowed a mantle and badge, a houfe in IVindfor
caftle, and penfions both from the ibvereign and
kni .hts; laftly he has fees. He carries the rod and
fcepter at every feaft of St. George, when the
fovereign is prefent ; notifies the election of fuch
as are new chofen ; attends the folemnity of their
inftallations, and takes care of placing their arms
over their feats ; carries xht garter to foreign kings
and princes ; for which feivice it has been ulual
to join him in commilTion with fome peer, or other
perfon of diftinclion.

Garter's oath relates only to fervices to be per-
formed within the order ; and is taken in chapter
before the fovereign and knights. — His oath as king
at arms, is taken before the earl marfhal. — This
office was inftituted by Henry V.

Clarencieux is the fecond king at arms,
thus called from the duke of Clarence, to whom it
firft belonged. — His office is to dilpofe and marfhal
the funerals of all the inferior nobility, as Baronets,
Knights, Efquires, and Gentlemen, on the fouth
iide of the Trent

Norroy, the laft^/n^ at arms, is to do the fame
on the north fide of the river Trent.

Thefe two laft are alfo called Provincial Heralds,
in regard they divide the kingdom between them
into two provinces.

Thefe by charter have power to vifit noblemen's
families, to fet down their pedigrees, dilHnguifh
their arms, faV.

Antiently the king at arms was created, and
folemnly crowned by the kings of England them-
felves; but of later days the Earl Marllial has a
ipecial commiilion at every creation, to perfonate
the king.

To thefe may be added Lyon king at arms, for
Scotland, who is the fecond king at arms for Great
Britain ; he is inverted and crown'd with great fo-
lemnity. To him belongs the publifhing the
King s proclamations, marlhalling funerals, rever-
fing arms, i^c.

In England they have fix heralda, viz. Richmond,
Lancajier, ChejUr, IVindfor, Somerfet, and York ;
to v.'hich may be added a fevenih, or Brunfwick
Herald, inintuted by King George 1. .

Antiently none could arrive at the dignity of
herald, without having been feven years purfui-
vant, who is a gtr.tleman whofe buUnefs is to

attend

92 The Umvcrfal Hlftory of Arts ^;;^ Sciences.

attend with the heralds in marfhalling and order- i belonging to the college of arms.
iiig publick folemnitics. | The heralds, with the k'.ngs at arms, and the

Of the great number of purfuivants antientlyj four purfuivants are a college or corperation erected
on foot, there are now only four remaining, viz. I into fuch by a charter o( Richard III. who granted
Blue- Manthi Rouge Croix, Rouge-Dragon, and
P.ortcuUice. Who are the lowcfl- order of officers

them divers privileges; as to be free
fubfidies, tolls, and all troublefome offices.

from

HIEROGLTP HICKS.

lEROGLYPLICK, a Gruk compound,

which literally imports a facrcd or holy

imprcffion or charaiTtcr, is that myftical

figure or fcience, ufed by the Egyptian priefthood

to conceal, and to convey the fecrets of their divi-
■nity. So that l/ieroglypticks are genera! accepted
to be the figns of divine, facred, and fupernatural
things : and fymbols are confined to fenfiblc and
natural things.

The Hieroglyph icKS moft remarkable in
the Egvptian theoloey, I have colicfted in the
copper plate annexed, and are thus explained :
•with fome others.

The Sun (Fig. i ) has been often ufed both by
the Pagans and Chrijtians, to fignify a fupreme
being, and fome of the Pagans iiave even adored
him as fuch; efpecially the Perfians.

St. 'Joim, St. Paul, St. Denis the Areopagite,
■tnake often a c^ mparifon between God and the fun.

The Sun v/as alfo the hieroglypick of truth ;
nothing more proper than the fun to fignify
light, fince himfclf is the fource of light.

He was a hieroglyphick among the Romans of
the fovereign majefty of the empire.

Archimedes^ lib. I. c. 36. fays that he was the
hieroglyphick of the human life: That to fhew
the tianquility oi ihzt life, he was reprefcnted in |
his full glory ; darken'd and cloudy, to fignify
troubles and inquietude.

The Sun was alfo a hieroglyphick of the revolu-
tion of the whole year, as regulating the feafons
by his courfe. " j

When the Egyptians wanted to fignify a woman
with child, or lying in, they reprefcnted the _/«<« :
divided in two, with a Star in the middle of the 1
Jivifion, for a hieroglyphick of the child in the j
womb of its mother; not only bccaufe they com-
pared the belly fituated in the middle of the body
to the fun ; but, likewife, becaufe they were of
opinion that he vivifies all forts of conceptions;
imagining befides, that a Jtar borrows it lights
from the fun, as a child receives its aliments from
its mother.

The Moan, (Fig. 2.) was a hieroglyphick of
human life ; becaufe its face changes every day,
like that of the humane life.

'I'he Moon was among the Pagans^ a hierogly-
phick likev/ife of eternity, becaufeit feems to have
a perpetual rotation.

For a hieroglyphick of the month, the Egyptians
painted the moon with her horns downwards.

T he Egyptians made a Star one of the hicrogly
picks, to fignify God ; becaufe they imagined that
the fixed liars gave the motion to the inferior
heavens, as God does to all created beings.

The parts of the human body have been uled
hieroglyphically.

The principal hierog'yphick of the Head has al-
ways been to fignify the beginning of fomething.

A Head with a diadem is the hieroglyphick of
foverelgnty: It is likewife the A;Vr<j^/y/)/)/c>f of riches,
fecurity, profperity, and providence.

1 he city of Rome was reprefented bv the head
of a woman, with a helmet.

The Egyptians fignificd watching, by two headi^
one ot a man looking inwards, and the other of a
woman looking outwards, whereby they pretend
that the devil had no power to offend them.

{Pig- 5-)

By the double head of y^nzM, prudence and popu-
larity were reprefented.

Some imagine, that the fanus's found in feveral
places, with two heads, without hands or feet,
mounted on a quadrangular column, large a- top,
and always going in diminifhing to the bottom, is
the ^zVrfl^/)'/)/ii<r,^ of tonftancy. {Fig. 5)

The interpreters of Hfiod are of opinion, that
the Gcrion with the heads, fignifiy the moon :
others the month divided into nones, ides, and
calends. Fig. 6.

The Head of an Jfs on a human body, was
the hierogiyfhick of ignorance.

The Back was a hieroglyphick of flight.

The Egyptians made the Eye the hieroglyphick of
juftice.

HIEROGLTPHICKS.

The Eye' was alfo the hieroglyph'rck oF our con-
ceptions.

Eyes without eye-lafhes, was the hieroglyphlck
of a lafcivious perfon.

1 he Right- eye cpen, figuified life, and the
eyj: Jhut, rcprcfented death.

The eye-rbroius fignified fevcrity.

An Ear fl/>^« fignified obedience; and zn ear
Jlopt obftinacy.

A Tongue, guided by a hand, reprefented
eloquence.

A Tongue, on an altar, reprefented flcep.

Tongues cut, fignified fdence. Iliad. 3.

Arijtander, lays, the mouth is a hieroglyphick of
a houfe, the teeth reprefenting the inhabitants.

A Heart hanging on the neck fignified fincerity.

The Egyptians, to fignify the inundation of the
Nile, reprefented a heart, with a tongue fixed to it,
and reprefented rage or indignation by a heart placed
on a gridiron.

By a Back-hone they fignified a ftrong inclination
to luxury.

By the P^«/V, reprefented on fo many pyramids
or obclifks, they gave to underfland, the valour
or courage of the perfons buried under, or near
thofe huge mafles of ftones.

The Matrice, fignified a coward.

The antients reprefented continency, by a man
holding his tefticles in his hand.

The Navel was, on fome medals, a hieroglyhick
of "Jupiter.

The HamLvfzs an hieroglyphick of architecture

Tht IFaJhing of Hands (Fig. 8.) fignified in-
nocence.

The Hand extended, fignified authority and
power.

Both Hands in one's bofom, fignified idlenefs.

The Hands tied behind the back, fignified
captivity.

Two Right Hands joined, fignified felicity. .

A Statue without Hands reprefented a jud2:e, to
fignify that judges fhould have no hands for bribery
or corruption.

The Feet walking upon the Water^ fliew'd the
impoflibility of a projedt.

The Feet Jet firm on the ground, indicated a
ftrong foundation.

The Egyptian priefls reprefented the winter
foljiice, by two feet in fetters, to fhew that then the
fun walks flower.

Lame, or diftorted Feet, fignified iniquity.

The Right Foot extended, and wrapt up, was an
hieroglyphick of retreat, or return.

A Hand on the head, and playing with its fin
gers, is a hieroglyphick of lafcivioufnefs and effemi-
nacy.

Vol. II. 32.

The Thumb extended downwards, was, among
the Romans, an hieroglyphick of peace. Extended
upwards, an hyeraglyphick of favour.

The Index on the Mouth, was a hieroglyphick of
filence.

Tlie Egyptian prisils reprefented the ftomach by
the middle finger.

The Middle Finger alfo denoted infamy.
The Annularis v/as a hieroglyph ick of the heart,
and for that reafon the Egyptian priefts ufed to adorn
it with a ring, and perfume it. It alfo indicated
marriage, flavery, and impetration when put to
the ear.

I'll pafs to the animals which were ufed for hie-
roglyphick figures, beginning with the lion.

The Lien alone was among the Egyptians, a
hieroglyphick of the ftrength of the body. — By the
head of a lion they underllood vigilancy and watch-
fulnefs. — To fignify an exceflive rage, they reprcr-
fcnted a lion tearing his own progeny into pieces.
The Lionefis was mofi: commonly the hiercgly-
phick of a proflitute.

A Lion's Skin, reprefented virtue.
A Lion rampant (Fig g.) is the hieroglyphick of
magnanimity. — Regardant (Fig 10.) of circum-
fpeftion and caution. — Saliant (Fig. i r.) of expe-
dition, or celerity. — Sejant (Fig. 12.) of council.
P affiant (Fig. 13.) of prudence. — Gardant (Fig.
14.) of defence.

The Sphinx (which was feen at the entrance of
feveral temples of the antients) with the head of a
woman, and the reff of the body of a lion, was a
hieroglyphick that fignified, that human nature fur-
paffes, in excellency, all other animals.

The figure of an Elephant (Fig. 15.) was
among the Egyptians, a hieroglyphick to fignify a
king ; becaufe perhaps when thofe animals travel
in droves, the eldefl: marches always at the head.

The Egyptians reprefented in hieroglyphick terms, -
zn elephant znd z. goat, to fignify that a prudent
man avoids with care, all that has the leafl ap-
pearance of folly. They painted an elephant and
a hog, to infinuate that one muft fly the company
of tatlers, as the elephant flies the grunting of a
hog, — To fignify a king who pafles his life in
luxury and indolence, they painted an elephant
hunting rats ; an occupation very little becoming
a body fo large and fo heavy.

The Egyptian prieffs reprefented a bull crowned
with the leaves of a fig-tree, for a hieroglyphick of
modeffy.

The Athenians had reprefented a horfie on one of
their coins, with this legend, T'EPflMOS, which
was a hieroglyphick to fignify the valour and expe-
rience of a hero, in the command of the cavalry.
O By

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts iS';?*/ Sciences.

pro-

By a horfe, the Egyptian priefts fignified a
fane man.

1 he Egyptians fignified by a dog, a divine, and
fagacity.

Maaobius., Saturn, c. 20. fays, that the figure of
a dog, was a hieroglyphick to fignify the remem-
brance of things part.

A Dog is lilcewife the hieroglyphick of fidelity.

The Egyptians reprefented under the figure of a
dog, their God Anuhis.

Theylikewife underftood by the hieroglyphick of
a dog, with a diadem or coronet, a prince or legi-
flator. A dog with a leading-la/h, was the hiero-
glyphick oi z foldier; the Lijh fignifying the oath of
a foldier, and the dog his duty.

The figure of a Alan with the head of a dog
(Fig. 16) is a Z>zVr«^/))/)/;/V/^' of impudence.

A //ar? chewing the cud {Fig. 17.) is a hiero-
glyphick of a man perfedlly accomplifhed.

The Avt was the hieroglyphick of care and in-
duftry; of forefight; of conftancy in toils and la-
bours; of mutual companion; of difi^:rent offices
and manners ; of opulence; of vain-glory.

By the Ant, and a fmall bundle of or/g-a«, the
Egyptian priefts fignified devaftation.

The Egyptian priefts underftood by the figure of
a hog, a dangerous and brutifh man ; by a hog
wallowing in the mud, an uncivil and ill-bred man,
luxury and gluttony.

The Egyptians by the figure of a Jheep, under-
ftood folly : likewile innocence, good-nature, and
meeknefs.

The Jfs was a hieroglyphick of ftupidity, and of
uncleannefs.

A Running Afs^ was a hieroglyphick of a fine en-
terprize begun, bat foon negledted ; becaufe the
galloping of an afs is but fliort.

The Egyptians reprefented the Mule to fignify
fterility.

The Egyptian priefts underftood by the figure of
the Hare, vigilancy ; and quicknefs of hearing

The Hiire was alfo a hieroglyphick of fecundity ;
and of folitude.

1 he Fox fignified a deceitful, cunning, treache-
rous, and malicious man.

By the figure of this animal, the Egyptians figni-
fied a man who had infuked a woman ; becaufe
this animal, feeing himfclf clofely purfued, cuts his
»enitals, and throws them far from him.

The Aide Is the common hisroglyphick of^hViml-
refs ; of a quick hearing, and of futurity.

The Rat was an hieroglyphick of ruin and de-
flruction ; becaufe they are always gnawing fome-
thing night and day.

'I he Egyptian priefts by the r^j^, fignified choice
and option, becaufe of f(.'\cral eatables, he always
chafes the beft.

The Egyptian priefts, to fignify the world, re-
prefented zfpott d ferpent biting its tail ; pretend-
ing thereby to ftie v the immortality of things
created, whofe b-ginning tends tOiVards its end,
and the end returns to the beginning.

By a Serpent which had caft oft" his fkin, was
fignified an old man, reftored to his priftine juve-
nility.— By one the tail under his throat, was un-
derftood time , comparing the revolution of the
feafons, to the circumvolutions of tlie ferpent.

The figure oi a ferpent, with the head of a faker,
within abrafs hoop, almoft in the form of the Greek
letter 0, fignified the mafs of the world.

By the figure of the BafiUJk, the Egyptian pricRs
underftood a century and eternity.

The figure of the BafiUJk fignified likewife a
calumniator.

The Egyptian priefts reprefented the Viper to fig-
nify children who confpire againft their parents.

To fignify a prince inclinable to clemency, they
reprefented a Serpent in his circumvolutions, and
biting his tail. And to fignify one who had ta!cen
a particular care of his people, they reprefented a
ferpent with his eyes open, his neck eredl, and
raifing up his breaft.

By the Caducee, which is a rod, garniftied with
two ferpents, male and female^ they underftood the
birth of man, and concord and amity.

The Cornucopia joined to the caducee, fignified
felicity.

The figure of the Vulture was made ufe of by
the Egyptian priefts, to fignify the year.

By the vulture tearing her thighs to feed her
young withal, they reprefented pity and commife-
ration.

Plunder is alfo reprefented by the figure of the
vulture.

The principal fignification of the Eagle was
profperity.

Pindarus defigns by the Eagle, a quick wit.

By the figure of the Phoenix, the Egyptian priefts
underftood a reftoration ; becaufe the pho?r,ix-was
fuppofed to revive from his own afties.

The Egyptian priefts fignified by the figure of
the Pelican^ an extreme folly ; becaufe, when as
that bird could build his neft on the higher places,
he builds it on the lower, where his young can
be ftolen away. Likewife compaflion and pater-
nal love ; becaufe he is fuppofed to open his breaft,.
and feed his young with his own blood.

By the figure of an Ou / placed on an altar, was
underftood AJinerva ; and confequently wifJom.

The Egyptian priefts, by the figure of an cwl^
fignified death.

By the 'Ai-l was likewife reprefented tyranny.

X ' By

HIEROGLTPHICKS.

By the figure of the Lanner, the Egyptian priefts
undcrftood the fun. Zoroajler fays, that God has
the head of a lanner (Fig. 20.)

By the figure of a lanner flying, the Egyptians
underflood the fublimity of thoughts, and likewife
wit, celerity and quickncfs.

The chrirtians by the figure of a Dove underflood
the Hdy Ghoft and divine love, otherwife called
charity.

The Egyptian priefts underflood by the figure
of the Swan, an old man who delights in nnifick,
becaufe the fwan is fuppofed to fing better the
nearer he approaches his end.

The figure of a Swan fignified likewife, a man
who oppreficd his countrymen and fellow citizens,
{Fig. 21.) For the fwans have this peculiar to
themfelves, that they fight and eat one another.

n here is in the cabinet of curiofities of the great
duke oiTufcuny, an Apollo on marble, who plays
on the violin, which he holds in his left-hand, and
refting it on the back of a fwan, which feems to
touch gently the chords with his beak, as it were
to heighten the harmony. This was made for a
hieroglyphick oi m\x{\Q'\/i^ {Fig. 22.)

By the figure of the P^rro^ is underflood eloquence,
becaufe no other animal imitates fo well the hu-
man voice, {Fig. 24.)

The figure of the Peacock fignified 'Juno, becaufe
that bird was confecrated to her. The ridicule
and vanity of riches was alfo figured by the feet of
the peacock, which are defpicable when compared
with the reft of his body. By the tail of the pea-
ccck, was fignified the viciflitude of fortune, becaufe
its fine feathers fall every year at the fall of the
leaves, and they begin to fprout anew in the fpring
following.

The figure of a Syren or Mermaid, with the
feet of a hen, fignified misfortunes, {Fig. 25.)

A Hen fignified fecundity, health, and fecurity.

By the figure of a Cock is underflood the French
nation.

The Cock is alfo the hieroghphick of impiety,
becaufe he treads his mother and beats his father.

By the figure of a Gooje holding a pebble in her
bill, the £'^_y/)//(7nf underflood filencekept a propos,
and alfo a falfe accufer.

In fcripture irrefolution is fignified by the Oftrich.

The Egyptian priefts wanting to reprefent good
and loyal fubjedls who loved their prince, painted a
bee.

By the Bee is alfo underflood chafHty.

By a Fly, the Egyptians underftood importunity,
impudence, and obitinacy.

By a Spider i fignified a necdlefs work.

The Egyp ian priefts to fignify impiety, ingrati- \
iude, and injujiice, painted a Sea hcrfe, and fignified '
that piety was preferable to impiety, by the head ,

I of a CaJ/iwary fixed on the foot of a fca-horje,
(Fig. 27.)

1 he Egyptians to fignify a perfon without fhame
painted a Frog, becaule it is fuppofed that fhe has
blood no where elfe but in tiie eyes ; and alfo
underftood thereby a needlefs or criminal curiofity.

There was feen at Sais, on the portal of a
temple dedicated to Minerva, a child, an old man,
Ti. falcon, zfjh, and zfea-horfe, (T\». 28.) which
fignified the condition and fragility of human life:
which from its infancy tends towards old age, and
returned again to infancy. By the Falcon v/as
underftood our intelleiStual faculty, which is a
participation of the divinity; death by the //!',
by reafon of the fea, which the Egyptians called
ruin and deflrudion ; and voilence by thefea-horje,
becaufe he does not even fpare his own father,
whom he kills to enjoy his mother.

The Egyptian priefts, with regard to that begin-
ning and end, which is invifible, underftood God
by the figure of the circle.

By the figure of a circle we underftood the
courfe of a year, in confideration of the gold
circle which Camhyfes carried oft" from the fepulchre
of Simond, and which had in circumference 365
cubits, and a cubit in breadth, each day of the
year being engraved on each cubit, according to
the diurnal courfe of the planets.

Thaiuinged Sphere ■wveMhed about with Serpent s^
was the hieroglyphick of the fpirit and foul of the
univerfe, {Fig. 29.)

The Egyptian prieft, by a quadrangular figure,
underftood wifdom; becaufe they fuppofe that
form the moft fecure foundation.

By the figure of a triangular Pyramid 01 Obelifk,
the antients underftood the Z>/i;/wVj. ; as confiderino-
the number three the moft perfed number.

The figure of a Helmet fignified war.

By the figure of a Girdle the Greeks, Latins, and
i/f^?viw underftood virginity; alfo ftrength and
virtue.

The figure of a Ring was a hieroglyphick of faith
and honour, and among the Romans of nobility.

The Diadem fignified royal power, authority,
and vidlory.

The Scepter fignified a kingdom.

A Necklace or gold chain, fignified a folid virtue.

The Egyptians to exprefs fame, they painted a
tkaider-bolt. By the figure of a thunder-bolt,
was alfo underftood celerity.

An Anclm; environ 'd with a Dolphin, fienified
hafte. '^

By the figure of a Ship at anchor, the Egyptian
prieffs underftood a profound fecurity.

By the figure of a Rudder of a fLip, was under-
ftood the government of a ftate.

O 2 Yokes

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^;7^ Sciences.

Tohs^ Chains, and Fetters, fignify moft pro-
perly the ftate of marriage, (Fig. 30. j

Among the feveral bieroglyphick fignifications of
the Palm-Trce; the following are the four princi-
pal ; which are, that it fignifies year, month,
juftice or impartiality, and vidtory.

Among the {acred hierog/yphicis, by the figure of
a palm-tree \s underftood innocency and a goodJife.

The Laurel is an hieroglyphkk of prophecy,
health, or prefervation, and of vidtory.

Ey the figure of an Oak, was fignifieJ fometimes
the ftrcngth of body, and fometimes length of
time.

The figure of a Cyprcfs fignified Words without
Deeds ; becaufe the Cyprefs, tho' a beautiful tree,
produces no fruit.

We fee on feveral antient coins and medals,
that the olive-tree with a cadiueus, is an bieroglyphick
of felicity.

In feveral places of the fcripture, by the olive-
tree is underftood alms ; it alfo fi':inifies clemency,
abundance, or plenty, hope, and peace.

By the figure of the Vine, the Egyptians, anJ
other nations, underftood joy and mirth, and
likewife liberty.

HORSEMANSHIP.

HORSEMANSHIP, as a fcience, inftruas
us in whatever relates to the make, colour,
age, temper, and qualities of /;«r/f^, and
their refpedlive countries and climates. Likewife
the knowledge of the defers and difcafes of horfes,
and the remedies proper for the fame ; with the
feveral operations relating therfeunto, as docking,
gcUUng, Jhoeing, 5cc.

A Horse is a domeftick quadruped, of great
ufe in agriculture, commerce, war, fporting, fife.
and is the fubjecT: of the art of horfemanfnip.

Horfes are diftinguifhed into divers kinds, and
drfterently denominated; either with regard to their
Jirain, or country, or to their colour ; or to the ufes,
or oj^ces they are referved for,

"ITiey are diftinguiftied with regard to their Jlrain.
or country ; as the Neapolitan, knou-n by his hawk
nofe ; the Spanij/i Ji-nni-t. known by his fmall limbs,
the Barbc, by his fine head and deep hoof; the
Dutch, by the roughnefs of his legs ; the Engiijh,
iy his ftj-ong knitting together, ist.

With regard to their colours ; as a bay, which
admits of divers iLades or cafls, i/z. a black bay,
brown hay, dappled bay ; all which have conftantly
blac"k raanes and tails. Dun, and mouje-dun, hav-
ing frequently a black lift along the back, which
denominates thtm flea- backed. Flea-bitten, which
is white fpotted with red. Gray, dappled p'ay,
{ihtr gray,i?ii or powder'd ^r<3)', h\zc\!i gray, fandy
^ray, and iron gray. Grijfel or rount, a light fiefti-
colour, intermixed with white. Peach-colour, or
blojfom-colour. Pye-bald, which confifts of two
colours, one of them v/hite. Roan, a bay, black,
or forrel, Jntermi.xed with white hairs. Rublcan,
black, or forrel, with white hairs fcattered about
his body. Sorrel, common forrel, red or cow-
colour'd forrel, bright or light-coloured forrel,
burnt forirl, all chiefly diftinguiftied by the colour
I

of their Manes. Starling- colour, refembling a
brownifti, or hlackifh grey, only more freckled, or
intermixed with white. Tyger-cohur, much the
fame with the branded grey, only the fpots fmaller.
JVolf-colour. — Deer-colour. — Black. — JVhite, &c.

The colours are generally confidered as fymbo-
lical of the nature, qualities, isc. of the bcafts ;
and accordingly their value is much influenced
thereby. The dapple gray, is prized for beauty ;
the brown bay, for fervice ; the black, with filvcr
hairs, for courage ; the roan, for countenance ; the
forrel, black with white, and iron-gray, are re-
puted hot and fiery ; the bright-gray, flea-bitten,
and black with white fpots, are fanguine ; the
white, dun, and pye-bald, phlegmatick and heavy ;
the moufe-dun, red bay, and Hue gray, are dull :
the peach-colour rarely proves obedient to the fpur;
the y«rr<'/ feldom fails of being good, efpeciaUy if
their legs, tails, and manes are black ; and the
fame may be faid of the flea-bitien, at lAft thofe
ib marked in the foreparts, or over the whole bodyj
for when only behind, it is an ill fign.

Yet it is hard laying down any univerfal rules.'
The luhite, which promifes the leaft, proves good,
when black about the eyes and noftriis ; and there
are excellent i> on-grey s, though they are not re-
puted a good colour.

With regard to the tfes or offices they are referv-
ed for, horfes are diftinguiftied into coach-horfe,
war-horfe, hunting-horfe, running- borfe, pack horfe,
&c. -

The two former diftinflions contribute much
towards the knowledge of a horfe ; but one of the
moft eflential points of that knowledge, confifts in
the age ; the horfe being an animal, that remarka-
bly ftiews the progrcfs of his years, by correfpon-
dent alterations in his body.

We have characferifticks from his teeth, hoofs,
coat, tail, and eyes.

The

HORSEMANSHIP.

over, may he infallibly concluded extremely aged-
Laftly ; a horfe being younc, the bars of his
mouth are foft and hollow ; otherwife they are
deep and fee! hard, and rough.

The malters in this art lay it down, that a horib
to be good and well made, muft have three parts
like thofe of a woman, viz. the breaft, which is
to be broad, the hips round, and the mane long :
three of a lion, vix. countenaace, intrepidity, and
fire: three of a bullock, i;;z. the eye, noftril, and
joint : three of a {heep, vi%. the nofe, gentlenefs,
and patience : three of a mule, ftrengfh, conftancy,
and foot : three of a deer, head, leg, and hair (hort:
three of a wolf, throat, neck, and hearing : three
of a fox, ear, tail, and trot : three of a ferpent,
memory, fight, and turning : three of a hare or
cat, running, walking, and fupplenefs

The (kin and coat of the horfe, is the hair : the
long hair on the neck, the nwne : the fore-top, the
topping ot tuke : the hair behind, en the feet, ths
fttlock or fetter : that growing over the top of the
hoof, the coronet or cornet : that on the eye-lids,
the bril/s. The ridge whereon the mane grows,
is called the creji or cri/f : the fore-part, from the
neck to the fore legs, the ^r/Z/fv/ or fi^y? .• the mark
tuflies ; which till then are very fenfible : add tliat ' frequently running down his face, the rath ; and
the temples begin to be crooked and hollow : at | that in the forehead, the /iar. The top of the
eleven years, his teeth are very long, yellow, black, j fhoulder, at the fetting on of the neck, is called
and foul ; but he will cut even, and his^ teeth ftand the zvithers : the place where the faddle is fet, the
direfbly oppofite to one another : at twelve years, \ dock ; and a bruife or hurt thereon, a navel gall :
the upper teeth hang over the lower : at thirteen, \ the middle of the back, from the mane to the hips,
the turtles are worndofe to his chaps, if he has ' the 7tWJ / the extremity of the reins above the hips,
been much rode ; otherwife they will be black, ; the croupe: the tail, the dock ovrunt : the hollow
foul, and long. ! or finking of the back- bone, the [way : the hind

As to the hoof ; if it be fmooth, moifl, hollow, ' part of the belly, next the genital, thefank: that
and well-founding, it is a fign of youth : on the nearer the thighs, the groin : the loofe fkin wherein
contrary, if rugged, and as it were feamed, one the yard is, the Jhcath ; and the fore-part of the
feam over another, and withal dry, foul, and rufty, fhoulders, next the breail-, the filets ; the up-
it is a mark of old age. i permoft part of the hind leg, next the buttock, is

For the tail ; taking him by the ftern thereof, called the /liffle or Jiifjle joint: the after-joint, or
clofe at the fetting on to the buttock, and griping bending of the hind-leg, the charnhr el or elboiu :
it between the finger and thumb ; if the joint be the inner, the ham, ox hough: the joint at the fet-
felt to ftick out more than the re!>, the bignefs of \qiz\., t\\e pnftern, ankle ox fetlock joint : the foot,
a nut, the horfe is under ten ; but if the joints be above the hoof of the ankle joint, the coronet. The

The fir ft year he has his foal's teeth, which are
only grinders and gatherers : the fecond, the four
foremoft change, and appear browner and bigger
than the reft : the third, he changes the teeth next
to thefe ; leaving no apparent foal's teeth, but two
on each fide above, and two below : the fourth,
the teeth next to thefe are changed, and no foal's
teeth arc left, but one on each fide, above and be-
low : At five years, his foremofi: teeth are changed,
and the tufhes on each fide are compleat : thofe
which come in the places of the iaft foal's teeth,
being hol'ow, and having alittle black fpeck in the
midft ; which i3 called, the mark in a horfe' s mouth,
and continues till eight years of age : ztfix years,
he puts up new tuflies ; near which appears a little
circle of young flefh, at the bottom of the tufti ;
the tufhes withal being white, fmall, fliort, and
fharp : at fevcn years, the teeth are all in their
growth, and die mark in the mouth appears very
plain : at eight years, all his teeth are full, fmooth,
and plain, and the mark fcarcely difcernable ; the
tufhes looking yellovvifti : at nine years, the fore-
mofi: teeth {hew longer, yellower, and fouler than
before ; and the tufhes become bluntifh : at ten
years, no holes are felt on the infide of the upper

-all plain be may be fifteen.

The eyes being round, full, and flaring ; the
pits that are over them filled, fmooth, and even
with his temples ; and no wrinkles to be feen,
either under or above, is a mark of youth.

The Jkin being plucked up in any part betwixt
the finger and thumb, and let go again ; if it re-
turns fuddenly to its place, and remains without
wrinkles, he may be accounted young.

A dark coloured horfe, growing grizzly above
the eye brows, or under the mane ; or a whitifh
horfe growing mackled, either white or bkck, all

part from the withers to the top joint of the thigh,
is called the Jhoulder : the middle joint of the fore
leg, the knee : the right leg before, the farther
leg ; and the left, the nearer. The hoof is called
the horn : the hollow of the hoof, the coffn : the
tender part ofthe hoof, next the heel, the frufli :
the ball of the foot, the frog : the part to be pared,
or cut off" the hoof, when over-grown, the rift :
the fore- part of the hoof, the toes : the hind-part,
where there is a rifing in the middle of the lole,
the heel; and the infide, meeting on the heel, the

quarters.

^ The

98 The Univerfal Hiftory

The principal article of the Art oi breeding horfes,
confifls in the choice of the /fallion and »hire ; fmce
on this depends chiefly the goodncfs of the breed.

It is the common opinion, that the beft flallion
is either an Arabian horfe, a Spanijh, a T:vk, or
a Barbary, that is well ihaped, and of a good
colour.

The fitteft mare to breed out of (according to
the duke oi Ncwia !}!,■) is one that has been bred of
an EngUJh mare, and a jiallion of the above men-
tioned races ; but if fuch a mave is not to be got,
choice muft be made of a right bred Englijh mare,
by fire and dam, that is well fore- handed, well
underlaid, and ftrong put together in general ; and
in particular, fee that fhe has a clean head, wide
noftrils, open chaul, a big weafand, and the wind-
pipe ftrait and loofe ; and chufe her about five or
fix years old ; taking care, likewife, that the Jial-
lion be not too old.

h. fallion muft be kept as high as poflible, for
four or five months, before the time of covering,
with old clean oats, and fplit beans well hulled ;
to which you may add, if you pleale, bread ; and
now and then, for change of diet, you may give
him a handful of wheat or oats waftied in flrong
ale. Mr. Morgan, in his perfection of horjeman-
Jl}ip, advifes to mix bay-falt and annifeed with his
provender ; which others think needlefs, while the
horfe is in health ; but he muft have plenty of
good old fweet hay, well cleanfed from duft ; and
good wheat ftraw to lie on ; watering him twice
every day, at fome fair running fpring, or elle a
clear ftanding pond water, near fome meadow or
level piece of ground, where you may gallop him
after he has drank. When you have brought him
to the water, do not fuffer him to drink his fill at
firft, but after his firft draught, gallop and fi<ip him
up and down a little, to warm him ; and then
bring him to the water again, and let him drink
as much as he pleafes, after which gallop hirn^ as
before, never leaving the water till you will find
he will drink no more. By this means, new cru-
dities are prevented, which the coldnefs of the
water would produce to the detriment of the fto-
mach, if he had been permitted to drink his fill at
firft ; whereas, in allowing him his fill at bft, thus
by degrees, his body is kept from drying too taft.

When the /iallion is in his luft, and the time for
covering is come, which is beft in May-, that the
foals may fall in April following (otherwife they
will have little or no grafs, if they flioukl be put
together, according to Markham% opinion, in
March, though he holds that a foal falling in March,
is worth two falling in May, ' becaufe, fays he,
♦ he pofll-flcs, as it were, two winters in a year, and
» is thereby fo hardened, that nothing afterwards

of Arts and Sciences.

' can almoft impair him.') The time, fays I, be-
ing come to put your JlnlUon and mares together,
you muft pull off his hind fnoes, and lead him to
the place where the ftuJd of the 7nare$ is, which
you intend for covering You ought not to give
him above ten or twelve marei in a feafon, to the
utmort ; otherwife you will fcarce recover him a-
gainft the next year covering-time.

When your ftnllion is part this ufe, then buy
another ; never making ufe of a horfe of your own
breed, otherwife the beft kind would in time dege-
nerate ; but you cannot do better, lays the duke
of Newcaftle, than to let your own mares be cover'd
by their fire ; and by this means they are nearer,
one degree, to the purity and head of the fountain,
from which they are derived, fince a fine horfe got
them, and the fame fine horfe covers them again.

The method of covering in hand is moft approv-
ed, and which is this : — When they have brought
both their horfe and mare by art and good feeding,
to a proper condition for breed, they fet fome ordi-
nary ftoned n..g by her, for a day or two to woo
her, and by that fhe will be ;o proned to lu.'f, that
j flie will readily receive their ftaUion ; which they
! prefent to her, either early in the morning, or late
in an evening, for a day or two together, and let
him cover in hand once or twice, if they think
proper, at each tim", obferving always to give the
horfe the advantage of ground, having fomebody
ready with a bucket of cold water, to throw on
the mare's ftiape, immediately on the difmounting
of the hori'e, which v ill make her retain better the
feed received ; for which purpofe, they get on her
back and trot her for about a quarter of an hour,
.ivoiding, at the fame time, from heating or ftrain-
' ing her ; and taking care, after every act, to let
them faft two hours, and then giving each of them
a warm mafh.

As to the manner of keeping the mares, during
the time of their being with foal, and at their foal-
ing, you muft take care to houfe them all the win-
ter, and to keep them well, their colts will prove
the better. When they are foaled, let them run
with their dams till Alariinnwfs, then wean them,
and keep them in a convenient houfe, with a low
rack, and manger on purpofe ; litter them well, and
feed them with good hay, and oats and wheaten-
bran mixed, which will make them drink and
belly well. The firft year, you may put them all
together, but afterwards they muft be feparated,
the ftone-colts from the fillies ; and if you have
choice of horfes, you may put yearings together,
two years old.

In a warm fair day, you may grant them liberty
to run and skip, in fome inclofed court or back-
fide, taking care to put them up again carefully,

that

HORSEMANSHIP,

that they be not hurt. When fummer is come, and

there is plenty of grafs, put them out in fume dry

ground, that has convenient watering, and fo let

them run till Marttnmafs again : then houfe them

as before, and order them in ail points as older

horfes, till they are full five years old ; then take

them up for good, and let your groom back them,

if he has fkill, or elfe fome (kilful rider. You may,

if you pleafe, break your fillies, at two years and a

half old, and let them be cover'd at three; and by

that means they will be fo tame and gentle, as not

to injure themfelves, or their foals. But in cafe

of ficknefs, or any otlier accident, as lamenefs, l^c.

you muft then commit them to the Farrier's care.

The reafon why it is propofed to houfe them

every winter, with dry feeding and lodging, is, that

they may be the more like their fire in beau;y and

fhape. For the primary caufe of the finenefs of

the (hape and beauty in horfep, is heat, and drv

feeding;. And this is proved from the feveral races

This being done fo one ftone, the nippers are
loofened, and the like is done to the other; and
the two nits of the cod filled wiih white fait ; and
the outfide of the cod anointed with hog's greafe ;
and thus they let him rife, and keep him in a warm
ftable, without tying him up.

If he fwells much in his cod, or flicath, thev
chafe him up jnd down, and make him trot an
hour in a day, and he foon recovers.

A hunter fhould have a lean, large, and long
head ; a thin and open chawl ; fmall and pricked
ears, or if they be fomewhat long, provided they
fland upright, like thofe of a fox, it is ufually a
fign of mettle and toughnefs ; a long and broad
forehead, not flat, and as we term it, mare-face,
but rifing m the midfl like that of a hare, the fea-
ther being placed above the top of his eye, the con-
trary being thought by fome to be a token of bliiid-
nefs. His eyes ought to be full, large, and bright;
his noftrils wide and red within, for an open nof-

already mentioned, vt%. the Spanijl}, Barb, and I tril betokens a good wind ; his mouth large, deep
cr....i:n u ..r. .1. ...u:_u ..: ...-j__ . , _. ;„ jj^g wykes and hairy; his thropple, weafand, or

wind-pipe big, loofe, and ftrait, when he is rein'd
in by the bridle ; for if when he bridles, it bends
in like a bow (which is called cock thropple) it
very much hinders the pafTage of his wind. His
head mufl: be fet on to his neck, that there may be
afpace felt between his neck and his chawl ; for to
be bull-necked is uncomely to fighr, and prejudi-
cial to the horfe's wind. His creft fhould be firm,
thin, and well rais'd ; his neck long, and flrait,
yet not loofe and pliant, which the northern men
term withy-cragged ; his breaft ftrong and broad,
his cheft deep, his chine fliort, his body large, and
clofefhut up to the huckle-bone; his ribs" round
like a barrel, his belly being hid within them ; his
fillets large, his buttocks rather oval than broad.

Turkiflj horfe, all which countries are under a hot
climate, and by confequence afford little grafs .
therefore in our more moderate and cold countries,
we are to aflift nature by art, and to fupply the
want of heat by warm houfing, and dry feeding.

A ftone-horfe is feldom kept entire, but toferve
for a ftallion. He is mL.fl commonly gelt, when
defigneJ for any other ufe.

In gelding of horfes, regard muft be had to their
age, the feafon of the year, and the ftate of the
moon. — For the firft, if it be a colt, the operation
may be performed at nine or fifteen days old, if
the teflicle be come down ; in regard the fooner he
is gelt, the better it will be for his growth, fhape,
and courage ; though the horfe may be gelt at anv
age if care be taken in the cure. As for the fecond.

the beft time is about April or May; or elfe about being well let down to the gafcoins ; his chambrels
the latter end of September. For the third, the ' upright, and not bending, which is called by fome
wane of the moon is the fitted time. fcckle- houghed, though fome hold it a ficrn of

The manner o[ geldir.g is thus : the beaft being
caft on fome foft place, the operator takes the tef-
ticles between his fore and great finger, fliis the
cod, and prefTes out the floncs ; then with a pair
of nippers, made very fmooth, ei:her of Iteel, box,
or brafil, claps the Ihing of the flonos between
them, very near to vvliere the ftones are fet on ;
and prefTes them fo hard, that there may be no
flux of the blood ; then fears away the flone with
a thin, drawing cauterizing iron, made red-hot.

This done, he takes a hard plaifter, made of
wax, rofin, and wafh turpentine melted together,
and melts it on the head of the firings with the hot
iron ; and afterwards fears the firings, and melts
more of the falve, tili there is a good thicknefs of
it laid on the ftiings.

toughnefs and fpced. His legs clean, flat^ and
firait ; his joints fhort, well knit and upright, efpe-
cially betwixt the paitcrns and the hoofs, havino-
but littl« hairs on his fetlocks; his hoofs black^
ftrong, and hollow, and rather long and narrow
than big and fijf. And laftly, his main and vA
fhould be long and thm, rather than thick, which
is counted by fome a mark of dulnefs.

As to the colour and marks, fome are rather in-
clined to believe them grateful to the eve, than an
infallible iigii of goodnefs. Yet one may for or-
n..mcnt fake, and to pleafe one's eye, make choice
of a horfe that is either a brown bjy, dapple bay,
bla.k, f.id-thefnut, with flaxen mane and tail, fo
that they have either a white ftar, blaze, or fnip,
with a white foot ; dapple grey, or white hard

with.

lOO TJ^e Ualvcrfal Hiftory

wiih black muzzle, eye, and ear. Any of thcfe
are reputed by moft men, to give ag,r;Kx- to fliape,
thoug'i in themCelves they are no perfect figns of
goydnefs.

No doubt but the internal qunlitic-s of a horfc,
are preferable to all the external ones. Ihofc inter-
na>i qualities are, his being of a gentle difpofition
to his keeper, tradbble and docile, free from thofe
ill qiiiilities of biting, ftriking, reftiffnefs, lying
dov^n in the water, ilarting, running away with
his lider, plunging, leaping, ts'f. Not but that
nioftjif not all thefe ill habits may be rectified by art.

Therefore fmce ait was inven':ed to perfeift na-
ture, if, r.otwithflanding your care, you have a
horfe fubjcct to any bad qualities, you mufi fearch
into the caufes of it, which art wiil help you to re-
cover and remove ; and then the daufe being taken
away, the effedl will ceafe.

It is proper your horfe fliould be five years old,
and well weighed before you begin to hunt him ;
for though it be a general cuftom, even among the
moft noted horfemen, to train their hfjrfes up to
hunting at four years old, and fome fooncr ; yet
at that age, his joints not being full knit, nor he
arrived at his full ftrength and courage, he is dif-
abled from performing any matter of fpeed and
toughnefs ; and indeed being put to fore labour and
toil fo young, lie runs a very great hazard of ftrains,
and the putting out of fplents, fpavins, curbs, and
windgalls, befides the daunting of his fpirit, and
abating his natural courage ; infomuch that he
will grow melancholy, flifF, and rheumatick, and
have all the diftempers of old age, when it might
be expefted he fhould be in his prime.

Your horfe then being full five, you may, if
you pleafe, put him to grafs, from the middle of
May to Bartholomtiv-tide, or at leafl from the
middle of fummer to that time. Take care to
provide a good ftablefor his reception, at his taking
up ; and a good groom to look after him.

Thejiable muft be fituated, if poiSble, in a very
good air, ami upon hard, dry, and firm ground,
that, in vi'inter, the horfe may go out, and come
in clean. It fhould alfo be feated on an afcent, that
the urine, foul water, or any wet, may run thro'
trenches, or finks cut for that purpofe. No hen-
houfes, hog-flies, houfesofeafe, or any other filthy
fmell, is to be fufFered near it; for hen-dung or
feathers fwallowed, often prove mortal, and the
bad air of a jakes is as often the caufe of blindnefs.
Likewife the very fmell of fwine will frequently
breed the farcy ; and no animal delights more in
clianlmefs, or is more offended at unwholfome
favours, than the horfe. The floor (meaning that
part on which the horfe is to ftand or lie down) is
to be made of oaken planks not pitched, being

of Arts and Sciences.

eaficr and warmer for him to lie on boards than on
ftones 1 laying :hofe planks level, for if they were
laid higher before than beliind, his hind legs would
fwell, and he could never lie at eafe, bis hind
parts ftiU flipping djwn. The planks are alfo to
be laid crofs-ways, and not at- length, and under-
neath them a trench is to be funk, which receiving
the urine through the tioks bored on purpofe' in the
[jlanks, may convey it into fome common rectp-
taclc. The S'ound behind him oujht to be raifed
even with the planks, that he may continually ftand
on a level ; the floor behind him Well paved with
pebble, and that part of the flable where the rack
ilanils well wainfcotted.

If the flable is to contain feveral horfes, it mufl
be diviJed into as many (lands or ftalls as it will
contain horfes, raifing each partition, which is to
be of boards to that height toivards the manger,
that one, horfe may not molefl the other, and
leaving; to each horfc room enough to turn about
in, and lie down at pleafure.

'I"he flable fliould likewife have prefTes with
pegs in them to hang up faddles, bridles, houfing-
cloaths, (Sc. and alfo fhelves to place curry-combs,
bruflies, dufting-c'.oaths, ointments, waters, or any
other necefiaries.

The flable mufl have a cieling, that no duft
from above fall upon your horfes : it muft likewife
befitted with a dung-yard, pump, and a conduit,
and have, if poflible, a pond, or running river near
at hand. Never leaving the front of the ftable
without litter, that by frequent pra<Slice the horfes
may learn to empty their bladder when they come
from airing.

A groom fhould have the following good quali-
ties:— Firff, he muft love his horfes, and endea-
vour, by good ufage, to m:.ke himfelf loved and
obeyed by them. He muft behdes be patient, for
nothing is more tradable than a horfe, if ufed
kindly. He muft keep his ftable clean and in or-
der, and alfo his faddles, houfing-cloaths, ftirrups,
leathers, and girts ; but above all, his horfes, by
drefling and rubbing them often. Diligence is ab-
folutely requifite in the difcharge of his duty, and
he muft obferve even the fmalleft alteration, either
in his horfe's countenance, as fymptoms of fick-
nefs, or in his limbs and gait, as lamenefs ; or in
his appetite, asforfaking his meat, and immediately
upon any fuch difcovery to feck out for remedy.

The firft bufinefs of the groom, alter the hunter
is ftabled, is in the morning to water him, and then
rub over his body with a hard whifp a little moiften-
e 1, and afterwards with a woollen cloth ; then to
clean his fheath with his wet hand from all the duft
it had contracted during his running, and to wafh

his

HORSEMANSHIP.

hJs 3'aT'd with water, then he may trim him according
to the manner other horfes are trimmed, except
(he infule of his ears, which ought not to be med-
dled with, for fear of malcing him catch cold.

This doue, he muft fend for the farrier, who is
to get him a fer of fhoes fitted to the fhape of his
feet, without paring, leaving it well open between
the quarter and the thrufli, to prevent hoof-bindt
ing, taking care th;it the opening be ftrait and no-
fide-ways, for by that means in two or three fl:oe-
ings his heels, in which confifcs the ftrcngth ot his
feet, will be cut quite away. His foot muft be

Shoes with rings, firft invented to make the horfe
lift his feet up high ; thougli fuch Ihoes are more
painful than helpful, befidts the unhandfomencfs of
the fight. This defeft is mofl incident to horfes
that have not found hoofs ; for tender feet fear to
touch the ground that is hard : but what is intend-
ed for remedy proves a piejudice to the horfe, by
adding high calkins or rings to h\s Jkoes, as by that
means his heels are made weaker than before.

Shoes vjith fwelling welts, or borders round about
them, are ufed inGermany, &c. which being higher
than the heads of the nails, f.ive them from wear-
pared as hollow aspofllble, to hinder the ftioe from - ing. — Thefe are the beft fort of lafting flioes, if
prefling upon it. The (hoes mufl come near the made of well- temper'd fluff, as they wear equally
heel, yet not be fet fo clofc as to bruife it, nor 1 in all parts, and the horfe treads evenly upon ihcm.
yet fo open as to catch in his flioe, if at any time I — Others who ufe to pafs mountains, and places
he happens to ovcr-rc.ich, anii fo hazard the pul- ' where fmiths are not fj cafily met with, carry fhocs
ling them off, the breaking of the hoof, or the ■ about them, with vices, whereby they faften th: m
bruifiiig of the heel. The webs of his (hoes muft to the horfe's hoofs, without the help of the ham-
be neither too broad n jr too narrow, but of a ' rner or nail ; yet this is more for fhsw than fervice;
middle fize, about the breadth of an inch, with for though fuch {hoe may fave a ho.fe's feet from
floped (punges, and even with his foot; for fh.i' flones, yet it fo pinches his hoof, that he goes with
it would be for the advantage of the travelling pain, and perhaps injures it more than the (tones
horfe's heel, to have the flioe a little wider than do. — On fuch emergent occafions, therefore,
the hoof on both fides, that the flioe might bear it were better" to make ufe of the Joint Jijce,
his weight, and not his foot touch the ground ; which is made of two pieces, with a flat rivet
yet the /;^«z/fr being often forced to gallop on rotten ; nail joining them together in the toe, fo that it
fpungy earth, to have them large would hazard may be taken both wide, or narrow, to ferve any

laming, and pulling off his fhocs

The farrier muft take a particular care that he
pricks not the hoife, but leave a fpace at the heel
of the fore-feet, and a fpace between the nails at
the toe. When the ftioe is fet ?ccording to this
dire£lion, you'll find a great deal of his hoof left to
be cut oft' at his toe. When that is cut off, ind
his feet fmoothen'd with a file, he will ftand fo
firm, and his feet will be Co ftronj, that he'll tread
as boldly on ftones as on carpet-ground.

There are feveral forts of horfe -Jijies, as the

foot.

Panton, or pant able Jhoe, which opens the heels,
and helps hoof binding. — To which may be added
the half panton [)joe.

Pciten Ih^e, is ufed for a horfe that is burnt in
the hip, ftiffle, or fhoulder, as it caufes him to bear
upon that leg the grief is on, and confequently
makes him ufe it the better.

When the horfe has evacuated ail his grafs, and
his flioes are fo well fettled to his feet, that he mav
be fit to be rid abroad without danger of furbating,
planch fljoe, which is faid to make a good foot and h'ou muft vifit him early in the morning, that is to
a bad leg ; as caufing the foot to grow beyond the , fay, by five a clock in fummer, and fix in winter;
meafure of the leg. It is chofe for a wcakheel, and | and ha\ing put up his litter under his ftall, and
will laft longer than any other fhoe, being borrow- cleanfed the ftable, th? next thing to be done is to
ed from the moil, which has weak heels, and frufhes i feel his ribs, his chaul, and his flank, whereby the
to keep the feet from ftones and gravel. good or bad ftate of his body is difcernible. If by

Shoes with calkings, which, though intended to laying your hands on the lowtr part of his ftiorc

ribs, near the flank, you fee! his fat to be exceed-
ing foft and tender, and to yield, as it were, under
your hand, you may be fure that it is rot found,
and that the leaft violent labour or travel will dif-
folve it ; and when diffolved, before it be harden-
ed by good diet, if it be not then removed by fcour-
ing, the fat or greafe belonging to the outward
parts of the body will fall down into his heels, and
(o caufe goutinefs and fwelling ; which diftempers
are both to be prevented and cured. For, if by
P feelir.K

fecure the horfe from Aiding, yet are reputed by
rrlany to do him more harm than good, in that he
cannot tread evenly upon the ground, whereby
many times he wrenches his foot, or ftrains fome
finew, efpeclally upon ftony ways, where ftones
will not fuffer the calkins to enter. Double calkins
are lefs hurtful, as he treads evener with them than
on the fingle calkins \ but then they muft not be
over-long or fharp-pointcd, but rather fhort and
flat.

Vol. II. ^2.

The Univerfal Hiftory ^ Arts ^;;^ Sciences.

102

feelirifT his ribs you have tlumd his fat (oft, you mufl
likcwi'e feel his chaul, and if you find any flc<hy
fubfljnce, or big round kernels, or knots, you may
be fure that a- his outward fat is not found, fo in-
wardly he is full of glut, and purfive, occafioned
by gro's and tough humours cleaving to the conca-
vities of the lung', and (topping his v/ind-pipe in
fuch a manner, that his wind cannot find a free
p-.fiage, nor his body be capable of much labour.
Thefe diftcmpers are remedied by feeding him with
wholfome food to harden his far, by mo lerate ex-
ercife, warm cloathing, and gentle phylick, to
cleanfe away his inward glut, that his wind and
other parts being freed fiom all grofs humours, his
courage, and adtivicy may be thereby heightened.

Till your horfe be thoroughly purged, bis flank
will likewife feel thick to your gripe ; otherwile
it feels but like two thin fkins.

Thefe remarks made, the groom muft fift his
horfe a handful or two of good old oats. When
he has eaten them, he muft pull off his collar,
and rub his head, face, ears, and nape of the neck
with a clean rubbing clo'.h, which helps tow;:rds
difperfing all the humours which often gather in
thofe parts: then wafting a fmall fnaffle in fair
water, he will put it on his head, drawing the
reins tiirough the headllill, to prevent flipping it
oyer his head. Then taking in his risht-hand a
curry-comb, fuitable to the fkin of his horfe ;
(/. e. if the coat of his horfe be ftiort and fmooth,
the curry-comb muft be blunt ; but if long and
rough, then its teeth muft be long and fliarp) he
ftands with his face oppofite to the horfe's face,
and holding the left cheek of his head-ftall in his
left-hand, curries him hard, from the root of his
cars, all along his neck to his fhoulders : then
goes over all his bodj; with a more moderate hand,
currying his buttocks down to the luv/er cambrel,
with a hard hand again : then changing hand, and
laying his ri^ht-arm over his back, he joins his
right fide to the left of the horfe, and curries him
gently from the top of his withers to the lov/er
pnrt of lis fhoulder, every now and then fetching
his ftroke over the left fide of his breaft, and fo
currying him do-wn to the knee, but no further ;
then he curries him all under his belly near his
fore-bowels ; and, in a word, very well over,
except his legs under the knees, and his cam-
brels.

If your horfe, while you are currying him,
keeps riggling up and down, biting the rack-flafFs,
and now and then offering to fnap at you, or lift-
ing up his leg 10 ftrike you, it is a fign that he
is not pleafed, either by rcafon of the fharpnefs
of the comb, the teeth whereof muft on that oc-
calion be blunted ; or through wantonnefs, and'

the pleafure he takes in the fficlion ; then he mUil
be gently corrected with the whip.

As this currying is only to raife the duff, when
it is over, the groom muft take either a horfe's
tail, or a clean dufting-cloth, and with it ftrike
oft the loofe duft raifed by his comb : then drefs
him all over with the Frtttch brufh, both head,
body, and legs, to the very fetlocks, obferving
ways to clean the brufh from the filth it
gathers from the bottom of the hair, by the rub-
bing it on the curry-comb ; and dufting the
horfe a fecond time. Whicli done, he dips his-
hand in water, and with it rubs his horfe's body
all over, leaving if poffible no loofe hair behind
him ; and with the fame wet hand picking and
cleaning his eyes, ears, noftrils, (heath, cods,
and tuei ; rubbing thus till he be as dry as he was
at firft; then he rubs his body all over with a hair-
patch, bjt efpecially his fore bowels under his
belly, his flank, and between his hind thighs ; and
lafily, wiping him over with a fine white linen
rubber.

When he hjs thus dreffed him, he takes a large
faddle-C'Oth, that may reach dowri to the fpurring-
place, and laps it about his body, then c;aps on
his faddle, and throws a cloth over him for fear of
his catching cold. Which done, he rubs and chafes
his legs from the knees and cambrels downwards
to the ground, with two ropes of ftraw twifted
hard together, picking his fetlock-joints from dufl,
filth, and fcabs ; rubbing and dreffing his legs
afterwards with another hair-paCch.

This done, his feet muft be pieked clean with
an iron picker, to hinder them from taking up
ftones, and his mane and tail combed down with
a wet iTiane-comb ; and having fpirted fome beer
or wine into his mouth, and brought him out of
the ftable, the groom Ihi^uld mount him, in order
to take or walk him to fome running river, or
frefh clear fpring, a mile or two diftant from the
ftable, where he is fuffered to drink half his
draught at firft, bringing him af;erwards calmly
out of the water, and riding him gently for
av/hile ; for thrufting him then into a fwift eallop,
not only hazards the breaking of his, wind, but
endangers the uncording or birrfting him, begets
in him an ill habit of running away as foon as he
has done drinking; and the forefight he has of
fuch violent exercife, makes him often refufe to
quench his thirft. When he has walked gently a little
way, he may be put into a gentle gallop, for five
or fix fcore, then take wind. And after he has
been raked a pretty fpace, the rider fhews him
the water again, and lets him drink as much as
hepleafes, and then gallops him again; proceeding

thus

HORSEMANSHIP.

103

tliiis till he will drink no more, avoiding above
all tilings, to gallop him (b much as cither to
chafe or fweat him.

• In- galloping your horfe after water, it is not
invproper to give him fomctimes a watering courfe
fharpl)', or twelve or twenty (core, for then it will
■quicken his fpirits, caufc him to gallop more plca-
fantly, teach him to manage his limbs, and flretch
forth his body more largely.

When your horfe has done drinking, air him a
foot-pace an hour, fo long as you'll thmkfufficient
for the ftate of his body, and afterwards ride him
home.

Airing brings feveral advantages to the horfe ;
■firft, it purifies the blood, purges the body from
■many grofs and fuiFocating humours, and fo har-
dens and enfeams the horfe 's fat, that it is not fo
Jiable to be diflblved by ordinary exercife. Secondiv,
•it teaches him how to let his wind rake equally,
■and keep time with the other adtion>, or motions
of his body. Thirdly, it fharpens the appetite, and
provokes the ftomach ; which is of great advantage
both to hunters and galloppers, wnich are apt to
lofe their ftomach through excefs or want of exer-
cife: For the fharpnefs of the air v/ill drive the
horfe's natural heat, from the exterior to the
■iiiteiior parts, which heat, by helping the digef-
tion creates an appetite. Laftly, it encreafesluft
-and courage in him, provided he be not too early
aired ; though Mr. Mark'.am's directions are diffe-
rent on this article; for he will have a horfe aired
before fun rifing, and after fun-fetting; and the
.gentleman's jocl<ey fays, that nothing is wholfomer
than early and late airing, but experience proves
the contrary ; for in this art all things that any
^ways weaken nature, or hinder it from growing
ftrong and courageous, are to be avoided ; fuch as
cold, which is always greater early in the morn-
ing, and in the' evening, than it is i(i the other
parts of the day; which is evidently apparent in
iiorfes that run abroad all the winter, which how
ever hardy bred, and kept with the beft care and
food, yet cannot by any means be advanced to fo
good cafe in winter, as an indifferent pafiure
will raife them to in fummer. And this holding
true of the nocturnal cold, muft needs be verified
in foms meafure of the morning and evening dew.
Befides, that the dew, and nioift rimes, do as
much injury to a horfe, as the (harpeft colds or
frofts; fince a horfe any ways inclinable to
catarrhs, rheums, or any other cold diflempers, is
apt to have the humours augmented, and the
difeafc muft fenfibly increafe by the early and late
airings. But if he be not biought forth to air, till
the funbeiifen, his fpirits will be cheared up and
comforted. Horfcs, btfidps naturally defuing to

enjoy the fun's warmth, as well asalmofl all other
creatures. I'efides the benefit of the fun, the air
is fo mild and temperate, that it rather invigorates
than preys upon his fpiri's; and rather increafes his
Itrength, than impairs it.

During the time of your horfe's airinsr, you will
eafily perceive fevcral marks of his fatisfadlion,
and the plcafure he takes in this exercife: For he
will gape, yawn, and as it we/e flirug his bodv.
If he offers to Itand flill to dung or ftartlc, which
his airing WilFprovoke, you muft give him leave, as
hkewife to Itare about, neigh, or lilten to any
noife.

When the groom is returned from airing, and
difmounted, he muft leaJ his horfe on the ftraw,
which (hould always lie before the ftable-door; and
there, by whiftling,, and ftirring up the litter
under his belly, will provoke him to ftale, which
a little pra£tice will bring him to, and is advan-
tageous tor the horfe's health, and the keeping the
ftable clean; then leading him into his ftall (which
fliould likewife be well littered) and having tied up
his head to the empty rack; he takes off his faddle,
rubs his body all over with the French brufli, thcfi
with the hair-patch, and laftly with the woollen
cloth. This done, he cloaths him with a linen
cloth next to his body, and over that a caiivafs cloth,
both made fo fit as to cover his breaft, and to come
pretty low down to his legs ; v.hich is the Turkijk
way of cloathing. Overthcfe he muft put a body
cloth, of fix or eight ftraps, which is better than
a fircingle, and pad ftuffed with wifps, to keep his
belly in fliape.

Both the temperature of the climate, and the
ftate of the body, are to be confidered in the
cloathing of a horfe; and that all horfes are not
to be cloathed alike ; for the Barb, Turklfo, Span'ijhy
&c. required more cloathing than the EngHjh com-
mon horfes, that are bred in a colder climate, and
have naturally thicker fkins and a longer coat. But
however, take this for a general rule, that a r»uo,h
coat (hews want of cloaths, and a fmooth one
cloathing fufficient ; obferving, that if by the
countenance of your horfe, his dung, and other
outward marks, he is known to be in health, not-
withftanding which his coat flares flill, you mull
add ft ill more till it lies flat; as on the oth^r hand,
if it will lie with the aftiftance of a fingle linen
cloth, he wants no other. But if after your
horfe has been in keeping fome time, you find him
apt to fweat in the night, it is a fign that he is
over fed and wants exercife: And if he fweats
at his firft coming from grafs, the cloathing allotted
at his firft houfing muft rather be increafed than
diminifhed ; for that fwer.ting proceeds from the
P 2 fb'j'.

104 ^^^^ Univerfal Hiftoiy ^'Arts <«/?<:/ Sciences.

foul humours which opprefs nature; and when, This excrciCe of a groom muft be rtpes/ci
by exercife they arc evacuated, nature will ceafe every day, and in the very fame manner: Though
working, and he wi I continue in a temperate flats as to that of feeding him, he muft fharpen his

of body all the year aitcr.

The horfc cloathed, iiis feet muft be picked with
the iron picker, and his hoofs wafhed clean, with
a fpunge dippod in fair water,-and then dried with
ftraw, or a linen cloth, wafliing, likewife, his
legs, if dirty, provided they be rubbed dry after-
wards. Then the horfe is left on his fnafflc for
an hour or more, to (harpcn his appetite. The
hour expired, the groom returns to the ftable, and
taking a handful oT hay, let his horfe tafte it cut
of his hand, till he has eaten it; then he pulls
off his bridle, and having rubbed his head and neck
clean with a cloth as before, he pulls his cars,
and ftops his noftrils, to make him fnore, which
will help to bring away the moift humours which
opprefs his brain ; and then put on his collar,
and give him a quartern of oats well frfted. While
he is eating his corn, his cloaths muft be turned
up, his fillets, buttocks, and gafcoins rubbed over
with the hair- patch ; and after that with a woollen
cJoth.'Then a clean flannel fillet-cloth is fpread over
his fillets and buttctks, to make his cat lie fmcoth,
and his houfing-cloth turn'ddown upon it; anoint-
ing his hoofs round, from the cornet to the toe,
wi~th an ointment made for the purpofe ; picking his
feet, with an iron picker, and covering them with
cow-dung; by which time (if he be not a very
flow feeder) he will have eaten his oats, which if
he does with a good appetite, he muft have an-
other quart ; feeding him thus by little and little,
v/hiift he eats with an appetite; but if he fumbles
with his corn, he muft have no more.

This done, a fufficient quantity of hay, well
dufted, muft be thrown down to him on his litter,
and then ftiutting up the windows and ftable-door,
he is left till one o'clock in the afternoon, at whicli
time the £;ropm returns to him, and having rubbed
ovci: his head, neck, fillets, buttocks, and legs,
as tefore, with the hair-patch, and woollen cloth,
he'll feed hint as before, leaving him afterwards
till the time of his evening watering, which fliould
be about three in the winter, and four in the
fummer; when he'll come to him, drefs and faddle
him as before, and having mounted him, fliall
ta'.-e lim to the water, and after drinking, and gal
loping, fhall air him along by the river fide, till
he thinks it time to go home ; then order him in
all points, as to rubbing, feeding, flopping his
feet, ^c. as he did in the morning; and having
fed him at fix, he mu<l feed him again about nine;
litterini- him then well, and throwing him hay
enough to ferve hi;n all night
. till the next morning.

and leaving him

flomach by change of meat ; giving him one meal
clean oats ; another oats and fplit beans ; and
when he has brought bim to eat bread, he may give
another meal of bread, always obfci-ving to give
him oftneft what he likes beft. Some horfes are
of fo hot a conftitution, that without they majr
drink at every bit, they cannot eat, and thole
horfts ufually carry no belly ; in this cafe, a pale
of water muft ftand continually before them, or at
Icaft, water muft be offered them at noon, befides
what they fetch abroad at their ordinary time.
1 he habit of the body of a horfe, isalfo dilcovered
by his digeftion ; whether he retains his food lonp-,
which is the fign of a bad digeftion ; or whether
nature expels the dung oftener, which if it does,
and his dung be loofe and bright, it is a fign of a
good habit of body ; but if he dungs hard and
feldom, it is, on the contrary, a fign of a dry
body ; and therefore, to remedy this a handful or
f.vo of oats, well waflied in ale, ought to be
given him once a day, whereby his body will be
loofen'd and kept mcift, ferving likewife to expel
winds.

During this fortnight's keeping, you are to make
feveral obiervations, as to the nature and difpoli-
tions of your horfe, temper of his body, ISc. and
order him accordingly, i. If he be of a cburlifh
difpofition, you muft reclaim him by leverity : if of
a loving temper, win hi;n by kindnets. %. You
muft obferve whether he be a foul feeder, or of a
nice ftomach ; if he be c^uick at his meat, and re-
tain a good ftomach, then four times of full
feeding in the fpace of a day and night, is fufE-
cient; but if he be a flender feeder, and flow at
his meat, then you muft give but little at once,
and often, as about every two hours ; for frefft
meat will draw on his appetite; leaving always a
little meat in his locker, for him to eat at his own
leifure, and when you find any left, you muft fweep
it awav, give him freui, and expofe that to the
fun and air, which will prevent its growing mufty,
and reftore it to its former fweetnefs.

By that time the firft fortnight is expir'd, the
hunter will be in a pretty good flate of body, and
fit for a moderate hunting match ; but how to pro-
ceed in this exercife, meets with fome difficulties ;
for Ibme would have a horfe which is defigned ci-
ther for a buck-hunter or fox-hunter^ ufed from the
beginning to the chace they are defigned .••'or.
Others think thofe chaces too violent for a young
horfe, and therefore chufe to train him for harriers;
which laft opinion, feems to be founded on expe-
rience i and which may be coniif.'neJ by taking a

flight

H 0 R S E M

fl-i»ht vi'Mr of the/evera! cliaces the moft in vogue
here in Eti^hmd, viz;, thcjiag^biuk, hind,fox, otter,
and hare.

: There is very little difference in the three fore-
mentioned chaces, and the inconveniences of each
of ihem are, in a manner, the fame ; for they are
all, either in covert, or at force. Now if (i^i^^r be
hunted in a park, tliey ufually chufe the moft
woody part of it, as a refuge from the piirfuit of
their enemies, which is both unpleafant to the
rider, and troublefome to the horfe to follow the
dogs through the thick buflies ; and befides, the
ground in parks is ufually full of mole-banks,
trenches^ i^c. which is dangerous for a young
horfe to gallop on, till he has attained to fome per-
fciSlion in his ll-roke. But if they be turned out of
the park, and be hunted at force, you'll find that
as foon as you have uiiharboured, or rouzed them,
they will immediately make out endways, before
the hounds, five or fix, nay fometimes ten miles,
they follov/ing in lull cry fo fwiftly, that a horfe
muit be compelled to run up and down hill without
any intermifiion ; leaping hedge, ditch, and dale,
nay often croffing rivers, to the great danger of
the rider, as well as of the horfe. So that it is
altogether improper to put a young, horfe to fuch
violent labour at firft, till by prailice and degrees
he has been made acquainted with hard fervice,
Beildes the fwiftnefs and violence of this chacc,
the danger of cracking his wind, and burfting his
belly, of ilralning his limbs, and of creating in a
young horfe a loathfomenefs to his labour ; the fea-
foii for thefe chaces beginning about Midfummer,
and ending about Holy- Rood-Tide., during which
the heat of the fun is exceffive, and fo fcorches
the earth, a violent chace would hazard the melt-
ing his greafe; and the weight of the rider, by
reafon of the hardnefs of the ground, would occa-
(lon foundering, fplints, and wind-galls, infomuch
that in a fiiort time, the horfe would prove alto-
gether ulclefs.

However there is not the fame danger for all
forts of horfes, without diftindion , but none
fhould be employed in this chace but thofe of flayed
years, which by long praftice and experience,
have been ti'ained to hunting. Young horfes (as
the Duke of Newcajile obferves) being as fubied:
to dil'eafes, as young children, and therefore he
advrfcs any man who would buy a horle for his
ufe, either for a journey, hawking, and huntin?'-,
never to buy him, till the mark be out of
his mouth ; for if he be found of wind,
limb, and fight, he will laft eight or nine years
with good keeping, and never fails his rider. An

A N S H 1 P, ,05

old nag, in hi.i Grace's opinion, of fomehuntfman,

^ or falcon -r, that is found, is the bcfl ; for he gallops

{on all grounds, leaps over hedges and ditches, and

never fails his rider in a journey, nor any where

clfe. '

Fox-hunting is not at all proper for the training
of a young horfe, fince it is fwift without refpite,
and of long continuance, both which are diftaficful
to him. When a fox is unkennelled, hefeldomor
never betakes himfelf to a champaign country, but
remains in the {bongeft coverts, and in thethickeft
'.voods ; fo that a horfe can but feldom enjoy the
pleafurc of accompanying the hounds, without
hazarding being ftubbed, or other accidents equally,
dangerous. The fitted horfes for this chafe, are
horles of flrength and hability ; fince it begins at
Chr'iUm j, which is the worft time for riding, and
ends at Lady-Day. when the ground is fitteft for it.

Neither is the ch.ice of the Otters convenient for-
a horfe ; for he that will truly purfue this amphi-
i.ious /port, muft often fwim his horfe, which can-
not be done without running fome danger.

The chace of the Hare is not fo contrary to the
training of young horfes ; becauie hai-es, com-
monly running the champaign country, and their
fcent being not fo hot as that of the Foxes, the doo-s
are ofiener at default, the horfe has by that means-
many fobs, whereby he recovers wind, and regains
new ftrength.

The belt dogs to bring your horfe to perfection
of wind and fpeed, are the fleet northern hounds ;
for they, by means of their hard running, will drav/
him up to that extraordinary fpeed, that he will not
have time to loiter; and by continual pradice v/ill •
be fo inured, and ufed to the violence of their
fpeed, that, in a (hort time, he will be able to ride
on all forts of ground, and be of fuch command
upon the hand, that he will flrike at what rate yoa ■
pleafe, and three quarters fpeed will be lefs trou- -
bleiome to him, than a Canterbury gallop.

The day being fixed for your horfe's firft goino-
abroad at tr the dogs; the preceding day he mujit
be oidered after this manner. In the morning pro-
ceed in yourufual manner, as to dreffing, feedino-,
watering, ^e. only abftaining that day from giv-
ing him beans, bec.aule they are hard of digeftion,
initead of which you'll give him moft bread, if
he can eat it, becaufe more nourifhing than oats ;
and after the evening watering, which ought to
be fomewhat earlier than at other times, give him
only a little hay out of your hand, and no more
till the next day, at his return from hunting ; and •
to prevent his eating his litter, or any thing elfe,
but what you give him, you muft, inftead of a

muzzle.

The Univeifal Hiilpry of Arts and Sciences.

106

muzzle, put on a cavezonc, join'd to a liead-
ftall of a bridle, being lined with double leather
for rear of hurting him, and tying it fo ftrait as to
hinder his eating ; and this will prevent ficknefs
in your horfe, incident to fome horfes, when ihcir
muzzle is fet on, notwithlianding the invention
of the lattice window, at prefent lb much in ufe;
but this way your horfc's noflnls are at full liberty,
and he will never prove fick. But as to his corn,
give him his meals, both after hia watering, and
at nine o'clock ; at which time he ou":ht to be
littered very well, that he may the better take hii
reft, aad leave him for that time.

About four o'clock the next morning, he mud
have A quarter of a peck of clean oats, mixed with
aquart of (frong ale, and while he is eating it, his
litter and dung mull: be put back, and the (lable
clcanfed. When he has done eating, he muft be
bridled and dreflcd ; when drelTcd, faddle him,
throwing afterwards his cloaths over him, and let-
ting him ftaud till the hounds be ready to go forth,
forbearing the drawing the faddle girt flrait, till
you are ready to mount, left othervvife he fhould
grow Tick. But generally old horfes are fo crafty,
that when an ignorant groom goes to gird them

up hard, they will itretch out their body to fuch a;out in the morning, but he fhould be cool before
bignefs, by holding up their wind (on purpofe to \ he comes out of the field, aiid if he has not fweated
gain cafe after they are girt) that it will appear] a httle you muft gallop him gently on Ibme flcelp-
diflkuit to girt them; but afterwards they let : ing earth, till he (weats at the root of his ears, a
go their wind, and their body fiills again. | little on his neck, and in his flank, which muft be

When the hounds are unkennelled (which done of his own voluntary motion, without the

ought not to be till fun rifing) you muft go up compulfion of whip and fpur; and then when he

/and down the field along with them, and rake is cool, have him home and ftible him, avoiding

your horfe up and down gently till a hare be ftarted, walking him in hand to cool him, left he fhould

always obferving to let him fmell at other hoifes coo! roo faft:.

dyng (if he wants to do it) which will provoke I When fct in his ftall, which fnould be well
him' to empty himfelf, and let him ftand ftill while littered agiinft his coming home, his head muft be
he does it. And if you meet with any dead frog, tied up to the ring, with the bridle, rubbing him
rufhes, or the like, ride him upon them, and by well afterwards with dry ftraw, both head, neck,
whiftling provoke him to empty his bladder. fore-bowels, belly, flank, buttocks, and legs, and

When the hare is ftarted, you are to follow the then his body over with a dry cloth, till there be
hounds as the other hunters do, only obferving not a wet hair left about him. This done, his
that this being the firft time of ycur horfe's hunt- ^ faddle is taken ofF, and the place where the faddle
ing, he is not fo well acquainted with the different 'flood rubbed dry, cloathing him immediately after
forts of ground, as to know how to gallop fmooth- j with his ordinary cloaths Icil he fhould catch cold,
ly and with eafe on them : ' Tlierefore you are not' unlcfs he be too hot, for then a fpare cloth muft he

cry of the dogs, that he miy be ufed to it, and
you'll find tiiat in a very fhori time he'll take fuch
delight and plcafurc in it as to be eager to follow
them. If at any time t!ie chncj be led over a carpet-
ground, or fanjy highway, on which your horfe
may lay out his body fmoothly, you may there gallop
him for a quarter or half a mile, to teach him to lay
out his body and to gather up his legs, .to enlargeu
and fhortcn his ftroke, according to the different
earths he gallops on, as if on a green, fwarth,
meadow, moor, heath, ^c. then to ftoop and run
more on the (boulders : if among mole-hills, or
over high ridges and furrows, then to gallop more
roundly, and in lefs.compafs, or according to the
vulgar phi-afe, two up and two" down, that thereby
he may ftrike his furrow clear, and avoid fetting
his fore feet in the bottom of it, and by tliat means
fall over , but by this .way of galloping, though
he fhould happen to fet his feet in a furrow, yet
carrying his body fo round, and rcfting on the hand
in his gallop, would prevent his falling ; and no-
thing but ufs and fuch moderate exercife can bring
him to his perfection.

About three o'cloc'c in the afternoon you muft
have your horfe home in a foot pace, as you came

to put him as yet to above half his fpeed, that he
m.ay learn to carry aftaid body, and to manage his
legs both as to fallow, and greenfod; neither
are you to gallop him often, nor any long time
together, for fear of diicouraging him, and breed-
ing in him a diflike to the fport; but obierving
to crofs the field ftill to your beft advantage, you
fhall make into the hounds at every default, and ftill
keep your horfe as much as poilible -within the

thrown over him for fear he fhould cool too faft \_
and leaving him afterv/ards to fbnd. on his fnafflp
two hours or more, ftirring him now and then
with the whip, in his ftall, to keep his legs and
joints from growing ftifF.

When thoroughly cold he muft be unbridled,
have his head rubbed, and his feet picked from
dirt and gravel, which he may have gathered a-
broad j and then his collar is put on, and a quart,

HORSEMANSHIP.

107

or three pints of oats mixed with a handful of
clean dufted hempfeed given him : after which the
i'pare cloth is removed for fear of keeping him hot
too long ; and when he has eaten his corn, he mufl
be left to reft two or three hours, with a fufficient
quantity of c!e;in hay before him.

Whilft you arc abf^nt from him, you fhall pre-
pare him a good maili, made of half a peck of
malt well ground, and boiling hot water, obferving
to put no more water than your malt will fvveetcn,
and yourhorie will drink, and having ftirred them
together with a iiick, you'll cover it over with a
cloth, till the water has extraftcd the ftrength of
the malt. Then when it is cold, that yoii can
fcarce perceive it to fmoak, offer it to your horfe,
and v;hen he has drank the water, let him, if he
will, eat the malt alio ; but if he refu'es to drink,
yet you muft give him no other water that ni2:ht,
but by placing it in one corner at the head of the
ftall, in fuch a manner that he may not throw it
down, Jet him ftand by it ail night that he may
drink at his pleafure.

When he has eaten his mafh, ftrip him of his
cloaths, and run him over with your curry-comb,
French brufh, hair- patch, and woollen clotlr, and
cloath him up again, cleaning his legs as well as
his body of all dirt and filth ; then remove him into
another ftall, and bathe his legs all over from the
knees, with a quart of warm urine, in which four
&unces of falt-petre have been dillolved ; then
having rubbed his legs dry, fet him into his ftall,
and give him a good home-feeding of oats, or
bread, or both, and having fhook a good deal of
jitter under him, that he muy reft the better, and
thi^iwn h'm bay enou;_i.h for all night, fhut up your
ftable clofe, and leave him to his reft tilt morning ;
at which time you muft come to him betwixt fix
and feven o'clock. If he be laid, difturb him not,
but ftay till he rifes of his own accord ; but if he
be rifen then go to him, and begin by putting back
his dung from his litter, then proceed to order him
as in his days of reft,./, i. to give him a handful or
two of oats before water, then to drefs, water, air,
feed, ^6-.

The next da^,' after he has refted you fliail hunt
him again ; hunting him thus three times a v<eek,
ibr a.tortnight together, obferving to give him his
full feeding, and no other fcowring but mafnes and
hempfeed, which is equal in virtue to any other,
and only carries oft' fuperfluous humours.

By this time your horfe will be drawn fo clean,
his flefli will be i'o unfeamed, and his wind fo im-
proved, that he will be able to ride a chace of three
or four miles without much blowing or fweating,
and you'll find by his chaul and flank, aswell as by
liis ribs, that he is in an indiftciem flate of body ;

and therefore, thenextfortnight following, you muft
increafe his labour, by which means you will come
to a true knowledge of what he is able to do ; and
whether or no he will ever be fit for plates, or a
match.

When yoirr horfe is fet over night, and fed early
in the morning, then go into the field with him,
and when he is empty, as he will be by that time
you have flatted your game, you fhall follow the
dogs at a good round rate, as at half fpeed, and fo .
continue till yon have killed or loft" your firft hare.
This will fo rack your horfe's mind, and by this
time he will have fo emptied himfelf, , that he will
be fit to be rid the next chace brifkly : which as
foonas begun, you {hall follow the dogs, at three
quarters fpeed, as near to them as is confiftent with
the difcrction of a good horfcman, and a true huntf-
man, who will always take care not to ftrain him.

During this day's riding you'll obferve your
horfe's fweat under his faddle and fore-bpwels; if it
appears white like froth or foap-fuds,'iit JS a fign of
inward glut and foulnefs, and that your day's,
'port was fully fufficient, and therefore you muft
have him home, and order him as before direfled.

When you unbridle your horfe, give him inftead
of hempfeed and oats, a handfome quantity of rye •
bread, which being cold and moift, will aflift in
cooling his body after his labour, and prevent
coftivenefs, to which you'll find hi.m addifled ;
then give him hav, and aftsrv.'ards a mafh, and .
afterwards order him in all points as formerly.

The day following you mav hunt your horfe
again, but not fo fcverely as you did the day before,
till the afternoon , then ride him after the hounds
briikly, and if that does not make hirn fweat tho-
roughly, make another train-fcent, and follov.'tbe
dogs three quarters fpeed that he may fweatheartily.
When you have a little cooled him, have him
home, and upon his firft entrance into the ftable,
give him two or three balls as big as walnuts of the
following fcowring.

Take butter four ounces, lenitive ele£luary two
ounces, granwel broom and parfley-feeds, of each
one ounce, jalap an ounce; put the feeds into
powder, and ftir them into a paftc, with the elec-
tuary and the butter, knead it well, and keep it
clofe in a pot for ufe.

As foon as you have given your horfe thefe balls,
rub him dry, then drefs him, and death him up
warm, and let him ftand two or three hours on the
fnaffle ; then give him two or three handfuls of
rye-bread, and order him as you did beforcy.as to
hay, provender, mafti, is c. and fo leave him till
the morning. Then come to him; and firft ob-
ferve his dung, whether it keeps the true colour,
1 or whether it appears dark or black, or rCd and
' high

m^e Univcrfal Hiftory of Arts a^c/ Sciences.

io8

high colour ; next, whether it be loofe and thin, ] heat his body. This bread muft be made" of an
or hard and dry. If it be of the right colour, I Lequal quantity of beans and wheat, kneaded with
mean of pale yellow, it is a fign of health, (Irength, j new ale-barm, and the whites of new-laid ega:s.
and cleannefs ; if it be dark or black, then it is a | Thus a horfe is to be fed till we have made him

wanton and gamefonie.

But if on the contrary the horfe be brifk and
lively, we muft abftain from giving him any fort
of fcowring whatfoever ; for there being no foul
humours, or any other fuperfluous matter left in
his body for the phyfick to work upon, it will
prey upon the flrcngth of his body, and by that
means weaken it.

He fliould be kept near the place where lie is to
run, that he may be acquainted with the ground ;
regulating the number of heats according to the
articles fHpulated for the match, and the Iharpnefs
of them according to the temper of his fVrength,
and the purity of his wind ; providing when we
heat him, fome horfes upon the courfe to run at
him, which will quicken his fpirits, and encourage
him, when he finds he can command them at his
pleafure, abftaining always from giving our horfe a
bloody heat for ten days, or a fortnight before the
day the plate is to be run for ; giving him his laft
heat before the day of trial in all his deaths, only
fkelping it over, which will make him run the next
time much more vigoroufly, when he fliail be ftript
naked, and feeJ the cold air pierce him.

During tliis month, both on his reftiryg days,
and after his fweats on heating days, we are to ob-
ferve the fame rules taught in the firft week of our
third fortnight's keeping, omitting only all fcow-
rings but rye-bread and malhes, fuice our horfe be
in fo perfect a ftate of body as not to need any ;
and without any violent exercife, in order to draw j only if we think there may be any occafion, and
his body pe7fe61:ly clean, and to refine his wind to : our horfe proves thirfiy, we may give him about
that degree of perfeiSlion it can attain to ; which to ' eight or nine o'clock at night, to cool him, and
accompli/h, we muft obferve whether our horfe be I quench his thirft, two quarts of barley water,
low or high in flefh, or whether he be dull and i mixed with three ounces of fyrup of violets, and
heavy when abroad, and this occafioned through i two ounces of fyrup of lemons. If he refufes this
too much hard riding, or through fome greafe that i mixture, it mull: be left to ftand by him all night,
has been diffolved by hunting, and has not been During the laft fortnight, his oats muft not only
removed for want of a fcowering. If he appears ; be dried and hulled, but likewife half a ftrike of it
fluggilh and melancholy from either of thefe caufes, {hould be waflied in the whites of a dozen or twenty
we muft give him half an ounce of diapente in a
pint of good old Malaga fack, which will both

fign there is greafe and ctlier ill humours ftirred up,
which are not yet evacuated ; if it be red and high
coloured, then it is a token that his blood is fevcrifh
and diftempered through inward heat ; if it be
loofe aiul thin it is a fign of weaknefs ; if hard
and dry, it fliews the horlc to be hot inwardly, or
elfe that he is a foul feeder ; but if his dung carries
a ruedium betwixt hard and foft, and fmell ftrong,
it is a fign of health and vigour.

Thefe obfervations made with regard to his
dung, he muft be fed, drefled, watered, <J\. as in
his former days of reft; obferving always to give
variety, and his belly full of corn and bread. Next,
have him abroad in the fields again, but by no
means put him to any labour further than to take
him from hill to hill after the dogs, to keep him
within found of their cry; for the defign of this
day's exer<;ife is only to keep him in breath, and
get him an appetite. Obferve as you ride that you
let him ftand iHll to dung. When the day is near
fpent, bring him home without the leaft fweat, and
• order liim as at other times, abftaining only from
giA'ing him fcowrings, or rye-bread. You may, if
you will, water your horfe this day, both at your
going into the field, and at your coming home,
obferving to gallop after it, to warm the water in
his bcHy. — The next is a day of reft.

l^o order a harfd for a match or a plate, there are
feveral other neceflary rules to be obierved.

Firft, keep him for a whole month carefully,

cleanfe his body and revive his fpirits ; and then
feed him for the firft week, continually with bread,
oats, and fplit beans, giving him fometimes one and
fometimes the other, according as he likes, always
leaving fome in his locker, to eat at his own lei-
fure : obferving at the fame time, that the oats
muft have been well dried in the fun, and after-
wards hulled, before they are given our horfe :
that the beans muft alfo he hulled, and that he
muft have none but the crunib of the bread, becaufe

eggs, which muft be left to foak fpreading them in
the fun, the next morning, till they be as dry as
they were at firft, and then be given to the hori'e to
ftrengthen his wind.

If he will cat his oats without beans, there is no
neceflity to give him any ; and this fortnight his
bread ought to be three parts wheat to one of
beans. If he be inclined to be coftive, we muft
relieve nature, by giving him oats vvaflied in two
or three whites of eggs, and all beat together.

During the laft week, inftead of a malh, he
fliould have the barley-water ; giving him hay, as

the cruft is hard of digcftion, and apt to dry and 1 much as he v/ill eat, till a day before he is to ride

his

HORSEMANSHIP,

Jils match, when we muft be pretty fparing of it,
that he may have time to digeft that he has eaten,
muzzhng him then with ourcavczone ; and feed-
ing him that dny, till the next morning he is led
out, as much as poiiible. That morning, an hour
before we are to lead out, we'll give him a toafl or
two of v/hite bread fteeped in lack, and fo lead
him into the field.

But if we are to run for a plate, which ufually
is not till three o'clock in the afternoon, our horfe
muft be had out early in the morning to air, that
he may empty his body ; and at his return from
airing, we'll feed him with toafls in fack. When
Jie has cjten what we think fit to give him, we put
on his cavezone ; then chafe his legs foundly with
train oil, and braiidy wanned together, fliake up
his litter, (hut up our liable clofe, and leave him to
>his reft, till the hour of his going into the field.

The perfon who is to ride him, fliould always be
the fame that has trained him, and the firfl: thing
requifite in a rider, next to the faithfulnefs in his
truft, is to have a good clofe feat, keeping his
knees fiim to his faddle fkirts, his toes turn'd in
ward, and his fpurs outward from the horfe's fides ;
his left-hand govennng his mouth, and his right
commanding bis whip, taking care throughout the
whole trial, to fit firm on his faddle, without
waving, or ihnding up in his ftirrups, which very
much incommodes the horfe. When he fpurs his
horfe, he muft not ftrike him hard with the calf
of his leg, as if he would beat the wind out of
his body, but juft turn his toes outwards, and
biing the fpurs quick to his iides ; and luch a iharp
ftroke will be more ferviceable to the quickening of
his horfe, and fooner draw blood, never fpur-
ring his horfe but when there is occafion, and
.avoiding fpurring him under the fore- bowels, be-
tween his flioulders and his girts, near the heart,
till the lail extremity. When he whips his horfe,
it muft be over the Ihoulder on the near fide, ex-
cept upon hard running ; and when he is at all,
then he muft be ftruck in the flank with a ftrong
iirk, for there the ft^in is tendereft, and moft fen-
fible of the lafh. Taking care when he whips, or
fpurs his horfe, and he is certain that he is at
the top of his fpeed, if then he claps his ears on his
pole, or whifks his tail, to bear him hard, and to
give him as much comfort as ever he can, by
ihaking his fnaffle to and fro in his mouth, and by
that means forcing him to open his mouth, which
will comfort him, and give him wind.

If while he rides, there be any high wind ftirring,
and that wind be in his face, he muft fufFer his ad-
verfary to lead and hold hard behind him, till he
fees his opportunity of giving a loofe ; taking care,
notwithftanding, to ride To clofe to him, tlut his
V o i. U, 32.

horfe may break the wind from his own; and that
he, by ftooping low in his feat, may flieltcr himfelf
under him, which will alTift the ftrength of his
horfe. But if the wind be in his back, he muft ride
exadtly behind his adverfary, that his horfe may
alone enjoy the benefit of the wind, by being as it
were blown forward.

He muft obferve next, what ground his horfe
delights to run beft on, bearing him, as much as his
adverfary will give him leave, on level carpet-
ground ; becaufe his horfe naturally will bedefirous
tolpend himfelf mere freely thereon. But on deep
earth, i3c. he muft give him more hberty, becaufe
he will naturally favour himfelf thereupon. In
running up a hill, he ought to favour his horfe,
and bear him for fear of running him out of wind ;
but down hill (if his horfe's feet and flioulders will
endure it, and he dares venture his own neck) he
muft alv/ays give him a loofe. Taking this for a
general rule, that if he finds his horie to have the
heels of the other, he be careful to preferve his
fpeed till the latt train-fcent, if he is not to run a
ftralt courfe ; but if he is, then till the courfe, and
fo hufband it then too, that he may be able to make
a puflj for it at the lall poll.

He muft next obferve his oppofite's horfe, and if
he be fiery, run juft behind, or ju(t fide by fide,
and with his whip make as much noife as he can,
to force him on fafter than his rider would have
him, and thereby fpend him the fooner. Or elfe
keep juft before him upon fuch a flow gallop, that
he may either over-reach, or by treading on his
horfe's heels, endanger falling over. He fhould
likewife take notice on what ground the contrary
horfe runs worft, and on that ground gi/e his a
loofe, that the adverfary 's being forc'd to follow,
may hazard ftumbling, or clapping on the back
finews. Minding, befides, in his riding, the cor-
reftion of the hand, the whip and the fpurof the
oppofite rider, and when, and how often he makes
ule of them ; and when he perceives that his horfe
begins to be blown, by any of the aforementioned
lymptoms, as whillcing his tail, clapping down hrs
ears, holding out his nofe like a pig, <3c. he muft
take it for granted that he is at the top of what he
can do ; therefore he ought to obferve, in this cafe,
how his own rides, and if he runs chearfully and
ftrongly without fpurring, he fhould keep his ad-
verfary to the fame fpeed, v/ithout giving him cafe,
and by that means will foon bring him to give out,
or diftanee him.

At the end of every train-fcent, notice fliould be
taken of the condition the other horfe is in, and
how he holds in his labour ; which may be eafily
difcovered by his looks, the working of his flank,
and the flacknels of his girts. For if he looks
Q. dull.

no T^e Univerfal Hiftory of Arts aiid Sciences.

dull, it is a fi2;n his fpirits fail hirrii as well as hii ^ this laft, by thofe wl-.o are chofen to be judges at a

wind, it" his flanks beat much, and confequcntly
his ftrength. If his wind fails him, his body will
grow thin, and appear tucked up, which will make
his girts appear flack to the eye ; which is the
greateft fign of a horfe's weaknefs ; and the lurclT:
that he'll lofe the wager.

When each train-fccnt is ended, or after every
heat for a plate ; the groom muft, with an old
piece of a fword blade (called by the Duke of
NewcaJJle, a knife ofkeat) fcrape off all the fweat
from the horfe's neck, body, i^c. rubbing him af-
terwards all over, full with flraw, and then with
dry cloaths, both linen and woollen (which have
been fteeped in urine and lalt-petre a day or two,
and then dried in the fun) while others are em-
ployed about his legs ; which after they have been
rubbed dry, muft be chafed with wet cloaths,
fteeped likewife in urine and falt-petre, never giving
over till the horfes are called by the judges to ftart
again.

The next thing to be confidered, is the office of
the judges or triers, which is to fee that all things
are ordered according to the articles, which to
that end, are to be publickly read before the horfes
ftart.

Therefore each trier, on whofe fide the tram is
to be led, according to the articles, gives diredion
for its leading, according to the advice of the rider,
cr his knowledge of the nature and difpofition of
that horfe on whofe fide he is chofe. — Each trier
ouglit to be fo advantageoufly mounted, as to ride
up^behind the horfes all day ; and to obferve that
the oppofite horfe rides his true ground, and keeps
to the articles in every point, or elfe not permit
him to proceed. — After each train-fcent is ended,
each trier is to look to that horfe, againft whom he
is chofen, and take care that he be noways relieved
but with rubbing, except liberty on both fides be
(riven to the contrary. As foon as the time allowed
for rubbing is expired, which is generally half an
hour, they fhall coiumand the riders to mount, and
if either rider refufes, it may be lawful for the other
to fta.t without him, and having beat him the
diftance agreed on, the wsger is to be adjudged on
his fide.

The triers muft keep off all other horfes from
crofling the riders, or leading them ; only they
themfelvfs may be allowed to inftruift the riders by
word of mouth how to ride, whether flow or faft,
according to the advantages he perceives may be
gain'd by his directions. If there be any weight
agreed on, they fliaU fee t :at both horfes bring
their true weight to the ftarting place, and carry it
to the end of the train, on penalty of lof:n£r the wa
ger

race for a plate ; only they ufually flay in the
ftand, that they may tlie better fee which horfe
wins the heat.

If you know your horfe to be tough at bottom,
and that he will ftick at mark, to ride him each
heat, according to the beft of his performance, and
avoid as much as poflibic either riiiing at any par-
ticular hoife, or ftaying for any, but to ride each
heat throughout with the beft fpeed you can. But
if you have a fiery horfe to manage, or one that is
hard-mouth'd, and difficult to be held, then ftart
behind the reft of the horfes-, with all the coolnefs
and gentlenefs imaginable ; and when vou find
your horfe to begin to ride at fome command, then
put up to the other horfes, and if you find thev ride
at their eafe, and are hard held, then endeavour to
draw them on fafter ; but if you find their wind
begins to rake hot, and that they want a fob, if
your own horfe be in wind, and you have a loofe in
your hand, keep them up to their fpeed, till you
come within three quarters of a mile of the end of
the heat ; and then give a loofe and a pufh for it,
and leave to fortune, and your horfe's goodnefs,
the event of your fuccefs. Avoiding all foul play,
as crofling, hanging on the pofts, leaning on the
other horfeman, yoking, &c. which are to be ab-
horred by all honeft horlemen.

When youi trial for the plate is ended, as foon
as you have rubbed your horfe dry, you muft cloath
him up, and ride him home, where you muft give
him firft, a pint and a halfof fweet milk, with three
yolks of eggs beaten into it, which muft be made
lukewarm, adding to it afterwards, three-penny
worth of faffron, and three fpoonfuls of fallad oil ;
which mixture ought to be given him in a horn.

This done, drefs him flightly over with your
curry-comb, brufh, and woollen cloth ; and then
bathe the place where the faddle ftood with warm
facie, to prevent warbles, and wafh the fpurring
places with pifs and fait, anointing them afterwards
with turpentine, and powder of jet mixed together,
littering well the ftable, and then cloathing him
up quickly. And after he has ftood for two hours,
he muft be fed with rye-bread, after that with a
very good mafh ; then giving him his belly full of
hay, and what corn and bread he'll eat. And
laftly, bathing his legs well with urine and falt-
petre, leaving corn in his locker, without difturbing
him any more till next morning.

Horl'es eiBployed in other fervices, as in the
army, coach-horfes, pack-horfes, (Jc. need not fo
much care and attendance; and every groom knows
i how to drefs thein, feed them, iifc. to keep them.

in a good ftate of body ;

and render them thereby
Tl.e fame rules are to be obl'erved, efpecially I capable of doing the fervice they arc defignd for.

I I , Horfes

HORSEMANSHIP.

Hoifes are fubjciSt to an infinite number of
difeafcs^ or infirmities. The moti: dangerous are
the Farcy, or Fashions. This difeafe in horfes
is infcflious, and fpreads a true plague. It confifts
in a corruption of the blood, which fliews itfelf in
eruptions of hard puftules, knots or firings along
the veins, and in ulcers ; occafioned by over heats
and colds, fometimts by ipur-galling with rufty
fpurs, fnafHe-bit, or the like ; or by the bite of
another horfe infedled with it ; or if in the leg, by
cutting or interfering.

This dii'eafe is commonly divided into thefe
kinds, vfz.. button, or knotted farcy, the running
farcy, t)\c water farcy, and the pockey farcy ; which
are all the fame, only diiFering in degrees of ma-
lignity.

The bed method of curing this difeafe is, by
corredting and canying off the humours the blood
is vitiated with, in order to rellore it to its priftine
ftate, and this muft be done foon ; otherwife, if |
the farcy be too far gone, and has fiezed the horfe's ]
lungs, or fome other noble parts, it is not to be
attempted with any great hope of fuccefs.

The firft remedy to be adminiftered, in this
cafe, is a purging mafli, to mitigate the venom,
and carry off a great deal of thofe humours from '
the vital and noble parts ; repeating the fame re-
medy twice, thrice, or four times, at due intervals,
i. e. as foon as his ftrength will permit. — The
following is an excellent purge for this purpofe.

Take four ounces of aloes fuccotrine, reduced
into powder, and pour upon it half a pint of fpring-
water, wherein has been dilTolved, over a gentle
fire, an ounce of Spanifl) liquorice juice ; put them
in an earthen pan, over a gentle fire, ftirring it
continually, that the aloes may not burn at the
bottom, and till about half the water be evaporated.
Which done, there muft be added to it jalap, co-
locynthus, tartar, agarick, all in powder, of each
half an ounce ; mercurius dulcis half an ounce ;
and oil of annifeed one drachm and a half, mixing
well all together in a mortar, to be formed into
balls. Of which one ounce, or ten drachms, is a
dofe fufHcient to purge any horfe, or at moft one
ounce and a half.

After your horfe has done taking this purge, you
muft give him at a time, mixed in his oats and
beans, three or four ounces of the following di-
gelHve powder.

Take one pound of antimony in powder, half a
pound of lignum vita in powder, three ounces of
cinnaber of antimony ; powder of liquorice four
ounces ; powder of elecampane four ounces ; an-
:niieed three ounces ; all which muft be mixed
together, and kept in a bottle well cork'd for
; ufe.

Ill

While your horfe is under cure, he mufl drink
no water without a quart, three pints, or more, of
the following diet-drink, put in his pail adding to
it as much cold water as you think he will drink at
a time, and if he refufes at firft, let him be without
water till he drinks it.

Take one pound of antimony In powder, one
pound of quickfilver, grind them well together in
an iron mortar for about three or four hours, then
boil them in a new iron pot, being firft tied upiii a
piece of cloth, with thefe following ingredient-; tied
up in a rag likewife, viz. rafpings of guaiacum,
three pounds ; the bark of guaiacum bruifed, two
pounds ; raifins flit, one pound and a half ; figs
flit, one pound ; carraway-feeds, half a pound ;
fennel-feeds, half a pound ; liquorifh cut and flit,
half a pound; boil all thefe in eight or ten gallons
of running water, till it be reduced to half; to
which add three quarts of lime-water.

Laftly, if you perceive that any of the knots or
fwellings are ripened, you muft open them with a
lancet to let ojt the corruption, and then walh
them with the following green water.

Take one ounce of verdigreale, one ounce and
a half of roch allum, two ounces of copperas, one
ounce and a half of Roman vitriol, all in powder ;
put them into a quart bottle, upon which pour one
quart of the beft and ftrongeft white wine vinegar;
put this bottle into a kettle full of water, on a rowl
of hay, to hinder it from touching the bottom of
the kettle, and make it ftand upright, fo that two
or three inches of its neck may remain above the
water : the bottle being corked, with a cork with
two or three notches for vents left the bottle fhould
break, put the kettle over a fire, or let it boil till
the vinegar has diflblved the powders, helping to
do it, bv often ihaking the bottle. When difllblved,
take the liquor from the fire, and keep it in a bottle
well corked. — Haifa pint or more of this vinegar
is mixed with a quart of old chamber-lye, when
one wants to ufe it.

Befides the knotted farcy, which this green
water cures efteiStually, it cures likewife, at once
or twice dreffing the mellander, the rat tails, fcrat-
chcs, gourd or fwell'd legs and heels ; it prevents
and cures the greafe fallen into the legs and heels,
cleanfes and heals all ulcers and wounds, prevents
the breeding of -worms and proud fffh, expelling
befides or driving away any flux of humours from
any part ; alfo cUfts and cracks in the heels, pains,
^\\ preventing of wind-galls, i^c. the green
water alone, without the chamber-lye, is the beft
remedy to cure all fiiluLi s, cankers, and galled
backs.

Hor.fe are alfo fubjeclto coldsy coughs, &c. which

0.2- ,' to

112 T-'he Univerfal Hiilory of Arts ^W' Sciences.

to cure, efpecially neiv c-Jd^ cough, ov gruji cold, the [ folluvving remedy is accounted very good' to kill

following pedtoral drench is excellent

Take one pound of raifins of the fun, two ounces
of flic'd liquorice, two ounces of fugar-candv, one
pound of treacle, three ounces of fallad-oil, three
ounces ofhorfe Ipice, two or three heads of garlick
pounded with raifins, two fpoonfuls of honey, and
three quarts of ale ; boil it till it be reduced to two
quarts, and give about a pint of it in the morning,
fafting one or tv^o hours after it ; and repeating it
every morning as occafion requires. Twice is
enough for a cold, and the whole will do in molt
of the other cafes. — It is good for a furfeit, fliort
winded, head bound, and to make a lean hod'e
thrive.

As horfes are very fubjedl to fwelling!, the fol-
lowing poultice is vtry good todiffblve them.

Take of our garden green orris roots, and white
HUy roots, of each an ounce, marfh mallows
pellitory, pennyroyal, origan, calamint, rue, of
each a handful, camomile, melilot, and elder
flowers, of each half a handful, green annifeeds,
common fennel and cuminfeeds, of eai h half an
ounce ; boil them to a mafti in water and white-
wine vinegar, then bruife them into an even
fmooth mafh in a flone mortar, adding to them of
the meal of lupins andof btans, of each one ounce
and a half, an ourvce and a half of oil of camomile,
one ounce and a half of oil of orris ; mix them
well in the mortar, beating them again afterwards,
and applying more or iefs of this poultice hot on
the part affected.

But if the fwelling cannot be diflblved,they ought
to be ripened aj Toon as poiTible, and the following
poultice is very proper for that purpofe.

Take white lilly, and marlh-mallow roots, of
teach four ounces ; the leaves of common mallows,
marlh mallows, groundfel, violet plants, brank
urfm, of every one a handful ; tlic meal of linticad
and fenugreek feeds, goofe fat and oil of lillies, of
each three ounces. The roots vvheji wa'ilied and
fliced, are to be boiled in water, and the leaves
being added fome time after, the boiling is to be
continued till the whole mafh becomes perfectly
tender and foft ; when having drained the decoc-
tior;, you'll beat the remaining grofs fubftance in
a ftone mortar with a wooden peftle to a pulp ;
then let the decodion and pulp be put into a IkiUet,
and having mixed the meals of lint-feeds and fenu-
greek feeds, goofe fat and oil of lillies, let them
boil together over a gentle fire, ftirring the ingre-
dients from tiine to time, till they all be fufficiently
thickened for a poultice.

Horfes being alfo very fubjedt to worms, the

them.

Take half a pound of the beft antimony irt pow-
der, and two ounces of quickfilver, boil them in
four pales of water till they be reduced to three ;
of which mix half a pailful with as much water as
your horfe will drink, having lirft {trained it, and
continue thus till it is all gone..

It fometimes iiappens that a horfe is bitten by »
mad dog, which if not immediately remedied, may
be attended with very dangerous confcquences ;
and which to perform with hopes- of fiicccfs, all the
bitten parts muft be feared as foon as poffible with
a hot iron ; with this caution, that you fear not,
nor let the hot iron touch either nerve or tendon,
the eyes, or any member whereby the horfe may
receive any damage from the operation ; applying
afterwards a itrong bliflering plaifter, as well to
every part touched with the hot iron, as to thofe
which you could not attempt to fear, though bitten
likewiie. — That blirtering plaifter muft be com-
pofed in the following manner.

Take an ounce of Burguv.dy pitch, fhip pitch,
and common rolin, of each half an ounce; of the
C'.mmon lopis irifernalh, or cauftic ftone, one
dracnm, camharides or Spanijh flies in powder, fix
drachms> or one ounce. Putting firft: the Bur-
gundy pi ch,. fl:ii> pitch, aad rofin in a pipkin, to
melt over a .lew hre, ftirring them to maloe them
incorporate ; when melted,, put in the iaph infer-
nalis ill powder, ftirring it all the while that it may
equally mi.x : laftlv, put in by degrees the ounce
of cantharides in powder, ftirring thtm likewife
as you have done the lapis in f emails, and for the
fame end ; but if you perceive that the powders
inake it too thick, vou may at your difcretion, add
a little of the rankell oil you can get, taking care
that it fhould not boil after the Spsnijh flies are in,
nor remain long on the lire, other wife it would lofe
its virtue: therefore about a minute or two after
the powder of the Spanijh flies is all ftJrred in,
take it off the fire and keep it for your ufe ; and
when you ufe it fpread it pretty thick upon leather,
and apply it to the part, where it muft remain ten
or twelve hours ; then when you drefs it, cut all
the blifters that are not "^roken, and wipe them
clean, applying to the parts the following plaiiler.

Take four heads of garlick. one outwre of l^euice
treacle, half an ounce of Veitice turpentine, half an
ounce of the filings of pewter, and one drachm of
the powder of S/rniJIj flies, half an ounce of honey,
and two drachms of verdigreafe in powder, pound-
ing all thefe together in a mortar ; when you ufe
it fpread it on leather and apply it, binding it on,
by reafon that it is not very apt to Hick ; but when

the

HUN

I N G.

tt5e bite is on a part the plaifler cannot be convc- [one quart of rofe-water, and half an ounce of prc-

niently bound on, then the leather muft be cut | pared tutty ; mix all together and keep it in a bottle

fomething broader than what is neccirary for thc.forufe.

plaifler, in order that the margin may be fpread

with Burgunly pitch ; then-put the plaifter in the

middle of the leather, and the Buygundi pitcli on

the margin will make it ftick vviifhout binding.

This plaifler muft lie on twenty-four hours, and

then taken off, and the partckanfed, and the plaifler

renewed ; keeping the fores- open as long as pof

file with this plaifter, in-order to draw the venom

that it get not into the blood, which would kill

the horfp.

Befides thefe outward applications for putting a
flop to the venom,, inw.ird remedies are alfo ul<?d
to fubdue and drive it out, in cafe it fhould have
feized the mafs of the blood, and alfo to prevent its
getting there. The following diet drink is of great
efficacy in thofe cafes.

Take of the leaves of box, the leaves of rue, the
leaves and routs of primrofe, the leaves of fage, of
each two handfuls ; three quarters of a pound, of
frefh roots of the male piony, three ounces of the
powder of crabs claws, two ounces of round birth-
wort roots in powder, three ounces oLVt-nice trea-
cle : bruife all thefe things together in a mortar,
then put it in a glafs or earthei! pot, and pour upon
the ingredients four quarts of white Lifban wine, or
for want of it, of the bed cyder, or flrong„beer;
then flop the glafs or pot flightly, putting it to in-
fufe in a kettle of hot water for the fpace of twelve
or fourteen hours, then keep it for u(e. When you
uCe it, you mud ilrain ofl" about a pint, into which
you muft put. about adrachin of balfam of fulphur,
and e;ive it your horfe in a drenching horn in the
motning, letting the horfe faft two hours after, and
repeating it thrice.

The^ji« of horfes are alfo fubjecl to a number
of different difeafes, as pin and web^ pearls, clouds,
bUodJhot^ fore and running eyes, falty hot, and JJiarp
rheums, ulcers, fijlulas, bruifes, Jiripcs, he. for
all which the following eye-iuater is a fovereign
remedy.

Take a new earthen pipkin which will hold five
pints or three quarts, put into it of the flone called
lapis calaminfiris in powder, ot the belt bole arme-
nick, alfo in powder, and of the bell white vitriol,
of each an ounce and a half; boil them over a
gentle fire till it be reduced to a quart, then let it
fettle, and pour the clear from the faces, adding
to the water three drachms of fugar of faturn, three
drachms of fait of vitriol, half an ounce of cam-
phtre diffolvcd in fpirit of wine, an ounce of tinc-
ture of aloes, three drachms of tinflure of opium,

If your horfe be troubled with any dofe in his
head, give him muftard-feed among his provender,
liut if it be a worfe cold, which you will perceive
by his rattling, then give him the following elec-
tuary.

Takehoney and treacle, a pound of each, havin'^
mi.xed thefe together, add to them cumin-feeds in
powder, liquorice, bay-berries, annifeeds, of each
an ounce; thefe likewifemull be mixed together,
and afterwards with the honey and treacle, whic!i
will make it of a thick confiHence Ifyour horfe
has a cold, inftead of his oats before water, give
him the quantity of a walnut of this lambitive, at
the end of a ftick or in a fpoon, and let him lick it
oft"; doing the fame after airing, when firil you
come in, and your horfe will foon be cured.

The lauienefs of a horfe is alfo worthy our no-
tice ; which, if it proceeds from old ftrains, you
muft cure widi the following ointment.

Take frefh butter, oil of bays, dialthea and tur-
pentine, of each two ounces, mix and boil them
together on a gentle fire ; and when they are well
incorporated anoint the horfe twice a day with it as
hot as he can bear it, and give him exercife, by
airing him abroad morning andevening afoot-pace;
and youU find it a fovereign remedy for any itrain
in the ftioulder, clap on the b.ick fmews, or any
grief whatfbever that proceeds from ftiains.

But if you only fear lamenefs from old ftrains,
then you muft take care that your exercife be mo-
derate, and always when you return from water,
and his legs are rubbed dry, anoint them with fuch
ointments as are accounted good for the limbs, as
Unjeed, train, fhcefs-foot, neat's-foot, nerve oil, and
the like ; all which may be ufed on his days of re!},
but on his heating days, urine and faltpetre, Some
horfemen ufe brandy and lallad oil mixed, and bathe
his legs and afterwards heat it in with a hot iron,
aiid commend it as the beft thing for the limbs of
an old ftiff horfe.

But if your horfe through negligence or any ca-
fualty, happens to have the greafi; fall into his heels, .
you muft endeavour to remove it by a good found
heat, and a fcowering after it, applying to his le(»s
this poultice.

Take a pound of honey, turpentine, common
gum, meal of linfeed and of fenugreek, of each
four ounces, bay-berries in powder, three ounces :
mix and boil all thefe together ; then take it off and
add to it a pint of white wine, boiling it over a-

"The Univet-ral Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

ii;4

gain till it be very thick ; and with this as hot as
the horfe can bear it, lap his legs about, renewing
it only once in three days, if your horfc's feet be

bad, either furbated or founder'd ; then inftcad «f
cow-dung, you may ftop them with blue clay and
vinegar tempered together.

HUNTING.

UNTING is the art,
fion of purl
chacc ; and

exercife, or diver-

fion of purfuing hearts of venerv, or
certain birds, as pheafants,
partridges, i3'c.

There arc fevcral ftatutes for punifliing offences
committed by perfons not qualified by law, to take
or deftroy the game.

The antient laws ordain, that no perfon fhall
take pheafants or partridges, with engines in ano-
ther's ground, without his licenfe, on forfeiture of
10 /. and perfons killing any pheafant, partridge,
pigeon, duck, hare, or other game, forfeits 20^.
for every fowl, hare, (^c. 1 1 Hen. VII. i Jac.
I. c. 17. Conflables having a juftice of peace's
warrant, may fearch the houfes of fufpefted per-
fons for game ; and in cafe any be there found,
and they do not give a good account how they
came by it, fuch perfons fliall forfeit for each hare
or pheafant, partridge, &c. not under 5 s. nor
exceeding 10 s, Likewife by another ftatute, if
any higler, chapman, carrier, inn-keeper, or vic-
tualler, fhall have in his cuftody any hares, phea
fants, partridges, heath-game, iffc. he forfeits for
every hare and fowl, 5 /. unlefs the fame be fent
by a perfon qualified to kill game. The felling or
offering game to fale is made liable to the like pe-
nalty ; and in that cafe, if any hare, l^c. be found
in a fhop, (Jfc. it is deemed expofing it to fale.

Perfons not qualified, keeping dogs, nets, or
engines to kill game, on their conviction before a
juftice of peace, fhall alfo pay 5 /. or be fent to the
houfe of correflion for three months, 4 and 5 TF.
and M. c. 23. 5 Ann. c. 14. 9. Ann. The pe-
nalties for deftroy ing game, are recoverable by ac-
tion, as well as before ;uflices of peace, by 8 Geo.\.
■c. 19. If a perfon hunts any game on the land
of another, fuch other cannot juftify the killing of
his dogs. Where one in hunting ftarts a hare up-
on his own land, and then follows and kills fuch
hare in another perfon's ground, it is lawful, and
the game is his own ; but where a man ftarts a hare
on another's land, and kills it there, he is fubjeft
'to an adion of trefpafs.

Hurting is praclifed in a different manner, and
with a different apparatus, accrdingto the diffe-
rent nature, genius, and addrefs, of the particular
heart: which is tiie objc6t thereof. Thefe hearts

are, the hart, hind, hare, boar, ■wolf, luck, doe,
fox, marten, arid roe ; the five firft whereof are
denominated hearts of the foreft, or venery ; and
the five latter hearts of •^he field, or of chace.

Every gentleman, -m wants to render himfelf
perfedl in this noble excercife, muft ftudy thofe
terms proper to the diverfion, and learn their true
fignification.

Thefe terms are either appropriated to the beafis,
which are hunted, or the dogs employed in hunting
them. Thofe peculiar to the different kinds of
hearts hunted, are either to exprefs their names, fea-
fons, degrees^ and ages of foreft, or venery, chacty
zvarren, &c. or to fignify their different focieties^
their lodging, difodging, their noife at rutting-
time, their copulation, their footing and treading,
ihe. different parts of their bodies, the fying, ftrip'
ping, and cafing them, &c. Thus the Hart is
called the firft year a hind-calf, or calf; the fecond
year, a knohber ; the third year, n brock ; the fourth
year, aftaggar ; the filth year a ftag ; the fixth
year a hart. — If the king or queen happen to chafe
him, and he efcapes with his life, he fhall ever
after be called a hart royal.

The Hind is called, the firft year, zcalf; the
fecond year, a hearfe ; the third year, a hind.

The Hare is called, the firft year, a leveret ;
the fecond }'ear, a hca-e ; the third year, a great
harr.

The WILD Boar is called, the firft year, a pig
of the founder ; the fecond year, a hog ; the third
year, a hog's fteer ; the fourth year, a boar : at
which age, if not before, he leaves the founder,
and then he is called 2ifingler.

The above mentioned beafts are what we have
called already beafts of foreft, or venery ; and that
they make their abode all the day-time, in the great
coverts and fecret places in the woods ; and at night
repair to their lawns, meadows, paftures, and plea-
fant feeding places.

Thefe that follow are beafts of chace, viz. the
Buck is called the firft year, 2. fawn ; the fecond
year, 2. pricket ; the third year, zforrel; the fourth
year, 2. fore; the fifth year, -^ buck of the fi> ft head ;
the fixth vear, a great buck .

The Doe is called, the firft year, zfaion ; the
fecond year, a tegg; the third year, a doe.

The

HUNTING.

The Fox is called, the firft year, a cul/; the
fecond year, zfox ;' and afterwards an old/ox.

The Marten is called, the firft year, a cuL
the fecond year, a marten.

The Roe is called, the firft year, a iul ; the fe-
cond year, a girl ; the third year, a hemufe ; the
fourth year, a roe-buck of the firft head ; the fifth
year, a fair roe- buck.

The beafts of chafe refide all the day-time in
the fields, or upon hills and mountains, where
they may be feen afar off", to prevent danger ; but
when night approaches, they feed, as the reft in
meadows, is'c.

The Hart or Bud; feafon begins 15 days after
Alidfummer-day, and lafts till Hoh-Rood-Day. —
The Fox at Cl>rifimns, and lafts till the Annimica-
tion of the BleJJ'ed Virgin. — i he Hind, or Doe,
begins at Holy -Rood- day, and lafts till Candle-
mas.— The Roe-buck begins zt Eafer and lafts
till Michaelmas. — T'he f/<-?rc begins at Michaelmas,
and lafts till the end of February. — The feafon of
the JVolf, is faid to be from Chrijimas till the
Lady-Day. — Laftly, the Boar, begins at Chrijimas,
and continues to the purification. Candlemas .

The terms ufed for beafts of venery and chace,
as they are in company, are thefe. — • T hey fay a
Herd of Harts, and of all manner of Deer. —
A Bevy of Roes. A Sounder of Swifte. — A Route of
If^olves.- — A Richefs of Martens. — A Brace or Leajh
of Bucks, Foxes, or Hares. — A couple of Rabbits.
— A couple of Coneys.

To exprefs theiri,»a'^/«g-. — A Hart is faid to har-
bour. A.'EncV lodges. — A Roe beddcth. — A Y{zxe.fts
oiformeth. — A Corny fttteth. — A Fox kcnnellcth —
A Marten treeth. — An Otter watches. — A Badger
eartheth.—h. Boar couches.

Terms for their Difoiging. — They fay unharbour
the Hart. — Roufe the Buck. — Start the Hare. —
Bolt the Coney. — Unkennel the Fox. — Tree the
Marten. — Vent the Otter. — D;^ the Badger. —
Rear the Boar.

The terms for their Noife at Rutting- tiine. are
as follow. — A Hart belleth. — A Buck grozvneth, or
troatch. — A Roe bclloxueth. — A Hare beateih or tap-
peth. — 'An Otter ivhineth. — A "Bozr frcameth. —
A Fox brceketh. — A r'adgcr/!);:Virf/;. — A Wolf
howleth. A Goat rotleth.

Terms for their Copulation. — A Flart, or Euck,
goes to rtit. — A Roe goes to tui-n. — A Boar goes
to brim A Hare and Coney goes to buck. — A
Fox goes to clickitting. — A Wolf goes to match ot
to 7nake. — An Otter hufilcs for his ^h:d.

Terms for the Fooling and Treadinrr. — Of a
Hart we fay the Slot — Of a Buck, and all Fallow
Deer, the View. — Of all Deer, if on the grals,
and fcarce vifible, the Foiling. — Of a Fox, the

Print : and of other like vermin, the Footing. —
Of an Otter, the A-Jarks. — Of a boar, the Track,
' — 'I he Hare, wjica in o|jtn field, is faid \.o fore ;
when (he winds about to deceive the hounds, fhe
doubles ; when file beats on the hard highway, and
her footing comes to be perceived, {he pricketh ■. in
fnow it it called the trace of the Hare.

Every part of each beaft has always its difFercnt
name, exprefled by a dilTerent term, according
to the different kinds of beafts.

Therefore the tail of a Hart, Beck, or other

deer, is called the fmgle ; that of the Boar, the

wreath; of a Fox, the brujlj or drag, and the tip

at the end is called the chape; of a Wolf, the

flern ; of a Hare and Coney the fut.

The terms for the /Attire of Deer — Thofe of a
Stag, if perfe£t, are the bur, the pearls, the little
knobs on it, the beam, the gutter, the antler, the
fur-antler, ro)al, fur-royal, and all a- top, the
croches.

Of a Buck, the bur, the beam, brow-antUry
black-antler, advancer, palm, znd fpellers.

If the croches grow in the form of a man's hand,
it is called a palrn'd head. Head bearing not above
three or four, and the croches placed aloft, all of
one height, are called croivn'd heads. Heads hav-
ing Ao\ih\e croches, &xe czWed for.kid heads, becaufe
the croches are planted on the top of the beam like
forks.

If you be afked what a Stag bears, you are only
to reckon the croches he bears, never expreffing
an odd number: As if he has four croches on his
near horn, and five on his fur, you are to fay he
bears ten, a falfe right on his near horn (for all
that the beam bears, are called rights".) If but four
on the near horn, and fix on the far horn, you
muft fay he bears twelve, a double falfe right on
the near horn. For you ought not only to make
the number even, but alfo the horns even, with
that diftindlion.

The very ordure of the beafts, is exprefled by
different terms ; for.

The excrement of a Hart, and all Deer, is called
fcivmets, or fewmijhing. — Of a Hare, crotiles, or
crctifmg. — Of a Boar, Icjjcs. — Of a Fox, the
billeting ; and of other the like vermin, the fiiants,
— Of an Otter, ihe fpraint^.

All kind oi Deers fat, is called ^'wf'r.. — Of a,
'Boar, greafe — Of a Roe, beavy-greafe.

They fay a Utter of Cubs, a rieji of Rabbits, a.
Squirrel's dray.

The terms iot faying, gripping, and caftng ^11.-
manner of chacts, are as follow. — The Hart, :)nd.
all fort of Deer, are fain.— Thc.t^ireJJrippecl, or
cafed; and fo is the boar. — ^Xhe Fpxj ihe Badger,.,
and all miinner of vermin, ar6 cafed.-

Venifotiy,

ii6 The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^^^Z Sciences.

Venifon, is thus called from the manner of tak-
ing the bead hy huntings called in the Latin,
venatio. No bead of the foreft, that is Solivagum
& nocivum, is Fenifon, as the p'ox, the Wolf, the
Marten, becaufe they are not meat.

From this we conclude, that whatfoever bead
of the forefl is for the food of man, is Vm'ifon ;
and that any bead that is not for the food of man,
is not Vcn'ijon.

Being fo far advanced in the dialed of hunting,
ive may provide dogs, called Hounds.

Hounds may be dillinguilhcd with regard to their
manner oi bunting, into fuch as find out, and purfue
the game by fight, and the quicknefs and fwifcncfs
of their motion ; of v/hich kind are the Gaze-
hound, Gray-hound, the Terrier, Sic. And thofe
■which find and purfue the game by the goodnefs
of their imell.

'I he fp^cics of hunting dogs may be divided
further into hounds, fimply fo called, and Blood-
hounds, each whereof admit of fome diverfuy.

I. As to the Hounds, fimply thus called, thofe
■which are all of one colour, as white, black, (s^c.
are more valued than thofe fpolted with red. Thofe
fpotted with dun are little priz'd, as wanting cou-
rage and boldnefs. Fallow Hounds are of good :
fcent and hardy, not fearing the water. 1 hey
keep the chace well without change; but not fo
fwift as the white. They love the Hart above
any other chace, having little Oomach for the Hare,
iffc. whente they are not fo fit for private gentle-
men, belldcs that they are apt to run at tame
beads.

The dun Hounds are of a more general ufe,
being fit for all chaces. Their fagacity and fidelity in
knowing and flicking to their mafter's voice and
horn, and none elfe, are much admired.

The marks of a good and fair Hound, are to
be of a middle proportion, rather long than
round; the nodrils wide; back bowed; fillets
great; haunches large ; the thighs well trufiled ;
the ham ftrait; tail big near the reins, and the
.reftflcnder to the end ; the leg big ; the fole of the
foot dry, and form'd like a Fox, and large claws

To chufe a dog and a bitch for good whelps,
you muft take a bitch that comes of a good kind ;
. ftrong, and well proportioned in all parts, with
large ribs and flanks. — The dog, that lines her,
muft be of a good breed, and likewife young, if
you'll have light and hot hounds ; for if the dog be
•cild, the whelps will participate of his dull and
.heavy nature. — If the bitch does not grow naturally
proud, fo foon as you would have her, you may
make her fo by taking two heads of garlick, half a
•caftor's ftone, the juice of crefles, and about twelve
Spanijh flies, boiling thefe together in a pipkin

which holds a pint, with fome mutton fo make
broth of it ; and of this give to the bitch tw
thrice, and file will infallibly grow proud. The fame
pottage given to the dog, will make him defirous
of copulation. — When the bitch is lined, and with
puppy, fhe mud not hunt,otherwife fhe would caft
her whelps ; but let her, without being confined,
walk up and down the hoafc and court, and never
lock her up in her kennel ; for flie is then impa-
tient of food ; and therefore you muft make her
fome hot broth once a day. — If you would fpay
your bitch, it mu'l not be done before (he ever
had a litter of whelps ; and in fpaying her, take
not away all the roots or firings of the veins ; for
ffyou do, it will much prejudice her reins, and
hinder her fwiltnefs ever after ; but byleaving fome
behind, it will make her much the flionger and
more hardy. Whatever you do, fpav her not
when fhe is proud ; for that would endanger her
life : but you may do it fifteen days after. The beft
time of all is when the whelps are fliapsd within
her.

To enter a young hound, after having taught
him to know the hallow, and the found of the horn,
at about eighteen months old he may be taken
into the field. The beft method to initiate him
is, to take alive hare, and trail her upon the ground,
this way, then that ; and at length hide her at a
proper diltance. Then fetting the /oaW near the
trail, he will take wind, and run to and fro about
the fields, woods, padures, path ways, and hedges,
till hj finds which way the hare is gone, but with
a foft and gentle pace, till coming near the place
where fhe is lodged, he mends it, and at lad leaps
on his prey, which he muft be fufFered to kill, and
bringing it to his mader with triumph, muft be
rewarded and encouraged. This done, he may be
let run in a pack of old hounds to confirm and per-
fert him.

Whatever young hounds are firft enter'd at, and
rewarded with, they will ever after covet mod ; fo
that if they be intended, v. gr. for the hart, they
mud not be entered at the hind. And for the
better hunting the hart, young hounds are not to be
entered within a toil ; for there a hart does nothing
but turn and caft about, fince he cannot run end-
ways, and thus they are always in fight of him.—
Neither are the houndi to be enter'd or taught in
the morning ; otherwife they will give over in the
heat of the day.

2. The G ray -ho mid mi^t deferve the firft place,
by reafon of his fwiftnefs, ftrength, and fagacity in
purfuing his game; fuch being the nature of this
dog, that he is well fcented to find out, fpeedy and
quick of foot to follow, fierce and ftrong to over-
come, yet filent, coming upon his prey unawares.

HUNTING,

117

The make and proportions rcquirM in a good
Gray-hound are, that he have a lean and long head,
with a {harp nofe, rufti grown from the eye down-
wards; a full clear eye, with long eye-lids f a
fharp ear, {hurt .-ind clofe falling ; a long neck a
little bendinp, with a loofe hanging weafand ; a
broad breaft, ftrait forehead, hollow fide, ftrait
ribs, a fqiiare flat back, fhort and lirong fillets, a
broad fpace between (he hips, a ftrong Hern or tail,
a round foot, and good large clefts.

In the breeding of Gray-hcunds, it is obferved,
that the beft dog upon an jndifferent bitch, will
not get fo good a whelp, as an indifferent dog
upon the beft bitch. That the dogs and birches
mult be, as near as pnffible, of an equal age, not
exceeding four years old ; however, the bert mc;ms
which can be ufed to produce excellent whdps, is
to breed with a young dog and an old bircli. That
the dieting of Gray-hcunds confifls in the food,
exercife, airing, end kenneliiiig. The common
iooA oi Gray -hounds OKts^^t to be rafpiiigs, crufts
of bread, foft bones, and griftles. The rafpings
to be fcalded in btef, mutton, veal, or veriifon
broth ; and when it is indiiFerently cold, then make
your bread only float with good milk, and give it
your Gray-hounds morning and evening ; which
will keep them in good ftate of body. But if your
■dog be poor, fickly, and weak, then take fheep'b
heads, wool and all, clean wafhed, and having
broken them to pieces, put them into a pot, fcum-
ming it when it boils, putting in it a good quantity
of oatmeal ; and making it boil till theflefh be very
tender, then with ycjur meat and broth, feed your
dogs morning and evening ; this will recover them.
As to the exercife of a day hound, it confifti in
two things, viz. in courfmg and airing. As to
the firlt, he ought to be pradtis'd twice a week, in
fuch a manner that you ufually reward him with
blood, which will animate and encourage him to
purfue his game ; taking care to give the hare all
reafonable advantage, fo that fhe may ftand long
before the Gray-hound, that thereby he may fliew
his utmoft ftrength and fkill before he reaps the
benefit of his labour. If he kills, do not fuffer him
to brake the hare, but take her from him, and
haying cleanfed his chaps of the wool of the hare,
give him the liver, lights, and heart, and fo take
him in your leafli, and having led him home, wafh
his feet with fome butter and beer, and then put
him in his kennel, and feed him half an hour after-
ward-;.

The huntfman is to lead thefe hounds on his left
jiand, if he be on foot ; and on the right,' if on
horfe-back. The beft time to try and tr.iin them
to the game, is at twelve months old, though fome
begin fooner, with the males »X. ten, and the fe-
VoL. II 33. \,

males at eight months old, which laft are generally
more fwift than the dogs : thty fhould be kept in
a flip while abroad, till they fee their courfe ; nei-
ther fhould you loofen a young dog till the game
has been a confiderable time on foot, being apt, by
over-eagernefs at the prey, to ftrain his limbs.

3. The Gaze-hound, or Beagle, is a dog more
beholden to the fharpnefs of fight, than to his nofe
or fmclling, by virtue whereof he makes excellent
fport with the fox and hare. He is alfo noted as
exquifite in chufmg of one that is not lank or lean,
but full, fat, and round, which, if ic happens to
return, and be mingled again with the refidue of
the herd, he will foon fpy out, and leave the reft
untouched, never ceafing after he has feparatcd it
from its company, till he has worried it to death.

4. There is in Scotland ?i kind of hunting dogs
called Sluth Hounds^ moft of them of a brownilh
colour, or fandy'-fpotttd. Their fenfe of fmelling
is fo quick, that they can follow the foot-fleps of
thieves, and purfue them with violence till they
overtake them ; n ly fhould the thief take the wa-
ter, they are fo eager in their purfuit that thev will
fv/im after them, and arc reftlefs till they find the
thing they feek after.

5. The Blood-Hound differs nothing in quality
from the Scotch {[uxh h;iund, faving that it is longer
fized, and not always of the fame colour; but
f)metimes red, fanded, black, white, fpotted, is'c,
though moft commonly either red or brown.

Their nature is, th. t being fet on by the voice
and words of their leader, to caft about for the fet-
ting of the prefent game, and having found it, ihey
will never ceafe purfuing it with full cry till it be
tired, without changing for any other.

They feldom bark, except in their chace, and
are very obedient and attentive to the voice of their
leader. Thofe that are really good, when they
have found the hare, make fhew thereof to the
huntfman, by running more fpeedily, and witli
gefture of head, eyes, ears, and tail, winding to
the form or hare's mufe, never giving over profe-
cution without a gallant noife.

They have good and hard feet, and ftatcly fto-
machs, and are very properly denominated blood-
hounds, by reafon of their extraoraiiiary fcent; for
if their game be only wounded, fo that it efcape?^
the huntfman's hands, or if it be k\lled and never
fo cleanly carried away, thefe dc gs by their exqui-
fite fmell will dilcover ir, and not be wanting either
by nimblenefs or greedinefs to come at ir, provided
there be any ftains of blood. Nay, thougli by all
the cunning and forefight imaginable, a beaft he
conveyed away without Ipot or blood, jet tbroigh
the roughcft and moft crooked ways and meanders,
will this dog find out the deer-ftealer, and even '.»
R • the

The Univerfal Hiflory ^t/Arts ^;?</ Sciences.

ii8

the tliickeft tluoriT, will by his fmcll fcparate and
pick him out.

The Terrier r,T Harrier, only hunts the iox or
badger, being thus called, becaufe afrei" the manner
of ferrets in learching f )r conic, he leaps into the
ground and affrights and attacks the beafV, either
tearing them in pieces, or haling them out by
force, or at lealt driving them out of their harbours,
to he taken in a net or otherwife.

The h'mtfmen having Commonly a couple of
terriers thfey may p'lt in a frefh one, as occafion
requires, to relieve the other.

The time of entering the terrier, is when he is
near a twelvemonth old : if it be not done within
that time, they v.ill hardly be brought to take the
earth; this entering and flifhing of them may be
performed fcveral vfays. Firft, wlien the foxes
and badgers have young cubs, take an o!d terrier,
fet him into the ground, and when he begins to
bay, hold the young one at the hole or mouth of
the earth, that he may liften and hear the old one
bay.

The old fox or badger being taken, To that no-
tliing remains within but the cub?, couple up the
old ones, and put in the young ones in their room,
encouraging them by crying, to him, to him. If
they take any cub within, let them do with him
what they will ; not forgetting to give the olil
terriers their reward, which is blood and liver fried
with cheefe and fome of their greafe ; fhewing
them head and ikin to encourage them.

6. The Leviner or Lycmmer, \% fingular in his
fmeli, and in fwiftnefs incomparable. He is of a
middlekind between the terrierandthe gray-hound,
as well for his kind as for the fhapc of his body.
The French ufe it in hunting the wolf.

Being provided with hwititig dogs, we muff next
learn the terms ufcd in refpedt of them ; therefore
o( gray-hounds two m;ke a brace; of hounds a
uuple. Of giay hounds three make z.leafn\ of
hounds a couple and a half. — They fay, let flip a
gray-hound, and cajl cff a hound. — The llring
wherein a gray-hound is led, is called a/«<7/^,and
that of a hound, a hem. The gray- hound has its
tollar, and the hound his couples. They fay, a
kenntl of lioundf, and a pack cf beagles.

When the hounds or beagles hit the fcent of
their chare contrary, ss to hit it up the wind when
they fhouid hit it down, we fay, they draiu amifs.

When the hounds or beagles take frefh fcent,
hunting another chace till they fiick and hit it
awain, we fay, they hunt change.

When the hounds or beagles hunt it by the
heels, we fay, they hunt counter.

When the chace goes ofF and comes on again,
traverfing the fame ground to deceive the hounds
61 btagles, we fay, they hunt tbefdL

When we fet hounds in readinefs, wfiere we
expedt the deer will paf?, and tlicn caft them ofF,.
when the other hounds are pafTed by, we account
that a rcluy.

When the hounds or beagles have finifhed their
chace, by the death of what they purfued, and then
in requital, are fed by the hands of the huntfman
or others, we call that their reward,

Huntfmen, when ihey go drawing in their fprings
at hart's hunting, ufually make due rounds, which
we call ring-walks.

When any deer is hard hunted, and then betakes
himfelf tofvvimming in any river, ^f. we fay, he
takes foil. — When deer cafl their horns, we fay,
they mew. The firft head of a fallow deer is called
a prick.

V\'hen huntfmen endeavour to find a hart by
the flot, c?t. and then mind his fteps, to know
whether he be large and long, they fay then, that
they know him by his gait.

When deer rub, and pufh their heads againft
trees, to caufe the peel of their new horns to come-
off, we fay, they fray. — When after being hard
run, they turn head againft the hounds, we fay,
they bay.

When hounds or beagles run along without
opening, or making any cry, we fay, they run mute.

When hounds or beagles at firft finding the fcent
of their game, open and cry, we fay, they chal-
lenge.— When hounds run at a whole herd of deer,
we fay, they run riot. — When the hounds touch
the fcent, and draw on till they rouze or put up
the chace, we fay, they draw on the flot.

When a roe crofles and doubles, it is called /ra*
join'ng.

When a hare takes the ground like a cone)',
which feldoms happens,. we fay, flte goes to the vault.

When we beat the bufhes, iSc. after the fox,,
we call it draroing.

When a hare runs on rotten ground, or in a
froff, which flicks to her feet, we hv.Jhe carrieth,

Wlien beagles bark and cry at their prey, we
fay, they yearn. A red male hart of a year old, is
called z fpitter.

A rein-deer, is a beaft like a hart, but has his
head fuller of antlers.

A pricker, is a huntfman on horfeback.

Engines to take deer withal, are called luiles,

when we fet hounds or beagles in readinef--, ex-
pecting the chace to come by, and then caft them
off before the reft come in, wc call it a vauntlay.

When hounds or beagles find where the chace
has been, and made a proffer to enter but returned,
we fay, there is a hlemifh.

The call, is a leffon blowed on the horn to com-
fort the hounds.— A recheaty is likewife a lefTon

blowa

HUNTING.

blown on the horn. — The mort or deaths is a lefibn
blown at the death of any dt.-er.

A dog is fubjeft to feven forts ofmadnefs, ijiz
the hot bumhig madnefs, running tnadnefs, dun'h
niadnefs, falling madncjs, lank 7nadnefs.,Jkepi>ig tnad-
tiefs, rluumatick or Jlavering madnefs ; and tlie
mange.

The two firft of thefc madncffes are incurable,
viz. the burning and the running madnefs.

The fymptoms of the Lw ning madnefs are tl>efe :
when the dogs run, they raifc their tails bok up
right, and run upon any thing that fland before
them, having no regard where, nor which way
tliey run ; alfo their mouth will be very black,
having no foam in or about it. Tliey will not
continue thus above three days, before they die.
All dogs they have bitten and drew blood from will
be mad liltcwifc.

The I'unnin'^ madnefs is lefs dangerous, though
incurable. The dogs afHifted thercwitli run not
on men, but on dogs, and other bcafts. The fymp-
toms are, they will fmell on other dogs, and having
fmelt them will fliake and bite them, yet (baking
their tails, and fceming to ofter no hann.

The dumb madnefs is curable, and is thus difco-
vered ; ihe dog that is troubled with it will not
feed, but continually hold his mouth wiJe open,
putting often his feet to his mouth, as if he had a
bone in his throat. The cure is this ; put four
ounces of the juice oT ffatula futrida into a pot,
taking the like quantity of the juice of black hclle-
lore, and as much of the juice of rue, (training them
all well through a fine cloth, and putting them in-
to a glafs ; then take two drachms of fcammony
unprepared, and having mixed it with the juices,
put it into a horn or fuimel, and convey it down
his throat, keeping his head upftrait left he caft it
up again ; then bleed him in the mouth, cutting
three or four veins in his gums, that he may bleed
the better. Or you may only take eight drachms
©f the juice of an herb called hartfhorn or don's-
tooth, and you'll find it a moll: excellent receipt
againft any madnefs whatever.

The falling madnefs lies in their he.ids, wtiich
makes them reel as they go, and then fall. — The
cure is this : take four ounces of the juice of piony,
with the like quantity of the juice of briony, the
like of the juice of cruciata, and four drachms of
ftavefacrc pulverized ; mix thefe together, and
,give it your dog or hound as aforefaid, then let;
him blood in the ears, or the two veins which
come down the (houiders ; and if he be not cured
at firft, give him a fecond or third dide.

The lank madnefs, thus called by reafon of the
leanncfs ot their bodies, is occafioned hy fhumnier-
ing. — The cine is thus performed : firil purge your

I ig

dog with this porion ; take an ounce and a half of
caffia fiflularis well cieanfed, two drachms and a
half of ftavefacre pulverized, and the like quantity
of fcammony prepared in white-wine vinegar, and
four ounces of oil of olive, temper thefe and warm
them over the fire, and give it your dog. In the
morning put him into this bath faft:ng ; put into fix-
pails of water ten hand fuls of raugworth, of rofe-
marv, of red fage, the roots or leaves of marfh-
mallows, the roots or leaves of wall-wort, the
roots or ftalks of fennel, the roots or leaves of
elecampane, balm and rue, forrel, buglofs, and
melilot ; let thefe boil together in two thirds of
water, and the other of wine, to the confumption
of one third ; the bath being no hc-tter than your
dog can endure it, bathe him in it for the fpace of
an hour, then taking him out, put him in fome
.warm.place for fear ot catching cold ; which fnould
be repeated four or five times to perfed the
cure.

The fcefing madnefs, is caufed by fome little
worms breeding in the entrance of the ftomach
from corrupt humours, the vapours and fumes
whereof afcending into the head make the dog
flccp continually, fometimes til! he dies fleeping;
For the cure, you inuft t.ike five ounces of the
juice of wormwood, with two ounces of burnt
hartfhorn in powder, and two drachms of agarick;
mix them together, and if they be too thick add
white-wine, and give it your dog to drink.

The rheuinatlck or flavering madnefs, is thus

called, becaufe when a dog is affiicted with it, his

j head fwelleth, his eyes are very yellow, and he

commonly flavereth at the mouth. The cure is

I performed thus ; take fix ounces of the juice of

fennel- roots, and the like quantity ofthe juice of

' mifTeltoe, four ounces of the juice of ivy, four

j ounces of the roots of polipody in powder; boil

thefe in white-wine, and give it your dog to drink

as hot as he can fuffer it.

1'hs mange frequently proceeds from wantof frefh
water or drink, when a dog defires it, and fome-
times by foul kennelling, fometimes likewife by
foundeiing and melting his greafe. To cure this
diftemper. take two handfuls of wild crefils, two
haiidfuls of elecampane, as much ofthe leaves and
roots of rhubarb and forrel, and two pounds of ths
roots of frodels, which muft be all vvtll boiled in
lie and vinegar ; ha\ing ftrair.edthe decoflion, put
in it twa pounds of gray foap, and when it is melt-
ed, rub your dog with it four or five days together,
and it will cure him.

There are fome other terms and d-cfcriptions,
partlcuLrly thofe relating \.o furcfi 7^(\A forejl laivs,
wliich muft be- learned before we can reckon our-
fcKcs ptrfedlly well veifcd in the art oi hunting.

R a A

120 Hh Univcrfal Hiftory

A Forest is a ceitain territory of woody ■
grounds, and fruitful pailures, privileged for wild
bealis, and fi)wls of forefts, chace, and warren, to
re(t and abide in the fame protedfion of the king,
for his princely delight ; bounded with unremovc-
able marks and meers, either known by matter of
record or prefcription ; replenifhed with wild beafts
of venery and chace, and with great coverts of vert,
for fuccour of the faid beaffs; for prefervation and
continuance whereof, with the vert and venifon,
there are certain peculiar laws, privileges, and
officers.

Ail the ground adjoning to forefts, is called a
purlieu, ai.d a purlieu- man is he that hath ground
within the purlieu, and 40 s. a year freehold, which
entitles him to hunt, tliough with fome caution,
within his own purlieu.

• The officers of a foreil arc, a forefter, regarder,
ranger, verderer, agiftor, ^c.

A Chace is a place appointed to receive deer
and beafts of the forefts ; in this it differs from a
forejiy that it may be in the hands of a fubjedl ; but
a forefl, properly fpeaking, cannot ; and from a
fark,'\i\ that it is not inclofed like it, and has a
larger compafs, a greater ftore of game, and more
keepers, ai;d overfeers.

The terms peculiar to forefts, chaccs, parks, ^c.
necefTary for the knowledge of huntfmen, are thus
explained :

. Exped'tlate, is the cutting off (according to Mr.
*Manwood) the three rbre-claws of the foot of a great
dog, by the fkin ; and that the owner of every
fuch dog, unexpeditated in the foreft, fhall forfeit
3;. 4,d.

Fence month, hath 31 days, begins 15 days be
fore Midfummer, and ends 15 days after ; in which
time it is unlawful to hunt in the foreft, or to go
among the deer to difquiet them ; becaufe it is the
time of fawning.

Frank chace, is a liberty of free chace in a circuit
annexed to a fcreft, whereby all thofe that have
ground within the circuit, are forbidden to cut
down wood, or difcover, bfc. within the view of
the forefter, though it is his own demefne.

FootgeLi, is an amercement on fuch as live within
the foreft, for not expeditating their dogs. And to
be quit oi footgcld, is a privilege to keep their dogs
unlawed, without any penalty.

With thele inftruftions a fportfman may venture
to take the field, on fuch a horfe as.he'll find de-
fcribed in the treatife on horfmanJlA^ ; obferving
the following diredions.

In Badger-hunting, you muft begin with
jacking the earths and burrows where he lies, and

o/'Arts «;^^ Sciences.

in a (:lear moonfhine-night go and flop ail th«
burrows, except one or two, and therein place
fome facks, faftened with drawing ftrings, which
may (hut him in as foon as he ftraineth the bag.
Sorrie ufe no more than to fct a hoop in the mooth
of the fack, and fo put it into the hole ; and as
foon as the badger is in the fack and ftraineth it,
the fack flippeth ofF the hoop and follows him into
the earth, fo he lies tumbling therein till he is taken.
Thefc facks or bags being thus fct, caft off the
hound?, beating about all the woods, coppices,
hedges, and tufts, round about, for the compafs
of a mile or two, and what badgers are abroad,
being alarmed by the hounds, will foon betake
themfelves to their burrows ; and obfcrve that h3
who is placed to watch the facks, niuft ftand clofe
and upon a clear wind ; otherwife the badger will
difcover him, and will immediately fly fome other
way into his borrow. But if the hounds can en-
counter him before he can take his fanctuary, he
will then ftand at a bay like a boar, and make
good fport, grievoufly biting and clawing the dogs,
for the manner of their fighting is lying on their
backs, ufing both teeth and nails ; and by blowing up
their (kins defend themfelves againft all bites of the
dogs, and blows of the men upon their nofes as a-
forefaid. And for the better prefervation of your
dogs, it is good to put broad collars about their
necks made of greys fkins.

When the badger perceives the terriers to begin
to yearn him in his burrow, he will ftop the hole
betwixt him and the terriers; and if they ftill con-
tinue baying, he will remove his couch into ano-
ther chamber, or part of the burrow, and fo from
one to another, barricading the way before them,
as they retreat, until they can go no further. If
you intend to dig the badger out of his burrow,
you muft be provided with the fame tools as for
digging out a fox ; and befides, you fhould have a
pail of water to refrefh the terriers, when they
come out of the earth to take breath and cool them-
felves. It will alfo be neceffary to put collars of
bells about the necks of your terriers, which making
a noife may csufe the badger to bolt out. The
tools ufed for digging out of the badger being trju-
blefome to be carried on men's backs, may be
brought in a cart. In diggiog, you muft confider
the fituation of the ground, by which you may
judge, where the chief angles are ; for elfe, in-
ftead of advancing the work, you will hinder it.
In this order you may befiege them in their holds,
or caftles, and may break their platforms, parapets,
cafemates, and work to them with mines and coun-
termines, uniil you have overcome them.

Buck

HUNTING.

Buck-hunting. Here tlie fame hounds and
methods nre ufed, as in running the flag ; anJ,
rndeed, he' that can hunt a hart or flag well, will
rot hunt a buck ill.

In order to facilitate the chace, the game keeper
commonly felefls a fat buck out of the herd, which
he fhoots in order to maim him, and then he is
run down by the hounds.

As to the method of hunting the buck : the
company generally go out very early f(;r the be-
nefit of the morning. Sometimes they have a dcL-r
ready lodged, if nor, the coverts are drawn till one
is rouz'd j or fometimcs in a park a deer is pitch-
ed upon, and forced from the herd, then more
hounds are laid on to run the chace : if you come
to be at a fault, the old {launch hounds are only
to be relied upon tdl you recover him again ; if he
be funk and the hounds thruft him up, it is called
an imprime, and the company all found a recheat;
when he is run down, every one ftrives to get in
to prevent his being torn by the hounds : fallow-
deer feldom or never {landing at bay.

He that firft gets in, cries hoo-up, to give no-
tice that he is down and blows a death. When the
Kompany are all come in, they paunch him and re-
ward the hounds ; and generally the chief perfon
of quality arnongft them takes fay, that is, cuts his
belly open, to fee how fat he is. V^'hen this is
done, every one has a chop at his neck, and the
head being cut o{F is fhewed to the hounds to en-
courage thtm to run only at male deer, which
tficy fee by the horns, and to teach^them to bite
only at the head : then the company all ftanding
in a rin;:, one blows a fmgle death, which being
done all blow a double recheat, and fo conclude
the chace with a general halloo of hoo-up, and de-
part the field.

Frx-HUNTiKG makes a very pleafant exerclfe,
a-nd is cither above or below groinid.

I. Above ground. To himt a fox with hounds,
you muft draw about groves, thickets, and bu{hes
nfear villages. When you find one, it will be ne-
•ceflary to flop up his earth the night before you
defign to hunt, and that about midnight, at which
time he is gone out to prey : this may be done, by
laying two white flicks a-crofs in his way, which
be will imagine to be fomegin or trap laid for him;
or elfe, they may be flopped up with black thorns
and earth mixed together.

At firfl, only call ofF your fure finders, and as
the drag mends, add more as you dare trufl them.
The hound firfl call ofF fhould be old and {launch,
and when you hear fuch a hound call on merrily,
you may call off fome others to him ; and when
they run it on the full cry, cafl of the reft : thus

127

you fhill complete your paflime. Tlie words o
comfort arc the fame which are ufeJ in other chaces
The hounds (hjuld be left to kill the fox thenv-
felvef, and to worry and tear him as much as tliey
pleafc.

When he is dead, hang him at the end of a
pike-flafl", and halloo in all your hounds to bay himj
but reward them with nothing beFonging to the fox,
for it is not good, neither will the hounds in com-
mon eat it.

2. Under groutiJ. If in cafe a fox does fo far
efcape as to earth, counirymen mufl be got toge-
ther with {hovels, fpadcs, mattocks, pick-axu,
iSc, to dig him out, if they think the earth not
too great. They make their earths as near as they
can in ground that is hard to dig, as in clay, flony
ground, or arnongft the roots of trees ; and their
earths have commonly but one hole ; and that is
{Irait a long way in before you come at th>?ir
couch. Sometimes craftily they take po{re{rion of
a badger's old burrow, which hath a variety of
chambers, holes, and angles.

Now to facilitate this way of hunting the fcx :
the huntfman mufl be provided with one or two
terriers to put into the earth after him, that is to
fix him into an angle ; for the earth often confifls
of many angles : the ufe of the terrier is to know
where he lies, for as foon as he finds him he con-
tmues baying or barking, fo that which way the
noife is heard that way (jig to him. Your terriers
mufl be g,:rniflied with bells hung in collars, to
make the fox bolt the fooner ; berules the coJlarfi
will be fome fmall defence to the teniers.

The inftruments to dig withai are thcfe ; a fharo
pointed fpade, which ferves to begin the trench,,
where the ground is hardefl, and broader tools will
not fo well enter ; the round hollowed fpade, which
is ufeful to dig among ro( t?, having very fha'p
edges ; the broad fl^t fpade to dig wiiha', when the
trench has been pretty well opened, and the ground
fofter ; mattocks and pick-axes to dig in hard
ground, where a fpade will do but little ferve ; the
coal-rake to cleanfe the hole, and to keep it from
(lopping up ; clamps, whe-rewith you may take
either inx or badger out alive to make .'port with
afterwards. And it would be very convenient to
have a pail of water to jefrcfh your terriers v.ith,
after they are come out of the earth to take breath.

After this manner you may befiege a fox, i3c.
in their flrongeft holes<ind caflle;, and may break
their cafements,. pLiforms, parapets, and work to
them with mines and counter-mines till you have
jhtained what you dcfired.

Hare-hunting. If it ,bc rainy, the hare
ufually takes to the high- ways ; and if fhe come to

ths

122 TJh Univerfal Hiftt»ry of Arts and Sciences.

the fiJe of a young grove, or fpriiig, fhe ieldomlin
enters, but fuuats clown till the liounds have over- vif

ftiot her ; and then (he will return the very way
(he came, for fear of the wet and dew that hangs
en the boughs. In this cafe, the huiitfman ought
to fljy an liundred paces before he comes to the
wood-fide, by which means he will perceive whe
ther fhe return as aforefaid ; which if (he do, he
muft halloo in his hounds, and call them back,
and that prefently.

The next thing that is to be obferved, is the
place where the hare fits, and upon what wind fhe
makes her form, either upon the north or fouth
wind; flie will not willingly lun into the wind, but
lun upon a-fide, or down the wind; but if flu
form in the water, it is a fign (he is foul and meaf
kd: if you hunt fuch a one, have a I'pecial regaro
all the d.iy to the brook fides, for there, and near
pl.ifhes, flu will makcall her crofTings, doublings, f^V.

Some hares have been io cridty, that as foon as
ihty have heard the found of a horn, they would
inftantly (tart out of their form, though it was at
the diftance of a quarter of a mile, and go and
fwim in fonie pool, and reft upon fonie rufli bed
in the niidft of it; and would not (lir from thence
t.li they have heard the horn again, and then have
flarted out again, fwimming to land, and have
flood up before the hounds four hours, before they
could kill tliem, fwimming and ufing all fuNtilties
and crofTings in the water. Nay, fuch is the na-
tural craft and fubtilty of a hare, that fomctimes,
alter fhe has been hunted three huurs, (he will
ftart a-fre(h hare, and fquat in the fame form.

Others having been hunted a confiderable time, will fcent of her foot-ftcps.
creep under the door of a fliecp-coat, and there

hide themfelves among the (hcep ; or when they i Hart cr Stag-hitnting. Firft, encompafs
have been liard hunted, will run in among a flock the beaft in her own layer, and fo unh;rbour her
of (heep, and will by no means be gotten out from in the view of the dogs, that {q you may never lofe
among them, till the hounds are coupled up and her (lot or footing. xNeither muft you fet upon
the (heep driven into their pens. Some of them every one, cither of the herd, or thofe that wander
(and th:it feenis fomewhat ftrange) wdl take the i foli ary alone, or a little one, but partly by light,
ground like a coney, and that is called, going to' and partly by their footing and fumets, make a
the vault. Some hares will go up one fide ot the judgment of the game, and alfo obferve the large-
hedge, and come down the other, the thicknefs of nefs of his layer.

the hedge being the only diftance between the! The huntfman, having made thefe difcoveries in
courfes. A hare that has been forely hunted, has [ order to the chacc, takes o{F the cou,ilings of the

fefted with pifmircs, fnakes, and adders ■; but
wdl fet in corn-fields, and open places. In the
winter-time, they fet near towns and villages, in
tufts of thorns and brambles, efpecially when the
wind is northerly or foutherly. According to the
feafon and nature of the place where the hare i&
iccuftomed to fit, there beat with your hounds^
and ftart her ; wliich is much better fport than
trayling of her from her relief to her form.

After the hare has been ftarted, and is on foot,
then ftep ia where you fav/ her pafs, and halh^
in yo'jr hounds, until they have ail undertaken it,
and go on with it in full cry ; then recheat to them
with your horn, following fair and foftly at firf{»
making not too much noife either with horn or
voice ; for at the firft, hounds are apt to overfhoot
the chace thro' too much heat. But when they
have run the fiMce of an hour, and you fee the
houndi are well in with it, and flick well upon it,
then you may come in nearer with the hound?,
becaufe by that time their heat will be cooled, and
they will hunt more foberly. But, above all things,
mark the firft doubling, which muft be your direc-
tion for the whole day ; for all the doublings that
(he fliall make afterwards will be like the former,
and according to the policies that you (hall fee her
ufe, and the place v.'here you hunt, you muft
make your compa(res great or little, long or (hort,
to help the defaults, always feeking the moifteft
and moil commodious places for the hounds to
fcent in.

To conclude ; thofe who delight in hunting the
hare, muft rife early, left they be deprived of the

got upon a quickfet hedge, and ran a good way
wpon the top thereof, and then leapt off upon the
ground. And tlity will frequently betake them-
("elves to furz bufhes, and will leap from one to
tha other, whereby the hounds are frequentJy in
default.

Having found where a hare hath relieved in fome
pafture or corn-field, you muft tlien confidcr the
feafon of the year, and what weather it is ; for if
it be in the fpring-time or fummer, a hare will
not then fet in bulhes ; becaufe they are frequently

dogs, and fome on horfeback, the others on foot,
follow the cry, with the greateft art, obfervation,
and fpeed, remembring and interccp-.iiig him in
his fubtile turnings and headings ; 'wuh all agi!ity
leaping hedges, gates, pales, ditches : neitljer fear-
ing thorns, down hills, nor woods, but mounting
frefh horfe, if the firft tire ; follow the largcft head
of the whole herd, which muft be fingled out of
the chace ; which the dogs perceiving, muft fol-
low ; not following any other. The dogs are
animated to the fport by the winding of horns, and

the

H U N r I N G

tfie voices of the liuntfrncn. But fometimes the

crafty beaft ("ends fortli his little fquiie to 1 e farri-

ficed to tlie dogs and hunters, inftead of him(l-lf,

lying clofe the mean time. In this cafe, the

Runtlman murt found a retreat, break ofFthedogs,

and take them in, that is, Icani them again, until

t'ey be brought to the fairer game ; which rifctli

with fear, yet ftill fliivcth by flighf, until hr; be

wearied and breat<ilefs. The noblss ca!I the beaft

a vjife hart, who, to avoid all his enemies, runneth

into the greateft herds, and fo brings a cloud of

eirur on the dogs, to obflrud their farther purfuit;

flimctimes alfo beating fome of the herd into his

footings, that fo he may the more eafily efcape, by

amufiro; the dog^. Afterwards he beiakes himfelt

to his heels ag!»in, ftill running with the vHnd,

not only for the fake of refrefhment, but alfo be-

caufe by that means he can the more eafily hear

the voice of his purfuers, whether they be far from

him, or near to him. But at lail being again

difcovered by the hunters and fagacious fccnt of

the dogs, he flies into the herds of cattle, as cows,

fheep, i^c- leaping on a cow or ox, laying the

fore parti of his body thereon, that fo toucliing the

earth only with his hinder feet, he may leave a

Tcry fmall or no fcent at all behind, for the hounds

to difcern.

But their ufual manner is, when they fee them-
felves hard befet, and every way intercepted, to
make force at their enemy with their horns, who
firft comes upon him, unlefs they be prevented
by fpear or fvvord. When the beaft is flain the
huntfman with his horn windeth the fall of the
beaft, and then the whole company comes up,
hlov/iiig their horns in triumph for fuch a coiiqueft ;
aiTion^; whom, the flcilfulleft opens the beal't, re-
V.'ards the hounds with what properly belongs to
them, for their futufe encouragement ; for which
purpofe the huntfmen dip bread in the fkin and
bleed of the beaft, to give to the hounds.

It is very dangerous togo in to a Hart at buy, of
which there are two forts, one on land and the other
in water. Now if the Hart be in a deep water,
where you cannot well come at him, then couple
up your dogs ; for fHould they continue long in the
water, it would endanger their furbating or foun-
dering. In this cafe, get a boat, and fwim to him,
with dagger drawn, or elfe with rope that has a
noofe, and throw it over his horns ; for if the
v/ater be fo deep that the Hart fwims, their is no
danger in approaching him; otherwife you muft
be very cautious.

As to a liir.d-lay ; if a Hart be burnifhed, then
you muft confider the place; for if it be in a plain
and open place, where there is no wood nor covert,
it is dangerous and difficult to come in to him ; but

123

if he be on a hedge-fide, or in a thicket, theii»
while the Hart is ftaring on the Hounds, you may
come foftly and covertly bchir.d liim, and cut his
throat. If you niifs }o«r aim, and the /;ffr< turn
head upon you, then take refuge at fome tree ;
and when the hart is at bay, couple up your
hounds : and when you fee the hart turn head to
fly, gallop in, rounJly to him, and kill him v.'ith
your fword.

DircElU.ris at the death of a Hart or BucK.

The firft ceremony, when the huntfman comes
in to the death of a deer, is to cry, ivare haunch,
that the hounds may not break in to the deer ;
which being done, the next is the cutting his
throat, and there blooding the youngeft hound;,
that they may the better K ve a deer, and lear:! to
leap, at his throat : then the mort having teen
blown, and all the company come in, tlie beft per-
fon, who hath not taken fay before, is to take up
the knife that the keeper or huntfman is to lay a-
crofs the belly of the deer, fome holding by the
fore-legs, and the keeper or huntfman drawing
down the pizzle, the perfon who takes fay, is to
draw the edge of the knife leifurely alorg the mid-
dle ot the belly, beginning near the hrifker, and
drawing a little upon it, enough in the length and
depth to difcover how fat the deer is ; then he that
is to break up the deer, firft flits the fkin from the
cutting of the throat downwards, making the ar-
ber, that fo the ordure may not break forth, and
then he paunches him, rewarding the hounds witfr
it.

In the next place, he is to prefent the fime per-
fon, viho took fay-, with a drawn hanger, to cut oft'
t!ie head of the deer. Which being done, and the-
hounds rt warded, the concluding ceremony i---, if it
be a ftag, to blow a tripple mort; and if a buck,
a double one ; and then all who have horns, blow
a recheat in concert, and immediately a general
whoop, .whoop.

Otter-Hunting is performed with dogs, and
alfo with a fort of inftruments, called ctter-fpears ;
with which, when they find themfelves wounded,
they make to land, and fight with the dogj,and
that moft furioiifly, as if they were fenfibie that
cold water would annoy their green wounds.

There is indeed craft to be ufed in hunting them 3
but they may be catched in fnar^s under water,
and by river- fides; but great care muft be taken,
for they bite forely and venomoufly ; and if they
happen to remain long in the fnare, they will get
themfelves free by theirteeth.

In hunting them, one man muft be on one fide
of the river, and another on the other, both beat-
ing the banks with dogs ; asid the btart not being

able ■

124 -^^ Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

able to endure the water long, you will foon dif
cover, if there be an otter, or not, in that quarter;
for he muft come out to make his fpiaints, and in
the night fometinies to feed on grafs and herbs.

If any of tlic hounds finds out an otter, then
view the foft grounds and moift plices, to find out
which way he bent his head ; if you cannot dif-
cover this by the marks, you may partly perceive it
by the fpraints ; and then follow the hounds, and
lodge him as a hart or deer. But if you do not
find him quickly, you may imagine he is gone to
couch fomewhere farther off from the river ; for
fr)mctiincs they will go to feed a confiderable way
from the place of their reft, choofing rather to go
up the river than down it. The perfons that go a
huntintf otters, muft carry their fpears, to watch
his vents, that being the chief advantage; and if
they perceive h;m fwimming under water, they
mail endeavour to (hike him with their ipears,
and if they mifs, muft puifuc him with the hounds,
which, it they be fo good and perfedly entered,
will go chanting and trailing along by the rivi r-
fide, and will beat every root of a tree, and olier-
bed, and tuft of buU-rulhes ; nay, they will fome-
tnnes take v.'ater, and bait the beaft, like a fpaniel,
bj which means he will hardly efcape.

RoE-BucK.Hu.NTiNG is performed divers
wa; s, and very eafiiy in the woods.

When chafed, they ufually run againil the wind,
beciiufe the coolnefs of the air rehcfiies them in
their courfe ; therefore the huntfmcn place their
dof^s with the wind : they ufually, when hunted,
firtt take a large ring, and afterwards hunt the
hounds. They are alfo often taken by counter-
feiting their voice, which a fl'ilful huntfman knows
how to do by means of a leaf ui his moutl^« When
they are hunted, they turn much and often, and
cotiie back upon the dogs diredly; and when they
can no longer endure, they take foil, as the hart
does, and will hang by a bough in fuch a manner,
that nothing of them fliall appear above the water

but their fnout, and they will fufFer the dogs t«
come juft upon them before they will ftir.

The venifon of a roe- buck is never out of feafon,
being never fat, and therefore they are hunted at
any time ; only that fome favour ought to be
fhewn the doe, while fhe is big with fawn, and
afterwards till her fawn is able to fhift for himfelf.
He is not called, by the fkilful in the art of hunt-
ing, A great roe-buck, but a fair roe-buck ; the
herd of them is called a bevy ; and if he hath not ,
bevy-greafe upon bis tail, when he is broken up,
he is more fit to be dog's meat than man's meat.

The hounds muft be rewarded with the bowel*,
the blood, and feet flit al'uuder, and boiled all to-
gether.

From thofe words of God to Jdam, Gen. i. 26,
28. and to Noah, Gen. i\. 2, 3. Hunting was
confidered as a right devolved, or made over to
man ; and the following ages appear to have been
of the fame fentiment. Accordingly we find th..t
among the more civilized nations, as the Perfians,
Greeks, and Romans, itniadeone of their genteeler
diverfions ; and as to the wilder and more barba-
rous, it ferved them with food and necelLries.
The Roman 'Jurijprudcnce, which was formed on
the manners of the firft ages, made a law of it,
and eftablifhed it as a maxim, that as the natural
right of things which have no mafter, belongs to
the firft profelFor ; wild beafts, birds, and fifli;s,
are the property of whoever can take them firft.
But the northeai nations of Barbarians who over-
run the Roman empire, bringing with them a
ftronger tafte for the diverfion ; and the people
being now polleflcd of other and more eafy means
of fubfilfence, from the lands and pofl'eflions of
thofe they had vanquifhed ; their chiefs and leaders
began to appropriate the right of Hunting, and
mftead of a natural right, to make it a rpyal one.
Thus it continues to this day ; the right oi huniliig
among us belonging only to the king, and thofe
who derive it from him.

HUSBANDRY

IT would be very proper to introduce this trea-
tife, with principles of vegetation : but that
has been already done in the head of Garden-
ing. We (hall therefore begin with our remarks
on Tillage.

'Tillage is the art of dividing the particles of the
natural earth to advantage, or to render it fiuitful.

This divifion is msde either by fermentation,
/. e. by mixing dung with the earth, or by breaking
the native earth mechanically into parts with a

fpade, a plough, a hoe, or any other inftrument
invented lor fuch a purpofe.

The moft profitable method to increafe the
fruitfulnefs of land is, the laft mentioned ; not only,
on account of the fcarcity and price of dung, but
becaufe the particles of earth may be divided and
fubdivided, ad infinitum.

It is alfo worthy our attention, that no grain
nor roots, nor pulfe fown in land, manur'd with

■ dunj

HUSBANDRY

125

dung^ ever have the fine flavour as thofe produced
in a good foil, that has not been dung'd.

Befidcs dimg h.nbours infers, vi'hich live upon,
and deftroy the phints and grain.

Not that dung ihould be totally reiefted. It ip
neceffary in clay lands which have their parts fo
clofe : it prevents the parts re uniting after being
divided by tillage : fo that the roots can't penetrate
them without great difficulty : and confequently,
they mufl languifh for want of nourifhment. And
it is no lefs neceffary for fuch light lands, as con-
tain but few nutritive parts.

Whenever liawg- is ufed in cultivating of land,
prepare the dunghill in this manner. Sprinkle
each layer of dung with quick lime. This will
kill the infeiSs, deftroy the feeds of weeds, enrich
the dung, and warm a cold earth.

Tho' dung be ufed, the hufbandman muft not
fpare his labour in the tillage : on the contrary, he
will find the moft profit by multiplying the frequent
plowings of the earth, and not he content with
rolling and harrowing : for in very moift land, the
roller will do it more hurt than good ; and to
Icratch the earth with a harrow, is not only of
little fervice, but when it is moift, the horfes
poach and damage it confiderably.

If the ground to be broke up be wood land, the
earth is fo well broken into particles, by grubbing
up the roots of the trees, that you need give it only
one plowing in autumn, and another in the
fpring.

If it be covered with broom, heath, ruflies, fern,
bufhes, and briars, burn them towards the end of
fummer, when the plants are wither'd. Then
grub up the ftrongeft roots with a pick-ax : and
after the autumnal rains, plow the land into high
ridges, with a ftrong plough. Another plowing
in the fpring prepares it for fowing it with oats.
The fecond year will require three thorough
plowings, and it will be fit for wheat in the third
year,

If it be pafture or meadow land to be tilled,
one ploughing in autumn, and another in fpring :
if it be not too wet, fits it for oats. But it
won't yield a good crop of wheat, till the earth be
finely reduced for that grain, which requires more
nouriftiment than oats.

Lands thus ploughed foreight or ten years fhould
then be burnt, that the particles may be better
divided.

If the land fliould be marfhy, drain off the wa-
ter by ditches or trenches, and then treat it as
above.'

The Manures are the next object of the
hulbandman's attention.
Vol. II. 33.

Clay, fays Mr. Evelyn, p. 22, ofhis7Vn-a, is
of all other a curft ftep-dame to almoft all vegeta-
tion, as having few or no meatus' 5 for the percolation
of the alimental (howcrs, or expanfion of the roots;
whether it be the voracious, hungry, weeping, or
cold fort. In thefe cafes laxatives are to be pre-
fcribed, fuch as Anhfand, fmall gritty gravel, jaw-
dujf, with marie or chalk, and continually vexing
It with the fpade or plow; but above all, with
Ica-faiid, where it may be procured, and the burn-
ing of the ground to ajhes, and all that it bears,
the more the better; for by no lels feveritv will
this ill-natur'd mould be fubdued : rotten wood, and
the bottom of bavine ftacks, are good ingredients
to this manure ; and if it be a cold and wet fort,
ftrewings of foot are good ; if very ftiff, rubbifli of
brick, lime-Jlone, and fuch tralTi, may properly be
laid at the bottom, and on the upper part con.pojls
of dun^.

Rotten-tvood, and faw-dujl when rotted, fays
Mr. Miller too, is a very good manure for ftrong
lands, becaufe it loofens the parts of the earth, and
renders it light.

Mr. Lijlc, Vol. I. p. 26. advifes, as a good
way, to tame harfh, churlifh, obftinate clay, to
fling it up in ridges in the winter, and after the firft
froft, when it thaws and molders, to fling and tem-
per amongft it ajhcs or chalk, or whatfoever you
have to qualify it : for the time being nickt,wherein
you can catch the clayey corpufdes under the
greateft difunion and feparation, is the time for
keeping them fo, by mixing thefe other lighter
bodies amongft them, which will the longeft pre-
vent them from their re-union.

Sea-fandanAJhells axe ufed to great advantage
as a manure, in many places where they can be
had without too much expence. Mr. Miller ad-
vifes them chiefly for cold ftrong land, and loam in-
clining to clay. They feparate the parts ; and the
falts which are contained in them, are a very great
improvement of land. Coral, and fuch kind of
ftony plants which grow on the rocks, are filled
with falts which are very beneficial to land. But
as thefe bodies are hard, the improvement is not
the firft or fecond year after they are laid on the
ground, becaufe they require time to be pulverifed
before their falts can mix with the earth to
impregnate it. The confequence of this is, that
their manure is lafting. Sand, and the fmaller
kinds oifea-we^di, will inrich land for fix or feven
years ; and jhells, corals, and other hard bodies,
will continue many years longer.

In fome countries, at a great diftance from the

fea, great quantities of fofTil-fhells have been dif-

covered,and ufed with fuccefs as manure : but they

are not near fo full of falts, as thofe Ihells which

S. are

126 Tlje Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

are taken from the fea-fhore ; and therefore the
latter are alv/ays to be, preferred.

Sea /and \s mucli ufed as manure in Cornwall,
fays Mr, Borlace in his Natural Hijiory of that
county. The beft is that which is intimately mixed
with coral. In places where this excellent manure
is found, it is taken up by a large bag of the
ftrongeft canvas, to the mouth of which is fitted
an iron hoop or frame for keeping it open, and
finking it to the bottom of the fca, fo as it may
receive the fand and coral as it is dredged along by
the bargemen. A barge-load is ufually delivered
for ten fhillings, or Itfs if near the place of dredg-
ing : and where the land is good, a barge-load will
drefs an acre. It is ufed more for corn, than
pafture grounds. It gives the heat of lime, and
thefatnefsof oil, to the land it is laid upon. Being
more folid than fiiell-, it conveys a greater quantity
of fermenting earth in equal fpacc. Btfides, it
does not diffolve in the ground fo foon as {hells,
but decaying more gradually, continues longer to
impart its warmth to the juices of the earth. It is
chiefly found in Falmouth harbour, and the fhores
adjoining. Not-only fea-fand is ufed as manure
by every one who has it in his reach, but after'
florms they find the alga marina, fucus anjcrva^
or ore weed, one of the bell manures which nature
affords, fcattered In great plenty on the fhore. Be-
ing a fub-marine plant, the wind and fun foon
exhale its moifture : the fooner therefore it is taken
from the fhore, the better ; and being fpread on
old and flifF earth, then covered with fand, it foon
dill'olves into a fait oily flime.

This is the moft approved way of applying it.
Some lay it naked and frefli from the fea, upon
their barley lands, in the end of March and be-
ginning of Jpril, and have a good crop of corn :
but the weeds grow fo plentifully and rank after-
wards, that no v.'holfome grafs for pafture is to be
expected for that year. Sir George M'-Keiizie ob-
ferves {Phil. Tranf. No. 1 17.) that lands often
ufed to this manure yield bad oats, and in a fmall
i^uantity, the hufks thicker than ordinary, and
more darnel among the corn, than in lands which
have not .*() much ore- weed laid upon them.

The ufe of Jand, as Mr. Miller obferves, is to

the earth itfelf loofe and incompa£t, and by that
means give room for the juices to afceiid, and for
plants to be nourifhed thereby.

Thus, a vegetable, planted either in fand alone,
or in a fat glebe, or earth alone, receives no
growth or increment at all, but is either ftarved or
fufFocated : but mix the two, and the mafs be-
comes fertile. In efFedt, by means of fand, the
earth is rendered, in fome manner, organical ;
pores and interftices being hereby maintained,
fomething analogous to veflels, by which the juices
may be conveyed, prepared, digelJed, circulated,
and at length excerned, and thrown off into the
roots of plants.

Sea'fatid, continues Mr. Miller, is accounted a
very good comport for ftift' ground, for it efFeiSls
the two things following, vix. It makes way for
the tree or feed to root in fliff ground, and makes
a fume to feed it.

Chalk, lime, rubbifh of old houfes, or, in fhort,
whatever loofens the body of the clay, are good
manures.

Shell-Marie, or any tnarlc, which, dropt into
vinegar, makes a Itrongeffervefcence, is a peculiarly-
good manure for clay : for, diiTolving eafdy in wa-
ter, it gives a freer paflage toil, whereby the clay
is kept dry even in winter ; and if the clay is of a
cold acid quality, the abforbent quality of the
marie deftroys that acidity, and k' eps the clcy
warm. Many late experiments prove the truth of
this, its effedfs being much beyond what could
have been expected.

In very cold moid land, fays Mr. Miller, I have
frequently feen new horfe-dimg buried as it came
from the ftable, and always obferved that the crops
have fucceeded better, than where the ground was
dreffed with very rotten dung.

Shceps dung and deers dung are nearly of the
fame quality, and are efteemed by fome the beft of
dungs for cold clays. Some recommend beating
them into powder, and fpreading them very thin
over autumn or fpring crops, about four or five
loads to an acre, in the fame manner that aP>es.y
jnalt-duJ}.,USc. are ftrewed. But thefe light dref-
fmgs do not lafi: long.

In Flanders, and other parts, they houfe their

make the clayey earth fertile, and fit to feed ve- ,foiep at nights in places fpread with dean fand, laid

^etables, i^c. for earth alone, we find, is liable to
foalefce, and gather into a hard coherent mafs, as
is apparent in clay ; and earth thus embodied, and,
as it were, glued together, is no ways difpofed to
nourifh vegetables : but if with fuch earth, fand,
tfc. i. e, hard cryflals, which are not diffolvable in I
water, and ftill retain their figure, be intermixed,
they will keep the pores of the earth open, and

about five or fix inches thick ; which, being laid
on frefli every night, is clear'd out once a week..
This mixture oi JandznA dung, makes an excellent
drelfing for ftrong land ; for the dung and urine of
thzJJjcepis a very rich manure. Mr. ^lintcncy
thinks it the greateft promoter of fruitfulnefs in all
forts of ground. Others recommend hogs dung, as-
the fatteft and moft beneficial of any.

Tlie

HUSBANDRY.

The dung of pigeons and poultry is efpecially
■^ood for cold, wet, clayey lands : but it ought to
be dried before it be fliewcd, bccaul'e it is naturally
apt to clod in wet ; and it (hould be mixed with
earth or fand to keep it from clogging together,
that it may be flrewed thin, being naturally very
hot and ftrong.

Human dung is another great improver of all
cold four lands, and efpecially if it be mixed with
other earths or dungs to give it a fermentation.

But there is not any fort of manure equal to the
cleanfing of tlie llreets of great cities, for all ftub-
born clavey foils, the parts of which will be better
fcparated, and in a much lefs time, with this ma-
nure, than with any other compoft whatfoever.

Sand. By the fame rule thatyawifertilifes ftrong
clayey grounds, clay meliorates light and fandy
foils. But this manure can never have its due
€ft'e(Sl, unlefs it be well broken, and divided into
fuch fmall particles as to be able to incorporate
thoroughly with the light earth.

Arenous and fandy earth, fays Mr, Evelyn,
p. ig. wants ligature ; and befides, confifting of
fharp and afperous angles, wounds and galls, curls
and dwarfs our plants, without extraordinary help,
to render the paffages more flippery and eafy : and
therefore relenting chalks, or chalk-mnrle, is pro-
fitable, with calcinations of turf^ or fea-zvrack,
where it is at hand : and if the foil be exceeding
bibulous, fpread a layer or couch oi loam, difcreetlv
mingled at the bottom, to entertain the moifture.
— Sand, being of an open and loofe contexture, is
apt to put forth a forward fpring, as more eafily
admitting the folar rays : but it does not continue,
and is an infirmity which may be remedied with
loam, which not only unites it clofer for the pre-
fent, but is capable in time to alter and change
its very nature alfo, fo as too hot a conipojl be no
ingredient with it. — If the foil be fandy, or other
light mixed earth, imbody it with fomething of a
fatter nature, as marie ; and be fure fo to flir and
lay it (efpecially if with loam') that it may not fink
too deep, and fuddenly, as 'tis apt to do, and fo
defert the furface-mould, where it fiiould do the
feat, and therefore it is to be the oftner repeat-
ed.

Dr. Lijler divides the Englijlo fands into two
claffes : the firft, {harp or red land, confifting of
fmall tranfparent pebbles, naturally found on the
mountains, and not calcinable : the fecond, foft
or fmooth.

Mr. Miller obferves, that grounds which are
fandy and gravelly, eafily admit both of heat and
moiflurc ; but then they are liable to thefe incon-
veniences, that they let them pafs too foon, and fo

127

contrail no ligature, or elfe retain them too long,
efpecially where there is a clay bottom ; and by
that means they are either parched or chilled too
much, and produce nothing but mofs and can-
kerous infirmities ; but if the fand happens to have
a furfacc of good mould, and a bottom of gravel
or loofe ftone, ihough it do not hold the water, it
may produce a forward Iweet grafs ; and though
it may be fubjedl to burn, yet it quickly recovers
with the Icaft rain.

Sand indeed is apt to pufli the plants that grov*'
upon it, early in the fpring, and make them ger-
minate near a month fooner than thofc that grow
upon clay ; becaufe the fahs in the fand are at full
liberty to be railed and put into motion, upon the
leaft approach of the warmth of the fun : but then,
as they are hafl:y, they are foon exhaled and loih

Cloy is another excellent manure, fays the au-
thor of the Neiv Syjlcm of Hufbandry, p. 124. and
eafy enough to be found in all places : but you
muli: obferve, 'tis only ufeful upon fandy grounds,
or any lands of a nature entirely different from its
own; among which you mzy reckon gravelly ov
pebbly foils. To thefe it brings the only part of
excellence they naturally want, and confequently
changes' them, from what they were originally,
to an equal fertility with the beft and richeft.

This will, perhaps, be flrange news to many
countrymen, who have bought dung, all their life-
time, to deftroy their land with. 'Tis as great a
folly, adds CHir author, to dung grounds which re-
quire cooling, as 'twould be thought to adminifter
poifon, to cure a man of a fever. Our farmers
are not fenfible, that the temper of the land mud,
as neccfTarily, be confulted, as the pulfe of the
patient. The dunghill only is their univerfal re-
fuge ; they fly to that upon all occafions. They
mifs a crop, by dunging an improper foil ; and lay
on more dung to remedy the misfortune.

The pradtice of the North-Riding of Yorhjhire,
as related by Dr. Lifter, Phil. Tranfaa. N°. 225.
ftiews to hov/ great advantage clay "is made ufe of
there, as a manure. The clay is of a bluifh
colour, not fandy at all, but very ponderous. They
dry it about Midfummer, on the declivity of a hill,
and lay 100 loads on an acre of ground of a lin-ht
fandy foil. They obferve, that for three or four
years it continues yet in clods upon the land-; and
that the firft year, the land fo manured bears rank
ill-coloured and broad-grain'd barley, but after-
wards a plump round -corn like wheat. This clay
manuring will, by certain experience, lafl above
forty years in the ground, and then it mufl be
clayed again. This fandy ground, unlels clayed,
will bear nothing but rye, whatever other manure
they ufe.

S 2 Ch^

128 'TJk Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

C/<jy becomes a much better manure when mixed ; to cure the defeds of land, which are as various in
with lime, then perhaps cither of them arc fingly. \ their qualities as the dungs are, that are ufed to
The lime correas the bad qualities of the clay, by ', meliorate and reftore them. Some lands abound

too much in coldnefs, moifture, and heavinefsj
others again are too light and dry ; and fo, to an-

rendering it more friable

Sea-oufe, that is, the fettling of the tides on
fhores, and level places, between low and high-
water mark, is a manure of incomparable excellence
for many forts of lands ; but is, on others, to be
avoided,' as a certain bane to whatever part 'tis
mixed with. Loofe fandy foils are peculiarly be-
nefited by it.

The cleaning of ponds and ditches becomes like-
wife here an excellent manure, confifting of the
putrified animal and vegetable bodies mixed with
the rich earth depofited there by rains, ^c. The
fame may be faid of the mud in rivers, where, by
the ftagnating, or want of current in the water,
the rich particles carried down by it have time to
fubfide.

But of all the manures for fandy foils, none is
fo good as mark. There are many different kinds
and colours of it, feverally diftinguifhed by many
writers ; but their virtue is the fame ; and they
may all be ufed upon the fame ground, without
the fmalleft difference in their effect.

The colour is, either red, brown, yellow, blue,
gray, or ?nix'd. It is to be known by its pure and
uncompounded nature. There are many marks
to diftino-uifh it by; fuch as its breaking into little
fquare bits ; its falling eafily to pieces, by the force
of a blow, or upon being expofed to the fun, and
the froft ; its feeling fat and oily, and Ihining when
'tis dry. — But the moft unerring way to judge of
marie, and know it from any other fubftance,
which may appear like it, is, to break a piece as
big as a large nutmeg, and, when 'tis quite dry,
drop it to the bottom of a glafs of clear water,
where, if it be right, it will diffolve and crumble,
as it were to duft, in a very little time, fhooting
up many fparkles to the furface of the water.

Loam, being free from the too great ftiffnefs of
(lay, and the too little cohefion oifand, in order to
its due culture, feems only to ftand in need of be-
ing kept in good tilth, and fupplied at proper fea-
fons with fuch fubftances as the experience of ages
has fhewn to contain in them matter fit for the
nourifhment of plants, or at leaft to be endued
with the power of rendering the earth fruitful. Such
fubllances we Ihall therefore call general manures.
Of thefe, dungs of all kinds, putrid, vegetable and
animal fubllances, alhes of vegetables, and even
of fea-coal and peat, foot, and lime, are the
chief.

Dungs, as Mr. Milter obferves, are defigned to
repair the decays of exhaufted worn out lands, and

fwer this, fome dungs are hot and light, as that ot
(heep, horfes, pigeons, i^c. others again are fat
and cooling, as that of oxen< cows, hogs, i^c.
And as the remedies that are to be ufed, inuft be
contrary to the diftempers they are to cure ; fo the
dung of oxen, cows, and hogs, muft be given to
lean, dry, light earths, to make them fatter and
clofer ; and hot and dry dungs to meliorate cold,
moift, and heavy lands.

There are, continues he, two peculiar proper-
ties in dung : the one is to produce a certain fenliblc
heat, capable of producing fome confiderable effedl,
which properties are feldom found but in the dung
of horfes and mules, while it is newly made, and
a little moid : the other property of dung is, to
fatten the earth, and render it more fruitful.

The dung of horfes and mules is an admirable
fertilizer : but care muft be taken not to lay too
much of it on corn lands, becaufe it produces a-
bundance of draw.

Horfe dung, being of a very hot nature, is beft
for cold lands, and cow dung for hot lands ; and
being mixed together, may make a very good ma-
nure for moft forts of foils, and for fome they may
be mixed with earth.

The dung of pigeons and fowls is fo rich, that
it is generally ufed for a drefling to plants whilft
they are growing. That of pigeons, fays Mr.
Miller, is the beft fuperficial improvement that caa
be laid on meadow or corn land : but before it is
ufed, it ought to have lain abroad out of the dove-
houfe fome time, that the air may have a little
fweetened it, and mollified the fiery heat that is in
thefe dungs.

The dung of poultry being hot and full of falts,
tends much to facilitate vegetation : and is abun-
dantly quicker in its operation, than the dung of
animals which feed on herbs.

To animal fubftances belong all parts of their
bodies, as flefh, blood, fliavings of bones, hoofs,
rags of their wooll or hair, ^c.

Mr. Evelyn fays, the blood and flefti of animals
is much more powerful for the enriching of land,
than their dung and excrements, and is computed
at twenty times the advantage ; and to the fame
advance above this, is hair and calcined bones.
Woollen rags are peculiarly ufed for light foils.
They fbould be chopt fmall, about an inch or two
fquare, and fcattered on the earth at the fecond
plowing ; for being thereby covered, they will be-
gin to rot by feed-time. They imbibe the moifture

HUSBANDRY,

129

of dews and rain, and retain it long ; and, as Dr.
Home obferves, thereby keep light foils in a moift
ftate. The fame may be faid of the hoofs of
cattle, when fet upright in the earth, as Mr.
Ellis direifts. They hold the rain that drops into
them, and it putrifies there, till, being worked
out by fucceeding fhowers, it falls upon the fur-
rounding earth, and communicates a great fertility
to it. — Sea-fhells may likewife be included under ;
this head : but we have already fpoken of them, in j
the article clay.

Vegetables afford great abundance of excellent
manure. The cuftom of plowing in green fuccu-
lent plants, is very antient. All the Roman au-
thors fpeak of it particularly. Buck wheat and
vetches are the two plants mod frequently fown in
England for that purpofe ; and the time of plowing
them in, is when they are in bloom, being then
in their mofl fucculent ftate. Some farmers plow
in their fecond crop of clover, to enrich the land
for wheat in the autumn. This (hould be done
early enough to give the plants fufBcient time to
putrify thoroughly before the grain is fowed : other- 1
wife it might prove prejudicial, by bringing on a '.
heat which would hurt the corn. Sea- weeds of '
all forts are a moft profitable manure to be plow-
ed in.

Rotten vegetables of moft forts, fays Mr Miller,
greatly enrich land : fo that, where other manure
is Icarce, thefe may be ufed with great fuccels.
The weeds of ponds, lakes, or ditches, being
dragged out before they feed, and laid on heaps to
rot, will make excellent manure ; as will moft
other forts of weeds. But wherever any of theie
are employed, t hey fliould be cut down as foon as
they begin to flower: for if they are fuffered to
ftand untill their feeds are ripe, the land will be
ftored with weeds, which cannot be deftroyed in
two or three years ; nay, fome kind of weeds, if
they are permitted to ftand fo long as to form their
feed, will perfect them after they are cut down,
which may be equally preiudicial to the land :
therefore the fureft way is to cut them down juft
as they begin to flower ; at which time moft forts
of vegetables are in their greateft vigour, being

o ^ O to ' o

then Itronger and fuller of juice, than when their
feeds are farther advanced : fo that at that time
they abound moft with falts, and therefore are more
proper for the intended purpofe. In rotting thefe
vegetables, it will be proper to mix fome earth,
mud, or any other fuch like fubftances with them,
to prevent their taking fire in their fermentation ;
which they are very fubject to, when they are laid
in large heaps, without any other mixture to pre-
vent it : and it wil be proper to cover the heaps
ever with earth, mud, or dung, to detain thelalts;

otherwife many of the finer particles will evaporate
in fermenting. When thefe vegetables arc tho-
roughly rotted, they will form a folid mafs, which
will cut like butter, and be very full of oil, which
will greatly enrich the land.

Another manure,greatly,and very properly recom-
mended by this gentleman, is rotten tanner's bark.
Oak-bark, fays he, after the tanners have ufed it
for tanning of leather, when laid in a heap, and
rotted, is an excellent manure efpecially for ftifF
cold land ; in which one load of this manure will
improve the ground more, and lalt longer, than
two loads of the richefl dungs. It is better tor cold
ftrong land, than for light hot grounJ, becaufe it
is of a warm nature, and will loofen and feparate
the earth ; fo that where this manure has been
u'ed three or four times, it hath made the land very
loofe, which before was ftiong, and not eafy to be
wrought. When this manure is laid on grafs, it
ftiould be done foon after Michaelmas, that the
winter rains may wafh it into the ground : for if it
is laid on in the pring, it will burn the grafs, and,
inftead of improving it, will greatly injure it for
that feafon. Where it is ufed for corn land, it
fhould be fpread on the furface before the laft plow-
ing, that it may be turned down for the fibres of
the corn to reach it in the fpring ; for if it lies too
near the furface, it will forward the growth of corn
in winter ; but in the fpring, when the nourilh-
ment is chiefly wanted to encourage the fleni , it
will be nearly confumed, and the corn will re-
ceive little advantage from it.

JJhes of all green vegetables contain an alkaline
fait, of great ufe as a manure, but eafily dilFolved
in water, and carried ofi\ Greater care fhould
therefore be taken to keep fuch aflies covered from
the air, till ufed.

Peat-ajhes are likewife of great fervice. We (hall
here give Mr. Elis's account of thi? manure in his
own words, vol. II. p. 68. " If barley, fays he,
is fown fo late as the beginning of May, lean peat-
afhes in particular may be applied over it, or har-
rowed in with the grain : but allies burnt from fat
black peat, fuch as they dig at Nevjbury^ are of
fuch a fulphurous nature, that they are afraid to
lay them on their barley ; and they do not drefs
their wheat with them till the fpring is advanced,
and then they are fbv.n over it. — The great ufe of
thefe afhes was found out about thirty (now fifty)
years ago : but in a little time after they were
brought into difreputation, by their imprudently
laying on too many at a time, which burnt up the
corn. Afterwards they found that fix or ten
bufliels were fulficient to be fown over an acre of
wheat, peafe, turneps, clover, rape-feed, or St.
Foyne, as early as they conveniently could. But,

130 The Univerfal Hiftory

as I faid before, they arc afraid to fow it over bar-
ley, left a dry time fliouid cnfue, and bum it up ;
for thcfc aflies arc reckoned to contain three times
as much fulphur in them, as there is in coal afhes;
and this they reafonably imagine from their great
brimftone fmell, fparkling and jumping, when they
are ilirred as they are burning, and drying up the
corn by their too great heat. Thefe peat-afhes,
and likewife thofe from wood or coal, will help to
keep off the Hug from peafe and other grains, by
the fait and fulphur contained i,n them, :and very
much conduce to their prcfervation in cold wet fqa-:
fons. But there is no fuch danger to be feared
from the aflies of that peat, which grows as a-turf
over fandy bottoms, as great quantities do on
Leighton-heath, in Bedfordflnre ; for thefe are as
much too lean, as the others are too rank."

Soot, either of vegetables or of coal, is reckon'd
a good improver of cold and moifi: grounds. Many
find their account in ftrewing it early over their
green wheat and barley : but Mr. Ellis fays, nei-
ther, of them ought by any means to be footed after
the 25th of April, becaufe the wheat, and gene-
rally the barley, -have then- done, gathering and
branching, and are upon the fpindle.. He thinks
it likewife proper to be fown over young tUrneps,
that have all juft appeared. Care fhould be taken
not to ftrew it too thick ; for otherwife its hot na-
ture might hurt the plants.

Malt-duji is a good manure for poor clayey
lands ; and will oftentimes go farther than duttg.
It is moft beneficial when rain falls upon it foon
after its being flrewed, and waflies it into the earth
before it has Joft its flrcngth. In fome parts of
Berkjhiy-e, they lay the malt-duJl on at the fame
time that they fow the wheat, and harrow them
both in together. This they find turn to good ac-
count. Some hufbandmen hold it to be better for
iummer corn, than for wheat, and the reafon they
aflign is, that the winter corn lies a whole year in
the ground, and the malt-duft will have fpent its
ftrength by the time the winter is over, and not
hold up the corn in heart all the fummer. i hey
fow with the wheat two quarters oi malt-duft to an
acre, which makes four quarters of corn meafure.
, This manme is likewife a great improvement to
cold grafs grounds.

All forts of fern, draw, brake, flubble, ruflies,
thulles, leaves of trees, or any manner of vegetable
tralh whatever, fays Mr. IVorlidge, either -call into
the yards amongft the cattle or fwine, or caft into
gqois or places to rot in, or mixed with other foils,
j^elp very much, and make very good compoi^,
The Ices of wine and the grounds and fettlings of
beer, ale, isc. have the fame cffe(St. . ■

Chaltis a lafting manure for lands that.it agrees

of Arts and Sciences.

with. Pliny tells Us it was fhe cuftom of the Bri-
tons to chalk their lands, by which, fays he, they
received a great improvement, which laftcd. their
lives. f ■

It is a general faying» that chalking is better for
the father than the fon ; but experience often fhe\^s
it to be as good an improvement as d'^g^ for
twenty years together : and that clay land has been
always the better for it.

There are feveral forts of chalk : fome of fo hard
ana iiidilToluble a nature, that it is not fit to lay on
lands fimply as it is, but after it is burnt into lime,
it becomes an excellent improver. Other forts of
chalk, more undluous and foluble, being laid on
lands crude as they ate, and let lie till the frofts
and rain (hatter and diflblve them, prove a very
confiderable advantage to barren lands. — Where
any of thefe chalks are found, Mr. Worlidge ad-
vifes proving their natures, by laying them on fome
fmall portion of land, crude as they are, or by
burning them into lirne, if fewel be plenty, or to
half-burn them ; by which, fays he, you may ex-
perimentally knov/ the true efteeSs and benefits that
fubjeft will yield. -r-And although, continues he,
chalk, fimply of itfelf, either burnt or unburnt, may
not prove fp advantageous as many have reported,
yet it is of very great ufe to be mixed with earth
and the dungsof animals, by which may be made
an admirable, fure, and natural fruitful compofi-
tion for almoft any fort of lands, and raifeth corn
in abundance.

Chalk ought never to be plowed in, either too
foon or too deep. It Ihould have time to crack
and wafte on the furface of the earth, and not be
turned down to the bottom of the furrow, left it
fliould fubfide there in a mafs, and not be ftirred
by fubfequent plowings. Twelve or fourteen loads
upon an acre will make fome lands produce extra-
ordinary crops of corn for fourteen or fifteen years
together. — In the IJle of TVight, they fometimes
lay twenty-five waggon-loads of it on an acre.
Their d:ialk is of a fat foapy kind, and they call it
mark, i he farmers in the hundreds of Efftx bring
their chalk as far as from Gravefend, but lay not
half fo much on an acre, as thofe of the Ifte of
Wight. — It (hould always be fpread as foon as pof-
fible after it is dug, becaufe it is apt to harden and
grow ftoney in the air.

Mr. Worlidge fays, you may deal with chalky
land as with clay land, though in a moderate way:
for chalky land is naturally cold, and therefore
requires warm applications. It is alfo fad, and will
therefore the better bear with light compofts ;
which is the reafon that chalk is fo great an im-
prover of light, hot, and dry grounds, efpecially
after it has fufFered a calcination.

HUSBANDRY.

^31

If chalk be laid on clay, fays Mr. Lljle, vol. I.
p. 66. it will ill lime be loit, and the ground again
return to its clay : and if clay be laid on chalk, in
time the J^'j' will be loft, and the ground retui a
again to its chalky fubftance. Many people, con-
tinues he, think the land on which the other is
laid for a manure, being predominant, converts
the manure into its own foil : but I conceive in
both cafes the clay and chalk is, in time, filtrated
through the land on which 'tis laid, and being
Ibluble by rain into fmall corpufcles, is wafhed
thre' the land on which 'tis laid ; for neither of
thefe manures is able to unite in its finefl: corpuf-
cles, with the corpufcles of the land on which it is
laid, fo as to make fo ftri61: an union and texture
with it as the land doth with itfelf, and is therefore
liable to be borne downwards with rains, till no
lign of it be left.

Chalk, laid uponmeadows, will enable them to
give a great crop for three or four years, but it h
thought afterwards to impoverifh them — Mr.
Lijle is of opinion, that the contrary is the cafe
with refpedt to pafture lands : becaufe the giafs
being thereby greatly fweetened and increafcd,
keeps conftantly fo much the more ftock, by
which it is maintained always in the fame vigour.

"I'he fame gentleman affigns the following rea- f
fons, whv chalk is good for fandy and clayey foils.
I do fuppofe, fays he, that chalk, laid on fandy or
woodfeary ground laid up for pafture, may wafli
and fmk in, and fill up the interltices, and thereby
confolidate and mend the texture offuch ground,
and fweeten it, as it is a great alkali : and tho' by
time moft of the chalk may be wsfhed downwards,
fo that the ground may lofe the virtue, yet I do fup-
pofe the ftrength of the ground may ftill continue
much the better, by reafon that fuch manure having
made the fvvord ^of the grafs come thicker and
•fweeter, the good pafturage on both accounts en-
larges the quantity, and betters the quality of the
dung the cattle leave on it, which in return main-
tains a better coat and furface to the ground : and
as chalk fills up the vacuities of fandy or wood-feary
-ground, fo on the contrary, it infinuates its parti-
•cles into obftinate clayey and ftrong land, and di
-vides it, by making in a manner a fciflure, thereb;
hollowing and mellowing it ; fo that the two con-
trary extreams are cured by chalk.

As loam may be inclined either to clay or fancl,
-the hufbandman may collect his manure accord
ingly, either of dry opening ingredients, fuch as
alhes, lime, dung of Jheep and ho'jei, rubbifh of old
houfes, isff. for the former ; or of things which
give cohefion and fatnefs, fuch as dung of cot^js and
bogs, putrid, animal and vegetable fubftances,
«iarle, ^c. for the latter.

Our farmers, collecting tlie manures they find
neccflary from time to time, as they come to hand,
generally heap them together in what they call
dung-hills. Thefe dung-hills fhould be placed
where there are no running waters or fprlngs, that
their rich juices may not be wafhed av/ay. TJiey
arc greatly negligent in this care. Mr. Evelyn,
and the author of the Nt-w S^fteni of Agrictdtiirc,
call thefe aggregates cA com'^Qik'i Jhrcoranes. Such
fliould by no means have a corrimuiiication wittj
any of the ofEces, as advifcd by the latter ; for
the vapours arifing from the putrid dung, muft
prove hurtful to the health of horfes or other cattle
expofed to it In a confined place. Mr. Evelyn
difapproves of laying dung in hiaps in the field,
expofed to the fun, rain, and drying winds, where-
by all its fpirit and flrength is carried away j
and advifes the following, as a better method of
managing our dung-hitls, ox ftercoiaries. — Let the
bottom or fides of a pit, fays he, be about four
feet deep, paved with I'mall chalk or clay at the
bottom, that it may hold water like a ciftern : di-
reift your channels and gutters about your houfe
and ftables to it. The pit muft be under covert,
fo that the dovvn right rains may not fall into it.
Lay a bed of dung in it a foot thick, on that a bed
of fine mould, on that another bed of cyder- mere,
rotten fruit, and garden offal, on this a couch of
pigeons and poultry dung, with more litter, and
beds of all variety of foil, and upon all thij caft
water plentifully from time to time.

The directions of the autlior of the Netv Syftem
of Agriculture, for making zftercorary, and which
"we much approve of, barring its being fo near the
ftable as he feems to intend it, are as follow.

Along the back of your ftable caufe a pit to be
dug to the depth of the foundation, or a pretty
deal below it : let it be as long as the ftable, but
its breath fhould be according to the quantity of
dung you have conveniencies for making : let this
pic be arched with brick, but very flightly, and an
entrance left at one end, which may be fliut up, or
opened, by a wooden door, let the fides and bottom
be firml)'. lined with flone, and clofely plaiftered
over with a cement, which will by no means ad-
mit moifture.

Through the wall of this ftable, and about a
foot or moifc from the ground, let there be made
ftjuare holes, which, opening in.o the ftercorary,
f oni within the liable, mult be of fufficient large-
nef> for the paflage of the dung, that is, from time
to time, to be fliovell'd through them.

The liable floor fhould be made as fmooth and

hard as poflible, that the urine of the horfes may

not loak into it, but defcending from ihem to a

little gutter, clofe along the wall, thence run

i through

132 Th& Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^«<a? Sciences.

through pafTagcs, which are purpofely to be made
into t\\c jtercorary.

Pipetj of earth, which cofl: but little, flioulJ be
laid, from this place to the cow-houfe, hog-flies,
and privies, that all urine of man or beafl, of any
kind whatfoever, may immediately be convcy'd to
minffle with the other. Into which mult be caft
all ox dung, cow dung, hogs dung, and dung of
fowls; all aflies, whether of wood, or fea-coal ;
the duft and fwcepings of your yard andhouie ; all
weeds, old litter, rotten ftraw, and fpare earth,
which you can get ; as a]fo the wafliing of barrels,
:ill foap-fuJs, water which meat has been boil'd in,
difti-water, and every fuch kind of thing, which
is now thrown down the common fink, and ren-
der'd ufelefs : and for the more convenient perfor-
mance of all this, tiiere may be left a pretty large
fquare hole, in the outward declivity of the arch
which covers ihzjlercorary. This hole muft have
a wooden door fitted to it, which, lifting up and
down, will, as occafion offers, not only ferve for
taking in the things above-named, but, when-
ever more moiflure may be thought wanting, it
will admit as much as is convenient, by being left
open in rainy weather, and, as foon as fhut, forbid
the entrance of any more. The other door, which
I fpoke of, in one of the ends, is only to ferve for
carrj'ing out the dung, when it is to be made ufe of
In fuch a Jlercorary as is here defcribed, the
charge is a trifle, not worth naming, in compari-
fon with the profit. The dungs and other things,
incorporating, and fermenting thus together, mel-
lowed, and enriched by the fpirit of the urine,
and unimpaired by the fun, rain, or wind, at-
tain an excellence, which is beft known by the
prodigious increafe they make in your crops ; and
which demonftratively proves, tliat one load thus
managed, is of more cffe£l than twenty after the
common manner.

We leave to experience to determine, whether
zflercorary with only a fhade thrown over it, would
not nearly anfwer all the ends propofed by clofing
it up, and have none of the dangers attending the
other.

The method of making lime is fuSiciently
known. It's ufe and application, as a manure, is
all th;it appertains to our fubjeft.

Liming of land, fays the author of the Englijh
Improver, is of moft excellent ufe ; many barren
parts of this kingdom being thereby brought to fo
fertile a condition for bearing moft forts of grain,
that as good wheat, barley, and peafe, as England
yields, has, with the help of that .manure properly
diftributed, been raifcd upon land, before not worth
above a fliilling or two an acre. He adds, that
twelve or fourteen quarters will lime an acre.

Another writer fays i6o bufhels. The difference
of the land may require a different proportion.

The moft natural land for lime, fays Mr IVor-
lidge, is the light and fandy ; the next, mixt and
gravelly : wet and, cold gravel is not good, and cold
clay is the worft of all

A mixture of I'une, earth, and dung, together,
adds he, is a very exceliejit compoft for land.

Mr. Evelyn advifes, for lands that want heat, to
mix Ume with turf TinAfwarth, laying them alter-
natively, turt on lime, and lime on turf, in heaps,
for fix months, by which means it will become fo
mciluw; and rich in nitrous fairs, as to diliblve
and run like afhes, and carry a much more cherifli-
ing vigour, than if uled alone in a greater quantity,
and without danger of burning out and exhaufting
the vegetative virtue which it fhould preferve.

Lime, a little flack'd, continues he, is excellent
for cold wet grounds and ftiff clays, but it over-
burns drier foils. It is the very deftroyer of mofs
and rufhes, as quick-lime is of furzes, being firft
extirpated.

Mr. Lijle thinks it is beft, efpecially in lands
that work mellow, to fpread and plow the lime in,
as foon as it is flacked, rather than to let it lie
long covered with the earth in heaps.

Chalk-lime is not, in his opinion, fo beneficial
to land, as Jlone-lime ; becaufe a greater virtue
muft be attributed to the ftone-lime for its burning
quality after it is laid on.

Lime, being laid on meadows or paftures,
flacks and cools by flow degrees, fo as not to un-
dergo fuch a heat and fermentation, as when it is
covered with the hillocks of earth flung up in ara-
ble ; therefore, fays he, it cannot be of that great
advantage to pafture.

The lighter the land is, the more lime it will
require : the ftronger, the lefs. In fome places
they lay twenty-four or thirty quarters on an acre.
The nature of the foil muft determine the proper
quantity.

In Leicejlerjhire they fow or fcatter the lime on
wheat- land when they fow the wheat, but on
barley- land the laft earth but one; and fo plow it
in, left, if they fhould fow it with the barley in
the fpring, it might burn it. They lay five quar-
ters to an acre of each, according to the meafure as
it comes from the kiln, for after it is ilack'd thofe
five quarters will make near ten.

As the intent of liming land, is to bind it, Mr.
LiJlc thinks it fhould not be limed late in the year,
becaufe the land being then cold and moift, and
but a weak fun to confolidate it, the defign of
liming is fruftrated ; for if it does not confolidate
at firll liming, it will not afterwards.

HUSBANDRY.

133

In Sh'opjlh-e they lay dung and lime together,
"j'tz. about twenty load of dung, and only twenty
bufhcls of lime on an acre.

Mr. Life gives it as a rule to all hufbandmcn,
to be cautious of liming ground, and then plowing
out the heart of it. I limed, fays he, fome years
aoo, in IFiltJInre, feven acres for an experiment,
and laid down one acre to its own natural grafs in
two years time, the grafs of which is to this day
40 {hillings an acre. The third year I laid down
another acre,which is to this day worth 30 fliillings
per acre. The reft I plowed five or fix years far-
ther, which is not worth fifteen groats per acre
The like experience, adds he, I have had in ' rn-
beaking ground.

Burning, or, as fome call it, hurn-heaking of
land, may be reckoned among tnanures, becaule it
is a very great improvement, and only pradlifed
upon fome old pafture, or heathy, rufhy, broomy,
and fuch like barren grounds, which are confider-
ably enriched by it ; though, as the author of the
New Syjlan of Agriculture jullly remarks, lands fo
improved are, for want of one obfervation, gene-
rally ruined, in the common pradlice of plowing
them three or four crops fucceflively ; by which
means their whole fertility is moft aflliredly exhauft-
ed, and the foil becomiCs incapable of vegetation,
though affifted by the richeft dung, or other ma-
nure, in the world. Nothing but ten or fifteen
years repofe, will reftore the abufed vigour of na-
ture ; whereas, were thefe grounds ftrengthened
by a little murk, chalk, or dung, between their firft
harveft and their fecond feeding, the improvement
would be made compleat and lalling. No method
would be more eafy ; nothing poffibly more ad-
vantageous.

The manner of burning land is generally known
to be a paring off the fibrous turf, to a confiderable
depth, in a hot feafon, which being made into
little hills, rais'd hollow, and at equal diflances,
are fet on fire, as foon as they are dry enough to
kindle, and fo burnt to a kind of red afhes, and
thofe afhes fcartered over the whole furface : the
ground is then plowed up very fhallow,and the feed
immediately fown.

This burning of ground is very coflly, and not
a little tedious, becaufe the turf is raifed in a labo-
rious manner, by the force of a man's arms and
bofbm, pufliing againft a thing they call a hreajh
^/(PW. ■— I will prefent you, continues our author,
with a much neater invention, and which faves, at
leafl:, two thirds of the charije.

Let fome fmith in your neighbourhood, who is

a ready workman, make a hollow plow (hare, of a

double form, that is, one which rifes with a fiiarp

edge in the middle, from the point to the top, and

Vol. II. II.

has z.fn both ways ; which fins muft alfo begin at
the point, and fo run back to the fhareend. The
dimcnfions of this fliare will be two feet broad,
from the extreme poinds of the fins behind ; one
foot long, and a foot hii^h, fomewhat like a three-
edg'd fv/ord, if it were cut ofl' a little above the
point. The three fins, or edges, mud be very
well llecl'd, and the whole made as thin, and as
fmooth, as you can get it done. — Into the hollow
of this fliarc mufl: be faftened a light llrong piece
of afl), fharpencdyi/wara', to fit the bufom of the
fliare, but behind, as fquare and (lurdy as may be.
Into this laft part muft be fix'd a firong piece of
wood, like a lever \ not perpendicular, but fome-
what hanging backward. It muft be about two
feet high ; and on the upper end, fliould have a
crofs flaff", or other contrivance, to which muft be
faftened the harnefs of fuch tattle as your team
confifts of. Ihe handles of the plov/, and the
earth-boards to turn the turf, are alfo fix'd into
this fquare head ; and there is no other inftruiSlion
ncceflkry for the ufe of this plow, but that, when
you begin upon the edge of a field, and turn one
turf to the hedge, and the other to the field, the
laft will cover one of the breadths you muft take
at your coming brck, and the point of your fhare
muft, therefore, run clofe along the edge of this
length of tiuf ; by which means one fide of your
plough will raife two lengths, and, throwing back
the higheft, lay that uppermoft, which had before
lain under. By this one obfervation, you cannot
mifs the manner of plowing.

But, as this would only raife a long unwieldly
rope of turf, v/hich it would be necelTary to cut
into many hundred pieces, before it would be fit
(ot piling, you will find the following invention of
admirable ufe and expedition.

Chufe the body of a fliort thick tree; the hea-
vier, and more folid, the better : let it be neatly
rounded, and work'd into a roller, like thofe that
are ufed for leveling barley lands. This roller muft
be hoop'd round, in fix feveral places, each two
foot diftant from another : the hoops muft be of
ftrong iron, and nail'd very firmly on. — The
middle part of every one of thefe hoops muft rife
into an edge, to about five or fix inches above the
level of the hoop itfelf: thefe edges muft be very
fliaip, ftrong, and well fteel'd, that the weight of
the roller, as it goes round, may not fail to prefs
them all into the earth, as deep as they can go,
and yet not damage them, either by blunting,
bending, or breaking.

One horfe will very well draw this roller, with

which you muft go over the ground you intend to

burn, the contrary or crofs way to that which you

dcfign to take with your plow, before defcribed j

T which

134 '^^^ Univerfal Hiftory of Arts <7?/^ Sciences.

which will by this means turn up the turf in pieces
of two foot long, and one broad, the exadt fize
they ought to be to form the little hillf above
named. — I have nothing to add upon this head,
but, that thofe who prailife it had need be careful
how they over-hum the turf, which would, in that
cafe, be robb'd of much of its fertility. A gentle
fire, not flaming out, but mouldering inward, is the
I'ureft means of hitting the perfection of this work.

In like manner Mr. IVorUd^c cautions us ajrainft
over-burning the turf; and the reafon is, that, in
the burning of any vegetable, a gentle, eafy, and
fmothering fire, does not wafte the volatile nitrous
fpirit fo much as a quick fire would do, andcaufes
more of it to fi ■: and remain behind.

AloJJy grounds iiXt ^licuWArU benefited by being
burnt. Where much long mofs grows thick, fays
Mr. Lijle, tho' the ground be never io fandy in its
nature, yet the ground underneath muft be of a
mofl cold and four nature, by being kept from the
fun, and the wet more fogging in it than if it had
been folid earth upon it; for nothing retains moi-
fture longer than fuch a fpungy body, nor breaks
the rays of the fun more from penetrating. There-
fore fuch ground ought to- be burn-beak'd ; or the
mofs harrow'd up before feeding, and burnt in
heaps; but rather burn-beak'd, to deftroy the feeds
of weeds.

Plowing. The Jirciig plough is to be ufed
on all hard clays, ftifF binding foils, and ftony
grounds, or any lands of that nature. — It is drawn
by tvvo oxen, nor are any more at any time necef-
fary. — The following is his defcription of it.

Let the length of your fhare be a foot and a
half; the point indifl^erently fliarp, but very ftrong :
let the {helving fide be work'd thick, and without
a^«, but lleel'd all along its edge, from the point
to the hinder part, where its perpendicular height
muft not exceed fix inclies. — The breadth muii:
he jufl fufficient to carry a furrow feven or eight
inches bro.id In this plough, the place of the
breaft-board muft be fupplied by an iron plate,
■which, joiningto the fhare, and being part of it, is,
in a bellying mann;r, carried bac':, and gradually
brought to whelm, as if it would fall upon the
furrow. This plate, being made as thin as its ufe
will permit, is fupported by a pin from the plough-
head, which is, in all refpedls, the fame with that
of the plough I before recommended, for paring
up the turf of lands to be burnt. — This breaft-
iron, with all the neatnefs and facility imaginable,
takes the earth, ns it rifes on the fnare, and, with-
out labouring under the load of a long furrow, turns
it over as it runs along, and neither toils ehe oxen
nor the driver.

One man is enough in all reafon to manage this ■
plough. He guides his oxen by a goad, as ufual ;
and holds the handles with a great deal lefs fatigue
than in other ploughs, for they are to be fet at a
large flope, and their ends ilanding wide from
each other, they have the greater power over the
going of the plough. If the Ihare is apt to bite, or
run too deep into the ground, his leaning a little
harder than ordinary, on the handles, will raife the
point to what pitch he pleafes ; as, on the contrary,
when he lays no flrefs upon them, the team will
of courfe draw the point downward.

The light plough is properly to be ufed on •
fandy mellow grounds, and all fuch as are diredtlyw-
oppofite to thofe for which the Jlrong plough is
recommended. It is drawn by two horfes, with
no manner of diificulty ; or with one, if you
pleafe, for many have tried it.

The fhare of this plough, is, in a manner, the
fhare of the turfing-plough, divided into two equal
parts. The fhare of the light plough fhelves only
one way, as not being double, and has a hreafi-iron
exaitly like that of the ftrong plough. In all other
refpedts, it is the very fame with the turfing- plough^
even in dimenfions, and therefore needs no farther
defcription.

One man will hold and drive this plough, with
more eafe than the ftrong one, becaufe the loads
are more manageable. The reins, whereby he
turns and checks the horfes, pafs through two long
flits, in each handle one, and being juft of length
enough to hang down five inches, or more, are
prevented from being drawn back through the
flits, by two pieces of wood, to which their extreme ■
ends are faftened.

Let us fuppofe then, that at Lady-day you be-
gin your hufbandry, and that the quantity of land -
you are about to break up, is an hundred acres.
The firfl: thing neceffaty is, carefully and judici-
oufly to obferve both the furface of your ground,
and the depth of it. If you find it a good deep
mould, and covered by a thick, ftrong, fibrous turf,
fuch as by long lying, is become firmly rooted ;
in this cafe it will be much the wifeft way to burn
and fpread the afhes, by the rules before given, not,
by any means, omitting to manure, between the
firfl reaping and the fecond fowing ; after which
you may proceed in all points, as if the turf had
been plow'd in, inftead of being burnt.

But if, on the contrary, you find your upper
mould fhallow, or thin turf 'd, it will by no means
be proper to burn it : you mult, therefore, take
notice, whether your foil be of the light kind or
the heavy. If, upon examining it by the marks
above-mentioned, you find it of a heavy nature,
you muft prepare your ftrong plough and ox team,

and

HUSBANDRT.

and take care that, in the firft breaking up, as they
Call ir, your plowman turns the turf fide neatly
dow/i wards, and lays his furrows fo fiTiooth and
clofe together, that, at a little diftance, a man can
fcarce fee where the plow went. An acre and a
half may eafily be plow'd in one day, by the ufe
of this plough ; fo that, beginning by the firft of
yjpril, and allowing for Sundays and accidental
hinderances, the hundred acres will be all broke
up by the middle of June at fartheft.

Between this firft plowing and thefecoiid, is the
only proper time for laying on your manure of what
kind foever. The feveral forts proper for lands of
this nature, are fea-fand, ommon-fandy fea-owfe
of the lighteft kind, not fuch as is black and greafy;
/heep's dung, mix'd whh /and under a cover'd fold,
as before defcribed ; or, for want of any of thefe,
the compo/} in your Jicrnrary.

Which ever of thefe you lie moft convenient
for, you may make ufe of, in the followiag pro-
portions : 0^ fea-fand you muft lay upon every acre
five and twenty loads ; of common-fand never lefs
than a hundred, wliich quantity you may double,
if it lies commoJioufly : twenty load of fea-oufe is
fufficient ; and fifieeti of /beep's dung fo mingled :
and if you are obliged to rely upon the affiftance
f)^ yonx Jlercorary^ you muft layabout twenty load
upon an acre.

According to the manure you are obliged to ufe,
3'our charge will be more orlefsconfiderablein the
number of carts and teams neceffarv : for this
rule you muft be fure to obferve punctually, that
the manure be all laid on by the laft day of July ;
in which time, the plowman, a labourer being
employed to fpread the manure, as it is daily
brought on, does, with the fame plough he ufed
before, give the fecond ftirring to the ground, in
order to turn in the richntfs of thofe helps you have
beftowed upon it. By this means the fun, high
and powerful in this feafon, will be prevented from
exhaling the virtue of your manure, as it always
does in the common way of letting it lie in liitk
heaps in the field for a great while together.

You may obferve, that, I allow a fhortcr time
for this plowing, than for the frfl ; and the rea-
fon is, becaufe the ground having been broken up
before, and the turf now rotten, it is become more
mellow, and the draught fo much ealier, that a
team may difpatch almoft a double quantity in a day.

It is now the time to harrow over your ground,
with a heavy wide-tooth'd harrow, and a great
weight hid upon it; by which means moremould will
berais'd, the clods broken into fmaller pieces, and
the manure mingled with the foil in every part. It
is not enough to harrow once and away ; — you
muft go over the fame ground again and again, till

^Z5

you have made it as fmooth and crumbly as is re-
quifite ; and this work will very well employ your
team, from the end of July, to the mii'dle of
Augu/1 : about which time fliould be begun the
thiid and laft plowing.

I come now to your lands of a light temper, and,
for method's fake, will begin at Lady-day upon
this land alfo. Here ths light plough is to be ufed;
and as to the turning down' the turf, and laying
fmooth the furrows, the fame care is to be ob-
ferved on one land, which is recommended on the-
other. Of this work, two horfes, with theplougti
above-mentioned, will conftantly break up two
acres a day ; and beginning with /Ipril, and allow-
ing, as before, f. r Sundays, is'c. the hnndred
acres will be very well plowed, for the firft time,
by the latter end of May.

Betv/ixt the f.'yl arature and the fecond, thefe
lands are alfo to receive the annual recruits whicii
you think fit to give them ; and that may be either
chali, ?narle, clay, fre^p's-dung, prepared with earth,
not fand ; fea cwfe of tine cloCeii, black, fat kind ;
all forts of mud, or, for want of either of thefe,
your jlercorary may fupply you.

Five and twen-y load of the laft is the quantity
moft proper ; thirty of chalk ; of marie, . at leaft a
hundred ; and of clay, a little more. 'I'wenty
load of prepared fheep's-dung, and as much of
fea-owfe; and if you ufe mud, lefs than forty or
fifty load will be too little. Ufe either of thefe
manures as your beft conveniency invites you, and,
as was directed before, take care that your plow-'
man turns it in as faft as it is brought on, and
fpread upon the fuifice.

But here comes a necefLry caution, that your
men begin to bring on the manure on that end of
your hundred acres which your plowman firft be-
gan to break up, that the turf m.iy be rotted before
it is turned up the fecond time. — Be regardful of
this rule, or you will find the neglett of it produce
a great deal of confufion.

When the manure is all turned in, bring on
your hea'y harrows, and go over the land fo often,
as till the whole mafs is exquifitely mingled, and
the mould becomes fine and dufty. You muft be
doubly careful in this operation upon your light
lands, which ought by the harrow to be laid as
fmooth and levtl as a table.

About the beginning of Augtifl will come on
your feel plowing^ properly fo called upon thefe
light lands, becaufe you muft here pkvj and fo'jc
together.

Air. Tull recommends putting all the horfes
length-ways, when a foft ground is plowed ; that,
by their treading all in the furixjw, the earth maj
be Icfs poached.

T 2 It

136

TIdc Univerfal Hiftory of Arts <3«^ Sciences.

If the land is in good tilth, it may be plowed in
dry weather : but the bc(t time is when it has been
a little moiften'd by rain, efpecially for the new
plough, which would not eafily go deep, if the
earth was very dry.

■'Tis true that as the four-coulter'd plough enters
deep, and turns up a great deal of earth, a greater
firength is required to draw it ; fo that it will be
neceflary to ufe three horfes inftead of two, and
four inftead of three. But the excellence of this
tillage will make ample amends for that additional
expence.

The four- coulter d plough is ufed only for the
firft plowings, to break up fiefh grounds, or give
a good tilth to thofe that have not been plowed
before, or that have been ill plowed for a long
time. It is likewife very fit for winter plowings ;
and I think Mr. Tull ufes it fometimes to make
deep furrows in the middle of the alleys between
the rows of corn.

The Seeds of all plants fhould not be fown at
the fame depth. To fatisfy myfelf of this, I dug a
trench twelve feet long, floping it gradually from
the furface at one end, to the depth of two feet at
the other. I fowed different feeds in this trench ;
and having put the earth in its place, I obferved
I. That hardly any feeds rife when buried deeper
than nine inches : 2. That fome feeds rife ex-
tremely well ar the depth of fix inches : 3. That
other feeds do not rife at all when they are above
one or two inches deep. Experience fhews that
the fame feeds may be buried deeper in a light,
that a heavier foil ; and that feeds which lie too
deep in the earth to fpring up in a dry year, mav
rife in a warm moift year. Experience Lkewife
teaches, that feeds which are buried too deep in
the earth, will remain there ten or twenty years
found and unaltered ; fo that if by moving that
earth they chance to be brought to the furface, they
grow extremely well, and produce their proper
plant. *

Mr. Pforlidge's opinion of mildews, which he
holds to be quite different things from blight!, is,
that they are caufed from the condenfation of a fat
and moift exhalation in a hot dry fummer, from
the blofToms and vegetables of the earth, and alfo
from tiie earth itfelf, which, by the coolnefs and
f renity of the air in the night, or in the upper
ferene rejion of the air, is condenfed into a fat
glutinous matter, and falls to the earth again ; part
whereof refts on the leaves of the oak, and fome
other trees whofe leaves are fmooth, and do not
eafily admit the moifture into them, as the elm or

other rougher leaves do ; which mildew become"}
the principal food of the induftrious bees, being of
itfelf fweet, and eafily convertible into honey.

Other part thereof refts on the ears and flalks of
wheat, bcfpotting them with a different colour
from what is natural ; and, being of a glutinous
fubftance, by the heat of the fun, doth fo bind up
the young, tender, and clofe ears of the wheat,
that it prevents the growth and compleating of the
imperfedt grain therein ; which occafioneth it to
be very light in the harveft, and yield a poor and
lean grain in the heap.

But if after this mildew falls, a (hower fucceeds,
or the wind blow ftiffly, it waflieth or fliaketh it
off, and are the only natural remedies againft this
fometimes heavy curfe.

Some advife in the morning, after the mildew
is fallen, and before the rifing of the fun, that two
men go at fome convenient dillance in the furrows,
holding a cord ftretch'd ftrait between them, car-
rying it fo that it may fhake off the dew from the
tops of the corn, before the heat of the fun hath
thickened it.

The fowing of wheat early hath been efteemed,
and doubtlefs is the beft rem^y againft mildewsy
by which means the wheat will be well filled in
the ear before they fall, and your increafe will be
much more. For curiofity fake, wheat was fown
in all the months of the year : that fown in July
produced fuch an increafe as is almoft incredible.
In France, they ufually fow heioit ATichaelmas.

Bearded-wheat is not fo fubjecl to mildews as the
other, the fibres keeping the dew from the car.

Whatever weakens the plant, brings tVte fmut j
for feed-corn which has been pricked or run thro'
with a needle, or which is not fully ripe, and that
which produces lateral or fecond ears, is fubjeft to
the fmut. As a proof that whatever weakens
plants, caufes the fmut, he obferves, that it is a
frequent cuftom with them to cut rye as foon as it
fpindles, for food for their cattle; and that this rye
generally produces other ears, which feldom con-
tain any but diftemper'd grain.

Mr. Tull tells us that the cure of this diftemper
was firft found out by an accident, which he re-
lates thus.

'• Brining of wheat, to cure or prevent fmut-
tinefs (as I have been credibly informed) was acci-
dentally difcovered about feventy years ago, in the
following manner, viz. A (hp-load of wheat was
funk near Brijlol, in p.utumn, and afterwards at
ebbs all taken up, after it h;id been foaked in fea-
water ; but it being unfit for making bread, a
farmer fowed fome of ic in afield ; and when it was
found to grow very well, the whole cargo was

bought

HUSBANDRY.

137

bought at a low price by many farmers, and all of
it fown ill different places. At the following har- i
vcft, all the wheat in England happened to hi
fmutty ; except the produce of this brined feed,
and that was all clean from fmuttincfs."

We fhall here copy the directions given by the
author of the New Syjlem of Agriculture , for the
choice and preparation of feed-corn.

Let your corn be brought into the corner of a
large barn floor, or great boarded hall, fuch as
few country houfes are without : order a man, with
a broad wooden {hovel, to throw the corn, with
a'l his force, towards the oppolite corner of the
barn, or hall : the lait is generally the fitteft for it.
In this exercife, all light, fmall, fhrivell'd grain,
and the feeds of cockle, darnel, and other weeds,
not being fo heavy as the folid corn, will fall Ihort,
and lie neareft to the man who throws them ; while
fuch as are large, plump, and weighty, out-flying
all the reft, arefeparated widely, and mayeafily be
gathered in what quantity you pleafe. Experience
only is capable of making men believe the wonder-
ful advantages of fowino; feed thus chofcn.

Take your corn, when it has been thus obtain-
eJ, and throw it, by a bufhel at a time, into a
large vefTel full of wster : le: a man flir it with a
ftafF, as violently as he can, for a confiderable
while together, and then, giving it a little time to
fettle, fkim off all that fwims upon the furface ;
and repeat this labour till no more rifes : after which,
take out the corn which is funk to the bottom, and
lay it by for feed; proceeding in the fame manner,
till you have your intended quantity.

Now make a brine, by throwing bay-falt into
rain-water., till it becomes of flrength enough to
bear an egg. In this liquor fteep your feed corn
for thirty hours : lefs time will have no manner of
effcft. Obferve this, and regard not the contrary
opinions of any men, let them pretend to never fo
much fkill.

When you take your corn out of this brine,
fpread it upon a fmooth floor, and, fcattering upon
it good ftore of the fine-ground powder of Jlack'd
lime, fweep it up and down, and mingle it with
the corn, till every gr;:ii) leaves clinging to another,
and becomes, as it were, candied with the lime :
and in this condition let it be fowed, never enter
taining a moment's doubt of the infallible increafe
of your har\eft.

Plants that grow in any grounc*, different from
thofe which are intended to be cultivated in it, arc
called weeds.

They exhauft the earth, as much as the moft
ufeful plants : nay, they fometime? get the afcen-
danr, and multiply to fo great a cegree, that a field

will almofl feem never to have been fowed with
corn.

The weeds which are feared moft, are, i. Cockle
or darnel. Its feed is black ; but being heavy, and
nearly of the fame fize as the grains of wheat, it is
not eafily 'cparatcd from them. Sifting, and throw-
ing the coin at a diftance on a large floor, are the
bcft ways of clearing the wheat of it. If ground
with the corn, it makes bread look black.

2. Fox-tail, the feed of which io fomewhat like
wheat. This gives bread a bitter tafte.

3 Will-poppy, or red- weed, the feed of which
is very fmall, and fometimes multiplies fo prodi-
gioufly that it choaks the wheat.

4. Will fitch, which covers the corn when it is
laid, hinders it from rifing again, and maker, it rot.

5. Dogsgraf, and colt's foot, which mult ply
by their i'eeds, and extend thiinfeives by their
creeping roots, and even by the pieces of their
roots which are broke offby the plough.

6. Adtlil-'t, which gives bread a'bad tafte ; and,

7. Tbijlles, and many other weeds whichgreaily
exhauft the earth.

8. Charlock, the young plants of which it will
be of advantage to the farmer to be able to diftin-
guifh from young turneps, efpecially in weeding
the latter, left they be reared or plucked up indif-
criminately. This can fcarcely be done but by
the tafte, the charlock being hot and bitter, and
the turnep mild.

To prevent the increafe of weeds, it is proper to
deftroy them before their feed is ripe.

The fureft way to deftroy weeds, is, to continue,
plowing whilft the corn grows : but this can be
done only in the new hufbandry.

JVeeds may be diftinguilhed into four kinds :

1. Into fuch as have creeping perennial roots.

2. Such as grow in cold wet foil^. 3. Such as
are of a large fucculent body ; and 4. Such as
having Imall feeds, or that ripening before the
corn, fbw themfelves. Each of thefe require dif-
ferent methods, to deftroy them.

Thefirft can only be deftroyed by repeated fum-
mer fallows, by which their roots are cue, and
turned up to be withered by the fun and winds ;
after which they are dragged out by harrows, and
fhould be burnt. This repeated as often as the
farmer can conveniently during a dry feafan, or
repeated another feafon, can fcarcely fail to com-
plete t!ie cure. CsZ/'s foot, which is propagated
by the root, may likevvife be deftroyed by fowiiig
the ground with rye-grafs, on an) plant which,
coining up early in the fpring, fhadows and fmo-
thers it, whereby it dies in a few years.

The fecond are deftroyed by draining the earth

138

Tloe Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

of its fuperfluous moifture, and by warming it
with//w^, ajhes, g7-avel, Jl]elly fea-fand, &c.

The third are deftroyed by cutting them down
when in full Tap and vigour : for the fudden in-
terruption which this gives to the motion of the
fap, caufes it to ftagnate in the roots, and putrify
there. Some few and weaic lateral ftioots may be
made ; but they too being cut in the fame manner,
the roots are entirely putrihed by degrees, and,
inftead of annoying, become a manure.

The fourth can be deftroyed only by frequent
fallows, and conftantly cutting, or rather plowing
them down before they run to feed. Some, for
inftance the wild oats, may be mowed for hay,
but it is much more beneficial to the land to have
them turned down ; for by that means, mftead of
being exhaufted by requent crops, it is manured
by thofc enemies to ufeful grain.

Banks and hedges fhould be preferved free from
weeds ; not only to preferve their bottoms thicker,
but alfo to prevent the feeds of weeds from being
carried into the adjacent fields, by winds, by which
means the corn muft be conl'.antly pelkred with
them.

The common tw) wheel plough. (See Fig. i. in
the plate) ufed almoft in all the counties in the
(outh of England, is commonly divided into two
parts, the plough-head, and the plough-tail. The
plouoh-head contains the two wheels A, B, and
their axis, or iron-fpindle, which paffes through
the box C, and turns round both in it and in the
wheels ; the two crow-ftaves D, D, faflened per-
pendicularly into the box, having in each two rows
of holes, in order to raife or link the beam, by
pinning up or down the pillow E, to increafe or
diminifh the depth of the furrow ; the gallows F,
throuah which the crow-llaves pafs at top, by
mortoifes into which they are pinned ; G the

fore-fhcet by another pin ; T the drock, whicii
belongs to the right-fide of the plough-tail, and to
which the ground-wrift: V is faflened; as is the
earth -board, whofe fore-part W, is feen beforo
the fheat ; as alfo the long handle X, whofc fore-
part Y appears before the flicat, and is faftened to
the drock by the pin at a, the o.her end of which
pin goes into the beam. Z is the double retch»
which holds up the {heat, and pafTes through the
beam to be faflened by its fcrews and nuts at b
and c.

The ftru£lure of \S\c four-couhered plough, {ibid.
Fig. 2.) is in feveral refpcdis different from this,
though in general founded on it. Its beam is ten
feet four inches long, whereas that of the common
plough is but eight feet : it differs alfo in {Viape ;
for as the other is flrait from one end to the o-
ther, this is ftrait only from a to b, and thence
turns up, in the manner ftrewn in the plate; fo
that a perpendicular line let down from the corner
at a, to the even furface on which the plougit
{lands, would be eleven inches and a half, whicli
is its height in that place; and if another line-
was let down from the turning of the beam at b,
to the fame furface, it would be one foot eight
inches and a half, \Mhich is the height the beam
{lands from the ground at that part ; and a third
line letdown to the furface from the bottom of the
beam, at that part which bears upon the pillow,
will fliew the beam to be, in that part, two feet
ten inches high above the furface. At the di{tance
of three feet two inches from the end of the beam,
at the plough-tail, the frrfl coulter, or that next
the {hare, is let through : and at thirteen inches
from this, a fecond coulter is let through : a third
at the fame diflance from that ; and, finally, a
fourth at the fame diflance from the third. The
creokednefs of the beam is to avoid the too great
Icngth'of the fore-moft coulters, which would be fo

wilds, with its links and crooks of iron, by which , long if the beam was flrait all the way, that they

the plough is drawn ; H the tow-chain, which j would be apt to bend and be difplaced, unlefs they

fallens the plough-tail to the plough head, by the 1 were vaflly thick and clumfy.

collar I at one end, and by the oti er end pafTing '^'

thro' a hole in the middle of the box, where it is

pinned

m by the flake K ; L the bridle- chain,
one end of which is faflened to the beam with a
pin, and the other end to the top of the flake,which
Itake is held up to the left crow-flafF, by the end
of the w) th or rope M pafTing round it above, and
under the end of the gallows below, or by the end
of the bridle-chain itfclf, when that is long enough.
The plough-tail confifls of the beam, N ; the
coulter, O ; the fhare, P ; and the iheat, Q^; the
hinder fheat, R, pafling through the beam near its
end ; S the {hort handle, faflened ro the top of
;he hinder fheat by a pin, and to the top of the

The {heat in this plough is to be feven inches
broad, and the fixing the fheat in this, as well as in
the common plough, is the nicell: part, and requires
the utmofl art of the maker ; for fuppofing the axis
of the beam, and the left-fide of the fhare to be
both horizontal, they mufl never be fet parallel to
each other; but the flrait ilde of the fliare mufl
make an angle on the left fide of the beam, which
mufl be very acute, that the tail of the fhare may
prefs lefs againfl the fide of the trench than the point
does: this angle is fhewn by the pricked lines at
the bottom of Fig. i . where the line ef is fup-
pofed to be the axis of the beam let down to the
ground, and the line^ h, parallel to the left-fide

HYDRAU LICKS and HYDRO STICKS. 139

of the fhare. The great thing to be taken care
of, is the placing the four coulters, which niuft be
fo fet that the four imaginary planes defcribed by
the four edges, as the plough moves forwards, may
be all parallel to each other, or very nearly fo ; for
if any one of them fliould be very much inclined
to, or fhould recede much from either of the other,
then they wrould not enter the ground together.
In order to the placing them thus, the fecond coul-
ter-hole muft be two inches and a half more on the
right-hand than the firft ; the third muft be as
much more to the right of the fecond ; and the
fourth the fame diftance to the right of the third ;
and this two inches and a half muft be carefully
meafured from the center of one hole to the cen-
ter of the other. Each of thefe holes is a mortoife
of an inch and a quarter wide, and is three inches
and a half long at the top, and three inches at the
bottom. The two oppofite fides of the holes are
parallel to the top and bottom, but the back is
oblique, and determines the obliquity of the ftand-
ing of the coulter, which is wedged tight up by
£icces of wood. The coulters are two feet eight
inches long, of which (ixteen inches are allowed
for the handles, which is to be thus long, that the
coulter may be drawn down as the point wears
away. As to the wheels, the left-hand wheel is
twenty inches diameter, and that on the right-
hand, two feet three inches ; and the diftance the
wheels ar« fet from each other, is two feet five
inches and a half.

The Lincolnjhire-ploitgh, propjx for fenny lands,
fubjedt to weeds and ledges, and remarkable for
the largenefs of its fhare, which is frequently a
foot broad and very (harp, is thus form d, [ibid.

Fig. 3.) At A is a foot, which is fot higher of
lower, by a wedge drove in at B ; and which
keeps tlie fore- part of the plougli from going deeper
than they would have ir. At C there are wedges
by which the hinder part is fet. Inftead of a coul-
ter there is a wheel with a fharp edge, which cuts
the roots of the grafs or fedge as it turns round,
while the broad (hare cuts them up at the bottom.

The Caxton or trenching-plongh, in\'cnted to cut
drains about Caxton in Cambridge/hire,, in ftiff, miry,
clay-ground, [Ihid. Fig. 4.) is larger and ftronger
than ordinary : to the beam is fixed a piece of
wood at A, in which is a coulter fet at B, and
another fet in the beam at C, vvhich two coulters
ftand bending inwards as at D, to cut each fide of
the trench. The fhare is very flat and broad, in
order to form the bottom of the trench ; and the
mould board is three times the length of other
ploughs, in order to caft the turf a great way from
the trench. This plough cuts a trench a foot wide
at the bottom, a foot and a half broad at the top,
and a foot deep, and it is drawn with twenty
horfes.

But the moft common plough, fays Mortimer, is
the dray plough, reprefented Fig. 6. which is beft
for miry clays, when the land is foft ; but is ex-
tremely bad in fummer, when the land is hard,
becaufe its point will be continually flying out of
the ground : it is fet higher or lower, by wedges
at a. Fig 5. is a Spanl/h-plotigh, with which, and
one horfe, they will plow two or three acres of
their light lands in a day.

For the hoe and drill ploughs, invented by 'Jtthro
Tnll, Efq ; fee his Eflay on Horfe-hceing Hiijhan-
dry._

HYDRAU LICKS and HYDROSTATICKS.

HYDRAULICKS, (from thtGred <ji^uv\H,
i. e. f:unding luater) is the fcience of
fluids, particularly of water, with a fpe-
cial attention to artificial water-works ; and to the
laws and motion of fluid bodies.

Hydrostaticks explain the equilibrium of
fluids, or the gr.ivitation of fluids at reft ; upon re-
moving that equilibrium, motion enfues; and here
Hydraulicks commence.

HydrauUcks, therefore, fuppofe HydroJIatich ;
whidi induces me to begin this treatife by Hydro-
Jlaticks.

Hydrostaticks, by proving, againft the vul-
gar opinion of the fchools, that all the fenfible

elements, viz. the air, the water, and the earth,
and a!! heavy bodies, are ponderous in their proper
places, /. e. the water of the fea, in its bed ; and a
llone, or any other heavy body, placed on the
earth, have a gravitating force, or gravity. And
fuch are called proper or natural places of all
heavy bodies, which have been afligned to them
by nature, according to their manner of gravity in
thut elementary region, which Ariftoth, lib. 4.
de Ccelo, c. 4. feems to infinuate ; and which i
prove in the following manner.

Thofe bodies have a gravitating force in their
proper places, which being comprelied by the fub-
tile matter, can fcarce be removed from that place,
in which tlie ratio of gravity feems to be placed.

But

T40 TIjb Univerfal Hiflory of Arts <zW SciENcgs.

lull of

But the fenfible elements, and all heavy bodies
comprcfTcd by the fubiile matter, can fcarce be le
moved from their place ; a; it appears in water,
earth, ^c. which cannot be raifed upward with-
out difficulty : — Therefore the fenfible elements,
and all other heavy bodies, have a gravitating force
in their proper place For the water of the fea, by
its gravi-ry, does no lefs comprcfs Tts bed, than
water contained ia a vefiLl, compriffes by its gra-
vity, the bottom 6f that vefTel i but it is confirm-
ed by repeated experiments, that water contained
in a veffel, gravitates on its bottom ; and that the
water, which occupies that bottom, is prefled by
the oiher water over it. Whence if the fide of a
vefTcl full of water be perforated near its ba'e, the
greater is the quantity of the water contained in
that vafe, the further will it flow through that hqle;
therefore, l^c.

To this it will be objefled, firft, that a heavy
body, as lead, has lefs weight in water than in the
air ; fince water diminifhes very near a twelfth
part of the weight of the lead ; and takes off, like-
wife, very near a ninth part of the weight of cop-
per ; fo that if the weight of the body, and that of
the water, be equal ; that body will be found to
have no gravity in the water: and therefore water
has no gravity in its proper place.

I anfwer, that what has deceived moft philofo-
phers, on this point, is, that they made no dif-
tinftion between an ahfolute and relative gravity.

We call ahfolute gravity, that whereby a body
is heavy in itfelf, or tends downwards : and a re-
lative one, that whereby a body is heavy with
refpefl to our fenles ; therefore lead lofes a twelfth
pa;t of its relative gravity in the water, becaufe we
feel it a twelfth part lighter; but it lofes nothing
of its ahfolute gravity.

If I be afked why lead lofes almoft a twelfth
part of its gravity in the water i' I'll anfwer, that
the reafon of this phasnomenon is very eafy, viz.
that a mafs of lead is almoft twelve times heavier
than a mafs of water of the fame volume, or mag-
nitude ; whence that the water may be in an equi-
librium with the lead, its volume muft be twelve
times greater than that of the lead. — Hence if a
wooden beam be as ponderous as an equal volume
of water, in whatever place it (hall be put in the
water, there it will remain, without rifing higher,
or defcending lower ; and will have the efFedl of
a Volume of water, which are in an equilibrium,
with parts equal and like to it.

But if that wood be much lighter than the wa-
ter, v.gr. twice, thrice, four times, five times, fix
times, is'f. lighter than the water, it will take up
half, a third, a fourth, a fifth, or a fixtli part of

weight of water

its weight of the water.

The fame as a boat only
I

;ir, fcarce penetrates a fixtb part of its
but if It be loaded with fand,
flones, or men, together with the air, fo that the
whole mafs of t!ie boat, men, air, and fand, ap-
proaches the gravity of an equal volume of water,
the boat will be deprefied lower ; ! ut if, at lafl it
be too much loaded, and srrows heavier than an
equal nir fs of water, it will be ready to fink.

The fame mav be faid of a glafs bottle full of
air, which reprefc.its fumetinics a human figure,
{Fig. 12. in Plate Hydojlaticks) for that bottle be-
ing put in a tube or pipe of glafs, full of water,
as it is fomcwhat lighter than a like volume
of water, fome part thereof is feen above the wa-
ter. But its having a very fmall hole oii the fide;
if while it is in the water, fome of the air be pump-
ed out, to make room for as much water ; then,
by the fingle comjireflion of the finger on the ori-
fice of the pipe, it will happen that more water
(hall enter the bottle through the hole on the fide,
and deprefs it more down towards the bottom of the
tube : but if the finger be removed, the air left in
the figure, will, by its elaftick virtue, thurft out
the little quantity of water, which had entered
through the hole, and the figure being again ren-
dered thereby lighter than an equal volume of wa-
ter, will return upwards. But if fo much air be
pumped from it, as to make room for a greater
quantity of water, then it will defcend of its own
proper weight to the bottom of the tube, and not
afcend to the top but by pumping.

There are alfo other glafs bottles, from which a
greater or lefs quantity of air has been taken our,
which being likewife inclofed in a tube full of wa-
ter, where the water grows thicker, by cold, afcend
and defcend, if the water, thro' hear, be rarified ;
whereby the degree of heat may be known at any
time. But I'll fpeak of the Thermometer, or in-
ftrument proper to meafure the degrees of heat, in
another place. Therefore, fo often as a body is
much more heavy, as often it is precipitated down-
wards; but it only lofes as much of its relative
gravity, as the like volume of water is fufpended
over it, v. gr, copper, which ii nine times heavier
than water, lofes a ninth part of its weight, as
gold lofes a nineteenth part. Therefore, if you
fufpend gold in open air, and afterwards put it into
water, while it remains of the fame weight fufpend-
ed in the air, you may obferve, that a ninth part
of the equality of weight, muft be taken off, to
make it of an equilibrium with the water.'

In this manner you'll eafily difcover, how
much all forts of bodies are heavier than water.
For gold is nineteen times heavier than the
fame volume of river water ; quickfilver almoft
fourteen times ; lead almoft twelve j filver

ten

HTDRAULICKS and HY D RO STATICKS. 141

ten times, and a thirteenth ; copper nine times ;
tin alm^fi feven times and a half; wlntc marble
alniod three times ; common (tone almoft twice
but wine a fifteenth part ; wax a twentieth j and
lallly, oil a twelfth part lefs ponderous than water.

From all thefe it appears, why thofe bodies,
which were of equal weight, while in the air, lofe
their equilibrium when weighed in water. For if
lead and copper, while fuljjended in the air, are
equal in weight; as the volume of the lead mult
be lefs than that of the copper, fince lead is he.ivier
than copper, if they be put into water, the lead
fhall occupy a lefTer fptice than copper of the fame
we'glit ; whence it w.li be bulianced by a lelicr
mafsof w;:ter, and thereby be heavier than copper,
though while in the air it was in an equilibrium
with It.

It may be objected, that a<liver does not feel the
weight of the fuperincumbcnt water; and that a
pail full of water can be eafily moved here and
there, while it remains in the well ; though out
of it, it feels very heavy ; and therefore, tliut water
does not gravitate in its proper place.

I anfvver this objection, by obferving, that a
diver does not feel the weight of the fui'/crincum-
bent.water, becaufe all the parts ofthe water, fulbin
mutually one another in an equilibrium, not only
according to their perpendicular lines, but likewile
according to their oblique ones. For, i. Who
would deny, that they are in an equilibrium, ac-
cording to their perpendicular lines r Since it is the
nature of liquids, that, if they be divided by our
imagination into feveral equal columns, all thofe
columns, by reafon of the fiuidity of their parts,
will mutually counterpoife one another ; tor it one
of them defcends, the neighbouring, and adjacent
ones muft afcend ; as when a weight put in one
fide of a biillance dcfcendf, that in the other fide
of the fame ballance muft afcend ; for there is no
greater reafon that a column fhould conquer another,
than of its being conquer'd by it. 2. By reafon
of the fame fluidity of the water, thofe parts which
are fuperincumbenc on the head of the diver, are
counterpoifed, according to the oblique lines, by
thofe which are on his fides : likewife thofe, which
environ his body, are fupported by others placed
round them. Whence it happens, that their weight
is felt neither on the head of the diver, nor on his
fides.

For the fame reafon, a pail full of water is eafily
rais'd from the bottom of a well, as far ai the fu-
perficies of the water of the well, becaufe it is
fupported by an equal volume of water, as by a
counterpoife pkced in another equal column ; and
not becaufe water has no gravity, otherwife it would
not be ponderous in a veffel, becaufe when a hand
Vol. II. 34.

is plimged into it, it feels no gravity, wliich, not-
withftanding, a daily experience proves to be falic.

Hut what is more furpiifiiig in this place, and
which no body would believe, if it was notdcnion-
ftrated by certain and evident experiments, is that,
notwithftandinji;, the whole foundation of Hydro-
/iaticks, fluids prefs upon fubje<5t bodies, according
to their perjiendicular altitude, and according to
their latitude or breadth, having, notwithflandint^
regard to the L.ife ; wiiich I prove in the manne:
following.

'Ihe gravity of fluids, is to be eftimated accord-
ing to their altitude, regard being had to their bafe,,
i( they prefs more or lefs the bottom of the vefTel
in which they are contain'd, according to their
greater or lelier perpendicular altitude, whatever
the figure of the veflel be j which is the cafe of
fluids : for if leveral vefTels or tubes of the fame
altitude {Fig. 13, 14, 15, 16, ibid.) be filled
with water, and in the bottom of every one of
tliem (liould be made an equal aperture, and every
aperture ftop'd in the fame manner ; all the corks,
which (lop thofe apertures muft be equally ftrong,
whether the tubes be placed in a perpendicular
manner (as a b. Fig. 13.) or inclined (as c d. Fig.
14 ) or equally wide in the form of a column or
cylinder, as a b and c d ; or broader at one end like
a cone or funnel (as ef. Fig. 15. or g h. Fig. 16 )
So that if there be wanted an hundred pound weight
to fupportthe water contained in the greater tubes,
14, or 15, or 16, the fame force or weight rnufi
be fixed at the beam of a ballance, to fupport wittr
an iron-wire or fmall cord, the cork ofthe narrow-
er tube a b Fig. 13. which cork ferves as a bafe,
which is preffed by the water : — Therefore fluids
are ponderous according to their altitude.

My proof is confirmed by this experiment : let
the tube AB\JD, Fig. 17. ibid. he. wider at bottom,
and narrower a top, I lay, that the bottom C D
is no lefs prefied by the water contained in that
tube, than if the vefTel was equally wide every
where, as STDC, ofthe fame Figure : Which
to dcmoiifbrate, the fides AbBg, muft be carried
into E and F ; and afterwards, the part of the bafe
EC is to be divided into the equal parts Ew, npqc,
but in fuch a manner, that the latitude or breadth
of every one fliould not exceed half the altitude of
the tube B A, or E F. Which done, if E/> be
taken equal to the firft part E m, it may be fliewn
that the column E / prelTes equally the bottom of
the vcfTel, as the column p A ; for if you conceive
the line //, as a ballance of equal members, » be--
ing the fulcrum thereof in the right line AE;. and
at one of its extremities, /be fu'pended, the weight
V, kept in equilibrium by the point i ofthe fide of
the vefTc!, which is the other extremity of thebal-

lance.

142 Tie Unlverfal Hiftory (t/* Arts «r;7fl? Sciences.

lance, certaln'y the fulcrum n will fuftain both the I till the little column of mercury be more than thir-

wcight V, and the refiftance of the point ; equal to
the weight v, and confequently will carry twice
the weight of z".

Then let it be imagined that the water of the
cohimn A />, has the fame efFedt on the bottom /> L",
as tlie weight r has on the aim u I ; therefore, as the
point / of the G le of the vafc hiiidcrs the weight r
from defcending. likewife the part h i hinders the
water of the column A p, from forcing upwards
the water of the column E /, and therefore that
column E / will by its reHltance prefs as much the
bottoms as the column Ap prcfles /> E in gravi-
tating.

In the fame manner the part of the b;.fe tn q, is
as much prefled by the column i q, as the part
E ;n by the column E «, i. e. as much as the part
j5 E is prefied by the column ^A; and thus the
whole bafe is as much prefled by the water contain-
ed in the vafe D i> A C, as it ihculd bt pr^rtld by
the water filling up the whole viflU STDC, which
was to be-domonflrated.

The fluidity of the wr.ter is the caufe that the

teen or fourteen times its length under water ; then
removing the finger, you will find that the mercury
will be kept fufpcnded in the tube by the prefTure
of the water upwards : but if you raife the tube very
little above the former ftation, the mercury will
immediately run out ; whereof, if befoic you had
remuvtd the finger from the top, you had funk the
pipe fo low, as that the mercury were twelve or
fourteen inches, is'c. below the furf.ice of the wa-
ter, the mercury would be violently forced up, and
make feveral afcents and defcents in the tube, till
it had gained its former ftation, according to the
laws of fpecifick gravity.

VVe may alfo make ufe in this place, of the ex-
periment o a fiphon ; for if water be put in a
iijjhon or inflexed tube (abedc. Fig. iS. ibid.)
though one limb, viz. air, bs an hundred times
larger than the other, viz. c d, the water will not-
withftanding reman fufpended in both limbs at the
fame altitude ; which could not happen unlefs wa-
ter was ponderous according to its altitude, or
fhould prefs the point e. For as there is a greater

column A /> exercifes its ftrength on the column \ volume of water in the larger limb, it fh ^uld force

E/; for if the water fhould be frozen, thofe
columns fhould have no power over one another ;
therefore what we fay of the water cajjnot be ap-
plied to ice.

To confirm and illuflrate this dcftrine of the
prelTure of the fluids, in the ratio of the bafe and

upwards th.it contained in the flenderer limb, which
is contrary to experience. Therefore water and
other liquors grivitaie in the ratio of their alii-.
tude.

Now what has been obferved in the equilibrium
of folids,- the fame is found in fluids. For then the

altitude, provide a metallick veffel, fo contrived [ water muft be in -in eqnilibrium, iince on one part
as that the bottom may be moveable, and to that its volume, and on the other the ratio of its velo-
cnd fitted in the cavity of the vcffcl with a lim of city is reciprocal ; which is the cafe of the afore-

wet leather, to Aide without letting any water pafs:
then through a hole in the top applv fucceffively
feveral tubes of equal altitudes, butd.fFerent diame-
ters. Laftly, faftening a firing to the beam of a
ballancE, and fixing the other end by a little ring
to the moveable bottom : put weights in the other
feale, till they be fuiBcient to raiie the bottom :

faid exper,mtnt of the fiphon, where the volume
of the water contained in both limbs, and the ratio
of its velocity are reciprocal : for when you'll have
poured a hundred times more water into the tube
ah., than int'. cd, when that will be deprefled to-
wai ds e to the height of an ounce or inch, then that
Vfhich is in the flenderer tubi', or the limb c d, will

then will you not only find that the fame weight is ' nfe to the altitude of an hundred ounces : fo that
required, what diameter or magnitude foever the ' the greater the volume of water is in the larger tu-C,

tu e be of; but even that 'he weight which will
raife the bottom, when preflld by the fmail.ff tube,
will raife it when prefixed by the whole cylinder.

The moft folid and ponderous body, which near
the furface of the water would fink with great ve-
lo ity ; yet if placed at agreater depth than twentv
times its own thicknefs will nor fink, unlefs aflifled
by the weight of the incumbent water.

Thus ini'merge the lower end of a flender glafs
tube, in a vefTel of mercury ; then flopping the
up^er end with your finger, you will by that means
keep about half an inch of that ponderous fluid
fufpended in he tabe. Laflly,. keeping the finger
thus, in,merge the tube in a long glafs of water,

the gr^^'er is its velocity in the leffcr, by reafon of
the amplitude of each tube. Therefore it is ne-
ceffary tliat the water fhv)uld be in an equilibrium
in both, and gravitate equally every way on the
point e.

This is (o very trt^e, that if there be water in a
large vefl' 1 [Fig. i 9. ibid. } and the two tubes tfand
b be adapted to it, of which b be an hundred times
thicker than a ■ water put in the tube a of a pound,
will be equivalent to the weight of an hundred
pounds put in the tube b. For ihe force or power
is no Itis in the weight of one pound, for it to raife
the other weight ot a hundred pounds of water in
the fpace of one ouncej as it fhould happen here,

than

HYDRAULICKS a?2d HYDRO STATIC KS. 14;

than it is in the hundred pounds, to raifeone pound
in the fpace of one ounce.

Hence, if a (mall tube or pipe be lulapted to the
orifice of a hog's bladder (i^4'.?.o. //>/'(/.) which is an
hundred times narrower than the circumference of
the bladder, as the wind blows through that fmall
tube into the bladder, has an hundred times a
greater velocity of motion in the fmall tube, than
in the bladder, for though the wind or breath coii-
fidered in itfelf, has only the force of one pound,
it is notwithlianding a weight equivalent to a
weight of a hundred pounds ; and if the bladder be
prefll-d by a ninety-nine ponnds weight, that
weight will be lifted up by the fuigle breath of the
mouth introduced through that pipe into the blad-
der. Notwithftanding this, feveral imagine, that
the water contained in the tube a, Fig. 19 ibid.
and which has the force of one pound, is only
ponderous on the jjart which is immediately under
it. For the propriety of liquids inclofed in veflcls
is fuch, that if they be comprefl'ed in any place,
the force of the coniprefTion inclines on every part
■of thcveffel wherein they are contained ; whence
if any of thofe parts cannot bear that force either
upwards or downwards, or on the fides, it will
prefently break. Hence it is, what we have alrea-
JAy mentioned, that liquids are not only ponderous
.according to their perpendicular lines onl\-, but
likewife according to their oblique ones, by reafon
of the fluidity of their parts. Therefore the water
of the tube a is faid to a£t, not only on the part c
of the vafe fubjedt to it, but likewife on the orifice
of the tube b ; the fame as the water of the lefTer
tube in the fiphon a b e d c, Fi^. 18. ibid, fupports
in an equilibrium, the other water contained in the
larger limbs.

It may be objeiSed to this, that in the fiphon, one
limb whereof is very narrow, and the other very
wide, the water in the narrower limb is fullained
higher than that contained in the broader ; and
therefore fluids do not always gravitate according
to their altitude.

I anfv/er, that the water being rai'ed higher in
the narrower tube than in the broader, is lirft to
be attributed to the texture of the parts, whereby
the fmall fibres of the water being inferted into the
meatus of the glafs of the narrower tube, adhere to
its parietes 01 fides, and are raifed higher. Befides,
there is no doubt that the air fuper-incumbent on
the orifice of the narroi^er tube, prefles with a far
lefs force the water incloled in it, than that con-
tained in the larger limb, having a much more free
accefs into the larger tube than into the narrower
bo far I have explained the laws oi Hydro/iaticks,
let us now pals to thofe ofHvDRAULiCKS; proceed
ing afterwards to the application thereof to pradice.

as to condudliiig and raifing of water, with the
conflrudting of engines for that purpofc.

The firft of the hydraiiUck laws of fttids is, tliitf-
the velocity of a fluid, as water moved by the pref-
fure of a fuperintumbent fluid, as air, is equal at
equal depths, and unequal at unequal depths. For,
the prefl"ure being equal at equal depths, the velor
city arihng thence muil: be fo too, and vlceverfa ;
yet the velocity does not follow the fame proportion
as the depth ; notwithftauding, that the prefllire
whence the velocity arifes, does increafe in the
proportion of the depth. But here the quantity of
the matter is concerned ; and the quantity of mo-
tion which is compounded of the rati.) of the quan-
tity and velocity of the matter incteafcd in equal
times as the fquares of the velocities.

The fecond law is, that the velocity of a fluid,
arifing from the prefllire of a fuperincumbent fluid,
at any depth, is the fame as that, which a body
would acquire in falling from a height equal to the
depth.

The third law is, that if two tubes of equal dia-
meters full of any fluid, be placed any how, either
ereft or inclined, provided they be of the fame al-
titude, they v/iU difcharge equal quantities of the
fluid in equal times. That tubes every way equal,
fliould under the fame circumftances empty them-
felves equally is evident ; and that the bottom of a
perpendicular tube is prelTed with the fame force as
that of an inclined one, when their altitudes are
equal, has aire dy been {hewn ; whence it eafily
follows, that they muft yield equal quantities of
water, fc.

The fourth is, that if two tubes of equal alti-
tudes, buttmequ^il apertures, be kept full of vvaterj
the quantities of water thev yield in the fame time
will be as the diameters ; and this whether they be
erecl or any how inclined. Hence if the apertures
be circular, the quantity of water emptied in the
fame time, are in a duplicate ratio of the diameters.
The fifth law is, that if the apertures of two
tubes be equal, the quantity of water difcharged in
the lame time will be as the velocities.

The fixth is, that if two tubes have equal aper-
tures, and unequal altitudes, the quantity of water
difcharged from the greater tube, will be to that
difcharged from the lefTer in the fame time in a
fubduplicate ratio of their altitudes. Hence, r.
I'he altitudes of water difcharged throui^h equal
apertures, will be in a duplicate ratio of the waters
difcharged in the fame time : and as th' quantit es
of water are as the velocities ; the velocities are
likewife in a fubduplicate ratio of th( ir altitudes.
Hence, 2. The ratio of the waters difcharged by
two tubes, together with the altitude of one of
U 2 them

144- T!^'^ Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^^^/Sciences.

'hem being given, we have a method of finding
the altitude of the other, viz,, by finding a fourth
proportional to the three given quantities ; which
proportional, multiplied by itfelf, gives the altitude
required. Hence alio, 3. The ratio of the alti-
tude of two tubes of equal apertures being given,
as alio the quantity of water difcharged by one of
them,wehave a method of determinating the quan-
tity the other fhall difcharge in the fame time. 'J hus
to the given altitudes, and the fquares of the quan-
tity of water difcharged at one aperture, nnd a
fourth proportional. The fquare root of this will
be the quantity of water required.

Suppofe, e. gr. the height of the tubes, as 9 to
25, and the quantity of water difcharged at one of
them three inches ; that difcharged by the other
will bo = v^ (9. 2 . : 9) = ^/ '•^ = 5.

The feventh law is, that if the altitudes of two
tubes be unequal, and- the apertures likewiic un-
equal, the quantities of water difcharged in the fame
time, will be a ratio compounded of the fimple
ratio of the apertures and the fubduplicate one of
the altitudes. And hence if the quantities of water
difcharged in the fame time Iv' two tubes, whofe
apertures and altitudes are unequal, be equal ; the
ape tures are reciprocally as the roots of the alti-
tudes, and the altitudes in a reciprocal ratio of the
iquares of the apertures.

■ The eighth is. that if the altitudes of two tubes
be equal, the water will flow out with equal velo-
city, however unequal the aperture, be.

!'he ninth, if the altitudes of two tubes, and
alfo their apertures be unequal, the velocity of the
waters difcharged are in a fubduplicate ratio of their
altitudes And hence, r. As the velocities of
waters flowing out at equal apertures, when the
altitudes are unequal, are alfo in a fubduplicate
ratio of the altitudes, and, as this ratio is equal,
if the altitudes be equal ; it appears in the general,
that the velocities of water flowing out of tubes,
are in a fubduplicate ratio of the altitudes Hence
alfo, 2- The fquares of the velocities are as the
altiiudes.

Mariotte found from repeated experiments, that
if a veflel has a tube fitted to it, there will be more
water evacuated through the tube, than there could
have been in the lame time, through the aperture
of the velTel without the tube : and that the motion
of ihe fluid is accelerated fo much the more, as the
tube is the longer, e gr. the altitude of a veflel
being one foot, that of the tube three fret, and the
diameter o' the aperture three lines ; 6 \ feptiers of
water were difci arged in the fpace of one minute,
whereof, upon taking off the tube, only four fep-
tiers were difcharged. Again, when the length of
the tube was fix feet, and the diameter of the

aperture an inch, the whole quantity of water run
out in thirty-feven feconds ; but cutting off half
the tube, the veffel was not evacuated in Icfs than
forty-five feconds ; and taking it quite away, iif
lefs than ninety-five feconds.

The tenth law is, that the altitudes and aper-
tures of two cylinders full of v/ater being tlie fame;
one of them will difcharge double the quantity of
water difcharged in the fame time by the other; if
the firft be kept continually full, while the other
runs itfelf empty. For the velocity of the full vef-
fel will be e<iuable, and that of the other continu-
ally retarded. Now it is demonfttated, that if two
bodies be imptlled by the fame force, and the one
proceeds equably, and the fecond is equably retard-
ed ; by that time they have loft all their motion,
the one has moved double the fpace of the other.

The eleventh, if two tubes have the fame alti-
tudes and equal apertures, the time wherein they
will empty themfelves will be in the ratio of their
cafes.

The twelfth, cylinJrick and prifmatick veffels
empty themfelves by this law, that the quantities of
water difcharged in equal times, decreafe according
to the uneven numbers, t, 3, 5, 7,9, irV taken
backwards. For the velocity of the defcending
le\ el, is continually dccreafing in the fubduplicate
ratio of the decreafing altitudes: but the velocity
of a heavy body defcending, increafes in the fub-
duplicate ratio of the iiicreafing altitudes.

The thirteenth is, that if water defcending
through a tube, fpouts upon an apertur*?, whole
diredlion is vertical ; it wilt rife to the fame alti-
tude, at which the level of the water in the veffel
does ftand ; for finre the direflrion of the aperture
is vertical, the direcftion of the water fpouting
through it will be fo too; confequently the water
muff rife to the height of the level of the water in
the veffel.

The fourteenth law is, that water defcending
through an inclined tube, or a tube bent in any
manner, will fpout up through a perpendiculai
aperture to the height at which the level of the
water in the veffel ftands,

The fifteenth law is, that the length ordiftances,
to which water will fpout, either through an in-
clined, or a horizontal aperture, are in a fubdu-
plicate ratio of the altitudes in the veffel or tube.
For fince water fpoutf-d out through the aperture,
endeavours to proceed in an horizontal line; and
at the fame time by the power of gravity tends
dov.nwards in lines perpendicular to the fame ;
nor can the one power hinder the other, inafmuch
a« the diredlions are not contrary : it follows, that
the water will arrive at the line propofed, in the
fame time wherein it would have arrived at it, had

there

HTDRAULICKS and HT D RO STAT ICKS. 145

there been no horizontal impulfe at all. Hence,
as every body projedted, either horizontally, or
obliquely, in an unrefifting medium, defcribcs a
parabola ; water projeded either through a verti-
cal or inclined fpout, will de/cribe a parabola.
Hence we have a way of making a delightful kind
of water arbours or arches, viz. by placing feve-
ral inclined tubes in the fame right lines.

On thefe principles, we'll form fcveral hydra u-
Uck engines, for the raifing, ^c. ot fluids, as putnps,
fiphons., fountains, or jets d'eaus, &c. beginning
with pumps,

A Pump is a machine formed on the model of a
fyringe, for the railing of water.

Pumps are diftinguiihed into feveral kinds, with
regard to the feveral manners of their aiiling, as
the common, oi fucking pump, forcing pump, Ctejebcs's
pump, chair, pump, t are pump, ^ur pump. Sic.

The common or fucking purnt, (Fig. 23. ibid.)
is- that which adts by the pre flu re of the air, and
whereby water is raifld out of a lower into a
higher place, not exceeding 32 feet. This pump
is made of a hollow cylinder,. or barrel, provided

This afccnt of the water, the ancients, whd
fuppofed a plenum, attributed to nature, abhorrent
of a vacuum ; but the moderns, more reafonably,
as well as more intelligibly, attribute it to the prel-
fureof the atmofpherc, on the furfacc of the fluid.
For, by drawing up the embolus, the air left in
the cavity of the cylinder, muft be exceedingly rari-
fied ; fo that being no longer a counter- ballance to
the air incumbent on the furface of the fluid ; that
prevails and forces the water thro' the little tube
into the body of the pump.

['he farcing pump {Fig. 24- ibid/) a£ls by mere'
impulfe or protrufioji, and raifes water to any
height at pleal'ure. This pump is made in this
manner : a cylinder is divided by a diaphragm, or
tranfverfe piece, fitted with a valve, opening up-
wards d, and thus immerged in water : an embolus
b, furnifhed with a valve, is fo fitted to an iron-rod
/", moveable on a hinge at each end, as that it may
be conveniently raifed, and deprefled by the hand.
Now, upon preffing the embolus, the water will
open the valve, and thus ai'cend into the cavity of
the cylinder. But upon raifing it again, the valve

of any folid matter, ui'ually wood, and erected isfliut, fo that th«re is no pailage for it that way ;
perpendicularly in a fpring, or other fource of the other valve therefore becomes open'd, and the
w.-ter ; the lower part of the cylinder being firft ' water mounts through it ; and by repeating the

fitted with a valve f d, which opens upwards
A Pillon, * or embolus b, called the fucker, fur-
nifh'd with a valve c, which likewife opens up-
wards, is let down the cylinder ; and for the more
cafy working upwards and downwards, furnilhed
with a level or handle a. Now the embolus being

agitation of the embolus, it is at length driven out
thro' the fpout^

The great difficulty of redifying this pump,
when out of order, on account of the chief feat of
action being under water, makes people decline
the ufe of it when they can do well without it.

drawn up, will leave a fpace void ot air, at leaii in i notwithflanding its advantage of raifina: the water
a great nicafurefo : the prellure, therefore, of the to any given heie;ht-.

air on the furface of the llagnant water pre\ ail-
ing, will, by the laws of hydrofiaticks, lift up the
valve d, firlt mentioned, and raife it to fill the
cavity fuppofed void of air. — If then the embolus
be again let down, the lower valve beina now fall

Ctefcbes's pump (Fig. 2^. ibid.) is the firft and
finefl of all the kinds, and adfs both by fridiion and
compulfion. Its ftrudfure and adfion is as follows.
A brafs cylinder furnifhed with a \'alve c, is placed
in the water. In- this is fitted the embolus b, made

clofed with the weight of the incumbent v.'ater, 'of green wood, which will not i'well in the water,
upon prefling the pilbn, the water mull open the | and adjufted to the aperture of the cylinder, v/ith a
upper valve c, and get into the embolus-, by , covering of leather ; but without any valve. Ano-
which it is raifed up and difcharged out of the | ther tube e, is fitted on vvith a valve that opens
fpout. — Thus is the embolus a.ternately railed I upwards. Nov/ the embolus being railed, the
and deprefled. 'water opens the firft valve c, a.id riles into the

+ A valve in hytirmdUks, is a kind of lid, or cover, of a tube or vciTel, fo contrived, as to open one way ; but
which, the more forcibly it is pielled ihe other way, the clofer it fliuts the aperture. So that it either admits
the etitrjnce of a fluid into the tube, or veffel, or prevents its re entrance. In h\draulick engines, they are fre-
quently oi leather ; their figure round ; and are fitted to the bottom, or other part- or the barrel, bSc, to (hut
the apertures. Sometimes ihey are made of two rcuid pieces of le.itlier, indofed between iwo others of braf-,
having diver? perforations, which are covered with another piece of brafs, moveabL upwards and Jown^varJ^, on
a kind of a:\i', which goes thro' the middle of them all. — .omi-times .!iey are made of braf, covered with
leather, and furniihed wth a fine fpring, which gives way upon a force applied againft it ; bat upon the ceafinc
of that, returns the valve over the aperture.

* The ///?«« or embolus, is a Iho.t cylinder of metal, fitted exa-'lly to the cavity of the baircl or body of the
pump; and which being worked up and down alternately therein, raifes the water ; and when raifed, prefles it
again, fo as to make it force up the valve wherewith it is furniihed, and foefcape through Ujenofe of the pump.-
. . ' cavitv

146 The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

cavity of the cylinder : and when the fame cmho-
lus is again deprefi'ed, the laft valve is opened c,
and the water driven out thro' the tube.

This is the pump ufcd amonn the aiiiients, and
that from which both the others are deduced. Sir
6'. iXlorland has endeavoured to increafe its force,
by leflening the fiidtion, whicli he has done to
good effect, infomuch as to make it work without
almofl any friction at all.

Note, That the other pumps I have mentioned,
are only iifed in Ihips ; and therefore I'll give
their dcfcription in the treatife of Naval Archi-
teiJurc, under the letter N.

From the pump we'll pafs to the Siphon ;
whieh is a crooked tube, one branch or leg whereof
is longer than the other ; ufed in the raifing of
fluids, emptying of vellels, and in various hydro-
Jlatical experiments.

The word in the original Greek jrtipaf, fignifies
fimply tube ; whence fome apply it to common
tubes or pipes. IVolfius particularly defcribcs two
vefiels, under t'ae name oi ftphons ; the one cylin-
drical in the middle, and conical at the two ex-
tremes ; the other globular in the middle, with
two narrow tubes fitted to it, axis-wife ; both
ferving to take up a quantity of water, i3c. and
to retain it when up.

There is not a more ufeful and celebrated y?/>/;««
than this. A crooked tube is provided of fuch a
length, and with fuch an angle, that as when the
oritice is placed on an horizontal plane, the height
may not exceed 30 foot. For common ufes, a
foot, or half a foot high fuffices. If now the lefTer
arm be immerged in water, or any other liquid,
and the air be fucked out of it by an aperture made
for that purpofc, till the liquor follow; the liquor
will continue to Row out of the veflel, through
the tube, as long as the aperture is under the fur-
face of the liquor. Inffead of iucking out the air,
the event wiil be the fame, if thc/iphsn be at firft
filled with the fluid, and the upper aperture flop-
ped with the finger, till the lower be immerged.

In fucking, the air in the tube is rarified, and
the equilibrium deffroyed, confequently the v/ater
mufl be raifed into the leller leg, by the preponde-
rating prefTure of the atmofphere.

The fiphon being thus niled, the atmofphere
prefTes equally on each extremity thereof; fo as to
fufein an equal quantity of water in each leg :
but the air not being able to fuflain all the water in
the longer leg, unlefs it exceeds 32 feet in height;
it will be more than able to fuftain that in the
fliorter leg : with the excefs of force, therefore it
will raife new water into the fhorter leg ; which
new water cannot make its way, but by protruding
the firft before it. By this mea*is the water is

continually driven out at the longer leg, as it b
cominu-dly raifed by the (hortcr.

If a ^\q.A fiph'Ai be fo dil'pofed as that both ori-
fices be in the fame horizontal line, the fluid will
remain pen lant in each leg, how unequal foever
the length of the legs may be. Fluids, therefore,
in ftphons., feem, as it were to form one continued
body ; (o that the heavier part defcending like a
chain, pulls the lighter after it. Oblerving, be-
fides, that the water will flow out even thro' a
fvhon that is interrupted, by having the legs join'd
together, by a much bigger tube full of air.

The mofl: confiderable machine of hydraulicks ;
the moft agreeable to the fight, and moft diverting,
is the wt'ificial fountain.

The artificial fountain, is a machine, or con-
trivance, whereby water is fpouted or darted up,
called alfo ;V/ d'eau.

M. Alariotte fhews, that a jet d'eau will never
raife water fo high as its refervoir, but always fall
fhort of it by a fpace, which is a fubduplicate
ratio of that height. He fhews, likewife, that if a
greater /V? branch out into many fmaller ones, or
be diftributed thro' feveral jets, the fquare of the
diameter of the main pipe, mull: be proportioned
to the fum of all the expences of its branches ;
and that if the refervoir be 52 feet high, and the
adjutage half an inch in diameter, the pipe ought
to be three inches in diameter.

There are divers kinds of artificial fountains^
fome founded on the fpring, or elaflicity of the
air ; and others on the prefTure or weight of the
water, i^c. the flru£lure of each hereof, being en-
tertaining and curious, and affording a good illu-
flration of the doftrine of hydraulicks, fhall be here
explained ; beginning by the conflrudtion of an
artificial fountain, playing by the fpring, or elajiicity
of the air.

For the conftruftion of that kind oi artificial
fountain, a vefTel proper for a refervoir as A B, of
metal, glafs, or the like, is provided ; ending in a
I fmall neck c a top. Through a thick neck a tube
1 is put c a, traverfmg the neck of the vefTel, till its
lower orifice d, nearly, but not abfolutely, reach
the bottom of the veflel : the vefTel being firft half
filled with water. The neck is fo contrived, as
that a fyringe, or condenfing pipe may be fcrewed
upon the tube , by means whereof a large quantity
of air may be intruded through the tube into
the water , out of which it will diiengage itfelf,
and emerge into the vacant part of f^e vefTel, and
lie over the furface of the water C D. See Fig.
30. Hydraidicki.

Now the water here contain'd , being thus prefled

by the air, which is, e. gr. twice as denfe as the

3 externa

HTDRAULICKS and HYDRO ST ATICKS 147

external air ; and the elaftick force of air being
equal to its gravitating force, the cfteft will be the
fame as if the weight of the column of air over the
furfacc of the water, were double that of the co
!umn preffing in the tube ; fo that the water mufi:
of ncceffity fpout up through the tube, with a f rce
equal the excels of preffure of the included, above
that of the external air.

But if our art'tfical foitniain is to play ly the
preffure of the water, we mutt fearch a refervoir of
water in a place confiderably higher than that
where the fountain is to be, (whether that rever-
foir have been placed there by nature ; or whether
it have been raifed for the purpofe By a proper
enoine; as a pump, fiphon, fpiral fcrew, or the
like) having found fuch refervoir, we'll lay verti-
cal tubes for the water to defccnd through ; and
to thefe vertical tubes, fit other horizontal ones
under ground, to cany the water to the place
where the fountain is to play. Laftly, from thefe
horizontal tubes, well eretft otlier vertical ones, by
way of adjutages, jets, or fpouts ; their altitude
being much leis than that of the tubes, whereby
the v, ater was carried to the horizontal ones. Then
will the water, b-, the preflure of tiie fuperincum
bent column, be Ipouted up at thefe jets ; and that
to the height or level of the water in the refervoir,
and tnus howfoever any of the tubes be bent or
jncurvated.

Thus may water be fpouted to any given height
at pleafure : the tubes may be fo proportioned, as
to yield anv given quantity of water, in a given
time ; or feveral tubes of the fame fountain, may
be made to yield water in any given ratio ; or laft
ly, different tubes may project the water to diffe-
rent altitudes

'f'hcfe aerial or aquatick fount.ilm^ may be ap
plied in various manners ; fo as to exhibit various
appearances ; and from thefe alone arifes the
grcateft; part of our artificial water- >vorks, which
fo agreeably ftrikc the figh' that the defcription of
fomeof them., muH be very entertaining, therefore,
I'll begin by the defcription of an artificial foim
tain, which fpouts the water in various direftions
Suppofing, firft-, the vertical tube or (pout in which
the water raifes, to be I L (Fig. 31. ibid.) into
this are to be fitted feveral other tubes ; fome ho
rizontal, others nhiique ; fome inclining, others
reclining, as M N, OP, Q_R t^c. Then all
the water will retain the dircftion of the aperture
through which it is fpouted, that iifuing through I,
will rife perpendicularly; and that through MN,
O t*, Q,R, will defcribe arches of different mag-
nitudes, and tending different ways.

Or thus ; fuppofe the vertical tube M N, (Fig.
32. ibid.) through -which the water riles, to be

/topped a- top, as in M; and inftead of pipes or
jets, let it be only [icrforated with little holes all
round, or only half its (urface, then will the water
fpin forth in all directions, through the little aper-
tures, and to a diftance proport onal to the heighr
of the fall of the water : and hence if the tube
M N, be fuppofed the height of a man, and be
ftirnifhed with an cpiftonium, or cock, at P ; wpon
0|->cning the cock, the Ipedators dreaming of no
fuch matter, will be covered with a fhower, cb-
ferving, however, that the diameter of the aper-
tures. throu'.;h which the water is emitted, muft
be confiderably Icis than thole tubes in which the
water is brought ; left the reliflance of the air^
and other impediments, break the force of the
water.

We'll exhibit next, a fountain flaying by the
draught of the breath ; in fuppofing Jlh (Fig. 32.
ibid.) to be a glafs. or metalline fphere, wiierein
is fitted a tube T V, having a little oririce in T,
and reaching almoft to V, the bottom of the
fphere ; if now the air be fucked out of the tube
T V, and the orifice T be immediately immerged
under cold water, the water will afcend thro' the
tube into the fphere. Thus proceeding by re-
peated exfudfions till the veflel be above half full
of water, and then applying the mouth to T, and
blowing air into the tube ; upon removing the
mouth, the water will fpout forth. Or, if the
fphere be put into water, the air being thereby
rarified, will make the water fpout as before. This
fountain is called .''ila Heronis, or Hero's bally
from the name of its inventer.

To make a fountain, the Jlream whereof rifes.,
and plays thro' a brafs ball ; we muft provide a
hollow brafs ball B (Fig -t^-j^. ibid ) made of thin
plate, that its weight may not be too great for
che force of the water ; and make the tube D E,
through which the water rifes, cxai!^ly perpen-
dicular to the horizon. Then the ball being
laid in the bottom of the cup or bafon F, v, ill be
taken up in the ftream, and fuftain'd at a confi-
derable height, as B ; alternately vibrating, or
playing up and down. Hence as the figure of the
ball contributes nothing to its repriprocal rile and
fall ; any other body, not too heavy, mav be fub-
ftituted in lieu thereof, e. gr. a bird with he
wings ftretchcd forth.

It is nece/lary the ball when on the defcent,
fhould keep the fame precife perpendicula , where-
in it role, (fincc otherwife it would mifs the
ftream, and fall downright) and that fuch a fun-
tain flrould only be played in a place free from-
wind.

For the conftruftion of a fountain, which fpouts
■water in the form of a fl^ower ; to rhe tube wherein

the

148

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

the water is to rife, wc inuft fit a (pherical, or len-
ticular head, i , 2, {h'lg, 34. ibid ] made of a plate
of metal, and perforated a top with a great num-
ber of little holes : the water riimg with vehemence
towards I, 2, will be there divided into innumer-
able little threads, and afterwards break, aiid dif-
perfe into the fineft drops.

To make a fountain, which fpreadi the water in
form of a table cloth ; wc mult I'older to the tube
HI, (Fig. 35. ibid.) two fpherical fegments K L,
almoft touching eacli other ; with a fcrew M, to
contraiSt or amplify the intcrftice or chink at plea- j
fure. Others chufe to make a fmooth, even cleft,
in a fpherical or lenticular head fitted upon the
tube. The water fpouting through the chink, or
cleft, will expand itfelf in manner of a cloth.

Since water may be derived or conveyed by
tubes in any fituation, and always retains the di- j
reiSion of the apertures, artificial fountains may be
made wherein the water fpoitts out of the figures of
men and other animals ; by inclofing tubes within
the figures of men or other animals, having their
critices in thofe parts, whence the waters are to
fpout foith. ]

From the principles hitherto laid down, it will
be very eai'y to deduce whatever relates to the fur-
niture o'i fountains; and the various forms water may
be put into by their means ; all depending on the
magnitude, figure, and diredion of the adjutages
or apertures.

1 o make z. fountain,which,when ithasdonefpout-
i'lg, may he turned like an hom'-glafs ; we muft provide
two vellels, P Q_ and R S {Fig. 36. ibid.) which
fhould befo much the bigger, as the. fountain is to
play the longer ; and placed at fo much the greater
diftance from each other T V, as the water is de-
lired to fpout the higher, T hen X Y Z, which is
a crooked tube, muit be furnilhed with a cock in
Z ; and ABC, another bent tube, furnifhed with
a cock in B. In F G, are to be other leffer tubes,
open at both ends, and reaching near the bottom
of the velTel R S, and P Q, to which the tubti
T V and Q_S, are likewife to reach. If now the
veflel PQ_be filled with water, it will defcend
through the tube I X, and upon opening the cock
Z, will fpout up near to the height of G : and
after its fall again, will fink through the little tube
F, into the veflel R S, and expel the air through
the tube ED. At length, when all the water is
emptied out of the veflTels P Q^; by turning the ma-
chine upfide down, the veiiel R D will . e the
refcrvoir, and make the wa^er fpout up thro' the
cock Z. Hence if the vefl'els P Q_ and R S, con-
tain juit as much water as will be fpouted up in an
hour's time, we fhall have a fpouting clepfydra,
or water clock, which may be divided or graduated
;;rto quarters, minutes, t^c.

I'o this treatife we (hould add certain engines
and inllruments of modern invention, and great
u(c.

Engine for extinguiJJiing fires, a machine for
raifing a confiderable quantity of water, in one
continued ftream, for the extinguifliing accidental
fires.

The beft engine of this kind is that of Mr.
Newjliam, an engine-maker of London, which is
fo contrived that part of the men who work it, ex-
ert their flrength by treading, the very beft way of
working fuch engines ; the whole weight of the
body being fucceflively thrown on the forces of the
pumps, and every part of a man's ftrength may be
added to the wcght, by means of horizontal pieces,
to which he may apply his hands when treading.
This is the rcafon why, with the fame number of
men, his engine will throw water farther, higher,
and in greater quantities than any engines of the
fame fize, hitherto contrived. See a perfpective
view of the whole engine, ready for working,
N'' I. in Plate facing Hu/bandry.

The nature and ert'edf of this engine will be ea-
fily underflood from a perpendicular fcdfion of it
reprefented ibid. N*' 2.

The water is raifed by the prefl'ure of the atmof-
phere, by the force of the piflons, and by the fpring
ofcondenfed air, in the foliowing manner .• thus,
when the pifton R is raifed, a vacuum would be
made in the barrel TV, did not the water follow it
from the inferior canal EM (through the valve
H) which rifes through the brafs tube E F, im-
merfed in the water of a veflel, by the prefl'ure of
the atmofphere on the furface thereof. By the de-
preflion of the pifton R, the water in the barrel
TV is forced through the fuperior canal ON, to
enter by the valve I, into the air-vefl"el abed;
and the like being done alternately by the other
barrel W X, and its pifton S, the air-velTel is by
this means continually filling with water, which
greatly comprefles the air aboie the furface of the
water in the veflel, and thereby proportionably
augments its fpring, which is at length fo far in-
creafed, as to re-att with great force on the fur-
face \Z of the fiibjacent water ; which afcending
through the fmall tube ef to the flop cock eg, is
there, upon turning the cock p, furiered to pafs
through a pipe h, fixed to a ball and focket, from
the orifice of which it ifl'ues with a great velocity,
to a very great height or distance, in a fmall con-
i:inued ftream, direfted every way, or to any par-
icular place, by means of the ball and focket.

The greateft artifice of this engme is its contri-
vance to produce a continued ftream, which is done
by compreflion, and the confequent increafed elaf-

ticity

HTDRAULICKS and HTDROSTATICKS. 149

ticity of the air in the barrel abed-, calkd the air-
veflcl.

When, therefore, the air veflel is half filled with
water, and the air thereby comprefi'ed into half its
ilrft fpace, its fpring will be equal to twice the
prefTure of the atmofphere ; fo that, on turning the
itop cockp, the air within preffing on the fubacent
water with twice the force it meets with from the
external air in the pipe ef, will caufe the water to
fpout out of the engine to the height of 32 or 33
feet, if the friction be not too great.

When the air-veflel is \ full of water, the fpace
which the air takes up is only 4 of its firft fpace ;
whence its fpring being three times as great as that
of the common air, it will projeft the water with
twice the force of the atmofphere, or throw it to
the height of 64 or 66 feet. In the fame manner,
when the air-velFel is | full of water, the air will
projeiSt it to the height of 96 or 99 feet ; and when
\ full of water, to the height of 132 feet. Hence
it is eafy to ciilculate the different heights to which
the water will riie, as in the followina; table.

Height

Heighth of

Proportion

Height to
which the

of the
water.

the com-
prefled air.

of the air's
fpring.

water will
rife.

33 feet.

I
♦

132

-5

.65

1
T

.98

231

8
■5

264

T-?

297 _

As the air-veffel is the caufe of the continued
ftream, we may naturally infer, that if fuch an
air-veffel were adapted to the common houfe pump,
it would become a ufeful engine for extinguilhing
accidental fires. Now this may be effected in the
following or fome other analogous manner : let
A B CD (ibid. N" 3.) be the barrel of the pump,
P H the rod and piflon, CW the pipe going down
to the water of the well at W. Towards the lower
part of the barrel is a fhot tube, by which the air-
veffel FE is fixed to, and communicates with the
barrel of the pump. A M N L is a collar of
leather, fo fixed on the top of the barrel, and
adapted to the rod, that it may move freely in the
leathers, without permitting the air to pafs in or
out between. The nozzle or fpout D, has a flop-
cock S, to let out or keep in the water at pleafure.
Q_is a piece fcrewed on, to direci: the ftream, by
a fmall leather-pipe at the end. When the pifton
is raifed from the bottom of the pump-barrel, the
water above will be forced into the air-veffel, and
Vol. II. 34.

there comprefs the air ; it will alfo comprcfs the
air on the top of the barrel, for the water will not
be higher than the fpout D at fiifl, when the rtop-
cock is fliut ; but afterwards, as the air is confined,
it will be compreii'ed at top, the water rifing to I.
This comprelfed air, in each place, will act upon
the water by its fpring, and, upon turning the ftop-
cock, will force it out in a continued ftream thro'
the pipe at Q., and that with a greater or leffer
degree of force, as occafion requires, that being
abfolutely in the power of the perfon working the
pump.

Steam-Engine, a machine to raife water by
fire, or rather by the force of water turned inta
, fteam.

I The following is a defcription of this engine in
I its firll ftate, and original fimplicity. ABC (Plate
\Hydraulkk Engines, Fig. i.) is a copper veffel,
[partly filled with water to D E, which, beinn- fet
over a fire and made to boil, will fill the upper part
DBE with an elafiic vapour, the fufficient ftrength
whereof is known by its forcing open a valve at e :
this heated elaftic fteam is, by turning a cock at F,
let into the barrel abed, where, by its elaftic
force, it raifes the pifton G, which drives the air
above it through a proper clack at the top. After
this, that ^he pifton may by its weight defcend, a
little cold water from the ci[\emfghi, is let in at
the bottom by turning a cock at k, which, in form
of a jet, condenfes the hot fteam in the barrel into
1 3000 times lefs fpace than before it took up, which
make a fufficient vacuum for the pi (ton to defcend
in. The pifton G, and lever H I being thus put
into motion, do accordingly raife and deprefs the
pifton K in the barrel of the forcing pump L M,
on the other fide ; which, by the pipe N, draws
the water from the depth W, and forces it to rife
and fpout through the tube O, continued to any
height at pleafure.

Thus is the Steam-Engine a very fimple and
plain machine, where a very powerful ftroke for
working of pumps is performed by only turnino-
two cocks alternately ; and yet a perfon who knows
nothing of it, would imagine it to be very complex,
by the number of parts that offer themfelves to view.
But here we muft diftinguifh between what per-
forms the material operations of the engine, and
what ferves for conveniency and the juft regulation
of the faid operations ; for not above the hundredth
part of the power of this engine is employed to turn
the cocks and regulate all the motions, as will ap-
pear from what follows.

The ftrudfure of the Steam-engine, as ufed at pre-
fent, is reprefented in N* 2. concerning which we
are to obferve.

I. That

150

Tl^e Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

1. That there may be always water in the cif-
tern gt to injeft into the fteam to condenfe it,
there is an arch at, fixed near the arch H, at the
pump end, from whence another pump-rod k, with
its pifton, draws water from a fmall ciitcrn near
the mouth of the pit, fupplied from the water
raifed at />, and forces it up the pipe 7nmm, to
keep the injefting ciftern g always full.

2. As the pifton C which moves up and down
the cylinder ought to be air-tight, a ring of lea-
ther, or a piece of match, which lies upon its cir-
cumference next to the infide of the cylinder, muft
be kept moift and fwelled with water; this is fup-
plied from the injecting ciftern by a fmall pipe z,
always running down upon the pifton, but in a
very fmall quantity, if the work-be well perform-
ed. L is a leaden cup, whofe office is to hold the
water that lies on the pifton, left it ftiould flow
over when the pifton is arrived at its greateft height
in the cylinder, as W, at which time if the cup is
too full, the water will run down the pipe L V,
into the wafte-well at Y.

3. As the water, in the boiler B , muft wafte
by degrees, as it is conftantly producing fteam, and
that fteam continually let out for working the en-
gine, there ought to be a conftant fupply of the
water to boil : this is performed by means of the
pipe ¥ f, about three feet long, going down a foot
under the furface of the water in the boiler, with
a funnel F, at top, always open, and fupplied by
the pipe W, with water from the top of the ciftern,
■which has the advantage of being always warm,
and, therefore, not apt to check the boiling of
the water in the copper.

4. That the boiler may not have the furface of
the water too low (which would endanger burft-
ing) or too high (which would not leave room
enough for fteam^ there are two guage-pipes at
G, one going a little below the furface of the wa-
ter when at a proper height, and the other ftand-
ing a little above it : when every thing is right,
the ftop-cock of the fhorter pipe being opened
gives only fteam, and that of the long one water ;
but if otherwife, both cocks will give fteam when
the furface is too low, and both give water when
it is too high ; and hence the cock which feeds the
boiler at F may be opened to fuch a degree as al.
ways to keep the furface of water to its due

. heighth.

5. As cold water is injc£ted into the cylinder at
every ftroke, and as that water might in time fill
the cylinder, and hinder the operation of the en-
gine, there is a pipe coming from the bottom of
the cylinder rfT Y, called the eduftion pipe, thro'
which tlie water that has been injedled, comes
down every time the fteam is let into the cylinder.

This eduition pipe goes an inch or two under wa-
ter in the wafte well Y, and having its end turned
up is ftiut with a valve Y to keep out the air from
preflii'.g up the pipe, but permitting the injected air
coming the other way to be difcharged ; by which
means the cylinder is kept emptv.

6. Left the iteam fhould grow too ftrong for the
boiler, and burft it, there is a valve fixed at h with
a perpendicular wire ftanding up from the middle of
it, to put weights of lead upon, by which to ex-
amine the ftrength of the fteam pufliing againft it
from within. Thus the fteam is known to be as
ftrong as the air, if it will raife up fo much weight
on the valve as is at the rate of 15 lb. to an inch
fquare ; becaufe that is the weight of the air, near-
ly, on every inch fquare. When the fteam be-
comes ftronger than what is required, it will lift
up the valve and go out. This valve is called the
puppet clack.

7. The fteam is always in a flufluating conditi-
on, yet never t4 ftronger or weaker than common
air. For it has been found that the engine will
work well, when there is the weight of one pound
on every fquare inch of the valve b. This fliews
that the fteam is then -i| part ftronger than the
common air. Now as the heighth of the feeding
pipe from the funnel F to the furface of the water
S X is not above three feet, and 3^ feet of water is
T5 of the preffure of air; if the fteam were tI part
ftronger than air, it would pufh the water out at
E ; which fince it does not do, it cannot be ftron-
ger than air, even in this cafe, where the regulator
being fhut, it is moft of all confined-

8. When the regulator is open, the fleam gives
the pifton a pufti on the underfide, then occupying
more fpace, the fteam comes to be a ballance only
for the outward air, and fo only fuftains the pifton ;
but the over weight of the pump-rods, at the con-
trary end of the beam h 2, draws up the pifton be-
yond C as far as W. The fteam, then expanded
fo as to fill up all the cylinder, would not quite
fupport it, if it was not for the over weight above-
mentioned. If this was not true, when the end
^ 2 is down as low as it can go, and refts upon
the beams that bear its center, the chain LH above
the pifton would grow flack, and the pifton might
fometimes be puflied out of the cylinder, which
never happens.

Again, when firft the fteam is let into the cylin-
der, the in>£ted water is puftied out at the educ-
tion pipe ^T Y, and is all out of the cylinder by
that time the pifton is got up to C. If then the
fteam was ftronger than air, it would fly out at Y
after the water, the valve Y not being loaded. If
it were exactly equal to the ftrength of the air, it
would juft drive all the water out at Y, but could

sot

HTDRAULICKS and HYDRO STATIC K S. 151

not follow itfelf, the preflure being equal on each
fide of the valve by fuppofition. if it be weaker
than the air, it will not force all the water out of
the pipe d TY, but the furface will ftand, fuppofe
at T, where the column of water T Y added to
the flrength of the fteam, i« equal to the preflure
of the air. When the Itream is yi weaker than
the air, the height TY is equal 3! feet.

Now fince the whole perpendicular diftance
from rt' to Y is but four feet, and the fteam is al-
ways fufficient to expel the water ; it is plain it can
never be more than ri part weaker than the air,
when weakelt. •

9. As there is air in all the water injefled, and
that air cannot be taken out, or condenfed with
the fteam by the jet of cold water coming in at k,
the whole operation would be dilturbed, and only
a very imperfeft vacuum made, were it not for the
following contrivance.

We are to remember that when fteam is become
as ftrong as air, it is above fixteen times rarer ; fo
that air will precipitate in fteam, as quickfilver
would in water. I'herefore all the air extricated
from the injefted water, lies at the bottom of the
cylinder, over the furface of fo much of the injedfed
water as is come down to dn. Now there is with-
out the cylinder at 4, a little cup with a valve,
and from under the valve, a pipe going laterally
into the cylinder above its bottom to receive the air
into the cup. When, therefore, the fteam firft
rufties into the cylinder, and is a little ftronger
than the outward air, it will force the precipitated
air to open the valve at 4, and make its efcape ;
but the fteam cannot follow, becaufe it is weaker
than the external air, as the pifton, by afcending,
gives it room to expand. This valve from the noife
it makes is called the fnifting clack.

10. But amongft the greateil improvements of
this engine, we may reckon that contrivance by
which the engine itielf is made to open and fhut
the regulator and inje6tion-cock, and that more
nicely than any perfon attending could poffibly do
it. For if the man who turns the regulator at E,
and the injeftion-cock N, when the pifton is
coming down, opens the regulator and lets in the
fteam too foon to raife the pifton again, the ftroak
will be ihorter than it ought to be ; and if he does
not open the regulator foon enough, the pifton
coming down with a prodigious force, will very
probably ftrike againft the throat pipe D ^ at ^,
and crufti it to pieces.

Likewlfe when the regulator is open, the fteam
going into the cylinder, and the pifton rifing, the
ftroke will not have its full length, if the ileam is
turned off, and the cold water injedted too foon ;
and if injected too late, the fteam may throw the
pifton quite out of the cylinder's top at L.

To ptevent, therefore all fiich accidents, thsre
is fixed to an arch Z, at a proper diftance from
the arch P, a chain, from which hangs a perpen-
dicular piece, or working beam Q_Q5 which comes
down quite to the floor, and goes through it in a
hole which it fits very exaitly. This piece has a
long flit in it, and feveral pin Holes and pins for
the movement of feveral levers deftined to the olfice
of opening and fliutting the cocks after the follow-
ing nianner,

1 1 . Between two perpendicular pieces of wood
on each fide of P, there is a fquare axis AR [ihid.
N*' 3. j which has upon it feveral iron pieces of the
lever kind. The firft is the piece CED called the
Y, from its reprefenting that letter inverted by its
two ftianks, E and D ; on the. upper part is a
weight F, to be raifed higher and lower, and fixed
as occafion requires. This Y is fixed very faft up-
on the faid iron axle A B.

12. From the axle hangs a fort of an iron fiir-
rup, IKLH, by its two hooks IG, and having
on the lower part two holes K L, through which
pafles a long iron pin L K, and keyed in the fame.
When this pin is put in, it is alfo pafled through
the two holes in the ends E N of the horizontal
fork or fpanner E QN, joined at its end Qto the
handle of the regulator V 10. From Q_to O are
feveral holes, by which the faid handle may be
fixed to that part of the end which is moft con-
venient.

13. Upon the axis A B is fixed at right angles
to the Y an handle or lever G4, which goes on
the outfide of the piece QQ_, and lies between the
pins. Another handle is alio faftened upon the
fame axle, viz. H 5, and placed at half a right
angle to the former G 4 : this pafles through the
flit of the piece Q Q,, lying on one of its pins.
Hence we fee that when the working beam goes
up, its pin in the flit lifts up the fpanner H 5,
which turns about the axle fo faft, as to throw
the Y with its weight F from C to 6, in which
dire£lion it would continue to move after it pafled
the perpendicular, were it not prevented by a ftrap
of leather fixed to it at a?, and made faft at the
ends m and n, in fuch manner as to allow the Y
to vibrate backwards and forwards about a quarter
of a circle, at equal diftance on this fide and that
of the perpendicular.

14. As things are reprefented in the figure, the
regulator is open, its plate TY being fliewn on one
fide of the pipe S, which joins the cylinder and
boiler. The pifton is now up, and alfo the work-
ing beam near its greateft height, the pin in the
flit has fo far raifed the fpanner H5, that the weight
F on the head of the Y is brought fo far from »,
as to be paft the perpendicular and ready to fall

X 2 over

'H:)e Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

152

over towards ;«, which when it does, it will by
its {hank E, ftiike the iron pin K L with a fmart
blow, and drawing the fork ON horizontally to-
wards the beam Q_, will draw the end 10 of the
regulator towards /, and thereby fhut it, by flip-
ping the plate Y under the holes of the throat-
pipe S.

15. Immediately after the regulator is iTiut, the
beam rifmg a little higher with its pin S on the
outiide upon the lower part, lifts up the end / ot
the handle of the inje£ting-cock, and opens it by
the turning of the two parts with teeth. The jet
immediately making a vacuum, the beam again
defcends, and the pin r deprefling the handle h i,
fhuts the injedtion cock ; and the beam continuing
to defcend, the pin p bears down the hand'e G 4,
and throwing back the Y, its (hank D throws for-
ward the fork NQ_, and again opens the regulator
to receive frefh fteam. After this very thing re
turns as before, and thus is the engine moft won-
derfully contrived to work itfelf.

16. Many years after the engine had been made,
as above defcribed, it received another improve-
ment of very great advantage, and that was, inflead
of feeding the boiler with warm water, from the
top of the cylinder {ibid Fig. 3.) by the pipe W
above, and F/ below, they contrived to fupplv it
with the fcalding hot water which came out ot the
edudtion-pipe (^TY, which now, inftead of going
into the wafte well at Y, was turned into the boiler
on the top, and as the edudion pipe before went
out at the fide of the cylinder, it was now infert-
ed in the bottom of it ; and though the preffure of
the fteam in the boiler be fomewhat Itronger than
in the cylinder, vet the weight of water in the
edu(5lio:vpipe being added to the force of fteam in
the cylinder will carry the water down continually,
by overcoming the refiftance in the boiler.

1 his is the /ever engine with the improvements
of Mr. Newcaien and others ; but as Captain Sa-
vory's, or rather the Marquis of lVorceJler\, is
very cheap in refpci5t of this machine, and as it is
alfo applicable with great advantage when the
heighth to which the water is to be raifed does not
exceed lOO or 150 feet, we fliall here fubjoin a
view of that engine, with the improvements of Dr.
Defagul ien.

The boiler BB [Fig. \.) is a large copper body
of a globular form, which will beft of all withftand
the very great force of fteam that in this cafe is
neceffary. Round the body of this boiler the fire
and flame are conduced as fhewn at TTT. It
has a copper-cover fcrewed on, which contains
the fteam pipe ^. D, and two gage-pipes «, 0, which
by turning their cocks, ftaew the height of the wa-
ter within as in the other engine. On the fame

cover P is a valve, over which lies a fteel-yard,,
with its weight Q_to keep it down, the ftrength of
the vapour being this way moft exaSly eftimated.
For being in the nature of a lever of the third fort,
it is plain, if the beam of the lever be divided into
ten equal parts, and the firft of them being upon
the middle of the valve, and the weight Q_hangs at
the 2d, 3d, 4th, i^c. divifions, that then the force
of the fteam which can raife up the valve will be 2,
3, 4, i^c. times as great as the u'eight. Jf the
area of the valve be a ftjuare inch, and Q,=z 15 lib.
hanging at the fecond divifion is raif'd by a fteatn
puftiing up the valve, it will ftiew that the fteam
will then prefs with the force of two atmofpheres,
and fo on to ten atmofpherc*s ; but great care muft
be then taken that the fteam fo very ftrong burft
not the boiler to pieces.

The fteam is carried from the boiler to a copper-
vefTel A, by means of the pipe CD, and is let into
it by turning the handle K of the fteam-cock DI.
The key of this cock is kept dow n by the fcrew L,
held up by the gibbet D L. The handle turned
from K to .<■ admits a paffage to the Heam into the
copper-receiver A.

This receiver A communicates at bottom witk
the fucking-pipe ZH going down to the water H
in the well X, and above with the forcing-pipe
EE, which goes up a little above the water of the
refervoir R, and between thefe pipes are two valves
F and G both opening upwards.

The fteam being let in upon the water of the
receiver A, forces it up through the valve F, and
the pipe EE to the refervoir, and then the receiver
is full of hot fteam. This fteam in the receiver is
condenfed by a jet of cold water coming from the
forcing-pipe by the fmall pipe MI, being let in and
fhut oft' by the cock at M. The fteam being con-
denfed by this jet will be reduced within a very
fmall fpace, and fo make a vacuum, upon which
the water in the well will rufti up the forcing-pipe
to reftore the equilibrium, and thus again till the
receiver A, the Jittle air being compailed within a
fmall compafs at the top above b c. That there
may be always water in the force-pipe for the jet,
there is a little pipe which brings the water to it
from the refervoir with the fmall ftop-cock Y, to
fliut it off" upon occafion.

The valves at FandG are examined at anytime
by unfcrewing the pin i, toloofen the ftrap 2, and
let down the ffanch 3, all which parts are ftiewn
larger in the figures N* 5. By the particular con-
trivance of die cock at DI, and its key, the water
is made to pafs from the force pipe to the boiler to
fupply the wafte in fteam.

This is plainly (hewn in the feflions of the cock

and ke

where
J

5 is the top of the key,

6 IS a
hole

HYDRAU LICKS and HYDRO S TATICKS. 153

hole on one fide, which goes down to the bottom The Hydrometer, an inftrument to meafure

to convey the lleam, or jet of water alternately the gravity, denfitj', velocity, force, csV. of water

to the receiver ; 7 is a notch on the other fide to and other fluids, is one of the moft ufcfui inftru-

talcc in the water from the force-pipe, and condutt | ments of the philofophic kind ; for tho' the hy-

it to the boiler B. droftntic ballance be the moft general inftrument

How this is done iseafy to conceive from a view for finding the fpecific gravities of all forts of bo-

of the two fedtions of the cock and key, in two dies, yet the hyirometer is beft iuited to find thofc

pofitiotis within it. The boiler may hold about
five or fix hogiheads, and the receiver one hogf-
head. ft will work four or hve hours without re-
cruiting : about four ftrokes a minute will produce
upwards of 200 hogftieads per hour. 1 his fteam
makes a vacuum (b efFeftually, as to raife water
from the well to the height of twenty nine or
thirty (eet ; and fuppofe the fteam able to lift up
the Heel yard with its weight hanging on the 6th
divifion, it will then be able to raile a column of
water above fifty yards high, a* being then fix t mts
ftronger than the prefl'urc of the atmofphere, as is
eafily underftood from what has been faid upon
the j^rc~eng'H', the water being railed m a fimilar
manner in both machines, there by the prcfTure of
condenfed elalHc ai , and here by the prelfure of
rarefied elaftic fteam.

In the philofophical tranfa(£ltons there is an ac-
count of an improvement made in the fteam-itigine
by Mr, Payne, as follows. He has contrived two
iron- pots or veffels of a conical form inverted as
reprefented by AB E F N° 6.) on the upper part
of which is fixed a globular copper-head, ot about
5|- feet diameter, as LMN. Then there is placed
on the infide a fmall machine H, called the difpen

of fluids in particular, both as to eafe and expedi-
tion.

This inftrument fhould be made of copper; for
ivory imbibes Ipirituous liquors, and thereby alters
its gravity; and glafs is apt to break, 'i'hemoft
fimple kind, ufed for finding the ftrength of fpirits,
confirts of a copper- ball Bb ['^\dxe Hydroftatkk
In/lntmentSy Fig. i. N" I.) with a brafs wire^
A B, 5^ of an inch thick, foldered into it. The
upper part of this wire being filed flat on one fide,
is marked proof at w, becaufe it finks exaiflly to
this mark in proof-fpirits. There are other two
marks at A and B, to (hew whether the liquor
be x'o above or below proof, according as the
hydrometer finks to A, or emerges to B, when a
brafs weight as C or K has been fcrewed on at the
bottom c. There are alfo weights to be fcrewed
on, for ftiewing the fpecific gravities of fluids quite
to common water. The round part of the wire
above the ball, may be marked fo as to reprefent
river-water when it finks to R W, [ihid. N^ 2)
the weight which fits the inftrument for river- wa-
ter being fcrewed on at c : alfo when put into
fpring-water, mineral-water, fea-water, and water
of falt-fprings, it will emerge or rife gradually to

fer, with fpouts a b c de, &c. round the fides fixed j the marks S P, MI, S E, S A ; and on the con-
to it, and the bottom thereof refts on a center pin trary, when put into briftol-water, rain-water,

port-wine, and mountain-wine, it will fuccefllvely
fink to the marks bryva, p o,m 0.

O. In this machine is fixed an upright tube G
with holes at the bottom, and a funnel P on the
top, to receive a fpout of water from a conduit-
pipe Q_, by the flop cock R. Two or more of
thefe vcflels are placed in a reverberatory arch for
conveying rhe intenfe heat of a ftrongfire, the flame
whereof encompafles the ir; n-vefl"els, and keeps

Another kind, which ferves to diftinguifti the
fpecific differences of fluids to great nicety, confifts
of a large hollow ball B. {ibid. N° 3.) with a
fmaller ball b under it, partly filled with quick-
filver or fmall ftiot, and fcrewed on to the lower

them in a red heat during the time of their ufe, at ' part of the former, in order to render it but little

which time the cog-wheel I, being turned by proper
machnery, whirls the difpenfer about with great
velocity, and caufcs the water in it to fly through
the fpouts againft the fides of the red hot pots. By
this means, the grejteft part of the water is con-
verteJ inio vapour or elaftic fteam, which is con-
veyed by a common pipe and cock to the barrel of
the engine to put the pifton in motion, and the
wafte water is conveyed away at Ixittom by means
of a pipe CD, with a valve at D to keep out the air.

In Hydrojiaticks our modern philofophers have
given us the following inftruments,

Ipecifically lighter than water : it has alfo a fmall
fhort neck at C, into which is fcrewed the gra-
duated brafs-wire A C, which by its weight caufes
the body of the inftrument to defcend in the fluid,
with part of the ftem.

When this inftrument is fwimming in the li-
quor, contained in the jar I L M K, tlie part of
the fluid, difplaced by it, will be equal in bulk to
the part of the inftrument under water, and equal
in weight to that of the whole inllrument. Sup-
pofe the weight of the whole were 4000 grains,
then it is evident we can by this means compare
together the different bulks of 4000 grains of va-
rious

i^4 ^^^ Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^W Sciences.

rious forts of fluids. For if the weight A, be fuch
as fhall cauf; the araeometer to fink, in rain-water,
till its furface comes to the middle point of the flcm
20 , and if, after this, it be immerfed in common
fpring-water, and the fuifacc is obferved to (land
-rV of an inch below the middle point 20 ; it is
evident that the fame weight of each water differs !
in bulk only by the magnitude of to of an inch
in the flem.

Now fiippofe the ftem were ten inches long,
and weighed roo grains, then every tenth of an
inch would be one grain weight ; and fince the Item
of brafs, and brafs is about eight times heavier than
water, the fame bulk of water will be equal to \ of
a grain ; and confequently to the \ of 5:0^^^ part,
that is, a 32000th part of the whole bulk, which
is a deo-ree of exadlnefs as great as can be defired.
Yet the inftrument is capable of ftiU greater ex-
adtnefs, by making the ftem or neck confiit of a
flat thin flip of brafs, inftead of one that is round
or cylindrical : by this means we increafe the fur-
face, which is the moft requifite thing; and di-
minifh the folidity, by which the inftrument is
rendered more exacH:.

In order to adapt this inftrument to all forts of
ufes, there ought to be two different ftems to
fcrew on and off" in a fmall hole at a. One ftem
fhould be fuch a nice thin flip of brafs, or rather
of fteel, like a watch-fpring fet ftrait, as we have
juft mentioned, on one fide of which ought to be
the feveral marks or diviiions, to which it will
fink in various forts of waters, as rain-water,
river-water, fpring-water, fea-water, fait fpring-
v/ater, ^c. And on the other fide you mark the
divifion to which it finks in various lighter fluids,
as hot bath-water, Brijlol water, Lincomb-vjzt&r,
Chelten-water, port wine, mountain, Madeira, and
various other forts of wine. But in this cafe the
-weight A on the top muft be a little lefs than
before, when it was ufed for the heavier waters.

But in cafe of trying the ftrength of fpirituous
liquors, a common cylindric ftem will do beft, be-
caufe of its ftrength and fteadinefs ; and this ought
to be fo contrived, that when immerfed in what is
caWed proof- fpirit, the furface of thefpirit may be
upon the middle point 20 ; which is eafily done by
duly adjuftiiig the fmall weight A on the top, and
making the ftem of fuch a length, that when im-
merfed in water, it may juft cover the ball, and
rile to a; but, when immerfed in pure fpirit, it
may rife to the top at A ; then by dividing the
tipper and lower parts a 20, A 20, into ten equal
'plarts each; when the inftrument is immerfed in any
fort of fpirituous liquor, it will immediately fhew
how much it is above or below proof.
■ This proof-fplrit confifts of half water and half

alcohol, or pure fpirit, that.is,fuch as when poured
upon gunpowder, and fet on fire, will burn all
away, and permit the powder to take fire, which it
will, and flafli as in the open air. But if the fpirit
be not fo highly rectified, there will remain fome
phlegm or water, which will make the powder
wet, and unfit to take fire. This proof-fpirit of
anv kind, weighs feven pounds twelve ounces per

o;ailon.

The common method of fhaking the fpirits in a
vial, and by railing a crown of bubbles, to judge
by the manner of their rifing or breaking away
whether the fpirit be proof or near it, is very pre-
carious, and capable of great fallacy. There is no
way fo eafy, quick, certain, and philofophical, as
this by the arseometer, which will demonftrate in-
fallibly the difference of bulk?, and confequently
fpecific gravities, in equal weights of fpirits, to the
30. 40, or 50 thoufandth part of the whole, which
is a degree of accuracy, beyond which nothing can
be defired.

The Hydrostatic Ballance, contrived

for the eafy and exafl: finding the fpecific gravities
of bodies, both liquid and folid, is of a confiderable
ufe in eftimating the degree of purity of bodies of
all kinds ; the quality and richnefs of metals, ores,
minerals, i^c. The proportion in any mixture,
adulteration, or the like : of all which the fpecific
weight is the only adequate meafure.

The doiSrine of the hydrojiatkal ballance is foun-
ded on this theorem of y1rchimcdei,\.\\zt. a body hea-
vier than water, weighs lefs in water than in air,
by the weight of as much water as is equal to it
in bulk.

We have a new hy draft atical ballance, the parts
of which are as follow: AB {ibid. N" 4.) is the
foot on which itftands ; C D is a pillar fupporting
a moveable brafs plate F, faftened thereto by the
fcrew in the knob e. In the end of this plate is
fixed an upright piece I K, fupporting another
plate G H, which Aides backwards and forwards
thereon, and is moveable every way about it. In
' the end of this plate, at H, is fixed (by a nut be-
neath) a wire L M, taped v."iih a fine thread from
one end to the other ; upon this moves the fwan-
neck flip of brafs N O, to which a ver)' exaft bal-
lance is hung at the point N ; to one of whofe fcales
P is appended the heavy body R, by a fine horfe-
hair or piece of filk S : the weight of the faid body
R in the air, is expreffed by the weight put into
the fcale Q_ to make an equilibrium therewith,
which being deftroyed by immerging the folid in
the fluid T V, contained in the glafs W V, is
again reftored by weights put into the fcale P. So
that the weii^hts in the fcale Q_ compared with

thofe

HTDRAULICKS and HT DRO STATIC K S. 155

fhofe in tlie fcale P, (hew at once the fpccific gra-
vity of the (bliil R to that of the fluid T V.

The fpccific gravity of fluids is readily deter-
mined by weighing one and the fame folid body in
them feverally ; for faice we fuppofe the ballance
in equilibrio with the body fufpended in the air,
the equilibrium will be deftroyed when the iblid i«
immerfedin the fluid, and muflbe then reftored by
weights put into that fcale, to which the body is
appended. Thefe weights will feverally expreis
the gravities of an equal bulic of the leTpedtive
fluids ; and copfequently they may be thus com
pared with each other, or all of them with the
gravity of common water, as ulual, and difpofed in
a proper table ; making water i.ooo.

In the fame manner, if divers folids are firft
weighed in air, and then afterwards immcrfed in
the fame fluid, as water ; tor initance, the equili-
brium wdll be deftroyed ; which will be reftored,
as before, by putting in fo much weight as is equal
to the weight of the fame bulk of water : the gra-
vity, therefore, of every folid is thus compared
with water, and conlequently with each other.

But in this, and many othe- cafes, it is required
to be very exaft in weighing bodies, even beyond
what is attainable by the niceft niechanifm of this
inftrument. We fhall therefore give the reader an
account of an improvement of the common bal-
lance in this refped ; and it is the more pertinent
in this place, as this inftrument ferves equally for
exadneis in common, as in hydrojiatical matters.

The figure of the machine reprefents the bal-
lance in its hydroftatic ufe, [ibid. N'^ 5.) We fhall
firft del cribe the machine, then fhew the new con-
trived artifice for exacfnefs ; and ialtly, give an
inftance of its univerfal ufe. V C G is the ftand
or pillar fixed in the table; From the top at A
hangs, by two filken firings, the horizontal piece
or bar B i? ; from which is fufpended, by a ring
at i, the fine beam of a ballance b, which is kept
from defcending too low on either fide by the
gentle fpringing piece / a- ji z, fixed on the fupporter
M. The harnels is annulated at «, to fhew di-
ftindly the perpendicular pofition of the examen,
by the iinali pointed index fixed above it.

The ftrings by which the ballance is fufpended
paiTmgover two pullies, one on each fide the piece
at A, go down to the bottom on the other fide,
and are hung over the hook at v ; which hook by
means of a fcrew P, is moveable about i \ in-
ches backwards and forwards, and therefore tl:e
ballance may be raifed ordeprefled fo much. But
if a greater elevation or depreflion be requir'id,
the Aiding piece S, which carries the fcrew P,
is readily moved to any part of the fquare brafs rod
V K, and fixed by means of a fcrew.

The motion of the ballance being thus provided
for, the reft of the apparatus is as follows : H H is
:i fmall table fixed upon a piece D, under the fcales
d and e, and is moveable up and down in a lono-
flit in the pillar above C, and faftencd at any pait
with a (crew behind. At the point in the middle
of the bottom of each fcale is hung by a fine hook
a brafs- wire ad, ac. Thefe pafs through two
holes m, m in the table; and to the wire ad is
fufpended a curious cylindric wire r s, perforated ac
each end for that purpofe. This wire ri is co-
vered with graduated by equal diviuons, and is
aoout five inches long;

In the cornet of the table at E, is fixed a brafj-
tube in which a round wire hi is fo adapted as to
move neither too hard nor too freely by its flat head
I. Upon the lower part of this moves another
tube Q, which has fridion enough to caufe it to
remain in any pofition required; to this is fixed
an index T, moving horizontally when the wire
hi \s turned about, and therefore may be eafily fet
to the graduated wire r s.

To the lower end of the wire r ; hangs a weight
L, and to that a wire p n with a fmall brafs ball j-,
about ~ of an inch in diameter. (Jn the other fide
to the wire ac, hangs a large glafs bubble R by a
horfe hair. Let us at prefent fuppofe the weight
L taken away, and the wire/>n fufpended from S :
and on the other fide let the bubble R be taken
away, and the weight F fufpended in its room at c.
This weight F we fuppofe to be fuch as will keep
in equilibrio with the feveral parts appended to the
other fcale, at the fame time that the middle point
of the wire p n is in the furface of the water in the
veffel N. The wire pn is to be of (uch a fize, that
the length of one inch fhall • weigh four grains.
Hence it is evident, fince brafs is eight times hea-
vier than water, that for every inch the wire finks
in the water, it will become half a grain lighter,
and half a grain heavier for every inch it rifes out
of the water : confequently, by finking two inches
below the middle point, or raifing two inches a-
bove it, the wire will become one grain lighter or
heavier. And therefore, if when the middle point
is at the furface of the water in equilibrio, the
index T be fet to the middle point a of thewra-'
duated wire r s, and the diftance on each fide <7r
and 1 s contains a hundred equal parts ; then, when
in weighing bodies the \veig,ht is dtfircd to the
hundredth part of a grain, it maybe eafily had by
proceeding in the following manner.

Let the body to be weighed be placed in the
fcale d, and put the weight X in the fcale ,■ ; and
let this be fo determined, that one grain more fliall
be too much, and one grain leis too little. Then
the ballance being gently moved up or down by the

fcrewr

156 Tlie Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^jW Sciences.

fcrew P, till the equilibrium be nicely (hewn at 0;
and then if the index T be at the middle points
of the wire rs, it (hews that the weights put into
the fcale e, are juft equal to the weight of the
body. By this method we find the abfolutc weight
of the body ; the relative weight is found by
weighing it hydrojiatually in water, as follows.

Tnftead of putting the body into the fcale ^, as
before, let it be appended with the weight F at the
hook f, by a horfe-hair as at R, fuppofmg the
vefi'el of water O were away ; then the equili-
brium being made, the index T ftanding between a
and r, at the 36th divifion, {hews the weight of
the body put in 1095.36 grains. As it thus hangs,
let it be immerfed in the water of the veflei O,
and it will become lighter by much ; the fcale e
will defcend till the beam of the ballance refts on
the fupporter z. Then fuppofe 100 grains put
into the fcale ^reftores the equilibrium precifely,
fo that the index T ftands at the 36th divifion
above a; it is plain the weight of an equal bulk of
v/ater would, in this cafe, be exaftly 100 grains.

After a like manner may this ballance be ap-
plied to find the fpecific gravities of fluids, which
will not be difficult from what has been faid.

The Hygrometer is a machine, or inftru-
ment whereby to meafure the degrees of drinefs,
or moifture of the air, or rather of the atmofphere.

There are divers forts of hygrometers ; for
whatever body either fwells or fhrinks, by drinefs
or moifture, is capable of being formed into an
hygrometer. Such are woods of moft kinds, par-
ticularly afh, deal, poplar, i^c. Such alfo is cat-
gut, the beard of a wild oat, i^t. Stretch an
hempen-cord or lute-ftring. as A B. [jhid. N" 6.)
along a wall, bringing it over a pulley, B ;
and to the other end D, fix a weight E ; into which
fit an index G. On the fame wall fit a plate of
metal H I, divided into any number of equal parts,
and the hygrometer is compleat. For it is known
from experience that moifture fenfibly fhortens the
length of cords or fiddle-ftrings ; and that as the
moifture evaporates, they return to their former
length. The weight, therefore in the prefent
cafe, upon an increafe of the moifture of the air,
will afcend ; and upon a diminution of the fame,
it will defcend.

Hence, as the index G will fhew the fpaces of
afcent and defcent ; and thofe fpaces are equal to
the increments and decrements of the length of
cord, or gut, A B D ; the inftrument will difcover
whether the air be more or lefs humid now, than
it was at another given time.

But if a more fenfible and accurate hydrometer

be required, ftrain a whip-cord or fiddle-ftring,
over feveral pullies B, C, D, E, F, and G. {ibid,
N° 7.) ajid proceed as in the former example.
Nor does it matter whether the (everal parts of the
cord A N", B C, CD, i3c. be parallel to the hori-
zon as exprefled in the figure or perpendicular to
the fame.

The advantage of this above the former hygro-
meter, is, that we have a greater length of cord
in the fame compafs ; and confcquently greater
contra£tion or dilatation.

Another method of conftruiflion, which is more
fimple, is thus. Faften a hempen-cord or fiddle-
ftring, A B, {Ibid. N<» 8.) to an iron hook ; and
let the other end B, defcend upon the middle of a
horizontal board, or table, E F ; near B, hang a
leaden weight or ball of a pound, C, and fit an in-
dex C G. Laftly, from the center B delcribe a
circle, which divide into any number of equal parts.
Or, inrtead of the table or board, draw two con-
centric circles on the ball K from I. (N° 9.) and
divide them into any number of equal parts, and
fix an index NO, to any proper fupport N. So
that it may almoft touch the divifions of the ball.
Here the c6rd or gut twifting or untwifting will
(hew the change of moifture, i^c. by the fucceffive
application of the index to the divifions of the
circle.

Or thus : provide two wooden frames, A B and
CD. (N° 10.) with grooves therein ; and between
thefe grooves fit two thin leaves of afh, A E F C,
and G B D H, fo as they may eafily (lide either
way. At the extremes of the frames A, B, C, D,
confine the leaves with nails, leaving between them
the fpace E G H F, about an inch wide. On I
faften a flip of brafs dented, I K ; and in L a little
dented wheel, upon whofe axis, on the other fide
of the n)achine an index is to be put. Laftly,
fiom the center of the axis, on the fame fide, draw
a circle, and divide it into any number of equal
parts.

Now, it is found from experience, that a(hen
wood readily imbibes the moifture of the air, and
fwells therewith ; and as that moifture flackens,
fhrinks again ; upon any increal'e of the moifture of
the air, the two leaves AF and B H growing tur-
gid, will approach nearer each other : and, again,
as the moiiture abates, they will (hrink, and again
recede. Hence, as the diftance can neither be
increafed nor diminifhed without turning the
wheel L, the index will point out the changes in
refpect of humidity, or ficciry.

All the hygrometers above defcribed become by
degrees lefs and lefs accurate, and at length undergo
no fenfible alteration at all from the humidity of
the air.

The

JAPANNING.

The following is much more lafting. 7'ake a
nice ballance [Ibid. N° ii.) and place in it a
fponge, or other body, which eafily imbibes moi-
flure ; and let it be in equilibrio, with a weight
hunw at the other end of the beam. Now if the
air beeomc moift, the fponge becoming heavier,
will preponderate ; if dry, the fponge will be raifed
up. This ballance may be contrived two ways ;
by either having the pin in the middle of the beam,
with a flender tongue a foot and a half long,
pointing to the divifions on an arched plate fitted
to il ; or the other cxtremitj' of the beam may be
made fo long as to dcfcribe a large arch on aboard
placed for the purpofe, as is reprefented in the
figure.

To prepare the fponge, it may be neceflliry to
wafli it in water ; and when dry again, in water
or vinegar, wherein fal ammoniac, or fait of tartar,
has been difTolved, and let it dry againj then it is
fit to be ufed.

In the lall mentioned hygrometer, Mr. Gould., in
the PhUofopbical TrmifaSiioJis., inflead of a fponge,
recommends oil of vitriol, which is found to grow
fenfibly lighter or heavier, in proportion to the lefler
or greater quantity of moifture it imbibes from the
.air; fo that being fatiated in the moifteft weather,
it afterwards retains or lofes its acquired weight,
as the air proves more or lefs moift. The altera-
tion in this liquor is fo great, that in the fpnce of
fifty-feven days, it has been known to change its'

weight from three drachms to nine; and has fhifted
an index or tongue of a ballance thirty degrees. A
fingle grain, after its full increafe, has varied its
equilibrium fo fenfibly, that the tongue of a bal-
lance, only an inch and a half long, has defcribed
an arch one third of an inch in compafs, (which
arch would have been almoft three inches if the
tongue had been one foot) even with fo fmall a
quantity of liquor; confequently, if more liquor,
expanded under a large furface, were ufed, a pair
of fcales might afford as nice an hygrometer as any
kind yet invented. The fame author fuggefts*
that oil of fulphur per campanum, or oil of tartar
per deliquium, or the liquor of fixed nitre, might
be fubilituted in lieu of ;heoil of vitriol.

But among all the inventions the following
feenis bell: calculated both for difpatch and ac.-:u-
racy. A [ibid. N° 12.) reprcfents a thin piece of
fponge, fo cut as to contain as large a fuperficies
as poifible. This hangs by a fine thread of filk,
upon the beam B, and is exactly ballanced from
another thread of filk at I), ftrung with the fmalleft
lead fliot, at equal diftances, and fo adjufted as to
caufe the index E to point at G, in the middle of
the graduated arch F G H, when the air is in a
middle flate between the greatcfl moilture and the
greateft drynefs. I, fhews a little table or fhelf for
that part of the filk and ihot which is not fufpended
to rell upon.

JAPANNING.

JAPANNING, is the art of imitating the Ja-
panncfe in varntjhing and drawing figures on
wood and other materials.

The colours ufed in this art for a fair red, are
the Spanijh vermilion, with a fourth part of Venici:
lacquer ; though carmine is far preferable. For
blue^ ultramarine, and only twice as much yarnifh
as colours ; the Frujfian blue has the fame effetSt,
and is not fo chargeable. Tlie black is made of
ivory calcined between two crucibles. Green is
feldom ufed in japanning, becaufe it \i, difficult to
make it fair and lively.

The varnijh is made by taking a pint of fpirii
of iw'w, well deflegmated, and four ounces of
gum lacca, which afier it has been broke from the
flicks and rubbifh, and roughly bruifed in a mortar,
muft be tied up in a bag of coarfe linen, together
with a little Cafiile foap, and put to fteep in fpring
Water for the fpace of twelve hours. This done,
all the tindlure muft be rubbed out, adding to it a
little allum, and referviiig it apart : then muft be
added as much majlic and white amber ^ dil^ilkd in
Vol II. 34.

a matrafs, with fpirit of wine, by a two days di-
geftion, frequently ftirring it, that it do not ftick
to the glafs ; then ftraining and pre/Ting it out into
another veflel.

This done, the wood to ht japanned mud be
covered with a layer of this varnifh, till it be fuf-
ficiently drenched with it ; then taking fome of
the colours the figures are to be of, it muft be'in-
corporated with fevcn times as much of the varnifh,
and applied with a pencil, going over each part
three feveral times, each a quarter of an hour after
the other : two hours after this it muft: be poliflied
v/ith a peftle or Dutil> reeds.

What they call night japanning, is performed by
applying three or four layers, with the colours
firft i then two of pure varniHi uncoloured. Be-
fore it is dry, fome venturine or gold wire reduced
to powder, muft be fifted over it ; then covering it
over with as many layers of pure varniih to render
it like poliftied glafs ; and laftly, rubbing it over
with tripoli, oil of olive, or hatters felt.

Y jE jr-

158 Tl:>e. Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ajid Sciences.

' JEWELLER.

TH E art of the ''jeweller confifls In fctting
diamonds, rubies, emcral-Js, and other pre-
cious ftones, in gold, filver, or other metals,
that they may appear with a full luftre, and hide
their defefls, as much as poiTible.

To heighten the lull re of a ftone, they put com-
monly under it a leaf of the fame colour of the
ftone, but livelier, which they Z2\\foyl.

To proceed in this operation, they begin by put-
ting the ring, or other piece which is to be fet

with jewels, into cement; then they put the foyl, and-
over it the Itone, which they faften in the callet by
approaching the metal near it, with their fetting
tool as clofe as poflible, without breaking or fcratch-
ingthe ftone; this done,they file and polifh the metal.
This art miift be very anticnt, and ought to be
confidcred as having been invented in heaven, llnce
God, Exodui \wn\. gives thefc direftions for the
breaft- plate, ver. 17. And thou Jhalt fct In it fettings
of Jioncs,

LAP I D A R r.

LAPIDARY cuts precious ftones. — There
are various machines ufed in the cutting of
precious (tones, according to the quality of
the matter to be cut.

To cut and form a diamond, the lapidaries ufe
a wheel of foft fteel, turned by a kind of mill, with
diamond duft, tempered in oil of olives ; which
ferves likewife to polifli it.

From the different manner of cutting them, dia-
monds borrow their different appellations of rofes,
brilliants, table, &c.

To give to a diamond the form of a rofe, it muff
be made quite flat underneath, and its upper part
cut into divers little faces, ufually triangles, the
uppermoft whereof muft terminate in a point.

A brilliant diamond is formed by cutting it in
faces both a- top and bottom, making its table, or
principal face a-top, flat.

The table diamond is that which has a large
fquare face a-top.

The whole fecret of the art confifts in obferving
a juft fymmetry in the formation of the faces, where-
by the luftre of the ftone is more or lefs heightened ;
/or if they are too large, that luftre is dull or Jan-
guifhing, and if too fmall, it is too confufe, and
the ftone does not play, by fo agreeable a variety
of colours. It confifts likewife in the poiiftiing,
that there fhould be neither clouds, flaws, nor
fcratches on the ftone.

Oriental rubies, Japbires, and topazes are cut,
and formed on a copper wheel with oil of olive,
and diamond-duft : they are poliftied on another
copper wheel with tripoly and water.

Emeralds, hyacinths, amethyjls, garnets, tgates,
and other ftones lefs hard, are cut on a leaden wheel

with fmalt and water, and poliftied on a tin wheel
with tripoly.

Thefe wheels are fixed on a table, with a han-
dle to them, by means whereof the artift turns the
wheel round with his left-hand, holding with the
right the ftone upon it, having before befmeared it
over with his compofition. The ftone is fixed with
cement, at the end of a fort of fcewer, that the
artift may eafier lay hold of it.

Turquois, of the old and new rock, laplsf gira'
fole, and opal, are cut and poliftied on a wooden
wheel with tripoly.

Lapidary is alfo ufed for one (killed in the
nature, kinds, &c. of precious flones, or a mer-
chant who deals in them.

A rough diamond, muft be chofen uniform, of a
good ftiape, tranfparent, not quite white, and free
of flaws and ftiivers. Black, rugged, dirty, flawey,
veiny ftones, and all fuch as are not fit for cutting,
are moft commonly pounded in a fteel mortar for
that purpofe ; and when pulverized they ferve to
faw, cut, and polifh the reft.

The goodnefs oi diamonds confifts in their water,
or colour, luftre and weight. The moft perfect co-
lour, and moft efteemed at prefent, is the white.
The yellow has been a long while in vogue, and
our anceftors efteemed a black caft, which they
imagined contributed much to heighten the luftre
of the ftone.

The water called ceslejlis is the worth of all, and
yet is fomewhat diff.cult to difcover in a rough
diamond. The only infallible way is to examine
it in the fliade of fome tufted tree.

In Europe the Lapidaries examine the goodnefs of
their rough diamonds^ their' water, points, ^c. by-
day-

LAPIDARY,

159

day light ; in the Indies they do it by night ; in
order to which, a hole is made in the wall a foot
fquarc, and therein a lamp placed with a thick
wick, by the light whereof they judge of the (lone,
holding it in their fingers.

As to their diftinguifliingof c//i7«a«/-ij from other
ftones, Dr. Wall in the Philofophkal Tranfaflions,
feems to have found an infallible method. A diamond
with'an eafy /light friction in the dark, with any
foft animal fubftance, as the finger, woollen, filk,
&c. appears luminous in its whole body : nay, if
you keep rubbing for fome time, and then expofe
it to the eye, it will remain fo for fome time. If
the fun be 18 degrees below the horizon, holding
up a piece of bays, or flannel flrretched tight be-
tween both hands, at fome diftance from the eye ;
and another rubbing the other fide of the bays or
flannel pretty briikly with a diamond, the light is
much more vivid and pleafant than any other way.
But what Dr. Wall judges moft furprizing is, that
a diamond being expofed to the open air in view of
the fky, gives almoft the fame light of itfelf, with-
out rubbing, as if rubbed in a dark room : but, if
in the open air you put the hand, or any thing a
little over it, to prevent its immediate communi-
cation with the fky, it gives no light, which is a
diftinguifliing criterion of a diamond.

The following is a rate, or manner of cftimating
the value of diamonds, drawn up by a perfon well
verfed in fuch matters, and which for its curiofity,
as well as the ufe it may be of to perfons who deal
in diamonds, we judge will not be unacceptable.

TABLE of

DIAMONDS.

Dutch

V T.

A diamond

weighing

one

grain is ivorth from.

Grains

/. s.

Ster.

—

112

120

—

187

220

—

330

380

—

450

—

700

735

—

1500

1800

—

3500

4500

—

4500

5620

It mud be obfervcd, however, that defeils in
the water, or fliape, red, or black fpots, Olivers,
and other failings, frequently found in thefc
ftones, reduce the price by one third, and fome-
times more.

As to brilliant' diamonds of very fmall cut, the
price is always lefs by one third, than that of dia-
monds of a larger cut, though the weight is the
fame : the reafon is, that the latter fliew themfelves
a great deal moi:e, when fet in their collets, than
the former.

Lapidaries ufually diftinguifli three kinds of Ru-
BIFS, the raky, balafs, and fpinell; ibme add a
fourth kind, viz. the rabecelle. It is the different
degree of colour which makes their different va-
lue and beauty. The balafs ruby is of acrimfon
colour with a caft of purple : the fpinell ruby is of
a bright rofy red.

The ruby is formed in aftony fubftance, or mar-
cafite of a rofe colour, called mothe of ruby; it has
not all its colour and luftre at once ; but comes to
it by degrees. At firft it grows whitilh, and as it
approaches to maturity, becomes red. Hence wc
have white rubies, others half white, half red, and
others blue and red, calledy?7/)A/V^ rubies.

When a ruby exceeds 20 carats, it may be called
a carbunele, the name of an imaginary ftone.

They have feveral manners of counterfeiting
rubies ; and have carried this imitation to that
length, that the moft able Lapidaries are fome-
times over-feen.

The value of rubies, from one carat, or four
grains, to ten carats, is thus given us in the Dic-
tionaire de Commerce, from a good hand.

A ruhy of one carat, is worth

of two carats, — —

of three carats,

of four carats, — —

of five carats, —

of fix carats, — • —

of feven carats,- —

of eight carats, ■

of nine carats, — —

of ten carats, ■

/.
I

9
22

106

150

216

00
10
00
00
00
00

d.
o
o
o
e
o
o
o
o
o
o

The Saphire is tranfparent, yet exceedingly
hard, fo as fcarce to bear being engraven.

Different colours bear different kinds thereof;
the deepeft blues being efteemed males, and the
whiteft females. The fafbircs of Pegu are tl;e
moft efteemed.

The (oft water-faplnres of Bohemia and Silef.a,
are of fome account, tho' far inferior to the orien-
tal ones, both in the brightnefs of their blue, and
the firmnefs of their te.xture.

Y 2 The

Tlie Univerfal Hiftory of Art ^ and Sciences.

The Topaz is.tranfpai-ent, its colour a beautiful
yellow, or gold Colour : it is very hard, and takes
a fine polilh. It is the true chryfolite of tlic an-
tients, and is found in fcverai parts of the indieiy
in Ethiopia, Arabia, Peru, and Bohfrnia.

The oriental topazes are rrtolt efteeined ; their
colour borders on the orange.

The topaz is cafily counierfeiied ; and there are
fiditious ones, which to the c)c do not coine be-
hind the natural ones.

The Emerald is a very green and tr.mfp .rent
ftone, and as to hardnefs, next to the ruby.

The crietital emerald \'> harder, more brilliant,
and tranfparent than the Peruvian ; which has ge-
nerally clouds found in -it, and fparkles Icfs.

The emerald is fuppofed to grov/ more and more
perfedl in the mine like the ruby ; and to arrive at
its greennefs by flow degrees, as the fruit comes
to maturity by degrees. It is a common opinion
that the emerald grows in the jafper ; and it is cer-
tain there are fome jafpers fo perfe«iHy green, that
many have taken them for emeralds.

But the proper matrix, ormarcafite of this flone,
is the preme, which is held among the coarfer pre-
cious ftones ; being hard, tranfparent, half opake,
and ufually intermix'd wich yellow, green, white,
blue, l^c.

The firft and coarfeft fort of rough emeralds,
csWed plafmeS; for grinding, are worth 27 fhillings
fterling, the mark, or 8 ounces. The demi-
niorillons, 8 /. fterling, per mark. Good moril-
lons, which are only little pieces, but of fine co-
lour, from 13 /. to 15 /. per mark. Emeralds, larger
then morillons, and called of the third colour, or
fort, are valued at from 50/. to 60/. per rmrk.
Emeralds, called of the fccoiid fort, which are in
larger and finer pieces than the preceding, are
worth, from 65/. to 75/. per mark. — Laftly,
thofe of the firft colour, otherwife called ncgres
cartes, are worth from no/, to 1 1 5 /.

Emeralds ready cut, or polifhed and not cut,
beLn» of good ftone, and a fine colour, are worth,

Thofe weighing one carat, or 1

four grains, — J

— — of two carats, —

of three carats, ■

of four carats, — —

■ of five carats, — —

of fix carats, —

of feven carats,

■ of eight carats, — —

-^^ of nine carts, — —
' of ten carats, —

HyAciNTH i? |hus called from its rcfemblance
of the pvrpic flower, named hyacinth, fys the violet.

There are four (crts of hyacinths ; thofe inter-
mixed with a yenrillion colour; thole of a faffron-
colour ; ihofe of a"ii amber oyiour; and la'tly thofe
of a white, iniermixed with a ilight red.

Hyacinths, ag-lin, a.'e diftinj^uifhed into oriental
and occidental.

T he ftone graves or cuts fine, and would be
more uled for feals, fs'f. but that the graving fr«-
ijucnily cofls mote than the flone.

Amethyst is a precious Hone of a violet co-
lour, bordering on purple.

There are divers forts of amethyfls ; the oriental
which is the hardell, the fcarceft, and moft valu-
able, is of a dove colour ; tlie Ge'tnan which is of
a violet colour ; and the Spanijh which has the co-
lour of a panfy.

There are ibme crienial, alfb, of a purple co-
lour, and others white, and like the diamond.

The amethy/t is not extremely hard, but. may be
cut with a leaden wheel, fmeared with emery
moiilencd in water. It is polifhed on a pewter
wheel with tripoli ; it is eafily engraven on, either
in creux or relievo.

The Beryl is a tranfparent fione or gem».
brought from India of a light or pale green colour,
infomuch that fome have reprefented it as of two
colours, the one green, the other pale.

The beril differs from the chryfoberil, which is
fomewhat paler, and partakes more of the vellow,
and from the chryfcprufus, which partakes more o£
the green.

Some authors take the beryl for the diamond of
the antients ; this is certain, the ablelt modern
jewellers have fometimes miftaken the one for the
ether.

The Cornelian is a precious'ftone ordinarily
red, bordering on orange, called alfo fardius, or
the fardian fione. It is but little tranfparent, cuts
eafily ; and we find moft of the fine gravings of an-
tiquity, whether in relievo, or indented, are on
this ftone. It bears the fire admirably.

The fineft cornelians are thofe brouijht from near
Babylon, the next are thofe of Sardinia, the la(t
thofe of the Rhine, Bohemia, and Silefia. To jive
thefe ftones the greater luftre, in fetting them they
lay 2 piece of filver leaf underneath.

The principal ufe made oi cornelians is in feals,
by rcafon they grave well, and take a fine polifli.

Granate, popularly called Garnate, is a pre-
cious ftont of a high red colour, thus called from

the

LAP X D A R Y,

i6i

the refcmblancc it bears of the kernel of a pome-
granate.

Gnviates are cither oriental or occidenUal ; the firfl:
are brought from divers paits of the Eaji Indies,
the fecond from Spain, Silcfia, and Bohemia.

Thofc from the Ea/i are difliaguifhed by their
colour into three kinds; the firft of a deep brownifb
red, like black clotted blood ; of which kind there
jireibine as big a,s an hen's egg. The fecond are
nearly of tiie colour of a hyacinth, with which
jt were eafy to coijtpund them, but for their fupe-
tjor re Jnefs. llie laft, having a mixture of a
violet with their red, are called by the Italians-,
rubini dclia rocha.

Tile occidaital grajiales are of divers reds, accord -
ing to the places they are found in. Thofe of
Spain imitate the colour of the kernels of a pome-
granate : thofe of dohemia have a golden caft with
their red glittering like alive coal : thofe of Silefia
are the darkeft of all, and feldom thoroughly tranf-
parent.

Of the occidental granates thofe of Bohernia are
the moft valued : fome even give them the prefer-
ence to the oriental kind. They are found near
Prague ; not in any particular mines, but are
picked up by the peai'ancs in the fields from among
the fands and pebbles.

The Agate is a precious flone, partly tranfpa-
rent, and partly opake, ufually diverfified with a
variety of colours, veins, fpots, i3c. fometimes ex-
hibiting figures, or appearances of natural objects.

There are various kinds of agates; which accord-
ing to. their dilFerent colours, degrees of tranfpa-
rency, £3°;:. have ditFerent names. The principal
giay be reduced to thefe four, w'z. the onyx., calee-
donv, the blmk, and the German agates.

The agate has ordinarily a reddifli teint, but is
finely variegated with fpots, and (Tains, many of
which feem very naturally to reprefent woods, ri-
vers, trees, animals, fruits, flowers, l^c.

'r\\e. fardians, a.nd fardoayx agates are very valua-
ble ; the latter is of a fanguine colour, and is di-
vided into zones, which feem to have been painted
by art.

Jgates have always been efteemed for feals, as
.being a Hone that no wax will ftick to.

The Onyx is a kind of precious ftone, account-

ed a fpecies of opake agate. It ix of a dirk horny
colour, in which is a plate of a bluilh white, and
fometimes of red ; the feveral colours appearing as
diltinft as if laid on by art.

White zones or girdles, arc efiential to an onyx.

The Sardonyx is a kind of precious fto.-.c
partaking partly of tbeyirjw;/, and partly of the
enyx.

It is femi-tranfparent, and reddifli bprdering on
white, fomewhat like the nail of the hand : in
fome the red inclines to a yellow.

The TuRcois, or Turquois, is a precious
ftone of a blue colour, ordinarily opake, but fome-
times a little tranfparent.

There are tiircoifes both oriental and occidental,
of the new rock and the old. The oriental partakes
more of the blue tindure than the green, and the
occidental more of the green than thebljc. Thofe
of the old rock are a deep blue, and i;hofe of the
new rock more whitiflj, aiid do not keep their
colour.

The oriental ones come from Perfia, the Indies,
and fome parts of Turky ; and fome even fuppofe
that it is hence they derive their modern name
tureois. The occidental are found in various parts
of Europe, particularly Germany, Bohemia, Silefiay
Spain, and France.

Tiircoifes all grow of a round or oval figure.

The tureois is eafily counterfeited, and that _fO'
pcrfedly that it is impoinble to difcover the deceit,,
without taking it out of the collet.

The great defed of all turcoifes is, that in time
they lofe their blue colour, and become green, andi
then ceafe to be of any value.

The Opal is a precious ftone of various co-
lours, changeable according to the different pofi-
tion of the llone to the light.

In it are feen the red of the ruby, the purple of
the amethyft, the green of the emerald ; befides
yellow, blue, and fometimes black and white.
When die ftone is broke, moft of thefe colours
difappear; which fhews that they arile by reflec-
tion from one or two principal ones.

ItJ form is always either round, or oval ; its pre-
vailing colour white. Its diverfity of colours makes
it almoft of equal value with a faphire or ruby.

L A fr^

l62

"The Univerfal Hiflory of Arts «;^^ Sciences.

LAW,

TH E etymology of law is either from legendo,
reading ; or from eligeiido, chuling ; or
from Uganda, tying, obligating. — It may
be deduced from legendoy reading ; for though it is
not eflential to the law that it fliould be written,
according to 'JuJ}inian\ inftitutions, c. 25. q. 2.
and to Ariftotlc, lib. 10. Etb. c. g. where he ex-
prelFes himfelf in theft- words ; whether the laivs be
zvritten, or not written, it does not feem to matter
much : the/(JW, notwithftanding, is moft commonly
written, that every body may read in it what he is
to do, or to avoid. — It may alfo be derived from
eligendo, chufing; becaufe A^w is like a Certain

Rome; and in fuch antient Conftitutions and privi-
leges as the clergy are entitled to in England, by the
laws of the land.

The civil law confifls in the conftitutions of a
republick,or in the edifts of emperors, and kings,
in the decifions of a fenate, or of the canons, in the
anfwers of prudent men, and in a long cuftom,
approved by the unanimous confent of the people.
I'his fcems to be the general divifion of all laws.

As to the matter fubjed to law, it is the right
itfelf, or what is juft, or what is aded or omitted
juftly.

Thus much concerning laiu in general, of the

chofen rule, or form of living. This etymology : difterent divifions and fubdivifions thereof, areas

is that o! Tully, lib. de leg. Laftly, it may be de-
rived from ligando, tying or obliging; becaufe it|
obliges the fubjeiSls to its obfervance. I

AH law is either natural, or pojilive — The
7iatural law is confidered either in God or in us.

follow.

Every body agrees, that the eternal law is the
fource of all others, and the firft rule of all our
aftions. For the eternal law, fays St. Augujlin,
lib. 22. coyit. FauJ). c. 2"]. is the divine reajon, or

In God it is called eternal law or eternal order. In 1 God's will commanding to preferve the natural order,
us it is either cs]lcd right reafonoT natM a' light ;' and forbidding to di/lurb it. Natural order, in
or retains fimply the name of natural law or order. \ this place, is tiiat, fays he himfelf, lib. 2. de erdin.
The pofttive law, is that eftablifhed by the free- : c, 10. whereby all tbings are done, which God has
will of a legiflator ; and fubjecl to alterations ov\eJlabliflied. Therefore the eternal law is an im-
changes thereof, are called by different names by ! mutable reafon, to which all that is done rightly

the Roman Jurifconfultes. For among them the
law is defined, lex rogatur, when it is made, be-
caufe there was no law made unlefs alked by the
people. It is abrogated, alrogatur, when entirely
abolifhed ; derogated, dcrogatur, when part thereof
was taken off; fubrogated, Juhr'gatur, when addi-
tions were made thereunto ; and abrogated, abro-
gatur, when Ibme changes were made in it.

The pofiiive law is either divine or human ; the
firft is from God, and the latter from men.

The divine Idw is contained in the Old and New
Teftament ; whence it is either antient or new.

The old or antient law, is that given to the He-
brews, by the miniflry of Mofes, or as the Apoftle
expreffes himfelf, Gal. iii. ig. It was ordained by
Angels in the hand of a Mediator.

The neiu laiv is called the law of the Gofpcl, or
of the New Teftament, is that brought to all men
by Chrift, author of the Netv Teftament.

The human law, is that made and eftablifhed by
men ; and this is either ecclefiajlical or civil.

The ecclefiajlical law, confifts in the canons of
the general councils, the fentiments of the fathers,
and the conftitution of the Popes, called decretal,
amongft thofe in communion with the church of

and jultly is agreeable, and all that is done wrong
difagreeable.

Natural lazu alfo called right reafon, natural
light, and natural order, is the eternal law itfelf, or
a certain participation oi thz eternal law, \n tl n-
tional being, whereby he is made capable to diftin-
guifh between good and evil.

Lawyers call natural lazu, that, which nature
has taught nil kinds of animals without diftinftion,
fuch as their confervation, procreation, the education
of children, ^c. But the Divines call natural law,
that which God has imprinted on man's mind.

That this natural law is imprinted in our minds,
is evident from that everybody underftands what is
good, and what is bad.

We'll pafs to the law of nations, and aflc firft,
what is the law of nations, and whether it pertains to
the natural laiu ?

I anfwer, i. That the law of nations is that which
natural reafon has eflablijhed among men, a7id which
is obferved almofl by all men.

1. It is called law, becaufe it has the property
of a law. which is that it fhould be entirely juft.

2. Which the natural reafon or light has eftablijhed
among msn^ becaufe through the exigency of their

affairs.

L A TV,

163

affairs, men of almoft all nations have eftablifh-
cd it.

3. And xvhlch is ohferved by almoft all men ; be-
caufe almoft all nations obferve that laxv to which
they have almoft all given a fandion.

If I be a(ked, which are thofe precepts which
have been made, and are kept by almoft all na-
tions ? I'll anfwer, that the principal of them are
manumijfwns, war, the difference made between na-
tions,, the condition of kingdoms, the difference of
government, the partitions of lands, buildings, com-
merce, emotions, venditions, locations, condtiSiions, &c.
I anfwer, 2. That the law of nations pertains
rather to the pofitive than to the natural law ; be-
caufe eftabliihed and calculated by men for the
fecurity of the civil fociety ; for it differs from the
natural law, in that the inftitution of the natural
law does not depend of men, and is not faid to be
in force among almoft all men, but among all
without reftri£tion.

Divine law is that rule given by God to his
people, the Hebrews, for their guide in his wor-
Ihip, and their Jives, condudl, and government
which was from time to time revealed to the world
by Mofes, and the prophets, from the beginning of
the world, till it was fully completed by a new
Revelation, delivered to us by Jesus Christ the
Sun of Righteoufnefs. See Hebrews i.

The old law. confifted of moral, judicial, and
ceremonial precepts, ftatutes and conftitutions,
which are chiefly contained in the books ol Exodus
and Leviticus. The ceremonial, otherwife called
the levitical ' law, was abrogated by the nezv laiu
delivered by Christ.

With regard to this new law we'll aflc, what it
is, and how many precepts it has ?

I anfwer, 1. That the nnv law, or the law of
the Go/pel, is defined a divine pofitive law, given to
all men by their legijlator Chrift.

It is called /aw, becaufe the definition of law is
proper to it.

It is called pofitive, to diftiiiguifh it from the
eternal and natural law.

It is faid given to all men, to diftinguifli it from
the old law given only to Abraham and his pofl£-
rity.

It is faid by Chrift, becaufe Chrift himfelf calls
his precepts in feveral places of thic fcripture, the
precepts of the new law.

I anfwer, 2. That there are three forts of pre-
cepts of the new law, viz. moral precepts, the pre-
cepts of faith, and the precepts of the facraments ;
which can be proved by the fcripture. For Matt.
V. vi. Chrift explains the moral precepts of the
decalogue. And Matt. ix. forbids divorce, and
the libel of repudiation, and decrees that the con-
jugal knot fhould be indiHoluble.

As to the precepts of the facraments, it is faid,
fcbn iii. Except a man be born of water and of the
fpirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God. And
fohn vi. Except you eat the fte/b of tlje fon of man,
and drink his blood, you have no life in you.

As to the precept of faith, it is laid Alark xvi.
But he that believes not Jhall be damned.

There is this difference between thcfe three
kinds of precepts ; that the moral ones being of
the natural law, were not inftituted by Christ,
but only explained, and vindicated from the errors
they had been involved in by men's malice. But
that \^z facr omental vie.xt inftituted by Chi iff, to
fupply the place of the old ones abrogated by him.
That the precepts of faith were not inftituted
anew, but only, from implicit, were made more
clear; fo that we are obliged at prefent to believe
fome precepts explicitly, which, in the old law
they believed only implicitly ; fuch as the Nativity,
Paffion, and Death of Chrift, and all the other
myilcries, which are only believed obfcurely by
the Jews^ and are at prefent believed exprefly by
the Chriftians.

The human law, next to the divine, falls under
our confideration.

iVIen's minds being agitated by various affeilions,
and darkned by errors, deviate from the right way
ofreafon and fimplicity. Extravagantly infatuated
with their own pretended merit, they behave them-
selves towards others with haughtinefs and injui--
tice, envying their fortune, jealous of their merit,
and great and noble adlions, rejoicing at their ad-
verfities, perfidious, calumniators, plunderers,
falfc, always ready to offijnd them, and almoft
never to do them good : thsrt^orc human laws
were necefTary, which eftablilhing punifhments
fliould maintain the natural and divine law, cor-
redl the delinquents, keep rebels in awe, and con-
tain all in their duties ; for if there was no fear of
puniftiment, the moft facred and wholefome laws
would be neglefted by the indolent, infringed by
the wicked, and defpiied by the audacious.

Therefore the human laws are eftabliflied to
give a greater authority to the natural law, that
no-body fhould either omit it, - or violate unpu-
niflied.

Human Laws are divided into ecclefiaftical and
the civil.

The ecclefiaftical laiu is that eftabliihed by, or
for the ufe of the church, or religious conftitutiou
in every nation. This is alfo commonly called
the canon law. The power of making laivs has
been granted to the church.

In the firft council, viz. that of fertfalem, ASts
XV. z. law was made, that the Gentiles converted

from blood,
and

to the chriilian faith, Ihould abftain

164 *n^e Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

and from flefli fufFocated. St. Paul^ i Tim. iii. 2. j all the private and publicic laws. Thofe compilerj
forbids that the Bigames fliould be promoted to ' w ere called decemviri; whcnre the laws of the
epifcopacy, and by their example feveral things have twelve tables we alio called decemvtral laws.

Next to thefe tables, amongft thofe properly

been eltabliflicd in tl)e church, by the canons of
the Apoftles, general councils, and hv the confti-
tutions of different churches ; and thefe laws have
been colle£led and digefted by authors, in feveral
jiations and languages : as the Decrctwn Gratlani,
the Gregorian Colleilion, by Pope Gregory IX. The
Clementines, the Extravagantes, tlie Concordats, &c.
In England, fince the reformation, the canon law
has been much abridged and reftrained ; only fo
niuch of itobtaijiing, as is confiftent with the com-
mon and ftatute laws of the realm, and the doftrine
of the cflabJiOicd church.

The Civil Law Is that made by either a prince
or arepublick, and which all the fubjects of that
prince or republick are obliged to obey.

They who command others, have a right to call
to an account thofe, who defpife their laws; which
is confirmed by the Apoftle, Rotn. xiii. I. Let every
one be obedient to the Juperior power; for there is no
power but from God : therefore he who refifts
power, refills God's ordinance.

From which expreflions it is eafy to underftand,
that the civil law is political, and temporal with
regard to the objed and the things commanded ;
but that the obligation ariiing from it, is internal
and fpiritual; and that theobfervance thereof can-
not be defpifed with a fafe confcience.

Firft, God himfelf didated civil precepts to the
"JrMS. The moil antient people, and particularly
the Greeks, digeltedand reduced into writings their
civil laws, fuch were thofe of iSa/a^z, Lyctirgus, and
others, which all flow from the natural law ; and
perhaps are taken in part from the law of Mofes. But
the Romans have excelled in that all other nations.

Befides the laws of Romulus, and of the other
kin"s, which were iji force while the royal autho-
rity laRed ; they took care, after the cxpulfion of
the king, to make laws agreeable to the republican
government thev had eflablifhed among them, to
keep the citizens under a juft and reafonable fub-
jedtion, to compofe their differences, is'c. To
that effea, they fcnt about the year 300 of the
foundation of Rome, three deputies to Athens, and
to the other cities of Greece, to collefl: the laws of
thofe people, and bring them to Rome, Thefe be-
ing return'd three years afterwards, feven other
men, eminent for their extraordinary merit, were
joined to them, to make a choice of thofe laws,
and who digefted them into ten tables, to which
foon after, by reafon that fome of thofe laws were
defedive, were added two more tables : fo that
thofe twelve tables became afterwards the fource of

called laius, were the plebifcita, made by the Pl'e-
beians ; the fenatufconfulta, by the fenate ; the
edids of the pretors, whence proceeded a right Call-
ed the honorary right : and theie ediiis having been
collected into one body, that body was called the
perpetual ediii.

The face of the republick being changed, and
the empire deferred to one perfon only ; there en-
fued feveral conftitutions of the emperors, which
during very near 500 years, /. e. from Augujlus to
Jujiinlan, increaled in a furprizing manner.

Of thefe conftitutions of the emperors, from
Adrian to Conflantine, were compofed two codex's,
in the time of Dioclejiau, one by Gregory, and the
other by Hermogenes, both private perfons. '1 he
emperor Theodofms the younger, gave the third
codex, digefted by eight prudent perfons, in which
he included the conftitutions of the emperors, from
Conflantine to himfelf

At laft the emperor fujiinian pcrfefted quite the
Roman jurifprudcncc. For in the year of Chrift
528, he appointed fome illuftrious perfons to free
the Gregorian, Hermogcnian, and Theodofian codex's
of their too tedious prolixity, and to compofe of
them another under the name of Jujiinian. Asree-
able to the emperor's expeflrations they perfe£l:ed
the JujUnian codex, which he approved and con-
firmed by an imperial conftitution, given in the
year 529.

Afterwards, he caufed to be comprifed into a
fingle work, all the antient laws divided into fifty
books, which work was called the digeft, or pandeifs.
Then he publifhed an epitome of the civil law,
diftributed into four books, for the ufe of young
ftudents in the law, and which he called. The
Epitome of the Inflit'itions of the Civil Law.

But as he found that feveral things "were omitted
in the codex, or not treated with that accuracy he
defir'd, he caufed it to be corrected in feveral places,
and would afterwards give a fecond edition thereof
more correct than the firft, and this is, Repetitte
pralcf^ionis codex ; which we read in the body of
the civil law.

The novella were foon added to it, or 168 new
conftitutions. So that the whole body of the civil
law confifts of four colle(ftions, viz. the four books
of inJiitutio'JS, fifty books of digeJIs or pandeils^
twelve books of the codix, and 186 novels. From
which novels were extraifted fliort fentences, which
in the divifion of the codex, were inferred in feveral
places thereof, and are called Authentic^, becaufe
confirmed by the authority of the emperor.

But

L A PF,

But as the fifty books of digejls or pande£}s, with
the gloffb, could not be contained in one volume,
bookfellers have divided them into three, calling
the firft volume the antient Dige/i; becaufc it was
publifhed firft, the fecond Inforttate, becaufe it
gives a clearer, and more ample knowledge of the
law ; and the third the new dige/i, becaufe pub-
lifhed laft.

Each book of the pandex and codex is divided in-
to titles, and the titles into laws, and the laws into
paragraphs. Therefore, when fome law of the di-
gejh or pandeils is quoted, the name of the digeft
is fignified by the majufcule lettterD. And of the
pandeSfs, by a Greek ir with a circumflex, in place
whereof the printers fubftitutea double^. For ex-
ample, if any body wants to quote the third para-
graph of the firft law of the firft title of the digejis
or pande£fs, which has for title de Ju/iit'd <Sf Jure,
he'll fay, the natural right is what nature has taught
all animals, from lib i. paragra. 3. D. or^. de
Jujlitid y Jure, i. e. the firft law, third paragraph
of the digeji or pande£f, title de Ju/iitid & Jure.
And in the codex, L. nemo 2. cod. deSacrcfanii.
Ec. i. e. the law which begins at this word nemo,
which is the fecond law in the codex, title de Sa-
crofanitis ecclefns. This title is the fecond of
the firft book. If the Authentica is quoted, it
muft be faid , Authen. cajfa, cod. de Sacrofan^is Ec-
cleftis, he. The novels are quoted by their proper
names, and the chapters thereof are indicated.
The mftitutions of the civil law are commonly
quoted by paragraphs and titles.

The Roman civil law thus compofed with fo
much art and care, is of great authority in almoft
all Europe ; where it is fimply called law.

For though there be fcarce any kingdom or pro-
vince in Europe which has not its particular ufe
and cuftoms ; in them notwithftanding the written
law, i. e. the Raman law is a rule whenever the
cuftomary, or common law is deficient. Which
is rightly obferved by Obertus de Orto, a lawyer, of
Milan, lib. 2. de Feudis. Til. I. in thefe words,
An experienced lawyer, if a cafe arijes, which is not
contained in the common law, can very well have re-
course to the written law.

'1 he law of England conCitts of three parts : i.
The common law, which is the moft antient and
general law of the realm. 2. Statutes, or afls of
parliament. 3. Particular cujloms.

1 he common law of England is derived from the
EngUJh, Saxons, and Danes, and was antiently
divided into three parts, viz. the Mercian law, the
JVeJi- Saxon law, and the Danijh law.

rhofe called Aicrcian laws, are commonly faid
to have been compofed by Alartia, queen of the
Britins, from whom there was a province called
Vol. II. 35.

165

Provincia Merciorum. Many laws were alfo pub-
lifhed by Ethclred, ]L\ngo( Kent, by king Ina, and
Offa ; but Alfred, who fubducd the whole king-
dom, having revifed all fhc laws of his predeceflbrs,
retained thofe which he thought proper, and abo-
lifhed the reft ; whence he is called Anglicarum
Legum Conditor ; and thefe laws were called IFeJl-
Saxene-laga.

But the kingdom being afterwards fijbdued by
the Danes, they introduced another law, called
Dane-laga, by which their people were governed ;
and they being afterwards dcftroyed, Edward the
Confeffor, out of the former laws, compofed that,
now called the common law ; for which reafon he is
called by Englijh hiftorians, Anglicarum Lcgum
Reftitutor.

Thefe laws were only general cuftoms, obferved
thro' the nation, and for that reafon, were called
common ; and perhaps alfo, Leges omnibus in com-
mune reddidit : to be obferved by all, with fuch
amendments as were afterwards to be made.

William the Conqueror did not exaft many new
laws, but confirmed the old, viz. St. Edwards
laws ; and abrogated none that any wa\ s con-
cern'd compofitions, or muldls of delinquents : but
unfortunately brought along with him from Nor~
tnandy, the litigious fpirit of that nation ; which has
been fince cultivated, and much improved in thi»
land, to the oppreffion of its inhabitants.

The comtnon law is alfo called lex non fcripta
(not but moft of them are wrote in the old Norman
dialect) but becaufe it cannot be made by charter,
or parliament ; for thofe are always matters of re-
cord, whereas cujioms are only matters of fa<S, and
are no where but in the memory of the people, and
of all laws, are the beft for the Englijh ; for the
written laws, made by king and parliament, are
impofed upon the fubjefts before any probation or
trial, whether they are beneficial to the nation, or
agreeable to the nature of the people, except where
they are firft made temporary, and for their expe-
rienced ufefulnefs afcerwads, made perpetual ; but
cuftoms bind not till they have been try'd and ap-
proved time out of mind.

Befides the common law of England, in general,
there are in feveral parts of it, certain cuftoms and
common ufages, which have the force of common
law among thofe people, to whofe property they
belong ; as Borayn Englijh, a cuftom fo called, as
not being in ufe out of England-, where the youngeft
fon, or for want of fons, the youngeft brother is to
inherit ; the eldeft being fuppofed to have learned
the father's trade, and the youngeft the leaft able
to fhift for himfelf.

Where the common laiv is filent, there are fta-

tute laws, made by the feveral kings of Englandy

Z with

Tdz Unlvei-ral Hiftory of Arts ^W Sciences.

166

with the advice and confent of both houfes of par-
liament.

For the adminiftration of thefe laws, there are
feveral courts of iudicature, vt-z.. x!m chancery, ex-
chequer, king's bench, and the court of common
plens.

The Chancery is the grand court of equity
and confcience, inftituted to moderate the rigour
of the other courts, that arc tied to the ftriiSl letter
of the law ; for as far as I can underftand, and
know by experience, law is not always founded on
juftice, equity, and confcience; and what's law,
is often very unjufl:.

The judge of this court is the lord high-chancel-
lor, who is the firft pcrfon of the realm, next after
the king and princes of the blood, in all civil aifairs.
He is the chief adminiftrator of juHice next the
fovereign.

All other juftices are tied to the ftrift law, but
the chancellor has an abfolute power to moderate
the rigour of the written law, to govern his judg-
ment by the law of nature and confcience, and to
order all things fccunrium aqiium iff bonutn. Accord-
ingly, Stanmford (ays, the chancellor has two pow-
ers, the one abfolute, the other ordinary; meaning,
that though by his ordinary power he muft obferve
the fame form of procedure as other judges ; yet in
his abfolute power he is not limited by any writ-
ten law, but by confcience and equity.

The offices of lord-chancellor znA lord- keeper, are
ty the ftatute 5 Eliz. make the fame thing; till that
time they were different, and frequently fubfifted at
the fame time in different perfons.

The keeper was created per traditlonem magni
figilli ; but the lord-chancellor by patent ; though
now that he has the keeper's office, he is created
in like manner by giving him the feal. The
chancellor is likewife fpeaker of the houfe of
lords.

Though the lord-chancellor be the fole judge of
the court of chancery, yet in matters of much diffi-
culty he fometimes confults the other judges ; fo
that this office may bedifcharged by one who is not
a profefled lawyer, as antiently it commonly was.
He has twelve affiftants, or coadjutors, antiently
called clerici, as being in holy orders, now mafters
in chancery, the firft whereof is the mafter of the
rolls.

The mafter of the rolls, is a patent officer for
life ; who has the cuftody of the rolls and patents,
which pafs the great feal, and of the records of
the chancery.

In the abfence of the lord -chancellor or keeper,
he alfo fits as judge in the court of chancery., and is
called by Sir Edward Coke., his affiftant.

At other times he hears caufes in the Rollscha-
pel, and makes orders and decrees. He likewife
has the affiftance of the other mafters in chancery \
but all hearings before him are appealable to the
lord-chancellor.

He has alfo his writ of fummons to parliament,
and fits next to the lordchicf-juftice of £«^^W, on
the fecond woolpack. He has the keeping of the
parliament's rolls, and the rolls houfe for his ha-
bitation ; has alio the cultody of all charters, pa-
tents, commiffions, deeds, recognizances, which
being made of rolls of parchment, gave rife to the
name. Antiently he was called clerk of the rolls.

In his gift are the fix clerks in chancery, the exa-
miners, three clerks of the petty-bag, and the fix
clerks of the rolls chapel, where the rolls are kept.
The mafters of chancery are ufually chofen out
of the barrifters of the common law, and fit in chan-
cery, or at the rolls, as affiftants to the lord chan-
cellor, and mafter of the rolls.

To them is alfo committed interlocutory reports,
(rating of accompts, taxing cofts, kSc. and fome-
times by way of reference, they are empowerd to
make a final determination of caufes.

They have, time out of mind, had the honour
to fit in the houfe of lords, though they have nei-
ther writs nor patents to empower them, but as
alFiftants to the lord chancellor, and mafter of the
rolls. They had antiently the care of infpeiting all
writs of fummons, which is now perform 'd by the
clerk of the petty- bag. When any meffagc is fent
from the lotds to the commons, it is carried by the
mafters of ^^affirr^. Before them affidavits are made,
and deeds and recognizances acknowledged.

Belides thefe, who may be called majlers of chan-
cery ordinary (being twelve in number, whereof the
ma(ter of the rolls is reputed the chief) there are
alfo mafters of chancery extraordinary, appointed to
aft in the feveral counties of England, beyond ten
miles diftance from London, by taking affidavits,
recognizances, ^c. for the eafe of the fuitors of
the court.

For the equity part of the coTirt of chancery are
fix clerks, who have each under him about fifteen
more, in the nature of attorneys of the court ; two
chief examiners, for examining witneiFes, who have
each five or fix clerks apiece, one principal regifter,
who has four or five deputies ; clerk of the crown,
who makes out writs, commiffions, isfc. warden of
the fleet ; ferjeant at arms, who bears the mace
before the chancellor, and the ufher and crier of
the court.

Theyf*' clerks are officers of great account, next
in degree below the twelve mafters, whofe bufinefs
is to enroll commiffions, pardons, patents, war-
rants, b'c, which pafs the great feal. They are

attorn ies

A W,

167

attornies for parties in fuits depending in the court
of chancery.

Under them were formerly fixty clerks, who
with the iinder-clerks did the bufmefs of the office;
which number was afterwards increafed to ninety.
At prefent the number is indefinite ; an order
having been made, for reducing them to their an-
tient number of fixty ; by not filling up the vacan-
cies that may happen by death, ^c. till they are
fallen to that ftandard.

The examiners are two officers, whofe bufinefs
is to examine on oath, the witnelTes produced on
both fides, upon fuch interrogatories, as the par-
ties to the fuit do exhibit for the purpofe.

The clerk of the crown, is an officer, who by him-
felf, or deputy, is continually to attend the lord-
chancellor or lord-keeper, for fpecial matters of
ftate, by commiffion, or the like, either immedi-
ately from his majefty, or by order of his council,
as well ordinary as extraordinary. All general par-
dons, upon grant of them at the king's coronation,
or in parliament ; the writs of parliament, with the
names of the knights, citizens, and burgefles, are
alfo returned into his office ; befides which he has
the making of fpecial pardons, and writs of execu-
tions upon bonds of flatute-ftaple forfeited.

To the common law part, in chancery, belongs
the twenty-four curfitors, and their clerks, who
make out original writs ; clerks of the petty-bag ;
clerks of the hanaper ; comptroller of the hanaper;
clerk of appeals ; clerk of the faculties ; fealer ;
chafe- wax ; clerks of the patents, of prcfentations,
difmiffions, licenfes to alienate, enrollments, pro-
tedlions, fubpaena's, affidavits, l^c.

The ctirfttors, alfo called clerks of the courfe, are
twenty-four in number ; making a corporation of
themfelves. To each of them are alloted fcveral
{hires; in which {hires they make out fuch origiiial
writs, as are by the fubjecS required.

Clerk of the hanaper, is an officer, whofe bufinefs
is to receive all money due to the king for the feals
of charters, patents, cornmifiions, and writs : as
alfo fees due to the officers for enrolling and ex-
amining the fame. He is obliged to attend on the
lord -chancellor, or lord-keeper, daily in term-time,
and at all times of fealing.

Comptroller of the hanaper, is an officer attending
the lord-chancellor dailv in term ant! feal-tim.% He
is to take all things fealed from the clerk of the
hanaper, inclofcd in bags of leather, and to note
the juft number and efFecl thereof; to enter them
in a book, with all the duties belon2:in» to the y\n<z
and other officers for the fame, and fo charge the
clerk of the hanaper with them.

The court «/" Exchequer is a court wherein

are tried all caufes relating to the king's treafury or
revenue ; as touching accounts, difburfements,
cuftoms, fines, &c.

It confifts of feven judges, viz. the lord-treafurer,
the chancellor of the exchequer, the lord chief ba-
ron, and three other barons of the exchequer, with
one curfitor baron.

Tlie chancellor of the exchequer is an officer fup-
pofed by fome to have been created for qualifying
extremities in the exchequer. He fometimes fets in
that court and the exchequer-chamber, and with
the reft of the court orders things to the king's beft
benefit. He is always in commiffion with the lord-
treafurer, for letting lands accruing to the crown by
difl'olution of abbies, and otherwilc : he has power
with others to compound for forfeitures on penal
ilatutes, bonds, and recognizances entered into by
the king. He has a great authority in managing
the royal revenue, and in matters of firit-fruits.

The barons of the exchequer are judges, to whom
the adminiilration of juftice is committed in caufes
between the king and his fubjedts, touching matters
belonging to the exchequer, and the king's revenue.

They are called barons, becaufe barons of the
realm were ufed to be employ'd in that office.

Their office is alfo to look to the accompts of the
king ; to which end they iiave auditors under them,
as well as to decide caufes relating to the revenue,
brought by any means into the exchequer. So that
of late they have been conftantly perfons learned in
the law ; whereas formerly they were majores Isf ■
dijcretiores in regno, five de clero ejfent five de curia.
The lord chief baron is the principal Judge of the
court.

The court of exchequer is divided into two ; the
one of law, the other of equity.

All judicial proceedings, according to law, are
{tiled coram baronibus only ; but the court of equity
held in the exchequer-chamber, \s coram thefaurario,
cancellario iff baronibus, before the treafurer, chan-
cellor, and barons.

For a long time after the conquefl-, there fet in
the exchequer both fpiritual and temporal barons of
the realm, but of latter times there have fate in
their places other judges, who, though no peers of
the realm, yet retain the original denomination.

The common opinion of E?7g!iJ/j hifioriins is, that
this court was ereiied by Tf^illiam the Conqueror,
foon after his having obtained the kingdom: that
the Englifh excliequer was a court of the highefl
jurifdiftion; that the acts thereof were not to be
examined by any of the ordinary courts ; that it
was the repofitory of the records of all the other
courts, and that it was to be held in the king's
court, and beforehim ; and that it was concerned in
the prerogati\'c as well as the revenue of the crown.
Z 2 The

Ihe Univerfal Hiftory (?/' Arts <2W Sciences.

i68

The immediate profits of the crown, as of iran-
chifes, lands, tenements, hereditaments, debts,
duties, accounts, goods, chattels, all difburfemcnts.
feizures, and fines impofedon the fubje^ts, ^c. are
within the jurifdiiSlion of the exchequer. And the
king's attorney may exhibit bills tor any matter
concerning the king in inheritance or profits -, fo
alfo may any perfon who finds himfelf aggrieved in
any caufe profecuted againrt him, on behalf of the
king, or any patent by grant of the king, exhibit
his bill againft the king's attorney, to be relieved ,
by equity in this court.

To this court belong two officers, the king's :
remembrancer office, and that of the lord treafurer's
remembrancer ; whofe bufinefs is to put the lord '
treafurer and juftices of the court in remembrance :
of fuch things as are to be called upon, and dealt
in for the king's benefit. j

There is a third Remembrancer, called of the
Jir/I-fruits, who takes all compofitions and bonds
for firft-fruits and tenths; and makes procefs a- 1
gainft fuch as do not pay the fame.

The two Chamberlains keep a controulment of
the pells, of the precepts and exkus, and have cer- !
tain keys of the treafury and records ; they alfo ;
keep the keys of that treafury, where the leagues
of the king's predecefiors and divers antient books,
as domef day-book, and the black bock of the Exche-
quer remain. |

Domejday or domef-day-hook, liber judiciarius vel
fenfualis Jnglia:, the judicial book, or book of the
furvey of England, is a mod antient record made
in the time of fFilliam the conqueror, upon a furvey
or inquifition of feveral counties, hundreds, tith-
ings, fJ^c. Its name is formed from the Saxon
Dom, doom, judgment, fentence, and day, which
has the fame force , fo that dome/day is no more
than a reduplicative, importing judgment. — The
drift or defign of the book is to ferve as a Regifter,
by which fentence may be given in the tenures of
eftates ; and from which that noted queftion, whe-
ther lands by antient demefne or not, is ftill deci-
ded ; its contents are fummed up in the following
verfes :

^id deheret fijco, qua quanta trihuta,

iV rjiine quid cenfus, qua ve'lij^alia quantum

^ ifque tenet ur feodali folverejure,

^i funt exewpti, Vel quos angaria damnat,

^a funt velgleba ferv!, vel conditionis,

^love manumijfui fatro-io jure ligatur.

This book is flill remaining in the Exchequer
fair and legible, confifting of two volumes, a greater
and a lefs ; the greater comprehendmg all the
counties of England, except Northumberland^ Cum-

herland, IVeJimor eland, Durham, and part of Lan~
cajhirc, which ■wntz never furvcyed : and except
Effex, Suffolk, and Norfolk, which are compre-
hended m the k'llcr volutne, which concludes with,
thefe words : Anno milleffimo oilog'fiino fexto ah In-
carnatione Domini, vigefimo vera Regis pyHhelmiy
faSla eft dcfcriptio r,on folum per hos tres comitatus,
fed etiam alios. It is called Liber fudicialis, by
reafon ajuft and accurate defcription of the whole
kingdom is contained therein; with the value of
the feveral inheritances, W<r. It was begun by
five juftices aflignt;d for that purpofe in each coun-
ty, in the year 1081, and finiflied in 1086. Cam-
den calls it GuUelmi librum Cenfualium, King lVil~
liam^s tax-bftok.

King's Bench, is a court or judgment-feat,
fo called, in regard the king is fuppofed to fit in
perfon as judge of the court, and may do fo when-
ever he pleafes ; for which leafon, all writs and.
other procefles in this court, are made returnable
Oram nobis, i. e. before the king himfelf ; and
not coram jufticiariis noftris, as Li the form in.
the f mmon pleas.

The judges of this court, are the Lord chief,
juftice, and three other puifne juftices.

The chief juftice is conftituted by writ, and is
to hold quamdiu fe bene gefferit. He prefides urL-
der his Majefty in this court, but when the court
divides, in giving judgment upon any fpecial ar-
gument he hath but one voice ; fo that if the
opinion of the court (hould be equally divided, the
matter muft reft till one of the judges fhall feejuft
reafon to alter his opinion. He is to attend the
Lords in Parliament, though he has no vote, un-
lefs he he a Peer himfelf, but is to give his opinion,
and advice to the houfe by virtue of a writ of affi-
ftance ; and is frequently, therefore, confulted by
them, both in making and repealing laws, and in.
altering or explaining them. He makes a return of
all writs of error in Parliament, diredted to this
court, and with his own hand delivers the writ of
error, and a tranfcript of the proceedings in the
caui'e into the houfe of Lords.

The three puifne or inferior judges of this court,
go the circuits, and are in commillion of Oyer and
Terminer at the Old Bailey.

There are feveral officers belongino^ to this
court, as two chief clerks or prothonotaries, who
are fuppofed to enter all the pleadings and judg-
ments between party and party ; although this is
done by an entring-clerk under them ; and all
writs of Latitat, Non Omittas, bills of Middlefex,
Habeas Corpus, &c. are fubfcribed with the names
of thefe chief clerks.

The

LAW.

The fccondary aiSls asmafter of the office on the
pleas fide, and is the chief clerk's deputy ; his
hufinefs is to examine any perfon, who is to be
fworn an cntrin^ clerk, or attorney at large, whe-
ther he be duly qualif eJ, and to prefeiit him to the
chief juftice. He aliij figns all judgments, and
gives cofls upon them ; and the court upon any
motion, in relation to the irregular practice of any
cleric or attorney, generally refers the examination
thereof to him. Healfo takes all affidavits in court
(unlefs on the crown fide) and the acknowledg-
ment of all deeds in court.

T'he chief c'erk, or prothonotary, has a'fo a de-
puty, who keeps the ftamp for figning all writs
and procefTes of this court ; and with him are kept
the remembrances of all records, whereby any
record may be eafily found, if the term wherein it
was enter'd be known, iSc. Likewife all common
■writs rcturn'd, pofteas and writs of error, and
common or fpecia! bails, after they are accepted,
are filed in his office.

The office of the Ctijioi Brevlum is to file all
original and other writs, whereon you proceed to
outlawry. He examines and feals all records of
niji prius, for trials at the affizes in feveral coun
ties, and ha'h feveral clerks under him for making
iip records throughout England; but many times
the plantifF's attorney, ^c. difpatches this hufinefs,
paying a fee of 6 x. 6 d. for every prcfs of fixty-fix
lines. This officer a'fo files al! warrants of at-
torney, is clerk of the efToins, and of the treafury.

The two clerks of the papers receive all fpccial
pleas, demurs, and other pleadings, and make up
the paper-books thereof; which the attorney for
the plaintiff moft commonly fpeaks for, and after-
wards gives a rule on the fide of the book, for the
defendant's attorney to bring them again, to be
entered within four days, or judgment to go by
default : they read in court affidavits, records,
and proceedings.

The clerk of the declarations, is an officer of
the court, who files all declarations after they are
engrofl'ed in parchment, and continues them on
the back from the term you declare, till iflue is
joined, f^c.

The figner and fealer of bills, keeps a book of
entry of the names of the plaintiffs and defendants,
in all bills of Middlcfexy &c. and the defendants
therein enter their appearance with him ; in whofe
office fearch may be made for any writ or appear-
ance.

The clerk of the ruks takes notes of all rules
and orders made in court on the plea-fide, and
afterwards draws them up, and enters them in a
book at large, for which he has 8 d. fee, and for
the copy of each rule 4 d. if in term, and double

169

out of term ; and he, or the clerk of the papers,
files all affidavits ufed in court, and makes copies
of them at 4 d. per fheet ; alfo with him are given
all rules of courfe, as on a Cepi Corpus, Habeas
Corpus, for procedendo's, poflea's, writs of in-
quiry, (3 c.

! he clerk of the bails and poflea's, files the
bail pieces, and marks the pofteas, i^c. and he,
or his deputy, attends in the king's bench office for
that purpofe. With this officer you file all affida-
vits of fervice, of procefs for common bail, when
the defendant does not appe.ir.

The clerk of the errors allows all writs of error,
and makes fuperfedeas's, whereupon and into whai
county you pleafe. He likewife makes tranfcripts
of records, to be carried into the exchequer-cham-
ber or the houfe of lords.

7'he clerk of the docquets enters the judgments,
iflues, and proceedings, and keeps docquets of
them, fo that with him you may find if any judg-
ment be enter'd, b'i-. and he keeps a book for
entering commitments and furrenders, and another
for general ifTues.

The Filazers in this court, which ought to be
one for each county, make the mefne procefs after
rhe original, in fuing to the outlawry, and have the
benefit of all copies thereof, and entries made
thereupon. There has of late been but one perfon
chiefly concern'd in this office, who is Filazer and
Exigenter for London and Middlejex ; and when
you fue by original, affidavit of your debt is to be
filed with him, and here you enter the appearance,
give bail, ^c.

The Marfhal of the King's-bench, has the cufto-
dy of all prifoners, who are fued in Banco Regis^
and by himfelf or deputy, ought always to attend
in court to receive fuch prifoners as are committed.
And every perfon fued here, is fuppofed, by the
declaration to be inhiscuftody ; for till the Stat. 4.
and 5. JV. and M. if one was arrefted in the coun-
try, and remain'd in prifon there for want of bail,
he was firft to be removed by Habeas Corpus to the
cuftody of the Marlhal, before the plaintiff could
declare againft him.

The cryer of the court, makes proclamations of
fummoning and adjourning the court, calls non-
fuits, and fwears jurymen, witnefles, istc.

For managing, condii<fting, and pleading caufes
in the court of King's bench, are appointed folU-
citors, attorneys, and counfellors at law.

An Attorney is a perfon appointed by another to
do fomething in his (lead, particularly to follicit
and carry on a law-fuit.

Attorneys are fometimes guilty of barratry and
champarty A barrator in law is a common mover,
or maintainer of fuits, quarrels, or parties, either

lyo Tloe Univerfal Hiftory of Arts «;^(a^ Sciences.

in court or clicwhere.— Svrra/srj are punifhed by
fine and imprifonmcnt, bound to their good be-
haviour, isc, arid being of the profeflion of the
law, (hall be difabled to pradtife, 34 Edw. III. —
An attorney is in danger of being convicted of
barratry^ for maintaining another in a groundlcfs
adlion, to the commencing whereof he was no way
privy, i^c. and a common follicitor who follicits
fuits, is a common barrator, and may be indidted.
By ftatutc no perfon (hall take upon him any bu-
fniefs in fuit, to have part of the land or thing fued
for, which is called champarty ; nor (hail any one
upon any covenant give up his right to another in
fuch cale, on pain that the taken (hall forfeit to
the king lb much of his lands and goods as amounts
to the value of the part of the purchafed, ^c. for
(uch maintenance, i^tat. 28. Ediv. I. c. 11. —
And attorneys convicted of champarty, (hall fufFer
three years imprifonmcnt, and be fined at the
king's pleafure. by 33 Edw. I, If any attorney
undertakes or follows a caufc to be paid in grofs,
when the thing in fuit is recovered, if he prevail
therein, this has been held champarty. — Perfons
as move pleas and fuits as their own, are chain -
farters.

Counjclhr at Law, is a perfon learned in the
law, retained by the client to plead his caufe in a
court of judicature.

Cowifellors at Lr.w, may alledgeany thing which
is informed them by their clients, if pertinent to
the matter ; and need not examine whether it be
true or faife ; for it is at the peril of him who
informs them : but after the court hath delivered
their opinion of the hiatter depending before them,
the council n: the bar ought not to urge any thing
further in that caufe.

The fee of a Counfellor is honorarium quidclam.^
not niercenarium, as that of an attorney, or folli-
citor; fhould be paid according to the ability of the
client who employs him ; fince oil his learnmg
and eloquence, depends almoft the whole lucccfs
of the caufe.

No Counfellor (liall fat his hand to a frivolous
plea, ts't. And as counfelfors 'Ijaye a ■ fpecial
privilege to pradife the law, 'they 'are puniftiable.
for mifbehaviour by attachment.

In England there are three forts of trials, vl%.
one by parliament, another by battle, and a third
by ajftze, ox: jury.

The trial by ajfize (let the action be civil or
criminal, publick or private, peribnal or real) is
referred for the fact to a jury, and as they find it,
lb pafies the judgment.

In the general aJflze, there are ufualiy many
juries, becaufe there are a great many caufes, both
civil and criminal, commonly to be tried ; whereof

one is called tht grand jury, and the reft the petit-
juries; of which it fecms there (hould be one in
every hundred.

Grand 'Jury confifls of twenty-four good and
lubftantia) gentlemen, or fome of the better fort of
yeomen, chofen indifferently by the fheriff of the
ivhole Shire, to confider of all bills of indidment,
)referred to the court ; which they do cither ap-
prove, by writing upon them bil/a vera; or difallow
by endorfing ignoramus.

Such as they do approve, if they touch life and
death, are further referred to another jury, to be
confidered of, becaufe the cafe is of much impor-
tance ; but others of lighter moment, are upon
their allowance, without more ado, fined by the
bench ; except the party traverfes the indidment,
or challenge it for infufHciency ; or remove the
caufe to a higher court by Certiorari ; in which
two former cafes, it is referred to another jury,
and in the latter, tranfinitted to a higher bar. And
prefently upon the allowance of this bill, by the
grand inqueft, a man is faid to be indiSied. Such
as they difallow, are delivered to the bench, by
whom they are forthwith cancelled or torn.

Petit 'Jury confills of twelve men at leaft, and
are impannelled as well upon criminal, as upon
civil caufes. Thofe that pafs upon ofi'ences of
lite and death, bring in their verdidl, either guilty
or not guilty; whereupon the prifoner, if he be
found guilty, is faid to be convicted^ and receives
judgment or condemnation, or otherwife is ac-
guitted and fet free.

Thofe that pafs upon civil caufes real, are all,
or fo many as can conveniently be had, of the
fame hundred v.here the land or tenement doth
lie, being four at leaft ; and they, upon due exami-
nation, bring in their verdift, either for the de-
mandant or tenant.

The anfwer of the jury given to the court, con-
cerning the matter of fad in any caufe, committed
by the court to their trial and examination, is called
•verdicf, from vere di£lum, q. d. diSlum v'eritatis,
the dictate of truth.
. A verdiSf is either general or fpecial.

General verdiSi, is that which is brought into
the court in like general terms, as the general ifTue:
as in action of dilTeifin, the defendant pleads no
wrong, no diff'eifin. — Then the ilTue is general,
V. hether the fact be wrong or not ; which being
committed to the jury, they upon confideration of
the evidence, come in and fay, either for the plain-
tifr", thut it is a, ■wrong dijjcifm ; or for the defen-
dant, that it is no wrong, no dijfeifm.

Special verdici, is when they fay at large, that
fuch and fuch a thing they found to be done by
the defendant j declaring the courfe of the fad, as

L A W.

in their opinion it is proved ; and as to the law,
upon the fact jiroving the judgment of the court.

This fpccial vercliii, if it contains any ample
declaration of the caufe from the beginning to the
end, is called a verdiii at large.

The verdiit muft anfwer the ilTue in all things,
or it vill not be good ; but if the jury find the
iflue jnd more, it is good for the ifiiic, and void
for the reft ; and where thev find a point in iilue,
and a fuperfluops matter over, that fhall not vi-
tiate the verdi£i.

If a juryman withdraws from his fellows, or
keeps them from giving their verdi,^, without
alTigning any reafon, he ihall be fined ; but not if
he differs from them in judgment: and it' jurors
eat or drink at the coft of him tor whom they give
their verdi£i, before they are agreed ; or calt lots
whether they fhall find for the plaintiff, or defen-
dant ; or if they fend for a witiiels, after gone
from the bar, and he repeats his evidence again ;
and where a Vfrdldi is given contrary to the evi-
dence, and againft the directions of the court, i^c-
in all thofe cafes the verdiSt may be fet alide.

On return of verdiiis, in all civil caies, given at
the afPizes, to the courts above, the judges there
give judgment for the party for whom it is found.

Sir Edivard Cokt is of opinion, that the Court
OF Common Pleas was conllituted before the
conqueft.

There are four judges of this court, created by
letters patent, of whom the chief is a lord by his
office ; and is called dominus jujikiarius cormnunium
placitorum, %>el dominus jujikiarius de banco. And
the fcal of the court is committed to the cuftody of
the chief juilice.

The lord chief jufticc, with his afliftants, hear
and determine all common pleas in civil caufes, as
diftinguifhed from the king's pleas: and thejurifdic-
' tion of this court is general, like that of B. R. and
extends itfelf throughout England. It holds pleas
of civil a£fions at common law, between fubjeft
and fubjeit, as well aitions real, as perfonal and
mixed ; and it feems to have been the only court
for all real caufes : but this court cannot regularly
hold plea in any aftion real or perfonal, i^c. but
by writ out of chancery, returnable here ; except
it be by bill, for or againft an officer, or other
privileged perfon of the court.

All actions belono;in2; to this court, come thither,
either by original, or arreft, and outlawries ; or,
by privilege or attachment, for or againft privileg'd
perfons ; or out of inferior courts, not of record,
\ty pone, recordare, a-cc^dits ad curiam, writ of falfe
judgment, &c. AndaiTlions popular, decics taritipn,
of champaFty, maintenance, ^c. are alfo cogniza-
• ble by this court ; as are atStions, penal of debts,

171

(s'r. upon any flatute. And befidcs jurifdiflion
for puniihment of its officcis and minifters ; the
court of common pleas, may grant prohibitions to
temporal and ecclefiaftical courts, (sc.

The officers of this court are, the cuftoi brevium,
prothonotarici, fecundaries, clerk of the warrants,
clerk of the effoins, filaxsrs^ derk aftbe pal, cxigen-
ten, clerk of the outhnvries, clerk of the juries, clerk
of the treajury, clerk of the errors, chirographer, clerk
of the king's filver, clerk of the inrolments, a pro-
clamator, cryer, tipjlaves, and the warden of the
Flcet-prijon.

The cujios brevium, is the chief clerk in this
court, whofe office is in the king's gift : he re-
ceives and keeps all writs, and puts them upon
files ; every return by itfelf; and at the end of
each term receives of the prothonotaries all the re-
cords of the nifi prius, called pojleas.

The writs are firff brought in by the clerks of
the affize of every county to the prothonotary, who
attend the iffue in that matter, to eiiter judgment.
Four days after the return the prothonotary enters
the verdidt and judgment thereupon, into the rolls
of the court, and then delivers them over to the
cufios brevium.

The cuftos brevium alfo makes entry of writs of
covenant, and concords on fines ; and makes copies
and exemplifications of all writs and records in his
office, and of all fines levied ; the fines, when cn-
groffed, are divided between the cuftos brevium and
chirographer, the former keeping the writ of co-
venant and the note, the latter the concord and
foot of the fine.

The prothonotaries enter and inrol all declara-
tions, pleadings, alfizes, judgments, and adions ;
thty alfo make out all judicial writs, as the venire
facias after iffue joined ; habeas corpus for bringing
in of the jury; dijlringas juratcr, writs of execu-
tion and feifin, of iuperfcdeas, of privilege, l^c.
They inrol all recognizances acknowledged in that
court, all common recoveries ; make exemplifica-
tions of record, i^V.

The feconrlari's areafliftant to the prothonotaries
in the execution of their offices ; and they take
minutes, and draw up all orders and rules of court,
Flere are three clerks of the judgments, one under
each prothonotary.

The clerk of the tvarrants enters all warrants of
attorney for the plaintiffs and defendants in fuits.j
and inrolls all deeds of indenture of bargain and
fale ; which are acknowledged in court, Oi before
any judge out of the court : and it is his office to
eftreat into the exchequer all iffues, fines, and
amercement, wiiich grow due to the king in this
court, for which he has a fl.inding fee, or allow-
ance from thecroy;n.

TJie

172 The Univerfal Hiftory of k^r^ and Sciences.

The clerk of the effoins keeps the ejfoin roll, or
enters ejfolm : he aiio provides parchment, cuts it
into rolls, marks the number on them, deliver!.
Out all the rolls to every officer, and receives them
again when written.

The /ilazers are ofBccrs in the court of common
pleas, fo called, becaufe they file the writs, whereon
they make out proceis.

1 here are fourteen yf/az^rj in the feveral divifi-
ons, and countks of Eng kind. They make out ail
writs and procefs upon original writs, ifluing out
of the chancery, as well real, as perfonal and mix-
ed, returnable in that court.

The f/azers Jikewife make out all writs of view
ill real actions, where the view is prayed, and upon
replevin's and recordari's writs of retorn habendo,
fecond deliverance, and writs of withernam. — In
real aftions, writs of grand and petit cape before
appearance.

They enter all appearances and fpecial bail, upon
any procefs made bv them : they make the Mljiire
fricias upon fpecial bails, writs of habeas corpus,
diftringas nuper vicecomitem vel balivum, and dues,
tecum i and all fuperfedeas's upon fpecial bail or ap-
pearance, iSc. Writs of habeas corpus caw ffl«(/i7,
upon the ftierifF's return that the defendant is de-
tained with other actions ; writs of adjournment of
a term, in cafe of peftilence, war, or publick dif-
turbance.

The clerk of the fed is an officer that feals all
writs, judicial and minifteria', and alfo of mefne
procefs made by the fiJazers ; likewife writs of out-
lawry and fuperfedeas, and all patents and exem
plifications, and takes certain fees for the fame, for
which he is accountable to the mafter of this office,
and the lord chief juftice of the court.

The exigrnters are four officers, who make out
all exigents and proclamations . in all aiStions where
the procefs of outlawry lies, and have for every
common exigent i s. and for every ordinary procla-
mation 6 d. but if longer than ordinary, they take
in proportion to their length.

The clerk of the outlawries is fervant to the at-
torney-general, for making out tht capias utlaga-
tum, on return of the exigent after outlawry, and
the name of the attorney-general is to be to every
one of thefe writs ; and i d. only is paid for fealing
this writ, becaufe it is fuppofed to beat the king's
fuit ; whereas 7 d. is paid for the feal of every other
writ.

The clerk of the juries is an officer who makes

out the writs called habeas corpus, and diftringas,
for the appearance of juries, either in court or at
the affizes ; after the pannel is returned upon the
venire facias.

The clerk of the treafury has the charge of keep-
ing the recoids of the court, and makes up and
feals all records oi nifi prius : he makes all exem-
plifications of records lodged in the treafury, and
copies of ifTues, imparlances and judgments, and of
all informations and recognizances on record there ;
and he has the fees due for all fearches. He is fer-
vant to the chief juftice, and is faid to be removeable
at pleafure ; but all other officers of this court are
for life : and there is an under-clerk of the treafury
for affiftance, who hath fome fees and allowances j
alfo an under-keeper that keeps the keys of the
treafury-door, bfc.

The clrk of the errors tranfcribes and certifies
into the king's- bench the tenor of the records of
the caufe or action, upon which the writ of error,
made by the curfitor, is brought there to be deter-
mined.

The chirographer is an officer who engrofles fines,
acknowledged in that court, into a perpetual record
(after they have been examined, and paffed by other
officers ) and writes and delivers the indentures there-
of to the party. He makes two indentures, one
for the buyer, the other for the feller ; and a third
indented piece, containing the effe£l of the fine,
and called the foot of the fine ; and delivers it to the
cuftos brevium. The fame officer alfo, or his de-
puty, proclaims all fines in court every term, and
endorfes the proclamations on the back-fide of the
foot ; keeping withal the writ of covenant, and the
note of the fine.

The clerk of the kings filver is an officer to whom
every fine is brought, after it has been with the
cujhs brevium, and by whom the eiiecl of the writ
of covenant is entered in a paper-book ; and accord-
ing to that note all the fines of that term are alfo
recorded in the rolls of the court.

The clerk of the enrollments is an officer under the
three elder judges cf the court of common picas,
and removable at their pleafure.

As to the praUice or manner of profecuting fuits
in thefe feveral courts, they that require more know-
ledge thereof, may be well furniQied by the books
which are in the hands of all gentlemen pra£fition-
ers in the law; it being foreign to this treatife to
enter into the manner of proceeding upon actions
in IVejlminJler-hall.

L 0 G I C K.

( 173 )

L O G I C K,

LO G I C K is the art of thinking, and rea-
foniiig juftly ; and it confifts in perception,
judgment, ratiocination, and method.

P:rception, or apprthenfion, is the fimple view of
things, which offer themfelves to our mind, or
whereby we onlv conceive 3 thing, without affir-
mation or negation ; as, when we conceive the
*fun, the earth, a tree, a round or fquare, the
thought, a being, without forming any cxprefs
judgment thereof.

Judgment is the a£l of our mind, whereby the
ideas, which agree together, are joined by an affir-
' mation ; and thofe, which difagree are feparated
by a negation, or whereby one is affirmed, or de-
nied of the other ; as, when I have the idea of
God, the idea of good, and the idea of liar, I can
join the idea of goodnefs with the idea of God,
and remove frorp. him the idea of a liar ; in judg-
ing that God is good, and that God is not a liar.

Ratiocination is the adt of our mind, whereby a
judgment is formed of feveral preceding ones; as
having judged that true virtue muft be referred to
God, and that the virtue of the Pagans was not
referred to God ; we conclude that the virtue of
the Pagans was not a true virtue.

Method is the aflion of our mind, whereby
havirrg on the fame fubjedl, viz. the human body,
various ideas, various judgments, and various rea-
fonings, it difpofes them in the moft proper man-
ner, to difcover that fubject.

'From all we have faid on this fubjeft, it follows,
that Logick can be very well divided into four parts;
the firft of which contains reJieSiiom on ideas, or
on the firjl a£i of the mind called conception. The
fecond the reflexions, which men have made on their
judgments. The third, ratiocination. The fourth,
method.

The First Part. Of Simple Apprehension,
or Perception.

If we attend carefully to what paffes in our own
minds, we fhall obferve two inlets of knowledge,
from whence, as from two fountains, the under-
ftanding is fupplied with all the materials of think-
ing.

Firji, outward objects, afling upon our fenfes,
rouze in us a variety of perceptions, according to
the different manner in which they affeft us. It
is thus that we come by the ideas ofli-'^htand
darknefs, heat and cold, fwect and bitter, and all
Vol. II. 35.

thofe other impreffions which we term fenfible
qualities. This great fourcc and inlet of know-
ledge is commonly diftinguiihed by the name of
Senfation, as comprehending all the notices con-
veyed into the mind, by impulfe? made upon the
organs of {cn(c.

But thefc ideas, numerous as they be, are wholly
derived to us from without ; there is therefore yet
another fource of impreffions, arifing from the
mind's attention to its own a6ts, when turning
inwards upon itfelf, it takes a view ot the percep-
tions that are lodged there, and the various ways
in which it employs itfelf about them. For the
ideas furnifhed by the fenfes, give the mind an
opportunity of exerting its feveral powers ; and as
all our thoughts, under whatever form they appear,
are attended with confcioufnefs, hence the im-
preffions they leave, when we come to turn the eye
of the foul upon them, enrich the underftanding
with a new (et oi perceptions, no lefs diftin£t than
thofe conveyed in by the fenfes. 1 hus it is that
we get ideas of thinking, doubting, believing,
willing, ^c. which are the different acts and work-
ings of our minds, reprefented to us by our own
confcioufnefs. This fecond fource of ideas is
called refleclion, and evidently prefuppofes fcnfa-
tion, as the impreffions, it furniihes, are only of the
various powers of the undeiftanding, employe4
about perceptions already in the mind.

Tiiefe confiderations, if we duly attend to them,
will give us a clear and diftinil view of the natural
procedure of the human intellect, in its advances
to knowledge. We can hav.; no perception of thf
operations of our own minds until they are ex-
erted ; nor can they be exerted before the under-
(landing is furnifhed with idt;as, about w^ich tp
employ them ; and as thefe ideas, that give the fn-fi:
employment to our faculties, are evidently the
perceptions of fenfe, it is plain, that all our know-
ledge m.uft begin here. This then is the firft- ca-
pacity of the human mind, that it is fitted to re^
ceive the impreifions made upon it by outward ob-
jefts affecting the fenfes; which impreffions tliiis
derived into the underflanding, and there lodged for
the view of tfae foul, employ it in various afe of
perceiving, remembering, confidering, iSc. all
which are attended with an internal feeling and
confcioufnefs. And this leads us to the iccond
flep the mir.d takes in its progrefs towards know-
ledge, I'/z. that it can by its own confcioufnefs
A a reprefent

174 ^^ Unlverfal Hiftory of Arts <2;^^ Sciences.

reprefent to itfcif thcfe its feveral workings and
operations, and thereby fiirnifh the underflanding
with a new flock of ideas. From thcfe fimplebe
ginnings, all our difcoverics t;ike their ri'e; for
the mind thus provided with its original characters
'and notices of things, has a power of coiribining,
"modifying, and examining them in an infinite va-
riety of lights, by which means it is enabled to
enlarge the objecfts of its perception, and finds it-
felf pofTefTed of an incxhauitable ftock of materials,
[t i^ in the various comparifon of thefe ideas, ac-
cording to fuch combinations of them as feem beft
to fuit its ends, that the underflanding exerts itfelf
in the a6ts of judging and reafoning, by which the
capacious mind of man pufhes on its views of
things, adds difcovery to difcovery, and often ex-
tends its thoughts beyond the utmoft bounds of
the univerfe.

It is evident from hence, that they all fall natu-
rally under thefe two heads. Firjl, thofe original
impreflions that are conveyed into the mind by
fenjatiov. and reJleB'ion^ and which exift there fim-
pie, uniform, and without any fhadow of variety.
Secondly, thofe more complex notions of things that
■refult from the various combinations of our Jimple
ideas, whether they are conceived to co-exi(t of
themfelves in any particular fubjedt, or are united
and joined together by the mind, enlarging its
conceptions of things, and purfuing the ends and
purpofes of knowledge. Thefe two clafles com-
prehend our whole flock of ideas.

The firft clafs of our ideas are thofe, which I
diflinguifh by the name of fimple perccpii'jn ; be-
caufe they exift in the mind under oii.e uniform
appearance, without variety or compofition. For,
the' external objefts convey at once into the un-
derflanding, many different ideas all united toge-
ther, and making as it were one whole ; yet the
impreiSons themfelves are evidently dinflinifl, and
are conceived by the mind, each under a form pe-
culiar to itfelf Thus the ideas of colour, exten-
ilon, and motion, may be taken in at one and the
fame time, from the fame body ; yet thefe three
perceptions are as diftindt in themfelves, as if they
all proceeded from different objefts, or were exhi-
bited to our notice at different times. We are
therefore carefully to dilfinguilh between our fim-
ple and primitive conceptions, and thofe different
combl/Mtions of them, which are often fuggefted to
the mind, by fmgle objeifls acting upon it. The
firft conflitute our original notices of things, and
are not diitinguilhable into different ideas, but
enter by the fenfes fimple and unmixed. They are
alfo the materials out of which all the others, how
complex and complicated foever, are formed ; and
therefore ought defervedly to be looked on as the
foundation and ground-work of our knowledge.

Now if we take a furvey of thefe ideas, and
their feveral divifions and ciaffes, we fhall find
them a!! fuggefled to us, either by our fenfes, or
the attention of the mind to what pafies within
itfelf. Thus, our notices of the different qualities
of bodies, are all of the kind we call fimple ideas,
and maybe reduced to five general heads, according
to the feveral organs which are aftedfed by them.
Colours, is'c. and founds are conveyed in by the
eyes and ears ; taftes and fmells bv the nofe and
palate J and heat, cold, and folidity, ts'c. by the
touch. Befides thefe, there are others which makt
imprefTions on feveral of our fenfes, as extenfion,
figure, reft and motion, (jfc. the ideas of which we
recei/e into our minds both by feeing»and feeling.

U we ncct turn our view upon what palfes
within ourfelves, we fhall find another fet of fim-
ple ideas, arifing from our confcioufnefs of the
acts and operations of our own minds. Percep-
tion or thinking, and volition or willing, are what
every man experiments in himfclf, and cannot
avoid being lenfible of. I fhall only obferve far-
ther, that befides all the above-mentioned percep-
tions, there are others that come into our minds,
by all the ways of fenfation and refie£fion ; fuch
are the ideas of pleafure and pain, power, ex-
iftence, unity, fucceilion. ^c. which are derived
into our underftandings, both by the adfion of ob-
jedfs without us, and the confcioufnefs of what we
feel within. It is true fome of thefe ideas, as of
extenfion and duration, cannot be conceived alto-
gether without parts; neverthelefs they are juftly
rank'd among our fimple ideas ; becaufe their parts
being all of the fame kind, and without the mix-
ture of any other idea, neither of them can be
refolved into two diftin<Sf and feparate conceptions-
Having traced the progrefs of the mind thro' its
original and fimple ideas, until it begins to en-
large it's conceptions, by uniting and tving them
together : it is time to take a furvey of it as thus
employed in multiplying its views.

Whoever attentively confiders his own thoughts,
and takes a view of the feveral complicated ideas,
that, from time to time, offer themfelves to his
underflanding, will readily obfen'e that many of
them are fuch, as have been derived from without,
and fuggefted by different objeffs afleding his
perception ; others again are formed by the mind
itfelf, varioufly combining it's fimple ideas, as
feems beft to anfwer thofe ends and purpofes it has,
for the prefent, in view. Of the firft kind are all
our ideas of fubftances, as of a man, a horfe, a
ftone, gold. Of the fecond are thofe arbitrary col-
ledlions of things, which we on many occafions
put together, either for their ufefulncfs in the com-
merce of life> or to further the purfuit of know-
ledge :

L 0 G I C K.

ledge : fuch are our ideas of ftated lengths whether
of duration or fpace, as hours, months, miles,
leagues, i^c. Many of our ideas of human actions
may be alfo referred to this head, as treafon, inceft,
manflaughter, which complex notions we do not
always derive from an a(5tual view of what thcfe
words defcribe, but otten from combining the cir-
cumftances of them in our own minds, or, which
is the moft ufual way, by hearing their names ex-
plained, and the ideas they (land for enumerated.
Thefe two clafi'es comprehend all our complex
conceptions, it being impoffible to conceive any,
that are not either fuggefted to the underftanding
by ibme real exillences, or formed by the mind it-
feif, arbitrarily uniting and compounding it's ideas.
It has been already obferved, that the impreflions
conveyed into the underftanding from external ob-
jeds, confift for the moft part of many different
ideas joined together, which all unite to make up
one whole. Thefe colleflions of various ideas,
thus co-exifting in the fame common fubjed:, and
held together by fome unknown bond of union,
have been diftinguiflied by the name oi fuhjlances :
a word which implies their lubfifting of themfelves,
without dependence (at lead: as far as our know-
ledge reaches) on any other created beings. Such
are the ideas we have of gold, iron, water, a man,
^c. For if we fix upon any one of thefe, for
inftance gold; the notion, under which we reprefent
it to ouilelves, is that of a body, yellow, very
weighty, hard, fufible, malleable, i3c. where we
may obferve, that the feveral properties, that go to
the compofition of gold, are reprefented to us by
dear and evident perceptions ; the union too of
thefe properties, and their thereby confifting a
diiiindt fpecies of body, is clearly apprehended by
the mind ; but when we would pufh our enqui-
ries farther, and know wherein this union confiOs,
what holds the properties together, and gives them
their felf-fubfiftence, here we find ourfelves at a
lofs. However, as we cannot conceive qualities.

^1^

In fubftances therefore there are two things to
be confidered : firft the general notion of lelf fub-
fiftence, which, as I have faid, belongs equally to
them all ; and then the feveral qualities or proper-
ties, by which the different kinds and individuals
arediftinguifhed one from another. Thde quali-
ties are otherwife called modes, and have been di-
ft^inguiflied into ejjintial and accidental, according
as they are conceived to be feparable or infepa-
rable from the fubjecSt to which they belong. Ex-
tenfion and folidity are ejfential modes of a ftone ;
becaufe it cannot be conceived without them : but
roundnefs is only an accidental mode, as a ftone
may exift under any fhapc or figure, and ^et Itill
retain its nature and other properties.

So that the variety of material fubftances arifes
wholly from the different configuration, fize, tex-
ture, and motion of the minute parts. As thefe
happen to be varioufly combined, and knit together
under different forms, bodies put on a diveriity of
appearances, and convey into the mind by thefen-
fes, all thofe feveral impreflions, by which they
are diftinguifhed one from ailother. This inter-
nal conftitution or ftruilure of parts, from which
the feveral properties that diftinguifh any fubftance
flow, is called the e£ence of that Jubjtance, and is
in fadt unknown to us, any farther than by the
perceivable impreflions it makes upon the organs
of fenfe. Gold, as has been fdid, is a body yellow,
very weighty, hard, fufible, malleable, i3c. That
inward ftrudture and conformation of its minute
particles, by which they are fo clofely linked toge-
ther, and from which the properties above-men-
tioned are conceived to flow, is called its ejfence ;
and the properties themfelves are the perceivable
marks that make it known to us, and diliinguifh
it from all other fubftances. For our fenfes are
not acute enough to reach its inward texture and
conftitution.

But many of the properties derived from this cf-
Jence, make obvious anddiftjndt imprelTions, as the

without at the fame time fuppofing fome fubjeef , in i weight, hardnefi, and yellow colour, i3'c. Thefe

which they inhere; hence we arc naturally led
to form the notion of alupport, which ferving as a
foundation for the co-exifteiite and union of the
different properties of things, gives them that fepa-
rate and independent exiftence, under which they
are rcpreicnted to our conception. This (upport
we denote by the name jubjlame ; and as it is an

properties combined together, and conceived, as
co-exifting in the fame common fubjedt, make up
our complex idea of gold. The fame may be faid
of all the other fpecies of corporeal fubftances.

This however ought to be obferved, that tho'
the ejfence or inward jlruSlure of bodies, is alori-ether
unknown to us, yet we rightly judge, that in all the

idea applicable to all the different combinations of feveral fpecies. the ejfences a e diftind Thus only
qualities that exift any where by themfelves, they
are accordingly all called fubftances. 1 hus a
houfe, a bowl, a ftone, i^c. having each their
diftinouiihing properties, and being conceived to
exift irdependeiit one of another, the idea oi fub-
Jlance belongs alike to them all.

s true knowledge promoted, when v/e argue from
known qualities, and not irom a fuppofed internal
conftirution,which however leal n itielf, .et, comes
not within the re_ch of our faculties ; and there-
fore can never be a ground to us, for any difcove-
ries or improvements. '

A a 2 Materia

*The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts «W Sciences.

176

Material fubftances include!! the idea of folid,
cohering, extended parts, and is divided into dif-
ferent claflTcs, according to the diftcrent impreflions
made upon the o gans of ^tvSc. I!ut befides thefe
(enfible ideas received from withotit, we aifo expe-
riment in ourfelves thinking and volition. Thefc
actions have no connexion with the known pro-
perties of body ; nay, they Teem plainly inconfiftent
with fome of it's moft edential qualities. For the
mind, not only difcovers no relation between think
ing, and the motion of arrangement of parts ; but
it aifo perceives that confcioufnefs, a fimple indivi-
dual adl, can never proceed from a compoutided
fubftance, capable of being divided into many.

Finding therefore confcioufnefs incompatible
with the cohefion of folid feparable parts, we are
neceffarily led to place it in fome other fubftance,
of a diflinft nature and properties, which we call
jpirit.

Whatever confifts of folid extended parts, is
called matter.

But fplrlt is fomething altogether diftinft from
body, nay and commonly placed in oppofition to
it ; for which leafon, the beings of this clafs are
called immaterial, a word that implies not any
thing of their nature, but merely denotes its con-
trariety to that of matter.

Body and fpirit therefore, differ not as fpecies of
the fame fubftance, but are really diftindl kinds of
fubftances, and ferve as general heads, under which
to rank all the particular beings that fall within the
compafs of our knowledge. For we having no
ways of perception but fenfe and confcioufnefs, can
have no notices of things, but as derived from thefe
two inlets. By our fenfes we are informed of the
exiftence of folid extended fubftances, and reflec-
tion tells us, that there are thinking confcious ones.
Beyond thefe our conceptions reach not.

If we proceed to enquire- into the ideas of the
mind, we Ihall difcover that the mind, in framing
complex ideas, afts voluntarily and of choice; it

ces, that render It partieulur, or tlie rcprefcntatlve
of a fingle determinate object ; by wlxicii means^
inftead of ft;inding for an individual, it is made co
denote a whole rank or clafs of things.

3. The third and laft ait of the mind about its
ideas, is the comparing them one with another ;
when we carry our confideration of things beyond
the objedt themfelves, and examine their rej'pecls
and correfpondencies, in reference to other things,
which the mind brings into view at the fame time,

Let us now confidcr the means of making known
our thoughts to others, or to communicate it with
the greateft certf.inty and advantage. For our
ideas, though manifold and various, are neverthe-
lefs all within our own brcaft§, invifible to others,
nor can of themfelves be made appear. But God
defigning us for fociety, and to have fellowfhip
with thofe of our kind, has provided us with organs
fitted to fiame articulate founds, and given us aifo-
a capacity of ufing thofe founds, as figns of inter-
nal conceptions. Hence fpring words and language;
for having once pitched upon anv found, to itand
as the mark of an idea in the mind, cuftom by de-
grees eftablifhes fuch a connection between them,
that the appearance of the idea in the underftand-
ing, always brings to our remembrance the found
or name by which it is exprefted ; as in like man-
ner the hearing of the found, never falls to excite
the idea for which it is made to ftand. And thus
it is eafy to conceive, how a man may record his
own thoughts, and bring them again into view, in:
any fucceeding period of life. For this conneclion
being once fettled, as the fame founds will always
ferve to excite the fame ideas ; if he can but con-
trive to regifter his words, in the order and difpo-
fition, in which the prefent train of his thoughts
prefents them to his imagination ; it is evident he
will be able to recal thefe thoughts at pleafure, and
that too in the very manner of theic firft appear-
ance.

Befides the ability of recording ourown thoughts,,
combines only fuch ideas as are fuppofed beft to I there is this farther advantage in the ufe cf external
fuit its prefent purpofe, and alters or changes thefe 1 figns, that they enable us to communicate our
combinations, by inferting fome, and throwing fentiments to others, and aifo receive information
out others, according as the circumftances of things j of what paffes in their breafts. For any number
lequire their being viewed in different lights. of men, having agreed toeftablifli the fame founds.

Thefe aiSts may in the general be all reduced to as figns of the fame ideas, it is apparent that the
three, is, i. Compofttion, when we join many repetition of thefe founds muft excite the like per-

confider them as one
Such are our ideas of

fimple ideas together, and
pi£lure or rtprefentation.
beauty, gratitude, i^c.

2. The next operation therefore of the mind,
about its ideas, is abJiraSfion ; when we feparate
from any of our conceptions, all thofe circumftan-

ceptions in each, and create a perfedt correfpondence
of thoughts. When for inftance, any train of ideas,
fucceed one another in my mind, if the names by
which I am wont to expiefs them, have been an-
nexed by thofe with whom I converfe, to the very
fame fet of idea^, noihing is more evident, than
I that

L-rQ\ G I C K,

177

tlfttUy fepeatiYigthofe names accoHingto the tenor
of my fifelfftt conceptions, I (Irall taiie ii'i their
minds the i'ame courfe of thought as has taken
poflefTion of my oWn. Hence, by bsfrety attcnd-
iiiij- to what pades vvirhin themfelves, they wili
alfo hecorrte acquainted with the ideas in iny un-
derftaiiding, and have them in a manner laid before
their view. So that we here clearly perceive, hovv'
a man may commur.icnte his fentiments, knowledge,
and difcnveries to others, if the language, in which
he cenverfes, becxtenriv<; enough to mark all the
ideas And tranra<Sions of his mind. But as this is
not always the ctilfe, Sirid fcen are often obliged to
ixivent terms of their own, to exprefs new views
and conceptions of things ; it may be alkcd, how
In thefe circumftances we can become acquainted
with the thoughts of anOiher, when he makes ufe
ofw^ords, to vvhtch we have liSVer annexed any
ideas, and that of courfe can riilfe no perceptions
in our rninds. Now, to uhveil this myftery, and
give fome little infight into the foundation, growth,
and improvement of language, the following ob-
fervatious will, I am apt to think, be found of con-
fiderable moment.

Fit ft. That no word can be to any man the
fign of an idea, till that idea co'mes to have a real
exiftcnce in his mind.

The firft thing therefore to be confider'd is, how
thefe ideas may be conveyed into the mind ; that
being there, we may learn to conncdl: them with
their appropriated founds, and fo become capable
of unJerftanding others, when they make ufe of
thefe founds in laying open and communicating
their thoughts. Now to comprehend this diflinftly,
it will be necclFary to call to mind, the before-
mentioned divifion of our ideas into fimple and
complex. And firft as for our fimple ideas, it has
been already obferved, that they can find no ad-
miflion into the mind, but by the two orisinal
fountains of knowledge, fcnfation, and rejiefiion. If
therefore any of thefe have as yet no being in the
underftanding, it is impoflible by words or a def
cription to excite them there. A man who had
never felt the impreffion of heat, could not be
brought to comprehend that fenfation, by any
thing we might fay to explain it. The cafe is the
feme in refpeft of light and colours. A man born
blind, can never be brought to underfland the
names by vvhtch they are expreffed. The reafon
is plain : they ftand for ideas that have no exiftence
in his mind; and as the- organ appropriated to their
reception is warning, all other contrivances are
vain, nor can they bv any force of defcription be
raifed in his imagination. But it is quite other-
wife in our complex notions. For thefe being no

more thnn certain combinations of fimple ideas,
put together in various foims*,' if the original ideas
out of which the cullefllons arc made, have already
got admiffion into the underftanding, and the
names ferving to exprefs ti;em are known ; it will
be e,!fy, by enumerating the feveral ideas concern-
ed in the compofition, and miu-king the order and
manner in which they are united, to raife any com-
plex conception in the mind. 7 hus the idea,
anlwering to the word rainl/oiv., may be readily
excited in the imagination of anotlisr, v/ho has
never fccn the i.ppearance itfelf, by barely defcrib.-
ing the figure, largenefs, pofition, and order of
colours ; if we fuppof; thefe feveral fimple ideas,
with their names, fufficiently known to hfm.

And this na'urally leads me to a fecond obferva-
tion upon this fubiedl, namely : that words Hand-
ing for complex ideas are all definable, but thofe by
which we denoiefimple ideas are 7toi. For the per-
ceptions of this latter clafe, having no other
entrance into the mind, than by i'enfation or re-
fledtion, can only be got by experience, from the
feveral obje<R:s of nature, proper to produce thofe
perceptions in us. The only method in this cafe
is, to prefent fome objeft, by looking at which the
perception itfelf may be excited, and thus he will
learn both the name and the idea together.

Thus finding, that the name heat, is annexed,
to that impreffion, which men feel when they ap-
proach the fire, I make it alfo the fign of the idea
excited in me by fuch an approach, nor have any
doubt but it denotes the fame perception in my

} mind as in theirs. For we are naturally led to
imagine, that the fame obje£ts operate alike upon-

> the organs of the human body, and produce an
uniformity of fenfations.

Being furnifhed with fimple ideas, and the names
by which they are exprefTed, the meaning of terms

I that ftand for complex ideas is eafily got ; becaufe
the ideas themfelves anfwering to thefe terms, may
be conveyed into the mind by Definitions.

Definitions are intended to make known the
meaning of words ftanding for complex ideas, and
were we always careful to form thofe ideas exa£[iy
in our minds, and copv our definitions from that
appearance, much of the confufion and obfcurity
complained of in languages might be prevented.
But unhappily for us we are by no means fteady in
the application of names, referring them fonietimes
to one thing, fometimes to another ; therefore to
render this whole matttcr as clear and obvious as
poffible, we fhall firft confider, to what it is that
names, in the ufe of language, are mod commonly
applied ; and then from the variety of this applica-
tion,.

The Univerfal liiftory of Arts and Sciences.

178 'Ibe Univerlal tliltory

tion, endeavour to account for the feveral methods
of defining mentiuned in the wriiings of Logicians.

Words then have manifeftly a threefold relercnce.
Firji^ and more immediately, they denote the ideas
in the mind of him, who uies them j and this is
their true and proper fignification Secondly^ we
confider our words, as figns likewife of the ideas
in the minds of thofe, with whom we coiwerfe ;
and this is the foundation of what is called proprietv
in language, when men take care to affix fuch
notions to their words, as are commonly applied
to them by thofe of molt underftandlng in the
country where they live. A third reference of
words, is to things themfelves. For many of our
ideas, arc taken from the feveral objects of nature,
wherewith we are furrounded ; and being conlider-
ed as copies of things really exilling, the words by
which they are expreffed, are often transferred from
the ideas themfelves, to fignily thofe objects which
they are fuppofed to repjefent. Thus the word
fun, not only denotes the idea excited in the mind
by that found, but is alio frequently made to ftand
for the luminous body itfelf, which inhabits the
center of this our planetary fyftem. Now accord
ing to this threefold application of names, th"ir
definitions, and the manner of explaining them,
muft be various ; for it is one thing to unfold the
'ideas in a man's own mind, another to defcribe them
as they are fuppofed to make their appearance in
the minds of others ; and laftly, it is fomething
ftill difFeient, to draw images or pictures, thatfhall
carry in them a conformity to the being and reality
of things.

Firji then, when we confider words, as figns of
the ideas in the mind of him who ufes them; a
drfinition is nothing elfe, but fuch an explication of
the meaning of any term, as that the complex idea
annexed to it by the fpeaker, may be excited in
the underftanding of him with whom he converfes.
And this is plainly no more than teaching the con-
nediion of our words and ideas, that others may
underttand the fenfe of our expreffions, and know-
diftindlly v»hat notions we affix to the terms we
ufe. VVhen we lay for infl:ance, that by the word
fquare, we mean a figure bounded by four equal
fides, joined together at right angles ; what is this
but a declaration, that the idea of a quadrilateral,
equilateral, rectangular figure, is that which in
difcourfe or writing, we coime£t with the term
fquare ? This is that kind of definition, which
Logicians call the difiuition of the name ; becaufe
it difcovers the meaning of the words or names we
make ufe of, by fhewiiig the ideas for which they
Itand.

In definitions of the name, we aim at no more,
than teaching the connexion of words and ideas.

Now the ideas we join v ith our words are of two
kinds : either fuch as we have reafon to believe
are already in the mind of others, though perhaps
they know not the names by vthich they are called ;
or iiich as being new and of our own formation,
can no othcrw ife be made known than by a de-
fcription. When we fay that a chck is an injlru-
nunt by which rve mcafure the hours of the dny ; it
is plain, that the idea anfwering to the word clock,
is not here unfolded, but we being before-hand
fuppofed to have an idea of this inltrument, arc
only taught by what name it is called. In this
lenle, the names of even fimple ideas may alfo be
defined. For, by faying that white is the colour
we obferve in fnow, heat the fenfation produced
by approaching the fire, we fufficiently make
known what ideas we conne<St with the terms
white and heat, which is the true purpofe of a de-
finition of the name.

But where the ideas we join with our words,
are new and of our own formation, there they are
to be laid open by a defcription. Becaufe being
fuppofed unknown to others, we mult firll raife
them in their minds, before they can learn to con-
nedt them with any particular names. And here
it is, that the definition of the name coincides with
what Logicians call the definition of the thing, as
in either cafe we proceed, by unfolding the idea
itfelf, for which the term defined ftands. And
indeed this alone is what conftitutes a definition,
in the true and proper fenfe of the word.

This fpecies of definitions confiders words as
referred to things themfelves. All definitions of
this kind, when jultly made, are in reality pictures
or reprefentations, taken from the being and exi-
ftence of things. For they are intended to exprefs
their nature and properties, fo as to diitinguifh
them from all others, and exhibit them clearly to
the view of the mind.

And, from what is faid, it evidently follows,
that a definition is the unfolding of fonie conception
of the mind, anjwering to the word or term made life
of as the fign of it.

Definitions, confidered as defcriptions of ideas i|i
the mind, are Iteady and invariable, being bounded
to the reprefentation of thofe precife ideas. But
then in the application of definitions to particular
names, we are altogether left to our own free
choice. Becaufe as the connedting of any idea,
with any found, is a perfectly arbitrary inftitution ;
the applying the dclcription of that idea, to that
found, muft be fo too. When therefore Logicians
tell us, that the definition of the name is arbitrary,
they mean no more than this ; that as different
ideas may be connected with any term, according
to the good pleafure of him that ufes it, in like

manner

L 0 G I C K.

179

manner may different defcriptions be applied to f the compofition is Iclleiied, becaufe we leave out

vvIiKt is peculiar to the Icveral fpeeics compared,
and retain only the particulars wherein they agree.
It is eafy to conceive the mind, proceeding thus

that term, fuitable to the ideas Co connected. But
this conneiSlion being fettled, and the term con-
fidered as the iign ot" ibme fixed idea in the under-
Handing, we are no longer left to arbitrary expli-
cations, but mull lludv fuch a delcriptioii, as cor-
refponds with that precile idea Noiv this alone
ought to be accounted a definition.

in dcfinitloni properly ib called, we firft confider
the term we ule, as the fign of feme inward con-
ception, .either annexed to it by cultoni, or our
own free choice ; and then the bujlnrfs of the
definition is, to unfold and explicate that idea.

A definition is th^n faid tn be perfecl:, when
it fervej diftincHy to excite the idea defcribed, in
the mind of another, even fuppofing him before
wholly unacquainted with it. This point iettled,
it is obvious that definitions cannot have place,
but where we make ui'e of terms, {landing for
complex ideas. But perhaps the reader may ftill
expedl, that we ftiould enter a little more particu-
larly into the nature of a definition, defcribe it's
parts, and fhew by what rules it ought to proceed,
in order to the attainment of it's proper end.

Two things are therefore required in eytry
definition. Firft, that all the original ideas out of
.which the complex one is formed, be diftindtly

from one ftepto another, and advancing through its
(cveraj clallcs of general notions, until at lail it
conies to the highefl genus of all, denoti-d by the
word being, where the bare idt-a of exiilcnce is
only concerned.

As therefore the firft order of our compound
notions, or the ideas that conilitute the higheft
genera, in the different icales of perception, are
formed, by uniting together a certain number of
fimple notices ; fo the terms expreffing thefe
genera, are defined, by enumerating the Jlmple no-
tices fo combined. And as the fpecics comprehended
under any genus, or the compl.x ideas of the fe-
cond order, arife from fuperadding the fpecific
difFerence, to the faid general idea ; fo the defini-
tion of the names of the fpecies, is abfolved in a
detail of the ideas of the fpecific difference, comieiicd
with the term of the geytus. For the genu: havin"-
been before defined, the term by which it is ex-
preifed, ftands for a known idea, and may therefore
be introduced into all fubfequent definitions, in
the fame manner as the names of fimple percep-
tions. It will now I think be fufficiently obvious.

enumerated. Secondly, that the order and manner | that the definitions of all the i'ucceedino- orders of
of combining them into one conception, be clearly I compound notions, will every wheie confift, of the
explained. And to arrive at a jurt and adequate ! tcrr)t of the neareji genus, join' d with an enumeration
definition ; Firft, we are to take an exaft view of of the ideas that unjiitute the fpecifick difference;
the idea to be defcribed, trace it to it's original and that the definition of individuals, unites
principles, and mark the fevcral fimple perception?, the name of the lowefi fpecies, with the terms by the
that enter into the compofition of it. Secondly, we \ which ive exprefs the ideas of the numerick dif-
are to confider the particular manner, in which ' ference.

thefe elementary ideas are combined, in order to ; Here then we have the true and proper form of
the forming of that precife conception, for which ! a definition, in all the various orders of conception,
the term we make ufe of ftands. When this is This is that method of defining, which is corn-
done, and the idea wholly unravelled, we have monly called logical, and which we fee is perfedt in
nothing more to do, than fairly tranfcribe the ap- it's kind, inafmuch as it prefents a full and ade-
pearance it makes to cur awn minds. quate defcription of the idea, for which the term

All the ideas we receive, from the feveral objeds defined ftands. There are ftill two thinffs worthy
of nature that furround us, reprei'ent diftincf indi- of obfcrvation, before we take leave of this fubjecl.
viduals. Thefe individuals when compared toge- Firft that the very frame and contexture of thele

ther, are found in certain particulars to refemble.
Hence by colleding the refembling particulars
into one conception, we form the notion of a
Jpecies. And here let it be obferved, that this laft
idea is lefs complicated, than that by which we
reprefent any of the particular objeiis contained
under it. For the idea of the fpecies excludes the
peculiarities of the feveral individuals, and retains
only fuch properties as are common to them all.
Again, by comparing feveral fpecies together^ and
fcbferving their refemblance, we form the idea of
a genus ; where in the fame manner as before,.

definitions, points out the order in which they
ought to follow one another. For as the name of
the genus is admitted into a deicription, only in
confequence of it's having been before defined ; it
is evident, that we muft pafs gradually, throuoh
all the different orders of conception. Accordingly,
Logicians lay it down as a rule, that we are to
begin always with the higheft genus, and carry on
the feries of definitions regularly, throuoh all the
intermediate genera and fpecies, quite down to the
individuals.

Ttl£

Tl^e Univerfal Fliftory of Arts and Sciences.

bccaufe having now no longer any exiftence, both
the fads themfelves, and th-'circumftanccs attend-
ing them, can be known only from the relation*
of fuch, ar had furticient opportunities of arriving
at the truth. Tc/iimany, therefore, is juflly ac-
counted another ground of human judgment,
from which we deiive hijiorical knowledge; by
which I would be underftood to mean, not merely
a knowledge of the civil tranfaiStions of ftates and
kingdoms, but of all facts whatfoever, where tef-
timony is the ultimate foundation of our belief.

Of affirmative and negative propofitions. While
the comparing of our ideas, is confidered merely
as an a6t of the mind, afl'.mbling them together,
and joining or disjoining them according to the
refuk of it's perceptions, we call it judgment -, but
when our judgments are put into words, they then
bear the name oi propofitions.

A propofition therefore is a fentence exprefling
fome judgment of the mind, whereby two or more
ideas are affirmed to agree or difagree. Now as
our judgments include at leaft two ideas, one of
which is affirmed or denied of the other, fo muft a
propofition have terms anfwering to thefe ideas.
The idea of which we affirm or deny, and of
courfe the term expreffing that idea, is called the
fuhjecl of the propofition. The idea affirmed or
denied, as alfo the term anfwering it, is called the
predicate. Thus in the propofition, God is omm-
potent : God is tbe fubjed, it being of him that
we affirm omnipotence ; and emnipotent is the
predicate, becaufe we affirm the idea exprefled by
that word to belong to God.

But as in propoHdons. ideas arc either joined or
disjoined ; it is not enough to have terms expreffing
thofe ideas, unlefs we have alfo fome words to
denote their agreement or difagreement. That
word in a propofition, which connects two ideas
together, is called the copula ; and if a negative
particle be annexed, we thereby underftand that
the ideas are dis oined. The fubjlantive verb, is
commonlv made ufe of for the copula, as in the
above mentioned propofition, God is cmnipatent;
where is reprefents the copula, and fignifies the
agreement of the ideas of God znd omnipotence. But
if we mean to feparate two ideas ; then, befides
the fubftantive verb, we muft alfo ufe fome particle
of negation, to exprefs this repugnance. The
propofition, man is not perfect ; mav ittw& as an
example of tins kind, where the notion of per-
fe^tio'i, being removed from the idea of «;?«, the
negative particle not is inferted after the copula, to
fignify the difagreement between the fubje^ and
predicate.

Every

i8o

The Second Part. Of Judgment or In-
tuition.

When tile mind is furniftied with ideas, it's next
flep in the way to knowledge is, the comparing
thefe ideas together, in order to judge of their
aereement or difagreement. In this loint view of
our ideas, if the relation is fuch, as to be imme-
diately difcoverable by the bare infpedtion of the
mind, the judgments thence obtained are called
intuitive, from a word that denotes to look at : for
in this cafe, a mere attention to the ideas compared,
fuffices to let us fee, how far they are connected
or disjoined. Thus, that the tvhole i; greater than
any of its parts, is an intuitive judgment, nothing
more being required to convince us of its truth,
than an attention to the ideas of whole and part.
And this too is the reafon, why we call the adtof
the mind forming thefe judgments, intuition-, as it
is indeed no more, than an immediate perception
of the agreement or difagreement of any two ideas.

But our knowledge of this kind refpe<£ts only our
ideas, and the relation between them; and there-
fore can (erve only .is a foundation to fuch reafon-
ings, as are employed in inveftigating thefe rela-
tions. Now it fo happens, that many of our
judgments are converfant about fadts, and the real
exiltence of things, which cannot be traced by the
bare contemplation of our ideas. What then are
the grounds of our judgment in relation to fadts ?
I anfwer thel'e two : experience and tejTnnony.

By experience we know the exiftence of thofe ob-
je(Sls that furround us, and fall under the immediate
notice of our fcnfes. When we fee the fun, or cafl
our eyes towards a building, we not only have ideas
of thefe objects within ourfelves, but afcribe to
them a real exiftence out of the mind. It is alfo
by the information of tbe fenfes, that we judge of
the qualities of bodies ; as when we fay that fnow
is waite, fire hot, or fteel hard But this is not
the only advantage derived from experience, for to
that too are we indebted, for a'l our knowledge
regaidins the co-exiftence of fenfible qualities in
objeifts, and the operations of bodies one upon
another. Ivory, for inilance, is hard and elaitic;
this we know by experience, and indeed by that
alone. In like m.-iniier with regard to the opera-
tions of bodies one upon another, it is evident,
that our knowledge tl'.is wnv, is all derived from
obfervation. Aqua re^ta difi'olves gold, as has been
found by frequeiu i i'l, nor is there any other
wav of arriving at die difcovery.

But there arc many facts that will not allow of
an appeal to the fenfes, and in this cafe tefiimony is
the true and only foundation ef our judgments. All
human actions of whatever kind, when confidered
as already paft, aj-e of the nature heic defcribed ;

L 0 G I C K.

i8i

Tvcry proportion nccelTarily confifls of thcfc
three parts, but then it is not alike needful that
they be all (everally e.xprertcd in words : becaufe
■the copula is often included in :hc term of the predi-
cate, as when we fay, he fits ; which imports the
fame as he is fitting.

When the mind joins two ideas, we call it an
rt^^wa/;W judgment ; when it feparates thtm a ric-
gi:tive ; and as any two ideas compared toge-
ther, niuft neceflarily either agree or not agree,
■it is evident, that all our judgments faH under
thefe two divifions. Hence likewife, the pro-
pofitions exprefling thefe judgments, are all ei-
ther affirmative or negative. An affirmative pro-
pofition connects the predicate with the fub eiSl, as
a flone is heavy ; a negative propofition feparates
them, as God is not the author of evil. JJJirmotiou
therefore -is the fame as joining two ideas together,
and this is done by means of the copula. Negation
on the contrar\', marks a repugnance between the
■ideas compared, in which cafe a negative particle
.muft be called in, to fhew that the connexion in-
-cludedin the copula doeo ivot take place.

Of univerfal and particular propofitions. The
next confiderable divifion of propofitions, is into
■univerfal and particular.

An univerfal propofition is that, wherein the
■fubjeft is fome general term, taken in it's full lati-
tude, infomuch that the predicate agrees to all the
individuals comprehended under it, if it denotes a
proper fpecies ; and to all the feveral fpecies, and
their individuals, if it marks an idea of a higher
order. The words all, every, no, none, &c. are
the proper figns of this univerfality ; and as they
feldom fail to accompanv general truths, fothey are
the moft obvious criterion whereby to diflinguifh
them, /^ll animals have a power of beginning mo-
tion, lliis is an univerfal propofition ; as we
know from the word all, prefixed to the fubjeift
tinimcd, which denotes that it muft be taken in it's
full extent. Hence the power of beginning motion,
may be affirmed of all the feveral fpecies ofanimals;
as of birds, quadrupeds, iniecls, fifties, iJc. and
of all the individuals of which thefe different clafies
■confift,-as of this hawk, thathorfe, and fo for others.

K particular propofition has in like manner' fome
general term for its fubjedl, but with a mark of
limitation added, to denote, that the predicate a-
grees only to fome of the individuals comprehended
under a fpecies, or to one or more ot the fpecies
belonging to any genus, and not to the whole
univerfal idea. Thus Jonie ftones are heavier than
iron ; fome men have an uncommon Jhare of prudence.
In the laft of thefe proportions, the fubiedt fonv^
men, implies only a certain number of individuals,
comprehended under a fingle fpecies.
Vol II. 35.

We have a fure and infallible mark, whereby to
diftinguifli between univerfal and particular pro-
pofitions. Where the predicate agrees to all the
indi\'iduals comprehended under the notion of the
fubjcft, there the propofition is univerfal ; where
it belongs only to fome of them, or to fome of the
fpecies of the general idea, there tlie propofition is
particular. This criterion is of cafy application,
and much fafor than to depend upon the common
figns of all, every, forhe,tior.e, &c. becaufe thefe
being different in different languages, and often
varying in their fii^nification, are very apt in man/
cafes to miilead the judgment.

■\Ve fee therefore, that all propofitions are either
affirmative or negative ; nor is it lefs evident, that
in both cafes, they may be univerfal or particular.
Hence arifes, that celebrated fourfold divifion of
them, into univerfal affirmative, and univerfal ne-
gative ; pcnticular affirmative, and particular ne-
'gctivc.

Of ahfolute and conditional propofitions. The OD-
jeiSls about which we are chiefly converfant in this
world, are all of a nature liable to change. What
may be affirmed of them at one time, cannot often
at another.

This confideration gives ri'e to the divifion of
propofitions into ahfolute and conditional. Ahfoh te
propofitions are thofe, wherein we affirm feme
property infeparable from the idea of the fubjeft,
and which therefore belongs to it in all poflib'e
cafes ; ai God is iiifinitely ivife. Virtue tends to the
tdtimate happinefs of man. But where the predi-
cate is not neccffarily conneited with the idea of
the fubjeft, unlcfs upon fome confideration diftinft
from that idea, there the propofition is called con-
ditional. The reafon of the name is taken from
the fuppofition annexed, which, is of the nature of
a condition, and maybe exprefled as fuch. Thus ;
If a fione is expofed to the rays of the fun, it will
contrail fome degree of heat. If a river runs in a
very declining channel, it's rapidity uill conflantly
increafe.

Of fimpb and comt>ound propofitions. Hitherto
we have treated of propofitions, where only two
ideas are compared together. Thefe are in the
general called ^wp/f ; becaufe having but one fub-
jedt and one predicate, they are the effe<£t of a
fimple judgment, that admits of no' fubdivifion.'
But if it fo happens, that feveral ideas offer ihem-
felves to our thoughts at once, whereby we are led
to affirm the fame thing of different objefts, or
different things of the fame object; the propofitions
expreffing thefe judgments are called compound:
becaufe they mav be refolved into as many others,"
Bb ' ■ 'as

1 82 The Unlverfal Hiftory

as there are fiibjeds or predicates, in tiie whole
complex determination of the mind. Thus ; God
is infinitely -ivifc, and infinitely powcrftd. Here
there are two predicates, iifimte vj,jdom, and in-
finite fewer ^ both affirmed of the fame fiibj( (ft ; and
accordingly, the propofition may be refolved into
two others, affirming thefe predicates ieverally. In
like manner in the propofition, neither kingi nor
people are exempt from death ; the predicate is de-
nied of both fubjc fts, and may therefore be fepa
rated from them, in diftind pr"pofitions. Nor is
!t lefs evident, that, if a complex judgment confifts
of feveral fubjccis and predicates, it may be refolved
into as many fimple propofnions, as are the num-
ber of different ideas compared together. Riches
and honours are apt to elate the miud, and increafe
the numher of our defiires. In this judgment, there
are two ftibjedls and two predicates, and it is at
the fame time apparent, that it may be refolved into
four diftin£l propofitions. Riches are apt to elate
the mind. Riches are apt to increafe the number of
cur defiles. And fo of honours.

Logicians have divided thefe compound propo-
fitions, into a great many different claffes ; but we
reduce them to two kinds only, viz. copulatives
and disjunSiives.

A copulative propofition is, where the fubjefts
and predicates are fo linked together, that they may
be ail feverally affirmed or denied one of another.
Of this nature thefe examples. Riches and honours
are apt to elate the mind, and encreafe the number of
cur deftres. Neither kings nor people are exempt
from death. In the firft of thefe, the two predicates
may be affirmed feverally of each fubjefl:, whence
we have four diftinft propofitions. The other fur-
nifhes an example of the negative kind, where the
fame predicate being disjoined from both lubj-jcts,
may be alfo denied of them in feparate propofitions.

bisjun£five propofitions are thefe, in which,
comparing feveral predicates with the fame fubjedt,
we ajffirm that one of them neceffanly belongs to it,
but leave the particular predicate undetermined.
If any one, for example, fays : this world either
exifis of itfelf or is the work of fome all ivife and
powerful caufe ; it is evident, that one of the two
predicates muft belong to the world ; butuis the
propofition determines not which, it is therefoie of
the kind we call disjuniiive. It is the nature of
all propofitions of this clafs, fuppofing them to be
exa£t in point of form ; that upon determining the
particular predicate, the reft are of courfe to be re
moved ; or if all the predicates but one are removed,
that one neceffarily takes place.

Of the divifion of propofitions into felf- evident and
iemonjirable. When any propofition is otitied to

<9/*Arts «-^</ Sciences.

the view of the mind, if the terms in which it Is
exprelliid are underftood ; upon comparing the
ideas together, the agreement or difagreement
allerted is eithsr immediately perceived, or found
to lie beyond the prefent reach of the underftand-
ing. In the firll cafe the propofition is faid to be
felf-evidcnt., and admits not of any proof; becaufe
a bare attention to the ideas themfelves, produces
full conviilion and certainty ; nor is it poffible to
call in any thing more evident, by way of confir-
mation. But where the connection or repugnance
comes not fo readily under the infpefbion of the
mind, there we mult have recourfe to reafoning ;
and if by a clear feries of proofs we can make out
the truth propofed, infomuch that felf-evidence
Ihall accompany every I'ep of the procedure, we
are then able to demonftrate what we afiert, and
the propofition itfelf is faid to be demonfirahle. When
we affirm for inftance, that it is impofiibte for the
fame thing to be and not to be ; whoever underflands
the terms made ufe of, perceives at firft glance the
truth of what is afferted ; nor can he by any efforts,
bring himfelfto believe the contrary. The pro-
pofition therefore is felf-evident, and fuch, that it
is impoffible by reafoning to make it plainer ; be-
caufe there is no truth more obvious, or better
known, from which as a confequence it may be
ded uced. But if we fay, /' is world had a beginning ;
the affertion is indeed equally true, but fh nes not
forth with the fame degree of evidence. We find
great difficulty in conceiving how the world could
be made out of nothing ; and are not brought to
a free and full confent, until by reafoning we ar-
rive at a clear view of the abfurdity involved in the
contrary fuppofition. Hence this propofition is of
the kind we call d^monflrable, in as much as its
truth is not immediately perceived by the mind,
but yet may be made appear by means of others
more known and obvious, whence it follows as an
unavoidable confequence.

In all propofitions, we either affirm or deny fome
property of the idea that conftituies the fubjeft of
our judgment, or we maintain that fomething may
be done or effedted. I he firft fort are csWtd fpe-
culatiie propofitions, as in the example, the radii
of the fame circle are all equal one to another. The
others are called practical ; thus, that a right line
may be drawn from one point to anotljer, is a practi-
cal propofiti'^n , inafmuch as it expreffes that fome-
thing may be done.

The Third Part. Of Ratiocination,

or Reasoning.

The great art of ratiocination lies in finding out
fuch intermediate ideas, as when compared with

the

L 0 G I C K.

183

the others !n the qucftion, will furnifh evident and
known truths ; becaufe, as will afterwards appear,
it is only by means of them, that we arrive at the
knowJedfe of what is hidden and remote.

Evcrv a(St of reafoiiing iiecefTarily iiicludes three
diftindt judgm-nts ; two wherein the ideas whofe
relation we want to difcover, are feverally com-
pared with the middle idea, and a third wherein
they are themfelves conneiled or disjointed, accord-
ing to the refult of that comparifon.

The exprcflions of our reafonings are termed
fyllogifms. And hence it follows, that as every aft
of reafoning implies three feveral judgments, fo
every fyllogifm muit include three diftindl propo-
fitions. When a reafoning is thus put into words,
and appears in form of a fyllogifm, the intermediate
idea made ufe of to difcover the agreement or
difagreement we fearch for, is called the tniddle
term \ and the two ideas themfelves, with which
tills third is compared, go by' the name of the
extremes.

Let us, for inftance, fet ourfelves to enquire,
whether men are accountable for their aStions, As
the relation between the ideas of man and accoun-
tablenefs, comes not within the immediate view of
the mind, our firft care muft be, to find out fome
third idea, that will enable us the more eafily to
difcover and trace it. A very fmall meafure of re-
flexion is fufficient to inform us, that no creature
can be accountable for his adlions, unlefs we fup-
pofe him capable of dijiinguijinng the good from the
bad ; that is, unlefs we fuppofe him pofrefled of
rcafon. Nor is this alone fufficient. For what
would it avail him to know good from bad aftions,
if he had no freedom of choice., nor could avoid the
one, and purfue the other ? Hence it becomes ne-
cefTary to take in both confiderations in the prefent
cafe. It is at the fame time equally apparent, that
where-ever there is this ability of diftinguifliing
good from bad aiSions, and of purfuing the one and
avoiding the other, there alfo a creature is accoun-
table. We have then got a third idea, with which
cccountablenefs is infeparably connected, viz. rcafon
and liberty; which are here to be confidered as
making up one complex conception. Let us now
take this mild idea, and compare it with the other
term in the queftion, w'z. man, and we all know
by experience, that it may be affirmed of him.
Having thus by means of the intermediate idea
formed two feveral judgments, viz. that man is
pojfejpd of reafon and liberty ; and, th^n renfon and
liberty imply accoimtablenefs ; a third obviouily and
neccflarily follows, t'/z. that man is accoutita'>le for
his a -ions. Htre then we have a compleat act: of
reafoning. in which, according to what has been
already obferved, there are three diillniSt judgments;

two that may be ftiled previous, in as much as they
lead to the other, and arife from comparing the
middle idea, with the two ideas in the quefUon :
the third is a confcquencc of thefc previous aifls,
and flows from combining the extreme ideas be-
tween themfelves. If now we put this reafoning
into v/ords, it exhibits what Logicians term -Jt fyllo-
gifm, and when propofed in due form, runs thus;

Every creature pijjijfed of rcafon and liberty is ac-
countable for his actions.

Jl4an is a creature poffeffed of reafon and liberty.

Therefore man is accountable for his aSliom.

It will be farther neceflary to obferve, that as
the conclufion is made up of the extreme terms of
th&fyl'ogifn, (o that extreme, which ferves as the
predicate of the conclufion, goes by the name of
the major term: the other extreme, which makes
the fuhjcSI in the fame propofition, is called the
minor term. From this diftinftion of the extremes,
arifes alfo adiftinftion between the premiflcs, where
thefe extremes are feverally compared with the
middle term. That propofition which compares the
greater extreme, or the predicate of the conclufion
with the middle term, is called the major propofition:
the other, wherein the fame middle term is com-
pared with the fubjeft of the conclufion, or leffer
extreme, is called the 7ninor propofition. All this
is obvious from the fyllogifm already given, where
the conclufion is, man is accountable for his aSiions.
For here the predicate accountable for his aiiions,
being connefted with the middle term in the firfi:
of the two premifTes ; every creature pojjejj'cd of rea-
fon and liberty is accountable for his anions, gives
what we call the major propofition. In the fecond
of the premifies ; man is a creature poffeffed of reafon
and liberty, we find the lefl!er extreme, or fubject
of the conclufion, w'z. man, conneded with the
fame middle term, whence it is known to be the
minor propofition. I fhall only add, that when a
fyllogifm is propofed in due form, the inajar pro-
pofition is always placed firft, the 7ninor next, and
the conclufion laft.

We may in the general define reafoning, to be
an ail or operation of the mind, deducing feme un-
kiioivn propofition, from other previous ones that are
evident and knoivn. Thefe previous propofitions,
in a fimple aft of reafoning, are only two in num-
ber; and it is always required, that they be of
themfelves apparent to the underitanding, info-
much that we aflent to and perceive the truth of
them as foon as propofed. In the fyllogifm given
above, the premiiies are fuppol'ed to be (elf-evident
truth;;, otherwife the conclurion could not be in-
ferred by a fingle aft of reafoning. If for inftance
in the m^]ox, every creature pojfcfji:d of reafon and
liberty is accountable for /ms aiiions, the conneftion
B b 2 between

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

184

between the fubjciSt and pieJicate could not be
perceived by a bare attention to the ideas them
felves ; it is evident, that this propofition would
no lefs require a proof, than the conclufion de-
duced from it. In this cafe a new middle term
mull be fought for, to trace the conne£tion here
i'uppofed ; and this of courfe furniflies another
lyllogifm, by which having eftablifhcd the propo-
filion in queftion, we are then, and not before, at
liberty to ufc it in any fucceeding train of reafon-
ing. And fliould it fo happen that in this fecond
Ellay, there was ftill fome previous propofition,
whofe truth did not appear at firft fight ; we mufi;
then have recourfe to a third fyllogifm, in order to
lay open that truth to the mind ; becaufe fo long
as the premiffcs remain uncertain, the conclufion
built upon them muft be fo too. When by con-
ducing our thoughts in this manner, we at Lift
arrive at fome fvllogifm, where the previous pro-
pofstions are intuitive truths ; the mind then refts
in full fecurity, as perceiving that the feveral con-
cluhons it has paffed thorough, ftand upon the
i nmoveable foundation o^ fdf -evidence^ and when
traced to their fource terminate in it.

The great art lies, in fo adjufting our fyllogifms
one to another, that the propofitions feverally made
ufe of as premi/Tes, may be manifeft confe;;uences
of what goes before. For, as by this means, every
conclufion is deduced from known andeftabliflied
truths, the very laft in the feries, how far foever
we carry it, will have no lefs certainty attending
it, than the original intuitive perceptions thcm-
felves, in which the whole chain of fyllogifms
takes it's rife.

Of the feveral kinds of reafoning, and fiyft of that
by which ive determine the genera and fpecies of
things. Ail the aims of human reafon may in the
general be reduced to thefe tivo : i. To rank
things under thofe univerfal ideas to which they
truly belong ; and 2. i o a'cribe to them their
feveral attributes and properties in confequence of
that diftribution.

Firfi then I fay, that one great aim of human
reafon is, to determine the genera and fpecies of
things. As in univerfal' propofitiorrs, we affirm
fome property of a genus or fpecies, it is plain,
that we cannot apply this property to particidar
objefls, till we have firft determined, whether they
are comprehended imder that general idea, of
which the property is affirmed. Thus there are
certain properties belonging to all even numbers,
which neverthelefs cannot be applied to any parti-
cular number, until we have firft difcovered it to
be of the fpecies exprefled by that general name.
Hence reafoning begins with referring things to

I their feveral divifions and clafles in the fcalc of oar
ideas ; and as thefe divifions are all diftinguifhcd
by peculiar names, we hereby learn to apply the
terms expreffing general conceptions, to fuch pacr
ticular objefls, as come under our immediate ob-
fervation.

In order to arrive at thefe conclufions. Firfi,
we take a view of the idea itfelf denoted by that
general name, and carefully attend to the diftin-
guifhing marks which fcrvc to charaderize it. Se-
condly, we compare this idea with the objedl under
confideration, obferving diligently wherein they
agree or differ. If the idea is found to correfpond
with the particular obje£f, wc then, without hefi-
tation, apply the general name; but if no fuch
corrcfpondence intervenes, the conclufion muft
neceflarily take a contrary turn. Let us for in-
ftance take the number eight, and confider by what
fteps we are led to pronounce it an evui number.
Firft' then we C3II to mind the idea fignified bv
the exprelTion an even- niwihcr, viz. that it is a
nuinbir divifible into two equal parts. We then-
compare this idea with the number eight, and
finding them manifeftly to agree, fee at once the
neceility of admitting tbx conclufion. Thefe fe-
veral judgments therefore, transferred into lan-
guage, and reduced to the form of a fyllogifm,
appear thus :

Every number that may be divided into tiuo equal
parts is an EVEN number..

The number Eight may be divided into two
equal parts.

Therefore the number ^JCKT is fl»EVEJf number.

Of Reafoning, as it regards the powers and
properties of things, i?;;^ /^^ relations of our general
ideas. Here it will be neceflary to diftinguifh be-
tween reafoning as it regards the fciences, and as it
concerns common life.

In the fciences, our reafon is employed chiefly
about univerfal truths, it being by them alone,
that the bounds of human knowledge are enlarged.
Hence the divifion of things into va.ious clafles,
called othsYw'ik ge>iera s.r\d f{)ecies. For thefe uni-
verfal ideas, being fet up as the reprefentatives of
many particular things, whatever is affirmed of
them, may be alfo affirmed of all the individuals to
which they belong. Murder for inftance is a ge-
neral idea, reprefenting a certain fpecies of human
a£tions. Reafon tells us that the puniftiment due
to it is death. Hence every particular adlion
coming under the notion of tnurder, has the pu-
nifhment oi' death allotted to it. Here then we
apply the general truth to fome obvious inftance,
and this is what properly cOnftitutes the reafoning
c f common life.

The

L 0 G I C K.

185

The ftcps by which we proceed, in the reafon- 1 This difpofition, though the mod natural and ob-
ing of common life, are, /"/r/!*, refer the objcfl: vious, is not however ncce/Tary ; it frequently
under confideration to fome general idea or clafs j happening, that the middle term is the fubjcdl in
of things; then to recollecSl the feveral attributes, both the premifTes, or the predicate in both ; and
of that general idea : and laftly, to afcribe all thofe' fometimes, the predicate in the major-, and the

attributes to the prefent object. Thus, in con
fidering the characfer of Sempronlus, if v^e find it

fubjeft in the minor.

Hence the diftin<aion of fyliogifms into various

to be of the kind called virtuous ; when we at the| kinds, called pgura by Logicians. For, figure,,
fame time rcfleft, that a virtuous character is de-l according to their ufe of the word, is nothing elfe,
fecving of eftcem, it naturally and obvioufly fol- but the order and difpofition of the w/W/i? term in
lows, that Seinpronlus is fo too. Thefe thoughts' any f^'llogifm. And as this difpofition, is four-
put iinoz fylloglfm, in order to exhibit the form of /J/t/, fo the figures of fyliogifms tiience aiifingj

areyiiarin number.

When the middle term is the fubjecl of the major
propofition, and the predicate of the miner, we
have what is called the /irjl Jlgure. If on the o-
ther hand, it is the predicate of both the premilTes,
the fyllowifm is faid to be in the Jccond figure.

reafoning here required, run thus.

Every virtuous man Is -worthy of ejlecm,

Sempronius Is a virtuous man.

Therefore Sempronius is warthyof efiam.

The determining the genera and fpeeles of things,
is, as we have faid, one exercife of human reafon ; i Again in the third figure, the middle term is the
and her-e we find, that this exercife is the firft in ^ fubjedt of the two premifles. And laftly, by
order, and previous to the other, which confifts in i making it the predicate of the major, and fubjedt
sfcribing to them their powers, properties, and ; of the minor, we obtain fyliogifms in the fourth
relations. But when we have taken this previous' _/%«'"!:•.
ftep, and brought particular objeifs under general
names ; as the properties we afcribe to them are
no other than thofe of the general idea, it is plain,
that in order to a fuccelsful progrefs in this part of

But befides this four-fold diftinclion of fylio-
gifms, there is alfo a farther fubdivifion of them in
every figure, arifing from the quantity and quality
as they are called of the propofitions. By quantity

knowledge, we muft thoroughly acquaint ourfelves we mean the confideration of propofitions as uni-

with the feveral relations and uiti Ibutes oithtk our verfal or particular, h\ quality as affirmative or ne-

general ideas.

The relations of our general ukas are of two

kinds ; either fuch as immediately difcover them-

felves, upon comparing the ideas one with another ;

or luch, as being more remote and diftant, require

art and contrivance to bring them into view. 1 he

telations of the firft kind, furnifh us with intuitive

and fclf-evident truths : thofe of the fecond, are

traced by realbning, arul a due application of in-
termediate ideas. It is evident therefore, that to

make a good reaicner, two things are principally

required: Fir/l, an extenfive knowledge of thofe

mtermediate ideas, by means of which, things may

be compared one with another. Secondly, the (kill

and talent of applying them happily, in all parti-
cular inftances that come under confideration.

Cf the Forms «/" Syllogisms. Hitherto we
have contented (jiirfelves with a general notion of
fyliogifms, and of thii parts of which they confift.
Jt is now time to enter a little more particularly
into the fubjeff, to examine their various forms,
and lay open the rules of argumentation proper
to each.

In the fyliogifms already mentioned, we may
obferve, that the middle term is the fubjedl of the
major propofition, and the predicate of the minor.

Now as in all the feveral difpofitionsof the rnld-
dle term, the propofitions o{ which a fyllogifm con-
fifts, may be either unlverfal or partkular, affirma-
tive or ncgatlzi'; the due determination of thefe,
and fo putting them together, as the laws of arou-
mentation require, conftitute what Logicians call
the moods of lyllogilms.

Of thefe moods there are a determinate number
to every figure, including all the poflible ways, in
which propofitions differing in quantity or quality
■can be combined, according to any difpofition of
the mldille terjn. In oi'der to ariive at a jull con-
clufion. See the Port-^^yal art of thinking, where
the mocds and figures of fyliogifms are diftiiiclly
explained, and the rules proper to each, are very
neatly demonftrated.

When in any fyllogifm, the major is a conditional
propofition, the fyllogifm itfclf :^s termed condl-
ticnal, thus :

If there Is a God, he ought to he vjorfi)lp\-d.

But there Is a God :

Therefore he ou^ht to be tvorjklpped.

In this example, the jnrtjor or firft propofition,
is, we fee, conditional, and therefore the fyllogifm
itfclf is alio of the kind, called by that name.

And

i86 The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

And here we are to obferve, that all conditional
propofitions are made up of two diftincl parts :
One exprelFing the condition upon which the pre- i
dicate agrees or difagrees with the fubjedl:, as »n
this now before us, if there is a Gcd; the other
joining or disjoining the faid predicate and fubjcf^,
as here, he ought to be worJJjipped. The firft of
thefe parts, or that which implies the condition,
is called the antecedent ; the fecond, where we join
or disjoin the predicate and fubjeft has the name
of the conjequent.

When any eonditional propoiltion is aflumed, if
we admit the antecedent of that propofition, we
muft at the i'ame time necefl'arily admit the confe-
quent ; but if wc rejedt the confequent, we are in
like manner bound to rejeft alfo the antecedent.
For as the antecedent always exprefles fome con-
dition, which neceflarily implies the truth of the
confequent ; by admitting the antecedent we allow
of that condition, and therefore ought alfo to ad-
mit the confequent. In like manner if it appears
that the confequent ought to be rejected, the an-
tecedent evidently niufl: be fo too ; becaufe as was
juft now demonftrated, the admitting of the an-
tecedent, would neceflarily imply the admiflion
alfo of the confequent,

Hence it appears, that there are two ways of
arguing in hypothetical fyllogifms, which lead to a
certain and unavoidable cunclufion. For, as the
major \s always a conditional propofition, conGfting
of an antecedent and a confequent; if the ;«/««?■
admits the antecedent, it is plain that the conclu-
fion muft admit the confequent. This is called
arguing from the admiflion of the antecedent, to
the admiflion of the confequent, and conflitutes
that mood or fpecies of hypothetical fyllogifms,
which is diftinguiflicd in the fchools by the name
of the jHodus poneiis, in as much as by it, the whole
conditional propofition, both antecedent and con-
fequent, is eftabliflicd. Thus :

If God is infinitely wife, and ads with perfeSl

freedom, he does nothing but ivitat is hell.
But God is infinitely wife, and a£is zuith per-
fect freedom.
Therefore he does nothing but what is befi.
Here we fee the antecedent or firft part of the
conditional propofition is eftabliflied in the minor.,
and the confequent or fecond part in the conclu-
iion ; whence the fyllogifm itfclf is an example of
the modus ponens. But if now we on the contrary
fuppofe, that the minor rcjefts the confequent, then
it is apparent, that the conclufion muft alfo rejeft
the antecedent. In this cafe we are faid to argue
from the removal of the confequent, to the removal
of the antecedent, and the particular mood or fpe-
cies of fyllogifms thence arifme, is called by Lo-

gicians the modus tollens j becaufe in it, both an-
tecedent and confequent, are rejeited or taken
away, as appears by the following example.

If God were not a Being of infinite goodnefs, neither
would he confult the happinefi of his creatures.

But God does confult thehappincfs of his creatures ;

Therefore he is a Being of infinite goodnefs.

Thele two fpecies take in the whole clafs of
conditional fyllogifms, and include all the poflible
ways of arguing that lead to a legitimate conclu-
fion.

As from the major's being a conditional propo-
fiiion, we obtain thefpeciesof conditional fyllogifms ;
fo where it is a disjun£live propofition, the fyllo-
gifm to which it belongs is alfo called disjunctive.

The world is either felf-exiftent, or the work of
fome finite., or of fome infinite Being.

But it is not fclf-exijlent, nor the work of a finite
Being.

Therefore it is the work of an Infinite Being.

Now a disjunflive propofition is that, where of
feveral predicates, we affirm one neceflarily to be-
long to the fubject, to the exclufion of all the reft,
but leave that particular one undetermined. Hence
it follows, that as foon as we determine the parti-
cular predicate, all the reft are of courfe to be re-
je6ted ; or if we rejedl all the predicates but one,
that one neceflarily takes place. When therefore
in a disjunifive fyllogifm, the feveral predicates are
enumerated in the major; if the wwffr eftabiifties
any one of thefe predicates, the conclufion ought
to remove all the reft ; or if in the minor, all the
predicates but one are removed, the conclufion muft
neceflTarily eftablifh that one.

Thus in the disjunSiive fyllogifm given above,
the fnajor affirms one of three predicates to be-

long to the earth.

Self-exiflence, or that it is

the work of a finite, or that it is the vjork of an in-
finite Being. Two of thefe predicates are removed
in the minor, viz. Selfexiftence, and the "work of a
finite Being. Hence the conclufion neceflarily
afcribes to it the third predicate, and affirm?, that
it is the work of an infinite Being. If now we give
the fyllogifm another turn, infomuch that the minor
may eftablifh one of the predicates, by affirming
the earth to be the production of an infinite Being ;
then the conclufion muft remove the other two,
aflerting it to be neither felf-exifient, nor tin work
of a finite Being. Thefe are the forms of reafon-
ing in this fpecies of fyllogifms.

It often happens, that foma one of the premifies
is not only an e\ Ident truth, but alfo familiar, and
in the minds of all men ; in which caie it is ufual-
ly omitted, whereby we have an imperfect fyllogifm

that

L 0 G I C K.

187

that feems to be made up of only two propofitions.
Should wc for inftance argue in this manner :
Every man is mortal ;
Tbercfire every king is mc-rtal.

The f3Hogii''m appears to be imperfef^, as con-
fifthig but of two propoiitions. Yet it is really
coirpieaty only the minor [Every king is a man] is
omitted, ajid left to the reader to fupplv, a^ being
a propoiitioii fo familiar and evident, that it cannot
efcape him.

Tiiefe femingly imperfed fyllogifms are called
enthymemes.

There is another fpecies of reafoning with two
propofitions, which feems to be compieat in itfelf,
and where we admit the conclufion, without fup-
pofing any tacit or fuppreffed judgment in the mind,
from which it follows fyllogiilicallv.

Thus by admitting an ur.iverji.ii propofition, we
are forced alio to admit of all the particular propo-
fitions comprehended under it. Whoever allows,
for inftance, that t/.v?!gs equal to one and the fame
thing are equal to one another, mull at the lame time
allow, that two triangles, each equal to a Jquare
ixihofe fide is three inches, are alfo equal between
them/elves. This argument therefore.

Things equal to one and the fame thing are equal
to one another ;

Therefore theje two triangla, each equal to the
fquare of a line of three inches, are equal be-
tween ihcmfelves ;
is compieat in its kind, and contains all that is
necefi'ary towards ajuft and legiiimate couclulion.

The next fpecies of reafoning we fhall take no-
tice of, is what is kno\\ n by the name of zfarites ;
in which a great number ot propoiitions are fo
linked together, that the predicate of cue, becomes
continually the lubjedl of the next follovving, until
at laft a conclufion is formed, by bringing togetner
the fubjeit of the hnl p: opofition, and the predicate
of the laft. Of this kind is tlie following argu-
ment.

God is omnipotent.

An omnipotent being can do every thing poffible.

He that can do e- ery thing poffibUy can do what-
ever involves not a contradiiiion.

Therefore God can do whatever involves not a con-
tradiEiion.

This particular combination of propofitions, may
be continued 10 any length we plcafe, without in
the leaft weakening the ground upon which the
conclufion reftjs The reaion is, betaufe \hsforitci
itfelf may be refoived into a.- many fimplefyllogif.^s
as there are middle terms in it ; where this is found
untverfally to hold, th.it when fuch a reiolution is
made, and the fyllogifms are placed in train, the

conclufion of the laft in the feries, is alfo the con-
clufion of the forites.

VVhat is here faid of plain fmple propofitions,
may be as well applied to thofe that are cjiriitional;
that is, any number of them may be fo joinetf to-
gether in a feries, that the conrcquciit of one, (hall
become continually the antecedent of the next fol-
I lowing ; in which cafe, by ellablilhing the ante-
j cedent of the hrft propofition, we eilablifti the
confequcnt of the laif, or by removing the laft
confequent, remove alfo the firib antecedent. This
way of reafoning is exemplified in the following
argument.

If we love any perfon, all emotions of hatred to-
wards him ceaje. ■
If all emotions of hatred toivards a perfon ceafe,

ue cannot rejoice in his mi fortunes.
If we rejoice not in his misfortunes, we certainly

wijii him no injury.
Therefore if ive love a perfon, we wi/h him no
injury.

I come now to that kind of argument, whiclv
Logicians call indu£1ion ; in order to the right un-
derftanding of which, it will be neceffary to obferve,
that our general ideas are for the moft part capable
o( various Jubdivifons. 1 hus the idea of the loweft
fpecies, may be fubdivided into its feveral individuals ;
the idea of any genus, into the different fpecies
it comprehends ; and fo of the reft.

Thus if we fuppofe the whole tribe of animals,
fubdivided into men, beafts, birds, infers and
fifhes, and then reafon concernin;i them after this
manner : All men have .a power of beginning motion;
\ ail beafls, birds, and infeSis, have a power ofbegin-
\ ning motion ; all fijhes have a power of beginning
\ mution ; therefore all anmials have a power of be-
ginning motion : the argument is an induSiion.
• VVhen the iubdivifions are juft, fo as to take in the
vv hole general idea, and the enumeration is perfedf,
that it, extends to all and every of the inferior
clalTes or parts ; there the induiiion is compieat,
and the manner of reafoning by indu£iion, is ap-
parently conclufive.

The laft fpecies of fyllogifms I fhall take notice
of, is dilfinguiflied bv the name of a dilemma'.

A dilemma is an argument, by which we endea-
vour io prove the abfurdity or falihood of feme
aliertion. In order to this we afl'ume a conditional
propoiition. the antecedent of which is the aflertion
to be difpioved, and the confequent ?i. disjunctive
propofulon, enumerating all th^ poffible fuppcfi-
tions. upon which that aflertion can take place. If
then it appears, that all thef'e feveral fuppofitions
ought to be rejected, it is plain, that the iuitecedent

l88 The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

or afll-rtion itfelf muft be fo too. When therefore
fuch a propofitioti, as that before mentioned, is
made the major of any fyllogil'm ; if the mhwr re-
jcfts all the fuppofitions contained in the confe-
qucnt ; it follows neceilarily, that the conclufion
ought to reje£t the antecedent, which, as we have
faid, is the very aflertion to be difproved. From
this account it appears, that we may in the general
define it, to be a hypothetical fyUogijm^ where the
conjequciit of the major is a diijunilive propofition ;
which is wholly taken away or removed in the minor.
Of this kind is the following :

If God did not create the world perfeii in its iind,
it mufi either proceed from want of inclination^
or from want of power.

But it could not proceed either from want of incli-
nation^ or from ivant of power.

Therefore he created the -world perfeSl in its kind.
Or, which is the fame thing : 'tis abfurd to
fay that he did not create the world perfeSi in
its kind.

The nature then of a dilemma.

The major is a conditional proportion, whofc
confequent contains all the feveral luppofitions up-
on which the antecedent can take place. As there-
fore thefe fuppofitions are wholly removed in the
minor, it is evident that the antecedent muft be fo
too ; infomuch that we here always argue from the
removal of the confequent, to the removal of the
antecedent. I hat is, ■& dilemma is an argument,
in the inodus tollens of hypothetical fyllogifms, as
I^ogicians love to fpcak. Hence it is plain, that if
the antecedent of the major is an affirmative pro-
pofition, the conclufion of the dilemma will be ne-
gative ; but if it is a negative propofition, the
conclufion will be affirmative.

when
is not

As to the fallacy of fophifmu Though
jone knows the rules of good reafoning, it
difficult to difcover thofe which are bad, notwith-
flanding as the examples to be avoided make often
a greater impreffion on our mind than thofe to be
imitated, it will not be needlel's to reprelent the
principal fources of bad reafoning, called fophifms
ox paralogijms. I'll reduce them all to eight or
nine.

The firft is to prove another thing than what is in
quejlion. Paffion, or want of probity, caufes one
lo attribute to his adverfary, what is often very far
from his fentiment, to take occafion hence to fight
him with more advantage, or to impute to him the
confequenccs he imagines he can draw from his
doctrine, though at the fame time he denies
them.

'I 'he fecond is to fuppofe for true. what is in quef

tion. This is what JriflotlecuWs petition cf prin-
ciple., and which we fee clearly enough, to be
contrary to true reafon ; becaul'e in all reafoning
what fcrves for proof mufl be clearer and better
known than what is to be proved.

Notw/thitanding which Arijlotle is accufed by
Galileo, and with juftice, to have himfelf been
guilty of that imperfe£lion, when he wanted to
prove by the following argument, that the earth is
placed in the center of the world.

The nature of ponderous things is to tend towards
the center of the world., and of light things to
depart fro?n it.

But experience Jhews us, that ponderous things tend
towards the center of the earth, and light things
depart from it :

Therefore the center of the earth is the center of
the viorld.

It is clear, that there is in the major of this ar-
gument a manifeft petition of principle ; for we fee
very well, that ponderous things tend towards the
center of the earth : but whence has A>i'iotle took,
that they tend towards the center of the world ;
unlets he fuppofes that the center of the earth is
the fame with the center of the world ; which is
the very conclufion he would prove by that argu-
ment.

'I'he third is to take for a caufe ivhich is not a
caufe. '] his fophifm is very common. Philofo-
phers have attributed a thoufand effeds to the fear
of the vacuum, which has been proved demonftra-
tively by very ingenious experiences, to have for
caufe but the ponderofity of the air.

The fourth is an imperfect enumeration. As if
any body was to fay, Titius is condemned to die, or
by his own fault, or by the partiality of the judges ;
this enumeration would be imperfeft, for it could
happen likewife, that Titius is condemned to die,
or by want of probity in the witneffes, or fome
miflakes in his defence, or the like.

The fifth is, to judge of a caufe by what belongs
to it, but by accidetrt. As if fome body would ex*
elude antimony from among remedies, becaufe hav-
ing been fometimes unfkilfully adniiniftred, it lias
produced bad effedts.

The fixth is to paj's from a divided fenfe to a com-
pofttc fenfe, and from a-eompofite fenfe to a divided
fenj'e.

One of thefe fophifms is called fallacia compofi-
tionis, and the other fallacia divifionis. It is what
will be eafier underftood by examples.

God jufiifies the impious ; cannot be faid, that
he accounts for juft thofe, who are impious Itill,
but that he renders juft, by his grace thofe, who
were impious before.

o There

L 0 G I C K.

189

There are on the contrary propofitions, which
nre not true, but ^^^ a ienie. oppofite to that which
\i a ilivided fenfe : As when St. Paul fays, that
fornicators, ^c fl^all not enter into the kingdom
oflu-aven ; for this does not fignify that none of
thofc, who have been guilty ol thofe vices will be
faved, but only that thofe, who will 7wt renounce
them by a fincere repentance, and their converfion
to God, fhall hive no part in the kingdom of
heaven.

The fevenih is to pafs from ivhat is true in fame
refpeSl, to what is /imply true. This is called in
the fthouls, a diiio fecundum quid ad diStuin fi?n-
pliciier; of which I'll give the following exam-
ples.

^ The Epicureans wanted to prove, that the gods
fliould have a human form, becaufe there was no
handfomcr than that, and that all that's handfome
mud be in God ; which was a very bad reafon.
For the human form is not abfolutely a beauty, but
only with regard to the bodies ; and therefore it
being; a perfe^Sion, but in fome refpedt and not
fimply, it does not follaw hence that it muft be in
God, becaufe all perfeftions are in God ; none but
thofe, which are fimple perfedlions, /. e. which
include no imperfeiStions being neceflarily in God.
• The eighth is to abufe the ambiguity of words.
To this fort oi fophi fill cs.n be referred all the fyllo-
gifms, which are vicious for having four terms ;
either becaufe the medium is taken twice particu-
larly, or becaufe it is taken in one fenfe in the firft
propofition, and in another fenfe in the fecoiid ;
or, lallly, becaufe the terms of the conclufion are
not taken in the fame fenfe in the premilles, as in
the conclufion.

Such is that found in the words, which fignify a
whole, which can be taken colleelively for all its
parts together, or diftributively lor each of its parts.
It is whereby this fophifm of the Stoicks is to be re-
folved, who concluded that the world was an ani
mal endued with reafon ; becaufe what has the
life of reiifon, is better than that., luhich has not that
ufe,; but nothing is better, f-id the)-, than the zuorld;
therefore the world has the ufe of reafon. The mi-
nor of this argument ii falfe, becaufe they attributed
to the wo: 1 J what only belongs to (jod ; which is
to be fuch, that in)thiiig can be conceived better
and more perfeiSt. But in confining ones felf in the
creatures, though it can be faid that nothing is
bet;er than the world, taken colleetively for the
unvfrfality of all the beings God has created, all
that can be concluded from it, is, thit the world
iias the ufe of re;>fon accordinp; to fome of its parts,
fuch as tlie angels and men; but not that altogether
he is an animal w'^ich has the ufe of reafon. I

Vol. JI. 36.

The Fourth Part. Of Method.

It is the tfuc and proper bufinefs oi method toaf-
certain the various divifions of human knowledge,
and fo to adjufl and conne£l the parts in every
branch, that they may feem to grow one out of
another, and form a regular body of fcience, rifing
Irom fiift principles, and pioceednig by an orderly
concatenation of truths.

In this view of tilings we muft be well acquaint-
ed with the truths we are to combine together ;
othervvife how could we difcern their feveral con-
nexions and relations, or fo difpofe of them as
their mutual dependence may require. But as it
often happens, that the understanding is employed,
not in the arrangement and compofition of known
truths, but in the fearch and difcovery of fuch as
are unknown : let us fuppofe a watch prefented to
us, whofc fcru£ture and compofition we are as yet
unacquainted with, but want if poffible to difcover.
The manner of proceeding in this cafe is, by taking
the whole to pieces, and examining the parts fepa-
rately one after another. Whsn by fuch a fcrutiny
we have thoroughly informed ourfelves of the
frame and contexture of each, we then compare
them together, in order to judge of their mutual
aftion and influence. By this means we gradually
trace out the inward make and compofition of the
whole, and come at length to difcern, how the parts
of fuch a form, and fo put together as we found,
in unraveling and taking them afunder, conftitute
that particular machine called a watch, and con-
tribute to all the feveral motions and phaenomena
obfervable in it. This difi.overy being made, wa
can take things the contrary way, and, beginning
with the parts, fo difpofe and connedt them, as
their feveral ufes and ftru6iures require, until at
length we arrive at the whole itfelf, from the un-
raveling of which thefe parts refulted.

As it is in tracing and examining the works of
art, fo is it in a great me^fure in unfolding any
part of human knowledge. For the relations and
miriual habitudes of things do not always immedi-
ately appear, upon comparing them one with ano-
ther. Hence we have recourfeto intermediate ideas,
and by means of them are furnifhed with thofe pre-
vious propofitions, that lead to the conclufir^n we
are in quefl: of. And if it fo happen, that the pre-
vious propofitions thtmfehes are not fufiiciently
evident, we endeavour by new middle terms to
afccrtairi their truth, ilill tracing things backward
m a continued fcries, until at lenoth we arrive at
fome fyllogifm, where the premilles are fiift and
felf-evident principles.

Hence it appears that in difpofing and puttini

together our thoughts, either for oirr own ufe, that

C c the

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts aW Sciences.

igo

the difcoveries we have made may at all times lie
open to the review of the mind ; or where we mean
to communicate and unfold thefe difcoveries to
others, there are two ways of proceeding equally
within our choice. For we may fo propofe the
truths relating to any part of knowledge, as they
prefented themfelves to the mind in the manner
of inveftigation, carrying on the feries of proofs
in a reverfe order, until they at laft termi-
nate in firft principles : or beginning with
thefe principles, we may take the contrary way,
and from them deduce, by a dire£t train of rea-
foning, all the feveral propofitioiis we want to
eftablifh.

This divcrfity in the manner of arranging our
thoughts, gives rife to the twofold divifion of me-
thod eftablifhed among Logicians. For, method.,
according to their ufe of the word, is nothing elfe
but the order and difpofitioti of our thoughts relating
to any fubjeSi. When truths arc fo pmpofed and
put together, as thoy were or might have been
difcovered, this is called the anaiyiick tnethod, oi
the mctbcd of refolutlon ; in as much as it traces
things backward to their fource, and refolves know-
ledge into its firft and original principles. When
on the other hand they are deduced from thefe
principles, and connedted according to their mutual
dependance, infomuchthat the truths,firft in order,
tend always to the demonftration of thufe that fol-
low, this conftitutes what we call the fynthetick me-
thod, or ?neihod of compofition. For here we pro-
ceed by gathering together the feveral fcattered
parts of knowledge, and combining them into one
whole or fyftem, in fuch manner, that the under-
ftaiiding is enabled diftinctly to follow truth, thro'
all her different ftages and gradations.

The firft has alfo obtained the name of the method
ef invention ; becaufe itobferves the order in which
our thoughts fucceed one another in the invention
or difcovery of truth. The other is often denomi-
nated the method of doifrine or injiru^ion, in as
much as in laying our thoughts before others, we
generally chufe to proceed in the fynthetic manner,
deducing them from their firft principles. Hence
it is, that we chufe to diftinguifh it by the n.ime
of the method of fcience ; not only as in the ule of it
we arrive at fcience and certainty ; but, becaufe it
is in hSi the method, in which all thofe parts of
human knowledge, that properly bear the name
of fciences, are and ought to be delivered.

Of the method of invention. By the method of
invention we underftand fuch a difpofitioii and ar-
rangement of our thoughts, as follows the natural
procedure of the underftanding, and prefents them

in the order in which they fucceed one another la
the inveftigation and difcovery of truth. When
the mind refts fatisfied in a bare contemplation of
the rules, and the reafons on which they are found-
ed, this kind of knowledge is called fpeculative.
But if we proceed farther, and endeavour to ap-
ply thefe rules to pra£iice, fo as to acquire a habit
of exerting them on all proper occafions, we are
then faid 'to be poffefTed of the art itfelf.

In the exercife of invention, two things are of
principal confideration. /'/r/?, an enlarged and
comprehenfive underftandirig, able to take in the
great multitude of particulars, that frequently come
under our notice. Secondly, a ftrong habit of at-
tention, that lets nothing remarkable flip its view,
and diftinguiflies carefully all thofe circumfl'ances,
which tend to the illuftrating and clearing the fub-
jc6l we are upon. Thefe are the great and prepa-
ratory qualifications, without which it were in
vain to hope, that any confiderable advance could
be made, in enlarging the bounds of human know-
led<re.

Furnifhcd with thefe two preparatory qualificati-
ons, the next requifite to ths difcovery of truth is,
a judicious choice of intermediate ideas. Now altho'
this happy choice of intermediate ideas, fo as to
furnifii a due train of previoixs propofiiions, that
(hall lead us fucceffively fiom one difcovery to ano-
ther, depends in feme meafure upo i a natural fa-
gacity and quicknefs of mind ; it is yet certain
from experience, that even here much may be
efFcfled, by a ftubborn application and induftry.
In order to this it is in the firft place nereflary, that
u'e liave an extenfivc knowledge of thingf, and
Tome general acquaintance with the whole circle
of arts and fciences. And if to this we join in the
fecond place, a more particular and intimate ftudy
of whatever relates to the fubjcft about which our
enquiries are employed, we feem to bid fair for
fuccefs in our attempts.

Much ft:ll depends upon a certain dexterity and
addrefs, in fiiigling out the moft proper, and ap-
plying them fkilfully for the difcovery of tfuth.
This is that talent, which is known by the name
of fagacity, and commonly fuppofed to be altoge-
ther the gift of nature. But yet 1 think it is beyond
difpute, that practice, experience, and a watchful
attention to the procedure of our own minds while
employed in the exercife of reafoning, are even here
of very great avail. It is a truth well known to
thofe who have made any confiderable progrefs in
the ftudy of Algebra, that an addrefs and fkill in
managing intricate queftions, may be very often
obtained, by a careful imitation of the bcft mo-
dels.

Though

L 0 G I C IC

191

Though the capacity of the intelle£l may be
greatly enlarged by ufe and exercife, yet ftill our
viewi are confined within certain bounds, beyond
which a finite underftanding cannot reach. And
as it often happens in the inveftigation of truth,
elpecialiy where it lies at a conliderable diftance
from firft principles, that the number of connections
and relations are fo great, as not to be taken in at
once by the moft improved underftanding ; it is
therefore one great branch of the art of invention,
to take account of thefe relations as they come into
view, and difpofe of them in fuch manner, that
they may always lie open to the infpedlion of the
mind, when difpofed to turn its attention that way.
By carrying our attention fucceflively from one
part to another, we can upon occafion take in the
whole ; and knowing alfo the order and difpofition
of the parts, may have recourfe to any of them at
pleafure, when its aid becomes neceffary in the
courfe of our enquiries.

Fir/i, an orderly combination of things, and claf-
fmg them together with art and addrefs, brings
great and otherwife unmanageable objects, upon a
level with the powers of the mind.

It is of principal confideration in the bufmefs of
invention^ to have our thoughts fo much under
command, that in comparing things together, in
order to difcover the refuit of their mutual con-
nexions and dependence, all the feveral lights that
tend to the clearing the fubjeft we are upon, may
lie diftindtly open to the underftanding, fo as no-
thing material fliall efcape its view : becaufe an
overfight of this kind in fumming up the account,
muft not only greatly retard its advances, but in
many cafes check its progrefs altogether.

Secondh; another advantage anfing from this
orderly difpofition is, that hereby we free the mind
from all unceflary fatigue, and leave it to fix its
attention upon any part feparately, without per-
plexing itfelf with the confideration of the whole.
The mind, proceeding gradually thro' the feve-
ral relations of its ideas, and marking; the refults

this way: aritbmetick I mean, zni algebra. Alge-
bra is univerfally known to be^ the very art and
principle of invention ; anrl in arithmetick too, wc
are frequently put upon the finding out of un-
known numbers, by means of their relations and
connections with others that are known.

The prefent method of notation is fo contrived,
as exactly to fall in with the form of numbering.
I'or, as in the names of numbers, we rife from
units to tens, from tens to hundreds, from hundreds
to thoujimds, l^c. fo likewife in their notation, the
fame figures, in different places, fignify thefe feve-
ral combinations. Thus 2 in the firft place on
the right hand denotes two tmits, in the fecond
place it exprefles fo many tens, in the third hun-
dreds, in the fourth thoufajids. By this means it
happens, that when a number is written down in
figures, as every figure in it exprefies fome diftinft
combination, and all thefe combinations together
make up the total fum ; fo may the feveral figures
be confidered as the conftituent parts of the number.
Thus the number 24.36 is evidently by the very
notation diftinguilhed into four parts, mark'd by
the four figures that ferve to exprefs it. For the
firft denotes two thoufand, the kconAfour hundred,
the third thirty or three tens, and the fourth ftx.
Thefe feveral parts, tho' they here appear in a
conjoined form, may yet be alfo expreffed fepa-
rately thus, 2000, 400, 30 and 6, and the amount
is exactly the fame.

This being the cafe, if it is required to find a
number, equal to the fum of two others given ;
our hufinefs is, to examine feparately thefe given
numbers. Let it be propofed, to find a number,
equal to the fum of thefe two : 2436 and 4352.
As the finding of this by a fingle effort of thought,
would be too violent an exercife for the mind ;
I confider the figures reprefenting thefe numbers,
as the parts of which they confift, and therefore fet
myfelf to difco'.er their fums one after another.
Thus 2 the firft figure on the right hand of the
one, added to 6 the firft fi.o;ure on the right hand

of them at every ftep, can always proportion its j of the other, makes 8, which is therefore the fum

enqun'ies to its ftrengfh ; and confining itfelf to
fuch a number of objects, as it can take in and
manage at eafe, fees more diftinftly all the confe-
quences that arife from comparing them one with
another. When therefore, it comes afterwards to
take a review of thefe its feveral advances, as by
this mean the amount of every ftep of the invefti-
gation is fairly laid open to its infpection, by ad-
jufting and putting thefe together in due order and
method, it is enabled at laft to difcern the refuit
of the whole.

There are two great branches of the malhema-
ticks, peculiarly fitted to furnifti us with models in

of thefe two parts. Again, the fum off and 3^ the
two figures or parts in the fecond place, is likewife
8. But now as figures in the fecond place, de-
note not fimple units, but tens ; hence it is plain,
that 5 and 3 here, fignify five tens and three tens,
or 50 and 30, whofe fum therefore muft be eight
tens, or 80. And here again I call to niind, that
having already obtained one figure of the fum, if
I place that now found immediately after it,
will thereby ftand alfo in the fecond place, and
rea!ly exprefs, as it ought to do, eight tens or {
And thus it is happily contrived, tliat tho' in the
addition of tens, I confider the figures compofing
C c 2 them

It
fo

*n:>e Unirerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences,

192

them as denoting only fimple «h/V), which makes
the operation ealicr and lefs perplexed ; yet by the
place their fum obtains in the number found, it
exprefles the real amount of the parts added, tykcn
in their full and compleat values. The fame
thing happens in fumming the hundreds and
thoiifands ; that is, tho' the figures exprefling
thefe combinations, are added together as fimple
Uyiits ; yet their fums Handing in the third and
fourth places of the number found, thereby really
denote hiindycds and thoufands, and fo reprefcjit
the true value of the parts added.

If now we tarn our thoughts from arithmttick
to algebra, here alfo we (ludl find, that the great
art of invention lies, info regulating and difpofing
our notices of things, that we may be en..bled to
proceed gradually in the fearch of truth. For it
is the principal aim of this fcience, by exhibiting
the feveral relations of things in a kind of fymboli
cal language, i<:> to reprefent them, to the imagi-
nation, as that we may carry our attention from
one to another, in any order we plcafe. Hence,
however, numerous thofe relations are, yet by
taking only fuch a number of them into confidera-
tion at once, as is fuited to the reach and capacity
of the underftanding, we avoid perplexity and
confufion in our researches, and never put our
faculties too much upon the ftretch, fo as to lofe
ourfelves amidft the multiplicity of our own
thoughts. As therefore in aritkmetic, we rife to a
juft conception of the greateft numbers, by con-
fidering them as made up of various progre.live
combinations ; io likewife in algebra, thofe mani-
fold relations that often intervene, between known
and unknown quantities, are clearly reprefented to
the mind, by throwing them into a feries of dilHnifl
equations. And as the mod difficult queftions re-
lating to numbers are managed with eafe, becaufe
we can take the parts or figures feparately, and
proceed with them one after another ; fo alfo the
moft intricate problems of algebra are in like
manner readily unfolded, by examining the feveral
equations apart, and unravelling them according
to certain eftablifh'd rules of operation.

Hence it appears, that the bufinefs of invention
as- pradtifed in algebra, depends entirely upon the
art of abridging our thnughts, reducing the num-
ber of particulars taken under confideration at
once to the feweft poiTible, and eftablifhing that
progreffive method of invefligat'on ; great advan-
tages may redound to fcience, by a happy notation
or expreffion of our thoughts. For, by this means
y,e are enabled to reprefent the relations of things
ui the form of equations, and by varioufly pro-
ceeding with thefe equations, to trace out ftep by
ftep, the feveral particulars we are in queft of.

As tlict amount of every ftep of the inveftigatii)ii
lies fairly before us, by comparing them variouDy
among themfelves, and adjufting them one to
another, wo come at lengtii to difcern the refiilt
of the whole, and are enabled to form our feveral
difcoveries into an uniform and weD-connedsxl
lyfteni of truths, which is the great end and aim
of all our enquiries.

Of the method of fcience. There are three feve-
ral v/a)3 of coming at the knowledge of truth.
PirJI, by contemplating the ideas in our own
minds. When we fct ourfelves to confider the
:deas in our own minds, we varioufly cmpaje
them together, in order to judge of their agree-
ment or difjgrcement. Now as all the truths
deduced in this way flow from certain conneclions
and relation-, difccrned between the ideas them-
felvcs ; and as when the fame ideas are brought
into compnrifoi;, the fame relations muit.ev'er,.aod
invariably fubfilt between them ; hence it is pi^in,
that the knowledge acquired by the contemplation
of our ideas, is of a neceffary and unchangeable
nature. But farther, as thefe relations between
our ideas, are not only fuppofed to be lai in
themfclves, but alio to be feen and difcerned by
the mind; and as v/hen v/e clearly perceive a
connection or repugnance between any two ideas,
we cannot avoid judging them to agree or difagree
accordingly ; it evidently follows, that our know-
ledge of this kind is attended with abfolute cer-
tainty and conviction, i'nfomuch that as it is impofll-
ble for us to withhold our afTsnt, or entertain any
doubt as to the reality of truths fo offered to the
undcfltanding. The relation of equality betv/een
the whole and all its parts. Is apparent to every
one, who has formed to himfelf a diftin£t notion
of what the words whole and -part fland for.

The fecond way of coming at knowledge is bv
means of the fenfes. From them v/e receive ia-
formation of the exiltence of objects without us, of
the union and conjunction of diiFerent qualities in
the fame fubjeiSt, and of the operations of bodias
one upon another. Thus our eyes tsU us, that
there is in the univerfe fuch a body as we call the
fun ; our fight and touch, that light and heat, or
at leaft the power of exciting thole perceptions in
us, co-exift in that body ; and laftly, by the fame
fight we alfo learn, that fire has the power of
dijlblving metals, or of reducing wood to charcoal
and aflies. Whence note, the teliimony ot the
fenfes, tho' fufEcient to convince fober and rea-
fonable men, yet does not fo unavoidably extort
our aflent, as to leave no room for fufpicion or
diftruft.

The third and laft way of coming at truth is,

L 0 G I C K,

193

by the reporf wni tejilmony of others. This regards
chitfly part h&.s and tr<)nfa6^ions, which having
no lon'j;tT any cxifteiice, cannot bj brought within
the pr>.(cnC fphere cif our obfervation, altho' this
in many cafes is a fuffit-ient ground of aiTtnt, fo as
to produce a reaUy behef in the mind, yet it is
liable to objeflions. Our fenfes, on feme occa-
■ fions u'liceive us, and therefore they may poflibly
on others. Hut ibis bare poffibility creates little
or no diftrufl; becaufe ihcrc are fixed rules cf
jiidgin?, when they operate according to nature,
• ar.d when they are perverted or given up 10 ca-
prite. It is otherwife in matters of mere human
teftimony. For there, befides the fupgofition that
the pcrfons themfehes may have been deceived,
there is a finher poflibiiity, that they may h.ive
confpired to impofe upon others by a falfe relation.
It would nevertbelcfs be the height of folly, to
rcjt6t all hiMTian teflimony without diftiniiiion,
becaufe of this bare poflibility. Hence the fadts of
l]irtory, when well attelled, are readily embraced
by the mind ; and tho' the evidence attending
them be not fuch, as produes a nectflary and in-
fallible afTurance, it is yet abundantly fufficient to
juftify our belief,- and leave thofe without excufe,
who upon the bare ground of poflibility, are
for rejedling- entirely the conveyance of tefii-
mony.

Upon the whole then it appears, that ahfolute
certainly^ fuch as is attended with unavoidable \
ajfent, and excludes all poflibility of being deceived, |
is to be found only in the contemplation of our '
own ideas. It is abfolatcly impoflicle for a man \
to perfuade himfelf that th^t is not, which he ■
plainly and neceflarily peiceives to be. And it is
to knowledge attended with this laft kind of evi-
dence alone, that in ftrictnefs and propriety of
fpeech, we attribute the name oi fcience. Science
implies perception and difcernmerit, what we our-
felves fee and cannot avoid feeing, and therefore
has place only in matters of abfolutc certainty,
where the truths advanced are either intuitive
propofifions, or deduced from them in a way of
itriil demonftraiion.

But here I expefl it will be afked, what kind of
knowledge is it that we have relating to bodies,
their powers, properties, and operations one upon
another ? To thislanlV/ei, that we have already
difl:inguifhed it by the name of natural or exferi-
mental. But that we may fee mere diftincily
wherein the difference between jcieniifical and
»fl/Wi?/ knowledge lies, it may not be improper to
add the following obfervations. When ue caft
our eyes towards the fun, we immediately con-
clude, that there exifls an object without us, cor-
Mfponding to the idea in our minds.

Again, when a piece of gold is dlflblved in aqua
regia, we fee indeed and own tiie eff'cift productd,
but cannot be faid in ftridtiicfs and propriety of
fpeech, to have any perception or dilcernment of
It. The reafon is, becaufe being titiacciuaintcd
with the intimate nature both of aqua regia and
gold, we cannot from the ideas of them in our
minds deduce, why the onemufl operate upon the
other in that particular manner, f-ftnceit is, that
our knowledge of the fads and (-perations of na-
ture, extends not with certainty beyond the prefeiit
alliance, or what falls under our immediate notice;
(o that in all our refearches relatinn; to them, we
mull ever proceed in the way of trial and experi-
ment, there being here no general or univtr-
!',il truths, whereon to found jcicntifual deduc-
tions.

Experience is here the true and proper foundation
of our judgments, nor can we by any other means
arrive at a difcovery, of the fcveral powers and
properties of bodie;;. How long might a man
contemplate the nature of hemlock, ex:imine the
ftrutSure of its puits in a microfcope, and torture
and analyfe it by all the proceffes of chymeflry, be-
fore he could pronounce with certainty the etfeft
it will have upon the human body } One finale
experiment lays that open in an inlhnt, which lill
the wit and invention of men would never of them-
felves have been able to trace. The fame holds
in all the other parts of natural philofophy. Our
difcoveries relating to eleitricity, the powers and
properties of the load-ftone, the foice of "un.
powder, ^c. were not gained ry reafoning, or the
confideration of our abftrait ideas, but bv means
of experiments made v/ith the- bodies rhemfelves.
Hence it happened, that while the philolophy of
Arijlotle prevailed in the ichobls, which dealt much
in metaphviical notions, occult qualities,. Empa-
thies, antipathies, and fuch like words withoiit
meaning ; the knowledge of nature w^s at a (land,
becaufe men pretended to argue abftradiy about
things, of which they had no perfed and adequate
idea^, whereon to ground fucli a method of reafon-
ing. But now in the prefetit age, that we have
returned to the way of trial and e.\-periment, which
is indeed the only true foundation of natural phi-
lofophy, great advances have already been made,
and the profpect of iiill greater lies before us.

Thus we may fufficiently underftand, wherein
the proper difference lies, between fcientificai T^nA.
natural knowledge. In matters oi Jacni:e we argue
from the ideas in our own minds, and the connec-
tions and relation;, :hey have one to another. It is
otherwife in the cafe of natural knowledge. In-
tuition and inward perception have here no place.
We difcern the powers and properties of thofe ob-

194 2^^ Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

jedts that furrround us, merely hy experience, and
the impreflions they make on the fenfes.

It will naturally be afked here, how come we
by this affurance ? I anfwer, not fcientifically, and
in the way of ftridt demonjlration, but by analogy,
and an tndu^ion of experiments. We diftinguifti
fire, for inftance, by fuch of its qualities, as lie
more immediately open to the notice of the fenfesj
among which light and heat are the moft confider-
able. Examining ftiU farther into its nature, we
find it likewife poffefled of the power of diflblving
metals. But this new property, not having any
iieceffary conne£l:ion that we can trace, with thofe
other qualities by which fire is diftinguifhed, we
cannot therefore argue with certainty, that where-
ever light and heat, (Jc. are, the power of difTolv-
ing metals co-exifts witii riiem. 'Tis not till after
we have tried the thing in a variety of experiments,
and found it always to hold, that we begin to pre-
fume there may be really fome fuch connexion, tho'
our views are too ftiort and imperfe£t to difcover
it. Hence we are led to frame a general conclufion,
arguing from what has already happened, to what
will happen again in the like cafes ; infomuch that
where we meet with all the other properties of fire,
in any body, we have not lhe!ea(t doubt, but t!iat
upon trial, the power above mentioned will be
found to belong to it alfo. This is called reafonins
by analogy ; and it is, as we fee, founded entirely
Upon indudlion, and experiments made with par-
ticular objedh.

Having afcertained the general properties of
things by analogy, if we proceed next to eftablifh
thefe zs po/iidata in philofophy, we can upon this
foundation build firrifi: and mathematical demonftra-
tions, and thereby introduce fcientifical reafoning
into «(j/;^r(j/ knowledge. In this manner Sir IJaac
Newton, having determined the laws of gravity by
a variety of experiments, and laying it down as a
principle that it operates according to thofe laws
thro' the whole fyftem of nature ; has hence in a
way of flrifl demonftration, deduced the whole
theory in the heavenly motions. For granting once
this/i5/f«/fl/«w, that gravity belongs univerfally to
all bodies, and that it ails according to that foiid
content, decreafing with the diftance in a given
ratio ; what Sir Ijaac has determined in regard to
the planetary motions, follows from the bare con-
fideration of our own ideas ; that is, neceffarily
and fcientifically. Thus likewife in opticks, if we
lay it down as a principle, that light i> propagated
on all fides in right lines, and that the rays of it
are refle£led and rcfradled, according to certain
fixed invariable lawf, all which is known to be true
by experience; we can, upun this foundation,
dlablifh mathematically the theory of vifion. The

fame happens in mechanicks, hydroflaticks, pnm-
t/iatich, &c. where from pojlulata afcertained by
experience, the whole theory relating to thefe
branches of knowledge, follows in a way of ftrift
demonftration.

Ifabfolute and infallible certainty is not to be
obtained in natural knowledge, much lefs can we
exptfdl it in hijhrical. For here teftimony is the
only ground of aflent, and therefore the poflibility
of our being deceived, is ftill greater than in the
cafe of experience. There is however a way of
reafoning even here, that begets an entire acquie-
fcence, and leads us to embrace without wavering,
the faiSts and reports of hiftory. If for initance it
appears, that the hiftorian was a man of veracity;
if lie was a competent judge of what he relates ; if
he had fufficient opportunities of being informed ;
if the book that bears his name was really writ by
him ; if it has been handed down to us uncorrupt-
ed ; in fine, if what he relates is probable in itfelf,
falls in naturally with the other events of that age,
and is attefted by contemporary writers. By thefe
and fuch like arguments, founded partly on criti-
cifm, partly on probable conjeiflure, we judge of
paft tranfadlions ; and though they are not capable
oi' fcient':fical proof, yet in many cafes we arrive at
an undoubted afTurance of them. For as it is ab-
furd to demand mathematical demonftration in
matters of fa£t, becaufe they admit notoi that kind
of evidence ; it is no lefs fo to doubt of their reality,
when they are proved by the beft arguments their
nature and quality will bear.

But here perhaps it will be afked : Where is
the advantage of barely contemplating our ideas,
and tracing their feveral habitudes and relations,
when it is in truth the reality of things that we are
chiefly concerned to know, and thofe refpecis they
bear to us and one another r To this I anfwer :
that if indeed our ideas no way regarded things
themfclves, the knowledge acquired by their means
would be of very little confequence to human life.
But fince, as we have already obferved, whatever
is true in idea, is unavoidably fo alfo in^the reality
of thing', where things exift anfwerable to thefe
ideas ; it is apparent, that bv copying our ideas
with care from the real objects of nature, and
framing them in a conformity to ihofe conjundlures
and circumftances in which we are moft likely to
be concerned, a way is laid open to difcoveries of
the greateft importance to mankind. For in this
cafe, our feveral reafontngs and conclufions, hold-
ing no lefs of the objects tiiemfelves, than of the
id-as by which they are reprefented, may be there-
fore applied with certainty to thefe oi^jecls, as often
as they fall under our notice. It is not therefore
enough that we fet about the confideration of any
2 ideas

M A G I C K,

ideas at random ; we muft farther take care that
thofe ideas truly regard things thenifelves.

It now remains that we lay down the rules of
method peculiar to this branch of knowledge, and
give feme account of the manner, in which that
certainty and conviction which are infeparable from
it, may be moft naturally and efFe<5lually produced.
Science, as we have faid, regards wholly the ab-
flraft ideas of the mind, and the relations they
have one to another. The great fecret therefore of
attaining it lies, in fo managing and conducting
our thoughts, as that thefe feveral relations may be
laid open to the view of the underftanding, and
become the neceffary and unavoidable objeiSts of
our perception. In order to this we muft make it
our firft care, diftin£tly to frame and fettle the
ideas, about which our enquiries are to be em-
ployed. For though the multitude of parts, in many
cafes, be great, I may fay beyond belief ; yet as
they have been all previoully formed into feparate
clail'es, and the clafles themfclves diftinflly fettled
in the underftanding ; we find it eafy by fuch a
feries of fteps, to rife to any idea how complex
foever, and with a finale glance of thought embrace
it in its full extent.

But it is not enough that we barely form ideas
in our own minds : we muft alfo contrive a way to
render them flabJe and permanent, that when they
difappear upon calling off our attention, we may
inow how to retrieve them again with certainty.
This is beft done by words and defcriptions, which

ferve not only to fubjeft them to our own review*
but alfo to lay them open to the perception o*
others.

Thus we fee, that tha method of fcience begins
with unfolding our ideas, and communicaling them
by means of definitions. And here it is of great
importance to obferve, that there muft be in all
languages, certain original and elementary n?.mes,
whence our defcriptions take their firft rife, and
beyond which we cannot trace the meaning and
fignification of founds.

When, therefore, in the method of fciencs, we
have finifhcd the bufinefs of definitions ; it muft be
our next care, diftinitly to unfold in propofitions,
thofe immediate and mimiivc relations, which are
necefTarily ken and owned by the mind, upon the
very firft comparing of our ideas one with another.
Thefe propofitions have obtained the name ol firjl
principhs, becaufe occuring firji in the order of
knowledge, and being manifeftof themfelves, they
fuppofe not any prior truths in the mind, whence
they may be evidenced and explained. The na-
ture of thde propofitions is explained in the fecond
part, the notion of felf-evidence is unfolded, and
^he manner of diftinguiftiing between the truths of
this clafs, and thofe that are demonftrable is there
taught alfo. Thus we are gradually led from
fimple ideas, through all the windings and laby-
rinths of truth, until we at length resch the high-
eft and moft exalted difcoveries of human rea-
fon.

M A G I C K.

MAGIC, taken in its antient fenfe,. is the
fcience or difcipline and do£lrine of the
magi, or wife-men of Perfta.—~ AnA
taken in a more modern fenfr, is a fcience., which
teaches to perform wonderful and furprizing cf-
itSts.

Jgrlppa divides magic into three kinds, natural,
telejlial, and ceremonial ox fupcrfiitious.

Natural magick is no more than the application
of natural adtive caufes to paffive caufes, or fub-
je£ls, by means whereof many furprizing, but yet
natural effefts are produced; as producing rofes,
figs, fjV. in March, caufii:g thunder, lightning,
rains, winds, i^c.

Baptijla Porta ha.s a treatife of natural magic,
or of fecrets for performing very extraordinary
things by natural caufes. '

The natural magick of the Chaldeans was nothing
bat the knowledge of the powers of fimples ar,d
minerals. The magick^ which they called theu'rgia

confifted wholly in the knowledge of the ceremo-
nies, to be obferved in the worfhip of the gods, in
order to he acceptable. By virtue of thofe cere-
monies they believed they could converfe witli
fpiritual beings, and cure dil'eafes.

Celejlial magick borders nearly on judicia.''y
aftrology ; it attributes to fpirits a kind of rule or
dominion over the planets, and to the planets a
dominion over men ; and on thofe principles
build a ridiculous kind of fyftem.

Superjlitious or goetick magick confifts in the in-
vocation of the devil ; its eftefls are ufuaiiy evil
and wicked, though very ftrange, and feemingly
furpaffing the power of nature, fiippofed to be
produced by virtue of fome compact, either tacit
or exprefs, with evil fpirits : but the truth is, thefe
have not all the poAver that is ufua'.ly ' imagined,
nor do they produce half thofe effeiSs ordinarily
afcribed to them. Paracelfus tells us, that pro-
nouncing tbe words ofy ojya, will make ferpents.

ftop>

196 The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts /3!7/fl^ Sciences.

flop their motion, and lie flill as if they were
dead.

Naude publifheJ an apology for all the great
men fufpcifted of magick. — /fgtippa fays, that t!ie
words ufcd by thofe in compadt with the devil,
to invoke him, and to fucceed in what they u ,-

lertake, are o'ies, rnies, jefquct, bencdafet^ docevima,
e'litemaus. There are an hundred other formulas
of words, compofed at pleafiire, or gathered from
di/Ferent languages, or patched in imitation of it.

1 he orij^in of ?>iagick, according to our firft de-
finition, is afcribed to TioroajUr : Salmafius de-
rives the very name from Zomajler. who, he fays,
was furnanicd A'ltJg, whence Magus. — Others,
make him only the reftorer and improver of the
Perftan philofophy ; alledging that many of the
Perfian rites, in ufe among the Magi, were bor-
rowed from the 'Jnbli among the Chaldeans, who
agreed in many things with the Ma^i of the Per-
fians ; whence fonie make the name magus com-
mon both among the Chaldeans and Perfians.
Thus Plttarch mention?, that Zoroojier inftituted
magi among the Chaldeans, in imitation whereof
ill.- Pi'r/;««j" liad theirs too.

The phili funiiy principally cultivated among
them was theology and politicks ; tliey being al-
way^ efteemed as the interpreters of all laws both
divine and human, on. which account they were
wonderfully revered by the people. Flence Cicero
obfervcs, that none were admitted to the crown
of Perfw, but fuch as were well inftruiled in the
difciphiicof the Magi, who taught to. |3aeriXixa and
fhewed princes how to govern.

Plato, Jpuleius, Laertius, and others agree, that
the philofophy of the Magi related principally to
the worfliip of the Gods : they were the perfons,
who were to offer prayers, fupplications, and
facrifices, as if the Gods would be heard by them
alone.

According to Lucian, Suldas, &c. the theology,
or worfliip of the Gods, about which the Magi
were employed, was little more than (he diabolical
art of divination. So that ftaftta. ftridlly taken,
fio-nifies divination.

Philo-Judaus defcribes the Magi to be diligent
enquirers into nature, out of the love they bear to
truth ; and who fetting themfelves a-part for thofe
things, contemplate the divine virtues the more
clearly, and initiate others in the fame myfteries.

Their defcsndants, the modern Magi, or fire-
wordiippers, are divided into three claffes ; where-
of the fiifl and moft learned, neither eat nor kill
animals, but adhere to the old inflitution of ab-
ftaining from living creatures. — The Magi of the
fecond clafs, refrain only from tame animals; nor
^o the laft kill all indifferently ; it being the firm

and diftinguifhing dogma of them all, that there is
a tranfmigration of joul. To imitate the fimilitudc
between animals and men, they call the latter by
the name of the former ; thus their fellovz-priefls
they called" lion"! ; the priellcflcs, lioneffes ; the
fervanrs, crows, l£c.

Magic, according to our other defini:ion, i<. only
ufcd to fignify an unlawful and diabolical kind of
fcience, particularly iW fuperf.itious and goetic //m-
^/V^ depending on the afliftance of the devil ar,d
departed fouls.

Under thif we include oracles. Oracle, was
an anfwer ufually couched in very daik and ambi-
guous terms, fuppofed to be given by Daemons,
either by the mouths of their idols, or by thofe of
their pricfts to the people, who confulied them on
things to come.

M. Bayle fays pofitively, they were meer human
artifices, whith the devil had no hand in. He is
llrongly backed by Fan Dale and M. Fontcnellc,
who have wrote exprefly on the fubject.

F. Ba'.fnus, a learned Jefuit, labours to prove
that there were real oracles, and fuch as can never
be attributed to any artifices of the priefts or
prieftefles ; feveral of thefe became filent in the firft
ages of the church, either by the coming oijefus
Chri/l, or by the prayers of the faints.

It was Euf'bius, who firft endeavour'd to per-
fuade the Chrillians, that the coming of Jefus
Chrijl had ftruck the oracles dumb; though it
appears from the laws of Theodcfius, Gratian, and
Falentinian, that the oracles were ftill confulted as
low as the year 385. Cicero fays, the oracles be-
came dumb i.T proportion as people growing lefs
credulous, began to fufpedt them for cheats.

Moft of the fathers of the church took it to be
the devil that gave oracles ; and looked on it as a
pleafure he took to give dubious and equivocal
anfwers ; in order to have a handle to laugh at
them. VcJJius allows, that it was the devil who
fpoke in oracles, but thinks that the obfcurity of
his anfwer was owing to his ignorance, as to the
preclfc circumftances of the events. That artful
and ftudied oblcurity, wherein the anfwers were
couched, fhewed the em barrafs the devil was un-
der ; as thofe double meanings they ufuallv bore
provided for their accomplifhment.

For my part I am ot M. Fontenelle'% opinion,
that the oracles were nothing hut meer cheats,
frauds, and impoftures of the Pagan c]erg[_y, to im-
pofe on the too great credulity of mankind, gain a
Certain refpeft and veneration from them, pickth'-ir
pockets, and render themfelves abfolutely ncceffa-
ry. For, to believe that it was the devil, who
ufed to fpcak in the idol , is to arraign the veracity
of the true God, who fays pofitively, that he tvltls

that

MATHEMATICKS.

that all niin ftjouldbe faved. If it be objected to
this, that God fuffered only the devil to fpeak in
the id )ls, and that he is not obliged to undeceive
us, if we will deceive ourfelves ; I'll anfwer, that
the devil fpeaking in the idols, and giving oracles,
could not be a luigie tolerance ; fince the devil
being a pure fpiritual intelligence, the nature
thereof is only to form iJias, without being capa-
ble to invert them with words, fince they have no
Ofgans to articulate them ; GoJ muft have operated
a miracle every time an oracle was pronounced,
and therefore pofiiively contributed towards de-
ceiving mankind, and thereby rendered their re-
probation of an ahfolute, or indifpenfible necefli:y,
which none can fuppofe without impiety.

Oracle, is alfo ufed for the Daemon who gave
the anfwer, and the place where it was given.

The principal oracles of antiquity, were that of
Aba, mentioned by Herodotus ; of Amphlareus ;

of the Branchida at Didtmus ; of the Camps at
Lacedamon ; of Dodona ; of 'Jupiter Ammon ; of
Nabarca, in the country of Andriaca, near the
Cafpian Sea ; of Trophonius, mentioned by Hero-
dotus ; of Chryfopolis ; of Claras \n Ionia i of Mai -
loi ; of Patarea ; of Pela in Macedonia ; of Pha-
fe'iides ill Cilicia j of 8inope in Paphlagonia ; of
Orpheus's Head, mentioned by Philojlraius in his
life of ApoUoniuSi &c.

But rS ail others, the oracle of Apollo Pythius
at Delphos, was the mofl celebrated , this was
confulted in she dernier refort, by moft of the
princes of thofe;iges.

The Pythia, which was to be a pure virgin, was
always in a rage when fhe gave oracles ; at firft
(he gave them in verfe, and fell at length to profe,
upon the people's beginning to laugh at the poor-
nefs of her verification.

MATHEMATICKS.

MATHEMATICKS (from ^ta9w^, which
fignifies difcipline or fcience) is the fcience
of quantity, or a fcience that confiders
magnitudes, either as computable or meafurable.

Mathematicks are divided with regard to their
end, into fpeculative and praiiical.

Speculative mathematicks are thofe, which reft in
the bare contemplation of the properties of things.

PraSiical mathematicks are thofe, which apply
the knowledge of thofe properties to fome ufes in
life.

With regard to their obje£>, mathematicks are
divided into pure ox ahJiraSf, and mix'd.

Pure mathematicks confider quantities abflra£l-
edly ; vviihout any relation to matter or bodies.

Mix'd'nathematicks confider quantity as fubfift-
ing in material beings, e.gr. length in a road,
breadth in a river, height in a flar, i3c.

Pure mathematicks again, either confider quan-
tity as difcrete. and fo computable, as arithinetick;
or as concrete, or continued, and fo meafurable,
as geometry, and trigonometry.

A'dix'd mathematicks are very extenfive, and are
diftinguifhed by various names, as the fubjefls they
coniider, and the views, wherein they take them,
vary ; it being fufficient to determine an art to be
a branch of mix'd mathematicks, that pure mathe-
maticks are applicable thereto, /. e. that it may be
explained 'and demonftrated from the principles of
arithmetick and geometry. Such are

Mtchanicks, which confider motion, or the law
of moving bodies. — Hydrcjlaticks, which confider
Vol. II. 36.

the laws of fluids, or of badies gravitating in fluids.
— Pneumaticks, the air, with regard to the laws of
menfuration thereof. — Hydraulicks, the motion of
fluids. — Opiicks direfl; light or vifion. — Catoptricksy
reflected vifion. — Dioptricks^rtfrdiQizA vifion. — Per-
fpeSiive, the images of objedts, in order to delineate
or reprefent them. — AJlronomy, the univerfe and
the phaenomena of the heavens. — Geography, the
earth, both as in itfelf, and in its affedtions. —
Hydography, the fea, principally as navigable. —
Chronology, time, with regard to the meafuring and
diftinguifhing thereof.- — Gno?nonicks, or Dialling,
fhadows, in order for determining the hour of the
day. — Pyrotechny, artificial fires, with regard both
to diverfion, and to the ufes of war. — Military
Architecture, the ftrength of places, with regard to
their defence againft an enemy. — Civil Architc^ure
(nov/ 'become abrancji of Mathematicks) buildings.
— Mufick, founds, and their efFedfs on the ear.
All "which are treated of under, their particular
heads.

For the origin of the Mathematicks, Jofephus
dates It before! the flood, and makes the fons of
Seth obfervers of the courfe and order of the hea-
venly bodies.

The firft who cultivated mathematicks after the
Hood, were the AJfyrians and Chaldeans ; from
whom the fame Jofephus adds, they were carried
by Abraham to the Egyptians ; who proved fuch
notable proficients, that Arijlotle makes no ibruple
to fix the firft rife of mathematicks among them.
From Egypt, 584 years before Chrift, they pafled
D d into

1 98 Tl^e Univerfal Hlftory of Arts <3:??<a^ Sciences.

into Greece through the hands of Thaks, who
having learnt Geometry of the Egyptian priefts,
taught it in his own country. After Thales comes
Pythagoras., who among other mathematical arts,
paid a peculiar regard to Arithmetick, fetching the
greateft part of his philofophy from numbers : he
was the firft, as Laertius tells us, who abft:ra£led
geometry from matter, and to him we owe the
dodlrine of incomnienfurable magnitude, and the
five regular bodies, befides the firft: principles of
mufick and aftronomy. Pythagoras was fucceeded
by Jnaxagoras, ^nopldes., Brifo, Antipho, and
Hippocrates of Scio ; who all applied themfelves
particularly to the quadrature of the circle, the
duplicature of the cube, feV. but the iaft with
moft fuccefs : this Iaft is alfo mentioned by PrO'
clus, as the firft who compiled elements of mathe-
maticks.

Democritus excelled in mathematicks as well as
phyficks, though none of his works in either kind
are extant. The next in order is Plato, who not
only improved geometry, but introduced it into
phyjicks, and fo laid the foundation of a folid philo-
fophy. Out of his fchool proceeded a crowd of
mathemat'iciaus ; Procliis mentions thirteen of note;
among whom was Leodamus, who improved the
analyfis firft invented by Plato ; Theatetus, who
wrote elements ; and Archytas, who has the credit
of being the firft who applied mathematicks to ufe
in life. Thefe were fucceeded by Neocles and
Tlieon, the Iaft of whom contributed to the ele-
ments. Eudoxus excelled in Arithmetick and Geo-
metry, and was the firft founder of a fyftem of
Aftronomy. Menechmus invented the conick fec-
tions ; and Thcudrus and Hermitomus improved the
elements.

As for Arijlotle, his woiks are fo ftored with
mathematicks, that Blancanus compiled a whole
book of them : out of his fchool came Eudemus
and Theophrajlus; the firft of whom wrote of num-
bers, geometry, and invifible lines ;. the latter a

mathematical hiftory. To Arijleiu^ I/idcius^ and
Hypfidcs, we owe the books of foliJs, which, with
the other books of elements, were improved, col-
leftcd, and methodized by Euclid, who died 284^
years before Chrift.

An liundred years after Euclid, came Eratoflhe-
nes and Archimede. Contemporary with the latter
was Conon, a geometrician and aflronomer. Soon
after came Apollonius Pergaus ; v/hofe conicks are
ftill extant. To him are likewife aferibed the
fourteenth and fifteenth books of Euclid^ which
are faid to have been contra£led by Hypjicles. Hip-
parchus and Alenelaus, wrote on the fubtences in
a circle ; the latter alfo on fpherical triangles : Theo-
dofms's, three books of fphericks are ftill extant ;
and all thefe, Alenelaus excepted, lived before
Chrift.

In the year 70, of Chrift, Ptolemy o^ Alexandria
was born, the prince of aftronomers, and no mean
geometrician ; he was fucceeded by the philofophcr
Plutarch, of whom we have ftill extant fome ma-
thematical problems. After him came Eutociusy
who commented on Archimedes ; and occafionally
mentions the inventions of Philo, Diodes, Nico-
medes, Sporus, and Heron, on the duplicature of
the cube. To Ctefebes of Alexandria we owe our
pumps ; and Geminus, who came foon after, is
preferred by Proclus to Euclid himfelf.

Diophantus of Alexandria was a great mafter of
numbers, and the firft mventot oi Algebra ; among
others of the antients, Nichomacus is celebrated for
his arithmetical, geometrical, and mufical works ;
Serenus for his book on the fedlion of the cylinder;
Proclus for his comments on Euclid; and Theon
has the credit among fome of being author of the
books of elements afcribed to Euclid. The Iaft to
be named among the antients, is Pappus of Alex-
andria, who flouriftied in the year of Chrift 400,
and is celebrated for his books of mathematical
colledHons ftill extant.

MECHANICKS.

ME C HANIC K S are confidered under the
mixed mathematical fcience, which confiders
motion or moving powers, their nature
and laws, with the effeds tliereof, in machines, l^c.
That part of mechanicks, which confiders the
motion of bodies arifing from gravity, is by fome
called y?fl//t/fj ; in diftinflion from that part, which
confiders the mechanical powers, and the applica-
tion properly called mechanicks. So that on this

footing Jlaticks fliould be the doftrine or theory of
motion ; and mechanicks the application thereof.
But as the whole doftrine of rnechanifm depends
entirely on a fole point, which is to find the cen-
ter of gravity of bodies : I'll begin this treatife by
examining what is gravity, with iefpe£t to mecha-
nicks ; how gravity is divided ; the center of gra-
vity, i:fs.

DEFI-

MECHANICKS.

DEFINITIONS.

Gravity, in mcchanids, denotes the tendency of
bodies towards the center of the earth : and it is
dirtinguiflicd into ahjolute and relative.

Abfolute gravity is that, whereby a body defcends
freely through an unrefifling medium ; as a ftone
in the air, which in its defcent only touches the
ajtherial particles.

Relative gravity is that, wherewith a body defcends,
after it has fpent part of its weight in overcoming
feme refiflance. Such is that, wherewith a body
defcends along an inclined plane, where fome part
is employed in overcoming the refiftance or friition
of the plane.

The center of magnitude of a body is a point
as equally diftant, as poflible, from the two ex-
treams.

The center of motion of a body is the fixed point,
round which one or more heavy bodies, that have
one common center of gravity, revolve.

The center of gravity is a point within a body,
through which, if a plane, pafs the fegments on
each fide will be equal and equiponderate, i, e.
neither of them can move the other.

Whatever moves, or fufpends a body, is called
a moving power or faculty.

The quantity of power is determined from the
quantity of gravity of the power fufpended or moved,
V. g, if the body A be carried downward, accord-
ing to the line B C, Fig. i. by a power of lo
pounds weight, the power, which flops its defcent,
whether it only fufpends it, or forces or draws it
from C towards B, will be called a power of lo
pounds.

Whatever can accelerate, or flop the motion of
a body, is called machine.

There are two forts oi^ machines, fome fmple and
others compound.

Simple machines are thofe otherwife called mecha-
nical powers.

There are fixfimple /nachines, to which all otheis
may be reduced, viz. the ballance, lever, wheel,
fully, wedge, znd fcrew ; to which may be added
the inclin'd plane, fince it is certain that the mofl:
heavy bodies are lifted up by its means, which other-
wife could not be moved.

Compound machine is that which is compofed of
feveral fimple ones combined together.

The application of the weight or power to the
lever, is the angle of the line of dirediion of that
power or weight with the lever.

The dijlance of power or weight is the fpace from
the point of the machine, to which the power or
weight is applied, to the center of the motion.

The ballance or balance, is ufed principally for
determining the quality or difference of weights in

199

heavy bodies, and confequently their mafles or
quantities of matter.

The ballance is of two kinds,

1. The antient or Roman, called 2\(o Jiatera
Romano, confifts of a lever, a. Fig. 2. or a beam,
moveable on a center b, and fufpended near one of
its extremes c ; on one fide the center d, are ap-
plied the bodies to be weighed, and their weight
is meafured by the divifion marked on the beam ;
on the other fide is the place where a weight
moveable e, along it keeps the ballance in equili-
brium.

2. The modern ballance. Fig. 3. now ordinarily
in ufe, confifts of a lever or beam a, fufpended
exaftly by the middle b, to the extreams whereof
are hung fcales or bafons, c c.

In each cafe the beam is called the jugum, and
the two moieties thereof on each fide the axis, the
arms : and the handle whereby it is held trutina.
The line on which the beam turns, or which di-
vides its arms is called the axis d, and when confi-
dered to the length of the arms, is efleemed but a
point, and called the center of the ballance ; and
the places where the weights are applied, the points
of fufpenfion or application. That (lender part per-
pendicular to the jugum, whereby either the equi-
librium, or preponderancy of bodies is indicated,
is called the tongue of the ballance, e.

In the Roman ballance, therefore, the weight
ufed for a counter-ballance is the fame, but the
points of application various. In the common
ballance, the counterpoife is various, and the point
of application the fame.

The principle on which each is founded is the
fame, and may be conceived from what follows.

The beam, a a. Fig. 3. which is the principal
part of the ballance, is a lever of the firft kind, which
(inflead ofrefting on z fulcrum ^t d, its center of
motion) is fufpended by fomewhat faften'd to d, its
center of motion.

Hence as the known weight is to the unknown,
fo is the diflance of the unknown weight from
the center of motion, to the diflance of the known
weight, where the two weights will counter-poife
to each other ; confequently the kngwn weight
fhews the quality of the unknown.

To the jujinefs of a ballance it is required, that
the points of fufpenfion be exafily in the fame line
as the center of the ballance; that they be precifely
equidiflant from that point on either fide ; that the
brachia or arms be as long as conveniently they
may, that there be as little friction as poffible in
the motion of the beam and fcales , and laftly, that
the center of gravity of the beam be placed a little
below the center of the motion.

Dd 2 A

200 The Univeifal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

A Lever is an inflexible right line, fupportedj fome other thing like it, be placed in B, the more

in a fingle point, on a fulcrum or prop, and ufed
for the raifing of weights ; being either void of
weight itfelf, or at leaft having fuch a weight as
may be cominodioufly counter balanced.

In a lever there are three things confidered ; the
weight to be raifid or fuflained, the power, by which
it is raifed or fujiained, and the fulcrum or prop,
whereon the lever is fuftained, or rather on which
it moves round, the fulcrum remaining fix'd.

Levers are of three kinds ; fometimes the ful-
crum b is placed betv/een the weight a and the
power c. Fig. 5. this we call a lever of the firjl
kind. Sometimes the weight c is between the. ful-
crum h, and the power a ; which is called a lever
cf the jrcond kind, as in Fig. 6. And fometimes the
power a£ts between the weight and the fulcrum ^,
Fig. 7. which is the lever of the third kind.

In the firft kind of levers, Fig. 5. fo much as
the diftance a b furpafTes the diftance c b, as much
the power a furpafles the weight c. Therefore if
the fpace a b, which is between the power a, and
the point flx'd h is ten times longer than the fpace
c b, which is between the fulcrum b and the weight
f, and that weight c be confidered as a hundred,
pounds weight, provided the power a be equivalent
to ten pounds and a little more, it will furpafs the
weight c and raife it, provided that when the
power a fhall defcend by ten ounces or inches, and
a little more, the point e be rifen of an ounce or an
inch breadth only, becaufe whatever increafe the
power acquires, proceeds either from the greater
fpace or velocity, or from the length of time.

The fame muft be faid of the fecond kind of le-
ver, becaufe as the more the diftance a h. Fig. 6.
furpafles the diftance c b, the more efficacioully and
ealily the power a furpafles the weight c.

7 he third kind oi levers do not render the pow-
er «, Fig. 7. more eflicacious ; but rather increafe
and adds ftrength to it, becaufe the
power a from the point fix'd b, is
lefler than the diftance of the weight c, from the
fame point fix'd b ; but in that cafe the power muft
run through lefs fpace than the weight.

It appears by the fole in!pe£lion that the Roman
Jlatera is a hver of the firft kind ; for in the for-
cepSy abed. Fig. 3. there are two levers of the firft
kind, which have but one hypomachlion, vi%. in
the point a, round which each arm of the forceps
is turned; and the lefler is the diftance iZi/, than
either ab or a c, the better the power applied in
l and f, counter-balance the body placed in d.

A knife placed by one of its fides in the point a.
Fig. 6. fo that it may incline towards that point,
fhews the fecond kind of lever; in which, if the
power be applied in c, and a piece of bread, or

the weight c,
diftance of the

the power will be diftant from the point fixt a,
the ftronger the power will adt.

Thus when we ufe a lever of the firft kind, the
power can be greater or lefler than the weight, ac-
cording as the diftance of the weight is greater or
lefler than that of the power.

When we ufe a lever of the fecond kind, the
diftance of the weight is neceffarily lefler than the
diftance of tiie power, as ths power is neceflarily
lefler than the weight.

On the contrary, when we make ufe o{a lever
of the third kind, the diftance of the weight is ne-
ceflarily greater than the difiance of the powers,
as the power is neceflarily greater than the weight.
Axis in peritocbio, is a machine or mechanical-
inftrument proper, in which the cvlinder h i. Fig.
9. called the axis, is fuftained at both ends by the
fulcrum? > /, with the circle in c, called the peri-
tochium, in the circumference whereof are made
holes, to which are fitted the fpokes, or radii, a m
c, b rn d, to which the force being applied, it
winds up a rope round the axis, whereby the
weight, isfc. is to be raifed.

1 he axfs in peritochio, takes place in the motion
of every machine, where a circle may be conceived:
defcribed about a fixed axis, concentrick to the
plane ot a cylinder, about which it is placed, as
in crane-wheels, mill-wheels, capftons, t^c.

Nothing more eafy than to fliew that the axis in.
peritochio, as we reprefent it hcre^ is to be referred
to the lever of the firft kind. For the point fixt is
in the middle of the circle and axis, viz.. in the
point a f. For when the cylinder is turned round,
innumerable fixt points can be conceived in it
from the extreme h to /', or rather in lieu of
points fixt, is to be conceived a middle fixt and
immoveable line from h into /', round which the
cylinder is turned. The power is in a or in b, is'c.
and recedes from the point fixt, or the middle
immobile line, not only the whole femi-diamster
of the axis and the circle, but befides of the whole
length of the fpoke a m or b m, &c. the weight
placed in the point of the fuperficy, e, and is re--
moved of the fcle femi-diameter ef from the
point fix'd y. ■ Wiience the more the diftance a m
iurpaflfis the diftance e f, the eafier the power ap-
plied in a furpafles the weight, which is under-
lirood to be placed in e ; and the greater the ra-
dius, the more increafe will the power acquire.

But if a periphery be put round the extremes
a b c to make an entire wheel, which feveral men
could turn round, it would be nothing more but
continued. The fame muft be faid of thofe large
wheels, which men, fliut up in them, turn round
with their feet, to draw up by means of a cable,

imnrenfe

MECHANICKS.

quar-

immenfc weights, v'fX., either ftones from
ries, or beams at the top of houfes, iSc.

The pulley. Fig. lo. h a. machine confifling
of a little wheel or rundle, having a channel
round it, and turning on an axis, ferving by
means of a rope which Aides in its channel, for
the raifing of weights.

If the pulley he fimple, /. e. if it has but one
wheel or rundle (for fome of them have feveral
rundles) which rundle turns round an immobile
axis, fuch a pulley does not increafe the power ;
for the motion of the weight e is equal to that of
the power a, and the afcent of <: equal to the de-
fcent of a. Whence all the advantage arifmg
from fuch a machine, confifts only in that the rope
does not wear oft", and that it turns eafier round
the orb b d.

Hence a fingle pulley., if thb lines of direflion of
the power and the weight be tangents to the peri-
phery neither aflifts nor impedes the power, but
only changes its dire£tion.

The ufe of the pulley therefore is, when the
vertical diredlion of a power is to be changed into
an horizontal one, or an afcending direction into
a defcending one, and on the contrary.

But the great ufe of the pulley is, where feveral
of them are combined ; thus forming what Vitru-
vius and others after him called Polyfpajla ; the
advantages whereof are, that the machine takes up
but little room, is eafily removed, and raifes a very
great weight.

As in my loth figure, where there are two
rundles, whofe axis is immobile, viz. a, and the
other whofe axis is mobile^ viz,, b, of which a
weight, V. gr. of a hundred pounds, depends ;
therefore if the rope be tied at one end to the nail
<-, and the other end be pulled by the power, I fay,
that the force of fifty pounds in the powery", is
equivalent to the weight d of a hundred pounds ;
or the force of the hand y is double that it fhould
have without the affiitance of the mobile rundle ;
for when the ratio of the velocity or fpace, and of
the weight or buJ!: is reciprocal between the povv'er
and the weight, they are in sequilibrio. For if the
weight be of a hundred pounds, and the power f
of fifty only, i. e. if the weight be double the
power, the power will move with double the cele-
rity of the weight, becaufe while the weight d is
lifted up through that inten'al which is between
b and a, the power/will bring up two fegments
of the rope, vi-z.. h g and i /, which together are
equal to double the fpace h a ; and therefore will
be moved twice fafter : therefore its force will be
double, and if it be heavier than fifty pounds, it
will lift up the rundle b with the weight d.

If there be two mobile rundles, c and ^, Fig. 1 1 .

201

a rope be tied to the immobile axis of the rundle
b, which may be carried round as well by the two
mobile rundles c and d, as by :he immobile a and
b, and drawn by the power o e ; \ fay, that the
force of the power o is quadruplicate. For to
raife up the weight e from the point c to the point
b, the power o muft pull four fegments of the rope,
viz. fg, h i, k /, and m «, equal to the altitude
c b ; therefore the power muft move four times
fafter than the weight.

But we muft obferve, that the immobile run-
dles neither increafe nor diminifh the force of the
power, but all increafe of that kind proceeds from
the moveable rundles, in the combined pulleys ;
and that force increafes in proportion as the velo-
city of the power exceeds the velocity of the weight.

The Wheel, is a fimple machine confiftingof
a round piece of v/ood, metal or other matter,
which revolves on an axis.

The wheel is one of the principal powers of
mechanicks. It has places in moft encines ; in
eftedt, it is of an affemblage of wheels, moft of our
chiaf engines are compofed ; as clocks, mills, ISc.

Its form is various according to the motion it
is to have, and the ufe it is to anfwer. By this it
is diftinguiflied into fimple and elented.

Simple wheels are thofe, whofe circumference
and axis is uniform, and which are ufed finglv,
and not combined. Such are the wheels of car-
riages, which are to have a double motion ; the
one circular about their axi";, the other redilinear;
by which they advance along the road, is'c. which
two motions they appear to have, though in eff"e<9:
they have but one, it being impoflible the fame
thing fliould move, or be agitated two different
ways at the fame time.

This .one is a fpiral motion, as is eafily feen by
fixing a piece of chalk on the face of the wheel, ib
that it may draw a line on a wall, as the wheel
moves. The line it here traces is a juft fpiral,
and ftill the more curve as the chalk is fixed nearer
the axis. A very nice phasnomenon of the motion
of this ivheel is feen in Rota Jrijhtelica, which is
the name of a celebrated problem in mechanicks ;
thus called, becaufe firft, that we know of, taken
notice by Arijlotle.

The folution is to this elFeft. The wheel of a
coach is only aded on, or diawn in a right line,
inafmuch as it defeats that diieSion; ofconfe-
quence the caufes of the two motions, the one
right, the other circular, are equal, and therefore
their eftedts, /. e. the motions are equal. And
hence, the wheel defcribes a right line on the
ground equal to its circumference.

For.

£0? 'I'hz Univerfal Hiftory

For the nave of the wheels the cafe is otherwife.
It is drawn in a right line by the fame force as the
■wheel, but it only turns round, becaufe the wheel
turns, and can only turn with it, and at the fame
time therewith. Hence it follows, that its circu-
lar velocity is lefs than its redlilinear one.

Since then it neceflarily defcribes a right line
equal to that of the -wheel, it can only do it by
Aiding, or what they call the motion of the rafton.
'Ihat is, a part of the circular nave cannot be
applied to a part of a right line greater than itfclf,
but by Aiding along that part ; and that more or
lefs, as the part of the nave is lefs than that of the
circle.

We fliall add, that in fimple wheels the height
fhould always be proportioned to the ftature of the
animal that draws or moves them. The rule is,
that the load, and the axis of the wheel be of the
fame height with the power that moves themj
otherwife the axis being higher than the leaft,
part of the load will lie on him, or if it be lower
he pulls to difadvantage, and muft exert a greater
force.

The power of thefe wheels refults from the dif-
ference of the radii or fpok.es of the axis and cir-
cumference. The canon is this : as the radius
of the axis is to that of the circumference, fo is
any power to the weight it can fuftain hereby.

This is alfo the rule in the axis in the perito-
chio, and in efFeft, the wheel and the axis in peri-

of Arts and Sciences.

b, very well adapted to the former and joined to
them ; it will happen hence, that while the fmall
wheel e turns ten times round, the great v/heel d
will turn but once. Likewife if the fame ratio be
put between the fmall vjheel c, joined to the
wheel d, and between the zci^<?^/y" implicated to it,
then while the fmall wheel e, together with the wheel
dtmn ten times round, the wheel f will be con-
ceived to turn only once round : therefore the firft
wheel b will turn round ten times fwifter than d,
and the luheeldt^n times fwifter than _/"; or which
is the fame, the wheel b will turn round a hundred
times fwifter thany.

If a power moves a weight by means of divers
wheels, the fpace pafled over by the weight is to
the fpace of the power as the power to the weight.
Hence the greater the pftwer, the fafter is the weight
moved, and vice verfd.

Inclined Plane (which I place here, becaufe it
has a near relation to the other three powers already
explained^ is a plane which makes an oblique an-
gle with an horizontal plane : which inclined plane
is to be feen in our plate of HydrauUcks.

We make ufe of an inclined plane to raife up, or
let fall heavy bodies with a greater facility, where-
by part of their weight is taken away ; as workmen
find by experience and without being taught. For
when a great weight is to be carried to a high place,
they put it on an inclined plane, which plane is
fometimes fupported with boards or cylinders, for

tochio are the fame thing ; only in theory, it is ; the conveniency of tranfporting it from one place
ufually called by the latter name, and in practice
by the former

Dented wheels, are thofe either whofe circum-
ference or axis is cut into teeth, by which they
are capable of moving and afling on one another,
and of being combined together. The ufe of thefe
is very confpicuous in clocks, jacks, ISc.

The power of the dented wheel depends on the
fame principle as that of the fimple one. It is
only that to the fimple axis in peritochio, what a
combined lever is to a fimple lever.

Its doclrine is comprized in the -following ca-
non, viz. The ratio of the power to the weight,
in order for that to be equivalent to this, muft be

to another.

The laivs of defcent of bodies or inclined planes are,
I. If a body be placed on an inclined plane, its re-
lative gravity will be to its abfolute gravity, as the
length of the plane to its height. Hence, i. Since
a ball gravitates on the inclined plane with its rela-
tive gravity ; the weight applied in a dire6tion
parallel to the length of the plane, will retain or
fufpend it, provided the weight be to that of the
ball, as the altitude of the plane is to its kngth.

2. The abfolute gravity of the body is to its re-
traiSlive gravity applied on the inclined plane, as the
whole fine to the fine of the angle of inclination.

3. Hence the refpedlive gravities of the fame

compounded of the ratio of the diameter of the: body on diiTerent /W/«£(/ />/<?«!?.?, are to each other
axis of the laft zu/;^^/ to the diameter of the firft j
and of the ratio of the number of revolutions of
the laft wheel, to thofe of the firft in the fame

time. But this doftrine will deferve a more par-
ticular explication.

Suppofe the weight a. Fig. 12. which by its
force can raife one pound, and is underftood to
move the wheel b, and the little wheel c ]o\ntdi to
its axis; if we fuppofe that there are only ten teeth
in the little wheel c, and an hundred in the wheel

as the fines of the angle of inclination.

4. The greater therefore the refpeflive gravity

is, the greater is the angle of inclination.

5. As therefore in a vertical plane, where the
inclination is greateft, viz. perpendicular, the re-
fpective gravity degenerates into abfolute ; fo in an
horizontal /i/j?/^, where there is no inclination, the
refpedlive gravity vanifties.

To find the fine of the angle of inclination of a
1 plane, on which a given power will be able to fuf-
i * tain

MECHANICKS.

tain a given weight. Say, as the given weight is
to the given power, fo is the whole fine to the fine
of the angle of inclination of the plane. Thus,
fuppofe a weight of looo be to be fallained by the
power of 50, the angle of inclination will be found
2052.

If the weight defcends according to the perpen-
dicular direction, and raifes up the weight in a
dire£lion parallel to the inclined plane ; the height
of the affent will be to that of the defcent, as the
fine of the angle of inclination to the whole fine.

The powers that raife weights through altitudes
reciprocally proportional to them, are equal. This
Des Cartes affumes as a principle whereby to de-
monftrate the powers of machines ; hence we fee
why a loaden waggon is drawn with more difficul-
ty on an inclined than an horizontal plane; as be-
ing preffed with a part of the weight, which is to
the whole weight in a ratio of the altitude of the
plane to its length.

A heavy body defcends on an inclined plane, with
a motion uniformly accelerated.

Hence, i. The fpaces of defcent are in a dupli-
cate ratio of the times, and likewife of the veloci-
ties ; and therefore in equal times increafe accord-
ing to the unequal numbers, i, 3, 5, 7, 9, &c.

2. The fpace pafTed over by a heavy body de-
fcending on an inclined plane, is fubduple of that
which it would pafs over in the fame time, with the
velocity it has acquired at the end of its fall.

3. Heavy bodies therefore defcend by the fame
Jaws on inclined planes, as in perpendicular planes.
Hence it was that Galileo, to find the laws of per-
pendicular defcents, made his experiments on in-
clined planes, in regard to the motions being flower
in the latter than the former, as in the following
theorem.

The velocity of a heavy body, bending on an
inclined plane, at the end of any given time, is to
the velocity which it would acquire in falling per-
pendicularly, in the fame time, as the height of
the inclined plane is to its length.

203

The Wedge, Fig. 16. is a triangular prifm,
whofebafes are equilateral acute angled triangles.

Its doctrine is contained in this propofition : If
the power dlredlly applied to the head of the wedge,
be to the refiflance to be overcome by the wedge,
as the thicknefs of the wedge is to its height, then
the power will be equivalent to its refiflance ; and
if increafed, will overcome it.

For the firmnefs whereby the parts of the ob-
Ilacles, fuppofe wood, adhere to one another, is
the refiftance to be overcome by the wedge.

Hence, if the thicknefs of the wedge (that is, the
way of the impediment, and confequently its velo- 1 ter oiih^fcreui 25, and the power 30 pounds, the

periphery

city) be to the height of the wedge (that is the
way, and confequently the velocity of the power)
as the power of the impediment, or refiftance ;
then the momentum of the power, and the impe-
'liment, will be equal the one to the other; and
confequently the power, being increafed, will
overcome the refiflance.

Hence, i. The power equivalent to half the re-
fiflance, is to it as the whole fine to the co-tan-
gent of half the angle of the w.a'^f And, 2. As

the tangent of a lefs angle is lefs than that "of a
greater, the power mull have a greater proportion
to half the refiflance, if the angle be greater than
if lefs. Confequently the acuter the wedge is, the
more does it increafe the power.

To the wedge may be referred all edge-tools,
and inftruments which have a fliarp point, in order
to cut, cleave, flit, chop, pierce, bore, or the
like ; as knives, hatchets, fwords, bodkins, &c.

The SCREW, is a right cvlinder, furrowed fpi-
ral-wife, chiefly ufed in preffing or fqueezing bo-
dies clofe, though fometimes alfo in raifing weights.
It the furrowed furface be convex, the fcrew is
faid to be male; if concave it h female.

The doarine of the fcreui is,— 1. As the com-
pafs defcnbed by the power in one turn of the
fcrew, is to the interval or diflance between any
two immediate threads or fpiral winding, fo is the
weight or refiflance to the power ; then the power
and the refiflance will be equivalent one to the
other ; and confequently, the power being a little
increafed will overcome the refiflance.

2. As the diflance between two threads is lefs,
the power required to overcome the faid refiflance
is lefs ; therefore the finer the thread the eafier the
motion.

3. If the miiXe. fcrew be turned in the female at
reft, a lefs power will be required to overcome the
refiflance.

4. The diflance of the power from the center
of the fcrew, the diflance of two threads, and the
power to be applied being given, to determine the
refiftance it will overcome ; or the refiflance being
given, to find the power neceffary to overcome it.

Find the periphery of a circle defcribed by a ra-
dius, then the diflance between the two threads,
the periphery jufl found, and the given power; or
to the periphery found, the diflance of the two
threads, and the given refiflance, find a fourth pro-
portional. This in the former cafe will b» the re-
fiflance that will be overcome by the given power 5
and in the latter the power necelTary to overcome
the given refiflance.

E. gr. Suppofe the refiflance between the two
threads 3, the diftanceof the power from the cen-

The Univerfal Hiftory ©/"Arts fl!«^ Sciences.

204

periphery of the circle to be defcribed by the pow-
er, will be found 157 : Therefore, as 3, 157 : 30,
1570, the weight to which the refiftanc-- is equal.
5. The refiftance to be overcome by a givein
power being given ; to determine the di.-nieter ol
thc/fr«f thediftaiice of two threads, indi.he length
of the fcytala or handle : the diffance of the threads,
and the diameter of the fcrew may be affumed at
pleafuie, if the male be to be turned in the female
by a handle : then as the given power is to the
refiflance it is to overcome, fo is the diftance of
the threads to a fourth number, which will be the
periphery to be defcri'oed by the handle, in a turn
of tht fcrew. The feiiii-diameter of this periphery
therefore being fought, we have the length of the
handle ; but if the female fcrew be to be turned
about the male without any handle, then the peri-'
phery and femi-diameter found, will be very nearly
thofe of the fcreiv required.

E. gr. Suppofe the weight 6000, the power
100, and the diftance of the threads 2 lines; for
the periphery to be pafl'ed over by the power, fay,
as J 00, 6000: 2, 120; the femi-diameter of
which periphery being ^ of 120 = 40 lines will be
the length of the handle, if any be ufed ; other-
wife the fide of the female fcrew muft be 40 lines.
There are, befides the above-mentioned _/2-r^wx,
the endlefs fcrew, and Anhimedes's fcrew.

The endlefs screw, is z fcrew fitted to turn a
dented wheel, called endlefs, or perpetual, in regard
it may be turned for ever, without coming at an
end. From the fcheme it is evident enough, that
while the fcrew turns once round, the wheel only
advances the diftance of a tooth.

The doi^rine of the endhfs SCREW, is : — If the
•power applied to the lever, or handle of an endlefs
fcrew, be to the weight, in a ratio compounded of
the periphery of the axis of the wheel, to the pe-
riphery defcribed by the power, in turning the
handle, and of the revolutions of the wheel, to the
revolutions of x\\e fcrew, the power will be equi-
valent to the weight.

Hence, r. As the motion of the wheel is ex-
ceedingly flow, a fmall power may raife a vaft
weight, by means of an endlefs fcrew : for this rea-
fon, the great ufe of the endl fs fcrew, is either
where a great weight is to be raifed through a little
fpace ; or where a very flow, gentle motion is re-
quired : on which account it is very ufeful in clocks
and watches.

2. The number of teeth, the diftance of the
power from the center of \k\e fcrew, the radius of
the axis, and the power being given, to find the
weight it will raife.

Multiply the diftance of the power from the
centre of the/cnui into the number of teeth: the
produd is the fpace of the power paffed through.

ia the time the weight pafles through a fpace equal
to the periphery of the axis. Find a fourth pro-
portional to the radius of the axis, the fpace of the
power now found and the power; this will be the
weight the power is able to luftain.

/Irchiniides's screw, or the fptral pump, is a
machine for the raifin^j of water, invented by Ar-
chimedes. Its ftrufture is .is follows :

A leaden tube is wound round a cylinder, after
the fame manner as the fpiral thread is drawn in
the common yl-r^iy above defcribed. This cylin-
der ib inclined to the horizon in an angle of about
15 degrees, and the orifice nf the tube immerged
under water. If then the frew be turned about
by the handle, againft the water ; the water will
raife up the fpiral and be difcharged at the other
orifice of the cylinder.

Tliis machine (whofe figure is the fecond in the
plate of Hydraulicis) with a very little ftrength, is
able to rafe a great quantity of water : whence it
is found of good ufe in emptying of lakes, Ufc.

If the water be to be raifcd to any confiderable
height, one fcrew will not fuffice ; but the water
drawn up by one, is to be taken by another, and
fo fucceflively.

As the mechanlcks are founded on motion, at-
tempts have been made, from time to time, to
find out a perpetual motion, i. e. a motion whieh is
fupplied and renewed from itfelf, without the in-
tervention of any external caufe ; or in an unin-
terrupted communication of the fame degree of
motion from one part of matter to another, in a
circle (or other curve returning it into itfelf) fo as
the fame momentum ftill returns undiminifhed up-
on the firil mover.

To find TLperpetual motion, or conftru£t an
engine, l^c. which fliall have fuch a motion, is
a famous problem that has employed the mathe-
maticians for 2000 years.

Infinite are the fchemes, defigns, plans, en-
gines, wheels, is'c to which this longed for per-
petual motion has given birth ; but there feems but
little in nature to countenance all this afliduity and
expedation : among j11 the laws of matter and mo-
tion, we know of none }'et, which feems to lay
any principle or foundation for fuch an eflxdt.

7 he whole bufinefs of finding a perpetual motiotif
comes to thi , viz. to make a weight heavier than
itfelf, or an elaftick force greater than itfelf; or,
there muft be fome method of gaining a f )rce equi-
valent to what is loft, by the artful difpufi;ior, and
combination of mechanick pouers : to whi^ h laft
point, then, all endeavours are direfted : but how,
or by what n.eans fuch force fliould be gained, is
flill a myfiery !

MECHANICKS

205

As motion is the foundation of mechanics., it will

[vopcr to add fomewhat concerning the affedli-
( caufcs, hiz. oi loiol 77iotion.

■1 fophers, both antient and modern, agree
a ■ iiii themfclves, that the local motion is a cer-
raii. Itate., or manner of the mobile body, where-
by itcorrefpond fucceflively to feveral different pla-
ces : But whethtr rcjl be fomething real and po-
fiti/e, is what is much controverted, yjrljhtle,
lib. 5. pbyfu. c. 8. and all the P.eripatetlans be-
lieve, that rrji is' nothing but a privation of mo-
tion. And Des Carles is of opinion, that re/i is
no lefs real and pofitive than motion itfelf. In
which controverfy I'll chufe the medium : for rejl,
as I take it, can be defined the remaining of a body
in the fame place or fpace : therefore it can be call-
ed either a Hate, or manner, or relation ; and not
a file privation of motion, as Arljiotle imagined it ;
much lefs is it to be confidered, as fome pofitive
or real f. culty in a body, whereby it can a<St or
refift, as Des Cartes will have it.

It may be objefled againft my fentlment, by the
Perlpatetltlans, that reft confifts in that, which once
admitted, it> natuie is eafily underftood ; as it hap-
pens by admitting only the privation of motion, as
darknefi is underftood by admitting only the pri
vation of light.

To which I anfwer, that neither reft is under-
ftood .by the fole privation of motion, nor motion
underftood, by the fole privation of reft, but ei-
ther ftate is pofitive, one whereby a body corref-
ponds to the diiierent parts of the place, and the
other whereby it correfponds to the fame parts of
a place ; one or the other of thofe manners being
always in a body. For if it ceafes from moving it
refls, and if it ceafes from refiing It is moved :
whence motion and re/i alternately fucceed each
other in a body.

As motion is the tranflation of a body from one
place to another, which wants time to be accom-
pliflied ; we fliould, therefore, underftand the na-
ture of time and place.

Time, is the Juccejftve duration of a thing which
has a beginning, and zvhlch can have an end. It is
Called a Jiicceffive duration, becaufe time does not
exift together. 2. Which has a beginning, and can
have an end, becaufe time belongs to created things,
which God has formed of nothing, and can re-
duce to nothing.

The name of place is ambiguous ; for fometimes
it fignifies the fuperficies of a body, wherein ano-
ther body is contained, fometimes a fpace, which
can be occupied by all forts of bodie? ; the firft is
called an Internr.l place, and the other external.

I confider tiie fuperticies of the ambient body in
two manners, viz. p/yfcally, and mathematically. —
It is tonfidercd pbyfically, when ccnfidered in a

Vol. II. 36.

phyfical body, endued with feveral fenfible qua-
lities, viz. fluidity, mobility, l^c. and mathemati-
cally, when confidered as in an extended fubilance,
or in the fole extenfion, abftracted mutually, from
fenfible qualities : thefe prefuppofcd,

I fay, that the external place, or />/i?f^ properly
called, viz. the concave fuperficies of an ambient
body containing another body, is in fa£t, zndphy-
fically mobile, becaufe it is continently moved, as
it appears either in the air we are environed with,
and which is agitated around us; or in running
water, which waflies the piles of a bridge.

But the external place confidered mathematically,
can be conceived immobile, becaufe in it the fole
extenfion is confidered, as abftratSled from the reft
of the phyfical qualities, vl%, fluidity, mobility, b'f.

Corollary. When motion is defined the
tranflation of a body from a place into another,
place is confidered mathematically , not phyfically.

The principal afFe(Slions of motion are its quanti-
ty, determination, refie£llon, and refraSilon.

The quantity of motion is the anfwer to the
queftion, hoiv great Is the motion, or that whereby
any motion compared with another, is faid to be
either greater or lefs than that it is compared with.
And this is to be taken from two chiefs, viz. from
the bulk or weight of a mobile body, and from the
velocity of the motion.

Therefore if the two bodies A and B, Fig. 16.
are equal in bulk, and are moved with an equal
celerity, there will be as much motion in one as
there is in the other ; but if one of ihem, viz. A, is
moved with twice the celerity of the other, it will
have twice the quantity of motion B has. Like-
wife if both be carried with the fame velocity, and
one be twice, or thrice, or four times the other, it
will have twite, thrice, four timef, the quantity
of motion.

For if feme force is ufed to throw, v.gr. a bo-
dy of a pound weight at fifty feet diftance, within
the time of the fecond of an hour, the fame force
muft nsceffarily be double, to throw it within the
fame time, at a hundred feet diftance ; and then
the quantity of motion in it will be double.

For the fame reafon, if a body of a pound
weight be carried with a certain force, within a
minute's time to two hundred paces, certainly a
body of two pounds will be moved, and 'within
the fame tim?, to a hundred paces ; notwith-
ftanding which there will be the fame quantity of
motion in both, becaufe the force of the leffer
weight is followed with a greater velocity. There-
fore the particles of the fi ft element of Dss Cartes
niuft be moved with a far greater celerity with the
fame quantity of motion, than thofe of the fecond
E e clement.

He Univerfal Miftory of Arts fl!«^ Sciences.

206

element, becaufe the firft element is much thinner
than the fecond.

The Determination of motion, \s the direSlion
thereof towards one part, rather than towards another.
Whence motion is taken frcHn the impulfive faculty,
which is foTnetimes greater and fometimes lefler ;
and the determination is to be deduced from the
manner whereby the impuHion is made, v. gr.
when a ball is thrown with the battler againft a
wall, the motion proceeds from the blow or per-
cufiion ; but the determination depends on the
manner of throwing it, viz. from the different
fituation of the battler, which (ituation caufcs that
the fall dcfcribes one line rather than anoiher.
For nothing hinders a motion which is not inter-
rupted, from being preferved in a mobile body,
though the determination be changed ; v. g. when
a ball falls obliquely into a wall and returns back,
the determination thereof is changed, though the
fame motion continues.

Hence, though motion with regard to itfclf is to
be' faid fimple, and the mobile dcfcribes one line
only, either right or curve, when moved from one
point into another, we notwith (landing conceive
fometimes two or more determinations in it ; and
the motion is faid to be compofed in fome manner,
of thofe two or more determinations, viz. where
two or more caufes endeavour to move feparatcly
one and the fame mobile into difFerent parts, v.g.
if one would crofs a river from B to \). Fig. 18.
and be carried by almolt the fame rapidity of the
water into G, whereby he is carried into IJ ; then
he'll follow neither the right line A G, nor the
right A D, but the line A K. For if he had ar-
rived at firft by his own ftrength to the point B,
he fhould have arrived at the point E by the
llreno-th of the river. '1 herefore to anfwer thofe
two motions, /'. e. to arrive at the point D,
through that interval, which is between A and B ;
and to the point G, through that interval, which
is between A and E, it is certainly necellar)',
that he fhould be at the firft inftant in the point
H, at the fecond inftant in the point I, and at the
third in K.

The Reflection of motion in a mobile body,
is the regrefs of the mobile body from another body it
cannot penetrate. As when a ball be thrown againft
r. v/all, as it cannot penetrate the wail, and is en
dued with an elaftick faculty, immediately returns
back.

But when a body is thrown againft another, it
falls againft it, either perpendicularly and diredtly,
or obliquely ; if it falls perpendicularly, and is
capable of refledlicn, it muft mcafure quite the
fame line, fince there is no reafon why it fhould

incline to one part rather than another, v. gr.
when a bladder blown is thrown againft the pave-
ment, it is obferved to return back according to
the fame perpendicular line.

But if that body falls obliquely againft another,,
w/z. if a ball be thrown according to the line A B,
Fig. ig. againft the line C B, in fuch a manner as
to form with it the angle ABC, lefs than a right
one, then it will reflect on the other part, and keep
the fame inclination towards the fuperficies B E,
or from another angle eqiial to the former : the
former is an angle of ifuidence, and the latter an
angle of refeSlion; and thofe angles, if the contafl
be made on a fmooth and polilhed luperficies, and
meet with no obftru6tion, muft be equal, as is
fhewn in the fecond diflertation of Des Cartes's
Dioptricks, in this manner.

Let it be the ball A, Fig. 20. which is carried
through the line A B, into the point B; its motion
is underftood to be compofed of two others, viz.
of a perpendicular, whereby it arrives at the line
CB E, and of a horizontal, whereby it arrives at
the line GBH, or tends towards DEF: whence
it may be imagined, that the ball is impelled by a
double power at once, viz. by one power, ac-
cording to the perpendicular line A C ; and by
another, according to the horizontal line A R D.
If thofe faculties or powers be fuppofed equal, the
line A C will be equal to the line A R, or C B ;
becaufe the ball advances as much by an horizon-
tal motion, as it is thrown by a perpendiailar
one ; and therefore the line A B will be the
diagonal of the perfect fquare ACER, but if
the faculties be fuppofed unequal, or if the motion
is faid to be made according to a more oblique
line, another proportion will be obferved between
the faculties or powers, and thofe lines perpendi-
cular and horizontal, and fuch as the pov/er will
be to the power, fuch will be the line to the other
line.

For when the ball will have touched the point
B in the fuperficies or line C B E, which oppofes
the perpendicular motion, not the horizontal, it
will change its perpendicular motion, not the
horizontal : but though the determination be
changed, the motion does not immediately ceafe,
for the ball returns with almoft the fame force it
was thrown with. Hence it follows, that when
it advances forward horizontally according to the
length E D equal to itfelf C B, it v.ill advance
forward by a perpendicular motion according to
the length E D equal to A C ; fo as for the angle
of refiedion D B E, to be equal to the angle of
incidence ABC.

The fame happens if CBE, Fig. 2i.be ima-
gined to he a fmall cord, extended from the point

■ L

MECHANICKS.

X, to the point M, agaiuft wliich is thrown the
ball A, according to the line A B, for then the
cord will be bowed according to the perpendicu-
lar line B / K, to the point /, or thereabouts, and
not according to the oblique line B nf to the
point n ; becaule the motion or infledion is eafier
and fliorter, according to the perpendicular line,
than according to the obliijueous : therefore that
cord by its elafticity will refleft the ball in G ;
but when otherwife, the ball with the fame force
tends by a horizontal motion towards the point E,
it muft come back through the diagonal line B D,
which is the middle line between both ; and thus
will form an angle of refledion equal to the angle
of incidence. i>ee the dodtrine oi projeifiles under
the article Gunnery.

As to the Refraction of motion — As often
as a mobile body paifcs from a liquid one, into
another liquid of a different kind, which it pene-
trates and divides, it is not reflected by it, but it
fometimes fuffers another mutation, called >v-
frailion.

Refraction, is the injie^ion of motion, whereby
a mobile body, according to the greater or lejjer re-
Jljlance of the liquid., which It enters obliquely, de-
cline'; from Its right line. Therefore a mobile body
falling perpendicularly on a liquid of a different
kind, i'uffcTS no refrao7lon,vlz. iftheball A, Fig.
22. fails perpendicularly from the air into water,
and begins to penetrate it in the point E, it will
defcend, by a right way, into B ; fince no reafon
occurs why it fhould incline more on one part
than on the other. But if a mobile body, viz. a
ball, enters the water in an obliqueous manner,
then it will recede from the right way ; in which
recefs, gravity and levity can produce fome varia-
tion.

But as the doftrine of refraalcn regards, parti-
cularly, light, which we'll prove afterwards to be
placed in a !mall bodv prefl'ed and moved, it feems
more proper to explain it in the rays of the light,
in which there is properly neither gravity nor le-
vity.

Let therefore the ray of light be a b. Fig. 23.
which paills obliquely from the air into water, as
itmuflon its way tend towards c, it will be re-
fraiSted in h, in approaching the perpendicular ef.

If it had come from d, and pafied from the wa-
ter into the air, as fbon as it had arrived at b, it
had not proceeded forwards to ^, but receding
from tht |->erpendicular line ef, it had inclined
towards the point a.

Which to underftand, you muft conceive the
folid ray k k 1 1, which falls obliquely into the wa-
ter, where its point ; Ihall reach the fuperficies of
the water, While the point b will be fliU in the

207

air : and as the refiflance of the water is greater
than that of the air, while the point / (hall run
through the fpace / /«, the point / fhall run
through the fpace In, which is much greater than
the fpace / m, as the refiftance of the water is much
greater than that of the air : the one and the
other motion / n and i m, is underftood to be
made circular, and round the center r, in which
the line // and a »/ are formed.

But when the line il will be arrived at mn^
and the whole ray fhall touch the water with its
anterior parts, it will find the fame refiflance
every where ; and thus will advance towards the
part 0 dp, by a right motion, and not a circular
one.

On the contrary, if the radius opmn was to
come out of the water, its point n would reach
the air fooner than the point m ; therefore while
the point n, by a circular motion were moved into
/, the point m fhould likewifc be moved into ;';
and then both by the force of the water, and a di-
redl way fhquJd tend towards KL, in recedino-
from the perpendicular.

From this I'll pafs to the true and proper caufc
oi motion.

We call, I. In metaphyficks, the true and
proper efficient caufe of motion, that which truly
and properly produces motion in bodies, or which
imprints a motion in them, or in a word moves
them. — 2. To move the bodies, is to carry them
from one place into a.nother, by a continual fludlua-
tion.

Corollary. The motion of bodies does not
properly proceed from themfelves, fince they can
neither carry themfelves nor other bodies from
one place into another ; the faculty of rnovin*
themfelves, or comm.unicating a motion to other
bodies is not contained in their nature, and they
are clearly and diftindly conceived without a fa-
culty or active principle of motion.

The occafion of the motion of the large and fen-
fible bodies draws its beginning from a fubtile and
fluid matter, which the author of nature keeps in a
perpetual motion ; which can be demonflrated by
indudion : for, v. gr. in a watch, the motion of
the index, which flievvs the hours, proceeds from
the wheeU, and the wheels are put in motion by
the fpring inclofed in the barrel ; which fpring
does not move itfelf, but receives its motion from
the fubtile matter ; which matter receives its mo-
tion f/om the frrfl mover of all thino-s.

A body can be the occafional caufe of another

body ; as when the fubtile matter runs againft the

large bodies, or fomebody puflies a ball againfl

anothei ball : thus incurlion, or impulfion, is the

E e 2. occafion

2o8 Tl^e Univerfal Hiftory of Arts fl;«<a? Sciences.

occafion of the author of nature transferring thofe
bodies into another place, according to the law
he has prefcribed to himfelf.

The natural bodies can be very well called the
fecond nature ; and neareft caufes of motions, or
natural effcdts ; becaufe thofe caufes are employed
by the author of nature to' produce thofe effeds :
V. gr. the fun to produce light and heat.

The firft and fecond caufe of a continued mo-
tion in a body, is the fame with the caufe of the
iirfl motion.

Corollary I. A wc^/sw once iniprinted into
a body, continues always in it, till it be ftopt by
an outward caufe, viz. by the bodies it meets in
its way ; becaufe it cannot be changed or deftroyed
by that body inwj which it is received ; fince all
body be idle of itfelf. Whence if it was moved*
in the vacuum, or rather in a fpace in which there
Vt'ere no refiflance, its motion would be perpetual.

Corollary II. There is no definite term,
towards which the motion tends, unlefs what
proceeds from the bodies it meet in its way ; for
Vvfithout thofe bodies the motion would be perpe-
tual, and never interrupted, as v/e have already
obferved, and is plainly feen in the planets, the
revolution whereof is perpetual.

The next thing which falls under our confi-
deration is, the caufe of the refeSlcd motion ; where-
in I'll treat of the elaf.icity of the hod es.

Elasticity, or the elaftick faculty of bodiis,
is the power of reftoring itfelf to its former flate ;
as when the branch of a tree, which was bowed
returns to its former flate of extenfion. Therefore

meatus, by penetrating them: which it is impoflibfe
it fhould accomplifh, without either removing the
pavement, or lifting up the ball. But it is moiie
cafy to lift up the ball, tlian to remove the pave-
ment; therefore it lifts up the ball, and reftores it.
to its former ftate. Let the ball Xvi adb. Fig. 25.
in which the part a be compreficd in fuch a man-
ner, as for the motion of the fubtile matter from
the part c through the part b to d and e to be re-
tarded : then certainly that matter by the continual
impulfion whereby it endeavours to dilate the pores
of the ball, will reftore to the ball its former fhape.
But as the ball received by the battler, not only be-
comes more plain in thofe parts which touch the
the battler, but even bends the net of the battler, by
the elajlicity thereof it is repercufled ; likewife an
ivory ball falling on a marble table, is refle£led, as
well by its own elafticity, as by that of the table.

Secondly, I he fame thing may be obferved in the
fpring inclofed in the barrel of a watch ; for if the
fpring be infledled, the pores in the convex fuper-
ficies are dilated, and clofed in the concave. Whence
the coarfer paiticles of the fubtile matter, may enter
the convex fuperficies, but cannot penetrate the
concave : and therefore endeavour to reftore by
their penchant, and preflion, the body to its for-
mer ftate. Here it happens, that the fubtile mat-
ter which flows continually, lengthwife, from one
extreme of the fpring to the other, afFe£l:s as much
as poffible a right line, and confequently endea-
vours to extend the fpring.

Next follov/ reflecltons on the caufe of a tranflated
7mtion, where I'll treat of the laws of motions, ob-

it, body, to be called elaftick, inuft be nrfl prefled or ferved in the colUfion of bodies.

bowed, retaining all the while the power to re-
alFume its former ftate.

Corollary. An elaflick body muft have at leaft
fome rigidity or hardnefs in its parts, whereby to
fupport as much as poffible its form, otherwife it
would never endeavour to recover its former ftate.

As God is the author of all motions, he has,
notwithftanding, eftablifaed caufes, which are the
occafion of his creating various motions ; which
caufes are commonly called fecond or natural, and
by modern Philofophers, occoftonal. Whence tho'
bodies confidered in themfelves, are only accounted

Which notwithftanding the fole rigidity of the ; paffive, not aftive ; if notwithftanding they be con-
parts ought not to be confidered as the proper caufe ' fider'd with refpecl to the bodies they touch or im^-

of elajlicity, fince rigidity is in fome meafure the
fame with the elajlick facidty, or at leaft proceeds
from the fame principle : which, when we confider
with a great deal of attention, the nature of bodies,
it feems to be nothing elfe but a certain fubtile
matter, which runs through the meatus of the
larger bodies ; which fentiment, which is that of
Des Cartes, can be confirmed by feveral examples.
For, I. When an ivory ball falls on the pave-
ment, the parts where the contact is made, are
plained, and confequently the pafiages of the fub-
tile matter, clofed. But the fubtile matter, to flow

pel, they are faid to atl: on them.

But with what projiortion one body operates on
another, and communicates to it its motion, and
which are the laws eftablifhed by the author of
nature, in the collifion of bodies, is what can be
difcover'd only by obferving carefully their natural
efFedls, and a long meditation.

Des Cartes, who firft of all attempted that dif-
covery, fays, firjl. That all bodies remain in that
ftate in which they were once placed, till that ftate
be changed by the encounter of other bodies. Thus
we fee a matter, which is fquare, retaining alw4ys

more freely, endeavours to dilate thofe paflages or 1 tlie fame figure, tillTometliing happens from ano-

I ther

MECHANICKS.

209

ther part, which makes it change that figure. For j
fhe fame reafon, when the matter is at reft, it can
be excited to motion by another caufe, but not of
itfelf : that when it is moved, it continues in mo-
tion as long as it meets with nothing to flop its
motion.

Secondly, That every part of matter which is
moved, affeds always a right line, though by the
encounter of other bodies, it often fteps out of the
right road, and acquires a circular motion ; as it
happens in a river, the water whereof running
againft the pile of a bridge, returns back, and ac-
quires a circular motion, when it fhould have fol-
lowed the ftrait way, if it had met with no ob-
ftruction to change its determination.

Hence it is that the ftone a. Fig. 26. turn'd
round in a fling, by letting flip one of the chords of
the fling, is thrown according to the right line a g,
which right line is the tangent of the circle, deli-
neated by the fling, /'. e. it touches it in the points.

Likewife, if corn, or any other minute bodies, be
put on a mill- {lone, turning round, and are carried
by the motion of the mill-ftone, they'll come out
of it according to the tangent-lines. Whence it
may be inferr'd, that all that's m.oved, ei/enofa
circular motion, afFefts always a right line, and
recedes as much as polTible from the center of mo-
tion ; which is of a great ufe in phyfick.

'Thirdly, Des Cartes adds, that as often as a body,
which is in motion, meets with another, if it has
a lefler force to go forward according to a right
line, than the other has to hinder it ; then it re-
flects on the oppofite part; and retaining its motion,
changes only the determination of motion.

And that if a body, in motion, falls on a weaker
body, all the motion it communicates to it, it lofes
it. So that if a hard body encounters againft a
foft body, it transfers all its motion to it, v.gr. if
a ball be thrown into a heap of duft, the whole
impetuofity of the ball pafles into the heap of duft,
or into the ambient air, and is thereby entirely
flopped. I do not fee that this latter part contains
any thing contrary to reafon.

The percuffion of two bodies can be made in two
manners : for either both run mutually againft one
another from oppofite parts ; or one runs againft
another, which is at reft : or both are carried to-
wards the fame part, fo that the body which is lait,
is moved with a greater celerity, and overtakes
that which is foremoft.

If they run againft "one another from oppofite
parts : they are either equal in bulk and velocity,
or are equal in velocity, and unequal in bulk or
weight ; or laftlj', are equal in weight, and un-
equal in velocity.

If one of them runs againft another which is at

reft, or that which is lefs runs againft a bigger, or
a big one falls on a lelTer ; or an equal runs againft
another equal. Thefe three rules'are explain'd by
the fourth, fifth, and fixth rule oi Des Cartes.

If both are moved towards the fame part ; or
an equal body overtakes another equal body; or
a lefler body overtakes a bigger ; or laftly, a greater
overtakes a lefs. Whence three rules can likewife
be eitabliftied, relating to this third manner of per-
cuflion : but Des Cartes has eftablilhed but one
rule for it, viz. the feventh. For he has propofed
fevcn rules of the communication oi motions, in the
fecond part of the principles. Num. 46. and fol-
lowing.

The firft is thus : If two equal bodies, as A and
B, Fig. 27. direSied from oppofite parts with an
equal celerity, encounter one another, after the collifon,
they will refiiSi with an equal celerity towards the
flace ivhence they departed. For there is no caufe
why the motion ftiould perifli, but the determina-
tions muft be changed.

'I he firft- rule is obferved in elaftick bodies ; for
in thofe which have no elafticity ; whether they be
inflexible, as imagined by Des Cartes, or foft, it
has no place ; becaufe the oppofite determinations
in bodies deftitute of elafticity, deftroy mutually
one another ; and thofe bodies are only flopped by
one another, but do not refledt.

But to apply thefe, and the following rules to
experiments ; and to imprint a certain quantity of
motion into a body, comparatively to another ; we
commonly take tvvo points in a wall, perpendicu-
larly ere<£led, viz. a and b. Fig. 28. to which we
affix two nails, from which hang two threads a g
and b h, whereby are defcribed the two arches of a
circle /; I fdsiAg i c, equal between themfelves, and
diftributed into equal divifions. For then if the
two equal balls g and h, fufpended by thofe tvvcv
threads, be both thrown down from the fame
height, they will run from oppofite parts againft
one another in the point m, with an equal velocity
of motion.

Therefore if they be both elafticks, w'z. either
marble, or ivory, Isfc. then after the collifion,
they'll reflect with the fame celerity to almoft the
fame height from whence they were thrown. For
if an elaftick ball hits another elaftick ball with the
fame force it was hit with by that other elaftick
ball ; and if there was not a little obftacle as well
from the gravity of the ball, as from the refiftance
of the air, they would mutually repel one another
to the fame place from which they were thrown.

But if the balls be deftitute of elafticity, viz. if
they be made of foft clay, both, after the collifion,
will remain immoveable in the point m. Though
it muft not be inferred hence, that their motion is

entirely

2IO lie Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

entirely perifhed ; for it is transferred either into I velocity, as fuppofed in Des Cartel's hypothcds j

the parts of the balls, which being foft, are com
prefTed, or fwell in the form of a belly, or into the
incumbent air, and fubtiie matter.

The fecond rule. — If the bidies he unequal., and
pufloed againfl one another with an equal veloci'y ; the
lejpr body Jball rejled wiih the fame celerity, and both
advance together towards the fame part. This rule
feems to me contrary to experience, even in bodies
deftitute of elafticity, from which Des Cartes has
eftablifhed it. For if the two bodies, g and h, be
foft, fo that g be twice as big as h, and both thrown
from the fame height (viz. from / and bj Fig. 28)
the body /; will fly back, but not with the fame
ccleiity it came down, for the motion of the lefler
body will talce from the motion of the bigger one
a part equal to itfelf, and both move towards the
party, with that quantity of motion whereby the
body h was furpaffed by the body g, before their
encounter.

But if thofe bodies deftitute of elafticity, whether
they be inflexible or foft, are fuppofed to have velo-
cities reciprocal with the bulk ; fo that v. gr- the
body g be twice the body h, but, vicifftin, and
moved twice flower, viz. if the body g be thrown
from the point /, and the body h from the pointy,
which is twice farther, both after the collifioii, will
remain immoveable, as is plainly feen in two foft
balls, viz. made of clay. But however, as the
quantity of motion is deduced both from the bulk
and velocity, a body twice lefler than the other,
but moved twice fwifter, has the fame motion as
the other: hence it happens, that both reft in the
point ra, as if they were equal, and fallen with an
equal velocity.

The third rule. — If bodies be equal in bulk, but
are moved with an unequal velocity, that only which
is moved flower, will return back after the encounter,
and both will be moved with an equal celerity towards

then it will borrow four degrees of velocity from g^
and both after the collifion, be moved towards
the fame part ; fo that the two Jegrees of velo-
city remaining in the body ^, w''l be equally dif-
tributed in them.

But if thofe equal bodies a;;- faid to be elaftick,
and the body g be thrown from the height c ; and
h from the height lon]y, fo as the velocity will be
greater in the body ^ than in the body h, both after
the percuflfion will permute their velocities, and the
body g refleiSt only into the point /', and the body
h into the point f. The reafm whereof is, that
the body g which is moved with more celerity,
ftrikes ftronger the body h in the collifion, than
is ftricken by it ; hence they muft change their
velocities between them.

The fourth rule. — If a body be lefs than another
ivhich is at reji, ivith whatever celerity it may be
pujhed againfl it, it will never communicate a motion
to it, but will be refe/Ied by it, into a contrary part,
v. gr. the body C C at reft, never can be moved
either bv the body A or the body B, Fig. 30. be-
caufe a body at reft refifts more to a greater cele-
rity, than to a lefler, and the greater the celerity
is in a leflTer body, the more the refiftance increafes
in a greater.

But that rule, which eftablifties reft in a body,
as fomething real and pofitive, to refift the motion
of another body ; can be demonftrated contrar)',
both to reafon and to experience.

And firft it is contrary to experience: for if fome
fofter body, v. gr. if the body h runs with three
degrees of velocity againft the body g, twice big-
ger and at reft ; it will communicate to it two
degrees of its velocity, and both united, will run
with one degree of celerity againft a body three
times bigger than the body h.

If thofe bodies be elaftick, and the lefler body h

the fame fart, v. gr. If the body g approaches moved, is faid to run againft the greater g and at

with fix degrees of celerity ; and the body h with
four only. Fig. 29. the fole body /.; will return back
after the collifion, and the body ^, befides, will com-
municate to it one of its degrees of velocity, that
both afterwards may feparately, with each five de-
grees of celerity, tend towards the fame part.

But this rule is falfe, in that it can be adapted
only to bodies deftitute of elafticity ; and becaufe
a lefler quantity of motion remains in them after
the collifion, than it eftablifties ; for if the two
foft bodies g and h, be fuppofed equal in bulk ;
and the body g runs with fix degrees of velocity
againft the body h at reft, it will communicate to
it three degreee of its velocity, that both may be
carried with the (ame velocity towards the fame
part. But if h runs againft g with four degrees of

reft, the lefler body h will not (according to Des
Cartes) return with all its motion, but will com-
municate fomething of it to the greater body g,
having regard to the motion of both, and to the
elaftick faculty.

This rule of Des Cartes is alfo contrary to rea-
fon 5 for that a lefl'er body may be capable to give
motion to a greater, it fuffices that the reft of the
greater be not infinite, and the motion of the lefler
can be increafed in infinitum : for hence it will hap-
pen at laft, that the reft of the greater will be con-
quered by the motion of the lefler : but the reft of
the greater body is not infinite, fince it is o;;ly at-
tributed to the bulk-, which is finite ; but the mo-
tion of the lefl'er body can be increafed in infinitum,
fince it takes its quantity, not from the fole bulk,

which

MECHANICKS,

211

vrhich is finite ; but lilcewife from velocity, which
can be increafed /;; infinitum.

Therefore a lefs body can give motion to a
greater, and the fourth rule of Des Cartes is not
only contrary to experience, but likewife to rea-
fon.

The fifth rule — If the bigger body C C hits th<-
lejfer body A or B which is at reji., Fig. 31. /V tranf-
fers to it as ?)iuch of its motion as is fiifficient to have
them both moved with an equal velocity. Let it be,
for example, the body C C, which being double
the body A, and having three degrees of velocit)',
will give one of them to it : for the body A will
be equally moved with one degree, as the body
C C with two.

This rule is agree.ible to experience, fince thofe
bodies, after collifion, are united into one ; but is
notobferved inelaftick bodies : for when a greater
body is pufhed againft another body leffer, and at,
reft, though the greater begins to move towards
the fame part, it notwithftanding communicates a
greater celerity than that it has, though it does not
give it a greater quantity of motion.

The lixth rule. — If the bodies A and B be equal,
avdthe body B be at rejl, the body A hitting with four
degrees of celerity againii the body B, ivill eommtmi-
cate to it one of its degrees of celerity., and with the
three degrees of celerity remaining, will reJleSl into a
contrary part.

This rule, even according to Des Cartes\ doc-
trine, is entirely falfe : for the body A muft give
half its motion to the body B equal to it and at reft,
that together they may advance towards the fame
parts, provided they be foft, and deftitute of
elafticity ; becaufe then they make but one body.

But if they be elalficks the body A will flop, and
transfer its whole motion to the body B which was
at reft before. For as the body A has two contrary
determinations, one whereby it is carried into the
body B, the other whereby it is repelled by its
elafticity, thofe two determinations will mutually
deftroy one another, and conlequently the body A
be neceffarily ftopped : but as the body B has onlv
one determination, which it receives from the body
A, it therefore will be moved with that quantity
of motion which was in the body A.

1 herefore if the body A be pufhed againft the
feveral bodies C D E F, for example, if a crown be
throv/n upon other crowns equal to it, all thofe
bodies will ftop except the laft ; for if the body A,
in the collifion has two contrary determinations,
the body B will have two likewife as well as D and
E ; fo that the body _/" which is repelled by none,
muft be moved.

For the fame reafon, if two bodies be thrown
againft feveral others, they will all ftop except the

two laft. If three were thrown, only the three
laft would be moved.

The feventh and laft rule is a little longer and
more intricate, and not true : the fenfe of it is very
near as follows. — If B and CC, Fig. 37.. be moved
towards the fame part, and C C which is double the
other, goes foremojl, but flower than B, fo as to be
at laji overtaken by it, it can happen that B either
will transfer part of its velocity to C C, or Jiy hack
with all its motion.

For if the exccfs of celerity whereby B furpajjes
C C, be greater than the excefs of magnitude, where-
by C C furpajjes B ; then B ivill communicate to CC
fome of its motion ; that both may be moved with an
equal celerity towards the fame part : but if the excefs
of celerity whereby B furpaffes (^ C be Lfi than the
excefs of magnitude ivhereby C Cfurpajps B, nothing
of the motion of the body B will be transferred to CC;
but the body B will fly back with all its motion.

This rule can be defended neither by experience,
nor by reafon : whence we muft philofophile in
another manner, of the reafon of that percuffion,
and diftinguifli three cafes.

For if the bodies in which the experiment is
made be deftitute of elafticity, viz. g and h. Fig,
33. and are moved towards the fame part flouly at
firft, and afterwards with great celerity ; either both
are cqujl, or that which precedes, viz. h is greater,
or laftly, that which follows, viz. g is greater.

If they be equal, and the body g is thrown down
from the point c^ and the body h from the point /;
fo that there be four degrees of velocity in the body
g, and only two in the body h : after ^^ fliall have
overtaken h, it will communicate to it one of the
degrees of its celerity, that both together (hould
proceed forward with three degrees of velocity;
which celerity is half the celerity of both bodies
taken together : for 4 and 2 degrees is fix, and
half that fum is 3.

Whence it may be inferred, that if the body ^
be greater than h, all other things fuppofed as be-
fore, g is not to communicate a whole dtgree of its
celerity to h ; but if it be lefler, g muft commu-
nicate to it more than one degree of its celerity, be-
caufe it is diftributed -according to the bulk. There-
fore if when the bodies are equal, and the common
velocit)' after the encounter be half the fame coin-
pofed of the former velocities ; certainly when the
body which is foremoft will be lefler than the other,
the common velocity-will be greater than half the
fum ; and when that body will be greater, the
common celerity is to be lefler than half the fum.

But if the bodies g and /; be elaftick and equal,
after g will have overtook h, they'll interchange
their velocities : for if the body g was to run, with
four degrees of velocity agaijift the body h at reft,

Tl^e Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^«^ Sciences.

212

it would hit it with all thofe four digrees, and be
repulfcd by fo many degrees afterwards by the elaf-
ticity ; and thus flop, having transferred its whole
motion to the body h. Therefore if the body h
flics with two degrees when hit by the body g^ the
percuflion then will be of two degrees only : whence
two degrees will be added to the body h, and two
taken from the body g ; and thus they will inter-
change their velocities.

At prefent I rriuft fay fomething of the accelera-
tion of the heavy bodies in the defcent. For the intel-
Jigence of thofe things, which have been happily
difcovercd by our modern mathematicians, and
have been publifhed almoft in our times,' as well
for the publick utility, as for the increafe of learn-
ing : I fay that.

Heavy bodies accelerate their motion in defcend-
ing : and that acceleration very near follows the
progrefs of the uneven numbers, i, 3, 5, 7, fince
they are continually fpurred on by the incumbent
fubtile matter ; for as that fubtilc matter is always
carried upwards, there is no reafon or caufe why
its faculty or efficacy to force the heavy bodies
downwards, fhould be diminifti'd or deftroy-
ed-

That that acceleration follows very near the pro-
grefs of the uneven numbers, i, 3, 5, 7, appears
not only by the experiments of Gc/Z^a, but likewife
of other famous Mathematicians, who by thofe
they have made, particularly at the Obfervatory,
have found, that a body falling, runs within
the fecond of an hour, or the pulfation of an
artery, one fix feet; in the fecond inftant, three;
in the third, five ; or rather, if within a fecond, it
was fallen from the height of twelve feet ; it fell
within two feconds the height of forty-eight feet ;
and therefore, had run the fscond time, thirty-fix
feet, /. e. three times the fpace it had run the firft
time.

They have obferved this in pendulums. For the
ball being fufpended at a rod three feet, eight lines
and a half long, it performs a fmgle vibration with-
in the time of a fecond. But if the rod be four
times longer, wz. twelve feet, two inches, and ten
lines, it will perform a fingle vibration in twice the
time, ^1%. in two feconds. So that to the firft
fecond are allowed three feet, with eight lines and
a half; and to the laft, three times three feet, or
nine feet, twenty-five lines and a half. If the
pendulum be nine times longer, viz. twenty-feven
feet, fix inches, and four lines and a half, it de-
fcribes its arch within three feconds. For thofe
fums, w'z. three i'cet, v>'ith eight lines and a half;
nine feet, with two inches, and one line and a half;
fifteen feet, with three inches, and fix lines and a

half, make up the fum of twenty-feven feet, fix
inches, and four lines and a half.

Therefore heavy bodies follow very near, in their
defcent, efpecially in the lefler diftances, the pro-,
grefs of the uneven numbers, i, 3, 5, 7, iSc.

There is no other caufe of acceleration of the
the motion of heavy bodies in the defcent, than
that, which firft pufties it downwards, vix. the
liquid matter whereby it is continually de|)refled.

2. The fpaces run through by a heavy body in
falling, are, in Galileo's hypothefis, between them,
as quarters of titties. For if a heavy body in the
firft time, or puliation of an artery, runs fix feet,
in the fecond, nine, in the third, fifteen, Wc. it
will follow hence, that at the end of the fecond
time, it will have run twenty-four feet, viz. fix
within the firft pulfation of an artery, and nine
within the fecond. And if thofe twenty-four
feet, are joined with twenty-eight, which it will
run in the third time, they will make up fifty-two
feet. And thus, at the end of the third time, it
will be found to have run nine hexapedes ; and
four and nine are quadrate numbers.

This is commonly exprefled. Fig. 30. in which
the triangle, A 1 1, reprefents the fpace run through
at the firft time ; the three triangles comprifed
within II and 22, the fpace run through at the
fecond time, &c. For 2 and 2 are 4, which is a
quadrate number, produced from a binary num-
ber, carried into itfelf. The ratio of all other
angles is the fame. Therefore the fpaces run
through by a heavy body in the hypothefis of Ga-
lileo, which as the lefler diftances approaches
nearer the truth, are between them as quaiters of
time.

The fame is feen in pendulums ; for a pendu-
lum of three feet, eight lines and a half, accom-
pliflies its fimple vibration vvithin the fpace of a
iecond ; as we have already obferved ; a pendu-
lum of twelve feet, two inches and ten lines,
within two feconds ; and a pendulum of twenty-
feven feet, fix inches and four lines and a half,
within three feconds.

For 3, 1 2, and 27, are between them as i, 4,
and 9 ; for every where the firft number is con-
tained four times in the fecond, and nine times in
the third ; 4 and 9 belides are quarters of times,
viz. of two and three feconds. Therefore the
fpaces run through by a heavy body, according to
Galileo''^ hypothefis, are between them as quarters
of times.

3. A heavy body, pufl\ed by a horizontal mo-
tion., V. gr. a leaden bullet exploded from a can-'
non, is carried by one motion only, and defcribes
but one line : but it is moved by two niotrice
faculties or powers, viz. by a horizontal motion.,

from

M E C H A N I C K S.

from the lighted gun powder, and by a perpendi-
cular one, from its innate gravity, or rather the
preffion of the fubtile fubftance. Therefore of
that double motion, viz. horizontal and perpen-
dicular, is formed a certain compofite nioti.'n,
whereby is defcribed a curve line: which line,
fuch as it is, is made up in ihis manner.

The horizontal motion, the refiftance of the air
excluded, foilov,-s the natural feries of the num-
bers, 1,2, 3,4; and the perpendicular motion
advances forwards, according to the uneven num-
bers, I, 3, 5? 7 J as we have already obferved.
Therefore the line defcribed by that double motion,
the refiftance of the air excluded, is a parabala.

Yov, a Parabola, is a line in which the quarters
of the ordinates, are between tl^eni, as parts of a dia-
meter intercepted by thofe ordinates. But a line
defcribed by a heavy body, thrown by a horizontal
motion, is fuch a line. For in Fig. 31. if the
horizontal lines i g, 3 /&, 5 /, 7 k. called ordi-
nate, are between them as the numbers, i, 2, 3,
4; and the p.arts 61, 13, 35, 57, follow the
progreffion of the uneven numbers, hence it can
be underftood that a quarter of the line 3 h, which
is, V. gr. of two inches, is to a quarter of that line
5 /, which is of three inches, zs a b 6 3 is to 65.
For the quarter of the line 3 h of two inches is 4,
and the quarter of the line 5 /, which is of three
inches is g ; likewife 63, or 6, i, 3, is 4 ; for
it contains 1-I-3. Likewife 65, or 6, i, 3, 5,
is 9 : For it contains I-f-3^-5. and thus the
line b g h i k, which defcribes the water flowing
from the fountain a through the pipe b, is para-
bolick.

All projeiSled bodies, provided they be not
thrown upwards by a perpendicular motion (for
then they re-mcafure the fame line) defcribe in
their afcent and defcent, an entire parabola.

Let it be, v. gr. a bullet exploded from the
cannon p. Fig. 32- and fent according to the line
pm, as it Ihould be carried into the point tn, it
will be carried by its own weight into the point a,
then into gilo ; and that line pag i lo is para-
bolick. For as the bullet by its horizontal mo-
tion, the lefiftance of the air fuppofed, follows the
feries of the natural numbers, 1,2, 3, 4, the lines
fg, h i, k I, no., will be as x, 2, 3, 4 ; but as it
follows in the defcent the progrcfs of the uneven
numbers i, 3, 5, 7, the parts of the diameter ^y,
gh') h k, k n, will be as the fame numbers i, 3,
£, 7 : therefore, as we have obferved already, the
quarters of the ordinates will be between them-
felves, as the parts of the diameter intercepted by
thofe ordinates ; and confequently the bullet will
very near defcribe a parabola. For heavy bodies
do not fall perhaps, exadly according to the
Vol. II. 37.

213

progrefs of the uneven numbers ; and the air be
fides oppofing the horizontal motion, hinders thofe
heavy bodies from following the natural leries of
the numbers, by that horizontal motion ; but the
difference is not fcnfiblc in fmaller diftaiices. It
does not fccm forLigii to our purpofe to obferve
here, that bodies thrown to an angle of 55 deorees
defcribe a very great parabola.

For if a bullet be thrown upwards, and according;
to a perpendicular line, fo as to form with the ho-
rizonial line a right angle, or of 90 degrees, it
will fall through the fame line.

But if it follows a line nearer to the horizontal,
and fonn with it a lefs acute angle, it will fall
fooner by its weight.

Therefore to (end it very far, and tha'. it may
defcribe a very great parabola, a middle line mult
be chofen between the horizontal and perpendi-
cular, viz. which fhould form with the horizontal,
a femi-right angle, or of 45 degrees.

For that reafon, the more or Icfs the line, ac-
cording to which the projeiflion is made, will be
inclined to the horizon, one will be capable to
judge into v»-hat place the bullets exploded will
fall. For if above and beyond the forty-fifth de-
gree of elevation, be taken equi-diftant arches,
viz. 40 and 50, the bullet will always fall in the
fame place of the horizon. But the parabola
defcribed by a bullet exploded according to 50
degrees of elevation, will be higher ; and that ac-
cording to 40 degrees of elevation, lower : though
both will have the fame amplitude, /. e. the bul-
let will arrive at the fame point of the horizon.

If I be afked, which is the caufe of the progrefs
of the motion of heavy bodies, by uneven num-
bers ? I anfwer, that as that progrefs is not ob-
ferved with much accuracy, it is very difficult to
aflign the caufe thereof. Though that affigned by
Galileo, and his difciples, fhew a great ftrength of
imagination. Let's fuppofe, fay they, that a
heavy body defcends fo as to accomplifli the firft
time, or within a fecond, an hexaped i if when it
began to be moved, it had had that velocity it ac-
quired after the firft time, it had run double the
fpace, viz. two hexapedes. Therefore in the fe-
cond time, by the force of that impetus it has ac-
quired, and which it retains, it will run two hexa-
pedes, and another, befides, by its own gravity ;
fo that it will run three hexapedes. Likewife the
third time it will ri!n, by the force it has acquired,
not two hexapedes only, but four ; to which if
one be added, which it acquires by its own gra-
vity, you"ll have five hexapedes, which it vv.ll have
to run in that time. There is the fame ratio of
increafe in all the fubfequent times ; whereby they
pretend that the motio;i of heavy bodies is to be
F f accelerated

214 ^'^^ Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^W Sciences.

accelerated according to the progrefs of uneven
numbers.

Thefe they commonly demonftrate, Fig. 33.
in which the line A B is faid to reprefent the
times, w'z. A i, 12, 23, 3B; andthe lines 11,
22, 33, B C reprefent the velocities acquired to
each time. And the fpace over-run in the fecond
time, which is exhibited by the three triangles
contained between 1 1 and 22, is triple that which
is run the firfl time, and which is reprefented by

the fingle triangle A 11. Like wife the fpace run
through in the third time, and expreflcd by the
triangles contained v/ith 22 and 33, is the quin-
tuple of the famefirftA ii,£3'<:. if the heavy body
at the beginning of its motion had had that velo-
city, which it acquired at tiie end, it fhould have
run double the fpace : which is exprefl'ed by the
triangle A B C D, whereof the triangle ABC
is but one half. But all thefe things are only
(hadowed with figures, but not Jemonftratecl.

ME D I C I N E.

MEDICINE is the art, which treats of the
means of pr.i/erviug health, when prefent ;
and oi rcjUring ir, when loll.

If we lojk back to the origin of the art of me-
dicine, we fliall find itsfirft foundations to be ow-
iiig to mere chance, unforefeen events, and natu-
ral inftinul: in the early ages, the fick were placed
11) crofs-ways, and other public places, to recei\e
the advicj of thofc pafTengers, who knew an eifi
tacious remedy I'uitable to their d.forder. And the
better to preferve the memory of a remarkable
cure, both the difcafe and the remedy were en-
graved on pillars, or written on the walls of tem-
ples, that patients in the like cafes might have re-
courfe to them for inftrudlion and relief. Thus
what mere accident had difcovered, was regiftered
in thefe chronicles of health.

This art arofe from repeated trials and long ex-
perience, which gave an infight into the virtues of
herbs and plants, mttaL and minerals.

As to the part, which reafon has afted in the
improvement of medicine, it feems to have con-
fifted in obferving, i. That difeafes attended with
particular circumftances, called fymptans, were
fonietimes cured without the afllftance of art, by
fpontaneous evacuations, as hamorrhages, diar-
rhceas, vomitings, ot fweats : whence bleeding, pur-
ges, and vomits took their rife. 2. That the pa-
tients weiC often relieved, by the breaking out of
various tumours ; whence arofe the application of
topical lemedie^. And, indeed, it is the befl me-
thod of improving phyfic, to obferve carefully what
means nature, unaffifted by art, employs to free
the conftitutiun from diflempers ; fmce many im-
portant hints may bs t'lence taken, for the relief
of otlier patients under the like circumflances.

Let us now fay fomething of the regular method
of ftadying this art. And firlt, with Boerhaave,
let us imagine the young fluJent laying the foun-
dation of his art in the contemplation of geometri-

cal figures, bfdies, weights, meafures, velocity,
the fabric of, and the power of afling upon other
bodies thence arifing. While he employs his
thoughts about thefe matters, he is likewife taught
a ju(t method of reafoning ; after which he may
proceed to inform himfelf of the properties of flui-
dity, elalHcit), tenuity, weight, and tenacity of
liquids, from hydrojlatics.

f-fis rea'bn being by this time much improved, he
next applies to ftudy the forces of fluids upon ma-
chines, and of thefe upon fluids ; and to demon-
ftrate them by mathematics, confirm them by hy-
drojlatics, and illuftrate them by chemical expe-
riments; at the fame time entertaining himfelf with
fpeculations on the nature of fire, water, air, falts,
and other homogenous bodies.

Having laid this foundation, his next bufinefs is
to apply himfelf to the ftudy of Anatomy, in order
to ob'tain a clear idea of the human fabric. To
this he joins the knowledge of the vital fluids, and
examines them wi;h the afliflance of anatemy, che-
mijlry, hydreflatics, and even of the microfcopc ;
and fo now you fee him qualified for writing a theo -
ry of health, and inveftigating the caufes of dif-
eafe?. Now behold him bufied in furnifh'ng him-
felf with medicinal obfeivationj, from all quarters,
fometlmes he difTtfts the dead bodes of perfons,
whofe difeafes he had obferved ; at other times, he
marks the fymptoms of fickne(s pi^ocured by art
in brutes ; and at length colleiling together all the
efFecls of difeafes, with their remedies, whether
learned from his own experience, or found in the
beft authors, he digefts, confiders, and compares
them with th;fe which aredemonflrated by theory.

This, he tells us, is the method which he took
himfelf, and which he recommended to his pupils,
in order to gain a thorough knowledge of medicine.

If, then, he would advance the healing art, he
ought to colle(St a feledl treafure of pra^ical ohCer-
vations, reft fatisfied with a few but well chofen

medicines;

MEDICINE.

215

medicines ; be thoroughly acquainted with their
virtues and efficacy in different conftitutions and
<3ifcarLS ; defpife the cumberfome load of recipes
with which practical writers of an inferior rank
abound, rejciS the fo much extolled medicines of
the chemijls, and attempt the relief of patients by
a proper diet and exerciie, and fuch medicines, as
obfervation and found philofophy recommend : lor
to the improvement of anatomy and natural philojo-
pby is much of the fucccfs of /i^jy?i- to be attributed.

The knovi\e6ge o( medicines, or fuitable reme-
dies are alfo highly neceflary to phyficians ; who,
in order to moderate the impetus in acute diforders,
make evacuations, blunt acrimony, dilute too thick
fluids, condenfe thofe that are too thin, brace up
too lax parts, and relax fuch as are too much con-
ftridled j thev alfo drive the humours to parts
where they will be leaft prejudicial, upon occafion
jTiitigate pain, and in langours, ufc ffimulating me-
dicines. Wine, vinegar, barley, nitre, honey,
rhubarb, opium, and other fimples, are found both
lafe and powerful medicines. Sydenham tells us,
that all manner of difcafes may be cured by bleed-
ing, purging, with a fubfequent opiate, and pro-
per regimen. In chronical cafes, mineral waters,
falts, diaphoretics, foap, mercury, fteel, with a
few vegetables, and proper excrcife, will gene-
rally effe(5l the cure.

As to the drugs recommended by the antients,
adds Boerhaave, we are, and always fhall be, ig-
norant of them, unlefs perhaps a few ; fince they
contented themfelves with giving the virtues;
omitting the defcription of plants, as things well
known. The modems, on the other hand, have
been accurate in the defcriptive part, but have
given us very little concerning the virtues of plants,
except what they tranfcribed from the antients,
aad this upon an uncertain fuppofition of the plants
being the iame. To conclude, wliat is t'lere in
the molt elaborate preparation, that is worth half
the pains taken about it 1 mercury, opium, the Pe-
ruvian bark, and other fimpl;s, with fire and wa-
ter, are acknowledged as the furefl: remedies by
the abkfl mafters of the art; and thefc are found
to be more efficacious in that crude ftate, in which
bountiful nature has impa..'ted ihem to us, than af
ter the moft operofe an I artificial preparations.
We can defpair of nothir.g, while we follow fim-
plicity ; but the event of intricate labour is falla-
cious.

Phyfick or medicine is divided into five principal
branches ; the fir/1 confiders the human body as
curable, and is called phyfwlogy ; the objeft; of thi.s
part are called res naturales. The fecond confiders
the difcafes, their diiTerences, caufes, and efteds :
as it confiders the caufes in general, it is called

pathology, atiology when it penetrates into their
paufcs ; nofology when it examines their difTercn-
ces: znd Jymptomatology, when it explains their
effedb. The objedls of this part, are called res
pratcrnaturales, or beyond nature.

The third branch confiders the figns or fymp-
toms, and how to form a jufl prognoftick, or
judgment from them ; with regard either to the
adniiniftration of proper remedies, or to pronounce
in the affirmative, on the recovery, or the dan-
geioiis Hate the patient is in : this is calledy^«^/ff-
tica; and its objects are natural, non-natural, and
preter-natural.

i ha fourth branch confiders the remedies, and
their ufe, whereby life may be prefcrved, whence
it is called hygieine. Its objedls are what we
ftridly call non-natural.

Laftly, ih^ fifth furnifhcs the materia mcdica,
its preparation and manner, of exhibition, ^o as to
reflore health, and rttriovc difcafes, and is called
theraupeutica, containing the diatetica, pharma-
ceutica, chirurgica, and jatrica.

ril begin by an accurate explication of the firft
branch of medicine, viz. phyftology ; fince no body
can pretend to be a good phyfician, without as
perfect a knowledge as poffible can be acquired of
the ceconomy of the human body, called animal
ceconomy ; which ceconomy confiits chiefly in ex-
plaining the parts thereof, their ftrufturc and ufe ;
but as 1 have already given that explication at large
in my treatife oi Anatomy, under the Jatter A; I'll
content myfelf with examining carefully in this
place, the humours of the human body, fince they
are the feat of all our difeafes : and in propartioii
as they are predominant over one another, are the
occafion of the difference of temperaments or con-
ftitutions.

Humour is applied in medicine to any juice,
or fluid part of the body, as the chyle, bhcd, fat,
fcrum, lymph, fpirits, bile, feed, falival, and pan-
creatick juices, &c.

The four humours fo much talked of by the
antient phyficians, are four liquid fubftaiices, which
they fuppofe to moiften the whole body of all ani-
maK, and to be the caufe of the diveis tempera-
ments thereof. Thofe are the blood, phlegm, bile,
and melancholy, or qtra bills.

The modern phyficians chufe rather to diftin-

giiilh them into nutritions, called alio elementary ;

\ as chyle and blood ; thofe fipa^ated from the hlood,

1 as bile, faliva, urine, is'c, and thofe return d \\\r.o

' blood.

Humours again are diftinguiflied into natural, or
falutary, or morbid and coirupted. To the for-
mer belong all the juices ordinarily fecreted for the
ufes of the body.

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The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ajid Sciences.

216

To the latter belong thofe compound humours,
which thickning and growing putrid, caufe tu-
mors, abfceffes, obftrudtions, and moft difeafes.
Of the former humours I have fpokcn at large, un-
der Anatomy \ and of the latter 111 fpeak in this
place, difliiiguifhiiig them by various name?, viz.
Thalignan', a^iujl, acrimoniou!, coircjive, crud., pec-
cant, &c. humours ; as more proper for my pre-
fent fubjedt.

A malignant humour is tliar, which in a difeafe
renders it more than ordinarily dangerous and dif-
ficult of cure, as in epidemical and infectious fe-
vers, attended with fpots and eruptions of various
kinds.

jldu/i humour is that, which by long heat be-
comes of a hot and fiery nature ; fuch is choler
fuppofed to be. Melancholy is ufually confidercd
as black and aduft bile. Blood is faid to be aduft
when by reaCjn of fome extraordinary heat, its
more fubtile parts are moil evaporated, leaving the
grofler with all the impurities therein, half terrifi-
ed, as it were.

Acrimonious humour is that, which diflblves other
humours in the body.

Acid humour is that, which coagulates the ani-
mal fluids, and produces obllructions with all their
train of confequences.

Corrcfive humour is that, which carries devafta-
tion wherever it paffes, even breaking and lace-
rating the texture of the fibres, i^c.

Crude humours are thofe, which want that pre-
paration and elaboration, which they ordinarily re-
ceive from a thorough digeftion.

Peccant humours, are thofe which ofFend either
in quantity or qualities, /. e. when they are either
morb'd or in too great abundance, which humours
are the caufe of moft difeafes.

This brings us to the fecond branch of medi-
cine, cA\i:d pathology, and which confiders ^//t-^yt-i
in general.

Difeafe, in Medicine, is that ftate of a living
body, wherein the principal funftions thereof, are
either obftruiEled, impaired, or fome of them en-
tirely fu^pended.

An ingenious author holds the efTence of a difeafe
to confift in a want of that equilibrium between
the folid and fluid parts, which is neceffary to the
maintenance of health : others add, that all dif-
eafes arife either from too lax or tuo flridl a ten-
fion of the fibres.

Some difeafes only impair the ufe of the part,
as the cpthalmia, gout, &c. others deftroy it en-
tirely, ^s the gut:a ferena, paify, &c. fome afteft
the whole body, as the fever, apoplexy, cpilepfy,
&c. others only impair a part, as the Ajihma^

colicJt, dropfy, &c. fome only affedl the body, aj
the gout ; others difturb the mind, as melan-
choly, delirium, vertigoes, Sic. others nfF'-iSt both
the body and mind, as the mania, phrenzy, &c.

As the a<5tions or conditions of the body, fo af-
fo the difeafes or cfFefls thereof may be reduced
to three general heads, viz. i. Difeafes of the fo-
lid parts. — 2. Thofe of the fuid parts. — And 3.
Difeafes compounded of both.

A popular fvllabus of difeafes may be given, as
follows : — tht folid parts, i. e. the bones and flefh,
may be difordered five ways, viz. rendered turgid
by tumors, cut with wounds, corroded by ulcers
or caries's ; removed out of their places, as in her-
nia's, proiapfus's, and didocations ; or difcontinu-
ed by fraftures or contufion?.

Difeafes of the fluids, are either in the mafs of
the blood or the fpirits ; — thofe of the blood are
reducible to two kinds, viz. thofe that thicken or
infpifTate, or, which amounts to the fame, retard
its motions ; and thofe which attenuate and dif-
folve, and confequently accelerate it.

To this latter kind belong fevers, and feveri/h
afFedtions alone: all other difeafes of the blood be-
long to the former.

In too thick a ftate of the blood, its principles
are too crafs, and its molecules too big, whence
a lentor, lazy motion, and even ftoppage, parti-
cularly in the finuous paflages of the glands :.
hence objirufiions, inflammations, fcirrhus^ s, forco-
ma's, veruca, puflules, ademates, impetigines, and
other tumors and congeflions, both in the vifcera,
atid habit of the body : and hence again, drowfi-
nejs, melancholy, hypochondriacal affeSlions, &c. if
this thick blood be too much replete with fliarp acrid
fait?, it will deftroy the texture of the parts and
break out in ulcers, as in phthifical, fcrophulous,
fcorbutick, and venereal difeafes, gangrenes, carbo's,.
cancrrs, and other erofive tumors, according to the
quality and degree of (altnefs and acrimony ; and
from the fame fource arifes cephalalgia' s, cardi-
algia's, colicks, gout, rheunmtifm, pleurifles, Sec.
which by abraiding the folid fubllance irequently
emaciate the body.

The difea'es of the animal fpirits arife cither,
I . From an intermiflion or retardation of their mo-
tion; or a diminution of their quantity; or, — 2v
From a diforder in their quality.

To the firftclafs are reduced the catalepjis, apo-
plexy, comacarus, pafy, flupor, tremor, iic. To
the fecond, belong the mania, phnnzy, delirium^
foolifljHcfs, melancholy, vertigo, fpafms, epilepfy, hy-
jlerick affeitijns, horror, &ic. Add, that as all dif-
eafes of the blood arife from external caufes, viz.
fome one or more of the non-naturals, as food, air,

evacuation,

MEDICINE.

evacuation, ^c. fo thofe of" the fpirits generally
proceed from diforciers of the blood.

Laftiv, the difeafcs of the fluids, whether fhofe
in the blood or fpirits, are feldon? confined lonfj

217

to which belong nodes,

3. In the mnjjnitude;
exoftofes, and cillus";:.

4. In the iituation and connexion ; as when the
lieaments are too long, or too {hort, when broke

thereto ; but prefently come to difturb and impede or depraved ; alfo di/tortions, laxntions, fuhluxnii

ibme of the funflions of the folid parts, and at lad
corrupt the fubftance of the folids themfelves.
Hence compound or complicated difeafes, which
are infinitely various.

Boerhaave divides difeafes into thofe of the folids
and fluids.

Difeafes of the folids he confiders either of the
fimple and fimilar parts, or of the organical.

Similar difeafes are, 1 . Thofe of the lead and
fmallefl: fibres, which are reducible to too great
-tenfion and laxnefs, too great ftrength or weak-
nefs, and a folution of their continuity.

2. Thofe of the membranes, which being only
a/Iemblages of the fibres mentioned, are fubjedl to
the fame diforders.

3. Thofe of the laft and fmalleft canals, which
are formed of fuch membranes.

4. Of the membranes compofed of fuch canals.

5. Of canals compofed of fuch membranes,
W^hich are all the greater veflels of the body.

6. Of the folid parts, which are compofed of
canals compreiied, and grown together fo as to be
void of humour to diftend them ; or canals grow-
ing into a confident part, the humour hardening
together with the veflel that contain it.

Laftly, fuppofing thefe parts all found, difeafes
may befal them with refpedl to their (tru£ture, from
a vice, or vicious application ot the matter of nu-
trition.

Organical difeafes, — An organical part confiding
of the feveral fimple parts above mentioned, and
fitted to perform any office by means of fome hu-
mour contained in it ; may be confidered, either in
itfelf, as a folid part, or with refpeiSlto the humour
it contains : in the firftview, organical dfeajes are
reducible to four claffes.

I. Diforders in the figure and circumdances
thereof; as roughnefs, foUdity, c.tvity, &c. — To
this belongs anajloinofis, when one vedel opens into
another ; the dlapedcfis, when a rupture is made ;
diartfis, when a breach is occafioned by corrofion ;
the emphrafis^ which is the total obdruiftion of
the cavity, by a vicious grumous matter ; the
XyiKxu^iO; or narrownefs of the piiiage ; the 0?in|/i;,
or comp.-eilion of the fides of the cavity ; "Zvj/Jpvan,
when the fides ai'e quite clofed up ; and Su»i^ii«-i5,
when the veflel is fo emptied that the fides falling
together, the cavity is lod,

1. In the number, wheie it is either deficient or
redundant : but the parts feldom err in this refpeif,
fo as to occafion a difcafe, I

ons, hernia-, or ruptures in the groin, fcrotum,
bladder ; procidentiie, of the womb, bl.ulder, and
redtum ; diforders of the tendons ai.d mufcles, par-
ticularly their flying out of their places ; the relaxa-
tion or rupture of the membranous ligament thaf
fhould retain them.

Ladly, \.\vixz\izdifea^e, common both toy/OT,--
lar and organiccd ^-Axfi, cAltd folution of continuity,
wherein their natural cohefion is feparated : as by
a wound or other caufe.

If this happens to a fimple fimilar part of the
body, it is called fimply fohitio contimii. — If to a
compound or organical part, it acquires a particular
denomination, from the nature of the part, ths
difference of the caufe, or the manner of applica-
tion; &SZ wound, rupture, fraclure, pun£iure, fif-
fure, contufion, ulcer, corrofion, dilaceration, exfo-
liation, caries, &c. all which are explained in the
treatife of Chirurgcry.

Difeafes of fluids, confidering thofe fluids fimply,
and in themfelves, may be reduced to diibrders in
refpedl of quantity or quality; but confidering
them as contained in folids, they may err to in place
and proportion.

As to the fjyfl, fuch an abundance of the hu-
mours, as didurb the animal fundlions, is called
a plethora.

Plethora is chiefly underfiood of the blood,
tho' fometimes of the other humours.

The plethora is the confequence of a good chy-
lification, fanguification, i^c. attended with a too
/paring difcharge by perfpiration.

The plethora is chiefly produced in a body,
whofe organs of digedion are drong, blood-veflels
lax, diet full of good juice, temperament fanguine,
mind at eafe and indole.nt, of a middle age, and in
a moid air. — It renders heat and motion intolera-
ble ; dretches the great vefleis, a)id comp.'-eire? the
fmalJer : and hence difPnefs and heavinefs, and on
the lead occafion ruptures in the veffels, fuffbca-
tion, fc'c-. Difeafes from the defect of humours,
we fcarce know of any.

As to thcfecond, fuch quality of the humours as
difturb the animal funiSlions is called cacochlmla.
N'ow this is either in the fluids confidered in them-
felves, their own parts, and compofuion ; oj con-
fidered as they concur towards conflituting fo.Tie
part of the body.

Goraus gives the name cacochimia, to the abun-
dance, or excels of any ill humour ; whether it be

bile.

2l8

The Univerfal Hiftoiy of Arts and Sciences.

part of the body, ' tuough the defe£1: or diforder of
another ; whether it be from the affluence of f'ome
humour, or vapour fent from elfewhere ; or from
the want of the influence of (omc matter necefTary
to its adlion.

bile, pituita, i^c. pi ovided there be only one that
thus ofFends in quantity.

If the morbid quality be conlidered in the parti-
cles of the humoui, it muft either confifl in an
augmentation of bulk, whence the einphraxis,
atrophy^ fy7iiphyfis, zn(] fynerf iS ; or in the diminu-
tion thereof, as in the iliapnoe and cnieangeia ; or in
an increafeof folidity, whence too £,reat an attenua-
tion ; or a decay thereof ; whence a lentor^Jl agna-
tion, and cobejhn ; or in the figure, as when of
iphcrical it become angular, and confequently,
with refpeiSl: to the part it is applied to, fliarp ;
whence acrimonies, both acid, alkaline, muriatick,
amnioniack, faponaceous, vitriolick, i3c. and o
leofities ; or in rigidity and flexibility ; or in elaf-
ticity ; or in cohefion, and divihbility.

Again, all the juices being confidered together,
the principal diforders they are fubjed to, are too
great fluidity or tenacity; too much velocity in
their veflels, or too little.

Laftly, confidering the fluids are contained in
the iblids, there arifes divers difeafcs, merely from
their changing of place ; which may be reduced to
two clafTts, vi%. — The grofier humours intruding
themfelves into the finer canals ; and the humours
cxtravafating, or getting out among the foJid parts;
whence infMmnuitions ancuriinta's,variccs^echymoe5,
tedemd s, pujinlcs, drcpfy, fpongeous mcmhranes of
the head, breast, abdomen, and uterus ; and em-
phyfemd's ; all mentioned at large in the treatife
of Chirurgery.

Add, that the humours collefted and ilagnating
among the parts, grow putrid, purulent, ichorous,
erofive, and fharp ; and thus deftroy the tender
ftamina of folids ; whence fmus's, fijiula's, ulcers,
gangrenes, fphaceltis^ s , cancers.

J'hofe are the prime difterences of the difeafes of
the body, and from thefe arife moft of the reft : fo
that they may be regarded, not only as difeafes,
but as the caufes of difeafes.

There is another divifion o^ difeafes in ufe among
Phyficians, taken from certain external accidents,
and are diftinguifhed, — i. With refpedt to their
caufe, into idiopathy, fympatky, protopathy, deiitro-
pathy, l.ereditary, comiate, and acquired.

Idiop.'\thy is a difeafe, or indifpofition, pecu-
liar to fome member, or part of the body; not
caufed by any other difeafe, or preceding afFeflion ;
nor having any dependaiice on the rcll of the bod ;.
Thus a cataraft in the eye in an idiopathy ; and
epilepfy is either idiopathick or fymphatick ; idiopa
thick, when it happens purely thro' fome fault in
the brain; fympathich, when it is preceded by fome
other diforder.

Sympathy is an indifpofition befalling one

Hereditary are difeafes capable of being
tranfmittedj by blood, from father to fon. The
gout, kings e^)il, madnefs. &c. are hereditary dif-
eafes^ i.e. arc tranfmitted from the parents in the
ftamen, or lirfl: rudiments of the fsetus ; and fuch,
probably, is the origin of numerous other chronick
dijiOJes.

2. With refpedt to their fubjeiH:, into difeafes of
old age, children, adults, men, women, maids,
pregnant, parturient ; endemical, epidemical, {£c.

Endemical difeafe is that which aftedfs many peo-
ple together, in the fame country ; as p.'-oceeding
from Tome caufe peculiar to the country where it
reigns: — Such are the fcurvy in the northern cli-
mates ; intermitting fevers and colicks, in marfhy
places, i^c.

Epidemical difeafe is a general or fpreading dif-
order, as the plague, arifing from fome corruption,
or malignity of the air, which feizes a great num-
ber of people in a little time.

3. With refpecl to duration, into n:oJl acute,
which terminate in four days ; acute, in twenty ;
and chronical, which are all thofe of longer con-
tinuance.

4. With refpeft to feafons, into vernal, autumn
nal, continual and intermitting.

5. With refpeft to their efFefls, into benign,
malignant, curable, incurable, mortal, and conta-
gious.

And, 6. ^Vith refpe«S to their f}ate. into le-
ginning, progrefs, ftate, dcclcnfion, and end.

The entermg into a particular examen of the
caufe of a particular difeafe, is called athiology.
To examine their differences, nofdogy ; and to ex-
plain their efFefls, jymptomatolog-. ; all which I'll
treat of in the examen of the ditfisrent maladies of
the human body : and this leads me into the third
branch of my divifion of Medicine.

The third branch of Phyftck or Medicine, called
femeiotice or femeiotica, is ihac part which conllders
the figns or indications of health and difeafes.

Indications, in Phyfick, iignnitles the point-
ing out, or difcovering what is fit to be done, and
what means applied in any cafe from the know-
ledge of the nature of the diicale, and the virtues
of medicines.

There are four kinds of indications, viz. prcfer-
vative, curative, palliative, and vital.

A prefervative indication is that, which direcEls
how to cut ofF the caufe of an approaching difeafe.

MEDICINE.

219

A curative inJiaition is that, which fticws how
to remove a difeafe adtually foimed.

A palliative indication liiixtih how to leflen the ef-
fefts of a difeafe, or take ofFfome of its fymptoms,
before it can be wholly removed.

And vital iiulication relates to the flirength of the
body, which muft be narrowly inquired into, be-
fore any remedy, particularly a violent one, can be
adminifter'd with fafety ; a phyfician fhould make
it his whole ftudy to examine carefully all the in-
dications mentioned.

1. The prefervaiive indication, by prefcribing in
time to his patient, remedies which he thinks the
moft fpecifick to prevent a malady, which he fees
him threaten'd with : and not fuffer a flight indif-
poiltion to degenerate perhaps into a dangerous
malady.

2. If the difeafe be aftually formed, then the
curative indication is to be minded, by prefcribing
thofe remedies, which he knows to be the moft fpe-
cifick, for the I'peedy cure of fuch a malady, with-
out loading the ftoniach with poifonous medicines.

3. The palliative indication is of very great confe-
queiice, fince there are fometimes fymptoms much
more dangerous than the malady itfelf, and which
neglefted, even for fo fhort a time, put the patient
in very great danger; and others, which, if not
taken off, will render the difeafe rebellious to all
remedies ; therefore this axiom is not true, in all
circumftances, fublata caufa tollitur cjfeiius.

4. As to vital indications., though the remedy is
well appropriated to the malady, ajid produces the
clFedl expected from it ; if it operates with too
much violence, it may weaken the patient to fuch
a degree, as to reduce him into a worfe condition,
than he was while afilicSed v>-ith the difeafe be has
been cured of,

The counter indications contribute alfo very much
towards avoidin"- thofe danrerous inconveniencies.
For a counter or contra indication, is an indication
which forbids that to be done which the main fcope
of a difeafe points out. Suppofe, e.gr. in the cure
of a difeafe, a vomit were judged proper, if the
patient be fubjedt to a vomiting of blood, or has
an extremely weak ftomach, it is a fufficient contra-
indication., as to its exhibition : for if he be fub;ect
to a vomiting of blood, the efforts made in vomit-
ing may caufe a violent hemorrhage; and if his
Itomach he very weak, vomiting may occafion a
fyncope, or other dangerous accidents. The fame
is to be faid of thofe who are fufpe£ted to have ab-
fcefl'es in the capacity of the breaft, v/ho are not
to take vomits, for fear they fhould be fuftocated,
during the efforts, by the abfcefs breaking at that
time. 3

Next to indications, and contra-indicatlons, aic
figns, which in medicine denote ("ome appearance
in the body, diflinguifhable by thefenfes ; whence,
by jufl reafoning, is inferred the prefence, nature,
ftate, of health, a difeafe, or death.

Thofe figns which denote the prcfent condition
of a body, whether fick or well, dying or the like,
are called diagnoftick figns. T'hofe which foretel
the future flate thereof are called progm/lick figns.

As all figtis are effefts produced by the caufe of
the difeafe, the difeafe itfelf, and the fymptoms ;
they ufually note theprefent condition of the mat-
ter which firff produced the difeafe, and even of
that produced by the difeafe : on which footing
figns are all reducible to thefe three clafes, viz. —
Signs. I. Of crudity and coction of the difeafe.
2. Of its event, whether in health, ficknefs, or
death. 3. And of its fecretion and excretion ;
which laft figns are called critical ones.

Crudity, fometimes denotes that ftate of a
difeafe, Vv'hercin the moibifick matter is of fuch
bulk, figure, cohefion, mobility, or inadivity, as
creates or increafes the difeafe.

The crudity is difcovered, — i. From the difeafe
continuing its degree of ftrength, or increafing. —
2. f>om a continual increafe of fymptoms. — 3.
From a difordeiJy exercife of the funftions. — 4.
But chiefly from a fault in the quantity or quality
of the humours ; both thofe ftill circulating, and
thofe fecreted ; as of fweat, tears, mucus of the
nofe, faliva, fputum, the bile, urine, ichor, pus,
blood, menfes, lochia, milk, aphtha:. Sic.

The ftate of the difeafe wherein the crude mat-
ter is changed, and rendered lefs peccant and lau-
dable, is called digefiion, concoSiion, or nuituration.

Digestion is that ftate of a difeafe wherein

i the morbifick matter is fo changed in bulk, figure,

I cohefion, mobility, t^c. by the ufe of proper me-

' dicinc, or even by the force of nature, as to be lefs

! noxious, and hurtful, and confequently to abate

■ the violence of the diftemper. The matter of the

j difeafe fofar digejied, as to become next a kin to

{ falubrious or healthy matter, is faid to be refolved;

which is done either by the natur.al ftrength of the

patient, or of its own accord, or by the application

of remedies ; whereby its bulk, figure, cohefion,

ISc. are fo far changed, as that is ceafes to be

morbid, and becomes laudable.

I This, Bocrhaave obferves, is of all others the

moft perfeft cute, where it is efFeited withoit

' any evacuation ; as fuppofing the matter favour-

. able, the conftitution excellent, and the medicines

good.

Critical

220 Tlje Univerfal Hiftory of Arts i3;7<a^ Sciences.

Ciit'icol figm are certain figns ufuall; anfiiig in
the courfc of acute difeafes, as fevers, fmall-pox,
i^c. which indicate the patient's flatc, and deter-
mine him either to recover or grow worfe

The crifa have been frequently obferved to hap
pen on the fcvcntii, fourteenth, or twentieth day.

As to the theory of critical days, it may be obferv-
ed, that the connexion of any morbifick matter
and the humour to be fccernsd, is nothing clfe but
a change thereof into fuch a due magnitude or
fmallnefs, as it may be carried by the circulating
blood along the canals, and excerned by veficls de-
flincd for that purpofe. But if the morbifick
matter cannot be reduced to fuch a magnitude or
fmallnefs as may correfpond to the orifices of the
fecretary vefTels ; then either an abfcefs or haemor-
rhage will follow, if a ctifn be begun ; for which
reafon abfcefles, ^c. are accounted lefs perfeSl
crifis. But that the morbifick matter may be re-
duced to a due magnitude or fmallnefs, and its
wifh'd-for difcharge take place, there is required a
confiderable time, if the quantity of matter be large;
that is, if the diftemper be great and fevere : and
fmce there are a great many caufes, and thofe very
confbant, which may occafion the blood and of-
fending humours therein, to be of a different flui-
dity in the inhabitants of different climates; it is
impoffible but that different fpaces of time fliould
be required for the finifhing concodion : which
make it impoffible to determine the critical days in
one climate, from what they are found to be in
another.

Among all other figns, a judicious phyfician
muft mind, in a particular manner, the critical and
progmjiical ones. The critical., becaufe though a
difeafe declares itfelf favourably, by feme figns of
a good crifis ; if thofe figns be not minded, the
cnjis may be either neglected, and thereby fruf-
trated of the good effeds it would otherwife have
produced ; if, e. gr. by a fweat, in fuffering the
patient to cool himfelf, cither outwardly, by thruft-
ing his arms out of his bed, ^c. or inwardly, by
taking fome cooling draughts, i^c. — Or prevented,
by the adminiftring of fome remedy, to procure
the evacuation of the morbifick. matter, otherwife
than nature had determined itfelf to do it ; whereby
being difturbed in its ialutary operations, the pa-
tient is expofed to the imminent danger of lofing
his life. The prognojiick Jigns are very near of the
<ome confequeriCL ; fmce it is on them that the
Phyfician muft found his judgment of the recovery
or death of his patient ; in which he muft not (hew
too much precipitation, inclining rather to uncer-
rauity, while he iees fome probable figns of a re-
covery, let them be ever fo fmall or giinimering,
tiian pronounce affirmatively on the death.

Symi'tom is ordinarily confounded with fiirn,
and defined an appearance, or aliemblage of appear-
ances, in a difeafe, which fhew its nature and
quality ; and from which one may judge of the
event thereof.

In which fcnfe a delirium is held a fymptom of
z.fever. — Pan, wakening, drowfiucfi, cunvidjians,
fupprrjjion of urine, difficulty of breathing and /wal-
lowing; coughs, dijlajles, naufea's, thirjl, fwooningSf
faintings, loofenefs, c'jjiivenefsy dryiujs, and black-
nefs of tongue, are the principal fymptoms of
difeales.

Boerhaave gives another notion of fymptoms :
every preternatural thing arifing from adifcaie, has
its caufe, in fuch manner, however, as that it may
be diftinguifhed from the difeafe iC^lf, and from
its next caufe, is properly ?ifympto>n of the difeafe.

If it arilc, after the fame manner, from the caufe
of the difeafe, it is called z fymptom of the caufe.

If it arife from fome former fymptom, as its caufe,
it is properly called a. fymptom of a. jymptom.

Whatever happens to a difsafe from any other
caufes than thofe mentioned, is properly called an
epigennema.

Hence it appears, that tht fymptoms above recit-
ed, are really dileafes themfeives. They are va-
rious as to number, etfect, (s\. though, after the
antients, they may be conveniently enough re-
duced to faults in the funiStions, excretions, and
retentions.

Under the firft come all diminutions, abolitions,
increafes, and dep; avations of animal actions, par-
ticularly with regard to hunger and thirft, fleeping
and waking.

Under the fecond come naufa's, vomitings, Ueii~
teries,C(eliac affe^ions, diarrhaa s, dyfenteries, ilUack
paffions, &c.

Under the third come the. jaundice, Jlone, dropfy,
fever, ifchuria,Jlrangury, aflhma, catarrhea, &c.

Let us now confider the fourth branch of my
divifion of Aledicine, called Hygieine.

Hygieine may be divided into three parts, vi'z.
PtophylaSlice, which forces and prevents difeafes. —
Synteritice, employed in prefcrving health.— And
Analeptice, whofe office is to cure difeafes.

But before I proceed further on this divifion, I
muft give the reader a notion of remedies or medi-
cines in general.

Medicines, or remedies, or medicaments, denote
any natural fubftances. applied to a human body,
in order to anfwer fome intention of cure.

Medic nes are diftinguifhed, with regard to the
manner of application, into internal and exter-
nal.

Internal medicines are thofe taken in at the mouth.

External

MED I CI N E.

221

Exteinal or topical medicines arc thole applied
outwardly to any particular part.

With regard to their different manner of opera-
tion, meclicinis are diftinguiflied into agglutinants,
alterants, anaflomachics, ajhiiigents, evactients, in-
carnativcs, fpecijicks. See.

A general idea of the manner wherein medicines
operate on a human body, as explained by the fedt
of mechanical phyficians, may be conceived from
what follows.

A few different forts of particles, varioufly com-
bined, will produce great variety of fluids ; fome
may have one fort, fome two, fome three or more.
If we fuppofe only five different ibrts of particles in
the blood, and call them a, />, c, d, e ; their feveral
combinations, without varying the proportions in
which they are mix'd, will be thefc following; but
whether more or lets need not be determined,

a b : a c : a d : a e :

b c : b d : b e : c d :

c e : d e : a b c : a d c :

abd:abc:ace:adc'.

b d c : b d e : b e c : d c c :

abed'. abcc:acde: abde: bed e: abed e.

I muft confefs that this fyftem of combinations,
adapted to the different manner of the operating of
remedies, is a pretty diverting thing, efpecially tor
thofe which have fome notion of Algebra : but I
mufl confefs alfo, that in my ientiment, it has no
other merit; and does not at all-explain in an in-
. tcUigible manner, that of operating of medicines,;
and there is fcarce any appearance of truth in it,
the whole fyftem or hypoihefis being founded in
part on the falle fuppofition, that purgatives pene-
trate as lar as the iubflance of the blood, to feparate
the humours which fuperabound in it, in order for
their fecretion, which is falfe ; for if purgatives
were to enter the fubftance of the blood, they would
prove more prejudicial than beneficial to it, for by
the cxcefTive fermentation they might excite in it,
they would fo difunite the particles the whole mafs
is compofed of, as to occafion difeafes much more
dangerous than thofe whereof the cure is attempted
by their means; therefore puigatives operate no,
where elfe but in the primas vias ; v, here by irritat- j
ing the glands they meet with on their pafliige, they "
force them to contra<fl; themfelves with fuch vio-
lence, as to fecrete through their fpongeous fub-
ftance the humour they contain ; and as there is no
intermiiuon in the circulation of the blood, and in
that circulation it is always unloading itfelf of the
fuperfluous humours, more or lels, according to its
faculty of fecretion, which is increafed or diminifh-
ed, in proportion to its greater or lefler velocity,
Vol. II. 37.

the glands arc no fooner empty but they are filled
again ; and as they are fome tiuic before they tan
recover their former ftate and contradt their pores,
extremely dilated by the irritation, the fetretioa
continues, more or lefs, according as the purga-
tives are more or lefs violent, and confequently
have made a greater or le/i'er imprefTion on the
membranes of the glands ; and if the irritation has
been exceffive, the pores of the glands being cx-
cefTively dilated every where, as well towards re-
ceiving the fecretion of the blood, as towards
fecreting that fecretion ; the evacuation of the
humours will conlbciuently be more copicu', and
continue longer, whereby one may very well ac-
count for the copioufnefs of a falivation ; for as the
pores of the glands are extremely dilated by the
continual rotation of the mercurial particles thro'
them ; when a too great quantity of thpfe particles
is introduced into them, by means of a too copious
fri61ion, or inward adminiftration of mercurial
preparations, that rotiation being more violent by a
too great number of the mercurial particles crowd-
ing through the pores, they are fo much dilated,
that their contractive faculty is thereby almoft en-
tirely imbecillitated ; fo that the humours finding
a more free pafTage that way than any where elfe,
flow all thither in abundance, and with great im-
petuofity.

As to ficdorlficks, they certainly penetrate as far
as into the fubflancc of the blood ; foi* as they are
compofed of more fubtile particles than the purga-
tives, and thofe particles le(s embarafTed with vifcous
and ramous ones, they are therefore eafier volatiliz-
ed in the ftomach, and rendered capable thereby ta
penetrate the mofi exiguous pores of the fubflance
of the chyle, which ufhcrs them along with it into
the mafs of blood j and the greater is the number
of thofe particles it is loaded with, the more .opi-
ous is the fecretion of the humours, for if they be
but infmr.ll quantity, they only produce an infcn-
fible pcrii>iration, if otherwifc they provoke fvvear,
Their manner of operating in the blood i; by rarc-
fidtion ; but as though humours cannot be all
equally well attenuated, fome of them, efpecially
the phlegm, being of a too vifcous texture to bo
entirely rarefied, the coarfer particles thereof beiiig
too heavy to be ufhered through the pores, along
with the volatile ones of the remedies, which tlic
native heat keeps in a continual motion, they foi- >
low their own propenfity downwards, and are eva-
cuated through the prima; vise along with the
urine ; thofe who have took a fudcrifick evacuating
much more of that excrement immediately after
the remedy has done operating, or even while it
operates than they did before.

G g The

2 22 Ihe Univerfal Iliftory (?/" Arts and Sciences.

The;f/>«ri'/.'V/ibcingcomporedofhookccl,{liarp,j trunks of vipers, in ba'iieo marise, to lake two or
cl incifivc particles, faften or entangle thcinfelvcsl three Cpoonfuls of it twice- or thrice a day.

anj

in the ramous tCNture of the phlegni, vv'.ich they
fliake and lacerate, more or lefs, according as their
motion is more or lefs accelerated by the native
Warmth, which laceratbn p;pducing a more than
Ordinary heap of watery humour, that humour
forces with impctuofity through its natural paiTage,
meeting with oppofition from all other parts,
whence enfucs a greater evacuation of utinc.

To reduce all this theory inro practice, I'll di-
vJJe the human body into three parts, viz.. the
head, breaji, and abdomen ; and treat of all the
different difeafes each part is fubject to ; of their
caufes, fymptoms, prognofticks, ar^d the manifcr of
curing them. Beginning by the difcafes of the head.

Now for the divifion ofhygieine mtoprophylaSlke,
fyiiteritke, and anoleptice.

Prophylactice is ttiat part of M dlcine,
which direfts the preventing or prcfervino; from
di (tales ; which confifts, according to fome, in
taking remedies by way of precaution.

The principal prefervations, according to Boer-
haave, are abftinence, quiet, drinking of warm
water ; and after this a gentle and continued mo-
tion till the firft appearance of fweat ; then a pro-
fufe fleeping, the body well covered.

By (uch me.ans, fays he, grofs humours are
dilated, the veffels relaxed, and noxious matter
excreted. — He adds, that the beft defence againft
the force of external cold, is to leffcn the winter's
cloathing late in the fpring, and to encreafe the
fummer's cloathing foon in autumn.

Dr. JVencef,aus Dobr. Zeiijky de Nigra Ponie
gives us an univerfal prefervative againft infeftion
in all difeafes. Whoever, fays he, in converfmg
with patients of any kind, would prefer\'e himfelf
from infedion, muft, while he is within thefphcre
of their effluvia, never fwallow his fpittle, but fpit
it out : for he conceives it to be the fpittle that
firft imbibes the infeiftion.

Syteritice relates to what is ufed to preferve
health ; therefore there is no difference between it
and prcphylaHicc ; for the fame means which are
ufed to prevent difeafes, are ufed to preferve
health.

Analeptice relates to remedies proper to re-
ftore the body, when wafted or emaciated, either
by the continuance of a difeafe, or the want of
food ; which remedies are called refloratives.

1 he tnedicines that come under this denomina-
tion, are of an emollient foftening nature, but
nutritive withal, and are rather adminiftered to
repair the wa(^es of the conftitution, than to alter
and rectify its diforders.

Such are fuppofed to be the leaves oi ivhite and
black ttjai din-hair, black hellebore, rocket, eruca,
Jcabious, colts- foot, b:'.<ea tea, chick peas, hops, choco-
late, pi/tachio nuts, baljam ofTclu,bdellium, benzoin,
jhrax; cryn^ro, iris, Jatyrion, generous v/ines, mut-
ton-juice, and a juice extradted from beef, and the

Disease j »/ ^A? Head. The Head, is fub-
ject ro feveral very dangerous difeafes, viz. to the
apoplexy, cams, coma, epilepfy, lethargy, mania,
madnejs, palfy, phrcnzy, fyncope, &c.

The Apoplexy, is a fudden privation of all the
fenfes, and all the fenfible motions of the bodv,
except thofe of the heart and lungs, attended with
a great depravation or fufpenfion of the principal
faculties of the foul.

Hippocrates diftinguifhes two kinds of apoplexies,
the one ftrong, the other weak ; only differing in
the greater or lefs difficulty of refpiration and pul-
fation. In the former the pulfe and breath feeni
entirely ftopped. In the latter there are confider-
able remains of them.

7 he more modern authors diftinguifti apoplexies
from their cajfe, mta fanguincous and pituiloiis ;
to which may be added lymphatick, polypous, ferouSy
atrabilary, &c.

Caufes of Apoplexy. — Apoplexy is occafioned by
a fudden and violent obftru£tion of the circulation
of the animal fpirits, through the organs of fenfe,
and a fufpenfion of their generation in the ventri-
cles of the brain, proceeding either from an inter-
ruption of the paffage of the blood into the brain,
whereby it is deprived of the vital fpirits neceffary
for the formation of the animal ores ; or from an
abundance of phlegm, or vifcid pituita, wherewith
the brain is oppreffcd, as is obfervable in winter
apoplexies, or in thofe of old people ; or from a
melancholick acid humour that coagulates the
blood, or too grofs a lympha which ftop up the
nerves, or a plethora which oppreffes them ; or
from excrefcences withinlide the cranium prelfing
the veffels ; or from a polypus blocking up the
carotydes, ^c.

Signs of an Apoplexy, — The fit of an apoplexy
is ufually preceded by a violent pain of the head,
dimnefs, and lofs of fight or memory. — Some-
times by an univerfal indolence ; and (bmetimes
by a flux of pituitous matter by the nofe and
mouth.

Symptoms of Apoplexy. — Apoplexy is attended
with a fnoring and difficulty of breathing ; fome-
times with a fever, rarely with a foaming at the
mouth, frequently with a fweat, hemorrhoids, or
diarrhsea, and fo goes off.

Prognojfick

MEDICINE.

Progmflkk of Ap-pkxy.. — Apoplexy, in general,
is always very dangerous ; tut muth more io when
it prot-eeds from a grofs lympha, which obftructs
,thc pafTage of the animal fpirits through the nerves ;
or a coagulated blood ; for as that rnalaJy canaoi
be cured but by large cv.icuatioiis ; the grofs lym-
pha cannot be evacuated, till it be larcfied, which
rarcfa<5lion cannot be done always fo foon, as it
would be necefiary to fave the life of the patient :
neither can the blood be eafily dillblved ; therefore
the patient molt commonly dies of an apopl xy
proceeding from thofe two caufes ; and always of
that proceeding from a polypus. — '1 he lefs dan-
gerous is that caufed by a pituita, or an atrabilis,
which can be eafily rarefied by remedies admini-
flred in time ; and thefe are the kinds o'^ apoplexy
wliich have thefe intervals, the laft whereof is al-
mofl: always mortal.

Cure of the apoplexy. — To prevent an apoplexy^
wine and hard labour are to be avoided ; no eating
to excefs ; nor no fleeping after dinner ; exercile
to be kept up ; and care and chagrin to be kept
under. — To cure an apoplexy, medicines muft be
ufed that occafion large evacuations ; and nothing
of opiate or aftringents to be meddled withal.
During the fit, copious bleeding in the jugulars to
be ufed; and the patient laid on his back, applying
ftrong volatiles to the nofe ; blov/ing up Itrong
{lernutatories, and rubbing the temples with ce-
phalick mixtures. A hot iron may alfo be applied
near the vertex or occiput ; and epiipaiiicks to the
neck : to which are added powerful purgatives,
clyfters, isc. — Cupping, and fcarifications on the
head, are commended by fome in lieu of vens-
fedion.

Boerhaave_ prefcribes for the Apoplexy, the fol-
lowing gargarifm, majiicatory, vomitive, purgative,
fumigation^ and clyller.

Gargarifm. — Take the roots of imperatory,
pyrheter, and fmall galanga, of each an ounce ;
the leaves of rue, origan, and th\ me, of each a
handful; flowers of la'ender, and matricary, of
each an ounce ; the bark of winter, fix drachms :
mix all the ingredients to boil in three pints of
water, in a veflel well cover'd, to the diminution
of a fourth part; rtrain (he decocHon, and to the
colature, when cold, add three drachms of fpirit
of fai acmoniack, for a gargarifm, which muit be
ufed coJd

Majlicatcry., which excites a falivation. — Take
mafiick, white wax, ginger, of each an ounce, to
make pafliies, S. A.

yamitive. — Take an ounce and half of emetick
wme, and an ounce of oxymel of fquills mixed
tognher for a dofe. — Or take fi.x grains cf eir^-
ticn tartar. — Or take an ounce of ihe juice of

223

wild radifli, extrafled by expreffion ; two ounce s
of oxymel of f.judls mixed togetlier for a dofe. —
Or take two grains of powder of algaroth.

Purgative^ — Take ten grains of diacrydium,
ten grains of refin ol jalap, tv/o drachms of rec'i-
ficd ipirit of wine, mix we 1 all the ingredients to-
getncr in a mortar, and add to the mixvure fix
drachms of laxative fymp of rofes compofed with
fenna, for a dofe.

Fumigation, v;hich irritates the noftrils. — Take
thediiiilld oils of rofemarv of tanfy, of l.ivender,
rue, wormwood, o\' each i'our drops, a drachm of
the inruhon of caftoreum, an ounce of the un-
guent for the nerves, and a drachm of the oleofum
volatile fait, mixed together into a balfam, for a
fumigation under the nofe of the patient, and ta
rub the temples withal.

An acrimonious cly Her. — Take half a drachm

of the pulp ofcoloquintida, a drachm and half of

leaves of tobacco, boil them in ten ounces of wa-

er, ftrain the decoction, and to the colature add

Lwo drachms of fal gemma, for a cKfter.

This remedy is alio very good for the apoplexy,
to help towards the rarefadfion of the humours,
after the evacuations required have been made.
Take twenty drops of volatile fpirit of fal ammc-
niack, fifteen drops of tincture of karabe, and an
ounce of water or carduus benediciius, mixed toge-
ther for a dofe. — This remedy being ufed every
month, after the firft fit, may prevent a fecond,
provided the patient be well purged at leaft twice a
year, with half a drachm of gilla vitrioli, or {zvzw
grains of emetick tartar,

Carus is a fpecies of kthargick difeafe, confift-
ing in a profound fleep, with a fudden deprivation
of ienfation and motion, and an acute fever.

Caujcs of the Carus. — The caufes of the cams
are almofi: the fame with thole of the apoplexy ;
the gci.eral one being alfo an interruption of the
animal Ipirits through the organs of fenfe, but not
foabfolute a one as in the apoplexy, fince it proceeds
only from an atrabilis, which does not obflruft
entirely the paffagc, and can be cafilv rarefied by
the violent .agitation, affifled therein by fome reme-
dies appropriated to the nialadv.

Symptoms. — The moil confidcrr.ble fvmptoms
of the carus is a violent fever, attended with an
exceffiveheat, which manifefts itfclf in a part cuhr
manner, on the face; and an ahr.oft entire priva-
tion of tlie fenfitive facultv.

Lure. — 'i'he fame remedies ufed in the apo-
plexy, are alfo ufed in the carus; but not in fo=
large a dole : and 1 have even feen patients affiifted
with that malady, recover their fenies by means
01 the fmouk of paper burnt under their nofe,: of
G g 2 by

2 24 1'he Univerfal Hiftory of Arts <7;?^ Sciences.

by rubbing their temples with hungary-water j '
but the fureft remedy is cupping or bleeding. ,

The Coma is a fort oi pepy difeafi, other wife
called cataphora ; confifting in a violent propenfity
to fleep, whether flcep enfues or not. I

Cnufes of the Coma. — The caufe may be any i
thing that prevents the courfe of fpirits ; as the
cold, humid temperature of the brain : hot putrid
vapours afcending into the head, and flopping the
canals of the animal fpirits, nnrcotick vapours, (Jc.
or it may arile from the confliil or jarring mixture
of bile and pituita.

Cure. — The remedies for a coma, are thofe,
which occafion great evacuations ; as violent
clyfters, or vomitives ; medicines that purge and
dry the brain ; and thofe which occalron revul-
fions of humours ; as veficatories, cauteries, ^c.
to which may be added volatile fpirits, falls, and
moil cephalicks.

The Epilepsy is a convulfion, either of the
whole body, or fome of its parts, attended with a
deprivation of the fenfes and underftatiding, and
returning from time to time in fits or paroxifms.
This is called the falling fukiiefs.
Caufe of the Epilepfy. — Boerhaave attributes
the caufe of this difeale to too much action of the
brain on the motory nerves, and none on the fen-
fative ones. Some account for it from the abun-
dance of fliarp humours mixing with the animal
fpirits, and giving them extraordinary and irregu-
lar motions and diredtions ; whence arifes its
diftinftion from a fyncope and apoplex)', which
take away all motion as well as fenfe.

The Epilepjy is either idiopathici, or fympathe-
tick. It is idlopathick when it arifes merely from a
diforder of the brain or fpirits: znA fympathetick
when it is preceded by fome other difeafe.

Symptoms. — The patient I'eized herewith falls
inftantly, and fuddenly down, or rather throws
and precipitates himfelf violently to the ground :
when dovtn he grinds his teeth, foams at the
mouth, and frequently fhakes his head ; his arms,
legs, neck, back, crV. either becoming rigid, or
varioufly difiorted. And as all the parts are in a
violent contra6lion, there is frequently an involun-
tary flux of urine, feed, and fascal matter. After
fome time he returns to himfelf, only retaining a
head-ach, heavinefs, wearinefs of the limbs, ISc.

Cure. — The cure is very difficult; the prin-
cipal anti epilepticks are, the roots of piony,
leaves of lillies of the valley, feeds of rue, mifietoe
t)f the oak, or hazel, box-wood, fpirit of black-
therries, fpirit of human blood, human fecundines,
human cranium, tooth of ipa-horfe, cafloreum,
peacocks dung, camphire, fait, and oil of amber.

To recover a perfon in a fit, tobacco fmoak, or
that of burnt feathers, is recommended. Barbette^
above all things, direds the flowers and fpirit of
fal armoniack againft this difeafe. Crato, native
cinnabar. Sir John Colbatch has an exprefs trea-
tife on the mifletoe of th- oak, to fhew it i-j a fpe-
cifick in this difeafe. Elks claws have long had
the reputation of the fame.

Mania, in Medicine, madnefs, is a vehement
kind of delirium, without a fever.

My fentiment on the caufes of this melancho-
lick difeafe, is, that it proceeds either from an evil
temperature of the brain, or from a bad confor-
mation thereof, and fometimes from both. That
a violent madnefs, attended with rage, fury, isfc.
proceeds from a too great ficcity of the brain ;
which thereby being render'd uncipable of mo-
derating the too great impetuofity of the vital
fpirits ufher'd into it along with the blood, leave
thofe fpirits to efcape in the fame confufion they
are brought in, to the place of their deftination,
the ventricles, where they crowd in t^o great
abundance, and loaded with the impurities they
have contraded in the mafs of the blood, and
which fhould have been feparated from them by
the refrigerating quality of the brain, in their paf-
fage through it, before their admiffion into the
ventricles ; hence enfues a conflid between them
and the few animal fpirits thev meet with there,
appointed for their further elaboration into animal
fpirits, and direitions, but which meeting with
fuch infuperable obflacles, are not only fruftrated
in their defign, but overpower'd by fo great a
quantity of heterogeneous bodies, are themfelves
diverted from their natural courfe, and forced to
follow the irregular impetuofity of the prevailing
imperfeft fpirits. A melaneholitk mania proceeds
from a too great vifcidity of the brain, which ob-
flruft the patlage of the vital fpirits to the ventri-
cles, for the formation of a quantity of animal
fpirits, fufhcicnt to difcharge the funilions of the
ieveral faculties of the foul. And an c.ltcrnative
mania proceeds from fome diforders in the organs
of thofe faculties, whereby the animal fpirits are
often diverted from their natural determination.

Cure. — 7'he outrageous mania is eafier palliated
than any of the two others, bccaufe, as it proceeds
in part from the too great abundance, and too vio-
lent impetuofity of the fpirits ; that impetuofity
may be moderated by copious evacuations, efpeci-
allv of the blood; and by alim.cnts of little fub-
ftance, adminifler'd with a parfimonious hand.

Palsy, Parclyfis, is a difeafe wherein the body,
or fome of its parts lole their motion, and fome-
times their fenfation or feeling.

, . Catfes.

MEDICINE,

Caufes. — The caufes of the pa/fy, are an im-
peded influx of the nervous fpirits into the villi of
the mufclcs ; or of the artcrious blood into their
veflels ; which may happen from fomc fault, ci-
ther in the brain, the nerves, mufcles, or their
veflels.

Divifion of the Palfy. — The palfy is faid to be
perfect or compleat, when there is a privation of
motion, and fenfation, at the fame time. Imptr-
fe£f, when one of the two is deftroyed, the other
remaining.

The palfy again is either univerfal, lateral, or
partial.

Univerfal Palfy, called alfo paraphkgia, or pa ■
raphUxia, is a general immobility of all the muf
cles that receive nerves from the cerebrum, or
cerebellum, except thole of the head. Its caufe is
ufually fuppofed to refidc in the ventricles of the
brain, or in the root of the fpinal marrow.

The Paraphkgia is feldom a primary difeafe,
ufually a fecondary one, attending, or following
an apoplexy, fcorbutus, carus or arthritis.

Laternal Palfy., called alfo hemiphlegia, is the
fame difeafe with the paraphUgia, only that it affeiSs
but one fide of the body. Its caufe is the fame,
only reflrained to one fide of the brain, or fpinal
marrow.

Partial Palfy, is where fome particular part or
member alone is afFeftcd, e. gr. where the motion
•of the arm or leg is deftroyed.

The caufe of the paljy, whether univerfal or
partial, is an obftruction of the paiPage of the ani-
mal fpirits through the nerves ; either entire when
the part is deprived both of motion and fenfation ;
or in part, when it is deprived but of one of thofe
two faculties.

Prognofiick. — Palfy, whether univerfal or par-
tial, is aUvays incurable in old people ; for as the
iburce whence the animal fpirits flow is much ex-
haufted in them, and confequently the channels
through which they flow to all the parts of the
body, much contradted, through the fcarcity of
thole fpirits, which flow then but in a very I'mall
quantity through them ; thofe pall'ages once ob-
ftructcd, thofe Ipirits flowing neither in a quantity,
nor with an impetuofity capable to conquer them,
take another courfe ; whereby thofe paffages are
foon entirely contra(5led,and confequently rendered
ufelefs. — In young perfons, who abound yet with
animal fpirits, thofe ipirits, alliited with medicines,
can force their pailage through the nerves, let the
obftruction be ever io great provided the remedies
be well appropriated to the malady.

Cure. — The cure of the palfy, according to
Wahlfchmit, does not differ much from that of the

225,

venereal difeafe. Internally mercurial, fudorificks»
and decovitions of the woods are good : externally
undlions, particularly of fpirituous and penetrating
things , and bathing. T'he mare, as they call it
in Franci-, or the grounds of the grape after the
wine has been extrafled from it, is alfo an excel-
lent remedy, by putting the patient to fweat in it.

Here follow the medicines of Dr. Boerhaave,
for this dil'eafe. — Take maftich, olibanum, fuc-
cin, of each half an ounce ; mix them together for
a powder ; which you 11 burn on lighted coals,
and receive the vapour thereof in a piece of thick
flannel, very dry, to rub hard the parts with it.
Take three ounces of fpirit of lavender, two
di'achms offal armoniack, four drachms oftinifure
of calf oreum, and fix ounces of diftilled water of
lavender, which muft be mixed together to rub
the parts therewith. Take plaifter of cumin, of
melilof, galbanum, of each an ounce, and half an
ounce of the oil of caftoreum, for a plailler, which
muft be fpread on leather, and applied on the
affli(aed part after it has been well rubbed.

Take the infufed oils of wormwood, anet, ca-
momile, rue, caftoreum, fafFron, iris, earth-worms,
nardus, of each a drachm; unguent of Agrippa,
of athanita martiotum, for the nerves, of each fix
drachms ; mixed together for a liniment. He
prefcribes likewil'e the acrimonious plaifters of
cuminum, galbanum and melilot.

Phrenzv, phrenitis, phremfts, is a conftant
and vehement delirium, or diftradfion, accompa-
nied with an acute fever.

It differs from the mania, and melancholy, in that
thofe are without fevers.

Caufes. — Phyficians generally make the phrenzy
to confift in an inflammation of the meninges of
the brain ; anddiltinguifh it from the paraphrenitis^
which is fuppofed to be an inflammation of the
diaphragm.

JVillis will have them the fame difeafe, and
both to confift in an inflammation of the animal
fpirits. He only dilfinguifhes them as the inflam-
mation arifes from the cerebrum alone, or from
the cerebrum and cerebellum together ; and con-
cludes that they both aril'e after a fever, from the
boiling blood throwing its aduft excrements into
the brain.

Boirbaave makes the phrenitis either true, wherein
the cerebrum or meninges, or both are inflamed ;
or fymptomatick, where the matter of a fever is
tranflated into the cerebrum.

Progn:Jllck — The true phrenzy either kills on
the third, fourth, fifth, or feventh day ; or changes
into a mania, lethargy, comus, l^c, — Tremors,

gnafhing

226 Tlie Univerfal Hiftory o/" Arts /2«^/ Sciences.

gnafhing of the teeth, grumous blood diftillin^Uhcir fuppofed pofTcfiion ; and I really believe that
trom the nofe, are progiiolUcks of death. Imoftof the poflefTions mentioned in Church Hift-

Cure. — If the/i/jnviz;^' arifes from a fupprcfTiou jries (thofj mentioned in the fcripturc excepted)

of the natural evacuations ; thofe evaLualionb
muft be firft reifUfied : but if from any other caufe,
the too violent motion of the fpirits muft be ap-
peafed firft.

Spasm, fpafma, ox fpafmus, is a great term of
equal importance with tiic Latin convulfto, and
the Englifh convulfton.

Cardan diftinguifhes two kinds of fpnfrns ; the
firft confifting in a conftant contraction of the
mufcles, which renders the members rigid and
inflexible. The fecond, in fudden unnatural mo-
tions and palpitations, frequently intermitting and
beginning again.

Caufis.' — Spafms, in whatever part of the body
they be, arife from the animal fpirits meeting with
obllructions in their paflage through the nerves,
which divert them from the natural direction they
had received in the cerebrum ; whence.

Symptoms. — Proceed the unnatural motions of
the parts of the body, a fpafm is attended with, i
which are greater or lefs, more or lefs frequent,
according as the obftrii£tions are greater, and more
difficult to conquer.

There are aaidcntdl fpafms, which are of afhort
continuance, as thofe arifmg from flatulencies, or
from bites of venomous beafts, or from the punc-
ture of a nerve, from the acrimony of the humours
vellicating the ftomach, excefEve cold, hytterick
vapours, i^c.

There are fpafms peculiar to certain members,
and diflinguiflied by particular names : that of the
mouth is called fpafmus cynicus ; that of the penis
fatyriazh.

The cynick fpafm is a fort of convulfion, where-
by the patient is brought to imitate the geftures,
fnarlings, howling, ^c. of a dog.

Dr. Friend in the PhiloJ'opbkal TranfaSiions,
gives us an account of a very extraordinary y/;?/-
mus of this kind, wherewith two families at Black-
thorn in Oxfordfnire were feized.

This dife'afe the doiSlor takes to be natural, and
to arife from the common caufe of all convulfions,
viz. from the animal fpirits growing unruly in the
nerves, and driving the mufcles into various con-
tradlions, according to the circumftances of the
mdifpofitions.

'1 he Nuns of Loudun in Frame, fo well known
throughout the v/hole v/orld, by the nick-name of
Devils of Loudun (becaufe fuppofed poiielVed by
the devil) were certainly airlided with nothing
elie but a fpafmus of this kind, though poor Gran

were nothing elfe hut fpafms or epikpfics.

Progncflick. — A fpaf7nus happening after the
taking of Hellebore, or any other violent purgative,
is mortal : fpafms attended with violent and con-
tinual fevers are alfo verv dangerous.

Cure. — The celebrated Dr. Charkton prefcribes
for convulfions the powder of an old raven : all
the remedies proper to reftorc the natural motion
of the animal fpirits, are good for.the convulfions
and fpafms, as iudorificks, diaphoreticks, ^c.

Svi^iOPE is a deep and fudden fwooning,
wherein the patient continues without any fenfible
heat, motion, fenfe, or rcfpiration ; is feized v/ith
a cold fweat over the whole body, and all the parts
turn pale and cold, as ifdead.

Caufs. — There are feveral caufes of fyncope ',
I.. Too great an exhauftion of fpirits, as after long
diets, exceffive undlions, violent exercifes, long
bathing, ^V. — 2. The irregular motion of the
fpirits, preventing their due influx into the parts,
as fometimes happens in fear, wrath, and other
violent paiTions. — 3. In moderate hemorrhages.
.— 4. An ill conftitution of blood, as in cacochy-
mias, or in perfons who have taken fomsthing
that either diflTolves or coagulates the blood. —
5. Secret difeafes, as abfceffes, or polypus's of the
heart, worms, is'c.

Prognojiiek. — The fyncopes are very dangerous
which arife from hemorrhages, or from a too great

xhauHion of fpirits ; and thofe proceeding from
abfcclFes, or polypus's of the heart, are almoft
always mortal.

Cure The volatile fpirits and aromaticks, are

prefcribed for fyncopes. Heurnius recommends
treacle water and cinnamon water. And Etmuiler
the volatile fait of vipers, fpirit of fal ammoniack,
oil of amber, and fometimes bleeding.

Vertigo, is an indifpofition of the brain,
wherein the patient fees the obje£ls about him as
if they turned round, and fancies he turns round
himfelf, though all the while at reft.

Phyficians diftinguiih two kinds, or rather two
degrees of vertigces. — The firft, called a fimple
vertigo, is when the body and external obje-:'S
appear to turn round, without any great dimnefs
of fight.

The other called fa'ania, or vertigo tenehrofa,
is when the eyes are alio darkened, and as it were
covered with a mift.

Some m.i.ke a third ftage, viz. vertigo cadnca,
wherein the patient acfually falls down. But this

dier, their father dire61or, was unjuftly burnt, feems fcarce to differ from an epilepfy.
Vinder the falfe pretence that he had contributed to '

Sometimes

MEDICINE.

Sometimes the vertigo is feated in the fore part,
of the heaJ, and fometinus in the hind part ;
the httcr is much more dangerous.

Caufes of the vertigo. — BtUini accounts for the
viftigc veiy well, from a preternatural motion in
t'le retina.

''r\\s external caufes cf -jeitigoes area continu-
ed turning round of the body, drunkennefs, too
long falling, immoderate exercife, furprize, vora-
citv, much ufe of pulfe, onions, leeks, radifhes,
cabbage, muftard, iiV. and in general whatever
may prefs, diftcnd, or contrail the arteries.

Cure of the vertigoes.-— The fiift flep in the cure
is bleeding in the jugular or cupping ; then they
proceed to an emetick ; then a Vc-ficcatory on the
neck, or a perpetual blifter, or ifi'ues; with fter-
nutatorics and other medicines, that obtained in
the apoplexy.

Dlfeafes of the Throat. The Quinsey, called
alfo angina, is an inflammation of the throat, and
particularly of the mufcles of the larynx or pha-
rynx, which exadlly ciofing the chinks thereof,
prevent the air from pafling in and out of the tra-
chea, and the food from being fwallowed and con-
veyed into the ftomach,

Caufes of the quinfey. — The quin fey \s caufed by
a defluxion of blood, either pure or bilious, from
the branches of the carotide arteries ; and there
caufing a phlegmon, either a fimple or an eryfi-
pelatous one.

Symptoms of the quinfey. — The general fymp-
toms of the quinfey are, that it is always attended
with a difficulty of refpiration, and of deglution.
The true quinfey is always attended with a fever.
And the fpurious is free from it.

PrognojVick of the quinfey. — That quinfey is of all
others the moft dangerous when the tumour is nei-
ther perceivable on (he infide nor the outfide.
That appearing on the outfide is the moft curable.

Cure of the quinfey. In the external quinfey, be-
fore any fuppuration appears, recourfe is had to
repeated venefedlion in the jugulars. — Veficato-
ries and cupping are alfo ufed with emollient
gargles, ^c.

The following is an excellent gargle for the
quinfy. — Take two ounces of the beft honey ; the
buds of black-berry buflies, and dried red rofes,
of each a handful ; put them to boi! together in
three pints of river-water, for the fpace of half a
quarter of an hour, fk;mming well t'le decodlion,
and flraining it afterwards with expreflion ; the co-
lature is the gargle, wherewith the patient mull
gargle his throat as often as poffible.

In violent quinfeys recourfe fhould be had to la-

227

ryngotomy, or broncliotomy, which though rare-
ly praclifed, may yet be ufcd with fafety.

Dlfeafes of the Thorax or Breast. The
principal mahidies of the breajl arc the empyema,
afthuia, phthifck, peripn,:um:ny, plemify, Sic.

1 heEp viiMA is acollcil on of pus, or purulent
matter, in the cavity of the bread, difchargid thi-
ther upon the bui fling of fome abfcefs or uicer,
in the lungs or membranes that inclofc the bread.

Signs of the empyana. — The empyema \s dillin-
guifhcd by a difficulty of breathing, a dry cough,
a heavinels about the diaphragm, a noife, and
fludluating of the matter upon moving ; {[ow fever,
ruddy checks, hallow e>'*s, the tips of the fingers
hot, and a fwelling of the abdomen.

Cure of the empyema. — 1 he difficulty of the cure
of this difeafe proceeds from the difficulty of ab-
forbing, or evacuating fuch extrav.ifated matter :
if nature fhews any endeavour to throw it ofF by
vomiting or urine, or the like, (he muH be fecond-
ed, and affifled therein. Thus, if the urine be
purulent, adininifler dieureticks. If the flools,
laxatives. U the fpitting, expeflorants or even
emeticks; though I would not advife to attempt
this lafl remedy, but vviih the utmoft caution, left
the patient {hould be fufF.icated in the operation.

There is alfo a kind offpurious or bafiard empy-
ema, proceeding from a pituitous or ferous hu-
mour, brought by fome dudl or pafTage into the
thorax ; where corrupting, it degenerates into a
matter like pus. An empyema, in courfe of time,
breeds a phthifs.

The Jjlhma is a difficulty of breathing, arifing
from a dilorder of the lungs ; and ufually attended
with violent motions of the diaphragm, abdomi-
nal, and incercoflal mufcles, to the very fcapula,
and the pinnae of the noflrils ; as alfo a rattling in
the throat.

If refpiration be only thick and quick, without
the other fymptoms, it is called a Dypfmea. If it
be fo intenfe as to occafion a violent motion of the
mufcles of the thorax, fo that the patient cannot
be tolerably eafy, except in an ered poflure, it is
called orthopnaa.

The njihma is ufually divided into moijl and dry,
or manifejl zni occult, ox pneu?nonick and ccnvulfive.
The firft attended with an expeifloration of puru-
lent matter : the latter without.

Caufes ef the true, or pneumonick afll ma. — The
true or pneumonick afhma, is occafioned by an a-
bundance of feriofities, orofgrofs, vifcous or pu-
rulent humours, colleded in the cavity of the lungs,
which flop up, or flreighten the pafTages of the
air, and comprefs the bronchia. It may alfo be

owing

22 8 The Univerfal Hiftory

owing to empyema's, pluhifis's, polypus's, crudities
■in the ftomach, cachexies, l^c.

Caufes of the convulftve /IJlkma. — The cDnvuIJive
efthnia is Cuppofed to be occafioned Ijyan irregular
motion of the animal (pirits ; and happens when
the rpirits do not fl^w faft enough, or in ("ufficient
quantity into the mufcles of the brc-aft, cither by
the rcdfon of an obllruction, or fome other obfta-
cle : the necefTary confccjucnce whereof is a vio-
. lent and painful refpiration. The afihma again is
either continual or periodical, and infttrinitting ;
which laft returns where a fober regimen is notob-
ferv'd.

Symptoms of the afthma. — The greatefl fymp-
toms of the ajlhma, are an extreme difficulty of
refpir.ition, efpecially when the patient is in bed,
and in a prone pofture ; the contents of the lower
belly in that cafe, bearing againft the diaphragm,
fo as to Itflen the capacity of the bread, and to

leave the lungs lefs room to mo\re. It is alfo

always attended with a violent dry cough.

Cure of the true, or pneumonick afthma. — What
I call cure, in this place, are only the means ufed
to cafe the patient in the moft violent paroxifms of
the difeafe, and render them lefs frctjuent, which
is dune by bleeding j after which emeiicks may be
tied; and if the paroxifm returns, epifpafticks,
with clyfters inftead of purges. Infuf.ons of fm.
equin, or the juice thereof, being deterfive and at-
tenuating, are reputed excellent. Linfliib's alfo
give fome relief ; millepedes, fpirit of gum ammo-
niack, with fal ammoniack, coffee, tinfture of ful-
phur, i3'c. iire commended in aftbmathk cafes.

The cure of the convulftve kind, is attempted by
anti-epilepticlcF, anti-hyftericks, anti-fpafmodicks,
opiates, (sc.

Phthifuk in its general fenfe, denotes any kind
of confumption of the body, in what part foever
it be feated, or from what caufe foever it arife.
Thus we have a nervous phthifis, and renal pbthi-
fis, dorfal phthifts, pulmonary phthifs, &c.

But phthifs, in its proper fenfe, is reftrained to
a pulmonary confumption, or a confumption ari-
fing from an ulcer, or other difcrder cif the lungs,
accompanied with a flow hcitick fever, which
walles, extenuates, and confumes the mufcubrflefli.

Caufes of the phtkifick — Sydenham obferves, that
the helical pkth'ifis has its origin in the winter's
cold ; from a fharp humour trickling down upon
the lungs, where like a catarrhea, it irritates them
fo as to raifc a cough. Among the caufes of this
difcafe may be reckoned intemperance, as it brings
on a plethora or cacochymia, peripneumonies,
I'.fthma's, pleurifies, i£c — Morton adds that the
phthifu frequently arifes from an ill conformatioi
of the breaft; which is either natural, as when the

of Arts and Sciences.

breaft is too narrow, the neck too long, ^c, or ac-
cidental, where there happens a cuivity or diftor-
tion of the breaft.

Symptoms of a heilical phtblfis. — This difeafe i^
attended with a fpitting, firft of a vifcid pituita,
then a heavy fetid pus, then of pure blood, and
fonietimes of the very fubftance of the lungs rotted
by ulceration ; witli night-fweats, falling of the
hair, and colliquative flux, which is foon follov/d
by death. Sydenham fays, that the phthifts kills
two thirds of thofe who die of chronick difcafes.
Among the fymptoms Morton* reckons a naufea,
or reaching, with a heat in the palms of the hands,
and rednefs in the cheeks, all after eating.

In the laft ftagc of the phthifts, the nofe appears
(harp, the eyes, hollow, the temples fallen, the
ears cold and contracted, the fkin about the fore-
head hard and dry, and the complexion greenifh,
or livid, (Jc. which is cMi^A fades hypccratica.

Prognoftick. — A confirmed heSlical phthifts, is
almoft always incurable, and confequently mortal,
becaufe then almoft the whole fubftance of the
lungs is fuppofed ulcerated, the which it is irei-
poflible to rellore to it? former laudable confiftence.

Cure of an heilical phthifis. — Though the cure of
this difeafe be extremely difficult, Sydenham advifes,
the dcfluxion on the lungs, in the firft ftage to be
abated by blood letting, ^c. and perioral to be
ufed, accommodated to the various flares of the di-
feafe, viz. incraflants, attenuants, to afTwage the
hedlick, iSc. with emulfions, aflcs-milk, isc. and
balfamickb to cure the ulcer.

But he is of opinion, that the chief affiflance
in this is from riding on horfeback, where the
patient need not confine himfelf to any laws of di-
et, i^c. this alone, he adds, is almoft as fure a
cure for a phthifts, as the cortex for an intermit-
ting fever.

Dr. Baynard recommends butter milk, as an
admirable fuccedancum to afTes-milk. Sylvius fays
he knows of no medicine, either internal or exter-
nal, fo good againft frcfli ulcers of the lungs, as
balfam of fulphur, efpecially when prepared with
oil of annifeed.

Etmuller obferves, that vomitories are good in
a beginning /'/'//.'///I, purgations by all means to be
avoided ; and commends the ufe of medicines made
of tobacco.

Bonetus holds the phthifts to be contagious ; and
that there are frequent inftances of it being com-
municated by cloaths, linncn, beds, isfc. I would
not affirm, that it can be communicated by thefe
things, but I have feen it communicated by laying
in the fame bed with a phthifical perlbn. I would
not even advife any body to eat or drink after a
perfon afFedted with a confummate phtHfis.

Phcahn

M E D I C I N E.

o •?

Pitca'irn recommends mercurius dulds, in the
beginningof a phlhijis ; and Barbette and Colhatch
adcrt, that contrary to the opinion of molt authors,
they have frequently ufed acids with fucccfb in the
phthijh.

Boeihaavc prcfciibes the following remedies fur
an heSiick phthifis.

A conditum. — Take three oimccs of confcrve of
red rofes ; two drachms of bol armoniack reduc-
ed into an impalpable powder ; and as much Cy-
rup of myrtle, as is neceflary to make a conditum;
of which the patient fliall take half a drachm eve-
ry two hours.

A conferve. — Take three ounces of the leaves
of plaintain, while yet very tender, an ounce and
a half of flowers of wild poppies ; and an ounce
of the feed of plaintain, newly gather'd ; mix all
thefe ingredients with a fufficient quantity of fu-
gar, to make a conferve, of which the patient (hall
lake half a drachm every two hours.

A decoliion. — Boil two handfuls of forrel in a
pint of whey, flrain the decoflion, and give every
hour a glafs thereof to the patient.

To promote a cure of this difeafe abflain from
all forts of ragouts, fricafrees,and all kinds of diflies ,
where too much fait or fpices are introduced ; of
all forts of pull'es, or other windy aliments; of all
fpirituous liquors, unlefs it be thofe, which are
truly cordial, as the ratafia, ros-folis, <£c. and even
thofe muft be ufed with a great deal of moderati-
on; abftaining above all things from beer, or any
other fuch liquor ; and from any meat which is
not of a light digeflion, or that can promote a loofe-
nefs; preferring roafted to boiled meat, drinking
always the oldeft wine, and the moft cordial; eat-
ing fweetmeats often, and other dry aliments.

For common drink a ptizan, made of jujubes,
and dates, of each four ounces ; a handful of the
fmalleft maiden-hair ; two ounces of liquorice
fcraped and flringed ; and two golden pippins, cut
in quarters ; all thefe ingredients to be boiled to-
gether, in three quarts of river-water, to the con-
fumption of a fixth part; the jujubes and dates
having been open'd before ihey are put to boil.
Of this ptizan the patient may drink as much as
he pleafes.

Pleurisy is a violent pain in the fide, attended
with an acute fever, a cough, and a dilKcuhy of
breathing.

Caufes of the pkurlfy. — The pleurify arifes from
an inflammation of fome part of the pleura, to
which is frequently joined that of the exterior and
fuperficial part of the lungs. It ufually arifes up-
on cooling too haftily, after violent heat ; as by
drinking cold water, laying cipen to the air, faV.

This inflammation feizes any part of the tegu-

ments of the thorax, v'l-z,. either the pleura or me-
diaftinum ; and therefore the pricking pain may
be felt in any pait of the thcrax : but the place it
mtifl: ordinarily inRils is the fide; (ometimis the
Icfr, fometimes the right; fometimes higher, fomc-
times lower.

This makes what we call the true or internal
pleurify; in oppofition to the fpun'oui en extern til
phurify, which is a pain in the I'lde without any fe-
ver, and frequently without any cough ; and is
fuppofed to arife from a fharp ferofity, lodged in
the pleura, or higher among the internal mufcles.

Symptoms of a pleurify. — T\\\^ fyn:ptonis of a true
pleurify, is a fliarp and fixed pain commoidy in the
left fide, attended with a violent fever, and a great
•difficulty of breathing; and alfo with a fliortdry
cough. A f (life pleurify is only attended, as already
obferved, with the fame pain, dilHculty of breath-
ing, and cough, but without fever.

_ Prognojlick. — Both pleiirifies, either true or fpu-
rious, are very dangerous, and require a fpcedy re-
lief ; and when after the neceflary remedies have
been adminiftered, the fymptoms increafe inflead
of diminifliing, or even remain the fame, the dif-
eafe is mortal.

Cure. — The great remedy in the true pleurify is
copious and repeating bleeding. In adults, Syden-
ham obferves, is feldom cured with lefs than the
lofs of forty ounces of blood.

Boerhaave prefcribes the following remedies to
be applied inwardly for the pleurify.

Fomentation. — Take mallows, marfh-mallows,
and parietary, of each two handfuls ; red poppies
and henbane, of each a handful ; flowers of elder,
of camomile, and of melilot, of each three oun-
ces ; boil all thefe ingredients in new milk, for a
fomentation.

Liniment to anoint the fides. — Take four
drachms of fugar of faturn ; fix drachms of vine-
gar ; and an ounce of oil of roles extraded by in-
fufion ; mixed together for a liniment to anoint
the fides.

Internal remedies. — A decoSlion Take leaves of

tuflilage, and of marfh-mallows. of each two hand-
fuls ; flowers of red poppies, and of althsea, of
each a handful and an half; parfley roots, farfapa-
riUa, of each three ounces; four drachms of lin-
feed bruifed; of lettuce, and of carduus dominie,
of each an ounce : boil all the ingredients t02;ether
m a fuflicicnt quantity of water, that there may
be three pints left, whereof the patient Ihall drink
two ounces every hour.

An emulfion. — Take the four great cold feed?,

and the four fmal! ones, of each three drachms;

two ounces of feed of white poppies ; mix them all

together with barley-water, for an emulfion, with

H h fourteen

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^;?^ Sciences.

230

fourteen ounces thereof fhall be mixed a drachm
and half of pure nitre; and an ounce of fyrup of
maidenhair: of which emulfion the patient may
drink a giafs every quarter of an hour.

Peripneumony is an inflammation of fome
part of the thorax, properly ofthe lungs, attended
with an acute fever, and a difficulty of breathing.

"^Tht peripucurnctn is diftinguiftied into truey and
fpiirictis.

i, Tht true pcripnmn-cny is a real inflamination of
the fubftance ofthe lungs, attended with a fympto-
matical fever and a cough ; by the former o)-" which
it is diilinguiflKd from an afthma, and by the latter
from a pleurify.

Caujcs of the true pcripncumony.^its ufual caufes
are want of exercife, hard ftudy, fupprefllon of na-
tural evacuation, or moift air, and the like.

Sy^nptoms. — When the peritiieiimony arifes from
a phlegmon, the patient fpits pure blood ; when it
is eryiipelatous, the fputum is yellow, and not
much tinged with red. In this laft thebreart is not
io much contrafted, but the fever more violent.

Prognojlick. — The peripneumony is more danger-
ous, though lefs painful than a pleurify, particularly
in young people which are loon carried ofF: its
ufual way of going ofFis by expecloration of well
concocled, reddifh, yellow, or white matter. "1 he
flov^ing of the menfes, or any hsemorrhage, a di-
arrhaea, abfceffes about the ears or other parts, are
alfo good prognofticks.

Cure. — The medicines prefcribed for the cure of
the peripneumony, are moftly the fame that obtain
in aithmatick and pleuritick cafes.

Dr. Bocrhaavc prefcribes the following remedies.

Decoctions. — Take forty ounces of a decoftion of
barley, two drachms of nitre, and four ounces of
oximel ; mix them together, of which the patient
Ihall drink two ounces, warm, every quarter of an ;
hour. Or take the leaves of parietary, agrimony, '
dendelion, of each a handful ; the feeds bruifed
of white poppies, and of fennel, of each an ounce;
liquorice, an ounce and a half; to make fifty oun- |
ces of deco<Stion ; which mufc be drank in the fame
manner as that above prefcribed.

Aliments. — Pulfes, farinous matters, peafe, and
fummer fruits, ripe.

Spurious, or /'^/rtris? Peripneumony is a difeafe
of the lungs, arifmg from a heavy pituitous matter
generated throughout the whole mafs ofthe blood,
and difcharged upon the lungs.

Signs. — Tha fpurioNs peripneumony is known by
the vifcidlty. pa enefs, and flownefs of the blood,
ropinefs ofthe faliva, palcnefs, and want of fcent
of the urine, fwellings and obftrudtions in the mi-

nuter veflels, fhort breath, oppreflion in the throrax,
&c. — Worn out, phlegmatick, cold, phthifical,
catarrhous conditutions, are moft liable to it.

Symptoms — It begins with a feeblenefs, indo-
lence, wearinefs, difficulty of breathing, oppreflion
of the bread, feverifhncfs ; and goes on, without
any great appearance of danger, to death itfelf ;
without any prognoftick thereof in the urine,
pull'e, (jfc.

Curt. — This difeafe is cured by blood-letting,
clyfters, thin diet, diluters, aftergents, and ape-
rients.

Dr. Boerhaave prefcribes the following remedies,
for the fpurious peripneumony.

Clyjicr. — Take three ounces of honey ; a drachm
of nitre ; a yolk of an egg, and eight ounces of a
decodlion of barley for a clyjler.

A decoSiion. — Take two ounces of the roots of
fennel, four ounces of gramen ; of leaves of parie-
tary, and of agrimony, of each a handful and an
half; an ounce of the feeds of white poppies,
bruifed ; and an ounce and a half of liquorice : boil
all thefe ingredients together, in fuch a quantity of
water, as there may be two pints of the decodlion
left ; two ounces hereof the patient muft drink
every two hours.

Consumption is a difeafe arifing from a defe<5l
of nourifhment ; or a preternatural decay of the
body, by a gradual wafte of mufcular flefh,

A conjumption may be either accidental, natural,
or hereditiry.

Caufes of an accidental conjumption. — Accidental
confumptions may arife, i. From ulcers, chalky
ftones, or polypus's in the lungs, caufed by fome-
thing thatobftrudls the circulation in the pulmonary
veflels, or renders the blood vifcid, as afuppreffion
of any natural evacuation. — 2. From intemperance,
occafioning either a cacochymia, or plethora. — 3.
From peripneumonies, pleurifies, afthma's, coughs,
catarrhs, diarrhea's, venereal diforders, and excefs
of vener}'. — 4. From gHef, hard ftudy, &c.

Caufes of natural confumptiois. — Natural con-
fumptions may arife from the thorax, or an evil
conformation of the pares.

Caufes of an hereditary confumption.—^kn here-
ditary confumption may be communicated from the
parents without any other vifible caufe.

Symptoms. — A confumption ufually begins with
flying pains and ftitches j pain at the pit of the
ftomach, or in the diaphragm ; frequent fpitting,
lofs of appetite, a quick pulfe, a fweetnefs or falt-
nefs in the faliva, heats and flufhings in the face
and palms of the hands after meals, and hedick
fever towards the evening, heavinefs, faintnefs,
, night-fweats ; and where the lungs are firft dif-
[ ordered,

MEDICINE.

231

ordered, a cough, catarrh, or aflhnia ufually pre-
cede it.

When thefe fymptoms are violent it is confirm-
ed: ami then comes on an expectoration of purulent
or bloody matter, and the vomica pulnionum ; at
lenH;th the feet IwcU, the expedtoration flops ; a
diairiisea comes on ; then the facies hippocratica,
and death.

Cure oi zn univerfaU or mafcular confumption. —
The cure of this dangerous difeafe depends princi
pally upon removal into a proper air ; alfo upon a
regular nouriftiing diet : and the appetite is to be
excited bv proper bitters, and other (tomachicks.

In a. pulmonary confumption., or phthifis, balfamick
medicines, and vulnerary medicines, a grcaf. quan-
tity of oleaginous medicines is ufed in thefe cafes,
but I am of i.r. f^'ainwright's opinion, that the
particles of oily medicines are too grofs and vilcid
to enter the fmall oriiicesof the ladteals ; and think
that their operation or etfe£l being confined to the
firft palTages, they are not only of no fervice in the
cure, but are apt to pall the appetite, occafion ob-
flrudions in the mouth of the lacfleals, and diar-
rhaeas.

A Cough is a difeafe affecting the lungs, oc-
cafioned by a fliarp ferous humour, vellicating the
fibrous coat thereof, and urging it to a difcharge
by fpitting, iffc.

When the humour is fo fubtile that the lungs
cannot lay hold of it to throw it ofF, or when the
humour is fo thick that it will not give v/ay, it is
laid to be a Jiy cough.

PrognojVuk.—Dry coughs are the mofl dangerous.
— Hippocrates fays, that cough ceafes if the telHcles
fwell.

Cure. — A psftoral fyrup, ap.d decoiSlions, are
medicines for a cough of any kind whatever ; and
a few drops of laudanum may be adminiftered with
fafety, to appeafe the violence of the paroxifms,
and prevent fome dangerous coniequences it may
be attended with; as the breaking of fome blood -
velfels, and the burfting of abfcelFes, if there were
any in the capacity of tlie thorax.

The HiCKUP is a convulfive motion of the
diaphragm, whereby that mufcle retiring impetu-
oufly downwards, impels the parts beneath it.

Caujcs of the hickup — The hickup is occafioned
by fharp humours, a too great plenitude of the
ftomach, a bit of any thing flopped at its upper
orifice; or, in general, by any thing capable of
irritating the nerves of the diaphragm.

Note., That t'le hickup is avery dangerous fymp-
tom, in a chronical difeafe.

Cure of the hickup, — The remedy for the hickup.

according to Hippocrates, is to fetch tlie breath very
long ; or even to flop the breath for fome time. A
fneezing happening upon a hickup generally cures
it ; the diaphragm fliook by the violent expiration,
being apt to throw off what before irritated it.

As the chief feat of the blood is in the thorax,
where it receives its lafl degree of perfeclion in the
ventricles of the heart; and the blood is, as it were,
the focus of feveral very dangerous maladies, the
human body is afflided with ; or, to fpeak more
properly and clearly, as from the diforders, in-'
temperies, or corruption of the mafs of blood, arife
the greateft part of the maladies we are i'ubjeCt to,
I'll treat in this place of thofe different maladies,
beginning hy fevers of all kinds.

A Fevfr, febris, is a difeafe or rather clafs of
difeafes, proceeding from an exceffive efFervefcency
of the blood, occafioned by its being obftruiSled in
its circulation.

The truth whereof appears from the different
periodical changes, or paroxifms, a fever is at-
tended with.

I. The firft indication we have of a fever is
from the pulfe being quicker than ufuai ; which
quicknefs does not proceed, as fome imagine, from
the blood being then accelerated, but rather frona
its beino obftru£led in its circulation; which ob-
ftruftion hindering the ufual quantity of blood from
falling into the ventricles of the heart, and conf'e-
quently their dilating themfelves to their natural
extent to receive it, and contrafling themfelves as
ufual to expel it ; render that dilatation and con-
traction more frequent; and therefore the pulfa-
tion of the arteries quicker.

The next thing fenfible in a fever is a certain
chillnefs, becaufe as the natural heat is communi-
cated to the extresnities of the body, by means of
the circulation, that circulation once obftrudted,
that heat diminifties every v/here, as being then
deprived of the fuppiies it received continually from
its natural fource. Till the vital fpirits crowd-
ing to that part where the obltruction happens,
there eniues a confliit between them and the mor-
bifick matter, whence an exceflive eflervefcency, in
the mafs of the Hood, which caufes that violent
heat, which fucceeds to the chilnefs, and which
lafts, till the blood has conquer'd the obftacle,forced
its v/ay thro', and re-affem'd iis former courfe ;
then the paroxifm diminifhcs.

Caufes of fevers. — Tile caufes of fevers are innu-
merable ; and the difeafe even often arifes in the
foundeft bodies, where there was no previous mor-
bifick apparatus; as cacochymia. pkthoir,, tic. but
merely froiK a change of air, foodj ',.- c '■. -.''.e-
ration in the non-naturals, A fev«er, Boerhdtwe'
H h 2 obferves.

232 The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

obferves, is an infeparable companion of an inflam- 1
nation.

Symptoms of fevers. — The fvmptoms arc many ; 1
every fever ariung from any internal caufe, is at-
tended with a c]uicic pulfe, and unufual heat, at
different times, and in different degrees. Where
thefe are intenfe, the fever is acute ; where remifs,
flow.

The difeafe begins almofl: always with a fenfe of
chilneis; and in its progrefs is chiefly diftinguifhed
by the velocity of the pulfe : fo that a too quick
contraction of the heart, as already obferved, fur-
nifhes the proper idea of a fever, and the health
of the patient is the fcope nature chiefly aims at in
the difeafe. Other attendant (ymptoms are ufually
a laborious and diflurbed refpiration, an uniform,
high-colour'd urine; a paichednefs and drynefs of
the tongue, mouth, i^c. a clamminefs of the
faiiva; tl.irft ; walcefulnefs, and naufea againft
every thing but thin diluting li.juors.

Cure of the fevers. — The general indication in
the cure of fevers is to raife the obffrudlions, which
hinder the eafy circulation of the blood, by evacu-
ating the morbifick matter which caufes thofe ob-
ftru(Stions ; or at kart: fixing it in fuch a manner,
that circulatin"; no longer with the blood, it mav
be eafier evacuated.

The cure of fevers, Boerhaave fummarily com-
prehends in corredting the fharp, irritating ferbile
matter, difTolving the lentor, and mitigating the
fymptoms. If nature feems to carry the fever too
high, it muft be moderated by abffinence, thin
diet, drinking of water, bleeding, and cooling
clyficrs. If fhe brings it on too flowly, it mufl be
excited by cardiacks, aromatick?, volatiles, i3c. —
'I he caufe removed, the fymptoms ceafe of courfe;
and ifthevcan be bore without much danger of
life, it were be(i not to enter into any particular
cute thereof: if they be unfeafonable, or too fevere,
they are each to be abated with the proper rea-
medies.

Sythnham recommends an em.etick in the begin-
ning of a fever ; or if it have been then emitted in
any other ff age thereof ; efpecially where there is
a propenfity to vomiting : for want of this, a diar-
rhjea frequently fucceeds, which is exceedingly
dangerous. After this he ufes a paregorick ; and
the following days, if there be no indication to ri-
peat the venEfection, nor any diarrhxa, he pre-
fciibes, every other day an enema, till the twelfth
day, when matters coming to a crifis, he has re-
courfe to iiotter meditines, in order to promote
and accelerate it. He adds, that if the difeafe pro-
ceed well, and the fermentation be laudable, there
is no occafion for atiy phyfick at all. About the
fifteenth day, if the urine be found to feparate, and

give a fcdiment, and the fymptoms be abateJ, 2
cathartiek is ufually ordered, left the fediment re-
turning into the blood again, occafion a relapfe.—
Nothing cools the patient, and abates the fever, fo
much as a cathartick after venxfedfion.

The more acute the fever, the thinner, accord-
ing to Etmuller, muff be the diet. It is no matter
if the patient fhould faft for feveral davs running j
for never did feverifli perfons die of hunger ; eating
always exafperates the difeafe. Vomitories, he
allows the principal place in the cure of all fevers ;
but as a patron of the hot regimen, affigns fudori-
ficks the fecond. Spirit of fal ammoniack, or its
fal volatile, he obferves, is an univerfal febrifuge,
and rarely fails. All fugar things are hurtful.

Prognofilck — So long as the urine remains crude»
that it does not give a fediment, the patient's cafe
is dubious: but when once the codion commences,
and the urine feparates, the great danger is over.
Among the figns of death, ibme authors are of
opinion, that there is none more certain than a
frequent blowing of the nofe without any difcharge
of matter. A ftrong, equal pulfe, with deliria,
tremors, twitches of the tendons, and other fymp-
toms, fatal in the difeafes of the nervous kind,
always prefage well in fevers. On the contrary,
a quick, weak, faltering pulfe, however favoura-
ble the other fymptoms may feem, infallibly pro-
claim death at the door, fays Dr. Morton.

Note, That it appears by obfer\ation, that a
frequent letting of blood, renders perfons more in-
clinable to fevers.

The mofl general, and genuine divifion of fe-
vers, is into ejfentlal and fymptomatick.

EJfcntlal fever is that, whofe primary caufe is in
the blocd itfelf ; and which does not arife, as an
efled, or fymptom, from any other difeafe in the
folids, or other parts. This is what we abfolutely
and properly call 2. fever.

Sy",ptoinotick fever is that, which arifes, as an
accident or fympiom of fome other antecedent dif-
order, as an inflammation, phlegmon, eryfipela's,
impofthume, fmall-pox, pleurify, or. Whence
it is particularly denominated inflammatory, eryfipe-
/atius, purulent, variolous or pleuritick fever.

Effential fevers are generally diftinguiflied into
eontinued and intermitting : Others chufe to di-
vide them into diary, intermitting, continent, and
continued.

Continual fever is that, which gives the patient
no refpite or intermiluon. This is fub-divided in-
to putrid and not putrid.

Continual fever not putrid, is that, wherein the
parts of the blood are not fo diiTolved and broke, as
as to give occafion for the principal parts thereof to
be fecreted, or that wherein there is not any dif-

charcre

MEDICINE.

233

charge of putrid, purulent matter into the blood.
Of this there are two kinds, the diary znA fynocbus;
to which fome add the hect'uk.

Diary fever is that, which does nnt ordinarily
hold beyond twenty four hours. It is fiecjuently
got by too much exercife, or other external acci-
dents ; and cured by reft alone, and keeping a- bed:
—If it remains for feveral days, it is either called
a continual ephemera, or a funple fynochus.

HeSltck fivsr is a flow durable fever, which
extenuates and emaciates the body bv infenfible
degrees.

It has three flages : — the firfl, while it confumes
the juices of the body : — the fecond, when it ex-
haufts the flefhy fubftance of its humidity : and the
third, when it lays hold of, and deftroys the folids
themfelves ; in which laft flage it is reputed in-
curable.

Continual putrid fever is that, wherein the tex-
ture of the blood is rendered fo lax, or ever; dif-
folved, that its parts or principles feparating, fome
of the principal are fecreted, and loft.

Putrid fevers are frequently confidered as feeun-
dary ones, arifmg from the difcharge of putrid,
purulent matter from fome morbid part ; as an ul-
cer in the lungs, i^c. They are divided mtofimple
and compound, or remitting.

Simple continual putrid fever, or a continent fever,
properly fo called, by the Greeks Tvrox'^, is that
which continues uniformly from firft to laft, with-
out any fits, or periods of exafperation and remiffion
of heat, and the other fymptoms.

JVillis divides the putrid fever into four fladia or
ftages. The beginning, which is attended with a
chilnefs, (hivering, wearincfs, thirft, wakcfulnefs,
pain in the head and loins, naufea and vomitiiig.
The increafe, wherein the former fymptoms are
heightened, with the addition of deliria, convulfive
motions, foulnefs of the mouth, high turbid urine
without an)' laudable fediment or hypoftafis. The
ftate, which contains the crifis, which in this dif-
eafe is much what the paroxifm is in intermittents :
for, as that returns at certain hours, fo do the
critical motions in continued fevers happen on the
fourth, fifth, fixth, and feventh day. The laft
ftage is the declenfion, which ends either in reco-
very or death.

Thefe fevers are fubdivided into burning and
JIozv.

Ardent, or burning fever, is a very acute fever,
attended with a vehement heat, intolerable thirft,
a dry cough, delirium, and other violent fymp-
toms.

Prognof.ick. It frequently kills on the third or
fourth day, rarely exceeds the feventh. It often
goes ofF in an haemorrhage, on the third or fourth

day ; which, if it proves too fparing, is morial.
Sc.mctimes it goes olFby ftools, vomiting,^^. and
iomctirnes ends in a peripneumony.

To the clafs o\' burning f vers are reducible, the
liperia, affodcs, kclodes, i.'C.

Jhc liperia is a burning fever, wherein the heat
is very intcnfo within fide,, and at tlie fame time
the external parts are cold.

1 he aJJ'odes is a burning fever, attended witli
great inquietudes, naufea.-, vomiting, ^c.

Tiic hel'jdes is a fever, wherein the patient fweats-
continually.

The Jyncopal fever h that attended v.'ith frequent
fwoonings.

The epialo. is that, wlierein both heat and cold
are felt in tlie fame part at the fame time.

Sloiv fevers are gentle, but durable ones, which
coniume the patient by degrees. They ufually arife
from dilbrders in the lympha or pituita ; whence
Sylvius calls them lyitiphatick fevers.

The principal of thefe are the catarrhal, attended
with a catarrh, cough, hoarfenefs, i^c. And the-
fcorbutick fevers, into which acute fevers, and fome-
times intermittents degenerate. To this clafs are
alfo reducible,

Colliquative fevers, wherein the whole body is
confumed and emaciated in no long time ; the folid
parts, with the fat, b'f, melted down, and carried
by a diarrhsea, fweat, urine, bfc.

Remitting fever, called alfo z. continual fevery and
■n compound conti?iual fever, is that which continues
fome time without any gradual increafe of heat ;
yet is liable to alternate fits of remiffion and aggra-
vation ; either ftated and periodical, or irregular.

Of this there are divers kinds, denominated from
the periods of returning ; as the rctnitting, continual
quotidian, continual tertian, continual quartan, &c.
which are only a continued yi'i^^r, whofe accefles or
feverer fits return every day, or every other day, or
every third day, or every fourth day.

Some enumerate divers other more complicated
continual fevers, as the double or triple quotidian,
which has two or three paroxifms every day : double
or triple tertian, or quartan, which has two or
three every third or fourth day ; the f mi-tertian,
which confifts of a continual and two intermitting
fevers of ditFerent kinds, viz. a quotidian and ter-
tian. The patient, befides a continual fever,
having an extraordinary fit every day, and every
other day two.

Others divide the remitting, or compound continual
fever, intofimple and Jfurious.

The fmple remittent returns regularly, and isonlv
diftinguifhed from an intermittent, in that the feve-
rifh heat in the intervals of this latter is never quite
extinguiflicd j aiid that the paroxifms do not begin

with

234 ^^ Univerfal Hiftory of Arts a:;?^ Sciences.

with fo much chilnefs and horror, and goes oft in
profule fweats.

The fpurious remittent is attended with grievous
fj'mptoms in the nervous icind, refembling thofe of
the rheumatifm, cholick, pleurify, and other in-
flammatory and fpafmodick difeafes ; befides im-
moderate excretions, vomitings, diarrhaa's, i^e.
whence its returns are uncertain and variable.

The fimplc rarely, if ever, kills : the fpurious
frequentiv- Sometimes it degenerates into a ma-
lignant tvnX''^'-

Cure of thefe fevers. The firft is cured with the
quinquina, or Jefuits bark, almoft as infallibly, as
an intermittent ; the febrile ferment being much the
fame in both ; and the fame remedy is found almoft
a fure, though not (o fpccdy a remedy of the fpu-
rious, if properly applied.

Intermitting fever is that, which ccafei and re-
turns again alternately, at flated periods, called
alfo an ague.

In this kind, cold and heat, fhivering andfweat,
fuccecd each other.

Symptoms of an intermitting fever. The paroxifms
are attended with ficknefs, naufea's, vomitings,
head-ach, pain in the back and loins, IsSe. 'Ihe
paroxifms are acute, but the difeafe ufually more
or lefs chronical.

Prognofick. No body was ever killed of an in-
termitting fever, except in the firft ftage of the
paroxifm, during the fliivering, caufed by the op-
preflion of the fpirits. When the difeafe becomes
of a very old ftanding, it fometimes degenerates
into other fatal ones.

Cure of the intermitting fever. As to the cure,
it is found by abundant obfervations, that neither
bleeding nor emeticks, nor catharticks, nor any
other remedy adminiftered during the fit, avail any
thing. A juft dofe of vinum benediitum, three
hours before the paroxifm, Morton affiires us, has
often cured it : antimonium diaphoreticum, a little
before the paroxifm, has the like efFe£t : and fait
of wormwood is commended on the fame occafion.
Dolcsus mentions lapis lazuli, taken in fpirit of
wine before the fit, as admirable.

And feveral bitters, as cardus benediiStus, gen-
tian root, camomile flov.-ers, pulvls febrifugus, i^c.
were much valued before the invention of the bark;
which, by the general confent of phyficians, is al-
lowed a fpecifick for intermitting fevers, in all
leafons, ages, and conftitutions.

Intermitting fever- are of divers kinds, as the

!^iotidian fever, where the paroxifm returns
every day. Double quotidian, which returns twice
in twenty- four hours.

Tertian fever, which only returns every other
day ; which again is either legitimate or fpurious.

The legitimate tertian only holds tvi'elve hours, and
is followed by an abfolute intermiffion, Tht fpu-
rious tertian exceeds twelve hours, and fometimes
holds eighteen or twenty.

Dowde tertian is that which returns twice every
other day. The name double tertian is alfo ufed
where the fever returns every day, like a quotidian,
only at diffisrent times of the day ; the third fit
anfwering to the time of the firll, the fourth to
that of the fecond, i^e.

^artan fever is that which only returns every
third day, leaving two days intermilTion between
every two fits.

Double quartan is that which has two fits every
fourth day. The fame is alfo given to the fever
which returns every two days fucceflively, only leav-
ing one day's intermiffion.

Triple quartan fruer is that which has three fits
every fourth day ; or that which returns every day
like a quotidian, onlv at different feafons of the
day ; the fourth fit anfwering to the time of the
firft, the fifth to the fecond, ^e.

Caufcs of intermiffion. All thefe various kinds of
intermiflions, proceed from the greater or Icfler
number of obftructions the blood meets Vifilli in its
courfe ; and the more or lefs time it ta!ies in con-
quering them,

Laftly, there are fome extraordinary fpecies of
fevers, not reducible to any of the forementioned
claiTes, as malignant, eruptive, and peflilential
fevers.

Malignant fevers are thofe, wherein the ufual,
regular fymptoms do not appear, (nature being op-
prelTed with the malignity of the febrile matter) but
other foreign fymptoms arife ; as a pain about the
ftomach and pr.-ecordia ; a livid complexion, with
the face much disfigured, is'e. fometimes efflore-
fcences on the fkin, <Sc.

Some authors, from microfcopical obfervations
afHrm, that in all malignant fevers the blood is fo
corrupted, that fwarms of little worms are generat-
ed therein, which occafion moft of the fymptoms.

Cure of malignant feveis. In all malignant

fevers the blood is too fluid. Hlood-letting has

here no place . vomitories do well at firft, afterwards

fudorificks, and alexipharmicks. ! -lifters are com-

; mended in the procefs of the difeafe.

1 Eruptive fevers are thofe, which, befide the

i fymptoms common toother fevers, have their crifis .

attended with cutaneous eruptions. Such are thofe

of the fmalf pox, meazles. the petechial, the pur-

I pie or icarlet fever, and the miliary fever.

i Svmptoms. The other fymptoms are a grie-

{ vous opprefTion of the breaft, laborious fhort breath,

I obftinate waking, fpalms, fore throat, cough,

[isfc.

I . Prog.

MEDICINE.

235

Progm[iick.- • -All thefe kinds of fevers are very
dangerous ; and are always cured by antidotes and
fudorificks.

Pe/tiUntial fevers are acute, contagious, and

mortal difeafcs Some will have the fever to be

the difeafe, or plague itfelf; others only accounr
it a fyinptom of the plague.

Petechial fever is a malignant fever, wherein, be-
fidc the other fymptoms on the fourth, or more
frequently the fcventh day, petechicg, or red-fpois,
like flea-bites, appear chiefly on the breaft, {houlder,
and abdpmen. i'he fpots, afterwards, turn paler,
then yellow, and fo difappear. When they grow
livid, or black, they ufually prove fata). 1 he
petechial fever is alio called fehris lenticularis, and
pulicaris.

The Plague, or pefliknce, is a very acute,
malignant, and contagious difeafe ; ufually prov-
ing mortal.

The plague is commonly defined by a ?nalignant
fever ; but Diemcrbroeck thinks the two ought to
be diftinguiflied ; the fever not being the elFence,
but only a fymptom or eiferb of the plague.

Caufes of the plague. — The origin and caufe of
the plague has been a celebrated fubjeifl of contro
verfy among phyhcians. T he diforder is generally
fuppofed to be communicated by the air ; but how,
and in what manner the air becomes thus deadly,
is the queftion.— Some will have infeifls the caufe
of plagues, as of blights; which being brought in
fwarms from other parts, by the vvjinds are taken
into the lurigs by refpiration, mixed with the blood
and juices, and attack and corrode the vifcera.

Mr. Boyle attributes plagues principally to the
effluvia, or exhalations breathed into the atmofphere
from noxious minerals.

Symptoms of the Plague. — The plague according
to Sydenham, ufually begins with a chilnefs r.nd
Ihivering, like the accefs of an intermitting fever ,
then comes on anaufea, with vehement vomitings,
an intenfe pain about the region of the heart, as if
pinched in a prcls ; and a burning fever, which
continually preys on the patient, till either death,
or the eruption of fome bubo, parotis, or other
tumour, in the inguiiia or axillas, or behind the
ears relieve him, and difcharge the matter of th;
difeafe. Sometimes, indeed, it attacks without
any fever ; purple fpots appearing all at once, the
certain figns of prefent death : but this rarely
happens, except at the beginning of fome terrible
plague. It has alfo been known to make its firft
appearance in tumours, without any fever, or other
violent fymptom.

Heavinefs, pain in the ftomach, head and back,
cardialgy, broken fleep, anxiety, alteration in the

look, difficulty of breathing, hiccough, fyncope,
d(.iirium, convulfjvc twitchings, diarrija-;i, eyes
funk or inflamed, tongue black and dry, vehement
drought, fasiid breath, carbuncles, livid fpots, pur-
ple, green, fjC^, are alfo fymptoms ufually attending
this difeafe.

Progyiofiicks of the Plague. — A great deal of tlie
prognoftick depends on the circumftances of the
tumours, or plague-fores : as tlity appear, and
increafe. the fever abates ; and as they link, or di-
miiiifn, renews again. When they happen about
the time of tiie crifjs, and fuppurate kindly, ihcy
are good prognofticks of a happy recovery.

In the terrible plague at Islimegue:!, Diemcrbroeck,
who atttended the fick thro' the v/hole progref^
thereof, relates, that thofe taken ill about new and
full moon, rarely efcaped ; tliat fainiings, fwoon-
ings, and palpitations of the heart, were ufually
deadly figns ; an intermitting pulfe always mor-
tal J droA'finefs, fneezings, tremulous motions,
doating, fore throat, &c, were ill omens : pleuri-
fies, always mortal ; coftivenefs a good fign ; a
diarrhsa almoft conftantly fatal ; bloody {tools,
or urines, always prefaged ill.

Cure of the Plague. — As to the cure, phyficians
are much divided. It is generally attempted by
alcxipharmicks and cardiacks, .. iththe afliftance
either of fudorificks, or phlebotomy, or both.
Many eminent phyficians, both antient and mo-
dern, highly commend blood-letting ; Sydenham
particularly fays, that if ufed copioufly, and in
time, it never yet did harm, but that fudorificks
often prove pernicious : Diemerbroeck, on the con-
trary, with other very experienced writers, protefts
againfl: phlebotomy, as very dangerous, and often
deadly: their chief hope they built on diaphore-
ticks and fudorificks, as the only means to evacuate
the morbifick matter. Emeticks and purgativxs
are exprefly forbid; and yet Dr. Sayer ufed the-
former with good fuccefs in the beginning of the
difeafe in the plague at London, Anno 1640.

The juice of lemons is commended, as of fingu-
lar efficacy in the plague, and peftilential fevers.
Pifa relates that it is the principal remedy of the
Indians, and protefls he never knew any thing
come up to it. Dr. Harris obferves, that the fame
is what the Turks have principally recourfe to.
Camphire is alfo much extolled ; this, Etmuller,
affures us, was the bafis of //f/^/Jw's'antipeftilen-
tial oil, who had a ftatue eredted to him when
dead, in the city of Verona, for the fervice he had
done hereby. It was prepared of equal quantity
of camphire, citron bark, and amber. Viperine
fait, and rob of elder- berries, are alfo commended.

For prefervatives againfl: the plague, they are
ufually fummed up in that popular diftich.

Hac

236 Tlie Unirei-fal Hiftory of Arts ^;i^ Sciences.

IltSL- tr'ui lahifuam tillunt acherlia fejlem.
Mix huge, taide, cede, rceedc, redi.

Cauteries, and efpecially iffues, and fctoiis in
the iiigiiina, arc found of great fcrvitx- i;i prefervincr
from iiifeflion. A piece of myrrh, lield in the
mouth ill contagious places, is alio ccmmendLd
But Dienierbroeck allures, that there is noihin"-
better in this intention than fmoaicina: tobacco ;
but he adds, that it was only fo to fuch as had not
made the pjaftice famili.ir to them. The other
prefervatives ufed by that ai;thor, were the rnd.
/ji-Zsw;, cardamoms, white wine vinegar, and chear-
fulnefs ; and when he found his fpirits low, as if
the difeafes were taking pofleiTion, a cup of gene-
rous wine, fometimes even to a degree of ebiiety.

The Scurvy is a difeafe very frequent in the
northern countries; particularly in fenny, wet,
humid places, expofcd to the north, i^c.

Catifcs of the Scurvy. — Charleton obferves, that
it arifes chiefly from fharp, faline particles, taken
in by infpiration, from fait and corrupted meats
eaten, from bad waters drank, from nailinefs,
deep chagrins, iSc.

Symptoms of the Scurvy. — The moft ufual
fymptoms are bleeding, coughing, vomitting,
d'ifBculty of breathing, loafeneTs, a relaxation of
the parts, fweating, a faetid fmell of the gums, a
falling of the teeth, {linking breath, reddifli or
yellow livid fpots, pains of the arms and legs,
vvearinefs, faintings, lazinefs, head-ach, i^c.

Prognojluk of the Scurvy A confirmed fcurvy

is always very dangerous ; efpecially vAen the
perfon afEicled therewith, indulges that inadion,
or indolency infeparable from it, and negledls
keeping himfelf very clean.

Cure of the Scurvy. — The cure is very difficult;
and when the difeafe is rooted next to impoffible.
It fometimes goes ofFin a flux by ftool, fometimes
by the haL-morrhoides, and fometimes by urine ;
but more often degenerates into a dropfy, atrophy,
apoplexy, epilepfy, or ccnvulfions.

A very exaft diet is held of more effeft than
the beft medicines; without this it becomes incu
rable. Bleeding docs not avail ; firon a; purgatives
are hurtful : fo is fugar and all fugar'd tilings.
Mercurius Didcis ufed inrernally, fo as not to
falivate, but only raife a fweating, is found excel-
1 ;nt. Daltvus undertakes to cure any fcorbutus in
twelve days time, by the ufe of this alone; only
the patient to drink nothing at all times but a
proper decoction, and tn abllain from acids and
hog's flefli. Charleton recommends a continued
ufe of milk, particularly milk emulfions of fweet
a'monds, decoftions of china, broths, and other
aiti-acids and analepticks. — £/««&/• makes the

bafis of the cure of iha fcorbutus, and hypochon
driacal difeafe, the fame, wz. copious vomitin" •
flrong catharticks, he obferves, arc prejudiciat \
but gentle ones good ; for the body is to be ftiij
kept open. He adds, that vinegar is hurtful, and
yet the acid juices of fruits and vegetables whole-
fome. Accordingly the ufe of lemon-juice is
much recommended by Li/ler. Milk, and all
milky things, while the llomach is yet able to
digdt, are excellent; fo are m-rcurials.— £^«?,//^r,
inllead of mercurials, recommends antimonials.

Thus much in general. ^For the particular
lymptoms, particular medicines adapted thereto
are to be ufed, only mixing antifcorbuticks with
them all.

The chief fimple antifcorbuticks are, horfe-rad-
difh, forrel, butter-bur, fcorzonera, fow-thiflle,
zcdoaiy, polypody, elecampane, guaiacum, faffa-
fras, muftard feed, (which is the beft of all) naftur-
tium a,|uaticum, trifolium paludofum, orantres,
lemons, juniper-berries, cream of tartar, tartarum
vitriolatum, i^c.

Bocrhaave prefcribes the following remedies
for the fcurvy.

Vomitives. — Take tartarum vitriolatum, cream
of tartar, and fal polychrefte, of each half a drachm •
mix them together for a powder, which fhall be
taken m a pint of whey, in the mornino-; the
patient drinking afterwards twelve ounces of'whey.

Jttenuant and digefive remedies A drachm

of thetindure of faJt of tartar of;^^« Helmont.
made with two ounces of wine.

A drachm of the tindure of mars oi Ludovicus,
with an ounce of wine.

The falts of the vegetables of Tc.chcmus, with
three ounces of wine.

Two drachms of elixir proprietatis with vine-
gar, ts'c.

The Evil, or kiug's-evH, is a difeafe called in
medicine, Jhuma and fcrcphuU, confiftino- in
Icirrhous tumours, arifina; moft commonly about
the neck, but fome alfo on the other glandulous
parts, as the breaft, arm-pits, groin, iJc.

Cmfes of the king's-Evil. — The caufe of the
king s-evil is a thick and vifcous limpha, extrava-
fated m the fubftance of the glands, and renders
themimbecil towards the fecretion of the ferum.

The king's evil is a contsgious malady, and is
propagated from father to fon, and from veneration
to generation ; therefore it is conildered'in France
as an impediment to matrimony; fo that a
marriage contraftcd, where either of the contrad-
mg parties is attainted with that diftemper, is de-
clared null by the laws of that realm.

The Big's evil is a difeafe very rebellious to
all forts of remedies, efpecially when rooted in,

and

MEDIC

patients are tho-

and it is but very feldom that
roughly cured.

Diseases of the Aedomek. The hypochon-
driack is a very comprehenfive difeafe.

When conceived, as is fituate in the hypochon-

diiack regions, or arifing from fomc difordtr of

the parts contained therein, w/z. the fpleen, liver,

isfc. it is properly called the hypochondriacal difeafe,

fpleerty &c.

When conceived as owing to foine diforder of
the womb, it is called hyfierick affeoiion.

And lailly, when the flatulent rumblings in the
inteitines, belchings, iSc. are confidercd, it is
called the vapours.

Caufes of the Hypochrondriach. — The feat of
this difeafe is commonly fuppofed to be in the ani-
mal fpirits, and the nervous fyftem. Its caufe is
referred to an acid fait abounding in the mafs of
blood ; to which the ill difpofition of the ftomach,
and the other parts contained in the epigaftrium,
may greatly contribute. Purcel affigns crudities
and indigeftions as the prime caufe, and in that he
is not at all miftaken. According to Sydenham,
vehement motions of the body, or more ufually
violent perturbations of the mind, as grief, anger,
fear, i3c, are its procatarftlck caufes.

Symptoms of the Hypocho-ndriack. — Its fymptoms
are very numerous ; the mod ufual are a pain in
the ftomach, windinefs, vomitings, a fwelling or
diftention of the hypochrondriums, or upper part of
the belly, noife and rumblings in the lower venter,
wandering pains, a conftrlftlon of the breaft,
difficulty of breathing, palpitation of the heart,
faintings, watchlngs, inquietudes, fwimming of the
head, fear, fufpicions, melancholy, deliriums, ^c.
Not that all thefe accidents befall always every
perfon afRidl d with this difeafe ; but fometimes
fome of them, and others at other times, according
to the conftltution, i^c of the patient.

In efFeiS, the hypochondriacal is a very vague
indeterminate fort of diforder. Dr. Sydenha?/: ob-
ferves, that its fymptoms ape or emulate thofe of
moft other difeafes ; and that whatever part it is
in, it produces fomewhat like the cominon difeafe
of that part. Thus in the head it produces a fort
of apoplexy, fits like to epilepfy, called hyfterick
fits, intolerable head ach, tfc. In perfons affected
v/ith the cholorofs, it produces a palpitation of the
heart J fometimes, though rarely, it fcizes the
lungs, and caufes a continual dry cough : it alfo
imitates the cholick and iliack paffion and fome-

I JV E. 237

and the legs and thighs, which it fwells fo

ful.

as to vefemble the dropfy : feizing the tcetK it

rcfembles the fcurvy, (indeed Etmuller makes the

fcurvy itfelf to be a great degree of this difeafe.)

Laflly, which is the mofi: unhappy circumftance of

all, the patient i; more affefted in mind than in

body.

Prognof.ick. — The hypochondriack is a very
common and obflinate difeafe ; and as it prove.;
rebellious to almoft all forts of remedies, it tea7.es
both the patient aflUfted therewith, and the phyfi-
cian who undertakes the cure thereof; and though
it proves very feldom mortal, it notwithftanding
moft commonly accompanies the patient to the
grave.

Cure of the Hypochondriack. — Advifipo- the
patient to be chearful, and to avoid all that can
caufe him the leaft uneafinefs, as chatrrin or
melancholy ; order the ufe o^ the half-bath, to
repair the tone of the ftomach, and to procure a
good digeftion of the aliments; then try firft, by
gentle purgatives, to evacuate the morbirick mat-
ter both by ftool and urine ; and forbid the ufe of
all forts of aliments, which are not of a very eafy
digeftion : next prefcribe ftomachicks, reftoratives
and cephalicks ; and conclude by remedies to pu-
rify the mafs of blood ; prefcribing befides a mo-
derate exercife.

The hyfierick is, as already obfervcd, a fpecies
of the l}ypocl}ondriack, peculiar to women, and
luppofed to arife from fome diforder of the womb.

Caufes of the Hylhrick. — The ordinary caufes of
this diforder are violent paffions, rage, love, irrief,
bad news, fweet fmell. The real caufe beina in
the animal fpirits, and the nervous fyftem.

The more common fymptoms or accidents of this
difeafe, are a fwimming of the head, dazling of the
eyes, inquietudes, pains of the abdomen, belches,
naultsas, vomitings, deliriums, convulfions. It is
not always attended with all thefe fymptoms, but
fometimes with more, and fometimes with lefs,
and thofe more or lefs violent.

Baglivi adds, that hyfterick women feel a fenfe
of cold in the crown of the head ; and this he
takes to be the chief diagnoftick of the difeafe,

Proznodick. — This malady proves very feldom
mortal, hut it is a very obftinate one, and rebellious
to almoft a'l forts of remedies, cfpeciallv as to a
perfeft cure thereof.

Cure of the Hyfierick. — During the paroxifm
fetid things, v.'hether internally or externally ap-
plied, are of advantage, particularly cajhreum,
times the ftone, jaundice, ts'c. In the inteftines it I tne fmoak of burnt horn, or burnt feathers held to
produces a diarrhsa ; in the ftomach nnufea's. ! the nofe. Volatile fpirits alfo help to awake the

Sometimes it feizes the external parts, and parti-
cularly the back, which it renders chilly and oain-
VoL. II. 38.

patient out of the paroxifm ; as alfo tickling in
the foles of the feet. Where it is feverer than
I i oidinarv,

238

The Unlverfal Hiftory of Arts «W Sciences.

ordinary, recourfe nuift be had to punflure, fcari-
ficatioii, veficatorieij, caufticks, i3c.

The Clorosis (wliich {\<iT\\^zz grecnnefs^ ver-
dure^ from the Greek ■/^(.-n, graf>) is a feminine
difcafe, vulgarly called the green-fuknefs. Sic.

Its ufual fubjeils are girls, maids, and widows ;
and even wives, whofe liufbands are deficient, (sfc.

Caiifes of the Ciorofn. — This difcafe comes on
commonly antecedent to, or about the time of the
eruption of the menfes. 'J'hough the Itoppage of
the menfes is not always the caufc of this diftem
per; for they fometimes flow regularly, though
but feldom, in the progrefs thereof. — According
to Etmulkr, the fuppreflion of the menfes are ra-
ther the efFeft than the caufe. I rather attribu'te
the caufe of this difeafc to an eftVenate defire of the
adl of venery, which generate a plenitude in the
/JDermatick vellels, which for want of evacuation,
acquire a preternatural quality, which fends putrid
vapours into the mafs of the blood, which infects
it, and renders it very flow in its circulation.

Spnptoim. — This difeafe gives a pale, yellow,
or greenifh tinflure to the complexion, with a
circle of violet under the eyes. — The patient is
melancholy, and uneafy ; has frequently a low
wandering fever, with an unequal pulfe, vomiting,
heavinefs, liftlefnefs, drowfinefs, difficulty of breath-
ing, longing for abfurd foods, (Sc.

Prognoji'uk. — This malady is much more trou-
blefome than dangerous.

Cure of the Chlorofts. — The moft fpecifick re-
medy for this difeafe is the human coition ; tho' it
is chiefly attempted by bleeding in the foot, chaly-
beates, and bitters. In the colder conftitutions,
decoftions of guaiacum are found of ufe.

The Jaundice (from the French jauniffe, yel-
lownefs, or jaune, yellow) is a difeafe confifting in
a fufFufion of the bile, and rejeftion thereof to
the furface of the body, whereby the wJiole exterior
habit is difcolour'd.

Catifei of the Jaundice. — There are three kinds
o^ jaundice. The fir% properly called the jaundice,
or yellow jaundice., is owing to the yellow bile,
which, in this cafe is too exalted, or too abundant
in the mafs of the blood ; or perhaps to an ob-
firuflion of the glands of the liver, which prevents
the gall being duly feparated from the blood; or
to a floppage of the porus bilarius, or the like
means, whereby the mixture of that fluid with the
aliment in the inteftines is prevented.

The fecond, called the black jaundice, is owing
to the fame bile being mingled v.ith acids.

The tliird, bordering on green, takes its rifealfo
from a mixture of bile with an acid.

Dicignojlick. — In \.\iz yellow jaundice, the alhugi-

nea, or white of the eye, and the fkin, arc chiefly
yellow; and befides troubled with an itching. \n
the black jaundice, the natural colour is loft, by
reafon of an atrabiliary humour, fprcad underneath
the fkin : it firfl appears brownifii, and afterwards
of a lead-colour.

Prvgnojiick. — The jaundice often pro\ es a fore-
runner of the dropfy The black jaundice is iiKO-

rablc, cfpecially in men advanced in years ; who
when afflided with it, mufl prepare for the other
world.

Cure — The acid fpiiit of fal ammoniack, is faid
to be an excellent remedy againft the jaundice.

The Dropsy is a preternatural colle£lion of
fcrum, or water, in fome part of the body ; or a
too great proportion thereof in the blood.

The dropfy acquires different names from the
different parts it afRids, or the difl^erent parts the
waters are colledted in.

That of the abdomen, or lower belly, called
fimply and abfolutejy dropfy, is particularly deno-
minated afcites. — That of the whole habit of the
body, anafarca, or leucophlegmatica. — That of the
head, hydrocephalus.— Thzt of the fcrotum, hy-
drocele.

There is alfo a fpecies of this difeafe fuppofed to
be caufed, inflead of water, by a collection of
wind, called tympanites ; and by Hippocrates, dry
dropfy. — We alfo meet with dropfies of the brcaft,
pericardium, uterus, ovaries, iSc.

Caufes of Dropfy. — The caufes of dropfy in
general, are whatever may obftrucSt the ferous part
of the blood, fo as to make it flagnate in the vcifels;
or burfl the veifels themfelves, fo as to let the
blood out among the membranes ; or weaken
and relax the tone of the vefiels ; or thin the blood,
and make it watery, or leflen perfpiration.
I Thefe caufes are various, viz. fometimes acute
] difeafes, fcirrhous tumours of any of the more
noble vifcera, excefllve evacuations, particularly
haemorrhages, hard drinking, (Sc.

Symftoms of the Dropfy. — The afites or wa-
ter-dropfy of the abdomen, is the moft ufual cafe,
and what we particularly call the dropfy. Its
fymptoms are tumours, firft of the feet and legs,
and afterwards of the abdomen, which keeps con-
tinually growing; and if the belly be ftruck or
fhook, there is heard a quafhing of water. Add
to this three other attendants, v,z. a dypfnaea, in-
tenfe thirft, and fparing urine; with which may be
number'd heavinefs, liitlefnefs, coftivenefs, a light
fever, and an emaciation of the body. — Baglivi
notes, that in a dropfy arifing from a morbid liver,
there is always a vehement dry cough, which is
never obferved in the other cafes.

Prognojiick,

MEDICINE.

239

' ■ Progmfick. — The cJropfy is always a dangerous
difcafc, and though cured in appearance, for fomc
time, returns again, and kills the patient at lafl.
Tycbo Brake norcs, that hydropick perions ufually
die about full-moon.

Cure of the Dropfy. — The curative indications
sre two, viz. the evacuation of the water, and
the ftrengthening of tiie blood and vifcera. The
firrt is effeiled by ftrong purgatives, particularly
elaterium, and the infufion of crocus metalJorum,
though this laft works upwards more than down-
wards. For fuch as are too weak to bear purga-
tives, Dr. Sydenham recommends diureticks,
whereof the bell are thofe made of lixivial faks.

For the fecond intention, exercile and change
of air, wine, and other generous liquors, alfo
ftomachicks, chalybeates, and other corroborating
medicines are prelcribed.

Where other means fail for evacuating the wa-
ter, rccourfc is had to the paracentefis, or opera-
tion of tapping, defcribed in the Treatile of 6'/;/-
rurgeiy.

Mayern recommends mercurius dukis, and nitre,
and ants eggs, for the promoting of urine, and
draining the tumour. Exercife, and change of
air, wine, and other generous liquors cautioufly
taken, have alfo their ufe. IVairjwright extols
an infufion of green tea in rhenifli wine ; as alfo
briony juice, as excellent in this difeafe ; fome
commend garlick. The millepedes are alfo an
excellent remedy.

Boerhaave prefcribes the following remedies :
take the root of imperatory, arljhlochia lotigee, t5'
rotunda, zedoariae, fileri montanae, of each an
ounce : fix drachms of ginger ; two ounces of the
fummits of little centaury ; an ounce of rofmarin ;
bays and juniper berries, of each an ounce and a
half; thyme and ferperlium, of each an ounce ;
the feeds of wormwood, and of tanzy, of each an
ounce ; pounded together to make a fubtile pow-
der ; then take fix ounces of that powder, and
four pints of the beft French wine ; to make of
them a medicinal wine ; of whith the patient
ihall drink two ounces four times a day, with the
precaution of having his fiomach empty before
he takes it.

The Anasarca is a fort of univerfal dropfy,
wherein the whole fubftance of the body is ftufFcd
or bloated with pituitous humours.

The anafarca is the fame, with what is other-
wife called leucophlegmatlca.

Caufes of the Anajarca — It may be either ov/ing
to fome diforder of the blood, which in this dif-
eafe is of a pale colour, vifcid and cold, or to an
aqueous humour extravafatcd, and gather'd toge-
ther in the mufcks and the pores of the fl^in.

Symptoms. — In an anafarca the legs AvcJ! at ihe
beginning, efpecially towards night, and thcii pii
remarkably : the urine is pale, the appetite decays j
at Itngtli the fivelling riles higher, and appears
in the thighs, belly, breaft, and arms. The face
becomes pale and cadaverous ; the llefii foft and
lax ; a difficulty of refpiration comes on, attended
with a flow fever.

Prognojlick This difeafe is extremely dan-
gerous, and always mortal in perfons advanced in
years.

Cure. — The remedies ufed in the afcites or
water' dropfy, are ufed in this ; but feldom with
any fucceis.

The Tympany is a flatulent tumour, or
fwelling of the abdomen or belly, very hard, equa-
ble, and permanent ; whereby the (kin is ftretchcd
fo tight, it gives a found like that of a drum.

Caufes of the tympanites. — Some are of opinion
that wind certainly makes a principal part of the
morbid matter ; but this is fcarce ever found with-
out water, excepting at the beginning 5 fo that
fome will not allow of any difiference between the
tympany and the afcites.

Some fuppofe it to arife from a watery humour
extravafated and rarefied into vapour ; and by a
property common to it with common air, corrupt-
ing the parts. But this Boerhaave makes a parti-
cular kind of tympanites, or windy dropfy ; and
adds, that it is cured like the afcites, or watery
dropfy, by tapping, ft.

Others will have the tympc:nites to arife from the
air infinuating itfelf through perforations in the
putrified inteftines. A tympanite from this caufe,
Boerhaave, who makes it a peculiar clafs, obferves,
is almofl always incurable.

Symptoms. — The fymptoms of the tympanites arc
an exccflive tenfion of the abdomen, an irregular
and hard pulfe, frequent head-ach, ^c.

ProgvojUck. The tympanites rarely kills of

itfelf; but it almoft always accompanies the pa-
tient to the grave, or degenerates into an ajcitcs.

Cure — Catharticks rather aggravate than alle-
viate this difeafe : antihyftericks, antifcorbuticks,
chalybeates, and ftrengthners are of ufe, before it be
commenced an atites. Equal quantities of leek
and elder leaves mixed analytically, is a tamed
empirical medicine, v/hich has often proved ef-
fectual, when every thing elfe had failed.

It is ufual to apply carminatives to the belly, as
the emplaifter of cummin feeds, ^c. and alfo to
ufe carminatives mixed with catharticks, diureticks,
tsc. internally.

CoLER a mor e us is a fudden overflowing orerup-

tion of the bile, or bilious matters, both upwards and

I i 2 down-

240 The Univerfal Hiftory

downwards. It has its name either from the great
quanity of cholcr it evacuates, or bccaufe tlic
matter is inccffancly expelled at the inteftines, which
they antiently called cholades.

Caufcs. — It is fuppofed to have its rife from the
great abundance of bilious humours ; which being
very acrimonious, vellicate the membranes of the
ftomach and inteftines ; and by that means occa-
iion unufual and violent contraflions. Dr. Syden-
kim obferves, it generally attacks about the latter
end of fummer, and proceeds not unfrequently
from furfeits.

Progr.of'ick. — The cholera morbus is very dange-
rous ; it carries off the patient in a very flioit
time.

Cure — Dr. Sydmham hys, that the cure depends
upon large quantities of chicken-broth, drank fo as
to excite vomiting plentifully ; and that the broth
is alfo to be injedted clyfter-wife. He adds, that
the cure" is to be compleated by laudanum given at
proper intervals, and in proper dofes.

The remedy in the Indies for the cholera morbus,
or mafidechin, is to keep the patient from drinking,
and to burn the foals of his feet.

Another method in the cure of the cholera mor-
hiis is to be5;in by prefcribing adofe of ipecacuanha;
and when that remedy has done operating, to order
fome fpoonfuls of mutton-juice, in balneo mariae»
and adminiftered to the patient by intervals; and
at night a few drops of laudanum. Prefcribe like-
wife clyfters made of a {heep's head, wool and all;
to which add a few drops of laudanum.

Dysentery is a bloody diarrhoea, or a flux of
blood by ftool, attended with pain and griping.

The word dvfsntery is formed from the Greek ivu
difficulty, and silffoi-, inteftine ; and properly lignifies
that kind of fiux of the belly, charaflerifed by the
frequency of ftools, or dejecStions, mixed with
blood, and accompanied with gripes: the fever,
xdcer, i^c. which attend it, are not eflential to the
difeafc ; though many, both of the antient and
modern, think the ulcer is.

Caufes of the dyfentery. — Phyficians affign feveral
caufes of the dyfentery, viz. the next, fccond, me-
diate, and remote caufes.

The next caufe of the dyfentery is a ferous, or
other morbid humour, mixed with the mafs of
blood ; the confequencc of which is a too great
fermentation in the blood, and a diflblution of its
parts, which are thus render'd too liquid.

The fecond cafe is a vellication, and irritation
of the nervous fibres of the inteftines, occafioned
by {harp, acid humours, feparated from the b'ood ;
which occafion the fpiral fibres that produce the
periftakick motion of the guts to move too faft,

of Arts and Scif.nces.

and t'lus to expel the matters too haftily out of the

inteftines.

The mediate caufe is fome foreign body adhering
ftrongly to the inteftines, and by its {harp points,
vellicating their nervous fibres, and at length ul-
cerating them.

The remote caufes are any thing that corrupt the
mafs of the blood, as vifcid, and crude, {harp
juices ; ill foods ; autumnal fruits ; grapes ; new
wine drunk in excefs ; poifons ; violent medicines ;
waters conveyed through leaden pipes ; rainy wea-
ther in the fpring, with a dry v/inter, and a hot
fummer.

Symptoms. — The feat of the difeafe is in the in-
teftines, either the big, or fmall, or both. When
the difeafe is in the Imall ones, the gripes begin
long before the ftools, and are felt about the navel;
and the blood and excrements are more blended, as
being longer together. W hen the larger intef-
tines are feized, the pain is lefs vehement, and is
felt lower, ^c.

The dyfentery, Sydenham obfer\'es, beg;ins with
a chilnefs and fhivering ; which is followed by a

I a heat ; then gripings of the belly enfue, with
mucous or fanious ftools, which, in procefs of

' time, are found interfperfed with ftreaks of blood,

j with vehement pain.

I The ftools are fometimes void of blood, and yet
if they be frequent and attended with gripes, and
a mucous colluvies, the fame author fays it is a
proper dyfentery. Along with the excrements,
befides a whitifli mucofity, frequently comes fcrap-
ings of the guts, in form of little {kins.

Prognoflick. — The dyfentery is alv/ays a very
dangerous difeafe ; but much more fo, if pure
blood be evacuated, for then the patient's life is in
great danger ; and likewife when the dejecStions, or
Itools, have a cadaverous fmell.

Cure. — The ipecacuanha is excellent on this oc-
cafion : not fo much as a vomitary, Dr. Freind
obferves, as a fudoritlck ; having this faculty, be-
yond all other emeticks, that it corre^s the dyfen-
terick ferment, in proportion as it evacuates it. In
the Philofophical TranfaSiions we have an exprefs
dilcourfe on the fubjeiS ; where it is alTerted to be
infallible in all dyfenteries and loofenelTes, how
dangerous and inveterate foever ; except in pulmo-
nick and hydropick patients, whofe fluxes are in-
dications of approaching death.

Sydenham orders phlebotomy ; but JVilUs fays,
no evacuation is good ; and prefcribeshot cardiacks ;
as fpirit of wine a little burnt, i^c. Balfamick and
ftyptick medicines are alfo to be ufed, according
to the divers caufes and fymptoms of the dif-
eafe.

Bnri, in a letter to Bartholine^ affirmsj there is

MEDICINE.

2^1

no better medicaments in a dyfeiitery thnn rofe-
watcr, wherein gold has been extinguiihcd.

Dolccus relates, that he cured above a hundred
perfons with oil of I'wect almonds, mixed with
orange juice.

Pura;atives have rarely any good effeft in dyfcn-
teries, as incrcafing the I'crmentation of the biood,
and irritating the fibres of the intcllines mo:e and
more. Nor arc emeticks much better ; as tending
to draw the peccant humours into the Itomach, or
at leaft into the higher inteftines, and caufe more
frequent (tools.

Diarrhoea is a loofcnefs, or flux in the belly;
or aprofufe evacuation of liquid excrements by ftool.

The word, in the general, is ufed for any kind
pf flux of the belly; but properly for that wherein
the humour or excrement flows out either pure, or
mixed with, or without pain, in a fluid Ihite.

Diarrhceah are of divers kinds, according to the
divcrfity of the excrements : fome being bilious ;
fome pituitous, and fome purulent.

Caufes. — The purulent d'larrhcsa always arife
from fome abfcefs open'd in the body ; the reft,
either from morbid humours, irritating the intef-
tincs, and expreffing the juices out of the adjacent
parts ; or from a laxnefs of the intefl:inal fibres ; or
an extraordinary fermentation in the blood, where-
by it difcharges its excrements into the inteftines.

PrognojVicks. — Diarrhoea's, where the ftoois are
very frequent, and of an infupportable cadaverous
fmell, are always dangerous.

Cure. — In the cure of diarrhoea's, from whatever
caufe they arife, the flomach muft be corroborated,
and fudorificks to be mixed with abforbents. The
patient to drink fp.vingly. Qiiince and wine burnt
with aromaticks is good. IVainivright obferve?,
that a flannel fhirt contributes much to the cure of
an habitual diarrhoea.

LiENTERY is a kind of loofenefs, wherein the
food pafles fo luddenly through the ftomach and
guts, as to be thrown out by ftool, with little or
r.o alteration.

Caufes. — The lientery is generally owina; to a de-
fe£l in the ferment of the itomach, or to a relaxa-
tion of the pylorus, attended with fo brifk an irri-
tation of the fibres of the ftomach, that inftead of
retaining the aliment it lets it pafs. txcefs of
drinking fometimes occufions this difeafe by relax-
ing the ftomach, and efpecially the p) lorus, too
immoderately.

Symptoms. — Thofe afflided with this difeafe, have
always a little fever, with a fudden chilnefs feizing
them all over feveral times in a day. The motion
to go to ftool is fo quick and (o violent, that they
cannot flop it for any fpace of time.

PrognojVick.' — 'i his malady is more troublefome
than dangerous ; though it molt commonly accom-
panies the patient to the grave, for it is not only
almolt ineui able, but it is even often very dai.geruus
to cure it.

Colic K is a fevcre gnawing pain, felt in the
lower venter, fo called becaufe the ordinarv feat of
the dilbrder vv.is antiently fuppofed to be in the
inteftine colon.

We ufually diftinguifh three kinds of coiuk., the
bilious, windy, and nephritick.

Caufe of thehiUnis CJiick. — The lilious coUck has
its rile from certain fharp, bilious, ftimulating hu-
mours, v.'liicii being difTufed through theintellines,
vellicate their fibres, and occafion alenfation of pain.

Symptoms. — Dr. Sydenham ohicives, that the bi-
lious colick ufually attacks about the beginning of
fummer ; tliat it is generally attended with a vomit-
ing of bilious green liquor ; that the patient com-
plains of exce/Tive heat, great gi ipings, faintnefs,Cs'i:.

Prognojiick. Sydenham is of opinion, that if

the bilious colick be not foon remedied it is apt to
turn into the iliack paffion. And Baglivi notes, that
if the patient fweats much, and be much enfeebled,
the difeafe is apt to degenerate into a palfy.

Cure. The cure, Baglivi fays, depends on

bleeding, gentle catharticks, and clyfteis : and if
it arife from a crapula, an emetick is to precede ;
after which the cure is to be compleated by proper
anodynes.

If^ind-eolick is vagabond, never flaying in any
fixed place, being produced by windy vapours,
which fwell and diltend the inteftines they are in-
cloled in.

The nephritick colick is that, felt ufually in the
reins whence it has its name.

Caufe of the nephritick. Tt has ufually its rife

from fome ftone or gravel detached from the kid-
neys, and fallen into the pelvis.

Symptoms. The n phritick is always attended

With violent Teachings and vomitings, and an ex-
ceflive heat, in the region of the loins.

Prognojiick. The nephritick is a very pain-
ful dileafe, and is alfo very dangerous.

Cure for all forts of colicks. In colLcks arifing

from flatulencies, carminative waters, oils, aroma-
ticks, ^c. are always to be added to the compo-

fitions ; and in nephritick colicks, befidcs

emollient clyfters. folutions of manna, cremor
tartari, l^c. in whey, i^c. and proper oleaginous
mixtures are to be exhibited to relax the fibres ;
after which proper anodynes take place. In a fit
of the nephritick, the firft remedy I prefcribe ta
eafe the patient is, oil of fweet almonds, iyrup of
marflx mallows and lemons, of each half an ouikc;

and

The Unlverfal Hiftory of Arts «;^</ Sciences.

bladder it becomes augmented by new lamtllee,

or coats.

Symptoms ofthejlone in tbi kidneys. — The fymp-
toms of the Itone in the kidneys, are, i. A fixed
obtufe pain in the region of the loins, appearing
like a weight loading the reins. As the ftone falls
out of the pelvis into the ureter, the pain is exceed-
ingly acute and racking, which holds till either
the ilone be got into the bladder, or returned again

into the pelvis. 2. An inflexibility of {\\cfpina

dorji, from the extenfion and compreflion of the

nerves. 3. A ftupor of the thigh and leg of that

fide, from the confent of parts. 4. Aretraclion

242

and an ounce of water of parietary, mixed together
for adofe.

Biiglivi recommends camomile as an antidote
againit the colick, from what caufe foever it arife.
Where the diieafi; is obrtinate, much riding has
been found of efpecial fervice.

The Iliack. Passion is a violent kind of co-
lick ; called alfo volvulus, miferere, and cardapfus.
Caufes of the iHack pajfion. The immediate

caule of the iliack pajfton is owing to an irregularity
or inverfion of the periftaluck motion cf the guts,
vix. when it begins with the lower, and is conti-
nued upwards j which irregular motion is called
antipcrijlaltick ; and is occafioned by the hardne/s
of the excrements, which obftrudts the paflage
through inflammation of the inteftines, and their
engagement in the anus or fcrotum, as fometimes
happens in hernias.

Symptoms. Perfons afBided with this difcafe

expel the feculent matter by the mouth, which
expulfion is accompanied with a (Veiling and ten-
fion of the abdomen, an intenfe pain, and a total
conftipation.

Prognojiick. The iliack pajjion is a very dan-
gerous malady ; which requires immediate relief;
otherwife it carries off the patient in aTcry fliort
time.

Cure. — Some have been cured of this difeafe, by
fwallowing a great quantity of quickfilver, or a
muflcet ball, or a ball of regulusof antimony. The
following pills are a good remedy for the iliack
paffion : T.ike eight grains of troches of alhandel,
three grains of diacyrdium, and eight grains of fa-
o-apenum ; mixed together in the juice of leeks,
for a dole of pills ; which may be repeated if the
difeafe continues.

The Stone is a difeafe, called alio calculus, and
lithiafts, and occafionally the gravel. It confifts of
a ftony concretion, formed either in the bladder or
kidneys ; which prevents thedifcharge of urine, and
occafions violent pains.

I attribute the generation of the ftone to a vifcid
or llimv matter, feparated from the urine in the
pelvis; and which being too thick to be ufhered
throui^h the ureters along with the urine, adheres
to the pelvis, where it is condenfed by the exceffive
heat of the kidneys, increafed by the efforts it makes
to unload itfelf of that foreign body ; and where it
grows in bulk by the new acceflion of the like
fiimy matter, the quantity thereof augments in
proportion, as the pelvis grows more weak in its
natural fun£lions.

The (tone in the bladder is firfl: formed in the
pelvis of the kidneys ; whence falling into the

of the teflicle. 5. A very fmall quantity of

urine, either thin and limpid, or bloody. But as
foon as the ftone is got into the bladder, the urine
becomes thick, turbid, blackifti, and in great
quantity.

Symptoms of the Jlone in the bladder. The

f)'mptoms of the ftone in the bladder, are a fenfe
of heavinefs in the perineum, and inguinal region,
a perpetual and troublefomedefire of making water,
which is follov/ed with a fharp pain, particularly
in the glands ot' the penis, whence ■i.prolapfus of the
anus. But the fureft way of finding it is by the
touch, viz.. by thrufting the finger or a catheter up
the anus.

Prognojiick. — The ftone, both in the kidneys
and bladder, but more particularly in the kidneys,
is a very cruel malady ; which, though it does not
kill always the patient, but keeps him languifhing
for feveral years in the moft excruciating tortures,
makes him notwthftanding vvifh often for death,
to finifti his miferies.

Cure of the Jlone. — The cure of the ftone is ei-
ther by fome medicines, which willdifiblve or break
the concrete ftone ; fo that it may be evacuated by
piece-meal, which is called a lithonthriptick, or by
enlarging the capacity of the veflels ; or by the
operation of cutting, called lithotomy ; which ope-
ration is defcribed at large in the treatife oi Chirur-
gery.

Deckers recommends calcined egg-fiiells, as ex-
cellent in all fuppieiTions of urine ; Hamilton, lin-
feed oil ; and Mr. Boyle, the herb arfcmart.

From the maladies of the abdomen or lower
venter, I'll pafs to thofe which affe<fi: the extre-
mities of the body.

Diseases of the Extremities.

The Gout is a painful difeafe, occafioned by
a flux of fharp humours, upon the joints of the
body.

Some phvficians define the gout, an inflamma-
tion, fwelling, and painfuJnefs of the joints.

Caufes

MEDICINE.

Ctufei of the gnut. The gout is /^jppofci! if)

arife trom a redundancy of humour?, and aweak-
nefs of the joints. Its proper feat is in the limbs,
not in the trunk of the body : in the latter cafe it
frequently proves mortal, not in the former.

According as different parts are affefled by this
difiempcr, it goes by different names. When it
feizes the feet, it is called podagra. When the
knees, gonagra. When the hands, chtragra. And
when the hip-joint, fciatha, &c. Sometimes it
attacks the whole body at the fame time, and then
it is called t\\<i general s.ni univerfal gout .

The gout may be hereditary or natural to the
conftitution, proceeding from a too great conftric-
tion of the capillary veflels, whence the gouty
humour is more eafily lodged, and detained in
them. It may alio proceed from high living, cra-
pula's, and eating fuch things as are hard of digef-
tion ; a fedentary life ; drinking too freely of tar-
tarous wines ; irregular living ; cxcefs in venery ;
an obftruftcd perfpiration.

Some are of opinion, that the immediate caufe
of the gout, appears to be an alkaline or acrimoni-
ous matter in the blood ; which being feparated
from it, at particular times, falls upon the joints, but
moil frequently upon the feet and hands ; which
if it be repelled, or if the blood be overcharged
therewith, fo that a criils cannot be procured in the
extremities (as generally happens in old age) it falls
upon the nobler parts.

My fcntiment is, that the immediate caufe of
the gout is a kind of vitriolick fait, ufhered into
the mafs of the blood, by a bad coftion of the ali-
ments ; but which at fiiil is in io fmall a quantity
in the whole mafs, that it produces none of thole
bad effects, which could be expefted from it, as a
coagulum, i^c. its being continually volatilized by
the native heat, and kept in a continual motion
by the rapidity of the circulation, till that native
heat being much abated, and the circulation be-
coming much flower towards the extremities; that
fait lofmg thereby its motion, fails by its own
weight on thofe parts, and corrode the tendereft
thereof, fuch as the articulations ; whence enfues,
that excruciating pain felt in the paroxyfm, and
which continues, till nature, in the convulfions
excited thereby, calls the animal fpirits to the
fuccourof the afBicled part, which following the
natural impulfe, crowd thither ; and by the excef-
five heat, they caufe in the part, by their continual
rotation, exalt once more thofe fall lie particles, and
expel the greateft part thereof by perfpiration; but
as thofe cannot force their way through the flefh,
without caufnig fome diforders in the mechanifm
of the fibres, by their acutenefs and fharpnefs,
hence enfues the fwelling of the part.

24-J

'i he gout is cither regular or irregular. — Re-
gular, when it appears to be fcatcd in the e.-^trc--
niities of the body, returns at ftated periods, and
with a gradual incrcafe, and decline of the fymp-
toms. Irregular, when the paroxyfms are frcqucht
and uncertain ; when the fyiiipioms vary, and hap-
pen promifcuoiulv, and the difcafe appears to be
fcated in the internal parts of the body ; as the
(lomach, brain, i3c. leaving the extreme parts, as
the hands, feet, isc. free from pain.

Symptoms of the regular gout. — The regular ffout,
chiefly and immediately afte(Sls the tcn'.'ons, nerves,
membranes, and ligaments of she bodv about the
joints. Sometimes a cold fhivering fit precedes,
and generally a fever accompanies its firft appear-
ance, which foon goes off, and returns by intervals.
A flight pain is felt in the joints, where the crifis
is performed, which increafes gradually ; and in
the podagra, generally fixes firfl: on the great toe ;
then proceeding to the tarfus and nutatarfus ; fome-
times, efpecially in old age, it attacks the knees
and hands ; and wherever it is, by woundino- and
corroding the part, caufes a violent pain, not un-
like that of a diflocated bone. When the pain is
at its ftate, /. e. while the native heat is working
to exalt and expel the faline particles, which caufe
it, there appears an inflammation and fwelling ;
both which increafe, as the pain decreafes ; and
upon their remiffion, the paroxyfm is ended ; tho'
the tendernefs and fwelling, in fevere fits, will
fometimes remain a longer time, and caufe an un-
eafinefs upon motion.

The pain increafes towards night, and decreafes
towards the morning; the longer the intervals be-
tween the paroxyfms, the more fevere they prove,
and the longer they generally continue ; bccaufe
there is then a greater quantity of the morbifick
matter gather'd in the neighbourlTood of the part ;
which is much more difficult, and takes much more
time to be expelled.

The difeafe ufually returns twice a year, -viz. in
the fpring and autumn ; and in the latter paroxyfm,
is, fometimes, tv/o or three months before it comes
to a period ; though its duration is fometimes not
above three or four weeks.

Thefe are called cardinal paroxyfms, to diftin-
guifh them from others of lefs duration, whicii
happen between the fpring and autumn. The more
high-colour'd the urine, and the lefs fedimcnt it
depouts, the further is the difeafe from the flate of
concodion, as it is term'd. According to the
violence and continuance of the fever, the paroxyfm
proves more or lefs fevere.

In conftitutions much broke or fhatter'd with the

gout, there are ufually ftony or chalky concretions

formed in the joints of the fingers tsr toer, and

I thence

244 ^^ Univcrfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

thence tranflated to the vifcera; which cafe is of-
ttii attended with irregular, frequent, and (hort
paroxyfms in the extremities. Jn the decline of
life, when the ufual fits do not happen ; if the
gouty matter be fuddenly rppelied from the extre-
micies (to ufe the improper comm >n flile) by an
improper regimen or meilicmes, it ufuiiUy feizes
the internal parts, and frequently the ftomacb,
head, inteftincs, ts'c. caufing want of appetite,
reaching to vomit, indigeftion or cachexia, the
jaundice, aflhaia, diarrhcei; and at laft fo ob-
llructi the fine capiUarv, nervous tubes (efpeciaily
thofc of ihe ilomach and brain) as poffibly to hin-
der the flux of the animal fpirits : upon which death
fuddenly enfues.

Sydenham gives us the hiftory of a regular fit of
the gout in the feet. It begins towards the clofe
of January, or beginning of February^ without
the lead: previous notice; except, perhapf, a cru-
dity or apfy for fome weeks before-hand ; with a
fort of iniumefcence, and a heavinefs of the bo-
dy, which continually increafes, till at laft a pa-
roxyfm breaks out; being preceded, fome days,
with a fort of torpor, and a fenfible defcent of the
flituler.cies through the flefh of the thighs, with
fome fpafmodick fymptoms. The day before the
paroxyfm, the patient's appetite is very greedy ;
an hour or two after midnight he is waked by a
pain, commonly in his great toe, fometimes in
the heel, ancle, or the c.iif of the leg, not unlike
the pain felt upon the diflocation of the faid bones ;
with a fenfe as if water was fprinkled on the part
aft'ecled. This is fucceeded by a chilnefs, and
fome approach to a fever: the p^in, in the mean
time, which at firft was more remifs, gradually in-
creafes ; in proportion to which the chilnefs abates.
By night it is arrived at its height, and fettled about
the ligaments of the bones of the tarfus and me
tatarfus ; where it fometimes refembles a violent
tenfion ; and fometimes a laceration of thefe liga-
ments ; fometimes the biting or gnawing of a doe,
or a fqueezing or coariSbtion. Thus far the part
afFedled has fuch an exquifite fenfe, that it cannot
bear the weight of the linen, nor even the fhakingof
tlic room, occafioned by a perfon's ftepping. Hence
a thoufand vain endeavours to get eafe, by chang-
ing the pofture of the body, the pofition of the
four, C5V. till about t-.vo or three o'clock in the
morning (the fpace of a nychthemeron from its
acccfs) when a remifiion is firft perceived ; the
morbid matter being by this time tolerably digeft-
ed, or even difTiiJa'ed : the patient thereupon drops
afleep, and at his waking finds his pain much abat-
ed, but the part nswly fwelled. A few days lience
the other foot undergoes the fame fate : fometimes
both are attacked from the firft. From the time

it has feized on both legs, the fymptoms become
more irregular and precarious, both as to the time
of invafion, and the duration thereof. But thus
ftill holds, that the pain recruits in the night, and
remits again in the morning. A feries of thefe
little, alternate acceflb, Cff. conftitute a fit, or
paroxvfm of the gout, which holds longer or lefs,
according to the age, '&c. of the patient. In
(frong people, and thofe who have had it often,
fourteen days is a moderate paroxyfm. In old peo-
ple, and thofc long ufcd to it, it will hold two
months. »

For the firft fourteen days, the patient is ufualiy
coftive ; a lofs of appetite, chilnefs towards even-
ing, and a heavinefs and uneafinefs of the parts
not afFecled, attend the whole paroxyfm. As it
goes off", he is feized with an intolerable itching,
efpeciaily between the fingers ; the furfur falls, and
his toes fcale, as if he had drank poifon.

Such is the courfe of a regular gout ; but when
thro' improper treatment, it is difturbed or pro-
longed, it feizts the hands, wrifts, elbows, knees,
and other parts : fometimes diftorting the fingers,-
and taking away their ufe ; fometimes generating
tophaceous concretions, or knots about the liga-
ments of the joints, refembling chalk, or crab's
eyes ; fometimes rifmg a whitifh inflammable tu-
mour, almoft as big as an egg about the elbows.

It may be added, that where a perfon has labour-
ed under the gout for many years ; the pain is fen-
fibly leflen'd each paroxyfm, till at length it be-
comes rather an uneafinefs than a pain : hence
that refleftion of Sydenham, dolor in hoc morlo
amarijjimum eji natura pharmaciim.

Prognojlick of the gout. — The gout is ranked
among the number of incurable difeafes : in efFecSf,
we have no true and affured remedy yet difcover-
ed for it ; thofe that now obtain are little more
than palliatives, they tend to afluage the pain, to
diminifh it for a time, but not to extirpate it.

Ctire of the gout. — Bleeding and purging are
found abi'olutely prejudicial : emeticks, according
to Pitcairn and Etmuller, may do good in the be-
ginning of the difeafe. But upon the whole, no-
thing in Sydenham's opinion, proves of more fer-
vice than digeftives or medicine^ vi'hich ftrengthcn
the ftomach, and promote digeftion : as angelica-
root, enul. campan. the theriac. andromach. the
jefuit's bark, and antifcorbuticks : thefe chiefly to
be adiriiaiftered in the intervals between the pa-
roxifms. A'lufgrave however recommends inter-
nally repellent , and principally caidiacks, exter-
nally einplaifters gi'.m. carm. or oxycroc. or cepha-
lic, with burgundy pitch ; or grten fear-cioth,
commonly called hat-cafe, &c. Yet Dola:ui af-
firms, that, repellents do more harm than good ;

and

MEDICINE.

245

and gives us the following recipe, as more than
equal to all others. R Confeft. harmch ^]. pulv.
jalap %Js. extraif. trifol. febrtn, - ij. Utharg. aur.
|vj. japis antlm. 7,fs. facchar. Canth. ^vj. oh cli-
car, q, J. cera Q picis parum f. f. a. An em-
plaiftcr to be laid on the joint affeited, till the pain
and the morbid matter be driven away.

The Rheumatism (which bears agreat refem-
blance ol'the gout, whence fome call it unlverfal
gout) is a painful difordcr felt in various external
parts of the body, accompanied with heavinefs,
difficulty of motion, and frequently a wandering
lever, fometimes fixed in the mufcular and mem-
branous parts of the body, happening chiefly in
autumn, and its proper feat is fuppofed to be in
the membrana ccmmuuis of the mufcles ; which it
renders rigid and unfit for motion, without great
pain.

The rhcumatifm is either unlverfa! or particular.

Univerfal rhcuinaiifm is that, v/hich attacks all
the parts of the body, even the internal ones.

Particular rbcumatijm is that, which is confined
to particular parts. In which cafe the pains are
ufually erratick, paffing from one fide to another ;
but fometimes fixed. This is alfo called a windy
or fcorbutick rheumatifm.

I he difference between the rheumatifm and the
gout confifts chiefly in this, that the rheumatifm
attacks not only the joints, as the gout does, but
alfo the mufcles and membranes between the
joints.

Caufe of the rheumatifm. — The rheumatifm is
fuppofed to arife from a (harp ferous humour
thrown on the fenfible parts, and occafiojiing a
pain by its vellitation.

The expofing the body too fuddenly to the cold
air, after having heated it to a great degree, is the
moft ufual remote caufe.

Symptotns. — A fit of the rheumatifm is frequentlv
preceded by a fever of two or three days, and
fometimes by a (hivering. The attack happens in
various parts of the body, as the hands, arms,
thighs, leg."!, feet, is'c. a rednefs, fwelling, and
lamentfs often fucceeding. The pain fometimes
fixing in the loin-, and reaching as far as the os
factum; this difordcr is called luinba^i^o, and beais
a near refemblance to the nephritis ; being only
diftinguifhable therefrom by this, that the latter
is attended with a vomiting, which the former is
not.

Progmjlick. — The rheumatifm ufually proves a
tedious lafiiiig difcafe, holding for feveral months,
fometimes years ; not continually, but by parox-
ifms, in aged perfons, and ihofe of weak confti-

VOL. II. 38.

tutions and decayed vifcera; it fometimes feizcs the
head.

Cure. — The cure is by evacuation, chiefly, ac-
cording to Sydenham, by repeated phlebotomy,
with a plentiful ufc of volatiles and diluter.'. Scbmit^
■zius recommends fudoiificks; and Mulgrave ca-
tharticks and emeticks ; and 1 recommend tlie hot
half-bath with diaphoreticks and diureticks.

RicRETs is adiforder afFefling the bonis of chil-
dren, and caufing a confiderable protuberance, in-
curvation or diftortion thereof.

Caufes. — This difeafc fometimes arifes from a
fault in fwathing the child, rolling him too tight
in fome places, and too loofe in others ; placing
him in an inconvenient, or too often in the fame
pofture, or fuffering him to be long wet. It is
likewife attributed to the want of proper motion,
and the ufing of the child to be borne in one arm
only ; whence the legs and knees remain too long
in the fame incurvated fituation. Or it may be
occafioned by fome fault in the digeftion, occafi-
oning the aliment to be unequally applied to the
body, by which fome parts of the bones increafe
in bulk more than the refl.

Prognojlick. — The rickets ufually appear be-
tween the firft eight month: , and the iixth year
of the child's age : the part it afFeils grows lax,
flaccid, and weak ; and if it be the legs, they be-
come unable to fupport the body. All the parts
fubfervient to voluntary motion are likewife debi-
litated and enfeebled ; and the child grows pale,
fickly, flothful, and cannot fit ere£l.

His head generally becomes too large for the
trunk, and cannot be fupported or managed by
the mufcles of the neck, which gradually wear
away. Swelling and knotty excrefcencies appear
in the wrifts, ancles, and tops of the ribs ; and
the bones of the legs and thighs grow bowed and
crooked. The like diforder fometimes alfo k/.ts
the bones of the arms.

Prognojllck. — If the fymptoms continue long,
the thorax becomes flrait, a difliculty of refpiration
enfues, as alfo a cough, and a hcftick fever ; the
abdomen fwells, the pulfe grows wetk and languid,
and the fymptoms increafing at length prove mor-
tal.

Cure. — When the diforder is taken earlv, it
may be remedied by proper bolficrs and bandages,
I'uited to the parts afte£fed ; not othervvife.

Others chufe a liniment of rum and palm oil ;
and others a plaifter de minioand oxya-ocuni, ap-
plied along the back to cover the whole fpine.
Dry fridions over the whole bodv, wi'h a warm
linnen cloth before the fire, efpecially on the pans
afFefled, are of great fervice. TJie oil of fnnils is
K k very

limbs and

246 The Univeifal HiAory of Arts ^W Sciences.

very famous for tlie fame iiiteiuion, being wliatjtire, and by a death peculiar to each of them, an-
diops from them, after bruiCng and fufpending . ticipate that of the patient. It is added, that the

bojy is fo hot, that a frefli apple held in the hand
above an hour, will be dried and wrinkled, as if
expc.fed t) the \\\.n for a week:.

Cure. — As to the cu;e, that which proved ef-
fedlual in louthern countries fails among us, where
the ftrongeft medicament, and the moft power-
ful mercurials arc necelTity. Bathing is judged to be
of good ufc in the lepra.

them in a flannel bag. With this the
fp.nal bone are anointed.

Some want much cold bathing, before the dif-
teniper comes to be confirmed, during May and
'June, continuing the child in the water two or
three feconds at each plunge ; but I do not at all
approve of this remedy, forof feveral children that
have been thus plunged, to my certain knowledge,
none have been cured, and fome have died.

CutaneousDjseases. The leprosy, is a foul
cutaneous difcafe, appearing in dry, white, thin,
fcurfy fcabs, either over the whole body, or only
fome part of it ; and ufually attended with a vehe-
ment itching, and other pains.

Caufes. — I he leprojy feems to arife from a gteat
obflruttion of perfpiration ; whereby the thin faline
humours are thrown ofF from the blood, and ar-
refted by the denfity and clofenefs of the cuticula

The Itch is a difeafe of the fkin, wherein it is
corrupted by the oozing out of certain fharp faline
humours, which gather into puftules, and occa-
fion a puiitus or itching.

There are two kinds of itch, a humid, and zdry
kind. The latter has been ufually fuppofed to be
owing to an atrabilary humour; and the former
to a faline pituita. — They are both contagious.

Caufei. — Ur. Bononio has given a much more

rational account of the caufe of this diflemper.

Symptoms. — The fymptoms of the antient lepra,] than any author before him: he examined feveral

as laid down by Galen, and others, are as fol- i globules of the matter picked out of the puftules

lows : — The patient's voice is hoarfe, and comes of itchy perfjns with a microfcope, and found

rather through the nofe than the mouth ; the blood I them to be minute living creatures, in fhape re-
full of little white ftiining bodies, like grains of mil- fembling a toitoife, of brific motion, with fix feet,

let, which upon filtration feparate themfelves from a fharp head, and two little horns at the end of

it ; the ferum is fcabious, and deftituteof its natural

humidity, infomuch that f^ilt applied to it does

not dilTolve ; it is fo dry, that vinegar poured on

it boils ; and is fo ftrongly bound together by lit-
tle imperceptible threads, that calcined lead thrown

into it ftvinis. The face refembles a coal half ex-

tindt, uniftuous, fhining, and bloated, with fre-
quent hard knots, green at bottom, and white at

top. The hair is fhort, ftifF, and brindcJ, and

not to be torn off without bringing away fome of

the rotten flcfh to which it adheres ; if it grows

Egain, either on the head or chin, it is always

white. Athwart the forehead run large wrinkles

or furrows, from one temple to the other; the

eyes red and inflamed, and fliine like thofe of a

cat ; the ears fwell'd and red, eaten with ulcers

towards the bottom, and encomp.iffed with little

glands ; the nofc funk, becaufe of the rotting nf

-the cartilage ; the tongue dry and black, fwell'd,

ulcerated, divided with furrov/s, and fpotted with

grains of white ; the (km covered with ulcers, that

aie and revive on each other, or with white fpots

or fcales like a fifh ; it is rough and infenfible,

and when cut, inftcad of blood, yields a fanious

liquor. It arrives in time to fuch a degree of in-

fenfibility, that the wrift, feet, or even the large

tendon, may be pierced with a needle, without

the patient's feeling any pain. At Lift the nofe,

fingers, toes, and even privy members fail off cn-

the fnout. Hence he makes no fcruple to attri-
bute this difeafe to the continual bitings of thefe
animalcules in the fkin ; by means of which, fome
portion of the feru.n oozing out through the fmall
apertures of the cutis, little watery bladders are
made, withiri which the infedls continuing to
gnaw, the infedfcd are forced to fcratch, and by
fcratching increafe the mifchief ; breaking not on-
ly the little puPules, but the fkm too, and fome
little blood veli'els, and fo make fcabs, crufty
fores, i^c.

Hence we perceive how the itch comes to be
catching ; fince thefe creatures, by fimple con-
tacts, eafily pafs from one body to another; their
motion being wonJtrfully fwifr, and they crawl-
ing on the furface of the body, as well as under
the cuticula.

Cure. — The cure of the itch is attempted with
lixivial wafhes, baths, and ointments made of falts,
I'ulphurs, mercury, ^c. thefe being very powerful
in killing the vermin lodged in the cavities of the
fl-cin, which fcratching -<\ ill never do, they being
too minute to be caught under the nails. And if
in praftice it is found, that this difeafe, after it
feemed to be cured by uiidion, frequently retians
again, this is eafily accounted for, fince though
the ointment may have killed all the living crea-
tures, yet it may not polfibly have deftroy'd all
their eggs, laid, as it were, in the nefts of the fkin ;

from

MEDICINE.

247

from wliich they afierwards breed again, and re-
new the diftcniper.

Herpes is a cutaneous heat or inflammation,
attended wiih a roughnefs of the (kin, and the
eruption q( a number of little puftules fpreading
tvery way.

There are diveis kinds of this difea/e : a?,

Milinry herpes, which is an ailemblage of in-
numerable little puflules, under ihe cuticle, of the
fize of millet feeds ; popularly called the Jhirgles.

The herpes miJiaris, according to [fyi/iian, ap-
proaches very nearly to the nature of the plora,
Wi.J therefore to be cured with mercurial cathar-
licks, iSc.

Siirple herpes, is a fingle puftule or two, rifing
chiefly on the fuce, of a whitifli or yellowifli co-
lour, pointed, and with an inflamed bafe. — Thefe
dry av/ay of their own accord, upon letting out the
little drops of pus contained in them.

A third fpecics of herpes is what the French o-
therwife Cdll ferpigo ; and in Eng/ijh, a tetter, or
ringworm.

Herpes exudens is a more corrofive kind ; the
puftules are ruddy, and attended with an itchin g
and ulcerate tlie parts they rife on.

Erysipilas is a difeafe of the fkin, called St.
Anthony s fire, whofe feat is any pait of the body,
but principally the face.

Caufes of the eryfipelas, — Dr. ^ui/icy accounts
for the eryfipelas from a too f zy blood, whii.h ob-
ftrucling the capilhiries, occafions inflammations ;
others from a too (harp and bilious b'ood, which, on
account of its great fubtilty» occafions no fcnfible
tumour; but fpread^ and difFufes itfelf all around.
Its coluur, though red, generally inclines towards
a yellow, on account of the mixture of bile ; and
always the more of the bile, the more dangerous
the difeafe.

There is another ijiecies o^ eryfipelas, though
lefs ufual than the former ; moft commonly aiifmg
from a too copious drinking of fpiritiious liquors.

Symptoms. — The iymptoms of the firft kind of
erylipelas, are, that it (hews itfelf in a ruddy in-
flammation of the part, with a little fweliing of
the fame ; an iiuenfe pain, and a crowd of little
puflules, which, as the inflammation increafes,
grow into veficulK. The difeafe fpreads itfelf
apace ; fhifting from one place to another, with a
fever attending it. It attacks the patient all at
once, and chiefly when out in the air ; whence
the country people call it blafling, fde>atio. —
'I'he other I'pccics of eryfipelas, begins with a
fever, after which there is an univerlal eruption
of pufl:i.lesj almoit over the whole body> much

like thofe after th" flinging of nettle"!, and fomc-
tiiiics rifing into veficula:. At going olf they leave
an intolerable itching, and as often as fcratchcd,
return again.

Etmullcr gives it as the diftinguifhing charaiSler
of an eryfipelas, that when prcfled very lightly by
the finger, there follows a white fpot, which pre-
fently after becomes red again ; which does not
happen in an ordinary inflammation, unlcfs when
violently prcfled. — Scorbutick people are moft
fubjecl to this difeafe.

Cure. — It is difputcd, whether purging be good
in the eryfipelas? Sydenham recommends it the
next day after bleeding. Etmuller cautions us
againfl them both, and recommends diaphoreticks.
Dr. Frcind ob!erves, that in the lalt ilage of an
eryfipela's of the head, attended with a coma, de-
lirium, ^c. unlefs catharticks will do good, the
cafe is defperate. All uniSfuous aftringents, and
cold applications, externalh', are dangerous ; and
fometimes makes the erylipelas degenerate into a
gangrene.

Diseases of the Eyes. Ophth.\lmia is a dif-
eafe of the eyes, properly, an inflammation of the
tunica adnata, or conjunillva, accompanied with a
rednefs, heat, and pain.

The ophthalmia is either moift or dry : in the
firft there is a fliedding of tears, in the fecond none
at all.

Caufes of the Ophthalmia. — The immediate
caufe of the ophthalmia, is the blood flowing in
too great abundance in the little veffels of the
adnata, fo as to ftagnate therein, and diftend them.
The remote caufes are the fame with thofe of
other inflammations. In fummer it is frequent to
have epidemick ophthalmia s.

Symptoms. It fometimes happens in the ophthal-
mia, that the two eye-lids are fo diftortcd, that the
eyecontinues conftantly open,withou; bein:; able to
(hut ; which is called X'^l^'^'"^ ; fometimes the eye-
lids are fo faften'd together, that the eye cannot be
open'd, which is called ?ii/.iaiffit, q. d. clofure of
things that (hould be open.

Cure. — Snow applied to the afflifted eye, is
reputed a good remedy for the ophthalmia : the
Ephemerides of the Leopoldine acadeni}', mention an
ophthalmia cured by applying cow's duno, while
hot, between two linen cloths, to the eye. A fox's
tongue, and the fat and gall of a viper, are em-
pirical prefervatives againft the ophthalmia. — The
cure of the ophthalmia'^, according to the modern
pradice, depends chiefly on the due repetition of
purgatives. If thefe fail, recourfe is had to ve-
ficcatories, i flues, fetons, is'c. Thomas Pit cairn
prefers bleeding; it being his obfcrvation, that no
1^ k 2. difeale

2+8 The Univerfal Hiftory

diicare requires copious bleeding fo much as the
^Ihthalmla.

Pitcairn, and fome others, diftinguiili nn exter-
nal and internal o/htha/mu! ; the firft in the ad-
7Wta, which is that hitherto fpoke of; tlie fccond
in the retina. The fymptoms or indications of
the latter, are mufca volitcmtcs, duft feeining to fly
in thcair, &c. This when inveterate, degenerates
into R gutta fercna, or amaurofis.

GuTTA Serena is a difeafe of the eyes, being
an entire privation of fight, without any apparent
fault or diforder of the part, excepting that the
pupil looks fotnewhat larger, and blacker than
before

Caufe of the gutta ferena. Its caufe is fuppo-

fed to be a comprefTion, or obftruiSion of the op-
tick nerves, which prevents the due flux of the
animal fpirits into the retina.

Symptom!. — The mujca voUtanics are a pathog-
nomonick fign of a growing gutta fcrcna,

Prognojihk. — The gutta ferena is one of the
moft dangerous and untradlable of all the difeafes
of the eyes.

Cure. — The cure of the gutta ferena, according
to Pitcairn, mult be attempted with mercurials,
and even falivation, and with decoctions of guai
acum.

Before we proceed to the laft part of »z^c&/n^,
I fhall infcrt a few remarks on the feveral feels
which have arofe in this fcience.

Empiricks. Emplricks, were fuch phyficians
of antiquity as formed themfelves rides and me-
thods, on their own practice and experience, and
not on any knowledge of natural caufes, or the
itudy of good authors, and who prefcribed without
enquiring into the nature of the difeafe, or the
properties and virtues of their medicines ; de-
pending wholly on the authority of fome general
experienced remedies.

Medicine was almoft altogether in the hands of
Empiricks, till the time of Hipp-crates, who firft
introduced reafon, and the ufe of theory therein;
and hence arofe a new fe£l called Theoretici.

The word Empirick is now confounded with
that of Charlatan, or ^lack, and applied to perfons
whopra£tife phyfick at random, without a proper
education, or underftanding any thing of the
principles of the art ; retailing their poifonous
noftrurns, in fome publick place, where, bv their
buftbneries, they aflemble the ignorant rabble, on
purpofe to cozen them of their pence, and but
too often of their health.

PoGMATXSTS. The Dogmatijls^ were a fedl

of Arts and Sciences.

'of arttient phyficians called alfo Logic!, Logicians,
[from their uflng the rules of logick and reafon in
.fubjedb.s <)t their profcflion.

They laid down definitions and divifions, rt-
jducing difeafes to certain genera, thofe genera to
ifpecies, and furnifhing remedies for them ail ;
ifuppoling principles, drawing confequences, and
.applying thofe principles and confequences to the
particular difeafes under confideration. In which
fcnfc the Dogmatijis ftand contradifiingu'.(hed
.to Empiricks and Mcthoclifis.

The Dogmatijis v/ere thofe, who brought phy-
jfick into a form and arrangement like thofe of
'other fpeculative liriences, defining, dividing, lay-
ing down the principles and drawing conclufions :
and hence alfo the apellation of Logici, q. d. rea-
foners. They alfo applied theml'elves to feeic
the caufes of difeafes, the nature of remedies,
isfc.

Erafiftratus, a famous Dogmatijl, went fo far,
that not contented to difle£l dogs, and other brute
animals, he begged condemned criminals of the
magiftrates, opened them while alive, and fearchcd
in their entrails.

Methodists. Tht Methodijfsvrtre a feft of
antient phyficians who reduced the whole healing
art, to a few common principles, or appearances.

1 he A'lethodijlswtK the followers of Thcjfalus,
whence they v/ere alfo called TheJJalici. They
were ftrcnuoufly oppofed by Galen in feveral of his
writings; who fcrupled not to afiert, that the
methodical herefy ruined every thing that was
good in the art.

^lincy miflakenly ufes Methodijls, Methodic;,
for thofe phyficians, who adhere to the doctrine of
Galen and the fchools ; and who cure with bleed-
ing, purges., (sc. duly applied according to the
fvmptoms, circumftances, (Sc. in oppoution to
Empiricks and Cfiymifts,who ufe violent medicines
and pretended fecrets, or noftrurns.

Galen isTs. The Galenijfs, are fuch phyfi-
cians as practife, pr.-fcribe, or write on galenical
principles, thus called becaufe introduced by Clau-
dius Galen, born at Pergamus in Jfta, the fon of
Nicon, a famous architect, and pupil of Satyron and
Perops two able phyficians. He firft diiiinguifhed
himlelf at Athens, then at Alexandria, and laftly
at Rome ; where he wrote a great deal, and where
he alfo died in the year of Chrift 140.

He is faid to have compofed two hundred Trea-
tifes, whereof there are one hundred and feventy
ftill extant.

This author digefting and collefting what the
authors before him h^ done j and explaining

every

MEDICINE.

249

wery thing according to the ftriiftcll dodriiics ol
the Fa-ipatct'uki, fet phyfick on a new footing, in-
troduced the doiSlrine of the four tlenienrs ; the
cardin;il qualities, and thtir degrees, and the
four humours or temperaments. I

Medicine was v/hoWy gaUnicaU till the times of
Pai'acclfu!. Geber indeed, and after him Ra^ni'id
Lnlly., Arnoldui de Villa No'na, and Bafil Falattinc,
made fome attempts to apply chymijiry to medicine^
efpecially the laft of them , but no great advance
■was made, t^aiacelfm, and after him Van Hei-
mont, altered the whole body of medicine, exploded
galenijm, and the peripaietick docliine, and ren-
dered medicine wholly chymical

The late improvements in philofophy, have
reformed and r;trieved the galenical medicine^
which has now little of Galen's in it. ft is be-
come all mechanical and cor; ufcular : inftead of
qualities and degrees, every thing is now reduced
to inechanical afieclions ; to the figuies, bulks,
gravities, he. of the component particles, and to
the great princij/leof attradfion.

The Gcdcnijis ftand oppofed to the Chymijis :
the materia medica of the firft is chiefly of the
vegetable kind ; the virtues of which they procure
by the moie fimple and eafy means, and feldom go
beyond decoiSlion. T\\z latter take in minerals,
I'alts, ftones, and even metals, and femi metals ;
thefe, they hold, afford more efficacious remedies,
and their virtues, procured by long, artful, la-
boured proceffes, with the help of fire, are had
more pure, and in a leiler compafs.

At prefent the Galcni/h and Chymijh are pretty
well accommodated, and moft phyficians ule the
preparations and remedies of both, as appears in
the following prefcriptions.

We are now arrived at the laft branch in car
divifion of medicine, which furnifhes the materia
medica, &c.

Here we are firft to confider the bulir.efs of an
Apothecary.

AporHECARY, from Am%K^, Jkop, is a perfon
whofe profeflion is to execure the phvfician's pre-
fcriptions, in the preparation and compofitionof
medicines or remedies, which are to be adminiftred
to the patient.

His knowledge muft be particularly improved
in pharmacy, i, e. remedy, which is an art or fci-
ence whic;-i teaches how to chufe, prepare and
mix remedies.

Pharmacy is divided into galenical and chymical.

Galenical Pharmacy confifts in the knowledge
and management of thefeveral parts of the materia
medica, now in the hands of the Apothecaries.

Chymical P HARM AC t', called a]i'<jfpagyric jI und
hcrmetical, is that introduced hy Paracelfus, who
calls it ars dijliliatoria, coiifilting in the rclolving
of mixt bodies, in order to fe[<aratc from them
the ufelefs fubrtances, and make of them more
exalted and eficniial remedies.

Pharmacy has for its object all the natural bo-
dies, called mixts ; which are divided into three
cla/les, viz. animals, minerah, and vegetables.

Under anir>iah is included not onlv their flefh,
but likcwife their bones, nails, milk, blood, hairs,
and excrements.

Under minerah, the feven metals, mineral mat-
ters, ftones, and earths.

And under vegetables, the plants, faps, gums,
refines, fruits, excrcfcenccs, feeds, flowers, niofles,
rinds, roots, juices, tartars, fa-cul;t, and all other
things which proceed from them.

Of all thofe things here recapitulated, pharmacy
has found the fecret to prepare remedies for the
cure of the difi^erent maladies, the human body is
afflicSfed with. But what can be meant by that
term remedy ?

A Remedy is all that being applied outwardly,
or given inwardly, excites fome alteration in our
humours, and caufes in them a falutary change-
ment.

Remedies are divided xnto/iniple and compound.

Simple remedies are thofe employ 'd as they grow
natura'Iy; fuch are all thofe which 5ff/<7w;' fupplies
us with.

Compound remedies are a mixture of feveral in-
gredients.

Remedies are moft commonly divided, on ac-
count of their virtues, into alterative, purgative,
and Jirengthening.

Alterative remedies are thofe, which being ap-
plied outwardly or given inwardly, procure fome
change in our body, either by heating or cooling,
humeding or drying, foftening or condenfing,
rarifying or foporiferous, bimiing or openine;,
digefting or refolving, corroding or infpilFating,
deterging or flopping.

Purgative remedies are thofe, which by a certain
fermentation and irritation they excite in the body,
loofen the fuperfluous humours, liquify them, and
put them in a condition of being evacuated.
Which remedies I divide mio cathartick or purga-
tive, cmetick or vomitive, diapboretick or judorifick,
diuretii.k or aperitive.

Tlie catharticks or purgatives, are fubdivided
into fhlegmagogues, cholagogues, melanagogues, hydra-
gogues, and panchymagogues.

The fhlegmagogues are thofe, which being
compofed of volatile and penetrating port:, are

more.

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts «W Sciences.

250

more difpofed than others to be ufhered to th
brain where they rarefv and diflolvc the piluita-,
whence they are faid to purge particularly the
brain; fuch are the o^rtr/V/-, coioquintida-, the feed
of cardamom and ihe flowers of peach trees.

I he c})(ilagognei are thofe, which having not
fo much aaion" as the others, are only capable to
ftir the humours which are foon lookn'd, whence
thev purge the bile fooncr than any other humour ;
fuch are the caffia, rhubarb, manna, and honey.

The mila^iagoguei are thofe, which bein^ com-
pofcd of fix'd and extremely purg,aiive parts, dif-
folve the tartarous and melancholick humour,
which is the moil difficult to unloofen : fuch are
the fcammor.y, twbith^fenna, hellebore.

The hydragogues are thofe, which being com-
poftd of refinous and faline parts, open the iym-
piiaiick vcflels, and make the ferofity to flow :
fuch are the jal^p, mechMchaii, iris, kc.

The panchymagogucs are mixtures of all kinds of
purgatives ; and are fiiid to purge ail humours :
fuch are the catheliccn, the confedion hamech, the
extrnSl panchymagogues, &c.

Emrtlcks or vomit.hef are purgatives full of fallne
fulphurs, fo much dii'pofed to motion, that they aa
a foon as they are in the flomach; fuch aie the liver
of antimony, emetick tartar, vitriol, azarum, verdi-
grcafc, tin"ure of tobaeco, the juice of luormwood^
and of carduus henediclus, the wUte and black hel-
lebore, &c.

Diaphoretick or fudorifick remedies are thofe,
which being compoif-d of volatile parts, open the
pores of the" body, and expel the humours by per-
fpi ration : fuch are the volatile falls, the J;/«fl-
root, farfaparilla, gayac,hci.

n he diuretick or aperitive remedies are thofe,
which being compofed of faline and penetrating
parts, rarefy the blood, and make the lerofity
thereof to precipitate with more rapidiy than be-
fore : fuch are the fa'.prun.lhr, the fpirit of fait,
vjhite wine, parfey, brujcus, afparagus, parieta-

ry &c.

Strengthening remedies are thofe, which by the
conformity of their parts, with the fpirits of our
body, re^ify the alterations, which had happen'd
in the humours, or the fpirits themfclves, by ex-
citing in them the motion, which had been inter-
rupted, either by moderating that which is too
violent, or by expelling the impurities.

Remedies heat or coo!, either by themfclves or
by accident. They heat of themfclves when be-
jno- compoled of faline and fulphurous parts, they
incrcafe the agitation of the humours in the body
of thofe who ufe them : fuch are war?niuood, gin-
ger, cinnamon, pepper, cloves, nutmeg, &c. They
heat by accident, when in caufing obflrudions in

fome vellels, the humours which were ■*« run
through are flopped and ferment in them, whence
refults a heat in the whole body : fuch are the
narcoticks, aeids, and fcveral raw fi uits.

They cool of themfclves, when being compofed
of aqutous and glutinous parts, they temperate
the iicrimoiiy of the humours, and moderate the
rapidity of thtir courfe: fuch are lettuces, porcelain,
buglojs, the gums tragacanth and aralic. Sec. They
cool by accident, when being hot and acrimoni-
ous, but in a fmall quantity in a great deal of
aqueous liquor, thev (erve as a vehicle to it, to
make it penetrate: fuch are brandy, fpirit of vi-
triol, fpirit of fulphur, &c. Thefe acid fpirits
cool, likewife, in tixip.g and precipitating the vo-
latile falts and fulphurs of the body, which by
their too great agitation caufed the heat: they
cool, befides, in pufhing by urine, becaufe they
carry ofl", and expel the humours, which by their
i'ojourning, produce in the velVels a foreign heat.

Remedies are humecSting, when being aqueous
or phlegmatick they increafe the aqueous part of
the humours : fuch as mallows, porcelain, lettuce,
and cucumbers.

Remedies dry in four different manners. T.
When by the tenuity of their parts, or their ful-
phurous falts, they ufher out thro' the piores the
fuperduous humidities : fuch are the farfaparilla,
the china-roct, faffafras, gayac, &c. 2. When
by their terreftrial and porous parts, they abforb
and blunt the acrimonious humours : fuch are the
litharge, terra figillata, lapis calaminaris, crabs- eye^
coral, and other alkaline matters. 3. When being
catiftick, they burn the extremities of the fmall
vellels, which fupply the part with humour, and
form there a trombus, which hinders the wound
from being drenched with that humour as it was
before : fuch are the vitriol, burnt allum, lapis
irfcrnaUs, 1 ed precipitate, and the corrofive and
fpirits. 4. \^^hen, being deterfives, they cleanfe
the wounds of their fania ; for there being then
no more matter to excite a fermentation, the flefti
strows, and the cicatrice is foimed : fuch are the
phagedenic water, water of arquebufade, the tinSlure
of aloes, and oi myrrh, the arifloloches, and other
vulneraries.

Remedies mollify or foften, when they are com-
pofed of mucilaginous or flimy parts, and of fome
fait, which ferve for a vehicle to make them pene-
trate : fuch are mallows, violets, line-feeds, and
fen tigreec-Jeeds .

Remedies condenfe in two manners. I. In
drying the fuperfluous humours : fuch are the fu-
dorificks. 2. In congealing the liumour by the
cold they communicate to the part, when they are
applied upon it : fuch are lead, t\iz fpcrm of frogs.,

the

MEDICINE.

^z ivhlte of cggs^cold water. Sic. or in congealing
the humour by means of the acid they contain :
fuch arc forrel, barberries, goofeberries, flraivberrus,
e^icrat., and the acidfpirils taken inwardly.

Remedies rarefy or attenuate, when beinq com-
pofed of fubtile and penetrating parts, they divide
the humours and render them more fluid : fuch
are the fpirit of wine, and the vclntile falis.

Remedies are foporous in two manners, j. Ey
cooling the blood a little, and moderating its too
great rapidity : fuch are the emulfions, lohochs, and
fomentations. 2, In carrying a narcotick or thick-
ening vapour to the brain, which moderate the
motion of the fjjirits, and hinders them from cir-
culating with fo much impetuofity as they did
before : fuch are poppies and opium.

Remedies are aftringcnt, ( i.) By their flypticity;
becaufe being impregnated with a terreftrial and
crude acid, they coagulate eafily the hun.ours, by
the approximation of the fibres o( ihn vifcera : fuch
are the fnmach, quinces, vnedlars, &c. efpecially
before they are ripe. (2.) By their terreftrial and
alkaline parts, becaufe they abforb the acrimo-
nious humour, which caufed the loofenefs
and vomiting : fuch are terra figillata, hoi,
chalk, &c. ( 3. ) In exciting fweat, becaufe they
ufher out through the pores the caufeof the ma-
lady: fuch are the china-root, farjaparilla, diapho-
retick antimony, &c. ('4.) In purging, which they
do firft, when thole remedies, befides their purga-
tive quality, contain terrene or flyptick parts,
which, alter the evacuation, remain and produce
their efFedl : fuch are the ipecncuanljc, rhubarb,
myrabcLins, tamarines, &c. And by accident,
when after the evacuation, the );.urgative has ex-
cited, one is hard bound for i'everal days after-
wards, that effefl proceedir.g from the remedy
having evacuated a great t'.eal of humidities, there
is not enough left in. the intedines to humea the
matters. ( 5. ) They are af}ringent, when being
aperitive, they divert the ferofities, which flow
into the inteltijvos : fuch are the roots of gra-
men, &ic.

Remedies loofen the abdomen or belly, either
by exciting in the body fome flight purgative fer-
mer/tation : fuch are the violets, prunes, apples,
iherries ; or by foftening and liquifying the mat-
ters : fuch are mil/c, veal-broth, the decocSlions of
borage and bughfs ; and the fomentations and
baths.

Remedies are digeftive, or excite fuppuration,
by their faline and penetrating parts, which rare-
fying the humours flopped, give them motion and
fermentation enough to break the fl.in ; and force
its way through : fuch are onions, gums, levana,
&c.

Remedies are refolutive. I. When being ful/
of volatile and penetrating parts, they open the
pores and give an iiiue to the humour which
caufed the malady : fuch are the voluiile Jpiriti,
and mercury. 2. When being compofed of mu-
cilaginous and mollifying parts, they mollify the
humour which had too much confiftence, and
difpofe it to be ufhered out by the circulation of
the blood, and of the other humours : fuch arc
poultices, and the plaijlers of mellilot, and of /nu-
cilage. 3. When being compofed of cold and
condenfing fubflances, they appeafe the too great
motiou of the fpirit^, which caufed the malady ;
and hinder them from leturning in fo great a
quantity : fuch are lead, marcnjfttes, the flunum,
the henbane, the tnendragora, Kc.

Remedies are corrofive when they are impreg-
nated with very acrimonious, pricking, anj burn-
ing falts : fuch are lapis infernalis, caiijiick Jloncs,
red precipitate, corroftve fublimate, and butter of
aniimany.

Remedies are infpiflating,when being compofed of
glutinous parts, they thicken the humours : fuch
are the roots of fymphitum, of althaa, pearl-bar-
ley, the gums tragacunth and arabick, and the far-
cocolla.

Remedies are deterfive, when being compofed of
faline or rarefying parts, they difpofe the humour
towards loofening itfelf : iuch are the aloes, myrrh,
phagedenick- water, a Hum .

Remedies ftop or hinder the humours from
flowing any more on a part already afflicted, as
on a wound : fuch are the common oxycrat, the
oxycrat of faturn, and the chalybeate-vjine.

Cordial or cardiack re?>iedies are thofc, which
ftrengthen the heart, in repairing the exhaufted
fpirits, and giving the body more vigour than it
had before.

There are two forts of thofe remedies, viz. rare-
fying, and fixing.

The fixing by the tenuity of their fubTance,
and their volatility, increafe the motion and cir-
culation of the humours : fuch are the powder oF
viper, the confeSiiot of olkermes, mufi, ambcrgreaje,
cinnamon. Sic.

The fixing by their acidity, or narcotick qua-
lity, moderates or fufpends the too impetuous
motion of the fpirits : fuch are the fpirit of vitriol,
the aad Juices of lemons, oranges, gcojeberries,
barberries, and the narcoticks.

Cephalick remedies arc thofe, which bein^ com-
pofed of fulphurous and faline volatile parts, give
an agreeable vapour to the brain, which, after it
has attenuated and diflipated in part the coarfer
pituita, revive the animal (pints, and excite the

circulations

Tlje Univerfal Hiftory (?/'Arts fzW Sciences.

252

circulations of tlie humours : fuch are tobacco,
bi:tony, jiicchos^ fage, marjoram, cloves, thyme,
rnfrmaryi lavender.

Ophthalmick remcdhs arc thofc, which ftrcngthen
and cure the maladies of tlie eyes, whereof there
are fcvcral forts. — Some of them ftrcngthen in
heating, when the fight has been dchihtafed by
want of fpirits, or by a fluxion of fome pituitous
fir phlcgniatick. humour : fuch arc brandy, fmnel-
•ivater, hungary-xvater, &c. The others ftreng-
fhcii the eyes in cooiiiig them, when they are red
and inflamed : fuch are nurfe's milk, plantain-
water, the white of eg{;s, &c. The others cure
the eyes in deterging and drying the little ulcers
formed in them : fuch are the colyriu/n of Lanfranc,
pripared tutty, fait of fatwn, fugar-candy, iris of
Florena, vitriol, and the troches of rhafts.

Dcntrifuk remedies are thofc, which being de-
teriive, and aliiingent, are proper to cleanfe the
teeth, fallen them, and ffrengthen their ligaments;
fuch are the chalybeate wine, the wood oflcntifk^ red
rofes', coral, pumice-Jhne, burnt bread, cream of
tartar : fome rank among thofe r&medies, the fpirits

Splenick remedies, thus called becaufe ufcful in
the maladies of the fpleen, abound with aperitive
falls, which purge by urine, and carry ofi:' the ob-
fl-rudtions of the fpleen, and of the other vifcera :
fuch are the ceterach, the tnnwris, the caper-tree,
ihc chervil, the great centaury, and the mars.

Hyflerick remedies arc thofc. which are employ'd
for the maladies of the womb, or matrice, whereof
there are feveral forts. Some of them being com-
pofed of fubtile or fpirituous faline par;s, help that
part towards the expulfion of v/hat is hurtful to it:
fuch are the troches of myrrh, the oil of fuccin,
cinnamon-water, cajloreum, arijloloche, artemifia,
matricaria, ineliffa, rue, faverii, white marrubium,
faffron, acorns, gum-ammoniac, galbanum, affa-
fcetida, fagapenum, opoponax, camphire. The others
being compofed of fixed or condenfing parts, ap-
peale and abate the vapours which arife from the
matrice : fuch are common water, fpirit of vitriol,
Jpirit of nitre dulcified, and the laudanum.

Carminative remedies a.rc thofe, which being com-
pofed of fpirituous and faline parts, rarefy and dif-
j folve the coarfe matter which retained the winds in
uf vitriol, and oi fait, which cleanie and whiten the body, and procure their expulfion, fuch are
the teeth in a \'ery fhort time ; but corrode and annifeeds, fennel-feeds, camomile, melilut, cinnamon.

ip(.)il them

Perioral remedies are thofe, which being
compofed of oily, foft, and temperate fubftan-
ces, (often the acrimonious humours which could
full into the breaft, and loofcn the phlegm adhering
to it : fuch are rnilk, honey, the tufftlago, the ca-
pillaries, the pnhi onary, the red poppies, the bo-
rage, the buglofs, the liquorice, the root of althesa,
raiftns, almonds, figs, date!, pijlachoe-nuts, and
jujubes. We u{e, likewife, dcterfive and rarefying
remedies in the maladies of the belly, where there
is obflruction ; as in the afthma, fuch are the roots
of enula campana, of iris ; the preparations of fnl-
phur, and of t\\c flowers of benjcin.

Stomachick remedies are thofe, which being com-
pofed of faline, acrimonious, and attenuating parts,
excite heat, and fermentation enough in the fto-
niach, to dillolvc a vifcous and phlegmaticic matter,
which eml'arrafl'es its fibres, obiT:ru(fts the motion
of the fpiiits, and hinders the digeftion : fuch are
cinnamon, nutmeg, coriander -feed, annifeed, fennel,
•ivornVMOod, tn:nt, lemon, and orange-peels. Some-
timt? alfo, thofe fibres of the flomach being only
relaxed, there want but aftringcnt remedies to
ilrenjthen them : as conjerve of rofes, confeSiior. of
ulkermes, ii.c.

Hepatick remedies thus called becaufe they were
fuppofed to ftrengthen the liver, arc proper to cor-
rcdt the vices of the blood : fuch are the chicory,
lettuces, hyps, t]grimony, poiipody, fumitary, rhu-
barb, aloes.

zedoary, coriander-feeds.

There are herbs, roots, floxvers, feeds, farinie,
waters, oils, unguentums, &c. to which are attri-
buted the qualities and virtues above-mentioned in
a particular manner, vi-z,.

The 7^ulnerary Herbs are ti\e agrimony, bugle,
fanicle, akhymilla, pernuinkle, pulmonary, veroni^jy
brunella, the Ci^pillaries, and feveral others.

T\ie five aperitive Roots are thofe of brufcus,
afparagus, fennel, farjley, and fmallage. — Several
other roots are TiXfo aperitive, and as much in ufe
as thofe, viz.. thofe o.f gramen, of eringium, of
marfli-maUows, kc. but it pleafed the antients to
find thus the number of five i;t)erittve roots.

T^e five Capillaries are tlie common or black
adiantum, the white aeliantum, called capillary of
Montpelier, the polytrie, the ceterach otfcolopander,
and the falvia vita, or ruta muraria.

The three cordial Flowers are thofe oT buglejsy
of borage and of violet. Several other flov/ers
could be as juftly called cordial, as thofe of gelly^
fiotvers, or ros foils, and of r^^.

The four carminative Flowers are thofe of
eamomlile, of melilet, of matricaria, and of anthum.

The common emollient Herbs are the mallow^
marjh-u allow, braru-u>fma, wall flowers, mercu-
rialis, parietary, heath, atriplex, the roots of white
lilies, &c.

The four large Cold Seeds arc thofe of gourd,
luater-mehn, melon, and cucumber.

The

MEDICINE.

253

"The /our fma'l C01.T) Seeds arc tholb oi lettuce,
purj>iiiii, endive, iin^ jnccory.

The pur great Hot Skeds arc thofe c^ annl-
fccil, fennel, eumin, and caraivay.

The fcur Jhiull Hot Seeds are thofe of fmallage,
of ft one-par Jley, bijijop's-weed, and ivild-carrot.

The four cordial V/aters arc thofe of endive-,
of fuccjry, of huglofs, and of fcal/ioiis -, to which
ijii-rht be added fcvcral other waters of equal virtue,
as thofe of carduui benedinus.^ of ulmr.ria., of fcorjon-
i;-iry, of oxytriphyllum, of frrel, of ?nelijfa., of bbck
cherries., and of borage.

The four antipleuritick Waters are thofe of
(cubious, of carduui benedii^HS, of tara.-<:acan, and of
/■ ed poppies.

The three Jhmachic Oils are thofe of worm-
wood, of coinces and of majlich. There are others,
which have flill more virtue, as thofe of nutmeg, of
Kuee, of clives. and of lays.

The three hot Unguents are the ungent of A-
grippa, the unguent of alt hiva, and the unguent nerval.

I'hefonr cold U n GU E N t s are the album rhafts, the
populcum, the cerat of Galen, and the unguent ofrofes.

The fotir Farinje, ox fours, are thofe of
barley, of beans, of btooin-rape, s.nd of lupines : to
which are often added thofe of wheat, of lentils, of
//;;£■ and fenugi eek -Jeeds.

Having thus given a general idea of the qualities
and virtues of the different remedies, and of their
ditFerent manner of operating, I'll proceed to the
preparation of thofe remedies, according to the
rules prefcribed by the Galenical pharmacy.

Ths Galenical Phj-.rmacy is reduced to three

general operations, wMch are the ele£fion, prepara-
tion, and mixture of the remedies.

The Election confdls in the choice of the
fimple drugs, the remedies are compofed of. To
proceed with exadtnefs in that ciioice, feveral cir-
cumftances are to be obferved, viz. the places where
thofe drugs grow, the climate, the neighbourhood.
the time, the juiflance, fmcll, ta/le, colour, bignefs.
I. As to the places ; fome drugs require the air
of the woods, or fields ; others the culture of gar- ' turating, or boiling them
dens ; fome aquatick or marlhy, others dry and I 1. They muft be wafhed cither to cleanfc them
parched up places ; fome mountains and hills, and I of the dirt, as it is done to roots as foon as they are
others vallies ; fome walls and rocks, others the j taken out of the ground, or to purify them of fome
fides of roads, ditches or vineyards ; Ibme fat, and acrimonious part they contain ; thus the litharge
others fandy earths. j aiid tutia are wafhed in water ; or to increafe their

virtue, as when pomatum is wafhed in odorous
water.

2, They mufi: be picked of their cosrfe and ufe-
lefs parts, as fenna is picked of its fticks and dea-1
leaves ; a fort of ffring is picked off" certain roots ;
the iiones are picked out of dried raifins, thofe
ftones being hard and altrin::ent.

LI ^ 3. They

3. As to the neighbourhood; fome acqtirc more
virtue from the neighbouring plants, as the epithym
from the ihytnc, the enfcota from the line, the po-
ly podium and mijjiltoe from the oak. Others
have more flrength when they are at a diftancc
from one another, as the colaqui?itida.

4. As to the time; fome are in their grcateft
vigour in the fpring, others in the funiiner, and
others in autumn ; though no very prccife time can
be fixed in that occafion ; for according to the
difterence of the climates, the mixt grow fiowcr
or quicker. The general rule is, that plants arc
to be gathered, if poflible, in fair weather, before
they ihoot forth their feeds : — ' he fruits, feeds,
fungus, muff be gathered whcvi they are at their

full growth. The animals muft he killed young,
vigorous, and before they have copulated with the
female. And the minerals muft be dug out of the
mines when they have the bignefs, folid.ty, v/eight
and colour required.

5. As to the fubfancc ; the one muft be com-
pact, 2ii tk\z opium ; the other friable, 2&fcamminy\
the others heavy, as caffa ligma; others light, as
agarick. Some liquids as common tereblnthine ;
others hard ?.nd dry, as aloes; others foft as the ta-
marinds, and others hard, as the myrabolans.

6. As to the fmell; feveral remedies are much
better, as they are more odorant, as the finders,
fajfafras, and cinnamon.

7. As to the ta/ie ; fome are fvveet, as the Hquo-
! ice ; bitter, as the aloes ; four, a. the tamarinds ;
hot, as the ginger; ftyptick, as the (Javtv;?.

8. As to the colour; fome muft be vvhite, as the
agarick ; black, as the tamarinds ; red, as fanguis
draconis ; green, as the verdet ; blue, as the cur-
cuma ; grey, as the jalap.

9. As to the length and bignefs ; fome muft be
long, and moderately big, as, the cajfia, the vi-
per-. Sic. others muft be fmall, as hartshorns,
which muft be taken while young, and puppies.

The Preparation of remedies, confift in
wajhing, picking, drying, hu?ne£ling, infuftng, ma-

2. As to the climate; fome excel in hot, and
other.s in cold countries ; thus the fenna of the
Levant is much more purgative than, that, which
grows in other countries: the iris and fennel of
Florence is much bettor than thofe of England awd
France. The lochleana is more abundant, and has
more v\xtt\e\n.E>igland2^nd Holland thr^u m France.
Vol. II. 38.

254- ^-^^ Univerfal Hlftory ^ Arts and Sc!enc?.s.

3. 7'hcy muft be dticJ, as the vegetables and
animals uhieh arc cxpofed to the luii, or dried
fiom it, that the humidity thereof being dilTipated,
they may be kept without corruption. But as the
flowers in drying often lofe their colour and fmell,
fomc of them muft be wrapped up in grey paper,
in fmall bundles, as thofe of St.Johtii-wort, and of
little centaury. For red rojcs they muft be dried
quickly in the fun, for if they were dried flowly
they would lofc their colour ; the large roots can
fcarcely be dried without the infide rotting, and we
often fee large pieces of rhubarb fpoiled in the heart,
therefore they muft be chofen of a moderate big-
nefs. I he toots of jaLp, of nuchoacam, and of
hriony are cut in fiices, that they may be eafier
dried. 1 he fitiiti which abound in iuperfluous
humidity, muft be dried in an oven, otherwife they
tot : vipers muft be faftcned to a ftring and dried
from the fun.

Thofe drugs fliould not be dried too long, left
they fhould lofe the beft of their fubftance. When
dried they muft be kept in boxes.

4. They muft be humedled; thus Jleel filings and
iron-riijl muft be humeftcd with dew or rain-water,
to open them and increafe their virtue.

5. They are infufcd in liquors, either to diffolve
them, 3.S ccrujs in vinegar, or to communicate their
virtue to the liquor, as when rhubarb, jenna, or
reel rofes, are ftseped in water ; or to corredt
the too great ftreiigth of their a£Hon, as when the
root of efida is fteeped in vinegar before it is ufed ;
or to open them and increafe their virtue, as when
dates are fteeped in white wine, or hydromel, and
when antimony is fteeped in an acid liquor to
render it emetick ; or to preferve them as when
fruits, roots, or animals are preferved in brandy
or \inegar, or to render them britly, lo that they
may be eafily pulverized, as when red-hot cr)ftal
and flints are extinguilhed in water.

6. They are mruerated or put in digejlion, as
when after red rofcs have been pounded, they are
put in a pot, covered with fait, and left thus for
feveral months, that the fait and oil being exalted
by fcrment.uion, a greater abundance of fpirits may
be extracted from them when they are diftilled.
Honey is made to icum in water, then is put in a

. warm place for (evera! months, that by digtftion
and fermentation it may grow vinous.

7. They are boiled either to foften them, as when
the roots of euula and altheta are boiled to extract
a pulp from them, or that they may communicate
their quality to the decoction, as when />///awr are
made ; or to render them thick, as when the juice
of quinces is boiled in y<;/>a ; or to preferve them,
or to correct them, as when the cujjia is boiled to
hinder it from exciting vapours ; or to free them of

their ufelefs parts, as when the litharge :^ni oihet
preparations of lead are boiled with oil or greafe ;
or to increafe their ftrcngth, as when rhtTbarb is
torrihed to render it more aftringent ; the alum cal-
cined to render it efcarotic.

8. They are fawed or cut, as the woods ; hatch-
edi as the herbs; rafped, as hart-horn ; filed, as
iron andy/tv/i broken or bruifed, as roots and dried
fruits.

9. They are reduced into powder, either in a
mill, as ihe farina ; or in a mortar, as the fenna^
rhubarb ; or on a porphyry with a muller, as the
coral, and pearls.

1. 'Ihe mixture of remedies coni'xds in mixing
and uniting them together, in order to form com-
pofitions of them. For that mixture we muft firft
diftinguifli the ingredients, which unite naturally-
together, from thofe, which cannot be united but
by art : oil. for example, unites very well with fat
fubftances, but it cannot mix but imperfeclly with
watery ones; therefore the mixture thereof muft be
made in a mortar, as in the preparation of the un-
guentum nutrituw, or butter offaturn : fpirit of fait
Teems to mix eafily with the fpirit of wine, which
notwithftanding, the mixture is more intimate
when they are made to circulate together in a cir-
culatory velTel, as in the preparation oijpirit of fait
dulcified. Some oil of cinnamon, or other ejfence, is
mixed with fugar-candy in powder to make the
oleum faccharum., that the oil being thereby rarefied
in the parts of the fugar, may be diftblved with it ir>
watery liquors ; turpentine is mixed vvitil yolk of
cirss to render it diiloluble in deco<5tions.

2. One muft know the meaiis to be ufed for the
mixture of drugs ; for it fuffices fometimcs to agi-
tate them together in a mortar, as powders; and
when mercury is to be extinguifhed in turpentine :
Ibmetimes they muft be beaten a long time, as
when floi.ii.rs are mixed with fugar for cotferves,
when mafTes for pills, and troches are to be made ;
fometimes they muft be dillblved in aqua fortis, as
when fome chymical preparations are made ori
metals : fometimes it is ncceftary to boil them toge~
iher, as fugar and honey, with juices, decodfions,
and infufioii3,tomakeyyr?//i.r,and feveral other com-
pofitions: fometimes there muft be a confumptioii
of the humidity at a flow fire, after the mixture, as
in the preparation of fome electuaries. Sometimes
they muft be mixed together with the biftorter, as
pulps and powders in fugar and honey : fometimes
they muft be liquified together, as wax, rofin, and
pitch with oils : fometimes they muft be melted
by a violent fire, as metals, and feveral minerals,
which are put in fufion together : fometimes they
are amalgamated, as mercury with gold and filver.

3. An order muft be obferved in the mixture of

the

MEDICINE. 255

cut in fmall pieces) to boil for a quarter of an hour*

the drugs; for fome muft be mixed before the
others ; for example, in the compofitions, the pulps
muft be mixed before the powders, and the pow-
ders before the eflcnces ; odorous and vohitile in-
gredients muft be commonly left for the end, left
their virtue fhould be altered by heat and agitation;
the fcammony, aloes, and other gums clotten in
the electuaries, if they be mixed while the matter
is yet too hot, therefore one muft wait till it be
almoft cold; the wax and pitch are not to be mixed
or melted in plaifters, till the litharge or minium,
or cerufs, if it enters into them, be done.

When tahL'ttes or lozenges are made, where no
acid enters, the liquor muft be mixed at once with
the fugar to make them bail together ; but if it be
ivatited to prepare acidlozenges^'As thofe of barberries,
of lemon, of pomegranates, the juice ought not to
be mixed but by degrees with the fugar over the fire,
and dried in proportion ; for if the juice that is to
be employ'd in it v/as put all at once, one could not
give the mixture by coelion, confiftence enough
to form lozenges of it ; for when it is wanted to
make the jal-polychrcjl, the fulphur is mixed with
the faltpeter before the matter is thrown into the
red-hot crucible, and in the preparation of fal pru-
nella, the faltpctre is put into fufion, before the
fulphur be mixed with it.

4. The compofition muft be of a good confift-
ence, kept in a dry place ; and if it be liquid, as
cletl:uaries, muft be ftirrcd, from time to time, with
a fpatula, to give room for the fermentation.

A Decoction', of the Latin //tr^yr^crr, to boil,
is made to diftblve the adtion and ufeful fubftances
of a mixt into a proper liquor ; or to foften thofe
mixts, fo that a pulp may be extrafted from them.

The liquors ufed for decoiJions, are water, ivine,
vinegar, mill- and lubey.

The more hard and compaft the drugs ate, the
more liquor is wanted to boil them. And a eleLOc-
tioii muft be fometimes preceded by infufton, that
the liquor may have time enough to extract the
fubftance of the mixts ; as in the decoftion of the
woods, viz. farjaparilla, china, faffdfras, guaiac,
and box.

One muft avoid, as much as poflible, boiling the
aromaticks, becaufe their volatile principles, which
are the moft elTential, are diflipated in boiling :
therefore it is beft to put them in a hot liquor to
infufe, in a vefl'el well covered.

When we make a decoSlion of feveral ingredients,
we muft begin, for example, by boiling the barley,
the chips of hartftiorn and ivory, the roots of gra
men, for halt an hour at a moderate fire ; putting
afterwards the other roots newly gathered fwell
Walhed and picked of their hearts or firings, and

proceeding to the fruits after they have been pared
and ftoned, and cut in pieces, if they be large ;
then the herbs chopped, and the feeds bruifed ;
concluding with the flowers and liquorice, which
muft be boiled but very little : the whole is thrown
afterwards into an earthen pan, or pewter balbn,
over the cinnamon bruiied, the flinders, thefallhfrES
rafped, and the other aromaticks ; the veflcl then
is covered ; and when the decoulion is cool, it is
ftrained, and afterwards left to fettle, that it may
be decanted clear.

If animals, as craw-fifli, frogs, or viper";, are
to be in the decocStion, they mutt be always put in
at the beginning ; but then the decoiition is to be
made over a flow fire, left there fhould be a^too
gieat di/lipation of the eflential and volatile falts.

Let our firft prefcription be for a caphcUck de-
coction.

Cepkalick daoi'lion — Take mifi'eltoe anJ cloves,
of each fix drachms ; of juniper-berries three oun-
ces ; flowers of fage, of bctony, of marjoram, of
each a handful ; and let them be boiled, according
to the above direiStions, in three quart- of common
water, /. e. river- water, which is alv/a)'s beft for
all forts of decoiStions.

Thejuniper-beirics muft be bruifed, and when,
together with the flowers, they have boiled two 01'
three gallops, the decoiStion muft be thrown into

an earthen pan, and well covered till it be cold

It cannot be kept longer than two days in hot, and
four in cold weather.

Virtues. — For the epilepfy, apoplexy, lethargy,
Dofes. — From two ounces to fix.

A pcFlaral decoHion. — Take two ounces of jar-
railins ftoned, fifteen dates, two ounces ofjujubes,
an ounce of pearl-barley; let the whole boil in
three pints of common water to the confumptiou
of a third part, and towards the end of the coition
add half an ounce of liquorice bruifed, the leaves
of maiden-hair, ground-ivy, and tufillago, of eacli
a handful ; let the whole macerate together for the
fpace of a quarter of an hour, and then ftrain the
decotSion.

The raifins and dates muft be ftoned, and the
jujubes chofen very frefti; and in ftraining the
decoiStion it muft be done with exprefTion.

Virtues. — It is proper to excite expcitoration,
for an inveterate cough, and to loofen the tenacious
matters, which obitrufting the bronchia of the

lungs ftops the refpiration. Dofc. From two

ounces to fix.

A bitter decoSfion. — Take the tops of little cen-
taury, the leaves of agrimony, flowers of camomile,
of each haic a handful, two drachms of gentian-
root, of feeds of carduus benedidlus, and of lemon,
LI 2 of

256

The Univerfal Hiflory of Arts and Sciences.

ot' each a drachm and a half ; white wine aiv.l
ipriii? water, of each a pint and a half; let it boil
till it be reduced to half.

'Che feeds muft be bruifed, the gentian-root cut
in fmaH pieces, and boiled together in the water,
then the fummcts, the leaves, flowers, and white-
wine, fhall be added to it, and left to boil to the
confumption of half the humidity; afterwards it
Ihall be (trained by exprefTion. If it he wanted
to render that decoftion purgative, fix drachms of
fenna, one of rhubarb, and four fcruples of fait of
little centauiy, muft be put to infufc in it, warm
for a whole day.

Virtices. — It is proper to expel intermittent fevers,
to kill the worms and purify the blood. Dofe. —
One glal's in the morning fafting, and another at
night.

We often fee that the bitter remedies are febri-
fuge, becaufe the faline and fulphurous fubltancc
which compofe the bitter, is proper to rarefy and
diflblve the matter, which forms the obftrudlions
and caufes the fever.

Jnfusion comes from the Lcitinv/ord mfwidcre,
to iteep.

forts of roots, hcibs, fruits, feeds, and other parts
of plants, appropriated in virtues to the maladies,
for which they are given : thofe apozems can be
rcnder'd purgatives, by making to infufe in them
purgative drugs.

For an cilteriitin^ and aperitive apozem. — Take
the roots of gramen, of (larflev, of afparagus, an(f
white tartar, of each half an ounce ; wild cherries,
Kentijh cherries, and dried French beans, of each
three drachms ; the leaves of fuccory, of parietary,
of fellery, of chervil, of each a handful : let them
boil together in three quarts of common watc?r to-
the confumption of a third part ; and {train it after-
wards with expreffion.

Viytuts. — It is proper to raife the obftructions of
the liver, of the fpleen, of the mefenterv, and of

the matrice; and for the flone and gravel. The

Dofe is a glafs full twice a day.

The tartar muft be coarfely pulverized, the roots
well cleanfed, bruifed, and cut in fmall pieces,
and put together to boil for about half an hour in
the water ; adding, afterwards, the fruits opened,
and the French beans bruifed ; and when the decoc-
tion fhall have boiled for a quarter of an hour
onger, the herbs hatched muft be thrown into it ;

Drugs are infufed, either to foften them, as { and then it fliall be left to boil to the confumption
when dates are iteeped in hydromcl ; or to correct of a third part ; and afterwards taken off the fire.

them., to temperate their acrimony, as when the
root of efula is put to infufe in vinegar; or to ex-
tract iheir uibitance and virtue, as when fenna.

and when half cold, flraintd through a cloth by
exprefiion. This is the a^sz^w. One may make
on this model, perioral apozems^ with pe£to:al

rhubarb, myrabolans, or agarick, are put to infufe drugs ; cephalic/,; with cephalick drugs ; and hyjie

in common water, or m juices.

The liquors commonly employed for infufiom
called in terms of chymiftry, meriftruurn, are com-

riclc, with hyflcrick drugs.

Julep, or Juleb, is z Perfian name, which
mon and diftilled waters, whey, juices of plants, fignifies iwcet draughts ; the Grc^/fy call it ^(lf^a!rK>,
rain-water, dew, wines, brandy, fpirit of wine, and the Latins julepu:, and j/ilapium, or hydrojac-
diftilled or not diftilled vinegar. \chariim. It is a mixture of fjTups, and di.'il'ed

To make infufions with prudence and utility, waters, or ligiit decodions, the preparation where-
one muft know the nature of the fubftance of the of is commonly of an ounce of fyrup, en fix ounces
drugs, which are to be infufed, in order to give of water or tieco£tion.

them a convenient diiTolvent. All forts of liquor j Juleps are made of different fyrups, and of dif-
is not capable to extraift the virtues of all forts of fcrcnt liquors, according to the maladies for which
mixts. Water, for example, is fufficient to extradt , they are cdminillered. They may be rendered
the fubftances of the fenna, rhubarb, tamarinds, I four either with acid fpirits or juices ; they are not
itff. but it is not proper to receive thofe of the prepared, but when they are wanted; becaufe they

cannot be kept longer than two or three days in
winter; and about twenty-four hours in fummer
in a cool place : juleps are never mixed with pur-
gatives.

For an hyjlcrick julep. — Take the diftilled wa-
ters oi meH[ja, and of mugwort, of each two ounces;
one ounce of orange-flowers, two drachms of cin-
namon ; one ounce of mugwort; tindlure ofcaftor,
and oleous aromatick volatile fait, of each four
drops : mix them well together for a julep of one

jalap, tar, turbith ; there are wanted for thofe
refinous mixts, fulphurous litjuors, as brandy,
fpirit of wine, or others, whi'.h fhould be of a
nature to diflblve the rofints.

The time to be employ'd in infufions is not
limited ; for, as the mixts are more or lefs hard ;
and their pri;Kiples more or lefs difficult to be
Ioof"ned ; there is likewife more or lefs time re-
quired fo. it.

The AroiEMS are flrong decoftions of feveral | dofe.

Virtues.

MEDICINE,

257

Virttta. — It diflipate<; the vapours ; fortifies, and I brain, for the epilepfy, apoplexy, lethargy, an'

provokes the menfcs.

Emulsion came from the Latin emulgere-, to
milk ; for in fa6l this remedy approaches very near
the colour and confiftence of milk : it is extradled
from almonds, cold feeds, or fruits diflblved in
drl^illed water, which are ilrained hard, and edul-
corated with fugar or fyrups.

For a cooling and aperitive emiilfwi — Take one
ounce of the four cold feeds ; the feeds of althsa
and of white poppies, of each one drachm : let them
be pounded in a marble mortar, pouring flowly
over them a quart of decoction of therootsof althrea,
and of parfley ; fl:rain it by expreffion : and to
the c(.latura add four ounces of fyrup cf marfh-
iHallows.

Virtues. — It is proper to expel, gently, the fand
from the reins and bladder, to temperate and Ibften
the acrimony of the urine, when it proceeds from
a clap, or from another caufe.

Potion comes from the Latin potare, to drink.
This name can be given to all forts of draughts ;
but in medicine it is moft commonly reftrained to
certain mixtures of feveral powders, confccflioiis,
clcfluaries, fyrups, elixirs, tincflures, ell'enccs, dif-
folved in liquors. There may be prepared potioirs
of all forts, for each malady in particular; for there
are anodyne, emttick, Jlomachick, and feveral other
poticirts.

A cirdial potion is properly a julep, in which
have been mixed /im pie, or compound drugs ; and
powders, and cordial confe<5tions.

A cephalick potion is a julep, in which have been
mixed cephalick remedies.

A purgative potion is a purgative medicine, or
apozcm

For a cordial potion. — Take a drachm of confec-
tion alkermes, an ounce of fyrup of lemons, water
of buglofs, and of carduus benedi6tus, of each one
ounce and a half, mixed together for a potion.

Virtues. — I his potion is proper to fortify the
heart, and to reful the malignity of the humours.
It may be taken all at once, or at different times.

To this potion may be added _/<;// of viper, dia-
phoretick antimony, volatile falts, and feveral
other fuch remedies, according to the Intention of
the phyfician.

For a ciphalick potion. Take one drachm of

confedfion alkermes, a fcruple of volatile fait of
hartftiorn, an ounce of treacle water, the water of
beton}', and marjoram, of each an ounce and a
half, mixed together for a potion, which is to be
taken by fpoonfuls.

Virtues, — This potion is proper to fortify the

palfy: the dofe is. two or three fpoonfuls at once.

Several other cephalick drugs may be added to
this potion, as the tandlureof ciftor, the diafcordi-
um, and the eflencc of cloves.

For a potion for the cholick. — Take one ounce of
mint-water, half an ounce of ciimamonwater, an
ounce of fyrup of diafcordium, half the yolk of a
new-laid ece, the oil of juniper-berries, the fpirit
af fal ammoniac, and of lavender compofcd, of each,
ten drops, two grains of fait of wormwood, mix-
ed together for a pDiion to be taken by fpoonful-.
yiriues. — This potion cures the windy cholick,
and diflipatcs winds generated in the ftomach, fur
want of digeftion.

For an ajlringent potion, io flop the vomiting or
fpitting of blood. — Take an ounce of fyrup ol myr-
tle, a dram of fanguis draconis, the eyes of craw-
fifh prepared, and fix drachms of vinegar, mix-
ed tngether for a potion to be taken by fpoontuls.
Virtues. — This potion is affringent, proper to
ftop the fpitting and vomiting of blood, a loofenefs,
and the dyfenteria; for lofl'es of blood, for the
whites in women, and other immoderate evacua-
tions of the matrice. The doje is a fpoonful of-
ten repeated.

Mixture comes from the latin mifccre, which
fignifits to mix, though this name appears very ge-
neral, and can be given to a vaft number of differ-
ent forts of ////.v/Sfr^j m?iij.t m pbarrr.acy., it is not-
(fanJing more properly .idapted to certain mixtures
of fpirits, effenccs, elixirs, and diflilled waters,
which being adminiftered in a fmal! dofe, produce
nc'twithflanding the fame effect of remedies given
in a greater volume, and operates fooner.

i or a diure'ick mixture. — Take an ounce of fpi-
rit of turpen.ine ; rectified fair, dulcified nitre, (f
each three drachms ; fuccm, and elixir ptopneta-
tis, of each two drach.ms ; to be mixed together
for a mixture.

Virtues. — It is proper for t!ie none, the gr;ivel,
the fuppreflion of urine, and the nephritick cho-
lick The dofe is from fuur to firtccn drops in

white wine, or a liquor appropriated to the dif-
temper.

A BOLUS is a fort of remedy of the confiftence
of pafte, which is moft commonly a purgative, di-
vided into feveral parts before it :s taken.

The confiifence (f the islu:'s is moft commoniv
like that of the eleftuaries ; and the matter thereof
different, according to the different indications.

For a cathartick, and aperitive boius, for a ge-
norrhoea. Take half an ounce of conftftion ha-
meCj a drach of turpentine, half a drach of cream

258

Tie Univerfal Hiftory 0/ Arts ««^ Sciences.

of tartar, and fifteen grains of mercurius dulcis, 1 body ; as into the natural parts of both fexes, into

wounds, and even into the inteftines ; for the dy-
fters are a kind of injeifions : the matter of the in-
jeSiions are diflierent, according to the different indi-
cations.

For an injclion to flop a gonorrhaa — Take plain-
tain and rok -water, of each four ounces ; an ounce
of honey of rofes ; a drachm of vulnerary and
ffyptick tindture, mixed together for an inje£fion.

Virtues This injedion is aftringent, proper to

ftrengthen the fpermatick veffl-ls, and ftop the go-
norrhoea.

mixed together for a bolus .

rirtuts. — It purges both by flool, and by urine ;
and cleanfcs the urethra, and fpermatick veflels,
of the venereal virus.

The Gargarisms are liquid remedies proper
for the, maladies of the throat, which is wafhed
therewith without fwallowing them.

For a gargarifin to Jhp a falivatlon, excited by
the mercury. — Take a drachm of whole barley,
plantain's flowers, nuts of cyprefs, pomegranate-
peal, flowers of fumach, of each half an ounce,
two drachms of barberries, boil them in common
water and red wine, a pint or each, to the con-
fumption of a third part; flrain them, and in the
colature, di/Tolve two drachms of extrail of mars
aftringent, half a drachm of fait of faturn, and two
ounces of honey of rofes, for a gargarifm.

The barley muft boil firft in the water, then the
pomegranate peal, the barberries, and the nuts of
Cyprefs bruifed are added to it, and afterwards the
wine ; and when the deco£lion has boiled flill a
little longer, the herbs and flowers are thrown in-
to it, the co£lion continuing till the diminution of
a third part ; then it is ftraiiied by expreflion ; and
in a pound of the colature, the honey of rofes,
the extract of mars aflringent, and the fait of fa-
turn are difTolved.

Virtues — This gargarifm is very aftringent,
proper to dry the ulcers of the mouth, to faftcn
the gums, and to ftop a falivation when the pa-
tient wafhes often his mouth with it.

The EuRHiNA, in latin nafalia, are remedies
mtroduced into the r.ofe, to make one blow his
nofe or fneeze. They are made of various forms,
fometimes in powder, fometimes liquid, fometimes
like a fort of unguent, and fometimes in a fulid
niafs, divided into fmall pyramidical fticks.

For -ijiertiutatory poivder. — Take white hellebore,
tobacco, iris of Florence, each two drachms,
flowers of lilies of the valley, of betony, of marjo-
ram, and of fage, of each a drachm.

The drugs muft be pounded together in a brafs
mortar, and afterwards palled through a common
Cioarfe fierce.

Virtues. — It is proper to excite fneczing and to
purge the brain.

A fcruple of euphor'uium may be added to it,
when ufed in the apoplexy or lethargy, but in all
other occafions it is dangerous to introduce euphor-
biiim into the nofe, becaufe of its violent effects.

Injection is a liquor introduced by means of
a fyringe, into fevcral linall cavities of the human

Clyster, or clyfmus, or enema, are Greek
names, the two firft fignify wafhing, aird the laft
inje£fion.

For an emollient and laxative clyjlcr, — Take tw»
pints of the cooling and emollient deco£lion i an
ounce of lenitive eledtuary ; two ounces of honey
of violets, mixed together for a clyjhr.

Virtues — It is proper for thofe who are hard-
bound, to purge the lower abdomen of bilious and
other humours, to temperate the heat of the en-
trails, and appeafe the fever.

Whey may be ufed inftead of the deco(3ion, to
render the clyjhr ftill more cooling.

For a deterfive clyjicr. — Take a pint of a dc-
terfive decodion half an ounce ot double catho-
licon, two ounces of honey of rofes, and the yolk
of a new-laid egg, mixed altogether for a deter-
five clyfter.

Virtues. — It is proper to purge in flopping a
loofenefs, and inftead of the double catholicon,
we may prcfcribe oil of fwect almonds, or of white
lilies, cfpecially when the loofenefs is accompani-
ed with flimy matters, which caufe continual mo-
tions.

For a clyjler for t'/errephritici. — Take the leaves
[ of marfti-mallows, and parietary, of each a hand-
ful, flowers of St. John's-vvort, and of the golden
rod, of each as much as one can hold between
three fingers, three drachms of juniperberries, and
two drachms of linfeed, boll them together in a
quart of common water, to the ccnfumption of
half the humidity ; ftrain them with expreflTion,
and in a pint of the colature, dlfiblve lenitive e'.ec-
tuar)-, laxative bendi£f, of each half an ounce;
two ounces of honey of violets ; two drachms of
turpentine of Venice ; and fix drachms of linfeed
oil. For a clyjler.

Virtues. — it is proper to open the pafTages of the
urine ; and to cure the nepliritick and windy cho-
lick.

The decodlion is fometimes made with white
wine ; and the clyjlers with oil or greafe, purge lefs
than thofe where there is none ; becaufe oily fub-

ftanccs

MEDICINE,

ftances blunt by their ramous parts the points of
the purgatives.

Suppositories are folid remedies, of a pyra-
midal fi'''ure, and of the thicknefs and length of
the little finger. They have been invented to fup-
ply the want oi clyjhrs. This remedy is proper to
open a little the body ; it is thrufl into the funda-
ment, and kept there as long as poflibie, that it
may have time to penetrate and foften a little the
matters, and provoke the inteftine re£lnm, by
pricking it ; but it is very far from having the fame
efficacy as a clyfler.

The common matter oi fuppofitory, is common
honey, boiled to a folid confidence ; it isfhaipen'd
with a little fjlt. When the Juppofitories are to be
firono-er, there niuft be added either half an ounce
of electuary of hlera picra, or two drachms of
aloes.

The honey and fait muft be put in an iron ladle,
or in a little Ikillct, over a flow fire, where they
muft boil till the matter has acquired a folid con-
fiflence, which will be known if a little bit there-
of be put to cool ; then it muft be poured boiling
hot on the bottom of a little mortar turn'd upfide
down ; and the fiippojitories formed on a marble,
or board grenfed with oil.

Pessaries are alfo fjlid remedies, very near of
the bignefs of a finger, and of a pyramidal figure ;
they are introduced into the matrice, alter an end
thereof has been faftencd to a ribband, that the pef-
fary may be taken out at pleafuru.

Pejfar'ies can be made of cork, or of a light
wood, or with a root, or with a little fheath made
of a thin filk, and filled with powders incorporat-
ed with wax, oil and cotton, the whole prcffed
very hard in the fheath, that it may have folidity
enough to be introduced into the matrice; one
muft take care, likcwife, that the feam be very
even, and well flatten'd, left it fliould v/ound the
matrice. That made of wood, or of cork, or of
root, muft be anointed with a linament compofed
of drugs appropriated to the intention of the phy-
fician ; for example, if it be to provoke the men-
fa, the following liniment is very pripcr.

A liniment (or pi\ffhfies . — Take myr;h and aloes,
of each a drachm ; a fcrupie of faffron ; eight
wrains of camphire ; four grains of caftoreum,
pound them well together, and mix them in an
ounce and a half of unguent oi ait ha: a, or marlh-
mallows. Add to it two drachms of fperma ccti ;
and fix drops of oil of fuccin ; for a liniment.

If it be to ftop a too great a flooding of the men-
fes, the following liniment is very good.

A lii.iment for ojiringcnt pe[[«irics. — Take pre-

259

pared coral, and terra figillata, of each two
drachms; fix grains of folid /cWaww/;, pounded,
and mixed together in two ounces of white wax,
and an ounce of oil of folanum, in which is dipped
a fufHcient quantity of cotton for a hard mixture,
proper to fill the little flieaths of filk.

A Fomentation is moft commonly made of

decocSlions of emolient and cooling herbs, to foften
fome hardncftes formed in the lower abdomen, or
of aftringcnt liquor.-, to ftrcngthcn and bend the
fibres : pieces of cloth are dipped in thofe/o;«^«/«-
tions, kept hot, and applied on the afflidcd partj
or the herbs are put in fmall cloth-bags, and after
they have been made to boil, are applied. There
are alfo elry fomtntations, made on fcveral parts
ot the body ; as fried bran or oats, which arc ap-
plied hot, between two cloths, for rheumatical
pains ; vervein fried for the pain in the fide, in the
pleurify; parietary to be applied on the region of
the urethra, in the nephritick cholick : a hog's
bladder is filled with hot milk, and applied on the
lower abdomen : fait and aflies are calcined to be
applied hot on the neck, to dry and dilfipate the
catarrhea's. Laftly, one may ufe almoft as ma-
ny forts oi fojimitations, as there are different forts
of maladies, which aiBid the human body.

For a fomentati,n for ciifocations and contiif-
ons. — Take rofemary, fage, m.arfti-mallovvs, hyf-
Ibp, and lavender, of each a handful ; the' rind of
pomcgrana;e, bays, and juniper-berries, of each
an ounce; fill fmall linen bags with thofe herb;,
cV. bruifed and mixed together ; and put them to
boil in two quarts of lees of red wine over a flow
fire, the vefl'el covcr'd, to the confumption, of a
child part; then apply the bags hot on the part.

Firtues. — This fomentation is proper to ftrength-

I en and confolidate dillocatcd bones, the nerves ;md

ligaments; to refolve the tumours, which follow

thecontufi ons ; and to help the digeftion, when aj--

plied on the ftomach.

j The decodion muft be half cold before it is ufed>
then one of the bags is taken out, fqueezed a lit-
tle between fhe hands, and applied on the parr,
where it is left about an hour ; then is taken oft",
and the other put in its place ; continuing to ap-
ply thus the bags, alternatively five or fix times ;
leaving that, which i^ applied laft, five or fix hours
on the part.

Embrocation is an afpcrfion made of fome li-
quor, by means of tov.' or fpunges on feveral parts
of the body, and particularly on the head, to open
the pores, and to ftrengthen.

An embrccation is properly a lotion, moft com-
monly compofed of decoctions, or fpirit of wine,

2 6o The Uiiiverfal Hiftory

or of oxyrihoiioiiiaiis, prepared with oil and vine-
gar Q^ rofcs, on ihe fiiived head of the p iticnr, as
well to prevent a delirium, as to cure ir.

For an embrocation for a lethargy. — Take the
nxjts of C'vpreCs, oVx\\«, q{ Florence, cahimus aro-
maticus, of each hah'" an ounce ; of leaves of fage,
of rofernai-y, a>'d of betony, bays-beirics, and co-
r;;.nJer £ijd cumin-feeds, of each two drachms ;
boil them in three pints of common water to the
confumption of a third part, then flrain them by
cxprtflion, and to the coiature add four drachms
of brandy ; for an cn.brocatlon for the head.

Lotion c.nics from the verb lavme-, to wafh.
I'll treat here only of the lotions, made to fome
parts or the body in paracular, with medicinal li-
quors, to kill the verminc, &c.

For a lo:ion to kill lice in the head. — Take two
ounces of ft/.phyfagria, an ounce of ftmen contra,
the leaves cf wormwood, of betony, and of little
Centaury, of each two handfuls: boil them in two
quarts of water, to ihe confumption of a third parr,
i'rain it, and wafh the he.'d with it, waim. It
kills the lice and crabs. This decoftion can alfo
be made in urine, adding to ic an ounce and half
of the roots of cnuia campana.

For a lotion to render red hair black. — Take half
a pound of the peel of green walnuts, the bark of
cak, galls, of each two ounces ; theleaves of myr-
tle tree, of pomegranate- tree, of each a handful :
boil tliem in three pints of water to the confump-
tion of a third part; ftrain hard the decoftion,
and in the coiature diffolve roch-alum, and green
vitriol, of each an ounce and a half for a lotion.

Though this lotion belongs more properly to dy-
ing than to medicine ; it will, notwithftanding,
pleafe thofe who having red hair want to make
them change colour ; which may be done by wafh-
ing them with this ink, and letting them dry be-
fore they are wiped.

A muc:lage is fometimes a flimy liquor,
which fpins when it is poured, and fometimiS a
lize. It is commonly made of roots of althsea, of
fymphitum, of the feeds of lin, of fenugreek,
quinces, or pfyllium., the gums trsgacantb, Ara-
bick, or of plumb-tree, the glue of fifh, the fkiii
of a ram m(ufed, or boiled in v/ater. All ?nuci!a-
ga are Ibftening.

For a common emoUent muciiase- — Take four oun-
ces of the roots of marlli-mallows ; the feeds of
lin and fenugreek, of each an ounce ; let them in-
tuie for twelve hi lurs in two quarts of warm water,
then boil them over a flow fire, to the redudtionot
half the humidity, and Itrain afterwards the muci-
hige with exprclfion.

of Arts and Sciences.

Virtues. — Tins mucilage \s proper to fcften the
hardnef?, to appeafe the pains and to fwteten.

Epithema hi Greek word, which fignifies
fomentation. — There are two forts of ep.thems, one
liquid, and tiie other folid.

The" liquidepitbema is a fort of fome-^TtioriTnorc
fpiritui^us than the others, which are ufed only for
the regions of the heart and liver. Simple and
compound dilHIled waters, light decoclions, vine-
gar, lemon-juice, are the common matters of ihc
liquid epithems.

A folid epithem is a mixture of treacle, confec-
tions, mithndate, opia:e of folomon, diafcordium,
conferveof rofes, of gillyfiowers, buglofs, i^c of
the cordial powders, as the di.im.;rgantum, diarro-
don, diatriafantali, and even tiie ci mpofed oil of
fcorpion of Mathiol, fpre^id mofl: cmimonly on a
piece offcarlet cloth, or on leather, and applied
about the region of the heart to flrcngthen it.

For a liquid cordial epithem. — ^Take the waters
of buglofs, offcabious, of carduus bencdiCfus, and
of rofes, of each three ounces ; treacle and con-
fcdion alkermes, of each half an ounce ; and two
drachms of the powder diarrodon abbatis, mixed
together for an epithem. One muft have two pte-
ces offcarlet or other cloth, large enough to cover
the region of the heart or that of the Ji\cr ; and
having warmed the epithem in a difli, the pieces
of cloth mufl be foakcd in it, and applied every
quarter of an hour, one after another, as prefcrib-
ed in the fomentations, covering the epithem with
fome thick cloth, to entertain the heat as long as
poffible.

Virtues. — This epithem is prciper to revive the
heart, and ftrengthen it, to awake the fpirits, and re-
fift the malignity of the humours. To this epi ■
thc?tia may be added fuch cordials as are judged
proper.

¥or a folid epithema. — Take an ounce of con-
ferve of rofes, confection alkermes, and treacle, of
each two drachms ; for a folid epithema, which
m.ull: be fpread on woollen cloth, and applied warm
on the region of the heart.

Virtues. — This epithema is fuppofed to ftrength-
en the heart by rarefying the blood, and facilitating
its circulation.

Perfumes In medicine, maybe divided into li-
quid and dry perfumes : — Liquid perfumes, are all

the fragrant waters and caffoletes Dry perfumes,

are paftilles, juniper-berries, and the wood of ju-
niper, i^c. which are burnt in the chambers of
patient", to correct the bad air.

A poivd^r fir a corroborative perfume. — Take

three

M E D I C' I N E.

three drachm"! of troches of nutmeg, ; calamus aro-
maticu!, cinnamon, ftorax, benzoin, of each a
drachm and a liali'; mace, cloves, of each half a
drachm ; rofes, marjoiam, of c?.ch two fcruples, all
coaifely pounded together for a perfui'.e, to be
burnt on lighted coals, for the patient to ialce the
vapour thereof.

Virtues,— \i ftrengthens the heart, and recreates
the fplrits.

A Frontal is a remedy applied on the fore-
head, to appeafe a little the head-ach, and pro-
voke fleep. It is fometimes compofed of dried re-
medies, as rofes, fanders, betony, marjoram, co-
liander-feed, elder-flowers, and of nenuphar ; of
lavender, kernels of peach-ftones, or of apricocks
bruifed, when it is wanted to rarefy a coarfe pitui-
ta, and flrengthen the brain. — Sometimes with wet
linen dipped in rofe-water, and vinegar of rofes,
to flop the bleeding of the nofe ; fometimes with
unguent'-, leaves of green plants, of gourd, lattu-
ccs, porcelain, vine ; of green flowers pounded,
of conferves, of opium, to provoke fleep, and mo-
derate the head-ach, which accompany a violent
fever.

A liquid frontal.'— Tsks lattuces, confcrve of
rofes, and nymphae, of each half an ounce ; three
drachms of populeum ; a drachm of fea-falt, half
a drachm of liquid laudanum ; to be mixed for a
frontal.

Virtues. — It is proper to appeafe a violent head-
ach and to provoke fleep.

CoLLYREs are remedies defigned particularly
for the maladies of the eyes.

Collyres are either dry or liquid.

Dry Collyres are the troches of rhafis, prepared
tutty, fugar candy, iris, white vitriol in powder,
which is blown thrown a fmall pipe into the eye,
to diflipate the catarads in their beginning.

Liquid coll)res zxecom'pokd of ophthalmick wa-
ters and powders, as prepared tutty, diflTolved in
water of rofes, of plantain, fennel, and celandine,
ophthalmick unguents, arc alfo called collyres, ?kS the
unguent of tutty, and feveral others.

For a cooling collyre. — Take the waters of plan-
tain, of rofes, and of fennel, of each two ounces ;
and half an ounce of whites of eggf, to be mixed
too-ether for a collyre.

Virtue;. — It is proper for the inflammations and
pains of the eyes, foftening and embarafllng, by its
glutinous parts, the acrimonious falts, which caufe
that diforder. A fine piece of linen clotli, or a
little bit of thin veal, is imbibed with that collyre,
and applied on the affli£led eye.
Vol. II. 39.

I A Cataplasm is an outward remedy, of the
' conliftence of a parte, compofed, moft commonly,
ot flowers, pulps, oils, unguents, gums, and pow-
ders. It is applied on the parts of the human
body, fometimes to refolve, fometimes to appeafe
the pains, and fometimes to raife the fpirits.

For an anodyne and refohitive cataplafm. Take

four ounces of crumbs of bread, and a pint of new
milk; boil them together to the conliftence of a
cataplafm ; then add to it two yolks of eggs, an
ounce of oil of rofes ; and a drachm of faflron
well pounded.

Virtues. — It is refolutivc, and proper to appeafe
the pains, and refolve the tumours, being applied
hot on the part : fometimes a drachm of laudanum
is added to this cataplafm, to render it more anodyne.

The DENTRiFiCKs, in Latin dentrificia, are re-
medies ufed to cleanfe the teeth, and prefcrve
them : fuch ai e the woods of lentijk, the fanders^
the ivood of rofes, prepard coral, burnt bread, pu-
micejlone, cryjial calcined, hart's horn, ivory, and
egg-fl^ells, thefe alkalies mixed, or every one by.
itfelf, are very proper to cleanfe the teeth, and ap-
peafe the acrimony of the falts left in them after
eating. The fpirits of fait and of vitriol, whiten
the teeth in a very fhort time, but they corrode
them.

Next comes the preparation of coral, pearls.,
erab's eyes, fpodium, or burnt ivory, precious Jloiies,
fuccinum, or carabe, Jione hematites, load-flone, and
feveral other fuch matters.

To prepare well thofe matters, the coral, for
example, muft be pounded firft, as much as poffible,
in a brafs mortar, then the powder fhall be thrown
on a table of porphyry, to be ground, with a fuf-
ficient quantity of rofe-water. to the confiftence of
a parte : that parte muft be ground with a muller,
till it makes no more noife on the porphyry ; and
then it muft be formed in little troches, which is
the prepar'd coral ; which grows paler in grind-
ing, and afllimes a fleili-colour ; the water mixed
with it, ferves only to grind it more exadly, and
v/ith greater facility.

Virtues.^ — Prepared coral is fuppofed good to ftop
a loofenefs, the hjemorrhages and gonorrhoea's.—.
The dofe is from fix grains to a fcruple.

The pearls, mother of pearls, and other JJhIIs,
are as hard as the coral, and are attended with the
fame difficulties ; and take as much time in their
preparation in the mortar, and on the porphyry ;
but crab's eyes, burnt iuory, and other luch calcined
matters, do not require fo much trituration.

The preparation of the tutty, and the lapis cala-
minaris, is different from that of the coral, (3c
Mm

262 - 7he Univerfal Hiftory

no othcrwife than they are calcined :uiJ walhed
before they are pulverized, to carry off their moft
falinc and fulphurous parts,

Therefore one may take what quantity he pleafes
of tliofc two drugs, of Uttty, for example, and
make it red-hot in a crucible placed between
lighted coals ; when red-hot, it muft-be thrown into
a bafon full of water, and left there for half an
hour ; which operation mufi: be repeated twice
more, changing the water every time: afterwards
the tutty having been drained, muft be ground on
a porpb.yry with a muller, mixing with it as much
plantain, or rofe-watei, as is neceflary to reduce
it to an impalpable powder ; then it is formed into
Anall troches.

Virtues. — The tutty is deficcative, and proper
for the maladies of the eyes. It is the bafis of the
uno-uent pompholix ; it is mixed in the coUyres,
and in ,fre(h butter : it cleanfcs the fania of the
eyes, in drying and fortifying the fibres.

Note, That feveral content themfelves with
wafhing the tutty without calcining it, which does
notcccafion a very confiderable difference.

The preparation of the hoi, terra JigiHata, chalk,
litharge and cerufi, confifts in pulverizing the
matters, and purifying them of fome coarfe and
terreftrial parts they contain.

Therefore take what quantity you pleafe of one
of thofe drugs, for example, of i»/, reduce it into a
fubtile powder in a brafs mortar, and having put
it in an earthen pan, pour water over it, ftirring
the matter, and decanting afterwards gently the
water into a veflel, that the purefl and moft fubtile
of the powder may run out with the water :
you'll continue to wafli and agitate the matter,
and to pour the liquor into another velTe!, till
nothing but fand or another coarfe matter remains
at the bottom, which muft be thrown away ; then
all the lotions muft be poured into a funnel gar-
nifhed with grey paper, that the water may be
feparated from the matter ; and then the bol re-
maino- {hall be formed into little troches, which
muft be dried in the fun.

Virtues. — The bol is aftringent, and proper to
fVop a loofenefs, hEPitiorrhages, and gonorrhcea's —
The dofe is from ten. grains to a fcruple.

'Ihis preparation is not of a great utility, for
ver\' little coarfe matter is feparated from the
fine holy and that impurity befides could not be ca-
pable to produce any bad effefl in the body : as
for the coarfe bol, as it is only ufed outwardly, it is
no othervvife prepared than, by reducing it into a
powder, in a brafs mortar.

The litharge rz(\\\\rcs no other preparation than
that of the coarfe bol, viz. to be put in a fubtile
powder in a brafs mortar.

of Arts <3;W Sciences.

As for the cenfs, the lotion renders it whiter,
and confequently more proper for the Cofmeticks,
and for painting: but for Pharmacy it fuffices to
reduce it into a fubtile powder.

The preparation of the lapis lazuli, for ultrama-
rine, confifts in feparating from the I pis the blue,
faline, and fulphurous part, from its metaliick and
terreftrial part.

Therefore take what quantity you pleafe of the
blueft lapis you can find, without any gold or other
veins, pound it in a brafs mortar, then grind it on
the porphyry, with a fmall quantity of common
water, till it makes no more noilis under the
muller ; this done, mix it in a fort of pafte made
of pitch, wax, and linfced -oil; this mixture (hall
be wafhed, working it continually in the hands
over a marble Hoping, with water, which fhall be
poured over it by degrees, and the lotions received
in a bafon placed under the marble ; the matter
muft be wafhed thus till it gives no more blue ;
but the lotions muft be feparated, for the firft
contain the fineft ultramarine ; after they have
been left to fettle, the water is decanted gently,
and a fine blue powder is found precipitated at the
bottom, which muft be put to drain in a funnel
garnifhed with grey paper, then dried ; and this is
the ultramarine ufed by painters : it is alfo ufed in
medicine; but as the greafy pafte it is wrapped in,
would give fome difagreeable impreffion to it, one
fhould be contented with grinding it on the por-
phyry.

Virtues. — The lapis lazuli prepared, is efleemed
a cordial, proper to refift venom, and to purify the
blood ; it enters Into the confection alkermes. —
The dofe is from four to fifteen grains.

The preparation of gum lacca, confifts in purify-
ing it of its terreftrial parts, by imprinting in it a
vulnerary and deterfive quality.

Therefore a deco6tion muft be made of two
drachms of the roots of ariftoloch, or hart-zuort,
in two pints of water to the diminution of a third ;
having ftrained the decoction, four drachms of
gum-lacca bruifed, but not in powder, muft be put
to boil flowly in it, till the pureft part of the gum
may be feparated from the fasces, and fwims a-top,
then that pure part muft be gathered and put to
dry in the fun.

Virtues The gum-lacca thus prepared, is de-
terfive, aftringent, proper to ftrengthen the ftomach
and the gums : it ferves alfo as a bafis for fealing-
wax.

The ScAMMONV, which comes from Aleppo is
efteemed the beft ; it muft be chofen the pureft,
the moft refinous and moft friable that can be
found, aud muft be leduceJ into a fine powder.

The

M E D I G I N E_

263

The mofl common method at picfent of pre-
paring the ytY?/«;»wy', is to reduce it intopowdir,
and make it receive through a grey paper, for
about a quarter of an hour, the vapour of the
fujphur which is burnt under it, IHrring it gcfitly
from time to time with a fpatula. It is pretended
that this fulphurous vapour rarefies the glutinous
fubliance of the fcafiwiouy, and hinders it from
griping; it is caWed dincridium fu/p/mralum. '

If the jcammony wants a preparation there is no
better than this : — fteep for about two hour's an
ounce of liquorice well bruifed, in eight or nine
ounces of warm water j ftrain the infufion and
mix in it four ounces of good fcammony, in an
earthen porringer, which' muft be placed on the
fand, and the humidity made to evaporate at a
flow fire till the Jcammony has reafTumed its former
iblidity : it is-called Jiacridium glycyrizatum, and is
a very good purgative. It purges particularly the
melancholick: humour, and operates without grip-
ing.— The dofe is from ten grains to a fcruple.
The, extradt ot liquorice mixed in this preparation
oi Jcammmy, fweetens it much ; therefore a greater
quantity thereof is adminiilercd than that of the
other diacridhims, even as far as twenty grains,
which produce a very good efre£l.

The glydrized diacridium muft be kept in a
bottle well corked, otherwife it would grov/ damp,
becaufeof the extract of liquorice.

There is likewife a fyrup made of fugar, brandy,
and fcammony, by fetting the mixture on fire ;
and when the flame is extinguifhed the mixture- is
kept for ufe. It purges without griping; and the
dofe is from one fpoonful to iv/o.

The preparation of the euphorblum confifls in
puiifying it and foftening it.

Take what quantity you plcafe of the beft and
pureft euphorbium, reduce it into powder, and
having put it in a matrafs, pour over it depurated
juice of lemon to the height of four fingers breadth ;
flop the matrafs, and place it in digeftion at a fand-
heat, ftirringit from time to time; and the gum
being dillblved, the liquor muft be ftrained through
a linen cloth, into a glafs or earthen veffel, which
being placed at a fand -heat, the humidity is made
to evaporate to theconfiftence of an extract. This
is the euphorblum prepared, which muft be kept in
a pot.

The euphorblum muft be humefted with fome
lemon juice, while pounding, to avoid being in-
commoded by it ; for the little quantity thereof
which enters the nofe or the eyes, caufcs in them
an infupportable acrimony and heat.

I difapprove much the ufe of the euphorblum for
the infide.

The prcparaiions of the onions of fcylle, confifts.

e liiem of their hm tful
2 In boih'ng thcin, to

I. 'fn drying them, to nepri
and fupcrfluoiis humiditv :
cxtracSl: the pulp thereof.

For the firft, you miift t.i'„ ■ ; . of a

moderate bignefs, found and well fed j then you'll
take off" with a wooden knife the rind or firft red
and dry leaves, which are to be thrown away ;
taking afterwards the whitifti lamin;i;, and leaving
the heart and roots as ufclefs ; which lamina; muft
be dried in the fun.

For the fccond, the onions of fcyllc muft be wrap-
ped in common paftc, and put in the oven till they
are grown foft, which is known by introducing a
little picked ftick into them ; then the pafte muft
be feparated from them, and the pulp of the fcylle
taken out, to be made in troches oi fcylle.

Virtues. — Thz Jcylle enters fevera! compofitions,
it rarefies and incites the pituita ; it is ufcd in the
epilepfy, in the afthma, and to refift venom.

Tht'preparation of the millepedes-, and other fuch
infe£ts, confifts in drying them in the fun, to pre-
ferve them, and reduce them into powder wheri
they are wanted.

The millepedes are killed in white-wine, or in
water fharpened with fait; then they are dried in
the fun, to reduce them into powder.

Virtues. — The millepedes are aperitive, and pro-
per to expel the gravel, the ftone, for the nephri-
tick, and the retention of urine. — The dofe is from
one fcruple to one drachm.

If fixteen ounces of mlllcpedeshzveheen prepared
according to the rr.ethod here defcribed they'll
weigh after they are dried, but feven ounces and a
half. The volatile fait of millepedes is thought to
be good to eafe the excruciating pains of the
gout, thofe of the rheumatifm, and other maladies
which happen to the mufcles and nerves.

The preparation of -vipers, confifts in drying
them, that they may be eafily kept.

You muft chufe the biggeft and moft lively
vipers, in the fpring or autumn, cut their heads,
flcin them, take out their entrails, wafti their
trunks in water, and tie them to a packthread,
that they may be hung to dry in a dry place, dry-
ing their hearts and livers in the fame manner.

The fat muft be feparated from the inteftines,
and melted gently in a porringer over a little fire,
then ftrained with expreffion through a fine linen
cloth, to feparate it from its membranes ; and being
cold, muit be poured into a bottle to be kept for
ufe. It is liquid like oil, bccaufe of the qur.ntity
of volatile fait it contains, which exceeds much
that of the fat of other animals.

When the trunks, hearts, and livers of vipers

are to be kept long whole, it is very proper to

M m 2 anoint

264.

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

anoint them flightly with balfam of Peru, for it
hinders thu worms from getting iiUo them. 1

Tl;e powder of vipers is made, fomctimcs, m
pulverifing the trunks of the vipers alone ; and
fomctimcs with the addition of the livers and I
hearts : that done, in this laft manner is befl ; I
but it cannot be kept fo long, as when made with ,
the trunks alone, becaufe the livers and hearts j
being oily make it grow rank, and worms are
generated in it.

Virtues. — It is pretended that the powder of
vipers is proper to purify the blood, to expel the
bad humours by perfpiration, to refifl venom, for
intermittent and malignant fevers, the fmall-pox,
and the plague. — The dofe is from eight grams to
two fcruples. — The liver and heart, put together
in powder, is what we call mineral bezoard. — The
dofe is from fix grains to a fcruple.

The fat of vipers, is proper to rarefy the hu-
mours, and to excite perfpiration : it is prefcribed
in malignant fevers, and in the fmall-pox. — The
dofe is from one drop to fix. — It is alfo ufed out-
wardly to refolve tumours.

Next comes the preparation of hartjhorn, ivory,
human cranium, &c.

Thofe parts of animals having no bad qualities,
and their fubftance being of a nature to be eafily
diflblved in the flomach, they want no other pre-
paration than that of being rafped and pulverized ;
all others invented to refine on this, render, it is
true, the parts of animals alkaline, and more
aflringent, but deftroy at the fame time what they
have beft ; for the iire in the calcination diflipate
their volatile fait and oil, in which confiftcd their
principal virtue.

From this I'll pafs to the preparation, or puri-
fication of feveral gums, which cannot be eafily
reduced into powder, as the galbanum, the gum
ammoniack^ opoponax, and fagapenum.

You may take what quantity you pleafe of one
or feveral of thefe gums, break them in fm-ill
pieces, and put them to fl^eep for fome hours in
vinegar, where they muft be melted over a flow
fire : the diflblution muft be ffrained with a ftrong
expreiTion ; and the grounds left put in new vine-
gar to perfect the diffolution of the gum ; this
dilToIution muft be ftrained like the firft, and mixed
with it in an earthen pan, which muft be placed
over the fire, to make the humidity thereof to
evaporate to the confiflence of plaifter ; and thus
you'll have the gums purified.

Virtues. — They are proper to foftcn, to refolve,
to help fuppuration, to abate the vapours, they
are ;ipplicd on the navel, and on tumours.

When thofe gums are to be pulverifed, one muft

chufc the fineft and cleareft, and make them dry
gently between two papers, in the fun, or at the
fire. They are eafily reduced into powder, when
mixed with other drugs.

Juices are liquors, which flow, fomctimcs,
fpontaneoufly, or which are extracted from vege-
tables, either by incifion, or cvprefTion ; fome are
alfo cxtradled from animals, but under other names.

"Juices extra£led by incifion are purer and better
than thofe extradted by expreflion ; becaufe the
exprefEon makes a great deal of terrene parts
flow together with the liquor.

To extract ^l juice by incifion, there are incifions
made in the plant, or in the root, and through
thofe apertures flows by degrees an humour, which
is made to evaporate, either in the fun, or at a flow
fire : in that manner the aloes fuccotrina, the
fcammony, and the fanguis draconis are prepared.

fuices are extraSled by expreffion, by poundinf a
plant or fome part thereof in a mortar, and fqueez-
ing it hard ; for then a liquor comes out of it,
which can be made to thicken, either in the fun,
or at the fire : in this manner are extracted the
aloes cabalin, the meconium, which we callopium,
the acacia, the hypociftis, and the elaterium.

A greater quantity ofjuice is extracted from the
plant, if before the expreffion it be left fome hours
in digeftion, than if it was put to the prefs fo foon
as it is pounded, becaufe in the digeftion thejuice
is loofen'd, and becomes lefs vifcous.

There is more difficulty to extradl the juice
of vifcous plants, as of the borage, buglofs,
d5V. than of others; and it is proper to warm
them before they are put into the prefs.

Wheny'wVcs are to be kept in liquor, they muft
be depurated, either by boiling them a little, and
ftraining them ; or leaving them expofed one day
or two to the fun, and decanting them foftly af-
terwards, from their fediment. Then bottles
muft be filled with it to the neck, putting fome
fweet oil a-top, to the height of two fingers
breadth. That oil hinders the external air from
penetrating into it, and confequently its being
corrupted ; it may be kept good by that means at
lea't a whole year.

For the preparation of the black juice of liquorice,
commonly railed Spanijh liquorice. Take two
pounds of extract of liquorice, half a pound of
white fugar ; gums tragacanth and arabick, of
each four ounces : mix the whole together for a
mafs, to be formed into rotules.

To make the extract of liquorice, you muft
fcrape and bruife a quantity of green or dry liquo-
rice, and having ftrung it, put it into a large ear-
then pan, pour hot water over it, and leave it in

digestion

MEDICINE.

digeftion over a flow fire, ibr leven or eight hours ;
tlien the infufioii muft be Itrained widi expreffion,
and the liquoriw put again to ftcep in other hot
water, vvhicii mull be liiaiiied as before, and both
cohuiires mixed together, and the humidity there-
of' nude to evaporate over a flow lire to the con-
fiftcnce of extraii!:. This is the beft extraSl of
lijiurice that can be made, but it cannot be kept
in form of rotules, becau'e it grows damp eafil),
and has bcfides a difagreeable talte. Therefore to
give it fome form, and an agreeable tafte, the fugar
and gums mentioned in the defeription, muft be
mixed with it ; which to do, one muft bruife gums
tragacanth, and arabick, of each four ounces, and
put them to fteep in about three pints of warm
water, tiJi they be dilFoIved into a mucilage ; the
whole muft be ftrained through a proper fieve, and
the colature having been mixed with the fugar and
extrafl: of liquorice in an earthen pan, the whole
muft be placed over a flow fire, to evaporate the
humidity of the mixture, ftirring it continually with
a fpatula, till it be reduced to tiie confiftence of an
extrad or hard pafte, of which will be form'd mag-
rotules to be kept for ufe.

Virtues: — 'i"he Spanijh liquorice thus prepared, is
an excellent remedy for a cold, and to facilitate ex-
peftoration, and to foften the acrimony of the
breaft, by leaving a little bit of it to melt in the
mouth.

Next comes the preparation of the rhohob, fapa,
and defruium.

Rhohob or Rob, is an Arabick name, whereby
is underftood the juice of any fruit whatever, boiled
to the confiftence of honey.

The name of Sapa is only adapted to the juice
of grapes boiled.

The Defrutum is nothing elfe but the juice
of raifins, evaporated to the diminution of a third
part only.

For the preparation of the rhohob of mulberries, or
fimplc dinphcrwn. Take four pounds of the juice
of mulberries, and two pounds oi' honey fkimmed ;
boil them together to ajuft confiftence.

You muft take the mulberries before they are
quite ripe ; pound them in a marble mortar, and
extraif the juice thereof, which muft be left to de-
purate a day or two in the fun ; after which, having
been ftrained, two parts thereof ftiall be mixed with
one part of honey, in a glazed earthen di(h ; and
put to evaporate at a fl iw fire, to the confiftence
of honey. This will be the ftmple rhohob of mul-
berries, which muft be kept in a pot.

Virtues. — This rhohob is proper for the inflam-
mation of the throat, for the aphthes or little
ulcers, which come in the mouth of new-born

' children. It isalfo very proper to temperate the acri-
mony of the humours, to cleanfe and confolidate.
This remedy is fometimes taken alone by fpoonfnls;
but it is oftener mixed in cooling or deterfive decoc-
tions, or proper to the intentions of the phyfician.

A MEDICINAL Wine is a wine impregnated
with the fubftances and qualities of one, 01 feveral
kinds of medicinal drugs.

For the preparation of the wine of wormvjooel.—
7 ake a bundle of the dried fummits of v/ormwood
in blofibm, and three ounces of cinnamon bruifed;
put them into about fifty quarts of white wine,
newly made, and place the veftel in the cave, the
bung-hole open, and leave it there to ferment: the
fermentation over, the veflel muft be filled quite,
and well ifopped : then you'll have the' wine of
wormwood.

Virtues. — The wine of wormwood ftrengthens
theftomach, provokes the appetite, kills the worms,
cures the windy cholick, abates the vapours, pro-
vokes the menfes, and is very proper for the green-

ficknefs. The common dofe is half, or even a

full glafs, for feveral days fuccefiively.

For the preparation of a magijlral purgative wine.
— Take fix drachms of fenna, cardamum, and
feeds of violets, of each two drachms ; troches of
agarick, and the beft rhubarb, of each a drachm
and a half; a drachm of cinnamon, to be infufed
together for 24 hours in a quart of wine ; then the
colature muft be preferved for ufe.

Virtues. — This remedy has a purgative property
for pituitous and melancholick conftitutions ; for
the paify, apoplexy, quartan ague, and the fcarvy.

The dofe is a glafs-full in the morning fafting,

which muft be continued for feveral days fuccef-
fively.

Three ounces of fyrup of apples compofed,
may be added to this infufion, to render it more
purgative.

For the preparation of a febrifuge wine. — Take
two ounces of quinquina or jefuit's bark> put them
to infufe in a quart of ftrong white wine, in a
matrafs, large enough, that the third part thereof
may remain empty ; put the mati-afs well corked in
a Warm place, for the fpace of 24 hours, fhakirrg
it often during that time ; then decant the liquor,
leaving the grounds at the bottom.

Virtues. — This wine is an excellent febrifuge for
intermitting fevers; by the patient taking half a
glafs of it every four hours, for fifteen days fuccef-
fively, in the hours of the intermirlioi : but when
the fever is ftopped, he muft be contented with one
or tvv'o dofes every day, to hinder the return of the
accefs.

If this wine be taken a little muddy at lirft, viz..

Tee UnhTrfal Tliftoiy c/" Arts (7«!i^ Sciences.

266

if it be fhaken before it Is poured ofF the [grounds.
It will fl jp the fever fooner.

A I'lIiiDiciyAL Vinegar is a vinegar filled
with the fubftancfs and virtues of one or feveral
foits of drugs, which ferve in Medicine.

For the preparation of v'lmgar of fcylle. — -Take
two or three onions oifcylle well fed and very found,
pare the outward rind, which is half dried, fepa-
late the laminae with a wooden or ivory kjiife,
throwing away the heart as ufelcfs ; cut the laminas
into pieces, put one pound thereof in a large glafs
bottle, and pour upon it four quarts of good white
wine vinegar, cork the bottle, and place it in
digeftion at the fun, where it muft be left forty
days ; then the infufion mufl be drained with ex-
preflion, and kept in a bottle well corked.

Virtues. — This vinegar is efteemcd proper for the
epilepfy, to purify the blood, to refill venom, and

to e.v'pei the wind. The dofe is from one ounce

to three. It is ufcd likewife in gargarifms for the
fquinancy.

Conserves differ from coridits in their con-
fidence ; for they are prepared into a parte, whereas
condits are either boiled whole, or in pieces in the
fugar.

The name of ccnferve has been juftly given them ,
fince they are made v/ith no other view than to
preferve the parts of the vegetables in all their
goodnefs ; for the fugar mixed with them being a
fait it flops the pores thereof, abforbs their too
great humidity, and hinders the air from entring
into it, to excite a fermentation, which we call
corruption.

It is to be obfervcd, notwithflanding, that liquid
co/ifirves ferment for fpine days after they have been
jnade.

For S-fofi conferve of rcfes. Take the buds of

rofes before they are quite open, cut off with fcifiars
the white part which is called nail ; weigh a pound
of thofe buds thus prepared, and make therri boil
two or three gallops in three pints of common v/a-
ter, flrain the liquor with expreffion, and pound
thofe rofes thus foftened in a marble mortar, till
they be reduced to a pulp, and may melt entirely in
the mouth ; mean while two pounds of fugar mufl
be put to boil in the deco£lionto the confiftence of
an eleiluary ; and being then taken off the fire, the
pounded rofes mufc be exadlly mixed in it, putting
again the bafon over a very flov/ fire, and flirring
continually the conf.rve., making thereby the hu-
midity to evaporate gently, till it has acquired a
reafonable confiftence ; then the conferve is put in
a pot to be Icept.

Virtues. This conferve is proper to appeafe a

cough, to ftop hjemorrhages, vomiting, and a
loofenefs ; to ftrengthen the heart and the ftomach,

and to help digeftion. The dofe is from one

drachm to three : it moft commonly enters the
fo'.id epithems.

The common method of preparing the conferve
of rofes, is to beat the buds of red rofes clearrfed,
as above,, wiih double their weight of fugar, till
the mixture be in form of an eleiluary, then to put
the conferve in an earthen pot, and expofe it for
fome days tg the fun, till a fermentation enfues,
and a more exa£l union of the parts.

The conferve muft be made fo foon as the rofes
are cut, for if they be left expofed to the air they
lofc part of their beauty. The decoclion carries off
almoft all the tinflure ; but it is no matter, fince
that decoiStion is ufed to boil the fugar ; the tinclure
is not loft in boiling, for when the mixture is made,
the conferve appears, as fine as can be. If fome
drops of fpirit of vitriol or of fulphur be mixed in
the conferve of rofes, they will heighten its colour,
and render it of a more agreeable tafte, but it will
turn pale as it grows old.

For t\\t preparation of a folid conferve of rofes, —
Take an ounce of red rofes feparated from their
whitifh part, and in powder ; mix it with a wooden
fpatula, with about a drachm of fpirit of vitriol ;
boil a pound of fuperfine fugar in four ounces of
rofe-water to the confiftence of tablettes; take the
fugar off the fire, and incorporate with it, with the
fame wooden fpatula, the powder of rofes ; when
the matter will be almoft cold, you muft throw it
by bits on a marble, or a paper anointed with oil,
where it fliall be left to harden,keeping it afterwards
in a box.

Virtue. — The fame virtues are attributed to this
conferve as to the liquid, but it has not fo much.
The powder of vitriol the powder of rofes is moift-
ened v/ith, renders the canjerve more beautiful than
it would be, becaufe it extends and rarefies the
parts, which give the colour to the rofes.

For the preparation of the conferve of juniper-
berries. — Take fourpounds of juniper-berries newly
gathered, bruife them, and put them to boil over a
flow fire, in a fufficient quantity of water, and in
an earthen pot covered, till they be foft ; take them
out of the decodlion, and ftrain them through a
fieve ; boil in the decoction tv/o pounds of white
fugar, to the confiftence of fyrup, then mix with
it the pulp of juniper-berries, fix ounces of the beft
rhubarb in powder, half an our.ce of nutmegs, an
ounce and a half of the beft cinnamon, fix ounces
of galanga; calamus aromaticus, ginger, and mace,
of each four fcruples, ftirring them continually to-
gether with a wooden fpatula^ and over the fire,
till the conferve be done ; then it muft be taken off

the

MEDICINE.

the fire, and when cold, put into a pot to be kept.
Firtues. — This conferve is an excellent remedy
to ftrengthcn the ftoinach, provoke the urine, and
keep die body open.

Preparations of Honey.

Virtues. Honey opens the body, and is good

for tlie maladies of the breafl and lungs ; liydro-
mels are made of it, which are powerful deterfivcs)
and it is employ'd in clyflers.

For the pn';araticn of the oxymel of fquilh, or
fju'ilh. Mix in a glazed earthen difli, three palt^
of the be't honey, with two of vinegar of fquills ;
put it to boil over a flow fire, Hamming it, to the
confiftence of fyrup ; it is the oxymel of fquilh.

Vlrtusi. — This oxymel is proper to incite and at-
tenuate the. phlegm fallened to the lungs, breaft,
and other vijcsra; it is ufsd for the fquinancies, and
for the epilepfy, mixed inlohochs and gargarifms ;
it is alfo taken in waters appropriated to the mala-
dies, from one drachm to an ounce. It is flronger
than the funplc oxymel to loofen the phlegm.

For the preparation of honey of rofcs. — Pound in
a marble mortar, red rofes newly gather'd, to the
confiftence of parte ; leave them in digeflion for
live or fix hours in a cold place; then carry them
to the prefs to cxtraft the juice ; weigh that juice,
and mix it with the fame quantity of good honey:
clarifj? the mixture with the white of an egg ; then
having flrained it warm through the flannel, put it
to boil to the confiftence of fyrup; and it is fit to be
kept for ufe.

Virtues. It is deterfive and aftringent ; and

is employ'd in the gargarifms, for a fore mouth,
and a fore throat ; in allringent injedions and
clyflers.

For the preparation of the honey of mercurialis.
Mix together an equal quantity of thejuice of mer-
curialis Vi'ith common honey ; boil them, and fkim-
ming them, to the confiftence of fyrup ; ftrain it
through a fieve turn'd upfide down, and keep it in
ftone juggs.

Virtues. This honey is more purgative than

the preceding ones ; and is employ'd in clyfters for

the windy cholick, and the hyltericks. The

dofe is from an ounce to three.

Syrups.

Syrups are properly liquid conferves of the pureft
fubftances of the mixts. They are commonly made
with i"u^,ar, rather than with honey, and are cla
rified to give th'em a more agreeable tafte and fmell.
An apothecary muft renew tli-m pretty often, foi
in e;ro\ving old, they lofe much of their virtue : ii
is true, that there are fcveral of them whicii can-
not be made bat once a year ; but there are alfo

267

fevera! others which can be renewed fevcral times
in the year.

The clarification of fyrup s is done in the follow-
ing manner : The white of an egs^ is put in a bafon
with three or four ounces of the liquor, whicli ought
not to be hot, for then the white of the egg would
curdle ; they are beaten together, for fome time,
with rods, and the whole turn d into a feum, then
the fugar, and the reft of the liquor, are added to
it ; that mixture is put to boil two or three gallops
over the fire, that the white of the egc;, which is
vifcous, may load itfelf with the dirt which is in
the Jyr up, and be feparated towards the fides of the
bafon ; when the Jyrup which boils in the middle
appears very clear, it muft be frcimmed, and ftrained
afterwards through a flannel ; then the clarified
fyrup is made to boil to the confiftence required,
(kimming it again from time to time if it wants it.
When there are more than three pounds of fugar
to be clarified, it requires more than one white of
an eo;a;.

The confiflence of a fyrup muft be glutinous, and
a little vifcous, forming, when pour'd gently from
a fpoon, big drops when it is moft out of the fpoon,
and a fhort firing. 'Qnt fyrups do not all want the
fame coflion. f^c\dfyrups, as thofe of barberries,
goofeberries, pomegranates, &c. keep well enough,
though they have received but a flight coc-
tion, becaul'e of their acid fait. As Xafyrups which
have not that acidity, and are to be kept long, they
want a ftronger codlion ; taking care, notwith-
ftanding, that they be not too much done, left
they fhould candy in cooling, which would ob-
lige the Apothecary to melt them over again in
balneo marias. The candy is a cryftallization of
the fugar.

Syrups, made with powder-fugar, are lefs fub-
jedt to grow candy, than thofe prepared with logf-
fugar ; becaufe powder-fugar contains an undtuo-
fity which hinders it from cryftallizing fo cafily.
But to hinder ^ fyrup from growing candy, one has
only but to mix, while it boils, half an ounce of
the beft honey, for each pound of fugar : it is alfo
very proper to ftir it a little with a fpoon, while it
cools, to hinder it from condenfing at the bottom,
and it muft not be fhut up in a veifel, if it is to be
kept, before it is quite cold ; for it may happen,
that when it has been put a little warm in a pot,
and cover'd, the humidity, which aicends in a
v.ipour to the top of the pot, falls back on the
fyrup, and m.akes it grow mufty a-top, and candy
at the bottom.

For the preparation of a fimple fyrup of maiden

hair. Take fix oinices of the beft maiden hair

you can find, and newly gather'd, cut it fmall,
and put it to iiifufe in two quarts of warm wa-
ter

268 Tl:!e Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

ter for fix or feven hours ; boil afterwards the in-
fufion to the diminution of a fourth of the humidity,
ftrain it with exprcflion, and mix three pounds of
fugar in the colature, clarifying the mixture ac-
cording to the method heretofore pi cferibed, fhain-
ing it through the flannel, and putting it to boil to
the confillence offyrup.

Virtues. — This /;•«/■ is good for the cough, for
the maladies of the breaft, to foften the matrice
after a delivery, and for the maladies of the fplecn.
A fpoonful thereof is mixed in juleps, emulhons,
and ptifans. It is given to new-born children,
with oil of fweet almonds, and to women newly
delivered.

Yox xS\e. preparat'ion of a folutlve fyrup ofrofcs. —
Take pale rofes gather'd in the morning, free them
of their pecules and calices, pound them in a mar-
ble mortar, and having left them a few hours in
digeflion, ftrain them to extra£l the juice thereof,
which muft be left to depurate either in the fun or
in fome other warm place ; then pour it by incli-
nation, and having ftrained it through a flannel,
mix with it an equal weight of fugar, and make
the mixture boil at a flow fire, to the confiftence
oi fyrup.

Firiues.— This fyrup purges gently the ferofities,
and other humours in ftrengthening the ftomach.
— The dofe is from half an ounce to two ounces.

For the preparation of a cathartick fyrup of buck-
thorn. Take a good quantity of ripe berries of

buckthorn ; bruife them in a marble mortar, where
they muft be left fome hours in digeftion, then
ftrained with expreffion; leaving the juice after-
wards to depurate, by being put to fettle, for ten
or twelve hours, in a warm place ; and after it has
been feparated from its faces by inclination, take
fix pounds ofthatjuice and mix it with four pounds
of fugar, and half a pound of fkimm'd honey, and
put the mixture to boil over a fiow fire, to the
confiftence of fyrup ; and towards the end of the
operation add to it, tied in a piece of linen cloth,
three drachms of cinnamon, and two drachms of
maftick, which muft be left ever after to fteep in
the fyrup.

virtues. — This fyrup is a great purgative, and
evacuates principally the ferofities ; it is prefcribed
for the gout, the hydropfy, and for obftruiffions.

. The dofe is from two drachms to an ounce and

a half. The patient muft eat as foon as he has
taken it ; for if he was to abftain from eating, as it
is obferved after the taking of other purgatives, this
fyrup v.^oulJ be griping ; becaufe the buckthorn
contains an acid cflential fitlt, which would prick
the membranes of the ftomach, and of the intef-
tines • but the mucilaginous fubftance of the ali-
inents foftens that fait in embarraffing its points.

. For the preparalion of the fyrup ef epithym, or
' dodcr. Take the doder, citrine mirabolans, ta-
marinds, of each two ounces and a half; agarick
I and fait of fumitory, of each fix drachms : hatch
j the doder, bruife the mirabolans, and dilTolve the
tamarinds by degrees in fomediftilled water of bug-
lofs, boiling-hot ; then put the whole to infufe for
twenty-four hours in two quarts of the fame dif-
tilled water of buglofs, alfo hot, in a glazed earthen
pot and covered: the next day ftrain the infufion
by expreflion, and having left it to fettle for a
few hours, pour it by inclination, and mix with
the colature two pounds of lugar, then put the
mixture in an earthen difh, and boil it over a flow
fire, to the confiftence of fyrup.

Virtues. — This iyrup is prefcribed to purge the
black bile, and the hypochondriacal melancholy,
for the leprofy, itch, venereal difeafe, epilepfy,
cancers, and malignant ulcers.— The dcfe is from
half an ounce to two ounces.

For the preparation of a fyrup of fcammony.——
Take three drachms of the beft fcammony, reduced
to a coarle powder ; three drachms of liquorice well
fcraped and bruifed, put them together in a matrafs,
and pour over them a pint and a half of the befi
brandy ; ftop the matrafs, and put it in digeftion
in horfe dung, or in another warm place, for three
days, fhaking it from time to time ; afterwards the
tindure muft be filtered, and two pounds of white
fugar having been added to it, the mixture rnuft be
boiled in an earthen difh, over a flow fire, to the
confiftence of fyrup.

Virtues. This Ijrup is proper to purge the

hypochondriacal melancholy, for the lethargy, and

apoplexv. The dfe is from two drachms to an

ounce and a half. It is a vigorous purgative.

In three drachms of this fyrup, there are three
grains of fcammony. — In half an ounce, fix grains of
fcammony. — In five drachms, feven grains and a
half of fcammony. — \nfix drachms, nine grains of
fcammony. — In feven drachms, ten grains and a
half of fcammony. — In an ounce, half a fcruple of
fcammony. — In nine drachms, thirteen grains and
a half of fcammony. — In ten drachms, fifteen grains
of fcammony. — In eleven drachms, fixteen grains
and a half of fcammony. — In an ounce and a half,
eighteen grains of fcammony.

For the preparation of a folutive fyrup of violets.
Take two pounds of flowers of violets, whole, and
half a pound of feeds of violets bruifed ; put them
to infufe for twelve hours in three quarts of boiling
water ; then boil flightly the infufion, ftrain it by
expielTion ; and in the colature put to infufe flow-
ers and feeds of violets as before ; in this fecond
infufion ftrained fhall be reiterated the infufions and
colaturesjtiil the liquor be entirely impregnated with

the

MEDICINE.

269

the fubftance of the violets, which will be known
at the violets coming out tinged witii the liquor.
In the hill: infufion mix three pounds of white iugar,
clarify the mixture, aiiJ boil it to the confiftence
of fyrup.

Firtues. This fyrup purges the bile and the

ferofiiios. The dsfc is from half an ounce to

two ounces.

For t\vi preparation of fyrup of rhubarb. — Take
half a pound of the bell rhubaib, and fix drachms
of foluble tartar ; cut the rhuba;b in little pieces,
and put it with the foluble tartar in a glazed earthen
pot, pour over it three or four pints of boiling-hot
water, cover the pot, and leave the matter in di-
geftion for ten or twelve hours, boiling it afterwards
flighily, and ftraining it with expreflioa ; and the
grounds are put back into the pot, and made to
lleep in other boilins-hot water for five or fix hours ;
then, after it has been boiled flightly, and ftrained
as before, the tinflures are mixed togecher and
left to fettle ; and after they have been filtrated
and mixed with three pounds of white iugar, the
whole mixture is put to boil over a flow fiie to the
confluence of fv rup.

Firtues. — This fyrup pur2;es tlie bile, is good
for a loofenefs, and for the worms. — The doj'e is
from half an ounce to two ounces.

For the preparation of fyrup of barberries.

Take the juice of barberries, newly extracted and j
depurated, ;uid white fugar, of each two pounds; j
boil them together over allow fire to the confifience \
of fyrup. j

Firtues. — This fyrup is aftrmgent and cooling : '
it is ufed in juleps to iiop a loofenefs, to ftrengthen ■
the heait, and refill: the malignity of the humours. 1
— The dofe is from half an ounce to an ounce and
a half. i

For xhz preparation of the fyrup of pomegranates. \
T"ake the juice of (our pomegranates, newly ex- \
tracied and depurated ; and white fugar, of each |
two pounds,, mix them together in an earthen
difli ; put the difli over a flow fire, and make the
huraidityof the mixture to evaporate to the con-
fiilence of fyrup.

Virtues — 'This fyrup reioices the heart, fl-ops
vomiting, the loofenefs, the ha-morrhages, and

The ch

■J'-

from

quenches thiift in coolin,

half an ounce to an ounce and a half.

It is not neceflary to boil the four f} rups as much
as others, becaufe the cfiential acid they comain,
prLfervethcm, though they have not tiie ordinary
copfiftcnce.

¥or the prep:}raiIoh of the Jy rup of qnlticcs

Mix in a glazed earthen dhh, e.pial parts of the
juice of quinces, depuiated, (by expofing it two or
three'days to the fun, and filtrating it afterwaids'i

VcL. II 39.

and of white fugar, v. gr. two pounds of e.Hch ;
jjlace the difh over a flow fire, and nia^.c the hu-
midity to evaporate to the confiftence of fyrup.

Firtues. — l"he fyrup of quinces is aSringent ;
proper to ftrengthen the ftomach, and to flop the

loofenefs. The dofe is from half an ounce to an

ounce and a half

If the juice of quinces was employ 'd without be-
ing Jepiirated, it would make a jtHy of quinces
inltcad of fytup.

For thu preparation of a ftmplc fyrup ofpoppiei. — •
Cut in fmall pieces two pounds of heads of white
poppies, newly gather'd, in their maturity, and
one pound of heads of black poppies ; put them in
a glazed earthen pot, and pour over them four
quarts of boiling-hot water, cover the pot, ani
leave the matter in infufion for 24 hours ; boil it
afterwards gently to the diminution of half the
humidity ; {train the deco-'Aion with a ftrong ex-
prefiion, and with the colature mix three pound.s
of fugar; clarify the mixture and boil it to the
confiilence of fyrup.

Firtues. — This fyrup is fomniferous, proper to
foften the acrimony of the throat, and of the tra-
chaa, to appeafe pains, to llop fluxions, a couirh,
fpitting of blood, and the dvfentery ; it is nrefcribed
in all the occafions where it is necefiary to flop the

too great motion of the humours. The dfe is

from half an ounce to ten dracl'.ms.

For the preparation of tbe fyrup of ground-ivy —
Let about nine or ten handfuls of ground- ivy, ga-
ther'd in its grcatefl vigour, he exactly pounded in
a marble mortar ; moilien the matter with eight or
nine ounces of warm water ; cover the mortar, and
leave the matter in digcilion for ten or twelve hours;
then {frain it, and having fiightly boiled the juice,
ftrain it two or three times through a flannel ; weigh
that juice thus depurated, and having mixed v.'ith it
an equal iiuantity of Iugar, place the mixture over
a flow fire, and 1st it boil to the coifiilence of

/ Irlues. — This fyrup is proper for the maladieb
of the lungs, and of the breaf), proceeding from a
coaife pituita, which falls uposi them. It is good
for the adhma, to raife the obrtru£iions of the
fp'.cen, of the liver, cf the mcfentery, anc' of the
matrix, it provokes the menfes. and is alfo fudo-

rinck. Ihe dofe is from half an ounce to two

ounces.

Grotmd-i-vy is co;rmcaly in its vigour in the
month of /}pril and Ju^ie.

For the prepay iit:on of the fyrup of hyj-.p. — Put to
boil in three quarts of water hair aa ounce of pearl -
barley, hyfop, roots cf fennel and liquorice, t-x
each ten drachms ; fix cirachms of white aciantus ;
m ounce and a hair of jar-raifins ftoned ; iiijubcs
Is n iini

270 'The Univcrfal Hifiory of Arts /^W Sciences.

and dates, of each thirty ; ten figs ; the feeds of
mallows, qunices, and gum tragacan h, of each
three drachms ; boil them all together to tlie dimi-
nution of a third part of the humidity ; clarify the
decoction by fettling ; and having mixed with it
two pounds of fugar, let the mi.^ture boil over a
flow fire to the confiftence of fyrup.

Virtues. — This fyrup is proper for the maladies
of the breaft, when caufed by phlegm and obftruc-
tions ; it is prefcribed for the afthma, to provoke

urine, and expel the fand from the reins. The

dofe is from half an ounce to an ounce and a half.

For the preparation of a fyrup of quinquina. -

Take half a pound of the beft quinquina, coarfely
pounded ; put it in a glazed earthen pot, and pour
over it two quarts of the beft white wine ; cover
the pot and put it in digeftion in balneo maria?, or
in another warm place, for three days, ftirring the
matter from time to time. Boil afterwards gentl)
the infufion in the fame pot, to the diminution of
a fourth of the humidity ; ftrain it with expreflion,
and to the colature add three pounds of white fugar;
clarify the mixture, and put it to boil over a flow
fire, to the confiftence of fvrup.

Virtues.— 'T\\\i fyrup is febrifuge ; it ftops all

intermittent fevers. The dofe is from half an

ounce to two ounces, diflblved in the water of
little centaury.

It is more proper to make this fyrup in an earthen
vcftel, than in a copper bafon, to avoid the im-
preffion which the fyrup may take from the copper.
This fyrup is not to be ufed till after the patient
has been well purged, becaufe it fixes the humour. It
muft be given three or four times a day, and the ufe
thereof continued for 15 days fucceflively at leafc.

For the preparation of fyrup ofcarnomik. — Take
one pound of camomile flowers, newly gathered,
put one third of thofe flowers to infufe in two quarts
of fpring-water, boiling hot, for twelve hours ;
which expired, boil flightly the infufion, ftrain it
by expreflion, and in the colature put to infufe
the fame quantity of new flowers, for the fame
fpace of time as before, boiling, afterwards, and
ftraining the infufion in the fame manner ; repeat-
ing the fame procefs a third time, with what is left
of the pound of flowers ; but in the laft colature
mix three pounds of the beft fugar, clarify the
mixture, and put it afterwards to boil over a flow
fire, to the confiftence of fyrup.

Virtues. — This fyrup is excellent for the windy
cholick, and to provoke the menfes. — The dofe is
from half an ounce to an ounce and a half.

For the preparation of the fyrup of mint. — Take
the juices of quinces, and of pomegranate, of each
two pounds, put to infufe in them for twentv-four
hours, eight ounces of mint pounded, and two
ounces of red rofes ; then put the infufion to boil

flightly, ftrain it afterwards with exprefllion, and
mix in it three pounds of white fugar, and having
clarified the mixture, put it to boil over a flow fire
to the confiftence of fyrup ; which is to be aroma-
tifed with two drachms of the troches oi gall a mof
chata^ tied in a piece of linen cloth, and twelve
drops of oil 0I mint.

Virtues. — I his fyrup is proper to ftrengthen the
ftomach in faftening the fibres ; to ftop vomiting,
naufea's, hickups, and the lienteria. — The dofe is
from half an ounce to an ounce and a half.

For the preparation of the fimple fyrup offcordinm.
— Take two pints and a half of the juice of fcordi-
um, two pounds of white fugar, and fix drachms
of the fait of fcordium ; clarify the mixture, and
boil it over a flow fire, to the confiftence of fyrup.

Virtues. — This fyrup is ufed againft the plague,
the malignant fevers, and the worms ; it provokes
pcrfpiration and the menfes. — The dofe is from half
an ounce to an ounce and a half.

For the preparation of the compofed fyrup ef fcor-
dium.— Take a quart of the fimple fyrup of fcordi-
um, mix in it half a drachm of the volatile oleous
aromatick fpirit, camphire diflblved in two drachms
of fpirit of wine, and mufk, of each half a fcruple,
tied in a piece of linen cloth, for a fyrup.

Virtues. — This fyrup is ufed for malignant fevers,
and other maladies proceeding from the corruption
of the humours. — The dofe is from half an ounce
to an ounce and a half.

For the preparation of the fyrup of kermes.

Pound in a marble mortar the grains of kermes,
when they are very ripe and very red ; leave them
in a cold digeftion for feven or eight hours, to ra-
refy a little their vifcous fubftance ; then put them
in a firong linen cloth, and carry them to the prefs,
to extract the juice thereof, leave that juice to fettle
for a few hours, and feparate it afterwards from its
coarfer faces, by decanting it into another veflel :
weigh that juice, and having mixed with it an equal
quantity of fugar, place the mixture over a flow
fire, to boil gently to the confiftence of fyrup.

Virtues. — This fyrup ftrengthens the heart and
the ftomach, refifls the malignity of the humours,

and hinders abortion. The dofe is from half ar|

ounce to an ounce.

L o H o c H .
Lohoch, eclegma and linBus, are three words which
fignify the fame thing, viz. licking, fueling ; the
firft is Jrabick, the fecond Greek, and the third
Latin : they were given for names to pe(51oral com-
pofitions, which have a middle confiftence, between
fyrups and foft elcdluaries ; the patients are made
to fuck them with a ftick of liquorice, by dipping
one end thereof in them, or with a fpoon, that be-
ing taken by degrees they may remain longer in
' the paflage, and humect better the brea.l ; they

aie

MEDICINE.

271-

are commonly prepared when wanted, becaufc
mod of the remedies which enter their compolition
are ready at all times, and their mixture is not
dilficult.

For a peltral lohocb. Pound together the roots
of cnula campana and liquorice, ot each a drachm
and a half: take iugar-candy, and oxymel of fquiiis,
of each half an ounce, and three drachms ot the
powder diatragacanth ; mix all the drugs together
with a fufRcient quantity of fyrup of red poppies,
for a lohoch.

F'atues. This lohoch is ufed in the pleurify, afth-
ma, phthifick, and other maladies of the breait and
lungs ; it incites and attenuates the phlegm, and
excites expeiSloration.

A lohoch to Jhp the /pitting ef blood. Take three
drachms of the powder diatragacanth, red rofes,
crab's eyes prepared, and prepared coral, of each
two drachms, a drachm and a half of confoiida
major in powder, fifteen grains of fait of faturn,
four grains of laudanum, the mucilages of the feeds
of qumces and of pfyllium, of each half an ounce ;
mix the drugs together in a fufficient quantity ot
fyrup of St. John s-wort.

The rofes and the roots of confoiida major mufi:
be pounded together, and be mixed with the reft
of the powders : the laudanum muft be diflblved in
a mortar with about half an ounce of the fyrup ;
and then all the other drugs are added to it, to
make n lohoch, with a fufEcient quantity of the fame
fyrup.

Virtues. This lohoch is proper, not only to flop the
fpitting of blood, but likewife all other hemorrha-
ges. It is taken at the end of a flick of liquorice.

For Tifimple lohoch offqtiilL Take equal parts of
the juice of fquills, and of fkimmed honey, and
boil them together in a glazed earthen difh, over a
flow fire to a due confiftence.

Virtues. This lohoch is proper to rarefy or atte-
nuate the phlegm, and excite expectoration ; it
helps refpiration, and is ufed in the afthma and
peripneumony.

Powders.

It is neceflary to reduce into powder the dry in-
gredients which enter the com^a^iUomoi Aicdi cine;
not only that they may be eafier and more exactly
mixed in them, but that they may likewife commu-
nicate better their virtue when they are in the body.

Powders are ufually made in brals mortars ; but
when they muft be very fine, they are ufually ground
on the porphyry, to render them impalpable ; tlio'
this laft preparation is feldcm for any thing elfe
but minerals, ftones and earths.

When gmns are to be reduced into powder., it is
neceflaiy to anoint the bottom of the mortar, and

the end of the pefilc, with forne drops of oil of fweet
almonds, or other oil, otherwiie the (jums would
ftick to the mortar, and would be pounded but w-i;h
great difRcuIty, except noiwiihftanding the follow-
ing:— When the gums arabick and tragaca -th are
to be pounded, the mortar muft be healed before
with lighted coals, that the heat may di.lipatc a
fuperfluous iiumidity which is in the gums, and

would hinder the pulverifation. T<j pound (he

maffich, the bottom of the mortar, and the cntl of
the pcflle, muft be moiftened firft with a little wa-
ter, otherwife it would ftick to the mortar. — When
dry aromatick matters, as the cinnamon and lan-
ders, arc to be reduced into powder, they muft be
moiftcn'd with fome water appropriated to their-
virtue, to hinder the diflipation, which otherwife,
would happen of their moft fubtile particles. — To
pound the coloquintida, it mult have been anointed
before with oil of rofes, otherwife much of its par-
ticles would cfcape. — When the euphorbium, the
cantharides, and the white hellebore are to be
pounded, they muft be humedted with fome drops ■
of vinegar, or other appropriated liquor ; for, with- ■
out that precaution the artift would be much in-
commoded by the volatile particles of thofe matters,
which being agitated by the pcftle, fly and enter
the nofe and the eyes, which excites a violent
fneezing and tears. When the faftron, rofes, and
feveral other flowers which prcferye always fome
humidity, though they appear dry, are to be re-
duced into powder, they muft be dried gently be-
tween two papers in the fun, or before the fire,
otherwife it would be very difficult to pound them.
The opium, acacia, hypofiftis, liquorice juice,
galbanum, opoponax, fagapenum, and afafxtida,
when by themfelves, are not eafily reduced into
powder ; but when mi.xed with dry ingredients of
another nature, and in great quantity, they are
eafily conquered : the fame may be faid of the
almonds, cold feeds, fmall nuts, i^c. When flints
and other fuch hard ftones are to be pounded, they
muft have been made red hot feveral times before,
and extinguifhed in water to foften them, otherwife
it would be very difficult to reduce them into pow-
der. When the talc of Venice is to be pounded, it
muft be expofed for about half a quarter of an hour
to a great flaming fire, then pounded in an iron
mortar almoft made red-hot. To pound horns,
agarick, and nux vomica, they muft be rafped be-
fore, and afterwards pounded in a mortar of metal.
To pound lead and tin, they muft be put in fufion
in an earthen difti, then by ftirring them continu-
ally over the fire, for the fpace of half an hour or
an hour, they'll reduce themfelves into powder.
Several of the matters to be reduced into powder
are to be beaten hard, as wood, roots, leaves,
N n 2 feeds,

272 The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^W Sciences.

feeds, fruiis, horns, anc! bones ; but feveral others root of coiitrayerva, snd of viperina, of each fix

are only to be bruifcd in the moriar, as the aloes,
fcanimony, earths, and rtaich. Salts, and other
acrimonious and corrofive matters, are to be pound-
ed in mortars of glal's, marble, or of ftonc, to avoid
the imprcffion ihey could receive from the metal.

For the preparation of the worrti-povjder of the
Phyftddns of the faculty af Paris. — Take the feeds
of common wormwood , of porcelain, and aloes,
of each half an ounce ; the bed rhubarb, fenna,
coralline, dried fummiis of fcordium, of er.ch two
drachms : the drup;s being all pounded, fiiall be
mixed together for a powder to be kept for \\(c.

Virtues. This powder kills and expels the

■worms, provokes the menfes, and refifts the ma
lienity of the humours. The dofe is from half a

fcruple to a drachm.

The purgatives of this preparation, are the aloes,
fenna, and rhubarb.
' The powders where the preparations of mercury
enter, ought not to be taken without being formed
into a bolus, left the mercury which is heavy,
{hould remain behind in the teeth and fhake them.
For the preparation of em excellent powder for the
dyfentcria — Take two ounces of the root ipecocu-
arJja- citrin mirabolans, and rhubarb, of each three
rfrachms ; and an ounce of feed of plantain : pound
all thofe drugs together in a brafs mortar, for a
powder to be kept for ufe,

Virtues. — This powder excites vomiting without
violence, it purges by ftools, and flops the dyfen-
tcria The dofe is from a fcruple to four.

For a preparation of a poivder for the phthiftck. —
Take half an ounce of the feed of white poppies :
gums ajabick and tragacanth, the feeds of althasa,
of cotton, of porcelain, the four great cold feeds,
of each a drachm and a half; the afhes of craw-
fifli, and the lungs of afo\-, prepared, of each four
fcruples : the gums arabick and tragacanth muft be
pounded together iu a mortar heated ; the craw-
Hlh muft be burnt in a pot made red hot, till they
be reduced to aflies , the feeds muft aifo be pounded
a- part till they be reduced into apafte ; and all ih-
druffs muft afterwards he mixed together for a
powder, to be kept for ufe.

Virtues — This powder is not only good for the
phthifick, but for all the maladies of tiic breafl ; it
abforbi and foftcns the acrimonv of t'.ie ferofities
which fail from the brain, thickens them, and
helps expeftoration. — The dofe is from a fcruple
to a drachm.

For tiie preparation of the gajeoyn powd r, other-

wil'e called the powder of the Count cfs 5/' Kent. 1

Take four ounces of the black ends of the claws of
crabs ; crab's eyes, oriental pearls, and red coral
prepared, of each an ounce ; white fuccin, the 1

drachms : two drachms of the ftone of oriental be-
zoard ; four fcruples of the bone of a (lag's heart ;
and two fcruples of faft'ron : take out the fiefh of
the crab's claws ; then bruife them with the crab's
eyes, the bone of the fta:;'s heart, and the bczoard
in a mortar ; grind them atu-rv/ards on the por-
phyry, till tlKy be reduc.d into an impalpable
powder; let the roots be like wife pounded together;
and the faffron by itfelf, after it has been dried be-
tween two papers, at a flow heat : mix all thof;
powders together with the pearh and prepared cor^I,
and moiften them with an ounce and a half of ipi-
rit of honey ; mixing them afterwards with jelly of
vipers, to be formed in troches, which muft be
dried from the fun, and kept for ufe.

Virtues. — This powder is much efteemed to ra-
lift the malignity of humours, for the fcurvy, the
fmall pox, and other epidemical maladies. — The
dofe is from half a fcruple, to half a drachm.

For the preparation of a poiuder to facilitate or
hafi en a delivery — Take ciimamon, diftamnum of
Crete, faffron, borax, troches of myrrh, of each a
drachm ; and half a drachm of favern : let the cin-
namon, didtamnum, and favern, be pounded to-
gether ; and the troches and borax together ; then
mix all the ingredients for a po-vvder to be kept for
ufe.

Virtues. — It is proper to haften the delivery,
when the woman is in labour ; and to expel the
after-birth — The dofe is from a fcruple to tv\'0 : it
is alfo ufed to provoke the menfes ; difTolved in
white wiiK, or water of mugwort.

For the preparation of a poivder for the after-
pains.' — Take ihe roots of confblida ma'or dried,
acorn and fuccir, of each a drachm and a half ;

dried orange-peel, mace, faft'ron coriander-feed',
of each two fcruples : let all the drugs be pounded^
tosether into a ims powder to be kept for ufe.

Virtues — This powder is propter to appeafe the
after pains, and for the windy cholick. — 'The dofe
is from a fcruple to tv/n.

For the preparation of a povjcler for the piles, or
hemorrhoidcs. — Take an ounce of the beft wbeat-
flour, half an ounce of crocus martis ; oriental

bole prepared, the root of vcrbafcum, of each two
drachms ; white hermodafts infufed for a whole
iiight in fpirit of wine, and dried again afterwards,
dried flowers of red poppies, white fugar-candv,
fa-iguis draconis, of;banum, of each a drachm and
a half: Jet ;dl thefe drugs, after they have been
pounded according to our method, be mixed toge-
ther for a pov.der to be kept for uie.

Virtues. — This powder flops the immoderate flux
of the httmorrhoidcs, and refolves thofe which are
tumified, when applied uccn them : it is mixed

with

MEDICINE.

273

Take ten drachms of tlis bed rhubarb, half a"
ounce of bitter almonds, three drachms of red rcfes,
fpikenard, annifced, wormwood, afarum, of each :i
drachm : pound together the rhubarb, rofes, feeds,
wormwood and afarum ; pound in a marble mortar
the bitter almonds, blanched, till they be reduced
into a parte ; mix the powders with it, and with
a fufficient quantit)' of juice of agrimony thicken'd
over the fire to the confiftence of honey, make a
mafs folid enough to be formed into little troches,
which muft be put to dry from the fun.

I'lrtut's. Thefe troches are ufed for the ob-

hemorrhoides, when applied on them, diflblved in I flrudions of the liver, myfenterv, and fpiesn, and

v/ith the white of an egg, and the parte it forms
fpread on flax.

For the preparation of the poivder of verhafcum
for the fame elijiempcr. — Fill a crucible with green
leaves of verbafcum, cover it with another crucible,
lute the joints, and place the veffel in the middle
of lighted coals, to reduce the matter to a fort of
coal, which may be eal-h' reduced into powder ;
take off" the crucible, and having pounded the mat-
ter, mix with an ounce thereof two drachms of the

bert rhubarb.
Virtues —

• This powder is proper to refolve the

for the loofenefs. They purge gently in binding.
Tlie clofe is from a fcniplc to four.

For the preparation of troches of camphlre.
Take a drachm of camphire, myrrh, afafaetida,
cartoreum, of each half an ounce ■, three drachms
of fpikenard ; a drachm of faifron, half a fcrupleof

a little ialiva, or fpittie.

For the preparation of a powder to cleanfe the
hands Take the pafte of bitter and fweet al-
monds, after the oil has been extrafted from it,
and flour of rice, of each fix ounces ; uh o'i Flo-
rence, and prepared chalk, of each an ounce ; b^^n-

zoin, (perma ceti, fait of tartar, of each two .'opium; and eight di ops of the oil ot fuccin ; when
drachms ; and half an ounce of the wood of Rho- ! all the drugs which arc to be reduced into powder
dium ; pounded and mixed together, for a powder : have been pounded, let all the ingredients be mixed
to be kept in a pot, becaufe it is a little of the | in a fufficient quantity of the mucilage of gum
confirtence of a parte. j tragacanth, extraded in v/ater of matricaria, for a

Vi>'t-ies. Thi /) tt'.'Z/'r cleanfes the fkin, ren- mafs, of which are formed troches.

ders it foft, white and Imooth : it is ufed to cleanfe ) Virtues. — Thefe troches are fomctimcs prefcribed:
the hands ; it may be hume£led in the hand with ; in violent fevers, to temperate the heat of the bile
Ibme water of orange-flowers, inftead of common - and of the blood; for the pleutjfy, and he£tick
water; and rub the hands with it, without hu- I fevers : but their more frequent ufe is for the va-

mefting it any more, till the parte dries and falls ' pours and the hyftericks. The dye is from a

ofi^of itfelf; then the hands are wiped with a fcruple to two: they are alfo mixed in clyfters

linen cloth, wetted with fome water of orange- from half a drachm to two drachms.

flowers.

Troches.

From the preparation of troches of myrrh.

Take the beft myrrh, lupins pp.red, of each li\s
drachms ; dried leaves of rue, diiSlainnum ox Crete,
Trcchifus is a Greek word which fignlfies roiule. ' cummir.-fecd, afafxtida. fagapenum, opoponax.
It is alfo ciWcA placentulu, or orbis, or crbictdus, or of each two drachms : afcer ail theic drugs have
parvus piinis, or pa/.'i/lus ; this iaft: name being ap- been pounded together, according to our method,
propriated to a ibrt of troches, which are thrown reduce them into a hard mafs with the juice of
into the t re, to give an agreeable fmell to a room, mug^vort, or of rue, boiled to the thickencfs or a
and correct the malignity of the air. — The Jrabs mucilags; v/hereof you'll form troches

have calkd fief the tr.ches ufcd for the maladies Fi'tues Theic troches pr^voV.e the menfes,

of the eyes. — Troches, in general, are dried com- help the delivery, expel the aTter-birth, and ab.ite

pofuions, compofed of feveral medicaments re
duccd into powder, and incorporated with wine, or
■fome diftilled water, or with juices, or Vvfith mu-
cilage-, or with pulps, or with fvrup;, in a pretty
folid "-oufiflence. The mafs is well pounded in a
mortar, that all the ingredients may be v«'ell incor-
porated together, and is divided into little bits, to
which one may give what figure one plcafes, fome-
times long, fometimes fquare, fometimes triangidar,
ibmetimes round and flat, and lometimes in fmall
grains ; and they are dried afterwards, that they
may be kept without growing foft.

Vorthe preparation of the troches of rhubarb. —

-The dye is fro.m a icruple to 1

tne vapours ■
drachm.

Troches for a Gonorrhoea — Take two drachms
ofbol ammoniack, preparei fuccin, and the rafp^
ings of ivory, of each a drachm and a half; four
fcruples of plantain feed ; a^nus cartas iatcucea,
flc-.vtrs of pomegranate, red. rolivs, of each a
drachm ; and two fcruples of fafiiiiVas. pound'.-d
according to our method, and mixed together in a
mucilage of tiie feed- ofquir.ces, prepared in water
of nenuphar,, to form a mafs for. troches.

J'irtnes. — Thefe troches .^rc proper to dry the
fmall ulcsra of the uretiira, to Itrcngtheu tbe.tper-

matick

The Unu'erfal Elillory of Arts /?W Sciences.

274

matick. vefll-ls, and to flop the gonorihcca. — The
dofe is from a ibruple to a drachm. I

Troches for ihe AJlhma. —Take nine ounces of
white fugar-candy ; an ounce and a half of flarch,
iris of Florence^ and ma;^ilierium of (idpliur, of
each half an ounce; three drachms of liquorice,
and two fcruples of flowers of btn;oiii, pounded
according to our method, and mixed in a muci-
lage of gum tragacanth cvtradled in rofe water, to
I'onn a hard niafs for troches.

Virtues. — Thefc troches arc excellent for the
afthma, for an inveterate cough, to help refpira-
tion, and expectoration. — The (i/«/^ is from half a
drachm to a drachm.

ylnodph- troches. — Take half an ounce of lauda-.
num, caftoreuni, myrrh, .^nd fiift'ron, of each two
drachms ; and a fcruple of campliire, pounded
according to our method, and mixed in a mucilage
of gum tragacanth, extr.idted in the juice of lien-
bane, for troches.

Virtues. — Thefe troches are proper to appeafe
pains in whatever parts of the body they be, to
abate the vapours, to promote fleep and fweat. —
The doje is from four grains t3 half a fcruple.

Troches to flop the vomiting of hlood.—'rake red
roles, the feeds of henbane, flowers of pomegranate,
oriental bol, acacia, gum arabick, opium, an equal
quantity of each, pounded or prepared according
to our method, and mixed in a mucilage of gum
tragacanth extradted in w.itcr of porcelain, to form
a mafs for troches.

Virtttes. — Thefe troches are proper to flop all
forts of haemorrhages, and to appeafe exceffive
pains. — The dofe is from eight grains to a fcruple.

Troches to flop the immoderate flux of the piles. —
Take ten drachms of bdellium, five drachms of
myrabolans, three drachms of the feeds ot leek,
prepared coral, prepared fuccin, prepared bol am-
moniack, calcined fbells, of each two drachms;
pounded according to our method, and reduced
into a hard mals, with a mucilage of gum tra-
gacanth, e>4tra<3;ed in rofe-water, for troches.

Virtues. — They are aflringent, and may be ufed
to flop a loofenefs, and all forts of haemorrhages. —
'Jhe dofe is frcm half a drachm to two drachms.

Troches for a Dicirrhcea. — Take the feeds of
forrel, barberries, myrtles, chefnuts, amydon or
ffarch, and fpodium, of each five drachms ; luccin
and coral, of each three drachms ; pounded ac-
cording to our method, and mixed with a muci-
lage of gum tragacanth, prepared in rofe-water,
to form a mafs for troches.

Virtues. — I hey are proper to flop a loofenefs,
and hae norrhnges. —The dofe is from half a drachm
to two drachms.

Troc'.es for ihe Diuhctes. — Take the berries of

the myrtle-tree -and the feed of forrel, of each two
ounces ; gum arabick and flarch, of each an ounce,'
pounded ; and mixed with a mucilage of feed of
pfyllium, for troches.

Virtues.'^-T'acy flop the immoderate flux of the
urine, by Hrcngthening the conduits of the bladder,
and are alfo good for fpitting of blood. — The dofe
is from a fcruple to a drachm.

Pills, Pilula, is a diminutive of pi /a, quafi

parva pila, hccaui'e pi i/s are formed in little balls.
The Greeks called them catapoiia, from the verb
KcctuTum, devoro, becaufe they are fwallowed with-
out chewing.

Pills, have been invented for two principal
reafons. i. That in that form feveral remedies
may be taken eafily, which would be very infup-
portable to the tafle, if taken in another manner,
as the aloes, coloquintida, agarick, turpentine,
ia't. or would flick to the teeth, and perhaps fliake
them, as the mercurius dulcis, and all other mer-
curial preparations ; and there are even fo many
patients fo very nice, that they would not take any
remedy ever fo little difagreeable, if they were not
reduced into pills. — 2. That the remedy being
taken dry, may remain longer in the vifcera, and
have more time to communicate its virtues to the
diflant parts, as to the head and joints. Mod pi/Is
are purgative, but there are alfo fome alterative,
ajiringent, fomniferous., diaphoretick, aperitive, hy-
/ierick, cephalick, bechick, arthritick. Pills are
otherwife preferved than troches ; for inftead that
the troches are made as foon as the mafs is made,
that they may be dried, the mafs of the pills is kept,
that the drugs it is compofed of may ferment to-
gether ; and therefore are only formed as they are
wanted. But it mufl: be obferved, that when the
mafs of pills has been made with juices or other
liquors, without fugar or honey, it grows fo hard
foon afterwards, that it mufl be reduced into pow-
der, and mixed anew with a liquor to form pills
thereof; v/hich happens becaufe the liquors cor-
porify, and dry without growing moifl again ;
whereas when fyrup or honey has been ufed, the
mafs cannot dry fo much, becaufe the honey and
fyrup contain a great deal of I'alt, which take esfily
the humidity of the air, which keeps that compo-

fition in the confiflence it mufl have. It is

much more advantageous that the mafs of pills
fhould remain foft, than too hard, becaufe the fer-
mentation is much better made in the humidity
than in drynefs. As pills could communicate a
bad tafie in paffing through the palate ; they are
wrapped in wafers, or in goid or filver leaves, or
in powder of liquorice, ^'c.

P Hides cocci a mCjorei. Take fix drachms of

jalap

MEDICINE,

^75

jalap, half an ounce of troches of alhandal, three
drachms of fcammony, two drachms of folubic
tartar, and a drachm of aloes ; reduce all thefe
drugs into powder, and form a mafs of them with
a fufficient quantity of fyrup of ftechas, or juice of
wormwood, for pills.

l-'irturs. —'Thci'c pills purge all humours, but
particularly the pituita ; therefore they are pre-
i'cribed to purge the brain. — The elafe is from a
fcrupic to a drachm.

Pilults coccia minofcs, feu mirabiles. — Take
aloes fuccotrina, the heft fcammony, troches of al-
handal, equal parts of each ; let the fcammony
and aloes he pounded together into a very fubtile
powder, in a mortar anointed with ibme drops of
oil, reducing alfo into powder the troches of al-
handal ; and mixing afterwards all the ingredients
together with fyrup of roles compofed with aga-
rick, to form a mafs for pills.

Virtues. — Thefe pills are proper to purge all
humours, but they are chiefly ufed to purge the
brain. — The dofe is from half a fcruple to two
fcruples.

Catholick Pills. — Take two ounces of aloes fuc-
cotrina ; an ounce and a half of the bcft rhubarb ;
troches of agarick and fenna, of each an ounce ;
and half an ounce of foluble tartar ; pounded ac-
cording to our method, and mixed with fyrup of
violets, or of rofes, into a mafs for pills.

Virtues. — Thefe pills purge all humours, ftreng-
then the ftomach and brain, and raife the ob-
flruflions. — The dofe is from a fcruple to a
drachm.

Pills for the Dropjy.—Tzke two ounces and a
half of aloes fuccotrina; an ounce and a half of
<;um gut, reduced into a lubtle powder, and dif
folved in wine of malmfey ; an ounce of diacry-
dium prepared in the fame manner ; an ounce
and a half of the bell gum ammoniack ; and half
an ounce of vitriolated tartar ; pounded and mixed
together in folutive fyrup of rofes to make a mafs
for pills.

Virtues. — Thefe pills are proper to raife the ob-
ftvuflions of the fpleen, and mefentery ; for the
hydropfy : they purge powerfully. —^ The dofe is
from half a fcruple to a fcruple.

The purgative drugs of this compofition, are
the aloes, gum gut, and diacrydium • — A fcruple
of thefe pills, contains feven grains of aloes, four
grains of gum gut, and about three grains of
diacrydium. Half a drachm contains ten grains
and a half of aloes, fix grains of gum-gut, and
about four grains and a half of diacrydium. Two
fcruples contain fourteen grains of aloes, eight
grains of gum-gut, and about fix grains of dia-
crydium.

'I'hc preparation given here to the gum gut,
and to the diacrydium, by humecting them with
wine, to grind them on the porphyry, fcems to
mc necdlefs ; fincc it Aiffices to reduce thofc
gums into a very fubtle powder, to mix thcin ex-
acily witli the other drugs.

Hyjierick Pills. — Ta'<c ten drachms of extract:
of aloes, prepared witli the juice of mugworr,
myrrh, vitriol of mars, and fait of mugwort, of
each two drachms ; caftoreum, camphire, and
leaves of rue, of each two fcruples ; pounded ac-
cording to our method ; and mixed toj;ether with
juice of mugwort tor pills.

Virtues — They pursue and abate the vapours,
cleanfe the matrice of its impurities, by unftopping

the obitrudtions, and provoke the menfes. The

dofe is from a fcruple to a drachm and a half.

There is properly nothing here but the cxtraft
of aloes, which can be called purgative ; the other
drugs helping only the alojs to rarefy the blood,
and raife the obftrudtions.

Arthritick Pills. — T'ake two ounces and a half
of aloes fuccotrina ; half an ounce of fcammony ;
hermoda£is, turbith, agarick, troches of alhandal,
mercurius dulcis, and (bluble tartar, of each two
drachms ; pounded according to our method ; and
reduced into a mafs for pills, with the fyrup of
rofes.

Virtues. — Thefe pills are thought proper parti-
cularly to purge the joints ; they are prefcribed for

the gout and rheumatifm. 1 he d:fe is from

half a fcruple to two fcruples.

The reafon why the arthritick pills purge the
joints, is, becaufe being compofed of dry remedies,
and full of volatile parts, they remain a long while
in the vijcera, and have time to fpread their fub-
ftance on all fides.

Mercurial Pills. — Take quick-filver, and aloes
fuccotrina, of each fix drachms ; half a drachm
of troches of agarick ; and two drachms of the
beft rhubarb ; let the quick-filver be extinguifhed
in a fufficient quantity of turpentine of Venice;
and mix afterwards the powders with it, to form a
mafs for pills.

Virtues. — Thefe pills purge the bilious hu-
mours, and the ferofities ; they are prefcribed in
the venereal difeafe, for the fciatica, the itch,
leprofy, the obftrudtions, and the king's-evil.
— The dofe is from a fcruple to a drachm.

PiluliS de duBbiis. — Take equal parts of troches
of alhandal, and of fcammony, pounded, and re-
duced into a mafs for pills, with the folutive fvrup
i of rofes.

I Virtues. — Thefe pills purge the foatfe pituita,

and the ierofuie?, and difengage the brain. They

1 are

276

The Univcrfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

are prefcribed for the gout and the hydropfy.

The doje u from eight grains to a fcruple.

Cephaluk Pills. — Take of the mafs of pilula
coccice, and fcammony, of each fix drachms ; black
hellebore, and vitriohited tartar, of each three
drachms ; prepared according to our method, and
reduced into a mafs with fyrup of rofes compofed
with agarick.

Virtues — Thefe pills purge and firengthen the
brain ; are proper for the hypochoiidriacks, the

mania, epilepfy, and \ertigo. The doje is

from half a fcruple to half a drachm.

P Hides de apoponacis. Mcjvc. R. alces fuccotrina,
% j. is. tracljijcorum alhaiidal, hermodaSfykrum.j apo-
pona:is, fngapeniy bdelli., ammoniaci, a 5 v. myra-
bolanorum tmblicorum, dirinorum., bcllcricorum,
c.ijfics ligneec, pipais nig' i, zingihais, crociy pipe-
ris lo>'gi, mynhte, cn/forei, d ^j. cum fuao caii-
l :tm jiat ntajfci, S. A.

Virtues. — Thefe pills purge all humours ; they
are principally ufcd to purge the brain and the
joints ; and are prefcribed for the gout, the con
\uirioiis, rheumatifms, and to provoke the menfes.
I he doje is from a fcruple to a drachm.

The purgative ingredients which enter this com-
poiition are the aloes, the troclics of alhandal, the
hermodacts, the turbith, the diacrydium, and the
myrabolans.

Several drugs, which are pretty needlefs, could
be retrenched for this compofition, the fagapenum,
bdellium, ammoniack, caffia lignea, the papers,
ginger, fafFron and myrrh. I find that the quan-
tity of the cpoponax, from which the pills borrow
their name, fliould be increafcd, and that inftead
of the needlel's drugs, fonie grains of foluble tartar
fliould be introduced into them. Therefore I'm
of opinion, that thofe pills fhould be compofed in
the following manner.

Pilules apoponacis refcrmatec. R. gummi opopi-
aaciSf %'}'}. aloos fuccctrines ^j. fs. trochifcorum al-
hi'.ndal, hcnnodnllylorum, da 7^ v. turbith, 5 fs.
myrabilancrum citrinorum mimdaturum, tartari fo-
luhilis, ua "z,))]. diacrydii, j jj. cajlorei, 7^]. cum
S. q. Syrupi de p mes regis Jhpcris, jiat majjd
p'.lul. d'jfis erit a 9 fs. ufque ad 5 j.

Pills for a quartan ague. — Take an ounce of
a'oes fuccotrina ; diacrydium, agarick, foluble tar-
tar, of each two dia>-hins ; afarum and black hel-
lebore, of each a fcruple ; prepared according to
our method, aiid reduced into a mafs, with a fuf-
.ficient quantity of fyrup of pale rofes.

Vinucs,- They purge the pituita, and melan-
choly ; they are ufed in intermittent fevers, and

particularly in th.; quartan ague The d^jc is

from one icrup'e to two fcruples.

The i^uartan ague being moft commonly caufcd

and entertained by the coarfe and tartarcus hu-
mours, which ftop fevcral fmall veflbls of the fpleen,
of the pancreas, or of the other vifcera ; it is ne-
ccflary to prefcribe for that malady, ftrong and
penetrating remedies, (uch as thofe which enter
thefe pills, to rarefy tliofe humour;, and raife the
obflructions.

Pilli for the iliack pajfton^ or mifcr^re. Take

troches of alhandal, and fagapenum, of each fix
drachms, and two drachms of diac rydium ; pre-
pared according to our method, anJ reduced into a
mafs. with a fufEci^-nt quantity of juice of letks.

Virtues. They are proper for the iliack

pafiion, for the cholick, the inigram, and purge
the pituitous, and other humours.

Pills for the Cough. 1 ake tfce juice of liquo-
rice, and olibanum, of each half an ounce ; myrrh,
fatfron, and opium, of each four fcruples ; pre-
par'd and pounded according to our method, and
mixed v.-ith a fufficient quantity of fyrup of poppies
rhaeados to form a mafs for pills.

Virtues. Thefe pills atfglutinate and chicken

the acrimonious humour, which fall from the brain
on the bread; they appraie the cough, and pro-
voke expeiTtoration and fleep— j — The dofe is from
fix grains to a fcruple.

Half a fcruple o\i\\t(>i^i\\s for the cough contains
a grain of opium. Eighteen grains contain a grain
and a half of opium. A fcruple two grains of opi-
um, hndhalfii drachm, three grains of opium.

Pilulec ad gomrrbceam virulentam. R. Antimonit
diaphoretici, cinnabaris nativa ^ antimov.iaiis, terree
ftgULitcc, radicis ireos forentiec, liquirities. Succini
albi presparati, ocukrum cancror, presparatorum, da
^ fs. myrrhee cleil^, olibani, mafliches, crcci, da
3 ij. cum terehinthina veneta, fiat maffa pilularum.

Virtues. — Thefe pills are aflringent, and ftreng-
then the fpermatick veflbls, by correcting the
viruj. The dofe is from a fcruple to two.

Pilules fudorificee. R. Gummi giiiaci f j. ex-
tracta contrayei vee 5 vj. myrrh.r :; v 9 j. croci
^ fs. camphoree ^ ij. 9 ij laudani opiati D ij.
irnfce, o cum fyrupo de foribus tunicc/^, fiat moffa
pilul-Mum.

Virtues. — Thefe pills refift the malignity of the
humours, appeaiethe pains, and promote lleep and

fweat ; they are ufed in malignant fevers. The

dofe is from a icruple to a drachm.

'T ABf.i.i.K, or Solid Electuaries. Ta-
belles, or lozenges, or foUd ehnuaries, have been

invented for four principal reafons. 1. To

give a good talie to the remedies, becaufe more
iugar is mixed in them than in the other compo-

fitions 2. That they remain a long while to

melt and be diflblved Ln the mouth, and their vir-
tue

MEDICINE.

tue be better communicated to the throat and pafte; which ftial) be extended on
brcaft.— — 3. That they may be kept long; for and cut into lozenges.

277

;in oiJy paper

a ("olid confillence is Icfs fubjcdt to corruption than i Virtues, Thefe tabcllx are good for an in-

olhers. 4.. To render the compofition porta- 1 veterate cough, for the afthma, and the ulcers of

about a drachm of them is put

tivc. — Tabcllts are prepared over the fire, and
without fire. Now powders are introdue'd into
thofe made over the fire ; but the dcfe thereof is
not io much limited : for in the one no more
than an ounce of powder enters on each pound of
fugar ; on the others, three ; and on the others
four. The matter of the tabella: which are pre-
pared over the fire is cut in lozenges, or fquare
wife , and thofe prepared without fire are figured
into paftilles or rotulae.

tabella diaturpcthi cum rheo. R. Turbith, rka-
barb, aa 5 x, hermodaiiylorum ^ j, diacrydii ^ fs.
feminis violarum 5 ij. facchari albi j. lb fiant
tabella, S. A.

Virtues, Thefe pills purge the bile and pi-

tuita, and are proper for the rheiimatifm, the gout
and the worms,
an ounce.

to melt

the lungs
in the mouth.

If two drachms of magiflery of fulphur were
added to the compofition of thefe tabella;, they
would be more proper for the ulcers of the lunes,
and for the afthma. Thefe tabelke can alfoTje
made without fire, by mixing the powders with
pulverifed fugar, incorporating the whole mixture
in a marble mortar, with a fufficient quantity of
pulp of althsa, to be reduced into a folid mafs,-
whereof paftilles or rotulae are formed. Thefe
rotulas can be render'd more deterfive, by addino- a
fcruple of flowers of benzoin to the compofition.

Tabella Uthonthripttca ferrielii, reformatio. R.
Sanguinis bird pr^eparati, gj fs. Oculorum cancror
prceparat. % fs. Seminum

. _ „ "p'h afparagi, urtiar.

The dofe is from a drachm to Jaxifragia, brufci, petrofelini, ocimi, an r ij. Re,.

I dicum cypri, cojli, gummi tragacaiitbi, chumadryosy
The purgative and eflential ingredients which fpicanardi, aa 5J. Cardam.ini, macis,-z.ingi!eri$
enter this compofition are the turbith, rhubarb, ; ^a 5 fs. Sacchari in aqua parietaria,cc£ii, 'n\. lb.

hermoda<Sls, diacrydium, and feeds of violets,
that they are all purgative except the fugar.

Tabella mercuriales, R. Panacea mercurialis,
cinnamemi ticutijfimi, ireos Jlorentin, zingibc-

ris, aa ^ j- facchari albi, ^ iv

The ginger, cinnamon, and iris, mufl: be poun-
ded together j and the fugar by itfelf ; mixing
afterwards all the powders with the mercurial
panacea in a marble mortar; and corporifying
that mixture with a I'ufHcient quantity of the mu-
cilage of gum tragacanth, beating it a long while
with a wooden peflle, till it be reduced into a
folid pafte, to form of it fmall lozenges orrotules,
each of them to wei<rh a drachm.

Virtues. Thefe tabellae excite the falivation ;

and are given to thofe of a hard conflitution, and
that camiot be moved by the common remedies.

Tabella peSlorales D. gendron abbatis. K. Hor-
dei integri, j. lb. uvariim faffarum mundatarum,
^ iv. liqtiiritia rafa & coniufa, ^ iij. feminis
onifi, 3J. caryophyllos. No. XIV.

Tabella de althaa compofita. Pw Pulpa ratli-
CIS althaa", ^ ij. Seminispapaveris albi, ireos foren-
tin. Uquiritia, pulveris diatragacanthi frigid!, aa
^ iij. Sacchari albifftmi in aqua rojarum coilify lb.
Fiant tabella., S. J.

The iris, liquorice, and feed of poppies, muft be
pounded together, and the powder mixed after-
wards, with that ol diatragacanthi frigidi ; boiling
the fugar afterwards, to the confiftence of fugar of I
rofes : and mixing in it, when taken ofF the fire,
the pulp, then the powder, to make of it a folid
Vol. II. 39.

Fiant tabella, S. A.

Virtues, Thefe tabella? are proper to atte-
nuate the flone, the gravel, and the phlegm, and

to expel them by urine. The chfe is from a

drachm to three.

Opiates, Coneections, and Electuaries.

The name of opiate was antiently given but to
liquid compofitions, where opium was introduced ,
but at prefent it is given to feveral cleSiuaries where

there is no real opium. The names oi confcSlion,

and of ele£luary, denote very near the fame thino-;
the firft comes from conficeie, which fignihes to
accomplifh or perfeiSt ; and the laft fignifies con-
feSiio rerum ekclarium ; therefore we fay eleSlarium,
as well as eleiiuarium. Thefe three preparations
have confiftences very much like that of honey ;
and are compofed of powders, pulps, fugar, honey,
and liquors. They are adminiftered inwardly, and
invented by the antients to correct tlie too violent
aftion of fome remedies ; to excite and increaf'e
the virtues of fome others, to unite by mixture and
fermentation the qualities of the mixts, that they
may form a more perfedt compofitum ; that the
remedies may be kept longer, to put them in a
condition to be eafier and fooner taken, without
the patient being obliged to wait for the prepara-
tion.

Antidotum afyncitum, JtHuarii. R Op'ii - vi,

Myrrha 5 v. g ij. Piperis ngri, feminis petrofe-

lini aa 5 v. Opii, fmapeos aa ^ fs. Sclcenar.thi

5 iij. Amomi, Jtyracis calamit. aa 5 ij. A.'ag-

O o ii.a is

278

7})e Univerfal Hiftory of AKn and Sciences.

lignecs, piperis albt.

math hsdySloi 9 v. CaJJia
feminis jizeLos aa 5 iv.

The peppers, feeds, amomum, fchaenantum,
and caffia lignea, muft be pounded together ; and
the myrrh, ftorax, and the troches of hedydloi,
together ; the opium muft be cut in fmall pieces,
and pounded in a brafs mortar with a little honey
to reduce it into a parte ; mixing that pafte -with
fixteen ounces of fkimmcd honey, and incorpora-
ting the powders in that mi.xture, to make of them
all an opiate, to be kept in a pot well covcr'd, for
ufe.

Virtues.- This cpiate is proper to refift the

malignity of the humours, and to appeafe pains :
it is ufed for the epilepfy, phrenzy, and the tooth-
ach ; for the contagious maladies, an inveterate

cough, and to provoke fleep. The dofe is from

a fcruple to a drachm.

This preparation is an opiate, whereof ^<!?aar/aj
is ihe author. The name Jfyncritum fignifies

none-fuch') to cxprefs its great virtues. In a

fcruple bi this opiate there is little lefs than a grain
of opium. In tws fcruple', about a grain and a
half; and in two drachms, two grains and a half.

Theriaca andromachi. R. Trcchifcorum fcilliti-
corunt lb. fs. fiperinornm, hrdycrci, piperis longi,
tpii aa ^ iij. hi dis for en' in, rofarum rubrarum,
Jucii gl)cyirhizi£ f minis buniados, fcordii, opobal-
fami, vel fucccdanii, olei nucis mofcha'.a., cinnamorm.,
agaiici aa ^ j. fs. Naidi Indici, di^amni cretici,
radlcis ptntaphylUi, zingiberis, cojii rhapontici,
praffii albi, /tacbadis orah.cee, fchxnanthiT fmims
fetrojelini macedonici . catominthee montana., caffia
lignea":, croci piperis alhi & nigri, myrrhs troglc-
ditica, olibani, terebrnthintr chits aa 5 vj. yimomi
racemof, radicum gentianee acori veri, meu aiha-
7naritici, valeriams., nardi Celtics, chameepityos,
tomte h\perici., fcminum ammeos, thalfpos., anif,fceni-
(uli, Jifcieos rnaffUe'fis, cardamomi miHoris, mala-
harthi, coma pol.i montani, chawadryos,carpobalfomi^
fucci hypocijiidisy acacice vera, gummi arabici,
Jiyracis calami.a-, te. ra lemnica, chMtidis veri,
Jagafeni aa ^ fs. Radicis arijlolochia teni'is, co~
yncf centaurii minoris, Jeminis dauci cretici, opopo-
7iacis, galban: puri, b;tuminis, judaic!, cajlorei,
aa 5 ij. MelUs optimi defpumati isf co£li xiv.lb.
Is. Vini generofi, q. f,

AH the drugs muft be pounded together, except
the turpentine and opobalfamum, without the leaft
jear that the gums and juices fhould prove an
obrtacle to the pulveriz.uion ; fmce on the con-
trary, they hinder by their glutinofity a too great
diilipation of the fubtle parts of the mixture.

Put the honey and Spanijh wine in a large
bafon over a middling fire, and when the honey
Ihall be diffolved, ftrain it through a fieve j boil

gently the colature to the confiflence of a' thick
fprup ; then take the bafon off the fire, and mix
with the matter, when half cold, the powders by
degrees, then the opobalfamum or oil of nutmegs,
and the turpentine which muft have been liquified
together over a flow fire ; agitating the mixture
for a confiderable time with a wooden fpatula till
it be quite cold. This preparation will be the
theriach or andromachus, which mult be kept in a
pot well coverd ; taking care to ftir it from time
to time, to excite the fermentation thereof.

Vi'tues. This opiate or antidote is proper

againft all forts of contagious maladies, againft
the plague, malignant fevers, and the fmall-pox ;
the bite of a venomous beafl, the poifon of hem-
lock, and of the napelus : it is good for the windy
colick, and the worms ; fbr the afthma, the in-
termittent fevers, the palfy, apoplexy, epilepfy,
lethargy, and the hyftericks ; while new it pro-
vokes flecp, becaufe the opium is predominant j
and then it is good to flop the ha.-morrhages, and
the loofenefs ; hut when it grows old, it lofes
that fomniferous quality ; becaufe the vifcous parts
of the opium have been rarefied and exhaled by
fermentation.

O Id theriach is preferable to the new, to refift
venom, becaufe its parrs are fubtilizcd and exalted
by fermentation, and rendered capable to difTolve
and rarefy the congelations formed in the blood,
or other humours, either by the bites or ftingi ot
venomous beafts, or by other coagulating poifons,
or by the infeded air, or by a too great quantity
of acids which may chance to be in the body.
Old theriacle is alfo preferable to the new, to
ftrengthen the brain a.nd the ftomach, and to
provoke perfpiration, becaufe in a long fermenta-
tion there have been formed fevcral fubtle parts,
proper to produce that effedl.

However, though this compofition be much
refpefted in medicine, either for its antiquity, or
the effe<£ts it has produced ; it feems to me, that
a more efficacious remedy could be prepared with
a fmall number of the moft effential drugs it con-
tains, chofen and mixed together according to the
idea of the phyfician, without being at the trouble
and expence of making fo large and fo embarafling
a preparation ; for it happens very often that
certain drugs which enter the preparation of the
tleriacle, are good for one conftitution, and
contrary to another ; for it is difficult to appro-
priate for all the maladies, where the theriacle is
adminifter'd, fo great a number of different drugs
heaped upon one another ; which do not feem to
have been introduced into the compofition, by the
choice of a learned phyfician.

Thtriaca

MEDICINE.

279

Theriaca diatejfaron, mefuL R. Radicum gtn-
tiance^ arijlolochi^ rDtund(S,haccharam lauri, myrrhcs
eleiits, ^ ij. Meliis optimi defpumati, lb. ij. Fiat
ex arte cleituarium.

yirtues. — I his theriacle is good againftthc bites
of venomous beafts, againft tlie epilepfy, the con
vulfions, colick, to expel the after- birth, to pro-
voke the mcnfes, and ftrengthen the ftomach,
The dofe is from a fcruple to a drachm.
Diatejferon fignifies a compofition of four drugs.
— This theriacle is alfo called the treacle of the
poor : becaufe it is made at a little expence, and
in a (hort time.

EleSluarium dlafulphurls reformatum, R. Ma-
g'tjleris fulphuris, ^jfs- Olibani, niyrrhcr,Jlyracii
calainiue, radicis beleni. tujjilaginis, meu athaman
iici, liquiritia, ireos Jiorentin, feminii anifi^ da ^ j.
Gum arabici, caryophyllorum., croci, Jiorum btpzoini,
da ~i]. Confervarum capillorum veneris, & tuffila-
gittis per fetacetim trajeiiarum., da'i^ ij. Mellii in
decoElo hy£opi, is' fcahiofiv defpu/nati, CJ" ad confiften-
tiam opiatce cot^i, iij, lb. Fiat cleiiuarinm, S, A.

Virtues. — This electuary is proper for thj aflh-
ma> to foften the acrimony of the breafl, to rarefy
the coarfe pituita ; and to abate the vapours, and
to appeafe the pains The dofe is from a fcru-
ple to a drachm and a half.

EcBuariuin dlafcordium fraca/iorii reformatum,
R. Foliorum fcordii 5 iij. Rofarum rubrarum
exui7galatarum, ^ j fs. Cinnamomi , radicis tornien-
tilla da 5 vj. Styracis calamita foliorum diSlanmi
cretici, radicis gtntlancr, galbani, fuccini, da ^ Is.
Opii, pipii'is longi, zingiheris, feminis oxalidi , da
5 ij, Alellis rofati in eUSiuarii mollis confificntiam
coSli, iij. lb. Villi hifpatiici, § ij. Fiat ex arte
opiata.

Virtues. — This elecSluary is ufed in malignant
fevers, the plague, to kill the worms, to refill pu-
trefaiiion, for the colick ; and provokes fleep when

new. The dcfe is from a fcruple to a drachm.

ConfeSlio alkerines reformata. R. Syrupi ker-
mcfini optimi 1 ecentcr parati, l^ ad mellis confificn-
tiam co£ii, lb. j. fs. Santali citritii, i3 cinnamomi,
da i^j. /Imbra grifea, ^]. Mofchi, :jfs. Oleo-
rum macis is' caryophylloreum, da gutt. vj. Fiat
confeilio, &. /l.

Virtues — The confeflion a'kermes is proper to
ftrengthen the heart, the ftomach, and the brain ;
to refill putrefadlion, to raife the fpirits, to expel
the melancholy, and to provoke the feed. It is
prefcribed in the palpitations of the heart, and in

the fmcopes ; and it hinders abortion. I he

d;fe is from a fcruple to a drachm. It is alfo em-
ploy'd in epithem, applied on the region of the
heart, ainl of the ftomach.

A confeiiion againji wsrmf.— Take of Icmen

contra, one ounce, the bcft rhubarb, and mercu-
rius dulcis, of each half an ounce : pound the
femen contra, and the rhubarb together ; and the
mercurius dulcis by itfcif ; mix the powders, and
incorporate them in half a pint of fyrup of juice
of porcelain, boiled to the confiftencc of a foft
electuary, for an opiate, which is to be kept in. a
glafs or ftone vefl'el.

Virtues. — This opiate is proper to kill the
worms, and evacuate them gently ; and to hinder

their generation. The doje is from a fcruple to

two drachms. -•>

EleEluarium faffafras reformatum. R. Lignt
faffafras odorantijfttni, ^ ij. Cinnamomi, 5 iij.
Ainbr^ grifecT, jfs. Macis. ■^ j. Mofchi gr. iij.
Sacchari albi in aqua foeniculi diffoluti i^ coiJi,
lb. j. fd. Fiat eleciuarium, S. A. . ■ '-'

Virtues. — This electuary is proper to reftft the
malignity of the humours ; it is fudorifick ; it
ftrengthens the brain, the ftomach, and the heart,
Iharpens the fight, and helps the digeftion. — The
dofe is from half a drachm to two drachms.

Ele£tuarium peiiorale. R. Pinearum, ^]. Siteci
glycyrrhiKie, amygdalarum dulciumy avellanarum,'aa
if fs. Hyffopi, capillorum veneris, feminis urtices,
radicis ireos, is arifhlochics rotunda, da 5Jfs.
Enulee campance, piperis itigri, Jemiins riafiurtUy
da 5 fs. Alellis dfpumati, lb. j, ^ Vyjiat eleciu-
arium, S, J.

Virtues. — This eleSluary is proper to provoke
expectoration, to loofen the phlegms fattened to the
lungs, to the breaft, and to the diaphragm, and
to help refpiration. — The dofe is from a fcruple to
a drachm.

Ele5luarium fcorbuticum, R. Confervarum coih-
leariat § 'j- fs- Chamtsdryos, meliffts, rofarum
pallidarum, citri, aa ^ vj. Cinnamomi, cardamomi,
da^'j. Conditorum calami aroma tici, zingiberii,
radicis pimpinellcs, corticis citri, aa ^ iij. Extrac-
torum abfmthij is' juniperi, jcminis finapi tsf eructe,
aa ^ ij. Tartars vitriolati, ^ j, fs. Oleorum cin-
namomi, 5 fs. ylnifi, 9 j. cum fpiritu de cinnamo-
mo (jf de cochlearia, q. f.

The cinnamon, cardamum, and the feeds, muft
be well pounded together ; and the powders mixed
with the vitriolated tartar, beat in a marble mortar,
the lemon peel, and the confedt roots, and the
conferves, till they be reduced into a pafte,
humedting them with fome fyrup of lemons, ftrain-
ing them afterwards into a piip through a fieve of
horfe hair ; and mixirj, in tliai j ulp the extracts,
the powders, the oils, and a fufficient quantity of
the fpirits of cochlearia, and cinnamon, to make
an ele£tuary, which muft be kept in a pot well

Iftopped.
The extrads of juniper-berries, and of vvor.'n-

Oo X

wood,

28o

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

wood, cannot be made without letting efcape the
moft vohitik parts, in which their principal virtue
confifted. Therefore it would be better to em-
ploy here the juniper-berries, and fummits of worm-
wood pounded only.

Ekiiuarium terehinthinatum. R Terd'mthina
chr^Wi]. Rad'iih hijmahc?, graminh, cnonidis,
brufci, Hquiiitia- aa g j. Gumtni arabici, W traga-
canth'i ocukrum cancri praparatorum, nitri purificati.,
falls fulphuris, milkpedun: pr.tparatortim aa §iij.
Salh vilatilis fuccirii, aquilcr alba aa jij.

The roots and millepedes muft be pounded to-
gether, the gums in a warm mortar ; the falts by
thcmfelves, and the mercurius dulcis by itfelf;
then the powders muft be mixed with the crab's
eyes prepared ; and the whole incorporated v/ith
the turpentine to make an eleftuary, which muft
be kept for ufe.

Virtues. — This ehauary is proper to attenuate
the ftone in the reins and the bladder ; to expel
the fand and phlegms by urine, for the nephritick;
to cleanfe and conCoIidate the ulcers of the reins,
and of the bladder, and of the matrice ; for the
virulent gonorrhoea's, and all retentions of urine.
—The dfe is from a drachm to a drachm and a
half in a bolus.

EleSfuarium lenitivum pharmacopoea pariftenfis.
R Hordei excorthati, radicis polypodii quercint con-
iujtT, pajfularwn cnuclcatarmn, tamaritidarum aa
§ ij. Jujubas, pruna, febejlcn <ia, xx. Seminis
violaruin, liquiritia rafa i^ contufx aa ^ j. Foli-
orum mercurialis, man. ij. Adrianti ?nan. j.

Make a deco6tion thereof in twelve pints of com-
mon water, till they be reduced to feven ; then
add towards the end faliorum orient alium mimdato-
rum ^ ij. feminis fceniculi dulcis ^ ij. to four pints
of the colature add three pounds of the beft fugar ;
letting the whole mixture boil to the confidence of
iyrupj-in which muft be diffblved the pulps of
of prunes boiled in one part of the decoftion left;
of tamarinds, and of cnilia ftrained with the reft of
the decodtion, of e?.ch half a pound ; five ounces
of fenna in powder, and two drachms and a half
of anifeed, for an elediuary.

Virtues. This ekSiuary foftens the humours,

and purges particularly the bile, without violence.
—The dofe is from half an ounce to an ounce and
a half.

Lenitivum aliud excelkntijjimum. R Deco£ii ra-
dicis alfhmr, ^ ficuum pinguium lb iv. Sacchari
albi \h iij. Coquantur ad confijientiam mellis., tunc
mlfce puip<e cajjire recenter extra£ice lb j. Pulp.-r
prun^ruih, puhuris fentr cia Ih (s. Seminis vlolarum
^ iij. Tartari folubiiis ^ i. fs. Fiat eleduarium.,

i;. A.

Eleifuarium

apniens
I

A. daquin. R Eoli(»-um

fenntT orientalis mundatorum ^ vi. Dicicfydii, trc-
chifiorum alhandat, agarici cle^i, rhahurhari, tf
jemlnis violarum aa ^'y fs Sagapeni, myrrho', gum-
vii ammoniacl, a a 2 j. Antimonii diaphoretici,
mercurii dulcis, aa 5 vi. Satis martis, & tar/.arifci
a a 2; fs-

The fenna, troches of alhandcl, agarick, rhu-
barb, feed of violets, and fagapenum muft be re-
duced together into a fubtile powder, the gum
ammoniack, the myrrh, and the diacrydium
pounded together ; and the mercurius dulcis and
diaphoretick antimony together ; then all thofe
powders muft be mixed with the falts ; and all to-
gether with fix pounds of fkimmcd honey, to make
an elecluary, which muft be kept for ufe.

Virtues. This eleStuary purges all humours,

rarefies the vifcous and coarfe matters, raiies the
obftru6tions, and provokes the menfes. It is pre-
fcribed m quartan agues, cachexies, hypechon-

driacal maladies, and hydropfy. The dofe is

from one drachm to fix.

This compofition is a mixture of e/Tential re-
medies.

Hiera piera ftmplex Galeni. R Aloes fuccotrtna^
^vi. 5 ij. Cinnamomi, xylobalfami, vel hujus loco
furculormn lentifci, afari, fpicir indicer, croci, maf-
tiches ana ^ iij. Mellis defpumati lb ij. t^\ fs. Fiat
ele£iuarlum, S. A.

The cinnamon, xylobalfam, or in its ftead the
lentifewood, the afarum, and the fpikenard, muft
be pounded together, the aloes and maftich toge-
ther ; and the faff'ron, after it has been dried be-
tween two papers by itfelf; the ingredients thus
pounded muft be mixed together, and the powder
may be kept to be ufed when wanted : it is intro-
duced into feveral compofitions.

When it is wanted to make the eleCiuar\-, one
part of that powder muft be mixed in three parts of
fkimmed honey boiled to the confiftence of a liquia
ele£luary.

Virtues. — The hiera picra is employed to purge
the ftomach, to raife the obftruflions, to provoke
the menfes and the piles, and to purify the blood.

The d'jfe is from a drachm to half an ounce

in bolus, by reafon of its extreme bitternefs. It
is alfo uied in clyfters for the colick, the hyftericks,
and the apoplexy ; from two drachms to an ounce
for each clyfter.

Hiera picra are two Greek words, the firft
whereof fignifies^?vi7<andy?7aW,and the other i///c'r.

T he purgative virtue of the hiera picra confifts
in the aloes.

Hiera picra rcformata. R Aloes fuccotriiiiT ^ ij.
agarlci trochifcati, isf tartan's folubiiis ana ^j.
diacrydii 5 vi. Mcllifdefpumati ^ xiij. fiat eleiiua-
rium, S. A,

Virtues.

MEDICINE.

281

• Virtues.— 'TK\s hhra piaa purges with violence
enough; it is ulcd for tlie windy colicic, the apo-
plex)-, lethargy, and epilepf". — Tiie djfs is from
hall" a drachm to tlirce drachrns.

Distilled Waters.

I do not defign to mention in this place, thofe
which depend purely on Chymiflry, as the aqua-
lortis, the common brand}', the ftyplick and
phagedenick waters.

Distillation is a rarefaction and exaltation
of the mofl: humid and effential parts of the mixts,
refolved by fitc into vapours, which afcending to
the capital, and being cool'd there, are condcnfed
into drops which fall into the receiver.

Diftilled waters are divided Into ftmple and
ccmpofed.

Simple diftilled waters are thofe extrai?Lcd from
the plant without addition, as plantain, rofe, and
forrel-water, iJc.

Compofed diftilled waters are thofe diftilled from
feveral ingredients, as treacle-water, imperial-
water, aqua mirabilis, is'c.

The artift muft ufe, as much as poffible, glafs or
earthen vefl'els for the diftillation of waters ; but
when thofe vcflels are not large enough to contain
the matter to be diftilledj he muft then ufe copper-
alembicks tinned infide.

There are two forts oi di/iillaiiotti, one done per
tifccnfum-, and the other per defcc-njum. — The firft,
and moft common, is when the matter is heated
underneath. The other is when the fire is put
over the matter to be heated : then as the vapour
cannot rife, it is precipitated to the bottom of the
vcficl.

As the mixts, from which the waters are extra6l-
ed, are of different fubftances, the one volatile, the
other fix'd, fome watery and phlegmatick, and
others dry and faline ; different means muft be ufed
to carry off" by diftillation as much of their moft
efiential parts as pofTible. Ill give models to fuc-
ceed in it.

The diftilled waters can be kept feveral years
without corruption ; becaufe there have been fepa-
rated from them, by the diftillation, the fermenting
fubftances wiiich would fpoil them : but they muft
be renewed every year, becaufe the vitriol they
have br ught along with them from the plant, is
much wcaken'd in winter.

Plantain water. Take what quantity you will
of large p'antain, newly gather d, in its greateft
vigour ; have pounded in a mortar enough of it to
fill half a large copper-cucurbit, tinne.^ infide:
mean while mult be extraifted by expreflion, in the
ufual manner, eighteeii or tv^'cnty pounds of the
juiCe of other plantain, which you'll pour over the

pounded plantain to humed it well, fo that it may
1 no! ftick to the bottom of the veflel during the di-
flillation. Place the cucurbit over a furnace, co-
vering it with its bolt-head, gnrniftied with its re-
frigeratory, which muft be tilled with cold water;
then adapt to it a receiver, and light a charcoal
fire in the furnace, to diftil the humiditv mode-
rately quick, fo that one drop may follow the
other.

When about half the humidity is diftilled, the
fire muft be left to go out ; and when the vefTcls
are cold, the plantain muft be taken out of the.
alembick, ftrained bye.xpreffion, and afterwards
thrown away as ufclefs ; but the juice extradlcd
from it muft be pouied back into the fame vefTel,
and the diftillation renewed, which fhould be con-
tinued, till there is but little of the liquor left in
the vefTel.

The didiWed plantaiti-waier muft be expofed for
fome days to the fun, in glafs or ftone bottles un-
corked, to diflipate the fmell of empireum, which
proceed from the fire ; after which the bottles muft
be corked : and the water kept for ufe.

Virtues. — Plantain-ivatenxs deterfive, aftringent
cooling, proper to ftop the loofenefs, the hsmor-

rhages, the gonorrhoea's, i?V. The dcfe is from

an ounce to fix.- It is alfo ufed outwardly to

wafli the eyes in the ophthalmicks; and for deterfive
and aftringent injections.

In the fame manner can be diftilled the waters
from all the plants, which abound in humefting
and cooling phlegm ; and if the juice of fome of
them cannot be extrafted eafily, there muft be made
a ftrong decoftion thereof to hume(£f: the pounded
herbs.

The waters which can be thus diftilled are thofe
o{ porcelain, lettuce, fempervivum, bugle, henbane,
mandragora, malloixjs, hcrage, luglofs, Jolanum,
n.'Mengi, verba/cum, eigrimany, nenuphar, poppies,
(jlchimilla, fcnicle, chelidonium, &C.

Sorrel-ivater.— Take what quantity you will

of very green and tender forrel, gathered in fair
weather while it is in its greateft vigour, and be-
fore it is grown into feed ; pound it or bruife it in
a ftone or marble mortar, fill with it about half a
large copper-cucurbite, tinned infide ; pour over
the matter agood quantity of juice of forte), newly
e.\tra<5led with expreflion, fo that the liquor fwim
over the matter , adapt to the cucurbite its capttal,
with its bolt-head, tinn'd likewife infide, and its
refrigeratory ; place the veflel over a naked fire ;.
adapt a receiver to the cucuibite, and diftil the
humidity at a pretty ftrong hear, fo that thi drops

follow clofe one another. V/hcn about half the

humidity has been diftilled, the vcfTcls iT>-i;'t be hft.
to cool j and when cold, what is left in the cucur-
bite

TTjc Univerfal Hiftory ^ Arts ajwJ Sciences.

282

bite muft be taken out and carried to the prefs to
extraiSl the juice ; that juice mult be left to fettle,

and having been afterwards ftrained through a

flannel, it muft be put in an earthen pan, to have

evaporated over a flow fire about two thirds of the

humidity thereof, carrying afterwards the vefTel to

a cool place, where it muft be left for fome days

without touching it ; then there will be formed

round it fmall cryftals which are the efrcntial fait

of the forrel, which muft be feparated from the reft,

and kept for ufe.

But if one will not take the trouble to prepare

the cfTential fait of forrel, he may content himfclf

with evaporating the juice to the confiftence of thick

honey ; which will be the extraci of forrel.

The ground taken from the prefs muft be dried,

and ha\'ing mixed with it a good quantity of other

dried forrel, the whole muft be burnt, the afhcs

thereof calcined, and having made alixivium of thofc

afhes, it muft be filtrated, and afterv.'ards put to ' for two davs ; which expired, the veflel fhall be

evaporate to ficcity, over a flow fire ; there will be unftopped, placed on a furnace, the bolt-head with

found at the bottom of the veflel a fait, which is its refrigeratory, and a receiver adapted to it, the

t\\cfx'dfalt of forrel, and which muft be kept for joints luted, and at a moderate fire, about half the

ufe. i humidity diftilled ; which done, and the velTelscold,

Virtues. » The wfiter of forrel \s efteemed cor- they muft be opened, the matter left in the cucur-

dial, cooling ; proper for violent and bilious fevers, bite ftrained, and the juice cxtra(5led from it put

to diftil as before, there will be no more but two
or three pounds thereof left. The diftilled water
muft be kept in bottles well corked.

Virtues. The water of ivormwood is proper

to incite and attenuate the pituita, to ftrentjthen

but when we have no more the plant in its vigour,
the diftilled water can be ufed ; and to render it
more eflicacious, there muft be difl'olved in it, be-
fore it is taken, fome of its eflcntial fait, or of its
extradt or fixed fait j which will very well fupply
the want of the plant in its vigour. 'I hefe diftilled
waters muft be expofed for fome time to the fun,
the bottle uncorked, that the empyreumatical fmell
may be diflipated.

Wormwood-water . Take a good quantity of

common wormwood, green, newly gathered while
in its greateft vigour ; pound the leaves thereof in
a mortar, and fill with it half a large copper cucur-
bite tinned infide ; mean while make a ftrong de-
coftion of other wormwood, ftrain it boiling-hot,
and pour as much of it upon the wormwood in the
cucurbite as is neceflary to hume6l it left it fhould
flick to the bottom of the veflel, which muft be
very well ftopped, and the matter left in digeftion

-The dofe is from an ounce to fix.

The cffential fait of forrelxs incifive, penetrating,
rarefying ; it provokes the appetite, and is cordial.

• The dofc is from half a fcruple to half a

drachm.

The extrail of forrel has very near the fame

the ftomath, to excite the appetite, to help digef-

virtues of the clTential fait; but the doje muft be i tion, provoke the mcnfes, abate the vapours, and

greater, i. e. from a fcruple to a drachm.

The fixed fait of forrel \s aperitive, penetrating,

proper to raife the obftru6lions. The dofe is

from eight grains to half a drachm.

In the fame manner can be difdlled the other

plants which have no fmell, and are faline; as the

carduus tenedif'us, nafiurtium, Jcahicje, funiitery,

iarieiary, chicory, tobacco, fmall centaury, St. Johii's-

tvort, tiiffdage, endive, chamadryos, cbamepityos,

faeor.y, enula carnpana, cochlearia, &c. theie waters
muft be made to diftil pretty quick, that they may
exalt along with them fome portion of the elTential
fait of the plant ; for in that fait confifts all the vir-
tue of thofe v/aters which have no fmell ,- wherefore
thofe plants are never to be diftilled in balneo ma^

rise, nor in balneo vaporis, which would only exalt
the pure phlegm. But whatever method and pre-
taution may be obferved in the diftillation of thofe,
jt always happens that the greateft part of their
active and eflcntial principles remain in the bottom
of the cucurbite ; therefore it would be better to
ufe the juice, or of a ftrong decodion of the plant,
v/hiie ii is in its vigour, than of its diftilled waterj

for the worms The dofe is from half an ounce

to four ounces.

The liquor left in the alembick of the diftillation
may be clarified, and the humidity thereof evapo-
rated to the confiftence of honey, which will be
the extra fi of wormwood. It is aperitive, and pro-
per for the hyftericks. The dofc is from a fcru-
ple to a drachm, either difiblved in its proper wa-
ter, or taken in a bolus. The grounds left after
they have been dried, can alfo be burnt with other
wormwood- and the afhes put in warm water to
make a lixivium, which having been filtrated, is
put to evaporate to ficcity, and what is left in the
bottom of the vefTel is the fait of wormwood, which
muft be kept in a bottle well corked. This_/a/f is
very aperitive, proper to raife the obftrucSlions of
the liver, of the fpleen, mefentery, and of the ma-
trice, to provoke the urine, for the yellow jaundice,

the hydropfy, and the retention of the menfes

The dofe is from fix grains to half a drachm, dif-
iblved in water of wormwood.

By the fame method are extrafled the waters,
cflencesj extracts, and falts of all odorous plants,

w/'s,.

vix> of mint, fogit marjoram, favlne, rofemary,
henbane, hyjjhp, marrubium, mugwort, honey-fuckUi,
fcordium, lavender, parjley, fennel, mujlard, boys,
rue, betony, camomile, origan, melilot, matricaria,
juniper. Sic.

Rofe-iuater. — Take what quantity you will of
pale or white rofes, newly blown, the moft odorui,
and gathered loon after fun-rifing, in dry weather;
pull the leaves oft their peculc, and having pounded
them in a marble mortar, put them in a copper
cucurbite tinned infide. pouring upon them the
juice of other rofes newly extracted by expreilion,
to humeri them well, or elfe it may be done with
rofe-water of the preceding year ; then place the
veflel in balneo mariae or vaporis, and cover it with
its capital garniflied with a refrigeratory ; adapt a
recipient to it, lute exaiSlly the joints, and leave
the matter in digeftion for two days ; which expir-
ed, placed to the diftillation by a good fire, taking
care to change the water of the refrigeratory as it
grows hot. ^Vhen about the tv^o thirds of the li-
quor is diftilled, the fire mufl be put out ; and what
is left in the veflel carried to the prefs to extract
the juice, which muft be put to diftil as before, to
have good role-water, which mull be expofed to
the fun for two days in uncorked bottles, to fharp-
cn its fmell; then the bottles muft be well corked.

Virtues. Rofe-water ftiengthens the breaft,

heart, and ftomach. The dofe is from one

ounce to fix. It is alfo ufed in collyres for the
maladies of the eyes ; and in perfumes.

Inftcad of white and pale rofes, purple rofes were
ufed in the diftillation, the water drawn from them
would be aftringent, and proper to ftop the loofe-
nefs, for the fpitting of blood, for deterfive in ec-
tions. It would even be better than the other for
collvres ; but it would have but very little fmell :
befides, it would be the moft proper rofe-water for
the maladies in which that remedy is commonly
ufed ; and it could be wiflied that the world which
often will be deceived, would not mind fo much
the fmell of this water to judge of its goodnefs;
the apothecaries would make it of red rofes, and
then it would produce better effe£ls.

In the fame manner can be extraiSerl the water
of all flowers, as, of the Jiowers of poppies, of
nenuphar, of lilies of the valleys, of borage, of
beans, of rofemary, of luglofs, of violets, of je£(3-
tnine, of tujftlage, of oranges, of lavender, of thyme,
offa^e, &c. But as a great number of thofe flow-
ers are very little fucculent to extraft the juice there-
of, they muft be humedted before diftillation, with
a ftroni;; infufion of another quantity of the fame
flowers made fometimes in hot water, and fome-
times in white- vvine according to their quality.

IFtiSer of Jlrawberries. Take four or five

MEDICINE. 283

pounds of ripe ftrawberries, bruifc them in a mar-

ble mortar, and put them in a large glafscucurbite,
which muft be placed in balneo maris;, a,id having
adapted a capital to it, and a receiver, and luted
exaiiUy the joints, as much of the humidity of the
fruits as poftiblefhall be diftill'd by a pretty ftrono-fire.'

Virtues The ixater of Jlrawherries is o-ood to

ftrengthen the heart, the brain, and to enrich the

blood. The dofe is from an ounce to three.

Ladies ufe it to walh their face.

In the fame manner can be drawn the water of
the other fucculent fruits, as o^ cherries, plumbs,
apples, mulberries, r a/berries, barberries, quinces,
peaches, oranges, lemons, elderberries, melons, cu-
cumbers, pumpkins., gourd;, &c.

Strawberry-water is made in fevera! other man-
ners ; fome leave the fruit bruis'd to ferment two
or three days, that its principal may be exalted be-
fore diftillation. Oihers hu-necl their ftrawberries
with white wine to render the water more fpiritiious
and more aperitive ; and others humeft them with,
ais's milk, to make it more proper to beautify the
(kin.

IFater of walnuts. Take a good quantity of

flowers of v/alnut-tree newly gathered, while in
their vigour, and let fix pounds thereof be pounded
in a mortar, and put them afterwards in a copper
cucurbite ; mean while make a ftrong decodlion of
other floweis, and after it has been ftrained by
expreffion pour twelve pounds thereof hot into the
cucurbite, or as much as is wanted to humedt the
pounded flowers ; place the veflel on a furnace,
where it uft be left in digeftion for twenty-four
hours, diftilliiig afterwards about half the liquor ;
which done, the fire muft be put out, and when
the veffels aie cold, what remains in the cucurbite
muft be ftrained, and three quarters of the juice
extrafted by that mean., diftilled, mixing after-
wards both waters together.

i hen you muft gather fix pounds of walnuts,
when they are about a third of their ufual bignefs ;
and having pounded them in a mortar, you muft
put them in a large copper ricurbite, pouring upon
them all the di'tilied water ct the flowers of walnuts,
and leaving the matter in digci'tion for nventv-f<-ur
hours ; and having diftilled the water as before,
you'll take next fix more pounds of whole walnuts
when they are good to preferve ; pound them well
in a mortar, and having put them in a copper cu-
curbite, pour upon them the diftilled waffer, and
having left the whole in digeftion for twenty-four
hour'-, proceed to the di'^tillation as before, and
you'll have the water of walnuts, which muft b«
expofed five or fix days to the fun, in uncorked bot-
tles, to diiftpate the empyreumatical fmell, then
cork the bottles.

Virtues.

284.

iToe Univerfal Hiftory of Arts /7«^ Sciences.

yirtiies. The water of walnuts is fuJorifick, f^irtues. This water is thought arthritic,

proper for malignant fevers, for the plague, the good for the rheumatifm, thejciatica, gravel, and
fmall pov, the windy colick, the hyflericks and to

-The d^'fi! is from one

fticngthen the flomach.
ounce to feven

If after each difliliation, the liquor left in the
cucurbitc be flraiiied through a flannel, the humi-
dity thereof evaporated to the confidence of honey;
and thofe three juices thus infpiflated be mixed to-
gether, it will be a very good extraft of walnuts,
which muft be kept in a pot.

yirtues. — The extradi of walnuts is fudorifick,
aperitive, febrifuge, ftrengthens the ftomach, and

refifts the malignity of the humours. 1 he dofe

is from a fcruple to a drachm, in a bolus, diflblved
in its proper water.

The grounds left in the prefs can alfo be burnt,
to draw from them an alkali fait fix'd, by means
of a lixivium.

Virtues. — The fix'd fait of wabiuts is aperitive,

and proper to raife the obflruflions. The dojc

is from fix grains to a fcruple.

IVater of cow-dung. In the month of May,

when the grafs begins to have fome vigour, gather
the cow-dung, newly made, and having filled with
it half of a glafs or ftone cucurbite, place it in bal-
neo maris, and by a pretty ftrong fire, diftil a clear
water, which is called the water of a thou j and flow-
ers, and which muft be expofed to the fun in glafs
bottles for five or fix days, that the difagreeable
fmell, which it may have, be diffipated. Then
the bottles muft be cork'd and kept.

Virtues. — This water is aperitive and fweeten-
ing ; it is prefcribed for the hydropfy, rheumatifm,

and the fciaiica. ! \\e. dofe is from an ounce to

fix. It is alfo ufed outwardly, to cleanfe, cool,
and foften the fkin : it is refolutive.

The name of lur.tcr of a thoufand flowers, has
alfo been given to the urine of a cow, newly void-
ed from the animal ; and it is ufed with fuccefs for
feveral maladies in the fpring and autumn ; by
drinkini;two or three glaffes thereof'every morning ^ana man. iv

fafting, for nine or ten days fucceffiveiy., and taking

a walk afterwards in the fields That urine

purees very well the ferofitics without griping ; is
proper for the afthma, the hydropfy, rheumatifm,
gout, and vapours.

Water of all flwjers. You muft gather in the

month of May cow-dung, newly made, weigh it
and put it in a large cucurbite of glafs or ftone,
mixing with it about the third of its weight of
white wine ; arnJ having placed the vefiel in balneo
mariae, or vaporis, adapt a capital and a recipient
to it, and lute exacSlly the joints, you'll diftil the
humidity of the matter which is called the water
«f all flowers.

the fuppreffion of urine. The dofe is from an

ounce to four. It is alf) ufed to cleanfe and foften
the fkin, for pimples, itchings, and ring-worms.

JVater of the fey of frogs. — Gather in the fpring,
about the month of March, what quantity you
will of frey of frogs, very pure, condenfed, or thick,
and which has a fmcll, diftil the humidity thereof
in balneo marise, or in the common manner ; and
expofe the diililled water to the fun for feven or
eight days ; and afterwards cork the bottles well
to keep them for ufe.

The water of the frey of frogs is very cooling,
condenfating, proper for the haemorrhages, to ap-
peafe the pain of the gout, for cancers, eryfipelas,
and other rednefTes of the fkin. It is applied out-
wardly with linen cloths. It is ufed to cleanfe the
face, and keep up a frefh complexion.

J]i the fame manner are diftilled, the waters of
milk, o{ blood, oi human brain, oi homy, o{ mannas
of raiH, and of dew.

Water of fnails. — Take three pounds of fhails
alive, with their (hells, wa£h them well, and bruife
them in a marble mortar, and put them afterwards
into a large cucurbite, pouring over them two pints
of afs's milk, newly milked ; mix well the whole
together with a wooded fpatula ; and having adapt-
ed acapital and receiver to the cucurbite, and luted
exadtly the joints, leave the matter in digeftionfor
twelve hours, proceeding afterwards to the diftil-
lation ; which done, the water muft be expofed for
feveral days to the fun, in a bottle uncorked.

Virtues. This water is humeffing, cooling,

proper for the rednefsof the fkin, to waih the face,
and render the fkin fmooth. It caii be alfo admi-
niftered inwardly, for the fpitting of blood, the ne-
phritick, and the heat of urine. The dofe is from
one ounce to fix.

Aqua vulneraria. R. Folioriim £5" radicum con-

folidcs majoris, foliorum falvia, arthemifia, bugles,

Betonica, faniculce, bupthalmi, fym-

phyti minoris, fcrophularia majoris, plantagims,
agrimoni/^, verbena:, ahfmthii, fccnicuU, ana man.
ij. Hyperici, arijlolochiie longi^, telopkii, vercnictr,
centaurii minoris, millefoUi, nicotian, mcnth^r.

After you have gather'd the herbs in their great-
eft vigour, hatch them and pound them well in a
mortar, and having put them afterwards in a vefiel
of a narrow neck, pour over them white wine, ftir
the who'.e, ftop the vefiel, and put it in the horfe-
dung, or in another warm place, where it muft be
left in digeftion for three days ; which expired,
you'll diftil the matter in balneo mariae, or vaporis,
extraf'ing above half the humidity, and having left

the veflels to grow cold,

what remains in the bot-
tom

MEDICINE.

torn of the cucurbite, muft be put to the prefs, and
the juice extracted from it, diftilled as before;
mixing afterwards the firft and fecond water toge-
ther, to keep it in a bottle well corked for ufc.
This water is called zuaier of arquebujade-, becaufe
ufed for wounds made with fire-arms.

Virtues. This water is good for the contu-

fions, diflocations, to refolve tumours, to cleanfe
ulcers and wounds ; and to refift the gangrene, ap-
plied outwardly.

Hungary-water. Fill half of a glafs-cucur^

285

macerate for three days fucceffively; you muft pro-
ceed to the diftillation at a moderate land-heat :
then you'll have the a.jua mivabilh.

Virtues. — 7'his water ftrengthens all the noble
parts, rejoices the heart and the brain, and provokes

the menfes The dofc is from tv^o drachma

to fix.

/tqua carmiaativa, feufpiritus carmiiiativus, fr.
deuboe filvii. R Summitatum eentaurii mimri'^
fob or urn rorifmarini, majoraruf, ruto! Lortenfts, baft-
I'ei, aa man. fs. Cinnamomi, ^ vj. Seminiwi an-

bite with flowers of rofemary, newly gathered in gelic^, Lvijiici, anifi, aa ^ fs. Baccarum lauri,
..V. .u„™ ( ^ „t .,1, ... J ijj. Nucis tnofchata,mac'n.,radicumimperatoriir.y

galanges, zingiberis, aa 5J. fs, Angelica; caryophyl-
brum, cortieis arantiorum, aa 5 j. Coneifis, (^ crajje.
contufu aff'unde, fpiritus vini, lb. ij. ^ iv. Dige-
ranturper biduttin in balnea maria, bine adftccitatem
(UJiillcntur ; fervetur dij] Hiatus fpiritus ad tfum.

Virtues. — This fpirit is proper for the windy
colick ; it difunites and rarefies the flimy matters,

their vigour, pour over them fpirit of wine till it
furpafles the flowers by two fingers breadth, cover
the cucurbite with its capital, and leave the mat-
ter in digeftion for three days ; and afterwards,
having adapted a receiver to it, and luted exa£lly
the joints, proceed to the ddlillation at a faiid-heat;
and keep the diftilled water in a bottle v/ell corked
for ufe.

Virtues. This water is good for the palfy, and appeafes the gr'pes. The dofe is fi'om half a

apoplexy, lethargy, the h)'ftericks, palpitations, ' drachm to tv\'o drachms.

for fainting-fits, and the pain of the ftomach. j Jqua peSJoralis, Gcorgii Batei. R. Ligni guaiaci

Tht dofe is from one drachm to three. It Ishuherizati, "^wy Radicum heleuii, arijlolocbi,e ro-

alfo ufed outwardly for the tooth-ach, the burns, ! tunao", aa 2 iij. Iridis nojlratis., 5 j. fs. Petrofe-
the cold humours, contufions, to cleanfe the fkin, //«/, frenieuli, glycyrrhifee, aa 2 j. FoUoriim nico-
to ftrengthcn debilitated members, for the vapours, tiarne viridium man. iv. ScabioY.^, veronica, tuffila-
being applied to the nofe and temples, and on the \ginis, byfopi, fummitatum marrubil, eardui benediSii,

MTifts ; and for the gangrene

Aqua theriaccdis. R. Radicum gentiancc, ange-
liciS, imperat orii-e, valerian js, conirayervtT, aa ^ij.
Cor ti cum citri i3' arantiorum, caryophyllorum, cin-
namomi, bacearum juniper i, da ^j. Summitatum
Icordii, ruler, hyperici, daman.].

Let all thefe drugs be infufed for three days fuc-
ce/Tively in balneo mariae, in fpirit of wine and
water of carduus benedidus and walnuts, of each
two pints ; and after you have added to it four
ounces of old treacle, put the whole mixture to
macerate for the fpace of twenty-four hours ; then
proceed to the diitillation by a flow fire ; to have
the treacle-water, which muft be kept in a bottle
well corked.

Virtues. — This water is proper to flrengthen
the noble parts, to refifl the bad air, to raife the
fpirits, to expel bad humours by perfpiration ; it
is ufed in the apoplexy, palfr, lethargy, and epi-
lepfy. — The dofe is from a drachm to fix.

Aqua mirabilis. R Cinnamomi eleSli ^ ]. Cor-
tieis exterioris citri, nucis mojchatee da ^ vj. Caryo-
phyllorum, calangce, cubeharum, macis, cardamomi.,
%ingiberis da :^ ij.

Having bruifed all the drugs together, they fliall

be put in a glafs cucurbite, and the juice of the

melifTa depurated, white-wine and fpirit of wine

poured upon them ; and having left the mixture Co

Vol. II. 40.

\aaman. I. JujubasJcbe/}cn,aa'^o.XXX. Ca-
ricas, chaylos, aa No. XV. Baccarum lauri, 5 vj.
SjJ7unis nicotiana, 5 iij. Nigellcc, ~]. Lini, ur-
iiccF, naJiu-.-tii,finapi, aa ^ ij.

Put in a large glafs or flons cucurbite the guaiac
reduced into a coarfe powder, the roots cut in
pieces, the leaves hatched and bruifed, the fruits
open and cut in fmall pieces, the berries and feeds
bruiled, and two ounces of turpentine dilFulved
with five or fix yolks of egg-s and afterwards into
white wine. Stir the whole together, cover the
vcfl'l and leave the matter in digeftion, in a
warm place, for three days; then uncover the
veflel, adapt a capital, and a receiver to it ; and
having fufpended in the neck of the alembick a
piece of fine linen cloth, containing fixty mille-
pedes, dried and bruifed, lute exaifHy the joints,
place the cucurbite in balneo maris, and" diilil
the matter by a pretty firong fire, and the water
in difWHng pafTing over the knot, will be fmpreg-
nated with the fubftances and quality of the mille-
pedes ; which water muft be kept in bottles well
corked.

Virtues.' This water is excellent for the

afthma, for the difficulty of refpiration, for the
cough, to attenuate the coarfe humours of the
lungs and of the reins for the nepbritick, for the '
ulcers of the bladder, and to pro^■oke the urine.
P P The

The Univerfal Fliftory of Arts ^;;^ Sciences.

286

'I he dofe is from oire ounce to two, taken

twice or thrice a day.

Aqua nephrltica. R. Mell: opltimi^ lb j. Tere-
flint hina clara, ^ ij. Ligni nephritki, radic'is aro-
nidis, aa ^ j. k.

Having pounded the woods and roots, all the
drugs murt be put to macerate in the beft white
wine, and lemon-juice, newly extraded, of each
two pounds ; diftilling the liquor afterwards by a
moderate fire.

Firtucs. — This water is proper to expel the gra-
vel from the reins and the bladder ; and is given

fftr the ncphriticlc. The dofe is from half an

ounce to four ounces.

TVater to appeafe the palm of the gout. Let

ox's dung be dried in the fun, and mix it after-
wards with frcys of frogs, an equal quantity of
each, in a glafs cucurbite, to which having adapted
a capital with its receiver, and luted exactly the
joints, proceed to the diftillation of tlie humidity
ir^ balneo mariae ; and you'll have a water which
muft be kept in a cool place for ufc.

Virtues. — This water is efteemed good to ap-
peafe the pains of the gout, attended with inflam-
mation of the part, by applying upon it pieces of
linen cloth dipped into it.

'A -very good eye-waier. — Take the flowers of
cyanus, newly gatber'd in their vigour, pound them
in a marble m.ortar, with a fufficient quantity of
fnow-watcr to humejf them v/ell ; put them in a
glafs or ftone cucurbite, and having adapted a ca-
pital to it with its recipient, leave the matter in
digeftion, by a flow heat in balneo marias, for a
whole day ; and having diftilled afterwards the
humidity, you'll expofe the diftilled water to the
fun, for fome days, in a bottle uncorked ; and keep
it afterv/ards for ufe.

Virtues. — This water is proper for inflamma

dula:, lilii conpalUum, aa man. vj.
■/«/, pivcnia, tilia, aa pu^. j.

Salvia, rorifma-
Radlcis piconiee,

tions, and other maladies of the eyes ; it cooiS
them, and ftrengthens the fibres thereof, by wafh-
ing the eyes with U, and fuffering fome drops
thereof to enter them.

Aqua epidem::a, Georgii Baiei. R FoUorum che-
lidonia, rorijmnrini, rutcr., arthemiftcr., ahfwthi, ana-
gaUidii, dracontiiyfcalisfa., agrimonite, melijpe, f.or-
dii, cetitauri minoris, cardui benedlSii, betonica. roris
fo/is, ana tnan, ij. Radicum angeUees^ tormenrilla,
gentiano", zedoaiia^glycyrrhifis, ana J j. Alacerentur
in vini aibi lb. viij. Pir duos dies ; deinde dijUllen-
ttir fecundum artem.

Virtues. — Th\s water is ufed in the epidemical
maladies ; as in the fmall-pox, the malignant

fever, and the plague. The doje is from half

an ounce to two ovmces ; or from half a fpoonful
to four.

Aqua lavendulf lompofita, R, Fhrwn lavin-

eruea, aa ^ Vij. Galangir, zingibetis, calami ura-
matici, nucijla, cubeharum, dnnamonii, macis, cary~
ophylloruw, vifci querciui, aa gr. xxvj. Vini opti-
mi, q.f. Fiat infiifio i£ dijhllatio m balneo marics.

Virtues. This water is ccphalick and arthri-

tick, it flrengthens the brain and the joints, and
may be ufed in the epilepfy, palfy, and apoplexy.
— — The dofe is from two drachms to an ounce.

Water to prevent the accidents ivhich may be occa-
fioned by a fright or a fall of a woman with child.

Take an ounce and a half of cinnamori : half

an ounce of cubebs ; three drachms of cloves ;
mace, galanga, ginger, zcdoary, faffron, of each
two drachms; a handful of flowers of lavender,
and two quarts of water of lilies of the valley,
diftill'd with the bell: white wine. Bruife well
the ingredients, put them into a cucurbite, and hav-
ing pour'd upon them the water of lilies of the
vafley, flop well the veffel, and place it in horfe-
dung, where you'lJ leave it four days in digeftion ;
v/hich elapfed, open the cucurbitC; adapt a capital
to it with its receiver, lute exactly the joint.s, and
diftil the huniiJity in balneo marix, to extra£t a
water which mufl be kept in a bottle well corked.

Virtues. — This water is proper for women v/ith
child v/hich have been frighten'd, or having fallen
down ; for it prevents abortion, by ftrtngthening
both the mother and child : it a! Co helps the digef-
tion— The dofe is from two drachms to an ounce.

Elixirs.
The name elixir comes from the Greelt a^xo,
traho, becaufe in mixing an ^//W/'r, the pureft fub-
ftance of the mixts is extra(5led : or from aT^^iu,
auxilior, becaufe of the great benefits received from
them in medicine. Elixir is fbmetimes called
enchilana.

Elixir is a fpirit or quintifTential tinflureof
feveral chofen mixts, containing their pureft fub-
ftance. It is defigned for inward ufes.

Elixir proprictatis. R. Myrrh's clei^a, aloes
fuccotrin/s, aa J ij- Croci orientalis, J j.

The myrrh and aloes mufl be pounded together,
and put with the faffron in a matrafs, pouring
upon them fpirit of wine, that it may furpafs the
matter by a finger's breadth ; then the matrafs mufl
be well ftoppcd, and carried to a warm place;
where the matter is to be left two days in digeftion,
which elapfed, the matrafs is open'd, .and the acid
fpirit of fulphur having been added to the infufion,
to the height of four fingers breadth, the matrafs
mufl be corked again, and placed in digeftion in
the fun, or in a lukewarm balneo mariae, where
I having

MEDICINE.

having been left four days, the liquor nmfl be fil-
trated afterwards, and kept in a bottle well corked.

Firtui:s. This r/ixir Itrengthens the heart

and the flomach, purifies the blood, provokes the
menfcs, abate? the hyftcrick vapours, and is fudo-
rifick The dofe is from four to fixtccn drops.

Elixir fincopticum. R Corticis extcrioris citri
lb fs. Crod orieiitaHs ^vj. Antidoti orvietani
^ k. Confei^ionis alkenncs, diambr^, aa ^ ij.
iiucii Ilmoiuim depurati Ibj. Aquarum rofarum ^ ix.
li'leliffes lb fs. Flai'um trtwn cordia'ium, calett-
dv.lic, lilii convalliuni, roris fclis, aa ^ Ivo I'll
rtica 'i^ iij.

■ You'll take the outward rind of lemon feparated
fi'om the whole part, and hp.ving cut it fmall,
you'll put it with the fafFron in the matrafs, toge-
ther with the orvietan and confeiaion alkermes
difiblvcd in the diftilled waters ; then flop exaflly
the matrafs and place it in the horfe-dung, where
the matter muft be left in digeftion for fifteen days ;
pouring afterwards the infufion into a glafs or flone
cucurbite, and having adapted a capital to it with
its recipient, lute exadlly the joints and put in the
pipe of the alembick four fcruples of powder of
diambra, tied in apiece of linen cloth, you'll diftil
the liquor in balnco mariae.

Virtues. — This dixiy is good againfl: fainting fits,
fincope and the apoplexy. — The dofe is from tuo
drachms to an ounce and a half.

Of Oils in general.

By the name oil is properly underflood, the
unftuous juice or fat fubflancc cxtraflcd by ex-
jueffion from olives ; for cl.tim, which is the Latin
name, comes from oka, or i^aia, which fignifies
dive tree, or olive: however, all fat and inflam-
mable liquor, from what part foever it be extrafled,
is called oil; the greafe of animals are but con-
gealed oils., by the mixture of the volatile falls,
and of a little phlegm. The fruits, berries, and
feeds abound in oil; and generally all combuflible
matters are no otherwife inflamniable but by means
of the «/7 they contain.

Oils may be divided into natural and artificial.
—The natural are, as the liquid amber and the
turpentine, which come out through the incifions
made in trees ; and the petroleuwwhich run through
the clefts of rocks. The artifeial are all the oils,
extrafled by exprcffion, difiillation, or infufion.'

I'll fpeak only in this trcatife of the oils ufed in
Galenical Aledieincs ; and dcfcribe firil, the oils cx-
traiteei h exprejjion, and pafs afterwards to thofe
prepared by infufion.

The Oil of.OLivES, which is the moll cim
mon of flTofe" extraiRtS'ij' eiprejftsn, is- prepared in
the following manner.

287

The olives arc gathcr'd v/hcn they arc ripe,
viz. in the months of November and December ;
they are left to depurate of tlieir watery humidity
in fome corner of the lioufc, for ten or twelve
days, where having heated thcmfelvcs, they arc
bruifed afterwards under a mill-Hone, and then
put in frails of rufhes or palm-trees, which being
placed at the prefs, one over another, there comes
out an oil by the fingle comprefTion of the frails,
which is called virgin oil, and is the beft,

Next the olives are moiften'd with warm water,
to render the oil more fluid, and by preffing them
as hard as poiTible, a very good oil is extraded
from tiiem.

The fqueezed olives are flirred, and havihf '
pour'd over them a great deal of warm water, more
oil is extrafted by a new exprefjlon, which being
full of fasces, is worfe than the two firft : thefc
oils fvcimming over the water, are eafily feparated
from it ; but there is found precipitated at the
bottom, a tliick matter, which is what the anticnts
called amtirea.

There has never been fuch a thing as the om-
phacine oil, prepared in the manner defcribed by
the antients ; for they pretended that it was ex-
tra(51ed by exprcflion from green olives, wherefore
it was called omphaciwii, becaufe green olives have
fome refemblance wkh green grapes., called in Latin
omphatium, i. e. crude and aftringent ; hx it green
clivei were bruifed and ftrained, nothing but a vif-
cous juice coidd be extradied from them. Thofe
that want to give to the comm.on oil, the qualities
attributed to the pretended omphacine oil, boil in it
the fummits of black berry bulbes, of oak, of len-
tifc, of honey-fuckles, and red rofes.

Old oil is commonly requir'd for plaifters and
unguents, becaufe having received fome fermen-
tation in its infenfible parts, it liecomes thereby
more penetrating, and more emollient. Itisalfo
ufed for aliment, and in clyfters for the colick,
the gripes, and the dyfenteria.

Oils e.\ira£icd by expreffon.

Oil of fivect al'iioruls. — Take what quantity you
will of new and large almonds, feparated from
their fliells , rub them well in a coaife and lou^h
linen cloth (to cleanfc them of a red f'curfffaften'd
to the fkin) till no more dirt comes olt; pound
thofe almonds in a marble mortar, with a v/oodeti
pei'Ue, till they be reduced into a pafle ; wrqi
that pafte in a lack, or piece of ffrong linen cloth,
put the fack to prefs between two thin plates of
walnut-tree, and having placed underneath a pew-
ter-dilli, oran caithen one glazed, prefs gently the
matter at firft, to make the oil run by degree?
vvitb.out burlHng the cloth ; but when fome quan--
P p 2 titv

;88 lloe Univerfal Hiilory of Arts and Sciences.

titv of »/7 is come out, you muft tlu-n prers the ] _ Vtriua.- The wV »/;;»/« ftrengthens and con

matter as hard as you ean ; and you'll have a very
good o'llofjmet almonds, which mull be kept in a
bottle for ufe.

firtues.— Tht oil of fweet almonds foftens the
acrimony of the trachsea, and of the breaft, pro-
vokes the uiine, appcafcs the pains of thenephri-
tick, by facilitating the evacuation of the Hone,
oravel, or phlegm, from the reins or bladder ; it is
good for the after-pains of a iying-in woman, and

for "the gripes of new-born children. The doje

is from two drachms to an ounce and a half. It
is u fed outwardly to foften the parts.
"The common method is to blanch the almonds
before they are pounded, to extraif:t a finer and
clear oil ; but as it is impoflible to blanch the al-
monds till after they have been put to fleep in hot
water, they have been thereby impregnated with
that water, which running along with the oil
makes it grow rank if it be kept a little while.
Several heat the pounded almonds before they

folidates, in foftening ; it relblves the fluxions,
temperates the he.^t of the reins, and of the head,
by anointiiig the part with it hot.

Oleum lUiorum cotitpofitum, mejvi. R. FUruin
idlornm alborum | viij. MajUches, calami aroma'
tici, cojll^ carpcbalfatiii, aa ^ j. Cinnamcmi, cary-
ophyllorum, aa J Is. Croci 5 iij. Olei dulcis ij. lb.
Mijccantur ^ macerentur per dies quadraginta, in
vaje obturato, deinde luliiant hviter, iJ expri-
mantur.

Virtues. — This oil of white lilies is refolutive in
heating ; it is ufed for the pains of the ftomach,
of the breafl, of the abdomen, in anointing the
afflifled parts therewith : though this fort of oil is
feldom ufed ; the fimple oil of white lilies, pre-
pared in the manner of that of rofes, being almoft
always fubftituted to it.

Oil of St. Johns-wort ccmpofed. — Take a pound
of fummits of St. John's-wort, in flowers, newly
gathered in their vigour, bruife them, put them in
a jug, and pour over them two pounds of common

prefs them, to extract more oil ; but as the fire

communicates always fome difagreeable fmell to | oil, and three ounces of ftrong red wme ; flop the
oils and render them more acid, it is much betterljug, and place it m a warm place, or in balneo
to have a lefs quantity of oil, and good. mariae, where the matter mufl be left m digeftion

- • • r^ 1 ■ .\-- r fg,. twenty-four hours; boil afterwards flightly

the infufion, ftrain it with expreflion, and having
put in the colature as much flowers as before,
proceed to the infufion, coclion, and colature; re-
peating once more the fame operation, except that
the third time the infufion muft boil longer, to pro-
cure the dilTipaiion of the aqueous juice. After
the oil has been (trained for the laft time it m.ull
be left to fettle, and afterwards decanted gently, to
feparate thefseces; then you'll diflblvein it at a flow
heat a pound of the bed turpentine, and pour the
oil while yet hot into a jug, to keep it for ufe.
Virtues. — The oilcf St. John's-wort attenuates.

The oil of walnutsQzn be extrafled in the fame
manner without fire ; which oil is proper to ap-
peafe the colick and the gripes. Ladies ufe it to
cleanfe their (kin.

The oil of bitter almonds differs no otherwiie
from that of fiveet almonds, than in that it is kept
longer without growing rank.

The oils of the (tones of fruits, and of feeds
•which contain a great deal of oil, are extra-Sled in
the manner of that of almonds ; but when it is
wanted to extras by exprelTion the oil of a feed
which is very little oleaginous, as is that of anis ;
or when the oil is naturally congealed, as in the

nutmeo-, the matter, after it has been v/ell pounded, is digeflive and refolutive: it appeafes the pains

muft b'e heated at the vapour of water or wine, —■'"-' "- ' ' - "

then preffed hard.

Oils, prepared by infufion, ..r decoSion, or hy a
fimple mixture.

Oil of rofes. Take a pound and a half of

red rofes newly gathered, pound them well, and
put them into a jug ; and having poured on them
three pounds of oil of olives, (top the jug, and ex-
pofe it to the fun for feven or eight days ; which
elapfed, boil flightly the matter, and having ftrain-
ed it hard through a linen cloth, put the fame
quantity of red rofes in the colature, and proceed
to the maceration, coction, and exprelTion as be-
fore ; and having repeated the fame operation a
third time, you'll have the oil of rofes, which mu(t
be kept in a pot for ufe.

caufed by a vifcous humour ; it is ufed to (Ireng-
then the nerves and the joints, and for the fciatica.
It is an efficacious balfam to cu.e wounds.

Oleum croci. R. Croci, calami aromatici, femi-
nis carvi, da 'i.'y Myrrhes i, fs.

Let the ingredients infufe together after they
have been pounded in a pint of red wine for fi.x
days fucceiTively in a glazed earthen pot ; then
boil the infufion at a flow fire, with a pint and a
h.-ilf of common oil, to the entire confumption of
the wine ; which done, ftrain it and keep it for
ufe.

Virtues. This cil of faffron diflipates hatd-

nefs, appeafes the pains of the matrice and other
parts ; it ftrengthens the nerves by anointing the
aiHi(5ted parts with it.

Vkum mofdatum, R Florttm liliorum,foliiindiy

majtichis

MEDICINE. 289

majl'iches coji'iy fftca: ruirdi, tia^(s. Ligni aloes, znd oils, thst they are often 'confounded together ;

cajjl.e liinc-tr, r/iyrrha; aoci, Jiyruas ca'.aintta, aa
5 ij. Bdillii, cubcbarum,. caiyophyllorum, aa 9 jv,
Nuc'is mojchata: 9 ij. Mojcbi gj. OUi communis
ij. lb. Vini generoft lb fs.

All the drugs except the mufk having been {light-
ly pounded, mufl be put to infufe with the wine
and oil for feven or eight days, in a glazed earthen
pot, and boiled afterwards to almoft the entire cori-
fumption of the wine ; after which the liquor is
llrained and kept for ufe.

Virlues. This oil is proper to flrengthen the

nerves, matrice, ftomach, to expel wind, and to
refolve coarfe humours, by anointing the parts
therewith.

Oleum carminativum reformatum. R. Oleorum
dijlillatorum feminis cymiiii,^(s. Jniji,^k. Car-
w, rj. Arayitiorum, ehamortiilhr , ana '^k.

All thefe oils muft he mixed together in a vial,
and the mixture kept for ufe.

riitues. This oil is proper to attenuate the

vifcofities, to expel winds, to appeafe the gripes

and pains : itisufedfor the melancholicks The

dofe is from three drops to fix. The region of the
flomach, and of the navel, can alfo be anointed
with it.

Oleum major ana. R. Hcrharum majoran^,
man. iv. <!crpintf, man. ij. , Foliorum myrti vel
haccarum, tiian, j. Abrotarii., menthcf aqualic^, ana
?nan. fs. Olei comtnunis, lb. iij.

Let all thefe drugs macerate together for eight
days, in a jug well lippp'd, and carried to a warm
p'ace ; then boil the infufion, flrain it by ex-
preffion, and keep the colature for ufe.

Firtues — This oil of marjoram is re.'blutive,
flrvngthens the brain, and the ilomach, expels the
wind, and worms ; is good for the fciatica, and
attenuates the vifcofities, by anointing the affliifted
parts therewith.

Oleum ranarum. Take ten or twelve frogs
alive, cut them in pieces, and put them in a
glazed earthen pot, pouring immediately upon
them a pound and half of linfeed oil ; cover the
pot very clofe, and place it in a boiling hot bal-
iieo mariae, where it muft be left feven or eight
hours ; ftrain afterwards the infufion, fqueezing
hard the frogs ; leave the colature to fettle, and
decant it afterwards to depurate it of its fsces.

Virtues. — The oil of frogs foftens, and tempe-
rates the inflammations, promotes fleep, being
applied on the temples, and appeafes the pains of
the "out, by anointing the parts with it.

In the fame manner can be made the oil of
toaJs, of craw fifh, and other aquatick animals.
Balsams.

There is fo great an affinity between balfams

and that the fame liquor is fbmetimcs called Zr/?/-
farn, and fometimcs oil; though there is notwith-
ffanding this difi-'erence, that the balfams have ge-
nerally more confiftence than the oils.

Balsams are divided into natural and artificial.
Natural balfams are thofe which come out of trees,
thro' iiicifions made in ihem, as the balfim capayba,
or capivi, of Peru, &c. — Artifcial balfams are
thofe prepared by Chymiftry, and Pharmacy;
which balfams are compofed of oils and efiences,
gums, wax, refine, powder ; accordijig to the
different virtues to be given to them : there are
balfams prepared for wounds, to preferve dead bo-
dies, to flrengthen, and rejoice the brain, the
heart and the ftomach, to refift venom, for the
wounds of the breaft, and to perfume.

The Balsam oi areeus is made (when a con-
fiderable quantity is wanted) with two pounds of
tallov/ of goats, Fenice turpentine, and gum elemi,
a pound and a half of each ; and a pound of hog's-
lard. To the gum elemi, cut into fmall pieces,
and liquify'd on a flow fire, are added the turpen-
tine, goat's tallow, and hog s lard ; when thefe
are well difi"olv'd, they mult be ftiain'd thro' a
piece of new linen cloth, to feparate the dre2;s ;
the v/hole muft be left to cool, and the balfani is
made.

This balfam is incarnative, and confolidatcs all
forts of wounds and ulcers ; 'tis ufed for the frac-
tures and luxations of the bones, to cure contu-
fions, and the wounds of the nerves.

To m.ake the Samaritan baljam, vou muft take
equal parts of oil of olives and good wine, which,
muft be boil'd in a glaz'd earthen pot till the wine
be entirely confumcd. This balfam mundifies
and confolidates fimple wounds, efpecially whea
they are frefh

The Spa?njh bafam is made by taking wheat,
roots of valerian, and carduus benedidlus, an ounce
(feach ; all which muft be well pounded, and put
lifterwards, with a pint of white wine, in a glaz'd
earthen veflcl, narrov/ atop, which muft be well
ftopp'd, and placed on hot embers durmg 24 hours,
adding to it afterwards fix ounces of St John's-
wort, making the whole boil to the confumption
of the wine ; after which, 'tis ftrain'd, and a new
addition made to it, afterwards, of two ounces of
olibanum, in powder, and eight ouncts oi Fenice
turpentine ; which, after it has been mix'd tooe-'
ther over a flow fire, the balfam is made. **'

This baliam was always ufed by Aquapcndente j;
'tis excellent for all forts of wounds, even the ner-
vous, which, 'tis faid, it will cure in 24 hours.
The wound muft be vvaflied firft with cold white

wine.

290 Tlse Univerfal Hiflory

wine, and then anointed with this balfam hot.
If ths wound was deep this fame bal'iim, alfo
made hot, niiift be fyring'd into it, approachijig af-
terwards the edges of the wound near one another,
and anointing thern widi it. On the wound muft
l)s put a comprefs dipp'd in the balfam, and ano
t'ier over it, dipp'd in ftrong wine, and over this
aftother dry comprefs.

To make the green balfam, )'ou muft take equal
parts of liniecd oil, and oil of olives, vi%. a pound
of each, an ounce of oil of bays, two ounces of
Fenice turpentine, half an ounce of diltiU'd oil of
juniper-berries, three drachms of verdigreafc, two
drachms of the befl aloes, two drachms and a half
of white vitriol, and a drachm of oil of cloves.
The oils oflinfced and olives mufl: be put together
iii a' frying pan, over a very fiovv fire, and then
nuift be incorporated with the turpentine and oil
of bays; after which, the pan having been taken
off the fire, and the mixture left to cool, there
muft be mixed with it, by degrees, the verdigreafe,
white vitriol, and aloes, very well pounded ; adding
to it the oils of cloves and juniper-berries ; and
the ballam is made.

' This balfam is very good for all forts of wounds
m'ade cither with iron, or fire-arms. The wound
muft be waflied with hot wine, and afterwards
anointed with this balfam hot; applying to it
pledgets imbib d with it, and over it a large pled-
get dipp'd in fome ftyptick liquor. This balfam
mundifies, incarnates, and cicatrizes the wound ;
'tis good againft the bite of venomous beafts,
fiftulous, and malignant ulcers.

Baljamumvulgare. R Tcrebinth'ines Venet,e\h,].
Gumini elemi ^iv. Refimr pitii '^\], Arijhlochia
hngcs 5 i fs. Sangu'mh clracanh ^ ij.

The dragon's blood and ariftoloche muft be
pounded each fcparately, and the gum elemi and
refine melted with the turpentine o\^r a very flow
fire ; then the whole mixture is ftrained through
a linen cloth to feparatethc dirt ; and the powders
having been mixed with the colature, the mixture
muft be kept for \xk.

Virtues. — This balfam is proper for wounds,
and Old and ntw ulcers, it cleanfcs them, renews
the flefh, ftrengthens the nerves, and is good
for the diflocations.

Balsam, to make children cut their teeth eafy.
— Take three ounces of frefh butter without fait ;
hen's and duck's greafe, of each two ounces ; and
an ounce oi flowers of wild red poppies, mix toge-
ther in a glazed earthen pot the frefli butter, the
eneafe, and the flov/ers, with the mucilagp of roots
of althaea, and the juice of craw-fifh, of each two
ounces ; coyer the pot, and place it over a little

of Arts and Sciences.

fire, to make the matter boil gently to the coft-
fumption of the watery humidity ; ftrain the liquor,
and mix with the colature four ounces of white
fugar-candy, afcruple of troches of gallia niofchata
reduced into powder, and the yolk of an egg, to
make a balfam which muft be kept for ufe.

Virtues This balfam is ufed to foften the

gums of little children, by rubbing them often with
it ; whereby they cut their teeth cafy.

To extraft the juice of craw-fdh, you muftbruife
five or fix of them in a marble mortal, humecting
them with water of borage, and carrying them
afterwards to the prefs.

Balfamum Baljamhice. R Fhrum, fcliorum, ^
fruciuum balJhniiuT., ^ iv. Radicum confoliricf ma-
jor'is, ophyogloffi, arijlilochia rotunda-, valertance
r/iajoris, ana ^ ij. Vifci In folTuulh, ulir.l repcrti,
fucci cancrorum fiuvlatillum, foltorum pervinae i^
faKtada-, fumir.itattim foridarum hyperici, gall'i lutei,
ana ^ j fs. Old ciivarum ifc iv.

Bruifc the leaves, flowers, and mifletoe of elm,
and put them together in a glazed earthen pot,
pouring over them the oil, and the juice of craw-
fifti ; cover the pot and place it in the fun, where
the matter muft be left 12 days in digeftion ; boil-
ing afterwards the infufion over a flow fire to the
confumption of the wine ; ftraining the decodlion
bv exprefli; n ; and after the oil has been left to
fettle, you muft pour it by inclination to feparatc
it from its I'seces, and then mix with it half apound
of diftilled oil ofvarnilh, to make a balfam, which
is to be kept for ufe.

Virti:ei. This balfam is thought excellent to

flrcngthen the nerves, for wounds, burns, the piles,
and lore breaft.

Balf.mumfypticum, A. Mynficht. R. AmpJaJlri
Jlypt'ui, A Mynjuht, ^ iv. Olei vitellorum ovoriim,
q.f-fi^'t haljunnim, cut adde ohorum nucis mofchata-y
caryophyllorum, fa'.v'.ay ana g.

You 11 melt gently in an earthen difh four oun-
ces of the ft) ptick plaifter of A. Mynficht, mixing
with it, about as much oil of eggs as is necefiary
to give it the confiflence of an unguent ; and when
cool, add to it the oils of nutmeg mel;ed, of cloves,
and of fage, making of the whole a balfam to be
kept for ufe.

Virtues. — This balfam ftrengthens the ftomach,
and the abdomen, it helps digeftion, fiops vomit-
ing, and haemorrhages, by anointing the ftomach,
the abdomen, and other affiidled parts with it.

Ba'ijiimum julphuris fimplcx . — 'I'ake three ounces
of flowers of fulp'iur, put it in a matrafs, and pour
over it eight ounces offpirit of turpentine, and
having ftopped the matrafs, and fliaken it well,
place it in digeftion at a flow fand-heat for five or

lix hours, or till the oil Is

■rown red ; then'pour
tut

MEDICINE.

out the t!n£lure by inclination, and keep it : which
tinflurc is the baliam of fulphur.

Kii'tne^. — This balfam is proper to cleanfe the
ulcers of the lungs and of the breaft, it helps rcf-
pijation, and is given to afthmaticks. — The dofe
is from a drop to fix.

Baifamumftilpburh annlfatum. Put an ounce

and a half of flower of fulphur in a matral's, pour
upon it half a pound of oil of annifeed, flop the
matrafs,and place it in a fand lieai,wherethe matter
muft be left in dgeflion till the flower of fulphur
be almoft entirely dilToIved, and the oil has acquir-
ed a red colour, which commonly happens in nine
or ten hours ; and after the balfam has been left
to fettle, it muft be decanted to ieparate it from
its frees.

Virtues. This balfam is good for the ulcers

of the breaft, and of the lungs, for the afthma, the
indigeftions of the ftomach, and the windy colick.
—The liofe is from three drops to twelve.

Balfamum LucateUi. R Old olivarum, terebin-
thino' Vcneta in aqua rofarwri ad alhedinem, lotcr,
ana }fej fs. Cera citriita', fcj. Santali ruhri
fuhtiliter puherizatl, ^ ij-

Put in a glazed earthen pot the oil of olives, and
eight or nine ounces of canary-wine, place the pot
in a boiling hot baliieo marias, where having been
left till the wine be entirely confumcd, ftrain the oil
afterwards, and having melted in it over the fire,
the wax, and the turpentine, take the matter ofF
the fire, and when almoft cold, mix with it the
red fanders, reduced into a very fubtle powder, to
make a balfam which muft be kept for ufe.

Virtues. — The Lueatelius balfam is detcrfive, pro-
per to confolidate green wounds, and to ftrcngthen
the nerves.

Balfamum aiiodynum vel podasricum, GeorziBatei.

2gi

tonis.

Opii,

i, j. Camphor^, 3 vj.

oei, ■!,]. Spiritus vini rei^ifcati, ^ xvnj.

The foap muft be rafped, the opium cut in fmall
pieces, the camphire bruifed, and all the drugs put
in a matrafs with the fpirit of wine ; flopping af-
terwards the vcflel, and placing it in dif!;eftion on
the hot fand, or at fome other gentle heat, where
it muft be left ten days, (baking it from time to
time, to facilitate the diffblution of the ingredients;
the ten days elapfed, the infufion fhall be ftrained
through a flannel, and kept : which colature is the
anodyne ba'Jam.

' Virtues This balwm appeafes the moft ex-
cruciating pains, being applied on the part with a
piece of linen cloth dipped in it, and renewing it
every four hours, till the pain be entirely ceafed.
It is ufed for the rheumatifm and the gout ; it is
alio taken inwaidly from 30 to 50 drops in wine.

The principal quality of this balfam proceeds
fiom the opium.

Balfamum antipodagriciim, Phil. MuUeri. R.
Alajliches, olibani, nprbic, bdellii, giimvii ammo-
niac:, opoponacis, nmniur, aa^\]. Tartari, 5Jfs.
Vitrioli, Ibj. Mel/is, YoVy' Aqua- vitcr, lb iv.

The gums muft be coarfcly pounded together ;
and the tartar, and vitriol together, putting after-
wards all the powders with the honey and brandy
■ in a large glafs or ftone cucurbite, flopping the
I vclTel, and leaving it in digeftion, in a warm place,
1 for eight days fucceffively ; which elapfed, the cu-
curbite is unflopped, a capital and receiver adapted
to it, the joints luted, and the lie)Uor diftilled by
a graduate fire ; keeping the liquor for ufe, which
is the balfam for the gout.

Virtues. — This balikm is excellent for the pains
of the gout, and of the rheumatifm ; a piece of
flannel is dipped in it, and applied on the aiBiftcd
part.

Balfamum miralile, Fulleri. R Tliuris ^ ij.
Ma/liches, caryophyllorum, gilanga, macis, iube-
barum, ana ^ fs. Ligni aloes Jj.

All the drugs muft he very well pounded, and
having been mixed with the honey and turpentine,
the whole mixture muft be put in a cucurbite, pour-
ing upon it fpirit of wine to the height of two or
three fingers, diftilling the whole in b.dneo marias,
till the liquor appears red ; and continuing the fire
to extrafl: the balfam, which rnuft be rectified.

Virtues. This balfam is good to cure all forts

of wounds, for old ulcers, cancers, fiftula's, and

the maladies of the eyes. The dofe inwardly is

from five drops to ten.

Unguents.

The name of unguent derives from the Latin
ungere, to anoint, and as we anoint with oils as
well as unguents, th/- antients called unguents the
aromatick oils the joints were rubbed v/ith, and
thofe who fold them were called unguentarii ; but
we underftand at prcfent by unguents, certain com-
pofitions of greafe, oil, wax, powder, to whicli.
are moft commonly given conhftences much like
that of greafe.

Liniment comes from the Latin word Unire, to
anoint gently ; what we call in Latin liaimentum
or lllus, is a mixture of unguents, or of wax and
oil of a confiftence thicker than oil, but lefs thick
than the unguent ; it is commonly ufed to molify
and foften, by rubbing the tendcrelt parts, as the
breaft, is'c. with it.

The cerata, borrov/ their name from the wax
which enter their compofition, called in Latin ceru.
Antiently the cerata\v\A a more folid confiftence
than the unguent, and fofter than the plaifter, but
at prefent there is no rule obferved with regard to
that ; for they are fometimes made as foft as un-
guents.

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts i7W Sciences.

292

guents^ fometimes more liquid, and fometimes
harder; they confift of the fame drugs the unguent s
are compol'cd of ; and we give fometimes tlie name
of cerat to compofitions where there is no wax ;
and as there is fo little difference between unguents,
liniments, and cerata, I'll place them all three un-
tler the fame article, and not without reafon, fmce
it is very well known that to give a confiftence to
thefe three compofitions, one borrows in part the
matter of the unguent, which ferves here as a me-
dium, and that the oils are the common bafis of
them all.

Vnguentum rofatum. R Jxungi.-e porci recentis,
pufgata is' Jevpius lota, rojarum pallidarum reccn-
tium contufarum, ana lb vj .

The hog's lard mull be new, freed of all its (kins,
and wafhed fevcral times in water ; and fix poimds
thereof having been put into an earthen pot, with
an equal weight of pale rofes newly gathered fepa-
rated from their calice, and pounded in a marble
mortnr, and both ingredients well mixed together,
the pot is to be covered und placed in dijeflion at

Virtues. — This unguent is proper to dry, and cure
burns, for the itch, the itching of the (kin, and
flight wounds.

The Apothecaries employ moft commonly oil,
and often a ftinlcing fort, in the preparation of this
unguent^ which renders the fmell thereof \Qry of-
fenfive.

Unguentum mundifuativum., Nic. I'Emery. R
Axungice porci, terebinthints, ana ^ viij. Butyri
recentis, olei hyperici, unguenti popu/ei, ana i iv.
Olei laurini, viridis teris, , ana ^ iij. Vitrioli albi,
^ iv. Boracis, realgal, aut arfenici rubri, ana ^ij.

Pound and mix together the verdigreafe, white
vitriol, borax, and realgal ; melt together over a
fmall fire, in a bafon, the hog's lard, frefli butter,
and populeum ; add to it, when off the fire, the
turpentine and oil ; and when the mixture is almofl
cold, mix exactly with it tiie powders, ffirrino: the
whole mixture for fome time with a wooden fpa-
tuia ; and keep the unguent for ufe.

Virtues. — This unguent is a powerful deterfive;
it dries the wounds, confumes the flimy fleih, and

the fun for feven days, Airring the matter from refills the gangrene: it may be applied with pledgets
time /to time with a wooden fpatula ; the feven on old ulcers, and fcrophulous tumours, when open.

days elapfedjthe infufion is put to boil for an hour
or two over a fmall fire, and afterwards ihained

with a flrong expreffion, putting into the colature fuilla ft iv

Unguentum NeapoUtanu7n frnplex.
vivi ^ vi. fs. Tercbinthinif Vineta ^ iv.

C Jrgcnti
Axungia

as much rofes as before ; and having kft the mat-
ter in digeftion for feven days more, it mud: be
ffrained by expreffion, and the colature is the
unguent of rofes, which muft be kept for ufe. To
make it red, add two ounces of the roots of or-
canette fteeped in the unguent while hot, for four
or five hours.

Virtues. — The unguent of rofes is efteemed pro-
per to refolveand foften ; it is ufed for the haemor-
rhoids, the inflammations, and the pains of the
joints.

MoffDifpenfaries require red rofes for the com-
pofition of this unguent, but the Apothecaries the bugs.

wanting to render their unguent odorous, employ 1 This preparation of unguent is too weak to ex-
pale rofes, which have a much ffronger and .igree- ' cite afalivation ; though it is proper to examine
able fmell ; they are befides more refolutive, and the conllitution of thofe, on whom it is employ 'd ;

The quickfilver muft be flired hard with the
turpentine for fix hours, in a large brafs mortar,
till it be entirely extinguiflied, mixing with it by
degrees afterwards, the hog's lard to make an un-
guent to be kept for ufe.

Virtues This unguent is proper for the itch,

ringworms, and other itching of the fkin : it kills
the lice, fleas, bugs, and crab lice, by anointing
the parts of the body with it, forbearing to anoint
the breafl: and ffomach, where it could caufe fome
alteration, becaufe of the quickfilver which enters
into it. The bedfteads are rubbed with it to kill

more capable to produce the effecb expe<Sed from
the unguent of rofes.

Unguentum album, feu de cerufa. R Olei rofati,
Ifeij.'" Cera alba, fc fs. Ceruja Veneta, _^ viij.
Camphoric, ^j.

The white wax muft be broken into fmall pieces,
and melted in the oil of rofes at a flow fire, mixing
with it afterwards with a wooden fpatula, the ce-
rufs, which has been reduced before into a very
Aibtile powder, aiidlatlly the camphire diffolved in
fome oil of rofes, ftirring the unguent till the ingre-
dients be very well incorporated together, and keep-
ing, the unguent for ufe.

for if they are weak and eafy to be moved, it could
excite in them a flight one. To each ounce of
unguent there is a drachm of quickfilver.

A Pomatum for the itch. Mix together four

ounces -of hog's lard, waflied feveral times, and
half an ounce of white precipitate of mercury, for
' a pomatum.

I Unguentum NeapoUtannm quadrupUcatum mer curia,
\ R Axungi.e fuilla % ij. Ar genii vivi 3 iv. Tere-
hinthince elarce J iv. Olei laurini J ij. defpica, Jly~
racis Hquid.e ana ^j.

The quickfilver muft be fiirred hard in a large
brafs mortar with the turpentine, the liquid ftorax,

and

MEDICINE.

293

cr twelve hours, or till it be
^ J, aiiJ mix ir,2 afterwards by
wit!) ii, for an unguent to be

ar.

dcgij
kept foi

f^irtui:: -This unguent k proper to excite

falivatioii, ari-i co cure the pox, by anointing gra-
dually the fee. - ttiC !cgs, tiiiglis, lower abdomen,
back bone, ntck, arms, and :hands, as explained
at large in the iirticles of Chymijlry and Surgery,

Ungucntum cnulatuni. xk. Radicis enulx campana
ife fs. Argent i vivi, terebinthino' cl(>r<rr, old alftn-
ilAi, ana ^ iij. Axungi^v fiitlke lb ij. fiat unguen-
tzirn, S. A.

Virtues.— TKis unguent is proper for the itch,
ringworms, and for other itchings of the fl<in.

TJuguentum conti a vermes. R Olei abfinthii ft fs.
Succor urn fuliorum per/icorum, tanaceti, ana J j.
Cera Jj fs. /Uoes ~i^ ij. fs. Centaur it m'tnoris, co-
rallina., feminis contra vermes, ana ^j. fs. f. un-
guent um, S. A.

Virtues. This unguent is proper to kill the

worms, by anointing the navel with it.

If a drachm of mcrcurius dulcis was added to
this compofition, the unguent would ftill be more
cfF.cacious.

Un. uentt m de rapis pro pcrnionihus. R 0!ci
raparum ^ iv. Rfma pini, cere? Jlavitt terebin-
thin^e, pingucdiuis arietis, ana 3^ j.

You'll put to melt together over a moderate fire,
in the oil of radifhes, or turnip-feeds, extracted by
expreflion, the turpentine, mutton-fat, and roun,
ftirring the matter till cold ; which is tlie ungent of
radifi}.

Virtues — This unguent is proper for chilbains.

The oil of hen-bane is better for chilbains than
that of radifli.

Unguentum anodinum ad hemorrboides. R Oleo-
rum rofatibf violati, ana'^W], Cera''^]k. Amyli,
lythargyri pr^parati, tragacanthi, ana ^ iij. Ca-
phm\r, opii, ana g ij. Aiburnina ovorum. No. ij.

The litharge and ftarch mufi: be pounded toge-
ther, the gum fragacanth by iti'elf in a mortar
Warm ; the opium bruifed in a mortar, and pulve-
rizing it with a little of the other powder, melting
afterwards the wax cut in fmall pieces, in the oil,
and mixing the powders with it ofFthe fire ; and
the unguent being cold, tlie whites of eggs, and
the camphire diflblved in a little oil ofrofesmuft
be incorporated with it, to make of the whole an
unguent to be kept fcr ufe.

Virtues. I his unguent is proper to foftcn and

dry, it appeafes the pains, and temperates the in-
.flammations ; it is applied on the h.x'morihoidcs.

Unguent for burns of AMynficht. Take two

.ounces of whites of eggs, and an ounce of oil of
olives ; mix the v.hites of new-laid esgs, and the
Vol.. II. 4C.

oil in an earthen difli, ftir them well together with
a wooden fpatula, till they be well mixed, and arc
formed into an unguent or nutritum.

» Virtus s.^-^\i\'i unguent is excellent for burns ;
the Author orders to anoint the burnt part with it
feveral times a day, without applying any cloth
over it, till the cruft formed on the top falls of
itfolf.

Another Unguent for burns. Crumble four

ounces of horfc-dung newly voided, and mix with
it one pound of hog's lard in a frying pan ; fry that
iT;i.xture over a niodcrate fire about a quarter of an
hour, ftirring the matter all the while with a fpa-
tula, and {training it afterwards while hot, by a
ftrong expreffion ; the colature is the unguent.

Virtues. — This unguent is excellent for all forts
of burns, by applying it upon them with a piece
of brown paper.

Ungusnlum ad facilitandum parturr.. R Axungi^e
gnlli^-cT'./'i^s]. Porci, 1\]. Butyri rceintis, olei
iriii;, ana ^ j. Trochifcorum de iryrrha, ^ h',
Radicis Arifolochiie rotur.d-T, 5 ij. Cinnamon!,
f/yracis, ana ^ j.

The' oil, greafe, and butter, muft be liquified
together over a little fire ; mixing afterwards in it
the other drugs reduced into a fubtile powder, ftir-
ring the mixture with a wooden fpatula, tiH the
imguent be cold.

Virtues. — This unguent is proper to facilitate a
delivery, and to expel the after-birth, by anointing
the lower belly with it, in the region of the ab-
domen, and in the vagina, when the woman is In
labour.

Unguentu/n de ierebinthina. R TcrehintJyin.t
clanr, |j. Maftiches, myrrh.r, olibani, ana _^ fs.
Vitelks ovorum^ No. iij.

The myrrh, olibanum, and maftich, muft be
well pounded together, and mixed afterwards witl»
the turpentine, rnd having added to it the whi-tes
of eggs, the mixture muftbe ftirred with a wooden
fpatuia, and the unguent, which is digeftive, kept
for ufe.

Vir'.ucs. — This unguent difpofcs the matters for
fuppuration ; it is applied in wounds, newly made,
on pledgets, and tents are anointed with it.

An unt;uent to niake the I)airs grow. — Take four
ounces of bear's greafe ; an ounce and halt of lau-
danum ; an ounce of honey ; of dried abrotanum,
and balfam of Peru, of each fix drachms ; three
drachms of dried roots of rufhes, and two drachms
of the oil of nutmegs ; pound together the roots of
rufl:ies, and the abrotanum ; and the laudanum by
itfelf ; meJt together the bear's greafe, balfam of
Peru, and the oil of nutmegs, by a {low fire, then
mix the powders with it, ?ind laftly the honey,
to make sn unguent.

Tlje Univerlal Hiflory of Arts and^cvmc^z.

294

virtues, -This unguent is proper to make the
liairs crow, either by anointing the head with it or
the teeth of the comb.

Liniments.

A liniment for the piles.— T^kc of the pulp of
millepedes, unguentum populeum, oil of eggs, of
each an ounce ; and half a drachm of extradt of

opium. . ,. • II

You'll pound the millepedes alive, in a marble
or ftonc mortar, and ftrain them afterwards through
a fieve turned upfide down, to extrafl the pulp
thereof; then you'll mix this pulp with the un-
guent populeum, and the oil of eggs, tUrring the
>vholc mixture a long while together in a mortar,
to make a liniment.

Virtues. — This liniment is proper to appeafe the
pains of the piles, being applied upon them

Another liniment for the piles. Take two

drachms of flower of fulphur, half an ounce of oil
of eggs, and an ounce of oil of rofcs ; mix thefe
drugs' together for a liniment, which mufl be ap-
plied on the piles.

Aliud llnlmenlum. R Sails faturnl, % Is. Oleo-
rum chamomllL^ W rofatl., fucci umhUlcl veneris,
una ^ ij. fiat ex arte Unlmentum ad formam nutriti.
Llnlmentum allud. R Olel llnl, ptdpa cep.^ fuh
clnerltms eoacc, ana ^ ij. Cerce alba., % fs. Mlfce
i^ fiat e.v arte liniment. '{m.

All thefe diiferent liniments are very proper to
appeafe the pains of the piles.

A Unament to hinder the face from being fcarrcd

by the f mall-pox. Take ccrufs, and prepared

litharge of gold, of each a drachm ; the oils of the
four fargecold feeds, of fweet almonds, and of
eges, of each half an ounce.

Putin a brafs mortar the litharge and cerufs,
and mix with it by degrees the oils, and about iix
drachms of the waters of plantain and of lolanum,
nourifhing and agitating the matter, to make of it
a nutritum, which mufi: be kept for ufc.

Virtues.— T\\\s liniment is proper to take off the
cicatrices, and fill up the pits left by the fmall-pox
on the skin ; by anointing the face, neck, and
hands with it, when the fmall-pox begins to dry.
C E R A T s.
A Cerat ftiould never be made but in a fmall
quantity ; fince, as it grows old, it lofes its virtue.
Ceratum pclychrcflnm. R Olel oUvarum, fcj-
Lithargirl fnhtUlJfime ptdverlzatl, 3 iv. fs. Cens
nova,^ ^'y fs. Tirebenihlnee claris, thurls, ana
^j. Gunml ammonlaci,bdelUl, ana ^\]. Galbam,
epoponacls, ana ^ fs. Alyrrha, lapldls calamlnarls,
ari/lolochl/s lotiga & rotundes, ana J ij.

The arlftolochcs having been pounded together;
{he myrrh, bdellium, fr.uiklnccnfe, galbaaum, and

opoponax together; and the litharge, and lapis cala^
minaris, together ; put thefe two drugs to boil
together in a fufficient quantity of water, ftirring
continually the water with a wooden fpatufa, till it
has acquired the confiflence of unguent, mixing
then with it the gums reduced into powder, and
the wax, which will melt in it in a very fhoit time;
then take the vcflel off the fire, and when the
cerat will be half cold, mix exa^ly with it the
turpentine, and the powders of ariftoloche, to make
a cerat, which is to be kept for ufc.

Virtues. This cerat is emollient, digeftivc,

fuppurative, and cmploy'd to cicatrife wounds. —
]t is called polycrejl, becaufe it can fcrve for feveral
ufes.

Cera!u?n barl/arum, Galenl. R Terebenthlnis,
certT, 1-efina plnl, tllunlnls judaiei, anafyk. Olel^
lb. viij. Llthargyrl, 5 v. Cerufa; a-ruglnis, ana
rij.fs. Opoponacls, jj.fs

The pitches and Wax muft be melted in the oil ;
and the bitumen judaicum, the litharge, cerufs,
verdicrcafe, and opoponax, having been reduced
into a lubtle powder, they fhall be mixed in the
melted matter in proportion as it grows cold, to
make a cerat, which muft be kept for ufe.

Virtues.— T\\\s cerat is very proper for what is
called green wounds, for the fcirrhc's, and the gout;
it is deteifivc, emollient, refolutive, and cicatrifcs
wounds.

Ceratum dlapyrltls, Galenl, reformatum. R Olei
veterls, ft ij. Cere? cltrlna, |jij. fs. Terebln-
thlnts, pyrltls praparati, ana ^ iij. 5J. Bitumlnis
ji'.dalcl, llthargyrl, ana Rij.fs. Mimlnls, '^xv.
Refina, gumml ammonlacl, ana^'j. fs. Galban/,
aloes, anal,]. /Eruglnls arls, thurls, ana 5V.
fiat ceratian, S. A.

Virtues.— — This cerat is proper for inveterate
ulcers, and fiftula's, it is deterfive, emollient, and
refolutive.

Plaisters.
The antient Greeks called plaiffers emplajla, of
the Greek verb I^ATr^arliw, which fignifies to torm in
a mafs, to wrap, to flop ; but the modern Greeks
have pronounced emplajha, and the Lathis have
followed them.

Plaljler is the moft folid compofition of all thofe
which are applied outwardly ; it was invented of
th.it confiftence, that remaining longer faftened on
the parts of the body, the remedies it is compofcd
of fbould have time enough to produce their effects,
'[he druo^s ufed to give a body or confiftence to
plaiflers, are moft comm.only wax, rofin,^ pitch,
gum, greafe, litharge, and other preparations of
lead ; which being fulphurous, is eafily diffolved
in boiling with the greafe and oils, which are
iulphurs, and gives them a hard confiftence.

Emplajlrurn

M E D I C 1 N E.

^95

Emplaftrum diachylon album, feu /implex. R Olel
comtiiunis 16 iij. Lkhargyri cniri praparati ft j (s.
Mucilaginum raduis altbcvcc, /t-migrci.!, ^ lini,
ana }fej.

'I hree ounces of roots of maifli mallows newly
gathered mull be cut in fmall pieces, and put in a
glazed earthen pot with two ounces of fcenugrcelc
and lin-feeds, and having poured upon thofe ingrc
dients fix or (even pounds of hot water, the matter
niuil: be left in digefiion till the next day, and then
put to boil gently, till the liquor becomes thick and
mucilaginous, is {trained by exprelTion, and mix-
ed afterwards with the oil and litharge in a bafon,
and the bafon placed over a pretty itrong fire, where
the matter mud: boil, llirring it continually with a
wooden fpatula, till it has acquired the hardncfs of
plaifter, and the whole watery humidity be con-
fumed, which will be known at the matter having
done boiling; you'll take then the bafon oft" the
fire, and continue flirring nil it be half cold, and
fit therefore to be formed into magdaleons.

Virtues.- -This plaijier is proper to foften, to
digcft, ripen and refolve.

Emplajirum diachylon de gummi-. R Mejfa
diachyli Jimplicis, Jb iv. Guinmi ammoniaci, galba-
ni, b del Hi, U fugapeni, ana T^j,

The common method is to dilTolve the gums in
wine, or vinegar, over a moderate fire, to flrain
the diflblutioii, and thicken the colature about the
fame fize, to the confidence of plaifter ; but as by
that manner of operating the moil eflential of the
gums is evaporated, I would advife to endeavour,
as much as poflible, to reduce the gums into pow-
der; which may be done, if after they have been
well chofen, they are put to dry in the fun, or at
a flow fire, before th^y are put in the mortar.

The preparation of tl'is plaifter is eafy, in what
ever manner the gums be prepared ; for nothing
elfe is to be done, but to melt the diachylon over
a moderate fire, and mix the gums with it ; if the
gums have been diflblved, they muft be put to melt
with the plaifters; but if they be in powder, they
are not to be be mixed till the plaifter is half cold,
to avoid its being lumpy.

Virtues. — ^The diachylon of the gums is the moft
powerful of all diachylons, to digeft, ripen, and
refolve.

Emplajirum de meliloto rcformatuni. R Floruw
meliloti fucatorum ^ iij. Radicis iridis, Jeminis foc-
nugraci, foUorum qhjmthii /iccatorum, gummi am-
moniaci, "yrrha; ana 3, j. Radicwn cyperi, altbfca;
nardi celtica; baccarum lauri, jlorum chamomiUcr .
croci. ana ^ fs. Cera citrincc, rcfma, picis alba-,
Jevihircini, ana\\).]. Tercbinthinee clam \\}i.

The flowers, herbs, roots, feeds and berries,
mufl be pounded together, the fafi'roji by itlclf,

after it has been dried between two papers ; and
the gum ammoniack and mynh together ; mixino-
afterwards, all thefe powders together, and puttinc-
to melt in u bafon, over a little fire, tiie waxj
rofin, pitch, the fat of rams, with the turpentine,
and having ftrained the matter through a cloth,
you 11 mix the powders in it, when half cold, to
make a plaifter, which muft be formed into mag-
daleons. 'v

Virtues, This plaii^er is emollient, refolu-

tive, and expels wind.

Emplajirum de inmio fimplcx. R Minii lb j fs.
Olei rojarum \b it], Aqa^ communis q. f.

The minium muft be well pounded, and mixed
afterwards in a bafon with the oil, and about two
pints of water, making the mixture to boil very faft
over the fire, and Ifirring it continually with a
wooden fpatula, till it has acquired the confiftencc
of a plaifter ; and if there was not water enough
to fiiiifh the coition, more fliould be added to it.

Virtues. — The plaifter of minium is deficcative,
and proper to cicatri/e wounds.

Some mix eight ounces of yellow wax in this
plaifter, and ufe it then to expel th.e milk from the
breafts, by applying it upon them.

Emplajirum cephalicitm, aut pro cc7nmi[fm-a, aiit
lupbainccon. R Gummi hedera-, tacamabacee, fly-
racis, benzoini, majiiches, olibani, lahdani, ana ? iji
Cinnamomi, ierebenthincp venetiC, ana i j. Carya-^
phyllorum, &' nucis mojchatcr., ana ^ fs.

The gums and laudanum muft be pounded to-
gether, the cloves and nutmeg together, and the
cinnamon by itfclf, putting aftervv-ards all thoIc
powders together in a brals mortar, and incorpo-
rating them with the turpentine, and with liquid
ftorax, enough to give to the mixtuie a confiftence
of plaifter; ftirring that mixture a long while to
mix and incorporate well the ingredients together.

Virtues. — This plaifter is excellent to ftrengthen
the brain, to rarefy and dilfipate the too coarle pi-
tuita ; it is ufed in the epilepfy and lethargy, be-
ing applied on the coronal future.

Emplajirum rcgiwn ad herniam. R Picis ndva-
Hs,'}. lb. Cera; Jlava, terehinthime clara^ ana | iv.
Radicis conjhlid^s major is ficc:e, majiiches, ana ^ ij.
Lahdani, | j. is. H\pociJiidos, term figallaia;
ana ^ fs, Nuces cuprrjfi^ No. xij. Fiat emplajirum,

s. J. ; ;■ ' ■ z::^ u: _:

f'irtues. — This plaifter is excellent for the rup-
tures, it ftrengthens the peritoneum, after the in-
teftinehas been reduced into its place, by applying
it on the place of the relaxation, keeping it firm
by means of a bandage, and renewing it every
tenth day.

Emplajirum dc Jpcrmats Ciii, A. Mynftcht. K

Q.4 2 .G(7VF

2q6

TTye Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

t.ere€ alhtc^ ^ iv. Spe.iunis cctr, | ij, Galhaiii in
accto dijfolui!, trajehii ~' coili, jj.

The white wax cut in fmall pieces, with the
purified galbanum, muft !ie melted in a glazed ear-
then porringer, ever a little fire, mixing with it
afterwards the fpcrma ceti, to make a plaifter,
which mult be kept for ufe.
\Virlu€S- — The plaifter of fperma ceti appeafes
the fury of the milk of women newly deliver'd, it
hinders it from knottiiic in the breafts, and diflblves
it when knotted, it is alfo emollient, and refolves
the fcropiuilous tumours.

Empi<ijh-uin Jliptkum crollii refcrmattim. R
Litkargyri praparati^W)']. (s. Lapidis calaminaris,
lb fs. Oleontm lint, elivaram, ana lb j. fs. Lnu-
rini, lb j. Dtcoili radicis arijiolocoiie, q. f. Co-
quciyitur ex arte ad eirtplajiri fpijjitudinein, ddnde
edde, ct'rajiav.-r, cs/ophcnice,ana lb j. TerebiyithiriiT,
vernids, a/ialhi's. Opoponacis, Jhgapeni, galba i,
hdcllii, ammoniaci, ana 5 iij. Lapidis hematitis
^ ij . (s. Olibani, myrrhcr, aloes, fuccini, ariJhioMcV
longa, W rotunda; ana % j. fs. Miiniur, fangui-
nis draconis, terr^ figillat^r, vitrisli alii, cant-
phorar, ana ^ j. Fiorum aiitimonii, ^ fs. Fiat
(mplajlrum, S. A.

As the camphire is very volatile, it mufl: not be
mixed till the plainer is almofl cold.

Virtues T his plaifter i; proper for wounds

made with a fmall I'word, for prickings, and bites,
and for all other wounds and ulcers; itdigefls,
ripens, mundifies, cicatrifes, and refolves ; it
ftrengthens-the nerves, an<l refifiis the- malignity.

Emplaftrum bafilicum mains. R Cerce alb^,
refine pini, fevi vaccini, picis nigra", iff hurgundiee,
lerebinthina; thuris, myrrh ce, ana f j. Oiei com-
munis, q. f.

The myrrh niuft be reduced into a fubtile pow-
der, and having put all the other drugs to melt
with about an ounce of common oil, the meked
matter muft be ftraincd, and the myrih mixed
with the colature to make a plaillcr, Vi'hich muft
be kept for ufe.

Virtues. — This plaifter helps fuppurationj ag-
glutinates wounds and cures them.

Emplaftrum quatuor gummium. R Gummi am-
moniaci, fagapcni, galbani, o^oponacis, ana lb. Co-
hphonia- lb fs.

The gums muft be diflblved in vinegar over a
little fire, the diflblution ftrained through a flannel
with a hard expreflion, and put to thickcrt to a
folid conliftence ; niixina; afterwards with it the
colophon, to make a plaifter. v/hich muft be kept
for ufe.

Virtues. — This plaifter is emollient, fuppura-
tive, and refolutive.

Mmplajhum ad ganglia M. Charas, R Gimmi

ammoniaci, galbani, op(pfnncis, fagapen!, nyrr^-er
e/effte, ana >^ iij. Old laurini ^ j. Sutpburis'vivi:^
vitrtoli Ro-mani, fads ammcniaii, ana ^ fs. Eu hor-
bii 5 ij.

1 he gums ammoniack, galbanum, opoponax,
and fagapenum, muft be dillolved in vinegar, and'
the diflblution having been itrained by a hard,
expreffion, the humidity thereof muft be evapo-
rated, till it be reduced to the confiitence of plaif-
ter ; mean while you'll pound together the nivrrly
and euphorbium, the iulphur by itfelf ; and the
Roman vitriol and fa! ammoniack together, mix-*
ing afterwards all thofe powders, incorporating'
with the gums liquified over a very flow fire the
oil of bays, and afterwards the powders, ftirring »
long while the mixture, and the plaifter will bo
done.

Virtues. — This plaifter is penetrating, attenua-
ting, emollient, and rofolutive, proper for the
fcrophulous tumours, wens, fkirts of the livery
and of the fpleen, and for the king's-evil,

inthefe recipes or prejiriptiins tht rezder meets
with feveral terms proper to the pradtitioners i.i
this art ; which require fc*me explanation Such
are the names and charaSlers of their weights and
mcafures : and thofe inflruments and veffels made
ufe of by the Apothecary, with which 1 fhaJl con-
clude this treatife.

Tlie Weights ufed in medicine, are, the pound;
half-pound, quarter of a pound, ounce, drachm^
fcruple, and-grain.

1 he Pound, in medicine, is of twelve ounces,
defigned by this charadler lb j. — The half-pound
by this lb fs. — And the pound and half by this
Ibj. fsv

The QvAKTKK of a pound h of three ounce? ;
formerly defigned by this character 4tarj. which
is at preient out of ufe, fmce we mark a i^uarter of
a pound by ounces, thus ^ iij.

The Ounce in medicine, is the tvi^elfch part of
a pound, marked thus | j. The half ounce thus,
^ fs. and the ounce and. half thus, ^ j fs. which
ounce is compofed of eight drachms.
- The Drachm, which is the eighth part of an
ounce, is defigned by this characler :^, which is
as a 3 in Arithmetick, becaufe it is compofed of
three fcruple'^ : the half-drachm is marked thus
J fs. and the drachm and half thus, % j fs.

The Scruple is the third part of a drachm, de-
.figned by this charai'.ter ^ j. and is compofed ef
twenty four grains : the half jcruple is marked
thus 9 fs. and the fcruple and half thus 3 j 'i.

The Grain is the twenty fourth part of the
fcruplr', defigned by ^r, ). or zn. i.

The Measures for litiuiJs here, in England,
2 are

MEDICINE.

297

are

the />/«?, confifting of /wf/y^ (J«w^f ; the /^<7//'- medics; but as tliey can be penetrated by fcvcra!

pint, con^xiWngoi Jix ou ices ; the quartern of thn:
ounces ; and half-quartern, of an ounce and half,
which arc moft commonly marked in the prefcrip-
tions by pound, thus lb j. for a pint : half a pound,
thus lb fs. ior half a pint: a lound and half , k\\\\%
Ibjl's. iox 2. pint and half : three ounces thus ^ iij.
for a quartern; an cwice and half, thus ^ j. fs. for a
half-quartern. And lafliy, a drachm, xiwx^ ^]. or
half a drachm, thus 3 fs.

The meajures for dry ingredients, viz. wood,
herbs, fruits, and feed^, are kno.vn by the name of
the bundle, the handful, and the pinch.

The Bundle is, what an a m folded round-
wife can contain, marked x!n\i% fafc, j.

The Handful is as much, as a hand can hold,
defigned by man. j. or M. j.

1 he PmcH is, as much, as two fingers and the

thumb can hold, defigned thus pug. j or thus p.'y

The mcafure of fruits and of feveral animals, is

made by number, defigned thus No. or by pairs,

defcribed ihus par.

When we find in prefcriptions ana, or aa, we
mufl: uudcriland of each, or as much of one as of
the other.

Eyq.f. muft.be underftood a fufEcient quantity,
or as much as is neceflary.

Byf. a. or ex arte, mult be underftood according
to the rules of art.

By B. Al. muft be underftood hahuum maria.
By B, V. mult be underftood balneum vaporis,
or vaporous bath.

The Vessels ufed for the coSlions of the compo-
fttions in medicine, are copper bafons, fimple or
tinned, lirge cauldrons, frying pans, fkillcts, iron
pots, copper pots tinned, pewter bafons, eanhcn
or itone pans, earthen diilies, eartlien porringers,
earthen pots, glafs, and ftone cucurbitcs, copper
cucurbites tinned infide, with their refrigeratories,
crucibles, fe't". — Cne muft as much as pofiible
employ earthen or glafs vefiels for the preparations,
which are to be taken inwardly ; becaufe neither
earth nor glafs communicates any impreffion to the
drugs, and copper will doit; but as glafs' and
earthen vefTels arc moft commonly fmall, and break
eafily at the fire ; and the earthen ones are very
often penetrated by the liquors, one may ufe cop-
per veilels tinned, without any fear that the metal
will communicate itfelfto the drugs, becaufe tin
•does not rarefy itfelf fo eafily as copper.

The veffcls, employed for the infufions, and .to
keep the ga'.eniial compcfitions, are pots of gold,
fdver, pewter, lead, earth, ftone, glazed earthen
ware, glafs, cryltal, bottles, jugs, and bo.xes.

Gold, filver and pewttr are the moft proper
metals for the fabrication of the velTels which are

falts, and moft of the fpirits of the mi.xturcs, they
may communicate fome flight impreffion to the
vcfllls put in them, therefore I would prefer glafs
and earthen-ware in that occafion to thofe metals;
tho' ftone is the moft proper material for thofe vefTcIs.
A'lujh is preferved in leaden boxes, that being
cooler in that metal than any where elfe, lefs of its
parts may be diifipated. fc'everal ufe lead pre-
ferable to others, to preferve treacle, orvietan,
and mithridate, becaufe thofe compofitions retain
better their confiltence in leaden pots, or boxes,
than in thofe of any other matter : though it is to be
feared the particles of the lead mixing with thofe
compofitions fhould alter their quality.

7^he boxes ufed to keep the fimple drugs, as the
fenna, agarick, and rhubarb, fhould be made of
wood lefs fubjeft to worms.

The Instruments ufed in rnvdidnc, arS
mortars of bell-metal, with their peftles propor-
tioned to them ; mortars of brafs, pewter, lead,
and glafs, with their pefiles of the fame matter :
mortars of marble and ftone, with their wooden
peftles : porphyries with their mullcrs, funnels',
fjringes.,fpatulas,bijhrtcrs.. raffs,fpoons,&:c.

The mortars of bell-metal are great and fmdi ;
the great ferve to make almoft all the powders, to
malax the mafTes of pills and troches, andtoextin-:
guifh the quickfilver ; their peltles are of iron. '
The fmall monars of the fame 'matter ferve to re-
duce into powder a fmall quantity of drugs eafily
pounded, and to difTolve the compofitions, which
are toenter potions, clyfters,colvres, andinjcftions.
The leaden-mortars are ufed to make the un--
guent nutritum, the butter oi faturn, the deficca-
tive liniments, where it is wanted that, the metal
fhould communicate its imprefiion.

Iron mortars are great and fmall ; the great
ones ferve to reduce into powder feveral ingredi-
ents, which enter the remedies applied outwardlv ;
the fmall ones are employed to receive the matters
in fufion, which are thrown into them, isV.

Th^. mortars of ma-rble are great and fmall ; and
great ones ferve to pound the almonds, nuts, feedj.
Is'c. the oils thereof are to be extracted by exprcf-
fion ; to bruife the plants, the juice thereof is aKb-
to be extracted. The fmall ones ferve to pound,
the almonds, and the cold feeds to make the-
emullions.

The _//i5Av wj//<?/'.s very clean, can ferve inftead
of the marble ones, but thev are fcldom employed
but for the corrofive powders ; as to pound red.

precipitate, to mix crude mercury v/ith corrofive-
fublimate, to make the mercurius dulcis ; mortar.s.
of marble and glafs can ferve for the fame ufes.
The porphyries and faficjls are ufed to reduce.

to ferve for the infiufions^ and to preferve the re- j into an impalpable powder the hardelt drugs, as,

the

298 72^^ Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

the preciousflonesjthc coral, pearls and tutty. 'I'hey
are ground with a miilier, which is alitdu block of
porphyry, or other liard ftone, poliflied underneath j
round, or of a figure to belaid hold on cafily.

The funnels are of copper, tin, earthen ware,
flone, and glafs : they ferve to put the liquors into
the bottles, and to fupport the filtration. 1 hofe
of glafs or of ftone, are preferable to them, either
in Chymijh-y, or in the Galancal Pharmacy.

The Syringes are of fihcr, of pewter, or of cop-
per : they are great and fmall ; the great muft
contain a pound of liquor, they ferve for the cly-
flers ; the fmall ones muft contain two or three
ounces of liquor ; they ferve for the injecSlions
made in the penis, in the matrice, and in wounds.

The Spatula's arc cither of filvcr, or pewter,
iron, fteel, ivory, guaiac, box, or of common wood.

The Spatula's of Jllver are better than thofe of
any other metal, bccaufe they are not fubject to
ruft ; they are ufed for the cordial confedions.
The fpatulas of pewter can fupply the want of
thofe of filvcr.

The fpatulas of feel are preferable to thofe of
iron.

The fpatulas of ivory are very proper for the
confedtions : thofe o( guaiac, of box, and oi' common

icooel, ftrvc to ftir the herbs, and other Ingredients>
, which enter the infulions and deccxitions

The bi/hrtcrs are rollers of wo d, which fervc
to mix the remedies, and to fpread the lozenws.

The raf s are of tin fatten d on wood ; they are
ufed to rafp the agarick, which is to be reduced in
powder, and to rafp the fruits and roots, the juice
whereof is to be cxtra£l:-d

The Jpocns are of gold, filver, iron, wood, mo-
ther of pearl, ivory, and torcoife Ihell.

The Jpoins of gold are rare in an Apothecary's

(hop, becaufe of their great value; thole of filver

' fupply their want. The large fpoons and fkim-

mers are commonly of pewter or tin, but thofe

that love neatncfs have them of filver.

The wocden fpocfis can ferve for the extradion
of pulps.

The fpoons of mother of pearl, of ivory, and of
tcrtoife-fiicll, are proper to adminifter f)Tups, po-
tions, or other liquors to the patients.

The prejjis are of different figures ; their matter
is always of a ftrong and compadt wood.

The difpenfarics are a kind of flat and (quare box-
es, without lids, made in the fafhion of ' riwcrs :
they ferve to contain the ingredients which enter
a compofition well prepared, and difpos'd in order.

METALS.

METALS arc hard and folid bodies fufi-
ble by fire, and ductile by the hammer.
We commonly diftinguifli fi.\ or feven forts
of 7netals, VIZ. Geld, ftlver, copper, tin, iron, lead,
and quick-fitver : \^'here we muft obfervc, that
the antients undcrftood by the name of tin,\i cer-
tain mixture of filver and lead ; but what we call
tin, at prefent, was by them called white or can-
died lead,

I have faid, that we reckon fix or feven forts of
metals ; for mercury or quick-fllver, is pretended to
be rather a metallick matter, or the feed and prin-
ciple of metals, than a metal ; for it is neither dif-
folvable by fire, malleable, nor fix'd : in efFeiSf, it
feems to conftitute a peculiar clafs of foffils.

As to the origin and formation of ^w^/aZr, various
:ire the fentiments of philofophers antient and mo-
dern. "^I. Totir72efcrt\s of opinion, that ?«/a/j as
well as all other minerals, have their origin from
feeds, like plants ; that they have vefTels with
juices circulating in them, tff.

Plato will have the caufc of i.-icta.'s to be a hu-
mid vapour inclofed in the bowels of the earth,
which being varioufly intermixed uith parts of the
earth produces various metals. Plotin maintains
julphiir to be the father of mctcls, and an ole.iginous
vjfcous hwnour the n;o;hcr, Lidgat endeavours

to prove all tnetals, generated by" a fubterranc-
ous fire ; urging among other reafons, that many
metals when taken out of the earth, are exceedingly
hot. Du Hamel fhews, that imtals do not take
their rife either from any vaporous exhalation, or
from water, or from earth, but are generated of
mercury, fulphur, and fait. He adds, that metals
take their matter and weight from the mercury,
and their tinflure and form from fulphur.

Some authors own the firft rudiment of a metal
to be a faline fubftance fwimming in water, which
is by little and little carried off. By how much the
terreftrial parts are more exquifitely mixed with
the aqueous or humid, by fo much is the metal
more heavy and firm, as having fewer and fmaller
pores.

Dr. TFoodivard maintains, that all /mtals now
, found in the ftrata of the earth, ov.e their prefent
' condition to the deluge, whence he alfo im,..;i!ies,
• the ftrata of ftone, earth, marble, (jfc.^yfcve formed.
The fame author complains of the great uncer-
tainty and inconftancy in the mineral and metal-
lick kingdom ; neither colour, figure, norfituation
in the earth, being to be depended on, fo as to
make any pofitive judgment from them.

M. Tournefcri's opinion is, that metals have
their origin from feeds like plunts, a.nd have their

vcffels

METALS.

vefTcls witli juices circulating thro' them. But
there is nothing conciulive in thele theories.

As to the fpecies oi metals there are four iinpcr-
feft, becaufe their principles are not bound fo faft
together, but that the force of a common fire de-
ftroys them ; thefe are iron, copper, lead and tin:
and the two which being proof againft common
fire, is gold and /iher, are called perfet.7 mctah.

In the four firftt it is eafy to fee the principle of
inflammability ; they become all fufible by the
addition oi falt-petre, either in a greater or lefs de-
gree.— Iron is that, wherein this is the mofl: vifible;
next, tin, then copper and lead.

In gold and /ilver, the fulphurous principle is
not fo obvious ; no heat, but thut of the fun col-
lefled into a focus, is able to decompound them :
but no doubt they have the fame principles with
the other inetcds, though not fo eallly feen. — In
gold, as well as in oxher metals, is an earth capable
of vitrification, as appears by the glafs remaining
after the calcination of gold in a burning-glafs ;
and there is reafon to believe, that the greateft
part of what is exhaled in fmoak, during the ope-
ration, is the fulphurous principle mixed with
falts.

As to fdver, there is fomething in it extreme-
ly various : when purified with antimony, it
vitrifies with a burning-glafs; but if purified
with lead, it leaves nothing behind, but grey
aflies. — The bafis of this inetal is doubtlefs an
earth, capable of vitrification ; and what exhales
in fmoke, is apparently a mixture offulphur, fait,
and a little earth volatilized by the fire.

From all which, and many more obfervations of
the fame kind, M. Gecffroy draws the following
conclufions, that the iubflances whereof metals
are compofed, do not differ cflentially from thofe
which compofe vegetables. That the imperfeiR
metals are compofed of a fulphur, vitriolick fait,
and vitrifiable earth. That this fulphureous prin-
ciple is more or lefs flrongly joined with the other
principles ; very ftrongly in gold and in filver, lefs
in antimony, and very little in mineral fulphur.
That the principle of inflammability may be fepa-
rated from metallick fubftances, either by cunilary
fire, or by the fun. That the metal, thus defpoiled
of its principle, is converted into afhes, and that
thefe afhes, purfued further with a violent fire,
vitrify ; and that fuch afhes or glafTes, by the ap-
plication of fome inflammable matter, re-afl^ume
the metallick foi'm they had loft. That it is by
this means linfeed-oil turns argilla into iron. That
if we knew all the other metillick earths, they
might likewife be immediately converted into
inetols, by the projeflion of ibme inflammable

299

matter. That it is the faiinc and earthy par-f--,
found in oil of vitriol, that furnifh the earthy vitri-
fiable part, which makes the bafis or ground of iron,
and that it receives the metallick form from the ful-
phurous principle of the oil. That the iron found
in the afhes of plants, was produced there in the
fame manner : and, that it is a compofition of the
vitrifiable earth of the plants, the acid of thefe
plants, and their oily or inflammable principle.

Gold is a yellow /w/a/ ; the he.avieft, purcfl:,
mofl ductile, and fhining, and on thoie accounts
the mofl valuable of all metals.

The weight of gold is to that of water, as 19636

to 1000. A cubick inch of pure gold weighs

twelve ounces, two drachms, and fifty- two grains;
and the cubick inch of fdver, fix ounces, five

drachms, twenty-eight grains. The pound

weight, or twelve ounces Troy of gold, is divided
into twenty-four carats.

The value oi gold is to that of filver as 14 to i ;
indeed, this proportion varies as gold is more or
lefs plentiful : for Suetonius relates, that Cafar
brought fuch a CjUantity of gold from Itah, that
the pound of gold was only worth feven pounds
and a half of filver — Standard gold is worth 44./.
10 s. Sterling the pound v/eight : ftandard fiU-er
is worth 3 /. the pound, or 5 s. the ounce.

The firfl charafteriflick, or property of ^«/(/, is
that it is the heavicfl of all bodies, proceedin?- from
the union or cohefion of its parts, which is cloltiT
and more intimate than ifi any other metal.

The fccond character is, that of all known
bodies it is the mofl dudiile and malleable.

The third character oi gold is its fixedncfs in the
fire, in which it exceeds all other bodies. 7 he
Prince of Aiirand-la, Mr. Boyle, and other Chy-
mifts, furnifh divers experiments to illuflrate this
wonderful fixity. After laying a quantity of gold
two months in the intenfefl heat imaginable, it is
taken out without any fenfible diminution of weight.
It mult be added liowever, that in the foci of the
large burning glaffes of Tfchirnhaujen and Vilelte,
even gold iti'elf volatilizes and evaporates. After
this manner we are told from the Royal Academy
at Paris, a quantity of pure gold w.as vitrified
(which contradicts the fcntiment of Meff. Boer-
haave and Homherg, that no falts enter the com-
pofition of gold j and that the glafs being fufed with
a quantity of greafe was reftorcd into gold ; which
is aconfirmation that there muft be fome fulphurous
particles in the formation of gold, wherein the moil
acute points of the faline ones are fheathed.

Its fourth chara£ler is, not to be diffolublc by any
menftruum in nature, except aqua regia and mer-
cury, the bafis of aqua regia being fc'a-falt, which

300

'The UniverM Hiftory of Arts ^;/<:i/ Sciences.

is the only fait wc know of that has any effect on
gold.

The feventh charafler is, that it readily and
fpontaiieoufly, as by foiiie magnctick virtue', at-
tiadls and abforbs mercury.

The cii'hth charaiSlcr is, that it withftands the
violence both of lead and antimony, i. e. being
jfufed in the coppel along with either oi thofe mat-
ters, it docs not diflipatc and fly off with them in
fume,' but remains fixed and unchanged.

The ninth tharaiSlcr is, that of all bodies it is
'the iimplcft, (the primaiy elements being here ex-
cepted) by fiinpic wc here mean that the minutefl:
part has all thcphyfical property of the whole mafs.
"Thus if a grain of gold be dilTolvcd in aqua regia,
and a fingle drop of the diflblution be taken, a
quantity of j-ff/^/may be feparated therefrom, which
ihall only be the millionth part of the grain, and
vec have all the charafters oi gold. Or ifyoufuf..-
a grain oi gold with a large mafs of filver, and mix
the two together, fo that the gold become equally
diffufcd through the whole mafs ; you will have in
every particle of the mafs a particle of perfect gold;
accordingly difl'olve .iny part of themixturc in aqua
fortis, and a quantity oi gcldwxW precipitate to the
bottom ; bearing the fame proportion to the grain
that the part I'iflblved did to the whole mafs, on
which principle depends the ait of afTaying.

All the known parts of the earth aflbrd this pre-
cious metal ; though with a deal of difference in
p::int'of purity, and abundance : Europe, fo fertile
in other relpedls, comes fhort of all other quarters
in gold. America furniHies the moft ; and particu-
larly the mines of Peru and Chill. Thatofy^rt
is efleemed the finefl, particularly that of Mera-
nicaho in the Eajl India : though the Spaniards
allure us, that they get ^»/(^ out of fome of their
Peruvian mines, twenty-three carats fine, before
it be purified. The gold of Axima on the coaft of
Africa, is found from twenty-two to twenty-
three carats.

Gold is chiefly found in mines ; though there is
fome, alfo found in the fand, and mud of rivers,
and torrents, particularly in Guima : this laft is in
form of a fine duft, and for that reafon called crold
duji.

The gold of mines is of two kinds : the one in
fmall pieces, or grains ofvarious forms and weights.
The other kind of gold is dug up in Itonv
glebes, which is what they call the mineral or ore
of gold : thcfe glebes are ofvarious colour, and
, iifually one hundred and fifty, or one hundred and
fixty fathoms deep. Along with the gold they
ufually contain fome other mineral matter, as an-
timony, vitiiol, fulphur, copper, or filver, parti-
cularly the lafl ; without fome (h.irc of which it
. is fcarce ever fcunj.

I'o feparate the gold, they firft break the metallin'
mattrr.wiih iron mallets pretty Imall, then carry it
to the mills, where it is grounded into a very fine
powder ; and laftiy, pafs it through feveral brafs-
wire fieves one after another, the lail as fine as any
of our filk fieves.

The powder thus prepared is laid in wooded
troughs, with a proper quantity of mercury and
water, and there left to knead and faturatc in the
fun and air, for twice twenty-four hours. After
this the water with the recrementitious earth is
drove out of the tube, by means of other hot w.i-
tcrs poured thereon. '1 his done, there remains
nothing but a ma's of mercury with all the gold
that was'in the ore. The mercury they fepaiatc
from it by diftillation, in large alembicks-: the
gold in this (late is called virgin g^eld, as well as
that found in the fand of rivers, or that in grains
in the mines, in regard none of them have pailed
the fire. After this they ufually fufe it. in cruci-
bles, and caft it into plates or ingots.

Silver is a white, rich fort of metal ; being
the finefl, moft dudtile, and moft precious of atl
metals except gold. It receives in its compof.tion
a greater number of fulphurous particles than gold,
and lels defecated, whence it is fubje£t to more
mutations ; and is diftblved with a greater facility.

There are fher mines in all the four quarters
of the world. Europe has its fhare, nor is Britain
quite deftitute thereof.

The mines of Peru, and fome other parts of
Ameiica, are much the richeft and moft abundant ;
they appear almoft inexhauitible, particularly thofe
of Potofi.

The ores or mineral ftones they dig, are fome
white or afti-colour, Ipottedwith red or blue, and
called plaia blancha ; others are black, and called
promo ranco : thefe laft are the richeft, and the
eafieft wrought, no mercury have been here need-
ed, nor any thing but to put them in the fire, where
the lead evaporating, leaves the filver pure. The
rofficlee is another black mineral dillinguifhed by
whetting and rubbing it againft iron, which turns
it red. It is very rich, and the metal it yields of
the beft fort. The joroehe burns like talc, and looks
as iffilvered, though it does not yield much. The
paco is a yellow red, very foft, and found almoft
broke in pieces ; it is not rich. The cobrijfo is
green and half friable. Though the filver of this
be vifible, yet it is drawn from it with great diffi-
culty, by reafon of the copper wherewith it is in-
termixed. Laftlv, the araunea, which is only
found in Potofi, ^nd that only in the mine of C$-
tamito, confift of threads of pure filver, interwave
like ^. filver galoon, that has been burnt to net out
the filk.

The

M E

' Themoft ufual way offeparating theyJ/wr from
the ore, is by what they call plneas. Sometimes,
however, they ufe nothing but fire frequently re-
peated, or aqua fortis.

The manner of doing it by pinea's, is to break
firft tlic ore, or miaeral y/foi-r dug out of the veins
of the mine ; then grind it in mills for the purpofc,
driven by water, with iron pellles of two hundred
pound weight. The mineral thus pulverized, is
next fifted, then worked up with water into a palte,
which when half dry is cut into pieces, called cuer
po's, a foot long ; weighing each about two thou-
fand five hundred pounds.

Each cucrpo is again kneaded up with fea fait,
which dill'olving incorporates with it. They then
add mercury, from ten to twenty pounds for each
cuerpo, kneading the parte afrefli until the mercury
be incorporated therewith.

'1 his amalgamation is continued for eight or nine
days: fome add lime, lead, or tin ore, bfc. to for-
ward it ; and in fome mines they are obliged to ufe
fire. To try whether or no the mixture or amal-
gamation be fufficient, they wafh a piece in water,
and if the mercury be white, it has had its efFeit ;
if black, itmuft be further worked.

When the water runs quite clear out of the ba
fons, they find the mercury and filver at bottom in
corporatcd. This matter they call pella, and of
this they form the pineas by exprefhng as much of
mercury as they can ; firft by putting it in woollen
bags, and prelling and beating it ftronglj , then by
ftamping it in a kind of wooden mould of an oc-
tagonal form, at the bottom whereof is a brafs
plate pierced full of little holes.

The matter being taken out of the mould is laid
on a trivet, under which is a large veffel full of wa-
ter, and the whole being covered with an earthen
head, a fire is made around it.

The mercury ftill remaining in the mafs is thus
reduced into fumes, and at length condenfing is
precipitated into the water, leaving behind it a mafs
of filver grains of difterent figures, which only
joining or touching at the extremes, render the
matter very porous.

Though the mines of Pctofi and Lipes flill keep
up their reputation, yet are there feveral difcovered
within thefe few years, that exceed them much in
richnefs : fuch are the mines ot /Intro-, eight leagues
from yfrtca, and thofe of Alachif near Cujcs, open'd
in 1712. It is remarkable that moft of the mines
in America, are found in cold and barren places.

The method of feparatingyJ/'yt'r from the ore, in
Europe, is the fame as that of gold ; that is, by
means of quickfilver ; with this difference, that for
filver, to every fifty hundred weight of ore, is ad- j
Vol II. 40.

■^ Ij S, ^01

ded one hundred weight of rock fait, or fome other
natural fait.

To feparate the filver from the mercury, where-
with it is amalgamated, they have a furnace open
atop ; and the aperture covered with a kind of a
capital made of earth, of a cylindrical form •, that
may be clapped on or taken ofl-'at pleafure. The
mafs o( fiber, and mercury being laid in the fur-
nace, the capital applied, and the fire lighted un-
derneath ; the quickfilver raifed by the aclion of
the fire, in form of vapour, is caught in the capita!,
and taken thence to be uled in the fecond operation.

The ftandard of fineyf/wris i?. penny-wci-hts,
each coniilling of 24 grains : when it is below this,
it muit be raifed to it by refinino-.

CoppKR is a hard, dry, heavy, ductile metal,
found in mines in feveral parts of Europe.

Copper is of all metals the moft ducfile, and mal-
leable, after gold and filver ; and abounds much in
vitriol, and an illdigefted fulphur.

Copper is found in glebes or ftones of various
forms and colours; which are firft beaten fmall and
wafhed, to feparate them from theearthv, fo\-. parts
wherewith they are melted, and the melted matter
run into a kind of moulds, to form large blocks, by
fome czWsAfulmons, and by others cakes of copper :
this is the ordinary copper.

To render it more pure and beautiful, they melt
it again once or twice ; fome of its coarfe earthr
parts being left at each fufion, and a quantity of
tin and antimony added in each : in this flate it is
called rofe copper, in Latin as pelofum.

Copper is alio, fometimes, found native and pure
in the mines, either in form of threads, or in fiakes,
plates, grains, or other makes and lumps : '.his is
called virgin copper.

Of a mixture of copper and lapis calaminaris, is
formed brafs.

Iron is a hard, fufible, and malleable metal, of
great ufe in the affairs of life : it confifts of aa
earth, fait, and fulphur, but al! impure, ill mixed,
and digefted, which renders it extremely liable to
ruft.

Iron is the hardeft, driert^, and the moft difBcult
to melt of all metals. It may be foftened b- heat-
ing it often in the fire, hammering it and Icttin"?
it cool of itfelf; and it is hardened, by extinguifli-
ing it in water.

There is a great number of iron works in m- ft:
parts of England, thofe in the foref. of Dean in
Gloucefierjhire ace in moft repute. The ore is there
found in great abundance, diftering much in colour,
weight, aiidgopdnefs. The beft called a/.y7;«-<' isofa
R r blulQi

*The Univerfal Hiflory 0/ Arts (2:«^ Sciences.

302

t)Uii(h colour, very ponderous, and full of little
ihining fpecks, like grains of filver; this affords
the grcatcft quantity of iron, but being melted alone
produces metal very ftiort and brittle, and there-
fore not fo fit for common ufe : for the remedying
■whereof the workmen make ufe of another fort of
materia! termed cinder, which is nothing but the
refufe of the ore, after the metal has been extracted;
and which being mingled with the other, and in a
due quantity, gives it that excellent temper of
tou^hnefs, which caufes this iron to be preferred
before any brou;jht from foreign parts.

After they have provided the ore, they firfi: work
it to calcine it, which is done in kilns, much after
the fafhion of our ordinary lime kilns : this they
fill up to the top with coal and ore, one lav upon
another ; and fo putting -Sre at the bottom they let
it burn till the coal be wafted, and then renew the
kilns with frefh ore and coal, in the fame manner,
as before. This is done without fufion of the metal,
and ferves to confume the more drofly part of the
ore, and to make it malleable, fupplying the beat-
ing and wafliing, which are iifed in other metals.
From hence they carry it to their furnaces,
which are built of brick or flone, about 24 feet
fouare on the outfidc, and near 30 feet in height
within, not above 8 or 10 feet over where wideft,
which is about the middle ; the top and bottom
havin"' a narrow compafs, much like the faape of
an egfT. Behind the furnace arc fixed two large-
pair of bellows, the nofes of which meet at a little
hole near the bottom ; thefe are comprefTed toge-
ther by certain buttons placed on the axis of a very
lar^e wheel, which is turned about by water, in
the manner of an over-fliot mill. As foon as thefe
buttons are fl,d off, the bellows are laifed again by
the counterpoife of weights, whereby they are made
to play alternately, one giving its blaft while the
other is raifing.

At firft they fill the furnace with ore and cinder,
intermixed with fuel, which in thofe works are
alvvavs wood or charcoal, laying them hollow at
the bottom, that they may more eafily take fire ;
but after they are once kindled, the materials run
together in a hard cake or lump, which is fuflain-
cd by the fafhion of the furnace ; and through this
tlie metal, as it melts, trickles down into the re-
ceivers fet at the bottom, where there is a pafiage
open, by which the men take away the fcum and
- drofs, and let out the metal, as they fee occafion.
Before the mouth of the furnace, there lies a great
bed of fand, wherem they make furrows of tiie
flinpe, into which they would have their inn cafl-.
As ibon as the receivers are full, they let in the
metal, which is made fo very fluid by the violence
of the fire, that it not only runs to a coiifiderable

diftancc, but ftands afterwards boiling for a good
while.

When the furnaces are once at work, they keep
them conftantly employ 'd for many months toge-
ther, never fuffering the fire to flacken night or
day, but ftill fupplying the wafling of the fuel, and
other materials, with frcfli poured in at the top :
charcoal is ufcd altogether in this work, fea-coal
will fcarcely do.

From thefe furnaces the workmen bring their
fows and pigs of iron^ as they call them, to their
forges, where it is wrought into bars.

Tin is a whitifli metal, fofter than filver, yet
much harder than lead.

The c: nftiuent parts of tin, and thofe oi filver,
are no otherwife different from one another, but in
their preparation, which is Icfs perfeift.in tin than
in fik-er, and in their cohefion, which is lefs inti-
mate in tin than m filver.

JVIr. Boyle, and others, give us feveral inftances
of filver being actually produced in coiifiderable
quantities from //'; ore.

There are mines oi tin, 2i% well as other metals?
the bell are in England, in the counties of Cornwall
and Devonjhire. ; from whence the grcateft part of
the tin confumed in Europe is procured.

The mineral flone or ore, being dug and drawn
out of the mine, is there broke into pieces with
l.-irge iron mallets ; then brought to a flamping
mill, where it is ftill pounded fmaller with ftamp-
ers, much like thofe of paper-mills ; and the water
pafHng through it, v/afhes away the earthy parts,
leaving the metallick ones behind : the lotion is
repeated twice to make the better feparation.

This done, they dry it in a furnace on iron
plates, and grind it very fine in a crafing mill; then
wafli it again and dry it : in this flate the metallick
matter is called black tin.

To convert it into tin, /. e. into Vi-hite tin, they
carry it to a furnace or blowing-houfe, v/here, by
means of a charcoal fire, kept up by huge bellows
worked with water, it is melted ; after it has
palled all thele preparations and is become cold,
they forge it, which is the laft thing done to it in
in the works.

The drofs or fcoria fcummed off the tin in fufion,
being melted down with frefh ore runs into metal,
and even the cafualty, i. e. the matter wafhed and
feparated from the metal in the mill, being thrown
up in heaps, aftet refting fix or feven years they
fetch it over again, and it yields as good tin as any
of that of Germany.

'J he v.'orkmcn diftinguifh feveral kinds of tin, as
niiD-or tin, which is the bell fort, a foot whereof
v/eigbs 80 pounds ; and mincttHy which is the next,

METAL

a foot whereof weighing nbout 50 or 59. pounds.
The//«got from the ("oft gravelly earth, they call
pryan tin, to diftingiiifh it from that got from the
ftones, which is better by almofthalf.-'Jwo pounds
oi black tin when melted yield about one oi white.
To find whether tin be foft and ducftile, or harfh
and duiStile, there are two kinds of efra}s : the firj)
is, by putting the tin in a mould of caft brafs, and
there melting it ; if the metal be harfli, it will be
taken out heavier than before, otherwife it will be
lighter. The fecond li, by cafting the melted tin
into a little mould made of the Thunder-flone.
This mould has a little canal of moderate length,
which conduiSls the matter into a cavity capable of
containing half a billiard ball ; if the tin be harfli
it appears whitifli towards the entry of the mould,
otherwife it is tinged fuperficially with a very faint
bluifii brown.

Lead is a coarfe, heavy, impure metal, of all
others the fafefi: and moft fufible when purified.

They who have made an analyfis of A.W, find it
to contain a little mercury, fome fulphur, and a
great deal of bituminous earth.

Lend is found in various countries, but abounds
particularly in England; it is found too in feveral
kinds of foils and ftones, fome whereof befides,
contain gold, fome filver, others tin, ^c.

It is melted in a furnace, with a ftrong coal-fire;
as it melts it runs through a canal on one fide,
leaving the earth, ftones and fcoria with the aflies
of the coals It is purified by fl-iimming it ere cold,
and throwing fuct and other fat bodies into it.

Lead is found of a lighter or deeper colour, ac-
cording as it is more or lefs purified, though fome
make a difirerence in the colour of the ore, always
efteeming that moft which is the whitelf.

Some very able Naturalifts obferve, that the
weight of lead increafes either in the open air, or
under ground.

Liod is a metal of much ufe, it eafily melts, and
mixes with gold, filver, and copper, and commu-
nicates its humidity to them ; but not being able to
endure the fire, which they undergo, it retires and
carries with it all that was heterogeneous in them
fo as neither gold nor filver are refined without lead.
To which may be added, that the coarfer kind of
precious ftones boiled in lead are thereby rendered
much more brilliant.

When the lead ore is dug out they beat it fmall;
then wa(h it cl ; an in a running flream, and fift it in
iron rudders. Their hearth or furnace is made of
clay or fire-flone ; this they fet in the ground, and
on it build their fire, when they light their charcoal,
continuing it with young oaken gads blown with
bellows, by men treading on them. After the fire

2><^Z-

is lighted and the fire-place hot, thev throw their
/wrt* ore on the wood, which melts down into the
furnace, 3.n(i theji with an iron ladle they take it
out, and upon faud caft it into what form they
plcafe.

Ihc ore runs fometimes in a vein, fometim-s is
difpcrfed in banks; it lies many times between rotks,
fome of it is harder, others milder; fomeiimes they
have branched ore in the fpar about the ore is fpar
and caulk, and another fubftance which they call
crootcs.

Mercury, or Quicksilver, is an imperfea
metal, neither duitile nor malleable, but only a
fluid matter perfedly refcmblng filver in fufion.

The common name among the antients was hy-
drargirmn, q. d. water of filver.

Boerhaave obferves, that it is very improperly
called a metal, inafmuch as it has not all the cha-
raflers of fuch a body, nor fcarce any thino- in
common with the other metah except wei'^lit'and
fimilarity of parts.

The charafters of w;Y;/ry are, firft, that of all
bodies it is the heavieft after gold ; and ftill the
purer it is the heavier ; nay fome of the Philofo-
pheis even hold, that menury well purged of all its,
fulphur, would be heavier than gold itfcif. The
ordinary proportion is, thatof fourteen to nineteen.

1 he fecond character of mercury, is to be of all
bodies the moft fluid, that is, its parts feparate, and
recede from each other by the finalleft force.

The third property of mercury is, that in what-
ever manner it he djvided, it ftill retains its nature,
and is the fame fpecifick fluid.

The fourth charafter i? to he e;:trcmel/ volatile,
being convertible into fume, even by a fand heat.

The fifth property is, that it eafily and intimate-
ly adheres to gold, lefs eafily to tlie other metals,
with diificulty to copper, and not at all to iron.
On this account it is that fuch as have occafion to
handle quickjilver, always make choice of iron in-
ftruments for that purpofe. We have known wo^
men in a falivation, to have their ear-rings grow
white and foft with the effluvia of the mercury.
And hence the gilder^ to lay gold on any other
body, diflblve it in hot mercury, which done, they
apply the folution on the body to be gilt, fuppofe
filver ; then fetting it o\ er the coals the mercury
fles away, and leaves the gold adhering like a crull
to the filver. Laiily, rubbing the cruft with lafis
hamatites, the filver is gilt.

The fixth chara(fter is, that of ail fluids it is the
coldeft, and the hotteft, fuppoling the circumftan-
ces the fame.

The fevcnth property is, that it is diflbluble by

almoft all acids, and unites itlelf with them, atleaft

^ r 2 with

7le Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

304-

with all foflll aciJs. Thus it is diffblvcJ in oil of
vitriol, fpirit of fulphur ^er cam^anam-, fpirit ot
nitre and aqua regia.

Only vinegar docs not diflolve it, and hence we
are furniflied witb a method of detefling the frauds
ofdruggifts, CsV. who make a pra£lice of fophifti-
caling quickfilver with Itad. Do but take amor-
tar, and pound the mercury, with vinegar therein;
if the vinegar grow fwectifli, it is a proof there is a
mixture of lead : if copper have been mixed with
it, the 7nercuryvi\\\ turnbluifh or greenifh; if there
be no adulteration, the mercury and vinegar will
both remain as before.

The eighth property is, that it is the mofl fimple
of all bodies next after gold ; accordingly we find
it the fame in all its parts, fo far as our obfcrvation
goes. If a fingle grain of mercury he diflblved in
fpirit of nitre, a proportionable part of t!>e grain
will be diftributed into every minute particle of the
menftruum ; and by diluting the whole with an
ounce of aqua f^ygia, the whole grain of mercury
wiH be revived.

The ninth property of mercury is, not to be in
any meafure acrid, for it fliews no acrimony to the
tafte, nor does it corrode any body ; and if a car-
cafe were to be buried in quickfilver, it might
doubtlcfs remain there without being any way hurt.
Mercury is found in mines, the chief of which
are thofe of Hungary, Spain, FriuU, and Peru ;
the greateft part of our quickfilver h brought us
from FriuJi, where there are abundance of mines
belonging to the Qiieen of Hungary, though mort-
gaged to the Dutch. It is found under three fe-
veral forms : i. In ruddy glebes, or clods, called
cinnabar. 2. In hard ftony glebes, or a mineral
lubftance of a fafFron, and fometimes a blacLifh
colour. 3. It is alfo found pure ; for upon open-
ing holes in the beds of flones, iSc. there fome-
times gufhcs a vein or flream of pure mercury, call'd
■virgin mercury. This laft fort is moft valued.

To procure or feparate mercury from the ore or
earth, they firft grind the glebe into powder; this
done they pour a great quantity of water upon it,
ftirring and working the whole brifkly about till
the water becomes exceeding thick and turbid : this
water having flood till it be fettled, they pour it oft",
and fupply its place with frefh, which they ftir and
work as before ; this they repeat, and continue to
do, till the water at length comes away pcrfe(£fly
clear, then all remaijiing at the bottom of the vef-
fcl is mercury, and other metalline matter.

To this mercury, he. they add the .loria of iron,
putting them together in large earthen retorts, and
lb diftilling it ; by which means all the heteroge-
neous, metallick and flony part is feparated there-
from, and the mercury left pure.

of thofe belonging to

As to the earthy matter wherewith the mercury
iimixed, that of Spain is red, and fpeckled with
black and white, and fo hard that it is not to be
broken up with gun-powder. In Hungary it is
frequently a hard ftone, but ordinarily a rcddifli
earth. In FriuU there is a foft earth where the
virgin quickfilver is found ; and a hard flone whicli
yields the common mercury

The mine of Idica, one
Friuli, is fo rich, that it yields always half jwV/f
filver, fometimes two thirds.

The mine of "Juayi Cubclaca in Peru, is ftill more
confidcrable; the earth is of a vvhitifh red, like
bricks half burnt ; it is firft broke, then expofed.
to the fire, by fpreading it on a layer of commoa
earth, wherewith the grate of an earthen furface is
covered, under which is lighted a little fire of an
herb, called by the Spaniards icho ; which is of
that Jieceffity in thofe works, that the cutting of
it is prohibited for the fpace of 20 leagues round.
In proportion as the mineral heats, the mercury
rifes volatilized into fmoak ; which fmoak finding
no vent through the capital of the furnace, which,
is exactly luted, efcapes through a hole made for
t.^e purpofe, communicating with feveral earthen
cucuibites fitted within oi'.e another. The water,
at the bottom of each cucurbite condenfing it to
fmoak, the quickfilver precipitates, and is taken up
when the operation is over. In this procefs there
are three things remarkable ; the firft, that the
further the cucurbites are from the furnace, the
more they are filled with quickfilver. The fecond,
that at laft they all grow fo hot, that they would
break, were they not fprinkled from time to time
with water. Thirdly, that the workmen employ 'd
never hold it long, but become paralytick, and die
hc'flick. The precaution they ufe is, to hold a
piece of gold in their mouth, to imbibe theefHuvia,
and interrupt their paflagc into the body. Dr..
Pope tells us of one he faw in the mines of Friuli^
who in half a year's time was fo impregnated with
the metal, that putting a piece of brafs in hii
mouth, or even rubbing it in his fingers, it would
turn as white as filver.

The method of purifying mercury is, by waihing
it feveral times in vinegar, wherein common fait
hath been difiTolved ; or by pafling and repaffing it
frequently over a ftiammy ficin. Jm. Paraus tells
us, that the beft way is to make a dog fwallow a
pcund at a time, and afterwards to feparate it from
the excrement, and wafh it in vinegar.

I'll conclude this treatife, by obferving that the
common radical charader of »z^/fl/.y is, tliat ofall
known bodies they are the heavieft. By Dr.Halleys
experiments, the weight of gold to that of glafs is

determined to be as g to i

and the weight of tin
the

M E r A P H r S 1 C K s.

the lighteftof all metals to that of gold, as 7 to 19;
which confiderably furpafl'es the weight of all floncs,
marbles, gums, and other the moft folid bodies, as
appears from the tubes of fpecifick gravity : nor is
there any body in nature but a metal, that is
one third of the weight of the gold.

The Royal Society furnifhes us with various ex-
periments of that kind. The weights of the feveral
metah and other folids, they have examined hydro-
flatically, by weighing them in air and in water ;
and the weights of the fluids by weighing an equal
portion of each. By fuch experiments they find,
that taking the fame weights of water and gold,
the bulk or magnitude of the former is to the latter
as 19636 to 1000 ; confequently that the weight
of gold is to water nearly as 1 9 to i .

The fpecifick weight of the (everal
this means determined ftands thus :

Gold - - 19636 Iron -

14019 Tin - -

11345 Granate

10535 Water -

8843 Air -

Quicksilver
Lead - -
Silver -
Copper -

- The cube Inch of
-\
Gold

Quicksilver
Lead
Silver
Copper
Iron
Tin

met ah b/

- 785?-

- 7321

- -gjs

- 1000

C Ounces. Drams. Grains.
52

yi<

7
6

2
6

5
6
I

30
28

M ETA LLU RGT See M IJV E R A L S.
METAPHTSICKS.

METAPHYSICKS is a fcience that treats
of being, as fuch in the abftradV ; that is,
it confiders beings, only as beings.

All other fciences have a neccflary dependence
on this ; for, it fupplies them with a foundation
and a method to proceed upon; without which,
our knowledge of any fubjedlmufl: be very confu-
fed and imperfect.

This was probably the reafon that made Jrijlo-
iJe ftyle this fcience the true beginning of philofophy,
and the mofl: noble of all the fciences. As it is
wholly converfant in the a£ts of the underllaiid-
ing, it raifes itfelf above the verge of fenfe and
matter, by its abftra£ted views.

The quantity of bodies it refers to the confi-
deration o( geometry, and their fenfibJe qualities to
natural philofophy, applying itfelf only to beings
feparated from their individual fmgularity, fuch as
fubftances, accidents, relations, and whatever elfe
may be conceived abftraSly from matter; but
^■iiX.\c\x\div\y beings purely fpiritttal, fuch as God,
angel.', and the foul of man : hence ArijUtli terms
it natural theology.

The end oftliis fcience is the fearch of pure and
abftrafted truth. It cafts a light upon all the ob-
jects of thought and meditation, by ranging every
being with all the abfolute and relative perfections
and properties, modes and attendants of it, in pro-
per ranks or clafles ; and thereby it difcovers the
various relations of things to each other, and what
are their general or fpecial difterences from each
other ; wherein a great part of human kno ^ ledge
confifts : and, by this means, it greatly conduces

to inflruft us in method, or the difpofition of put-
ting everything into its proper rank and clafs of
being, attributes or actions ; and hence its proper
affinity with Logic. See Method in Logic.

This will appear more fatisfadloril^, by laying
before you the following analy/is of the inetaphy-
fical fcience.

'1 he objetfl of this fcience, or that about which
it is conveilant, is therefore being in general.
For, the underftanding not being confined to
one thing, as the fenfes are to the proper objefls,
has a diflufive power to comprehend whatfoever is
intelligible. To avoid confufion, which would
inevitably flow from the great variety of things
which fail within the compafs of the underflandin^,
it is found neceflary to reduce the fpccies of beings
to one genus in order to make them the object of
any art ox fcience ; fo all the conceptions in natu-
ral philofophy are reduc'd to that one of a natural
body ; all the obfervations concerning proportion,,
figures, and quantity to mathematick ; and all the
ideas concerning the various modes of being, fub-
fifting, and inhering, are reduc'd to one objcdt,
which is called being.

Being is feveral ways divided, i. Being taken
in its utmoft latitude is either compound or fimple,
which involves many Ideas, or fimple, v.hich only
takes in one.

2. B/ing is either pof five crngati-.e. Pefitive
is that, which has a real cxiflence in thf courfe of
nature. Negative deftroys this exigence. If it
deftroys it abfolutely then it is a perfedl negative

3o6

7he Univcrral Hiflory of Akts, ^//^ Sciences.

being ; but if it only prevents its being in a l'iibje6t,
which was capable to receive it, then it is (lil'd a pri-
vative being. For privation may be properly defin'd,
to be thcwant or ablence of fome natural p:rfedtion,
from a fubjci-t capable to receive it, in v^'hich 'ub-
]e£t it either was before, or at leafi ought to have
been : hefidcs, as this privation is either greater or
lefSi fo it is either called total or partial. Total
is the worft, for it deprives the fubjeft of its natural
perfe£lion, both as to the exercife of any pret'ent
a£tion, and the power ofregaining it for the future;
as when the eye is perfectly put out. Partial is
only in fome particular refpe<£l, and relates princi-
pally to its prefcnt actions, or fome degree of them;
as when one fliuts his eyes, or is purblind.

3. Bi'iijg is either rational or r<v7/. Rational
being, which is the mere product of reafon, has
no exiftence but in the mind in idea, and when
none thinks upon it, it ceafes to be. A real being,
which is not produc'd by the flrength of imagina-
tion or fancy, has a real exiftence in the courfe of
nature, antecedent to any thought or conception
of the mind.

4. Being is chhev a£?ua/ OT potentiaL Aclualh
that, which actually exifls in the order of nature,
whether it depend upon any caufe in order to pro-
duce it, as an infant ; or whether it be antecedent
to all caufe, as God. Potential being is that,
which can be produced by the power of fome a-
gent.

Thefe are the principal nominal diftin£tions of
being, and from thefe we may colle£t that that being
which is the objed of metaphyfuk, is ?if:mpk, pofi-
iive, real, and aSlual being.

Metaphyf.ck is divided into two parts, general
and particular.

The general part of ntetaphyftck gives an ac-
count of being in its mofl abftracted nature ; under
which notion it may be thus defln'd ; being is
that, which in itfelf has a rea? and pofitive eflence.

Being may be confidercd either with rcfpe£t to
thofc words, which are fynonymous or equivalent
to it; or in reference to its afreclions or modes.

Words fynonymous to beirig, are terms, which
fimply have the fame fignilication, or elfe, at the
fame time, do imply a refpetSl to fome other thing.
Upon this ground they are divided into twoclafles;
fome in every rcfpecl implying the fame with being,
others either from the philcfhphical or grammatical
ufc of the words, imply a relation to fome other
being.

Tn the firft clafs, are ranked ejfenee, thing, foine~
thing.

EJfence is the fame with being, the' fome would
make adiftinftion to lie betwixt them in this, that
being has the lame refpedt to ejjince, that the
concrete has to its abftradt. But e£ence in 7neta-
phyfick is taken in its mol' abftracted nature, and
fo it muft of ncceflity be the fame with being

Thing is the fame with being; for there is no-
thing in the notion of bein , but what thing im-
plies in its idea, and on the contrary.

Something, as well as thing and ejjence, is equi-
valent to being. And this may be further proved
from thefe following axioms. For, ij it be impof-
fible for the fame thing to have ejjence, and not t<y
have ejfence at the fame time ; to be a thing and not
to be a thing ; to be fomething and not to bejomcthing,
are maxims equivalent to this firll principle of
knowledge, that it is impoffible for a thing to be,
and not to be at the fame time ; then ejfence, things
and fomething are words fynonymous to being.

Synonymous words of the fecondclafs are, exl-
flence, quiddity, nature, form. Thefe are the fame
with being, yet imply fome refpeft in the philofo-
phical way of ufing them, which refpedt is form'd
by the operation of the mind upon hearing thefe
words.

Exijience, befides the (Ignification of being, im-
plies a reference to its caufe, whether it pofitively
had its original from fome caufe, as an houfe ; or
negatively was antecedent to all caufe, as God.

^iddity is the fame with being, but infers a re-
lation to our underflanding ; for the very afl.ing
what a thing is, implies that it is the objecEt of
knowledge ; upon which account that, which
really exifts in the courfe of nature, is accidentally
made the objedf of knowledge.

Nature is the fame with I eing. but includes a
refpedt to its operations and properties.

Form is or the fame fignification ; for every be-
ing as by its ejfence, fo by its form, is what it is.
Yet this term involves this refpect that it is more
generally by philofophcrs apply'd to particular and
determinate beings.

The modes or affeSlions of being, are three ge-
neral ideas or conceptions of being, which natu-
rally flow from it, and are reciprocated with it,
yet reprefent it in different ftates and condi-
tions.

UnitSi

MET^PHTSICKS.

2<=^7

f UniUd

f Primary
- Secondary

• Unity^
\ Truth,
\ Goodnefs.

) Duration,

I Ubiety.

f Neccjfity and Contingency,

I Power and ASl,
Corruptibility and incorruptibility,
C Immediate •{ Dependent and independent ^

I Created and increated.
Finite and infinite,
yj^aufe, and the Thing caus'd.

Affe^iom -^

^ Primary ">

Difunited

Mediate •{

f Simpliciiy and Compofition,

I The ll^iole and Part,
Identity and Diverfity,
Communicability and incommunicahility.
Natural and artificial.
Complete and incomplete.
Permanent and fuccejjive,
\^ Definite and inJefinite.

^ Secondary

Suhjell and adjunSf,
Abfolute and Rclati'-je,
Sign, and the Thing fignified,
Meafure and the Thing meafur^d.

The united affcclio^n of being are fuch as fingly
End Iblitarily are predicated of being, and without
any conjundiion are convertible with it ; as every
being is good, and all good is a being.

The difunited afieii ions of being are predicated of
it with a disjunflion, and by taking in both parts
of the fentence are convertible with it. As being
is either necellary or contingent, and whatever is
neceffary or contingent is a being.

The Primary United affe^ions of being are
unity, truth, and goodnefs.

Unity is either real or rational. Real is, which
without any operation of the mind is really in every
particular being. Rational unity is that common
nature which is ditfus'd in all the particidars of
any kind, yet by the operation of the undcrftand-
ing is made one.

Unity is the indivifion of any being ; i. c. the
dlvifion of itseffenceii-npiying fuch a contraditSion,
that without we can divide a thing from itfelf it U _
impoflible to divide it.

Union is the concourfe of many ^^/?;^f, in order
t) the making of one individual.

Union is cither verbal, real, ejjer.iial, pcrfonaJ,
or accidental.

Verbal union confifts in the bare agreement of
words.

Real in the concourfe of many diftincl beings,
in order to the forming of one individual.

That is an effential union when many incomplete
beings, adapted to one another, do concur to make
one effential individual : fo matter and form are
cflentially united in the compofition of a body.
And this union is not only vifible in effential com-
pofitions, but in integral, becaufe e\cn in fuch a
compofition there is one effence ; fo the elements
in all mixt bodies are united by an effential union.

Perfonal union is by which two natures are fo
united as to make one perfon. The only inffancc
that can be given of this is, in the union of the di-
vine and human nature in the perfon of our Sa-
viour.

Accidental union is by which many caufes acci-
dentally concur to make one thing by accident.

The fecond of the united primary offeSlions of
being is truth.

Truth is either metophyfical, logical, or rnor.nl.
Metaphyfical truth is the conformityof th:; thin-^
with the divine underftanding.

Logical \s the conformity of the idea with the

thing itfelf.

Morai

Hie Univerfal Hiftory of Arts «;/<:/ Sciences.

308

Moral is the confoimity of our words, geflures,
and actions with our hearts.

Logical truth is particularly feen in true propo-
fitions, fuch as agree with their rule, which is the
things themfelvcs of which they treat. i hat is
a mral truth when a man's heart and mouth go
together, when he Ipealcs what he thinks, and is in
reality what he would feem to infinuate himfelf to
be by his {hew and appearance. It is not abfolute-
ly required to this truth, that things Ihould exact-
ly agree with the relation of them, upon condition
that he that tells 'em knows nothing to the con-
trary ; fo that one need not doubt to affirm that a
man at once, in the fame thing, may fpeak tritth
and tell a lye.

Another divifion of truth is into truth, in being,
fignifytKg, and knowing.

In being is the agreeablcnefs of the efTencc of any
thing to the underllandingofj^ltd.

\n ftgnifying, when there is an exaft correfpon-
dence between the fign and the thing fignified.

In knowing, when the underftanding by its ideas
reprefents the thing, which is to be undcrflood ex-
actly, as it is. ' ■ 0''
The third of the united primary affe^im: is
goodnefs.

Goodnefi is the agreeablcnefs of any thing.
G'odneji is either fuch as is abi'ojutely fo in
itfelf, or with reference to fomething elfe. 1 hat
goodnefs, which is abfolutely fo itfelf is called per-
fcStion.

Perfection is either ejfential or accidental.
EJfcntial ferfeiiion is, when a thing has no ef-
fential defect in its nature.

Accldential perfcSiion, when a thing is inverted
with all thofe accidents, which ufually accompany
its [pedes.

Again, perfe£lion is either abfolute or compara-
tive.

MfolutAy, every being is perfect, which wants
nothing to the compleating of itsefience.

Csmparatively. one being is more perfect than
another; as God is more perfect, than his crea-
tures ; a man, than a plant.

Moral is the agrceablenefs of our aflions with
the law of nature, and is the fame that is meant
by tnerul virtue.

The Secondary United affeSliom are du-
ration, ubiety.

Duration is either imaginary or real.

Imaginary, which is only fram'd by the working
of fancy, there being no fuch thing in nature.

Real is either extrinftcal or intrinfical

Extrinfical is the comparing duration with fome-
thing elfe, making that thing to be the meafure of
it; io in natural phtlofophy, time, by the heavenly
bodies is divided into years, months, and days.
This is improperly called duration.

Ubiety is the prefcnce of any thing in its uli.,
or place.

Ubiety is either infi iite or fni'te.

Infinite ubiety is the indeterminate prefence of a
thing in every place ; it is called in one word
ubiquity. This is the property of God.
,„ Finite ubiety is the dc»erminate prefence of a
being in a place. It is definitive or circumfcrip-
tive.\

Definitive ubiety is, when a thing, wit'iout any
circumfcription, is fo in a place, as to be no where
elfe. After this manner fpirits, material forms and
accidents are in a place. It is called definitive^
becaufe we can define it to be here and not
there.

Circumfcriptive ubiety is that, by which a thing
is exactly circumfcnb'd in its ubi, and this is pro-
perly called place ; this is the condition of all
bodies.

The Disunited primary immediate affec-
tions of beings are ; neceffity and contigency, power y
and aii, corruptibility and incorruptibility, dependent
and independent., created and increaied, finite and
infinite, caufe and the thing caufd.

Necejftty is that, by which a being is put into
fuch a condition, that it cannot be in any other.

Neceffity is either abfolute or hypothaical.

Abfolute neceffity is, when it is contrary to the

'WilAgo'.dnefs, which is relative, and bears a re- very nature of the things, and its principles to be
ference to fomething elfe, is either real ox apparent . ' otherwife. This is ^xxh^xf imply abfolute or refpec-
Rral goodnefs is fuch as is intrinfically fo in its tivelyfo.

nature ; as virtue.

Apparent is made (o by the falfe reafonings of
men : thus many look upon idlenefs to he good.

Again, goodnejs is either tnetaphyfical, phyfical,
or moral.

Metaphyfical is the agrceablenefs of any thing
with the divine will.

Phyfical is the agrceablenefs of any particular to
the whole ^ffw.

Simple abfolute neceffity is, which upon no terms
will let a thing be in another condition than what
it is in. This is never met with but in an inde-
pendent being, /". e. God.

RefpeSiive abfolute neceffity is when, according
to the order of the creation, and the fettled courfe
of fecond caufes, a thing will continue as it Js.

Power is, by which a being is able to effect or
do fomething. It is either a^ive or pajfive, Af'ive

METAPHTSICKS.

by which it is ahle to do fomething. PaJJive b}'
which it is made capable to fuftlr.

Jet is that, by which a being is in real aflion :
fo walking is an a£i, not as it is in any ones pow-
er, but as it is really perform'd.

Corruptibility is a power not to be. Corruptibi-
lity piocecfis either from without or from zviihin.
Corruptibiliiy from ivitljin is when a thine; con-
tains the principles of its own deftrutlion. I'Vom
without when a thing may be deftroyed by an ex-
ternal principle,

Incorruptibility is an inhability not to be.

Dependent IS a previous want, whereby one thing
depends upon another as its caufe.

Independent is whereby one thing does not de-
pend upon another as its caufe.

Creation is the produflion of a thing out of no-
thing, or out of indifpos'd or unqualified matter,
by the influence of an Almighty power.

Created is that, which bv creation has its dcpen-
dance upon another, as all finite beings.

Increatcd, which does not depend upon anotlier
by creation ; as God.

Finite, which has terms or bounds of its ejjence.

Infinite is either fo in itfelf^ or with rejpcii to us.
That, which is infinite in itfelf, is what properly
belongs to metaphyficks ; not that, which is only fo
with reference to us, as the ftars, and fand ; be-
caufe their number cannot exa(fHy be difcovered by
any man.

/«/?«//^ is that which implies a contradidtion to
have terms or bounds to its ejjence , fuch God is
only.

A caufe is an a6live principle influencing the
thing caufed. A caufe is either internal, which
partakes of the eflence of the thing caufed, vi-z..
matter i^nA fcrm. Or fA-^crsi?/, which has an out-
ward influence, viz. efficient and final.

Matter is an internal caufe, out of which a thing
is made.

Form is an internal caufe, by which a material
being is conftituted what it is.

Efficient is an external caufe, from which any
thing by a real aiStion derives its being or eflence.

The end is an external caufe, upon whofe ac-
count the efficient afls.

The thing caufed is that, which derives its being
or eflence from its caufes.

So far we have confidered x\\e primary, immediate,
disjoined, or difunited affections 'of being. We
come now to confider thofe, which flow from be-
ing, thro' the mediation of the unitci affeSlions.

From unity flows fimplicity and compofition ; the
whole and part ; the jame and different ; cornmu-
nicability and incommunicability.
Vol II. 41.

309

Simplicity is an indivifible unity. It is cither
ahfolute or liyiiited. Ai folute fimplicity is when a
thing is independently indivifible. This is the
property of God.

Li^nited fimplicity, when a thing is really indivi-
fible ; but yet that depends upon fome external
being.

Compofnicn is a divifible unity.

The xvhole is that, which is made up of parts
united in due order and difpofition. The whole is
either cjjential or integral.

Effential, which confifts of fuch parts as com -
pleat the eflence of that being ; fo man is made
up of foul and body.

Integral, which has the fame nature with its
parts ; as every drop of water is called water.

Part is that, which conftitutes the whole.

Identity is the agreement of two or more things
in another.

Communicalility is, when one being can partake
of another.

Incommunicability, when one being cannot par-
take of another.

From ttuth follows natural and artificial.

Natural \i that, of whofe truth the underftand-
ing of God is the immediate rule.

Artificial, the immediate rule, of whofe truth is
the underfl:andingof the artificer.

From g'jodnef flows compleat and incompleat.

Complcat is that, whofe eflence is bounded in
itfelf, and is not defign'd to perfect any thing
elfe.

Incompleat, whofe eflence is not bounded in it-
felf, but is ordain'd of itfelf £0 the completion and
perfe<fi;ion of another being.

From duration, proceeds permanent 3.inA fuccejfive ,

Permanent, the parts of v/hofe eflence are not in
a pefpetual flux.

Succeffive, the parts of whofe eflTence are i.a a
continual flux.

From ubiety flows definite and indefinite.

Definite, which has a finite ubiety, or place.

Indefinite, which has an infinite ubiety, or place.
Such a being God is, whofe eflTence is boundlefs.

The Shcundary disunited affeSlions, arc
fubjeH ainl adjunfl ; abfolute and relative ; fign,
and the thing fignify'd; meafure, and the thing
?ncafur'd.

Subjecl is a being, which has another thing
join'd to it, which other thing docs not enter into
its eflence. ,

The adjunSl \s thaX, which is join'd to another
thing, fo as not to conftitute part of its being.

A being is then abfolute, when it has no refpe£l
to any thing elfe.

Ss . ' Relaiivif

310

Hie Univerfal Hlftcry of Arts and Sciences.

Reliiih'f, when it has a refpeeSt to fomething elfc.
hfign is that, vvliich reprt-'fciits any thing to the
faculties of knowledge ; under v.'hich faculties, are

comprehended Itnfe, as well as undcrftanding. gure or form.
The tWmgfignijy d is whofe .v/iW by its fign is re-
prefented to the faculties of knowledge.

Meafure is that, by which the quantity of any
thing is found out.

The thing ir.eafurd is, whofe quantity i^ de-
termined by another.

Thus we have run through all the nffeilkns of
heing^ which is the general part of Aletaphyficks.
We proceed now to the particular part, which is
concernine the divifion ol being.

]t:t\ after the manner of an cfl'cntial form. There
are iour fpccics, or kinds of it. Habit ('and dijpo-
fjtion j) natural power and [uicaknefs j) pajfwn ; fi-

Being is divided into fuhjlance and accident,
Sul'Jlance is a being fubfifting by itfclf
h either comp'.tat or incomphat.

Compleat fubftance, whofe efTence is bounded in
itfelf, and is not ordain'd to the intrinfical perfedion
of any thing elfe. As God, an angel, a man, i^c.

Compleat fubftance is that, which is ordained to
the perfedtion of another thing, and is a part of
fome compound. As the foul, a hand, a vein, ft.
Subjlance is divided into material -dnd immaterial.
A body is a fubftance made up of matter and form,
and is the objedt: of a particular fcience, viz natural
philofophy, by which it is divided into Jimple and
mix'd, animate and inanimate, &c. Spirit is a
fubftance void of matter and form, and is the ob-
jedt of pneumatich.

Accident is a being inhering in a fubftance.
jtccident is either entitive or modificative. Entitivc
is either primary or fecundary : primary is abfolute.
as quantity and quality , or rejpeliive, as relation.
Secundary aSlion, paffion. Modificative accidents
are. quanda, ubi, fttus, habitus.

Quantity is cither continud or divided. Contl
tinued quantity, which properly belongs to this
place, is whofe parts are join'd together by a com-
mon term.

Divided quantity is that, whofe p.arts are no-
Jinked to<Jether bv a common term, but are divid-
ed. Divided quantity is number, which may b(
deSn'd, a multitude compos'd of units.

family is an accident, by which material fub-
ftance is extended.

The fpecies of continu'd quantity are a line, a
Juberficies, and a body ; ft^r quantity is cxtend'ed ei-
ther into bare longitude, and then it is call'd a line
not a material one, but fuch an one as the mind
ran frame by idea ; or elfe it is extended into lon-
gitude unA latitude, and that is called Afuperfciii ;
or elfe into longitude, latitude, und profundity, and

Habit is a quality fupcradded to a natural power,
which makes it very readily and eafily perform its
opcr-ations. Difpofition is an imperfeiSt habit, or a
habit jult begun.

Natural power is a quality rooted in our very na-
ture which renders a fubjedt fit to do or fufFcr
any thing. JVeakneJs is a diminutive power.

Paffton is a quantity, which affcdls the fenfes and
the fenfitive appetite, but is quickly over.

Figure or form \i the outward determination and
difpoiition of quantity, as roundnefs.

Relation is an accident, by which one thing is
Subjlance] referr'd to another.

Action is an accident, by which a thing is faid to
a£l. It is c\t\\cT intmanent or tranfient. Immanent,
which does not go from the agent to another fub-
jc£t ; as underjianding, thinking, n:editating.

Tranfient, which goes from one fubjeiSl to ano-
ther, as IcJting.

Paffion is the receiving of aSiian. Paffion is ei-
ther pcrfe£iive, by which the fubjefl receives fome
additional perfection, as, to be informed: or cor-
ruptive, by which the patient is either wholly, 0:1
in part corrupted, as, to be wounded.

^ando is the duration of a being m time.

TJbi is the prefence of a being in a place.

Situs is the refpe£t of the parts of the body to
a place.

Habitus is the application of a body to thai
which is near to it.

This fcience, however it may fccm to have been
laboured, is yet capable of being far.ther improved.:
but it has many cbftades in iss way. If we are
'.hort-fightcd in phyfical matters, which are nearer
our fenfe, and in a manner within our view, how
much more muft v.'e be bewildered in our fearch.
after fpiritual abftradtcd truths, in the confideratioii
of univerfal?, and of things of a tranfcendant na-
ture, fuch as fall properly under the cortfideration
of metaployficks.

This fcience proceeds in unfrequented andalmofl
unknown paths, containing very few dodlrines of
allowed and cftablifhej certainty ; few principles,
in which men are univerfally agreed ; fcarce any
juft definition, any exact and complete divifion ;
and confequcntly affords large matter for doubts
and difputes. For though metaphyfical uuths may
be certain enough in their own nature, yet they
are not ufually !o to us ; but being abftrufe things
and lying deep and remote from fenfe, it»is not

that makes a mathematical body, which, is not to levery oite that is capable of under/landing them and

be underftood as if it were a corporeal fuhflancc.
^alily is an accident, which influeoces its fub-

theie are fewer yc: who underflaiid thtii" true ufe.

Arijictk

METEOROLOGY,

Arijhtle feems to have been the firft founder and
inventor of this abftrafted method of rcafoning,
and the confideration of immaterial beings : for his
prcdcccfibrs in phiiofophj', fcarce delivered any
thing that was good and folid-iipon thefe fubjeils;
and, indeed, antiquity affords nothing upon it

311

compofcd with fo much ftrcngth of reafon as Cicero'^
book of the Nature of the "C5ods. We have but
few modern works of this kind, the chief of which
are Defcartes, AlalUbrmch, Dr. lyUlis, Locke^
S. Gravffande, Dr, Mcor, Bifliop Butler^ i^c.'-l.

METEOROLQGT.

METEOROLOGY is the doflrinc of ne-
teors ; explaining their origin, formation,
kinds, phxnomena, &c.

Meteor is an imperfccl: mixt, confifling of
fiiblimated exhalations, and formed in the fuperior
region of ihe air, or of our aunoffhere.

rhere are three kinds of mcieors^ viz. igneous,
or fitfj ; aerial, or airy : and aqtteaus., or vja'ery
meteors.

Igneous, or fiery Meteors, fuch as lightning,
thu der, /■ nis fatuus, draco volans-i falling jlars,
and the hke, fecm to be nothing elfe but fulphu-
rcous and nitrous exhalations, fet on fire in the air,
by the violent motion of the parts. Therefore, the
matter of thunder and lightning, as well as that of
gun-powder, is particularly nitre and fulphur: the
eft'tiSls of both being entirely femblable. For the
hollow cloud, wherein the fulphurous and nitrous
exhalation is contained, is like tiie cannon, and
the exhalation like the gun-powder ; which, when
it lacerates the cloud, produces thunder and llght-
ijing. Thunder, according to the manner the matter
kindled, falls on the earth ; whether in a direft or
oblique line; and lightning or fulguration, when
it blazes through the air, but it cannot break the
cloud, with a great violence, without making a
very great noife : for thunder is a found, occafionej
by a violent commotion of the fubtile matter, iflii- ,
ing out of a lacerated cloud. I

Sir Ifaac Neivton is of opinion, that thunder is |
not occafioncd by the falling of clouds, but by the ;
kindling of fulphureous exhalations, in the (ame
manner as the nolle of aurumfulminans.

He fays, that there are, fulphureous exhalations,
SlvVJys afcendhig into the air v/hen the earth is drv;
there they ferment with the nitrous aciJs, and
fometimcs taking 'fire, generate thunder, lightning,

kc.

That befides the vapours raifedfrom water, ^c.
there arc alfo exhalations carry 'd off from fulphur,
bitumen, volatile falts, Is'c. is paft all doubt ; the
vaft quantity of fulphureous and bituminous matter
all over the furface of the earth, and the volatile
falts of plants and animals, afford fuch an ample
{hicV. thereof, that it is no wonder the air fhouid
be filled with fuch particles (fayihofe whcefpoufe

Sir ^M-'s opinion) raifed higher or lower, accord-
ing to their greater or Icfi'er degree of fubtility and
aftivity, and more copiouflv fprcad in th!s orthat
quarter, according to the drreftion of the winds-,
(3'c.

If what wc call lightning, a61s with cjittr^JOr-
dinary violence, and breaks or ftatters any thing,
it is called a thunder-bolt, which the vulgar, to fit
it for fuch effedts, fuppofe fo be a hard body, and
even a ftone. '

The phenomena of the thunder-bolt are, that it
oftnerftrikeson high places, than on low : that it
often burns people's cioaths., without touching their
bodies ; as it happcn'd to Atnurath IV. Emperor
of the Tivr/r, who, while afleep, in an afternoon,
had his fhirt burnt by thunder, and his body not
in the Icafl touch'd : that it fometimes breaks their
bones without hurting their fieOi or their cioaths :
'that it has even melted the fworj without injuring
the fcabbard, 4s>. ■ • -'''-i'-^

On medals when the thunder-bolt is found ■ to
accompany the Emperor's heads, (as that of /iu-
gujlus) it is a mark of fovcreignty, and of a powcf'
equal with the gods. ':

Apptan informs us. that the ihunder-ho't vvas
the principal divinity of Seleueia ; adding that it
was adorned even in his time, with various hymns
and ceremonies.

IcMs FATUUS is a popular meteor, chiefl). fecn
in dark nights, frequenting meadows, marfhes, and
other moift places. — Known among the people by
the appellations, Will with a H'^'ifp, and JacJk ivith
a Lanthorn. It feems to arife from a vifcous exha-
lation, which being kindled in the air, refleds a fort
of thin flame in the daik without any fenfiWe heat.
It is found fl\ing along rivers, hedges, iSc becaufe
it there meets with a ifream of air to 4iredt: it.

■ ■■At Ln;;

Draco volans is a fat, hetefogeTieoiis, earthy
mstcor, appearing long and linuous. fomething :n
the Ihape of ^f-ying dragon. This fiiape is luppoierf
to aiile front the iiind part of the matter of this
meteor ^eingficed with greater impctuofity, ithaii •
what comes firlt out bf the cloud ; and it is i'uppof-
ed the broken part? of t':; cloud; at-.d the fulphiireou?"
i s 2 nu:t.'.r

n^e Univerfal Hlflory of Arts and Sciences.

fo greatly rarefied over the equator, and all about
the poles greatly condenfcd by extreme cold, this
heavier air from either poles is confhntly flowing
towards the equator, to redore the brJlance de-
flroyed by the rarcf;i:'' ion and levity of the air over
thofe regions ; hence, in this refpedl alone, a con>-
(tant north and fouth wind would be cenerated.

To illuftrate the caufe of this perpetual current
of air fiom cad to weft, t-r of a couftant eajl-w'md
under the equator-, 1 fhall add this Figure,

312

matter, which adheres to them, forms the apparent
wings of this imaginary dragon.

The /7fr;V?/, or airy meteors, confift of flatulent
and fpiiiiuous exhalations ; fuch are winds., ■whirl-
winds, and hurricanes.

Wind is a fenfible agitation of the air, whereby
a large quantity thereol flows out of one place, or
region into another.

■As the air is a fluid, its natural flate is that of
reft, whicii it endeavours always to keep or retrieve
by an unjverfal equilibrium of all its parts. When,
therefore, this natural equilibrium of the atmof-
phere happens by any moans to be dcftroycd in any
part, there neccilarily follows a motion of all the
circumjacent air towaids that part, to reftore it ;
and this motion of the air is what we call xvind.

Hence, with refpcct to that place where the
equilibrium of the air is difturbed, we fee the wind,
may blow from every point of the co.npafs at the
fame time ; and thofe who live northwards of that
point, have a north wind ; thofe who live fouth-
wards, a fouth wind ; and fo of the reft : but thofe
who live on the fpot, where all thefe winds meet
and interfere, are opprell'ed with turbulent and
boifterous weather, wliirl-winds, and hurricanes ;
with rain, tempeft, lightning, thunder, l^c. For,
lulphureous exhalations from the fouth, torrents of
nitre from the north, and aqueous vapours from
every part, are there confufedly huddled, and vio-
lently blended together, and rarely fail to produce
the phjenomena above-mentioned.

Many are the particular caufes, which produce
wind by interrupting the equipoife of the atmof-
phere ; but the moft general caufes are two, vix.
heat, which, by rarefying the air, makes it lighter
in fome places than it is in others ; and cold, which,
by condenfmg it, makes it heavier. Hence it is,
that in all parts over the torrid zone, the air being
IT ore rarefied by a greater quantity of the folar rays,
IS much lighter than in the other parts of the atmof-
phere, and moft of all over the equatorial parts of
the earth. And fince the parts at the equator are
moft rarefied, which are near the fun ; and thofe
parts arc, by the earth's diurnal rotation eaftward,
«:ontinually fhifting to the weft ; it follows, that
the parts of the air which lie -on the weft fide of
the point of the greateft rarefaSion, and, by flow-
ing towards it, meet it, have lefs motion than
tlioie parts on the eaft fide of the faid point, which
follow it ; and therefore the motion of the eaflern
air would prei'ail againft that of the weftern air,
and fo generate a continual eaft- wind, if this were
all the efFeft of that rarefaftion. But we are to
confider, that as all the part'; of the atn.oiphere are

rrrMf:...^

g«i;^:^^

Let C B A D E be partof a feclion of the atmof-
phere over the equator, C the eaff, E the weft, A
the point to which the fun S is vertical, and R the
point of greateft rarefaction, or that where the air
is moft of all heated, and, confequently, lighteft.
And, becaufe the air at R is by fuppofition lighter
than where it is colder at C and D, it is plain that
in order to obtain an equilibrium (which is necel-
fary in a fluid body) the air by its greater weight
will have a tendency from C and D towards R, and
rife to a height there greater than at C or D, in
proportion as its denfity is lefs.

This being the cafe, it is evident, the fun, be-
ing always between the points R and D, will be
heating the air on that part ; and thofe regions be-
tween R and C, having been deferted by the fun,
will grow cold ; confequently, the air between C
and R, as ic is colder, will iikewifebe heavier than
that between R and D which is hotter, and fo will
have a greater momentum, or quantity of motion,
towards the point R ; and fince this point R is con-
ftantly moving after the point A weft ward, the mo-
tion of the weftern air towards it, will be in part
diminiftied by that means ; and being alfo inferior
in quantity to the motion of the eaftern air, the
latter will prevail over it, and be conftantly follow-
ing the faid point R from eaft to weft:, and thus
produce a continual eaft wind.

It may, perhaps, be here faid, that though the
motion of the air be lefs fiom. D to R, yet it is
fomething, and fo there ought to be a weitern
wind, at leaft in fome degree, and to, fome diftance
weft ward of the point R. I'o which we anfwer,
that the nature of a fluid will not permit two con-
trary

METEOR OLOGT.

trary motions to reftore or fuftain an equilibrium
(we mean in regard of the whole body of it) for
whercveroncpartof thefluid is determined to move,
all the reft muft neceflarily follow it ; otherwile
the equilibrium of the air would be deftroyed in one
part to make it good in another a defe6t which
nature cannot be guilty of. Thus, we fee the tides
of the ocean always follow the courfe of ihc moon
from eali: to weft, without any motion of the wa-
ters from the weft towards the moon, in the open
oceans ; and the point R can only be confidered
as the aerial tide, or fluid of high air ; and has
nearly the fame phaenomena with aqueous tides.

This being clearly underltood, all the reft is
e.'A^Y ; for no one can find it difficult to conceive
how the cold air from each pole muft necelTarily fet
in towards the equator direitly, where meeting and
interferintr with the eaftern current, it does with

O ....

that compound a new dircilion for the moving air
which lies between both the former, viz. anorth-
caft current on the north fide, and a fouth-eaft on
the fouth fide : all which naturally refults from the
doflrine of the compofition of oblique forces.

And this we find to be verified in the general
trade-winds, which conftantly blow from the
north-eaft and fouth-eaft, to about thirty degrees
on each fide the equator, where thofe parts are
over the open ocean, and not affedled with the re-
fleition of the fun-beams from the heated furface
of the land ; for in this cafe the wind will always
fet in upon the land, as on the coaft of Guinea^
and other parts of the torrid zone, we know it
does.

Velocity and force of the Wind. As the mo-
tion of the air has a greater or leiler velocity, the
wind is ftronger or weaker ; ar.d it is found from
obfcrvation, that the velocity of the wind is vari-
ous, from the rate of i to 50 or 60 miles per hour.
The beft way to prove this, is to chufe a free open
place, where the wind cr current of air is not at
all interrupted, but flows uniformly, or as much
fo as the undulatory ftate of the atmofpherc will
admit : in fuch a place, a feather, or other very
light body, h to be let go in the wind ; and then,
by a half-fecond watch, or pendulum, you muft
obferve nicely to what diftance it is carried in any
number of half-feconds, or in how many half ■
feconds it has paffsdover a given or meafured fpace.
This will give the rate of velocity in the v/ind per
fecond, and of courfe />?rhour; which has been
found, at a medium, to be 12 or 15 miles per
hour : even the moft veb.cment wifid does not fly
above 50 or 60 miles per hour ; and fomctimes the
wind is fo flow as not to exceed the vrlocitv of a
•perfon riding or walking in it ; and i;i that cafe, if
the perfon goes v/ith the wind, he finds no wind at

313

all, becaufc there is no difJercnce of velocity, or no
j relative wind, which is that only which we are
I (enfible of, whilil in motion.
1 The method to eftimale the force of wind pre-
1 cifely, is tc try it by the following Anemometer.

\ ABCbEFGHI isan
open framr; of wood., firmly
fupportcd by the (haft or
poftern I. In the crofs-
pieces HK, LM, is moved
an horizontal axis Q^M,
by means of the four fails
ah, cd., ef g h, in a pro-
per manner expofed to the
wind. Upon this axis is
fix'd acone of v.'ood MNO,
upon which, as the fails
move round, a weight S,
is raifed, by a firing on its
fiiperficies, proceeding from
the fmall to the largeft end NO.
end or bafe of the cone is fixed a ratchet-wheel
i k, in whofe teeth falls the click X, to prevent
any retrograds motion from the depending weight.

From the ftruflure of this machine, it is eafy to
underftand, that it may be accommodated to efti-
mate the v-riable force of the wind, becaufe the
force of the weight will continually increafe, as the'
ftring advances on the conical furface, by a-fling
at a greater diftance from the axis. And therefore,
if fuch a weight be put on, on the fmalleft part at
M, as will juft keep the machine inequilibrio with
the weakeft wind ; then, as the wind becomes
ftronger, the weight will be laifed in proportion,
and the diameter of the bafe of the cone NO, may
be fo lartje in comparifon of that of the fmallcr end
or axis at M, that the l^rongcft wind fhal! but juft
raife the weight to the great end.

Thus, for example, let the diameter of the axis
be to that of the bafe of th? cone NO, as i to 28,
then if S be a weight of i pound at M, on the axis,
it will be equivalent to 28 pounds, or \ of an hun-
dred, when raifed to the greateft end. If, there-
fore, when the wind is weakeft, it fupports i pound
on the axis, it muft be 28 times as ftrong to
raife the weight to the bafe of the cone. Thus may
a line of 28 equal prts be drawn on the fide of the
cone, and the ftrength of the wind will be indi-
cated by that number on which the ftring fliall at
any time hang

The ftring may alfo be of fuch a fizc and the
cone of fuch a length, that there may be fixtecii
revolutions of the firing betwixt each divifion nt
the fcale on the cone, whence the ftrength oi the
wind will be exprefled in pounds and ounces. And

n^e Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^??^ Sciences.

Of greater exaands be required, let the pniphery
of the cone's bafe be divided into i6 equal parti j
then, whenever the equilibrium happens, the firing
w.ill leave the conic' furface againft one of thofe
divifwns, and thus fhew the force of the wind to
a dram avoiidupoilb weight.

As to the qualities a)id effeSls of the wind. — I. A
ir/W blowing from the fea is always moid : in fum-
mer it is cold, and in winter warm, unlcfs the fea
be frozen up.

i.-Jl'inds blowing from the continent, are al-
was:dry ; in fummer warm, and cold in winter.

The windi are divided into perennial, Jlatcd,
and - zwiable. — They arc alfo divided into genera!
and pariicular.

F^rennial, or cojijimt winds, are fuch as always
blow the fame way. Of thcfe we have a very no-
table one between the two tropicks, blowing con-
llantly from tall to well; called the general trade
tuind.

Stated, or periodical viinds, are fuch as con-

iftantly return at certain times. Such are the fea

and land breezes, blowing from land to fea in the

' evening, and from fea to land in the morning :

though this rule is not general.

Such are alfo the foif ling, or particular trade
winds, which for certain months of the year, blow
one way, and the reft of the year, the contrary way.
Variable, or erratick winds, arc fuch as blow,
now this, now that way. j

■Such are all the winds obferved in the inland \
■ parts of England, &e. though fcveral of thcfe claim ',
their certain times of the day. Thus the wc/i wind
is moft frequent about noon ; the fsuih wind in the
night ; the ncrth in the morning, Ufe.

IS luch a one, as, at the fame
time, blows the fame way, over a very large trad
of land, almoft all the year. But even this has its
interruptions : for, i . At land it is fcarce fenllble
at all, as being broke by the interpofition of moun-
tain?, vallev, is'c. 2. At fea, near the fliore, it
is dirturbed by vapours, exhalations, and particu-
lar winds, blowing from landward ; fo that it is
ehiefly confidered as general only at mid-fea :
where, 3. It is liable to be dillurbed, by clouds
driving from other quarters.

Particular winds include all others, excepting
the general trade ivinds. Thofe peculiar to one
little cantoon, or part, are called topical or pro-
vincial winds. Such is the north W.7W, on the

weftern fide of the Alps, which does not blow
above one or two leagues lengthwife, and much
lufs Ln breadth: fuch alio are thePwr/a's mFrance,5cc.

Whirl-wind is S twW that rifcs fuddcnly, is
exceedingly rapid, and impetuous when rifen, but
4oon fpcnt.

There are divers forts of whirl-winds, diftin-
guifhed by their peculiar names ; a? the prejler,
typbo, echnephias, exkydria, and turbo.

Tlie prejier is a violent wind, breaking forth
with flaflies of lightning.

The eehnephias is a fudden and impetuous wind,
breaking out of fome cloud, frequent in the Ethio-
pick fea, particularly about the cape oi Good Hope.
— The feamen call them tornados.

The exhydria is a wind burfting out of a cloud,
with a great quantity of water.

A typho, or vortex, moft properly called a whirl-
wind, or hurricane, is an impetuous wind, turning
rapidly every way, and fweeping all around the
place. — It is frequently in the eaftern ocean, about
Slam, Ckir/«, &c.

HtfRRiCANE, a furious ftorm cf zuind, arifin"
from a contrariety or oppofttion of fevcral winds.

'They begin in the north, fome fay, in the weft,
but turn round; and in a little time are through
all the points of the compafs.

All hurricanes come either on the day of the full,
change, or quarter of the moon ; each of which is
difcover'd by a n-umber of ph;Eno:nena, the pre-
ceding quarters, as a turbulent fky, fun red, uni-
verfal calm, the ftars appearing red, ncifes in
hollows, or cavities of the earth, ftrcng fmell of
the fea, a fettled wefterly wind, ijfc.

The aqueous or watery Meteo&s, are compofcd
of vapours or watery particles, varioufly feparated
and condcnled by heat and cold ; fuch are eloueis,
rair.bsws, hail, Jnciv, rain, dew, and the like.

Cloud is a colleiTtion of condenfed vapours, fuf-
pended in the atmofphere, the particles whereof,
collected together, intercept almoft the whole heat
of the fun, whence thofe who inhabit the highcft
mountains of the Pyrenees, or of the j^lps, when they
are arrived at the region of the clouds, are notinfen-
fible of their entring a thick and opake cloud.

Aura Serotina, or evening-dew, hzpenetratinf
vapour, which exalted together with the vapours, ■
by the diurnal heat of the fun, falls foon after
fun-fet.

The Morning Dew is a thin, light, infenfible
mid, or rain, falling while the fun is below the
horiz-on.— Among the diftertaticns of M. Huct,
is a letter, to fhew that deio does not fall, but rifes.

May-Dew whitens linen and wax ; the a'cwoE
autumn is converted into a white froft. Out of
di-w, putrified by the fun, arifes divers infetls,
which change apace from one fpecies into another.
What remains is converted into a fine white, fait,
with angles like thofe of (idt-petre, after a ncmber
of evaporatioflsi-'cafcrnations, and fixations, ' '•'^

Ther«

METEOROLOGT.

315

There is a fpirit drawn (rom May- deiu, -which] Upon meafuring then, the r<Ji« falling yearly,

has woiderful virtues attributed to it. It is to bel its depth at a medium, is found as in the fgllow-

gather'd in clean linen cloths, expofcd to the fun ing tables.
in clofe vials. Stoltcrfold, a Phyfician of Luhcck,

thinks .l/r;j-«'cw may be gatl.er'd in glafs plates, ef- 1^^..^ ^y^;^^ R^in in falling yearly, md its proportion

in fiijeral places.

pecially in ftill weather, and before fun-rife. It
may likewife be collefled with a glafs-tunnel, ex-
pofedtotlie air, having a crooked neck to bring '^tP^,.;,^ ;„/>^„^.^^obferv'd by M. a-W^j/i/Vf 19 /w/!>.

the daw into a vial in a chamber.

At Lijle, in Fiandtrs, by M. Vauban

Rain is form'd of the concretion of vapours,J^t p^j^^ in ji^iy^ by Dr. Mic-. Aug. Tilli 43 1

21 Inch.
27

17
18

21
14

1708

and defcending from above in form of drops of
water.

But the agent of this formation of the clouds
into?w«, &c. is a little controverted : the common
Peripateticians will have it, the cold, which con-
ftantly occupying the fupcrior region of the air,
chills and condenfes the veficulae, at their arrival
from a warmer quarter, congregates them together,
and occafions feveral of them to coalefce into
little maiTes : by this means their quantity ot mat-
ter increafing in a greater proportion ta^n their
furface, tliey become an over load to the thin air,
and accordingly defceiid in rain.
- Mr. Derham accounts for the precipitation,
hence; that the veficulse being full of air, when
they meet with a colder air than that they contain,
the air is contracied into a leiler fpace, and confe-
quently the watery fhell or cafe render'd thicker,
fo as to become heavier than the air, (s'r.

Others only allow the cold a part in the aftion,
and bring in the winds as Iharers with it.

Yet. tiis grand caufe, according to RohauU, is
fiill behind ; that author conci-ives it to be the
heat of the air, which after continuing for fome
time near the earth, is at length carried up on high
by a wind, and there thawing the fnowy villi, or
iia'<es of the half-frozen vcliculx, reduces them
into drop":, vvhich coalefcing, defcand,- and have
their diilblutit n perftiSicd in their progrcfs through i,j,f:^^,.
the lower and warmer ''ages of the atrnofphere.

Others, as Dr. Clark, &c. afcribe this defcent
of the clouds, rather to an alteration ot the atmof-
phete, than of the veficuhe, and fuppofe it to arife
from a diniinuticn of tiie fpring or elallick force of
thu' air.

This elafticity, which depends chiefly or wholly
on the dry terrene e.vhalatioris being weakened,
the atmofphere finks under its burden, and the
clouds fall on the common principle of precipita-
tion.

As to the quantity of rain that falls, its proportion
in feveral places at the fame time, and in the fame
place at feveral times, we have fiore of obferva-
tions, Journals, b'c in the m.emoirs of the French
Academy, the Pi:ihfapkicat tranfaitions^ &c. an
iaea whereof will not be unacceptable.

At lownly, in Lancajhir.e, by Mr. Toiunly 42 i
htVpiniaJh-r, in EJJ'ex, by ;Vlr Derham 19 i

At Zurich, in Switzerland, by D. Scheuchzcr 52 i

Proportion of the Rain <?/" feveral Years to one another.

Paris.
38 cent.

1700
1701
1702

1703
1704
1705

At Upminster.

19 1)1 J). 03 cent.

23
15
16

3«
99
81

■Proportions of the Rain i^fthe feveral feafons to
another.

tan.
Fehr.
Mach
April
May
June

Depth '

Depth

Depeh

<i/L'p

a! Zu

I 70S

Pifa.

minrt.

rich.

Inch.

hub

64,

2 88

, 64

July

3 28

0 4('.

' 6s

■%.

2 b;

2 03

' sM

Sept.

I 2S

0 96

4 69!

>Cloh.

% ^■^

0 0:

I 9'i

Not:

4 90

2 32
10 67

5 9'

Dec.

iatfycar

28 8/

17 31

De;th- Depth

i,t \at\Jf-

Pifa. minll.

hichX

o 00
2.27

7 21'

5 33'

o 13;
0 001

huh.
I II

z 94
I 46
023
o 8(i

' 91

Dcpth
at Zu-
rich.

huh.

3 50
3 's

3 02
- 24
o 62
2 62

14 94 8 5;

5 35

Preternatural Rains, or Jhoivers, as of blood,
i^c. are very common in our annals, and even na-
tural fliftorics, yet if flrifily pry'd into, will be all
found no other things than rain.

SNOW,.ff«vfeeir.s, to he nothing el fe but a me-
teor formed in the middle region of the air; of va-
pours laifed by the artion of the fun or fubtetra-
neous fire, there congealed, its parts conftipated,
its fpecifick gravity increafed, and thu," returned to-
the earth in form of little white vi li or flakes.

The fnovj. we receive may properly enough be
afcribed to the coldnefs of the atmofphere, through-,
which it falls. When the atmofphere is warm>
enouoh to d'fiolve they^uic before it arrives at us,

3i6 7he Umvcrfal Hiftory of Arts ^2«^ Sciences.

we call it rain ; if it prcfcrves itfelf undiliblvcd, it
makes what we cally^/«w.

Dr. Grnu, in a difcomfe on the nature of /now,
obfcrves, that many parts thereof arc of a regular
figure, for the molt parts are fo many little rowels
or flars of fix points, and are perfciSi: and tfanfpa-
rent ice, as any we fee on a pond, is'L. Upon each
of thefe points are other collateral points fct at the
fame angles as the main points themfclvcs : among
which there are divers other irregular troops, which
are chieflv broken points, and fragments of the
regular ones.

But when the little clufters or flakes of the con-
gealed vapour, are liquified by a warm air, and
meet afterwards in their defcent with a colder air,
they are then changed into hail, whofe grains ac-
quire a different figure, according; to the different
Solutions of the flakes. Sometimes it is round,
fometimes angular, triangular, pyramidal, isfc.
fometimes thin and flat, ilar-like, with fix equal
points, i^c.

Hail is obferved frequently to attend thunder
and lightning ; the nitre that contributes to the
one, having likewife a large fhare in the production
of the other.

Natural Hiftories furnifh us with various in-
flances of extraordinary (hewers of hail.

From thefe I'll pafs to the rainbow, and other
amphatical impreffions, as the halo, pariliu7/i, and
parafelcne.

The Rainbow is a meteor in form of a party-
coloured arch or femicircle, exhibited in a rainy
fky, oppofite to the fun, by the refraction of its
rays in the drops of falling rain.

There is alfo a fecundary or fainter rainboiv,
ufually feen invefting the former at fome diltance ;
and among naturalifts we read of lunar rainbows,
marine rainbows. Sec.

The rainbozu. Sir Ij'anc Nnvton obferves, never
appears, but where it rains in the fun-fhinc, and
may be reprefented artificially, by contriving v/a-
ters to fall in little drops like rain, through which
the fun fliining, exhibits a bow to the fpectator,
placed between the fun and the drops ; efpecially
ifa dark body, c. gr. a black cloth bedifpofed be-
yond the drops.

To conceive tlie origin of the rainbow, we muft
confider what will befal rays of light, coming from
a very remote body, e. gr. the fun ; and falling on
a globe of water, fuch as we know a drop of rain
to be.

Suppofe than A D K N, See fabk of Optic Ks,
/"/J. 12. _to be a drop of rain, and the lines E F,

B A, ON, to be rays of light comiug from the
center of the fun ; which by reafon oftheimmenfe
diftance of the fun, we conceive to be parallel.
Now the ray B A being the only one that falls
perpendicularly on the furface of the water, and all
the reft obliquely ; it is eafily inferred, that all the
other rays will be rcfrafted towards the perpen-
dicular.

Thus the ray E F, and others accompanying it,
will not go on ftrait to G ; but as they arrive at
HI, deflcdl from F toK, where fome of them,
probably, efcaping into the air, the reft arc re-
flected upon the line K N, fo as to make the an-
gles of incidence and reflection equal.

Farther, as the ray K N, and thofe accompa-
nying it, fall obliquely upon the furface of the
globule ; they cannot pafs out into the air, with-
out being refraCled, fo as to recede from the per-
pendicular L M ; and therefore will not proceed
ftrait to Y, but defledt to P.

It may be here obferved, that fome of the rays
arriving at N, do not pafs out into the air, but are
again refle£lc.d to C)_; where being refracted like
the reft, they do not proceed right to Z, but de-
clining from the perpendicular T V, are carried
to R ; hut fnce we here only regard the rays, as
they may aftect the eye, placed a little below the
drop, e. gr, at P, thofe which defleil from N to
Q, we fet afide as ufelefs, becaufe they never come
at the eye. On the contrar}', it is to be obferved,
that there are other rays, as 2, 3, and the like ;
which being reflected from 3 to 4, thence to 5,
and from 5 to 6, may at length arrive at the eye
placed beneath the drop.

7 hus much is obvious ; but to determine pre-
cifely the quantities of refraction of each ray, there
muft be a calculation ; by fuch calculation it ap-
pears, that the rav-s which fall on the quadrant
AD, are continued in lines, like thofe here drawn
in the drop A D K N ; wherein there are three
things very confiderable : Fir/l, that the two re-
fracTtions of the rays in tjieir ingrefs and egrefs, are
both the fame way, fo that the latter does not
deftroy the effect of the former. Secondly, that
of all the rays pafling out of A N, N P, and thofe
adjoining to it, are the only ones capable of aff^ed:-
ing the fenfe ; as being fufEciently clofe or con-
tiguous; and becaufe coming out parallel ; whereas
the reft are divaricated, and difpc-fed too far to have
any ienfib'e effeft, at leaft to produce any thing fo
vivid as the colours of the kw. Thirdly, that the
ray N P has fhade or darknefs under it ; for Cnce
there is no ray comes out of the furface N 4, it is
the fame thing as if the parts v,-ere cover'd with an
opake body. We might add, that the fame ray
N P, has darknefs above it J fince the rays thpt

aie

M E r E 0 R 0 L 0 a r.

are above it are intflciSlu:.! ; ajKl fignify no more
than if there v.-ero none at a!!.

Add to theft, that all the efFcclual rays have
the fame point of reflc<£lion, i, e, the. parallel and
eontit;uous rays, which alone are cftcftual after
refra^iion, will all meet in the fame point of the
circumference ; an:d be refleiSled thence to the
eye.

Farther it appears by calculation, that the angle
O N P, included between the ray N P, and the
line O N, drawn from the center of the (ur.,
which IS the angle whereby the rainbow is difiant
from the oppofue point of the fun, and which
makes the fern! diameter of the bsw, contains 41'^

But fince, belldes thofe rays coming from the
center of the fun to the drop of water, there are
many more from the feveral points of its furtace :
there are a great many other efFedual rays to be
Gonfidered ; efpecially that from the uppermofl:,
and that from the loweft part of the fun's body.

Since then the apparent diameter of the fun, is
about 16 feconds, it follows that an efFeetual ray
from the upper part of the fun, will fall higher
than the ray E F, by 16 feconds : this does the ray
G H, Fig. 1 3. which being refrafted as much as
EF, deficits to I, then to L, and at length c-
nierging equally refrafled with- the ray N P, pro-
ceeds to M ; and makes an angle O N M, of
41°, 14'', with the line ON.

In like manner the efFeftual ray Q_R, coming
from the loweft part of the fun, falls on the point
R, 16 min. lower than the point F, on which the
ray E F falls ; and being refraded declines to S ;
whence it is refle<Sled to T ; where emerging
mto the air, it proceeds to V ; fo as the line T V,
and the ray OT, contain an angle of 41°,
and 46''.

Again, upon computing the deflexions of the
rays, which like that 23, Fig. 14. coming from
the center of the fun, and being received into the
lower part of the drop, we have fuppofed to be
twice refledled, and twice refrafted, and to enter
the eye like that 67, Fig. 16. we find that which
may bs accounted efFedual, as 67, with the line
86, drawn from the center of the fun, contains an
angle 867, of about 62 degrees : whence it fol-
lows, that the eft"e£lual ray from the higheft part of
the fun, with the fame line 86, includes an angle
lefs by 16 min. and that from the loweft part of
the fun, an angle greater by 16 min.

Thus fmce A B C D E F, is the path of the
efUcacious lay, from the higheft part of the fun to

the eye in F : ihc angle 86 F becomes of abouf
51", 44'. In Ii.ke manner, fincc G H I K L iVi
is the way of an cfteclual ray from the loweft part
of the fun to the eye, the angle 86 iM, becomes
nearly of 5?,", 16'.

Since thtn we admit feveral ravs to be effe(fl:ual,
befidcs thofe from the center of the fun ; wJiat wc
have faid of the (hade, will need fome alteration :
fc!' of the three- rays defcribed. Fig. 12, and 13.
only the two extreme ones will have a fhadow
joined to them,, ai-.d that only on the outer lldc.
Mence it is evident, that thefe rays are perfectly
difpofed to exhibit all the colours of the prifm.

For the great quautity ofdenfeor intenfe light,
/. e. the bundle of rays colleftcd together in a cer-
tain point, V. gr. in the point of refleflion of the
effectual rays, may be accounted as a livid or ra-
diant body, terminated all around by {hade. But
the feveral rays thiis emitted to the eye are both of
different colours,, and are difFerencly refrcfted out
of the water into air, notwithlfanding their falling
alike upon the refracting furface.

Hence it follows, that the different or heteroge-
neous rays will be feparated front one another, and
will tend feveral ways ; and the homogeneous
ra.ys will be collefted, and tend the fame way ;
and therefore this livid point of the drop wherein
the refratSlion is effefted, will appear fringed or
bordered with feveral colours ; that is, red, green,
and blue colours will arife from the extrcams of
the red, green, and blue ray" of the fun tranfmittcd
to the eye from feveral drops, one higher than
another ; after the fame manner as is done ia
viewing livid, or other bodies through a prii'm.

Thus, adds Sir Ifaac NevJton, the rays that
differ in refrangibility, * will emerge at different
angles ; and confequently, according to their dif-
ferent degrees of refrangibility, emerging moft co-
pioufly at different angles, will exhibit different
colours in difierent places,

A great number then of thefe little globules
being diffufed in the air, will fill the whole place
with thefe different colours ; provided they be fo
difpofed, as that effectual rays may come from
them to the eye ; and tliv.s will the rainbow at
length arife.

Now to determine what that difpofition mufi
be ; fuppofe a right line drawn from the center ol
the fun, through the eye of the fpeftator, as the
line V X, Fig. 13. called the line of afpeft ; be-
ing dra-vn from lb remote a point, it mav be
efteemed pur.dlel to all other lii'.cs drawn from the
fame point : but a right lin^. falling on two parul-

• Refrangibility of light is the difpofition of the rays to be refrafted. That z greaur or lefs rtfrangibllitj,
ii a dilpofition to be more or lefs refradled, in palling a: equal angles of incidence, into the laaie mtdnun.
•.oi Vol. II. 41. . T t Ids,,

3i8

^oe Univcrfal Hlftoiy (5/" Arts fl'«^ Sciences.

Vefe, makes the alternate angles. If then an inde-
finite number of lines be imagined drawn from
the fpedator's eye to a part oppofifc to the iun
where it rains ; which lines make diflcrcnt angles
with the line of afpeiSt, ctiual to the angle of the
rcifrawlion of the differently refrangible rays, e. gr.
angles of 41°, 46' and of 41°, 30', and of 41°,
40'. Thefe lines falling on drops of rain illumi-
nated by the fun, will make angles of the fame
magnitude, with rays drawn from the center ot the
Cun to the fame drops. And therefore the lines
thus drawn fiom the eya, will reprefent the cflec-
tual rays ihat occafion the fenfation of any colour

one reflexion, can emefgc out of the drops ; and

thefe rays fhall come moft copioufiv to the eye
from the drops in the line O F, and Itrike the fenfts
with the deepeft red colour in that region.

And by the fame argument the rays, jwhich
have intermediate degrees of refrangibility, fhall
come moft copioufly from drops between E and F,
and fo flrike the fenfcs with the intermediate co-
lours, in the order which their degrees of refrangi-
bility require ; that if the progrefs from £ to F,
or from the iufidc of the bow to the outfide, in this
order, violet, i»ciuo, bli<e, green, yellow., orange,
reel ; though the violet, by the mixture of the
That, e. gr. making an angle of 41°, 46', re- 1 white light of the clouds will appear faint, and

prefciiting the leaft refrangible or red rays of the
' ieveral drops, and of 4 1 °, 40', the moft refrangible
or violet rays : the intermediate colours and rc-
frangibilitics will be found in the intermediate
/pace.

Now it is knowji that the eye being placed in
the vortex of a cojie, fees obieiTts upon its furface as
ifthcy were in a circle ; and the eye of our fpeiSla-
tor is here in the common vortex of fcveral cones,
formed by the feveral kinds of efficacious rays,
with the lines of afpefl. And in the furface of
that whole angle where the vortex or eye is the
greateff, and wherein the others arc included, arc
thofe drops or parrs of drops which appear red :
and in the furface of that cone whofe angle is leall,
are the purple drops : and in. the intermediate
cones are the green, blue, (Sc. drops. Hence

incline to a purple

And fmce the lines O E, OF may be fituated
any where in the abovementioned conical furface ;
what is faid of the drops and colours in thefe lines
is to be underflood of the drops and colours
throughout the whole luperficies. Thus is the
primary or inner bow formed.

As to the fecundary or fainter bow, ufually fur-
rounding the former ; in alTigning what drops
would appear coloured, we exclude fuch as lines
drav/n from the eye, making angles a little greater
than 40° 1' fhould fall upon ; but not fuch as
fliould contain angles much greater.

For, if an indefljiite number of fuch lines be
drawn from the fpeclator's eye, fome whereof
make angles of 50'' 57' with the line of afpecl
e. gr. O G, otlierwile angles of 54° 7' e. gr.

then feveral kinds of drops muft appear as if difpn- : O H; thofe drops whereon thefe lines fall, muft
fed into fo many circular colour'd falci;e or of necefiity exhibit colours, particularly thofe of
arches, as we fee in the rainhoiu. 50° 57'.

This part of the fblution. Sir 7/^^f Newton c\-\ E. cr. the drop G will appear red, the line
preflcs more artfully, thus: l"uppofe (.), Fig, 15. G O being the fame with an ejiciitual rayj which
cpti:. the eye, and U P a line parallel to the fun's ; after two rcilectioiis aivd two refrafiions, exhibits
rays, and let P O F, P O F be angles of 40", 17', 1 a red colour. Again, thofe drops which receive
and 42'-', 2'. And fuppofe the angle to turnabout ' lines of 54" y'' e. gr. the drop H will appe.ir
rhcircommon fide O P, with their other fides O E j purple, the line OH, being the fame with an
and OF, they will defcribc the bounds or verges : effectual ray, which after two reflei5tioi)s and
■b'i t\\z rainbow. two refractions, exhibits purple. ,.,,./, -.^^

For if EF, be drops placed any where in the; Now there being a lufEcient number of thefe
conical furface de('crii)cd by O E, OF; and be drops, it is evident there mull be a fecoud rainboic,
illuminated by the fun's ravs SE, S F, the angle formed alter thclike manner as the firfl:.
S E O beinij equal to the angle P O E or 40^* I

fhall be the ereatefl angle in which the

Thus Sir Ijaac NeiLton, in die leaft refrangi-
ble ravs, the leaft angle at which a drop can fend
elfeetual rays after two reflections, is found by com-
putation to be 50° 57', and in the moft re-
trangib'e the leall angle is fouiul 54" 7'.

Suppofe then O the place. of the eye, as before.

juoft refrangible rays come after reflei^ion be re-
fracted to the ej.-e ; and therefore all the drops in
the line O E, ftiall fend the moft rcfiangible ra\'s
moft copioufly to the eje, and iherebv ftrike the

fenfes with the deepeft violet colour in that le-' and P O G, P O H to be angles of so
gion. and 54° 7' ; and thefe angles to be turned about

And in likemanner the angle S FO bein" rr to their common fide OP, with their other fides
,,,the angle POF = 420'"-' 2' fliall be the OG, O H, they will defcribc the verges or hoi-
""Vrc'at^il, in which the leaft refrangible rays, after ders of the >-aJnhow C H D G.

1 for

Si'

For if G H he diops placrrf ativ where in the
conical fupcrficies dLlcribed by O G, O H, and
he illuminated by the fun's rays ; tlie angle SGO,
bci"g equal to the angle PO(t or 50'' 57'
fhali be the lead r>ngle, in which the then Icfs
rt-fra gibic rays fhall come moft copioufly to the
eye from the drops in the line ( ) Ct, and itrike the
fcnf-'s with thedecpeftred in that region.

And the angle S HO, being equal to P O H,
54. fhall be the Itaft angle, in which the moft re-
frangible rays after two i'cflei9:ion«, can emer2;e out
of the drops; and therefore thofe rays fhould come
iTioft: copioudy to the eye from the drojis in the
line O H, and fo ftriiio the fenfcs with the deepeft
violet in that region.

And by the fame argument, the drops in the
region between G and H fhall ftrike the fenfes
with the intermediate colours, in the order which
their de2;recs of refrangibility require, that is, in
the progrcfs from G to H, or from the infide of
the bow to the outer, in this order ; red, orange,
ytllow, green, blue, indico, "uioUt,

And llnce the lines O G, OH, may be fituated
any where in the conical ilirface ; what is laid of
the drop- and colours in thofc lines, is to be un-

METEOROLOGT. 319

reft, and raifing or dcpreffing the eye fo innltc the
angle of ajuit magnitude. 'J'his is called an arti'
ficial rnlnboiu.

Des Cart.s was the firft who took the dimenfwnt
of the ra'mbcw, and determined the diameter there-
of, by laying it down, that the magnitude of the
bow depends- on the degree of refraction of the
fluid, and aftuming the ratio of the fine of inci-
dence to that of rcfraiSlion, to be in water as 2^0
to 1,87.

But Dr. Halley has fmce, in the PhUojlphlcal
Tranfa.^iom, given us a funple dircil method of
determining the diameter of the ratnboui from the
ratio of refraction of the fluid being given ; or
Vice verfd ; the diameter of the rainbow being
given to determine the refraifiive power of th'e
fluid. The praxis is as follows.

Hrft, The ratio of lefraciion being given, to
find the angles of incidence, and refraction of' a
my which becomes cfFedfual after anv given num-
ber of reflections. Suppofc any given line, as
A C {ibid. Fig. 17.; which divide TnD, fo as that
A C be to A D, in the ratio of refractions ; and
again divide it in E, fo as AC be to A E, as x\k
given number of reflcftions increafed by what

derftood of the drops and colours every where in , unity is to unity ; with the diameter C E defcribe
thefe fuperfieies-. j a femicircle CB E, and from the center A with

Thus are formed two iaw, an mterior and i the radius A D, defcribe an arch D B interfeain-
ftronger, by one refl^aion ; and an exterior and the femicircle in B: then drawin-r A B, C B^
fainter by two; the light becoming weaker and ■ A 3 C, or its complement to two nght angles,

! will be the angle of incidence, and A C B tiic
ngle of refraftion- required.

■weaker by cvciy reflection

Their colours will lie in a contrary order to one ' ;
another, the firft: h.aving the red without,.and the | Secondly, The ratio of rcfraaion and any arr-
purplewithm ; and the lecond, the purple without gie of incidence being given, to find the angle

which a ray of light emerging out of a refradling.

and red within, and fo of the reft

This dciStrincof the r/v/V/i^ic is confirmed bv an
eafy experiment ; for upon hanging up a glais
globe full of water in the funfhine, and viewing
it in fuch a pofture as that the rays which come
from the globe to the eye, may with the fun's

fphere, after a given number of rcflciSions, makes
with the line of afpcil, or an incident ray ; and
confequcntly to find the diameter of the rainbow. .
The angle of incidence and the ratio of rcfiaction ■
being given, the angle of reiraeiion is given ;

rays, mclude an^angle either of 42°, or 50" ^ if, ^hich angle being mulriplied by double the^num-

. ^^^ of reflections incicafed by 2, and double the
angle of incidence fubtradted. from the product, -

e. gr. the angle be about 42°, the fpedtator fup
pofed at O, will fee a full red colour in that fide

of the globe oppofite to the fun, as at 1- . And it .he angle remaining is the anale foudit.

that angle be made a little lefs, fuppofe by depref- 1 Ttius fuppofing^hc ratio of rclraclion to be,

fmg theg.obule toE, the other colours, yellow, ^^ 5;^ /y>„, Avtc/^« h.as determined it, zvz. as 108

blue, and green, will appear (ucceftlvely in the
(ame fide of the globe, alfo exceedingly bright.

But if the angle be made about 50^, fuppofe by
raifing the globule G, there will appear a red colour
in that fide of the globe towards the fun, though
that fomowhat faint ; and if tha angle be made
greater, luppofe by raifing the globe to H, the red
•Will change fuccefiively to the other colours, yellow,
'green, and blue.

The fotne thing, is obferved in letting the globe

to Si, in the red r.ays, as 109 to 81 for the blue
raysT-fe"!-. the preceding problem will give the
diftance of the colours in the

the fpectator's b:ck
being tum'd to
the . fun.

„ T, . , J Red, 42^ 11'
( V loiet, 4.0 1 6

2d Rainbow i-J^^.V^ 5058
\ Violet, 54 9

]f the angle made by a ray after threci or four

reflections, were requiied, .and. therefore. the dja-

T t 2 meter

7^5 Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^W Sciences.

320 -.-. ,

meter of the third and fourth rainbow (which arc
icarce ever iacn, by reaiba of the great diminution
of the rays, by fo many repeated rcflcdions) they
■will be found,

3d Rainbow I y[;J4^^^^'
4th Rainbow^ y;^j'^ ^'^

37 1 the fpcflator being

9 s tnnit!tl Inu'ards the

turned towards die
fun.
'le't,49 34

Hence the breadth of the rainbows is eafily
found : for the grcateft femi-diameter of the firit
how, I. c. from red to red, being 42^^, i', and
the Icaft, viz. from violet to violet, 40°, 16' ; the
. breadth of theya/I/'a or liow, mcafured a-crofs from
red to violet, will be 1°, 45'; and the greateft
diameter of the fecond boiv, being 54°, 9"*, and
the leaft 50°, 58'. the breadth of the fajlia will
be 3°, 10'; and hence the diflance between the
two will be found 8°, 15'.

In thcfe meafures the fun is only efleemcd a
point ; wherefore as its diameter is really about 30',
io much muft be added to the breadth of each
fajcia or bo'M, from red to violet, and fo much be
fubtraiSled from the diftance between them.

This will leave the breadth of the primary how,
■2°, 15'; that of the jccondary how, 3°, 40' : and
the interval between the two hows 8°, 25' ; which
dimenfions deduced from calculation, Sir Ifaac
Newton afl'ures us from his own obfervations,
a<Tree very exaflly with thofe found by actual
menfuration in the heavens.

The moon fometimes alfo exhibits the phEEno-
.menon of an iris or bow ; by the refraction of her
rays in the drops of rain in the night-time.

Jriftotle fays, he was the firft that ever obferved
It ; and adds, that it never happens, /. e, is never
viiible, but at the time of the full moon.

Halo, called alfo corona, is a meteor in form of
a luminous ring or circle.. It differs from the rain-
bow in that it is almoft always of one colour, and
is oftner round the moon than round the fun.
The halo is fuppofed to arife from a refradlion of

'the rays of light in their patTmg through the fine,
rare veficulje of a thin nubecula or vapour, towards
the top of our atmofphere ; which account is con-

^ firmed hence, that a quantity of water being thrown
up againft the fun, as it breaks and difperfes into
drops, it forms a kind of hale or iris, exhibiting
the colours of the natural ones.

Parelium, or parhelion, is a mock fun or
-:n>cteor, in form of a very bright light, appearing
alidc of the fun, formed by the reficdtion of his
beams, in .1 cloud properly pofited.

The parelia ufually accompany the coronas or
luminous circles ; are placed in the fame circum-

ference, and at the lame height Their coloursTc-
femblc thofe of the rainbow, the red and yellow on
the fide towards the fun, and the blue and violet on
the other. Though there are coronae fometimes
(ecn entire, without any parelia ; and parelia
without coronae.

M. Dis Curtes is of opinion, Dijfert. ultim. Me-
teor, that parelia are formed by the fun. painting
his image either double or triple, i^c. in a high
circle drawn round a congealed and polifhed ctoud,
by means of a retleflied or refracted iight.

The Paraselene, or mock moon, is a meteor
or phsenomenon encompafling or adjacent to the
moon, in form of aluminous ring; wherein is
fometimes obferved one, fometimes two apparent
images of the moon.

The parafelenes are formed after the fame man-
ner as the parelia.

I think it not improper to join to this treatife of
the different phsenomena, which appear in the air,
a concife dilFertation on thofe, which appear on
earth, and particularly on that extraordinary one
oixhtfux and rejiux of the fea.

The Flux and REFLDx,or^i^ and yy^zf of the
fea, are two periodical motions of the waters of
the fea.

Dv. Hallcy has deduced a theory of the tides from
the Newtonian principles, in the following manner :
and fays,

I. That as the furface of the earth and fea is
naturally globular ; if we fuppofe the moon per-
pendicularly over the furface of the fea ; it is evi-
dent, that the water nearell: the moon will gravi-
tate towards it more than any other part of the
earth and fea in that hemifphere. That part of the
waters therefore muft by., this means be raifed to-
wards the moon, i. e. it will be lighter than uiual,
and therefore will fwell there.

For the fame reafon, the water the mofl remote
from the moon, will gravitate lefs towards the fame,
than any other part of the earth or fea in the fame
hemifphere. The water here, therefore, muft ap-
proach lefs towards the moon than any otlier part
of the globe, /. e. it muft be raifed contrariwife, as
being lighter than ufual, and will therefore fwell
in that remote part.

By this means, the furface of the ocean muft
necefTarily form itfelf into a fpheroidal or oval figure;
having a diameter longer than the other, as already
obferved in Des Cartes's Syftem. And thus the
moon fhifting her polition in her diurnal motion
round the earth, this oval of water muft fhift with
her; by which means are afFefted thofe two floods
and ebbs, obfervable every 25 hours.

2. Since

METEOROLOGT.

321

' 2. Since in the conjuniStions and oppofitions of
the fun and moon, the gravitation of the water to
the (oil conlpires with its gravitation towards the
iiioon ; but in the quadratures, the water railed
by the fun is deprefll-d by the moon : hence it is
that the tides are greater in the/yzyges than in the
quadratures.

That in effect there are two tiiifs every natural
day, from the action of the fun, as there are in the
lunar day from that of the moon ; all governed by
the fame laws : only thofe caufed by the fun
are much lefs than thofe caufed by the moon ;
becaui'e though the fun be ten thoufand times bigger
than both the earth and moon, yet he is at fo im-
menie diftance, that the earth's lemi-diameter bears
no proportion thereto.

Hence the different iirles depending on the par-
ticular actions of the fun and moon, are not dif-
tinguifhed but confounded. The lunar tide is
I'omewhat changed by the a£tion of the fun ; and
this change varies every day, by reafon of the ine-
quality between the natural and lunar day.

3. Since the greateft lides about the equinoxes
(viz. thofe happening in the fyzyges) arife from
the fun and moon being in the equinodlial, and
thofe about the foJftices from the fun an moon be-
ing in the tropicks ; for this reafon thofe greateft
tides about the equinoxes are greater than thofe a-
bout the folftices ; fince the greater the circle is,
wherein the waters move, the greater is their agi-
tation. And if the moon flood ftill in the pole, the
fwelling would become immoveable above the pole,
and the high water be fixed therein.

4. Since the tides are fomewhat changed by the
libration of the waters, which us'd to retain a mo-
tion imprelfed on them for fome time ; for this rea-
fon the higheft tides are not precifely in the very
conjun£lion and oppofition of the moon, but two
or three tides afterwards.

5. Since the lun is fomewhat rearer the earth in
winter than in fummer ; hence it is that the greateft
equinodial tides are obferved to be a little before
the vernal equinox, and a little after the autumnal
one.

6. Since the greateft of the two tides happening
in every diurnal revolution of the moon, is that
wherein the moon is neareft the zenith or nadir :
for this rcalbn, while the fun is in the northern
figns, the greater of the two diurnal tides in our
climates, is that arifmg from the moon above the
horizon ; wlien the fun is in the fouthern figns,
the greateft is that arifmg from the moon below
the horizon.

7. Such would the tides regularly be, if th-e
earth were covered with fea very deep ; but by rea-
fon of the flioalnefs of fome places, and the nar-

rownefs of the ftreights in others, by which the tidei
are propagated, there arifes a great diverfity in the
efFedls not to be accountable for, without an exatil
knowledge of all the circumftanccs of the place ; as
the pofition of the land, and the breadth and depth
of the channels, (Jc.

For a very flow and imperceptible motion, of the
whole body of water, where it is (for example) two
miles deep, will fuffice to raife its furface 10 or 12
feet in a tide's time ; whereas if the fame quantity
of water were to be conveyed through a channel of
40 fathom deep, it would require a very great ftream
to effeft it in fo large inlets as are the channel of
England, or the German ocean ; whence the tide
is found to fet ftrongeft in thofe places where the
fea grows narroweft, the fame quantity of water
being in that cafe to pafs through a fmaller palTage.

7 his is moft evident in the Streights between
Portland and cape de la Hague in Normandy., where
the tider\m% like a fluice ; and would be yet more
between Dover zndCafeiis, if the tide coming round
the ifland did not check it.

And this force being once imprefted between the
water, continues to carry it above the level of the
ordinary height in the ocean, particularly where
the water meets a diredl obftacle, as it does in St.
Alalo ; and where it enters into a long channel,
which running far into the land, grows very ftrait
at its extremity, as it does at the Severn fea, at
Chepjloiv, and Brijhl.

This flioalnefs of the fea, and the intercurrent
continents, are the reafons that in the open ocean,
high -water is not at the time of the moon's appulfe
to the meridian, but always fome hours after it, as
it is obferved upon all the weftern coaft of Europe
and Africa, from Ireland to the cape of Good Hope ;
in all which a fouth-weft moon makes high-water,
and the fame is reported to hold in the weft of
America.

It would be endlefs to recount all the particular
folutions, which are only corollaries from this doc-
trine ; as why the lakes and feas, fuch as the Caf-
pian fea, and the Mediterranean fea, the Black fea,
and Balticky have no fenfible tides. : for lakes hav-
ing no communication with the ocean, can neither
increafe or diminifli their water, whereby to rife
and fall ; and feas that communicate by fuch nar-
row inlets, and areoffo immenfe an extent, cannot
in a few hours time receive and empty water to
raife or fink their furface any thing fenfibly.

To demonftrate the excellency of this doflrine,
the example of the tides in the port of Tonquin in
China ; which are fo extraordinary, and different
from all others we have yet heard of, may fuffice.
In this port there is but one flood and ebb in 2^
hours, and twice- in each month; vi%, vvhen tht

moon

The Univcifal Hiftor-y of Arts ^W Sciences.

322

moon is near tlic cqiiinoi51i;il, thf re is no lirk at ali,
but the watci' is ftagiiant •,. but with tlic moon's
declination there begins a tidi;, which is greateft
when (he h in the tropical fij^ns ; only with this
tlifferciice, that wlicn the moon is to the north -
ward of the equinoctial, it flows when flic is above
the earth, and ebbs when flic is under, (o as to
make high- water at inoon-fctting, and low- water
at nioon-rifing : but on the contrary, the moon
being to the fourhward, makes high- water at rifing,
and low-water at fetting, it ebbing all the tiiuj ihe
is above the horizon.

The caule of this odd appearance is fui;G:eftcd by
Sir Ijaac Ninjton, to arife from the concurrence of
two tides, the one propagated in fix hours- out of
the great South Sm along the coaft of Chlw, the
other out of the Indian Sea from between the i Hands,
in twt;lve hours, along the coaft of Maiacca and

perpendicular, tip and dr)wn : whi' h litter kimf
arc alfo called by Arillotlc B.-«o7ai from thercfem*
;blance of their motion to that of boiling.

Naturaiifts are divided on the caufes of cnrth-i
quakes. Some afcribs earthquakes to v/atcr,
Others to fire, and others to air; and all oi-
thjrn with a great appearance of rcafon. 'I o coa*
ceiyc which it is to he obfervcd, that the earth-
every where abounds in huge fubtcrraneous caverns^
.veins, and canals, particularly about the roots of
mountains : that of thefc cavities, veins, ^c. fome
are full of water, whence are compoled gulphs,
abvflcs, fprings, rivulets ; and others full of e\ha.
lations ; ajid tha* foisie part of the earth are replete
with nitre, fulphur, bitumen, vitriol, He.

Ibis prcniifed. Some are of opinion, I. That
the- earth itf..-lf may be the caufc of its own {baking;
when the roots or balls of (ome large mas bcin2;

Camboya — The one of thcfe tides being produced difioKcd, or wore away by a fluid underneath, it

in north latitude, is, as has been faid, greater,
when the moon being to the north of the equator,
is above the earth ; and lefs, when fhe is under the
earth. — 1 he other of them, which is propagated
from the Indian Sea, being raifed in fouth latitude,
is greater when the moon declining to the fouth, is
above the earth ; and lefs, when fhe is under the
earth : fo that of thefe tides, alternately greater and
and leflcr, there come alv/ays fuccefiively two of
the greater, and two of the lefler together every
day, and the high-water falls always between the
arrival of the two greater floods; ajid the moon
coming to the equinodial, and the alternate floods
becoming equal, the tide ceafes, and the water
Magnates \ but when flie has paffed to the other fide
of the equator, thofe floods w-hich in the former
order were the leaft, now becoming the greater,
that which before was the time of the high-water,
DOW becomes the low-v/ater, apd the converlc :
fo that the whole appearance of thefe ftrange tides
arc, without any forcing, naturally deduced from
thcfc principles, and is of great aigument, fay the
Newtonians, for the certainty of the whole theory.
The next contiderable phenomenon which hap-
pens in the terraqueous glube, is an eafthqiMke.

Earthquake is a vehement fliake or agita-
tion of fume conftderablc place, or part of the earth,
fron-i natural caufes; attended with a huge noife
like thunder, nnd frequently with an. eruption of
water, or (ire, or fmoak, or wind, is'e.
. Earthquakes are the greateft and moft formidable
phenomena of nature. — ArijhtU atid Plmy dif-
tinguifli two kinds, with rciptcl to the manner of
the (hake,, vi%. a trem&r, and a pidfe ; the hrll be-
ing horizontal,, in alternate vibrations, compared
to the lljaking of a perfon in an agufi ;. the fecond

finks into the fame, and with its weight occafions
a tremsr of the adjacent parts ; produces a nolle,
arid frequently an iisundation of water.

2. That the fubtcrraneous waters may occafion
earthquakes, by their overflowing, cutting out ne'iT
courfes, He. and that the waters being heated,
and rarefied by the fubtcrraneous fires, may emit
fumes, blalis, He. which by their aition, either
on the water, or immediately on the earth itfelt"
may occafion great fuccu/iions.

3. That the air maybe the caufe of earthquakes;
for air being a coUcclion of fumes and. vapours
raifed from the earth and water; if it be pent up in
too narrow vilcera of the earth, the futterraneous,
or its own native heat, rarefying, and expanding
it, the force whcre-with it endeavours to efcapcj
may fhake the eanh.: hence there arife divers ipe-
cies of earthquakes, according to the dilierent
psfiiion, qua.^tity,. He. of the imprilbncd air.

Lalllv, that fire is a principal caufe. of t'flr/^ywa/fer.j
both as itproducxjs theaforelaid fubtcrraneous aura,
or vapour ; and as this aura, or. IpiriCj-froin th*
different i-nattcr or compofition, whereof arife fulr
phur, bitumen, and other inflammable matters, is
kindled either from Ibme other fire it meetsVithal,
or liorn its coUifion againft hard bodies, or its in-
termixture with other fluids ;. by which means
burfting out into a greater compals, the place be-
comes too narrow for it ; i"o that prcfling againd
it on all iides, the adjoining parts are fhaken ; till
having n-iade itfelf a palliige. it fpcnds itfelf in a
volcano, or burning mountain.'

This laft fe.ittment is very near that ot'Dr. Li/ier,
who fa)s, that the material caule of thunder, light-
ning, and earthquakes, is one and the fame, viz,
the inflammable breath of the pyrites, which is a
fubftantiiJ fulphur, and takes.fire of itfelf.
1 -^ The

MIDTFIFRT.

rt -5 -»

The difference between thcf-- three tsriible phrr- I the latter imder C'round : which i.-; a notion that
nomcna's he takes only toconillt in this; that this | PUuy liad long "before him ; ijuid fnim, tiivs Itr,
fulphur in the former is fired m the air; and in ) tilhul ejl in terra tremor, quam in nube tanitru ?'"

M I D TF I F R r.

MIDWIFRY, is the art of helping or a/Tift-
ing a woman in labour, fo as to facilitate
her delivery, without any danger to the
woman or to her fruit.

To jiroceed with the fame order on this impor-
tant fubjeiSI, rs I have done on all others, I mud
hc'^mhy pregnancy., \.\\>i different jorti thereof, and
ihc Jigns of a true, ov falfe pregnancy, &c. all that
could be previous to it has been explained in mv
treatife of Ar.atomy.

Frkgnancy, properly taken, is a tumour of
the belly, caufed by the infant fituatcd in the
womb.

The fymptoms of a pregnancy are, when in a
few days after the conjugal aft, a fmall pain is per-
ceived about the navel, attended with fome gentle
commotions in the bottom of the abdomen, the
fuppreffion of the mcnies, or their flowing in lefs
quantity than ufual, vomiting, loathing, longing,
is'e. the breafts beginning to fwell, grow hard and
painful, and contain a little milk. The nipples
alfo becoming larger, firmer, and darker coloured,
a livid circle appearing round them, the eyes feem-
ing funk and hollow : but the niofl certain I'lgn is,
if bv introducing the finger in the vagina^ the in-
ward orifice of the matrice is foimd exa£Hv fhut,
without any hnrdnefs, and in a good fituStion, as
likewile a confiderable diftcnfion ol the body of the
matrice.

The cmbrio is perci\-cd to move about the fourth
month, ibmetimes fooncr, fometimes later, accord-
in? to its ftrength -, for fome women feel it as
foon as the fecond month, or even fooner ; and
others about the third month only, or later.

Women who have a falfe conception, have their
belly equally diftended on all fides ; and thofe big
ttizirue conception hmz theirs prominent in the
middle, and the navel much more raifed : there-
fore in the doubt of z pregnancy of four or five
months or more, if the navel of the woman is
found funk, and the orifice of her v/om'u fmall
and hard, it is almoft an infallible fign that flic is
Jiot big of a natural conception.

Thele falfe pregnancies happen commonly to
■women who arc not regular as they fhould be, in
-the e\'acuation of their menfes, either for quantity
or quality, and for the time thcv rauft flow; but
.■particularly from 35 to 40 years of age ; bccaufc

that evacuation begins at that age, not to be fo
regular as before: therefore in thofe fufplcions of
pregnancy, one mufl above all things inform himfelf
of the manner women nfcd to have their menfcs, as
well as of all other diljiofitions which preceded and
accompanied the fwelling of the belly, but par-
ticularly of the di'pofition of the navel, and oftlw:
internal orifice of the matrice.

The juft, and more certain judgment tliat can
be formed of pregnancy, proceeds from the inward
orifice of the matrice, which the nearer her term a
woman i^, grows thinner, fhorter, and more flat-
tened.

Thus it is very cafy to gratify the curiofity of a
woman, who defires to know if fhe be with child
or not ; but it is abfolutely impo.Tible to difcover
if it be with a bov or a cirl.

We muft next inftru<rt the pregnant woman, in
what manner Jl^ie is to govern herjeif during the ivh'ok
ccurfe of gefhition, when acompajiied with no confi-
derable accidents, and hoiu to avoid thofe Jhc is cx-
pofed to.

I'll confine myfcif, in this place, to caution them
againft the moft dangerous accidents they arc ex-
pofed to ; beginning bv a concifc and general re-
gimen.

That regimen confifls principally in refraining
as much as poflible, the depraved appetite they are
troubled with during the time of geliation ; which
they may do by avoiding with care, all they are
confcious could occafion or indulge thofe depraved
appetites, vulgarly called hngings ; and confulting^
in thofe occalions, their' reafon, the health and
prel'civation of their fiuit, rather than their de-
praved imagination, or their feiifuality.

It would be very proper, that a woman fho\i]J
ablfain from coition, for Icveial davs after file has
conceived, for the great emotions, during the amo-
rous embraces, m.iv be a great ohftacle to the foV-
nifltion of the foetus ; according to this advicc'of
Hippocrates, lib. de fierelibus. Si mntier, h\s he,
fe concepilje cognoverit, primo tempore non ampliusad
virum acCedat, fed quicfcat'. '-■ : ..n

A woman with child muft alfo avoid, if-poflibic,'
all forts of violent excrcifes, particukirly dancing,"
jumping', riding, isc. becaufe thofe violent ex^rci'fes
eauii: oftaa-ftn abortion, by relaxing theiigamok^

.5! ad).

32:4 The Univerfal Hiflory

of the mnti ice. Though a moderate exercife, con-
tributCE more to a fafe and quick delivery, than all
the means art can fupply us with. A moderate
exercife, hclidcs, renders the preparation and coc-
tion of the aliments the foetus is fed v^ifh in the
womb, more laudable, and free from that great
quantity of terrcftrial and phlegmatick particles, a
bad digeftion, occafioiied by the inadion of the
mother, would leave them loaded with ; whereby
the foetus itfclf would become heavy, himpifli, and
aimoft uncapable of moving in the womb ; and at
laft fix on one fide rather than the other, to which
laft accident the little quantity of the water it floats
in contributes.

So foon as a woman knows herfelf with child,
ihe is not to lace herfelf too clofe, for while fhe
experts to fave her fine fhape, fhe prejudices her
child, by confining him within thofe flays, and
thereby either hindering him from growing, or
forcing him to come before his time, or rendering
him counterfeit ; and miffing befides her chief end ;
for thofe women, who thus endeavour to appear
of a fine fhape, though they be big with child,
fpoil their belly, which after their delivery, remains
hanging as a bag ; for the belly, by being thus
confined, finding no room to dilate itfelf equally on
all fides, is forced to dilate only towards the bot-
tom, which bears all the burden.

Women with child being often fubject to be
hard bound, becaufe the matrice, by its weight
preffing hard on the intefting reifum, is an obftruc-
tion to the natural evacuation of the excrements,
thofe afflidled with that incommodity, mufl abffain
from all forts of aliments which could contribute
towards it, by increafing the heat of the entrails,
-a pregnancy is but too often accompanied with it ;
but above all, from the immoderate ufe of fpiritu-
ous liquors. The frequent ufeof roailed apples, of
boiled prunes, of figs, and of ail that can open the
body, proves very beneficial to women who find
themfelves extremely conftipatcd, during gellation ;
and if thofe things are not fufficient, glilfers muff
be adminiftered to them ; of a decoftion of marfh-
mallows, parietary and annis-feeds, in which muft
be diffolved two ounces of brown coarfe fugar, ad-
ding to it a fpoonful of fvveet oil ; avoiding above
all things thofe irritating glyifers which would ex-
cite a loofenefs, or a too great evacuation, which
would caufe an abortion or mifcarriage.

A pregnant woman fhould never be frightned
nor furpnzed by any bad news, capable to excite
within her an exceffive uneafinefs, or forrow ; for
thofe paflions, when violent, are capable to throw
the whole Oeconomy of the generation into a dif-
order or confufion, and even make a woman mif-
carry at that very inftant.

of Arts and Sgirnces.

Vomitins; and the fupprcffion of the menfes, are
often the firft: fisrns whereby women perceive that
they are with child. That vomiting is not always
excited, as it has been faldy imagined, by the hu-
mours gathered in the Itomach by the fupprcilion
of the menfes, efpecially in the firft days of their
pregnancy ; but it is occafioned by the fympathy
which is between the Itomach and the matrice, by
reafon of the fimilitude of their fubftance, and that
the nerves inferted in the fuperior orifice of the
flomach, have communication by the fame conti-
nuity, with thofe which run to the matrice, which
are portion»of the fixth pair of thofe of the brain ;
fo that the matrice, which by reafon of its mem-
branous corapofition, has a very exquifite fenfe,
happening to dilate itfelf in the pregrraricy, is then
fufccptible of fome pain, which being communicat-
ed at the fame time bv means of the continuity of
the nerves, to the fuperior orifice of the flomach,
caufes thofe vomitings and naufeas which com-
monly happen, efpecially in the firft month of
gdfation.

In the firft month of geftation, vomiting h h\it
a fimple fymptom, not at all dangerous ; but if it
continues longer, it extremely debilitates the {to-
mach, renders the digeftion of the aliments im-
perfedt, which generates a great quantity of hu-
mours in the vifcera, which muft be purged. Add
to this, that the continual fubverfions of the flo-
mach, caufing a great agitation and compreffion
of the belly of the mother, would procure an
abortion.

The remedies prefcribed by fome Phyficians, to
flop thefe vomitings when they laft too Ions, and
are too violent, are all forts of gentle catharticks,
which purge gently downwards, as manna, rhubarb,
tamarind, cafSa, fyrup of violets, of chichory,
b:c. For my part, though I approve this pradlice, I
would prefcribe previoufly to it fome drops of lauda-
num, to appeafe the convidfive motions of the fto-
mach, and then prefcribe the catharticks, to evacu-
ate the humours which debilitate the digeftive
faciilty of its diflblvent.

The pains caui'ed by the extenfion, dilatation, or
even laceration oith.e ligaments of the matrice, are
often remedied by the woman keeping her bed for
fome days, by bleeding, and by lome fomentations
on the part, made with emollient herbs, beiled in
lees of wine. If thofe pains, efpecially thofe in the
kins, are accompanied with fome excretions of the
matrice, which had not appeared before, and thofe
excretions are tinged with blood, it is certain that
the matrice begins to open, and there will be a mif-
carriage. If by fome violent fhake or fall the li-
gaments of the matrice be broken, and the woman
cannot be perfuaded to keep her bed, her belly muft

M I D W I F R T. 325

proper to diHIpate the fluxion, but the cure of

be fupported by a bandage made for the purpofe,
siiKi wait as patiently as fhe can for the time of her
delivery.

y/f to the pains in the breafls. So foon as a wo-
man lias conceived, her monthly evacuations being
Hopped, though (he continues to make daily new
blood, it is neceffary, that as there is none con-
fumed during the firft month of geftation, the velTels
which are too full, fnould overflow thole parts
which are the moft difpofed to receive it : as are
the glands and glandulous bodies, particularly the
breafls, which receive abundance of it, which fil-
ling and fvvelling them extremely, caufes thofe
pains which women A^ith child feel in them, to
which thofe who have only a I'uppreflion of their
menfes are fubject likewife.

In thofe beginnings a woman muft only take
care not to hurt thofe parts by lacing her flays too
clofe, to avoid contufions, which would perhaps
degenerate into inflammations, and thofe inflamma-
tions into abfceiTcs : but when after the third month
of geftation, the blood flows thithtr in too great
abundance, it muft be evacuated by bleeding in
the arm, which is the fureft remedy on thofe oc-
caflons.

The moft dangerous fymptoms a woman with
child is fubjeft to, are a cough, and a difficulty of
refpiyation, efpecially if the cough be very violent,
which often caufes a mifcarriage.

Whatever may be the caufe of the cough of a
woman with child, fhe muft abftain from all the
aliments which could increafeit, fuch as fait, pep-
per, and all forts of acids ; ufmg thofe whi^h can
help tow'ards fweetning the mafs of the blood. I
would prefcribe to her every other night, when fhe
goes to bed, a large glafs of emuliion, made with
the four large cold-feeds, and the fyrup of maiden-
hair, and a dyet drink made with jujubes, dates,
and liquorice.

If the difficulty of refpiration and cough pro-
ceeds from the matrice prefTuig too hard on the
diaphragm, there is no better remedy than a
moderate exercife. All other remedies prefcribed
on that oecafion are needlefs.

As to the various Jwellings and pains in the
thighs aud legs, fonie begin the cure of this dif-
temper by bleeding the arm, which cannot be dif-
approved, provided it does not exceed three ounces.

The fame fuperfluous blood, flopped by the
fupprelfion of the menfes, which caufes the vari-
ous fwelling of the thighs and legs, caufes like-
wife the hiftnorrhoides or piles, almoft all breeding
women areaffiicled with.

If they be fmall and without pain, whether in-
ternal or external, it fufKces to hinder them from
growing bigger; which may be done by remedies
Vol. II. 41.

thofe extremely fwclled, mult be began by ap-
peafing the pain ; which is done by bleeding the
woman once or twice in the arm, and ordering
her to abftain from coition, or any thing elfe which
can contribute towards over- heating her. But if
the excrements flopped in the rectum, be the caufe
of the hccmorihoides, they muft be evacuated by a
glyfter made only with a decoction of bran, and
fome leaves of marfh-mallows, adding to it a
fpoonful of honey, and another of oil of fweet al-
monds ; lining the canule or clyfter-pipe with
the gut of a chicken, for fear it fho'.ild hurt the
anus. The piles, if they be external, muft alfo be
anointed with an ointment made of populeum, and
an oyfter-fhcll calcined, very well pounded, and
mixed afterwards with the populeum.

If the tumour be not dilfipated by the aforefaid
remedies, leeches muft be applied to the anus,
which by their fucking will empty the blood ftop-
ped in thofe parts. ,

It happens alfo, that a woman with child is
often afflifted with an immoderate fiux of the belly,
or loojenefs.

There are three different forts of thefe fluxes,
the firft called lienterick, in which the aliments
are evacuated with very little appearance of dige-
ftion, proceeding from the imbecillity of the fto-
mach : the fecond diarrhaick, when the excre-
ments are evacuated without any confiderable pain
in the intefiines : and the third, which is the moft
dangerous, is the dyfenterick, whereby the patient
voids blood together with the humours and excre-
ments, with violent pains caufed by the ulceration
of the inteftines.

Of what fort foever be the flux of the belly, if it
be immoderate, and continues long, it always puts
the woman with child in great danger of abor-
tion. If it be a lienterick flux, caufed by the im-
moderate and extravagant appetite of the pregnant
woman ; that appetite muft be refrained above all
things ; in lieu thereof fhe muft make ufe of good
aliments ofan eafy digeftion, and in a fmall quan-
tity at once, till the flomach has recovered its for-
mer ftrength.

When the flux is diarrhceick, and nothing elfe
is evacuated but the excrements contained in the
inteftines, there is not the leaft danger, provided
it be not attended with pains, and does not con-
tinue long, when one muft content himfelf then
with moderating that flux without flopping it.
But if it lafts longer than four or five days, it
muft be ftopped by degress, in purging, by means
of gentle catharticks, the acrimonious humours,
which are the caufe thereof.

But if notwithflanding the aforefaiJ regimen
U u and

326 Tlje Univerfal Hiflory

and remedies, the flux continues, and is changed
into zdv/enteria, the ftoolsof the patient being veiy
frequent, painful, and bloody, then flie is in
great danger of mifcarrying ; which muft be
avoided if poflible, by prefcribing to her, befides
the remedy above mentioned, fome drops of lau-
danum, and clyfters made vi'ith a decoftion of
the leaves and roots of plantain, of red rofes, and
pomegran:.te-peel, boil'd in the water of a forge,
to vvhich may be added two drachms of fanguis
draconis, or an infufion of rhubarb in good old
red wine, the extraft of mars aftringent, and a
julep made of plantain water, and fyrup of quinces,
an ounce of each, and fifteen drops ef laudanum,
But the purgatives muft be ufed before theaftrin-
gents, f)nce they are prefcribed to carry off the
caufe of the diflemper, which othcrwife would
return, even with more violence than before, if we
minded nothing clfe but how to appe.tfe its fymp-
toms." .

If the fiiix ftiould continue, a revulficn muft be
made, by bleeding in the arm, if the ftrength oi"
the woman will allow it ; prefcribing afterwards
fome pleafant ftyptick.

'I'here is a great difference betv/ixt the flux
above menticn'd, and what is called a I'Js of blood,
or jiouUng ; for in this the blood flows from the
bottom of the matrice, with pain in abundance,
and without interruption, unlefs fome clods of
'congealed blood, feem fometimes to diminifli the
accident, by {topping, for a fhort time, the place
'whence it flows; but foon afierwards, thofe clods
of blood being expelled, or falling of themfelvcs
into the matrice, it begins to flow anew, w.th
ftill greater violence than before ; which foon
caufes the death both of the mother and child, un-
lefs it be remedied, by the quick delivery of the
woman -, or if fhe be not far gone in her preg-
nancy, by the expulfion of the embrio, which I
know by experience gives immediate lelief ; and
for which I have preicribed with great fuccefs, a
few drops of oil of guaiacum.

As to the weight, and bearing down, or relaxation
of the matrice in ivomen vjith child. Whatever
may be the caufe of the bearing down of the ma
trice, the beft remedy is for the woman to keep
iier bed ; for while fhe is up, the weight of the
part increafes the relaxation of the ligaments ;
and if her circumftances will not allow it, {he
mufl wear a pelTary, to keep the part in its natu-
ral fituation : and if her belly be very high, it
mufl be fupported by a large bandage made for
that purpofe.

As to the hydropfy of the matrice, it Is nothing
elfe but a quantity t)f water gathered in the capa-

of Arts <^;?(:/ Sciences.

city of the matrice. This accident has often de-
ceived Phyficians, Surgeons, Midwives, and the
patients themfelvcs, who expedfing to be delivered
of a child, void only abundance of water.

The befl remedy for thofe forts of hydropfies,
if there be a child with it, is to wait with patience
the hour of the delivery, ufing at the fame time
deficcativc remedies. Jf there be nothing but water
contained in the matrice, the half-bath is very
proper to make it open, as are likevvife all the re-
medies which provoke the menfes, and if thofe
remedies have no efFedf, the woman muft be pre-
fcribed the ufc of mineral waters.

As to the tvdematoi/s fwelling of the labia of the
pudendum. The matrice is often fo full of humi<-
ditics, that they overflow on the outward parts,
cfpecially on the labia of the pudendum.

This fwelling of the labia of the matrice is lucid
and aImo{t tranfparent, much like an hydroeelle ;
it muft be remedied by opening the ways of the
urine, with fomediureticks.

ril conclude this concife account of the mala-
dies a woman with child is fubject to, by tl>e
abortion, and caufa thereof. When the child is al-
ready formed, and has began to have life, let it
be ever fo little, if it happens to come out before
the time appointed by nature, it is zn abortion ;
which can happen from the end of the ie-
cond month, or even before, to that of the fe-
venth only ; for after that time, it is always a
true labour ; becaufe the child being then ftroiTg
enougli, and having a fuflicient perfection, can
live, which it cannot before that time.

All forts of violent maladies, can be the caufe of
abortion, becaufe they kill the child, who being
dead cannot remain long in the matrice ; which
alfo puts the mother in danger of her life, who
often periflies foon after her mifcarriage, or even
before. Even intermittent fevers alone, can caufe
an abortion, by exciting falfe pains in the womb,
which occafion a real labour. A violent and fre-
quent vomiting, and the pains in the loins, and the
violent cholicks, can caufe the fame accident.
Likewife the ftrangury, becauie there happens
then continually, very ftrong compreiTions of the
abdomen, for the evacuation of the urine. — A vio-
lent cough by its frequent agitation, pufhing fud-
denly and with great efforts the diaphragm down-
wards, gives, likewife, violent fliakes to the ma-
trice.— A violent loofenefs puts a woman with
child in danger of mifcarrying ; and much fooner,
if afterwards there happens a tenefma, /. e. fre-
quent and violent motions to go to flool.

If the menfes How much during gcftation, it is
impofTible the child ihould be {Irong, {ince in that

evacuation.

M I D IV I F R r.

evacuation, there happens a very great di/lipation
of the fpirits of the mother ; and the inatricc being
too much humetited, relaxes and opens cafdy.

But one of the molt dangerous accidents, which
caufe an abortion or milcarriage, is the ftparation
of the after-birth from the matrice. — The hydrop-
fy of the matrice hinders the child from being
brought to pcrfeftion.

Ail that agitates, and (hakes violently the body
of a woman with child, is capable to caufe a mif-
carriage ; as a violent work, a Itrong contufion, or
motion, either in falling, jumping, dancing, run-
ning a foot, or on horfeback, riding in a coach, or
in a cart, hollowing, laughing immoderately, or
fome blow received on the belly. — • A fudden and
unexpefled violent nolle, like that of tluinder,
cannon, ^'c. can alfo caufe an abortion, if it be
attended with fear, efpecially in young women.
— f^oetid and {linking fmells, can alfo contribute
toamifcarriage, and particularly that of charcoal.

There are alfo indifpofuions of the matrice,
which produce the fame accident ; as when it is
callous or fo fmall, or fo much compicfl'ed by the
epiplon, that it cannot extend itfelf lb much as it
is necellary to lodge the child at eafe, with the
after-birth, and the water it fwims in. — This can
happen, likewife, if the woman, to appear a fine
fhape, laces herfelf too clofe, or makes ufe of a
bu(k. — The frequent ufe of coition, efpecially to-
wards the latter months of geftation, can produce
the fame accident ; becaufe the matrice then being
extremely full, inclines much downwards, and its
internal orifice being very near, is pufhed up-
wards by the penis, which thereby excites it fome-
times to open fooner than it fhould. o

. There are likewife, caufcs of abortion, which
proceed from the children themfclves, as when
they are nionftrous ; when they have not a natural
fituation ; which difturb them fo much, that they
force the matrice to expel them ; and likewife
when they are fo big that it cannot contain them
till term, nor the mother fupply them \vith a fuf-
ficient quantity of aliments.

As to the ftg'is of an approaching mijiarriage.
— If one perceives, that after one, or feveral of the
accidents above fpecified, a woman has a great pain
in her belly, and about her loins, and with it,
fome clods of blood are voided through the ma-
trice, and the membranes of the child are broken,
they are fure figns of an approaching mifcarriage,
which in that cafe cannot be prevented by any
remedy whatever. If a woman feels a great
weight in her belly, which falls as a lump on that
fide the child lies, and her matrice voids Itinking
and cadaverous humidities, it is % fign that flic is
to mifcarry foon of a dead child.

327

It is certain, that a woman who mifcarrics, is in
a much greater danger of her life, than one wl)o
goes her full time ; becaufe, abortion is entirely
againft nature, and is very often accompanied with
a great lofs of blood, which is more or lefo dan-
gerous, according a« the caufe of abortion is more
or Icfs viok-nt, whether it has been occafioned by
remedies taken inwardly, or by fome blow,
fall, &c.

The beft and mofl fpecifick remedies for a'l the
external accidents, which can caufe an abortion,
is the repos ; which niuft be propoi tioncd to the
violence of the accident. If a woman is to be let
blood, after a violent fall, blow, isc. to prevent
a mifcarriage, it fliould be done as foon as poflible.

From this theoretical pzrt of Alidwi/ry, I'll pafs to
the practical part thereof; where I'll treat of a
natural labour, and of thofe which are againjl
nature, teaching the manner of helping a woman
in the former, and how to remedy all the others ;
beginning by informing the reader what we un-
derrtand by delivery, the differences, and different
terms thereof.

We underftand by delivery the emiffion, or ex-
traiStion of a child at term, out of the matrice ;
which definition includes both the natural labour,
and thofe againfl nature.

A natural labour, muft be at term ; it mnft be
quick, and without any confiderable accident ;
the child muft ha alive, viell forfnd, preknting
himfclf in a natural filiation ; for if there be any
of thofe four conditions wanting, the labour is
againft nature : and much more io, if feveral of
them are wanted.

The fgns which precede a natural labour, and
which happen a few days before, are, that the
woman begins to feel fome unctjmmon pains in her
loins, and the tumour of her belly v/hich was very
high, falls down all on a fudden, which hinders
her from walking fo eafily as fhe ufed to do, and
caufes her frequent molio.TS of making water ;
there flows then from the matrice certain fliniy
humidities, dcligned by nature to humect the p^f-
fage, and render it flippery, that the inward ori-
fice thereof may be eafily dilated when wanted.

The fgns tvhich accompany a prcfent labour, i. e.
indicate that a woman is really in labour,- zxa that
(he feels great pains towards the region of die
reins and loins, which coming and growing
llronger by intervals, are felt in the bottom of her
bslly. All her privy parts are tumefied, becaufe
the head of the child when near the pa(rage puflies
forward the neighbouring parts, which appear tu-
mefied likewife; and when a vomiting happens, it
is commonly a (ign that the waman (liall be foon
U u 2 delivered,

328 'TJ:iz Univerfal Hiftory of Arts <3W Sciences.

the

delivered, becaufe thereby the pains grow more
frequently greater and longer ; fliort and fmall
pains, though frequent, rendering moft commonly
a labour very tedious, and exhauftingthe ftrength
of a wotnan. When the humidities, voided at
that time through the m;,*iice, are tinged with
blood, it is an infallible mark that the woman will
. ibon be delivered ; and then if the finger be in-
troduced into the neck of the matrice, its inward
orifice will be found open, and the mouth thereof ;
the membranes in which the child is contained,
prefent themfclves, which membranes are ftrongly
Gomprefled, at every pain the woman feels, during
which they are felt to refill, and appear to the
finger more or lefs hard, as the pains are more or
lefs ffrong. Afterwards the pains growing con-
tinually ftronger and ftronger, the membranes
break by the flrong impulfion of the waters, which
are evacuated in an infcant ; and then the child is
cafily felt, fince it prefents itfelf at the aperture of
the inward orifice of the matrice.

When all thofe figns, or part of them, meet
together, whether the woman be at term or not,
one may be fure that fhe'll loon be delivered. She
muft not be put in labour, before the neceffity
thereof be known by thofe figns ; otherwife it
would be tormenting the mother and her child in
vain, and put them both in danger of their lives ;
for though the inward orifice of the matrice, be
fometimes enough dilated, for the introduftion of
the finger into it, and the head of the child is even
felt through the membranes, and the woman feels
fome pains in the abdomen, one niuft not always
conclude hence, that (he is then really in labour ;
for though there be a great appearance of it, the
thing notwithftanding is not entirely fure, unlefs
thofe pains be felt at the bottom of the belly, and
the waters to range themfelves between the head
of the child and the membranes : therefore that
circumftance muft be carefully obferved, to avoid
milfakes in the prognoftick.

As to the membranes of the foetus, are the parts
which are formed firft, after the conception,
in order to preferve the feed of the man, and hin-
der the diffipation of the fpirits it is impregnated
with, whereby the intention of nature would be
trurtrated ; they are likewiTe thofe, which toge-
ther with the waters, prefent themfelves firft at
the paflage in the time of the delivery.

The waters gather'd in the membranes, ferve to
facilitate the motion of the child, by its iwimming
in them, and leil by his frequent motions hefliould
wound the matrice, in ftriking againlt it, which
would fometimes caufe abortion. They defend
him, befides, againlt external injurief, in eluding
the violejiceof the blows which the woman could

receive on her belly ; and contribute much to-
wards rendering the extraction of the child eafy
in the delivery, becaufe they render the paflage very
flippery ; and humeding the orifice of the matrice,
makes it to dilate itfelf much better, when they
cometo flow, when the child is ready to come into
the world, or a little before: for otherwife the de-
livery would be attended with more difficulties,
and the mother more tormented.

I'll pafs to the parts, by means whereof the
child receives its food in the matrice ; which
parts are the pLiceiita, and the umbilical vcJpU.

The PtACEt^TA is a fkfiiy and fpongeous
mafs, femblable, in fome meafure, to the fubltance
of the melt, for the greateft part is compofed of an
infinity of veins, arteries, and lacteal veffels.

The placenta, is formed of an accumulation of
the mendrual blood of the matrice.

When there are two children in the matrice,
and even where there are three, if they be true
twins, /'. e. generated of one and the fame coition,
they have commonly but the fame placenta with
only as many ftrings terminated to it, as there are
children ; which notwithftanding are entirely fe-
parated from one another by their particular mem-
branes, in which each child is contain'd with his
waters a-part ; unlefs they have their bodies ad-
herent to one another ; in which cafe, twins of
that nature, who, therefore are monftrous, have
likewife the fame waters, and the fame common
membranes. But if there be zfuperfetation, there
will be as many placenta's as there are children.
But tho' a fingle after-birth be oftener common to
fevaral children, it has been obferv'd, that the
veflels of the navel-tiring of each child, both the
veins and arteries, diftributed or ramified throu2;h-
out the whole fubftance of that common after-
birth, are always entirely feparated from one ano-
ther ; fo that the veflels, which ferve to feed one
child, have no communication by anajlomocis, nor
otherwile, with thofe deftined to feed the other
children. Which is the caufe that each child
having bis principle of food and life, feparateiy
from one another, and being lodg'd in different
membranes and waters, one of thofe children, can
fometimes be dead in the womb, while the other
remains alive ; provided the dead child does not
remain long enough in the matrice to be corrupted.
From the middle of the after-birth arifes a ftrin?,
compofed of feveral veffels join'd together. Some
authors reckon four of thofe veffels, viz. two
veins, and tv/o arteries ; and others five, adding
the ouraque to it : but it is very certain, that there
are but three veffels to the human foetus, viz. a
vein, and two arteries,

Thofe

M I D IF I I^ R T.

Thofc three wIToIs which coinpofc the ftriiii?
are enveloped with a pretty firongaiid thick niein
brane.

Ail children, whether males or females, arc com-
monly fituated in the middle of the matrice. Their
poftures and fiotires, are different according to the
times of the pregnancy. For in the firft months,
the cnibrio is always found of a round fiiJ;ure, a
littJe oblique, having its back-bone moderately
bowed inward, the thighs folded, and a little- rais'd,
to which the legs are joined ; fo that the heels
approach the buttocks, and the extremities of the
teet are turned inwards ; its arms are bowed, and
its hands near the knees, towards which its head
inclines, leaning forwards in fuch a manner, that
its chin touches the bread. I'he embrio has then its
backbone turn'd tow;irds that of its mother, its head
upwards, its face forwards, and its feet down-
wards, and in proportion as it grows, extends
its members, which it had exaflly folded during
the firft m.onths.

We mud: not imagine, notwithftanding, that
the child is always precifcly in the poRure above
defcribed, fmce it changes fometimes that of its
arms and legs, in bending or extending them more
or lefs, throwing them from one iide to the other,
according as it is excited to it, by fcveral different
caufes, as women with child can witnefs, who 'izt\
it move its parts in a different manner, after
which it generally re affumes its former fituation
above defcribed.

The child keeps commonly that firft fituation,
till the feventh or eighth month, when its head
being grown very big, it tumbles downwards by
its own weight, againft the it? ward orifice of the
matri.e, its feet being then upwards, and its face
turn'd towards the buttocks of the mother ; and
when it is turned conirariwife, that is not not
natural ; for befides that, the face of the chiM
coming outward, would be much bruifed by the
bones of the woman ; the labour-pains could not
puih the child fo eafily out of the matrice^ as they
do when it has its body and face downwards ; in
which cafe the m.atrice, as well as the mufcles of
the abdomen of the mother, contracting themfelves
at the time of the pains, on the back of the child,
who refirts the pain by that fituation, its head is
much eafier forced through the pailii^'c.

When a v/oman with child is happily gone her
full time, and falls in labour, fliemufl be fuccoured
in the following manner.

When by tnc Hgns heretofore mentioned, which
precede and accompany the labour, one is con-
vinced, that a woman is ready to lay in. The
midwife is to begin by making the patient wa'k in
her apartment, if her ftrength permits, giving her

329

fiom time to time, cipecially imn-.ediately after flie
has took a pain, two or rhice fpoonfuls of white
wine, burnt with cinnamon, luit never any (piri-
tuous liquor, unlefs it be when the labour is te-
dious, two fpoonfuls of cinnamon -water, though I
would prefer to itadrachm of confcdtion alkermes ;
recommending hei , above all things, to reap all the
fruit fhe can of her pains, by ftojijiing her breath, and
forcing ftronglv downwards, while ftie feels them.
^ 1 he midwife muft feel from time to time the
inward orifice of the matrice, to difcover if the
waters are ready to break, and if the delivery will
foon follow; keeping all the while near the-patient,
to obferve narrowly her motions, and complaints ,
for thereby one may judge well enough if the
work goes forward, without being obliged to feel
the woman often downwards.

There are Ibme women, the inward orifice of
whofe matrice cannot be fdt at the beginning of
their labour. Becaufe they have that orifice fitua-
ted very high towards the re£ium. Notwithftand-
ing which, if the child be well turn"d, and the wo-
man be rcilly in labour, the head of the child is
felt, through the fubftance of the matrice, to come
down by degrees, and to rcfift ftrongly enough, to
feeling, when the woman takes her pains.

'i he patient may lie down by intervals, to re-
cruit her exhaufted fpirits , but fhe muft take care
not to lie long ; though when a woman begins to
be in labour, and her pains are fmall and tedious,
without any preparation of the water., flic muft not
be fatigued by making her fet up too long. It is
much better to make thofe ibrt of women lie down,
and keep them very warm in their bed, to ripen
liicir labour, till the waters begin to form them-
ielves, as it fhould be ; after which fhe may get
up, if the midv/ife judge proper, to increafe, by
tri.-.t iauation, the ftrong pains, which come at
that time.

When the waters of the child are v.'f.ll prepared
and formed, the midwife muft let them break of
themfelves, without attempting to do it ; for under
pretence of forwarding her work by thus lacerating
the membranes, file on the contrary retards it, by
that accelerated evacuation of the waters, which
muft fcrve to make the child flide with moi e facility,
and leaves it dry ; which afterwards hinders the
pains from forcing it out fo eafily, as they would
have done.

When the waters are broken of themfelves, the
midwife will eafily touch the child by the part which
prefents itfeh" firft, and be fure if it comes nitu-
rally, i- e. the liead forcmoft, which fhe'U feel
haid, big, rou.'-, and even; but if it be another
part, fbe 11 feel lomething uneven, and hard, or
ibfc, more or lefs, according to the part, which
prefents itfelf. Imnie-

330 7"Zv Univcrfal Hiftory

ImmeJiatcly after flie muft mike hafk to put the
woman to beJ, if flic is no: ihjire alruaJy, to help
her in her delivery, which commonly happens foon
after, if it be natural. But if fbe finds that the
child prefcnts itfelf in a fituation quite diftereiit
from the natural, and knows hcrfclf not capable
to perform the operation, fo as to fave the mother
and the child, flie is obliged in confcience to fend as
foon as pofliblc for a man -midwife, without wait-
ing to the laft extremity.

The woman in labour being placed in a proper
poflure, ;md the waters broken, the man midwife
or midwife, fhall introduce a finger into the in-
ward orifice of the matricc, to know if it be the
head of the child, which prefents itfelf; then hav-
ing anointed his hand with pomatum or frefn butter,
or otherwife hell put, at the time of the pains,
the ends of his fingers into the orifice of the ma-
trice to dilate it, in parting them from one another.
When the head of the child {hall begin to appear,
the midwife muft pufh up the fides of the matrice
towards the back part of the head of the child,
who when advanced forward as far as to the ears,
mufl: be taken with both hands on the two fides,
.and, at the firft great pain, draw, not in a dire<fl:
ine, but wavering, and his face downward? ; ob-
serving carefully, that the naval-ftring may not be
turned round the child, for it would be broke, and
one would pull too hard on the matrice. When
the fhouiders fliall appear, the midwife muft Aide
her fingers under the arms, and draw the child,
who rriuft be put on its fide, its face towards her,
left the blood and waters, which flow immediately,
fhould fuftbcate it, by falling into its mouth and
nofe.

The next thing a man-midwife or midwife muft
do, is to fee if there be no other child left in the
matrice, for it happens often, that there are two,
and fometimes more ; which is eafily difcovered by
that the labour's pains continue after the birth of
the child, and the woman's belly is itill extremely
big ; but to be better convinced of it, if fhe intro-
duces her hand into the entrance of the matrice,
fiie'II feel other waters in other membranes, with
a child prefenting itfelf at the paflage.

In that cale the woman muft not be delivered of
the after-birth till after fhe has been delivered of her
piher children, becaufe twins having moft common-
ly but the fame placenta for all, though there be
fcveral navel-ftrings with as miny feparations of the
membranes, if it was extradted after the birth of
the firft child, the other children would be in fome
danger of their lives, becaufe that part is abfolutely
iieccllar)' to them while they are in the matrice ;
and that cxtracfion would caufe a great lofs of blood
to the mother. Therefore the navel-ftring of the
firl]: child muft be cut off, after it has been tied with

of Arts ^tW Sciences.

a ftrong thread four times double, faftning the end
thereof to the thigh of the woman, not for fear it
fhould re-enter the matrice, but to hinder it from
difcommoding the woman, in hanging between her
legs, making likewife another ligature at its extre-
mity, to hinder the evacuation of the blood : after
which, having given that firft born child to another
pejfon, the midwife fliall makd' no difliculty to
break immediately the membrances of the other
child, for the evacuation of the waters (in cafe they
are not broken of themfelves) becaufe the firft
having made the paffagc, the birth of the fecond
is thereby accelerated, of whom fhe muft be de-
livered, obferving all the fame circumftances, pre-
fcribed for the iirft ; which done, flie muft be
delivered of the after-birth.

A woman muft be delivered of the after-birth,
as foon as the child is out of the matrice, and even
before the naval-ftring is tied and cut ; for fear
the matrice, which as foon as delivered of its burden,
contracls itfelf as faft as po'fible to re-aftume its
natural fituation, fhould clofe itfelf, and thereby
hinders (as it happens but too often) the cxtradiioii
of the after-birth, which corrupting foon in the
matrice, if it be left in it, either entire, or in part,
caufes very dangerous fymptoms to the mother, and
fometimes her death.

lo deliver the woman of the after-birth, the
midwife muft make two turns round her left-hand
with the navel-ftring,or with the tame hand lay hold
of it v.'ith a dry cloth, left it fhould flip between
her fingers, and with the right take it only, above
the left, near the pudendum, drawing likewife very
foftly with that hand, and leaning the ends of two
fingers joined together, or only that of the index
of the lame right hand, extended and carried to the
entrance of the vagina, on that navel-ftring, ac-
cording to its length ; oblerving always to draw,
and lean particularly towards the fide, where the
after-birth is lefs adherent, and not to take the
navel-ftring covered over with the membranes of
the child.

To facilitate the expulfion of the after-birth, the
woman muft blow hard into one of her hands fhut,
as fhe would do into a bottle, to difcover if it be
flawed, or blow her nofe hard, or thurft a finger
into her mouth, as if fhe would excite herfelf to
vomit ;, or flopping her breath, force downwards,
as if fhe would go to ftool ; fince all thefeditterent
motions and agitations produce the fame effect.

If notwithflanding all thefe efforts, the woman
cannot be delivered of the after-birth, the nurle or
fome other flsilful woman, mull pafs foftly her
hand over the belly of the patient, drav/ing it down-
wards in manner of friction, and if ali this will
not do, the hand muft be introduced at laft into
the matriccj to extract it. There are fometimes

likewife

M I D IF I F R r.

ZZ^

likewife, after-births fo monftroufly big, that it is
impoflible to extr?£t them, though the navel-ihing
iiolds faft to them.

In tho'e cafes the man-midwife having well
anointed his hand with oil or pomatum, and pared
his nails, mlift introduce it into the matrice, to
feparate the after- birth from it as gently as poffible,
and draw it out together with the clods of blood,
which might be along with it. When the navel-
ftring is not broken, it ferves to guide the hand to
the place where the after-birth is fituated ; but
when it is broke, the operator muft take a particu-
lar care not to miftake one part for the other, and
draw the matrice ; which will be eafilv avoided, if
one has learned, that having introduced his hand
into the matrice, he'll foon difcover the difference
between it and the after-birth, in that the after-
birth is full of little inequalities, produced by the
roots of the umbilical vellcls on that fide they ter-
minate in it ; befidcs, the veilels ramified through-
out its whole fubllance are eafily filt, which fub-
itance is much more foft than that of the matrice.

But if notwithltanding all thefe endeavours, the
after-birth cannot be extrafted, and if the matrice,
becauCe of its inflammation, cannot be dilated
enough, to go and fetch it without an extreme
violence, or if it be fo adherent that it cannot be
feparated from it ; then to avoid a greater evil, moft
phyficians and men-midwives are of opinion, that

■ the operation (hould be left to nature, helping it
by means of remedies which can bring the after-
birth to fuppuration.

The remedies ufed in thofe cafes are inje£lions
into the matrice made with a decoftion of mallows,
marfli-mallows, parietary, and lin-feed, to which

• muft be added oil of fweet almonds, or of white
lilies ; adminiflring befides to the patient pretty
ftrong glyders, that the efforts {hell make to go
to llool, may accelerate the evacuation of the after-
birth, by which means feveral evacuate it with the
ftools, without being fenfible of it.

At the fame time to avoid a fever or any other
dangerous accidents fhe inay be let blood in the
arm or in the foot, according as it will be judged
proper or neceffary; flrengthening hsr the while
with good cardiacks, good broth, made v/ith veal
and chickens, and now and then a glafs of very
good win?, mixed with water, provided ihe has
no fever.

Thefe inftrudlions are fufficient for natural de-
livery, I'll pafs to thofe relating to preternatural ones.

There are three forts of preternatural cleliverir's,
viz. the laliorious, the difficult, and that entirely
agatnji nature.
■ A laborious delivery is that whereby the mother

and her child (though he comes into the world in
a natural fituation) fuffer much. — The difficult is
no otherwife different from the laborious^ than by
its being attended with fome accidents which re-
tard it, and render it difficult.

But the delivery againjl nature, is that which by
reafon of the fituation of the child, can never be
done without the affiftance of the operation of the
hand.

'f he difficulties a delivery is attended with, hap-
pen either from the part of the mother, or from the
child, and often from both.

If- the difficulty proceeds from the part of the
mother, (he being too young, and too ffrait ; flie
muft be handled gently, and her paffages foftned
with oil, pomatum, or frcfh butter, anointing
them with thofe things long before the hour of her
delivery, to relax them, and render them more cnfy
to be dilated, left a laceration of fome parts would
happen when the child conies into the world.

It the woman be advanced in years, and preg-
nant of her firft child, (he muft likewife anoint her
parts, to foften the inward orifice of the matrice,
which being harder, cannot be fo eafily dilated as
in young women, which renders the labour of wo-
men advanced in years always much more tedious
than that of others.

Little, or ill-fhaped women, muft not be put to
bed to be delivered, till after the waters are broken;
but are to (land up, and walk in the room, if their
ftrength permits it, being fuppoi ted under the arms;
for thus they will have their refpiration more eafy
and free, and take a far greater advantage of their
pains, than if they were on their bed.

A lean woman muft humeJt her parts, by anoint-
ing them with oil, pomatum, i^c. to render thctn
foiter, and more flippery, that the head of the child
may not remain long in the paffage, nor be com-
preffed or bruifed, by the hardnefs of the bones of
the mother which form the pafiage.

A weak woman muft be cheared up, that fhe
n\xy fupport the pains of her labour, with Ibme good
burnt wine or other comfortable thiii'^s, according:
to the exigency of the cafe. If (he is fearful, fhe
muft be comforted with the hope of being foon de-
livered , if on the contrary her pains be fmall, fliort,
with long intervals between, and of a bad fort,
flying back towards the reins, or if fhe has none,
they muft be provoked by giving her pretty ftrong
glyfters, and other proper remedies : for I mofl
commonly prefcribe in thofe cafes a large fpoonful
or two of a flrong tinilure of cinnamon, to which
I add a few drops of that of ambergreaf.;-, and three
drops of oil of guaiacum ; which remedy ferves like-
wife, when the painc- which, were very good at the
beginning, are quite gone.

332 Tl:ie Univerfal Hiftcry

If the woman has a violent flooding, or convul-
fions, flie muft be delivered as foon as poffible. If
the excrements be retained, and flie cannot void
them of herfelf, the expulfion tliereof mull be ex-
cited by t^lyfters. for they caufc violent pains which
are needlefs and bad, becaufc they are diiperfcd
throughout the belly, without forcing downwards.
And if Ihe cannot make water bccaufe of the ex-
cellivc comprellion of the matiice on the neck of
the bladder, the woman herfelf muft lift up her
belly a little with her hands, and if it cannot be
done otherwife, a hollow probe muft be introduced
into the bladder to facilitate the evacuation of the
urine. If the difficulty of the delivery proceeds
from the bad fituation of the woman, fhe muft be
put into another agreeable to her fhape, obfcrving
all the circumftances heretofore mentioned.

If the woman be furprized with fome malady,
the cure thereof muft be undertaken according to
the nature thereof, but with ftill more precaution
than at another time : — If it be by re.;fon of the
indifpofitions of the matrice alone, as of its obli-
quous fituation, one muft remedy it as well as he
can by that of the body. If it be by its vicious
conformatron, having its neck hard, callous, and
too narrow, it muft be anointed with oil or poma-
tum, as above-mentioned. If it was by fome
ftrong cicatrice which could not be foftened, pro-
ceeding from an ulcery which had preceded, or of
fome laceration made by a violent delivery, which
had likewife been glutinated, the feparation there-
of muft be made with a proper inftrument.^ left ano-
ther laceration fliould happen in another place,
which would render the cafe worfe afterwards ; and
which muft be made in the place that is judg'd moft
convenient ; avoiding to do it towards the fuperior
part, becaufe of the bladder.

If the membranes of the waters be fo ftrong, that
they cannot break at the time of the delivery, they
may be broken with the fingers, provided the child
be then very far advanced at the pafTage, and fol-
lows foon after that laceration, the inward orifice
of the matrice being fufficiently dilated and well
foftned; for otherwife there would be fome danger,
that the waters being evacuated, the child fhould
remain a long while dry, and one would be obliged
to fupply to it, by humefting thofe paflages, with
fomentations of emollient herbs and oils ; which
has never fo good an efFecSl as when nature operates
of itfelf, by means of the waters.

Thofe membranes fometimes advance fo far out
at the pudendum before the child comes out, that
they hang the length of more than four fingers
breadth, rtfembling a bladder full of water ; there
is then no very great danger to break them, if they
be not broken already j for the child is always at

of Arts aiid Sgienxes.

the paftage ready to come out when that happens.
One muft take care not to draw thofe membranes
wi'h the hand, becaufe thereby the a.-fer binh, to
which thofe membranes arc very adherent, would
be leparated from the matrice before its time. Some-
time^ alfo, the waters arc infenfibly evacuated thro'
a laceration made inwardly to the membranes of
the child, which remaining whole at the fore part
of its head, to which they icrve as a forehead cloth,
and line it immediately, hinder it from being
forced out by the pains ; in that cafe the mem-
branes muft be broke, provided the paffage be fuf-
ficiently dilated, that the head of the child may be
at liberty to advance into it.

If the navel-itring falls out of the matrice, it muft
be immediately puftied back into it, hindering it, if
poiTible, from falling out again, otherwife the wo-
man muft be delivered as foon as poifible : but if the
after birth falls out, it mult never be puihed back
into the matrice, becaufe, when once out of it, it
is of no ufe to the child ; on the contrary, it would
be an obftacle to its birth, if it was puftied back;
in that cafe it muit be cut off" after the navel-ftring
has been tied, and the child taken out as foon as
poffible ; for if the child was left in the matrice it
would be foonfuffocated, il it was not dcaj already,
as it almoft aiways happens, when the after-birth,
or even the navel-ftring comes out firft

When the difficulty proceeds only from the part
of the child who is dead, one muft obferve the
fame method as in the natural delivery; befides
which the woman muft make all the efforts fhe can
to force it out, tor a dead child cannot help it-
felf, no more than when it is extremely weak ;
taking at the fame time fome comfortati\ c's, left
the putrid vapours which exhale from ade: 'i . hild,
fhould caufc her fome fyncops. But if the ( vld be
fo hydropfical in its belly or head, that it can ne-
ver come out becaufe of the great diftcniion and
bulk of theie parts ; then the membraiirs mutt be
broke to evacuate the waters ; and if it be of a
monftrous bignefs in its whole body, or head only,
or there be two heads, or it be joined to another
child ; in thofe cai'es (to fave the mother) one muft
cither dilate the pafiage, in proportion to the big-
nefs of the monttrous child (if fuch a thing be pof-
fible) or extract it with the inftruments, if one
be indifpenfably obliged to it, to hinder the mo-
ther from perilhing with her child.

Inftruments fhould never be ufed but in cafe of
an extreme danger ; and when all other means
have proved inefteclual, or are judged entirely
needlefs.

7 he obfervations a man-midwife is obliged to
make before he undertakes to deliver a woman, are
firit, to take caie that the woman has Itrength

enough

M I D rv I F R r.

enough to undergo the operation ; which he will
difcover, if by feehng her pulfe, he finds it flrorig
or weak, unequal and inlermittent ; examining
befides her face, and particularly if her eyes be
heavy and funk, and her fpeech weak ; if the ma-
trice, and all the lower part of her belly be ex-
tremely high and inflamed, if all tlie extremities of
her body be cold, if (he has frequent fincops at-
tended with cold fweats,if (he falls into convulfions
with lofs of knowledge ; and laflly, if all her
countenance indicates that the operation would be
needlefs, and is not to be undertook without the
imminent danger of tlie woman dying in the man-
midwife's hand.

When a woman has all her (trength, the man-
midwife confcious that die is capable to undergo
the operation, he mult place her on her back acrofs
the bed, that he may work with more cafe, her
buttocks a little higiier than her fhoulders, or at
leaft her body equally fituated, when it is r.ecef-
lary to turn the child to make it take another
(Ituation.

But when the child is to be extraclHed, the wo-
man muft be placed in the fituation mentioned,
when I have fpoke of the natural delivery, fo as to
have her head and breaft a little higher than the
refl of her body, to eafe her rcfpiration, and that
(he may a£l her part in the expulfion of the child,
by (draining and forcing downwards, when the
midwife bids her. Thus fituated, (he muft have her
legs folded in fuch a manner that her heels be pret-
ty near her buttocks, and her thighs feparated from
one another, and kept in that pofture by two pretty
(Irong perfons ; another holding her under the arms
left her body (hould follow in the extradion of the
child, which is moft commonly attended with a
great effort on the part of the man-midwife, who
(hould make all the deliveries againft nature, fet-
ting on a chair of a height proportioned to the
fituation of the woman, the outward entrance of
whofe matrice muit anfvver to very near the height
of the man-midwife's elbow while fetting, that he
may operate with a greater fecurity and facility,
without fatiguing himfelf to excefs ; for when he
has once fatigued himfelf in operating, he cannot
work afterward J with the famedexteritv, nor fo quick.
Thus done, he muft anoint the whole matrice
with oil or pomatum, that he may eahly introduce
his hand into it, which muft be anointed likewife,
and have the other conditions above-fpecified.

In all the deliveries againji natxvc, which proceed
only from the bad lituation of the child, without
being accompanied with any other conlidcrable ac-
cide!it, one muft wait to extradt the child, till the
matrice be paffably open, and its inward orifice
Uifficiently prepared ap.d fottncd, particularly if it
Vo L. II. 42-

ZZl

be a (irft child. Therefore when it is perceived
that the child picfents I'tfelf in a bad iituation at the
beginning of the labour, the mcnibianc-s which
contain the waters muft not be broken, but at the
time the paflaecs are found difpofed to permit the
extraftion of the child without much violence ; and
if the waters are evacuated before the matrice can
be ftuEciently open, one (hould ■notwithftanding
wait a little the preparation of the paftages, if there
be any appearance of it, without however (ufFcring
the parts to grow dry by the entire evacuation of
the waters. For though the child be in a bad fitua-
tion, it is notwithftanding fufficiently vivified by
the navel-ftring while it remains in the matrice,
and is not yet much engaged in the ))afnigc in its
bad fituation ; and the mother on her iidc is no
otherwife incommoded thereby, than by the tci'i-
oufnefs of her labour. If a man-midwife (liould
adt otherwife, the child would be in a much greater
danger to perilh in the pafllige at the time of the
operation, becaufe of the narrownefs of the fpace,
which would detain it longer, the operation itfclf
be attended with much more difticultv, and the
mother treated with more violence.
• If by the motion of the child, a man-midwife
cannot be fure that it is alive, when the waters arc
broke, he muft Aide as foon as poflible iiis hand
gently into the matrice, v\'hcrc he'll feel the pulfu-
tion of the umbilical arteries, which will be much
ftronger if he touches it very near the belly of the
child i or having found one of the child's hands,
he'll feel the artery of the wrift, but it has not then
fofenfible a motion as that of the umbilical arteries;
if then he feels the pulfation of thofe arteries, he
may be fure that the child is alive; as likewife, if
having put the extremity ofhis finger into its mouth,
he feels the tongue ftir.

But on the contrary, the child is dead, if it has
not ftirred for a coiihdcrable time ; if the matrice
voids fetid and cadaverous humidities ; if the wo-
man feels exce/Bve pains", and a great weight in her
belly ; if the child falls like a hmip always on the
fide die lays ; if (he has fvncops, and frequent con-
vulfions ; if it is long fince the navel-firing, or
afterbirth is come out; if introducing the hand
into the matiice the child is felt cold, his umbilJck
without pulfation, and its tongue immoveable ;
and if feeling its head, it is found foft, and the
bones vacillent ; the brain being without pulfation
when the child is dead.

But we can only draw conie.5lures of the death of
the child, if the woman has been wounded, if (he
has a great floo-Jing, if (lie is not at term ; if there
be four or five days fince her waf-ers are broken ;
if fhe has a leaden colour, her eyes much funk ;
and a dejected look: if her breath be very bad, her
X X brcalts

Tfiz Unlverfai Hlftory of Arts ^«^ Sciences.

and the bimicfs of the bottom ot her

334-

breaiis flabby

belly has been diminifliing for feme time, without

the evacuation of the waters.

Molt of the figns above-mentioned, as well the
moft furc, as thofe by conje£lures, mud meet to-
gether to certify that a child is dead, for fcveral of
them are equivocal, when they are alone.

Hoiv to help a woman when the child prefents one or
two feet foreinoji.

If a child prefents one or two feet foremoft, place
the woman in the pofture heretofore defcribcd tor
preternr.tural deliveries, and draw it out in that
poihire, in the manner I am going to defcribe,
taking care that both feet belong to one child.

So foon as the man-midwife has found the two
feet of the child, he muft bring them out; then
taking them with both his hands, above the ankles,
and holding them near one another, he'll draw
them equally in that manner, till the thighs and
hips of the child be extradted, laying hold fome-
timcs, likevvife, of the thighs above the knees, fo
foon as there will be room to do it, taking care to
envelope thofe parts with a piece of dry cloth, left
his hands which arc greafy, fhould flip on the body
of the child, very flippery of itfelf. Which done,
holding always the child by its two feet, and above
the knees, he'll draw it thus, till the top of the
breaft ; after which, he'll pull down, on each fide,
the two arms of the child along its body ; obfcrving
to take them rather by the hands towards the wrift,
than by any other place, and to difengage them
gently, from the paffage one after another, with-
out forcing them too much, for fear of breaking
them ; and taking care, then, that the belly and
face be diredly downwards ; to avoid the head be-
in'^ flopped at the chin by the oi pubis ; therefore
if it was not in that fituation, it fhould be turned;
which may be eafily done, if when one begins to
draw the child by the feet, they be inclin'd, in
turning them by degrees, in proportion as the cx-
traiiion is made, tiU its heels regard directly the
belly of the woman ; and if they were not quite in
that fituation, when the child has been drawn as
far as to the top of the thighs, before it be drawn
further out, the man-midwife muft: introduce one
of his bands, as flat as poffible, fo far as to the
' pubis of the child, and with his other hand hold
the two feet, to turn, at the fame time, its body
en that fide it is the moft difpofed to receive a good
fituation, till it has its breaft and face downward;
and having thus brought it up as far as towards the
top of the Ihoulders, he muft take great care to take
his time (bidding the woman to make fome effort
at that very inftant) that its head may take the
place of the feet at the fame moment they have

quided it, whereby it will not be (lopped at the.
padagc.

When the head of the child fcparates from its
body, and remains alone in the matrice, either by
reufon of putrefaction, or for another caufe ; the
man-midwife muft immediately, without delay,
and before the matrice clofes itfelf, introduce his
right-hand into it, and fearch the mouth of the
head (which is the only hold remaining then) and
having found it, thruft one or two fingers into it,
and his thumb under its chin, after which he'll
draw it foftly, holding it thus by the inferior jaw-
bone. But if that bone was to part from the head,
in the efixjrts made to extra£l it, as it happens often
when there is putrefa£lion ; in that cafe he muft
take his right-hand out of the matrice, to Aide the
left into it, with which he'il fupport that head,
and with the right take a narrow, but very ftrong
hook, and with a ftngle- branch, which he'll Aide
along the infide of his other hand, turning the point
towards it, for fear of wounding the matrice; and.
thus introduced (hall turn it towards the head, to
run it into the orbit of the eye, or into the holes of
the ears, or into that of the occiput, or between?
the futures, according as he'll find it moft pradli-
cablc, endeavouring always to lay hold o.^the place
he'll fix it to, as faft as poffible, after which draw-
ing that head thus faften'd to the hook, and help-
ing with the left- hand to guide it, he muft make the
entire extraflion thereof; taking care, when brought
near the pafiage, to draw his hand out of the ma-
trice, le(t the pafTage fhould be ftreighten'd there-
with, leaving only fome fingers towards the fide of
the head, to difengage it with more facility, artd
to hinder the matricefrom being wounded by the
hook, in cafe it fhould chance to lofe its hold.

In a cafe of ncceffity, and for want of a hook,.
take a piece of fcft tape, three fingers broad, and
two yards long, or thereabout, folded in twQ, and
laying hold of both ends with the left-hand, intro-
duce with the right the middle thereof into the
matrice, fo that it may be pl.iced on the hind part
of the head, as a ftone in ailing ; and then draw-
ing the tape by the two ends joined together, make
the extradion of the head, without the leaft fear
that the tape fnould ftop the pafi'age, fince it
takes but very little room. — And, I am of opinion,
that this is the fafeft manner of making that ex-
traflion, and have always preferred it to a hook,
with very great fucceis.

If notwithftandingall thefe difrerent manners the
man- mid wife cannot extract the head, becaufe it is
too large, he muft diminifli the bignefs thereof
with a bowed knife ; introducing firft bis left hand
into the matrice, and with the right Aiding hke-
wife that knife into it, taking great care in doing

it.

M I D TV I F R 7\

It, that ihc point of the knife be turn'd towards
the infide of liis left-hand, for fear of wounding the
matiicc ; which done, he'll turn it again towards
the liiturcs of the head, and particularly towards
the place of their junction, where he'll make an in-
cifion with that inflrumcnt; whereby having fepa-
rated fome pieces thereof, he may with a greater
facility draw the reft ; or at leaft having emptied
part of the brain through the aperture he had made,
the hignefs of the head being thereby much dimi-
nifhed, the extraftion may be lefs penible.

If the after-birth be quite feparated from the ma-
trice, it muft be extradied firft, otherwife it would
be an obftacle to the extradlion of the head : but if
it be yet adherent to the matrice it muft be left in
it, till after the extradion of the head ; for if the
man-midwife was to feparatc it then from the m;;-
trice, there would enfue a very great flooding,
which would be increafed by the agitation of the
operation ; for the veffels to which it is joined re-
main commonly open, while the matrice remains
in the diftcnfion caufed by the head retained in it,
and do not clofe till after it has been delivered of
that foreign body ; befidcs which, the after-birth
remaining thus faflned during the operation, hin-
ders the matrice from being eafily contuled and
wounded.

How to ajjiji a woman ivhofe child prefents itfelf by
• the fide of the head ; and likewifi when it pre-
. fents itfe/f with, the face foremoft.

As foon as it is found that the child prefents
itfelf in that baipofture, the woman muft be bid
to lie down, for fear it would be very diificult to
pufli in the child (us it muft be done, to make it
take a natural fituation) if it was advanced further
into the pafTage.

To perform this operation, the woman muft be
put in a commodious fituation, making her to lean
a little on the fide oppofite to the bad one of the
child J then the man-midwife fhall Aide his hand,
well anointed with oil, on the fide of the head of
the child, to fet it right ; bringing it, gently, with
his fingers, placed between itand the matrice, to
a right fituation ; but if the head was fo much en
gaged, that the thing could not be efl^eded in that
manner, he murt Aide his hand as far as the ftioul-
ders of the child, that pufliing them back a little
into the matrice, he may put him m a natural and
convenient fituation.

But if the head cannot be reduced, hecaufe of
the bad fituation of the bodv of the child, which
hinders its being fet right ; then one muft have re
courfe to the laft remedy to fave the child's life,
which IS to turn it entirely, hy going to fetch the
'feet, to draw it by theui in that lame luoiuenx.

335

At other times the child prefents ttfd/with lis face
fat-aiioj}, having its head bent backwards, in which
pofture it is very difficult to bring it into the world;
and if it remains long in it, becomes fo livid and
puffed up, that he appears monftrous.

A man-midwife muft proceed in this de'ivery iii
the manner prefcribed, when the child prefents its
head fideways, which muft be fet right v/ith the
hands, ohfcrving always to do it as' gently aspoffible,
for fear of hurting the fact- of the child.

The method of delivering a woman, vjhen the body
of the child is ftopped at the pafiage by the fiioul-
ders, after the head is come out.

If the ftioulders don't pafs after the head has been

pulled in a proper manner, the man-midv, ife muft
flinc one of two fingers of each hand under each
.arra-pit, with which, bending them inwards, the
ftioulders will be drawn by degrees ; but when they
have entered the pafli'.ge, and are eiitirelv diien^'
gaged from it, if he cannot have the child yet,
holding it thus under the arm-pits, then it is fure
that it is ftopped by fome other impediment, and is
certainly monHrous in fome part of its body ; or»
as it happens often on that occafion, it is hydrop-
fical in the abdomen, which hinders it from being
extrafted from the matrice, hy rcafon of the emi-
nence and bignefs of its belly, without a punctioii
to procure the evacuation of the water ; which i's
done by introducing the left-hand into the matrice,
as far as to the place where the bellv is, and then
running along the infide of the fame hand with the
right, a hook, or a bov/ed knife, the point thereof
turned towards the belly of the child, that point
muft be thruft into it at once ; and when it is extraft-
ed from the hole it has made, two fingers muft be
introduced into it to dilate it., whereby all the wa-
ters are evacuated in an inftant; after which the
reft of the body of the child ftopped in the matrice,
isextraded without diiiiculty.

The manner of '(! fifing a woman in a laiKtir where
the child prefents one or both hands together
with the head.

To give her affifiance, if a midv/ife, or man-
midwife, finds that one of the hands prefents it-
felf thus, together with the head of the child, he
muft not be fuffcred to advance further, and to en-
gage itfelf more in the paffage in that fituation ;
therefore having made the woman to lay down, io
as to have her buttocks a little rifen, he inuft pufti
back with his hand, as far as poflible, that of t^e
child, or both, if they both prtfent themfelves,
giving room by that means to the head of the child-
to advance forwards alone; which done, if the
head was fideways, he nmil reduce it to the natural
X X a fitvjjition,

Tl:e Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

from the hands, bccaufe they are fo c!ofe togethe?,
that they fcem ahnofi all of the faane figure. But
fo foon as the raatricc will be dilated enouj^h for to
introduce' the hand into it, he'll difiinguifh eafily
which arc the hands, and which the feet ; and then
he'll Aide it as far r.s towards the head of the child,
which he 11 find pretty near, hc'«l pufh it back gent-
ly, together with the hands towards the bottom of
tlic matrice, leaving the feet in the fame place where
he has found them ; then placing the woman in a
commodious fituation, /. e. her buttocks a little
rifmg, he'll take the child by both feet, and draw
,, „ .. , , ., , jr r u u I it in the manner heretofore defcribed,. wheal treatr

the breaft and Ully ot the ch>ld, and fo far that he , ^^ ^^ extraaii^s a child by the feet.

may reach the feet, which he 11 draw gently to him- = '

fjtuation. /. e. place it in the middle of the pailage,
to make it come out in a ftrait line.
How to affijl a woman in labour, when the child
prcfi-nts one or both hands alone.

This is one of the word and the mofl dangerous
pofturcs it can prefent himfclf in, either for itt'clf,
or for the mother.

Therefore the woman having been placed in a
pro|)er fituatibn, the hands or arms oi the child which
prefent themfclvcs at the pafiage, mud be quick-
ly pufhed back into ths matrice, the man midwife
flidino- afterwards his hand into the matrice, under

feif to turn it, and extract it by them ; taking care
to do it with as little violence as he can ; without
amufing himfclf to give the child a natural fituation;
which it would be very difficult to do, becaufe he
ha. his whole body crofs-wife, when he prefcnts
thus an arm alone, as far as the elbow or flioulder;
obferving when he thus introduces his hand into
the matrice, that he muft Hide itinllde of the mem-
branes of the child, and not between the membr.ines
and the matrice ; for thofe membranes, which line
the whole infide of the matrice, facilitate by their
polirticd Hippery fubftance, the turning <_( the child,
and hinder, by their interpofition, the matrice from
being hurt by the hand of the man- midwife in
the operation.

As foon as the man- midwife has thus turned the
child by the feet, if he was to lay hold hut of one,
he mult fearchthe other to bring it along with the
firft ; that holding both, he mult govern himfelf in
the extraftion of the child, in the manner defcribed
for the delivery where the child prefcnts his feet
foremoft.

But if the arm was fo far advanced, (o big and
fo tumefied, that he could not be put kick without
much difficulty, Amh;o[e Pare advifes, if the child
is dead, to cut the arm, as far as pofliblc ; though
it is far better, and fafer to wring it ofF, becaufe its
being very tender, it will be eafily feparated from
the body, at the articulation of the humerus with
the Ihoulder-bone. But when a child is to be mu-
tilated thus, or extrafted with a hook, the man-
jmiJwife muft be very fure that it is dead.
'How to deliver a "woman when the child prefent s its
feet and hands.
If the child prefents its hands and feet together,
it is abfolutely impoflible itfliould come out in that
fttuation ; therefore the man-midwife carrying his
hand towards the orifice of the matrice, will feel
nothing but a quantity of fingers near one another;
and if the matrice be not well open yet, he will
not be fo foon able to diftinguifli precifely the feet

Hoiv to deliver a luoman zihen the child prefenfs
its knees.

Having difcovered that it is the knees the child
prefents, don't fuffcr it to advance further; but
having placed the woman in aco.nvenient fituation,
pufh the knees of the child gently back into the
matrice, to be more at liberty to unfold its legs one
after another ; which to efFeft, put one or two fin-
gers under the ham, and guiding it Howly along the
hind part of the kg, which draw always a little
obliquely, till you have found the foot, that having
difengaged one of them, do the fame to the other,
proceeding in the fame manner, as done to the firft,
after which having drawn- them both out, make
the extraifion of the child, as if it was to come
the feet forcmofi: ; obferving always to extraiSl it
the face downwards.

Of a dcUiiery. where the child prefents the Jhoulde;^,
baik, er buttock.

To perform the opxeration, where the fhoulder
prefents itiblf firft, the man-midwife mud pufh,
with his hand, the fhoulder a little back into the
matrice, that he may with greater facility in-
troduce his hand- into it; and Aiding it after-
wards along the body of the child , on the fide he'll
find the thing more eafy, he'll fcarch the feet, to
turn the child entirely in bringing them to the paf-
fige ; after which he'll extratt it, as it is done
when the chiid prefeiits the feet foremoft.

If the child' prefents its back foremoft, the man-
midwife muft Aide hi-s hand along the back towards
its lower part till he has found the feet of the child,
extraiSling it afterwards, as when it prefents its
feet.

But when the child comes the buttock foremoft :-
if it be fmall or of a middle fize, and the mother
tall, having the pafTage pretty large, it can very
well come out in that pofture, with a little help;
for though it has then its body bent, the tliighs
being folded towards the belly, which is foftifli,

force

M I D Tr I F R r.

2Z7

force their p:ifrage over-ap'^^infl: it, without much
difficulty. Which, notwithilandinjr, as foon as the
man midwife has difcovei'd that the buttock of
the child piefcnts itfelf foremoflr, he rnuft next
pufli back the buttock, if he can do it without
violence ; and Aiding afterwards his hand along
the thighs, as far as the legs and feet of the
child, he mull bring them gently, one after ano-
ther, out of tiie matrice, unfolding, extending and
turning them towards the nioft eafy fide ; taking
great care to do it, without any contorfion or
diflocation ; and extracting the reft of the body^
as if the child was to come with its feet foremofl.

The child is fometimcs fo far advanced into the
palTagc.with its buttock foremoft, that it is abfo-
lutely impoflible to pufh it back, and therefore
muft necefl'arily come into the world in that bad
fituation ; but to help the child to it, the man-
midwife muft Hide one or two fingers of each hand
on the fide of the buttocks, to introduce them
towards the groin, as foon as he'll be capable to
do it without violence, and having bent them in-
wards, he miift drav/ the backfide out as far as the
thighs; then drawing them a little obliquely on
one fide and the other, he'll difengage them from
the paflage, as likewife the legs and feet one after
another, without frafture or diflocation, ending
afterwards the extraction of the reft of the body,
as if it was to come the feet foremoft.

A man-midwife muft take particular care, when
he extracts a child, who prefents the backfide fore-
moft, to bring it gut with its face downwards ; for
commonly when it comes out the backfide fore-
moft, it has the face and feet towards the belly of
the mother: and if it was drawn in that maimer,
in a direcl: line, without turning it by degrees, in
proportion as the extradtion goes forwards, the
face being thus upward, the chin of the child
"vjoulj be faft«i'd underneath the os pubis, and the
head ftoppcd air the paffage, where it would foon
perifii.

Of a cUivcij, where the child prefciiii the hcUy^ the
breajl, or the fide.

To prevent all the dangerous confequcnccs fo
utifafe a labour could be attended with ; the ope-
rator, after he has placed th.e woman in a conve-
nient fituation, muft run gently ^^his hand well
anointed with oil or pomatum, towards the middle
of the breaft of the'child, to turn it quite, (bccaufe
in that fituation it is half turned) then Aide his
hand under the belly, till he has found the feet of
the child, which he muft bring to the palFage, to
draw it out in the fame manner, as if it had pre-
fented its feet foremoft.

When the child prefents the breaft, or the bel'y/

foremoft, the man-midv/ife muft proceed in the
fame manner, in both occafions.

The child can alfo prefent itfelf fideways ; which
is not fo dangerous a fituation as the two others,
bccaufe it does not die {ii foon. To deliver a
vvoman when the child prefents itielf in that
fituation ; the woman being placed in a con^-
vcnient pofture, the operator muft pufh a little
back the body of the child, that he may introduce
his hand with more facility into the matrice,
which he fhall flide along the thighs till he has
found the legs and feet, by which he'll turn it, and
extract it afterwards.

Of n labour tvhere there are fcveral childreriy %vh}
prefent therrf elves in the different pofurcs hereto-
Jore mentioned.

When two children prefent themfelves both in
a bad fituation ; or when but only one of them
prefents itfelf in a bad fituation, as it moft com-
monly happens, the firft coming head foremoft,
and the fccond the feet foremoft, or in fome other
fHU worfe pofture, the operator mult, as foon as.
poftible, procure the birth of the firft, that imme-
diately after, he may go fearch the fecynd, to draw
it by the feet, without attempting to give it a
natural fituation, was he even difpofed to it, bc-
caufe the child has been fo much fatigued and.
debilitated, and likewife the mother, during the
coming out of the firft, that it would he often in-
danger of dying before it could come out.

Sometimes, likewife, after the firft. is^come out
naturally, the fecond prel'ents itfelf the head fore^
moft. in that cafe, nature muft be left to accom-
plifh the reft, providing flie be not too Ion? about
it ; for the child might chance to die, though ip
a natural fituation, through the ledioufnefs of the
labour: and the woman vv'ho has been, much tor-
mented to bring the firft child into the world, 'iS
commonly fo fatigueS, and.fo much difcouraged,
when (he knows, that after, fhc has fuiTer'd fo
much, fhe has done yet hut half her v/ork, lofes
courage, and is befides fo much weaken'd and
debilitated, that fhe has no more pains, or bat
very i'mall ones. Therefore, when the man-mid-
wife fees that the labour Is too long,, he muft in-
troduce his hand into the matrice, to fearch the
feet of the child, to bring it out that way ; and if
the waters were not broke yet, he muft rnake no
difficulty to lacerate the membranes wich his fin-
gers ; and it is even better to do it foon after tlxe
firft is come out, who having then mr.de the pafl'ags,
the coming out of the fsccnJ is thereby accelerated.

So foon as the operator fnall have broua;ht the
firft child into the world, he muft feparate.it/rbm
the after- birth 3, by tying and cutting the liavef-

ftiing.

338

ftriiig, taking

bring it oat in the fame manner : after whicii he'Jl
draw the after-birth to extract it with the help of
its two navcl-flrings.

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

afterwards the feet of the o\.\\cr to\ Of a delivery vjhere the afur-birth prefents itftif

ftrcmoj}^ or h entirelj cotiie out before the child.

When the after-birth prefents itfelffirft at the
paflage, nothing is felt but a foft body, without
any folid part; and the blood flows in abundance
from the matrice with fei-eral cluo's, the woman
fainting away often. — In that deplorable cafe,
the operator muft make hafte to deliver the wo-
man, if he will fave her life, and that of her child,
if it be yet alive. If the operator was to find that
the after-birth is almoft quite out of the matrice,
and the membranes thereof entirely broken, or
lacerated, he muft extraft it quite.

Of the delivery where the navel-flnng comes forcmofl.
■i Every time the navel-firing comes out firft^ the
child does not always prefent the belly ; for though
it comes out naturally, as to the figure of the body,
/. e. the head forcmoft, the navel-firing notwith-
ftanding falls fomctimes, and comes out firfl: ; and
then the child is in a great danger of his life, un-
lefs the woman be quickly delivered.

To remedy that accident, and prevent, if pof-
fible, the fatal confequences it is attended with,
the patient mufl be kept in her bed very warm,
cind the navel-firing immediately put back into
the matrice to hinder it from cooling, endeavour-
ing to thruft it quite behind the head of the child,
if the head prefents itfelf foremoft, left it fliould be
preiled and contufed by it, and the motion of the
blood intercepted ; keeping it faft, by means of
the ends of the fingers of one hand, in the place
whereinto it has been pufhed, keeping always
thole fingers on the fide it comes out at, till the
head be entirely come down and lodged at the
pafTage, can hinder it from falling another time,
taking the cccafion of a good pain, to bring it to
it with more facility ; or if the operator" draws
out his hand, he muft thruft a fmall piece of very
foft linen between the fide of the head and the
matrice, to flop the place through u'hirh the ftring
could fall, obferving to let one end of that lincii
hang out, that it may be extraded when it is
judged proper ; putting likewife a comprefs dipped
in hot wine, before the entrance of the matrice,
to hinder the navel-ftring from cooling, in cafe it
was to fall again.

But, notwithftanding all thofe precautions, it
happens rometimes,_^ that the navel-ftring falls at
every pain, which the woman takes : in which
cafe the operation ought not to be deferred, but
the child muft be extrafted as foon as poffible by
the feet, which the man-midwife muft go to fearch,
■was even the head to prefent itfelffirft, fince there
is but that fole remedy, which can fave its life.

Therefore having placed the woman in a com-
modious fituation, he muft pufti back eiently the
.head of the child, which prefents itfelffirft, if it be
not too far advanced between the bones of the
pafTage, and he can do it without tormenting the
woman too much ; in which cafe it is beft to leave
the child in danger of its life than to expofe that
of the mother. Afterwards he"ll ilide his hand
(we 1 anointed with oil or pomatum) under the
breaft and belly of the child to fearch its feet, by
which he'll draw it out.

Of a delivery accompanied with a great lofs of bloedt
or, zvith convulfions.

Aquick delivery is the moft falutary remedy in that
dangerous cafe, and the man-midwife muft procure
it as foon as pofTibb ; which fliould be done in
the foUowins manner.

If the child be fuppofed alive, though it prefents
itfelf in a natural pofture, the operator muft turn
it entirely in the matrice, to draw it out by the
feet, after having broke the membranes of the wa-
ters, if they were not broke already.

If on the contrary the child is known to be
dead, and its head is too ftrongly engaged in the
paftage, the operator muft make no difficulty to
draw it w ith the hook.

To avoid and prevent fo dangerous an accident,
thofe fort of women muft be let blood twice or
three times during their pregnajjcy, and likewife
at the beginning of their labour, in order to di-
minifli the quantity of blood of which their velfels
are too full, and which is the caufe in part of
the convulfions, by flowing to the head, by reafon
of the extenfive pains a labour is attended with.

Hoiv to de.'lver a ivoman when the child is hydrop-
fcal, or monflrous.
If the hydropfical child be alive at the time of
the delivery, its life cannot be faved ; for to fave
that of the mother, its head muft be pierced, or
its breaft, or its belly, i. e. that part v.here the
water is contained, to procure the evacuation
thereof, without which it could not be extrafled,
and remaining in the matrice, would kill its mo-
ther: therefore to fave her life, it is abfolutely
necefl~ary to extrad the child by art, which is done
in the following manner.

Of the extraSlion of a dead child.

Before the man-midwife undertakes the opera-
tion, he muft endeavour to excite fome labour
pains, by means of ftrong glyfters, to facilitate
the e.\pulfion of the child, if it.be iji a good fitua-
tion ■

MIDJVIFRT.

don ; but if thofe remedies have no cfFe>5l, he
mu't proceed to the extraction of the child; which
is. the (ureft means -, for all the other remedies
taken inwa:dly, and prei'cribcJ by fomc phyficians,
to facilitate the expulfion of a dead child out of
the matrice, being commonly very hot, and pur-
gatives, can caufc afterwards very dangerous ac-
cidents, as a fever, loofenefs, dyfentery, lofs of
blood, relaxations, and bearing down of the ma-
trice.

The extraiSlion of a dead child is made, by
pufliing back the head of the child (if it comes
foremoit, and is not too much engaged in the
paffiige) into the matrice,, that the operator n«ay
have the liberty to introduce his right hand into
it, Aiding it under the belly of the child, to fearch
its feet, in order to turn and draw it in the manner
abovemention'd : taking great care that the head
fhould not be flopped, nor feparated from the body
at the paffage.

But if the head of the child was fo much en-
gaged in the paffage, that it could not be puflied
back, then the operator, if he be very fute that it
is dead, fhall extract it in that pofture, by means
of a hook, which he muft pufh as far as pofTible,
without violence, between the matiice and the
head of the child, guiding it along the infide of
one of its hands, its point turned towards the
head, which he'll hook in, by fixing it, if polTible,
on the fkull ; in iuch a manner, that it may not
flip, or part from its hold. This hook being thus
well faften'd to the head, he muft draw it out,
placing the extremity of the fingers of his left hand
on the fide oppcfite to the hook, to help to difcn-
gas;e it better, in Ihaking it a little by degrees,
and to guide it more directly out of the pailage ;
ufing then, if it be neceflkry, a fccond hook, in
the fame manner as the firit, and placing it on
the oppoflte fide of the head, that the extraction
be made equally on both fides

But the extraiStion of a dead child is made with
a {till greater facility, by means of an inflrument
of the invention of the famous M. Mauriaau,
which. he calls a-head fcrew.

But if the dead child was to prefent an arm as
far as the flioulder, and fo much i'wclled and tu-
mefied, that it could not be puflied back into the
matrice, without hurting much the woman, it
mwit be feparated from the body, by twifl'.ng it
three or four times, as already defcribed ; whereby
occupying no longer the pailage, the operator
will have more room to introdocs his hand into
the matrice, to fetch the feet of the child, tocx-
trafl: it by them ;. obferving always, when he has
rhade the extraction of a dead child, to re-aiicm-
blc into one all the parts he has ieparaled, to fee

339

if he can compofe a whole body of them, and dif-
cover thereby if nothing remains in the matrice.

So foon as the woman has been delivered of her
after-birth, the midwife muft take great care that
its feparation be not followed by a too great lofs
of blood; and place before the entrance of the
matrice a pretty foft cloth, folded into five or fix
doubles, left the cold air penetrating into it, fhould
Itop the evacuation of the lochia, by a too fudden
obflruftion of the vefiels ; the fupprtffion whereof
would be unavoidably attended with very dan-
gerous accidents, as exceffive pains, and gripings
m the belly, inflammation of the matrice, a feveT,
pleurily, and feveral others, and perhaps death
itfelf. ^

The entrance of the matrice being thus well
(topped, if the woman has not been dcliver'd in
her bed, fhe muft be immediately carried into it, .
unlefs there was a flooding, as it happens fome-
times, for then Ihe fhould be left above a quarter
of an hour, in the place where fne has been dc-
liver'd, left by moving her fo (oon, the lofs of blood
fliould increafe : which, on the contrary, is mode-
rated, by the air, which introduces itielf into the-,
matrice ; while other remedies are adminifter'd to.
the fame purpofe. But if there be no fiar oi that-
accident, the woman mufl ba carried to her bed, ,
by one or two perfbns, ratlier than be fufrer'd to'
walk to it; though if there was fome part of the-
after-birth left behind, that walking, (provided it
was not too far) would contribute to^the expulfion
thereof. The bed having Ijeen made, as requifite
in thofe occafions, and well warmed before flie is •
put to it: where flie muff be pljted in a fituaiion
with her head and body a little rifing, as well to
facilitate her relpiration, as to procure the evacua-
tion of the blood, which flows then, and which.
being intercepted, would caufe violent pains to
the poor patient.

The mofl common ciiftom, is to gi\eto the
woman, foon after fire is in bed, a Tpconful of
fpcrma ceti. Others give her only fome good,
broth, which they think better. Then tl:e patieat:
is left to take fome reft.

. Ifthewo.man is not to fuckle her child, there
muft be remedies applied on her breafts, to difii-
pate the nilk ; but if fhe defigns to do it, her
breafls ihould be only kept clo'c, and cover d wish
foft and warm cloths fer fear the milk .{houiu.
grow knotted ; and if it flows into ic with too •
much impetuofity, embrociitions are to be made
onthi-m, with oil and a little vinegar mixed toge-
ther, dipping in it .fome cloths to apply on them ;
obferving, if the woman will fuckle her child, that
(he fhould not give it the breaft but three, cr even;

five days after llie is ddiver'd, /. e, till the hu-

mours.

340 The Univerfal Hiftory

mours, which have been in a great ferment, and
flow in great abundance to the breads, in the firft
days, be much abated.

As to the regimen a lying-in tvoman rs to obfcrve,
luhsn no accidents happen.- — She muft be treated in
the firft days, with regard to her diet, as if fhe
had a fever • therefore fhe iliould be Fed, particu-
larly during the three or four firft days, with chick-
en broth, jellies, and the like; and likewife fome
boiled and even roaftcd chickens, provided it be
in a moderate quantity. — As for her drink, flie
nay be fuffer'd, if (he has no fever, to drink fome
whire wine, mixed with wJirm water, for (he is
not to drink any thing cold.

The lofs of blood is an accident more dangerous
than all the othcr.^, which can happen to a woman
iiswly dclivcr'd, and fijmetimes caufes her death,
before one has time to remedy it : therefore proper
remedies muft be adminiftcr'd to the patient, as
foon as pofiiblc, examining what can be the caufe
of fuch a flooding ; for if it be a falfe conception,
or a portion of the after-birth, or fome clods of
blood left behind in the matrice, they muft be im-
mediately extracSled, or the expulfion thereof pro-
cured by fome fpecifick remedy ; fuch as a few
drops df the oil of guaiacum in plantain-water.
But if the blood flows immoderately, though there
be nothing left behind iti the matrice, the woman
muft be let blood in the arm, if her ftrength will
permit Her belly muft not be kept tight at
all, efpecially if fhe feels pains in it; neither is (he
to be much cover'd in her bed ; and care {hould
be taken, that the air of her chamber be a little
cooled ; warming, likewife, the region of the
heart with hot cloths, aromatized with Hiun-
gary water, or fome other proper liquor. She muft
t-ike every half hour, a 'it^n fpoonfuls of good
broth, or one or two of good old red wine.

The fall of the matrice, which hnppens imme-
diately after the delivery, can caufe the death of
the woman in a few hours, if it be not immediately
reduced into its proper place.

For the cureof this dangerous malady, a man-
midwife muft have regard to two things: — The
firft is to reduce the matrice in its proper place: —
And the fecond to keep it up and ftrengthen it.

To reduce the matrice, if it be entirely fallen,
the operator muft, previoufly to any thing elfe,
procure the evacuation o/ the urine, and' likewife
that of the coarfer excrements by means of a gen-
tle glyfter, that the reduction thereof may be per-
formed with more facility. Afterwards, the wo-
man muft be placed on her back, with her thighs
a little higher than her head : then all that comes
cut at the pudendum, muft be fomented with
warm wine or nulk ; and afterwards it muft be

of Arts ^W Sciences.

pudied back gently with a foft cloth, and if the
thing be very painful, by reafon that what is al-
ready come out is very big and tumefied, it muft
be anointed with oil of fweet almonds, to make
it Aide eafier ; obferving, after the reduction is
made, to wipe off that oil as clean as poflibic, to
prevent a recidive.

The beft means to keep the matrice in its na-
tural fituation, is to place a peffary in the vagina,
obferving notwithftanding that the bearing down
of the matrice, where the inward orifice does not
come out at the labia of the pudcndunt fo as to be
feen, wants no peffary.

When the matrice evacuates its lochia, the beft
remedy to ftrengthen it, is to keep it in its natural
fituation, by means of a peffary, abftaining in
thofe cafes from keeping her belly tight ; obferving
likewife to abftain from coition during the v/hole
time.

It happens alfo, fometimes, that by the violent
efforts the woman makes during her labour, the
anus is entirely pufhedout; in that cafe, if the
child be very far advanced in the paffage, the
midwife fhall content herfelf, before that accident
happens, to hinder it, if fhe can, by defiring the
woman not to make fuch violent efforts ; but if it
be entirely fallen, as foon as the woman is deliver-
ed, the reduiflion thereof muft be made in the fanie
manner of that of the matrice, by fomenting, ftew-
ing, and anointing the part, if it be neceffary.

As to the hitmorrhoides or piles, wherewith lying-
in women are troubled, they muft be anointed
morning and evening with an l^nguentum made
of populeum, and oyfter-ihells calcined ; which
I know to be a fpecifick remedy in that cafe.

As foon as the woman is delivered, if there be
but fimple contufions and fcratches, there muft be
applied on the lower parts to appeafe the pains, a
fmall cataplafm made with new-laid eggs, the yolk
and white mixed with oil of fweet almonds, done
on hot embers, or on a very flow fire, and ftirred till
the whole be pretty well mixed together ; then hav-
ing been fpread on very foft tow or linen, it muft
be applied over all the outfidc of the vulva, and
remain there during five or fix hours ; after which
it muft be taken off to apply on each labia, fmall
pieces of cloth dipped in oil of St.John's-wort, re-
newing them four or five times a-day^ and wafh-
ing tbofe parts with barley-water and honey, to
cleanfe them of the excrements, which flow •from
the matrice; and when the woman fhall want to
make water, they muft be covered with a piece of
cloth, to hinder the urine from hurting them. But
if thofe lacerations be very painful, the balfam of
Peru is, in my opiiiion, pieferable to any other
remedy.

■ It

M I D TV I F R r, 34.1

It happens fometimes, that all the inferior part | fiiftencd towards tliofe places, rcpofi; alone, and a
of the fleet is lacerated, by the child coming out, good fituation of the l;oJy, v\ill fufEce to flrengthen
as far as the anus, whereby both holes are made and confolidate them, without any other rcnK-dy.
~ " ■• ' ,.r , ... To procure or facilitate the tvacua.ion of the

into one. To rectify this great difordcr, which
Otherwife would be very troublefome to the wo-
man, and loathfome to the hufband, the re-union
of the parts thus lacerated muft be made immedi-
ately after the delivery, bv wafliing firll with
llrong red wine, made warm, all the place lace-
rated, and making to it afterwards, a pretty flrong
iuture, of one, or two, or more fcparated flitches,
according to the length of the feparation, and
taking at every ftitch a pretty deal of flefh, to
hinder it from parting. This done, the wound
muft be dreffed with the balfam of Peru, or that
of arceus, covering the whole with a cldth, to
prevent the urine from reaching to the part. And
that thofe parts may re-unite v/ith more facility,
the woman muft keep always her thighs joined
together, till the cure beperfefted.

All (orts o^ after-pains are to be remedied, ac-
cording to their different caufes. — Therefore to
prevent the after-pains, excited hy wtntl, the wo-
man muft takcj foon after fhe is delivered, either
half an ounce of oil of fweet almonds, a,nd an equal
quantity of fyrup of maiden hair, mixed together,
or fome fpermaceti,orfifty drops of oil ofannifeed,
with fome fyrup of marfh-mallows ; or fome good
broths.

Women of qualit)' in France, take moft com-
monly, after they are delivered, fome broth, made
of an old partridge, boiled together, pretending
that fuch broth has a particular virtue to appeafe
the after-pains ; others prefer boiled milk, in which
are ii)ixed two or three walnuts, pounded with
fome fugar ; ftraining the whole mixture, very hot,
through a cloth.

\i t\\z afier-pains proceed from a foreign body
being left in the matrice, the cxpulfion thereof
muft be procured, or it muft be extracted by intro-
ducing the fingers into its entrance, as I have faid,
in fpcaking of the extraftion of a falfe conception ;
or if it be great clods of blood, which being like-
wife ftopped in the matrice, caufe thofe pains, they
infallibly ceaii;, lb foon as they arc expelled or
ex trailed.

When a woman has a fudden fupprefTion ofher
lochia, which flowed at firft in abundance, that
iupprefTion caui'es always after-pains ; and the moft
falutary remedy is to procure the evacuation there-
of ; which is done by hot glyfiers, and aperitive
fomentations on the genital parts, and by bleeding
in the foot.

As to the pains which the woman may feel in
the loins and groins, proceeding from the too great
difttiifioj), or rupture in that pare of .the ligaments
Vol, II. 42.

lochia, the woman muft be eaf}' in her mind ; lie
on her back, with her head and breaft a little ri-
fing, keeping hcrfelf very ftill, that the liuintiurs
may be the eafier carried downwards hy their na-
tural prrpenfity ; flic muft alfo obfei ve a good regi- '
men, ufing rather boii'd than roaftcd inejt, for
(ear of a fever, abftaining from all things which
are aftringent; and drinking by iutewh, fome
glafils of hyfterick and penny- royal waters, mixed
together, and warm glyftcrx ought to be admini-
fter'J to tlicm to draw the humours dowp.w<irc's ;
bathing the h;wer parts with an emoliieut and
aperitive deeocfion ; made of mallows, paiiefary,
camomile, melilot, roots of afparagus, and lin-
feeds; making, with the fame decocfion, an ih-
iccficn into the matrice; and of the h-.Tus, af-
ter they have been well boiled, fo as to be e.fily
ftrained through a fieve, a ca:aplaf,n, to uiiich
muft be added oil of white lilits, 01 axonge of
pork, whicii muft be applied hot en tiie lv«tr ab-
domen, heating it from time to time, in the fame
decoction : befiJcs which, ftrong friiflinns fhall be
made on her thighs and legs, purticulaily towaids.
the infide ; without forgetmg bleeding in the foi t,
or in the arm, accord, ng as tl;e accidents CEi.'fed by
the fupprefiion of tl;e lochia require it. ThoLgii>
in my opinion, a lew drops of oil of cinnamon,
in a glafs hyfterick and penny-royal watt.T?, fevc-
ral times rci;erated, if the accidents require it, an-
fwer \ ery well in thofe cafes all the intentions of a
man-midwife.

The ulcer ofihc/ratrice, is abfolutely incurable,
either becaufe it cannot be extirpated, as that of
the breafis, or becaufe the matrice rece i\es con-
tinually the fuperfluities of ihe whole body of the
woman ; whtrcby the malignity of tlie nicer in-
creafes dail)-, n(.>twithft<iiiding all the remedies
which can be uftd duingthat cruc! miil^dv, v. hich
never ends but by the death of the patient.

Of what nature foe\'er the loofnefs of a vvornan
newly delivered mjy be, and from what caufe fd-
cver it may proceed, it is always of a bad cor.fe-
quence, and often puts the u'om,in in great dan-
ger of her life, becaufe it hinders the evacuation ( f
the lochia of the matrlce'j w'.ich Icing fupprcflf.d
caufes always \^^■:\■ daiigcfous accidents, and bu:
too often death i'f.!f. What's the moft f«tal in
this malady is, that all remedies proper to ftop a
loofenefs, increnfe always tlie fuppreiHcn of the
lochia ; and thcfe which c.n proci:re the evaci'ia-
tion of x\\i fuiprefFed lochia, uicrcafc the lo fcnefs';
therefore a p^iViiciaii don't dure to prt.fcribe'.'''^v
Y V aftrlriie;^:

The Univcrfal Hiflcry of Arts aiid Sciences.

34-2

al{rin2;eiit to.b; taken inwardly j neither is the pa-
tient to be purged at the begir.iiing of htr !)'ing-in.
Notwithftanding which, one muft endeavour as
-much as is poffibic at that time, to adminifter fotne
remedies proper for that malady, by giving the pa-
tie]it fome good broth to reftore her llrcngth,
much impaired by the loofenefs. S )me fpoonluli
of mutton juice (extraded in balneo maris, or
betweeatwo deep diflies without water, and with-
out the leaft Fat) given by intervals to the pati-
ent, 1 know by pra !ice to be a fpecifick in that
malady ; giving her Likewife, if the loofenefs con-
tinues, fonie drops of laudanum. Bjt if the loofe-
nefs be accompanied with a f'^rver and other acci-
dents, the patient muft be let blood in the arm to
(upply the want of purgatives ; and if the loofe-
nefs puts her in greater danger of h;r life than
would do the fupprelTion of the lochia, all the re-
medies ufed at other times for that malady, arc to
Leadmiiiiftred then j and the loofene's being (lop-
ped, the cvacuaton of the lochia, which had
been fupprelFed, is to be procured as well as one
can.

Whatever may be the caufe of the Inf.ammoiion
of the hrcajis of a lying-in woman, proper reme-
dies m.uft be applied to it, as foon as poflible, kail
they fhould break out, or for want of fuppuration,
remain in them a fcirrhous hardnefs, which, in
ptocefs of time, would degenerate into a cancer.

The principal and furt-ft means to hinder the
humours from being carried in too great abundance
to the breafls, is to procure a good and ample eva-
cuation of the Iochi.1, through the matrices for by
that evacuation, all the humours will take their
courfe towards the lower parts.

'I"he cure is began by bleeding in the arm, to
empty the too great pknitude of the veffclsof the
whole bcdy ; prtceedlng to that in the foot, for a
greater diverfion of the humour>, and to make
the lochia flow in rreater abundance : during
v^hich, tdpick remedies are to be applied on the
breafts, w'z. at the beginning, embrocations ot
oil of fweet almonds and vineoar m:xed together,
applying afterward, emplafiers of the cooling
cerat of G alien, with one third of populeum;
and if the pain was very great, a cataplaftn mud
be made of crumbs of bread and milk, adding to
it Oil of (weet almonds, and foiiie yolks of eggs,
putting over it comprcffes dipped in oxycrr.t, or
plantain water ; obfcrv"'ng, however, that the re-
medies 'applied on the breafts be only cooling and
refraining, without any great ?.flri£iion ; othtrwifc
they would cau'e a fcirrhous tumour, which would
continue a long time, and perhaps degenerate at laft
into a worfe malady.

Whcii the greattft rage of the inflaramation is

over, and mod of the antecedent humour i« eva-
cuated, one mufl ufo rtfolutive remedies, to digelV,
diflolve, and confume the milk, which is in the
breaft ia too great abundance ; for fear it fliould
be corrupted by fojourning in them. Therefore
it muft be evacu.ued, either by the child, or fome
other perfon fucking it, or by re.'blution, otb,erwife
it fhc'uld be evacuated by fuppuration. Though
it is befl to diflolve it, than draw it in that manner,
when the women does defign to fuckle her child ;
for fuckling draws other milk to the parr, which
v/ould cauie the fame aciident, if it was not eva-
cuated in its turn — But if the milk chances to flow
of itfclf from the breafts, it muft not be flopped ;
becaufe then an evacuation thereof is made with-
out attraction.

The difloiution of the milk is made by apply-
ing on the breafts a cataplafm of honey alone ; or
by rubbing red cabbage leaves with it, which mufl:
be applied on the breafts, after they have been a
littje foften'd over the lire, and have been feparat-
ed fioni their large ribs ; taking great care not to
prefs the breaft too hard, and that the cloths put
upon it be very fmooth, without any pleais or
feams. A very good lemedy for the fame diliem-
per, is to boil a red cabbage whole in river water,
till it be very foft, and there be but very little wa-
ter left, after which it muft be pounded a little in
a wooden or marble mortar, to ftrain it through a
fieve, like pap, and make it afterwards into a ca-
taplafm, adding to it fome honey, and oil of ca-
momile, which cataplafm is to be put on the
breafts.

U hde the woman is under cure, flie muft ob-
fcrve a cooling regimen, and very little ncurifh-
ing, to hinder the generation of too much blood
and humours, of which there if already a too great
abundance. Her body ought to be kept open,
that the humours, which otherwife would flow to
the breafts, may be carried downwards. Durin*
the whole time the inflammation will laft, fhemuft
keep her bed, and lay on her back, that {he may
reft better.

So foon as a woman perceives that fhe begins to
have fore nipples, it would be very proper fhe
fhould abftain from fuckling her child, till they
be quite cured; during which the miik muft be
diffip^ted for fume time, for fear of an inflamma-
tion in her breaft, proceeding ficm a too great
abundance of milk; notwithfianding which, if
there was but one nipple fore, fhe could very vvell
"live the other to her child.

There muft be r.pplicd on the fore nipples, fome
oil of eggs, or oil of new wax, for feveral days
fucctftively ; ufmg afterwards deficcative reme-
dies, as aluminousj and lime-water ; bathing them

firft

MINERAL

343

fiift with plantain-wnter only, and appljinn; over it not too much, far fear the ligature fhoufJ cut the

bits of Very foft cloth, dipped in the a"'uminous,
and lime-water ; but, in my opinion, the bcft re
medy is either cream, or honey of rofes, cfp^'-
cially wlicn the nipples are not yet exceflively
fore.

No better remedy can be adminifter'd to a ly-
ing-in woman, during the paroxifms of the hyfte-
rick paflion, than a glafs of hyftci ick, or cinna-
mon water, or if fuch a thing is not to be foimd,
a fpoonful or two of brandy, or a gia/i; of wine ;
I have alf > prefcrib?d with great fuccef?, twelve
drops of fpiiit of fal-ammoniaclr, more or Itfs, ac
cording to the violence of the paroxifm.

So foon as the woman is delivcrcil of the
afterbirth, the midwife ha\'ing put at the entrance
of thematrice a cloth folded into feveral doubLs
to hinder the air from penetrraing into it, (hjll
take a ftrong thread in four or five doubles, of tht.-
length of a quarter of a yard or thereabout, tied
with a fingle knot, at each end ; with this thread
fhe fhall tie the navel-firing, at a finger's breadth
from the belly, with a double knot, at firf}, then
turning the two ends of the thread on the oppo-
fite fide, flie'll make there another double knot,
reiterating the fame thing, if it be necefl'ary, fcr a
greater fafcty ; which dune, the navel- firing muft
be cut at another finger's bre.idth from the ligature,
on the fide of the atter-biith, fo that there remains
of the navcl-fiiing only the length of two fingers
breadth, in the middle whereof the ligature ')~
made; which muft be fo tight, that not one fin-
gle drop of blood may run from the veflels, but

faid veflels ; therefore the thread (hould be a little
l-ig for that purpofc, and ted with fonie (brt of
mcdiocriry, tho" it is bed it fiiould be rather tight
than ioofe. The end of ihat umbilick, thus tied
and rut, mufl be wrapped in a dry piece of cloth,
anointed with fome frefh butter, or oil of rofes \
then having put another fmall piece of cloth, in
double, on tic belly of the child, towards ihe fu-
perior part thereof; the umbilick, thus wr,i,)ped,
mi.ft: be placed upon it, the end theveof upv^arus,
that, in c.;.fe the v.fll-Is were not tied tight enough,
the blood (he ulJ not fo foon be lof!:, and unp°r-
ceived, as it would if that end was placed d.)vvn-
wards; for it happens, fometimcs, thjt the navel-
firing is fo hig, in fome children, that though it
has been tied ev^r fo tight, at fiift, the Lgature,
notwithftanding, happens to flack, when it begin;;
to wither and dry, where'oy the blood v/ould flow,
if it was not we 1 minded. In that caff, there-
tore, in proporrion a. the umbilick withers, it
muft be tied with a new knot.

The umhdick thui tied withers daily, and mofi:
commonly fails out at the end of fix or feven day«,
fometimes fooner, and never later than the eighth
or ninth day. It muft always fall of itfelf. with-
out exciting it to it, for fear' that was it to fail too
foon, and before the velTeh are entirely clof;d and
re-united, there fiiould happen a fiux of b'ood,
which would prove very dangerous ; or an ulcer
(hould be left, very diiScult to cure. With which
obfervatioa I conclude this treatife.

MINERALS.

INERALS arc compound foffils, wherein
there is fomethingdifcovered in all refpefts
like metal, only that it is not malleable ;
joined or compounded with fome other foffil, is fait,
fulphur, foiic^ or earth.

Thofe minerals are antim'my, ciwiabar, bifrnuth.,
caJaminar'ti, vitriol., pyrites, marcajites., cobalt, 0-
ker, the magnet, lapis hematites, avmenus, -dndj/el-
latus.

Antimony is what we properly call a fcmi-
metal ; being a foffil glebe, compofed of fome un-
determined metal, combined with a fulphureous and
ftonv fubftance. So that I confider it as the drofs
or fcoria of other inetals, feparated from them in
iheir preparation in the matrice.

Antimony is found in mines of al! metals, but
chiefly thofe of filvcr and lead : that in gold minea

is ufually held the buil. It has .ilfo its own mines :
that of Hungary is the bcft, being full of lonw
needles.

Antimony is found in clods or lloncs of fevers}'
fizes, bearing a near refembJance to black lead,
only that it is lighter and harder ; whence a!fo ii?
is called m area/tie of lead, birt very improperly, and-
its metalline parts fuppofed to be of tliat (jicci s v"
its texture is fomewhat particular, btin-g full of little -
fi:iining veins or threads like needifs, biittle as glafs.
Sometimes there are veins of a red or "olden co-
lour intermixed, which is called male antimot:);
that without them being denominated femak. It
fufes in the fire, tiJough with fome difficulty, and
diirolves more eafily in water.

When dug out c.f the earth it is nwt into larr-c
crucibles, fufed by a violent firt, and then pouretl
into cones, the apex whereof is always the beft and

Vy 2 p,„i^^

The Univei-fal H 1 fiory <?/ A r rs 'and Sciences.

344

puieft part,, as the hafis or broatleft p.irc \-> the
fouled. ■■"'■ ' ■ ' , '

The ufes o^ anlhnony are very numerous r.iid im-
portant. — It is a common ingredient in fpccula, or
burning concaves, ferving to give them a finer po-
lifli. It makes a part in bell metal, and renders
the found more clear. It is mingled with tin to miike
it more hard, white and founding, and v.'ith lead
in the rafting of printers letters, to render them
more fmooth and firm. It is a general help in the
melting of metals, and cfpecially in the calling of
cannon balls.

CiMNAB.'VR is a mineral ftone, red, heavy, and
brilliant, found chiefly in the quickfilvcr mines.
Cinnabar is either native oi faSiltious.
Native, or mineral cinnabar, which is that abore-
mentioned, is found in mod places where there are
quick .Iver mines ; yet it has mines of its own.

It may be efteemed as marcafite of quickfilver,
or rather as quickfilver petrified and fixed, by means
of fidphur, and a fubterrancous heat ; for the glo-
bulous particles of quickfilver being put into a
natural motion, by the fubterrancous heat roll
themfclves in the fulphur, already Toftened by the
fame heat, wherein being wrapped, at lafl: their
whole motion is intercepted ; and the whole com-
pofition being hardened afterwards by thefiim«pra-
diiate heat, becomes that red, heavy, and brilliant
llone, we call native cir.nalar.

iiach pound of good clnnahar yields fourteen
ounces of good mercury.

The beil mineral dnnabar is of a high colour,
brilliant, and free from the ftone. It is ufed by
Piivficians in venereal cafes, and others occafioned
by fharp ferofities : it is alfo efteemed a good cepha-
!ick, accoumed of fervice in epilepfies, and other
liervous diftempers : add, that it is reckoned of effi-
cacy in cutaneous cafes, as the fcurvy.

Faifitioiis, or artificial cinnab.r, is formed of a
lalruure of mercury and fulphur fublimed, and thus
reduced into a kind of fine red glebe. The beft is
of a high colour, full of fibres like needles.

The factious cinnabar is prepared, by melting
one part of fulphur in a pipkin ; then putting to it
by a little at a time, three parts of quickfilver, ftir-
ring them together till no mercury appears : then
letting them cool, they grind the mixture, put it
in a bolt head, bake it, and place it over a naked
nre, which they augment by degrees, a coloured
fume arifes firlt to the top of the fubliming vcilel,
which in the further progrefs ot the heat, becomes
at leni'fth of a red crimfon blue ; taking it off the
fire, the cirnabar is found above the txces.

rhis fervcs for the fame mcdicin.d purpofes with
\\\t native cinnabar -y befides which, it is jikewife

ufed by the farrier ., to make pills for their horle»,
and by painters as a colour ; as being a very vivid
red, bu!. drying wiih feme difficulty.

The c'lniiuhar, called alio by the painters ver^
million, is rendered more beautiful by grinding it
with gum-water, and a little faffron, tliofe two
drugs preventing its growing black.

There islikewife a blue cinnabar, made by mix-
ing two parts of fulphur v/ith three of quickfilver,
and one of fal am.moniack ; thole being fublimed
produce a beautiful blue fubflance, whereas quick-
filver and fulphur alone produce a red.

Bi.^MUTH i> a mineral body, half metallick,
compofed of the firft matter of tin, while yet im-
perfedt ; and found ufually in tin mines, fometimes
alfo in filverminef.

Its fubftance is hard, ponderous, and brittle, of
a large grain, glofiy, white, and fhining. It is
alio called tin glafs, becaufe when broke it fhews
a vaft number ot little polifhed laminae like glafs :
it is alfo called marcafite. by way of excellence, be-
caufe furpaffing all others in whitenefs and beauty.
Bijmiith contains an arfenical fait, very dange-

l-p

wardly,

rous to tase inw

Calamine iionc, or lapis calaminaris, is a kind of
foffil, bituminous earth, of fome ufe in medicine,
but of more in foundry ; being ufed to dye copper
yellow, /. e. to convert it into brafs. It is either of
a brcwniih colour, as that of Germany and Eng-
land; or reddifh, as that about Lierre, and in fome
prts of France, accounted the bcft, becaufe turn-
ing yellow by calcination.

When duna; it is wafhed, or huddled, as they
call it, in runnina: water, which carries ofF the im-
pure and earthy parts, leaving the lead, calam.ine,
and other fpairy parts at bottom ; they then put
it in a fieve, and fhaking it well in water, the lead
mixed with it finks to the bottom, the fparry parts
T-et to the top, and the calamineWes in the middle:
thus prepared they bake it in an oven four or five
hours, the flame bting fo contrived as to pafs over,
and lb to heat and bake the calamine, ftirring and
turnino- it all the while with iron rakes : this done,
they beat it to powder and fift it, picking out of
it what flones they find ; and thus it is fit for ufe.

Vitriol is a mineral fubdance, compofed of
an acid fait, intermixed with fomething metalline.

It is defined by Boerhaave a faline, metallick,
tranfparent glebe, difloluble in water, and fufible
and calcinable by fire.

It acquires different names, according to the
different places where it is dug, and the vitriols of
thofe alfo, differ from each other in denomination
and colour, fome being white, others blue, and
others green.

Roman

MINERALS.

Romtn atid Cyprus vitriol, for inflancc, is blue ;
and that o( Swedm and Germany grcenilh ; bcfidcs
which there is alfo a white icind. ,

IVhltc vitriol partakes but little of any metal ;
blue partakes of copper, and ^r^i";; of iron.

According to B^erhaave^ vitriols confift of a
nistallick pajt, with a fulphur adhering, a nien-
flnious acid, and water. In blue vitriol^ the metal
wherewith the acid, ^c. is joined, is copper. In
ivbiie vitriol, called alfo zvhite copperas, it is mixed
with lapis calaminaris, or Ibme ferruginous earth,
intermixed with lead or tin. "in green vitriol the
acid is joined with iron.

Roman vitriol \s made by expofmg the pyrites to
the air, till fuch time as they calcine, and change
into agreenifh, and vitriolick calx orduftj in which
Itate they are thrown into the water, and after-
wards, by boiling and evaporation, reduced into
that kind of crylbls lent us from Italy.

All other vitriols are made after the fame man-
ner ; that is much after the fame manner as allum
is made in England, or faltpetre in France.

For green vittiol, they add a great number of
pieces of iron to the liquor in the boiling ; thefe
rail"<; a great ebullition. As foon as the iron is dif-
folved they evaporate the diflblution to a certain
<legree, and io let it cryflallize. The cryflals be-
ing furnifhed, there remains a thick, reddifti, unc-
tuous ftyptick and ailringent liquor.

The powder of this vitriol is exceedingly ftyp-
tick, and excellent for the cure of wounds, and
the {lopping of blood. It is this that makes the
bafis of the famous fympathetick powder.

FvRlTES, from the Grvcl: •jii.fnni. q. d. fireftone,
is a fulphureous inflammable kind of mineral, com
pofed of an acid fait, incorporated with an oily or
bituminous matter,

Pyrites bears an affinity to morcafite, with which
the generality of authors confound it.

Pyrites has always a mttallinc part in it, and
fometimes a cretaceous or okerous part — In pro-
portion as any of thefe prevail:.', the body com-
mences a fulphur, allum, or vitriol.

The metal in fyrites is chiefly iron ; fometimcs
there is copper in it, and always a little gold, rarely
filver, and never lead or tin.

Dr Lijhr attributes thunder, earthquakes, ISc
to the fulphureous and inflammable breadth of the
pyrites,

Marcasite is afort of metaliick mineral, mak-
ing as it were the feed or firft matter of metals.

On this principle there fhould be as manv dif-
ferent marcafites as metals ; which is true in effect;
the name being applied to every mineral body, that

345

has metalline particles in its compofitlon, though
n Jt enough to make it worth working, in which
cafe it would be called ore.

There are only three kinds in the (Iiops, viz.
Marcafite of gold, which is in little balls or nodules,
about the bignefs of nuts, nearly round, heavy, of

a brown colour without. Marcafite of fdver,

which is like that of gold, only paler coloured
within, the colour differs much, the one havin* a ,
gold colour, and the other a filver colour, both

fhining and brilliant. The marcafite of copper,

which is about the bignefs of a fmall apple, round
or oblong, brown without, yellow and cryftalline
within, brilliant and fhining.

Marcafites are found in mines of metals ; they
all contain fulphur and a vitriolick fait, efpecially
that of copper: fome of them alfo contain antimony
and bifmuth.

Cobalt is a kind of marcafite, fuppofed to be
the Cadmia of the antients, out of which is drawn
arfenick and fmalt.

Cobalt ufually contains a little filver, fome cop-
per, but much arfenick. '1 here are various mines
of cobalt, efpecially in Saxony, fome in Fian.'s-,
and England.

Oker, or OcHER, a yellow, dry, foJil earth;
harfh to the touch ; found in copper and lead
mines, fometimes in thofe of filver, and fometime;-
in mines of its own.

Qker is always impregnated with iron, and iz
what generally gives to the chalybeate fpring.s their
medicinal virtues. Its chief ufe is in paint-
ing.

Only the yellow ok/r is natural ; the red is pre-
pared from the yellow, by calcining it la the fire^
till it has acquired its rednefs.

The beds are ufually from one hundred and fiftv,
to two hundred feet deep; and their thicknefs from
four to eight inches, between a whitc'iand which
covers them a top, 2nd a yellow argrllcus earth
underneath .

Lapis HiEM ATI TEs, c-a^\ci\ TtVo llaod-jlcrc, is
a kind of ruddy mineral in 2 form of aflone; thus
called, either on account of if. refnnblin.T drv,'
curdled blood, or of the faculty it has of flanchin?-
of blood. ' • ■ ■■ "' ■

The n.\tive or foffil kind comes fTom"£gypf^'
Bohemia, he. It has divers ufes in medicine '; be-
ing held cooling and aftilngent, and in thatqualitv
! prefcribed in haemonhagcrs. it is givin in fub-
j Itance, in form of a fine powd<r. '• '

j The gilders ufe it for biirniflurs, to poliffi "their
gold withrd.

Tiie

,34^> ^^' Univerfal Hiftory of Arts (J^^/ Sciences.

The Armenian Stone, lafn Armtnus, is
a mineral iilone or earth, of a blue colour, I'potted
with green, black, and yellow ; antiently brought
only from JiMinia, but now found in Germany,
and Tyrol.

The Armcn'ian ftone bears, a near rcfcmblancc to
lapis lazuli, from which it feenss only to difl'cr in
degree of maturity : they are diitinguilhtd by this,
that the Inpii Armenia is fofter, and inftead ot
fparks of gold, is fpcckled with green.

Boerhaave ranks it among femi-metals; and
fuppofcs it compofcd of metal and earth. IVood-
ward lays it owes its colour to an admixtufe of
copper.

lt§ chief ufe is in Mofaick work, though it has
fome place alfo in Phyfick,

Befides the above-mentioned minernh or fijph,
there are others, as all kinds of bitumen, which in
a general fenfe, is a fatty, tenacious, mineral juice,
very inflammable -, or a foilil body, which readily
takes fire, yields an oil, and is folublein water.

Naturalifts diflinguifh three kinds of bitumens,
hard, j'oft, liquid, or oily ; each of which they
fubdividc into fc\'eral others.

Among the hard bitumens are ranked yellovj am-
ber, fometimes amher-grcafe, jet, afphidlum or

The afphaltos of the Greeks, is the bitumen of
the Lntins. It is chiefly found fwimming on the
furface of the Lacus Ajphaltites, or I ^cad-fea, where
aniieiuly ftood the cities of Scdom and Gomorrah.
It is caft up from time to time, in the nature of a
lixjuid pitch, from the earth, which .l!es under this
fca ; and being thrown upon the wacr, fwims like
otlicr fat bodies, and condcnfes by little and little,
through the heat of the fun, and the fait that is in
it : it burns with great vehemence ; in which it
refcmbles Naphtha; but is thicker, as to con-
fifience.

1 he Arabs ufc it to pitch tlicir fl\ips witl-.al, as
wc do common pitch. There was a deal of it
employed in the embalming of the antients.

It is fuppoled to fortify, and refill putrefa6lion ;
refolve, attenuate, cleanfe, and cicatrize wounds:
but is little uted among us, either externally or in-
ternally,

PissASPH.^LTUM denotes a native, folid bitu-
men ; found in the Ceraunian mountains of Apti-
lonia ; of an intermediate nature between pitch

and aij)haltum.

Pit-coal is ranked among the number of mine-
rals, and the places it is dug out of are called coaf-

Jevjs-pitch, pijpifphaltum, pit-coal, black Jlone, aw^ , mines, or coal-pits. — The Englijh coal is of mod

falphi

Yellow Amber, fuccinum, or karabe, is a

repute, even \n foreign countries.

1 he goodnefs of coal confifts in its being as free
as poflible from fulphur, in its heating iron well,

yellow tranfparent fubllance, of a bituminous form ' and in its burning a long time in the fmith's forge.

or confidence, but a refinous taflc, or fmcll like The ftrata, or veins of coals in co?.l-pits, are

oil of ti^rpentinc ; chiefly found in the Baltick fca, \ numerous, and their order, quality, ^c. different

and along the coafts of Frujfta, Sic.

Naturalifls are infinitely divided as to the origin
of amber : fome refer: ing it to the vegetable, others
to the mineral, and fome even to the animal king-
dom.

The moft reinarkable property of amber is, that
when rubbed, it draws or attrafts other bodies
to it. See the tieatife of 6Vj)'m//??7.

Jet, gagntes, called alfo black amber, is a light,
fmootli, pitchy, foffil ftone, extremely black ;
formed of a bituminous juice in the earth, in the
manner of coal.

It works like amber, and has mod of its qua
litics : it readily catches fire, flaflies, and yields a
bituminous fmcll.

AspHALTUM, or AsPHALTOS, is a folid, brit-
tle, black, ii. flammable, bituminous fubflance,
refembling pitch, brought from the eaft, and par-
ticularly 'Judca; whence it is alfo called 'Jews-
pitch.

in different places.

In thofe at Dudley, in Staffhrdjhlre, the ftrata
below the turf, two or three clays, a grey ftone,
and a hard grey rock, are exprefted in the Philofo-
phical TranJaSiions, to be, i. Coal, called bench-
coal. 2. Slipper-eaal, lefs black and fhining than
the former. 3. Spin- coal, more black and lliining.
4. Stone coal, much like canal coal.

Thefe ftrata's ha\ e between each of them a bar,
or bed, of a peculiar fort of matter, about the
thicknefs of a crown- piece. Below thefe are di-
vers metalline ftrata's, as a black fu'oftance, call d
d".n-rcvj-bat ; a grey i-i^on ore, called the dun-row
iron-jione ; a bluifli bat, called tvhite-rcw ; a.
blackifh iron o.'-e, called vAiite-row grains, or iron-
/hne ; a dark grey iron ore, called bubble iron-
Jionc ; laftly, the tabU bat.

'I hen, 5. Cotncs a coarfe fort of c'jal, called
foot coal ; a black brittle bat. 6. The hea:hen-
coul. ~. A fubftance like coarle coal, though
called a bat, bccaufe it does not burn well. And,
8. Ber.Lh coal.

Black-

MINERALS.

Black-stoKE. or Black-lead, is a kind
of mineral ftone, of a blaclc colour, but filvcr'd,
andlhining, found chiefly in lead-mines, and ap-
pearing to benoihing clfe but lead, nor yet arrived
at maturity ; much ul'cd for pencils, or crayons for
defigning. It is melted like the common lead.

Sulphur is a fat, unctuous fort of mineral
fubftance, fufible, and inflammable by fire. Sec
Chymijlry,

Soft Bitumens, are the mahha, bitumen of
'^Calco, of Surinam, and Copal. The naphtha of
Italy, Petroleum, and 'Lac'inthhis.

The Maltha is a kind of bitumen, wherc-
v/ith the Aftaticks plailter'd their walls. When
this is once fet on fire, water will not quench it,
but lerves rather to make it burn more fiercely.

The Naphtha is a kind of liquid bitumen,
very oily and inflammable, exuding out of the
earth, or fwimming on the furfacc of the water of
fome fprings. It is ufually of a black colour ;
though that found in certain fprings about Babylon.^
is faid to be whitifh.

That of France is foft and black, like liquid
pitch, and of a fsetid fmell ; that of Italy is a kind
of petrol, or a clear oil, of various colours, oozing
out of a rock, fituated on a mountain, in the dut-
chy of Modena.

The naphtha is c'lecmcd penetrating, refolutive,
and vulnerary ; but its virtues are little known in
medicine jts ch&f ule is in lamps, isc, on ac-
count of its inflammability.

Petrol, Petroi.eu?,!, q. d. petrce oleum,
rock-oil, is an olcaginou? juice, fuppoled to iifue
out of the cleftJ of rocks ; and found floating on
l-he water of certain fprings.

Olearius fays, he faw above 30 fprings near
Scaniachia\n Per/ia : there are a'io petrols m the
iouthein provinces of France ; but the beft are
thofe in the dutchy of Modena, firll difcovered by
.//r/j/7i3, a Phyficinn, in 1640, in a very barren
vailev, twelve leagues from the city of Modena.

From a mixture of oleaginous, and faline juices
with the eartii, aril'e feveral concretions, zs fand,
aratlla, bo'e,Jlone, Jihit, Sic. and each of them is a
kind offcfil.

Sand is a fine, hard, gravelly fort of earth, or
rather ftones, divided into Imall grains.

Sand is formed of a perfett diifolution of a fmall
portion of earth, made by faline juices, which have
formed themfelves with that earth, into little
globules, which men have been pleafed to call

347

/and, which having been Ii.]uid in its formation,
or perforated on all fides, by the particles of light,
retain ilill, after it is hardcn'd, the fame faculty
of tranfmitting light.

The produ(5fionof Arcilla (which is a white
dry earth, like chalk, but more friablej is almoft
the i'ame with that of fand ; unlcfs that argil/a
being compofed of much fmaller grains, feems to
contain more oleaginous juice than fand.

Bifhop JVilkins divides jhnes into vulvar, ?i!id'
die price, and precious.

Vulgar Stones, or fuch as are of little price,
are diftinguifhable by their different magnitudes,
ufes, and confiftence, into the
r Greater magnitudes oijlone ufed cither about
r Buildings^ whether of

C Walls ; chiefly being of a

Softer confiflencc, whether natural OE
factitious,
f Free-fione,
<- ^- \ Brick.

y Harder confiftence; not eafily yielding
( to the tool of the workman, growing

either in
r Great mafles,
j 2. Raggs.

j Le.ler maifes ; whether fuch as are for
*• their fijiure,
•^ j More knobbed, and unequal, ufed for
ftriking of fire, ehher the more com-
mon, which is lefs heavy ; or lefs com-
mon, which is mors hea.vy ; as having
J j fomethintr in it of a metalline mixture,

■^ ■' fyiint,

^' I Alarcafite. Firs-Jlcne.
(^ R'lore round and even,
I 4. Pebble, thunderbolt.

Roof, or pavem-;nt, heingof a liinninated
I ^_ figure, either natural or tuitiiious.

r Slate,
I - ^'VTyle.

(^ Metals, either for the
Sharpening or trying of them,

^ ' I Touch -Jhr.e.

■ Polifhing-, or cutting tfc;m ; being either of a
more fpungy and foft, or of a more Ivard
confiilence.

( Pumice,
'' I Emery.
Lefler magnitudes, either more, lefs, or minute.

t Sand,
\ GraVi

avtl.

Middle

348

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts af^d SciV-Hces.

2. AlidtUe friccd Stones, are cither of a
^Shilling politure, or capable of it; whether of a
r fimple white colour, and more foft confiftence,
I. Alabajier.
Sometimes white, fometimes black, or green,
and fometimes vat legated with vein'', grow-
ing in greater or IcfsmafTes,
\ r Marble, porphyry.

Spotted with red, upon a greenifh colour, or
with fpots of gold colour upon blue,
^_ 5 7'^fP'h_ heliotryx,
■*' \ Lazuli, azure Jione.
L Tranfparency, either

brittle ; whether natural or fadlitlous.

{orittie ; wnetner nai
, ( Cryjlal,
: ^- \ G/aJs,

Fiflilk into flakes, eii

ther greater or leffer,
r Scleline, Mufcovia glafs, ifmg-

Relation to metals, attrafling iron, or making
of brafs.

, C Load-flone,

\ Cadmia, calaminaris.
Incombuftible nature,

7. Jmiantus^ ajhcjlus.
Strange original ; not being properly minerals,
tho' ufually reckoned among them ; but either
a fubmarine plant, or fuppofed to proceed from
a liquid bitumen,

Q C Coral, coralline,
\ Amber.

Precious Stones hefubdivides into more and lefs
tranfpurctit.

The Icfs tranfparcnt he diftinguiflics by their
colours, into red, as the Jardian and cornelian ;
pale, flefhy colours, like that of a man's nail, as
the onyx; bluifh, as the turquois : pale purple, as
the chalcedony ; and thofe of various colours, as cpal,
and cat's eye.

The more transparent he diflinguifncs into fuch
asarecolourleCs, as ths diamond &nd whitejapphire;
and coloured, which are either red, as the mij,
carbuncle, and grannie ; yellow, as the chryfoiitc
and topaz; green, as the emerald, fmaragd, and
heryl; bluifn, Zi t\-\s fapphire ; and purple or vio-
laceous, as the ametkyjl and hyacinth.

Earth, as we take it in this place, is alfo a
folhl or terreflrial matter, whereof our globe prin-
cipally confids ; whofe character is to be neither
dillolublc by fire, water, nor air ; nor tranfpaient,
more fufible than flone, and generally contair.ing
Ibme degree of fatnefs.

Of fuch earths, fome are fimplc and immutable ;

others compound and fatty. Of the firfl: kind ii
chalk, pumice, and rolten-Jione. Or the fccond or
compound kind, arc holes of all kinds, red, white,
and brown ; fuller s earth, the divers kinds of
medicinal earth, as the Cretica, Hungarica, Turcia,
fuccia, Lemnian earth, Malta earth, terra Jigillata,
With regard tothc/imple earths. Chalk, is
a white foffil fubftance, ufually reckoned as a
ftone ; but Dr. Slaie thinks, without reafon ;
iince when examined by the hydroflatical ballance,
1 is found to want much of the weight and con-
fiftence of a real ftone : fo that he thinks it more
juftly ranked among the earths.

Pumice, reckoned by a great number of Natu-
rallfts, as a kind of fpongcous ftone, very porous
and friable : is by others confidered as a kind of
earth : neither are they agreed about the nature
and origin of pumice. Some look on it as pieces
of rock half-burnt and calcined, cnft up in ermp-
tlons of vulcano's, particularly jEanaAnd Vefinius,
into, the fea ; and which being there wafhed in
the falt-water, lays afide the black colour, that
the impreflion of the fubterranean fires had given
it, and becomes whitifli, or fomeiimes only greyifli,
according as it has floated more or lefs in the fea.
Dr. IVoodiLard confiders pumice, as only a fort
of flag, or cinder ; and affirms, it is only found
either where forges of metals have antiently been,
or near fome vulcano or burning mountain.

Other authors will have the pumice to rife from
the bottom of the fea ; whence they fuppofe it de-
tached by fubterraneous fires. And hence account
both for its lightncfs and porofity, and its faline
tafte: allcdging, in confirmation hereof, that /i«-
micc is frequently found in parts of the fea far re^
mote from all vulcano's ; and adding, that feveral
pzns o( the Archipelago are frequently found cover'd
with it, all at once, after a few inward Ihakes and
heavings of the bottom of the fea.

Pumice makes a very confiderable article in
commerce, and is much ufed in the arts and manu-
faclurcs, to polifli and fmooth fevera! works.

Its pieces are of feveral fizes : the parchment-
makers and marblers ufe the largeft: and lighteft.
The Curriers the heavieft and flatteft. The Pew-
terers the fmalleft.

Pliny obfcrves, that the antients made confider-
able ufe of pumice, in medicine ; but it is out of
tlie prefent practice.

As to the fecond, or compound iind of earths.
Boles abound with falts of different forms or
figures. For the ipirit of vitriol, which is an acid,
poured upon the Armenian bJc, caufes no ebulli-
tion ; but if it be poured upon the terra Jigiilaia,
or Lenvnian bole, it will excite a vcr)' great eftlr-

vefcence,

MINERALS.

vefcence, or ebullition ; which denotes a very
great variety of faJto in thofe caiths, or boles.

The Armenian Bole, popularly, though cor-
ruptly called in EngUJh, hole ammonlack^ is a foft,
friable, fatty earth, of a pale red colour ; cafily
pulverized, and which adheres to the tongue;
efteemed a good dryer, flyptick, and vuln.'rary ;
and in thcfe qualities ufed in divers difeafes, both
internally and externally.

This bole is eailly falfified ; and the Druggifts
frequently iell Lenmian, or other earth in Jieu
thereof. Mnthoilus fays, it is found in gold, fil-
ver, and copper-mines.

Bole of the Levant .^xs a medicinal earth brought
f mm tht Levant ; nearly of the fame nature, and
having the fame ufes with the Armenian bole.

Fullers-Earth is a fatty, foflil earth, a
bounding in nitre ; of great uie in the woollen
manufacture; and I bcl icve pccufiar to £«g-A?ni5?,
where its exportation is prohibited.

Terra figillata is a kind of earth or bole, dug iu
the Ifle of Lemnos, and thence alfo called Lemnian
earth, of confiderable ufe in Painting and Medi-
cine.

It is of different colours, but moft commonly
red ; heavy, foft, and friable ; held very aflringent,
and as fuch ufed in ha?niorrhages ; as alfo againfl:
the plague and poifon. Pliny attributes to it fe-
veral other virtues. It is an ingredient in Venice-
treacle.

It was antiently found in a mountain, in the
neighbourhood of the city Heph^ejlia ; where
Diana's priefts went at certain times with great
ceremony to dig it up. After a little preparation
they made it up in troche>, and iealed them with
Diana's feal ; whence the appellation of f:giUata,
fealed.

It is now brought from Conjiantinople in little
flat cakes, round on one Tide, flat and fealed on
the other.

349

time, or difpofuion of tbe air they have been taken
in their fprings. — 3, If they are fent in bottler to
the phyficiiin who is to examine them, he muft
enquire how long they have been in bottles, and if
the bottles were clean, and have been well cork-
ed.— 4. If they have made fome fcdiment in the
bottles, and of what kind — 5. If thofe waters arc
limpid or muddy — 6. li they have fome f'ocll and
fome maui eit flavour. — 7. If their Wtig.n differs
notdblv fr-.)m that of fimple and common water. —
8. If they change colour by being mix.d with
galls, or oak leaves, or pomegran.ite'.s pel, my-
rabolanf, Wc. — 9. if having been expofcd to thu
air, or a little heated, they are no longer fufcep-
tible of colour. — 10. If being put in diflillation
through the alembick, in balneo-marise, there ari-
fes and diftils iirft fome liquor more fubfilc than
the reft, and if there be found fome differences be-
tween the diverfe portiuns of the fame water dif-
tilled, received feparateiy. — 11. If in the evapo-
ration or diftill.ition of thofe waters, at a very mo-
derate heat, fome pellicles be formed on the fur-
face of the water j or if fome terreftrial concre-
tions be made floating by flakes in the water, or
adhering to the fides of the veffels, or fettling at
the bottom, and which. — 12. If after an almofl
total diftillation or evaporation of thofe water,';,
fome faiine, fibrous, granulated, or otherwife fi-
gurated concretion, be made in the liquor left,
and expofed in a cold {)l,ice. — 13. If the water be-
ijig all evaporated, or diftilled dry, leaves a fet-

tjiig, how much, and what fort of fettling 14..

If the terreftrial fettling contains fome portion of
fait or not. — 15, 'To which falts,. of thofe com-
monly known, the falts of thofe waters can have

Mineral-Waters, are thofe, which at their
fpringing forth from-undor ground, are found im-
pregnated with fome mineral matter, as fait, ful-
phur, vitriol, J?t and the divers mixtures made
in them of feveral of thofe matte.rs together, con-
liitute fo many different kinds of mineral-ivaters.

The waters of the fame Iprings, can, in dii-ers
times, receive notable alterations or changes, by
new m/xtures, or by thofe which have been made
being entirely cxhaufted.

To dilcover the nature and qualities of mineral-
waters, the following method is to bsobfeive^l.

I. From what place they are,
Vol, II. 42.

a report. — 16. If they precipitate into a red, or
yellow colour fublimate mercury dilfolvcd in com-
mon v/ater ; and if they precipitate likewife, the
fulphureous esrths of common vitriol, as do the true
nitre of theantients, the natron of E gyp', t'lc white
lode, and the foiTil borax — ij. If they change
green the colour of fyrup of violet--, and if they re-
(fore the blue colour of the tourncfol, turned red
by fome alluminous vitriolick acid or other, as the
true nitres do. — 18. If they turn red the tourne-
fol, as the ailum and vitriol do. ---19. If thev
thicken and coagulaie quickly, the liquor of the
fixed fait of t.irta , as does the fucculent and fe-
conJ pi rtion of common fait, which is not con- '
denied but by a total evaporation of the water iti
which that fait has been dillblved.---2o. If thev
caufe 10 changes in the waters of the diflblutions
of fub luu-e me cury and vitriol, nor on thefvrup
of violet, nor on the liquor of the fait of tartar re-
folveil, no more than do faltpetre, and the firll
2. In what j portion 01 common fait, which is cryffallizcd when
I Z z expofei

350 The Univerfal Hiftory

expofed \\\ a cold or damp place. — 21. If the ear-
thy rettlings of thofe waters, after the reparation
of their fahs, are entirely, or in part diflbluble in
diftilled vinegar, and with fome ebullition, as cer-
tain forts of chalks, as docs the white earth of the
curds of nitrous and alkali falls, produced by the
mixture of the fecond portion of common fait. —
22. If thofe tcrreftrial fettlings divefted of falts,
put to the fire and flrongly heated in German cru-
cibles, be fixed if th.y change colour, if they arc
vitrified or calcined, and if by means of the re-
dudlive falts, fomething metallick can be extradled
from it or not. — 23. And if their falts purified, af-
ter they have been mtlted at the fire in crucibles of
a Liood vitrified earth, afTume fomc extraordinary
colour.

All mineral -luaters-Axe. cither hot, or luke-warm,
or cold ; they alfo difii'er in the tafte, for fome of
them are four or vinous, fome aufter or ferruginous,
and others without any manifeft flavour, or infipid.

All thofe fenfible differences, joined to thofe
which are the mod remark.ible in the fettling of
thofe waters, after diftillation or evaporation, and
particularly in the participation of certain falts,
fome of which have fome report to common fait,
and others to the nitre of the antients, have given
occafion to diftribute mineral-waters into feveral
clafTes, to difpofe in fome order the hiflorical de-
tail of the obfcrvations made in examining them.

In the firft of thefe clafl^es are the hot lunters., in
which is found a fait whicl^has a report to com-
mon fait.

In the fecond are the hot waters, whofe fait is
found like to the nitre of the antients.

In the third are the infipid luke warm waters,
which participate of fome fait, either common or
nitrous, and fome which have no fait at all.

In the fourth, are the lukewarm waters of a
fourifii or vinous tafte, which participate fomething
of the true nitre.

In the fifth, are the infipid cold waters, which
participate of fome fait like to common fair, and
fome in whofe analyfis no fait is found.

In the fixth, are the cold waters, whofe flavour
is ferruginous or aufter.

In the feventh, are the cold waters of a fourifli
or vin us tafte, which participate of common fait.

And in the eighth, are the cold waters, of a
fourifti or vinous tafte likewife, v/hich participate
cf the true niirc.

of Arts and Sciences.

In the feveral experiments which have been
made on mineral waters, none of the hot ones
have been found fourifh, and none of the infipid
Cold ones nitrous.

The chief hot mineral fprings in England, arc
thofe near IFells in Sornerfetjliire, and thole others
at Buxton and Maliock in Derbyjhire ; wiiich lat-
ter however, are rather warm or tepid than hot.

In the city of Bath are four hot baths j one tri-
angular called the crofs-bath, from a crofs that
formerly ftood in the midft of it ; the heat of which
is more gentle than the others, b:caufe it has few-
er fpriiTgs. The fecond is the hat-bath, which
heretofore was much hotter than the reft, when it
was not fo large as it now is. The other two are
the king's and queen's baths, divided only by a
wall ; the Lift having no fpring, but receiving the
water from the king's bath, which is about fixty
feet fquare, and has in the middle of it many hot
fprings, which render its healing quality more ef-
feflual. Each of thefe is furniftied with a pump
to throw out \^ter upon the difeafed, where it is
required.

Thefe waters abound with a mineral fulphur ;
they are hot, of a bluifti colour, and ftrong fcent,
and fend forth thin vapours. They do not pafs
through the body like moft mineral waters, though
if fait be added, they purge prefently. On fettle-
ment they affxird a black mud, which is ufed by
way of cataplafm in aches, of more fervicc to fome
than the waters themfelves; the like they-depo-
fite on diftillation and no other.

Dr. A/lendsff found the colour of the fait drawn
from the king's and hot bath, yellow; and that
from the crofs-bath, white ; whence he concludes,
that the crofs-bath has more allum and nitre than
the hot, which, tho' it abounds more with ful-
phur, I conclude hence that it is all nitre and no
allum. The crofs-bath is fuppofed to prey on fil-
ver, and all of ihem on iron, and none on brafs.

The ufe of thefe baths is fo\md benefici.1l in dif-
eafes of the head, as palfies, tsV. in cuticular dif-
eafes, as leprofies, ^c. obftruftions and conftipa-
tions of the bowels, the fcurvy and ftone, and ia
moft difeafes of women and children. Tlie baths
have performed many cures, and are commonly
ufed as a laft remedy in cbftinatechronick difeafes ;
where they fucceed well, if they agree with the
conftitution of the patient.

M U S I C K.

MU S I C K (from mufa, rr.ufe, the Mufcs
being (uppofed to be the inventors thereof]
is a icieiice that teaches how founds, under
certain meafures of tune, and time, may be pro-
duced, and fo ordcr'd or difpos'd, as either in con-
fonance or fuccellionj or both, they may raifc
agreeable feniations.

Music K divides itfelf naturally into fpeculaiive
and praiiical.

Spi-ailativeWLv SICK is that which confifts in the
exan«en of the nature, properties, elfedts, feV. of
the founds, and in reafoning on them.

Pra^ical MusiCK is that which fhews how the
knowledge acquired by the fpeculative part is to be
applied ; or how founds in the relations they bear
to Muftck, may be order'd, varioufly put together,
in fucceflion, and confonance, fo as to anfwer the
end. And this we call the art ofcompofition, which
is properly the praftical part of Mitjick.

The firft branch, which is the contemplative
part, divides itfelf into thefe two, viz. the know-
ledge of the relations and meafures of tunes, and the
do£lrine of time.

The former is properly what the antients called
harmonica, or the doSlrine of harmony in founds, as
containing an explication of the grounds, with the
various meafures, and degre-es of the agreement of
founds, in refpefl of their tune.

The latter is what they call rhythmica, becaufe
it treats of the numbers of founds, or notes with
refpe£l to time ; containing an explication of long
and fhort, of fwift and flow, in the fucceflion of
founds.

The fecond branch o^ (hs praiiical part of Mu-
fick, as naturally divides into two parts, aniwering
to the parts of the firft.

That correfpo.nding to the harmonica, the an-
tients called melopifia, becaufe it contains the rules
of making fongs, with refpect to time and harmony
of founds ; though we have no reafon to think the
antients had any thing like compofition in parts.

That which anfwers to the rhythmica they call
rhythmopifia, containing rules for the application
of the numbers and time.

The fpeculative or theoretical Mitftck, has for obje£l
thz found ; which in Muftck denotes a quality, in
the I'everal agitations of the air, confidered as their
dii'pofition, mcafure, Is'c.

The principal afFe£tion of found, whereby it is
fitted to be the object of Mufick, is that whereby
it is acute, or high and grave^ or kw.

This difference depends on the iiatuie of the fo-
norous body; the particular figure and quantity
thereof; and even in fome cafes, on the part of
the body where it is flruck, and is that which con-
ftitutcs what we call different tones.

The caufe of this difference appears to be no
other than the velocities of the different \ibrations
of the founding bodies.

From the fame principle arife what wc call con-
cords, &c. which are nothing but the refult of fre-
quent unions and coincidences of the vibrations of
two fonorous bodies, and confequently of the waves
and undulating motions of the air occafioned
thereby.

On the contrary, the refult of Icfs frequent
coincidences of thofe vibrations, is what we call
a difcord.

Sounds are again diftinguifiied into long andyZ^ar^,
not with regard to the fonorous bodies retaining a
motion once received, a longer, or a lefs time,
though gradually growing weaker; btit to the con-
tinuation of the impulfe of the efficient caufe on
the fonorous body, for a longer or a fiiorter time,
as in the noteg of a violin^ is'c. which are made
longer or Ihorter, by ftrokes of a different length ,
or quicknefs. *

This continuity is properly a fucceflion cf fe-
veral founds, or the effect of fevcral diftincfl ftrokes,
or repeated impulfes of the fonorous body, fo quick
that we judge it one continued found ; efpecially if
it be continued in the fame degree of flrength :
and hence arifes the doQTinc of meafu)-e and time.

Another diftinftion of founds is into fimple and
compound, and that two ways.

A ftmple found fhould be the effefl of a fingle
vibration, or of fo many vibrations as are necef-
fary to raife in us the idea of found. In the fecond
fenfe of compof.tion, a fimple found is the produ([l:
of one voice, or one inftrument, l^c.

A compound found confifts of the founds of feveral
diftinft voices, or inftruments all united in the
fame individual time and meafure of duration, that
is, all ftrJking the ear together, whatever the other
differences may be, but in this fenfe again, there
is a two fold compofition, a natural and artificial '
one.

The natural compofition is that proceeding from
the manifold rcfle(3ions of the firff fund from ad-
jacent bodies, where the reflections are not fo fud-
den as to occafion echo's, but are all in the fame
tune with the firft note.

Z z 2 The

3'?2

n^e Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

^\'^\nS(\Qno'i intervah is clearly {zzn, at one view,
in the following table :

The artificial compofition, which alone comes
under the Mufician's province, is that mixture of
k\ie.xA founds^ which being made by art, the in-
gredient founds are feparable, and diftinguifhable
from one another.

Sounds are diflinguifhed again into fmooth and
even, or rough and har/h, alfo clear and hoarfe.

Smooth and rough founds depend principally on
the founding body ; of this we have a notable in-
ftance offerings that are uneven, and not of the
fame dimenfion Or conftitution throughout.

As to clear and hoarfe founds, they depend on
circumRanccs which are accidental to the fonorous
body; thus a voice or inftrument will be hollow
and hoarfe, if raifed within an empty hogPnead ;
that yet is clear and bri^^ht out of it : the cfi'edt is
owing to the mixture ot other and different founds
raifed by refiedtion, which corrupt and change the
fpecies of the piimitiveyi/w</.

Hiirmonual founds are produced by the parts of
chords, is'c, which vibrate a certain number ol
times while the whole chord vibrates once. By
this they are diftinguilhed from the third, fifth, ^c.
where the relations of the vibrations are four to
five, or five to fix, or two to three.

The relations of founds had only been confidered
jn the feries of numbers, ] : 2, 2 : 3, 3 : 4, 4 : 5,
i3e. which produced the intervals, called ot^ave.
fifth, fourth, third, ice. M. Sauveur firft con-
fidered them in the natural feries, i, 2, 3, 4, ^c.
and examined the relation*' of the founds arifing
therefrom. — The refuk is, that the firft interval,
I : 2, is an ociave ; the fecond, i : 3, a twelfth ;
the third, 1 : 4, a fifteenth, or double octave ; the
fourth, 1:5, a feventeenth ; the fifth, i : 6, a
nineteenth, is'c.

The difference between two founds, in refpefl
o^ acute und grave, or that imagin:iry fpace termi-
nated by two founds, differing in acutenefs or
gravity, is called interval.

When two ormore founds are compared in this
relation, they are either e^jval or unequal in the
degree of time : fuch as are equal are called unrj^/ns,
v/ith regard to each other, as having one tune ;
the other being at a diftance from each other, con-
ftitute what we call an interval in mufick ; which
is properly the diftance in tune between two
founds.

Intervals are diftinguifhed into fimple and com-
pound.

Simple Interval is that without parts, or divi-
fion : fuch are the oSIofdc, and all that are within
it ; as the fecond, third, fourth, fifth, fixth and
feventh with their varieties.

Compound Interval confifls of feyeral leffcr
intervals -, fuch are all thofe greater than the oc-
tave; as the ninth, tentb, eleventh, twelfth ; which

I
8

9
16

4
1 1

18
25

5
12

Simple. ")

Double.

T,iple.

27|.S

^adruple.

. Interval:.

Thofe of the upper rank mark the fmple inter-
vjIs ; and the other three, the compound ones, viz.
either double, as thofe of the third rank ; or qua-
duple, as thofe of the fourth rank, ^c.

I o reduce at once a compound to z. fimple interval,
there's nothing elfe to do, but to take 7 off the
number v/hich gives it the name ; if nothing re-
mains, the feventh will be the fimple interval ; if
fomething remains, the figure left will be the name
of rh.e fimple interval. As for example, if one w ill
know what is a thirteenth, he mull take off 7 from
the number 13, and there remains 6 ; a thirteenth
therefore is properly a 6th doubled. Or if we want
to know what i^ a twenty-fixth, we muft take off
three times 7, or 21, and there remains 5, the
26th therefore is a fifth quadrupled. All compound
intervals are always reputed of the fame nature with
the: fimple, which anfvver to it.

Of the twenty-nine /n/^ru(7/j which compofeour
table, fome are called by the Italians, confonanti,
confonants ; others diffonanti, diilbnants.

The confonanti, or Consonants, are all the
:ntervals which pleafe the ear, whether they be
perfect, as the oi^ave, and the ffth ; or imperfeSl,
as the fixth and third.

The diffonanti, or Dissonance, is in general »
falfe cor.foname, or concord. A diffonanct is pro-
perly the refuk of a mixture, or meeting of two
founds, wiiich are difagreeable to the ear; and the
epithet given to all the fuperfiuous or diniinijh'd in-
tervals, as the ditones, tritones, falje fifth-, redun-
dant fourth, feventh, &c. Dijfonances are ufed in
Mufick, and have a good effedt therein, though it
be only by accident.

Others they cali vitlati, or prohibiti, i. e. for-
bidden, or v/hich are never to be made in the fcquel
of a piece of Muftck^ through tlie difj&culty of tun-
ing them one after another, either in ajcendmg or
dcfcending. Such are, for example, the ftxth ma-
jor, the tritone, the. fifth, and all the other fuper-
fiuous intervals, the Jeventh. the ninth, or all thofe
which are at fo great a dillance, that the voice,
cannot naturally reach it. Some are forbidden in

afcending

afundlng, and permitted in defcendlng^ fuch arc the
fourth, the ffth, the feventh diminifhed, (Jc.

A compound interviil, or an interval compofcd of
feveral leiler, is called System, in Mufick ; fuch
is the oHave, (jfc. The wurd is borrowed from the
antients, who called a fimplc interval diajlem, and
a compound one fyjl em.

M \J S I C K. ^^^

to the firft or lowcft ; and of the lowcft chord to
the highcft, as in the following example :

Mi fal Jol la
Si ut re mi.

There are feveral diftin£l:ionsof/5y?^OTf ; the moft
remarkable is into concinnous and inconcinnous.

Concinnom Systems arethofe confifting of fuch
parts as are fit for Mufick \ and thofe parts placed
in fuch an order between the extremes, as that the
fuccellion of founds, from one effe<5t to the other,
may have a good efFeft.

Inconcinnous Systems are thofe where the Am-
ple intervals are inco7icinnous, or ill difpofed betwixt
the extremes.

Syjlems, again, are either particular or univerfal.

Particular Systems (at leaft called fo by the
antients) were a compound at leaflof two dia/lcmt,
or intervals, and conlequently of three founds at

Some time afterwards, Pythagoras, according to
the moft common opinion, having eftabliftcd rules
to find the proportion of founds, perceived foon,
that the two cxtrcmcsof thofe two tetrachords, viz.
fi, and la, making the interval of a feventh were
dijfinants, which obliged him to add underneath
the moh grave chord of thofe two tetrachords an
eighth chord which made the oilavc with the hi"h-
eft, VIZ. la, whence it was called projlambanomenos,
or addfd.

Laftlv, as in procefs of time, it was found that
thofe eight founds were not fuiBcient to exprefs all
the founds of the human voice, feveral peribns ad-
ded, by degrees, other chords, enough to form,
befidcs, two other tetrachords joined together, the
founds whereof were an oStave higher, than the
founds of the two firft; thus the fyjlem was found

leaft ; fuch as all kinds oi thirds ; and more all the compofed of fifteen chords, or four tetrachords, the
compounds of three, four, five, ^c. Diaftems or' two extremes whereof made between themfelves
intervals, fuch as are the fourth, fifth, fixth, and ; the difi-diapafian or double o5lave ; of which, to
o^a^'c. pleafe the curious, .1 give in the followin';;^ tables.

tne order, proportions, with the name given them
in the modern fiyif em.

Table of the fifteen diatonick chords of the fyftem
of the antients,
Tetrachord of the mofl acute, or higheft.

Whence Bocetius calls the modes or tones, confi-
tutions ox jyjlems ; fince in efFeft a mode is properly
an afTemblageof feveral founds, of feveral intervals,
and of feveral particular fyftems, which conftitut*
a whole, called m Udy or Jong.

Hence we commonly call geiural System, a
gamut, 2ifcale, an aflemblage of feveral wa/v/.(, _/;/- | The laft of the moft excellent, or

tables, letters, figures, tic. which ferve to denote | moft acute. . La Tone minor.

the grave and acute founds, their differences, inter- \ The penultieme of the excellcnts. Key of^o-L
vals, proportions, &c. fo that /!•//(??« and |-^««; are '^' ■' ' ' ■•■' " — -

very near the fame thing in Mufick, alphabets are in
Grammar ; and as there have been different alpha-
bets, according to the divcrfity of languages, times,
places, ^c. there have been likewife leveral fyftems
of founds.

The firft, or at leaft the moft antient we have
knowledge of, is that of the Greeks, which began ; Trite fyncmcnon.
at firft by a tetrachord, i. e. a fequel, of four
chords only, the loweft whereof anfwer'd to out
mi, and the two others to the notes fa, fol, la.

which is what Bocetius calls the order or fyftem of
Mci cury, to whom the invention thereof is attribut-
ed about the year of tlie world 2oco.

It was foon perceived, that that tetrachord wzs
not I'ufficicnt to exprefs all the founds ; therefore
feveral perfons added, at different times, three other
chords underneath the four above, which anfwer'd
to what we call, at prefent, fi^ ut, re, and which
formed with them two tetrachords, but two tetra-
chords joined ; fmce the mi ferved as higheft chord

The third of the exccllents. Fa Semi-tone

Tetrachord of the disjoined.
The laft of the disjoined. Ml Tone minor.

The pcnulliemeof the disjoined. Re Tone majoi
The third of the disjoined. Key of Ut Semi-tone
Paramefe. Si Tone major.

It is now the f mi

Tetr.achord of the mefe.

• La Tone minor.

Tone major.
Semi-tone.

e. J

Mefe

Mefon-diatonos Sol

Parhypato-mefon Key of Fa

Tetrachord of the principals.

Hepatemefon Mi Tone minor. -^

H) paton-diatonos Re Tone major, f

Parhypame-hypaton Ut Semi-tone. C

Hypatc hypaton Si J

Prollambanomenos La la.

Foi

354

The Univerfal Hiftory

For the intelligence of this table, it muft be ob- '
ferved, i. That as t\vi pr-Jlambanowcnos, or add^-d,
(Joes not contribute towards forming the firft or
loweft of the four tetrachords^ it is feparatcd from
it, and was added only to perfe6l the lowcfl oiSla^'c,
and make the mcje the middle of that fylicm, ac-
cording to its fignification, and to join ib well the
two odlaves which compofe tliat faid fyftem,that it
be the highcft chord of the loweft oftave ; and the
loweft chord of the higheft odlave, according to
Bocetiui's obfervation.

2. 7 hat between the two loweft chords of each
tctrachord, i. e. between «/, fa, and^, tit, there
is an interval of five comma's, or of a femi-tone
major ; that between the two higheft, as re, mi,
a.i)d /ul, la, there is a tone minor; and between thofe
which make the middle, fuch as ut, re, and fa,

Jol, there is a tone major, at leaft in the opinion of
the antients.

3. That to difcover better the conjunflion of
the tdracbords, I have on purpofe redoubled the mi
of the two odtaves, where that conjundion is made,
fo that the firft terminates above the loweft of the
joined teirachords, and the fecond, which notwith-
ftanding is but the cmiffion of the firft, begins un-
der the higheft of thofe tetrachords. This the an-
tients called the greateft of all fyjiems, the immu-
table fyjiem, diatonick, pytbagorical, &c.

Thus far, in fad:, the fyftem is purely diatonick,
is compofed only of major tones and femi tones ;
which nature alone, without the afliftance of art,
teaches the moft ignorant how to tune, provided
they have the ear, and the organs of the voice well
difpofed. But as it was obferved, in procefs of
time, that between the mefe and the paramefe there
was a full tone, which render'd the fourth fromy^
to yj fuperfluous, and very difagreeable. a fifth
tetrachord was invented to make full a middle chord,
to divide the interval from the mefe to the faramefe,
into twofcmi-tones, one major, and the ether minor,
called at prefrntyf b, and which has been marked
fince by a b mol.

This, without doubt, gave occafion to Timothy
the Milefian, to divide likewife in two intervals ut
re, zndfafol, which make the middle of each te-
trachord, and a tone major, and that by means of a
double diezes, which has been the origin of the
chromatick gender ; and has been the caufe that
thofe founds or chords, have been called moveable
founds. But he did not divide in the iame manner
the intervals re >ni, and fol la., which terminate
above each tetrachord, becaufe they make but one
tone minor ; whence they are called flable found-:
or chords.

Laftly, one Olympius, refining on that divifion,
pretended, that at the example of the tanes-mojor.

of Arts <3W Sciences.

the fim! tones major O'lould alfo be divided in tv/o ;
which engaged him to put, i. A middle chord,
between the two loweft chords of each tetrachord,
viz. betwixt yJ«/, and mi fa. And, 2. Another
middle chord, betwixt the fecond diatonick chord
of each tetrachord, and the chromatick chord, which
was a yfw/-if5«f higher than the diatonick ; which
was the origin of the cnharmonick gender, and con-
fequently of the enharmonick and chromatick diezes.

The enharmonick is one of the three genders of
Mifick, in which the modulation proceeds by little
intervals lefs than the femi-tone, /. e. by quarter:
of tones ; therefore it has two die-z.es or ri2;ns to raife
the voice, which are peculiar to it, ■y/z. the diizes
enharmonick minor, marked by a crofs thus + ;
and the major, or triple diezes marked by a triple
crofs thus ^. This gender was antiently much
in ufe in the Mufick of the Greeks, efpecially for
the dramatick, or refitative muiick.

Therefore having gathered thofe three genders
into a fingle fyftem, each tetrachord was compofed,
I. Of four diatonick chords, fuch are, for exam-
ple, y7, lit, re, mi. 2. Of one chromatick chord,
which was a femi-tone above the ut, called at pre-
fent ut diezis. 3 Of two enharmonick chords,
the firft whereof divided the femi-tone from the na-
tural ut, to the ut diezis, into four quarters of a
tone. With regard to the intervals from the ut
diezis to re, and from re to mi, they were not
divided in the antient fyftem, becaufe they were
thought then minor intervals, incapable therefore
of that divifion.

There is to be feen in our plate of Mufick, Fig.
I. an example thereof by the common notes of
Mnftck, where the four white notes are dia!onick; the
two firft black, enharmonick ; and the third black
and fquarc chromatick.

In procefs of time the Latins finding that thofe
charaiSters, either by reafon of the variety and ex-
travagance of their figures, or becaufe of their
multitude (which, according to feme authors,
amounted to 1240) were too difficult to retain, or
remember, fubftituted in their place, the firft 15
letters of their alph.ibet, viz. A, B, C, D, E, F,
G, H, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, which formed as a
fecond fyftem, which notvvithftanding diiTered in
nothing from the former but in the number of
figures.

Some time afterwards Pope St. Gregory, accord-
ing to Gaffurius a.ndKircher, having obferved that
the letters H I K, i^c. were properly nothing elle
but a repetition of a higher oftave of the firft {even
founds, A, B, C, D, (3c. reduced all the characters
of the founds to the firft feven letters of the alpha-
bet, which were repeated more or lefs, either high
or low, acco-rding to the extent of the voices, in-

ftruments.

M U S

ftruments, ^V. but then they contented thcm-
felvcs ftill witti marking them, as the Grceh uled
to do, above each fyllable of the texts, which were
to be Tung, and always on the (lime line.

But in the eleventh century, about the year IC24,
according to Barentus, Gu'ido Arctln a bcncdii5l:iiic
monk, born in the city of Anzzo in Tufcany, in-
vented a third _/i'/?i7«, for which tlie two preceding
ones were foon abandoned, and this univerfally
received, having ferved befides for foundation to
the modern one.

This author then, having obferved, that the
names the antients gave to the chords of their fyf-
tem weie too long, fubftituted in their place the
fix famous fylhbles, ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la.

He alfo introduced the ufe of fevera! parallel
li;ies, on which, and between which, he placed
certain round or fquare points, immediately above
each fyllable of the text, called fince notes, and
which by the high or low fituation of the degrees
they occupied on, or.betwixt thofe lines, made at
once the diftinftion of the grave founds from the
acute.

But to mark more pjecifely which found each
of thofe points reprefented, he took the firft fix
letters of the Latins, a- top of which he placed
the r or gamtna of the Greeks, he named thofe
letters keys, becaufe they were to ferve to open,
or give the knowledge of the (bunds, and having
joined them with thofe fix fyllables, ut, re, mi, fa,
&c, he formed a table of them, part whereof may
be feen in our plate of Mifcellany, Fig. i. and
which has been called ever iince gamma or gamut,
becaufe of the addition of the gamma of the Greeks,
and fcale for its figure.

He placed, firlf, at the head of each line, and
betv/ecn each of them, one of thofe feven let-
ters, which marked the name to be given to all
the points or notes, found on or betwixt thofe
lines, as Fig. 2. in our plate of Mufick.

Fa mi fa re ut re la fa la re ut re 7ni fa mi re.

Each ley giving the opening for the name of the
notes, for the quality of tlieir found, and for the
forts of voices which are to fing them. When
immediately after there are feveral "K-H j or
feveral ^5^ >5c, they are called tranfpofed keys
and when there is nothing, natural.

To prevent any confufion which might arife
from ufing the fame word in different fenfes, M.
Malcolm propofes the word mode to be fubftituted
inftead of the word key, in the former fenfe ; that
is, where it exprelfes the melodious conftitution of
the oflave, as itconfiflsof feven eflential or natu-
ral notes, befides the fundrimental ; and in regard
there are two fpecies of it, he purpofes, that that

I C K. ^^^-

with a third G, be called the greater wjaV ; and
that with a third L, the lelfer /•w^/,-, appropriating
the word key to thofe notes of the piece in which
the cadence is made; ail of which may be called
different %r,» in refptiSt of tljcir different degrees
of tune. To diftinguilh then, accurately, be-
tween a mode and key, he gives us this definition,
W2. an octave, with all its natural and efiential
degrees, is a mode, with rcfpcd to the conftitution,
or manner of dividing it ; but with refpe£l to its
place in the fcale of inufick, /. e. the deg^ree, or
pitch of tune, it is a key ; though that name is pe-
culiarly applied to the fundamental. Whence it
follows, that the fame tnode may w'th different
keys, i. e. an oflave of founds, be raifed in
the fame order and kind of degrees, which makes
the fame mode^ and yet be begun higher or lower,
/'. e. be taken ac different decrees of tune, v/ith re-
fpeft to the whole, which makes different keys ;
and -vice verfd, that the fame key may be with dif-
ferent modes, i. e. the extremes of two octaves
may be in the fame degree of tune, yet the divifion
of them be different.

Guido Aretin, finding that the Greeks had good
realbns to divide in two femi-tones the intervals
between the mefe and paramefe, which he calls in
his fyftem A and B, and the modern la and ft,
that obliged him, I. To put fome time on the
degree of B or ^, ah xa Ificw that from A to B,
the voice ftiould not be raifed but of a femi-tone,
and as that intonation has fomething more foftcr
and fweet than when the voice is raifed of a full
tone, he gave to that ^ the epithet of «j^/; which
engaged him, 2. To put in his gamtna ox gamut, a
column, to be feen in our plate of MifeellanieSy
called for that reafon the column of b-mol.

Laftly, not fatisfied with having added under
the proflambanomeiios , or loweft chords of the an-
tient"!, a chord marked with the r, and which he
called hypo-prof ambanomeiios, i. e. fibadded, he
added to netehyper-boleon, or higheft chord of the
(yflem of the antient fyfem, four other chcrds,
which formed a fifth tctrachord, which he called
tctrachordoithsfur-acutes. So that hxifyflem was
compofed of 22 chords, w'z. of 20 diatoriick, w hich
make what has been called fince the order b-quarre,
or natural ; and [he two lowered a femi-icne
lower than the natural, which changing the natural
order nf fome notes in the crdcr of b-quarrt,
have produced the order called diatoitick b-mol oi
fimply b-mol.

'1 ho' this was the onlv one followedduring verv
near fix centuries fucccllivtly, it had three or four
very great inconveniences.

To remedy which, it was nccefiary to form a
fourth, which I call the modern y^/^'tm ; tlietefoje,

• I. .'\s-

356 The Univcrfal Hlftory of Arts <j^<r/ Sciences.

in a very difagreeable manner, the fyllables of the

1. As the founds are not naturally found every
feventh degree, prcclfely in the fame intervals, and
can be repeated every oBavc, as it were, in hijini-
/z/w, a feventh f)llable has been added, ti/3._/7, to
the fix of Arctium which give the facility to cxprefs
ail the degrees of theoitave, to fill all the intervals
thereof, and confequcntly to make that endlcfs
repetition without changing, but very feldom, the
name of any of the notes.

2. As it was found that between the chords
which are dillant, or make the interval of a tone,
a partition-chord could as well be placed to divide
them into two femi -tones, as between the mefe
and paramefe of the antients, or which is the fame
thing, betwixt the In, and the/ ; they have not
been contented with adding to the fyftem of Guido
Aretin the chtomatick chord, commonly called
h mol ; but have added to it befides the chromatick
chords of the antients, /. e. thofe which divide
the major tones or intervals which are in the mid-
die of each tetrachord, into two femi-tones, which

text, the famous "John des Mun, a Frenchman,
and a Doftor of Paris, invented about the year
1330, or 1333, the dilTcrcnt figures of the notes,
which fhcw at once how long prcxifely each found
muft laft.

'fhere are moft commonly eight forts of notes, the
names ^figures, and meafures thereof areas Fig. 7.

The ninth figure was of aiuient ufe, but has
been rejected by the moderns.

Mathematicians compute, that one may make
720 changes or varieties with fix notes, without
ever repeating the fame twice j and that of the
notes of each odave, one may make 40320 dif-
ferent tunes or fongs.

The large note, which is, as it may be feen by
the figure, a long fquare note, with a tail on the
right fide, and is worth 8 binary meafures, /. e.
at two times, is not of any ufc in the modern
mvftck, ever fince the ufage has prevailed to fepa-
rate the meafures, and to bind the rounds with a

is efFe£ted by raifing of a femi-tone, the loweft of ! femi-circle to mark the continuity of their found
thefe chords, whicii is marked with a double 1 The long, which by infped^ion appears to be a
diezes, thus, >^-, placed on the left fide, on the ! fquare note with a tail on the left fide, and is worth
fame degree, and immediately before that loweft \ four binary meafures, or at tv.-o times, and confe-

quently eight times, unlefs it be bound with a breve
or fquare. The breve of a fquare figure, called
for that reason, fquare, by the French, is worth
under the figns of the meafure at two or four
times, two meafures, under the figns of a triple
major, or perfeft time, is worth three times, when
followed by one or fevcral like fquares.

note. And as it was obferved, that the tones
minor, or intcri'als, which terminate upwards,
each tetrachord is no lefs fufceptible of that divi-
fion, than the tones major, thole chromatick
chords which were wanted in the fyftems of the
Greeks, have been added to them ; fo that each
octave is compofed at prefent, of 13 founds or
chords, or of 12 intervals or femi-tones, wz. of thus a CIH or by a point thus h~. But when

8 diatonick or natural founds, marked with white
notes ; and of 5 chromatick or diezes, /. e. raifed
of a femi-tone, marked with black notes, as Fig. 6.
3. To remedy the narrownefs of the antient

It IS followed by a note of lefs value, as by
one O. or two whites, it is v/orth but two times.
That a minim, or white, under the fio-n C, is
worth half a meafure. in the triple is worth,

fyftems, and to have different chords enough to fometimes onetime, fometimes two: fometimes
multiply the parts which make harmony, the alio, there want two to make one time.

number of thofe chords has been incrcafcd by de-
rees, as far as 29, diatonick or natural ; and 20,

As to the notes bound together, we muft ob-
ferve, I. That none but the fquare notes and the

chromatick. So that iiiikad of four tetrachords, ' breves are capable of being bound together, their
_ or two oflaves of the antients, v.e have at prefent j figure allowing that they fliould be approached fo
8 tetrachords, all compofed like thofe of the ex- j near one another, that they appear to make but
ample. Fig. 6. of 8 diatonick, and 5 chromatick j one figure, only placed on different detjices.

ibunds

Thofe four oriaves make the ordinary extent

thus P

H I I-

H-

C H. without it be neceflary to put a
of the modern fyftem, or of the organs, or harp- femicir'cle, above or under it, to mark thebindino-
fical ; and the firft touch or march of the keys on i 2. T hat it is only a queftion here of the binary

the left fide, are commonly called, for that rcafon,
C, fol, ut, or fimply, ut.

4. Laftly, as the notes of the fyftem of Guid::
Aretin, rendered the tunes fo uniform, that it de-
prived them of that variety of motion, fometimes
flow, fometimes quick, which make all the grace
or charm ticicof, and obliged often to pronounce

meafure, or at two times. 3. That they maybe
confider'd^ as fimple, as having a tail. 4. As be-
ing of different colours.

If they be fimple, they either go in afcendino;,
and then they are all worth their natural vakic,
/. e, two meafures each, bee A. But if thev "o

M U S I G K.

in defccnding they'll be worth each four mea-
fures, if there be but two together as B. But if
there be three or four together, then the firft and
laft will be worth each four meafures ; and thofe
in the middle will be worth but two, as A B C,
Fig. 8.

If they have a tail, either that tail afcends up-
wards, and then all the breves or fquares, as well
in dcfcending, as in afcending, are worth each
but one meafurc, as D, which was invented be-
caufc the rounds and minims are not of a figure
to be bound together, and that the ufc of the
demi-circle or ligature, was not yet introduced.
But if that tail hangs downwards, then it gives
the breve its natural value of two meafures, as well
indefcending, as in afcending, like E, Fig. 9.

Lafllv, if they be of different colours, /'. e. if the
firft be white, and the fecond black ; then the firft
is worth one meafure, and the fecond one white
pointed, or a time and a half; for example.
Fig, 10.

From thofe different fyjlam I'll pafs to the

genders of mufick.

Genus, in muficf:, is a manner of running
through difterent degrees or founds, and the fcnfi-
ble intervals, which compofe the extent of the
octave, or of its replies.

The antients diftinguiflied commonly three
kinds of genera's, viz. the diatoniek, chronatick,
and enhaymonick.

The DiATONiCK is that genus, the lefter in-
tervals Vvhereof, are the femi tone majors and the
tones ; and is when the modulation follows the
natural order of the founds, i. e. that diftance put
in it by nature, and which the moft ignorant ob-
ferve naturally, if they have a good ear, and the
organs of the voice j uft. According to that natu
ral order there is a tone between all the notes of
mufick, except between «/, fa., andyJ, «/, which
are femi-tones major.

The Chromatick is when the moJulation
proceeds by femi-tones major and minor, and ge-
nerally as often as the diatoniek or natural order
which is between the founds is changed in altering
them, /• e. raifing them by degrees, or lowering
them by b-imls.

The enharmonick genus is of no u'e at prefcnt.

The next thing which falls under our confi-
deration, arc the modes or tones.,

Mode, in nwfick, is a particular manner of be-
ginning, continuing, and ending a fong, whereby
we are engaged to make ufe of certain notes, or
chords, preferable to, or oftnerthan others.
Vol. II. 43.

357

Mode, is defined by fomc authors the pariicula"^
manner of conftituting the odave, or the melo-
dious conftitution of the 0(Slave, as it confifts o
fevcn eflcntial, or natural notes bcfides the key,
or fundamental.

To undcrftand well what a mode is, according
to our firft definition, we muft obfervc, that in
every tune or fong there is three principal chords ;
the firft, is that whereby a fong is almoft always
begun, and where it muft be always ended, where-
fore it is called the fnal. The fecond, is that
which is repeated, and which is heard oftncr than
any other, wherefore it is called the dominante.
And the third, as being between the othe'r two,
is called the mediante, and is commonly a third
above the fnal. Thefe three chords are otherwife
called the efential founds of the mode.

Among all the fongs comprized in the extent of
the oSlave, there is always one which divides it
harmonically, i. e. which is juft a filth above its
lovveft chord; and another which divides it arith-
metically, i. e. which is a fourth higher than its
lower chord ; for inftance. Fig. ti.

This double divifion has formed the two claftes
oi modes, fo often mentioned in authors, viz. that
of the autheritick modes, and that of the modes plagal.
For when in a fong, the found, which is one fifth
above the loweft chord of the od ave of a nmU, is
repeated and often heard, then a mcde is authcntuk ;
and when that which is but of one fourth diftant
from it, or another which makes a third againft
its final is repeated, it is a plagal mode ; for in-
ftance, Fig. 11.

But as among the feven fpccies oi octaves above-
mentioned, there are but fix which can be divided
harmonically, or by the juft iifth, vi%. the otS'aves.,
C, D, E, F, G, A, becaufe the fifth of the Oiffaw
B or fromyJ to fa in afcending, is diatonieallyiWie
or diminiflied : there are alfo but fix auihentiek
modes ; as on the other fide there are but fix
octaves which can be divided arithmetically, or by
thejuft fourth, w'z. theodaves C, D, E, G, A, B,
becaufe the fourth of the oilave F, or {ram fa to
f, in afcending, is fupcrfluous. There are like-
wife but fix plagal modes ; therefore the oflaves,
C, D, E, G, A, have each two modes, one anthen-
tick and the other plagal ; the otSavc I'^has but one
which is authentiek ; and the oiSave B has but
one likewife, which is plagal ; which makes up
twelve in number. In Fig. 13. is a table wliicli
contains all that in a very clear manner.

That which the moderns call modes, the antien s
called tune.

Tune, or i'.ne, in mufick, is taken for one of its

intervals, and even for the fii^, the foundation,

A a a the

35.8

The Unlverfal Hiflory of Arts and Sciences.

the foiircc, rule, ami meafure of all other intervals. I
In that lenif the anticnts, and the mathematicians
diltinguiih two forts of tunes, Wz.

The Tone minor, whofe proportion is y^yy«/-
titnth-, as from i6 to 9, and which is always the
third interval of each tetrachord. And,

The Tone major ^ v/hofe proportion K fefqu'i-
ei'hth, as from g to 8, and which is always the
interval of the middle of each tetrachord ; as in the
following example :

fcr 8 to 9. from 9 to 10.

M I I'A Sol La.

Scm-tone. Tonc-ir.ajor. T-^ne-minor.

It is aifo in that fenfe, that the moderns (fup-
pofmg that all the tones in the temperate fyllem be
very near equal, (faVi that the tone is the interval
titivecn all the decrees or diatonick and natural nott^
if the oSlave, extept between mi, fa, and fi, ut,
■which are naturally hut femi- tones.

■Laftly, in that fenfe it is faid, that the tone is a
feconl major, becaufe it is the diftance from one
found to another, which are diftant from one
another of 9 comma's, ^c.

The word mutation fignlfies one of the accidents,
whkh happens in the order of the found . that
cumpofe a fong, or a melody ; which accident
happens by a change ; which change is made in
Icur manners.

The firft in changing the genus, ;'. e. pafllng
from the diatonick to the chromatid^ or enharmo-
nick, and reciprocally from the chromatid to the
diatonick, &c. which is called mutation by genus.

The fecond in making the tune of a very acute
found, to defcend to a grave one, the better to ex-
prefv fome wordi of the text : That's called mu-
tation b: fyjlfi-

The third i?, when to exprefs fome paflion, ^c.
one pafTcs from a mode into another, as from the
mode fr.ajor to the mode minor, O'lr. which is
called mutatione per tuom 0 mode.

The fourth is, when one pafll-s from a manner
of finging male and vigorous-, called tnaniera dif-
tendaite, to a f,* eeter, more lan2,uilhin?, fofter,
and more efFeminite, called tnaniera reflringcnte;
or to a tranquil manner which keeps a medium be-
tween the two, and it- called rnaniera quieta. All
thefe manner>, and the other changes, are pathe-
tick, ;'. e. very proper to exprefs the different paf-
fions or motions ot the foul and heart.

Having thus far confider'd and explained the
firft branch of the contemplative part ofmuf:ck, I'll
pafsto theiecond branch, whicii treats of the num-
bers of founds or notes with refpeft to time.

The word Time has feveral fignifications in

mufick, I. It fignifics in general one of tl^ofe three
figns of the meafure, which tlic Italians aW gradi,
viz. time, relation:, SlXxA fine ope.

Time, according to the antients, was a certairi
fign placed after the key, to mark how many fp-
mi breves or rounds were contain'd in one breve
or fquare. They diftinguifhed two forts of timej,
viz. perfedt and impeife£t. A circle whole or cut,
perpendicularly, but without a point, was the
mark of a perfeft time, under which a breve, even
without a point, was worth three femi-breves, as
A Fig. 8. A fcmi circle, cither whole or cut, was
the fign of an imperfect time, under which a breve
was wonh but two femi-breves or rounds; as B,
Fig. 38.

Others more moJern, though they agreed with
the antients on the divifion of time into perftcSl
and imperfect, pretended ; i. That the figns of
the perfect time, or the example A, had not the
virtue of rendering the breve more perfeft, unlefs
they were ibllovved by the figures \ or \ and 2,
that by means of thofe figures the figns of the ex-
ample B, had the power to render the breve more
perfedt, or to give it the value of three femi-breves,
as well as thofe of the example A.

But if the figns of the example B, were not
followed by figures, they made them ferve not on-
ly for the meafure of the breve, with regard to
the femi-breve, but, likewife, for all notes of lefs
value without diftintSlion ; and admitted two kinds
thereof, viz. the fimple C, which the Italians
call fimply tempo., and the C cut perpendicularly,
which they call tempo tigliato.

The fimple C is feen in two manners, i. Turn-
ed from the left to the right thus C, and then the
Italians call it tempo ordinario, becaufe it is oftener
ufcd than any other ; or tempo alio fcml-breve, be-
caufe under that fign a femi-breve or round O is
worth a meafure, or four times, and the other fi-
gures in proportion. 2. But it is fometimes found
turned from the right to the left, thus 3, then all
the figures are diminiftied of half their value; thus
one round 0_ is worth biit two times ; one mi-
nim or white bat one time, and thus of the reft.

The C Cut, is found likewife either turned from
the left to the right, thus (t or from the r'ght to
the left, thus f^. When on the left, the Italians
call it, tempo al.a breve, becaufe ant'enily, all the
figures under that fign were diminiflaed of half
their value: but at prefent it marks that the
meafure muft be beat at two times grave, or at
four times very quick, unlefs there be /<7r^a, ada-
gio, lento, or fome other term, which advifes to
beat the meafure flowly. And when with that
fign the words i/rf capella, and alia breve, are feen,
it marks' two very quick times j which it marks,

likewife

M U S I C K.

likewife, when turned upfide down ; but it is fcl-
dom found in that fituation.

Laftly, others fHU more modern, divide times
into two fingle fpecies ; the firfl is tempo maggiore,
or time ma'for, wliich is marked by a 4\ cut, and

fignifies, that all the notes can be fung alia breve,
i.e. in making them worth but half their value.
The fccond is tempo minore, or time minor, which
is marked by a fingle C, under which all the notes
are worth their natural value. And if one and the
other of thofe two times are followed by three, or
any of the other figns, I'll mention when I fpeak
of the triple, then they are called ternary major, or
minor time.

2. The word time fignifies not only one of the
figns of the meafure, but likewife the aliquot pjrts
it is compofed of : therefore we fay, that there are
meafures at two, at three, at four timrs, &c. be-
caufe the hand by its different motions marks as
many parts in each meafure.

But it muft be obferved, that among the diffe-
rent times which compofe the meafure, there are
fonie more proper than the others, to place a con-
fonance or a good accord ; which for that reafon,
are called tempo, or tempi di buono, i. e. a certain
time of the meafure which is good, and more pro-
per to certain things than anuther.

9. We find fometimes after the recitative o^ the.
Italians, thcfe words a tempo, or a tempo giujio,
which mark that the meafure mull be beat jult,
and the times thereof rendered very equal; when
as in the recitative a greater regard is to be had to
the expreiTion, than to the jullnefs or equality of
the times of the meafure.

As time, among the antients was properly the
meafure of the breve zn<\ femib'^eve ; prolation, or
the point thus called (which wa^ marked either in
a circle or lemicircle, th;is, G G ) was the meafure
of ihe femibreve, and of the minim.

There were two forts of prolations, viz. theper-
ftSi, and imperfect.

The perfeii prolation, was marked after the key,
by a point within a circle, thus O, or within a fe-
micircle, thus G, and then the y^w/'-ir^w or round
v/as v/orth three minims or whites ; wherefore that
circle was commonly accompained with 3. or \ or
'. which are the figns of three times for each mea-
lure ; and which is demonftrated in A, fig. 39.

The imperfect prolalioR was marked like the
time, either by a circle, thus O, or by a femi cir-
cle, thus C, both without a point ; and then the
femi-breve or round, was worth but two minims or
whites, as is feen in B, fig. 39.

The modern Italians have ftill often in their
raufick two foris of prolations, very near like
to that of the example A, fig. 39. The firfl.

359

which they call prolazlone moggiore perfctta, is
marke.l with a O ^'nd \ ;

The fecond, \.\M:y CdW prolazione minore pcrfelta,

is marked with a C and ] or |, and fometimes

with a (X and J. but in both the round _Q_, is

worth three times, even without a point ; and its

C) paufe a meafure, The white^ is wrr h a

time, and its paufe a time ; and the reft

— ■ of the figures in proportion, as in our plate
Fig. 40.

From this 111 pafs to the meafure, which is the
interval, or fpace of time, which the perfon who
beats time, takes between the raifing and falling
ot his hand or foot, in order to conduft the move-
ment, fometimes quicker and fomvtinies fl wer,
according to the kmd of mufick, or the fubjc<ft
that is fung or played.

The meafure, is that which regulates the time
we are to dwell on each note.

The ordinary or common meafure, is one fe-
cond, or iixtieili part of a minute, which is near-
ly the fpace between the beats of the pulfe or heart;
the fyffole orcontiaftion of the heart anfwerirg to
the elevation of the hand, and its diaflole or dilation
to the letting it fall. The meafure ufually takes
up the fpace that a pendu'um of two feet and a half
long, employs in making a (wing or vibration.

'i'here ■i.'.o. meafur,s at two tim s or binary; at
three time.', or triple ; at four, fix, eight, idne,
and twelve times ; and meafures for all forfs of times.

Binary, or double meafure, is that v/hercin the
rife and fdl of hand are equal.

Ternary, or triple malure, is that which i«
beaten in three equal times, ehherfir/fle or co/r pol-
ed ; the firjl whereof is made by one fall ot the
hand; the fecond, by turning it a little afide, and
the third in raifing it.

Towards the middle of the I.ifl century, fo ma-
ny fpecies of triples v.'ere invented, that to give
the explication thereof with fume order, I am ob-
liged to difpofe them under three diiFcrent clafTes,
viz. oi fimple, Lompeifed, and mixt triples.

First Class.
Of ftmple triples.

I call Jiirple triples thofe which have hut three

ftmple times, i. e. whofe times cannot be fub-di-
vii'ed into three other equal notes. 1 find five

I different futs of them in author?, to mark five
degrees of flownefs or quickrefs. T be fiift is that
called rhe grand triple, or triple of the rounds, or
of three for one ; thus called bccaufe the h; tves or
fquares, and the femiii eves^ or rounds, are predo-

' minaiit in it, and the m.e^fure thereof muil be
beat flomly and gravely, fo that eadi t;nn- be con-

i A w a a fequenily

360

Tlis Univerfal Hiftcry of h^T^ and Sciences.

quL-ndy greiiter and longer than thoL" of the other
loUowiiig triples.

Ourantients, and (omz Italians flill, ha"c four
different li;^;ns to mark the tripola ma^^iore ; ac-
cording to which they gave it four different names,
as in the table, Fig. 40. Mufick plate.

Of thofe four figns, the moderns liave retained
but this I without putting before, cither the circle
C), or the fcmi circle C, t^c. thofe two figures of
arithmeticit denoting clearly enough, that three
rounds, inRead of one, are wanted for one mea-
Jure ; and that a breve ht\n^ worth two rounch, is
confequently worth by itfclf twn times, and three
when followed by a point; and the other figures
in pr portion.

Ttic fecond fort o^ ftmple triple, is thst called by
the Italians, tripla mir.ore, or triple minor. Our
antients had likewife four difi'erent figns for that
fort oi triple, according to which they gave them
three different names ; as is feen in the table. Fig.
21.

Of thofe four figns the moderns have retained
but this I C, whence in all iippearanre it has bor-
rowed its lume of double triples, even without
putting before, the femi-circle C ; thofe two fi-
gures being fufficient to mark that three whites,
inftjad of two, are wanted for a meafure ; and
that iLfemi-breve, or round, having by itfelf the
value of two whites, is confequently worth two
times and three times, if it be followed by a point;
and thus in proportion of the other figures.

The thitd kind o\' fimple triple, is that called by
the It<)lians, tripola picciolo, fmall triple : it is
marked thus C |, or fimply ^, or more irmply 3.

When that triple is marked by \, it is proper
for tender expreflions, and the movement thereof
muff be moderate, neither too quick, nor too Jloiv,
&c. When marked by a fingle 3, the movement
thereof is moft commonly a little merry ; whcr,.fore
it is mofl commonly ufed for merry and lively
dances.

The fourth kind of fimple triple is that called by
the Italians iripola crome'.ta, or triple of crotchets ;
becaufe, without doubt there is no other fign, but
thefe two figures thus C | or thus |, which mark
that three crotches make a meafure, whenas eight
are wanted in the binary meafure; that therefore
lix double crotchets, and twelve triple crotchets,
make likewife a meafure; and that a ftngle black
is worth two times, and three times are a meafure
■when it is pundluated.

Laftly, the fifth kind oi ftrr.ple triple, is that
which the Italians call tripola femi crometta, or
triple ef double crotchets. Its fign is compofed of
thefe two numbers thus C ,|, or thu^ ,|, which
mark that three double crotchets make one mea-
fuie, whenas 16 of themate wanttd in the binary

meafu; t : therefore that C^x iripli crotehds, and one
purduatcd crotchet make alfo a meafure; that a
fmgle crotchet is worth but two limes, tSc, for
example. Fig. 35.

This triple is pioper for very quick and rapid ex'
prcfftnii, llnce each time of the meafure mufl laft
no lunger than a double crotchet lafts in the ordina-
ry meafure.

Second Class.
Of the compofed triples.

I call ctynpofcd triples, thofe which have not
only, and are but at three times, like the fimplts ;
but each time whereof can likewife be fubdividtd
into three other equal times or notes, and are call-
ed in general, by the Italians, nonupla, of which
there arc but three forts in ufe.

The frfi is that called by the Italians nonupla
cli femi-m nima, an! by the French triple of (^ for
4, or nine four ; becaufe it has for fign thofe two
numbers thus, C J, or thus I, which mark that
9 black notes are wanted in each meafure, viz.
three at each time inflead of two : this triple is
proper for tender exprcffions, and is to be beat
moderattly, neither too flow or too quick ; as in
Fig. 2q.

The fecond is that which the Italians call nonu-
pla di crome, or ffqui ottava, and the French tri-
ple of 9 for 8, or only nine eight ; becaufe that
triple has for fign thofe two numbers thus, C |,
or thus I, which mark that there wants nine crot-
chets, viz. three in each time, to make up the
meafure inflead of four. This triple is prf.perfor
merry exprefuons, and ought to be ht&t quickly and
merrily.

The third is that called by the Italians no-.up^a
di feini- crome, ox triple of q for lb; becaufe it
has for fign thofe two numbers, thus C '| or
thus '9'; which mark that there wants nine dou-
ble crochets for a meafure, viz, three at each time
inflead of eight. 7 his triple is proper for very
quick and very rapid expreflions. As is feen, Fig.

• Five other kinds of fimple triples, have been in-
vented to mark the different decrees of flownefs or
quicknefs, which mull be given to the meafure; I
believe that it would be proper to introduce two
other kinds of compound triples, and add to the
three figns here above 4 | il thefe two other figns
^ and I. The firft whereof could be very well
c.iUed triple of 9 for I ; becaufe it would have
tHofe two numbers for figns, thus f, which would
(hew, I . That for a meafure there fhould be want-
ed 9 femi breves or rounds, viz. three at each
timcw 2. That for one time, a breve, or fquare

with

M U S I C K.

with a point fliould be wanted j becaufe without a
point it would be worth but two thirds of a time,
t^c. 3. That the batoon would be worth but two
meafurcs ; the femi-b itoiui one meafure ; the paui'e
one time or" the meafuie ; and tlie h^If paufo one
thiid of a time, or a ninth part of the meafure,
ts'c. That Icind of triple would be ver^' proper for
forrowful and languifhing expreflions, and gene-
rally for all thofe, which want a flow meafure, fee

Fig- 33-

1 lit; fccond would be called triple of g for 2,

becaufe it would have thofe two numbers for fr-^ns,
thus % ; which would (hew, i. That for one mea-
fure, g minims or whites (hould be wanted, viz.
three for each time. 2. That for one time there
fho\ild be wanted a femi-breve or round, with a
point, becaufe wiihout a point it would be wortii
but two thirds of a time, i^c. 3. That the batoon
would be worth but two meafures ; the f^mi-ba-
toon one meafure ; the paufe one time ; and the
half-paufe one third of a time, or a ninth part of
the meafure ; as m Fig. 34. This triple would be
very projier tor the movement;; which the Italians
exprefs by the words lento, adagio. Sec.

Third Class.

0/ triples mixt.

I call triples mixt, thofe which participate of
tv/o forts of meafures, i.e. which, for the man-
ner of beating the meafure thereof, follow the bi-
nary meafure ; and for the value ot their notes or
fitrures, follow the ternarv meafure. But there
are two forts of binary meafures, viz. a. fimple one
compofed of two times ; and one compofed which
has tour times ; which obliges me to divide this
cLifs into two articles.

361

A R T I C L E . I.

Of triples at two times.

Thefe we call a meafure at fi.x times, though
improperly, for they fl\ould rather be called bina-
nary triples, ^c. we find hut three kinds of them
inautliois; but we have fonie reafon to add two
more to them ; therefore, I'll explain them it!l five
in this article.," • , ,

The firft is that which we could very well call
triple of 6 for i, becaufe it fliould have for fign
thofe two numbers thus, f.

The (econd fort is that, which could be called
triple of 6 for 2 ; becaufe it would have for fign
thofe two numbers, thus, \.

The third kind of binary triple is that which we
call of 6 to 4, becaufe it has for fign thofe two
numbers thus, Q, %ox \. This triple is common-
ly ufed for tender afFeituous motions ; for Ir.flai-.ce,
Fig. 38.

The fourth fort of binary triple is that we call
of fix for eight, becaufe it has for figns thofe two
numbers, thus C S or J. This triple is proper for
merry, lively, and animated expreflions ; and con-
lequently beat pretty quick. Sec Fig. 39.

The fifth fort of binary triple, is that called of
fix for fixteen ; becaufe it has for fign thofe two
numbers, thus, C ,6 or 1%. 'I'his triple is for
movements and exprcifions of the greateft rapidity,
which the Italians m.ark by the i'upetlative term
prcflijjimo. See Fig. 40. and Fig. 41. io a tabic
of the feftuple, or binary triples.

Article II.

Of triples beaten at four times.
The firfl is that which coi'ld be called in Italian,
dodeaipla di femi-brcvi, and in EngUfl), triple of 12,
for I, becaufe it fliould have for fign thofe two
numbers, thus"?', which would be very proper for
very melancholick, and flow expreflions, Wf. See

F''g- 43-

The fecond fpecies of triples at four times, is that
which could be very well called in Italian, dode-
citpla di minime, and by us triple of 12 for 2.
Becaufe it would have for fign thofe numbers, thus
'J, which would be proper for grave and flow ex-
preflions, d5t. See Fig. 44.

The third fpecies of triples at four times, is that
which the Italians call dodeaipla di Semi-tninine,
and we triple of 12 for 4. Becaufe it has for fign
thofe two numbers, thus C '4 or '*; whichis
proper for tender and affedtuous exprefuons, and
(bmeiimcs for thofe which are lively and animated,
i^c. See Fig. 45.

1 he fourth fpecies of triples at four times, is
that which the Italians call dupla di chrome, and
the French, triple of I2 fo|^ 8, becaufe it has thofe
two numbers for fign, thus C 'J or thus 'g. This-
triple is very proper for lively and merry expief-
fions ; which notwithltanding the Italians ufe it
very often for tender and affc.auous expreflions,
adding to it the words adagio, affettiiofo, or fome
other, for of ilfelf it denotes mirth. See Fig. 46.

Laflly, the fifth fpecies of triple at four times, is
that called by the Italians, dodccupla di femi-crome,
and by thus, triple of J2 for 16 ; becaufe it h.is
for fign thofe two numbers marked thus C ]l, or
thus {J. This triple is proper for very quick,
and very rapid expreflions ; which the Italians
mark by the fuperlative pre/timijjimo. See Fig.^y.
From the triples I'll pals lo fyncope, called alio
fynccpation.

, Syncope fignifies the divifion of a note, ufed
v/hen two or more notes of one part anfwer to a
fingle.oae of the other, as when the femi breve of
the one anfwer to two or three notes of the other.

But

2^2 The Univerfal Hiftory

But to have a right underftanding of the word
fyncope, it mud be obfc-rved firft, that every bar in
common time has two parts, one of which is when
the hand falls, the other when it rifes.

Secondly, that any note which contains two
times, or a rife and fall of the hand, is divifible into
two parts, for the firft whereof the hand goes down,
for the laft it rifcs.

Thirdlv, that every note (though of lefs value
than a femi breve) is divifible into two others, the
firft whereof muft be during the firft part of the
meafure, or -with a rife or fall of the hand, the
other part in the fecond.

The following is a table from Document! Arma-
nicl d'l Angela B^rnardi ; which ftiews at once what
the concords are, that refolve each diftance the
more naturally, whether the upper or lower part
of thefynicpe.

fFben tin trcule or u^-pe

part jyncopes.
The 2d is rcl'olved by u

nifon.
The 4th by the -^d.
The 7th by the 5th or 6th.
The gth by theSth.
The nth bv the icth.

When the bafs or lower

part Jyniifes.
The 2d is refolvcd by

the 3d.
The 4th by the 5 th.
The 7 th by the 8 th.
i he gth by the loth.
The nth by the 12th.

When two fucceflive notes of equal value, -as to
ti.ne, are ufed, one of which being a difcord, fup-
plies the other a concord, it is ca.\\ed fuppojition.

There are feveral kinds of/uppojitian. The firft,
when the parts proceed gradually from concord to
difcord, or i contra from difcord to concord, the
intervening diicord ferving only as a tranfition to
the following concord.

Another kind is, when the parts do not proceed
gradually from difcord to concord, and vice vcrfa,
but defcend to it by the diftance of a third.

A third kind like the fecond, is, when the lifing
to the diicord is gradual, but the defcending from
it to the following concord is by the diftance of a
fourth.

A fourth kind very different from all the reft, is,
W^hen the difcord falls on the accented part of thc
meafure, and the rifing to it is by the interval of a
fourth ; in which cafe it is abfolutely neceffary to
follow it immediately by a gradual defcent into a
concord, which has juft been heard in the harmony,
to make the preceding difcord pafs without notice,
and only fcem a traniuion into the concord.

When three notes are played to one, they muft
all be of equal value, as in the meafure %%, ox

g, 0(r

If thefe three notes of equal value, be preceded
by a paufe equal to one of them, the firft ofthofe

of Arts ^«^ Sciences.

left may be a difcord, becaufe thepaufe is reckoned,
in the place of the concord, hce Fig. 40.

Todifpofe to practice the rules heretofore
defcribed, into airs, fongs, t^c. either in one or
more parts, to be fung by a voice, or played on in-
ftruments, is the praiiical pa)t of Mujick, or the
art of compofition.

Zarling defines compojttion, the art of joining and
combining concords and difcords together.

Under compofition are comprehended the rules,
I. Oi melody., or theartof making a fingle part,
that is, contriving and difpofing thefimple founds,
fo as that their fucceftion and progreflion may be
agreeable to the ear.

2. Of harmony., or the art of difpofing and con-
certing feveral fingle parts together ; fo as that they
make one agreeable whole.

The words concord and harmony do really fignify
the fame thing, though cuftom has made a little
difference between them ; concord is the agreeable
elfeifi: of two founds in confonance, and harmony
the effeiS of any greater number of agreeable founds
in confonance.

Harmony is well defined the fum of concords,
arifing from a continuation of two or more con-
cords ; /'. e. three or more fimple founds ftriking
the ear altogether, and difFerent compofitions of
concords make different ,?)i7rff7»vy.

To underftand the nature, and to determine the
numbers and preference of harmonies..) it is to be
confidered, that in every compound found, where
there are not more than three fimple ones, there arc
three kinds of relations, viz. primary relation of
every fimple found to the fundamental or graveft, ,
whereby they make different degrees of concord
with it ; the mutual relations of the acute founds,
each with the other, whereby they mix concord or
difcord into the compound ; and the fecondary re-
lation of the whole, whereby all the terms unite
their vibrations, or coincide more or lefs fre-
quently.

Suppofe, e. g. four founds. A, B, C and D,
v/hc-rcof A is the graveft, B the next, then C and
Dthe acuteft ; here A is the fundamental, and the
relations of 'B, C, and D, are primary relations : fo
if B be a third greater above A, that primary rela-
tion is ,4:5; and if C be a fifth to A, that primary
relation is 3:2; and if D be an o£lave to A, that
is 2 : I : for the mutual relations of the acute
terms, B, C, D, they are had by taking primary
relations to the fundamental, and fubtraiting each
leflcr from each greater, thus B to C is 5 : 6, fo
a third Icfler ; B to D, 5 : 8, a fixth k-fler, i^c.
And laftly, to find the fecondary relations of the
whole, feek the leaft common dividend to all the
leiTer terms or numbers of the primary relations,

2. e.

M U S 1 C K,

2^Z

i A the leaft number that will be divided by each
of them exaiStly, this is the thing fought ; and
ftjews that all the fimple founds coincide after fo
many vibrations of the fundamental, as th^ num-
ber exprelTes.

So in the preceding example the IciTer terms of
the three primary relations are 4, 2, l, whofe lead
common dividend is 4, confequently at every
fourth vibration, of the fundamental, the whole
will coincide.

Harmony is divided Into fimplc and compound.

Sin^ple Harmony is that to which there is no
concord to the fundamental above an 0(5tave.

The ingredients oi fimple harmony, are the feven
original fimple concords, of which there can be but
eighteen different combinations that arc harmony ;
v/hich are given in the following table from Mr.
Malcolm.:

Tlje Table of fimple harmonies.

Secondary Relations. Secondary Relations.

5th 8ve

4th 8ve

6th greater 8ve

^d greater 8ve

3d lefler 8ve

6th leirer 8vc

3dgrt. 5th 8ve
3dlefs. 5th 8ve
4th 6th grt. 8ve
jd grt. 6tli grt. 8ve
3dlefs.6thlefs.8ve
4th 6thlef. 8ve

3d grt. 5th

3dlefs. ;th
4th 6th grt.
3d grt 6thlefs.
3dlefs.6thlers.
4th 6thlefs.
Compound Harmony is that which to the har
mony of an oftave adds that of another

Harmony again may be divided into that of
concords, and that of dlfcords. — The firft is that
which we have hitherto confidcred, wherein no-
thing but concords are admitted.— —The fecond
is that wherciadifcords are ufcd, and mixed with
concords.

The firft is alfo called fm^le counterpoint, and
the kcond figurative counterpoint.

Simple cjunt''rp':int confiiis of the imperfefl, as
well as perfeft concords, and may be therefore de-
nominated perfeiSt or imperfedt, according as the
concords are whereof it is compofed

Tht figurative counterpoint is of two kinds ; in
one difcords are introduced occafionally as palling
notes, ferving only as tranfition's froin concord to
concord; in the others, the difcord bears a chief
part in the harmony.

The Table of Concords.
Ratio's of Vibrations. Coincidences

Grave Acute
Terms.

Unifon,

Oaave, 8ve, .

Fifth, 5th,

Fourth, 4th,

Sixth greater, 6th grt.

Third, grci.ter, 3d grt.

Third leffer, 3d lefi^er,

Sixth lefs, 6th lefler,

Grave

Kte

Leng

ths.

Concords are divided into fmple, or original and

compound.

A fimple or original Concord, is that whofe
extremes are at a diftancc lefs than the fum of any
two other concords.

On the contrary,- a compound i.a«f£i/Y/ is equal
to two or more fimple concirds.

Other mafters oi mufick flate the divifion thus,
an 0(5lavc i : 2, and all the other inferior concords
above exprefled, are fimple or original concords ;
and all' greater than an oiStave, are called compound
concords, as being coiDpofed of, and all equal to the
(urn ot one or more odlaves, and Come Jimple con-
cord lefs than an odtave, and ufually in pradtice
denominated from thut fimple concord.

As to the compofition and relations of the origi-
nal concords, by applying to them the rules of the
addition, and fubftradlion of intervals, they will be
divided into fimple and compound, according to
the firll and more general notion, as in the follow-
ing table;

Simple Concords. Compound Comcrds. OBavt compojei.

5:6a 3d lefs
4:5 asdgr.

3:4a 4th.

5 th
6th

:th r
thlefs.l

th er. »-

3d gr. & 3d lefs.
4ih and 3d lefs.

f 5th & 4th.
of< 6gr.3dlers

«. '^rsd gr.

3dlefs4th.

gr. <- 4th and 3d gr

Difcords are in tnufck, what ftrong ihades are
in painting.

Moft pieces of mufick are compofed in parts,
the four principal thereof are the treble, tenor,
countertenor, and bafis.

Treble is the highefl, or acuteft part of the
four parts in fymphoiiy ; or that which is heard
cleareft in a conceit. In this fenfe we fay, a
treble violin, treble hautboy, i3c.

The treble is divided into firft or higheft trehlr,
and fecond or lowelt treble ; half treble is the fame
with the counter-tenor.

The Tenor is the firft mean or middle part, ,
or that which is the ordinary pitch of the voice,
when neither raifed to a treble, or iovvertd to a •
baf.

The tenor is commonly marlced iiithorouga".
bafs with the letter T.

The Bass is that part of a concert, 'which is
moft heard, which confifts of the graveft and
deepift founds.

Muficians hold the bafs to be the principal part
of the conceit, anj the foundation of compofition;
though (bme will have the i/cWt' the chief part, ►
which others only make an ornament.

A fecond, o: double bafs, is called counter- tafis^
where there are fevcral in the fame concert.

The

364 7^^ Unlverfal Hiftory of Arts c«<^ Sciences.

The thorough -bafi is the harmony made by the, called the organ^ by the Italians called Jlromenai

bafs-viols., continuing to play both while the voices

fing, and the other inllruments perform their
parts, and alfo filling up the intervals, v/hen any
of the other parts flop.

M. Brejfard obfervcs the thorough-hafs to be
part of the modern mufick, firft invented in the
year 1600, by an Italian called Ludov'uns yiaclana,
it is played by cyphers marked over the notes on
the organ, fpinet, harpfichord, theorbo, harp, l^c.
and frequently, and fimply, and without c)-phers
on the bafs-viol, baiToon, isc.

Befides thcfe four principal parts, there is, in a
concert, what we call chonn, which is, when at
certain periods. of a fong, the whole company are
to join the finger, in repeating certain couplets or
vcrfes.

da futo.

The laft the Greeks called knovujfa, the Latins
ptilfntilia, and we Injlrumenti af Percujfton, becaufe
made to found by beating them cither with the
hand, as drums, tabors, tymbals, &c. or with a
little ftick, or fmall iron rod, as pfaltery and fymbal ;
or by a feather, as the cyjlrum and dulcimer \ or by
ftriking them with hammers, as bells, &c.

From this general defcription of inftrumcnts,
I'll enter into a more particular one, and examine
apart every one of the inJlrumuUs contained in
each clafs ; beginning by the firft clafs, and in
that clafs by the lute.

The Vocal Musick is mufick fet to words,
efpecially verfes, to be performed with the voice,
in contradiftinction 'to inltrumental mufick, com-
pofed for, and to be executed by inftruments with-
out linging.

In the 'vocal mufick, there are pieces compofed
for one, two, three, or more veices.

A fong or compofition, to be performed with
two voices, or in two parts only, one fung, the
other played on an inftrument, is called a duo ;
and likcwife when two voices fing different parts,
accompanied with a third which is a thorough-
bafs. Unifons and oftaves are rarely ufed in cUd's
except at the bet^inning and the end.

A piece of mufick to be performed by three
voices, or more properly a compofition confifting
of three parts only, is' called trio, which is the
fineft kind of compofition, and ought to be tiie
moft regular of all.

Next to vical muftck is that called injlrumentai,
played on inftruments; which are machines in
vented and dilpoled by art in fuch a manner, as to
imitate the human voice, or lupply its place.

There are many kinds of inftruments, which
are ordinarily reduced into three clafTes or orders.

The fi.'fl: clafs was called by the Greeks enclnr-
daox entata ; which are inftruments with chords,
and to be play'd on with the fingers, as the lute,
harp, theorbo, guitar. :nd others i or. by a bow, as
violin!, bafs-viols, trumfcts marine', iic. or by means
of jacks armed wi h quills-ends, as fpinu'eis, harp-
fichorJs^ &c.

The fecond i.\ni,' cmphyfoomcna, pneumatica, or
emprieoujia, made to found by the wind, and that
either natural from the mouth, as Jlutcs, trumpets,
French-horns, hautboys, hajj'oons, jc'rpents, j'achbnts,
horns, &c. or artificial by means of bellows, as the
bagpipe, and that which by way of excellence was

The Lute, from the Arabick allaud, is a mufi-
cal inftrument of the ftring-kind, which had an-
tiently but five rows of firings ; though in courfe
of time, four, five, or fix more have been added.
It confills of four principal parts ; the table, the
body or belly, which has nine or ten fides ; the
neck which has nine or ten fl:ops or divifions
marked with ftrings ; and the head or crofs,
wherein are fcrews, for raifing or lowering the
ftrings to the proper tune. In the middle of the
table is a rofc or p'^flage for the found : there is
alfo a bridge that the ftrings are fattened to, and a
piece of ivory between the head and the neck, to
which the other extremities of the ftrings are
fitted. In p!a\ ing the ftrings are ftruck with the
riffht hand, and with the left the flops are pref-
fe'd.

The lutes of Bologna are efteemed the beft.
The Theorbo, from the French teorhe or
theorbe, is a mufical inftrument made in form of a
large lute, except that it has two necks, the fecond
and longer whereof fuftains the four laft rows of
chords, which are to gwc the deepeft found. It
has fucceeded to the lute, in the playing of tho-
rough bailes.

s alfo much out of ufe ; the bajfoon
its place, and with much more

The theorbo i
iuppl}ing well
agreement.

TheGuiTAR has five double rows of ftrings, of
which thofe that are bafs are in the middle, unlefs
it be one for the burthen, an oflave lower than the
fourth.

This inftrument was firft ufed in Spain.

The Harp is a mufical inftrument, of a trian-
gular figure, and placed an end betv/een the legs,
to be played on.

There is fome diverfitv in theftruflure of harps,
that called the triple harp has feventy-eight ftrings
or chords which make four 0(51avcs 3 the firft row

M U S

is for femitone";, and the third is utiifon with the
firth Tliere are two rows of pin;; or fcrcws on the
right fide, ierving to iceep the ilrings tight in their
holes, which are faltened at the other end to three
rows of pins on the upper fide.

This in^irument is ftruck with the fingers and
tliumbs of both hands, its mufick is like that of
the fpinet ; all its firings go from femitone to
femitone ; whence iomc called it the inverted
Ipinet.

The J^rp'i, a people in /;'..;_,, were the firfi: that
invented it.

The Violin, Yiohino, fiddL; is a mufical in-
flrument, mounted with four firings or guts ;
and ftruck or played with a bow. The 'violin
confiUs, like mofi: other infiruments, of three
parts, the neck, the table, and the found board.

At the fides are two apertures, and fometimes a
third towards the top, fhaped fike a heart.

Its bridge, which is below the apertures, bears
up the firings, which are fafiencd to the two ex-
tremes of the initrument; at one of them by a
fcrew, which firetches or loofens them at pleafure.

The ftyle and found of the violin, is the gayeft
and mofi fprightly of all other infiruments ; and
hence it is of all others, the fittefi for dancing.

It generally makes the treble, or higheft: parts in
concerts. Its harmony is from fifth to fifth. Its
pla; is compofed of bafs, countertenor, tenor, and
treble; to which may be added, a fifth part : each
part has four fifths, which rife to a greater fevcn-
teenth.

In compofitions of w/^.:/^, violin is exprefied by
V, V V denote two violins.

The word violin alone, fl:ands for treble violin ;
when the Italians prefix alto, ttnore, or ba£o, it
then exprefles the counter-tenor, tenor, ot bafs viclin.

In compofitions where are two, three, or more
different violins, they make ufc of primo, fecundo,
terzo^ or.of the charaders 1. II. III. or i. 2. 3,
isc. to denote the difference.

The violin has only four ftrings, each of a dif-
ferent thicknef , the fmallefi whereof makes the
Yj la mi of the higheft ociave -of the organ; the
fecond a fifth below the firft, makes the A mi la ;
the third a fifth below the fecond, is D la re ;
lafilv, the fourth a fifth below the third, is G refol.

The large;} or fourth firing, has four notes be-
lon2;ina to it, I'.'s;. G ;^yi/, or G, v.'hich is to be
played open ; A la mi re, or A muft be fl:oppcd
with the foic-fingcr of the left hand; almofl: at the
diflanceofan inch from the nut ; 1^ fa he mi, or
B, with the iecond finger about lialf an inch from
the firft, and Cfolfaut, with the third. finger clofc
to the-feccffld.

Vol. II. 43.

» T

vf'

tTT -^T*

,^,^
365

The third has alC) four notes, D la fol re is
ftruck open ; E la mi mult be flopped v.ith the
fore-finger about an inch from the nut ; F utfa,
with the fecond finger clofc to the firft ; and G
re Jol ut (on which note the cleft" is commonly
marked) with the third finger about three quar-
tcrs of an inch from the fecond.

The fecond jh-ing has four notes, h.la txi re,
or A is the open firing ; B/a be mi, or B, is witli
the fore-finger, about an inch from the nut; C
fplfa ut, isthe fecond finger clofe to the firft ; and
D la fol re, or t),'is me third finger about t!:rce
quarters of an inch fiomthc fecond.

The /a;// or treble jiring, has ufually fix notes,
E la mi, open ; F/a ut , or F, the fore- finger very
near the nut; Q fol re nt, or G,the fecond about
three quarters of an inch from the firft ; A la mi re
or A, with the third finger at the fame diftance
from the fecond ; B/a be mi, with tiie little finger
half an inch from the third; and laftly, C /"<? t-i",
you muft ftretch the little finger about a quarter of
an inch further, than for B/a be ?ni. lut here it
muft be obferved, that all the notes on the treble
firing, except E/aorE, are termd />z (?// for dif-
tinc£fion's fake.

Mofi nations ordinarily ufe the clefF G r^r /^/,
on the fecond line, to note (he mufick for the vit-
lin, only in France they ufe the fame clcffat the
firft line at bottom : the firft method is beft, where
the fong goes very low, 'and the fecond where ic
goes very high.

The VioLoKCEi.Lo of the Italiar.s, is propcrh-
our fifth violin, which is a little bafs violin, half the
fize of thecom.mon bafs violin, and thefirin^is big-
ger and longer, in proportion ; and confequently its
found an odiave lower than that of cur bafs violin,
which has a noble efilit in great concerto's.

The Viol, vicla, is a muficsl inftuimcniof the
fame form with the violin: and ftruck like that
with a bow.

There are vids of divers kinds (1.) Tl;e firft
and principal among us, is the baf-viol, called by
the Italians, viola de gamba, or the leg-viol, becaufe
held between the legs. It is the largeft of all,
and is mounted with fix ftrings. Its neck is divi-
ded in hair notes, by ("even frets fixed thereon. Its
found is VLry deep, foft and agreeable. The tL
biatiire ox mufick fbr thc^ff/}--t;/«/is hid down (in
fix lines or ruleSj

2. The love-viol, viola d' amore, wiiich is a
kind of /r.'/(V-'wH or violin ; hating fix. br.ifi, or
fteel ftrings, like thofe of the barpfichord. It
yields a kind of fiUer frtuiiti, Ht-hich has fcmethiii'
in it very agreeable; ■'■ ■'■'•-I'i'-i-'i -'J ' - < -■'_ " "'■ -

j; Their viola frlrttf, -or ■firjfnfic!', M vcAVv our

ciunter-tmor violin ; at lealt they comm3,i]V u<c

Bbb • u,e

366 The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts a7id Sciences.

iheclcffof C/»/Kf OB the firft line, to denote the [ alfo another, called the /i-nsr-J''^, which Is ufed
piece intended for this inftrument. I when the bafs "goes high, to avoid ledger-lines :

piece

.4. Viola fi'cutida, is much the fame with our
tenor violin ; having the clelTof C Jol ut, on the
fecond line.

5. Fiola terza, is nearly our fifth violin ; the
clcfF C fol ut, on the third line.

6. Viola qiurta, ox fourth viol, is not known in
France, or England: though we frequently find it
mentioned in the Italian comporuions ; the clefF
on the fourth line.

7. Lafily, ih<z\rvioletta, or little viol, is in rea-
lity our triple viol; though ft^anger^ frequently
confound the term, with what we have faid of the
viola prima, jecunda, terza, &c.

The Trumpet marine is a mufical inftru-
ment, confifting of three tables, which form its
triangular body. It has a very long neck with
onj fingle firing, very thick, mounted on a bridge,
which i- firm on one fide, but tremulous on the
other. It is ftruck by a bow with one hand, and
with the other the ftring is prefled or ftopped on
the neck by the thumb.

It is the trembling of the bridge, when ftruck,
that makes it imitate the found of a trumpet ;
which it does to that perfedion, that it is fcarce
poffible to diftinguifn the one from the other.
And this is what has given it the denomination of
trumpet marine, tho' in propriety it be a kind of
monochord.

The third kind of injlrutnents of the firft clafs,
are thofe made to found by means of jacks, armed
with quills ends, as harpfichords, fpinnct;, &c.

goes

this clefF is generally placed on any of the four
lower lines, and fomctimcs on the fifth, and is
always the middle C fa ut, of the inftrument.

It muft alfo be obfcrvcd, that in the gamut there
are 29 white k^ys (which is the number contained
in many harpfichords, except thofe made here of
late years ; to which they add, both above and
below, fometimes to the number of 37) there arc
alfo 20 black keys, fomewhat fhorter than the
white ones, v.'hich are placed between them, and
ferve for flats and fharps, -^3—^, and •^ ^.

If any note therefore has a Ihaip before it, the
inward or fhort key above it, muft be touched ;
and if there be a flat before it, the inward key be-
low it, and fo on with all the inward keys, which
are flats to the plain keys above them, and fharps
to thofe below them. Between B and C, and be-
tween E and F, there are no inward keys as there
are between the others, by reafon they have an
interval but of a femi-tone between them.

As to the notes and charadlers in mufick, there
are firft the notes called the femi-breve, minim,
crotchet, quaver, femi-quaver,znd demi femi-quaver.
Next are the chara6lers which are of fharp, flat,
and natural.

Next are the refts or paufes, being thofe ufed to
denote filence, and are of different lengths ; as the
femi-brevc-rcjl, min'm-reft, crotchet-rejl, quavcr-
rejh fcmi- quaver-rej}, and demi- femi-quaver.

There are yet other charadters ufed in mufick,
fuch as dire6l, which are ufually fet at the end of
a flave, to direct to the place of the next flave ; as
W \V W.

There are alfo two forts of bars, viz. fingle and
double ; thefirfl ferves to divide the time according

The Harpsichord is a mufical inftrument of
the ftring kind, played on after the manner of the
organ.

The harpfichord is furnifhed with a fet, and
fometimes two fets of keys. The touching or
ftriking thefe keys, move a kind of little jacks,
which move a double rov/ of chords, or firings of
brafsor iron ftietched on the table of the inftru-
ment over four bridges.

To underftand well all the notes of the harpfi-
chord, and what keys to touch in order to found

them, it mull be obferved, that the four notes

above the treble ftave, arc called in alt ; and thofe

below the bafs ftave are called double ; thefe notes a fliarp key ; the 3d and

are helped by additional lines, which are alfo I naturally require a 6th

called ledger lines.

Ledger-line is that, which when the afcending

and defcending notes run very high, or very low,

is added to the ftave of five lines

times many of thefe lines both above and below

to its meafure, whether common, or triple ; the
double bars are fet to divide the ftrains of fongs or
tunes ; thus _[

A repeat which is thus ; 5 : is ufed to fignify
that fuch a part of a tune muft be played over
ao-ain ; from the note it is placed over. It is alfo
marked thus : 1 1 :

Common chords are to be played on any note,

wherein no figure is put, except when you play in

■ th above the key, then

but if you play in a flat

"key, then a 6th is required to the 2d and 7th above

the kev, unlefs otherwife marked.

Ail'kejs are either flat or ftiarp, not by what

there are Vcme- ^^ flats or Tnarps are fet at the beginning o. the tune,

but by the third above the key. A \) let over

the ftave, to tlie number of four or five. I any note, fhcws that it is to have a flat third ; and

Belides the two clefts abovementloncd, there is [a >j:^ Iharp one, if there be no figure with it.

The

M U S I C K.

The Spinet is a mufical inftrument, and is
played by two ranges of continued keys ; the foie-
mort range being the order of the diatonick fcale,
and that behind, the order of the artificial notes or
fcmi-toncs.

The keys are fo many long flat pieces of wood,
which touched and prefTcd down at the end. make
the other raife jacks, which ftrike the wire, and
caufe the founds, by means of the end of a crow's
quill, wherewith 'tis armed.

The figure of the fpim-t is a long fquare, or pa
rallelogram ; fomc call it the harp couched ; and
the harp an inverted _/?■/»</ : nnd the fame rules
ferve to play on one, as on the other.

In the fecund clajs of inftrumcnts, are thofe

Z^7

There are people, who blow the trumpet fo
foftly, and draw fo delicate a found from it, that
it is ufcd not only in church mufick, but even in
chamber mufick.

The FIautboy is fliaped much like the flute,
only that it fprcads or widens towards the bottom.
The treble is two feet long, the tenor goes a fifth
lower when blown open ; it has only eight holes j
the bafs is five feet long, and has eleven holes.

Thi.s in.lrument is thus held: place the left-
hand uppcrmoft next your mouth, and the right-
h :nd below ; and the contrary with left-handed
people ; and there are eight holes on this inllru-
ment, two of which are under brafs keys, ncver-

which are made to found by the wind, and that r thclefs fcv'cn i'ngers will be fufficicnt to fupply
cither natural from the mouth, ^^s flutes, tiu i pets,
hautboys, hajjoons, [ackbuts, horns, o C- or artificial
by means of bellows, as the baaiijc, and that
which by way of excellence is called the organ.

The Flute is an inftrument of mufick, the
fimpleft of all thofe of the wind kind. It is played
on by blowing in it with the mouth, and the tones
or notes are changed by flopping and opening the
holes, difpofed for that purpofe along its fide.

There are two forts of fades, viz. the common
flute, and the German flute.

'Jhe common flute is long like a lamprey, and
has holes along it, like that fifli.

The German Flute is an inftrument entirely
different from the coTmnon flute; it is not like that
put into the mouth to be played, but the end is
ftopp'd with a tampion or plug, and the lower lip
is applied to a hole about two inches and a halt,
or three inches diftant from the end, and about
half an inch dil'tant from the hole, it is ufually
a foot and a half long, rather bigger at the upper
end than at the lower, :.nd perforated with holes,
befides that for the mouth, the lowcit of which is
flopp'd, and opened by the little finger's prefTing on
a brafs, or fometinies a lilver key, like thole on
hautboys, haffoons^.hz. Its found is exceeding
fweet and agreeable, and it ferves as a treble in a
concert.

The Trumpet, from the Italian tvomba.ox
trombetta, is a mufical inftrument, the loudelt of
all portable ones of the wind-kind, ufed chiefly in
war among the cavalry, to direift them in the fer-
viee. It is ufually made of brafs, often of filvcr,
ibmctimes of iron or tin. Its exient is not ftriillj'
determinable, fince ir reaches as high as the
flrength of the breath can force it. A good brcaili
viili carry it beyond four octaves, which is (he ulual
limit of the keys of the fpinet and organ.

hem; as for example.

Let the fore finger of the left-hand cover the
firft hole, the fecond on the fecond hole, and the
third on the next hole, which is a doui:Ie one.
In like manner the fore-finger of the right-hand
mufl flop the ne'xt hole, which is ahb.a double
one, then place the fecond of the fame hand on the
next hole, the;i the third finger on the l(;weft hole
in view, and the little-finger will command the
two brafs keys to open one hole, or ftut the other,
which is always open ; the double holes ferve for
fcmitones.

Thus all the holes of the pipe being flopped,
blow fomcwhat ftrong, and it will found diftindfly
the note Cyi? z//, which h the loweit note on the
hautboy.

The B.ASSooN is a mufical inftrument of the
wind kind, ferving as a bafs in concerts of wind,
mufick, siioi flutes, hautboys, &c. to make it por-
table. It is oivided into two parts ; its diameter
at bottom was formerly nine inches, at prcfcnt 'tis
but rour at moft, and its holes are flopped with
keys, t?t. like large flutes.

The Sacksut is a mufical inftrument of the
wind kind, being a kind of a trinnpet, though
diflerent from the common trumpet, both in form
and fize.

It takes afunderinto four pieces, orbranches, and
has frequently a wreath in the middle ; which is
the fame tube, only twilled twice, or makin^nvo
circles in the middle of the inftrument ;' bv which
means it is brought down one- fourth lower than
its natural tone. It has ah'o two pieces or branches
on the infidc, whicli do liot, appsar, except when
drawn out by means of ah'iioh bar, and which
lengthens it to the degree requifite to hit the tone
re,|uircd.

1 hefacUvt is ufually eight feet long, without

bcing.drawn out, or without rtcko.iBig the- circles:

B b b 2 ■ ' ■■ when

363

The Universal Hiftory ^ Arts and SciencCs.

\Vhen'cxtended to its full length, it is iifiiaHy 15 has only one body, and two or three when ifhtB a
fcet, the w.-eath istwo'feet nine»inches in cwcMm-^.pofilive. The .large organs have four," fometimes

ference : it fervcs as bafs in all concerts of wind
Mufick.

The HoRNT is a fort of mufical inflruincnt of
the wind kind, chiefly ufeJ in hunting, to animate
the hunters and the dogs, and to call the latter
together. The horn may have all the extent of
the trumpet.

The term was anticntly to wi/iil a born, all
horns being in thofe times compalTed ; but fince
11 rait hsrns are come into fafliion, they fay l/Iow a
horn, ovfsundahotn.

The French Horn, called in France, come
de chajjc, is bent into a circle, and goes twp or
three times round, growing gradually bigger and
wider towards the.end, which in iomQ horns is nine
or ten inches over.

, • To play on it, the firft thing is to confiJer the
thickncfs or thinncfs of the lips, and provide a
mouth piece accordingly ; if they are thick, a pretty
broad mouth-piece is required, but if thin, the piece
muft be fomething fmaller. Some Mi'ficians have
brought the French horn to that perfeclion, and
found it fo fweetly, that of late years it has been
introduced into the orcheftra, among the other
inftruments.

The laft kind of inftrument'^ of the fecond clafs,
v.'hich are thofe made to found by means of bel-
lows, are the bagpipe and the org<m.

The Bagpipe is a mufical inrcrument of the
wind kind, chiefly ufed in country places. It
confifts of" two parts; the firft is a leather bag,
which is blown like a foot-ball by means of a pro-
Vent, or little tube fixed to it, and ftopped by a
valve. The other part confifts of three pipes or
flutes, the firft is called the great pipe or drone, the
fecond the little one, which palTes the wind out
only at bottom, and the third as a tongue, and is
played by compreffing the bag when full, under
the arm, and opening and flopping the holes, which
are eight, with the fingers. The little pipe is or-
dinarily a foot long, that played on, rhirteen in-
ches, and the provent fix, This inftrument takes
in the comDafs of three ocSlaves.

The Organ is the largeft and moft harmonious
©fall wind Infti'uments, chiefly ufed for playing a
thorough bafs, with all its -accompaniments. I

The organ is an alTemblage of fevcral rows of
pipes ; its fize is ufually exprefled by the length of
its largeft pipe : thus we fay an organ of jz feet,
of 16 feet, of 8 feet, and of 2 feet.

The organ has at leaft one kx. of keys, when it

five (ets -y bcfides, the pedals or largsft pipes liave
their keys, the flops or touches whereof are pl.iycd
by the feet.

The keys of an orgr.n are ufually divided into
four oflaves, viz. the fecond fub-oclave, firft lijb-
o£lave, middle octave, and firft octave. Each
oiStave is divided into twelve flops or frets, whereof
the feven black mark the natural founds, and the
five white the artificial founds, /. e. the flats and
(harps ; fo that the keys ufually contain 4K (tops
or touches. Some organifts add to this number one
or more flops in the third fub-o£lave, as well as in
the fecond. The pedals extend to two or three
oclaves, at the pleafure of the organift, lb that the
number or flops is undeterminate.

Each key or flop prefied down opens a valve or
plug, which correfponds lengthwiie to as many
holes as there are rows of pipes in the foimd-boards.
The holes of each row are opened, and fliut by a
regifler or ruler pierced with 48 holes : by drawihg
the regifler, the holes of one row are opi-ned, be-
caufc the holes of the regifter correfpond to thofe
of the found-board : fo that by opening a valve, the
•wind brought into the found-board by a large pair
of bellows, finds a paflTage into the pipe, which
correfponds to the open holes of the found-board ;
but by pufliing the regifler, the 48 holes of the re-
sjifler not anfvvering to any of thofe of the found-
board, that row of pipes anfwering to the pufijed
regifter, are fnut. Whence it follows, that by
drawing feveral regifters, feveral rows of pipes arc
opened ; and the fame thing happens, if the fame
regifler correfponds to feveral rows. Hence the
rows of pipes become either fimple or compound ;
fimple, when only one row anfwers to one regifler;
compound, where feveral. The organifts fay, a
row is compound, when feveral pipes play upon
the preffing one flop.

The pipes of the organ are of two kinds, the one
with mouths like our flutes, and the other with
reeds: the firft called pipes of mutation, confi;1s,

!. Of a foot, AAB B {Fig. 15. in the mifcelh'.ous
Plate) which is a hollow cone, and which receives
the wind that is to found the pipe.

2. To this foot is faftened the body of the pipe,
B B D, between the fooc and the body of the pipe
is a diaphragm or partition E E F, v;hich has a
little, long, narrow aperture to let out the wind.
Over this aperture is the mouth BE C C, whofe
upper lip C C, being level, cuts the wind as it
comes out at the aperture.

The pipes are of pewter, lead mixed with a
twelfth part of tin, and of wood ; thofe of tin are
always open at their extremities} their diameter is

very

MUSIC K.

very fmall, their found is very clear and flirill.
Thofe of lead mixed are larger ; the fliortcft open,
the longed qiuK flopped, the mean ones partly
flopped, and havin,.' bcfides a little car on each fide
of the mouth, to he drawn cloler, or fet further
afander, in order to raifc or lower the found. The
wooden pipes are made fquare, and their extre-
mities {topped with a valve or tampion of leather.
The found of the wooden and leaden pipes are very
foft ; the large ones ftopped are ufualiy of wood,
the Imall ones of lead, the iongeft pipes give the
graved found, and the iliorteft the moil: acute ;
their length and width are made in the reciprocal
ratio's of their founds, and the divifions regulated
by their rule, which they call the diapafon: but tt)e
pipes that are fliut have the kngth of tiio:e that are
open, and which yield the fame found • ufualiy the
longell pipe is fixteeii feet, though in extraordinary
organs 'tis thirtv-two ; the pedal tubes are always
open, thougii made of wood and of lead.

A reed-pipe coiififts of a foot, A A B B, (tab.
viifccll. Fig. 16) which carries the wind into the
fhalot, or reed C D, which is a hollow demi-
cylinder, fitted at irs extremity D, into a kind of
mould 1 1, by a wooden tampion F G. The fhalot
is covered with a plate of copper E E F F, fitted
at its extremity F F, into the mould by the fame
wooden tampion; its other extremity EE is at
liberty ; (b that the air eiitring tiie flialot, makes
it-tremble or fhake againdthe reed ; and the longer
that part of the tongue which is at liberty F L, is
made, the deeper is the found. The mould I I
which ferves to fix the fhalot or reed, the tongue,
tampion, U'c. ferves alio to flop the foot of the
pipe, and to oblige the wind to go out wholly at
the reed. Laflly, in the mould is foldered the part
H H K. K, called the tube, whofe inward opening
is a continuation of that of the reed. The form
of this tube is diScrent in the different ranks of
pipes,

T be decree of acutenefs and gravity in the found
of a reed pipe, depends on the length of the tongue,
and the tube; and alfo on the thicknefs of the
tongue, the figure of the tube, and the quantity
of v/ind.

To diverfify the founds of the pipes, they add a
valve to the port -vent, which lets tlie wind go in
fits or fliakcs.

The laji clafs of inftruincnts, we call lii/inwients
offercujjton^ becaufe made to fcund either with the
hand, as drums, tabors, tynibals, Sic. or with little
flicks, or fmall iron rods, as pfaltiry and cymbal ;
or with a. feather, as the (yjlriim and dulcimer ; or
by flriking them with hammers, a:; bells, ^c.

The Drum is a military mufical inftrument,

369

of the pulfatile kind, ufed principally among foJ-
diers, to dire£t their march, attack, retreat, i:Sc.

The body of t!ic drum is of very tiiin oak, bent
into a cylinder, and covered with parchment, which
is flrained or braced more or lefs, according to the
height or depth of the tone required, by filings,
and flruck with flicks.

There are divers beats of the drum, as the march,
double inarch, aJfe,:.bUe, charge, retreat, chamade. Sec.

The Tymeal, which among the antients con-
fiftcd of a thin piece of leather or fkin, ftretched
on a circle of wood or iron, and beat with the
hand.

This may by our kettle-drum, as it appears tr> be
from the Italians ufing the word tympano for a pair
of tymbals.

The Kettle-Drums havetheir body of brafs,
and aie ufed among the horfe to be play'd on, with
two little iron bars with balls at the end ; their
found is fofter, and more agreeable than that of
the common drum ; and they are often ufed in
opera's, oratorio's, tragedies, and concerts.

PsALTERioN, pfaltery, hz mufical inftrument,
much in ufe among the antient Hebrews, v/ho
called it nebel. We know little or nothing of the
precife form of the antient pfaltery.

That now in ufe is a flat inilrument in form of
a trapezium, or triangle truncated a-top.

The Dulcimer is a mufical inflrument, with
wire ftrings, in a triangular form, flrung with a-
bt)ut fifty ftrings, cad over a bridge at each end,
and the acuter gradually the faorrcr, the fliorteft
about eighteen inches, and the longed about thirty-
fix, duck with little iron rods : the bafs ftrings are
doubled, and its found is not difasreable : to be
plaid on, 'tis laid on a table befjre the performer,
v.'ho with a little iron rod in each hand, fcrikes the
ftrings. This indrumentis not much ufed except
among puppet fhews.

The mufick of the inftrumcnts is mod com-
monly cit^ied Jymphofiy.

T\\efympbotty, ov injlrumcntal Mtijick, makes r.lfo
one of the molt elTential parts in a concert^ opera,
oratorio, cantata, bfc.

A Concert, popularly called confort, is a num-
ber or company otmiificians playing or fmgino-, the
fame piece or fong at tne fatne time.

A concert for any indrument, as oraian, harpfi-
chord, violin, i^c. is a pifce of ivlufick wherein
either of thefe inllruments has the grcated part, or
in v/hich the performance is- partly alone, and
partly accoinpani<;d by the other parts.

A Can-

370

Tlie Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ««^ Sciences.

nificent drcflings, machines, and other decorations.

A Cantata is a fong, or compofition, inter-
mixed with recitatives, little airs, and different
motions, and merrily intended for a fmgle voice,
with a thorough bafs, though fometim^s for two
violins, and other inftruments. When the words
or fubjedls are intended for the church, it is called
cantata morali $ fpiriluali : but when on love,
cantata amcroje, &;c. .;

Opera is a dramatlclc compofition, fet to
Mufick and fung on a llage, accompatiied with
muficai inftruments, and enriched with mag-

Oratorio is a fort of fpiritual opera, full of
dialogues, recitativo's, duetto's, trio's, ritf^rndlo's,
chorus's, t?t. the fubjedt whereof is ufuaiiy taken
from the Scripture, or is the life and actions of
fome faint, tsfc.

A piece of Mufuk or compofirion, wholly to be
executed by inftruments, is called Sonata, by the
Italian , j'uinala^ hom fimno, found. I his is with
regard to inftruments of feveral kinds, what can-
tata is with regard to the voice.

M r r H 0 L 0 G r.

MYTHOLOGY, mygoaopia, (from
fiwGsv, fahula ; and >^'.y'&; fci mo, dlfcourfe)
is the hiftory of the fabulous gods, and
heroes of antiquity ; with the explication of the
mvfteries-, or allegories, couched therein.

The firft falfe divinity adored when men be-
gan to abandon the worfliip of the true God, was
the fun : nature feeming to depend entirely for its
prefervation, on its periodical courfe and influen-
ence, prompted them to believe that the world
vvas created by it.

But as the true ideas of a Creator were effaced,
men at laft crowded hea\en and earth with as many
divinities as they could imagine. The earth iti'elf
was deified for furnilhing fruits neceflary for the
fubfiftence of men and animals ; then fire and
water became objects of di\'ine worftiip for their
ufefulnefs to human life.

When things were thus got in the train, gods
by decree? became multiplied to infinity, and fcarce
any thing but what the wcaknefs or caprice of fome
devotee or other, elevated into that rank, things
ufelefs, ordeftrurtive not excepted.

To authorize theirown crimes, and juftify their
vices and debaucheries, men conftituted criminal,
villous, and licentious godsy unjuft, rapacious, and
tvrannical ^«i^j, covetous and i\\K\'\[\ gods, drunken
ffV/y, impudent gods, cruel and bloody gods.

The principal of the antient ^ods, were Jupiter,
Juno, Vejla, MlneTV.t, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars,
Mercury, Neptune, Vulcan, Apollo.

'Jupiter was confidered as god of heaven ; Nep-
tune, as god of the fea ; Man, as god of the war ;
Apollo, of eloquence, poetry, and phyfick ; Mer-
cury, of thieves ; Bacchus, of wine, Cupid, of love
Juno was the goddefs of the air; Diana, the god-
defs of woodi and cha'lity ; Proferpine, the god-
defs of hell ; Venn:, of beauty ; Thetis, of the
fea, i^c.

A fccond fort of gods, cnWei femi-gods, indigctes,
or gods adopted, were men canonized and deified.
As the greater gods had poffcfTion of heaven by
their own right, thefe fecondary deities had it by
right of donation, being tranflated into heaven, for
that they had lived as gods upon earth Somewhat
of this kind is retained in the Romijh cansnizatlon
oi faints.

The heathen gods may all be reduced to the
following claftes, i. Created fpirits, angels, or
da;mons ; v.hence good and evil gods genii, lares^
lemures, guardian gods, infernal gods, &c.

The genius was fuppofcd by the heathens a good
or evil fpirit or daemon, fet over each perfon to di-
rect h:3 birth, accompany him in life, and to be
his guardian angel.

Theantients had their^i-;;// of nations, of cities,
of provinces, Is'c. Notlring is more common than
this following infcription on medals. Genius
."CPU LI Roman.', '^ihe Gtuius of the Roman
People; or, Gekio Pop. Rom. "To the Genius
of the Roman People.

In this (iii\{& genius and lar were the fame thing.

The Platonijls and caftern Philofophers, fup-
pofed the ^??i;/ to inhabit the vaft region or extent
of air between earth and heaven. They were a
fort of intermediate powers, who did the office of
mediators between the gods and men. They were
the int;ipreters and agents of the gods ; commu-
nicated the wills of the deities to men ; and the
prayers and vows of men to the gods. Moft of the
Philofophers held, that the genii of particular men
were bo.-n with them, and died : Plutarch attri-
butes the ceafing of the oracles to the death of the
genii.

There were alfo evil^^«//, who took a pleafure in
perfecuting men, and bringing them evil tidings ;
fuch was that in Paterculus, &c. v/hich appeared

MTTHOLOGT.

to Brutus the night before the battle of Philippi. I
Thefe were alfo called Larva and Lemures.

Lares were a kind of domeftick genii, or di- |
vinitics, worfhipcd in houfcs, and cfieemed tiie
guardians and protciStors of families; fuppofcd to
refide more immediately in the chimney-corner. I

Plutarch di(Unguiflied good and evil lares, as he
had before done good and evil genii.

There were alfo fome publick, others private ^
lares.

The puhlick lares were alfo called compitalcs, '
from Compittim, a crofs-way ; and via/es, from
Fia, a way, or publick road ; as being placed at ,
the meeting of roads, and in the highways, and .
efteemed the patrons and proteiSors of travellers.

Their private /ares took care of particular houfcs
and families : thefe they alfo called prajiites, from
Praflo.

They gave the name Urhani, i. e. lares of cities, I
to thofe who had ci ies under their care, and Hof- j
///// to thofe who were to keep their enemies ofF.
There were alfo lares of the country, called rurales, i
as appears by feveral antique infcriptions.

T'ertullian tells us, the cuflom of worfhipping
the lares arofe from this, tiiat they antiently in-
terred their dead in their houfes ; whence the
credulous pfcople took occafion to imagine, their
fouls continued there alfo, and proceeded to pay
them divine honours.

The viflim offered to the lares in the publick
facrifices was a iiog : in private they offered them
wine, incenfe, a crown of wool, and a little of
what was left at the table. They alfo crowned
them with flowers, particularly the violet, myrtle,
and rofemary. Their A nibol was a dog, which
which was' ufual'y rcprefcnted by their fide, on ac-
count of^ its fidelity, and the fervice he does to
man in watching his houfe. i hey were alfo
reprefentcd as cloathed in a dog's fl;in.

The term Penate?, being applied to the do-
meftick s:'jds, whom the anticnts adored in their
houfes, was the occafion that the pemites were or-
dinarily conTounded with the lares.

Authors are not at all agreed about the origin
of the (Hi penates, who were properly the tutelary
eods of the Trojans, and were only adopted by the
Romans, who gave them the title of Penates.

The Penates were alfo called fometi.-nes Denates.

Dionyfu'.s HalicarnaJJcuSy lib. I. fpeahing of the
dii penates, tells us, that the hiftorian Timcrus has
wrote, that the ftatue, figure, or effigy of the
Denates or Penates, was nothing but a crooked irbn,
or copper red, and a Trojan vefl'el of potters ware:
and that this was all /Eneas brought from Troy.

Zl^

Le.mures were fpirits or hobgoblins; refllcfs
ghofls of departed perfons, who were fuppofed to
terrify and torment the living.

Thefe are the fame with /f/ru/s, which the anticnts
imagined to wander round the world to frighten
good people, and plague the bad. For which rea-
fon at Rotiie they had lemuria, or feafls, inftituted
to appeafe the manes of the deceafed.

Of thefe . mures, thofe -that were kind to their
families, v/ere called lares familiares ; but thofe,
who for their crimes were condemed to wander
continually, without meeting with any place of
reft, and terrified good men, and hurt the bad,
were vulgarly called larvrv.

The antients ufed, alfo, to call the gods above-
mentioned indigetes. The gods, to whom the

Romans gave the name indigetes, were Faunu:,
VeJJa, /Eneas, Romulus, all the gods of Italy ; and
at Athens, Minerva, fays Servlvs ; at Carthage,
Dido.

The antients called their demigods heroes, who
were iluftrious perfons of mortal nature ; tho' by
the populous fuppofed to partake of immortality ;
and, after their death, placed by them in the num-
ber of the ^ods.

The word hero was formed from the Latin heros,
and that of the Greek E^w,-, femi-dtus, demi-god.

The heroes were tranfiated into heaven, by a
ceremony called a^otheofi<, from uvo and 0.-^-,
Deus, God.

After t.\\e apotheyls, which thcv alfo called deifi-
cation,7>.ndi conjecration, temples, altars^ and ima^s,
were erected to the new deity ; facrifices, i^c. were
offered, and colleges of prielts inftituteJ ; and'even
the fenate decreed that oaths fiiould be taken in
their names. ,

Plcrod'.an^ lib. 4. in fpeaking of the apoiheofis of
Severus, gives us a very curious defcription of the
ceremonies ufed in the apoiheofis of the Roman
Emperors. After the body of the deceafed Em-
peror, lays he, had been burnt with the ufual
folemnities, they placed an image of v/ax, perfectly
like him, but of a fickly afpecft, on a large bed of
ivorv, covered with a cloth of gold in the veftibule
of the palace. The greateft part of the day the
fenate fat ranged on the left fide of the bed, dreffed
in robes of mourning ; the ladies of the firft tank *
fitting on the right fide in plain and white robes,
without any ornaments. This lafled for feven days
fuccefiively, during which, the phyficiaiis came
from time to time to vifit the fick, always makinp-
their report that he grew worfe, till at length they
puhlifticd that he was dead.

This done, the young fenators and Romcji
knights took the bed of ftate upon their fhoulders,
carrying it through the Via Sacra, to thecJd forum,

where

The Universal Hiftory o/" Arts ^:»?<5^ Sciences.

372

where the msgiftrates ufcd to divert thcmfclvcs of I The antients called the divinities, which they
their offices ; there they fate it down between two fuppofed to inhabit the fea, Nere'uks, who were

£fty in number, all the daughters of Nereus, by
the nymph Dorh : and thof;;, who inhabited ri-
vers, fountains, (2*1. Naiades.

kinds of amphitheatres, in the one whereof were
the youths, and in the other the maidens of the firft
families of R;mc, fmging hymns fet to folemn airs,
in praife of the diceafed, Thcfe hymns ended, the
bed was carried out of the city into the Campus

Thi: fourth cla/s contained meteors : thus the Pcr-
ftans adored the wind : thunder and lightning were

Martius, in the middle of which was ereiled a kind j honoured under the name of Geryon: Caflor^ Pollux^

offquare pavilion, the infide whereof was full of
combuftible matters, and the outfidc hung with
cloth of gold, and adorned with figures of ivory,
and various paintings.

Over this edifice were feveral others, like the firfl:
in form and decoration, always diminifhing and
growing fluidercr towards the top. On the iecond
of thefe was placed the bed of ftatc, and a great
quantity of aiomates, and odoriferous fruits and
herbs were thrown all around ; after whicli the
knights made a proccfliun or cavalcade in a folemn
manner acoond die pile, feveral chariots alfo run
round it, thofc who condu(Sled them being clad in
purple robes, and bearing the images of the greatefl
Roman emperors and gencials

'I his ceremony ended, the new emperor come
to the catafalca, or pile, with a torch in his hand;
and at the fame time fire was fet to it, on all fides,
the fpices and other combuftibles, kindling all at
once.

XA'hile this was doing, they let fly from the top
of the building an fiJ^/^, which mounting into the The Hamadryades were attached to feme
air with a firebrapd, carried the foul of the de- j particular trees with which they were born, and
Ci?afed emperor along with it into heaven, as the v/ith which they died; wliereas the Dryades were

Helena, and Irh, have alfo been preferred from
meteors to \sz.gods.

In the fifth clajs they erefted minerals, or fofftls
into deities ; fuch was the Bcc>y',us ; the Finlanders
adored ftones ; the Scythians iron; and many na-
tions filver and gold.

'r\\t futh ctafs confAtd of plant f: thus lech aruJ
onions were deities in Egypt. 1 he Sc'avi, Lithua-
nians, Ce/tiT, Fandah, and Peruvians, Uijored
trees and forefls: theantient Gauls, B iims, Druids,
bore a particular devotion to th^ cak ; and it was
no other than wheat, corn, feed, iSc. that the
antients adored under the names of Ceres and Pro-
feifina.

The deities who inhabited the forefls and trees>
were called Dryades and Hamadryades.

The Dryades were imagined to hide them-
felves under
Greeks Apu;.

the bark of the oak, called by the

Remans believed ; and thenceforward he was ranked
jjmong the gods. — It is for this reafon, that the
medals, wherein apothcofes are reprefented, have
ufually an altar with fire upon it ; or an eagle tak-
ing its flight into the air, and fometimes two eagles.

D.ffMOKS are alfo of their firft clafs of gods.- By
d.-rmons Plato underfiooJ fpirits inferior to gods,
and yet fupcrior to men ; which inhabiting the
middle region of the air, kept up the communi-
cation between gods and men, carrying the of-
ferings and pra\ ers of men to the gods, and bring-
ino- the wills of the gods to men. ■ But he allowed
of none but good and beneficent ones ; though his
difciples aftev/ards finding themfelves unable to ac-
count for the origin of evil, adopted another fort
of da- nuns who were enemies to men.

In the fecond clajs of gods were the heavenly bo-
dies, as the ftin, tncon, and other planets ; the
fixed /far s, c.njiellations, &c

'I he Sun was the god of

The third clafs was compofed of the elements, as
air, earth, ocean. Ops, Vcjla, the rivers, foun-
tains, &c.

the GoddeiTes of the trees and woods, and lived at

large in the middle thereof.

There was alfo a kind of femi-god, called Sa-
tyrs, who, with the fai'jns and jylvans, prcfidcd
over groves and forefl>, under the diredtion of Pan.

Theya/yv/ are painted half men, and half goats,
the upper part was human, excepting for horns on
the head ; the lower brutal, with the tail and legs
of a goat ; the v/hole covered with hairs.

The poets ufually confound the fatyrs, fylvans,
fileni, fawns, and jianes.

The Fawns were alfo a fpecies of demigods,
inhabiting the forefls.

The fauns are reputed pure Roman deities ; un-
known to the Greeks. — They were reprefented, like
the Jatyrs, half men, half goats, a very flat nofe,
and the refl: human.

The Roman FauHus was the fame with the Greek
Pan.

The fcventh clafs of Gods was taken froma-
inong the waters: the ,9)r/a«J and Egyptians idorcd
fiihes J the Oxyrhincbitts, Latopolitani, Simnitie,

and

N Ar UR A L H IS T 0 R r.

a:\d inhabitants of Eliphantis iiad each a fifli for
their god ; and the Tritons, Nere'uL's, Syrens, See.
what were they but fifhes ? feveral nations have
adored f/rpents, particularly \hc Egyptians, Pruf-
fians, Lithuaniam, Santogilians, See.

'J he 'I'riton \u S.S difi!a femi-god, held by the
anlienis to be an officer, or trumpeter of iVi/i^aw,
attending on him, and carrying his commands from
fca to fea.

The poets and painters, reprefent him as a half
man, and half fifli, terminating in a dolphin's tail,
and bearinn; in one hand a fea Ihell, which ferved
as a trumpet.

Quti\\o\x'^ Hefiod, and thz m^tholo'rijls, only
fpeak of one Triton, the poets have imagined fe-
\eral ; giving fome of them for trumpeters to all
the fea-gods, particularly to Ntptune and Fenus.

The Tritons not only officiated as trumpeters in
Neptune's retinue, but were alfo fuppofed to draw
Ixis chariot.

The poets ordinarily attribute to Triton the of-
fice of calming the waves, and of making tempefls
ceafe. Thus in the firfl of the Mctamorpbofes we
read, that Neptune defiring to recal the waters of
the deluge, commanded Triton to found his trum-
pet, at the noife whereof the waters all retired.

The Sirens or mermaids, are reprefented by
Ovid a kind of fea-monfter, with women's faces
and fiflics tails ; and by others are decked with a
plumage of various colours.

They are fuppofed to have been the three
daughters of the river Archelous, and called Parthe-
nope, LigeiT, and Leucofia. Homer only makes
mention of two Syrens, but others reckon five.
Claudian fays, they inhabit harmonious rocks, that
they were charming monflers ; and that failors were
wrecked on their rocks without regret, and even
expired in raptures ; duke malum felago fyren.

In the eighth clafs, Jiies and ants had their priefts
and votaries ; thefe among the TheJfaHans,?inA thofe
in Arcania ; where bullocks were offered to them.
in the ninth clafs among birds, the flork, raven,
fparhawk, ibis, eagle, griffon, and lapwing, have
had divine honours ; the lafl in Alexico, the reft
in Egypt and at Thebes.

In the tenth clafs four footed beafls have had
^leir altars ; as the bull, dog, cat, wolf, baboon.

373'

lion, and crocodile, \n Egypt, and clfewlicic ; the
hog in the ifland of ^rf/<?, rats and mice in the
Troas, and at Ter.edos ; weazels at Thebes, and the
porcupine throughout all Zoroajler's fchocl.

In the eleventh clafs men were placed amon<T
the number of deities, and from Belr.s, or Baal,
to the Roman emperors before Conftantinc, the in-
ftances of this kind arc innumerable.

In the twelfth clafs not men only, but every
thing that relates to men has been alfo deified ; as
labour, reft, flcep, youth, age, deaih, virtues,
vices, occafion, time, place, numbers, and among
\he Pythagoreans, the generative power, under the
name oi Priapus. Infancy alone had a cloud of
deities, as Vegetanus, Levanc, Rumina, Edufa,
Potina, Cuba, Cumina, Carna, Offilago, Statuli-
}ths, Fabulinus, &c.

They alfo adored the gods, health, fever, fear,
love, pain, indignation, fhame, impudence, opi-
nion, renown, prudence, fcience, art, fidelity, fe-
licity, calumny, liberty, money, war, peace,
vi(5lory, triumph, &'c.

Laitly, nature, the univerfe, or 70 irav, was re-
puted a great God.

Hefod has a poem under the title of Buyona, i. e^
the generation of the gods, wherein he 'xplains
their genealogy and deferent, fets forth who was
the fiift and principal ; who next defcended from
him, and what ifTue each had ; the whole making
a fort of fyften of heathen theology.

Befides this popular theology, each philofopher
had his feparate fyfiem, as may be feen from the
Timaus of Plato, and Cicero de nat. Dear.

The heathen divinities had a particular fort of
priejls or minifters of their facrifices, called fla-
mens : and at Ro?ne there were as many kinds of
famens, as there were gods who had facrifices of-
fered them : as for Jupiter, Flamen Dialis ; for
Mars, Flamen Martiaiis ; for Rowulus, or ^iri~
nus, Flamen ^drinalis, &c. In alter times twelve
more were added, which made the number oifla-
mens fifteen.

They had alfo their Flainina or Flaminica, who
were wives of the Flamens, or the prieftefles of the
deities.

The Flamina had the fame furname with her
hufband, Flamina Dialis Martiaiis, &c.

NATURAL HISrORT-

NATUAL HISTORY, is a defcrip-
tion of the natural produdts of the earth,
water, or air, v. gr. beafts, birds, fifhes,
metals, minerals, and foffils, tog,ether with fuch
Vol. II. No. 43.

extraordinary phenomena, as at any time appear
in the material world, as meteors, monfters, ^c.
Moft of thefe things have already been treated
of under the heads botany, metals, minerals, &c.
Ccc fo

374 ^^ Univcrfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

fo that I (hall confine this treatife to nionftrous,
fcarce and extraordinary animals, plants, &;c.
But firft of animals in general.

Animal, in natural hiftory, is an organized
and living body, and endowed with fenfation, and
liivided into rational and irrational.

Man is the on!^ rational animal ; who is an or-
ganical body, informed and directed in all its mo-
tions, by a fpiritual, immortal, impaflible, ur.de-
finite, and unalterable fubftance, called Tia/.

Philolophers are not all agreed as to the manner
wherein the foul refides in th: body. Some will
have it tota in toto, and tota in qualibet parte, i. e.
difFufed throughout all the parts of the organical
body, which it influences alike, without any par-
ticular part, being appropriated to its chief rcfi-
dence ; others will have it fixed in its center, like

From the firft perception of the objects, from the
ftrength cf our imagination, which firms to itfelf
l'!eas of thofe ( bjeds, and from the juft ceconomy
of our unclerjlanding, which dire£is thofe ideas^
proceeds ihe reducing them into praflice, fo as to
form a judgment of (hem, which is eft"c£tcd by a-
noiher faculty of x\\t foul, in wliich all the opera-
I ions of the other faculties come to centre them-
felvcs, which Hjculty we call Reason.

Chauvin has defined reafon, an innate notion,
ot idea: further difFufed, and arifing from a con-
tinued attention.

Reafon is the majier -faculty, (if I may ufe that
exprefiion) which gives the finifhing ftroke to all
the other operations, in order to make them a per-
feft, and accompbfhed work. From thofe noble
operations refults that excellent quality which ex-
alts the foul above all other created beings, and

the fun, from whence it influences all the inferior i that cflLntial difference which diftinguifhts man
parts, like as that planet does a 1 the fublunary things.
Iho' the foul is indivifible, it has fcveral fa-

culties, the principal whereof are the underjlanding
and the will.

The Understanding, according to the P^r/-
■pateticks, is a faculty of a reafonable foul, con-
verfant about intelligible things, confidc-red as in-
telligible.

Nihil eji in inleUeSlu quod prius non fuerit infen-
fu, nothing is in the under/landing, which has not
been fiift the object of our fenfes, is the favourite
axiom of our modern philofophers ; who thereby
attribute two offices to the underjlanding, viz. per-
ception and judgment.

Will is ufually defined a faculty of the mind,
whereby it embraces or rejedfs any thing rcpre-
fented to it, as good or evil, by the judgment.

Mr. Locke defines the will, a faculty which (he
foul has of beginning or forbearing, continu-
ing or ending feveral actions of the mind, and mo-
tions of the body, barely by a thought or prefer-
ence of the mind, ordering, or as it were, com-
manding the doing, or nut doing, I'uch a particu-
lar aftion.

Memory, imagination, liberty zni fenfation, are
alfo faculties of the foul. ^^v•\■•':'^^■'

Memory is a faculty whereby the mind retz'ms,
or recollects the Timple ideas or images of things
we have feen, imagined, linderftood, i^c.

Imagination is a faculty of the foul, by
which it conceives or forms ideas of things by
means of impreflions made on the animal fplrits,
afligntd to that faculty.

- Sensation is the a£t of perceiving external
-■ o''j<^i^s by means of the organs of fenfe.

from all oiher animals.

Rationality ; befidcs a reafonable foul,
which raifes man above ail other created beings, he
has a fenfitive one, in common with the other ani-
?nals, which both have a vegetative one in common
with the plants, not that thofe fouls are efl'entially;
and fubflantially divided from each other, fo as the
one to be capable of fubfifting without the other,
for they are indivifible in t!ie fame fubjed ; but be-
caufe that very {ame foul, which is capable of ra-
tionality in man, is alfo capable of fenfation and ve-
getation, though the fenfitive foul in the brutes is
not rational, nor the vegetative in the plants fen-
fitive. "J 'J ,•..:<>->>;?. OJ.-i lu

The irrational animals are' fubdivi'ded into ter-
reftrial, aquatic, volatile, and amphibious, which
are endowed with vegetative and fenfitive foul, tiy
virtue whereof they are enabled to provide for
themfelves, know what is good for them, and are
determined to preferve and propagate their fpecies.

Brutes, befides their fenfitive and vegetative
fsul, confitl alfo, like men, of folid and firm parts,
as flefb, bones, membranes, iSc. of fluid=, as
blood, juices, t^c. and of fat, which may be
reckoned an intermediate kind.

The folid parts are mere earth, bound- together
by fome oily humour, and accordingly are reduci-
ble by fire into fuch earth again.

Terrejhial animab., are either quadrtipedes or
reptils. '■_' '■' ' .

QuADRUPEDEs are divided by Mr. Ray, into
thofe which are hoofed, and clawed, or digitate^

Hoofed Q^j fiDRVPEpi.s, are either whofc- hoof-
ed, as the iiorfe, afs, the onager or wild afs ; the

mule,

NATURAL H I S T 0 R r.

375

mii!e, and tlie scira of Africa, or ibc Rncfiripcd body, with very (hort leg?, as the vveafcl, or ver-

Iitdian or African iifs, altnoft like a mule in form i min-kiad. The hare'kiiid is a fpccies of qua-

and ftature; ox cloven footed, and thefe again fub- i rt'ra/ifrt'fr, which have only two laigc remarkable

divided into.

Ruminant, that is fuch as chew the cud ; and
thefe either hive hollow and perpetual horns, as
the bull, fheep and goat-kind ; or deciduous horns,
as the hart and deer kind, which ufually fhed their
horns annually.

Of the bull-kind are the common bullock, of
which the male is bull ; the female cow 5 the bi-
fon J the bonafus, &c.

Of the JI)ccp-kind, the Arabian flieep, whofe
tail is fometimes of forty or fifty pounds weight ;
the Cretic, and the African, wiih ftiort hairs in-
itead of wool ; befides the common fort.

Of the goat-kin.'l, the German found in the tops
of the Alps ; the rupi capra, or German gorm.

Of the hart or deer-kind, the cervus or red

deer ; the elk ; the fallow deer ; the rain deer, &c.

Of the cloven footed, into two parts only, and

which does not chew the cud, there's none but a

hog ind, fivine- kind.

There are fome quadrupeder, whofe hoof is clo-
ven into fjur divifions ; and thefe feem to be not
ruminant ; as the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus ; the
tapijerete of Brafil, the capa bara of Brafil, and the
animal mofchiferum.

Of the clawed or digitated quadrnpedes, there are
firf}, a fort whofe claws are not divided or fepa-
ratedj but adhering to one another, covered with
one common flcin, but with obtufe nai"ls, flicking
out round the margin of the foot; as the elepbant,
which is anomalous, and not clearly referable to
this kind, or to that of eleven-footed quadrupeds.

The catnel has only two cIjws, has no horns,
though they have four flomachs, and ruminate
like thofe of the horned rumin mt-kind, and are
iieverthelefs, a fecond fpccies of the digitated-
kind. There are two forts of camels or drome

daries, one having but one bunch on the back,
and the other two.

All the arimals whofe foot is divided into ma-
ny claws, with broad nails on them, as the ape
and monkey- kind, is a third fpecies of the ungu-
lated. — Of thefe, fome have no tails, and are call-
ed y/w/V, or apes : others have tails, and are call-
ed monkeys ; and fuch as have either long or fhort
tails, if they are of a larger fize, are called ba-
boons,

Thefe which have many claws covered at the
end, crooked and fharp-pointed like the talons of
hawks, and not with broad flat nails, likemon-
kevs or apes, are a fourth fpecies of the ungulated-

kind. -Of thefe there are two fort?, a greattr,

which cither have a fhort, round head, as the
cat- kind ; or a lefTer fort, having a long, {lender

teeth in each jaw, and live upon herbs.
[ I he lion, the tiger, the pardus, the panther.,
the leopard, the lynx, the cfl/ a-mountoin, the com-
mon cat, and the ^f^r, are quadrupedes, of the cat-
kind.

Befides the common dor, of which kind are the
maflif, the greyhound, the Irijh greyhound, the
fpamei for l.md or water, the tumbler, thi lap-dog,
ihejhock, the houfe-dog. Sec. &c. The wolf, and
the jackall, are alfo of the dog- kind ; as well as
t\\tfox; the civet cat, the badger, grey or pate,
the otter, the fea calf or feal, the morfe or fca
horfe, the fea cow. Sec.

The common weafel, in ^orkfiire cMed foumart
or fitcher, the quel, or quirple ; the mujiela ermin
or float, if white; the ferret, the pole cat, the
marten or martlet, the fable, &c. are of the vermin-
kind of quadrupedes.

The common hare, the rahit or coney, the por-
cupine, the ca/hr, fiber, or the beaver, the fquir-
rel, the Virginian, Zelandic, Barbary, and Aine-
rican flying fquirrcl, the common rat zx\i moufe.,
the water rat, the mufk rat, the dormcufe, or feep-
er, the guinea pig. Secure quadrupedes oi the hare
kind.

There are fix forts of anamolous quadrupedes, or
of quadrupedes that deviate from the common form
ot animals of the fame kind.

1. Animals with their feet divided into many
claws and toes, have a longifh fnout, and teeth j
as the hedge-hog, the mole, the warp, or mole-warp^

flireiv, hardyfliieiu, ft.rew-moufe. Sec.

2. Thofe with their feet divided, alfo, into
many claws and toes, have a longifh fnout, but no
teeth ; as the great ant-bear, the leffer ant-bear
oi Adarcgrave, the taniandua-guacu of Brafil, Sec.

2- The bat-kind, orfl'tter-mice, of which there
are ieveral fizes and different forms, and which
are anomalous flying quadrupedes, with a fliorter
fnout, and their feet divided.

4. 1 he f oath ox fluggard is an anomalous ani-
mal, which has but three claws on each foot.

5. The frog or frojh, the fnall tree or green
frog, the toad, the tcrtoife of land or water, are
viviparous unA fanguinous quadrupedes^ breathing;
with lungs; but have but one ventricle in the
heart.

6. The crocodile, the common eft, fivift cr
newt ; the green lizard, the Neopolitan tarantula,
the fivift or Jpotted lizard, the water eft, and the
cameleon or camilion, are oviparous quadrupeues,
with a long tail, firetched out horizontally.

Ccc2 Rep-

37^

The Univerfal Hiftory o/Arts ^«(a^ Sciences.

Reptiles (from the Latin repo., I creep) are'
another fpccics oi tcrrejlrial ammah, which inftcad
of feet reft on one part of the body, while they
advance forwards with the reft, as vipers, fnakes,
earthworms, &c.

The Aquatic animals are all thofc that live in
water ; as fifties of all kind.

Fishes are diftinguiftied into fait water fifti,
pifces marini, as the whale, herring, mackarcl, Jole,
/kate, turbot, &c. &c. and frefli water fifti, pifces
fluviatiles, as the pike, trout, carp, tench, &c. to
which may be added, Jalmons, Jhad-fijl), which
abide indifferently in trefh water or fait,

M. IVilloughby diftinguifties fifties into cetaceous,
cartilaginous and fpinoiis.

The Cetaceous (from the Latin cetus, whale,)
have lungs, and breath lilce quadrupedes, copulate
like them, conceive and bring forth their young
alive, which they afterwards fuckle with their
milk, as the ivhale, the dolphin, phocana, the por-
pus, &c.

The cartilaginons forts (thus called for their
having their bones of a cartilaginous fubftance) are
produced from large eggs, like birds, which are
alfo excluded the womb, like thofe of birds ; and
thefe are divided into long cartilaginous and plain
cartilaginous.

The long cartilaginous are the white /hark, the
blue Jhark, the tape, the prickled-dog, or hound-fi/li,
the fmooth or unprickled hound- fijh, the rough-hound,
or bounce, the leffer hound-fijh, or morgay, &c.

1 he plain cartilaginous are thtjkate orjlare, the
thorn-back, the white horfe, the angel, or monk-fifli,
t\\&toad-fiJl}, or fca-devil. Sic,

Spinous Fishes (from their h?Lving fpin^e up
and down in their fiefh to ftrengthen it) are alfo
fviparous, but their eggs are fmaller -, and thefe
are alfo divided into long fpinous and plain fpinous.

The long fpinous are the eel-kind, viz. the lam-
prey, or lamprey-eel ; the lampern ; the common-eel ;
the conger, or fea-eel ; l\\cfand-e:l, or launce ; the
butter- ffn ; the fea-loach, or vjhijllefijh : the eel-
pout, or turbou ; the wolf fifh, ox fea-wclf; the
fea-lark, called in Ccrnwal, mulgranock and bulkard;
the crefled fea-lark ; the bull's-head, or miller s-
thumh ; the Dutch pot's-hog ; the Cornifh boys
call it Father Lafl)er.

The plain fpinous are the turbet or brett ; the
lug alcfe, the pluife ; the flounder, fiukc, ov butt ;
t-he holy-butt ; the file, &c.

There are three difi'erent forts o( the none-fpinous
kind of fillies ; fome with only one foft and prickly
fin on their back j feme with two, and others
with three.

Thofe with only pne.fin on their back, are the

herring, the pilchard, the anchovy, the Jhad, the
fprat or fparling, which is nothing elfc but the
foetus of a herring ; the garnijh, or horn-fjh, the
Jlurgeon, the pike, or pikrel, the carp, the bream or
bruma, the tench, the 7udd, oerve, or nexjling, the
chuhb or chevin, the barbel, the dace or dare, the
roach, bleak or bley, the gudgeon, the loch, the pinky
or minnow, &c.

Thofe with two fins on their back, are the hake,
the ling, the tunny, or Spanifh mackrel, the mackrcl,
the gragUng or umber, the guinniad, the Jhelly, the
falmon, the famlet or branlin, the ^r^y, the falmou-
trout, the fcurf or bull-trout, the red-chart, or
/A'i'/c/!! torgoch, the ^?^///, or ^?v//; tiarr, the y/A;c//,
the rock-fifh, or fea-gudgeon, the /«//;j), or _/(?«-
«w/, &c.

Thofe with three unprickly foft fins on their
back, are the cod-fijh, or caling, the whiting pollack,
the coal-fifh, or rawligg pollack, the /'//', or blinds,
the haddock, the whiting, &c.

There are fifties called of the aculate kind, with
only one fin on their back, whofe r(7ii^;/ are fome
prickly and fome foft ; fuch are the guilt-head, or
guilt-poll, the bream, the old-wife, or tfr^/i, the
r?(^ the common prickle-back, or Jharpling, or
banjlickle, the lefler prickle-back, &c.

Others with two fins on their back, whofe r^-
^// are all prickly, as the mullet, the grey-gurnardy
the tub-ffh, the red gur-nard, or rotchet, the piper,
the fur-7nullet, the fpider, the f cad, the perch, the
(3^(j?7, or rfffj-ff, &c.

There are alfo cruflaceous and tejlaceous fifhes.
The Crustaceous are thofe covered with
fliells of feveral pieces, or fcales, as fr«Z>,f, lobjlersy
craw-fijhes, fhrimps, &c.

The Testaceous are thofe covered with a
ftrong, thick fliell, as tortoifes, oyjlers, pearl fifh,
iic.

Amphibious (from the Greek, a/iipi, utrumquey
bothways, and $i®-, vita, life) are a fore of ani-
mals, which live both on land and in the water ;
/'. e. which breathe the air, but pafs part of their
time in the water, as affording them their chief

food. Such are the frog, ca/lor, otter; tartoifey

fea-calf, crocodile, &lc.

Volatiles are two-footed cnimals, covered
with feathers, and furniftied with wings, whereby
they can fuftain themfelves in the air, and fly from
place to place.

They are divided into terreftrial, and aquatick.
volatiles.

Terreftrial volatiles are fubJivided into thofe
which have crooked beaks, and talo7is ; and thofe
whofe beaki and claivs are ftraiter.

fi Of

NATURAL HISrORT.

OFthofc with r;-5fl/(rc/^(?ff/f.f and takns, fome arc
carnivorus and rapnflous, called liirds of prey ; others
frug'morous, called by the general name oi parrots.

Of birds of prey, fome prey in the day-time,
called ^/arW ; others in the night, called notiurnal
birds.

Diurnal birds, are either of a greater, or a IclTer

fize. The greater are either of a more bold,

and generous nature, as the eagle- kind; or of a
more cowardly and fluggifli, as the vulture, and
cuntor.

The lefler diurnal birds of prey, are either of a
generous and docible, or cowardly, fiuggilhj and
untraftable nature.

The generous and docible are the hawk-kind,
which are wont to be reclaimed, and managed for
fowling.

The noSiunial lirds of prey, with crooked beaks,
and talons, are the owl-kind, and thefe are either
horned or cared, as the eagle-oivl, horn-owl, &c.
or without horns or ears, as the broivn owl, white-
twlygrey owl, howlit, fern-owl, ot goal-fucker, &c.

There are three fizes of the land birch, ox terre-
Jhial volatiles, with crooked beaks and talons, the
greateft of which are called niaccaws, and cjcia-
toes ; the middle-fized, and moft common parrots
and poppinjays ; and the leaft fort, parakeets :
thofe all make ufe of their beak in climbing, and
move the upper jaw.

There are alfo three forts of /.7«^ Zi/V^j, which
have their bills and claws more ftrait ; the greateft
thereof are fuch as by reafon of the bulk of their
bodies, and fmalnefs of their wings cannot fly at
all ; fuch are the ojlrich, the cajfowary, and the
dodo.

The middle-fized are divided into fuch as have
either large and long, or fmaller and fliorter bills.

Of thofe with large, thick, ftrong and long bills,
fome feedpromifcuoufly on flefh, infefts and fruits,
as the crow kind, which arc wholly black ; and
the pye-hlnd, which are party-coloured, as the
magpye,jay, roller, &c. others feed on fifh only, as
the King's fifiicr ; and others on infeiis only, as
the wood-pcckcr.

For thofe which have a fmaller and fhorter bill,
their flefh is either white-^ as the poultry-kind, or
blackifh, as the pidgcin, and thrufh-kincl.

The leaft fi zed kind oiland birds, vtviXx^imX.

bills, and claws, are called fmall birds. Thefe

are of two kinds ; foft-beak-d, which have flender,
ftraight, aid pretty Icngifh bills, moft of them,
and feed chiefly upon ir. iVcls; and hard beaked,
which have thick and hard bills, and feed moftly
on feed.

Aquatick: Volatiles or w^^ifr^^ffw/^, are di-

377

ftmguifhcd into fuch as walk in the waters, and
fuch as fwim in them,

Aquaticks, which, walk in the water, arc all
cloven footed, and generally have long legs ; and
thofe naked, or bare of feathers, a good way above
the knee, that they may the more conveniently
wade in waters. Of thefe they reckon two kinds;

■A greater, and a Icjer. -To the greater belong

the crane, jabiru, tic 1 he lelicr are either

pfcovorous, as the hcrcn, fpocn-bill,Jiork, Uz. or
mudjiukcrs and infeSlivorous, or infe.U- eaters.

Of infeilivorous water- fowl, fome have very-
long bills, either crooked, as the curlieu and wim-
brcl, or ftraight, as the xuoodcock a.ad godwith ; o-
thers middle-fiz'd ones, as the fea-pye and red-
Jhank ; others fhort biils, as the lapwing and plo-
ver.

Tho/e are reckond fliort bills, which exceed not
an inch and half; middle fized bills to two inches
and a half; and long bills, above two inches and
a haU;

Of aquaticks, which fwim in the water, fome
are cloven footed, as the moor-hen and coot, kc.

but moft are whole-footed or web-footed. Of

thefe, fome few have very long legs, but the Gene-
rality are fhort legged.

Of the fjort legged, whole footed aquaticks, fome
have but three toes on each foot, as the pinguin,
razor-bill, &c. but generally they have fou^toes
on each foot, and thefe either all conneded too-e-
ther by intervening membranes, as iji the peli°an,
Jaland gooje, &c. or more ufually with the back
toe loofe.

This laft kind are either narrow billed or broad-
billed; thofe with narrow bills, have them either
blunt and hooked at die tip, or fharp pointed and
flraighter.

_ Of the former fort, fome are ferrate, as in the
diver-kind; and fome not toothed, as in the /«/"-

Oi thofe With fnarp pointed and ftraighter bills,
fome have long v/ings, as the gall- kind, and fome
fnorter, as thofe diving birds, called duukers.

1 hofe with broad bills may be divided into the
goofe-kind, v/hich are larger ; and the duck- kind,.
v/hich are fmaller; and thefe latter into fea ducks
or river and plajh- ducks.

Moft water fowls have a fhort tail, and none
of thefe have more than one back toe.

There is alfo another kind of Wa/Z/w, called
birds of paffage ; luch as \.hz fwallow, quail, /lork,
crane, fieldfare, woodcock, ni^htingak, &c, Thofe
do not appear ia our climates, but at certain fea-
fons, and then difappear again ; but which way
they fteer their eourfe, and whither they go, is what
puzdes our Natura ijls.

Insects,

378

The Univerfal Hillory of Arts and Sciences.

Insects are alfo a fpecies of terrcftiial animals,
but fnialler than thofe heretofore mentioned, com-
monly fupporcd ioh^exfanguinous, and diftinguifli-
ed by certain incifures, cuttings, or indentings in
their bodies.

They are divided by Mr. Rny into thofe that
change their form, and thofe that do not change
their form.

InfeSls which do not change their form, are ei-
tlierwith feet, or without feet, and of thefc fome
caft their flcin, and others do not.

Thofe without feet are either land iiife£fs, or
aquat'uk land infefl', are either produced on the

land, or in the bowels of animals. Thofe pro

duced on the land, arc either of the larger fize, as
the dew worms, or of a fmaller fort, of which fome
are green, and others red with yellow tails, called
gilt (nils.

Thofe found in the bowels of animals, particu-
larly in the inteftines of men, are the lumbria
teretes, and lumbrici lati, alfo called tanlif ; and
afcarides, chiefly found in the reSium.

The vermiculi Jetiformes, of the thicknefs of a
horfe hair, and the bi eves, and crajfwei or latti.,
are the two forts found in the inteftines of bcalls,
the latter being oftner difcovered in horfes than in
any of the others.

Jquatick infers, without feet, not changing
their form, are either of the greater, or of the
Icfler fort. — ';( thofe of the greateft fort, fome are
tireteS; round and fmooth, of which there are three
forts, the medicinal hirundines, or kaches, the iom-
mon back horfe leaches^ and the aJh-colour''d fea-
Icaches.

Thofeof the leffir fort, arc alfo either round, or
flat : — Of the round fort, one is black with two
finall horns on its head, found flicking to wet
flones in the watry tops of hills ; and another red,
about a finger's length, with a forceps at the tail,
found at the bottom of fifhpon^s, and ftagnant
waters, — The flat fort, csWcAfukes, are very fmall
and thin, and found fometimes in water, and fome-
times in the branches ofthe poms hikiius in fheep.
— 'fhefe have a different way of moving or craw-
ling, from the greater fort.

Lfeils which do not change form, and have
feet, are either with fix, eight, fourteen, or many
feet.

Thofe with but fix feet, are either terreflrial,

or apuitlck. Of the ternfirlal there are two

forts, a larger, and a fmaller fort Ot the larger

fort are, the yelloiutflj infeil-, found in rotten de-
cayinir oa^ts ; the black one, on the ground, called
by Moufftt h^ermivorus, luorms-devourcr ; the
black one living under ground wi;h a forceps at the
tail ; a white fort, with fquarc black foots on its

back ; the farinarium, bred in meal, of a whitifli

colour.

Of the fmal'er fort, fome arc found about the
bodies of animals, as the bug, or wall-loufe, of a
(linking fmell j the tick, the common Icufe, the Jlea,
the crab loufe ; and others arc not found on the
bodies of animals ; as one found in books and
rotten wood, which refcmbles a loufe, both in
figure and bigntfs, though a great deal nimbler
and fwiftcr ; another with a longer body and a
forcipal tail , the Hack infeSf, found often in the
flowers of chcUdamum, a fubterrancous fort, a
little whitifh, and one that fkips like a grafljoppcr,
but is much Icfs.

The aquatic aie the pediculus marinus grandis.,
which adheres to fiflics ; and the fquilla Jluviati:is,
with a pyramidal tail, and two hairs or briftles at
the end.

Infefls not changing form, and with eight feet,
are either with a tail, as t\\e fcrplon, or without ;
as firft, the fpider ; of v/hich fome fpin no web,
have but two eyes, and very long legs, as the
opilio or fliepherd : others fpin a web, and of thefe
they count three forts, i. The aranca colu/lrenjis
abdomine timido fubrotundo, & elato. 2. The fpi-
der with the thorax, or middle part of its body, as
big as the abdomen. 3. The fpider with the long
abdomen, found among reeds, rufhes, grafs, i^c.
Secondly, the ricintoiio pedes, which are fome
more flat and compreffed ; as the rambling ticks,
that run over the bodies of animals, but do not
faftcn ; and fo.me more round and thick, which do
adhere to the fkin. Thirdly, the fyrones, or
tnites.

There are three forts of afilU, or of infers, not
changing form, and with fourteen feet ; as
the fea-afelbis, living among the rocks, which is
the longeft and largefi; fort; the afellus lividus,
which rolls itfelf up into a ball, the commomvoad-
lice, fows, or chejl-bugs ; and the afellus aftninus,

with a forked tail, not rolling itfelf up. To

which may be added, the afellus marinus. rolling
itfelf up; the afellus aquarum dulcium, with long
legs, and two briflles on its tail; pulx aquaticus,
both in frefh and fait water ; and the p.diculus
aquaticus, which faflens upon fifh.

The Natur-ilifts have obferved two kinds of
Infecls, not changing form, with four and twenty
feet, the eight four-feet lefier, and the fixteen
hinder ones larger, and both with long bodies;
the larger fort is of an obfcure colour, which live
among the rocks by the fea fide j and the lefTer of
a filver colour found in houfes.

There is alfo a kind with thirt}' feet, of an ob-
long fiiape, chefnut colour, and full ilattifh body,

ufualiy

NATURAL HISTORY.

ufually lying under logs and trunks of trees ; it is
very agile and l\vift.

InfeSls, not changing form with many feet,
called iBtiTMvo^a, aje fome on land, and cither
roundi(h,in body, with all their legs rifmg out of
the middle of their belly, as the julus ; or more flat
and comprefled, with their legs not rifmg as before,
from a point in the middle of their body, but grow-
ing along on the fide, as thsfcslapandr^i.

Bwamnurdavi fhevvs there is no real transfor-
mation in Infciis, fuppofed to undergo a change in
their form, but only on explication of the parts of
the animal, latent before in miniature, like the
plant in the feed, and an increafe of the parts by
proper degrees.

The _^r/? y/imfj of tranfmutation, or change, is
inftantaneous, /'. e. there is no fenfible reft or Itop,

between the old and the new form. The hifeiis

of this order do not lofe their motion at the time
they fliift the pellicula, at leaft not to appearance.
— This is when the vermiculu<, leaving the former
fhape of the uympha, with which it appeared in the
egg, and fubfifted without food, now begins to
feed, has its members or parts vifibly increafed,.or
flretched out, and takes the form of a new iiympha,
which is not without motion ; and from thence
becomes a flying infc(3:.

There are twelve forts of thefe infcils. i. The
libella, or pt»-l<r, produced from an infedt of fix
feet, which Monjfet takes for the pulex marinm,
through whofe crudaceous fkin the libella breaks
by a filTure, which begins between the eyes, and
is continued to the roots of the wings, and is there
joined to the lateral fifTures. 2. The cimices fyl-
veUres, whofe charafleriftick marks (according to
IViltoughby) are, _/?^y?, a long probofcis, notfpiral,
but flrait ; fecondly, their upper wings to the mid-
dle are thick and like leather ; thence to the end
thin, and membranous ; thirdly, there is the
figure of St. 4ndre\vs crofs on their back. 3. The
locuila. 4. The gryllii campij^res. 5. The gryllii
domeflid, or crickets. 6. The m^!e cricht. 7. '['he
grajhopper. 8. The blatta. 9. Fhe tipidre aqua-
tide, which rim very fvviftly on the furface of the
waterj and have a iting in their mouth like the
cimices or ticks. 10. The fcirpius aquaticus,whh
a fling alto in its mouth. 11. The mufce aqiia-
ticie, called by Aldrova:idus, apes amphibia. 12.
The emerohius, or ephemera, 'ox dtafidoi Stvam-
merdam, (he forficula, oratirindaria.' '

The fecond fpeCies'df tranfmutation includes
(wch infers Zi untlcrgo a double rnctarnorphofts, or
change of fhape. i. Into a chryfalis, or fome-
thing analogous to it. 2. Into a flying infe£i.
Theie kinds of iaft^s a-while before they change,
lie quite flill, without feeding or changing place ;

379

and in refiX-xT- of their v/ings arc, /iiy?, vagiiiipeii-
nia, wi jcarabcei. beetles. Seccndly, An tP^x, whofe
wings arc open, and expanded -, and the wings of
thefe arc either farinaceous, as the papiliones, &c.
or membranous, as the apes, mufae, &c. and thefe
are cither with two, or with four wings.

The fcarabcti mav be divided ; 1. With refpccSt
to their horns into the naficornis, bucerota, and cer-
vtis volans, or taurtis. 2. In refpe^t of thtir an-
ieniKe, which are of many kinds ;■ whereof the mofl
eminent are thofe called capricorni. 3. With re-
gard to their motion, as the faliatrices, or dancers.
4. With regard to their colour, as the canthayides,
or Spanijh flies.

To the ^iv//i'-kind may alfo be referred the cicin-
dela, or glo'iV-iuorm, the Jlaphylinus, \he profc ra-
baus, or oil-beetle, fo called, from its emitting from
its joints a kind of oil, on its being preii'ed or
lljueezed. The anelytra, with farinaceous or
mealy wings, are called papiliones, butterflies }
and tliefe are either diurnal or nocturnal

The fpecifick dillindlion of the diurnal butter-
flics, or papiliones is, that they always fettle with
their wings ere£l, are produced from an angulous
anrelia, and have their (3/i/r««.5 ftudded ; of thefe
there are above fifty forts obfcrved in England.

The noSlurnal butterflies, though very numerous,
may neverthelefs be divided into,

I. The geometrigena, (thus called, from the
manner of its walking with its back curled up like
the handle ot a cup) whicli come from an eruccc,
and has eight or ten feet. 2. Such as come from
eritca \\\(}[\ fourteen feet ; of this kind which is
very numerous, there; ^has been diftinguiihed the
phalana fafciata, whofe wings are in patches, or
rtjY'ij's of different colours ; phalana lineata, whofe
wings are marked with one or more points ; and
thefe, except all the others, are diilinguifhed Into
greater, lefler, and of a middle fize between both.
— One of the larger kind may be diftinguiihed alfo»
■ by their inner wings ; and a third by their long
itailsj and narrov/ fharp wings ; which by fome are
called phahena: pradatrlccs.

The anelytra with mem'jranous wings are beeSy

flics, vj.ifs, bonhylil, cyabronts, he. and to this

kind the culex vulgaris, or gnat, according to

Siuammerdatn, is referred, as alfo the/ir/.v/Vfl, or<7/j^

TVilloughby refers alfo to this kind, iuch water
infciis as are covered with a theca.

The third fpecies of tranfmutation, is a fimple
change from a vermiculoiis to a flying infeSl ; but
with a fenfible reft or flop between one form and
the other. This exchange is defcribed by Siuam-
merdain in the following manner.

" The vermicle excluded from the egg (fays he)
gc'.s nouriflment by little and little from without,

3^0 lie Univerfal Hiftory o/" Arts and Sciences/

and under that firfl: fkiii or covering, has its mem-
bers iiicrt-afcd by degrees ; not ftiipping it or put-
ting it ofF, as other vermiculi do, when they change
into nympha, but afiumingthc figure of a iivnpbu
in it. For a time it is quite motionlcfs, 'till the
fuperfluous moifture is evaporated, and then, in a
few days recovers its motion again, and carting of?
this fkin, which is, as it were, double, it becomes
a fly." — Of this kind are our Jlefo-Jihs, and all
the nymphie verwiformes, the vejpcs ichncumanes,
kc.

The Silk-worm Is an infedt, not more re-
markable for the precious matter it furnifhes for
divers ftufl'c, than for the many forms it afl'umes
before, and after its being inveljoped in the rich
cod, or ball it weaves itfelf. From a fmall egg,
about the fize of a pin's head, which is its firft flate,
it becomes a pretty big worm or maggot, of a
whitifli colour, inclining to yellow. — In this ftatc
it feeds on mulberry-leaves, till being come to ma-
turity, it winds itfelf up into a filken bag or cafe,
about the fizeand fhape of a pigeon's egg; and be-
comes metamorphofed into an aiirelia : in this ftate
it remains without any fign of life or motion ; tho'
it caRs a life, by which it prepares itfelf for a new
life, and then dies, which egg wants no other in-
cubation, than the warmth of the fummer-wcather,
or of fome other gradual heat.

As foon as the filk-worm is arrived at the fize
and ftrength, neceffary for beginning its cod, he
makes his web ; for thus they call that flight tilTue,
which is the beginning and ground of that admir-
ble work. — This is his firft day's employment. On
the fecond, he forms his folHculus, or ball, and
covers himfclf almoft over with filk. 1 he third
day he is quite hid ; and the followins; days em-
ploys himfelf in thickening and flrengthening his
ball, always working from one fingle end, which
he never breaks by his own fault, and which is fo
tine and fo long, that thofe v/ho have examined it
aitendvely, think they fpeak within compafs, when
they afiirm that each ball contains filk enough to
reach the length of fix EngUfii miles.

In ten days time the ball is in its perfeftion ;
and is now to be taken down from the branches of
the mulberry -tree, where the worms have hung it.

The Tarantula is about the fize of an
acorn, and has eight feet, and as many eyes ; its
colour various, but it is flill hairy : from its mouth
arifes tv/o horns, or trunks, made a little crooked,
with tips exceedingly fharp, through which it con-
veys its poifon.

The CocHiNTAr, worjti Is an infeL^: ingen- li
dered in a fruit refembling a pear, the fliiub which |h

bears it ii fives or fix fooi high. A -top of the fruit
grows a red flower, v^hich, when mature, falls off
the fruit; and that opening difcovers a cleft two or
three inches in diameter. The fruit then appears
full of little red infeSfs, having wings of a furpri-
fin^ fmallnefs, and which would continue and die,
and rot there if not taken out.

The Indians therefore fpreading a cloth under
the tree, fhake it with poles, 'till the infcSls are
forced to quit their lodging and fly about the tree,
which they cannot do long, but tumble down dead
in the cloth; where they are left 'till they be en-
tirely dry : when the InfeSl flics it is red, when it
is fallen, black, and when dry, white } though it
afterwards changes colour.

Some of the inJeSis are rather more perfe£l than
the greateft part of the other animals, as it plainly
appears by the government of Bees, who, in their
jifrfccSI: union, the beauty and juft osconomy of their
government, their refpecl for their prince, and the
fubordination fubfifling among them, feem to rival
the befl eflabliflied commonwealth. — They all
work in common, and all in common reap the
fruits of their induftry and daily labour, which they
divide among them, fome keeping within the pre-
cinct of their walls or hives, to lay up the flores,
which the others dcfigned for the quefl:, bring to
the common flock. — Thefe lay down the founda-
tions of new manfions, and thofe adorn them when
built with that precious and rich furniture, which
the niaroders, who take the fields have gathered
from the purple of the violets, the fcarlet of rofes,
and other inimitable and beautiful fhades, which
the inimitable artifl^, nature, has painted on the
flowers, wherewith our fields are enamelled during
the mofl favourable feafons of the year, — Some are
placed at the gates of the mctiopolis, or as ad-
vanced guards, to give the alarm at the approaches
of their common enemy, the wajp, and hinder him
from infulting their walls ; or, as aflronomers, to
obferve the changes of the heavens, and foretel the
appioaches of rain and tcmpefts, or to eafe thofe,
who return home over-burthened with their booty;
who all fet out in the morning on their different
occupations, leaving the care of the hive to thofe,
who are pafl: labour, and return as well to have
the pleafure to take a meal in common, as to reft
themfelves from their fatigues ; to which they are
called by thofe left within, founding the retreat,
at which they all retire within their walls, with
fuch unanimous confent, and quick obedience, tliat
it is impoffible to find, after the time fixed for that
retreat, any ftrollers upon the road. — At night
they are all wrapped up in fo profound a fleep,
that there is not the leaft noife, or difturbance
card in their little garrifons.

Though

NATURAL HISTORY.

Though the life of the hce\% but of a fhort du-
ration, and fcldom exceeding feven years, they
nevcrthclefs have very numerous families, and have
the plcafure to have been blefled before they die
with a long pofterity, which they have the fatisfac-
tion to leave behind them in a flourifhing condition,
feldom departing before they have feen feveral ge-
nerations.

No nation has ever been, or will ever be rnorc
dutiful to a fovereign than the bees are to theirs ;
for they have really a king, who is abfolute mafler,
not of their deftiiiy only, but alfo of all their fii-
cuities, whom they obey, without the leaft reluc-
tancy, in all he is pleafed to command them. — He
is the guardian of their work ; they admire none
but him, and all tremble at his fingle afpeft.

They are all his b:dy-guard ; and often carry him
upon their flioulders, fcldom being ambitious of
any other glory, but that of lofing their lives in his
fight, and in his defence ; for the bees do not live
always in the fame profound peace, as there are
I'everal nations of them, each governed by its own
king ; there often arife difputes, jarrs, and differen-
ces between them, which fometimes are not to be
otherwife terminated but upon the field of battle,
and then the king, who never entrufts a general
with the command of his army, but alway hc:;ds
them in perfon, has the fatisfaftion to fee his fol-
diers endeavour to outvie each other in courage,
valour, and intrepidity ; for as foon as the onfet is
given, they all gather round him, as if they would
make him a rampart of their bodies, and fight with
that difcipline and order, which would be admired
among men ; the conqueror keeping the field of
battle, after he has defeated his enemy, in fign of
his viflory, and both parties taking care of their
dead, wounded, Cs'c.

Monster is a birth, or production of a living
thing, degenerating from the proper and ufeful
difpolition of parts, in the fpecies it belongs to.

Monjlers do not propagate their kind, for which
reafon, tome rank /«///« among the number of /run -
Jiej-s, as alfo hertnaphrodites.

A mule is ufually generated between an afs and
a mare, fometimes alfo between a horfe and a
fhc afs..

An hermaphrodite is a perfon, who has both
fexes, or the genital parts, both of male and
female.

The word is formed of the Greek E^fta^ijoJirS',
a compound of E^mjj, Mercury, and AfijoJil)!, Venus,
a mixture of Mercury and f\fius, i. e. of male and
female.

Naturalifts diilinguifli four kinds of hermjphro-
ditcs , whereof the laft are the perfed hermaphrodites.

Vol. II. A

or thofe, who have the/;?/ i'6-«aW of both kinds; but
thefe are rarely, if ever, found..

Hermaphrodite is alfo applied metaphorically to
divers other things befidcs the human fpecies.

Such arc the earth-worms, tiie round-tail worms
found in the inteflines of men and horfes, land-
fnails, and thofe of frefh watersj^ and all the forts
of leaches.

The moft monftrous produdlions in the vegeta-
ble world are called mtdes, which are monllers
produced by putting the furina fascundans of one
fpecies of plant into the piftil, or utricle of
another.

The carnation and fwect-william being fomc-
what alike in their parts, particularly their flowers;
the farina of the one will impregnate the other ;
and the feed fo enlivened will produce a plant dif-
fering from cither.

1 his gives us a hint for altering the property and
(afte of any fruit, by impregnating one tree with
the farina of another of the fame clafs, e gr. a
codlin with a pearmain, which will occafion the
codling fo impregnated to laft a longer time than
ufual, and be of a flrarper tafle ; or if the winter-
fruits be fecundated with the duft of the fumm.or-
feeds, they will decay before their ufual time.

Among the monftrous productions of the fea,
the mermaid is that, which furprifes and puzzles
us moft.

However naturalifis may doubt of the reality of
mermen or mermaids, we have teftimony enough to
eftablifli it.

In the year 1430, after a huge tempeft, which
broke down the dykes in Holland, and made w^y
for the fea into the meadows, fomc girls of the
town of Edam in IFeJi Friejland, going in a boat
to milk their cows, perceived a oti?/v?m/(/ tmbarrafTcd
in the mud, with a very little water. The7 took
it into their boat, and brought it with them to
Edam, drefied it in woman's apparel, and taught
it to fpin. It fed like one of them, but could never
be brought to offer at fpeech. Some time afterwards
it was brought to Hacrlem, where it lived for fome
years, though ftill fhewing an' inclination to the
water. Purival relates, that they had given it
fome notion of a deity.

Frora the defcription of monjlers. III paf> to
what appears the moft capable to flatter our curio-
fity, in the animal world.

The Uni c CRN is an animal famous amono the '
Greek authors under the name of lia^^y.rfu^ ; haviiio-
one horn only, which is reprefentej as five palm*
long, growing in the middle of the forehead.

The popular account is, that it is about thedzt

of a hjri'e, its hair fhort, and of a dark-brown

Odd colour ;

382 7he Univerfal Hiftory

colour; very timorous, and therefore keeping moftly
in the woods; and that its true place is the pro-
vince of Jgoas, in the kingdom of Damotes in
Ethiopia.

T he firfi: author who wrote of the unicorn, was
one Crefius, whom Arijiotle mentions as a very
fufpicious author. And the more knowing among
the moderns unanimoufly hold it a fabulous ani-
mal.

What ordinarily paflc."; among us for iiniarn's
h:rn, and is flicwn for fuch in the collections of
curiofities, and ufed for fuch by feveral phyficians,
we are aflurcd by Pereyrn., in his account of Grcen-
laxicU is the tootli of a large fifh of the whale-kind,
called by the iflanders wij;!'^/ ; and in others places
walrus and rohart, frequent enough in the icy fea.
This tooth or horn, turned, channelled, and ter-
minated in a point, as it is, fprings out of the mid-
dle of the fore-part of the upper jaw, and ferves
it as a weapon of defence, wherewith it dares to
attack the largeft whale. It can ftrike it with fuch
violence, as even to pierce the fide of a lirong
built fliip.

Among the feathered tribe, the Phoenix was a
bird famous among the antients ; but generally
loak'd upon bv the moderns as fabulous.

The naturali.^s fpeak of it as fingle, or the only
one of its kind : they defcribe it as of the fize of an
eagle ; its head finely creded with a beautiful plu-
mac'e. Its neck covered with featliers of a gold
colour, and the reft of its body purple, only the
tail white, intermixed with carnation ; and its eyes
fparkling like ftars. They hold that it lives five
or fix hundred years in the wildernefs : that
when thus advanced in age, it builds itfelf a fune-
ral pile of wood and aromatick gums ; then it
lights it with tlie wafting of its wings, and thus
burns itfelf; and from its allies arifes a worm,
which in time grows up to be a phoenix.

Hence the Phcenicians gave the name phccnix to
the palm-tree, by reafon when burnt down to the
very root, it rifes again fairer than ever.

In the fea we find the Torpedo, which is a
flat fifh, much of the figure of the thorn-back,
found about the coafts of Provence, Gafcony, he.
where the people eat it without any danger.

Upon touching the torpedo with the finger, it
frequently, though not always happens, that the
peribn feels an unufual painful numbnefs, which
fuddcnly feizes the arm up to the elbow, and
fometimes to the very fhoulder and head ; rcfem-
bling that painful fenfation felt in the arm, upon
flriking the elbow violently againft a hard body.

Bdloniui allures us, that torpedo's applied to the

of Arts r^W Sciences.

foals of the feet, have prov'd fuccefsful a»ain[i
feveis.

From the animal I'll pafs to the vegetable world,
and there take a particular notice of the ginfeng.

The GiN-sENG, or GiN-sEM,or Ginzeng, is
a very extraordinary and wonderful plant, hitherto
found ill Tartary and North America.

'V\\c gin fcng is one of ihc principal curiofities
of the Chinefe and Tartars ; their moft eminent
phyficians have wrote many a volume of its
virtues.

It ij known among them by divers other names,
as the orlyfpirituoiis, the purefpirit of the earthy the
plant that gives immortality, £cc.

1 heginfeng has a white root fomewhat knotty,
about thrice the thicknefs of the ftem and which
goes tapering to the end : at a few inches from the
head it frequently parts into two branches, which
gives it fome refcmblance of a man, whofe thighs
the btanches reprefent ; and is hence it takes the
denomination gin-feng.

From the root rifes a pcrfe£lly fmooth and tole-
rable round flem ; its colour is a pretty deep red,
except towards the foot, where, by the neighbour-
hood of the earth, it is turned fomewhat whiter.
At the top of the fl:em is a fort of joint or knot,
formed by the fhooting of four branches, which
fpread as from a centre : the underfide of each
branch is green mixed with white, and the upper
part much like the ftalk, of a deep red ; the two
colours gradually decreafe, and at length unite on
the fides.

Each branch has five leaves ; and it is obferva-
ble, that the branches divide equally from each
other, both in refpeft of themfelves, and of the
horizon ; and with the leaves make a circular figure
nearly parallel to the furface of the ground.

7 he fibres of the leaves are very diftinguifhable,
and on the upper fide are befet with fmall whitifti
hairs ; the membranes or pellicles between the
fibres rife a little in the middle, above the level of
the fibres.

The colour of the leaf is a dark green above,
and a fhining whitifh green underneath, and all
the leaves are finely jagged or indented.

On the edges, from the center of the branches,
arifes a fecond ftalk, very ftrait, fmooth, and
whitifti, from bottom to top, bearing a bunch of
round fruit, of a beautiful red colour. This bunch,
in the plant viewed by F. Jartoux, a jefuit, was
ccmpofed of twenty-four berries.

The red fkin that covers the berries is very thin
aijd fmooth, and contains within it a white pulp :
as thefe berries were double (for they r.re fometimes
fingle) each had two rough Hones, of the fize and

figure

NATURAL HISTORY.

2^Z

fip'ure of our lentils. The pedicles whereon the
berries were fiipported, all arofe from the fame
center, and fpreading exaftly like the radii of a
fphcrc, made the bunch of hcrries of a circulaj-
form. The fruit is not good to eat, and tlie flone
includes a kernel ; it Jias alio a fmail beard at the
top, diametrically oppofite to the pedicle.

The plant dies away every year, the number of
its years may be known by the number of ftalks
it has flaot forth, of which there always remains
fomc mark.

Though the plant here defcribed had four
branches, yet there are fome which have but two,
others three, and others five, fix, or (even ; but
each branch has always five leaves.

The height of the plant is proportionable to its
bio-nefs ; and the number of branches that the root
has, the larger and more uniform it is ; and the
fewer fmall firings or fibres it has, the better it is
accounted.

Thofe who gather the gin-feng, prefervconly the
root, and all they can get of it in ten or fifteen
days time, they bury together in fome place under
ground. Then they take care to wafh it well, and
fcour it with a brufh ; then dip it in fcalding water,
and prepare it in the fumes of yellow millet, which
gives it part of its colour.

The millet is put in a vefTel with a little water,
and boiled over a gentle fire ; the roots are laid
over the vefiel upon Imall tranfverfe pieces of wood,
being firft covered with a linen cloth, or fome other
veffel, placed over them.

They may alfo be dried in the fun, or by the
fire ; but then, though they retain their virtue well
enough, they have not that yellow colour, which
the Chinefe fo much admire. When the roots are
dried, they muft be kept clofe in fome very drv
place, otherwife they are in danger of corruption,
or being eaten by worms.

The gin feng is an ingredient in mod: of the me-
dicines, which the Chinefc phyficians prefcribe to the
betterfortofpatients: they affirm, that it is afovereign
remedy for all weakneffes occafioned by exccffive
fiitigues, either of body or mind : that it attenuates
and carries ofFpituitous humours ; cures weaknefs
of the lungs, and the pleurify ; fiops vomiting ;
ftrengthens the flomach ; and helps the appetite ;
difperfes fumes or vapours ; fortifies the breaft ; is
a remedy for fhort and weak breathing ; fVrength-
ens the "vital fpirits ; and is good againfl dizzinefs
of the head, and dimnefs of fight ; and that it pro-
longs life to extreme old age. Thofe that are in
health, often make ufe of it to render thcmfelves
more vgorous and firong.

It fubtilizes, increafcs the motion of, and warms
he blood ; it helps digefiion, and invigorates in a I
ery fenCble njanner. '

It is necefiary to boil it a little more than tea ;
as is pra(5lifed by the Chiiufc, when they give it to
fick pcrfons. Cn which occafion they feldom ufe
more than the fifth part of an ounce of the dried
root.

To prepare the root for exhibition, cut it into
thin flices, and put it into an earthen pot well
glazed, with about half a pint of water ; the pot-
to be well covered, and fet to boil over a gentle
fire ; and when the water is confumcd to the
quantity of a cup-full, a little fu^ar to be mixed
with it, and tobediank: immediately after this,
as mu.ch more water to be put on the remainder,
and to be boiled as before, to extradl all the juice,
and what remains of the fpirituous part of the root,
rhcfe two dofes to be taken, the one in the morn-
ing, and the other in the evenin''.

A tree grov/s, likewife, in Ch'ina^ Loo, and
Coeh'in-ch'may called the aloe-tree, which is much
about the fize and figure of olive-trees. The
trunk ccnfifis of three forts of wood, very different
in colour and properties. Immediately under the
bark, it is black, conipaft and heavy, called by the
Portugucfe, pao d'aquilo, q. d. eagle wood. The
next under this is of a tan-colour, light and veiny,
refembling rotten wood ; and called calambj.

The heart or innermofl- part is called tamback ;
and more valued by the Indian than gold itfelf.
It affords a very firong, but agreeable Tmell ; and
is ufed as a perfume; and is withal held a fove-
reign remedy againfl: the palfy, deliquium, weak-
nefs, ^c.

It is the calamho alone v.^hich is known among
us. It is brought in fmall bits of a very fragrant
fccnt ; efpccially when call on the fire, where it
melts like wax. The beft is of a blackifli purple
colour, and fo light as to fwim on water : it is hot
and drying ; and efteemcd a great ftrcngthener of
the nerves.

In the IVcft r,idics, particularly in the provinces
of Guanimaln, antl Nicarngra, and the Caribbee
iflands, grows a tree, refembling our cherry-tree,
which produces a kind of nut about the fize of an
almond, called cacao, or cocoa.

The native Mexicans called the cacao-tree, cii-
cuhaa, giiahuets ; it is fo veiy delicnte, and the foil
it grows in fo hot, that to guard it from the fun,
they always plant it in the fliade of another tree,
called msther of cacao.

The i''ruit is enclofcd in a kind of pod, of the
fize and figure of a cucurnber ; except that it be-
gins, and ends in a point. Wltliin the pod, whidi
is half a finger thick, is formed a tiffue of white
fibres, very fucculent, a little acid, and proper to
ajipeafe thirft. In the middle of ihefe fibres are
contained lo, ibmetimcs 12, and fomstimcs more, '
D d d 2 as

384 I^J^ Univerfal HiCtory of Arts and Sciences,

as far as 40 grains or feeds, of a violet colour, and 1 on
dry as acorns. Each grain, which is covered with
a little bark, or rind, v.'hen dripped thereof, fepa-
ratcs into five or fix unequal pieces, in the middle
whereof is a kernel or pippin, having a tender bud,
very difficult to prefcrve.

6f this feed, with the addition of vanilla^ and
fome other ingredients, the Spaniards, and after
their example, the reft of Europe, prepare a kind
of conferve or cake i which diluted in hot water,
makes that delicious wholefome drink, called
chocolate.

The Cacao nuts are efteemed by the Mexicans
as anodyne ; and ufed, eaten raw, to afiwage pains
of the bowels. They alfo procure a kind of butter
or oil from them, as fweet as that of almonds, and

excellent for burns.

a white ground. The piirfe, (yirntna, thus
called from its figure ; it is embroidered with three
or four colours. The fmt-ciia!, Jo/arium manuariuw.

drawn in the fame manner,

From this I'll pafs to fojfils, 5fc. and examine
firft the Glossotetra, which is a kind of ftone,
in form of a ferpent's tongue, commonly found in
the ifland of M^lta, and divers other parts.

Naturalifts are divided as to the nature and origin
of thefe floncs.

The vulgar opinion is, that they are the tongues
of ferpents petrified ; and hence their name, which
is a compound of yAw-a-a, tongue, and wilpa, ftone.
Hence alfo their pretended extraordinary virtue in
curing the- bites of ferpents.

The common opinion of Naturalifts is, that they
are the teeth of fifhes, left at land by the waters of
the deluge ; and fince petrified.

Shflls are alfo one of the chief objedls of r:a-
tural hi/lory. The Jhells of garden fnails are form-
ed of a matter, which perfpires from their bodies,
and hardens and condenfes in the air.

Shells, concha; or cochlea, make a confiderable
article in the cabinet of the curious : the fineft and
rareft are thefe that follow, viz. the papal crown,
tiaraa pontifcia, which takes its name from its
form, and which is all ftreaked with red on a
white ground. The feather, pluma, whofe white-
nefs, with its carnation fhiins, have an admirable
effeft. The kebraka, which on a ground as white
as fnow, has fpots as black as jet, much refemb-
ling Hebrew charadlers. The Chineje fnatl, Umax
Jinicus, which has a green and black embroidery,
on a dark brown ground. The cloth of gold, tex-
tile aiireum, remarkable for an admirable tilTue of
yellow, brown, and black. The cloth of fiver,
textile argent cum, which does not come behind that
of gold in beauty. The leopard, pardus, which is
all fpeckled. The tyger, tigris, feu concha cirenicea,
whofe fpots exceed thofe of the leopard. The
hart's horn, cornu ((rvinum, which has black ftains

Xhe caterpillar, cruca, both denominated from
their forms. Add the ncrites, nautilus, lepas, le-
pafta, apporays, tuba, galea. Sic.

in AUlrovandus, Gefner, and Fahius Columna,\KC
have all that theaniients have faid on thefubjeftof
jhelh. In 1692, Dr. Lifter publilhed a natural
hijlory of fjells in folio, full of cuts, reprefenting
the various kinds of fhells. Under the firft dais
he ranges the terreflrial or land Jhells ; in the fe-
cond, the frefli water fietls, both thofe called tur-
liiiiala, and thofe bivalvia and tnultivalvia : and in
the fourth he divides into feveral clalTcs, the fea
Jljells, called turbiaata. The turbinated are. thofe
which are fpiral, or wreathed, conically, from a
larger bafis to a kind of apex. Bivalve is a term
ufed for fuch fliell-fifli, as have two fhells, e. gr.
cockles, mufclcs, oyfk'rs, l3c, which are faid to
be of the livalvular kind.

Shells are frequently found under ground in
places far remote from the fea, in mines, and even
on the tops of mountains.

Dr. Z-///«- judges, that the fljells found in fome
quarries were never any part of an animal ; and
sives this reafon for it, that quarries of different
ftones, yield quite different fpecies of y^Y//x ; dif-
fe.'-ent not only from one another, but from any
thing in nature befides, which either fea or land
does yield.

The {eafiielh, which are always found near the
fhores, and never far ofF in the deep, are called
litoral fulls.

Thofe which are found in the bottom of the fea,
remote from the fhore, are called pelagia.

The Spar has alfo its place in natural hijlory,
and is a fhining, ftony, mix'd fubftance^ com-
pounded of dryftal, incorporated with /rti: /2/n<g', or
other mineral, earthy, ftony, or metallick matter;
frequently found in caves and grotto's, and in the
clefts of rocks, lead-mines, iJc.

Mr. Beaumont m the Philofophical TranfaSiions,
endeavours to account for the origin and growth
of fpar ; which he makes to be a kind of rock-
plant. .

Spar, he obferves, may be formed three ways ;
either from ftreams alone; or from fteams coagu-
lating dew, as it falls on the ground, or waters
ifluing from the joints of rocks : or it may grow
from earth and clay.

The Stalactites, or Stalagnites, or
Stanonites, is a ftarry, fparry fort of icicles,
which hang down from the tops or arches of grot-
to's.

NATURAL H I S T 0 RT.

385

to's, and fubterranean caverns ; and from the
root's of buildings, and capitals of pillurs of fuch
places as arc built over hot fprings, ^c.

Of this kind are the fa! alumeii, and vitriolum
Jialafticum ; the minora ferri Jlalaoilca, the vitriolum
capillare. Sic,

The J!a!a^ites, v;hich iiicruftate or line the
tops and fides of caves, tfr. are manifeftly formed
of exfudatior.s or extillatioiis of petrifying juices
out of the neighbouring rocky grounds.

There is, alfo, in natural hiftory, a kind of figur-
ed foflil flones, rcfembling plants, called Tro-
CHiT^, or Trochites, vulgarly St. Cnthbert's
heads.

They are ufually of stn opake, dark colour, break
like flint, glolly and fliining, and are eafily diflblv-
ed in vinegar. — Their figure is generally cylindri-
cal, fometimes a little tapering; the circumference
fmooth, and both the flat fides covered v.'ith a fine
radii, drawn from a certain hole in the middle to
the circumference. — 1 wo or three, or more of
thefe trochitce joined together, conftitute what the
naturali-lls call an entrocbos.

The trochitce, or fimple joints, are fo fet toge-
ther, that the rays of one enter int'6 furrowsi n the
other, as in the futures of the fkull. — They are
found in great p'enty in the bodies of the roclis at
Broughton and Stock, two villages at Cravt'ii, at all
depths under ground ; and in Maidip hills, i^c.
fometimes only fprinkled here and there, and fome-
times in large ffrata, or beds of all magnitudes,
from the fize of the fmallcft pin, to two inches
about.

They are generally found ramous and branchy,
larger branches arifing from the ftem, or cylinder,
and imaller from them : the branches being deeply
infcrted into the ftem, the tearing them off leaves
great holes therein.

1.1 the clay where trochites are found, the ftone
called cornu ammonis is frequent.

The Cornu ammonis is an extraordinary
kind of ftone, which in vinegar, juice of lemons,
i^i has a motion like that of an animal.

It is rough, knotty, of an aihcolour, and
' crooked in manner of a ram's horn, fuch asthofe,
wherewith the antients reprefented "Jupiter Amnion;
whence its name.

The cornua ammonis are of difTerentthickncffes
and lengths ; fome of them wc^gh about three
pounds : they are found in feveral places in Ger-
many. From fome experiments that have been
made therewith, they are found to contain a little
quantity of gold, which finks to the bottom upon
pounding them fmall, and itirring them in a run-
ning water, till all the earthy parts are carried off.

I'll conclude this trcatife by a differtation on
feeds., and on the bodiii fecundated thereby, viz.
e^gs.

Seed, taken in the general fignification of the
word, is a matter prepared by nature, for the re-
produ(flion and confcrvation of the fpecies, both
in men, animals, and plants.

Some Naturalifts add, that even ftoncs, mine-
rals, and metals themfelves, have each their proper
feed in their mines, and are produced and perpe-
tuated thereby.

Seed., in the animal oeconomy, is a white liquid
matter, or humour, the thickcftofany in the body,
feparated from the blood in the teliicles, and re-
ferved in proper veffcis to be the means of gene-
ration.

The feed., or humour formed in the tefticlcs,
being, when new, diluted with a little warm wa-
ter, and viewed with a good microfcope, fecms to
confill of innumerable, little, oblong, living, eels-
like animalada., floating in the other part of this
humour. This is faid to be always obferved u\
the feed of all men, quadrupedes, birds, fifhes,
amphibious animals, and infeiSts.

Seed, in Botany, is the laft producl of a plant,
whereby the fpecies is propagated. 'Vhsfecd'Mi
frequently the fruit of the plant, as is the cafe of
moft herbs. Sometimes it is only a part inclofcd
in the fruit, and that in form either of grain, ker-
nel, or berry.

Ths feed is the natur.il offspring of the flower,
and that for whofe produftion all the parts of the
flower are intended ; fo that when this is once
well formed, the feveral parts of the flower dwin-
dle and difappear.

It is fuppofed to be produced by the farina of the
apices, let fall on the head of the piftil, and thence
forwarded to an uterus at the bottom thereof, di-
vided into feveral cells ; where, coming to receive
the nutritious juice of the plant, it is firfl foftened,
then fwelled, increafed both in matter and bulk,
and at length comes to its ftate of maturity.

That the whole plant is contained in the feed,
is an opinion as old as Empedocles, and is ftil! the
prevailing dodlrine among the generality of Natu-
ralifts. Experience, the microfcope, and the mo-
dern philofophy, give it great countenance. In
efteiSl, by the ufe of good microfcopes, we difcover
in the feed feveral of the parts of the future tree,
only in miniature ; particularly a little root called
the radicle, and the ftem called the plumule.

The fecundity of plants in the production of
feed, is very furprizing. M. Dodart, in the Me-
moirs of the French academy of fcienccs, compute.'Sj
that an elm, living lOO years, ordinarily produces
of itfelf 330C0000 grains.

The

386 Tie Unlverfal Hiftory

The Mushroom is a plant of a form and
fi-ru£liire very difFcrent from that of all other
plants. It has neither feeds, nor flowers.

M. Tournefort gives a very curious account of
their culture, in the Memoirs of the Royal Aca-
demy, with the fubftance of which we (hall here
prcfent the reader. All the fecret of bringing up
rnujhrootns fpecdiiy, and in abundance, confifts in
ran^in'' balls of horfe-dung, about the bignefs of
thcfift, in lines, at the diftance of about three feet
from each other, and at the depth of one foot un-
der ground, and covering thefe over with mould,
and that zgain with horfe-dung

If this be done in April, in the beginning of
JiiguH the pieces of dung will begin to whiteli,
and grow mouldy, being cover'd all over with
little hairs, or fine white threads, branched and
woven about the ftraws whereof the dung is com-
pofcd. The dung now loofes its former excre-
mentitious fmell, and fpreads an admirable odour
of mt'firo'.ms.

According to all appearance, thefe white threads
are no other than the open'd feeds or buds of
mujhrooms, v/\\\c\\ feeds were before inclofed in the
dung, but in fo fmall a compafs, that they could
not be perceived till after they had (hot themfelves
into little hairs. By degrees the extremity of
thele hairs grows round, into a kind of button,
which fwclling by little and little, at length opens
itI'eU into a mv.Jhroom, whereof the lower part is a
kind of pedicle bearded in the place where it
enters the ground, and at the other end loaded
•with a roundifh capital or head, in the manner of
a fhalot, which expands itfelf, without producing
eithery^^iA' or flowers that are fenfible ; the bottom
is fpread with laminje, which proceeding from the
center to the c'rcumference, may be called the
leaves of the mufuroonn.

At the foot of each mujhroom, are found an in-
finite number of little ones, not bigger than the
head of a pin, when the others are at their
o-rowth. The buds of the mufirocms, or the white
hairs of the dung, preferve themfelves a long time
without rotting, if kept dry; and if laid again on
the ground will produce new mufhrsoms.

MuJhrtio7ns, then, are nothing elfc but the pro-
duce of what we call the mouldinrjs of horfe-dung :
but what analogy is there between thefe two
things ? or how iliould fo artful and delicate a
ftrudure as this of a plant, refult frrm the mere
fortuitous concourfe of a few juices differently
agitated ?

It feems paft doubt, then, that mufhrooms, like
all other plants, have their origin m feeds.

There are various kinds of mtijhrooms ; and the
-vulgar call by this name all that come under the

of Arts mid Sciences.

general name of fungus's ; by the Greeks called

Mr. Bradley mentions a hundred kinds q^ mujh-
rooms., which he has iznw in England ; bpfides
thofc very numerous fmall ones, which conftitute
the mouldinefs of liquors, fruits, is'c. which laft
are fuch quick growers, that they arrive at pcr-
fe£tion in lefs than twelve hours.

The fungo'tdes only differs from a tmijhroom in
its external form ; the ccralloides are of the fame
fpecies, though of a different name, as being
branched like coral, and truffles come under the
fame kind.

Mathiolits mentions mujhrooms, which weighed
thirty pounds each, and were as yellow as gold.
Fer. Imperatus tells us, he faw fome which weigh-
ed above a hundred pounds ; and to add no more,
the Journal des Scavans furnifhes us with an ac-
count of fome growing on the frontiers of Hun-
gary, which made a full cart-load.

Truffles, tuhera terra, is a kind of fubterra-
neous vegetable production, not \iT\\'<^& mufi)rooms.
The antient Phyficians and Naturalifls, rank
truffles in the number of roots, bulls, or cloves ;
and define them to be a fpecies of vegetables,
without flalks, leaves, fibres, iSc. Bradley galls
them under ground edible mujbrooms, or Spatiijh
trubbes.

They are produced moft in dry chapped
grounds, and that, as Pliny, fays, chiefly after
rains and thunder, in autumn. Their duration he
limits to a year. Their colour is uncertain ; fome
being white, others black, l^c.

•yin Italy, France, &c. they eat them as a great
dainty, either fryed in flices with oil, fait, or pep-
per, or boiled over again in their own broth. The
hogs are exceedingly fond of them, and are fre-
quently the means of difcovering the places where
they are ; whence the common people call them
f-ivine-brcad. The modern Botanills rank truffles
in the number of plants, though they want moft
of the ufual parts thereof. All we know of their
growth is, that they are firft no bigger than a pea,
reddifli without, and within whitifh, and that as
they ripen, the white parts grow more dufky and
black ; only there are flill left a number of white
flreaks, which all terminate at places where the
outer coat is cracked, or open : and which, in all
probability, are the veflels that convey the nourifh-
mcnt into the truffles.

In thefe vefTels is found a whitifh matter, which,
when viewed with a microfcope, appears to be a
tranfparent parenchyma, confiiling of veficulae :
in the middle whereof are perceived little round
black grains, feparate from each other, fuppofed
to be t\\e.feed of the truffle's.

They

NATURAL HISTORY.

They arc tcndereft and bcft in the fpriiig, tho'
caficil found in autumn; the wet (welling them, and
the thunder and lightning difpofing them to fend
forth their fcent, fo alluring to the fwinc. Hence
feme of the antients call them ceraunia, q. d.
thunder -Jl ones.

The antients are exceedingly divided as to the
ufe of truffles; tome affirming thLin to be whole-
fome food ; and others pernicious. I am of opi-
nion, they have both good and evil eft'cdls ; they
reftore and llrengthen the ftomach, promote the
femen, i^c. But when ufed too freely, they at-
tenuate and divide the juices immoderately, and
by fome volatile and exalted principles, occafion
great fermentations, i^c. though the pepper and
ialt they are ordinarily eaten withal, do doubtlefs
contribute greatly to thofe effe<5ls.

We mult inform ourfelves next what eggs are.

Egg is a part formed in the female of certain
aijimals ; which, under a fhell or cortex, includes
an embrio or foetus, of the fame fpecies ; the parts
whereof are afterwards difplaycd and dilated, either
by incubation, or by the acceflion of a nutritious
juice.

The fpecies of animals that produce eggs-, arc
particularly denominated oviparous ; and the part
wherein the egg is formed the ovary.

An egg., improperly fo called, is that of the
whole whereof the animal is formed : fuch are the
egg> of flies, butterflies, k^c. which Arijlotle calls
vcrm'iculi.

The two have this further difference, that
wherjof the former, after they are excluded from
the female, need no external nutriment, nor any
thins but warmth and incubation, to bring; the
foetus, to perfedtion : the latter, after they are fallen
out of the ovary into the uterus, require the nutri-
tious juices of the uterus to diftend and enlarge
them ; whence they remain much longer in the
icterus than the other.

It was antiently thought, that none but birds
and fifhes, with fome other animals, were produ-
ced ah ovo, eggs ; but the generality of the moderns
incline to think, that all animals, even man him-
lelf, is generated the fame way. Harvey, De
Graaf, Kerckringlus, and feveral other great Jiui-
toniijls, have fo ftrenuoufly alTertcd this opinion,
that it now generally obtains.

In the teftes of women, are found little veficles,
about the fize of green peas, which are accounted
azeggs; for which reafon, theie parts, which the
antients called tejiiclcs, the moderns call ovaries.
Thefe eggs fecundificd by tiie nion volatile and
fpirituous parts of the feed oi the mnle, are detached
from the ovary, and fall dovvn ihe fallopian tubes
jnto the uterus, where they giow and increafe.

387

' This fy flcm is co.vntenanced and confirmed by
abundance of obfervations and experlmei.is. M.
cle St. Maurice, upon opening a woman at Paris,
in 1682, found a fa;tus perfeiftly formed in the
tefticle.

There is not fo much as a plant, whofe gene-
ration, according to the fentiment of Empedocles,
and fince him of Alalpighi, Rallius, Fabric, de
Aquapendente, Greiv, and others, is not effected by
the way oi eggs.

On the other hand we have many inflances of
viviparous animals producing their young zbfolute-
ly alive, and without eggs. Such initances we
have of a crow, a hen, ferpents, fifhes, eels, tsc.

Animalcule, is a diminutive of animal, and
exprefies fuch a minute creature, as is fcarce, or
not at all difcernable by the naked eye.

Such are thofe numerous infedts which crowd
the waters in the fummer-months, changing it
fomenmes of a deep or pjle red colour, I'onietimes
a yellow, Wr. they feem to be of the (hrimp kind,
called by Swammerdarn, pulcx aquatlcus arhorefc.ns.
The caufe of their concourfe at thi= time, Mr.
Derham obferves, is to perform their coit. He
adds, that they afford a comfortable food to many
water-animals. The green fcum on the top of
ftagnant waters is nothing elfe but prodigious num-
bers of another fmaller order of animalcules ; which
in all probability terve for food to U\t ptdlces aqua-
tlci.

The microfcope difcovers legions of animalcu-
les in mofl liquors, as water, v.iiie, brandy, vine-
gar, beer, fpittle, urine, dew, i^c. In the Philo-
fophlcal tranfa^ions, we have obfervations of the
anima'citles in rain-water, in feveral chalybeat wa-
fers, infuflons of pepper, ivy- berries, oats, barley,
wheat, is'f.

The human feed has been obferved- bv divers
authors to contain huge nu.mbers oi animalcuLs;
which gave occafion to the fyftem of generatiuu
ab animalculo.

Leaves may alfo claim a place in this treatife ;
therefore.

Leaf, is a part of a plant, ordinarily very tliin
and flat, growing in the fpring, and falling off in
autumn.

As to the ftruiiure of leaves. Dr. Green obferves,
that their fibres never fland on the ftalk on an even
line, but always in an angular or circular pofture,
and their vafcular fibres or threads are 3, 5, or 7.
The reafon of which pofition is for their more ere<Sh
growth, and the greater flrength of the laf.

The fkinor coat of the leaves, is no mure than
that of the branches extended, as gold, by beat-
ing, is reduced into leaves. In the gem the leaves

are

388

Tliz Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

are folded, fomctimcs in two, and fometimcs in
fevcral plaits, fomewhat after the manner of a fan.
If the leaves bs too thick to plait commodioufly in
two, and to be ranged againft each other ; or if
they be in too fmall a number, and their fibres too
delicate, inftead of being plaited they are rolled up,
and form either a fingle roll, as the hava of the
mountain-cowflip, which are thick ; or two rolls,
w'nich begin at each extremity of the leaf^ and
meet in the middle. There ate alfo feme plants
wliofe haves form three rolls, as fern ; feveral
'leaves arc covered wiih hair of feveral figures ;
thofe of lavender and olive-tree, have hairs re-
(embling flars.

Botanifts confider the leaves of plants, with re-
gird to their fVrudure, furface, figure, confidence,
(;d2;es, fituation and fize. — With regard to their
f!:u(5turc, leuves are either fmgle, as thofe of the
apple-tree, pear-tree, ^c. or double, as thofe of

angelica, p^rfley, ^c. — V/ith regard to their fur-
face, leaves are eieher _/?«/, as the nummularia, afa-
rum, orinany, androfzEaum, brionia canadenfis,
tsV. or hollow, as thofe of the onion and afphodel ;
or in bunches, as feveral kinds of kali, and houfe-
leeks. — With regard to their confiftence, leaves
are either thin and fine, as thofe of St. John's- wort,
and dog's grafs ; or thick and grofs, as thofe of
pdrtulaca ; or flefhy, as thofe of feveral kinds of
houfe- leeks; or woolly, as thofe of the wool-
blade. — With regard to the verge or edges, leaves

are either cut flightly, as fome fpecies of gum,

and cannabis lutea ; or deep, as trefoil, isc .

With regard to their fituation, leaves are either al-
ternate, that is, ranged alternately, as the philyca;
or oppofite to each other, as the philerya, and
fome fpecies of the rubia. — With regard to their
fize, leaves ZTt either very big, as thofe of theco-
lonfu, and fphondylium ; modefate, as thofe of
the biflorte, the fig-tree ; fmall, as thofe of the
apple-tree, pear-tree; peach-tree, or very fmall,
as thofe of millepertuis,or St. John's-wort.

There are likewife, annual, crenated, diilimi-
lar, procumbent, fegment, feminal, and vernal
leaves.

jftintial leaves, are fuch leaves as come up afrefli
in the fpring, and perifli in the winter.

Crenated leaves, are fuch leaves as are jagged or
notched.

Difftmilar leaves, denote the two firft leaves of
any plant, at its firft fhooting out of the ground.

They are thus called, becaufe they ufually are
of a different form from the common/tawjof the
grown plant.

Procumbent leaves, are fuch leaves as lie flat,
] and trailing on the ground.

I Segment leaves, is a Denomination given to thofe
leaves that are cut and divided into many fhreds,
or flices, as fennel, iJc.

Vernal leaves, are thole leaves which come up in
the fpring.

NAVAL A RC H ITECrU R E.

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, ox/hip
building, is that which teaches the con-el
flruclion of fhips, galleys, and other float-
ing veffels for the water ; with ports, moles,
docks, bV. on the fhore.

AJJiip, \i defined by the Sieur Aubin, a tim-
ber-building, conlifting of various parts, or pie-
ces, nailed and pinned together with iron and
wood, in fuch form as to be fit to float, ind to be
conJuded by wind and fails from fea to fea.

Ships, are ufually divided into three clafTes ;
JlAps of war, weichant-JJ.ips, and an intermediate
kind, half war, half merchant; being fuch, as
though built for merchandize, yet take commilii-
ons for war.

Ships of war, are again divided into fcveral or-
ders', called rates ; which are ordinarily fix, viz.
firft, fcond, third, fourth, fifth, and fixth rate;
the rate being ufually accounted by the length and
breadth of the gun-deck ; the number of tons,
and the number of men and guns the veffel car-
ries.

A firfl Rate EngUJh man of war, has its gun-
deck from 159 to 1 74 feet in length ; and from 40
to 50 feet broad, containing from 131 3 to 1882
tons ; has from 800 to 1000 men ; and carries from
96 to 110 guns.— A French man of war of that
rate, has from lOoo to 1200 men.

Se.ond Rate fhips have their great deck from
153 to 165 foot long; and from 41 to 46 broad;
they contain from 1086 to 1482 tops ; and carry
from 524 to 640 men ; and from 84 to 90 guns.^
A French (hip of the fame rate, carries from 900 to
1000 men.

Third Rates, have their gun-deck from 142
to 158 feet in length ; from 37 to 42 feet broad;
they contain from 871 to 1262 tons; carry from
389 to 476 men > and from 64 to 80 guns.

Fourth Rates are in length, in the gun-decJc,
from 1 18 to 146 feet ; and from 29 to 38 broad ;
they contain from 448 to 915 tons; carry from
2i6 to 346 men ; and from 48 to 60 guns.

Fifth Kate?, have their gua-deck from 100

NAV.AL ARC H ITECrU RE,

2>H

to 1 20 feet ionf;i; and from 24 to 31 broad ; thc-y
contain from 25910542 tons j carry from 145 to
190 men ; and from 26 to 44 guns.

Sixth Rates, have their gun-deck from 87 to
95 feet long ; and from 22 to 25 feet broad ; they
contain from 152 to 256 tons ; carry from 50 to
1 10 men ; and from 16 to 24 guns.

Merchant-fliifs are efteemed by their burden,
that is, by the number of tons they bear; each
ton reckon'd at 2000 pounds weight. The efti
m;ite is made by guaging the hold, which is the
proper place of loading.

The different parts of a man of war (and in faft
almoft all other (hips with three malts) are as fol-
lows.

The keel, the /lern-pojl, the rudder, the luttock
ofthefljip, the gallery, \.\\e freeze, the etifign Jlaff,
and its block, the dunette, or higheft part of the flem
ofthefliip, \k\z half-deck, ox corpi de guard-, which
is commonly that part under the hind-cafle, the
fore cajlle or prow, the belt hooks, the cut-water,
the cannon, the port holes, the laver, and upper
check, the trail board, the. fgure, the grating, the.
braekets, the main f em, the falfe Jlem, the hawfe
hole, out of which runs the cable, the cable, the
buoy, and its orin ; the mizzert mafl, the main- map,
the fore-majiy the bowfprit, the mizzen top, the
main top-mafl.

A Mast is a large upright pole, or long piece
of round wood, raifed in vefTels, for the rigging to
be fattened to.

In large velTels the number of ma^s are three ; or
four, if we reckon the bowfprit, viz. the main-
mafl, the fore-majf, the mizen-tnafl , and the bow-
fprit. To which fome add a fifth, viz. a counter-
mizen, which is very fcldom ufed.

The fore- majl is between the main-majl zvA the
head.

The mizen-majl is between the main-mafl and
ftern.

The bowfprit lies upon the beak, in the prow or
head of the ftilp.

The couHter-mizen, in large veflels and galleons
is in the ftern.

We alfo ufe the word mafl to fignify thofe divi-
fions, or additions! pieces in the niaih placed over
one another.

The main-mafl, and fore-mafl, have each of
them two, viz. the main-maft, has the main top-
maft, and the main-top-gallant -maft. The fore-
maft, has the fore-top-maft, and the fore-top-gal-
lant-maft.

The mizcn-maft, has but one, viz. the mizen-
top-maft.

'I he rigging of the main-maft, are the runners
and ta:kles ; the tackle, the jlirouds and laniarch.
Vol. II. No. 44.

I the //(?;' and _/«//, the ftay fail halliards, the yard
and _/«/./, thc;Vcr.', the fkccts, the tacks, \he lunt-
lincs, the bowlines, the braces, the leach-lines, the
ptittock fjrowds, the crowfoot, the lifts, the top,
tlie top armour, the top rope, the cap, the main-
yard tackles.

The rigging of the main-top maft, arc the tack-
les, fhrouds, back-ftays, halliards, ftay and fail,
fay fail halliards, yard and fail, braces, bowlines,
Jheets, clezvlines, lifts, runners, bunt lines, crefs- trees,
cap, ftump, ftay, truck, pendant.

Tlie rigging of the fore maft, are the runner and
tackles, the tackle, frouds and Imiatds, ftay, yard
and fail, fJjeels, tacks, braces, boivUne, huntlines,
Icach-lims, yard tackle, jeers, puttock fhrouds, crow-
foot, top, top armour, top rope, lifts, cap.

The rigging of the fore-top maft, are the tackles,
the fjrouds, the back fays, halliards, ftay znd fail
halliards, yard and fail, runner, lifts, braces, how-
li?!es, fhcets, clewlines, buntUnes, crofs-trees, cap,
ftum, ftay, truck, fpindle, vane.

The rigging ofthemizen maft, are the yard und
fail, the fheet,ff)rouds and laniards, bowlines, brayles,
jeer, peak halliards, crofs jack yard, lifts, braces.,
puttock firouds, mizen-top, top armour, cap, crow-
foot, ftay and fail halliards.

The rigging of the top maft, are the yard and
fail, braces, lifts, fhrouds, halliards, lack ftaySy
bowlines, fheets, clewlines, ftay, crofs-trees, cap,
ftump, fay, truck, fpindle, vane, fings of the crofs
jack yards.

The rigging of the bowfprit, are the horf,yari
and fail, lifts, fheets, clewlines, braces, bobjtay,
top, top armour.

The fprit-fail, top-fail, and the rigging of the
top-mafl, 2.re the fhrowds, halliards, crane line, yard
and fail, braces, lifts, fheets, crofs-trees, cap, jack-
flaff, truck, jack, heft boiver buoy, and the cable.

Weight ^/Cables of a hundred fathoms.
Inches Inches

A cable of 4 weighs 325

A cable of 1 1 weighs 2 1 50

—

400

5
6

—

490

558
680

—

800

■

930
1060

« —

1200

—

1340

1490
1640

—

1800

10 J

—

1970

E ee

—

2325

—

2580

I2i

—

^50

—

3000

i3f

—

3250

—

3500

—

3800

—

39CO

—

5332

—

5900

—

6600

—

7000

—

8000

—

9000

390 The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences

A lift of the loigih and I'leadth oi iome ih'ips.
and of the kngth and ihicknefs of the mafts, and of
their tacklings.

Ships ofii^i feet in length, and^-j broad.

Thelengthof the main-maft
of the fore-maft
of the bowfprit
of the mizen-maft
of the maintop-maft
of the fore- top- maft
of the mizen-yard

The length of miz en top 1

gallant, i

of the main-top gallant,

of the fore-top gallant,

of the top gallant of the 7

bowfprit, J

Yards.
The main-yard, feet long,

— of the fore-maft,

— of the bowfprit,

— of the main-top maft,

— of the fore- top maft,

— of the top-gallant of ?

the bowfprit, 5

— of the main-topgallant,

— of the fore-top gallant.

Riggings or cordages of the
main- map.
Stay,
Shrowds,
Lanniards,
Halyard,
Tacks,
Sheets,
Lifts,

Runners and tackles,
Leach lines.
Bowlines,
Braces,
Buntlines,

ForcmaJ],
Stay,
Shrowds,
Lanniards,
Tacks,
Sheetr,

Runners and tackles.
Lifts,
Halyard,
Leach- lines.
Bowlines,

Feet. Inch.

881 'Diam. 20

I or
10

52
69
56

74
28

25
21

28
24
17
^5
^3
10

Inches

26
16

8
8

12
17

Threads

htehes

H
8

18
18

39
29-

37
50
14
35
28

37
27

27
!j4| I20

Fath.

Braces,
Buntlines,

Mizm-majl.
Stay,
Shrowds,
Brayles of the top gallant.
Sheet,

Runner of armour.
Lifts,

Bowfprit.
Halyard,
Clewlipje of the topgallant
Sheets,
Braces,

Halyards,
Buntlines,

Main-t»p-mafl.

Shrowds,

Tackles,

Halyard,

Stay,

Sheets,

Clew-line,

Bowlines,

Buntlines,

Fore-tap'Viafl.

Shrowds,

Tackles,

Halyard,

Stay,

Lifts,

Sheets-, ,,

Clew-line,

Buntlines,

Brace-,

Bowlines,

Inchet

2ST
27

4
II

21
21

4j-
6

7
5
6

^
26

lo Thoeadi

12
IZ
36

25
TItreads 9
12

Inches

7
14

19
22

Inches

5
16

5
33

7
6

Inches

•Threadi

9
22

57
23 f

27
I 30

Another manner of rigging a fhip of L23 feet

in length, and 28 in breadth.

Tackles of

Rigging of the top-gal-
lant oftbehowf^rit.
Fath.
The halyard muft 1
have in length. |
The lifts, 8

The braces, 18

The clew-line, 1 6

1 he buntlines^ 18

Tlie Cieet, 18

The tackles ofthefprit-
fail. Fath.

The buntlines, i8

The braces, 18

Thelifis o: the mid- } 3
die of the yard, J

tae matnrtop
gallant.

The ftay.
The lifts.
The halyard.
The cl*w-line.
The braces,
T he buntlines.
The bowlines,

Fath.
20
10
4
30
32
23
3»

Tackles of the main-top
maji.

Fath.

3»
The

The ftay,
I The lifts,
i The brace^

N A VA L ARCHITECT UkE.

39»

Thelheet, i6

The halyard, 6

The fafeguard of the ? ^

bowfprit, J

The crane-line, '8

Tackles of the fore-tip

gallant.

Faih.
18

30
10

24
28

3
24

The ftay,
The braces.
The lifts.
The buntlines.
The bowlines,
The clew-line,
The halyard.
The feeets,

77v tackles of the fore-
top maji. Fath.
Theftay, 15.
The runner & tackles, 8

The lifts,
The halyard, '
The braces,
The bowlines.
The buntlines,
The clew-line.

28
7
3°
30
32
30

Tackles ofthefore-tna^.

Fath.

The ftay, 12

The runner & tackles 1 2

The lifts,
The braces,
The buntlines,
The tacks.
The bowlines.
The fhects,
The halyard.
The clew-line,
The lanniard.

28
20

24
14
15
36
14
35
5

The buntlines.
The bowlines,
The halyard,
The clew-line,
The flay runner.

34
8

34
18

The tackling of the main-
majl.

Fath.
16

30
16

The flay.

The flay runnel",

The lifts.

The braces.

The fheets.

The tacks.

The great bowline, 24

The halyard, 24

The clew-line, 38

The buntline, 26

The lanniard, 6

77v tackling of the miz-
xen top gallant.

Fath.
The running ftay, 10
4
10
12

The halyard.
The lifts,
The fheets
The buntlines
The bowlines.
The braces.

The tackling of the miz-
%en majl.

Fath.
10

The flay.
The halyard.
The clew-line.
The fheet.
The buntlines,
The bowlines
The lifts.

28
16
20
18
5

Another manner of cutting the tackling, and
of regulating their proportions.
Table of the thkknefs of the threads^ and of the

weight of cables.

Thicknefs

Weight.

Thtcknefs

W eight

inches

Threads.

Pounds.

Inches.

Threads.

Po utids.

192

821

3 2S4

308

952

3808

121

484

IC93

4372

174

696

1244

4976

238

952

1404

5616

311

1244

1574

6296

393

1572

i ^9

1754

7016

485

1940

1943

7772

1 1

-98

2392

2144

8576

699

2796

2352

9408

In the firfl column of this table is fccnthe thick-
ncfs of the cables ; in the Iccoiid column the num-
ber of threads ; and in the third, the weight of the
cables.

The meafure of the anchors, and of the cables by
the bigncfs of the fhips, to wliich they mufl ferve.

Blgntfs oftht
Ships by Feet.
8

9
10

17
18

19
20
21
22

27
28

30
31
32

34
35

37
38
39

41
42
43
44
45

T_.ength of thMVeight of the
-Inclxrby Ful\ An'cho.-hy Vds

4-^

95
9*

I ol-
io-?

IIT

115

I2i

I2t^

I3f

I3I

I4I

15^

151
^5|
151

16
161

'l\
18

47
64

140

17s
216

262
314
373
439
512
592
681

779
884

lOCO

1 1 24

1259

1405

1562

1662

1728
1995
2297

2300

2515
2742
2986

3242
3512

3796

4096

4426

474"-
50^8

5451

TInchnefsofihe

Cabk's by Inches

7f
8

9f
10

lOf
IT
III
12

r
121

i3f
14
Hi
15

i5i
16"

161

17I
18

i8|

19?
20

20|

2I|

A Sail, is an afTemblage of feveral breadths of
canvafs, or flrong hempen cloth, fewed together by
the liils, and edged round with a cord, failened to
the yards and cords of a veflel, to make it drive
before the wind.

For the meajures and proportions of the anchors

and cables, we mufl take with a compafs twice the

thicknefs of the yard of the anchor to find its

breadth ; then we'll .double the inches which the

! thicknefs gives, and give to the l»ngth as many

E e e 2 fei^t

n^e Univerfal Hlftory of Arts and Sciences.

392

feet, as there are inches in that thicknefs doubled,
and an inch bcfides above every foot. For iiiftance,
the meafure of the thicknefs being 6 inches by
the compafs, that makes 12 feet fdr the yard, and
by adding 13 inches to it, the whole together
make 13 feet i inch. Under 1000 pounds, one
muft, i.e. for the length of the yard, add 2 inches
for each foot, inflead of i, which has been marked
above ; and under 5000 pounds take three times
the thicknefs to give the length. Thus when
there are two inches and a half of thicknefs, the
length muft be 7 i feet, half whereof, which is 3!,
I being taken for 100 pounds, the weight of the
anchor will be 3.

For the thichiefs of the cables in proportion to the
zveight of the anchors. We muft obferve in the
two following tables, each whereof confifts of 12
articles, that each article of the firft muft anfwer to
the fame article in the fecond. For inftance, in
taking in the firft article of the firft table, a cable
of 20 inches, you'll find in the fecond table, at the
firft article, the fecond line, a common anchor of
56 hundred and one fourth weight ; which is the
proportion of the anchor for a cable of 20 inchgs, of
the firft article of the firft table ; and thus of all

the reft.

I . Inch.

Cables of 21
of 20

Firft TABLE

Cables

I4f
10

Cables

of
of
of 9

huh

of 20

of
of
of

15
14
9

of
of
of
of

19
13

9
8

huh.
of 17
of 16
of 12

of 8

\ Cables of 13
of 12

Cables of 10
of 9

Cables of 16
of 15
of 10

4
Cables

12
II

of
of
of
I.

Sheet anchor
Common anch.
Stream anch.
Kedge anch.
Grapler
'I.
Sheet anchor
(jommon anch.

9-
Cables

of 14

of 13

ot 12I

of 12

of 8

104.//;.

Cables

II.

Cables

12.

Cables

of
of

12
12

of
of
of

7r
6

60
56
55
25
7

43
40

Stream anch.
Grapler

104 lb.

39 o 3

720

Sheet anchor
Common anch.
Stream anch.
Ked2;er

35
34

31
1 1

104^

104/^-

Sheet anchor

18 0 »

Common anch.

17 0 0

Stream anch.

lb 0 2

Kedger

420

Sheet anchor

Grappler

220

Common anch.

Stream anch.

10.

Kedger.

Sheet anchor

II 0 0

Grapler
6.
Sheet anchor.

Common anch.

10 0 0

II.

Common anch.

Sheet anchor

700

ComiTion anch.

600

Sheet anchor

Stream anch.

520

Common anch.

12.

Sheet anchor

502

Common anch

Common anch.

400

Stream anch.

323

The Sheet anchor is ufed in a ftorm ; thtjlream
anchor daily ; and the kedger to tow a fhip.

Ships are caulked and done over with pitch and
tar, as well to preferve them and make them laft,
as to hinder the water from running through the
cracks and featns ; this operation is made by means
of tow, which, after it has been boiled and dried,
either in the fun or in an oven, is fpun very loofe
as big as the arm, and thruft afterwards by the
caulker into the feams of the fliip.

The graving a fhip is to be done over with, from
underneath to the line of water, is a compofition
made of rofin, tallow, brimftone, train oil, arxl
pounded glafs, to preferve her from worms.
When a fliip is to make a long voyage ftie is (heatb-
ed, and the boards thereof are garniflied with an
almoft infinite number of fmall nails.

We'll now put dtfiip on the Jiocks.

I. Model, or gaharit.

When a fhip-builder makes the draught or mo-
del of the conftruclion of a fhip, he gives the
name of firft model or chief rib, to that rib which
is to be placed under the main beam, and which
anfwers to it ; and even to the whole model raifed
perpendicularly over it.

The fecond, third, and fourth model, fore <3r aft,
are the other models raifed on the other beams, fore
or aft. Thofe models are made with pieces of thin
boards, to reprefent the length, breadth, and ca-
liber of the members, and parts of a fhip, when to
be built and put on the ftocks.

Expla-

'N AVAL ARCHITEGTU RE.

Explanation of the firji model.
Figure I.

1. Kihs of the firft deck, which muft have two
thirds of the main ftem.

2. Futtocks, of the upper deck ; they muft have
the fame thickncfs with the ribs of the firft deck.

3. Thefcuppey holes bindings^ of the lower deck,
are pieces of wood which running round the (hip
infide, ferve to join it, and muft be 19 inches
broad, and 5 or fix inches thick ; thofe of the up-
per deck 17 inches broad, and 2^ to 4 inches thick.
Which is the decifion of inafter fhip-buiiders who
have regulated the proportions of a fhip of 137 feet
in length.

4. Scupper-holes, are apertures made {helv-
ing, in the length of a piece of wood, placed on
the fide of the fhip, for the running out of rain
and fea-water. The Jcupper-holes of the upper-
deck, /'. e. the pieces of wood where the holes are
made, muft be four inches broad, and 4 thick;
and the holes have 2 inches diameter, if the aper-
ture be round, but it is moft commonly made fquare-
wife, and of feveral pieces. The fcupper-holes of
the lower deck muft be 6 inches broad, and 5I
inches thick ; and the holes have 3 inches diameter.

5. The the burdens of the deck, which muft be I 7
inches broad, and \\ thick : we'll have occafion
afterwards to regulate better their proportions.

6. "rhejide-planh, which ferve to cover the firft
gun-deck, are 2j inches thick.

7. The bolfter of the carriage.

8. The foor-ttmber of the lower deck, which is
a girder placed with feveral others, throughout the
breadth of a fhip, and refts on two ribs, by its two
ends. Moft carpenters give them if inch for every
10 feet of the length of the fhip, taken from the
ftem to the ftern-poft ; every 10 feet in lerig'h
given them, likewife an inch of roundnefs arch-
wife.

9. The wheel of the carriage.

10 The atonge oi the rnigrinier, which is the firft,
or that joined with the rib and knee ot the bottom.

1 1. The knee of the bottom, which is joined with
the firft alonges and ribs, they muft have in their
angle half the thicknefs of the ftem.

2 Model, or gabarit.
Figure II.
I. The keel.

a. The platform, which begins at number 2,
and ends at 2.

3. Thefoor-timber, which croftes over the keel,
and over all the bottom.

4. The length-.ning or alcnge, which forms the
breadth and depth of the Ibip.

393

5. The ferrc-baujuierre, in which the beams are
joined, in the fhape of a fwal'ow's tail. They^^rr^'-
bauquicrres run all round the fl>ip They have
fometimes half the thicknefs of the ftem, taken
infide ; others give them two fifths of that fame
thicknefs.

6. 1 he vaigre above the fcupper-holes binding.

7. The rib of the finft deck.

8. The lowermojl deck between the flowers and
the lower precincf^.

9. The fioivsrs : for the beauty of a model, the
flowers muft afcend and rife with a roundnefs a-
greeable to the fight, and well proportioned. The
flowers are formed by the jun£tion ot the floor-
timbers with the knees of the bottom.

10. The f;de-planks hetween the girts-.

1 1. The girts with their jutting out.

12. The tranfom of the viboard, which makes
the laft and higher girt of the fliip, and which is
moft like the other girts.

13. Beams of the upper deck.

14. hjirop commonly placed on the binding, as
the alonges are under it, to ftrengthen the fliip
which carry many cannon.

15. The vaigres of empature of the knees and
floor-timbers.

16. The vaigres of the bottom, and placed un-
der the firft girts.

17. The carline, which is the biggeft piece of
wood employed in the hold of a fhip ; feveral of
them are put end to end, and placed on all the rib?,
and as they ferve to tie them with the keel, they
are often called keelfon, or falfe keel.

18. The carriage of a fhip gun.

19. Planks which ferve to cover certain notches
made in the floor-timbers, of which the bottom of
the fliip is compofed ; and thofe notches ferve for
the evacuation of the water, which is in the fliip
from the prow to the pumps.

20. The jarlot of the keel, where the g third
enters ; it is a kind of notch made in the keel, in
the ftem, and in the ftern-poft of the fliip, to in-
troduce into it a fmall part of the fide-planks, which
cover the members of the ftiip.

21. The line, which hanging to the level of the
biggeft part of the fhip, is found a foot diftant
from the lowermoft deck, at the place where it
ends, and where the flowers begin in dcfccnJin",
and that's the breadth of the biggeft part of the-
fliip.

Figure III.

IVhich reprcfents in another manner the fame piece f
of the two preceding Mo DELS, and jhiw better
the rcimdnqs thsrtaf.

I. The futtocks under the falfe beams, placed at

t\ecv

n^e Univerfal Hiftory of Af.ts ^W Sciences.

5-
t>.

394

every 6 feet diitance, under the full: deck, to
llrcagthcn the bottom of the fhip. Thefc fal/e
beams are pieces of wood like to thofe over which
often a falfe deck is made ; and where it has
its greater height, a retrenchment is contrived,
where the foldiers rctiic to repofe themfelves and
flccp,

2. The bindings o'i tha Jcupper-holes.

7he luclght or burden of the deck.

The carline.

T'lVi fitttocks of the upper deck.

The reverfe lengthenings.

The binding of the bauquierre.

8. A /enfold on which the workmen place
themfelves.

9. The mainjlem infide

Figure IV.

Which fliews dlJiinHly and fuccejftvely the parts or
members of a JJjip, which give it the length mid
depth it mufl have forwards.

1. The carline.

2. The keel.

3. The gahords, or firft boards downwards
which form the outward fides of the fhip. The
row of boards which are placed above the gabord
are called ribord.

4. The vaigres and lengthenings.

5. The lozvertnojl deck.

6. Thtfsor timbers.

7. The knees of the bottom.

8. The ribs which fupport the deck.
Q. The beams of the firft deck.

10. T\\t gilts with their jutting out.
• ii. T\iZ bindings oi ihe. bauquierres.

Figure V.

Reprefcnts,

1. T\icfoor or deling.

2. The iveight of the decic, which is thick and
narrow boards notched, to put over the beams in
the lensth of the fliips, on each fide, from fore to
aft, at "very near one third of the leng,th of the

ihip.

3. The fat ribs.^
j^. The lengthenings.
c. The futtocks.
b. The port holes, placed banJwife on both

fides of the fhip.

7. The beams of the fecond deck.
Figure VI.
Sheius di/linSih and fuccejftvely the parts or mernh

ofajlip, -which give it the breadth and depth it

mnjl have backwards

1. The carline.

2. A. rib placed backward and round infide.

3. Vlat ribs,

4. A rib half backward, it has lefs cavity than
thole quite backwards.

hlote. That we fee in this figure, that the flat
ribs are in the middle ; that thofe placed backward
follow them ; and thofe quite backwards are plac-
ed at the extremities of the Ihip.

Figure VII.

Reprefents,

1. The port-holes, band wife, on both fides of
the (hip.

2. Two port -holes at the ftern.

3. Bands, pieces of timber- work. There arc
feveral forts of them, and are placed in different
parts of the (hip, as well to join the members
thereof, as to ftrengthen and keep up the whole
ftruflure.

4. T\\G futtocks, which fupport the deck.

5. The bindings oi' the f upper- holes of the lower
deck, we have already obferved, that they muft be
19 inches broad, and 5 or 6 thick at the firft deck.

Here follows a rule for the thicknefs of the fide
planks, mentioned in the above defcribed figures.

Feet. Thicknefs,

The fide planks Feet in length, from

of the bottom of the fiem to theflern-

a flip, from pofl, mufl be

2 Inches thick,

I'll explain here the two figures of the fore part

of a man of war, reprefented in the plate of Naval

Ar:hite£iure ; thofe figures being cut in a manner,

that the outfide parts which do not appear in one,

are reprefented very diftindfly in the other, and are

marked with the fame cyphers or letters, vi%.

S. The neck-piece of the cutwater, which muft
have 27 feet in length, and 5 in breadth, to be
proportioned to a man of war, which has 145 feet
in length from the ftem to the ftern-poft, 36 feet
broad, and 15 deep.

R. R. The futtocks of the neck-piece. The

needles of the cutwater comprized between the

neck piece and the yard-bearers, and which jut

out much into the lea, afe here more rounded than

.fwely the parts ormemWs^ ; j^ey were formerly.

T. The holes or fijlenings o{ the tacks of the
forc-maft.

I V. V.

40 to

60 to

80 to

100

100 to

120

120 to

140

140 to

160

160 to

170

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.

V. V. They?^«.
W. The ktel.
X. The hole thro' which pafles the tack of the
bowfprit.

P. The hawfe holes.
Q. (^ The girts.

0. O. T\\t fide planks, which are put two and
two between the girts.

N. The threjhold of the port-hole, or lower
threjhold.

M. The valves of the port-holes of the large
battery. Large men of war have commonly three
batteries.

L. The fecond battery is placed above the loWcr,
or at the middle deck ; and the third on the upper
deck. Each port-hole muft have its drogue and its
crane ; which ape big ropes, ferving to approach,
and draw back the cannon, and likewil'e to ftop the
recoil, fo that a piece of cannon may not recoil,
when it is flr'd, further than half deck.

F. K. Embrajurcs to level the cannon.

1. The cad-'.nes of the fhrowds, which are iron-
chains, at the end whereof is placed a rams block
(g) to make the (hrowds tight. They ferve to fo
many other things, that for the rigging of a
fingle fhip, we take moft commonly 13 dozen
of them.

E. E. Th& yard bfarers 1,2, 3. which are above
the cutwater, the uppcrmoft is 8 inches broad back-
wards, and 4f thick; 5 inches broad forwards, and
3|- thick. The fecond 6 inches broad, and \\
thick backwards; ^f broad, and 3^ thick forward.
The lowermoft 6f broad, and 4 inches thick back-
ward; and 5 inches broad forwards,
4. The door of the fore-caftle.
I. 2. The ornaments of the uppcrmoft part of
the poop.

3. 5. Shewing the flieathing of the boarJs,
which make an end of covering the hind part of the
fhip, as far as the flathoard.

Note, That here follows a more particular de-
fcription of^feveral pjeces or members of a {h1p,
which have already been mentioned ; beginning
at the fiern.

The great block of the driffe. It is a large

fquare piece of timber, placed upright on the car-
line, whence it rifes over the deck. At the upper
end of that piece of wood, there-are three or four
foinni:.:: wheels of puHies on the fame axle-tree,
on which the great clew-lines pafs; the main block
of clew lines ftrve to the main-yard.

The main capflcn, 2. Fig. ij. is a wooden ma-
chine placed on the firft gun deck, and which rifcs
4 or 5 feet above the fecond ; it is called double
capfton, becaufe it fervcs to raife the anchor, and
for other ufes, which 111 mention, when 1 11 ex-
plain its figure.

395

The little ox ftmple capjion, placed on the fecond
deck.

I. The d^ue of amtire. There is one on each
fide of the fhip. It is a hole with a ta'quet inlide,
and a frame outfide. One of thofe holes is larboard
of the fhip, and the other {larboard, on the flat
body at the head of the niain-ma!l, to tie the coueti
of the main-fail. The diftancc between the etam-
braie of the main-maft, and either of the dogiies
o'! amure, is equal tu the length of the main beam.

3. Chains o( the. /hrowds.

4. - J^/faJi ; if is a great tree, or a long piece of
wood placed in a fhip, to which the yards, fails
and tackles neceiTary for the failing of thefliip, are
faltened.

5. Chouquci.

6. It is a triangular piece of wood placed on
the end of the flays, and which join them with
the ftern.

7. Taquet of the key of the flays. It is a piece
of timber, placed under the key of the ftays, be-
tween the counter- fort, and the counter ftern-poff.

8. The ladder of the poop ; which is made of
cord, and hangs at the flern of the fliip, for the
convenience of the people of the fhallop, and to
make ufe of it in a temped.

Figure XI.

Shczvs,

1. A fimple pulley; which is z muffle where
there is only a iingle pulley.

2. A crane pulley, which is a double muffle,
where there are fometimcs two pullies over one
another, and fometimes even four.

3. Pullies of caliornes, which are pullies with
two or three_ wheels on the fame axle-tree.

4. Common pullies ; which is a round body mads
of wood or metal, in form of a plate, with a hollow
all round it, for a rope to run round. The pulley
is fet in what's called ^ fa, f or muffle ; and by that
word pulley is underftood the whole together, viz.
Xhcfcarf the. pulley, the zvheel, and the axle-tree.

5. Cut, or dented pidhy, is a pully which has its
fcarf Hoping on one fide, to run the bow-Iins into
it, when it is neceiTary to hale it.

6. liawfe-block, is a large fquare piece of
timber, placed upright on the carline, whence it
ri(<;s over deck. At the upperend of that piece of
timber, there are' three or four wlieels of pullies on
the fame axle-tree, over which the great diifi'es run.

7'. The block of the driff of the mizen mafl-,
the pu!lii.s whereof muft be eight inches broad,
with pioportionable cordages.

8. The f little : it is a kind of little platform,
fupported by wooden bars, and which runs, in jut-
ting out, round the cap of the inr-ft : thoug.i mofl

con;tnonIy

39^

Ths Univerfal Hiftory (^/Arts VzW Sciences.

4-
5-

commonly the largeft fhips have but four fcuttUs,
viz. the main-fcuttle, the fore-maft-fcuttle, that
of the bowfprit, and that of the mizen, and there
arc but bars at the other mafts, thofe bars are
notwithftanding called /cutties. The fiuttles fety/t
for working the fliip, wherefore the failors go up
to them. Ihey ferve lilcewife to faften the ftays,
fhrowds, and feveral other cordages. A Tailor is
kept there in centry, that he may fee at a greater
diflance.

The /Ixleenth figure rcprefents, — i.Thc etamhraie
of the main maft. The ctambrales are round holes
made in the decks of a fliip, to pafs the mafts thro'
them, or they are two large pieces of wood which
embrace a round hole made in the deck, through
which the maft runs, the better to ftrengthen the
deck in that" place, and keep the maft more ftcady.
2. The ctambraie of the fore-maft.

The etamhraie of the capjhn.

The pump.

The iron, or wooden rod of the pump. — It
holds the apparatus.

6. The girt ofviboard., is a girt a little fmaller
than the others, which runs all along the fhip
upwards.

7. The ^/r/^ are long pieces of wood, put in di-
vers places a-top of the ribs of a (hip, as well for or-
nament as neceflity. The chief of them are over
the acaftillages at breaft-high. There are like-
wife fome of them on the pediment of both caftles.

The tiuelfth fgurc ihews, — I, 2. The figures
of the bits.

I. The firft fhews the His, fuch as they are
feen backwards ; b b, the pillars or the bits ; c e,
the head of the pillars ; d d, the holes which ferve
for the large iron pegs when the cable is on the bits
to ftop it, and hinder it from fpinning ; e e, the
bowfprit; g gfi)the deck; h h, the head of the
bolftcf, which is of deal.

This firft figure of the bits has its proportions,
that it fhould not rife above the firft deck. But if
it was to be carried as far as the fecond, the pillars
Ihould be kept longer downwards.

The fecond figure ftiews the bits on the fore
part of the fhip, the better to difcover the futtocks
which do not appear at the ftern • b b the upper
branches of the futtocks which extend over the
deck, as far as the head of the bolfter; c c, the lower
blanches of the futtocks, which cannot be made
too long, and can be e.xtended as far as the guer-
lanJes, which are thofe large pieces of carpenter-
work bent, and placed fquare-wife on th* ftem,
above, and under the hawfe-holes, to form the
joining of the fore part of the fhip, and keep up
the fide-planks ; d d d d, bolts with rings which
run through the ribs and beams, and are faftened
wiLh pins.

3. The Pillars of the hits.

4.. Haivje-ltole. Commonly there are two /jd«y*-
hole;, one on each fide of the ftem ; and fometimes
four, two on each lide the fore part of the (hip,
ftarboard and larboard of the ftem. In men of war
which have two gun-decks the hatvfe botes are
pierced under the firft or lower deck.

5. The great level.

The fifteenth figure fhews, — i . The architrave,
cpijiy'e, which is a piece of timber placed on co-
lumns inftead of arcade, and is the firft and prin-
cipal, which fupport the others.

2. Bars of the capfton, are certain fquare pieces
of wood, ferving to turn the capfton round.

3. The earline. I have faid already, that it is
the longeft and biggeft piece of wood, employ 'd in
the hold of a fhip.

4. The girts, already mentioned, are placed
parallel one to the other. The failors find a con-
veniency in them when they want to get into the
fliip to clean it.

t^. Countcr-girts are thofe placed over the thillar-
tranfum.

6. The great earline, or zarline of the main-maft.

7. The earline of the foot of the fore-maft.

8. The earline of the mizen-maft.
g. The tar///.f of the capfton.

10. The Jlraps, which are pieces p'aced over
the binding, as the alonges are under it, to ftrength-
en large fhips which carry many cannon. The
larger fhips which have two rows of port-holes want
double ft raps backwards, and ftill more under the
fore-caftle, becaufe of the anchors, which are
drawn up there, and (hake that part much.

The fourteenth figure reprefents, — i.The thillar-
tranfum, already mentioned.

2, 3. Porques of the bottom, fituated about the
middle of the earline, and arc lels bent, and flatter
than the other porques, becaufe the bottom of the
ftiip is flatter about the middle of the earline.

4. Bindings of ihef cupper- holes.

5. Flat hoards, placed over the ends of the reverfe
lengthening clofe to the girts.

6. Threjholds of a pon-hole, or lower threfhold
is a board which being put over the lower part of
the port-hole, covers the thicknefs of the fides, and
prevents the water from rotting the members of the
Ihip.

7. Some call likewife, //jirf/^ic/Jj-, the cro(s piece
of timber, which refts on the two upright beams
and into which enters the iron work.

8. The vaigres of empature of the floor-timbers
and hiees, are thofe which follow the vaigres of
the bottom, and are rifen above it, to form the
roundnefs on both fides.

9. The far gues are boards rifen on that part of

the

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE,

397

the fat board called the bulf, to ferve inftead of
guard-corps, the btttter to disft-nd the deck, and to
Ileal from the fight of the enemy what pafies on
deck. The belle, or embtlle, is that part of the
upper deck which runs between the Ihrowds, of
the fore-maft and the main-ilirowds, and whicli
having its fide lefs rifen than that of the ocher
parts of the {hip fore and aft, leave that part of the
deck almo(i: quite open at its flanks. It is then to
cover that place that the fargues -ixc ufed. Tliey
arc took off when the fight is over, as well as the
guard-corps, which are mates, or textures made
of ropes, and placed on the upper fides of men of
war, to flieltcr foldiers againft the mufketry of the
enemies.

1 1 . The gallow of the lever which fervcs to draw
the water out of the pump.

We have feen in the prectding figures, tlie ap-
plication of the models made to fhaw the length,
breadth, and caliber of the members and parts of a
fhip, when it is to be built, to be put on the flocks;
and in a condition to be launched, which is done
in the following manner.

To place well a keel on the fiocks (Fig 7,) the
[lochs mull be placed at 6 feet diftant from one ano-
ther, taking care that the middle of the keel Ihould
reft direilly on the middle of xh^Jlocks. The big-
ger tins defigned to keep the keel almoft in an equi-
librium when the fliip is launched, muft be placed
at 5 feet of the lengtli oi keel, taking it backwards,
and from the heel of the keel. The tins more back-
ward need no wedges, becaufe as foon as the fhip'
leans a little forward, it refts lefs on thofe ilocks,
and they fall of themfelves ; but wedges muft be
put at all the other flocks, from, the biggefl: for -
wards. Some carpenters make the fore-maftftock,
which is under the ftem, of a wood very eafy to
fplit, and to launch the fhip, they dig up a little
of the earth round the flock, and under it, fo that
it finks a little, and then breaks it in pieces.

When the keel is well placed on its (lock, a line
is drawn through its middle, from fore to aft, to '
fee if it be not arched. Moft carpenters make it
arch by 6 or 8 inches underneath, according to its
length, pretending that it flraitens again when it is
in the water, becaufe fhips being much narrower
at their extremity than in their body, and confe-
quently lefs fupported there by the water, th.e ex-
tremities feldom fail linking a little at firfl, and
afterwards, when the fhip grows old, they conti-
nue to fink a little by degrees, and the ke-t '.lends
infide, which produces a very difigreeablc erFedl,
and fometimes a dangerous one. In placing the
keel on the flock, care is taken to keep it higher
backwards, and as high as is necc(E\ry to hunch
eafily the fhip to the water, and before the tins are
Vol. ll. 44.

put under the keel, it would be very proper to
make a bed of good boards 10 or 12 inches broad,
or more, to place the tins upon it, rather than oi»
the ground. All this maybe eafily underftood,
in examining figure 7. of the plate, where the
ktter A fhcvvs the fhip on the Jiocks, with the
follov.ing circunilcances.

1. A fcaffold made flanting for the workmen to
go in, and come out of the fhip.

2. An aperture left fer the pafiage into the fhip,
of the biggeft pieces of timber, which muft ferve
for its con!lru6lion.

3. Pieces of timber difpofed at a level, and fup-
ported by other perpendicular ones, in a i^odti,Dutch
tafhion, or the ground even with the wiiter, to
facilitate the launching of the fhip, in the manner
reprefented under the letter B.

4. Tins placed on the ground, or on boards to
fupport the keel.

5. The flocks, or bed where the tins and fhip
refl.

6. Wedges greafed, and drove under the keel.

7. Coites, or long pieces of timber placed pa-
rallel under the fhip, to carry it when taken ofF
the flocks, in order to launch it to the water. The
French make ufe of two indented pieces of wood,
which they call colomhiers, and which go to the
water along with the fhip ; and when the fhip
begins to float, the eolombiers, which are tied to it
with ropes, floating likewife, are withdrawn. But
among the Dutch the coites remain in their place,
and the fhip^fliding over them, goes alone to the
water. The Dutch have this particular befides,
that they put each fide on the coites, the wedges
which ferve to make the fiiip Aide oh the coites,
and launch it.

b'. The calicmc, and rope to flop the fhip and
dravir it forwards and backwards, as necefTity re-
quires it. Lallly, it is feen in the figure B, how
farthe conftruftion of a fhip is advanced when it
is launched.- It is perfe6ied afterwards by ere6ling
a fcafFold, which reaches from the ftern of the fliip
to the fliore, where there are quays made for that
ufe.

The pit, pond, or creek, where fliips are built
cr repaired, is called dock.

To Ciiieen a fhip, is to lav it on one fide, to
caulk, flop up leaks, refit or trim the oiiier fide.

This operation of careening is feen. Fig. 8. Nav,
Arch, in thofe figures A fh?<.vs a fhip which is ca-
reened on the ftarboard fide ; and B, a fhip careened
on the larboard fide.

C, Heating made with fmaJI wood, while the
careen is given to the fhip. The heat mull not be
fpared.

1), The tar wherewith the wood of the fhip,
F f f and

398 The Univerfal Hlftory

and the cordages arc imb,bed, that they may refift
the water, wi.id, and heat of the fun.

E, That tripod or candleftick, which are three
flakes driven very far into the ground, in the mid-
dle whereof is a fourth, placed like a candle in a
caiidlcftick. It is called flool and tripod, becaufe
of iis likenefs to the feats with three feet, ufcd in
Hmland by mofl workmen. To this are faftened
the ropes which ferve to fupport the fhips when
they are put on their fides to be careened ; to
which are faftened likcwife the atrapes, which aic
large ropes, to hinder a fliip from lying too much
on its fide, while fhe is in careen.

A man of war thus entirely finiflied, muft be
fitted with two boats, ont called the pahp, or iong-
boat-, and the other the canoe.

The Jhalop, or long-boat, ferves to carry people
on board the fhip, or on fhorc, or from one fliip to
another. It ferves likewife to carry the towing-
anchor, v/hen it muft be caft. To carry on board
the munitions and provifions, the ballaft, and other
heavy burthens, to fave the crew and cargo in cafe
of a fliipvvrcck, or any other misfortune at fea,
and to a great number of other particular ufes. In
plate of Naval Jrchitcflure^ Fig. 9. is feen 2. Jhalop
turned upfide down, to fhew from the top the
fituatlon and order of its inward parts, viz.

A, The ribs.

B, The hmes of the bottom.

C, The carlines.

D, The ferrehanquierres

E, The benches where the rowers fit.

F, The deck, and the bench of the fore part of
theflmkp.

G, The benches joined round the hind part
infide, for the conveniency of thofe who are in it.

H, The_;?s«r, or bottom of tht /I?ahp.

I, The iaquets with their echc?nes, to preferve
the boards againft the rubbing of the oar. m
their ftead is placed, in fmaller boats, two iokts,
v.'hich are fmall wooden pegs to place the oar
between,

K , The freeze and girt of the viboard.

M M, The crowning of the Jlmlop.

N N, ?>ma\\ futtocks to keep the benches of fore
and aft fleady.

O O, A rool of defence, to defend the ftem
from ftriking againft large vefTels.

P. The pegs to hang the foals or derives.

Q, Hole in the carlim; with a notch in the
bench to place the mart.

The canoe, is a kind of fmall fhalop, defigned
for the fame ufes as the long-boat. The tenth
figure of the plate fhews a canoe turned upfide-
down like the jjjalop^ wherein are reprefented all
the infide parts thereof, and diftinguiftied by fi-

of Arts ^;v^ Sciences.

gures. The figures which are not vlfible In the
canoe turned upfide-down, are eafily feen in Uie
perpendicular lettion of the fame canoe, viz,

1. 'J"he fore part of the canoe.

2. The hind part.

3. The ribs.

4. The knees of the bottom.

5. The carline.

6. The ferrebanquierrc.

7. The board.

8. The taquets with their echomes.

9. Pieces of wood placed behind the careen, to
place the oar to row the canoe, either to the fhip
or to fiiore.

10. The deck and bench of the fore part of the
canoe.

11. The cajute, and benches of the ftern.

12. Taquets to faftcn the foals, when the wind
ferves.

1 3 The hole to place the maft.

14. The futtocks to flrengthen the benches
fore and aft.

15. The virevaut.

16. The hatch,

17. 18. The length of the canoe, which is moft
commonly as much as the breadth of the fhip to
which it is to ferve.

In England and Holland they have a kind of
fmall veflel, called jW;/. There arefome of thofe
yachts which are 66 feet long, 19 broad, and 6
deep, under the fcupper-holes.

On the Mediterranean, the French, Italians,
Spaniards, &c. have galleys.

A Galley is a low built vefTel, going both
with oars and fails.

Here follows a defcription of the principal parts
of a galley, viz.

The rudder, called by the Italians tetnone, is
fufpended to the ftern with two hooks, like in
other vefTels.

The main tnajl is 90 palms long ; big at the
bottom 2 palms, and a-top \\. The Italians call
it alb era maejiro.

The fore-7naJl, called by the Levantines trinquet,
and the Italians albero de trenchetto, is 54 palms
long, big at the bottom, i|, a-top | of a palm.

The main yard is 112 palras long, | big at the
lower end, and ^\ at the upper end. Th& yard oi
the fore-maft is lefs, according to the propor-
tion which is between both mafts, or from 90
to 54.

The main fail is by the Italians called antenna.

The gabier, is the failor who ftands centry on

the fcuttle, called gabie on the Mediterranean.

There are the great flag, the bannicre, thejiag of

i the

NAVIGATIO N.

399

the trinqui't^ the weather cocks of the fori-maj}, the
banner oi t\\t fore-!naj}, th& Jiandard, which diftin-
guifhes the nation j &c.

The place ofthe fteerer.

The place of the captain in the dunetie.

The courfer, or corjia, which is the paflage from
the prow to the poop, thro* the rows of gallcy-
flaves.

The place of the two comites, or oiHcers of the
galley-flavcs.

The place of the trumpeters.

The cutwater of the galley, In Italian called
fpercue.

Tbs place of the courfer, which is a large piece
of cannon in battery, lodg'd on the fore part of
the galley ; it is commonly a 33 or 34 pounder.

Lighter cannons, which are commonly two
ballard pieces, and two others 5 or 6 pounders.
But the galleys of the King of France cany only
at prefent in their ftead, two 25 or 26 pounders.

The holes through which the ropes run, which
ferve to lift up on board the cannon, and other
heavy burdens.

The anchor or grapler of the galley.

The outfide and infide parts of the galleys, and
what they contain, are,

1. The prow.

2. The poop.

3. The place of the captain.

4. T he bmdins, which are places for the
knight's volunteers.

The oars of a galley muft be made of beech, 48
palms long, and have each 5 men to row. The
palm is a mcafure of 9 inches.

The invention of fliips is very antient, fince God
himfelf gave the firft model thereof to hlaah, for
the building of his ark, to fave the human race
from the waters of the deluge. The firli: celebra-
ted fliips of antiquity, befides this ark, are that of
Ptolemy Philopater, which was 280 cubits long,
38 broad, and 48 high ; it carried 400 rowers,
400 failors, and 3000 foldicrs. That which the
Hime prince made to fail on the Nile, we are told,
was half a ftadium long. Yet thefe were nothing
in companTon with Hiero's (hip, built under the
direction of Archimedes ; on the ftrudure whereof
Mofchion, as we are told by Snellius, wrote a whole
volume. There was wood enough employ 'd in it
to make fifty galleys ; it had all the variety of
apartments of a palace j banquetting- rooms, galle-
ries, gardens, fifli-ponds, ftables, mills, baths, a
temple of Venus, Sec. It was encompafled with an
iron rampart, eight towers, with walls, and bul-
warks, furniilicd with machines of war ; particu-
larly one, which threw a ftone of 300 pounds, or
a dart 12 cubits long, the fpace of half a mile ;
with many other particulars related by Ath^ncvus,

NAVIGATION,

NAVIGATION istheart or afl of failing,
or of conducting a velTel from one place to
another, the fafeft, fhorteft, and moft com-
modious way.

Common Navigation, ufually called coafting,
is when the ports are on the fame, and very neigh-
bouring coafts ; and where the vefTel is feldom out
of fight of land, or out of reach of founding.

In this, little elfe is required, but an acquain-
tance with the land, the compafs and founding line,

Proper Navigation, is where the voyage is
long, and out in the main ocean.

In this, befides the requifites in the former, are
likewife required the ufe of Mercator's chart, azi-
muth, and amplitude compares, l-g-line, and other
inftruments for celeftial obfervations, as quadrants,
fore-ftaffs, &c.

N.ivigation turns principally on four things, two
whereof being known, the reft are eafil^ found
from them, by the tables, fcales, and charts.

Thefe four things are, iht cUfference of latitude,
difference of longitude, the reckoning, or dijlance

run, and the courfe, or rhamh failed on.

The latitudes are eafily found, and with fufKcient
accuracy.

The courfe and dijlance are had by the log-line,
or dead reckoning, and the compafs.

Before we fet fail, we muft provide ourfelves
with the various inftruments neceflary for both a
common znd proper Navigation, as common com-
pajfes, founding-lines, azimuth, and amplitude com-
pajfes, log-lines, quadrants, fore-Jlaffs, hack-Jlaffs,
&c. and learn the ufe of each of them in particu-
lar, beginning by the common compafs.

The common Sea-Compass confifts of a box
which includes a magnetical needle, that always
turns to the north; excepting a little declination,
which is various in various places, and even at
times in the fame place.

The firft thing pupil pilots learn on this compafs,
are the 32 winds; to which the 32 points of the
compafs anfwer. The names of thofe winds and
points, and the diftances of the points, ^c. from
North are as follow ;

F f f 2 From

400

Ihe Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^;^<5^ Sciences.

1. North,

2. North by Eafl:

3. North-North-Eaft —

4. Noith-Eaft by North

5. North-Ea/i . — -

6. North-Eaft by Eaft

7. Esft-North-Eaft

8. Eaft by North

From the North.

9-
10.
II.
12.

14.

15-
16.

17-
18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23-

24.

25-
26.
27.
28.
29.
30-
31-
32-

East, — —

Eaft by South
Eaft-South-Eaft
South- Ea,ft by Eaft
South- Eaft —

South-Eaft by South
South-South Eaft
South by Eaft

5 b

3«

•rorn the Eaft.

o«-

3«

7«

From the South.

South, —

South by Weft
Sounh-South-VVeft
South Wtft by South

South -Weft

South-Weft by Weft
Weft-South- Weft
Weft by South. —

o"
II

33
45
5&

15
3^

3-'
45

West, —

Weft by North
Weft-North-XVeft
North-Weft by \V

North-Weft

North-Weft bv North
North-North-Weft
Nbrth by Weft

From the IFtJl.

ft —

II
22
33

o
15

3«
45

45
which

Next, they learn the tife of the compafs-,
is obvious. For the courfc a {hip is to fail in, being
known by the chart ; and the compafs fo placed, as
thatthc two parallel fides oi the fquare bore bedif-
pofed according to the length of the fhip, ;'. e.
parallel to a line drawn from the head to the ftern,
the rudder is to be directed accordingly ; v. gr. if
the courfe be found on the chart, between the
ibuth-weft and fouth-fouth-weft, /. e. fouth-weft
-4 to the fouth ; turn the ftern, fo thnt a line from
khe fouth-weft, :J fouth, exaftly anfwers the mark
on the middle of the fide of the bor*. This is all
that is required.

The magnet or loadftone as it is commonly call-
ed, is a fort ot iron-ftone, founi in iron mines, of
the colour, but harder and more ponderous than
iron.

Its natural property is to attraft iron ; and this
attractive property is conveyed by rubbing the ftone
upon fteel or iron to the metal alfo.

But its moft ufeful faculty ia its diredion always

to the north point of the globe.

To account for all the phaenomena of the mag-
net^ according to both its attraiiive and direcllve
facility, feveral hypothefes have been invented at
different times, and by divers philofophers, tho'
none of them has been found fati^factory yet.

Cardan attributes the direSfive faculty of the
magnet to the polar ftar : the univerfity oiConimbre,
to fome part of the heavens, not very diftant from
the pole: the common fcholafticks to an occult
quality, which God wills fhould be the fuhjeli of
our furprize, but above our apprehenfton. And the
modern philofopher?, have recourfe to certain fub-
ftantial effluvia flowing from the earth ; which laft
opinion is the moft probable ; tho' in the particu-
lar e;<plicatii>n of their feveral opinions, a great
number of difficulties occur, which are not very
eafily rcfolvcd.

Des Cartes explains the magnetical virtue, by the
ftriated or channelled matter, which he fuppofes cir-
culating roundthc earth, and imagines this hypothe-
fis very eafy, and very proper to explain the pheno-
mena oi iht magnet . But feveral philofophers cannot
believe that it is poilible, that either the necklace of
the ftriated matter, or the channels or fmall pipes in
which they are moved, can always retain their ftri-
ated figure, without the prominences of the chan-
nels being wore off" at laft. For how is it poflible,
fay they, that a continual friftion flrould not wear
off the channels : and how can the prominent parts
of the beads be fo aptly received into the ftriated
receptacles dug in the channels, as never to flop in
them, nor retard the motion of the fucceeding
holes ; and be moved with no le6 celerity, than if
they were carried round their axis with a diredt
motion r

The direiflve faculty of the magnet muft be
taken from the fubftantial effluvia entring, by a
perpetual circulation, one pole of the earth, and
coming out at the other ; fmcc by thofe fubftan-
tial effluvia, entring by a perpetual circulation one
pole cf the earth, and coming out at the other, the
dire£tion of the magnet towards the poles of the
earth is- rightly unijerftcod ; thofe effluvia being
again moved through the fame meatus they had
formed to themfelves in the mine. And this is con-
firmed not only by the phEenomena of the magnet
itfelf, but likewife by thofe of the iron, the na-
ture Vvhereof is much like that of the magnet.

For, I. Iron rods which have been a long time
fixed on- the earth in a perpendicular manner
acquire a maguetick virtue, whereby they di-
rect themfelves towards the poles of the world.
When any iron bar ftanding, for a conftdera-
ble time, perpendicularly in the fire, has a mag-
uetick power ; and when applied to the needle

NAVIGATION.

401

of a fea-compafs, attrafls !t to itfelf, on one part,
and repulfcs it ^w the other, as it happeas in the
magnet ; which cannot be underftood unlefs by the
fubftantial effluvia, which flowing from the earth
incline the fmall fibres of the iron on that part, to-
wards which they are moved. For that power is
eafier communicated to a hot iron, and a little fof-
tened, than when it is cold and hard.

2. We can be pcrfuadcd that the magnet borrows
its ettraElive faculty from the earth, by the Inclina-
tion of the needle of a fea compafi. For if the nee-
dle, which Is placed in an equilibrium in the box
of the compafs, be touched by the magnet, prefent-
ly the part thereof, directed towards the north, be-
yond the equinodlijl circle, iu the northern climates
is depreflcd, and the oppofite part raifed ; becaufe
the rays of the magnethk matter flowing from the
earth, and penetrating the needle at its northern
part or pole, are bowed archwife, as they are feen
towards the poles a, b, fig. 3. in the magnet plate,
whence they force that part to defcend a little,
therefore the mariners commonly affix wax to the
other part, to keep the needle on a level.

But if the fame mariners come under the equa-
tor, where the rays of the magnetick matter are car-
ried in an almoft diredl line, as it can be feen to-
wards the middle of the magnet^ a, b. Fig, 3. ib.
the wax muft be taken off, and both parts or the
needle will mutually keep one another in an equi-
libriuin. Laftly, if they pafs beyond the equator,
the fouthern part of the fame needle, which before
tended upwards, will begin to incline downwards,
or be deprefTed, and the wax fliall be affixed to the
other part ; from which experiment it is very well
inferred, that the direili-ue power of the magnet is
to be attributed to the eiBuvia flowing from the
earth.

3. The magn:t not only adapts itfelf to the fi-
tuation of the earth, but muft alio be conceived as
a certain terclla, or fmaJl earth, having its poles,
equator, and meridians, according to Dr. G/7-
ifrt's fentiment. For it has its vortex or atmof-
phere, which the farther it goes the weaker it is ;
which vortex appears manifeftly in iron-filings,
ftrewed round the magnet ; for ihofc filings are foon
feen to difpofe themfelves in the form of an orb,
from one pole to the other, w'z. from the pole a,
fout;hern, to the pole h^ northern, Fig. 3. ib.

But as the magnethk fuhftance enters through
one pole of the magnet, and comes out at the other
pole; if the nort'iern, or pole of ingrefsof onemo^-
net, be turn'd towards the fouthern or pole of e-
grcfs of anothei magnet ; the matter which flows
from th' one, will cafily enter the otheo ; whence
the iron-hhiigs between both will be diredlcd in
right lines, v. gr, if the pole a, or fouthern of one

magnet. Fig. 4. ib. be turned towards the pole hy
northern of another magnet, the iron- filings throwr»
between both, will be foon direfled in right lines,
and to form one and the fame vortex, around both
magnets.

But if the two poles, which mutually regard one
another, are both poles of ingrefs or poles of
egrefs, or both northern or fouthern. Fig. 5. ib.
then the magnetick efHuvia will form two vortices,
and remove one magnet from the other.

When the magnet is armed at both poles with
polifhed fleel, as Flg.'i. then the magnetick efflu-
via flow with a greater facility towards the pols,
•v. g. the northern A, through the fteel between A
and a, than through the air. Likewife on the other
part, it is eafier moved between B and b, than in
the air, and therefore form a vortex, whereby
iron-rings, difpofed in a femi-circle, are fufpended.
Whence, if in lieu of rings a piece of iron be applied
to the two extremities of the fleel, viz. a and b,
that iron will be fuftaincd by the force of both
poles; whereas if it was not armed, it would only
be fuftained by one, viz. either the northern or
fouthern : wherefore the magnetick virtue acquires
a confiderable increafe by the magnet being armed.
But if the ftcel wherewith the 7nagnet is armed be
rufty, fo as to hinder the magnetick matter moving
thro' it with eafe, then the magnetick virtue ac-
quires but little increafe. When a piece of paper
is put between the armature, and the iron which
is to be attra£ted, the paper hinders the magnet from
having more virtue than if it was not armed ; be-
caufe it does not touch the iron with more parts
than if it was not armed.

The navigator having been well informed of the
nature and properties of the loadftone, and the ufe
of the compafs, is to apply himfelf diligently to the
fludy oi charts and other inihumpnts.

In common navigation nothing is wanted but the
compafs And foundlng-llne.

A Chart, or Sea-chart, is a hydrophical
map ; or a projecfion of fome part of the fea in
plans, for the ufe of Navigation.

There are three kinds of jta-charts, viz. plaltt
charts, reduced, or A'Icrcator's charts, and globular
charts.

Plain charts are thofe wherein vhe meridians and
parallels are exhibited by right lines parallel to each
other

Tbefe plain charts are made, i. By drawing a
right-line, and dividing it into . s many equal parts
as there are degrees of latitude in the portion of the
fea to be reprelented. 2 Another line is added to
it, at right angles, which muft be divided into as
many parts, and thofe equal to one another, and

40 2 Tine Unlverfal Hiftory

to the former, as there are degrees of longitude in
the portion of the fta to be reprefcntcd. 3. The
parallelogram mud be compleated, and its area re-
iblvcd into little fquares ; then right-lines parallel
to the two firft will be meridians, and the others
parallel. 4. The coaft, iflands, fands, rocks, tSc.
mud: be infcrtcd in this chart, from a table of lon-
situdes and latitudes, in the fame manner as it is
done in maps.

Hence, i. The latitude and longitude of a fhip
being given, herplace is cafily exhibited in the chart.
2. The places to and from which the fliip fails, be-
ing given in a map, the right-line drawn from one
to the other, makes, v/ith the meridian, an angle
equal to the inclination of the rhumb j and fince
the parts intercepted between equidiftant parallels
are equal, and the inclination of the right-line
(drawn from one place to the other) to all the me-
ridians or right-lines parallel to the firft right-line,
is the fame ; the right-line drawn from one place
to the other truly reprefents the rhumh. After the
fame manner may be (hewn, that this chart ex-
hibits miles of longitude truly.

A Sounding-line is a line and plummet'
ufed in navigation, to try the depth of the water*
and the quality of the bottom.

There are two kinds of lines occafionally ufed
in fnuncling ths fea ; the founding-line, and the deep
fea line.

The founding line is the thickeft and fhorteft, as
not exceeding 20 fathoms in length ; and marked
at two, three, and four fathoms, with a piece of
black leather between the ftrands ; and at five with
a piece of white leather.

The founding-line may be ufed when the fhip is
under fail, which the deep fea-line cannot. The
plummet is ufually in form of a nine-pin, and
weighs 18 pounds ; the end is frequently greafed,
to try whether the ground be fandy or rocky ; and
to diicover in wliat degree of latitude the fhip is,
when a pilot thinks himfelf near a coafl, and could
not take any obfervation for feveral days before ;
for feveral coafts are difcovered, either by the qua-
lity, or colour of the bottom near them. — Near
banks, fhores, ciff. they are to be founding con-
tinually.

Dr. Hook has invented a manner oi founding the
depth of the dcepeft lea without any line, only by
a wooden globe, lighter than water, to which, at
a little diftance, is a piece of lead or ftone fixed,
by means of a fpringing wire in the firft, fitted into
a ftaple in the fecond. The whole being let gently
down with the ftone or lead foremoft, as foon as
that arrives at the bottom, it will flop ; but the
ball by the impetus it has acquired in defcending,

of Arts and Sciences.

will be carried a little lower after the weight is ftop-
ped ; by which means the fpringing wire will be
enabled to fly back and diftinguifh itfclf, and re-
afcend. By obferving then the time of the ball's
ftay under water by a watch or pendulum, and
the help of fome tables, the depth of the fea is
found.

In fome experiments made in the Thames with a
maple globe, 5;! inches in diameter, and weighing
4 pounds and a half, lin'd with pitch, and a coni-
cal weight 1 1 inches long, the (harp end down-
wards ; at the depth of 19 feet, there parted fix
feconds, and at the depth of 10 feet i\ feconds
between the immerfion and emerfion of the ball.
From thcfe numbers given, the depth at any other
ftays, may be computed by the Rule of Three.

The inftrument3 we muft embark for a proper
navigation, or what the French call, un voiage du
long cours, are, as already obferved, Mercator's
chart, azimuth, and amplitude compajfes, log-lines,
and other inftruments for celeftial oblervations, as
quadrants, fore-ftaffs, hack-ftaffs, &c.
° Mercator's Chart, is that wherein the me-
ridians and parallels, are rcprefented by parallel
right-lines ; but the degrees of the meridians are
unequal, ftill encreafing as they approach the pole,
in the fame proportion as thofe of the parallels de-
creafe ; by means whereof the fame proportion is
obferved between them as on the globe.

This chart has its name from that of the author,
who firft propofed it for ufe, and made the firft chart
of this projedlion, N. Mercator : but the thought
was not originally his own, as having been hinted by
Ptolemy, near 2000 years ago ; and the Englijl) fay,
that the perfeftion thereof is owing to their coun-
tryman Mr. Wright, who firft demonftrated it, and
fhewed a ready way of conftrufling it, by enlarging
the meridinal line by the continual addition of
fecant?.

To fail by means of Mercator's chart, the fol-
lowing obfervations are to be made.

I. The longitude and latitude of tivo places given,
to find the departure or miles of longitude. In Mer-
cator'^ failing (which we have already found in plain
failing) the redu£fion whereof is much more com-

modioufly performed in Mercator's charts ; wherein
the arch intercepted between the two meridians, is
applied to an arch of the meridian intercepted be-
tween the two parallels ; and the diPiance in their
meafures, gives the departure, or miles of longi-
tude required.

II. The longitude and latitude of two places, to
and from vjhich a fiiip is to fail, being given, to find
the rhumh to be failed on, and the dijlance to be run
in ^lercntor' s Jailing, — j, "Ihe center of the mari-
ner's

NAVIGATION.

rcr's compafs is applied on the place failed from,
on Mercator^s chart, and fo as that the north and
fouth line thereof be parallel to fome of the meri-
dians. 2. The rhumb of the compafs is marked,
wherein the place failed to is placed ; for this is
the rhumb to be failed on. 3. The fame rhumb
is likewife found by drawing a right line from the
place failed from to that failed to ; and with a pro-
tradlor, finding the angles the rhumb makes with
any meridian it cuts.

III. The rhumb and dijlancc failed being given ;
to find the longitude and latitude of the place arrived
at, in Mercztor' s fiiiling. — i. The mariner's com-
pafs is placed on the chart, with the center over
the place failed from ; and the meridian, and north
or fouth line, parallel to the meridian thereof. 2.
From the place failed from, a right line is drawn
for the fhip's courfe : then the diftance is taken by
parts, in parts of the meridian, and is fet ofF upon
the right line, then will C be the place the (hip is
arrived at ; the longitude and latitude whereof are
given by the chart.

To find it by the loxodromick tables. r. Under

the given rhumb, feek the diftance anfwering to
the latitude of the place failed from; and either add
it to, or fubftradl it tVom the given diftance, as the
latitude of the place failed to is greater, or lefs than
that failed from. 2. Under the fame rhumb, af
cend or defcend further, till you meet with the
diftance corrected. 3. The latitude anfwering
thereto in the firft column, is the latitude of the
place failed to. 4. From the iecond column of
the table, take the longitudes corrcfponding to the
latitudes of the places failed to, and from. Their
difference is the difference of longitude of the places
failed to and from.

\n plain failing, i. e. by common charts, the ope-
ration is condu£led thus, i. From the data, the
difference of latitude of the two places is found ;
this difference added to the latitude of the place
failed from, or fubftradted from the fame, the fum,
or the remainder, leaves the latitude of the place
failed to. 2. From the fame, the departure muft
be found ; and thence the latitude of the place
failed to.

IV. The latitudes of the places failed to and from,
io'rether with the rhumb failed in, being given ; to
find the dijlance and difference of latitudes, in Mer-
CdXox' s failing — I. The compafs is placed on the
chart as in the preceding cafe ; and from the place
failed fiom, the rhumb line failed in is drawn, till
it cuts the parallel of the given latitude. 2. The
point of interfeftion will be the place arrived in.
■2. Hence its longitude is eafily found, and the
diftances.

By the tables. Take both the longitude and the

403

diftances, anfwering to the latitudes of the given
places, out of the tables ; then fubftradt both the
longitudes ?nd the diftances from each other. The
firft remainder is the difference of longitude, the
latter the diftance of the places.

The fame operation in plain failing, is made by-
finding the diflance from the difference of latitude
and the rhumb given ; and from the fame data the
departure. This converted into degrees of a great
circle, exhibits the difference of longitudes fought.

V. The latitudes of the places /ailed from and to,
with the dijlance given ; to find the rhumb, and the
diff'ercnee of longitude, in Mercator'f failing ; the
parallel the (hip arrives at, is drawn on the map; and
the diftance run reduced into parts proportional to
the degrees of the map.

By the tables ; fubftradl the given latitudes from
each other ; and in the tables feek the rhumb, uit-
der which the diftance run anfwers to the given
difference of latitude. Subllrafl: the longitude un-
der the rhumb, anfwering the latitude of the place
failed to, and that under the fame rhumb againft the
latitude of the term failed to^ from each ether ;
the remainder is the difference of longitude fought.

The operation in plain failing, runs thus.— A
rhumb is to be found from the difference of lati-
tude, and the diftance ; and from the fame data,
the departure muft be found, likewife ; which may
be alfo determined from the rhumb now found, and
the difference of latitude ; or from the rhnmb and
the d.ftance run. Laftly, from the departure the
difference of longitude is to°be found.

V'l. ''The difference of longitudes of the places failed
to and from, with the latitude of one of the places,
and the dijtance run being given ; to find the rhumb
and the latitude of the other, in MeroLtor' s failing ;
a right line is drawn thro' the place given in the
map, parallel to the meridian, making another line
equal to the difference of longitude; then another
parallel is drawn which will be the meridian the
(liip is arrived at. Afterwards with the interval of
the diftance run, an arch is'defcribed interfering
the meridian, whereby the place fought is found.

By the tables. We may take a rhumb at plea-
fure, and under the fame, in the tables, find the
longitude, and the diftance anfwering to the given
latitude. Adding the given diftance to the diftance
found in the tables, if the veftel failed from the
equator ; or fubftradting it therefrom, if it failed
towards the fame. With the fame fum, or the
difference, we muft enter the tables ; fubftrac^ing
or adding the longitude found againft it, to tii&t
juft found. If the remainder be found the given
diiference of longitudes, the rhumb is well taken.
Otherwifc it muft be changed for a more, or Tefs
oblique one ; till the fame operation being repeated,

the

404 ^^^ Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^«(j/ Sciences.

the remainder be found the difference of longitudes;
then the latitude in the firft column, correfpond-
ing to the diftance, will be the latitude of the other
place.

The operation in plain faiUng^\z made by convert-
ing the difference of longitudes into miles of lon-
gitude for the departure ; fccking the rhumb from
the given departure and diftance run ; and from
the fame, and the rhumb, feeking the difference
of latitude; which, and the latitude of one place
being had, the latitude of the other readily follows.
VII. Tho difference of longitude, and the latitude
of one of the places given, together with the rhumb,
to find the differences run, and the latitude of the 0-
ther place, by MeroLtor' s failing : the compafs mufl
be placed on the chart as before ; and by the given
rhumb the rhumb-line is drawn, and a meridian
thro' the given place, and another with the inter-
val of the difference of longitude, for that the vefie]
is arrived at. Where this interfe£ls the rhumb-
line, is the place where the veffel is arrived at.
Wherefore if thro' that place be drawn a line pa-
rallel to the rhumb-line, the diftance between both
lines will be the latitude of the place. The dif-
tance run is eafily reduced into miles by the fcale.
By the tables. Under the given rhumb, feck the
diftance run, and the difference of longitude an-
fwering to the given latitude. If the veffel has
failed towards the pole, the difference of longitude
is to be added to the given difference of longitude ;
if towards the equator, it is to be fubftradled from
the fame. In the former cafe defcend in the table,
and in the latter, afcend ; till in the firft, the ag-
gregate, in the latter, the difference be feen in the
column of longitude. The latitude anfwering
hereto in the firll column, is that fought. And
from the diffance anfwering to the latitude in the
firft cafe, the tabular diftance is to be fubftradcd.
What remains is the diftance run.

In plain Jailing, the difference of longitude muft
be reduGcd into miles of longitude or departure, as
under the firft cafe. From the departure and the
rhumb, the diftance run is found ; and from thefe,
or from the rhumb, and the diftance rim, the dif-
ference of latitude. This done, as the latitude of
the one is already had, that of the other is fo too.

Rhumb, according to Juhin, i« a line on the
terreftrial globe, fea-compafs, or fea chart, repre-
fenting one of the 32 winds, which ferve to con-
dufl: a veffel. So that the rhumb a veffel purfues,
is conceived as its rout or courfe.

Rhumbs are divided, and fubdivided like points.
Thus die whole rhumb anfvvers to the cardinal
point. The half rhumb to a collateral point, or
makes an angle of 45 degrees with the former.

The quarter rhumb makes an angle of 22* 30'
therewith. And the half quarter rhumb makes an
angle of 11° 15''

Rhume-i. IKE, hxodromia, is the line which a
fhip keeping in the fame collateral point or rhumb.,
defcribes throughout its whole courfe.

The great property of this rhumb-line, or loxo-
dromick, and that from which fome authors define
it, is, that it cuts all the meridians under the fame
angle. This angle i? called the angle of the rhumb,
or the loxodromick angle.

The angle, which the rhumh-line makes with
any parallel to the equator, is called the comple-
ment of the rhumb.

The ufe of the rhumh-line in Navigation., is as
follows. I. If feveral meridians be not very far a-
part, the rhumb-line is divided by the equi-diftant
parallels, into equal parts.

Hence, i. The parts of feveral rhumb-lines, are
as the feveral latitudes of the places the fhip fails
from and to. 2. Since the arches form'd thereby
are equal in magnitude, and therefore unequal in
numbers of degrees, the fum of the arches, called
the latus mecodinamicum, or miles of longitude, is
not equal to the difference of longitude of the two
places above-mentioned.

2. The length of the rhumh-line is to the change
or difference of latitude, in the fame ratio as the
whole fine to the co-fine of the angle of the rhumb.

Hence, i. The rhumb failed on being given, to-
gerher with the difference or change of latitude,
turned into miles; the length of the rhu?r.b-linc, or
the diftance from one place to another upon the
fame rhumb, is had by the Rule of Three. 2. The
rhumb-line being given, together with the quan-
tity of the fhip's wayj on the fame rhumb ; the
difference of latitude is had by the Rule of Three,
in miles to be converted into degrees of a great
circle. 3. The difference of latitude being given
in miles ; as alfo the length of the rhumb-line ; the
angle of the rhumb, and confcquently the rhumb
failed on, is had by the Rule of Three. 4. Since
the CO fine is to the whole fine, as the whole fine
to the fecant ; the difference of latitude is to the
length of the rhumb-line, as the whole fine to the
fecant of the rhumb.

3. 7 he length of the rhumb-line, or of the Ihip's
way in the fame rhumb, is to the latus mecodinami-
cum, or mccodinamickfde, as the whole fine to the
fine of the loxodromick angle.

Hence, i . The rhumb, or angle of the rhumb^
being given, as alfo the fhip's way in the fame
rhumb-line; the mecodinan.ick fide is had by the
Fule of Three, in miles, /. e, in the famemeafure
wherein the length of the rhumb is given. 2. In

NAVIGATION.

like manner, die mccodlnamlck fide being given, as
alio the rhumb-line orfhip's way ; the rhumb failed
in, is found by the Rule of Three.

4. The change of latitude, is to the mccod'ina-
m'uk fide, as the whole fine to the tangent of the
loxotkomick angle.

Hence the rhumb or loxodromkk angle, and the
change of lacitude being given ; the meiodinamick
fide lb found by the Rule of Three.

5. The mecodtvamick fide is a mean proportional,
between the aggregate of xhzrhuinb, and the change
of latitude, and their difltrencc.

Hence the change of la itude, and \hc rhumb-
line, being given in miles ; the mccodinamick fide is
found in the fame mcafure.

6. The tnecodinamiik fide being given, to find
the longitude.

Multiply the change or difference of latitude by
fix, which reduces it into parts, often minutes each,
divide by the producl the mccodinamick fide ; the
quotient gives the miles of longitude, anfwering to
the diffeience of latitude in ten minutes ; reduce
thefe miles of longitude in each parallel into dif-
ferences of longitude, from a loxcdromick table :
the fum of thefe is the longitude required.

7. If a fhip falls on a north vt fouth rhumb,
it defcribes either the equinodtial, or a parallel
thereto.

8. To find the rhi'mb between two places, by
calculation, or geometrically, we have two canons or
proportions : the firft, ns the radius is to the half
fum of the co-fines of both latitudes ; or (rather for
geometrical fchemes) as the diameter is to the fum
of the co-fines of both latitudes, fo is the difFtrence
of longitude, to the departure from the meridian.

For an example of the former proportion.— Let
the rhumb be requiied between Cape Finijlcr, laf,
43° long. 7=, 2c/, and St. Nicholas ifle, lat. 38°,
long. 352°. The middle latitude is 40°, 30', the
complement 49°, y/, and the difference of longi-
tude 15°, 20' i out of thefe^leffer equal parts, prick
down 15'', and defcribe an arch with 60° of the
chords, and make it equal to 49" ; then draw an
^rch continued to the further dilbnce, making the
nearefl diftance the leg of a right angled triangle,
and the other'legthe difference of latitude 5°, which
mult be piicked from the equal parts. Thus the
extent meafured on the faid parts, fiiews the dif-
tance to be 13°, 24' ; which allowing 20 leagues
to a degree, is almoft 268 leagues. Then the
rhumb tiiangle muft be .croffed with the radius ;
which extent meafured^ri the greater chord is al-
moft 22', the complement whereof is 68°; and
fo much is the rhumb from the meridian between
the two places, amounting to 6 points, and up-
wards ot 80 minutes.
Vol. II. 45,

405

For an inflance of the laft proportion.— Let it
be required to find the rhumb and diftance between
the Lizard anA Bermudas, the latitude of the Lizard
being 56°, and that of Bermudas 32°, 20' ; or
32°, 4', centefms, and their difference of longi-
tude, 53'', two lines mufc be drawn at right angles,
and with 60° of the leffer chords, a quadrant muft
be defcribcd, and radius pricked, the fccond line
drawn will be the dismeter; then counting both,
latitudes, the neareft diftance is the co-fine of Ber-
mudas latitude ; and the neareil diftance to this is
the co-fiiie of the Lizard's latitude. Then draw-
ing again anotlier line, and pricking down 55 de-
grees out of the greattlT equal parts, and a parallel
to the line laft drawn, the diltance from the firft
of the 55 degrees to the right end of the parallel is
the departure from the meridian in the courfe be-
tween both places. Making that, therefore, one
leg of a right angled triangle, prick down 17^,
59 centefms, the difference of latitude between
thofe places, and at the fame equal parts draw a
line. This reprefents the courfe and diftance be-
tween the Lizard and Bermudas ; and the extent
meafured on the fame equal parts, (hews the dif-
tance to be 44°, 31 centefms, which allowing 20
leagues to a degree, is 886 leagues.

The next inftrument is the azimuth compafs^
which differs from the common compafs in this, that
there is faitened on the round box wherein the
card is, a broad circle, one half whereof is divided
into 90 degrees j and thofc fubdivided diagonally
into minute. The index has a fight moving on a
hinge. From the upper part of the fight, to the
middleof the index, is faflened a fine hypothenufal
luteftring, to give a fliadov/ on a line in tlie middle
of the index. The circle is croflcd at right angles
with two threads, from the extremities whereof
are drawn four lines on the infide of the round
box : there are alfo four lines drawn at right an-
gles to each other on the card. The round box
fitted with its card, graduated circle, and index, is
hung in brafs hoops, and thofe hoops faftened to a
fquare box.

The ufeofthe Azimuth Compass, is for finding
the fcale, magnetical azimuth, or amplitude ; and
thence the variation of the compafs.

If the obfervation be for an amplitude at fun-
rifing, or an azimuth before noon ; apply the cen-
ter of the index on the weft point of the card,
within the box ; fo that the four lines on the
edge of the t^rd, and thofe on the infide of the
box may meet. If the obfervation be for the fun's
amplitude fetting, or an azimuth in the afternoon,
turn the center of the index right againft the eaft
point of the card, and make the lines within the
box concur with thole oa the card ; the iniliument
' G g g thu«

4o6 The Univerfal Hlftory of Arts a?id Sciences.

thus fitted for obfervation, turn the index towards
the fun, till the fhadow of the thread falls direflly
on the flit of the fight, and on the line that is along
the middle of the index ; then will the inner edge
of the index cut the degree and minute of the
fun's magnetical azimuth from the north or fouth.
But note, that if, when the compafs is thus
placed, the azimuth is lefs than 45 degrees from
the fouth, and the index turned towards the fun, it
will pafs ofT the divifions of the limb: the inftru-
ment, therefore, in this cafe, muft be turned juft a
quarter of the compafs, /. e. the center of the
index niuft be placed on the north or fouth
point of the card, according as the fun is from you ;
and then the edge will cut the degree of the mag-
netick azimuth, or fun's azimuth from the north
as before.

The fun's magnetical amplitude thus found, the
variation of the needle is thus determined.

Being out at fea the 15th of May, 1759, in
45° north latitude, the tables give you the fun's
latitude 19° north, and its eaft amplitute 27° 25'
north : by the azimuth compafs, we find the fun's
magnetical amplitude, at its rifing and fetiing ;
and finds he rifes, v. gr. between the 62d and
63d degree, reckoning from the north towards the
eaft point of the compafs, /. e. between the 27th
and 28th deg. reckoning from the eaft.

T he Equinoctial Compass, which we have,
likewife, among our intlruments, ferves to know at
what point is the moon. That compafs being
rifenonthe fuperficies of the equinodtial line, di-
vides it juftly into equal parts, as the common
cornpafs does the horizon. Wc fee the line which
runs through the figure of that compafs, reprefents
the axis of the world. The round before the
compafs mufl be marked on both fides, as well
upwards and downwards, infide with a common
compafs, and on the outfide with twice twelve
bours : and on both fides, which mark the eafl
and wef}, it mufl be fufpended on the tops of two
pegs, as an axle-tree, fo that it may turn upwards,
and that the lower part of the arrow, which is on
the quadrant, may be placed on all the altitudes of
the pole.

The Nocturnal Compass, is a very common
inffrument, ufed to find at all hours of the night,
how much the -northcmjlar is higher or lower than
the pole. It is alfo called a quadrant for the ftars,
becaufe it Ihevvs the hours in the night by means
of the ftars. Mariners make ufe moft commonly
for that purpofe, of the ftars of IJrfa major, in this
hemifphere, becaufe they are more remarkable
than the others which are nearer the northern pole;
but in the other hemifphere, or beyond the line,
diey chufe the Crufadt^ which is a confteilation

compofed of four ftars, which arc cafily diftin-
guifhed.

As the Sector, or compafs of proportion, \s 3,
mathematical inftrument, of great ufe in finding
the proportion between quantities of the fame
kind, as between lines and lines, furfaces and fur-
faces, i^c.

The great advantage of the feSlor above the
common fcales, bfc. is, that it is made fo as to fit
all radius's and fcales. By the lines of chords,
fines, bic. on the feSlor, we have lines of chords,
fines, l^c. to any radius betwixt the length and
breadth of the fe,:/or when opened.

ThefciJor is founded on the fourth propofition
of the fixth book of Euclid, where it ii demon-
ftratcd, that firailar triangles have their homolo-
gous fides proportional.

This inilrument confifls of two equal rules, or
legs of brafs, or other matter, riveted together ;
but fo as to move eafy on the rivet. In the faces
of the inftrument are placed feveral lines : the
principal are the line of equgl parts, line of chords,
line of fines, line of tangents, line of fecants, and
line of polygons.

The line of equal parts, called zlCo lines of lines,
marked 6, is a line divided into 100 equal parts ;
and where the length of the line will allow it, eacli
is fubdivided into halves and quarters. It is found-
ed on each leg, orf the fame fide ; and the divifions
numbered 1,2, 3, 4, i^c. to 10, which is near
the extremity of each line. In practice i is taken
for 10, or 100, or 1000, or 10,000, i^c. as occa-
fion requires ; in which cafes 2 reprefents 20, or
200, or 2000, yr. and fo of the reft.

The line of chords, marked C on each leg, is di-
vided after the ufual manner, and numbered 10,
20, 30, crV. to 60.

'I he line of lines, denoted on each leg by the
letter S, is a line of natural fines, numbered 10,
20, 30, i^c. to 90.

The line of tangents, denoted on each leg by the
letter T, i a line of natural tangents, numbered 10,
20, 30, isfc. to 45 ; befides which is another little
line of /(7«^(f«/^ on each leg, commencing at 45 ,
and extending to 75", denoted by the letter T.

The line of fccants-, denoted oji each leg by the
letter S, is aline of natural fecants, numbered 10,
20, 30, iSjc. to 75, and commencing, not from the
center of the inftrument, but at two inches diftance
therefrom.

The line of polygons., denoted by the letter P,

on each leg is numbered 4, 5, 6, ^c. to 12, which

falls 12 inches fhort of the center of the infirument,

Befides thefe lines, which are cfTential to' the

feSlor^ tliere are others placed near the outward

edges

NAVIGATION.

407

friges on both faces, and parallel, which are in all
rd'pccSlis the fame ■&% in Gunter's fcalc, and ufcd
after the fame manner. Such are the lines of ar-
tifitial fines, marked S; the line of artificial tan
gents, a line of i z inches, mariu-d \'I, and Gtinti'r'-.
line of numbers marked N. There are fometimes
other lines placed to fill up the vacant fpaces, as the
lines of hours, latitudes, and inclinations of meri-
dians, which are ufed the fame as on the common
fcalcs.

Jacob-Staff, the fame with o-ofs-Jlaff", is a
mathematical inftrument for Liking heights and
diftanccs.

The Jacob, crafs, o\ fore -fl off. takes its denomi-
nation hence, that the obferver in ufing it, turns
his face towards the objedl: ; in contradiiRion to
back-JInff^ where he turns his back to the objeiS.
T\\z fore or crof-Jloff^ reprefented in our table of
the magnet, confifts ofa {traight, fquare, graduated
I'aff, and four crofl'es or vanes, which Aide thereon.
'\ he firft, or fhorteft of thcfe vanes, is called the
ten crofi, or vane, and belongs to that fide of the
inftrument, whereon the divifions begin at 3 de.
grees, and end at 10. The next longer vane is
called the thirty-crofs, belonging to that fide of the
Itaff, wherein the divifions begin at 10 degrees,
and end at 30, calledxhe thirty fcale. The next
vane is called the fix'y-crafs, and belongs to the
fide where the divifions begin at 20 degrees, and
end at 60. The laft, and longeft, called the ninety-
erofe, belongs to the fide whereon the divifions
beijin at 30 degrees, and end at go.

'ihe great ufe of this inftrument is to take the
height of the fun and ftars, or the diftance of two
liars ; and the ten, thirty, fixty, or ninety crofTes,
are to be ufed according as the altitude is greater
or lefier, that is, if the altitude be lefs than 10 de-
grees, the tenth crofs is to be ufed i if above ten,
butleftcr than thirty, the tJiirtieth crofs to be ufcd,

To obferve an altitude by the fore-fiaff', apply
the flat end of the ftaft to your eye, and look at the
. upper end of the crofs of the center of the fun or
liar, and at the lower end for the horizon. If you
fee the fky inftcad of the horizon, flide the crofs a
little nearer the eye ; and if you fee the fea inftead
of the horizon, flide the crofs further from the
eye : and thus conthuie moving, till you fee ex-
actly the fun or ftar's center, by the top of the
crofs, and the horizon bv the bottom thereof.

Then the degrees and minutes cut by the inner
edge of the crofs upon the fide of the Jlaff^ pecu-
liar to the crofs you ufe, is the altitude of the fun
cr fcr.

ICit be the meridian altitude you want, conti-

nue your obfervation as long as you find the alti-
tude increafe, ftiil moving the crofs nearer to the

eye.

By fubtrafting the meridian altitude thus found,
rom 9!) degrees you will have the zenith diftance.
To work accurately, an allowance muft be made
for the height of the eye, above the furface of the
fea, viz. for i EngUfh foot, I minute, for 5 feet
af, for 10 feet 3^, for 20 feet 5, for 40 feet 7, ^c.
Thcfe minutfs fubtraded from the altitude ob-
fcrvcd, and added to the zenith diftance obferved,
give the true altitude, and zenith diftance.

To obferve the diftance of two fiars, or the
moon's diftancefrom a ftar, by xk\z fre-flaff. Ap-
ply the inftrument to the eye, and looking to both
ends of the crofs move it nearer, or farther from
the eye, till you fee the two ftars ; the one on one
end, and the other on the other end of the crofs ;
then the degrees and minutes cut by the crofs on
the fide proper to the vane in ufe give the ftar's
diftance.

The back-Jlaff", confifts of three vanes, and of
two arches, viz.. the horixm vane, the Jhadc vane,
and the fight vane.

To ufe thxsjiaff', t\\t Jhadow vane is fet upon the
arch, to an even degree of fome altitude, lefs by
10, or 15 degrees than you judge the complement
of the fun's altitude will be ; and the/Zj/;/ vane on
the thirtieth arch : the obferveT's back being thea
turned to the fun, (whence the name oi back -faff'.,
or back -quadrant) he lifts up the inftrument, and
looks through the fight vane, raifing or falling the
quadrant, til! the fiiaJow of the upper edge of the
fnadc-vnne, fall on the upper edge of the Hit in the
horizon-vane ; and then if you can fee the horizon
through the faid flit, the oblervation is well made ;
but if the fea appears inftead of the horizon, move
thefght-vane: if the (l:y appears move it upwards,
and fo try if it comes right ; then obferve how
many degrees and minutes are cut by that edge of
the fght-vane, which anfwers to the light hole,
and to them add the degrees cut by the upper edge
of the fliadc-vane ; the fum is the fun's diftance
from the zenith, or the complement.of his altitude.
To find the fun's meridian, or greateft altitude on
any day, continue the obfervation as long as the
altitude is found to increafe, which you will per-
ceive by t.ie appearance of the fea inftead ot the
horizon, removing they/^/;f-ov7«^ lower ; but when
you perceive the fky appear inftead of the horizon,
the .altitude is diminifhed ; therefore defift from
further obfervation at that time, and add the degrees
upon the fixtieth arch to the degrees and minutes
upon the thirtieth arch, and the fum is the zenith,
diftance, or co-altitude of the fun's upper limb.
And becaufe it is the zenith's diftance, or co-al-
G g g 2 tltude

40 8

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

titude of the upper limb of the fun, not the center!
that is given by the quadrant, in obferving by the
upper end of the//W(?-T'rtw, add i6 minutes, the
fun's fcmi-diameter, to that which is produced by
your obfeivation, and the fum is the true zenith
difcance of the fun'o center. If you obfervc by the
lower part of the fliadow of ih^ J})ade-vane, then
the lower limb of the fun gives the fhadow ;
and therefore you muft fubftrad 16 minutes from
what the inftrument gives ; but conlidering the
height of the obferver above the furface of the fea,
which is commonly between 16 and 20 feet, you
may take 5 or 6 minutes from the 16 minutes, and
make the allowance but of 10 or 12 minutes to be
added inflcad of 16 minutes.

M. Flamjlead contrived a glafs lens, or double
convex, to be placed in the middle of the y7W(?-t'i?w,
which makes a fmall bright fpot on the flit of the
horizon-vane, inftead of the (hade ; which is a
great improvement, if the glafs be truly made '. for
by this means the inftrument may be ufed in hazy
weather, and a much more accurate obfervation
iriide in clear weather, than could be by the
fliadow.

From tliis I'll pafs to examine the %-//«^,which
is a little cord or line faftened to one end of the
/flj-, and wound round a reel, fixed for that pur-
pofe in the gallery ofthefhip.

A log is a fmall piece of wood of a triangular
figure on board a fliip ; into one end whereof a
convenient quantity of lead is caft, to make it fwim
upright in the water ; the other end being faflened
to a line.

This line from the diftance of about ten fathom
©fr the log, has certain knots or divifions, which
ought to be at leaft 50 feet from each other; though
it is the common practice at lea not to have them
above 42 feet afunder.

The ufe of the log and line, is to keep account,
and make an eftimate of the fliip's way, ordiftance
run, which is done by obferving the length of the
line unwound in half a minute's time, told by a
half-minute glafs ; for fo many knots as run out in
that time, fo many miles the fhip fails in an hour.

Thus, if there be four knots veered out in half
a minute, the (hip is computed to run four miles
an hour.

To heave the log, as they call it, they throw it
into the water, letting it run till it comes without
the eddy of the (hip's wafte, then one holding a
half minute glafs, turns it up jull: as the firft knot
turns oft the reel (though fome turn the glafs as
foon as the log touches the water) as foon as the
glafs is out the reel is ftopped, and the knots run
off ate told, and their patts eftimated.

The log ought to be heaved every hour, or every
two hours.

There is alfo the log-board, wl.ich is a table di-
vided into four or five columns, whereon are mark-
ed the reckoning of every day ; from whence ihey
are entered into the log-bouk, or traverfe-book,
ruled and columned juft as the log-board is :
whence it may be tranfcnbed into the journi.ls, and
how much the fhip gains in hercourfe be eflimatcd
daily.

Jn the fitfl: column of the log-board is entered
the hour of the day, from one to one : in the fe-
cond, the rhumb, or the direftion of the vefTel,
v/ith regard 10 the points of the compafs : in the
third, the number of knots run ofF the reel each
time of heaving the log : in the fourth, the wind
that blows ; and in the fifth, obfcrvations made of
:he weather, variation of the compafs, is'c,

A Journal is a rcgifter kept by the pilot, where-
in notice is taken of every thing that happens to the
fliip from day to day, and from hour to hour, with
regard to the v.'inil, the rhumbs, the rake, found-
ings, Uc. in order to enable him to adjuft the rec-
koning, and determine the place where the (hip is :.
thus.

Journal of 12 hours.

Rhumh.

Value of
the Rhumh.

Wind.

Sliiality of Leagues of
the il in J. 3 coo
faces.

W. N. W.

W.N. W,

E. S. E.
back

middling

W.N. W.

W. N. W

E.S.E.
back

good or
frefh.

W. N. W.

E. S. E.
back

middling.

W.N^W.

W. N. W.
W. N. W.

S. E.
fide«ife.

good

W.K^W.

S. E.
fidevvife

middl.ng

14-

N. W.

W. N. W.

. S. E.

fidevvife

littie
'Wind

N. V/.

W.N. W.

S E.

fidevvife

midd: ng

N. N. W.

N. W.

E.S.E
Quarter.

good

from

NAVlGAriO

from the Firjl Bay of M-mz\\ at Noon.

0/ half Bonn.

12 tt K'ght.

T.atit. •valued, tat.thfer-vd.

t'.

JO.

41.

L'^tigit:id\
D. M.

Dtdenficn of
the Nctd'e,
D. M.

EaJ} 3 c

10.

Journal, 1759.

In this journal we fisppofe to have conveyed fome
merchant fliips to Liflion, whence we proceed on
our voyage to Jamaica.

In the Name of God, Amen,

The 27th of February, at noon, the wind being
nonh-noith-eaft, we failed from the gulph of Lif-
hon, to proceed,, with God's afliftance, on our
voyage to Jamaica., in hi, Majefty's fhip the N.
400 Jons buiih.n, carrying 36 guns ; the captain
M. P. the lieu.enant M. R. and the firfl pilut N.
God grant us a good voyage.

We anchored by about 12 fathoms of water, and
after we had waited till the 18th, we heaved up
©ur anchor at fix in the morning, with a middling
eafterly wind; and after we had doubled the c;ipe
cf Rocca, we put the cape to the north-weft till fix
in the evening ; but that rhumb was worth but
wefl-north-weft to u^, becaufe of the currents, and
we reckoned to hr.ve m.;de 25 leaeues.

About fix in the evening, the wind being t'lrn
cd to the fouth, we kept ItiU the cape to the north-
weft, therefore that dms wind havr.g lafted till
twelve at noon the next day, we reckon'd to have
failed 55 leagues by that rhumb. Fi r ha\ing made
our obfcivation, we found ourftlvrs iU 40 degrees
of latitude, and by efiimatc at 5 of longtude.

Rhumb.

Value cf

JVincl.

the Rhumb.

N. \V.

W.N. VV.

E. Md.

N. W.

S. Good.

Leagues.

Latitude.

38 Deg. 30 Min.

41 Deg. o Min.

409

Longitude.
9 Deg 15 Min.
5 Dog. o Min.

From twelve at noon, of the 1 ft day of March;
we failed on the north-weft, i weft, with a very
unfettled wind, fometimes good, fomctimcs midd-
ling, which blew part from the eaft-fouth-caft, ?.nd
part from the fouth-eaft. We reckoned to have fail-
ed 24 leagues in 12 hours and to be under the 41°,
50', of latitude. And by that obfervation, judged
that we were under the 3" 15' of longitude, and that
fame current had made us lie by wtft-north-weft.

The fecond day of tlie fame month, we were
overtaken by a violent tempeft, mixed with thun-
der and lightning, and night happening all on a fud-
den, a prodigious />«(r/;ij/ (which is a kind of whirl-
wind) fcized our fliip by the bowfprit with fo much
violence, that it laid her on her fide ; we then
thought ourfelves loft; but that whirlwind finding
no hold on that fide of the fliip, was foon over, and
our fhip raifed herfelf by degrees. We were forced
to throw fome pieces of cannon, and fome mer-
chandizes over-board ; becaufe the tempeft conti-
nued till the nest day, and was followed by very
foul weather, which continued till the 5th in the
morning; and that day having made an obfervation
at noon, we found ourfelves under the 39° 12' J,
and having told our hour-glafTes, for 12 at noon
of the firft day of March, there were but 193, /. c
one more than four limes 48, wanted for the four
days, at that time there could be one quarter of the
fand run through. We reckoned then, that we
could be diftant from the meridian of the place,,
where we were the firft of March, at noon, but of
about 9 degrees wellward ; becaufe the fun run-
ning thro' 7i in a half hour, the degree and a half
above was reckoned for the quarter of the fand run.
at the time of tlie obfervation ; and that, therefore
we could be under the 356 degrees of longitude.

By that reafoning we corrected our eliimate, and:
judge, in pointing our chart, that we had made
115 leagues, and that we were diftant from the
Ter.era iflands, of about 40 leagues.

Rhumb.

N. w. -;w.

W. N. W.

Leagu:s.
24
ii5

Value of

the RJiun.b.

W.N.W.

W. S. W.

Latitude.
4i» 30'
39° I 2'

Wind.

E. S E. middling,
N. N. E. TempeJ..

Lo' gitude.
356" o'

6. ^Ve were fcarce recovered f: om our fright,.
jaufed by the tempeft, then the 6tii <ji AJa^ ch abrmt

cjght

*I'he Unlverfal Hiftory of Arts /s;;/^:/ Sciences.

410

eight in the morning, we difcovered four Spanijh
men of war, which chafed us ; but us we were not
capable to cope with them, we fet out all our fails,
and putting the cap to the north, we bore away for
the ifle of St. Michael.) where we caft anchor about
five in theeveningundcrflisker of ihecaftle, which
we faluted with two pieces of cannon, and though
it be not a very (j.it place, the enemy did not dare-
to attack us there.

Rhumb.

S. S. IV.

Leagues.
22

Val. of the
Rhumb.
S. S. W.

Lat'iiude.
38° 15'

IVmd.
N. good.

Longitude.
355° 20'

7. The weather was fair enough during the five

days we were forced to remain in the road of that

ifland, to rc-fit our fhip by th? governor's leave,
who gave us frefh provifions. We took our ob-
fervation, and found that our compafs declined no
longer.

12. The twelfth, at ten in the morning we hove
up our anclifjr by a good wind of fouth-eaft, an4
failed towards the ifland Tcicera, which we fdluted
with two pieces of cannon. The next day early in
the morning we continued our voyage towards
'Jamaica.

This is the plan and order which can be followed
in a grand j iurna.1 : fome reduce it into a table of
ten or twelve columns, like that of 24 hours, but
make the fquares four times bigger, to have more
room fur their particular obfervations.

0 p r I c K s.

OPTICKS, according to Sir Ifaeic Newton,
is a m'xed mathematical fcience, which ex-
plains the manner wherein vifion is per-
formed in the eye ; treats of fight in the general ;
gives the rcafon of the feveral modifications or al-
terations which the rays of light undergoes in the
eve ; and fhews why objc£ts appear fometimes
greater, fomctimes fmaller, fometimes morediftindt,
fomctimes more confufed, fumetimes nearer, and
fometimes more remote.

I'll begin this by treating of fight in general ; and
previoufly to it, by an exact defcription of feveral
parts which compofe the eye; then I'll pa's to ca-
Icptrich, and from thence to dloptricks, leaving
perfpe^iive for a treatife a-part.

The organ oi fight is the eye ; the author of na-
ture has provided for the fecurity of both eyes, by
placing them under the forehead, on the fides of
the nofe, in two orbit-r, dug in the bones of the cra-
nium, that in thofe ofceous feats, they may be the
better fhelter'd againfl: all foreign accident,-:. To
thefe orbits, he was pleafed to add, for a flill greater
fecurity, tvi^o eye-lids, or veils, to cover the eye, and
defend it from dull, fmoak, and all other things
which could hurt it.

There occurs in the eve lids feveral fmall glands,
which with the humour contained therein, water
the eye ; but more particularly in the great angle,
called canthus, there is ihe lachrymal gland, whence
tears flow.

As to the particular ftrufture of the eye itfelf ;
it is compofed of three proper membranes, and of
fo many humours.

The firfl: proper membrane y is faid to be expand-

ed round the ball of the eye ; the h!r»d-part there-
of, A F, ]s czW'-d fclerotica, or hard ; anJ the an-
terior, viz. A B, cornea y becaufe tranfparent like
horn. Fig. 6.

The fccond, which is thinner, proceeds from
the pia mater, and is cemmonly called in its pofte-
rior parts C C cboroides, and uvea in its anterior.

The perforation of the uvea, II. is called the pu-
pil, or apple of the eye ; which by means of muf-
cular fibres, is fometimes contrafled, when too
much light offends the eye ; and fometimes dilated,
when there is but a moderate light. Thofe mufcu-
lar fibrL'S being difpofed round the pupil, in a cir-
cular manner, are called the i>is.

The third membrane, or tunick S S S, is the re~
tina, fo called as refembling a net, and covering
only the fund or bottom of the eye, oppofite to the
fight. This membrane derives from the medullary
fubftance, T S S S, of the cptick nerve ; and is
confidered as the proper organ of the fight.

Three humours are conspicuous in tbie eye, and
inclofed between thefe tunicks, vix. i The aque-
ou<, a limpid tranfparent humour, fituated in the
fore part of the eye, immediately under the cornea^
aud occafioning its protuberance.

The chry/ia'Jine, fituated immediately under the
aqueous, behind the uvea, oppofite to the pupil.

3. The vitreous or glafy humour, which fills all
the hind-part of the cavity of the globe; and is
that which gives the fpherical figure to the eye.
On its back-part is the retina fpread.

I'll pafs to the explication of i'(/;e« ; the aft of
feeing, or perceiving objedts by the fight.

VlUQH

0 P T I C K S,

41 1

Vision is very well defined to be a fenfation,
■whereby, from a certain motion of the optici nerve,
made in the bottom of the eye, by the rays of light
emitted or refiefled from objciits, and hence con-
veyed to the common fenfory in the brain, the mind
perceives the luminous objetS; its quality, quan-
tity, figure, ^c.

The better to underftand this article, we muft
carefully examine the nature of light and cchurs,
which is the medium, or vehicle, whereby objcdts
are carried to the eye.

Light is that fenfation cccafioned in the mind,
by the view of luminous bodies; or that property
in bodies, whereby they are fitted to excite thofc
fenfations in us.

Light is alfo ufed to denote a certain adlion of the
luminous body, on a medium between it and the
eye ; by means whereof, fome fuppofe the one to
act on the other.

This they call fecundary or derivative light ; to
diftinguilh it from that of luminous bodies, which
is called primary or miimtt'.

Every ray of light has two oppofite fides, the
one originally endued with a property, whereon its
unu(uz\' refraoiion depends, and the other not en-
dued v^ith that property.

Sir Ifaac Nevuton having obferved the vivid co-
loured image, proje£led on the wall of a djrkned
room, by the fun-beams tranfmitted through a
prifm, to be five times as long as broad, concludes,
that light itfelf is a heterogeneous mixture of rays
differently refrangible ; and hence he diftinguilhes
light into two kinds, viz. that whofe rays are
equally refrangible, which he calls hornogeneal, fimi-
lar, or uniform light ; and that whofe rays are un-
equally refrangible ; which he calls hcterogcneal
light.

There are but three aflTeflions of light, wherein
he obferved its rays to differ, viz. rtfrangibility,
rfflexibility, and colour ; and thofe rays which a-

gree in refrangibility, agree alfo in the other two : j trary, which are the leaft refrangible, conftitute a
whence they may be well defined hornogeneal,! ray of a red colour, /'. e. the greateft particles of
though in fome other refpe£ts they may polfibly be! light excite thelongefi: vibrations in the retina, and
heteroneneal. j fo convey the fenfation of a red colour, as being

Again, the colours exhibited by hornogeneal I the moft bright and vivid of all others. The other
light, he calls homogeneal colours ; and thofe pro- j particles being diftinguifhed into little rays, acccrd-
duced by keterogeneal light, hetcrogemal colours .yxngio their refpecSive magnitudes and degrees of

lours as degrees of refrangibility ; for to every de-
gree of refrangibility belongs a different colour.
Fourthly, whitenefs in all rerpc(fls like that of the
fun's immediate light, and of the u'ua! objecls of
our fenfes, cannot be compounded of fimple colours,
without an iidefinite varietv of them j for to fuch
a compofition there are required rays endued with
all the indefinite degrees of refrangibility, which
infer as many fimple colour-:. Filthly, the rays of
light do not adl on one another, in pafling through
tile fame medium. Sixthly, the rays of light do
not fulfer one alteration of their qualities from re-
fraSlion, nor from the adjacent quiefcent medium;
Seventhly, there can be no homogeneal ctjlours
produced out of light by refraSlion, whicll are not
^ommixed in it before ; iincc refrafli'n as was be-
fore obferved, changes not he qualities of the :ays,
but only feparates thofe which have divers qualities,
by means of their diffi-rent refrangibility. tigh:hlv,
the fun's light is an aggregate of homogeneal co-
lours ; whence homogeneal colours maj be called
primitive or original.

We have already obferved, that the ravs of light
are compofcd of difllmilar or heterogeneous parts ;
fome of them being, in all probabdity greater,
others lefs. Now the fmaller the parts are, by fo
much the more refrangible they are, ;. e. they are
fo much the more ealily diverted out of their rec-
tilinear courfe ; and thofe parts which differ in re-
frangibility (confequently in bulk} we have alfo
obferved differ in colour.

Hence arifes the whole theory of colours ; thofc
parts, V. gr. which are the moit refrangible, con-
ifitute violet colours (fay fome modern Philofo-
phers) that is, the mofl: minute particles of light,
when feprrately impelled on th^ organ, do there
excite the fhorteli vibrations in the retina, which
are thence communicated by the foHd part of the
optick n.rve in the brain, and excite in us the fen-
fation of violet-colour, the dimmeft and mofl: lan-
guid of all colours ; and thofe particles on the con-

Thefe definitions laid down, he advances feveral
propofitions.

As, firft, that the fun's light confifls of rays dif-
fering by indefinite degrees of refrangibility. Se-
condly, that rays which differ in refrangibility,
when parted from one another, do proportionably
differ in the colours which they exhibit. Thirdly,
that there arc as many fimple and homogeneal co-

refrangibility, excite intermediate vibrations, and
fo occafion fenfations of the intermediate colours ;
in like manner as the vibrations of the air, accord-
ing to their different magnitudes, excite fenfations
of different founds. The colours then of thefe lit-
tle rays not being any adventitious modifications of
them, but connate, primitive and neceffary pro-
perties, lefuking in all probability from their dif-
ferent

412 The Univcrfal Hlftory <?/* Arts and Sciences.

ferent magnitudes, inuft be perpetual and immuta-
ble, not to be altered by any reflcdtion, refraction,
or any fubfequent m )dificat:on.

Others explain rcfraiSHon in a clearer and more
concife maimer, and lay that it happens cither by
acceding to the perpendicular, or receding fro}?! it. For
when light paffes from a rarer or thinner medium
into one more denfe, viz.. from air into water or
glafs, then it is refraiSed by acceding to the per-
pendicular; but when it paiics from a thicker me-
dium into a thinner, viz. from glafs into water, or
from water into air, the refraction happens by its
recefs from the perpendicular.

But to give a ftill clearer notion of the refraSiion
cf light, they illuftrate it with the following expe-
riments : — Therefore let us imagine that AHBGC,
Fig. 8. is an earthen vellel, in the bottom whereof
there is the crown-piece B, that crown-piece will
<;ertainly be feen by the eye placed in E, by means
of the ray B E ; but not by the eye placed in D ;
for the ray D H is terminated in H, not in B. But
if the veflel be filled with water to the very top or
fuperficies, A C (which though it be feen here co-
vered with a cloth, can notwithftanding, be ima-
gined uncovered) then the ray which was carried
from the point B into E, will be refraiSled in the
point I, where the fuperficies of the air occurs, and
tends towards D, in receding from the line F / G,
which is perpendicular to the fuperficies A / C :
and then the crown- piece will be feen by him who
■will be placed in D ; and will be referred not to
the point B, but to the point H.

The experiment of this is eafily made, by taking
a pretty deep difh, and putting in the bottom a
crown or half a crown-piece, and then going back-
ward from the difb till the edges thereof hinder us
from feeing the piece any longer ; but if we put
water in the difti, we (hall fee the piece from that
place ; whence we could not fee it before.

If theveffel A HB G C, Fig. 8. be a gla^s velTel,
and the fide C G oppofed to the fun, as well as
the fuperficies A / C, be covered in fuch a manner,
that there be but the very little hole / left for the
pafiage of the light, then the ray D / will tend to-
wards the point H. But if the vefiel be filled with
water, through the fmall tube M N, then the ray
which was carried into H will be refraBed by ac-
ceding to the perpendicular F / G, and environ
the point B. 1 he quantity of this refraSlion will
be known, by adapting either a femi-circle or the
quadrant of a circle within the veflel, or in any
other manner ; for I do not pretend to relate here
the different means invented, ufed, and adapted by
the learned, to the menfuration oH refraiiion.

But to undcr;fand better what follows ; we mufl:
;idmit here the definitions of divers angles ; there-

fore let's examine the 19th Figure of our table of
Opticks, in which the ray A B is imagined to pafs
obliquely from air into water or glafs; this being
diredted towards P, will notwithilanding defcend
refrafted into the point I, becaufe meeting with a
denfer body, by acceding to the perpendicular
H B G, and for the fame reafon the ray K B, which
inclined towards O, will incline towards L.

Then the angle ABC formed by the ray A B^
and the fuperficies B C, is called angle of incidence ;
likevvife the angle K B C, is an angle of incidence. ■

The angle A B H, formed by the ray A B and
the perpendicular H B, is the angle of inclination^
and the fame is to be faid of the angle K BM.

The angle G B I, formed by the refracted rajr
B I, and the perpendicular BG, is called a refra£led
angle., as well as the angle N BL'^

Laftly, the angle IBP, formed by the refra^ed
ray B I, and the right ray A B, imagined to be
carried into P (the fame to be faid of the angle
L B O) is called r^nz angle of rcfraElion.

Des Cartes has very ingenioufly obferved, that
there is not always the fame ratio between thea'z-
gles of inclination, and thofe refraBed. For that
ratio changes according to the various inclination
of the rays ; whence though the ratio which is be-
tween the angle of inclination A B H, and the re-
fradted angle G B I, be very well underftood, it
cannot be carried to K B M and N B L, becaufe
the angle A B is more inclined on the fuperficy
C B then K B. But the ratio of the fines of the
angles of inclination to the fines of the refraSied
angles, is always the fame, v. gr. if we know the
ratio of the line AH, which is the fine of the angle
A B H to the line G I, which is the fine of the re-
fra<Sted angle G B I ; we'll find the fame ratio be-
tween the angle K M, the fine of the angle
K B A'l, and the line N. L, the fine of the angle
N B L.

As to Colour, fome define it a property inhe-
rent in light, whereby, according to the different
fizes, or magnitudes of its parts, it excites differ-
ent vibrations in the fibres of the optick nerve ;
which propagated to the fenforium, afFecSt the
mind with different fenfations.

Various are the opinions of antient and modern
Authors, of the feveral feds of Pbilofophers, with
regard to the nature and origin of the phenomenon
colour.

But Sir Ifaac Newton thinks, that he has efla-
blifhed a folid and confident theory of colours; built
on fure experiments, and folving all the phaenomena
thereof : his doftrine is as follows :

That Author fays, that it is found by experience,
that rays, or beams of light,, are compofed of par-
ticles

0 P T I C K S.

tjcles very hiterogeneous, or dillimilar ta each o-
ther, /. e. fome of them, as it is hig'ily probable,
are larger, and others lels. For a niv of li^hc be-
ing received on a refra£ting fiirface, in a dark
pla;.', is not wholly refraiited to a fingle po'iit ;
but fplit, as it were, and dilFufed into feveral radioli,
or little rays, /. e, thofe particles of the light which
are the inoft minute, are of all otliers the mod
eafily and moft confiderabiy diverted, by the aiSion
of the refradling furface,, out of their reiSiili near
couri'e ; and the reft, as each exceeds another in
magnitude, fo is it with more difficidty, and lefs
confiderabiy turned of its right line to the interme-
diate points.

Now each ray of light, as it differs from another
in its degree of reirangibility, fo does it differ from
it in colour ; this is wairanted by numerous experi-
men's. Thofe particles, v. gr. which are more
refraflfcd, are found to conllitute a ray of a violet
colour, i. e. in all probabilitv, the mod minute par-
ticles of light, thus feparately impelled, excite the
fliortefl: vibration in the retina ; which are thence
propagated by the folid fibres of the optiii nerves
into the brain, there to excite the fenlation of
violet colour ; as being the moft dufky and languid
of all colours.

Attain, thofe particles which are the leafl: re-
fracled, conflitute a radiclus, or. ray of a red colour,
i. e. thelargeft particle; of light excite the longefl
vibrations in the retina ; fo as to excite the fenfa-
tion of red colour, the brighteft. and mofl vivid of
all others.

The other particles being in like manner fepa-
rated, according to their refpedtive magnitudes,
into little rays, excite the intermediate vibrations,
and thus occafion the fenfation of the intermediate
colours; much, in the fame manner as the feveral
vibrations of the air, according to their refpedfive
ma!»nitudes, excite the fenfaiions of different founds.
'I'o this it may be added, that not only the more
didinft and notable colours of red, yellow, blue,
(Sc. have thus their rife from the different magni-
tude, and refrangibility of the rays ; but alfo the
intermediate degrees or fhades of the fame colour,
as of yellov/ up to green, of red. down toydlow, (jfc.
Further, the colours of thefe little rays, not being
any adventitious modifications thereof, but connate,
primitive, and necefl'ary properties; as confdHng, in
all probability, in the magnitude of th-jir parts,
muft be perpetual and immutable, /. e. cannot be
changed by any future rcfradion or reflection, or
anv modification whatfoever.

In order to vi/ion, we are certain, it is required
that the rays of light be thrown from the viiible
objeft to the eye : what befalls them in the eye,
will be conceived from what follows.
Vol. II. 45.

413

Suppofe, e. gr- Z the eye, and ABC the objc(St,
{Optick Plate, ¥\g. II.) now though every point
of an objedf be a radiant point, that though there
be rays refledled from every point of the olijecl to
every point of the circumambient fpace, each car-
rying with it its refpedlivc colour, (which wc falfly
imagine to be thofe of the objcil) yet as onlv thofe
rays> which pafs thro' the pupil of the eye aff"ed the
fenfe, we fliall here confider none elfe.

And again, though there be a great number of
rays pa/Ting from one radiant point, as B, through
the pupil, yet we fhall only confider the action of
a few of them; as B D, B E, BF.

Now then the ray B D fidling perpendicularly on
the furface, E D F, will pafs out of the air into the
aqueous huiTiour, v/ithout any refra(5lion, and pro - '
ceed right to H ; where, falling perpendicidarly on
the furface of the cryftalline humour, it will go on,
without anyrefradlion, to M ; where again falling
perpendicularly on the furface of the vitreous hu-
mour, it will proceed fhait to the point O, in the
fund or bottom of the eye. Again, the ray B E
paffing obliqu.-ly out of the air upon the furface of
the watery humour E D F, will be rcfra<3ed, and
approach towards the perpendicular EP: thus,
proceeding to the point G, in the furface of the
cryftalline, it will be th^re refraifted ftill nearer,
the perpendicular. — So alfo EG falling obli-
quely out of the air into a harder body, will be.
refrafled towards the perpendicular GR, and fall-
ing on the point L of the ftirface of the vitreous
humour, it will ftill be brought nearer to M.

Laflly, GL falling obliquely out of a denfer,
upon the iurface of a rarer body, L M N, will be
refraited, and recede from the perpendicular LT ;
in receding from which, it is evident it approaches
tovv-ards the ray B DO, and may be fo refracted as
to meet the other in O. — In like manner the rav
B F being refraded in B will turn to I, and thence
to N, and thence to the others in O. But the rays
between B E and B F, being fomewhat le(i> refra(S-.
ed, will not meet precifely in the fame point -O.

Thus will the radiant point B aff-edt thefund of
the eye, in the fame manner as if the pupil had
had no breadth, or as if the radiant itfeif had only
emitted one fingle ray, fuch as were equal in power
to all thofe between B E and E F.

In like manner the rays proceeding from the
point A, will be fo refracied in paffing through the
humours of the eye, as to meet near the point X ;
and theirays from any intermediate point between
A and B, v, ill nearly meet in fome other point in
the fund of the eye between X and O.

Upon the whole it may be afferted uhiverfally,

that every point; of an objedt afFedts only one point

in the fund of the eye ; and, on the contrary, that

II h h every

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

every point in the fund of the eye only receives rays
from one point of the objeiSt. Though this is not
to be uiidcrftood in the utmoft rigour.

Now if the object recede from the eye in fuch
manner, as that the radiant point B does not de-
cline from the line B D ; the rays which fliould
proceed from B, not enough divaricated, would be
ib refracted in palling the tlnee furfaces, as that they
would meet ere they reached the point O ; on the
contrary, if the objcifl fhould brought nearer the
eye, the rays paffing from the point B in the pupil,
too much divaricated, would be refradled fo as not
to meet till beyond the point O ; nay the object
may be^fo near, that the rays proceeding from any
point may be divaricated, as that tl:>;y fliall never
meet at all. In all which cafes, there v'ould be no
point of the object, but would move a preity large
portion of the fund of the eye ; and thus the adtirn
of each point would be confounded with that of the
contiguous one.

And this would commonly be the cafe, but that
nature has provided againft it ; either by contriving
the eye, ib as its bulb may be lengthened or
fhortened, as objects may be more or lefs diftar.t :
or, as others will have it, To as that the cryftalline
may be made more convex, or more flat ; or, ac-
cording to others, fo as that the diftance between
the cryftalline and the retina, may be lengthened
or fhortened.

The hrft expedient is the moft probable ; on the
footing of which, when we dirett oiu' eyes to an
object fo remote, as that it cannot be dillindtly
viewed by the eye in its accuflom'd figure, the eye
is drawn back into a flatter figure, by the contrac-
tion of four mulcles ; by which means, the retina
becoming nearer, the cryftalline humour receives
the rays fooner : and when we view an obje£l too
near, .the eye being comprefTed by the two oblique
mufcles, is render'd more globular ; by which
means the retina being fet further off from the
crvflalline, does not receive the rays of any point
befoic they meet.

It may be here added, that this accefs, and re-
ccfs of the cryftalline, is fo neceffary tovifion, that
whereas in fome birds the coats of the eye are fuch
a bony confiflence, that mufcles would not have
been able to contra^'; or d ftend them ; nature has
taken other means, by binding the cryftalline down
to the :euna, vv'ith a icind of blackilh threads, not
found in the eyes of other animals. Nor miift it be
omitted, i.^vi of :he three refractions above-men-
tioned,, the tirft is wanting in fifhes ; and that to
remedy tliis, their cryftalline is not lenticular, as in
other animals, but globular. Laftly, iince the
eyes of old people are generally v/orn flatter than
thofe of young ones; fo that the rays from any

point, fall on the i.tina, ere they become coUefted
into one ; they muft exhibit the obje£l fomewhat
confufeelly . nor can fuch eyes fee any but remote
objedts di'Hn6lly.

Thofe, who have the cryftalline of the eve thus
confiouraied, are cr.Ued pnjhyta. This defeat is
helped onlv by convex -glaffcs or fpe(£tacles ; which
will maketh'j rays converge fooner, and if they are
v/ell fitted, fall cxadtly on the retina. If the dif-
tance between the retina and the cryftalline be too
fmall, the perlon will likewife be aprefbyta. The
word is fo'-med fiom the Greek v^Krtvt, fenex ; be-
caufe old people are natur.illy fubjeft to this defect;
time, and the friction df the eye-lids, (Sc. gradually
wearing the ball flat.

-In others, Vi^hole eyes are too globular, the cafe
is juft the reverfe ; and thefe are called myopes.

From what has been (hewn, that every point of
an object moves only one point of the bottom of the
eye ; ani), on the contrary, that every point in the
fund of the eye, only receives rays from one point
of the object ; is is eafy to conceive, that the whole
objedl moves a certain part of the retina; that in
this part th re is a dillinct and vivid colleftlon of
all the rays received in at the pupil ; and that as
each ray carries its proper colour along with It,
there are as many points pointed in the fund of the
eye, as there are pomts viliblc in the objedt. Thus
is there a fpecies or piiSture, on the retina, exactly
like the object ; all the difference between them is,
that the body is here reprefented by a furface ; a
fuiface frequently by a line, and a line by a point :
that the im.age is inverted, the right hand anfwer-
ing to the left of the objeiSt, Is'c. and that it is ex-
ceedingly fmall, and ftill the more fo, as the ob-
je(ft is more remotr.

What we have fhewn of the nature of light and
colours, readily accounts for this painting of the
objeift on the retina. 1 he matter of fact is proved
by an eafy experiment firft tried by Des Cartes ;
thus, the windows of a chamber being fhut, and
light only admitted at one little aperture ; to that
aperture apply the eye of fome animal newly killed,
having firft dextroufly pulled ofF the memb.'-anes
that cover the bottom of the vitreous humour, viz,
the hind part of the fclerotica, choroides, and even
part of the retina; then will the images of all the
objefts, without doors, be feen diftinctly painted
on any white body, as on an egg-fhell, that the
eye is laid upon. The fame thing is better Ihevvn
by an artificial eye, or camera cbjcura.

The laws of vifirn, with regard to the figures of
vif:ble obje£ts, arc,

j I. That if the center of the pupil be ex-acftly
' againfl-, or in the direftion of a right line, the line
j will appear as one point.
I 2. If

0 P

1 c K s.

2. If the line be placed in the dlredion of a fur-
fece, fo that only one line of the pcrirne:.er can ra-
diate on it, it will appear as a line.

3 If a body be oppofed d'.rectly towards the eye,
fo as only one plane of the furface can radiate on
it, it will appear as a furface.

4. A remote arch, viewed by an eye in the fame
place, will appear as a right-line.

5. A fphere viewed at a difiance appears a
circle.

6. Angular figures at a diflance appear round.

7. If the eye look obliquely on the center of a
regular figure, or a circle, the true figure will not
be fcen ; but the figure will appear oval.

The laius of v:Jio?i, luitb regard to the motion of
vtfihles, are, i. That if two obietb unequally dif-
tant from the eye, move from it with equal velo-
city, the more remote one will appear, the flower;
or if their celerities be proportionable to their dif-
tanccs, they will appear to move equally fwift.

2. If two objefts, unequally diftant from the eye,
move with unequal velocities in the fame dire£lion,
their apparent velocities are in a ratio compounded
of the dircdl ratio's of their true velocities, and the
reciprocal ones of their dirtances from the eve'

3. A vifiile ob;e£l, moving with any velocity,
appears to be at Te{\, if the fpace defcribed in the
interval of one fecond be imperceptible at the dif-
tance of the eye. Hence it is that a near objedt,
moving very flowly, as the index of a clock, or a
remote one very fwiftly, as a planet, feem at reft.

4; An objedt moving v/ith any degree of velo-
city will appear to reft, if the place it runs over in
a fecond of time, be to its diftance from the eye, as
I to 14CO, nay, in fa£t, if it be as 1 to 1300.

5. The eye proceeding ftrait, from one place
to another, a natural object, either on the right or
left, will feem to move the contrary way.

6. If the eye and the obieft move both the fame
way, only the eye much fwifter than the objedl,
that laft will appear to go backwards.

7. If two or more objefts move with the fame
velocity, and a third remains at reft, the moveables
will appear fixed, and the quicfcent in mofion the
contrary way. — Thus clouds moving very fwiftly,
their parts feem to preferve their iituation, and the
moon to move the contrary way.

If the eye be moved with a greater velocity,
lateral objeds at reft, appear to move the contrary
•^vay. — Thus to a perfon fitting in a coach, and
ridinfT brifkly through a wood, the trees feem to
retire the contrary way ; and to people in a fhip,
i^c. the (hores feem to recede.

Having explained the firft principles and rudi-
ments of Optiihj with regard to the fpNulative part

415

thereof; I'll next reduce all thofe rules into f>rac-
tice, and fhew by plain dcmonft.-ation, that they
are true and well founded, by means of the catop-
tficki and dlaptrkks ; therefore,

Catoptricks is that br.inch of 0/'?/V/f/, which
delivers the laws of light reflec'^ted from mirrours.

Mirrour in catoptrich, denotes any poliHied
body impervious to the rays of Hght, and which of
confequcnce reflects them equally.

1 he dodtiine of mirrours is founded on the fol-
lowing general principles. I. Light refleacd from
any mirrour 01 fpeculun, makes the angle of inci-
dence equal to that of reHefiion. Pence a ray of
light falling perpendicularly on the furface of a_/J)f-
culiim, will be refiefted back upon itfulf ■ Which
we find by experience it aftually doe.<:. From the
fame point of a mirrcur, therefore, there cannot be
feveral rays reflefted to the fame point; fince in
that cafe, all the angles of refleiSlion muft be equal
to the fime angle- of incidence, and therefore to
each other ; which is abfurd; nor can the ray be
refleclcd to two or more points ; fince in that cafe,
all the angles of refleftion, would be equal to the
fame angle of incidence: which is likewifc abfurd.
2. From every point of a mirrour, are reflecied
rays thrown on it, from every point of, a radiant
objefi. Since then rays coming from different parts
of the fame objedl, and flrikingon the fame point
of the mirrour, cannot be remedied back to the fame
point ; the rays which flow from different points of
the fame radiating objeff, are again feparated after
rcfledtion : fo that each point flievvs whence it came.
Hence it is, that the rays reflcifled from tnirrours
exhibit the objefts to view. Hence alfo it appear'-, .
that rough uneven bodies muft reflert the light in
fuch a manner, as that rays coming from different
points will be blended or thrown confufedly to-
gether.

Mirrours are commonly divided into plane, con-
cave, convex, cyUndrical, conical, parahoUcal, and
elliptical.

Plane Mirrours are hoking-glaffes.

The laws or phxnomena of plane mirroiois, are
as follows. I. Every point of an objedt is feen in
the interfeiElion of the cathetus of incidence, with
the reflected ray.

"The cathetus of incidence, in catoptricks, is aright
line drawn from a radiant point, perpendicular to
the refledfing line, or the plane of the mirrour. The
cathetus of refeSi ion, or of the eye, in a right line
drawn from the eye, or from any point of a re-
flected ray; perpendicular to the plane of refle£lion,
or of a mirrour.

Hence, i. As all the reflefled rays meet with

the cathetus of incideme in the interfedtion ; by

H h h 2 whatever

4i6

7he Unverfal Hiftory

whatever reflcfled ray the radiant point be feen, it
will flill appear in the fame place, Confequ'Jntly
any number of perlbns viewing the fame obj^d in
the fame jnirrouy ; will all fee it in the fame place
behind the mirrour. And hence it is, that the fame
objeiS has only one image, and that wc do not fee
it double with both eyes.

Hence alfo the diflance of the image from the
eye, is compounded of the ray of incidence, and
the refleded ray : and the objeft radiates reflected -
ly, in the fame manner as it would do diredly,
were it removed into the place of the image.

2. The image of a radiant point, appears juft fo
far behind a plain mirrour, as the radiant point is
before it.

Hence, if the mirrour^ A G, Table Opticks, Fig.
15. be placed horizontal, the point A will feem fo
much below the horizon as it is really elevated above
it ; confequcntly ereiSl objects will appeaj- as if in
verted ; and therefore men ftanding on their feet as
if on their heads, or if their mirrour be faftened to
the cicling of a room, parallel to the horizon, ob
je»Ss on the floor will appear above the cieling as
much as they really arc below it ; and that upfide
down.

3. In a plain mirrour, the images are perfe£i!y
fimilar and equal to the objects. And hence they
are us'd as looklng-glafles.

4. In z plain mirrour, things on the right-hand
appear as on the left, and vice verfa.

Hence alfo we have a method of meafuring any
inacceflible altitude by means of a plain mirrour. —
Thus the mirrour being placed horizontally in C,
F'g- 16. retire from it till fuch time as the top of
the tree be feen therein. Mcafure the height of the
eye D E, the diftance of the ftation from the point
of refleclion E C, and the diftance of the foot of
the tree from the fame. Then to E C, C B, and
E D, find a fourth proportional AB. This is the
altitude fought.

5. Hap'ain mirrour be inclined to the horizon,
in an angle of 45 degrees, an objedt perpendicular
to it will appear parallel, and an horizontal- object
perpendicular.

6. If the object be parallel to the fpeculum, and
equally diltant from it, with the eye ; the refledt-
ing line will be half the length of the object.

7. V feveralmirrours, or feveral fragments, or
pieces of a mirrour, be all dijpofed in the fame
plane, they will only, exhibit an object once.

8. If two plain mirrour s, or fpecula, meet ,in
any angle ; the eye placed within that angle, will
fee the im^ige of an objeft placed within the fame.
as often repeated as there may be catheti drawn,
determining the places of the images, and termi-
nated without the angle.

of Arts and Sciences.

On this principle are founded varibus Catoptrick
machines, fome of which reprefent objecSls infinite-
ly multiplied and diftorted ; others infinitely mag-
nified, as the catoptrick cyllula, &c.

The catoptrick cyflula is a machine or apparatus,
whereby little bodies are reprefented extremely
large, and near ones extremely wide, and diftufed
through a vafl fpace, with other agreeable phaeno-
mena.

To make a catoptrick cyflula to reprefent feveral
fcenes cf ohjeiii, when looked in at different foramina
or holes Provide a pojygonous cyflula, or cheft, of
the multilateral prifm A B C D E F (plate Opticks,
Fig. 17.) and divide its cavity by diagonal planes
E B, F C, D A, interfering each other in the
center, into as many triangular locules or cells, as
the cheft has fides. Line the diagonal planes with
plain mirro:.rs, in the lateral planes make round
holes, through which the eye may peep within the
locules of the cheft. The holes are to be covered
with plain glaffes, ground within-fide, but not
poliflicd, to prevent the objefts in the locules
from appearing too diftin£tly In each locule are
placed the difterent objects, whofe images are to
be exhibited ; then covering up tlie top of the cheft
with a thin tranfparent membrane, or parchment,
to admit the light, the machine is compleat.

For from the laws of reflection it roilows, that
the images of objects, placed within the angles of
mirrours, are multiplied, and appear fome more
remote than others ; whence the obje(Sts in one
locule will be feen, but thofe multiplied and dif-
fufed through a fpace much larger than the whole
cheft. Thus every new hole will afford a new
fcene : according to the different angles the mir-
rours make with each other, the r^prefentations will
be different ; if they be at an angle greater than a
right one, the images will be monflrous, isfc.

Theparchment that covers the machine, may be
made pellucid, by wafhing it feveral times in a very
clear lye, then in fair v-^ater, and bracing it tight,
and expofing it to the air to dry. If it be defired to
throw any colour on the objefls, it may be done
by colouring the parchment. Zahnius recommends
verdigreafe ground in vinegar, for green ; decoction
of Brafil wood, for red, is'c. He adds, it ought
to be varnifbed to make it fhine.

To make a catoptrick cyflula, ta reprefent the
objects within it prodigioufly multiplied, and diffufcd
through a vaj} fpace. Make a polygonous cyflula, or
cheft, as before, but Vvithout dividing the inner
cavity, into any apartments or locules. Line the
lateral planes with plane mirrours, and at the fora-
mina or apertures, pare o&'the tin and quickfilver,
that the eye may fee through : place any ob e£t in
theTjottDn;, v. gr. a, bird in a cage, tfc. Here the

eye

0 p r I

eye looking through the apertures, will fee each
objcd placed at bottom, valtly multiplied, and the
images removed at equal diilances from one
ther.

ano-

Convex MiRROURS are thofe, whofe furface is
convex ; meaning by convex fuvfaces, luch as are
fpherically convex.

There are divers methods ufed by divers artifts,
for prcpariiig or making convex mirrours, particu-
larly as to the matter and compofition. One ot the
bed: that is known is given us by Wolfius, thus :
melt one part of tin, another of marcafite together,
and to the melted ma(s add two parts of mercury ;
as foon as the mercury begins to evaporate into
fmoak (which it prefcntiy does) the whole compoll
is to- be thrown into cold water, and when well
cooled, the Water decanted off. The mixture is
then to be ftrained through a linen cloth in two or
three folds ; and what is thus fecerncd, poured in-
to the cavity of a glafs fphere ; this fphere is to be
turned gently round its axis, till the whole furface
is covered ; the reft being referved for future ufe.
If the fphere were of coloured glafs, the mirrour
will be ib too. And in the fame manner, may
conick, elliptick, cylindrick, and other mirrours
be made.

Concave Mirrours are thofe whofe furface is
concave ; meaning fpherically concave.

To prepare, or make concave jnirroi/rs ; firft, a
mould is to be provided for cafting them ; in or-
der to this, take clay well dried, pulverize and fift
it ; mix it up with water, and then ftrain or filter
it ; with this work up horfe-dung and hair fhred
very fmall, till the mafs be fufBciently toughj to
which, on occafion may be added charcoal-dulf,
or brick-duft well fifted. Two coarfe moulds are
to be prepared of a gritty ftorie, the one concave,
the other convex, which are to be ground on one
another, with wet fand between, till fuch time as
the one perfeflly fits the other. By this means a"
perfedt fpherical figure is acquired. — The mafs
prepared before is now to be extended on the table
bv means of a wooden roller, till it be of a thick-
nefs proper for the mirrour; and then being ftrew-
ed with brick-duft, to prevent its ftriking, it is
laid over the convex mould, and fo gets the figure
of the mirrour. When this is dry it is covered
with another lay of the fame mafs ; which once
dried, both covers, or fegments of tlie hollow
fphere, made of clay, are taken ofl". The inner-
moit of the two being laid afide, the ftone mould
is anointed vvith a pigment prepared of chalk and
milk, and the outer cover again put over it. —
Laltly, the joining being covered over with the

C K S. 417

r*nie clay whereof the cover is formed ; the whole
mould is bound together with an iron wire, and two
holts cut through the cover, the one for the melted
matter of the mirrour to be poured through, the
other for the air to efcape at, to prevent the mirrour
being fpoiled with bubbles. The mould thus pre-
pared, eight parts of copper, one of Englij}} tin, and
five of marcafite, are melted together; a little of
the mixture is taken out with a ladle, and if it bs
too red when cold, more tin is put in, if too white,
more copper : the mafs is then poured into the
mould before prepared, and fo afTumcs the figure of
a mirrour. — Some with ten pans ofcoppwmix
four of EngUJh tin, a little antimony and fal am-
moniack, flirring the mafs about as long as any
fumes arife from it. Others have other compo-
fitions ; many of which are defcribed by Shutters,
and Zabnius. The mirrour being thus caft, is ce-
mented to a wooden frame, and thus worked to
and fro over the convex ftone mould, firft with
water and fand ; and laflly without fand, till it be
fit for polifhing. The ftone mould is then cover'd
with paper, and that fmear'd over with tiipo!i-duft,
and calx of tin : over which the mirrour is worked
to and fro, till it has got^ perfect pojifh. And in
the fame manner are glafs mirrours polifned, ex-
cepting that the convex furface is there worked in
the concave mould. Wheji the mirrours are very
large, they are fixed on a table, and firft ground
with a gritty ftone, then with pumice, then with
fine fand, by means of a glafs, cemented to a
wooden frame ; and lafily, rubbed with calx of
tin, and tripoli-duft, by a wet leather. — -P'or con-
cave mii rours ot glals, the mould is ulually made
of alabafter : the reft as in metal mirrours.

Amongft the laws and phenomena of concave
mirrours, we find that, i. If a ray falls on a con-
cave »i/Vri;«r, under an inclination of 60 degree;,
and parallel to the axis ; the refleifted ray will
concur with the axis in the pole of the glafs. If
the inclination of the incident ray be Icis than 6o
degrees, the refie£led ray will concur with the axis,
at a diftance lefs than a fourth part of the diame-
ter. And univerfally, the diftance of the point,
wherein the ray concurs with the axis, from the
center, is to half the radius, in the ratio of the
whole fine, to the cofine of inclination.

Hence it is gather'd by calculation, that in a
concave fpherical mirrur, whofe breadth fubtends
an angle of fix degrees, parallel rays meet after
refleiftion, in a part of the axis lefs than one thou-
fand ibur hundred fifty feventh part of the raaius :
if the breadth of the concave mirrour be 6, 9, 12,
15, or 18 degrees; the part of the axis wherein
the parallel rays meet, after re^fledlion is lefs than
raj T50' i9> U' 7T » oftheradiis.

AjiJ

I'he Un'iverfal Hiftory oj Arts aW Sciences.

caft

And en iiiis principle it is that burning-glapi
arc built. Forfnice the rays difrufed througli the
whole furface of the concave tninour, after reftec-
ticn are coiitradkd into a vtry fmall compafs ;
the light and heat of the parallel rays mult be pro-
digioufly inercafed thereby, viz. in a duplicate
ratio of the breadth of the mirrour, and the diame-
ter of the ciicle, wherein all the rays are collected :
and fince the fun's rays are, as to any purpoles on
earth, parallel, no wonder concave m/r«J<ri Ihould
burn with Uich violence.

Among the antients the burning mirrcurs of
Archih.edes and Prcelles are eminent ; by one of
which the Roman ftlips beficging Siracuje, under
the command of 7Jf(?>-a-/Avi, according to the rela-
tions of Zonaras, Tzetres, Galen, EiiJIathius, &c.
and by the other the navy oiV Italian befieging
Bizantium, according to the fame Zonaras, were
burnt to adies. Among the moderns the moft
remarkable hmningmiiTours are thofc oiVUlftte, a
Frenchman, Settala, and ffMrnlmuJen. Settala,
canon of Padua, made a parabolick mirrour,\\h\ch,
according to Shottus, burnt pieces of wood at the
dilhnce of 15 or 16 paces. M. TfchirnhaujWs
mirrour is at Icafl: equal to the former, both in
bignefs and efFeft. The following things are
noted of it in the J^fa Eruditortim : i. Green
wood takes fire inflantaneoufly, fo as a firong
wind cannot extinguifh it. 2. Water boils im-
mediateiy, and eggs in it are prefently edible.
3. A mixture of tin and lead three inches thick
drops prefently, and iron or fleel plate becomes
red-hot prefently, and a little after burns into
holes. 4. 1 hings not capable of melting, as
ftones, bricks, ^V. become red-hot like iron. 5.
Slates become firft white, then a black glafs. 6.
Tiles are converted into a yellow glafs, and fhells
into a blackifh yellow one. 7. A ptimice-ftone
emitted from a volcano melts into white glafs :
And, 8. A piece of a crucible alfo vitrifies in eight
minutes. 9. Bones are foon turned into an opake
glafs, and earth into a black one. The breadth of
this mirrour is near three Leipfick ells, its focus two
ells diftant from it ; it is made ©f copper, and its
fubftance is not above half the thicknefs of the back
of a knife. Vilette, a French artift of Lyons, made a
large mirrour, bought by Tavernier, and prefentcd
by him to the king oi Perft.i ; a fecond bought by
the kingof £>;'w»(7r,^, a third prefented by the king
of France to tbe Royal Academy ; a fourth has
been in iw^rtoii/, where it v/as publickly expofed.
The effects, whereof, as found by Dr. Harris
and Dr. De^aguhers, are, that a filvcr fix- pence is
melted in 7'^ and \ ; a king George's halfpenny in
16'', and runs with a hole in 34 j tin melts in 3''',

iron in 16", flate ia 3'''

fies
like

, a fofSl-flicll calcines
in 7", a piece of Pompefs pillar at Alexandria,
vitrifies in the black part in 50'', in the white in
54, copper ore in "6" : bone calcines in 4", vitri-
in 33'^ An emerald melts into a fubllance
a a turquois ftone ; a diamond weighing 4
grains, lofes | of its weight : the afbeftos vitrihes,
as all other bodies will do, if kept long enough in
the focus : but when once vitrified, the mirrour
can go no further with them. This mirrour is 47
inches wide, and is ground to a fphere of 76 inches .
radius ; io that its focus is about 38 inches from
the vertex. — Its fubltance is a coinpofition of tin,
copper, and tin-glafs.

I-VolfiiiS tells us, that an artifl of Z>r(?/flV?j made
burning mirrour s of wood, bigger than thofe of M.
Tjchirnhaufen, or Vilktte, which had efieifts at
leaft equal to any of them. Traberus teaches how-
to make burning mirrours of leaf-gold, vi-z., by
turning a concave, laying its infide equally with
pitch, and covering that with fquare pieces of gold,
two or three fingers broad, faftening them on, if
need be, by fire. He adds, that very large mir-
rours may be made, of 30, 40, or more concave
pieces, artfully joined in a wooden difh or fkuttle,
the efFeds of which will not be much lefs than if
the furface was continuous. Zahnius adds fur-
ther, that Newman, an engineer, at Vienna, in
1699, i"2de a mirrour of pafleboard, covered
within fide with flraw glewed to it ; by which all
kinds of metal, fc'V. were readily melted.

Cylindiical, conical, parabolical, and elliptical
Mirrours, or fpecula, are thofe terminated by a
furface, refpedlively, cylindrical, conical, parabolical^
and fpheroidical.

To prepare ox make cylindrical, conical, &c. Mir-
rours, the procefs is as follows. — For the cylin-
drical and conical fort, if they are to be of glafs, the
method of p.-eparing them is the fame as that al-
ready laid down for convex mirrcurs. If of metal
they are to be made after the manner of concave
mirrours, only that the clay moulds there defcribed
require other wooden cnes of the figure of the
mirrour. — For elliptical, parabolical, and hyperboli-
cal msrrcurs, the mould is to be thus prepared : on
a wooden or brazen plane or table, defcribe the
figure of an ellipfis, parabola, or an hyperbola ; which
done, cut out the figure from the plane, with all
the accuracy imaginable. To the elliptick figure
fit an axis, with two fulcra to fuftain it, is'c. and a
handle to move it. Lay a quantity of the clay
above-defcribed under it, and turn about the axis
with the handle, till the plane has turned or im-
prefled the elliptical figure thereon. — The axis of
the parabolical} or hyperbolical figure, is to be fixed

o p r I c K

at the vertex in fuch manner as that it may always
remain creft. This to be turned about as above,
till it has given its own figure to the clay applied
about it. — The part of the mould thus formed is to
be dried, and either fmcared over with fat, or
fprinkled with brick-duft. Then a convex mould
to be made, by putting a quantity of the lame clay
into a cavity thus formed. This latter is called
the tnak, as the former the fetnale mould. — Ihe
male mould being well dried, is to be applied within
the female, in fuch manner as only to leave the
intended thiclcnefs vi the mirrour between them.
The reft as for concave mirrours.

BeftJes the catoptruk machines above-mentioned,
there is another called refleSing-, or catoptrick tele-
fcope, which inltead of lens, conilfts chiefly oi mir-
rours, and exhibits remote objedts by refledtion
inftead of refradtion.

This inftrument is the invention of Sir Ifaac \
Newton. The iirft hint whereof, he took from I
Dr. Gregory % optieks. \

419

ration therein, for the eye to look through, by
which means all foreign rays are excluded, vvhicii
would otherwife occafion conhifion.

In the firft telefcope of this kind, which the in-
ventor made, the (emi-diametcr of the concave
mctzlWck Jpcculum, was i2| digits, or tenths of an
nich ; from which, therefore, the focus v/as 6^- di-
bits diftant. The diameter of the eye- glafs was
Xi of a digit ; fo that it magnified the diameter of
the objeit in the ratio of I to 38 ; but he found
that objedls were found fomewhat obfcure hereby ;
on which account, he afterwards recommended
ghfsjpecula inftead of metallick ones ; adding that
there is nothing more required to the perfedtion of
this telefcope, but that the art of polilhing glafs be
brought to greater perfeciion ; for that fome ine-
qualities, which do not hurt lenfcs, are found to
affect fpccula, and prevent objefts being feen dif-
tindtly.

i he fame author obferves, that if the length of
, fne inftrument be 6 feet, and confequently the
For the conllrudtion of this refeSiing telefcope, a j femi diameter of the concsLvefpeculum 12, the aper-
tube A B C D, Fig. 22. muft be provided, open | ture of the fpeculun: is to be 6 inches ; by which
in A D, and clofed in B C, well blacked within ! means the objcdl wiil be increai'cd in the ratio of
fide, and of a length equal to the diftance of the i to 200 or 300. *

focus ; from the concave fpecidum t F, to the If it be longer or fliorter, the aperture muft be
bottom BC, is to be fitted a concave metallick as the cube of the quadrato-quadrate root of the
fpeculum, a b, polifhed to the greateft perfettion ; ! length, and its magnifying power as its aperture.

be an inch or two

or ratlicr, to have the objedls clearer, and more
diftindt, let it be a glafs fpeculum, concave on its
fore fide, and equally convex on the hind fide ; for
unlefs it be of the fame thicknefs every where, it
will refledt the images of objedls tinged with a fpu-
lious colour ; and indiftindt. Towards the other
end of the tube, is fixed an iron piece, to which is
cemented a plain metallicky^fc7//.w; ; or, which is
better, a triangular prifm of glafs or cryftal, whofe
upper angle is a right angle, the two others half
right. The faces or planes that meet in the upper
angle to be fquare, and the third a parallelogram.
This prifm is to be difpofed as that a ray refledted
from the fpeculum, paffing through the middle of
the face G Al, may cut it at right angles ; but be
inclined to redtangle M N, in an angle of 45''.
Its diftance from the corxave fpeculum K F, is to
be luch, as that the rays a c and b d, refledled from
the concicvc fpeculum, may, afterafecond refledlion,
from the bafe of the prifm, concur in the point e ;
that is, the diftance of the focus e, from the re-
fledting furface of the prifm, and the diftance of
that from the concave fpeculum, is 10 be equal to
the diftance of the focus from the concave fpeculum.
In 1 is placed a plano-convex lens, whofe focus is
in e, that the refiedied rays may enter the eye pa-
rallel. Laftly, this lens is covered with a thin
brafs or leaden plate, having a little round peifo-

The fpeculum he orders to
broader than the aperture.

Having ended what regards the dodlrine o( ca-
toptricks, I'll pafs to that of dicptricks ; which is
properly the third branch of cpticxs.

DiOPTRiCKs (formed of o^a, per, through, and
uTpiOf/Mi, I fee) is the dodlrine of refracted viiion,
called alfo anaclajticks : Its oliice being to confidcr'
and explain the effedts of light refradted by paffing
through different mediums, as air, water, glais,
^c. and efpecially lenles.

To proceed with fome order on this 'curious
fubjedl, I'll explain firft the lavvs of dioptricks ;
and conclude by the application thereof, in the
conftrucfion of telefcopes, microfcopes, and other'
dioptrical inftruments.

The moft eftential of thofe laws, are thofe of
refraP.ion, v^hich in dioptricks is in the infledtion or
bending of the rays of light, in parting the furfacea
of glalies, lenfes, and other traafparent bodies of
different denhti^s.

•The general laws of refra£iion are as follow : i .
A ray of light in its paffage nut of a rarer, into a
denjer medium, e gr. out of air into glcfs, is re-
fracted towards tin perpendicular, i. c. t.-wards thi ■
axisofrefraciion. ''"

Hence the ref;adted anole is lefs than the anale

420 T'hi Univerfal Hiftory 0/ Arts and Sciences.

angle

of lefrad'tion lefs

of inclination : and the

than that of incidence, .

2. "the ratio of the fine of the angle of inchnntton,
to the line of the refraacd angK is fixed and con-
flant, v'vt: if the'refraaion be out of air into
"glnfs, it is found creatcr than as 114. to 76 ; but
lefs than 1 15 to jb"; that is, nearly as 3 to 2.

Zahnim and Ktrcher have found, that if the an-
gle of inclination be 70°, the refraaed angle will
be 38", 50'; on which principle, Zahmus has
conltruaed a table of refraaions out of air into
glafs, for the feveral degrees of the angle of incli-
nation ; a fpecimen whereof follows :

Angle of

Refraacd

Angle of Re-

Inclination.

Angle.

fraaion.

0° 40' s''

0 19 55'

I 20 6

0 39 54

3 1

2 03

0 59 56

2 40 5

I 19 55

3 10 3

I 39 57

Angle of

Refraacd

Angle of Re-

Inclination.

Angc,

fraaion.

10"

6° 39' 16"

3' ^' 44"

13 II 35

6 48 25

19 29 29

10 30 31

28 9 19

16 50 41

41 51 40

48 8 20

It really is. If the objea be in a rarer, and the
c)e in a dcnfer medium, the object v/ill appear
i<;ls than it is. And in each cafe the a{5parent
magnitude, is to the real one, in a ratio compounded
of the diftance of the point, to which the rays tend
before refraaion, from the refraaing furface, to
the diltancc of the' eye, from the fame, and of the
diitance of the objea, from the eye, to its diftance
from a point to which the rays tend before re-
fraaion.

Hence, i, Iftheobje£t A D, be very remote,
F M will be phyfically equal to G iVl ; and there-
fore the real magnitude M B, to its apparent one
M H ; or the diitance of the eye from the refraa-
ing plane, to the diftance of the point of conver-
gence from the fame plane.

Hence, 2. Ohjcas under water, to an eye in^ihi
air, appear larger than they are ; and to fifties under
ivater, objeas in the air appear lefs than they are.

And amongft the laws of refraaion in fpherical
furface s, both concave and convex. A ray of light
DE (Fig. 19,) parallel to the axis of a denfer
fphere ; after a fingle refraaion in E, falls in witll
the axis in the point/, beyond the center C.

For the femi-diameter C E drawn to the point
of refraaion E, is perpendicular to the furface, and
is therefore the axis of refraaion : and therefore
the ray D E will converge to the a.xis of the fphere
A F; and will, ther-efore, at length concur with it ;
and that beyond the center C, in F, becaufe the
angle of refraaion F E H, is lefs than the angle of
inclination. C E H..

2. If a ray H E (Fig. 23.) falls parallel to the
axis F A, out of a rarer, on the (urface of a fpheri-
cally concave denfer medium, the refraaed ray
E N will be driven from the point of the axis F ;
fo as F E will be toF C, in the ratio of the fine of
the angle of inclination, to the fine of the refraacd
angle.

And 3. If the ray PIE {Fig. 22,) fal! parallel
to the angle A F, from a denfer, upon the furface
of a fphericallv concave rarer medium ; the re-
fraaed ray will concur with the axis A F, in the
point F ; fo as the diftance of the point of con-

3. l^hen a ray paffes out of a denfer into a rarer
medium, e. gr. out of glafs into air, it is refraaed
from the perpendicular, or from the axis of refraaion.

4. A line falling on a curve furface, luhetber
concave or convex, is refraaed after the fame man-
ner, as it fell on a plane, which is a tangoit to the
curve in the point of incidence.

5. //"a right line cuts a refraaing furface at right
aiigLs, and if from any point in the denfer medium,
be draiun a parallel to the incident ray, this will
meet the refraaed ray, at the lef extreme of the pa- _
rallel- and will be to it as the fine of the refraacd ^coMik from the center, may be to the refraaed

angle, to the fine of the angle of inclination

Hence if B C, Fig. 25. pafs out of glafs into
air, it is in a fubfequialterate ratio to C D ; if out
of air into glafs, into a fefquialterate ratio to C D.

Hence alfo, if light pafs out of water into air ;
C B is in a fubfefquitertian • ratio to C D ; if out
of air into water in a fefquiteitian.

Amongft the lams of refraaion in plane furfaces,
it is noted, that if the eye be placed in a rarer me-
dium, an objea feen in a denfer medium, by a ray
refraaed in a plane furface, will appear larger than

ray in the ratio of the fine of the refraaed angle, to
the fine of the angle of inclination.

From this examen of the laws of refra-Sion in
diopt ricks, in general; I'll pafs to a more particular
one, of thofe laws with refpea to lenfcs, telefcopes,
microjcopes, prifms, &c. beginning by the defini-
tion oi lens, &c.

Lens, in dioptricks, properly fignifies a fmal],
oblong glafs, of the f.gure of a lentil; but is ex-
tended to any optick glafs, not very thick, which

either

o p r I c K s.

Either collecfls the rays of light into a point, in
tilcir paflage through it, or difperfes them further
apart, according to the laws of rcfradlion.

Lefifes have various figures; that is, are termi-
nated by various furfaces, from which they acquire
various names. Some are plain on one fide, and
convex on the other ; others coiivcx on both
fides ; both which are ordinarily called convex
hnfes ; though when we fpeak accurately, the for-
mer are called plano-concave. Others again, are
concave on both fides ; others are concave on one
fide, and convex on the other ; which are called
convexo-concave, or concavo-convex lenfes, according
as the one or other furface is more curve, or a por-
tion of a lefs fphere.

It is to be here obfervcd, that in every lens ter-
minated in any of the afore- mentioned manners, a
right line perpendicular to the two furfaces, is
called the axis of the lens. Which axis, when
both furfaces are fphericai, pafles through both
their centers ; but if one of them be plane, it falls
perpendicularly upon that, and goes through the
center of the other.

Lenjes are diftinguifhed, with regard to their
manner of preparation, into ^;i37/«^, and bloiun.

Blown lenfes are little globules of glafs, melted in
the flame of a lamp or taper. The fecret is now
found of making thefe exquifitely fmall, fo as fome
of them do not exceed in diameter, the fixth part
of a line, which are found to magnify objedts feve-
ral millions of times.

Note, alfo. That as to the manner of grinding
lenfes, I have explained it in my treatife oi glafs -
grinding, under the letter G.

Amongft the laws of refraSiion, with regard to
lenjes, thofe of convex-lens, and the effeils depend-
ing thereon, it is obferved that, — i. A ray of light
near the axis and parallel thereto, [table opticks.
Fig. 25,) ftriking on the plain furface of a ^/(7?;c;-
convex lens, direiStly oppofite to the luminous body,
after refrailion concurs with the axis in the point
F, and if C be the center of the convexity, C F
will be to F L, that is, from the diftance of the cen-
ter from tliepoint of concourfe, or focus, will be to
the diftance of the center in the convex furface, in
the ratio of the refraflion.

For the plain furface being direftly oppofed to
the luminous body, the ray £ G is perpendicular
to A B, and therefore will pafs unrefr.i<5ted to H :
thus it flrikes on A H B, flill parallel to the axis ;
and therefore coming out of a dcnfer medium into
a rarer, will meet with the axis of the lens in b ;
and fo as that C F will be to F L, in the ratio of
the fine of the refracted angle, to the fine of the
angle of inclination.

If the refraction be out of a glafs lens into
Vol. II. 45..

421

air, C F : EL:: 3:2, and therefore F L = 2
C L, that is, parallel rays, near the axis, will con-
cur with It at the diftance of the diameter. — Again,
if the refraftion wereout of a water lens, i.e. out
of a plano-convex lens filled with water, C F : E L
: : 4 : 3, and therefore F L :=: 3 C L, /'. e. paral-
lel rays nearer the axis, will concur wii.'i it at the
di/lance of half the diameter. So that if a lighted
candle be placed in the focus of a plano-convex lens,
that is, in the pointy, diftant from the furface of
the lens A L B, by tiie length of the diameter ; and
from the furface of the water lens, by half the dia-
meter, its rays, after refraction, wdl become pa-
rallel.

2. If the ray KL (Fig. 24.) near the axis of a
plano-convex lens, and parallel thereto, (hikes on its
convex furface A O ilH, after a double refradlion,
it will meet the axis in F ; ib as that H G will be
to G C, and G F to F H, in the r.itio of the re-
fraflion.

For the ray K. I, parallel to the axis E G, by
virtue of the firft refraftion in I, will tend to the
point G, fo as G H will be to G C in the ratio of
the fine of the angle of inclination, to tiie fine of
the refrafled angles : therefore by virtue of the fe-
cond refraction in L, it will concur with the axis
inF ; fo as G D will be to F D, in the ratio of the
fine of the refradted angle, to the fine of the angle
of inclination.

3. If a luminous body be placed in a focus be-
hind a lens, whether plano-convex, or convex on
both fides, or, whether equally or unequally, the
rays after refraction become parallel.

4. The images of objects^ oppofed in any man-
ner to a convex lens, are exhibited invert^dly in
its focus.

5. If a concave mirrotir be fo placed, as that an
inverted im^ge, formed by refraction through a
lens, be found between the center and the locus,
or even beyond the center, it will a;;ain be invert-
ed by refljiSion, and fo appear ereCl in the firlt cafe
beyond the center ; and in the latter, between the
center and the focus. On thefe principles is built
the camera olfcvra.

Camera ohfcura, is a machine or apparatus, re-
prefenting an artificial eye ; whereon the images of
external objects, reccive<) throui^h a double con-
vex glafs, are exhiijited diflindth, ar.J in their na-
tive colours, on a whitj matter pbced within the
machine, in ihefjcus of the Ola's.

6. The diameter of the imacc of an object de- '
lineated beyond ,\ convex Kns, is to the object it-
felf in the ratio of the diflance of the image to that
of the obje£l.

7. If the eye be placed in the focus c^ a convex
Icnr, £n objeiS viewed through it appcirs erect,

I i i ar.d

its focal length. For a double convex ; expofe each
fide to the fun in like manner ; and obferve both the
d ft.inces from the w.ill. The firft diftance is about
h.df the radius of the convexity turned from the
fun ; and thefecond, about half the radius of the
other convexity. Thus we have the radii of two
convexities ; whence the focus is found by this
rule : as the fum of the radii of both convexities,
is to the radius of either convexity, fo is the double
radius of the other convexity, to the diftance of the
j focus.

422 T}je Univerfal Hiftory of Arts c^d' Sciences.

and enlarged in the ratio of the diftance of the ob- I till the bright image is at its fmalleft ; the glafg is
jedt from the eye, to that of the eye from the lens, 1 then diftant from the wall about the fourth part ©f
if it be near; but infinitely, if remote. 1

The laws oi cor.cave lens are as follows, i. If
parallel rays ftrike on a plano-concave lens K L,
Fig. 7. and F C be to F B in the ratio of refrac-
tion, the rays will diverge from the axi=, and the
point of divergency, or difperfion, called the virtual
focus, will be F.

For the ray H I, parallel to the axis, is perpen-
dicular to K L, and will therefore pafs unrcfraftcd
to E. Wherefore F C being to F B in the ratio of
refraftion, F will be the virtual focus.

If then, the lens be glafs, F B =z 2 B C, i. e.
the virtual focus F will be diftant from the lens K
L, by the fpace of the diameter 2 B C.

If the refradtion be in water, F" B = 3 B C, /. e.
the virtual focus ¥, will be diftant from the lens
K L, a diameter and a half 3 B C.

2. If the ray A E, parallel 10 the axis F P, ftrike
on a lens concave on both fides ; and both F C be
to F B, and I P to P H, in the ratio of refracti-
on ; and F P : P H : : F B : B G ; G will be the
point of difperfion, or the virtual focus. Fig. ^.

If therefore the refradion be in a glafs len«, the
fums of the femi diameters C B and H I, will be
to the diameter of the concavity of either 2 H I,
as the femi-diameter of the other C B, to the dif-
tance of the virtual focus, from the lens B G.

Fccus is, in Opticks, a point wherein feveral rays
concur, and arc colleiled ; either after having un-
dergone refraiStion or refleflion. In dioptricks, fo-
cus is the point wherein refradled rays, render'd
convergent by refraflion, do concur or meet, and
crofs the axis. The fame point is alfo called the
■point of concourfe, or concurrence. And in caioptricks,
focus, is a point wherein the rays rcfleded from the

furface of a mirrour or fpeculum, and by refledlion

render'd convergent, do concur, or meet.

The rules for finding ihefoci of glafTes, are thefe :

to find the focus of a convex fpherical glafj, being

of a fmall fphere, apply it to the end of a fcale of

inches, and decimal partf, and expofe it before the

fun; upon the fcale you will have the bright in-

terfedlion of the rays meafured out ; or expofe it in

the hole of a dark chamber j and where a white

paper receives the diftindl reprefentation of dif-

tinft objefts, there is the focus of the glafs. For a

glafs of a pretty long focus, obferve fome diftant

objeft thro' it, and receJe from the glafs, till the

eye perceives all in confufion, or the objeiH: begins

to appear inverted ; here the eye is in the focus.

For a plano-convex glafs, make it reflect the fun

againft the wall, you will on the wall perceive two

forts of light ; one more bright within, another

more obfcure ; withdraw the glafs from ihe wall,

A Telescope is an optical inftrument, confift-
ing of feveral glalTes, or lens, fitted into a tube,
thro' which remote objects are feen, as if nigh at
hand.

In tckfcopes^ the lens or glafs turned towards the
objecf, is called the ohjeii-glafs ; and that next the
eye, the eye-glafs ; and if the tekfcope confifts of
more than two lenfes, all but that next the objedf,
are called eye-glajfes.

Telefcopes are of feveral kinds diftinguifhed by
the number and form of their lenfes or glafles ; and
denominated from their particular ufes ; fuch as
the terreftrial or land telefcope ; the celejlial or ajlrt-
nomical tchjcope ; to which may be added, the Gali-
lean or Dutch telefcope, the rejlecling tekfcope, and
the arial telefcope.

The Galilean or Dutch telefcope, is a telefcope,
confifting of a convex objeif -glafs, and a concave
eye-glafs.

For the conftruftion of a Dutch telefcope ; in a
tube prepared for the purpofe, at one end is fitted
a convex obje£i lens, either a plain convex, or con-
vex on both fides, but a fegment of a very large
fphere: at the other end is fitted an eye-glafs, con-
cave on both fides, and the fegment of a iefs fphere ;
fo difpofed, as to be the diftance of the virtual fo-
cus, before the image of the convex lens.

In an inftrument thus framed, all people, tx-
cept myopes, or tho{e fort fghted, mu ft fee objects
diftinftly in an erect fituation, and increafed in the
ratio of the diftance of the virtual focus of the eye-
glafs to the dftance of the focus of the object-glafs.
But for myopes to fee objects diftinctly through
fuch an inftrument, the eye-glafs muft be fet near-
er the object-glafs. The reafon of thefe effects will
appear from what follows : For,

I . Since it is far diftant objects that are to be view-
ed with a telefcope, the rays proceeding from the fame
point of the object, will fall en the object-glafs pa-
rallel, and conftquently by their refraction through
the convexity, will be thrown converging on the
eye-gbfs: but by their refraction through the conca-
vity

0 p r I c K s.

vity hereof, they will be again rendered parallel,
and in fuch difpofition will enter the eye— But all,
excepting myopes, fee objects diftinctly by parallel
rays.

2. Suppofe A (Fig. 30.) to be the focus of the
object-glafs ; and fuppofe A C, the fartheft rays
on the right hand of the object that pafl'es through
the tube: after refraction it will become parallel to
the axis B I, and confequently after a fecond re-
fraction through the concave lens, will diverge from
the virtual focus. Wherefore fince all the rays com-
ing from the fame extreme, to t'je eye placed be-
hind the concave lens, are parallel to L E ; and
thofe from the middle of the object parallel to F G ;
the middle point of the object will be feen in the
axis G A ; and the right extreme, on the right fide,
viz. in the line LN, a parallel thereto ; that is,
the object will be erect : which is the fecond point.

3. Since all right-lines, parallel to L N, cut the
axis under the fame angle, the femi-diameterof the
object will be feen through the tdcfcope^ under the
angle A F N, orEFI: the rays L E, andGl,
entring the eye in the fame manner, as if the pu-
pil was placed in F. If now the naked eye were
in A, it would fee the femi-diameter of the object
under the angle f A ^ or CA B. But fmce theob-
je£l: is fuppofed very remote, the diflance A F, in
refpect hereto is nothing, and therefore the naked
eye, even in F, would fee the femi-diameter of
the object under an angle equal to A.

The femi-diameter of the object therefore, feen
with the naked eye, is to that feen through the tc-
hfcope, as I M to IE. But it is demonftrated, that
IM:IE::IF:RB; that is, the femi-diameter
feen with the naked eye, is to that viewed through
the telefcope, in the ratio of the diilance of the vir-
tual focus of the eye-glafs F I, to the diflance of
the focus of the object-glafs A B ; which was the
third paint,

Laftly, myopes have their retina too far from the
cryftalline humour ; and diverging rays concur at a
greater diitance than parallel ones ; and thofe that
were parallel become diverging, by bringing the
eye glafs nearer the object-glafs; by means of fuch
approach, myopes will i'ee objects diftinctly through
a telefcope ; which is the fourth point.

An ajlronomical Telescope, is a telefcope con
fifting of an object-glafs and an eye-glafs, b,ith con-
vex. It has its name from its being wholly ufed in
aftronomical obfervations.

For the conftruction of an aflronomical telefcope.
The tube being prepared, an obiert-glafs, either
plano-convex, or convex on both fides, but to be
a fegment of a large fphere, is fitted in at one end ;
at the other end, an eye-glafs, convex on both

423

Mcs, which is the fegment of a fm all fphere, is
fitted at the common diftance of the foci.

The theory of this telefcope is as follows. An
eye placed near the focus of the eye glafs, will fee
objects diftinctly, but inverted ;ind magnified in the
ratio of the diftance of the focu j of the eye-glafs,
to the diftance of the focus of tiie objeci-glafi.

For, I. Since it is very remcte objects are view-
ed through telefcopes, the rays Lorn one point of the
object fall parallel on the object-glafs ; and confe-
quently after refraciion, will me in a point behind
the glafs, which point is the focus of tiie eye-glafs.
From this point they begin to diverge, and fall di-
verging on the eye glafs, where, hi'v.g refracted,
they enter the eye parallel.

Hence, as all but myopes, fee diftinctly by pa-
rallel rays, a /f/i?/(v;^. ihus difpofed, will exliiL.'.;c-
mote objects diftincti}-.

Suppol'e the c mmon focus of the lens's in F,
Fig. 32. and make AB z= BF. S.nce one of the
lays A C, proceeding from the right fide of the
object, pafies through A ; ti.e ray CE will be pa-
rallel to the axis A I, and therefore after refraction
in the eye-glafs, will fall in wi;h it in its focus G.
Since then, the eye is placed near it, and all the
other rays proceeding from the fame point of the
object with E G, are refracted parallel thereto j the
point in the right fide of the object, will be feen in
the right line E G.

After the like m.anner it appears, that the mid-
dle point of the object is feen in the axis G B, fo
that the object appears inverted.

3. From what has been already flievvn, it ap-
peals, that the femi-diameter of the obje£l will be
feen thro' the tehfccpe, under the angle EG T,
which to the nake eye placed in A, is feen under
the angle b A c, Suppofe now I F equal to the dif-
tance of the focus IG ; fince the light angles at I
are equal, E G F = E F I. Therefore, drawing
P'M, parallel to AC, we fhall have IFM —
B A C. — The femi-diameter, therefore, viewed
witli the naked eye, is to that viewed through the
tflefcepe, as I M to I E ; draw K E parallel to FM
we fliall have I M : I E: : I F : I K ; but by reafoi^
of that parallelifm of the lens, C E = B I = B F
-}-FI=:AB-fFI; and by reafon of the pr,rcl-
lelifm of the right lilies C A and E K, C 1'^ =r.
A K, therefore BI = A K, coi.fequently A i^^ =
I K. And therefore I M : I E : : I F : A B ; that
is, the femi-diameter feen with the n.5ked eye, is to
the femi diameter viewed through the telcfcopr, in
the ratio of the diftance of the focus of the eye-lens
I F, to the diftance of the focus of the objeft glafs
AB.

Z(7f?^ Telescope, ox day telefcope, isatektepe

confifting of more than two lenfes, commonly of a

I'll % convex

424 ^-^^ Univcrfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

Convex obje<5l-glafs, and three convex eye-glaflVs ;
or, a •f/^cs/);' that exhibits objeifts ereft, yet different
from that of Galileo. — It has its name from being
ufcd to view objidls in the day time, on or about
the earth.

To conftruft a land ox dayteUfcope. — A tube be-
ing provided, fit in an objecl glafs, which is either
convex on both fides, or plano-convex, and a feg-
ment of a large fphcre : to this add three eye glaflls,
all convex on both fides, and fegments of equal
fpheres, difpofing them in fuch manner, as that
the diftancc of any two may be the aggregate of the
diftances of their foci.

Then will an eye applied to the laft lens, at the
diftance of its focus, fee objefts very diftin£lly, and
magnified in the ratio of the diftance of the focus of
one eye-glaff, to the diftance of the focus of the
ohjedl glafs.

The optical principles whereon telefcopes. are
founded, are contained in Euclid. From this I'll
pafs to the mia ofcope..

A Microscope, is a dioptrical infl:rument, by
means whereof very minute objedts are reprefented
exceedingly hrge, and viewed very diflincSlly, ac-
cording to the laws of refraiSion.

Micrcfiopes are properly diftinguifhed into f.m-
ple, or fwgle ; and compound or double.

Single microfcopes are thofe which confift of a Tin-
gle lens or a fingle fpherule.

Compound microfcopes confift of feveral lenfes du-
ly combined.

With regard to the foundation and theory o^fm-
gh microfcopes — If an objeft AB [Fig. 34.) be
placed in the focus of a fmall convex lens, or a
Jtrnple microfcope D E, and the e)e be applied clofe
to the other fide of the microfcope, the objeft will
be feendiflinct in an erect fituation, and magnified
in the ratio of the diftance of the focus, to the dif-
tance wherein objects are ta be placed to be feen
diftinctly with the naked eye.

For the object A B, being placed in the focus of
the convex lens D E. the rays ifl'uing from the fe-
veral points thereof after refraction, will be paral-
lel to each other. Confequently the eye will fee it
diftinftly, by virtue of what we have proved in
fpeaking of teLfcopes.

The laws of fiwple microfcropes, are, — i. That
f.mple microfcopes magnify the diameter of the ob-
jeft A B, in the ratio of the diftance of the focus
FC to sn interval of eight digits ; v. gr. ifthefe-
mi- diameter of a lens convex on both fides be half
a digit, AB; IK=i8 = i: 16, that is, the
diameter of the objedl; will be increafed in a fede-
cuple proportion, or as fixteen to one.

2. Since the diftance FH is conftant, viz. eight
digits by how much diftance of the focus F C is,
fmallcr, fo much the fmaller ratio will it have to
FH ; confequently the diameter of the object will.
be fo much the more magnified.

3. Since in the plano-convex lens, the diftance.
of the focus is equal to the diameter ; and in lcnfes>
convex on both fides, to the femi -diameter ; fimple
microfcopes will enlarge the diameter fo much the.
more, as they are fegments of imaller fpjieres.

4. If the diameter of the conv-ex.ities of a plano-
convex lens, and a lens convex o.i both fides, be.
the fame, viz.zz I ; the diftance of the focus of the.
firft will be I, of the fecond f ; confequently the
femi diameter of the object A B, will be to the ap-
parent one in the firft cafe as i to 8, in. the. latter,
as i to 8, i. e. as I to 16. A lens therefore con-,
vex on both fides magnifies twice as much as a.
■plano-convex,

As the whole depends on the juft and fteady.
fituation of objects with regard to the lens, various
methods have been contrived to that end ; whence
we have feveral kinds o{ microfcopes; the moft fim-
ple is as follows.

1. A B {Fig. 34 ) is a little tube, to one of
whofe bafes BC, is fitted a plain glafs, to which
an object, viz. a gnat, wing of an infedt, down, or
the like, is applied: to the other bafe, AD, at a
proper diftance from the obie(5t is applied a lens.
convex on both fides, whofe femi-diameter is about.
half an inch. The plain glafs is turned to the fun,
or the light of a candle, and the object is feen mag-
nified : and if the tube be made to draw out, lenfes
of diftcrent fpheres may be ufed.

Again, a lens convex on both fi.des, is inclofei
in a cell A C {Fig. 35.) and by. a fcrew H, there.
faftened a-crofs j through the pedeftal CD pafles a.
long fcrew", by means whereof, and the female
fcrew I, a ftyle or needle fixed perpendicularly to-
its extreme, is kept firm at any diftance from the
lens. In E is a little tube, on which, and on the
point G, the various objedts are to be difpofed j
there may be lenfes of various fpheres applied.

2. But the microfcope, which is found to anfwer
the end beft is as follows; AB, Fig. 39. is a round
brafb tube, whofe exterior furface is formed into a
fcrew of a length fomewhat. lefs than the diftance
of the focus of a glafs convex on both fides, ufed
here for illuminating the objetSt, and fitted to its
bafe A C, by a ring with a fcrew in it DE.

F G is another brafs tube, fomewhat wider than
the firft, and open each way for an objeift to be
applied to the microfcope. To its upper bafe G;^, is
faftened a fpring of fteel wire, twifted into a fpiral
I, whereby an objeiS placed between two round
I plates.

0 P T I C K S.

425

flatcs, or fliccs, K and L, in the manner hereafter
mentioned, is by means of the fcrew B C brought,
to the microfcopical lens (or magnifying glafs,
whereof there rre 'everal) and kept firm in its place,
to tlic bafis H G, which has a female fcrew M,
arc fitted cells N, with a male fcrew O, wherein
lenfes of various fpheres guarded by fcrrils, are in-
cluded. In P is a female fcrew, by which an ivory
handle PQ_is faflcned to the m'urofcope.

In the ivoiy flice T are round holes, in which
are fitted little circles ol Mufcovy talc for objects,
efpecially fmall and pellucid ones, as little infects,
or the wings, fcales, £?V. of larger to be faflcncd
to.

When live infects are to be viewed, they a;e
covered with the brafs flice Y, which is put in a
little li:juare brafs bed, perforated with a holeX; and
the fame flice, whether alone, or enclofed in the
bed, being laid between the round plates K and L,
is brought to the lens by means of the fcrew A B,
till the object may be dirtinctly viewed.

If other pellucid oblong objects are to be viewed,
as down, cuticle, i^c. inftead of the flice above, is
ufed the inflrument, mentioned above for viewing
wings of flies j whofe ftructure is manifeft by in-
fpection.

There are other inftruments in the apparatus of
the micro/cope, as little tongs, ^S'c. for taking up_
fmall objects, a glafs tube for viewing the circula-
tion of the blood in fifties, i^c. which need no
defcription.

What has been faid hitherto, is to be underftood
of lenticular mkrojcopes ; for fpherical ones, their
doctrine will be underftood from what follows.

In an object AB [Fii;. 40.) be placed in the fo
cus of a glafs fpherule F, and the eye be behind it,
V. gr. in the focus G, the object v/ill be feen diftinct
in an erect fituation, and magnified, as to its dia-
meter, in a ratio of | of the diameter E 1, to the
diftance at' which objects are to be placed, to be
feen dittinctly with the naked eye.

As to water mkrofcopes.-^M.. S. Gray, and after
hm JVclJius, and others, have contrived Wi?/^r w/-
crofcopes ; confiiUng of fpherules or lenfes of water
inltead of glafs, fitted up fomewhat after the manner
above-mentioned.

As to the theory of compound, or double tnifcro-

Jcofcs. Su pofe an object glafs E D, Fig. 43.

the fegment of a very fmall fphere, and the object
A B placed without the focus F.

Suppofe an eye-glafs G H, convex on both
fides, ai d the fegment of a fphere greater (though
not too great then that of DE, and let it be fo dif-
pofed behind the object, as that if C E : C L : : C L
: (J K, t'iC focus of tr,:- eye-glafs may be in K.
Laftly, fuppofe L K : L M : ; L M : L I.

If then O be the place wherefn an object is Cecn
diftinct with the naked eye ; the eye in this cafe be-
ing placed in I, will fee the object A B in an in-
verted fituation, and magnified in a compound ratio
ofMK to LK and LC to C'Oj as is proved
from the laws of dioptricks.

The moft commodious double microfcope is of the
contrivance of Mr. Marjhal, an EngUjhman. In
this the eye-glafTes are placed in the tube at A and
B [Fig. 4y) and the objed-glafs at C, the little
pillar D E is turned by means of a ball E, movable
in the focket F; and thus the microfcope is accom-
modated to any fituation. The fame pillar is divided
into as many parts, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, ^c. as there arc
lenles of different fpheres to be ufed in viewing dif-
ferent objefts ; fo that the diflance of the obje6l
from the object-glafs may be found without any
trouble. But as it is fcarce exactly enough deter-
mined ■ this way, the tube may be brought nearer
the object at difc'retion, by means of the fcrew
GH.

The objects are either laid on the circle I, or
fitted to proper inftruments, having their points or
fliles pafTing through the little tube L M.

Laftly, to illuminate the objed, a lens convex
on both fides, is difpofed in a convenient fituation.

There are refleding microfcopes, which magnify
by rsJieSilon, as the above-mentioned ones do by
refraftion. The ftru£lure of fuch a microfcope may
be conceived thus ; near the focus of a common
fpeculum ABC [Fig. 48.) place a minute object C,
that its image may be formed larger than itfelf in D.
To the fpeculum join a lens convex on both fides
E F, fo as the image D may be in its focus. The
eye will here fee the image inverted, but diftir.it and
enlarged ; confequcntly the objeiSt will be larger
if viewed through the lens alone. Sir Ifaac Newton
invented this microfcope.

The next thing, which occur, zr^fpeilacles.

Spectacles are an optick machine, confiftlng
of two lenfes fet in horn or other matter, and ap-
plied on the nofe, to affift in defeat of the organ of
fight.

Old people, and all prefbyts, ufe fpeSlacles of
convex lenfes, to make amends for the flatnefs
of the eye.

Short-fighted people, or myopes, ufe concave
lenfes, to keep the rays from converging lb ii\\kj
through the great roundnefs of the eye, as to make
them meet ere they reach the retina.

Sp'eft'aclcs were certainly unknown to the an-
tients ; yet are they not of fo late a date as the
telefcbpe. Francijco Ridi, in a very learned trea-
t\k on fpe Hades, ■w\\\ have them to have been in-
vented in the 13th century, between the years

1280,

426

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^W Sciences.

laSo, and 131 1 ; and adds, that Alexander Def-
pina, a monk of the order of predicants of St.
Catherine, at P'fa, firft communicated the fccret,
which was of his own invention ; upon learning
that another perfon had it as well as himfelf. The
hiftory is wrote in the chronicles of that convent.

Du Conge, however, carries the invention of
fpeilacles farther back ; afluring us, that there is a
Greek poem in manufcript, in the king of France's
library, which fhews, that fpeilacles were in ufe in
the year 1150.

From this I'll pafi to the defcription of a prifm,
in dioptricks ; and to the explication of the phae-
nomena thereof.

Prism, in dioptricks, is a glafs in form of a tri-
angular prifm, much ufed in experiments about
ihe nature of light and colours.

Prifm, in Geometry, whence this borrows its
name, is an oblong folid or body, contained under
more than four planes, and whofe bafes are equal,
parallel, and equally fituated.

The phaenomena and ufe of the prifm, arife
from its Separating the rays of light in theiir paflage
thro' it.

The more general of thefe phaenomena are as
follow :

1. The fun's rays tranfmitted thro' a prifm to
an oppofite wall, projc(ft an image like the rain-
bow, of various vivid colours ; tlie chief whereof
are red, yellow green, blue, and violet.

The reafon is, that the various colour'd rays,
which were before mixed and blended together,
are now, in virtue of their different refrangibilities,
feparated by refradlion, in paffing thro' xht prifm,
and thrown each colour by itfelf.

For the blue rays, v. gr. reprefented by the
<!otted lines, Fig. 50. beginning to be feparated
from the reft in the fide ca, of the prifm a b c, by
the firft refraifiion in dd, are again feparated fur-
ther in the other fice of the prifm b c,hy a. fecond
refra£lion, the fame way m ee; whereas in a plain
glafs, or even in s. prifm in a different pofition, the
blue rays feparated by the firft refraftion, areagain
mixed by the fecond refradlion, at the other fur-
face, which is made a contrary way.

2. The image thus proje(Sled, is not round ;
but when the angle of the prifm is 60 or 65 dcg.
about five times as long as broad.

3. Thofe rays which exhibit the yellow colour,
fwerve more from the redlllinear courfe, than thofe
which exhibit the red ; and the green more than
the yellow; and theviolet moftofall.

4. If the prifm, through which the rays are
tranfmitted, be turned about its axis ; fo as the
red, yellow, green, i2'(, rays, be received in order

on another prifm about 12 feet diftant from the
former, through a little hole, and thence proje(5ted
funher, the yellow, red, i^c. rays, though they
fall in the fame manner, on the fecond prijin, yet
will not be projefted on the fame place as the red,
but will be defletSed further that way towards
which the refraction is.

And if, in lieu of the fecond prifm, they be re-
ceived on a lens a little convex ; the yellow, green,
iSc. rays, v\ill be coilecSled each in its order, into
a nearer focus than the red ones. The reafon of
which tv/o laft phenomena is, that the yellow ra)'S
are relradted more than the red ones ; the green
ones more than the yellow ones, and the violet
ones moft of all.

5. The colours of colour'd rays well feparated,
can neither be deftroyed, nor in any manner alter'd
by repeated refraftions through a number of /)y7/;/zr,
nor by pafling through an illumined fpace, nor by
their mutual decufl'ations, nor by the neighbour-
hood of the fhade, nor by being reflecled from any
natural bodies.

6. All coloured rays colle<5led together in any
manner, either by feveral prifms, or a convex lens,
or concave fpeculum, form whitenefs ; but being
again feparated after deculTation, each exhibits its
proper colour.

7. If the fun's rays fall very obliquely on the
inner fuperficies of a pr//5n, the rays refledled will
be violet ; thofe tranfmitted, red.

8. If there be two prifns, the one full of a red
liquor, the other of a blue one j the two joined to-
gether will be opake ; though, if both be filled
either with a blue or a red liquor, they will toge-
ther be tranfparent : for the one tranfmitting none
but blue, the other none but red rays, the two to-
gether will tranfmit none at all.

g. All natural bodies, efpecially white ones,
viewed through a prifm held to the eye, feem
fringed or hammed on one fide, with red and yel-
low, on the other with blue and violet.

10. li twfo prifms be fo placed, that the red of
the one, and the purple of the other, meet on a
paper encompafled with darknefs, the image will be
pale ; but viewed through a third prifm, held to
the eye at a due diftance, will appear double, red,
and purpJe.

And if two kinds of powder, the one perfedlly
red, the other blue, be mixed, a little body being
covered thicfe with the mixture, v/iU exhibit a
double image, the oiie red, the other blue, through
a prifm applied to the eye.

11. If the rays tranfmitted through a convex
lens be received on a paper before they meet in the
focus, the Confine of light and fhadow will leeni
tinged with a red colour ; if beyond the focus,
with a blue, la. If

P A 1 N TING.

427

12. If the rays about to be tranfmitted through
one part of the pupil, be intercepted by theoppo-j
fitioa of feme opake body near the eye, the ex- 1
tremcs of bodies laying beyond it, will Ibem tinged'
witli colours, as is fecn through a prijm, though
Icfs vivid.

Euclid has wrote on the antient optkks, and ca-
toptricks : dioptricks were unknown to them. F,
Honorat. Fabri has an abridgment of cpticks, ca-
toptrkksi and dioptricks : Father Efchinard has
given a century of problems in -cpticks ; Vitellio and
Alhaxen., have performed well on the elements of
Bpticks. Father Kircber has a large volume on the '

fecrets of opticks, of light and fhaJow, and their
furprizing effeds, which pafs on the people for
magick. We have alfo L'optique and catropiriqut
of father Merfcnne, Paris 1 651. Dioptrique Ocu-
laire of father Cherubin, Paris 1671. fol. Chrijiop.
Cbeiveri Optica, London 1658. 'Jacohi Gregorii
Opticcs. Barrovii LeilionesOpticcr, Lond'^n 1663.
Jch. Bapt. Porta, De refratlione Opticcs, London
1669. Principes generaks de l'optique, by M.
Leibneitz, in the Leipfuk a£ls, 1642. VOcchicdt
a I'occhia, or dioptrica pra£lica, Carol. Anton. Ma~
nime, Bologna 1660, 4/5. Sir Ifaac Newton's op-
ticas, Latin and Englijh i^to. and S^fl. &c.

PAINTING.

PAINTING is the art of reprefenting on a
flat fuperficies, by the du£t of draught, and
the degrees of colours, all forts of vifible
objefts.

This definition contains three things, viz. the
draught, the colours, and the compojition ; and tho'
this laftpart does not appear exprefled in a very clear
manner in my definition, it can, notwithftanding,
be undcrftood by thefe lafl words, viftble objefts,
■which contains the matter of the fubje£ls, which
the painter propofes to reprefent.

The compofition contains two things, u/z. the
invention and the difpofition. By the invention, a
painter muft find and introduce into his fubjeft, the
objefts which he judges mofl proper to exprefs and
adorn it. And by the difpofition, he muft; place
them in a manner, the moll advantageous to draw
a grand effedl from them, and to pleafe the eye, in
fhewing beautiful parts.

For the draught. — A painter mufi do it correftly,
with a good tafl:e, well diverfified, fometimes he
roick, and fometimes rural, according to the cha-
racter of the figures he wants to introduce.

The attitudes are to be natural, expreifive, varied
in their adlions, and contrafted in their mensbers :
they ought to be Ample or noble, animated or mo-
derated according to the fubjedt of the pitSure, and
the difcretion of the painter.

Attitude, in Painting, is the pofiure or gefture
of a figure, or the difpofition of irs parts, by which
we diicover the aftion it is engaged in, and tne
very fcntiment fuppofed to be in the mind of the
perfon rcprefented.

T he e.xprcfficns muft: be jufi: to the fubje6t ; the
principal figures having noble and Aiblime ones ;
and keeping a medium between the exaggerated
and infipid.

Exprejpon, in Painting, denotes a natural and

lively reprefentation of the fubjeiEl, or of the feveral
objefts intended to be (hewn. The term exprijjion
is ordinarily confounded with that oi pajjlon ; but
they differ in this, that exprejjion is a general term,
implying a reprefentation of an objeft, agreeable to
its nature, and charafter, and the ufe, or ofHce it
is to have in the work ; whereas pajfton, in Paint- .
ing, denotes a motion of the body, accompanied
with certain difpofitions, or airs of the face, which.
mark an agitation in the foul ; fo that every pajfion
is an exprejjion, but not every exprejpon a pajfion.

The extremities, I mean the head, feet, and
hands, muft be worked with more precifion and
exadlnefs than all the reft, and muft concur toge-
ther, to render the action of the figures more ex-
preffive.

The draperies muft be well order'd, the folds or
plaits thereof large, in fmall number, as much as
poffible, and well contrafted ; the ftufFs thick or
light, Wr. according to the quality and convenien-
cy of the figures.

Drapery, in Painting, is the reprefentation of
the garments, or cloathing of human figures.

Animals muft be principally charaiSterized by an.
ingenious and fpecial touch.

A landjhip ought not to be cut by too many ob-
jefts ; they fhouJd be few, but well chofen ; and
in cafe a great quantity of objeiSts be introduced in
it, they muft be ingenioufly_g-roi'/>(?^v/ith lightsand
(hadows ; the fight well bound and free ; the trees
different in form, colour, and touch, as much as
prudence, and the variety of nature require it :
that touch fhould be always light ; the fore-parts of
the landfkip rich, either by the objeifts, or by a
greater exa6tnefs of work, which render the things
true and palpable : the fky is to be light, and no
object on the ground ought to dilpute with its
aethereal charader, except fmooth waters, and po-
liced.

428

Th& Univerfal Hiftory*?/' Arts ^«^ Sciences.

liflied bodies, which are fufceptible of all colours
oppofed to them ; ofceleftial, as well as terreftrial
ones : the clouds muft be well chofen, well touch-
ed, and well placed.

Group, in Painting, is an aflemblage or knot of
two or more figures of men, beads, fruits, or the
like, which have fome apparent relation to each
other. In a good painting, it is neceffary that all
the figures be divided into two or three groups, or
feparate colle(Slions. Such and fuch a thing make
z group, with fuch and fuch other of different na-
ture and kind. The antique Laomedon is a fine
group of three beautiful figures.

The pcrfpeilive muft be regular, and not of fini-
plc praiSiice, very little exaft.

In the colaris, which includes two things, the
local colour, and the clair-obfcure.

The local colour is nothing clfe but that, which
is natural to each objedl, in what place foever it be
found.

The dair ohfcure is the art of diftributing advan-
tageoufly the lights and fliadows, as well on the
particular objefts, and in the whole of the pidure:
on the particular objcfts, to give them a convenient
relievo and roundnefs : and in the whole of the
pl(Sure, that the objeifts may be iztn m it with
pleafure ; by giving occafion to the fight to refl:
itfelf from fpace to fpace, by an ingenious diftribu-
tion of grand clalrs, and large Ihadows, which
afford one another mutual fuccours,by their oppo-
fitions ; fo that the great clairs are refts for the
great ftiadows ; as the great Ihadows will be refts
for the great clairs.

In the defcriptim of colours there muft be an ac-
cord, which may produce the fame efFeft for the
eyes, as mufick does for the ears.

If there be feveral groups of clair-obfcure in a
piiSture, one of them mufl be more fenfible than
the reft, fo that there may be unity of object, as
in the compofition there is unity of fubjedt.

As to the pencil, it muft be bold, and light, if
poffible ; but whether it appears fmooth, like that
of Cumgio, or uneven and roug,h, like that of Rem-
irant, it fhould be always foft.

As to licences ; if one is forced to take any, they
muft be imperceptible, judicious, advantageous,
and authorifed ; the. three firft are for the art of the
painter, and the laltregards hiftory.

The invention, which is an eflential part of the
art confifts only in finding the ob ects which muft
enter the picture, according to the imagination of the
painter, talfe or true, fabulous or hiltoiical.

As to the compofition — Some have
the firlt part of Painting.v^'ah the genius, others
with a fertility of thoughts ; and others with the
difpofition of objects ; but all thofc

fcrent from one another. I thought that to give a
clear idea of the firft part of Painting, I fhould call
ix. compofition, and divide it into two, viz. invention
and difpofitian. The invention finds only the objects
oi the painting ; and the difpofition places them.

The invention is formed by reading in the fiib-
jccts extracted from hiftory or the fable. It is a
pure eff"ect of the imagination in metaphorical fub-
jetls ; it contributes to the fidelity of the hiftory,
as to the clearnefs of the allegories ; and in what
manner foever it is ufcd, it muft never keep tlie
mind of the fpectator in fufpenfe by any obfcurity.

As to the defign, which I confider as the fecond
part of />o/'«//«^.

The qualities or conditions required in a defign
are corrcclnefs, good tafte, elegance, character, di-
verfity, expreflion, and perfpe£tive,

CorreiStnefs depends principally on the juftnefs
of the proportions, and a knowledge of anatomy.
Tafte is an idea or manner of defigning, which
arifes either from the complexion and natural dif-
pofition, or from education, one's mafter, ftudies,
i^c. Elegance gives the figures a kind of delicacy,
which fiiikes people o£ judgment, and a certain
agreeablenefs which pleafes every body. The
charafter is what is peculiar to eaeh thing ; ia
which there muft be a diverfity ; in as much as
every thing has its particular charafter to diftin-
guifn it. The expreflion is, as already obferved,
the reprefcntation of an objedl accoi-ding to its
charafter, and the feveral circumftances it is fup-
pofed to be in. The perfpective is the xeprefenta-
tion of the parts of a painting or figure, according
to the fituation they are in with refpeft to the point
of fight.

The principal rules that regard the defign are ;
that novices accuftom themfelves to copy good
originals at firft fight ; not to ufe fquares in draw-
ing i for fear offtinting and confining their judg-
ment ; to ftay till they can defign well after the
life, before they begin the practice of perfpeiftive
rules ; in defigning after the life, to learn to adjuft
the bignefs of their figures to the vifual angle, and
the diitance of the eye ftom the model or object ;
to mark it at all the parts of tkeir defign, before
they begin to fhadow ; to make their contours in
great pieces, without taking notice of the little
mufcles, and other breaks ; to make themfelves
mafters of the rules of perlpciStive ; to obferve
every itroke as to its perpendicular, parallel, and
diftance ; and particularly fo to compare, and op-
pofe the parts that meet upon, and traverfe the per-
confounded ' pendicular, as to form a kind of fquarein the mindj
which is the great, and aJmoft ihe only rule of de-

things are dif-

figning ju.Hy , to have a regard not only to the
model, but alfoto the part already defigncd j there

being

VAIN TING.

429

being no fuch a thing as defigning with flricl
jtiftnefs, but by comparing and proportioning every
part to the firft, isfc.

As to attitudes. In them the pondcration

and contraft are founded in nature. It performs
no a(3ion without fhewing thofe two parts ; and
was it to fail in it, it would be cither deprived of
motion, or conftrained in its aiSlion.

Au to cxprcjjiom. — They are the touch-done of
the judgment of the painter : he fhews by the jufl-
ncfs wlierewith he diftributes them, his penetration
and diftcrnment.

As to the extremities, viz. the head, feet, and
hands, muftbe more finifhed than any other things.
As to draperies. — It is faid in Paititing, to throw
a drapery, ox give a drapery, inftead of cloathing a
figure. Draperies are not to be fet in form, as our
cloathsare; but the plaits muft be found as by
chance round the members, that they may make
them appear fuch as they are ; and by an induftri-
ous artifice, contraft them in fhewing them, and
carefs them, as it were, by their tender fuiuofitics,
and foftnefs.

As to the landjklp. As this kind of painting

contains an abridgement of all the others, the pain-
ter who pradifes it, muft have an univcrfal know-
ledge of the parts of his art, if not in fo great a
detail as thofe who commonly paint hiftory, at leaf!:
fpeculativcly, and in general. And if he does not
finifli all the objects in particular, which compofe
his piece, or accompany his landfkip, he is obliged
at leaft, to exprefs in a lively manner, the tafte and
charaiSter thereof; and to give the much more Ipi-
rit to his works, that it is lefs finifiied.

Let a landfkip be ever fo well finifhed, if the
comparifon of the objeiSs does not render them va-
luable, and preferve their characters, if the_/7/« be
not well chofen, or are not fupplied by a fine in-
telligence of the clair-ohfcure, if the touches be not
judicious, if the places be not animated by figures,
animals, or other objedls, which arc moft com-
monlv in motion, and if the truth and variety of
nature bo not joined to the good tafte of the colour,
and to the extraordinary fenfations, the painting
will never gain a reputation among connoifTeurs.

As to the perfpcSiive. — Some authors have ima-
gined that perfpeftive and painting were the fame
thing, becaufe there was no painting without pcr-
fpedtive. Tho' the propofition is falfc, abfolutoly
fpcaking, fince the body, which cannot be with-
out fhadow, is not, iiotvvithftanding, the fame
thing with the fhadow ; but however it is true, in
that fenfc, that a painter cannot do without pcr-
fpeftivc, and that he does not draw alike, nor g.ve
a ftroke of his pencil, without perfpcclive having
fome part in it, at leaft habituallv.
Vol. II. 46.

The colouring, in its general fcnfc, takes in
whatever relates to the nature and union of colours;
their agreement, or antipathy ; how to ule them
to advantage in light and fliadow, (b as to (liew a
relievo in the figures, and a finking of the ground »
what relates to the aerial perfpedtivc, /. e. the di-
minution of colours by means of the interpofition of
air ; the various accidents and circumftances of the
luminary and the medium ; the different lights,
both of the bodies illuminating and illuminated ;
their reflections, fliadows, different views, with
regard either to the pofition of the eye, or fhe ob-
jcdf ; what produces ftrength, boldnefs, fwcctnel's,
(Jc. in paintings well coloured ; the various man-
ners of colouring both in figures, landlkip.s, i5fc.

As to the pencil. — Here the word pencil fignifics
only the manner of ufing it in the application of
colours ; and when thofe fame colours have not
been too much agitated, and as it is faid too much
tormented by the motion of a heavy hand, but, on
the contrary, the motion appears free, quick and
light, it is (aid that the work is of a good pencil.
But that free pencil is of but little fignification, un-
lefs it be guided by the head, and fhew that the
painter is mafter of his art. In a word, a fine
pencil is to painting what mufick is to a fine voice;
fince both are efteemed in proportion of the grand
effect, and harmony which accompany them.

The next thing our pupil painter is topro\ide
himfelf with, is all forts of colours, the principal
thereof are red, and zvhlte lead, or ceri/fs, yelhio
okers, feveral kinds of earth, as umhcr, ^c. be-
fides orpiment, black lead, cinnabar, gumbooch, lake^
bice, verditer, indigo, vermlllion, verdlgreafe, ivory
black, lampblack, J'malt, ultramarine, Prujjian blue,
and carmine.

Cernfs makes a beautiful white colour, and is
much ufed both in oil and water colours. The bcft
ccrufs is that of Venice ; but this is rare, that chief-
ly ufed is either Englijlj or Dutch, both of which
have more marl in them than white lead ; the lat-
ter however is the better of the two, — Orpiment
muft be chofen of a golden yellow hue, eafy to
fcale, and the fcalcs very thin, fmall and Aiming
like gold. — The umber or iimbre, is a dry dufky
coloured earth, which diluted with water, f.rves
to make a dark brown colour, ufually called with
us a hair -colour. It is called umber fir>m umbra,
fliadow ; as fcrving chiefly for the fliadowing of
objects; or rather from Umbria, a province of
Italy, whence it is ufed to be brought. The beft
oker is that of Berry in France. — Vnditer is ufecj
for a blue, but motl ufually is mixed with yellow

for a green colour. The vermillien is a bright

beautiful red colour. We have twa kinds of it
K k k from

430

T'he Univerfal Hiftory of Arts a)id Sciences.

from vegetables ; and whi h will not bear the fire :
as the yellow made of fafFron, of French berries,
tS'f. Laccor, and other tindures extracted trotn
flowers. 'J"he reft are 7n'nu:ral, drawn from metals,
(Jc. and arc to bear ihe fire.

from Holltind; the one of a deep red, the other
pale : but it is of the fame matter at bottom, the
difference of colour only proceeding from the cin ■
rr'.-ar's being more or lefs ground ; when fme
ground the vermillion Is pale, and this is preferred
to the coarfcr and redder. — The verdigrcafc, to be
good, muft be very dry, of a deep green, and pretty
clear of white fpots. — The tiltramarine is a beauti-
ful blue colour, prepared from lapis lazuli. This
blue is one of the richeft and moft valuable colours
uled in pciiriting. — The preparation confifls in firft
c.ilcining tiie lapis in an iron pot or crucible, then
grinding it very fine on a porphyry flone, then mix-
ing it up with a parte made of wax, pitch, maftick,
turpentine, and oil ; and at lafl wafh'ng the paffe
well in clear water, to fcparate the colouring part
from the refl, which precipitates to the bottom in
form of a fubtile, beautiful blue powder. The wa-
ter is then poured off, and the powder at bottom
dried in the fun ; which is the true ultramarine.
Thofe who prepare this colour have ufually four
kinds, which ihey procure by fo many different
lotions : the firft is ftill the belt, and the reft worfe
and worfe to the laft. Ultramarine muft be chofen
of a high coluur, and well ground, which is known
by putting it between the teeth, where, if it feels
gritty, it is a fign the triture is not fufficicnr. To
know whether it be pure or unmixed, put a little
of it in a crucible, and heating it red-hot, if the
powder has not changed its colour after this trial,
it is certainly pure : on the contrary, if you per-
ceive any change, or any black fpecks in it, it is
falfified. Befidts this, there is another called com-
mon or Dutch ultramarine ; which is only lapis or
fmclt well ground and pulverized, the colour where-
of when ufed by the painters is much like that of
true ultramarine, though much lefs valued. This

is alfo called Pnijian blue. Carmine is a bright

red orcrimfon colour, bordering fomewhaton pur-
ple, ufed by painters in miniature, and fometimcs
by pa'nfers in oil, though rarely, by rcafon of its
excefhve price. To be good, it muft be almoit an
impalpable powder. 1 hofe that fell it mix it with
a fmall quantity of red lead, in proportion to the
quantity of carmine, to make it weigh heavy, which
is a very great piece of knavery.

Painters reduce all thefe colours above-mention-
ed, and the other they ufe under two clafles, vi%.
dark and V'^l^t colours. Under light colours are com-
prehended white, and all thofe which approach
iieareft it. — And unAer dark colours, black, and all
thofe which are obfcure and earthy, as umber,
biftre, fcrV,

Si?iiple and tnincral colours, is another divifion a-
mong them. Under ftmple colours they range all
thofe ufed by limners, illuminers, ^V. extraifled

Our n xt care is to find a porphytj, to grind and
mix colours and pencils, brujljts, &c. to apply them,
I here are pencils of various kinds, and mote of
various matters ; the moft ufeful arc made of bad-
gers and fquirrels hair, thofe of fvvans down, and
thofe of boars briftles ; which lalf arc bound on to
a ftick, bigger or lefs, according to the ufes they
are deftined for ; and whcniarge are called briijhes.
The others aie incloftd in the barrel of a quill.

HcfiJes pencils, we muft have 2. pallet, which is a
little oval table, or piece of wood or ivory, very
thin and fmooth ; on and round which the painters
place the fevcral colours they have occafion for,
ready for the pencil. 1 he middle ferves to mix
the colours on, and to make the teints required in
the work. It has no handle, but in li;u thereof,
a hole at one end, to put the thumb through to
hold it.

Colours are prepared in three different m.anners,
either with fize, whites of egg:, ^c. or with wa-
ter, or with oil.

The working of coloirs v.'ith fize or white of
e^gs, is faid done in dijlemper, which was the
ufual manner of mixing colours, before the beauti-
ful fecrct was found of mixing them with oil. "

Colours diluted W'ith water, are called water-
colours ; which is done by melting a proper quan-
tity of gnm-arabick, in water, and diluting the

colours in that water. Colours thus prepared are

moft comiT.only ufed in painting in miniature, and
limning.

Oil-colours are ground on the porphyry or mar-
ble, by means of a moler or miiller, In this pre-
paration, care muft be taken, that they be ground
fine ; that in putting them on the pallet, thofe
which will notdry of themfelvcs, be mixed with oil,
or other dryers; and that the tinged colours be
mixed in as fmall quantities as poffible.

Our cJcws thus prepared, I'll return to painting,
which, with regard to the materials, the matter
whereon they are applied, and the manner of apply-
ing them., is of various kinds, hence came p. lut-
ing in frefco ; painting in oil ; painting in water-
colours, or limning ; painting in miniature ; paint-
ing in enamel ; and painting on glafs.

Frefco is a kind of painting performed on a frefh
plaifter, or on a wall laid with mortar, not yet dry,
and with water-colours.

The colours ufed, are white made of lime flaked
long-ago, and white marble duft i oker, both red

PAINTING.

and yellov/ ; violet red ; vcrditcr ; lapis lazidi ;
(malt ; black earth, ^c. all which arc only wioiind
and worked up with water; and moft of them
grow brighter and brighter, as tlin frefco dries.

This fort of fainting is chiefly performed on
walls and i^aults, newly plaiitcr'd with lime and
fand : but the plaifter is only to be laid in propor-
tion as the painting goes on . no more beinn-to be
done at once than the painter can difpatch in a
day, while it is dry.

Before he begins to paint, a cartoon or cefign
is ufually made on paper, to be calked and trans-
ferred to the wall, about half an hour after the
plaiiler is applied.

Painting in oil i performed en walls, on wood,
canvas, ftones, and ail lorts of meta's.

To paint on a wall. — When well dry, you mufl
give it two or three wafhcs with boiling oil, till
the plaiftcr remains qujtc greafy and will imbibe
no more. Over this aj;fe applied deficcative ordry-
ing colours, viz. white chalk, red oker, or other
chalks beaten pretty (tiff This layer being well
dryed, you 11 fkctch and defign your fubject; and
at laft pair.t it over ; mixing a little varnini with
your coiourg, to fave the varnifliing aftcrv/ards.

Others to fortify their wall better againft moi(-
ture, cover it with a plailter of lime, marble duft,
or a cement made of beaten ti'es foaked with linfecd-
oil; and at la i prepare a compofiiion o( Greek
pitch, maftich, and thick varnifh, boiled together,
which they apply hot over the former plaifler ;
when dry, the colours are applied as before.

To paint on wood. — They ufually give their
ground a layer of white, temper'd with fize ; or
they apply the oil above-mentioned. The reft as
in /i^/«//«^on walls,

To paint on clotJ] or canvas. — The canvas being
firetched on a frame, you muft give it a layer of
fize, or pafte-water. When dry you fhall go over
with a pumice- ftone, to fmooth off the knots.

When the cloth is dry, a lay of oker mufi; be
laid on, fometimes mixing with it a little white
lead to make it dry the fooner. When dry you'll
go again over it with the pumice ftone, to make
It fmooth.

After this, a fecond layer, compofed of white
lead, and a little charcoal black is fometimes ad
dcd, to render the ground of an a(h-colour ; ob-
serving in each manner to lay on as little colour
as poflible.

As little oil is to be ufed as poflible, if it be
defired to have the colours keep frefli : for this
reafon, fome mix them with oil of afpick, which
evaporates immediately, yet ferves to make them
manageable with the pencil.

As to oils, the belt are thofe of walnuts, linfeed.

43 I

afpick, and turpentine. The deficcative or dryiiit;
oils, arc a nut oil boiled with litharge, and laiida-
rach; others with fpirit of wine, maltic, and gum-
lacca.

The next operation is t.o draw the defign on
the canvas ; and afterwards to prime the work,
which is done by laying a lay of white all over it,
except on the lines of the draught, which mull be ■
kept vifible. Then if the picture be a hiftory-
piece, or a portrait, the painter begins by the face
or faces ; which together with all the other naked
parts to be pronounced in the picture, are called
carnafions. The carnatiom arc made with white
and carmine ; and brown, blue, and yellow for the
fhadows ; according to the complexion the painter
defigns to give to the figure or figures he is to re-
prefcnt.

The application of colours, in ^<7/--ji/»^, is con-
fider'd either with regard to the kinds o<! paintings
in works of various colours, or in thofe of one
fingle colour.

Firft, in the larger pieces, the colours are rather
laid on full, fo as they may be impaflcd or incor-
porated together, which make them hold the more
firmly-

Or elfe the more agreeable ones, v^hich dry too
hard and too hafHly, are mixed with a little colour,
and the cleareft of the oil. But in both cafes, the
colours are to be laid on ftrong at firft ; it beino-
eafy to weaken thofe which are to be thruft back,
and to heighten the others : the touches to be bold,
by the condudt of a free and fteady pencil ; that
the v/ork may appear the moll: hnifhed at a proper
diftance, and the figures animated with life and
fpirit.

YoT glazed colours., care muft be taken, that the
under-colour be painted ftrong, and that it be «
body colour, and laid fmooth.

In finiflied works, which are to be viewed near
at hand, the procefs is either by applying each co-
lour in its place ; preferving their purity, without
fretting or tormenting them, but fweetly foftenin''-
off their extremities ; or by filling up all the great
parts with one fingle colour; and laying-the other
colours which are to form the little things, upos
it. Which is the more expeditious way, but more
apt to decay.

For the fecond ; the kinds of pi£l;ures in one
colour are two- viz. Cainieiix, where the dco-radrt-
tions of colours of objects afar off, are ufually ma-
naged by lights, or with crayons, and bafs relievo,
which is an imitation of fculpture, of whatfoever
matter and colour ; in both thefe the colours arc
wrought dry.

For the cecorcmy, and difpenfmg of colours in

paintings, regard is either had,' firft, to the qualities

K k k 2 of

7hc Univcrfal Hiflory of Arts ^.W Sciences.

432

of fhc colours, to appropriate them accoriiing to
their value and agrecnieiit : or, fecondly, to their
tft'edl, In the union and economy of the work.

tor the //iialiiTc's, it mull be obfeivcd, that white
repreients hght, and gives the brifknefs and height-
ening , bbck, on the contrary, like darknefs, ob-
Icures and effiices the objciSls : again, black lets oft'
the light parts, and by that they ferve each other to
loolen the objefls. A proper choice to be made of
colours; and the too much charged manner to be
avoided ; both in carnations, where red colours
are not to be afFe(^lcd, or rather refembling the
flelh when flcaJ than the (kin ; and all bright
glowing colours ; the Ikin, how delicate foever,
being alwaj's of a bloom colour. In the drapery,
where the painter has his whole ftock of colours to
chufe out of to procure a good effect ; and in the
landfkip, to difpofe thofe colours near one another,
which mutually affift and raife each other's force
and brifknefs; as red and green, yellow and blue.

To manage them fo, as that they may be ac-
commodated to the efftcts of the great parts of light
and colours ; that the flrong colours lead to the
foft ones, and make them mo.e look'd at, bringing
them forwards, or keeping them back, according
to the fituation and the degree of force required.

For the eff'eils of colours, they either regard the
union, or the oeconomy ; v/ith refpect to the firft,
care muft be taken that they be laid fo as to be
fweetly united, under the brifknefs of fome princi-
pal one ; that they participate of the prevailing
light of ths piece, and that they partake of each
other by the communication of light, and the help
of reflexion.

For the oeconomy in managing their degrees, re-
gard is to be had to the contrail, or the oppofitjon
intervening ia the union of the colours, that by a
fweet interruption the brifknefs which otherwife
fades and palls, may be raifed : to the harmony,
which makes the variety of colours agree, fupply-
ing and fuftain-ing the weaknefs of fome by the
ftrength ot others, neglefting fome places on pur-
pofe to ferve as a bafis or repofe to the fight, and
to inhance thofe which are to prevail through the
piece : to the degradation, where the better to
proportion the colours that fr.ll behind, fome of the
fame kind are to be preferved in their purity, as a
Handard, for thofe carried afar off to be compared
ky, in order to juftify the diminution : ree;ard
being always had to the quality of the air, which,
when leaded with vapours, weakens the colours
more than when clear : to the fituation of the co-
lours,where care muft be taken, that the pureft and
the ftrongeft be placed before, or in the front of
the piece ; and that by their force, the compound
ojicsj which are to appear at a diftance, be kept

back, particularly the glazed colours to be ufed in
the firftrank. Laftly, to the expreflion of the fub-
jcct, and the nature of the matters, or ftufrs, wlie-
thcr (hining or dull, opake or tranfparen;, poiilhed
or rough.

The different colours, wliich you arc to employ
in your picture are to be mi,\ed as follows. For a
violet colour, take indigo, white lead and lake;
mix them all v/ell together; and the more or Icfs
of each quantity will make it deeper or lighter. A
lead colour is made of white and indigo, well mixed
together. A fcarlet of lake, red lead, and a little
vermilion. Though, in fine paintings, I would
prefer carmine, with a very fmall quantity of ultra-
mine, and a (iijl fmaller one of fine cerufs. A light
green of pink ai.d fmalt. A middle and light
giccn, of verdigrcafe and pink ; a deep and fad
green, indigo and pink. A purple colour of Bpa-
nijh brown, indigo and white, well mixed. A
murrey colour of white and lake. A flame colour,
of red lead and maflicot, heightened with white.
But thefe general rules are not to captivate the
imagination of a painter, no more than the follow-
ing ones ; for a good painter, v/ho has a good
natural genius for his art, and takes pleafure in the
prailice thereof, makes often new di.''coveries, to
render his draperies more beautiful ; as for carna-
tions they are always made of the fame mixture of
colours; the whole fecret confifting in thejudi^
cious application thereof.

After a painter has transferred his draught on
his canvas, and has primed \t\ he begging his
piece, firll, by drawing the eyes (having while he
works, bis right hand fupported with a moH-ftick.
or flay, made of heavy wood, not fubjedt to bend,
about a yard long, having at the end, which leans
againfl: the picture, a ball of ravell'd cotton, with
a leather over it, the other end held with the left-
hand) making the white thereof with white lead,
with a little charcoal black. This finifhed, he
reaves from the other eye (in a face full front) the
diflance of an eye, then draws the proportion of
the nofe ; afterwards makes the mouth, ears, {tft.
This done, he lays his carnation or flefli-colour
over the face, cafting in, here and there fome fha-
dows, which he works in by degrees with the
flefh colour : which flefh-colour is commonly,
compounded of white lead, lake, and vermilion or
carmine, this laft being beft. There is no fixed
rule for heightening or deepening this colour ; for
it is left to the difcretion and judgment of the pain-
ter; who mufl: confult in this his ov^n imagina-
tion, with regard to the age, country, i^c. of the
perfon, whofe face he endeavours to reprefent.
Then he fhadows the face over as he fees caufe,
and finilhes the nofe, compaffing the tip of it,
2 wittv

PAINTING,

433

with fomc dark, or light rcddifli fliadow ; which
(haJi)v/s, tor the face, are commonly compounded j
of ivory black, white-lead, vermilion, lake, (eacoal ,
black, i5V. The cheeks and lips are ihadowcd
with vermilion or carmine, and lal<e mixed toge-
ther ; and the mouth ftroke is made with lake
only. As to the circles of the eyes ; for grey eyes
they are made of charcoal black and white lead,
hcighten'd and decpen'd at pleafurc : the black
cirt k of the eye is made of umber, feacoal black,
and a little white mixed together : the round ball
in the eye of lamp-black and verdigreafe, fince the
lamp-black will hardly dry without it. The fame
colours ufed in fainting and (liadowing the face,
are ufed in painting the hands, and fhadowing
them between the fingers. When a painter wants
to make a flefh-colour of a fwarthy completion,
he mixes white-lead, lake, and yellow oker toge-
ther, and (hadows it with a mixture of umber and
feacoal black.

For black hairs he ufes lamp-black only, and
when he will have them brighter, mixes it with a
little umber, white and red-lead. For flaxen hairs
he takes umber and white-lead ; putting in more
umber if he wants them browner, and more white-
lead, if whiter ; but if quite dark, he adds a little
feacoal black. Yellow hairs are made of a mixture
of mafticot, umber, yellow oker, and a little red-
lead ; increafiivg the quantity of umber and red-
lead, if they be wanted redtJer. For white hairs
he takes an equal quantity of ivory black, and of
umber, w'z. half of each, and tempers them well
upon his pallet with white lead, taking more or
lefs of thoi'e three colours, according as the hairs
are to beheighten'd or deepen'd.

The teeth are made of white-lead, and (hadowed
with charcoal-black.

As to the different flufFs the figures are to be
cloathed with, it mi:ft be left entirely to the imagi-
nation and judgment «f the painter.

l^he feveral colours ufed in painting, are alfo
called icints, and Jemi-tcints -,_ confidering the co-
lours as more or ICfs high, or bright, or deep, or
thin, or weakened and diminifhed, is't. to give the
proper relievo, or foftnefs, or diftance, i3'c. to the
feveral obje£ts ; and the ieflening and rendering
dim and confuied the appearance of different ob-
ieils in a landfkip, fo as they fhall appear there as
they would do to an eye placed at that diftance
fiom them, is called, in painting, degradation.

As to painting in Water-Colours, called
limning, m fontradiflincfion ~of /)a/?;?/«^ properly
fo called, which is done in oil colours, the ufual
colours are proper enough, excepting the white,
made of lime, which is only ufed in frefco. But

the azure, or ultramarine, rnufl always be mixed
up with fize, or with gum, in regard the yolks of
eggs give blue colours a greenifli tincSfuic; but
there are always applied two lays of lidt fize, ere
the colours mixed even with fize, are laid on : the
compofition made with eggs, and the juice of the
fig-tree, being only ufed for touching up, and fi-
nifhing, and to prevent the neccflity of having the
fire always at hand to keep the fize hot ; yet it is
certain, that the fize colours hold the bell, and are
accordingly always ufed in cartoons, fs't. — This
fize is made of fhreds of thin leather, or of parch-
ment.

To limn on linen, the bcfl is that which is old,
half worn and clofe. — This is flamped with white
lead, or a fine plaiifer beaten up with fize ; which
once dry, we muft go over it with a layer of the
fame fize.

The colours are all ground in water, each by
itfelf ; and in proportion as they are required in
working, are diluted with their fize-water. — If
the yolks of eggs are defired, they muft be diluted
with water made of equal quantity of common
water and vinegar, with the yolk, white, and IhcU
of an egg, and the end of the little branches of a
fig-tree cut fmall, all well beaten together in ati
earthen pan.

Painting in Miniature is a delicate kind of
painting, confiffing of little points or dots inltead
of lines, ufually done on vellum, with very thin
fimple water-colours.

The colours for jniniature may be mixed up
with water of gum-arabick, or gum tragacanth.

The ~ operation is ufually made on vellum, on
which the dengn is drawn, with carmine, or fome
other colour, which may render the lines difcerna-
b!e. That draught is filled afterwards, with a
very thin and fiiiooth lay of white, though fome
chufe to paint on the naked vejliun without any
lay ; though in my opinion it contributes much
towards incorporating well the colours, that the
dots may not appear fo vifible, and fo coarfe, as
they do without it. When the lay is dry, the
painter fcarches with his pencil all the lines of the
draught, left fome of them fhould be either much
weakened, or entirely obliterated by the lay of
white ; then he begins, as in all other paintings,
by the face, dipping firft the point of his pencil in
water, and rubbing it afterwards, on the colour he
defigns to employ ; when thus rubbed, he makes
the point thereof with the tip of his lips, and then
apply it on the vellum, reneating the fame procefs
every time he wants colours, and having different
pencils for the different colours. He has alfo be-
fore him a fliell with gum-water, in cafe he

wants

^34 '^^^^ Univcrfal Hiftory of Art* and Sciences.

wants to dip his pencil in it, as it often happens.

Painting in mojcuck is an aflembLiji;e of little

pieces of gla£}, marble, fiiells, precious ftones.

woods, or tlic like of various colours cut fquare,
and cemented on a ground of Hucco, imitating the
natural colours and degradations oi painting.

PAPER- MAKING.

PAPER-MAKING is the art cf preparing
certain materials, on which mankind ha\c,
in different ages, contrived to write their [cn-
timents.

Paper, with regard to the wflw^r^r of making it,
and the matcriah employed therein, is reducible to
leveral kinds ; as egyptiau paper, made of the rufh
papyrus; fer/^ paper, made of the inner rind of fe-
veral trees ; cotton paper ; incombujULU paper ; and
European paper, made of linen rags.

Egyptian paper was principally ufed amonj the
antients ; being made of the papyrus., or bibiui, a
fpecies of rufh, which grew on the banks of the
Nile ; in making it into paper, they begr.n v ith
lopping ofF the two extremes of the plant, the
head and the root ; the remaining part, which
was the fkm, they cut lengthwife into two nealy
equal parts, and from each of theic thrv ftripped
the fcaly pellicles of thefe which it coiniUed. I he
innermoft of thefe pellicles were looked on as the
beft, and that nearelt the rind as the worft : they
were therefore kept apart, and made to con'utute
two different forts of paper. As the pellicles were
taken off they extended them on a table, layijig
them over each other tranfverlely, fo as that the
fibres made right angles ; in this ftate they were
glued together by the muddy waters of the Nile ,
or, when thofe were not to be had, with pafte made
of the fine ft wheat flour, mixed with hot water
and a fptinkling of vinegar. The pellicles were

bamhu, which is a tree of the cane or reed-kind.
The Iccond fkm of the bark, which is foft and
white, is ordinarily made ufe of for paper : this is
beat in fair water to a pulp, which they take up jii
large moulds, fo that fome fbeets are above twelve
feet in length : they arc completed, by dipping
them, (heet by fheet in alum-water, which ferves
inftcad of the lize among I's, and not only hinders
the paper from imbibing the ink, but makes it look
as if varnifhed over. This paper is white, fi.ft,
and ilofe, without the leaft roughnefs : tho' it
cracks more eafily than European paper, is very
fubj^'ct to be eaten by the worms, and its thinncfs
makes it liable to be foon worn out.

Cotton-pater \s a (ort of paper, which has been
in ufe upwards of fix hundred years. In the French
king's library are rtianufcripts on this paper,
which appear to be of the Xth century ; and from
the Xflth century, cotton manufcripts are more
frequent than parchment ones. Lotton-paper is
ffill made in the Eajl-Indies, by beating cotton-
rags to a pulp.

Linen, or European paper appears to have been
firft introduced among us towards the beginning of
the XlVth century ; but by v> hom this valuable
commodity was invented^ is not known.

The method of making paper cf linen or hempen
rao-s, is as follows : the linen rags being carried to
the mill, are firil forted ; then wafhed very clean
in puncheons, whofe fides are grated with ftrong
wires, and the bottoms bored full of holes. After

UIIU d lUlilllVHiJ^ \Jl ViUS-^ai. X liV- IJ\_111V_»\- J Vlf*-i^ VVIiLJ, C^IJU m^ L/V^kLV^lll.J \J\Jl\,\A full \Jl H\Jl^^, A&ILVL

next prcffed, to get out the water, then dried, I this they are fermented, by laying them in heaps.

and laftly, flatted and fmoothed by beating them
with a mallet. This was the Egyptian paper, which
was fomctimes f.irther poliilied, by rubbmg it with
a glafsball, or the like.

Bark-paper was only the inner whitifli rind,
inclofed between the bark and the wood of feveral
trees, as the maple, plane, beech, and elm, but
efpecially the tilia, or linJen tree, which was that
jnoftly ufed for this purpofe. On this, ftripped
off, flatted, and dried, the antients wrote books.

Chinefe-papey is of various kinds ; fome is made
of the rinds or barks of trees, efpecially the mul-
berry-tree and cim, h\ii- chiefly of the banibu and
' cotton-tree. In fact, almoll each province has its
feveral paper. The preparations of paper made of
"the barks of trees, may be imtanced in that of the

clofe covered with facking, till they fweat and rot;
which is commonly done in four or five days.
When duly fermented, they are twifted into hand-
fuls, cut imall, and thrown into oval mortars,
made of well feafoned oak, about half a yard deep,
with an iron-plate at bottom, an inch tiiick, eight
inches broad, and thirty long : in the middle is a
wafhing-block, grooved with five holes in it, and
a piece of haii-fieve faftened on the infide : this
keeps the hammers from touching it, and prevents
any thing going out except the foul « ater.

Thefe mortars are continually fupplied with
water, by little troughs, from a ciftern, fed by
buckets fixed to the feveral floats of a great wlieel,
which raifes the wooden hammers, for pounding
the rags in the mortars.

When

PAPER-MAKING.

When the rags are beaten to a certain degree,
called the firil: ituiFj the pulp is removeil into boxes,
made like corn-chandlers bins, with the bottom
board adant, and a little reparation on the front,
for the water to, drain away.

The pulp of the rags being in, they take away
as many of the front-boards as are needful, and
prefs the mafs down hard with their hands ; the
next day they put on another board, and add more
pulp, till the box is fuR : and here it remains mel •
lowing a week, more or lefs, according to the
weather.

After this, the fluff' is again put into clean mor-
tars, and is beaten a-frefti, and removed into box-
es, as before ; in which ftate it is called thefecond
fluff.

The mafs is beat a third time, till feme of it
being mixed with fair water, and brewed to and
fro, appears like flour and water, without any
lumps in it : it ij then fit for the pit-mortar, where
it is perfeiSlly diilblved, and is then carried to the
vat, to be formed into fheets of paper.

But lately, inftead of pounding the rags to a
pulp with laige hammers, as above, they make
ufeof an engine, which performs the work in much
lefs time. This engine confifts of a round folid
piece of wood, into which are fa'.lened fcveral long
pieces of fleel, ground very fharp. This is placed
in a larse trough with the rags, and a fufiicient
quantity of water. At the bottom of the trough
is a plate with fleel bars, ground fharp like the
former ; and the engine being carried round with
prodisious velocity, reduces the rags to a pulp in a
very fhott time.

It mull be obferved, that the motion of the
engine caufes the water in the trough to circulate,
'and by that means conftantly returns the fluff to
the engine. The trough is conftantiy fed with
clean water at one end, while tlic dirty water from
the rags is carried off at the other, thro' a hole,
■defended with wire gratings, in order to hinder the
pulp from going off with the dirty water.

When the iluff is fufiicifntly prepared as above,
it is carried to the vat, and mixed with a proper
quantity of water, which they call priming the
vat. The vat is rightly primed, when the liquor
has fuch a proportion of the pulp, as that the
mould, on being dipped into it, will iufl take up
enough to make a Iheet of paper, of the thicknefs
required.

The mould is a kind of fieve, exadly of the fize |
of the paper to be made, and about an inch deep,
the bottom being formed of fine brafs-wire,
guarded underneath with flicks, to prevent its
baeging down, and to keep it horizontal ; and
further, to ilrcngthen the bottomj there are large

435

wires placed in parallel lines, at equal oiftanccs,
which form thofe lines vifible in all white paper,
when hela up to the light : the mark of the paper
is alfo made in this bottom, by iiiterwcavjjig a
large wire in any particuL-ir form.

This mould the maker dips into the liquor, and
gives it a {hake as he takes it out, to clear the wa-
ter from the pulp. He then Hides it along a
groove to the coucher, who turns out the (hcet
upon a ffelt, laid on a plank, and lays another felt
on it ; and returns the mould to the maker, who
by this time has prepared a fecond fheet, in another
mould : and thus they proceed, laying alternately
j a fheet and a felt, till they have made fix quires of
paper, which is called a pofl ; and this they do
with fuch fvviftneis, that, in many forts of paper,

■ two men make twenty poffs, or more, in a day.
i A pofl: of paper being made, either the maker or

■ coucher whilHes ; oii which four or five men ad-
j vance, one of whom draws it under the prefs, and

the reft prefs it with great force, till all the water
jis fqueezed from \i; after which it is feparated,
fheet by flieet, from the felts, and laid regularly
one flicet upon another ; and having undergone a
fecond preffing, it is hung up to dry.

When fufficiently dried, it is taken off the lines,
rubbed fmooth with the hands, and laid by till
j fized, which is the next operation. For this they
choofe a fine temperate day, and having boiled a
proper quantity of clean parchment or vellum-
ihavingp, in wafer, till it com.es to a fize ; they
prepare a fine cloth, on which they flrew a due
proportion of white vitriol and roch-alum, finely
powdered, and ftrain the fize through it, into a
huge tub; in which they dip as much paper at
once as they can conveniently hold, and with a
quick motion give every fheet itsfliare of the fize,
which mufl be as hot as the hand can v/ell bear if.

After this the paper is prcffed, hung up fiieet by
fiieet to dry; and being taken down, is forted,
and what is only fit for outfide quires, laid by
themfelves : it is then told into quires which are
folded and preffed. The broken fheets are com-
monly put together, and two of the worft quires
are placed on the outfide of every ream or bunJle ;
and being tied up in wrappers, made of the fettlino-
of the vat, it is fit for fale.

Paper is of various kinds, and ufed for various

purpofes : with regard to colour, it is principally

j diftinguifhed into ichite. Hue, and byoum ; and

with regard to itsdimenfions, into a/A^j, depkant,

imperial, ftiper royal, royal, tnedlum, demy, crc-Mn,

\ fool's cap, and pet-paper.

As Englifli paper is, in general, as good as any
we receive from abroad, a very high duty is laid on
the importation of all foreign paper, which is more

43^ Tloe Univerfal Fliflory of Arts ai^d Sciences.

oriels, according to the fizc, the value, and the
country from whence it is brought ; thus royal at-
las fine, and fine imperial paper, pay i /. 9 j. 8 \ (I-
the ream ; fine Genoa and Dutch royal pay I -js. '6\d.
the ream; Genoa and German crown and fool's cap
paper pay about 2 s. "j d. and Genoa pot pays
2-'. 2 i ^. and for every 20 J. value, according to
the. book of rates, of paper brought from Roehelle,
6i. No drawback is allowed on foreign paper
exported.

As to the incombti/iibh paper, it is made oi lapis
aflejhs, or the linum vlvum, which will bear burn-
iiig without being injured.

The manner of making this extraordinary paper
is defcribed by Mr. Lloyd from an allay made by
himfelf. He pounded a quantity of ajhejl^,s in a
ftonc mortar, till it became of a downy fubftancc ;
then fitted it thro' a fine feirce, and by this means
purged it indifferently well from its terrene parts ;
for what earth cir ftones he could not pick out of
it before, or at the pounding, being reduced to a
powder, came through the feirce, the linum re-
maining. This done, he brought it to the paper-
mill, and putting it in water in a velTel juft big e-
nough to make a Iheet with fuch a quantity, he IHr-
red it pretty much, and defired the workmen to
proceed with it in the ufual method, with their
writing-paper mould ; only to flir it about always
before they put their mould in ; confidering it as' a
fiir more pon lerous fubrtance than what they ufcd,
and that frequently, if not immediately taken up
after it was agitated, it would fubfide.

^The paper made of it proved but coarfe, and too
apt to tear ; but this being the firft trial, there is
rcalbn to believe it might be much improved.

Befidcs our modern paper, made of linen rags, we
write likewife on fkins of flieep or goats, prepared
after a particular mamier, and which we call parch-
ment or velitim.

Parchment is begun by the fklnner, and end-
ed by the parchment-maker.

After the fkin has been ftripped of its wool, and
paffed the lime-pit, the fkinner ftretches it on a
kind of frame, confiding of four pieces of wood,
morticed into each other at the four ansles, and
perforated lengthwifc from diftance to'diftance,
with holes, furnifned with wooden pins, that may
be turned at plcafure like thofe of a violin.

To ftretch the (kin on this frame, they make
little holesr all around it, and through every two
holes draw a little fkewer^ to this fkewer they tie
a piece of fmall pack-thread, and tie that over the
pins ; fo that coming to turn the pins equally, the
ftin is {trained tight every w.»y, like that of a
.tlrum.

The fkin being thus fufficiently ftretchcd on the
frame, the fleih is pared off with a {harp inflrumerrt
for that purpofe. This done, it is moiften'd with
a rag, and a kind of white ftonc or chalk, reduced
to a find dulf, ftrewed over it; |hen with a large
pumice-ftone, flat at bottom, much after the man-
ner of a mullet for grinding colours, they rub over
the (kin, as if about to grind the chalk ; and thus
fcour off the remains off the fle(h. They then go
over it again with the iron inftrument ; again
moiften it as before, and again rub it v/ith the pu-
mice-ftone, without any chalk underneath ; this
fmoothens and foftens the flefli-fide very confidera-
bly. They drain it again, by pa(ring over it the
iron-in(trument as before.

The fiefli-fide thus drained, they pafs the iron
on the wooll or hair-fide; then ftretch it tight on
the frame by means of the pins, and go over the
flefti-fide again with the iron ; this finiflies its drain-
ing, and the more the fKin is drained, the whiter
it ever becomes.

They now throw on more chalk, fweeping it
over with a piece of lamb-fldn, that has the wooll
on ; this fmoothens it ftill farther, and gives it a
white down or nap. It is now left to dry, and
when dried, taken off the frame by cutting it all
round.

The fl<in, thus far prepared by the Jkinner, is
taken out of his hand by the parchment-maker , who
firft fcrapes or pares it dry on the fummer, with an
iron inftrument like that above-mentioned, only
finer and fliarper ; with this, worked with the arm
from top to bottom of the fkin, he takes away a-
bout one half of its thicknefs. The fkin thus
equally pared on both fides, they pafs the pumice-
ftone over both fides to fmooth it. This laft pre-
paration is performed on a kind of form or bench
covered with a fack fluffed with flocks, and leaves
the parchment in a condition for writing on.

The paring the fkin dry on the fummer, is the
moft difEcuIt operation in the procefs of-parchment-
jnaking ; for which rcafon l\\tfkinners feldom med-
dle with it, but ufually leave it to thofe more ex-
perienced in it : the fummer whereon it is perform'd
is a calf-fkin well ftretched on a frame, ferving as
a fupport to the (kin, which is faftened a-top of it
with a wooden inftrument that has a notch cut in
it. Laftly, that the iron knife may pafs the eafier
between the fummer and the (kin to be pared, they
put another fkin which they call the counter- fumr
mcr. The parings thus taken off the leather, are
ufcd in making glue, fize, ^c.

What we call vellum, is only parchment made of
the (kin of abortive calves, or at leaft of fucking
calves, 'tis finer, whiter, and fmoother than the
common parchment, but it is prepared in the fame

manner.

PERSPECTIVE.

manner, as that, abating that it is not paffed thro'
the lime-pit.

The word parchment comes from the Latin fcr-
gamena^ the antient name of this manufadlure ;
which it took from the city Pergamos, to Eumencs,
king whereof, its invention is ufually afcribcd.
Though in reality that prince appears rather to have

437

been the improver than the inventer of parchment-
For the Pcrfians of old, according to Diodorus,
wrote all their records on skins j and the antient
lonians, as we are told by Herodotus, made ufe of
fhecp-skins and goat-skin^ in writing many ages
before Eumenes^i time.

PERSPECTIVE'

PERSPECTIVE is the art of delineating vifi-
ble objects on a plain furface, fuch as they
appear at a given diftance or height, upon a
tranfparent plane, placed perpendicular to the ho-
rizon, between the eye and the obieiS.

There are three forts of perfpe£iivc, viz. linear,
aerial, and Jpecular perjpcclive.

Linear Perspective (to which mofi: properly
belongs our definition, and which is a branch of the
Mathematicks) regards the pofition, magnitude,
form, iSc. of the feveral lines or contours of ob-
jects, and exprefs their diminution.

Aerial Perspective Cwhich makes part of the
art of Painting) regards the colour, luftre, Itrength,
boldnefs, iSc. of diflant objects, confider'd as feen
through a column of air, and exprefles the diminu-
tions thereof

Specular Perspective reprefents the objeiSls in
conical, fpherical, or other mirrours, erect and
clear ; whereas on lawn, and other planes, they
appear confufed and irregular.

Thefe three forts of perfpeitive h^ive each its par-
ticular docStrine ; but before we proceed on the ex-
planation of that doftrine, wc tnuft teach our pupils
what are planes in perfpeiiive ; of which there are
five forts, viz. pcrfpe£iive, geometrical, horizontal,
vertical, and objcSlivt plane.

Perfpeilive plane is a plain pellucid furface, ordi-
narily perpendicular to the horizon, and placed be-
tween the fpe£tator's eye and the objeft he views ;
through which the optick rays, emitted from the fe-
veral points of the objefls, are fuppofed to pafs to
the eye, and in their paflage to leave marks that
rcprefent them on the faid plane.

A geometrical plane is a plane parallel to the
horizon, whereon the objeiSt to be delineated is
fuppofed to be placed : this plane is ufually at
rin-ht angles with the perfpeilive plane. A hori-
zontal plane is a plane pafling through the fpecta-
tor's eye, parallel to the horizon, cutting the per-
fpeiiive plane, when that is perpendicular to the

geometrical one, at right angles. A vertical

plane is a plane pafling through the fpediator's eye.
Vol. II. 46.

perpendicular to the geometrical one ; and ufually

parallel to the perfpeiSive plane. An ohjeftive

plane is any plane fituate in the horizontal plane,
whofe reprefentation is required \n perfpc£iive.

There are likewife feveral different lines in per-
fpeSlive, viz. terrejlrial line, geometrical line, line
of the front, vertici line, vifual line, lire ofjlation,

ohjetiive line, and line of dijiancc.- G.omctrical

line, in perfpcSlive, is a right line drawn in any
manner on the geometrical plane. — A terrejlrial
line, or fundame?ital line, is a right line, wherein
the geometrical plane, and that of the pifture, or
draught, interfedf one another. Such is the line
formed by the interfeflion of the geometrical plane,
and the perfpedtivc plane. — A line of the front, is
any right line, parallel to the terreflrial line. — A
vertical line, is the common feflion of the vertical,
and of the draught. — A vifual line, is the ^ine, or
ray, imagined to pafs from the objedl to the eye.
— An objcifive li}ie,h any /.'«i.' drawn on the geome-
trical plane, whofe reprefentation is fought for in
draughts or pictures. — A line of Jlation, according
to fome writers, is the common fedlion of the geo-
metrical and vertical planes. Others mean by it
the perpendicular height of the eye above the geo-
metrical plane, whofe reprefentation is fought for
in draughts or pictures. — A line of dir.ance, is a
right line drawn from the eye to the principal point:
this, as it is perpendicular to the perpendiculars of
the plane, or table, can only be the dijlance of the

eye from the table The point of dijlance, iii

perfpetlive, is a point in the horizontal line, at fuch
dijlance from the principal point, as is that ot the
eye frora the fame.

There are other points befides this point of
diftance in perfpeSiive, viz. the point of fight y
the third point, the ohje.'^ive point, the acccidental
point, and the vij'ual point ; which term point, is
ufed for various parts, or places, with regard to
the perfpe<flive plane. — The point of fight, or of the
eye, is a point on the plane, marked out by a right
li.ne drawn from the eye, perpendicular to the plane:
this is alfo called t!Cie principal point. This point is
LH in

438

The

Univerfal Hiftory of Akts ^W Sciences.

in the interfciflion of tlie hoiizonta/ and vertical
playus. Some nufhois call it the principal point ;
and give the name point of fight, or vifion, to the
point wherein the eye is aftually placed, and where
■A\ the rays terminate. — 'l~i.c third point, is d. point
taken at dil'cretion in the line of diftance, whtrtin
ail the diagouais diawn fioni the divifions of the

geometrical plane, concur An oLjeiivve point,

is a. point on agtometrical plane, whofe rcprefen-

tation is requiied on the perfpeStive plane An

accidental point, is a point in the horizontal lines,
where lines parallel to one another, though not
perpendicular to the piiSture, or reprefentation,
meet. A vifml point , is a. point in the horizon-
tal line, wherein all the ocular rays unite. Thus
a perfon ftanding in a ftrait long gallery, and
looking forwards, tkc Tide, the floor, and ceiling
feem to meet, and touch one another in a point, or
common centre.

Thefe things previoufly confidered, I'll pafs to
the explanation of the different forts oi perfpc£iive;
beginning by th.tt of the reiiilinear perfpe£iive,
wliich is as follows.

Suppofe aglafs plane H I, {Fig. i.) raifed per-
pendicular on an horizontal plane ; and the fpeita-
tor S, dire(Sfing his eye O, to the triangle ABC :
if now we conceive the rays AO, OB, OC, Wc.
in their pafl'age through the plane, to have their
traces, or vertigia, in a, I, c; which, as it ftrikes
ihe eye aO, i>0, cO, by which the fpecies of the
triangle ABC, is carried to the fame ; it will ex-
hibit the true appearance of the triangle ABC, tho'
the objedt fhould be removed ; the fame diflance
and height of the eye being preferved.

The bufmefs of perfpective then, is to fhew by
what certain rules the points a, b, c, &ic. may be
found geometrically : and hence alfo, we have a
mechanical method of delineating any objedt very
accurately.

PerfpeStive is either employed in reprefenting the
ichnographies, and ground-plots of objetts as pro-
jected on perfpcSfive planes ; or in fcenographies,
and reprefentations of the bodies themfelves.

Ichnography in perfpc£live is the view of any thing
cut off by a plane parallel to the horizon, juft a^
the bafe or bottom of it ; fo that ichnography is the
fame with what is otherwife called the plan, geome-
trical plan, or ground-plot of any thing.

Scenography, in perfpe^ive, is a reprefentation of
a body on diperfpe^ive plane; or a defcription there-
of in all its dimenfions, fuch as it appears to the
eye. 7 he ichnography of a building, ^c. repre-
fents the plan, or ground-work of the building.
The orthography the front, or one of the fides : and
the fcenography the whole building, front, fides,
height and all, raifed on the geometrical plan.

The following lemma's are to be confidered pre-
vioully to the general laws we are to eflablifh, of
both nhnographuk z\\t\ fcenographick perjpc6tive.

1. That the appearance of a right line is ever a
right line ; whence the two extremes being given,
the whole line is given. ■ %. That if a line be
perjiendicular to any right line drawn on a plane, it
will be perpendicular to every other right line thro'

the fame point drawn on the fame plane.- 3.

Tiiat the height of the point appearing on the
plane, is to the height of the eye, as the diftance
of the objective point from the plane, to the aggre-
gate of ihat diftance and the diftance of the eye.

Now for the laws of the projeSiion of plane figures^
or ichnographick perfpeSlive^ which are as follow.

The perfpeSiive appearance, h, by an objedive paint
H, (Fig. 2.) is exhibited, by drawing, from the
given point; H I, perpendicular to the fundamental
line D E ; cutting from that fundamental line I K
= H I : drawing through the point of fight F, a
horizontal line FP; and making FP, equal to
the diftance of the eye S L : Laftly, drawing from
the point I to the point of fight F, the point F I ;
and from K to the point of diftance P, the line
P K. The interfedion h is the appearance of the
objeftive point. Hence,

1. Since the appearance of the extreme points
or a right line being given, the appearance of the
whole line is given ; the ichnographick projeftion
of any reflilinear figure may be had by this method.

2. Since any number of points of a curve lin«
may by this means be projeiSed on the perfpeSiive
plane ; the projection of curve lines may likewife
be effected after the fame manner.

3. Therefore, this method will fuffice for men-
tilinear figures ; and is confequently univerfal.
There are indeed other methods delivered by other
authors, but this is the moft ufual ; the force and
effe^ whereof may be illufttated by the following
examples ; viz.

If we want to find the perfpeifive appearance of
a triangle, ABC (Fig. 4.) whofe bafe A B, is pa-
rallel to the fundamental line D E ; to that funda-
mental line, we'll draw a parallel at an interval
equal to the altitude of the eye. Taking a funda-
mental point V, oppofite to this either direCtly or
obliquely, as the cafe requires ; transferring the
diftance of the eye from U to K, letting fall from
the feveral angles of the triangles A C B, the per-
pendiculars A I, C 2, B 3 ; and fetting off thefe
perpendiculars upon the fundamental line D E, op-
pofits to the point of diftance K, drawing from r,
2, 3, right lines to the fundamental or principal
point U I, U 2, U 3, and from the points A, B
and C of the fundamental line D E, other right
lines A K, B K, C K, to the point of diftance K.
I 2 Since

PERSPECTIVE.

Since a, I and c are the appearances of the points
A B and C ; the right lines c a, a b and h c, being
drawn, act will be the appearance of the triangle
ACB.

After the fame manner is a triangle projeiled on
a plane, where the vertex C is oppofed to the eye:
all here required is, that its fituation on the geome-
trical plane be changed, and the vertex C turned
towards the fundamental line D E.

When we want to exhibit the perfpeSlive appear-
ance of afquare ABD C (Fig. 5.) feen obliquely,
and having one of its fides A B in the fundamental
line. The fquare being viewed obliquely, we af-
fume the principal point U in the horizontal line
KR, in fuch a manner as a perpendicular to the
fundamental line falling without the fide of the
fquare A B, at leaft, may not bifedl it ; making
U K the diftance of the eye. Then we'll transfer
the perpendiculars A C and B D to the fundamen
tal line D E, drawing the rioht lines KB, K D,
as alfo A U, U C. Then will A and B be their
own appearances, and c and d the appearances of
the points C and D ; confequently A c ^ B is the
appearance of the fquare A B D C.

If the fquare A C B D Ihould be at a diftance
from the fundamental line D E ; which yet rarely
happens in praftice ; the diftances of the angles
A and B muft lilcewife be transferred to the fun-
damental line ; as is evident from the preceding
problem. And fince even the oblique view is not
very common ; in what follows we {hall always
fuppofe the figure to be pofited dire£lly oppofite to
the eye, unlefs where the contrary is exprefly men-
tioned.

We exhibit the appearance of a fquare A B C D
[Tig. 6.) whofe diagonal A C, is perpendicular to the
fundamental line ; by continuing the fides D C and
C B, till they meet the fundamental line in r and
2, fetting off from the principal point U, the dif-
tance of the eye to K and L ; drawing from K to
A and i , the right lines K A and K i ; and from
L to A and 2, the right lines LA, L 2. Then
the interfe£tions of thofe lines exhibit the appear-
ance of the fquare ABCD vievi'ed angle wii'e.

InterfeSlion is the cutting of one line or plane by
another ; or the point or line wherein two lines or
two planes cut each other. The mutual interfec-
tion of two planes is a right line. The center ot
a circle is in the interfeflionof two diameters. The
central point of a regular or irregular figure of four
fides, is the point of interfeiflion of the two dia-
gonals.

When we want to exhibit the appearance of a
fquare ABCD (Fig. 7.) wherein another fquare
IMGH, is infcribed, the fide of the greater A B,
bdn^ in the fundamental line ; and the diagonal of

439

the lefs perpendicular to the fundamental : from rhc
principal point U, we mu (t fet off each way, on
the horizontal line HR, the diltanccs UL and
U K, and by drawing UA and UB, and KA and
LB ; Ac(/B will be the appearance of the fcjuare
A C D B. Then by producing the fide of the in-
i'cribed fquare I H, till it meets the fundamental
line in i ; and drawing the right lines K i, and
KM; i h gM. will be the reprefentation of the
infcribed fquare I H G M. Hence is eafily con-
ceived the projedtion of any figures infcribed in
others.

Projeilion in perfpeSiive denotes the appearance
or reprefentation of an object on tl.e per/peSiive
plane. Ti\c projeilion, e. gr. of a point, is a point
through which the 0]}tick ray paffes from the ob-

jedlive point through the plane to the eye ; or it is
the point wherein the plane cuts the optick ray.
And hence is eafity conceived what is meant by the
projeSlion of a line, a plane, or a folid. — The pro-
jeilion of the fphere in piano is a reprefentation of
feveral points or places of the furface of the fphere,
and of the circles defcribcd thereon, or of any af-
figned parts thereof, fuch as they appear to the eye
fituate at any given difbance, upon a tranfparent
plane placed between the eye and the fphere. — The
principal ufe of the projeilion of the fphere is in the
conftruftion of planilpheres, and particularly maps
and charts, which are faid to be of this or that pro-
jeilion, according to the feveral fituations of the eye,
and the perfpcilive plane with regard to the meri-
dians, parallels, and other points and places to be
reprefented — Tho. projeilion of the fphere is ufually
divided into orthographick and ficreogral-hick.

Orthographick projeilion is that wherein the fu-
perficies of the fphere is drawn On a plane, cutting
it in the middle; the eye being placed at an infinite

diftance vertically to one of the hcmlfpheres.

The laws of this fort of {>rojciiion, are thefe : i .
The rays by which the eye at an infinite diftance
perceives any obje£t, are parallel. 2. A right line
perpendicular to the plane of the projection, is pro-
jedled into a point, where that right line cuts the
plane ot the projection. 3. A right line not per-
pendicular, but either parallel or oblique to the
plane o^ ihe projection, is projected into aright line,
and is always comprehended between the extreme
perpendiculars. 4. The /)r5;>rf;a« of the right line
is the greateft, when that line is parallel to the
plane oi xhs projection. 5. Hence it is evident,
that a line parallel to the plane of the projection, is
projeded into a right line equal to itfelf ; but if it
be oblique to the plane of the projection, it is pro-
jedted into one which is lefs. 6. A plane furface,
at right angles to the plane of the projection, is
projedled into that right line, in which it cuts the
L 1 1 2 plane

Tide Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

440

plane of the projection. Hence it is evident, that a
circle (landing at right angles to the plane of the
frojiSiicn which palies thr^-ugh its center, is pro-
jected into that diameter, in which it cuts the plane
of the projeSiion. 7. A circle parallel to the plane
of the proje£lhn, is projefled into a circle equal to
itfelf ; and a circle oblique to the plane of t^e pro-
jeSiion, is projected into an ellipfis.

Stereographick projeiiion, is that wherein the fur-'
face and circles of the fphere are drawn upon the
plane of a great circle, the eye being in the pole of
that circle. As to the propertie; of this fort of pro-
jeSiion. 1. In this projehion aright circle is pro-
je(3ed into a line of half tangents. 2. The repre-
sentation of a right circle pe.^ ^icularly oppofed
to the eye, will be a circle in the plane of the pro-
jSiion. 3. The reprefentation of a circle placed
obliquely to the eye, will be a circle in the plane
of projeiiion. 4. If a great circle is to be projcfted
on the plane of another great circle, its center will
lie in the line of meafures, diftant from the center
of the primitive by the tangent of its elevation
above the plane of the primitive. 5. Ifalefler
circle, whofe poles lie in the plane of the proje£1ion
were to be proje£ted ; the center of its reprefenta-
tion would lie in the line of meafures, diftant from
the center of the primitive, by the fecant of the
lefler circles diilance from its pole, and its femi-
diameter or radius be equal to the tangent of that
-diftance. 6. If a lefler circle were to be projeiSled,
whofe poles lie not in the plane of the projeSiion,
its diameter in the projeSiion, if it falls on each fide
of the pole of the primitive, will be equal to the
fum of the half tangents of its greateft and neareft
diftance from the pole of the primitive, fet each
way from the center of the primitive in the line of
meafures. 7. If the lefler circle to be projefted,
falls entirely on one fide of the pole oi projeSiion,
and do not encompafs it ; then will its diameter be
equal to the difference of the half tangents of its
greateft and niareft diftance from the pole of the
primitive, fet off from the center of the primitive
one, ani the fame way in the line of meafures. 8.
In the Jiereographick projeSiion, the angles made by
the circles of the furface of the fphere, are equal to
the angles made by their reprefentations in the plane
of their projection.

■ To exhibit the perfpective of a pavement, confift-
ing of fquare Jhnes directly. We muft divide the
lide A B [Fig. 8.) transferred to the fundamental
line DE into as many equal parts as there are fquare
Hones in one row, drawing from the feveral points
of divifion, right lines to the principal point U ;
and from A to the point of diftance K, a right line
AK ; and from B to the other point of diftance L,
another LB, Drawing likewife through the points

of the interfeftions of the correfponding lines, right
lines on each fide to be produced to the right lines
A U, and BU ; then will A/^B be the appear-
ance of the pavement A F G B.

For the exhibition of the perfpective. of a circle, —
If the circle be fmall, we'll circumfcribe a circle
about it > draw the diagonals an^ diameters ha and
de {Fig. 9.) interfering each other at right angles;
and the right \'me%fg and be parallel to the diame-
ter ^'^ through ba.nAf; drawing alfo through «
and g right lines meeting the fundamental line DE
in the points 3 and 4, to the principal point V,
well draw the right lines V i, V 3, V 4, V 2;
and to the points of the diftance L and K, the right
lines L 2 and K I. Laftly, connedling the points
of interfedlion a, b, d, f, h, g, e, c, with arches
a b, b d, df, &c. thus will a, b, d, f, h, g, e, c, <7,
be the appearance of the circle.

If the circle be large, on the middle of the fun-
damental AB (Fig. 10.) we'll defcribg a femi-
circle ; and from the feveral points of the periphery,
C, F, G, H, I, iy'c. to the fundamental line, we'll
let fall perpendiculars C i, F 2, G 3, H4, I 5,
iffc. drawing from the points A, i, 2, 3, 4, 5,
isc. right lines, to the principal point V, as alio
a right lii;e from Bj to the point of diftance L ;
and another from A to the point of diftance K,
drawing alfo through the common interfedlions,
right lines as in the preceding problem : thus fliall
we have the points c, f, g, h, i, which are the
reprefentation of thofe A, C, F, G, H, I, which
being connected as before, give the projedlion ot
the circle.

Hence appears not only how any curvilinear
figure may be projected on a plane, but alfo how
any pavement conufting of any kind offtones, may
be delineated mperfpcSiive.

Hence alfo appears what ufe the fquare is of in
perfpective, for even in the fecond we ufe a fquare
divided into certain areola, and circumfcribed about
the circle ; though it be not delineated on the geo-
metrical plane in the diagram.

Diagram is a fcheme for the explanation or de-
monftration of any figure, or the properties thereto
belonging.

If zue want to exhibit the perfpective of a regular
pentagon, having a broad limb terminated by lines

parallel thereto. 1. From the fe^^ral angles of

the exterior pentagon A, B, C, D, E, {Fig. 11.)
to the fundamental line T S, we'll let fall perpen-
diculars Ac, B I, C 2, D 3, E 4 ; which, as in
the former, we'll transfer to the fundamental line.
Conne<£ting the points i, 2, 3^4, to the principal
point V ; and the points r, 2, 3, 4, to the poijit
of diftance K. Thus will the common interfections
reprefcnt the appearance of the exterior pentagon.

i 2. If

PERSPECriFE.

44 r

2. If now from the inner angles GHLI, the
perpendiculars Go,. H 5, K 6, I 7, L8, be in
the like manner let fall ; and the reft be done, as
in the former; wefliall have the reprefeiitation of
the inner pentagon. The pentagon ABC D E,
therefore, with its limb, is reprefented mperfpective.
. As to the doflrine of fcenographick pcrfpecthe, or
the projedlion of bodies on a plane it is as follows.

1. On a given point C (Fig. i 2 ) io raije a per-
fpective altitude, anfwerable to the given objedtive
altitude, P Q_; we mufi: raife on the fundamental
line, a perpendicular PQ, equal to the given ob-
jedlive altitude : drawing right lines PT, and Ql^-
from P and Q_ to any point, as T ; and from the
given point C, a line C K, parallel to the funda-
mental line D E ; and meeting the right line Q^T
in K, where we'll eredt a perpendicular to K C,
viz. I K ; this I K is thz fcencgraphick altitude re-
quired.

2. If we want to exhibit the perfpective of a
folid. We mud find the projedtion of its bafe in
the ichnographick perfpe-ctive, and in the feveral
points thereof erecSl the perfpective altitude : thus
will the fcenography of the folid be finifhed, except
for what relates to the {hadow. For example.

To exhibit the fccnographick perfpective of a cube,

viewed angle-wife. Since the bafe of a cube

viewed angle- wife, and ftanding on a geometrical
plane is a fquare viewed angle-wife; draw a fquare
on the perfpective plane, after the manner laid down
above; rai.'e the fide of the fquare HI {Fig- 15-)
perpendicularly in fome point of the fundamental
line D E ; and to any point V, of the horizontal
lineHR, draw right lines VI, 'and VH, fi-om
the angles db and c, draw c I, d2, parallel to the
fundamental line D E, from the points I and 2,
raife L i and M 2 perpendicular to the fame.
Laftly, fince H I is the altitude to be raifed in a,
L I in f, and b and M 2 in <^; in a raife /"<?, per-
pendicular to oE; and in b and c raife Z"^, and
and c e, perpendicular to b c i ; and laftly d h per-
pendicular to d 2; and let a fhs equal to Hl,bgzz
e c =z L I, and b d, to M 2 ; if then the points
g, h, c, f, be connected by right lines, the Jceno-
graphy wUl be finifhcd.

This method is general, but its application is not
equally obvious in every cafe ; therefore we muft
enter into a more particular illuftration thereof, by
a few other examples, viz.

To exhibit the fcenography of a cube, viewed by
an angle. — i. As the bafis of a cube viewed by
an a; gle, ftanding on a geometrical plane, is a
fquare viewed by an angle; draw a fquare vie.ved
angular- wi'e, on the perjpeBive table, or plane.
2. Raife the fide H I ( Fig. 14.) of the fquare, per-
pendicularly on each point of the terreftrial line

D E ; and to any point as V, of the horizontal
ImeHR, draw the right line V I and VH. 3.
From the angles d, b, and c, draw t- I, d 1, &c.
parallel to the terrcftrial line D E. 4. From the
points X and 2, raife L i, and M 2, perpendicu-
lar to the fame. Laftly, fince HI is the height to
be raifed in a, L I in c and b, and y\.^\n d ; in
a, raife the line/ <7 perpendicular to <j E ; inland
c, raife bg and ce perpendicular to b c i ; and
laftly, raife dh perpendicular to <-/ 2 ; if then the
points^, h, e,f, be connected by right lines, the
jccnography will be compleat.

The fcenography of a hollow quinquangular prifm,
is exhibited thus. i. Since the bafe of a hollow
quinquangular prifm, ftanding on a geometrical
plane, is a pentagon, with a limb or breadth of a
certain dinienfion, the appearance of this pentagon
muft be found on a table or plane. 2. On any
point, as H, of the teneftrlal line D E [Fig. 15.)
a perpendicular HI muft raifed equal to the ob-
jeftive altitude; and to any point, a v oi the ho-
rizontal line H, the lines H V, and I V, are to
be drawn. 3. From the feveral angles a., by d, e^
c, of the /)^r//)fiff/t;(f inchnography, both the inter-
nal and external ones, muft be drawn right lines,
as i 2, d 3, i^c. parallel to the terreftrial line ; and
from the points r, 2, 3, perpendiculars raifed to
the fame, as L i, M 2, « 2, N 3, k 3. If thefe
then be raifed in the correfpondent points of the
ichnoLiraphy, as in the preceding article, xhefceno~
graphy will be compleat.

As to the exhibition of the fcenography of a cylin-
der.— I. Since the bafe of a cylinder, ftanding ona
geometrical-plane, isa circle ; feek the appearance
of a circle. In the points «, b, d,f, g, hy e, c, the
fcenography of the circle wilt be compleat.

It is evident, that thofe lines are to be omitted,
both in the plan and in the elevation, which are
not expofed to the eye ; though they are not to be
difregarded from the beginning, as being neccflTary
for the finding of other lines. As for example, in
theyiYwo^ri?/)/;^ of the cube, viewed angle- wife, the
lines b d, and d c, in the bafe, and ^A in the ele-
vation, are hid from the eye, and are therefore o-
mitttd in the defcription. But fince the upper
point Z) is not to be found, unlefs the point dbe
had in the ichnography ; nor can the lines ^ h and
d e, he drawn without the height d h ; the appea-
rance of the point d is as neceftary to be determin-
ed in the operation, as the height h d.

To exhibit the Jcenography of a pyramid Jlanding
on its bafe. — Suppofe, e, gr. it were required to de-
lineate a quadrangular pyramid, viewed by.an an-
gle. I. Since the bafe of fuch pyramid is a' fquare,
feen by an angle, we muft draw fuch a fquare.
2. To find the vertex of the pyrami'd, /. e. a per-
pendicular

442 The Univerfal Hiflory of Arts and Sciences.

pendicular let fall from the vertex to the bafe, we'll
draw diagonals mutually interfedting each other in
e. 3. On any point, as H, of the terreftrial line
DK, raife the altitude of the pyramid HI ; and
drawing the right lines H V and 1 V, to each point
of the horizontal line H R ; we'll produce the di-
agonal a b, till it meets the line V H in A. Laftly,
from /; we'll draw h i parallel to H I ; this being
raifed on the point e, will give the vertex of the py-
ramid K. ; confecjuently the lines d k, k a, and k
by will be determined at the fame time. After the
like manner is the fcenography of a tone delineated.

If it be the fcenography of a truncated pyramid, it
is exhibited thus. — Suppofc the truncated pyramid
quadrangular: I. Then, if from the feveral an-
gles of the upper bafc be conceived perpendiculars
let fa'l to the lower bafe, we fhallhavca pentagon,
with another infctibed therein, whofe fides are pa-
Tullel to thofe of the former. This coincides with
a pentagon, furnifhed with a rim or breadth, is'c.
and may, therefore, be delineated in the fame man-
ner. Ralfing the altitude of the truncated pyra-
mid I H, determines the fcenog'-aphick altitudes, to
be raifed in the points a, b, c, d, e. If now the
points higher, /, g, h, i, k, be conneiSted by right
lines; and the lines lk,fm, g n,h 0, be drawn, the
fcenography will be compleat. By drawing two
concentricic circles in a geometrical plane, and do-
ing every thing elfe, as in this problem, t\\c fceno-
graphy of a truncated cone will be drawn.

To exhibit the fcenography of walls, columns.
Sic. or to raife them on the pavement- i. Suppofe a
pavement A F H I, reprefented in a plan, together
with the bafes of the columns, iSc. if there be any.
2. Upon the terreftrial line fet off the ihicknefs of
the wall B A and 1,3. 3. Upon A and B, as al-
fo upon 3 and i, raife perpendiculars A D and
B C, as alio 3, 6, and i, 7. 4. Conneft the
points D and h, with the principal point V, by the
right lines D V and b V. 5. Upon F and H raife
perpendiculars H G and E F : thus will all the
walls be delineated.

How to raife the pillars, ^c. there needs no-
thing but from their feveral bafes (whether fquare
or circular) projedled on the perfpecSlive plane, to
raife indefinite perpendiculars ; and on the funda-
mental line, where interfe£ted by the radius FA
pafling through the bafe, raife the true altitude A
D ; for D V being drawn as before, the fcenogra-
phical altitudes will be determined.

To exhibit the fcenography of a door In a building.
— Suppofe a door required to be delineated in a
wall D E FA. I. iJpon the fundamental line fet
ofr' its diftance A N, from the angle A, together
with the breadths of the ports N I and L M, and

draw right lines K N, K I, K L, K M, which
will determine the breadth of the door / ;, and
th€ breadth of the ports in and ml. 3. From
A to O fet off the height of the gate A O, and
from A to P, the height of the ports A P. 4.
Join O and P with the principal point, by thfc
right lines P V and O V. 5. Then from «, /, /,
m, raife perpendiculars, the middle ones whereof
are cut by the line O V in 9, and the extremes,
by the right line V P in p. Thus will thj door be
delineated with its ports. If the door were to have
been exhibited in the wall E F G H, the method
were nearly the fame : For, i. Upon the terreftri-
al line, fet off the diftance of the door from the an-
gle, and thence alfo the breadth of the door R T.
2. From R and T, draw right lines to the princi-
cipal point V, which give the breadth r r in the per-
fpedive plane. 3. From r and / raife indefinite
perpendiculars to FH. 4. From A to O fet off
the true height A O. Laftly, from O, to the prin-
cipal point V, draw the right line O V, interfec-
ting E F in Z, and make r r and 1 1 equal to F Z.
Thus is the door rr, 1 1, drawn ; and the ports
are eafily added as before.

When you know how to reprefent doors, you
will find no difficulty in adding windows ; all that
is here farther required, being to fet ofF the height
of the window from the bottom of the ground. The
whole operation is as follows : i . From 1 to 2 fet
ofF the thicknefs of the wall at the window ; and
from 3 to 4 its diftance from the angle 3 ; and from
4 to 5 Its breadth. 2. From 4 to 5, to the point
of diltancc L, draw the right lines L 5 and L4,
which will give the perfpeftive breadth 10, 9 of
the window. 3. From JO and 9 raife linei per-
pendicular to the pavement, /. e. draw indefinite
parallels to b, 3. 4. From 3 to ri fet oiFthe dif-
j tance of the wmdow from the pavement 3,11;
and from 11 to r2, its height 11 12. Laftly, from
1 1 and 1 2, to the principal point V, draw lines V
II, and V 12; which interfedting the perpendicu-
culars 10, 13, and 9, 14, in 13 and 14, as alfo in
15 and 16, will exhibit the appearance of thewin-
dow.

In exhibiting the perfpeSlive of a building, r.
Take the ichnography or ground-plot of the
building; its length, breadth and depth, by adlual
meafunng, and take its altitude with a quadrant.

2. Make a fcale divided into two or three hun-
dred equal part?, either aftually, or fo as that eacft
divifion fignify ten parts : by this fcale lay down
the ground-plot.

3. This done, having a long rule, and a fquare,
which by Aiding on the rule helps you to draw your
perpendiculars with more facility, reduce it into

the breadth of the gate itfelf L I. 2. To the point \pcrfpe£liviy in its fcenographick appearance,
of diftance K, from the feveral poi nts N, I, L, M, \

Then

PERSPECTIVE.

Then having drawn a line towards the bottom
of the paper for the front or bafe line, divide it into
as many equal parts as you find the building has in
the ichnograpliy, or moie if you pleafe. This will
ferve for a fcale to determine the federal heights,
i^c. and to thefe divifions, with a black lead pencil
draw lines from the centre, when you have chofeii
it J which choice requires judgment on two ac-
counts.

4. Confider how to place this center with fuch
advantage, as that you may exprefs thofe things
moft, which are chiefly defigned.

Place thofe things you would fee leaft of, nigh-
eft the dircd: line ; and fee whether the others fall
according to your mind. But this muft be done af-
ter you have drawn your diagonal, which is the
next thing,

5. Having pitched on your center, and having
from it drawn lines to every divifion of the front
line, you are to determine your diagonal AR thus :
having with a pair of compalTes, meafured the
length of the front line, take your compaffes, and
putting one foot in the center, fee where the other
will reach in the horizon, (on both fides if you
pleafe) where it refts ; from that point draw a-
thwart line to the laft divifion of the front ; and
this will be truly drawn, or pretty nigh to the truth.
That it is fo you may confider how it falls in re-
fpecl of the two laft center-lines. For if where the
next line from the laft is interfecled by the diago-
nal you draw a parallel, the front between them,
you will have a rhombus ; if then all the fides be
pretty equal, you may be fure you are nigh the
right ; but if the fides that run towards the center
be too long, then things will not fore-fhorten e-
nough j if the fides be not long enough, they will
forc-(horten too much.

6- After the front line is thus divided, the cen-
ter fixed, and the diagonal placed, take the breadth
of the chapel, AB, which in the ichnography is
fhcwn to be twenty parts ; becaufe this line is per-
pendicular, it muft run towards the center, there-
fore reckon twenty in the diagonal, and the rule laid
parallel to the front in that point, will give you a
point in the ccnter-linc,which will give the breadth
of the chapel ; confequently a line drawn from A
to B, puts it into the ichnographick perfpeSiive.
The length of the chapel being feventy divifions in
the frent line, reckon feventy from B, parallel to
the front line, and there you will have a point at C.

443

The depth of the building, from the chaptj
northward, being one hundred and fifteen from the
chapel, I reckon from D ; (where it cuts the diago-
nal at ten) onwards, in the diagonal ; and at one
hundred and fifteen in the diagonal, with my rule
as before parallel in this place in the front, I have
the point Z in the central line. Its breadth being
thirty, I reckon three divifions, and there is the juft
breadth there ; and fo on in every particular part.

Having placed the ichnography into pcrfpeiiive,
you may then give every thing its proper height
thus:

7. The height of the chapel being thirty, 1 rec-
kon thirty on the front line, and with this length
by a fquare clapt to the front line, I drop a perpen-
dicular to that heighfr; and fo where the other fide
of the chapel is placed, having reckoned the height
upon afuppofed parallel, there I draw another line
in that height ; then joining thefe feveral heights by
feveral lines, you have the profiles of each building.

Profile is the figure or draught of a building, for-
tification, or the like, wherein are exprefl^ed the
feveral heights, widths, and thicknefles, fuch as
they would appear, were the building cut i^iown
perpendicularly from the roof to the foundation.
Whence the profile is alfo called the feSiion, fome-
times orthographical fecf ion ; and by Virtruvius alio
fciagraphlcal.

Having done thus, your art muft be employed
for the particular expreflions of things, by drawing
and fliadowing, which is the life of this half- form "d
figure, which we leave to the painter.

Jt remains, that we fpeak of the low fight : and
here we fuppofe the horizontal line juft the height
of the eye, about five foot from the bafis ; though
its is generally placed higher, even to a third part of
the height of the building, that the fide building
may be exprefled more gracefully.

The diagonal is beft determined by dividing the
laft divifion of the bafe-Iine into five parts, taking
four of thefe, fometimes the whole five, becaufe
we determined before, that the length of the front
line was thediftance of the eye in the horizon, be-
tween the eye and the point of diftance. You may
then either graduate the plan at the feveral inter-
fedicns of the diagonals with the center lines, or
elfe fuppofe it fo, and then raife the buildings, as
you will find by perfpeftives enougii of this fort eve-
ry where to be met with.

P H J L 0-

444 ^^^ Univerfal Hiftoi-y c/ Arts ^«fl? Sciences.

PHILOSOPHY,

PHILOSOPHY is a Greek derivative, fignify-
ing tiie knowledge or fludy of nature and
morality, io\xr\icd on reafon and expeiience.

Phihfopby-, among the anticnts, was ufed in
various fenfes : for, i. It fometimes was talcen
for univerfal knowledge, w'z. of all things human
and divine. 2. In a rtrifter notion, for the con-
templation of nature only ; and in this fenfc a
philofopher was called hy Plato ipi>.©- Tri^pcaso;, /. ^.
a friend and lover of nature. 3. Sometimes for
et'.ics, or the doftrine of fnannen, which we call
moral philofofh. 4. It included alfo the mathe-
matical arts and Jifcipline, efpecially arithmetic
and geometry, 5. The dodlrine of exiftence, or
being in the abftraft, called metaphyfics. 6. For
the knowledge tb ■afu^.a kxTjii, /• e. of the prime or
chief good, vix. God ; and this was their prima
philofopbia, or theology. 7. It was fometimes ap-
plied to logics or dialeSfics, which gave rules for
reafoning about the nature of things.

Philosophy may be divided into three parts,
intellefiual, moral, and phyfical. The intelleUtml
part comprizes hgici and metaphyfics ; the moral
part contains the laivs oi nature and nations; and,
laftly, the phyfical part comprehends the doftrine
of bodies animate or inanimate. Thefe, with their
various fubdiyifions, will take in the whole of phi-
lofophy.

From the firft broachers of new opinions, and
the firft founders of fchools, philofophy is become
divided into innumerable fe6ts, fome antient, others
modern ; fuch are the Platonifs, Peripatetics, Epi-
cureans, Stoics, Pyrrhonians, and Academics ; the
Carteftans, Nevjtonians, i^c.

The rife and doctrines of thefe feveral fchools,
will be beft learned from the lives o^ Socrates, P.'ato,
Arifotle, Epicurus, Sic. In thofe authors, who
have profefl'edly employ'd their talents in convey-
ing their memoirs and opinions to pofterity.

It may here fufEce to obferve in this place, that
the name of a philofopher, in itfelf compos'd of
modefly and fimplicity, appear'd fo fine, and fo
glorious to the learned in antient times, that they
preferr'd it to the proudeft titles, and the mofl
jlluftrjous characters of honour. That love of
wifdom, an-a that ftudy of nature which they pro-
fefs'd, gave them fuch an authority over the fpirits
of men, that their example ferv'd for a pubiick in-
flrudtion, and their maxims were received as ora-
cles in the world. Great men and governors ap-
plied to thcni for advice in affairs of the laft im-

portance : cities and provinces fubmitted to their
conduit ; and princes themfelves efteem'd it a
glory to have been their difciples. It was philofo-
phy which taught Pythagoras that integrity of
morals, and that ("evere courfe of life, which drew
after him fo numerous a train of followers. It
was this that gave Empedocles the honour of re-
fuGng a crown, and of preferring a private and
peaceable life to all the pomp of greatnefs. By
this, Democritus rais'd himfelf to the contemplation
of natural things, and renounced the pleafures of
the body, to enjoy thofe of the mind with greater
freedom and tranquillity. It was this that enabled
Socrates to die without arrogance on the one hand,
or weaknefs on the other. If there appear lefs
temper and lefs modefty in the death of Cato, who
feems to have over-a£ted the philofopher, yet we
may obferve in that, fome ftrokes of gallantry and
greatnefs of foul, which could infpire him with,
fuch an utter contempt of life. And fince there is
i'carce one a£tion of bravery and refolution recorded
in Pagan ftory, but what was owing to the fpirit
of philofophy, we may affirm this to have been, in
fome fort, the motive and principle of the brighteft
virtue that ever fhone among the corruptions of
heathens.

Thales and Pythagoras were, properly fpeaking,
the two great founders of philofophy among the
antients ; the one in Greece, the other in Italy.
In the fchool of Pythagoras, we find fome what
more regular and folid, than in that of Thales, and
hisfucceffors. Pythagoras^s w\io\e doctrine, being
conceiv'd as a myftery, the chief character of his
fcholars was fubmiilion ; and that religious filence,
to which he fo ftriftly obliged them, was but an
artifice to make himfelf heard with more entire re-
fpe£t. This philofopher's life is at prefent a fub-
je£t of controverfy, as well as his opinion. He
mufl no doubt, have been a man of profound capa-
city, of a moll penetrating judgment, and moft
indefatigable induftry. His common method of
teaching, was by geometry and numbers ; by the
former he explain'd material and fenfible things,
as he did intellectual things by the latter, and by
mufick.

Socrates was the firft that ever began to reduce
the confufed ideas of his predecellors into fome
method and order, by ranging their natural obfer-
vationa under proper heads, fo as to render them
ufeful in the forming of arts and fciences. nefides
all that agreeablenefs of wit which arifes from %

. facility

PHILOSOPHY,

facility of genius and felicity of parts, he liaJ all
the depth, and ail the folidity imaginable ; and yet
this height of underftanding, and this abuiida ice of
light, was attended with true fimplicity, and in-
fant meeknefs. While really engaged in every
thing, he feem'd wholly unemploy'd ; he preferv'd
an air of pleafantry in treating of the gravcft i'ub-
jeils ; and his moft ferious meditations never robbd
him of his good humour.

But as he was the leader of all the feels ; fo he
was in fome fort, the author of all their heats and
divifions. For his reafonings were commonly
Jevel'd againftreafon ; and while he ellablifh'd the
fciences, he left the means of deftroying them, the
common refult of his inftruftions being rather
doubt than affurance, in his hearers. But he muft
flill be allow'd to have contributed much to that
form and character which philofophy took foon
after. For 'twas he that firft traced out the plan
oflogick and morality, and fupplied principles to
phyficks. Yet the peculiar bent of his genius,
which carried him to feek for too much nicety,
and to refine upon every thing, was the reafon that
he haniiled thefe matters with lefs folidity than his
fucceffors. Not hut that his authority is of very
great weight, when he advances any point ; but
his conceptions are, for the moft part, ratlier prin-
ciples than decifions ; and upon the whole, his
philolbphy feems much more proper to pull down
than to build.

Plato is the fineft fpeaker of all antiquity, and
therefore he is more dellrous-to be heard, than
follicitods to bs be'.iev'd, he is alw.ays florid,
but not always found.

He rais'd the credit of his philofophy more by
"the virtues of his life and condu£b, than by his
fpeculations of doftrine. For it was he who firft
taught, that true philofophy confided more in fide-
lity and conftancy, in jutlice and fincerity, and the
love of our duty, than in large attainments, or un-
coniinon parts.

Arijloile is a genius fo much above the ftandard,
as not eafily to be comprehended. By a prodigious
and unexpected reach of knowledge, he advances
beyond all bounds, and conquers all oppofitions.
He was the firft that gather'd the various parts of
philofophy, in order to the re uniting them in one
tjod^ , and calling them into a regular fyltem. No
man ever had fo clear, and fo piercing a difcern-
ment of true and falfe.

Jrijiotle is certainly the man that has given the
greatelt weight to human reai'on, and canied it to
its fartheft length. And then, his method is more
Vol. n. 46.

445

folid than that of all others, becaufe hi'; principles
are eitablifa'd upon better reafon, and his reafon
founded upon better experience. Yet he chof'e to
cii liver himfclf with obfcurity; whether to con-
ceal his doubts, or to increafe his authority, is not
certain. He feems to have written that he might
not be underftood ; and his works look as ifde-
fign'd not fo much f r the inftrudjon of his own
age, as for the exercifc of all ages to come.

\{wt examine the motives by which the greatcft
partofphiiofophers aredetermin'd to their peculiar
((;ift, we Itiall find that philofophy has the leaft
fliare in them. 'Tis often by prevention of age,
or accident, without deliberation, or choice, arid
fometimes without thought, that they embrace one
opinion rather than another. Men come to agree
in the fame perfualion, by the habit they wear, the
nation to whch they belong, the company they
keep ; by the way of life that firif enoao-es therri,
by the focie':y that firlt gains and polieilcs them,
by the multitude ihat carries them along, by the
ftre im that bears them down ; and by any con-
fide'ations, except thofe of reafon and wifdom.
Thus they f.ibmit to the tyranny of prepofTefTion,
as not having Itrength of ju.igment to ftem and
refift it : they abandon their own fenfe, to follow
other mens fancies : they purfue with paffion what
they have undertaken without reafon ; and defend
with the utmoft temerity what they firft embraced
by mere chance and prevention. And when they
have once fix'd, they make it a point of honour to
maintain their ground. Nay, it fometimes hap-
pens, that the animofity and con ention of parties
iharpens the dulleft wits, and vexation fupplies the
place of underftanding. But thus rafhiy and for-
tuitoufly to make our felves the properties and
accelTions of other mens conceits, has fo very ridi-
culous an air, that 'tis better to be any thins; than
fuch a tool of a philofopher. Between thefe op-
pofitions of fcience, we ought to ftand in our own
defence, and not tamely to yield upon the bare
fummons of any part)'. For fuch an uno^rounded
and precarious philofophy is a diilempcr of mind,
and a mere intejleftual debauch.

Truth is fo hardly befct, and brought under
fuchaftate of perfecation, by the falfe colours of
the age, that few men have ingenuity enouo^h to
!peak their mind, or refolution enough to be fin-
cere. It requires a good degree of coura'^e to be
a philofopher in good earneft. Nay, it fliews an
uncommon greatnefs of foul, never to fpeak bet
what we think, and never to think but what ws
dare to fpeak.
Mmm

PLUM-

44-6

lie Univerflil Hillory of Arts <7;?,3' Sciences.

PLUMBERY.

PLUMBERY, from the Latin plumhum, lead,
is the art of calting, preparing, and work-
ing lead, and of ufing it in buildings, i5f.

The lead ufed in plumbery is furniflied from the
lead-works in lar<!;e ingots, or blocks, called pi^s
of lead, ordinarily weighing about a hundred
poiindi a piece. As this lead melts very eafily, it
IS eafy to caft hgures thereof of any kind, by run-
ning it into moulds of brafs, clay, plafler, (Sc.

But what makes the bafis of the plumbers work
in building, are the Jheets s.nd pipn of lead.

The lead defigned for cnlUng large Jlieets, is
melted in a furnaee, ufually built with free (lone,
and earth, fortified on the outfide with maflive of
fhards and plafter. At the bottom is a place funk
lower than the reft, wherein is depofitcd an iron
pot, or pan, to receive what may remain of the
metal after the fneet is run. 'I he furnace is ib
raifed above the area of the floor, as that the iron
potjuft refts thereon.

The furnace is heated with wood laid within it,
throwing afterwards into it the lead, pell-mell
with the burning coal to melt.

Near the furnace is the table, or mould, whereon
the lead is to be caft. It confuls of large pieces of
wood, well joined, and bound with bars of iron at
the ends. Around it runs a frame, confifting of a
ledge or border of wood two or three inches thick,
and one or two high from the table, called the
Jharps. The ordinary width of the tables is from
three to four feet ; and their length from 1 8 to 20
feet.

The table is covered with fine fand, prepared,
by moiftening it with a watering pot, then working
it with a ftick ; and at laft to render it fmooth and
even, beating flat with a mallet, and planing it
with a flip of brafs or wood.

Over the table is aftrikc or rake of wood, which
bears and plays on the edges of the frame by means
of a notch cut in either end thereof ; and fo placed,
a" that between it and the fand is a fpace propor-
tionable to the intended thicknefs of the fheet.
The ufe of this (lick is to drive the matter, while
yet liquid, to the extremity of the mould.

A top of the t ible is a triangular iron peel or
fiiovel, bearing before, on the edge of the table
itfelf, and behmd on a treftle fomewhat lower than
the table. Its ufe is to convey the metal into the
mould i and the defign of its oblique difpofition is,
that it may by that means be able to retain the
metalj and keep it from running off at the fore
2

fide, where it has no ledge. Some of thofe peels
are big enough to hold iifteen or fixtcen hundred
weight of lead, and even more.

Things being thus difpofed, with a large iron
ladle they take the melted lead, coals and all, out
of the furnace ; and with this, mixed as it is, fill
tiie iron peel. When full, they take out the coals,
and clear the lead with another iron fpoon pierced
after the manner ofa fkimmer.

This done, they hoift up the lower part of the
peel by its handle ; upon which the liquid matter
running off, and fpreading itfelf on the mould, the
plumber conduiils and drives it to the extremity of
the table by means of the ftrike, which the workmen
partes along the ledges, and thus renders the ftieec
of an equal thicknefs.

The fheets thus caft, there remains nothing but
to edge them, /. e. to planifh the edges on both
fides, in order to render them fmooth and ftrait.

To caj} thin foceti of lead ; the table or mould is
of a length at difcretion, only edged on one fide.
Inftcad of fand they cover it with a piece of
woollen fluff, nailed down at the two ends to keep
it tight ; and over this lay a very fine linen
cloth. Th? feet of the table are uneven, fo that
it does not ftand horizontal, but moderately in-
clined.

Gread regard is had to the lead while melting,
that it has the juft degree of heat, fo as it may run
well, and yet not burn the linen. This they
judge of by a piece of p^per ; for if the paper takes
fire in the liquid lead, it is too hot; and if it be
not fhrunk and fcorched a little, it is not hot
enough.

Being then in its juft degree, they have a flrike,
hut different from that defcribed in the former
article ; as ferving both for peel .-.nd ftrike, to
contain and to conduct the liquid lead. It is, in
effect, a wooden cafe without any bottom, only
clofed on three fides. It is pretty high behind ;
but the two fides, like two acute angles ftill dimi-
ni/h to the tip, from the place where they arc
joined to the third or middic piece, where they arc of
the fame height therewith, %■:%. 7 or 8 inches
high. The width of the middle makes that of
the ftrike, which again makes that of the ftieet to
be caft.

1 he ftrike is placed a-top of the table, which
is before cover'd in that part, with apafte-board,
which ferves as a bottom to the cafe, and prevents
the linen from beiiig burnt, while the liquid is

pouring

PNEUMATICKS.

447

pouring in. The flrilce is fo difpofcJ on the ta- i
blc, as that the higheft: part looks to the lower end
of the table, and the two Hoping fides to the highey
end.

The ftrike is now filled with lead, according to
the quantity to be ufed : which done, two men,
one at each fide the table, let the ftrike defcend
down the table, or eli'e draw it down with a ve!o-
c.ty greater or lels, as the fiicct is to be more or
lels thick ; the thicknefs of the flieet ftill depending
on the promptitude wherewith the ftrike Aides
down the inclining mould.

As to pipes of lead, there are fome caft without
foldering ; and others folJer'd.

To caj} pipes without foldering, they have a kind
of furnace, confining of a large iron cauldron,
fupported on a pretty high iron ftand. The cau!-
dion is encompalled with a maffive of bricks and
loam ; only leaving a mouth or pafiags for the
conveyance of wood underneath, and lighting the
fire, and another little aperture behind, to ferve as
a vent-hole.

In this furnace they melt the lead, after firft
heating it with a fire underneath : to forward the
fufion, they put in burning faggots along with the
metal. The metal is fkimmed and laden oft' with
the inftruments mentioned above.

Near the furnace is a bench, furnifhed at one
end with a little mill, with arms or levers to run
it withal. A ftiong girt, armed with an iron hook
at one extremity, is faften'd by the other to the
axis of the mill, around which it turns when in
motion. On this bench the moulds of the pipes
are placed horizontally, and the mill and the girt
ferve to draw out the iron core after the pipe is
call.

The moulds of thefe tubes are ofbrafs, and
confilt of two pieces, which open and fliut by
means of hooks and hinges ; their inner calliber,
or diameter, is according to the f.ze cf the pipe to
be made; their length is ufually two foot and a
half.

In the middle i:; placed a core, or round piece of
brafs or iron, fomewhat longer tlian the mould,
and of the thicknefs or the itmer diameter of the
pipe. This core is padld through tv/o copper
rundles, one at each end of the mould, which they
ferve toclofe ; and to thefe is joined a lialc copper
tube, about two inches long, and of the thicknefs
the leaden pipe is intended to be of. i'y means of
thefe tubes tile core is retained in the middle of the
cavity of the mould.

The core being in the mould, with the rundles
at its two ends, and the lead melted in the fur-
nace ; they take it up in a ladle, and put it into
the mould, by a little aperture at or.j end, made in
form of a funnel.

When the mould is full, and the metal colJ,
they pafs the hook of the girt into a hole at the
end of the core; ana'turning the mill with the
hand, draw out the core. i hey then open the
mould, and take out the pipe.

If they defire to have the pipe lengthen'd, they
put one end thereof in the lower end of the mould,
and pafs the end of the core into it ; then lliut the
mould again, and apply its rundlc and tube as be-
fore, the pipe juft call fcrving for lundle, i3c. at
the other end.

Things thus replaced, they pour in frefli metal
into the mould; thus repeating the operation till
they have got a pipe of the length requir'd.

But if plumbers want to mskii pipes of fieet-lead
folder d\ they have wooden cylinders, and rollers
of the length and thicknefs required, and on thefe
they form their pipe.*;, by wrapping the fheet
around them ; foldering up the edges all along,
thus; after grating the lead well with a grater,
they rub rofin over the part thus grated, then pour
on it fome folder melted in a ladle, or elfe melt it
with a hot foldering iron, fmearing thefe p:rts
where they would not have the folder catch, with
chalk, or the foil of the hand. — The folder vvhicli
the plumbers ufe, is a mixture of two pounJa <ji
lead witii one of tin.

P N E U M A r I C K S,

PNEUMATICKS, is the dodrine of the air,
or the laws wherein that fluid is condcnfed,
rarefied, 2;ravitatcd, i^e. 1 h s is a'fo called
by IFofius, iieronietry, or the art of meafuring the
air.

The Air, as I confider it in this place, is a cer-
tain lubtilc homogeneous elaliick matter ; the
bafis and tuadamejital ingredient of the atmofphc-

rical air, and that, which gives it the denomina-
tion.

It is fuppofed a body fui generis, ingenerable,
incorruptible, immutable, prefent in all places, in
all bodies, i^c.

The mod confiderable of the mechanical proper-
ties and effeSis of the air, are its puidiiy, vmght,
and elafticity. '•

I. The fluidity o( t\\Q air is evident from the
ivl ai m z paiUi^ :

44^ Tl^ie Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

paflage it afFords to bodies through it ; as in the
propagation of founds, fmells, and other effluvia.

'Ihe caufeof this fluidity of the air, is attributed
by fome very modern philofophers to the fire in-
termixed (herewith ; without which they imagine
the atmofphere would harden into a folid, impene-
trable mafs. And hence the greater the degree of
fire tlierein, tlic more fluid, moveable, and pervious
the air : and thus as the degree of fire is continu-
ally varying, according to the circuniftances and
politioa oi' the heavenly bodies ; the air is kept by
a continual reciprocation. . Hence, in good mea-
fure, it is, that on the tops of the higher moun-
tains, thefenfes of fmelling, hearing, iSc. are found
very feeble.

2. That the air is heavy, follows from its being
a body.

We can ailually weigh air ; for a veflel, full
even of common air^ by a very nice ballance, is
found to weigh more than when the air is ex-
haufted ; and this eftecfl: is proportionably more
fenlible, ir the fame veflel be weighed full of con-
denied air, in a receiver void oi air.

The weight of air is continually varying, ac-
cording to the different degree of heat and cold. —
Ricciolus eflimatcs its weight to that of water, to
be as I to loco ; Merfenntts, as i to 1300, or
I to 1356; Lana, as i to 640; Galileo or\\y
makes it as i to4CO. The ingenious Mr. Boyle,
by a more accurate experiment, found it about
Lmdon^ as i to 938 : and thinks, all things con-
fider'd, the proportion of 1 to 1000 mav be taken
at a medium.

By experiments made fince before the Royal
Society, the proportion of air to water was firft
found as i to 840 ; then, as i to 852 ; and a
third time, as i to 860. By a very fimple and ac-
curate experiment of the late-Mr. Haivkfiee, the
proportion vas fettled, as 1 to 885.

The difference of the air's weight at different
times, is meafured by the different height to which
the mercury is railed in the barometer ; and the
greatelt variation of the height of the mercury be-
ing three inches, a column of air of any afiignable
bale, equal to the weight of a cylinder of mercury
of the fame bafe, and of the altitudeof three inches,
will be taken oif from the preilure upon a body of
an equ'.l bafe, at fuch time as the mercuiy is three
mchtis lowtr in the barometer ; fo that every
inch fquare of the (urface of our bodies, is prefled
upon at one time more than another, by a weight
of air, equal to the weight of three cubical inches
of mercury. Now a cubical foot of water being
feventy-fix pounds ; a cubical foot of mercury is
1064 pounds = 102144 drachms; and as 102144
drachms is to a cubical foot, or, which is all one,

1728 cubical inches, fo is 59 -ry?! drachms, to one
cubical inch. So that a cubical inch of mercury
being very near =: 59 drachms ; and there being
144 fquare inches in a foot fquare, therefore a ma(»
of mercury of a foot fquare = 144 fijuare inches^
and if three inches high, mull contain 432 cubical
inches of mercury, which -I- 59 (the number of
drachms in a cubical inch of mercury) makes
25488 drachms. And this weight was a foot
fquare of the furface of our bodies, fuftained at one
time more than at another.

Suppofe, again, the fuperficies of an human
body n: 15 feet fquare; then would the body
fuflain at one time more than at another, a weight
= 15 -f 25488 z: 382230 drachms (=47790
ounces) := 3890^ pounds troy.

Hence it is fo far from being a wonder, that wC'
fcmetimcs fufter in our health, by a change of
weather ; that it is the greateft wonder we do not
always do fo. — For when we confider, that our
bodies are fometimes prefled upon by near a ton
and a half weight more than at another, and that
this variation is often very fudden ; it is furprizing
that every fuch change does not entirely break the
frame of our bodies to pieces.

To mcafure the weight of the air or atmof-
phere, and the variations therein, in order chiefly
to determine the changes of the weather, an inftru-
ment was invented, called barometer, from ^apof,
weight; 2nd (if.tfov, meafure; the defcription and
phenomena thereof come very a-propos under this
article of the v/eight of the air.

The Barometer is founded on the torricellian
experim nt, as it is called from its inventor Torri-
celli, which is no inore than a glafs tube filled with
mercury, hermetically fealed at one end ; the
other open, and immerged in a bafon of flagnant
mercury. Now as the weight of the atmofphere
diminifhes, the mercury in the tube will here de-
fcend ; on the contrary, as it increafes, the mer-
cury will again afcend : the column of mercury
fufpended in the tube being always equal to the
weight of the incumbent atmofphere.

J here are feveral kinds of barometers, viz. the
comrtion, horizontal, diagonal, u,heel, marine, Jiatical,
and portable barometers.

The conftruftion of a common barometer, is as
follows. — A glais tube AB (Fig. i. pneumatick
table) hermetically fealed in A, having its diame-
ter about -fl of an inch, and its length at ieaft
thirty-one inches, is filled v. ith mercury fo juflly,
at net to have any air over it, nor any bubbles ad-
hering to the fides of the tube ; which is beli: done
by means of a glafs funnel, with a capillary tube.
The orifice of the tube filled after this manner, fo

PNEUMATICKS.

as to overflow. Is clofely prefled by the finger, fo as
to exclude any air between it and the mercury, and
thus immcrged in a wooden velFel of a convenient
diameter ; fo however, as not to touch the bot-
tom : at the di(tance of twenty-eigh- inches from
the dillance of the mercury, are fixed two plates,
C E and D F, divided into three inches, and
thefe again fubdividcd into any number of fmaller
parts. Laftly, the t^be is eiiclofed in a wooden
frame to prevent its being broke ; and the bafon,
though open to the air Iccured from duft, and the
barometer is compleat.

Many attempts have been made to render the
changes of the barometer more fenfible, and fo to
meafure the atmofphere more accurately ; which
has given rife to the following barsmeters ofdif-
ferent firudture.

Des Cartes, and after him Huygens, ufed a tube
AB, (Fig 2.) having a cylindrick vellel CD ;
one half of which veflel, together with the upper
part of the tube, were filled with water ; the other
half of the veflel, and the lower part of the tube
with mercury. But here, though the column
fufpended was longer, and confequently the va-
riation greater, yet the air imprifoned in the water
getting loofe by degrees, filled the wide fpace in
the top, and fo ruined the machine.

Huygens then bethought himfelf of placing the
mercury at top, and the water at bottom, in the
manner following: ADG [Fig. 2-) is a bent
tube hermetically fealed in A, and open in G ; the
cylindrick vefiels B C and F E are equal, and
about twenty-nine inches a-part ; the diameter of
the tube is about a line, that of each veflel fifteen
lines, and the depth of the veflels about ten ; the
tube is filled with mercury (the common barometer
Handing about twenty- nine inches) which will be
lufpended between the middle of the veflel F E,
and that of the vefl"el B C; the remaining fpace to A
beino- void both of mercury and air. , Lallly, com-
mon water, tinged with a fixth part of aqua regis,
to prevent its freezing, is poured into the tube
F G, till it rifes a foot above the murcury in D F.

When then the mercury rifing above the level
of that contained in F E, through the tube A D,
becomes a bailance to the weight of the atmof-
phere ; as the atmofphere increafes, the column
of mercury will increafe, confequently the water
will dcfcend ; as the atmofphere again grows
lighter, the column of mercury will defcend, and
the water afccnd. This barometer therefore,
■which is the fame with that of Dr. Hook, will
difcover much minuter alterations in the air than
the common one : for, inilead of two inches, the
fluid will here vary two feet ; and by enlarging
the diameters of the cylinders, that variation may

449

be ftill incrcafed : but it has this inconvenience,
that the water v.'ill evaporate, and fo render the
alterations precarious; though the evaporation be
in fome meafure prevented by a drop of oil of fwcet
almonds fwimming a-top.
I On account of this defect, others have had re-
courfe to a horizontal or reSia?igular barometer
A B C D {Fig. 4.) the tube whereof is bent in form
of a fquare B C D, a-top of its perpendicular leg it
is joined to a veflel orciltern AB ; and its variation
accounted on the horizontal leg C D.

Now here the interval or fpace of variation,
may be made of any extent at pleafure, and fo the
minutefl change in the air become fenfible. For
the diameter of the tube CD being given, it is c:\(y
to find the diameter of the veflel AB, fo as that the
fcale of defcent in the tube D C fhall have any
given proportion to the fcale of afc^-nt, in the vef-
fcl AB; the rule being, that the diameter of the
veflel is to that of the tube in a fubduplicate reci-
procal ratio of their fcales.

The diameters then of CD and AB being given,
tot^ether v/ith the fca!e, or afcent of the mercury
in the veflel, the fcale of mercury in the tube is
found thus ; as the fquare of the diameter of the
tube, is to the fquare of the diameter of the veflel,
fo reciprocally is the fcale of mercury in the veflel,
to the fcale of mercury in the tube.

This lafl: however, with its virtues, has great
defc6ls.

Some therefore prefer the diagonal harometer^
where the fpace of variation is confiderably larger
than in the common one, and yet the rife and fall
more regular than in the others. Its foundation is
this, that in a. torrteellian tube BC {F'ig. 5.) in-
clined at any angle to the horizon, the cylinder of
mercury, equivalent to the weight of the atmofphere,
is to a cylinder of mercury, equivalent to the fame
placed in a vertical tube, as the length of the tube
B C, to the perpendicular height DC. Hence if
the height D C be fubtriple, fubquadruple, &c. of
the length of the tube, the changes in the diago-
nal barometer will be double, or triple, &c. of the
chances in the common barometer. — This baro-
meter will fcarce allow its tube to be inclined to the
horizon, at a lefs angle than 45 degrees, without
undergoing the inconveniency of the horizontal
one.

The U'heel barometer is a contrivance of Dr.
Hook, to make the alterations in the air more fen-
fible ; the foundation of this is the common verti-
cal barometer, with the addition of a couple of
weights A and B [Fig 5.) hanging in a pulley, the
one'playing at liberty in the air, the other refling
on the furtace of the mercury in the tube, and rifing
and falling with it. Thus is the motion of the

mercury

Tlos Univerfal Hlflory of Arts and Sciences,

450

mercury communicated, by means of the pulley,
to an index which turns around a graduated circle;
and thus the three inches of vertical afccnt, are here
improved to live or fix, or more, at plea'ure. —
But thefridUon of the parts, in thepully and index,
is fo confiderable, that unlefs the machine be made
with a great deal of accuracy, it does not anfwer.

we call the pipe, to diftinguifti it from the other at
bottom, which we call the tube : this pipe is to
fuftain the inftrument from finking to the bottom.
In </ is a wire, in S, de, two threads oblique to
the furface of the water, performing tlie office of
diagonals. Now, while the inflrument finks more
or iefs, by the alteration of the gravity of the air ;
rhe^i;/;(i.7«/ i(7>w«''ftT IS a machine rather pretty I there, where the furface of the water cuts the

and curious, than ufcful. It confifts of a conical
tube, placed vertically i its upper and fmaller ex-
treme hermeticallv fealed ; it has no veffel or cif-
tern, its conical figure fupplying that defedt : for
■when filled, like the reft, there will be as much
mercury fi;ll:nncd, as is equivalent to the weight of
of the atmoi'phere ; and as that varies, the fame
mercury takes up a different part of the tube, and
fo becomes of a different weight.

The marine barometer is likewife a contrivance
of Dr. Hook, to be ufed at fea, where the motion
of the waves render the others impraflicablc. It is
nothing more than a double thermometer, or a
couple of tubes half filled with fpirit of wine ; the
one hermetically fealed at both ends with a quan-
tity of common air inclofed ; the other fealed at
one end, and open at the other.

This inftrument is faid to be of good ufe in giv-
ing notice of all bad weather at fea, alfo of variable
winds.

T\\& /?r,tkal haronuter^ ot harofcope, ufed by Mr.
Boyle, Otto tie GuerUk, &c. is fallacious and liable
Xo be adled on by a double raufe. It confifls of a
large glafs bubble, ballanccd by a brafs weight, in
a nice pair of fcales : for thefe two bodies being cf
e ;ual gravity, but unequal bulk, if the medium in
w.iich they equiponderate be changed, there will
fo'low a change of their weight ; fo that if the air
grows heavier, the greater body being lighter in
fjUcie, will lofe more of its weight than the lellcr,
and more compadl ; but if the medium grows light-
er, then the biffger body will outweigh the Iefs.

The moft accurate barometer yet invented,
feems to be that of Air. Gafivcll ; the ftruclure
whereof he defcribes as follows : fuppofe A B C D
[Fl^. 6,) a bucket of water, wherein is the baro-
meter, X, r, e, 2, y, 0, f-, m, confilling of a body
X r f ni, and a tube e % y 0, the body and tube
are both concave cylinders made of tin, or
rather glafs, and communicating with each other.
The bottom of the tube z y, has a lead weight to
fink it fo a-: the top of the body may juft fwim even
with the furface of the water, by the addition of
fome grain weights a top. The water, when the
inftrument is forced with its mouth downwards
gets up into the tube to the height y 0. There is
added on the top a linall concave cylinder, which

thread, is formed a fmall bubble, which afccnds up
the thread, as the mercury of the common barome-
ter afcends, and vice verfa.

Thij inflrument, as appears from a calculation
which the author gives, fhews the alterations in
the air more accurately than the common barome-
ter, by 1200 times. He obferves, that the bubble
is feldom known to ftand ftill a minute ; that a
fmall blaft of wind that cannot be heard in a cham-
ber, will make it fink fenfibly ; that a cloud always
makes it defcend, k^c.

The phaenomena of the barometer are various ;
and the caufes affigned for them by feveral authors,
widely different.

Mr. Boyle obferves, that it is exceedingly difficult
to form any general rules about the rife or falj
thereof. Even that which feems to hold moft uni-
verfally, vi%. that when high winds blow, the
mercury h the lower, fometimes fails.

Dr. Halley gives us the following obfervaticms :
that in calm weather, when the air is inclined to
rain, the mercury is commonly low ; in ferene»
good fettled weather, high.

That on good winds, though accompanied with
rain, the n.ercury is the loweft of all, with regard
to the point of the compafs the wind blows on.
That ceteris pai ibus, the greateft height of the
mercury, are on eafterly and north-eafterly winds.
That after great florms of wind, when the mercu-
ry has been lov/, it rifes again very faft.
7 hat in cJm frofty weather it ftands high.
That the more northerly places find greater alte-
rations than the more fouthern ; and that within
the tropxks, and near them, there is little or no
variation of the height of the mercury at all.

Some of the moft modern authors fpeak on the
caufes of the phanomena of the barometer, in the fol-
lowing mantier. — Suppofe, fay they, any number
of watery veficles floating in any part of the atmof-
phere over any determinate portion of the globe,
for inftance, over A B [Fig. 21.) if the upper ve-
ficles be condenfed by the cold of the fuperior re-
gions, their fpecifick gravity will be increaled, and
thev will defcend; the horizontal clafs, I, v. gr.
to 2, 2 to 3, is'i. where meeting with other ve-
ficles not yet precipitated, they will coalefce or run
into larger veficles, by the known laws of attrac-
tion-

PNEUM STICKS.

45i

tion. Or if we lather chufe to have the wind acS,
let it drive cither horizontally or oblicjuely ; in the
former cafe the veficlcs, claHi 8, will be driven
agiiiiflg; thofe againft lo, (^c. or the oblique
clals A 7, driven againft 5, 8 againft 4, ^c. by
which means likewife will the particles coalcfce
and form new and large veficles, as before ; fo that
their number, which before was fuppofed a million,
will now be reduced, v. gr. to a hundred thoufand.

III. Ela/licity. — A power of yielding to an im-
preffion, by conlrafling its dimenfions ; and upon
removing or diminifhing the impulfive caufe, re-
turning to its former fpice or figure. This eladick
force is accounted the diftinguifhing property of the
air ; the other properties hitherto enumerated, be-
ing common to it with other fluids.

On this property ol elajUctLy, the ftrufture, and
office o^ t\\e. air-pump depends.

i'he invention of this noble inftrument is af
cribed to Otto de Guerick, conful of Magdebourg, in
the year 1654.

The air-pump, as it is now made among us with
all its advantages (Fig. 16.) confifts of two brazen
barrels or cylinders reprefented hy a a a a ; which
communicates with each other by a canal palling
between them at dd, and with a receiver 000, by
means of a hollow wire h /:>, one end whereof opens
into the canal of communication, and the other into
a like canal n n, which penetrating the plate i i i /,
opens into the receiver.

^Vithin the cylinder are two emboli, or fuckers,
made of brafs, and fitted with cork and leather to
the cavities of the barrels, fo a? exa£t!y to fill the
fame ; each being furniflied with its vaivc, and ter-
minating at top in a i-ack cc, by which it is to be
worked.

At the bottom of either barrel is another valve ;
by which the air may pafs out of the commtTTif-
cating canal a d, and confequently out of the hollow
wire, and the receiver itfelf, into the cylinder be-
low the pifton ; from whence bv the valves of the
pirton it may proceed into the upper fpace of the
cylinder, and thus into the open air.

For the aj^plicition of this mechanifm, the winch
b b being turned upwards and downwards, its fpin-
dle/" catching by its teeth into the racks, will rife
and dcprefs the two piflons alternately. Now, the
confequence of dcprelTing a pifton is, that the air
before inclofed between it and the bottom of the
cylinder, being thus crowded into a lefs compafi,
wi!l, by its elaftick force, which now exceeds the
prefllire of the atmofphere, pufh up the valve ofthe
pifton, and thus efcape, till what Ii:t|e remains be
j,f the fame dcnfity with the external air incumbent
the valve.

This donCj and the fame pifton being again raifed

\n its turn, from the bottom of the cylinder to the
top ; the little air before left will of n.-ce.Titv ex-
pand itfelf, fo as to poflefi the whole fpace of the
cylinder thus deferted by the pifton : upon which
its force or prcfture upon the valve at the bottom
ofthe cylinder being nowinconfiJerahle ; the other
dcnfer air of the receiver, hollow wire, and canal
of communication, by their fuperior elaftick force,
will lift up the valve, and thus pafs into the cylin-
der of rarefied air, till both be of the fame degree
of denfity.

And thus is the air in the receiver diminiftied at
each elevation of the pifton, by the quantity of a
cylinder-full; abating for what little remained be-
tween the depreir.-d pifton and the bottom. Sa that
by thus repeating the opera:ion again and a"ain ;
the air in the receiver is at length raic'i-d tj fuch a
degree, that its denfity does not exceed the thin .lir
remaining in the cylinder when the pifton is raifed:
, which done, the eff'eJl of thj air-pump is at an
I end ; the valve cannot now be opened, or if it
j could, no air would pafs it ; there being a ju.ft
equilibrium between the air on each fide.

To judge of the degree ofexhauflion, th?re is

: added a gage //, confifting of a tube, whofe upper

: orifice communicates with the receiver ; the lower

being immerged in a bafon of mercury m ?n. Hence

^ the air in the tube rarefying as faft as that in the

I receiver ; in proportion as the exhauftlon advances,

the mercury will be raifed by the prcfture of the

column of external air, prevailing over that of the

column of air included, till the column of air, and

mercury together, become a baliance to that of the

external air. When the mercury is thus rifeii to

the fame height as It .ftands in the barometer, whicii

is indicated by the fcale of inches added to th?

gage; the inftrument is a juft torricellian tube;

and the vacuum, fay thofe who admit fuch things,

may be concluded to be as perfcil as that in the

upper end of the barometer.

To let air again Into the exhaufted receiver, the
cock n is to be turned ; which makes a communi-
cation with the external air ; upon which the air
ruftiing impetuoufly in, the mercury in the ga^e
immediately fubfides into the bafon.

To the air-pump belongs a large apparatus of
other veflels, accommodated to the divers kinds of
experiments.

As to the efFefls and phenomena of the air-
pump ; it is pretended by the aftcrters of the vacuum
Bn'eanum, that we arrive at it by means ofthe air-
pump. 'Thus any thing put in a receiver fo ex-

haufted. Is faid to be put in vacuo ; and fomc of
the principal phenomena thereof to be, that the
heavieft and iijjhtcft tiodies as a guinea, and a fea-
ther.

Tlje Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

452

ther, fa Is here with equal velocity. — That fruits,
as grapes, cherries, apples, ^c. kept for any time
in vacuo, retain their nature, f'refhnefs, colour, (s'c.
and thofe wither'd in the open air, recover their

plampnefs /// vacuo. All light, and fire becomes

immediately extindt in vacuo. The coalition of

flint and fteel in vacuo, produces no fparks. No

found is heard, even from a bell rung in vacuo.

A fquarc viol, full of common air, well clofed,
breaks in vacuo; a round one does not. A blad-
der half full of air will heave up forty pounds

weight in vacuo. Cats, and moft other animals

readily expire in vacuo.

The air-pump can never produce a precife va-
cuum, if even fuch a thing was pofTible ; as is evi-
dent from its ftrudure, and the manner of its
working ; in cffcdt, every exfuclion only takes a
part of the air : (o that th.re will ftill be fome left

after any infinite number of exfudlions. Add,

that the air-pump has no longer any efFeft, than
while the fpring of the, air remaining in the re-
ceiver, is able to lift up the valves : when the rare-
faftion is come to that degree, you can come no
nearer to a vacuum.

The weight or prefTure of the air has no depend-
ance on its elafticity ; but would be the fame
whether the air'iad fuch property or not. — But the
air, in being elaftick, is neceflarily aftedted by the
prelTure, which reduces it into fuch a fpace, as that
the elafticity, which re a£ls againft the compreffing
weight, is equal to that weight.

In effedt, the law of this elafticity, is, that it in-
creafes as the denfity of the air increafes ; and the
denfitv increafes, as the force increafes wherewith
it is prciTcd. Now there muft neceflarily be a
ballance tetweenthe adlion and re-aclion, i. e. the
gravity of the air which tends to comprefs it, and
the elafticity of the air, v-fhich endeavours to ex •
pand it, muft be equal.

Hence the elafticity increafing, or diminifhing
univerially as the denfity increafes or diminifhes,
i e. as the diftance between the particles diminifties
or increafes ; it is no matter whether the air be
comprefied and retained in fuch fpjce by the weight
of the atmofphere, or by any other means : it muft
endeavour in either cafe, to expand with the fame
force. And hence, if air near the earth be put up
in a vefle , fo as to cut off" all communication with
the external air ; the preflure of the inclofed air
will be equal to the weight of the atmofphere. Ac-
cordincly we find mercury luftained to the fame
height, by the elaftick force of air, inclofed in a
glafs vefl'cl, as by the whole atmofpherical preffure.
Hence the ftrudlure of the Wind-cun, which
is a machine ferving to explode bullets, and other
fliot with great violence, by the force of the air.

There are wind-guns of divers contrivances ; the
moft eafy and portable one, and the moft in ufe is
reprefented {tab. pneum. Fig. 14.) it confilis of a
round melted tube 3, 3, open at the end c, c, and
exactly flopped at the other end a, like the barrel
of other guns : i, I, i, i, is another larger metal
tube, wherein the former is difpofed, fo as to leave
a fpace between them 4, 4, v/herein air may be in-
clofed.——The two tubes are joined together at
the common aperture f <r, by a circular plate exadtly
folder'd to both, fo as to prevent the air from efcap-
ing out of the fpace 4, 4, isfc. At 8 is a fpring
valve, which opening inwardly, let the air pafs
through from 2 into the fpace i, but prevents its
return from I to 2. Near the clofe end of the in-
ner tube are two holes 6 and 5 ; by the firft, the
fpace I, and the inner tube communicate, fo that
the air would pafs out of that into this, but that
the paflage is flopped by a valve opening outward-
ly ; by the latter there is a communication between
the open air, the fpace 4, and the inner barrel ;
only the air pent up in the fpace, cannot efcape at
this hole, by reafon of a little tube exadtly folder'd
to both barrels, which flops the communication :
nor can air efcape out of the inner barrel through
this little tube, by reafon of a little moveable pin,
which exadfly fills the cavity of the tube.

Laftly, the part 2, 2, 2, 2, reprefents the body
of afyringe, or fucking pump ; by which as much
air as poftible is to be intruded into the fpace 4,

4, isc. After which a bullet being put into a ca-
vity of the inner barrel, as high as the little tube

5, the gun is charged.

Now to difcharge it, the little valve 6, is puflied
up by means of the pin that plays in the little tube
5. Upon this, the compre^ed air in the cavity of
the outer barrel 4, ruCiing through the hole 6, into
the cavity of the inner barrel, expels the bullet
with a vaft force, fufficient to penetrate a thick
board.

To give the machine a greater refemblance of a
fire-arm, the part 2, 2, 2, 2, is ufually fafliioned
like the but -end of a mufket ; and on the part 2,
8, 2, 8, is fitted a lock ; by turning the trigger of
which, the pin 5 is made to pufh back the valve,
and fo difcharge the piece. By the lock it is con-
trived, that either the whole charge of air may be
fpent by explofion, or only part of it, and the reft
referved for frefh bullets. By this piece of mecha-
nifm we can have ha'f adozen good eftedlive fhoots,
with one charge of air.

The dilatation of the air by reafon of its elaftick
force, is found to be very furprizing.

On this depends theftrudlure an.: ufe of the W(;««-
mctcr, w.'ich is an inftrument to fhew or meafure
the alterations in the rarity or denlity of the air.

The

PNEUMATIC KS.

The MoNOMETER difters from the bayometi-r,
in that the latter only mcafures the weight of the
atmofpheie, or of the. column of air over it ; but
the former the dcnfity of the air in which it is
found : which dcnfity depends not only on the
weight of the atmofphere, but on the aflion of
heat and cold, isV.

M. Montons, and others, take the rarcfaftion of
air to arife wholly from the fire contained in it;
and hence, by incrcafing the degree of heat, the
degree of rarefadlion may be carried flill further
than its fpontaneous dilatation.

On this principle depends the flructure and office
of the thermometer., which is an inffrument fliew-
ing, or rather meafuring the increafc and decreafe
of the cold and heat of the air.

Thrmometer, and thermolcope, are ordinarily
accounted the fame thing; TVolfius^ however, makes
a difference ; but fhews withal, that what we call
thermometer s ar:, in reality, no more than thcr-
tnofcopcs.

There are various Linds cf thermometers, the
conftructions, defeats, theory, i^c, whereof are
as follow.

For the conJfruSlion of a thermometer depending
on the rarefaction of the air ; in a tube B C {Fig. 3.
n. 2.) to which is faflened a glafs ball AB, is put
a quantity of common water mixed with aqua re-
gia, to prevent its freezing; and the mixture tinged
with a folution of vitriol, to give it a grtenefs. In
filling the tube, care is taken that there be fo much
air left in the ball and the tube, as that when at
its greatefl condenfation in the middle of winter, it
may jufl fill the ball ; and yet in its greatefl rare-
faftion in fummer, may not drive all the liquor out
of the tube. To the other extreme of the tube is
faflened another glafs ball C D, open to the air
at D : on each fide the tube is applied the
fcale E F, divided into any number of equal
parts.

Now, as the ambient air becomes warmer, the
air in the ball and the top of the tube expanding,
will drive the liquor into the lower ball ; and con-
sequently its furface will defcend : on the contrary,
as the ambient air grows colder, that in the ball
becoming condenfed, the liquor will afcend.

For the cSfiJIruStion of a mercurial thermometer ;
in the fame manner, and with the fame caution as
before, put a little quantity of mercury, not exceed-
ing the bignefs of a pea, into a tube BC (Fig. 4.
n. 2.) thus bent in wreaths, that taking up the lels
height, it may be the more manageable, and lefs
liable to harm ; divide this tube into any number
of equal parts to fcrve for a fcale.

Here the approaches of the meicury towards the
Vol. II. 47.

453

ball A will flicv/ the incrcaffs of the degrees of heat.
The reafon is the lame as in the foi mer.

The defedl of both thefe inffrumcnts confifls in
this, that they are liable to be afted or. by a double
caufe: for, not only a decreafe of heat, \y.\t
alfo an increafc of weight of the atmofphere wiil
make the liquor rile in the one, and the mercury
in the other; and on the contrary, cither an in-
creafe of heat, or decreafe of weight in the atmof-
phere, will make it defcend.

For the con/iru£?ion of the florentine, or commin
thermometer ; the academiffs del cimento confiderin-r
the inconvcniencies of the thermometers jufl dcfcrib-
ed, attempted another, that fliould mcafure heat
and cold by the rarefadtion and condenfation of the
fpirit of wine, though thofe be vaflly lefs than of
air; and confequently the alterations in the degrees
of heat like to be much fenfible.

The flrudure of their thermometer is this : on
fotne little pieces of turmerick is poured a quantity
of redlified fpirit of wine, which hereby receives a
red tinfture ; this done, the fpirit of wine is fil-
trated again and again through a brown paper, that
the coarfe particles of the root may be feparated
therefrom. With the fpirits thus tinged and pre-
pared they fill aglali ball AB [Fig. 5. n. 2 ) and
a tube B C ; and that all the fpirit may not de-
fcend in the winter into the ball, it is convenient
to put the ball into alumpoffnow, mixed with
fait; or, if the inflrument be to be made in fum-
mer, into fpring water, impregnated with fak-
petre, that the condenfed fpirit may fliew how far
it will retire in the cxtremefl cold.

If it rife to too great a height from the ball, part
of it is to be taken out; and that the tube may not
be made longer than need, it is convenient to im-
merge the ball, filled with its fpirit, in boiling
water, and to mark the furthefl point, to which
the fpirit then rifes.

At this point the tube is to be hermetically feal-
ed by the if ame of a lamp ; and at the fides is to be
added a fcale, as in the former thermometer.

Now, fpiritof wine rarefying and condenfing very
confiderably, as the heat of the ambient air in-
creafes the fpirit will dilate, and confeqently will
afcend into the tube ; and as the heat decreafes the
fpirit will defcend : and the degree or quantity of
afcent and defcent will be feen in the fcale. Yet as
the ratio of yeflerday's heat to to-day's is not here-
by difcovered, this inflrumet is not flridly a ther-
mometer, no more than the former.

JVI. de Reamure has contrived a new thennome-
ter, wherein the inconveniencies of others are
remedied.

On the (lajicity of the air, depends alfo the
height of the atmofphere.

Nnn Air

4.54 ^^ Unlvcrfal Hiftory (?/" Arts ^;?<a^ Sciences.

j^ir not only afts by its common properties ofi volatile fpirit will be fixed, and fall down in form
gravity, and elti/llcity, but there are numerous otherl of aqua fecunda
cftedts arifing from the peculiar ingredients where- • a .u .i,„.
of it conlills.

Thus, I. It not only diflolves and attenuates
bodies by its preffure and attrition, but as a chaos
containing all kinds of menltruums, and confequent-
ly having wherewithal to dillulve all kinds of bodies.

It is known, that iron and copper readily diflolve,
and become rufty in air, unlefs well defended with
oil. Boerhaave allures us, he has feen pillars of
iron fo reduced by air, that one might crumble
them to duft between the fingers ; and for copper,
it is converted by the air into a fubftance much like
the verdigrcafc prodiifted by vinegar

Mr. Boy!e relates, that in the fouthern EngUJh
colonies, the great guns ruft fo faft, that after a few
years lying in the air, large cakes of crocus martis
may be eafily bent off them. Acojla add', that in
Peru the air diflolves lead, and confiJerably increa-
fes its weight. — Yet gold is generally efteemed in-
diflbluble by air, being never found to contr.ad\ ruft,
though expofcd ever fo long. The reafon where-
of is, that fea fait, which is the only menftruum ca-
pable of afling on gold, being very difficult to vo-
Litilize ; there is but a fmall proportion of it in the
atmofphere. In the chymift's laboratory, where
aqua regia is preparing ; the air becoming impreg-
nated with an unufual quantity of this fait, gold
contracts a rull like all other bodies.

Stones, alfo, undergo the common fate of me-
tals —Thus purbfck ftone, whereof Salifbury ca-
thedral is built, is obferved gradually to become
fofter, anJ moulder away in the air, and the like

Mr. Boyle relates of Blackinton ftone. He adds,

that air may have a notable operation on vitriol,
even when a ftrong fire could ad no further on it.
The fame author has even found the fumes of a
ftiarp liquor to work more fuddenly and manifeftly
on a certain metal, when fuftained in the air, than
the menftruum itfelf did, which emitted fumes on
thofe parts of the metal it cover d.

2. Air volatilizes fixed bodies. Thus fea fait
being calcined and fufed by the fire, and when fuf-
ed, expofed to the air to liquify ; when liquified
fet to dry again, then fufed again ; and, the ope-
ration thus repeated, will by degrees be almoft
wholly evaporated ; nothing remaining but a little
earth behind.

Helmont mentions it as a mighty arcanum in chy-
miftrr, to render fixed fait of tartar volatile : but
the thing is eafily effeded by air alone ; fcir if this
fait be expofed to the air, in a place replete with
acid vapour--, the fait draws the atid to itfelf, and
when (aturated therewith is volatile.

3. Air alfo fixt s volatile bodies. Thus, tho' ni-
tre or aqua fortis readily evaporate by the fire ; yet,
il there be any putrificd urine near the j^-lace, the

4. Add that air brings many quiefcent bodies in-
to adKon, /. e. excites their latent powers. 'J hus,
if an acid vapour be diffufed through the air, all the
bodies whereof, that is a proper nunftruum, be-
ing diflTolved thereby, are brought into a ftate pro-
per for a£lion.

In chymiftry, not only the prefence or abfence
of the air, but even its being barely open or inclof-
ed, is of great coiifequence. Thus camphire fired
in a clofe vefTcl runs wholly into falts ; whereas,
if during the procefs the cover be removed, and a
candle applied, the whole flies off in fume. So to
make fulphur inflammable, it requires a free air :
in a clofe cucurbite it may be fublimated a ihoufand
times without kindling. Sulphur being put under
a glafs bell, and a fire applied, rifes into fpirit of
fulphur per campanam. But if there be the leaft
chink, whereby the included air communicates with
the atmofphere, it immediately kindles. So an
ounce of charcoal, inclofed in a crucible well luted,
will remain without lofs for fuurteen days inthein-
tenfeft heat of a melting furnace j though the thou-
fandth part of the fire in an open air, will prefent-
ly turn in into aflies. Helmont adds, that the char-
coal remains all that while without any alteration
of its black colour ; but the minute air being let in,
it falls inftantly into white aflies. The fame holds
of the parts of all animals and vegetables, which
can only be calcined in open air : in clofe veffels
they never become any other than black coals.

The air is liable to abundance of alterations, not
only in refpe<3 of its mechanical properties, gravi-
ty, denfity, (Jc. but alfo in refpedf of the ingre-
dients it confifts of. Thus in places aboundin<^
with marcafites, a fretting vitriolick fait is obferved
to predominate in the air, which rots the hangings,
and is often feen lying on 'the ground in a whitifh
efflorefcence. At Fajhlun in Sweden, no^ed for
copper-mines, the mineral exhalations affedl the
air (o fenfibly, that their filver coin is frequently
difcolour'd in their purfes, and the fame effluvia
change the colour of brafs.

The effluvia of animals alfo have their eff>;<St in
varying the air; as is evident in contagious difea-
fes, plagues, murrains, and other mortalities which
fpre.id by the air.

The air is alfo liable to alterations from the fea-
fons of the year, if the fame feed be fown in the fame
foil, in autumn and fpring, aind the degree of heat
be the fame, a very different tffe£t will be found,

Mr. Boyle fuggefts fomething further on this
head, viz. that the falts, t^c. which in a warm
ftate of weather were kept in a fluor, and mixed
together, fo as to be in a condition to aft conjuniSt-
ly J upon a remiffion of the waimlh, may lofe their

fluidity

PNEUMATICKS.

fluiJity and motion, flioot into ciyflais, ajid thus
ilparate again.

The iicii^ht or depth of the n'lr makes a further
alteration, the exhalations being few of tliem ahie
to afcend above the top of high mountain-;, as ap
pears from thofc plagues, where the inhabitants of
one fide of a mountain have all peiiflied, without
the Icalt: ilifordcr on the other fide.

Nor muft draught and moirture be denied their
fliare, in varying the ftate of the atmojpbcre. In
Guinea the heat with the moiftare conduce fo much
putreladfion, that the purefl- white fugars are often
full of maggots ; and their drugs foon lofe their vir-
tue, and" many of them grow verminous.

On this principle depends the ftrufture and of-
fice of the Hvgrometer, which is a machine or
inftrumcnt, whereby to meafure the degrees ofdry-
nefs, or moifture of the air.

There are divers kinds oi hygrometers ; for what-
ever body either fwells or fhrinks by drynefs or
moifture, is capable of being formed into an kygro-
meter. Such are wood ,f mod kinds, particularly
afh, deal, poplar, ^c. fuch alio is catgut, the
beard of a wild cat, i^c.

The beft and mofl ufual contrivances for this
purpofe are as follows :

Stretch a hempen cord, or a fiddle- firing, as
ABC [Fig. J.) along a wall, bringing it over a
truckle, or pully B ; and to the other extreme D,
tie a weight E, into which fit a ftyle or index F G.
On the iiime wall fit a plate of metal H I, divided
into any number of equal parts; and the hygrometer
is compleat.

For it is matter of undoubted obfervation, that
moifture fenfibly (hortens the length of cords and
firings ; and that as the moiflure evaporates, they
return to their former length ; and the like may be
faid of a fiddle ftring. The weight therefore, in
the prefent cafe, upon an increafe of the moifture
.of the air, will afcend ; and upon a diminution of
.the fame defcend.

Hence as the index F G will fhew the fpaces of
afcent and dcfcent ; and tiiofe fpaces are equal to
the incrcnients and decrements of the length of the
cord, or gut, A B D ; the inllrument will difco-
ver, whether the air be more or lefs humid now
than it was another given time.

Or thus : — If a more fenfible and accurate hygro-
meter be required ; (train a whipcord or fiddle- llring
over feveral truckles, or pulleys, A, B, C, D, F,
and G (Pig- 8.) and proceed with the reft as m
the former example. Nor does it matter whether
the feveral parts of the cord, A B, B C, CD, D
E, E F, and F G, be parallel to the horizon, as
expreffed in the prefent figure, or perpendicular to
the fame.

455

The advantage of this above the former hygrotre-
tir, is, that we have a greater length of cord in the
fame compafs : and the longer the cord, the great-
er its contradlion or dilatation.

Or thus : — Faften a hempen cord orfiddle-flring
A B (Fig. g.) to an iron hook; and let the other
end B, d.f end upon the middle of an horizontal
board or table E F ; near B hang a leaden wi-i;.';ht
of a pound C, and fit an index C G ; laftly, from
the center B defcribe a circle, which divide mto any
number of equal parts.

Or thus: — Faften one end of a cord, or fiddlc-
ftring H 1 (Fig. 10.) to a hook H ; and to the o-
thcrend faften a ball K, of a pound weight. Draw
two concentrick circles on the ball, and divide
them into any number of equal parts. Fit a ftyie
or index N O, into a proper fupport N, fo as the
extremity O may almoft touch the divifions of the
ball.

Here the cord or gut twiftingand untwifting, as
in the former cafe, will indicate tho change of
moifture, is'c. by the fucceffive application of fevc •
ral divifions of the circle to the index.

Or thus : — Provide two wooden frames, AB,
and C D (Fig. 1 1.) with grooves therein ; and be-
tween thofe grooves fit two thin leaves of alh, A
EEC, and G B D H, fo as they may eafily Aide
either way : at the extremes of the frame A, B,
C, D, confine the leaves with nails, leaving be-
tween them the fpace E G H F, about an inch
wide. On I faften a flip of brafs dented, I K ; and
in L a little dented wheel, upon whofe axis, on the
other fide of the machine, an index is to be put.
I.aftly, from the center of the axis, on the fame
fide, draw a circle, and divide it into any number
of equal parts.

Now, it being found by experience, that afh-
wood readily imbibes the moifture of the air, and
fwells therewith ; and as that moiftuie flackens
fhruiks again ; upon any increafe of the moifture
of the air, the two leaves AF and B H growing
turgid, will approach nearer each other : and again,
as the moifture abates, they will fhrink, and again
recede. Hence as the diftance of the leaves caa
neither be increafed nor diminiftied, without turn-
ing the wheel L, the Index will point out the chan-
ges in refpedl of humidity and ficcity.

Or thus : — As all the hygrometers above defcrib-
ed become fenfibly lefs and lefs accurate ; and at
length undergo no fenfible alteration at all from the
humidity of the air, the following one is much
more lafting.

Take a woiiofcope, and inftead of the exhaufted

ball E (Fig. 12.) fubftitute a fpunge, or other bo-

idy, which e.ifily imbibes moiliure. To prepare

1 the fpunge it may be necefTary, firft, to waili it

N n n 2 in

456 Tloe Univerfal Hiftory

m water; and when dry again, in water and vin -
gar, wherein fal armoni.ck, or fait of tartar has
been diffolved, and Itt it dry again.

Now, if the air become moi(}, the fpunge grow-
ing heavier will ponderate ; if dry, the fpunge will
be hoifted up ; and confcquently the index will (hew
the increafe or dccreafe of the humidity of the air.

In the laft mentioned hygrometer., Mr. Gould, in
the Phi/ofophieal tranfaclio;^i, inflead of a fpunge
recnmmends oil of vitriol, wnich is found to grow
fenfibly lighter or heavier, in proportion to the
greater or lefler quantity of moilture it imbibes from
the air ; fo that being fatiatcd in the moifteft wea-
ther, it afterwards retains or lofes its acquired
weight, as the air proves more or lefs moift:. The
alteration is fo great that in the fpace of fifty-feven
days, it has been known to change its weight from
three drachms to nine ; and has (hiftcd an index or
tongue of a ballance,V30 degrees. A fingle grain,
after its full increafe, has varied its equilibrium fo
fenfibly, that the tongue of a ballance only an inch
and a half long, defcribed an inch, one third c.f an
inch in compafs; which arch would have been al-
moft three inches, if the tongue had been one fool,
even with fo fmall a quantity of liquor; confequent-
ly, if more liquor expanded over a large furface
were ufed, a pair of fcales might afford as nice zby-
grometer as any yet invented. 1 he fame author
fuggefts, that ipirit of (ulphur per campanam, or
oil of tartar per deliquium, or the liquor of fixed ni-
tre, might be fubftituted in lieu of oil of vitriol.

This ballance may be contrived two ways, by
either having the pin in the middle of the beam,
with a flender tongue, a toot and a half long, point
ing to the divifions on an arched plate, as repre-
fented in Fig. 12.

Or, the fcale with the liquor may be hung to
the point of the beam near the pin, and the other
extreme be made fo long, as to dtfcribe a large arch
on a board placed for the purpofe, as reprefented

IVind being only air in motion, is alfo as fuch of
this province pneumaticks ; and the force thereof is
determined experimentally, by a peculiar machine,
called anemomet,r.

The Anemometer is varioufly contrived : in
the PhU.Jophical Tranja^ims we have one defcrib-
ed, wherein the wind being fuppofed to blow di-
redtlv againft a flat fide, or board that moves along
the graduated limb of a quadrant ; the number of
degrees it advances, fhews the comparative force
of the wind.

IVolfius gives the flrudure of another, which is
moved by means of fails A B C D (Fig. 17.) like
thofe of a wind mill ; which raife a weight L, that,
ftill the higher it goes receding further from the
center of motion, by Aiding along an hollow arm

of Arts and Sciences.

K M, fitted to the axis of the fails, becomes hea-
vier and heavier, and prefles more and more on
the arm, till being a counterpoifc to the force of
the wind on the fails, it ftops the motion thereof.
An index, then, M N, fitted upon the fame axis
at right angles with the arm, by its rifing or fall-
ing, points out the ftrength of wind, on a plane
divided like a dial-plate into degrees.

M. d'Onfenlray^ has invented a new anemometer,
which of itfelf exprefles on paper, not only the fe-
vcral winds that have blown during the fpace of 24
hours, and what hour each began, and ended, but
alfo the different ftrengths or velocities of each.

Wind-mills being machines, which receive
their motion from the impulfe of the wind, come
alfo under this article.

The wind-mil!, though a machine common e-
nougb, has yet fomewhat in it more ingenious than
it is ufually imagined. Add, that it is common-
ly allowed to have a degree of perfeftion, which
few of the popular engines have attained to, and
which the makers are but little aware of. Though
the new geometry has furnifhed ample matter for
its improvement.

The internal ftru£lure of the wind-mill is much
the fame with that of water-mills. The difference
between them lies chiefly in an external apparatus,
for the application of the power.

This apparatus confifls of an axis E F {Fig. 15.)
through which pafs two arms, or yards, A B and
C D, interfefling each other at right angles in E,
whofe length is ufually about 32 feet : on thefe
yards are formed a kind of fails, vanes, or flights,
in the figure of the trapezeums, with parallel ba-
fes, the greater whereof H I, is about fix ftet, and
the lefs F G, determined by radii drawn from the
center E, to I and H.

Thefe fails are to be capable of being always
turned to the wind, that they may receive its im-
preflions : in order to which there are two diffe-
rent contrivances, which conflitute the two diffe-
rent kinds of wind-mills in ufe.

In the one, the whole machine is fuftained up-
on a moveable arbor or axis, perpendicular to the
horizon, on a ftand or foot ; and turn'd occafio-
nally this vi'ay or that by means of a lever.

Jnthe other, only the cover or roof of the ma-
chine, with the axis an J fails, turn round. In or-
der to which the cover is built turret-wife, and the
turret encompalFed with a wooden ring, wherein
is a groove, at the bottom whereof are placed, at
certain dillances, a number of brafs truckles, and
within the groove is another ring, upon which the
whole turret ftands. To the moveable ring are
connedted beams a b and f c ; and to the beam
\a b in b is faftened a rope, which, at the other ex-

tream

P 0 E

frcam thereof is fitted to a windlafs, or axis in pe-
ritochio: this rope being drawn through the iron
hook G, and the windlafs turned, the fails will be
moved round, and put in the ciireftion requir'd.

M. Parent confidering (whence an elliptical
wind-mill) what figure the fails of a ivlnd w;7/{liall
have, to receive the greateft impulle from the
wind, he determines it to be a feiStor of an clliplis,
■whofe center is that of the axis or arbor of the mill ;
and the little femi-axis, the height of thirty-two
feet ; as for the greater, it foUov.'s neceflarily from
the rules that dircdt the fail to be inclined to the
axis in an angle of 55 degrees.

On this foot he alTumes four fuch fails each
whereof is one fourth of an ellipfis ; which he
fhews, will receive all the wir.d, and lofe none, as
the common ones do. Thefe four furfaces multi-
plied by the lever, with which the wind afls on one
of them, exprefs the whole power the wind had
to move the machine, or the whole power the
machine has when in motion.

The fame manner of reafoning, applied to a
common wind-mill, whofe fails are rectangular,
and their length about five times their breadth ;
{hews that the ellipiick wind-mill has above feven
times the power of the common one. A prodigi-
ous advantage ! and worthy fure, to have the com-
mon practice fet afide for, could io common a
practice be eafily changed.

A wind-mill, with fix elliptick fails, he fhews,
would (iill have more power than one with four. ---
It would only have the fame furface with the four ;
fince the four contain the whole fpace of the el-
lipfis as well as the fix. But the force of the fix
would be greater than that of the four, in the ra-
tio of 245 to 231. If it were dcfiied to have only
two fails, each being a femi- ellipfis, the furface
would be ftill the fame, but the power would be
diminilhed, by near one third of that with fix
fails ; by reaibn the greatnefs of the fectors would
much fliorten the levers with which ihe wind acts.

But as the elliptical fails would be fomething fo
new, that there is little room to expect they will

R r.

457

come into common ufc ; (he fame author has con-
fider'd which form, am<)ng the rectangular ones,
will be the mofi advantageou;-, /. c. which, the
product of whofe furface, by the lever of the wind,
will be the greateff. And by the method de max-
i/i is (s" minimis (explained in my trcatife of me-
chanicks, under the letter AJ) he finds it vtry dif-
ferent from the common ones.

The rcfult of his enquiry is, that the width of
the rectangular fail, fhould be nearly double its
length ; whereas the length is ufually made almcft
fives times the width. Add, that as we rail heiiiht
or lengtii, the dimenfion which is taken from the
center of the axis : the greateft dimenfion of the
new reiSlangular fail will be turned towards the ax-
; is, and the fmaileft from it ; quite contrary to the
I pofition of the common fails.

The power of a wind mill, with four of thefe
\ new rectangular fails, M. Parent (hews will be to
the power of four elliptick fails, tiearly as 13 to
23 ; which leaves a confiderable advantage on the
fide of the elliptick ones : yet will the force of the
new redfangular fails be confiderably greater than
that of the common ones.

yi. Parent, likewife, confiders what number of
the new fails will be the moft advantageous, and
finds that the fewer fails the more furlace there will
be, but the lefs power. The ratio of the power
of a wind mill with fix fails, will be to another
with four, nearly as 14 to 13 : and the power of
another with two, will be to that with four, nearly
as 13 to g.

As to the common wind-mill, its power ftill di-
minifhes as the breadth of the fails is fmaller, in
proportion to the length. The ufual proportion,
therefore, of 5 to i, is exceedingly advantageous.

The ufes of this new theory of wind-mills are
very obvious — The more power a vjind-mill has,
tiie fwifcer it turns, the more it difpatches, and
the lefs wind it needs. Add, that on this theory
one may have a wind-mil!, whofe fails fhall be a
deal fhorter, and yet the power greater than the
common one.

P 0 E T RT.

OETRY, or poefy, is an art founded on a
natural genius of compofing poems, or other
pieces in verje.

Verse, (vcrfus) is a line or part of a difcourfe,
confifting of a certain number of long or (ho;t fyl-
lables, which run with an agreeable cadence.

1 he Griik and Latin verfes (which are the only

ones learned in the fchools) confift of a certain
number of feet, difpofed in a certain order.

Verfes are of various kinds ; fome denominated
from the number of feet whereof they are com-
pofed ; as the manometer, diiueter, trimeter, tetra-
meter, pentameter, examcter, &c. fomc from the
kinds of feet ufed in them ; as xht pyrrhichian, pr:-
celeajmatick, ian.biik, trochaick, da£iyliik, anapie-

Jiich,

458 lie Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

jiic''., jpond/i'id, chor-tambick^ rindi-daflyllck, and

daiiylotroihalck. Sonifctimes from the names of

the inventor, or the authors who have ufed them
with more fuccefs ; as the cinacreontick, archtlocljian,
h'lppoiw^ick, p/jfrcdrotia)!, glyconiati, alcmanian, aj-
chpiadecm, alcoick, jhfuhor'nin, phalifcan, artjlopha-
nian,calUmach'um, ((dfiamhick, phaLrcian, and Jap-
phick. Sometimts from the fubjedl, or thecircum-
flances of thecompofition ; as the heioici, cUgiack,
adonick, &c.

The verffs moft commonly ufed in the Latin
poeti'y, are the hexameter., pentameter., iamhlck, and
I'apphtck ; and almoft the only ones learned in the
Ichools.

The Hexametee is a verfe confiding of fix
feet, the firib four thereof may be indifferently
dailyli, or fpondeei ; but the fifth mufl be always a
datiyU and the laft ^.Jpondce.

This fort of verfe is ufed both in the Greek and
Latin poetry • fuch is that oi Homer, for the Greek.

Ei{ viu^fjt, i^^t^xi, exit 0«O5 exStxot o//.,w.«.

And that of Virgil, for the Lati?i :

Difcite juftitiam nioniti, (J non temnere divos,

Epick poems, as the Iliad, Odyjfee, Mneid, and all
the other works of Virgil, confift of hexameter
verfes alone : elegies and epiftles ordinarily confift
alternately of hexameters and pentameters .

A foot., in the Greek and Latin poetry, is a mea-
fure compofed of a certain number of long and ihort
fyllables ; and confequently depends entirely on
quantity and meafure ; which quantity denotes the
meafure or magnitude of the fyllables, or that
which determines them to be called longor Jhort.

The qna titles are ufed to be diftinguiflied by
the charaiTlers " fliort, and - long.

Some authors confound the quantities with the
accent ; but the difference is glaring ; the former
being the length or fhortnefs ol a fyllable, the
latter the raifing or falling of the voice.

There are different kinds of feet, — viz. the
fpondce, iambic, trochee, and pyrrich, which confift
of two i'yllables each. — The dactyl, anapc?Jl, mo-
lojj'us, tritr.'ch, hacchius, anti-bacchius, amphibrachys.

by others hegemona.

The Dactyl h a footconfifting of a long fyl-
lable, followed by two fnort ones : — as carmine,
&c.

The fpondce has an even, ftrong, and fteady
pace like a trot : the duP.yl refembles the nimbler
ftrokes of a gallop,

ANAi'iEST is a foot, confifting of two fiiort,
and one long f\ liable ; — as Icgcrint.

The MoLossus is a foot, confiding of three
long fyllables ; — as aiidirl.

TheTRiRRACH is a foot, confifting of three
fyllables, and thofe all (hort : — as m'eiiits. Some
of the antients call this foot trochaus.

The Bacchius is a foot, confifting of three
fyllables ; whereof the iirft is ftiort, and the others
long . — as cgcjlas.

The Antibacchius is a foot, confifting of
three fyllables ; the two firft whereof are long, and
the third ftiort : — as cdnture.

The Amphibrachys is a foot, confifting of
three fyllables, the firft and laft whereof are ftiort,
and that in the middle lon<r : — as amdre.

The Choriameus is a foot compounded of a
choraeus, or trochasus, and an iambus. — It confifts
ot four f)llablcs; of which the firft and lall are
long; and the two middle ones fliort: — as
FilTolw.

The Epitrite is a foot confifting of four fyl-
lables, three long, and one fliort.

Grammarians reckon four fpecies of epitrites;
the firft confifting of an iambus and fpondee : — as
fdliitdntes. — The fecond of a trochee and fpondee :
as concitat't. — The third of a fpondee and an iam-
bus : as communlcdns. — And the fourth of a fpon-
dee and trochee : as Incantdre.

The Proceleusmaticus is a foot confifting
of four fhort fyllables : as drictdt.

The Pentameter verfe, confift of five feet,
or metres. — 1 he two firft feet may be either dac-
tyls or fpondees ; the third always a fpondee ; and
the two laft anapaj) : thus ;

Cay mini\hus vi\ves tem\pusin c\mne mels.

In all kinds of verfe, the poet fhould take great
care to mark well the calures, which is a certain

and orf/V«j, confifting of three fyllables each. — The : agreeable divifion of the words between the feet

■proceleufmaticus, choriambus, and epitrite, which are
of lour tyll.ibles each.

I'he Spondee, in the Creek ?Kni. Latin profo-
dy, is a foot of verfe, confifting of two long fylla-
bles.— As vertunt.

The Iambic is a foot confifting of a fhort fyl-
lab'e, followed by a long one; as in Dei, nieds.

The Pyrp.ichius, or Pvrrich is a footcon-
fifting of two fyllables, both fliort ; — as deces. —
a\mong the antients this foot is called periambus ;

of the verfe, whereby the laft fyllable of a word
becomes the firft of a foot.

As in —

Arma virumque cam trojee qui primus al oris.

Where the fyllables no and ja are oefures.

Iambick verfes are a kind of verfe, confifting in
great part of iambick feet.

Iambick verfes may be confider'd, either with

regard to the diverfity. or the number of their feet ;

under each of which head, there are diftindt kinds

1 which

P 0 E r RT.

which have different names i. Pure iambicks,

or thofe which confift entircl/ of wwAz/i's; as the
fourth piece of Catiile^ made in praife of a fhip.
Phajelus iile, quein videtis hofpiles.

The fecond kind are thofe called iimply iam-
hicks. — Thefe have no iambus's, but in the even
feet J though there arc fometimes trylacbys'i added
to them, excepting to the laft, which is always an
iambus; and in the uneven feet they hiVi: fpoiulecs,
anapesjls, and even a da^yl in the firft ; fuch is
that of Medea in Ovid :

Servare potui, pcrdere an pajjim rogas ?

The third kind are the free iambick verfes, in
which it is not abfolutely neceflary there fliould be
any iambus, excepting in the lalt foot; of which
kind are all thofe of Phadrus :

Amittit merito proprium, qui alienum appetit.

In comedies, the authors fcjdom confine theni-
felves more, frequently lefs, as we may oblerve in
Plautus and Terence ; but the fixth is always in-
difpenfibly an iambus.

As to the varieties occafioned by the number of
fyllables ; — Dimeter iambick, is that which has
but four feet :

^ueruntur in fyliis aves.

Thofe whicli have fix are called trimeters :
thefe are the moft beautiful, and are ufed princi-
pally for the theatre ; particularly in tragedy ;
wherein they are vaftly preferable to the verfes,
often ti:n ortwelve feet, ufed in the modern drama ;
in regard they come nearer to the nature of profe,
and favour lei's of art and afFe6tation.

Dit conjugales, tuque geniahs tori
Lucina cujios. Sic.

Thofe with eight are called tetrameters, and are
only ufed in comedies :

Pecuniam in loco negligere, maximum eft lucrum.

Terent.

Some add an iambick manometer, with two feet.
Virtus beat.

They are called moncmeters, dimeters, trimeters,
and tetrameters ; that is, of one, two, three, and
four meafures, becaufe a mea'ure confified of two
feet ; the Greeks meafuring their varies, two feet
by two feet, or by dipody:>, or epitrites, joining
the iambus &nd/pondee together.

All the iambicis hitherto mentioned are perfeSf ;
they have their juil number of feet, without any
thing either deficient or redundant^ — Tiie imper-
fe£i iambicki are of three kinds ; the cataleclick,
which wants a fyllable :

Muja "Juvem canebaut.

The bracli)catale£lick, which wants an entire
foot :

MufcT yovis gnata.

The hypercataleciick, which have either a foot
cr a fyllable too much : \

459

Mufie for ores fu r.t Alincrviv,
Mupe jorort'S Palladis lugent.
Many of the hymns and anthems ufed in the
church are dimeter icimbicks, that is, confifting of
four feet.

The Sapphick, is a kind of vcrfe much ufed by
the Greeks and Latins, and ctjnfifts of eleven fyl-
lables, or five feet ; whereof the firil, fourth, and
fifth, are troches, the fecond a fpondee, and the
third a daiSlyl, as in.

Integer vit^r, fcelerifque ; purus,
Notieget mauri jaculis nee arcu. Hor.

Three verfes of this kind clofed with an adonitk
vcrfe, confifling of a dadlyl and fpondee, ufually
make a ftrophc.

'J'he Adonick confifls of a daflyl, and a fpon-
dee, or a trochee. — As rara javenius.

The chief ufe of the adonick is at the end of

each flrophe of fapphick verfe ; or among ariflo-

[ phanick anapasfls in the aiitient tragedy.

I But to n)al'.e a verfe, there are further required

certain agreeable cadences ; and a certain har-

I mony in the order, quantities, i^c. of the feet and

' fyllables ; which make the piece mufical to the

ear, and fit for finging : and this is called numbers

in poetry.

7'he mnnbers conftitute the air and chara£ler of
a verfe ; and denominate it ekhcrfmooth, foft, loiVy
rough, ox fonorous.

But what is chiefly required in making verfes,
is an elevated, bold, figurative manner of didion :
this manner is a thing (o peculiar to this kind of
writing, that without it, the moft exact arrange-
ment of longs and fhorts, does not coniHtute verfe
fo much as a fort of meafured profe.

When we have made a verje., the next thing we
muftdo, to know if it be a good one, is to fcan it,
i.e. meafure it, to fee what number of feet and
fyllables it contains, and whether or no the quan-
tities, thatisj the long and fhort fyllables, be duly
obferved.

A Poem is a compofitlon in vcx{e, of a due
length and meafure.

There are poems of various kinds , fome deno-
minated from the perfons who firfi: invented, or
moft ufed them, as the archilochla, fapphick, &c. —
Others from their compofition, as the mo>iocolon->
confifting of one kind of verfe ; dicolon, of two J

and tricolon, of three kinds. Others fiom their

entirenefs or deficiency ; as brachycatalenus, which
wants two fyllables ; cataleSius, w hich wants «ne ;
acataleiius, none ; and hypercatalecius, wl.i'.h has
a fyllable too m.uch, which if cut ofF at the be-
ginning of the next verle, the verfe is laid to be
hypermeter.——Oth<:is are denominated from the

fubjea

460

^ubjeft matter
epinkion, ephhalamlum

7he Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^wJ Sciences.

as the apobaterion, epibnicriori, lance; and the fourtli ^ara/m ; to which fome add

gencthliack, p'opempticA, a fifth, integrity.

elegicuk, fatyrick^ epicdiaii, epitaph, tbrenas or
lamentation, encomiajiick, par.cgyrld, foterick, ly-

rick, pajioial, he. Others lioni the manner of

rarration ; as exegctick, which relates a thing un-
der the author's own perfon, dramatlckznA epick.

The Apobaterion, among the antients, wa''
a farewell fpcech, or poem, made by a perfon on
his departure out of his own country, or fomc other
place where he had been kindly received and en-
tertained.

Such is that of Mtieas to Helenus, and Androma-
che, JEn. lib. III.

The Epilaterion is a poetical compofition
in ufe among the ancient Greeks. When any
perfon of condition and quality returned home
after a long abfence or journey, into another
country, he called together his friends and fellow-
citizens, ai d made them a fpeech, or rehearLd
them a copy of verfes, wherein he returned folemn
thanks to the immortal 'gods for his happy return,
and ended with an addrefs, by way of compliment,
to his fellow- citizens.

Thefe verfes made what the Greeks C7i\\ tiri^xlv^ioti,
epilaterinm, of £iii3ai»w, / go abroad.

The Epinicion was a poem or compofition,
on occafion of a victory obtained. Scaliger treats
exprefiy of the epinicion, in his poeticks. lib i. c. 44-

The Epithalamium is a nuptial fong, or a
compofition, ufually in verfe, on occafion of a
marriage between two perfons of eminence.

Thetopicks it chiefly confiflson, are the praifes
of matrimony, and of the married couple ; with
the pomp and order of the marriage folemnity:
It concludes with prayers to the gods for their

profperity, their happy offspring, is'c. Catullus

exceeded all antiquity in his epithalamiums ; and
the chevalier Marino all the moderns.

But all thefe and all thofe which follow are not
properly to be called poems, and do not all belong
to the grand poetry ; fince of all pieces of /la^/rj,
the epick and dramalick deferve that name by way
of eminence.

The Epick is an heroick poem, or a poem re-
citing fome great and fignal tranfadtion of a hero ;
called alfo epopa^ia.

Such are the Iliad and Od}Jfee oi Homer, the
JEneid of Virgil, the Gierufaleme of TaJJ'o, and the
Paradife hji of Milton ; which are the principal
poems of the epick kind.

The criticks lay down four qualification?, as
neceflary to the epick and tragick aftion. The
firft unity ; the fccond Ungth j the third irnfor-

The unity of the ^/)/ti aflion, M. Dacieroh-
fervfis, does not confift in the unity of thch-iro, or
in the unity of his charadler and manner. Though
thefe be circumftances neceflary thereto. The
. -.if/ ofaBion requires that there be but one prin-
cipal adion, of which all the reft are to be inci-
dents or dependencies,

F. Holi'u affigns three things requifite thereto.
The firfV, that no epifode be iifed, but what is
fetched from the plan and groundof the action,
and which is a natural member of that body : the
fecond, that thefe epifodes and members be well
connected with each ether : the third io not to
finifh any epifode, fo as it may appear a whole
aftion ; but to let each be always feen in its qua-
lity of member of the body and an unfiniflied part.

As for the unity of time it is not very well efta-
blifhed.

Kut the length of the poem /Irijlotle gwez us a
rule for, which is, that it be fuch, as it may be read
over in one day.

As to the importance of the epick aftion, there
are two ways of providing for it : the firft by the
dignity and importance of the perfons. This way
alone Homer makes ufe of; there being otherwife
nothing great and important in his models, but
what might have happen'd to ordinary perfons.
The fecond by the importance of the a£}ion itfelf,
fuch as the eftablilhment or downfal of a religion,
or a ftate; which is Virgil's aftion, and in which
he has much the advantage of Homer.

Bojfu mentions a third way of making the adlion
important, viz. by giving a higher idea of the per-
fonages, than what the reader conceives of all that
is great among men. — This is done by comparing
the men of the poem with the men of the prefent
time.

The aftion of the epick poetry is like that of the
drama, fufceptible of oratorial narration, which
conftitutes its fpecies ; the qualities thereof are,
that it be agreeable, probable, moving, furprizing,
and aftive.

Boileau gives the following rules for the epick
pcem,

I . He advifes the poet to chufe a hero, deferving
the attention of the reader, and capable to flatter
his curio ity, and engage him to proceed further,
without being tired of reading; fuch a hero, as his
great valour, rare virtues, and even his imper-
feflions, may deferve to be admired ; and high
feats worthy of being heard ; fuch as Alexander,
Cafar, he. And not fuch as Polynice and his
perfidious brother, for one is foon tired with the
deeds of a common conqueror.

2. He

POETRY.

461

2. He forewarns him againft loading his fubjeft
with too many incidents ; fince often, fays he, a ;
tco great abundance, impovcrifh the matter. i

3. He ought to be lively and quick in his nar-l
rations ; rich and pompous in his defcriptions ; j
without ever introducing into them low or mean 1
circumftances. j

4. The beginning of his poem fliould be fim.ple, j
and without afFedlaticn ; without promifing mbre!
at fitft than he can perform in the feqtiel. I

5. His work mull be diverfified with a great!
number of figures; mixing, as we have already
obferved, the agreeable with the ufeful ; fince a
too tedious, and heavy fublimej ij alv/ays hateful.

The Drama Is a piece or poem, compofed for
the {}age.

Our drama's are tragedies and corned!, s.

The primary parts oi the drama, as divided by
the antients, are the protafis, epitajis, catajlafts^ and
cataflrophe.

T\\e. fccondary farts arc the a£is zn'j. fcenes.

The accejfary parts are the argument or fummary,
the prologue, chorus, mimus, jatura, and atellana.

Laflly, the epilogue, which pointed out the ufe
of the piece, or conveyed fome other notice to the
audience, in the poet's name.

Now let's explain every one of thofe parts in
particular, beginning by the primary parts.

The Protasis, in the ancient drama, was the
firft part of a comick and tragick piece ; wherein
the feveral perfons of the play arc fhewn ; their
characters and manners intimated, and the action,
which is to make the fubjeit of the piece, propofed,
and entered upon,

The antient protafis might go about as far as

our two firfl ails. Where the protafis ended,

the epitafts commenced.

1 he Epitasis, was the tcond part or divifion
of a dramatick poem ; wherein t'ne plot or aui;ion
propos'd, and cnter'd upon in the firft part or
protajis, was carried on, heighten'd, warmed, and
worked upon, till it arrived at its (late or height,
called the catajlafis.

The Catastasis, was the third part of the
antient drama ; being that wherein the intrigue or
aiSlion fet on foot on the epitafts, is fupported,
carried on, and heighten'd, till it be ripe for the
unravelling in the cata/lrcphe.

The Catastrophe made the fouith and laft
part in the antient dr?.ma ; or that immediately
fucceeding the cataftafs.

The catajlrophe is the change or revolution of a

dramatick poem ; or the turn which unravels the

intrio-ue, and terminates the piece.

° Vol. II. 47.

The cataflrophe is c\xhcT fimplc or implex, whence
alfo the fiibie and .iction are denominated.

In the firft there is no change in the ftale of the
principal perfons, nor any difcovery or unravelling ;
the plot being only a mere paflage out of agitation
to quiet and rcpofc. This cataflrophe is rather
accommodated to the nature of epopceia, than oft
tragedy. Indeed we meet with it in fome of the
antients, but it is out of doors amona; the moderns.
In the fecond, the principal perfon undergoes a
change of fortune, fomotimes by means of a dif- •
covery, and fometimcs without.

The qualifications of this change, orpeiipctia,
are, that it be probable and neceffary , in order to
be probable, it is requited it be the natural refult-
or efrcCt of the foregoing actions, ;'. e. it muft
fpring from the fubje£l itfelf, or take its rife from!
the incidents ; and not be introduced merely to
ferve a turn. The difcovery in the catajlrophe ,
muft have the fame qualifications as the catajlrophe
itfelf, whereas it is a principal part : it muft be
both probable and ncccil'ary. To he probable, it
muft fpring out of the fubjefl itfelf j not be effec-
ted by means of marks, or tokens, rings, bracelets,
or by a mere recolleiSlion, as is frequently done
both by the antients and moderns. To be ne-
ceffary, it muft leave the perfons it concerns, in
the fame fcntiments they had before, but ftill pro-
duce either love or h.atred, Uc. i>omctimes the
change confifts in the difcovery ; fometimes it
follows at a dirtancc, and fometimes refults imme-
diately from it, vihich is the moft beautiful kind :
and thus it is in ccdipus.

Dryden thinks a catajlrophe, refulting from a
mere change in the fentiments, and refolutions of a
perfon, without any farther machinery, may be fo
managed as to become exceedingly beautiful, nay
preferable to any other. It is a difpute among the
criticks, whether the cataftrophe fhould always fall
out happily and favourably on the fide of virtue, or
not ? /'. e. whether virtue is always to be rewarded,
and vice puniflied in the catajlrophe ? but the
reafons on the negative fide fecm the ftrongeft,
Arijlptle prefers a flrocking catajlrophe to a happy
one ', in regard the moving of terror and puv,
which is the aim of tragedy, is better effefled by
the former than the latter.

Boffu divides the catajlrophe, at leaft, with re-
gard to the epopoea, into the unravelling or denoue-
ment ; and the aihevement, or finiftiing ; the laft
of which he makes the refult of the firft; and to
confift in the hero's pallage out of a ftate of trou-
ble and agitation, to reft and quiet. This period
is but a point, without extent or dur~"ion ; in
which it diff"ers from the firft, which comprehends
every thing after the knot or plot laid. He adds,
Ooo that

462 Tlje UnivciTal Hiftory of Arts rt«<a? Sciences.

that there are fevcral unravclliiigs in the piece ; in
regard there arc feveral knots which beget one
another: the finifhing is the end of the laft un-
ravelling.

As to the fecondary parts, w'z. a^s and fcenes.

The Acts are certain divifions or pr/ncipal
parts 111 a dramatick poem, contrived to give a
refpice or breathing time both to the adors and
fpeclators.

In the interval between the afts, the theatre re-
mains empty, and without any adtion vifible to the
,fpe£lators ; though it is fuppofed all tiie while
there is one puffing out of fight.

It was the Romans who firft introduced a<£^s into
the drama; and'm Horace's time the five afts were
grown into a law ; and all plays are held irregular,
that have either more or lefs than five a(fts.

The f?-Ji is to propofe the matter or argument
of the fable, and to Ihew the principal character.
— 'I he fecond, to bring the affair or bufinefs opon
the carpet. — The third, to furnifli obftacles
and difficulties. — The fourth, either points a
remedy for thofe difficulties, or finds new in the
attempt. — The fifth puts an end to all by a dif
covery.

Some are of opinion, that, on the principles
of that great mallfr of the drama, Arijiotle, we
may have a juff and regular play, though only di-
vided into th'ce afis.

The aHi are fubdivided into fccnes.

A Scene is a part or divifion of a dramatick
poem, determin'd by a new actor's entering.

Whenever a new aftor r.ppears, or an old one
difapptars, the adion \z changed into ether hands,
and a new fcene then commences.

It is one of the laws of the ftage, that the jccna
be well conneftcd : that is, that one fucceed ano-
ther in fuch manner, as that the ftage is never
quite empty till the end of the afl:.

As to the rcccjfary parts. — The Argument or
fumman; was an abridgment of the whole play ;
.which at prefent, is -.jlmolt out of ufe.

The Prologue is a difcourfe addreffed to the
audience, before the dram.i or play begins.

T^he original ir.tention of the prologue, was to
advcrtife the audience of the fiibjedt of the piece,
and to prepare them to enter more eafily into the
aftion i and fometimcs to make an apology for the
poet.

The Chorus, vcas one, or more perfons, pre-
fent on the ihige during the reprefentation, and
fuppofed to be by-flanders thereto, without any
particular Ihare or intereft in the adlion.

The ihorus in cojnedy was at firft no more than a
fingle perfon, who fpoke in the anticiit compofures
for the ftage ; the poets by degrees added to him
another ; then two, afterwards three, and at lait
more ; iu that the moft antient comedies had no-
thing but the chorus.

Laftly, the Epilogue is a fpeech addreflld to
the audience when the play is over, by one of the
principal perfons or aitors therein ; containing
ufually fome rcflecl^ions on certain incidents in the
play, particularly thofe of the parts of the perfon
who fpeaks it.

In the modern tragedy, the epilogue has ufually
fomewhat of pleafantry ; intended, we fuppofe, to
compofe the paffions raifed in the courfeof the re-
prefentation, and (end away the audience in good
humour.

We'll examine next the whole compofition, be-
ginning with tragedy.

The Tragedy is a dramatick poem, repre-
fenting fome fignal action performed by illuftrious
perfons, and which has frequently a fatal ilTue or
end.

Tragedy, in its original, M. Hedelin obferves,
was only a hymn fung in honour of Bacchus by
feverral perfons, who, together, made a chorus of
mufick with dances and inftruments.

As this was long and might fatigue the fingers,
as well as tire the audience, they bethought them-
felves to divide the finging of the chorus into feve-
ral parts, and to have certain recitations in the
intervals, as already obferved.

Accordingly Thefpis firfl: introduced a perfon on
the ftage with this view : j^fchyllus finding one
perfon infufficicnt, introduced a fecond to enter-
tain the audience more agreeably by a dialogue :
he alfo cloathed his perfons more decently, and
firft put on them the bufkin.

The perfons who made ihefe recitations on the
fcene, were called actors ; fo that tragedy at firil
was without adors. And what they thus rehearfed,
being things added to the finging of the chorus,
whereof they were no ueceflary part, were called
cpijades.

Sophocles found that two perfons were not enough
for the variety of incidents, and therefore introduc-
ed a third. And here the Greeh feem to have
flopped ; at leaft It is very rare that they introduce
four fpeakers in the fame fcene.

When tragedy was got into a better form, they
changed the meafure of its verfe, and endeavoured
to bring the adtion within the compafs of a day.

The feveral parts of the modern tragedy, are the
act, fcene, falile, characters^ manners. We have

already

p 0 E r R r.

4^3

already explained the act and the fccm, therefore
we'll now take notice o^t\\c fable, Sec.

The Action, in the tr-xjedy, requires unity,
integrity, importan:e, and duration.

In the drama, there are three unities to be ob-
ferv'd ; the unity of actlo.i, that of time, and that
of the place.

The unity of the dramatick aiElion, confifts in
tragedies, in the unity of the danger j and, in
comedies, in that of the intrigue -, aud this not only
in the plan of the fable, but alfo in the fable ex-
tended, and filled with epifodcs.

The epifo'les are to be worked in without cor-
rupting the unity, or forming a double aiflion ; and
the fe/eral members are to be fo conncfted toge-
ther, as to be confident with that continuity of
action, fo neceflary to the body, and which
Horace prefcribes, when he fays, Sit qiioduls fim-
plex duntaxat i^ unum.

To the unity of time, it is required in the drama,
that the a£lion be included in the fpace of a day.

The antient tragick poets fomctimes difpenfed
with this rule, and among the modern EngHJJi ones
many of them difallow it : few of them p;ai51ire it.
As to the unity of place, and Jiene, neither Horace
nor Arlflotle gives us any rules relating thereto. It
has been agreed, that what paffes any where in the
fame town, or city, fhall be allowed for utiliy of
place. — At leaft, if two different places be unavoi-
dable ; yet the place Is never to be changed in the
fame aft.

In order to the Integrity of the a^lon, it is ne-
ceflary, according to Arlflotle, that it have a be-
ginning, middle, and end, The caufes and defigns
of a man's doing an adlon, are the beginning; the
effeSts of thefe caufes, and the. difficulties met withal
in the execution of thofe defigns, are the middle of
it ; and the unravelUng and extricating of thofe
difficulties, the ^k.^ of the action.

In the caufes of an aStlati one may obferve two
opposite de/lgns; the firfl: and principal is that of
the hero : the fecond comprehends all their defigns,
who oppofe the pretenfion o( the hero. Thefe op-
pofite caufes do alfo produce oppofite effcils, viz.
the endeavours of the hero to accomplifh his de-
fign, and the endeavours of thofe that are againft
It. As the caufes and defigns are the beginn'ii:^
of the aStlon ; fo thofe contrary endeavours are the
middle of it ; and form a difficulty, plot, or in-
trigue, which makes the greatefl: part of the pr>em.
The folution or clearing up of this difficulty,
makes the unravelling.

The unravelling of the plot, or intrl:5;uc, may
happen two ways, either with a difcovcry or
without.

The fevcral cfiv6ls, which the unravelling pro-
duce, and the different flates to which it rcducts
the perfons, divid.-s the aStlan into fo many kinds.
If it changes the fortune of the principal pcrfon, it
ii (aid to be with a peripetia ; a:;d the aitlon is de-
nominated Implex, or mixed : if there be no peripe-
tia, but the unravelling be a mere paffing from ac-
tion to repofe, the ail Ion is fmiple.

The Fable is ufed for the plot of an eplck o"
dramatick poem ; or the aEtion, v/hich makes the
fubjcdt of fuch poem or romance,

I he fable, accordinj; to ArijUtle, is the principal
part, and, as it were, the foul of a poem. It mu't:
be confidcr'd as thefirft foundation of the compo-
fition ; or the principle vvliich gives life and motion
to all the parts. In this fenfe (he fable is defined,
A dlfcourfe Inven 'ed with art, to form the manners
by tnjlruollons difguijcd under the allegory of an
action.

The characters that fpecify the epick fable, are
thefe : it is rational and probable ; ic imitates a
whole, and an important a^SHon, and it is long,
and related in verfe.

The fable, according to Ailjhtle, confifis of two
cflentiai parts, viz. truth, as its foundation ; and
fiction, which difguifes the truth, and gives to it
the form o( a. fable. The tr-uth is the point o^ mo-
rality intended to be inculcated ; the fiction is the
adtion, or words the luflructlon is covered under.

To make a plot or Jable; the firft thing, accord-
ing to the great critick juft mentioned, is to pitch
on fome moral inftruetion to be exemplified.

The fiition may be fo difguifed with the truth
of hiftory, that there fhall not appear any fiflion at
all. To efleftthis the poet looks back iiro hiflorv,
for the names of fome pcrfons to whom the feigned
aftion eithei- re dly or probably did happen ; and re-
lates it under thofe known names, with circum-
ftances which do not change any thing of the
ground of the fable.

The Ch.'Vracters, in the epopcsia and drama,
is the refiiit of the manners, or that which each
pcrfon has fmgular and peculiar in his manners,
whereby he is diftingiiilhed Irom others.

There mull b? one character reign over all the
reft ; and this mull be found in every part: juft as
the fame hero, in fevera! paintings, fhould have the
fame lines and features, how different foever his
poftures and paffions mav be.

The firft quality, in Homer s Achilles, is wrath;
in Ulyffes, diflimulation ; and in f'lrgU's /Eneas,
mildnefs : each of witjch may, by way of eminence,
be called the character of thefe heroes.

Thefe are never to go alone, but always to he

accompanied with others, to give thcni the greater

O o o 2 luftrc

464

The Unverfal Hlfiory

luftre, either by hiding their defefls, as in AchiUesy
whole anger is palliated by a v/orld of courage : or
by making them center in ("onie Iblid virtue, as in
XJlyJJli, whofedifTmiulation makes a part of his pru-
dence ; and /F.mas^ whole mildnefs is chicily em-
ployed in a /libmifTion to the will of the gods.

Thele fecondary qualities of courage, prudence,
and fubmiffion, make the goodnefs of the character
of thofe heroes, aud even of the poems.

For the unity of fA^i^v/t/cr, we have Horaces cx-
prefs comniand, fit quodvis fimpIeXf duntaxat isf
zmum. Bojfii adds, that the character is not lefs
the foul of the hero and the whole action, than the
fable is of the poem.

The unity o( character is not only to be kept in
the hero, and the feveral other perfons of the piece,
but alfo in that of the poem itfclf : that is, all the
character!, how oppofite focver, mud center and
reunite in that of tke hero ; and be lb fwayed by
it, as that this alone may fecm to govern through-
out the whole. Thus Homer makes wrath prevail
throughout the whole Iliad ; and artifice and
diffimulaticn throughout the Odyjfee : the hero's
character is perceived every where, has its full
fwing, and is favoured by the fimilitude of the cha-
racters, of fome of the other perfons. FIrgil has 3.
great difficulty to grapple with to preferve this uni-
ty ; in regard of the direft oppofition between the
humours of this hero, and thofe of fome other of
his perfons, as Turnus, Mczentius , Dido, &c. he
therefore takes care not to carry thcfe oppofite cha-
racters to thiir full length, but moderates and re-
flrains them : and as that moderation could not
flow naturally from the perfons thcmfelves, it is
produced either by fome paffion, as in Did} ; or
fome dependance, as in Turnus and Adez,e?itius.
To this artifice he adds Epifodes, accommodated
to the general character, by v.'hich he interrupts
the particular anions, which require an oppofite
character.

The Manners denotes the inclinations, genius,
and humour, which the poet gives to his perfons,
and whereby he diftinguifhes his character.

Unlefs the manneri be well exprellcd, we fhall
never be acquainted with the perfons at ail ; nor
confequently fhall once be either terrified with
forefeeing their dangers, nor melted into pity by
feeing their fufferings.

The manners fhould have four qualities ; they
Ihould be good, like, fuitable, and equal.

The manners are good when they are well mark-
ed, or exprefled ; that is, when the difcourfe of the
perfons makes us clearly and diftinftly fee their
inclinations, and what good or evil refolutions
they will take.

of Arts a?7d Sciences.

The manners muft likewife bo Juitttlle ; that is,
they muft be agreeable to the age, fcx, rank, cli-
mate, and condition of the perfon that has them

Again, the manners mult be equal; th.it is, tliey
muft be conftant, or confifteiit through the whole
charadkr ; or the variety or inequality of the rnan-
neis, as in nature, fo in the drama muft be equal.
The fearful nmft never be brave, nor the brave ti-
morous ; the avaricious muft never be liberal, nor
vice verja. In this part Shakifpeara manners are
admirable.

Befides thefe four qualities above-mentioned,
there is a fifth efi'ential to their beauty ; which is,
that they be nccejfary, that is, that no vicious qua-
lit)', or inclination, be given to any poetick perion,
unlefs it appears to be abfolutely neceflary, or re-
quifite to the carrying on of the action.

Boileau gives the following rules for the tragedy.

1. He will have the poet propofc to himftlf, for
the chief and principal end of his piece, the awak-
ing gently the moft noble of our pafTions, by mov-
ing gently the heart ; or to fpcak, in a more concife
manner, he muft ufe all his heft endeavours to
pleafe and move; otherviife it is in vain, that he
has wrote his piece according to the beft rules of
the art, and in the moft elegant manner.

2. The firft verfes of the piece fhould give an
idea of the fubjedt, without keeping the mind of the
audience in fufpence, by a long rigmarole of ver-
fes, which is much more fatiguing than entertain-
ing ; fincc the fubject is never too foon explained.

3. The fcene fhould be fixed and marked, /. e.
a fingle fact done in one place, and in one day,
fill the theatre, from the beginning to the end of
the piece.

4. Nothing incredible fhould be offered to the
fpe£fator, fince a furprizing abfurdity has no
charms ; and the mind is never moved by what it
cannot believe.

5. What is not to be feen muft be told, though
it would be perhaps more intelligible if it was ex-
pofed to our fight ; but there are ohjecis which the
judicious art muft offer to the ear, and hide from
the fight.

6. The trouble increafing always from fcene to
fcene, being arrived to its period muft be cafily un-
folded ; for the mind is never more effe£lually
touched, than when in a fubjeil diverllfied with
intrigues, the truth of a fecre^, known all on a
fudden, changes all, and gives to the whole an un-
forefeen face.

7. If the poet wants to reprefent heroes fufcep-
tible of love, he muft not puint them with the fame
colours he would do a lliepherd lubjeft to the fame
paftion ; for AchiiUs muff love in another manner
than T7;_vr/;j does. Kc muft avoid, as a great im-

perfcdion.

P 0 E

perfection, the ridiculous love, and other low pnf-
fions, oi the heroes of romances ; thougli he may
fometimcs allow fome weaknefs to tiic moll: nohlc
hearts, ylchilles would difpieafe, was he Icfs hot

. and paflionate ; he pleafes when he is ken fhedding
tears for an afFront, at thofe fniali imperfections,
marked in his picture, the mind difcovers cafily
nature's weaknefs. Let Agamemnon be proud,
haughty, and interefted, and JEncas religious ;

^ preferving to each his proper charadtcr, and fludy-
ing the manners of the ages and countries, never
giving the air and genius of a nation to another,
particularly of the moderns to the antients.

Comedy, in its proper fenfe, is a dramatick
piece rcjjrefenting fome agreeable and diverting
tranfaflion : or, an allegorical reprefentation of
fomething in private life ; for the amufement and
inftruftion of the fpeftator.

Comedy, as well as tragedy, has its eflential, and
its integrant parts. ]ts eflential parts, in the lan-
guage of the - antients, are the protafis, epitafis,
catajiafis, and caiajiropbe, explained above.

Comedy is diflinguilhed from faj-cc, in that the
former rcprefents nature as fhe is ; the other dif-
torts or overcharges her. They both paint from the
life, but with different views : the one to make
nature known ; the other to make it ridiculous.

Boileaii gives the following rules for the comedy.

1. He will have nature to be the whole fludy of
an author who v/rites comedies ; and fays, that who-
ever fees very well man ; and with a profound ge-

,iuus has penetrated the bottom of fo many hidden
hearts ; who knows very well what a prodigal, an
aval icious, an honeft man, a coxcomb, a jealous
man, t?V. are, can bring them on the ftage, and
make them a^fi: and fpeak before us.

2. He wdl have the rcprefentations true, without
Jifguife, and painted with the mofl: lively colours.

3. He forewarns the author againil making his
actors fpeak at random, a young man like an old
man, or vice verfa.

4. He advifes him to fludy the court, and know
the town ; both being always fertile in models.

5. He fays that the comick being an enemy of
fighs and tears ; does not admit in its verfes tragi-
cal pains ; neither does it allow, that an actor with
obfcene exprefiions fhould divert the mob ; but
only joke in a noble manner.

6. This plot well formed, muft unravel itfelf
eafily ; leaft the aiStion, for want of being guided
by reafon, fliould lofe itfelf in an empty fcens,

7. His difcourfes every where fruitful in witty
fayings, muft be full of pafiions curioufly handledj
and thefcenes aUvays well concerted together.

r R r. 465

8. He muft avoid all forts of Jokes, which ate
contrary to good fenle, and never deviates fioin
nature.

9. He concludes by faying, that he loves on the
theatre an agreeable author, who, without dif-
gracing himfclf to the eyes of the fpeiftators, pleafes
by reafon alone.

A Farce was originally a droll, pettit-fhtw, or
entertainment, exhibited by charletans, and their
buffoons in the open ftrce-, to gather the crowd
together.

At prefent, farce is of a little more dignity. It
\s removed from the ftreet to the theatre ; and in-
ftead of being pertorm'd by jack-puddings to amufe
the rabble, is now a£ted by our comedians, and
become the entertainment of the politeft audiences.

1 he poets have reformed the wildncfs of the
primitive farces ; and brought them to the taite and
manner of comedy. The difFerence between the
two on our ftage, is, that the latter keeps to nature
and probability ; and in order to that, is confined
to certain laws, unities, is'f, prefcribed by tlic
antient criticks.

The former difallows of all laws, or rather fets
them afide on occafion. Its end is purely to plea'e
or make merry : and it fticks at nothing which
may contribute thereto, however wild and extra-
vagant. Hence the dialogue is ufually low, i!ie
perfons of inferior rank, the fable or aftion trivial
or ridiculous ; and nature, and truth every where
heighten'd and exaggerated to afford the more pal-
pable ridicule.

There is another kind of dramatick piece, cnll d
tragi- comedy., reprefenting fome action, palled a-
mong eminent perfons, the event whereof is not
unhappy or bloody, and wherein is fometimes ad-
mitted a mixture of Icfs feiious characters.

The tragi co7nedy is the only cafe, wherein
comedy is allowed 10 in;roduce kings and heroes.

Having thus far explained all th.nt is underrtood
by grand poetry, we'll proceed to Jimplc poetry, or
verjijication, which conifti's in elegies, jutires, odes^
fongs, pa/i orals, epitaphs, jonmts, madrigals, tic.

An t-LEGY was originally a mournful and
plaintive kind of poem.

In proccfs of time, <'/r'^'y degenerated from its ori-
ginal intention, and no: only matters of grief, bjt
alfo jov, wiflies, prayers, expoftulations, reproacii-
es, and almoft every fubject, veere admitted into
eligy.

The office of elegy is well delivered by }/I.
BoiUau.

Tlje Unlverfal Hiftory oj Arts and Sciences.

466

La plnhrlhe ehgie en longs habits df dndl,
Scait, ki cheveux rpars, gemir fur un corcueil :
E!h peint da umans la -joyt; & la tri/tcffe ;
Flatle, riu'i/iuy, irrite, appalfe uiie triaitrejp.

TrANSLA TED.

In mourning weetli fad elegy appears,
Her liair dilhevull'd, and her eyes in tears.
Hir theme; the lover's joy, but more his pains ;
By turns fhe finga, Tooths, threatens and com-
plains.

The dicflio 1 of <?/i'^i' ought to be clean, eafy, per-
fpicuous, exprclTive of the manners, tender aiid pa-
thetick ; not opprelltd with fentences, points, ifc.
r-io apolfrophe s are allowed ; and the fenfe to be
gi^nerally clofed in every diftich, or two lines ; at
Icafl in Latin compofitions,

A Satvr is a poem wherein men's follies and
vices are wittily expofcd, in order to their refor-
mation.

Sntyr bears a near affinity to raillery, ridicule,
lampoon, libel, Uc, and (lands oppofed to pane-
gyrick.

iKfatyr ought to be lively, pleafant, moral, and
full of variety.

Satyr may be divided with regard to the meafure,
an J kind of verfe, as well as the manner of the
po^m, and the charadter, into narrative, draniatck,
mixt. Sir.

Narrative is a Hmple narration, or recital of
abufes in the poet's own perfon. — Such is the firft
of Juvenal.

Dramatick is that wherein feveral perfons dif-
courfe together, whether they be namelefs, as in
the firft of Pcrfius ; or have names, as of CaJJius
and Damafypus.

Mixt is compounded of both the former ; as that
fine one of Horace, Ibam forte via facra.

Grave, and animated, which inveigh with
warmth and earneftnefs, againft corruption and

vice in every fhape. As thofe of 'Juvenal and

Perfius.

Sportive, and lighter, which feems to play with
men's folly ; but in playing, omit no opportunity

of making them feel the lafti. Such are thofe

of Horace.

Satyr is divided into general, which is levelled
at common abufes, wherein numbers are equally

ijiterertcd And perfonal, which points out

and expofes particular charafters.

The Ode from the Greek t»$i, cantus, a fong, or
Tinging in the antient poetry, is a ibng, or a com-
polition proper to be fung, and compoled for that

purpofc ; the finging ufually accompanied with
fome mufical inftruments, chiefly the lyre.

Ode, in the modern poetry, is a lyrick poem,
confifting of long and Ihort verfes, diftinguiflicd
into ftanza's or ftrophes, wherein the fame mea-
fure is prefervod throughout.

It is a miftake to imagine Anacreon, as thcGreeks
do, the author of lyrick poetry ; fmce it appears
from fcripture to have been in ufe about a thoufand
years before that poet. The characteriftick of ly-
rick poetry, which diftinguifhes it from all others,
is fiuectnefs. As gravity rules in heroick vcrfe ;
ftmplicity in paflorals ; tendernejs 2inAfftnefs in t\e-
^ij\fharpnefs and poignancy in fatyr; mirth in come-
dy ; the pathetick in tragedy ; the point in epigram;
fo in the lyrick, thj poet applies himfelf wholly to
footh the mind of men, by the fweetnefs and va-
riety of the \erfe, and the delicacy of the words,
and thoughts ; the agreeablenefs of the numbers ;
and the defcription of things moft pleafing in thtir
own nature.

The word flrophe is Greek r^op9, formed from
rfifw, I turn ; becaufe at the end of the /frophe, the
fame meafures return again ; or rather as the term
re'ated principally to the mufick or dancing, be-
caufe at firft coming in, the chorus, or the dancers
turned to the lefr, and that meafure ended, they
turned back again to the right. What the couplet
is in fongs, and the ftanza in epick poetry, Jlrsphe
is in odes.

In a pindaiici ode, the plan of the whole is to be
drawn firft, and the places marked out where the
elegant fallies and wanderings may be beft, and
how the returns may be jul'tly made to the fub-
ject.

The antient edes had originally but one ftanza,
or ftrophe ; but was at laft divided into three parts,
ftrophe, antiftrcphe, and epode. The priefts going
round the altar, finging the praifes of the gods, cal-
led their firft entrance ftrophe, i. e. turning to the
left: the fccond, turning to the right, they called
antiftrophe, q. d. returning. Laftly, ftanding ftill
before the altar, they fung the remainder, which
they called epode.

The Epode was not confined to any precife
number, or kind of verfes ; as the ftrophe and an-
tiftrophe were. But when the ode contained feve-
ral epodcs, ftrophes, &c. they were all alike.

As the word epode then properly fignifies the
end of the fong, and as in odes, what they called
the epode finiftiing the finging : it became cuftoma-
ry, as M. Dacier fliews, lor a little verfe, which
being put after another, clofed the period, and
finifhed the fenfe which had been fufpendcd in the
firft yerk.'i to be called e^ode, tiriti^.

But

P 0 E

But the fignlfication of the word is cxttiided ftill
f'jitlKT ; epodi- being become a general name for
all kinds of Ihort verles, that follow one, or more
long ones, of what kind foever they be : and in
this fcnfe a pentameter is an epode, after an hexa-
meter, which in refpe£l thereof is a pro ode.

There is another fort of ode., called alcaick,
which confifts of four ftrophes, each of which con

R r.

467

I. As a ftiepherdefs, fays he, in the grcatelt
holiday, dots not load her head with precious
ftones, aud gold, but gathers in the neighbouring
fields her iincit ornaments ; thus an elegant idyllicin.,
amiable in its air, aud humble in its ityle, mult
fiiine without pomp : its turn fimple and natural,
hate the pomp and pride of a prelumptuous verle.
Its fwcetnefs muft flatter, tickle, and awake, but

tains four verfes ; the two firlt arc alcaick verfcs of : never frif^ht the car with <rreat words.

the firft kind, the third an iambick diameter hyper- 2. Neither ought the /V/y/ to be compofed in a

C3te-lutick, /'. e. of four feet and a long fyllable : as, mean and lowftylc, and the author make his fhep-

Sors exitura, W nos in aiernum.
The fourth is an alcaick of the feconJ kind. —
The entire alcaick ftrophe is as follows :

Omnes eadem cog'imur, omnium.
Verfatur urna, ferius, oclus
Sors exitura, i^ nos in tsternum
Exillum impofttura cymba.

herds fpeak a clownifli dialedl ; but follow a road
between the two extremes, imitating in it Thcocti-
tus and Virgil.

The Epigram is a fhort poem, or compofi-
tion in verfe, treating of one only thing, and end-
ing with fome point or lively ingenious thought.

It is principally the point that charadteriies the
epigram, and diftinguifhes it from the madrigal.

The epigram is the loweli:, and leaft ccnfiderable

The Pastoral >s a compofu.on, the fubjeil ^^ ^,j ^^^ produ^ions of poetry, and is rather an
whereof is fomethmg m the paftoral, at leaft rural , ^^^^ ^^ ^^^j ,^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^/^ ^^ ,-_^^^„j ^^^^^-^^
life, and the perfon fhepherds, at leaft ruiacks. ^.j,^ ^^-^^ ^^^, ^^^^j, j^^ ^^ ^^^ .^^^.^^^,^ ^j ^,^ .^^.^.^

The W is alvvays in the fields or the woods. ^^^ ^q^,, j ^^^„ ^„ ^^e words rather than tbe

Every puftorat fliould have a little plot or fable, (jjQyo.[^f
which may defcrve the title of a pajtoral fcene. It

muft be fimple, and but one ; yet not fo as to re-
fufe all digreriions, provided they be but ftiort.
This rule of the plot is every where obferved by
Virgil.

The Eclogue is a kind of paftoral compofi-
tion, wherein fhepherds ate introduced converfing
together.

The eclcgite, is properly an image of the paftoral
life.

'The beauty of the echgue, M. FonteneUe ob-
ferves, is not attached to what is rural, but rather
to what is calm and eafy in the rural life.

The word eclogue is formed from the Greek
t»><iyn, choice. So that according to the etymology
of the word, eclogue fliould be no more than a fe-
Ic'ft or choice piece ; but cuftom has determined it
to a further fignitication, vix,. a little elegant com-
pofitioiu, in a nni[<le, natural ftyle and manner.

IdyiLion and eclogue, in their primary intention,
are the fame thing : thus the Idyllia of Theocritus
are pieces wrote perftdlly in the fime vein with the
idogce of Virgil.

But cuftom has made a difference between them,

and appropriated the name echgue to pieces wherein

{hepbcrds are introduced fpeaking ; idyllion to thofe

wrote like the eclogue, in a fimple natural ftyle, but ' couplet.
..-.1 .. n,»,.;,^,.,'., :., »u„.^ / .-

A Madrigal is a little amorous piece, con-
taining a certain number of free unequal verfes, not
tied either to the fcrupulous regularity of the ion-
net, or the lubtlety of an ej)igram, bur conAftinj_j
of I'ome tender, delicate, yel fimple thought, iuita-
bly exprefled.

The madrigal is ufually looked on as die faorteft
of all the lefler kinds of poems, and may conilil of
fewer verfes, than either the fonnet or roiid.'au.
There is no other rule regarded in minglin.i the
rhimes and verfes of diirerenr kinds, but the fancy
and convenience of ti"ie author.

A Sonnet is a kind of compofition contained
in fourteen verfe, vi%, two flanza's or mealliies,
of four verfes each, and two of thiee; the eight
four \erfes being all in two rhiines.

It is held the moit difficult and artful of all poe-
tical compofitions, as requiring the laft accuracy
and exadnefs. It is to end with fone pretty inge-
nious thought : the clofe to be particularly beau-
tiful, or xht fonnet is naught.

A Song is a little compofition, confiftinj of
fimple, eafy, natural verfes, fet to a tune in order
to be fung. Each ftanza of a fong, is called a

without .i.ny fiiepherds in them

B'-ilcau prefcribes the following rules for the
coropofuion of idyls and eclogues.

Its objeiff is ufua'Iy wine, or love ; whence iVI.
le Erun defines a modern Jlng to be either a foft

and

468

The Univerfal Hiftory of Art & ^W Sciences.

and amirous, or a iirifk and bachic thought, ex-
preired in a few words.

Let the Jhij; be what it will, the verfcs arc to be
cafv, natural, flowini;, and to contain a certain
harmony, which neither fliocks tlic rcal'on nor the
ear ; and which unite poetry and mufick agreea-
bly together.

The Fable is a talc, or feigned narration, de-
figned either to inftrucl or divert -, or as M. rie In
Mottc dciines it, an inftrudtion difguifed under the
allegorv of anaclion.

The criticks, after Aphthonius and Thcon, reckon
three kinds of /ijWt-j, rational, moral, and mixed.
Rntiona/fiii/IfSycMed alfo parables, are relations of
things fuppoCcd to have been faid and done by men ;
and Which might polfibly have been faid or done,
tho' in reality they were not. Such in the facred
writings are thole of the ten virgins ; of Dives and
Lazarus ; the prodigal fon, (jfi. of thefe rational
fdbl's we have likewife about a dozen in Pho'drus.

Mcriil fables, called alfo apologues, are thofc
wherein beads, trees, hammers, ^^c. are fuppofed
to fpeak.

Aiixcd fables are thofe compofed of both forts,
rational and moral ; or wherein men and brutes are
introduced converfing together. Of this we have
a fine inftance, in Juftin, lib. xxxiii. c. 4. made
by a petty king, to alarm the antient Goz/Aagainfl
the MaJJilians, who arriving out of Jfia in St>ain

Rhime is a modern invention, the produftofa
gothick age; Milton calls it the modern bondn^e.

To fucceed in fuch kind of verfcs, there muft be
a liberty of varying the order of the words, or of
changing their fituation as may beft fuit the occa-
fions of the poet ; of making the fubftantive either
go before, or follow after the verb, as the verfe re-
quires, i^c.

Rhymes arc either Jimple or double, or triple ; tho'
the two laft are now difufcd.

Single rhymes are divided into perfe£t or whole
rhym.s, and imperfetSl: or half r/;^w«,

A whole or perfefl rhyme is where there is a fimi-
litude of found, without any difference ; or where
a thorough identity or found appears in the pronun-
ciation of the two fyllables, notwithftanding that
there may be fome difference in the orthography.

An imperfeii or half rhyme is where there is a
fimilitude with a difference, either in rcfpeft of the
pronunciation, or the orthography ; but chiefly the
former.

There is alfo a jocofe kind of poetry, called
hurlejque, chiefly ufed in the way of drollery and
ridicule, to deride perfons and things.

The beft work we have of that tafte in French,

is the Virgil Travejly of Scarrcn ; which was alfo

I done in Englijh by Cotton and Philips ; for which

poor Cotton paid very dear, far having drefled Dido

1 in the antique manner of his old aunt, and nam -

charmed with the place, begged leave of the inha- j ed her as an original, (he refented it To much, as to
bi:ants to build a city : to this effeft,

A bitch big with young, begged of a (hepherd a

place to lay her whelps in ; which when Ihe had
obtained, (he begged further leave to rear them
in the fume. At length the whelps being now
grown up ; depending on the (trength of her own
family, (he claimed the property of the place. — So
the Maffilians, who are now only ftrangers, will
hereafter pretend to be maders o^ the country.

As to the laws of /^vWiJ ; the principal are, ift.
That to every fahU there be fome interpretation
annexed, to fliew the moral fenfe, or defign there-
ofl This interpretation, if it be placed after the
fable, is c-aWed a^ a bit latio ; if before it, pr^fabula-
tio. — 2dly, That the narration be clear, probable,
(hort and pleafant. To preferve this probability,
the manners mull be expreffed, and cJofely kept to,
as in poetry,

' An Epitaph is a monumental infcription, in
honour or memory of a perfon defundt ; or an in-
fcription engraven, or cut on a tomb, to mark the
time of a perfon"s deceafe, his name, family, and
ufually fome eloge of his virtues, or good qua-
lities.

The {iy\ecf epitaphs is akind of n e Hum between
profe and verfe ; the jejune and the brilliant are
here equally to be avoided.

carry her refentment fo far as to difinherit him.
Of Romances.
As M. Fontenelle calls romance poems in profe,
and Bojfu is not averfe to their being admitted as
poetical pieces, I'll place them here, and fay, that
a romance is a fabulous relation of certain intrigues
• and adventures in the way of love or gallantry, in-
vented to entertain and inflrudt the readers.

The jufl: notion therefore of a romance is, that it is
a difcourfe invented with art to pleafe and improve
! the mind, and to form or mend the manners, by
inftruftions difguifed under the allegory of an ac-
tion, or feries of actions, related in profe, in a de-
lighiful, probable, yet furprizing manner,

A juft romance conhUs of two parts, viz. a moral,
as its foundation and end ; and a fable or aflion,
as the fuperflruiflure and means. It muft alfo have
the manners, that is, the charaflers muft be dif-
tinguifhed, and the manners muft benecelfary, and
have all the other qualities of poetical manners.

The incidents muft be delightful, and to that
end rightly difpofed and furprizing. The fenti-
ments fall und-r the lame rules as the drama. But
the diftlon is allowed to be more lofty and figura-
tive, as being a narration ; and not having terror or
pity, but admiration for its end.

POTTERr.

( 4^9 )

p 0 r r E R r.

POTTERY is the ait of making earthen
pots and vefTels ; which art is as much fub-
je£t to improvements as any othgr mecha-
nical art.

1 he chief, and almoft the only tools, or inftiu-
ments ufcd in p^tlety., arc the whet-l and the Lithcr.
The wheel, eonfilis of a nut, which is a beam or
axis, the foot or pivot thereof plays perpendicularly
on a freeflone fole or bottom. From the four
corners a top of this beam, which does not exceed
two feet ill height, arife four iron bars, called the
/pokes of the wheel, which forming diagonal lines
with the beam, defccnd, and are fattened at bottom
to the edges of a ftrong wooden circle, four feet in
diameter, perfeiSly like the felloes of a coach
wheel, ex( ept that it has neither axis nor radii ;
and is only joined to the beam, which ferves it as
an axis, by the iron bars. The top of the nut is
flat, of a circular figure, and a foot in diameter.
On this is laid a piece of the clay oi earth, to be
turned and falhioned. i

The w/;<'t'/ thus difpofed, is encompafil-d with <and fet on by hand; if there beany fculpture in
four fides of four difterent pieces of wood, fuflained i the work, it is ufually done in eartlien or wooden
on a wooden frame : the hind piece, which is that i moulds, prepared by a fculptor, unlefs the Potter
whereon the workman fits, is madt a little inclin- ' has fkill enough to do it himfclf, which is very
ing towards the wheel : on the fore piece are f ra'e.

placed the pieces of prepared earth. Lafrly, the I The piece of earthen ware being done, it is put
fide-pieces ferve the workman to reft his feet | to dry, to a certain degree : and from thence car-
againft ; and are made inclining to give him more ! ricd to the oven to be baked. As to the glazing,
oriels room, according to the fize of the veffel to j or varnifliing of it, it is ufually done with fand.

fimpler, and {lighter than the former. Tt* three
chief members, arc an- iron beam or a\is,
three feet and a half high, and two inches in
diameter ; a little wooden wheel all of a piece, an
inch thick, and kvcn or eight in diameter, p'aced
horizontally a-top of the beam, and fervino- to
form the vefTel on ; and another larger wooden
wheel, all of a piece, three inches thick, and two
or three feet broad, faflened to the fame beam at
bottom, parallel to the horizon. The beam or
axis turns, by a pivot at bottom on an iron fland.

The workman gives the motion to the lathe
with his feet, by pulhing the great wheel alter-
nately with his foot ; till giving it a greater or
leller degree of motion, as his work requires.

They work with the lathe, with the fame in-
ftruments and after the fame manner as with the
wheel ; but neither the one nor the other i'erves
for any more than forming the body of the vcffel,
y^. The feet, handle, and ornaments, if there
be any, befides the mouldings being to be made.

be turned. By his lide is a trough of water,
wherewith from time to time be wets his hands,
to prevent the earth llicking to them.

The potter having prepared his clay or earth,
and laid a piece of it fuitjble to the vvoik he in-
tends, on the top of the beam, lets down ; his
thiglis and legs much expanded, and his feet
relied on the fide pieces, as is moft- convenient.

In this fituation he turns the wheel round, till
it has got the proper velocity ; when, wetting his
hands in the water, he bores the cavity of the
veifcl, continuing to widen it from the middle ;
and thus turns it into form, turning the wh^-el a-
frefh, and wetting his hands from time to time.

When the vell'el is too thick,' trK;y ufc a flat
piece of iron with a hole in the middle, and fome-
vvhat fliarp on one edge, to pare off what is re-
dundant Laftly, when the vcifel, is finifhed, they
take it off from the circular head by a wire palled
underneath the veffel.

The potter's lathe, is alfo a kind of vvhetl, but
Vol. II. 47.

itharge or le.ad-aibcs, wood-aflics, and fmalt,
melted into a cake,

But the moft curious operation of this kind, is
that o! making /iff/YiVa/s ; the procefs iliereof is si
follows.

In the manufacture 01 porcelain, there are four
principal things to be confidered, iiiz,. the matter
it is made of, the art of forming the veffels, and
other v/orks ; the colours wherewith it is painted ;
and laftly, the baking, or giving it the proper de-
gree of fire.

There are two kinds of earths, and as many
kinds of oils Or varnifhes iifed in the compofitioa
o{ porcelain, vulgarly called chhia. The firft earth,
called kaul'm, is bcfet with glittering corpufcles ,
the fecond, called hctanfe, is a plain white, but ex-
ceeding fine, and foft to the touch. They are
both found in quarries twenty or thirty leagues
horn Kingteching ; and hither thefe earths, or ra-
ther ftones, are brought in an infinite number of
little barks, inceflantly pafling up and down the
P P P river

river Janchtu for that purpefe. The petunfcs are
broil" ht in form of bricks, having been To cut out
of the (|uarries, where they are naturally pieces of
a very hard rock, '["he white of the belt pctunfc
is to border a litt'e on green.

The firft picpaiation of thefe bricks, is to break
and pound them firll, into a coarfe powder with
iron mallets, then in mortars with peftlcs, that
have flone heads, armed with iron, and wrought
cither with the hand or with mills.

When the powder is rendered almofl impalpa-
ble, they throw it in a large urn full of water,
flirting it briflcly about with an iron inftrument.
After the water has refted a little while, they fkim
off fiom the top a white fubftance formed there,
of the thickncfs of four or five fingers, and difpofc
this Icuni or cream in another veilel of water. '1 hey
then Itir again the water of the firlf urn, and again
fkim it ; and thus alternately, till there remain no-
thing but the gravel of the petunfes at bottom ;
which they lay afrefti under the mill for a new
powder.

As to the fecond urn, wherein are put the fkim-
mings of the firit ; when the water is well fettled
and become quite clear, they pour it ofF ; and with
ihefediment colle£ted at bottom in form of a pafle,
■fill a kind of moulds : whence, when almo** dry,
they take it out, and cut it into pieces, which are
what they properly call petiaifes ; referving them
to be mixed with the kaullng, m the proportion
hereafter affigiied.

Thefe fquares are fold by the hundred, but it is
very rare to meet with them unfalfified.

The kcndingi which is the other earth ufcd in
tiorulain, is much fofter than the pittinje when dug
out of the quarry ; yet it is this, which by its mix-
ture with the other gives the flrength and firmnefs
to the work.

The preparation of knnling is the fame with
that of the fetimfcs, except that the matter being
lefs hard, lefs labour is required.

give the oil a confiltencc; which however is flill
to be kept liquid.

The oil of lime makes the fourth ingredient ;
the preparation v.'hercof is much more tedious and
circumitantial. They firll diflblve large pieces of
quicklime, and reduce it to apoA-der, by fprinkling
v.'ater on it ; on this powder (hey lay a couch of
dry fern, and on the fern another of Hacked lime,
and thus alternately, till they have got a moderate
pile ; which done, they fet fire to the fern : the
whole being ccnfumed, they divide the aflics
that remain on new couches of dry fern, fetting
them on fire as before. And this they repeat five
or fix times fucceflively, or even more; the oil being
ftill the better, as the afties are oftner burnt.

In the annals of Fei.liang, 'tis faid, inftead of
fern they antiently ufed the wood of a kind of
medlar-tree ; and that 'twas this gave the antient
porcelains that admirable hue, which the moderns
cannot come up to for want of that wood. 'Tis
certain, however, the quality of the fern and lime
contribute verv much to the ooodnefsof the oil.

A quantity of thefe afhcs of fern and lime are
now thrown into an urn full of water ; and to an
hundred pounds of afhes is added a pound of /he-
kaUy which dilTolves therein. The reft being per-
formed after the fame manner as in preparing the
earth of the petunfes ; the fedimcnt found at the
bottom of the fecond urn, and which is to be kept
liquid, is what they call the oil of lime ; which the
Chincfe efleem as the foul of the former oil, and
which gives the porcelain all its luftre. This oil
is eailly fophifticated by adding water to increafe
the quantity ; adding, at the fame time, propor-
tionably of the frme fickau to maintain the con-
fiftence. Ten meafures of oil of petunfe ufually
go to one of lime. To have the mixture juft, the
two oils fhould be equally thick,

Now to form veflels of thefe materials. — The
firft thing is, to purify the petunfe and kauling ;
which, for the firft, is done after the manner al-

The oil or varnifli, which makes the third ingre- \ ready delcrib'd in preparing the fquares. For the
dient in porcelain^ is a whitifh liquid fubftance, fecond, as its foftnefs makes it diffolve eafily, 'tis

drawn from the hard ftone whereof the petunfes
are formed ; that which is whiteft, and whofe
ftains are the grceneft, being always chofen for
this purpofe.

The manner of preparing the oil is thus : the
petunfes being wafhed, undergo the fame prepara-
tions as for making the fquares, excepting that the
matter of the fecond urn is not put in moulds, but
the fin'.ft part of it taken to compofe the oil. To
an hundred pounds of this matter they caft a mine-
ral ftone cdWzA fnekaui refembling our alum : this
ftone is firft heated red-hot, and thus reduced in a
mortar into an impalpable powder ; and ferves to

fuSicient, without breaking it, to plunge it in an
urn full of water in an open bafket. The dregs
that remain are perfecftly ufelefs, and are emptied
out of the workhoufe, when a quantity is got to-
gether.

To make a iuft mixture o^ petunfe and kauling,
regard muft be had to the finenefs of the porcelain
to be made : for the finer porcelains, they ufe equal
quantities ; four parts of kauling to fix of petunfe,
for moderate ones ; and never lefs than one of
kauling to three oi petunfe for the coarfeft.

The hardeft part of rhe work is the kneading
and tewing the two earths together; which is

done

POETRY.

done In a kind of large bafons, or pits, wcil paved
and cemeiuod, wherein the workmen tr;imple
continually with tliwir feet, relieving one another,
till the mats be well mixed, growing hard, and
becomes of the coniiltence required to be ufed by
the potter.

The earth, when taken out of the bafons, is
kneaded a fecond time by piece-meal, and with the
hands on large flates for that purpoie ; and on
this preparation, in efFedl, it is that the perfedlion
of the work depends ; the leall heterogenous body
remaining in the matter, the leaft vacuity that may
be found in it, being enough to fpoil the whole.
The fmallelt grain of fand, nay fometimes a fingle
hair, ihall make the porcelain crack, fplinter, run,
or warp.

The porcelain, is formed or fafhioned, either
with the wheel, like earthen ware, or in moulds.
Smooth pieces, as cups, urns, difhes, ^i:. are
made with the wheel. The reft, /. e. fuch as
are in relievo, as figures ot men, animals, ii^V. are
formed in moulds, but finilhed with the chiilel.

The large pieces are made at twice ; one half
of the piece is railed on the wheel by'tliree or four
workmen, who hold it till it has acquired its figure ;
which done, they apply it to the other half, which
has been formed in the fame manner ; uniting the
two with porcelain earth, made liquid by adding
water to it, and poliihing the jun6ture with a kind
of iron fpatula.

After the f ime manner it is that they join the
feveral piece.; of /'^'ricAv/w formed in moulds, or by
the hand . and after the fame manner they add
handles, ^c. to the cups, and other works formed
with the wheel.

The moulds are made after the manner of thole
of our fculptors, t-i/z. divers pieces, which feparate-
ly give their relpeitive figure to the feveral parts of
the model to be reprcfented ; and which are after-
wards united to form a mould for an entire figure.

All thefe works made in moulds are finifhed by
the hand, with feveral inftruments proper to dig,
fmooth, polilh, and to touch up the {frokes that
efcape the mould ; fo that it is rather a work of
Iculpture than of /)^//t'ry. There arc Tome works
whereon relievo's are added, ready made, as dra-
gons, flowers, ^c. Others that have impreflions
in creux , which laft are engraven with a kind of
puncheons. In general, all porcelai/i works are to
be flielter'd from the cold ; their natural huniiditv'
making them liable to break when they dry un-
equally.

As to the painting of porcdain ; the painting
work is diftributed among a great number of work-
men : to one it belongs to form the coloured cir-
cle about the edges of the porcelain ; another

47.1

traces out flower?, which another paints ; tl.i.i ii
for waters and mountains alone ; that for birds
and other animals, and a third for human figures.

There are porcelains made of all colours, both
with regard to the grounds, and to the repixTen-
tations thereon. As to the colours of landfkips,
isfc. Come aie fimple ; fuch are all blues, which
are thofe moll: ufually fcen in Europe ; others arc
mixed up of feveral teints, and other:, again height-
ened with gold.

The blue is made of lapis lazuli, prepared by
burning it the fpace of twenty- four liours, in a
kiln, where it is buried up in the gravel, to the
height of half a foot ; when burnt, they reduce it
into an impalpable powder in porcelain mortars not
varniflied, and with peftles of the laine matter.

For the red, they ufe copperas, which they call
faufam a pound of this they put in a covered cru-
cible, in the lid whereof is left a little aperture,
through which the matter on occafion may be fcen.
The crucible is heated with a reverberatory fire,
till the b ack fmoak ceafes to afcend, and a fine
red one fucceeds it. A pound of copperas yields
four ounces of red h'quor, which is found at the
bottom of the crucible, thou;:h the fineil part is
that ufually adhering to the lid and fides of the
cj ucible.

The powder of flint is likewife an ingredient in
moft of the ether colours, e. gr. for green ; to
three ounces of tonghapeen, or fcoria of beaten
copper, they ufe half an ounce of powder of flint,
and an our.ce of ccrufs. Violet is made by adding
a dole of whiie to the green already prepa-ed ; the
more grein is added, the deeper is the violet. For
yellow, they ufe fcvcii drachms of white, at:d three
of the copperas red.

Moft of theie colours are mixed up with gam-
water, for application ; a little falt-petre, fometimes
cerufs or copperas, but more ufu illy copperas alone,
bjing firft dilTolved in the water. Indeed, for
porcdjins that are to be quite red, the colour is
ufually applied with oil, /. e. with the comtr.on
oil oi' the porcelain, or another made of the white
flints.

There is alio another red, called bhivn red, be-
caule in reality applied by blowing with a pipe,
one of whofe orifices is covcr'd with a very fine
g.tuze. The bottom of this tube is lightly applied
to the colour wherewith the gauze is fmear'd ;
when blowing againft the porcelain, it becomes aU
fprinkled over with little points. This porcelain
is very rare, and of great price.

Black porcelain^ \vhich they call umian, hns like-
wife its beauty. This colour has a k-.den caft,
like our metal burning mirrors ; and is ufually
hei^htend with gold. It is made of three ounces
^ " Ppp2 of

T'he Unlvcifal liiftcry of Arts and Scienxes.

472

of .apis lazuli, with fcven of the common oil of.

ftone ; though that p:o,3ortion is varied, as the co- |
lour is dtfigncd to be more or Icfs deep. '1 he ,
bi iC'iC is not given the porcelain till it be dry, nor j
mu,l the work be put to the fire till the colour
be dry.

The gold is not applied till after the baking,
and is rcbaked in an oven for the purpofe. 'I o
apply the gold, they break and dillblve it in water
at the bottom o{ apora/iiin, till a thin gilded cloud
arife on the fu f ice : it is ufed with gum- water,
and to give it a body they add three parts of cerufs
to thirty of gold.

There is likewife a kind oi marhhvl porcelain,
which is not made by applying the marbling with
the pencil, but for oil to varnifli it withal, ufing
that of white flints, which hatches and cuts the
work with a thoufand humourous ftrokcs, in man-
ner of mofaick work. The colour this oil gives,
is a white, fomtwhat afhy. This porcelain is
called tJiL-iki.

The.e arc feveral kinds o( porcelain ; but they
are fuch as are rather for curiofity than ufe.

There are two kinds of o.'cns ufed in baking,
rr knealing of p'.rcelain ; large ones, for works
that are only to come to the fire once, which is
the common way ; and fmall ones for fuch as
require a double baking. The large ones are two
Chincfe fathoms deep, and almofl four wide. They
arc torn.eJ of a mixture of three earths ; one
whereof yellow, and common, makes the bafis ;
the two others are fcarcer, and dug out of deep
mines, wherein people can only work in winter.
One of them called lautou, is a very flrong, flifF
earth ; the othtr y:uto, only.

The fides and roof of the ovens are fo thick,
that one may lay the hand on them, when the fire
is at its height, without danger of burning. At
the top of the dome, which is in form of a tunnel,
is a large aperture, to give vent to the flames and
fmoke, which mount up incefTmtly, as foon as fire
is once fet to the oven. Befidt the principal aper-
ture, there are four or five fmall ones around ;
which, by being open'd and fliut, ferve to aug-
ment or diminilh the heat : like the holes in the
Chymifts furnaces, called regijhrs. The earth,
which takes up the whole breadth of the oven, is
placed in front precifely againft the opening of
the door, and is two or three feet deep, and two
broad , people pafling over it on a plank, to go
into the furnace to range the porcelain.

As foon as the fire is lighted, the door is walled
up : only leaving an aperture for the conveyance
of wood. Laftly, the bottom of the oven is co-
ver'd with (and, wherein part of the firft porcelain
cafes are buned. The oven itfclf is ufually placed

at the extremity of a long, narrow vcftiblo, virhidi
ferves in lieu of bellows, the cold air being thu:,
driven diredlly in the face of each other.

Each piece of porcelain, of any note, is difpoffd
in the furnace in its fcparatc cafe or coffin. Ir-
dceJ, as to the tea difhes, ^c. the fame cafe ferves
for feveial. The cai'es are all of the fame maiter
with the oven : they have no liJs, but ferve
each other mutually, the bottom oi the fecond ca'e
fitting into the aperture of the firft ; and thus fuc-
ceiTively to the top of each column. Each coffin,
which is ufually of a cylindrical form, that the fire
may communicate itfelf more cc,u..lly to the tor-
cdaim inclofed, has at bottom, a little lay of very
fine i'lnd, covcr'd over with dufl of kauliiv, that
the fand may not flick to the work, and care is
taken that the porce'ain may not touch the fides of
the cafe. In the larger cales which hold the fmall
pieces, they leave the middle vacant, fecaufe por-
celain placed there would want the necefiary heat.
Each of thefe little pieces is mounted on a little
maffive of earth, the thicknefs of two crowns co-
verd with powder of kauling.

The porcelains are put in cafes to prevent any
diminution of lultrc from the too violent eft'edt of
a naked fire.

As faft as the cafes arc filled, a workman ranees
them in the cavity of the furnace ; forming them
into piles or columns, whereof thofe in the middle
are at leaft feven feet high : the two cafes at the
bottom of each column arc left empty ; becaufe
being partly funk in the land, the fire has the le's
effed on them ; and for the fame reafon, the up-
permoft one is left empty. In this manner is the
whole cavity of the oven filled with columns, ex-
ccptingthat part precifely under the grand .iperture.

In ranging the cafes, they obfcrve always to
place the fine!! pile oi porcelain in the center; the
coarftft at the bottom ; and thofe that are higb-
colour'd, and confift of as much petunfe as kaul-
ing, and wh.'rein the wafle oil is ufed, at the
mouth.

Thefe piles are all placed very near one another,
and are bound together at top, at bottom, and in
the middle, by pieces of earth ; in fuch manner as
that the flame may have a free paflage amonn^
them, and iiifinuate equally on all fides: in which
a great pait of the workman's art lies, and on
which theperfe£lionof the /)wtY/oz« much depends.
Another thing to be obferv'd is, that an oven mufl
never be fet all together with new coffins ; but half
one, half the other ; the old ones at the bottoms
and tops of the piles, and the new ones in the
middle. Indeed it were better to have all burnt
in an oven a-part, ere they come to be ufed for
porcelain ; as was anticiuly done.

When

P 0 1 7 E R r.

VVhon the oven is filled, thcv wall up the door ;
only leaving a little aperture for the throwing in
little pieces of wood, a foot long, but vcfy flendcr
to keep up the fire. It is then heated by degrees,
for the fpiice of a dav and night ; after v/hieh two
nien, \v\\o relieve one another, continue to throw
in wood without any iatcnuption. To know
when the porcc'ain is baked enough, the\' open one
of the lefier holes of the oven, aud v/ith a pair of
t>ngs take off the lids of one of the piles. If the
fire appears very briflc and clear, and the piles e-
qually inflamed ; and efpecially if the colours of
the porccLiiris th .t are uncovcr'd, dart forth a noble
lullre ; the aflion is fuflicient, they difcontinue the
fire, and wall up wliat remained of the door of
the furnace.

If the oven be only filled with fmall pircehiiiis,
they take them cut twelve or fifteen hours after the
fire is extind : if it be filled wiih larger, they de-
fer opening it for two or three days. In this the
modern practice differs from the antient ; wherein
the door was not open'd till after ten days for the
large pieces, and five for the fmall ones.

riie Chineje make another kind of pcr:ehhi^
which they paint and bake twice ; and for this
fecoiid baking they have a kind of little ovens on
purpofe. AVhen very fmall, they are made of iron;
otherwife of a kind of bricks an inch thick, a foot
high, and half a foot broad, made of the fame earth
with the porcelain cafes. The biggeft of thefe
ovens does not exceed five foot in height, and
three in diameter ; and being made much in form
ot bee- hives, the bricks are arched a little to form
the curvity the bettet. The hearth is of earth,
half a foot high, formed of two or three ranges of
bricks, and on this maffive is the oven built. A-
"round the oven, at the d. fiance of about half a
foot, is raifed a (hell of common bricks, joined to
the oven itf^lf by a kind of arcboutant of earth,
which ferves to Itrengthen it. They ulually build
four or five of thefe ovens at equal di'.fances from
each other. At the bottom of the fheil ate holes
to give air to the fire wh:n lighted: at top is an
aperture which they cover up with a piece of the
baked earth, when the porcelains are laid in the
oven.

The porcelains here are not inclofed in coffins ;
as in the common ovens ; the oven itfelf fcrving
that purpofe, and bein^ fo exaiffly clofed, that they
receive no other impreffion of the fire, but that of
the heat of the charcoal difpofed in the hearth, at
the bottom of the oven, as well as at top of the
vault, and the interval between the oven and the
fhell, or brick-wall.

To prepare the porcelains for a fecond baking,
they mult have had their varnifti in the common

473

manner, and ha\ e paHcd the great oven. In this
ilate :hey are painted with various colours, after
which, withoutgving them any new varnifh, they
are ranged in piles in the little oven, fetting the
little ones over t!ie larger in form of pyramids.

This fecond baking is foinetimes intended to
preferve the luftre of the colours the better, and at
the fame time to give them a kind of relievo. But
mote ufually its defign is to hide defective places,
by covering them over with colours : but the arti-
fice is eafily found out by pafliiig ihc hand over
thsm.

When the wor!<man judges his porcelains enough
baked, he takes off the piece that covers the aper-
ture ; and if the works appear glittering, and the
colours glowing, he takes out the charcoal ; and
when the oven is c. Id, ihe porcelain too.

Porcelain, is made chie!]y, fome fay wholly, at
Kingteching. a large town in the province oIKyangJl.
There is fome indeed made in the province of
Canton and Fokyen; bur is of little account, being
far inferior in beauty and value to the porcelain of
Kingteching. That of Folycn is pcrfe;!lly white,
without either glofs or painting. Attempts have
been made to remove the manufaiflure from King-
teching to Pekin, and other places, but in vain ;
the porcelain made in the new manufaft^ries never
coming up to that of the old : fo that Kingteching
has the honour of fupplying the greatefb part of
the world with this commodity. Father Du
HalJc affures us, that even the Japancfe come to
China for it.

Porcelain makes a very curious article in com-
merce, and even natural hiflory. Its manufaiture
has paffed, till of lite vears, for a myftery in Eu-
rope ; and that in fpite of all the endeavours of the
Jefuit Miffionaries (to whom Europe is indebted
for fo many curious and ufeful difcovcries) to pe-
netrate in o the fecret. The veil however, was at
length drawn ; and in a lettet of Yzxhtr d'Entre-
collesto Father Or?j, from 'Jauchen, dated Septem-
ber the ift, 1712, and afterwards publifhed in
French, the whole procefs is defcribed in all its cir-
cumftances ; and fuch as it is given here word for
word, from the French.

The French foon made all the ufe they could of
this difcovery of F. d'Entrccollcs, in attempting to
imitate porcelain. The firft Effays made at Rouen
fucceeded tolerably well ; and are now carried to
fuch a point in the manufaftories at Pajf: and St.
Clou, near Paris, that the French porcelains want
nothing to make them of equal value with the
Chinefe, but to be brought five or fix thoufand
leagues. In effeft, for the finenefs of the grain
of the matter, the beauty and turn of the veffe^s,
the exaditude of the defign, and the luftre of

the

The Univerfal Hiftory o/"Arts ^W Sciences.

474

the colours, the French arc not much behind the
Ch'nicje.

The like may be f;iiJ of the porcelain manu-
faftures at Bow and Chelfea, near London^ and in
other parts of England.

There is alfo a beautiful manufaflurc of /icr-
cclaln at Mikcn the capital of Alifnia, in Saxony,
which the Baron de I'olnilz afliircs us, produces
porcelains painted and enamelled in fuch perfedtion,
that they are more beautiful, as well as dearer, than
thofe of Chi/ia itfelf.

I am of opinion, that the beft EngUJl) chalk, and
the whitcft, well beaten, fifted very fine, to free
it of all fandy, or other heterogeneous matter, and
mixed afterwards with a h.xth part of quick-lime,
the whole mixture buried in a hole out of which
clay has been dug, and left there to ferment, and j

incorporate for two or thee years, would produce
a matter very proper to imitate porcelain.

Having been defired by feme friends to give
them a fccret to join porcelain when broke : I muft
inform them, that they muft take the largcft fnails
they can find in iluir (hells ; and take the tail of
thefe ihails, which they'll find at the bottom of
the fhell, white like a roll of fat ; diflolve that
fatty matter in the bcfl brandy, fo as to form of it
a kind of thick glue, and beimearing the edges of
the broken china with that glue, join the pieces,
thus fmear'd, together, and put them to dry from
the fun. This is a fecret worth notice, and por-
celain thus joined, appears, as if it was only flawed.
Flint and other glaifcs, may alfo be joined with
the fame matter, and in the fame manner.

PRINTING,

PRINTING is the art of taking im-
preffions on paper, vellum and filk, from
either feptiate types, characters or figures ;
er from plates of metal, or blocks of wood.

The printing with feparate types is peculiar to
books, &c. and is dillinguiflied by the name of /*■/-
■ter-prefs-printivg. The art of printing from plates
is called rolling prefi-printing. And that from
■wood is commonly IHlIed block printing : and
though the letter-printer ufes wood devices for
head and tail pieces, hSts and extraordinary large
capital letters, and chaces them up with his metal
types : this fort of printing is generally confined to
cdllicoes, linnens, &c. Therefore I fliall confine
this treatife to the letter-prcfs only.

Who the firft inventors of the European me-
thod oi priming bocks were, in what city, and what
year it was fet orrfoot, are quell ions long difputed
among the learned. In efFeft, as the Grecian ci-
ties contended for the birth of Horner, fo do the
German printers for that of printing. Alentz,
Haerlem, and Strajlurg, aie the warmefl on this
point of honour, and thefe are left in poirelTion of
the queftion, which is not yet decided : though it
mufl be owned that Mentz hi.s always had the ma-
jority of voices.

John Guttenburg, and John Faujl of Alentz ;
John Menteel of Strafiurg, and L. John Kojier of
Haerlem, are the perfons to whom this, honour is
feverally afcribed, by their refpeflive country-men;
and they have all their advocates amon- the learn-
ed. However, their firft efTays were made on
wooden blocks, after the Chinefe manner. The
book at Haerlem, the vocabulary called Catholicor.,

and the pieces in the Bodleian library, and that of
Bennet-coUege, are all performed in this way ; and
the impreffion appears to have been only given on
one fide of the leaves ; after which the two blank
fides were palled together, hut they foon found
the- inconvcniencies of this method, and therefore
bethought themlelves of an improvem.ent ; which
was by making fingle letters diliinct from one ano-
ther, and thefe being firft done in wood, gave room
for a fecond improvement, which was the making
them of metal ; and, in order to that, forming
moulds, matrices, l3c. for calling them.

From this ingenious contrivance we ought to
date the origin of the prefent art of printing, con-
tradiflinguiflied from the method practiild by the
Chinefe. And of this Schuffer, or Schefler, firfl
fervant, and afterwards partner and fon in-law of
Fauji^ at Ment%, above-mentioned, is pretty ge--
neraily allowed to be the inventor ; fo that he may
properly be reckoned the firft printer, and the Bi-
ble v.'hich was printed with moveable letters in 1450,
the firft printed book ; the next was AugujVme de
civitate Dei, then Tidly's Offices, printed about the
year 14.61. In thefe books they left the places of
the initial letters blank, and gave them to the il-
luminers to have them ornamented and painted in
gold and azure, in order to render the work more
beautiful, and, as fome think, to make their books
pafs for manufcripts.

From Men "z, the art of printing foon fpread it-
felf throughout a good part of Europe ; Haerlem
and Strajlurg had it very early ; which, as the
current of authors reprefent it, occafioned their
pretending to the honour of the invention.

From

PRINTING.

From Tliicrl.-m it pr.fild to Ecnw in 1467 ; and
into Eni'knul in 1468, by means of Tho, Bourcbi-
er, arcb.bifliop of Canterbury, who lent IK Tur-
ner, m,i(icr of tile robes and JV. Caxton, mercijant,
to Haerlem to learn the art. Thefe privaitly pre
vailing with Coifiilles, ati under- workman, to
come over, a prc(s was fet up at Oxjoril, and an
edition of RuJJinus on the creed was printed the
fame year in oilavo. -'

From Oxford, Cax'on brought it to London a-
bout the year 1470, and the fame year it was car-
ried to Farii.

Hitherto there had been nothing printed but in
Latin, and the vulgar tongues ; and this i'lrll in
i?o/;M« . characters, then in Gothic, and at lad in
Italic: but in i.cjSo, the Italicim csA 11 kto't Lreek
types, and they have alfo the honour of the firO:
Hebre'iU editions which were printed about the
fame time with the Greek. Towards the end of
the fixtcenth century there appeared various editi-
ons of books in Syriac, Arabic, Perjian, Armeni-
an, Coptic or Eg ptian characters, fome to gratify
the curiofity of the learned, and others for the ufe
of the Cbri/iiam of the Levant.

Out of Europe, the art of printing has bren
carried into the three other parts of the world :

. for Afia, we fee impreffions of books at Goa, and
in the Philippines ; at Morocco, for Africa ; at
Mexico, Lima, Philadelphia, Ntw York, Bojlon,
&c. for America. The Turks, indeed, rigoroully
prohibit printing throughout their empire, as ima-
gining that the too frequent communication with
books might occafion fome change in their religi-
on and government ; yet the 'Jcivs have feveral
editions of their books printed at Thejfalonia, and
even at Lonjiantinople.

And Sir Paul Rycaut the EngUjli ambaflador at
the Port had the articles of peace, &c. between his
country and the Turks printed at Conjiantinople
alfo in the year 1660 in 4to, and in the EngUJh
tongue.

To fit up a printing houfe, we mufl have feve-
ral fcnts of diflerent charadters, or types, prefles,
and cafes divided into little cells or boxes of dift'e-
rent fizes, to contain the types ; conipofingjiicks,
galleys, chafes, rules, Jlones for impofmg, head-
jiicks, gutter-Jiicks, fide-Jlicks, foot-Jiicks, quoins,
plainer s, rights, cijlerns, ink, paper, &rc.

Charailers or types have different names, accor-
ding to their fizes or bodies, vi%, pearl, nonpareil,
brevier, long primer, fmall pica, pica, eJigUJh, great
primer, double pica, two-lined engUJh, and French
canon, we fhould have in our printing-boufe, to-
gether Saxon, and Greek types, is'c.

We call a fet of any of thefe fizcs a font, which
includes current letters, capitals, numeral letters,

- points, quadrats, fpaces, is'c.

47,

Rcfides the feveral kinds of chnra(5}cr5 and let-
ters above-rntntioned, we mufl have rule^ for blacJ^
lines, borders, sitd bead and tail pieces, accommo-
dated to the feveral kinds of letters.

The rules for blank lines arn of brafs, and made
exaftly the height of the letter.

The borders are a kind of ornaments in firm of
long bars, fcrving for the divifions of books, chap-
ters, i3'c. their depth is proportioned to the letter,
and their length adjufted to the page, for bting
con'pofed of feveral moveable pieces, it is eafy
lengtliening or fhoi tening them.

I hs bead and tail-pi, ces cut either in wood or
pewter, are compartments ufed at the beginnings
and endings of books.

The initial letters are fometimes cut in wood
and ligureJ ; fometimes cjft like the other cha-
racters.

Having purchafed our fonts of letters, and fent
them to our intended printing-boufe, our next care
is to have apriniing-prefs (reprefented in the mifcel-
laneous plate) which is a very compleat machine ;
its two principal parts, each whereof confifts of fe-
veral others, are the body of the prefs, which
fervcs to give the pinch or flroke for the imprefii-
on ; and the carriage, on which the form is laid
to undergo the fame.

'] he body confifls of two rtrong cheeks, placed
perpendicularly, and joined together by four crofs
pieces or planks.

j The firii plank, called the cap of the prefs, is
j fixed, and ferves to keep the two cheeks together
at the due diftance a-top : the fecond called the
head is moveable ; being fuftained by two iron pins
j or long bolts, that pafs the cap : in this plank is
i fixed a female fcrevv, or wortn, with a brafs nut,
fuftained by two fiort bolts, which keep it up : the
third plank called the f elves, fervcs to keep fteady
a part called the bofe, in which the fpindle (to be
fpoken of hereafter) is inclofed : the fourth plank,
called the vjintcr, is moveable ; it bears the car-
riage, and fuflains the effort of tht prefs beneath,
as the head does above; each giving way a little,
the one upward'^, the other downwards, to rnake
the pull the eaiicr.

The fpindle is an upright piece of iron, pointed
with ft eel, of different dimenfions, having a male
fcrew, which goes into the female of the head,
about four inches. Through the eye of this fpin-
dle is rivetted the bar, by which the preis-man
works the prefs.

The lower part of the fpindle pafTes through the
fhelves, being inclofed in a fquare wooden frame,
called the hoje; and its point works into the plug,
fixed in a brafs pan fupplied with oil ; which pan
is fixed to an iron plate, let into the top of the plat-
3 t<^n»

47 6 7he Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^zW Sciences.

ten. The prcfs-man, then, by turning or pulling
the bar fixeJ in the eye by an iron key, preilcs up-
on a fquare fmooth piece of wood, called the plat ten,
and enables it to comiircfs the (bini co\'er'd with tiie
paper, tyjnpaas, and its blankets, which in order
thereto, are brought under the platten.

At each corner of the hoje is an iron hook farten-
ed to thofe at eiich corner of the platten, with cords
or packthread, very exadly.

The cn--ri(igr, which makes the fecond principal
member of the prcfs, is placed a foot below the
platten, having its forepart fupported by a wooden
prop, calkd the fore ftay, while the other rells on
the winter. On this carriage, which fuftains the
plank, are nailed two long iron bars or ribs ; and
on the plank are nailed fhort pieces of iron or fleel,
called cramp-irons, equally temper'd with the ribs,
and which Hide upon them when the prefs is turned
in or out.

Under the carriage is fixed a fmall piece of iron,
called the /pit, with a double wheel in the middle,
round which leather girts are faftened, nailed to
each end of the plank. To the outfide of the/pit
is fixed a handle, or rounce, by which the prellman
turns the prefs in or out at p'.eafure.

Upon the plank is a fquare wooden frame or a f
fin, wherein is inclofed a marble or polifhed ftone,
for the form to be laid on. To this coffin are
faften'd leather flay-girts, one to each fide ; which
being again faften d to the cheeks of the prefs, pre-
vent *,he plank from running too far out, when
drawn from under the platten. On the fore part
of ihe plank is a gallows, which ferves to fu.lainthe
tympa[)s, when taken irom olF the form.

On the front of the coffin arc three (rames, much
alike, though ferving for different purpofes, viz.
the two tympans and friilvet : the tymptms are
fquiue, made of three flips of very thin wood, and
atop, of a flip of iron, ffill thinner, called a /^t-as/
iaud : that called the outward tynipan, is faften d
with iron joints to the colfin. '1 hey are both co-
ver'd with parchment; and between the two are
placed blankets, which ferve to make the impreffion
of the platten, upon tl e furfacc of the letters more
equal ; as alfo to prevent the letters from being
bruifed by the force of the prefs. 'Vhefrijia is all
of iron, very thin, fallen'd a- top to the great or
outward tympan, and fuftained by a flip of wood
hanging from the cicling, when open d to take out
the printed ffteets, and put in others. It is alfo
c jvered with parchment or paper, cut in the ne-
ceffary places, that the fnect, which is between the
great tympan and fri&et, may receive the ink, and
that nothing may hurt the margin. On the parch-
ment of the great or out.vard tympan it is, that the
blank flicet is laid to be printed.

To regulate the margin, and make the lines and
pages aniwer each other when printed on the other
fide, in the middle of the wood, in the fides of this
tympan, are two iron points, which make two
holes in the (heet, to be placed on the fame pins,
when the fheet is returned for an impreffion on the
other fide, called the reiteration.

Our prefs fixed, we'll range in order the cafes,
which are to contain our letters, placing two of
them, one over the other ; the upper one is divided
into 98 bjxes, to contain the capitals, fmall capi-
tiih^ accented letters, iic. and the lower one divid-
ed into 5^, to contain the common running letters,
with the joints, commas, qauadrats. &c. placing
each cafe a little flope, like a reading dcfk.

In the boxes of thefe cafes, our letters muft be
diftributed, according to the order of the alphabet;
together with [paces, quadrats, quotations. Sic.

The printing- houfe thus in order, we muft feek
next for a good fct of workmen, viz. compofitors,
and prefs-men ; compof.tors to range and difpo.'e the
letters into words, lines, pages. (Sc. according to
the copy delivered them bv the author : and pr.fs-
me>i to app'y ink upon the fame, and take off the
impreffion.

The compofitn moft comtrionly works ftanding ;
and muft place himfelfagainft the middle of the cafe;
holding his compofmg-Jtick, Plate ibid.^

1 he compofmg-ftick confifts of a plate or flip of
iron, bral's, wood, i£c. more or lefs broad, and
contrived fo as to be made more or lefs long, ac-
cording to the width of the pr.ge, and the number
of lines to be compofed in it. From the right of
this pate arifcs a ledge, a out half an inch high,
running the whole length of the plate, and ferving
to I'uftain the letters, the fides of which are to reft
sgainft it ; from the faid plate likewife arife three
other lefler pieces, two of which are contrived to
Aide along it, that fo the two pieces may he either
approached or withdrawn at pleafure, to adjuft the
length of the line to the meafurc intended.

Add, that where marginal notes, references, l^c.
are requi ed in a work, the two fl ding pieces are
opened in the compofing-ftick, to a proper diftance
from each other.

Ere the workmen proceeds to compose, a rtde
or thin flip of brals plate, cut to the length of the
line, and of the fame height as the letter, is placed
in the compofing flick againft the ledge thereof, for
the letters to bear immediately againlt.

Thincs thus prepared, the compofitor having the
copy (which is what the author h:is wrote) laying
before him, and the ftick in his left hand, with the
right he picks up the letters, fpaces, l3c. and
places them againifthe rule ; while with the thumb
of the left he places thcn:i dole to the upper fcrew,

P R I N r I N G

or cheek i ami thus keeps them /lc:idy, while the it by one half the height of the letter, may be tied

other hand is confl;mtly employed in fettiii.^ in nnore
letters : the whole being performed with fuch ex-
pedition and uddrefs, not eafy to be imagined.

A line being thus compofed, if it ends with a
word orfyllable, and fills the meafure, there needs
110 further care ; otiierwil'e more fp.ices are to be put
between the fcveral words to jiiltify the lines, /. c.
to make the meafure quite full, fo that every one
may end even ; and thus he proceeds to another
line.

The fpace! here ufcd are a, fort of blanks of the
like dimenfuins with the letters, but lefs high ; and
whofe faces therelore, when fet, do not appear, nor
give any impreffion. They are of feveral kinds, ac-
cordin2; to the dimenfions of the v.'hites, or inter-
vals to be made by them, viz. quadrats, to hll up
a break at the end of a paragraph, or the like ; w
quadrats, which are fquare, and of the thicknei'^
of an ?n, ferving to make the diUance after a period,
or between fentence and fentence ; k quadrats, of
the thicknefs of an n, to be placed after the colons,
femi-colons, and comma's ; and thick or thin
fpaces, to be ufed between the words injuftifying,
as above.

For marginal notes, in the fpaces referved for
them, between the tv/o Aiding pieces of the com-
pofmg-ftick, are put little quadrated pieces of me-
tal, called quotations (already mentioned) which are
juflitied by other fmaller pieces ; a flip of fcale-
board being placed from the top of the page to the
bottom, to keep the note and text at a due dif-
tance.

The firft line thus compleatly judined, the com-
pofttor advances to the next; in order to which he
moves the brafs rule from behind the former, and
places it before it, and thus compofes another line
itgainft it, after the fame manner as the former.

The ccmfjfitor having thus fet the proper number
of lines in his ftick, viz. four, five, fix, or more,
and emptied them thus out into the galley ; he a-
gain fills and empties, as before, till a compleat
page be formed, remembring at the bottom of every
page to fet a line of quadrats, and at the end there-
of the firft word of the page enfuing, for a catch-
word ; and if it be the firft page of the fhcet, one
of the letters for a fignature.

The galley is a flat wooden inftrument, in form
of a long fquare ; of a length and breadth propor-
tionable to that of the page : it confifts of two parts,
the upper called the Jlhe^ whereby the pages of
large volumes, when compofed, are Hidden upon
the ftone ; the other, called the. coffin, which is the
body o^ iht galley, is ledged on three fides, to con-
tain the flice ; the inner le'dge not to exceed half an
inch in heit:ht, that the compofed page rifing above
\oL. II. 48. I

up or bound down, and removed without danger..
This galley is placed at the top of the cafi;, and
detained by a wooden pin from Aiding down the
boxes.

'I he page then compofed and ranged in the gal-
ley, he ties it down therein with a cord of pack-
thread, and fets it by ; and proceeds to the next
till the number of pages in the fheet be compofed ;
which done, he carries them to the impoiing or
corredling-ftone, there to range them in order in a
chafe, which they call impoftng.

The chafe is a reflangular iron frame of different
dimenfions, according to the fize of the paper to be
printed on ; having two crofs piecei of the fame
metal, called z long :i.nd Jlm-t crofs, mortifed at each
end, into the frame, fo as to be taken out occafion-
ally. — l]y the different fituations of thefe croffes,
the chafe is fitted iox different volumes ; for quarto's
and oflavo's one trafverfes the middle lengthwife,
fo as to interfect in the center ; v/hich is the moft
cuftomary fituation : for twelves and twenty fours,
the Jhort crofs is (hifted nearer to one end of the
chafe : for folio's, the long crofs is left entirely out,
and the Taort one placed in the middle ; and for
broadfides, orfiieets printed on one fide only, both
crojfes are fet afide. I^o drefs the chafe, or range
and fix the pages therein, they make ufe of a fet of
furniture, Cvinfifting of riglets, or flips of wood of
diftercnt dimenfions, and of about half an inch hi^h,
that they may be lower than the letters : fonie of
thefe are placed at the top of the pages, called
head-flicks ; others between them to form the inner
margin, called gutter-/! iks, others at the fides cal-
led fide- flicks ; and others at the bottom, called
foot-jlicks.

The pages then placed in order on the ftone, the
chafe is put over them, and the riglets applied be-
tween the letter and the chafe, in the pofition a-
bove-mentioned ; the whole is locked up by means
of fmall pieces of wood, cut in the wedge-form,
called quoins, which are driven with a mallet and
fhooting-ftick, to a fufficient tightnefs.

Before the form be quite locked up, they drefs
down the fame, by pafllng a fmoc^th piece of wood,
called the plainer, over the letters, to make their
furtaces ftand flat and even ; and when locked up,
they fliake it to fee that nothing ftir.

In this condition the work is called a form,
containing more or fewer pages, according to the
volume.

As there are two forms required for every (heet,
when both fides are to be printed, it is neceflary
they be exadly of the fame length and breadth, /. e.
the corrcfponding riglets, head-fticks, isc. are to
be equal in both forms, that the pages may fall ex-
Q_q q a£tly

478 Ihe Univerfal Hiflory of Arts and Sciences.

Ectly on the back one of another, which is called
reg'iftcr.

The form thus finifhed is committed to the prefs •
men, to pull a proof there; in order to reftify the
errors which may have flipped the compofitor's at-
tention ; which are in a greater or lefler number,
according as the compofitor has been more or lefs
careful in his compofition; or has a greater or Icfler
capacity.

The proof pull'd is carried to the correilor of
the prefs, who ought to read it over with a great
deal of attention, and compare it carefully with the
copy, in order to rectify all the miftakes ; which
is feidom done as it ought to be.

The corrcftions are placed on the margin of each
page, right againil the line where the faults are
foujid. I here are diiferent charafters ufcd to ex-
prefs cifierent corre^lons, £) or S ckle, for any
thing to be effaced or left out. When any thing
is to be inferted, the place is marked in the line
with a caret a, and the infertion added in the mar-
gin. When a word, fyllable, t^c. is to be alter'd,
it is erafed out of the proof, and that to come in its
room written in the margin ; always obferving, if
thcri be feveral in the fame line, that they be fepa-
rated by little bars or ftrokes, | if a fpace be

The ink for printing is of two kinds, black
and red : the laft occafionally ufed in title pages,
kalendars, (Jc. the firft for the body of the book.

To fit the paper for ufe, it muft be firft wet or
moiftened, by dipping feveral fhcets together in the
water : thefe are afterwards laid in a heap over one
another ; and to make tlicm take the water equally,
are all preflbd clofe down with a weight a-top. As
to the degree of wetting, it muft be according to
the quality of the paper, and the fize of the letter ;
fmall letters, and ftiff paper, requiring moft wet-
ting. But the paper ought not to be wet long be-
fore it is ufcd ; otherwife it would be covered with
a great number of yellow Ipecks.

The paper, being fit for ufe, the ink prepared,
and the fo'm placed on the ftone in the prefs, the
prefs man goes to work : and for the greater dif-
pateh, fometimcs three perfons ate employed in this
operation, one to beat the form with the ink, ano-
ther to lay the blank-lheet on tlic outward tympan,
and work the prefs, and another to take off the
fhect, when printed ; which operator they call the
Jly ; the firit thing done is beating the form with
ink, by means of balls, v/hich are a ki.nd of wooden
funnels, the cavities whereof are filled with wool,
covered with leather nailed to the wood. One of

omitted, its place is marked with a caret, and the thefe the operator takes in each hand, and apply-
ihino- expreifed in the margin ><^ : if a letter be i"g them on the ink-block, to charge them with
inverted, it is expreffed in the m'ar^in with q: if "'k> he rubs them againftone another to diftribute
any thing be tranfpofed, it is marked thus ; | the mk equally ; and at lad fmears over the form,

, „ ^ 1 ,-}r-r. — ., , r c ^t /I ^ /• ■ bv beatinir or dabbing them ieveral times over the

ihe fljoi-tt'/i are the \ follies \ heft; for, the Jhojtejt \ •',,,■-,, r ?■• , ^ ■. r 1

■' -^ .^J ' J ' 111 • whole face thereof ; taking care to do it fo evenly,

fcUles are the bejt : and in the margm is added tr in ! ^-^3^ ^^ ^^..^ thereof may b2 left unfmeared ; whence
If Roman characters are to be changed j ^,g„,j ^^^^^ f^yars, as they call them, /. e. places

in the Iheet left unprinted, which is a very great

detriment to it, a fcandal to the operator, and his

. inafter, and a baulk to the reader : while he is

The pyyif or jlcct correcied, is delivered back j beatin- the form, the prefs-man lays the white

to the compolnor, that he may rectify in the form i ^^^^ ^^ ^^e tympan ; and the form fmeared, he

a circle.

for Italick, or vice verfa, a line is drawn under
them i!^us, and Roman or Italick added in the mar-
gin.

the miftakes marked by the corrector ; in order to
which he goes with his compofing-ftick to the cafe,
to take the letters he thinks ncceffary for this ope-
ration ; then comes to the form, which he unlocks
on the torretting-ftone, by knocking out or loofen-
ing the quoins ; and fpreading his correcied proof
fo, as that the line thereof range with the refpedlive
ones of the metal ; by running his eye along both,
he cafily fpies where the corredions are to be madej
according to which, he proceed; to pick out the
faulty letters, points, Is'c, with a fharp-pointed
itetl bodkin, and puts others in their places.

The form corrected, and locked again by the
compofitor, is delivered for good to the prefs-man,
who are to v.rork it off; who, to be ready for this
operation, has took care to prepare his ink, prefs,
..nd paper for it.

brings the tympans and frilket down from the gal-
lowj upon it ; and advancing the plank under the
platten, by means of the fpit-handle or rounce,
gives two flrokes or pulls with the bar, and with
an equal ftrength, that the fheet may be printed
every where equally ; and with the fame handle
turned the contrary way, brings back the plank, fo
takes off the printed fheet, and put on a frefh one ;
the form being beaten with ink every time a frefh
fheet is put on ; and this he repeats till he has taken
off the full number of fheets the edition is to con-
fift of.

One fide of the fheet being thus printed, it is
remanded to the prefs for the other ; and fo difpof-
ed, as that the iron points pais through the holes
already made in the fhect.

The number of Ihects of the edition bcingconi-

pleat

P 7^

pleat, and tlicfoim to be fepaiated, to reftore the
letters into the cafes, they firft walh it in lye to
take out the remains of the ink, firubbing it with
a brufh, sod then wafli it with fair water. This
done, it is carried to a board, on which it is un-
locked, and the furniture, /. e. the flicks, £s't-.
taken ofFto difengagc it from the chafe. Then the
compolltor taking up fcveral lines at once upon a
litttle wooden ruler, he replaces each letter in its
proper box, to be again ufcd in the remainder of
the impreflion.

Books are printed in China from wooden planks
or blocks, cut like thofeufed in printing of callico,
paper, cards, isfc. among us.

Thefe blocks are made of a fmooth, firm, clofc
wood, and of the fize. of the leaf required. On the
face-fide they glue a paper, upon which forne able

R 0 T E C H N 7\ 47,^

penman draw.s out the fcveral letters and characle'r?
with a Chinefe pen, which is a kind of pencil. Tiii.s
is the principal part of the work, and that whereoa
the fucccfs of the reft depends.

When finiflicd, the block is put In the hands of
a fculptor, or cutter in wood ; who following the
feveral ftrokes of the writer with his gravers, and
other fliarp little inftruments, makes them all ap-
pear in relievo on the wood.

When the carving or cutting is finifhed, they
moiftcn what remains of the paper, and rub it
gently ofF.

The ink they ufe in printing is the fame with the
common Chinefe ink, wiicrevvith they alfo wiite ;
and is made of lamp-black mixed up with oil.

Their prcfs refembles our rolling-prefs, much
more than the letter-preis.

PTROTECHNr.

PYROTECHNY, ^.w^;..*, is the art of
fire, or a fcience, which teaches the ma-
nagement and application of fire in feveral
operations, either jnilitary or chymical.

Chymical pyrotechny \s the art of managing, and
applying fire in diftillations, calcinations, and other
operations of chymiftry, of which at large in cljy-
7nijlry.

Military pyrotechny, is the doclrine of artificial
fire-works, as rockets, Jiars, fcrpcnts.

A Rocket is an artificial fire-worlc, confifting
of a cylindrical cafe of paper, filled with a compo-
fition of certain combullible ingredients ; which be-
ing tied to a ftick, mounts in the air to aconfider-
able height, and there burfts.

Befides the rociet here defined, which is properly
called the Jiy- rocket, there is another, which from
the fphere it moves in, the water is denominated
ivater-rocket.

The compofition wherewith rockets are filled, is
made in the following manner.

You mufttake the biggeft gun-powder, bruife it
on a table, with a wooden muiler, and pafs it after-
wards through a very fine filk fierce, take fixteen
ounces thereof, and put it by itfelf: then you'll
bruife charcoal likewife, made of willow, or white
wood, and pafs it afterwards through a fierce of
horfe-hairs, a little coarfer than that of filk. You'll
mix with your hands four ounces of this coal, with
your fixteen ounces of powder, and pafs the mix-
ture four or five times thro' a horfe-hair fieve, much
coarfer than the other ; and every time you'll have
paffed it you'll ftir it with the hand. This com-
pofition well mixed and incorporated together, muft
be kept in a proper veflel for ufe.

You'll try one of )'our rockets charged with thi-s
compofition ; if it does not afcend there is too
much charcoal, and the compofition is too weak-
therefore it mufi: be ftrengilined with an ounce of
gun-powder pulverized ; and if it burfts in afeend-
ing into the air (as it often happens when the roelc-
ets have not been tried) the compofition is too
ffrong, and an ounce of charcoal muft be added
to it, or more, according to the prudence of the
artificer.

Several artificers are of opinion, that Jiy rockets
can be made with the following compofition?, in
proportion to their bignefs ; fomc of them weighing,
when filled and equipped, as far as twelve pounds,
as it is explained in the following tables.

Dofe to

make Jly-

rockets.

Compofition Con'i'pcjitton ,
for a Mould for a Mould
0/2 lb. 1 efi lb.

CoiKjisfiticn 1 Coji-^'Jui'^n Compafnion [
Jar i3 Mould fir a Mould for a Mould
o/'l lb. c/4 OZ. 1 (fzuz.

Powder 2lb.

1 lb.

zooz. 5 OZ.

8 0 9 OZ.

s=''-^,ib.

petre S

12 OZ.

Z 01.

12 OZ. 1 OZ.

I OZ. i OZ.

1 of an OZ.

phurJSO^'

3 0Z.

i OZ.

1 an ounce
or I ounce.

Char l
coal ^40^.

filings 5

The mould

The Mould

The mould

has 9^ In-

has S l In-

has 7 Inches

has 4' In.

ches in

in Height.

in Heightt

Height.

As an additional ornament to rockets, it is ufual

to furnifh them either with ftars, or with ferpents,

or fparks,or with a fhower of rain, v/hich take fire

when the rocket burfts j and fomctimes little rock-

Q_<j q 2 ets

480

The Univeifal Hiilory of Arts afid Sciences.

ets are inclofed in great ones, to take fire when I 'I'omake a ferpcnt, you muft roll upon an iron
the great one is at its greateft height, I rod, or round flick, two gaming-cards, one over

To make J] an for rockets. — Alix three pounds 1 the other, which muft be covcr'd with a paper, fo
of fait pctrc, with eleven ounces of fulphur, three { that the paper appears always a top, and cards in-
oinccs of beaten jun-pcAfder, and ten of antimony, j fide : it will be neceflary to wet alittlc the cards to
Moiften the n-.afs with gum water, and form them
into little balls of the fize of filberds ; drying them
v.X'll either in the fun or an oven. When dry,
intlofe a nember of them in the conical cap of the
rocket.

As to the method of making watcr-rcckets ;
make a rocket after the ufual manner, excepting
in the number of choaks. Let its diameter be e-
qual to that of a leaden bail of two or three inches
diameter, and let it be bored to a third part of its
height. Inclofs the rocket in a hollow perpendi-

' make them more tradable ; but they are not to be
ufed before they are dry ; pafting paper afterwards,
which cover them all its length, to fallen it. You
introduce the bafe of the mould into the ytT/>^«/,
and choak it at that place, with a pack-thread
greafed with a little foap ; and tie it afterwards
with thread ; then you put the mould over the
ferpent, which thereby is inclofed in it ; charging
it afterwards by means of a quill, with the (ame
compofition the rockets are made of; filling half the
ferpent fi'ft, and then ramming the charge with the

cular cylinder, which fmear over with melted pitch fame iron rod, the cylinder has been rolled upon ;
or wax, that it may refift the moifture. I and having put a grain of vetch over the charge,

The weight of'the rocket is to be fo proportioned you fill up the ferpent, with whole gun-powder,
to that of the water, that the whole cylinder may ' leaving a place empty a-top, to thruft in a ftopple
be immergcd. Some inftead of a cylinder ufe a of chew'd paper, which muft be rammed down
truncated cone, or even a fpheroid ; and forne hang ' with the iron-rod : the paper being rammed down,
a weight to the end where it is lighted. and a little fpace left empty over it, you choak

To make a rain of fire for the rockets, take equnl likewife the ferpent at that place, and tie it with a
quantity of fulphur, falt-petre, and gunpowder, thread, as you have done the other end ; with this
beat well each ingredient by itfelf ; and melt, af- j difference, that this end is quite clofe, and the other
tcrwards, the fulphur in a glazed earthen pot, or has preferved the aperture made to it, by the fpike
in a copper pot which is belt ; when melted, put ' thruil into it at firft ; this empty place is primed
the falt-petre by little and little into it, flirring con- afterwards with gun powder, bruifed and mixed

tinually the matter ; and laftly the powder ; this
muft be done over a very litttle fire, left it fhould
catch the mixture, while you ftir it. Thofe three

with water.

For a GiRANDOLA it muft be made in form of a
wheel, with fix faces : the fpokes of the wheel to be

intrredients being well incorporated together, pour , of a light wood turned as near as one will have it :
the mixture on paper, or board,where it will grow the nave of the wheel of a little ftronger wood, the
hard, and when you'll want to make a rain of fire, : bands of the wheel only a line thick, and an inch or

you muft break it into fmall pieces, and mix it
with the powder of the cracker of your rocket.

To make a rocket to run along a cord. Take
two fty-rockets, of thebignefs of thofe firft in order
in our table ; but without a cap, or any other ap-
paratus, only ?.s they come out of the mould ; join
thofe two rockets together fide-wife, the upper end
of the one turned towards the lower end of the
other, fo that the ftopple, which comes out of the
maffive of the one, enters the choak of the other ;
and parte paper over it, left the violence of the ef-
fort fnould part them ; taking care, likewife, to
Hop v/ith wet and pafted paper, the end of the
maffive, which is to fire laft.

Thofe two rockets thus difpofed, an empty cy-
linder is faften'd to them very tight in three places,
and the cord run afterwards through it.

The rocket, which is lighted firft, runs along the
cord, from the end it departed to the other end ;
and when exhaufted, the other takes fire, and re-
turns back the fame way.

thereabout broad ; thofe bands are nailed to their

joints, and even glued that they may hold fafter ;

that wheel thus difpofed, you'll apply on each or

the joints or bands, a fky-rocket of the fame length

with the joint, which you'll tie very tight with

packthread in three places, /. e. in the middle,

and at both ends ; proceeding thus round the

wheel, taking care that one end of the ftopple

vvhich comes out of one rocket, may enter the

maffive of the next, for the communication of the

fire to one another without interruption : all this

j being thus well prepared, th" places where the

rockets are joined, are coverojl with paper, putting

two or three more papers over it, to hinder the fire

from forcing through that way : and at the joints

which remain between the two laft rockets, care

muft be taken to ftop well that which is to play laft,

with wet paper, and well rammed at the extremity

which touches the end of the firft rocket, to which

the fire is fet. at the ftopple w hich comes out of it.

i To ufe this gireindo/a, a foot muft be made to it,

I f«ur

REFINING.

481

four feet leng, which is eafily Introduced through
th:- nave, toni.iki; it turn eafier ; and at the extre-
mity of i!ie nave a pin is adapted, to hinder the
wheel from i.iUiii!; while it turns round. Thofe
^irauclclcs are nailed at the corner of the theatre or
fciifFold.

Befides thofe fire- works, for diverfion, there are
others ufed in the defence of places befieged, to
throw on the befiegers, when they come to the
breach, or attack; fome other works.

For a Fire-Ball, you muft have a port-fire,
a foot and a half, or two feet long, according to
the bignefs the fire-ball is to be, on an inch, or an
inch and a half of diameter, which mull be charged
with a compofition made of two pounds of falt-
petre, apound of fulphur, and halfapound of gun-
powder, all well pounded feparately, and pafied
throu2:h a fine fierce, mixina; them all together
afterwards.

In cafe the fire fhould be too flow, you'll add to
it a little gunpowder pulverized; and falt-pctre, if
it burns too quick, to make it laft longer ; in the
middle of the ball fhould be a little fack filled with
this fame compolition ; the port-fires fiiall be run
thro' that fack; and over it, the ball fliall be co-
vered with tow, and chips of wood, dipt in a mix-
ture made of linfeed oil, and oil of turpentine,
feven pounds of each, and eight pounds of pitch or
tar, gently heated, and well incorporated together ;
the tow and chips muft be left to be half dry be-
fore they are ufed ; dipping mean while a piece of
very coarie cloth, in the fame mixture, to envelope
the ball, throwing afterwards on the cloth tow and
chips, falt-petreand fulphur coarfely pounded, that
the fire may be clearer ; obferving to put by inter-
vals iron ware round the matter which is put in
the ball, to make it hold, without being too tight,
otherwile the fire would be too flow ; for when
the matter is a little loofe, the flame is greater : if
you want to quicken the fire you mufl take three
pounds of gunpowder pulverized, and a pound of

charcoal pulvcri/,ed likcv^ife, and having mixed
them well together, fpread it on a table, and roll
the ball, covered with the chips and tow upon it,
covering it afterwards with the cloth.

For a Fire- Rock, you'll put three pounds of
fulphur in powder, in a glazed earthen pot, place
the pot over a little charcoal fire without flame ; th-:
fulphur melted, you'll add to it a pound of mutton
fuet, a pound of gunpowder pulverized, and pafltd
through a fierce, and a pound of falt-petre in pow-
der : the whole being well mixed, throw it into a
bafon, where it mud be left to grow cold , or elfe,
while it is hot, cover your granadoes, circles,
lauiices, and other artifices with it.

Poiuder, which will be fometimes underwater,
and fometimes above it. Take gunpowder, three
parts of colophone, a fourth of common oil, and a
fixth of fulphur ; mix them all together, and bcin;
dry, try if it burns more or lefs than it ought ; if
it does not burn enough add fulphur and colophone
to it ; wrap that mixture in a piece of cloth, then
put flraw round it^ which mufl: be tied with pack-
thread, and dip it afterwards in pitch ; cover it
over again with other ftraw, which m.uft be dipped
as the firft, to keep it from the water ; this done,
you'll make a little hole in it to fct it on fire : the
mixture would be better, if fome petroleum was
added to it.

To mak torches, which are never extinguifhed
either by the wind or rain. — Take old ropes pret-
ty big, and boil them in falt-petre water ; and
when very dry, cover them with fulphur pulveri-
zed, and coarfe gunpowder, mixed wiih fome
brandy: take aftei wards three parts of wax, three
parts of pitch, one part of fulphur, half a part of
camphire, and half a part of turpentine, and with
all thefe matters mixed together, cover vour ropes,
putting four of them together ; and as a torch in
the middle, add befides, between thofe four ropes,
quick-lime, with three parts of fulphur mixed toge-
ther.— Thefe torches will lic-ht in all weathers.

REFINING,

REFINING is the art of refining metals
and falts.
All forts of metals admit oi refining, viz.
gold,filver, ii-on, tin, and lead.

Gold, can be refined in three different manners,
viz. either with antimony, with fublimate, or
with aqua foi tis.

The laft of thefe three manners, viz. depart, and
which is the moll ufual, and moft dangerous, is
alfo called departing, or parting ; the procefs
thereof is as follows.

Thev take at the rate of one pound of impure
gold, and two or three of filver ; thefe they fufe

together in a crucible, and when fufed call them
into cold water, where they become divided into
grains of the bignefs of peas. Thefe grains taken
out and dried by the fire, are put in a departing
veflel, which is a ffone matrafs, and to the matrafs
is added four pounds of aqua fortis. Then taking
the veflel, they fet it on the coals, and in about an
hour's fpace the refining is done. For upon open-
ing the veflel they find nothing therein but the
aquafortis, and the gold reduced into a calx, or
fand ; the filver being all diflTolved and imbibed by
the v/ater.

482

The Unlvcifal Hiftoiy of Arts ^^W Scienxes.

To raifc the gold to its due fincnefs, they ufually
give it the aqua foitis again and again ; ufing for
the fiiit time half a pound, and for the fecorid a
quar'er of a pound of the water to eight ounces ot
metal. If the third water be i'ound good and clear,
the operation is ended : and the calx of the gold
being wafhed in repeated water, is melted down in
a crucible, firft by a gentle, and afterwards a vehe-
ment fire, to be caft into ingots or wedges.

It muft be added, that the filver with the impu-
rities of the gold, are (b thoroughly incorporated
with the water, that to the eye there-docs not ap-
pear any thing befides the pure liquid, yet this fd-
vcr is not lolL To recover it again out of the
mendruum, they divsde their ftock of aqua fortis
into fcveral flone vefTcls, which they fill up with
I'pring water, obferving to put feven or eight times
as much of this as that. This done, in each vefiel
they put a quantity of copper, and leaving the
whole for twenty-four hours, at the end thereof
they find the particles of the aqua fortis have quit-
ted the filver, and are with the copper, leaving the
former in form of a calx, or incorporated aflics at
bottom. This calx being dried, is melted into
an ingot, with a litt'e faltpetre.

To hufoand the aqua fortis, and make it ferve
again for a fecond operation , the)' diftil it in an
earthen or glafs alembick ; and when the diftilla-
tion is about a third over change the recipient.
The w.aterof the firfi: recipient fe:ves for the firft
operation of departing, and the reft for the fubfc-
quent ones.

If the aqua fortis, having quitted the filver, and
being united with the copper, be then filtrated, it is
called aqua faundi, in which, if you fleep an iron
plate fome hours, you will have s.nottitr departure,
for the menftruum will let go the copper, and prey
on the iron, leaving the copper in powder on the
iron plate. And filtrating this diflblution, you may
get the iron out of it, by laving in it a piece of la-
pis calaminaris ; for the iron in that cafe will depart
to the bottom, and the lapis be diflblved : and if
vou again filtrate this water, and pour on it the
liquor of fixed nitre, you will have another depart,
the lapis precipitating to the bottom. And laftly,
fi'trating this water as before, and evaporating part
of it, you'll have cryftals of faltpetre.

To refine gold ^vith antimony, vou muft take an
ordinary crucible, of a fizc anfwerable to the quan-
tity of gold to be refined ; obferving that the gold
and antinicny together do not above half fill it :
put that crucible in a wind fu.'-nace, with the gold
alone in it ; and when the gold is melted throw
into it the antimony in powder. The proportion
of the mineral to the metals, is about a pound to
eight ounce--, if the gold be between 22 and 16
earrats fine : if it be beneath 16 carrats, they ufe

coarfer tlie gold is, the more antimony is required.
As foon as the antimony is in the crucible, it is
covered up ; and after charging the furnace with
charcoal, they put on its head a cover, v.'hich ftand
till fu( h time as the crucible be left quite bare ;
then the head being taken off, and the crucible left
to cool in the furnace itfelf, till fuch time as it may
be taken out by the hand, they break it to get out
the bottom, or culot, which is a mafs of fine ^«.'<;^
remaining at the bottom, with the focus of ihe
antimony, the filver and copper alloy, and fonie-
times little particles of gold itfelf over it.

Though the gold thus prepared be very pure, the
antimony gives it fuch a harlh brittle quality, that
it ceafes to be ductile ; and muft be foftencd by
fiifion, with faltpetre and borax, to bring it to itfelf.
For this operation they prepare what they call a
dry coppel, that is, a coppei made of crucible earth,
which does not imbibe like thecoppel madeof afhes.
The coppcl being fufficiently heated in the re-
finiirg furnace, they put the gold in it and cover
it up wifh charcoal.

As fcoix as the gold is diflolved, which is very
foon by rcafon of the remains oi the antimony,
they blow It with the bellows to drive the mineral
entirely away, which now go:s off' in fmoak ; ad-
ding to it, as foon as the fumes ecafe, a little falt-
petre and borax in powder : which collect the im-
purities reri:.ining upon diflblution, and fix the
gold in the coppei in form of a plate.

The gold being taken out of the coppcl, and
melted afrefli in the crucible, with an addition of
two ounces of falt-petre, and as much borax in
powder, to each eight ounces of gold ; as feon as
it ceafes to fume, they caft it into an ingot ; which,
upon trial, is found 2 3 carrats, 26 thirty- ("cconds fine.
As to the particles of goldwhldh mr.y have been
left behind with the alloy in the fsces of the anti-
mony, they get them out by a dry coppei, with the
fame meltings and ingredients as are ufed in foft-
eningthe former. And when they are afTured by the
efl"ay, of th»fhare of gold ihe matter contains, they
refine it to feparate the copper; and afterwards
make the depart.

As to the gold which may be lefffticking to the
dry coppels, they get it out by breaking and pulve-
riving the crucibles, and by repeated lotions of the
powder thereof in leveral waters ; which is called
wafhing.

To rcJiHe gold ly means effuhlimate. — The pro-
cefs is begun like that with antimony, i. e. in the
fame furnace, with the fame coal, the fame lire,
and the fame crucibles.

The ^iW being melted in the crucible, they caft
in the fubh'matc, not pulverized, but only broke in
pieces. As to the proportion, to eight ounces of
^^.W to be refined, they put an ounce, or an ounce

abjuk five quarters ot a poun i to eight ounces : the a;rd a half, or even two ounces, ifthe^c.W be of 22

carrats

REFINING.

483

carrats; three ounces if 20 carrats ; and 406 I third of the quantity of rii-er water ; they boil it
ounces, if it only be from 18 to 20 carrats. In I oier a wood fire, till fuch tnic as the a,^ua fortis
which laft cafe they part the fublimatc into two ; yields no more red fumes.

putting half at a time, with the gold, into a new j This firft water being poured off and the cornet
crucible ; which, when the operation isover, leave; left alone at the bottom of the matraG, they /ill the
the ^3/i from iS to 23 carrats, according to its matrafs again, but with jiure aqua fortis ; which,
finenefs before. After this, they raifc it further by , after boiling, is poured off in its turn at fuch times
the fire as follows : as the fumes are become white. — 'This done, they

The broken fublimate being put into the cruci- fill up the matrafs with river water, to wadi the
ble with the nitlted gold, the crucible is immediate- cornet.

Iv covered up, to fniothsr the mineral; which done, When waflied they put it dry in a crucible, witli
the furnace is filled with charcoal, and the head a cover ovtr it, and heat it till it become of a cherry-
put on. A quarter of an hour afterwards they take colour.

off the he.id, lay the crucible bare, and give the This done, the ajjiiy is finifhed ; and there re-
go!d z\r, i.e. blow off all the aflies, and other im- j mains nothing but to weigh it again ft the fame
parities that nny be floating on the liquid gold, i weight of fine gold, as was ufed at firft before the
with apairofbclloW3,thenozzle whereof is crooked, affay ; for bv comparing the firft weight of the gold

This they repeat again and again, till the impu- ere it was put in the fire, and the aqua fortis, with
rJties of the gold beinj carried off, by virtue of the what it returned after it had thus undergone the
fub ima'e, it be foui'd of a bright glittering colour ; teft ; thev judge from the greater or lefs lofs it has
after which it is taken out of the crucible, and the fuftained, of the quantity of alloy mixed with it.
gold caft in;o an ingot. j Now for refining filvcr; which is done two ways ;

Gold may alfo be refined with lead and afhes, as the one with lead, the other with falt-petre. The
obferved in Chymi'.try ; but this is a method fel- beft and cheapeft is that with lead,
dom ufed, excepting in ejfays. To refine filver ivith lead \ a coppel is filled with

For the method oi ajjetying gold. — The affayer a mixture ot brick aflies, and a.lies of a bullock's
having weighed the gold he intends to make the ' or other bones. It is fet on the fire and heated red
trial in, very exaflly, with fcaies that will turn \ hot ; in which ftate the lead is put in, and when
with the hundredth part of a grain, and noted down ' this is melted, the fiher, in the proportion of a
the weight, and twice as much fine filver thereto ; ! pound of lead to four or five ounces of filver, and
though liiis fliou'd be in proportion to the finenefs : even fomewhat more lead, if the Jilver be very
the _g-;W feems to be of, the bafeftffcW requiring the coarfe. As thefe two metals melt together, the
leaft fiber. The gold and filver thus weighed and copper, before mixed with the filver, diffipates in
mixed, are wrapped up in a jijce of paper, to pre- ! fmoak, or goes away with the (cum and jithr.rge,
vent their lofing any thing of their weight, which ! and fo does the lead itfelf ; leaving the fiJ\cr alone
would ddlurb the accuracy of the effay. in the coppel, in its proper degree of finenefs.

While the qffeiyer is weigliing his matters, a re- In this method o\ "refining, wherein 6 or 7C00
v^ibcratory fire is lighted in a furnace, furnifhed pounds may be refined at once ; the metal is drawn

with a muffler and a coppel or teft fet therein to
heat. This done, a little bullet of lead is put in
the coppel, ofa weight proportionable :othe quan-
rity and quality of the gold to be affayed. When

out of the coppel two ways ; the one by plunging
in it, while ftill liquid, a thick bar of iron, round
which the filver flicks in form of a fhell, or cruft ;
repeating this again and again : the other is by

the lead is well melted, and appears very clean , letting the coppel ftand till it be cold ; in the
and bright, they put in the gold and filver, and let bottom whereof the filver fixes in form of cake

it fufe and feethe till it appears of an opal colour,
und hath fix'd itfelf in a little lump to the bottom
of the coppc'.

1 his done, the coppel is left to cool in the fur-
nace itfelf ; after which th; lump is feparated very
exactly from the i)lAce where it iluck to the veflcrl,
and Irretehed and hammered on the an\ il, heating
it ag.'in and , again on the coals, to promote the
Itretehing.

When fuffci-nily hammered, they rvll it up in
form of a cornet or coffin, and thus put it in a glass

The refining fiilver ivith J(dt-petrc, is pcrfbiined
ini a wind-turn.ice. — H^hs filver to be refined hav-
ing been reduced into grains of the fize of little
peas, by pouring it, when melted, into a tub of
common water ; it it heated o\'er again in a boiler.
After this they put it in a crucible, and along with
it, to every eight ounces of metal, two of iait-pctre.

The crucible is now covered up with an earthen
lid, in form ofa dome, exaiStly luted ; which liJ
however is to have a little aperture in the middle.

The crucible being put in the furnace, and co-

matrafs, capable of containing four fpocnfuh of vered with charcoal, which is only to be lighted
water ; and having added to it a quantity of aquajbv degrees ; at length they give it the full force of
fjrtis well corrected, that is, mixed with near onejthe fire to put the metal into a perfed fufion. This

I they

484

Ihs Univerlal Hiilory oj Arts /r;.'^ Sciences.

ihey repeat three times fuccc^vcly, at an inter-
val of a quarter of an hour.

After a tiiird fire they uncover the furnace, and
let the crucible cool ; and at length break it:, to get
out the filver, wiiich is found in a button or culct;
the bottom whereof is very fine filver ; and the top
mixed with the fxces of the ("alt pctre, and the
alloy of the filver, and even fomc particles of the
fine filver.

T"he culot being feperatcd from the impurities,
js melted in a new crucible, and into the diliblution
is thrown charcoal-dulf, and the whole brifldy
worked together. Then the crucible being cover-
ed up again, and the furnace charged with coal, a
Iccond lire is given it.

This done, the afhcs, and other impurities are
blown from the tcp of the metal, till it appears as
clear as a looking-glafs ; and then an ounce of
borax broke in pieces is thrown in.

Laftly, the crucible being covered up again,
they gave it the laft fire ; after which it is caft in-
to ingots ; which are found eleven penny-weights,
and fixtecn grains fine.

To recover the filver that may be left in the
fasces, or fcoria, they pound them, and give them
repeated lotions in ficfh waters.

But both the one and the other manners are te-
diou/s^nd troublefome, when performed on large
quantities. This cccafioned M. Homherg to en-
deavour to fnorten the operation ; which he effec-
ted with good fucccfe. Kis method is, to calcine
his filver with half its weight of common fulphur ;
asid after melting the whole together, to caft a
quantity of fteel-nlings upon it at fevera! times;
upon this (he fulphur quits the filver, and joins it-
(elf to the iron, and both are converted into fcoria,
which fwim on the filverj and the metal itfelf is
found pure at the bottom of the crucible.

The ojfay of filver is much after the fame man-
ner of that of gold; onlyiefs difficult and fhorter.
The filver is weighed as before ; and the fame fur-
nace, and muttler, the fame fire, the fame coppel
ufed. Addj-drat lead is alfo put in the coppel,
proportioned to the quantity and quality of the fil-
ver to be affayed.

The lead being well melted and clear, the filver
IS put in ; and after it is brought to an opal colour,
and fixed in a lump at the bottom of the coppel,
which happens in about half an hour ; they let it
cool, and clcar.fe it; and lalily, weigh it again as
m gold ; and from its diminution eflimalie the
quantity of alloy.

_ The refining of CovpER, is only performed by
gi\ ing the mineral matter fcveral lotions before the
inclcingit,and then giving it feveral repeated fufions.
The refnlng u/1"in, is performed much after
the fame manner of that of copper, though we may
diflinguHh two kinds of finenefs of this metal :
the one arifing from its fufion, that tin taken firfl 1

out of the furnace wherein it is melted, being al-
ways purer than that towards the bottom.

J he other kind of fineneis is that given the tin,
by adding fome other metal or mineral to it, to
render it more fonorous as well as brighter ; fuch
is tin of antimony. Pewter, i^c.

For the method of affaylrg tin. — To find whe-
ther tin be foft and ductile, or harfh and brittle,
there are two kind of afiays : — : he fir'f, is by
putting the tin in a mould of caft brafs, and there
melting it. If the metal be harfh, it will be
taken out heavier than before ; othcrwife it will
be lighter. The fecond, is by carting the melted
tin into a little mould, made of the thunder-ftone.
This mould has a little canal of moderate length,
which conducts the matter into a cavity, capable
of containing half a billiard ball : if the//« be
harfh, it appears whitifli towards the entry of the
mould ; otherwife it is tinged fupenicially with a
very faint bluifh brown.

Refining of Iron, begins likewife by melting it.
The greater degree cf fufion the mineral has, the
more the metal is purified : But this firft fufion is
iiotfufHcient. To rcnderthe iron malleable, and fit
to endure the file, it muft be melted a fecond time ;
then forged or beaten a long time with huge heavy
hammers, wrought by water ; then heated in the
fire, and at laft reduced on the anvil into bars of
fcveral thicknefles.

The more the iron is heated in the fire, and the
more it is beaten, whether hot or cold, the finer it
becomes.

Steel is only iron refined to a great degree
by heating it with fome otiier ingredients, which
clofe up the pores and foften the grain thereof.

Refining of Lead, is performed like that of
moft other imperfect metals, by frequent melt-
ings, flill fcumming it before it be cold; and
calling in tallow and other kind of fat.

There is alfo -nw A£ay made of lead ; for the
afiay of gold and filver, being performed by means
of lead ; 'tis of the utmoft importance, the lead
be free of any mixture of either of the two metals ;
'/therwife the affay will be falfe, by reafon the
gold and filver mixed with the lead, will not
evaporate like otfier kinds of alio)-, but unite
with the metal \xx\i\tx ajjay.

To prevent this diforder, and afllire the ope-
ration, there is no way but to afiay the 'lead
itfelf.

This affay is performed in the fame furnace, and
with the fame coppel s, astho'eof gold and filver:
But the procefs is incomparably more fimple. All
here required, when the coppel is heated, being
to put in the piece of lead to be afl':iyed. If this
lead evaporates entirely, it is fit for the purpofe.
On the contrary, if there remain a little grain of
lilver, i3c. at the bottom, it muft be fet afide.

RHETORIC K.

485

RHETORIC K.

RKETORICK, Is the art of cloathing our
thoughts with words, lb as they may be
either inftruiftive, perfuafive, or entertain-
ing, whether we fpealc, or write ; and it is com-
monly divided into four parts, viz. invention, dif-
pofiticn, elocution and promtnciation.

Invention is to find out arguments, which
the orator is to ufe for the proving his point, or
moving his hearers paflions.

Arguments are alfo divided, with refpcfl to
the place they are drawn from into intrinftck or
artificial ; and cxtrinjick or inartificial, or remote.

Artificial or intrinfick ARGUMENTS, are the
proper invention of him who fpeaks ; or thofe,
which are taken from the fubjed: treated of: of
which there are feveral kinds, viz. genui zwAfpc-
cies, form, cmife, and effcSf, isfc.

To thefe fome add two other places of argument,
viz. the manners, and the pajftons.

Inartificial or extrinjick ARGUMENTS, are thofe,
which are borrowed from abroad, and only applied
by the orator to the point in hand ; fuch are laws,
common report, books, oaths, torture, ajid wit-]
nefles.

A late author divides the places or general heads
of arguments, with regard to their end, into 1.
Thofe intended to perfuade or difluade, which are
chiefly drawn from the confideration of profit, ho-
jiour, and equitv. 2. Thofe intendedto piaif; cr
difpraife. And 3. Thofe intended to accufc
and defend.

The DISPOSITION is defined, the art of dif-
tributini; the things or artruments invented, or
found out into a proper order ; or a due placing,
or ranging the feveral parts of a fpeech or dif-
courie ; which parts are ufually reckoned four, vix.
ihe exnrdinm or beginning ; the narration, the con-
firmation, and the peroration or conclufion, though
fome make them fix, viz. the exordium, divifiion,
narration, confi.r?nation, confutation, and peroration,
as indicated in that popular verfe,

Exorjus, narro, Jeco, fiirmo, refuto, peroro.
But the Divifion is more naturally referred to the
exordium ; and the confutation to the confinnation.

The EXORDIUM is the preamble or beginning
of a difcourfe or fpeech ; ferving to prepare the
audience, and introduce the matter in hand.

Exordiums are of two kinds ; either juft and for-
mal ; or vehement and abrupt. In the firft, the
audience is prepared and conduced by due and
eafy llcps ; in the fccond, the orator, as if feiz'd
with fome fudden paffion, breaks out upon his au-
dience at Oiice. Such is that exordium of Ijaiab,
Vol. II. No. 4S.

Hear, 0 heavens, and give ear, 0 earth : Or that
of Cicoro againft Catiline, ^loifque tandem ahutere
patientia nojlra Catilina ? How long, Catilina, v-jiU
thou ahufe our patience ?

Abrupt exordiums are the mofi fuitabic on occa-
fions of extraordinary joy, indignation, or the lilcc.

The requifites in an exordium are, i . propriety,
whereby the exordium, becomes of a piece with the
whole difcourfe, and matches it as a part does a
whole ; fo that it could not be accommodated to
any other, or perhaps a contraiy occafion.

2. Care, accuracy and magnificence, as bcina-
the part mofl: minded, and moll expofed to fnev/.

3. Modefty, or an ingenious bafhfulnefs, which
recommends the orator exceedingly to the favour
of his audience. TuUy owns of himfelf, that at
the beginning of his orations he trembled every
limb, and his whole mind was in a Putter.

And 4. Brevity, not exemplified or fwelled, with
a deal of circumftances, or a long circuit of words.

The DIVISION fcldom finds place in any other
difcourfes, but in frmons and pane^yricks, and is
invented only to eafe the memory of the orator.
The divifion fhould be always, a? much as poi-
fible, contained in the text : for example, if I v/as
to preach a fermon on the grace of Jfius Chriji,
and take for text of my difcourfe thispaflage of St.
Paul, It is by the grace of God that I am what I am,
and the grace of God has r.ot hem void in me ; I
would divide my difcourfe into tvv'o parts, proving
in the firft the power of grace, alluding to the firlt
part of my text. It is by the grace of God that I am
ivhat I am ; and in the fecond, the necefllty of
our co-operating with grace, and the grace of God
has not been void in me.

The NARRATION is a recital or rehearfa! of a
fail: as it happened, or as it is fuppofed to have
happened.

This is of two kinds, either fijnple and hijlori-
cal, as where the auditor or reader is fuppoi'ed to
hear or read of a tranfaclion at fecond-hand — or
artificial zndi fabulous, as where their imaginations
are raifed, and the adtion, as it were re-ected be-
fore them.

Cicero requires four virtues in a narration, viz.
pcrfpicuify, prchability, brevity zndfveeinefs.

The narration is rendered pcrfpicuous, by ob-
fer\ing the order of time, by ufing none but pro-
per and known terms, and by reciting the aftion
uninterruptedly.

It is rendered /)rff^;7i/(', by the credibi'ity of the

narrator, by the fimplicity and opennels of the

narration, by avoiding every thing far remote from

R r r " the

486 7^^ Univerfal Hiftory of Arts fl';^^ Sciences.

'he common fenfe ami opinion of mankind, and
by a prccifu detail of circiimflanccs.

It is rendered brief, by taking it up no higher
than is juft necefTary, nor fetching it back, as that
impertinent author in Horace, qui geniiino helium
Trojanum ordhur ah oro ; and by avoiding trivial
circiimilances.

Lajil)\ It is rendered fweet, by ufing fmooth,
numerous and well-founding words; by arranging
them, fo as to avoid any hiatus or clafhing ; by
the greatnefs, novelty, and unexpe£tednels of the
things related ; and by enriching it with tropes and
figures, as frequent admirations, exclamations,
interrogations, expectations, fufpences, furpri-
fing events, by grief, joy, fear, feV.

Confirmation is that part of an oration,
wherein the orator undertakes to prove, by laws,
reafon, authorities, and other arguments, the
truth of the propofitions advanced in his narration.

Confirmation is either dire£i or ind'ire£l ; to the
firfl: conforms what the orator has to urge for
Itrengthening his own caufe ; the fecond properly
called confutation, refels the oppofite arguing of the
adverfaiies, the two parts together being fometimes
placed under the head or title of contention.

The confirmation is, as it were, the life and foul
of the oraion ; in this the main ftrefs of the argu-
mentation lies, whence Arijiotle properly enough
calls It fides.

Tht peroration is the epilogue or lafl: part of an
oration ; wherein, what the orator infifted on
through his whole difcourfe is urged afrefli, with
greater vchemency and paflion.

The peroration confifts of two parts, I. Reca-
pitulations, wherein the fubftance of what was dif-
fufed throughout the whole fpeech, is colledled
briefly and curforily, and fummed up with new
force and weight.

2. The moving the paflions, which is fo pecu
liar to the peroration, that the maflers of the art
call this panfedcs affeduMn.

The paflions to be rais'd in the perorations are
various, according to the various kinds of orations :
in a panegyrick, love, admiration, emulation,
joy, iJc. in an invedtive, hatred, contempt, l^c
in a deliberation, hope, confidence, or fear.
_ The qualities required in the peroration are, that
it be vehement and paflionate, and that it be fhort;
becaufe, as Cicero obferves, tears foon dry up.

The peroration was Cicero's mafter-piece. Here
that great orator not only fet his judges and audi-
tors on fire, but even feemed to burn hiinfelf; ef-
pecially when he was to raifepity and commilera-
tion towards the accufed ; where, as he himfelf
tells us, he frequently filled the forum with
'Weeping and lamentation.

The ELOCUTION is defined by Tully, the cha-
fing and adapting of words and fentcnces to die
things or feniiments ta be expreftird. — To the
elocution then properly belongs the choice of words.
To exprefs a mean or low thing, in great and
magnificent words, is, fays Longinus, as if one
would put a large ma(k on the face of a young
child ; unlefs it be in poetry.

The beauty of elocution confifts chiefly in the
ufe of figures, and figurative didtions or expref-
fions, in the periods and the ftile.

A PERIOD, according to Arif.otle, is 3 difcourfe
which has a beginning, a middle, and an end, all
vifible at one view.

The periods allowed in oratory are three ; a
period of two members, called by the Greeks
dicolos, and the Latins /;/?«CT;ir/x .■ a /i^r^Wof three
members, trlcolos, trimembris : and z period of four
members, quadrlmcmbris, tctracolos.

A ftrift oratorio! period, does not allow of either
more or fewer than thefe ; it is poflible, indeed, to
introduce a period of one member, called by Ari-
jiotle, monocolos, or fimple period, but it will be
reputed a flaw, and is a tiling never pratfiifed by
the mafters.

The/ifr/a*/ may be likewifc prolonged to five or
fix members, but then it changes its name, and
inftead of a period, commences a periodical dif-
courfe.

A period of two members Cicero fupplies us
with : Ergo Iff mihl mea prijlines vita confuetudl-
nem, C. Cafar, interclufam aperuljli ; iy his omnibus
ad bene de republica fperandum quafi fignum aliquod
fiijlulifli.^

A period of three members the fame Cicero gives
us in the exordium of his Manillan oration : Nam
cum antea per atatem hujus autoritatem loci contingere
non auderem ; jlatueremque nihil hue nifi perfeEtmn.
ingenio, elaboratum indujiria afferrl oportere ; omne
meum tempus amicorum temporibus tranfmittendum
putavi.

A period of four members he gives us in that
admirable defcription of the punifhment of parri-
cides. Ita vlvum ut ducere animum de Ccelo non
queant : Ita tnorlantur ut eorwn ojfa terra non tangat:
ita jaSiantur fiuiiibus, ut nitnquam abluantur : ita
pojlremo-ejiciuntur, ut ne ad fanor quldem mortid
conquieficant.

In oratory, the members of periods are to be
equal, or nearly equal ; that the paufes, or refb of
the voice, at the clofe of each member, may be
nearly equal : but in writings no ways intended for
rehearfal, this is difregarded.

Periods are laid to be either rotundi, round, or
quadratl, fquare, according to their different ceco-
nomy and cadences, or numbers, which numbers

are

RHETORIC K.

487

are a fort of fimple unafFeded harmony, lefs ghir- ^ but more particularly, as tJierc arc three branchi-i
iijgthan that of vcrfc, yet fuch as is perceived, of the duty of an orator, to teach, to delh-ht, u.d
and aftects the mind with plcalure. | to move \ the fimp]ey?/Vf Is ufed to teach j the niid-

Thc nimihers are that by which the (lile is faid die to delight ; and the fublime to move.
to be eafy, free, round, flowing, ^c. | The beauty of the periods and ftile confifts

"The J'quare period is that confifting of three or chiefly in the figurei which enter the compofition.

four equal numbers, formerly diftin^uifhed from
each other.

Figure, in rhetorick, is a phraie or turn of
fpeech or difcourfe, finer and nobler than what is

or the en-

The round period is that whofe members or parts ufed in conunon or ordinary fpeakiag ,
are lb connected, and fitted into each other, as richments of difcourle, which we only ufe whi a
that the junftures orcommiffures are fcarcc feen j raifed, and moved with the confideraiion of fomc-
but the whole Aides equally round, without any thing extraordinary,
notable flops or inequalities. | There ate two kinds of figures ; the ot;e of

Now for thtjhlc, which is another part of the fenteiices, and contained in the fenfe itfelf, without
eriutuialion. 1 any immediate dependi'.ncc en any particular wcr^s \

Uli/e, in matter of language, is a peculiar man- the others are only in the words themtllves.
ner of delivering a man's thought in writing agree-] Of the Jigures of feiitences, fome are deligned to
ably to the rules of fyntax ; or, as Father Btifficr move, others to teach, and others only to delight.
more accurately defines it, the manner wherein; Of thefirji kind the moif confiderable arc, ex-
the words contracled according to the laws of fyn^^, clafnation, imprecation, obfccratio)i, interrogation,
t:ix, are arranged among themfelves, fuicably to doubting, pratcritiont cxpotition, and epiphonona.
the genius of the language. I 'Fhofe of the_/'f«m/ are the, antillicjii, corrciiion.

From the definition, it appears, th^t Jlile {ap-'xommunication, and fuJ'pe?i/ion.
poles, or includes the fyntax; and that fyntax 'Fhofe of the //;;rc/, the apojirophe, hypothypofts,
does not extend lb far -isjliie : for the fyntax may profopopaia, ethopaia, and projopograpbia.
be vet}' juft where the Jiile is wretched. I The exclamation is a figure, wherein, by raifing

Rhetoricians reduce the kinds of Jliles to three ; the voice, and ufingan interjection, either exprefly
thefuilime, the low, and the intermediate, at equa-'. or underdood, we teftify an uncommon warmth
ble Jiile. and paflion of mind ; and exprefs the magnitude

Sublime flik is that confifling in magnificent of the thing, or the importance of the occalion.

words and (entences; which by its noble boldnefs Such is, 0 heavens ! O earth ! O times ! O
- - - - ... ^

ravilhes the hearers, and extorts admiration even manners

from the unwilling.

Low or jimple Jiile is that ordinarily ufed in
fmaller and humbler works ; as epiflles, dialogues,
and comm"on difcourfe. The chief virtues hereof
are perfpicuity, fmoothnefs, eafinefs, and clean-
nefs ; it mull be very fparing in the ufe of tropes
and figures, elpecially the more violent ones, as
the profopopsia, apoftrophe, (ifr.

Iniermtdiate or equable Jiile partakes of the mag-
nificence of the fublitne and the fimplicity of the
low. It neither rifes to the niajelly ot the one in
words and fentences ; nor yet is Imartly pointed
like the other ; but, as Tully excellently expreffes it,
e/i Jiilus quidam interjeSius, intermedius, l3^ qiiafi
temperatus ; nee acumine inferioris, nee fulmine utens
uperioris, vicinus amborum, in mutro excellens, utri-
?ijque particeps.

The fame author calls it the florid and polijhcd
Jiile ; It being in this that all the graces and beau-
ties of language are principallv to be ufed.

For the choice of y?//^, in the general, the mat-
ter is to determine it. Such ftile, lays Cicero, is to
be chofen, as exprelTes great things magnificently,
middle things moderately, and low things fubtilly :

The imprecation is a kind of curfe, exprefs 'd in
difcourfes, by 7nay or let ; for inftance, May the
enemies of God be confounded ! Let the wicked be
punijhed! is'c.

The interrogation is a-figure wherein the paflion
of the fpeaker introduces a thing by way of quef-
tion, to make its truth more confpicuous.

Doubting Ts a figure wherein the orator appears
fometimes fluftuating, and undetermined what to
do, or fay. What Ihall I do .'' fhall I apply to
thofe I once neglected ! or implore thofe who now
forfake me !

The obfccration is a figure whereby the orator
implores the afliftance of God or man.

This figure Cicero makes admirable ufe of, for
King DJolariis to C<efar. — Per Jextera n te ifta.ni
oro, quam Regi Dejotaro hofpes, hofpiti porrexi/ii :
ijiam inquani dexteram non turn in neitis, i?" prieiiis,
quam in prcmijjis, is fide firtniore?n.

The pretention is a figure, whereby in pretend-
ing to pals over a thing untouched, we make a
fummary mention thereof, for inftance — I will not
/'ay he is valiant, he is learned, he is ju/l, tfc. —
The moft artful praifes are tliofe given by vvay of
I R r r 2 prete-

488 "The Univcrfal Hiftory o/"Arts and Sciences.

pretention. — This figure is alfo called parnhf/ts and

apojcopejls.

Expolition is a figure whereby we explain the
fame thing in difterent phrafcs and expreffions, in
urdcr to fhew it more i'uUy. The fcriptures are
full of fuch figures.

Epiphoneina h a fententious fort of cxdamation,
frequently added after a narrative, or rehearfal of
any thing remarkable ; containing, ufually, a
lively cl'jfe reflection on the fubjedt there fpo-
ken of.

Such is that of St. Pau', when, after difcourfing
of the rejection of the JiWS, and the vocation of
the Gc7itilei, he cries out,

Oh the depth of the w'lfdoin and knowledge of God!

The antithefii is a fetting two things by way of
cxpofition to each other, that the difterent quali-
fies of each may appear the more ftrongly.

Such is that of Cicero in the fecond CutUlnarian :
On the one fide Jlands aiode/iy, on the other impudence ;
en the one Jidi/ity, on the other deceit : here piety,
there facrilege ; here continency, there luj}, fc'V.

Ccrreiiicn is a figure, whereby a perfon in a paf-
fion, fearing he has not exprefl'ed a thing fully or
Itrongly enough, calls it back again, as it were,
hy 2l Itiongcrphrafe, and corredto the error. Tliii,
is, alfo called cpanorthofn.

Such is that of Cicero for Ccelius : O Jitdtitia !
fluhitiam ne dicom, an itnpiukntiam fingidarem ! Oh
lolly ! folly did I call it, or rather intolerable im-
pudence ?

Sufpenfion is a keeping the hearer in fufpence,
and attentive, in e.xpedtation of what the I'peaker
will conclude in, as, 0 God ! darkncfs is not more
eppofite to light, tempejls to calm., pain to plenfure, or
death to life, than Jin to thee.

The apofirophe is a figure, whereby the orator,
in an extraordinary commotion, turns his difcourie
from the audience, and directs it to ibme other
perfon or thing.

Thus Cicero in his oration for MTlo, addrefl"es
himfelf to the great patriots, who had {hed their
blcod for the publick, and calls them to the de-
fence of his client.

The apojlrophe is a'fb frequently addrefi^ed to in-
animates, as tombs, monuments, defuncts, Isc.

That apojlrophe of Dcmojlhenei, wherein he ad-
drefies himfelf to the Greeks flain at the battle of
Marathon, is famous. Cardinal du Perron fa\ s,
it has procured the orator as much glory, as if he
had raifed them from the dead.

Tiie lypoihypofis is a figure v/hereby a thing is
fo lively defcribed or painted, that it does no: feem
to be read or heard, but adtualJy fecn, or pre-
fenttd. before the eyes.

Such is that elegant one of Cicero, wherein he
paints the barbarity of Verves : Ipfe infammatus fce-
lere. Iff furore, in forum venit. Ardebant oculi ;
toto ex ore crudelitas emanabat. ExpeSlabant omnes
quo tandem progrejfurus, out quidnam nSlurus ejjet ;
cu7n repente honunemcorripi, at que in fori medio nu-
dati ac deligari, I3' virgas expedire jubet ; clamabat
tile mifer fe civem cfj'e Romanwn, &c.

The ethopecia or ethoptsa, called alfo ethology, is
a draught or defcription, exprcfling the manners,
paffions, genius, tempers, aims, (ffc. of another
perfon.

Such is that beautiful pafTage in Sallujf, in hi?
Bcllum Catilinarium, wherein he gives apictuic of
Catiline : Fuit magna vi ts* anima i^ corporis fed in~
genio malo pravoque huie, &c. He had an nncom-
inonflrength both of body and ?nind; but an ill-turned
and ivicked difpofttion. IVhcn a mere boy, his great
pleafiire was in i7'.tejline broils, rapine, flaughter,
and civil difcord. His body was form:'d to undergo
fa/ling, cold, and watching, beyond all belief. His
mind was daring, deceitful and various ; and could'
imitate, or accommodate itfelf to every body : he was
extre?ncly covetous of other people's goods, and profufi
of his own luithal : his liijls and defires were very
high ; his flock of eloquence conftderable ; but his dif-
cretion, farce any.

The ethopaia is divided into profopographia, and
ethopaia properly fo called ; the former of which is
a pi£ture of the body, countenance, make, drefs,
gait, bfc. and the latter of the mind.

The proj'ipopaia, is a figure whereby we make
perfcns that are abfent or dead, or even things
which are inanimai-e, as cities, ^c. to fpeak.

There are two kinds of profopopesia's; the one
dirc(5t, the other indirect. For an inftance of the
latter; fii/l gods, protestors of the innocent, permit
the order of 7iature to be interrupted for one moment^
and let this carcafs refirme the ufe of fpeech, &c.

Inftances of the former are found every where
among the orators and poets : that which follows
is a very beautiful one, found by way of epitaph
on a tomb-ftone : the dead wife addrefies her fur-
viving hufband thus :

hnmatura peri : fed tuf elicit er, annos
Vive tu'js, conjux optime, vive meos.

' I have been fnatched away, before I was ar*
' rived yet to the years of my maturity ; but thou»
' much happier, O the be(t of hufbands, may the
' years I fhould have lived be added to thine.'

Of y?^ WM o/"aOTr/r, fome are tropes, i.e. tranf-
lations or words from their proper fignification, to
f jme more remote and extraordinary one.

The principal of thefe are, the metaphor, alle-
gory,

R H E r 0 R I C K.

489

gory, metonlmy, fynechdoche, irony ^wAfarcafm^ mc-\
tulepf.s, antonomafia aiiJ fylcjip.s.

Others -dsc figiiri'i of ivords., properly fo called,
and not tropes, being fo inherent in the words,
that upon changing of thofc the figure is deftroy-
ed ; as in amantcs funi ammtes, where the figure
would be loft, if inilead oi amaites you fhould put

Of thefe the principal are repctitwfi, convcrfion,
ccmplexio?:, gradation^ fynonymy^ polyfyndetcn and^a-
lypto'vi, reticnicy, d'lJiirMhri^jhnilitude, paronomcjy-,
and iranfition.

Trope is a word cr cxprefTion, ufed in a di/Ferent
fenfe from what it properly fignifies. Or a word
changed from i;s proper and natural fignification to
another with fome advantage ; as when we fay an
(iji for zj] lipid prrjon.

It is called trope, rf Ttv^, from the greek ^f'-■rrM,
verU, I turn, change.

This change or invcrfion is performed various
ways, but chiefly four ; whence arife four princi-
pal tropes, viz. the inctaphor, tnetcnimie, fynech-
doche and irony.

Some alfo refer the fix kinds of fcoffing or dc-
rifion to the tropes, viz. the furcafu, diafynn, chu-
rientifm, ajleifm, mySlci^ifm, and mymcfts, bdt with-
out iufficient reafoji.

Now for the explication of each of the difl'e-
Tcntfgures of words, beginning witli the iiictci-
phor.

The metaphor is a figure of fpeech, whereby a
word is transferred from its proper fignification to
another ; or whereby the proper denomination of
one thing is applied to another ; which other thing
is more elegantly explained by this tranflatitious,
or foreign name, than by that which naturally be-
longs to it. As when we fay the light of the un-
derflanding ; to burn with zeal ; to float between
hope and defpair, ^c.

^dntilian d\^\ngu\i)xes?netaphors into four kinds.
Theyf'j//, when a word is transferred from one ani-
mal to another; as when Livy fays, that C(7?o ufed
to bask at Scipio ; or, when our Saviour calls He-
red fox. The fcoid, when the word is trans-
ferred from one inanimate to another; as bridle
for laws. The //;/V(/ when inanimates are applied
to animates ; as the flower of youth. And the
Iq/I, when animates are applied to inanimates ; as
the tivsr difdained its bounds.

A metaphor fliould have nothing in it cither
coarfe or fhocking, or that may rai!e it above the
fimplicity of nature : nor fliould it appear a meta-
phor to' any but thofe who view it very clofely.
Metaphor fiould never be carried too far ; for in
that cafe it degenerates into puerility. In all me-
taphorical dii^lions there fliould be a kind of unity,

fo that the different words ufed may have a kind of
fuitablenefs to each other : different ideas are al-
ways abfurd.

The allegory is a figure whereby we make ufe of
terms, which in their proper fignification mean
lomething elfe than what they are brought to de-
note ; or it is a figure, whereby we fay one thin"-,
expcfting it fhall be underftood of another, to
which it alludes.

An allegory is properly a ferics of metaphors. —
Such is tliat beautiful allegory in Horcce, lib. I.
Od. 14,

O navis, referent in mare te novi
FluSIus, Sic.

Where the fhip is ufually held to fland for the
rcpubtick ; -waves for civil war ; pert for peace and
concord ; oars for foldiers ; nuiriners for magijlrates,
&c.

The old teflament is fuppofed by many to be a
perpetual allegory, or typical reprefentation of the
myfteiies of the new.

The metotiymy is a rhetorical trope, confiftinT in
a tranfmutation, or change of names ; or a puttin'^
oft" the efteiSl for the caufe, or the fubject for the
adjun£l ; and vice verfd.

There are four kinds of tnetonytnies in principal
ufe : thtfirjl, when we put the inventor for the
thing invented; as Bacchus for zvine ; Ceres for
bread. Thtfecond, when we put the containing
for the thing contained ; as a glafs for the wine
v/ithin it. The third, when cfi"e(ft is put for the
caufe ; as the captain for his foldiers, Greece for
the Greeks, the author for his works. The fourth,
when the fign is put for the thing fignified ; as
the gown for the priefthood, (s'c.

Synecdoche is a kind of figure, or rather trope,
frequent among orators and poets.

There are three kinds of fynecdoches : by the
firjl, a part is taken for the whole ; as the point for
the fword, the roof for the houfe, the fails for the
fhip, fa'r. — By the fecond, the whole is ufed for a
part. — By the third, the matter whereof the thing
is made, is ufed for the thing itfeJf ; as fteel for
fword, filverfor money, isc. to which maybe ad-
ded another kind, when the fpecies is uled for the
genus, or the genus for the fpecies. — As he lore
the fin of many, i. e. of all.

i'he irony is a figure in fpeech, wherein we plain-
ly intend fomething veiy different from what our
words exprefs : as when we feem to praife a perfon
at a time, when we evidently rally ar.d difcom-
mend him.— The irony drfcovers itfelf rather in
the tone of the fpeaker, than in the v.'ords.

Sarcafni is a' keen, bitter iron.-, whereby the
o:ator fcof5s and iiifults his adverfary.— -Such was
' ' that

490 The Univerfal Hiftoiy 6f -Arts and Sciences.

that of the y^- a J to our Saviour : He fased other i,
hhnfelf he cannoifave.

.AMommafia is a figure wherchy a nbun appel-
lative is ufed inftead of a proper name, or v'ue
lerja. Thus we fay, the philofopher, inftead of
Arijhlk ; the orator, for Cicero.

Thu Jyllepfis is a figure whereby wq cbficeive the
fehfe of words other wife than the Words irriport ;
and thus make our conilrudlion, not according to
the words, but the intention of the author.

'It is a figure of confiderable ufe for the well
undcrftanding of authors. — Scioppius divides it into
two kinds, Jwiple and relntive.

S'.mplefyllepfis is when the words of a difcourfc
either difagree in gender or number, or both.

Relaikc fylhffn is when the relative is referred
to an antecedent, which is not expreffed ; but
which we conceive by the fenfe of the whole period.

As to x!Vie. figitrii iif wcrdi properly fo calkd,
the firft is repetition, which is a figure whereby the
orator rehearfes the fame word or phrafe over
again.

Of this there, are two kinds. — In the^/j/? the
words are repeated precifely in the fame fenfe l As,
Oh Jatifa'c?)!, Jerufdem, luho kilkth tie prophets,
Sic. my God, my God, ivhy hcjl thcu forjakcH tne ?

The fecond kind of repetition called wxoxic, is a
repetition of the fame word, in the fame phrafe ;
but in fuch a manner as that feme new idea or
character is added to the words in the i'econd,
which it had not in the firft.

As Cory don is always Corydon: ex illo Corydon,
Corydon eft tempore nobis; by which we fignify that
Corydon is no ordinary perfon ; and that nothing
can diftinguifli him but the repetition of his own
aame : As if we fliould fay, he is Corydon, that is
enough. — By the fame figure our Saviour fpeaks,
when he fays, let your language be yea, yea, and nay,
7iay.

Converfton in rhctoriek, is underflood of aro^u-
ments which are returned, retorted, and flie\\n on
oppofite fides, by changing the fubje<ft into the
attribute, and the attribute into the fubjeci.

Complexion is a figure, including a repetition, and
a converfion at the fame time ; the ientcnce both
beginning and ending with the fame word.

Thus Tully, ^'is legem iulit ? Rtdlus, qtiis co-
mitiis prafiiit, Rullus, &c.

Gradation is when a feries of confiderations or
proofs is brought, riling by degrees, and improving
each on the other.

Such is that in Cicero to Catiline, ;iihil agis, ni-
hil molirls, nihil cogitiis ; quad ego ncn audi am,
qmd etiam non videam, planeque Jentiam. This
figure is alio called cli/nax.

Synonymy is a figure whereby fynonyms or fyno-
nvmous words, that is, various forms of the fame

figfi'rfication, are made ufe of, to amplify the dif-
courfc.

Such is thit paflage of Cicero, abiit, evaftt, effu-
git, erupit, hcweut off, hecfcaped, he run a'.va.y, i^fc.

The polyptaton is the figure, wherein the fame
wbrd is repeated in different cafes, genders, or
tiumbers, ?'. e. with different terminations.

Such is that of Cicero, pro Aich. SedpUni fiint
omnes libri, plena funt fapientum voces, plehi ix-
emphrum velujlas. ' ' '

Reticency is a figure whereby we make oblique
mention of a thing, in pretending to pafs it over
unmentioned.

Thus : Te fay nothing of the nobility of his an-
c.'Jlors : I forbear to fpeak of his courage, and pafi
aver the fcverity of his mvrals.

The comparifon is a figure, or rather place in
fpeech, whereby two things are confidcrcd, with
regard tofomethird, which is common to them both.

Thus Cicero Topic. Catcni Uj:u<tfcqui helium ci-
vile, igitur et Ciceroni licebit. It was allowed Caio
to engage in the civil war, therefore it may be allowed
Cicero : where to engage in the civil wars is com-
mon to both.

There are three kinds of comparifon ; the firfl a
majori, i. e. from the major to the minor, as that
of Cicero againft Antony, ^tid feceris domi iua,
cum all en a tarn fis infolens ?

The fecond a rriinori, i. e. from the minor to.
the major :. 'T-\\\xs Cicero, Mojores nojiri fape mer-
catoribus, ac nai'iadatoribus impcriofius trailatis,
h-lla geffcrunt ; vos tot civium Romamrum milUbus
lino nuntio, atqite una tempore necatis, quo tandem
animo eJJ'e debetis ?

The third a pari; as when we contend that
what obtains' in one thing, ought to obtain in
another of the fame kind ; thus, it ivas a law,
that he who hilled his father jhould be fewed up in a
fack and thrown-intoa river ; therefore, he who killed
his mother dejcrves the fame punijhment.

The paro'-.omaty is a figure, whereby words
nearly alike in found, but of very different fenfes,
are aflPecledly or defignedly ufed.

The tranftion is a kind of connexion in dif-
cour'e, whereby the feveral parts and members
thereof are i lined, fo as to conftitute one regular
v/;;o!e.

Father de Cohna makes two kind of tranfttions ;
the one perfell, the other imperfcSl.

Eerfeii iranfitionh that wherein we briefly inti-
mate what is faid, and what remains to be faid.
As, now that we have [poke of war, there remains
fomething to be faid of peace.

ImperfeSl tranfition is that wherein only one of
thefe is exprefled.— As, Let us now confider the con-
fequencis of, &c.

Longinus

R H E r 0 R I C K.

Longiniis recommcj)ds alfo the images in the
difcourfe, which he dt-fincs to be, in geiicral, any
thoughts proper to produce expreflions, and which
prelent a kind of pidure to the mind.

Thefe images or pictures are of vaft ufe to give
weight, magnificence and Itrengtli to a difcourfe.
Tliey warm and animate it ; and when managed
with art, according to Longiims, fcem, as it were,
to tame andfubdue the hearer, and put him in the
power of tho fpeaiccr.

The fame author recommends the periphrafe as
of great ul'e in a difcourfe ; which periphraje is a
circuit or tour of words, much afi'cited by orators,
to avoid common and tri^e manners of expreffion.

The periphraje is certainly of good ufe in many
occafions ; and we are frequently forced to have re-
courlc to it, to make things be conceived which is
. not proper to name.

Tnus Cwr«, unable to deny that Clodtiis was flain
by lidilo, owns it, with this periphrafe or circumlo-
cution : ' Milo's fervants being pre\'ented from
' aflifting their mailer, who was reported to be
' killed hyCIodius, they, in his abfence, and with-
' out his privity or confent, did what every body
' would expedt from their own lervants on fuch
' occafions.'

The AMPLIFICATION is alfo of a very great ufe
in rletorick, and is part of a difcourfe or fpeech,
wherein a crime is aggravated, a praife or com-
mendation heightened, or a narration enlarged by
an enumeration of circumftanccs ; fo as to excite
the proper emotion^! in the fouls of the auditors.

Such is that paflagein /^7r^/7, where, inflead of
faying merely that Turnus died, he amplifies his
death.

491

^'4/? illi fclvi/ntur fiigore memhra-,

Vitaque amigemttu fugit indignatajiih umbras.

There are two general kinds of amplification ;
the one of things, the other of words. The firft
is produced in divers manners ; as, i. By a mul-
titude of definitiojis : Thus it is Cicero amplifies
on hiftory : Hijioria ejl tcjiis temporu?n, lux verita-
tis, vita 7nemoriiSy magijlra vitcs, niiniia vetuflatis.
— 2. By a multitude of adjuncts ; of which we
have a fine inftance in Firgil's lamentation for
Cerfar's death, by enumerating the many prodigies
anil monflers that either preceded or fucceeded it.
—Tox quoque per iucos vulgo exaiiditafilentes^ ingens,
isf fimucra modis pallentia nuris vifa fuh ohjcurmn
tioifis ; pecudcfque locutce, infandum, Jiftunt ajnnes,
temsqur: dehijcunt, £5 moeflum illachrynat templii
ibur, araque Judant. — 3. By a detail of caufes and
etFects. — 4. By an enumeration of confequences.
—5. By comparifons, fimilitudes, and examples,

[^{- — 6. By the contracts of antithets, and rational
inference. ■ .

j^tnptification hy worAs is effe«5led fix ways. —
I. By ufing metaphors. — 2. By hyperboles. — 3. By
fynonims.^4. By fplcndid and magnificent tcrmi>,
as that of Horace, Scandit aratas vitiofu navi cura
nee turmas equitum reliiiquit, ocyor cervis, (J agente
nymbos ocyor Euro. — 5. By periphrafes, or circum-
locutions.— 6. By repetition. — To which m.ay be
added, by gradation.

The periods, numbers, figures, feV. arc what
oompoies what we call difcourfcs, or orations ; fince
an oration is a fpeech or harangue, framed accord-
ing to the rules of oratory, and fpoke in publick.

All the kinds of orations may be reduced to
three heads, vi%. doncnjlrative, deliberative-, and
judicial.

To the demonjirative kind belong, panegyricks,
genethliaca, epitbalamia, epicedia, eucharijiia:, epi-
nicia, and congratulations.

Panegyrick is an oration in praife of fome ex-
traordinary perfon, or virtue.

The places or fources of panegyricks are chiefly
the family, country, auguries at his birth, hjs
virtues, the talents of his body, mind, honours,
riches, manner of his death, and the confequences
thereof.

Gcnethliacum is a compofition in vcrfe, on the
birth of fome prince, or other illuftrious perfon ;
wherein the poet promifes him great honours, ad-
vantages, fucceffes, victories, l^c. by a kind of
prophecy or predidion.

'1 lie epicedion is a poetical compofition on the
death of a perfon.

I have explained what is underflood by epithala-'
miuni, in poetry.

The epicedion was a compofition on occafion of
a vidtory obtained

To the deliberative kind belongs perfuafion, dif-
fuafion, exhortation, and commendation.

And to the judicial kind belongs accufation, con-
firmation, confutation, isc.

Confirmation is the third part of an oration,
wherein the orator undertakes to prove by laws,
reafons, authorities, and other arguments, the truth
of the propofitions advanced in his narration. .

Confirmation is either direil or indireii ; the firfl
conhrms what the orator has to urge forftren^fthen-
ing his own caufe : the fecond, properly^called
confutation, refels the oppofitc arguing of the ad- •
verfaries.

From this I'll proceed to the fourth and laft
part of our divifion of rhetoric, 'viz. i\\z pronun-
ciation.

Pro-

492 The Univerfal Didionary

Pronunciation.

The PRONUNCIATION, as underftood in this
place, confifts in regulating and varying the voice
and gefture agreeably to the matter and words, fo
as more effedtually to touch tlic hearers.

Pronunciation is the fame with what we otherwifc
call a£l'ion.

There are three things which come under the
froininciatioii ; the menwr); vc'uc, and ge^ure.

The mnmry is a natural talent, which, tliough
cflcntial to the orator, is not, notwithftaiiding, to
be acquired by art.

The voice is alio a very eflcntial part of elo-
quence, fuice it contributes much towards difco-
vering all the beauties of a difcourfe or oration,
without which it appears inanimate, or languid.
A fine and foiiorous -voice ftrilces fo agreeably the
car of the auditors, that it often penetrates thein-
nioft recefles of the heart, where it excites diffe-
rent forts oi paflions, according to the fubjc<£l of
the difcourfe. The orator mull always begin his
difcourfe with a gentle and moderate voice, raifmg
it with difcretion by degrees, as occafioii requires,
in fuch a manner that he may be always mailer
thereof; exprefllng joy in a quite different manner
than he would do ibrrow, avoiding above all things
a tedious monottony, as well as thofe excefllve
bawlings, more proper to ftun the auditor, than
to make him hear.

The gejlure is a motion of the body, intended
to fignify fome idea or pailion of the mind ; and it
confifls principally in the action of the hand and
face.

Auiioii, in oratory, is an accommodation of the
pcrfon of the orator to his fulvcd ; or a manage-
ment of the voice and geflure, fuitedtothe matter
ipolcen or delivered. It is an addrefs to our exter-
nal fenfes ; which it endeavours to move, and
brina; into its party, by a well concerted motion
and modulation ; at the fame time that the reafon
and underftanding are attacked by force of argu-
ment.

^lintWum gives us a fyflem of the rules of
a£iic>i, taken not only from the writers of anticnt
orators, but from the bell examples of the forum.

The force and effetSts of a£iloji, at leafl as prac-
tifed among the antients, appears to be very great ;
fcarce any thing was able to withfland it. De-
mojihenes exprefly calls it, ' the beginning, the
' middle, and the end of the orator's ofHce ;' and
Cicero prcfeffes, ' that it does not fo much matter
' what the orator favs, as how he fays it.'

Every part of the body is bv them lifted into
the fervice, end marflialled in its proper place :
the hard, the eye, head, neck, fides, checks, nof-.

of Arts ami Sciences.

trils, lips, arms, (houlder"!, iffc. — Prccipuum in
aitione ctiput ejh Cum gfjhi concordet, (J lateribus
obfeqiwtur, oculi, lachrymae, fupercilium, gen«,
rubor. — Non mamis folum, fed iif nutus. — Domiiie-
tur aiitem maxime vultus. — l^in & in vidtii pallor.
— Nares, labia. — Denies, cervix, humeri, brachia.

— Manus vera, fine quibus trunca eflet aiftio.

^intil. xi. 3.

Dcmo/ihenes and Cicero are the princes of antient
eloquence ; the one amon» the Greeks., the other
among the Romans ; becaufe they both wrote and
fpokewell. Their manner however was exceed-
ingly different ; the firft being dole, ftrong, ner-
vous, concife, and fevere, fo that a word could
not be fpared : the latter copious, florid, and rich,
fo that a word could not be added.

It was objedted to Cicero, that his eloquence
was Jftatick, that is, redundant, or fluffed with
fuperfluous words and thoughts.

Pericles was called a torrent of eloquence, a thun-
derbolt of eloquence. Pedants do not diflinguilh
eloquence, from the heaping up of figures, the ufe
of big words, and the rotundity of periods.

True eloquence depends principally on the viva-
city of the imagination. In ftriiftnefs, it is not
that which gives grace and ornament, but life and
motion, to difcourfe. Its mien is that of an
amazon, not that of a coquette.

l^he authors of the art of thinking remark, that
the rules of eloquence are obferved in the converfa-
tions of people naturally eloquent, though they
never think of them while they praftife them.
They praclife thofe rules becaufe they are eloquent,
in order not to be eloquent.

The eloquence of the chair and pulpit, is much
more difficult every where, but in England, than
that of the bar. 'Ihe obligation laid on the Eng~
UJh clergy to read their fcrmons, has entirely ba-
nilhed eloquence from the pulpit; therefore much
better orators are found at Wcjlminjler, either in
both houfes of parliament, or in the courts of ju-
dicature, than in the churches ; whereas in other
countries, France for example, the befl orators
are found in the chair or pulpit. It is true, that
there are ibmc perfbiis v.'ho read better than others,
but ftill it is but reading, for thr.t can never be
called preaching ; and reading for reading, I had
rather chufe to read myfelf than to hear another
read ; fmce I cannot only read better piece?
of choucKce than thofe which are often read to me,
but likevvifc enter better into the icvSt of the au-
thor, and be thereby much more edified. If that
prohibition of reciting fcrmons bv heart was taken
off, ihe Er.glijb pulpit would acquire a new luflre,
for no doubt but that there are as good orators
among the EngUjli clergy, as itnongctiiers, and v.-c

faoald

R 0 P E-MAKIN G.

493

not fee a kind of epidemical lethargy reigning in the
churches.

But without confining ourfelves to a oarticular
country, we muft [lay, that eloquence has fh.ired
eveiy where the fate of all other arts and fcienccs,
and has fuft'cred a very great eclipfe ever fince,
like them, it has met with little or no encour-
agement: in faft, true eloquence is fo 'i':lc in
vogue at prefent, that the bell orator would fcarce
find an audience worthy of heing fpoke to; ri-
diculous difcourfes, digefted without art, order, or
agreement, and ftufted with low thoughts, trivial

expreffions, and delivered in an indolence which
liad been capable only to excite the compaflion, or
perhaps the laughter of an honeft Roman citizen,
are almoft the only ones we are entertained with
at prefent, and can aflemble a numerous audience.
Not that I pretend that all difcourfes are to be
compofed with a fcrupulous regularity, according
to all the rules of rhetorkk heretofore explained ;
but tliey fhould not be ail negledted, fince no body
can claim the title of orator, without he be a rhe-
torician.

R 0 P E-MA KING.

ROPE-MAKING, is to fpin twifts, or
firings of hemp ; and when fpun, to
twift them together, in a greater or lefs
number, according to the thicknefs of the rope.

This ipinning is done by the rope-maker, twifi:-
ing round him a certain quantity of coarfe hempen
flax, faftening one end thereof to the iron of a
ipinning-wheel made for the purpofe, fpinning it
with his index, and thumbs of both hands, walk-
ing flowly backwards, ;'. e. his face turned towards
the wheel, while another perfon turns it round, to
twift what he fpins. — This operation is done in
a long alley, commonly called rope-walk ; and
there are placed in the walk, by intervals, racks
to fupport the ropes, and keep it tight, which
otherwife, being arrived at a certain length, would
fall to the ground, and thereby prevents the ope-
ration going forwards.

If the twift, or ftring, which is fpun, is ufed
alone, without being joined with others, it muft
be twifted harder than if it was to enter into the
compofition of another rope ; though there
fcarce any rope which has not feveral twifts.

When the rope is made very thick, it is called
a cable ; and when very fmall, a cord.

A CABLE, is a thick, long, three-ftring'd rope,
ordinarily of hemp, ferving to hold fliips firm at '
anchoj'. )

Cable is. not applied to ropes of lefs than three
inches circumference.

Every cable., of whatever thicknefs it be, is com-
pofed of three ftrands ; each ftrand of three twifts ;
each twift of a certain number of caburns, or
threads of rope-yarn, more or lefs, as the cable is
to be thicker or fmalier.

To make a cable^ after forming the ftrands,
they ufe ftaves, which they firft pafs between the
ftrands, that they may turn the better, and be
intertwifted the more regularly together : And to
prevent any entangling, a weight is hung at the
end of each ilrand. The cable being twifted as
much as needs, is untwifted again three or four
turns, that the reft may the better retain its
ftate.

The number of threads each kind of cable is
to be compofed of, is ever proportion'd to its
length and thicknefs ; and it is by this number of
threads, that its weight and value are afcertained.
A rope of three inches circumference, or one inch
diameter, confifts of 48 ordinary threads, and
weighs 192 pounds ; one of 10 inches circumfer-
ence of 485 threads, and weighs 1940 pounds;
a cable of 20 inches, of 1943 threads, and weighs
7772 pounds. The feamen fay, the cable is weH
laid, when it is well wrought or made.

SCULPTURE.

SCULPTURE, is the art of cutting or carv- 1 either in wood, ftone, ivory, plaifter, (sfc. Carv-
ing various figures or reprefentations in wood, /«g-; which is that of making bafi-relievo's, fefi
ftone, or other matter ; as alfo of fafhioning ' toons, cartouches, fret-vjork, he.
wax, earth, plaifter, 6'c. to ferve as models or ( A statue is a piece oi Jculpture in full re-
moulds, for the cafting of metalline figures. liievo, reprefenting a human m^ure.

Sculpture is di\'ided into feveral branches, vi%. In ftridnefs, the term Jiatue is only applied to

Statuary ; which is the art of making/a/wf only, figures on foot, as that of king James IL at White-

VoL.Ii.N«'.49- I Sff "-^ hail

494 ^^ Univerfal Hiftory of Akts and Sciences.

hall; the word being formed from the Lal'tn Jla-
tura, the fize of the body ; or homjiare, to {tand.

There are allegorical ryriatic, curule, eque/trlan.
Creek, kjdraulic-, pedejirian, Perfuw, and Roman
Jlatues.

Allegorical ST AT vv. is that, which under a hu-
man figure, or other fymbol, reprefents fomething
of another kind, as a part of the earth, a feafon,
age, element, temperament, hour, is'c.

(Jyriatick STATUE is the fame with what we
called in ourtreatife of architedlure caryatides.

Curule STATUES are thofe, which are rcprc-
fented in chariots drawn by two or four horfes ;
of which kind there were feveral in the circus's,
hippodromes, iJc. or in cars, as we fee fome with
triumphal arches on antique medals.

Eqmjlrian STATUE is that reprefcnting fome
illulhious perfon on horfeback. As that famous
one of Marcus AurcUui at Rome ; that of King
Charles I. at Charlng-Crcfs.

A Greek statue is a figure, that is naked and
antique ; it being in this maimer the Greeks repre-
fented their deities, athlets, of the olympick
games, and heroes. The ytez^^r of heroes were
particularly called Jchillean Jlatues, by reafon of
the great number of figures of that prince, in m.oft
of the cities of Greece.

HydrauUck STATUE is any figure placed as an
ornament of a foimtain, or grotto ; or that does
the office of a jet d'eau, a cock, fpout, or the like,
hy any of its parts, or by any attribute it holds.
The like is to be underftood of any animal ferving
for the fame ufe.

Pedejirian STATUE is zjlatue {landing on foot.
As that of King Charles II. and others in the Royal
Exchange.

Perjian statues are taken notice of in the
treatife of architefture, under the Letter A.

Reman statues is an appellation given to
/uch as are cloathed, and which receives various
names from the various dreffes. Thofe of em-
perors with long gowns over their armour, were
called Jiatutes paludatie ; thofe of captains and
chevaliers, . with coats of arms, thoracatcs ; thofe
of foldiers with cuiraflcs, kricatis ; thofe of fena-
tors and augurs, trabeatts ; thofe of magiflrates
with long robes, togata ; thofe of the people with
a plain tunica, tunuata ; and laffly, thofe of wo-
men v.'ith long \.x2Ai-\%,Jolatie.

The Romans had another divifion oi Jlatues, in-
to divine, which were thofe confecrated to the
gods ; as Jupiter, Mars, Apollo, &c. — Heroes,
which were thofe of the demi gods, as i/f?-«//«, &c.
And Augujli, which v/ere thofe of the emperors ;
as thofe two of Cafar and AuguJiuSy uoder Uie por-
tico of the capitol.

The figure, or portrait of a perfon in rclieve-t
(hewing only the head, fhoulders, and ftomach ^
the arms bting lopped off, ordinarily placed on 3
pedeftal or confol, is called bujl or bzjio.

The hujl is the famewith v. hat the Latins ztWh^
hernia, from the Greek herirus. Mercury ; the image
of that god being frequently reprcfented in this
manner among the Athenians. BuJl is ajfo uled,
efpecially among the Italians, for the trunk, of ii
human body, from the neck to the hips.

The fculptor has feveral chiflels, all different in
bignefs and finenefs ; which they change in pro-
portion as they go on with their work ; thelargeit
are ufcd to prime it, before they lay their defigii
on the block, vi^hereof t\\t Jlatue is to be made.

for Sculpture on marble orjlone ; the firft thing
they Jo, ii out of a great block of marble to
fav/ another of the fize required, which is per-
formed with a fmooth ftcel faw without teeth,
caffing water and fand thereon from time to time :
then they fafliion it, by taking off what is fuper-
fluous with a flubbed point, and a heavy malict ;
after this, bringing it near the mcafurc required,
they reduce it flill nearer with another finer
point. They now ufe a flat cutting inflrument,
having two notches in its edge, or three teeth ;
then achiffel to take off the fcratches the former has
left. This laft inftrument they ufe with a deal
of delicacy, giving thereby a foftnefs and tender-
iiefs to their figure ; till at length taking rafps of
different degrees of finenefs, by degrees they bring
thtir work into a condition for poliihing.

To polifh or make the parts fmooth and fleek,
they ufe pumice-ftone and fmalt, then tripoli ; and
when a ftill greater luflre is required, a Ikin of
burnt flraw.

To proceed more regularly, on the head of the
model, they place an immovable circle, divided
into degrees, with a moveable ruler, or index,
faftened in the center of the circle, and divided
likewife into equal parts; from the end ef the
ruler hangs a thread with a plummet ; which ferves
to take all the points to be transferred thence to
the block of marble, from whofe top hangs pii-
other plummet like that cf the model. All which
may be feen in our table of mifcellany.

Indeed there are fome excellent fculptors, who
difapprove of this method ; urging that the fmallefl
motion of the model changes their meafures, for
which reafon they rather chafe to take all their
meafures with their compaffes.

The perfe£lion of ajlatue, either in wood, mar-
ble, ftone, iron, i^fc. confifls chiefly in a fine at-
titude, beautiful parts imitating nature as near as
poflible, without any exaggeration either in the
features, or the proivunciation of the members.

The

SCULPTURE.

495

The draper}', if there be any, wel] thrown, and workmen herein, who communicated it chiefly to

with as few plaits as pofliblc ; fince it is not fo
eafy co make them imitate the natural with the
chijii?!, as with the pencil : and a too great num-
ber of plaits in marble, ftonc, or plalter, appear
rather as the pipes of an organ, or the like, than
plaits, never afte£ting to render the mufcles vifible
in the naked, but in proportion as the age, fex,
or attitude of the perfon the figure is to reprefent,
require it: for the mufcles are not to be fo vifible
in a woman as in a man, nor in a child, as in a
man grown, nor in a figure fuppofed in an eafy
pofture, as in one luppofed in a violent one :
which is a fault feveral very good fculptors are
guilty of, pretending thereby to make connoifTeurs
admire the flrokes of their chilfels, and the know-
ledge they have of anatomy.

Siatties are faid to be figures alfo in relievo.
There are three kinds of relievo's, viz. alto-
relicvo, bajfo-rellevo, and demi-rel;evo. Relievo in
general, or relief, imbojfment, being applied to a
figure which projefts or ftands out, prominent from
the ground or plain whereon it is formed ; whe-
ther that figure be cut v/ith the chiflel, moulded,
or caft,

.zf/Zo-RELTEVo, hattt-relirf, or high-relievo, is
when the figure ii formed after nature, and pro-
jefts as much as the life.

5c7y7a-RELlEVO, hcii relief-, or lotu-relievo, is
when the work is butraifed a little from its ground;
as we fee in medals, and in the front! (pieces of
buildings, particularly hiftories, feftoons, foliages,
,and other ornaments in the frieze.

Z)<';7;/-Relievo, is when one half the figure
rifes from the plain, /. e. when the body of a fi-
gure feems cut in two, and one half is clapped on
the ground. When in a hajfo-relievo there are fome
parts that ftand clear out, detached from the reft,
the work is called a demi-hojfe.

The antiquity of fculpture is pafl doubt; as the
facred writings, the moft antient and authentick
monument we have of the earlieft ages, mentions it
in feveral places ; witnefs Labms idols ftolen away
by Rachel, and the golden calf which the Ijrael-
ites fet up in the defart, iJc. but it is very difficult
to fix the original of the art, and the firfl artifts
trom prophane authors ; what we read thereof be-
ing intermixed with fables, after the manner and
lafte of thofe ages.

Some make a mafler of Sicyon, named Dibii-
lades, the firft fculptor ; others i;\y, the art had its
.origin in the ifle of Seimos, where one Ideaus and
Theodorus performed works of this kind long be-
fore Dibutades's time. It is added that Detnaraius,
father of Ttirquin the elder, firft brought it into
Italy upon his retiring thither ; and that by means
Jrf Eucifarui and Eiitygrainmus, two excellent

the Ttifcam, among whom it was afterwards culti-
vated with great fucccfs. They add that Taiquin
fcnt for Tuuriemus, one of the moft eminent a-
mong them, to Rome, to make a ftatue of Jupi-
ter, &c. of baked earth ; for the frontifpiece of
the temple of that deity.

About this time, there were many fculptors,
both in Greece and Italy, who v/rotight altogctb.er
in earth. Some of the moft noted are Chalcojihenet
an Athenian, who made himfelf and his houfe fa-
mous, by the great number of earthen figures he
adorned it withal ; and Dcmophilus and Gorfmius,
two painters, who enriched the temple of Ccrei
with great variety of painting and earthen images.
In efFeft, all the firft llatues of the heathen deities,
were either of earth or wood ; and it was not fo
much any frailty of the matter, or unfitnefsforthe
purpofc, as the riches and luxury of the people,
that firft induced them to make images of marble,
and other more precious ftone.

Indeed how rich foever the matter were v/hereon
they wrought, yet they ftill ufed earth, to form
models thereof: and to this day, whether they be
for cutting marble ftatues with the chifTel, as al-
ready obferved, or for cafting them in metal : they
never undertake the ojie or the other, witliout firil:
making a perfedl model thereof in earth.

Phidias of Athens, who came next, furpafled all
his prcdeceflors, both in marble, in ivory, and me-
t.als : and about the fame time appeared feveral
others, who carried fculpture to the higheft per-
feftion it ever arrived at, particularly Policletus at
Sicyon ; then Migron ; Lyfipptis, who alone was
allowed the honour of cafting Alexander % im:ige in
brafs : Praxiteles and Scopas, who made thofe ex-
cellent figures now before the pope's palace, at
Monte Cavallo : Briaetis, T'imother/s, and Lectha-
res, who with Scopns wrought the famous tomb of
Maufoleus King of Carta ; CaphiJJodottis, dviachus,
Dadalus, Bathiais, Niceratus, Euphranor, Theo-
dorus, Xenarates, Pyromaehus, Itratonicus, Antigo-
mis, who wrote on the fubjeiSf of his art; the fa-
mous authors of Laocoan, viz. Agefandcr, Poly-
d:re, and Athenodorus, and infinite others, the
names of fome whereof have palled to pofterit}'.

When Marats Seaurus was iEdile, his ofHce ob-
liging him to provide what was requifite towards
the public rejoicings, he adorned the ftately theatre
which he erefted v/ith 3000 brafs ftatues ; and
though L. Mtwimiii.s and Lucidlus, brought away'
a great number out of AJia and Greece, yet there'
were ftill above 3000 remaining in Rhodes, as
many at Athens, and more at DJphos.

But what is more extraordinary was the bignefs

of the figures, which thofe antient artifts had the

S f s 2 courage,

496 The Uiiiverfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

courage to undertake : among thofe Ltiadlus
brought to Rom:', there was one of Apollo 30 cubits
hi<i-h -, the CulolJ'us of Rhodes made by Cares of
L\ndos, the dii'ciple of Lyfippus far exceeding it ;
Nero's ftatuc, made by Xenodorus, after that of
Mercury, was no feet high.

Sculpture however did not continue above 150
years after Phidias's time, till it began infenfibiy
to decline ; not but that there were (lill Tome
fine pieces of workman(hip both in Greece and
Italyy though not performed with fo good a fancy,

and fuch exquifite beauty as thofc of the former
works. Befides that the Greek ftatues are moft ef-
teemed for the workmanfhip ; there is a fpecial
difference between them and thofe of the Romans,
in that the greatert part of the firfl: are naked, like
thofe who wreflie, or perform (bme other bodily
exercife, wherein the youth of thofe times placed
all their glory ; whereas the others are clad or
armed, and particularly have the toga on, which
was the greateft mark of honour among the Ro-
inans.

S H A M 0 I S I N G.

SHAMOISING is the art of preparing
fheep, goat, or kid-fkin, in oil, in imitation
oi Jhammy. Which jhammy is the fkin of
the chamois or Jhamols, a kind of wild goat, called
ifard^ inhabiting the mountains of Dauphine, Sa-
voy, and the Pyrcncans.

Befides the foftnefs and warmnefs of the leather,
!t has the faculty of bearing foap without damage,
which renders it very ufeful on many accounts.

To counterfeit this fort of leather, the fkins of
any of the other animals above-mentioned, being
waflied, drained, and fmeared over with quick-
lime on the flefhy fide, are folded in two, length-
wife, the wool outwards, and laid on heaps ; and
fo left to ferment eight days ; or if they have been
left to dry after flaying, fifteen days.

Then they are wafhed out, drained, and half
dried, laid on a wooden leg or horfe, the wool
(tripped oft' with a round ftaff for thepurpofe, and
laid in a weak pit, the lime whereof had been
ufed before, and had lofl: the greateft part of its
force.

After twenty-four hours they are taken out, and
left to drain twenty-four more ; then put in ano-
ther ftronger pit. This done, they arc taken out,
drained, and put in again by turns ; which begins
to difpofe them to take oil ; and this practice they
continue for fix weeks in fummer, or three months
in winter ; at the end whereof they are waflied
out, laid on the wooden leg, and the furface of the
(kin on the wool-fide pulled off, to render them
thefofter; then made into parcels, fleeped a night
more in the river, in winter ; llretching fix or
kvtn. over one another, on the wooden leg ; and
the kniic pafled ftrongly on the flefh-fide, to take
off any thing fuperfluous, and render the fkin
I'mooth.

Then they arc ffretched as before in the river ;
and the fame operation repaated on the wool fide ;
then thrown into a tub of water with bran in it,
which is brewed among the fkins till the greateft

part flick to them; and then feparatcd into diflintSl
tubs, till they fwell, andrifo of themfelves above
the water.

By this means the remains of the lime are clear-
ed out : they are then wrung out, hung up to
dry on ropes, and fent to the mill, with the quan-
tity of oil neceffiiry to fever them. The befl oil is
that of ftock-fifh.

Here they are firfl: thrown in bundle? into the
river, for twelve hours ; then laid in the mill-
trough, and fulled without oil till they be well ibft-
cned ; then oiled with the hand, one by one, and
thus formed into parcels of four fkins each, which
are milled, and dried on cords a fecond time, then
a third, then oiled again and dried.

This procefs is repeated as often as neceility re-
quires : when done, if there be any moifture
remaining, they are dried in a (love, and made up
into parcels wrapped up in wool : after fome time
they are opened to the air, but wrapped up again
as before, till fuch a time as the oil feems to have
loft all its force, which it ordinarily does in twenty-
four hours.

The fkins are then returned from the mill to
the Jlwmoijh; to be fcoiired, which is done by
putting them in a lixivium of wood-afhes, work-
ing and beating them in it with poles, and leaving
them to fteep till the lye has had its effeiSt ; then
they are wrung out, fteeped in another lixivium,
wrung again, and this repeated till all the greafe
and oil be purged out. When this is done, they
are half dried, and paffed over a fharp-edged iron
inftrument, placed perpendicular on a block, which
opens, foftens, and makes them gentle : lailly,
they are thoroughly dried, and pafled over the
fame inftrument again, which finifhes the prepa-
ration, and leaves them in form of jhamtiiy.

Kid and goat-fkins are jliartioifcd in the fame
manner as thofe of fheep ; excepting that the hair
is taken off, without the ufe of any lime ; and
that when brought from the mill, they undergo a

particular

SHAMOISING.

497

particular preparation, aWcA ramallin;^ ; ihs mofl
delicate and dfficult of all others.

It confifts in this ; that as foon as brought from
the mill, they are fteeped in a fit lixivium ; taken
out, ftretched on a round wooden leg, and the
hair icrapcd off with the knife ; this makes them
fmooth, and in working caft a kind of fine nap.
The difficulty is in fcraping them even.

There is, likewife, an art or manner of prepar-
ing, or drefling fkins in white, to fit them for ufe
in divers manufadtures, particularly gloves, purfes,
is'c. which art is called tawing.

All kinds of fkins may be tawed ; but it ib
chiefly thofe of fhecp, lambs, kids, and goats,
that are ufed to be drelied this way ; as being thofe
fitteft for gloves.

As to the method of tazving, or di'awing Jkins in
•white. The wool or hair being well got ofF the
fkins by means of lime, isSc. as above defcribed,
they are laid in a large vat of wood or flone fet in
the ground, full of water, wherein quick-lime has
been flacked ; wherein they continue a month or
fix weeks, as the weather is more or lefs hot ; or as
the fkins are rcquir'd to be more or lefs foft and
pliant.

While in the vat, the water and lime is changed
twice, and they are taken out and put in again
every day. When taken out for the lafl: time, they
are laid all night to foak in a runningwater, to
get OLt ih; greateft part of the lime ; and in the
morning a e laid fix together on the wooden leg,
to get ofl' the iiefli by f'ciaping them ftoutly, one
after another, on the flefh fide, with a cutting
two-handed inflrument, called a knife ; and while
this is in hand, they cut oft the legs, and other fu-
perfluous parts about the extremes.

This done, they are laid in a vat or pit, with a
little water, where being well fulled with wooden
j'^flles for a quarter of an hour, the vat is filled up
with water, and the fkins rinfed therein. They
are next thrown on a clean pavement to drain ;
which done, dicy arecaft into a fiefli pit of water,
where being well rinled, they arc taken out, and
laid on the wooden leg, fix at cnce, with the hair
fide outermoft, over which they rub a kind o!
v/hetftone very brifkly, to foften and fit them to
receive four or five more preparations given them
on he leg, both on the flefh fide and the hair fide,
wiih the knife, after the manner above-men-
tioned. ~V'

This over, they are-put in a pit with water, and
wheat-bran, and ftirred about therein, v, ich wood-
en poles, till the bran is perceived toilick to then;,
and then they are left ; as they raife ■; themfelves
to the top of -the water by a kind of i i mentation,
they are plunged down again to the bottom 3 and.

at the fame time, fire is fet to the liquor, which
takes as eafily as if it was brandy, but goes out the
moment the fkins are all cover'd.

This operation is repeated as often as the fkins
rife above water ; and when they rife no more,
they are taken out, laid on the wooden leg, the
flefli fide outermofl:, and the knife pafTed over it to
fcrape off the bran. The bran thus cleared, the
fkins are laid in a large bafket, where they are
loaden with huge ftones to promote their draining ;
and when fufficiently drained, their feeding is
given them, which is performed after the follow-
ing manner.

For a hundred large fheep-fkins, and for fmaller
in proportion, they take eight pounds of allum»
and three of fea-falt, and melt the whole with
water over the fire ; pouring the diilblution out,
while yet lukewarm, into a kind of trough, where-
in is twenty pounds of fine wheat flour, with eight
dozen yolks of eggs ; of all which is formed a
kind of pafle, a little thicker than children's pap,
which, when done, is put into another vefTel, to
be ufed in manner followins;.

A quantity of hot water being poured into the
trough, v/herein the parte was prepared, two
ipoonfuls of thepafle is mixed therewith ; in order
to which they ufe a wooden fpoon, which contains
jufl what is required for a dozen fkins : and when
the whole is well diluted, two dozen of the fkins
are plunged therein : care being taken, by the way,
that the water be not too hot, which would fpoil
thepafte, and burn the fkins.

Having ftaid fome time in the trough, they are
taken out one after another with the hand, and
ftretched out, which is repeated twice : when
they have all had their pafte, they are put into
tubs, where they are fulled afrefh with woodea
peflles.

Then they are put in a vat, where they remain
five or fix days or more, and are at lafltalcn outir>
fair weather, and himg out to dry on cords of
racks : the quicker they dry, the better j for if
they be too long a dryina;, the lalt and allum within
them are apt to make them rife into a grain, which
is an cflentia! fault in this kind of drefling.

When the fkins are drj-, they are put up in bun-
dles, and jufl- dipp'd in fair v.ater; from which
being taken out and drained, they are thrown ir.to
an empty tub ; and after fome time, are taken
out, and trampled under foot.

They are then drawn over a flat iron inflrumcnt,
the top wheicof is round like a battledore, and
the botom fixed into a wooden block, to ftreteh
and open them: when open, they are hung in the
ur upon cords to dry ; and when dry, are oj^n a

fccond

49 S' Tlje Unlverfal Hiftory

fecond time by repafling them over the fame in-
ftrument.

I^aftly, they are laid on a table, pulled out, and
laid fmooth -, and are thus in a condition for fale
and ufe. After the fame manner are drcflcd horfes,
cows, calves fkins, isc. for fadlcrs, harncfs-makers,
t£c. as alfo dogs, wolves, bears fkiiis, l^c. except-
ing that in thofe the ufe of the parte is omitted ;
fait and allum-water being fufficient.

It will not be improper to add here the manner
of preparing 7l?)rt^;Tcw, whidi is a kind of grain-
leather, chiefly ufed on the cover of cafes, books,
I3c. it is very clofe and folid, and covcr'd over
with little roundifh grains or papillae.

As to the preparation thereof. The fkin being
juft flayed off, is ftretched out, cover'd over with
muftartl-feed, and the feed bruifed on it, and thus
expofed to the weather for fome days, then tanned.

The beft is that brouglit from Conflantinople, o:
a brownifh colour ; the white is the worft. it u.
extremely hard, yet when rtreepcd in water be-

of Arts and Sciences;

jomes very foft and pliable ; whence it becomes
of great ufe among cafe-makers. It takes any
colour that is gi\'en it; red, green, yellow, or
bl ,ck. It is frequently counterfeited by marcqtiin,
formed Y\Vc Jljagreen ; but this laft is diflinguifticd
by its peeling off, which the firfl: does not.

There is alfo a kind oi Jhagreen made of the
fkin of the fquatina ; in EngliJJ), the monk or an-
gel fifh. ■

There is a difpute among authors, v/hat the
animal is whence tht fliagreen is prepared. Rauivolf
afl'urcs us, it is the onager, which, according to
him and Bellonius, iis a kind of zvild aj}.

It is added, that it is only the hard part of the
tl:in is ufed for this purpofe. Stw/ fays it is a. pn-
c.'ilf; others, a kind of fifli, called by theTwr/f/
ibagreen, whofe fkin is cover'd with grains, and
thofe fo hard, that they will rafp and polifii
wood.

Shagreen is brought from Conjiantinople, Tazirisy
Tripoli) Algiers, and fome parts »f Poland,

S M I r H E R T,

SMITH is an appellation given to artifts
who forge and prepare fome metal on the an-
vil, particularly gold, filver, iron, copper,
(^£. therefore there are gcLifmiths, fihcrjmitbs-,
hhtckfmiths, copperfmiths, &c.

There is no other difference between a gold-
fmith and a filverfmith, but in the appellation, for
commonly the fame artift v/orks both metals.

The workfliop of a gold o; filverfmith, muft be
feted with a forge, crucibles of different fizes, an-
vils, hammers, moulds, vices, files, polifhers, bur-
ivilhers, ilfc.

Gold and filver are never worked pure, but are
ahvays mixed with their proper alloy, which for
gold, is filver and copper ; and for filver, copper
alone ; but in mjxing thofe metals, they mufi be
kept to the ftandard.

The ftandard of gold in England, France and
Flanders, is 22 carats of fine gold, and a carat of
alloy in the pound weight troy- And the ftandard
of filver is 1 1 ounces and two penny v/eights of
filver, and 1 8 pennyweights of alloy of copper.
Gold and filver, before they are forged, are re-
duced into ingots ; and the ingenious artift, having
took enough of it for the piece of work he intends
to make, he heats it red-hot in his forge, as a
blackfmith does his iron, to render it moredu6lile,
compaft and more proper for farther preparations.
This iirll operation is the foundation, of the whole

beauty of the work. For if the metal be not well
forged, at firft, it remains brittle and fragile, /. e.
that it breaks eafily under the hands of the artift,
when he is giwng the form it muft have ; or of
thofe who have bought it ; whereas when well
forged it bends all manner of ways, without
breaking. But there is a great art in forging it; for
the metal muft neither be heated too much, nor too
little, nor too often, nor hammered too hard ; for
if it be heated too hot, it fcales by too great abim-
dance of the igneous particles, which crowd into
the parts of the metal with too much impetuofity
lacerating their texture ; and if not heated enouo-h,
it refifts to the hammer for want of a fufficient
quantity of igneous particles, to help, by their
rotation, accellerated by the motion of the ham-
mer, towards the dilatation of the pores : therefore
the metal muft never be left in the fire till it emits
a kind of ftars when taken out ; neither is it to be
taken out while it appears cloudy.

The artift muff likewife take a particular care to
hammer it evejily, /. e. without leaving part of
its metal very prominent whil? i"ie is flattening the
other. In forging, the hanrfmer muft not be let
fall too heavy on the metal ; for dilating thereby its
pores with too much violence, it makes themburft,
whereby they run into one another, and prevents
the concatenation neceffary, to render it pligble and
manageable.

s M I r H E R r.

499

If it be ft piece ofworic, which muft be planed
cold, after it has been forged ; that planing miifl
be done with a fteady and even hand, with very
little violence, taking the ridges fucceflively, one-
after another : and if it be a round piece of work,
planing round- wife ; beginning next the edges,
and going on progreffively towards the middle.

When a piece-work, after it has been forged,
is to be filed, if it be a large piece, the filing muft
be done with bold and long Ibokes, which con-
tributes much to the beauty of the work, and
helps towards its being polifhed with much more
eafe.

The pieces of works, which arc to be cafl:,
are caft cither in fand, if they be large pieces, or
in the bones of the fcuttle-fifh, if they be fmall
ones ; which they do by preifing the pattern be-
tween two bone* ; and leav'iig a jet or hole to
convey the filver through after the pattern has been
taken out.

If the work confifls of fevcral pieces, they arc
foldered together.

Goldfniiths ufually make four kinds of folder,
viz. folder of eight, where to feven parts of filvcr
there is one of brafs or copper. Solder of fix,
where only a fixth part is copper. Solder of four,
and folder of three. It is the mixture of copper
in the folder that makes railed plate always come
cheaper than flat.

To folder the pieces they faften them tight to-
gether with a piece of iron wire, and they cover
with pieces of folder and fume borax, that part
where the pieces are to br joined : then if it be a
Jmall piece of v/crk, they put it on a piece of char-
coal, and having lighted a lamp or a big candle,
and holding their work in the left-hand, and as
near the flame as pofTible, they with the right
holding their pipe, blow through it into the flame,
which makes it fprcad over the work, and melt
the folder, whereby the pieces are folder'd toge-
ther. V/hen the artifl fees the folder fufing, he
takes his work from th-s lamp, and the operation
is done ; taking off afterwards with a file the fu-
perfluidity of the folder ; fo dexteroufly, that the
foldered part may be as little difcernable as pofli-
ble ; in which confifls th? great fecrec of the art
of foldering.

The work in this condition is fit for polifhing ;
which is done with a piece of white wood and tri-
poli. When polifhed it is burnifhed with a round
polifhed piece of fleel ; which laft operation gives
a luftre to the metal. If it be gold it is coloured
in the fame manner we have explained in our
treafife o^ gilding, under the letter G.

As there is nothing to be thrown away of what

comes out of gold or filvcr, all the nfhcs of the
furnaces and (weepings of tlie work-fhop, are care-
fully fayed, in order to recover by wafhing the
particles of gold and filver out of them ; which is
performed by fimply wafhing them again and
again, or by putting them in the wafhing-mill.

To make one of thofc wafhes, they not only
gather together the afhes of the furnaces, and the
fweepings of the work-houfts ; but they alfo poirnd
and break the old earlhen crucibles, and the v;ry
bricks whereof the furnaces are built ; little par-
ticles of gold, (^c. being found to ftick to ihem,
by the crackling nature of thofe metals when in
their vafl: degree of heat.

Thefe matters being all well ground and mixed
together, are put in large wooden baibns, where
they are wafhcJ feveral times, and in fcveral wa-
ters, which run ofFby incliaation into troughs un-
derneath ; carrying with them the earth, and the
infenfib e particles of the metals ; and only leaving
behind them the larger and more confiderable ones,
which are vifible to the eye, and taken out with the ■
hand, without any more trouble.

To get out the finer parts gone ofF with the
earth, they ufe quickfilver, and a wafliing mill.
This mill confifls of a large wooden trough, at
the bottom of which are two metalline parts,
ferving like mill-flones ; the lower being convex,
and the upper, which is in form of a crofs, con-
cave.

A-top is a winch, placed horizontally, which
turns the upper piece round ; and at the bottom a
bung, to let out the water and earth when fufB.-
ciently ground.

To have a wafh then, the trough is filled with
common water, into which they caft thirty or
forty pounds of quickfilver ; and two or three gal-
ions of the matter remaining after the firft lo-
tion. Then turning the winch, they give motion
to the upper mill-ffone ; which grinding the mat-
ter and the quickfilver violently together, the par-
ticles of gold and filver become more eafily amal-
gamated therewith : This work they continue for
two hours ; when opening the bung, the water and
earth run out, and a frefh quantity is put in.

The earths are ufually paffcd thus through the
mill three tunes ; and the fame quantity of mer-
cury ufually ferves all the three times. When
there is nothing left in the mill but the mercury,
united with the gold and filver which it has amal-
gamated, they take it out, and wafhing it in di-
vers waters, they put it in a thick bag, and lay in
a prefs to fqueeze out the water and the loofe
quickfilver : the remaining quickfilver they eva-
porate by fire in a retort, or an alembick. The

metal

The Uiilverfal Hiflory of Arts and Sciences.

500

metal which remains they refine with lead, or part
it with aqua fortis, as defcribcd in my treatife of
refining, under the letter R.

As for l)lack~f)ii'iths, their workfliop muft like-
wife be fitted with a forge, anvils, and hammers,
of different (izes, files, vices, isfc.

The forge of a blackfmith, as likewife of the
feveral other operators in iron, i? very fimple.

The hearth, or iire-place, is a mafs of bricks
about two feet fix inches high: the back of the
forge is built upright to the cieling, and is iii-
clofed over the fire-place with a hovel, which
leads into a chinmcy to carry away the fmoak.
In the back of the forge, againlt the fire-place,
is a thick iron plate, v.ith a taper fixed therein,
about five inches long, called the tezLcl, into which
the nofe or pipe of the bellows is received : the
ufe of this plate and tewel is, to preferve the pipt
of the bellows, and the back of the hearth from
being burnt. Right before the hack, at about
two feet diftance, is the trough filled with water,
to wet the coals in, and thereby increafe their
fojce ; as alfo to punch the iron in. Behind the
back of the forge is placed the bellows, one of
whofe boards is fixed fo that it moves not either
upwards or downwards ; and to the other is fitted
a rope, chain, or even rod ; which rifing perpen-
dicularly, is fixed to a crofs piece, called the
rocker, which moving on a kind of fulcrum near
the middle, ferves as a handle.

By drawing down this handle, the moveable
board of the bellows rifes ; and by a confiderable
weight atop of its upper board, finks it down

again ; and by this alternate agitation performs the
oflice of a pair of bellows.

Braziers and copp<.-r-fmiths forge differs but
little from that already defcribed, unlefs that it is
inu;h lefs, and that nothing h burnt in it but
charcoal ; the netals ufcd by thefe op ra tors not
being able to fuffain the violence of pit-coal.

Iron is hammered and forged two ways, cither
by tile force of the h^nd, in which tiierc are ufually
fneral perfons employed, one of them turning the
in.r, and hammering likewife, and the rclt only
haiiiinering.

Or by the force of a water-mill ; which rifes,
and works feveral huge hammers beyond the force
of man, under the itrokes whereof the work-
men prefcnt lumps, or pieces of iron, which are
fuftained at one end by the anvils, and at the
o:hcr by iron chains faftcned to the cieling of the
forge.

This laft way of forging is only ufed in the
largeit works, as anchors for fhips, is'c. which
ulually weigh feveral thoufand pounds. For ligh-
ter works, a fingle man fuffices to hold, heat, and
turn with one hand, while he ftrikes with the
other. Each purpofe the work is defigned for re-
quires its proper heat. If it be too cold, it will not
feel the weight of the hammer, as the fmiths call
it (/. e. will not flretch or give way) and if it be
too hot, it will red-fear, /. e. break, or crackle
under the hammer.

The feveral heats the fmiths give their iron,
are, i. A blood-red heat. 2. A white flame-heatt
3. A fparkling or welding heat.

SOAP-MAKING.

SOAP-MAKING is the art of preparing a
kind of pafte, fometimes hard and dry, and
fometimes foft and liquid ; much ufed in
wafhing and whitening' linen ; and for various
other purpofes by the dyers, perfumers, hatters,
fullers, &c.

There are three principal forts of foap manu-
factured in England, viz. the foft, the hard, and
the ball-foap. The foft foap again is either white
or green.

The chief ingredients ufed in making the green
foft foap, are lyes drawn from pot-afh and lime,
boiled up with Tallow and oil. Firft, the lye
and tallow are put into the copper together ; and
when melted, the oil is put to it, and the copper
made to boil ; then the fire is dampt or ftopt up,
while the ingredients lie in the copper to knit or
incorporate ; which done, the copper is fet on

boiling, being fed or filled with lyes, as it boils,
till their be a fufficient quantity put therein : then
it is boiled off with all convenient fpeed, and put
into cafks.

There are two forts of tuhite foap ; one fort
thereof is made after the fame manner as green
foft fcap is, oil excepted, which is not ufed in
white. The other fort is made from lyes of aflies
of lime boiled up at twice with tallow.

Firft, a quantity of lye and tallow are put into
the copper together, and kept boiling ; being ie.i.
with lye as it boils, until it grains, or is boiled
enough ; then the lyes are feparated or dilcharged
from the tallowifh part, which part is removed
into a tub, and the lyes thrown away : this is call-
ed the finl half boiled. Then the copper is
charged again with frefh tallow and lyes, and the
firft halfioil'd put out of the tub into the cop-
per

STARC H-MA K I N G.

50^

per a fecond time ; where it is kept boiling with
hefli lyes and tallow till it comes to perfcdlion.
It is then put out of the copper into the fame fort
of ca(ks, as are ufed in green foft foap.

As to hard foap.---\i is njade with lyes from
aflies and tallow, and moft commonly boiled at
twice : the firft called a half boilina;, has the fame
operation as the firft halt-boil'd of I'oft white foap.
Then the copper is charged with frefli lyes again,
and thcfiri'lhalf-boil'd put into it, where it is kept
boiling, and fed with lyx-s as it boils, till it grains,
or is boiled enough ;" then the lye is dlfcharged
from it, and the foap put into a frame to cool and
harden. There is no certain time for bringing oft
a boiling of any of thefc forts of foap ; it frequently
takes up part of two days.

The hall foap is made with lye.s from aflies and
tallow. The lyes arc put into the copper, and
boiled till the watery part is quite gone, and there
remains nothing in the copper but a fort of nitrous
matter (the very ftrcngth or cftence of the lye;)
to this the tallow is put, and the copper kept boil-
ing, and ftirring for about half an hour, in which
time t\\c /cap is made ; and then i: is put out of the
copper into tubs or baflats yvith fhects in them j-
and immediately (while foft) inade into balls. It
requires near twenty-four hours to boil away the
watery part of the lye.

^\\c foft foap is the moft common in Englandy
and the beft.

Soft foap is an excellent remedy to kill crab lice,
by rubbing the part with it.

S r A R C H-M A K I N G.

STARCH-MAKING is the art of procuring'
a fediment from wheat which had been ftceped
in water; of which fediment,, after feparating
the bran from it, by pafTing it through fieves, arc
formed a kind of loaves, which being dried in the
Tun, or an oven, is afterwards broke into little
pieces, and fo fold. The procefs is as follows :

The grain being well cleaned, is put to fermcn!
in vcfl'els full of water, which they expofe to the
I'un, when in its greateft heat ; changing the
water twice a day for the fpace of eight or twelve
days, according to the feafon.,'. When the grain
burfts. eafily under the finger, they judge it iliffi-
ciently fermented. The fermentation perfefted,
and the grain thus foftened ; it is put, handful by
handful, in a canvas bag, to feparate the flour
from the hufks, whicii is done by rubbing and
beating it on a phmk, laid a-crofs the mouth ot
the empty veflel, that is to receive- the flour.

As the vefTels are filled with this liquid flour,

there is feen fwimming a-top, a reddifti water,'
which is to be carefully fcum oft" from time to time,
and clean water put in its place ; which, after ftir-
ring the whole together, is all to bcftrained throutjh
a cloth or fieve, and what is left behind, put into
the vefiel with new water, and expofed to the fun
for foms time ; and as the lediment thickens at the
bottom, tjiey drain off" the water four or five times,
by inclinijig the vefTcl, but without pafling it
through the fieve. What remains at the bottom,
is they?(7rfA, which they cut in pieces to get outi
and leave, it to dry in the fun. When dry it is laid
up for ufe; '

The belt y?rtri.7; is white, foft, and friable, ea-
fily broke into powder.

Starch is ufed along with fmalt, or ftone blue,
to ftifTcn and clear linen. The powder thereof is
alfo ufed to whiten and pov/der the hair.

■It. Is alfo ufed by the dyers to difpofe their ftuffs
to take colours the better.

S r R R E 0 M E r RT.

STEREOMETRY is the art of meafuring fo-
lid bodies, /. e. of finding the folidity or fo-
lid .contents of bodies, as globes, cylinders,
C-ubes, vefiels, fhips, iffc.

'ShHdiiy, as underftood here, is the quantity of
fpace, contained in a iblid body ; called alfo the
lolid content, and the cube thereof.

To Miifure .thefurfacc, and folidity of a prifm ;
find the area of the bale, aiid multiply it by 2 ; find
the areas of the planes, or parallelograms, timt
Vol. II.

include or circumfcribe It, and add their fum to the
former product. The fum is the whole furface of
the prijm.

Multiply then the baf.- by the altitude ; the pro-
dui£l is the folidity of the cube.

All prijms are in a ratio compounded of their

bafes and attitudes : If then their bales be equal,

they are to each other as their heights ; and vice

vena. Similar prif/iu, &c." are' ' nl a triplicate

T 1 1 ratio

502 The Univerfal Diaionary of Av^rz and Sciences.

ratio of their homologous fides, as aUb of their al-
titudes.

To meafure the fur face and foUdily cf a pyramid.--
Find thefolidity otaprifm, that has the fame bafc
with the given pyramcd ; and divide this by three ;
die quotient will he the folidityof ihe pyramid.

Suppofe V. gr. the folidityof the prifm be found
6701328, the folidity of the pyramid w'tll be thus
found 22336770.

The furface of a pyramid is had by finding the
areas both of the bafe, and of the lateral trian-
gles. The fum of thefe is the area of the pyramid.

The external furface of a right pyramid, {land-
ing on a regular poligonal bafe, is equal to the al-
titude of one of the triangles which conipofe it,
multiplied by the whole circumference of the bafe
of the pyramid.

Afpbere is equal to a pyramid, whofe bafe is
equal to the furface, and its height to the radius
of the fph ere.

Hence ^fphere being elleemed fuch a pyramid,
its cube ox folid content is found like that of a pyramid.

2. hfphcre is to a cylinder, {landing on an equal
bafis, and of the fame height, as 2 to 3. Hence
alfo may the cube or content of the_/5'^:'^''^ be found.

3. The cube of the diameter of a fphere, is to the
folid content o'i the fphere, nearly as 300 to 1 57 ; and
thus alfo may the content of the fphere be meafured.

4. The furface of 3. fphere is quadruple the area
of a circle defcribed with the radius of the fphere.
For fince z fphere is equal to a pyramid, whole bafe
is the furface, and its altitude the radius of the
fphere: the furface of the fphere is had by dividintr
its folidity by a third part of its diameter. If now
the diameter of the circle be 100, the area will be
7850 ; confequently the folidity 1570000 ; which
divided by a third of the fcmi-diameter, 100, the
quotient is the furface oith<i fphere 314CO, which
is manifefHy quadruple the area of the circle.

Thediameter of a fphere being given to find its fur-
face and folidity. Find the periphery of the circle
defcribed by the radius of the fphere. Multiply this,
found, into the diameter ; the product is the fur-
face of the fphere. Multiply the furface by a fixth
part of the diameter, the pr'oducT: is the folidity of
^J^ie fphere.

Thus fuppofing the diameter of \k\e fphere 56,
the periphery will be found 175 ; which multiplied
by the diameter, the product 9800 is the furface of
the fphere; which multiplied by one fixth part of the
diameter, gives the folidity 919057, orthus;

Find the cube of the diameter 1 75616 ; then to
300157, and the cube found, find a fourth pro-
portional 919057. This is the Ibldityof the fphere
required.

A gentleman was pkafed to favour me with the

following method, which he fays he ufed for the
menfuration of a globe, whofe axis is 21 inches.

^ G L O B E, whofe axis is 2 1 inches.

21. circumference,
66

126
126

1386

35^ of the axis.

6930
4158

I'jlS) 4.8510(2 feet, 1395 inch.
3456

1395-

F. In.
485 r 2. 1395
3456

139s

F. In.
1-75

875
1225

175

3.0625
^•75

153125

2U375

30625

5-359375
5236

21
21

441

441
882

9261
II

9261
9261

21)101871(1728

178
168

107
105

€0

9261 cube ^21
5236

55566

277«3
18522

46305

16078125
10718750
1393 26796875

806

1728)48490596(2. 1393
32156250 3456

1393

0507

2.8061687500

Before

STEREOMETRT.

603

Before we attempt to give the method of mea-
furing a cylinder, we miifl: remember, that a cylin-
der is a (blid body contained under three furfaccs ;
fuppofcd to be generated by the rotation of a pa-
rallelogram, about one of its fides.

If the generating parallelogram be reiTtangular,
the cylinder introduced will be a xx'^t cylinder, i. e.
a cylinder, whofe axis is perpendicular to its bafe.

If the parallelogram be a rhomhui or rhomhbidcs,
the cylinder will be oblique or fcabuous.

The furface of a right cylinder, cxclufive of its
bafes, is demonftrated to be equal to a rectangle
contained under the periphery, and the altitude of
the cylinder.

The periphery, therefore, of the bafe, and
thence the bafe itfelf, being found, and multiplied
by two, and the produft added to the reftangle
of the height, and periphery of the cylinder ; the
fum will be the area or fuperficies of the cylinder :
Multiply this by the area of the bafe, and thepro-
dudl will be the folidity of the cylinder.

For it is demonftrated, that a circle is equal to a
triangle, whofe bafe is equal to a periphery, and
height to the radius ; and alfo that a cylinder is
equal to a triangular prii'm, having the fame bafe
and altitude with itfelf; its folidity, therefore,
muft be had by multiplying the fuperficies into the
bafe.

Again, fmce a cone may be efteemed an infinite
angular pyramid ; and a cylinder an infinite angular
prilm ; a cone is one third part of a cylinder, upon
ail equal bafe, and of the fame height.

Further, a cylinder is to a fpherc of the fame
bafe and altitude, as ^ to 2.

Lailly, it being demonftrated in mechanicks,
that every'figure, whether fuperficial or folid, ge-
nerated either by the motion of a line, or of a fi-
gure, is equal to the fadlum of the generative
magnitude into the way of its center of gravity,
or the line its center of gravity defcribes : Hence,
if a reSangle revolves about its axis, it will de-
fcribe a cylinder, and its fide the furface of the cy-
linder. But the center of gravity of the right line
is in the middle ; and the center of gravity of the
generating plane in the middle of the right line.
The way of this, therefore, is the periphery of a
circle defcribed by the radius, /. e. into the bafe :
but the folidity of the cylinder is the faftum of
the generating reftangle, into the periphery of the
circle defcribed by the other radius, which is fub-
duple of the femi-diameter of the cylinder.

Suppofe, V. gr. the latitude of the defcribing
plane, aud therefore of the cylinder B C = «, the
femi-diameter of the bafe D C = r ; then will
EG = ?^ r; andfuppofing the ratio of the femi-
<liameter toj;he periphery = i : m; the periphery

defcribed by the radius ~r will be equal to\ mr.
Therefore multiplying -'- m r into the area of the
rcdlangle A C = a r ; the folidity of the cylin-
der = -^ m a r ; but ^ tn a r 2 = l.rm r a, and
^ r m r a and \_ r m r, the area of the circle de-
fcribed by the radius D G, the folidity of the cy-
linder, therefore, is equal to the faiflum of the
bafe and the altitude.

To determine the furface and folidity of a cube.
As the furface of a cube confiits ot fix equal fquarcs,
a fide multiplied by itfelf, and the product bv fix,
will give the fuj^erficics ; and the fame produdt
again multiplied by the fide, the folidity.

Hence if the lide of a cube be 10, the folidity
will be 1000 ; if that be 12, this will be 1728.:
wherefore the geometrical perch being 10 foot,
and the geometrical foot 10 digits, i^c. the cnbick
perch is looo cnbick feet, and a cubiek ibot is loco
cnbick digits, i^c.

Hence alfo cubes are in a triplicate ratio of' their
fides, and are equal if their fides he fo.

To meafure the folidity of a cone. Find the fo-
lidity of a prifiTi or cylinder, having the fiime bafe
with the cone ; which found, di\ided by three,
the quotient will be the folidity of a cone. Thus,
•V. gr. if the folidity of a cylinder be 605592960,
the iolidity of the cone will be found 20 18643 20.

As to the ineafure of the folidity of a truncated
cone : As the difference of the femi-diameter is to
the altitude of the truncated cone, fo is the great-
er femi-diameter to the altitude of the entire cone.
This found, fubflraft the altitude of the trunca-
ted cone, which willleave that of the cone taken
off. Find the folidity of the two cones, fubllradl:
one from the other ; the remainder will be the
folidity of the truncated cone.

To find the folidity of a hollow body. — If the body
be comprifed in the number of regular bodies, the
folidity firfl of the v/hole body, including- the ca-
vity, then that of the cavity, which is luppoled
to have the fame figure with the body itfelf, is to
be found ; and the latter being fubftra£ted from
the former, the remainder is the folidity of the
hollow body required.

As to the mcajuring of timber. — Timber is
ufually meafurcd and eitimated by the load or ton,
which is a folid ineafuie containing 40 feet of
round timber, or 50 of hewn tiinbo . The deno-
mination of load, &c. we fuppofe arifes from
hence, that 40 or 50 folid feet of fuch timber
weighs about a ton, /. e. twenty hundred iveJ:rht,
which is ufually accounted a cart load.

I. Fov the meafuring of round timber : The prac-
tice is, to gird the tree about in the middle of the
length, ajid folding the line twice, to take jane
length or quarter of the v-'hole, and accoimt that
T 1 1 2 for

The UnivTrfal Hiftory of Arts ajid Sciences.

5<^4

for the true fide of tlie fiiuare : then for the length,
it is counted from tlie but-cnd of the tree, fo far
upas the tree will bold half a foot girt, as ihey call
it, ./. f. fo long as the line twice folded is half a
foot.

The dimenfions thus taken, the quantity of
timber is had, either by multiplying the fide of tlie
fquare into itfelf, and that product by the length,
by the method of crofs-multiplication.

Or more eafily and fpecdily on Gunter's line, by
extending thecompaflcs from 12 to the fide of the
fquare in inches ; for that extent turned twice
(ihc fame way) from the length in feet, will reach
to the content in feet.

Or the better Itill, on Coggr/hrd\ fliding-rule,
by fetting 12 on the girt-lineD, to the length in
feet on the line C ; thrn againft the fide of the
fquarc, on the girt-line D, taken in inches, you
have on the line C the conrcnt of the timber in
feet.

This method of meafuring round timber, tho'
common, is yet erroneous, and the contents
found hereby, it is demonftrated, is lefs th.in
the true contents or meafure in the ratio of i r
to 14. How to avoid this error, and meafurc
it juftly, I have fiiewn under the ufe of dgge-
fnal's fliding-rule.

If the tree have any great boughs that are
timber, as the phrafe iSj /. e. which will hold
feet girt, they are commcnl/ meafured, and
added to the reft : the folidity of the whole

being thus found, they divide it by 40, which
brings it into loads.

Iji mtahiring round timber for fale, they
ufually caft away an inch out of the fquarc for
the bark, if oak ; fo that a tree 10 inches
fquare, they only account as if 9 ; but for aft,
elm, beech, bfc. an inch is too much.

For the tneifuring hewn or fquare timber ; the
pradlice is to Imd the middle of the length of
the tree, and there to meafure its breadth, by
clapping two rules, or other ftrait things to the
fides of the tree, and meafuring thediftance
between them : in the like manner they mea-
fure the breadth ' the other way. If the two
be found unequal, they add them together,
and take half the fum for the true fide of the
fquare.

The dimenfions thus taken, the content is found,
eitlier by crofs-multiplication, Gunter's fjale, or
the fliding-rule, after the manner already diredted.

The contents divided by 50, gives the number
of leads.

If the t:m!>er be unequally fided, this method of
meafuring is erroneous, always giving the content
more than the truth, ^nA the more fo, as the dif-
ference of the fides is greater ; yet cuftom has
authorifed it.

To meafure fuch //;?ii£7Jufi:ly, a mean propor-
tion fhould be found between the unequal irdes
and this mean be accounted the fide of the
fquarc.

S r 0 C KING-MAKING.

STOCKING-MAKING is the forming a
kind of cloathing of the leg and foot, which
immediately covers their nudity, and fkreens
them from the rigour of the cold.

Stockingi are either knit orwove.

Knit Stoiii/igs are wrought with needles made of
polifhed iron or brafs wire. There mufl be five
of them, four to hold the maflies thejlocking con-
fifts of, and one to work witli.

The firfl procefs in knitting flocking^, whether
they be of filk, wool, cotton, thread, ^c. is to
twift ioofely three threads together, the Jockings
made of two threads only be'ing very flight, and
of very little fervice. Then you form on each of
the four needles a certain number of mafhes,
greater or lefs, according to the fize the Jhcking
rnuft be of; obferving that there muft be an equal
number of mafhes on each needle ; which number
is to be diminifhed or incrcafed in the procefs ofl

the work, according as the fhape of the flocking
requires it. To diminifli the number, they work
two or three maflies together at once.

The invention of this operation it were difficult
to fix precifely, though it is commonly attributed
to the Scots.

The iflands of ferfry and Guerrfey are famous
for this fort of work ; and it is almoft their fole
commerce, and the fole occupation of the female
inhabitants, who are fo much uied to it from their
infancy, that they work with an incredible quick-
nefs, whether they be fitting or walking, and whe-
ther in the dark or in the light ; for they feldom
look on their work. They alfo knit breeches,
waiflcoats, petticoats, and the like.

IVovcn jlockings are ordinarly very fine ; they are
manufadured on a frame or machine made of po-
lifhcd iron ; the flruiSlure whereof is exceedingly
ingenious, but withal exceeding complex, fo that

S U G /^ R~ R E F I N I N G.

it were very difficult to tlcfcritc it well, by reafon
of the (Jiverlity and number of its parts ; nor is it
even conceived, vv'ithout a deal of difficulty, when
working before the face.

The EngUjh and French have greatly conteftcd
the honour of the invention ox \\iZ Jhcking-loom ;
but the matter of faift (fays an Lnglifn author)

505

vvavina; all national prejudices, feems to be this :
that it was a Frenchman firft invented this uleful
and furprifing machine, who finding feme difficul-
ties in procuring an cxclufive privilege, which he
required to fcttk himfelf at Paris, went over into
England, where his machine was admired, and the
workman rewarded according to his merit.

SUGAR-REFINING.

SUGAR-REFINING is the art of purifying
it of all its coarfcr particles, and render it
drier, more compaft, more agreeable to the
palate, and more beautiful.

The firft preparation the fugar-canes undergo
after they are cut, and their leaves cleared off, i.s
to be carried in bundles to the mills ; which niilli
confift of three wooden rollers, covered with flecl
plates, and have their motion cither from the water,
the wind, cattle, or even the hands of Haves.

The juice coming out of the canes when preffed
and broke between the rollers, runs through alittle
canal into the fugar-houfe, which is near the mill,
where it falls into a vciliil, whence it is conveyed
into a copper or cauldron, to receive its firfc pre-
paration, only heated by a flow fn e to make it fun-
mcr. With the liquor is here mixed a quantit)-
of afhes and quick,-lime ; the efte£l; of which
mixture, affified by the aftion of the fire, is, that
the unclious parts are feparated from the reft, and
■raifed to the top, in form of a thick fcum, which
is kept conftantly fkimming ofi-", and fer\'es to h<:A
the poultry, iffc. withal.

The juice, in the next place, is purified in a
fccond copper, where a brifker fire makes it boil j
and all the time the carting up of its fcum is pro-
moted by means of a flrong l)'e, compofcd of lime-
water and other ingredients.

This done, it is purified and fkimm'd in a third
boiler, wherein is caft a kind of lye, that affifts in
purging it, colIeiSls together its impurities, and
makes them rife to the furface, whence ihcy arc
taken with a fkimmer.

From the third it is removed to a fourth boiler,
where the juice is farther puiified by a more violent
fire: and hence to a fifth, wheie it is brought to
the confiftence of a fyrup.

In the fixth bciler the fyrup receives its full coc-
tion ; and here all the impurities left from the for-
mer lyes, are taken away by a new lye, and a
water of lime and allum call into it. In this laft
copper there is fcarce found one third of what was
in the firft, the reft being wafted in fcum.

By thus paffing fucccffively a number of coppers,
the fugar-juicc is puiified, thickened, and rendered
fit to be converted into any of the kinds oi fugar
hereafter mentioned. The fizc of the feveral cop-
pers always diminifhes from the firft to the laft ;
each being furniflied with a furnace to give a heat
proportionable to the degree of coiftion the juice
has received. In fomc laigc fugar-works there
are alfo particular coppers for the boiling and pre-
paring the fcum.

F. Zrti,/? mentions feveral kinds of fugars, pre-
pared in the Carlbbee Ijlands, viz. crude Jugar, or
inujcovada ; Jiramed, or brovjn fugar j earthen, or
ivhite Jugar in powder ; refined fugar, either in
powder or loaves ; royal jugar, candied fugar, fu:'ar
of f.ne fyrup, fugar cf eoarfe fyrup, fugar of the
fcum.

Crude fugar, or mufeovado, is that firft drawn
from the juice of the cane, and whereof all the
reft are compofed. The method of making it, is
that already defcribed for yi/_f;7r in general. We
need only add, that when taken out of the fixth
copper, it is put in a cooler, where ftirrino- it
brifkly together, it is let ftahd to fettle, till a cruft
of the thicknefs of a crown-piece be formed
thereon. The cruft being formed, theyftirit up
again, then put it into vcftcls, where it ftajids to
fettle till it be fit to barrel.

Strained or brown fugar, though whiter and
harder, does not differ much from the crude fugar;
tho' it is held a medium between this laft, and ihe
earthen fugar, which is the white powder y;/|-:7r.
The preparation of this is the fame of that of the
mufeovado, v/ith this difference, that to whiten it
they ftrain the liquor through blankets, as it comes
out of the firft copper. 'I'he invention Oi Jlrained
fugar is owing to the E/igliflj, who arc more care-
ful t'lun their neighbours in the preparation there-
of; for they not only ftrain it, but when boiled
put it in fquarC wooden forms or moulds, of a py-
ramidal figure; and when it has purified itfelf
well, they cut it in pieces, dry it in the fun, and
barrel it up.

5o6 7y^^ Univerfal Hiftory of Arts <3W Sciences.

As to [he preparation of earthen fiigar 'which is
that y;/^^?^ whitened by means of carui laid on the
top of the form it is put in, to purge itfelf ) they
begin it after the fame manner as tnatof crudeyi^-
gar, except that they only ufet.ie beft that comes
in it ; that they work with more care and nicety ;
that when the liquor is in the hrft copper, the
allies they put in are little or nothing mixed wiJi
lime, for fear of reddening it ; and that they ftrain
it through a blanket, from the firft to the fecond
copper.

Having paffed all the fix coppers, it is laden out
into a cooler ; whence it is put into conical moulds
or forms, the tops whereof are perforated, but
now flopped with linen, or other fluff; and this
ranged even before the furnace. When it has
been a quarter of an hour in the forms, it is cut
with a fugar-knife, then it is flirred brifkly this
way and that, for half an hour.

This ierves not only to promote the forming of
the grain, and the diffufmg it equally throughout;
but alfo to determine the unftuous parts of ^\\z fii-
gar to mount to the top, that they may be fkim-
med off.

They leave the forms to fland fifteen hours in
this fl:ate, and unftop the holes at the bottom to
give a paflage to the fyrup, and to determine it to
take that way. When enough of thefe forms
are filled, to fill a ftove, which ufually contains
five or fix hundred forms ; they vifit the fugar in
all the forms to examine the quality thereof, and
to fee if it quits the form eafily ; that it may ei-
ther have the earth given it, as the refiner who af-
fills it judges proper ; or be melted over again, if
it does not prove well.

This done, the forms are planted each on its pot,
with the tip of the cone downwards ; the top i
taken oft", and in lieu thereof they put in fome
fugar in grain, to within an inch of the edge
which fpace is left for the earih prepared for it.

The earths here ufed are of various kinds, the
good qualities of each whereof are, that they do
not tinge the water, that they let it fiJtrate eafily
through, and that they do not imbibe the fiitty
part of i)\s figar. Before put in the forms, the
earth is fleeped in water twenty-four hours ; and
at length applied in the confiftence of a pulp.

As foon as the earth is on the fiigar, all the
windows of the refining-room are fliut, that the
air and heat may not dry the earth. When it is
quite dry, v/hich ufually happens in nine or ten
days time, it is taken off; and after cleaning the
furface of the fugar with brufhes, and racking it
up an inch deep, and laying it le\'el as before,
they give it a fecond earth.

The v/hitenefs of the fugar of each form is feen

from the firft earth, experience fliewlng that a fe-
cond or third earth do not make the fugar any
whiter, but only whitens the head of the loaf.
^Vhcn the fecond earth is taken ofF, they clean
the furtace of t\\e fugar with a brufh, and with a
knife loofen the edge of it, where it flicks to the
form, that neither form nor the fugar-loaf be da-
maged in taking out the latter. The windows are
now opened, and the form left to ftand eight or ten
days to dr)'. While the fugar is draining in its
forms a ftove is prepared to receive them.

The ftove being fufficiently heated by means of
the furnace therein ; the loaves are taken out of
the forms one after another ; and fuch as are white
from one end to the other, are carried to the ftove,
as are alfo the reft, after cutting ofF what is not
white, to be further refined.

When the loaves are all ranged in the ftove, a
moderate fire is made for about two days, during
which time they vifit every part of the ftove very
carefully, to fee that every thing is in good order,
and to repair every thing that may go nmifs. Af-
ter thefe two days they ftiut the trap-door a-top of
the building, and incrcafe the fire. Eight or ten^
days and nights continued violent fire uiually fuf-
fice to dry a ftove of fugar.

When they judge it fufficiently done, they open
the trap-door, and chufe a hot dry day to pound
the fugar, which is performed with huge, hard,
heavy wooden peftles ; when pounded it is put up
in barrels, and well trodden down as it is put in,
that the barrels may hold the more.

Sugar of the farm, is all made of the fcum of
the two laft coppers ; that of the former being re-
fcrved for making of rum.

The fcum defigned to make^^^r is kept in a
vefl^el for that purpofe, and boiled every morning
in a copper fet apart for that ufe. \Vith the fcum
is put into the copper a fourth part of water, to
retard the boiling, and give time for its purging ;
when it begins to boil, the ufual lye is put in, and
it is carefully fkimmed : when almoft enough
boiled, lime and allum-water are thrown in. And
when it is ready to he taken out, they Iprinkle it
with a little powder'd allum.

There are three kinds of fyrup that run from
fugar. The firft from the barrels of rz.w fugar,
which is the coarfeft of all : the iecond from the
forms or moulds, after they are perforated, and
before they receive their earth : the third, that
coming from the forms after they have had their
earth, which laft is the beft.

The coarfe fyrups ftiould only be ufed for rum ;
but fugar being grown dear, endeavours have been
ufed to make fome hereof, and that v.'ith tolerable
fuccefs. They are firft clarified with lime-water,

arJ

SURVEYING.

^07

and when boiled arc put up in barrels, \\\xh a fii-
gar-cane in the middle to make them purify them-
iehx's. After twenty days a quantity of ccarfe
earth is thrown in, to make them cafl the rcm;.in-
derof their fyrup, and fit them to be returned in-
to a crude y5i_^ar. Thz Dutch and Gennan refiners
firft taught the iflanders how to make ihlsjugar of
treacle.

The fecond fyrup is wrought fomewhat difFe-
rcntly. After the copper it is to be boiled in is
half full, eight or ten quarts of lime-water are cafl:
in : it is then boiled with a brifk fire, and carefully
fkimmed : fome add a lye, and others none. Fa-
ther Labnt tTikes the former method to be the better,
though it requires more trouble and attention.
This _/i/^r7?- may be earthed alone, or at leaft with
the heads of loaves, the dried tops, and fuch other
kinds oi fugars, as may not be mixed with the true
earthed y«^(?r, nor yet ■with the crude [ugar.

For the third fyrup, after boiling and Ikimming
it as the former, they put it inftantly into coolers,
the bottoms whereof are covered, half an inch
thick, with whitey«/_o'(7r very dry, and well pound-
ed ; and the whole is well flirred, to incorporate
the two together. This done, they flrew the fur-
face over with the fame pounded Jugar, to the
thicknels of one fifth of an inch, this affifling the
Jugar in forming its grain. When fettled, and the
crufl; gathered at the top, a hole is made in the crufl
five or fix inches diameter.

By this aperture they fill the cooler with a new
fyrup poured gently in, which inlenfibly raifes up
the former cruft. When all the fyrups are boiled,
and the cooler is full, they break all the crufts ;
and after mixing them well, put it up in forms or
moulds.

The reft is performed in the fame manner as for
the earthed yii'^^?-, from which it only differs in that
It falls fhort of its jjlofs and brishtnefs ; bcins in
reality lometimes whiter and finer, though of a
flatter and duller white.

Crude fitgar, flrained fugar, and the tops or
heads of lo.ivcs that have not whitened well, are
thebafis or ground of refined fugar.

In a refiiieiy are ufually tvio c( ppers, the one
ferving to clarify, the other to boil the claiified li-
quor ; the' fometimes they clarify in both, and
boil afterwards.

For the operation of refining, the fame v/t iglit
of lime-water, and of fugar, arc put in (he cop-
per ; and as the fcum is railld by the heat, it is
taken off, and when it ceales to raife any more, the
fyrup is flrained through a cloth. After this it is
clarified ; that is, a dozen of eggs is thrown in,
v.'hite, yolks, fliells and all, after having firft broke
and beaten them well in lime-water. When the
fat and other impurities of {he fugar, which this
compofition gathers together on the furface of the
fyrup, have been fkimmed off, a few more eggs
are thrown in, and it is fkimmed afrefh. T'his
they repeat till the fugar is iiifficiently clariried ;
which done, it is again ftrained thro' the cloth.

When taken out of this copper, it is boiled in
the fecond ; which done, it is put out into coolers,
[he bottoms whereof are firft covered half an inch
thick with fine white powdered fugar. As focn
as it is there, it is brifkly flirred about, and the
furface llrcwed over with pounded fugar. The
reft is performed as in fugars of fine iyrups, or in
earthed fugar, only more care and exadlnefs is
ufed.

For royal fugar, the bafis hereof ought to be
the finefl refined fugar to be found. This they
melt with a weak lime-water, and fometimes, to
make it the whiter, and prevent the lime-water
from reddening it, they ufe allum-water.

This they clarify three times, and pafs as often
through a clofe cloth, ufing the very beft earth :
when prepared with thofe precautions it is whiter
than fnov/, and fo tranfparent, that we fee a finsjer
touching it, even through the thickefl part of the
loaf.

SURVEYING.

SURVEYING is the art or a£l of meafuring
lands, /'. e. of taking the dimenfions of any
tra£l of ground, laying down the fame in a
map or draught, and finding the content or area
thereof.

Surveying confifts of three parts or meafures :
the firft: is the taking of the neceffary meafures, and
making the neceffary obfervations on the ground
itfelf : the fecond, is the laying down of thefe
meafuies and obfervations on paper ; and the third,

the finding the area or quantity of the ground thus
laid down

The f.rftis what we properly cnll furvcying; the
fecond we call pk 'ting, or protaJiiig, or inappi?ig ;
and the third cajling t:p.

'Fhe firft again confifts of two parts, viz. the
m >' ing of obfervations for the angles, and the ta-
king of medfures for the diftances.

The former of thefe is performed by fome one
or other of the following inftruments, viz. the

theodolite^

5o8 Tl^e Unlverfal Hiftory (^/'Arts ^W Sciences.

theodolite, ch-cumfermtor, ftmi-drck, plain table, or
compojs.

The THEODOLITE is a mathematical inilrument
made varioufly ; Teveral perfons having their feve-
ral ways of contriving it, each more fimple and
portable, more accurate and expeditious than oUiers.
The following one is not inferior to any. It con-
fifts of a brafs^circlc, about a foot diameter, cut in
form of /^. 25. having its limb divided into 360
degrees, and each degree divided, either diagonally
or otherwife into minutes.

Underneath, at c e, are fixed r.vo little pillars,
i b,/ig. 9.5- iV. 2. which fupport an axis, whereon
is fixed a telefcopc, confiding of two glafles, in a
fcjuare brafs tube, for the viewing of remote ob-
jedls.

On the center of the circle, moves the index
C, which is a circular plate, having a compafs in
tlie middle, whofe meridian anfwers to the fiducial
line a a : Mb b, are fixed two pillars to fupport an
axis, which bears a telefcope like the former, whofe
line of collimation anfwers the fiducial line ei a.
At each end of either telefcope is fixed a plain fight
for the viewing nearer objects.

The ends of the index a a, are cut circularly to
fit the dlvifions of the limb B ; and when that
limb is diagonally divided, the fiducicalline atone
end of the index {hews the degrees and minutes
upon the limb. The whole inilrument is mounted
with a ball and a focket, upon a thrce-Ie2ged
fhft".

Moft thiodoUtes have no tclefcopes, but only four
pL;in fights, two of them faftensd on the limb,
and two on the ends of the index.

The SEMICIRCLE, called 3.](o graphcur.ctar, con-
fifts of a femicircularlimb, as F 1 G, fig. 16. di-
vided into 180 degrees, and fometimes fubdivided
dia5;onally, or otherwife, into minutes. This limb
is (ubtendtd hy a diameter F G, at the extremities
whereof qre eredted two fights. In the center of
the femicirtlf, or the middle of the diameter, is
fixed a box, and on the fame center is fitted an
i'.lidade or moveable index, carrying two other
fi"hts, as H I. The whole is mounted on a flafF,
with a ball and focket.

The fe;nic:n-tr, then, is nothing elfe but half a
theodolite, with this only difference ; that whereas
the limb of tlie theodolite, being an entire circle,
takes in all the 360° fucceflively ; in the femJcircL;
the degrees only going from i to 180°, it is ufual
to have the remaining 180°, or thofe from iSo"
to 360°, graduated in another line on the limb,
within the former.

j{» angle is tdkin •with a femicircle, by placing the
inftrument in filch manner, as that the radius
C G, may h.ing over one leg of the angle to be

meafured, and the center C, over the vertex of
the fame. The firfl: is done by looking through
the fights F and G, at the extremities of the dia-
meter, to a mark fixed up in one extremity of the
leg : the latter is had by letting fall a plummet from
the center of the inilrument. This done, turn
the moveable index H I, on its center, towards
the other leg of the femicircle, till, through the
fights fixed on it, you iee a mark in the extremity
of the legV Then the degree, which the index
cuts on the limb, is the quantity of the angle.

The plain table is an inftrument, fig. 31. N. I.
confining of a parallelogram of wood, about fif-
teen inches long, and twelve broad ; rouna which
goes a boxen jointed Irame, by means whereof a
iheet of paper is failened tight to the table, fo as
lines may be conveniently drawn upon it.

On each fide the frame, which may be put on
either fide upwards, towards the inward edge are
fcales of inches, fubdivided, for the ready draw-
ing of parallel lines. Befidss which, on one fide
are projeiSled the 360 degrees of a circle, from a
brafs centre in the middle of the table (each de-»
gree halved) with two numbers to tvzxy tenth
degree, the one exprefling the degree, the other
its complement to 36", to fave fubftraction on the
other fide, are projected thj ]£o'-^of a femicircle,
from a brafs center in ihe middle of the table's
length, and at -^. of its breadth ; each degree
halved, and every tenth noted with tv.o numbers,
vi%: the degree, and its complement to 180".

To one fide of the table 15 ht'ed a compafs,
lor placing the iniirument by ; and the whole is
fixed by a (ocket, upon a three-legg'd ilaff for a
Itand, on which it is turned round', or faftcned by
a fcrew, as occafion requires. Laftly, to the tabic
belones an index, which is a ruler, at k-aftfixtecn

md two broad

inches long,

with fcales, C5V. and having two {i2;ht:

cularly placed on its extremities.

umaii'

rirr^l

graduated
pcrpendir

We underftand here hy fights two thin pieces of
brals, railed perpendicularly on the two ex-
tremes of an alidade, or index of a theodolite,
circumferentor, or other like inftrument, each
whereof has an aperture or flit up the middle,
throwgh which the viftial rays pajs to the eye,
and diftant objpcts are fecn. Their ufe is for
the juft direftion of the index to the line of
the objecf. Sometimes the flits or apertures
have glaiTcs or lens's fitted into them ^ in which
cafe they are called telefcopick fights, by way of
diiiinftion from the former, which in refpe<3:
hereof are denominated '^/tfy/yJfi/f.

6t.^ff, in furveying, is a kind of ftand, where-
on to mount a theodolite, circumferentor,

plain

SURVEYING.

509

plain table, or the like, for ufc. It confifts of
thrve legs of wood joined together at one end,
whereon the iivllrument is placed : and made
peeked at the other, to enter the ground. Its
upper end is ufually fitted with a ball and
focket.

Ball and focket, is a machine, contrived to
give an inftrument full play and motion every
way. It confifts of a ball or fphere of brafs,
fitted wiihin a concave femi-globe, -foas to be
moveable every way, both horizontally, verti-
cally, and obliquely. It is carried by an end-
lefs fcrew, and is principally ufed for the ma-
naging of lurve)ing inftruments; to which it
is a very neccfl'ary appendage. The andent
balls and focketi^ liiid two concaves or chan-
nels, the one for the horizontal, the other for
the vertical direflion. But to proceed to the
uje of the plain tables, after we have given the
defcription thereof.

To take an angle by the plain table, or to find
the diftance of two places acceflible by the fame
third.— Suppofing DA, D B, fig, 32, N. 2; the
fides of the angle required j we'll place the inftru-
ment horizontally, as near the angle as poflible ;
and afiume a point in the paper on the table, v. gr.
to this point we'll apply the edge of the index,
turning it about this and that way, till through the
fights we fee the point B, and in this fituation of
the ruler, we'll drav/ by its edge the line ff, inde-
finitely. Turning about the index, after the fame
manner, on the fame point, till through the lights
we fee the point A ; and drawing the right line
c d indefinitely. — Thus we have the quantity of the
angle laid down.

We'll next meafure the lines D A, D B, with a
chain, and from a fcnle fet off" the meafures thus
found, onthe refpeftive lines ; which we fuppofe
to reach from c tab, and from c to a. — Thus will
c b and c aht proportional to D B and D A.

We'll transfer the diftance ab to the fame fcale,
and find its length ; the length thus found, will
be the length or diftance of A B required.

If we want to find the dijlance of two places, one
whereof is ittacccjftble, by the plain table : we'll
fuppofe A B. fig. 33. the diftance required, and A
the acceflible point. Then we'll place, i. the
plain table in C, looking through the fights till we
fee A and B, and drawing a c and c b, we'll mea-
fure the diftance from our ftation to A ; and fet it
ofF from the fca'e upon c a. 2. We'll remove the
table to A, placing it fo as that the point a repre-
fenting A, and the index laid along the line a c,
we'll fee backward the former ftation C.
Vol. II.

In this fixing the inftrument, lies the ufe of the
compafs ; for the needle v/ill hang over the
fame degree cS the card in the firft and the
fecond cafe; fo that fome fet the inftrument
by the needle alone ; others only ufe it to
Ihorten the trouble, by bringing the inftrument
nearly to its due pofition by means thereof;
and then fixing for good by the back fight.

3. The inftrument fixed, we'll turn the fights
to B ; and draw the line a b.

4. On the fcale we'll meafure the interval a b ;
which will be the diftance of A B required.

But if we fliould want to find the dif.dnce of two
inaccjjible places by the plain table ; we would fup-
pofe A B, fig. 34, the diftance required. Then
chufing, I. two Itations in C and D ; we would
place the plain /^Wr in the firft C, and through the
fights look to D, B, and A, drawing by the edge
pi the index, the lines c d, c b, c a. We would,
a. meaiure the diftance of the ftations C D ; and
fet this off from a fcale on c d. 3. Removino- the
tabic from C, we would fix it in D ; fo as the point
d, hanging over the place D, and the index laying
along the line c d, through the fights v/e fhould fee
the former ftation C. The inftrument thus fixed,
we would dired the fights to A and B ; and draw-
ing right lines d a and d b. Laftly, we would
find the diftance of a b on the fcale ; this would
be the diftance of A B required.

After the fame m.anner may the diftance of' any
number of places be found from two ftations ; and
thus may a field, part of a country, bfc. be fur-
veyed.

To take the plot of a field from onejlatien, whence
all the angles tnay be feen, with the plain tabic. —
Placing the inftrument on the ftation, afiume a
point in the paper to reprcfent 'the fame, v.gr.
C, fig. 21. laying the edge of the index to this
point, direft it to the feveral angles of the field,
A B C D E F, is'c. and drawing indefinite lines
b^' its edge, towards every angle, viz. C a, C b,
C c, i^c. meafure the diftance of each angle from ■
the ftation, viz. C A, C B, C C, C D; iS",-.
and from a fcale fet thefe off" from C on their cor-
refponding lines ; the extremities thaneof will give
points, which being conneded by lines, will re-
prefent the field.

The plat of afield, wood, or the like, is taken by
going round the fame, on the plain table, by placino-
the inftrument horizontally at the 'firfl: angle, v.gr.
A, the needle on the meridian of the card; aflii-
ming a point on the paper to reprefent it ; laying
rfie index to that point, and directing it till through
the fights you fee a mark in the angle B, and .
U u u drawing

510 The Univerfal Hiftoiy (t/Arts a-W Sciences.

drawing nn indefinite line along it ; meafui'c the
dillnncc of A and B, and from a fcale fct it ofT on
the line thus drawn ; the extremity of this Jiftance
will rcprcfent the point B. Remove the inftru-
ment to B, where fct it fo as that the needle hana;
over the meridian of the cord ; and fo as the index
laying along the line laft drawn, you fee the former
llation A through the fights : here faflcn it, lay
the index to the point B, and turn it, till through
the lights you fee the next angle C ; in this fitua-
tion draw a lirie as before, meafurc the diilan^e
B C, and fet it off from a (bale on the line. Re-
move the inflrument to C, where fixing it by the
needle, and the back, fight, as before, turn the
index on the point C, till vou fee the next angle
D ; draw the line, mcafure, and fet ofF the diftance
C D, as before, and remove the plain table to Y. ;
where fix it as before, look to the next angle f",
draw the line, mcafure, and fet off the dil-
tance, i^c.

In this manner having compafied the whole field,
you will have its whole perimeter plotted on the
table; which may be now caft up, and its contents
found. V

When in large parcels of ground, the plot is
found to exceed the dimenilons of the plain table,
and to run off from the paper, the Iheet muft be
taken off the table, and a frefh one put on ; the
way of managing which fliifting is as follows.
Suppofe H, K, M, Z, fig. 35. the limits of the
plain tabic- ; fo that having laid down the field fro:!?
A to B, thence to C and D, you want room, the
line D E running off" the paper : draw as much of
the line D E, as the paper will well hold, viz.
DO, and by means of the divifions on the edge of
the frame, draw the line P Q_through G, parallel
to the edge of the table H M ; and through the
point of Interfeclion O, draw O N j)arallel to A-I
Z^. This done, take off the frame, remove tiu:
fbeet, and clap a frefh one, fig. 36. in its flead ;
drawing on it a line R S, near the other edge pa-
rallel thereto. Then lay the firft flieet on the
table, fo as the line P ()_ He exactly on the line
R S, to the beft advantage, as at O. Laftly,
draw as much of the line O D, on the frefh flicct,
as the table will hold ; and from O continue tht
rsHiainder of the line D to E ; from E -proceed with
the walk as before, to F, G, and A.

The great inconvenicncy of the plain table is,
that its paper renders it impracticable in moift wea-
tSeiE £ven the dew of the morning and evenina;
is found to fwell the paper confidcrably, and of
confequence to itretch and diftort the work. To
avoid this inconvenience, and render the inffru-
ment ufeful in all weathers ; by leaving off the
paper, axid fetting up a pin in the center, it be-

comes a theodolite, a femicircic, or a circumfefcn-
tor, and applicable like them.

The plain table flripped of its paper, becomes
either a theodolite, or a femicircle, as that fide of
of the frame which has the proJQ^ion of the de-
grees of a circle, or a femicircle is turned upwards.
If it be to knc for a theodolite ; the index, which
^'i -d plain tablif turns on any point as a center, is
confiantly to turn about the brafs center hole, in
the middle of the table.

If for a femicircle, it muff turn on the other
brafs center hole : in both cafes it is done by means
ot a pin raifed in the holes.

When the plain table is to ferve as a circumfe-
rentor, fcrew the compafs to the index, and both
of them to the head of the ftaff, with a brafs
fcrew pin fitted for the purpofc ; fo as the ftaff and
table ftanding fixed, the index, fights, is':, may
be turn'd about, and vice verfa.

To take an angle by the plaon tabic cbnfidered as a
theodolite, — Suppofeihe quantity of the angle E K
G, fig. 20. is required. Place theinftrument, ot'IC,
the theodolite fide of the frame upwards, laying
the index on the diameter. Turn the whole in-
ffriiment about, the index remaining on the dia-
m;.ter, till through the fights you fpy E. Screw
the inftrument fait there, and run the index on its
center, till through the fight you fpvG. The de-
gree here cut on the frame by the index, is the
quantity of the angle fought ; which may be laid
down on paper by the rules of common protrac-
tion.

Thus may you proceed to do every thing with
ihcpiain table, as with the common theodolite.

If "Me want to make an angle ivith a plain table con-
fidered as a femicircle.- We muft proceed in the
lame manner with the inftrument, confider'd as a
femicircle, as when confider'd as a theodolite ;
only laying the femicircular fide upwards, and turn-
ijig the index on the other center-hole in the middle
of the length, and at about ^ of the breadth of the
table.

If yoii want to take an angle tvith the plain table
coafdered as a clrcumfcYentor. Suppofe the former
angle E K G, required. Place the inftrument in
K, the flower-de-luce towards you. Direct the
Tights to E, and obferve the degree cut by the four'i
end of the needle, which fuppofe 296, turn the
inftrument about, the flower-de-luce ftill towar<?s
you. Direct the fights to G, noting the degree
cut by the other end of the needle, which fuppo'e
182. Subftraft the lefs from the greater, the re-
mainder 114'' is the quantity of the angle fought.
If the remainder chance to tiemore than 180°, then
it mull be again fubftracted from 360. This fe-

cond

SURFETING.

5it

ConJ remaiiuler will be the angle lequireJ ; which;,
may be protraftcd, t?'

Thus you mny proceed to do every thing with
the plain table, ai with the common circitmfe-
rcntor.

The ciRCtTMFERENTOR, is an iaftrument ufcd
in fiirvtying, to take angles by.

The circumfcrentor is very fimple, yet expeditious
in the pratEiice ; it confifts of a brafs circle, and
an index, all of a piece (fig. ig.) On the circle
is a card or compafs divided into 360 degrees ; the
meridian lines whereof anfwers to the middle of the
breadth of the index. On the limb, or circum-
ference of the circle, is foldered a brafs ring ;
which, with another fitted in a glafs, make a kind
of box for the needle, which is fufpended on a
pivot in the center of the circle. To each extreme
of the index is fitted a fight.

The whole is mounted on a ftafT, with a ball
and focket for the conveniency of its motion.

If we want to take an angle by the cireumferentor.
Suppofe E K G (fig. 20.) the angle required, we'll
place the inftrument, v. gr. at K, with the flower-
de-luce on the card towards us ; then direct the
fights, till thro' them we fpy E ; and obferve what
degree is pointed at by the loath end ot the needle,
which fuppofe 296, then turn the inftrument, the
flower-de-luce (fill towards us, and dire(5l the fights
to G ; notiiig the degree at which the fouth end of
the needlepoints, which fuppofe 182.

This done, fubftradling the lefler number 182,
from the greater 296, the remainder 114, is the
number of degrees of the angle E K G.

If the remainder chance to be more than 180
degrees, it muit be again fubftrafled from 360 de-
grees ; the lafl remainder is the quantity of the
angle fought.

To take the plot of a field, zutod, i^c. by the a'r-
aimfrentor; fuppofe ABCDEFGK (fig. 21.) an
inclofiirc to be furvcyed by the cinumfei-entor.

1. Placing the inftrument at A, the flower-
de luce tov.'ards you, direift the fights to B; where
fuppofe the fouth end of the needle to cut 191" ;
and the ditch, wall, or hedge, meafured with the
chain, to contain 10 chains, 75 links, which en-
ter down.

2. Placing the iiiftrumcnt at B, direii the fight
as before to C ; the fouth end of the needle, v. "r.

Having thus gojic round the field, you will have
|i a table in the following form :

Stations,

Degrees.

Min.

Chains,

Links

191

279

216

82.

From this table the field is to be plotted or pro-
tracted ; the manner whereof we'll fee hereafrer.

Note, That where fecuriiy is to be confulted ra-
ther than difpatch, it may be convenient to
take back-fights, /. e. to place the inftrument
fo at each ftation, as that looking backwards
through the fights tothclaft ftation, the north
end of the needle may poiiit to the fame de-
gree, as the ibuth end did in looking forward
from the laft ftation to this.

will cut 279" ; and the line B C contains fix
chains, 83 links, to be noted as before. Then
move the inftrument to C ; turn the fights to D,
and mcafure C D as before.

In the fame manner proceed to D, E, F, G, H,
and laftly to K ; ftill noting down the degrees of
every bearing or angle, and the diftances of every
fide.

The COMPASS ufed u\ furveylng, is in the main
much like the mariner's compafs ; confifting, like
that of a box and needle : the principal dirt'erence
confift in this, that inftead of the needle being fit-
ted into the card, and playing with it on a pivot,
it here plays alone ; the card being drawn on the
bottom of the box, and a circle di\ided into 360
degrees on the limb (fig. 15.) This inftrument is
of obvious ufe to travellers, todiredt them in their
road ; and to miners, to fliew them what way to
dig, bfi. but it has other ufes, though lefs cafy,
yet more confiderable, viz.

I . To take the declination of a tuall by the compafs.
Apply that fide of the compafs v.'hereon the north
is marked along the fide of the wall ; the number
of degrees over which the north end of the, needle
fixes, will be the declination of the wall, and on
that fide, v.gr. if the north point of the needle
tends towards the wall, that wall may be fhone on
by the fun at noon ; if it fixes o\er 50 degrees,
counting from the north towards the eaft, the de-
clination is fo many degrees from the north to-
wards the eaft.

But fince the needle itfelf declines from the
north towards the weft with us, 13° ; it muft be
noted that to retrieve the irregularity, 1 3° are al-
ways to be added to the degrees fhewn by the
needle, when the declination of the wall is to-
wards the eaft ; on the contrary, when the decli-
nation is towards the weft, the declination of the
needle to be fubftradted.

2. If we want to take an angle with the com-
pafs. Suppofe the angle required be DAE (fig.
ir.) we'll apply the fide of the compafs v.'hereon
the north is marked to one of the lines A D, ob-
fe'rving, when the needle refts, the degrees at

which

512 7^^ Unlverfal HiA-ory of Arts and Scie-^ces.

which its north point ftands, which fuppofe 8o :
fa many degrees does the line decline from the
meridian.

In the (iime manner take the declination of the
h'ne A E, which fuppofe 215'' ; fubftracl 80° from
215, the remainder is 135; which fubftracted from
188, there will remain 75*^, the quantity of the
angle required.

But if the difference between the declination of
the two lines exceed 180° ; in tnat cafe 180° mud
be fubftracted from that difference : the remainder
is the angle required. We'll fee the method of
laying this on paper, when I'll fpeakof plotting.

In meafuring angles by the compafs, there needs
not any regard to be had to the variation ; that
being fuppoied the fame in all the lines of the
angles.

3. If it be wanted fitake the plot of <: field by the
eompafs. Sup-^ofe A, B, C, D, E, (fig. 12.) to
be the field. For the preater accaracy let there
be two fights fitted to the meridian line of the
rompafs, place it horizontally, ,and through the
fights look along the fide A B, or a line parallel
roit; applying the eye to the fight at thefouth point
of the compafs, draw a rough fketch of the field by
the eye, and on the correfponding line enter down
the degree to which the needle points, v/hich fup-
pofe 90 ; meafure the length of the fide, and en-
ter that too, which fuppofe 10 chains.

In this manner proceed with ail the reft of the
fides and angles of the field ; the fides which fup-
pofe 70, 65, 70, 50, 94 chains ; and the angle
which fuppofe 30, 100, 130, 240, 300 degrees.

To protradl the field, fetdown thefcveral angles
obferved one after another ; and fubftraft the lef-
fer from the next greater : thus you will have the
quantity of the feveral angles, and the length
of the lines that will include them. More of this
under the article plotting.

All the angles of the figures taken together, muft
make twice as many right angles, abating two,

We have thus far given the defcriptior! of the in-
ftruments ufed in the former part of thefirft
branch of furveying ; and of the different ufes
thereof; therefore we proceed to the explication
of the latter part of our firftdivifion.

The latter part is performed by means either of
the chain, or the perambulator.

The PERAMBULATOR, is an infirument for
the meafuring of diftances, called alfo pfdameter,
%vay w'lfer, znA furveying wheel. Its advantages
are its handinefs and expedition : its contrivance is
fuch, that it may be fitted to the wheel of a
.coach ; . in which it performs its office, and mea-

fures the road without any trouble at all. There
is fome difference in jts make : that now nioft in
ufe as moft convenient, is as follows.

The peramLulator (fig. 23) tonfifts of a v/hecl
two feet feven inches and a half in diameter ; con-
fequcntly half a pole, or eighc foot and three
inches in circumference. On one end of the axis
is a nut three quarters of an inch in diameter, di-
vided into eight teeth, which upon moving the-
whecl round, falls into the eight teeth of .another
nut f, fixed on one end of an iron rod Q, and
thus turn the rod once round, in the time the
wheel makes one revolution. This rod laying a-
long a groove in the fide of the carriage of the in-
ftrument, has at its other end a fquare hole, into
which fixes the end b, of the little cylinder P,
This cylinder is dilpofed under the dial-plate of a
movement, at the end of the carriage B, in fuch
a manner as to be moveable about its axis. Its end
a is cut into a perpetual fcrew, which falling into
the tbirtyrtwo teeth of a wheel perpendicular there-
to ; upon driving the inftrument forward, tha.t
wheel makes a revolution, each fixteen poles. On
the axis of this wheel is a pinion with fix teeth,
which falling into the teeth of another wheel of
fixty teeth, carries it round every hundred and fix-
tieth pole, or half a mile.

This laft wheel then carrying a hand or index
round with it, over the divifions of the dial-plate,
whofc outer limb is divided into one hundred and
fixty parts, correfponding to the one hundred and
fixty poles ; points out the number of poles parted
over. Again, on the axis of this laft wheel, is
a pinion, containing twenty teeth, which falling
into the teeth of a third wheel that has forty
teeth, drives once round in three hundred and
twenty poles, or a mile. On the axis of this
wheel, is a pinion of twelve teeth, which falling
into the teeth of a fourth wheel that has feventy-
two teeth, drives it once round in twelve miles.

This fourth wheel carrying another index, over
the inner limb of the dial-plate, divided into
twelve, for miles, and each mile fubdivided into
halves, quarters, and furlongs, ferves to regifter
the revolutions of the other hand ; and to keep
account of the half miles and miles paffed over,
as far as twelve miles.

The application of this inftrument is obvious
from its conftru£lion. Its proper office is in the
furveying of roads, and large diftances, where a
great deal of expedition, and not much accuracy
is required. It is evident that driving it along,
and obferving the hands, has tlie fame eWe6i as
dragging the chain, and taking account of the
chains and links.

The

SURVEYING,

The CHA.IN, in furveying, is a meaftire con-
fifting of a certain number of links of iron wire,
ufually 100; ferving to take the dirnenfions of
fields, &V. by. This is what Mcrfene takes to
be the arvipend'mm of the anticnts.

The chain is of various dimenllons, as the
length or number of links varies : that commonly
uied in meafuring land, called Gtinter's chain, is
in length four poles or perches, or fixty-fix foot,
■or a hundred links, each link being feven inches

•y o *

That ordinarily ufed for large diftances, is in
length 100 feet ; each link one foot.

For fmall parcels, as gardens, llfi-. is fometimes
■ufed a fmall chain of one pole, or fifteen feet and
a half in length ; each link oiie inch -r^g..

Some in lieu of chains ufe ropes ; but thefe are
liable to feveral irregularities ; both from the dif-
ferent degrees of moiflure, and of the force which
ftretches them. Schwinttrus, in his practical ge-
oineti-y, tells us, he has obferved a rope fixteen
foot long, reduced to fifteen in an hour's time, by
the mere falling of a hoar froft. To obviate thefe
inconveniencies, IVolfius diredts, that the little
ftrands whereof the rope confifts, be twilied con-
trary ways, and the rope dipped in boiling-hot
oil, and when dry drav/n through melted wax.
A rope thus prepared will not get or lofe any
thing in length, even though kept under water all
day.

The manner of applying the chain in meafuring
lengths is too popular to need defcription. In en-
tring down the dimenfions taken by the chain^ the
chains and links are feparated by a dot : thus a
line fixty- three chains, fifty-five links long, is
wrote 63, 55. If the links be fliort of 10, a cy-
pher is prefixed, thus 10 chains, -8 links, are
wrote 10. 08.

If we want to fiid the area of a field, &c. the
dimenfions whereof are given in chains and links.
1. We multiply the lines by one another, and
from the producl we cut off five figures towards
the right; thofe remaining on the left will be
acres. 2. We multiply the five figures cut oft" by
four ; and cutting off five again from the produd
on the right, thofe remaining on the left will be
roods. Laftly, we multiply the five thus cut off
by forty ; and cutting off five as before on the
right, thofe remaining at the left are fquare
perches.

To take an angle DAE (fig. i.) by the chain :
meafure a fmall diftance from the vertex A along
■each leg, v. gr. to d and c ; then meafure the
diffance 1^ c : to lay this down, draw A E at plea-
fure, and from your fcale fet off the diftance mea-
fured on it. Then taking in your compafl'es the

length meafured on the other fide, on the verirt
A, as a Center, defcribs an arch d c ; an<l on \.hy
jioint c, as a center, with the meafured diltance
of c d, dcfcribc another arch a b ; through th^r
point where tiiis intcrfetfts the former arch, draw
:'. line A D. So is the angle plotted ; and it?
quantity, if required, may be meafured on a line
of chords.

If we want to take the plane or plot of any place,
as A B C D E (fig. i.) by the chain. We'll draw
a rough Iketch of the place by the eye ; and mea-
furing the feveral fides A B, B C, C D, D E,
'we'll enter down the lengths on the refpeclive
lines: then if the plan be to be taken witliin-fide
of die place, inlhad of meaiuring the angles, as
before, meafur.e tiic diagonals hT>, B D. Thus
will the figure be reduced into three triangles,
whofe fides are all known, as in the former cafe ;
and may be laid down on paper, according to the
method above.

If the plan be to be taken without-fide the
place, the angles muft be taken thus, v. gr. for
the angle BCD, produce the lines B C and
C D, to any certain equal diftance, v..,gr. to a
and b, five chains; and meafure the diftance of
a b. Thus have you an ifofceles triangle cab,
wherein the angle a c i=B C D, its oppofite one
is had. Thus is the quantity of B C D found,
and the angle laid down as before.

To find, by the chain the diftance between tivo ob-
jeSis inacce(fible in reJpeSl of each other. From fome
place, as C (fig. 3.) whence the common dif-
tance to each obje£t: A and B, is acceffible in rio^ht
line ; meafure the diftance C A, which fuppofe
fifty chains, and continue the line to D, f/z. fifty
more : meafure alfo B C, which fuppofe thirty
chains ; and produce the line to E, viz. thirty
more. Thus will be formed the triangle C D E,
equal and fimilar to the triangle ABC; confe-
quently the diftance D E being meafured, will
give the inacceffible diftance required.

By the chain to find the difiance of an inaccejftble
object, v. gr. the breadth of a river. On one fide
place a pole, four or five foot high, perpendicu-
larly, having a flit a-top, with a ftrait piece of
wire, or the like, two or three inches lono-; put
through the fame. This is to be flipped up or
down, till looking along it, you find it point full
on the other fide of the river ; then turning the
pole with the wire in the fume direftion, obferve
the point on the dry land, to which it points
when looked along as before : meafure the dif-
tance from the pole to this laft point ; it is the
fame with that of the firft required. Thus far W3
have done with the fiijl branch of furveying, pro-
perly fo called.

The

514 ^'^ Univerfal Hiftory of Arts ^;/(a?' Sciences.

The ft'cond branch of furveyhig is performed by
means of the protraSlor and plotting Jealc.

The PitoTRACTOR, \njurviying, is an inftru-
mcnt, whertby the angles taken in the field with
a theodolite, circumfercntor, or the like, are plot-
ted, or laid down on paper.

The pritradior confiils of a femicircular limb
BAG, (fi;;. 29.) of bral's, filver, horn, or the
like, divided into 180°, and fubtended by a dia-
meter B A ; in the middle whereof is a little
notch or lip a, called the centre of the protraBor.

On the limb of the protraiior are fometimes
alfo placed numbers, denoting the angles at tlie
centers of regular polygons : thus, againft the
number 5, denoting the fides of a pentagon, is
found 72, the anijlc at the center of a pentagon.

As to the ufe of the protraiior. — 1. To lay
down an angle of any given quantity or number

67'. From the point where the two lines, thus
drawn, interftdl: as a center, defcribc a circle with
the interval of the given line. The given line
will be one fide of the octagon, which being fct
ofF as often as it will go in the circumference
thus drawn, 'will give points, which being con-
nedled, will form the odlagon requir'd.

The PROTRACTOR improved is :'.n inftriiment
much like the former, only furnilhed with a little
more apparatus, whereby we are enabled to fet
off an angle to a minute ; which is impradticable
in the other.

The chief addition is an index fitted on the
center, and moveable thereon ; fo as to play free-
ly and fteadily over the limb. Beyond the limb,
the index is divided on both edges, into 60 equal
parts of the portions of circles, intercepted by
two other right lines drawn from the center ; fo

of degrees. Suppofe, e. gr. an angle of 50°, as each makes an angle of one degree, with lines
with the line A 0 B, required on the point 0, lay! drawn to the aflTumed points from the center,
the center of the protraiior on the given line. To fet off an angle of any number of degrees
Make a mark againlb the given degree 5", on the'and minutes, with this prctraSlor. Move the in-
limb of the pirotrailor ; through which frorn the dex, fo that one of the lines drawn on the limb^
given point, draw a line op; this gives the angle from one of the fore-mentioned points, may fall

requir'd.

upon the number of degrees given ; and pick off

2. 1o find the quantity of a given ^ngle, v. gr. as many of the equal parts on the proper edge of
the angle /) a A, lay the center of the />ro^ri7i;?(??-, the index, as there are minutes given ; thus draw-
on the point of the angle 0, and the diameter on ing a line from the center, to that point fo pricked
the line. The degree of the limb cut by the other oft, you have an angle with the diameter of the
line 0 p, viz. 5°, is the number of degrees of the] protrailcr of the propofed number of degrees ajid

angle requir'd.

3. To infcribe any given regular polygon., e. gr.
a pentagon in a circle. Lay the center and diame-
ter of the protraiior on the center and diameter of
the circle; and make a dot againft: the number
of degrees of the angle at the center, viz. 72.
Through this dot, and the center of the circle,
draw a line, cutting the circumference of the
circle. To the point of interfeclion, from the
point where the diameter cuts the circumference,
draw a right line. This line will be a fide of the
pentagon, which being taken in the compafies,
and fct off, as often as it will go in the circum-
ference, will give points, which being connedted
by the lines, will form the pentagon requir'd.

4. To dcfcribe any rcgidar polygon., e. gr. an oc-
tagon, on a given line. Subftr.icl the angle at the
Center, which ihz protraiior gives, 45" from jS'^,
the remainder 135° is the angle included between
two fides of the odtagon ; one half whereof, is
671, applying then the diameter of the protraiior
over the given line, with the center over one ex-
treme; make a dot againft 67'-, to which from
the center draw a line. Apply the protraiisr to
the other end of the line, fo as the center be over
the extreme, and there fet off another angle of

mmutes.

Indeed it may be of good ufe to lay down an
angle to a minute, when we are able to take it
to a minute : but till we have other forts of
needles, and jufter theodolites, than are yet ma<fe,
the old protraiior may ferve very well.

The PLOTTING yc.?/!-, is an inftrument ufually
made of wood, ibmetimes of brafs, or other mat-
ter ; and either a foot, or half a foot long. On
one fide of the inftrument, (fig. 32.) aie feven
feveral fcales or lines, divided into equal parts.
The firft divifion of the firft fcale, is fub-divided
into ten equal parts, to which is prefixed the
number 10, fignifying that 10 of thofe fub-divi-
fions make an inch ; or that the divifions of that
icale are decimals of inches.

The firft divifion of the fecond fcale is likewife
fub-divided into 10, to which is prefixed the
number 16, denoting that 16 of thofe divifions
make an inch. The firft divifion of the third
fcale is fub-divided in like manner into 10, to
which is prefixed the number 20. To that of the
fourth fcale is prefixed the number 24 : to that of
the fifth 32 ; that of the fixth 40 ; that of the
feventh 48 ; denoting the number of fub-divifions
equal to an inch, in each refpeclively.

The

SURVEYING.

S^^

The two Lift fcales are broken ofF before the
end, to give room for two hours of chords marked
by the letter c c.

On the backfide of the inftrument is a diagonal
Icale, the firft of whole divifions, which is an
inch long, if the fcale be a foot, is fub-divided,
diagonally, into lOO equal parts. At the other
end of the fcale is another diagonal lUb-diviiwn,
of half the length of the former, into the fame
number of parts, viic. loo.

Next the fcales is a line divided into a hun-
dredth part of a foot, number'd lo, 20, 30, i^c.
and a line of inches divided into tenth parts,
marked r, 2, 3, fo'f.

The plotting-fcale is ufed in the following man-
ner.— I. Any d'ljlance being meajured with the chain,
to lay it down on a paper. — Suppofe the diftance to
be 6 chains, 50 links, draw^ an indefinite line ;
fct one foot of the compailes at figure 6, on the
Icale, e. gr. the fcale of 20 in an inch, and ex-
tend the other to 5 of the fub-divihons, for the
50 links : this diltance being transferred to the
line, will exhibit the 6 chains, 50 links, required.

If it be defired to have 6 chains, 50 links, take
up more or lefs (pace, take them oft" from a greater
or leller fcale,. /'. e. from a fcale that has more or
lefs divifions in an inch.

'To jind the chains and links contained in a right
line, e. gr. that jujl dramn, according to any fcale,
e. gr. that cf 20 in an inch. — Take the length of
the line in the compailes, and applying it to the
given fcale, you will find it extend from the num-
ber 6 of the great divifions, to 5 of the fmall ones :
hence the given line contains 6 chains, 50 links.

From this plotting fcale, this fecond branch of
fitrveying, borrows its name of plotting.

In fivveying with ths plain table, the plotting is
laved ; the fevcral angles and diftanccs being laid
down on the fpot, as fall: as they are taken, as we
have obferved in the firfl branch offurveying.

But in working with the theodolite, femicircle,
or circumfcrentor, as the angles are taken in de-
grees ; and the diftances in chains, and links ;
there remains an after-operation, to reduce thofe
numbers into lines, and fo to form a draught,
plan, or map ; which operation is called plotting.

Plotti?ig, then, is performed by means of two
inflrruments, the protractor, and plotting-fcaL\ By
the former, as already obferved, the feveral angles
obferved in the field v/ith a theodolite, or the like,
and enter'd down in degrees in the field-book, are
protrai^fed on paper, in their jufl C^iantity.

By the latter, the feveral diliances, meafured
■with the chain, and enter'd down in like m.inner
tn the field-book, are laid down in their jull pro-
portion.

Therefore having gi\en already fcverally the
ufe of thofe relpedtivc Inflrumcnts, in the laying
down of angles and difirances; I fhall here give
their ufe conjointly, in the plotting of a field, fur-
veyed either with the circumfercntor or tlicodo-
lite.

The method of plotting from the circumfcrentor,
is thus: Suppole an inclofure, e. gr. AliCDE
F G H K, fig. 21. to have been furveyed ; and the
feveral angles ; as taken by a Circumfercntor in
going round the field, and the diftances as mea-
fured by a chain, to be found enter'd in the field-
book, as in the following table :

Dcg. Alin. Chains, Links.
A 191 00 10 75

B 197 00 6 83

C 260 30 7 82

U 325 00 6 96

F 1-2 2+ 9 71

F 324 30 7 54

y 9b 30 7 54

H 71 00 7 78

K 161 30 8 22.

I. On a paper of the proper dimenfions, as
LMNO, fig. 31. draw a number of parallel and
equi-diftant lines, reprefeiiting meridians, ex-
prefled in dotted lines. Their ufe is to dired the
pofition of the protraiftor ; the diameter whereof
muff always be laid, either upon one of them, or
parallel thereto; the femi-circular lines downwards
for angles greater than 180", and upwards for
thofe lefs than 180".

The paper thus prepared ; afTume a point on
fome meridian, as A, whereon lay the center of
the protraftor, and the diameter along the line.
Confult the field-book for the firfl: angle, /. e. for
the degree cut by the needle at A, which the ta-
ble gives you, 191".

Now, fince igi" is more than a femicircle or
180°, the femicircle of the protractor is to be laid
downwards ; where keeping it to the point, with
the protraifing pin, make a mark againft 19 1 ;
through which mark, from A, draw an indefinite
line A b.

T he firft angle thus protraiSled, again confult
the book, for the length of the firlt line A B, this
you find 10 chains, 75 links. From a convenient
fcale, therefore, on the plotting fcale, take the ex-
tent of I0ch.iins, 75 links, between the compafies ;
and fetting one point in A, maik where the other
falls in the line .\b, which fuppofe in B; draw
therefore the full line A B, for the firft fide of the
inclofure.

Proceed then to the fecond angle ; and laying
the fide ot the protraifor on the point B, with the
diameter, as before di reefed, make a mark, as c,

againft

5r6

'//^g Univerfal Hiftory of Arts (X^ia^ Sciences.

againft 297*', the degrees cut at B, and draw thcl
imlefinite line B c. On this line, from the plotung\
fcale, as before, fet off the length of your fecoiid
line, znz. 6 chaias 83 links ; which extending
from B to the point C, draw the line B C, for the
I'ccond fide.

Proceed now to the third angle or fiation : lay
then the center of the protradlor, as before, on
the point C ; make a mark, as d, againft the num-
ber of degrees, cut at C, viz. 216 ; draw the in-
definite liiieC(/, and thereon fet off the third dii-
tance, viz, 7 chains, 82 links; which terminat-
ing, e. gr. at D, draw the full line CD, for the
third fide.

Proceed now to the fourth angle D, and laying
the center of the protraiSlor over the point D, a-
gainft 325", the degree cut by the needle, make a
mark e ; draw the dry line Dr, and thereon fet
ofFthe diffance 6 chains, 96 links, which termi-
nating in E, draw DK for the fourth Line : and
proceed to the fifth angle, viz. E.

Here the Degrees, cut by the needle, being 10°
24', (which is lefs than a femicircle) the center of
the protractor muft be laid on the point E, and
the diameter on the meridian, with the femicircu-
lar line turned upwards. In this fituation make a
mark, as before, againft the number of degrees,
viz. 12" 24 cut by the needle at E ; draw the dry
line Ef, on which fet oft' the fifth diftance, viz.
9 chains, 71 links ; which extending from E tof,
draw the full line E F for the fifih fide of the in-
clofure.

After the fame manner proceeding orderly to the
angles F, G, H, and K ; placing the protractor,
jnaking marks againft the refpeitive degrees, draw-
ing indefinite dry lines, and fetting off^ the refpec-
tive diftances, as above, you will have the plot of
the whole inclofure ABC, i^c.

Such is the general method o^ plotting from this
inftrument; but it muft be obferved, that in this
procefs, the ftationary lines, i.e. the lines where-
in the circumferentor is placed to take the angles,
and wherein the chain is run to meafure the dif-
tances, are properly, the lines here /)/tf//^(^. When,
therefore, in/urveying, the ftationary lines are at
nny diftance from the fence or boundaries of the
field, is'i. Offi"-fets are taken, /. e. the diftance
of the fence from the ftatijnary line, is meafurcd
at each ftation ; and even at intermediate places,
if there prove any confiderable bends in the fence.

In plotting, therefore, the fl-aiionary lines being
laid down as above, the ofF-fets muft be laid down
from them, /. e. perpendicular of the proper length,
let fail at the proper places from the ftationary
liijqs. The exti ernes of which perpendiculars be-
ing^onnc6lsd by lines, give the /i/^/ defined.

If inftead of going round the field, the angles,
and diftances have been all taken from one ftation »
the procefs of plotting is obvious from the example
above : all here required, being to protradt, af^ter
the manner already defcribed, the I'cveral angles
and diftances, taken from the fame ftationary pin
in the field ; from the fame point or center on the
paper. Tlie extremities of the lines thus deter-
mined, being then connedled by lines, will give
the plot required.

The method of plotting, where the angles are-
taken by the theodolite, i.e. by back-fight and
fore-fight, as it is called, is fomewhat different.

To prepare the angles for plottii:g, the quantity
of each muft be firft found, by fubftrading the de-
gree of back-fight and fore-fight from each other :
the remainder is the angle to be protradled.

The ufe of parallel lines is here excluded, and
inftead of laying the protrailor conftantly on, or
parallel to meridians ; its direction is varied at
every angle. The practice is thus :

Suppofe the former inclofure to have been fur-
veyed with the theodolite, after the manner of back-
fight and fore-fight, and fuppofe the quantity of each
angle to be found by fubftradlion. An indefinite line
is drawn at random, as A K, fig. 31. and on this
the meafured diftance, c. gr. 8 chains, 22 links,
let off, as in the former example : if now the quan-
tity of the angle A have been found 140", the di-
ameter of the protraiStor is to be laid on the line
A K, with the center over A, and againft the
number of degrees, viz. 140, a mark made
an indeterminate dry line drawn through it, and
the diftance of the line A B laid down from the
fcale thereupon.

Thus we gain the .point B ; upon which laying
the Center of the protradlor, . the diameter, along
with the line A B, the angle B is protradted, by
making a mark againft its number of degrees,
drawing a dry line, and fetting ofFthe diftance
B C as before.

Thus proceed to C, laying the diameter of the
protra<3or on B C, the center on C, protraff the
angle C, and draw the line C D : thus proceed-
ing, orderly, to all the angles and fides, you will
have the plot of the whole inclofure ABC, &c.
as before.

The third branch (?/"Svrveying is performed,'
by reducing the feveral divifions, inclol'ures, &c.
into triangles, fquares, trapeziums, parallelograms,
i^c. but efpecially triangles ; and finding the areas
or contents of thefe feveral figures, by the follow-
ing rules ;. which T'll begin by thofe relating to
areas.

An Area is the fuperficial content of any fi-
gure.— Thus, if a figure, e. gr, a field be in form

TA N N I N G,

5^7

of a fquare, and its fide 40 foot long, its area is
faid to be 1600 fquare feet, or contain 1600 little
fquares, each a foot every way.

Hence to find the circa of a triangle, fquare,
parallelogram, reflangle, trapezium, rhombus,
polygon, circle, or otiier figure, is to find tlie
magnitude, or capacity thereof, in fquare mea-
fure.

To find the area of fields, and other inclofures,
they firft furvey or take the angles thereof, then
plot them on paper, and thus call up their con-
tents, acres, roods, (s'c. after the ufual manner of
other plain figures.

This lalt branch a{ ftirv eying belongs more pro
perly to trigonometry : therefore I'll refer to that
treatife, all that can be faid relating to it.

rA N N I N G.

TANNING is the art of preparing of
fkins or hides in a pit, with tan and wa-
ter.

What we call tan, in this preparation (from
which the art borrows its name) is the bark of
oak, chapped and ground, by a tanning-mill, into
a coarfe powder.

Not only the bark, but every part of the oak-
tree, of what age or growth foever, all oaken cop-
• pice, t^c. cut in barking time, makes good tan;
as good at leaft as the bell bark.

T'his when got is to be well dried in the fun,
houfe-dry'd, and kept fo. To ufe it, the greater
wood may be fliaved fmall, or cleft, fit to be cut
fmall by a tanning engine for the purpofe ; which
done, it is well dried again on a kiln, and then
ground by the mill. Where oak is fcarce, thorns
may fupply the defe6l.

New tan is the mofl efteemed ; when old and
{tale, it lofes a deal of its efFedl, which confifts in
condenfing, or clofing the pores of the fkin ; fo
that the longer the Ikins are kept in tan, the
greater llrengih and finenefs they acquire.

The operation of tanning regards only bul-
locks, cows, calves, and horfe-hides ; the me-
thod thereof, for bullocks or oxes hides, is as
follows :

The fkin being flead ofFthe carcafs, if it is in-
tended to be kept, it is falted with fea-falt and al-
lum, or with a kind of faltpetre called natron, if
it is. not for keeping, the fdting is faved, as be-
ing of no ufe, but to prevent the hide from cor-
rupting before it can be conveniently carried to the
tan-houfe.

Whether the hides have been falted or not, the
tanner begins with taking off the hoins, the ears,
and the tail ; after which it is thrown into a run-
ning water for about thirty hours, to wafh off the
blood, and other impurities adhering to the in-
fide.

This done, it is laid over-night in a lime-pit,
already ufed ; whence it is taken, and left to drain
three or four days on the edge of the pit.
. 'I'his firll and Ilighiefl preparation over, it is

returned into a flrong lime-pit for two days, then
taken out for four more ; and thus for fix weeks
alternately, taken out and put in twice a week.

At the fix weeks end it is put into a frefh pit,
where it continues eight days, and is taken out
for fo many ; and this alternately for a year or
eighteen months, according to the firength ot the
leather, or the weather. For in great heat they
put in frefh lime twice a week ; and in frolt
they fometimes do not touch them for three
months. Every frelh lime-pit they throw them
into is flronger and flronger.

At fou; , five, or fix weeks end, the tanner fcrapes
oft the hair on a wooden leg or horfe, witii a kind
ot knife for tliat purpofe. And after a year or
eighteen months, when the hair is perfe£fly uone,
he carries it to"a river to wafli, pares oft" the flcih
on the leg with a kind of cutting knife, and rubs
it brilkly with a kind of wliet-ftone, to take off
any remains of flefli or fikh on the fide of the
hair.

The fl-;in is now put into tan ; that is, coverM
over with tan, as it is ftrctched in the pit, and
water let in upon it : if the fkin be flrong, five
coverings of tan will be required ; for weaker,
three or four may fuffice. When the fkin has not
been kept long enough in lime, or the tan-pit is
upon clearing it, in the middle is ken a whitifli
ftrcak, called the horn, or crudity of the fkin ;
and this is the reafon why the foals of (hoes, booti,
(Sc. ilretch fo eafily, and take water.

When the hides are fufficiently tanned, they are
taken out of the pit to be dried, by hanging in the
air. Then the tan is cleaned off ihem, and they
are put in a place neither too dry, nor too iroift ;
they are well ftretched over one -inother, with
weights a-top, to keep them tight and ftraight ;
and under this condition are fold under the deno-
mination of hind leather.

Cows, calves, and horfes' fkins are /a«K^(/ much
after the fame manner as thofe of oxen, except
that the former are only kept four months in tlie
lime-pit; and that before they be put in the tan,
there is a preparation required thus : coKl waiedis
Xx X poured

5iS

7l>e Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Scit^kces.

P"urc ' int'i a WfioderiTat or tub, w'hercin the'fixt, and the fame ^Jter they liad been in tefbre ;
ikin- .li' |jui, vvhifrh 'ire kept ^'^irring. While fome and here they are left eight days ; which expin-tf,
'bt'')' r water (s Warming iti a kettle ; and as foon tli<'y are put in the tan fit, and three coverings

of tan given them, the firft of wl ich lalts five
weeks, the fecond fix, and the third tv/o months.
The reit of the procefs is in all rcfjiL-fts t!ie fame
a<; that above delivered. In fome countries, as
Champagne, Sic. the tanners give the fiift prepara-
tion with barley initead of lime.

See bnAMOisiNG in Letter S.

as that water is a little m Me than luice-warm, it
is poured gently into the fat, and upon this is caft
a b.ifkct of tai: ; during which tunc, the fl-'.ins are
{l:!i kept turning, that the water and tan may not
fcorch them.

After an hour they are taken out, and cafl: for
a day in cold water, then returned into the former

r H E 0 L 0 G r.

Til E O L O GY, or Divinity, a fcience ]
whicii inilruiSfs us in the knowledge of!
God, or divine things ; or which lias God, |
and the things he has revealed, for its obje6t. j

Hence theology may be diflinguiftied into natu-
ral, which comprehends the knowledge we liave j
of God from his works, by the light of reafon ;
alone ; and fupernatural, which contains what we
are taught concerning God in revelation. I

Theology is again diftinguifhed into pofilive,
moral, anu fcholaltic. Poiitive theology is the

knowledge of the holy fcriptures, and cf the fig-
nification thereof, conformably to the opinions of
the fathers and councils, without the afliftance of
any argumentation. Some will have It, that this
ought to be called expoiltive, rather than pofitive.
Moral theology, is that which teaches us the di-
vine laws relating to our manners and aftions.
Scholallic, or fchool theolcgv, is that which pro-
ceeds by reafoning ; or that derives the knovfledge
of feveral divine things from certain eflablilhed
principles of faith.

TRIGONOMETRr.

TRIGONOMETRY is the art of finding
the dimenfions of the parts of a triangle
unknown, from other parts known ; or
the ait whereby from any three parts of a triangle
given, all the reft are found.

The Word literally fignifies the meafuring of
triangles, formed from the Greek -rfiy^v'!^, triangle^
and /"'IfM, meafure. Yet does not the art extend
to the meafuring of the area, or furface of triangles,
which comes under geometry : trigonometry only
tonfiders the lines and angles thereof.

Trigonometry, or the folution of triangles, is
founded on that mutual proportion, which is
between the fides and angles of a triangle ; which
proportion is known, by finding the proportion
which the radius of a circle has to certain other
lines, called chords, f.nes, tangents, and feeanls.

This proportion of the fines and tangents to
^heir radius, is fometimes exprelTed in common or
natural numbers, which conftitute what we call
the tables of natural fines and tangents, &c. Sometimes
it is exprefled in logarithms, and in that cafe con-
ftitute the Tables of arlifeial fines, &c.

Lajlly, fometimes the proportion is not ex-
prelled in numbers j but the feveral y?w/, tangents^

&c. are aftually laid down upon lines or fcales 3
whence the line of fines, tangents, &c.

Note, That before I proceed to the divifion of
trigonometry, I muft explain what is underftood
by fines, tangents, and fecants in trigonometry.

Sine, or right sine, in trigonometry, is a right
line drawn from an extremity of an arch, perpen-
dicularly upon the radius drawn from the other
extremity ; or the fine is halt the chord of twice
the arch.

JVbole SINE, fine totus, is the fine of a quadrant,
or of 90 degrees ; that is, the whole fine is the
fame with the radius.

Verfed SINE is a part of the wholey7« or radius,
intercepted between the right fine and the arch.

It is demonflrated, i. that the rightyJw, being
perpendicular to the radius ; all y7.wi drawn to the
fame radius are parallel to each other.

2. Two angles contiguous have the fame^w.

3. T\\z fines of obtufe angles are the fame with
thofe of their complements to two right angles.

4. All fines of fimilar arches have the fame
ratio to their radii.

Sine-

r R I G 0 N 0 M E r RT.

519.

Sis^-complemeut, or m-sin'E, is tlie fine of an
arch, which is the complement of anoiher arch to
a quadrant.

In eftimating the quantity of Jin^s, kc. we affiime
the radius for unity, and determine the quantity of
the Jill's, tangents and fccants in fractions thereof.
From Ptolemy % almagc/l, we learn t)iat the ancients
divided the radius into 60 parts, which they called
degrees, and thence determined the chords in mi-
nutes, fcconds and thirds, that is in fexagefimal
fraiSlions of the radius; which they likewife ufed
in the refolution of tflangles. The fines of hali
chords, for ought appears, were firfl ufed by the
Seiracetis.

Regiomontanus, at firfl, with the antients, divided
the radius into 60 degrees ; and determined the
Jines of the feveral degrees into decimal fraftions
thereof, but he afterwards found it would be more
commodio\is to allumc the radius for one ; and
thus introduced the prefcnt method into trigonome-
try.

In the common tables of fines and tangents the
radius is conceived divided into looooooo parts ;
beyond which we never go in determining the
quantity of the fiies and temgents. Hence, as the
fide of a hexagon fubtcnds the fixth part of a circle,
and is equal to the radius ; the fine of 30" is
5000000.

1. The fine being given to find the fine- complcvserA.
From the fquareof the radius, fubfiraft the fquc'.re
of x!ae fine : the remainder will be the fquare of the
fine-complement : whence the fquare root being ex-

tradled, gives the fine- complement.

2. The fine of the arch being given, to find the
fine of the half arch. Find the chord of the arch,
■for half of this is hsftne.

3. The fine of an arch being given to find the fine of
e double arch. This is found by the rule of pro-
portion.

To conflruH a canon of siNES. The fines of 30",
15°, 45° 36" being had, we can thence conflrudf
a cannon of all the fines to every minute, or every
fecond, for from the fine of 36", we find thofc of
18°, 9°, 45, 30' ; and 2', is', by the fecond
problem : the fines of 54°, 72°, 81°, 85*', 30^
and 87°, 45'', isfc. by the firfl problem. Again,
from the fine of 45° find the fine of 22'', 30' ; 1 1
15', fcV. From the /i'.ci of 30° and the fines of
54° find they;^;2of 12°; From the fine of 12° find
the/Z/wof 6°, 3°, 1°, 30'. 35'. 78", {jV. From

the fine of 15°,. find the fne of

45', IS'c.

'till you have 1 2oy7/?«fuccedingcrxh other orderly
at an interval of 45 minutes. Between thefefind
theintcrmcd;atey/?;c- : thus will the canon be corn-
pleat. From the fme I'll pafs to the CAplicution of
the tangent.

Tang TNT in trigonornetry, is a right line arched

perpendicularly on the extreme of the diameter of

an arch, and continued to a pcint, where it is cut

y a (ccant, that h, by a line drawn from the

entrc, through the extremity of the arch, whereof

it is a tangent.

Co-TAKGENT, or TANGFNT of the compliment.,
is the tangent of an arch, which is the complement
of another arch to a quadrant. ' - \'

Artificial TAtJGhtiTSzre the logarithms of the
tangents of arches.

Sine of TANGiiNT."! is a fine ufually placed on
the iciitor and Gunter's Scale.

Tangknt of a conic fefiion, as of a parabola,
is a right line which only touches or meets tho
curve in one point, and does not cut or entei*
within the curve. • '-

The method of tangents is a method of determi-
ning the quantity of the tangent of 'any algebraic
curve ; the equation defining that.

This method is one of the grcjt refults of the
calculus differ entialii.

Secant, in trigonomcir)', denotes a right line,
drawn from the ccmre of a circle, which cutting
the circumference, proceeds 'till it meets with a
tangent to the fame circle.

'i o find the logarithm of the fecant of any arch,
the line of the complement of the arch being given,
mu.UipIy the whole fine of the iojarithm bv two,
and from the product, fubftraft the logarithm of
the fine complement; the remainder is the lo^'a-

rithm of the ficayit. from this I'll paf;i to the

divifion of trigonometry.

Trigokoaietry, is divided into phiin, and
fpherical ; the firfl confidcring recliiinea) triangles ;
and the fecond fpherical ones.— The firff is of obvi-
ous and continual ufe in navigation, meafuring,fur-
veying, and other operations of of&ometrr.

The fecond is only learned with a view to a-
ftronomy, and its kindred arts, geography, a.-^d

dialing. it is generally efteemcd exceeding

difficult, by reafon of the vafl number of cafes
wherewith it is perplex'd ; but the excellent wol-
fiiis has remov'd moft of the difficulties. That
author has not only fliewn how all the cafes of
reftangled triangles may be folved' the common
way, by the rules of figns and tane,ents ; but has
likewiie laid down an univerfal rule, whereby all
problems, both in plain and fpherical rccfanTled
triangles, are folved ; and even obliqu.Tngular tri-
angles he teaches to folve with equal cafe.

Plain TRIGONOMERTY is an art whereby, from
three given parts of a plain triangle, we find the
reft.

The great principle of plain trigonometry is, that

in every plain triangle, the fides are, a^ the fines

X X X 2 of

520 The Univerfal Hiflory of Art^ and Sciences.

of the oppofitc angles : ihe doiJtrine thereof, wliich
is that of the learned WolfiuSy is contained in the
following problems.

For the joliition of the plain triangles. I. Two

angksbeintii^ivcn, together with a fideoppofite to
one of thcni; to find the fide oppofitc to the other,
the rule,. or canon is this ; as the fine of the angle,
is to the given fide oppofite to the fame ; io is the
fine of the other angle, to the fide required ; the
oppofite fide therefore Is ccmmodioufly found by
the logari.hins, from the rule iov finding a fourth
proportional to the three numbers given.

For an example ; fuppofe one of the given an-
glts=7S° 35''. and the other=57"' 28, the fide
oppofite to one of them=74', the operation will
fland thus.

Logar. of fine of one angle 9. 8750142

Logar. of the oppofite fide -i. 8692317

Logar. of fine of the other angle g. 9258681

Log. ofthehypot. i. 6901961.

Log. ot the whole fine 10. ooooooo

Log. of the cathetus j. 5563025

Log. of fine of the angle 1 r,,, ,,

fought " 1 9- «66io64

The correfponding number to which, in the table
of logarithms, is 47° 16'.

3. Two fides, together with the included angle
being given, to find the two remaining anglesi
I. If the triangle be rcdtangular, take one of

Sum of logar. of the oppofite")
fide, and of the fine of one )>i i. 795099S
angle J

Log. ffthe fide oppofite to 7 ^ Q-,'vcSr6
the other J •,--'-■

The number corrcfponding to Vv-hich in the table
of logarithms, is 83, the quantity of the fide
fought.

2. Two fides together with the angle oppofite
to one of them given ; to find the other angles.

The rule is this ; as one fide is to the fine of

the given angle oppofite thereto ; fo is the other
fide, to the fine of the angle required oppofite
thereto.

For example, fuppofe one of the fides=94', and
the other fide=^63'', the angle oppofite to one of
them=72° 15'.

Log. of one fide

Log. of the fine of the angle

Log. of the other fide

the fides including the right angle, for radius, then
will the other fide be the tangent of the oppofite
angle. — The rule then is, as one leg is to the other ;
fo is the whole fme to the tangent of the oppofite
angle.

E. gr. fuppofe one of the figns 79. and the
other 54.

Log. of one fide 18976271

Log. of the other 17323938

Lo<r. of the whole fine. 1 00000000

? 9. 8247667

I. 9731279
3. 9788175
I. 8388491

Logar. of Tang, of the an-
gle fought

The correfpoiiding nuQiber to which, in the
table of logarithms, is 34" 21', therefore one of
the angles of the triangle is 55" 39'.

II. If the included angle be oblique, the rule is ;
as the fum of the given fides, is to their difference,
fo is the tangent of half the fum of the fought an-
gles, to the tangent of half the difference ; adding,
therefore, the half difFerence to the half fum ; the
aggregate will be the greater angle ; and fubtrailing
the half difFerence from the half fum, the remainder
is the lefs angle.

As for example, fuppcfj the given fides=75',
=58', the oblique angle=i8o° 24', then will the
jiven fides.

75
5«

179° 60'

iiS'' 24 the oblique angle.

Sum of loga. of fine of the

oppofite angle, andof oneof J-ii. 8176666

the fides J

Logar. of fine of the other ^ 9.9444387

The number conefpondingto which, in the table
of logarithms, is 6t° 37', now the given angle be-
ing 72°, 15', the fum of the two 133" 52' fub-
trafted from lb", the fum of the three gives 46"
S'', for the other angle fought.

In like r.nnner, liippoie, in a right angled tri-
angle, th :t belidc tho right angle, is given the
hypotheiiufc, 49, and the cathetus, 36, to find
the angle fout,ht ; thtn will the operation ftand
thus :

Sum i33diff, 17

71" 30' fought angles

35° 48'i- thereof
Log. of the given fides 2. 1238516

Log. of the angles fought 1. 2334489
Log. of tangent ~ 9. 858^695

Sum of log. 12.0885183

Log of tangent 4- 8. 9646667

The corrcfponding number to which is 5" 16'.

Spherical TRicoKOMETRY, is the art whereby
from the three given parts of a fpherical tiiangle,
we find the reft, e. gr. from two fides and one an-
gle, we find the tvi'O other angles, and the third
fide.

The

r R I G 0 N 0 M E r R r.

T\\c principles o^ fpherkal trigononigtry, as re-
formc-d by JVolfMs^ arc as follows. - i. In every
rtclanglcd fphcrical triangle, ths whole fine is 1,0
the line of the liypoth.-nufe, as the fine, of either
of the acute anglts, is to the fine of the leg oppofiie
thereto, or the fine of the angle to the fine of its
oppofite leg ; whence we deduce, that the re£lan-
gie of the whole fine, into the fine of one leg, is
equal to x\\'i reftanglc of the fine of the angle op-
pofite thereto, into the fine of the hypoLhcnufe.

2. In every right angled Iphcrical triangle, none
of whofe fides is a quadrant ; if the complements
of the legs to a quadrant, be confidercd as the legs
thetnfelves : the reftangle of the whole fine into
the co-fine of the middle part, is equal to the rec-
tangle of the lines, disjun£l parti;, or extremes.

Hence, r. If the line be artificial, that is, the
logarithms of the natural ones ; the whole fine,
with the co-fine cf the middle part, v.'ill be equal
to the fines of the disjund part.

2. Since, in a rc£tangu!ar triangle, tlie whok
fine is to the hypothenufe, as the fine of the angle,
to the fine of the oppofite leg ; if iiifi:cad of the
fines of the fides, we take the fides thcmfelvs ;
here, too, the whole fine, with the co-fine of the
middle part, will be equal to the fine of the dif-
jun£t parts.

This TVeffus c^lh regula ftniium cathollca, or the
firft part of the cathol'uk rule of trigoromctry ; by
means whereof all the problems of either trlgor.o-
7netry are folvcd, when the thing is effefted by fines
alone. — My Lord Napier had the firll thought of
fuch a rule ; but he ufed the complements of the
hypothenufe, and the angles, for the hypothenu'e
and angles them'elves : io that the tenor of his
catholick rule is this :

The whole fine, with the fine of the middle
part, is equal to the co-fines of the disjunft, or as
he calls tiiem, oppohte parts. — But in this, that
harmony between plain and fpherical trigonometry^
vifible in TFolfius's rule, does not appear.

3. In a reflangled fpherical triangle, none o(
whofe fides is a quadrant ; as the whole fine is to
the fine of the adjacent leg ; fo is the tangent o:
the adjacent angle, to the tangent of the leg.

Whence, I. As the co-tangent of the angle,
is to the whole fine, as the v/hoie fine is to the
tano^cnt of the angle, fo is the fine of the ad;.icent
leg, to ihe tangent of the other leg ; there-
fore the co-tangent of the adjacent angle, will be
to the whole fine, as the fine of the leg adjacent
thereto, is to the tangent of the oppofite one. 2.
The redangle, therefore, of the whole fine, into
the fine of one leg, is equal to the redtangle oi" the
tangent of the other leg, into the co-tangcnt of
the angle oppofite to the fame. And, in like man-
ner, the reitangle of ths whole fine, into the fine

521

of one of the legs, is equal (0 the rcdanglc of the
tangent of the adjacent leg, intothc co-tangcnt of
the angle fought.

4. In every rightangled fpherical triangle, none
of whofe fides is a quadrant ; if the complements
ol the legs to a quadrant, or their excefles beyond
a quadrant, be confidercd as the legs thcmfel\cs ;
he recSran^Ie of the whole fine, into the co-fine of
the middle part, will be equal to &.:: rcft^ngle of
;he co-tang nis of the conjunit parts. 2. Since
in a reftiiinear, right angled triangle, v/e ufe the
tangents, when from the legs given, the adjaccst
i'ngle is to be found ; and in that cafe the whole
fine is to the co-tangent of the angle, as one leg to
ihe otiicr; therefore, alfo, in a recSiilinear triangle,
ii for the fines and tangents of the fides, be taken
•die fines themfeli es ; the whole fine, v.ith the co-
iine of the ndddle part, is equal to the co-tangents
ol the conj.iniSl parts.

This Ifoif.ui calls regula tangentiiim catholica,
and confiiuites the other part of the catholick rule
oi trigmsmetry ; whereby all p,rollems, in each trl-
gor,07r,etry. where tangents are required, are folved.

My Lord Napier & rule to the like eft'eft is thus.
— That tlie whole fine, with the fine of the mid-
dle part, is equal to the tangents of the contiguous
parts.

'Tis therefore a catholick rule, which holds in
all frig07ni77ietry, thr.t in a rcftangled triangle, {no-
tatis notatidis) the whole fine, v.'i h the co-fine of
the me.'.i; or middle psrt, is equal to the fines of
the disjundt or fcparate parts, and the co-tangents
oi the conjundf or contiguous part.

For an illufi:ration and ap[ licat'on of this rule,
v.-e'll give the folution of tlie various cafes of fphe-
rical triangles, viz.

Solution of right angled Jpherieal TRi an CLE?--
by the common rules, i. In a right angled /^/^-r/Vdl
triangle, ajiy two parts, hefides the right angle,
being given to find the reft:.

I. (Jonfider whether the parts, which come to
the queftion be conjtinift or diij intSl. If the dif-
junft be oppofite to each other ; as, if the hypo-
thenufe and an angle be given, to find the oppo-
.ite leg. Then the rule is ; as the whole fine is_
to the fine of the hypothenufe, fo is the fine of
the angle to the fine of the oppofite leg. 2. If
the dis'unft parts he not op])ofite to each other,
the fides of the /rww^/t' are 'to be continued one
way, till they become quadrants, that you may
thus have a new triangle, wherein the parts that
come into the queftion, are mutually oppofite to
each other.

3. If the hypothenufe be not among the con-
jundt parts, as if t!ie legs be given for an angle
oppofite to ojic of them, the rule is— As the fma

The Univerfal Hillory of Arts and Sciences.

522

of one of the legs is to the whole fine, fo is the
tangent of the oilier leg to the tangent of the
angle.

4, But if the hypothenufe be found among the
conjunfl: parts, as if the hypothenufe and the an-
gle be given, to find the adjacent fide ; the fides of
the triangle are to be continued one way, till they
become quadrants, that we may have a new trian-
gle, wherein the by l>othe}iufi is not among the parts
that come into the queftion ; e. gr. in our cafe,
the triangle, wherein arc given the complement of
the hypothenufe, and the complement of an angle,
and another angle the complement of the leg ;
fmce then in the triangle the hypotheneufe does not
come in queflion, the rule is as before.

5. When the fides of a triangle are to be conti-
nued, it is the fiimc thing which way foever they
be produced, provided no acute angle come into
the queftion, otherwile the fides .are to be continued
through the other oblique one. If both be in the
connexion, the fides are to be continued through
that adjacent to the lide in queftion.

By this means a triangle is always obtained,
wherein the thing required is found, either by the
rules of fines or tangents.

Solution of right angled fpberical TRIANGLES,
ly a catholick rule. — Confider, as before, whether
the parts that come in queftion be conjunct or dif-
jundt.

If either one, or both the fides, including the
right angle, come into the queftion ; for it, among
the data, writes its complement to a quadrant.
Since, then, by the catholick rule already deliver-
ed, the whole fine, with the fine complement of
the middle part, is equal to the fines of die dif-
juncS parts, and the co-tangents of the conjunfl
parts ; from the fum of thofe data fubftradt the
third datum ; the remainder will be fome fine or
tangent, the fine or angle corroiponding to which,
in the artificial canon of triangle, is the fide or
angle fought.

This univerfal rule being of great fervice in tri-
gonometry, we fhall apply it to the various cafes
thereof, and illuftrate it v/ith examples ; which
ex.ampks in the cafe of disjunct or feparate parts,
will, at the fame time, illuftrate the common me-
thod, but in the cafe of contiguous parts admit of
other folutions,

The hypothenufe 60°, and the angle 23° 30',
being given, to find the oppofite leg. Since the
cppofite leg is the middle p;irt, the angle an hypo-
thenufe are disjunit ; the whole fine, with the
co-fine of the complement of the leg, /. e. with
the whole fine of the leg, js equal to the fines of
ibe *ngle and hypothenufe.

Therefore from the fine of the angle 96006997
Sine of the hypothenufe 993753°^

Sum 195382303
Subftraft the whole fine loccocooo

Remain fine of the hypoth. 9.5382303

the correfponding number to which, in.

the canon, is 20°, la', t".

2. Given the hypothenu^fe 60°, and one of the
legs, 20°, 12'', 6'', to find the oppofite angle.—
It is evident from the preceding problem, that from
the fum of the whole fine, and the fine of the
leg, the fine of the hypothenufe is to be fubftradt-
ed, the remainder is the fine of the angle. The
example, therefore, of the former cafe, is eafily
converted into an example of tliis.

3. Given the leg 20°, 12', b" , and the oppofite
angle 23°, 30', to find the hypothenufe. — 'Tis
evident from the firft cafe, that from the fum of
the whole fine, and the fine of the leg, is to be
fubftradfed the fine of the angle, and the remain-
der is the fine of the hypothenufe.

4. Given the hypothenufe 60°, and one leg
20°, 12', \i>", to find the other leg. — Since the
hypothenufe is a mean part, and the two legs are
disjuniSl parts, the whole fine, with the co-fine of
the hypothenufe, are equal to the fines of the
complements ; ;'. e. to the co-fines of the two
legs.

Therefore from the whole fine loooocooo
Co-fine pf the hypothenufe 96989700

Sum 1969897CO
Subftraft co-fine of a leg 99724279

Remains co-fine of the other leg 97265421
the correfponding number to which, in the
canon, is 32°, ii', 34"; therefore the
leg fought, 57°, 48^ 26'''.

5. Given this leg 57' 48'' 26''', and the other
leg 20° 12' b" . to find the hypothenufe. 'Tis
evident from the preceding cafe, that the whole
fine is to be fubftrafled, from the fum of the co-
fines of the two legs ; the remainder is the co-fine
of the hypothenufe. The example, therefore, of
the preceding cafe is eafily applied tothi?.

6. Given the kg 57° 48' 26"", and the adjacent
angle 23'' 30', to find the oppofite angle. — Since
the oppofite angle is a middle part, and the leg
and adjacent angle disjunct parts ; the whole fine,
with the co-fine of the oppofite angle, is equal to
the fine of the adjacent angle, and the fine of the
complement, i. £, totheco-iinc of the leg.

Therefore

TRIGONOMETRT.

523

Therefore from the fine of the

aiijjcent angle
Co*liiie of the Ic^

I 96006997
97265421

Subflrafl the whole fine

Sum 193272418

lOOOOCCOO

Remains co-fine of the oppofitc 7 o

angle. J 93272418,

The number correfponding to which, in the
canon, is 12° 15' 56'''; therefore the oppo-
fite ang;!eis 77° 44' \".

7. Given the leg 57*^ 48' 26''', and the oppofitc
angle 77° 44' ^", to find the adjacent angle. —
'Tis evident from the preceding cafe, that the
co-fine of the leg is to be fubftrafted from the
llim of the whole fine, and the co-fine of the op-
pofitc angle ; the remainder is the fine of the ad-
jacent angle. The former example, therefore, is
eafily accommodated to the prefent cafe.

8. Given the oblique angles 77" 44' 4'', and
23" 30^, to find the leg adjacent to the other.
— From problem the fixth, 'tis evident, that the
fine of the angle 23° 30', is to be fubftra£ted from
the fum of the whole line, and the co-fine of the
angle 77° 44'' 4", and that the remainder is the
co-fine of the adjacent leg. The example of the
fixth Problem is eafily applied to this.

9. Given the leg 57° 48' 26", and the adjacent
angle 23' 30', to find the oppofitc leg. — Since the
leg 57° 48' 26'' is a mean part ; and the adjacent
angle and oppofite leg conjuniSt parts ; the whole
fine, with the fine of the leg 57° 48' 26", is equal
to the co-tangent of the adjacent angle, and the
tangent of the oppofite leg.

Therefore from the whole fine loooooooo

Sine of the leg 57° 48' 26''

99275039

Sum, 199275039

Subftrad theco-tangentof the > ^^, /- o
J- .. 1 f 103016931

adjacent angle 1 -^ '

Remains the tangent of the 7 658058

oppoiite leg. J 7 J J J

to which the correfponding number in the
canon, is 20° i z 6".

ID. Given the leg 20° 12' 6", and the oppofite
angle 23" 30', to find the adjacent leg. ---From
the fum of the co-tangent of the oppofite angle,
and the tangent of the given leg, fubftradt the
whole fine ; the remainder is the fine of the adja-
cent leg.

ir. Given the legs 20' 12' 6'', and 57° 48''
26", to find the angle oppofite to one of them.---
From the fum of the whole fine, and fine of the
^sg 57' 4S' 26'^ fubftrait the tangent of the

other leg ; the remainder is the co-tangent of the
oppofite angle.

12. Given the hypothenufe 60°, and theobliqus
angle 23^^ 30', to find the adjacent leg.— Since
the oblique angle is a middle part ; and the hypo-
thenufe and adjacent leg conjundl parts, the whole
fine, with the co-fine of the oblique angle, will
be equal to the co-tangent of the adjacent leg.

Therefore from the whole fine lOOOOOooo
Co-fine of the oblique angle 99623978

Sum, 199623978
Subfl-rafl: the co-tangent of 7 „ ^

thehypoth. ^ \ 9761439+

Remains the tangent of the 1 xor, ne /l
adjacent leg i y59T

The number correfponding to which in
the tables is, 57" 48' 2 G".

13. Given the leg 57^ 48' 26'', and the adja-
cent angle 23° 30', to find the hypouieniife. From
the fum of the whole fine, and the co-fine of the
adjacent angle, fubftraft the tangent of the leg,
the remainder is the co-tangent of the hypothe-
nufe,

14. Given the hypothenufe 60°, and the leg
57" 48' 26''' , to find the adjacent angle.

From the fum of the co-tangent of the hypo-
thenufe, and tangent of the leg, fubflTa(5l the
whole fine ; the remainder is the co-fine of the
adjacent angle.

"15. Given the hypothenufe 60*, and one an-
gle 23*^ 30', to find the other angle.

Since the hypothenufe is the middle part, and
both angles disjunct Parts, the whole fine, with
the co-fine of the hypothenufe, will be equal to
the co-tangents of the two angles.

Therefore from the whole fine lOOOOOooo
Co-fine of the Hypoth. 96989700

Sum, 196989700
Subflraa the co-tangent of the ^^ 5,6081
angle 23" 30' i "^ '

Remain the co-tangent of the? 00072710
other angle ^ yJi/ / y

the correfponding number, to which, in the
canon, is 12" 15' 56'"; therefore the an-
gle fought is 77° 44' 4". „ , „ ,
16. Given the oblique angles 77" 44' 4", and
23" 30', to find the hypothenufe. — From the fum
of the co-tangents of the angles, fubtraftthe whole
fine ; the remainder is the co-fine of the hypothe-
nufe. From this I'll pafs to the folution of the
oblique-angled fpherical triangles.

1 . In an oHique-angUd fpbtrical triangle, two

fides.

524 ^^ Univerfal Hiftory o/^Arts and Sciences.

fides being given together witli an angle oppofitc
to one of them, to find the other. The rule is,

As the fine of one of the fides, is to the fine
of the oppofitc angle ; fo is the fine of the other
fide to the fine of the angle oppofitc to it like-
wife

Suppofe, for example, the fide 39° 29' ; the
oppoiite angle 43" 2o' ; the other fide 66° 45' i
then wUl,

The fine of the firft fide 98033572

The fine of the oppclite angle 9S364771
The fine of the other fide 99632168

Sum 197996939
. Sine of the angle, oppofite to ggg5.,67
the iccond iide ^^^ ^^ '

the corrcfponding number to which, in the
tables, is 82" 34? 7''.

2. Given two angles, 82° 34' 7", and 43°
20', together with the fide 60^ 44', oppofite to
one of them ; to find the fide oppofite to the other
of them.— Say, as the fine of the firll angle 82"
34' Y'l is to the fine of the oppofite fide 60" 45' ;
iois the fine of the angle 43° 20', to the fine of

..the other fide oppofitc to it.— The former example

:iT)ay fuffice for the prefent cafifc

3- Given two fides 66" 45', and 39° 29', to-
gether with an angle oppofite to one of them 45"

..20'; to fijid the angle included by them. — Suppofe
the angle Lnrludcd 10 be acute, fince the other an-
gle is alfo acute, the perpendicular falls in with the
triangles. In the rtdangle triangle, therefore,
from the given ana,le and iide, find another angle.
Since the perpendicular is affumed us a lateral part
in the triangle, the third angle is a middle part, and
the fide 39" 29' a conjoint part i the co-fine of the
third angle, and the co-tarigent of the fide 39° 29';
if then the fecond and third angles be added to-
gether, cr in cafe the perpendicular falls without
the triangle, be fubfl:ra»Ltt;d fi-om each other j you
jviil have the angle required.

E^ gr. die wliole fine
Co-fine of the firft fide

icooooooo
95963154

Co-tangent -of the
angle

Sum 195963154
°Pi'°'""'^ 100252805

Co-tangcnt of the 2d angfe 95710349

the Number correfponding to which, in the
tables, is 20^', 25^, 35" ; ths Firft fide,
therefore, is 69", 34', 25''.,

The co-fine of the other angle 9542830O.
The co-tang, of the other fide 100141529.

Sum 196269829.
Co-tang, of the firfl: fide 96330085.

Co-fine of the 3d angle 99938544.

The number Gorrefponding to which, in
the tables, is 80", 24', 26'^

4. Given two angle", 43^^, 20', and 79°, 9',
59", together with the adjacent fide, 66". 45,
to find the fide oppofite to one of them.

From one of the given angles, let fall a perpen-
dicular to the unknown fide, and in the redtangled
triangle, from the given angle, and hypothenufe,
find another angle, which, fubllraiSted from the
firfl angle, leaves a third angle ; but if the per-
pendicular fhould fall without the triangle, the firft
angle fliould have been fubftradled, fince as the
perpendicular is taken from one of the lateral parti,
the middle part in the triangle is the angle 79", 9',
59", the co-tangent of the fecond fide i.s found by
/'ubflracSing the co-fine from the i'um of the co-
tangent of the adjacent fide, and the co-fine of the
angle found firft of the other angles. The exam-
ple of the preceding cafe is eailly applied to this:

5. Gi^'en two fides 66° 45', and 39*^ 29', with
the angle oppofitc to one of them 43° 20' j to find
the third fide.

Letting fall, as before, the perpendicular ; in
tlie reftanglcd triangle, from the given angle and
hypothcnulb, find another fide. Since aftuming
the perpendicular, for a lateral part in the triangle,
the fide 66" 45' is the middle part, and the fide
found the feparatc part, and the two other angles a
di^junft part : the co-fine of thcfe two angles is
found by fubftrafting the co-fine of the firft fide,
from the I'um of the co-fines of the hypothenufe,
and the fide found.

€. Given two angles 43° 20', and 77° 9'
59", together with the fide 39° 29"*, oppofite to
one of them ; to find the fide adjacent to both.

Letting fall the perpendicular, find in the rcc-
tangled triangle, the fequent of the fide fought ;
which, fubftracted from the third fide, leaves two
angles. If the perpendicular falls without the.
triangle, the third fide is to be fubftradted from the
fide found, fince by afiuming the perpendicular for
a literal part in the triangle, the hypothenufe be-
comes a middle part, artd the fide found from it
and the angle given, a feparate part.

7, Given

r R I G 0 N 0 M E r R T.

525

7. Given two angles 43", io\ and yg'^, c/,
59", together with the iule 39'', 29', oppo-
fite to one of them, to find the fide adjacent to
both.

Letting fall the perpendicular from the vin-
known angle to the oppofite fide, and that falling
within the triangle, from the given angle 79", 9',
and 59'', and the hypothenufe, feek in the rec-
tangled iiuiiigle the fegment ; fuice afluniing the
perpendicular for a lateral part in one triangk,
two angles of that triangle are the mean part, and
the angle jg", 9', 59'', a conjuiSl part ; and in
the other triangle two angles thereof are the mid-
dle part, and the other angle a coniun6t part.
The fine of the fegment is found by iubfhaifting
the co-tangent of the angle 79", 9', 59'', from
the fum of the fine, and the co-tangent of the an-
gle 43°, 20'. If then the two fegments be ad-
ded, or in cafe the perpendicular fall without the
triang/e, he {iih{[r?i&:ed from each other, the re-
fult will be in the fide required.

8. Given two fides 66", 45', and 39°, 29',
with the included angle 49°, 9', 59'', to find the
angle oppofite to one of them.

Letting fall the perpendicular, find the fegment,
as in the preceeding problem. This fubllrafted
from the fide 66°, 45', leaves another fide. If
the perpendicular falls without the triangle, the
fide 66", 45', is to be added. And fincc by af-
fuming tlie perpendicular for a lateral part in the
other triangle, the fegment is the middle part,
and the firit angle given a conjunct part. The
co-tangent of this angle is found by fubllracling
the fine from the fum of the co-tangent of the
other angle given, and of the other fine.

9. Given two angles 43°, 20', and 79^, 9',
59", together with the adjacent fide 66'', 45',
to find the angle oppofite to the fame.

From one of the given angles, letting fall the
perpendicular to the oppofite fide ; in the rectan-
gled triangle from the firft; given angle, and hy-
pothenufe, we find an angle ; which fubftracSted
from the triangle, leaves another angle. In cafe
the perpendicular falls without the triangle, from
which this lafi: angle is taken, the fecond angle
is to be fuhltraded from the firll angle. Since
by affijming the perpendicular for a lateral part in
the triangle, the angle oppofite to the fecond an-
gle given is the middle part, and the other angle
a disjunft part ; and in the other triangle the
lirfi: angle given is the middle part, and the an-
gle found from the firil given angle, and the hy-
pothenufe the disjundl: part : the co-fine of the an-
gle oppofite to the fecond angle given is found
by fiibftraifling the fine of the angle taken from
the frit angle given, and the hypothenufe from the
fum o>' the co-fine of the firft angle given, and the
No. 50. Vol. II.

fine of the angle found by the fub{lra<5\ion of that
angle.

1. Given two angles 43^, 20', and S?.**, 34',
together with a fide 66°, 45', oppofite to one of
them, to find the other angle.

tVoin the fought angle let fall a perpendicular,
.md in the right angled triangle, from the fnii
given angle and hypothenufe, find .niother angle,
bince alluming a perpendicular for a lateral part
in another triangle, the fecond angle given is the
middle part, and the other angle a disjundl part j
and in the firft: triangle the firft angle given is the
middle part, and the firft angle is found a dif-
junift part : the fine of the fecond angle found, j>
found by fubftradting the co-fine of the firft an-
gle given, from the fum of the confine of the fe-
cond angle given, and of the fine of tiie firft tri-
angle ; if then the two firft angles found be ad-
ded, or in cafe the perpendicular falls without the
triangle, be fubftradted from each other, the rcfult
will be the angle required.

2. Given the three fides to find an angle oppo-
fite to one of them. i. If one fide be a qua-
drant, and the leg lefs than a quadrant, find the
firft angle. Continue the leg to a certain dif-
tancc, till that diftance, and the beginning of the
leg become equal to a qu.adrant, and from the firft
pole draw an arch to cut the arch' of the end of
the leg and the diftance, at right angles in the
diftance. Since in the rcdtangled triangle, we
have given the hypothenufe, and the fide, or its
complement to a quadrant, we ihall find the per-
pendicular, which being the meafunc of the ano-le
fought, that angle is found of courfe.

2. If one fide be a quadrant, and the other
greater than a quadrant, feck again the firft an-
gle ; from the fecond fide fubftract a quadrant,
and from the firft angle defcribe an arch, cutting
that arch at right angles. Since in the rectangled
triangle, the hypothenufe and fide, or excefs of
the fide beyond a quadrant is given, the per-
pendicular C.D. will be found as before, which is
the mcafure of the angle required.

Trigo>w?nctry is of the utmoft ufe in various ma-
thematical arts. It is by means hereof that moft
of the operations of geometry .ind ajironomy are
performed. Without it the magnitude of the
earth and the ftars, with diftanceSj motions,-
eclipfes, £5°c. would be utterly unknown. Trigo-
jwmetry therefore muft be owned an art, wheie-
by the moft hidden things, and thofe rcmotcft
from the knowledge of men, are brought to light.'
A pcrfon ignorant of trigonometry can make no
great progrefs in mixed mathematlcks ; but will
otten be gra\elled, even in natural philofophv,'
particularly in- accounting for the ph.cnonicna of
the rainbow and other meteors.

TURNERY

526 TIm Uiiiverfal Hiftory oj Arts ^W Sciences,

TURNING,

TURNERY, or Turning, is the ait of
fafhioning hard bodies, as brafsi, ivory, wood,
i^c, into a round or oval form in a lathe.

The htthc is compofed of two v/ooden cheeks,
er fulcs, parallel to the horizon, having a groove
or opining between ; perpendicular to thefe arc
two other pisces, called puppets, made to Aide be-
tween the checks, and to be fixed down at any
point at pleafure.

Thefe have two points, between which the
piece to be turned is fuftained ; the piece is turn-
ed round, backwards and forwards, by means of
a firing put round it, and faftcned above to the
end of a pliable pole, and underneath to a treddle
©r board, moved with the foot ; there is alio a
reft which bears up the tool, and keeps it ftca-

The invention of the lathe is very anticnt : Di-
odoiu! Siadus fays, the firft who ufed it was
a grandlbn of Dedalas, named Tahis. Pliny
afcribes it to Theodore of Samcs, and mentions
one Therides, who rendered himfelf \ery fa-
mous by his dexterity in managing the lathe.
' — With this inftrument the antients turned
all kinds of vafes, many whereof they en-
riched with figures and ornaments in bafib-
rulicvo. Thus Virgil,

Lenta quihus tiirno fcKtli fuperadd'cta vitis,-

the Greek and Latin authors make frequent
n^.ention of the lathe ; and Cicero calls the
workmen, who ufed it, Vafcularii. It was a
proverb among the ancients, to fay one thing
was formed in the lathe, to exprefs its delicacy
and juftnefs. The fame proverb is retained to
this day among the French ; and they fay of a

man, who is exceedingly well fhaped, il tfi
fait au toiQr.-

There is a kind of wooden pullej', making a
member of the turner's lathe, which is called man-
drel. Of thefe there are feveral kinds ; as

Flat mandrels which have three or more little
pegs or points, near the verge, and are ufed for
turning flat boards on.

Pin mandrels, which have a long wooden
fliank to fit into a round hole made in the work
to be done.

Hollovj 7nandrels, which are hollow of themfelves,
and ufed for turning hollow work.

Scrctv mandrels, for turning fcrews^

The other inflruments ufed in turning, zie chif-
fels of different kinds.

Turning is performed, by putting the fubflance
to be turned upon two points, as an axis ; and
moving it about on that axis, while an edge-tool,
fct fleady to the outfide of the fubftance, in a cir-
cumvolution thereof, cuts ofF all the parts that
lie farther ofF the axis, and makes the outfide of
that fubftance concentrick to the axis.

The workman ftands, or is feated at his lathe,
with his right foot on the treddle to give the mo-
tion, which muft be very moderate and even ; he
places his chiftel on a reft, faftened to the lathe,
fome diftance from his piece which is to be work-
ed, and a little underneath it he approaches gently
his chiffel to the piece, fo that the edge thereof
may reach it ; and goes on gradually to work,
without leaving any ridges ; but when a piece is
to be cut off quite, and when he meets with a
knot, he muft go on ftill more gently, otherwif*
he would run the rilk of fplitting his work, and
notch his tool.

TAPESTRK

TAPESTRY, with the needle, is
dons upon canvas, finer or coarfer,
according to the fincnefs or coarfnefs
whereof the work is intended to be ; en which is
drawn the defign of the work with a crayon ; after
which, the anift traces flightly with a worfted
thread, if the work is to be of wool, all the con-
tours, then frames it and fets himfelf to work ;
which work confifts in fiiigle, double, and crofs
ditches.

Tapcjlry on the loom, being more curious, and
done with more expedition, I'll enter into a more
particular detail of its manufafture ; informing firft
tire reader, that there are two kinds of tapejiry,
viz. tapejhy of the high, and the low-warp ; tho'
the difference is rather in the manner of working,
than in the work itfelf, which is in eftecS the
fame in both ; only the loom, and confequently
the warps, are diffeiently fituated ; thofe of the

low-

TAPESTRT.

iow-warp being placed flat, and parallel to the
horizon ; and thofe on the contrary of the high-
zvarp, ereiSled perpendicularly.

We muft endeavour to inform ourfelves how
both kinds are work'd, and as tapiifiry of the high-
•Warp is the moft efteemcd, we will begin by ex-
amining the loom it is made upon, which is placed
perpendicularly, and confifts of four principal
pieces ; two long planks or cheeks of wood, and
two thick rollers or beams. The planks are fet
upright, and the beams acrofs them, one a-top,
and the other at bottom, a foot diftancc from the
ground. They have each their trunnions, by
which they are fufpended on the planks, and are
turned with bars. In each roller is a groove,
from one end to the other, capable of containing
a long round piece of wood, faftened therein with
hooks ; its ufe is to tie the ends of the -ivarp to
the warp, which is a kind of worfted ; a twilled
woollen thread is wound on the upper roller ;
and the work, as faft as wove, is wound on the
lower.

Within fide the planks, which are feven or
eight foot high, fourteen or fifteen inches broad,
and three or four thick, are holes pierced from top
to bottom, in which are put thick pieces of iron,
with hooks at one end, ferving to fuftain the
coat-ftave : thefe pieces of iron have alfo holes
pierced, by putting a pin in which the {l.ave is
drawn nearer or fet farther off ; and thus the coats,
or threads, are ftretched or loofened at plcafure.
The coat-flave is about three inches diameter, and
runs all the length of the loom : on this arc fixed
the coats or threads, which make the threads of
the ivarp crofs each other. It has much the fame
effeit here, as the fpring-ftave and treddlcs have
in the common looms. The coats are little threads
faflened to each thread of the warp, with a kind
of Aiding knot, which forms a fort of march or
ring. They ferve to keep the warp open, for the
pafliige of broaches wound with filks, woollen, or
other matters ufcd in the piece of tapejlry. Laftly,
there are a number of little flicks, of different
lengths, but all about an inch diameter, which
the workman keeps by him in bafkets, to ferve to
make the threads of the warp crofs each other, by
paffmg them a-crofs ; and that the threads thus
croffed, may retain their proper fituation, a
pack-thread is run along the threads above the
ftick.

The loom thus formed and mounted with its
warp, the firfl thing the workman does, is to
draw on the threads of this %varp, the principal
Jines or ftrokes of the defign, to be reprefented on
the piece of tapejiry, which is done by applying
cartoons, made from the painting he intends to

y^i

copy, to the fide that is to be the wrong fide of
the piece, and then with a bjack-lcad pencil, fol-
lowing and tracing out the contours thereof, on
the threads of the right fide; fo that the ftroke.
appear equally both before and behind. As t6 the
original defign the work is to be finifiied by, it is
hung up behind the workman, and wound on a
long flaff, from which a piece is unrolled from
time to time, as the work proceeds.

Befides the loom here defcrib'd, are required a
broach, a reed, and an iron needle, for working
the filk, or wool of the hoof within the threads
of the warp. The broach is of hard wood, 7 or.
8 inches long, and two-thirds of an inch tliick,
ending in a point, with a little handle, and ferves
as a fiiuttle, the filk, woollen, gold or filver to
be ufed in the work, being wound on it. The
reed or comb, is alfo of wood, eight or nine in-
ches long, and an inch thick at the back ; whence
it ufually grows lefs and lefs, to the extremity of
the teeth, which are more or lefs apart, according
to the great or lefs degree of finenefs of the in-
tended work. Lartly, the needle is in form of a
common needle, only bigger and longer. Its ufe
is to prefs clofe the wool aiul fiiks, when there
is any line or colour that does not fit well.

All things being prepared for the work, and
the wor.kman ready to begin, he places himfelf
on the wrong fide the piece, with his back to-
wards the defign ; fo that he works as it were
blind-fold, feeing nothing of what he does, and
being obliged to quit his poft, and go to the other
iide the loom, whenever he will view and examine
the piece, to correft it with his preffmg needle. To
put any filk, woollen, isc. in the warp, he firfi: turns
and looks at his defign ; then taking a broach full
of the proper colour, he places it among the threads
of the warp, which he brings acrofs each other
with his fingers, by means of the coats or threads
faftened to the flaff, which he repeats every time
he changes his colours. The filk or wool being
placed, he beats it with his reed or comb, and
when he has thus wrought in fcvcral rows over
each other, he goes to fee the effedt they have, in
order to reform the contours with his needle, if,
there be occafion. As the work advances, they'
roll it up on the lower beam, and unroll as-much
warp from the upper beam as fi;ffices thtm to
continue the piece ; the like they do of the defigiij
behind them. When the pieces are wide, feveral
workmen may be employed at once.

The high-warp iapcjlry goes on much flower

than the kw-zvarp, and takes almoft double

the time and trouble. And that all the diffc- '

rence the eye can obferve between the two

Y y y 2 kind^,

528 The UnivTrfal Hiftory (?/'Arts (^^/Sciences.

kinds, confifts in this, that in the low-warp
there is a red fdlct, about one-twelfth of an
inch broad, running on each fide from top to
bottom, which is wanting in the bigh-warp.

The loom, or frame, on which the low-warp
tapcjlry is worked, is much like that of the wea-
verii : the principal parts thereof are two ftrong
pieces of wood, forming the fides of the loom,
and bearing a beam or roller at each end : they
arc fuftaincd at bottom with otiier ftrong pieces of
wood, in manner of treffels ; and to keep them
the firmer, are likewifc fattened to the floor with
a kind of buttrcflcs, which prevent any fliaking,
though there are fbmctimes four or five workmen
leaning on the fore-beam at once. The rollers
have eiich their trunnions, by which they are fuf-
tained : they are turned by large iron pins, three
foot long. Along each beam runs a groove,
wherein is placed the wich, a piece of wood of
about two inches diameter, and almoft the length
of the roller: this piece fills the groove entirely,
and is faftened therein from Ipacc to fpace by wood-
en pins ; to the two wiches arc fattened the two
extremities of the warp, which is wound on the
further roller ; and the work, as it advances, on
the nearer. Acrofs the two fides, almoft in the
middle of the loom, pafles a wooden bar, which
fuftains little pieces of wood, not unlike the beam
of a ballance : to thefe pieces are fattened ftring?,
which bear certain fpring-ftavcs, wherewith the
workman, by means of two trcddles under the
loom whereon he fets his feet, gives a motion to
the coats, and makes the threads of the warp rife
and fall alternately. Each loom has more or fewer
of thefe fpring-ftaves, and each ftave more or fewer
coats, as the tapcjlry confifts of more or fewer
threads.

The defign or painting the woikman is to fol-
low, is placed underneath the warp, where it is
iuttaincd, from fpace to fpacc, with ttrings, by
which the defign is brought nearer the tvarp.

l"he loom being mounted, there are two in-
ftruinents ufed in working it, viz. the leed and
the flute. The flute does the ofKce of a weaver's
(huttle : it is made of a hard poliflisd wood, three
or four lines thick at the ends, and fomcwhat
more in the middle, and three or four inches long.
On it are wound the filks and other matters to be
ufed as the woof of the tapeftry. The comb, or
teed, is of wood or ivory ; it has ufually teeth on
hoth fid'3S ; it is about an inch thick in the mid-
»Jlr, but diminifhes each way to the extremity of
the teeth : it forves to beat the threads of the
Vvoof clofe to each other, as faft as the workman
tas patted and placed them with his flute among the
tiircads of the w^r^.

The v/orkman is feated on a bench before the
loom, with his breafl againft the beam, only a
cufhion or pillow between them ; and in this pof-
lure feparating with his fingers the threads of the
ivarp, that he may fee the defign underneath ;
and taking a flute, mounted with the proper colour,
he pafll's it among the threads, after he has raifed
or lowered them, by means of the needles moving
the fpring-ftavcs and coats. Laftly, to prc-fs and
dole the threads of the filk or yarn, iSc. thus
placed, he ttrikes each courfe (/. e. what the flute
leaves in its paffing and coming back again) with
the reed.

The low-warp has this in common with the
h'igh-warp, that all is wrought on the wrong
fide ; fo that the workman cannot fee the right
fide of his tapeftry till the piece be finifhed
and taken off his loom.

Note, alfo. That the ufual widths of tapejlries,
from
mcafure.

are from two ells to three ells and a half, Paris'

The invention of tapeftry feems to have come
from the Levant; and what makes this the more,
probable is, that formerly the workmen concerned
herein were called, at leatt in Frff^cc, Sarazins or
Saraziriois. It is fuppofed that the Englijh and Fle-
mijh, who were the firft that excelled therein,
might bring the art with them from fome of the
Croifadcs, or expeditions againtt the Sarazens,
Be this as it will, it is certain thofe two nations,
particularly the Englijh, were the firft who fet on
foot this nobIe,.and rich manufaflure in Europe ;
now one of the fineft ornaments of palaces, bafi-
lifks, churches, i^c. Hence if they be not al-
low'd the inventors, they have, at leaft, the glory
of beinfr the reftorers of fo curious and admirable
an art, as gives a kind of life to wools and filks,
in no refpcdl inferior to the painting of the beft
mafters.

It was late before the French applied themfelves
to tapijlry : the firft eftablifhment of that kind was
under Henry IV. in the year i5o7, in the Faux-
bourg St. Marcel; but this fell at the death of that
Prince. Under Leicis XIV. the manufacture was
retrieved by the care and addrefs of the great M.
Colbert, at the Goblir.s, (at prefent called the Hotel
Royal of the Goblins, in confequence of an edift of
Leiuis XIV.) where during his fuperintendency,
and that of his fuccettbr, M. de Louvois, the ma-
king of tapejiry has been pracSlifed to a degree of
perfc£lion, which furpatt^es what was antiently done
by the Flcmijh. The battles of Alexander, the four
fealbns, the four elements, the King's palaces,

' and

FAR N I

529

and a feries oi' t!ic principal actions of the life of
Lewis XIV. fiom the time of his marriage to the
firfl: conquefl: of Franche Comtc,, done from the
defigns of M.. h Bntn, diredfor of the maiiufac-
tc-ry of the Goblins, are maftcr-pieces in their kind.
The manufaiSlure of the tapcjlry of the Goblins
fubfifts yet, with the fame glory, and produces by

ijitervals fomc very extraordinary pieces, liot at
all inferior to what was done under the direction of
le Brim. The late Czar of Mufcovy, Peter the
Great, was prefented while at P^r/V, in 17 18, by
the prcl'ent King, Lewis XV. with a fet of hang-
ings, made at the Gobli/is, cftccmed at 20 or
25000 /. llerling.

VARNISH.

VARNTSH, or vernish, a thi^k, vifcid,
fhining liquor, ufed by painters, gilders,
and various other artificers, to give a glois
and luftre to their works ; as alio to defend them
from the weather, duft, i^c.

There are feveral kinds of varnifhes in ufe ; as
the ficcative or drying varnifli, made of oil of af-
pin, turpentine, and iandarach melted together.
White varniili, called alfo Venetian varnifh, made
of oil of turpentine, fine turpentine, and maftic.
Spirit of wine varnifh, made of fandarach, white
amber, gum elemi, and maftic ; ferving to gild
leather, pifture-frames, <^c. withal. Alfo the
gilt-varnifh, china-varnifh, common varnifh, l£c.

I. To make the white varnifh ; take gum fan-
darach, of the clearefl and whitefl fort, eight
ounces ; gum maftic, of the cleareft fort, half an
ounce ; of farcocolla, the whiteft, three quarters
of an ounce ; Venice turpentine, an ounce and a
half ; benzoin, the cleareft, one quarter of an
ounce ; white rofin, one quarter of an ounce ;
gum animas three quarters of an ounce : let all
thefc be dilTolved, and mixed in the manner fol-
lowing :

Put the farcocolla and rofin into a little more
fpiritsthan will cover them, to difTolve ; then add
the benzoin, gum anima?, and Venice turpentine,
into either a ghifs or glazed earthen velTel, and pour
on as much Ipirits as will cover them an inch ;
then put the gum maflic into a glafs or glazed vef-
iel, and. pour ftrong fpirits upon it, covering it
alfo about an inch thick, to difl'olve it rightly ;
then put your gum elemi in a diftindt vefTel as be-
fore, and cover it with fpirits to dilTolve.

For this purpofe, you need only break the rofin
a little, and powder the gum animas, farcocolla,
and benzoin.

' Let all ftand three or four days to dilTolve, fha-
king the glailes, i^c. two or three times a day,
and afterwards put them all together into a glazed
veflel, ftirring them well, and ftrain the liquor

and gums gently, beginning with the gums, thro'
a linen cloth.

Then put it into a bottle, and let it ftand a week
before you ufe it, and pour ofF as much of the
clear only, as you think fufficient for prefent ufe.

2. The white amber-varnifh is thus made, ac-
cording to Mr. Boyle : take white rofin four
drams, melt it over the fire iir a clean glazed pip-
kin ; then put into it two ounces of the whitefl
amber you can get, finely powdered. This is to
be put in, by a little and a little, gradually, keep-
ing it ffirring all the while with a fmall fticlc, over
a gentle fire, till it difTolves, pouring in now and
then a little oil of turpentine, as you find it grow-
ing ftifF; and continue fo to do till all your amber
is melted.

But great care muft be taken not to fet the houfe
on fire, for the very vapours of the oil of turpen-
tine will take fire by heat only ; but if it fhould
happen fo to do, immediately put a flat board or wet
blanket ovei the fiery pot, and by keeping the air
from it, you will put it out, or fufibcate it.

Therefore it will be beft to melt the rofin, in a
glafs of a cylindrick figure, in a bed of hot fand,
after the glafs has been well annealed, or warmed
by degrees in the fand, under which you muft
keep a gentle fire.

When the varnifh has been thus made, pour it
into a coarfe linen bag, and prefs it between two
hot boards of oak or flat plates of iron ; after
which it maybe ufed with any colours in paintring,
and alfo for varnifhing them over when painted.

But for covering gold, you muft ufe the follow-
ing varnifti : mean time, it is to be obferved, that
•when you have varniflied with white varnifh, you
may put the things varniflied into a declining oven^
which will harden the varnifh.

3. A hard varnifh, that will bear the muffle,
may be thus made : take of colophony, an ounce j
fet it over the fire in a well-glazed earthen vefTel,

530 7'he Unlverfal Hiftory ^ Arts ^;/</ Sciences,

till it is melted ; then by little and little, ftrcw in
two ounces of powder of ambet, keeping it ftir-
ring all the whdewith a ftick ; and when you per-
ceive it to begin to harden or refill the ft-ick, then
put in a little turpentine oil, which will thin and
fofteii it immediately ; then put in two ounces of
gum cc.pal, finely powdered, fprinkling it in as
you did the amber, now and then pouring in a lit-
tle oil of turpentine ; and when it is doncj drain
it as before directed.

This is proper to varnifli over gold ; and the
things done with it mud be fet into a declining
oven, three or four days fucceflively, and then it
will refill: even the fire itfelf.

4. To make a varnifti for brafs, that will caufe
it to look like gold. Take two quarts of fpirit of
wine, and put it into a retort glafs ; then add to it an
■ounce of gamboge, two ounces of lacca, and two

ounces of maftic ; fet this in a fand-heat for fix
days, or die near a fire, or you may put the body
of the bolt head frequently into warm water, and
fhake it two or three times a day ; then fet it over
a pan of warm faw-duft. But before this varnifh
is laid over the metal, let it be well cleaned.

This is a good varnifh to mix with any colours
that incline to red, and the amber- varnifli formix-
ing with thofc that arc pale.

5. To make a varnifh for gold, or metals made
in imitation of gold. Take colophony, and, hav-
ing melted it, put in two ounces of amber finely
powdered, and fome fpirit of turpentine, and, as
the amber thickens, keep it well ftirring; then put
in an ounce of gum elemi, well pulverized, and more
fpirit of turpentine ; conflantly ftirring the liquor
till all is well mixed and incorporated : but take
care, however, to ufe as little turpentine as you
can, becaufe, the thicker the varnifli is made, the
harder it will be. Let this be done over a fand-
heat, in an open glafs ; then ftrain it, as is diredled
for the preceding varnifli. This varnifli is to be
ufed alone, firfl: warming the vefiTels made of paper-
pafte ; and lay it on with a painting-brufli before
the fire, but not too near, lead: the fire raifc it into
bliilers. After this has been done, harden it three
feveral times in ovens ; firli with a tock he.it, the
next with a warmer, and the third with a very hot
one ; and the veflels will look like polifticd gold.

And as for fuch veflels, l£c. as fhall be made
v/ith faw-duft and gums, the varnifh may be made
of the fame ingredients as above-mentioned, ex-
cept the gum-clemi ; and this will dry in the fun,
or in a gentle w.'.rmth.

6. To make a varnifh for any thing covered
with Icaf-filver. Firft paint the thing over with
lize, and ground chalk or whiting ; let them ftand'
irll'they are thoroughly dry, and then do them over

with very good gold-fizc, of a bright colour (for
there is much difference in the colour of it ; fome
being yellow, and others almoft white ; the firft
is moil: proper for gold, and the laft for filver).
When this iizc is fo dry as that it will juft ftick a
little to the touch, lay on the leaf filver, and clofc
it well to the fize.

7. To make a varnifh for filver. Melt in a well
glazed pipkin, fome fine turpentine, and put in
three ounces of white amber, finely powdered
(more or leis, according to the quantity your work
will require) put it in by little and little, keeping
it continually ftirring, adding by degrees fome fpi-
rit of turpentine, till all the amber is diflblvcd ;
and then add to it an ounce of farcocolla well
beaten, and an ounce of gum elcmi well levi-
gated, adding now and then a little ("pirit of tur-
pentine, till all is diflblved : do this over a gentle
fire, and keep it conftantly ftirring.

'Fhis varnifli will be as white and ftrong as tlie
former ; and is to be ufed warm, and hardened by
degrees in an oven, as varnifhed gold, whereby it
will look like polifhed filver.

Laying on of Varmshes. i. If you varnifli
wood, let your wood be very fmooth, clofe-grained,
free from greafe, and rubbed with rufhes. 2. Lay
on your colours as fmooth as pofTible ; and, if the
varnifh has any blifters in it, take them off by a
polifh with ruflies. 3. While you are varnifhing,
keep your work warm, but not too hot. 4. In
laying on your varnifli, begin in the middle, and
ifroke the brufh to the outiide ; then to another
extreme part, and fo on till all be covered ; for if
you begin at the edges, the brufh will leave blots
there, and make the work unequal. 5. In fine
works ufe the fineft tripoli in polifhing : do not
polifli it at one time only"; but, after the fiiil
time, let it dry for two or three days, and polifli it
again for the laft time. 6. In the firft polifhing
you muft uie a good deal of tripoli, but in the next
a very little will ferve ; when you have done, wafh
off your tripoli with a fponge and water: dry the
varnifh with a dry linen rag ; and clear the work,
if a white ground, with oil and whiting; or, if
black, with oil and lamp-black.

Varnish alfo fignifies a Ibrt of fliinuig coat,
wherewith potter's ware, delft ware, china ware,
fa'V. are covered, which gives them a fmoorhnel's
and luftre. Melted lead is generally ufed for the
firft, and finalt for the fecond. See the article
Glazing.

Varnish, among medalifts, fignifies the co-
lours antique medals have acquired in the earth.

The beauty v/hich nature alone is able to give
to medals, and art has never yet attained to coun- .

terfcit,

VENEERING,

^^T-

tcrfeit, enhances the value of them ; that is, the
colour, which certain foils, in which they have a
long time lain, tinges the metals withal ; foinc of
which are blue, almoft as beautiful as the tur-
quoife ; others with an ininnitable vermilion co-
lour ; others with a certain {hining poliflied brown,
vaflly finer than brafil figures.

The molt ufual varnifli is a beautiful green,
which hangs to the fineil itrokes without effacing
them, more accurately than the finell enamel
does on metals.

No metal but brafs is fufceptible of this ; for
the green xv&. that gathers on iilver always fpoils

it, and it muft be got ofF with vinegar or lemon

juice.

Falfifiers of metals have a falfe or modern var-
iiifh, which they ufe on their counterfeits, to give
them the appearance, or air, of being antique.
But this maybe difcovered by its foftnefs, it being
fofter than the natural varnift, which is as hard as
the metal itfclf.

Some depofite their fpurious metals in the earth
for a confiderable time, by which means they con-
trait a fort of varnilh, which may impofc upon
the lefs knowing ; others ufe i'al annoniac, and;
others burnt paper*

VENEERING,

VENEERING, Vaneering, orFiNEER-
ING, a kind of marquetry, or inlaying,
whereby feveral thin flices or leaves of fine
v/oods, of different kinds, are applied and faftened
on a ground of fome common v/ood.

There are two kinds of inlaying ; the one,
which is the moft common and more ordinary,
goes no farther than the making of compartments
of different woods ; the other requires mucli more
art, in reprefenting flowers, birds, and the like
figures.

The firlt kind is properly called veneering ; the
latter is more properly called marquetry.

The wood ufed in veneering is firft fawed out
into flices or leaves about a line in thicknefs, /. e.
the twelfth part of an inch. In order to (aw them,
the blocks or planks are placed upright, in a kind
ef fawlng-prefs. See Sawing-mill.

Thefe flices are afterwards cut into narrow flips,
and falhioned divers ways, according to the defign

propofed ; then the joints having been-cxa<£t}y and'
nicely adjufted, and the pieces brought down to*
their proper thicknefs, with feveral planes for the
purpofe, they are glued down on a ground or
block, with good Itrong Englifh glue.

The pieces being thus jointed and glued, the
work, if fmall, is put in a prefs ; if large, 'tis
laid on a bench covered with a board, and prcfled-
down with poles or pieces of wood, one end of'
which reaches to the cieling of the room, and the
other bears on the board.

When the glue is thoroughly dry, it is taken-
out of the prefs and finiflied 5 firft with little
planes, then with divers fcrapers, fome of which
refemble rafps, which take off the dents, i^c. left
')y the planes.

After it has been fufficiently fcraped, they polifh'
It with the (kin of a fea-dog, wax and a brufh,.
<r polilher of fhave-grafs ; which is the lalt ope--
ration.

VINE G A R,

INEGAR Is an acid penetrating liquor,
prepared from wine, cyder, beer, fe'c. of
confiderable ufe both as a medicine and
fauce.

The procefs of turning vegetable matters to vi-
negar, is thus delivered by Dr. Shaw ; take the
fkins of raifins, after they have been ufed in ma-
king wine ; and pour three or four times their own
quantity of boiling water upon them, lb as to
make a thin aqueous mixture. Then let the con-
taining cafk, loofely covered, in a warmer place
than is ufed for vinous fermentation; and the li-

quor, in a few weeks time, will become a clear
and i"6und vinegar ; which being drawn off from-
its fediment, and preferved in another caft;, weir
ftopped down, will continue perfect, and fit for
ufe.

This experiment lliews us a cheap and ready
way of making vinegar from refufe materials ;
fuch as the huflcs of grapes, decayed raifins, the
lees of wine, grounds of ale, beer, is'c. which are
frequently thrown away as ufelefs. Thus, in ma-
ny wine-countries, the marc, rape, or dry pn-flin^
of grapes are thrown in heaps, and fuffered to pu-

tfifjf-

532 7/^i? Univerfal Hiflory of Arts ^;^/<i? Sciences.

trify unregarded ; tliougb capable of affording as 1 it will appear very thick and muddy, when newly

but will refine in the veiiel, and be as

good vinegar, as the wine itielf. In Ibme places
tliey buiy copper-plates in thefe hufks, in order to
make verdigrcale ; but this pradlice fcems chiefly
confined to the fouthern parts ot" France. Our
prefcnt experiment (hews us how to convert them to
■ another ule ; and the direction extends to all the
matters that have once undergone, or are fit to un-
dergo a vinous fermentation, for that all fuch matters
will afford vinegar. Thus all our fummer-fruits
in England, even blackberries ; all the refute
wafhings of a fugar-houfe, cyder-preffings, or the
like, will make vinegar, by means of water, the
open air, and warmth.

The whole procefs, whereby this change is cf-
fciifed, deferves to be attentively confidered. And,
lirlf, the liquor to be thus clwnged, being kept
warmer than in vinous fermentation, it, in a few
days, , begins to grow thick or turbid ; and with-
out throwing up bubbles, or making any confide-
rable tumult, as happens in \inous fermentation,
depofits a copious fediment. The effedl of this
reparation begins to appear firft on the lurface of
the liquor, which gathers a white (kin, that daily
increafes in thicknefs, till at length it becomes like
leather ; and now, if continued longer in this
{late, the (kin turns blue, or green, and would at
Jaft grow folid,'and putrifv : therefore in keeping
down this (kin as it grows, and thrufting it gently
down to the bottom of the veffcl, conhiFs much of
the art of vinegar-making, efpecially from malt.

Method r,f making cyder- v I K E G A R . The cyder
(the meaiiefl of which w ill {tx\t the purpofe) is
firfl: to be drawn oft' fine into another veiiel, and
a quantity of the muff, or pouz of apples, to be
added : the whole is fct in the fun, if there be a
<x)meniency for the purpofe ; and, at a week or
nine days end, it may be drawn off.

Method of making Zhy/'-vinegar. Take a mid-
dling fort of beer, indifferently well hopped ; into
which, when it has worked well, and is grown
fine, put fome rape, or hufks of grapes, ufually
brought home for that purpofe : mafh them toge-
ther in a tub ; then, letting the rape fettle, draw
elf the liquid part, put it into a cafk, and fetit in
the fun as hot as may be ; the bung being only co-
vered with a tile or (late ftone : and in about tliirts
or forty days, it will become a good vinegar, and
may pafs in ufe as well as that made of wine, if it
be refined and kept from turning mufty.

Or thus : to every gallon of fpring-water, add
three pounds of Malaga-raifins ; which put into
an earthen jar, and place them \A-here they may
have the hotitlf lun from May till Michaelmas :
then, prCiTing all well, turn the liquor up in a very
(Irong iron-hooped veiiel, to prevent its burlfing :

lirefled ;

clear as wine. Thus let it remain untouched for
three months, before it be drawn off, and it will
prove excellent vinegar.

Method of 7nnking wine-visECAR. Any fort of
vinous liquor, being mixed with its own fa-ces,
flowers, or ferment, and its tartar firfi: reduced to
powder ; or elfe with the acid and auflere (talks of
the vegetable from whence the wine was obtained,
which hold a large proportion of tartar : and the
whole being kept frequently (tirring in a veflel
which has formerly held vinegar, or (bt in a warm
place full of the fleams of the fame, will begin to
ferment a-new, conceive hc.at, grow four by de-
grees, ;md foon after turn into vinegar.

The remote fubjcdls of acetous fermentation are
the fame with thole of vinous ; but the immediate
fubjciSts of it are all kinds of vegetable juices, after
they have once undergone that fermentation which
reduces them to wine : for it is abiblutely impo(ri-
ble to make vinegar of mufl, the crude juice ot
grapes, or other ripe fruits, without the previous
alTiilance of vinous fermentation.

The proper ferments for this operation, whereby
vinegar is prepared, are, i. The fasces of all acid
wines. ^. 1'he lees of vinegar. 3. Pulverifed
tartar ; efpecially that of rhenifh wine, or the
cream or cryflals thereof. 4. Vinegar itfclf. 5.
A wooden \elfel, well drenched witii vinegar, or
one that has been long employed to contain it. 6.
Wine that has often been mixed with its own
f;eces. 7. The twigs of vines, and the (lalks of
grapes, currants, cherries, or othe* vegetables of
an acid aufterc tafte. 8. Bakers leaven after it is
turned acid. g. All manner of fcnncms, com-
pounded of thole already mentioned.

The French ufe a method of making vinegar
different from that above deicribed. They take
two very large open velfels, the larger the better,
open at the top ; in each whereof they place a
wooden grate, within a foot of the bottom : upon
;hefe grates, they firfl lay twigs, or cuttings of
vines, and afterwards the ftalks of the branches,
without the grapes themfclves, or their flones, till
the whole pile reaches within a foot of the brim of
:hc veffels : then they fill one of thefe vcffels with
wine to the very top, and half fill the other ; and
,\ith liquor drawn out of the full veifel, fill up that
which was only half f'ull before ; daily repeating
the fame operation, and pouring the liquor back
iVom one veffel to the other ; fo that each of them
is full, and half full, by turns.

When this procefs has been continued for two
or three days, a degree of heat will aiife in the
vefil'i, which is then but half ilill, and increafe

for

u s u R r.

for feveral daj's fucccffively, without any appear-
ance of the like in the vellbl which happens to be
full during thofe days ; the liquor whereof will
Itill remain cool : and as foon as the heat ceafcs in
the vefFel that is half full, the vinegar is prepared :
which, in the fummcr, happens on the fourteen
or fifteenth day from the beginning ; but in the
winter, the fermentation proceeds much flower :
fo that they are obliged to forward it by artificial
warmth, or the ule of ftoves.

When the weather is exceeding hot, the liquor
ought to be poured off from the full vcil'el into the
other twice a day : otherwife, the liquor would be
over-heated, and the fermentation prove too ftrong ;
whence the fpirituous parts would fly away, and
leave a vapid wine, inftead of vinegar, behind.

'I"he full veffel is always to be left open at the
top, but the mouth of the other muft be clofed
with a cover of wood, in order the better to keep
down and fix the fpirit in the body of the liquor ;

533

for otherwife it might cafily fly ofF in the heat of
fermentation. The veflel that is only half full
feems to grow hot, rather than the other, becaufe
it contains a much greater quantity of the vine
twigs and ftalks, than that, in proportion to the
liquor ; above which the pile, rifmg to a con-
fiderablc height, conceives heat the more, and fo
conveys it to the wine below.

Vinegar is a medicine of excellent ufe in all
kinds of inflammatory and putrid difordcrs, either
internal or external : in ardent, bilious fevers, pe-
ftilential, and other malignant diftempers, it is
recommended by Boerhaave as one of the moft
certain fudorifics. Weaknefs, fainting, vomit-
ing, hyfterical and hypochondriacal complaints
have alfb been frequently relieved by vinegar applied
to the mouth and nofe, or received into the ftomach.
Diftilled vinegar has the fame virtues, only in a
ftronger degree.

USURY.

USURY, in the general, denotes a gain or
profit which a perfon makes of his money,
by lending the fame ; or it is an increafe
of the principal, exafted for the loan thereof; or
the price a borrower gives for the ufe of a fum cre-
dited to him by the lender, called, alfo, intereft ;
and, in fome antient ftatutes, dry exchange. See
the article exchange.

The word ufury i; generally taken in an evil
fenfe, vix. for an unlawful profit which a perfon
makes of his money ; in which fenfe it is, that
ufury is forbidden by the civil and ecclefiaftical,
and even by the law of nature.

By flat. 12. Ann. c. i6. which is called The
Statute againfl: Exceflive Ufury, it is ordained,
thit no perfon {hall take, for the loan of any mo-
ney or other thing, above the value of five pounds
for the forbearance of one hundred pounds for
a year ; and fo in proportion for a greater or lefl'er
fum : and it is declared, that all bonds, contrails,
and aflurances, made for payment of any princi-
pal fum to be lent on ufury, above that rate, fhall
be void ; and that whofoever fhall take, accept, or
receive, by way of corrupt bargain, loan, l3'c. a
greater intereft than that laft above-mentioned,
ihall forfeit treble the value of the money lent ;
and alfo, that fcriveners, folicitors, and drivers of
bargains, fhall not take or receive above five fliil-
lings for the procuring the loan of one hundred
pounds for one year, on pain of forfeiting twenty
pounds, f3°f.

Vol. It

There can be no ufury without a loan, between
which and a bargain the court has diftinguifhcd :
and though a perfon is to pay double the fum bor-
rowed, i^c. by way of penalty, for the non-
payment of the principal debt, it is not ufury ; fo
it alfo is in refpeft to the grant of an annuity fcr
lives, or on condition, where it exceeds the ufual
intereft, and the proportion attending contrafts of
this kind. Even if one fecures a large intereft and
principal, and it is at the will of the party who
is to pay ; or where it happens that both the
principal money and extraordinaiy intereft are in
hazard, or that a perfon may have lefs than his
principal ; as when a bond is made to pay money
upon the return of a fliip from fea, i3c. cither of
thefe cafes are not held to be ufury.

In an adtion brought for ufury, the ftatute made
againft it muft be pleaded ; and in pleading an
ufurious contraft, as a bar to an aftion, the whole
matter is to be fet forth fpecially, becaufe it lies
within the party's own privity; yet on an informa-
tion on the ftatute for making fuch contrail, it is
fufficient to mention the corrupt bargain generally ;
becaufe matters of this kind are fuppofed to be
privily tranfailed ; and fuch information maybe
brought by a ftranger. i Hawk. P. C. 248. Like-
wife upon an information on the ftatute againft
ul'ury, he that borrows the money may be a witneis,
after he has paid the fame.

jrE A-

" '^ A

T/je Unlverfal Hiidory <?/" Arts arjci Sciences*

WEARING.

WEAVING is the art or ai^ of working a
web of cloth, filk, linen, or other llutF,
on a loom with a ftijtth'.

I'll explain all thefe different manners o( weaving,
each in order, beginning by that of weaving ot
cloth, which, though not tlie mofl curious of tliem
all, deferves, notwithftanding, the firfi: rank, as
being the bell and licheft manufacture in Eug-
liind.

Cloth, as underftood here, is a web, or a tiffue
of woollen threads, interwoven ; whereof fome
called the ivarp are e.vtcnded lengthways, from one
end of the piece to the other ; the reft, called the
woof, difpofed a-crofs the firft, a breadthways of
the piece. Cloths are woven on the loom, as well
as linens, druggets, ferges, camblets, fe'c-. they are
of various qualities, fine, coarfe, ftrong, bfc. Some
are made of wool, and thefe of different colours ;
the wools being dyed and drefs'd, are firft fpun,
then wove ; others are worked white, defigned to
be d'^cd in fcarlfct, black, blue, green, yellow.

To manufaiSure cloth for dying, the beft wools
for the purpofe are thofe of England znA Spain,

cfpccially thofe of Lincolnfnin ajid Segovia. To

ufe them to the beft advantage ; when taken out
of the bales, they muft be fcowered by putting
them injtoa liquor fomewhat more than lukewarm,
compofed of three parts of fair water and one of
Kline ; after the wool has continued long enough
in the liquor to diffolve and loofen the greafe, it is
taken out, drained, and wrfhed in running water;
it is known to be well fcoured, when it feels dry
tj the touch, and has no fmell but the natural
fmcll of the fhecp : in this ftate it is hung out to
dry in the fhade, the heat of the fun being apt to
ipake it harfti and untraicable : when dry, it is.
beat with rods on hurdles of wood, or on ropes,
tp clear out tlie duft and groffer filth ; the more it
is thus beat and cleared, tlie more foft it becomes,
aiid the better it fpins.— After beating, it is well
picked, to clear the reft of the f.lth, that had
tfcaped the rods.

It is now in a ftate to be oiled, whereof one
fourth of the weight of the wool is required, for
the wool defigned for the -wsof, and one eighth for
tha' of the tvarp. — The wool thus oiled, is to b-
carded ; which opcratloji is performed by means cf
two inftruments called cards, all v^aich has a dou-
ble row of long points, or teetti, ranged againft

one another, and faftened in a wooden handle,
taking up the whole breadth of the handle a top,
but narrower at the end. Thefe two c;u-ds they
put to heat, i.e. the extremity thereof, in a fur-
nace made for the purpofe ; on the other part there-
of, is a flit, nearer the bottom than the top, thrQ*
which the extremity of the card is introduced, the
other part thereof being fupported by ftones, or
fomething elfe, placed underneath ; when the cards
are hot enough, the carder takes out one of them,
feats himfelf on a chair or bench, and laj ing the
he?.d of the card on his knees, the extremity
thereof upwards, holding the handle with his left
hand, he takes with the right a handful of the
wool, placed near him, and lays that wool on his
card, by ftriking the card with it, which lays hold
of the wool ; and thus continue taking wool, and
ftriking it on the card, till it \cry near reaches the
end which has been heated. This done, he puts
again the extremity of the card, thus filled, to
heat, and takes out another card, which he fills in
the fame manner ; which done, he takes the firfl
filled from oft' the fire, faftens it to a hook made
for the purpofe, one part thereof enters tie handle
of the card, and the other lays hold of that part
where the fpindles are faftened ; then draws off
tlie wool.

The wool thus carded, is fpun on the wheel ;
obfen'ing to make the thread of the warps fmaller
by one third than that of the woof, and much clo-
fer tv. ifted ; in order to this, the hitter muft be
fpun with the band or ftring opes, ajid the former
with it crolled.

The thread thus fpun, rcel'd, and mac'e into
(kains ; that defigned for the woof is wound on
[pools, i. e. on little tubes, or pieces of paper, or
rulhes, fo difpofed as that they may eafily be put
in the eye of the fhuttle.— That for the warp is
wound on a kind of rochets, or lai'ge- wooden bob-
bins, to difpofeit for waiping. When warped, it
is ftiffened with fize, whereof that made of the
fhreds of parchment is the beft ; and when dry,
it is given to the weavers, who mount it on the
loom.

The warp being on the loom, the weavers, who
are two to each loom, one on each fide, tread at
the fame time aliecnately, on the fame threads, i, e.
now on the right ftep, and now on the left, which
raifes and lov.'ers the threads of the v.-arp equal')-,
between which they tlirow traniverfly the iiiuttle,

one

TV E A V I N G.

one to Ac other ; and csch time that the fhuttle
isthrov/n, and ib a thread of the woof inleited
within the warps, they ftrike it conjointly with
the fame thread, wherein is faftened the comb, or
reed, between whofe teeth the threads of the warp
are pafled; repeating the ftroke as often as is ne^
ccflary ; in fome cloths, no lefs than twelve or
thirteen times, vi%, fix M'ith the warp open, and
feven fliiit.

It ms^ be obfcrved, that the more the threads
of the woof are ftruck againft each other, the
clofer the cloth is ; hence it becomes enabled to
fuftain the violence of the fulling-mill, as well as
of the teazle, or fulling-thiftle, without fretting
or opening.

The weavers having continued their work till
the whole warp is filled with woof, the doth is fi-
niflied ; it is taken off the loom, by unrolling it
from the beam whereon it had been rolled, in pro-
portion as it was wove ; and now given to be
cleared of the knots, ends of thread, fttaws, and
other filth ; which is done wHith little iron nippers.

In this condition it is carried to the fullery, to
be fcoured with urine, or a kind of potter's clay,
well cleaned and fteeped in water, put along with
the ftoA in the trough wherein it is fulled.

The cloth beins; ao^atn clejired from the earth or

n • • •

urine, by walnmg it in water, is returned to the
f&rmer hands, to have the leffer filth, fmall ftraws,
and almoft imperce{>tible knots taken off as before :
then it is returned to the fuller, to be beat and
failed with hot water, wherein five or fix pounds
of foap have been diflolved. The foaps moft ef-
teemed for this operation is the white, efpccially
*hat of Genoa. After fulling an hour and a half,
it is taken out to be fmoothed, /. e. to be pulled
by the lifts lengthways, to take out the wrinkles
and cracks occafioned by the force of the mallets,
or peftles falling on the cloth when in the troughs.

The fmoothing is repeated every two hours, till
the fulling be finiflied, and the doth brought to its
proper breadth ; after which it is wafhcd in clear
water, to purge it of the foap, and given all
■wet to the carders, to raife the hair or nap, on
the right fide, with the thiftle, or wad, where-
with thev give it two rubs or courfcs, the firft a-
gjiinft the grain, the fecond with the grain.

The d'Ah being dried, after this preparation,
the cloth-worker takes it, and gives it its firft cut,
or fheering.— This done the carders reflime it,
and after wetting it, give it as many more rubs or
courfes with the teazle, as the quality of the ftuff
requires ; always obferving to begin againft the
hair, and to end with it ; and to begin with a
Smoother thiftle, proceeding ftill to a fliarper, and
Sharper, as far ai the fixth degree.

^^^

After thfs, the doth being drieJ, is returned to
the doth-worker^ who fhccrs it a fecond time, and'
returns it to the carder ; who, wetting it, gives M
as many courfes as he thinks fit, dries it, and gives
it back again to the cloth-worker, who after fheer-
ing it the third and' iaft time, returns it t6 the
carders, who repeat their operation as before, 'till
the hair or nap be well ranged on the furface of
the doth^ from one end of the piece to the other.
It muft be obferved, that it is indifpcnfably ne-
ceflary the dolh be wet, while in the carder's hands;
in order to which it is fprinkled fi-om time to time
with water.

The nap finiftied, and the doth dried, the
cloth-worker gives it as many cuts as he thinks re-
quifite for the perfeiStion of the ftuft'. It muft al-
fo be obferved, that all the fheerings muft be on
the right fide, except the two laft, which muft be
on the other, and that the doth cannot be too dry
for ftieering.

i The doth^ thus wove, fcowr'd, napp'd, and
fhorne, is fent to the dyer. When dyed it is
waftied in fair water, and the cloth-worker takes it
again, wet as it is, lays the hair or nap with a
brufh on a table, and hangs it on the tenters •,
where it is ftretched both in length and breadth,
enough to fmooth it, fet it fquare, and bring it to
its proper dimenfions, without ftraining it too
much ; obferving to brufli it a-frefh, the way of
the hair, while yet a little moilt on the tenter.

When quite dry, the doth is taken off" from the'
tenter, and bruflied again on a table, to finiftr the
laying of the nap ; it is then folded, and laid cold
under a prcfs, to make it perfedlly fmooth and'
even, and to give it a little glofs. The glofs is
given by laying a leaf of vellum or cap-paper in
each plait of the piece ; and o;cr the whole a'
fquare plank of wood : on which, by means of a
lever, the fcrcw of a prefs is brought down with
the degree of force judged neceffary, with regard
to the quality of the doth. In France., none but
fcarlet, green, blue, i^c. receive this laft prepa-
ration; blacks being judged better without it.

Laflly, the doth being taken out of the ptr/s^
and the papers removed, it is in a condition for fale
or life.

As to the manufafture of niixt Cloths, or
thofe wherein the wools are firft dy'd, then mixed,
fpun and wove of the colours intended ; the pro-
cefs, except in what relates to the colour, is moft-
ly the fame with that juft fpoke of.

The method of adjufting the m.ixture, is firft
by making a felt or flock of the colours of the in-
tended doth, as a fpecimen : the wool of each co-
lour is weighed ; and when the fpecimen is to the'
manufacturer's mind, he mixes, for ufe, a quan-
Z z z 2 titjr

53^

The UnivciTal Hiftory of Auts ^«<^ Sciences.

ftufF, fonietimes of wool, fometimes filk, and
(ometimes hair, efpccially that of goats with wool

tity in the fame proportion, eftimating each graiji
of the fpccimeii at 20 pounds weight of the fame
wool in the c/otb tobenuule.

Thus, if he would mix three colours, v. gr.
coffee-colour, feiallc-mort, and pale blue, the tirll
to be the prevailing colour ; he weighs a ijuantity
of each : for inftance, 70 grains of the firfl, 25
of the fecond, and 20 ot the third, then multiply
each by 20 pounds of wool, and thus gains 1400
pounds for the coffee-wool, 500 pounds for the
feuille-mort, and 400 pounds for the pale blue.

The wools of the fpccimen thus weighed, are
mixed, oiled, carded, moiftened with clear water,
rubbedwith black foap, and in this ftate wrought
a long time in the hands, till they be reduced in-
to a piece of felt, like that ufcd by hatters.

It is then rinfed in water, to purge out the oil
and foap ; and when dry, the hair or nap is carded
out with the teazle ; then fliorn once again, 'till
the ground appear, and the feveral colours be dif-
cernable.

Lajify, wetting it a little, and prefling it, he
examines it well, and if he be not contented with
it, makes another felt ; if he be, he proceeds to
mix wools ; when mixed it is beat on hurdles,
cleaned, oiled, carded, fpun, wove, Wc. as in
white cloth.

The goodnefs of doth confifts, i . In the wool
being fine and well dreffed. 2. In its being fpun
equally ; always obferving, however, that the
thread of the warp be finer, and better twifted
than that of the woof. 3. In the cloth being well
wrought and beaten on the loom, fo as to be
every where clofe and compact. 4.. In the wool's
not being finer and better at one end of the piece
than in the reft. 5. In the lifts being fufficiently
flrong, and of the fame length with the ftuft"; and
that they confift of good matter, as wool, hair, or
oftrich feathers, or the hair of Dari'ijh dogs, which
laft is the beft. 6. In the cloth being well cleared
of knots and other imperfedfions. 7. In its being
firft well fcour'd with good fuller's earth, then
fulled with the beft white foap, and wafhed out
in clear water. 8. In the hair or nap being well
drawn out with the teazle or thiftle on the pole,
without beino; too much opened. 9. In its not
being ftretched or pulled farther than is neceffary
to fet it fquare, and bring it to its juft length and
breadth. 10. In its being only preffed cold.

The Engliflj cloth is preferred throughout all Eu-
rope, efpecially the beft forts to all others ; though
the m3.nvS-ii.&.UT<i' oi Vaiirobes 3.t. Abbeville, in Pi-
tardy, is arrived to a great degree of perfection ;
but the French black cloth is preferred to all others
for the beauty of the colour.

From ckth I'll pafs to CAMBLET, which is a

or nlk : in others the warp is filk and wool twif-
ted together, and the woof hair. France, Englandy
Flanders and Holland, are the chief places of this
manufafture; Brujpls exceeds them all in the
beauty and quality of its camblcts.

There are different forts oi camblcts, \'\z. Jigur'd
camblets, luater camilets and wove camblets.

Figured camblets are thofe of one colour,
whereon are ftamped various figures, flowers, fo-
liages, ds'f. by means of hot irons, which are a
kind of moulds, prclfed together with the ftuff un-
der a prefs. Thefe are chiefly brought from
Jmicns and Flanders ; the commerce of thefe was
antiently much more confiderable than at prefent.

Water camblets are thofe which, after wo-
ven, receive a certain preparation with water, and
are afterwards preffed under a hot prefs, which give
them a fmoothnefs and luftre.

Waved CAMBLETS, are thofe whereon waves
are impreffed, as on tabbies ; by means of a ca-
lender, under which they are paffed and repaffed
feveral times.

The manufacturers, ISc. of camblets, are to
take care they do not acquire any f;dfe and need-
lefs plaits ; it being almoft impoffible to get them
out again.

From this I'll pafs to druggets, which is a
fort of ftuff, very thin and narrow, ufually all
wool, and fometimes half wool and half filk ;
having fometimes the whale, but more ufually
without ; and woven on a worfted chain. Thofe
without the whale are wove on a loom with two
treddles, after the fame manner as liimen, cam-
blet, difc.' — Mr. Savary invented a kind of gold
and nlver druggets ; the warp being partly gold
and Clver thread, and the woof linnen.

Next comes serge, which is a woollen quilted
ftuff, manufaflured on a loom with four treddles,
after the manner of rateens, and other fluffs that ■
have whale.

In regard to the manufafture of the London
fergcs. — For wool, the longeft is chofen for the
warp, and the fhorteft for the woof. Before either
kind is ufed, it is nrft fcoured, by putting it in a
copper of liquor, fomewhat more than luke-watm,
compofed of three quarts of fair water, and one
of urine. After having ftaid therein long enough
to difiblve, and take off the greafe, i5c. it L ftirred
briftdy with a wooden peel j taken out of the li-
quor, drained and wafhed m a running water ;
dried in the Ihade, beaten with flicks on a wooden
rack to drive out the coarfer dutt and filth ; and
then picked clean with the hand. Thus far pre-
pared, it is greafed with oil of olives, and the

longeft

WEAVING.

iongeft part dcftlned for the warp, combed in the
manner mentioned under the article cloth. — To
clear ofF the oil again the wool is put in a liquor
compofed of hot water, with foap melted there-
in: whence being taken out, wrung and dried, it
is fpun on the wheel.

As to the fhorteft wool intended for the woof,
it is only carded on the knee with fmall fine cards,
then fpun on the wheel, without being fcoured of
its oil.

The wool both for the warp and woof being
fpun, and the threads divided into fkains ; that of
the woof is put on fpools (unlefs it has been fpun
upon them) fit for the cavity or eye of the fhuttle ;
and that for the warp wound on a kind of wooden
bobbins, to fit it for warping. When warped, it
is f^ifFened with a kind of fize, ufed for the warp
of cloth ; and when dry, it is put on the loom.

When mounted on the loom, the workman
raifing and falling the threads (which are palTed
through a reed) by means of four treddles placed
underneath the 'loom, which he makes to work
tranfverfely equally, and alternately, one after
another, with his feet, in proportion as the threads
are raifed and lowered, throws the fhuttle a-crofs,
from one fide to the other ; and each time that
the fhuttle is thrown, and the threads of the woof
croffed between thofe of the warp, ftrikes it with
the frame to which the reed isfaftened, thro'whofe
teeth the threads of the warp pafs ; and this ftroke
he repeats twice or thrice, or even m.ore, till he
judges the crofling of the ferge fufHciently clod.
Thus he proceeds till the warp is all filled with
woof.

The ferge now taken ofF the loom, is carried
to the fuller, who fulls or fcours it in the trough
of his mill, with a kind of fat earth for the pur-
pofe, firft purged of all flones and filth. After
three or four hours fcouring, the fuller's earth is
wafhed out in fair water, brought by little and lit-
tle into the trough, out of which it is taken when
all the earth is cleared : then with a kind of iron
pincers or plyers, they pull ofi^ all the knots, ends,
ftraws, i^c. fticking out on the furface on either
fide : then return it into the fulling trough, where
it is worked with water fomewhat more than luke-
warm, with foap dilTolved therein for near two
hours. It is then wafhed out till fuch time as the
water becomes quite clear, and there be no figns
of foap left : then it is taken out of the trough,
the knots, Ca"!:. pulled otF, and then put on the
tenter to dry, taking care as faft as it dries, to
ftretch it out both in length and breadth, till it be
trought to its juft dimeniions. When half dried,
it is taken oft' the tenter, dyed, flieared, and
prefTed.

^^7

There are various kinds offerges, denominated
either from the qualities thereof, or from the places
where they are wrought.— The molt confidcrable
is the London ferge, now highly valued abroad, par-
ticularly in France, where the manufadure is car-
ried on with good fuccefs, under the title of /^rf^
fa^on de Lom/res.— The goodnefs of ferge is known
by the quilting, as that of cloths by the fpin-
ning.

Next comes rateen, which is a thick woollen
duff quilted, wove on a loom with four trcdtiles,
like ferges and other ftufFs, that have the whale or
quilting. There are fome rateens drefled and pre-
pared like cloth ; others left fimply in hair, and
others where the hair or nap is f'cttxtA.-— Rate ens
are chiefly manufadlered in France, Holland, and
Italy, and are moftly ufed in linings.

From RATEENs I'll pafs to prize or freeze,
which is a kind of woollen cloth or ftuff for win-
ter's wear, being frized or napt on one fide ;
whence in all probability it derives its name.

0{ frizes, fome are crofled, others not croffed.
The former are chiefly of Englijh manufafture ;
the latter of Irif).

As to freezing of cloth, it is forming the nap of
a cloth or ItufF into a number of little hard burs,
or prominences, covering almoft the whole ground
thereof.

Some cloths are only freezed on the back fide,
as black cloths ; others on the right fide, as colour'd
and mix'd cloths, rateens, bays, frizes, is'c.

Free'z.ing may be performed two ways ; one with
the hand, /. e. by means of two v/orkmen, who
conduct a kind of plank, that ferves as a frizing
inflrument. The other by a mill, worked either
by water or a horfe ; or fometimes by men. This
latter is efteemed the better way of frizing ; by
reafon the motion being uniform and regular, the.-
little knots of the freezing are formed more equably,
and alike. The ftructure of this ufeful machine
is as follows.

The three principal parts are, the freezer or
crifper, the freezing table, and the drawer or beam.
— The two firft are two equal planks or boards,
each about ten foot long, and fifteen inches broad ;
diff^ering only in this, that the fizing-titble is lined
or covered with a kind of coarfe woollen ftufl, or
rough fturdy nap ; and that the//7Ztv is incruf-
tated with a kind of cement, compofed of clue,
gum arabick, and yellow fand, with alittl-eaqua
vitae or urine. The beam, or drawer, thus call-
ed by reafon it draws the ftuff from betwceji the
frizer and frizi'ig-table, is a wooden roller, bcfet
all over with little fine fhort points or ends of
wire, like thofe of cards ufed in carding of wool.

538^ 5^^ UniverHil Hiftory of Arts and Sciences;

Next come bays, which is a kind of coarfe,
open woollen ftiiff", having a long nap ; fometimes
frixed on one fide, and ibmetimcs not frix,cd, ac-
coidin? to the iilcs it is intended for.--Tliii.ftiifFis
■without whale, being wrought on a loom with
two treddles, like flannel. The manufadture of
bays\% very confiderable m Englain:!, particularly
about Colchefter ; and in Flanders aliout Lijle and
Town ay ^ &c.

Formerly the French, as well- as Italians, were
furniflied with bays from England; but of late the
French workmen have undertaken to counterfeit
them, and fet up manufafture. of their own, and
that with fuccefs, efpecially at Nifmes, Montpelur,
he.

The export of hays is very confiderable to Spair,
Pcrtagul, and Italy. Their chief ufe is for li-
nings, efpecially in the army. The looking-glafs
makers alfo ufe them behind their glaire-s, to pre-
ferve the tin or quickfilver ; and the cafe-makers
to line thtir cafes.

Flanel, or FLANNEL, is next, which is a
kind o( flight, loofe, woollen llufF, not quilted,
bat very warm ; compofed of a woof and warp,
and wove on a loom with two treddles, after the
manner of bays, Is'c.

Say, or saye, is a kind of kro-e, or a very

lioht crofled fluff, all wool ; much ufed abroad for
linings, and by the Reli^^ous for fliirts ; and in
jEngland the quakers for itprons, for which pin-pofe
it is ufually green.
■ There are very confidf table manufactures here-
of at Sudbury near Cohhij.lor ; alfo at Yprcs, Hond-
fcot, &"c. in Flanders, &".— Thofe made in En-
"■/rtwrt? are chiefly exported to Poriugal and Leghorn.
' The working cf the feveral commodities here-
tofore meiitioned, and of many others, is called
woolUfi manufane.'j'- ; which makes the principal
article in the foreign and domeflick trade of Great
Britain ; being that which furnifhes the cargoes
of their vefTels, r^ - employs their people, i^c.
and may be faid to nave had its rife in the 15th
century.

Till that time the Endijh wool was all fold in
the fleece, to fuch ■ " he- •• neighbours as came to
fetch it. Among .; "'^cuftomers, however, the
principal were the Flemings and Brabanters ; and
particularly the merchants o( Ghent and Louvaiii ;
who took of}" vail quantities to fupply two manu-
faftories that had flourifhed in thefe two cities from
the lOth century,] and had furniflied the greatefl
part of Europe, and even England itfelf, with all
Ibrts of woollen cloths; ifc. — But the richnefs of
ihe manufailories of Ghent, and the incredible
number of iiands employed therein, having fpi-
rited uD thu iiihabiunts tQ revolt divers times

againfl their fovcreign, on account of ceifaiii taxej-

which they refufed to pay ; the fcditions were
at length punifhed and difperfed, and part of tlient'
took refuge in Holland, and the rcfl in Louvain.

Thefe lafl, together with their art of manufac-
turing cloths, carried with them their fpirit of
fedition ; and it was not long ere fevcral of them,,
to avoid the punifliment- they had deferved for
killing fome of the magiflrates, removed into-
England ; where they inflrucled the Englijh how ta
work their own wool.

This ellablifhmcnt is referred totheyear 1420,
from which time no endeavours have been /pared
;to keep the Englijl) wool in the kingdom.
j The prefident Tlmayitis makes this epocha itrO"
years later ; and attributes the cflablifhment of the.
woollen manufaSlurc in England to queen Elizabeth'^
land the troubles about religion, which the fevcrity
,of the duke of Alva and the Spanijh inquifition had
occaiioned and kept up fo long in the Lozu Coiutr
'^tries. — But what that noble author fay?, is rarhcr
'to be underflood of their perfection than their firff
ieftabliflimcnt ; and of the fevcral great manufaflo-
jries then fet up at Norwich, Colchr/ler, Sandwich^
Hampton, fe'c. — For in the Englijl} :urd Flemijh'
'hiflorians, we find mention made of the manu-
tures of London, long before any parr of the feven-
teen provinces had attempted to throw ofF the
Spanijh yoke.

As this maniifa(£lure now {lands, Dr. Davenant
and Mr. King computes the produ£l thereof to be:
eight millions per annum ; three fourths whereof
are con fumed at hoine, and the refl exported.

So jealous are now the Englijh of their woollens,
that befidcs the precautions taken to ufe all their
own wool themfelves, they have added that of
felling them themfelves, and of carrj'ing them to
the places where they are required ; not admitting
ilrangers to come and buy any in Englmid.

And hence the eflablifliment of thofe famous
magazines in Holland, the Levant, and the north,
where their woollen are repofited, to be vended by
fa<3:ors or commiffioners. The magazine in Hol-
land has changed place divers times ; and it has
been fucceffively at Middlcburgh, Delf, Rottcrdavu
and Dort, where it now remains ; and where all

the Germans come to furnifh themfelves.- — That for
the Levant is at Smyrna; and that for the north at

Archangel.

From the woollen manufadlures I will pafs to
the filfc ones, informing ourfelves, previoufly to
it, what ftlk is, and how many different forts of
fdks there are.

Silk is a very foft, fine, bright delicate thread,

the

TV E A V 1 N G,

the work of an mfe(£l called Bomby»^ or the Jilk-

U/orm.

The antients were but little acquainted with the
ufe and maiiui"a£lurc o'i'Jilk : they took it for the
work of a fort of fpider or beetle, who fpun it out
of its entrails, and wound it with its feet about
the little branches of trees. — This infeJt they call-
ed Si'7-, from Scrcs-i a people in Scythia, who kept
it; whence the ftlk itfclf they called fcyicum.-—
Eut the Ser has very little affinity with our frk-
•worm, Bambyx : the former living five yeats, but
the latter dying annually, enveloped in a yeliowifh
bag, or ball ; which wound out into little threads,
makes what we cMfilk.

It was in the ifle of Cos that the art of manu-
facturing filk was firft invented ; and Pamphlla^
daughter oi Plat is, is honoured as the inventor.
The difcovery was not long unknown to the Rc-
Ttians. Silk was brought them from Serica, where
the worm was a native. But fo far were they
from profiting by the difcovery, that they could
not be induced to believe that fo fine a thread
fhould be the work of a worm, and thereupon
formed a thoufand chimerical conjedtureS of their
own.

This temper rendered ft'k a very fcarce com-
modity among them for many ages ; it was even
fold weight for weight with gold, infomuch that
Voplfcus tells us, the emperor AureUan refuted the
emprefs his fpoufe a fuit oi filk, which fhe icUicit-
ed of hi'ni with much earneftnefs, merely on ac-
count of its denrnefs. At length two monks
coming from the Itid'us to Conjlanthiople in 555,
brought with them gfeat quantities of filk-vjsrms,
with infi'ru'dlisns for the hatching of their eggs,
renving ztA feeding the worms, drawing out the
ftik, fpinning and working it. Upon this manu-
fnctures were f(?t up at Athens, Thebes, and Co-
r'mth.

About tlie yeai' I130, Roger, kii>g of Sicily,
efiablifiied a filk manufadture at Palermo, and
another in CalahUa, managed by workmen who
Were part' of the plunder brought frorti Athens.
Corifith, lie. whereof that prince made a conqaefV,
in hib expedition to the holy land. By degrees,
Mezeniy adds, the reft of Italy and Spain learned
from \.\\t' SiciUafliznA Calabrians, the management
of i\\z Jiii-tudrms, and the working of Jili : An.l
at length the French, by right of neighbourhood,
a little before the reign of Francis I. began to imi-
ttite them.

The great advantage the new manufaiSture
turned to, m.'ide yumes I. king of England, very
earneft for its being introduced into his domi-
nions : accordingly it was recommended feveral
times from the throne, and in the moll earneft

539

•rerms to plant mulberry-trees, ^c. for the probao
gation of fdk-ivjrms , but unhappily without ef*
fe£l: ; though from the various experiments we
meet witlial in the philofophical tranfa£lions arid
other places, it appears that the fdk-ivjrm thrives,
and works as well in all refpcdts in England, as in
any other part of Europe.

in ten daj's time \\\z fdk-tvorm having brought
its b.-i'l to its perfetSlion, it muft be taken down
froin the branches cf the mulberry-tree, where it
is hung. But this point requires a deal of atten-
tion ; foi- there are fomc worms more lazy than
others ; and it is very dangerous waiting till they
make ihcmfclves a paflage, which ufually happens
about the 15th day of the month.

The firft, fineft, and ftrongeft balls are kept
for the grain ; the reft are carefully wound : or,
if it is defired to keep them all, or if there be more
than can be well wound at once, they lay them
for fomc time in an oven moderately hot, or elfe
expofc them for feveral days fucccflively to the
greateft heat of tiie fun, in order to kill the in-
ieit ; which, without this precaution, would not
fail to open itfelf a way to go, and ufe all tiiofe
new wings abroad it has acquired within.

Ordinarily, they only wind the more perfect
balls. Thofe that are double, or too weak, or
too coarfe, are laid afide ; not as altogether ufe-
lefs, but that being Improper for winding, they are
referved to be drawn out into fkains.

The balls are of different colours ; the mofi:
common are yellow, orange-colour, ifabella, and
flefir-colour. There are fonie alfo of a fea-green J
others of a fulphur-colour, and others white : but
there is no ncceflity for feparating tihe colours and'
fhades to wind the.n apart ; as all the colours are
to be loft in the future fcouring and preparing of
the yfZ(-.

To 'vi'nd they;//;' from oft' the balls, two ma-
chines ate necelfary ; the one a furnace, with its
copper ; the other a reel or frame to draw the
filk. The winder then fcated near the furnace,
throws into the copp-:r of watei" over the furnace
(firft heated and boiled to a certain degree, which,
cuftom alone can teach) a liandful or tivo of halls
wiiich have been firft well purged of their loo fe
fairy fubftance. He then ftirs the whole' very
briftdy about with birchin rods, bound and cut
like brufhcs ; and When the heat aiid agitation
have detached the ends of the jilk off the rods,
which are apt to catch on the rods, he draws
theal forth ; and joining ten or twelve, or even
fourteen of them together, he forms them into
threads, according to the bignefs required, to the
work they are deftined for: eight ends fjiTicirg
for rib'ba'nds ; aiid velvets, tff. requiring no ii Is

than

The Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

54-0

than fourteen. The ends thus joinetl into two or
three, threads, arc firft paiTed into the holes of
three iron rods, in the fore part of the reel, then
upon the bobhins or pullies, and at laft arc drawn
out to the reel itfclf, and there fiflencd ; each to
an end of an arm or branch of the reel. Thus
difpofcd, the workman giving motion to the reel,
by turning the handle, guides his threads, fubfti-
tutes new ones when any of them break, or any
of the balls are wound out ; ftrengtheiis them
where neceflary, by adding others ; and takes away
the halls worn out, or that having been pierced
arc full of water.

In this manner two workmen will fpin and reel
three pounds oi ftlk in a day; which is another
quicker difpatch than is made bv the fpinning-
wheel, or diftafT. Lideed all filks cannot be fpun
:ind reeled after this manner ; either by reafon the
balls have been perforated by the filk-worms them-
iblves, or becaufe they are double, or too weak
to bear the water ; or becaufe they arc coarfe, iJc.
of all thefe together, they make a particular kind
o( ftlk c?^\eA Jiorctta ; which being carded, or even
ipun on the diftaft', or the wheel, in the con-
dition it comes from the ball, makes a tolerable
fdk.

As to the balls, after opening them with fciflars,
and taking out the iwfeifts (which are of fome ufe
for the feeding of poultry) they are fteeped three
or four days in troughs, the water whereof is
changed every day, to prevent their ftinking.

When they are all well foftencd by this fcour-
ing, and cleared of that gummy matter the worm
had lined the infide withal, and which renders it im-
penetrable to the water, and even to air itfelf, they
boil them half an hour in a lye of afhcs, very
dear, and well drained : and after wafhing them
out in the ri\'er, and drying them in the fun, they
card and fpin them on the wheel, i5fc. and thus
make another kind oS florctta, fomewhat inferior
to the former.

The feveral preparations which f'lks undergo,
to fit them to be ufed in the manufaflure of
filken ftuffs, zxz fplnning, reeling, milling, bleach-
ing, and dyitig.

The two firft we have already fpoke of, as they
are concerned in drawing the filks from off the
balls. As to the /pinning and reeling of raui filk
off" the balls, fuch as they are brought hither from
Italy, the Levant, &c. the firft is chiefly perform-
ed on the fpinning-wheel, and the latter, either
on hand-reels, or on reels mounted on machines,
which fcrve to reel feveral fkains at the fame
time.

Adilling, or throwing of filk, is the laft prepa-
ration thereof before dying ; ferving to twift it

more or lefs, according to the work it is intended
for.

To prepare xhcftlk for milling, they are put in
water, inclofed between two linnen cloths. — The
mill is a fquare machine, compofed of feveral
pieces of wood mortified in each other, fo as to
form a kind of large cage, in the center whereof
are two wheels, placed parallel over each other,
whofe axis bears on two pofts. When the ma-
chine is fimple, a fingle man turns thofc wheels by
means of a little cogg, in which they catch, and
a large handle.

The wheels put in motion by the handle, com-
municate their motion to eight windles or reels,
or even more, according to the largenefs of the
machine ; the flights or arms whereof the filk is
wound, from off two rows of bobbins placed on
each fide the machine, each row at the height
of the two wheels in the center. Thefe bobbins
have their motion by means of leathern thongs,
which beat on little cylinders of wood that fup-
port them, and turn at length on the two wheels
at the center, fo that thajilk on each bobbin twifts
as it winds and forms its feparate fkain.

The fmalleft wheel moves two hundred of thefe
bobbins, over which a fingle perfon is fufficient to
infpeft, to put new bobbins or pools in lieu of thofe
difchargcd of their filk, and to knot the ends when
they break.

For white fluff's the Jilk is bleached, which is
done while it is yet raw, by putting it in a thin
linnen bag, and thrown into a veiTel of boiling
river water, wherein foap has been diffolved, then
boiled two or three hours, and the bag being
turned feveral times, taken out, beaten, and wafh-
ed in cold water, mixed with foap and a little
indigo: the indigo gives it the bluifh caft always
obferved in white filks. After taking it out of
the fecond veflel it is wrung out, and all the wa-
ter and foap exprefted, ftiook out to untwift and
feparate the threads, and hung out in the air, in
a kind of flove made on purpofe, wherein is burnt
fulphur, the vapour whereof gives the laft degree
of whitenefs to the Jilks.

There are feveral forts of f Iks, viz. raw Jilk,
boiled fdk, troiued ox txvifed filk, flack filk, Eaflern,
French, Sicilian, Italian, Spanijh, Turky, China,
fapan, and Indian filk.

Raiu SILK, is that taken from the ball, with-
out any coiSion, fuch as is moft, if not all, that
is brought into England from the Levant.

In the French filk-works, the greateft part of
this raw filk paffes for little better than a kind
of fine floretta ; yet, when fpun, it makes a fine
thread, and ferves for the manufacture of ftuffs of

moderate

WEAVING.

moJeratc value and luftic. But' the raw ftlks of
t\\t Levant, whence moft of the Engli/J) come, aic
exceeding fine and beauliful. — 'J'his liifFerencc.
arifes hence, that in France the bell balls are /p;.n
and wound in boiling water, and only the refulc
made iiito raiu Jtlk : whereas in the Levant theie
ii no fuch thing as fpinning and winding on the
fire ; but the filks are all fent in bales or packs,
as they are drawn irom ofFthe balls : fo that they
are only diiiinguifhcd by their quality of fine,
middlins', and coarfe.

Boiled SILK, is that which has been boiled in
water, to facilitate the fpinning and winding.
This is the fined of all the ibrts of filks manufac-
tured in France, and is feldom ufed but in the
riciieil fluffs ; as velvets, taftaties, damafks, bro-
cades, i£e. — There is alfo another kind oi boUcd
Jilk, whieh is prepared by boiling to be milk-d,
and which cannot leceive that preparation witiiout
benig firft paffed through hot wa^er. — By the laws
oi' F-.aiiee., it is prohibited to mix rav/ with boiied
iilk ; both as fuch a practice fpoils the dying, and
as the raw filk corrupts and cuts the boiled.

Thrown, or Iwijh'd SILKS, are fuch, as befidrs
their fpinning and winding, have received their
milling or throwing.

This they receive in a difl^erent degree, as they
are paflcd oftener or feldomer over the mill ; pro-
perly, hovve\'er, throvjnf.lks are thofe wherein lHc
threads are pretty thick thrown, and are twilled
feveral times.

Slack SILKS, are fuch as are not tv/ifled, but
are prepared and dyed, for tapelhy, and other
works with the needle.

Eajlc-rn, or E.'i/l-India siLK, properly fo called,
is not the work of the f.lk-worm, but comes from
a plant that produces it, in pods, much like thofe
of the cotton-tree. The matter this pod contains
is extremely white, and moderately glofiy ; it
fpins eafily, and is made into a kind oi filk that
enters the manufacture of feveral Indian and Chi-
nefe ftufls.

French silks, are thofe of the provinces of
Langticdoc, Daiiphinc, Provence, Jvigvo?:, Savcy,
and Lyons. — This laft place indeed furnilhes very
few filks of its own growth, but is the great fl:a-
ple whence the merchants of Paris, and the other
cities are to fetch them : at leaft they are obliged
to ha\e them pafs through Lyons, if they bring
them from elfev/here, cither by land or fea. —
There are computed to enter Lyons, conmmnihui
annis, 60OO bales; the bale valued at 160 lb.
weight; of which 60CO bales, there are 14CO
from the Levant, 1600 from Sicily, 1500 from
Italy, 300 from Spain, and 12C0 from Languedcc,
Provence, and Dciuphine.

541

At the time when the manufaiflures of Lyons
were in the height of their profperity, there were
reckoned 18,000 looms employed in the filk manu-

I u6iure ; but ever llnce feveral other nations, who had
no notion of thofe manufactures, have becii inflruft-
ed in it, by the French who have defcrted their own
country, either by a motivj of religion, or on
fome other account, the number of looms has
been confiderabiy reduced at Lyons ; fo that at
prcient there are not above 8coo coin". Tlio'
there be no filk manufacture in any coiuitry what-
ever which comes near that of Lyons, either for
the ilrength of the fluffs, the beauty of the pat-
tern, and the vivacity of the colours. — They had
formerly at Tours 700 mills for winding and pre-
paring the filks ; 8000 looms to weave them, and
4C\0J0 perfons employed in the preparation and
rranufaauring thereof; which number is alfo
confiderabiy reduced.

The commerce of the filks of Sicily is very con-
fidcrable ; and the Florentines, Genoefe, and Luc-
Lcfe, are the people who chiefly make it. Great
quantities are yearly brought thence, efpecially
irom A4ejina ; part v/hereof they ufe in their own
•TiaRufactures, and fell the rcit to their neighbours
the French, Sic. with profit. — 'ITie Italians have
this advantnge, efpecially the Genoefe, over other
people, that having large eftabliihments in the
ilLmd, they are reputed as natives, and pay no
duty for the export. — Fart of the Sicilian f Iks are
raw ; the reft fpun and milled ; of which laft
kind thofe of S. Lucia and AieJJina aire the moft
valued. The raw unwrought filks are always
fold for ready money ; the others fometimc s in
exchange for otlier goods. — The filks brought
from Italy are partly wrought, and partly raw,
and unwrought. Milan, Parma, Lucca, and Mo-
dena, furnifiies none but the latter kind ; Genoa
moft of the former ; Bologna afFords both kinds.

The Spanijh silks are all raw ; and are fpur,
milled, is'c. in England, according to the fnxral
works they are to be uftd in.

Turky SILKS are all xzw. — One advantage the
Englijl) fay they have in the commerce of the Le-
vant in fuks, wanting in thofe of Sicily, is, that
the latter is confined to a particular feafon of the
year ; whereas the foimer are brought at all times.
They are brought from Aleppo, Tripoli, Saydoy
from the ifles of Cyprus, Candi?, &c. — But the
principal place of comm.erce, elpecia'ly for the
Perfan filks, is Smyrna. The filks are brought
hither in caravans, from the morith of Jar.uary to
September. The caravans in Januaiy are loaded
with the fineft flks ; thofe of February and
March being indifferent ones ; the reft the
coarfell-.
4 A Thev

542. 7^^ Univerlal Hiftory of Arts <3:;/(^ Sciences.

They all come from the fcvcral provinces of
Perftn, chiefly thofe of Julian and Schiruvan,
and the city of Scba»inchia, fituate near the edge
of the Cafpian fea, from which three places, a
Dutch author aiTures us, there do not come lefs
than 30,000 bales of filk in a year. Ardent!, or
yfrdi'hil, another city of Perjia, not far diftant
from thefe filk countries, is the place where thefe
ftlks are laid up, and whence the caravans fet out
for Smyrna, Aleppo, and Conftantinople ; and it is
this city, with Echaniachla, that have alwa)s been
cfteemcd the center of the ftlk trade ; which has
been fc\eral times attempted to be removed from
Smyrna, ziA the Mediterrattcan, in favour of Arch-
mml and the IVhlu Sea, by carrying them acrofs
Mufcovy, by the Volga and Dwyna, two rivers
that traverfe the principal provinces of that vafl
empire.

'I'his new couife of the Perfian filks into Eu-
rcfe, was iirft propoCed by Paolo Centurio, a Ge-
iioefe, to the Czar Baftl, under the pontificate of
Leo X. The French had the fame defign in 1626.
The duke oi Holftein, in 1633, fent embafladors
to the court o^ Per ft a, purely with the fame view :
.'nd in 1668, the Czar y/A-.v/i yMVAi?**/ attempted
the thing himfelf, but was difappointed by the
rebellion oLth.s Co£acks, and the furprize oi Aj-
tracnn.

Several provinces oi China are fo fertile in mul-
berry-trees, and their climate. fo agreeable to the
nature of ftlk-worrm, that the quantity of filk here
produced is incredible : the fingle province of 7tv!»^-
kiam might fupply all China, and even a great
part of Europe with this commo<lity. Thefilks of
this province are the nioft eJleemed, though thofe
of Nanqtiin and Canton be excellent.

The ftlk trade is the principal in China, and
that which employs the moft hands : but the Ett-
ropcan merchants who deal .in -it, efpecially in
wrought ftlks, are to be careful of the fpinning,
Uc. the wafle being ufually very great.

They?//'.? of the ilate of the great mogul are
brought almoft wholly from Kajan-hazar, a Me-
diterranean place, whence they are conveyed by a
canal of 15 leagues, into the Ganges, by which
they are forwarded 15 leagues further, to the mouth
of the famous river of Indoftan. The filk of K.a-
jnn-ba'zar is yellowifh, as are alfo thofe (^ Per fa
and Sicily ; there being none, as we know of, na-
turally white, but that of Palcftine. The Indians,
however, whiten it with a lye made of the afhes
of a tree, called Adam's fig-tree ; but as the tree
is pretty fcarce, the Eioopeani are forced to take
the greateft part of their fiks in the native yel-
low.

Kafcm-bazar alone is computed to fumifh every

year 22,000 bales oi filk, each bale welghir. ■
1 00 lb. The Dutch buy it almoft all up, not to
bring it into Europe, but to exchange it for other
rich merchandizes, particularly bars of fdver, He,

Thus furniflied with all forts of ftlks at our
choice, we will fet ourfelves to work, beginning
by the moft eafy manufadlure, v/hich is that of
ribbands.

Ribband, or Ribband, is a narrow fort of filk,
chiefly ufcd for head-ornaments, badges of chi-
valry, is'c.

There are plain ribbands and figured ribbands,
which are all wove in the fame manner, the dif-
ference confifting only in the pafling of the-threads,
agreeable to the defign propofed.

Next comes Taffety, or Taffaty, is a
kind of fine, fmooth, filktn ftufF, having ufually
a remarkable luftre or glofs.

There are taffatics of all colours, fome plain,
others ftriped with gold, filver, filk, i3c. others
chequered, others flowered, others in the Chinefe
point, others the Hungarian, with various others,
to which the mode or the caprice of the work-
man gives fuch whimfical names, that it would
be as diiEcult ai it is ufelefs to rehearfe them ;
befides that, they feldom hold bejond the jear
wherein tbey firft rofe. The old names of tafe-
ties, and which ftill fubfift, are taffeties of Lyons^
Spain, England, Florence, Avignon, &c.

The chief confumption of taffiities is in fummer-
drefles for women, m linings, fcai-ves, coifs, win-
dow-curtains, i^c.

There are three things' which contribute chiefly
:o the perfection of tajfaties, viz. the filk, the
water, and the fire. The filk is not only to be
of the fineft kind, but it muft be worked a long
time, and very much, before it is ufed. The wa-
tcrijig, befides that it is to be given ver)' lightly,
feems only intended to give that fine luftre, by a
particular property not found in all waters. Lalt-
ly, the fire, which is pafiTed under it to dry the
water, has its particular manner of application,
whereon the perfection of the ftufF depends very
much.

Oulavio May of Lyons is held the firft author of
the manufacture of glofly taffeties, and tradition
tells us the occafion of it. — OSfavio, it feems,
going- backward in the world, and not able to re-
trieve himfelf by the manufacture of tafteties,
fuch as v.here then made, was one day mufing
on his misfortunes, and in mufing, chanced to
chew a few hairs of filk which he had in his
mouth. Mis reverie being over, the filk he fpit
out feemcd to fliine, and on that account engaged
his attention. He was foon led to refieft on the

K-afon J

W E A r I N G.

543

reaibn ; and, after a good deal of thought, con-
chided that tlie lufh-e of that filk mufl: come, i.
From liis having prefled it between his teeth. 2.
Fro;n his having wet it with his faliva, which had
fo'mcthi;)'?; glutinous in it : and, 3. From its hav-
ing hoen heated by the natural warmth of his
mouth. All this he executed upon the next taf-
feties he made ; and immediately acquired im-
menfe riches to himfelf, and to the city of Lyons
the reputation it Hill maintains, of giving the
glofs to taffetles, better than any other city in the
world.

It will not, we conceive, be lefs ufeful than
curious, to give here the dcfcription of the engine
contrived by Oiiavio to give the glofs to taff'cty ;
to add the manner of applying it, and the compo-
fition of the water ufed therein.

The machine is much like a filk loom, except
that inftead of iron points, here are ufed a kind
of crooked needles, to prevent the taffety from
Hipping : at the two extremities are two beams ;
on one of which is rolled the taffety to take the
glofs ; and on the other, the fame taffety as faft as
it had received it. The firft beam is kept firm by
a weight of about 200 pounds ; and the other
turned by means of a little lever palling through
mortices at each end. The more the taff'cty is
llretched, the greater luftre it takes ; care how-
ever is to be uled it be not over-ftretched.

Befides this inftrument for keeping the fluff
ftretched, there is another to give it the fire :
this is a kind of carriage in form of a long fquare,
and the breadth of the taffatla. It moves on
trundles, and carries a charcoal fire under the taf-
fety, at the dillance of about half a foot.

The two machines prepared, and the taffety
mounted, the luftre is given it by rubbing it gen-
tly with a ball, or handful of lifts of fine cloth, as
it rolls from one beam to the other, the fire, at
the fame time, being carried underneath it to dry
it. As foon as the piece has its luftre, it is put on
new beams to be ftretched a dav or two, and the
oftencr this laft preparation is repeated, the more it
increafes the glofs.

For black taffetles, the glofs is given with dou-
ble beer, and orange or lemon juice ; but this laft
is the leaft proper, as being apt to whiten. The
proportion of thefe two liquors is a gallon of orange-
juice to a pint of beer, to be boiled together to the
confiftence of a broth. For colour'd taffetics they
ufe gourd-water diftilkd in an alembick.

Next comes sattin, or satin, which is a
kind of filken ftufF, very (mooth and fhining, the
warp whereof is very fine, and ftands out, the
woofcoarfcr, and hid underneath ; on v/hich de-
pends that glofs and beauty which gives if its price.

There zxsfattins quite plain, others wrought, feme
flowered with gold or fiik, others ftrip'd isc. All
the varieties in the fabrick of fattlns are made by
uling new warps or woofs. The f\ntiifattii?s are
iliofc of Florence and Genoa ; yet the French will
not allow thofe of Lyons -cxny thing inferior thereto.
Yh^ jattlns o{ Bruges \\iM<i their warp of iilk, and
their woof of thread.

Indian fattlns, or fattins of China, are filken
ftuft's-, niuch like thofe manufactured in Europe.
Of thefe fome are plain, either white, or of other
colours ; others worked, either with gold or fiik,
flower'd, damafk'd, ftrip'd, C5"V. They are nioftly
valued becaufe of their cleaning and bleaching
eafily, without lofing any thing of their lufire. In
other refpeds they are inferior to thofe oi Europe.

Father LeCompte obferves, that the Chinefe pre-
pare lht\r fattlns in oil, to give them the greater
luftre ; but this makes the duft liable to hang to
them.

Sattinet, or sattinade, is a very flight,
thin fort ot fattin, chiefly ufed by the ladies for
fummer night-gowns, i^c. and ordinarily ftrip'd.

We'll pafs from this to damajk, which is a fort
of filken ftuff, having fome parts raifed above the
ground, reprefenting flowers, or other figures.

Damojk is properly a fort of mohair and (attin
intermixed, in fuch manner as that what is not
fattin on one fide, is onthe other. The elevation
which the fattin makes on one fide is the ground
on the other. The flowers have a fattin grain,
and the ground a grain of taffetas. It has its
name from its being originally brought from Da-
majcus in Syria.

Next comes brocade, which is a fort of ftuft'
or cloth of gold, filver, or filk, railed and enriched
with flowers, foliages, or other figures, according
to the fancy of the manufa<lfurer.

Formerly the term wasrefir.iincd to cloth wove,
either wholly of gold, both woof and warp, or of
filver, or of both together ; but by degrees it came
hkewife to pafs for fuch as had iilk inteimix'd, to
fill up, and terminate the flowers of gold and fil-
ver.

At prefent, any ftufFof filk, fattin, or even fim-
pie taffety, when wrought and enric'ned with flow-
ers, ^'c. obtains the denomination of brocade.

Next comes tabby, which is a kind ot coarfe
taftety water'd. Jt is manufactured like the com-
mon taftety, excepting that it is ftronger and thick-
er both in the woof and warp.

The watering is given it by means of a calender,
the rolls whereof are of iron or copper, varioufiy
ene;raven, which, bearing unequally on the (tuff,
renders the furface thereof unequal, fo as to reflect
the rays of light differently.

' 4 A "2 ' Mohair

T^3e Umverllil Hiftoryy Arts ^;?^/ Sciences.

;544

Mohair is a kind of ftufF, ordinarily of filk,both
woof and warp, having its grain wove very clofe.
'fhercare two kinds oimobahs^ the one fmooth
and phin, the other water'd like tabbies : the dif-
ference between the two only coiifdlsin this, that
the latter is calendered, the other not. There are
alfo mohairs both plain and watered, whole woof is
woollen, cotton or thread.

From this I'll pafs to velvet, which is a rich
kind of ftuft', all filk, cover'd on the outfide with
a clofe, ftiort, tnie, foft (hag ; the other (ide be-
i Hi:; a very ftrong clofe lillue.

"I'he n.'p of fhag, called alfo the v{lvciingo'ii\\\%
ftuff, is formed ot'part of the threads of the warp,
which the workman puts on a long channelled
ruler or needle; and which he afterwards cuts, by
drawing a (harp ffeel tool along the channel of the
needle to the end of the warp.

The principal and befl: manufa£loiies oi velvet
are in France and Italy, particularly at Venice, Mi-
lan, Florence, Genoa and Lucca : there are others
in Holland, fet up by the Frefich refugees ; where
of that at HaerUm is the mod confiderable : but
thefe all come fhort (fays -MEngliJh author) of the
beauty of thofe vi France ; and accordingly are fold
for 10 or I 5 />i-r cent. Icfs. 1 here are even fome
brougiu from China, but they are the worfl of all.
"Jliere are velvets of various kinds, zs plain, that
is uniform and fmooth, without either figures or
ilripes.

Fifur'd VELVET,that is adorned and worked with
divers figures ; though the grounds be the fame
with thefitrures; that is the whole furface velvetcd.
Ramagcd or branched VELVET, repiefenting long
ftalks, branches, iSc. on a fattin ground, which is
f'Miietimes of the fame colour with the velvet, but
more ufually of a different one. Sometimes, in-
llead ot fattin, they make the ground of gold and
filver ; whence the denomination oi velvets w'nh
gold ground, t^c.

Shorn velvet, is that wherein the threads, that
niake the velveting, have been ranged in the chan-
nelled ruler, but not cut there.

Slrip'd VELVET, is that v.'hercin there are flripcs
of divers colours running along the warp ; whe-
ther thofe ftripes be partly velvet, and partly fatin,
or all velvetcd.

d/tVELVET, is that wherein the ground is a kind
of tafFcty, or gros de tours, and the figures velvet.

A'riW/'j arelikewiie diitinguiihcd, withregard to
their different degrees ot Itrength and goodnefs ;
into velvets of four threads, three threads, two
threads, and a thread and half : the firll are thofe
where there are eighteen threads of fhag, or vel-
vetin" to each tooth of the reed ; and the fecond
have only fix, and the reft four. In general, all
vdveii both work<.d and cut, fliorn and flowered,

have their warp and fhag of organifm, fpun anil
twitted, or thrown in the mill ; and their woof
of filk well boiled, i^c. They are all of the fame
breadth.

l^'rom the fdk manufactures, I'll pafs to the //'«-
nen ones.

The linnen MANUFACTURE borrows its name
from line, linuw, which is a plant with a flender
hollow flem, ufually about two feet high (though I
ha\e fcerj fome which meafured above three feet) •
whofc bark confiits of fibres or threads, much like
thofe of hemp ; which being drelTeci and worked
in due manner, makes that noble commodity lin-
nen-cloth. The preparations line muft undergo to
tit it for fpinaing, are pulling, drying, and fwing-
ling ; which operations are inferted in my treatife
of agriculture under the letter A.

Line, after it has been prepared fit for fpinning,
is called flax, of which there is difFerent forts, with
regard to the degrees of finencfs ; which degrees
It acquir'd through the card?, which card is much
like that of perriwig- makers, except that the points
arc longer. 1-or tftheyj^A- be dtfigned for fine
thread, it muft pafs through a clofer Curd, than
when for coarfe thread.

Ftax is (pun either with the diftaft or the wheel,
and the thread acquires its degree of finenefs be-
tween the fingers ot the operator. Of this thread
the linen-cloth is wove on a loom, with two trcJles,
the warp being always coarfcr than the woof. If
the cloth is to be ver) white, the thread is bleach-
ed before it is wove ; if not it is wove as it comes
from off the dillait" without any other preparation.
The fineft of all Unncn-clolh is commonlv cam-
brick, becaufe wove of the fineft thread that can
be fpun j and the befl manufactures of this fort of
cloth arc in French Flanders.

I'he Lnncn-clcith, commonly called hoUand, is
next to canihriik for finenefs ; and there are even
Hcllands much finer than fome Camhricks. This
fort of linnen-cloth is chiefly wrought in the provin-
ces of Holland, Frizeland, and other parts of the
united provinces, whence the appellation. The
principal mart or llaplc of this cloth is at Haerlem,
whither it is fent from moft oilier parts as foon as
wove, there to be whitened the enfuing fpriiig.

That manufa£tare \nFrizeland is themofi: tftecin-
ed and called F//z6'-//v//(vW. It is the ftrongeft
and the belt coloured of any of that finenefs. It
is never calender'd nor thickened as the reft, but
is imported juft as it comes from the whitlter. It
is diitinguilhcd by its being yard, quarter and half
wide, wliici) is a half quarter more than thofe com-
monly called Fri%e- Hollands, which are not righr.
Guilix Holland is very white and fine, and is
chiefly ufgd for iliirts, being the Itrongelt of any

for

w E I G H r.

545

for its finenefs, except true Frie%c. It is juft yard
wide.

Akniaer Holland is a very ftrong doth, and
wears exceeding well. It is about yard, quarter,
and half wide.

There is a manufaiflureof /;''/«.77-(75.'/) at PonUvy
in Lower Britany, which is nothing inferior tothofe
of Holland, and which even excels in the flrcngth
of the cloth, which wears to the full as \yell, and
is of much more fervice, though not fo dear.

They have brought lately the llniien vianuf, inure.
to a very great perfe<3-ion, both in Scotland and
Ireland.

After Hollands, ox fine Linncns are taken from
the loom, while yet raw, they are fleeped a day in
fair water, waflied out and cleared of their filth,
and thrown into a bucking tub, filled with cold
lixivium, or lye of wood-alhes and water ; when
taken out of the lye they arc waflicd in clear wa-
ter, fpread in a meadow, and watered from time
to time, with water from little difhes, or canals
along the ground, by means of fcoops, or hollow
peels of wood, called by the Dutch, who pretend
to be the inventors of them, giettr : after lying a
certain time on tlie ground, they are pafied through
a new lye poured on hot ; and again wafhed in
clear water, and laid afecond time on the ground,
and every thing repeated as before ; then paiFed
through a foft gentle l)e, to difpofe them to refume
the lofcnels which the other harfheft lye had taken
from them, wafhed in clear water, foaped with
black foap, and that foap again waflied out in clear
water ; they are then jieeped in cow's milk, the
cream firfi: flcimmed ofF, which fmiihes their white-
ning ; and icowering gives them a fufmcfs, and
inakcs them cait a little nap : when taken out of
the milk, they are waflied in clear water for the
l;il!; time. After all this procefs, they give the

linnen its firfl Uue, by pa/Hng it through a water
wherein a little ftarch, fmalt, dwi Dutch lapis have
been itccped. Laftly, the proper flifFnefs and
luflrc is given with fiarcli, pale fmalt, and other
gums, the quantity and quality wh.-icof may be
adjuijpd according to occafion.

Imfme weather, the whole procefs of blcadintf
is compleated in a month's time ; in bad weather
it takes up fix weeks, or more.

To ilcach coarfe llnnens ; they arc tsken from
the loom and laid in wooden frames, full of cold
water ; where, by means of wooden hammers,
worked by a water mill, they are beat fo, as in-
fenfibly to wafii and pur2;e them of their filth, then
fpread on the ground, where tl:e dew, which they
receive for eight days, takes ofF more of their im-
purity ; then put in a kind of wooden tubs or pans,
with a hot lye over them, thus lixiviated, they arc
again purged in the milk, laid afrefh on the ground,
and after eight days more, pafled through a fecond
lye, and all things repeated, till fuch time as they
have acquired a jufl degree of whitencfi.

Perfons appointed by the truttees, for imoroving
the hempen and flaxen mar;uta>Stures in Scoiiind^
maycntcr into any bleach yard, back houfe,{5'<:. and
ftarch all rooms, reives, and boilers therein, and
view the lyes, refufe, and dregs thereof ; to fee
whether there l;ave been any lime, pigeons dung,
or foap-dregs ufed in the hLachr.ig of linnen cloth
or yarn, contrary to the llatutes, 13 G. c. 26.
§ 16.

i\4uf LIN is alfo a fine fort of cloth, wholly cot-
ton; (o called as not being bare, but not having a
downy nap on its furface, refemfalii'.g mofs, which-
the French call Aioujfc.

There are various kinds o( mujlins brought from
the Eajl-Indies, Chyl, Bengal, BctcUei, TarnatanSf
Alulinuls, Tangeeh, Ttrritidans, Douai, &c.

IF E I G H r.

WEIGHT, GiiAviTY, in phyfics, a qun-
liry in natural bodies whereby they tend
downwards, towards the ecnter of the
earth. Or, weight may be defined, in a lefs li-
mited manner, to be a power inherent in all bodies
■whereby they tend to fome common point, called
the center of gravity ; atid that with a greater or
lefs velocity, as they are more or lefs de«fe, or as
the medium they pafs dirough is more or lefs rare.
In the common ufe of language, weight and
gravity are confidcred as one and the fume thing.
Some authors, however, make a diftcrence be-
tween them ; and hold gravity only to exprefs a
tiifus or endeavour to defcend, but weight an ac-

tu.al defccnt. But there is room for a better dif-
tindion. In eftccf, one may conceive gr.-wity
to be the quality as inherent in the body ; and
weight the fame quality, exerting itlelf either a-
gainft an obflacie, or otherwife, Henr?, weight
may be diflinguiihed, like gravity, into abfolute
and fpecific.

Sir Ifaac Newton demonftrates, that the weights
of all bodies, at equal diflances from the center of
the earth, are proportionable to the quaritiiies of
matter eacli contains. Whence it folic. vvs, that
the weights of bodies have not an)- dependence on
their forms, or textures; and that all ("paces are
not equally full of matter. Hence, alio, it fol-
lows.

n^e Univerfal Hiftory of Arts and Sciences.

lows, that the weight of the fame body is diffe-
rent, on the furfaceof different parts of the earth ;
by reafon its figure is not a fphere, but a fpheroid.

Weight, in mechanics, is any thing to be
raifed, fuftained, or moved by a machine, or any
thing that in any manner rehfts the motion to be
produced.

Weight, in commerce, denotes a body of a

known weight, appointed to be put in the bailance

apainrt other bodies, whofe weight is required.
<=„,. .■ • (• J i:.-._ :., „

ufually of lead, iron, or brafs, moft nations have
taken care to prevent the falfification thereof, by
ftamping or marlcing them by proper officers, af-
ter being adjufted by lome original Itandard. Thus,
in England, the ftandard of weights is kept in the
exchequer, by a particular ofTicer called the clerk
of the market.

Weights may be diftinguilhed into ancient and
modern, foreign and domeftic.

Anticnt Weights, i. Thofe of the antient

The fecurlty of commerce depending, in good I Jews, reduced to the EnglllTi troy weights, will
meafure, on the juftncfs of weights, which are| Hand as in the following table :

Shekel

?000

Maneh - -
50 Talent

lb.

oz.

dwt.

g""-

02^

10^

113

10^

2. Grecian and Roman weights, reduced to Englifh troy weight, will {land as in the follo^ying

■table.

Lentes - - ----------

oz.

00
00

00
CO
lO

dwt.

CO
00
00
02
03
04
06
18
18

gr-

00^

Siliquag

us --------

00^

■ 3 Obol

09 jV

6| 2

Scriptulum - - - _ - -

18^^^-

18 6

4
6
«

24
[288

Drachma - - - -

06^

144

24 8

Sextt

ila

00.^

56 12

I-'

Sicilicus - - -

^3t

192

48 16

Duella - -

Olf

576

144 48

Uncia -

05I

6912 I1728 I576

36 i2|Libra

i3t

The Roman ounce is the Englifli avoirdupois
'ounce, which thev divided into ieven denarii, as
well as eight drachms ; and fince they reckoned-
their denarius equal to the attic drachm, this will
make the attic weights one eighth heavier than
the correfponding B oman weights.

Modern European Weights, i. Englifh
weights : By the twenty-feventh chapter of magna
charta, the' weights all over England are to be the
fame ; but for different commodities, there are
two different forts, vlx. Troy weight and avoir-
dupoife weight. The origin from which they are
both raifed, Js a grain of weight, gathered in the
middle of the ear.

Ill troy weight, twentv-four of thefe grains
make a penny-weight fterling ; twenty penny-
weights make one ounce, and twelve ounces one
poiind.

By this weight we weigh gold, filver, jewels,
grains, and liquors. The apothecaries alfo ufe
the troy pound, ounce, and grain ; but they dif-
fer from the reft in the intermediate divifions. They
divide the ounce into eight drachms ; the drachm
into three fcruples, and the fcruple into twenty
grains.

In avoirdupoife weight, the pound contains fix-
teen ounces, but the ounce is lefs by near one
twelfth than the troy ounce;- this latter containing
490 grains, and the former only 448. The ounce
contains 16 drachrns. 80 ounces avoirdupoife are
only equal to 73 ounces troy j and 17 pounds troy
equal to 14 pounds avoirdupoife.

By avoirdupoile weight are weighed mercury,
and grocery wares, bafe metals, wool, tallow,
hemp, drugs, bread, iSc.

Table

w E I G H r.

547

Grains.

Table of Troy Weight as ufed by the
Goldfmiths. Apothecaries.

Grains.

Penny-weight.

480

Ounce.

5760

240

12 Pound.

480

Scruple.

3 ^^^^

-li 8
288 96

hm.
Ounce.

5760

12 Pound.

Scruples.

Table of Avoirdupoife Weight.

Drachm
8

Ounce.

384

4300S

128

Pound.

14336

1792

112

Quintal, or

Hundred

860160

286720

35840

2240

20 |Ton.

The moneyers, jewellers, ISc. have a particular
clafs of weights, for gold and precious ftones, vi%.
carat and grain ; and for illver, the penny-weight
and grain.

The moneyers have alfo a peculiar fubdivifion
of the grain troy : thus,

fGrain^ r20 Mites.

T^v i Mite '. . ^ ; 24 Droits.
1 he < T>> • ^ into .^ ^ D •
> Droit ( ^ 20 Perits.

l^Perit J 1^24 Blanks.

The dealers in wool have likewife a particular
fet of weights, viz.. the fack, weigh, tod, ftone,
and clove.

2. French weights : the common or Paris pound
is 16 ounces; which they divide two ways : the
firft divifion is into 2 marcs ; the marc into 8
ounces ; the ounce into 8»gros ; the gros into 3
pennyweights ; the pennjrweight into 24 grains ;
the grain equivalent to a grain of wheat. The
fecond divifion of the pound is into 2 half-pounds ;
the half-pound into 2 quarters ; the quarter into
2 half-quarters ; the half-quarter into two ounces ;
and the ounce into two half-ounces.

The weights of the firil: divifion are ufed to
weigh gold, filver, and the richer commodities :
and the weights of the fecond divifion, for com-
, dities of lefs value.

Penn

y-weight.

Gros.

576

4608

24
192

384

8 Ounce.

64 8

Marc.

9216

128

2 Pound.

But the pound isnot the fame throughout France.
At Lyons, e. gr, the CHty pound is only 14 ounces:
fo that 100 Lyons pounds makes only 88 Paris
■pounds. But befides the city pound, they have
another at Lyons for filk, containing 16 ounces.
At T.holoufc, and throughout the L^pper Langue-
doc, the pound is 13 ounces and a half of Paris
weight. At Marfeilles, and throughout Provence,
the pound is 13 ounces of Paris weight. At
Rouen, bcfide the common Paris pound and marc.

Half-o
2

unce.
Ounc<

Half-

quarter pound.

16
32

Quarter-pound.

4
8

800

4CC

Half-pound.
2 Pound.

3200

1600

200 ioo|QuIntal.

they have the weight of the vicomte ; which is 16
ounces, a half, and five-fixths of the Paris weioht.
The weights, enumerated under the two articles
ot Englifh and French weights, are the fame that
are ufed throughout the greateft part of Europe ;
only under fomewhat different names, divifions
and proportions.

Particular nations have alfo certain weights pe-
culiar to. themfelves : thus, Spain has its arrobas,
containing 25 Spanifli pounds, or one-fourth of.

the

548 The Unlverral Hiftory of Arts a7^d Sciences.

the coinmon quintal : its quintal mr.cho, contain
ing 150 pounds, or one half comnipa quintal, or
6 aiTobas : its adarme, containing one ilxtcenth
of its ounce. And for gold, it has its Caftillan, or
one-hundredth of a pound.. Its tomin, containing
12 grains, or one eighth of a caftillan. The fame
are in ufc in the Spailifli Weft -Indies.

Portugal has its arroba, containing 32 Liftjon
arratels, or pounds : Savary alfo mentions its fara-
telle, containing 2 Lifbon pounds : and its rottoli,
containing about 12 pounds. And for gold, its
chego, containing four carats. 1'he fame arc uftJ
in the Portuguefe Eaft-Indies.

Italy, and particularly Venice, have their mig-
liaro, containing four mirrcs ; the mirre contain-
ing 30 V'^enice pounds: the faggio, containing a
fixth part of an ounce. Genoa has five kinds of
weights, vi%. large weights, whereby all mer-
chandizes are weighed at the cuftom-houfe : cafh
weights for piaftres, and other fpecics : the can-
tara, or quintal, for the co.arfeft commodities :
the large ballance for raw filks ; and the fmall bal-
lance for the finer commodities. Sicily has its
rottolo, 32 and a half pounds of Meffina.

Germany, Flanders, Holland, the Hanfc towns,
Sweden, Denmark, Poland, yc. have their ichip-
pondt, which at Antwerp and Hamburgh, is 300
pounds ; at Lubeck, 320 ; and at Coningfberg,
400 pounds. In Sweden, the fchippondt for cop-
per is 320 pounds ; and the fchippondt for provi-
fions 400 pounds. At Riga and Revel, the fchip-
pondt is 400 pounds ; at Dantzic, 340 pounds ;
in Norw.ay, 300 pounds ; at Amfterdam, 300 :
containing 20 lyfpondts, each weighing 15 pounds.
In Mulcovy, they weigh their large commodi-
dities by the kerchero^t, or bcrkev/its, containing
400 of their pounds. They have alfo the poet,
or poede, containing 40 pounds, or one tenth of
the bercherocl.

In order to fliew the proportion of the feveral
weights ufed throughout Europe, we fhall add a
reduction of them to one ftandard, 1:':%. the Lon-
don and Amfterdam pound.

I. Proportion of the weights of the principal
places of Europe.

The ICO lb. of England, Scotland, and Ire-
land, are equal to

lb. oz.

91 8 of Amfterdam, Paris, l£c,

96 8 of Antwerp or Brabant.

88 o of Rouen, the vifcounty weight.
ic6 o of Lyons, the city weight.

90 9 of Roch-lle.
IC7 II of Touloufe and upper Languedoc.
i 1 3 0 of Marfeilles or Provence.

lb. oz.
81 7 of GenCT'a.
93 5 of Hamburgh.
89 7 of Francfort, iSc.

96 r of Leipfick, l^c.
137 4 of Genoa.

132 11 of Leghorn.

153 II of Milan.
152 o of Venice.

154 10 of Naples.

97 O of Seville, Cadiz, l^c.
104 13 of Portugal.

96 5 of Lcige.
112 -J of Rufiia.

107 — of Sweden.
8g 4- of Denmark.

2. Proportion of weights of the chief cities in
Europe, to thole of Amfterdam.

An 100 pounds of Amfterdam are equal to

lb.

108 of Alicant.
105 of Antwerp.

120 of Archangel, or 3 poedes.

♦ 105 of Arfchot.

120 of Avignon.

98 of Bald in Switzerland.
100 of Bayonne in France.
166 of Bergamo.

97 of Bergen-op-zom.

95 ^ of Bergen in Norway.

Ill of Bern.

100 of Bcfancon.

100 of Bilboa.

105 of Bois le due.

151 of Bologna.

100 of Eourdeaux.

104 of Bourg en Brellc.
103 of Bremen.

1 25 of Breflaw.

105 of Bruges.
105 of Erullels.
105 of Cadiz.
105 of Cologne.
125 of Coningfberg.
107 4 of Copenhagen.

o-j rottos of Ccnftantinople.
1 1 34^ of Dantzic.

1 00 of Dort.

97 of Dublin.

97 of Edinburgh.
143 of Florence.

98 of Francfort on the Maine.
105 of Gaunt.

89 of Geneva.

163

WEIGH

lb.
163

102
106
105

of Genoa, cnfli weight.

of Hamburgh.

of Leyden.

of Leipfic.
1054- of Liege.
114 of Lifle.
143 of Leghorn.
1064 of Lilbon.

109 of London, avoirdupoife weight.
105 of Lovaine.

105 of Lubec.

141 ~ of Lucca, light weight.
116 of Lyons, city weight.

of Madrid.

of Marlines.

of Marfeilles.

of Meflina, light weight.

of Milan.

of Montpelier.

hercherodls of Mufcovy.

of Nantes.

of Nancy.

of Naples.

of Nuremberg.

of Paris.

of Revel.

of Riga.

of Rochelle.

of Rome.

of Rotterdam.

of Rouen, vircounty weight,

of St. Ma!o.

of St. Sebaflian.
158 i of Saragola.

106 of Seville.
of Smyrna,
of Stetin.

of Tholoufe and upper Languedoc.
of Turin.
of Valencia,
of Venice, fmall weight.

114
105

154
168
120

125
100
106
169
98

100

II24

109

JOG
146
100

100
100

114

no
81

151

158
182

W EIGHTS, ujed in the fever al -parts of Afta^ the
Enjl-liidies, China, Perfia, is'c. In Turky, at
Smyrna, i3\: they ufe the batman, or battemant,
containing fix occos ; the occo weighing three
pounds four-fifths Engliih. They have another
batman much lefs, confining, as the former, of
Ux occos : but the occo only containing fifteen
ounces Engliih : 44 occos of the firft kind make
the Turkifh quintal. At Cairo, Alexandretta,
Aleppo, and Alexandria, they ufe <.he rotto, rot-
ton, or rottoli. The rottoli at Cairo, and other
parts of Egypt, is 144 drachms; being fomewhat
over an Englifh pound. At Aleppo there are three

Vol. IL No. ^i. . '

549

I forts of rottos : the firft 72O drachms, making
about fcven pounds Englifh, and ferving to weigh
cottons, galls, and other large commodities ; the
fecond is 624 drachms, ufed for all filks but white
ones, which are weighed by the third rotto of 700
drachms. At Seyda the rotto is 600 drachms.

The other ports of the Levant, not named here,
ufe fomc of thefe weights ; particularly the occo
ar ocqua, the rottoli, and rotto.

The Chinefe weights are the piece for large
commodities ; it is divided into 100 catis, or cat-
tis; though fome fome fay into 125 ; the cati into
16 taels, or tales ; each tael equivalent to i 4 of
an ounce Englifli, or the weight of one rial and
-r~, and containing 1 2 mas or malTes, and each mas
10 condrins. So that the Chinefe piece amounts
to 137 pounds Englifh avoirdupoife, and the cati
to I pound 8 ounces. The picol for filk contain-
infi 66 catis and -;;, the bahar, bakaire, or barr,
containing 300 catis.

Tonquin has alfo the fame weights, meafures,
(sfc. as China. Japan has only one weight, viz.
the cati ; which, however, is different from that
of China, as containing 20 taels. At Surat, Agra,
and throughout the Itates of the great Mogul,
they ufe the man, or maund, whereof they have
two kinds ; the king's man, or king's weight ;
and the man fimply; the firft ufeJ for the weigh-
ing of common provifions, containing 40 fcers or
ferres; and each fcer a jufl: Paris pound. The
common man, ufed in the weighing of merchan-
dize, confifls likewife of 40 feers, but each feer is
only eftimatcd at 12 Paris ounces, or ^ of the
other feer.

The man may be looked on as the common
weight of the Eafl-Indies, though under fome
difference of name, or rather of prouimciation ;
it being called mao at Cambaya, and in other places
mein, and maun. The feer is properlv the In-
dian pound, and of univerfiil ufe ; the like may
be faid of the bahar, tael, and catti above-men-
tioned.

The weights of Siam, are the piece, contain-
ing two fhans, or cattis ; but the Siamefe catti is
only half the Japonefe, the latter containing 20
taels, and the former only 10 ; though fomc make
the Chinefe catti only 1 6 taels, and the Siamefe 8.
The tael contains four baats or ticals j each about
a Paris ounce ; the haat 4 fclings or mayons ; tlie
mayon 2 fouangs ; the fouang four payes ; the
paye 2 clams ; and the fompaye half a fouans.

It is to be obferved, that thofc are the names of
their coins as well as weights ; filver and gold be-
ing commodities there fold, as other things, by
their weights.

550 Tfje Univerfal Hlftory of Arts aitd Sciences.

In the ifle of Java, and particularly at Bantam, lalfo the vakie, which exceeds a little our ounce .
they ufe the gantan, which amounts to near three t the fah-cherav, equal to the 1170th part of th
Dutch pounds. In Golconda, at Vifapour and jderhem ; ancl the toman ufed to weigh oar large
Goa, they have the furatelle, containing I pound payments of money, without telling ; its weight
14 ounces Englifh ; the mangalis or mangelin for
weighing diamonds and precious ftones, weighing
at Goa 5 grains, at Golconda, l^c. 5 4 grains.
They have alfo the rotolo containing 14 i ounces
Englilh ; the metricol containing the fixth part of
an ounce ; the wall for piafters and ducats, con-
taining the 73d part of a rial.

In Ferfia they ufe two kinds of batmans or mans,
the one called cahi or cheray, which is the King's
weight ; and the other batman of Tauris. The

is that of 50 abaflis.

African and American weights. ^Ve have little
to fay as to the weights of America : thefeveral
European colonies there making ufe of the weights
of the ftates or kingdoms of Europe they belong
to. For, as to the aroue of Peru, which weighs
27 pounds, it is evidently no other than the Spa-
nifh arroba with a little difference in the name.

As to the weights' of Africa, there are few places
that have any, except Egypt, and the countries

firft weighs 13 pounds 10 ounces Englifh ; the i bordering on the Rlediterrane.in, whofe weights
fecond 6 pounds -'. Its divifions arc the rate!, or J have been already enumerated amrng thofe of

a J 6th ; the derhemor drachm, which is the 50th ;
the niefchal, which is half the dcrhcm ; the dung,
which is the 6th part of the mefehal, being equi-
valent to fix carat-grains ; and, lalfly, the grain,
which is the fourth part of the dung. They have J

the ports of the Levant. The ifland of Mada-
gafcar indeed has weights, but none that exceed
the drachm, nor are they ufed for any thing but

gold and filver.

WINE.

INE, a bri/k, agreable, fpirituous and I

j:„i 1: J c ...Li.

cordial 1

quor.

drawn from vegetable

bodies and fermented.

The charadler of a wine, according te Boer-
haave, is, that the firft thing it affords bydiftillation,
be a thin, oily, inflammable fluid called a fpirit.

This diftinguifhes wines from another clafs of
fermented vegetable juices, Wz. vinegar, which
inftead of fuch fpirit, yields, for the firfl thing, an
acid uninflammable matter.

All forts of vegetables, fiuits, feeds, roots, bSc.
afford wine ; as grapes, currants, mulberries,
elder-berries, cherries, apples, pulfe, beans, peafe,
turneps, radifhes, and even grafs itfeJf Hence
under the clafs of wines, or vinous liquors, come
not only wines abfolutely fo called, but alfo ale,
cyder, l^c.

Wine is, in a more peculiar manner, appropriated
to that, which is drawn from the fruit of the vine,
by damping its grapes in a vat, or crulliing and
txpreiTing the juice out of them in a prefs, and then
fermenting, ijc.

The goodnefs of wine confifts in its being neat,
dry, fine, bright, and hnfk, v/ithout any tafte of
the foil, of a clean fteddy colour, having a ftrength
without being heady, a body without being four,
and keeping without growing hard or eager. The
difference of flavour, tafte, colour, and body,
in wines, is, perhaps, as much owing toths diffe-
rent manner and time of preffing, gathering, fer-

menting iic. the grape, as to any difference of
the grape itfelf. In Hungary, whence tockay and
fome of the richeft and higheli flavoured wines come,
they are extremely curious in thefe refpe(Sls : for
their prime and moft delicate wines, the grape is
fufrered to continue upon the vine, till it is half
dried by the heat of the fun ; and, if the fun's heat
fhould not prove fufRcient, they are dried by the
gentle heat of a furnace, and then picked one by
one from the ftalks ; the juice of this grape, when
prefled out, is of a fine flavour, and fweet as fugar :
this, after due fermentation, is kept for a year,
and then racked from the lees, when it proves a
generous, oily, rich wine, and is fold at a very
high rate. The Hungarians prepare a fecond fort
of wine, by collecting together the better kind of
grapes, carefully picking the better kind of grapes,
carefully picking the fruit from the ftalks, and then
preffing out the juice : this is extremely fweet,
and is made richer by infufing in it, after it has
fermented for fome days, a fufficient quantity of
half dried grapes. This wine is very fweet, oily
of a grateful tafte, and retains thefe qualities for a
long time. There is a third fort made from the
pure juice of the fame kind of grape, without any
addition. This is a more briflc and lively wine,
and far lefs fweet. They likcwife prepare a fourth
fort, from grapes of different goodnefs mixed to-
gether; this though not fo generous, is neverlhe-
lefs an excellent wine. Thefe Hungarian wines

ar«

WINE.

are remarkable for preferving their fweetnefs, and
for the delicacy of their taltc and fmell ; they,
likewife, do not grow eafily vapid, and may be
kept in perfedtion for many years.

Wine being a liquor moftly of foreign produce,
the divers names, forms, kinds, diiUnifbioiis, ISc.
thereof, are borrowed from the countries where
it is produced ; the principal whereof, at this day,
is f'rance, to wines of which country, a good part
of what we have to fay of this noble liquor, will
more immediately belong.

Wine in France is diflinguifhed from the feve-
ral degrees and Heps of its preparation, into, i.
Aiere goutte, mother drop, which is the virgin
wine, or that which runs of itfelf out at the top of
the vat wherein the grapes are laid, before the vin-
tager enters to tred or (lamp the grapes. 2. Muft,
furmuft, or ftum, which is the wine or liquor in
the vat, after the grapes have been trod or ftam-
ped. 3. Preffed wine, being that fqueezed with a
prefs out of the grapes half bruifed by the treading.
The hufks left of the grapes are called rope, murk,
or mark, by throwing water upon which, and
preirmg themafrefh, they make a liquor for fervants
ufe, anfwerable to our cyderkin, and called bo'tjon,
which is of feme ufe in medicine, in the cure of
diforders occafioned by vifcid humours. 4. Sweet
wine, is that which has not yet worked nor fer-
mented. 5. Bouru, that which has been prevent-
ed working by caiting in cold water. 6. Worked
wine, that which has been let work in the vat, to
give it a colour. 7. Boiled wine, that which has
had a boiling before it worked, and which by that
meansftill retains its native fweetnefs. 8. Strained
wine, that made by fteeping dry grapes in water,
and letting ii ferment of itfelf. Wines are alfo di-
flinrruiflicd with regard to their colour into white

wine, red wine, claret wine, pale wine, rofe, or
black wine ; and with regard to their country, or
the foil that produces them, into French wines,
Spanifli wine-, Rhenifli wines, Hungary wines,
Greek wines, Canary wines, l3\. and more par-
ticularly into Port v.'ine, IVladeira wine, Bur-
gundy wine, Champaign wine, Falernian wine,
Tockay wine, Schiras wine, L=f..

jMctbod of mak:nz-, fi-'i'ig, Sic. Wine. In the
fouthern parts of France, their way is with red
wines to tread or fqueeze the grapes between the
hands, and to let the whole ftand, juice and hufks,
till the tindure be to their liking ; after which they
prefs it. But for white wines, they prefs the grapes
immediately; when prefied, they tun the muftand
ilop up the \'efl"e!, cniy leaving the deptof a foot
or more to give room for it to work.

At the end of ten days they fill this fpace with
feme other proper wine, that will not pro-

voke it to work again. This they repeat from
time to time, new wine fpending itfelf a iittie be-
fore it comes to perfection.

The ul'ual method of fining down wines, fo as
to render them expeditioufly bright, clear, and fit
for ufe, is this. Take an ounce of ifin'_;iafs, beat
it into thin fhreads with a hammer, and di/Tolve
it, by boiling, in a pint of water ; this, when cold,
becomes a flifF jelly. Whifk up fomeof this jelly
into a froth with a little of the wine intended to
be fined, then ftir it well among the reft in the
ca(k, and bung it down tight ; by this means the
wine will become bright in eight or ten days.
This method, however, is found to be bell fuited
to the white wines ; for the red ones, the wine-
coopers commonly ufe the whites of eggs beat up
to a froth, and mixed in the fame manner with
their wines.

They fine it down alfo by putting the (havings
of green beech into the veiFel, having firft taken
ofFallthe rind, and boiled them an hour in water
to extract their ranknefs, and afterwards dried them
in the fun, or in an oven. A bufhel of thefe ferve
for a tun of wine ; and being maflied, they fcive
again and again, till almofl quite confumed.

For Engliih wine, the method recommended by
Mortimer, is firft to gather the grapes when very
dry, to pick them from the italks, then to prefs
them, and let the juice itand twenty-four hours
in a vat covered. Afterwards to draw it off from
the grofs lees, and then put it up in a cafk, and
to add a pint or quart of ftrong red or white port
to every gallon of juice, and let the whole work,
bunging it up clofe, and letting it ftand till Janu-
ary ; then bottle it in dry weather. Bradley
chufes to have the liquor, when prefled, ftand
with the hufks, llalks, and all in the vat, to fer-
ment for fifteen days.

The method of converting white-wine into red,
fo much praflifed by the modern wine -coopers.
Dr. Shaw obferves, is this. Put four ounces of
turnefole rags into an earthen veficl, and pour
upon them a pint of boiling water ; cover the yef-
fel clofe, and leave it to cool ; (train ofi^ the li-
quor, which will be of a fine deep red, inclining
to purple. A fmall portion of this colours a lar^e
quantity of wine. This tincture might be eidrer
made in brandy, or mixed with it, or elfe made
into a fyrup, with fugar, for keeping. A com-
mon way with the wine-coopers is to infufe thi
rags cold in wine for a night or more, and then
wring them out with their hands ; but the incon-
veniency of this method is, that it gives the wins
a difagreeable tafte ; or what i.^ commonly called
the tafte of the rag ; whence the wines, thus co-
loured, ufually pafs among judges for prefftd wines,
4 B 2 which

The Univcrfal Hifiiofy (5/*Arts ^W Sciences.

552

which huve all this tafte from the canvas rags in
which the lees are prefTcd.

The way of extracting the tincirure, as here
dircfted, is not attended with this inconvenience ;
but it loads the wine with water ; and if made into
a fyrup, or mixed in brandy, it would load the
wine with things not wanted, fince the colour
alone is required. Hence the colouring of wines
has always its inconvcniencies.

In thole countries which do not produce the
tinging grape, which affords a blood-red juice,
wherewith the wines of France are often ftained, in
defedl of this, the juice of tldcr-berries is uled,
and fometimes logwooil is ufcd at Oporto.

The colour afforded by the method here pro-
pofed, gives wine the tinge of the Bourdeaux-red,
not the Port ; whence the foreign coopers are of-
ten diftreffed for want of a proper colouring for
red wines in bad years. This might, perhaps,
be fupplied by an extrafl: made by boiling ftick-
lack in water. The fkins of tinging-grapes might
alfo be ufed, and the matter of the turnefole pro-
cured in a folid form, not imbibed in rags.

Stahl obferves, that it is a common accident,
and a difcafe in wines, to be kept too hot ; which
is not eafy to cure when it has been of any long
continuance, otherwife it may be cured by intro-
ducing a fmall artificial fermentation, that new
ranges the parts of the wine, or rather recovers
• their former texture : but the a£lual expofing of
■wine to the fire, or the fun, pi^efcntly difpofes it
to turn eager ; and the making it boiling hot, is
one of the quickcfl: ways of expediting the procefs
of makin<r of vinegar.

On the other hand, wine kept in a cool vault,
and well fecured from the external air, will pre-
ferve its texture entire in all the conftituent parts ;
and fufficiently ftrong for many years, as appears
not only from old wines, but other foreign fer-
mented liquors, particularly thofe of China, pre-
pared from a decoftion of rice, which being well
clofed down in a velTel, and buried deep under
ground, will continue, for a long feries of years,
rich, generous, and good, as the hifrories of that
country univerfally agree in afluring us.

The moft general remedy hitherto known for
all the difeafes of wines, is a prudent ufe of tar-
tarized fpirit of wine, which not only enriches,
but difpofes all ordinary wines to grow fine.

If either by fraud or accident a larger portion of
water is mixed v.ith wine than is proper for its
confiftence, and no way neceffary or efl'ential, this
fuperfluous water does not only deprave the taftc,
.ind fpoil the excellence of the wine, but alfo ren-
ders it lefs durable ; for humidity in general, and
much more a fuperfluous aqueous humidity, is

the primary and refllefs inilrument of all the
changes that are brought on by fermentation. It
may doubtlcfs, therefore, be ufeful, and fome-
times abfolutely ncccfTary, to take away this fu-
perfluous water from the other part which ftriclly
and properly conftitutcs the wine. This has been
agreed upon on all hands as a thing proper ; but
the manner of doing it has not been well agreed
on ; fome have propofed the efFetiing it by means
of heat and evaporation, others by percolation,
and others by various othsr methods, all found
unfuccefsful when brought to the trial; but the
way propofed by Dr. Shaw from Stahl, is the
m<5(l certain and commodious ; this is done by a
concentration of the wine, not by means of heat,
but ofcold.

If any kind of wine, but particularly fuch as
has never been adulterated, be in a fufficient quan-
tity, as that of a gallon or more, expofed to a
fufficient degree of cold in frofly weather, or be
put into any place where ice continues all the year,
as in our ice-houfes, and there fuffered to freeze,
the fuperfluous water that was originally con-
tained in the wine, will be frozen into ice, and
will leave the proper and truly eflential part of the
wine unfrozen, unlefs the degree of cold fhould
be very intenfe, or the wine but weak and paor.
This is the principle on which Stahl founds his
whole fyflem of condenfmg wines by cold. When
the frolt is moderate, the experiment has no dif-
ficulty, becaufe not above a third or a fourth
part of the fuperfluous water will be froze in a
whole night ; but if the cold be very intenfe, the
beft way is, at the end of a few hours, when a
tolerable quantity of ice is formed, to pour out
the remaining fluid liquor, and fet it in another
vefTel to freeze again by itfelf. If the veffel, that
thus by degrees receives the feveral parcels of the
condenfed wine, be fuffered to fland in the cold
freezing place where the operation is performed,
the quantity lying thin in the pouring out, or
otherwife, will be very apt to freeze anew ; and
if it be fet in a warm place, fome of this aqueous
part thaws again, and fo weakens the reft. The
condenfed wine, therefore, fhould be emptied in
fome place of a moderate degree as to cold or
heat, where neither the ice may dilToIve, nor the
vinous fubftance mixed among it be congealed.
But the befi: expedient of all is to perform the
operation with a large quantity of wine, or that
of feveral gallons, where the utmofl: exa£tnefs, or
the danger of a trifling wafte, need not be re-
garded.

By this method, when properly performed,
there firft freezes about one third part of the
whole liquor ; and this is properly the more

purely

IV I N E,

S^Z

purely aqueous part of it, infomuchthatwhen all the
vinous fluid is pourcif off, to be again expofed to a
concentration, the ice remaining behind, from
this hrll freezing, being fet to thaw in a warm
place, dilTolves into a pure and taftelefs water.
'i"he frozen part, or ice, confifls only of the wa-
tery part of the wine, and may be thrown away,
and the liquid part retains all the ilrcngth, and is
to be preferved. This will never grow four,
mufty, or mouldy afterwards, and may at any
time be reduced to wine of the common kind
again, by adding to it as much water as will make
it up to the quantity that it was before.

Wines in general may by this method be re-
duced to any degree of vinofity or pcrfeiftion.

The benefit and advantage of this method of
congelation, if reduced to practice in the large
way, in the wine countries, muft be evident to
every body. Concentrated wines, in this man-
ner, might be fent into foreign countries, inftcad
of wine and water, which is what i. ufiially i^ow
fent, the wines they export being loaded, and in
danger of being fpoiled by three or four times their
ov/n quantity of unneceffary, fuperfluous, and
prejudicial water.

An eafy method of recovering pricked wines,
may be learned from the following experiment :
take a bottle of red port that is pricked, add to
it half an oimce of tartarized i'pirit of wine, fhakc
the liquor well together, and fet it by for a few
days, and it will be found very remarkably altered
for the better.

This experiment depends upon the ufeful doc-
trine of acids and alkalies. All perfetS wines have
naturally fome acidity, and when this acidity pre-
vails too much, the wine is faid to be pricked,
wl'.ich is truly a ftate of the wine tending to vine-
gar : but the introduilion of a fine alkaline fait,
fuch as that of tartar, imbibed by fpirit of wine,
has a dire£l powerof taking off the acidity, and the
fpirit of wine alfo contrbutes to this, as a great
prefervative in general of wines.

If this operation be dextroufly performed, prick-
ed wines may be abfolutely recovered by it, and
remain falcable for fome time : and the fame mc
thod may be ufed to malt liquors jufl turned four.

The age of wine is properly reckoned by leave ;
thus they fay wine of two, four, or fix leaves, tr,
fignify wine of two, four, or fix years old ; taking
each new leaf put foi th by the vine, fince the wine
was made, for a year.

The net duties to be paid on importation of all
wines into the port of London, and repaid on ex-
portation, are as follows.

Wines imported by Britifh for fale. Rhcnifli.
German, or Hungary wines, the ton, filled in

cades, pay, on importation, 35I. 2s .V^d. and
on exportation, draw back 26I. 13s. 8j?'d. in
bottles, on importation, 35I. 15s. 3-,'-^od. and
draw back, on exportation, 27I. 5s. 4,°-o<^'
Portugal or Madeira wine, the ton filled in cafks,
pays on importation, 28I. 8s. 3Tvv,d. and, on
exportation, draws back 20I. 6s. 4 ~.^d. in bot-
tles, on importation, 31'. 5s. 3,v;\,''' ^nd, on
exportation, draws back 22I. 15s. \^\r,^- French
wine, the ton filled in cafk, on importation, pays
60I. 1 6s. 4y-^-^.d. and, on exportation, draws
back, 26I. 2s. ii~,!,\d. in bottles, on importa-
tion, 64I. 5s. 4, -J,- d. and, on exportation, draws
back 27I. i8s. 8,'^\,d. Levant and all other wines,
the ton filled in cafks pays, on importation, 29!.
4s. 9f~d. and, on exportation, draws back 21 1.
2S. iO-;-^d. in bottles, on importation, pays 32I.
3s, g_'_i_d. and, on exportation, draws back, 23I.
13s. iO-,-|-^d. Wines imported by Britifh for
private ufe. Rhenifh, German, or Hungary wine,
the ton filled in cafks, pays, on import-tion, 36I.
3i'o°od. and, on exportation, draws back 27I. 5s.
iO-r-°^d. in bottles, on importation, the ton pays
36I. 13s 6d. and, on exportation, draws back»
27I. 17s. 6d. Portugal or Madeira wine, the ton
filled in cafks, on importation, pays 29I. 6s. 6d.
and, on exportation, draws back 20I. i8s. 6d. in
bottles, on importation, 32I. 3s. 6d, and, on
exportation, draws back 23I. 7s. 6d. French wine,
the ton filled in cafks, pays, on importation, 61I. 8s.
6d.and, on exportatinn, draws back 26I. i is. ,t,°od.
in bottles, on importation, 64I. 17s. 6d. and, on ex-
portation, draws back 28I. 6s. icd. Levant and all
all other wines, the ton filled incaflis, pays, on im-
portation, 30I. 3'5. and, on exportation, draws back
21I. 15s. in bottles, on importation, 33I. 2s. and,
on exportation, draws back 24I. 6s. And befides
the afore-mentioned duties, all wines imported into
the Port of London, are to pay to the ufeof theor-
phans of the faid city, for every ton, 4s.

Wines imported by forcignf;rs are to pay, befides
the afnrefaid duties, the under-mentioned, which
mufl: be added refpeflively to the duties payable by
Britifli. Rhenlfli, German or Hungary wines, the
ton filled in cafks, on importation, pays 4!. 8s.
2^t?^d. and, on exportation, draws back 4I. 3s.
2/°^^d. in bottles, on iinportation, 4I. los. and,
on exportation, draws back 4I. 5s. French wine,
the ton in cafks, pays, on importation, 4I. 4s.
7,\;°^d. and, on exportation, draws back 3I. ig-',
7-^^°j,d. in bottles, on importation, 4I. los. and,
onexportation, draws back 4I. 5s. Levant ?nd all other
wines, filled in cafks, the ton pays, on importation,
4I. IS. and, on exportation, draws back 3I. ifcf.
in bottles, on importation, 4I. los. and, onex-
portation, draws back 4I, 5s. And befides thofe

duties.

554- ^^^ Unlvcrfal Hiflory ^Arts and Sciences.

dutie.';, all wines of the growth of the Levant, im-
ported hUo any port by foreigners, are to pay to the
ufe of the town of Southampton, for every butt oi
pipe, I OS.

Wine is alfo a denomination applied in medi-
cine and pharmacy to divers mixtures and com-
pofitions wherein the juice of the grape is a princi-
pal insjredienr.

With regard to the medical ufes of wines, it is ob-
ferved, that amongthe great variety of wines in com-
mon ufe among us, five are employed in the {hops as
menftrua for medicinal fimples ; that is, the vinum
album Hirpanicum,ormountainwine;thevinum al-
bum gallicum, or French white wine ; the Canary
wine, or fack ; the rhenifh wine ; and the red port.
The efFedls of thefc liquors on the human body, arc
to chear the fpirits, wa: m the habit, promote perfpi-
ration, render the veflels full and turgid, raife the
pulfe,and quicken the circulation. The effe£ls of the
full bodied wines are much more durable than thofe
of the thinner ; all fweet wines, as Canary.
abound with a glutinous, nutritious fubftance,
whilft the others are not nutrimental, or only
accidentally fo, by ftrengthening the organs em
ployed in digellion. Sweet wines, in general
do not pafs off freely by urine ; and they hea;
the conftitution m^ore than an equal quantity

of any other, though

containm;}'

full as much

fpirit : red port, and mod of the red v;ines, have
in aftringent quality, by which they ftrenghen the
•■one of theftomach,and thus prove ferviceable for
rcftraining immoderate fecretions ; thofe which
ire of an acid nature, as rhcnifh, pafs freely by
the kidneys, and gently loofen the belly. It is
fuppofed that thefe laft exafperate and occafion
gouty calculous diforders, and that new wines of
every kind have this effcdt.

Wine-spirit, a term ufed by ourdiftillers, and
which may fecm to mean the fame thing with the
phrafe of fpiritof wine; but they are taken in very
different fcnfes in the trade.

Spirit of wine is the name given to the common
malt fpirit, when reduced to an alcohol, or totally
inflammable ftate ; but the phrafe wine-fpirit is ufed
to exprefs a very clean and fine fpirit, of the ordi-
nary proof ftrength, and made in England from
wines of foreign growth.

The way of producing it is by fimplediftillation,
and it is never re£lified any higher than common
)ubble proof. The feveral wines of different na-
iires, yield very different proportions of fpirit ;
hut, in general, the ftrongefl yield one fourth,
the weakeft in fpirits Cvie eight part of proof-fpirit ;
hat is, they contain from a fixteenth to an eight
part of their quantity of pure alcohol.

R E.

WIRE, WIAR, wiER, orvvYRE, 3 piece j
of metal drawn through the hole an iron I
into a thread of a finenefs anfwerable
to the hole it pa/Ted ;hrough.

Wires are frequently drawn (o fine, as to be '
wrought along wih other threads of filk, wool,'
flax, ^c. I

The metals moft commonly drawn into wire,
are gold, filver, c. ;>per, and iron. i

Gold wire is made ot cylindrical ingots of filver,
covered o\cr with a ikm of gold, and thus drawn
fucceffively through a vaft number of holes, each'
fmaller and fmall-rr ; till at lalf it is brought to a
finenefs excetJmgihat of a hair. That admirable
ductility vvhich makes one of the diftinguifhing
charadiers ot g^ Id, is no where m^re conipicuous,
than in this gilt wire. A c\linderof forty tight
ounces of filver, covered wiihucoat ofg Id, cmly
weighing one ounce, as Dr. Hailey informs us, is
ufually drawn int.! a wire, two yards of which wei^h
no more than vne ^rain ; wh' nee ninetv-eight ■
yards of the wire vvei-h no more then forty- nine
grains, and one firgle grain of gold covers the
ninety-eight yards ; ib th.,tihe ten-thoufandth part
of a grain is above o.ic-eigl.t of an inch long. 'I"he
fame author computinGf thethicknefs of the fkin of

gold, found it to he^^l-^^-g part of an inch. Yet
lo perfectly does it cover the filver, that even a
microfcope does not difcover any appearance of the
filver underneath. M. Rohault likcwife obferves,
that a like cylinder of filver, covered with gold,
two feet eight inches long, and two inches nine
lines in circumference, is drawn into a v/ire 307200
feet long, ;'. ^. into 1 15200 times its former lei gth.
Mr. Boyle ivlates, that eight grains of gold, co-
vering a cylinder of fih er, is commonly drawn
into a wire 13000 feet long.

Silver-wire is the fame with gold-wire, except
that the latter is gilt, or co\eied with gold, and
the other is not.

There are alfo counterfeit gold and filver-wires ;
the firft made of a cylinder of copper, filvered over,
and then covered with gold ; and tlie fecond cf a
like cylinder of copper, filvered ever, and drawn
through the iron, after the fame manner as gold
and filver-wire.

Brafs v/ire is drawn after the fame manner as
the former. Of this there are divers fizes, fuited
t.) the different kinds of works. The finert: is ufed
for the firings of mufical inflrurnents, as fpinet.<:,
haii^richoids, manichords, is'e. See the article
SriNETj C?V.

The

TVirCHCRAFT,

555

The pin-makers, likewifc, ufevaft quantities of
brafs-vvire, to mnke their pins of.

Iron-wire is drawn of various fizes, from half
an inch to one tenth of an inch diameter.

The firil iron that runs from the ftone, wiien
meUing, being the fotteft and touglieft, is pre-
ferved to make wire of. Iion-wire is made from
fmall bars of iron called eflcom iron, which are
firft drawn out to a greater length, and to about
the ihickncfs of ones little finger, at a furnace,
■with a hammer gently moved by water. Thcfe
thinner pieces are bored round, and put into a
furnace to anca! for twelve hours. A pretty firrong
fire is ufeJ for this operation. After this they are
Jaid under water for three or four months, tiie
longer the better; then they are delivered to the
workmen, called rippers, who draw them into
wire liiro' two or three holes. After this they
aneal them again for iix l..,urs, and water them a
fecond time for about a week, and they are then
delivered again to the ri]ip?rs, who draw them in-
to wire of the thicknels of a large packthread.
They are then aneal- d a third time, and then wa-
tered for a week loivier, ;.nd delivered to the fmall
wire -drawers, called ovtr-houfe men.

In the mill where this work is performed, there
are feveral barrels hooped with iron, which have
two hooks on their upper fides, on each whereof
hang two links, which ftand acrofs, and are faft-
ened to the two ends of the tongs, which catch
hold of the wire, and draw it through the hole.
The axis on which the barrel moves does not run
through the center, but is placed on one fide,
which is that on which the hooks are placed ; and
underneath their is faftened to the barrel a fpoke
of wood, which they call a fwingle, which is
drawn back a good way by the cogs in the axis
of the wheel, and draws back the barrel, which

falls to again by its own weight. The tongs hang-
ing on the hooks of the barrel, are by the work-
men faftened to the end of the wire, and by the
f )rcc of the wheel, the hooks being pulled back,
draw the wire through the holes. The plate in
which the holes are, is iron on the outfide, and
ftetl on the infidc ; and the wire is anointed with
train-oil, to make it run the eafier.

Wire of Lapland. The inhabitants of Lapland
have a fott of fhining flendcr fubftance in ufe a-
mo/ig them on feveral occafions, which is much
of the thicknefs and appearance of our fiKcr-wire,
and IS therefore called, by thofe who do not ex-
amine its ftrudfure or fubfrance, Lapland-wire. It
!■> made of the fmews of the reindeer, which be-
ing carefully feparated in the eatinc;, are by the
women, after foaking in water, and beaten, fpun
into a fort of thread, of admirable finenefs and
ffrength, when wrought to the fm,;IIefi: filaments ;
but when larger, is very ftj'oiig, and fit for the
purpofcs of ftrength and force. Their wire, as it
is called, is made of the finefl: of thefe threads,'
covered with tin. The women do this bufinefs,
and the way they take is to melc a piece of tin,
and placing at the edge of it a horn with a hole
through it, they draw thefe finewy threads, co-
vered with the tin, through the hole, which pre-
vents their coming out too thick covered. This
drawing is performed with their teeth ; and there
is a fmall piece of bone placed at the top of the
hole, where the wire is made flat, fo that we al-
ways find it rounded on all fides but one, where
it is flat.

This wire they ufe in embroidering their cloaths
as we do gold and filver ; they often fell it to
ftrangers, under the notion of its having certain
magical virtues.

W IT C H C RA F r.

WICTHCRAFT, a kind of forcery, ef-
pecially in women, in which it is ridi-
ciiloufly fuppofed that an old woman,
by entering into a contrail with the dcv'l, is ena-
bled, in many inflances, to change the courfe of
nature ; to raife winds ; perform a£fions that re-
quire more than human ftrength ; and to afflitSt
thofe who offend them with the fharpeft pains,

In the times of ignorance and fuperftition, many

k\txQ laws were made againfl witches, bv which
great numbers of innocent perfons, diftreHed with
poverty and age, were brought to a violent death ;
but thefe are now happily repe;ded.

WITENA-MOTjorWiTENA-GEMOT, among
our faxon ancefiors, was a term which literally
fignified the affembly of the wife men, and was
applied to the great council of the n^ition, of latter
days called the parliament.

WOOL,

55^ The Unlveriiil Hidory of Ajirs a7id Sciences,

WOOL,

WOOL, the covering of flieep, Each
fleece coiififts of woo! of feveral qualities
a'.nl degrees of iincnefs, which the dca-
lers therein take care to feparate.

The Englifh and French ufually feparate each
fleece into three principal forts, viz. i. Mother-
wool, which is that of the back and neck. 2.
The wool of the tails and legs. 3. That of the
breafi: and under the belly. The wool moft ef-
teemed is the Englifli, chiefly that about Leomin-
fler, Cotfwold, and the Ifle of Wiglit ; the Spa-
nifh, principally that about Segovia j and the
French, about Berry.

The finenefs and plenty of- our wool is owing
in a great meafure to the (hcrt fweet gral's in many
of our paflures and downs ; though the advantage
of our fheeps feeding on this grafs all the year,
without being obliged to be fliut up under cover
during the winter, or to fecure them from wolves
at other times, contributes not a little to it.

Antiently, the principal commerce of the nation
confifted in wool unmanufactured ; which foreigners,
efpecially the French, Dutch, and Flemifh, bought
of us, infomuch, that the cufloms paid on wool
exported in the reign of Edward III. amounted,
at 50s. a pack, to 250,0001. per annum. An
jmmenle fum in thofe days I But as wool is now
accounted a flaple commodity, the employment of
an infinite number of people at home, and our
moft beneficial trade abroad, depending upon it,
very fevere laws have been made to prevent its
being exported, and perfons that export wool be-
yond the feas, are liable to a forfeiture of the
ihips or vefTels in which it is found, with treble
the value, and the perfons aiding and affifting in
it fhall fuffer three years imprifonment. It is alio
cnafted, that no (heep fhal'i be carried on board
any fliip with intent to be e.xported, upon forfei-

ture of 20s. for every fheep; that the owners
knowing thereof, are to forfeit their intereft there-
in ; that if they be aliens, or natural born fubjctfts
not inhabiting this kingdom, fuch fliips fhall be
wholly forfeited ; that the mafters and mariners
knowing thereof, and aflifting therein, are to for-
feit all their goods and chattels, and tofufter three
months imprifonment ; and that the exporter, be-
fides other penalties, fhall be rendered incapable
offuingfor any debt, {5V. As to the importation
of wool, Irifh wool, combed or uncombed. Spa-
nifh and Polifh wool may be imported duty free.

Wool is alfo ufed for the foft hair growing
on fe\eral wild hearts, the fkins of which are dif-
tinguilhed by the name of furrs.

Thcfe kinds of wool, on being imported, pay
the following duties : bever-v/ool, cut and combed,
14s. id. the pound : the whole of which is drawn
hack on exportation : but if this wool be combed
n RufTia, and imported from thence in Britifli
fhips, it is free. Coney-wool, the pound,

izlld. draw back i_Zld.

100 100

Eflridge wool, imported in Britifli-built fhips, free;

but if imported in thofe that are foreign built, it

pays 6s. S-i^gd. the 112 pounds: draw back, 6s.

tVo*^- Stanes-wool, the pound :L_Lid. draw back

100

64Kd.

100

Woolen Manufactory includes the feve-
ral forts of commodities into which wool is
wrought, as broad cloth, long and fhort kerfeys,
bays, ferges, flannel, perpetuanas, fays, flruffs,
frize, penniftones, ftockings, caps, rugs, l^c.

WORD.

ORD, in language, an articulate found
defigned to reprefent fome Idea,

The Port-royalifts define wcrds to be diftincSl
articulate founds, agreed on by mankind to con-
vey their thoughts and fentiments by.

Word, in writing, is defined to be an aflem-
blage of feveral letters forming one or more fylla-
bks, and expreifing the name, quality, or man-
ner of a thing.

Etymology and fyntax being the two parts of
grammar converfant about words, the fu-fl of thefe
explains the nature and propriety of words, and
the other treats of the right compofition of words
in difcourfe.

The mofl: remarkable thing in the pronouncing
of words, is the accent, or the elevation of the
voice, on fome particular fyllable of the v/ord,
which elevation is neceflarily followed by a de-
preffion of the voice.

Grarumarians

TV 0 R D.

Grammarians generally divide words into eight
clsfles, called parts of fpeech.

Words arc again divided into primatives and
derivatives, fimple and compound, fynonimous
and equivocal.

With regard to their fyllables, words arc farther
divided into monofyllables and polyfyllables.

The grammatical figures of words which occa-
fion changes in the form, i^c. thereof are profthe-
fis, aphxrefis, fyncope, epenthefis, apocope, pa-
ragoge, crafis, disrefis, metathefis, and anithc-
fis.

The ufe of words, we have obferved, is to fcrve
as fenfible figns of our ideas ; and the ideas they
ftand for in the mind of the perfon that fpeaks,
arc their proper fignifications.

Simple and primitive words have no natural
connedtion with the things they fignify, whence
there is no rationale to be given of them ; it is
by mere arbitrary inftitution and agreement ol
men, that they come to fignify any thing. Cer-
tain words have no natural propriety or aptitude
to exprefs certain thoughts more than others ;
were that the cafe there could have been but one
language. But in derivative and compound words
the cafe is fomewhat different. In the forming of
thefe, we fee regard is had to agreement, relation,
and analogy ; thus moil words that have the fame
ending, have one common and general way of de-
noting or fignifying things ; and thofe com-
pounded with the fame prepofitions, have a fimilar
manner of expreffing and fignifying fimilar ideas,
in all the learned languages where they occur.

For the perfe£lion of language, it is not enough,
Mr. Locke obferves, that ibunds can be made
figns of ideas, unlefs thefe can be made ufe of fo
as to comprehend feveral particular things ; for the
multiplication of words would have perplexed
their ui'e, had every particular thing needed a dif-
tinit name to be fignified by. To remedy this
inconvenience, language had a further improve-
ment in the ufe of general terms, whereby one
word was made to mark a multitude of particular
exiftences ; which advantageous ufe of founds
was obtained by the difference of the ideas they
were made figns of, thofe names becoming general
which are made to ftand for general ideas, and
thofe remaining particular, where the ideas they
are ufed for are particular.

557

It is obfervable, that the words which ftand for
adions and notions, quite removed from fenfe, arc
borrowed from fenfible ideas ; as to imagine, ap-
prehend, comprehend, undcrftand, adhere, con-
ceive, inftil, difguft, diflurbance, tranquility, d?V.
which are all taken from the operations of things
fenfible, and applied to modes of thinking. Si)irit,
in its original fignification, is no more than breath ;
angel, a meftenger. liy which we may gucfs
what kind of notions they were, and whence de-
rived, which filled the minds of the firft beginncis
of languages ; and how nature, even in the nam-
ing of things unawares, fuggeftcd to men the
originals of all their knowledge: whilft to give
names that might make known to others any ope-
rations they felt in themfelves, or anyothe; ideas
that came not under their fenfes, they were forced
to borrow words from the ordinary and known
ideas of fenfation.

The ends of language in our difcourfc with
others, are chiefly three ; firif, to make our
thoughts or ideas known one to another. This
we fail in, i. when we ufe names without clear
and diftinft ideas in our mind. 2. When we ap-
ply received names to ideas, to which the common
u)e of that language doth not apply them. 3.
When we apply them unfteadily, making them
ftand now for one, and anon for another idea.
Secondly, to make known our thoughts with as
much eafe and quicknefs 33 pofTible. This men
fail in, when they ha\e complex ideas, v.-iihout
having diftind: names for them, .which may happen
either through the dcfciSt of a language wliich iias,,
none, or the fault of the man v.-ho has not yet
learned them. T'hirdly, to convey the know-
ledge of things. This cannot be done, but
when our ideas agree to the reality of thinc-s.
He that has names without ideasj wants mean-
ing in his wcrds, and fpeaks only emptv founds.
He that has complex ideas, without names
for them, wants difpatch in his expreffion.
He that ufes his words loofely and unfteadily, will
either not be minded or not underftood. He that
applies names to ideas, different frc^n tlie common
ufe, wants propriety in his language, and fpeaks
gibberifh ; and he that has ideas of fubftances dif-
agrceing with the real exiftence of th.ings, lb far,
wants the materials of true knowledge.

Vol. II.

IF O R L D,

^^8 7^^ Univcrlcil Hiftoiy (j/* Arts and Sciehcez-.

PF 0 k L D.

'ORLD, mundus, the affemblage of parts
v/hieh compol'e the univerfe.

The duration of the world is a thing
which has been greatly difputed. Plato, after
Ocellus Lucanus, held it to be eternal, and to
have flowed from God as rays (low from the fun.
Ariftotlc was much of the fame mind ; he aflerts,
that the world was not generated fo as to begin to
be a world, which before was none: he lays down
a pre-e::ifting and eternal matter as a principle,
and thence argues the world eternal. His argu-
ments amount to this, that it is i'.-npoflible an
eternal ngent, having an eternal paffive fubject,
feould Continue long without aftion. His opinion
was generally followed, as feeming to be the fitteft
to end the difputc among fo many fe6ts about the
fiiil caufe.

Epicurus, hov/ever, though he makes matter
eternal, yet (hews the world to be but a new

thing formed out of a fortuitous concourfe of
atoms.

Some of the modern philofopers refute the ima-
ginary eternity of the world by this argument, that '
if it be abetcrno, there mufl have been a genera-
tion of individuals in a continual fuccclTion from
all eternity, lince no caufe can be aifigned why
they (hould not be generated, f/z. one from ano-
ther. Therefore to confider the origin of things^'
and the fcries of caufes, we muft go back in infi-
nitum, 7. e. there muft have been an infinite
number of men aad other individuals already ge-
nerated, which fub verts the very notion of number. '
And if the caufe which now generates has been,
produced by an infinite feries of caufes, how fhall
an infinite I'eries be ? Dr. Halley fuggefts a new
method of finding the age of the world, from the
degree of the faltnefs of the ocean.

WORM S,

WORMS, in the linnfcan fyftem of na-
nature, a clafs of infects of the order
of the apteria, and of the clafs of the

anarthra. , r •

The diftinguifhing character of this clafs is,
that they have the mufcles of their body affixed
toafolid bafis. The feveral fpecics of worms are
very nunterous ; as the ch;etia, or the hair-worm,
called alfo the guinea- worm; the afcaris, the lum-
bricus, or earth-worm, and fea-worm ; the taenia,
or tape-worm ; the ficyania, or gourd-worm ; the
iulus or gally-worni, i^c.

Worms, in hufbandry, are very prejudicial to
corn-fields, eating up the roots of the young
corn, and deftroying great quantities of the crop.
Sea-falt is the belt of all things for deftroyingthem.
§ea-watcr is proper to fprinkle on the land, v.'here
i; can be had ? where the falt-fprings are, their
water will do; and where neither are at hand, a
.little common or bay-falt does as well. Soot will
"t'.eftroy them i n forne lands, but is not to be de-
-nended upon, for it does not always fucceed. Some
farmers itrew on their lands a mixture of chalk
and lifhe ; and others truft wholly to their winter
falio-vving '« ^^ ^'' '^ ^'^'^ '^ ^'^"^ '" ^ ^^^ feafon,

when they come up to the furface of the ground,
and fome nails with fliarp heads be driven into the
bottom of the plough. If they are troublefome in gar-
dens, the rcfufe brine of falted meat will ferve the
purpofe, or fome walnut leaves fteeped in a ciflern
of water for a fortnight or three weeks, will give it
fuch a bitterncfs, that it will be a certain poifon to
them. A decodtion of wood-afhes, fprinkled on
the ground, will anfwer the fame purpofe; and
any particular plant may be fecured both from
worms and fnails by ftrewing a mixture of lime
and afties about its roots. It is a general caution
among the farmers to low their corn as {hallow as
they can, where the field is very fubjedt to worms.

Worms, in medicine, a difeafe arifing from
fome of thefc reptiles being ingendered in the
body, particularly in the flomach and inteftines.

When children begin to ufe crude aliments,
fummer fruits, flefh, cheefe, and other things of
the like kind, they are frequently troubled with
the worms, occafioned by the eggs of infects,
which either float in the air, or live on the earth,
and which being cafually fwallowed, are not di-
geftible by their tender ftomachs. For thefe, the
intcftinal or gaftric pituit, afford a neft in which

they

TARN.

they refiJc, arc nouiiflied, breed, and increafe in
bulk. Hence they are not fo common in adults,
except in the dull and fluggifh, and in the leuco-
phlegmatic.

There are three fpccics of worms, mod fre-
quent in the human body ; the lumbrici, the afca-
rides, and the taenia. The kimbrici are found in
the ilion, and are thus called, becaufe they are
generally broad and long, and roll themfelvcs up
in a ftranqe manner. The afcarides have their
feat chiefly in the grofs inteftines, and are more
plentiful in the rectum ; they are round and fmall,
and are thrown out in large quantities. The
broad worm called taenia is like a fwathe, com-
monly two ells long, but fomctimes much longer,
and divided through the whole length with crofs
joints or knots. This is faid to be always fingle ;
and lies varioufly convoluted, being fbmetimes as
long as all the guts, and fometimes vaflly exceed-
ing even that length. Heifter obferves, that there
are other kinds of infcdls, or worms, generated
in an human body, which phyficians have not

560

placed in any particular clafs, but have looked upon
them as uncommon productions.

Worms by their irritation, create naufea.s, vo-
mitings, loofenefies, faintings; a flender, deficient,
intermitting pulfc ; itching of the nofe, and epi-
leptic fits. By the confumption of the chyle,
they produce hunger, palenefs, weakncfs, and
cofiivenefs; whence arifes a tumour of the abdo-
men, erucStations, and rumbling of the inteftines,

A child may be knov.n to hive the worms from
his age, cold temperament, palcnels of the coun-
tenance, livid eyelids, hollow cycf, itching of
the nofe, voracity, ftartings, and grindhig the
teeth in fleep ; and more elpecially by a fingular
ftinking breath ; but when they are voided by the
mouth, or anus, there remains no manner of
doubt.

The cure is to be performed chiefly by deftroy-
ing their nefts, which is to be attempted by alka-
liousfalts, gums which purge phlegm, mercurials,
lantimonials, and bitter aromatics.

■^ T" or y, the twenty-third letter of our al-i
g . phabet : its found is formed by expreflingj
-®- the breath with a fudden expanfion ol
the lips from that configuration by which we ex-
prefs the vowel u. It is one of the ambigenial let-
ters, being a confonant in the beginning of words,
and placed before all vowels, as in yard^ yields
young, is'.c. but before no confonant. At the end
of words it is-a vowel, and is fubftituted for the
found of /, as in try, dtfay, tfc. In the middle

of words it is not ufcd fo frequently as / is, un-
lefs in words derived from the Greek, as in chyle,
anpyrcal, ^c. though it is admitted into the mid-
dle of fome pureEnglifh words, as in dying-, flying,
'\Jjc. The Romans had no capital of this letter,
but ufed the fmall one in the middle and laft Syl-
lables of words, as in coryambus, onyx, martyr. Y
is alfo a numeral, fignifying 150, or according to
Baronius, 159; and with a dafli a-top as Y, it
Hgnified 150,000.

TARN,

A R N, wool or flax, fpun into thread, of
which they weave cloth, l£c.

Yarn is ordered ajfter the following; manner:
after it has been fpun upon fpindles, fpools, or the
like, they reel it upon reel 3, which are hardly two
feet in length, and have but two contrary crofs-
bars, being the beft, and the Icaft liable to ravel-
ling. In reeling of fine yarn, the better to keep
it from ravelling, you muft, as it is reeled, with
a tye-band of big twill, divide the flipping or flcain
into feveral leys, allowing to every ley eighty

threads, and twenty leys to every flipping, if tlie
yarn is very fine ; otherwife lefs of both kinds.
T"he yarn being fpun, reeled, and in the flipping":,
the next thing is to fcour it. In order to fetch
out the fpotj, it fliould be laid in lukewarm v/ater
for three or four days, each day fliifting it once,
wringing it out, and laying it in another water of
the fame nature : then carry it to a well or brook,
and rinfe it till nothing comes from ic but pure
clean water : that done, take a bucking tub, and
cover the bottom thereof with very fine afhen
afhes ; and then having opened and fpread the flip-

4 C 2

ping

560 The Univerlal Hifloiy of Arts <3«<^ Sciences.

pings, lay them .on tli<ife aflies, and put more
adies above, and lay in more dippings, covering
them with afhes as before; and thus lay one up-
on another, till all the yarn be put in: afterwards
cover the uppermoft yarn with a bucking cloth,
and, in proportion to the bignefs of the tub, lay
therein a peck or two more oi a(hes : this done,
pour upon the uppermoft cloth a great deal of
warm water, till the tub can receive no more,
at:d let it ftand fo ^11 night. Next morning you
arc to fet a kettle of clean water on the fire ; and
v/hcn it is warm, pull out the fpiggot of the buck-
ing tub, to let the water run out of it, into ano-
ther clean vefil-1 ; as the bucking tub waftes, fill
it up again with the warm water on the fire : and
as the water on the fire walles, fo likewifc fill
that up with the lye that comes from the bucking-
tub; ever obfervirig to make the lye hotter and
hotter, till it boils : then you muft, as before, ply
it with the boiling lye at lead tour hours together,
which is called the driving of a buck of yarn.

All this being done, for the whitning of it, you
muft take off the bucking cloth ; then putting the
yarn with the lye-a(hes into large tubs, with your
hands labour the yarn, afhes, and lye pretty well
together ; afterwards carry it to a well, or river,
and rinfe it clean ; then hang it upon poles in the
air all day, and in the evening take the flippings
down, and lay them in water all night ; the next
day hang them up again, and throw water upon
them as they dry, obferving to turn that fide out-
moft which whitens floweft. After having done
this for a week together, put all the yarn again
into a bucking-tub, without alLes, covering it as
before with a bucking-cloth ; lay thereon good
llore of frcfli afhes, and drive that buck, as before,
with very ftrong boiling lye, for half a day, or
more; then take it out, and rinfe it, hanging it
up, as before, in the day-time, to dry, and lay-
ing it in waterat night, another week: laftly, wafh
it over in fair water, and fo dry it up. Your yarn
being thus fcoured and whitened, wind it up mto
round balls of a moderate fize. See Reel.

Cable yarn pays, on importation, for the hun*
dred weight 7 s. 3y-^-^d. there is no drawback on
exportation. Camel or mohair-yarn pays on im-
portation for the hundred weight 5'— d. and

100
6i
draws back 5— ^d. Cotton-yarn, notofthcEaft-

874.
indies, on importation, pays per pound 2— —d.

585:

and on exportation draws back 2 d. Cotton-

^ 100

yarn of the Eaft-indies, on importation, pays per

pound 4^j.-^d. and on exportation draws back

\—!—~'^. Grogram-yarn, on importation, pays
per pound 6/g^d. and on exportation draws back

T^^d. Irifh yarn, in packs containing four

hundred weight, at fix fcore pound to the hun-
dred, if by certificate, is itte from any duty on
importation. Sail-yarn, on importation, pays per

471-
pound I — d. and on exportation draws back
' ICO '^

291
I — ^d. For every pound weight of French,
100 ' '■ =■ '

Dutch, Mufcovia or fpruce, and all other raw lin-

nen-yarn, there is a duty of i d. on importation ;

and no draw-back on expor;ation. Wick-yarn

on importation, pays, the dozen pound, 2s.

I — d. and on exportation draws back i s.

100 '^

, 28J,

^'— -d. Woollen or bay-yarn, on importation,

pays the hundred 12s. lod. and on exportarion
draws back us. 3d. Worfted-yarn, being two
or more threads twifted or thrown, on importa-

tion, pays the pound 2— -d. and on exportation

581
draws back 2— d.

r A TV s.

YAW S, in the fea-Ianguage. A (hip is faid
to make yaws, when (he does not fteer
fteady, but goes in and out when there is
a ftifF gale.

Yaws, a diftemper endemial to Guinea and the
hotter climates in Africa. It makes its firft ap-

pearance in little fpots on the cuticle, not bigger
than a pin's point, which increafes daily, and be-
come protuberant, like pimples. Soon after, the
cuticle frets off, and then, inftead of pus or ichor,
there appears white Houghs or fordes, under which
is a fmall red fungus, Thefe increafe gradually,

fomc

ZOOLOGY.

sGi

fomc to tlic fizc ofafmall wood flrawberry, others
to that of a rafpberry, others again exceed the
Jarireft .mulberry, which in fhape they very much
lefcmble. In the mean time the black hair growing
in the yaws turns to a tranfparent white. It is
not eafy to determine the exd£t time which the
yaws take in Jxoing through their different ftages.
Lufty well fed negroes have had fcveral yaws as
big as a mulberry in a month's time, whereas the
low in flelh, with a fcanty allowance, have palled
three months without their growing to the fize of
a flrawberry. They appear in all parts of the bo-
dy, but are m■^{i plentiful, and of the largeft fize,
about the groin, privy parts, anus, armpits, and
face : they are largclt when fevvefl in number, and
vie: verfa. They are not painful, unlc-ls handled
roughly, nor caufe a lol's of appetite. They con-
tiii;<; long without any fenfible alteration ; and
fonie are of opinion, that as foon as the fungufes
become dry, the infedlion is exhauikd.

Thj yaws are not dangerous, if the cure is
fkillfully managed at a proper time. But if the
patient has been oni.e falivated, or has taken any
quantity of mercury, and his fkin once cleared
thereby, the cure will be very difficult, if not im-
pra<Sticable. The folhjwing form of medicine is
recommended as a cure : take of flowers of ful-
phur, one fcruple ; of camphor dilTolved in fpirits
of wine, five grains; of thcriaca andromachi, one

drachm ; and as -much of fyriip of faffron as will
make a bolus. Jx-t the bolus be taken at going
to reft, which muft be repeated for a fortnight or
three weeks, till the yaws come to the height.
Then throv/ the patient into a gentle falivation,
with calomel given in fmall dofes, without farther
preparj.tion. After falivation, fwcat the patient twice
or th'ice, on a frame or chair, with fpirit of wine,
and give the following ele6fuary, w/z. of asthiops
mineral, one once and a half, of gum guaiacum,
half an ounce; theriaca andromachi, an J confervc
of red rofes, of each one ounce ; oil of faflafras,
twenty drops ; and as much of I'yrup of fafFron as
IS rcquifite for an^jledfuary. Of this let two drachms
be taken in the morning and at night He may
likevvife drink the decodlion of guaiacum and fa!-
fafras, fermented with molalTes, for his conftant
drink, while the eiedtuary is taking, and a week
or a fortnight after the electuary is fpent. Some-
times there remains one large yaw, high and
knobed, red and moift; this is called the maftti-
yaw. This muil be confumed an eighth or a tenth
part of an inch below the fkin, with corrofive r.d
mercury, and burnt alum, of each an equal qua: -
tity, and digelted with one ounce of yellow bal'i-
licon, and one drachm of red corrofive mercury, and
cicatrized with lint prciTed out of fpirit of Wme,
and with the viiriol-Hone.

or z, the twenty-fourth and lafl letter,
and the nineteenth confonant of our al-
■^5 phabet ; the found of which is formed
by a motion of the tongue from the pa-
late downwards and upwards to it again, with a
fliutting and opening of the teeth at the feme
time. This letter has been reputed a double con-
sonant, havmg the found d $ ; but fome think with
very little reafon ; and, as if we thought other-
wife, we often double it, iS in puzzle, muzzle,
&c. Among the antients, Z was a numeral let
ter, fignifying two thoufand, and with a dafh ad-

ded a-top, Z fignified two thoufand times two
thoufand, or four millions.

In abreviations this letter formerly flood as n
mark for feveral forts of weights; fometimes it
fignified an ounce and a half, and very frequently
it flood for half an ounce ; fometimes for the
eighth part of an ounce, or a drachm troy weight ;
and it has in earliefl times been ufed to exprefs
the third part of an ounce, or eight fcruples. ZZ
vvere ufed by fome of the antient phylicians to-
exprefs myrrh, and at prefent they are often, ufed
to fignify zinziber, or ginger.

ZOOLOGY.

OOLOGY, 7'=^«>'}'i'«.thefcience of animals.
Arttdi otiferves, that this makes one of the
■'three kingdoms, as they are called, of natu-
ral hiftory ; the vegetable and the mineral being

the two others : in thefe, however, there is this-
difi^erence made by writers, that while vegi'tables
and minerals are treated of together, as all of a

piece

562 7^^ Univei-ral Hiftory of Arts ^W Sciences.

piece in each, the fubjeiSts of zoology are divided ;
and it is made to conipofe, as it were, fevcral
kingdoms. Wliocver is to write on plants and
minerals, calls his work a trcatifc of botany, oi
mineralogy ; and we have no words toexprefsany
iubdivifion of them into kingdoms : but, in zoolo-
gy, we treat as dilFerent fu^jcds, thedifterent parts
of it ; and the hiflory of birds is fcperated by fomi.-
from the reft under the name of ornithology ; thai
of quadrupeds under the name of tctrapodology ;
and we have for the reff, the words entomology,
amphibiology, and the like, expre/Ting thefc thing^
which are properly but the parts of zoology, as fb
many diftinftand fcperate Itudies.

The fame author obfcrves, that this may cafily

be amended, by our confidcring the animal world-
as we do the vegetable and mineral, and dividing
it, as we do the others, into its proper families ;
It will then be found that thefe are no better di-
•linclions than thofe of the families of thefe things,
and that the authors may as well fet up feperate fiu-
dies under the names ofbulbology, umbullifcrolo-
^y, and the like, as thofe.

A natural divifion of the fubjefls of zoology, on
this principle, will afford lix feveral families of its
i'ubjcdts. I. The hairy quadrupeds. 2. The
birds. 3. The amphibious animals, fuch as fcr-
pcnts, lizards, frogs, and tortoifes. 4. The fiOies.
5. The infects. — ^And fixthly, thofe lowcft order
of animated beings the zoophytes.

ZOOTOMY.

OOTOMY, is the art or a£l of di/Tefling li-lis commonly called anafus, and Mr. Ray^ echinus ;

ving creatures. " '

Zootomy amounts to the fame with comparit'ive
anatomy, which is that branch of anatomy which
confidcrs the fame parts of difFereiit animals, with
relation to the particular ftruii^ure and formation,
which is beft fuited to the manner of living, and
to the necefTity of every creature.

Thus in the comparative anatomy of (lomachs,
for iniiance, it. is remarkable that thofe creatures
which have the opportunities of frequent feeding,
have their flomath very final!, in comparifon to
fome creatures ot prey, which probably may be
under a necefllty of failing a long time ; and there-
fore have flomachs large enoiigh to hold food
fufficient for fuch a time.

Runiinating an'imoh have four fiomachs ; ye'
itisobfcrved that fome of thefe, which have four In
Europe, have only two in Africa, probably by
reafon the herbs in Afiica are more nourifhine;.

Rurninanis, Mr. Ray obferves, are ail quadru
pedal, hairy, and viviparous ; fome with hol-
low and perpetual horns, others with decidicus
ones.

The horned ruminants have all four ftomachs.
appropriated to the office, vi%. i. The runicn,
•venter magnus^o\ what is called in Ei:gUJl]\.htpat{iich,
or inward, wh.ch receives the meat fli.;luly cheweJ, |
ret..ins it awhile, and then delivers it back again
into the mouth, which is called in Englifo the /««',!' and if he goes to bed prefently after meals, he
to be re-chewed. — 2. The retiadum^ called inj' cannot fleep till the ufual time of chewing be
Eiiglijli the honey -comb., from its internal coat being i' over. The viifluals upon the return, taile fome-
divided into ctUs, like honey-combs. — 3. What!' what more pleai'ar.tly than at fiift, bread, meat,

' cheefe

this being difficult to clear, is commonly thrown
av/ay, and called the manifold. — 4. That which
GV.'Zff calls abamafui, the E'lgUJh Cali the ?«ow.

The rumen or paunch is much the largeft of all
the ftomachs ; as being to contain both the drink,
and the whole crude mafs of aliment, which there
lie and macerate together ; to be thence remitted
to the mouth, to be rechewed and comminuted, in
■id.r to their fuither digeftion in the other ven-
tricle?.

In the rianen, or firfl ventricle of camels, are
found divers facculi, which contain a confiderable
quantity of water ; an admirable contrivance for
the neceifities of that animal, which living in dry
countri.-, and feeding on dry hard food, would be
in danger of perifhing, but for thole refcrvoirs of
watL-r.

Burnet, in his Thefanr, Med. gives feveral inflan-
ccs of men that ruminated, \com falmuth, rhodrics,
&c. — Dr. Slare, in the Philofopbical TranfaSiiom,
gives us a freiher inftance, in an EngUJimian living
at Brifiol. His account as it is curious, and may
let us fee a little how it fares with ruminating ani-
mals, we fhall here add.

' He begins to chew hii meat over again within
'a quarter of an hour alter meals, if he drinks
' with it ; if not, fomewh.\t later. His chewing
' after a full meal laiis about an hour and a half :

ZOOLOGY.

* clieefe, and drink, return much of fuch colours

* as they would be oF, were they mixed togeihtrin

* a mortar. Liquids, as fpoon-meat, return to
' his mouth all one as dry and folid food. The vic-
' tuals feeni to him to lie heavy till they have parted
' the fecond chevviing ; after that they pafs cLan

< away. If he cats variety of things, that which pailes
' down firft Comes up again firft. If the ruminating
' faculty chance to leave him, it fignifies licknefs ;

< and it is never well with him till it return. He

s about 20 ysars of age, and was always thus
' fincc he can remember. His f.'her does the like
' fomctimes, but in fmall quantities.'

Birds that live ordinarily on feeds with atmigh
Irind, have a kind of ftomach called the crap or
gi-zxafd, confifling of four large mufclcs without-
fide, and a hard callous membrane within.— -Such
as live on fleflij as eagles, vultures, ^c. have only
one.

I N D E X.

INDEX

VOL. I.

ALcHYMY — —

Algesra
a Theorum, what
Letters ufed in algebra

Algebra by addition

By multiplication —

By divifion ..

By involution — —

By evolution —

By fraflion ■

By equation

To folve fimple equations
To folve quadratic equations
To folve cubic equations
By fluxion -

Anatomy,

Of ofleology

Of bones

Of the head

Of the cranium —

Of the trunk —

Of the extremities
Of farcology
Of myology —

Of mufcles — —

The fuperior limb
The radius —

The thumb

The fore finger —

The little finger
The great toe —

Mufcles, lift of them
Antiquities —

Temple

Obelisks and pyramids
Ampitheatr^s
Catacombs
Anticnt Hatues
Triumphal arches .

Baths

Bridges
Highways

Butts ■

Medals •

Antient manufcripts
Architecture

page I

5
6

9
lo
1 1

'3
i6
i8

22
24
25

33
34
40
ib

42
47
5°

56
103
101;
106
107
108
ibid
ibid

ibid
1 17

ib
120
122
125
126

ib.

127
128
130
lb.
•34.

Civil architeflure
Antique Architcdlure
Gothick archit.'dtuie
Modern architedure
Column

Members or Mouloens

Fillet .

Doacine

Talon

Ovolo —

Torus or Tore

Scotia

Aftragal

Gula, Guele, or Gola

Corona ■

Caveto ■

Abacus

Volute

Achantus

Entablature

Dye —

Tufcan order

Dorick order .

lonick order

Corin!hian order

Compofite order

General rules given by Palladio
Architefture in pe'rfpeftive
Counterfeit architecture

Perfian order

Caryatick order -

French order

Sp^niih order

Marble

Marbles

S.one ■

Sand

Timber

Copper

Slate _

Foundation

Gates and Doors

Chimney

Floors •

Arcbitea •

Church ■

'i')

)b.
140
141

ib.

jb.

ib,

— ib.

14',

ib.
ib.

ib.

ib.
ib.
ib.

»43
ib.

ib.

— 146

— '49
'5«

'ss

lb.
ib.
.58
ib.
ib.
ib.

'59
lb.

ib.

i6z
ib.

— '}>■
ib.

.6+
157
168

'7>
176

— ib.

ITHMETICK

Akitbmftfck

Number .

Unit

Ol cxpreffifif; Units

Numeration Tablf

AdJitoii

Aiiditon of Monty

JVnci; 'r.ible .

I'^ghlli money

Adi icion of w<.ij;hts

Table of AverJupois weight
Aiidition^f Averdipois weight
'lab'e o( 'IVov wci"ht —

o _

Addition of Apothecaries weight
AJdition of Liquid mealure

Wine meafure

Addition of Dry m.-afgre
Addition of Long meafure
Addition of Land meafure

Addition of Tune

Subllrnftion .

Subllraftion of money

f-ubllraition of Averdupois weight
tiubltraflion of Troy weight
Multiplication

Multiplication Table

Divifion

Long meafure —

Tare and Tret

Rule of Three

Rules of Pradice

Ftllowfhip '

Iniereft •'

Aibi^ation

Exchange ^^

Medial AHegition —

Allega ion ahernate

Pofiion —

Fradtions —

Vulgar Fraftions — —

Redufti n ot fra£lions

Decimal fraftions

Stjuire root

Cubeioot '

To meafure a pyramid

To meaiuie a globe ■

Surds

A R M y

Cavalry

Mufqutteeers

Captain .

Lieutenant —

Cornet .

Qjarter-roafter

Troops

i^ragoons — ■"■

Ciir^fliers ■

Ccmfany

Cap.atn of infantry
Lieutenant of infantry

Eiiil^n

|8(

lii2

ib.

183
ib

184

185

ib.

ib.
186

lb.

ib.
187

ib.
188

ib.

ib.
189

lb.

ib.
190
192

ib.

'93
196
202
203
204
207
209
21 1
213

ib.
214
215
218

ib.

ib.
223
226
228
230
231

lb.

232

235

233
ib

ib(
234
lb
ib
io
ib{
ib|
234

D E X.

Serjeant ___

Cinipanies of infan ry

Bitialinti

R'gitreijt

Colonel _

Lieuieni.ntcolonel

Major .

Squadrons

Ij.'-igade

Army .

General

Lieutenant-general
\Lijor general
General of artillery
MuHer-mafter
Legion . .

Tribunes

Centurion

Standard

Timariots

Spahis

Admiral

Lord high-admiral

A 6 T R o L o r; y

Natural aftrology
Judical adrology
Twelve figns —

Planets, Sec. —

Climaftcritk —

Pyromancy
Hydromancy
Geomancy — —

Aleftromancy —

Anthropomancy -

Bclomancy — —

Citoptromancy
Capnomtncy ■

Callromancy —

Brizomancy •

Chiromancy

Ph) fiognomy

Metopflropy

ASTRONOMY

Spherical agronomy

Zenith

Nacir

Equinoftial
Hor-zon '

Meridian

Zodiack • ■

Polar circles
Ptclemaick fyftcm

Preceffi ;n

Magnitude cf the earth

Planet

Eclipfe _____

Imnierfion

Eclipfe of the moon

Mticury

Mars •

j„piter ,

ib
ib
ib

ib
ib
ib
ib
iU
ib

■ 256

"lb

248

' lb
ib

H')
' 250

- 251

252
lb
ib
253
254
255
256

- 257

258

260

261

262

263

264

267

270

278

2S1

282

284.

285

Saturn

Orrery —

Ufe of the orrery
Celertial globe
Artronomical quadrant
Gutiters quadrant
Sextant —

Baking

Basket

Ginger-bread
Books

B.ble _

Book-binding
Book KEEPING
Walle-book
Journal —

Caili-book
Book of envo'ccs
Ho -{hold expcnces
Booksellers

Botanv

Root _— -

Flower

Althea - —

Agrimonia

Alkckengi

Aquilcgia —

yirtcmeiia

Betonica

Bryonia

Bruva ^

Calamentha

Carduus Itellatuj

Chama;iris

Chamajinelum

Chelidonium

Coffee

Coral

Cynogloffum

Dens konis

Eupaiorium

Fumaria

Geranium

Hyofcvaraus

liiniperus
iVJelil )tu3

Papaver

Fo.ypo<Jiutn

Pulegium

Quinque folium

Uafcus

Samburus

Saxifrage

Scabiola

Scrpillura

Tab.icum

TL-a

'1 ormentilla

Tuflilago

\ aleriana

2S6
ib
288
290
292
lb
293

ib
294

295

'302

30+

305
ib

318
3 '^
3"
3H
316

3'9
3-3
329

- ib

330
lb

- ib
ib
ib
ib
ib

33'
lb

332

333

334
lb
ib
ib

335
lb

33*^
lb

337
ib
ib

- ib

338
ib

Viola
Brewing

Can-dle-makinc
Wax
Tallow
Flambeaux
Chirurgerv, or furgery

Synthefis _

Disrefis __

Exarefis

Piothelw

Phlegmon

Cancer _

Scurvy — _

Sutures

Interwided

Dry futuie •.

Venereal difcafs

Luxation

Exolloiis

Rachitis

Cracking

Cautery _

Bleeding

Cataract

Empyema •■

Apparatus
Nephrotomy
Chronology

Year

Cycle

Olympiad .

Sacred epochas
Civil epochas

Chronology of the patriarchs
Britain

Denmark —

Norway
Sweden
Riiffia
Poland
Popedom
Ot the Turks
Chvmistry
Terms ulcd

Fires —

Veflels

Minerals - —

Antiminy
Vegetables
Clock-making

Aftronomical watch
Coining

Inllruments and veiTels

CoNFECl lONARY

Parts

Dry confcfts

Confervts —

Co0K£ Ry

CoStiOGR APHY

4 D 2

Cur

339
340

344
ih

346
lb

347

34^

35'

33==

353

354

356

358

360

361

3^4
365
566

370
372
373
374
375
377
ib
ib
380

384
ib
ib
ib
ib
ib

38s
ib

392
394
J97
398

4C5

^OD
411
414
41S

4->

4-5
424

425

426

427
+ "1

CuREYIVG

CCTLERY

Damaskeening
Dancing

DiSICNINO

Dialling

Moon- dialing

Ring-ilial
DibTiLLiNG. See Chymiftry
Diving -

DviNC

Obrervations on dying

Ei.ECTRICTT —

Embroidery
Enamelling
Engraving

Eichirg

Mezzounto
Ethics

Falconry

Management and difcipline
Fencing
Fishing _

Anchovy fifhery

Cod

Green cod

Coral

Herring —

Mackrel —

Pilchard —

Salmon

Sturgeon

Whale

Pearl

Rules for fjfhing

432
434

435

437
438

449
ib

450
452
454

4^7
461

463
464
46;
467

4S1

483

484

485

486

487

488

489

490

491

E X.

Fortification

Angles ___

Eadions 1

Courtine

Cavalier .

Platform ,

Rampift

Ditch

Countirfcarp

Glacis

Halfmoon

Ravelin, &c.

Foundery I

Bell

Cannon — —

Fowling — ^_

Fowling pieces .

Setting dog

Water fowls

Land fowls .

Particular direflions for catching them

Iulling

Gaming

Billiards

Chefs

Bowling

Cards
Gardening

Kitchen garden

Flower-garden

Grove

Grafting
Gauging
Geography

Univerfal Geography
Globes

495
496

497
ib
ib
ib

49«
ib
ib
ib
ib

512

516

5'9
ib

32'

524

S3'

53*
53+
535
536

ib
540
541
542

5+4
550
553
554
557

VOL. ir.

Geometry •-

Magnitude

Corollaries

Circle

Targent

Difinitions
Gilding

G LASS

Glazi-jc
Gold BEATING
Gold wire Drawing
Grammar .

Alphabets, Latin, Hebrew, and Greek

Gender

Cale — — .
Veib

5
8
10
21
ib
24
26
36
lb

37
38
39

47
48

Mood
Participle
Adverb
Conjundlion
Propofition
Interjeftion
Syntax
Language
Gunnery -^—

Table of Cannon

Bullet

Space

— — Mortars

Hat-making
Heraldry

'^
ib

52
ib

ib
54
59

65
69

77
78

Hl£-

HlEROCLYPHICKS

Horsemanship — —

Hunting — —

Of the Hound

Fox-hunting ——

Hare-hunting ■ —

Stag-hunting -^■^—

Otter-hunting

Roebuck -hunting

Husbandry ■

Manures ■

Plowing

Seeds — .

HvDRAULiCKS and Hvdrostaticks
Engine -^— '

Steam-engine

Hydroftatick balance

Hygrometer

Japanning
Jeweller

Lapidary

Table of Diamonds

Emerald —

Hyacinth

Amethyft

Beryl

Cornelian

Granate

Agate

Onyx

Sardonyx

Turcois

Opal
Law —

Human laws —

Civil Law

Chancery

Exchequer

King's-Bench

Common pleas
Lo c I c K '

Simple Apprehenfion

Definitions

Ratiocmation

Syllogifms

Magick

Mathematicks

Mechanicks

Definitions

Wheel
Medicine

Organical dileales

Diiealesof the head

Epilepfy

Manii

PaKy

y6
114

116
IZI

ib.
122
123
124
ib
125

•34
I 36

•39
14S

"49
'54
,56

'57
158

158

'59

160

161

162

163

164

166

167

168

171

>73
ib
177
182
.85

'95

'97
198

'99

2CI
214
217
222
224
ib

Phrenzy

Spafm

Symccpe

Vertigo

Dife i(es of the throat

Dileales of the breall

Plaj;ue

Scurvy

King's evil

Difcafes of the abdomen

Clorofis

Jaundice

Dropfy

Analarca

Tympany

Coleramorbus

Dylentery

Dinrrhoea

Lientery

Colick

liisck paffion

Stone

Dii'eafes of the extremities

Rheumatifni

Rickets

Leprofy —

Itch .

Herpes

Eryfipelas •■

Ophthalmia

Gutta ferena

Empiricks

Daijnitifts

MeJiodills

Galenids

Medicinal vinegar

Honey

Syrups

Lohoch

Powders

Troches

Diftilled waters

R!ixiis -

Oils

Balfams

Ungents

Liniments

Cerats

Plaillers

Weights "-

Metai.s
Gold
Silver
Copper
Iron
Tin
Lead
Mercury
Metallurgy. See Min

MeTAPH YSICKS

Afteilions

erals

'1
220

227
lb

216

237

2'!8
ib

239
ib
ib

240

241

244.

242

245

246

247

248

266

267

270

271

273

281

286

2S7

290

291

294

296

298

299

300

301

302

305
ib

30?

307

Affeaica

AlFcilioBs united

dilunited

Being

MtTEOKOLOC Y

Jgnis fauus

Draco volarls

Wind

Dew — .

Kain

Snow _ .

Rainbow

Eirthquake
M I P w I F R V
Macenta
Unnatural births, &c.

Minerals

Antimony ■■

Cinnab.ir

Bifmuth

Vitriol

Pyrites —

Marcafite

Oker _

Lapis Hce.-natites

Armenian

Amber

Jet

Afphalium —

Pit-coal -

Black Lead

Sulphur

Ma'ltha

Naphtha
Petrol
Sand
Argille
Vulgar Hones
Earth
Fumice
Fuller's earth
Mineral waters
M u s 1 c K

Of Intervals

Syllenis

Genus

Mode

Tune

Vocal Mufick

Lute —

Guiitar

Harp

\ iolin

Viol

T'umpet marine

Harpfichord

Flute —

German flute

Trumpet

Hsu boy

Bafibon

Sackbut

307
308
310

3"
ib.

ib.

3'2
3'4

3'5
ib

3'6
322

323

328

334

3+3

344
lb

34;
ib
ib
ib

346

ib
ib
ib
ib

347
ib

347

348
ib

349
jb

35'

352

353

357

358

364

ib
ib

36s
ib

366
ib

367
ib
ib
ib
)b
ib

Horn

French horn

Bagpipe

Organ

Tymbral

Ke'tle-drums

Balterion

Dulcimer

Concert

Canto

Opera |

Oiatorio

MVTHOLOC Y

History

Natural

Animal

Underftanding

Will

Memory

Imagination

Rationalifts

Quadrr'pcds

Rt-ptiles

Aquatic

Amphibious

Volat;les

Aquiiick volatlies

In feds ,

Silk- worm

Tarantula •

Cochineal

r.;onfter

Unicorn I

Phcenix -

Torpedo — —

Ginfeng

Shells

Spars I

Stal.-ifti'es
Trochits
Cornu Amraonis
■ Muftiiooms
Truffles
Eggs

Animacule
Leaf
Naval ARCHiTiCTURE
Englilh rates

Malls'

Ripgirg

Weight of csbles
Dimcnfions
Navigation
Chart

Soun iing-Iine
Mercator-chart
Rhumb —

Compafs
J icobflafF
Journal

36S
ib
ib
ib

369

370
37»

373

J74

57#

377
378

- 580

- lb
ib

38'

382

- ib

38+

- ib
ib

385
i3
ib
ib

3/7
ib
ib

388
ib

389

390

399

401

40Z

404
406 ^

407
AoS
Op-

Opticks-

Colour

Catoptricks

Miiroiirs

Dioptricks

Lens

Telefcope

Microlcope

Spedaclcs

Prifni

Painting

Painting in miniatuie

PAPER-iTiaking

Parchment —

Perspective -

FHiLOSOPHY

Plumbery — —

Pneuuaticks

Barometer —

Thermometer
Anemometer
Windmills

Poetry —

Hexameter —

Spondee __^_

Poem •

Rpick —

Dramatic —

Comedy —

Farce —

Satyr, &c.

Pottery

ERl^•TING

Pyrotechny

Rocket

Girandola —

Fire-ball —

Fire-rock —

RcFlNINe

Gold

Silver

Copper
Rhetorick

Pronunciation
Rope- MAKING

410
412

+ '5
ibid.

419

420

421

424

426

427
433
434
431^
437
444
446

447
448

453
456
ibid.

457
458
ibid.

459
460
461
464
465
466
469

474

479
ibid.

480

481

ibid.

481

ibid.
483
484

485
492

ScUI.PTURI

Statue - —

Relievo

Shamoisi.ng

tiMITHERY —

soap-mak'ino

Starch-making

Stereometry

Stocking-making

Suoar-refiking

Surveying ■

Tanning
Theology
Trigonometry
Turning —

Tapestry

Varnish
Veneering
Vinegar
Usury

Weaving

Silks

TafFety

Sattin

Mohair

Velvet

Linnen
Weight
Wine
Wire

Witchcraft
Wool
Word
World
Worms

Yarn
Yaws

Z,oologv
493 I Zootomy

493
ibid.

495'
496

498

500
SOI
ibid.
504

50s
507

5«7
518

ibid.
526

ibid.

529

53 «
ibid.

533

534
540
542'

543
54+

ibid.

ibid.
545
550
554-
55;

556
ibid.

558
ibid.

559
ibid.

560

^61
ibid.
562

D I R E C-

DIRECTIONS to the Binder for placing the Cuts.

VOL. I.

Page

Aftronomy

Copernican or Solar Syftem

Trontifpiece to face the Title Page

Botany

Ofteology to face

Chir.irgical Inftruments

Sarcology

Chymiftry

Second Plate of Sarcology

Mechanic Arts

Plate four and five of Architecture

>35

Cunier's Workfhop

Plate Ten a Battle

231

Dialling

Plate Eleven a Defile

ibid.

EHeftricity —

Plate Twelve a Siege

ibid.

Fortification

Plate Thirteen a Convoy

ibid.

Geography

Plate Fourteen a Flyiog Camp

ibid.

Second Plate of Geography

V 0 J

L. II.

Geometry

Mifcellany

Glafs Houfe

Natural Hiftory

Plate Glafs

Brute Animals

Gunnery

Naval Architefture

Heraldry

Navigation

Second Plate of Heraldry

ibid.

Opticks

Seals, Two Plates

ibid.

Perfpeftive

Hieroglyphicks

Pneumaticks

Ploughs

124

Refiner's Shop

Hydroftaticks

»39

Silverfmith's Shop

Hydraulicks

141

Surveying

Steam Engine

149

Tanner's Workfiiop

Hydroftatick Balance

'54

A Loom

Mechanicks

198

A Throwfter's Mill

Mufick

35'

261
316

3+7
38s
4"
43-
4^»
457
495
553
ibid.

351

373

375
388

399
410

437
447
481
498

'-5^7

534

ibid.

University of California

SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY

Return this material to the library

from which it was borrowed.

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